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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


^ 


JOHNSON'S 
UNIVERSAL    CYCLOPEDIA 

YOL.  YI 


JOHNSON'S 


U^^YEESAL  CTCLOEzEDIA 


A  NEW  EDITION 

PREPARED   BY   A  CORPS  OF  THIRTY-SIX   EDITORS,  ASSISTED   BY 
EMINENT  EUROPEAN  AND   AMERICAN  SPECIALISTS 


UNDER   THE  DIRECTION   OF 

CHARLES   KENDALL   ADAMS,    LL.D. 

PKESIDENT    OF    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    WISCONSIN 

EDITOR^IN-CniEP 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  MAPS,  PLANS,  AND  ENGRAVINOS 


COMPLETE   IN   EIGHT  VOLUMES 
VOL.    VI 


NEW    YORK 
1).    APl'LETON    AND    COMPANY 


A .    J.    JOHNSON     C  0  M  P  A  N  Y 
IS'JO 


COPTBIGHT,   1876, 

By   a.  J.  JOHNSON. 

Copyright,  1877, 
By   ALVIN   J.   JOHNSON. 

COPTBIGHT,  1886,  1889, 
By   a.   J.  JOHNSON   AND   COMPANY. 

Copyright,  1895,  1896,  1897, 
By   a.   J.   JOHNSON   COMPANY. 


ORGANIZATION 


OF   THE 


STAFF. 


EDITOR-iy-  CHIEF. 

CKAULES   KENDALL  ADAMS,   LL.  D., 

PRK8I11EXT    OF    THE    USIVEKSITV    OF    WlMciNSlN, 

History,  Politics,  and  Education. 


ASSOCIATE   EDITORS. 


Liberty  IT.  Baii.ev,  M.  S., 

Professiirof  Horticulture.  Coriii'll  Iniversity. 
AgTicaltar«,  Horticulture,  Forestry,  etc. 

Willis  .1.  Hekciikr.  I>.  D., 

l*n»ffssor  of  Hebrew  I.An^aee  and  Literature, 
Auburu  Theol<iffieal  S**ininary. 
Presbyterian  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc 

FIexrv  .v.  Beeks.  a.  M., 

Professor  of  English  Literature,  Yale  University. 
English  Literature,  etc 

Charles  E.  Bessey,  Ph.  D., 

Pn  .f es.sor  of  Botany,  State  University  of  Nebraslta. 
Botany,  Vegetable  Physiology,  etc. 

Dudley  IU-ck. 

Composer  an'l  (^riranist,  Rrookl.vn.  N.  Y. 
Hoslc,  Theory  of  Harmony,  Musical  Terms,  etc. 

Frantis  M.  Ri  kdk  k.  .\.  >!..  LL.  B., 

Dwidht   lYofessor  of    Law,  Columbia  College 
York. 
Municipal,  Civil,  and  Constitutioniil  Law. 

Georoe  1'.  KisiiER,  I).  I)..  ML.  D.. 

Professor  of  Church  History.  Y'ale  University. 
Congregational  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

Grove  K.  Gilbert,  A.  M., 

(ieoloKist.  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
Physical  Geography,  Oeolog}',  and  Palaeontology. 

Basil  L.  Gilder.sleeve,  LL.  I».. 

Professor  of  lireek.  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Grecian  and  Koman  Literature. 

Artir-r  T.  Hadley,  a.  M., 

Profe-isor  of  Political  Economy,  Yale  University. 
Political  Economy,  Finance,  and  Transportation. 

Mark  W.  llAitKiMiTON,  A.M.,  LT,.  D..  F.  L.  S., 
K.\  Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 
Geography,  Meteorology,  Climatology,  etc. 

Wii.i.iA.M  T.  Harris,  LL.  D., 

U.  S.  Couiinissioner  of  Education,  and 

.1.  Mark  Baldwin.  Ph.  I).. 

Professor   of    F.xperimental    Psychology, 


New 


t'niversity,  Princeton.  N.  J. 
I'hilosopliy,  Psychology,  Ethics,  etc. 

)iiN  F.  lliRsT.  I).  I>..  LL.  I).,  Bishop  (M.  ?:.), 


Princeton 


Chancellor  .American  University.  Washington. 
Metho<llst  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

SA.MIEL    ALviAfLEY  .Iacksox,    I).  D.,    LL.  D., 

I-YofeSHor  of  C'hurch  History.  New  York  University, 
anil  uvsociate  eililor  of  tlie  SchafT  ller/og  Encyclo- 
|p(i'<liii.  New  York 
GiMierul  Church  History  and  Ulbllcul  Literature. 

IIexiiy  !•:.  .lAroBS,  I).  I).,  LL.  I)., 

Profe«»>r  of  .Systematic  Theologv.  Evantrelioal  Lu- 
theran Theoloeical  .Seminary.  I'hilailelphia,  I'a. 
Lutheran  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

David  S.  .Jordan.  LL.  D., 

President  I^elanrl  Stnnforfl  .lunior  University. 
Y.o'iWnKy,  Comparative  Anatomy,  and  .\ninial  Pliysl. 
ology. 


John  J.  Keaxe,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Bishop  (R.  C), 

E.\Rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of  .Vmerica. 
Roman  Catholic  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc 

Charles  Kirchhoki-,  M.  K., 

Editor  of  the  Iron  Arc,  New  Y'ork. 
Mining  Engineering,  3Ilneralogy,  and  Metallurgy. 

Stephen  B.  Luce, 

RearAdmiral.  U.  S.  Navy. 
Naval  Affairs,  Naval  Construction,  Navigation,  etc. 

Arthur  H.  Marsh,  A.  M.. 

Profes.sor  of  Comparative  Literature,  Harvard  Univ. 
Foreign  Literature,  etc 

James  Mercur, 

I^otessor  of  Mil.  Engineering,  West  Point  Mil.  Acad. 
Military  Engineering,  Science  and  Munitions  of  War, 
etc. 

Mansfield  Mebriman.  C.  E.,  Ph.  D.. 

Professor  of  Civil  Eugiueering,  Lehigh  University. 
CiTil  Engineering,  etc. 

Simon  NEwroMB,  LIj.  I)..  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Editor  of  the  U.  S.  Nautical  AlmaDac. 
Astronomy  and  Mathematics. 

Edward  L.  Xkhols,  Pli.  I).. 

Profes.sor  of  Physics.  Cornell  University. 
Physics,  Electricity  and  Its  Applications. 

William  Pepper.  >r.  D..  LL.  D., 

Ex-Provost  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Medicine,  Surgery,  and  Collateral  Sciences. 

William  S.  Perry.  D.  D.  Oxon.,  LL.  D.,  Bishop  (P.  E.), 

Davenport,  Iowa. 
Episcopal  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

John  W.  Powell. 

Director  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 
American  Archaeology  and  Ethnology. 

Ira  Kemse.n,  M.  1»..  I'h.  I).,  LL.  1).. 

Professor  of  Chemistry.  Johns  Hopkins  L^niverslty. 
Chemistry  and  Its  Applications,  etc 

AiNSWORTH  R.  Spofford,  LL.  D., 
Librarian  of  Congress. 
V.  S.  Geography,  Statistics,  etc. 

Russell  Sturois,  A.  Jr.,  Ph.D.,  F.A.I.  A., 

Fx  IVesident  Architectiu-al  league  of  Now  York. 
Arcliieology  and  Art. 

Robert  II.  Thirston.  Dop.  Enp.,  LL.  D., 

Director  of  Sibley  College,  Cornell  University. 
Mechanical  Science. 

Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler.  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  (ireek  and  Com.  Philologj-,  Cornell  Univ. 
Comparative  l*hilology,  Linguistics,  etc 

William  II.  Whitsitt.  Ii.  D., 

Profe.s.sor  of   Church    Hlstorj-,    Baptist   Theological 
Seininar>-.  {..onisville.  K.v. 
Baptist  Church  History,  Doctrine,  etc. 

TllEODOKE   S.    WoOLSEV,    A.  M., 

IYofes.si>r  of  International  Ijjw.  Y'ale  University. 
Public  Law,  Intercourse  of  Nations. 


ilAXAGlXa    EDITOR. 
ROBERT   LILLET,   M.  R.  A.  S., 

ONE    OK    THE    EDITOItS    OF    THE    CENTIRV    nil'TlONARY. 

ASSISTAST   TO    THE   EDITOR-I.X-nUEF. 
CHARLES   IL  THURBER.   A.  M.. 

ASSOCIATE    PKOrKSSOK   OF    PEUAOOUV,   CIIICAUO    ISIVKltSITV,    A.Ml    t>EA.\    of    uoliUAN    PAKK    ACAIIEMT. 


«30  t  VJ^O 


JOHNSON'S  UNIVERSAL   CYCLOPEDIA. 


VOL.   VI. 


CONTKIBUTOES   AND   EEVISERS. 


Abbe.  Clevelaxd,  A.  M..  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.. 

U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Adam,  Graeme  Mercer, 

Author  of  Torontu,  Old  and  New ;  Canada  from  Sea 
to  Sea ;  The  Canadian  Northwest,  etc. ;  New  York. 

Adams,  Charles  Kexdall,  A.M.,  LL. D., 

President  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

Adams,  Cyris  C, 

Editorial  staff  of  The  Sun  (New  York);  President  of 
Department  of  Geography,  Brooklyu  Institute,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y. 

Adams,  Frederic,  A.  B.,  LL.  B., 
Lawyer,  Newark,  X.  J. 

Adams,  Col.  J.  W., 

Civil  and  hydraulic  engineer,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Allex,  Frederic  Sturges,  A.  B.,  LL.  B., 

Memlier  of  the  New  York  Bar,  New  York ;  one  of  the 
editors  of  Webster's  International  Dictionary. 

Andersox,  George  H., 

Superintendent  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Pitts- 
burg, Pa. 

Andersox,  Hon.  Kasmts  B., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Scandinavian  Languages  and 
Literature,  University  of  Wisconsin;  ex-U.  S.  minis- 
ter to  Denmark  ;  Madison,  Wis. 

Armstrong,  Samuel  T.,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D., 

One  of  the  collaborators  of  Foster's  Encydopcsdic  3Iedi- 
cal  Dictionary,  and  editor  of  an  American  Appendix 
to  Qnain's  Dictionary  of  Medicine;  New  York. 

Athertox,  George  W.,  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  Pennsylvania  State  College,  Centre  Co.,  Pa. 
Bailey,  Liberty  H.,  M.  S., 

Professor  of  General  and  Experimental  Horticulture, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Baldwin,  .J.  JIark,  Ph.  D., 

Stuart  Professor  of  Experimental  Psycliology,  Prince- 
ton University,  Princeton.  N.  .1. ;  co-editor  Psycholog- 
ical Review,  and  author  of  Handbook  of  Psycliology  ; 
etc. 

Barrett,  .Tav  .Amos,  A.M., 

Assistant  secretary  and  librarian  of  Nebraska  State 
Historical  Society,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

Basiiford,  Rev.  James  W.,  Ph.  D..  D.  D., 

President  of  Ohio  Weslcyan  University,  Delaware,  0. 

Bassett,  Rev.  James, 

Formerly  Presbyterian  missionary  in  Persia;  now  pas- 
tor in  Middle  Island,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 


Battle,  Kemp  P.,  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  History,  University  of  North  Carolina, 
Chapel  Hill,  N.  C.' 

Beadle,  William  H.  H.,  LL.  D., 

President  State  Normal  School,  Madison,  S.  Dak. 

Bean,  Tarleton  H.,  M.  D.,  M.S., 

Assistant-in-eharge,  Division  of  PMsh-culture,  U.  S.  Fish 
Commission,  and  honorary  curator  of  the  U.  S.  Na- 
tional Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Beecher,  Willis  J.,  D.  D., 

Professor  of  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature,  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

Beers,  IIexry  A.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  English  Literature,  Yale  University,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 

Belkxap,  Lieut.-Com.  Charles,  U.  S.  N., 

Head  of  Department  of  Mechanics  and  Applied  Mathe- 
matics, U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,  Md. 

Bellamy,  Edward, 

Author  of  Looking  Backward ;  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass. 

Benxett,  Charles  E.,  A.  B., 

Professor  of  Latin,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Bessey,  Charles  E.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Botany,  State  L^niversity  of  Nebraska,  Lin- 
coln, Neb. 

Betts,  Rev.  Beverley  R.,  A.  ]\l.. 

Former  librarian  of  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Bezzexberger,  Adalbert,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Comparative  Philology,  University  of  K6- 
nigsberg,  Konigsberg,  Prussia. 

Billings,  John  S.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.. 

Director  of  the  New  York  Public  Library  (Astor,  Lenox, 
Tilden  foundation);  formerly  superintendent  of  the 
U.  S.  Army  Medical  Museum,'  Washington,  D.  C. ;  and 
author  of  Mortality  and  Vila!  Statistics  of  the  United 
Slates;  etc. 

Birch,  Walter  de  Gray, 

Assistant  to  the  Keeper  of  Oriental  MSS.  and  printed 
books  in  British  Museum,  London,  England. 

Bishop,  Frank  S.,  A.  B.,  LL.  B., 
Lawyer,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Blake,  William  P.,  A.  M.,  Ph.  B., 

Geologist  and  mining  engineer.  Shullsburg,  Wis. ;  for- 
merly Professor  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  College 
of  California.  Oakland,  Cal.; 'author  of  Silver  Ores 
and  Silver  Mines;  Iron  and  Steel ;  Ceramic  Art  and 
Glass;  etc. 

(vi) 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND   REVISERS 


VU 


Beixkerhoff,  Roeliff, 

C'lmirman  of  BoarJ  of  State  Charities,  Mansfield,  0. 

Brixton.  Daxiki,  G.,  M.I)., 

Professor  of  Ainerioan  A rcha^oloj;y  ami  Lingtiistics, 
L'liiversily  of  Pennsylvania,  Pliiladeljiliia,  Pa. 

Brooks,  Lient.  Jonx  C.  W.,  U.  S.  army. 

First  lii'utenant,  Fourth  Artillery,  Fort  Adams,  New- 
port, R.  1. 

Buck,  Dl'uley, 

Composer  and  organist.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

BuROicK,  Fra.ntis  iM.,  A.  M.,  LL.  B., 

Dwii;ht  Professor  of  Law,  School  of  l,uw,  Coliimliia 
College,  New  York. 

Blrk,  Charles  W'.,  M.  D.,  Philadelphia.  Pa. 

Bl'KR.  Cieorue  Lincoln,  A.  B., 

Professor  <>f  Ancient  and  Media'val  History,  Cornell 
I'niversily,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Byrnes,  Thomas, 

Ex-Superintendent  of  Police,  New  York. 

Cameron,  Henry  C.  Ph.  D.,  D.  D., 

Clerk  of  the  Faculty  and  Professor  of  Greek  Language 
and  Literature,  Princeton  University,  Princeton,  N.  J. 

Caxfield,  Arthur  G.,  A.  51., 

Professor  of  French  Language  and  Literature,  Univer- 
sity of  Kansas,  Lawrence,  Kan. 

Carhart,  Henry  S..  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Pliysics,  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Ar- 
bor, Miell. 

Carpexter,  William  II.,  I'h.  1*., 

Professor  of  Germanic  Pliilology,  Columbia  College, 
New  York. 

CuADWicK,  Rev.  Jonx  W.,  A.  M.,  D.  P., 

Unitarian  clergyman,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Chaxdler,  Charles  F.,  Ph.  I).,  M.  P.,  LL.  D.,  etc.. 

Professor  of  Cliemistry  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  the 
School  of  Mines,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Coffin,  William  A., 

Artist;  secretary  Society  of  American  Artists,  New 
York. 

Colby,  Frank  M.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Economics,  New  York  Univereitv;  former- 
ly lecturer  in  History,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Collitz,  Hermann.  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  CoMipanitive  Philology,  Bryn  Mawr  Col- 
lege, Bryn  Mawr,  Pa. 

CoLviN,  Col.  James  A.,  LL.  B., 

Editor  of  The  Paper  Trade  Journal,  New  York. 

CooLiiKiE.  Archiralu  Cary,  Ph.  D., 

Instructor  in  Uistorv,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
.Mass. 

Cope,  Edwarm  Drinker.  Ph.D.,  M.  N.  A..S., 

Professor  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  L^nivcrsity  of 
Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  I'a. ;  editor-in-chief  of 
The  American  Saturalist. 

Councilman,  William  Thomas,  M.  D., 

Shattnck  Professor  of  Pathological  .\naloiny.  Medical 
School  of  Harvard  University.  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Croes.  J.  James  R.,  C.  E.,  New  York. 

Curtis,  Euwark,  A.  B.,  M.  I)., 

Emeritus  Profes.sor  of  Materia  Mediea  ami  Tlienipeu- 
lics, College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  (Medical  l>e- 
partment,  Columbia  College),  New  York. 

Cusiiixo,  Frank  Hamilton. 

Ethnologist  in  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Washington, 
1).  C. 


Davids,  T.  W.  Rhys.  Ph.  D..  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  ITdi  and  Buddhist  Literature,  University 
College,  London,  England;  secretary  Royal  Asiatic 
Society,  London. 

Davidson,  Thomas,  A.  M., 

Specialist  in  Literature  and  Mediajval  Philosophy,  New 
York. 

Davis,  William  Morrls,  M.  E., 

Professor  of  Physical  Geograjihy.  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Jlass. 

De  Garmo.  Charles,  Ph.  D., 

Presiilent  of  Swartliniorc  College,  Swarthmore,  Pa. 
De  Vinxe,  Theodore  Low, 

Founder  of  the  De  Vinne  Press,  New  Y'ork. 

Dixo.v,  James  Main,  A.  M.,  F.  R.  S.  E., 

Professor  of  English  Literature,  Washington  Univer- 
sity, St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  formerly  Professor  of  English 
Literature,  Imperial  University,  Japan. 

Dodge,  Daniel  Kilham,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  nf  English  Language  and  Literature,  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois,  Champaign,  III. 

Dulles,  Charles  W^inslow,  M.  D., 

Surgeon  and  author,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

DuRFEE,  William  Franklin. 

Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer,  West  New  Brighton, 
.Sialeii  Isliind,  N.  Y. 

Egbert,  Seneca,  A.  M.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Ilvgiene,  Medico-Chirurgical  Ci>!legc  of 
Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

Egleston,  Thomas,  A.  JL,  E.  M.,  Ph.  D..  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  .Mineralogy  and  Metallurgy  in  the  School 
of  Mines,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Ellis.  Alexander  J.,  F.  R.S.,  F.S.  A., 

Philologist;  author  ot  Essentials  of  I'honelics;  Alpha- 
bet of  yature;  £arhj  Enylinh  Pronunciation;  Uni- 
versal Writing  ami  Printing  ;  etc. 

Emerso.v.  Alfred,  A.M.,  Ph.D., 

Associate  Professor  of  Classical  Archaeology  and  cura- 
tor of  the  Museum  of  Casts.  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y. ;  editor  of  Tlie  American  Journal  of  ArchtB- 
ologij. 

Emerson,  Oliver  Farrar,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Rhetoric  and  English  Philology, 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Farlow,  William  Gilson,  A.M.,  M.D., 

Professor  of  Cryptogamic  Botany,  Harvard  University, 
Cambrige,  Mass. 

FicKLEN,  John  R., 

Professor  of  History  and  Political  Economy,  Tulane 
Univei-sity,  New  Orleans,  La. 

FisiiER,  Rev.  George  Park,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Titus  Street  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  Yale 
University,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

FisKE,  John.  A.  M.,  Litt.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Non-resident  Professor  of  American  History.  Washing- 
ton Univei-sily,  St.  Louis.  Mo. ;  formerly  instructor  in 
Me<liii'val  History  and  lecturer  in  Philosophy,  Har- 
vard University,  t'ambridge,  Mass. 

FiTZi'ATRicK,  Frank  .\., 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Omaha,  Neb. 

Forrest,  John,  LL.  D., 

President  of  Dalhousie  College,  Halifax,  N.  .S. 

Foster.  Rev.  Frank  Hu(iH,  Ph.  D., 

Profes-sor  of  Systenuitic  Theology.  Pacific  Theological 
Seminary,  Oakland,  Cal. 

Prizei.l.  Joseph  P.,  C.  E.,  Boston,  Mass. 


Vlll 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND   REVISERS 


Gaebe,  Richard.  Ph.  D., 

Professor  Ordinarius  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparitive  Phi- 
lology, University  of  Konigsberg,  Konigsberg,  Prus- 
sia. 

Garbisox,  Rev.  James  Harsev, 

Editor  of  The  Christian  Evangelist,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Gatschet,  Albert  Samuel, 

Ethnologist,  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Gilbert,  Grove  Karl,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Geologist,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Gildersleeve,  Basil  L.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L., 

Professor  of  Greek,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Balti- 
more, iMd. 

Gill,  Theodore  N.,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D.,  etc.. 

Professor  of  Zoology,  Columbian  University,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Gillett,  Rev.  Charles  R., 

Librarian,  Union  Theological  Seminary,  Ne\,  York. 
Gilman,  Nicholas  P., 

Secretary  of  the  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Profit- 
sharing;  editor  of  The  New  World,  Boston,  Mass. 

Gladden,  Rev.  Washington,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Pastor  of  First  Congregational  church,  Columbus,  0. ; 
author  of  Who  Wrote  the  Bible;  Applied  Chrisfiani- 
t;/;  Plain  Thoughts  on  the  Art  of  Living ;  Parisli 
Problems;  Burning  Questions;  etc. 

Goebel,  Julu's,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Germanic  Literature  and  Philology,  Leland 
Stanford  Junior  Cniversity,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

Goode,  George  Brown,  LL.  D., 

Assistant  secretary,  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  charge 
of  National  Museum,  Washington,  1).  C. 

Goodnow,  Frank  J.,  A.M.,  LL.  B., 

Professor  of  Administrative  Law,  Columbia  College, 
New  York. 

Goodyear,  S.  W., 

Maker  of  sewing-machines,  Waterbury,  Conn. 
GoTTHEiL,  Richard  J.  II.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Rabbinical  Literature  and  the  Semitic 
Languages,  Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Grosvenor,  Rev.  Edwin  A.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Modern  History,  Amherst  College,  Am- 
herst, Mass. :  formerly  Professor  of  History,  Robert 
College,  Constantinople,  Turkey ;  author  of  Constanli- 
nojjle  ;  etc. 

Groth,  p..  A.m., 

Author  of  a  Dano-Noricegian  Grammar  for  English- 
speaking  Students,  New  York. 

GuDEMAN,  Alfred,  Ph.  D.. 

Professor  of  Classical  Pliilology,  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Pliiladelphia,  Pa. 

Gl'mmere,  Francis  Barton,  A.  B.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  English  and  German,  Haverford  College, 
Pennsylvania;  author  of  Tfie  Anglo-Saxon  Iletaphor; 
Uandboo/c  of  Poetics  ;  etc. 

Hadley,  Arthur  Twining,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  and  Dean  of  Courses  of 
Graduate  Instruction,  Yale  University,  New  Haven. 
Conn. 

Halberstadt,  Baird. 

Geologist,  Pottsville,  Pa. 

Hall.  Evelyn  S.,  A.  B., 

Princi|>al  of  Northfield  Seminary,  East  Northfield, 
Miiss. 

Hamlin,  Alfred  D.  F.,  A.  M., 

Adjunct  i'rofessor  of  Architecture,  Columbia  College, 
New  York. 


Hare.  Hobart  A.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Materia  Medica,  Therapeutics,  and  Hy- 
giene, Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

IIarland,  Marion, 

Pen-name  of  Mrs.  E.  P.  Terhune,  author  of  Common 
Sense  in  the  Household,  etc.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Harper,  John  M.,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  F.  E.  I.  S., 

Inspector  of  Superior  Schools,  Province  of  Quebec,  Que- 
bec, Canada. 

Harrington,  Mark  W.,  A.  M.,  LL.  D.,  F.  L.  S., 

President  of  Washington  State  University,  Seattle, 
Wash.,  and  ex-chief  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

Harris,  George  William.  Ph.  B., 

Librarian,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
Harris,  William  Torret,  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. ; 
founder  and  editor  of  Ttie  Journal  of  Speculative 
Philosophy ;  and  author  of  Tlie  Logic  of  Hegel ;  etc. 

Harvey,  Rev.  Moses,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  G.  S., 

Presbyterian  clergyman,  St.  John's,  Newfoundland; 
author  of  Keufoundland,  tlie  Oldest  Britisli  Colony; 
etc. 

IIendrickson,  George  L.,  A.  B., 

Professor  of  Latin,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison, 
Wis. 

IIervey,  Daniel  E., 

Organist,  Newark,  N.  J. 
Hilgard,  Eugene  Waldemar,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Agriculture  and  Agricultural  Chemistry, 
University  of  California,  and  director  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

Hirst,  Barton  C,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Obstetrics.  Department  of  Medicine,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  Pliiladelphia,  Pa. 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  Jr.,  A.  B.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Hygiene  and  Physical  Culture,  and  di- 
rector of  the  Gymnasium,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 
N.  Y. 

Hodge,  Frederick  Webb, 

Ethnologist  and  librarian  in  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology, 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Hodges,  H.  B., 

Engineer  of  tests,  Baltimore  and  Ohio  R.  R.,  Baltimore, 
Md. ;  formerly  instructor  in  Chemistry,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, Camln-idgc.  Mass. ;  and  chief  chemist  in  Car- 
ter's ink  and  mucilage  factory. 

IIoE,  Robert, 

Of  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  printing-press  manufacturers.  New 
York. 

Holmes,  Benjamin  Blake,  A.  B.,  New  York. 

IIovT.  Rev.  Charles  K.,  A.  M., 

Formerly  Professor  of  English  Literature,  Wells  Col- 
lege, Aui-ora,  N.  Y. ;  now  of  the  Presbyterian  Board, 
Chicago,  111. 

HoYT,  Yen.  S.  R.  J.,  S.  T.  D., 

Archdeacon,  Davenport,  Iowa. 
Humphreys,  Milton  Wylie,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Greek,  University  of  Virginia,  Charlottes- 
ville, Va. 

Hurst,  Rev.  John  Fletcher,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Bishop  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  American  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Hutton.  William  Rich,  A.  M.,  C.  E.. 

Engineer  of  the  Hudson  River  Tunnel,  New  York. 

Jackson,  A.  V.  Williams,  A.  M.,  L.  H.  D.,  Ph.  D., 

Adjunct  Professor  of  tlie  English  Language  and  Litera- 
ture, and  instructor  in  the  Iranian  Languages,  Colum- 
bia College,  New  York. 


CUNTRIBLTORS   AND    KKVISERS 


IX 


JaCKSOX,  SaMI'EL  MACArLEY.  1).  Ii..  M..  I).. 

Professor  of  Church  llisttjrv,  Xrw  York  I'niversity; 
uikI  associate  editor  of  the  Hchaff-lltrzuy  A'uri/clo- 
jHfdia. 

Jacodi,  Abraham,  M.  I)., 

Clinical  Professor  of  the  Diseases  of  Chililren,  Collejfe 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  (Medical  Deparlnieut 
Columbia  College),  New  York. 

Jacohi,  Hermans  CiEoR(i  .Iakob,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Sanskrit,  University  of  Bonn,  Prussia. 

Jaiohs.  He.sby  E.,  D,  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Tlieolo|£ry.  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Theological  Seminary,  Philadelphia,  I'u. 

Jacobs,  Patrick  II., 

Editor  of  I'uul try-keeper,  llammonton,  N.  J. 
James,  William,  M.  I).,  Ph.  D.,  Litt.  D., 

Professor  of  Psychology,  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

Jastrow,  Morris,  Jr.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Semitic  Languages,  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Je.sks,  .Ikremiaii  Wnirpi.E,  A.M.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Political  Economv  and  Civil  and  Social 
Institutions,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

JoH.vsos,  William  F., 

Editorial  staff  JNVir  York  Tribune,  Xew  Y'ork. 
JoRUAX,  David  Starr,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior  Universitv, 
Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

Joseph,  Hon.  Antonio, 

Delegate  in  Congress  from  New  Mexico;  Ojo  Calicnte, 
New  Me.vico. 

Keane,  Kt.  Rev.  Jons  Joseph,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Bishop  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  ex-rector  of 
the  Catholic  University  of  America. 

Keener,  William  A.,  LL.  B., 

Kent  Professor  of  Law  and  dean  of  the  School  of  Law, 
Colunil)ia  College,  New  Y'ork. 

Kelloou,  Vernon  Lyman,  M.  S., 

AssiK'iate  Profcs.sor  of  Entomology,  Leland  Stanford 
Junior  University,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

Kenvdn,  F.  C, 

Assistant  in  Biology,  Tufts  College,  Mass. 
Klvc.slev,  John  Sterling,  S.  D,, 

Profes-sor  of  Biology,  Tufts  College,  Massachusetts. 
KiRi'iiHoFF,  Charles,  M.  E., 

Editor  of  T/ie  Irun  Aye,  New  York. 
KiRriiwEV,  tiEOROE  W„  A.  B., 

Professor  of  Law,  School  of  Law,  Columbia  College, 
New  York. 

KNKillT,  CtEOROE  Welu«,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D., 

I'rofessor  of  History  and  Political  Science,  Ohio  State 
University,  Columlius,  <). 

Knox.  Rev.  (iEoRoe  William.  D.  D.. 

Presbyterian  clergyman,  Rye,  N.  V.;  lafe  Presbyterian 
missionary  in  .Japan  and  acting  Professor  of  Moral 
Philosophy,  Imperial  University,  Tokio,  Japan. 

KlNZ,  (lEORliE  FREOKKlr  K, 

tiem  expert  with  Tidany  &  Co..  New  Y'ork.  ami  of  the 
U.  S.  tieological  Survey ;  mineralogist  in  charge  of 
the  eleventh  U.  S.  census;  author  of  Gems  and  I're- 
rioiiK  S/oiien  of  Xiirl/i  Amerira  ;  etc. 

Lanmw,  Charles  Rockwell,  Ph.  D., 

l*rofes,sor  of  Sanskrit,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
Mass. 

LiLLEY,  Robert,  M.R.  .\.S., 

One  of  the  eilitors  of  t  he  ( 'i  ntiiry  Dietiomiry.  New  York. 


LoNO,  George  E., 

Secretary,  Joseph  Dixon  Crucible  Companv,  Jersey  City. 
N,  J.  I      .  J       .. 

Lord,  John  Kino,  .\.  M.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Latin,  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  N.  H. 
Lucas,  Frederic  A., 

Curator  of  the  Department  of  Comparative  Anatomy, 
U.  S.  National  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Lite,  Rear-Admiral  Stephen  B.,  U.  S.  navy,  Newport,  R.  I. 
Lyon,  David  Gordon,  A.  B.,  Ph.  D., 

Hollis  Professor  of  Divinity  and  curator  of  the  Semitic 
Museum,  Harvard  University,  and  secretary  of  the 
American  Oriental  Society,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

McCoBMicK,  Capt.  Alexander  H.,  U.  S.  navy. 
Navy-yard,  Norfolk,  \'a. 

McCuRDY,  James  Frederick,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Oriental  Languages,  University  of  Toronto, 
Toronto,  Ont. 

Macdonald,  Neil, 

Canadian  writer;  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 
McKee,  Rev.  James  II., 

Clergyman,  Olean,  X.  \'. 
Marsh,  Aktiii'r  R.,  A.  M., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Comparative  Literature,  Harvard 
University,  Cambridge,  Mas,s. 

Marsh,  Othniel  C,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Professor  of  Paheontology  and  curator  of  the  Geological 
Collection,  Y'ale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Meecur,  Lieut.-Col.  James,  U.  S.  army. 

Professor  of  Civil  and  Military  Engineering,  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy,  West  Point,  N.  Y'. 

Merrill.  Rev.  Selar.  A.  M.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Ex-U.  S.  consul,  Jerusalem. 
Merrimas,  Mansfield,  C.  E.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Lehigh  University, 
South  Bethlehem.  Pa. :  author  of  ( 'oiiliniious  Britlym; 
A  Treatise  un  Jlydraulicit ;  Tlie  Fiyure  uf  tlie  Earth ; 
etc. 

MfNDE,  Paul  Fortuxatus,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Gyna-cology,  Xew  Y'ork  Polyclinic;  for- 
merly editor  of  T/ie  American  Journal  of  Obstetrics, 
New  Y'ork. 

MuxRO,  Wilfred  H.,  A.  .M., 

Profes.sor  of  History,  and  director  of  the  University 
Extension,  Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  I. 

Newcomb,  Simon,  LL.  D.,  M.  N.  A.S., 

Superintendent  of  The  United  States  Xaiitical  Alma- 
nac, Washington,  I).  C. ;  formerly  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics and  Astronomy,  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Baltimore,  JId. 

NicnoL.s,  Edward  L.,  B.  S.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Physics,  Cornell  University.  Ithaca,  N.  Y. ; 
editor  of  The  J'hysical  Jteview,  and  author  of  .1 
Lalioratory  Manual  of  Physics  and  Applied  Me- 
chanics; etc. 

NovES,  Georoe  W.,  A.B.,  Kenwood,  X.  V. 

Olson,  Julius  Emil,  B.  L.. 

Professor  of  S<>andinavian  Languages  and  LiteratuR', 
University  of  Wisconsin,  .Madison,  Wis. 

Oshorn.  Rev.  Albert.  B.  D., 

Regislmr,  .Vniericaii  University.  Washington,  D.  C. 

Park,  Roswell,  A.  M.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  .Surgery 
anil  Clinical  Snrgerv.  .Mediial  Department,  Univer- 
sity of  Buffalo,  Buffalo,  X.  Y. 

Parsons,  Samuel,  Jr., 

Superintendent  of  Parks,  Xew  York. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND   REVISERS 


Paton,  Lucy  A.,  A.  M., 

Author  of  21ie  Character  nf  Danfe  (in  Reports  of  the 
American  Dante  Society)-,  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

Pearson,  Leonard,  B.  S.,  V.  M.  D., 

Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Veterinary  Medi- 
cine, University  of  I'ennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Peckham,  Stephen  F.,  A.  M., 

Formerly  Professor  of  Chemistry,  University  of  Minne- 
sota; author  of  the  monograph  on  Petroleum,  tenth 
U.  S.  census :  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

Penntpacker,  Isaac  R., 

Editor  of  the  Inquirer,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Pepper,  William,  M.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Ex-Provost  of,  and  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Medicine  in,  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
(Medical  Department),  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  author  of 
A  System  of  Medicine  ;  etc. 

Perry,  Thomas  Sergeant,  A.  M., 

Formerly  instructor  in  English,  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. ;  Boston,  Mass. 

Perry,  Rt.  Rcv.William  Stevens,  D.D.  Oxon.,  LL.D., D.C.Ij., 
Bisliop  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  Davenport, 
la.;  author  (with  Dr.  Francis  L.  Hawks)  of  a  Docu- 
mentary Ilintory  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  Cnited  States;  etc. 

Piersol,  George  A.,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  Anatomy,  Department  of  Medicine,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelpliia,  Pa. 

PiERSON,  George  S.,  C.  E., 

Civil  and  Sanitary  Engineer,  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

Planten,  J.  R., 

Consul-general  of  the  Netherlands;  New  York. 

Porter,  Hon.  Charles  H., 

First  mayor  of  Quincy,  Mass. 

Powell,  Maj.  John  W.,  U.  S.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Washington,  D.  C, 
and  ex-director  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey ;  au- 
thor of  Studies  in  Sociology,  An  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Indian  Lancjuayes ;  etc. 

Pratt,  Charles  M.,  A.  B., 

Treasurer,  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
PuMPELLY,  Raphael,  M.  N.  A.  S., 

Geologist;  in  charge  (until  1893)  of  the  Archa?an  di- 
vision of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey;  St.  Louis,  Mo.; 
author  of  Across  America  and  Asia;  Geological  He- 
searches  in  China,  Mongolia,  and  Japan;  etc. 

Reed,  Rev.  .Iames,  A.  M., 

Pastor  of  the  Boston  Society  of  the  New  Jerusalem, 
Boston,  Mass. 

Reichert,  Edward  T.,  M.  I)., 

Professor  of  Physiology,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
Department  of  Medicine,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Reid,  Hon.  Whitelaw, 

Editor-in-chief  of  The  New  York  Tribune,  New  York; 
ex-U.  S.  minister  to  France. 

Remsex,  Ira,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D..  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  director  of  the  chemical 
laboratory.  Jledical  Department  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, Baltimore,  Md. 

Renfrow,  Hon.  William  C. 

Governor  of  Oklahoma,  Guthrie,  0.  T. 
RicoRD,  Frederick  William,  A.  M., 

Historian,  New  Jersey  Historical  Societv,  Newark, 
N.  J. 

Riley,  Charles  V.,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D., 

U.  S.  Entomologist,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 


Robert,  Lieut.-Col.,  Henry  M., 

Corps  of  Engineers  U.  S.  army ;  author  of  Robert's 
Rules  of  Order;  New  York. 

Roberts,  Hon.  Ellis  II.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  the  Franklin  National  Bank,  New  York ; 
ex-Assistant  U.  S.  Treasurer,  New  York ;  and  author 
of  Planting  and  Growth  of  the  Empire  State  (Amer- 
ican Commonwealth  Series). 

Roberts,  Ralph  A.,  A.  M., 

Author  of  a  Treatise  on  the  Integral  Calculus,  etc., 
New  York. 

Rogers.  Henry  Wade,  LL.  D., 

President  of  Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  111. 
Ross,  Theodore  A., 

Grand  secretary  of  the  Sovereign  Grand  Lodge  of  the 
World,  Indejiendent  Order  of  Odd  Fellows,  Balti- 
more, Md. 

RovcE,  JosiAH,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Philosophy,  Harvard  University,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

Russell,  Israel  Cook,  M.  S.,  C.  E., 

Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Michigan,  Ann 
Arbor,  Mich. 

Russell,  James  E.,  A.  B., 

European  agent  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  of  the 
U.  S. ;  Leipzig,  Germany. 

Sanborn,  Franklin  B.,  A.  B., 

General  secretary  of  the  American  Social  Science  Asso- 
ciation, Concord,  Mass. 

Sargent,  Dudley  Allen,  A.  M.,  M.  D., 

Director  of  the  Hemmenway  Gymnasium,  Harvard 
University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

*Schaff,  Rev.  Philip,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Washburn  Professor  of  Church  History,  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York. 

ScHWEiNTz,  George  E.  de,  M.  D.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Scott,  II.  W., 

Editor  of  Oregonian,  Portland,  Ore. 

Scott,  William  Henry,  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

President,  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  0. 

Shaw,  Albert,  Ph.  D., 

Editor  of  The  Review  of  Reviews,  New  York. 

Sheldon,  Edward  S.,  A.  B., 

Professor  of  Romance  Philology,  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Mass. ;  secretary  of  the  American  Dialect 
Society;  author  of  ^  Short  German  Grammar;  etc. 

Small,  C.  II., 

Real  estate  and  insurance  agent,  Pueblo,  Col. 

Smart,  James  H.,  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

President  of  Purdue  LTniversity,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

Smith,  Herbert  H.,  A.M., 

Naturalist,  Carnegie  jMuseum,  Pittsburg,  Pa. ;  former- 
ly a  member  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Brazil. 

Smith,  Munroe,  A.M.,  J.  U.D., 

Professor  of  Roman  Law  and  Comparative  Jurispru- 
dence, Columbia  College,  New  York. 

Smith,  Theodore  E., 

Vice-president,  Spencerian  Pen  Company,  New  York. 

SoNDERN,  Frederic  E..  M.  D., 

Fellow  of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine,  New 
York. 

.SpeRRY,  Rev.  WiLLARD  A.,  D.  I)., 

President  of  the  Olivet  College,  Olivet,  Mich. 
Spofkord,  Ainsworth  Rand.  LL.  D., 

Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 


CONTRIBUTORS   AND   REVISERS 


XI 


Sta.nto.v,  Theodorj!,  a.  M., 

Journalist  and  nutlior,  Paris,  France. 

Stei'xiak,  Skroii's, 

Russian  ajfilator;  autlior  of  The  Career  of  a  Nihilist ; 
I'ndeiyiuund  Ruxsia;  Turks  Within  and  ^Yiihout■, 
Jlislorical  Poland  and  the  Muscovite  Democracy;  etc. 

SxtRKKTT,  J.  R.  S.,  Ph.  I)., 

Newlon  Professor  of  Grpek  Language  and  Literature, 
Amherst  College,  Amherst,  Mass. 

Stevens,  Rev.  Georue  B.,  I'll.  D.,  D.D., 

Buckingham  Professor  of  New  Testament  Criticism  and 
Interpretation,  Vale  University,  New  Haven,  Coun.; 
author  of  The  Pauline  Theology  ;  etc. 

Stevens,  \V.  Le  Conte.  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Physics,  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Troy,  N.  Y. 

Stewart,  McLeod, 

Barrister;  ex-mayor  of  Ottawa,  Out. 
SriLi.MAN,  William  J., 

Artist  and  critic;  correspondent  of  the  London  Times; 
Rome,  Italy. 

Stoiktox.  Alfred  A.,  LL.  I).,  D.  C.  L.,  Q.  C,  M.  P.  P., 

Barrister,  St.  John,  New  Brunswick. 
Stoddard,  John  Tappax,  A.  JI.,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  Smith  College, 
Northampton,  Ma>s. 

Stl-rcis.  Russell,  A.  M..  Ph.  D..  V.  A.  I.  A., 

Ex-President  of  the  Architectural  League  of  New  York, 
New  York. 

TU0.MPSOX,  Robert  Ellis.  A.  M.,  Ph.  1).,  S.  T.  I)., 

President  of  the  Central  High  Scliool  of  Philadelphia; 
formerly  Professor  of  History  and  English  Litera- 
ture, University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadclpliia,  Pa. 

Tui'RiiER,  Charles  II.,  A.  M., 

Associate  Professor  of  Pedagogy.  University  of  Chicago, 
and  dean  of  Morgan  I'ark  Academy,  Jlorgan  Park,  111. 

TufRSTON,  Robert  II.,  Dr.  Eng.,  LL.  D., 

Director  of  Sibley  College  and  Professor  of  Jlechanical 
Engineering,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

TlIWAlTES,  Relben  G., 

Secretary,  State  Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin,  Madi- 
son, Wis. 

TiDiiALL,  Brevet  Brig.-Ocn.  Joiix  ('.,  U.  S.  army.  New  York. 
Torrance,  Stiles  A.,  A.  B.,  New  York. 
Tr.vtman,  E.  E.  R.,  C.  E., 

Associate  editor  ICnijineering  News,  New  Y'ork. 
Valentine.  Miltox,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology-  in  the  Seminary  of 
the  General  Synod  of  the  Lutlieran  Church,  Gettys- 
burg, Pa. 

Vali.extixe,  Bexjamin  B., 

Dramatic  critic,  New  York. 


Ward,  Lester  F.,  A.  M.,  LL.  D., 

Paleontologist  in  charge  of  Fossil  PlanUs,  U.  S.  Geo 
logical  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  author  of  Dy- 
namic Sociology ;  etc. 

Warren,  Minton,  A. B.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Latin,  Johns  Hopkins  L'niversity,  Balti- 
more, Md. 

Watson,  George  C,  M.  S., 

Assistant  Agriculturist,  Agrictdtural  Experiment  .Sta- 
tion, Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Wellington,  Arthur  M.,  C.  E., 

Editor  Engineering  News,  New  Y'ork. 
Wheeler,  Benjamin  Ide,  Ph.  D., 

Professor  of  Greek  and  Com])arative  Philology,  Cornell 
University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. ;  author  of  Analogy  and  the 
iScope  of  its  Influence  in  Language;  etc. 

White,  Israel  Charles,  M.E, 

Professor  of  Geology,  West  Virginia  University.  Mor- 
guntown,  W.  Ya. 

Whitney,  James  A.,  A.  JI.,  LL.  D., 

Counselor-at-law.  New  York;  formerly  editor  of  The 
American  Artisan,  and  first  president  of  the  New 
York  Society  of  Practical  Engineering. 

Whitsitt,  William  H.,  I).  D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Bajjtist  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Louisville,  Ky. 

Wh.lard,  De  Forest,  M.D., 

Clinical  Professor  of  Orthopa"dic  Surgery,  Department 
of  Medicine,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 

WiLLARD,  Frances  E., 

President  of  the  Womerrs  Christian  Temperance  Union ; 
Evanston,  111. 

Williams.  Ge()K(ie  U.,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Inorganic  Geology,  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity, Baltimore,  Md. 

Williams,  Hexrv  Shaler,  Ph.D., 

Professor  of  Geology,  Yale  University,  New  Haven, 
Conn. 

Winn,  Henry, 

Lawyer.  Boston,  Mass. ;  candidate  of  the  People's  Party 
for  Ciovernor  of  Massachusetts  in  ISOI. 

WoonniRY,  Walter  E., 

Editor  of  The  Photographic  Times,  New  Y'ork. 
WooLSEY,  Theodore  S..  LL.  B.,  A.  M., 

Professor  of  International  Law,  Yale  University,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 

Wright.  Albert  A..  A.  M., 

Professor  of  Geology  and  Natural  History,  Oberlin  Col- 
lege, Oberlin,  U. 

WiRTZ,  Henry.  A.  M..  Ph.  D., 
Chemist,  New  York. 


*  The  articles  which  appear  in  this  and  succeeding  volumes  over  the  name  of  Dr.  Schafl  were  completed  and  in  the 
publishers'  hands  some  months  before  his  death. 


MAPS    IX   VOL.    VI. 


POLITICAL. 


XEBR.VSKA    . 

NEV.\I)A 

\E\V  HAMPSHIRE. 

NEW  .JERSEY 

NEW   ME.XICO 

NEW  YORK  . 

NORTH   CAROLINA 

NORTH    DAKOTA    . 

NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN 

OHIO    . 

OKr,AlIOMA  . 

ONTARIO 

OREGON 

PALESTINE   . 

PENNSYLVANIA      . 

PERSIA   AND   ARABIA 

QUEBEC 


PAOK 

94 
130 
143 
146 
152 
170 
216 
220 
225 
281 
289 
303 
331 
403 
514 
534 
881 


CITIES. 


NT=:W   ORLEANS 

155 

NT;W   YORK 

176 

PARIS 

440 

PHILADELPHIA 

564 

PITTSBl'RG 

631 

PECULIAR  PHONETIC   SYMBOLS 

USED  IN  THE  WRITING  OR  TRANSLITERATION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  LANGUAGES. 


a,  e, 

ae: 
ai : 


bh: 
b: 


ch: 


dh: 
d: 

dh; 
d: 


gh: 
«■■ 

1.1: 
Jv: 


etc. :  long  vowels ;  in  the  Scandinavian  languages  the 
accent  (d,  e,  etc.)  is  used  to  denote  length. 

a  nasalized  a;  so  used  in  the  transliteration  of  the  Ira- 
nian languages. 

labialized  guttural  a  in  Swedish. 

open  a  of  Eng.  hat,  used  chiefly  in  0.  Eng. 

used  in  Gothic  to  denote  e  (open),  in  distinction  from 
at,  the  true  diphtliong. 

used  in  Gothic  to  denote  0  (open),  in  distinction  from 
du,  the  true  diphthong. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  labial  aspirate  (cf.  c?i). 

voiced  bilabial  (or  labio-dental  ?)  spirant,  used  in  dis- 
cussions of  Teutonic  dialects. 

voiceless  palatal  sibilant,  similar  to  Eng.  sh,  used  espe- 
cially in  transliteration  of  Sanskrit. 

frequently  used,  e.  g.  in  Slavonic  languages,  to  denote 
the  sound  of  Eng.  ch  in  cheek. 

voiceless  palatal  explosive,  commonly  used  in  translit- 
eration of  Sanskrit  and  the  Iranian  languages. 

as  used  in  the  transliteration  of  Sanskrit,  a  voiceless 
palatal  aspirate,  an  aspirate  being  an  explosive  with 
excess  of  breath ;  as  used  in  German  grammar,  the 
symbol  for  a  voiceless  palatal  or  guttural  spirant. 

voiced  dental  aspirate  (cf.  ch)  in  Sanskrit. 

voiced  cerebral  explosive,  so  used  in  transliteration  of 
Sanskrit. 

voiced  cerebral  aspirate  (cf.  cJi)  in  Sanskrit. 

voiced  dental  (interdental)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Eng. 
th  in  then ;  so  used  in  the  Teutonic  and  Iranian  lan- 
guages and  in  phonetic  writing. 

a  short  open  e,  used  in  Teutonic  grammar,  particularly 
in  writing  0.  H.  G. 

the  short  indefinite  or  "obscure"  vowel  of  Eng.  gar- 
daner ;  used  in  the  reconstruction  of  Indo-Eur.  forms, 
and  in  transliterating  the  Iranian  languages. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  guttural  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

voiced  velar  (back-guttural)  explosive,  used  most  fre- 
quently in  Indo-Eur.  reconstructions. 

voiced  guttural  (or  palatal)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Mod. 
Greek  7,  and  used  in  transliteration  of  Iranian  lan- 
guages and  O.  Eng. 

a  voiceless  breathing,  the  Sanskrit  visarffa. 

a  labialized  h,  similar  to  «•/^  in  Eng.  tvhat ;  used  in 
transliteration  of  Gothic  and  the  Iranian  languages. 

voiceless  guttural  (or  palatal)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Ger- 
man ch,  and  used  in  transliteration  of  the  Iranian 
languages. 

the  semi-vowel  y,  or  consonant  form  of  i;  used  in  pho- 
netic writing  and  reconstructions  of  Indo-Eur.  forms. 


in  the  transliteration  of  Sanskrit  and  the  Iranian  lan- 
guages a  voiced  palatal  explosive;  in  the  Teutonic 
languages  a  semi-vowel  {—  y),  for  which  in  Indo-Eur. 
reconstructions  i  is  generally  used. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiced  palatal  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  guttural  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

the  guttural  ("  thick  "  or  "  deep  ")  of  the  Slavonic  and 
some  of  the  Scandinavian  languages. 

vowel  I ;  used  in  transliterating  Sanskrit,  in  reconstruct- 
ing Indo-Eur.  forms,  and  in  other  phonetic  writing. 

nasal  vowel ;  used  in  reconstruction  of  Indo-Eur.  forms 
and  in  phonetic  writing. 

in  Sanskrit  the  cerebral  nasal. 

in  Sanskrit  the  guttural  nasal  (see  following). 

the  guttural  nasal,  equivalent  to  Eng.  n  in  longer ;  used 
in  transliteration  of  Iranian  languages. 

palatal  nasal,  similar  to  gn  in  Fr.  regner ;  used  in  trans- 
literating Sanskrit  and  in  phonetic  writing. 

palatalized  0  ;  used  in  German  and  in  phonetic  writing. 

short  open  0  in  Scandinavian. 

short  palatalized  0  (o)  in  Scandinavian. 

in  Sanskrit,  voiceless  labial  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

voiceless  velar  (back-guttural)  explosive  ;  used  in  recon- 
structions of  Indo-Eur.  forms  and  in  other  phonetic 
writing. 

vowel  r :  used  in  transliterating  Sanskrit,  in  reconstruc- 
tions of  Indo-Eur.  forms,  aad  in  other  phonetic  writ- 
ing. 

voiceless  cerebral  sibilant,  equivalent  to  Eng.  sh ;  used 
in  transliterating  the  Iranian  languages  and  in  pho- 
netic writing. 

voiceless  cerebral  spirant ;  used  in  transliterating  San- 
skrit. 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  dental  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  cerebral  aspirate  (cf.  ch). 

in  Sanskrit  a  voiceless  cerebral  explosive. 

a  form  of  dental  spirant  used  in  transliterating  the 
Iranian  languages  (represented  in  Justi's  transliter- 
ation by  t). 

voiceless  dental  (interdental)  spirant,  equivalent  to  Eng. 
th  in  thin;  used  in  Teutonic  dialects  and  in  phonetic 
writing. 

consonant  form  of  u ;  used  in  phonetic  writing. 

voiced  cerebral  sibilant,  equivalent  to  s  in  Eng.  pleas- 
ure, and  toy  in  Yr.jardin;  used  in  Iranian,  Slavonic, 
and  in  phonetic  writing. 

a  symbol  frequently  used  in  the  writing  of  0.  H.  G.  to 
indicate  a  voiced  dental  sibilant  (Eng.  z),  m  distinc- 
tion from  z  as  sign  of  the  afEricata  (ts). 


EXPLANATION   OF   THE   SIGNS   AND   ABBREVIATIONS 
USED    I\    THE    ETYMO[.0(;iES. 


>,  yielding  by  descent,  i.  c.  under  tlie  operation  of  phonetic  law. 

<,  descended  from. 

=,  borrowed  without  change  from. 

:  ,  cognate  with. 

+  ,  a  sign  joining  the  constituent  elements  of  a  compound. 

* ,  a  sign  appended  to  a  word  the  existence  of  which  is  inferred. 


ablat. 

ablative 

accus. 

accusative 

adjcc. 

adjective 

mlv. 

adverb 

cf. 

compare 

conjunc. 

conjunction 

deriv.  of 

derivative  of 

diniin. 

diminutive 

fern. 

feminine 

gcnit. 

genitive 

imper. 

imperative 

impf. 

imperfect 

indie. 

indicative 

in  lilt. 

infinitive 

masc. 

masculine 

nomin. 

nominative 

part  ic. 

participle 

pert. 

perfect 

pliir. 

plural 

prep. 

preposition 

pres. 

present 

pron. 

pronoun 

sc. 

scilicet,  supply 

sing. 

singidar 

subst. 

substantive 

voeut. 

vocative 

Anglo- Fr. 

Anglo-French 

Anili. 

Arabic 

A  vest. 

Avcstan 

Dan. 

Danish 

Eng. 

English 

Fr. 

French 

Germ. 

German 

Goth. 

Gothic 

Gr. 

Greek 

Heb. 

Hebrew 

Icel. 

Icelandic 

Ital. 

Itiiliun 

Lat. 

Latin 

Lith. 

Lithuanian 

Mediipv.  Lat. 

Mcdiipval  Latin 

Mod.  Lat. 

Modern  Latin 

M.  Eng. 

Middle  English 

M.  11.  Germ. 

>Ii(ldlc  High  German 

0.  Rulg. 

Old  Hulgurian  (=  Church  Slavonic) 

0.  Eng. 

Old  English  (=  Anglo-Saxon) 

0.  Fr. 

Old  French 

0.  Fris. 

t)l(i  Frisian 

(>.  11.  Germ. 

Hill  High  German 

U.N. 

Old  Noi-so 

0.  Sax. 

Old  Saxon 

Pers. 

Persian 

Portug. 

Portuguese 

Prov. 

Proveiiyal 

Sanskr. 

Sanskrit 

Sc. 

Scotch 

Span. 

Spanish 

Swed. 

Swedish 

Teuton. 

Teutonic 

KEY   TO   THE   PRONUNCIATION. 


aa as  a  in  father,   and   in  the   second   syllable   of 

armada. 
aa same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  the  initial  syllable 

of  armada,  Arditi,  etc. 

a as  final  a  in  armada,  peninsula,  etc. 

a as  a  in  fat,  and  i  in  French  fin. 

ay  or  a. .  as  ay  in  nay,  or  as  o  in  fate. 
ay  or  a. .  same,  but  less  prolonged. 

a as  a  in  welfare. 

aw as  a  in  fall,  all. 

ee as  in  meet,  or  as  i  in  machine. 

e"e same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  final  i  in  Arditi. 

e as  in  men,  pet. 

e obscure  e,  as  in  Bigelow,  and  final  e  in  Heine. 

e as  in  her,  and  eu  in  French  -eur. 

i as  in  i7,  sin. 

i as  in  five,  swine. 

% same,  but  less  prolonged. 

o as  in  OTO^e,  sober. 

0 same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  sobriety. 

o as  in  074,  not,  pot. 

00 as  in  fool,  or  as  u  in  rule. 

00 as  in  book,  or  as  u  in  put,  pull. 

01 as  in  noise,  and  oy  in  boy,  or  as  eu  in  German 

Beust. 

ow as  in  now,  and  as  au  in  German  haua. 


0 as  in  Oothe,  and  as  f  !i  in  F  rench  wew/,  Chintreui. 

u as  in  Jm<,  7i«i. 

ii obscure  0,  as  final  0  in  Compton. 

ii as  in  German  sfiii,  and  as  m  in  French  Buzan- 

(ais,  vu. 
J  oT  I. . . .  see  I  or  y. 

yu as  «t  in  mule. 

yu same,  but  less  prolonged,  as  in  singular. 

ch. as  in  German  ich. 

g as  in  get,  give  (never  as  in  gist,  congest). 

hw as  wh  in  which. 

Ah as  ch  in  German  nacht,  g  in  German  tag,  ch  in 

Scotch  loch,  and  j  in  Spanish  Badajos,  etc. 
li nasal  n,  as  in  French  fin,  Bourbon,  and  nasal  m, 

as  in  French  nom,  Portuguese  Sam. 
n  or  n-y. .   Spanish  K,   as   in    caHon,   pinon,    French    and 

Italian  gn,  etc.,  as  in  Boulogne. 
I  OT  y. . . .  French  I,  liquid  or  raouille,  as  (-i)ll-  in  French 

Baudrillart,  and  (-i)l  in  Chintreuil. 

th as  in  tlkin. 

til as  in  though,  them,  mother. 

V as  w  in  German  zwei,  and  b  in  Spanish  Cordoba. 

sh as  in  shine. 

z\\ as  s  in  pleasure,  and  j  in  French  jou  r. 

All  other  letters  are  used  with  their  ordinary  English 
values. 


NOTE. 

The  values  of  most  of  the  signs  used  in  the  above  Key  are  plainly  shown  by  the  examples  given.  But  those  of 
0,  ii,  ch,  th,  il,  and  v,  which  have  no  equivalents  in  English,  can  not  be  sufficiently  indicated  without  a  brief  explanation, 
which  is  here  given. 

6.  The  sound  represented  by  this  symbol  is  approximately  that  of  -u-  in  hurt  or  -e-  in  her,  but  is  materially  different 
from  either.  It  is  properly  pronounced  with  the  tongue  in  the  position  it  has  when  a  is  uttered  and  with  the  lips  in 
the  position  assumed  in  uttering  6. 

u.  This  vowel  is  produced  with  the  lips  rounded  as  in  uttering  00  and  with  the  tongue  in  the  position  required  in  utter- 
ing ee,  into  which  sound  it  is  most  naturally  corrupted. 

ch  and  A-h.  These  are  both  rough  breathings  or  spirants  made  with  considei-able  force,  ch  being  made  between  the  flat 
of  the  tongue  and  the  hard  palate,  and  Ah  between  the  tongue  and  the  soft  palate,  ch  approaches  in  sound  to  Eng- 
lish sh,  but  is  less  sibilant  and  is  made  further  back  in  the  mouth  ;  Ah  is  a  guttural  and  has  a  hawking  sound. 

I  or  y.  These  are  both  used  to  represent  the  sound  of  French  1  mouille.  in  (-\)\\-  and  (-i)l.  which  resembles  English  -y- 
in  lawyer.  Final  I,  that  is,  (-i)l,  may  be  approximated  by  starting  to  pronounce  lawyer  and  stopping  abruptly  with 
the  -y-. 

H  or  n-y.     The  consonants  represented  by  H  (Spanish  il,  French  and  Italian  gn,  etc.)  are  practically  equivalent  to  English 
-ni-  or  -ny-  in  bunion,  bunyon,  onion,  etc.,  and,  except  when  final,  are  represented  by  n-y.     Final  iJ,  as  French  -gn(e), 
*may  be  produced  by  omitting  the  sound  of  -on  in  the  pronunciation  of  onion. 

V.    This  may  be  pronounced  by  attempting  to  utter  English  v  with  the  use  of  the  lips  alone. 
See  Preface  (vol.  i.,  p.  xxiv.)  and  the  article  Pronunciation  of  Foreign  Names. 


JOHNSON'S 
IINIVEESAL    CYCLOPAEDIA. 


Ozarab'ir  I.itiirtry  [moznrab  ic,  <leriv.  <if 
mozarab.  from  Span,  inoznrabe,  from  Arab. 
mosla'rib.  diriv.  of  te'nrrab,  bccoinc  an 
Arab,  (liTiv.  of  ora&,  Arab]:  the  liturfjy 
of  the  ('hri:*tiun  subjects  of  the  Saracens 
in  Spain,  called  Mozarabes.  Arabs  by  ailo])- 
tion.  Kphesiiie  in  its  type,  if  not  in  its 
origin,  anil  not  called  Jfozarabic  till  after 
the  Mohammedan  conijuest  in  the  eighth  century,  it  is,  in 
its  groundwork  at  least,  ci>eval  with  tlie  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  Spain.  At  Braga,  in  5;W,  it  was  set  a.side 
for  the  Koman  liturgy,  but  restored  at  Toledo  in  .WS) ;  and 
at  the  Kourth  Councilof  Toledo  in  6:J3,  after  some  improve- 
ments by  Lcandor  of  Seville  (d.  oil."))  and  Isidore  of  Seville 
(d.  (!;((>),  the  use  of  it  was  extended  to  all  S[)ain.  Further 
improveuii-nt.s  were  introduced  by  Ildefonso  of  Toledo  (d. 
<M>7).  but  in  the  eleventh  century  (in  Aragon  1071,  ftn<l  in 
Cast  lie  1074)  it  gave  place,  by  royal  authority,  to  the  Konum 
liturgy.  Through  the  influence  and  example  of  Cardinal 
Ximenes  (l-l;i(>-1.517)  the  u.se  of  it  was  revived  in  Toledo 
(after  1.502),  in  Salamanca  (1517),  and  in  Valladolid  (1567). 
By  the  concordat  of  1842  provision  was  made  for  its  contin- 
uance at  Toledo,  but  nowhere  else.  It  lias  been  pronounced 
••  the  richest,  the  fullest,  the  most  varied  of  all  known  litur- 
gies." It  bears  great  resemblance  to  the  Galilean  liturgy, 
and  is  noted  for  it-s  use  of  Scripture.  It  has  been  edited  by 
Leslie  (1755),  Lorenzana  (1774),  and  Arevalus  (1804).  See 
.Migne's  Latin  Patrologij  (vols.  Ixxxv..  Ixxxvi.,  18.50),  and 
John  Mason  Neale's  EctHfrm  Churrli,  Oenera!  Inlrodiictiim 
(1850),  and  Liturgiology  and  Church  History  (2d  cd.  18(i7). 

Revised  by  S.  M,  Jackson. 

Mozart,  Germ.  pron.  mo'tsaart,  Leopold:  the  father  of 
Wolfgang  Amaileus  Mozart;  b.  Nov.  14,  171!);  was  himself 
a  voluminous  composer,  and  was  kapellmeister  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Salzburg,  lie  deserves  remembrance  for  two  rea- 
sons :  First,  for  having  excellently  conductctl  the  early  edu- 
cation of  the  son  who  was  to  become  one  of  the  greatest 
composers  of  all  time.  Second,  for  his  own  great  Violin 
HrliDol  (.\ugsburg,  1756),  which  may  be  termed  the  first  theo- 
retical and  practical  method  for  that  instrument  over  pub- 
lished. It  passoil  llirough  numerous  editions  in  various  lan- 
guages, and  was  for  a  long  time  the  only  work  of  its  kind. 
1).  at  Salzburg,  May  28,  1787.  '     Dudlky  Bick. 

Mozart^  Wolfoaso  .Xmadki-s,  sometimes  called  Jean 
f'liKVSosroMETiiEoiMiii.K  SidisMfND:  pianist  and  comi>oser: 
b.  at  till'  city  of  Salzburg,  (iermany,  Jan,  27,  17.56.  At  four 
years  of  age  he  playe<l  the  violin  with  astonishing  eas<^  and 
expression,  and  composed  minuets  and  simple  i)ieces.  When 
the  bov  was  six  vears  of  ag<^  his  father,  Leo|)old  Mozart,  vis- 
ited Munich  anil  Vienna  with  his  son  and  daughter,  Mari- 
anne, whose  performances  excited  great  admiration.  In  170:t 
Leopold  inaile  a  s<"eond  tour  with  the  children,  visiting  the 
most  important  cities  of  Kurope.  and  although  only  eight 
years  of  age  Wolfgang  composeil  most  of  the  symphonies 
which  were  played  at  the  concerts.  The  family  visited  Knt- 
land  in  17(i4  and  remained  until  late  in  1766.  when  Wolfgang 
returned  home  to  study  comjiosition  under  his  father  for  a 
few  months.  The  works  of  llandel,  which  he  brought  from 
London,  and  those  of  Bueh,  became  his  classical  moilols. 


lie  studied  also  some  of  the  best  Italian  masters,  getting 
from  them  his  marvelous  skill  in  making  each  of  his  vocal 
parts  melodious  and  graceful  even  in  the  most  constrained 
narmonic  situations.  In  1767  Leopold  and  the  children 
went  to  Vienna,  and  remained  there  more  than  a  year, 
hoping  to  improve  their  fortunes,  but  they  reai>ed  only  loss 
and  disap|ioiutment,  owing  chiefly  to  the  jealousy  of  the 
Italian  court  musicians,  and  gladly  left  Austria  for  Italy. 
While  in  Home  Wolfgang  wrote  from  memory,  after  hear- 
ing it  but  once,  the  Easter  music  performed  in  the  Sisline 
chapel.  At  Milan  an  opera  by  young  Mozart,  J/itridate, 
was  brought  on  the  stage  and  repeated  twenty  times.  The 
whole  tour  was  a  success,  and  on  his  return  he  was  ap- 
pointed court  organist  to  the  Archbishop  of  .Salzburg. 
From  1777  to  177it  he  resided  in  Paris.  In  1780  he  was 
called  to  Munich  by  Prince  t'harles  Theodore  of  Bavaria  to 
write  the  opera  Idumemo.  In  this  entirely  new  creation 
Mozart  laid  the  cornerstoneof  dramatic  composition — a  serv- 
ice which  the  most  eminent  of  his  successors  fully  ac- 
knowledge. Its  originality  and  beauty  became  at  once  the 
delight  of  his  audience,  and  earned  him  even  more  than  his 
usual  praises.  The  Archbishop  of  Salzburg  at  once  had  Mo- 
zart return  with  his  honors  from  Munich,  and  in  1781  move 
with  him  to  Viemuiasa  member  of  his  household,  but  treated 
him  as  a  menial.  After  a  fruitless  remonstrance  Mozart 
resigned,  and  gave  lessons  for  a  living  in  Vienna,  which 
thereafter  was  his  home.  In  1782  he  married  Constance 
Weber,  a  pianist,  whose  care  and  love  were  his  greatest  help 
and  happiness.  Joseph  II.,  fond  of  Italian  music  and  of 
his  Italian  nuusters,  the  enemies  of  Jlozart,  was  slow  in 
granting  him  any  privileges.  Fiiudly.  Die  Entfiilining  arts 
dem  Serail  was  ordered,  and  (laid  for  with  fifty  ducats. 
The  originality  of  this  work  at  first  hid  its  beauties  from 
the  people  of  Vienna,  but  the  opera  nuule  a  deep  impression 
on  tne  musicians  there  and  on  all  classes  in  other  parts  of 
Europe.  The  emperor  gave  him  the  oflice  of  composer  to 
the  court  and  a  salary  of  800  florins,  but  with  astonishing 
indifi'erence  nuule  his  ollice  a  sinecure.  To  sustain  his 
family  Mozart  was  obliged  to  give  lessons,  write  waltzes 
and  contredanses  for  balls,  and  give  concerts  in  luMghbor- 
ing  cities.  It  was  not  till  his  twenty-eighth  year  (I7S4)  that 
these  ephemeral  labors  were  followed  by  uninterrupted  in- 
dustry in  com|)osition.  The  opportunity  which  wealth  and 
royalty  refused  to  give  came  unsought  in  the  libretto  of  // 
yhzze  di  Fiqarn.  written  for  Mozart  by  the  poor  poet  Da 
Ponte  in  1786.  This  opera,  finished  in  six  weeks,  had  great 
success  throughout  Europe.  Many  offers  came  to  him  then 
from  various  courts,  but  Mozart  was  fond  of  Vienna,  and 
even  of  his  indifferent  emperor.  The  people  of  Prague  asked 
for  an  opera,  and  Don  (tiovnnni  was  written  for  them  in 
1787.  In  1788  Mozart  began  to  feel  rlepressed  by  his  disease 
of  the  lungs  and  the  nerves.  A  mysterious  messenger  (com- 
missioneil  by  Count  WaIsogg)came  to  him  and  engaged  him 
to  write  a  llequiim,  refusing  any  information  as  to  its  desti- 
nation. This  mystery,  some  presentiment,  ami  his  melan- 
choly fancies  gave  him  the  opinion  that  he  was  writing  his 
own  funeral  service.  In  the  single  year  of  1701  Jlozart  wrote 
/>!>  y.nitlierlt'ile.  La  Clemenza  di'  Tito,  and  the  Keii'iifm. 
He  died  l>ec.  1  the  same  year,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Mark's 
ehurchyanl,  but  the  situation  of  his  grave  is  unknown. 


MOZLEY 


MUCORACE.E 


Mozart  is  consiJereJ  tlie  greatest  composer  of  the  world 
from  the  combined  versatility  ami  power  of  his  genius.  In 
every  kind  of  composition  he  producetl  works  of  greatest 
excellence.  He  was  the  best  pianist  of  his  time  in  Ger- 
many. His  execution  was  precise,  elegant,  fervid,  and  deli- 
cate in  expression.  He  wrote  626  published  works,  and  294 
compositions  either  unfinislied  or  unpublished.  Don  Oio- 
vanni,  11  Nozze  di  Figaro,  Die  Zauberflijie,  the  Requiem,  the 
symphony  in  G  minor,  the  quartets  Nos.  10  and  18,  are  but 
a"  few  of  his  great  productions.  See  the  Life  by  Jahn  (18.56- 
59:  2d  ed.  1867;  Eng.  trans.  1882);  that  in  English  by 
Holmes  (1845;  2d  cd.  1878);  and^that  by  Fischer  (1888). 
His  Correspondence  was  edited  by  Nohl  (2d  ed.  1877). 

Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Moz'ley,  James  Bowling,  D.  D.  :  theologian  ;  b.  at  Gains- 
borough, Lincolnshire,  England,  Sept.  15,  1813 ;  gradu.ated 
at  <Jriel  College,  Oxford,  1834 ;  became  a  fellow  of  Magda- 
len 1840,  viear  of  Shoreham  1856,  canon  of  Worcester  1869, 
Regius  Professor  of  Divinity,  Oxford,  1871  ;  author  of  a 
work  on  Predestination  (1855);  works  on  Baptismal  Regen- 
eration (1856-62) ;  Eight  Bampton  Lectures  on  Miracles 
(1865) :  Ruling  Ideas  in  Early  Ages  (1877) ;  Essays  (1878) ; 
and  other  theological  works.     D.  at  Shoreham,  Jan.  4,  1878. 

Mucilage  [=  Fr.,  from  Lat.  mucilago,  a  mouldy,  musty 
juice,  deriv.  of  iniicus,  mucus,  slime,  and  muce're,  be  mouldy 
or  musty]  :  a  name  applied  iu  the  arts  to  solutions  of  vege- 
table gums  (see  Gum)  in  water,  or  to  other  soluble  prepara- 
tions possessing  adhesive  qualities.  The  best  mucilage  is 
prepared  by  dissolving  gum  arable  in  water  in  closed  cop- 
per boilers  surrounded  by  steam-jackets,  the  temperature  of 
the  water  being  raised  to  and  kejit  at  the  boiling-point  by 
superheated  steam  until  the  solution  is  effected,  the  process 
being  hastened  and  facilitated  by  brass  agitators  run  by 
machinery.  The  hot  solution  is  drawn  off,  filtered  under 
pressure  through  cloth,  to  remove  the  dirt  and  other  for- 
eign matter  contained  in  the  gum ;  oil  of  cloves  or  some 
other  suitable  antiseptic  is  added  to  prevent  fermentation 
and  the  growth  of  mould,  which  impair  the  adhesive  prop- 
erties of  mucilage,  and  the  solution  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
some  time  imtil  such  impurities  as  were  not  removed  on  the 
cloth  filter  have  settled  out,  when  it  is  bottled. 

One  of  the  most  common  suljstitutes  for  gum  arable  is 
Dextrin  {q.  v.).  The  objectionable  brown  color  of  its  solu- 
tion can  be  removed  by  filtering  through  animal  charcoal, 
but  its  adhesive  properties,  as  indicated  by  its  viscosity,  are 
only  equal  to  those  of  a  third-rate  gum  arable.  It  is  used 
to  form  the  adhesive  surface  of  postage-stamps,  labels,  and 
envelopes.  Fish-glue  (see  Glue)  is  also  much  used  on  labels, 
and  dilute  solutions  of  this  material  are  widely  sold  as  muci- 
lage, and  are,  except  for  the  characteristic  and  disagreeable 
odor  and  taste,  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  the  gum-arabic 
mucilage.  Other  gums  are  also  largely  imported  for  the  uses 
to  which  gum  arabie  was  almost  exclusively  used.  Of  these 
the  principal  ones  are  the  other  African  gums  from  Senegal 
and  the  Cape,  and  the  Ghatti  gums  from  India. 

Dextrin  is  somewhat  hygroscopic,  more  so  than  gum  ara- 
ble or  gum  Ghatti,  which  explains  the  tendency  of  postage- 
stamps  to  stick  together  in  damp  weather.     H.  B.  Hodges. 

Mucora'ceBB  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  mucor,  mould,  musti- 
ness,  deriv.  of  muce're,  be  musty] :  a  family  of  fungi,  jiopu- 
larly  known  as  Jloulds  or  Black  Moulds,  in  which  the 
oospores  are  solitary  and  produced  by  a  process  of  conjuga- 
tion, and  whose  conidia  are  produced  in  sacs  containing  one 
to  many  spores.  The  species  of  this  order  are  very  widely 
distributed,  and  among  them  are  many  fungi  known  as 
common  moulds.  They  frequent  articles  of  food,  excre- 
ment of  animals,  anil,  in  sliort,  are  found  on  nearly  all  de- 
caying animal  and  vegetable  matter.  One  species,  Pliyco- 
myces  nitens,  grows  on  oily  substances,  an  unusual  habitat 
of  fungi.  As  a  rule,  the  members  of  this  order  are  quite 
small,  although  P.  nitens  has  been  known  to  attain  the 
height  of  a  foot.  The  mycelium,  which  is  often  found  in 
largo  masses  in  some  of  the  commoner  moulds  of  this 
group,  frequently  presents  a  shiny  appearance,  whence  the 
common  German  word  for  plants  of  tills  order,  Schimmel, 
glitter,  is  deriveil. 

Inasmuch  as  the  species  of  this  family  conform  tolerably 
closely  to  the  type,  we  may  select  Mucor  mucedo,  a  common 
mould  growing  on  dung  and  other  substances,  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  whole  order.  J/,  mucedo  lias  occupied  the 
attention  of  many  botanists,  but  the  most  complete  account 
of  its  developmcMt  was  given  by  Dr.  Oscar  Breteld  in  a 
work  entitled  Botanische  Untersuchungen  iiber  Schimmel- 


pilze,  part  i.,  publishe'd  in  1872.  In  this  publication  there 
appeared  for  the  first  time  an  account  of  the  oospores,  as 
well  as  the  conidial  spores  of  the  plant  in  question.  If 
fresh  horse-dung  be  placed  in  a  moist  place,  it  will  soon  be 
covered  by  a  coating  of  white  glistening  fibers,  which  are 
the  hypha'  or  mycelial  threads  of  JSf.  mucedo.  They  soon 
cover  the  surface  of  the  dung  with  a  cotton-wool-like  mass, 
more  or  less  dense  according  to  the  moisture  and  amount 
of  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  dung,  from  which  mass  pro- 
jects certain  threads,  whose  tips,  at  first  white,  afterward 
black,  are  the  conidia  or  asexual  fruit,  consisting  of  sacs 
containing  a  large  nmuber  of  spores.  The  threads,  which 
grow  upward  to  bear  the  spore-sacs,  exhibit  in  3L  mucedo 
a  marked  tendency  to  turn  toward  the  light.  In  Rhizopus 
nigricans,  the  common  bread-mould,  a  nearly  related  species, 
the  stalks  of  the  spore-cases,  on  the  contrary,  seem  to  be  in- 
different to  the  action  of  light.  A  microscopic  examina- 
tion of  tiie  hyphae  or  threads  composing  the  mycelium 
shows  that,  as  in  most  fungi,  they  branch  in  all  directions, 
and  are  occasionally  divided  by  cross-partitions.  The  con- 
tents are  colorless  or  slightly  tinged  with  brown  or  gray, 
and  tlie  cell-wall,  although,  according  to  de  Bary,  it  some- 
times shows  the  blue  color  given  by  cellulose  on  the  appli- 
cation of  iodine  and  sulphuric  acid,  often  fails  to  give  that 
color.  If  submerged,  the  hypha; 
live,  at  least  for  a  certain  length 
of  time,  but  undergo  certain 
changes :  the  cross-jiartitions  be- 
come more  numerous,  and  the 
cell-walls  sometimes  bulge  a  little. 
It  has  been  sometimes  supposed 
that  yeast-cells  were  nothing  but 
the  altered  mycelium  of  submerged 
plants  of  31.  mucedo.  This  view 
is  not  generally  accepted,  and  it 
must  be  admitted  that  we  have 
no   |u-oof    that   yeast-cells   either 


1.— c,  culture-growth: 
chlamydospores.   (Mag- 


FiG.  2 — Successive  stages   of 
spore-saos.    tMagnified.) 


come  from  Mucor  or  are  changed  "'  "  ' 
into  it.  When,  however,  the  mycelium  of  3L  mucedo  is 
kept  quite  moist,  it  undergoes  a  modification,  and  we  have 
the  production  of  what  are  known  as  chlamydospores  (Fig. 
1).  These  are  formed  in  the  following  way:  The  cross- 
partitions  increase  in  number, 
and  some  of  the  cells  thus 
formed  swell  until  they  become 
nearly  spherical.  The  proto- 
plasmic contents  of  the  cells 
then  roll  themselves  up  into 
round  masses  resembling  spores, 
which  afterward  are  capable  of 
gernunatiiig.  The  filaments,  or 
hyplup,  which  rise  above  the 
common  mass  of  mycelium  to 
bear  the  conidia,  are  generally 
from  an  eighth  to  half  an  inch 
high,  but  under  exceptionally 
favorable  circumstances  may  be 
as  high  as  6  inches.  The  ends  of  the  hyphaj  swell  into  a 
globular-shaped  sac  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  contents  of  the 
sac  are  at  first  continuous  with  those  of  the  rest  of  the  fila- 
ment, but  are  afterward  cut  off  by  a  partition,  wdiich  is  not 
flat,  like  the  cross-partitions  found  in  the  ordinary  myceli- 
um, but  arched,  as  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  3. 
The  expanded  tip  of  the  mycelium,  which  pro- 
jects into  the  spore-sac,  is  known  as  the  colu- 
mella. In  M.  mucedo  (Figs.  2,  3)  it  is  very  promi- 
nent. In  most  of  the  IMucoraceie  it  is  smaller, 
and  in  a  few  cases  is  entirely  wanting.  In  the 
sporangium  or  spore-sac  the  spores  are  formed 
by  free-cell  fornuition.  In  M.  mucedo  they  are 
very  numerous  and  of  an  oval  shajie,  0'0066- 
0-0099  mm.  long  and  0-0033-0-0040  mm.  broad. 
Their  color  is  grayish  brown,  and  when  seen  in 
mass  they  often  appear  lilack.  The  external  wall  of  the 
sporangium  is  composed  of  two  layers,  the  outer  of  which  is 
beset  with  short  hairs.  Within  the  sporangium  is  an  ex- 
pansible elastic  substance,  whose  presence  can  be  demon- 
strated before  the  spores  are  ripe  by  bursting  open  the  outer 
wall,  when  tlie  elastic  substance  projects  as  a  globular  mass, 
in  which  the  young  spores  are  imbedded.  When  ripe  the 
spores  are  discharged  with  some  violence  by  means  of  the 
sudden  swelling  of  the  elastic  substance ;  the  whole  outer 
wall  breaks  away  and  disappears,  except  a  small  portion 
which  remains,  forming  a  rim  about  the  base.    This  is  some- 


FiG.  3. 


MUCORACE.E 


MUCOUS  MEMBRANE 


times  so  sMiall  that  it  ran  be  socii  only  on  close  examination, 
ami  at  first  sijflit  it  a|ipi-ars  as  lli<iiif;li  the  enliimella  wliicli 
remains  were  llie  young  slate  of  a  sjioranijium.    In  l{li  iziiijutt 


Fio.  i. 

nigrieanx  (lireail-mouKl)  it  hai)iiens  that  not  only  is  the 
outer  wall  of  (he  sporangium  liestroyed,  Imt  the  very  larf.'e 
columella  splits  and  collapses,  fallirif;  liack  over  the  fruit- 
stalk  like  an  umbrella  or  small  toadstool,  as  in  Fig.  4  b. 
The  spores  are  often  nrojeeted  to  a  considerable  distance,  as 
may  l>e  shown  by  placing  a  piece  of  white  paper  3  or  3 
inches  from  a  mass  of  Mueor,  when  it  will  soon  be  covered 
with  bla<k  spots,  which  are  the  discharged  spores.  The 
spores  placed  on  a  moist  surface  swell  to  two,  three,  or  even 
a  greater  number  of  times  tlu'ir  original  dimensions,  but  do 
not  clearly  show  a  division  of  their  wall  into  two  layere. 
Their  germination  takes  place  by  the  growth  of  one  or  more 
tubes,  which  soon  assume  all  the  appearance  of  the  myceliiiin 
of  ,)/.  mureilo,  and  in  a  short  time,  usually  only  a  few  hours, 
reproduce  the  conidia  of  the  species. 

When  Jf.  inucedo  is  cultivated  on  a  decoction  of  horse- 
ilung  it  bears  only  conidia.  When  growing  spontaneously 
on  horse-dung  it  freipiently  produces  oospores  as  well.  On 
breaking  the  dung  open  they  are  seen  by  the  naked  eye. 


Fio.  0. 


Flo.  7. 


looking  like  small  round  black  bodies  just  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  dung.  Their  size  varies  from  0-00!»!t-0  L'l-lo 
mm.,  according  to  I5refeld"s  ineasurenieiits.  Examined  with 
a  rather  lower  powiT  of  the  microscope  they  are  found 
to  have  two  coats,  the  outer  of  which  is  black,  opaijue,  and 
brittle,  and  rougliene<l  with  irregular  i)rotuberances.  On 
breaking  open  the  outer  coat,  it  is  seen  to  he  lined  with 
a  more  delicate  membrane,  which  fits  into  the  inequalities 
of  the  outer laver.  The  inner  coat  is  continuous;  the  outer 
is  perforated  by  two  circular  openings  diametrically  oppo- 
site. This  is  where  the  suspensors  weri'  attached,  as  we 
shall  see  presently.  The  oospores  are  produced  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Two  hypha^  which  are  lying  near  each 
other  seiul  out  lateral  shoots,  as  shown  in  Kig.  5,  which  in- 
crease in  size,  gradually  approaching  each  other  until  they 
meet,  as  in  Fig.  C.     The  two  parts  in  contact  are  next  cut 

off  by  partitions  from  the 
hypha-  from  which  they  re- 
siiectively  arose,  as  in  Fig.  7. 
Finally,  ilie  cell-wall  at  the 
point  of  contact  is  absorbed, 
and  the  protoplasmic  con- 
tents of  tne  two  cells  unite 
into  a  globular  mass,  which 
afterward  becomes  enveloped 
p,„  n  in  a  coating  of  cellulose  and 

grows  into  n  spore  (Fig.  i*), 
such  as  has  already  lieen  described.  In  Fig.  H.  a  a  arc  called 
t  he  suspensors.  The  oospore  remains  attached  for  some  time 
to  the  myeeliuin,  but  is  finally  set  free;  generally,  however, 
a  small  part  of  the  suspensors  remains  attached.  TlieoOspore 


Fio.  9. 


germinates  in  the  following  manner:  The  thick  outer  coat 
opeii.s.  and  from  the  contents  of  the  spore  there  grows  out  a 
germinal  tube,  which  soon  assumes  all  the  marks  of  the 
ordinary  Mueor  mycelium.  This  mycelium,  arising  ilirectly 
from  the  oospore,  produces  conidia,  and  sometimes  almost 
immediately,  us  is  illustrate<l  in  Fig.  U. 
Xo  case  has  as  yet  been  observed  in 
which  the  mycelium  from  the  oospore  of 
.)/.  iiiiinJo  has  produeeii  another  oospore 
directly,  without  fii^st  having  borne  con- 
idia. The  oos|)ores  of  the  Mucoracea'  are 
called  by  de  Bary  zi/yunpures,  from  their 
being  produced  by  conjugation. 

The  method  of  production  of  the  oo- 
spores just  described  in  M.  mucedo  pre- 
vails throughout  the  family.  The  proc- 
ess, it  will  readily  be  seen,  is  similar  to 
what  is  known  as  conjugation  in  certain 
Alga',  as  the  Desmidiacea'  and  Zygueinaceae.  The  process 
consists  in  the  direct  union  of  the  contents  of  two  different 
cells,  which  resemble  one  another  so  closely  that  we  can 
not  with  )>ropriety  call  one  male  and  the  other  female.  In 
the  Desmidiacea-  it  is  the  contents  of  two  unicellular  bodies 
which  unite  ;  in  the  /ygiiemacea'  the  contents  of  two  cells 
which  are  in  diirerent  iilameuts.  In  one  genus  of  the  latter 
family,  Siroyimiiun,  we  find  a  single  filament,  which  bends 
upon  itself,  and  the  conjugation  takes  place  between  two 
cells  of  the  same  filament.  In  the  Mucoracea?  we  have  a 
conjugation  between  parts  of  different  threails.  but  these 
threads  may  have  both  arisen  from  the  germination  of  the 
same  spore.so  that  the  conjugation  in  this  order  is  not  iiec- 
e,s.sarilv  between  two  ditTcMeiit  individuals,  which  must  al- 
ways be  the  case  with  Desmids.  In  those  species  of  Mueor 
where  there  is  a  large  amount  of  mycelium  we  do  not  know 
whether  the  mass  has  arisen  from  one  or  many  spores;  and 
when  conjugation  lakes  place  in  such  cases  it  may  have  been 
between  threads  arising  from  different  spores.  Cultures  of 
single  spores  have,  however,  been  made,  from  which  it  is 
known  that  threads  of  the  same  individual  may  conjugate. 
This  is  shown  \n\r\  icuhirly  clearly  in  Spurudinia grandis,(iom- 
nion  mould  on  toadstools, 
where  the  mycelium  from  a 
single  spore  is  easily  traced. 
It  lias  been  remarked  that 
the  two  conjugating  cells 
closely  resemble  one  an- 
other. In  C/i(i'/)>clad>um, 
however,  one  of  the  cells  is 
uniformly  larger  and  of  a 
slight  ly  different  sliai)e  from 
the  otiier,  but  even  in  this 
case  there  is  no  distinction 
of  anthcridiuin  and  oi'igoni- 
um.  The  oosjwres  of  the 
different  species  ai'id  genera 
of  Mucoraccic  vary  in  shape, 
size,  and  markings,  but  a 
detailed  account  would  be 
out  of  place.  The  most 
striking  form  is  I'hi/comyres  nitens,  whose  oospores  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  ring  of  branching  processes. 

The  older  writers  had  no  knowledge  of  the  mode  of  pro- 
duction of  the  oospores  of  this  group,  and  the  only  form  of 
fruit  which  they  regarded  in  their  classification  of  this 
order  was  the  asexual  or  conidial  form  ;  and  they  considered 
the  conidial  .sporangia  to  resemble  the  a.sci  of  the  Peris|)0- 
riacea-.  Jloilcrn  research  has  shown  that  this  is  not  the 
case;  for,  while  the  former  are  produced  without  the  inter- 
vention of  any  sexual  action,  the  latter  are  the  result  of  a 
peculiar  process  of  fertilization.  By  continental  writers  the 
Miiciiraenv  are  considiTed  one  of  the  lowest  families  of 
Fungi,  and  are  placed  just  below  the  Ptrniiiispnritciiv. 

The  |)nneipal  genera  of  the  family  are  ,V(/c»i- (Figs.  2, 3,  8, 
0).  I'liijC'iinijren.  Circinella.  Spiiielliis,  Sl><irodiniii.  lOiizopus 
{V'\\iA.iih).  lleliroHlijI  111)1. ThiimnidiHm.Vliivlo>ityl  urn, L'IiitIo- 
rlndiiim  (Fig.  4,  (/),  MnrliirtUa,  I'iploi-ipli(ili.i.  Syiiriphalis 
(Fig.  10),  ami  I'Hubolm  (Fig.  4,  r).  W.  G.  Farlow. 

Mnoons  Meiiibrnnp  \m\icous  is  from  Lat.  muru^.  mu- 
cusl:  tlie  lining  iiu'iiiluane  of  the  alimentary,  respiml'iry, 
and  gcnito-urinary  tracts.  Anatomically,  it  consists  ol  the 
mucous  membrane  pro|>er  and  the  sub-mucous  tissues.  The 
first  is  coinposeil  of  the  secretory  tubules,  follicles,  and 
glands,  situated  upon  a  basement  or  limitary  membrane; 


Fio.  10. 


MUCUNA 


MCHLBACH 


the  second  consists  of  connective  or  "areolar"  tissue  with 
some  elastic  fibers,  and  contains  the  capillary  blood-vessels 
and  nerve-lilaraents  by  which  the  secretory  surface  is  nour- 
ished and  vitalized.  The  functions  of  mucons  surfaces 
differ  very  greatly  with  the  situation.  In  the  nose,  for  ex- 
ample, the  function  is  merely  the  heating  and  warming  of 
the  air  of  respiration ;  in  the  a?sophagus  and  lower  uri- 
nary tract  the  mucous  surface  acts  merely  as  a  protective 
surface,  offering  no  obstacle  to  the  ready  passage  of  the 
substances  normal  to  the  parts  in  question.  In  the  stom- 
ach, intestines,  and  in  certain  other  situations  the  mucous 
membrane  secretes  complex  substances  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance in  physiological  processes,  and  by  its  corrugated 
structure,  numerous  reduplications,  and  villous  processes  it 
affords  an  extensive  surface  for  the  great  functional  proc- 
esses of  nutritive  absorption  and  the  elimination  of  effete 
excretory  products.  It  is  the  common  property  of  all  mu- 
cous membranes  to  secrete  a  viscid  liquid  called  mucus, 
which  acts  as  a  lubricant  and  protective.  It  consists  of  a 
viscid  fluid  part,  containing  mucin  and  cellular  constitu- 
ents derived  from  the  mucous  surface.  Its  free  surface  is 
lined  with  epithelial  cells  of  various  shapes,  according  to 
the  function  of  the  part,  whether  merely  protective  or 
whether  secretive.  These  epithelia  are  constantly  exfoliated, 
and  as  constantly  reproduced  by  young  cells  formed  by 
proliferation  in  the  cellular  structures  beneath.  The  se- 
creted matter  called  mucus  contains  a  limited  nnmber  of 
mucous  corpuscles,  which  are  cast-off  epithelia  or  escaped 
products  of  rapid  cell-formation,  but  the  homogeneous  fluid 
portion  is  the  peculiar  secretion  of  the  mucous  follicles.  It 
IS  clear,  colorless,  has  nearly  a  semi-solid  consistency,  and 
consists  of  water,  mucin,  and  salts,  especially  chloride  of 
sodium.  When  rich  in  corpuscles  and  mucin,  mucus  is 
viscid  and  tenacious.  It  is  thin  and  watery  when  salines 
are  chiefly  present,  and  often  a  rapid  serous  flow  is  scarcely 
more  than  transuded  blood-serum.  The  nuioous  membrane 
is  also  the  seat  of  glands  of  special  function,  as  those  pro- 
ducing the  saliva,  the  gastric  and  intestinal  digestive  juices. 
Inflammation  of  mucous  surfaces  is  called  catarrh,  and  is 
nearly  always  attended  with  increased  secretion  of  mucus. 
Catarrh  of  mucous  surfaces  has  many  causes.  When  the  skin 
is  chilled,  or  its  circulation  is  sluggish  by  reason  of  unelean- 
liness  or  neglect  of  exercise,  blood  is  determined  to  the  in- 
ternal ]iarts.  Rapid  circulation  of  the  blood  and  the  ele- 
vated temperature  of  the  body  produce  catarrhs  in  most 
acute  intianimatory  or  febrile  disorders.  When  large  or- 
gans, as  the  lungs  or  liver,  are  diseased,  the  obstruction 
they  offer  to  the  circulation  favors  congestion  of  the  exten- 
sive mucous  surfaces  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and 
catarrhs  result.  They  are  greatly  congesteil  when  the  heart 
is  incapable  of  maintaining  proper  circulation.  Direct  irri- 
tation more  often  causes  catarrhs,  as  dust  in  the  bronchi,  or 
errors  in  diet  producing  the  catarrhs  of  gastric  and  intesti- 
nal indigestion.  Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Miiciina:  See  CowHAGE. 

Mucus  :  See  Mucous  Membrane. 

Mudflsh :  a  book-name  for  the  African  Protopftrus  an- 
necteus  (see  Dipnoi)  and  for  the  bowfln,  or  dog-ttsli  (.Iniio. 
culva)  of  the  Great  Lakes  of  the  U.  S. 

Mud^e,  Enoch:  preacher;  b.  in  Lynn,  Mass.,  June  31, 
1776;  joined  the  New  England  conference  in  1793.  He 
traveled  and  preached  through  most  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  and  Maine.  He  was  prominent  in  found- 
ing Jletlujdism  in  Maine,  which  was  then  a  province  and  a 
wilderness,  and  endured  severe  and  romantic  trials.  He  was 
twice  elected  to  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts.  The  lat- 
ter years  of  his  life  were  siient  in  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  as 
chaplain  to  its  mariners"  chapel.  He  published  a  volume  of 
excellent  Sermonx  for  3I(iriners  and  many  poetical  pieces 
of  some  merit.     I),  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  A|)r.  2,  1850. 

Miid-licu :  See  Oallin.e. 

Mud-puppy,  or  Water-dogr  {AW.fiirux  niacnhilu.'i):  a  ba- 
t  racliian  of  the  order  Amph  ijinmsla.  found  in  tlie  fresh  waters 
of  the  eastern  parts  of  the  U.  S..  especially  aluindant  in  the 
Great  Lake  system.  It  has  tlic  heail  and  mouth  large;  the 
upper  jaw  and  yialate  thickly  set  with  small  sharp  teeth: 
a  short  neck,  with  three  branchi.al  tufts  on  each  side;  tail 
compressed  laterally,  and  fringed  with  a  delicate  membrane ; 
four  limbs,  each  having  four  toes  without  nails ;  small  eyes, 
without  lids;  thick  and  fleshy  lips;  a  large  tongue,  immov- 
able except  at  the  tip  and  edges;  small  nostrils;  and  a  smooth 
skin.     It  has  rudimentary  lungs,  and  is  able  to  support  life 


out  of  water  for  several  hours.  Its  color  is  brown,  and  it  is 
marked  by  numerous  blackish  spots  of  various  sizes.  It 
reaches  a  length  of  about  a  foot.  The  name  31mwbranchus 
is  a  synonym  of  Necturus.  The  name  mud-puppy  is  some- 
times applied  to  a  similar  salamander,  the  Hellbender 
(q.  v.).  This  batrachian  is  found  chiefly  in  the  head-waters 
of  the  Oliio  and  Tennessee  rivers,  not  in  the  Great  Lakes,  and 
is  larger  and  duller  in  color  than  the  true  mud-puppy;  but 
the  most  striking  difference  is  in  the  absence  of  gills  in  the 
hellbender,  a  round  opening  or  spiracle  occupying  their 
place.     Both  animals  are  absolutely  harndess. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Muez'zin  [Arab.,  also  muazzin,  deriv.  of  'azzana,  inform 
(cf.  'azaii,  the  call  to  prayer),  deriv.  of  'azana,  hear] :  the 
Mussulman  official  who  chants  the  ezann  or  call  to  prayer 
Ave  times  every  twenty-four  hours  from  the  minaret  or  some 
prominent  part  of  a  mosque.  While  chanting  he  stands 
erect,  a  finger  in  each  ear,  his  face  turned  toward  Mecca. 
He  is  expected  to  possess  great  strength  and  melodiousness 
of  voice;  if  blind,  so  much  the  better,  as  he  will  not  see 
into  neighboring  houses  and  gardens.  Mohammed  was  un- 
willing to  use  bells  or  trumpets  in  calling  the  faithful  to 
worship,  as  these  were  employed  by  the  Christians  and  Jews, 
so  he  chose  the  human  voice.  The  ezann  is  in  the  following 
words:  "God  most  high  !  [four  times].  I  attest  there  is  no 
God  but  God ;  I  attest  that  Mohammed  is  the  prophet  of 
God ;  come  to  prayer ;  come  to  the  temple  of  salvation 
[twice].  There  is  no  God  but  God."  To  tlie  morning  ezann 
the  words  "prayer  is  better  than  sleep"  are  added  after 
"  temple  of  salvation."  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Miiffling,  Friedrich  Ferdinand  Karl  Weiss,  Freiherr 
von:  general;  b.  in  Halle,  Westphalia,  June  12,  1775;  en- 
tered the  Fusiliers  while  a  mere  lad,  and  was  with  them  in 
the  campaign  against  France  1792-94.  In  1806  he  entered 
the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Weimar,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Jena  joined  Bliicher  and  was  appointed  to  conclude  the  ca- 
pitulation of  Rattkau.  Two  years  later,  as  member  of  the 
so-called  secret  council,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Duke 
of  Weimar,  liut  in  1813  he  re-entered  the  Prussian  army 
and  was  assigned  to  Bliicher's  staff.  He  was  rejieatedly  pro- 
moted, and  after  the  first  Peace  of  Paris  was  made  chief  of 
the  general  staff  of  the  army  stationed  at  the  Rhine.  In  1815 
he  was  assigned  to  the  British  army  under  Wellington,  and 
after  the  second  surrender  of  Paris  was  made  governor  of 
the  city.  Five  years  later  he  became  chief  of  the  general 
staff  of  the  Prussian  army,  and  in  1832  was  appointed  gen- 
eral of  the  Seventh  Army-corps.  He  retired  in  1847  with  the 
title  of  general  field-marshal.     D.  in  Erfurt,  Jan.  16,  1851. 

Mnf'ti  [=  Arab,  miiffl.  expounder],  or  Sheikh-ul-Islam 

[Aral).,  lord  of  the  faith  (liter.,  of  the  submission,  which 
takes  in  Islam  the  place  of  faith  in  Christianity)] :  the 
highest  Ottoman  ecclesiastical  functionary,  representative 
of  the  sultan  in  religious  affairs,  as  is  the  grand  vizier  in 
temporal  matters.  His  cliief  duty  is  to  expound  JIussul- 
man  religion  and  law.  Though  appointed  and  removable 
like  any  officer  of  state,  he  while  in  power  exercises  a  pe- 
culiar and  anomalous  influence  upon  the  throne.  No  Otto- 
man sultan  was  ever  deposed  until  after  the  mufti  had  is- 
sued a  felra  (official  opinion)  against  him  ;  such  a  fetva  once 
issued,  it  would  be  very  difficult  if  not  impossible  for  the 
sovereign  to  retain  his  place.  The  title  mufti  is  often  aij- 
plied  to  jurisconsults  attached  to  general  or  local  Ottoman 
government  councils.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Jliig'gre.  Theodor  :  author ;  b.  in  Berlin,  Nov.  8,  1806 ; 
became  a  soldier,  determined  to  go  to  South  Amei-ica  and 
fight  under  Bolivar,  but  the  war  was  over  when  he  reached 
London ;  returned  to  Berlin ;  studied  natural  sciences,  his- 
torv,  and  philoso|)hy  for  some  time  ;  devoted  himself  finally 
to  'literature.  D.  in  Berlin,  P'eb.  18,  1861.  Of  his  political 
writings,  France  and  the  Bourbons  (1830),  England  and  the 
Reform  (1831),  and  The  Cen-fvre  in  Prtissia  (1845),  attracted 
much  attention.  The  liest  of  his  traveling  sketches  are  Die 
Schweitz  (1847;  Eng.  trans,  by  Mrs.  Percy  Sinnet,  London, 
1848)  VkwA  Nordisches  BiUlerhuch  (1856);  of  his  romances, 
Toumaint  (1840)  and  Afraja  (1854;  Eng.  trans,  by  E.  J. 
Morris,  Philadelphia,  1854).  His  works  were  published  at 
Berlin  in  33  vols.  (1863-67).  Revised  by  J.  Goebel. 

Miilil'bach,  Louise  (pseudonym  of  Klara  Mundt):  nov- 
elist; b.  .at  Neubrandenburg,  Germanv,  Jan.  2,  1814;  mar- 
ried Theodor  Mundt  1839  ;  died  Sept.  26,  1873.  She  was  the 
author  of  numerous  novels,  mostly  historical,  which,  on 
account  of  their  sensational  conten1;s,  were  for  a  long  time 


MCULBEK(i 


.MlIK 


devoured  by  the  patrons  of  the  German  circulating  libraries. 
The  fceunility  <i[  her  imagination  is  illiistrateil  by  the  fact 
that  in  one  year  she  was  able  to  furnish  a  dozen  voluiues  to 
these  libraries.  As  a  consequence,  her  stories  lark  entirely 
artistic  finish,  though  some  of  them  shuw  corisidi  nible  de- 
scriptive talent.  JiLlLS  (ioKBEl,. 

Miihibcnr,  miilbilrrh:  town;  in  the  province  of  .Kaxony  : 
on  the  Kill';  116  miles  S.  K.  of  Wittenberj;  (see  map  of  (ier- 
man  Kmpire,  ref.  4-(i).  It  is  famous  on  account  of  the  bat- 
tle foufcht  here  on  Apr.  24,  1547,  in  which  the  army  of  the 
allied  Protestant  princes  under  .lohann  Friedrich  was  totally 
defeated  by  the  imperial  army,  and  which  clianj^ed  entirely 
the  course 'of  the  |{eformalion.     Pop.  (18'JO)  :i,44;{. 

Mnhlenberjir.  Frkoerk  k  Ai'oustus:  first  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Kepreseiitatives  of  the  l'.  S. ;  son  of  Henry  Melchior 
Muhlenberf;:  b.  at  Trappe..Montf;oniery  co..  Pa... June  2. 1750; 
was  a  jirandson  of  the  distinguished  Indian  aifciit,  Conrad 
Weiser;  was  educated  in  the  I'niversity  of  Halle,  (iermany  ; 
was  ordained  in  1770,  and  began  his  pastorate  in  Lebanon 
CO.,  Pa.;  was  [m.-.tor  of  Christ's  church  (tierman  I/Utheraii), 
New  York,  from  1773  until  the  British  occupancy  of  the  city 
in  1776  determined  his  removal,  ami  he  became  his  father's 
assistant  in  Montjiomery  co..  Pa.  In  1777  he  became  pastor 
at  New  Hanover,  Oley,  and  tioscheiihoppen,  all  in  the  Siime 
county,  servinj;  also  fur  a  time  at  Ueadiiif.',  I'a.  lie  became 
a  nuMnber  of  the  Contiiniital  Congress  in  1779,  and  in  1780 
a  member  of  the  General  Aivsembly  of  Pennsylvania,  of  which 
he  was  Speaker  1781-l<2;  was  delegate  to  tiw.  Pennsylvania 
convention  to  ratify  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787,  and 
was  chosen  its  president ;  was  a  member  of  the  1st,  2d,  Sd, 
and  4th  Coiigres<es,  and  Speaker  of  the  1st  and  i!d  ;  receiver- 
general  of  Pennsylvania  isotj.  I),  at  Lancaster.  Pa.,  June  4, 
1801,  After  retiring  from  the  ministry  Mr.  .Middenberg  was 
an  active  lay  member  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  bore  a 
very  important  part  in  the  revision  of  the  constitution  of 
the  Miiiisteriuiii  of  Pennsylvania  in  1792.      H.  F.  Jacobs. 

.Muhlenberg',  Hei.nrich  .Meliiiior,  D.  D.  :  the  organizer 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America;  b.  at  Fimbeck,  Hano- 
ver, Sept.  6,  1711  ;  studied  atGottingen,  ^yhere,  as  a  student, 
he  fouiuleii  an  orphan-house,  still  in  e.\istence;  waa  teacher 
in  the  orphan-house  at  Halle  1738-;W:  pa.stor  in  Grosshen- 
ners<lorf.  Saxony,  17:W-42.  The  Lutheran  congregations 
in  Philailelphia,  Xew  Hanover,  and  Trappe  having  applied 
to  the  Lutheran  pastors  in  Lon<lon  and  the  professors  in 
Halle  for  a  pastor,  Muhlenberg  responded  to  the  call  in 
1742,  and,  on  his  arrival  in  Philadelphia,  Nov.  25,  began  a 
career  of  unwearied  activity  extending  throughout  ail  the 
German  settlements  on  the  .\tlantic  coast  from  Nova  Scotia 
to  Georgia.  He  not  only  giithered  the  scattered  peo|>le  into 
congregations  and  saw  that  they  were  provided  with  pastors, 
but  gave  the  congregations  the  organized  form  they  have 
maintained ;  foiindeil  in  1748  the  first  syncKl  (the  Ministeriura 
of  Pennsylvania)  and  provided  it  with  a  constitution,  and 
prepared  the  first  liturgy  anil  in  a  large  measure  the  first 
nvmn-ljook.  The  congregations  of  the  (ieiieral  Synod  and 
ifnited  .Symwl  of  the  South,  most  of  the  congregations  of 
the  General  Council  and  of  the  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio,  with 
many  of  those  in  the  SyniKlical  Conference,  are  the  direct 
outgrowth  of  his  labors.  Dr.  MuhliMiberg  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  Lutheran  Church  of  .Vmerica  upon  a  confes- 
sional basis  embracing  all  the  symbolical  books,  to  which  he 
unwaveringly  held,  although  cultivating  friendly  and  even 
cordial  relations  with  the  representatives  of  the  Fpiscopal, 
Pre.sbyterian,  and  German  Keformed  Churches.  He  advo- 
cated the  early  introiluct  ion  of  the  Fnglish  languages  into 
the  German  churches,  and  set  the  example  by  preaching, 
while  piustor  in  Xew  York,  every  Sunday  in  three  languages 
— German,  Dutch,  and  Knglish.  The  form  of  churcli  gov- 
ernment which  he  sought  to  inlroiluce  providol  for  the  sys- 
tematic oversight  of  pastors  and  congregations  thri>ugli  an 
adaptation  of  the  Lutheran  epis<-opal  system  to  the  syniMlic- 
al  organization.  The  liturgical  .service  which  he  prepared 
in  1748  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  Common  SiTvii'e, 
now  agreetl  u|Kin  by  all  Knglish-speaking  Lutheran  bodies 
in  the  U.S.  D.  at'  Trai)pe,  Pa.,  Oi-t.  7,  1787,  See  Mann, 
Life  and  Tiim.i  af  Ilmrij  Mrhliinr  Mii/ileiiberi/  (Philadel- 
phia, IMNT).  H.  J.;.  Jacoiis. 

Muhlenberg.  Jons  Petek  Gabriel:  clergyman,  soldier, 
and  legislator;  b.  at  Trap|H',  Pa.,  Oct.  1,  1746;  a  .son  of 
Dr.  Heinrich  M.  Muhlenberg;  was  educated  in  Halle,  but 
ran  away  fnun  college  ami  enlisted  in  the  ilragoons;  lx>caine 
in  1772  minister  of  a  Lutheran  cliuivh  at  Woodstock,  Va. ; 
was  much  in  public  life,  and  stion  after  the  <iutbreak  of  the 


Revolution  threw  off  his  gown  in  the  pulpit,  displaying  a 
military  uniform,  read  his  eommission  as  colonel,  and  or- 
dered t]ie  drums  to  beat  for  recruits;  served  with  great  dis- 
tinction at  Charleston,  Hrandywine,  Germantown,  Mon- 
mouth, Stony  Point,  and  Yorklown;  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1777,  and  afterwanl  a  major-general;  was  vice- 
president  of  Pennsylvania  1785;  member  of  Congress 
17H1MM,  17!t:l-!t5,  and  17'.IU-1801  ;  I'.  S.  .Senator  1801-02; 
became  in  1802  I'.  S.  supervisor  of  revenue  for  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  in  180;5  collector  of  the  port  of  Philadelphia.  D. 
near  PliiladeljJiia,  Oct.  1,  1807.  See  the  Life  by  Uenrv  A. 
.Muhlenberg  (Philadelphia,  184!)). 

Miihleuberg.  William  .\ifiisTf.s.  .S.  T.  P. :  cleriryman 
and  hymn-writer:  great-grandson  of  Heinrich  Jlelcliior 
Muhlenberg;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  16,1796;  graduated 
at  the  L'niversity  of  Pennsylvania  in  1814,  and  entered  the 
Fpiscopal  ministry  in  1817.  From  1817  to  1821  he  was  as- 
sistant rector  of  Christ  church  in  Philadelphia  under  Bishop 
While.  From  1821  to  1828  he  was  rector  of  St.  James^ 
church  in  Lancaster,  Pa.  From  1828  to  1846  he  was  at  the 
head  of  a  s<hool,  afterwanl  called  .St.  Paul's  College,  founded 
by  him  at  Flushing,  L.  I.  From  1846  to  1858  he  was  rector 
of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Communion,  erected  by  his  sister, 
corner  of  Sixth  Avenue  and  Twentieth  Street,  Kcw  York. 
In  1852  he  organized  the  first  Protestant  sisterhood  in  the 
L'.  S. ;  he  also  promoted  the  establishment  of  a  Christian 
settlement,  called  St.  Johnland,  on  Long  Island.  In  1858 
he  became  the  first  superintendent  and  pastor  of  St.  Luke's 
Hospital,  which  owes  its  existence  to  him.  He  published 
Church  Pwtrij  (1823);  iUmc  of  the  Church  (1852);  Peu/j/e's 
Fxdller  (1858);  Kviiii(jelir<tl  Catholic  Papers  (2  vols.,  1875- 
77):  and  other  works-.  He  distinguished  himself  both  as  a 
philanthropist  and  a  promoter  of  Christian  union,  but  will 
be  longest  remembered  as  the  author  of  the  hymns  /  would 
not  Live  Alway  (Wi'A;  revised  in  1865) ;  Like  Koah's  Weary 
Dove  (1826) ;  and  Saviour,  who  thy  Floe/:  art  Feeding  (1826). 
D.  in  Xew  York,  Apr.  8,  1877. 

Miilileiiberg  College:  an  institution  at  Allentown,  Pa., 
founiled  ill  1867,  and  named  in  honor  of  Heinrich  Melchior 
Jliililenberg,  the  patriarch  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in 
America.  Its  curriculum  of  studies  embraces  all  the 
branches  given  in  the  best  colleges  for  the  degree  of  A.  B., 
German  being  a  required  study  throughout  the  four  years' 
course.  About  50  per  cent,  of  its  graduates  prepare  for  the 
Lutheran  ministry.  The  in.st it ut ion  is  endowed  ($150,000), 
and  has  a  valuable  property  in  the  best  part  of  the  city. 
The  number  of  the  faculty  is  11,  exclusive  of  lecturers; 
student.s,  l.->0;  alumni.  ;):io';  books  in  library.  10,000.  It 
possesses  the  usual  a|ipaiatus  and  cabinets,  together  v,ith  a 
laboratory  for  scientiiic  work.  It  has  had  three  presidents; 
Rev.  T.  ti.  Seip,  I).  D.,  the  present  president,  was  inaugu- 
rate<l  in  isst;.  T.  L.  Seip. 

Miihlhausen  :  town  of  Prussia;  province  of  Saxony;  on 
the  L'nstrut;  25  miles  by  rail  X.  X.  W.  of  Gotha  (see  map 
of  German  Empire,  ref.  5-E).  It  has  large  manufactures  of 
woolen  and  colteii  goods,  furniture,  hosiery,  leather,  sewing- 
machines,  etc.  It  is  surrouiided  by  walls,  and  originally 
was  a  free  city  of  the  empire.  In  the  Peasants'  war  of  1525 
it  was  the  headquarters  of  Thomas  Miiiizer,  and  also  the 
scene  of  his  execution.     Pop.  (1890)  27,538. 

Mnir,  mviir,  John,  D.  C.  L.  :  Orientalist;  b.  in  Glasgow, 
Scotland,  I-'eb.  5,  1810;  was  educated  at  Glasgow  University 
and  at  the  Fast  India  College  at  llaileybury;  proceeded  to 
Bengal  as  a  writer  in  the  civil  service  1828;  filled  several 
im|>ortant  posts  in  the  revenue  and  judicial  departments; 
made  a  profound  study  of  Indian  languages,  histi'ry.  and 
antiquities;  wrote  some  religious  tracts  in  Sanskrit  verse, 
and,  after  retiring  from  tlu'  service  in  18.')3,  devoted  his 
time  and  his  fortune  to  the  promotion  of  Oriental  studies, 
especially  such  as  have  a  religious  bearing.  In  1862  he  en- 
dowed with  .t'5,(KM)  a  chair  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative 
Philology  in  the  l'niversity  of  Kilinburgh.  Besides  various 
contributions  to  the  Tninjuirtinim  of  the  Asiatic  siKicties 
and  other  learned  ass<H'ialions,  Dr.  Miiir  published  five  vol- 
umes of  Orii/iniil  .Siin.ikrit  Tejrt.i  on  the  Origin  anil  Ili.'<tory 
of  the  People  of  India,  their  lieliyiiin  and  Initituliona  {lH5l^ 
70;  2d  ed.  1m"0H-73)— a  work  of  the  utmost  value  to  the 
students  of  Imlian  antiquities,  mythology,  and  literature, 
particularly  of  the  Vedic  age.  Noticeable  among  his  other 
works  are'yl  Sketch  of  the  Artfument  for  Christ innily 
ai/ain-nt  /findui.im  (Calcutta,  1H;!9);  Kxnminalion*  of  lie- 
liginnx  (Calcutta,  l8.'")2-.")4) ;  I{emnrk)i  on  the  Conduct  of 
Mituiionnry    Dpi  rulionii  in    Xvrthrrn    India    (Ca|>e    Town, 


MUKDEN 


MULCASTER 


1853).  He  was  also  tlie  author  of  Jletrical  Translations 
from  the  Sanskrit,  many  essays  in  The  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  and  an  anonymous  work  on  inspiration. 
D.  in  Edinburgh,  Mar.  7,  1882.— Dr.  Muir's  brother,  Sir 
William  JIuir,  b.  in  1819,  rose  to  high  rank  in  India,  and 
on  his  return  to  England  sat  in  the  Council  of  India  1876- 
85,  and  was  then  chosen  principal  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. He  is  author  of  a  valuable  I/ife  of  Maliomet  (4  vols., 
1858-61) ;  Extracts  from  the  Coran  (1880) :  and  other  works. 
Revised  by  Be.vj.  Iue  Wheeler. 

Mnk'den,  or  Monk'deii :  city ;  capital  of  Manchuria,  and 
chief  city  of  the  province  of  Shingking,  and  as  such  known 
to  the  Chinese  as  Pung-t'ien-foo  and  Shinyang.  JIukden  is 
the  Manchu  name,  anil  means  prosperity.  The  city,  whose 
walls  have  a  circuit  of  3  miles,  and  are  pierced  by  nine  gates, 
stands  in  a  comparatively  treeless  plain,  watered  by  the 
Hwiln,  a  west-flowing  affluent  of  the  Liao  river;  about  430 
miles  N.  E.  of  Peking  and  80  X.  of  Ying-tse  (Xiuchwang), 
its  port ;  lat.  41"  50'  30'  N.,  Ion.  133'  37'  E.  (see  map  of  China, 
ref.  3-L).  It  is  modeled  after  Peking,  and  contains  sev- 
eral palaces  and  official  buildings  erected  about  the  year 
1625,  when  Nurhachu  made  it  his  capital.  The  suburbs, 
where  most  of  the  business  is  transacted,  are  inclosed  by 
another  wall.  It  miles  in  circuit.  About  3  miles  to  the  E. 
is  the  tomb  of  Nurhachu.  The  tombs  of  most  of  the  Man- 
chu rulers,  however,  are  at  Yung-ling  and  Foo-ling,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  small  palisaded  city  of  Hingking,  the  original 
home  of  the  Manchus.     Pop.  of  Mukden  about  180,000. 

R.  Lillet. 

Mulberry  [M.  Eng.  moolhery,  murberie,  whose  first  part 
is  from  Lat.  mo  rum,  mulberry.  Cf.  Germ,  maulbeere;  also 
from  Lat..  and  like  the  Eng.  with  dissimilation  of  i  to  r  be- 
fore the  following  ?■] :  a  name  of  trees  and  fruits  of  the 
genus  Moras,  now  generally  referred  to  the  L'rticacece  or 
Elm  family.  The  genus  comprises  a  few  species  of  Asiatic 
and  North  American  trees,  mostly  of  small  size  and  short 
trunk.  The  leaves  are  mostly  large  and  ovate,  alternate 
upon  the  stem,  and  are  variously  toothed  and  lobed,  al- 
though not  compound.  A  remarkable  feature  of  mulberry 
foliage  is  its  variability,  leaves  upon  the  same  tree  often 
differing  widely  in  shape.  The  flowers  are  borne  in  axillarj' 
catkin-like  short  spikes,  and  they  are  small  and  greenish  and 
unisexual.  The  sexes  are  borne  upon  different  plants  in 
some  cases  and  upon  different  catkins  on  the  same  plant 
(monoscious)  in  others.  The  fruit  itself  is  a  very  small,  ovate 
acheniura,  which  is  ordinarily  called  a  seed,  while  the  fleshy 
and  edible  portion  is  the  succulent  enlarged  calyx.  The 
mass  of  thickened  flowers  comprising  the  spike  is  the  so- 
called  fruit  of  the  mulberry. 

The  mulberry  is  chiefly  known  through  its  use  as  a  food- 
plant  for  the  silkworm.  For  this  purpose  it  has  been  grown 
from  the  earliest  times,  particularly  in  China.  Probably 
there  is  no  single  plant  which  enjoys  such  a  voluminous 
literature  as  this  white  or  silk-yielding  mulberry,  and  there 
are  few  plants,  perhaps,  more  variable  or  more  confusing  to 
systematic  botanists.  In  the  U.  S..  however,  the  mulberry 
is  chiefly  known  as  a  fruit-bearing  tree,  and  even  in  this 
capacity  it  is  nowhere  largely  grown.  •  The  fruit  resembles 
a  blackberry  in  form  and  size,  although  more  slender,  and 
the  flavor  is  sweet  and  in  some  varieties  slightly  vinous.  It 
has  never  found  its  way  into  the  market  as  a  salable  com- 
modity, and  there  are  no  commercial  preparations  of  it.  It 
is  worthy  and  capable  of  more  extended  use,  however.  The 
fruit  varies  from  a  half  to  2  or  even  nearlv  3  inches  in 
length,  and  in  color  from  amber  white  to  violet,  purple,  and 
black.  Althinigh  the  two  commonest  species  of  mulberry 
are  known  as  the  white  and  the  black,  the  color  of  the  fruit 
does  not  afford  characteristic  differences  between  them. 
Mulberries  begin  to  ripen  early  in  summer,  and  some  spe- 
cies or  varieties  mature  their  fruits  successivelv  through 
two  or  three  months,  a  circumstance  which  .adapts  them  "to 
dessert  use,  but  great  ly  lessens  their  adaptabilitv  for  market- 
ing. The  fruits  fall  as  they  ripen,  and  the  trees  are  there- 
fore^usually  grown  in  sod,  that  the  fruit  may  not  lie  soiled. 
In  Europe  cresses  or  other  quick-growing  small  plants  are 
sometimes  sown  under  the  trees  in  order  to  catch  the  drop- 
ping fruits.  Birds,  poultry,  and  swine  are  verv  fond  of 
mulberries,  and  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  U."S.  certain 
varieties  are  planted  for  the  express  purpose  of  affording 
food  to  fattening  hogs,  fnr  which  the  fruit  is  said  to  be 
well  adapted.  There  are  several  kinds  of  mulberries  grown 
for  their  ornamental  foliage  or  curious  haliit.  The  Russian 
mulberrry,  a  form  of  the  white  mulberry,  is  also  planted  for 


hedges,  and  mulberry  timber  is  considered  to  be  good  for 
uses  which  require  a  light,  strong,  and  durable  wood. 

At  various  times  during  the  eighteenth  century  attempts 
were  made  to  rear  the  silkworm  in  North  America  (see 
Silk),  and  the  mulberry  was  grown  to  feed  it.  About  1830 
a  new  species,  called  Moras  multicaulis,  was  introduced 
into  the  U.  S.  from  France,  a  fever  of  speculation  set  in, 
and  millions  of  trees  were  planted.  As  a  result,  the  market 
was  overstocked,  climate  and  disease  affected  the  trees,  nur- 
serymen lost  their  fortunes,  and  in  1839  the  bubble  burst. 
Morus  multicaulis  is  no  longer  grown,  unless  for  stocks 
upon  which  to  graft  other  kinds.  The  fruit-bearing  mul- 
berries of  the  U.  S.  have  been  referred  to  Morus  nigra,  but 
they  really  belong  to  3J.  alba  and  to  the  native  M.  rubra, 
while  the  true  black  mulberry  is  grown  only  in  the  Southern 
States  and  on  the  Pacific  slope.  The  fruit-bearing  mulber- 
ries of  the  U.  S.  therefore  are  essentially  different  in  type  from 
those  of  other  countries.  Apparently  the  first-namecl  variety 
of  mulberry  originating  upon  American  soil  was  the  Johnson, 
springing  from  the  native  red  mulberry,  31.  rubra.  The 
Hicks  and  Stubbs  mulberries  also  belong  to  this  species,  and 
these  two  varieties  are  much  prized  in  the  South,  especially 
for  swine.  The  best  mulberry  for  the  North  is  probably  the 
New  American,  a  variety  of  Morus  alba,  although  it  is  "com- 
monly, but  erroneously,  sold  under  the  name  of  Downing. 
The  Russian  mulberry  is  the  Morus  tatariea  of  Linnajus, 


Mulberry. 

but  botanists  now  agree  in  referring  it  to  M.  alba,  of  which 
it  is  a  hardy  descendant.  Two  or  three  fruit-licaring  varie- 
ties have  sprung  from  this  Russian  stock,  Ijut  they  have  not 
gained  prominence.  The  Kerrnsa  mulberry,  grown  in  gar- 
dens for  its  curious  narrow  and  jagged  ribbed  leaves,  is  a 
monstrous  form  of  31.  alba.  The  chief  groups  of  mulber- 
ries now  grown  in  North  America  may  be  divided  as  fol- 
lows :  1.  The  white  mulberry  group.  The  white  mulberry 
is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  China.  It  is  nearly  or  quite 
as  hardy  as  the  plum-tree  when  well  established.  2.  The 
3/ulticaulis  group.  3Iorus  latifolin.  Poiret.  {31.  multi- 
caulis, Perrottet.  3f.  alba  var.  niullicaulis  of  Loudon.)  3. 
The  Japanese  group.  3Iorus  japonica,  Audibert.  (31. 
alba  var.  stylosa.  Bureau.)  The  fruit  is  short-oblong  and 
red.  4.  The  black  mulberry  group.  Morus  nigra,  Linn. 
The  black  mulberry  is  a  native  of  Asia,  probably  of  Persia 
and  adjacent  regions.  It  is  not  hardy,  except  in  protected 
places,  in  New  England  and  New  York.  5.  The  red  or 
native  mulberry  group.  3Iorus .rubra.  Linn.  The  native 
mulberry  is  generally  distributed  from  Western  New  Eng- 
land to  Nebra-ska  and  southward  to  the  Gulf.  It  is  more 
abundant  and  attains  a  larger  size  in  the  South. 

L.  H.  Bailey. 

Miilcaster,  Richard:  schoolmaster;  b.  about  1.530;  edu- 
cated at  Eton.  Cambridge,  and  Oxford ;  became  in  1561 
first  head  master  of  Jlerchant  Taylors"  School,  in  which  po- 
sition he  remained  until  1586.  Some  years  later  he  was 
head  master  of  St.  Paul's  School,  where  he  labored  for 
twelve  years.  In  1598  he  was  appointed  liy  the  queen  rec- 
tor of  Stanford  Rivers,  in  Essex,  but  began  to  live  there 


MULDER 


MCLLEU 


only  in  lt)08.  He  died  in  IGll.  In  Merchant  Taylors' 
School  Edmund  Spenser  was  one  of  his  pupils,  and  anion;; 
the  others  were  nine  who  in  later  years  aided  in  nuikin;; 
a  translaliiin  nf  the  Bihle  (Kins  James  Version).  His  repu- 
tation has  recently  been  increused  throuKh  the  altetilion  at- 
tracted to  his  two  works,  I'imitiimx  fur  the  Training  up  of 
CliiUlrrn,  either  fur  Skill  in  their  Jiooke  ur  Health  in  their 
Hmlie  (I5H1),  and  Elementarie.  or  lirst  steps  in  eilucation 
(1582).  The  former  has  lieen  reprinted  with  excellent  notes 
hv  li.  II.  l^iiiek.  In  the  Puxilionii  Mulcaster  outlines  an  ex- 
cellent course  of  training  for  lH>dy  ami  mind  that  is  in  ac- 
cord at  many,  if  not  most,  [Kiints  with  the  best  thought  of 
our  day.  The  Elementarie  is  in  the  main  a  vigorous  plea 
for  the  use  and  study  of  English.  He  especially  defends  llie 
use  of  English  liy  the  learned,  and  writes  his  own  book  in 
the  vernacular  to  show  his  faith.  He  also  had  advanced 
views  on  the  eilucation  of  women.  See  reprint  of  Positiong, 
edited  by  K.  11.  (juick  ;  Williams,  Ilistori/  of  Modern  Edu- 
cation ;  yuick.  Educational  liefurmers.    (.'.  H.  Thi'RBER. 

Mulder.  Gekardis  Johannes:  chemist;  b.  at  Utrecht. 
Holland.  Dec.  27,  1802;  studied  medicine;  practiced  in  1825 
at  Amsterdam;  lectured  in  1827  at  Kotterdam  on  botany 
and  chemi-try,  and  became  in  1840  Professor  of  Chemistry 
at  the  Univer>ity  of  Utrecht.  His  Cherni.ilry  of  Vegetable 
and  Animal  Physiology  (translated  into  tierman  by  Kolbe 
in  1844,  and  into  English  by  J.  T.  \V.  Johnston  in  1849)  oc- 
casioned a  hot  controversy  with  Licbig  concerning  the  ex- 
istence of  Protein  (.q.  v.)  as  an  independent  compound. 
His  Chemixtry  of  Wine  was  translated  into  English  1)V  H. 
Bence  Jones  (1857).  He  also  wrote  the  Chemistry  of  /ieer, 
De  Voediyig  in  yederlanJ,  De  Voeding  van  den  Seqer  in 
Suriname,  Chemical  Kexearches,  etc.,  all  translated  into 
German,  some  into  French.     D.  at  Utrecht,  Apr.,  1880. 

Revised  by  Ika  Remsen. 

Male  [via  ().  Fr.  from  Lat.  mulus.  mule  (mu  la.  she-mule), 
whence  U.  Eng.  miil,  mule]:  a  name  in  its  widest  sense 
synonvmous  with  hvbrid,  but  more  commonly  denoting  the 
"iTspritig  of  the  mafe  domestic  ass  and  the  mare ;  the  corre- 
sjionding  offspring  of  the  nnile  horse  and  female  ass  is  the  jen- 
net or  IIinnv  ((/.  c.j.  The  mule  is  more  difficult  to  breed  than 
the  horse  and  matures  more  slowly,  but  its  working  life  is 
longer  and  it  is  less  liable  to  disease.  The  male  is  sterile, 
and  although  the  female  somi'tiines  can  be  impregnated  by 
the  horse  or  ass,  she  rarely  brings  forth  offspring  alive.  The 
nmle  is  a  hardy,  strong,  sure-footed,  serviceable  animal,  pe- 
culiarly adapted  to  hard  work  in  hot  weather,  and  to  use  on 
steep  and  rough  roads.  Mules  were  much  employed  by 
the  ancient  Romans,  and  are  now  used  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  world.  cs(>ecially  in  North  and  South  America,  Spain, 
Southern  France,  Italy,  and  the  East.  In  Spain,  .Soanish 
.\merica,  and  uarts  of  Africa  and  the  East  mules  are  liighly 
prized  as  saddle  animals.  For  military  transport  purposes 
they  arc  decidedly  su|)erior  to  horses  and  much  more  used. 
In  the  U.  S.,  Washington  was  instrumental  in  introducing 
the  use  of  mules  on  Southern  plantations,  and  at  oresent 
they  (x;cur  most  extensivelv  in  the  Smth.  The  total  num- 
ber in  the  U.  S.  in  1H!)4  was  2,:i52,2;{l,  valued  at  5:14C.2:J2,- 
81 1.  Very  nearly  half  of  these  were  possessed  by  the  States 
of  Missouri,  Texas,  Tennessee,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Ken- 
lucky,  named  in  order  of  numbers. 

Mule-deer:  See  Deer. 

Mulford.  Elisra,  LL.  D.  :  philosophical  writer;  b.  at 
Montrose,  in  Susquehanna  co..  Pa.,  Nov.  1!),  1833;  gradu- 
ateil  at  Vale  ( 'ollege  in  18.55  ;  his  educat  ion  in  law,  theology, 
and  philosophy  was  continued  at  the  Union  Theological 
S'hool,  at -Amlover,  ancl  at  Halle  ami  Heidellx-rg,  Germany. 
He  lielil  various  charges,  but  after  IHMl  made  his  home  in 
Cambridge,  .Mass.  In  1870  he  published  The  JS'ation.  a 
prnfoundtreati.se  on  the  philosophy  of  the  state;  in  1880 
7'A*' /("c/x/A/if  o/V/o</,  a  similar  Work  on  the  philosophy  of 
religion.  He  lec'tured  on  the  philosophy  of  law  at  Columbia 
l.nw  Sihwd,  and  on  theologv  and  philosophy  at  Cambridge 
Theological  (Episcopal)  .School.  D.  at  Cambridge,  .Mass., 
Dec.  U,  1S.H5. 

Mlil^ruTe,  CoNSTANTiNE  JouN  Piiipi's.  Baron:  explorer 
ami  politician;  b.  in  England,  May  30,  1734;  entered  the 
navy  at  an  early  age;  became  post-eaplain  1765;  com- 
mamled  an  exploring  exjiedition  in  search  of  a  northwest 
passage  1773  ;  p'ached  lat.  80  48  N.,  whence  an  im[>enetrable 
field  of  ice  stretched  northward  ;  published  ,4  Journal  of  a 
Voyage  Inward  the  .Xorth  /'o/f  (1774) ;  succeeded  to  the  title 
1775;    was  commissioner  of    the    admiralty   under   Lord 


North's  administration,  and  an  ardent  politician  :  was  raised 
to  the  English  peerage  in  1784,  and  died  Oct.  10,  17112. 

MuIhaU,  MicitAEL  G. :  statistician;  b.  in  Dublin.  Ire- 
land, in  18^36  ;  was  educated  at  the  Irish  College,  Rome ; 
removed  to  South  .\merica  and  founded  the  liuenos  Avres 
Standard  1801;  contributed  to  The  I'onteniporary  Jteview. 
Is  the  author  of  Jlandbtmk  of  the  Hirer  Plata  (5th  ed. 
1885;  trans,  in  Spanish):  The  Prog  rem  of  the  H'orW(1880); 
Dictionary  of  Statistics  (18U1). 

MUIhausen,  mill-how  zen  (in  Fr.  Mulhouse):  town  and 
railway  center  of  Germany;  province  of  Alsace- Ix>rrainc; 
on  the  111,  which  divides  it  into  the  old  and  the  new- 
city ;  61  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  .Strassburg  (see  map  of  German 
Empire,  ref.  7-D).  The  old  town  is  rather  indifferently 
built,  the  new  town  is  very  elegant;  there  is,  besides,  a 
workingmen's  quarter  of  1,()(J0  well-built  houses.  Miilhau- 
sen  has  manufactures  of  cotton  (525,000  siiimlles),  woolens, 
linens,  muslins,  watered  silks,  chemicals,  printing  and  dye 
works,  etc..  and  is  one  of  the  most  flourishing  manufacturing 
towns  of  Germany.  The  town  and  its  territory  originally 
belonged  to  the  Swiss  confederation,  but  in  1798  it  was  in- 
corporated with  France,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Frankfort, 
1871,  it  wa.s  ceded  to  Germany.  Since  that  time  it  hiis  in- 
creased verv  rapidly,  principally  by  immigration  from  Ger- 
many.    Pop.  (1890)"  76.892. 

Miillieiiii-ani-Itheiii,  mill  him-aam-rin' :  town  of  Prussia, 
Rhine  province;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine;  3  miles 
above  Cologne;  has  large  munufactiires  of  velvet,  silk,  and 
thread  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  4-C).  Its  prosper- 
ity dates  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
aiid  was  due  to  the  .settlement  there  of  a  number  of  Protes- 
tant emigrants  from  Cologne.     Pop.  (1890)  30,996. 

Miilheim-nn-(ler-Rulir,-dar-roor:  town  of  Prussia,  Rhine 

province;  on  the  Uulir;  Iti  miles  N.  of  Diisseldorf ;  lias  ex- 
tensive iiiaiiufactures  of  iron  and  leather,  and  a  trade  in 
coal  and  iron  from  the  mines  in  the  vicinity  (see  map  of 
German  Empire,  ref.  4-C).  The  Ruhr  becomes  navigable 
here,  and  a  large  number  of  vessels  for  the  navigation  of 
that  river  and  tlie  Rhine  are  built.  The  trade  of  the  town 
is  principally  with  Holland.     Pop.  (1890)  27.903. 

Mull:  one  of  the  Inner  Hebrides;  off  the  west  coast  of 
Scotland.  It  is  30  miles  long  and  25  miles  broad,  high, 
rugged,  but  fertile,  though  not  fit  for  agriculture  on  account 
of  climate;  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared.     Pop.  about  7,000. 

Mullein,  mfillin  fJI.  Eng.  moleyn<0.  Eng.  molegn'\: 
the  common  name  of  a  plant  of  the  family  Scrophulariacem 
or  figwi>rts  (  Verhascum  thapsus),  belonging  to  a  widely  dis- 
tributed genus  which  includes  more  than  eighty  varieties. 
The  common  mullein  of  the  U.  S.  is  biennial,  attaining  a 
height  of  from  4  to  6  fi-et,  with  oblong-acute  leaves  8  or  10 
inches  long,  covered  with  a  soft  wool-like  pubescence.  It  is 
found  in  Europe  and  Asia,  whence  it  was  introduced  into 
North  America,  where  it  is  a  troublesome  weed. 

Mnller,  mil'hXr',  Charles  Louis  :  historical  and  portrait 
painter;  b.  in  Paris,  Dec.  22.  1815;  d.  there  Jan.  10.  1892. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Haron  (iros  and  of  Leon  Cogniet;  was 
awarded  me<lals  at  the  Salons  of  1838  and  1846:  first-class 
medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1S55:  became  an  ollicer  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  1859;  member  of  the  Institute  1864.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  celebrated  liotl-call  of  the  Last  Victims  of 
the  Reign  of  Terror,  formerly  in  the  Luxembourg  Gallery, 
Paris.  His  Charlotte  Corday  in  Prison  (1875)  is  in  the  Cor- 
coran Gallery,  Wiushington.  W.  A.  C. 

Miiller,  mil  It'r,  Edi-ard  Frieurich  Hermann  Livian: 
Tjitiiiisi  ;  b.  at  Merseburg,  Germany.  Mar.  17,  1836;  studied 
ill  lierlin.  ami  in  1S(;7  became  privat  decent  in  Bonn;  since 
1870  has  been  Professor  of  Roman  Literature  at  the  I'hilo- 
logi<>al  Historical  Institute  of  St.  Petersburg.  His  works 
display  great  learning  and  high  critical  talent,  but  arc  viti- 
ated by  virulent  invective  against  eminent  .scholars  who  do 
not  hold  his  views.  With  the  exception  of  a  very  unsatis- 
factory Iliston/  of  Classical  Philology  in  the  Netherlands 
(1869),  his  work  has  been  coiifineil  chiefly  to  Old  Latin  po- 
etry. His  masterpiece  is  the  I>e  re  melrica  prittir  Plan- 
turn  et  Terentiiim  (1861),  the  most  exhaustive  and  U'st  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  we  pos.ses.s.  Besides  this.  MilUer  has 
eilited  Z/moiVimx  (1872);  a  literary  mrmograph  on  thisi>oet's 
Life  and  Works  (1876);  Phirdrus  (1877):  Catullus.  Tihul- 
lus,  and  Propertius;  a  German  commentary  to  Hi>race's 
Satires  and  Epistles  (2  vols.,  1892-93);  Sonius  (2  vols., 
1892);  monographs  on  Ennius  and  Horace,  etc. 

Alkrek  Gi-deman. 


8 


MtTLLER 


Mtiller,  Baron  Ferdinand,  von,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S. :  botanist ; 
b.  at  Rostock,  Germany,  June  30,  1835 ;  was  educated  at 
Kiel ;  investigated  the  botany  of  Schleswig  ami  Holstein ; 
emigrated  to  Australia  1847 ;  made  extensive  botanical  ex- 
plorations in  South  Australia  at  his  own  expense  1848-53 ; 
was  then  made  government  botanist  for  the  colony  of  Vic- 
toria; explored  many  mountain  ranges  previously  unlvnown 
1853-55;  was  naturalist  to  Gregory's  exploring  expedition 
1855-56:  was  director  of  the  botanical  garden  at  Melbourne 
1857-73;  (lublished  Fragmenta  Phijtographim  Australue 
(10  vols.,  London,  1862-77):  P/anls  of  Vicloria  (3  vols., 
Melbourne,  1860-65),  Fluni  Aus/raliemis  (7  vols.),  and 
other  works.  He  was  ennobled  by  the  King  of  VViirtemberg 
in  1870.     D.  at  Melbourne,  Oct.  t),  1896. 

Mnller,  Frederick  Max,  Ph.  D.,  knight  of  the  Ordre 
pour  le  merite. :  philologist ;  b.  at  Dessau,  Germany,  Dec.  6, 
1823 ;  studied  at  Leipzig,  Berlin,  and  Paris ;  since  1854  has 
been  Professor  of  Comparative  Philology  in  tlie  University 
of  Oxford.  England ;  is  foreign  member  of  the  Frencli  In- 
stitute, lie  has  a  high  reputation  as  a  popular  interpreter 
of  the  most  recondite  subjects  of  learning.  Ainong_  liis 
most  important  works  may  be  mentioned  i?»(7- T'sfZa  Sam- 
hita  (6  vols.,  1849-73 ;  3d  ed.  4  vols.,  1889-93) :  Rig  -  Veda 
Samhitd,  Trandated  and  Explained  (vol.  i.,  1869) :  3d  ed. 
Sacred  Books  of  the  East  (1893);  Rig-  Veda  Pratiaakhija, 
das  dlteste  Lehrhurk  de.r  vedischen  Phonetik  (1869) ;  Jhfo- 
padesn.  in  dii.t  Di'ii/sr/ic  ubersetst  (1844);  Hitopadesa,  Text 
witli' hiterliniar  Tninsliteration,  Oranim.  Analysis,  and 
Emjlisli  TraHst(ilion{l>i66);  3Iegliadula.deni Kaliddsa naclt- 
gedir.lUet  (1847);  Upanishads.  Translated  from  the  Sanskr., 
Sacred  Books  of  the  East  (vols.  i.  and  xv.,  1879, 1884);  Dham- 
mapada.  Translated  from  Pali,  Sacred  Books  of  the  East 
(vol.  X.,  1881);  Buddhist  Texts  from  ./rtjonra  (1881-85) ;  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature  (3d  ed.  1859) ;  Sanskrit 
Orammar  for  Beginners  (3d  ed.  1870) ;  India,  What  can  it 
Teach  Us  ?  (1883 ;  new  ed.  1893) ;  Kanfs  Critique  of  Pure 
Reason,  Tra?islated  (ISSl);  Introduction  to  the  Science  of 
Religion  (1870 ;  last  ed.  1883) ;  On  the  Origin  and  Growth 
of  Religion,  Hibbert  Lectures  (1878;  new  ed.  1883);  Chips 
from  a  German  Workshop  (4  vols.,  1867-75) ;  Selected  Es- 
says on  Language,  Mythology,  and  Religion  (3  vols.,  1881) ; 
Biographical  Essays  (1884) ;  Lectures  on  the  Science  of 
Language  (1861-63;  rewritten  1891);  The  Science  of 
Thought  (1887);  Bioqruphies  of  Words  and  Home  of  the 
Aryas  (1888) ;  Gijford  Lectures,  i.  Natural  Religion  (1890), 
ii.  Physical  Religion  (1891) ;  Anthropological  Religion 
(1893).  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Miiller,  Friedricii  (Maler  Milller) :  poet ;  b.  at  Kreuz- 
nach,  Germany,  Jan.  13, 1749  ;  studied  art,  and  attracted  by 
his  talent  the  attention  of  influential  persons.  Aided  by 
these,  and  especially  by  Goethe,  he  was  enabled  to  go  to 
Rome  in  1778.  His  paintings  did  not,  however,  meet  with 
success ;  he  lost  his  interest  in  his  art  and  supported  him- 
self finally  as  a  guide  and  second-hand  bookseller  in  Rome, 
where  he  died  Apr.  33,  1835.  As  a  poet  and  writer  Miiller 
is  to  be  classed  among  the  members  of  the  Storm  and  Stress 
school.  He  has  been  called  the  romanticist  among  tliese 
writers  on  account  of  his  love  for  the  Middle  Ages.  He 
gained  his  first  reputation  as  a  writer  by  his  Idyllen  (1775), 
but  his  talent  was  more  of  a  dramatic  Uiiture.  Of  the  many 
dramas  which  he  planned,  he  finished  but  a  few,  and  among 
these  Goto  und  Genoveva  is  his  best  work.  He  also  wrote 
a  Faust,  but  the  iniblished  fragments  of  this  drama  give 
sufficient  evidence  that  Midler  was  not  equal  to  a  theme  of 
the  proportit)ns  of  the  Faust  legend.  See  B.  Seuffert,  Maler 
Miiller  (1877) ;  A.  Saucr  in  vol.  Ixxxi.  of  Kiirschners  Na- 
tio7ialliteratur.  Julius  Goebel. 

Miiller,  Friedricii,  Ph.  D.:  philologist;  b.  at  Jemnik,  in 
Bohemia,  Mar.  5,  1834;  studied  at  Vienna;  since  1869  has 
been  Professor  of  Comparative  Philology  at  Vienna;  is  a 
member  of  llie  Imperial  Academy  of  Vienna;  author  of  a 
great  number  of  most  important  ethnographical  and  lin- 
guistic treatises,  among  which  are  Grundriss  der  Sprach- 
wissenschaft  (7  vols.,  1876-88);  Allgemeine  Ethnographic 
(1873;  2d  ed.  1879);  Reise  der  osterr.  Fregatta  Novara  um 
die  Erde :  linguistischer  Theil  (1867),  ethnograpliischer 
r/iet'/ (1868) ;  various  treatises  on  Pfili.  Zend,  Modern  Per- 
sian, Afghan,  Kurd,  O.ssetan.  Armenian,  tlie  African,  and 
American  languages  in  tlu!  Mittheilunyen  der  anlhropolo- 
gischen  Gesellschaft  in  Wien:  editor  of  tlie  Wiener  Zeit- 
schrift  fur  die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes,  and  author  of  nu- 
merous articles  therein,  as  well  as  in  the  journals  Atisland 
and  Globus.  Be.nj.  Ide  Wheeler. 


Muller,  Georq  Elias,  Ph.  D. :  psychologist ;  b.  in  Grim- 
ma,  Saxony,  1850;  educated  at  Grimma,  Leipzig,  Berlin, 
and  Gottingen ;  became  privat  docent  at  the  University  of 
Giittingen  in  1876 ;  assistant  professor  in  the  University  of 
Czernowitz  in  1880;  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Gottingen 
in  1881.  His  principal  works  are  Znr  Theorie  der  sinn- 
lichen  Aiifmerksamkeit  (1873)  ;  Zur  Grundlrgung  der  Psy- 
chophysik  (1878);  Veher  die  Maashestinuniingen.  des  Orts- 
sinnes  der  Ha  ut  (1879) ;  Theorie  der  3Iuskelronfraclion  (with 
Dr.  Fr.  Schumann,  vol.  i.,  1891) ;  Ueber  die  psychologischen 
Grundlagen  der  Vergleichung  gehobener  Gewichte  (1889); 
Experimentelle  Beitrage  zur  Unfersuchung  des  Gedacht- 
nisses  (1893).  J.  M.  B. 

Miiller,  Johannes,  von :  historian ;  b.  at  Schaffhausen, 
Switzerland,  Jan.  3,1752;  studied  theology  and  history  at 
Gottingen ;  devoted  himself  to  the  preparation  of  a  History 
of  Switzerland,  of  which  the  first  volume  appeared  at  Berne 
ill  1780;  was  Professor  of  Statistics  at  Cassel  1781-83,  but 
retired  and  lived  at  Geneva  till  1786.  In  this  year  he  was 
appointed  court  councilor  and  librarian  at  Ment;z,  and  when 
the  city  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1791  he  repaired  to 
Vienna,  where  lie  stayed  till  1804,  and  was  treated  with 
much  courtesy,  but  he  was  forbidden  to  continue  his  Swiss 
history.  In  1804  he  went  to  Berlin  ;  was  appointed  histori- 
ograjilier  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  received  permission  to 
use  the  Prussian  archives  for  a  history  of  Frederick  II. 
Nevertheless,  after  the  battle  of  Jena  and  the  occupation  of 
Berlin  by  the  French,  Napoleon  succeeded  in  winning  him 
over  to  his  side,  and  in  1808  he  accepted  a  position  as  minister 
of  state  to  the  King  of  Westphalia.  This  act,  and  the  pro- 
nounced manner  in  which  he  extolled  Napoleon,  excited 
great  indignation  in  Germany,  and  other  circumstances,  pe- 
cuniary embarrassments,  political  disappointments,  etc.,  were 
added,  making  his  last  days  melancholy.  D.  at  Cassel,  May 
39,  1809.  Besides  his  great  works,  the  History  of  Switzer- 
land and  Twenty-four  Books  of  Universal  History,  he  wrote 
a  number  of  monographs  and  pamphlets  rich  in  ideas  and 
elegant  in  style. 

Miiller,  Johannes  :  physiologist;  b.  at  Coblentz,  Ger- 
many, July  14,  1801,  in  humble  circumstances;  began  to 
prepare  himself  for  the  Roman  C^atholic  Church,  hut  aban- 
doned in  1819  his  theological  .studies,  and  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  medicine ;  took  his  degree  in  1823,  and  be- 
came Professor  of  Physiology  and  Anatomy  in  1826  at 
Bonn,  and  in  1833  at  Berlin,  where  he  died  Apr.  28,  1858. 
As  the  founder  of  the  physico-chemical  school  of  physiology 
he  enjoyed  the  fame  of  being  one  of  the  greatest  physiolo- 
gists of  his  age,  and  his  publications  brought  new  facts  and 
new  ideas  to  every  point  of  his  science.  His  principal 
works  are  Elements  of  Physiology  (1833;  translated  by  Dr. 
W.  Baly,  2  vols.,  Ijondon,  1837-43):  De  Respiratione  Foetus 
(1833,  his  first  publication) ;  De  Glandularum  Secernentium 
Structura  (1830) ;  Vergleichende  Anatomie  der  Myxinoiden 
(1835-45,  etc.).  J.  M.  B. 

Miiller,  Johann  Friedrich  Wilhelm  :  engraver ;  son 
of  Johann  Gotthard  Miiller;  b.  at  Stuttgart,  1782;  d.  at 
Pirna,  Saxony,  May  3,  1816;  was  educated  partly  by  his 
father,  partly  in  Paris;  became  an  eijually  celebrated  en- 
graver, and  was  professor  at  the  academy  in  Dresden.  His 
engraving  after  the  statue  La  Jeunesse  attracted  great  at- 
tention by  the  manner  in  which  he  undertook  to  imitate 
marble,  biit  his  most  celebrated  works  are  tlie  engraving  of 
the  Madonna  di  S.  Sisto,  by  Raphael,  and  the  portraits  of 
Jaeobi  and  Schiller,  after  the  busts  by  Dannecker. 

Miiller,  Joiiann  Gotthard,  von :  engraver;  b.  at  Bcrn- 
hauseii,  near  Stuttgart,  Germany,  Jlay  4,  1747;  received  his 
first  artist  ic  education  at  the  school  of  art  in  Stuttgart ;  went 
in  1770,  with  the  support  of  Duke  Charles,  to  Paris,  where  he 
studied  engraving  under  Wille.  and  was  appointed  profes- 
sor in  1776  at  the  academy  of  art  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  ex- 
ercised a  great  influence,  and  had  many  pupils.  I).  Mar.  14, 
1830.  Among  the  most  celebrated  engravings  by  him  are 
The  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  by  Trumbull;  St.  Cecilia,  after 
Domenicliino ;  St.  Catharine,  after  Leonardo  da  Vinci ;  and 
the  jiortraits  of  Louis  XVI.,  Dalberg,  and  Jerome  Bonaparte. 

Miiller,  Karl  Oteried:  Greek  scholar  and  archaeologist; 
b.  in  lirieg,  Silesia,  Aug.  28, 1797;  studied  in  Breslau  and  under 
Bocckh  in  Berlin.  At  the  early  age  of  twenty-two,  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  extraordinary  at  Gottingen,  professor  or- 
dinary in  1823.  In  Sept.,  1839,  he  undertook  what  was  to 
prove  a  fatal  Journey  to  Greece,  for  he  died  Aug,  1,  1840  of 
a  fever  which  he  contracted  at  Delphi,  while  copying  in- 


mCller 


MULTIPLE   POINT 


scriptioiis.  MOUcr  may  lio  said  to  have  permanently  estab- 
lished the  study  of  archa'olotrv  inaugurated  liy  ^Vinkel- 
mann.  Many  problems  whieli  It  was  reserved  for  later 
scholars  to  solve  were  first  su;;i,'esled  by  him.  His  best 
known  works  are  Orc/ioHifHo.i  iiml  die  ^finyer  (XH'H));  IMe 
Dorier  (2  vols.,  1M24):  J>ie  Elntsktr  Ci  vols.,  2d  ed.  by  \V. 
Deeke,  1H77);  l^olei/omrna  zti  einer  miigensehiil'tlie?ien 
yiytholixjif  (1835);  Jiaiidhuch  tier  Archaeotogie  Jer  Knnst 
(1848;  8d  eil.  by  V.  (i.  Weleker);  Aeschylua's  Eitmeniden, 
Greek  and  German,  with  exhaustive  essays  on  scenic  antiq- 
uities, still  of  interest,  because  of  the  polemiciil  introduc- 
tion which  K^ve  rise  to  the  famous  ouarre!  with  (!.  Hermann  ; 
Varri)  de  lingua  Liilina  (ISii):  I'e.itus  (IMiftl),  until  recent- 
ly (18!)1)  the  slatidard  edition  of  this  work;  and  linally  the 
JliHtunj  of  Urtfk  LilTiitiire  to  the  time  of  Alexander  (2 
vols.,  1841 :  ad  V(d.  added  by  K.  Heitz,  the  Hellenistic  pe- 
rioil  by  I.  W.  Donaldson;  fourth  edition  in  (lerman  188:5), 
still  one  of  the  best  works  on  the  subject,  both  in  style  and 
treatment.  Cf.  K.  Hillebrand,  in  the  Krench  translation  of 
-Miiller's  Varro,  pp.  xvii.-ccclxx.\. ;  lirirfiivchxel  zivigchen 
August  lioeckli  inid  0.  M.  (18H:J,  pp.  442):  Hursian,  lli- 
scliirhte  der  cltisiiacheii  Philulogie  in  Vciilnc/iluiid,  pp. 
1007-1I>2S.  Alkkkd  Gudema.n. 

Miillrr.  Wn.nELM:  poet ;  b.  at  Dessau,  (Ternnmy,  Oct.  7, 
17114  :  studied  philolo<;y  and  history  at  Berlin  ;  foujjhl  as  a 
viilunteer  in  the  wars  of  liberation  against  Xapoleon  ;  went 
to  Koine  in  is  1 7,  where  he  stayed  for  nearly  two  years,  and 
was  in  181i(  appointed  Professor  at  the  Gyninjisium  of  Des- 
sau, and  librarian  of  the  iluke's  library  at  the  same  place. 
1).  .Sept.  ;)0,  1827.  There  are  few  (iennan  poets  who  have 
succeeiled  in  ri'producing  the  spirit  of  the  Volkslied  with 
such  naive  originality  as  .Miiller  did  in  his  graceful,  melo- 
dious (iedichlf  eines  Wii/d/iiirninfen  {IH'21),  Jjieder  dfs  Le- 
bettJ<  und  der  Liebe  (1824),  Lyri.selie  Heisen  (1827).  Many 
of  these  which  were  set  to  music  by  the  greatest  German  com- 
po.<ers  like  Schubert  have  again  become  jwpular  s<ings;  be- 
sides, they  exerted  a  great  influence  on  Heine's  lyrics,  accord- 
ing to  the  hitter's  own  confession  ;  but  Millh-r  was  also 
capable  of  vigorous  political  pathos,  as  is  shown  by  his  ex- 
cellent (rriechenlieiler,  which  he  sjing  in  defense  of  the  lib- 
eral it>n  of  Greece.  Miiller's  complete  works  were  published  by 
G.  .Schwab,  18:i0.  His  (ledichle  were  edited  with  an  excel- 
lent introduction  and  notes  by  his  son,  Max  Miiller  (Leipzig, 

I8ti8).  JULIL-S  GOEBEL. 

.Hiillor,  WoLKQANO :  poet;  b.  at  Konigswinter,  Pru.ssia, 
Mar. ."),  1S16;  studied  medicine  at  Honn  and  Berlin;  lived  at 
Dilss<d(lorf,  Cologne,  and  Wiesbaden.  D.  June  2!(,  18715.  He 
was  the  author  of  several  charming  epic  poems,  e.  g..  Die 
Miiikunigin  (18")2);  Prim  Minnewein  {XHUi);  Der  lintlen- 
fdnger  von  St.  Cfoar  (IS^ii) ;  Jo/iiinii  von  W'erth  (18.18),  etc. 
Much  of  his  iM)etry  is  biused  on  the  legends  of  the  romantic 
Uhine  valley,  as  may  l>e  seen  from  his  collections  Dichtungen 
I  inrx  rheinischen  I'oeten  (4  vols.,  1871-74)  and  Erztlhlungen 
fines  rheininchen  C/ironis/en  (2  vols.,  180O-(51).  He  was  less 
successful  as  a  dramatist,  though  some  of  his  smaller  pieces, 
like  Sie  hut  i/ir  llerz  enldeckt,  still  charm  us  with  their  ex- 
quisite simplicity.  Ji-lius  Goebel. 

Mullor's  (jln.ss:  Sec  Hyalite. 

.Mullet  |frcim  ().  Fr.  miilel.  dimin.  of  mulle  <  Lat.  mut- 
liiH,  red  mullel )  :  a  name  common  to  the  fishes  of  the  family 
.Magilidip  (grou|i   Percesoces),  and   often  extended  to  the 


r^i' 


Tile  irray  mullet. 

very  different  family  Miillidip  or  surmullets  and  to  other 
fishes.  Of  Ihe  true  inulji-ls  of  the  .\inerii'an  .\tlantic  and 
(iiilf  waters,  the  striped  niulh'l  {Miigiire/)li(iliiK)ntu\  the  white 
mullet  {M.  cnrrmii)  are  small  but  esteemeil  focKl-fishes.  The 
waters  of  the  Old  World  alHUind  in  true  muUels  of  many 
species.  They  (iften  a.sceiul  rivers,  and  can  lie  naturalized 
ill  fresh  water.  They  are  caught  and  cured  extensively  in 
Kurope.  The  gray  mullet  (.1/.  ciipiln)  is  one  of  the  best. 
The  MiilliiliF  or  surmullets  are  popularly  called  niullet.s, 
red  mullets,  etc.  Of  the  typical  genus,  ,Vi///i(«,  there  are 
si'veral    valuable    marine    foiHl-fishe.s.       MuUii.i   siirmiiletux 


of  Europe  is  the  finest.     The  red  mullet  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  (Upeneua  maailatiin)  is  an  abundant  fish,  caught 


The  striped  red  mullet. 


extensively  for  table  use,  but  its  flesh  is  not  excellent.     See 

FlSHEHIES. 

Mullinn  :  in  architecture,  a  vertical  bar  or  slender  pillar 
dividing  a  window  into  two  or  more  parts.  In  Gothic  tra- 
cery the  earliest  muUions  seem  to  have  been  slender  col- 
umns, sometimes  single  and  sometimes  clustered.  In  the 
Geometric,  Decorateil,  or  Hayorraant  period  (fourteenth  cen- 
tury) these  columnar  muUions  were  of  extraordinary  slcn- 
derness  and  height;  they  soon,  however,  gave  way  to  bar- 
niullions,  mere  sleiuler  bars  molded  to  the  profiles  of  the 
moldings  of  the  arched  heads  of  each  division  or  light  of 
the  window.  In  the  enormous  windows  of  the  English  Per- 
pendicular period  the  mullions  were  intersected  by  frecjuent 
iiorizontal  bars  or  tranxoms.  Long  after  mullioneil  windows 
had  been  given  up  in  France,  under  the  influence  of  the  Re- 
nais.sance,  we  find  in  the  Elizabethan  mansions  of  England 
vast  sipiare  windows  of  many  lights  divided  by  simple  ver- 
tical mullions  with  one  or  more  transoms  in  the  upper  por- 
tion. The  early  Renaissance  in  Florence,  Bologna,  Venice, 
and  Milan  also  shows  examples  of  arched  windows  divided 
into  two  subirdinate  arched  lights  by  a  central  colonnette 
of  Corinthian  type.  Mullions  of  stone  or  wood  are  com- 
monly used  in  large  windows  of  modern  buildings.  See 
Architectcre.  a.  I).  F.  Hamlin. 

Miill'ner,  Amadeus  Gotti-ried  Adolf:  dramatist ;  b.  at 
Langcndorf,  Prussian  Saxony,  Oct.  18,  1774;  studied  law  at 
Leipzig,  and  practiced  from  1798  as  an  advocate  at  Weissen- 
fels,  where  he  died  June  11,  1829.  He  wrote  on  juridical 
subjects,  novels,  dramas,  and  critical  essays,  and  became 
famous  as  the  author  of  the  two  tragedies  Februur  ;'.'* 
(1812)  and /iiV  .SV/n/W  (1816).  both  of  which  are  notorious 
samples  of  the  so-called  Schicksalslragudie,  a  literary  aber- 
ration at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  iniita- 
tiim  of  the  niisjippreheiided  Greek  tr.igedy,  the  writers  of 
the  Schicksalstragfkl ien  introduced  "fate"  (Sch ick.tal)  into 
their  plot  as  an  invisible  power  which  arbitrarily  determined 
the  ilestiny  of  the  characters  of  the  play.  The  absurdity  of 
this  undertaking  was  ellectnally  ridiculed  by  Platen  in  his 
cla.ssic  parody  Die  ver?idngnii<x>olle  (label. 

Revised  by  Julius  Goebel. 

.Mnlock.  Dinah  Maria:  See  Craik. 

Mulready.  William:  landscape  and  genre  painter;  b.  at 
Ennis,  County  Clare.  Ireland,  -Vpr.  :!0,  1780.  He  .--tudied  at 
the  Royal  Aeademy.  London,  where  he  first  exhibited  in 
1803;  was  elected  a  Royal  Aeademieian  1816.  His  illustra- 
tions for  The  Virnr  of  Wakefield  are  among  the  best  things 
of  their  kind  in  British  art,  and  he  painted  several  pictures 
from  the  same  subjects.  Snoiv  Scene  and  Sea.thore  Scene 
are  in  the  National  Gallery,  lyondon ;  'J'/ie  liiither.i  is  in  the 
National  Gallery,  Edinburgh.     D.  in  London,  July  7,  1863. 

\\\  A.  C. 

.Hultan':  town  of  British  India;  in  the  Punjaub  (see 
map  of  X.  India,  ref.  4-B).  It  is  interesting  on  account  of 
the  surrounding  ruins;  is  of  much  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing importance;  and  its  magnificent  Hindu  temple 
and  the  graves  of  two  Mohammedan  saints  draw  many  pil- 
grims from  all  parts  of  India.    Pop.(1891)  74..")ll).     C.  C.A. 

Multiplp  Point  [niulliple  is  from  Lat.  mul  liphj,  mani- 
fold, many-fold  ;  mul  tux.  many  4--plejr,  -folil.  Cf.  plica  re,  to 
fold]:  a  point  at  which  a  curve  intersects  ils<df.  If  the  curve 
pa-sses  twice  through  the  sjime  point  it  is  a  double  point  ;  if 
t/iree  times,  a  triple  point  ;  and  so  on.  It  is  a  characteristic 
properly  of  a  multiple  point  that  the  first  difTerenlial  coefii- 
cient  of  the  ordinate  at  that  point  has  a.s  many  values  as  the 
number  of  times  that  Ihe  curve  passes  through  the  point. 
Thus  the  curve  whose  ei|uation  is  jr*+'2ajr*>/  —  a;/'  =  0  has  a 
triple  point  at  the  origin,  at  which  point  Ihe  first  ilifTerential 


10 


MULTIPLE   PROPORTION,   LAW   OF 


MUNCH 


coefficient_of  the  ordinate  lias  the  three  values,  0,  -(-  ■\/2, 
and  —  \/3.  It  may  happen  that  two  or  more  branches  of  a 
curve  are  tangent  to  each  other  at  some  point ;  this  point  is 
a  species  of  multiple  point,  at  which  the  corresponding  dif- 
ferential coefficient  of  the  ordinate  has  two  or  more  equal 
values. 

Multiple  Proportion,  Law  of:  See  Chemistry. 

Miiltitnberculata :  an  order  of  mammalia,  appearing  in 
the  Triassic  period  and  becoming  extinct  in  the  Eocene. 
They  are  characterized  by  having  the  incisor  teeth  much  en- 
larged, and  the  molars  with  tubercular  grinding  surfaces 
and  distinct  roots.  It  is  supposed  by  Cope  that  they  were 
closely  allied  to  the  strange  order  of  Monotremata,  repre- 
sented to-day  by  the  duckbill  and  the  spiny  ant-eaters  of 
Australasia. 

Miim'mius :  a  Latin  writer  of  the  early  empire  who  wrote 
fabulm  AteUaiUB.  Only  a  few  fragments  are  extant.  See 
Ribbeck,  Com.  Rom.  Frag.,  p.  273. 

Miimmiiis,  Lucius,  surnamed  Achaicus:  the  contjueror 
of  Greece  and  the  destroyer  of  Corinth;  was  pnvtor  in  154 
B.  c,  and  became  consul  in  146.  The  Achiean  League  was 
just  running  its  mad  course  of  wild,  hazardous  policy  under 
the  leadership  of  Critolaus  and  Dianis.  Metellus  had  de- 
feated the  league  several  times,  but  had  not  been  able  to 
suppress  it  completely;  perhaps  he  did  not  wish  to  sup- 
press it.  At  the  moment  of  Mummius's  arrival  in  Greece 
the  league  had  gathered  an  army  on  the  isthmus  of  Cor- 
inth, but  it  proved  very  easy  for  Mummius  to  defeat  and 
disperse  it,  and  after  the  victory  he  entered  Corinth,  bent 
upon  establishing  an  example  which  should  deter  other 
Greek  cities  from  attempting  resistance  to  the  Roman  su- 
premacy. Many  of  the  inhabitants  had  fled  ;  the  rest  were 
either  massacred  or  sold  as  slaves.  The  city  was  then  pil- 
laged and  burned.  Its  enormous  treasures  of  art  and  luxury 
were  either  sold  to  the  King  of  Pergamos,  carried  to  Rome, 
or  ruined. 

Mummy  [from  0.  Pr.  mumie  (>  Pr.  momie),  from  Pers. 
and  Arab,  mumiyd.  mummy,  deriv.  of  mum,  was  (used  in 
embalming)] :  an  embalmed  human  or  animal  body,  pre- 
served dry,  in  semblance  of  its  original  shape,  by  artiflcial 
means.  The  Egyjjtian  name  was  sahu.  Mummying  has 
been  practiced  by  various  peoples  for  a  variety  of  reasons, 
mainly  religious.  The  art  was  most  developed  in  Egypt, 
where  it  had  distinct  connection  with  the  very  ancient  be- 
lief in  a  future  revivification  of  the  body,  a  belief  of  whose 
existence  we  have  monumental  proof  from  the  second  dy- 
nasty, and  one  which  took  its  rise  in  the  conception  of  the 
nightly  journey  of  Ra,  the  sun-god,  in  the  nether  world,  and 
from  the  Osiris  myth.  At  deatli  the  soul  and  body  are 
separated,  and,  according  to  Egyptian  belief,  in  order  to  the 
continued  existence  of  the  soul  in  its  separate  state  and  to 
its  reoonnection  with  the  body,  the  latter  must  be  preserved 
as  nearly  intact  as  possible  (see  Ka),  the  idea  apparently 
being  that  the  bodily  organs -continued  of  service  to  the  dead 
in  the  journey  through  Araenti,  the  region  of  the  departed. 
Hence  came  the  care  bestowed  upon  the  mummy  and  the 
provision  against  harm  by  placing  it  in  hidden  pits,  pyra- 
mids, and  other  tombs.  (See  Mastaba.)  The  antiquity  of 
the  process  is  great  (bodies  impregnated  with  pitch  having 
been  preserved  from  the  earliest  dynasties),  but  its  source  is 
unknown.  It  is  disputed  whether  it  is  Egyptian  in  its  origin 
or  whether  it  was  brought  from  Asia  by  the  original  in- 
vaders, who  are  supposed  to  have  come  in  by  way  of  the 
Wadi  Hamraamat  from  Southern  Arabia.  In  the  earliest 
native  burials  the  bodies  were  not  mummified,  and  were 
placed  in  a  sitting  posture  or  in  a  contracted  lying  position. 
It  is  thought  that  these  distinctions  in  mode  correspond  to  a 
difference  in  race.  (Cf.  Petrie,  Mednm.  p.  21.)  What  is 
known  of  the  process  is  derived  from  observation  and  from 
the  accounts  of  Herodotus  (ii.,  85),  Diodorus  (i.,  91),  and 
others.     In  the  main  these  sources  confirm  each  other. 

Egyptian  mummying  was  performed  with  more  or  less 
elaborateness,  according  to  the  wealth  and  position  of  the 
deceased.  Diodorus  speaks  of  three  methods,  which  varied 
in  price;  the  most  expensive  costing  about  .f  1,250.  the  sec- 
ond about  .fliOO,  while  the  last  was  very  cheap.  Every  par- 
ticular in  the,  process  was  accompanied  with  ceremonials, 
symbolic  acts,  or  recitations,  more  or  less  elal)oratc  accord- 
ing to  the  wcallli  or  poverty  of  I  lie  dciid.  Many  papyri  are 
more  or  less  devoted  to  these  details.  When  mummification 
was  completed  the  body  was  delivered  to  tlie  friends,  placed 
in  its  human-shaped  coverings,  cartonnages  or  sarcophagus. 


and  transported  to  the  west  side  of  the  Nile  where,  as  a  rule, 
the  necropolis  was  located.  The  dead,  meantime,  had  be- 
come an  Osiris,  received  an  Osiris-name,  and  had  liegun  the 
career  of  the  departed  Egyptian.  Cf.  Maspero,  Etudea  de 
mythologie  et  d' archeologie  egyptiennes  (Paris,  1893, 1.,  p.  383 
ff.)     See  Embalmino  and  Ritual  of  the  Dead. 

The  literature  of  the  subject  is  quite  large,  though  scat- 
tered, but  the  best  book  on  the  entire  subject  is  that  of  E.  A. 
Wallis  Budge  of  the  British  Museum.  The  Mummy  (Cam- 
bridge, 1893).  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Mumps  [probably  derived  from  verb  to  mump,  to  mum- 
ble, be  sulky,  in  allusion  to  the  appearance  of  the  patient ; 
cf.  mumpish  and  mumps  in  sense  of  the  sulks.  An  Eng. 
dialectal 'word  mump,  lump,  protuberance,  may,  however, 
also  have  aided  in  determining  the  use  of  the  term] :  an  in- 
fectious and  contagious  disease,  belonging  to  the  same  gen- 
eral class  as  measles,  scarlatina,  whooping-cough,  etc.,  and 
characterized  by  an  acute  inflammation  with  enlargement 
of  the  parotid  gland.  In  some  localities,  especially  those 
with  a  moist  and  cold  climate,  it  is  very  frequently  seen  (en- 
demic). Children  from  seven  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  prin- 
cipally males,  are  most  liable ;  adults,  however,  are  not  ex- 
empt. Its  period  of  incubation,  or  preparatory  develop- 
ment, lasts  from  one  to  three  weeks ;  its  chief  symptoms  are 
moderate  fever;  pain  on  pressure  over  the  affected  gland, 
in  front  of  and  below  the  ear,  most  frequently  the  left,  some- 
times the  right  and  occasionally  both  sides;  considerable 
swelling  of  that  region  and  the  whole  cheek  and  chin  ;  diffi- 
culty in  mastication,  deglutition,  and  respiration  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  swelling ;  change  of  voice ;  full- 
ness of  the  head  and  dizziness.  In  some  cases  the  spleen 
and  numerous  other  glands  are  also  enlarged.  In  males  the 
testicles  and  seminal  glands,  in  females  the  ovaries  and 
breasts,  may  also  swell,  and  catarrh  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  eyelids,  nose,  and  mouth,  is  frequent.  The 
duration  of  the  disease  is  from  a  few  days  to  a  week.  The 
swelling  will  gradually  subside ;  in  some  cases,  however,  the 
gland  may  remain  large  and  hard,  and  in  a  few  an  abscess 
will  form.  The  treatment  is  simple,  but  should  be  under 
the  guidance  of  a  physician.  It  consists  of  regulation  of 
diet — less  meat,  more  milk,  gruels,  fruit,  etc. ;  vegetable 
acids  (lemonade),  or  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  ten  to  fifteen 
drops  in  a  tumblerful  of  water  as  a  beverage;  mild  purga- 
tives, such  as  Rochelle  salts,  Seidlitz  powder,  or  cream  of 
tartar.  Locally,  it  is  best  to  use  cold  applications,  reserving 
warm  water  or  poultices  for  those  cases  in  which  an  abscess 
is  forming.  Internal  medication  can  generally  be  restricted 
to  a  mild  antipyretic  when  indicated  by  excessive  fever,  and 
the  iodides,  should  induration  remain.  In  case  of  abscess, 
incision,  free  drainage,  and  antiseptic  treatment  are  indi- 
cated. A.  Jacobi  and  P.  E.  Sondebn. 

Munch,  Peter  Andreas  :  historian ;  b.  at  Christiania, 
Norway,  Dec.  15,  1810  ;  studied  law  at  the  university  of  his 
native  city,  but  at  the  same  time  gave  a  great  deal  of  his 
time  to  tlie  study  of  history  and  of  Old  Norse  language  and 
antiquities,  a  study  he  had  begun  while  at  school.  Munch 
was,  together  with  Rudolf  Keyser,  the  founder  of  what  is 
called  the  modern  Norwegian  historical  school,  and  his  his- 
torical writings  are  alike  distinguished  by  critical  acumen, 
thorough  learning,  and  ingenious  combination.  Munch  was 
in  1837  appointed  an  associate  professor,  and  in  1841  Pro- 
fessor of  History  at  the  University  of  Christiania.  He  made 
several  voyages  abroad  in  order  to  study  foreign  archives 
and  libraries,  and  from  1858  to  1861  lived  in  Rome,  study- 
ing the  papal  archives,  to  which  he  gained  an  access  that 
rarely  has  Ijeen  granted  to  non-Catholics.  His  principal 
work  is  Det  norske  Folks  Ilistorie  (History  of  the  Norwi*- 
gian  People,  in  8  vols.,  Christiania,  1852-63),  treating  of 
Norwegian  history  until  the  Calmar  Union.  Munch  pub- 
lished a  great  many  works  of  a  linguistic  nature  (Old  Norse 
Grammar,  Det  Oldnorske  Sprogs  Orammatik,  by  P.  A. 
Munch  and  C.  R.  Unger,  1847 ;  Forn-Svenskans  och  Forn- 
norskans  Sprakhygnad,  Stockholm,  1849 ;  Det  Oothiske 
Sprogs  Formlwre  1848),  and  on  historic  and  mythologic 
subjects  (Nordmmndenes  aldste  Oude-  og  Helte-sagn,  1854; 
new  edition  1880).  He  also  translated  and  edited  several 
Old  Norse  sagas,  including  Snorri  Sturluson's  Ileiiiiskri/igia 
and  Odd,  the  monk's  Saga  of  Olaf  Trygrason,  and  willi  C. 
R.  Unger  the  Saga  of  St.  Olaf,  Chronimn  Bnpim  Man- 
niae.  Speculum  Regale  (1848),  and  the  Ehlrr  Kddit  (1847). 
.\  complete  collection  of  Munch's  essays  (Samle  de  Afhand- 
llnger,  4  vols.,  Christiania,  1873-76),  was  edited  by  Dr.  Gus- 
tav  Storm.     D.  in  Rome,  May  25,  1863.  P.  Groth. 


MUNCH 


MUNICH 


11 


Munch,  Peter  Andreas  :  poot ;  h.  at  Christiania,  Nor- 
way, Utt.  19,  1811;  stuilii'd  law  at  the  L'liiviTsity  of  Cliris- 
tiaiiia  without  tiiiishiiis  his  course ;  was  editor  of  a  news- 
paper, Df/i  Cunnliliitiuiielle  (1H41— Hi) ;  was  ill  IHoO  maile  as- 
sistant librarian  of  the  university  library,  ami  in  IStJO  (,'iveii 
a  position  as  extraordinary  lecturer  in  the  university  with- 
out ol)lif;ation  of  lecturiiii;.  After  1860  ho  spent  most  of 
his  time  abroad,  and  from  18(50  he  had  his  residence  in  Copen- 
hagen. Ainon;;  his  numerous  writinjpj  may  be  mentione<l 
Surt/  Off  Trtfsl  ^(irief  and  Consolation,  a  collection  of  poems, 
18.12;  7th  cd.  18iH);  Snlumim  Je  Cuun,  a  lyric  drama 
(18.'>4;  translated  by  John  Chapman,  London,  18.").")i;  Kii 
Aflen  paa  Oi/iki:  an  historical  drama  (18.>j) ;  LunI  Williain 
KiiiiiikII,  h  tragedy  (18.">7  ;  translated  by  John  lleylijier  IJurt, 
London.  IHtiJ,  under  the  title  William  and  linrhel  Jiusnell); 
KuityeJdIlfri'itK  linulrfart  (The  Princess's  Bridal  Journey, 
twelve  romanzas,  1801;  3d  cil.,  illustrated,  1H78);  J'ii/en 
fra  .Von/c  (The  .Maid  of  Xorwav,  a  romance,  1801;  trans- 
lated liy'.Mrs.  Unbert  IJirkbeck.  l^ondon,  1877);  Jesu  liilUdt 
(The  Picture  of  Jesus,  a  cycle  <if  poems  after  a  Roman 
lep-nd,  18t)");  6th  ed.  188.")).'  .Munch  translated  into  Norwe- 
gian several  of  Tennvson's  poems,  anion-,'  them  Eikuch  Arden 
(1806),  and  Walter  Scott's  The  Lady  of  the  Lake  (1871). 
His  romance  lirudef(erdea  i  Ilardaiiyer  (The  Bridal  Proces- 
sion in  llardanirer),  after  the  famous  jiicture  by  A.  Tide- 
maiid  and  II.  ttude,  and  with  music  by  llalfdan  Kjerulf,  is 
one  of  tlie  most  popular  of  Norwegian  songs.  U.  at  Copen- 
hagen, June  2'.  1884,  P.  Grotii. 

MUnrhim'soii.  HiKRoyrMrsKARi. FRiEDRirn,  Baron  von: 
romancer;  b.  of  noble  family  at  Boilenwenler.  Hanover,  in 
17'2l);  served  in  the  Kussian  cavalry  against  the  Turks  17.'i7- 
3i);  died  at  Bixlenwerdcr  in  171I7.  The  baron  was  through- 
out life  accustomed  to  entertain  his  friemls  (in  a  singularly 
mmlest  way  and  with  an  air  of  truthfulness)  with  wonderful 
tales  of  his  exploits  in  the  wars,  and  had  the  reputation 
of  Ix'ing  the  greatest  liar  in  (iermany.  The  first  published 
collection  of  his  stories  appeared  in  Knglish.  and  was  written 
by  Uudolph  Erich  Kasoe,  a  (ierman  i  xiU',  ami  published  in 
178.")  in  Oxford  under  llie  title  Baron  MiinchlKiumn's  Xar- 
ralive  uf  his  Manelmis  Tritvels  and  Campaigns  in  Jiiissia. 
This  collection  was  translated  into  (ierman  in  the  following 
year  by  (i.  A.  Bilrger,  the  famous  (ierman  poet,  and  with 
many  ad<litions  has  since  then  been  printed  very  often  as  one 
of  the  most  popular  books.  See  iiilriHliiction  to  the  reprint 
by  K.  Griesebach  (Stuttgart,  18!)(»),  and  Carl  MiiUcr-Frau- 
reiitli.  Lie  deiitschen  LugendichI uniien  bis  nuf  Munch- 
liaiisrn  (llalle,  1881).  Uevised  by  JuLlls  GoKliEL. 

Miincli-Ktdliiighiiiison,  Kuoius  Franz  Joseph,  Baron 
von:  diaiimtist  ;  b.  at  ('rucow,  Apr.  2,  1806;  studied  law, 
and  helil  different  government  offices  in  Vienna  at  the  im- 
perial library,  the  Burgtheater,  etc.  lie  is  best  known  in 
(ierman  literature  by  his  pseudonym  of  Friedrich  Halm.  In 
18;{4  his  first  drama,  (Iriseldis,  was  performed  at  the  Burg- 
theater, and  had  a  great  success.  Then  followed  in  1836 
The  Adept,  in  1837  Camnens,  in  18;J8  Imelda  Lamhertaizi, 
in  1843  Ler  Sohn  der  Wildniss  (Ingoniar),  in  1844  .S'ani- 
piero,  in  1847  Maria  de  Molina,  in  18.")4  The  Gladiator 
from  Ravenna,  etc.  The  hust-mentioned  drama  is  his  best 
work  ;  his  subsequent  ones  are  rather  weak.  As  a  ilramatist, 
he  belongs  to  the  school  of  .St-hiller.  He  was  famous  in  his 
time,  ami  several  of  his  pie<'es  have  been  translated  into 
Knglish.  He  treated  extraordinary  psychological  iirobleins 
in  his  ilramas,  and  bv  using  strong  coiitnists  in  the  cfiaractei-s 
ami  situations  produced  powerful  effects.  He  also  wrote 
some  lyrical  poems  of  inferior  fpiality.  His  collected  works 
Were  published  at  Vienna  in  8  vols.  (18.57-tV4).  I),  in  Vienna, 
-May  -22,  1871.  Uevised  by  J.  Goeuki,. 

Miinclp;  city;  capital  of  Delaware  co.,  Ind.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  5-F);  on  the  White 
river,  and  the  Lalce  Krie  and  W.,  the  Clove.,  ('in.,  Chi. 
and  .St.  L.,  and  the  Ft.  W.,  ('in.  and  Louis,  railways;  .'54 
miles  K.  of  Indianapolis,  110  miles  N.  W.  of  Cincinnati. 
It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  has  important  manu- 
factures, including  glass,  nails,  iron,  steel,  handles,  imlp, 
ami  pa|)er.  It  is  also  in  the  center  of  the  great  Imliana 
natural-gas  bell,  which  gives  the  factories  free  fuel.  There 
are  electric  lights,  electric  street-railway,  public  library 
(founded  1874)  which  contains  over  10,(K)0  volume's. ;!  na- 
tional banks  with  combined  capital  of  f •J.">().0()().  and  3  ilailv 
and  4  we-'klv  m^wspapers.  Pop.  (18S())  .-i,-,'l!l ;  i  |m;m))  1 1.34.')"; 
(18!»4)  estimat.MJ,  2(I,(MHI.  Koitor  ok  "  .MoUMNo  News." 

Mlinrjr:  boroui;h :  Lycoming  co..  Pa.  (for  hK'aliim  of 
county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  3-F);  on  the  Susque- 


hanna river,  and  the  Phila.  and  Reading  and  the  Pcnn.  rail- 
ways; 14  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Williainsport.  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural and  lumbering  region,  and  has  Hour,  saw,  and 
planing  mills,  French  burr  feeil-mill  factory.  Iar;:e  woolcn- 
niill.  foumlry,  and  machine-shops.  Pop.  (ls,s()|  1,174;  (18U0) 
l.'Jyj  ;  (181)4)  estimated  on  enlargement  of  borough.  2.000. 
Editor  of  "  Liminarv  a.nd  Lycoming  Co.  Auvertisek." 

Miind^,  Pai'l  FoRTfNATfs,  M.D. :  gyna-cologist ;  b.  at 
Dresden,  Saxony, , Sept.  7,  1846;  was  taken  to  the  I'.  S.  in 
1849.  He  studied  motlicine  at  Vale  and  Harvard  Medical 
Colleges,  graduating  M.D.  from  the  latter  in  1866;  served 
as  volunteer  assistant  surgeon  in  the  war  between  Prussia 
and  Austria  in  1866;  from  1867  to  1870  was  resident  |ihvsi- 
cian  ill  the  Wtlrzlmrg  .Maternity  Hospital  and  assistant  to 
.Scanzoni ;  in  1870  was  surgeon  in  the  15avarian  army  during 
the  Franco-German  war;  settled  in  New  Vork  in  1872;  is 
Professor  of  Gvna'cology,  New  Vork  Polyclinic,  gymecolo- 
gist  to  several  S'ew  Vork  hospitals,  and  a  fellow  of  numer- 
ous societies.  He  was  editor  of  The  American  Journal  of 
Obstetrics  1874-92.  Among  his  writings  are  Minor  ,Siirgi- 
cal  (ri/n<PCuloyi/  (New  Vork,  1880).  He  edited  the  sixth  edi- 
tion of  Thomas's  work  on  Liseases  of  Women. 

S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Muiidcllt),  ANTnoxv  John,  M.  P.:  British  statesman;  b. 
18"2o  of  Italian  ancestry;  engaged  in  business  in  Notting- 
ham; was  sheriff  of  Nottingham  18.')2;  organized  the  first 
courts  of  arbitration  for  the  settlement  of  trade  disputes 
1859;  entered  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  1868;  was  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  council  on  education  and  charily  commissioner 
1880-8.');  i>iesidcnl  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  the  (iladstone 
niiiiistrv  1886  luid  again  in  1892  :  resigned  in  1894  under 
Lord  Kosebery.  C.  H.  T. 

Muiiger,  Theodore  Tiiorxtox,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and 
author;  b.  in  Bainliridge.  N.  V..  .Mar..').  1830;  graduated  at 
Vale  College  in  18.51,  and  from  the  Vale  Theological  School 
in  1855 ;  was  pastor  of  Congregational  clmrehes  at  Dor- 
chester, Mass.,  1856-60,  Haverhill  1862-70,  and  Lawrence 
1871-75 ;  was  in  San  Jose,  Cal.,  where  he  established  a  Con- 
gregational church,  1875-76;  was  i>astor  at  North  Adams, 
Mass.,  from  1877  to  1885,  when  he  bcciime  pastor  of  the 
United  Society  (Congregational),  New  Haven,  Conn.  He 
has  published  Un  the  Thresliold  (1884),  which  has  been 
issued  in  numerous  editions;  Lamps  and  Paths  (1885) ;  The 
Freedom  of  Faith  (1883);  Tlie  Appeal  to  Life  (1887);  and 
numerous  literary  and  theological  essays  in  reviews  and 
magazines.  Georue  P.  Fisher. 

Miiii'go  (Sain't).  or  Kpiltigeni ;  one  of  the  three  earliest 
missionaries  who  introduced  Christianity  into  Scotland. 
While  his  associates,  St.  Columba  and  St.  Ninian.  devoted 
themselves  respectively  to  the  tribes  of  the  south,  west,  and 
north,  Muiigo  was  the  apostle  of  the  Welsh  or  British  races 
inhabiting  the  districts  between  the  Clyde  and  the  northern 
boundaries  of  Cumberland.  The  son  of  a  British  prince,  he 
was  born  at  Culross,  on  the  Forth,  about  518,  and  died  at  a 
monastery  he  had  fimnded  on  the  site  of  the  cathedral  of 
the  modern  Glasgow,  Jan.  13.  603.  Many  miracles  were 
ascribed  to  him.  and  numerous  fabulous  biographies  are 
preserved.     See  Forbes.  Historians  of  Scotland,  vol.  v. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

MlingOOS  [the  native  name:  variously  written  mongoos, 
mongoose,  or  miingoose]:  a  carnivorous  mammal  of  India 
(Ilerpesles  grisens)  belonging  to  the  family  Vicerridtr,  and 
related  to  ihe  African  IcHNEfSioN  (q.v.).  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  cat.  but  is  lower  ami  longer  lunlied.  The  tail  is 
long,  hair  harsh,  of  a  gray  color,  with  blackish  markings. 
In  India  tin-  inungrvos  is  domesticated,  and  kepi  about  houses 
to  free  them  of  rats,  and.  alMue  all,  to  kill  venomous  ser- 
pents. It  is  |Kipuhirly  believed  to  eat  some  plant  which 
renders  it  poison-proof,  but  really  owes  its  immunity  to  its 
quickness.  F.  A.  Litas. 

MiSng'-Tse.  or  MeiiiEr-Tse:  See  MENoirs. 

Mll'nii'h  (Germ.  Miinehen):  capital  of  Bavaria;  on  the 
Isar.  here  crossed  by  three  briilgos;  1.868  feet  above  the  .sea. 
at  the  southern  extremitv  of  an  extensive  plain  (see  man  of 
(ierman  Empire,  ref.  7-F).  The  city  proper  is  situated  on 
llio  loft  bank  of  the  Isar;  only  some  suburbs  extend  along 
the  right  bank.  In  architectural  ros[K>cts  it  is  the  most 
beautiful  and  interesting  city  in  (iermany.  and  one  of  the 
richest  in  iH'ulptures  and  paintings.  Nearly  in  the  center 
of  the  city,  on  the  Max  Joseph  Place,  whii'h  contains  the 
bronze  statue  of  Kinc  Max  (1825)  bv  Ranch,  is  the  royal 
palace,  consistiu.'  "f  iljiec  parts — the  kim.''-  house,  the  ban- 


12 


MUNICH 


MUNICIPAL  CORPORATIONS 


queting-house,  and  the  old  residence.     The  king's  house  was 
built  by  Klenze  1826-35,  and  is  an  imitation  of  the  Palazzo 
Pitti  in  Florence.     Its  interior  is  very  rich  in  marbles  and 
frescoes,  among  whicli  are  the  celebrated  Nibelungen  fres- 
coes by  Schnorr.     The  banqueting-house  was  built  1832-43 
in  Renaissance  style,  and  has  a  large  balcony  resting  on  ten 
Ionic  columns.     The  old  residence  was  built  at  different 
periods,  and  contains  many  beautiful  bronze  statues.     The 
palace  is  connected  by  a  winter  garden  with  the  theater, 
which  has  seats  for  2..jOO  persons.     On  the  other  side  of  the 
palace  is  the  royal  garden,  surrounded  on  t\io  sides  by  ar- 
cades, which  are  connected  with  the  banqueting-house.     On 
the  southern  side  of  the  Max  Joseph  Place  stands  the  post- 
ofBce.  in  Florentine  style.     The  so-called  generals'  hall,  an 
imitation  of  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi  in  Florence,  was  built  in 
1844.     From  this  building  begins  the  Ludwig  Street,  run- 
ning northward,  terminating  at  the  Siegesthor  (Gate  of  Vic- 
tory).   On  it  are  the  Odeon,  biiilt  in  1828 :  the  palaces  of  the 
Duke  of  Leuehtenberg  and  of  Duke  Max:  the  ministry  of 
war;  the  library,  built  1832-43  in  Florentine  style,  and  con- 
taining 950,000"  volumes  and  25,000  MSS.;  the  university, 
with  3,292  students  in   1892,  the  seminary,  and  the  Mas 
Joseph  School,  which  three  buildings,  built  in  1840,  form  a 
large  square.    The  Siegesthor,  an  imitation  of  the  triumphal 
arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome,  was  finished  in  1856.     Start- 
ing from  the  royal  palace  to  the  X.  W.,  and  passing  by  the 
Theatiner  church,  built  1661-75  in  Italian  rococo  style,  one 
reaches  the  Wittelsbaeher  Place.    It  contains  the  equestrian 
statue  of  the  Elector  Maximilian  I.  by  Thorwaldsen,  and 
the  Wittelsbacher  palace  (finished  1850),  in  mediaeval  style, 
with  pointed  arches.    At  the  end  of  the  Brienner  Street  is 
the  Propyla?um,  built  in   imitation  of  the  Propylsum  of 
Athens,  with  reliefs  by  Schwanthaler.     On  this  side  of  the 
gate   is  the   Kunstausstellungsgebiiude ;   to   the  right,   the 
celebrated  Glyptothek,  built  1816-30  in  Ionic  style,  with  a 
portico  resting  on  twelve  columns,  and  a  magnificent  tym- 
panum ;  the   building  contains  twelve   rooms  filled    with 
marbles,  chiefly  antique.     Near  by  are  an  establislimcnt 
for  painting  on  glass  and  the  famous  Pinakothek.      The 
old  Pinakothek,  built  1826-36,  in  Renaissance  style,  is  520 
feet  long,  and  contains  1,300  pictures,  arranged  in  thirty- 
two  rooms.     The  ground  floor  is  occupied  by  a  collection  of 
engravings,  containing  about  300,000  pieces,  a  collection  of 
drawings,  numbering  about  9,000,  and  a  collection  of  Grecian 
and  Etruscan  vases.    To  the  W.  of  this  building  is  the  Poly- 
technicuin,  a  structure  in  rich  Renaissance  style,  and  to  the 
E.  the  new  Pinakothek,  built  1846-53,  which  contains  pic- 
tures by  modern  artists.     Other  noteworthy  buildings  are 
the  bronze-foundry,  with  a  collection  of  models  and  an  ex- 
position-room ;  the  Schwanthaler  Museum,  containing  nearly 
all  tlie  plaster  models  by  this  artist ;  the  Academy  of  Science 
and  Art,  with  an  immense  collection  of  fossils,  a  collection 
of  minerals,  of  coins,  of  physical  and  optical  instruments,  etc. 
To  the  S.  \V.  of  the  city,  near  the  Kai'l  Gate,  stands  the  Hall 
of  Fame,  built  in  the  form  of  a  horseshoe,  with  forty-eight 
Doric  columns,  and  finished  in  1853  after  a  plan  by  Klenze. 
It  contains  the  busts  of  eighty  renowned  Bavarians.     In 
front  of  the  buildings  stands  a  colossal  figure  of  Bavaria, 
66  feet  high,  modeled  by  Schwanthaler.     A  beautiful  view 
toward  the  Alps  can  be  had  from  the  interior  of  the  head. 

The  principal  churches  are  the  Frauenkirche,  Gothic  in 
style,  built  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  metropolitan  church 
of  the  Arehbisliop  of  Miinchen-Freysing;  St.  Michael's  Hof- 
kirche,  built  in  tlie  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  in 
Roman  Renaissance  style;  the  Auerkirche,  built  1831-39  in 
Gothic  style,  with  beautifully  painted  windows;  the  Basilica 
des  heiligen  Bonifacius,  an  excellent  imitation  of  the  old 
Italian  basilica,  finislied  in  1850,  with  sixty-six  columns, 
beautiful  frescoes,  and  thirty-four  medallion  portraits  of 
popes.  Here  is  the  tomb  of  Ludwig  I.  (Ludwigskirehe), 
built  1829-43.  by  Giirl  ner  in  the  Italian  round-arch  style. 
Over  the  portal  stand  Christ  and  the  apostles  by  Schwan- 
thaler; the  interior  contains  beautiful  frescoes  by  Cornelius 
and  his  disciples.  The  Allerheiligenkirche  or  Xeu  Hofka- 
pelle,  E.  of  the  royal  palace,  was  built  in  1837  in  Byzantine 
style,  and  is  a  very  elegant  thougli  small  structure.  The 
Protestant ische  Kirche  was  built  1827-32. 

The  city  is  generally  well  laid  out,  and  has  broad  streets 
and  raanv  large  ))ul)lic  s(|uares.  It  has  grown  rapidly :  in 
1801  it  had  but  40,000  inhabitants.  The  Academy  of 'Fine 
Arts,  comprising  three  divisions— architecture,  sculpture, 
and  painting — and  under  the  lea<lership  of  able  men,  at- 
tracts steadily  a  great  number  of  stu<lents.  The  same  is  the 
case  with  the  Conservatory  of  Music.    Tlic  city  occupies  also 


a  high  rank  in  science.  There  are  many  scientific  associa- 
tions, good  educational  and  numerous  benevolent  institu- 
tions. The  manufacturing  industry  includes  the  bronze- 
foundries,  the  porcelain-manufactures  at  Nymphenburg,  the 
glass-painting  establishments,  all  founded  by  the  Govern- 
ment ;  also  the  optical  institute  founded  by  Fraunhofer,  and 
manufactures  of  mathematical  instruments,  machinery,  fire- 
arms, cotton,  and  silver.  The  breweries  are  very  extensive. 
Grain  is  the  principal  article  of  commerce. 

The  city  appears  for  the  first  time  in  history  in  the  twelfth 
century ;  in  1254  it  was  fortified,  and  from  the  Emperor 
Ludwig  of  Bavaria  it  received  many  privileges.  In  1632 
Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  entered  it  victoriously.  The 
Elector  Karl  Theodor  improved  the  fortifications  at  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  1800  it  was  captured  by  the 
French.  In  1814  King  Maximilian  I.  began  the  rebuilding 
and  beautifying,  which  were  continued  in  a  brilliant  manner 
by  Ludwig  I.  and  Maximilian  II.  The  population  in  1885 
was  261,981 ;  in  1890,  349,024. 

Municipal  Corporations  [nuuu'cipal  from  Lat.  mnnici- 
pa  lis.  deriv.  of  munici-pium,  a  town  having  free  local  gov- 
ernment and  Roman  citizenship] :  corporations  formed  from 
the  members  of  a  city,  town,  or  other  community  for  pur- 
poses of  local  self-government.  Public  corporations,  that  is 
corporations  formed  for  governmental  or  political  purposes, 
may  be  divided  into  quasi  municipal  corporations  and  munic- 
ipal corporations  proper.  The  distinction  between  the  two 
is  important,  inasmuch  as  the  duties  and  powers  of  the 
latter  are  much  broader  than  those  of  the  former.  Among 
the  quasi  nmnicipal  corporations  are  embraced  such  local 
governmental  bodies  as  counties,  towns,  and  school  districts 
— bodies  with  extremely  narrow  powers,  and  formed  gener- 
ally for  the  purpose  of  administering  in  the  localities  affairs 
of  general  concern  and  importance.  Among  municipal 
corporations  are  embraced  cities  and  villages  which  are 
formed  primarily  and  almost  exclusively  for  the  purpose 
of  administering  the  affairs  affecting  the  particular  dis- 
tricts in  which  such  corporations  are  found.  While  al- 
most all  governmental  districts  possessing  in  any  impor- 
tant degree  tlie  privileges  of  local  self-government  are 
at  the  same  time  municipal  corporations,  it  is  to  be  borne 
in  mind  tliat  tlie  incorporation  of  a  place  is,  or  at  least 
was,  not  originally  necessary  in  order  that  it  possess  rights 
of  local  self-government.  Thus  the  English  boroughs  at 
a  very  early  time  received  charters  which  assured  to  them 
certain  governmental  privileges,  but  they  were  not  incor- 
porated until  aliout  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  first  charter  of  incorporation  in  England  is  said  to  be 
tliat  given  to  Kingston-upon-Hull,  granted  in  1429.  From 
that  time  on  charters  of  incorporation  were  granted  with 
great  freedom  until  most  of  the  boroughs  of  any  size  became 
at  the  same  time  municipal  corporations.  The  other  divi- 
sions of  the  country,  such  as  the  counties  and  the  parishes, 
did  not  become  corporations  until  very  much  later.  Indeed, 
the  counties  of  England  did  not  become  incorporated  until 
the  passage  of  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1888.  When 
municipal  boroughs  were  first  incorporated  it  was  not  the 
locality  nor  the  inhabitants  that  formed  the  corporations 
til  us  created,  but  the  most  important  individuals,  generally 
members  of  the  governmental  body  of  the  borough,  i.  e. 
the  council,  though  sometimes  the  freemen  were  included. 
This  idea  has,  with  the  more  democratic  character  of  munic- 
ipal govprnment.  been  abandoned,  until  now,  in  both  the 
United  Kingilom  and  the  U.  S.,  the  corporation  formed  by 
the  grant  to  a  municipal  borough  or  city  of  a  charter  of 
incorporation  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  officers  or  a  narrow 
Ixidy  of  freemen,  but  in  all  the  inhabitants  residing  within 
the  municipal  district. 

While  the  original  purpose  of  granting  to  municipal 
boroughs  charters  of  incorporation  was  to  enable  them  1o 
act  as  subjects  of  private  law.  and  tlius  to  hold  property  and 
lie  capable  of  enforcing  obligations  contracted  with  them 
and  of  being  forced  by  tlie  courts  to  fulfill  obligations 
which  they  had  contracted,  still  most  of  the  important 
municipal  boroughs  which  were  thus  incorporated  were  at 
the  same  time  governmental  agencies  as  well.  For  example, 
the  councils  of  almost  all  of  the  important  municipal  bor- 
oughs had  under  their  direction  and  control  the  local  po- 
lice force.  Furtlicr,  in  almost  all  cases  a  commission  of 
the  peace  was  issued  to  the  individuals  composing  the 
council,  who  acted  thus  also  as  justices  of  the  peace.  The 
larger  cities  had  also  a  special  court  of  quarter  sessions. 
In  this  way  the  more  important  municipal  boroughs  were 


MUNICIPAL  COUI'oKATlONS 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT 


13 


agents  of  the  coiitriil  government  both  for  tlie  pvirpose 
of  thi'  lidiiiiiiislnitioM  of  justit-e  and  for  the  imrposc  of 
the  uilmini.stralion  of  the  police  foree.  On  ac<imnl,  liow- 
cver,  of  the  difjeneration  of  the  lH)ro>i{;lis  iiiiil  of  their 
prostitution  for  purposes  of  central  polities,  which  began 
durinfj  the  periiMl  of  the  Stuarts  in  the  interest  of  the  king, 
and  was  continued  after  the  revolution  of  1088  in  the  inter- 
est of  the  great  political  parties  from  that  time  on  con- 
trolled by  the  nobility,  it  was  felt  to  be  inexpedient  to  con- 
fer upon  the  municipal  organization  any  of  the  other  ad- 
ministrative duties  which  the  (Jiivi'rnnieiil  had  to  assume  as 
a  result  of  the  development  of  the  kirigiloni.  Thus  when 
the  suppression  of  the  monasteries  made  necessary  a  system 
of  administering  poor  relief,  this  branch  of  administration 
was  conferred  upon  the  parish  organization  wliieli  extended 
through  the  urban  as  well  as  through  the  rural  districts. 
Later  on  also,  when  the  administration  of  education  became 
a  governmental  matter,  and  the  municipal  liorough  was 
made  the  urban  school  district,  a  stdiool  board  was  pro- 
vided separate  and  apart  from  the  municipal  urganizution 
proper  for  the  purpose  of  atlen<ling  to  the  schools.  In 
the  same  way  when  it  became  neces,sHry  to  light  and  pave 
the  streets,  these  matters  were  put  into  the  hands  either 
of  the  parishes  or  of  special  commissions  or  trusts  formed 
by  special  acts  of  Parliament  and  not  a  part  of  the  borough 
organization.  The  result  is  that  the  English  borough  was 
at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  municipalities  in  the  V.  S., 
and  is  even  at  present,  an  organization  imiiniy  for  the  satis- 
faction of  local  needs,  with  very  few  functions  of  general 
government  to  discharge. 

Naturally  this  was  the  conception  of  the  sphere  of  activity 
of  municipalities  in  the  U.  S.  at  the  time  municipalities  be- 
gan to  develop  ;  but  as  a  result  of  their  better  organization 
in  the  I'.  S.  during  Ihv  colonial  period  they  very  soon 
came  to  be  regarded  not  merely  as  organizations  for  the 
satisfaction  of  local  needs,  but  also  as  iiiiporlaiit  agents  of 
the  central  government.  While  during  the  very  early  colo- 
nial pi'riod  municipalities  were  considered  to  be  so  much 
private  in  character  as  not  to  be  capable  of  poisscssing  the 
power  of  taxation,  with  the  development  of  their  ca|)acity 
as  agents  of  central  government  the  power  of  taxation — a 
<listinctively  public  power — was  granted  them  in  order  to 
enable  them  to  discharge  their  public  functions.  Not  only 
liiLs  this  power  been  very  generally  granted  to  the  cities,  but 
the  city  itself,  when  of  large  size,  is  often  made  the  agent  of 
the  .State  administration  for  the  lussessment  and  collection 
of  central  taxes;  and  in  many  other  cases  the  city  oflicers 
attend  to  certain  matters  of  general  interest,  and  the  ex- 
pense of  a  long  series  of  matters  which  may  not  be  attended 
to  directly  by  city  olVicials  has  devolved  upon  the  city.  In 
the  V.  S.  in  most  of  the  large  cities  municipal  olliccrs,  either 
elected  by  the  people  of  the  city  or  a|ppointed  by  the  mu- 
nicipal authorities,  an'  intrusted  with  the  care  of  ihi>  public 
health,  the  schools,  and  the  support  of  the  poor,  attend  to 
police  and  election  matters,  and  have  a  series  of  duties  to 
nerform  relative  to  the  administration  of  judicial  affairs, 
riiis  gradual  develoj)inent  of  the  city  from  an  organization 
for  the  satisfaction  of  purely  local  needs  into  an  agent  of  the 
I'cntral  .State  governnunt  has  resulte<l  in  an  as.sertion  by  the 
latter  of  very  much  greater  powers  of  control  over  the  citv 
than  were  exercised  over  the  English  borough.  This  contnil 
tias  been  extended  not  only  to  lho.se  matters  where  the  citv 
acts  as  an  agent  of  central  government,  but  also  to  matters 
■  if  purely  local  concern.  Cities  in  the  I'.  S.  have  lus  a  result 
largely  lost  the  i)owerof  regulating  their  own  purely  munic- 
ipal aflairs.  As  no  city  may  exercise  any  power  which  the 
Legislature  hiLs  not  granted  to  it,  ancl  as  ihe  Legislature  in 
the  I'.  .S.  has  generally  Iweii  very  niggardly  in  its  grants  of 
power  to  cities,  every  city  whii-h  does  not  tiiid  a  power  that  it 
desires  to  exercise  contained  in  the  charter  or  laws  regulating 
its  goV4'rnment  is  obliged  to  apply  to  the  Legislature  for  a 
-pecial  grant  of  power.  The  result  has  been  a  continual  in- 
terference by  the  legislatures  of  the  States  with  the  affairs  of 
cities,  an  interfereme  which  has  hail  so  much  of  evil  result 
that  a  majority  of  the  Slativs  of  the  Union  have  |)rohibited 
the  Legislature  from  interfering  by  such  special  act  with  the 
alTaiis  of  municipal  corporations.  It  must  be  confessed,  how- 
ever, that  the  courts  have  felt  obliged,  on  account  of  the 
ilillieiilty  of  regulating  at  one  time  and  by  general  law  all 
the  matters  in  which  a  city  should  exerci.se  power,  to  allow 
the  Legislature  considerable  freedom  of  interference  in  local 
concerns,  notwithstanding  the  constitutional  provisions 
mentioned. 

At  the  sume  time  that  the  position  of  the  city  has  been 


changing  there  has  been  a  corresponding  change  in  tlie  or- 
ganization of  citv  government.  The  original  governing 
boily  of  the  municipal  borough  in  both  England  and  the 
I'.  S.  was  the  council,  in  which  all  powers  were  centered. 
As  a  result,  no  doubt,  of  the  more  important  functions  which 
have  been  conferred  by  law  upon  municipal  cor|)orations  in 
the  l' .  S.,  there  has  been  felt  a  need  of  more  clearly  defin- 
ing the  responsibility  for  the  ailministration  of  city  govern- 
ment, and  the  council  has  been  sjilit  up.  The  judicial  func- 
tions have  generally  been  a.ssiimed  by  State  oflicei-s,  namely, 
the  judges  of  the  courts,  the  justices  of  the  peace,  and  police 
magistrates.  The  executive  functions  have  been  conferred 
upon  the  mayor,  who  has  been  .sei>arated  from  and  made 
independent  of  the  council,  and  bv  executive  officers  who 
have  lieeii  provided  by  statute;  ami  the  functions  of  delil)- 
eration  have  been  retained  by  what  was  left  of  the  council. 
This  separation  of  functions  began  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  or  Ihe  beginning  of  the  nineteenth.  The 
modern  tendency  has  been  to  increase  more  and  more  the 
powei-s  of  the  mayor,  conferring  U|)on  him  ainio.st  all  pow- 
ers of  appointment  ami  removal.  This  is  iiarticularly  true 
of  the  large  municipal  <'orporations  of  the  I'.  S. 

This  increasingly  public  character  of  municipal  corpora- 
tions has  had  an  intluence  not  only  upon  its  public  legal, 
but  also  upon  its  private  legal  relations.  liiHsmuch  as  the 
private  legal  relations  into  which  a  municipal  corporation 
enters  result  for  the  most  part  either  in  the  formaticm  of 
contracts  or  in  the  commission  of  torts,  we  may  consider  its 
private  legal  capacity  under  the  two  headings  of  contracts 
and  torts.  So  far  as  contrac'ls  are  concerned,  all  that  need 
be  said  is  that,  like  all  corporations,  municipal  corporations 
may  enter  into  only  those  contracts  which  their  charters  or 
the  laws  by  which  they  arc  governed  i)erniit  them  to  enter, 
and  they  must  form  such  contracts  only  in  the  way  in  which 
the  law  has  |iermilted  them  to  act,  and  any  excess  of  pow- 
ers or  deviation  from  the  methods  provided  by  law  will  re- 
sult in  their  contracts  being  void  and  of  no  effect.  When 
we  come  to  consider  the  law  of  torts  relative  to  municipal 
corjiorations,  too  much  emphasis  can  not  be  laid  upon  the 
dual  position  which  these  bodies  occupy.  In  so  far  as  they 
niav  be  regarded  as  organizations  for  the  satisfaction  of 
purely  local  and  municipal  needs,  they  are  assimilated  to 
private  corporations,  anil  their  negligence  in  the  perform- 
ance of  their  duties,  or  their  non-observance  of  the  rights 
of  others  in  the  exercise  of  these  duties,  will  result  in  a 
legal  lialiility  of  much  the  same  character  as  results  in  a 
similar  case  from  the  action  of  private  individuals  or  pri- 
vate corporations;  for  whatever  may  have  l>een  the  origi- 
nal rule — and  there  is  simie  dispute  as  to  this — as  to  their 
liability  for  torts,  no  rule  of  law  is  better  settled  than  that 
the  mnnicijial  corporation  is  lialilc  for  all  damages  caused 
by  the  negligent  performance  of  these  private  and  purely 
local  or  municipal  duties.  When,  however,  we  come  to  con- 
sider the  nuinici[iality  as  a  governmental  agent,  the  position 
which  the  government  occupies  in  this  respect  must  he 
borne  in  mind.  The  law  has  always  been  reluctant  to  rec- 
ognize any  liability  on  the  i>art  of  the  government  for  torts 
committed  by  its  officers.  This  has  been  due  to  motives  of 
public  iiolicy.  to  the  fear  that  the  action  of  the  government 
would  be  paralyzed  were  it  to  lie  responsible  for  all  inci- 
dental damages  which  might  result  from  an  exercise  of  its 
purely  governmental  and  sovereign  powers.  The  same  rule 
lias  been  applied  to  municipal  corporations  in  that  they  are 
exempt  from  all  liability  for  negligence  in  the  perfonnancc 
of  their  governmental  duties.  The  tendency  is,  however,  to 
recognize  a  liability  for  the  mismanagement  of  their  prop- 
erty, whether  such  property  is  employed  in  the  performance 
of  a  public  or  a  private  duty ';  this  tendency  has  not  been  so 
marked  as  to  justify  the  statement  of  the  rule  that  in  so  far 
as  they  manage  property  they  are  not  exempt  from  liability 
for  negligence:  but  It  will  undoubtedly  be  the  means  by 
which  Ihe  liability  of  municipal  corporations  will  be  ex- 
tended in  the  future  Euank  J.  Good.now. 

Mlinirinnl  (iovemilipnt  :  the  government  of  cities  and 
towns.  Tlie  rise  of  modern  industry,  with  its  use  of  steam 
and  eleelrieity,  its  development  of  the  faclorv  sy.stem  in 
place  of  old-time  handicrafts  and  household  inilustries,  and 
Its  adoption  of  such  agents  of  expanding  commerce  as  the 
railway  and  the  steamship,  has  not  onlv  given  an  enormous 
stimulus  to  the  growth  of  population,  Ijut  has  al.so  tended 
to  mass  population  in  towns  and  cities.  While  agricultural 
prixliiction  Iuls  va.stly  increased,  the  incrciL-k>  is  due  to  the 
opening  up  of  new  areas  rather  than  to  any  ineri'iise  in  the 


u 


MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT 


density  of  the  farming  population,  and  in  the  thoroughness 
and  intensity  of  manual  labor  as  applied  to  the  soil.  In  fact, 
the  invention  and  use  of  labor-saving  machinery  in  tlie  op- 
erations of  agriculture  have,  especially  in  the  U.  S.,  materi- 
ally lessened  the  number  of  people  who  can  advantageously 
be  employed  in  the  tillage  of  a  given  area.  The  conse- 
quence has  been,  as  shown  by  successive  national  and  State 
census  reports,  a  steady  falling  off  in  tlie  population  of 
strictly  rural  communities,  this  decline  being  exhibited  since 
1875  in  Iowa  and  Jlinnesota,  as  well  as  in  States  E.  of  the 
Mississippi  river.  In  Scotland.  England,  France,  and  Ger- 
many, the  strictly  rural  population  has  been  either  declin- 
ing or  at  an  absolute  standstill  for  several  decades.  In 
Scotland  and  France  a  sharp  decline  has  been  visible,  while 
an  apparent  slight  gain  in  England  and  Germany  has  in 
fact  been  due  to  the  encroachment  of  industrial  and  urban 
conditions  upon  the  village  life  of  farming  districts,  rather 
than  to  any  increase  in  the  number  of  people  living  a  dis- 
tinctly rural  life.  Tlie  growth  of  U.  S.  cities  has  been  at 
an  enormous  rate  of  increase  ;  but  the  growth  of  English, 
Scotch,  and  German  cities  has  been  at  a  pace  almost  as 
great.  It  may  simply  be  said  that  about  three-fourths  of 
the  people  of  "England  and  Scotland  are  now  living  under 
the  conditions  that  belong  to  urijan  life,  and  that  in  the 
older  parts  of  the  U.  S.  the  town  dwellers  outnumber  the 
country  dwellers.  The  urban  impulse  is  comparatively  new 
in  Germany,  but  is  at  the  same  time  very  strong.  The 
French  people  are  less  mobile,  yet  their  great  towns  are 
growing  with  considerable  rapidity,  while  tlie  national  popu- 
lation as  a  whole  is  barely  maintaining  its  volume. 

When  the  modern  urban  movement  began  to  exhibit 
strong  tendencies  in  Great  Britain,  the  old  traditional  town 
life  was  very  simple.  The  functions  of  the  municipal  cor- 
porations described  in  JIu.nicipal  Corporations  (q.  v.)  were 
not  very  numerous,  and  did  not  require  the  expemliture  of 
large  sums  of  money ;  but  the  rise  of  modern  industrial  towns 
made  neces.sary  a  wholly  new  regime  of  municipal  life.  It 
was  discovered  that  the  comfort  and  happiness  of  a  rapidly 
increasing  proportion  of  the  population  demanded  the  exer- 
cise of  a  new  series  of  public  functions.  It  was  not  enough 
that  the  police  departments  and  local  courts  of  Justice — 
performing  the  negative  function  of  preserving  order  and 
punishing  misdemeanors — should  be  strengthened,  but  it 
became  necessary  to  meet  with  the  assumption  of  positive 
municipal  functions  the  supply  of  various  common  necessi- 
ties. There  poured  into  tlie  manufacturing  towns  a  great 
access  of  population  from  villages  and  country  districts,  and 
these  factory-workers  were  huddled  into  crowded  and  ill- 
constructed  tenements  under  conditions  that  were  deleteri- 
ous and  demoralizing  in  every  respect.  Much  space  would 
be  required  to  describe  the  recurring  epidemics  and  the 
varied  evils  consequent  upon  the  aggregation  of  town  popu- 
lations without  what  we  now  term  municipal  improvements. 
The  first  great  step  in  England  toward  the  adaptation  of 
municipal  life  to  the  needs  of  growing  communities  was 
taken  in  the  reform  of  the  organization  of  the  town  or 
borough  corporations.  These  had,  for  the  most  part,  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  selt-])erpetuating  groups  of  men  who  ex- 
ercised under  medianal  charters  the  prescriptive  and  tradi- 
tional authority  of  the  municipal  government.  By  the  re- 
form acts  which  were  passed  in  1833  for  Scotch  cities,  in 
1885  for  English,  and  in  1840  for  Irish,  these  old  corpora- 
tions were  reconstructed,  and  municipal  government  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  householders.  The  poorest  class 
was  excluded,  but  subsequent  laws  have  removed  disqualifi- 
cations until  every  family  now  has  its  vote.  Authority  is 
exercised  by  a  common  council,  which  is  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  a  large  committee  of  the  voting  population.  The 
organization  of  the  English  municipal  corporation  is  very 
simple.  The  electors  have  only  to  choose  councilors,  one 
each  year  from  each  ward,  the  most  usual  number  of  wards 
in  the  larger  towns  being  sixteen.  The  term  is  three  years, 
and  one-third  therefore  of  the  council  retires  annually.  The 
council  elects  the  mayor,  usually  from  its  own  number.  It 
also  adds  to  its  body  a  number  of  so-called  aldermen  equal 
to  one-third  of  the  elected  councilors.  The  aldermen,  in 
fact,  are  usually  appointed  from  the  councilors  who  have 
served  longest,  and  their  selection  leaves  vacancies  to  be 
filled  by  special  ward  elections.  All  the  working  depart- 
ments of  the  municipal  administration  are  manned  by  ex- 
pert chiefs  apjioinlcd  liy  the  council,  holding  their  places 
upon  a  tenure  that  is  pi-actically  permanent.  The  council 
through  its  standing  committees  supervises  the  various 
branches  of  the  city  government.     The  mayor  is  merely  the 


council's  presiding  officer  and  most  important  member.  He 
is  elected  for  a  single  year  and  has  no  appointing  ])Ower  or 
special  authority,  all  control  of  municipal  affairs  being  vested 
in  the  council.  The  town-clerk,  who  is  the  legal  representa- 
tive and  the  archive  keeper,  is  the  most  indispensable  func- 
tionary of  an  English  municipality.  Like  the  other  officials, 
he  is  an  appointee  of  the  council.  Some  differences  in  nomen- 
clature distinguish  municipal  government  in  Scotland,  but 
in  all  essential  matters  it  is  the  same  as  the  English  system. 
As  civilization  has  advanced  and  science  has  led  the  way, 
these  simple  representative  city  governments  of  England  and 
Scotland  haveenormously  increased  their  activities  in  behalf 
of  the  common  wants  of  the  population.  They  have  spent 
great  sums  upon  the  introduction  of  adequate  municipal 
water-supplies,  and  have  in  many  instances  established  mu- 
nicipal gas  and  electric  works  which  not  only  furnish  ample 
and  cheap  illumination  of  streets  and  public  places,  but 
also  furnish  light  to  private  consumers  at  reasonable  prices. 
They  have  constructed  great  drainage  and  sewer  systems, 
with  which  the  plumbing  of  all  houses  is  obliged  to  con- 
nect. They  have  established  public  abattoirs  and  suppressed 
private  slaughter-houses,  have  erected  produce-markets,  and 
brought  all  food-supplies  under  strict  municipal  sanitary  in- 
spection. They  have  entered  upon  great  projects  for  the 
demolition  of  unsanitary  tenement-houses,  have  adopted 
stringent  regulations  guarding  against  further  imperfect 
building,  and  have  devised  methods  of  sanitary  visitation 
ft>r  the  prompt  suppression  of  nuisances  of  every  class,  and 
for  the  immediate  isol.ation,  in  great  municipal  epidemic 
hospitals,  of  cases  of  infectious  diseases.  Through  these 
and  kindred  measures  they  have  greatly  lowered  the  death- 
rate,  and  have  reduced  to  small  proportions  the  raviiges  of 
those  diseases  that  are  spread  by  infection  and  that  are 
amenable  to  sanitary  control.  Great  reforms  for  the  con- 
venience of  traffic  and  for  the  better  admission  of  air  and 
light  have  been  made  by  the  reconstruction  of  street  sys- 
tems and  by  the  retention  of  open  spaces.  Commendable 
activity  has  also  been  shown  in  the  acquisition  of  parks  and 
public  pleasure-grounds.  The  health  and  comfort  of  the 
people  have  been  promoted  in  many  of  these  places  by  the  es- 
tablishment of  public  baths,  wuile  in  several  of  them  there 
are  public  laundries  and  wash-houses  patronized  by  the 
housewives  in  the  tenement  districts.  Public  libraries  and 
reading-rooms  under  municipal  auspices  have  become  fre- 
quent, as  also  have  public  halls  and  assembly-rooms.  In 
many  of  the  English  and  Scotch  cities  the  street-railways 
have  been  constructed  and  are  owned  by  the  municipality 
itself,  although  it  is  the  common  practice  to  lease  them  to  a 
private  company  for  operation.  The  great  city  of  Glasgow 
has  now  assumed  the  direct  operation  of  its  street-railways, 
and  several  of  tlie  smaller  English  cities  have  entered  upon 
the  same  policy.  The  metropolis  of  London,  under  the 
Local  Government  Act  of  1888,  became  an  administrative 
county  governed  by  an  elected  council  of  citizens ;  and 
since  that  time  it  has  entered  upon  a  policy  for  the  promo- 
tion of  the  welfare  of  its  great  population  that  is  similar  in 
scope  to  that  described  as  common  to  the  industrial  and 
manufacturing  cities,  such  as  Birmingham,  Manchester, 
Glasgow,  Sheffield,  Leeds,  and  scores  of  other  places. 

Municipal  government  in  Frsince  under  existing  forms  is 
the  outgrowth  of  the  French  Revolution.  The  laws  of 
France — as  also  those  of  Italy  and  Belgium,  which  are  his- 
torically and  practically  modeled  upon  the  French  system — 
have  grown  out  of  the  great  reforms  instituted  as  a  result  of 
the  French  Revolution.  All  France  is  divided  into  communes. 
The  principle  of  communal  government  is  the  same  for  the 
smallest  country  township  as  for  the  largest  cities.  Except 
as  the  general  Government  through  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  exercises  some  discretionary  power  and  takes  occa- 
sional steps  of  interference,  the  communes  are  little  repub- 
lics. Universal  manhood  suffrage  prevails,  and  the  voters 
of  each  commune  elect  from  time  to  time  a  certain  number 
of  members  of  the  communal  or  municipal  council.  The 
size  of  the  council  varies  according  to  the  population  of  the 
commune,  a  sliding  scale  having  been  established  in  the 
general  code  for  the  government  of  communes  and  munici- 
palities. The  municipal  or  communal  council  appoints  the 
mayor  from  its  own  number,  and  the  mayor  in  turn  selects 
a  certain  number  of  councilors  to  be  his  coadjutors  and  to 
act  as  a  standing  executive  committee.  The  mayor  and  this 
committee  are  known  as  the  corps  legislatif.  Each  member 
of  the  standing  committee  is  given  the  sujiervision  of  some 
department  of  the  municipal  administration,  and  acts  in  the 
capacity  of  the  chairman  of  a  committee  having  charge. 


MUXICIPAL  CrOVERX.MEXT 


15 


1ft  us  say,  <if  water-supply,  or  police,  or  some  other  branch 
of  the  lural  ailuiiiiistratum.  Tiie  corps  !e</inl<ilif  hnUU  fre- 
quent sessions,  mill  the  whole  business  of  administering'  tlie 
afTuirs  of  the  niunieipulitv  eoines  under  the  direetion  of  the 
mayor.  The  full  eounei^  meets  less  frequently,  but  {joes 
very  exhaustively  into  reports  from  the  mayor  and  exeeu- 
tive  eorps,  makes  all  the  liy-laws  and  rejju  hit  ions  for  the 
{fovernment  of  the  eoiumune  or  municipality,  passes  upon 
the  levy  of  local  taxes,  and  votes  in  detail  the  amounts  to 
be  expended  for  various  iiurposes.  This  phm  of  municipal 
floverniuenf,  with  some  uillerences  "f  detail,  mav  be  said  to 
tieloni;  to  all  the  Latin  countries  of  Kurope.  ft  works  ef- 
fectively, and  has  shown  its  eapabililv  of  bearinf;  an  uidim- 
ited  expansion  of  local  functions  ami  undertakings.  Thus 
of  late  years  in  Italy  enormous  physical  reconstructions  and 
pulilic  Works  of  suiiply  and  improvement  have  been  under- 
taken, and  faithfully  and  ably  carried  out  by  the  municipal 
councils,  with  their  xiiiiJaco,  as  the  nuiyor  is  called,  and  their 
group  of  experienced  members  selected  as  tho  executive 
corps. 

In  (ternwiny  municipal  government  as  a  sort  of  eonimu- 
nily-housekeeping  has  developed  in  numy  respects  a  higher 
state  of  perfection  than  anvwhere  else.  The  structure  of 
municipal  government  in  f'russia  grows  out  of  the  gen- 
eral system  of  administration  that  (lutes  from  the  reforms 
of  Stein  and  Ilardenburg  early  in  the  ninetoMith  century. 
Circumstances  that  were  dominant  at  that  time  made  it  pos- 
sible for  property  interests  to  retain  a  degree  of  special  rep- 
resentation in  government  that  Knglish  and  French  political 
reforms  would  not  admit.  The  franchise,  both  for  national 
and  for  local  and  municipal  purposes,  was  based  upon  a 
three-class  system  which  made  taxation  the  measure  of 
repri'sentation.  The  handful  of  nu-n  who  stood  highest  on 
the  tax-roll  and  |)aiil  one-third  of  the  taxes  were  allowed  to 
exercise  as  much  authority  at  the  polls  as  the  great  nuiss  of 
workiugmen  whose  names  stood  at  the  other  end  of  the  tax 
list,  and  who,  in  the  aggregate,  also  paid  one-third  of  the 
direct  taxes.  A  middle  class,  paying  the  second  third  of 
the  total  sum  raised  by  direct  taxation,  also  exercised  a 
like  share  of  political  authority.  This  system  was  iu)t  re- 
spected in  the  establishment  of  the  present  (iernum  empire, 
and  simple  maidiood  sullrage  is  the  ipasis  of  the  electorate 
that  is  represented  in  the  imperial  Keichstag;  but  in  the 
government  of  Prussia  and  of  Prussian  municipalities  the 
three-class  system  still  prevails.  It  also  exists  in  some  other 
parts  of  (iermany,  though  not  in  all.  The  body  in  which 
the  authority  of  nninicif)al  government  is  reposed  is  the 
(lemfinileralh,  or  common  council.  It  is  elected  bv  the 
body  of  electors,  or  Wiihlmriiiiier.  of  which  the  three  classes 
of  Voters  have  each  selected  oiie-thiril.  The  common  coun- 
cil in  a  (iennan  town  is  elected  for  six  years,  one-lhird  of 
the  membership  retiring  every  two  years.  The  executive 
work  is  iierforined  bv  a  burgomaster,  or  mayor,  and  the 
b(Kly  of  (lepartinent  ciiiefs,  known  as  the  magistrates.  The 
mayor  is  selected  by  the  common  council,  and  so  are  tho 
high  department  chiefs,  or  magistrates,  and  these  functiomi- 
ries,  the  mayor  included,  have  what  is  practi<'ally  a  life 
tenure  upon  their  positions.  In  some  cases  they  are  ap- 
pointed expressly  for  life  or  good  behavior,  while  in  other 
eases  they  have  twelve-year  terms  with  the  practical  assur- 
ance of  reappointment.  They  are  selecteil  for  expert  knowl- 
edge, and  administrative  experience  and  ability.  They  con- 
stitute, with  the  burgomiLster,  what  is  known  as  the  Ma- 
ginlriitxnitli.  and  they  hold  frequent  conferences  together 
upon  souu-  such  plan  as  that  already  descrilied  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  executive  <'orps  of  the  municipalities  of  Latin 
countries.  Some  of  the  magistrates  are  highly  salaried,  while 
another  element  of  the  binly  is  compose<l  of  distinguished 
citizens  who  serve  without  pay,  and  who  regard  tlii'  otlice  as 
au  honor  anil  the  opporlunitv  lo  serve  their  fellow  i^itizens 
an  agreeable  public  duly.  'I'his  biMly  often  includes  men 
who  have  been  brought  from  other  cities  on  account  of  their 
special  aliilily,  and  the  burgomaster  himself  is  frequently 
selected  on  the  strength  of  the  good  service  he  has  rendered 
in  a  like  capacity  to  some  snndler  city.  The  law  depart- 
ment, the  treasury  department,  the  public-health  depart- 
ment, and  the  educational  department,  als<i  those  of  water- 
supiily,  gas-supply,  streets  and  paving,  architecture  and 
building,  care  of  the  |><>or,  property  assessment,  and  vari- 
ous others,  are  all  presided  over  by  siune  mendier  of  the 
executive  nuigistracy  selected  on  aectmnt  of  his  special  at- 
tainments and  qualitications.  The  minor  positions  in  the 
oflicial  service  of  a  (iernum  city  are  lilled  under  rules  and 
regulations  which  give  protection  against  arbitrary  ninoval. 


and  it  is  easy  for  the  cities  to  secure  an  abundant  supply  of 
expert  ami  highly  trained  civil  servants. 

The  lierman  cities  are  run  U]>on  excellent  business  prin- 
ciples, and  it  is  considered  their  function  to  undertake  anv- 
thing  that  will  promote  the  wellbeing  of  the  eominunity, 
provided  the  undertaking  will  not  involve  a  heavy  burden 
of  taxation  without  atbinlingany  compensatory  relief.  Thus 
niagniticent  water-supplies  are  the  rule  in  (.iernum  cities, 
but  they  arc  managed  in  such  a  way  that  while  furnishing 
the  citizens  with  good  water  at  nuMlerale  charge  the  works 
are  nuide  to  pay  the  expenses  of  nmnagenu'ut,  all  interest 
charges  upon  the  cost  of  the  plant,  an  ample  fund  for  nuiin- 
temmce  ami  for  the  accumulation  of  a  sinking  fund  lo  meet 
Ixinded  indebtedness  as  it  falls  due,  and  finally  to  jiay  over 
a  clean  protit  into  the  city  treasury  to  lighten  the  tax-rate. 
The  gas-supply  in  Germany  in  like  manner  is,  ils  a  rule,  pro- 
vided bv  the  municipal  authorities  us  a  prolitable  undertak- 
ing. >fany  of  the  (iernuiu  cities  are  estalilishing  electric- 
light  plants  on  similar  busiui^ss  principles,  (ireat  markets 
anil  abattoirs  are  the  ride  in  these  tierman  cities,  ami  they 
are  made  self-supporting.  The  German  towns  have  awak- 
ened greatly  to  the  necessity  of  sanitary  reforms  in  every 
direction,  and  they  have  ap]ilicd  scientific  knowledge  to  the 
problems  of  the  public  health  with  a  thoroughness  nowhere 
else  equaled.  All  great  German  towns  maintain  well- 
equipped  chemical  and  bacteriological  laboratories,  which 
are  constantly  testing  the  character  of  the  water-supply,  and 
examining  food  that  is  otfered  for  the  consumption  of  the 
masses.  Street-|)aving  and  public  works  of  various  kinds 
are  prosecuted  with  a  thoroughness  that  has  given  great 
reputation  toGcrmun  munici|)al  administration.  The  street- 
cleansing  service  also  excites  the  admiration  of  American 
visitors.  It  is  the  universal  policy  to  maintain  municipal 
savings-banks  and  pawnshops,  so  conducted  as  greatly  to 
encourage  thrift  and  to  lessen  the  hardship  of  sudden  mis- 
fortune. In  nothing  is  German  municipal  administration 
more  successful  than  in  its  system  for  the  relief  of  tho  poor 
and  the  distribution  of  public  charity.  l"nder  the  execu- 
tive magistrate  who  has  oversight  of  that  department  there 
is  a  large  central  committee,  upon  which  members  of  the 
council  and  non-olVicial  citizens  are  asked  to  serve.  There 
is  a  subdivision  of  the  city  into  main  districts,  and  then  into 
minute  ones  for  the  organization  of  relief.  Small  districts 
contain  perhaps  two  or  three  hundred  families  each,  some- 
times including  not  more  than  two  or  three  large  tenement- 
buildings.  For  each  of  these  districts  a  visitor  is  selected, 
whose  responsible  and  upright  character  has  commended 
him  to  the  attention  of  the  central  authorities.  Every  citi- 
zen thus  appointed  is  expected  to  serve.  It  is  considered 
an  honor  and  a  serious  public  duly,  and  refusal  to  accept 
without  good  excuse  would  involve  penalties  under  the  law. 
The  visitor  becomes  the  good  angel  of  his  little  district, 
knows  all  the  families,  and  can  not  well  be  imposed  upon. 
The  families  in  turn  know  to  whom  they  must  first  appeal 
in  ca.sc  of  need.  The  visitor  has  at  his  call  a  physician,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  render  prompt  medical  relief.  Each  visitor  nmst 
make  frequent  and  regular  report  of  every  ease  of  need  that 
arises  in  his  neighborhood,  and  every  case  of  duplication  or 
fraud  is  thus  easily  traieil  and  exposed.  The  German  mu- 
nicipalities are,  either  on  their  own  account  or  as  agents  of 
the  general  Government,  entering  upon  the  policy  of  insur- 
ing workiugmen  against  illness,  accident,  and  the  [leril  of 
an  impoverished  old  age.  The.se  communities  have  shown 
themselves  by  far  the  most  enlightened  in  the  world  in  their 
methods  of  dealing  with  poverty,  and  have  succeeded  as  no 
other  modern  communities  have  done  in  reducing  cily  life 
to  a  system  in  which  each  individual  and  each  family  has  its 
place  lis  in  a  great  household.  The  direct  application  of  mu- 
nicipal energy  to  the  task  of  providing  a  kind  of  education 
for  children  which  would  at  once  fit  them  for  life  under  ex- 
isting conditions,  and  enable  them  lo  enter  advantageously 
into  the  industrial  life  of  their  own  particular  community, 
has  been  carried  further  in  the  (ierman  cities  than  anywhere 
els<',  with  the  possible  exception  of  Paris.  Not  only  is  ordi- 
nary elementary  education  univei-sjil  ami  compulsory,  but 
the  cities  provide  much  manual,  trade,  and  commercial  in- 
struction, and,  through  the  universally  established  system 
of  gvmnaslie  drill,  make  provision  for  physical  development. 

Tlie  typii-al  mmlern  city  is  not  to  he  sought  in  Western 
Europe  or  .\inerica  alone,  but  may  be  studied  to  excellent 
advantage  in  the  two  capitals  of  the  Austrian-Hungarian 
empiri',  Vienna  and  liudapest.  These  splendid  eitiis  have 
established  admirable  systems  of  municipal  goveriunent, 
uniler   which  lliev    have    been    marvelouslv    reconstruetcd. 


16 


MUNICIPAL   GOVERNMENT 


MUNICIPAL  LAW 


transformed,  and  adorned,  and  under  which  also  the  health 
and  comfort  of  the  population  has  been  eared  for  no  less 
than  the  externalities  of  fine  architecture,  broad  boulevards, 
and  ornate  pleasure-grounds.  The  most  recent  tendency  of 
large  cities  in  all  countries  is  that  of  a  decline  of  population 
in  their  central  wards  and  districts,  and  a  vast  development 
of  less  densely  housed  population  in  the  suburbs.  This  new 
disposition  to  a  readjustment  of  urban  populations  over  a 
greater  area  is  due  principally  to  the  rapid  increase  of  tran- 
sit facilities,  by  whicli  for  a  small  price  a  great  host  of  peo- 
ple may  be  carried  from  business  at  the  core  of  a  town  to 
homes  on  the  circumference.  Thus  the  multiplication  of 
workingmen's  low-fare  trains  and  other  facilities  in  London 
is  fast  depopulating  the  inner  city:  and  a  little  area  of  1  sq. 
mile,  in  whose  busy  streets  and  shops  1,000,000  people  are 
engaged  during  the  working  hours,  now  shelters  less  than 
50,000  at  night.  Of  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  New 
York,  and  perhaps  also  of  Philadelphia  and  Chicago,  it  may 
be  said  in  a  general  way  that  there  is  a  central  population  of 
approximately  1,000,000  people  which  for  a  considerable 
period  of  years  has  remained  practically  stationary,  and 
which  is  now  tending  to  a  slight  decline.  All  further 
growth  of  population  attributed  to  these  cities  belongs  to 
the  portions  lying  beyond  the  inner  wards  which  contain 
the  one-million  nucleus.  If  a  still  smaller  nucleus  of 
200,000  or  300,000  is  sought,  one  discovers  that  the  enor- 
mous central  districts  show  substantial  declines.  Thus  the 
question  of  the  disappearance  of  the  slums  is,  under  natural 
and  healthful  circumstances  of  evolution,  tending  to  settle 
itself.  Some  intelligent  and  vigorous  effort  to  assist  these 
natural  and  wholes(_>me  tendencies  can,  however,  greatly 
quicken  the  results  that  are  desired.  In  Great  Britain 
municipal  governments,  under  a  series  of  so-called  "  work- 
ingmen's dwellings  acts  "  and  "  housing-of-the-people  acts," 
are  condemning  and  destroying  the  most  objectionable  tene- 
ment rookeries,  and  providing  here  and  there  in  the  crowd- 
ed districts  for  small  parks,  playgrounds,  and  open  spaces. 
They  are  also  perceiving  that  prevention  is  better  than  cure, 
and  that  stringent  regulation  of  new  buildings  may  in  the 
course  of  one  or  two  generations  result  in  a  vastly  improved 
housing  for  the  population  of  an  entire  great  cit)'. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  problem  of  adjusting  town  conditions  to 
the  convenience  and  welfare  of  large  masses  of  population 
has  come  into  prominence  more  recently  than  in  Europe, 
because  in  the  IT.  S.  the  life  of  the  farming  districts  and  of 
country  towns  has  until  lately  been  the  characteristic  and 
prevailing  system.  The  development  of  large  towns  since 
the  civil  war  has  led  to  much  scandal  in  municipal  admin- 
istration and  has  brought  some  reproach  upon  the  institu- 
tions of  the  country.  It  may  be  said  for  the  large  cities 
and  towns  of  the  U.  S.  that  they  have  shown  enterprise  in 
the  management  of  certain  departments,  such  as  the  water- 
supply,  the  ftre-extinguishing  service,  the  provision  of  com- 
mon schools,  the  creation  of  parks,  and,  in  many  eases  at 
least,  the  establishment  of  public  libraries.  The  chief  dif- 
ficulty of  municipal  government  has  grown  out  of  a  lack  of 
adaptation  of  the  nuniicipal  framework  to  the  accmnulation 
of  business  which  modern  civilization  makes  incumbent 
upon  the  ruling  authorities  of  a  large  town.  A  hopeful 
period  of  reform  has  been  entered  upon,  and  simplicity  and 
unity  begin  to  take  the  place  of  an  antiquated  system  of 
disconnected  boards,  commissionerships,  trusteeships,  sepa- 
rately elected  mayors,  and  aldermanic  groups,  or  common 
councils  stripped  of  adequate  authority,  and  therefore  un- 
able to  command  the  membership  of  the  best-qualified  citi- 
zens. In  the  U.  S.  the  policy  has  been  to  confer  street-rail- 
way franchises  and  gas  and  electric  franchises  upon  private 
comjianies,  and  the  negotiations  between  these  companies 
and  the  municipal  bodies  having  power  to  grant  franchises 
has  been  a  constant  source  of  scandal  and  corruption.  The 
frequent  interference  of  Statt;  Legislatures  in  the  affairs 
of  the  cities  has  also  made  impossible  any  stability  of  mu- 
nicipal methods  or  any  proper  development  of  local  re- 
sponsibility. The  municipal-reform  movement  has  been 
based  more  than  anything  else  upon  the  principle  of  local 
home  rule  for  municipalities,  in  order  that  the  people  who 
pay  the  costs,  bear  the  ills,  and  enjoy  the  advantages  of 
any  given  municipal  administration  may  exercise  autliority 
under  a  charter  which  sh.-iU  not  limit' them  unduly,  and 
which  shall  guarantee  them  against  outside  intervention  in 
matters  of  detail.  The  taxes  collected  for  the  maintenance 
of  municipal  government  and  local  institutions  in  all  civi- 
lizeil  countries  have  lately  grown  to  formidable  proportions; 
and  in  the  U.  S.  as  well  as  in  some  European  countries  they 


constitute  very  much  more  than  half  of  all  the  taxation 
levied  for  all  purposes  upon  the  taxpayer ;  but  the  citizen 
receives  in  return  a  series  of  services  which  are  as  essential 
to  his  health,  comfort,  and  happiness  as  are  the  necessities 
of  life  which  he  procures  through  his  private  expenditures. 
Municipal  indebtedness  everywhere  tends  to  assume  large 
dimensions:  but  most  of  it  has  resulted  from  a  tangible  and 
commendable  investment  in  public  works  which,  either  di- 
rectly or  indirectly,  give  ample  pecuniary  return.  The  fear, 
therefore,  lest  the  rapid  growth  of  modern  municipal  ex- 
penditure and  the  formidable  development  of  municipal  in- 
debtedness may  be  leading  on  to  a  period  of  disaster,  or 
even  of  bankruptcy,  is  not  well  founded.  All  municipal 
improvements  essential  to  the  health  and  general  wellbeing 
of  the  community  are  to  be  considered  in  the  light  of  a  co- 
operative investment  which  can  not  well  result  otherwise 
than  advantageously.  Albert  Shaw. 

Mnnicipal  Law  of  England  and  the  U.  S.  The  mu- 
nicipal or  national  law  of  England  has  assumed  its  pres- 
ent form  after  a  practically  uninterrupted  development  of 
fourteen  centuries.  Although  it  has  been  largely  influenced 
by  Koman  law,  civil  and  canon,  it  is  essentially,  in  its  char- 
acter as  in  its  origin,  a  Teutonic  system.  Carried  by  English 
colonists  to  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  it  divides  with  Roman 
law  the  rule  of  the  modern  civilized  world. 

Anglo-Saxon  Law. — During  tlie  first  five  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era  Britain  was  governed  by  Roman  imperial  law  ; 
but  this  law,  like  the  rest  of  Roman  civilization,  was  swept 
away  by  the  heathen  hordes  from  the  coast  of  the  North 
Sea,  who  invaded  and  conquered  the  island.  English  law 
began  as  "  a  slip  of  German  law  planted  in  England " 
(Maitland).  It  consisted  at  first  of  numerous  bodies  of 
tribal  custom,  varying  in  details,  similar  in  essentials.  The 
so-called  "  laws  "  or  "  dooms  "  issued  by  Kentish,  Wessex, 
and  English  kings  and  their  tvitan  from  the  seventh  to  the 
eleventh  century,  and  even  those  published  by  the  Danish 
conqueror  Canute,  are  simply  statements  of  Anglo-Saxon 
custom.  Ijike  the  contemporaneous  "  folk-laws  "  of  conti- 
nental Germany,  these  dooms  consist  mainly  of  provisions 
for  the  punishment  of  breaches  of  the  peace  and  tariffs  of 
penalties  for  private  wrongs.  After  the  conversion  of  the 
English  to  Christianity  the  Church  exercised  a  certain  hu- 
manizing influence  upon  the  law — an  influence  which  was 
more  considerable  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  than  in 
the  tenth  and  eleventh.  The  Church  also  introduced  its 
own  law  of  marriage,  and  familiarized  the  English  with  the 
use  of  deeds  and  testaments ;  but  even  in  these  matters  its 
innovations  were  adapted  to  the  national  ideas  and  customs. 

Norman  Law. — The  system  of  law  which  Rolf  and  his 
Norse  followers  found  in  Northern  France  when  they  con- 
quered and  colonized  that  region,  the  system  which  they  ac- 
cepted and  perpetuated  in  their  duchy  of  Normandy,  and 
which  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  men  carried  with  them 
to  England,  was  also  a  ti'ansplanted  slip  of  German  law,  viz., 
the  law  of  the  Franks:  but  tln-ough  the  legislative  reforms 
of  the  Frankish  kings  and  emperors,  and  in  the  practice  of 
the  Frankish  courts,  the  law  of  the  Franks  had  reached  a 
higher  stage  of  development  than  the  closely  related  law 
of  Saxon  England.  The  Norman  conquest  of  England 
brought  thesetwo  systems  face  to  face.  The  English,  as 
the  Conqueror  had  promised  them,  lived  by  their  own 
law ;  the  Noniums  by  Norman  law :  the  relations  be- 
tween the  two  races  were  ordered  by  special  provisions. 
These  special  provisions,  of  course,  were  framed  in  a  Nor- 
man spirit ;  and  it  was  equally  a  matter  of  course  that  the 
Anglo-Saxon  law,  where  it  was  still  applicable,  suffered  at 
the  hands  of  the  unsympathetic  Norman  otficials  who  had 
to  apply  it;  but  the"  fact  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  law  was 
gradually  su|ierseded  by  the  Norman  was  not  due  solely  or 
even  mainly  to  the  conditions  of  competition,  but  to  the 
technical  superiority  of  the  Norman  system.  English  re- 
sistance to  this  process  produced  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  numerous  compilations  of  Anglo-Saxon  laws, 
falsely  ascribed  to  Saxon  or  Norman  rulers  (e.g.  the  so- 
called  laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, of  Ilenry  I.),  but  the  infiltration  of  Norman  ideas  in 
these  very  com|iilations  shows  the  hopelessness  of  the  strug- 
gle. In  the  fusion  of  the  two  systems  which  accompanied 
the  fusion  of  tlie  two  races,  in  the  development  of  acommon 
law  for  all  Englishmen,  the  Norman  law  was  by  far  the 
more  important  constituent.  The  language  of  the  laws  and 
of  the  reports,  from  the  time  of  the  I'lantagencts  to  that  of 
the  Tudors,  was  Nornian-Prcnch. 


MUNICIPAL   LAW 


MUXJEET 


The  Common  Law. — The  fusion  i>f  Saxon  and  Nonnan 
law  was  not  accomplished  by  the  development  of  a  now 
popular  custom — a  new  Kiifjlish  folk-law.  It  was  etiected 
partly  by  lejfislation  (roval  charters,  provisions,  assizes,  stnt- 
ules),  mainlv  by  judicial  decisions.  The  Norman  cuni|Uesl 
had  given  l'In;iland  a  more  stronjily  centralized  government 
than  existed  anywhere  upon  the  Continent  before  ihe  fif- 
teenth century.  .\t  a  perioil  when  the  administration  of 
secular  justice  upon  the  Continent  had  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  the  feudal  stigneui-s  and  the  free  cities,  the  kin;;"s  writs 
ran  throughout  Kii;;land ;  controversies  were  tried  by  royal 
justices  in  the  county  and  circuit  courts;  and  appeals  lay  to 
the  central  courts  of  exche(|uer.  king's  bench,  and  com- 
mon pleas.  These  conilitioiis  alone  woulil  have  insured  a 
rapid  deviloptnent  of  national  English  law,  but  the  process 
was  ha>tened  by  the  centnilization  of  legislative  power  in 
the  crown  and  the  Parliament.  When  the  imperial  Ronnin 
law,  revived  in  Italy,  spn'ad  over  Europe  in  the  twelfth  and 
following  centuries,  Ihe  English  common  law  was  sullicient- 
ly  developed  to  avert  any  such  "reception"  of  the  law- 
books of  Justinian  as  took  place  upon  the  Continent.  Such 
inllueiR-e  as  they  exerted  was  indirect,  anil  was  limited  to 
special  departments  of  the  law.  The  l.omljard  jurist  Vaca- 
rms  rea<l  iJoman  law  at  Oxford  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
one  of  the  first  important  treatises  u|Mjn  English  law,  that  of 
Bracton  (properly  Bratton,  circu  li5'.l),  was  strongly  colored 
by  Hoinan  ideas;  but  even  Bracton  drew  upon  the  Roman 
juris()rudence  for  his  definitions,  his  classification,  and  his 
terminology  rather  than  upon  the  Koman  law  for  his  niles  ; 
anil  in  the  later  inediieval  writers  (liritton,  Fortescue,  Lit- 
tleton, etc.)  Koman  influences  are  far  less  pencptible.  In 
the  thirteenth  and  following  centuries  it  was  not  the  univer- 
sities that  trained  the  lawyers,  but  the  Inns  of  Court.  It  is 
true  that  one  very  important  part  of  the  English  common 
law,  the  law  of  conlract.s,  seems  to  exhibit  numerous  Roman 
grafts;  but  it  may  well  be  ipieried  whether  this  fact  is  due 
to  a  direct  acceptance  of  Roman  rules  or  to  their  indirect 
transmission  through  the  customs  of  European  merchants. 
See  Mercantile  Law. 

The  most  important  foreign  influence,  as  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  perio<l,  was  that  of  the  Church.  From  the  Con- 
queror the  ecclesiastical  courts  obtained  an  independent 
jurisdiction,  which  they  sedulously  strove  to  widen.  Their 
encroachments  were  checked  by  many  statutes  (provisions of 
Clarendon,  statutes  of  prtrmnitire.  etc.),  and  their  subjection 
to  the  roval  authority  was  repeatedly  emphasized  :  but  their 
jurisdiction  over  Marriage  (q.  v.)  and  family  law  in  general, 
and  over  the  administration  of  estates,  was  never  seriously 
quest  ioned,  and  these  branches  of  the  English  law  are 
mainly  the  creation  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts. 

It  should  1)0  added  that  throughout  the  Middle  Ages 
ohurcdimen  were  frequently  employed  as  judges  in  the  secu- 
lar courts  (Briwlon;  for  example,  was  an  ecclesiastic  as  well 
as  a  justice  of  evre  and  of  lussizc),  and  that  the  chancellors, 
from  Becket  to  Wolsev,  were  regularly  eiclesiastics. 

Equity. — Toward  tlie  close  of  the  Miildle  Ages  judicial 
law-making  assumed  a  peculiarly  bold  and  open  form  in  the 
decisions  of  the  court  of  chancery.  The  chancellors  exer- 
cised the  right  of  supplementing  and  evi'ii  of  overriding  the 
common  law  by  virtue  of  the  equitable  powers  which  all 
Teutonic  peoples  seem  to  have  regarded  as  inherent  in 
the  crown — or  which,  if  a  wider  generalization  may  be 
risked,  all  Aryan  nations  appear  to  have  regarrhd  as  in- 
herent in  supreme  i)olilical  authority.  (Cf.  Roman  Law-.^im 
fiimorariiim.)  In  England  these  powers  seem  to  have  been 
little  needed  while  Ihe  common  law  was  in  active  develop- 
ment, and  while  new  writs  were  constantly  appearing  to 
meet  new  exigencies;  it  wius  only  when  the  common  law- 
had  become  relatively  rigid  that  equity  became  an  impor- 
ant  agency  in  the  development  of  the  law.  .Some  of  Ihe 
earliest  traces  of  a  special  jurisiliclion  exercised  by  the 
court  of  chancery  are  found  in  Ihe  reign  of  Richard  II.; 
under  the  Tudors  Ihe  development  of  equity  was  very  rapid  : 
since  the  eighteenth  century  the  courts  of  equity,  both  in 
England  and  the  l'.  S.,  have  practically  confined  lliemselves 
to  administering  Ihe  law  established  by  previous  ilecisions. 
The  net  result  of  the  whoji'  process  has  been  tfi  create  "a 
kind  of  second.'iry  common  law  "  (Kent),  which  in  our  day 
has  Ix'en  sul)stanlially  merged  in  the  general  body  of  the 
judge-made  law.     See  Ev'MTV. 

lilnrkslnne. — The  English  law,  common  and  statutory,  as 

it  existed  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  has 

l)een  so  set  forth  by  Blackstone  that   his  work  has  become  a 

legal  classic.     The  faults  of  his  work  ari'  mainly  due  to  the 

•jsr. 


circumstances  under  which  it  was  done,  namely :  That  at 
the  time  when  it  was  written  the  historical  study  of  law  was 
in  its  infancy;  the  analysis  of  legal  institutions  was  crude 
and  imperfect ;  and  a  thoroughly  logical  arrangement  of 
the  law  was  a  problem  that  interested  very  few  persons  on 
the  continent  of  Euro[pe  and  nobody  in  England.  A  for- 
eign scholar  who  is  far  more  competent  than  most  of  Black- 
stone's  critics  to  aiipreciate  that  writer's  shortcomings,  Ilein- 
rich  Brunner,  of  Berlin,  has  justly  said  that  "no  other  sys- 
tem of  moilern  law  has  been  presented  in  so  complete  ami 
well-rounded  a  form  as  the  English  law  in  the  Commeuta- 
lieg  of  Blackstone." 

I'nileil  .Stales. — The  English  colonists  brought  with  them 
to  America  the  English  law.  common  and  statutory.  After 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  il  was  expressly  resolved  in 
some  of  the  States  that  this  law  was  still  in  force.  It  was 
as  unnecessary  to  pass  such  resolutions  as  to  decree  the  con- 
tinued employment  of  the  English  language.  E.xcept  in 
those  portions  of  the  I'.  S.  where  the  colonists  and  their  in- 
stitutions were  French  or  Spanish,  the  English  law,  as  it  ex- 
isted at  the  period  of  inde])endencc,  is  still  the  basis  of  law. 

The  colonists  also  brought  with  them  those  methods  of 
developing  the  law  which  had  Ix'cn  recognized  and  employed 
in  England,  viz.,  statutes  and  judicial  decisions.  In  conse- 
(juence,  however,  of  the  adoption  of  written  constitutions 
which  are  not  enacted  by  the  ordinary  legislative  bodies, 
and  by  reason  of  the  division  of  powers,  legislative  and  ju- 
dicial, which  is  incidental  to  the  federal  form  of  government, 
the  sources  from  which  law  priK'eeds  are  more  numerous  in 
the  I'.  S.  than  in  Eiiglanil.  \\'ntti'n  law  is  made  (1)  by 
amendment  of  the  Federal  Constitution  ;  (2)  by  acts  of  Con- 
gress and  treaties;  (3)  by  amendment  of  Ihe  several  State 
constitutions;  (4)  by  acts  of  the  several  State  legislatures. 
Cnwritle/i  law  (see  Law)  is  made  (1)  by  the  I-"edcral  judiciary 
and  (2)  by  the  several  State  judiciaries.  As  regards  subsid- 
iary or  delegated  law-making  power  (ordinance,  etc.).  .see  Law. 

'fhe  extent  to  which  the  common  law,  i.  e.  the  judge-made 
law,  is  still  in  force  in  Great  Britain  and  its  colonies  and  in 
the  r.  S. — the  extent,  therefore,  to  which  the  development  of 
the  law  is  still  in  the  hands  of  the  judiciary — constitutes  a 
striking  diflerenee  between  these  countries  ami  the  countries 
of  the  Roman  law.  In  the  slates  of  continental  Europe 
and  of  Central  and  South  America  the  entire  law  is  ordi- 
narily reduced  liy  codification  to  statutory  form  ;  or  at  least 
the  attempt  is  made  to  bring  the  whole  law  into  such  form  ; 
and  the  law-making  |)ower  of  the  judiciary  is  limited  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  written  law  and  the  filling  of  "open 
places."  In  Great  Britain  and  in  the  L'.  S.  considenible  por- 
tions of  the  law  liave  been  reduced  to  statutory  form,  and 
even  to  the  form  of  codes;  but  the  great  body  of  jirivato 
law,  especially  the  law  of  pei-sonal  property  and  of  contracts, 
still  rests  upon  judicial  custom  or  "precedent,"  and  is  devel- 
oped not  by  legislation,  but  by  the  decisions  of  the  courts. 

LiTERATiRE. — I'pon  the  history  of  English  law  as  a  whole 
no  satisfactory  work  exists.  The  best  is  still  Reeve-s's  Ilis- 
tury  of  the  Kiigliuli  Lair  (3d  ed.  1814 ;  later  editions  by  Fin- 
lason  to  lie  avoided).  For  literature  of  s|iecial  historical  in- 
vestigations, see  Brunner,  (^iiellen  den  Kiiffli.icheii  J^echln,  in 
HoltzendortT's  lierht-tencyclopadie  (5lh  ed.  Leipzig,  l^'.K); 
English  translation  of  Brunner's  article  from  the  4th  ed.  by 
llastie,  Edinburgh.  IMSH).  and  Mailland,  Materials  for  Knij- 
li.th  J/islory.  in  I'olilieal  Science  Quarterly,  iv..  4!l6.  628. 
For  modern  English  law.  see  .Stephen,  .AVic  Cummentaries 
(7th  ed.  London,  1HT4).  For  American  law,  see  Kent,  t'om- 
mentaries  (12lh  ed.  by  O.  W.  Holmes,  Jr..  Boston,  1873).  A 
brief  but  very  suggestive  work  is  that  of  O.  W.  Holmes.  Jr., 
TTie  Common  /,<iic(Boslon,  1S81).  On  the  question  of  judge- 
made  law  rs.  statute,  see  Carter,  Codification  of  our  Com- 
mon Lair  (Sew  York.  1M84).  and  Dillon  and  Miinroe  Smith 
I  in  Political  Science  Quarterly,  ii.,  91,  105;  iii.,  130. 

Ml'NROE  SHITU. 

Mnnlrlpio  Nontro  (Brazil) :  See  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Munjeet'.  .-r  Kast  IiiiHan  .Madder  f»iiiii/Vf/  is  from 
llinii.  manjit,  a  drug  used  for  dyeing  red):  a  plant  (liiihia 

1  cord i folia)  extensively  cultivated  in  India,  its  root  being 
used  as  a  dyestulT  for  producing  colors  similar  to  those  of 
common  maihler.  It  was  formerly  supposed  to  contain  the 
same  coloring-matters  as  madder,  alizarin,  and   purjuirin. 

I  Dr.  Slenhouse  (froc.  Hoy.  Soc.  xii..  633;  xiii.,  Hfi.  14.))  has 

I  shown  that  it  contains  piirpiirin,  but  no  alizarin.  The 
substance  supposed  lo  be  alizarin  he  has  shown  to  !«•  n  dis- 

I  tinct  body,  munjisline,  having   pmix-rlies  very  similar  to 

I  those  of  alizarin. 


18 


MUNK 


MtJNTER 


Muuk,  Hermann,  M.  D.  :  neurologist ;  b.  in  Posen,  Prus- 
sia, Feb.  3,  1839 :  was  educated  at  Posen,  and  Berlin  and 
Gottingen  Universities;  became  successively  a  physician 
(1860),  decent  in  the  University  of  Berlin  (1863),  assistant 
professor  (1869).  professor  and  director  of  the  physiological 
laboratory  in  the  Veterinary  High  School  (1876).  He  is  a 
member  of  the  Roval  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Berlin.  He 
belongs  to  the  school  of  physiologists  known  by  the  names 
of  Jliiller,  Dubois-Reymond,  and  Virchow.  His  principal 
works  on  physiology  and  physiological  psychology  are  Un- 
Urmchunqen  ilber  das  Westii  der  Ntrven-Erreyting  (vol.  i., 
Leipzig,  1868):  Die  elektrischen  u.  Bewegungs-Erscheinvn- 
gen  am  Blatte  der  Diotiaea  musapttla  (Leipzig,  1876) :  Ueber 
die  Functionen  der  Orosshirnrinde  :  Oesammelte  Mittheil- 
ungen  (Berlin,  1881 :  2d  ed.  1890) ;  numerous  memoirs  in 
Zei/schr.  fiir  wissensch.  Zoolngie  (vol.  vs..).  Arch.f.  Anat.  u. 
Physiol.  1860-94),  Sitzungsber.  d.  Berliner  Akademie  d. 
y\'iss.  (1880-94),  etc.  J.  M.  Baldwin. 

Mniik,  Salomon :  Orientalist;  b.  at  Glogau,  Silesia,  May 
14,  1805,  of  Jewish  parentage ;  studied  at  Berlin  (1820).  iit, 
Bonn,  and  at  Paris  (1828) ;  was  appointed  assistant  in  the 
department  of  Oriental  MSS.  in  the  National  library  of 
Paris  (183."));  traveled  in  Egypt  and  Syria  with  Montefiore 
and  Cremieux  (1840),  where'he  assisted  in  founding  schools 
for  Israelites;  and  was  made  Professor  of  Hebrew,  Chaldee, 
and  SjTiac  at  the  College  de  France  (1863),  though  in  1852 
he  had  become  quite  blind.  In  1860  he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Acaderaie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles-Lettres,  and 
a  little  later  a  member  of  the  Consistoire  Central  Israelite. 
D.  Feb.  6,  1867.  His  greatest  work  was  the  edition  of  the 
Arabic  text,  with  French  translation,  of  Moses  ben  Maimon's 
Guide  of  the  Perplexed,  Le  Guide  des  Egares  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1856-66).  He  also  wrote  Reflex.ions  sur  le  culte  des  anciens 
Hebreux  (Paris,  1833) ;  Notice  sur  Rabbi  Saadia  Gaon 
(Paris,  1838);  Palestine  (1845);  Philosophie  chez  les  Juifs 
(1848);  Notice  sur  Ahou'l  Walid  Jlerwan  (1851;  crowned 
by  the  Academy);  Melanges  de  philosophie  Juive  ef  arabe 
(1857-59);  Commentaire  de  Rabbi  Tan'houm  de  Jerusalem 
sur  le  lirre  de  Ilabakkouk  (1843).  He  also  wrote  articles  in 
the  Encyclopfdie  pitforesgue,  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences 
philosophiques,  and  the  Dictionnaire  de  la  conrersation. 

Richard  Gottheil. 

Muiikacsy,  moon-kaafsee,  Mihaly  :  historical  and  genre 
painter;  b.  at  Munkacs,  Hungary,  Oct.  10,  1846.  His  real 
name  was  Michael  Lieb,  and  he  was  a  carpenter's  appren- 
tice before  he  began  the  study  of  art.  He  studied  at  the 
Vienna  Academyand  under  Franz  Adam  in  Munich  ;  went 
to  Dlisseldorf  in  1867  and  painted  there  The  Last  Dai/  of  a 
Man  Condemned  to  Death,  which  at  once  brought  him  into 
notice.  In  1872  he  established  himself  in  Paris  and  painted 
pictures  of  life  in  that  capital.  With  his  picture  of  Milton 
Dictating  Paradise  Lost  to  his  Daughters  (in  the  Lenox 
Library,  New  York)  he  entered  on  a  new  field,  and  this  work 
and  others  exhibited  by  him  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878 
attracted  much  attention.  Christ  before  Pilate  and  Christ 
on  Calvary  are  two  large  compositions  which  have  been  ex- 
hibited in  all  the  large  cities  of  the  U.  S.  He  visited  the 
U.  S.  in  1886  and  painted  several  portraits  in  New  York. 
Studio  in  Paris.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Mufioz,  Juan  Bautista;  historian;  b.  near  Valencia, 
Spain,  1745.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Valencia, 
devoted  liimself  to  historical  studies,  and  in  1779  was  com- 
missioned historiographer  of  the  Indies,  with  special  orders 
from  the  king  to  write  the  history  of  America.  Only  the 
first  volume  of  his  Historia  del  Nuevo  Mundo  was  pulilished 
(Madrid,  1793);  this  brings  the  narrative  down  to  1500,  and 
is  a  work  of  the  highest  value.  D.  at  Madrid  in  1799.  His 
manuscripts  were  scattered,  but  most  of  them  are  now  in 
the  Academy  of  History  at  Madrid.  H.  H.  S. 

Miinro',  Hugh  Andrew  Johnstone,  T).  C.  L.  :  classical 
scholar;  b.  at  Elgin,  Scotland,  Oct.  14,  1819;  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Caml)ridge,  where  he  became  a  fellow 
1843;  published  an  edition  of  Lucretius  (3  vols.,  text,  com- 
mentary, translation ;  4th  cd.  1885),  one  of  the  standard 
works  of  English  scholarship;  oi  Horace  (1869):  Elucida- 
tions of  Catullus  (1878) :  and  numerous  articles  of  great 
value  in  philological  journals.  He  is  also  distinguished  as  an 
elegant  writer  oJE  Greek  and  Latin  verse.  D.  Mar.  30,  1885. 
Dr.  Munro  was  the  first  university  professor  of  Latin,  from 
1869  to  1872,  when  he  resigned.    Revised  by  A.  Gudeman. 

Munstpr:  the  largest  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland ; 
bounded  X.  and  E.  by  Connaught  and  Leinster,  and  S.  and 


W.  by  the  Atlantic.  Area,  9,481  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1891) 
1,168,994.  The  province  is  divided  into  the  counties  of  Cork, 
Clare,  Kerry,  Limerick,  Tipperary,  and  W'atertord. 

Munster ;  capital  of  the  province  of  Westphalia,  Prussia ; 
on  the  Aa;  101  miles  by  rail  N.  by  E.  of  Cologne  (see  map 
of  German  Empire,  ref.  3-D).  It  is  an  old  but  well-built  and 
picturesque  town,  surrounded  with  beautiful  promenades 
(its  old  fortifications),  and  containing  many  open  places 
planted  with  trees  and  lined  with  elegant  houses.  The  most 
remarkable  among  its  buildings  are  the  cathedral  (built 
1225-61),  and  the  town-ball,  in  which  the  Peace  of  Westpha- 
lia was  signed  in  1648.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  eighteenth 
century  Munster  was  the  capital  of  an  independent  princi- 
pality "of  the  German  empire.  In  1719  it  was  merged  into 
the  archbishopric  of  Cologne,  and  in  1814  it  was  given  to 
Prussia  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  together  with  most  of  its 
territory.  It  has  many  good  educational  institutions,  print- 
ing establishments,  dye-works,  and  manufactures  of  leather, 
woolen,  cotton,  and  silk  fabrics,  paper,  and  sugar,  and  it  car- 
ries on  a  considerable  trade  in  its  own  manufactures  and  the 
products  of  the  surrounding  district.     Pop.  (1890)  49,340. 

Miiiisterberg,  Hugo,  Ph.  D.,  M.  D. :  psychologist ;  b.  at 
Dantzic,  Germany,  June  1, 1863 ;  studied  at  Dantzic,  Geneva, 
Leipzig,  and  Heidelberg.  From  1887  to  1891  was  instructor 
and  1891-92  Assistant  Professor  of  Psychology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Freiburg  in  Baden,  Germany ;  in  1892  became 
Professor  of  Experimental  Psychology,  Harvard  University, 
Cambridge,  Mass.  His  principal  works  are  Die  Willenshand- 
lung  (Freiburg,  1888);  Oedankenubertragung  (1889);  Der 
Ursprung  der  Sittlichkeit  (1889) ;  Beitrage  zur  experimen- 
tellen  Psi/chologie  (1889-93);  Aufgaben  und  Methoden  der 
Psychologic  (1891);  and  many  psychological  and  philosoph- 
ical articles  in  Psychological  Review.  Reallexikon  der  med- 
icin.  Propadeutik,  Zeitschrift  fur  Psychologic,  etc. 

J.  M.  Baldwin. 

Muntaiier',  Ramon  :  chronicler ;  b.  at  Peralada,  Catalonia, 
in  1265  ;  d.  in  1336 ;  the  most  important  authority  on  the  early 
history  of  his  country,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  media>val  annalists.  After  having  filled  many  positions 
of  trust  under  his  sovereign,  and  participated  in  the  remark- 
able Catalan  expedition  to  Rumelia  and  Greece,  Muntaner 
retired  to  Xilvella,  near  Valencia,  and  at  the  age  of  sixty 
years  began  the  composition  of  his  chronicle.  His  narra- 
tive covers  the  period  between  the  "  miraculous  "  birth  of 
King  Jaume,  Jacme,  or  Jayme,  I.,  the  founder  of  the  Catalan 
nationality,  in  1208,  and  the  coronation  of  King  Alphonso 
in  1328.  jluntaner"s  chronicle  was  first  printed  at  Barcelona 
in  1558  under  the  title  Chronica  o  Descripcio  dels  fets  e 
hazanyes  del  inclyt  Rey  Don  Jaume.  primer  Rey  d'Arago,  de 
Mallorques  e  de  Muntpesller ;  feta  per  lo  mngn ijich  en  Ramon 
JIuntaner.  A  reprint  of  this  edition  appeared  at  Barcelona 
in  1562.  Lanz  gave  an  edition  of  the  text  in  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Stuttgart  Literarischer  Verein  in  1844,  and 
BofaruU  has  published  at  Barcelona  the  text  with  a  Castilian 
version  (1860).  Tliere  is  a  good  French  translation  by  Bu- 
chon  in  the  Chronigues  etrangeres  relatives  aux  Expeditions 
fran^aises  pendant  le  XIII'  Siecle  (Paris,  1841) ;  a  German 
by  Lanz  (2  vols.  8vo,  Leipzig,  1842) ;  and  an  Italian  by  P. 
Moise — Due  cronoche  catalane.  etc.  (2  vols.,  Florence,  1843- 
44).  See  also  G.  Finlay,  Medicvral  Greece  and  Trebizond 
(London,  1851).  Revised  by  A.  R,  Marsh. 

Miin'ter,  Friedrik  Christl^n  Carl  Henrik  :  theolo- 
gian and  author ;  b.  at  Gotha,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
Oct.  14,  1761  ;  studied  theology  and  arclueology  at  Copen- 
hagen and  Gottingen  ;  traveled  for  three  years  in  Italy  on  a 
stipend  from  the  Danish  Government ;  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor in  Theology  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1790, 
and  Bishop  of  Sealand  in  1808.  D".  at  Copenhagen,  Apr.  9, 
1830.  He  published  the  Coptic  translation  of  the  book  of 
Daniel  (1786),  the  statute-book  of  the  Templars  (1794),  a 
manual  on  early  Christian  doctrinal  liistory  (1801-04),  valu- 
able works  on  "the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Den- 
mark (1823-32),  and  of  the  Reformation  (1802),  a  very 
learned  disquisition  on  the  religion  of  the  Carthaginians 
(1833),  and  a  work  describing  the  symbols  and  artistic  rep- 
resentations employed  by  Christians  in  the  first  century 
(1825).— His  father,"  Balthasar  JIinter  (b.  at  Lubeck,  Jlar. 
24,  1735;  d.  in  Copenhagen,  (_)ct.  5.  1793),  was  minister  of 
the  German  congregation  at  Copenhagen,  and  wrote  in 
German  -1  Faithful  Narrative  of  the  Conversion  and  Death 
of  Count  Strueiisee  (trans,  into  English  by  Rev.  G.  F.  A. 
Wendeborn,  London,  1773 ;  3d  ed.  1826). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 


MUNTJAK 


MIHAT 


19 


Muiitjak  :  I  lie  .liiviinese  naiuo  adoptuil  iis  the  eominon 
naiiK'  i>f  li  few  s|H'c'iu^  of  !<iuhI1  tU'er  fiiiimt  in  Suiitliorii  ami 
Eastern  Asia  anil  some  of  the  neijihlmrinj;  isUnils.  Thev 
are  fharaeterizeil  liy  the  great  length  of  the  pedieels,  or  picjc- 
esssi-s  of  the  frontal  liones,  siiiiportinj;  the  antlers.  The 
peUieels  are  cunt inueil  forward  oil  the  skull  as  iiroiuineiil, 
conver>;in;;  ridges;  the  antlers,  wliieh  are  short,  turn  in- 
ward at  the  tip,  and  have  but  a  single  brow-prong.  The 
little  side  hoofs  so  well  developed  in  other  deer  are  small, 
and  represented  by  the  lower  portion  only.  These  little 
deer  stand  only  about  2  feet  high  at  the  shoulder.  The 
most  eomnion  species,  (Vrrii/«.«  aiirriiK,  often  called  liark- 
ing-ileer,  occurs  in  British  India,  ISurnia,  Ceylon.  Java,  Su- 
matra, etc.    Ceri'H/ii«  reei'e*ii  is  found  in  China.    F.  A.  L. 

Miiiitz :  See  Brass. 

Miinvcliia,  myu-niki-a  (in  Gr.  Mowvxla) :  the  name  of  one 
of  the  liarbors  of  Athens,  and  also  of  a  hill  lying  between 
the  harbors  Zea  and  Munychia.  On  the  hill  there  was  a 
temple  of  Artemis  Munychia,  in  whose  lumor  a  festival 
(also  called  J£uni/c/iia),  in  commemoration  of  the  battle  of 
Salamis,  was  held.  The  hill  was  the  scene  of  the  battle  be- 
tween the  patriots  umler  Thrasybulus  and  the  Thirty  Ty- 
rants (4lt-S  II.  ('.).  In  'ii'i  II.  r.  the  hill  served  as  a  fortress 
for  the  Macedonian  garrison  of  occui)ation.        J.  U.  S.  S. 

Miin'zor,  Thomas:  Reformer;  b.  at  Stolbcrg,  in  the  liar/. 
Momitains,  about  141*0 ;  studied  at  Leipzig,  and  became 
preacher  at  Zwickau,  in  Saxony,  in  l.VJO.  and  in  l.Vj:!  at  All- 
steilt,  in  Thuringia.  At  first  he  worked  in  unison  with  the 
KeforiMei"s,  though  his  preaching  wa-s  always  strangely  mixed 
up  with  mystical  and  fanlaslical  ideas,  but  afterward  he 
turned,  aicording  to  his  own  "inner  light,"  against  the 
"halfness"  of  Luther  and  Melanchtlnui,  and  demanded  a 
radical  reform  of  Church  and  state,  which  led  to  uproar 
and  confusion.  lie  entertained  peculiar  ideas  of  infant 
baptism,  similar  to  those  of  the  Anabaptists,  with  whom, 
however,  he  had  no  direct  connection,  llis  nicjst  character- 
istic views  were  a  belief  in  continuous  divine  revelation 
through  dreams  an<l  visions,  and  in  the  community  of  prop- 
erty, and  he  i>romulgated  them  in  siieech  and  writings  with 
a  Somewhat  coarse  but  often  impressive  eloquence.  Ex- 
pelled from  AUsledt  by  the  (iovcrnment,  he  went  to  Kurcm- 
berg,  and  next  to  SchatTliausen,  but  returned  soon  to  Thur- 
ingia, and  settled  at  Milhlhausen.  Here  he  succeeded  in 
overthrowing  the  city  council  and  apjioiuting  another  which 
wa.s  entirely  under  his  Ci>ntrol ;  and  when  in  l'yi~>  the  Peas- 
ants' war  bri'ke  out  in  .Southern  tiermany,  he  instigated  the 
whole  po^)ulation  in  and  around  Miihlhausen  and  Langen- 
salza  to  rise  in  revolt.  Jluriler  and  plunder  ensued,  but  on 
May  1.1, 1.VJ.5,  the  peasants  were  totally  routed  at  Franken- 
han.sen  after  a  long  battle.  .Munzcr  was  taken  prisoner, 
put  to  the  torture,  and  beheaded  at  Miihlhausen  a  few  days 
afterward,  llis  Life  was  written  by  Melanchthon  (Ilage- 
nau,  I'ti'}),  G.  T.  Strobol  (Xureinberg.  17!)5),  .1.  C.  Seideinann 
(Dresden  and  Leipzig,  1842),  and  llcinrich  Leo  (Berlin, 
18.5(5).  Kevised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Mur:  a  river  of  Austria.  It  rises  in  the  Mureck  Jloun- 
taiiis  in  the  district  of  Salzburg,  enters  into  Styria,  where 
it  becomes  navigable  at  Jnilenburg,  and  passes  by  (iralz, 
flows  through  Hungary  into  Croatia,  and  joins  the  Drave 
at  Legrad,  after  a  course  of  i.'JO  miles.  It  receives  about 
UK)  allbhiits,  among  which  are  the  Kainaoh,  Lasznitz, 
Sulm,  I'ills,  and  Mllrz,  but  none  is  navigable. 

Miirad:  the  name  of  five  Ottoman  sultans.  MfRAD  I. 
GuAzi  the  Victorious  (i:)6()-.H!l),  h.  in  l:t26;  son  of  Sultan 
Orkhan  (iliazi ;  captured  .Vdrianoiile  in  ISUH,  and  in  KtlM 
made  it  the  Ottoman  capital;  snbiluc<l  a  large  part  of  ,\sia 
.Minor;  captured  Thcssalonica  in  l;lS(i.  and  crushed  .S>rvia 
at  the  battle  of  Kossovo  (l;!8!l).  where  he  was  slain.  Tire- 
less and  able  in  war  ami  conix'il,  pious,  frugal,  and  just,  he 
is  one  of  the  most  illustrious  Ottoman  sovereigns. — Mirai) 
11.  (I42I-0I).  b.  in  140:i;  son  of  .Mohammeil  1.;  eonquereil 
I'hrygia  an<l  Karamania,  subjected  the  I'eloponnesus  to 
tribute,  and  consoliilaled  the  empire;  but  he  was  unsu<-c<>ss- 
ful  at  the  siege  of  Const  ant  innple  (1422)  anil  of  Belgrade 
(14:i!i),  and  could  not  coniiucr  the  .\lbanian  Scanderbeg  or 
the  Hungarian  lluniadi.  lie  loved  his  people,  encouraged 
learned  men,  and  built  many  mosques  and  colleges.  Though 
twice  abdicating  in  favor  of  his  son  .Mohammiil,  he  was 
each  linu'  soon  afterward  forced  by  his  subjects  to  reasoend 
the  throne. — Mirad  111.  ( |.'iT4-!1">),  b.  in  I.^IO,  was  a  son  of 
.Seliin  11.;  had  his  (he  linithi'rs  iMiwstrung  on  the  day  of  his 
accession,     lie  conipiered  (ieorgia  (1578),  and  carried  on  a 


successful  war  against  Persia  (1577-90).  Though  brave,  he 
was  avaricious,  uxorious,  sanguinary,  and  feeble-niinded, 
and  the  emtiire  declined  under  his  reign.  He  had  121) 
children.— Mi-RAU  IV.  Hiiazi  (Iti2:i-J0),  b.  in  1(JU  :  son  of 
Achinet  I.;  captured  Bagdad  in  ItiJW,  reduced  the  Druses, 
cowed  the  janissaries,  and  introduced  a  few  reforms.  He 
possessed  ability,  but  was  violent,  revengeful,  and  unjust, 
and  injured  rather  than  benefited  the  empire. — MfRAn  V. 
(May  2!)-.\ug.  :)1,  187(5).  b.  in  1840,  was  a  son  of  Sultan  Abd- 
ul Medjid.  On  the  dethronement  of  his  uncle  Abd-ul 
Aziz,  he  succeeded,  according  to  Ottoman  custom,  as  the 
eldest  member  of  the  dynasty.  Well  educated,  alfable.  and 
kindly,  his  accession  gave  rise  to  high  ho|>es,  but  excite- 
ment, caused  by  the  violent  death  of  Abd-ul  Aziz  and  by 
the  a,ssa.ssination  of  some  of  his  own  ministers,  brought  on 
insanity,  and  he  wius  deposed.  His  brother  Abd-ul  Hamid 
II.,  present  sultan  (1897),  reluctantly  succeeded. 

E.  A.  Grosve.vor. 

Miirw'iia  [=Lat.  =  Gr.  iiipaiya,  a  sea-eel]:  the  typical 
genus  of  the  nioray  family  of  fishes  {JI 11  rani  da).  It  in- 
cludes the  Munviia  hehna,  the  famous  inuncna  of  the  an- 
cients, a  European  salt-water  eel.  Its  flesh  is  white  and 
good,  and  it  was  artificially  bred  by  the  ancient  Homans, 
who  jirized  it  extremely.  Other  species  ol  Jlimena  occur 
in  trupii  III  .\merica. 

Murii''iiiiln>  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Miirana,  the  tyjucal  ge- 
nus] :  a  family  of  fishes  of  the  order  Apodrs,  typified  bv  the 
celebrated  Mur.i-;na  (7.  v.)  of  the  ancients.  The  boily  is 
elongated,  as  in  the  common  eel :  the  scales  absent ;  the 
head  moderate;  the  opercular  bones  generally  rudimentary 
and  in  part  wanting:  the  mouth  wilh  the  cleft  moderately 
ileveloped,  or  very  large  and  extending  far  backward  later- 
ally; llic  intcrmaxillaries  are  rudimentary;  the  teeth  well 
developed;  the  branchial  apertures  developed  externally  as 
lateral  holes;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  variable,  sometimes 
being  well  developed  and  sometimes  nearly  absent :  the  pec- 
toral fins  also  either  present  or  absent.  The  skull  exhibits 
a  number  of  well-marked  characters,  as  shown  by  Cope:  the 
parietals  are  largely  in  contact;  the  ethmoid  very  wide; 
the  symplectic.  maxillary,  pterygoid,  basal,  branchihyal.and 
superior  and  inferior  pharyngeal  bones  all  wanting,  except 
the  fourth  superior  pharyngeal:  this  is  jaw-like,  and  snp- 
iiorted  by  a  strong  superior  bianchihyal ;  other  superior 
branehihyals  wanting  or  cartilaginous.  The  color  is  fornu'd 
by  the  articulation  of  the  lighter  hues  inclosing  darker  in- 
terspaces, sometimes  by  blue  ero.ss-baiids,  sometimes  by 
white  ocelli,  and  sometimes  the  coloration  is  uniform.  The 
species  are  very  numerous,  chiefly  in  the  tropical  seas.  Most 
of  these  fishes  are  voracious  and  some  even  ferocious.  They 
are  known  to  English-speaking  fishermen  as  moravs,  a  word 
derived  from  Miirtena.  Kevised  by  D.  S.  Jordan'. 

Mural  Cifcle  [mumJ  is  from  Lat.  muralin.  deriv.  of 
mi(  rii.i,  wall]:  an  astronomical  instrument  consisting  of  a 
large  graduated  circle,  to  which  is  attached  a  tele.scoiie  mov- 
ing oiilv  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and  supporteii  on  the 
]ierpenilicular  face  of  a  wall.  It  was  used  for  the  delermi- 
nation  of  the  declinations  of  the  heavenly  bodies. but  is  now 
superseded  by  the  meridian  circle,  which  has  the  advantage 
of  allowing  both  right  ascension  and  declination  to  be  de- 
termined at  the  same  time. 

Mlirat,  Fr.  nron.  miVraa',  Joaciiim  :  soldier;  b.  at  La 
Bastille  Forluniere,  in  the  department  of  Lot.  France.  Mar. 
25,  1771 ;  the  son  of  an  innkeeper;  was  educated  at  Cahors 
and  Toulouse,  where  he  j)repared  himself  for  the  Church. 
Dismissed  from  the  seminary,  he  entered  a  regiment  of 
<'hivs.senrs,  and,  cashiered  in  the  regiment,  lived  for  some 
lime  as  waiter  in  a  rd/f' in  Paris.  On  the  eslablishinent  of 
the  consiitutional  guard  of  Louis  XVI.  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  that  body  of  lriH>ps,  and  was  afterward  transferred 
to  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  He  was  aide-dcH'amp  to  Xa|>o- 
leon  in  17!)5;  accompanied  him  to  Egypt  in  17!18:  was  made 
general  of  division  in  17!)!);  married  in  IHtK)  Caroline,  a 
sister  of  the  First  Consul,  and  was  made  marshal  of  France, 
iin)>erial  prince,  and  grand  admiral  in  1804.  In  most  of  Na- 
poleon's gn-al  battles,  Auslirlilz.  Jena.  Eylau.  Friedland.  he 
li«ik  a  dislingiiished  part,  and  the  emperor  loaded  him  with 
honors.  In  1805  he  was  made  Grand  Duke  of  Berg,  and  in 
1H08  King  of  Naples  under  the  name  of  Joachim  I.  NajMi- 
leon.  Miirat  wished  to  govern  his  kingdom  independently 
of  France,  but  every  attempt  in  this  direction  Napoleon  frus- 
trated with  indignation.  After  the  battle  of  Leijizig.  Murat 
hastened  to  Italy  and  opened  negotiations  with  (in'at  Brit- 
ain and  Austria,  which  poH.Ts  L-ii'iraiiti'.'.l   liiiii,  bv  a  treaty 


20 


MURATORI 


MURDER 


on  Jan.  11,  1814,  the  possession  of  liis  throne  on  the  condi- 
tion of  his  joining  the  allies  against  Napoleon.  He  marched 
against  Prince  Kugene,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  but  when  he  iieard 
that  the  Bourbons  insisted  violently  at  the  Congress  of  Vi- 
enna on  his  expulsion,  he  stopped,  and  when  Napoleon  re- 
turned from  Elba  he  at  once  declared  war  against  Austria 
(Mar.  31,  1815).  Defeated  Apr.  13  at  Perrara,  and  May  2 
at  Tolentino,  he  fled  to  France,  where,  however.  Napoleon 
refused  to  receive  him.  He  lived  in  the  vicinity  of  Toulon, 
but  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
Prance.  With  a  few  adherents  he  made  a  fantastic  attempt 
to  invade  Naples,  but  was  caught  near  Pizzo,  tried  before  a 
court  martial,  and  shot  Oct.  13,  1815. 

Miirato'ri,  LuDovico  Antonio  :  historian;  b.  atVignola, 
in  the  duchy  of  Modena,  Oct.  21,  1672;  studied  theology 
and  history  at  the  University  of  Modena;  took  holy  orders; 
became  keeper  of  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan  in  1694, 
and  of  the  d'Este  Ijibrary  and  the  ducal  archives  at  Mo- 
dena in  1700.  and  died  Jan.  33,  1750.  His  contributions  to 
the  history  of  Italy  are  very  valuable :  Rerum  Ifalicarum 
Scriptores  (35  vols.,  Milan,  1723-51);  AntiqnUates  ItuUcw 
Medii  JEoi  (6  vols.,  1738-42) ;  Annali  d' Italia  (13  vols., 
1744-49). 

MiiraTieff:  name  of  a  family  eminent  in  Russian  liter- 
ary, military,  and  pulitical  history,  prominent  during  the 
reign  of  Ivan  III.  (1463-1505),  who  granted  them  large  tracts 
of  land,  and  especially  noteworthy  in  the  eighteenth  and 
nineteenth  centuries.  (1)  Muravieff,  Michael:  poet  and 
diplomat:  li.  1757;  tutor  of  the  grandchildren  of  Catherine 
II.,  who  made  him  a  senator,  state  secretary,  and  curator 
of  the  University  of  Moscow.  D.  1807.  Ilis  scattered  liter- 
ary works  were  collected  and  published  at  St.  Petersburg  in 
1830,  the  chief  being  The  Inhabitants  of  the  Suburljs,  Dia- 
logues of  the  Dead,  and  Essay  on  Literature  and  Morals. 
— (3)  Muravieff,  Nicolas:  mathematician;  published  the 
first  algebra  in  Russian  (1753) ;  made  lieutenant-general  and 
governor  of  Livonia  by  Catherine  II. ;  d.  1770. — (3)  Mura- 
vieff, Nicolas  NieoLAiEviT(ai :  general;  son  of  preceding; 
b.  1768;  played  a  brilliant  part  in  the  Russo-Prench  wars  of 
1813-15 ;  then  devoted  himself  to  a  school,  afterward  im- 
perial, which  he  had  founded  for  Russian  staff  officers  and 
to  development  of  national  agriculture.  D.  1840.  He  left 
five  sons,  all  of  whom  became  distinguished. — (4)  Muravieff, 
Alexander:  general;  oldest  son  of  preceding;  b.  1793;  d. 
1864;  took  part  in  conspiracy  of  1835,  on  account  of  which 
he  was  exiled  to  Siberia,  but  was  pardoned  for  his  father's 
sake  and  recalled ;  served  with  distinction  in  the  Crimean 
war;  was  appointed  governor  of  Nijni  Novgorod  in  1856. — 
(5)  Muravieff  Karski,  Nicolas:  general;  son  of  (3);  b. 
1793;  fought  in  Russian  campaigns  of  1813-15;  chief  of 
staff  during  war  with  Persia  (1837) ;  general  in  Russo-Turk- 
ish  war  (1838-39);  commanded  the  right  wing  at  the  cap- 
ture of  Warsaw  (1831);  commanded  the  army  of  assistance 
which  disembarked  in  the  Bosphorus  (1833) ;  was  disgraced 
in  1838,  but  during  the  Crimean  war  commanded  the  army 
of  the  Caucasus  aiid  captured  Kars  (1855),  for  which  exploit 
he  received  the  title  h'arsk-i  and  was  made  a  prince.  Though 
he  fought  in  over  fifty  pitched  battles  he  was  never  wound- 
ed. D.  18.56. — (6)  Muravieff,  Michael:  general  and  mathe- 
matician; son  of  (3);  b.  1796:  fought  in  campaigns  of  1812- 
15;  governor  of  Grodno  (1830),  where  he  crushed  insubordi- 
nation with  severity;  vigorously  opposed  emancipation  of 
the  serfs;  put  down  the  students'  rebellion  (1861)  and  the 
Polish  insurrection  (1863);  was  president  of  the  Russian 
Geographical  Society,  and  did  much  for  Russian  agricul- 
ture. D.  1866.— (7)  Muravieff  Amurskt,  Nicolas  NicolaIe- 
vitch:  general;  son  of  (3);  b.  1810;  served  in  the  Caucasus ; 
governor-general  of  Eastern  Siberia  (1847),  and  conquered 
the  territory  on  the  Amur  for  Russia  (1858),  whence  he 
gained  the  title  ot  A mursJci ;  negotiated  a  treatv  with  Japan 
very  favorable  to  Russian  interests.  D.  lH8l!— (8)  Mura- 
vieff, Andrew:  traveler  and  author  (1798-1874);  son  of 
(3);  a  versatile  and  very  popular  writer;  composed  many 
works  in  German  and  Russian  on  historv,  religion,  and  his 
travels.  The  chief  are  Pilgrimage  to  'the  Russian  Holy 
Places  (1833);  Dante,  a  dram'a  (1841);  History  of  the  First 
Four  Centuries  of  Chrisli(init>i  (1842);  History  of  Jerusa- 
lem CiMA);  History  of  the  h'lissian  Cliurch  (184.5);  Souve- 
nirs of  Rome  (1846);  Description  of  Georr/ia  and  Armenia 
(1848);  Souvenirs  of  the  Fast  (IN.M):  Impressions  of  the 
Ukraine  and  Sevastopol  (18.59). — (9)  Muravieff-Apostol, 
Ivan:  author;  b.  1769;  amhnssadur  to  Saxony  and  Spain; 
versed  in  ancient  and  modern  languages;  translated  many 


works  into  Russian.  D.  1851.  His  best-known  original  pro- 
duction is  archaeological,  A  Journey  in  the  Crimea.  His 
three  sons  took  part  in  tlie  insurrection  of  1835 ;  the  eldest, 
Seroius  Ivanovitch  Muravieff-Apostol,  the  chief  of  the 
conspiracy,  was  hanged ;  the  second  died  of  his  wounds ; 
and  the  third  was  exiled  for  twenty  years  to  Siberia. 

E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Murcliison,  Sir  Roderick  Impey,  K.  C.  B.,  P.  R.S.,  D.  C.  L., 
LL.  D. :  geologist ;  b.  at  Tarradale,  Ross,  Scotland,  Peb.  19, 
1792  ;  studied  at  the  military  college,  Marlow,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh ;  was  an  officer  in  the  army  1807-15, 
serving  in  the  Peninsula  and  Sicily;  was  the  associate  of 
Davy ;  Ijecarae  in  1835  a  fellow  of  the  Geological  Society,  and 
in  1836  F.  R.  S. ;  aided  Sedgwick  and  Lyell  in  British  and 
continental  geological  studies ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and  often  its  president ;  trav- 
eled extensively  in  Russia,  Scandinavia,  etc.;  was  knighted 
1846,  made  K.  C.  B.  1863,  baronet  1866 ;  became  in  1855 
director-general  of  the  geological  survey  of  the  United  King- 
dom. D.  in  London,  Oct.  83, 1871.  Among  his  leading  works 
are  the  Siluria7i  System  (1839),  enlarged  to  Siluria  (1854), 
Geology  of  Russia  and  the  Ural  (1845),  and  Geological 
Atlas  of  Europe  (1856).  He  was  the  recipient  of  numerous 
honors  and  distinctions,  British  and  foreign.  See  Memoir 
of  Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  by  Archibald  Geikie  (3  vols., 
London,  1874). 

Miir'cia  :  province  of  Spain,  part  of  the  old  province  of 
the  same  name,  which  in  1833  was  divided  into  the  present 
provinces  of  Murcia  and  Albacete.  Area.  4,478  sq.  miles. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  forming  elevated  plateaus  and 
large,  deep  valleys.  Where  water  is  abundant  the  soil  is 
exceedingly  fertile,  producing  wine,  oil.  silk,  hemp,  and  all 
kinds  of  fruits,  but  in  places  where  water  is  deficient  the 
country  is  nearly  a  desert.  Mineral  springs  aboimd ;  cop- 
per, lead,  iron,  and  salt  are  found.  Pop.  (1887)  491,436. 
Capital,  Murcia. 

Mureia  :  capital  of  the  province  of  Murcia,  Spain;  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Segura ;  50  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Cartagena 
(see  map  of  Sjiain.  re(.  18-H).  It  is  irregularly  built,  but 
its  streets  are  clean  and  its  liouses  substantial,  often  ele- 
gant. Its  cathedral  has  a  high  tower,  from  the  top  of  which 
there  is  a  magnificent  view  of  the  surrounding  valley,  the 
huerta,  the  river  wliich  waters  it,  and  the  lofty  mountains 
which  inclose  it.  Murcia  has  good  educational  institutions, 
manufactures  of  silk,  linen,  mats,  cordage,  saltpeter,  pow- 
der, glass,  and  musical  instruments,  and  an  extensive  trade 
in  the  products  of  its  fertile  huerta.     Pop.  (1887)  98,538. 

Murder  [M.  Eng.  morder,  morther  <  0.  Eng.  «ior5or,  de- 
riv.  of  morh,  murder :  Germ,  mord,  Goth.  maur]tr ;  cf.  Sanskr. 
mrta.  death  ;  Gr.  PpoT6s  (for  /ipoTiis),  mortal :  Lat.  mors,  mor- 
tis, death] :  the  unlawful  killing  of  a  person  with  malice 
aforethought ;  or,  as  defined  by  Lord  Coke,  the  unlawful 
killing  by  a  person  of  sound  mind  and  discretion  of  any 
reasonable  creature  in  being  and  under  the  king's  peace, 
with  malice  aforethought,  either  express  or  implied.  This 
crime  is  punishable,  almost  without  exception,  in  all  coun- 
tries with  the  death  penalty :  and  when  committed  on  one's 
self  involved  at  the  common  law  the  forfeiture  of  the  dece- 
dent's goods  and  chattels  and  ignominy  to  the  dead  body. 
(See  Capital  Punishment  and  Suicide.)  By  examining  the 
separate  elements  of  the  latter  definition,  it  will  appear  that 
to  constitute  the  crime  of  murder  the  act  of  killing  must 
have  been  by  a  person  of  sound  memory  and  discretion — that 
is,  by  a  person  who  is  neither  insane  nor  of  such  an  age  as  to 
be  incapable,  either  absolutely  or  by  legal  presumption,  of 
the  intent  which  is  necessary  to  the  commission  of  the 
crime.  (See  Insanity  and  Infant.)  The  killing  must  also 
be  unlawful — that  is,  neither  excusable  nor  justifiable.  See 
Homicide. 

The  person  killed  must  be  a  reasonable  creature  in  being 
— that  is,  a  living  person  fully  born.  At  the  common  law, 
therefore,  the  killing  of  an  unborn  child  was  not  murder, 
although  if  the  child  were  fully  born  alive  and  then  died 
frohi  the  effects  of  acts  committed  upon  it  before  birth,  this 
constituted  murder.  (See  Infanticide  and  Abortion.)  It 
wa.s  also  a  rule  of  the  common  law.  which  is  still  valid,  that 
the  death  of  the  person  must  occur  within  a  year  and  a  day 
of  the  time  of  the  wrongful  act  or  injury  which  is  the  al- 
leged cause  of  death,  the  day  upon  which  the  act  is  com- 
mitted being  included  in  I  he  reckoning. 

The  expression  '■  under  the  king's  peace,"  or,  as  it  is  com- 
monly expressed  in  the  U.  S.,  "  under  the  peace  of  the  State," 
excludes  from  being  regarded  as  murder  the  killing  of  an 


ML'RDEK 


ML'KEXIDK 


21 


alien  ciioniy  enga^ud  in  actual  hostilities:  but  tliu  killing  of 
an  alii-n  t-ui'iny  iitlierwise  ccinstilutes  inurilur. 

Tlio  word  malice  in  law  has  not  only  its  ordinary  sijrnifi- 
cation  of  a  mischievous  or  wicked  intention,  but  also  an  ar- 
tificial one  dciiotiii;;  the  malicious  or  wicked  intention  which 
by  fiction  of  law  is  presumed  to  exist  when  u  |)ers<in  does  a 
wroiii^ful  iicl  without  just  cause  or  e.\cu>c.  (See  Malick.) 
Malice  ajorfl/ioiii/h/.  lus  used  in  the  above  delinitioii,  is  a 
phrase  of  rather  indetinilc  meaning',  which  comes  down  from 
the  old  statutes  of  nniyhem  and  those  di^tinfruishiiif;  murder 
from  .Manslauhutkr  (^.  >:).  It  is  the  same  in  nieaninf;  as 
the  plira.se  "  malice  preiwnsed,"  which  also  occurs  in  the 
older  b(K)ks,  in  one  of  which  it  is  said  that  "  lie  that  doelh 
a  cruel  act  voluntarily  doeth  it  of  malice  prepensed."  The 
word  aforethought  has  no  fjreal  siirnilicance  in  the  meaning 
I  of  the  phrase,  and  in  the  language  of  many  opinions  of 
jud;;es  and  other  law  writiiifp*  the  phrase  seems  to  be  little 
distinjjuisheil  fnim  malice  alone;  but  in  the  better  u.sage 
malici-  aforethought  implies  a  greater  degree  of  wickedness 
or  malevolence  than  malice  alone. 

The  ilistindion  between  espresn  and  implied  malice  is  an 
artilicial  one  (nuilice  in  all  cases  being  implied  from  the  cir- 
cumstances), and  refers  to  the  methods  of  proving  its  exist- 
ence as  a  fact  in  any  given  case.  .Malice  is  sjiid  to  be  ex- 
press in  those  cases  in  which  the  wrongful  intention  is  in- 
ferreii  as  an  ordinary  <leductipn  of  fact — that  is,  through 
processes  of  reasoning  unaided  by  any  legal  presumptions 
from  the  evidence  which  is  given  for  the  vqry  purpose  of 
establishing  its  existence,  such  as  lying  in  wail,  former 
threats,  old  gruilges,  studied  preparations,  etc.  Where  the 
wrongful  inti'Ution  is  inferrid  as  a  legal  presumption  and 
not  as  an  actual  fact,  as  where  the  law  conclusively  pre- 
sumes nnilicc  from  the  existence  of  certain  other  facts,  it  is 
calleil  implied  malice.  Thus  malice  is  implied  as  a  conclu- 
sive presumption  of  law  from  the  killing  of  a  person  by  one 
engageil  in  the  commission  of  a  felonv.     Whether  malice  is 

tiresuineil  from  the  mere  fact  of  killing  alone  is  disputed ; 
lut  the  better  opinion  is  that  it  will  not  bo  presum<'d  with- 
out some  circumstance  connected  with  the  killing  which 
raises  a  pre;ium|)tion  of  malice,  although  a  killing  could 
harilly  be  proveil  without  showing  circumstances  which 
woulii  raise  or  rebut  such  a  presumption.  The  point  there- 
fore .seldom  or  never  has  any  bearing  upon  the  real  facts  of 
any  actual  case,  but  it  is  nevertheless  frecpiently  raised  by 
coun-^el  and  incorponiteil  in  the  charge  of  the  judge  to 
the  jury.  In  aildition  to  those  cases  where  there  is  a  pre- 
conceived de.-ign  to  kill  the  very  person  whose  life  was  taKcn 
and  where  the  act  was  not  excusable  or  justiliable,  which 
are  plaiidy  murder,  the  malicious  intent  is  jircsumed  where 
a  person  is  engaged  in  the  willful  commission  of  an  act 
which  shows  him  to  be  an  enemy  to  mankind  in  general,  as 
if  he  should  deliberately  fire  a  loaded  gun  into  a  crowd,  al- 
Ihouu'h  he  might  not  design  to  take  the  life  of  any  particular 
individual:  also  when  engaged  in  the  commissitm  of,  or  the 
attempt  to  commit,  a  felony,  or  in  the  willful  commission  of 
an  act  dangerous  ami  adapted  to  kill,  or  in  the  willful  neg- 
lect of  a  legal  duty  of  a  nature  adapted  to  kill,  or  in  any 
other  unlawful  act  ot  a  similar  natures 

It  wius  a  general  doctrine  of  the  common  law  that  if  the 
killing  was  done  utider  great  and  immediate  provocation, 
upon  the  spur  of  the  moment,  while  the  pa-ssioiis  were  in- 
llaiiied.  the  crime  was  reduced  to  manslaughter;  but  no 
matter  how  gri'at  the  anteceilent  provocation,  after  an  inter- 
val had  elapsed  suflicient  for  the  piLssions  to  cool  and  the 
rea.son  to  return,  the  homicide  would  then  be  mnriler, 

Sliilitlury  ('/iiiiii/en. —  It  will  bo  seen  from  the  foregoing 
that  the  common  law  indudeil  uniler  the  heatl  of  inurdor, 
an<l  punished  with  the  sjiine  penallv,  many  acts  of  a  difTer- 
ent  degree  of  moral  cul|ialiilily.  T)ius  a  person  i-oininitlini; 
an  act  which  was  intendid  to  produce  great  bodily  harm, 
but  distinclly  not  intiiided  to  kill,  was  punished  the  same 
as  a  person  who  deliberately  took  life.  .Slatut.iry  changes, 
however,  have  aimed  to  remedy  this  vice  of  the  common 
law,  and  have  divi<led  murder  into  two  or,  in  some  cases, 
three  cliusses,  leaving  uni-liaiii,'i'd  the  coramon-law  distinc- 
tion iK'tween  muriler  an<i  manslaui;hter.  The  particulars 
of  the  statutes  are  various,  ami  the  language  employed  dif- 
fers in  the  dilTereiil  Stale-;:  but  in  general  they  class  uiidiT 
the  head  of  murder  in  the  lirst  degree  those  cases  where 
there  is  a  specific  intent  to  kill;  where  the  killing  is  done  in 
•  ho  commission  of  arson,  burglary,  robbery,  or  rape;  in 
many  of  the  States,  where  it  is  committed  by  poison  or  by 
lying  in  wait  ;  and  in  .some  States  {as  in  Now  York)  when 
committed  "  by  an  act  imminently  dangerous  to  others,  and 


'evincing  a  depraved  mind,  regardless  of  human  life,  al- 
though without  any  premeditated  design  to  effect  the  death 
of  any  individual."  There  is  no  U.  S.  statute  dividing  mur- 
der into  degrees,  and  con.se(|Uenlly  the  Kedcnil  courts  make 
no  distinction,  but  follow  the  common  law.  See  Wharton's 
Laui  of  Hiimicide;  Bishop's  iVeio  Cumiiifniiiriex  on  the 
Criminal  Law.  V.  Stckges  Allen, 

Mliro.  Col.  William;  classical  scholar;  b.  at  Calilwcll, 
.Vyrshire.  .Si-ollaiid,  .Inly  S»,  17'.l!);  was  educated  at  West- 
minster Scluiol  and  at  the  I'niversity  of  Edinburgh,  and 
subsequently  .St udieil  several  vears  in  Germany,  lie  wrote 
articles  for  The  Kdinburah  /{euiew  upon  the  literature  of 
modern  languages,  whicli  were  characterized  as  brilliant 
by  Moore  and  Jeffrey;  published  Brief  Remarkx  on  the 
Clironotoyy  of  the  Kyiiptiiin  J)i/n<txlie8  (182!));  ..-l  iJi/mer- 
tution  upon  the  Calendar  of  the  Zodiac  of  Ancient  i-'m/pt 
(1832);  traveled  in  tireece  anil  the  Ionian  islands  in  18;j8, 
publishing  the  Journal  of  his  tour  in  1842;  and  after  many 
years  of  research  issued  his  Critical  History  of  the  Lan- 
yitage  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece  (ii  vols.,  1850-f)7), 
which  was  never  finished,  but  of  which  the  several  portions 
upon  the  epic  and  lyric  poets  and  the  historians  may  be  re- 

farded  as  separate  woiKS.  lie  also  edited  7'/ic  Caldwell 
'aper.i  (\i  vols.)  for  the  Maitland  C'luli.  t'i'l.  Mure  was  an 
able  literary  critic,  best  known  as  a  strenuous  defender  of 
the  unity  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyxsey^awA  the  identity  of 
their  authorship  in  the  person  of  Homer.  He  sat  in  Par- 
liament for  Henfrewshire  184()-5.5,  and  was  lord  rector  of 
the  University  of  Glasgow  1847—18.  I),  in  London,  Apr.  1, 
1860.  Kevised  by  BiiNJ.  Idi;  Wiikelkb. 

Mnrot, mii'rii,  JIarc  Axtoine,  de,  often  called  MiRKTfs: 
humanist ;  b.  at  Muret,  near  Limoge.s,  France,  Apr.  12, 1526. 
He  was  an  ardent  and  precocious  student  of  classical  letters, 
and  taught  with  success  at  I'oitiers,  Bordeaux.  Paris. and  Tou- 
louse. At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  wrote  in  Latin  the  school 
tragedy  Juliux  C(esar\  he  was  connected  with  the  French 
men  of  letters  of  the  Pleiade,  and  furnished  a  commentary 
for  Ronsard's  Amours  de  Casnandre  (in  the  2d  ed.,  l."),");}). 
Charges  pressed  against  him  bv  enemies  drove  him  from 
France  to  Italy,  where  he  studiec"!  law  at  Venice  and  Padua, 
and  gained  great  reputaticm  by  his  lectures  in  Rome,  where 
he  received  cm]iloynient  in  the  service  of  Cardinal  d'Este. 
He  was  onlained  priest  in  1576.  D.  in  Rome,  June  4,  1.585. 
Besides  his  writings  in  Latin,  Orationes,  Observationum 
Juris  liber  singularis,  etc.,  he  prepared  editions  of  many 
Latin  writers,  and  his  Vari(e  Lectiones  are  still  valuable, 
but  he  was  especially  famous  for  his  Latin  style.  Eilitions 
of  his  works  appeared  at  Vcrcma  (5  vols.,  1723-30),  Levdcn 
(4  vols.,  178!)),  Leipzig  (3  vols.,  1834-41).  On  his  Life,  see 
vol.  iv.,  pp.  518-.5S2,  in  Rulmken's  edition  of  his  works, 
and  the  monograph  of  C  Dejob,  J/.  ^1.  JIuretus  (Paris, 
1881),  and  Mark  Pattison's  essays,  i.,  pp.  124-132. 

A.  G.  Caxkield. 

Mii'rex  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  mu'rex.  the  purple-fish, 
driv.  of  muK.  sea-mussel,  like  Gr.  /liai.  purple-fisli  from  /iDi, 
mussel] :  name  of  a  large  genus  of  gasteropod  mollusks  of 
the  family  Jli/ricidw.  There  are  some  181)  living  species, 
and  nearly  as  many  fossil  ones,  fouiul  in  the  Eocene  and 
later  di'posils.  The  living  species  are  worldwide  in  distri- 
bution. M.  brandaris,  trunciitus,  and  others  furnished  a 
part  of  the  Tyriaii  pur]ile  dye  of  the  ancients.  The  ani- 
mals are  all  predatory  ;  many  of  the  shells  assume  singular 
forms.  One  ot  the  most  remarkable  is  the  thorny  wood- 
cock or  Veniis's  comb  of  collectors  (.V. /ri'6«/r/«),  from  the 
Spice  islands.  J/,  regius  of  the  Pai'ific  coast  of  tropical 
.\inerica  is  splendidly  colored.     See  >1l'R1CID.«. 

Murex'ido  [from  liat.  mii'rcj-,  the  purple-fish,  purple],  or 
Piirpiirnte  (froni  Lai. /(Hryji/rn.  purple]  of  .Vliiino'niiiiii : 
a  sulislani'e  formed  by  the  action  of  ammonia  on  alloxan- 
lin.  and  by  other  reactions.  It  crystallizes  in  four-sided 
prisms,  which  are  garnet-<'olored  by  transmitted  and  rich 
gold-green  by  reflected  light.  In  water  it  forms  a  splendid 
purple  solution.  With  mercuric  salts  it  produces  niie  red 
ami  purple  colors  on  silk,  wool,  cotton,  and  leather,  ami 
with  zinc  sidts  orange  and  yellow  colors.  The.se  colors  are 
very  bright  ami  resist  the  action  of  light;  they  are,  how- 
ever, very  sensitive  to  sulphurous  acid,  which  rapidly  ilis- 
colors  them,  so  that  they  can  not  l)e  used  in  cities  where 
coal-gas  is  employed.  At  one  time  miin-xide,  made  from 
the  uric  acid  of  guano,  was  extensively  iiseil  for  dyeing  and 
calico-printing.  It  wa.s  driven  out  by  the  aniline  colors. 
S»>e  IhESTlKKS.  See  lieporl  on  }f>irrxide  Dyrint],  by  B. 
Kopp  (Uep.  Chim.  app.,  i.,  70).  and  Ilofmann's  Report  (186!^ 


22 


MURFREE 


MURILLO 


p.  118):  also  Jahnsbericht  (1857,  649;  1858,  671  ;  1859,  753),' 
and  Wagner's  Jahresb.  for  the  same  years. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Murfree,  Mary  Noah.les  :  novelist ;  b.  near  Murfrees- 
boro,  Tenn.,  about  1850.  Her  short  stories  and  novels, 
written  under  the  pseudonym  Charles  Egbert  Craddock, 
are  impressive  and  highly  dramatic  studies  of  life  among 
the  Tennessee  Mountains.  They  include  Iti  the  Tennessee 
Mountains  (1884) ;  The  Prophet  of  the  Great  Smoky  foun- 
tains (1885) ;  The  Despot  of  Broomsedge  Com  (1888) ;  In 
the  Stranger  People's  Country  (1891) ;  His  Vanished  Star 
(1894).  H.  A.  B. 

Miirfreesboro  :  city  (founded  about  1800,  State  capital 
in  1817-~7) ;  capital  of  Rutherford  co.,  Tenn.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Tennessee,  ref.  6-P) ;  near  Stone 
river,  on  the  Nash.,  Chat,  and  St.  L.  Railway ;  33  miles 
S.  E.  of  Nashville,  119  miles  N".  W.  of  Chattanooga.  It  is 
in  an  agricultviral,  cotton,  and  fruit-growing  region,  and 
has  an  historical  value  from  the  fact  that  engagements  oc- 
curred here  between  the  Union  forces  under  Gen.  Rose- 
erans  and  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Bragg,  on  Dec.  31, 
1863,  and  Jan.  3,  1863,  the  actions  forming  what  is  known 
as  the  battle  of  Murfreesboro  or  Stone  river.  The  city  is 
the  seat  of  Soule  Female  College  (Baptist,  founded  1841), 
and  has  6  churches,  a  national  soldiers'  cemetery,  2  na- 
tional banks  with  combined  capital  of  $175,000,  and  3 
weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  3,800  ;  (1890)  3,739  ;  (1894) 
estimated,  5,000.  Editor  of  "  Free  Press." 

Mnrfreesj)oro,  Battle  of:  one  of  the  most  fiercely  con- 
tested battles  of  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  .S. :  fought  Dec.  31, 
1863,  and  Jan.  3,  1863,  between  the  Union  forces  under 
Gen.  Rosecrans  and  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Bragg. 
It  is  also  known  as  the  battle  of  Stone  River. 

Gen.  Rosecrans  moving  out  from  Nashville  Dec.  36,  1863, 
forced  back  Bragg's  outposts,  and  on  the  29th  found  his 
army  in  position  about  3  miles  in  front  of  Murfreesboro, 
Tenn.,  facing  nearly  N.  W.,  its  right  under  Breckinridge 
resting  on  Stone  river,  its  center  under  Polk  and  its  left 
under  Hardee.  Rosecrans  drew  up  his  army  in  front  of 
the  Confederates,  McCook  on  tlie  right,  Thomas  in  the  cen- 
ter, and  Crittenden  on  the  left,  resting  on  Stone  river. 
The  left  of  each  army  extended  beyond  the  right  of  the 
other.  The  plans  of  battle  adopted  by  Rosecrans  and  Bragg 
were  nearly  identical. 

In  the  morning  of  Dec.  31  each  advanced  his  left  wing 
with  a  view  to  turning  and  driving  in  the  enemy's  right. 
Hardee  being  but  a  short  distance  from  McCook,  his  attack 
made  at  daylight  struck  first,  and  being  pushed  with  great 
vigor  the  Union  right  was  slowly  rolled  back,  until  at  the 
close  of  the  first  day  Rosecrans's  army  was  concentrated,  its 
right  and  center  along  the  Nashville  Pike  on  a  short  line 
nearly  at  right  angles  to  its  original  position,  and  its  left 
curved  back  and  resting  on  Stone  river.  No  serious  fight- 
ing occuiTed  on  Jan.  1.  The  lines  were  rectified  and  Rose- 
crans extended  his  left,  placing  one  division  under  Col. 
Beatty  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  in  a  position  to  en- 
filade a  ]iart  of  Bragg's  line,  making  it  necessary  for  Bragg 
to  dislodge  this  division  or  abandon  his  line. 

On  Jan.  2  Breckinridge,  by  Bragg's  order,  assaulted  Beat- 
ty's  division,  and  by  the  force  of  his  attack  at  first  forced  it 
back.  The  Union  left  in  falling  back,  however,  exposed 
the  Confederates  to  a  crushing  artillery  fire,  by  which  they 
were  stopped,  and  a  vigorous  countercharge  drove  them 
back  to  their  original  position. 

No  farther  attacks  were  made,  and  on  the  night  of  Jan. 
3  Bragg  withdrew  to  the  Elk  river.  The  Union  force  en- 
gaged was  43.400  men  ;  its  losses,  1,730  killed,  7,803  wound- 
ed, and  3,717  missing;  total,  13,249,  or  31  per  cent.  Ihe, 
Confederate  force  was  37,800 ;  its  losses,  1,394  killed,  7,945 
wounded,  and  1,037  missing  ;  total,  10,266,  or  38  per  cent. 

James  Mercur. 

Mlirarer.  murjha',  Hexri  :  novelist ;  b.  in  Paris,  Mar.  24, 
1832  :  the  son  of  a  concierge  and  tailor.  At  the  age  of  fif- 
teen lie  was  put  into  a  notary's  office,  but  foun<l  it  uncongen- 
ial. Tlie  following  year  he  became  secretary  to  Comit  Leo 
Tolstoi.  This  position  gave  him  independence  and  leisure  to 
devote  himself  to  writing.  Little  is  known  about  his  career 
during  the  next  ten  years.  Probably  he  was  leading  the 
irregular  and  dissipated  life  of  that'  artistic  and  literary 
Bohemia  which  he  described  so  vividly  in  liis  best-known 
work.  Scenes  de  la  vie  de  Bohhne  (1848),  of  which  he  him- 
self is  thought  to  be  the  hero.  In  it  the  life  of  the  Latin 
Quarter,  with  its  mixt  ure  of  gayety  and  wretchedness,  youth- 


Skull  of  Mus 
tectorum. 


Skull  of  ArvicoJa 
xantfiogiuithus. 


ful  spirits  and  corruption,  is  reproduced  with  a  realism 
that  is  relieved  by  touches  of  poetic  feeling.  Murger  made 
himself  the  special  painter  of  this  life,  and  it  furnished  him 
most  of  the  materials  for  his  other  novels,  none  of  which 
equals  the  Vie  de  Boheme.  D.  in  an  asylum  for  the  insane 
near  Paris,  Jan.  28,  1861.  Among  his  other  works  are 
Claude  et  Mariaime  (1851) ;  Scenes  de  la  vie  de  jeunesse 
(1851) ;  Le  dernier  rendez-vous  (1852) ;  Le  pays  latin  (1852) ; 
Adeline  Protat  (1853) ;  Les  buveurs  d'eau  (1854).  His 
poems  were  collected  in  one  volume,  Les  JVuits  d'Hiver. 

A.  G.  Canfield. 

Muriatic  Acid  :  See  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

Miiric'idse,  or  Muric'inoB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  3Iu- 
rex.  the  typical  genus] :  a  family  of  gasteropod  molluscs, 
order  Rhachiglossa,  occurring  mostly  in  the  warmer  seas. 
The  shell  has  an  anterior  canal,  and  is  ornamented  by  two 
or  more  series  of  thickenings  (varices).  The  genera  and 
species  are  numerous.  One  species  is  said  to  have  been  the 
source  of  the  celebrated  Tyrian  purple.  All  the  species  are 
carnivorous.  J.  S.  K. 

Mu'ridsB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  J/»s,  the  typical  genus 
=  Lat.  mus,  mu'ris,  mouse.  See  Mouse]  :  a  large  family  of 
the  rodent  order  and  sim- 
idicitlentate  sub  -  order. 
The  skull  is  well  devel- 
oped :  the  infraorbital  fo- 
ramen large,  generally 
pyriform  and  contracted 
into  a  slit  below  (which  is 
typically  bounded  exter- 
nally by  a  plate  of  bone 
arising  from  the  supra- 
maxillary),  and  with  a 
portion  tor  the  inasseter 
muscle  as  well  as  for  the 
infraorbital  nerve  :  the 
lower  jaw  with  the  coro- 
noid  and  condyloid  proc- 
esses in  nearly  the  same 
vertical  plane  with  each 
other  and  with  the  descending  ramus,  the  last  more  oi"  less 
twisted  ;  molar  teeth  generally  J  (rarely  f  or  f )  X  3  ;  the 
hind  legs  are  but  moderately  developed,  and  the  animals 
normally  progress  by  a  running  gait  approaching  to  leap- 
ing ;  the  tibia  and  fibula  are  united  below  ;  the  metatarsal 
bones  separate  from  each  other  ;  a  ciecum  is  present.  This 
family  is  by  far  the  most  extensive  of  the  order,  and  con- 
tains over  300  species,  representing  about  fifty  genera,  which 
have  been  distributed  among  six  sub-families — viz.,  Murinm, 
to  which  the  Spalacince  and  Georhychince  are  adjuncts,  and 
Arvicolina',  with  which  the  Siphneince  and  EUobiiniE  are 
nearly  connected.  See  Lemmlng,  JIoi'se,  Muskrat,  and 
Rat.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Mnrillo.  moo-reel'yo,  Bartolome  Esteban  :  painter;  b. 
at  Seville,  Spain,  in  1613.  The  first  instruction  he  received 
was  from  his  cousin,  Giovanni  del  Castillo.  In  order  to 
earn  his  living  he  painted  church  banners  and  pictures  for 
exportation  to  South  America,  and  acquired  great  rapidity 
and  facility  of  execution.  After  studying  under  Van  Dyek 
and  Pedro  de  Moya  he  visited  JIadrid,  where  his  talent  was 
recognized  by  Velasquez,  who  got  him  work  at  the  Escurial, 
thus  procuring  him  the  means  of  reuuuning  in  that  city, 
where  he  made  numerous  copies  from  Titian,  Rubens,  and 
Van  Dyck.  On  his  return  to  Seville  in  1645  his  work  cre- 
ated a  great  sensation.  He  painted  some  large  pictures  for 
the  convent  of  St.  Francis,  in  which  he  showed  himself  to  be 
a  remarkal-ile  colorist ;  after  these  he  painted  Tlie  Death  of 
Santa  Clara,  and  San  Giovanni  Giving  Alms.  His  fortune 
was  made  at  last,  and  he  had  innumerable  commissions.  His 
most  perfect  works  were  produced  at  the  age  of  thirty-five, 
and  acquired  for  him  the  reputation  of  being  the  foremost 
of  Spanish  colorists.  Among  these  &re  <SY.  Leander  and  St. 
Isidore,  and  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  ;  also  the  pictures  to 
adorn  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  la  Blanca,  which  are  now 
in  Paris.  In  1667  and  1668  he  directed  the  works  in  the 
cathedral,  and  painted  an  Immaculate  Conception  in  one  of 
its  cupolas.  The  epoch  of  Murillo's  greatest  success  was 
from  1670  to  1680,  when,  besides  other  works,  he  produced 
for  the  Capuchin  church  in  Seville  twenty-three  pictures, 
which  were  sent  to  South  America  later.  In  1687  he  went 
to  Cadiz  to  jiaint  in  the  Capuchin  church  an  altarpiece.  The 
Marriage  of  St.  Catherine,  and  while  occupied  on  this  pic- 
ture he  fell  from  the  scaffolding.     He  returned  to  Seville, 


MURKER 


MURRAY 


23 


but  died  from  the  effects  of  the  injury  Apr.  3,  1689.  See 
Minor,  Murillo  (London,  IStti),  und  Curtis,  Velaxqurz  and 
Murillu  (1883).  \V.  J.  Stillma.v. 

Mnrner,  Thomas  :  clerfrynian  iiinl  satirist;  1).,  according 
to  truditiiin,  at  .Strassbur;;,  Dw. 'J4,  1475;  was  odutated  in 
the  Sfhiiol  of  the  Franciscans,  and  unlaini-d  in  1-J!t4  ;  studied 
tlieolciijy  at  Paris  and  law  at  Krciliur;;  in  14!t!t.  In  I.'dHi  he 
was  made  poet  laureate  by  the  Kinpcr.ir  Maximilian;  tauj;ht 
logic  at  Cracow;  became  chx'torof  divinity,  and  led  a  roam- 
ing life,  iireaching  in  many  cities  and  drawing  large  crowds 
by  his  wittv  sermons.  Being  an  opponent  of  Luther,  he 
was  invited  to  come  to  Kngland  by  Henry  VI IL,  but  lie 
soon  returned  to  Strassburg,  where,  in  the  meantime,  the 
Reformation  had  been  inlroiluced.  He  (led  to  Switzerland 
and  preached  for  a  lime  at  Lucerne,  but  was  forced  to  llee 
again,  and  went  to  Heidelberg.  Finally  he  received  a  small 
parish  at  Obereheidii'im,  Alsace,  wliere  he  died  about  I'l'M. 
SlunuT  was  the  greatest  sjitirist  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
far  more  original  and  witty  than  Sebastian  Hrant,  whom 
he  followed  in  his  earlier  prwlnctions.  His  principal  works 
are  iJer  Sclielmen  Ziinft  (1.j1".J);  Die  yurrrnbe>ichwr>ru)ig 
(l.*)12);  and  Die  ifetiehimil  (151!)),  in  which  he  mercilessly 
and  with  great  power  of  language  ridicules  the  follies  of  his 
contemporaries.  Though  he  did  not  spare  the  clergy  with 
his  attacks,  he  was  nevertheless  oi)posed  to  the  Reformation 
as  an  unjustilied  innovation  of  tlie  individual  Luther,  lie 
answered  the  numerous  libels  which,  on  this  account,  were 
heaped  upon  him  by  the  Lutherans  in  the  best  and  most 
stinging  of  his  satires,  \'iin  ilein  (/rosnen  litlherisclien  A"<(r- 
ren  (1.52i).  The  hatred  of  his  religious  opponents  tuis  fol- 
lowed .Murner  up  to  modern  times,  blackening  and  defam- 
ing his  character,  and  not  until  recently  has  history  begun 
to  do  justiie  to  this  extraordinary  man.  See  Lappenberg, 
Murnera  UUnnpii'ijel  (\f<-yi);  K.  Vn<vi\vV.e,  ^[urnei s  Sarreii- 
benchieurnny  (18T!I);  G.  Balke  in  Kilrschner's  DeittKche  Xa- 
liitnnlli/rriiiiir  (vol.  xvii.) ;  Kawerau,  T/iomnn  Jliinier  und 
ilie  Kirche  (hs  Mittlelallers  (1890);  M.  Spanier  in  Paul  and 
Uraune's  liritruijen  (xviii.,  1-72).  JuLli's  Goebel. 

Miirpliy,  James  Gracev,  LL,  D.,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and 
author ;  b.  in  the  parish  of  Comber,  County  Down,  Ireland, 
.Ian.  12,  18<J8;  was  educated  in  the  Koyal  Academical  Insti- 
tution at  Belfast  and  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  ho 
Sf>ent  three  years  as  sizar  and  three  as  scholar;  was  minis- 
ter at  Ballyshannon  18:i6— 11  ;  classical  head  master  in  the 
Belfast  Academical  Institution  1841—17;  Professor  of  He- 
brew in  the  Assembly's  Theological  College  at  Belfast  from 
1847  till  he  retired  at  his  own  request  in  1888.  He  has  pub- 
lished .4  Lnfin  ^/mm/Hor  (London,  1847);  .1  Ilehreir  (Iram- 
mnr  (18.'>7) ;  Sinetenn  ImjMMibilitiun  in  Cohnso's  Penla- 
lench  (Belfast,  18(5:1);  Thu  Human  Mind  (Belfast.  1873); 
Commentarieg  on  (fenenin  (Edinburgh,  18(54;  Andover, 
I86G1;  KxoduH  (Edinburgh,  186(5;  An.lover,  1868);  Leviti- 
cuK  (.\ndover,  18721;  I'lalmn  (Edinburgh,  1875);  /{'•re/alion 
(London,  1882);  Vhroniclex  (l-^linburgh);  Daniel  (London, 
1884) ;  and  Sacrifice  in  Scripture  (London,  1889). 

C,  K,  IIo\T. 

.M II rj)hy. . Torn  Francis:  landscape-painter;  b.  at  Oswego, 
N.  v..  Ill  1853;  was  elected  member  of  the  Society  of  Amer- 
ican Artists  in  1883;  N'ational  .\cademician  1887;  member 
iif  the  -Vnierican  Water-color  .Society  ;  was  awarded  the 
Webb  prize  at  the  Society  of  .Vmericaii  .\rtists  in  1887  ;  sec- 
ond Hallgarten  prizi!.  National  .\i-ademy,  1885.  His  pictures 
are  notable  for  harmonious  color  schemes.  Studio  in  New 
York.  W.  A.  C. 

Mnrpliysboro  :  city;  capital  of  .laekson  co..  111.  (for  liK'a- 
tion  of  c. Hilly,  sie  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  1()-D);  on  the  Big 
Muildy  river,  anil  the  Chi.  and  Tex.,  the  Mobile  and  (>.,  ami 
the  Si.  L..  .\lton  and  Terre  11.  railways;  6  miles  W.  of  Car- 
bondale.  90  miles  .S.  E.  of  .St.  Louis.  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
and  coal-mining  region;  contains  8  diun'hes,  2  public- 
school  buililings  with  23  departmenls,  including  a  high 
sehcxil,  2  national  banks  with  coinliinecl  capital  of  if  1()0,(KH), 
and  2  daily  and  2  weokly  newsimpers ;  and  has  manufac- 
tories of  Hour,  lumber,  fire-bricK,  ice,  mineral  waters,  ami 
cigars.  Pop.  (1880)  2,196;  (18!)0)  3,880;  (1894)  eslimaleil, 
7.IMMI.  EniToR  OK  "  Era." 

Murray.  Alexaxiier.  1».  1>.  :  Semitic  scholar;  I),  at  Dnn- 
kitlerick, "Kirkcudbrightshire,  Scolland.  Oct.  22.  1775.  the 
son  of  a  she|iheri|.  Ili"  displaye<l  fmin  childho<id  exlraor- 
diniiry  iiroliiMeney  in  the  aciiuisitioii  of  languages,  and  was 
enableil  lo  enti-r  the  I'niversily  of  Edinburgh  al  the  age 
of  nineteen.     II-   l....k   orders  in  the  Church  of  .Scotland, 


and  after  .serving  in  several  parishes  was  elected  in  1812 
Professor  of  Drienlal  Literature  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. His  knowledge  of  Semitic  languages  pnx'ured  from 
the  widow  of  .lames  Bruce  a  commi.ssion  to  classify  the  ex- 
tensive collection  of  manuscTipis  formed  by  that  traveler, 
and  also  to  bring  out  a  second  thoroughly  revised  and  an- 
notate<l  eilition  of  Bruce's  Travels  in  Abyssinia,  which  ap- 
fK-ared  in  1807  (7  vols.),  accompanied  by  a  Life  of  the  au- 
thor. In  \xVi  he  published  Outlines  of  Oriental  Philology, 
comprehendiny  the  Urammaticnl  lYinciples  of  the  Hebrew, 
Sijriac.  Chalilee.  Arabic,  and  Abyssinian  hnnyuuyes.  a 
manual  intended  for  the  use  of  his  students.  D.  at  Edin- 
burgh, Apr.  15,  1813.  He  left  in  MS.  a  History  uf  the  Eu- 
ropean Languages,  or  Hesearches  into  the  Affiniiies  of  the 
Teutonic.  OreeX;  Celtic,  Sclavonic,  and  Indian  Sations, 
published  at  Edinburgh  in  1823  (2  vols). 

.Murray.  Davih,  Ph.  I).,  LL.  D. :  educationist;  b.  at 
Delhi,  X.  Y.,  Oct.  1.5,  1829;  graduated  at  Union  College 
in  1852;  was  successively  a  professor  and  principal  of  the 
.\lbany  Academy  from  1853  to  186;J,  und  from  186:$  to  1873 
Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Physics  in  Rutgers  College. 
In  1873  he  enlered  the  service  of  the  .Japanese  Government 
as  foreign  adviser  to  the  department  of  education.  He  is 
the  author  of  a  Manual  of  Land  Surveying  (^I'w  York, 
1872),  a  contributor  to  Mori's  Education  ui  Japan  (Xew  York, 
1872),  and  the  editor  of  an  Outline  History  of  Japanese 
Education  (New  York,  1876),  prepared  for  the  Philadel|i|iia 
exhibition,  to  which  he  contributed  the  introductory  cliap- 
ler,  and  The  Story  of  Japan  (Xew  York,  1894).  "Ue  re- 
turned from  .Japan  in  1878,  and  became  secretary  of  the 
board  of  regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New 
York.     He  resigned  that  odice  in  1888. 

Murray,  HrGii:  geographer:  b.  at  Xorth  Berwick.  Scot- 
land, in  1779:  became  at  an  early  age  a  clerk  in  the  excise 
office  at  Edinburgh,  and  devoted  his  leisure  to  literature, 
especially  to  geography.  He  edited  The  Scots'  Mayazine, 
contributed  to  The  Edinburgh  Gazetteer  and  the  Transac- 
tions ol  the  learned  societies,  and  wrote  for  the  Edinburgh 
Cabinet  Library  seven  volumes  of  History  of  Discoveries 
and  Travels — namely,  Africa  (2  vols.,  1811),  Asia,  3  vols., 
182(1).  an<l  Xorth  America  (2  vols.,  1829) ;  and  ten  volumes 
of  descriptive  geography — namely.  British  India  (3  vols.), 
China  (3  vols.).  United  States  of  America  (3  vols.),  and 
Marco  Polo's  Travels  (1  vol.,  1839).  His  principal  work 
was  the  Encyclopiedia  of  Geography  (1834).  D.  in  London, 
Mar.  4,  1846. 

Murray.  James  A.  H.,  LL.  D. :  lexicographer;  b.  at  Den- 
holm,  Roxburghshire,  Scotland,  in  1837 :  taught  school  for 
some  time  in  Hawick;  was  foreign  correspondent  in  the 
Oriental  Bank,  London ;  grailnated  at  London  University, 
and  while  senior  assistant  master  of  Mill  Hill  School  became 
in  1879  ]iiesident  of  the  Philological  Society  and  editor  of 
the  Sew  English  Dictionary  (see  Dictioxarv):  the  presi- 
dency he  again  held  in  1880.  He  is  thoroughly  familiar 
with  most  P.uropean  and  many  Oriental  languages,  and  be- 
came widely  known  as  a  philologist  through  his  Dialect  of 
the  Southern  Counties  of  Scotland  (in  Trans.  Lond.  Philoi. 
Soc.  lS70-7i.  London.  1873).  For  the  Early  English  Text 
S<x.'icty  he  edited  the  minor  poems  of  Sir  David  Lvndesay 
(1871):  Tlie  Complaynt  of  Scollaude  (1872);  and  The  Ro- 
mance and  Prophecies  of  Thomas  of  Erceldoune  (1875).  In 
1884  he  was  honored  with  an  annual  civil-list  pension  of 
£270. 

Murray.  James  Ci.arkk:  philosophical  writer:  b.  in 
Paisley.  Si'otland.  .Mar.  19.  1836;  was  educated  at  Glasgow 
and  Edinburgh  Universities,  and  spent  some  time  at  Got- 
liiigen  and  lleididberg.  In  1862  he  was  appointed  Professor 
of  .Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy  in  t^ueen's  University, 
Kingston.  Canada,  and  since  1872  he  hits  held  the  same 
chair  in  McGiU  University.  He  has  published  An  Outline 
of  .Sir  William  Hamilton's  Philosophy  {\iiti~tt\i\,1H10);  The 
/iallads  anil  Sonys  of  Scolland  (London,  1874) ;  Memoir  of 
David  Murray  (Paislev,  1881);  Handliook  of  Psi/chnlogy 
(London,  1885);  An  Introduction  to  Ethics  (1?oston,  1891). 

Neil  JIacdoxald. 

Hiirraj.  or  Moray.  James  .SxrAUT,  Earl  of,  known  in 
Scotch  history  as  the  ■' giMiil  regent "' :  b.  alxiut  15;{:!:  was  a 
nnlund  son  of  James  V.  by  Lady  Margaret  Krskine,  who 
aflerwaril  marrieil  Sir  Rotwrt  Douglas  of  Lochleven;  was 
made  by  his  father  commendator  of  the  priory  of  St.  .\n- 
dri'ws  in  1.5;i.S.  and  siibseipieiilly  acquireil  the  pri'^ry  of 
Pittenneem  und  that  of  Mu<;oii  in  Fnui'-    ""i'   ■     i-r..  ii>a- 


24 


MURRAY 


MURSHEDABAD 


tion  to  hold  three  benefices,  and  took  in  1544  an  oath  of 
fealty  to  Pope  Paul  III.  In  1547  he  accompanied  his  halt- 
sister  Wary  (afterward  Queen  of  Soots)  to  France,  and  in  the 
following  "year  repelled  a  descent  of  Lord  Clinton  upon  the 
island  of  St.  jMonan,  on  the  coast  of  Fifeshire.  In  1556  he 
joined  the  Scottish  Reformers,  and  soon  assumed  the  politi- 
cal leadership  of  the  Protestant  party.  He  was  one  of  the 
Scottish  commissioners  to  witness  Mary's  marriage  to  the 
Dauphin  of  Prance  (1558) ;  was  appointed  member  of  the 
council  for  civil  affairs  Uec.  1559,  and  one  of  the  lords  of  the 
articles  June,  1560;  was  sent  as  envoy  to  Prance  Apr.,  1561, 
to  invite  JIary  to  return  to  Scotland  as  queen,  and  on  her 
arrival  in  August  became  her  prime  minister  and  chief  ad- 
viser, protecting  the  Protestants  in  the  enjoyment  of  their 
religious  privileges,  while  he  insisted  upon  the  queen's  right 
to  worship  according  to  her  Catholic  antecedents.  In  Feb., 
1562,  he  was  created  Earl  of  Mar.  and  soon  afterward  mar- 
ried Lady  Agnes  Keith,  daughter  of  the  earl  marischal, 
but  in  the  same  vear  resigned  the  title  of  Mar  in  favor  of 
his  uncle.  Lord  Erskine,  who  claimed  it  by  right,  and  re- 
ceived in  its  stead  the  earldom  of  Murray ;  defeated  the 
rebel  Earl  of  Huntly  at  Corrichie,  and  governed  Scotland 
with  prudence,  though  incurring  the  displeasure  of  Knox 
and  the  extreme  Protestants  by  his  studied  neutrality  in 
the  religious  conflict  then  beginning.  In  1565  he  took  up 
arms  to  prevent  Mary's  marriage  with  Darnley,  but  was  de- 
feated and  escaped  into  England.  He  was  recalled  in  1566, 
and  arrived  at  Edinbui-gh  the  day  after  the  assassination 
of  Rizzio,  to  which  he  was  supposed  to  have  been  accessory, 
as  also  to  the  murder  of  Darnley  in  the  following  year, 
though  his  complicity  in  the  latter  crime  is  much  less  cer- 
tain. He  left  Edinburgh  the  day  before  that  event,  and 
proceeded  to  France,  also  visiting  Queen  Elizabeth  in  Eng- 
land; returned  to  Scotland  and"  induced  Mary  to  abdicate 
July  '22.  He  was  proclaimed  regent  Aug.  22;  defeated  his 
sister's  forces  at  Langside  May  13,  1568,  and  firmly  estab- 
lished his  authority ;  at  the  trial  of  Mary  at  York  for  the 
murder  of  Darnley,  gave  his  testimony  against  her,  and  pro- 
duced as  evidence  the  famous  "  casket  letters,"  the  authen- 
ticity of  which  has  ever  since  been  warmly  debated.  Murray 
ruled  with  skill  and  success  until  he  was  assassinated  in  the 
streets  of  Linlithgow  by  James  Hamilton  of  BothweUhaugh, 
Jan.  21,  1570. 

Murray,  John:  publisher;  b.  in  London,  Nov.  27,  1778; 
son  of  a  Scotchman  named  John  McMurray  (b.  in  Edin- 
burgh, 1745;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  16,  1793),  who  founded  a 
prosperous  bookselling  shop  in  London.  Succeeding  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  to  his  father's  business,  young  JIurray  ulti- 
mately became  the  friend  and  liberal  patron  of  a  famous 
circle  of  literary  men.  most  of  whose  works  he  published. 
Among  them  were  Byron,  Moore,  Campbell,  Crabbe,  Irving, 
and  Gifford,  the  latter  of  whom  edited  for  many  years  Mur- 
ray's Quarterly  Review,  founded  in  1809  as  a  Tory  organ  in 
opposition  to  Tlie  Ediiihuryh  Review.  In  1813  Murray  re- 
moved his  business  from  Fleet  Street  to  Albemarle  Street, 
where  it  still  remains.  D.  in  London,  June  27,  1843. — His 
son,  bearing  the  same  name,  b.  in  1808,  and  educated  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  edited  a  series  entitled  the  Home 
and  Colonial  Library,  personally  superintended  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  well-known  Jlurray'n  Handbooks  of  Travel, 
and  brought  out,  among  others,  the  works  of  Hallam,  Grote, 
Milman,  Layard,  Wilkinson,  Rawlinson,  William  Smith, 
Lyell,  Murchison,  Livingstone,  and  Darwin.  In  1869  he 
established  The  Academy,  a  scholarly  literary  and  critical 
weekly  paper.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Murray,  John  ;  naturalist ;  b.  in  Coburg,  Ontario,  1849, 
of  Scotch  ancestry.  His  early  education  was  received  at 
Coburg,  and  at  sixteen  he  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  took  honors  in  natural  and  physical  sci- 
ences, doing  much  of  his  work  in  the  physical  laboratory 
under  Prof.  Tait.  In  1867  he  began  the  marine  investi- 
gations with  which  his  name  is  so  intimately  connected. 
In  that  year  he  went  on  an  expedition  to  Spitzbergen  and 
Greenland,  and  in  1872  was  appointed  one  of  the  natural- 
ists of  the  CnALLENUER  Expedition  (q.  v.).  On  the  return 
of  the  expedition  he  was  appointed  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment as  first  assistant  uncler  Sir-Wyville  Thomson  on  the 
staff  to  prepare  the  final  report  on  the  scientific  results  of 
the  expedition.  On  the  death  of  Thomson  he  became  di- 
rector of  the  staff,  and  under  his  editorship  fifty  fully  illus- 
trated volumes  have  been  issued.  Of  these  he  prepared  the 
volume  of  the  summary  of  results,  and  was  joint  author  of 
the  volumes  on  deep-sea  deposits  and  the  narrative  of  the 


cruise.  In  1880-82  he  had  charge  of  the  scientific  work  on 
the  deep-sea  expeditions  of  the  Knight  Errant  and  Triton 
in  the  North  Atlantic.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous  sci- 
entific papers,  largely  upon  physical  geograjihy  and  ocean- 
ography, and  is  a  member  of  numerous  learned  societies. 
He  received  the  degrees  of  LL.  D.  from  Edinburgh  and 
Ph.  D.  from  Jena.     He  resides  at  present  at  Edinburgh. 

J.  S.  Kjngsley. 
Murray,  Lindley  :  grammarian ;  b.  at  Swatara,  near 
Lancaster,  Pa.,  Apr.  22,  1745;  removed  in  1753  to  New 
Y'ork  with  his  father,  a  Quaker  merchant;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1776;  became  a  successful  merchant  of  New 
Y'ork,  and  in  1784  retired  from  business;  settled  at  Hold- 
gate,  near  Y'ork,  England,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary 
pursuits;  best  known  by  his  English  Grammar  (1795), 
which  was  for  many  years  regarded  as  the  best  authority 
on  the  subject,  and  had  a  prodigious  currency,  particularly 
in  Great  Britain  ;  published  also  an  English  Reader,  a  spell- 
ing-book, and  other  educational  works,  an  Autobiography, 
and  some  religious  works,  which  were  popular.  D.  at  Hold- 
gate,  Feb.  16,  1826.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 
Murray,  William  :  See  JIansfield,  Earl  of. 
Murray,  William  Vans  ;  lawyer  and  statesman;  b.  in 
Maryland  in  1762;  received  a  classical  education ;  went  to 
London  after  the  peace  of  1783,  and  studied  law  in  the  Tem- 
ple for  three  years;  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Maryland 
Legislature  on  his  return,  and  sat  in  Congress  1791-97; 
took  a  very  prominent  part  in  the  early  legislation  of  the 
U.  S.,  and  had  few  superiors  in  erudition,  eloquence,  wit, 
judgment,  or  skill  in  debate.  He  was  appointed  by  Wash- 
ington minister  to  the  Netherlands  in  1797,  and  became  en- 
voy to  France  in  1799,  where  the  convention  signed  at  Paris 
Sept.  30,  1800,  which  put  an  end  to  the  serious  difficulties 
between  the  U.  S.  and  France,  was  mainly  his  work.  He 
returned  to  his  post  at  The  Hague,  where  he  remained  until 
Dec.  1801.  D.  at  Cambridge.  Md.,  Dec.  11,  1803.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  treatise  on  The  Constitutions  and  Laws  of 
the  United  States. 

Murray  Bay  [named  from  Gen.  Murray,  governor  of 
Quebec  in  1759],  or  Malbaie  ;  a  watering-place  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  in  Chailevoix  County,  Province  of 
Quebec;  about  90  miles  E.  of  city  of  Quebec  (see  map  of 
Quebec  Province,  ret  3-F).  The  bay  on  which  the  village 
is  built  is  the  estuary  of  the  Murray  river,  which  drains  the 
region  of  a  thousand  lakelets.  The  scenery  around  the  vil- 
lage is  very  picturesque,  with  frowning  hills  behind  and  beet- 
ling cliffs  in  front.  Though  the  water  of  the  bay  continues 
cold  during  the  greater  part  of  the  summer,  the  sea-bathing 
is  one  of  the  attractions  of  the  place.  The  population  of  the 
parish  is  3,500.  There  are  two  churches,  and  the  river  affords 
very  good  motive-power  for  a  number  of  saw-mills.  The 
place  is  reached  from  Quebec  by  steamer.     J.  M.  Harper. 

Murray  River;  the  principal  river  of  Australia;  rises 
on  the  western  slope  of  the  Australian  Alps,  and  falls  into 
Encounter  Bay  in  lat.  35°  26'  S.,  after  a  tortuous  course  of 
1.200  miles.  Its  mouth  is  too  shallow  to  be  entered  by  large 
vessels,  but  the  lower  portion  is  navigable.  The  chief  tribu- 
taries are  the  Murrumbidgee  and  the  Darling,  both  on  the 
N.  The  latter  is  longer  than  the  entire  Murray,  but  it  is  a 
desert  river  with  little  water,  except  after  severe  local 
storms.  The  entire  basin  of  the  Murray  (including  the 
Darling)  is  about  240,000  sq.  miles. 

Murree  ;  a  town  and  sanitarium  of  the  Punjaub ;  30  miles 
N.  E.  of  Rawal  Pindi ;  on  the  upper  slopes  of  Murree  Moun- 
tain ;  from  6.200  to  6,500  feet  above  sea-level  (see  map  of 
N.  India,  ref.  3-C).  It  is  in  summer  the  seat  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  is  connected  with  Rawal  Pindi  by  a  good 
wagon  road.  The  temperature  ranges  fnun  17"  F.  to  99°  F., 
but  the  place  is  cool  even  during  the  summer,  averaging 
about  65'  F.  It  has  several  large  hotels,  a  school  for  the 
education  of  the  children  of  European  soldiers,  and  a  brass- 
fomidrv,  and  is  the  center  of  a  large  business.  Pop.  2,500; 
in  suminer,  12,000  to  14,000.  •  M.  W.  H. 

Murshedabad' :  town  of  British  India,  in  Bengal ;  on 
the  Bhagirathi  river  (see  map  of  N.  India,  ref.  7-1).  It  was 
formerly  the  capital  of  Bengal,  and  is  a  large  and  straggling 
town,  extending  along  the  river  for  a  distance  of  nearly  8 
miles.  With  exception  of  the  palace  and  some  mosques,  it 
is  meanly  b\iilt,  its  houses  being  mostly  mud  huts.  It  is 
situated  on  the  main  road  between  Calcutta  and  the  North- 
west Provinces,  and  has  an  important  trade.  Pop.  (1881) 
39  231.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 


ML'S^US 


MUSCLE-READING 


25 


Miisa-'iis  (Ml  (ir.  Muffaiof):  I.  A  singer,  soer,  and  priest 
who  llcmri>lied  in  tlie  timu.s  Ijcfore  Hnnii-r.  lie  was  ii  pupil 
iiT  s<in  iif  ('Ki-HKis  (q.  c),  unil  inlnnliiccd  liynins  and  ulliiT 
sacred  pmtry  iiid)  Atlica.  His  potiiis  were  eolleetcd  by 
OnoniueriHis.  wIki  fur-jed  ninny  of  tlu'in.  2.  A  graniniariaii 
who  iiiiiliitid  Ndnm's  ((/.  ('.),  and  wrule  an  epic  poem  on  the 
story  of  Hero  ami  Leander.  edited  bv  I'assow  (Leipzig,  1810) 
and  by  Diltliey  (Bonn,  1K74).  See  also  Seliwabe,  De  JJusito 
Xonni  imitiiiorr  (Tilbingen,  IHTti).  It.  An  epic  p<iet  of 
Kphesiis,  lived  in  Alexandrian  times,  and  wrote  a  PerxeU 
and  poems  in  honor  of  Hunieiies  and  Attains.  See  DUntzer, 
Fraymnite  der  rpischrii  Puenir  (Cologne,  1S40). 

.1.  K.  S.  Sterrett. 

.Mnsii'iix,  .lonANN  K.tRL  .\iiiisT:  author:  b.  at  Jena. 
.Mar.  :;tl,  17;i.'i;  studied  divinity:  became  in  ITli!!  governor 
lof  the  court  pages  at  Weimar,  and  in  1770  became  a  profes- 
sor in  the  gymnasiiini.  I),  at  Weimar,  Oct.  2S,  17H7.  He  is 
remembered  as  the  author  of  I'l/Mw/Hdrr/if/t  Jer  Deulgchm 
(1782),  a  collection  of  pleasing  tales,  for  a  long  time  very 
popular.  Ho  wrote  also  drandinon  der  Zteeite  (1700):  I'lii/- 
tiogniimiKilie  JirUen  {1778-8!)),  against  Lavater :  Frtund 
Utinx  Knc/ieiiiuiigen  (178.5);  and  Slraiissfedent  (1787-07), 
which  show  the  intluence  of  Wieland.  See  Life  by  Mllllcr 
(18ti7).  Revised  by  JuuOs  (joebel. 

Mlisril :  See  Flv. 

Miiscudiiii*  [from  Fr.  miixcndiii,  niusk-lozeiige :  from 
Late  Lat.  iniisnis,  musk,  whence  Eng.  bik.nA]:  mime  ap- 
plied lo  a  siK'cies  of  grape  (  Vitin  roliindifuliii),  iniligenous 
to  the  soiitlicrn  parts  of  the  U.  S.  It  is  also  popularly 
called  bullace  or  bullitt  grape,  and  fox-grape.  The  white 
scuppernong  ^rapc,  which  is  cue  of  its  varieties,  is  much  es- 
teemed. 

Miis'cie  Volitan'tes  [Lat.,  liter.,  (lilting  flies]:  a  name 
^iven  to  (he  black,  or  more  rarely  very  bright,  lloating  ob- 
jects which  .sometimes  scetn  to  appear  before  the  eyes.  If 
fixed  ami  permanent  black  spots  appear,  moving  with  one 
or  both  of  the  eyes,  there  is  reason  to  suspect  organic  disease 
of  the  eye,  and  an  expert  oculist  shoulil  be  consulted.  If 
the  spot.s  fa!!  -r  swarm  upward,  it  is  believed  that  they  arc 
caused  by  small  and  unimportant  opacities  floating  in  the 
humors  of  tbo  eyes. 

Muscat,  or  Miisent :  an  imamate  in  Arabia  with  indefi- 
nite boundaries;  one  of  the  eight  divisions  of  diiian,  lying 
S.  W.  of  the  (iiilf  of  Oman  and  included  between  22°  and 
27°  N.  lat.  and  '>.i  and  58  E.  Ion.  Tills  has  been  its  gen- 
eral outline  since  18.JG.  It  comprises  also  a  narrow  strip  of 
land  along  the  shores  of  Laristan  and  Jlogheslan.  The 
coa.st-line.  sometimes  low,  presents  generally  a  succession  of 
high  precipitous  rocks.  Between  and  behind  these  clilTs,  as 
well  as  far  inland,  are  frequent  patclies  of  land  which  arti- 
ficial irrigation  renders  marvelously  fertile.  Cotton,  rice, 
maize,  coilee,  and  tropical  fruits  of  every  sort  are  produced 
in  abundance.  There  are  no  rivers  but  many  springs.  The 
climate  is  exceedingly  iinliealthful  for  Kiiropean.s,  a  dry, 
burning  heat  continuing  for  long  |ierioils  night  and  day. 
The  imam  is  the  merchanl-iii-cliief,  practically  controlling 
all  the  business  relations  of  his  subjects,  which  he  regulates 
in  accordance  with  his  own  interests.  Xo  reliable  estimate 
of  the  population  or  extent  of  the  imamate  has  over  been 
made.  E.  A.  tiRosVENOR. 

Muscat,  or  .Maskat :  capital  of  Oman,  an  inde[>endent 
state  of  Southeastern  .\rabni;  in  a  fertile  plain  in  lat.  2:$' 
•in  N'.,  Ion.  an  40'  E.,  surroiiniled  liy  giiideiis  and  planta- 
tions of  date-palms,  on  the  lionler  of  an  inlet  of  the  ocean 
which  forms  a  spacious  anil  safe  harbor  (see  map  of  Persia 
and  .\rabia,  ref.  7-,l).  The  city  is  f<irtified,  but  rather 
poorly  liuilt.  Its  inhabitants  consi.st  of  Arabs.  Hindu.s, 
Negr(M\s,  and  .lews,  and  carry  on  a  very  important  trade  in 
coffee,  pearUi,  salt  fish,  dyestufTs,  and  other  Persian  and 
Arabian  pumIs.  The  population  is  varionslv  given  at  from 
20,()(H)  I,,  ClMlOO.  Revisi-d  by  .M.  W.'IIarkinhton. 

Miiscutinc:  city(scttlcd  under  the  name  of  Bloomington 
in  18;lt).  iiiiorporated  as  a  city  in  180;!);  capital  of  Musca- 
tine CO.,  la.  (for  location  of  coiintv,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref. 
6-K) :  on  the  great  bend  of  the  Mississippi  river,  and  the 
Cin.,  Rock  Is.  and  Pac,  and  the  Hurl.,  Cellar  Rai'.  and  N. 
railways;  HO  miles  W.  of  Davenport,  20:t  miles  \V.  of  Chi- 
cago. It  contains  17  churches,  0  public-school  buildings,  2 
commercial  colleges,  several  paro<'hial  s<'hools.  Commercial 
Club  buildiiii;.  Young  .Men's  Christian  .\s'<ocialioii  buildiin:. 
a  national  bank  with  capital  of  ^.VMKiO.  a  savini^-baiik  with 
capital  of  i^UO.OOO,  2  private  banks,  and  2  daily  and  5  weekly 


newspapers.  The  manufactories  include  large  sawmills, 
sash,  door,  and  blind  factories,  iron-rolling  mill,  oat-meal 
mill,  large  box-factory,  plumbing-supply  factory,  woven- 
wire  picket-fence  factory,  Iprick  and  tile  works,  iron-found- 
ries, niarlile-works,  cigar-fad ories,  pearl-bulton  works,  ma- 
chine-shops, potteries,  carriage,  wagon,  and  harness  fac- 
tories, and  large  pickling-works.  The  natural  slope  of  the 
ground  affords  excellent  drainage,  the  streets  are  lighted  by 
gas  and  electricity,  the  river  is  here  crcKssed  bv  a  wagon 
bridge,  and  the  city  has  electric  railwavs.  Pot).  (1880) 
8,2l»5  ;  (18U0)  11,454;  (1805)  12,237. 

Manager  ok  "Journal." 

Muscll'clkalk  [:=fierni.:  mtmrhel.  shell -)- An ?A-,  lime]: 
in  Germany,  a  great  limeslone,  belonging;  in  the  miildle  of 
the  Triassic  period,  and  resting,  typically,  upon  the  Bunter 
sandstone,  and  covered  by  the  Keuper  or  red  marl  bed.s.  It 
is  named  for  its  abundant  fossils,  and  supj)lies  lime,  marl, 
rock-salt,  gypsum,  and  building-stone, 

Musci:  iilural  of  JJiiscus,a  class  of  plants     See  Moss- 

WOKTS. 

Muscle  [O.  Eng.  muscle,  from  Lat.  mufi'culus,  muscle, 
mussel,  liter.,  diniin.  of  niiis,  mouse,  which  some  muscles 
resemble  in  form] :  the  tissue  through  the  direct  agency  of 
which  the  various  movements  of  animals  are  effected.  Very 
early  in  embryonic  life  a  part  of  the  great  mesodermic  layer 
differentiates  into  elongated  elements  distinguished  bv  the 
possession  of  contractility  in  limited  and  ilefinitc  directions; 
these  elements  form  the  muscular  tissue,  whose  minute 
structure  is  described  in  detail  in  Histology  (tj.  v.).  In 
man  and  tlie  higher  animals  muscular  tissue  is  separated 
into  two  varieties,  vuUinlary  and  iniiihuilary,  according  to 
its  control  by  the  will  or  independence  of  action  :  the  volun- 
tary muscle  constitutes  the  great  masses  of  sarcous  sub- 
stance or  "  flesh  "  of  animals  by  which  the  various  move- 
ments are  carried  out  at  will;  the  involuntary  muscle,  on 
the  contrary,  forms  the  walls  of  the  hollow  organs,  as  the 
stomach,  intestines,  blood-vessels,  etc.,  whose  contractions  are 
beyond  the  control  of  volition.  The  number  of  individual 
contracting  bands  or  "  muscles"  increases  with  the  subdi- 
vision of  labor  and  the  sptecialization  of  action  in  the  higher 
ty|)es,  in  man  over  two  hundred  distinct  muscles  being  rec- 
ognized. The  close  association  of  these  organs  with  the 
skeleton  separates  tlicin  into  the  corresponding  groups 
of  the  muscles  of  the  axin  and  those  of  the  ejctremities, 
many  of  the  latter  group  passing  from  the  more  fixed  [loints 
of  the  axial  skeleton  to  the  upjier  parts  of  the  freely  mov- 
ing limbs.  The  more  rigid  point  of  attachment  of  a  muscle 
is  spoken  of  as  its  oriijin  in  contrast  to  its  insertion  or  at- 
tachment to  the  part  moved ;  in  many  cases,  however,  the 
position  of  greatest  fixation  varies  from  time  to  time  with 
the  particular  action  to  be  .secured.  Mu.scular  tissue  is  at- 
tached to  other  jiarts  by  means  of  den.<e  white  fibrous  tis- 
sue, usually  in  the  form  of  tendons  or  of  aponeurotic  expan- 
sions; in  early  life  the  tendons  are  relatively  small  and 
exceedingly  pliant,  as  evinced  by  the  greater  suppleness  and 
agility  of  youth  as  contrasted  with  the  increa.-^ing  rigidity 
of  ngc  due  to  the  invasion  of  the  muscular  tissue  by  the 
encroaching  tendinous  structures.     See  Hi.sToi.oiiV. 

G.  .\.  PlKRSOL. 

Mnsclo-readinp,  or  so-called  Mind-reading:  the  ap- 
parent detection  of  the  thoughts  of  another  from  simple 
muscular  contact  with  him.  This  phenomenon,  under  the 
phrase  mind-reading,  has  given  rise  to  much  mystification 
of  audiences  and  many  extravagant  claims  to  powers  of  clair- 
voyance, etc.  It  has  now  been  shown  by  a  number  of  well- 
planned  experiments  that  it  is  impossible  to  think  intently 
of  directions,  figures,  etc..  without  making  very  slight  mus- 
cular movements,  or  twitchings.  or  tensions  in  the  direction 
or  around  the  figures  thought  of.  The  muscular  system  re- 
flects in  a  very  remarkable  way  the  course  of  thought  through 
all  its  concrete  imagery.  It  is  therefore  iiossible  that  cer- 
tain iiersons,  of  delicacy  of  toiicli  and  with  training,  should 
lie  able  by  simple  contact  to  interpret  these  sliglit  move- 
ments of  the  hand-muscles  of  another,  and  so  to  seem  to 
divine  his  thoughts  directly.  The  most  interesting  experi- 
ments, apart  from  those  on  hypnotic  subjects,  wen.'  n-- 
(Hirted  by  Prof.  .loseph  .liLstrow.  (See  articles  on  lut-olun- 
tan/  Moremenls.  I'opiilnr  Science  Mnntlili/,  Apr.,  Sept., 
1K02.)  The  [K'rformanei's  of  many  well-known  ooiTalors 
can  probably  be  explained  in  this  way — i.  e.  Cumlierland, 
Bisliop,  Handall  Brown,  etc.  On  the  claims  to  niiml-iind- 
intr  in  which  the  influence  of  muscular  movement  i-  net  so 
evident,  see  Telei'atuv.  J.  M\1!k  IIm.iwis. 


26 


MUSCLE-SENSE 


MUSES 


Muscle-sense :  the  sense  which  reports  feelings  of  the 
activity  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  as  concerned  in  move- 
ment. It  is  in  its  development  the  earliest  of  the  senses. 
As  to  the  existence  of  sucli  a  class  of  sensations  as  seen  in 
lifting,  pushing,  straining,  and  in  the  weariness  that  follows 
muscular  exertion,  there  is  no  doubt.  Beaunis  finds  that  a 
singer  retains  control  over  the  vocal  chords  after  their  sen- 
sitiveness to  touch  has  been  destroyed  by  cocaine.  Clinical 
cases  show  the  same  for  the  limbs.  This  indicates  that  the 
skin  is  not  the  exclusive  organ  of  muscular  sensations.  Fur- 
ther than  this  the  muscular  sensations  have  characteristics 
peculiar  to  themselves. 

First,  there  seems  to  be  a  consciousness  of  the  state  of  the 
motor  apparatus  as  a  whole,  as  capable  or  incapable  of  the 
movement  in  question.  It  is  felt  in  the  system  as  a  disposi- 
tion or  indisposition  for  action.  Considered  as  a  state  of 
readiness  or  tlie  contrary,  it  may  be  called  feeling  of  motor 
potential.  It  seems  to  be  plain  in  the  difEerent  conscious- 
ness we  have  of  the  power  of  the  right  and  left  arms  re- 
spectively. 

Fatigue  is  another  general  sensation  classed  here.  It 
takes  on  a  peculiar  cliaracter  according  as  the  fatiguing 
movement  is  voluntary  or  mechanical;  at  least  voluntary 
movement  is  more  fatiguing  than  mechanical  movements. 
No  doubt  in  the  case  of  voluntary  movement  more  nervous 
energy  is  employed ;  and  it  seems  equally  clear  that  in  the 
case  of  voluntary  movement  the  higher  nervous  centers  are 
more  taxed.  Mosso  and  Waller  have  shown  that  there  is 
both  nervous  and  muscular  fatigue.  Simple  intellectual 
work  exhausts  the  muscles  as  well  as  the  brain. 

Combineil  witli  toucli,  the  muscular  sense  affords  us 
knowledge  of  extension  and  force,  and  contributes  important 
elements  to  our  consciousness  of  self  and  the  world.  Sensa- 
tions of  contact,  repeated  on  successive  portions  of  the  skin 
or  by  the  same  portion  on  different  parts  of  the  object,  pre- 
sent data  for  the  projection  of  a  flat  surface.  It  is  by  pres- 
sure added  to  these  sensations  that  we  come  to  appreliend 
depth.  It  is  sufficient  to  remark  this  here.  Spencer,  speak- 
ing of  the  sensation  of  resistance  as  involving  that  of  effort, 
says :  "  This  sensation  is  at  the  bottom  of  our  conception  of 
the  material  universe,  for  extension  is  (as  apprehended)  only 
a  combination  of  resistances  ;  movement  is  the  generaliza- 
tion of  a  certain  order  of  resistances ;  and  resistance  is  also 
the  substance  of  force."  For  the  general  bearings  of  the 
muscular  consciousness  and  its  place  in  psychological  the- 
ory, see  Psychology  and  Will. 

'Kimesthetic  sensations  are  sensations  arising  directly 
from  the  movements  or  positions  of  the  membei-s  of  the 
body  as  reported  by  the  afferent  or  sensor  nerves.  See  Sen- 
sations. 

Besides  the  particular  and  more  or  less  clearly  localized 
feelings  (such  as  those  due  to  passage  through  the  air, 
stretching  of  the  skin,  etc.),  there  seems  to  be  a  sense  of 
whereness  or  massive  localitij  of  the  limb,  as  a  whole,  in  ref- 
erence to  the  body. 

Kinwsthetic  Sensations  as  Immediate  or  Remote. — The 
sensations  of  movement  heretofore  described  have  their  stim- 
uli in  the  organ  itself  which  makes  the  movement.  Such 
feelings  are  immediate.  On  the  contrary,  such  movements 
may  themselves  serve  to  stimulate  one  or  other  of  the  spe- 
cial senses,  giving  a  new  class  of  sensations  which  report 
the  movement.  Sucli  movement  reporting  sensations  from 
other  senses  are  remote,  kin;Bsthetic.  For  example,  when  I 
move  my  arm  with  my  eyes  shut  and  in  the  presence  of 
noises  which  prevent  ray  hearing  the  rustle  of  my  clothing, 
etc.,  my  sensations  of  movement  are  immediate.  I  now 
open  my  eyes  and  see  the  arm  move  and  listen  attentively 
and  hear  it ;  the  optical  and  auditory  sensations  now  added 
to  my  consciousness  are  remote  kinesthetic  feelings.  It  is 
important  to  note  that  our  feelings  of  movement  are  perhaps 
never  free  from  these  contributions  from  remote  sources. 
They  almost  always  enter  in  a  complete  statement  of  the 
case.  .See  .lames.  Principles  of  Psyclioloyy  (New  York, 
1890,  pp.  488  ff..  vol.  ii.). 

The  nervous  arrangement  which  underlies  this  confluence 
of  immediate  and  remote  sensations  is  an  illustration  of  the 
dynamic  unity  of  the  brain  as  a  whole.  The  activity  of  one 
center  stimulates  the  other  directly,  and  both  discharge  into 
the  motor  course  with  which  one  is  immediately  and  the 
other  remotely  connected,  as  is  clearly  illustrated  by  oases 
in  which  patients  are  unable  to  move  their  limbs  as  long  as 
their  eyes  are  closed,  but  can  do  so  when  they  see  their 
limbs.  This  means  that  the  direct  channel  into  the  limb 
center  is  blocked,  but  the  indirect  channel  through  the  vis- 


ual center  is  still  open.  (See  Innervation.)  On  the  other 
hand,  instead  of  re-enforcing  a  discharge,  a  remote  sensation 
or  memory  may  inhibit  it  altogether,  as  where  our  sense  of 
the  great  distance  of  a  desired  object  obtained  tlirough  the 
eyes  leads  us  to  give  up  altogether  the  effort  to  reach  it. 

Furthermore,  what  is  true  of  sensations  in  general  as  re- 
gards their  possible  reproduction  or  memory  is  true  of  these 
states  of  the  sensibility. .  From  the  nervous  point  of  view, 
any  form  of  stimulus  which  excites  the  kina-sthetic  center 
or  centers  may  bring  up  images  of  movement,  and  may, 
through  these  images,  serve  to  start  a  brain  process  which 
issues  in  a  series  of  real  movements.  What  we  may  call  the 
motor  or  stimulus  value  of  these  sensations  is  accordingly 
preserved  in  a  weaker  degree  in  the  motor  or  stimulus  value 
of  their  memories,  both  immediate  and  remote.  For  liter- 
ary references,  see  Psychology.  J.  JIark  Baldwin. 

Miiscogees :  See  Muskhogean  Indians. 

Mus'covite  [named  from  3Iuscovy,  the  ancient  name  of 
Russia] :  the  most  common  species  of  mica,  otherwise  known 
as  common  or  potasli  mica.  Muscovite  occurs  crystallized 
in  hexagonal  prisms,  belonging  to  the  orthorhombic  system ; 
also  in  scales  and  plates,  which  are  sometimes  aggregated 
into  stellate  and  plumose  groups.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
eminent  cleavage  parallel  to  the  base  of  the  prism,  the  thin 
folia  being  separated  easily  by  the  thumb-nail.  Its  hard- 
ness on  the  cleavage  planes  is  from  2  to  2'5,  and  its  specific 
gravity  from  2'75  to  3'1 ;  its  luster  varies  from  jiearly  to 
metallic,  and  its  color  from  white  to  gray,  pale  green,  green- 
ish yellow,  and  brown.  It  is  remarkably  elastic.  In  com- 
position muscovite  is  a  silicate  of  alumina,  potash,  and  iron 
(silica,  43  to  50  per  cent. ;  alumina,  31  to  39  per  cent. ;  pot- 
ash, 5  to  12  per  cent. ;  ferric  oxide,  1  to  8  per  cent.).  The 
name  muscovite  (or,  as  it  was  formerly  called,  Muscovy 
glass)  is  in  allusion  to  its  use  in  Russia  as  a  substitute  for 
glass  in  windows.  In  the  U.  S.  it  is  largely  used,  under  the 
misnomer  of  "  isinglass,"  for  the  same  purpose  in  stoves.  It 
is  one  of  the  more  abundant  minerals,  occurring  in  plutonic 
and  metamorphic  rocks,  and  also  in  Ijroken  flakes  in  many 
unaltered  sandstones  and  clays,  which  are  hence  described 
as  '•  micaceous."     See  Micas. 

Muscovy  Duck:  a  South  American  duck  {Cairina  mos- 
ctiata)  about  2  feet  in  length,  and,  in  its  wild  state,  of  a 
black  color  with  blue  and  green  reflections.  The  species 
has  l)cen  extensively  domesticated,  and  its  name  is  a  perver- 
sion of  musk-duck,  applied  to  the  bird  on  account  of  its 
p'ecidiar  odor.  F.  A.  L. 

Muses  [plur.  of  Muse,  via  Pr.  from  Lat.  Mu'sa  =  Gr. 
MoCo-a,  Muse,  usually  in  plur.  MoOiroi,  Pluses]:  in  Greek  my- 
thology, the  daughters  of  Zeus  and  JInemosyne  (Memory). 
They  were  fountain  nymphs,  who  were  worshiped  in  the 
groves  and  grottoes,  and  at  the  fountains  of  Olympus  and 
Helicon,  whose  waters  were  thought  to  inspire  song.  From 
fountain  nymphs  they  were  exalted  to  the  rank  of  goddesses 
of  song,  to  whom  poets  prayed  for  inspii'ation.  Later  on 
they  are  the  patrons  of  the  different  kinds  of  poetry  and  of 
the"  arts  and  sciences.  So  Calliope,  she  of  the  beautiful 
voice,  is  the  muse  of  epic  poetry ;  Clio,  she  who  makes 
famous,  the  muse  of  history ;  Euterpe,  she  who  makes  glad, 
the  muse  of  lyric  poetry :  Melpomene,  she  who  sings,  the 
muse  of  tragedy ;  Terpsichore,  she  who  rejoices  in  the 
diuice,  the  nuise  of  the  dance;  Erato,  the  lovely  one,  the 
muse  of  erotic  poetry ;  Polyhymnia,  or  Polymnia,  the  rich 
in  hymns,  the  muse  of  sacred  song;  Urania,  the  heavenly 
one.  the  muse  of  astronomy;  Thalia,  the  blooming  one,  the 
muse  of  comedy  and  idyllic  poetry.  In  art  Calliope  is  rep- 
resented with  a  tablet  and  stilus  in  her  hand,  Clio  with  a 
scroll,  Euterpe  with  a  double  flute,  Meltmmene  with  a  tragic 
mask  in  her  hand  and  a  chaplet  of  ivy  on  her  head,  Terpsi- 
chore with  a  lyre  and  plectrum,  Erato  witli  a  stringed  in- 
strument, Uraiiia  with  a  globe,  and  Thalia  \<'ith  a  comic 
mask  and  slicpherd"s  crook  in  her  hands  and  a  chaplet  of 
ivy  on  her  head.  Polyhymnia  has  no  distinguishing  at- 
tributes, though  she  is  easily  recognized  by  her  ample  dress, 
and  grave  and  thoughtful  demeanor.  Even  after  the  Muses 
had  become  goddesses  of  song,  it  was  not  forgotten  that  they 
were  originally  fountain  nymphs,  and  so  their  sanctuaries 
were  situated  at  fountains."  Fountains  in  which  the  Muses 
took  especial  delight  were  the  Castalia,  at  t  he  foot  of  Mt. 
Parnassus  at  Delplii,  and  the  Aganippe  and  Hippocrene  on 
Mt.  Helicon.  Epithets  taken  from  the  various  seats  of  their 
cult  were  applied  to  them — e.  g.  Pierian,  Castalian,  and 
many  others.  Apollo  was  the  leader  of  the  Muses  (Musa- 
getes).     By  reason  of  their  connection  with  dramatic  poetry 


MUSEUM 


27 


they  were  especially  near  to  Dionysus,  whose  nurses  and 
compaiiiuDS  tney  were.  .1.  K.  S.  Sterkett. 

Ma.se'uni  [=  Lut.  =  (Ir.  Matmiov,  trnipU'  Jinlicateil  to  tlie 
Muses,  hiiK-e  a  place  fur  stuily,  liti-nilurc,  art,  etc. ;  liter., 
iieut.  i>f  iwvafiot.  pertaiiiinjj;  to  the  Pluses,  deriv.  of  Mai/<rai, 
Mu.ses| :  (III  institution  for  the  preservation  of  works  of  art, 
anliijuitiis,  and  objects  of  natural  history,  and  for  their 
utilization  in  research,  and  in  the  culture  and  enlighten- 
ment of  the  pei>ple.  Orij^inally,  museums  were  places  sacred 
to  the  Muses,  such  !is  the  (;roves  of  I'arnassus  anil  Helicon; 
later,  temples  in  various  parts  of  Greece  were  known  liv 
this  name  ;  and  still  later  the  mcaninj;  of  the  word  changed, 
audit  wasapplieil  toa  phice  of  study  or  a  school.  Athenteus 
in  the  second  century  spoke  of  .Vtfiens  as  "  the  nmseum  of 
(rreece."  The  Museum  of  .Alexandria,  founded  by  the 
Ptolemys,  B.  c.  21)0,  was  a  portion  of  the  palace  at  Alexan- 
dria, which  was  set  apart  for  the  study  of  the  sciences,  and 
contained  the  great  .Vlexandrian  library  ;  this  was  really  a 
great  university,  the  abiding-place  of  men  of  science  and 
letters,  who  were  ilivided  into  many  companies  or  colleges, 
for  the  support  of  each  of  which  a  large  levenue  was  allot- 
ted. .\fter  the  burning  of  the  .Vlexandrian  Museum,  the 
term  museum,  jus  applied  to  a  great  public  institution, 
dropi>ed  out  of  use  \intil  the  seventeenth  century.  The  dis- 
appearance of  the  word  is  an  indication  of  the  fact  that  the 
iilea  for  which  it  stood  had  also  fallen  into  disfavor.  It  wjis 
not  until  the  modern  arts  and  sciences  had  been  born,  and  a 
distinct  literary  and  scientitic  class  had  been  developed, 
that  it  was  iMissible  for  the  modern  museum  to  come  into 
existence,  although  there  had  alwavs  been  collections  of 
works  of  art  and  objects  of  natural  history  in  many  parts 
of  the  World. 

The  itlea  of  a  great  national  museum  of  science  and  art 
of  the  modern  tyin'  was  lirst  outlined  by  Bacon  in  his  Xftp 
vl//iJH/ia,  and  the  British  Museum,  founded  in  London  in  1753, 
containing  collections  of  Ixniks  and  maimscripts,  as  well  as 
works  of  art  and  nature,  was  in  some  degree  a  realization  of 
that  iilan.  This  institution  is,  at  least  to  Knglish-speaking 
fieople,  the  most  important  in  the  world  bearing  the  naTue 
of  museum,  partly  because  of  its  magnificent  library,  and 
also  from  its  unrivaU'd  archieological  collections — ligvp- 
tian,  Assyrian,  (Jriental,  Greek,  Koman — prehistoric  and 
mediii'val ;  its  coins,  its  numuscripts,  and  its  prints.  The 
equally  important  natural  history  departments  were  re- 
moved in  1S.S3  from  Bloomsbury,  where  the  parent  institu- 
tion still  stands,  to  new  riuarters  near  the  .\rt  Museum  in 
South  Kensington,  and-  placed  under  the  control  of  a  direc- 
tor, who  is  practically  indepenileiit  of  the  executive  oflicer 
of  the  British  Museum,  its  principal  librarian.  In  modern 
usiige  the  museum  is  always  separated  from  the  library. 

Museums  may  be  classified  in  two  ways — (1)  by  the  char- 
acter of  their  contents,  or  (2)  bv  the  object  for  which  they 
Were  founded.  Under  the  first  liead  they  may  be  groupeil 
as  follows:  (1)  Museums  of  art;  (i)  historical  museums; 
(3)  anthropological  museums;  (4)  natimil  history  muse- 
ums; (.'))  technological  museums;  (6)  commercial  muse- 
ums. Under  the  seconil  category  they  may  be  classed  as  (1) 
national  museums,  these  being  often  in  groups  rather  than 
combined  in  one  ;  (2)  local,  provincial,  or  city  museums;  (3) 
college  museums;  (4)  professional  or  class  museums.  The 
museum  of  art  is  the  depository  for  the  most  precious 
material  produt^sof  man's  creative  genius — paintings,  sculp- 
tures, architectnre  (so  far  as  it  can  be  shown  by  models, 
dntwings,  and  structural  fragments),  and  specimens  of  the 
illustrative  arts,  such  as  engravings,  and  illustrations  of  the 
application  of  decorative  usi'S.  I'erhaps  the  oldest  museum 
of  art,  anil  one  which  is  still  among  the  most  important,  is 
that  founded  by  Cosmo  ile'  Medici  in  Kloreiice  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  preserved  in  the  Ullizi 
tfttllerv,  and  is  connected  liy  a  bridge  across  the  .\rno  with 
a  similar  collection,  of  more  recent  origin  but  under  the 
same  administration,  known  as  the  I'ilti  (iallery,  which  is 
es[>ecially  rich  in  paintings  of  the  Italian  schools. 

Kvery  eity  in  Italy  has  its  art  museum.  The  Vatican  Gal- 
fery  in  Rome  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated,  including  most 
important  collections  in  painting  and  aiitii|iie  sculpture,  be- 
sides numerous  other  dipartinents;  while  the  t'apiloline 
Museum  and  the  lialeran  Museum  contain  treasures  of  the 
greatest  inuiortance.  The  Museo  Borlionico  at  Naples  is 
rich  in  similar  collections,  and  includes  also  most  iiuportant 
archieological  material  from  llerculaneum  and  I'omiM'ii, 
from  excavations  of  Kt Tuscan  cities  and  from  Kgypt.  The 
Gallery  of  Bologna;  the  Academy  of  Fine  .\rts  at  Venice, 


with  its  works  by  Titian.  Tintoretto,  and  Veronese;  the 
Brera  and  the  .\mbrosian  Galleries  in  Milan  ;  the  museums 
of  Turin,  Modena,  I'adua,  Ferrara,  Brescia,  and  Perugia  are 
remarkable,  as  well  as  that  at  Parma,  particularly  rich  in 
the  Works  of  Correggio ; 'and  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at 
Siena,  devoted  to  the  work  of  the  early  Tuscan  artists. 

The  art  museums  of  France  are  next  in  importance  to 
thost?  of  Italy.  The  Louvre,  founded  in  1T93,  is  one  of  the 
richest  in  the  world  as  regards  not  only  painting  and  sculp- 
ture, but  all  other  subjects  which  fall  within  the  limits  of  a 
museum  of  art,  and  is  supplemented  by  the  Luxembourg 
Museum,  containing  the  masterpieces  of  living  artists,  the 
Museum  of  the  .School  of  Fine  Arts,  and  the  Musee  des 
Thermes.  or  Ciuny  Museum,  devoted  to  the  decorative  arts 
of  the  Middle  .\ges.  Kvery  considerable  city  in  France  has 
its  own  collections,  those  of  Lyons,  Dijon,"  Bordeaux,  and 
Toulouse  being  among  the  most  important. 

In  Germany,  those  of  Berlin — the  Old  Museum  and  the 
Xew  Museum— those  at  Munich— the  Pinakothek  and  the 
Glyptothek — and  that  of  the  Zwinger  in  Dresden,  the  rest- 
ing-place of  the  Sistine  Madonna,  are  the  richest,  while 
those  of  Cologne,  Frankfort -on-lhe-Main.  Darmslailt,  Katis- 
bon,  Weimar,  and  Breslau  also  deserve  special  mention.  In 
Austria-Hungary,  the  lielvidere  Museum  at  Vienna  is  one 
of  the  highest  rank;  in  Russia,  the  Hermitage  Museum  at 
St.  Petersburg;  in  Spain,  the  Prado  at  Madrid;  in  Bel- 
gium, those  of  Antwerp  and  Brussels;  and  in  Holland,  those 
of  Kotterdam  and  The  Hague. 

The  National  Gallery  in  London  has  an  excellent  collec- 
tion of  [laintings  of  all  schools.  The  South  Kensington 
Museum,  near  London,  is  connected  with  the  department  of 
science  and  art,  and  is  especially  rich  in  material  for  instruc- 
tion in  all  the  arts  of  design;  and  there  are  collections  in 
most  of  the  cities  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

In  the  U.S.,  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston,  the 
Metroiiolitan  Museum  of  Art  in  New  York,  the  Museum  of 
Fine  Arts  in  Cincinnati,  the  Corconin  Art  Gallery  in  Wash- 
ington, the  Museum  of  Fine  .Vrts  in  .St.  Louis,  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  in  Philadelphia,  the  Ai-t  Institute  of  Chicago, 
and  the  Walters  collection  in  Baltimore  are  the  most  im- 
portant. The  museums  in  the  U.  S.,  however,  are  far  from 
rich  in  materials  illustrating  the  earlier  periods  in  the  his- 
tory of  painting  and  sculpture. 

The  museums  and  galleries  just  enumerated  should  be  re- 
gardeil  only  as  types.  So  many  hundreds  of  important 
museums,  public  and  private,  exist,  that  it  is  impossible 
even  to  mention  them  by  name.  Besides  these  general  col- 
lections, there  are  special  nniseums  devoted  to  the  work  of 
single  masters,  such  as  the  Thonvaldsen  Museum  in  Copen- 
hagen, and  the  one  at  Brussels  containing  only  the  works  of 
the  eccentric  painter  Wiertz,  the  Donatello  Museum  in  the 
Bargello  at  I- lorence.  and  the  Jlichelangelo  collections  in 
its  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  in  the  Casa  Buonarrotti. 

Museums  of  history  are  intended  to  preserve  objects  asso- 
ciated with  the  events  in  the  history  of  nations  or  races,  or 
illustrating  their  condition  at  different  periods  in  their 
national  life.  Every  museum  of  art  and  ever)'  archa?ological 
museum  is  also  a  museum  of  history,  by  reason  of  its  wealth 
of  portraits  of  historical  personages,  pictures  of  historical 
event.s,  and  the  delineations  of  customs,  costumes,  architec- 
ture, and  race  characteristics.  Historical  museums  arc  mani- 
fold in  character,  and  of  necessity  local  in  interest.  Some 
relate  to  the  histories  of  provinces  and  cities,  (hie  of  the 
oldest  and  liest  of  these  is  the  Miirkisch  Provinzial  Museum 
in  Berlin.  Conspicuous  among  these  also  are  the  ^luseiim 
of  the  City  of  Paris  in  the  Hotel  Carnavalet,  and  the  mu- 
seums of  the  cities  of  Brussels  and  Antwerp.  Some  his- 
torical museums  relate  to  a  dynastv,  as  the  Museum  of  the 
Hohenzollerns  in  Berlin.  The  cathci"lrals  of  Snithern  Europe 
and  .St.  Paul's  in  London  are  in  some  degree  national  or 
civic  museums.  There  ar»^  special  museums,  either  devoted 
to  single  men — like  the  Galileo  and  the  Dante  and  Buonar- 
rotti .Miis<'ums  in  Florence,  or  the  Goethe  Mus<>um  in  Wei- 
mar and  the  Beethoven  Mus<^um  at  Bonn  ;  to  the  great  men  of 
the  nation,  as  the  National  Portrait  Gallery  of  Great  Britain, 
the  lierm.'.n  Vallialla  at  Ratisbon,  and  so  forth  ;  or  to  great 
men  of  a  speeiid  profession,  such  as  the  (iallery  of  .\rtisls 
in  the  Pilti  Museum  of  Florence,  consisting  of  poriniiis  of 
all  the  great  artists  of  the  world,  painted  by  tluinsi  Ives. 
In  this  class  would  come  also  collections  of  aulograplis 
and  manuscripts,  like  the  Dyce-Forstor  collection  nt  si,„|tli 
Kensington,  and  eolleelions  of  |H"rsonal  r^  i— 

toricnl  museums  shimld  also  be  menlioir  t- 

ing  the  earliest  liistfiry  of  a  race  or  coinmi ,  su.  n  h-  the 


28 


MUSEUM 


magnificent  Musee  Gallo-Romain  at  St.-Germain,  near  Paris, 
devoted  to  the  history  of  France  up  to  the  end  of  the  Ro- 
man occupation ;  the  Romano-German  Museum  at  Mentz, 
and  the  Etruscan  Museums  at  Florence,  Bologna,  and  else- 
where in  Italy ;  the  Ghizeh  Museum  near  Cairo,  Egypt 
(formerly  the  Boulak  Museum);  the  museums  at  Constanti- 
nople, the  Acropolis  Museum  at  Athens,  and  many  others. 
Such  institutions  as  the  Bavarian  National  Museum  at  Nu- 
remberg and  the  National  Museum  in  Munich  have  to  do 
with  the  later  periods  of  national  history,  and  there  are 
throughout  Europe  numerous  collections  of  armor,  furni- 
ture, costumes,  and  architectural  and  other  objects,  illus- 
trating the  life  and  arts  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  later 
periods,  which  are  even  more  significant  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  historian  than  from  that  of  the  artist.  Impor- 
tant among  these  is  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  at  Dublin. 

Museums  of  anthropology  and  ethnology  include  such 
objects  as  illustrate  the  natural  history  of  man,  his  classifi- 
cation into  races  and  tribes,  his  geographical  distribution, 
past  and  present ;  the  origin,  history,  and  methods  of  his 
arts,  industries,  customs,  and  languages,  particularly  among 
primitive  and  semi-civilized  peoples.  Museums  of  anthro- 
pology and  history  meet  on  common  ground  in  the  field  of 
archfeology.  In  practice,  historic  archfeology  is  usually  as- 
signed to  the  latter  and  prehistoric  archaeology  to  the  former, 
since  prehistoric  material  may  be  studied  to  the  best  advan- 
tage by  the  use  of  the  natural  history  methods  which  have 
been  adopted  by  anthropologists,  but  not  as  yet  by  students 
of  history.  Ethnographic  museums  were  proposed  by  the 
French  geographer  Jomard,  and  the  idea  was  first  carried 
into  effect  about  1840  in  the  establishment  of  the  Danish 
Ethnographical  JIuseum.  In  Germany  the  best  are  in  Ber- 
lin, Dresden,  Munich,  and  Leipzig.  Austria  has  in  Vienna 
two  for  ethnography,  the  Court  and  the  Oriental  Museums. 
Holland  has  the  National  Ethnographic  Museum  in  Leyden, 
and  smaller  collections  in  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  and  at 
The  Hague.  Prance  has  the  Trocadero ;  Italy  the  impor- 
tant prehistoric  and  ethnographic  museums  in  Rome  and 
Florence.  The  Philippine  collections  in  the  Museo  de 
Ultramar  in  Madrid  and  the  Hawaiian  collections  in  the 
Bernice  Pauahi  Bishop  Museum  at  Honolulu  are  important. 
In  England  less  attention  has  been  given  to  this  subject 
than  elsewhere  in  Europe,  the  Christy  collection  in  the 
British  Museum  being  the  only  important  one  specially  de- 
voted to  ethnography,  except  the  Blackmore  Museum  at 
Salisbury.  In  the  U.  S.  the  principal  establishments  ar- 
ranged on  the  ethnographic  plan  are  the  Peabody  Museum 
of  ArchiEology  in  Cambridge,  and  the  collections  in  the 
Peabody  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Salem  and  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York.  The  vast  ethno- 
logical collections  in  the  National  Museum  in  Washington 
are  classified  on  a  double  system,  in  one  of  its  features  cor- 
responding to  that  of  the  European,  in  the  other,  like  the 
famous  Pitt  Rivers  collection  at  Oxford,  arranged  to  show 
the  evolution  of  culture  and  civilization  without  regard  to 
race.  This  broader  plan  admits  much  material  excluded 
by  the  advocates  of  ethnographic  museums,  who  devote 
their  attention  almost  exclusively  to  the  primitive  or  non- 
European  peoples. 

In  close  relation  to  the  ethnographic  museums  are  those 
which  are  devoted  to  some  special  field  of  general  thought 
and  interest.  Most  remarkable  among  these  is  the  Musee 
Guiraet,  founded  in  Lyons  in  1878  and  removed  to  Paris  in 
1886,  which  is  intended  to  illustrate  the  history  of  religious 
ceremonials  among  all  races  of  men,  a  field  also  occupied  by 
one  department  of  the  National  Museum  in  Washington. 
Other  good  examples  of  this  class  are  Some  of  those  in  Paris, 
such  as  the  Musee  de  Marine,  which  shows  not  only  the  de- 
velopment of  the  naval  and  merchant  marine  of  the  country, 
but  also,  by  trophies  and  other  historical  souvenirs,  the  his- 
tory of  the  naval  battles  of  the  nation.  The  Mvisee  d'Artillerie 
does  for  war,  but  less  thoroughly,  what  the  Marine  Museum 
does  in  its  own  department,  and  there  are  similar  museums 
in  other  countries.  Of  musical  museums,  jjerhapn  the  most 
important  is  the  Musee  Instrumental,  founded  by  Clapisson, 
attached  to  the  Conservatory  of  Music  in  Paris,  that  in 
Brussels,  and  that  in  the  National  Museum  in  Washington. 
There  is  a  magnificent  collection  of  musical  instruments  at 
South  Kensington,  but  its  contents  are  selected  with  refer- 
ence to  their  suggestiveness  in  decorative  art.  There  is  a 
Theatrical  .Museum  at  the  Academic  Fran(;aise  in  Paris,  a 
Museum  of  Journahsm  at  Antwerp,  and  Museums  of  Peda- 
gogy in  Paris  and  .St.  Petersburg.  These  are  professional 
rather  than  scientific  or  educational,  as  are  perhaps  also 


the  Museum  of  Practical  Fish-culture  at  South  Kensington 
and  the  Museums  of  Hygiene  in  London  and  Washington. 
The  Psychological  Museum  founded  by  Mantegazza  in  Flor- 
ence in  1886  is  the  only  one  of  its  kind. 

The  value  of  archseological  collections,  both  historic  and 
prehistoric,  has  long  been  understood.  The  museums  of 
London,  Paris,  Berlin,  Copenhagen,  and  Rome  need  no  com- 
ment. In  the  Peabody  Museum  in  Cambridge,  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  in  New  York,  and  the  National  Museum  in 
Washington  are  inmiense  collections  of  the  remains  of  man 
in  America  in  the  pre-Columbian  period,  collections  which 
are  yearly  growing  in  significance  as  they  are  made  the  sub- 
ject of  investigation,  and  there  is  an  immense  amount  of 
material  of  this  kind  in  the  hands  of  other  institutions  and 
of  private  collectors  in  the  U.  S. 

Museums  of  natural  history  contain  those  objects  which 
illustrate  the  phenomena  of  nuture  in  animals,  minerals,  and 
plants,  and  whatever  illustrates  their  origin,  growth,  func- 
tions, structure,  and  geographical  distriljutit)n,  in  the  pres- 
ent and  in  tlie  past.  Museums  of  natural  history  and  an- 
thropology meet  on  common  ground  in  man.  In  practice 
the  former  usually  illustrates  the  relations  of  man  to  other 
animals ;  the  latter,  man  in  his  relations  to  other  men.  Every 
great  nation  has  its  museum  of  nature.  Probably  the  natu- 
ral history  department  of  the  British  Museum  is  the  most  ex- 
tensive, with  its  three  great  divisions — zoological,  botanical, 
and  geological.  The  Musee  d"Histoire  Naturelle,  in  the  Gar- 
den of  Plants  in  Paris,  founded  in  1795,  with  its  galleries 
of  anatomy,  anthropology,  zoology,  botany,  mineralogy,  and 
geology,  is  one  of  the  most  extensive,  but  far  less  potent  in 
science  now  than  in  the  days  of  Cuvier.  In  Washington 
there  is  the  National  Museum,  with  its  great  anthropologic- 
al, zoological,  botanical,  mineralogical,  and  geological  col- 
lections, administered  under  one  organization,  together  with 
a  large  additional  department  of  arts  and  industries  or 
technology.  The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  in 
New  York,  the  Museum  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
in  Philadelphia,  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  the 
California  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  Peabody  Museum  of 
Y^ale  College,  the  E.  M.  Museum  of  Princeton  University, 
the  Museum  of  Archa?ology  and  Pala?ontology  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum 
are  also  important. 

Passing  to  specialized  natural  history  collections,  perhaps 
the  most  noteworthy  are  tliose  devoted  to  zoology,  and  chief 
among  them  is  that  at  Harvard  LTniversity,  known  as  the 
Jluseum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  which  was  founded  by 
Agassiz  "  to  illustrate  the  history  of'  creation  as  far  as  the 
present  state  of  knowledge  reveals  that  history,"  and  was 
in  1887  pronounced  by  the  English  naturalist  Alfred  Rus- 
sell Wallace  "  to  be  far  in  advance  of  similar  institutions  in 
Europe  as  an  educational  institution,  whether  as  regards  the 
general  public,  the  private  student,  or  the  specialist."  Next 
to  Cambridge,  after  the  zoological  sections  of  the  museums 
of  London  and  Paris,  stand  the  collections  in  tiie  Imperial 
Cabinet  in  Vienna,  and  those  of  the  zoological  museums  in 
Berlin,  Leyden,  Copenhagen,  and  Christiania,  and  the  mu- 
seums of  Brussels,  Florence,  and  La  Plata,  so  rich  in  paliPon- 
tological  materials.  The  university  museums  at  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  and  the  Liverpool  museums  are  also  note- 
worthy. 

Among  botanical  museums,  that  in  the  Royal  Gardens  at 
Kew,  near  London,  is  pre-eminent,  with  iticolossal  herba- 
rium containing  the  finest  collection  in  the  world,  and  its 
special  museum  of  economic  botany,  founded  in  1847,  both 
standing  in  the  midst  of  a  collection  of  living  plants.  There 
is  also  in  Berlin  the  Royal  Botanical  Museum,  founded  in 
1818  as  the  Royal  Herbarium ;  in  St.  Petersburg,  the  Her- 
baria of  the  Imperial  Botanical  Garden.  The  Natural  Her- 
bariiun  in  Washington  is  the  property  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institute  and  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Among  the  geological  and  mineralogical  collections  the 
mineral  cabinet  in  Vienna,  arranged  in  the  imiierial  castle, 
is  among  the  first.  The  Museum  of  Practical  Geology  in 
London,  which  is  attached  to  the  Geological  Survey  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  was  founded  in  1837  to  exhibit  the  col- 
lections of  the  survey,  in  order  to  show  the  applications  of 
geology  to  the  useful  purposes  of  life.  The  department  of 
economic  geology  in  the  Field  Columbian  Museum  in  Chi- 
cago, an  outgrowth  of  the  department  of  mines  in  the  exhi- 
bition of  18'J8,  is  one  of  its  most  striking  features. 

Of  museums  of  anatomy  there  are  thirty  of  considerable 
magnitude,  all  of  which  have  grown  up  in  connection  with 
schools  of  medicine  and  surgery,  except  the  magnificent 


ML'SHROOM-POISONING 


MUSUROOMS 


29 


Army  Medical  Musi-iim  in  WashinKton.  The  Medical  Mu- 
seum lit  the  Koyal  College  of  Surgeons  in  London  is  prob- 
ably first  in  iinporlunL-e. 

Museums  of  tecliiinlngy,  or  industriiij  muspums,  are  de- 
voted ti>  the  iihluslrial  iii1-i  and  to  maiuifactuns,  and  ex- 
hibit (I)  materials  and  tlieir  sources  ;  ("i)  tools  and  machin- 
ery ;  (;i)  methoils  and  i)r<K'esses ;  (4)  products  ami  results. 
In  this  group  would  lie  included  nniseums  of  agriculture,  as 
that  of  the  L'.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  in  Washing- 
ton ;  of  mining,  such  as  the  Museum  of  Practical  (ieology 
in  Loniliin.  in  part,  and  the  Museum  of  the  School  of  Mines 
in  Paris;  ami  of  tisherics,  such  as  the  Museum  of  Practical 
Fish-culture  in  South  Kensington,  and  the  fisheries  sec- 
tion of  the  National  Museum  in  Washington,  which  formed 
so  important  a  feature  of  the  International  Fisheries  Ex- 
hibition in  Berlin  in  1880  and  in  London  in  1883 :  muse- 
ums of  textiles,  such  as  the  museums  of  tapestries  in  Flor- 
ence, that  in  the  Ks<-orial  in  Spain,  and  that  at  the  Gobelin 
establishment  near  Paris;  of  the  ceramic  industries,  such  as 
the  Sevres  Museum  in  Paris, and  indeed  such  collections  are 
usually  included  in  museums  of  decorative  art, one  of  which 
may  be  found  in  every  great  cily ;  museums  of  transporta- 
tion, by  far  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Kaihvay 
.Museum  now  (I8U4)  being  forjued  in  connection  with  the 
Field  t'olumbian  Museum  in  Chicago,  which  has  also  im- 
portant collections  in  other  technological  fields.  A  collec- 
tion of  waste  products  and  undeveloped  substances  usually 
forms  a  part  of  the  technologital  museums;  and  there  are 
special  museums  of  animal  products,  such  as  that  at  the 
Bethiukl  tireen  Museum  in  Lonilon,  and  of  vegetable  prod- 
ucts, such  as  the  Museum  of  Kconomie  Botany  at  Kow,  near 
London. 

Commercial  mu.seums  exhibit  salable  articles  of  all  kinds, 
with  illustrations  of  markets,  means  of  commercial  distri- 
bution, prices,  and  commercial  demand  and  supply.  One  of 
the  best  of  these  is  the  Musee  de  Melle  at  tihent.  Commer- 
cial museums  are  especially  useful  in  great  centers  of  manu- 
facture anil  trade,  especially  when  coupled  with  an  efficient 
service  of  foreign  correspomlents.  Such  museums  may  be 
properly  connected  with  a  technological  museum,  although 
its  raethoils  are  likely  to  be  more  akin  to  the  exhibit  i(m,  ex- 
position, or  fair,  involving  a  frequent  renewal  of  exhibits  in 
connection  with  commercial  changes,  aiul  also  certain  fea- 
tures of  competition  and  advertising  display  on  the  part  of 
private  exhibitors. 

The  principal  types  of  museums  have  been  referred  to  in 
connection  with  a  classification  ba.seil  on  their  contents.  It 
is  therefore  unnecessary  to  review  them  under  the  seconil 
form  of  classification  pronosi'd  at  the  beginning  of  this 
article.  It  shoulil  be  saiil,  however,  that  every  great  na- 
tional capital  has  a  single  museum, or  a  group  of  them, sup- 
ported by  the  national  government,  and  intimately  con- 
nected with  national  educational  enterprises. 

In  Italy,  while  there  are  national  museums  in  Rome  and 
Florence,  the  whole  country  is  under  the  control  of  a  Gov- 
ernment commission  charged  with  the  preservation  of  the 
treasures  of  history  and  art.  The  treasures  of  every  church 
and  monastery  are  umler  public  control,  and  nuiny  of  these 
and  other  public  edifices  have  been  deidared  public  monu- 
ments. Tlie  tract  ill  which  the  Forum  at  R.nne  is  situated 
has  been  constituted  an  outdoor  niu.seuiii,  under  the  name 
of  the  Passagiala  .\rcheologica. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  National  Jlusouni  at  Washington,  estab- 
lished as  a  part  of  the  .Smithsonian  Institute  in  1846,  is 
charged  with  the  care  of  all  the  collections  of  the  Ooveni- 
menl.  There  are  also,  however. the  .\rmy  Medical  Museum, 
the  Naval  Museum  of  Hygiene,  and  the  Corcoran  (iallery  of 
.•\rt,  llie  latter  under  the  control  of  a  private  corporation. 

The  modern  museum  is  the  latc'^t  i>f  the  gn-al  agencies 
which  have  bi^'ii  developed  for  the  increase  and  dilTusion  of 
knowledge,  an<l  in  this  capacity  it  stands  bv  the  side  of  the 
university,  the  learned  sm-iety,  and  the  public  library.  The 
museum  is  even  more  closely  in  touch  with  the  masses  than 
the  university  or  the  learned  society,  and  i|uile  as  much  so 
as  the  public  library,  while,  even  more  than  the  lilirarv,  it 
is  a  recent  outgrowth  of  modern  lendemv  of  thought.  It  is 
maintained  bv  many  that  the  degree  of  civilization  to  which 
any  nation,  city,  <ir  province,  has  attained  is  best  shown  bv 
the  diameter  i>f  il<  pul)lie  muM'ums  and  the  libemlity  witli 
wliii'h  lliev  are  iiiainlaineil.  (iROROK  BroW.N  GouIik. 

Miishriiom-poisonin^:  .See  Toxirouxiv. 

Mushrooms  [(by  folk-etvmology  from  mii^h  and  room) 
from  O.  I"r.  mouHcheron  >  t'r.  mouivtrrim  ;  of.  mou»»f,  mossj: 


popular  name  of  edible  Fungi  of  the  order  nymenomyeettm, 
es|M.>cially  species  of  the  genus  Ayiiricus.  (See  Foou.)  In 
the  U.  S.  the  name  toadstixd  is  applied  to  nearly  every  kind 
of  parasol-shaped  mushrooiu,  the  common  belief  being  that 
they  are  poi.sonous. 

The  common  muslinxun,  Aijnririis  rampeslriit,  is  a  species 
o(  the  A garicace(F,  Ihu  first  family  of  the  llymenumycttew 
(see  Ff.NOL'^,  growini;  almost  everywhere.  It  is  the  famous 
ehninpiynon  of  the  French,  pratiula  of  the  Italians,  and 
was  known  to  the  ancients  by  upward  of  a  .s<-ore  of  synonyms. 
The  fleshy  pileus  is  white  in  the  voung  state,  becoiiiing  of  a 
yellowish  brown  when  maliire.  It  usually  grows  in  clusters 
and  never  attains  a  great  size.  The  ring  is  present  and 
conspicuou.s.  Though  subject  to  many  variations,  it  is 
easily  recognizeil  by  its  fleshy  pileus.  solid  stipe,  and  pink- 
colored  gills,  often  becoming  purple  with  age.  It  is  the 
most  generally  eaten  of  e.-iciilent  fungi.  This  mushroom  is 
used  to  a  great  extent  as  an  article  of  food  in  France,  and 
especially  in  Paris,  around  which  it  is  largely  cultivated  ; 
old  deserted  mining-caves  have  been  appropriated  for  the 
|iurpose,  and  many  miles  of  mushroom-beds  are  reached  by 
the  ai<l  of  ladders  and  lanterns.  It  is  usually  found  in  the 
wild  state  si-attercd  over  a  rich  meadow  or  pasture  in  early 
morning  after  a  warm  shower  in  the  night.  The  mushroom 
is  only  one  of  over  1,000  well-defined  species  of  the  genus 
Agariciis,  at  lea.st  one-fourth  of  which  are  not  only  harm- 
less, but  well  worthy  the  lime  and  care  of  the  market- 
gardener.  Closely  related  to  .1.  campestris  is  A.  arrenaig, 
popularly  called  "  ineadow-mushroom."  from  its  place  of 
growth.  It  is  larger  than  A.  campcs/n's,  stronger  in  flavor, 
and  less  esteemed.  From  its  size  and  coarseness  it  has  in 
England  received  the  name  of  "  hoi-se-mushrooin."  Speci- 
mens are  mentioned  weighing  14  lb.  The  "  nail  fungus," 
A.  e^ciilentus,  is  the  smallest  species  used  for  food.  The 
pileus  does  not  exceed  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  is  flat  and 
clay  c<ilored.  It  is  found  in  fir  woculs,  and  is  used  largely 
in  Vienna  as  a  flavor  for  sauces  under  the  name  of  yaget- 
■trhmimm.  One  of  the  most  poisonous  species  of  the  genus 
is  the  "fly  agaric."  A.  muscariun,  so  named  because  the 
fungus  is  often  steeped  and  the  solution  used  for  the  de- 
struction of  the  house-fly.  The  pileus  is  raised  upon  a  long 
stipe,  reaching  a  diameter  of  4  to  6  inches,  having  its  bright 
red  surface  studded  with  large  white  protuberances.  Very 
closely  allied  to  the  fly  agaric  is  .1.  cit.siiri-ii.'t,  though  not 
poisonous  and  very  excelhiit  for  food.  It  can  always  be 
distinguished  by  its  yellow  gills,  while  .4.  miiscarius  has 
them  of  a  pure  dead  white.  The  genus  (Dpriniitt  differs 
from  Agariciis  mainly  in  the  deliquescent  character  of  the 
gills.  C.  comatus  is  the  leading  esculent  species,  and  com- 
mands attention  by  its  singular  and  graceful  form.  The 
whole  surface  is  delicate  and  silky,  the  cap  tinged  with 
brown  at  the  top  and  grayish  at  the  base,  soon  bwoming 
covered  with  scales.  The  gills  are  very  close  together,  and 
pass  in  color  from  pink  to  brown.  These  iilants  should  al- 
ways be  gathered  before  they  begin  to  deliquesce.  In  the 
genus  Cortinariua  the  veil  is  composed  of  arai'hnoid  threads 
and  the  snores  are  rusty.  The  edible  species  are  few  in 
number.  In  Jhjgrophorux  the  main  feature  is  the  waxy 
character  of  the  hymeniuin.  There  are  three  species  of 
culinary  importance,  the  best  being  the  small  pure  white 
//.  firgineitx.  It  is  common,  and,  like  the  brown  If.  pra- 
tenm'-i,  is  found  in  open  pastures.  The  members  of  the 
genus  Laclaritis  are  distinguished  by  the  milky  juice  which 
exudes  from  them  when  bruised.  L.  deliciomui  has  the 
orange-oolored  pileus  marked  with  zones  of  a  darker  color. 
The  milk  is  at  fii-st  vellow,  sinm  turning  green.  This  .species 
deserves  its  name  t)ilirioxiiti.  and  is  sought  for  and  highly 
prized  by  all  lovers  of  edible  Fungi,  liiiiixiila  einflira.as  its 
name  would  indicate,  acts  as  an  emetic  lo  most  pers<ins, 
though  a  few  can  eat  it  with  impunity.  It  may  be  distin- 
guished bv  its  rosy  pileus,  brillle  gills,  and  while  sli|)0 
dotteil  witli  red  sjKits.  The  genus  Cniilhanilliis  has  thick 
bnincheil  gills,  with  e»lges  blunt  and  roundish.  C.  rihnrius 
is  the  l)eautiful  little  yellow  ehanliTelle  so  highly  esteemed 
by  the  French.  It  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  bright 
golden-yellow  color,  and  odi.r  much  resembling  ripe  apri- 
cots. In  MitriismiiiK  the  species  are  characlerizeil  by  hav- 
ing a  dry  hvmeniiim.  folds  thick  and  tough  and  acute  at 
t  he  edge.  Tlie  simmIcs  are  generally  quite  small.  .'/.  orendr», 
from  its  peculiarity  of  growing  in  circle-s.  and  the  early 
superstitious  Ix-lief  that  these  rings  hafl  some  connection 
with  elfs  and  goblins,  has  long  been  known  as  the  "  fairy- 
ring  fungus."  These  rinipi  are  now  known  to  tie  formeil  by 
the   .spreading   out    in  ail   directiMn^   •■<   i   .  )ii~i.r  ..f  ilies.> 


30 


MUSHROOMS 


MUSIC 


plants,  the  result  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  nourishment 
directly  beneath.  It  is  a  very  small  and  common  species, 
and  has  gained  a  good  reputation  among  mushroom-eaters 
as  furnishing  a  delicate  dish. 

In  the  second  family  of  the  Hymenomycetece.  Polyporacew. 
the  gills  of  \.\\e  Agaricacein  are  replaced  by  joocfs  or  tubes. 
The  genus  Boletus  has  the  pores  easily  separated,  and  fur- 
nishes a  number  of  esculent  species,  of  whicli  B.  eduUs  is 
the  most  important.  The  pileus  is  smooth  and  brown,  with 
the  tubes  at  first  yellow,  becoming  green  by  age.  The  re- 
ticulation of  the  stem  is  one  of  the  leading  characteristics 
of  the  species.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  woods.  .Some 
prefer  to  this  the  B.  a»fivalis,  which  is  an  early  summer 
species.  B.  luridus  is  sometimes  eaten  without  harm,  but 
should  not  rank  among  esculent  species.  It  has  a  pileus  3 
to  6  inches  broad,  and  varying  in  color  from  a  brick-red  to 
brown.  The  flesh  is  at  first  yellow,  changing  to  blue.  In 
the  genus  Polyporus  tlie  pores  are  not  easily  separated,  and 
many  of  them  are  without  stems.  A  few  species  are  of 
worth  as  articles  of  diet.  P.  giganteus  and  P.  intybaceous 
are  of  very  large  size,  a  single  specimen  sometimes  weighing 
40  lb.  They  both,  like  many  other  species  of  the  genus, 
grow  upon  the  trunks  of  trees.  In  gathering  them  for  food 
it  is  best  to  select  the  younger  specimens,  and  use  only  tlie 
inner  portion.  P.  fomentarius  is  touch-wood  or  "  punk," 
and  grows  to  a  great  extent  on  the  trunks  of  dead  and  de- 
caying trees.  The  property  of  its  being  luminous  in  the 
dark  has  long  been  known.  Amadou  or  German  tinder  is 
a  commercial  product  from  this  and  several  other  species  of 
Polyporus.  It  consists  of  slices  of  the  plant  beaten  out  in 
thin  strips  and  saturated  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
potash.  It  is  used  as  a  rajiid  and  easy  means  of  starting  a 
lire.  Tlie  last  genus  of  Pulyporaceie  is  FisfuUna.  charac- 
terized by  having  the  hyraeuium  inferior  and  a  papiUated 
surface  when  young,  whicli  clianges  into  tubes  bearing  tlie 
spores.  P.  hepatica,  so  named  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
liver,  is  fleshy  and  juicy,  and  very  appropriately  bears  the  com- 
mon name  of  beefsteak  fungus.  It  assumes  a  great  varietv 
of  forms,  from  that  of  a  strawberry  to  that  of  a  tongue. 
When  cut  it  resembles  a  beet-root.  It  grows  upon  trunks 
of  trees  throughout  the  summer,  and  is  eagerly  sought  for. 

The  third  family  of  the  Hymenomycetem  is  termed  TTyd- 
nacew,  in  which  the  leading  characteristic  is  the  numerous 

E rejecting  spines  or  teeth,  over  the  surface  of  which  the 
ymenium  is  spread.  The  most  common  edible  species  is 
Hydnum  repandum.  found  in  woods  and  shady  places.  The 
pileus  is  fleshy,  regular,  and  red,  lobed,  or  undulated,  spines 
pale-yellow,  stem  3  inches  long.  When  raw  it  has  a  peppery 
taste  and  the  odor  of  horseradish.  Less  common,  B.  coral- 
loides  in  its  young  state  much  resembles  a  cauliflower,  be- 
cause of  its  peculiar  branching.  It  is  a  tree-inhaliiting 
plant,  and  is  esculent.  H.  cnput-medusce,  as  its  name  would 
suggest,  has  the  liranching  top  of  the  one  just  mentioned. 
Among  others  used  for  food  are  //.  subsquamosum  and  //. 
rufescens.  The  members  of  the  family  Clavaricicece  are 
easily  recognized  by  being  club-shaped,  fieshy,  and  branch- 
ing. Among  these  are  found  a  number  of  edible  species. 
The  most  beautiful  colored  species  is  Clavaria  aiiiethystina. 
It  is  of  a  fine  violet  color,  and  is  seldom  found  in  large 
quantities.  Dr.  Curtis  enumerates  thirteen  species  of  Cla- 
varia eaten  in  Carolina,  but  they  are  generally  little  known. 
In  the  family  Tremellacece,  or  the  gelatinous  Fungi,  only 
one  species  lias  received  much  attention  as  an  article  of 
food — viz.,  the  curious  "Jew"s  ear,"  Uirneola  auricula- 
judie.  It  gets  its  name  from  its  strong  resemblance  to  the 
human  ear.  This  species  is  collected  in  large  quantities  in 
Tahiti  and  shipped  in  a  dried  state  to  China,  where  it  is 
used  for  soap. 

There  are  no  simple  rules  that  may  be  taken  as  infallible 
guides  for  distinguishing  esculent  from  poisonous  species. 
The  following  rules  are  only  of  a  general  character,  having 
some  exceptions:  (1)  Avoid  bright  colors  (th.\»v{o\i\A  throw 
out  the  highly  [irized  chanterelle  of  the  French  and  several 
other  species) ;  (2)  avoid  those  that  change  color  when  cut  or 
broken;  (3)  avoid  those  with  a  milky  juice  (Lactarius  deli- 
eiosua  has  a  milky  juice,  and  is  still  delicious) ;  (4)  those  that 
deliquesce  should  be  avoided — the  Coprinus  coniatus  is  a 
grand  exception  to  this  nile.  The  safest  of  all  rules  is, 
never  to  use  a  fungus  about  which  there  is  any  doubt ;  this 
will  require  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  at  least  a  few  of 
the  edible  species,  which  will  take  no  more  time  than  to  be- 
come familiar  with  the  same  number  of  shrubs  or  trees. 
Care  should  also  be  exercised  to  gather  only  the  fresh 
plants,  and  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  a  long 


time  before  being  eaten.  Climate  and  the  seasons  seem  to 
exert  an  influence  over  fungi  as  regards  their  edible  quali- 
ties. A  much  larger  per  cent,  of  the  spring  species  are  edi- 
ble than  those  of  autumn. 

Most  fungi  require  for  their  best  development  a  moist 
atmosphere,  with  the  exclusion  of  bright  sunlight.  The 
common  and  most  successful  method  of  cultivating  the 
mushroom  and  edible  toadstools  is  to  mix  fresh  horsedung 
with  loam  in  such  proportions  as  to  prevent  too  violent  fer- 
mentation, when  it  is  put  in  long  narrow  beds  of  a  foot  or 
18  inches  in  height  in  the  center,  into  which  the  mycelium 
or  spawn  is  placed,  and  the  whole  coated  over  with  a  layer 
of  loam.  These  beds  are  usually  protected  from  the  liglit 
and  drying  influences  of  the  sun  by  low  sheds,  having  the 
roofs  thatched  to  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture. 
A  covering  of  hay  or  straw  is  often  placed  directly  upon 
the  beds. 

Bibliography. — For  extended  information,  the  reader  may 
consult  Robinson,  On  Mushroom-culture  (London,  1870); 
Cuthill,  On  the  Culture  of  the  Mushroom  (1861);  Kromb- 
holz,  Ahhildungen  und  Beschreibungen  der  Schwdmme 
(Prague,  1831) ;  C.  H.  Persoon,  Traife  sur  les  Champignons 
comestibles  (Paris,  1818);  F.  S.  Cordier,  Hist,  et  Descr.  des 
Champignons  alimeyitaires  et  veneneu.r  (Vmis,  1836);  Dr. 
Badham,  Treatise  on  the  Esculent  Funguses  of  England 
(London,  1863) ;  M.  C.  Cooke,  British  Edible  Fungi  (1891) ; 
Mrs.  T.  J.  Hussey,  Plustratiuns  of  British  Mycology  (Lon- 
don, 1855);  J.  J.  Paulet,  Iconographie  des  Champignons 
(Paris,  1855).  See  also  the  articles  Fl'NGI,  Morel,  and  Vege- 
table Kingdom.  William  G.  Farlow. 
Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Music  [via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  mu'sica  =  Gr.  iwvaiidi  (sc. 
Te'xv)),  any  art  over  which  the  Muses  presided,  especially  lyric 
poetry  set  to  music,  lit.  fem.  of  ^ouo-iKifs.  pertaining  to  the 
Muses,  deriv.  of  MoiJcrai,  Muses] :  a  succession  of  combina- 
tion of  sounds  arranged  with  such  connection  and  mutual 
relation  as  to  express  to  the  ear  some  distinct  form  or  train 
of  thought,  and  awaken  certain  corresponding  emotions. 
Sounds  when  thus  regulated  affect  the  mind  tlircnigh  the 
ear,  as  painting  and  sculpture  under  similar  conditions  af- 
fect it  through  the  eye.  The  latter,  however,  deal  with 
tangible  objects,  or  with  ideas  formed  from  material  types 
and  their  attributes,  while  the  agency  of  music  is  limited  to 
certain  relations  existing  between  sounds,  variously  ordered 
and  combined,  and  the  inward  springs  of  emotion.  In  all 
time  past,  and  even  among  the  rudest  tril)es  and  nations, 
we  find  traces  of  effort  to  make  both  tlie  eye  and  the  ear 
subservient  to  the  stirring  up  of  pleasurable  or  other  feel- 
ings. (See  Ethnology.)  To  some  such  impulse  it  is  most 
natural  to  refer  not  only  the  production  of  the  rough  draw- 
ings, chiselings,  and  carvings  often  found  among  trilies 
and  nations  of  barbarians,  but  also  the  varied  and  perse- 
vering attempts  of  the  same  untutored  races  to  find  grati- 
fication for  the  ear  amid  the  din  and  clang  of  their  imper- 
fect musical  instruments.  The  results  in  both  cases  could 
not  be  otherwise  than  strange  in  their  concejition  and  often 
marvelous  in  their  ugliness.  From  tliis  state  of  primitive 
rudeness  the  progress  of  the  finer  arts  to  higlier  stages  of  cul- 
tivation was  not  equally  rapid.  All  historical  records,  and 
the  still  existing  monuments  and  relics  of  antiquity,  bear 
evidence  tliat  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture  grad- 
ually rose  to  perfection,  while  music  still  remained  a  subject 
of  dark  and  confused  speculation.  For  long  ages,  and  even 
through  the  most  brilliant  periods  of  ancient  civilization 
and  intellectual  splendor,  it  was  the  fate  of  music  to  be  an 
enigma  defying  all  solution ;  and  we  read  of  no  master- 
minds springing  up  to  reveal  its  long-hidden  beauties  or  to 
discover  and  systematize  its  real  principles  till  near  the 
close  of  the  ^Middle  Ages.  The  music  of  the  present  <hiy. 
both  as  a  science  and  an  art.  is  therefore  a  growth  of  the 
last  three  or  four  centuries;  and  (with  a  rapidity  equaled 
only  by  the  rise  and  advance  of  Gothic  architecture)  it  has 
already  reached  so  high  a  stage  of  development  as  seemingly 
to  leave  little  room  for  further  discovery,  either  in  its  scien- 
tific or  practical  and  mechanical  departments. 

In  the  present  article  it  is  purposed  to  give  in  a  simple 
manner  a  general  view  or  outline  of  the  musical  system  as 
now  ordinarily  umiersfood  and  received  ;  and  as  it  is  pre- 
sunieil  that  the  reader  already  possesses  some  elementary 
knowledge  of  music,  it  will  be  the  less  necessary  to  enter 
into  details  on  Notation,  Scale,  Mode,  and  other  prelimi- 
nary matters,  concerning  which  full  information  will  be 
found  under  their  respective  heads  in  the  jiresent  work. 


MUSIC 


31 


Sounds  mav  conveniently  be  rcgardctt  as  either  musical  or 
unmu;<ical.  This  distinction  is  irri'Siict'tive  uf  Ihoir  several 
qualities  as  Imid  nr  .-oft.  harsh  or  sniuolh,  etc.;  for  certain 
sounds  which  arc  essentially  musical  may  nevertheless  lie 
painful  to  the  ear,  while,  on  the  contrary,  olhei-s  which  are 
strictly  UHUiusical  may  have  no  such  unpleasant  ellect. 
The  radical  jicculiariiy  or  mark  of  a  musical  sound  is  that 
it  possesses  a  definite  pitch  (or  intclliKililc  {jrade  of  acute- 
ness),  arisiuf;  from  the  luimlier,  e(|ualily.  and  permaniMice 
of  the  viliratioiis  ;,'iven  forth  hy  the  liudy  from  which  the 
sound  proceeds.  The  pitch  (i.  c.  the  <lcj.;rce  of  acutencss 
or  gravity)  of  any  such  sound  is  <lcpendent  on  the  rapidity 
of  the  vilirations  excited  by  (he  .sonorous  Ujdy.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  a  string  or  the  column  of  air  in  a  pipe  giving 
the  sound  repre>enled  by  C  C  C  ('  will  make  32  vibrations 
in  a  sr'cond  of  time  ;  for  the  octave  above — viz.,  ("C'C — the 
vibrations  will  be  64,  or  double  the  original  number:  for 
V  C  the  vilirations  are  fpUKlrupled  in  rapidity,  being  ISH 
in  a  second  ;  and  so  on  for  the  still  higher  octaves.  These 
various  octave  sounils  dilTcr  from  each  other  only  in  their 
relative  acuteness,  just  as  the  letters  A,  A,  a  differ  only  in 
point  of  size.  The  intermediate  sounds  pa.ssed  over  in  ris- 
ing from  one  C  to  another  have  also  their  pidp<prtionate 
rates  of  vibration  ;  and  when  theoretically  eonsiilered  such 
intermediate  sounds  may  be  almost  infinite  in  number; 
but  for  practical  purposes  the  system  of  music  is  founded 
on  a  .select  number  of  these  possible  inu.sical  souniLs,  form- 
ing a  scale  or  series;  ami  it  is  found,  both  by  experiment 
and  by  a  certain  demand  of  the  human  ear,  that  the  de- 
grees or  intervals  thus  selected  must  follow  each  other  in 
a  certain  order,  number,  and  inequality  of  distance  to  fit 
them  for  musical  use.  These  intervals,  counting  upward 
from  a  root  or  starting-point,  are  known  as  the  second, 
thinl,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh,  and  they  are  com- 
monly ascertained  by  dividing  a  sounding-string  into  one- 
half,  one-third,  one-fourth,  etc.,  of  its  length,  thus  gaining 
all  the  soumls  necessary  for  the  filling  up  of  the  octave.  (In 
the  article  Monoihokk  this  nrocess  is  described.)  The 
notes  or  sounds  thus  obtaineil  are  named  after  the  tirst 
seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  the  letters  being  repeated  for 
ewh  successive  octave.  In  Ex.  1  an  octave  of  this  scale 
(called  the  didlnnic  scale)  is  representeil  according  to  the 
order  in  which  the  large  and  small  intervals  stand  to  each 
other : 

Ex.  1. 
1              3  34  5  6  78 

I I  II  I  I  II 


(' 


D 


E 


G 


B        C 


rierc  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  compass  of  the  octave  there 
are  five  whole  degrees  or  "  tones."  and  two  An// degrees  or 
"semitones,"  ami  that  in  a  series  beginning  on  C  these 
two  semitones  fall  between  the  third  and  fourth  and  the 
seventh  ami  eighth  degrees.  It  will  al.<o  be  notici'd  that  in 
the  spaci-  from  the  lii-st  to  the  third  clegrei'  two  whole  tones 
are  comprised,  making  a  "major"  or  greater  thinl.  All 
music  wrilten  on  a  scale  thus  constructed  is  said  to  be  in 
the  m(yV»r /a of/e  ;  and  no  similar  scale  can  bci  formed  from 
the  notes  in  their  common  order  by  beginning  elsewhere 
than  on  C,  except  by  mollifying  them  by  means  of  flats  or 
sharps.  This  mollification  is  for  the  purpose  of  rendering 
their  tonal  succession  ever  similar,  thus  complying  with  the 
law  which  demands  a  semitone  (or  half  step)  only  between  the 
third  and  fourth  and  seventh  and  eighth  degri'e.s,  in  ease  of 
the  major  scale  from  whatever  clegree  the  scale  may  begin. 
.\nother  series  of  notes  equally  well  tilled  for  the  expres- 
sion of  nnisical  idea.s  may  bi'  obtained  by  beginning  im  .\ 
instead  of  C  In  this  the  positions  of  the  tones  and  semi- 
tones are  widely  different,  as  shown  in  Kx.  2  : 


1 


Mere  the  semitones  are  from  the  second  to  the  third  and 
from  the  liftli  to  the  sixth.  This  kind  of  scale  eon.stilutes 
the  minor  »u«/f,  and  in  the  natural  order  of  the  notes  it 
can  begin  only  on  A.  The  minor  mode  is  le.ss  perfei't  than 
the  major,  as  the  whole  tone  between  the  s<'veiilh  and 
eighth  in  the  rt^i-cHi/i'm/ scale  is  unsatisfaetorv  to  the  ear. 
and  neeils  to  be  niised  one  semitone  higher:  but  in  doing 
this  it  sometimes  becomes  neces.sary  to  elevate  the  sixth 
also.  This  scale  also  serves  as  n  standard  formula,  and 
modifled  by  the  same  means  (sharps  and  Hals)  determines  the 


2        S 
1          1 

Eit.  8. 

4             5 

1              1 

0 

1 

7 

1 

8 
1 

»       (• 

I>             E 

!•' 

(t 

A 

order  of  tones  and  semitones  adopted  in  modem  tonality 
for  all  minor  scales.  This  subject  of  the  mo<Ies,  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  these  peculiarities  of  the  minor,  is  illus- 
trated in  the  article  Mode. 

Thus  far  we  have  noticed  only  the  diatiiuie  scale,  which 
consists  of  a  mi.xture  of  tones  ami  semitones  in  the  order 
described;  but  as  each  whole  tone  in  this  .scale  admits  of 
division  into  two  semitones,  we  obtain  by  such  a  ilivision 
another  form  of  scale  (called  the  f/i;t/Hi(i/i>),  consisting  of 
a  complete  series  of  twelve  semitoiiic  intervals  in  the  com- 
pass of  the  octave.  The  chromatic  .scale  may  be  variously 
written,  either  bv  the  use  of  Hals  or  sharps.  These  two 
scales  (the  diatonic  and  chromatic)  furnish  all  the  nniterial 
from  which  modern  music  is  constructed.  However  varied, 
iliseursive,  or  even  capricious  a  composition  may  Ix',  either 
in  melodv  or  harmony,  all  its  tonal  degrees  are  derived  from 
the  simple  elements  of  one  or  other  of  these  scales.  It  re- 
mains here  to  be  noted  that  Ijefore  the  rise  of  the  modern 
system  of  music  .several  other  "  modes,"  dilTereiit  from  the 
major  and  minor,  were  in  common  use.  The  ancient  ti reeks 
recognized  three  genera  of  scales  and  intervals — viz.,  the 
diatonic,  the  chromatic,  and  the  enharmonic,  the  last  con- 
sisting of  quarter  tones.  Of  the.se  genera,  however,  the 
diatonic  aUme  appears  to  have  formed  the  basis  of  all  the 
music  in  actual  use,  or  which  was  cajiable  of  being  con- 
ceived and  performed  with  any  approach  to  accuracy  of 
intonation.  For  a  more  extended  view  of  the  formation 
and  characteristics  of  the  ancient  scales,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  article  Mode  (Kvcleniaxticid  Miides). 

The  term  "  interval  "  is  used  to  denote  the  distance  of 
one  sound  or  note  from  another  as  reckoned  by  the  degrees 
of  the  diatonic  .scale.  t'<iunting  upward  from  any  given 
degree,  the  intervals  and  their  names  are  as  represented  in 
Ex.  3: 


Ex.  3.    1st. 


2il.       .1(1.       Itll.       51)1.      r,t)i.      7tli.      Sill. 


Simple  intervals  arc  those  which  lie  within  the  compass  of 
one  octave,  as  those  in  the  example.  Compouud  intervals 
are  tJiose  which  reach  beyond  the  limits  of  an  octave,  as  the 
ninth,  tenth,  eleventh,  etc.  On  the  diatonic-chromatic  scale 
the  interval  of  a  semitone  admits  of  the  distinction  of  major 
or  diatonic,  and  minor  or  chromatic.  The  mo/or  semitone 
is  that  which  involves  two  different  degrees  of  the  scale,  as 
B,  C  or  E,  F;  but  the  minor  semitone  has  both  of  its  terms 
on  the  same  degree,  as  (',  (  S,  or  15,  I?Ji.  Each  of  the  other 
intervals  may  be  various  in  the  number  of  tones  and  semi- 
tones comprised  in  it.  Thus  a  second  may  be  either  major, 
minor,  or  augmented,  and  a  sixth  may  be  similarly  varied, 
and  also  diminished,  though  the  notes  representing  them 
remain  on  the  .same  degrees.  These  differences  are  created 
by  the  elevation  or  depression  of  the  terms  of  those  intervals 
by  the  occurrence  of  sharps  or  Hats.  In  illustration  of  this 
see  at  a  in  K\.  4  the  major,  minor,  and  augmented  second; 
ami  at  b,  the  major,  minor,  diminished,  and  augmented 
sixth: 


AilR. 


•s^        <0- 


jja. 


B^ 


On  examining  the  contents  of  these  several  intervals  it  will 
be  found  that  the  minor  is  one  .semitone  less  than  tlie  major, 
the  diminished  one  semitone  less  than  the  minor,  and  the 
augmented  one  semitone  gn^ater  than  the  major;  in  other 
words,  the  major  sixth  contains  nine  semitones,  the  minor 
contains  eight,  the  diminished  only  seven,  and  the  aug- 
mented ten.  Though  all  the  intervals  may  thus  be  subject 
to  modificalioii,  and  may  1h'  viewed  in  several  aspects,  yet 
the  unison,  octave,  Hflh  land  the  fourth  as  the  inversion  or 
complement  of  the  Hftli)  are  those  alone  which  an-  called 
"perfect,"  beeau.se  thev  are  producible  on  the  .scale  in  only 
one  form,  as  C  f,  D  D,'etc.,  or  C  -  It,  D  —  A,  etc.  The  only 
exception  is  the  im|H'rfect  Hflh.  B  —  K,  which,  however,  is 
treated  as  (M-rfect  in  the  progressions  of  the  minor  siale.  as 
will  be  seen  hereafter.  In  the  article  IxTKRV.»l,  (r/.  r.i,  at  Ex. 
3,  all  the  intervals  of  the  octave  lincluding  als<i  the  ninth), 
as  now  in  use.  with  their  several  nanKis,  are  given  in  their 
prnner  order  and  relations. 
Certain  names  an-  also  given  to  the  inten'als  within  the 


32 


MUSIC 


octave,  to  indicate  their  relations  to' the  root,  prime,  or  key- 
note. Thus  the  keynote  itself  is  called  the  tonic ;  the  iitth 
above  is  the  dominant ;  and  the  third  midway  between  these 
is  the  mediant.  Similarly,  the  fifth  below  the  tonic  is  the 
subdominant ,  and  the  third  between  it  and  the  tonic  is  the 
suhmediant ;  tlie  note  immediately  above  the  tonic  is  called 
the  siiper-totiic,  and  the  interval  directly  below  the  tonic  is 
the  siib-tonic  or  leading  note.  Intervals  are  also  classified 
as  consonant  and  dissonant,  fundamental  and  inverted,  etc. ; 
these  distinctions  will  also  be  found  explained  in  the  article 
Interval. 

The  intervals  just  enumerated  are  the  elements  of  all 
musical  compositions.  When  arranged  in  a  continuous 
series  of  single  sounds,  selected  and  properly  linked  togethei-, 
the  composition  so  made^s  called  a  melody,  and  the  union 
of  two  or  more  melodies  in  simultaneous  utterance  is  called 
harmony.  The  suliject  of  Melody  the  reader  will  find  al- 
ready discussed  in  this  work  under  its  appropriate  head, 
and  attention  will  now  be  given  to  that  far  more  intricate 
and  extensive  branch  of  tlie  science  which  relates  to  har- 
mony. The  great  primal  maxim  which  forms  the  basis  of 
the  modern  structure  of  harmony  is  thus  expressed  by  an 
able  writer  of  the  German  school:  "AH  musical  harmony 
arises  from  two  chords,  called  the  fundamental  concord  and 
the  fundamental  discord,  and  from  the  different  uses  that 
can  be  made  of  them  by  inversion,  suspension,  anticipa- 
tion, and  transition.  .  All  musical  harmony,  even  the  most 
complicated,  if  only  regular,  is  reducible  to  the  said  two 
chords,  the  fundamental  note  of  which  is  called  the  funda- 
mental bass."  These  two  chords  are  the  triad  and  the  chord 
of  the  seventh,  of  each  of  which  there  are  several  varieties. 
Any  of  these  chords  may  be  used  in  a  complete  or  an  incom- 
plete form ;  i.  e.  with  all  their  terms  or  intervals  expressed, 
or  with  one  or  more  omitted.  The  triad,  which  we  are  now 
to  consider,  is  the  first  and  simplest  of  the  two  fundamental 
chords.  It  consists  of  a  bass,  with  its  third  and  fifth,  and 
may  be  major,  minor,  or  diminished ;  the  first  having  a 
major  third,  the  second  a  minor  third,  and  the  last  a  minor 
third  with  a  diminished  fifth.  These  three  triads  are  shown 
in  Ex.  5 : 


P 


Major. 


Minor. 


Diminished. 


=s= 


^ 


A  triad  may  be  built  on  each  of  the  natural  degrees  of  the 
scale;  and  on  experiment  it  will  be  seen  that  three  of  these 
triads  are  major,  three  are  minor,  and  the  remaining  one  is 
the  diminished  triad.     .See  Ex.  6. 

Ex.  6.— Maj.     Min.     Min.     Maj.     Maj.     Min.     Dim.    (Sva.) 


In  this  normal  or  original  form  of  the  triad  the  lowest  note 
or  term  is  tlie  root  or  "  fundamental  bass  "  ;  and  so  long  as 
this  lowest  term  renuiins  unchanged  it  is  a  matter  of  indif- 
ference whether  the  other  terms  (the  third  and  fifth)  stand 
in  close  or  dispersed  relation  to  it.  One  or  more  of  the  in- 
tervals of  a  triad  may  also  be  doubled  (either  on  tlie  unison 
or  the  octave),  or  in  certain  cases  one  of  the  terms  mav  be 
omitted.  Thus,  in  Ex.  7,  tlie  octave  of  the  root  is  omitted 
and  the  third  doubled  ;  at  h  the  octave  is  omitted  and  the 
fifth  doubled ;  at  c  the  fifth  is  omitted  and  the  third  doubled  ; 
and  at  d  the  fifth  is  omitted  and  the  octave  doubled : 

Ex. 


7.                   a                     b                      c                     d 

i=^-^--i^=s-=r=^— r=H^ 

vy      -S  _J 1 « i__g^      u 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  in  composition  all  these 
forms  are  equally  good  ;  and  they  are  here  adduced  merely 
to  show  what  changes  may  t.Mke  place  among  the  upper  in- 
tervals of  the  triad  while  Uic  fundamental  bass  remains  the 
same.  When  the  root  or  fundamental  bass  is  no  longer  the 
lowest  term  of  a  chord,  but  one  of  the  higher  terms  is  sub- 
stituted for  it,  the  chord  is  said  to  be  inverted ;  and  there 


can  be  as  many  inversions  of  a  chord  as  there  are  intervals 
to  change  places  with  the  bass.  As  a  triad  consists  of  two 
such  intervals  besides  the  root — viz.,  a  third  and  a  fifth — it 
follows  that  it  is  capable  of  two  inversions.  (See  Inversion.) 
The  first  inversion  of  the  major,  minor,  and  diminished 
triads  (in  which  the  original  third  becomes  the  bass)  may  be 
seen  at  b,  b,  b  in  Ex.  8,  with  their  respective  fundamental 
forms  prefixed  at  a,  a,  a: 


Ex.8. 


Major. 


Diminished. 
a  6 


$ 


^^S= 


m 


As  the  triad  originally  consisted  of  a  bass,  tliird,  and  fifth, 
it  assumes  in  this  inversion  the  form  of  a  bass,  third,  and 
sixth.  Hence  it  is  represented  by  the  figures  §  or  6.  In  the 
second  inversion,  the  original  fifth  becomes  the  bass,  while 
the  former  third  makes  the  interval  of  a  sixth,  and  the  oc- 
tave of  the  fundamental  stands  between  them  as  a  fourth,  as 
in  Ex.  9,  at  b,  b,  b: 


Major. 


Minor. 
a  h 


Diminished. 
u  b 


^)        g ;: 

3                     i                     t 

^= — ^-  -^^  ^—  ^^  - —  i 

The  triad  thus  inverted  is  indicated  by  the  figures  f.  In- 
versions are  not  to  be  confounded,  as  we  have  said,  with 
mere  "changes  of  position"  among  the  upper  parts  of  a 
chord.  These  changes,  however  various,  do  not  affect  the 
real  nature  and  quality  of  a  chord,  or  its  standing  in  rela- 
tion to  its  fundamental  bass ;  but  an  inversion  involves  a 
radical  change  of  that  relation,  and  is  productive  of  new 
and  often  far  richer  effects  than  those  ordinarily  attending 
the  uninverted  chord.  Hence  the  large  number  of  inverted 
chords  in  all  compositions  which  rise  above  the  rank  of  the 
simple  choral  or  the  plain  ecclesiastical  chant.  Inverted 
triads  have  also  a  property — somewhat  analogous  to  that  of 
the  chord  of  tlie  seventh — of  suggesting  to  the  mind  an  idea 
ot progress  ov  continuance;  and  this  oftentimes  with  such 
definiteness  as  to  lead  the  hearer  to  anticipate,  in  a  measure, 
the  course  of  the  ensuing  progression,  and  to  keep  his 
thoughts  in  a  sort  of  protracted  suspense  till  the  harmony 
brings  the  ear  into  repose  on  some  expected  turn  or  cadence. 
Impressions  of  this  kind  are  not  usually  excited  by  triads  in 
their  original  form,  as  each  such  triad  has  in  itself  a  certain 
element  of  finality  or  conclusiveness,  which  either  disappears 
or  is  not  sensibly  felt  when  the  chord  is  inverted. 

Besides  the  three  fundaiiiental  triads,  there  are  several 
others.  Among  these  is  the  augmented  triad,  which  has  a 
major  third  and  an  augmented  fifth.  In  modern  works  the 
augmented  fifth  is  also  frequently  found  in  conjunction 
with  the  minor  third.  This  augmentation  is  effected  by  an 
accidental  sharp  or  its  equivalent;  and  therefore,  as  this 
term  of  the  chord  is  foreign  to  the  diatonic  scale,  the  real 
origin  and  nature  of  the  augmented  triad  admit  of  a  ready 
explanation  as  a  passing  note  of  greater  or  lesser  duration. 
See  Ex.  10,  at  a,  b,  c,  d. 


Ex.  10. 


In  this  triad  the  elevated  fifth  becomes  a  "leading  note" 
to  the  succeeding  chord,  and  therefore  always  ascends,  as 
in  the  example.     See  Note. 

The  same  explanation  will  apply  to  the  contrary  proc- 
ess of  depressing  or  flattening  the  third  of  the  triad,  as  in 
Ex.  11. 

From  this  review  of  the  triad  we  now  proceed  to  the 
chord  of  the  seventh.    This  is  formed  by  adding  a  third  to 


MUSIC 


33 


the  triad,  thus  rauking  it  a  chord  of  four  parts  or  terms — 
viz.,  a  bass,  tliird,  flflh,  and  seventh.    As  each  degree  of  the 


Ex.1 


<liatotii(r  scale  may  be  the  basis  of  a  triad  (see  Ex.  6),  so  by 
the  addition  of  a  tliird  to  each  triad  we  obtain  an  equal 
number  of  chords  of  the  seventh,  as  will  appear  from  Ex.  V2. 


Ex.  12. 


^^^^^^ 


As  al!  those  are  composed  of  major  and  minor  thirds  vari- 
ously ccimbined — .several  of  them  also  biiii^;  identical  in 
structure — we  may  cla-s^ify  them  thus:  (1)  That  with  a  ma- 
jor triad  and  minor  seventh — viz.,  (i ;  (2)  those  with  a  minor 
triad  and  niinor  seventh — viz.,  I),  E,  and  A  ;  (3)  that  with  a 
diminished  triad  anil  minor  seventh — viz..  B;  and  (4)  those 
with  a  major  triad  ami  major  seventh — viz.,  ('  and  K.  From 
the  ordinary  deijrecs  of  the  scale  we  have  thus  four  differ- 
ent forms  of  this  clmrd.  which  for  convenience  may  be  re- 
ferred to  as  the  sevenths  on  U,  A,  H,  and  C.  The-se  four 
kinds  of  sevenths  are  called  fniulamenlnl,  but  the  most  im- 
portant is  that  founded  on  the  <lomiiiant  of  the  key  or  tonic. 
aj  it  is  not  only  the  most  plea-sin-^  to  the  ear,  but  also  the 
chief  agency  in  the  formation  of  cadences  and  in  ilij;res.sions 
from  one  key  to  another.  All  the  fundamental  sevenths 
are,  for  the  most  part,  subject  to  the  same  rules  and  are  ca- 
pable of  the  same  invei'sions,  which  are  three  in  number. 
(The  diiiiini.tlinl  seventh  has  not  here  been  mentioned,  as 
from  its  very  peculiar  fiirm  and  character  it  is  reserved  for 
treatment  elsewhere.)  In  the  three  inversions  of  the  chord 
of  the  seventh,  the  third,  fifth,  and  seventh  become  succes- 
sively the  bass,  and  the  other  ]>arts  (including  the  octave  of 
the  root)  will  stand  to  the  new  bass  in  the  order  (1)  of  a 
third,  lifth,  and  sixth:  Vi)  a  thinl,  fourth,  and  si.\th;  and 
(M)  a  second,  fourth,  ami  sixth,  as  in  Ex.  Hi,  where  a  is  the 
fundamental  position  of  the  chord,  b  the  first  inversion,  r 
the  second,  and  d  tho  third  : 


Ex.  13. 


^ 


R=^ 


When  represented  by  figiires,  the  first  inversion  is  known 
as  the  "chord  of  the  sixth  ami  fifth";  tho  second,  the 
"chord  of  the  fourth  and  third  " ;  and  the  third,  the  "chord 
of  the  second";  these  names  being  derived  from  the  new 
positions  assumed  by  the  intervals  of  the  chord  under  its 
several  inversions.  (See  FlurKKl)  Bass.)  The  above  exam- 
ple is  given  in  "close"  harmony  to  show  more  clearlv  the 
nature  of  the  changes  made  by  inversion:  but  in  eaeli  in- 
version the  upper  parts  maybe  "dispersed,"  or  taken  at 
greater  distances  from  the  ba.s.s,  without  in  any  way  affect- 
ing the  nature  of  the  inversion  it:ielf.     See  Ex.  14. 


Kx.  14.— Ist  luv.  2d  Imt. 

I  1 


M  lUT. 


Besides  the  triads  and  the  chords  of  the  seventh  there  are 
three  other  eombimitions  yet  to  be  noticed,  on  account  of 
their  fretpieiit  occurrence  and  the  dilTert'iit  theories  adopted 
for  their  explanation.  These  are  the  chords  of  the  ninth, 
eleventh,  and  thirteenth.    The  chord  of  the   ninth  dillers 


Ex.  15. 


^Sg^ 


-«- 


from  the  seventh   by  the  addition  of  a  third  aUne.     The 
ninth   itself  may  be  either  major,  liS  at  «,  a  in   Ex.  15,  or 
minor,  as  at  b,  b. 
287 


Like  the  triads  and  chords  of  the  seventh,  the  chord  of 
the  ninth  may  be  inverted,  but  several  of  its  inversions  are 
harsh,  except  in  rapid  movements,  and  are  therefore  little 
used.  Ordinarily,  one  (or  more)  of  the  middle  intervals  is 
omitteil,  and  the  ellect  of  the  chord  is  generally  more  pleas- 
ing when  thus  incomplete.  The  "chord  of  the  eleventh  "  ex- 
ceeds the  ninth  by  the  addition  of  another  third,  and  the 
"chord  of  the //iiWfc/i^/i  "  extends  bevond  the  eleventh  by 
the  addition  of  still  another  third.  liespecting  the  origin 
of  these  three  chords  there  are  various  theories,  of  which 
the  two  priiiciiial  ones  onlv  will  be  here  noticed:  first,  that 
supported  bv  Kaiueau,  under  which  they  are  called  "chords 
by  giipponilion,"  or  chords  formed  by  mippiining  one.  two,  or 
three  thinls  to  be  added  below  a  chord  of  the  .seventh.  For 
example,  by  supposing  a  third  to  be  placed  below  such  a 
chord,  tho  ninln  is  formed  ;  by  adding  to  this  another  third, 
we  obtain  the  eleventh  ;  and  by  yet  another,  the  chord  of 
the  thirteenth.  This  process  is  exhibited  in  ¥,\.  16,  where 
tho  thirds  which  are  thus  supposed  are  marked  by  black 
dots: 


Ex.  10, 


To  this  system  it  is  objected  (1)  that  there  is  no  apparent 
reason  why  those  thirds  should  be  supposed  at  all ;  (2)  that 
such  a  theory  ignores  the  natural  bearings  of  the  sound  of 
the  chords  in  question,  and  their  possible  relation  to  other 
sounds  into  which  tliey  may  be  resolved,  and  olTcrs  instead 
of  this  a  mere  mathematical  calculation.  On  the  other 
theory,  that  of  Kirnberger,  these  chords  are  not  considered 
as  fundamental,  but  having  their  origin  in  siixpensions; 
and  when  so  regartled  their  explanation  is  rendered  both 
easv  aii<l  satisfactory. 

I'o  illustrate  Kiniberger's  theory  a.s  briefly  as  possible, 
we  give  at  «  in  Kx.  IT  the  ninth  as  suspension  of  the  oc- 
tave; at  b  the  eleventh  as  susi)ension  of  the  tenth;  and 
at  e  the  thirteenth  as  suspension  of  the  twelfth;  the  dots 
are  merely  explanatory : 


Ex.17 


$ 


^^^ 


TT 


^^^=^ 


1^^^ 


r 


It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  tliuugli  these  chords  have 
thus  their  origin  in  suspensions,  yet  they  often  wcur  inde- 
peiulently — i.  e.  unconnected  with  actual  or  apparent  sus- 
pensions.   See  Ex.  18,  at  a  and  b. 

Ex.  18.  a  h 


In  this  respect  they  resemble  many  other  harmonic  combi- 
nations, which  are  traceable  only  to  the  numerous  forms 
generated  by  anticipations,  transitions,  etc. 

The  progresxionx  of  the  fundunieiilal  triads  and  chords 
of  the  seventh  are  next  to  be  noted.  "  Progression  "  is  the 
movement  from  one  chord  to  another  more  or  less  related 
to  it.  We  shall  first  consider  the  ordinan'  progn\s.sions  of 
the  Iriiiilx.  From  a  major  triad  (that  of  C,  for  example) 
we  may  priK'ced  to  the  triads  and  inversions  of  the  domi- 
nant (ti).  the  subdominant  (F),  the  relative  minor  (A),  the 
mediant  (F.),  ami  the  super-tonic  (D),  these  being  the  most 
nearly  related  triads  to  that  of  C.     See  Ex.  1!). 


Ex.  1«. 


C— A. 


r— F. 


f— D. 


=1 


T 


^ 

J 

■f- 

'  1     " 

Also  to  the  lending  rhnrdu  of  lhe.se  related  triads,  with  or 
without  the  seventh,  as  at  n,  b.  c,  etc..  in  Ex.  20: 


34: 


MUSIC 


Ex.  20. 


From  a  minor  triad  we  may  proceed  in  like  manner, 
the  order  of  the  related  kevs  being  slightly  ditt'erent.  See 
Ex.  31. 


The  difference  between  these  two  chords  is  evident,  as  the 
bass  and  fifth  at  a  in  the  example  can  not  be  doubled  (the 
one  being  the  leailing  note  and  the  other  the  essential  sev- 


^f^r^^ 


^^^ 


^ 


^m 


^ 


^^m 


Or  thus  with  leading  chords: 


]  I  orS  I 

Besides  these  natural  progressions,  there  is  another  class 
called  the  abrupt,  in  which  the  triad  proceeds  to  chords 
more  or  less  unrelated  or  remote.  These  progressions  gen- 
erally imply  the  omission  of  some  intermediate  chord;  and 
sometimes  the  first  chord  is  assumed  to  be  not  the  tonic,  but 
the  dominant  of  its  scale.    See  Ex.  32. 

Ex.  23. 


^^ 


S^i; 


W^ 


E 


r 


d^^ 


pt^T=^^"T^^^^T 


?2==fe 


From  a  triad,  either  major  or  minor,  we  may  proceed  di- 
rectly to  any  chord  of  tlie  diminished  seventh  or  its  inver- 
sions, as  in  Ex.  23  : 


Ex.23. 


^^^ 


The  progressions  of  the  diminished  (or  imperfect)  triad  are 
peculiar,  and  require  special  notice,  as  the  resemblance  of 
that  chord  to  an  incomplete  chord  of  the  seventh  often 
leads  to  mistakes.  This  triad  consists  of  a  bass,  with  a 
minor  third  and  imperfect  fifth.  It  has  its  place  or  seat 
on  the  second  degree  of  the  minor  scale  and  the  seventh  of 
the  major.  The  base  or  root  is  therefore  the  leading  note  in 
the  major  scale,  and  a  triad  so  placed  consists  of  precisely 
the  same  notes  or  intervals  as  the  first  inversion  of  the  sev- 
enth on  the  dominant  with  the  r(5ot  omitted.  Hence  such 
a  chord  is  ambiguous,  and  its  real  nature  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  its  connection  and  the  harmony  immediately  fol- 
lowing it.  This  will  be  apparent  from  Ex.  24,  where  the 
notes  at  a  and  c,  though  the  same,  are  shown  by  their  pro- 


Ex.  24. 


gressions  at  b  and  d  to  be  essentially  different  chords,  the 
first  being  an  iiu-omjilete  inversion  of  the  seventh,  and  the 
other  the  real  diminished  triad. 


Ex.  25. 


enth),  though  either  of  these  intervals  may  be  doubled  in 
the  case  of  the  diminished  triad,  as  shown  iit  e  and  f.  The 
diminished  triad  is  simply  the  supertonie  harmony  in  the 
minor  scale,  and  its  treatment  is  in  most  respects  similar  to 
that  of  the  supertonie  of  the  major  scale. 

In  the  progressions  of  the  cliord  of  the  seventh  and  all 
dissonances  two  points  are  to  be  noted — viz.,  preparation 
and  resolution.  Any  such  dissonance  is  said  to  be  "  pre- 
pared "  when  it  has  been  heard  as  a  consonance  in  the  same 
part  or  voice  in  the  preceding 
measure.  Thus  in  Ex.  25 
the  first  F  in  the  alto  is  a 
concord  followed  by  the  same 
F  as  a  discord  of  G.  The 
two  Fs  in  the  bass  are  re- 
spectively P  the  third  of  D 
and  F  the  discord  of  G.  In 
the  strict  style  of  composi- 
tion this  rule  was  held  to  be 
obligatory,  except  in  a  very  few  cases,  but  in  the  free  style 
numerous  instances  of  unprepared  dissonances  occur  in  the 
writings  of  the  best  conijiosers.  Like  several  other  rules 
which  liave  been  modified  or  abrogated  under  the  advances 
of  modern  harmony,  that  of  preparation  has  lost  much  of 
its  stringency,  and  is  frequently  overlooked  in  cases  where  it 
can  add  nothing  to  the  clearness  or  compactness  of  the  har- 
mony. Such  instances  of  unprepared  sevenths  as  the  fol- 
lowing (Ex.  26)  are  frequent,  and  are  approved  by  Albrechts- 
berger  and  other  tlieorists  : 

Ex.  2tj. 


In  the  resolution  of  the  chord  of  the  seventh  the  general 
rule  is  that  the  third  (from  the  root)  moves  one  degree  up- 
ward, and  the  seventh  one  degree  downward,  the  fifth  being 
Ex.  27.  1st  Inv.  2d  Inv.  3d  InT. 


unlimited.     The  fundamental  bass  also  usually  rises  a  fourth 
or  descends  a  fifth.     See  Ex.  27. 


MUSIC 


35 


The  resolution  does  not  always  take  place  on  the  very  next 
note,  but  may  be  ileluycd  by  the  intervention  of  several 
notes  anil  even  by  extraneous  harmonies.  Compare  a  add  b 
in  Ex.  -iH. 


Kx.  M. 


It  is  not  neeessary  that  the  resolution  of  the  chord  should 
always  w'our  in  iho  /tunic  part  which  makes  the  dissoname, 
for  any  part  mav  move  from  its  own  to  another  term  of  the 
chord  by  an  exclianj^  of  place  with  some  other  imrt ;  but  in 
all  ca.-ies  the  R-solution  must  tinally  take  place.  Thus  in  Ex- 
ample ii),  at  a.  the  third  (or  leailiti<;  note)  is  in  the  bass,  and 
the  fifth  is  in  the  treble  ;  but  at  b  these  two  parts  make  un 
exchanfje  of  notes,  and  the  resolution  proceeils  accordingly. 
At  c  the  s<'vcnth  in  the  treble  part  is  traiisfi-rnd  to  the  alto 
at  (/,  and  the  treble  takes  the  leailing  note,  which  bifore  was 
in  the  tenor: 


Ex.  29. 


m 


j==^ 


^ 


.^-A 


I 


^^ 


A  seventh,  instead  of  resolving  into  the  perfect  triad, 
maybe  succeedeil  by  another  seventh,  and  this  also  by  an- 
other, thus  forming  a  train  ending  with  the  usual  resolution, 
as  at  fi  in  Ex.  :J0.  Theorists  explain  this  kind  of  progression 
bv  supposing  that  the  ear  perceives  a  transient  resolution 
aher  each  seventh,  which  immediately  passes  into  the  next 
dissonance.  This  is  shown  by  the  crotchets  at  b  in  the  ex- 
ample {Kx.  30),  which  make  each  chord  first  a  triad  and 
then  a  seventh : 

El.  .'to.— a 


On  the  same  theory  of  the  skipping  or  omission  of  some 
intermeiliate  note  numerous  other  progressions  of  the  sev- 
enth are  to  l>e  explained.  Several  of  these  are  given  in 
Ex.  31  : 


Ex.  31. 


That  the  sevenths  may  proceed  at  once,  like  the  triaiis,  to 
any  chord  of  the  <liniinished  .-ievenlh,  will  need  no  demon- 
stration. 

To  the  chords  already  descrilie<l  roust  be  added  those  ac- 
ciili'iilal  combinations  called  iinliriputiotwi  and  mtupfn/nntm. 
An  "anticipation"  is  the  preuiaturt!  advance  of  one  of  the 
terms  nf  n  rh.inl   by  which  it  intrudes  (as  it  were)  u|x)n  the 


next  chord.     .\n   instance  of  this  may  be  seen  at  u  in  Ex. 

32,  where  the  second  note  of 

the     bass,    by     moving     one       Ex.  S2. 

crotchet   t<H>   soon,  comes  in  "  * 

colli.sioii  with  the  triad  of  C  in    {  jf      "i  ,  11 

the  upper  iwirt.s,  and    nntici-    \  W)       g  »      tzTg;  _JI 

paten  the  harmony   at    ft   to    .'«^       T  r  ^' 

which  it  properly  belongs.  ' 

In  Ex.  33,  at  a  and  6,  the    f  R^ 
upi>er    parts   make    anticipa 
tions  by   moving  one  f|uaver 
in  advance  of  the  ba.ss;  and  at  c  and  d  the  bass  moves  in  a 
similar  manner  in  advance  of  the  upper  [larts: 


Ex.33, 


Kinihtrgrr. 
I  N 


^=prw^ 


^^n 


Anticipations  are  for  the  most  part  discordant,  since  they 
bring  a  foreign  element  into  the  harmony ;  in  some  cases, 
Iiiiwcver,  they  contribute  to  the  smoothness  and  elegance  of 
a  movement. 

SiispeiiJiions  are  the  reverse  of  anticipations.  They  occur 
"when  one  or  more  notes  of  a  preceding  c'hord  are  carried 
into  a  succeeding  one  to  which  they  do  not  Iwlong."  Any 
one  of  the  intervals  of  a  triad  or  chord  of  the  seventh  (or 
two  or  more  together)  may  be  suspemled.  These  suspen- 
sions are  always  on  the  acceiileil  part  of  a  bar  or  note,  and 
are  resolved  on  the  unaccented.  A  note  may  be  suspemled 
either  from  above  or  below.  Illustratittns  are  given  in  Ex. 
34,  where  at  a  the  third  in  the  upper  part  is  suspended 
from  above  by  the  fourth;  at  ft  the  fifth  is  suspended  by 
the  sixth;  at  c,  the  octave  by  the  ninth:  and  at  d,  the 
seventh  by  the  octave.  At  e  the  suspensions  are  from  be- 
low, ami  at  /  they  occur  in  the  bass.  Instances  of  double, 
triple,  and  quadruple  suspensions  arc  added  at  g : 

Ex.  S4.— o  6  erf 


Suspensions  are  not  always  res<ilved  on  their  own  proixr 
triails,  but  another  fundamental  harmony  is  substituted,  a.i 
in  Ex.  ^iS,  at  a,  ft,  and  c  : 

Ex. .«.  a  6  c 


Cadenern  nrv  termiiiali'iii-,  d"-''-.  it   LoiinLin. - 
.sicnl  ideas.     In  their  simple  or  radiiiH  form  lli- y  i-.. 
a  leading  chord  an<l  a  major  or  minor  triarl.     i    il-  ' 
p.rfi'<t,  imiH'rfect,  deceptive,  anil  extended  :  ii! 
final.     The  per/fW  cailence  consists  either  of  : 


mii- 
1    i.f 


86 


MUSIC 


the  dominaut  and  tonic,  or  of  the  principal  seventh  and  the 
triad  of  the  tonic.  See  both  forms  illustrated  at  a  and  b  in 
Example  36. 

b 
-I- 


Ex.  36, 


Almost  all  compositions  end  with  this  cadence,  as  its  effect 
on  the  ear  is  final  and  satisfactory.  It  admits  of  numerous 
inversions  (which  will  be  understood  without  illustration  by 
examples) ;  but  as  these  inversions  are  not  conclusive,  they 
are  seldom  used  as  terminations  where  there  are  more  than 
two  parts  or  voices.  The  half  or  imperfect  cadence  has 
various  forms,  all  ending  not  with  the  tonic  but  the  domi- 
nant harmony,  and  it  is  suitable  only  for  such  closes  as 
are  not  final.  See  several  forms  of  the  half-cadence  in 
Ex.  37. 


Ex.  37. 


or  Alj 


The  first  of  the  two  cadences  which  are  shown  in  Ex.  38  is 
variously  known  as  the  plagal  or  the  ecclesiastical ;  the  sec- 
ond (at  b),  called  the  "  Phrygian,"  is  merely  an  incomplete 
form  of  the  ordinary  minor  progression  at  c,  with  the  funda- 
mental note  omitted : 

Ex.  38.— a  or 


Ed;« 


^^m- 


f 


IS 


Deceptive  cadences  are  those  in  which  the  leading  chord 
is  not  followed  by  that  which  it  naturally  suggests,  but  by 
another  which  is  more  or  less  foreign  to  the  ear.  See  Ex. 
31,  in  which  each  progression  is  essentially  a  cadence  of  this 
kind. 

After  this  general  view  of  chords  and  their  inversions, 
suspensions  and  cadences,  we  come  to  their  use  and  treat- 
ment in  composition,  concerning  which  we  here  refer  the 
reader  to  some  introductory  and  historical  remarks  in  the 
article  Harmony.  Preliminary  to  all  study  of  the  use  of 
chords  is  that  of  their  duration,  and  the  mode  by  which  the 
time  of  any  series  of  musical  sounds  is  regulated  and  ex- 
pressed. On  this  s\ibjeet,  however,  some  elementary  details 
have  been  offered  in  the  article  JIeasure,  and  a  more  par- 
ticular exposition  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Time. 
On  the  kindred  subject  of  Rhythm  also,  of  which  only  a 
brief  notice  could  here  be  taken  for  want  of  room,  a  more 
extended  treatment  is  given  under  its  proper  caption. 
CuHnterjioi?it,  or  the  harmonizing  of  a  given  melody,  is  the 
setting  of  note  against  note,  formerly  written  in  points. 
Simjjte  counterpoint  comprises  all  those  compositions, 
whether  plain  or  florid,  in  which  the  parts  are  not  inverti- 
ble,  but  fixed.  In  double  counterpoint  the  parts  are  so  con- 
structed by  special  rides  that  two  or  more  of  tliem  may  be 
inverted,  the  higher  [lart  changing  place  with  the  lower. 
(See  the  latter  jiart  of  the  article  Ixversion.)  In  simple 
counterpoint  the  following  general  rules  are  to  be  observed  : 
(1)  Two  perfect  Jifllis  in  direct  motion  and  succession,  and 
in  the  same  parts,  are  usually  of  bad  effect,  and  shovdd  be 
avoided.  (2)  Two  or  more  sucoessi^'e  octaves  in  the  same 
parts  are  inadmissible,  except  in  special  cases  where  it  is  de- 
sirable to  strengthen  the  l)ass  or  make  some  idea  particu- 
larly prominent.  C-^)  As  the  third  is  the  only  discriminat- 
ing term  or  element  in  triads  by  which  we  know  whether 
they  are  major  or  minor,  it  should  rarely  be  omitted.  (4) 
Where  two  or  more  successive  chords  contain  doubled  in- 


tervals, care  should  be  taken  not  to  double  the  third  when 
it  is  leading  note  to  the  next  chord,  as  the  result  would  be 
consecutive  octaves.  (5)  The  two  higher  and  two  lower 
parts  in  a  composition  should  not  be  placed  at  an  excessive 
or  disproportionate  distance  from  each  other.  (6)  The  same 
rule  applies  to  passages  in  dispersed  harmony,  as  the  effect 
is  tliin  and  unsatisfactory  when  the  parts  are  widely  sepa- 
rated. Instances  of  violation  of  these  rules  are  severally 
given  in  Ex.  39 : 


Ex.  39.— 1 


fr 


Wfm 


The  rule  respecting  consecutive  fifths  is  not  violated  when 
the  first  fifth  is  perfect  and  the  second  imperfect,  as  at  a  in 
Ex.  40.  In  modern  music  the  contrary  order  frequently  oc- 
curs, in  wliich  the  imperfect  fifth  precedes  the  perfect,  as  at 
b  in  the  example  : 

Ex.  40.  a  b 

U 


Successive  fifths  are  not  prohibited  when  the  parts  are  in 
contrary  motion,  provided  that  the  texture  of  the  harmony 
is  so  woven  as  not  to  render  them  too  prominent.  In  free 
composition  the  rule  of  the  fifth  is  so  far  modified  as  to  ad- 
mit of  numerous  exceptions. 

In  two-part  exercises  every  triad  and  chord  of  the  sev- 
enth must  necessarily  be  incomplete  through  the  omission 
of  one  or  more  of  their  intervals  or  terms.  In  triads  the 
third  (or  its  inversion,  the  sixth)  should  be  most  frequently 
used,  the  fifth  less  freely,  and  the  octave  and  unison  only 
occasionally.  When  there  are  three  parts  eacli  triad,  as  a 
general  rule,  should  be  complete ;  and  of  the  spveiifh,  the 
omitted  interval  may  be  the  fifth,  or  less  frequently  the 
third  or  the  root.  In  four  parts  each  chord  may  appear 
complete  in  all  its  intervals.  In  triads  one  term  will  neces- 
sarily be  doul}led,  either  in  the  unison  or  the  octave,  and  one 
of  the  terms  may  even  be  tripled  or  omitted,  as  shown  al- 
ready in  Ex.  10  and  its  context.  The  tliird  and  seventh  in 
the  chord  of  the  seventh,  being  its  characteristic  intervals, 
should  not  be  doubled  unless  in  exercises  of  five,  six,  or 
more  parts,  but  the  doublings  should  occur  on  tlie  funda- 
mental bass  or  the  fifth.  In  harmonizing  a  plain  theme  in 
four  parts  each  part  should  as  much  as  possilili-  have  its 
own  distinct  quality,  and  more  or  less  of  a  melodious  pro- 
gression. The  simplest  practical  exercises  are  tlio.se  having 
notes  of  equal  length,  confined  to  a  single  key,  and  consist- 
ing cliiefly  of  triads  and  the  principal  chord  of  the  seventh, 
with  their  inversions.  A  short  theme  thus  treated  is  given 
at  a  in  Example  41.  (The  example  is  merely  elementary, 
for  from  such  plain  forms  "  simple  counterpoint "  extends  to 
.nn  area  of  almost  unlimited  expansion,  freedom,  and  variety, 
including  compositions  which  are  oftentimes  far  more  com- 
plex and  ornate  than  ordinary  exercises  in  double  counter- 
point.) The  first  steji  in  the  elaboration  of  the  theme  in  the 
example  given  at  a  is  shown  at  b,  by  the  introduction  of 
two  notes  against  one  :  at  c  and  d  a  further  advance  is  made 
by  .suspensions  of  chords  and  other  devices ;  and  at  e  the 
theme  receives  achlitional  ornament  from  chromatic  har- 
mony, syncopations,  and  variations  of  the  time  and  move- 
ment of  the  parts : 


MUSIC 


37 


Ex 

41 

— a 

1 

1 

1 

J 

1          i 

#=^ 

\J_   J!J    1 

j   z 

XT^^  1  ^11 

S^ 

Wi 

1 

-1 — ' 

A 

-\ — ' 
J. 

-1^ 

Thouffh  a  piece  of  some  length  may  be  written  in  a  single 
key,  yet  ilii^n'ssiims  into  other  keys,  near  or  remote,  are  or- 
dinarily essential  to  the  beauty  and  interest  of  a  composi- 
tion. 'Phis  passing  from  one  key  to  another  eonstitutes 
modidiiliiin  ;  and  it  is  goiieniUy  elTected  hy  the  introduction 
of  the  leading  note  or  the  minor  sevcntli  of  the  new  key, 
the  former  generally  reiiuiring  an  accidental  1;,  if,  or  x  ,  and 
the  latter  a  t!,  ;>.  or  nf.  Instances  of  such  changes  of  key  or 
mode  may  be  seen  in  Kxs.  20  and  21.  More  strictly,  how- 
ever,amcHlulation  occurs  only  when  a  regular  cadence  in  some 
new  kev  is  made  nl  the  close  of  a  phrase  or  |>eriod.  Modu- 
lation is  of  three  kinds — viz.,  natural,  nhnipt,  and  enhar- 
monic. The  first  of  these  is  illustrated  in  Kx.  41,  and  has 
alreaily  been  considered  in  the  article  .Moiulation,  which 
the  reailer  should  here  consult.  Abrupt  miMlulatioiis  are  so 
called  because  tliey  proceeil  to  foreign  or  unrelated  keys  or 
moilc.",  and  not  on  account  of  anything  rough  or  strange  in 
their  effect.     The  simplest  kind  of  abrupt   modulation  is 

Ex.  *J.— a  6 


-1 — ?3 — T^n 


^    ^  ^ 


that  consisting  of  a  mere  change  of  mnde,  as  fn>ni  major  to 
minor,  or  vice  ivma.  while  the  keynote  remains  the  same. 
In  Kx.  42,  at  a,  see  a  modulation  from  ('  major  to  ("  minor, 
and  at  6  a  change  from  ('  major  to  K  minor,  where  both 
mode  and  key  are  relinquishcil.  The  latter  modulation  will 
Ex.  46.  n  h 


6  'A 


progression  is  one  which  fumi.shes  the  key  to  many  de- 
velopments both  curious  and  important  in  abrupt  modula- 
tion. .Some  of  these  we  shall  briefly  notice.  Kor  in.stunce, 
the  C  major  triad  is  the  dominant  chord  to  the  F  minor 
triad,  the  bass  rising  a  fourth.  From  the  latter  triad  we 
may  then  proceeil  by  ordinary  rule  lo  the  major  triad  of 
U7,  as  at  a  in  Kx.  4;i ;  which  triad  being  treated  as  a  domi- 
nant chord  (like  the  former  Vj  is  followed  at  i  bv  the  miimr 
triiul  of  its  fourth — viz.,  tii  minor  (otherwise  V;  minor); 
and  liy  repeating  this  jirocess  continually  we  may  proceed 
through  the  whole  circle  of  the  keys,  as  partly  shown  in 
the  example : 

Ex.  43.  a 

III  1,1 


^ 


^^FF^*^^ 


The  progression  from  the  second  chord  (F  minor)  may  also 
be  to  the  major  triad  of  Ilf?,  the  bass  descending  a  perfect 
fifth,  as  at  a  in  Kx.  44,  on  which  another  chain  of  harinonies 
may  be  formed,  thus: 
Ex.44. 


Flora  these  suggestions  the  student  will  be  able  to  construct 
many  other  circular  iirogressions  or  chains  of  cadences.  In 
some  eases  the  modulation  seems  to  imply  the  omissiim  of 
an  intermediate  note,  instances  of  which  are  given  in  Ex.  22. 
Ill  this  class  may  be  placed  the  very  abrupt  but  useful  pro- 
gression at  a  in  Ex.  45,  where  llie  upper  note  of  the  tonic 
harmony  (octave  of  the  root)  is  taken  as  a  netv  teailini;  note 
(with  or  without  the  seventh),  and  resolved  in  tlie  usual 
manner.  Of  course,  the  process  may  be  repeated  indefinite- 
ly, as  in  the  former  examples  : 

Ex.  45.  a 


|i^^^ 


Modulation  by  enharmonic  changes  is  chiefly  effected  by 
means  of  the  chord  of  the  diminished  seventh.  This  chord 
consists  of  three  minor  thirds,  i.  e.  a  minor  third,  an  imper- 
fect fifth,  and  a  diminished  seventh.  And  lus  a  minor  third 
contains  only  three  semitones,  it  follows  that  only  three  (lif- 
ferent  diminished  sevenths  are  possible,  for,  after  tmilding 
tlie  chord  on  three  successive  grades  of  the  chromatic  scale, 
a  fourth  grade  would  produce  simply  a  replication  or  inver- 
sion of  the  first.  The  peculiarity  of  this  chord  lies  in  a  cer- 
tain mysterious,  dreamy,  and  equivocal  quality  which  for 
the  time  is  so  entrancing  as  to  involve  all  .sense  of  key  and 
mixle  in  a  sort  of  bewildering  obscurity.  Hence  the  use  of 
this  chord  in  rendering  diirressions  into  remote  keys  is  both 
easy  an(l  graceful.  lis  cnliarmonic  quality  arises  from  the 
circumstance  that  each  of  its  elements  may  be  regarded 
and  treated  as  two  entirely  dilTerent  notes  in  intervals — viz., 
as  sharp  of  the  note  l)elow,  or  flat  of  the  note  above,  or  in 
iHith  eases  as  natural  instead  of  sharp  or  flat.  Consi>(|uently, 
each  of  the  'hrec  diminished  sevenths  may  be  written  in 
four  or  more  different  ways,  according  to  the  key  or  .scale  to 
which  they  belong.     This  will  be  evidi'iit  on  an   inspection 


be  found  on  analysis  to  consist  essentially  of  the  triails  of  I  of  Ex.  46,  where  four  various  forms  of  each  .seventh  are 
C  major  ami   F  minor,  the  first  and  last   notes;  ami    the  |  given  at  n,  fc,  and  e  resiieetively. 


38 


MUSIC 


Two  other  points  also  are  to  be  observed :  1st,  that  each 
of  these  t'orins  contains  a  leading  nute  into  some  particular 
key ;  and  '2d,  that  any  such  form  may  become  the  principal 
(or  dominant)  seventh  of  that  key  by  dropping  another  of  its 
terms  a  semitone  lower.     (In  illustration  of  this  see  Ex.  47, 


Ex.47 


which  is  an  exercise  on  the  first  of  the  abore  sevenths,  with 
the  parts  distributed.)  At  a  the  lower  term  (FJf)  is  the 
leading  note,  and  by  dropping  the  E[)  of  the  alto  to  D  the 
chord  becomes  at  once  an  inversion  of  tlie  ordinary  seventli 
on  D,  and  resolves  into  the  key  of  G  (either  major  or  minor). 
At  b  the  alto,  now  written  Dj,  is  the  leading  note,  and  the 
tenor  being  lowered  a  semitone,  we  have  an  inversion  of  the 
minor  seventh  on  B,  which  resolves  into  the  key  of  E.  At 
e  the  upper  part  is  leading  note,  and  the  Fjf  of  the  bass 
(now  become  Gt>  by  enharmonic  change)  descends  a  semi- 
tone, forming  the  minor  seventh  on  F,  which  resolves  into 
the  triad  of  Bp  : 

Ex.48.  Eii.cli. 


the  second  a  seventh,  the  tliird  a  sixth,  etc.,  as  shown  in  the 
following  scheme  : 

Original,     87654321. 

Inversion,    12345678. 
This  will  also  be  evident  on  observing  the  notes  and  figures 
in  Ex.  50,  where  the  lower  part  becomes  the  higher  by  in- 
version : 

Ex.  50. — Original. 

2fc* 


By  this  simple  process  we  may  readily  pass  from  any  key  to 
any  other  (major  or  minor)  without  going  througli  a  tedious 
succession  of  intermediate  chords  or  annoying  the  ear  by  a 
sudden  plunge  into  a  foreign  scale.  To  become  familiar 
with  this  species  of  modulation  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in 
mind  the  distinction  between  Fj  and  Gr?,  C'J  and  Dfi.  F  and 
EJ,  etc.,  as  these  two  names  or  forms  of  expression  indicate 
relations  to  two  different  keys.  The  actual  sound,  however, 
remains  the  same,  and  is  in  most  cases  equivocal  till  the 
progression  decides  its  character.  If,  then,  we  wish  to  pro- 
ceed from  C  major,  for  instance,  to  some  other  key,  we  se- 
lect that  particular  diminished  seventh  wliich  contains  the 
leading  note  of  such  other  key ;  and  this  will  form  the  link 
connecting  the  two  keys.  Suppose  the  new  key  to  be  D[7 
major  orEtj  minor:  of  these,  the  leading  notes  will  of 
course  be  C  and  D,  and  we  accordingly  select  the  dimin- 
ished sevenths  in  which  they  are  found.  By  interposing 
these  between  the  tonic  harmony  of  C  and  that  of  the  new 
keys,  the  modulation  is  effected  at  once,  because  the  middle 
term  in  each  case  is  on  one  side  related  to  C,  and  on  the 
other  (by  enharmonic  change)  to  Vf-t  or  E7.     See  Ex.  52. 

Though  in  the  examples  which  have  been  already  given 
one  of  the  intervals  of  the  diminished  seventh  is  dropped  a 
semitone  in  order  to  make  the  ordinary  minor  seventh  of 
the  new  key,  yet  this  change  is  not  really  necessary,  as  this 
chord  often  proceeds  directly  to  its  resolution,  as  is  shown 
in  Ex.  49 : 


sJs^ 


Frequently,  also,  two  or  more  diminished  sevenths  occur  in 
immediate  succession  before  the  modulation  is  effected. 
For  a  somewhat  full  treatment  of  other  paints  more  or  less 
pertaining  to  the  subject  of  simple  counterpoint,  see  the 
articles  Imitative  Music,  Mode,  Scale,  .Sequence,  and 
Transposition. 

Double  counterpoint  is  that  species  of  composition  in 
which  the  parts  or  voices  are  susceptible  of  inversion,  the 
higher  part  thus  becoming  the  lower,  and  vice  versa.  Of 
such  species  of  composition  there  are  several  varieties — viz.. 
counterpoint  of  the  octave,  when  one  of  the  parts  is  moved 
an  octave  higher  or  lower  than  its  original  place,  wliile  the 
other  part  retains  its  position:  and  counterpoint  of  the 
tenth,  of  the  twelfth,  etc.,  in  which  the  inversion  takes  place 
at  those  distances  respectively.  Each  of  these  varieties  of 
counterpoint  has  .special  rules  by  which  it  is  governed  in 
addition  to  those  governing  "simple"  counterpoint.  The 
intervals  of  the  original  composition  thus  become  diflferent 
by  reason  of  the  inversion  of  the  parts.  For  instance,  in 
"counterpoint  of  the  octave"  the  octave  becomes  a  unison. 


In  counterpoint  of  the  octave  no  greater  interval  than 
an  octave  is  admissible  between  the  two  parts,  as  every  note 
that  exceeds  an  octave  will  remain  uninverted.  This  fault 
will  be  noticed  at  a  and  b  in  Ex.  51,  where  two  notes  are 
unchanged  in  the  inversion  because  they  violate  the  rule. 
Two  perfect  fourths  in  succession  are  to  be  avoided,  because 
in  the  inversion  they  become  two  fifths:  but  two  fourths,  of 
which  the  last  is  augmented, 
may  be  admitted.  The  two  parts 
should  also  be  various  in  quality 
of  notes  for  the  sake  of  distinc- 
tion. By  observing  these  rules 
many  new  and  striking  effects  luiiy  be  produced  from  a 
subject  apparently  insignificant.     To  iUustrate  this  very 

Ex.  51. — Original.  Inversion. 


briefly  we  shall  take  the  following  simple  theme,  and  treat 
it  in  counterpoint  of  tlie  octave.  In  Ex.  52  see  the  theme 
at  a.  with  an  under  part  in  small  notes ;  at  b  is  the  first  in- 
version, in  which  the  lower  part  is  moved  an  octave  tipward, 
thereby  becoming  the  higher  ;  at  e  and  d  are  two  other  in- 
versions, though  the  first  is  the  only  real  one: 
Ex.  52.- 


In  the  latter  case,  however,  the  effect  is  thin  and  unpleas- 
ant, owing  to  the  great  distance  between  the  parts.  And 
this  very  fault  suggests  another  feature — viz.,  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  third  part  to  fill  up  the  vacant  space:  which  new 
part  we  have  inserted  in  small  note.s.  This  middle  part  is 
also  constructed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  capable  of  inver- 
sion like  the  other  parts,  and  thus  several  new  and  beauti- 
ful changes  may  be  produced  by  carrying  out  the  inver- 
sions. These  inversions  are  five  in  number,  of  which  we 
give  the  first  entire,  and  the  others  with  only  a  few  notes  to 
indicate  the  positions  whicli  the  several  parts  will  assume. 
See  Ex.  53. 

Ex.  53. — hi  Jnrersioii. 


MUSIC 


MUSK-DEER 


39 


Sd  Inr. 


To  affonl  room  for  inner  parts  the  inverted  part  may  be  set 
at  the  distance  of  two  octaves,  as  in  the  aliove  example  and 
also  in  the  next  followinj;. — To  a  two-part  counterpoint 
of  the  octave  two  other  parts,  consistin-;  entirely  iif  l/iirdu, 
may  l)e  added  hy  observinj;  the  following  rides:  (1)  The 
orijiinal  parts  shoidii  always  proceed  by  contrary  or  oblique 
motion;  (2)  only  thirds,  sixths,  and  octaves  should  be  used 
on  the  essential  or  strong  parts  of  the  harmony;  0)  if  a 
leading  note  occurs  in  the  lower  part,  and  its  third  above  in 
the  higher,  the  latter  must  be  resolved  downward.  \Vc  may 
then  form  two  new  parts  l)y  writing  thirds  above  all  the 
notes  of  the  original  parts,  as  in  Ex.  54,  where  the  added 
parts  are  given  in  small  notes: 


Ex.  W. 


ilS^^i^^^ 


The  rules  for  the  other  counterpoints  arc  in  like  manner 
deduced,  for  the  most  part,  from  a  comi>arison  of  the  in- 
tervals in  the  composition  before  and  after  inversion.  Thus, 
in  counterpoint  of  the  tenth,  us  thirds,  fourths,  sixths,  and 
tenths  Income  by  inversion  octaves,  sevenths,  fifths,  and 
unisons,  two  of  them  in  succession  are  not  allowable,  except 
in  certain  cases  when  such  sevenths  or  fifths  are  not  of  the 
same  ipiality.  In  counterpoint  of  the  lirelft/i.  successive 
fourths  and  sixths  are  forbidden  except  under  similar  limi- 
tations, as  they  proiluce  ninths  and  sevenths  in  the  inver- 
sion. To  all  these  counterpoints  two  middle  parts  may  be 
added,  either  as  "free"'  or  as  parts  capable  of  inversion; 
and  when  a  composition  has  four  parts  of  the  latter  con- 
struction, it  may  be  inverted  twenty-tliree  times  by  merely 
arranging  the  four  parts  in  corresi)ondence  with  the  changes 
which  can  be  made  with  the  numi)epi  1,  i,  ;!,  -1 — viz.,  1,  -i,  2, 
4 — 2,  1,  ;i,  4,  etc.  Doulilc  Counterpoint  thus  throws  open  a 
rich  field  of  ideas  which  would  never  occur  to  a  composer 
whoso  studies  had  been  confined  to  the  simpler  departments 
of  harmony. 

The  subject  of  Ki'tn'E,  which  comes  next  In  order,  has 
already  reci'ived  attention  under  its  own  proper  head,  and 
we  shall  close  the  present  article  with  a  few  lines  on  the 
nature  and  structure  of  ritnnn.  .\  i  iinoii  is  a  composition 
in  which  the  several  parts  are  substantially  one  and  the 
same  train  of  notes,  one  part  beginning,  and  the  others 
falling  in  successively  at  prescribed  distances,  as  in  Ex.  5.5. 


Ex.  56. 


I* 


'^M:r- 


^ 


J__ 


I    I 


I    I 


The  parts  thus  formed  by  mere  imitation  of  the  first  may  be 
exact  rcp<>lilioiis  in  unison,  or  less  exa<'t  liy  answering  in 
the  second,  third,  fifth,  etc.,  of  the  original :  but  in  all  cas<w 
the  answer  should  conform  to  the  theme  in  motion  and  in 
length  of  notes.  "The  truest,  easiest,  and  at  the  same  time, 
strictest  canons."  says  .MbrechlsUTger,  '"aro  llioso  in  \\w 
uni.son  and  in  the  iK'tave ;  for  ordy  on  these  intervals  can 


the  an.swers  correspond  exactly  as  to  all  the  half  and  whole 
tones,  although  those  on  the  fifth  and  fourth  may  be  made 
to  correspond  sulfiuiently  well."    In  Ex.  5(5  see  the  o])euings 


Ex.  5«.- 


Kirnberger. 


of  three  two-part  canons,  in  which  at  a  the  answer  is  in  the 
uinson,  and  i  in  the  third  below,  and  at  c  in  the  fifth  below: 
Canons  are  said  to  be  ft'/ii/c  when  provided  with  a  proper 
tcrminatiim  or  ordinary  emling.  On  the  contrary,  an  in- 
tiiiile  canon  is  one  in  which  there  is  no  such  conclusion,  but 
a  constant  circular  repetition,  which  is  usually  tcrmiiuited 
by  a  signal  agreed  upon  by  the  performers. 

Among  the  multitude  of  works  on  musical  science,  em- 
bracing both  the  strict  and  free  schools,  the  following  may 
here  be  mentioned,  all  of  which  are  accessible  in  the  Eng- 
lish language:  Albrechtsbcrger,  JIarmony,  Counterpoint, 
and  Fiiyue  (London  and  New  York);  the  same  bv  t'heru- 
bini ;  E.  F.  Kichtcr,  Ilannoni/,  ('ouiilerimint,  and  t'liytie  (3 
vols.,  sold  separately);  15.  .lada.sson.  Ilarniony  and  Counter- 
point (New  York);  Weitzman,  Theory  of  Harmony,  etc., 
edited  by  E.  iM.  Bowman  (New  York).  In  matters  of  mu- 
sical history,  W.  8.  H.  Mathews,  Popular  History  of  Music 
(Chicafjo);  Sir  Cieorge  (irove,  Dictionary  of  Music  and 
Musicians  (London  and  New  York).  In  musical "  form," 
liiissler's  Treatise,  translated  and  adapted  by  .1.  II.  Cor- 
nell; W.  S.  li.  Jlathews,  Elements  of  Musical  Form  (New 
York).  In  orchestration,  Herlioz"s  Treatise  (London);  E. 
I'rout,  Instrumentation  (London);  Oscar  Coon,  Harmony 
and  Instrumentation  (New  York).  This  latter  work  is  al- 
most unique  in  matters  conceridng  arrangements  and  scor- 
ing for  small  t)rchestras  and  brass  bands. 

Kevised  by  Dii)Li-:v  HfcK. 

Mnsk  [from  0.  Fr.  muse  <  Lat.  muscus,  from  (ir.  ii.6axoi, 
from  I'ers.  musk.  Cf.  Arab,  mushk.  musk]:  a  concrete, 
strong-smelling,  brownish,  inflammable  substance  exten- 
sively employed  in  medicine  and  in  perfumery.  It  is  ob- 
tained from  the  preputial  .sac  of  the  Misk-dkf.r  (<;.  i'.),  and 
is  brought  to  market  from  China,  Hussia.  and  Calcutta;  the 
musk  of  the  wanner  regions  is  by  far  the  best.  On  killing 
the  animal,  the  musk-bag  is  carefully  removed,  so  as  to  de- 
fend its  precious  contents  from  exposure  to  the  air.  When 
recently  taken  the  musk  is  of  so  powerful  an  odor  as  to 
cause  headache  to  those  who  inhale  its  overpowering  fra- 
grance. The  aflluence  <if  perfume  in  musk  is  alnu>.st  in- 
credible, being  apparently  undiminished  by  lapse  of  time. 
The  price  of  musk  is  very  high,  and  it  is  in  conseipienee 
excessively  adulterated.  Sonu'  similarly  smelling  animal 
products  (as  the  perfume  of  tlie  desman,  etc.)  are  sold  for  it. 
The  volatile  oils  of  some  plants,  such  as  Malva  mnsrhata 
[Maliareo')  ami  Mimulus  mitschatns  {Srrophulariacea').  arc 
found  to  possess  its  odor  anil  its  medicinal  qmilities.  which 
are  stronglv  antispasmoillc  and  stimulant.  Artificial  musk 
is  obtained  by  treating  rectifie<l  oil  of  amber  with  strong 
nitrii'  acid.  It  is  su|H'rior  to  ranch  of  the  musk  of  com- 
nu'ne.  but  not  equal  to  the  genuine  article.  It  has  a  limited 
use  in  meilicine.  The  drug  sambul  or  sinubul  is  also  a  fair 
musk  substitute.  Keviseil  by  II.  A.  Hark. 

Mlisk-dppr:  a  small  deer  {Mosrhus  mosrhifenis)  inhabit- 
ing the  highlanils  of  Central  and  Eastern  A>ia,  and  rarely 
fouml  in.sumniiTlM'lowan  elevation  of  s.lKMIfeet.  The  musk- 
deer  is  about  20  inches  high  at  the  shoulder,  of  a  gniyish 
lirown,  sometimes  of  a  reildish  tlnire,  s<inictlnu'S  mottled  with 
lighter  blotches.  The  hair  is  long  ond  coarse.  Antlers  are 
lacking,  but  the  male  has  a  pair  of  Ions  canine  toelh  in  the 
upper  jaw.  This  species  is  remarkable  fur  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  small  side-hoofs,  and  differs  from  all  other  ileer 
in  havlns;  a  gall-bhulder.  It  is  an  alK'rrant  member  of  the 
family  Cervidir,  and  is  only  distantly  ndated  to  the  little 


40 


MUSKEGON 


MUSKHOGEAN  INDIANS 


chevrotains ;  for  these,  although  often  called  pygmy  musk- 
deer,  belong  to  another  family,  the  Tragulidce.  The  flesh 
is  esteemed,  though  that  of  the  male  is  very  rank  and  musky. 


The  musk-deer. 

On  account  of  the  value  of  the  musk,  the  animal,  which  fur- 
nishes the  precious  substance,  is  subjected  to  great  persecu- 
tion on  the  part  of  hunters,  who  annually  destroy  great 
numbers.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Muskegon  :  city  (incorporated  as  a  village  in  1861,  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1870) ;  capital  of  Muskegon  co.,  Jlicli.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  6-H);  on  tlie 
Muskegon  river,  and  the  Chi.  and  W.  Mich.,  the  Gr.  Kap. 
and  Ind.,  and  tlie  Toledo,  Sag.  and  Musk,  railways:  88 
miles  N.  \V.  of  Grand  Rapids,  120  miles  by  water  N.  E.  of 
Chicago.  Tlio  river  here  enlarges  to  a  width  of  about  2 
miles,  and  is  locally  known  as  Muskegon  Lake.  It  has  a 
water  frontage  of  about  12  miles.  The  harbor,  almost  en- 
tirely landlocked  and  open  all  the  year,  is  one  of  the  best  on 
Lake  Michigan,  and  has  regular  steamboat  communication 
with  all  the  principal  lake  [lorts.  The  city  has  an  area  of 
about  12  sq.  miles,  of  wiiicli  5  are  water  surface;  is  lighted 
with  gas  and  electricity,  and  has  a  water  plant  on  the  Holly 
system,  completed  in  1891,  and  taking  its  supply  from  Lake 
Michigan ;  well-paved  streets,  and  an  improved  sewerage 
plant.  There  are  24  churches.  17  public-school  buildings,  a 
central  school,  a  high  school,  6  kindergarten  cottages,  and 
5  parochial  schools.  Hackley  Public  Libraiy  (founded  in 
1888)  with  over  20,000  volumes;  soldiers'  monument :  public 
fountain ;  public  park ;  a  park  of  58  acres  between  Lake 
Michigan  and  Muskegon  Lake,  on  the  west  side  of  the  city; 
4  national  banks  witii  combined  capital  of  .f  400,000,  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  and  2  daily  and  2  weekly  news- 
papers. The  city  has  been  noted  for  many  years  for  the 
variety  and  extent  of  its  manufactures,  and  particularly  for 
its  great  lumber  interests.  The  census  returns  of  1890 
showed  that  810  manufacturing  establishments  (representing 
53  industries)  reported.  These  had  a  combined  capital  of 
$11,448,967;  employed  4.956  persons;  paid  .f 2,151.820  for 
wages  and  $5,540,042  for  materials ;  and  had  products  valued 
at  f9,464.105.  The  principal  industry,  according  to  the 
amount  of  capital  ein|)loyed,  was  the  manufacture  of  lumber 
and  other  mill  i)roducts  from  logs  or  liolts,  which  had  29 
establishments;  employed  !fi9,09L979  liipital  and  2,532  per- 
sons; paid  .$1,022,073  for  wages  and  *;!, 257,473  for  materials : 
and  had  products  valued  at  $5,320,058.  Next  was  the 
manufacture  of  planing-mill  products,  which  had  9  estab- 
lishments; emploved  .f 345,597  capital  and  415  persons;  paid 
$167,283  for  wages  and  $382,694  for  materials;  and  had 
products  valued  at  $602,541.  Then  followed  the  manufac- 
ture of  foundry  and  machine-shop  products  and  of  furni- 
ture. The  aggregate  shipiiu'nts  bv  water  of  lumber  products 
in  1890  were  3.55.515,000  feet  of  lumber,  90,80H,000  shingles, 
and  22,670,000  latli.  In  1890-94  there  were  12  new  and  large 
manufactories  established  in  the  city,  and  in  the  latter  year 
the  industrial  establishments  included  iron  and  steel  works, 
iron-works,  boiler-works,  about  20  saw  and  planing  mills, 
furniture-factory,  flour-mill,  brewery,  marble  and  granite 
works,    and    chemical-engine,  revolving    bookcase,   patent 


earth-closet,  library  supplies,  invalid-chair,  portable-desk, 
army-cot,  and  brick  and  tile  factories.  Pop.  (1880)  11,268; 
(1890)  22,702  ;  (1894)  20,222. 

Muskliogean  (musk-ho'-ge'e-an)  Indians  {Muskhogean  is 
from  Algonquian  for  swamplanders,  swamp-dwellers]:  a 
linguistic  stock  composed  of  tribes  formerly  occupying  al- 
most the  whole  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama  and  large  por- 
tions of  Georgia,  Florida,  and  South  Carolina ;  now  the  ma- 
jority are  settled  in  the  Indian  Territory.  Various  names 
have  been  proposed  to  designate  this  family :  Choctaw-Mus- 
koki.  Muskhogie,  Choktah,  Tschahta,  Mobiiians,  and  others; 
but  the  Indian  name  of  its  most  powerful  and  central  por- 
tion, the  Creek,  is  now  adopted. 

The  tribes  formed  confederacies,  but  the  political  power 
exercised  by  these  was  not  always  coincident  with  their 
territorial  extent,  and  only  the  Creek  and  Chikasa  confeder- 
acy h,as  ever  been  of  decisive  influence  upon  the  destinies  of 
the  southern  Indians.  A  subdivision  of  the  various  tribes 
of  Muskhogean  affiliation  can  be  attempted  upon  a  linguistic 
basis  only.  The  following  classification  embodies  present 
knowledge : 

I.  First  branch,  or  Maskoki,  comprises  the  Creek  Indians, 
also  called  JIaskoki,  isti  Maskoki,  or  Maskokalgi.  They  are 
subdivided  into  Upper  Creek,  on  the  Coosa  ami  Tallapoosa 
rivers,  and  Lower  Creek,  on  the  Chattahoochee  river  and  E. 
from  there  ;  they  comprised  also  the  Creek  part  of  the  Semi- 
nole and  of  the  Yamasi. 

II.  Second  branch,  or  Hitchiti  towns.  This  southeastern 
division  comprised  towns  on  the  lower  Chattahoochee  river 
speaking  the  Hitchiti  dialect;  also  that  jiortion  of  the  Ya- 
ma.si  and  Seminole  Indians  who  had  politically  separated 
from  the  towns  just  mentioned. 

III.  Third  or  Apalache  branch ;  historically  known  to 
have  lived  about  St.  Mark's  river,  Florida. 

IV.  Fourth  or  Alibamu  branch ;  embraced  the  Alibamu 
and  Koassati  villages  on  Alabama  river,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  present  capital,  Montgomery. 

V.  Fifth,  Western  or  Choctaw  branch.  The  Choctaw, 
living  in  Central  and  Southern  Mississippi,  were  tlie  prin- 
cipal people  of  this  division.  It  branched  ofE  into  the  Chi- 
kasa, Choktchiima,  and  Mugulasha ;  and  some  other  tribes 
on  the  Mississippi  river  were  probably  of  Choctaw  affinity. 

Tribes  of  the  Muskhogean  Indians. — In  the  following 
alphabetic  list  of  the  principal  tribes  the  topographic  loca- 
tions given  are  mostly  those  of  their  historic  seats  E.  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  in  which  they  remained  until  1830  to  1840. 
The  larger  portion  of  these  tribes  still  exist  in  the  Indian 
Territory,  preserving  the  same  names,  and  this  may  be  said 
more  especially  of  the  Creek  Indians. 

Abika  or  Apihka:  a  very  ancient  Upper  Creek  town  on 
Coosa  river.  It  was  probably  identical  with  the  historical 
Kusa.  Abikudshi,  or  Little  Abika.  is  a  colony  of  it. — Aco- 
lapissa,  Sjiies,  Guardians :  a  generic  term  for  a  class  of 
Choctaw  Indians  on  the  Gulf  coast.  They  are  said  to  have 
inhabited  seven  villages. — Alibamu  or  Albiimu:  a  people 
with  a  special  dialect,  settled  in  four  villages  W.  of  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.  They  live  now  scattered  through  the  Creek 
Nation,  one  town  being  on  the  North  Fork  of  the  Canadian. 
There  is  a  settlement  of  about  100  Alibamu  in  Polk  co., 
Eastern  Texas. — Apalachi :  a  town  and  "province"  N.  of  St. 
Mark's  Bay,  Florida,  the  inhabitants  of  which  spoke  a  Musk- 
liogean dialect  of  their  own.  After  being  subjugated  by 
the  Spaniards  about  1638,  a  portion  of  them  removed  in 
1705  to  Mobile  Bay,  and  subsequently  went  to  Louisiana. — 
Apalachucla:  a  Hitchiti  town  on  lower  Chattahoochee  river, 
and  a  large  center  of  population ;  it  was  called  also  Talwa 
thlako.  Great  town.  Under  this  name  is  a  village  in  the 
Indian  Territory. — Atasi,  War-ctub:  an  Upper  Creek  town 
formerly  on  lower  Tallapoosa  river. — Attapulgas,  Dogwood 
thicket:  a  Seminole  settlement  of  Northern  Florida.- — Bayo- 
goula,  WJiite  oak  people:  a  Choctaw  tribe  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Mississippi. 

Chikasa  or  Chickasaw  Indians:  originally  inhabiting  seven 
palisaded  towns  in  Pontotoc  County,  on  a  table-land  in  North- 
ern Mississippi.  They  were  a  warrior  tribe  of  political  im- 
portance, stood  at  the  head  of  a  confederacy  dwelling  along 
Yazoo  and  Mississippi  rivers,  and  were  the  constant  antago- 
nists of  their  congeners,  the  Choctaw,  and  of  the  French 
colonists.  Their  dialect  differs  considerably  from  the  Choc- 
taw lexically,  but  for  oratorical  purposes  they  make  use  of 
Choctaw. 

Chikasawhay  Indians,  Eaters  of  the  bog-potato  (ahi) ;  once 
on  an  affluent  of  Pascagoula  river ;  also  known  as  Ahi-pat 


MUSKllOGKAN    INDIANS 


41 


ok  la,  the  Choctaw  tiTin  U>t  polato-eating  people. — Chiaha, 
Where  others  lite:  a  Linver  Creek  town  on  Chattahoochee 
river;  its  latijiua^e  and  that  of  its  colony,  Chiahiulshi,  is  the 
llitehili  dialect,  though  the  name  of  the  town  itself  is 
Cherokee. 

Choctaw,  more  properly  Cha'hta,  of  Central  and  Southern 
Mississippi.  Many  of  them  resided  on  talile-lands  of  the 
interior,  beinj;  nmre  afjricultural  than  warlike  in  character. 
A  nickname  of  theirs  is  "  Tubbies,"  apparently  taken  from 
their  stout  or  tul)-like  exterior,  but  in  fact  recallitif;  the  fre- 
quent ending  of  their  war-titles,  abi,  killer.  Many  Choctaw 
settled  in  Louisiana  iluring  the  eighteenth  anil  nineteenth 
centuries.  Some  of  the  principal  subdivisions  of  the  people 
were  the  Sixtowns,  the  Long  Uouse,  Cusha,  Bogueehilo, 
lleyowani.  ami  Chikasawhay. 

Choktchi'ima,  y^ci/ cr(i/«:  a  Choctaw  tribe  settled  on  the 
YaziKi  river;  mentioned  as  early  as  1540  as  Saquechuma, 
a  wiillfil  /mm. 

Creek  Imlians,  the  most  centralized,  warlike,  and  politi- 
cally powerful  of  the  southern  tribes,  lived  in  compactly 
built  villages  along  the  fertile  botloin-lands  of  the  Coosa, 
Tallapoosa,  Chattahoochee,  aud  Flint  rivers.  They  ad- 
vanced from  the  N'orthwest  to  Georgia  and  Florida,  sub- 
jugating the  [lopulations  they  encountered.  Their  settle- 
ments were  divided  into  two  parties:  the  red  towns,  also 
calle<l  war  or  kipaya  towns,  ami  the  white  or  peace  towns, 
talua  mikagi,  conservative  communities.  These  were  gov- 
erned by  civil  nnigistrates,  whereas  the  red  towns  were  con- 
trolletl  by  the  warriors  only,  and  both  parties  appear  to  have 
been  equally  strong  in  numbers.  Among  the  ancient  Creeks 
two  forms  of  speech  prevailed:  the  areliaic  or  fennile  lan- 
guage, now  in  use  among  old  people  only,  and  the  modern 
or  male  language;  they  differ  chiefly  in  verbal  endings,  not 
in  Icxic  elements.  Historically,  the  Creek,  or  parts  of  their 
nation,  were  known  as  Consliac  (reed-knive.i),  Coosa,  Tal- 
lttiH)o.sa,  Kawita,  and  ()sotchi.  The  presiMit  appellation, 
"Maskoki,"  appears  to  be  of  comparatively  late  origin. 
Among  the  peoiiles  incor|)orated  into  the  Maskoki  confeder- 
acy were  the  Vuchi,  the  Natchez,  the  Alibamu,  and  the 
Koossjiti,  some  .Shawanos,  the  Nukfalalgi  of  .Southern  Geor- 

fia,  and  some  Cherokee  and  Vainasi.  The 'IVuskigi  and  the 
ukabatehi  are  said  to  have  formerly  spoken  an  alien  lan- 
guage. 

Heyowiini,  abbreviated  to  Towi'ini :  a  Chiwtaw  or  Cha'hta 
townon  I'ascagoula  river.once  strongly  fortified.  Aftertheir 
removal  to  the  West,  these  Indians  had  a  village  at  Lamourie 
Bridge,  Uapids  parish.  La. — Hickory  Ground,  or  Odshi- 
apofa:  a  Creek  town  on  Coosa  river,  a  mile  below  the  falls. 
— Ilillabi:  an  Upper  Creek  town  between  the  Coosa  and  the 
Tallapoosa  rivers. —  Ilulhli-W'ahli,  Sharin(/-out  war:  an 
Upper  Creek  town  on  Tallapoosa  river. — lluma,  or  Ouma, 
The  red  ones  :  a  tribe  ome  settled  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  about  20  miles  above  the  Ued  river  junc- 
tion. I'robably  of  Cha'hta  lineage. — Ka-iliii  ilshi :  an  Upper 
Creek  town  in  the  "central "  district,  between  the  Coosa  and 
Tallapoosa  rivers,  .Vlabama. — Kasi  'hla,  often  spelled  Cusse- 
tjiw:  a  Lower  Creek  town  on  t'hattahriochee  river.  This 
white  town  was  considered  to  be,  with  Kawita,  the  oldest  of 
the  Cri'ek  towns  on  Chattahoochee  river. — Kawita,  often 
spelli'd  (,'oweta,  and  Kawita  Tallahassi :  two  Lower  Creek 
towns  on  Chattahoochee  river,  the  latter  being  a  "  capital  "of 
the  people  in  the  earlier  periods.  Both  were  red  towns,  ruled 
by  the  warrior  class. — Koassjiii,  or  Coushatta :  a  tribe  once 
settled  near  the  conlluence  of  the  Coosa  with  the  Tallapoosa 
river.  Two  townships  in  the  Creek  nation  are  now  inhabited 
by  them;  about  twenty-five  live  at  Shepherd.  San  Jacinto 
CO.,  Texas.  They  speak  a  ilialect  approximating  nearest  to 
Alibamu. — Muklasji:  a  Creek  town  on  the  southern  shore  of 
the  lower  Tallapoosa  riviT,  speaking  Alibamu. — dipal  okia, 
l^maller  peu/ile  :  an  ancient  territorial  division  of  the  (  ha'hta 
pooi)lo,  embodying;  the  Cusha  and  other  districts ;  called  so 
to  ilislinguish  it  from  the  Ukla  falava,  Loikj  people,  whose 
villages  extended  along  a  eonsiilerabie  space  in  the  shape  of 
a  square. — Okfuski,  or  Akfaski.  Conlluence  lonque:  a  (  reek 
town  built  on  Uilh  sides  of  Tallapoosji  river.  It  gave  origin 
to  seven  branch  villages. — Okoni:  a  llitchili-sj>eaking  town 
on  Okoni  river,  Georgia,  from  wlii<li  the  llitchili  towns 
nlaimi'd  descent;  abandoned  about  1710.  Okoni  is  also  the 
name  of  a  town  on  Cliattahoixhee  river  settleil  by  immigra- 
tion fron\  the  Okoni  above. — Siiwokli,  liiircoiin  toirn  :  a  very 
ancient  town  of  the  IlilehitI  connection  on  lower  Chatta- 
hoochee river.  Near  by  was  a  colony  or  branch  of  it,  Sa- 
wokli-u  dslii,  Lillle  rnrnion  town. 

Seminole  Indians  of  Florida  and  Georgia:  chiefly  tnown 


in  history  for  the  heroic  struggle  they  underwent  to  oppose 
the  cession  of  their  territtiry  and  their  removal  to  the  \V est 
(Isa5-I2).  After  the  eml  o'f  this  struggle  about  -lOtJ  of  these 
Indians  remained  in  the  south  of  the  peninsula.  The  ma- 
jority are  in  the  Indian  Territory,  on  a  .separate  tract,  and 
in  lf<UO  numbered  'i.^t'M  persons.  The  tribal  name  is  Creek, 
and  means  separatists,  seceders  from  the  main  binly  of 
the  Upper  and  es[)ecially  the  Lower  Creeks;  the  priijrier 
Indian  form  is  isti  isinianole,  or  isli  Sinumolalgi.  'The 
Seminoles  appear  as  a  distinct  political  body  about  1750, 
and  many  aut  hors  used  the  name  as  synonymous  with  Lower 
Creeks.  Creek  immigrants  and  invaders,  however,  are  men- 
tioin'd  on  the  coasts  of  the  peninsula  long  before  that  date. 
The  llitchiti  portion  of  this  mitioiial  conglomerate  had  a 
political  center  in  Mikasuki,  Northern  Florida,  and,  together 
with  the  Creek  ingredient,  possessed  an  unenviable  reputa- 
tion among  the  other  Creeks. 

.Sixtowns,  English  Towns,  or  Ukla  hiinnali  :  a  Cha'hta 
territorial  division  still  kept  up  in  the  Choctaw  luition.  In- 
dian Territory.  Their  numbers  were  subsecpiently  increased. 
They  Were  located  in  Smith  and  .laspor  cos.,  Mi>s.,  and  were 
called  as  follows:  Cliinokabi,  Okatallia,  Kilis-tamaha,  Talla 
town,  Nashoweya,  Uishkon. — Taski'gi,  Jumpers :  a  Creek 
town  formerly  at  the  junction  of  Coosa  and  Tallapt)Osa 
rivers.  A  town  named  Tuskegee  is  now  built  E.  from  there. — 
Tukabiitchi.  below  the  falls  of  Tallapoosa  river:  the  largest 
town  of  the  Upocr  and  Lower  Creeks,  and  a  cajiital  of  theirs 
as  late  as  theenil  of  the  eighteenth  century. — W  ewoka.  Jioar- 
iitij  waters:  an  UpperCrcek  town  K.of  Coosa  river. — Witura- 
ka.  Humbling  waters:  a  town  at  the  Cascade  Falls  of  Coosa 
river,  whose  dialect  was  that  of  Koa.ssati. — Yamacraw,  the 
misspelled  llitchiti  form  of  the  name  Yamasi :  a  small 
LowerCreek  scttlementon  Savannah  river.  4  miles  above  the 
city  of  Savannah.  This  fragment  of  a  tribe  is  mainly  known 
to  us  through  its  chief.  Tomochichi  (d.  1739);  its  name 
should  be  spelled  Yamathia,  or  Yamathli. 

Y'liiiiasi  Indians,  or  Yaniasalgi,  The peaceables:  a  body  of 
Indians,  mostly  of  Creek  descent,  who  early  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century  dwelt  on  both  sides  of  the  Savannah  river.  At 
first  they  siiled  with  the  English  colonists,  then  pa.ssed  over 
to  the  Spanish  side,  and  finally  were  annihilated  by  Creek 
war-parties  aft<r  they  had  retired  into  Florida.  They  may 
be  regarded  as  the  early  precursors  of  the  Seminoles. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Muskhogean  familv  is  so 
extensive  that  it  is  diflicult  to  give  any  .somatological  char- 
acteri.-itics  which  will  apply  to  all  of  its  jiopulation.  Prog- 
nathism is  not  frei|Ui'nl  among  them,  and  llieir  <omplexion 
is  rather  dark  cinnamon,  with  the  southern  olive  tinge. 
Their  general  intelligence  renders  them  highly  susceptible 
to  civilizing  influences.  All  the  tribes  were  well  advanced 
in  agriculture,  which  rendered  them  relatively  indeiiendent 
of  the  uncertainties  of  the  chase.  The  members  of  the  two 
main  branches  of  the  stock,  the  Creek  and  the  Choctaw, 
dilfer  in  stature,  the  latter  being  thick-set  and  heavy,  while 
the  former,  with  the  llitchiti,  arc  more  lithe  and  tall. 

The  Muskhogeans  had  extensive  systems  of  tolemic  clans, 
which  were  organized  into  tribes.  Each  tribe  <K'cupied  a 
distinct  village.  The  clans  of  every  village  were  organized 
into  two  groups,  symbolized  by  the  colors  white  and  red. 
From  the  white  clans  the  counciloi-s  and  civil  chiefs  were 
selected,  while  the  warriors  came  from  the  red  clans.  Be- 
tween nnmy  of  the  tribes  a  reciprocal  [iromotion  existed; 
that  is,  the  white  clans,  gathered  in  council,  selected  the 
chiefs  of  the  red  clan,  while  the  red  clans  in  council  se- 
lected the  chiefs  of  the  while  clan.  They  used  the  Ilex 
rassine  for  the  preparation  of  the  black  drink,  erected  arti- 
ficial moumls,  in  the  earlier  periods  worshipeil  the  sun.  and 
believed  in  a  deity  sometimes  called  the  "holder  of  life." 
Their  lire-worship  was  connected  with  their  adoration  of 
the  sun,  and  they  had  many  aninnd-gcMls.  The  children 
belong  to  the  clan  of  the  mother,  an  antique  custom  which 
must  have  prevailed  throughout  the  Gulf  territories.  The 
Muskhogean,  as  well  as  other  eastern  tribes,  had  town- 
sqmires,  where  an  annual  festival  called  a  fast  (jn'iskita  in 
Creek)  was  celebrated.  No  instances  of  cannibalism  are  re- 
corded, but  scalping  was  a  common  custom.  Artificial  llat- 
leningof  the  fori'heads  prevailed  in  the  western  tribes, other 
deformations  of  the  skull  among  the  eastern  tribes.  The 
n-interment  of  bodies,  after  the  Uines  were  cleaned  from 
the  adhering  muscles  and  ligaments  several  months  after 
<leath,  is  recorded,  more  especially  for  the  western  tribes  of 
the  stfK'k. 

IliMory. — Historical  knowledge  of  the  Muskhogean  tribes 
for  the  first  two  centuries  after  the  Columbian  discovery  is 


42" 


MUSKINGUM 


MUSSAPIA 


exceedingly  meager.  In  the  sixteenth  century  three  Span- 
ish expeditions  passed  through  the  territories  held  by  their 
tribes — Hernando  de  Soto,  1339;  Tristan  de  Luna,  1559; 
and  Juan  del  Pardo,  1567.  B''rora  their  reports  it  appears 
that  the  majority  of  these  tribes  were  then  inhaljiting  the 
same  tracts  and  spoke  the  same  dialects  as  they  did  about  the 
year  1800. 

During  the  seventeenth  century  the  Spanish  colonists  had 
several  contests  with  the  Creeks  on  Tallapoosa  river  and 
with  the  Alabama  Indians,  as  may  be  gathered  from  Bar- 
cia's  Ensayo  cronoli/gico,  and  the  Apalachia  Indians  of  St. 
Mark's  river,  Florida,  were  subjugated  by  the  Spaniards 
about  the  middle  of  the  century.  French  colonists  settled 
near  the  moutli  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  English  pioneers 
on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  The  French  could  never 
overcome  the  hostile  feelings  of  the  Chikasa  and  their  con- 
federates, and  in  several  wars  waged  against  them  the  Chi- 
kasa experienced  severe  losses,  until  they  were  obliged  to 
cede  their  territories  to  Great  Britain  by  the  peace  of  1763. 
Oglethorpe  was  the  first  to  conclude  treaties  with  the  inland 
Creek,  and  the  British  henceforth  established  trading-posts 
in  their  country.  The  war  against  the  Cherokee  and  attacks 
of  some  turbulent  bands  of  Creek  Indians  alternated  with 
intertrilial  quarrels.  The  great  rebellion  of  the  Creek  Ind- 
ians (1813-14)  was  instigated  by  the  British  and  by  Tecura- 
seh,  their  Indian  emissary,  to  imperil  the  U.  S.  Ijy  an  attack 
from  the  southern  side ;  but  the  Creek  were  I'educed  by  a 
series  of  defeats,  and  after  the  annihilation  of  their  warriors 
at  the  Horseshoe  Bend  of  the  Tallapoosa  (Mar.,  1814)  they 
.  made  peace  on  the  condition  of  ceding  much  valuable  terri- 
tory. The  urgent  pressure  of  the  white  population  finally 
caused  the  removal  of  all  the  southern  tribes  to  what  is  now 
called  Indian  Territory.  The  tHierokee  began  to  emigrate 
thither  in  1819,  and  were  followed  by  the  Seminole  and 
Creek  (1836-40),  and  by  the  Choctaw  and  Chikasa  (1840-44). 
Peace  being  secured  to  them,  they  have  since  acquired  a 
considerable  degree  of  wealth  and  mental  culture. 

Population. — According  to  the  census  of  1890,  the  num- 
ber of  pure-l)lood  Indians  in  the  Territorv  is  as  follows : 
Choctaw,  9.996 ;  Chikasa,  3,464 ;  Creek,  9,391 ;  Seminole, 
2,5.39. 

Authorities. — Adair,  The  History  of  the  American  Ind- 
ians (London,  1775);  Romans,  A  Concise  Natural  History 
of  East  and  West  Florida  (New  York,  1775  and  1776) ;  Jef- 
ferys.  History  of  the  French  Dominions  in  America  (Lon- 
don, 1760  and  1761);  Bartram,  Travels  through  North  and 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  etc.  (Philadelphia,  1791);  Lawson, 
Ttte  History  of  Carolina  (Raleigh,  1860) ;  Le  Page  du  Pratz, 
Histoire  de  la  Loiii.'iiane  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1758);  Hawkins,  A 
Sketch  of  the  Creek  Country  in  179S  and  '99  (Savannah, 
1848) ;  JNiilfort,  Memoire  ou  Coup  d'ceil  Rapide  sur  mes  Dif- 
ferens  Voyages  el  mon  Sejour  dans  la  Nation  Creek  (Paris, 
1802) ;  Margry,  Decotivertes  et  Etahlissements  des  Franfais 
dans  I'Amerique  Septentrionale  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1880,  etc.); 
Claiborne,  History  of  3Iississippi,  vol.  i.  (1881).  See  Ind- 
ians OF  North  America.  J.  W.  Powell. 

Mnsking'iim  ;  the  longest  river  wholly  in  Ohio  ;  formed 
at  Coshocton  Ijy  the  confluence  of  the  Tuscarawas  and  tlie 
Walhonding  rivers.  Thence  it  flows  generally  S.  E.,  112 
miles  to  the  Ohio  at  Marietta.  Zanesville  is  on  its  banks. 
The  river  is  navigable  by  slackwater  improvements  90  miles 
to  Dresden,  which  is  130  feet  higher  than  its  mouth.  Its 
valley  is  fertile  and  beautiful. 

Sliiskraelon  :  See  Melon. 

Musko'ka  ;  a  lake,  river,  and  county  of  Ontario,  Canada ; 
on  the  eastern  side  of  Georgian  Bay ;  but  the  name  is 
loosely  applied  to  the  entire  district  from  Severn  river  to 
Lake  Nipissing,  and  northeastward  to  the  Ottawa  river. 
Thus  defined  it  is  about  half  as  large  as  Maine,  a  tangle  of 
forests,  rivers,  and  lakes  (of  which  last  there  are  said  to  be 
800  of  considerable  size).  It  was  long  practically  uninhab- 
ited, but  is  now  crossed  by  railways  and  dotted  by  summer 
hotels.  The  waters  of  the  lake  are  deep,  clear,  and  cool, 
and  swarm  with  fish.  M.  W.  H. 

Musk-ox  :  tlie  sole  member  (Ovihos  mosrhatu.'!)  of  a  pe- 
culiar sulj-family  (Orihovin(e)  of  the  ox  family  (Boridw) ;  so 
naiiuMl  from  the  musky  flavor  of  the  bulls  and  old  cows.  It 
is  about  the  size  of  a  small  heifer.  The  horns,  which  sug- 
gest on  a  small  scale  those  of  the  African  buffalo,  are  large 
at  the  ba.se,  in  old  males  almost  meeting  on  the  forehead  ; 
they  curve  at  first  downward  ami  outward,  then  upward 
and'  slightly  forward.  The  body  is  heavy  and  legs  short, 
but  the  coat  of  very  long,  thick,  dark-brown  hair  makes  the 


Musk-ox. 


animal  look  still  heavier.  There  is  an  undercoat  of  thick 
woolly  fur,  shed  in  summer.  The  musk-ox  feeds  on  grass, 
lichens,  and  the  twigs  of  pine 
and  willow.  This  animal  is 
at  present  confined  to  the 
extreme  northern  parts  of 
the  North  American  conti- 
nent, where  it  ranges  over 
the  barren  grounds  to  the 
N.  of  lat.  60°,  roaming  in 
summer  to  the  islands  with- 
in the  Arctic  Circle.  During 
the  glacial  period  its  range 
must  have  been  far  more  ex- 
tensive, as  its  bones  have 
been  found  in  drift-gravel  in 
the  valley  of  the  Avon  at 
Bath,  and  elsewhere  in  England  ;  while  the  remains  of  allied 
species,  termed  Bootherium  by  Leidy,  have  been  found  in 
the  U.  S.  Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Miiskrat :  a  name  ajiplied  in  different  coimtries  to  sev- 
eral rat-like  mammals  distinguished  by  musky  exhalations. 
(1)  In  North  America  it  is  conferred  on  the  Fiber  zibethicus 
(by  some  called  also  musguash),  a  rodent  of  the  family  3Iu- 
ridre,  and  the  group  which  contains  the  field-mice.  It  is 
larger  than  most  of  the  family,  being  some  15  inches  in 
length,  with  a  tail  of  10  inches.  It  is  afjuatic,  sometimes 
buiUling  houses  like  those  of  the  beaver,  and  oftener  bur- 
rowing in  river-banks.  It  is  abundant  in  many  parts  of 
North  America.  Its  fur  (the  '•  river  sable  "  of  commerce) 
is  extensively  sold  in  Europe.  The  creature  has  a  strong 
smell  of  musk.  (2)  In  India  the  name  is  given  to  the  Cro- 
cidura  myosurus,  a  large  rat-like  shrew,  which  possesses 
and  communicates  to  whatever  it  touches  an  intolerable 
and  nearly  indelible  musk-like  smell.  (3)  It  is  also  applied 
to  the  European  Ilyogale  moschata,  or  desman,  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  of  Talpidce  or  moles. 

Musk-wood :  the  wood  of  Ouarea  gratidiflora  and  O. 
swartzii.  meliaceous  trees  of  the  West  Indies,  whose  wood 
is  finely  redolent  of  musk.  The  name  is  also  given  to  Olea- 
ria  aryophylla,  a  composite-flowered  shrub  of  Tasmania, 
sometimes  cultivated. 

Muspratt,  James  Sheridan,  Ph.D.,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  E. ; 
chemist ;  b.  in  Dublin,  Mar.  8,  1821  ;  was  educated  in  Liv- 
erpool, where  his  father  established  a  large  manufactory  of 
chemicals  ;  traveled  in  Germany  and  France  ;  studied,chem- 
istry  at  Andersonian  University,  Glasgow,  in  the  labo- 
ratory of  Prof.  Graham,  whom  he  afterward  accompanied 
to  Ijondon  ;  became  when  sixteen  years  old  chemist  for  a 
large  manufactory  of  chemicals  in  Manchester ;  tried  mer- 
cantile life  in  the  U.  S.  without  success  :  studied  chemistry 
under  Liebig  1843-45,  graduating  as  Ph.  D.  at  Giessen ; 
m.ade  numerous  discoveries,  chiefly  in  organic  chemistry, 
especially  concerning  the  remarkable  bodies  produced  from 
the  sulphocyanides  of  ethyl  and  methyl ;  founded  the  Liv- 
erpool College  of  Chemistry,  and  became  a  professor  there. 
Among  his  works  are  a  valuable  translation  of  Plattner  on  the 
blowpipe  (1844);  Outlines  of  Qualitative  Analysis  (1849); 
and  a  Dictionary  of  Chemistry  (1854,  seq.),  which  found  a, 
wide  circulation  in  both  England  and  the  U.  S.,  and  was 
translated  into  German  and  French.  I),  at  West  Derby, 
England,  Feb.  3,  1871. 

Musquash  :  See  JIuskrat. 

Mussafla,  Adolf:  philologist;  b.  at  Spalato,  Dalmatia, 
Jan.  15,  1834;  studied  at  first  medicine  and  then  philolo- 
gy at  Vienna,  where  he  is  Professor  of  Romance  Philology 
at  the  university  and  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  is  one  of  the  eminent  scholars  of  the  time  in  the  Ro- 
mance languages,  particularly  in  text-criticism,  old  Italian 
dialects,  and  mediicval  legends,  and  has  contributed  many 
articles  and  reviews  to  German,  French,  and  Italian  lin- 
guistic periodicals,  many  of  his  most  valuable  papers  ap- 
pearing in  the  publications  of  the  Vienna  Academy.  Among 
his  writings  are  Italienische  Sprachlehre  (1860);  Altfran- 
ziisische  Oedichte  axis  venezianischen  Hand.ichriften  (1864); 
3[onumenti  antichi  di  dialetti  italiani  (1864):  Darstellung 
der  altmailandisrhen  Mundart  (1868);  Darstellung  der  ro- 
magnolisclirn  Mundart  (1871) ;  Beitrag  zur  Kunde  der 
nnrditiilie7iisrhen  Mundarten  im  XV.  Jahrhnndert  {1S7'S); 
Die  cntiilanisrhe  metrische  Version  der  siehen  ireisen  3Ieis- 
ter  (1876) ;  Studien  zu  den  mittetalterlirlien  3Iarienh'gen- 
den  (i.,  1886;  ii.,  1887;  iii.,  1889);  Zur  Cliristophlegende  (i., 
1893,  etc.).  E.  S.  Sheldon. 


ML'SSEL 


MLSTARD  OIL 


43 


Massel  [for  etymology,  Sfe  Mi'sile]  :  u  imiiu'  often  popu- 
larly applied  to  iiiuny  s(H;cii'S  of  bivulvc  iuollus<'s,  liiit  niDfe 
propirly  n-stricti'il  to  tlio  iiiuiiilicTs  of  the  family  Mytilidti'. 
and  with  tin-  qualitication  tresli-watcr  nmsscl  to  ttit;  I'niom- 


A  mussel,  Mytiliu. 

DX  (q.  v.).  The  niarinu  nmssels  have  an  elonjrated  shell 
closed  by  a  single  niiisele.  anil  they  have  the  ability  to  an- 
chor themselves  to  any  solid  support  by  a  cable  of  silken 
threads  (byssus,  shown  in  eut).  Most  of  the  speeies  live  in 
shallow  water,  and  the  common  mussel  (.l/y/iVi/*  etiiilis), 
common  to  the  colder  waters  of  Kurii|ie  and  America,  is 
often  eaten  in  the  Old  World.  The  severe  sickness  which 
sometimes  follows  its  use  may  Vje  the  reason  for  its  neglect 
in  .\inerica.  The  fresh-water  mussels  are  much  diflferent  in 
structure,  and  are  useless  as  a  foo.l-supply  fur  num. 

.J.  S.  KlXUSLEY. 

Miisset,  mH'sii',  Lons  Cuarlks  Alfred,  de  :  poet :  b.  in 
Paris,  Dec.  11,  ISIO ;  son  of  M.  de  .Alussel-I'athay.  editor  of 
an  esteemed  edition  of  .1.  .1.  Housseau.  He  was  educated  at 
the  I'ollege  Henri  IV.,  and  maintained  a  high  level  of  nurit. 
Flis  father  then  wisheil  him  to  study  law.  but  he  had  a  great 
repugnance  for  the  routine  o(  business,  shared  the  romantic 
excitement  that  was  then  reaching  its  height  in  the  world 
of  letters  and  art,  and  was  consumed  by  a  vague  literary 
ambition.  He  maile  a  pretense  of  studying  law  and  then 
tried  medicine,  but  founil  both  repidlent.and  for  two  or  three 
years  did  little  but  frequent  the  romantic  cinacle.  In  1829 
he  lioi'ame  for  a  short  time  a  clerk  in  a  business  house.  In 
the  beginning  of  \KM)  he  publisheil  his  first  volume  of 
poems,  Cvnten  d' Enpagne  el  tl'Ilolie.  which,  with  many  fea- 
tures of  romanticism,  showed  yet  an  independent  personal- 
ity. Ilis  independence  became  clearer  in  the  next  poems, 
forming  the  volume  I'n  spectacle  dant  itn  faiileiiil  {lS'.i'2). 
In  18:W  he  nuuh.'  the  acquaintance  of  (leorge  Sand,  and  the 
liais4^>u  that  fullowecl.  pjLssing  through  the  tempestuous  pas- 
sion of  their  journey  to  Italy  (1H:!4)  and  ending  with  a  series 
of  violent  ipiarri'ls  and  n'concilialions  (1834-:i.5),  was  the 
profoundest  experience  of  his  life,  and  left  its  traces  on 
most  of  his  works.  The  series  of  the  Nights,  his  master- 
pieces— Xiiil  de  iitiii  (lH:ir>),  A'hiV  de  deremhre  (183.5>,  A'hiV 
d'aitut  (WM).  Xiiil  d'orluhre  (lH:i7)— floweil  directly  from  it. 
and  the  latter  part  of  the  prose  story  ('i»ife:ttiiiiiiJi  d'lin  en- 
fimt  dit  sierle  (lS:iB)  is  the  narrative  of  it.  A  first  trial  of 
the  stage  with  the  conu'dy  l^ii  unit  renitienue  (IHHO)  was  a 
failure,  and  he  ceased  to  write  for  representation;  but  he 
continued  to  use  the  dramatic  form,  and.  free  from  all  con- 
cern for  the  denuinils  of  popular  Ijiste.  produced  the  his- 
torical tragedy  Lorrmnrcio  (is;{4).  and  a  series  of  slight 
but  original  CmnedieK  et  I'mverliex,  dialngues  full  of  airy 
fancy  aricl  sprightly  ami  ilelii'ale  wit.  with  love  for  their 
constant  theme:  l^es  mpricHS  de  Murinnnr  [\XVi\;  Fanta- 
sii>  {\XH) :  On  ne  bndiiie  pus  tivec  ramonr  (1S34) ;  Le  clian- 
delier  (IHIt."));  La  (/iienoiiille  de  liiirlmrine  (IHH.")) :  It  ne  fanl 
jurer  de  rien(\KV\)\  I'n  rii/irice  (ls:i7):  Jl  fniit  qu'iine porte 
soil  oiirerte  i>n  fermee  (IHih).  He  also  wrote  a  few  short 
.stories  of  fresh  and  simple  sentiment ;  the  l«'tter  known  are 
Fredi'ric  et  fierneretle  (lS;t8);  Marmot  (ISJJH) -.  Croisilles 
(IS;t'.l);  /■:ininelinr{\HM);  J/histoire  d'lin  merle  A/(irif  (lH-12): 
.Viwi  l'inx„n  ( IHI:!) ;  Le  secret  de  Jtirolte  {\><iA).  In  18:tS  he 
was  appointed  libnirian  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior, 
lie  lost  this  pi>silii>n  some  years  later,  and  in  IKW  was  ap- 
pointeil  libnirian  of  the  Department  of  I'ul)lie  Instruction. 
.\fter  INIO  he  wrote  very  little.  His  course  of  life  had 
wrecked  his  health,  and  he  aggravated  his  condition  by  the 


use  of  stimulants.  He  wa-s  elected  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy in  1852.  1).  May  2,  1857.  As  a  poet  his  power  is  es- 
sentially lyric.  His  range  is  narrow,  but  within  it  his  [xjwer 
is  such  that  he  is  ranked  with  Hugo  and  Lamartine  as  one 
of  the  first  three  French  poets  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
See  his  hiographie  by  Paul  de  Mussel  (I'aris,  1877;  Eug. 
trans,  by  Miss  H.  W.  I'reston,  Boston,  1887);  Arvede  Barine, 
Alfred  de  Mussel  (Paris,  WSi).  A.  G.  Ca.nfield. 

Mustang:  a  name  applied  to  the  small  wild  horses  of 
Texas  and  to  the  p<miesof  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  southwest 
of  the  U.  S.,  which  are  of  one  and  the  same  stock,  de- 
scended from  horses  of  Spanish  importution.  They  associ- 
ate in  large  trfx>ps.  are  caught  for  use  by  the  reata  or  lasso, 
and  are  easily  broken  to  the  saddle,  though  it  is  often  done 
in  a  very  imperfect  fashion.  They  are  hardy  and  spirited, 
but  often  very  fractious  unless  carefully  handled. 

Mnstapha:  name  of  four  Ottoman  sultans.  MfSTAPnx  I. 
(iei7,  1022-23),  b.  1591  ;  son  of  Mohammed  III. ;  was  an  im- 
becile, twice  deposed;  d.  1623.— Mistapha  11.(109.5-1703), 
b.  1664;  son  of  Mohammed  IV.,  was  an  able,  just, and  kindly 
prince  ;  umler  hiin  was  signe<l  the  disastrous  treaty  of  Car- 
lovitz,  which  sanctioned  the  first  dismemberment  of  the 
Ottoman  cm|)ire.  D.  1704,  one  year  after  deposition. — Mus- 
TAPHA  III.  (1757-74),  b.  1717;  son  of  Achmet  III.,  though 
intelligent  and  animated  by  high  purposes,  could  neither 
carry  out  intenial  reforms  nor  retard  the  decline  of  the  em- 
pire. D.  1774. — Mi'.sTAPnA  IV.  (1807-08),  b.  1779,  succeeded 
Selim  III.  An  opponent  of  reform,  he  owed  his  i)roraotion 
to  the  Janissaries,  and  was  deposed  and  strangled  the  fol-- 
lowing  year.  E.  A.  Grosve.nor. 

Mustard  [from  0.  Fr.  moustarde  >  Fr,  moularde  :  Ital. 
moslarda,  from  Lat.  vuistum,  must,  unfernicnted  grape- 
juice,  with  which  mustard  was  mixed  in  pre])aring  it  for 
use]:  the  seed  of  a  number  of  annual  plants  of  the  genus 
Brussica  (formerly  classed  as  Sinapis)  in  the  natural  order 
Cruciferce.  Black  mustard  is  the  seed  of  lirassica  nigra, 
and  white  that  of  li.  alba,  native  in  all  [larts  of  Europe, 
and  cultivated  in  gardens  in  the  L'.S.  Black-mustard  seeds 
are  small,  globular,  of  a  deep-brown  color  externally  and 
yellow  within.  The  while  are  larger,  and  of  a  light  color 
externally.  Flour  of  mustard  consists  of  a  mixture  of  the 
two  kinds  of  seeds,  ground  and  sifted.  As  sold,  it  is  gener- 
ally adulterated  with  wheat  Hour  and  turmeric.  Such  adul- 
teration is  infallibly  betrayed  by  the  presence  of  starch- 
grains,  which  are  absent  in  pure  mustard.  JIustard  flour  is 
a  popular  condiment,  and  was  known  to  the  ancients.  It 
has  also  medicinal  uses.  The  moistened  flour  applied  to  the 
skin  is  a  powerful  irritant  and  vesicant,  and  is  much  use<l 
as  a  counler-lrritiint  to  relieve  internal  pains  and  spasms. 
A  tablespoonful  diffused  in  a  tumbler  of  water  and  swal- 
lowed acts  as  a  prompt  non-nauseating  emetic,  often  con- 
venient in  cases  of  poisoning. 

Mustard  Family:  a  group  of  mostly  herbaceous  dico- 
tyledons ((.'nirifeni').  with  choripetalims,  cross-shaped  flow- 
ers having  usually  six  stamens  and  a  single  superior  bi- 
carpellary  ovary.  About  l.,")0()  species  are  known,  mostly 
natives  of  the  temiierate  regions  of  the  glol)e.  Most  of  the 
sj>ecies  possess  a  pungent  juice,  and  indeed  the  members  of 
tills  family  may  be  recognized  commonly  by  their  mustard- 
like  pungency.  Among  the  well-known  genera  are  liras- 
sica  (containing  cabbage,  turnip,  anil  mustanl),  liaplianus 
(radish),  C/ieirontliiis  (wall-flower),  7/f.</)eri;(  (rocket),  Jberit, 
Ali/ssum,  etc.  Mustard,  shepherd's-pui-se,  pepj)ergra.ss,  and 
false  lliix  are  troublesome  weeds.  C.  E.  B. 

Mustard  Oil :  a  suostancc  distilled  from  the  ri|io.seedsof 
the  black  mustard  {lirassica  nigra)  after  the  fixed  oil  has 
been  expressed.  It  Is  not  contained  in  the  dry  seed,  but  is 
formed  after  the  addition  of  water.  A  soluble  ferment, 
called  myrosln.  is  contained  in  the  seed  together  with  a  glu- 
coslde.  myronate  of  potassium.  When  the  ferment  Is  dis- 
solved in  water  It  acts  upon  the  glucoslde.  and  ileeom|K>scs 
it  into  glucose,  mustard  oil,  and  acid  potassium  sulphate,  as 
represented  in  the  equation  : 

Kr„Ti„\s,o„  =  ('.ii„o.  -f  r.ii.cxs  -i-  kiiso.. 

riitASKluni  myronate.  Gliiet>S4>.  Miii^tanl  otl. 
The  oil  is  extremely  pungi^nt.  and  when  applied  to  the  skin 
it  produces  n  blister.  Chemieally.  mustanl  oil  is  known  as 
ttllyl  i.sothiocvanate.  and  is  a  menii)erof  a  class  of  subst.'inces 
several  of  which  have  been  prepared  bv  artificial  methods 
and  have  ]iroperties  similar  to  those  of  ordinarv  iniislarxi 
oil.    This  also  has  been  made  artificittllv.       Ika  IjKMst.N. 


M 


MUSTELID^ 


MYELITIS 


Mustel'idiB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Muste'la,  the  typical 
genus,  from  Lat.  muste'la,  weasel,  a  dimin.  of  mus;  cf.  O. 
Fr.  miisteile] :  name  of  a  family  of  mammals  of  the  order 
Ferce  or  Carnivora,  comprising  many  species,  such  as  the 
weasels,  skunks,  badgers,  otters,  etc.  The  form  is  very 
variable  according  to  tlie  genus,  in  some,  such  as  the  small 
weasels,  the  trunk  being  very  mueli  elongated,  and  in  others, 
such  as  the  gluttons  and  badgers,  being  comparatively  con- 
centrated and  robust ;  the  teeth  are  adapted  to  a  purely  car- 
nivorous diet,  the  molars  of  the  upper  jaw  and  the  last  pre- 
molar of  the  upper  jaw  being  typically  sectorial,  or  adapted 
for  cutting.  The  true  molars  are  reduced  in  number  to  one 
above  and  two  (or,  as  in  Jlcllivura,  one)  below.  The  skull 
exhibits  many  characters  in  common ;  the  paroccipital 
process  is  closely  applied  to  tlie  auditory  bulla ;  the  mas- 
toid process  prominent,  and  projecting  outward  or  back- 
ward behind  the  external  auditory  meatus;  the  carotid 
canal  is  distinct,  and  more  or  less  in  ailvance  of  the  fora- 
men lacerum  posticum:  the  condyloid  foramen  is  distinct 
from  the  latter;  the  glenoid  foramen  is  generally  well  de- 
fined ;  the  intestinal  canal  has  no  CiEcum ;  the  prostate 
gland  is  not  salient,  being  contained  in  the  thickened  walls 
of  the  urethra ;  Cowper's  glands  are  not  developed  ;  the  os 
penis  is  large.  The  family  in  most  of  the  characters  thus 
referred  to  cxhiljits  decided  affinity  with  the  bears,  rac- 
coons, and  allied  forms,  and  not  at  all  with  the  cats  and 
dogs,  agreeing  with  tlie  last  simply  in  adaptation  for  car- 
nivorous diet.  It  contains  numerous  species,  which  have 
been  distributed  among  eight  sub-families — viz.,  (1)  Miis- 
teltnm,  including  the  genera  Mustela — i.  e.  the  large  wea- 
sels ;  Patoriiis — i.  e.  the  small  weasels ;  Galictus — i.  e.  the 
weasels  of  tropical  America ;  and  Gulo — i.  e.  the  gluttons 
or  carcajou  ;  (2)  Meliiue,  with  the  genera  Meles  and  Arcio- 
nyx,  or  Old  World  badgers ;  Mydons,  or  African  teledu,  and 
Taxidie,  or  American  badgers ;  (3)  MtllicoriiKt,  with  its  single 
genus,  Mdlivura — i.  e.  the  African  and  Indian  ratels  or 
honey-badgers ;  (4)  Mephitiiim,  or  the  American  skunks,  in- 
cluding the  genera  Mephitis,  Conepatus,  and  Spilogale;  (5) 
Ictonrjchinw ,  with  the  South  African  genus  Ictonyx  or 
Zoriila;  (6)  Helictidinm,  with  the  Asiatic  genus  Helictis; 
(7)  Lutrinm,  with  the  various  genera  of  fresh-water  otters  of 
all  parts  of  tlie  world ;  and  (8)  Enkydrinee,  with  the  genus 
Enhydris,  or  the  sea-otters  of  the  North  Pacific. 

Mut :  an  Egyptian  goddess ;  the  second  member  of  the 
Theban  triad  (Anion,  Mut,  and  Khonsu),  and  wife  of  Amon. 
She  symbolized  Nature  as  the  mother  of  all  things.  She  is 
represented  as  a  woman  with  a  vulture  head-dress,  the 
uraus,  and  the  double  crown  of  Egypt,  and  with  the  life- 
sign  in  her  right  hand.  -  C.  R.  G. 

Mutata:  See  Im.mutata. 

Mutation ;  See  Umlaut. 

Mutes  [from  Lat.  muta  plur.,  translation  of  Gr.  6.<p(iiva, 
sc.  ypdfifiaTo,  toneless;  d-,  not -I- <^cijin7,  tone.  The  (xreek 
grammarians  commonly  divided  the  letters  into  <pavriefTa. 
vowels,  and  ain<pa>va,  consonants,  and  the  latter  into  Tiid(paii/a. 
half-toned  (f,  |,  if,  \.  /i,  v.  p.  a),  and  aipai^a.  toneless  (;8,  y.  S,  k, 
IT,  T,  9,  (/>,  x)]  •  1  traditional  term  of  plionetics,  for  which 
modern  science  generally  substitutes  the  terra  explosives 
or  stops  (Germ.  Verschlusslaute  or  Explosivlaute).  These 
sounds  are  the  result  of  a  check  upon  the  breath  or  the 
breaking  of  a  check.  The  commonest  illustrations  are  k,  g, 
t,  d,  p,  b.    See  Phonetics.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Miltsu  Hito,  moot'soo  sh'to :  the  reigning  Mikado  or 
Emperor  of  Japan;  b.  Nov.  3,  1853;  ascended  the  throne 
Feb.  3, 1867.  Ilis  administration  is  notable  for  the  great  re- 
forms that  have  been  introduced  and  the  remarkalile  devel- 
opment of  the  empire.  The  official  designation  of  his  reign- 
period  is  Mei-ji  (pronounced  ma  jee'). 

Muttoii-I)ird :  a  popular  name,  used  in  Australia  and 
New  Zeahmd,  for  the  large  petrels  of  the  genus  CEstrelata, 
partieuhirly  for  (Estrelata  lesnoni. 

Mnt'tra:  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Northwestern 
Provinces ;  on  the  banks  of  the  Jumna  (see  map  of  N.  India, 
ref.  5-E).  It  is  built  on  high  and  hilly  ground,  with  mag- 
nificent flights  of  steps,  adorned  with  temples,  leading  down 
to  the  river,  which  is  kept  sacred  by  the  Hindus,  and  annu- 
ally attracts  vast  numbers  of  pilgrims.  The  enormous 
riches  which  the  town  formerly  contained  have  been  car- 
ried away  by  various  conquerors,  its  fortifications  have 
fallen  into  ruins,  .and  nothing  is  left  but  the  narrow,  dirty 
streets,  which  swarm  with  so-called  sacred  apes,  parrots,  pea- 
cocks, and  bulls.     Pop.  (18'J1)  61,195. 


MnzdknT&,  moo2h'a~ak-ov  iia,  Johanna:  Bohemian  novel- 
ist, better  known  by  her  pseudonym  Svetla  {g.  ik). 

Myc'ale  [=Lat.  =  Gr.  MukoAj;]  :  the  modern  Samsmn; 
the  westernmost  branch  of  Mt.  Mesogis,  in  Lydia,  Asia 
Minor,  terminating  in  the  promontory  called  Trogylium 
(now  Cape  Santa  Maria).  In  the  narrow  channel  between 
this  promontory  and  the  island  of  Sanios  the  Persian  fleet 
was  defeated  and  destroyed  by  the  Greeks  in  479  B.  c.  It  is 
probable  that  at  the  time  of  'the  battle  there  was  a  town — 
Mycale  or  Mycallessus — at  the  foot  of  the  promontory,  but 
no  certain  account  of  it  is  extant. 

Myce'nse,  or  Myce'ne  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  MvKrivai.  or  Mi/k^itj]  : 
one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Greece  ;  situated  on  a  rocky  emi- 
nence in  the  plain  of  Argos,  in  the  Peloponnesus.  It  was 
the  residence  of  the  Pelopids,  and  at  the  time  of  Agamem- 
non it  was  the  principal  city  of  Greece.  In  468  B.  c.  it  was 
totally  destroyed,  and  it  was  never  rebuilt,  but  the  remains 
of  it.  the  Cyclopean  walls,  the  gate  of  lions,  and  the  treasury 
of  Atreus,  are  among  the  grandest  and  most  interesting 
antiquities  in  Greece.  The  ruins  are  near  the  little  village 
of  Charvati,  5  miles  N.  E.  of  Argos.  The  excavations  of 
Schliemaim  in  1876  and  of  the  Greek  Archaeological  Society 
from  1886  to  1888  have  added  much  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  importance  of  Mycena?,  for  they  brought  vast  treasures 
to  light,  and  have  opened  up  an  entirely  new  chapter  in  the 
history  of  early  art.  See  Schuchhardt.  Schliemann's  Excava- 
tions (London,  1891);  Brunn,  Griechische  Kunstgesehichte 
(Municli,  1893) ;  Overbeek,  Geschichte  der  Griecliischen  Plas- 
tik  (Leipzig,  1893) :  CoUignon,  Ilistoire  de  la  Sculpture 
Grecque  (Paris,  1893);  Perrot  and  Chipiez, /fj's/otVe  deVArt 
dans  VAntiquite,  La  Greet  Primitive,  I'Art  Mycenien  (Paris, 
1893).  See  also  Milchhoefer,  Die  Anfdnge  der  Kunst  in 
Griechenland  (Leipzig,  1883) ;  Loeschcke  and  Furtwaengler, 
Mykenische  fasen.  (Berlin,  1886);  SteSen,  A'arfe7i  von  My- 
kenae  (Berlin,  1884).  J.  K.  S.  Sterrett. 

Mycerinos  (Egypt.  Menkara) :  the  Mechirinos  of  Diodo- 
rus ;  the  sixth  king  of  the  fourth  Egyptian  dynasty  ;  builder 
of  the  third  largest  pyramid  at  the  S.  W.  of  Gizeh".  In  1837 
Col.  Vyse  found  his  stone  sarcophagus  intact  and  also  some 
pieces  of  the  wooden  coffin  in  his  pyramid.  The  former  was 
lost  at  sea  off  Gibraltar.  The  inscriptions  of  tlie  latter  show 
a  definite  form  of  the  Egyptian  belief  in  a  future  existence. 
His  reputation  for  piety  was  enduring,  and  the  thirtieth  and 
sixty-fourth  chapters  of  the  Ritual  of  the  Dead  {q.  v.)  were 
said  to  have  been  discovered  during  his  reign,  being  then 
already  old.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Mycetozoa:  See  Slime  Moulds. 

Mycoderm :  See  Fermentation. 

Myeli'tls  [Mod.  Lat.  my'elon.  spinal  marrow,  spinal  cord 
(from  Gr.  iivt\6v,  earlier  fLue\6s.  marrow)  +  suffix  -Ms,  de- 
noting a  disease  of  the  part  to  whose  name  it  is  added] :  a 
common  nervous  disease.  Formerly  the  term  was  applied 
also  to  diseases  which  are  allied  but  now  easily  distinguish- 
able from  it  in  lite  and  post  mortem.  Myelitis  may  affect 
limited  or  extensive  portions  of  the  cord,  and  we  speak  of 
localized  and  diffuse  or  disseminated  myelitis.  The  gray 
matter  of  the  cord  alone  may  be  involved  (central  myelitis), 
or  only  the  cortical  white  substance  may  be  affected.  An 
interesting  form  is  that  in  which  a  transverse  section  of  the 
cord,  of  limited  extent,  upward  and  downward,  is  inflamed 
in  consequence  of  angulation  of  the  spinal  column  or  pres- 
sure from  some  other  cause.  This  is  known  as  transverse 
myelitis. 

The  causes  of  myelitis  are  varied.  Sometimes  it  results 
from  exposure  to  cold  or  from  over-exertion.  At  other  times 
it  seems  to  result  from  infectious  diseases,  from  injury,  or 
from  intemperance.  The  appearance  of  the  spinal  cord 
varies  widely  in  myelitis,  in  accordance  with  the  rapidity  of 
development.  In  very  acute  cases  and  in  those  in  which 
the  disease  results  from  pressure  on  some  part  of  the  cord, 
the  affected  area  is  softened  and  pulpy.  When  the  process 
is  more  gradual,  reparative  changes  take  place  at  the  same 
time  as  degeneration,  and  the  cord  may  be  gray  and  tough. 
Microscopically,  the  nerve-fibers  of  the  cord  are  found  in  a 
state  of  greater  or  less  degeneration,  and  there  is  an  evident 
attempt  at  repair  by  new  growth  of  fibrous  tissue,  as  in  de- 
structive diseases  of  other  organs. 

The  symptoms  manifested  in  myelitis  vary  somewhat  with 
its  rapidity  of  development  and  with  the  distribution  of  the 
inflammation.  Generally  mild  disturbances  of  .sensation  are 
the  initial  indications  of  spinal  irritation.     Among  these 


MYERS 


MYKIAPODA 


45 


sensory  symptoms  are  siieh  as  the  feeling  of  ants  crawling 
over  the  skin,  numbness  of  Iho  fwt,  u  woolly  fi^eling  in  the 
skin,  pricking  seiistitions,  licut,  cold,  uiid  tlie  like.  Soon 
after  this,  or  coiiiciilently,  power  fails  in  the  legs  Hn<l  tends 
to  grow  worse.  I'linilysis  (if  the  legs  is  kimwn  us  pariiple- 
gin,  and  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  is  due  to  myelitis. 
In  exceptional  instances  tlie  disease  in  the  conl  rises  so  high 
that  the  arms  may  be  involved  in  the  palsy,  but  more  gen- 
erally death  takes  place  when  the  u[iper  part  of  the  spinal 
cord  is  disejised,  befori!  the  distribution  of  the  paralysis  is 
defliied.  As  the  disease  advances,  suiuc  wasting  of  the  legs 
is  noted;  .sensjitii)n,  in  place  of  perversion,  becomes  be- 
numbed, and  there  may  be  complete  loss  of  feeling  in  the 
skin  iif  the  legs  and  body  to  the  level  of  the  disease.  Finally, 
beil-sores  are  apt  to  develop,  and  serious  disease  of  the  uri- 
nary bladder  and  kidneys  may  result  from  inability  to 
void  the  urine  properly. 

Jlyelitis  is  always  a  serious  disease,  very  acute  cases  tend- 
ing to  early  fatal  terniinatiiin,  and  <inly  in  its  milder  forms 
is  treatment  of  much  value  in  a  curative  sense.  Much  may 
be  done  ti>  prevent  unpleasant  or  dangerous  complications, 
but  ciimpleto  recovery  is  rare  even  in  mild  cases.  Abs<^lute 
physical  and  mental  rest  may  do  much  in  the  early  stages 
to  limit  the  disease.  Careful  diet  and  cleanliness  are  essen- 
tial, especially  the  latter.  Strict  attention  should  be  iiaid 
to  the  l)ed  and  to  bathing  the  jiatient's  back  to  prevent  bed- 
siires.  Certain  remedies,  like  ergot,  may  i>ceasi(inally  have 
value  at  the  onset  of  the  disease;  and  after  it  has  become 
established,  cool  bathing,  the  use  of  electricity  to  the  limbs, 
strychnia,  and  nitrate  of  silver  are  to  be  recommended. 

William  Pei-i'Er. 

Myers,  KKKntKic  William  IIe.nkv:  author;  b.  at  Vos- 
wiek,  England.  Feb.  6.  1H4;{;  was  educated  at  Cheltenham 
College  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  was  fellow  of 
Trinity  and  classical  lecturer  1865-08;  published  >S7.  Paul 
(l«)em,  IStJT) ;  Tim  Rmewiil  iif  Youth,  and  other  Poems 
(1882);  JC ■■<■•« I !/-i.  Modern  anil  ('tasnical  (1888);  Scienre  and 
a  Future  Uifr,  with  other  h'xxai/s  (lSi);j).  He  was  collabo- 
rator in  Prnreedinijs  of  the  Society  for  Pxi/chical  l{esearch 
(IHSi  iiinviinli  and  in  Phantoms  of  the  Living  (1886). 

J.  M.  Halowin. 

Mylinhut'idiv  [Mod.  Lat..  nained  fnun  Myllohatis,  the 
typical  genus,  liter.,  the  millstone  skate:  fir.  ^uA(m.  mill- 
stone (deriv.  of  niiKit.  mill)  -l-  /Saris,  a  Hat  fish,  named  from 
having  teeth  adapted  for  grinding] :  a  family  of  the  class  of 
selachians  and  order  Hokp,  or  rays;  rather  to  be  called 
Aelobatid(F,  as  Ai'tofiatia  is  an  older  name  for  the  genus 
often  called  MyliobaliK.  The  disk  formed  by  the  union  of 
the  peetonil  tins  with  the  body  is  very  broail.  by  reason  of 
the  lateral  extension  of  the  latter,  and  the  tail  is  very  long 
and  attenuated;  the  dorsal  fin  is  developed  near  its  root, 
and  behind  it  is  one  or  a  pair  of  spines  serrated  at  their 
lateral  edges;  the  pectoral  fins  are  atrophied  at  the  sides  of 
the  head,  but  at  the  extremity  of  the  snout  are  developed 
as  a  pair  of  detached  cephalic  fins;  the  skin  is  smooth  and 
destitute  of  spines;  the  head  quite  dei'p;  the  mouth  infe- 
rior and  transverse;  the  teeth  Inive  fiat  grinding  surfaces, 
and  are  c|nailrangular  or  hexangular.  and  in  one  or  several 
interliH-king  longitudinal  row.s.  The  family  is  divisible  into 
two  sub-families,  the  one  with  a  meilian  row  of  teeth,  be- 
sides several  lateral  rows,  which  alterimte  and  interlock 
with  the  adjoining  ones,  the  other,  with  the  teeth  broad 
and  in  a  single  row,  answi'riug  to  the  median  row  in  the 
former.  Several  species  are  found  on  the  coast  of  the  V.  S. 
t^n  the  eastern  const  the  Jihino/ttera  tifina.-ius  is  sometimes 
called  clam-era<ker,  sling-ray,  ami  eow-nose  ray:  the  Aeto- 
liati.H  frenieurillei,  sharp-nosed  ray;  an<l  the  .1.  ai/iiila  is  in 
Kn;;land  known  as  eagle-ray.       Heviseil  by  I).  .S.  .Iokuan. 

Mylit'tu  (fir.  MiJaitto):  a  godiless  worshiped  in  Jhibylon, 
.\ssyria,  and  Persia;  corresponding  in  sonu' respects  to  the 
(ireek  Aphrodite  Crania.  She  was  the  great  cr>sinic  prin- 
ciple, the  great  mother,  who  iiriHluceil  all  life  in  conjunction 
with  Hel  (or  Baal),  her  male  oounterpart.  .She  was  wor- 
shiped under  a  variety  of  names  in  .Asia,  and  in  (ireece  she 
was  known  now  as  Cybele  and  Ufiw  as  the  .\rtemis  (Diana) 
of  KphesMs.  ■  .1.  U.  .s.  .Stk.krett. 

.Myocanll'tis  :  See  Heart  Disease. 

Myo'piii  I  Mod.  I,at.,  from  (ir.  ^ii«+,  short-sighted,  liter., 
blinkini;  iheeyes;  ;«l«u<,  i-lose  -I- ili^i,  eye]:  sliorl-sightednes* 
due  to  exeessivc  convexity  of  the  cornea  or  to  convergence 
of  the  visual  axes  of  the  eyes.  The  defect  is  remedied  by 
concave  glass's. 


'iup'oda  [Gr.  fiiptoi,  ten  thousand  +  roit,  »o8<i,  frxit] : 
of  elongated  animals  with  homonomously  segment- 


Myriuji 

a  class 

cd  bodie-s.  Popidarly  they  arc  known  as  centipe<les7  milli- 
pedes, galley-worms,  and  army-worms.  In  structure  they 
show  considerable  similarity  to  the  socalled  Protracheata 
(Peripatu«)  and  some  of  the  annelid  worms  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  the  llexafioda  (see  KNTOMoLfHiV)  on  the  other.  At 
one  time  they  were  classed  with  the  Ilexapixla  under  the 
term //(.sec/a,  or  its  equivalent  Antennata.  and  at  another 
as  forming  a  distinct  class  by  themselves.  More  recent 
studies  have  shown 
that  half  (CliilopiMla) 
of  the  group  have  un- 
doubted lIexapo<Ian 
alii  nit  ies.  while  the 
other  half  (l)iplopoda) 
must  stand  by  itself, 
as  having  no  connec- 
tion with  the  llexa- 
podan  phylum.  Here- 
tofore the  two  groups 
have  been  kept  to- 
gether chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  the  common 
character  of  a  multi- 
segmented  and  many- 
legged  body.  This, 
however,  is  overbal- 
anced by  the  decided 
differences  in  the 
structure  of  the 
mouth -parts  and  in 
the  position  of  the 
sexual  organs,  which 
can  not  be  explained 
except  by  supposing 
an  independent  origin 
for  the  two  groups. 
All  previous  endeav- 
ors to  derive  one  group 
from  the  other  have 
been  based  on  an  ig- 
norance of  the  value 
of  these  differences, 
and  on  an  exaggerated  value  of  unimportant  similarities  or 
on  those  now  readily  explained  without  supposing  the  exist- 
ence of  a  genetic  relationship. 

In  both  groups  the  number  of  legs  varies  greatly.  Thus 
among  the  Diplopoda  I'auropus  has  9  pairs,  J'olyjrenus  15, 
llu>  J'ulyde.iniidie  have  28  to  31.  and  the  Polyzonidw  from 
06  to  1!IG  or  more.  Among  the  Chilopoila  the  niniiber  varies 
from  15  in  the  Sculigeridif  and  Lithobiido'  to  21  and  23  in 
ISrolopendridir  and  to  as  many  as  ITO  and  more  in  one  of 
the  tieophtlida.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  only  in  the  forms 
with  comparatively  few  legs  is  the  number  constant  for  the 
species.  In  one  of  the  common  species  of  Geophilus  {<r.  bi- 
miHclicevK)  adults  may  be  found  with  from  61  to  67  imirs  of 
legs.  Tliere  is  a  body  segment  for  every  pair  of  legs,  al- 
though in  the  Diplopoda  the  upper  half  of  the  segment  has 
become  .so  modiliid  that  tliere  are  apparently  two  pairs  of 
legs  to  a  .segniiiit.  Hence  the  name  Diplopoda.  In  each 
ring  either  the  doi'sid  portions  of  two  segments  have  grown 
together,  or  one  ha-s  covered  two  segments.  Then  this  has 
grown  downward,  crowding  the  bases  of  the  legs  together 
until,  in  many  instances,  there  is  s«'arcely  any  sternal  space 
between  theiii.  This  explanation  of  the  anomalous  double- 
footed  condition  is  based  u|K)n  a  comparison  with  the  fused 
segments  in  certain  Crustacea,  aial  upon  the  development 
of  the  youiii;  Diplopod. 

In  tile  number  and  chanicter  of  the  month-parts  real 
differences  occur.  While  the  number  of  oral  appendages 
in  the  Chilopoda  is  three,  which  bear  comparison  with  those 
of  llexafHMls  (sec  KNToMonxiV).  in  the  DiploiH>da  there  are 
only  two  pair.s.  a  pair  of  mandibles  and  a  large  plate-like 
lower  lip  (gnatlioehilarinni).  which,  ac<oriling  to  the  em- 
bryoKigieal  studies  of  .MetsehnikotT  ami  others,  is  developed 
from  a  pair  of  primitive  ap|iendages.  in  the  Chilopoila  the 
first  pair  of  legs  become  very  miii-h  enlarged,  and  lie  l)e- 
nenth  the  head  as  a  pair  of  priOiensorial  jaws.  In  the  termi- 
nal joint  of  the.se  is  a  iM)ison  gland,  which  opens  by  a  small 
pore  near  the  tip  of  the  terminal  joint. 

The  internal  anatomy  in  both  groups  is  primitive  in 
general  character.  The  alimentary  canal  runs  straight 
through  the  body  without  or  with  but  slight   dilTennliation 


Slyriapods :   A.  Scotoi>e»dra  (Chilopod) ; 

B,  luluji  ^Diplo[KKl). 


46 


MYRIAPODA 


MYRON 


into  regions  such  as  are  readily  observed  in  the  Hexapoda. 
The  Malpighian  tubules  are  two  in  number  in  all  excepting 
the  one  genus  Scutit/era,  in  which  there  are  four.  The 
nervous  system  consists  of  a  long  chain  of  ganglia,  one  to 
each  pair  of  legs,  and  a  sub-  and  a  supra-oesophageal  gan- 
glion. In  the  Diplopoda  the  two  strands  composing  the 
chain  are  completely  fused,  and  the  ganglionic  swellings 
are  very  slight.  The  respiratory  system  in  the  Chilopoda 
may  be  very  complex  from  the  interlacing  and  anastomos- 
ing of  the  tracheal  branches.  In  the  Diplopoda  no  such 
branching  occurs ;  the  trachese  arise  from  the  spiracles  near 
the  base  of  the  leg  and  run  into  the  body  as  simple  tubes. 
To  this  Glomeris  offers  the  only  exception,  but  even  here  the 
branching  is  very  simple.  Though  apparently  ventral  in  the 
Diplopoda,  the  spiracles  in  both  groups  are  on  the  side  of  the 
body,  excepting  in  the  genus  Scutigp.ra.  where  there  is  a 
row' of  spiracles  in  the  median  dorsal  line.  In  this  genus 
the  internal  structure  also  of  the  respiratory  apparatus  differs 
from  that  of  the  others.  The  spiracle  opens  into  a  small 
chamber  from  which  radiate  small  trache;^  branching  di- 
photomously  and  ending  bluntly  in  the  tissue  surrounding 
the  heart.  There  are  seven  of  these  organs,  each  situated 
on  the  posterior  margin  of  a  dorsal  shield.  In  other  forms 
of  the  Chilopod  group  the  spiracles  may  be  on  every  seg- 
ment except  the  last  two,  as  in  the  GeopMHdm.  or  on  ap- 
proximately every  otlier  one.  Thus  in  the  Scolopeiidridce 
and  the  genus  Lithobius  they  are  found  on  segments  3,  5,  8, 
10,  12,  etc..  while  in  the  genus  Henicops  the  arrangement  is 
the  same,  with  the  addition  of  a  pair  on  the  first  segment. 
The  reproductive  system  of  the  Diplopoda  is  in  marked  con- 
trast with  that  of  the  Chilopoda.  In  the  latter  the  ovaries 
and  testes  lie  above  the  intestine.  The  two  oviducts  pass 
along  the  sides  of  the  intestine,  unite  under  it,  and  open  by 
asingle  opening  in  the  penultimate  segment.  In  the  Diplop- 
oda the  genital  glands  lie  underneath  the  intestine,  and  open 
by  two  short  ducts  in  the  third  body  segment  or  between 
the  second  and  third  pairs  of  legs.  In  both  groups  so-called 
salivary  glands  occur.  In  the  Chilopoda  tliese  are  short 
and  racemose ;  in  the  Diplopoda  they  consist  of  two  pairs  of 
elongated  simple  tubes.  These  are  so  fused  together  as  to 
appear  like  two  elongated  threads,  one  on  either  side  of  the 
intestine,  comparable  to  the  spinning  glands  of  Lepidop- 
terous  larviP,  or  to  the  slime-glands  of  Peripatus.  Protec- 
tive dermal  or  repugnatorial  glands  occur  in  both  groups. 
On  the  majority  of  the  rings  in  the  Diplopoda  there  is  a  pair 
of  repugnatorial  pores,  secreting  a  fluid  with  the  odor  of 
crushed  almonds,  due  to  the  presence  of  hydrocyanic  acid. 
In  the  Oeophilidm  numerous  pores  are  gathered  into  areas 
on  each  sternum.  Besides  these  small  pores  there  may  be 
large  ones  on  the  cox*  of  the  penultimate  segment,  or  on 
the  anal  segment.  In  the  Lithobiidie  they  occur  on  the 
underside  of  the  cox*  of  the  last  four  pairs  of  legs.  In  some 
cases,  as  in  one  of  the  Polydesmidce  and  several  of  the  (ieo- 
philidte.  the  animals  are  phosphorescent.  In  the  former  fam- 
ily the  phosphorescence  is  plainly  due  to  the  action  of  the 
repugnatorial  glands,  but  in  the  GeophiUdm  oljservers  differ 
as  to  whether  it  is  produced  by  the  ventral  pores  or  in  the 
intestinal  region,  bensory  organs  are  more  or  less  devel- 
oped. The  eyes,  where  present,  consist  of  simple  ocelli,  in 
numbers  ranging  from  a  single  pair  in  one  of  the  Litlio- 
biidm  to  very  many  in  Scutigera.  In  Scuflgera  the  ocelli 
are  so  numerous  as  to  form  a  compound  eye,  comparable 
with  that  of  Ilexapods.  The  Palyde.sw  idie  and  some  others 
among  the  Diplopoda,  and  the  Geop/ii/idte  and  some  of  the 
Scolnpendridm  among  the  Chilopoda,  are  without  eyes.  At 
the  end  of  the  terminal  joint  of  the  antenna  of  Diplopods 
are  several  two-jointed  processes  that  are  undoubtedly  tac- 
tile in  function,  and  may  also  be  used  as  organs  of  smell. 
In  Sphcerotheriii)7i,  of  the  same  group,  a  stridulating  appa- 
ratus occurs.  This  argues  the  presence  of  auditory  organs. 
The  eggs  of  the  animals  are  laid  in  the  ground,  usually 
in  nests.  In  the  case  of  Lithobius  they  are  laid  singly. 
Sometimes  the  eggs  and  newly  hatched  young  are  guarded 
by  the  mother,  as  was  observed  with  Geophilus  ferrugino- 
SU.1  by  Fabre  and  others,  and  with  Scolopocryp/nps  by 
Wood.  Scoliipendra  is  said  to  be  ovoviviparous.  The  eggs 
undergo  total  segmentation,  and  during  dcvelripment  show 
similarities  to  the  eggs  of  Peripatus  and  to  those  of  Hexa- 
poda. Very  much  yet  remains  to  be  learned  in  regard  to 
the  early  .stages  of  growth.  The  Diplopod  young  escapes 
from  the  egg  with  few  body  segments  and  only  three  pairs 
of  legs,  a  fact  that  has  been  regarded  as  proving  their 
affinities  with  the  Hexapoda.  and  as  showing  them  to  be 
the  antecedents  of  the  Chilopoda.     The  larva  undergoes  a 


series  of  moultings,  more  segments  and  more  legs  being 
added  with  eacli  moult  until  the  adult  condition  is  reached. 
Among  the  Chilopoda  there  are  two  distinct  divisions  to  be 
noted.  In  one.  the  Epimorjilui,  the  young  hatch  from  the 
egg  with  the  adult  number  of  segments  and  legs,  while  in 
the  other,  the  Anormorp/ia.  the  young  have  at  first  only 
seven  pairs  of  completely  developed  legs  and  three  pairs  of 
leg  buds.  With  successive  moultings  new  segments  and  new 
legs  are  added  until  the  adult  numljer  of  fifteen  is  reached. 

The  distribution  of  the  Jlyriapoda  is  worldwide,  a  fact 
that  indicates  an  early  origin.  The  Chilopoda  are  not,  how- 
ever, found  earlier  than  the  Tertiary  period,  unless  the  Pro- 
tosygnatha  of  Scudder  be  admitted  as  a  primitive  Chilopod, 
which  is  extremely  doubtful.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Archi- 
jjolyijoda,  apparently  the  [jrecursors  of  the  Di]:>lopods,  are 
found  as  far  back  as  Devonian  times.  Of  the  Protosyg- 
natha,  the  only  form,  Paleocamjm  anthrax,  found  by  Meek 
and  Morthen  in  the  carboniferous  formation  at  Mason 
Creek,  Illinois,  has  ten  body  segments  and  two  rows  of 
spreading  fascicles  of  needle-like  spines.  These  give  it  the 
appearance  of  a  cater|ullar,  and  as  such  it  has  been  de- 
scribed. If  it  is  at  all  related  to  the  Myriapods,  it  is  more 
likely  to  Polyxenus  of  the  Diplopoda  than  to  any  of  the 
Chilopoda.  Concerning  the  relationships  of  the  Arehi- 
polypoda  there  is  less  doubt.  The  Euplturberidm,  occurring 
in  the  same  beds  as  PaJeocampa.  are  peculiar  from  the  large 
spines  on  the  back  and  sides,  and  for  certain  openings  oc- 
curring in  each  segment  between  the  bases  of  the  legs. 
The  former  occur  in  some  of  the  Diplopoda,  but  the  mean- 
ing of  the  latter  is  an  unsolved  problem.  Chief  among 
works  on  Myriapoda  are  Latzel's  Die  Myriapoden  der 
Oesterreichisch-lngarischen  3Ioiiarchie.  containing  a  full 
bibliography,  and  the  embryological  works  of  Metschnikoff, 
Sograff,  and  Ileathcote.  For  American  forms,  see  Boll- 
man's  Jlyriapnds  of  America  (1893).  F.  C.  Kenygn. 

Myris'tica,  or  Nutiiieg :  the  kernel  of  the  seed  of  a  tree 
about  30  feet  in  height,  closely  resembling  the  orange-tree; 
a  native  of  the  Banda  islands  and  some  neighboring  islands. 
Its  scientific  name  is  3Iyristica  fragrans.  It  does  not 
flower  until  the  eighth  or  ninth  year,  but  after  this  time  it 
bears  flowers  and  fruit  together  constantly,  and  continues 
to  do  so  for  many  years.  In  order  to  insure  early  fruitful- 
ness  a  branch  of  the  female  tree  is  grafted  into  all  the  young 
plants  when  about  two  years  old.  Sometimes  as  much  as 
three  crops  are  gathered  annually.  JIace  is  the  inside 
covering  of  the  nutmeg.  Upward  of  1,.500,000  lb.  of  nut- 
megs are  imported  into  the  U.  S.  yearly.  Nutmeg  is  used 
in  medicine  as  a  nervous  sedative,  and  mace  is  sometimes 
employed  as  its  substitute.  H.  A.  Hake. 

Myrmeleon :  See  Ant-lion. 

Myrmid'oiies  (in  Gr.  HlvpiuUv^s) :  the  followers  of 
Achilles  in  the  campaign  against  Troy.  They  came  origi- 
nally from  yEgina,  and  received  their  name  from  jiip/inKts, 
ants,  because  Zeus,  at  the  request  of  jEacus  during  a  plague, 
changed  all  the  ants  of  the  island  into  men.  and  thus  peopled 
it.     Pcleus  led  them  into  Thessaly,  where  they  settled. 

Myroli'alan  [viii  Fr.  from  Lat.  myroba'lannm,  from  Gr. 
livpo^aKafos :  fivpov,  unguent,  fragrant  juice  +  ^iKavos,  acorn] : 
a  drug  formerly  much  used  in  medicine  as  an  astringent, 
and  now  used  by  tanners,  dyers,  and  ink-makers  for  the  tan- 
nic acid  it  contains.  Myrobalans,  sometimes  called  white 
galls,  are  the  fruit  of  East  Indian  trees  (Terminalia  belli- 
rica  and  T.  chebula,  of  the  order  Combretacece),  of  a  euphor- 
biaceous  plant  (PhyUanthus  einli/iea),  and  of  other  trees  of 
tropical  regions. 

My'ron  (in  Gr.  Mipuv) :  a  sculptor:  b.  at  Elenthera>,  in 
Attica,  who  flourished  aliout  4(i()  B.  r.  lie  wiis  a  pupil  of 
Ageladas,  as  were  Phidias  and  Polyclitus.  He  worked  al- 
most exclusively  in  bronze,  in  which  he  cast  a  great  number 
of  statues  both  of  gods,  men,  and  animals.  Among  liis 
statues  of  gods  his  Hecate  (in  wood),  two  Apollos,  a  Diony- 
sus, a  group  consisting  of  Zens,  Athene,  and  Heracles,  and 
a  group  of  Athene  and  Marsyas  were  celebrated.  Several 
imitations  of  the  last  group  are  known — on  Athenian  coins, 
on  an  Attic  vase  now  in  Berlin,  and  on  a  marlile  relief  now 
in  Athens.  An  ailmiralile  copy  in  marble  of  the  Marsyas  of 
this  group  is  now  in  the  Latiran  Museum  in  Rome.  (See 
von  Svbel.  A/AcMf  iind  Jfar.<ti/as  (JIartiurg..l8T0);  Hirsch- 
feld.  Athene  mid  JIarsya.t  (Berlin,  1872).)  "Of  his  statues  of 
mortals  that  of  the  runner  Ladas  and  the  Visrobolos  were 
most  celebrated.  The  best  account  of  Myron  and  his  works 
is  found  in  CoUignon's,  Ilistoire  de  la  Sculpture  Grecgue 
(Paris,  1892).  J.  R.  S.  S. 


MYKOSIN 


MYSTICISM 


Myrosin :  See  Fermkntatid:?. 

Myrrh  [n-adapteJ  to  Lutin  orthopraphy  <  O.  Eng. 
myrr<i,  from  Lat.  myr' r/ia  =  lir.  fivpjm,  from  Arab,  niurr, 
myrrh,  liti-r..  bitter] :  tin-  coiicri'to  juice  of  one  or  more  trees, 
sriioiij^  them  a  small  tree  {('oiiimi/jhuni  murrha)  Krowiiig  in 
Arabia.  .Myrrh  is  ex|"irte(l  from  the  Kast  Inilies  in  the 
form  of  redilish-brown,  brittle,  resinous  himiis,  of  a  fra{;rant 
odor  and  bitter,  aromatic  taste,  its  principal  constituents 
are  a  gum  and  a  resin.  (See  lii'M  Kesi.ns.)  Myrrh  has  been 
known  from  the  carlie.st  ages,  being  used  a-s  a  constituent  of 
incenses,  perfumes,  and  salves.  Taken  internally,  myrrh 
resembles  other  ncriil  resinous  substances  in  tending  to  cor- 
rect a  feeble,  rehixeil  condition  of  the  mucous  membranes, 
and  in  small  doses  |iri>motes  digestion  and  ipiickens  the  ac- 
tion of  the  heart.  It  is  very  little  used  as  an  internal  medi- 
cine in  the  I'.  S.  Locally,  an  emulsion  of  myrrh  makes  an 
agreeable  mouth-wash  for  spongy  gums  and  sore  throat  and 
dres-sing  for  indolent  ulcers.  Kdwaru  1,'urtis. 

Myrta'cPie  [Moil.  I,at.,  named  from  Mi/rlus.  the  typical 
Kenu.s  =  Iwtt.  myr  tus  =  itv.  nvpros.  from  I'ei-s.  m Tint,  myrtle. 
Cf.  Myrkmj:  an  important  natural  family  of  dicotyledonous 
trees  and  shrubs,  of  tropical  and  warm  temiieratc  regions, 
with  the  entire  leaves  dotted  with  pelhuiil  glands,  contain- 
ing an  aromatic  oil,  no  stipules,  mostly  numerous  stamens, 
and  an  inferior  compound  ovary  surmounted  by  a  single 
style.  Nine  species,  belonging  to  the  genera  Calyptriinlliea, 
Eugenia,  and  Psidiiim  occur  in  the  extrenu-  Soulliern  L'.  S. 
A  |)cculiar  portion  of  the  family,  embracing  a  majority  of 
the  species,  is  Australian,  conspicuous  among  which  is  the 
genus  KfCALVPTi's  {q.  v.).  Within  the  tropics  the  fleshy  or 
oerry-fniiled  genera  prevail.  The  family  is  important  for 
its  useful  products,  such  as  C'lovks  ami  .U.i.spuii,  Guavas 
and  KuoKXiA,  (.'ajii'IT  iiil.  and  Brazil-mts  (</</.  v.).  Be- 
sides the  common  myrtle,  callistemous  and  several  Austral- 
ian shrubs  and  small  trees  are  cultivated  for  ornament. 

Myrtle  (from  O.  Kr.  inirlit,  dimin.  of  inyrle  <  Lat.  myr- 
/m.s,  myrtle.  .See  .Mvktaie.kj  :  [Hipular  name  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  mostly  tropical  and  evergreen,  belonging  to  the 
genus  Myrlun.  None  are  indigenous  to  North  America. 
The  common  Kuropean  m\Tt\i.'  {Myrfiis  comnnniin)  is  a  fine 
aromatic  shrub  whose  berries  vield  a  pleasant  cordial.  The 
leaves  produce  an  aromatic  oil,  and  water  distilled  with  the 
flowers  is  the  agreeable  perfume  known  in  France  as  emi 
d'ange.  S»?veral  tropical  species  are  cultivated.  The  name 
is  [H>pularly  but  incorrectly  extended  to  other  evergreen 
shrubs.     For  Dutch  myrtle,  see  Gale. 

Mvs'ia  (in  Gr.  yivala) :  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  border- 
ing N.  on  the  Itellespont  and  Propontis.  W.  on  the  .J^gean 
Sea,  S.  by  Lydia,  K.  by  Phrygia  and  Hithynia.  It  was  sub- 
divided into  five  territories — Lesser  Mysia,  Greater  Mysia, 
Troas,  ^Koli.s,  and  Teulhrania.  Among  its  mountains  was 
Ida ;  among  its  rivers,  the  Scamander,  Simois,  and  tiranicus; 
among  its  cities  Troy.  J.  H.  S.  S. 

Mysore,  mi-sor':  an  independent  state  of  India  under 
British  protectorate;  between  lat.  11°  35'  and  1.5"  N.,  and 
between  Ion.  74'  4-'>  anil  7H'  4')'  K. ;  bounded  on  all  sides  by 
the  territorv  of  the  Presidency  of  Madras.  Area,  ;50,H80  sri, 
miles.  Poii.  (181)1)  •»,!M:(,«04.  It  is  an  elevated  table-land, 
rich  in  gold  mines  and  salt,  and  producing,  l)esides  the  com- 
mon Indian  grains,  pepper,  carilamoms,  cinnamon,  and  cof- 
fee:  water  is  often  very  si'aree,  and  the  country  is  infested 
with  tigers  atui  leopards.     The  reigning  family  is  Hindu. 

.Mysore:  the  capital  of  the  principalitv  of  Mvsore  ;  in  lat. 
12  lU  N.  and  Ion.  T<!  42  K. ;  at  an  elevation 'of  2.:t:«)  feet 
al«>ve  the  sea;  10  miles  .S.  W.  of  Seringa|>atam,  the  former 
capital  (see  nuip  of  .S.  India,  ref.  t}-I)).  It  is  fortified,  and 
contains  the  palace  of  the  rajah  and  the  residence  of  the 
British  governor.  Its  splendid  aqueduct  has  now  fallen  into 
ruins,  ami  great  trouble  is  often  caus<'il  by  lack  of  drinking- 
water,    t'arpets  are  nninufactured  here.    Pop.  (1H!I1)  74,048. 

Mysteries  (in  Gr.  Mwr-fipia) :  the  .secret  worships  of  va- 
rious god-;,  to  which  line  might  Ih'  admitted  only  after  hav- 
ing piu-si'd  I'lrlain  purifying  initiatory  trials  or  degri^es  that 
varied  in  number  in  ililTerent  Mysteries.  In  addition  to 
what  was  universally  known  about  any  goil,  there  were  also 
certain  secret  fads  and  tenets  of  such  a  character  that  they 
might  be  divulged  to  the  initialed  alone.  The  character  of 
these  tenets  varied  according  to  the  god  honored  in  the 
Mysteries,  but  they  can  only  bo  guessed  at,  inasmuch  as 
everything  I'onneited  with  the  Mysteries  was  kept  si-cret. 
A  idew  to  the  general  c-haracliT  of  Mysti'ries  is  given  by 
Plato  {/{i/i.  2.:!7><),  who  tells  us  that  whatever  is  vicious,  im- 


moral, or  disgraceful  in  the  stories  about  the  gods  ought 
either  to  be  buried  in  silence  or  else  Ik*  told  oidy  in  ins- 
teries,  from  which  the  mob  nnist  be  exdudcil  by  making  the 
sjicrifice  of  a  huge  and  unprocurable  victim  the  condition 
of  initiation.  The  Mysteries  had  their  origin  in  the  wor- 
ship of  the  powers  of  nature,  as  seen  in  the  contrasts  of 
spring  and  winter,  sc-ed-time  and  harvest,  the  budding  of 
new  life  from  the  rotting  of  the  seed.  Life  springing  from 
death  in  nature  were  contrasts  in  which  the  devout  sjiw  a 
bit  of  the  history  of  the  human  S4jul.  The  myth  of  Per- 
sephone embodied  the  principle  of  life  succeeding  death,  so 
that  .Mysteries  were  naturally  held  in  honor  of  Demeter  and 
her  daughter.  .Just  ils  new  life  sprang  from  the  death  of 
the  seed,  so  new  life  must  al.so  spring  from  the  death  of  the 
human  body,  aiul  hence  the  doctrines  of  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  and  of  retribution  after  death  were  added  at  an 
early  time  to  the  doctrines  taught  in  the  Mysteries.  Mys- 
teries were  held  in  honor  of  Demeter  ami  Persephone  at 
Kleusis,  of  the  C'abiri  in  .Samothrace,  of  Zeus  in  Crete,  and 
at  numv  places  in  honor  of  Dionysus,  Cylule.  Hecate.  Aph- 
ro<lite,  Mithras.  (Iipheus.  Isis,  Zagreus  and  Sabazius.  Spe- 
cialized information  will  be  found  under  Eleisixiax  Mys- 
teries. See  also  Stengel,  (rriecliisehe  Kulfusullcrthumer 
(Munich,  18i)0);  Stnibe,  Stitdien  Sber  ilen  liildnkreiK  von 
Eleusis  (Leipzig,  1872):  Fdi-ster.  Der  liaub  und  die  Ruck- 
kehr  der  Persephone  (Stuttgart,  1874);  Ilaggenmacher,  Die 
Eleusinischen  MyMerien  (Basel,  1880) ;  Nebe,  l)e  nii/Klerio- 
rnm  Eleuninionini  tempore  (llallc,  ]88()) ;  Rubensolni,  i>ie 
Jlyslerienlieiliyl/tiimer  in  E/eiiKis  und  SamoDiruke.  (Berlin, 
1892) ;  Gardner's  article  Eleuiiis  and  llie  J/ysteries  in  his 
yew  Chapters  in  Greek  History  (London,  18!)2). 

.1.  H.  S.  Stkrrett. 
Mysteries:  See  Mirailk-i-lays. 

Mysticism  [from  Gr.  fuiariifis,  secret,  mystic,  deriv.  of 
fjivirrns,  one  initiated,  deriv.  of  fxiety,  close  (the  lips  or  eves) ; 
cf.  ^i«TT7)piov.  secret  rile,  mystery]:  a  term  covering  differ- 
ent notions  (1)  in  ceremonial  worship,  (2)  in  religion,  and  (8) 
in  philosophy. 

(1)  In  worship,  mysticism  denotes  the  performance  of  cer- 
tain rites  or  my.sleries  symbolizing  and.  at  the  same  time, 
tending  to  establish  certain  iiieffatilc  relations  between  God 
(or  the  gods)  and  man.  It  is  common  to  nearly  all  forms  of 
worship  save  the  most  spiritual,  is  closely  connected  with 
theurgy  and  Magic  (</.  v.),  ami  frequently  produces  enthu- 
siasm or  Ecstasy  (</.  r.)  in  the  worshiiier.  In  Greece,  this 
mysticism,  which  is  later  than  Homer,  was  confined,  for  the 
most  part,  to  the  worship  of  the  gods  of  the  earth  and  the 
underworld  (deal  x*''""")-  C'onsult  lamblichus.  I)e  Myste- 
riis;  lMhw\i,  Aglaophamiis  \  Seemann.  Die  Onlter  und  lle- 
roen  der  Grieclien,  y\'.  425,  si/(/.:  Halch. //iA4f;7  Lectures 
for  ISSS,  lect.  X.;  Kobertson  .Smith,  7i'(7i'/7 ioh  of  the  Sem- 
ites, lect.  X.;  Lenormant,  Vhaldaan  Magic  (London.  1877). 

(2)  Religious  mysticism  grows  out  o/the  enthusiastic  or 
ecstatic  element  in  ceremonial  worship,  and  occurs  in  many 
religions.  It  is  an  attempt  to  enter  into  direct  commu- 
nion or  union  with  the  divine  through  («)  some  abnormal 
jisvchical  condition  or  (J)  some  faculty  of  the  mind  other 
thiin  reason.     It  therefore  assumes  many  dilTerent  forms. 

(a)  The  re(|uisile  abnormal  condition  may  be  produced  by 
various  causes,  by  drugs  (homa-juice,  hashish,  wine,  etc.), 
self-hypnotism,  asceticism,  mental  aliemili<m.  hysteria. obses- 
sion, (?)  etc.  To  such  causes  as  these  we  must  attribute  the 
frenzy  of  the  Corybantes  and  Hacchaiials,  the  "inspiration" 
of  the  Pytiiia  ((/.  r.)  ami  oracle-givers  generally,  the  dreams 
of  the  SfFis  (q.  r.).  the  jii'rformances  of  magiaiis.  dervishes, 
and  yogis,  very  many  ol^  the  phenomena  of  media'val  Chris- 
tian anil  Moslem  mysticism  and  modern  Spiritualism,  etc. 
Upon  all  these  light  is  being  thrown  by  psychiatry  and  psy- 
chical research.  Consult  Cicero,  Dr  IHrinalioiir;  .Mvers, 
Greek  Oracles  in  Ileltenica:  Baiimgart,  ..i'/inji  Ari.slldea; 
Giirres,  Chrislliche  Myslik  (5  vols.);  Gobineaii,  I.es  h'eli- 
gionK  rl  les  PItilosophies  de  V Asie  Centrale,  vhiw.  iv. ;  Fitz- 
gerald. The  liiitiaiydt  of  Omar  Khayyam;  Pri'ger.  Dit 
deutsrhe  Mi/slik.  vol.  i.,  pp.  1:(-I4I. 

(A)  The  ^icullies.  other  than  the  reason,  by  which  men 
have  sought  to  come  into  pos,sessioii  of  tlie  divine  are  (o) 
feeling,  (fl)  the  supernatund  sense,  (o)  Some  jnTsons,  like 
Max  MlUler  (l.eclurm  on  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  litlig- 
ion.  p.  M").  hold  that  we  actually  fii-l  the  Infinite  with  our 
luKlily  sens«'s;  but  generally  the  theopathic  .sense  is  held  to 
be  a   kind  of  emnlion.  voliipte,  or  pa.ssive  love  (.1/ih'k).  im- 

ttartiiig  blesseihiess  (supposed  lo  1m»  a  consciousness  of  (ifxi), 
)Ut  no  definite  conception.     This  mysticism,  which  usually 


48 


MYSTICISM 


leads  to  Quietism  (q.v.),  belongs  almost  exclusively  to  Chris- 
tianity and  to  monastioisin.  It  seems  to  have  originated  in 
the  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  begun 
by  the  Jewish  doctors,  and  continued  among  Christians 
from  the  days  of  Origen  onward.  Indeed,  Origen  may  be 
called  the  founder  of  this  species  of  mysticism  (see  Bigg, 
The  Christian  Plalonints  of  Alexandria,  p.  188,  seg.),  wliich 
appears  in  every  age  of  the  Church  after  him,  assuming 
sometimes  revolting  forms,  sometimes,  when  combined  with 
the  higher  mysticism,  forms  of  great  purity  and  beauty,  as, 
e.  g.,  in  Bernard  of  Clairvaux's  eighty-six  sermons  on  the 
Song  of  Solomon.  It  forms  a  large  element  in  the  mysti- 
cism not  only  of  Bernard,  but  also  of  all  the  greater  mys- 
tics— e.  g.  Francis  of  Assisi,  Hugo  and  Richard  of  St.  Vic- 
tor, Joachim  of  Floris,  Eckhart,  Suso,  Thomas  Aquinas, 
Bonaventura,  Dante,  de  Gerson,  Catherine  of  Siena,  Thomas  a 
Kempis.  Angelus  Silesius,  Molinos,  Fenelon,  Madame  Guyon, 
etc.  Consult  the  works  of  these,  also  of  Preger  and  Gorres, 
ut  sup.)  The  forms  of  mysticism  thus  far  named  may  all 
be  regarded  as  more  or  less  material,  morbid,  and  false. 
We  now  approach  the  spiritual,  healthy,  and  true  form, 
that  which  has  its  origin  in  the  supernatural  sense.  {$)  It 
is  difficult  to  define  this  sense  otherwise  than  by  saying  that 
it  is  the  faculty  which  relates  us  to  the  spiritual  world,  as 
our  bodily  senses  relate  us  to  the  material  world,  and  en- 
ables us  to  recognize  God  as  the  Father  of  Spirits.  It  has  been 
culled  by  many  other  names,  e.  g.  inspiration  (Job  xxxii.  8), 
Word  of  God,  Word  (first  by  Heraclitus),  faith  (first  by  Par- 
menidcs),  synderesis  ((rvyrripricns.  first  by  Jerome,  in  com- 
menting on  Ezekiel  i.).  spiritual  sense,  theory  (Aristotle, 
Metaph.,  xi.,  7),  practical  reason  (Kant),  wisdom  (Tennyson, 
In  Memoriam,  cxiv. ;  cf.  xev.),  etc.  It  is,  as  it  were,  the  con- 
vergence and  apex  (apex  mentis,  Bonaventura)  of  all  the  fac- 
ulties of  the  soul,  including  perception,  will,  love,  or,  in 
Paul's  language,  faith,  hope,  love.  When  strongly  marked, 
it  makes  the  prophet  or  the  religious  genius,  and  all  such 
are  necessarily  mystics — Zoroaster,  Moses  and  the  He- 
brew 7iebi'i)n,  Jesus  (supremely),  Mohammed  (slightly — the 
Buddha  not  at  all),  Heraclitus,  ^-Esehylus,  Socrates  (with 
his  dmmon),  the  Christian  apostles,  several  of  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonists.  Christian  and  heathen,  Augustine,  the  great  mystics 
of  the  Middle  Age  (see  under  a),  Luther,  and  many  more. 
Indeed  all  persons  for  whom  religion  is  a  matter  of  personal 
experience,  something  more  than  an  ethical  code,  an  histor- 
ical belief,  or  a  system  of  observances,  are  mystics.  Mys- 
ticism of  this  kind  is  the  very  essence  of  religion,  the  spring 
of  all  healthy,  rational,  human  energy.  Consult  the 
Odthas  of  Zoroaster,  in  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vol.  xxxi. ; 
the  Bible,  the  Fathers  of  the  Church;  Lane-Poole,  The 
Speeches  and  Table-talk  of  Mohammed;  the  works  named 
under  (a);  Spickcr,  Die  Ursachen  des  Verfalls  der  Philo- 
sophie  in  alter  und  nener  Zeit ;  Brother  Azarias,  Tlie  Cul- 
ture of  the  Spiritual  Sense,  in  Phases  of  Thought  and  Criti- 
cism; Vaughan, //(»(/-.s  leilh  the  Mi/stics;  Rosmini,  .iIh/to- 
pologia  Soprannaturale  and  Teosojia;  Gioberti,  Teorica  del 
Soprannaturale. 

(3)  Philosophic  mysticism  seeks  either  (a)  to  grasp  the 
divine  by  means  of  the  reason  (dialectic),  or  else  (J)  to  draw 
out  in  terms  of  the  reason  the  data  of  the  faculty  by  which 
it  is  grasped.  The  former  is  pantheistic  or  panlogistic,  the 
latter  theistic.  (a)  Pantheistic  mysticism,  proceeding  by 
abstraction,  reaches  at  last  the  universal  predicate.  Being, 
which  it  then  assumes  to  be  the  real  ground  of  the  uni- 
verse, God,  and,  reversing  the  process  of  abstraction,  tries 
to  deduce  the  universe  from  him.  It  involves  a  complete 
confusion  of  the  ideal  with  the  real,  of  human  thinking 
with  the  process  of  existence,  and  always  finds  its  goal  in 
darkness,  self-annihilation,  nirvana.  Since  abstract  Being 
is  equal  to  naught,  and  as  cc  nihilo  nihil  fit,  no  other  logical 
result  is  possible.  Of  this  sort  is  all  Brahmanic,  Buddhis- 
tic, Neo-Platonic,  Moslem,  Jewish,  and  much  Christian 
my.sticism.  It  finds  its  classical  expression  in  the  philos- 
ophy of  Ilegel,  which  is  rightly  called  Panlogism.  In  the 
western  world,  this  kind  of  mysticism  seems  to  owe  its 
origin  to  Parmenidcs,  who  identified  being  and  thinking  (rb 
■yap  auTh  voiiv  io-riv  tc  koI  iivai).  and  placed  being  in  a  tran- 
scendcnlid  wi.rld.  He  was  followed  by  Plato,  whose  whole 
doctrine  of  ideas  is  a  species  of  intellectual  mysticism, 
from  which  even  Aristotle  is  not  altogether  free.  (See  Met- 
aph.,  ut  sup.)  The  germs  sown  by  these  thinkers  devel- 
oped, under  the  infiiience  of  Oriental  religions  (Mazdeism, 
Judaism,  etc.),  into  the  mysticism  which  we  find  in  Philon- 
ism  and  Neo-Pylhngoreanism,  and,  partly  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Chri-stianity,  into  Neo-Platonism  and  the  Gnosti- 


cism of  Clement  and  Origefl,  the  former  of  whom  has  some 
claim  to  be  considered  the  originator  of  Neo-Platonism. 
(See  Bigg,  Christian  Plaionists  of  Alexandria,  p.  64.)  A 
later  union  of  Christianity  with  Neo-Platonism  gave  birth 
to  the  works  erroneously  attributed  to  Dionysius  Areojjagita, 
the  convert  of  Paul.  These  works  were  written  by  a  Neo- 
Platonic  Christian  about  a.  d.  400,  and  became  known  to  the 
Latin  Church  through  the  translation  of  Scotus  Erigena  in 
the  ninth  century.  They  completed  the  union  of  Hellenism 
with  Christianity,  and  furnished  the  type  of  mediaeval  theol- 
ogy and  piety.  From  that  time  pure  pantheistic  mysticism 
ceased,  until  it  was  revived  in  the  systems  of  Bruno,  Spinoza, 
and  Hegel.  (Consult  Brahmanic  TJpanishads  and  Yiui- 
A\i\si.\c  Suit  as, in  Sacred  Books  of  the  East;  Mohini,  transla- 
tion of  Bhagavad-Gita;  Max  Mulln-r,  History  of  Sanskrit 
Literature,  chap.  ii. ;  Dieterici,  Philosophie  der  Aratjer, yo\. 
i.,  pp.  164,  sqq. ;  Syed  Ameer-Ali,  Life  and  Teachings  of 
Moliammed,  chap.  xix. :  the  Cabtiala;  the  fragments  of 
Parmenides,  in  Journal  of  Spec.  Phil.,  vol.  iv. ;  the  Repub- 
lic and  Tiniceus  of  Plato ;  Aristotle,  Metaph.,  book  xi.,  in 
Jour,  of  Spec.  Phil.,  vol.  xxii. ;  the  works  of  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Origen,  Plotinus,  Porphyry,  lamblichus,  Pro- 
clus,  Dionysius  Areopagita  ;  Westcott,  Piligious  Thoiight  of 
the  West,  pp.  142.  194,  syg. ;  Bruno's  ]>liilosophic  works; 
Spinoza,  Ethica;  Hegel,  Logik,  Naturpliitosophie,  Philoso- 
phic des  Oeistes.  Cf.  Frothingham,  Stephen  Bar  Sudaili, 
the  Syrian  Mystic,  and  the  Book  of  Hierolheos  (Leydcn, 
1886) ;  Der  Keoplatonismus,  in  Harnack,  D.  O.,  i.,  719, 
seq.).  (b)  Theistic  philosophic  mysticism  is  almost  peculiar 
to  Christianity,  and  dates  from  (the  pseudo-)  Dionysius  (see 
above)  and  Augustine.  It  was  in  part  due  to  the  same 
cause  as  monastieisra,  and  is  closely  connected  with  it.  That 
cause  was  the  secularization  of  the  Church,  which  forced  the 
more  profoundly  religious  and  reflective  spirits  to  withdraw 
from  the  practical  world  and  seek  satisfaction  in  s])eculation. 
The  monks  were  a  church  within  the  Church.  The  specula- 
tions of  Dionysius  and  Augustine,  continued  through  Maxi- 
mus  Confessor,  Joannes  Damascenus,  Scotus  Erigena,  and 
others,  finally  celebrated  a  glorious  resurrection  in  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux.  Bernard  is  the  perfect  type  of  the  theistic 
mystic — God-intoxicated,  yet  keenly  alive  to  the  personality 
of  God  ;  practical  in  the  best  sense,  y5t  living  above  the 
world.  In  him  catholic  piety  ("  Mysticism  is  catholic 
piety,  in  so  far  as  this  is  not  obedience  to  the  Church," 
Ilarnack,  Dogmengesch.,  iii.,  375)  reached  its  highest  ex- 
pression, imparting  a  freedom  which  makes  him  interpret 
the  records  of  revelation  and  the  dogmas  of  the  Church  in 
terms  of  his  own  supernatural  consciousness,  and  a  power 
which  enables  him  to  dictate  even  to  the  head  of  the  Church 
(see  his  De  Consideratione) ;  but  he  had  no  followers,  ex- 
cept, perhaps,  Dante — who  knew  so  well  the  exceptional 
character  of  his  mysticism  as  to  place  him  in  heaven,  far 
above  all  other  mystics,  and  make  him  his  own  last  guide — 
and  Savonarola.  The  my.sticism  of  those  who  usually  count 
as  his  successors,  Richard  and  Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  Albertus 
Magnus,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Bonaventura,  is,  in  reality, 
different,  inasmuch  as  it  subordinates  the  personal  con- 
sciousness to  the  letter  of  Scripture  and  dogma.  Their  mys- 
ticism is  co-ordinated  with  Scholasticism  (q.  v.),  which  in 
its  earlier  shapes  rests  upon  Platonism  and  Neo-Phitimism 
(pseudo-Dionj'sius),  in  its  later  upon  Aristotclianisni.  It 
constantly  tends,  therefore,  to  abstract  formalism  and  pan- 
theism in  thought,  and  slavery,  not  sonship,  in  practice.  Its 
highest  aim  is  the  "superlucent  darkness"  of  Dionysius. 
Indeed  it  was  hard  foi'  mysticism  to  maintain  itself  on  the 
height  to  which  it  rose  in  Bernard.  Being  composed  of 
three  elements,  intelligence,  love,  will,  it  required  that  these 
should  be  completely  and  harmoniously  lilended  in  the 
"spark  of  synderesis"  which  unites  man  to  God.  And  this 
can  happen  but  rarely.  Intellect  in  excess  leads  to  pan- 
tlicism.  Neo-Platonism,  and  panlogism;  love  in  excess,  to 
Quietism  (q.  v.)  and  morbid  sentimental  pietism  ;  will  in 
excess,  to  antinomianism  and  contempt  for  morality.  All 
these  excesses  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  mysticism  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  German  mysticism,  in  hysterical  and  theo- 
pathic  forms,  began  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  was  pro- 
fessed mostly  liy  nuns.  (See  Preger,  l>k.  i.)  Tlie  higher 
orthodox  mysticism  was  inculcated  by  Alliertus  Magnus 
(see  Bach,  Des  Alb.  3Iaq.  Verhdltniss  zu  der  Erkenntniss- 
lelire  der  Grierhen,  Lateiner,  Arabe.r  und  Juden,  pp.  183- 
213),  who  was  followed  by  David  of  Augsburg,  Berihold  of 
Regensburg,  and  Dietrich  of  Freiburg;  but  the  founder  of 
what  is  known  specifically  as  "  Deutsche  Mystik "  was 
Meister  Eckhart  (see  Eckhart,  Meister),  whose  system,  as 


MYTIlU 


MYTHOLOGY 


49 


mi^ht  be  expected,  wus  a  <'i>in[<oiinil  of  ihei)piitliy  and 
Theosophv  ((/.  v.).  It  i^•.  to  a  larne  extent,  a  return  to  Xeo- 
Platonisiu,  but  contains  a  ilialeetic  element  due  to  Aris- 
totle, and  a  love  element  {Minni')  due  to  IJernard  and  the 
German  temperament.  It  comes,  in  its  results,  verv  close  to 
Buddliism  (see  Neumann,  iJif  i/i;irre  Verirandtxchafl  bud- 
dfiiMischer  und  vhrifttiichfr  Lt^hrvn.  Zwei  bitddh.  Stttta.i 
und  fin  Traclat  Jleisler  Kckhurix,  lHi)l),  and  is  rlistinctly 
pantheistic;  also  in  principle,  thou;;h  not  in  intention,  anti- 
catholic.  It  endeavors,  by  a  dialectic  process,  to  iienetrute 
the  nature  of  (iod.  One  and  Three,  and  through  a  process  of 
love  to  brin<;  the  individual  soul  into  union  with  him  ;  but 
the  dialectic  reaches  only  an  al)straction,and  the  love.bcinf; 
pathological,  is  destitute  of  moral  force.  The  immediate 
Kno»ie<Tj;e  of  (iod  which  Kckhart  claimed  for  the  individ- 
ual soul  lhroui;h  its  spark  of  syndcresis  (Fiinkrln'n)  formed 
the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Protestant  Itefornialion ; 
and  this  was  recognized  by  Luther,  whose  fondness  for 
Tauler  and  the  "Deutsche  Theologie"  is  well  known. 
There  is  a  sense  in  which  it  mav  be  said  that  the  Kefor- 
inalion  grew  out  of  mysticism.  The  speculative  mysticism 
originating  with  Kckhart  may  be  calleil  High  lierman 
niys'.icisni.      Of  somewhat   later  date  is  the   Low  German 

f)ractical  mysticism,  whose  founder  was  Johannes  Hiiys- 
)roek.  His  pupil,  Geert  de  Groot,  was  tlie  founder  of  the 
society  known  as  the  Brothers  of  ('(jnimon  Life,  whose 
most  famous  members  were  Thomas  a  Kempis,  author  of 
the  Imitation  of  Chrint,  and  Nicholas  of  Kue.s,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  s[ieculative  mystics.  (See  Kettlewell,  Thomas 
a  Kempis  and  the  Brothers  of  Common  Life.)  Contempo- 
rary with  the  later  Gorman  mystics  were  de  Gerson  in 
France,  and  Catherine  of  Siena,  and  Savonarola  (burned 
14U8)  in  Italy.  After  the  Kuformatiou  there  were  two 
classes  of  mystics,  one  protestant,  resting  on  the  Gospel, 
the  other,  catholic,  resting  upon  dogma.  To  the  former 
belongeil  Luther,  Casper  Schwenckfeld,  Sebastian  Franck, 
Valentine  Wcigel,  and  Jacob  Hdhme;  to  the  latter,  Philip 
Neri,  .Sta.  Theresa,  Loyola,  Francis  of  Sales,  .John  of  the 
Cross.  Paraielsus,  Campanella,  and  Giordano  Bruno,  in  the 
last  three  of  whom  the  mixlern  scientific  element  i>redonii- 
nated.  Since  the  date  of  Bninos death  (1600),  though  there 
have  l)een  nniny  noble  Christian  mystics — Angelus  .Silesius, 
Poiret,  Malebranche,  Madame  Guyon,  Fenelon,  Cardinal 
Genlil.  Ja<'obi,  Schleiermacher,  Klopstock,  Novalis,  Gioberti, 
Thomas  Taylor,  Jones  Very,  etc. — there  has  hardly  been 
any  new  movement  except  that  initiated  by  Swedexborg 
(q.  I'.).  Orthodox  mysticism  found  a  wonderful  example  and 
systeunitizer  in  Kosmini  (ITOT-lx").')),  who  may  lie  called  the 
last  of  the  Christian  mvslics.  A  return  to  purely  intellec- 
tual mysticism, divorceil  from  religion,  was  made  by  Spinoza 
from  Judaism,  by  Giordano  Bruno  from  Calholicisui,  by 
Hegel  from  Protestantism,  .\long  with  the  last  ought  per- 
haps to  be  nameil  Schelling,  Krause.  ami  Baader,  Consult 
the  works  of  the  mystics  above  nameil,  especially  Bonaven- 
tura's  Ilinerarium  Mentis  in  Diiiin,  translated  in  Jour,  of 
.%«•.  I'hil.,  Vol.  xxi. ;  al.so  Thomas  a  Vallgornera,  J/y.t/i'ca 
Theolotjia  Divi  Tliomie.  'i  vols. ;  PfeilTer.  Die  deuischen 
Mystiker  lies  A'/l'""  Jahrhunderts;  F.  Juvenalis,  Solia 
InteltigentiiB  Lumen  Indetidens  seu  Jmmedintnm,  Dei 
et  Entis  Summi  Internum  Maiiislerium  (ed.  F.  d'Knvieu, 
Paris,  1878):  Stixrkl,  I'hilosophie  des  Mittelalters;  Krd- 
niann's  and  I'eberweg's  hislcu'ies  of  philosophy  (the  latter 
contains  an  excellent  bibliography);  Harmuk,  Dognienpe- 
schiehte  ;  Milller,  Kirrheni/esrhirhte;  ScliafT.  /fistori/  of  the 
Christian  Church,  and  the  literature  there  cited;  Storrs, 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux.  Thomas  Davidso.v. 

Mylho :  .Sec  Coi-iiin-Ciii.va  (French). 

.Mjthology  [Gr.  )jlv9os,  wonl,  story,  legend  +  \iyi>t.  dis- 
course, rea>on] :  the  science  <lealing  with  that  body  of  [)o- 
etii' and  (piasi-scientitic  trailition  which  gathers  atiout  the 
religious  belief  of  a  race ;  or.  the  body  of  mvths  themselves. 
The  notion  of  mythology  shouM  be  slnirpiy  distinguished 
from  the  notion  of  religion  ;  and  the  myth,  though  it  must 
be  connected  with  religion,  shonlil  be  ilistinguished  from 
the  cult  or  round  of  ceremonies  employecl  in  actual  wor- 
ship. We  distinguish  between  the  worship  of  a  god  ancl 
the  story  of  a  g<"l.  Nor.  again,  should  we  confound  the 
myth  with  the  creed  or  religious  philosophv  of  a  primitive 
rnci',  although  the  myth  may  iiften  emboily  the  ri-sult  of 
such  siieculatir>n.  .\  race  whi'h  has  rejisoned  out  tio  creed. 
no  nule  system  of  religious  belief,  may  nevertheless  hav<> 
myths,  as  it  may  have  a  cult.  The  cult  is  a  matter  of  daily 
habit,  a  round  of  ceremonies  to  insure  certain  benefits  tir 
288 


avert  certain  evils;  the  creed  is  primitive  thought;  but  a 
myth  is  the  offspring  of  observation  ami  unconscious  fancy. 
I'rimarily,  it  attributes  will  and  passion  to  the  objects  and 
processes  of  nature  ;  yet  this  statement,  correct  so  far  as  it 
goes,  d(x>s  not  give  a  complete  definition  of  the  nivtli,  but 
leaves  out  of  account  certain  other  factors  with  wliich  we 
shall  presently  reckon. 

History  of  the  Science. — Jlyths  have  been  fouiul  in  every 
part  of  the  worlil,  and  the  study  of  them  ui>on  a  historical 
and  philological  basis  has  resulted  in  the  si-ience  of  com- 
parative mythology;  but  while  this  is  a  modern  affair,  at- 
tempts to  explain  the  myths  arc  as  old  as  history.  Even 
while  they  were  current  articles  of  faith,  the  rationali.st  be- 
gan to  oppose  the  believer.  Criticism  of  this  type  fell  into 
two  classes.  On  the  one  hand,  myths  were  explained  by 
men  like  Anaxugoras  and  llcraelilus  as  allegory,  as  sym- 
bolical of  some  fact  or  truth.  On  the  other  harul,  Kiihe- 
mcrus  (about  lilO  B.  r.)  de<lared  that  a  myth  was  nothing- 
more  than  a  fact  covered  with  parasitic  growth  of  super- 
natural fancies — that,  e.  g.  Demeter  was  simply  a  woman 
who  had  introduced  the  art  of  baking  bread.  'J'his  inter- 
pretation of  myths  was  a  favorite  among  the  early  Chri.-itian 
writers,  ami  finds  a  modern  champion  in  Herbert  Spencer 
(I'rinciples  of  Soriology).  who  regards  the  myth  as  cor- 
rupted tradition  of  a  dead  and  deified  ancestor, comjilicated 
by  the  confusion  of  meta|i|iorical  statement.  The  opposite 
liiu'  of  theory,  which  treats  the  myth  as  allegory  and  sym- 
bol, reached  its  ultimate  absurdity  in  Bacon's  M'isdoni  of 
the  Ancients,  where  sundry  classical  myths  are  interpreted 
as  liearing  within  them  the  n)ost  subtle  lessons  of  morality 
anil  statecraft. 

'I'o  treat  myths  as  symbol  and  allegory,  or  as  distorted 
fact,  was  the  general  drift  of  criticism  down  to  modern 
times,  when  the  rise  of  two  great  sciences,  coini)arative  phi- 
lology and  anthropology,  developed  two  corresponding  the- 
ories of  the  mytti.  The  enormous  gains  made  for  our 
knowledge  of  the  past  ijy  the  comjiarison  of  related  lan- 
guages led  certain  scholars,  notably  Prof.  Max  Miiller,  to 
liase  the  study  of  myths  u[)on  the  stuily  of  words,  particu- 
larly tlie  names  of  gods  and  heroes.  As  the  scholar  had  fol- 
lowed a  group  of  related  words  to  a  supposed  nrimitive 
Aryan  word,  so  he  resolved  a  group  of  related  mytiis  into  a 
])rimitiye  Aryan  myth.  Althougti  this  method  was  fore- 
shadowed by  Jacob  (irimm,  it  could  be  realized  only  by  a 
student  of  Oriental  languages;  and  Max  Miiller  m list  be 
reckoned  as  founder  of  the  science.  His  particular  school 
came  to  regard  the  iiulk  of  Aryan  myths  as  sun-myths, 
while  German  advocates  of  the  same  general  theory  pre- 
ferred the  storm-cloud  ;  but  all  of  them  were  agreed  in  re- 
gard to  the  primitive  Aryan  myth,  and  in  regard  to  the 
philological  method  of  research.  As  to  the  origin  of  a  myth, 
they  taught  that  the  literal  words  in  which  man  spoke  of 
natural  processes  were  abstracted  from  these  proces.<es,  were 
confounded  with  other  words,  and  so  came  to  represent  di- 
vinities; lience  the  myth  of  a  god  and  a  deed,  from  the 
original  statement  aliout  a  natural  object  and  a  process 
iDi.iease  of  Laiiguni/e).  "  Mythology,"  sjiys  Miiller,  "  is  only 
a  dialect,  an  ancient  form  of  language." 

To  stiuly  words,  then,  seemed  and  seems  to  these  critics 
the  profH?r  key  of  mythology.  On  the  other  hand,  anthro- 
pologists regard  a  myth  as  no  chance  of  speech,  but  as  in- 
evitable product  of  the  human  mind  in  certain  stages  of 
culture,  and  explain  it  by  analysis  of  the  physical  and  so- 
cial environment.  Kihvard  B.  Tylor  has  given  an  admiralile 
summary  of  this  dorlrine  in  the  chapters  on  mylhology  and 
on  animi>iiii  in  his  primitive  Culture:  while  Andrew  Lang 
has  brouglit  the  myth  into  closiT  relations  to  customs  ana 
folk-lore  generally.. 

(leneral  l^inciples. — \\'liile  we  accept  as  prime  factor  in 
the  myth  that  instinct  of  primitive  man  to  S4»e  will  and 
piL-isioii  behind  the  processis  of  iial lire,  just  as  will  and 
passion  an'  behind  human  deeds,  it  is  necessjiry  to  note  cer- 
tain ri'^trictioiis  upon  this  doctrine.  First,  we  must  admit 
with  Mannhardt  the  inMiieniT  "of  |ioeticai  and  literary 
proiliiction  as  an  essential  factor  in  the  formation  of  my- 
thology." From  this  consideration,  again,  we  derive  an- 
other— the  necil  of  a  stricter  chronoiogy.  In  l.'^dl  W. 
Sihwartz  called  attention  to  the  distinction  Ivtween  the 
origin  and  the  development  of  a  myth,  and  showed  thai  a 
rude  and  brutal  race  will  make  a  rude  and  bnilnl  myth. 
Prof.  F..  H.  Mi'ver  places,  then'fore,  "a  nandemoniniTi  I.  • 
fore  the  (lantlieon  " — first  demons,  a  horde  of  jH'ttx 
of  the  dead,  men>  ancestor-worship;  then  gods  anil 
tein  of  gods.     Thinlly,  we  inii.st  allow  extensive  distribution 


50 


MYTHOLOGY 


MYZOSTOMA 


and  borrowing  of  myths  from  race  to  race,  a  fact  which 
spoils  many  a  pretty  theory  of  the  older  comparative  my- 
thologists.  Fourthly,  we  admit  as  a  factor  in  early  myths 
not  merely  unbridled  fancy,  but  unbridled  curiosity  as  well, 
the  rude  scientific  instinct  which  seeks  to  account  for  a 
strange  fact  or  even  a  strange  name.  (See  Tylor,  Early 
Ilistorij  of  Manlcind\  chap,  xi.)  We  can,  however,  allow 
little  weight  to  .Schercr's  claim  for  "  entertainment  "  as  the 
main  factor  in  myth-making.  Fear  had  more  to  do  with 
the  early  myths  than  any  phase  of  pleasure.  Finally,  we 
must  adinit  that  the  world  within,  the  realm  of  dreains  and 
visions,  had  almost  as  great  an  influence  on  the  nuiking  of 
myths  as  the  world  without.  The  nightly  visitant,  com- 
bined with  ancestor-worship,  could  give  rise  to  a  demonic 
myth  ;  and  the  feigned  wanderings  of  the  dreamer  himself, 
not  to  speak  of  the  connection  easily  made  between  mys- 
terious beasts,  such  as  the  snake  that  glided  suddenly  from 
the  neighborhood  of  a  sleeping  man,  and  the  independent 
spirit,  could  also  produce  a  plenty  of  such  rude  myths  as 
we  still  meet  in  folk-lore — e.  g.  the  common  story  of  the 
soul  leaving  its  liody  in  shajjc  of  snake  or  mouse.  Never- 
theless, while  the  tendency  of  modern  criticism  to  divest 
myths  of  their  old  majestic  character,  to  bid  us  look  if  we 
would  study  origins,  not  at  the  stately  figures  of  Olym- 
pus, but  at  the  "  cruel,  puerile,  and  obscene  '  stories  of  the 
primitive  savage,  has  both  critical  sanity  and  historic  truth, 
the  process  can  easily  go  too  far.  It  goes  too  far  wlien  it 
concedes  to  primitive  man  an  interest  in  the  world  within 
and  denies  him  an  interest  in  the  world  without.  The 
sense  of  a  vague  personality  in  storm  and  fire  he  sux-ely 
knew.  The  beauty  of  sunset,  of  sparkling  ocean,  was  of 
little  interest  to  him;  but  the  thunderbolt  ("i7  thunders," 
we  still  say),  the  whirlwind,  whatever  natural  process  came 
with  overwhelming  terror  into  his  life,  must  have  had  per- 
sonality for  him,  a  cult  of  fear  and  sacrifice,  and  a  myth. 

It  seems  best  to  divide  myths  into  those  of  the  savage  and 
those  of  semi-civilized  races,  the  lower  and  the  higher  my- 
thology, remembering  that  traces  of  the  former  will  always 
be  found  in  the  latter.  In  savage  myths  little  distinction  is 
made  between  subjective  and  objective  impressions;  hence 
the  strange  medley  of  man,  beast,  and  inorganic  nature,  all 
thrown  together  on  one  plane  of  mythic  fancy.  In  the  devel- 
oped myth  subjective  impressions  count  for  little  :  there  is 
system,  with  a  certain  air  of  probability,  and  the  ordering 
touch  of  literary  instinct.  Indeed,  many  a  so-called  myth 
is  simply  a  bit  of  primitive  science,  a  desire  to  give  rational 
answers  to  curiosity. 

Savage  Myths. — Along  with  the  fantastic,  monstrous,  and 
brutal  stories  of  the  savage  we  find  distinct  traces  of  element- 
myths.  Evidence  is  at  hand  that  even  rudest  tribes  have 
doubted  the  stars  were  fire,  and  have  regarded  them  as  per- 
sonal agents.  Certain  .\fricans  were  sure  that  the  wind  was 
a  man,  or  at  the  least  a  bird.  What  we  do  not  find,  how- 
ever, in  this  stage  of  culture  is  any  system  of  inytlis,  any 
cosmogony,  that  goes  beyond  an  individual  story.  What 
has  passed  for  such  a  system  often  turns  out  to  be  a  mis- 
sionary's account  of  creation  translated  into  terms  of  savage 
thought :  while  the  genuine  myth  goes  no  further  than  a 
makeshift,  like  the  tortoise  which  holds  the  world  upon  its 
back — a  myth  found  in  North  America  as  well  as  in  India — 
or  like  the  countless  tales  of  sun  and  moon,  eclipse,  tempest, 
and  earthiiuake.  Moreover, the  myth  embodied  primitive  his- 
tory, and  supported  that  claim  for  divinity  with  wliich  a  race 
regarded  its  founder.  Hence  the  heromyth,  the  story  of  the 
great  head  of  the  race,  as  culnnnation  of  the  system  of  an- 
cestor-worship; hence,  too,  the  allied  myth  of  the  culture- 
hero,  the  being  who  brought  the  race  its  arts  of  life,  its 
primitive  civilization.  It  is  not  only  a.Cadraus  who  plays 
this  part;  our  native  myth  is  full  of  such  characters.  (Brin- 
ton,  American  Hero-myths,  Philadelphia,  1882.)  Finally, 
among  the  lower  myths,  though  not  necessarily  savage,  are 
the  tales  of  servicealjle  household  spirits,  familiar  demons, 
and  all  other  survivals  from  the  days  of  ancestor-worship. 

Hiyher  Myths. — Here,  to  use  Meyer's  phrase,  we  have  the 
pantheon  developed  out  of  the  pandemonium.  Dignity  suc- 
ceeds silliness;  system  takes  the  place  of  confusion;  and 
such  brutal  or  absurd  elements  as  tradition  has  preserved 
are  veiled,  or  belittled,  or  even  explained  away.  Stories  of 
the  gods  reveal  only  by  im|ilication  the  elements  with  which 
these  had  been  identified — Zeus  for  the  sky,  or  Apollo  for 
the  sun.     Such    myths  belong  distinctly  to  the  realm  of 


poetry,  sacred,  to  be  sure,  but  none  the  less  poetry.  They 
tend  more  and  more  to  the  personal,  the  romantic,  the  lit- 
erary. They  combine  with  heroic  legend  to  form  the  great 
epii's,  and  stand  in  the  forefront  of  every  national  poetry. 
Kthical  conceptions  cross  and  somctnnes  control  the  old 
traditions  of  wayward  and  inexplicable  power  in  the  di- 
vinity in  question.  Compare,  for  example,  a  Vedic  hymn 
with  a  Veilic  myth.  At  worst,  the  old  brutalities  are  trans- 
formed into  romance,  just  as  love  and  war  are  used  to  dis- 
guise brutality  and  lust.  Cycles  of  myths  are  told  of  one 
god  or  hero.'  In  the  old  Persian  religion  we  note  a  distinct 
superiority  of  the  ethical  and  philosophical  over  the  myth- 
ical ;  in  Hellenic  myths,  again,  poetical  rather  than  ethical 
considerations  have  conquered.  The  elements  of  these  dif- 
ferent myths  have  been  mingled  and  confused  to  a  degree 
that  makes  the  "interpretation  "  of  them  so  supremely  diffi- 
cidt,  or  so  supremely  easy.  Besides  the  per|ilexing  question 
of  borrowing  and  distribution,  we  are  everywhere  confronted 
by  tlie  difiiculty  of  sundering  the  myth-maker  from  the  poet 
pure  and  simple.  If  we  once  drop  the  clew  of  religion,  the 
test  of  belief  by  definite  worshipers  in  the  god  in  question, 
and  belief  to  a  reasonable  extent  in  the  myth  itself,  we  are 
not  only  lost  in  the  maze  of  poetry,  and  must  accept  the 
Faerie  Qiieene  or  even  Burns's  John.  Barleycorn  as  a  part 
of  mythology,  but  we  have  no  criterion  for  separating  the 
myth  from  the  heroic  legend.  Though  the  cord  which 
bound  the  myth  to  some  sort  of  religious  worship  may  have 
been  bfjth  long  and  loose,  there  nmst  have  been  such  a  cord, 
or  we  are  not  dealing  with  a  myth. 

BicLiooRAPUY. — Of  the  countless  works  on  mythology, 
general  and  special,  we  note  :  K.  0.  Miillcr,  Prolegomena  zu 
einer  wissenschaftlichen  Mythologie  (1825).  the  first  really 
scientific  treatise  on  the  subject ;  Max  Miiller,  O.rford  Es- 
says (1856);  A.  Kuhn,  Die  Herahkunft  des  Fetters,  etc. 
(185!t)  ;  M.  Breal,  Mekmges  de  Mythologie  et  de  Linguisfique 
(Paris,  1877),  especially  essay  on  Hercule  et  Cacus.  originally 
puljlished  1863;  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture,  chapters  on  My- 
tlwlogy  and  Animism-,  probably  the  best  modern  treatment 
of  the  subject;  Andrew  Lang,  article  ilytliolmjy  in  tlie  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,  Custom  and  Mytli,  and  Mytli,  liitual, 
and  Religion;  E.  H.  Meyer.  I?idoger?na7tisrhe  3Iythe.n  (2 
vols..  1883-87) ;  H.  Spencer,  Principles  of  Sociology.  These 
represent  each  a  definite  school ;  for  general  summaries  re- 
garding tlie  science  may  be  noted  :  0.  Pfleiderer.  Riliyiims- 
pliihisniiltie  auf  geschichtlicher  Orundlage  (Berlin,  1878); 
Otto  Gruppe,  Die  Oriechischen  Culte  tind  Mythen  in  ihren 
Bezielmngen  zu  den  Orientalischen  Religionen  (vol.  i.,  Leip- 
zig. 1887) ;  and  Chanfepie  de  la  Saussaye,  Lehrbuch  der 
Iteligionsgcschichte  (2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1887-89). 

Francis  B.  Gummere. 

Mytile'ne  (in  Gr.  MuriA'ijjT;) :  the  most  important  city  of 
Lesbos,  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island  (see  map 
of  Greece,  ref.  15-M).  It  was  celebrated  in  antiquity  as  a 
seat  of  literature  and  art,  being  the  birthplace  of  the  poets 
Alcicus  and  Sappho,  the  historians  Hellanicus,  Chares,  and 
Theophanes,  the  statesman  Pittacus,  the  philosopher  Cratip- 
pus,  the  rhetoricians  Lesbonax,  Polemo,  anil  Diophanes. 
The  city  played  an  important  role  in  every  period  of  Greek 
history.  It  "is  still  the  chief  city  of  Lesbos.  See  Conze, 
lieise  auf  der  Insel  Lesbos  (Hanover,  1865) ;  Archontopoulos, 
AeV^os  (Canea,  1866);  Koldewey.  ZJie  antilcen  Baureste  der 
Insel  Lesbos  (Berlin,  1890) ;  Cichorius.  Mom  und  Mytilene 
(Leipzig,  1888).  The  name  is  also  aj^plied  to  the  island.  See 
Lksbos.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

MytiridsD:  See  Mussel. 

Myxoniycc'tos  and  Mycetozo'a  :  See  Slime-moulds. 

Myzos'toma  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ^iJfcii/,  suck  +  o-rii/ua, 
mouih]:  name  of  a  genus  of  peculiar  parasitic  animals  of 
uncertain  affinities.  Slyzostoma  has  a  disk-like  body,  about 
a  sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  around  the  margin  of  which 
are  a  number  of  warts  or  longer  processes,  while  on  the 
uniler  surface  there  are  five  pairs  of  hooked  feet,  and  in 
front  a  tuliular  protrusible  proboscis.  About  seventy  spe- 
cies are  known,  all  marine,  and  all  living  upon  crinoids. 
By  some  they  arc  regarded  as  having  affinities  with  the 
parasitic  mites,  while  others,  with  more  reason,  place  them 
among  the  worms  (Cha^topoda).  The  species  are  described 
by  von  Graff  in  part  xxvii.  of  the  zoology  of  the  Challenger 
expedition.  The  best  account  of  the  structure  is  by  Nansen 
(Bergen,  1887).  J.  S.  Kingsley. 


N 


:  the  fourteenth   letter  of  the  English  al- 

[ihalu't. 

t'iiiiii. —  Us  form  is  derived  thriuigh  the 

Koiuiiii  alphulwt  from  the  Ureek  N,  f*",  or 

VI.   corresiioiiding   to   the    Pha'nician   or 

Cumiaiiitic  V^.Ul. 

yaine. — TheyKiif^lish  name  en  repri'Sciits 
-  the  Latin  name  en,  which  was  u  substitute 
for  the  (ini'li  name  ;i»,  after  the  manner  of  <■/«,  d,  er,  e.i, 
instcail  of  inii,  litfiibilit,  rlio,  xii/iiKi.  The  (ireek  name  ;i« 
represents  the  Pha^nician  nun,  tish.  prol)al)ly  suj,'f;ested  by 
the  form  of  the  letter,  possibly  also  by  the  proximity  in  the 
alphabet ieal  series  of  infm,  water,  provided  the  arranjfement 
itself  is  not  due  to  the  siKnifieution  of  the  names  rather  than 
iho  sounds  of  the  letters. 

Sound. — Its  sovinil  is  a  dental  or  alveolar  nasid.  The 
passnsje  of  air  through  the  nioulli  is  checked  by  pressing 
the  forward  rim  of  the  tongue  against  the  nxjts  of  the  n[>per 
teeth  or  against  the  teeth  themselves  (in  English  the  former), 
and  voiceil  breath  passes  out  through  the  nasal  cavity 
opened  by  depressing  the  soft  palate.  The  sound  of  n  is 
dilTerentiiited  from  that  of  the  other  nasals,  w,  «</,  solely  by 
the  ditlerent  shape  and  size  of  the  oral  resonance-chamber. 
In  the  case  of  m,  this  is  formed  by  closure  of  the  lips,  in 
that  of  H</  by  contai't  of  the  body  or  back  of  the  tongue 
with  the  palate.  The  sound  of  n  is  to  that  of  (/  as  m  Is  to  )>  or 
ng  is  to  .(/.  It  may  serve  as  a  vowel,  as  in  maiden,  funiotten, 
even,  where  the  preceding  unaccented  vowel  has  been  si- 
lenced. The  letter  is  silent  after  in  in  the  same  syllable,  as 
in  hymn,  aii/umn,  solemn,  also  after  /  in  kiln.  After  an  ai- 
eented  vowel  Ix-fore  a  guttural  it  has  generally  the  sound  of 
the  guttural  (palatal)  nasal  ng.  as  in  lunger,  anger,  uncle, 
cougreHs,  cunquir,  ink,  tliank,  an.tiuu.f;  but  when  coupled 
witli ;/  in  the  same  syllable  it  unites  with  it  to  express  the 
guttural  misal,  and  </  lia-s  no  separate  sound;  thus  -song, 
singer,  liingue,  wing,  with  which  contrast  liin-ger.  tin-ger. 

i>ource. — The  sound  has  In  general  been  faithfully  pre- 
served as  representative  of  Teutonii^  an<l  Indo-Kuropean  n 
in  the  native  Teutonic  element,  and  of  Latin  n  in  the  l\o- 
niance element  :  ef.  niglit :  (iotli.rt((/i/.f:  Lat.  nox  :Skr.  ndkti- ; 
chin  :  (ioth.  kinnus  :  (ir.  ydvvs:  reign  <  M.  Eng.  rrgne  from 
Lat.  regnum.  Teuton.  /(  is  lost  in  I).  Kng.  before  ,<  and  f  ;  cf. 
Eng.  gimse,  <  t).  Kng.  gUs  :  (lerm.  gunx;  Eng.  loulh  :  tierm. 
zahn;  Eng.  ulher  :  (ierni.  ander;  Eng.  mouth  :  Gerin.  miind. 
Value  IIS  Sijinhol. — X  =  (in  chemistry)  nitrogen  ;  also, 
noon,  north,  Xorse ;  as  a  mediieval  numeral,  a  symbol  for 
90.     Xa  =  S(jdiuni  (Xatrium).     See  .\hi)Iii:viation's. 

Ukxj.  Idk  Wheelkr. 
Nabliis',  Xabnlns.  or  Nnpoloso  :  town  of  Palestine;  the 
ancient  Shechem  or  Sycliem,  capital  of  Sanniria,  probably 
the  same  as  the  Sychar  of  the  Xew  Testament  (see  nuip  of 
Palestine,  ref.  H-D).  The  city,  which  had  fallen  into  decay, 
was  rebuilt  bv  Vespasian  and  called  Neapolis,  whence  the 
name  Xablus  is  derived.  It  is  '.Vi  miles  X.  of  .lernsaleni,  on 
the  watershed  of  a  narrow  valley,  not  more  than  (ino  feet 
wide,  between  (ieri/.im  and  Ebal.  This  was  Abraham's  first 
cainping-gronnd  in  thecountrv.  Here  .loseph  was  buried, 
and  here  .ioshna  delivereil  his  last  aildress  to  the  Israelites. 
Itwasiiiieof  the  cities  of  refuge.  Its  situation  is  niarvel- 
onsly  beautiful.  Tlu^re  is  no  greener  or  more  fertile  spot  in 
Palestine.  It  carries  on  a  lucrative  trade  in  cotton  ami  oil, 
and  manufactures  coarse  cloth  and  soap,  sending  large 
ipiantities  of  the  latter  to  Kg.vj)t  and  the  East.  Among  its 
U,(XMJ  iiiliabitaiils  are  a  few  .lews,  .'Samaritans,  and  Chris- 
tians, but  the  majority  are  Mussulmans.  .\t  the  eiustern 
end  of  the  valley,  1^  miles  distant,  is  .lacob's  well. 

E.  .'\.  (iROSVEXOK. 
Nabob  [from  Hind,  nawah.  from  .\rab.  nniinh.  formal 
plur.  <»f  nii'ih,  vicegerent,  governi>r]  :  under  the  Moguls  in 
India,  a  viceroy  or  governor  of  a  provinci'.  The  title  after- 
ward came  to  indicate  merely  hiu'li  rank  without  otllce.  In 
proeess  of  time  many  of  the  nabnbs  beivime  virtually  inde- 
pendent monarchs.  It  was  the  inntnal  jealousy  of  tin'  na- 
bobs that  maile  India  the  comparatively  cosy  prize  of  Brit- 
ish adventurers. 


Xabonas'sar,  Era  of:  an  era  employed  in  the  Chalda'an 
anil  .Mexandriaii  (ireek  chronology.  Uy  Herosus  it  was 
reckoned  from  the  accession  of  King  Xaboiiassar  to  the 
Habylonian  throne,  which  took  plaee  Feb.  20,  747  B.  c,  as 
shown  by  astronomical  records. 

Narhees  :  See  .'^ioian  Indians. 

NiH'litlgal,  iiaaAh  ti-gaal,  CifsTAv  :  physician  and  ex- 
plorer;  b.  at  Eiclistedt,  Prussian  Saxony,  Feb.  23.  1834; 
studied  meilicine  at  lierlin,  and  practiced  for  some  lime  at 
Cologne  ;  entered  the  service  of  the  Bey  of  Tunis  in  1H(53, 
and  went  in  l.SOlt  to  Kuka  to  convey  presents  from  the  King 
of  l'rus>ia  to  Sheikh  Omar  of  lioniu.  (In  Feb.  IS.  IMGil.  he 
started  from  Tripoli,  and  reached  on  Mar.  27  Murzuk,  where 
he  stopped  till  Apr.  18.  1870,  exploring  the  country  of  the 
Tibbus  in  the  meantime.  ;iinl  arrived  at  Kuka  July  0.  He 
returned  by  Waday  and  Darfur,  and  reached  Cairo  in  Xov., 
1874,  having  explored  the  countries  belonging  to  liaghirmi. 
The  results  of  his  explorations  he  communicatetl  in  1874  in 
Peterinanirs  Milllieilungen  and  the  London  (leugraphical 
Magazine.  In  187il  he  jmblisheil  Sahara  and  the  Situdiin  : 
Results  of  Sis  Years'  \\  anderings  in  Africa. n\u\  in  1882  he 
was  appointed  CTcrman  consul  at  Tunis.  In  1884  he  was 
sent  to  the  west  coast  of  Africa  charged  with  ctTectiiig  the 
annexation  to  Germany  of  the  Cameroons.  Liideritzland, 
and  other  territoiy.  D.  on  shipboard  on  his  return  to  Ger- 
many, Apr.  19,  1885.  Revised  by  .M.  \V.  Harkinoton. 

Nacogtloflies,  niik-o-do'chez :  city;  capital  of  Xacogdo- 
ches  CO.,  Tex.  (for  location  of  county,  sec  map  of  Texas,  ref. 
;!-.T);  on  tlie  Houston,  E.  and  W.Tex.  Kailway  ;  5:!  miles 
X.  K.  of  Crockett.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  cotton- 
growing  region,  contains  8  chniches,  .'«  secret-society  lodges, 
a  college,  a  natioiud  bank  with  capital  of  ;f!.W,CK)0,  a  private 
bank,  and  3  weekly  ncwspa|iers,  and  has  several  nuinufac- 
tories  and  over  100  business  concerns.  Pop,  (1880)  333 ; 
(1890)  1,138  ;  (1894)  with  suburbs,  2,.500. 

Editor  of  "  Star-News." 

Nadal,  Ehrman  Syme  :  author  ;  b.  at  Lewisburg,  W.  Va., 
Feb.  13,  1843;  graduated  at  Yale  in  18()4 :  was  secretary  of 
legation  at  Ijondon  in  1870-71.  and  again  from  1877-84; 
luis  lectured,  engaged  in  journalism,  and  written  for  the 
magazines.  Among  his  books  are  Impressions  of  London 
Social  Life  (London,  1875) ;  Jissai/s  at  Home  and  'Elsewhere 
(1882);  aniiZiveiback.orJVotes  of  a  Professional  Jvxile  (1887). 
'  H.  A.  B. 

Nadaiiil.  naado,  Gistave  :  song-writer;  b.  at  Roubai.x, 
France,  Feb.  20,  1820.  After  completing  his  studies  at  the 
tVdIege  Rollin  at  Paris  (1834-;!8),  he  found  employment  in  a  . 
business-house  at  Roubaix.  In  1840  he  removed  with  his  pa- 
rents to  Paris,  and  embarked  in  business  as  a  cloth-merchant. 
Tliesuccessof  somesongswhich  he  had  composed. set  lomusic, 
anil  sung  for  the  entertainment  of  friends  led  him  in  1849 
to  give  nil  his  business  for  song-writing,  and  in  that  year  he 
publislieil  a  small  collection  which  was  greatly  enlarged  in 
successive  editions  (18,52-02-70,  etc.).  At  first  his  .songs 
celebrated  conventional  subjects,  but  afterward  entered  the 
field  of  political  satire  or  became  the  vehicle  of  a  gay  and 
easy-going  conception  of  life.  I).  Apr.  28,  1893.  His  works 
coinprise  also  the  words  and  music  of  several  parlor  operet- 
tas, collecleil  in  two  volumes:  (tpereltes  {Hh  ed.  18«7i  and 
Theatre  de  fantiiisie  (1879):  a  novel,  I'ne  IdijUe  (IS(il); 
Solfigr  poeligue  el  musical  (18KB) ;  Mieltes  poftiques  (1888) ; 
yo'uvilles  chansons  (i  dire  on  ii  chanter  (1889). 

A.  G.  Cankiki.d. 

Na'tlir  Sliab.  or  Kiili  Kban  :  Shah  of  Persia:  b.  near 
Kelat,  ill  the  i.iovince  of  Khorassjin,  Persia,  in  10.88;  be- 
came while  still  a  vouiiL'  man  the  leader  of  a  gang  of  rol>- 
bers.  bv  whose  aid  he  captured  and  lu'Id  sevend  towns  and 
fortilied  places  in  Khoiassjin  :  espoused  the  cause  of  Ta- 
masp,  the  legitimate  ruler  of  Persia,  against  the  Afghan 
invaders;  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  Taniasp 
in  1727;  defeated  the  Afghans  n-peatedly,  and  succeeded 
linally  in  driving  them  entirely  out  of  the  country  in  1730. 
Tamiisp  now  made  him  governor  of  llu'  provinces  of  Kho- 
ra.ssan.  Mazanderan,  Seistan,  and  Kerinan,  and  he  assumed 

IBI) 


52 


N^VIUS 


NAIADS 


the  name  of  Taraasp  Kuli  (Tamasp's  slave),  to  which  the 
shah  added  the  title  of  khan.  In  1731  he  fought  against 
the  Turks  and  defeated  them,  and  when  in  1733.  during  his 
absence  on  a  campaign  against  the  Afglians.  Tamasp  was 
defeated  by  the  Turks  and  concluded  a  dishonorable  peace 
with  them,  ceding  several  provinces.  Kuli  Khan  deposed 
him.  and  raised  his  son.  Abbas  III.,  a  child,  to  the  throne. 
The  war  with  the  Turks  was  renewed  and  carried  on  with 
great  success,  and  when  Abbas  III.  died  in  1736  Kuli  Khan 
was  crowned  Shah  of  Persia  under  the  name  of  Xadir  Shah. 
His  reign  was  very  brilliant  in  military  undertakings,  espe- 
cially his  expedition  into  Hindustan.  He  defeated  the  Great 
Mogul,  captured  Delhi,  and  carried  away  to  Persia  an  enor- 
mous booty.  He  restored  to  Persia  her  old  boundaries  from 
the  time  of  the  Sassanides.  but  in  course  of  time  he  became 
greedy,  suspicious,  and  a  merciless  tyrant ;  whole  cities  were 
put  to  the  sword.  He  was  assassinated  June  20, 1747.  His 
Life  was  written  in  Persian  by  Mirza  Mohammed  Mahadi 
Klian.  and  translated  into  French  bv  Sir  William  Jones 
(1770).     See  H.  Maynard.  ^"adir  Shak\lSS5). 

Nae'rius.  Gn.bus:  author;  b.  in  Campania  about  264 
B.  c. ;  served  in  the  first  Punic  war,  and  became  famous  as 
a  writer  of  comedies  and  tragedies.  He  belonged  to  the 
plebeian  party,  attacked  the  nobility  with  great  virulence, 
was  driven  into  exile,  and  died  in  Utica.  Africa,  about  199 
B.  c.  A  few  short  fragments  of  his  epic  poem  (in  Saturni- 
ans)  on  the  Punic  war.  and  of  his  dramas,  are  still  extant, 
and  were  collected  by  Klussmann  (Jena.  1843).  See  also  the 
fragments  of  the  Bellum  Pwnicum  in  L.  Miiller's  edition  of 
Ennius,  pp.  1.57-170  (St.  Petersburg,  1884),  and  for  the  dra- 
matic fragments  L.  Miiller's  Lh:  Andronici  ef  Cn.  JVwvi 
fabularum  reliquim  (Berlin,  1885),  or  0.  Ribbeck,  Scirnicm 
Rom.  Poesis  Frag.  (Leipzig,  1871).  M.  Warren. 

^f8e'vns  [Lat.].  or  Birthmark :  a  discolored  spot  (also 
called  mofTier's  mni-k  and  port-wine  stain)  on  the  skin  of 
a  human  being,  usually  characterized  by  the  presence  of 
numerous  enlarged  blood-vessels  (more  especially  venous). 
and  popularly  believed  to  be  the  result  of  some  ungratitied 
longing  on  the  part  of  the  mother  during  gestation.  Some 
nsevi  disappear  spontaneously ;  others  remain  unchanged ; 
still  others  grow  rapidly,  and  sometimes  inflame  and  slough. 
They  may  be  treated  by  cold  and  pressure,  by  vaccination  of 
the  spot,  by  cautery,  by  excision,  hy  ligation,  or  by  other  ob- 
literative  methods.  Small  nsevi  have  been  treated  success- 
fully by  electrolysis.  Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Nagasaki.  na"a-ga"a-saa'ke"e :  a  city  and  important  sea- 
port in  the  S.  W.  of  Japan,  on  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  for  a 
long  time  the  only  .lapanese  port  of  entry  for  foreign  ves- 
sels; situated  along  the  eastern  shore  of  one  of  tlie  finest 
landlocked  harbors  in  the  world  (see  map  of  Jajian.  ref.  7-A). 
After  Japan  was  closed  to  foreign  intercourse  in  1637.  when 
the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  were  finally  expelled,  the 
Dutch  and  the  Chinese  were  still  allowed  to  carry  on  trade 
under  severe  restrictions,  the  small,  flat,  artificial  island  of 
Deshima,  at  the  head  of  the  harbor,  being  set  apart  for  the 
Dutch  factory  ;  only  one  European  ship  arrived  yearly  from 
Batavia.  The  present  foreign  settlement  has  a  water  front- 
age of  700-800  j-ards;  foreign  population  (exclusive  of  Asi- 
atics), 332.  Across  the  bay  is  a  handsomely  equipped  imperial 
dockyard.  Most  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Nagasaki  has  been 
transferred  to  Kolse.  but  the  mines  of  Takashima  still  make 
it  an  important  coaling  station.  The  town  is  noted  for  its 
tortoise-shell  brio-a-brac,  and  for  its  Imari  and  Arita  porce- 
lain. The  most  important  articles  of  export,  next  to  coal, 
are  dried  flsh,  rice  and  other  grains,  camphor;  of  import, 
sugar,  raw  cotton,  rails  and  machinery,  kerosene  oil.  The 
total  entries  for  1892  amounted  to  733  vessels,  aggregating 
897,274  tons.    Pop.  31,380.  J.  M.  Dixon. 

Nagel,  naa'gfl,  Albrecht  Eduard,  M.  D.  :  ophthalmolo- 
gist; b.  at  Dantzic.  Germany,  June  14,  1833:  was  educated 
in  his  native  city,  but  studied  medicine  at  Konigsberg  and 
Berlin ;  began  practice  at  Dantzie  in  18.56 ;  became  privat 
<locent  at  Tubingen  in  1864;  extniordinary  professor  in 
1867;  ordinary  professor  of  ophthalmology  in  1874.  His 
principal  works  are  Das  Sehen  mit  zicei  Aiigen  (Leipzig, 
(1861);  Refractions-  mid  Aceommodatuins-Awimatien  des 
Auges  (Tiibingen,  1866);  Behandliing  der  Amaurosen  vnd 
Ambli/opien  mit  Strjichnin  (1871);  Die  Anoinalien  der  Re- 
fraction iind  Accommodation  des  Auges  (1880);  Die  Vor- 
hildimg  zum.  viedicinisclien  Studium  (ISflO).  He  has  also 
written  much  for  scientific  periodicals ;  since  1870  has  edited 
and  contributed  to  the  Jaliresbericlit  iilier  die  Leistutigen 
und  Fortschritte  im  Gebieie  der  OptithalmoJogie  ;  and  since 


1880  has  edited  the  Mittheilungen  aus  der  ophthalmiatri- 
schen  Klinik  in  Tiibingen. 

Nagelsbacli,  na'gfls-baaA-h,  Karl  Friedrich  :  classical 
scholar ;  b.  near  Nuremberg,  Mar.  28,  1806 ;  became  professor 
in  the  University  of  Erlangen  in  1842;  d.  Apr.  21.  1859. 
He  is  famous  as  the  author  of  the  Lateinische  Stilistik  fUr 
Deutsche  (1846 ;  8th  ed.  by  Iwan  Milller.  1890).  Other  works 
are  Die  homerische  Theologie  in  ihrem  Zusammenhang  dar- 
gestAlt  (1861 ;  2d  ed.  by  G.  Autenrieth) ;  Die  nachltomerische 
Theologie  des  griechischen  Volksglaubens  bis  auf  Alexander 
(1857) ;  ^schylus's  Agamemnon,  with  introduction,  transla- 
tion, and  commentarv,  ed.  bv  Fr.  List,  1863.  Cf.  L.  Doeder- 
lein,  Oeffentliche  Reden  (1860),  pp.  239  ff.  A.  G. 

Nagoya,  naang'o-ya'a :  city  of  central  Japan;  situated 
close  to  the  bay  of  Owari.  on  the  main  route  and  railwav 
between  the  two  capitals  (see  map  of  Japan,  ref.  6-D).  It 
was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  powerful  daimios  of  Owari,  who 
were  closely  allied  to  the  Tokugawa  ruling  house,  and  whose 
magnificent  castle,  now  used  as  a  militarv  station,  still  re- 
mains intact.  Nagoya  is  the  capital  of  the  prefecture  of 
Aichi.  The  town  and  district  are  celebrated  for  the  manu- 
facture of  fans,  cloisonne  ware,  porcelain  of  the  "egg-shell," 
"  frosted,"  and  other  delicate  varieties,  and  silks.  The  peo- 
ple are  devoted  Buddhists,  and  the  local  temples  are  fine. 
Pop.  (1892)  179,174.  J.  M.  Deson. 

Nagpnr',  or  Nagrpore  :  town  of  British  India;  capita!  of 
the  province  of  Berar  or  Nagpur;  situated  in  lat.  21°  9'  N., 
Ion.  79°  11'  E.,  430  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Bombay,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  railway  (see  map  of  S.  India,  ref.  2-E).  It 
is  7  miles  in  circumference  and  consists  mostly  of  mud 
huts.  The  ground  on  which  it  stands  is  swampy  and  un- 
healthful.  Its  manufactures  of  cotton  cloths,  coarse  and 
fine  chintzes,  v.-oolens,  silks,  and  brocades  are  important. 
In  1740  it  became  the  seat  of  an  independent  Mahratta 
prince  ;  in  1853  it  was  incorporated  with  the  British  do- 
minions.    Pop.  (1891)  117,014. 

Naliarro.  Bartolome  de  Torres:  poet;  b.  toward  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century  at  Torres,  near  Badajoz,  Spain. 
After  being  a  captive  in  Algiers,  he  visited  Rome  (after 
1513)  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  favor  of  Pope  Leo  X. 
Obliged  to  leave  Rome,  owing  to  a  satire  on  the  vices  of  the 
papal  court,  he  lived  for  a  time  at  Naples,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Fabricio  Colonna.  He  is  said  to  have  died  in 
poverty.  His  works  were  first  published  by  himself  at  Na- 
ples (1517)  under  the  title  Propalnilia,  and  dedicated  to 
Ferrante  d'Avalos,  husband  of  the  famous  Vittoria  Colonna. 
They  consist  of  satires,  epistles,  ballads,  and  particularly 
eight  plays,  called  by  the  author  Comedias.  These  latter 
were  the  first  attempt  in  Spanish  to  adoi)t  something  of  the 
form  and  manner  of  the  classical  and  the  Italian  drama. 
Though  fluent  and  amusing,  they  are  often  extremely  coarse 
and  never  remarkably  interesting.  The  openness'  of  the 
attacks  on  the  clergy  in  them  led  the  Inquisition  to  prohibit 
them,  and  the  later  editions  were  expurgated.  The  first 
Spanish  edition  appeared  at  Seville  in  1520,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  many  others,  both  there  and  elsewhere.  Four  of 
the  comedies  are  printed  in  Bold  von  Faber's  Teatro  Es- 
paiiol  (Hamburg.  1832).  In  spite  of  his  roughness,  Naliarro 
was  much  admired  and  imitated  in  Spain  during  the  six- 
teenth century.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Nalir-el-Asi :  See  Orontes. 

Nalir-el-Mukatta:  See  Kishon. 

Naliuatl  Antiquities:  See  Central  American  Antiq- 
uities. 

Na'lium  [=  Heb.  yahum.  liter.,  consolation] :  one  of  the 
twelve  minor  prophets.  He  is  called  an  Elkoshite,  but  no 
place  called  Elkosh  is  now  known.  Jerome  identified  it 
with  a  town  of  Galilee ;  Ewald  and  others  with  Alkusfi,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  aliout  2  miles  N.  of  Mosul,  where 
"  Nahuin's  tomb"  is  still  shown,  but  Layard  pronounces 
the  structure  to  be  comparatively  modern  :  and  there  is  no 
notice  of  Nahura  in  connection  with  this  place  earlier  than 
the  sixteenth  century.  Nahum  prophesies  after  Sennach- 
erib's invasion  (700  B.  r.)  and  before  the  destruction  of  Nine- 
veh (625  B.  c,  RawJinson.  or  606,  Oppert  and  Lenormant). 
His  Hebrew  is  of  the  most  classical  style. 

Na'iades:  the  Lamarckian  name  for  the  fresh-water 
mussels  forming  the  family  of  the  Unioxid.e  (g.  v.). 

Naiads  [from  Lat.  JS'ai'ades  =  6r.  Noi'tiSer,  Naiads]  :  the 
nymphs  of  fountains,  streams,  and  lakes,  as  distinguished 
from  the  Oceanids  and  the  Nereids.     Their  special  appella- 


XAILS 


XAIN 


53 


tions  vary  according  to  circumstances,  Cremrie,  Polameliles, 
LiiiiniiJes,  etc.     Sec  Nymtus. 

Nails  [O.  En;;,  ntrgel  :  <).  H.  (iorin.  nayul  >  Moii.  Germ. 
nagel,  luiil  (in  biitli  senses);  (jr.  oto{,  eliiw,  lioof,  nail  :  Lat. 
wiguix  :  Sansl<r.  ii(ik/id-\ :  the  plates  of  liorny  epidermis 
whieli  in  man  {jrow  upon  the  ilorsal  aspeet  of  tlie  distal  iilial- 
anp'S  of  IhiLCeis  and  toes.  They  are  the  liomolofjue.s  of  the 
hoofs  and  elaws  of  the  lower  animals.  They  eonsist  eaeh  of 
a  free  extremity,  of  which  Ijoth  sides  are  e.\posed  ;  of  a 
body,  havinjj  one  side  exposed  ;  and  of  a  matrix  or  root,  of 
which  lioth  sides  are  concealed  in  the  skin.  At  the  base  of 
the  nail  appears  a  crescent-shapeil  patch  of  li-jhter  color 
than  the  rest,  called  lunula  or  albedo.  .\s  the  result  of  sick- 
ness small  soots  of  whitish  color  are  formed  at  the  root  of 
the  nail,  ami  by  nbserving  their  pro;;ress  in  the  growth  to- 
ward the  tip  it  may  often  be  estimated  how  long  before  the 
observation  an  illness  occurred.  After  fractures  and  some 
nervous  diseases  tlie  nails  cease  to  grow  temporarily. 

Nails:  slender  |)ins  or  pieces  of  metal,  usually  tapering 
and  having  a  head,  useil  fur  fastening  piiccs  of  wood  or 
raetal  together,  or,  when  driven  into  any  material,  for 
hanging  articles  on.  Xails  are  classified  by  the  V.  S.  I'at- 
ent-ollice  as  cut,  wrought,  horseshoe,  shoe,  barbed,  composi- 
tion, button,  car|H't,  collin,  sheathing,  galvanized,  harness, 
leather-work,  picture,  siding,  slating,  trunk,  upholstery, 
weather-tiling,  and  screw-nails.  Of  these,  the  cut,  wrought, 
and  horscshiic  nails  are  by  far  the  most  important.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  nails  were  ordinarily 
manufactured  by  liauil-forging.  usually  by  wuineii  and  chil- 
dren, the  degradalii>n  of  the  nailmakei's  forming  one  of  the 
saddest  phases  of  ICuglish  industrial  life.  The  application 
of  machinery  to  the  fal)rication  of  all  the  more  important 
varieties  of  nails  originated  and  developed  chiefly  in  the 
U  S.  This  was  a  natural  result  of  the  universal  use  of 
wood  for  buildings,  fences,  etc.  The  first  cut  nails  are  said 
to  have  been  maile  in  Xew  Kngland  late  in  the  eighteenth 
century  by  cutting  the  blanks  fnuu  a  piece  of  sheet  metal 
and  heading  tlicm  with  a  hand-hammer  while  held  in  a  vise. 
In  1810  a  machiue  inventecl  in  the  U.  S.  cut  nails  at  the 
rate  of  100  per  minute.  The  rough  surface  of  a  cut  nail 
where  no  clinching  is  reiiuireil  a<lds  about  20  per  cent,  to 
the  holding  power.  For  uses  retjuiring  clinching  a  taper- 
ing hand-forged  nail,  termed  the  "  (ti'rman  wrought,"  was 
used  until  al)out  18G0,  when  manufacturei's  began  to  an- 
neal common  cut  nails,  giving  them  a  bending  (piality; 
and  these  soon  practically  drove  the  others  from  the  mar- 
ket. The  importance  attached  to  nail  manufacture  in  the 
U.  S.  may  be  infiTred  from  the  fact  that  previous  to  1874 
upwanl  of  ;^00  patents  were  issued  for  improvements  in 
making  cut  and  forged  nails,  of  which  twenty-three  were 
granted  iK'fore  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
These  embraced  the  germinal  ideas  of  the  presiMit  machinery 
for  cnttiiiq  nails,  while  an  earlier  Knglish  patent,  that  of 
William  I'^iiuh.  of  .StalTi>rdshire,  comiuMsed  the  use  of  tilt- 
hammers,  the  rapid  and  fonilile  striking  of  which  enabled 
several  nails  to  Ikj  made  from  the  rod  with  one  heat,  whereas 
by  haiiil  the  rod  reipiired  to  be  reheated  previous  to  the 
forging  of  each  nail. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cut  nails  the  iron  or  steel,  as  the 
case  may  be,  is  Urst  rolled  into  plates  having  a  thickness 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  nail  to  be  made,  measured 
from  one  flat  side  to  Ihi'  otiur,  and  a  width  somewhat 
greater  than  the  length  nf  the  finished  nail.  When  the  nails 
are  to  In;  annealed  for  clinchiiig,  the  length  of  the  plate  is 
transverse  to  the  grain  of  the  iron,  in  order  that  the  grain 
may  be  lengthwise  of  the  finished  nail  to  insure  greater 
flexibility  in  clinihing.  The  plate  is  then  placed  in  a  feed- 
ing ilevice,  which  moves  it  forwanl  to  dies  or  cutters,  which 
cut  a  tapering  blank  from  the  end  of  the  plate.  This  blank 
is  then  gripped  by  holding-jaws,  which  clamp  it  firmly 
while  a  punch  or  header  abuts  against  the  widest  end  of  the 
blank  ami  upsets  a  suflicieiit  portion  of  the  metal  to  form 
the  head.  In  order  to  secure  the  tapering  form  of  the 
blank  without  waste  of  material,  the  plate  is  turned  later- 
ally, so  that  its  end  is  at  a  slight  angle  to  the  cutting  de- 
vices or  dii's,  fii-st  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the  other,  the 
head  of  e;icli  alternate  nail  being  formed  at  that  Lateral  eilgc 
of  the  plate  opposite  that  at  which  the  head  of  the  previous 
nail  was  mailc.  In  some  eases  the  sjimc  result  has  been 
secured  by  giving  the  lateral  movement  to  the  cutting  dies 
while  the  plate  is  made  to  travel  in  a  straight  line.  In  one 
machine  tlie  plate  is  maile  of  a  width  sullicient  to  permit 
blanks  for  a  iiunil)er  of  nails  to  be  cut  simultancouslv  from 


its  end.  In  this  apparatus  rotating  cutting  dies,  instea<i  of 
vibrating  or  reciprocating  ones,  are  used  to  sever  the  blanks 
from  the  plate,  and  the  nails  by  this  machine  are  made  with 
chisi'l-shaped  points. 

In  the  manufacture  of  horseshoe  nails,  the  nail-rod,  heated 
at  one  end  for  about  a  foot  in  length,  has  its  free  or  outer  end 
steadied  by  the  hand  of  an  attendant,  but  is  gripia'd  near 
its  inner  end  by  an  intermittent  feeding-device  winch  feeds 
it  inward  to  the  hammering  mechanism.  This  latter  com- 
prises a  fixed  anvil,  the  face  of  which  corresponds  to  the  eon- 
tour  of  one  of  the  flat  sides  of  the  nail,  and  which  has  at 
one  edge  a  fixed  die  arranged  vertically  at  right  angles  to 
its  face,  and  corresfionding  in  its  form  to  one  of  the  curved 
lateral  edges  of  the  nail.  .\t  the  op|iosili^  side  of  the  anvil 
is  a  moving  dii'  having  a  face  the  same  shape  as  that  of  the 
anvil,  but  attached  to  one  end  of  a  rocking  lever,  the  ojjpo- 
site  arm  of  which  is  connected  by  a  nniversal  joint,  a  rod, 
and  strap  with  an  eccentric  on  a  rock-shaft  provided  trans- 
versely above  the  parts  just  noticed.  On  this  shaft,  imme- 
diately over  the  anvil,  is  a  disk  n|«in  the  periphery  of  which 
is  arranged  a  roller,  which  serves  the  purposes  of  a  striker. 
As  the  nail-rod  is  fed  inward,  with  its  heated  extremity 
upon  the  anvil,  the  rotation  of  the  striker  impinges  longi- 
tudinally upon  the  heated  end  of  the  rod,  striking  a  "draw- 
ing" blow,  which  of  course  elongates  the  metal.  As  soon 
as  the  striker,  carried  away  by  the  continued  rotation  of  the 
disk,  has  been  brought  out  of  contact  with  the  metal,  the 
moving  die  moves  inward,  cimipressing  the  flattened  part  to 
bring  its  lateral  surfaces  to  the  shape  rer|uired  in  the  edges 
of  the  nail.  This  d(.ne,  the  striker  strikes  again,  to  be 
followed  by  another  action  of  the  dies,  until  after  sixteen 
blows  of  the  striker  the  nail  is  complete  so  far  as  the  ham- 
mering is  concerned:  but  the  process  of  shaping  does  not 
end  here.  The  "  point  "  of  the  nail  at  this  stage  is  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  wide,  and  is  rough  and  jagged.  The  nail  is, 
moreover,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  longer  than  when  fin- 
ished. To  complete  the  work,  a  little  device,  termed  a 
"poker,"  bends  tile  point  or  \\\>  sidewise  until  one  edge  in- 
tercepts (at  a  proper  place  along  the  length)  an  imaginary 
line  drawn  axially  through  the  nail.  This  done,  a  cutter  at 
the  opposite  side  traverses  a  path  corresponding  to  the  cur- 
vature just  given  by  the  benuing  to  tlie  edge  just  previously 
referred  to.  and  cuts  off  the  -surplus  metal  from  the  tip.  A 
slight  rclrograde  motion  of  the  rod  permits  a  suitable  cut- 
ting device  to  sever  the  finished  nail  therefrom. 

The  wire  nail  consists  essentially  of  a  cylindrical  piece  of 
wire  of  suitable  length,  with  one  end  properly  sharpened  and 
the  other  upset  to  form  a  head.  A  good  wire  nail  has  great 
holding-power.  A  succession  of  new  machines  and  mechani- 
cal operations  tends  constantly  to  increase  the  output  and 
improve  the  quality  of  this  variety  of  nails.  In  the  produc- 
tion of  cut  nails  steel  has,  in  a  measure,  taken  the  place  of 
iron.  This  is  due  to  the  cheapening  of  a  suitable  (luality  of 
-steel,  anil  to  its  greater  strength  and  toughnes-s.  Xotwiih- 
standing  the  long  period  during  which  the  niacliine-manu- 
facturc  of  cut  nails  has  been  carried  on,  improvements  and 
changes  in  machinery  are  con.stantly  made. 

Of  the  minor  varieties  of  nails  may  be  mentioned  garden 
nails,  maile  of  cast  inm  and  freijuently  toiiglieueil  by  an- 
nealing: screw-nails,  made  with  flat  shanks,  to  which  a 
spiral  twist,  from  a  half  to  a  full  turn,  is  given:  and  barbed 
nails,  notched  or  provided  with  notches  or  with  spurs  to 
increase  their  hold  on  the  wooil.  Shoe-nails  an-  headless 
tapering  nails  cut,  the  smaller  sizes,  from  sheet  zinc,  the 
larger  from  iron.  Ornamental  nails,  such  as  ai-e  used  for 
pictures,  coflins.  etc.,  are  made  with  wrought  shanks  and 
porcelain  or  stamped  sheet-metal  heails.  the  latter  allaehed 
iiy  being  screwed  upon  the  shanks  or  by  soldering  with  soft 
metal.  .Tamks  A.  WniTNEV. 

Nain  r=  Or.  NoJk  =  lleb.  An"iii,  liter.,  pasture]:  4  poor 
little  village  in  (ialilee.  (!  miles  S.  K.  of  Xazareth,  men- 
tioned onlv  in  the  Xew  Testament  (I,uke  vii.)  as  the  place 
where  our  liord  raiseil  the  widow's  son  from  the  deail  (see 
map  of  Palestine,  ref.  O-D).  It  was  tln'U  a  walleil  town, 
witli  a  ceinetv'ry  some  ten  minutes'walk  totlie  K.  It  is  beau- 
tifully situated,  and  now  contains  a  few  mud  and  stono 
hou.ses  occupied  by  >Iosleni-s. 

Nalll  :  mission  station  of  the  ^Moravian  Hrothers.  on  the 
east  coast  of  Labrador,  in  lat.  .")f>"  ;iO  X.;  [Mililically  a  part 
of  N^ewfoundland.  The  climate  is  severe:  the  mean  tem- 
perature for  summer  is  48  !•". :  for  winter,  —7  V. ;  for  the 
year.  iTy  K.  Pop.  about  300,  consisting  of  Christianized 
Ks(|iiimaux.  M.  W.  II. 


54 


NAIRNE 


NAME 


Nalrne,  Lady  Carolina  Oliphant,  Baroness :  poet ;  b.  at 
Gask,  Pertlishire,  Scotland,  July  16.  1766  ;  was  called  in  her 
youth  the  Flower  of  Strathearn,  from  her  great  beauty; 
married  in  1806  Capt.  V\'.  Murray  Nairne,  afterward  Lord 
Nairne;  belonged  to  a  prominent  Jacobite  family;  wrote 
The  Laird  o'  Cuckpen,  The  Land  o'  the  Leal,  and  other 
popular  Scotch  ballads,  the  authorship  of  which  was  kept 
secret  until  shortly  before  her  death,  which  occui-red  at 
Gask,  Oct.  27,  1845.  See  her  Memoir  and  Complete  Lyrical 
Compositions,  by  Charles  Rogers  (1869). 

Nairnshire :  county  of  Scotland ;  bordering  on  the 
Mi>ray  Firth,  Elginshire,  and  Inverness-shire.  Area.  169  sij. 
miles'  The  surface  generally  ascends  from  a  fertile  and 
well-wooded  tract  near  the  coast,  until  at  Carn  Glas,  on  the 
southern  boundary,  it  attains  3,162  feet.  Most  of  the  ground 
is  covered  with  forest,  and  less  than  a  fifth  of  the  entire 
area  is  inider  cultivation,  more  attention  being  paid  to 
stock  than  crops.  Pop.  (1891)  10,019.  Capital,  Nairn,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Nairn,  with  a  good  harbor,  protected 
by  a  breakwater.  Pop.  (1891)  4.651,  ehielly  engaged  in  her- 
ring-fishing. Near  by  is  the  village  of  Cawdor,  with  the 
castle  of  the  same  name,  in  which,  according  to  tradition, 
Macbeth  murdered  Duncan  ;  the  present  building,  however, 
is  not  older  than  the  fifteenth  century. 

Najac.  Emile,  Comte  de :  dramatic  writer ;  b.  at  Lorient, 
Morbihan,  France,  Dec.  14.  1828.  After  studying  law  he 
obtained  a  post  in  the  ministry  of  the  Interior,  but  later 
gave  this  up  for  a  purely  literary  career.  For  a  whole  gen- 
eration he  has  produced,  alone  and  in  collaboration  with 
others,  a  stream  of  comedies,  farces,  operettas,  etc.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  i^a  j5o«/e  et  ses  poiissins  (1861); 
Les  oiseaux  en  cage  (1863);  La  demiere  poupee  (1875); 
Theatre  des  gens  du  monde  (1873):  Madame  est  seri'ie 
(1874);  with  Scribe.  Lafille  de  trente  ans  (1859);  with  Sar- 
dou,  the  comic  opera  Les  twees  de  Jf'ernande  (music  by 
Deffes.  1878) ;  and  the  comedy  Divorfons  (1880).    A.  R.  M.  " 

Nalihiinur,  na'ak-hee'mov,  Akim  Nikolaevich  :  satirical 
poet ;  b.  in  1782,  on  his  father's  estate  in  the  government 
of  Kharkov,  Russia ;  was  educated  in  Moscow,  and  at  tlie 
University  of  Kharkov ;  but  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  remained  most  of  the  time  at  his  home  in  the  country. 
In  his  leisure  moments  he  wrote  poems,  of  which  the  best 
known  is  his  Satirical  Elegy  (1809),  called  forth  by  a  new 
law  on  the  education  of  officials.  D.  in  1815.  The  seventh 
edition  of  his  complete  works  appeared  in  1852,  in  the  col- 
lection of  Smirdin.  A.  C.  C. 

Nakllitchevan':  town  of  European  Russia;  on  the  Don, 
30  miles  from  its  mouth  ;  founded  in  1780  by  an  Armenian 
colony  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  10-E).  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Armenian  Patriaix-h  of  Russia ;  has  some  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  silk,  and  an  extensive  trade.     Pop.  (1889)  17,347. 

Nakoo :  See  Gavial. 

Namaland,  Great,  or  Namaqualaud :  the  southern  part 
of  the  German  possessions  in  Scjuthwest  Africa ;  bounded  X. 
by  Damaraland,  E.  by  the  Kalihari  Desert  and  British 
Bechuanaland.  S.  by  Cape  Colony,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic. 
It  is  the  chief  home  of  the  remnant  of  the  uncivilized  por- 
tion of  the  Xama  or  Hottentot  people,  and  forms  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  semi-arid  lands  of  Southwest  Africa. 
The  characteristic  features  are  sandy,  undulating  plains, 
hills,  and  mountains  dividing  the  coast  lands  from  the  de- 
pression of  the  Kalihari,  bitter  salt  springs,  dry  river-beds, 
and  a  few  long,  narrow,  verdant  valleys,  where  the  mission- 
ary and  cliief  native  settlements  are  found.  The  region  is 
less  valual)le  in  its  prospects  of  mining  and  agricultural  de- 
velopment than  the  German  possessions  adjoining  it  on  the 
north.  C.  C.  Adams. 

Namangan  :  a  town  and  foi'tress  of  Ferghana,  Russian 
Turkestan  ;  on  the  upper  Syr-Daria  ;  lat.  41°  N.,  Ion.  71°  40' 
E. ;  50  miles  N.  E.  of  Khokan.  It  is  the  chief  commercial 
city  of  the  upper  valley  of  the  river,  and  transacts  a  large 
business  in  sheep,  wool,  hides,  yarn,  and  fruit.  Rafts  are 
extensivelv  used  to  convey  the  merchandise  down  the  river. 
Pop.  (1888)  31,074.  ■  M.  W.  H. 

Namaf(iias:  See  Hottentots. 

Namatia'nns,  Rutiuus  Claudius:  a  Latin  poet  of  the 
fifth  century,  who  wrote  in  elegiac  verse  an  account  of  his 
return  from  Rome  to  Gaul  (de  reditu  suo)  in  two  books  (of 
which  nearly  the  whole  of  the  second  is  lost),  interesting  for 
the  description  of  ]ilaces  and  the  personal  allusions,  and 
very  correct  in  form.     The  writer  was  a  Stoic,  and  despised 


both  the  Christians  and  the  Jews.  See  edition  of  L.  Muel- 
ler (Leipzig,  1870)  and  Baehrens,  Poei.  Lat.  Mtnores,  vol.  v., 
pp.  4-30  (Leipzig,  1883).  M.  Warren. 

Namaycusli,  or  Mackinaw  Trout :  one  of  the  largest  of 
the  fresh-water  Salmonidce.  Its  scientific  name  is  Saleeli- 
nus  or  Oristifomer  namaycush.  It  inhabits  the  upper  lakes 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  and  the  lakes  westward  to  Briti.sh 
Columbia  and  Alaska.  It  is  caught  with  the  spear  mostly. 
Specimens  of  130  lb.  weight  are  reported,  but  it  does  not 
often  exceed  50.  The  flesh  is  good,  but  not  of  first  quality. 
It  is  also  called  longe,  togue,  and  Great  Lake  trout. 

Namdiull :  city  of  Tonquin,  Indo-China  :  50  miles  S.  E. 
of  Hanoi.  3  miles  from  the  Song-koi  or  Red  river,  and  30 
miles  from  the  coast ;  lat.  20°  25'  N..  Ion.  106°  8'  E.  It  is 
the  residence  of  a  French  political  agent,  a  center  for  the 
Annamite  French  consular  service,  and  contains  magazines 
of  military  stores.  It  is  a  center  of  a  rich  portion  of  the 
Song-koi  delta,  and  has  an  active  commerce  in  rice,  cotton, 
silk,  indigo,  salt,  and  wood-carvings.  The  exports  go  chiefly 
to  the  southern  provinces  of  China.     Pop.  50,000. 

Name  [0.  Eng.  /»«??»«.  :  0.  H.  Germ,  namo  (>  Mod.  Germ. 
7iame)  :  Goth,  namo;  cf.  Sanskr.  ndman-  :  Gr.  ivofw.  :  Lat. 
nomen,  name]  :  the  word  or  words  by  which  a  jierson,  place, 
or  thing,  or  a  family  or  class  of  persons  or  things  is  desig- 
nated. Among  savages,  with  whom  general  social  relations 
and  history  are  in  an  undeveloped  condition,  a  single  appel- 
lation derived  from  some  association  is  enough  for  tlie  name 
of  a  person.  He  who  kills  a  wolf  under  striking  circum- 
stances is  called  Wolf,  and  the  man  who  dreams  of  an  eagle 
is  named  Eagle.  Among  certain  tribes  in  North  America 
the  animal-spirit  peculiar  to  each  Indian  is  the  first  creature 
which  a]ipears  to  him  in  a  dream  after  fasting  and  seclusion, 
and  this,  his  totem,  gives  him  a  name.  The  first  distinction 
recognized  is  that  of  proper  and  connnon  names,  or  that  of 
the  individual  as  distinguished  from  the  family  and  tribe. 
As  there  is  something  reserved  and  sacred  often  attached  to 
the  former,  there  was  often  a  mystery  as.sociated  with  it ; 
and,  as  Schoolcraft  observes,  "An  Indian  will  tell  his  spe- 
cific name  with  great  reluctance,  but  his  generic  or  family 
name  he  will  declare  with  pride." 

Scriptvre  Names. — The  early  Hebrews  gave  an  infant  a 
name  as  soon  as  it  was  born,  from  some  striking  accident 
relative  to  it.  It  thus  became  commemorative  of  the  history 
of  the  family.  When  Eve  bore  her  first  son  she  said,  "  I 
have  gotten  a  man  from  the  Lord."  whence  he  was  called 
Cain,  meaning  "  gotten  "  or  acquired.  Noah  signifies  •'  com- 
fort" (Gen.  V.  39).  The  vigor  and  intelligence  shown  in  our 
Scripture  names  were  remarkable.  They  greatly  influenced 
Hebrew  literature,  and  are  the  finest  of  antiquity.  Those  of 
the  women  were  derived  from  character  and  circumstance : 
e.  g.  Adah  or  Ada.  "  ornament "  ;  Leah,  "  weary  "  :  Deborah, 
"  a  bee."  The  names  of  the  patriarchs  generally  had  a  mys- 
tical meaning.  Elijah  and  Joel  are  comjiosed  of  two  names 
of  God;  Josaphat  and  Saphatias  indicate  the  judgment  of 
God;  Johanan  or  John  of  Hanania,  his  mercy:  Nathaniel, 
Elnathan,  Jonathan,  and  Nathania,  all  mean  "the  gift  of 
God,"  as  Devadatta  was  Sanskrit,  and  as  Theodore,  Greek. 

Arabia  and  Turkey.— Among  the  Arabs  and  Turks  names 
are  few  and  simple.  As  Mohammed  said,  "  Give  your  sons 
the  names  of  prophets,"  the  result  has  been  an  interminable 
repetition  of  Mohammed,  Mahmud,  Hamet.  or  Aclimet;  of 
Ibrahim  (Abraham),  Moussa  (Moses),  Suleiman  (Scihimon), 
Dauoud  (David),  and  Aissa  (Jesus).  Then  come  the  names 
of  their  heroes,  such  as  Osman,  Ali,  Omar.  In  a  third  cate- 
gory are  the  names  beginning  with  Abd,  a  "  servant,"  as 
Abd-el-Kader,  "servant  of  the  All-Powerful,"  Abd-AUah, 
"servant  of  God."  To  these  follow  names  ending  in  rfm, 
"  religion."  as  Salah-ed-Din  (Saladin),  "  restorer  of  religion." 
Some  names  consist  of  these  elements  composed,  as  Hamet- 
el-Abd,  "  Mohammed  the  servant,"  and  others  are  merely 
adjectives,  as  Said,  "happy  or  fortunate,"  Hassan,  "hand- 
some," Hussein,  "  powerful,"  Reshid,  "  just  judge,"  Jlusta- 
pha,  "  elected  of  God."  To  indicate  men  more  accurately, 
surnames  are  often  added — e.g.  El  Kebir,  "the  great"; 
words  of  relationship— e.  g.  Abu  or  Bu.  "  father."  Abu- 
Nebas,  "the  father  of  the  race."  Among  the  feminine 
names  are  Lulu,  a  "  pearl,"  Zarifa,  "  beauty."  Girls  are  also 
called  after  the  wives  or  female  relatives  of  the  Prophet. 
Men  sometimes  take  as  surnames  appellations  relating  to 
their  country,  birthplace,  origin,  family,  sect,  trade,  or 
occupation. 

Oreece. — The  Greeks  in  the  time  of  Aristotle  gave  a  child 
its  name  on  the  seventh  day  after  birth.     It  was  afterward 


NAME 


55 


given  on  the  tenth  day.  It  was  derived  from  some  quality, 
such  as  piety,  a  {rreat  event,  u  striking  personal  quality,  a 
happy  presage;  from  some  virtue  or  ]iliysicul  aifvantago, 
from  friendship,  or  by  chance.  The  grandson  took  his 
name  from  his  grandfather  or  the  nephesv  from  his  uncle, 
and  to  prevent  confusion  another  nanie,  such  as  the  father's, 
was  added,  or  else  one  derived  from  the  calling  of  the 
bearer,  from  his  birthplace,  or  a  nickname.  The  father's 
name  was,  with  a  slight  change, also  given  to  one  child,  e.g. 
Chryseis,  "  daughter  of  t'hryses."  In  later  times  names  of 
[leople  were  taken  from  the  gods,  e.g.  Apollmlonis,  "gift  of 
Apollo."  Thongh  denie<l  by  many  writers,  it  is  evident 
that  something  like  a  generic  name  wius  aijplied  to  many 
families:  e.g.  the  lleraclida',  the  Cecropidic,  the  Atrida-, 
the  Alcmeonidu'.  Many  of  the  Greek  names  were  very 
beautiful — e.g.  Aphrociite,  "foam  of  the  .sea";  Artenuis 
(ni.),  "  perfect,"  Artemisia  (f.),  "perfect";  Diana,  "bright 
as  day  ■  ;  Kiomede,  "ilear  to  .lupiter  "  ;  Zenobia  (f.),  "  life," 
from  Zeno,  the  lonl  of  life ;  Spiridion, "  breath  of  the  gods  "  ; 
lsidore(m.),  Isidora  (f.),  "gift  of  Isis";  llelio(h)rus,  "gift  of 
the  snn";  Zeno,  "life"  (the  lord  of);  Zoe,  "life";  Ama- 
ranth. "  unfading  flower." 

liiimr. — The  Romans,  like  oui'selves.  had  a  family  tmme, 
called  the  noinm  gm/ililium,  generally  ending  in  («»,  eius, 
or  aiuK.  This,  derived  from  the  gens,  "clan  or  tribe,"  was 
the  nomeii  or  name  |)ro|H'r.  As  the  clan  was  divided  into 
families,  there  was  al.so  the  hereditary  aii/niimen.  while  the 
priFnomtn  distinguished  the  individual.  .Sometimes,  by  way 
of  further  distinction,  a  second  cognomen,  calleil  the  atpto- 
men,  was  borne.  This  was  often  an  honorable  title  derived 
from  some  great  exploit.  The  pntnominn  or  "t'hrislian 
names,"  so  to  .speak,  were  not  more  than  thirty  in  number, 
whence  the  constant  repetition  of  Marcus,  Decimus,  Klorus, 
Gains, etc.  Romans  often  took  their  names  from  their  order 
of  birth,  as  Primus,  Secundus.  T<Ttius  ("first,"  "second," 
"  thinl"),  and  cognomens  were  derived  from  the  months  in 
which  they  were  born  or  from  .some  personal  peculiaritv; 
from  being  a  twin  or  a  |«>slhumouschild  ;  from  a  city,  river, 
or  country.  The  chiugnter's  name  was  the  feminiiie  form 
of  that  of  the  father — i'.  g.  Julia  from  .Julius,  (Jctavia  from 
Octavius.  To  distinguish  the  individual,  she  also  received 
another  name  grown  hereditary  in  the  family,  as  Julia 
Agrippina;  but  the  surname  wits  often  fanciful,  as  Frli- 
cu/o,"  little  cat  "or  "puss."  Xickmunes  were  common.  After 
marriage  a  Roman  lady  bore  the  name  of  lier  husband  in 
feminine  form,  whence  it  was  usual  to  say  at  marriage, 
*'  Where  you  are  (iaius,  I  will  be  Gaia."  '  Many  Roman 
names  wvre  from  Ktruscan  or  other  old  Italian  sources  ; 
some  were  from  the  most  trifling  or  undignified  personal 
peculiarities  or  m'cupations.  Willi  the  Xorthem  invaders 
came  chiefs  proud  of  their  own  ancient  Gothic  names  ami 
families;  that  of  Theodoric  gloried  in  the  recollection  of 
Auial,  whence  .Vmalaric,  Amalafride.  Amalaberg.  With 
Christianity  came  names  from  the  Hible,  but  the  old  hea- 
then family  appellations  "died  hard.''  .St.  John  C'hrysostom 
in  the  fourth  century  complained  of  this  obstinacy,  as  did 
St.  (iregory  in  the  si.\th  century.  .Such  were  the  names 
Wolf,  anil  those  founded  on  Ans  or  As,  indicative  of  a  god  ; 
e.g.  An.selm,  Ksinond,  Oscar  or  Elf,  Ilildebrand,  "  war- 
sword,"  Berthl^  "the  bright  goddess"  (.Vlbert.  Bertram). 
Gertrudis,  etc.  All  of  these  were  sources  of  pride,  owing  to 
age  and  a.ssociations. 

Knylixh  yamrit. — The  entire  history  of  I nilo- European 
names  is  that  of  a  growth  fnjm  a  condition  like  that  of  the 
Arab  ami  Indian  to  the  one  now  prevalent  among  us.  Those 
of  the  .Vnglo-Saxons  were  imposed,  says  .Shan in  Turner,  aj> 
with  us,  in  their  infancv,  by  their  parents.  Thev  were  fre- 
quently compound  words,  rather  expressive  of  caprice  than 
of  appropriate  meaning.  The  following  are  specimens: 
.Kthelwulf.  "the  nolilc  wolf";  .Klhel  or  Ethel.  Adel,  and 
Adeline,  meaning  "noble":  Rertwnlf  or  Hertolf.  "illuslrioiis 
wolf" ;  Eadwulf.  "  the  prosperous  wolf"  ;  .Ethidwyii,  "  noble 
joy";  Eadric,  "happy  and  rich";  -Klfreil,  an' "elf  (i.e. 
shrewd)  incourn-il"  ;  Sigeric,"  victorious  and  rich";  ^l-^lhel- 
red,  "noble  in  s|M'ech  "  ((lennan,  Unlr);  Had mu ml  or  Ed- 
mund, "prosperous  patron";  Eadwin,  "  pni>|»Tous  in 
battle";  Dnnstan,  "mountain-stone";  Kthelbald,  "noble 
and  bold";  Eadward,  "  prospcnius  guardian";  Elhi'Islan, 
"noble  rock"  (or  slomi  :  EtheltiiTt.  "noble  anil  illusiri- ] 
ous."  These  names  partially  renuiin  to-day.  Many  An-  ' 
ghvSaxon  luimes  were  wild  ami  strange;  e'.  g.  lieanhelm,  ! 
"helmet  of  the  nobles";  Eardwulf,  "  wolf  of  the  earth  or 
province  "  ;  Werburg.  "  hedge  of  the  city  "  ;  Sigfred.  "  peace 
of    victory";     Beonheat,    "the    soaring    Ix-e";     Beagstan, 


"bracelet  stone";  Wulfhcah  (wolf-high),  "tall  wolf"; 
Beornoth,  "  noble's  oath  " ;  Wine,  "  the  dear  one,"  which 
often  forms  a  part  of  nmny  names;  Sa'freth,  "freedom 
of  thesi'a";  t'eolinuml,  "  iirote<ting  ship."  Female  names 
were  not  less  fanciful.  Tlius  Dudda,  meaning  the  "  family 
stem,"  was  a  father  who  had  three  daughters — Deorwyn, 
"dear  to  nniii  "  or  "dear  love,"  Deorswyt he.  "  very  dear," 
and  Golde,  "golden."  A  father.  -Ethelwyn  ("noble  joy"), 
hail  four  sons — ..-Ethelwidd,  "noble  governor,"  Alfw'old, 
"ruling  elf,"  Athelsin,  "always  noble,"  and  yKthelwyn.' 
It  is  not  settled  whether  the  Anglo-Saxons  always  used 
surnames.  Many  certaiidy  ha<l  apjiellations  added  to  their 
original  names.  Thus  there  was  Wulfsic  se  bluca,  or  "  the 
j>ole,"  anil  Thurceles  liwitan,  or  "the  white."  These  were, 
however,  among  the  .Sa.xons,  as  for  many  centuries  later  in 
England,  derived  from  many  causes,  as  from  the  place  of 
residence— e.  g.  ..l^lfric  at  Bertune;  or  from  the  father,  as 
Elfgare  ^Elfan  sumi,  "  Elfgare,  .son  of  A'Man,"  or,  more 
shortly,  Wulfrig  Madding.  Badenoth  Beotting.  Office, 
trade,  or  pos.session  often  bestowed  a  name,  as  Leofwine 
ealdornian  ("aldernmn  "),  Swcigen  scyldwiriha  ("  the  shield- 
bearer"),  .Egelifrig  nninuc  ("monk").  In  the  course  of 
time,  though  very  rarely  among  the  Anglo-.Saxons,  these 
became  family  nanu's,  and  as  such  still  exist.  Among 
women's  names  are  Ethelswytha,  "very  noble";  Seleth- 
rytha,  "a  goixl  threatener  "  (Anglo-Saxon  ladies  appear  to 
have  excelled  as  scolds) ;  Editha,  "the  blessed  gift  ;  Elf- 
hilda,  "elf  of  battle";  Beage,  "bracelet";  Ethelfritha, 
"  noble  and  powerful  ";  Adeleva.  "  noble  wife  ":  Ileaburga, 
"  high  tower  "  (a  tall  lady) ;  Adelfleda,  "  noble  pregnancy  " ; 
Elfgiva,  "elf  favor";  ftdgiva,  "happy  gift'';  Ethelgiva, 
"noble  gift";  Wynfreda,  Winifrede,  "peace  of  man"; 
Ethelhilda,  "noble  war-goddess";  Elfthryihe,  "threaten- 
ing as  an  elf."  Saxon  is  the  stock  on  which  the  English 
and  American  names  of  the  present  day  are  formed.  Next 
to  these  come  the  Norman,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
both  were  in  a  great  degree  founded  on  a  common  Teutonic 
origin.  Though  the  Anglo-Saxons  very  rarely  employed 
a  regular  system  of  family  nomenclature  similar  to  our 
own.  they  attempted  to  show  relationship  by  the  use  of 
similar  iiersomil  names.  Thus  in  one  family  we  find  Wig- 
niunii.  Wig-helm,  Wig-laf.  Wih-  (or  Wig-)'  stan,  and  the 
nineteen  descendants  of  Alfred  had  their  names  begin- 
ning with  Kad  ("prosperous").  The  termination  -mg, 
as  in  Brening,  Deriiig,  Whiting,  means  a  descendant, 
or  "burn  of."  Surnanu^s  were  not  common  before  the 
eleventh  century,  thouj^h  they  were  used,  hereditarily, 
occasionally  both  by  lords  and  common  men.  Among  the 
oldest  of  these  family  names  were  the  names  liiniet  (Lin- 
ney),  Grinikelson,  Dilbbe,  Tuk  (or  Tuckey),  I'incebek,  and 
(iamelson.  The  ingress  of  the  Normans  introduced  the  use 
of  .Scripture  names.  During  three  centuries  after  the  Con- 
quest people  of  rank  began  to  assume  first  .some  surname  of 
place  or  characteristic,  and  then  one  of  family.  The  younger 
branches  of  a  family  often  laid  aside  the  father's  mime  and 
took  one  from  the  place  where  they  lived,  and  thus  (in 
Cheshire)  in  three  descents  as  many  surnames  are  found  in 
the  same  family.  Several  brothers  often  a.ssume  different 
surnames.  Ileiicc  it  is  dilficult  to  trace  the  jiedigree  of  any 
family  beyond  the  thirteenth  century.  The  roll  of  Battle 
.\bbey,  containing  the  names  of  those  who  fought  at  the 
Conquest,  gives  the  cream  of  the  Norman  aristocracy,  so 
that  a  biographer  of  Chaucer  declared  that  all  names  to  be 
found  in  it  ennobled  their  deseendant.s.  (For  different  ver- 
sions of  this  roll,  see  Lower.  Ptitroiii/inica  Jirilaiiiiira.) 
The  Normans  introduced  the  title  de  ("  of  "  or  "  from  ")  as 
indicating  the  names  of  their  estates;  e.g.  Le  Sire  de  Vitry, 
I'aeniiel  ilu  Monsticr-IIubert.  The  mingling  of  Norman 
with  Kn;;li-,h  names  soon  formed  a  sjid  chaos,  many  callings, 
jilaces,  and  nicknanu's  being  translated  into  French  and 
thence  .\ni;liiizeil,  while  the  confusion  was  worse  confound- 
ed by  the  I,atinization  of  others.  ,1/,  meaning  the  same  as 
de,OT  indicating  residence, enters  into  nniny  English  names; 
e.g.  Alhill,  AIwihmI.  In  Nonnan  names' many  old  Norse 
words  became  French.  Thus  eg  or  n.  "  island,"  became 
CM  (Cantaleu) ;  ^I'y^  a  river,  rfci/r  le.  g.  Ilarfleur);  bo  or  by, 
an  "island,"  iu'ii/(l'aiml«vnf) ;  garllt  became  gard  (Epe- 
gnrd),  etc. 

Celtic  names  were  originally  formeil  on  the  same  princi- 
ples a.s  the  Sixon,  the  affix  Mar,  denoting  "son,"  iK'inc 
usually  iLssumed  in  Scotland,  as  was  O'  ("grand.son  ' ) 
among  the  Irish,  and  .1/)  with  the  Welsh.  The  hr.i.i  of  a 
clan  in  Si'otland  is  siMiken  of  as  The — e.g. The  Mm  lTi  L'"r — 
and   he  is  addressed  by  the  name  alone,  without  an  article. 


66 


NAME 


NAMES,  LAW   OP 


The  entire  clan  usually  bore  the  chief's  name.  Among 
Celtic  names  are  Angus,  "  firm  "  ;  Fingal,  "  strongest  of  the 
strong  "  ;  Brian,  '•  chief  "  :  Fergus,  •'  strong  arm  or  man  "  ; 
Arthur,  "a  bear";  Ciriffith,  "  a  dragon" :  Hugh,  "mighty, 
indomitable":  Murdoch.  "  great  chief";  Owen  (Johu),  "a 
lamb";  Dugald,  "black-haired";  Rowena,  "the  white- 
necked  "  (?) ;  Brenna,  Brenda,  "  raven-haired  "  ;  Cordelia, 
"  token  of  the  flowing  " ;  Morgiana,  "  lady  of  the  sea." 

There  are  in  Great  Britain  nearly  50.000  surnames,  de- 
rived from  every  conceivable  source,  such  as  animals,  of- 
fices, saints,  traders'  signs,  virtues,  and  even  from  oaths 
and  salutations,  such  as  Bigot,  from  "  by  God  " ;  Pardoe, 
from  "  )iar  Dieii "  ;  Godsall.  from  "  God's  soul "  ;  Olyfader, 
from  "Holy  Father";  and  Belcher,  from  "  belchere."  The 
commonest"  name  is  Smith  ;  the  next  in  order  Jones.  Tay- 
lor, Williams,  lirown,  Uavies,  Thomas,  Robinson.  Of  the 
second  class  as  to  number  are  Baker,  Clark,  Cooper,  Davis, 
Edwards,  Evans.  Green.  Hall,  Harris,  Harrison,  and  others, 
in  apparently  the  same  proportion  as  in  America. 

In  Wales  there  are  districts  in  which  family  surnames 
are  not  yet  known,  and  there  are  places  all  over  Great 
Britain  in  which  nicknames  or  sobriquets  like  those  of  the 
Middle  Ages  are  iu  general  use.  It  has  been  frequently  as- 
serted that  French  names  introduced  at  the  Conquest  may 
be  known  by  such  prefixes  as  de,  du,  des,  de  la,  saint,  or  by 
the  suffixes  font,  ers,  faut,  beau,  age,  mont,  ard,  aux-bois, 
ly,  eux.  et,  val.  court,  lay.  fort,  ot,  champ,  and  ville ;  but  this 
is  far  from  being  the  case,  since  very  soon  after  the  Con- 
quest these  terms  came  into  such  general  use  as  to  make 
distinctions  almost  impossible.  The  Norman  term  ftz  is 
commonly  lielieved  to  signify  illegitimate  descent,  but  tliis 
was  by  no  means  invariably  the  case,  the  word  itself  mean- 
ing simply  tits,  or  "  son." 

In  many  European  countries  the  husband  adds  his  wife's 
name  to  his  own,  and  in  Spain,  if  the  mother  is  of  better 
family  than  the  father,  the  children  take  her  family  appel- 
lation. In  inheriting  Scotch  estates  it  is  a  very  common 
condition  that  a  certain  name  shall  be  taken  with  the  prop- 
erty. 

Ancient  Egypt. — Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  the  king 
ordinarily  had  two  names — one  a  pr*nomen  or  solar  title, 
assumed  at  coronation  (as  Men-Cheper-Ra,  the  pnenomen  of 
Thotmes  III.,  or  Cheper-Ka-Ra,  that  of  Usertaseu  I.  of  the 
twelfth  dynasty),  and  a  family  name.  In  writing  these  were 
includeil  iu  ovals  or  cartouches.  Individuals  had  often  two 
names,  but  the  Egyptians  generally  used  only  one.  Egyp- 
tian proper  names,  however,  present  great  variety  of  struc- 
ture, some  being  apparently  very  simple  and  not  always 
possessed  of  particular  significance,  while  others  present 
more  or  less  complete  sentences.  The  latter  usually  have  a 
divine  name  a-s  a  component  part,  and  are  capable  of  a  more 
or  less  exact  translation. 

Ctiina  and  Korea. — The  Chinese  have  at  least  two  names  : 
one  a  "sing"  or  family  name,  which  is  invariably  placed 
first  in  both  speech  and  writing,  and  a  "  ming  "  or  personal 
or  given  name,  corresponding  to  the  Christian  name  of 
Western  nations.  There  were  originally  only  100  family 
names,  but  now  there  are  438,  of  which  thirty  are  dissylla- 
lic,  as  Sze-ma,  Ow-yang,  etc.  The  others  are  all  monosyl- 
labic. The  little  book  called  Peh-Kia-Sing,  or  Hundred 
Family  Names,  which  contains  lists  of  these  characters,  is 
the  most  popular  book  in  China,  and  as  it  covers  nearly 
every  sound  in  the  language  it  affords  to  the  unlearned  a 
convenient  list  of  phonetics  for  correspondence  and  account- 
keeping.  These  names  are  usually  tlie  names  of  common 
objects  such  as  Lung,  "dragon'  ;  Lang,  "wolf";  Ma, 
"  hemp  "  ;  Li  (pronounced  lee),  "  a  plum  "  ;  Lin,  "  forest "  ; 
Liu,  "willow";  T,i'un,  "inch";  Ilivang,  "yellow";  Luy, 
"  thunder  "  ;  Wang, "  prince."  The  surnames  Li,  Wang,  and 
Chang  are  as  common  in  China  as  Smith,  Brnwn,  and  Jones 
are  among  English-speaking  peoples.  Persons  having  the 
same  surname  can  not  intermarry. 

The  ming,  or  given  name,  is  usually  in  two  syllables,  and 
invariably  follows  the  sing  or  surname,  as  Li  Hung-chang 
(the  famous  viceroy  and  grand  secretary).  Tseng  Kwo-fan. 
It  is  therefore  improijer  to  speak  of  Mr.  Ch'ang  or  of  Jlr. 
Hung-chang  ;  Mr.  Li  and  Jlr.  Tseng  are  correct.  The  sur- 
name never  varies,  but  the  ming  may.  At  birth  a  boy  re- 
ceives a  "  milk-name  "  ;  when  he  goes  to  school  he  receives 
a  "  book-name  "  ;  when  he  marries  he  takes  a  "  great  name  " ; 
when  Irt;  takes  his  degree  or  enters  upon  office  he  assumes 
an  "official  name";  while  in  the  ancestral  temple  he  is 
known  by  his  posthumous  name.  When  a  woman  marries 
she  assumes  her  husljand's  surname,  and  retains  her  own 


surname  as  her  given  name.  All  Buddhist  monks  are  sur- 
named  .Shih  (the  first  syllable  of  Shili-kia-  or  Sakya-muni); 
hence  no  one  ever  asks  a  Buddhist  his  sing  or  surname. 
The  dissyllabic  names  which  are  often  seen  over  the  doors 
of  Chinese  business  houses  are  simply  the  "style"  adopted 
by  tlie  individual  or  firm  doing  business  there,  and  not  the 
names  of  individuals. 

Emperors  are  never  known  or  spoken  of  by  their  own 
names.  On  the  accession  to  the  throne  a  nien-liao,  or  year- 
name,  is  chosen,  and  this  designates  not  the  ruler,  but  his 
reign-period.  K'ang-hi  is  thus  not  the  name  of  the  second 
emperor  of  the  Manchu  dynasty,  but  merely  the  style  of  his 
reign.  The  eighth  emperor  of  the  present  dynasty  was 
named  Mien  Tsai,  and  his  reign-period  Tung-Chi.  The 
present  reign-period,  which  began  with  1875,  is  called  Kwang- 
su,  or  "  Glorious  Succession."  In  history  emperors  are 
known  by  their  posthumous  or  temple  names. 

Korean  usage  is  the  same  as  that  of  China. 

Japan. — Japanese  surnames  are  of  two  kinds:  (1)  the 
Kabane,  or  clan  name  (e.  g.  Minamoto,  Pujiwara,  etc.),  and 
(2)  the  uji,  or  family  name,  originally  names  of  localities, 
e.  g.  Takahashi,  "High-bridge";  Yamamoto,  "Mountain- 
foot";  Matsumura,  "Pine-tree-village";  Nagasaki,  "Long- 
point."     Given  (or"  Christian")  names  are  also  of  two  kinds: 

(1)  common  name,  usually  ending  in  -taro  for  the  eldest 
son,  -jiro  for  the  second,  -saburo  for  the  third,  and  so  on; 

(2)  the  true  name,  which  until  recent  times  was  used  only 
on  solemn  occasions.  As  in  China,  the  family  name  inva- 
riably precedes  the  given  name,  e.  g.  Nagasaki  Gentaro.  As 
in  China,  the  mikades  are  known  in  history  by  their  posthu- 
mous or  temple  names.  The  personal  name  of  the  i)resent 
emperor  is  J/»/s»-/(i7o,  "Benevolent  Man,"  and  his  reign- 
period  is  J/ej-C/u',  "Enlightened  Rule."  Women  are  gen- 
erally named  after  some  flower  or  other  natural  object, 
preceded  by  0,  "  honorable,"  as  0  Hana,  "  Flower  " ;  0  Take, 
"  Bamboo  "  ;  0  Kiku,  "  Chrysanthemum  " ;  0  Ilaru,  "  Spring." 

Place- NA.MES. — The  study  of  the  names  of  places  is  hardly 
less  important  than  that  of  persons.  Prom  the  earliest 
times  men  have  retained  the  names  of  towns,  hills,  or  rivers 
given  by  earlier  races,  so  that  it  often  happens,  as  in  the 
case  ot  the  Picts,  that  all  that  is  known  of  their  language 
and  origin  is  embraced  in  these  terras.  Again,  in  migrat- 
ing to  other  lands  the  old  place-names  have  always  been 
transferred  to  new  localities,  in  illustration  of  which  the 
reader  may  consult  India,  in  Greece,  or  Truth  in  Mytliolugy, 
by  Edward  Pococke  (1853),  a  work  in  which  the  author  has 
endeavored  to  prove  that  Aryan-Indian  names  were  taken 
to  the  West.  In  like  manner  the  Celt,  the  Saxon,  the  Pict, 
Romans,  and  Normans  left  their  language  in  such  words  as 
tarn,  tav,  or  clwyd,  meaning  "  river  or  water,"  whence  the 
Thames,  Tavy,  and  Clyde  (Celt.);  in  burg,  "a  hill,"  and 
bricg.  "  bridge  "  (Saxon) ;  in  Penval,  "  the  head  of  the  wall  " 
(Pietish);  in  castrum,  "a  camp,"  whence -caster  (Roman). 
In  The  Norman  People  (London,  18T4)  it  is  shown  tliat  124 
common  English  names  of  places  are  also  to  be  found  in 
Scandinavia,  and  in  such  a  way  that  tliey  evidently  origi- 
nated there.  See  Steenstrup,  History  of  the  JS'ormans,  es- 
pecially part  iii. 

Among  the  many  books  on  the  subject  of  names  the 
reader  may  refer  with  advantage  to  ?Vie  History  of  Chris- 
tian Xanies.  by  Miss  Yonge :  also,  English  Surnames,  by 
Beardslev  (3d  e'd.  18T5);  and  Karnes  and  their  Meaning,  hy 
Leopold  Wagner  (1893).  For  (East)  Indian  names,  see  Jour- 
nal uf  the  lioyal  Asiatic  Society  (Jan.,  1889,  p.  159). 

Revised  by  R.  Lilley. 

Names,  Law  of:  For  centuries  the  common  law  has  as- 
sumed, it  it  has  not  required,  the  full  legal  name  of  a  natu- 
ral pel-son  to  consist  of  a  Christian  or  given  name  and  of  a 
surname  or  patronymic.  A  middle  name  or  initial  is 
generally  deemed  mi  part  of  the  legal  name,  and  hence  un- 
important. According  to  the  older  authorities  a  total  mis- 
take in  the  Christian  name  was  fatal  to  all  legal  instru- 
ments, whether  pleadings,  grants,  or  obligations  :  "  and  the 
reason  is,  because  it  is  repugnant  to  the  rules  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  that  there  should  be  a  Christian  without  a 
name  of  baptism,  or  that  such  person  should  have  two 
Christian  names,  since  our  Church  allows  no  rebaptizing. 
The  mistake  of  the  surname  does  not  vitiate,  because  there 
is  no  repugnancy  that  a  person  should  have  different  sur- 
names." (Bacon's  Abridgment:  title.  Misnomer  and  Ad- 
dition. B.)  The  first  of  the  above  rules  is  no  longer  law. 
It  is  now  well  settled,  both  in  Britain  and  in  the  U.  S.,  that  a 
person  can  change  any  part  or  the  whole  of  his  name  with- 


NAMUR 


NANKING 


57 


out  penalty  or  punishment  of  any  kind,  unless  the  change 
is  resiirted  to  for  the  purpose  of  ilffraudiiig  another.  If  he 
enters  into  a  eontraet  in  a  pnrliiiilar  name  he  may  he  sueil 
in  that  name,  whatever  his  tnn-  name  may  lie.  So  if  he 
makes  or  receives  a  (;rarit  in  an  assumeil  name,  his  identity 
may  he  established  by  extrinsic  evidence;  and  his  marriat;e 
under  an  assumeil  name  is  valiil.  If  ne};otialite  pa|ier  is 
made  puyalile  to  a  person  l>v  a  mistaken  imme,  he  mav  in- 
dorse it  in  such  name,  and  thereby  pass  title  and  bind  liim- 
self  as  inilorser.  "  .\ll  tliat  the  law  looks  at  is  the  identity 
of  the  individiiiil,  and  when  tluit  is  clearly  established  llie 
act  will  be  liindin:;  upon  him  and  oiliers."  {I'rtilinn  of 
John  SniiiA-,  i  llillon's  lii/Mrts  ;  N.  Y.  Common  I'leas  rifitj.) 
U|Min  marriage  the  le;;al  surname  of  the  wife  becomes  thai 
of  her  husband ;  yet  she  may  continue  to  em|il(iy  her 
maiden  name  in  bnsines.s  transactions  without  subjectinjr 
herself  to  moral  or  le>;al  censure.  [Jiill  vs.  Sun  Prinliiiy 
Co.,  42  X.  V.  Superior  t'ourt  Reports  567.)  The  legal  right 
to  name  a  cliild  is  in  the  father.  His  promise  to  give  the 
child  a  particular  name  has  been  held  a  valuable  consid- 
eration for  a  note  of  the  promiser.  Wolfurd  vs.  Powers,  85 
hid.  2'J4. 

An  act  of  Parliament  changing  a  person's  name  is  per- 
missive and  not  compulsory  :  ho  may  retain  his  original 
name.  In  many  of  the  I'.  .S.  the  constitutions  forbid  local 
or  special  laws  changing  the  names  of  persons,  and  provi- 
sion is  made  for  the  alteration  of  mimes  by  a  judicial  pro- 
ceeding. (Slimson's  Americdit  Stulitie  Litir.  gg  3'J5,  432.) 
Statutes  have  been  enacted  authorizing  the  use  of  a  deceased 
person's  name  by  his  successors  in  business,  upon  their  ac- 
quiring the  right  to  u.se  it  from  his  personal  representatives, 
and  liling  and  pulilishing  the  reiiuired  certificate.  (See 
X.  Y.  Laws  of  \mO.  ch.  5GI,  and  Laws  of  1881,  ch.  389.) 
Knglish  common  law  does  not  secure  to  an  individual  such 
a  right  of  property  in  his  name  or  in  the  name  of  his  real 
estate  as  to  enable  liiin  to  prevent  the  assumption  uf  such 
name  by  another,  unless  the  name  thus  assumed  has  become 
a  Traiie-m.vrk  (</.  v.)  or  business  name,  and  is  employed  to 
deceive  the  public  or  to  defrauil  the  person  who  made  it 
valuable.  See  Mc.Vdain  on  Individual.  Cm-jmrale,  and 
Finn  Sanifs  (Xew  York,  1894).  F.  M.  Blruick. 

Niiniiir,  Kr.  pron.  naa  niilr':  province  of  Belgium,  on  the 
French  frontier;  intei-sectcd  by  llie  Meiise.  .\rca.  1,414  sq. 
miles.  It  cipiisists  of  large,  densely  wooded  hills,  olTsliools 
of  the  .Ardennes,  and  rich  in  coal,  iron,  copper,  lead,  sulphur, 
ainm,  marble,  and  slate;  and  beautiful  and  exceedingly  fer- 
tile valleys,  yielding  tine  pastures  and  large  crops  of  wheat, 
oats,  hops,  and  llax.  Uesides  agriculture  and  mining,  a  large 
manufacturing  business  is  carried  on,  especially  in  paper, 
hardware,  anil  cutlery.  Pop.  (181)1)  33li,543,  mostly  French- 
speaking  Walloons. 

Noniiir :  capital  of  tho  province  of  Xamnr,  Belgium  ;  at 
the  conlliieuce  of  the  Sambrc  and  the  Meuse;  35  miles  by 
rail  S.  K.  of  Brussels  (see  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref. 
II-F).  It  has  an  eligant  cathedral  and  nianv  gimd  educa- 
tional institutions,  large  breweries,  and  celelirated  manu- 
factures of  cutlery  and  leather.  It  was  formerly  a  very 
strong  fortress;  was  taken  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1G92,  and  re- 
taken by  William  III.  in  lO'.iu.  .lo.seph  II.  demolished  the 
fortiticaiions,  and,  alllioiigh  they  were  restored  in  1817 
during  the  union  willi  the  Netherlands,  they  were  demol- 
ished again  in  It^Gti.  with  the  exception  of  the  citadel.  Pop. 
(1891)30,674. 

Nanaiiiio,  naa-ninio:  port  and  town  of  Vancouver  isl- 
and, Brili.--li  Columbia;  situated  on  the  east  coast,  60  miles 
X.  X.  W.  of  Victoria.  It  is  a  station  on  the  railway  finm 
Victoria  to  .Meii/.ies  Bay;  and  has  a  good  harbor,  allhoiigh 
closed  by  ice  in  winter.  Excellent  cnal  is  obtained  in  the 
iminediiite  neighborhood  and  at  Departure  Bav,  3  miles 
iiorlli.      I '..p.  about  3,00(1.  >l.  W.  II. 

Niiiiainios;  See  S.vi.isiian  Ixhuns. 
Nunak  ;  See  SiKiis. 

Nana  .Sahib,  naa  na"a-sjia  liib  (the  title  of  KItuiidn  Punt 
itr  I'linth):  a  leader  of  the  Scpny  mutiny ;  b.aliout  1820;  was 
adopted  by  Bajec  Uao,  Peishwaof  Poona,and  became  his  heir, 
but  was  not  regarded  a,s  such  by  the  British  (iovernment, 
which  refused  to  coiilinue  the  pension  paid  to  his  adopted 
father.  Though  embilleied  by  this  the  Xana  continued  out- 
wanily  friendly  to  the  Brili>h  and  won  their  conridence.  but 
on  llie  outbreak  of  the  mnliiiy  turned  traitor  and  placing 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  rebels  attacked  Cawnpore. 
The  British  surrendered  on  condition  that  they  should  be 


sent  down  the  Ganges  to  a  place  of  safety,  but  they  had  hard- 
ly embarked  when  they  were  fired  upoii  from  the  shore  and 
almost  all  the  men  on  Ixiard  were  killed.  The  women  and 
children  were  taken  to  Cawnpore,  and  on  the  day  liefore  the 
arrival  of  llaveluck  to  their  aid  were  butchered  by  order 
of  the  Xana  and  their  bmlies  thrown  into  a  well.  Notwith- 
standing the  re|a'ated  elforts  of  the  British  to  capture  the 
author  of  tho  crime,  ho  never  fell  into  their  hanus  though 
several  times  defeated  by  them  in  buttle.  Of  his  subsequent 
career  nothing  is  known.  F.  M.  CoLuy. 

Nancy,  naan'sce' :  capital  oflhe  department  of  Meurthe-et- 
Jloselle," France;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  .Meiirthe;  220 miles 
by  rail  F.  of  Paris  (see  map  of  France,  ref.3-H).  It  is  beauti- 
fully situated  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  wooded  and  vine-clad 
hills.  Besides  its  suburbs,  it  consists  of  the  old  and  the  new 
town,  the  latter  with  many  broad  and  straight  streets  lined 
with  magnilicent  houses,  and  many  public  squares  adorned 
with  fuuntains  and  gardens.  It  owes  much  of  its  beuulv  to 
Stanislaus  Leczinsky,  e.K-King  of  Poland,  who  resided  iiere 
from  1735  to  1766,  and  whose  statue  is  in  the  Place  Royale. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  bisho|iric,  and  has  a  university,  a  cele- 
brated school  of  medicine  and  pharmacy,  a  lyccum,  a  library 
of  40,000  Tolumes,  several  scientilic  societies,  and  many 
other  excellent  educational  institutions,  aiid  large  museums 
and  collections  both  for  scientific  and  artistic  purposes.  It 
is  an  important  center  for  research  in  the  field  of  hypnotism. 
It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  hosiery, 
hats,  and  bras.s,  and  its  embroideries  in  all  kinds  of  studs 
are  celelirated.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  former  duchy  of 
Lorraine,  and  in  its  iniinediate  vicinity  was  fought  the  battle 
between  Charles  the  Buld  of  Burgundy  and  Rene  II.  of 
Lorraine,  in  which  the  former  was  defeated  and  killed  .Ian. 
5,  1477.  At  the  death  of  Stanislaus,  who  held  the  country 
after  the  Peace  of  Vienna  in  1735,  Nancy  was  incorporated 
with  France  (1766).  It  has  grown  much  in  iniiiortance  since 
the  German  annexation  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  Pop.  (1891)  87,- 
110.  Revised  by  S.  A.  Torrance. 

Nan'du,  or  .\moriean  Ostrich :  the  South  American 
ostrich,  or  Rhea.     See  liiiKiii.i;. 

N'an'ek:  founder  of  the  im|ioitant  modern  sect  of  the 
Sikhs  of  the  Puiijaub  ;  b.  at  Talwendy,  near  Lahore,  in  1469; 
.son  of  Kalu  of  the  Kshatriya  casic;  showed  an  early  tend- 
ency to  mysticism  ;  associated  wilh  the  fakirs;  studied  the 
religious  books  both  of  the  Brahmans  and  of  the  ^lohainine- 
dans;  distributed  his  property  to  the  poor;  visited  Mecca 
and  Medina,  and  wandered  through  India  in  quest  of  a 
"  vision  of  truth,"  which  he  ultimately  attained,  and  thence- 
forth propagated  a  new  religion  with  great  sueces.s,  lieing 
presenteil  to  the  Emperor  Baber  in  1527.  Nanek  taught  the 
unity  of  God,  insisted  upon  faith  in  God  and  love  to  man, 
rejected  moiiasticism,  and  instituled  a  very  simple  fnrin  of 
worship,  wliicli  has  since  been  considerably  overlaid  by  the 
innovations  of  his  successors.  The  object  of  Nanek  was  a 
reconciliation  of  Buddhism  wilh  Jlohanimedanism,  and  he 
embodied  his  doctrine  in  a  book  entitled  Adi  O'ranlli.  now 
the  Bible  of  Ihc  Sikhs,  I),  at  Kirtipur,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ravi  river,  in  1.539.  His  tomb  has  lieen  swept  away  by  the 
river,  but  the  locality  is  still  a  )ilace  of  jiilgrimage. 

Nankeen'  [namcii  from  \anking  in  China,  the  original 
place  of  manufacture  I :  a  durable  cotton  cloth  of  a  bulT-yollow 
color.  It  is  made  in  Asia  from  a  variety  of  cotton  whose 
fiber  is  of  this  color  (the  (ioiixi//iiuin  lierhnrenm).  Artifici- 
ally colored  nankeens  arc  made  from  ordinary  cotton,  and 
have  nearly  superseded  the  real  article. 

Nanking,  or  (less  correctly)  Nankin  (litenilly,  southern 
capital):  the  name  by  which  A"i(i»(/-;ii/i;/-/oo,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Kiang-su,  is  popularly  known  in  China  and 
among  foreigners.  It  is  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Yang-t.se.  194  geographical  miles  W.  of  Shanghai,  and  44 
above  the  river-port  of  Cliin-kiang;  hit.  32'  2'  N.,  Ion.  118 
49  E.  (see  map  of  China,  ref.  5-K).  Its  walls,  which  are  30 
feel  Ihiik  at  llie  base  and  70  feel  high  in  some  places,  have 
a  circuit  <>i  about  20  miles.  The  inclosed  area,  however, 
conlains  n  any  open  spaces  and  much  wa.ste  ground.  The 
inliabiled  part  lies  toward  the  west  side,  and  is  3  miles  from 
the  river.  The  site  is  very  unheallhful  for  Europeans,  and 
even  for  natives  of  other  jiarts  of  Ihe  empire.  It  is  the  si-at 
of  the  viceroy  or  gnvernor-general  of  Ihe  group  of  provinces 
known  as  Kiani;-iian,  and  wils  formerly  a  city  of  much  mag- 
nin<'en<e  and  imporlance.  It  was  one  of  the  chief  literary 
centers,  and  was  nnled  (as  it  still  is  to  some  exieni)  for  its 
manufactures  of  salin,  crape,  nankeen,  paper,  poreelain.  and 


58 


NANSEN 


NAPATA 


artificial  flowers.  It  is  now  the  seat  of  an  arsenal  conducted, 
under  foreign  superintendence,  on  the  most  advanced  scien- 
tific principles. 

The  present  city  dates  from  the  year  1368,  when  Chu- 
yuen-chang,  a  temple  servant,  at  the  head  of  a  native  army 
overturned  the  Mongol  dynasty,  whose  capital  was  at  Pe- 
king (the  northern  capital),  and  founded  the  Ming  dynasty, 
which  was  in  turn  superseded  in  1643  by  the  Manchus.  He 
made  it  his  capital  (hence  the  name  southern  capital).  Here 
outside  the  south  gate  stood  the  famous  Porcelain  Tower, 
or  pagoda,  which  the  third  emperor  of  the  Ming  dynasty 
erected  in  honor  of  his  mother  in  1413,  two  years  after  the 
removal  of  the  capital  to  Peking.  It  was  261  feet  high, 
octagonal  in  ground  plan,  and  consisted  of  nine  stories,  each 
provided  with  a  gallery  and  a  projecting  roof,  from  the  cor- 
ners of  which  bells  were  suspended.  Its  outer  walls  were 
encased  with  white  porcelain  tiles.  On  Jlar.  19,  1859,  the 
city  was  taken  by  the  Tai-pings,  and  was  held  by  them  until 
July  19,  1864,  when  it  was  captured  by  Gen.  Gordon,  and 
the  rebellion  came  to  an  end.  During  their  occupancy  the 
palaces  and  other  public  buildings  erected  in  the  early  days 
of  the  Ming  dynasty,  including  the  Porcelain  Tower,  were 
completely  destroyed.  The  arsenal  now  stands  on  the  site  of 
this  tower,  and  was  partly  built  with  its  bricks. 

At  Nanking,  Aug.  29,  1842,  Great  Britain  concluded  the 
treaty  which  opened  five  ports  to  foreign  residence  and  trade. 
In  the  treaty  concluded  by  the  French  in  1858  Nanking  is 
mentioned  as  a  treaty-port,  but  it  has  never  been  opened. 
Population  probably  less  than  250,000.  K.  Lilley. 

Nan'sen,  Fridjof,  Ph.  D. :  Arctic  explorer ;  b.  near  Chris- 
tiania,  Norwav,  Oct.  10,  1861 ;  entered  the  University  of 
Christiania  1880:  left  in  1882  for  an  expedition  in  a  scaling- 
ship  to  Arctic  latitudes:  was  appointed  on  his  return  in 
1882  curator  in  the  Natural  History  Museum  at  Bergen; 
started  May,  1888,  on  his  celebrated  journey  to  Greenland, 
in  which  he  crossed  the  continent,  returning  May,  1889;  be- 
came curator  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Anatomy  at 
the  University  of  Christiania;  is  the  author  of  Tlie  First 
Crossing  of  Greenland,  Eskimo  Life,  and  numerous  scien- 
tific pajiers.  The  Norwegian  Storthing  having  voted  200,- 
000  kroners  for  a  new  expedition  to  the  north  pole  under 
Nansen's  direction,  he  set  out  from  Christiania  June  24, 1893, 
in  a  specially  constructed  vessel  of  170  tons,  the  Fram  (For- 
ward), manned  with  a  dozen  men  and  equipped  with  pro- 
visions and  fuel  for  five  years.  His  plan  was  to  utilize  the 
current  which  he  believed  sweeps  from  Bering  Strait  and 
the  vicinity  of  the  New  Sibkrian  Islands  {q.  v.)  across  the 
pole  toward  Greenland.  By  Sept.  22  he  was  shut  in  by  the 
ice  and  began  his  northward  drift.  On  ;Mar.  14.  1895,  wlien 
in  lat.  83'  59  .  he  with  Lieut.  Johansen  left  the  ship  and  pro- 
ceeded toward  the  pole  with  dog-sledges.  On  Apr.  8,  when 
in  lat.  Se"  14'  N.  and  Ion.  95'  E.  (2'  50'  nearer  the  pole  than 
any  previous  explorer),  they  discovered  that  the  ice-pack  on 
which  they  were  traveling  was  slowly  drifting  southward, 
and  determined  to  make  for  Franz  Josef  Land,  which  t)iey 
reached  Aug.  26 ;  spent  the  winter  there  (lat.  81°  13'  N.).  liv- 
ing on  bear  and  walrus,  and  in  the  spring  of  1896  set  out  to 
reach  Spitzbergen  over  the  ice.  On  the  way  they  fell  in 
with  inembei-s  of  the  Jackson-Harmsworth  expedition,  and 
in  August  returned  to  Norway  in  their  supply  vessel,  the 
Windward.  On  Aug.  21  the  Fram  also  arrived  safe  and 
sound  at  Hammerfest  (17.  v.),  and  reported  tluit,  continuing 
to  drift  with  the  ice,  she  reached  lat.  85  57'  on  Nov.  15, 
1895.  and  found  open  water  in  lat.  83  14  N.  and  Ion.  14"  E. 
No  land  had  been  sighted  N.  of  82  \  In  Feb..  1897.  Nan- 
sen  began  a  lecturing  tour  in  Great  Britain,  and  had  numy 
honors  heaped  upon  him.  See  Fridtiof  Sansen  (1896)  and 
his  Farthest  JS^ortlt  (1897).  K.  Lilley. 

Nantes  (Fr.  pron.  naaiit ;  anc.  Condivin'cnm.  or  Namiie'- 
tes):  city  of  France;  capital  of  the  de[)artment  of  Loire- 
Interieure  ;  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  35  miles 
from  its  mouth,  at  the  influx  of  the  Erdre  and  the  Sevre- 
Nantaise :  248  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Paris  (see  map  of 
France,  ref.  5-C).  The  quays,  boulevards,  and  promenades 
along  the  Erdre  are  elegant,  .nnd  the  city  is  regular  and 
handsome.  The  most  remarkable  architectural  UKimimcnts 
are  the  cathedral,  built  in  the  fifteenth  centurv,  with  its 
towers  liardly  risingabove  the  roof,  containing  the  splendid 
monuments  of  queen  Anne,  of  Francis  II..  the  last  Duke  of 
Bretagne,  and  his  wife.  Margaret  of  Foix ;  the  castle,  begun 
in  938,  in  which  Henry  IV.  signed  the  Euict  of  Nantes 
{q.  V.)  Apr.  la,  1.598,  and  in  wliich  manv  of  the  French  kings 
resided  temporarily;  the  bourse,  a  modern  buililing,  and  one 


of  the  finest  of  its  kind  in  France ;  and  the  post-office,  built 
in  1884.  The  city  has  a  lyceum,  a  school  of  navigation, 
several  commercial  and  industrial  schools,  a  library  of  50,000 
volumes,  a  botanical  garden,  a  museum  of  antiquities,  and 
an  art-gallery.  Tlie  principal  branch  of  the  industry  of 
Nantes  is  ship-building  and  the  production  of  all  articles 
necessary  to  the  outfit  of  a  vessel — anchors,  cables,  cordage, 
sailcloth,  biscuits,  preserved  meat,  etc.  The  city  itself  pos- 
sessed in  1889  330  ships,  of  54,500  tons  burden;  the  total 
shipping  for  the  vear  amounted  to  296.000  tons;  the  value 
of  imports  was  110,000,000  and  of  exports  |2,750,000.  Sugar- 
refining  and  the  manufacture  of  linen  and  cotton  fabrics, 
calicoes,  flannels,  musical,  mathematical,  and  optical  instru- 
ments, chemicals,  leather,  brandy,  etc.,  are  also  extensively 
carried  on.  The  harbor,  formed  by  an  arm  of  the  Loire,  can 
accommodate  200  vessels,  and  a  ship-canal  constructed  in 
1891  between  Nantes  and  St.-Nazaire  has  made  it  possible 
for  large  vessels,  which  were  formerly  compelled  to  load  and 
unload  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  to  reach  the  harbor.  Pop. 
(1891)  122,750. 

Nanticoke  :  borough ;  Luzerne  co.,  Pa.  (for  location  of 
county,  sec  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  3-H) ;  on  the  Susque- 
hanna river,  and  the  Cent,  of  N.  J.,  the  Penn.,  and  the  Del. 
Lack,  and  W.  railways ;  8  miles  S.  W.  of  Wilkesbarre,  the' 
county-seat.  It  contains  a  planing-mill,  drill-factory,  sev- 
eral coal  mines,  and  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  West 
Nanticoke  is  in  Plymouth  "township,  on  the  op|)osite  side  of 
the  river,  and  has  large  coal-mining  interests.  Pop.  of  Nanti- 
coke (1880)  3.884;  (1890)  10,044.  Editor  of  "  News." 

Nauticokes :  See  Algonquian  Indians. 

Nantucket :  town ;  capital  of  Nantucket  co.,  Mass.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  6-J) ;  on  Nantucket 
island,  and  the  Nantucket  Railroad  :  28  miles  S.  of  the  Cape 
Cod  peninsula.  It  is  a  noted  summer  resort ;  has  steamboat 
connection  with  New  Bedford  (53  miles  N.  W.  by  water). 
Wood's  Hole,  and  JIartha's  Vineyard  ;  and  contains  a  na- 
tional bank  with  cajiital  of  !j:106,000,  a  savings-bank  with 
deposits  of  over  $453,000,  2  libraries  (Admiral  Sir  Isaac 
Coffin's  Lancasterian  School,  founded  1827,  and  the  Athe- 
naeum, founded  1836)  containing  over  10.000  volumes,  and  2 
weekly  newspapers.  The  town  formerly  had  large  whale- 
fisherv  interests,  but  is  now  principallv  engaged  in  the 
cod-fishery  and  the  coasting  trade.  Pop.  (1880)  3,727  :  (1890) 
3,268 ;  (1895)  3,016.    Editor  of  "  Inquirer  and  Mirror." 

Nantucket  Island  :  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ; 
aViout  30  miles  .S.  of  Barnstable  co.,  Mass.  With  the  small 
islands  of  Tucanuck,  Muskeset.  and  the  Gravel  islands  it 
forms  the  county  of  Nantucket,  which  has  an  area  of  about 
60  sq.  miles.  Nantucket  island  is  of  a  triangular  shape, 
about  15  miles  long,  and  from  3  to  4  miles  wide.  The  soil  is 
sandy.     Pop.  (1890)  8.268:  (1895)  3.016. 

Napa,  naa  pa :  city  ;  capital  of  Napa  co.,  C'al.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  6-C);  at  the  head  of 
tide-water  on  the  Napa  river,  and  on  the  S.  Pac.  Railroad ; 
46  miles  N.  E.  of  San  Francisco.  65  miles  S.  W.  of  Sacra- 
mento. It  is  in  an  agricultural,  horticultural,  and  wine- 
growing region,  in  a  valley  noted  for  its  beautiful  scenery 
and  equalile  climate.  It  contains  4  public  and  2  private 
schools.  Oak  jMound  School  (non-sectarian,  opened  1872), 
Napa  College  (Methodist  Episcopal,  ojiened  1886),  2  libra- 
ries (free  public,  founiled  1885,  and  Napa  College)  contain- 
ing over  9.000  volumes,  2  State  banks  with  combined  capi- 
tal of  $500,000,  a  private  bank,  and  3  daily  and  3  weekly 
newspapers.  The  State  asylum  for  the  insane,  completed 
in  1875  at  a  cost  of  over  $1,000,000,  is  located  here.  The 
manufactures  include  cream  of  tartar,  wine,  [ihining-mill 
products,  tanned  leather,  and  gloves.  Pop.  (1S80)  3,731  ; 
(1890)  4,-395.  Editor  of  "  Register." 

Napata :  the  cajiital  of  the  Ethioiiian  kingdom  wliicOi 
grew  to  power  between  900  ami  700  B.  c.  It  was  located  at 
the  present  (iebel  Barkal  (]S~  .SO'  N.  hit.),  somewhat  below 
the  fourth  cataract  of  the  Nile.  The  region  was  conquered 
by  the  Egyptians  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  and  was  long  gov- 
erned as  a  )irovince.  During  the  Hyksos  period  its  history 
is  unknown,  but  under  the  eighteenth  dynasty  it  was  again 
conijuered.  and  a  teni|ile  to  Amon-Ra  wa«  erected  at  Napata 
by  Amenopliis  III.  Intimate  relations  with  Egypt  contin- 
ued through  the  Rainesside  period.  Somewhat  later  Napata 
became  the  capital  of  an  "orthodox"  priestly  Egyptian 
kingdom,  possibly  founded  by  the  successors  of  Her-Hor 
{q.  I'.)  when  the  Ijibyans  gained  the  rule  in  Egyiit  under  the 
twenty-second  dynasty  (about   9;ffl  B.C.).     Subsequently  the 


XAPEKVILLE 


XAPHTUALENE 


59 


relative  strength  of  EkviiI  and  the  kinfjilom  of  Xapata 
i;raclimlly  chati>;t'il.  uiul  2UU  Years  latrr  Piunclii  iiiaue  a 
warlike  intursiuii  into  EffVpt,  fi)n<|iierinj,'  the  wlmle  land, 
and  fstablishin;;  the  Kthinpian  ilvnastv.  AftiT  tlie  (ireek 
i)erioil  tlie  liislurv  "f  Naiiuta  is  nut  clear,  its  ninniinniil.'. 
being  largely  in  a  liienii;l\  pliie  character  which  has  ilelieii 
successful  rliciplierment.  It  ciMiliiiueil,  lionever,  down  to 
(he  lionian  times,  with  a  change  of  the  capital  to  MekoK 
(ij.  r.)  V.  K.  (ilLLfcTT. 

NuixTvlllc  :  city  ;  I)u  Pago  co..  III.  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Illinois,  ref.  2-(i):  on  the  l)u  Mii;.'e  river,  and  the  Chi.. 
Hurl,  and  {^uincy  Kailroad;  !)  miles  E.  of  Anrora,  HO  miles 
\V..S.  W.  of  Chicago.  It  is  the  seat  of  Northwestern  College, 
for  both  sexes  (Evangelical  Association,  opened  in  IfSOl). 
which  In  l»!tO-!)l  hail  il  professors  and  instructors  and  2S0 
stiulcnts.  The  principal  industries  are  agriculture,  stone- 
quarrying,  and  nninufacluring.  There  are  a  mitional  bank 
with  capital  of  :j;.W,(Xt(),  two  private  banks,  and  a  weeklv 
and  a  mom  hly  periodical.     Pop.  (1S«0)  2.073;   (IH'JO)  2,21(i. 

Naphtuli  [  =  lleb.  yaplildll,  liter.,  mv  wrestling]:  the 
si.xth  son  of  .laeob,  by  Hilhah,  the  handmaid  of  Kachel. 
The  trilie  of  Naphtali  numborcil  5;l.400  fighting  men  before 
Sinai,  an<l  4.">,401)  at  the  entrance  into  tlie  i>romised  coun- 
try. It  was  settled  in  Northern  (ialilee  from  the  foot  of 
.\nti-ljebanon  to  Lake  Gene-sareth;  Kedesh  was  its  jirincipal 
town. 

Nuplitliu  [=  I^t.  =  (ir.  vii<p$a.  from  .\rab.  iiafl/i]  :  a  name 
applie<l  to  certain  natural  and  artificial  volatile  fluids  with 
little  or  no  color. 

In  Persia  the  word  was  used  to  designate  the  most  vola- 
tile forms  of  liipiid  bitumen  that  are  intermediate  between 
petroleum  an<l  natural  gas.  As  the  use  of  the  word  e.\- 
tonded  into  Europe,  where  the  substances  to  which  it  was 
first  applied  were  unknown,  it  was  used  to  designate  ])etro- 
loums — hence  we  have  "  the  mijihtha  of  .\miano"  and  Uan- 
goon  naphtha,  the  latter  of  which  was  nearly  maltha  in 
consistence.  When  wood  was  distilled  for  the  production 
of  pyroligneous  acid,  the  volatile  liquid  that  first  passed 
over,  and  from  which  by  refining  rnethylic  alcohol  is  ob- 
taineil,  vviLs  called  wood-naphtha.  When  coal-tar  wius  dis- 
tilled, the  volatile  licpiid  that  fii-st  passed  over,  from  which 
benzole  and  its  homologues  are  derived,  was  called  coal- 
tar  naphtha.  Still  later,  when  American  petroleum  was  dis- 
tilled, the  volatile  li(|uid  that  first  pas.sed  over,  that  was  not 
suitable  for  illuminating  oil,  was  called  naphtha,  and  later 
petroleum-naphtha.  This  cruile  naphtha  was  later  redis- 
tilled and  the  ilistillate  subdivided  into  A,  B.  and  C  n!i|)h- 
tlios,  having  different  specific  gravities,  an<l  used  for  differ- 
ent purposes.  At  the  present  time  the  word  has  very  little 
use  without  sonu'  qualifying  |)hrase  to  give  it  definition. 
See  H1TU.MKN,  Pktrolkim,  .Mktiivl  Au'onoi,,  and  Hvdro- 
CARHONS.  S.  F.  Peckham. 

Naphtha  (ias  :  .See  PtiTitoLEfM, 

Napiillialenf  [na//lith(i  +  nHroliol)  +  sufTix-etie]:  a  hy- 
driKarlion  found  among  the  products  of  the  destructive  dis- 
tillation of  bituminous  coal.  (See  (iAs-i,iiiirr[Mi  and  Ilv- 
URoiAKBoNs.)  It  occurs  in  Rangoon  petroleum  and  the  tar 
of  shale  oil.  It  is  fornie<l  by  passing  the  vapors  of  several 
other  hydrocarbons  through  a  red-hot  tube,  as  toluene 
(C'tIIs),  xylene  (Csllio),  ciimene  (CkII,,).  or  mixtures  of  ethy- 
lene (C,ll,)  with  benzene  (C,II,),  cinnamene  (C,II,),  anthra- 
cene (C,. II, »),  or  chrysi^ne  ((',,I1„).  Alcohol  and  ether  va- 
por, and  even  ethylene  and  vapors  of  acetic  acid,  petroleum, 
essential  oils,  etc.,  yield  .some  najihthalene  when  iiassed 
through  red-hot  tulnvs.  Si>ot  and  lampblack  contain  naph- 
thalene. 

/'rrprinilion. — Naphthalene  is  found  in  the  tar  formed 
from  coal  in  the  manufacture  of  gas  and  coke.  It  is  found 
in  that  fraction  of  the  tar  that  boils  between  180  and  i'lO 
C.  (:{.')0  and  4M0'  F.).  that  is  principally  in  the  so-called 
"carbolic  oil."  I-'rom  this  it  is  separated  by  filtering  and 
pressing  between  hollow  philips  heated  by  steam  (hot-press- 
ing). The  product  olitaiiieil  in  this  way  is  trealeil  with 
caustic  SOI  la  for  the  purpo-;e  of  extniiling  phenols;  then  it 
is  washed  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  at  alioul  100  ('.(212 
K.).  During  this  stage  a  small  >|iiantilyof  flnidy  ground 
black  oxide  of  manganese  is  aihled  to  the  vessid  for  the  pur- 
pose of  removing  the  color.  The  purified  liydriM'art>on  is 
washed  several  limes  with  hot  water,  then  with  ililiile  alkali, 
again  with  hot  water,  and  then  sublimed  or  cljstllleil. 

/'id/ierlir.H. — Naphthalene  appears  in  brilliant  while, 
scaly  crystals,  very  friable,  strongly  and   unplea-santly  odor- 


ous. The  disagreeable  odor  is  said  bv  Ballo  to  be  due  to 
leiicoline  oil,  which  can  be  .separaleil  by  boiling  it  with 
strong  sulphuric  acid  and  precipitating  the  resulting  brown 
solution  with  ammonia.  In  medicine  naphthalene  has  been 
employed  for  antiseptic  and  disinfectant  pur|xjs»s  both  in- 
ternally and  externally.  Its  specific  gnivitv  is  1-1,52.  It 
melts  lit  174-5'  F.  (7U-2'  C),  and  boils  at  4-24-.V  F.  (21»  C). 
It  sublimes  at  low  temjieratures  and  eva|K.>rates  in  the  air. 
It  is  insoluble  in  cold,  anil  almost  insoluble  in  boiling  water, 
but  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol,  ether,  fatty  and  essential 
oils,  and  most  oils  (naiihthas)  obtained  by  destructive  distil- 
lation, in  acetic  and  oxalic  acids.  The  comiiosition  of 
naphthalene  is  represented  by  the  formula  C, oil,  (see  II v- 
DHocAKUo.ss),  and,  so  far  as  its  chemical  nature  is  concerned, 
it  is  regarded  as  related  to  benzene,  Cullu.  A  very  ingenious 
suggestion  as  to  the  relation  between  these  hvdriK-arbons 
was  first  made  by  Erienmeyer,  and  afterward  shown  by 
Griibe  to  be  in  acconlance  w  itli  a  large  number  of  facts.  It 
has  long  been  used  iis  a  satisfactory  working  hy[iothesis, 
and  much  of  our  knowledge  of  this  liydrtK-arbon  and  its  de- 
rivatives is  due  to  at  tempts  made  to  test  the  hypothesis. 

Naphthalene  is  a  stable  substance,  as  is  clearly  shown  by 
its  forniat ion  under  the  infiuence  of  high  heat.  '  It  under- 
goes change  under  the  inlliience  of  active  reagents,  and 
yields  a  great  varietv  of  derivatives,  many  of  which  have 
come  into  use  on  a  large  scale,  especially  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  colors. — Oxidizing  ai/eii/s,  af-,  for  e.xam|>Ic,  nitric 
acid,  poliixaiiim  pirmanyanalr  (.see  Manua.s'Ksk),  etc.,  con- 
vert it  into  PniUALic  Aiin  (7.  v.),  or  into  a-  naphtliaqui- 
none. — Chlorine  forms  addition  products  and  substitution 
products. — yitrie  acid  forms  several  nitro-products,  viz., 
one  mono-nitronaphthalene,  t'loHi.NOj;  two  dinitro-prod- 
ucts,  CioIi«(Nt)3)3  ;  three  trinitro-products,  Cii>Il6(N0,),  ; 
and  t»-o  tetninitro-|)roducts,  Ciollt(N')3)4. — Sulphuric  iicid 
yields  siilphonic  acids,  as  follows:  two  mono-naphthalene 
sulphonic  acids.  CioIU.SI  )jll  ;  four  disulphonic  acids.  C,olI»- 
(SOjH),;  two  trisulplionic  acid.s,  CicpIl5(SOjll)s ;  one  telra- 
sul|)honic  acid,  Cioll<(S()3lI)4. — .Vmong  the  most  important 
derivatives  of  naphthalene  are  the  sulphonic  acids;  the  ?ii- 
tro-nnphlhdtenes;  o-  and  $-  7i(ijihlhi/lamine, doUi.Vlii,  made 
by  reducing  the  corresponding  nitro-naphlhalenes;  o-  and 
P-  naphlhol,  CioHt.OII,  which  bear  to  naphthalene  the  same 
relation  that  carbolic  acid  or  phenol  bears  to  Ix-nzene; 
iiiiphthionic  ((firf.Ciolla-Nllj.Sdall.  or  the  sulphonic  acid  of 
na[ihlhylaminc.  The  nai>htliols  and  naphthionic  acid  are 
used  in  the  ])reparation  of  azo-dyes. 

.Some  years  since  Koussin  i)repared  a  substance  which  he 
sui>i)0.sed  to  be  artificial  alizarin,  the  most  important  color- 
ing-matter of  madder.  Alizarin  was  at  that  time  su|)posed 
to  be  a  derivative  of  naphthalene,  as  both  yield  pnihalic 
acid.  Koussiirs  product  was  not  alizarin,  and  has  not 
proved  to  ])ossess  any  value  as  a  dye.  It  is  called  naiih- 
thazarin.  and  is  dioxynaphlho-i|uinoiie  (f'loIUt'a  ((HIjj). 

yaphthnhne  Colors. — Many  of  the  derivatives  of  naph- 
thalene exhibit  beautiful  and  intense  colors,  but  a  few-  only 
have  been  found  available  as  dyes.  (1)  Martins  yellow, 
Manchester  yellow-. yfiH/ic  d'or.  is  the  ammonium  calcium  or 
sodium  salt  of  dinitro-naphthol.  It  imparts  to  wool  and  silk, 
w-ithout  the  aiil  of  a  mordant,  yellow  hues  from  lemon-yellow 
to golili'U-vellow, which  are  grailually  volatilized  by  steaming. 
Picric  acid  imparts  similar  tints,  but  it  is  volatilized  by  steam. 
Martins  vellow  is  not  only  used  for  dyeing  yellow-,  but  al.so  to 
modify  llie  hue  of  aniline  red,  (2)  Naphthol  yellow  S.,  acid 
yellow  .S..  is  the  calcium,  sodium,  or  ammonium  salt  of  dini- 
iri>-a-naphlliol-sulplionic  acid.  It  is  prepan-d  by  treating  o- 
naphthol  with  sulphuric  acid  and  afterward  with  nitric  acid. 
The  acid  ami  its  sjilts  dye  like  Marlins  yellow.  I'lilike  the 
latter,  they  are  not  volatile  in  the  process  of  sleaming.  (3) 
Magdala  reil. naphthalene  red,naphthylaiiiinered.roseonB|>h- 
thalene.  is  made,  according  to  (».  N.  Witt,  by  melting  togeth- 
er hydroehlorate  of  naphthyleiie-diaiiiini-.  a-naphthylamine, 
and  amidoazonaphthalene.  It  has  the  composition  CioIUi- 
N'tCl,  anil  belongs  to  the  cla.ss  of  dyes  known  as  safronincs. 
The  product  appears  in  commeri-e  as  a  dark-brown,  .soiiie- 
«-hat  crystalline  powder,  which  is  the  chloride  of  the  ba-so. 
In  tinctorial  |Miwer  it  ei|uals  aniline  n-d,  while  it  sii rpa.s.s«>.s 
it  in  being  a  verv  fast  color.  It  can  be  n-adily  distinguished 
from  aniline  red  by  (he  following  reaction:  On  iKuiring  a 
few  drops  of  its  (,-oncentrated  solution  into  a  cylindrical  ves- 


rops  of 
tied  wit 


filled  with  alcohol,  a  liquid  Is  formed  perfectly  tnins- 
pan'Ut,  with  light  riw-color  by  (ransniKted  light,  but  ex- 
liibiting  ill  reflicted  light  a  strong  and  peculiar  lluorescence, 
giving  an  iippearanee  of  opacity,  as  if  a  precipilnli'  were 
being   formed,  and  dillusing   it.^elf   ilo-.,u -h   ih.    h  jui.l  in 


60 


NAPHTHOL 


NAPIER 


clouds  of  fiery-red  color.  (4)  Naphthylamine  violets  and 
blues  are  produced  by  the  same  reactions  employed  in  con- 
verting aniline  red  into  violets  and  blues  (see  Aniline  Col- 
ors) ;  i.  e.  replaciug  in  magdala  red  one,  two,  or  three  atoms 
of  hydrogen  by  methyl,  ethyl,  phenyl,  etc.  They  may  also 
be  produced  by  treating  naphthylamine  with  mercuric 
nitrate  (Wilder);  by  substituting  tlie  radical  naphtliyl 
(C10H7)  for  hydrogen  in  aniline  and  tohiidine  (./.  Wolff) ; 
from  r(.isaniline  and  mono-bromnaplithalene,  and  from 
rosaniline  and  naphthylamine  (J/.  BuUo).  Blumer-Zweifel 
{Dingl.  poly/.  •/.,  cxevi.,  66)  produces  naphthylamine  violet 
directly  on  the  fiber  by  printing  linen  or  cotton  stuffs  with 
a  solution  containing  in  a  liter  of  suitable  thickening  ma- 
terial 30  grammes  of  naphthylamine  hydrochloride  and  15 
grammes  of  cuprio  chloride  solution  of  15°  B.  For  dyeing 
the  thickening  material  is  omitted,  and  the  cupric  chloride 
is  reduced  liy  a  fourth.  By  increasing  or  diminishing  the 
quantity  of  "naphthylamine  salt  the  color  may  be  made 
darker  "or  lighter.  The  printed  or  dyed  stuffs  are  left  for 
two  or  three  days  in  the  oxidizing  chamber  at  a  temperature 
of  77"  F.  (25'  C),  and  tlie  colors  fixed  by  washing  with  soap- 
water.  Alkaline  baths  render  the  color  reddish,  acid  baths 
make  it  bluish.  A.  K\e\ma,\ev  (Diiiffl.  polyf.  ■/..  cxevi.,  67) 
has  given  a  similar  process,  using  chlorate  of  potassium 
instead  of  cupric  chloride.  (5)  Chloronaphtlialic  or  clilor- 
oxynaphthalic  acid  (C'loHsClOs).  When  naphthalene  is 
heated  with  chlorate  of  potassium  and  hydrochloric  acid, 
a  mixture  of  chloro-naphtlialene  and  bichloro-naphthalene 
is  obtained.  By  heating  these  with  nitric  acid  a  mixture  of 
phthalic  acid  and  chloride  of  chlor-oxynaphthyl  is  produced. 
The  latter  compound,  on  being  heated  with  an  alkali,  is 
converted  into  the  new  acid.  In  a  free  state  the  chlor-oxy- 
naplithalic  acid  is  yellow  ;  it  forms  beautifully  colored  salts 
with  baryta,  zinc,  and  copper.  It  dyes  wool  scarlet  without 
a  mordant,  but  scarcely  produces  any  change  on  cotton 
mordanted  with  alumina  or  iron.  This  acid  almost  rivals 
turmeric  and  litunis  in  its  sensibility  to  alkalies.  Paper 
stained  with  a  very  dilute  alcoholic  solution  assumes  a  red 
color  in  ammoniacal  va|)r)rs. 

LiTERATiRE. — T.  K.  Thorpe,  Dictionary  of  Applitd  Chem- 
istry (\S91);  Wagner's  Technology  a,Tui  Juhresbtricht ;  Jnh- 
resbericht  der  Chemie;  Th.  Chateau,  Couleurs  d' Aniline, 
d'Acide  jjhenique,  et  de  Naphthctline  (Paris,  1868) ;  M.  Ballo, 
Das  Xaphthalin  und  seine  Derivate  (Brunswick,  1870);  Dr. 
P.  A.  Bollev,  Die  chemische  Technologic'  der  Spinnfasern; 
M.  P.  .Sch'iitzenberger,  Die  Farbstoffe  (Berlin,  1868-70); 
W.  Crooks,  Hnndbook  of  Dyeing  and  Calico-printing  (Lon- 
don, 1874) ;  Sehultz,  Chemie  des  Steinkohlentheers  (1887- 
90) ;  Nietzki,  Organische  Farbstoffe  (1889). 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Naphthol  and  Naphthylamine:  See  Naphthalene. 

Na'pier,  Sir  Charles,  K,  C,  B.  :  admiral :  son  of  Capt. 
Charles  Napier,  R.  N. ;  b.  at  Merehiston  Hall,  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland,  JMar.  6,  1786  ;  entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  thir- 
teen ;  was  made  commander  in  1807;  distinguished  himself 
in  the  West  Indies ;  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  British 
army  in  Portugal ;  became  commander  of  the  Tliames  (.32 
guns)  in  1811,  and  inflicted  great  damage  upon  the  French 
in  the  Mediterranean ;  was  engaged  in  the  British  naval 
operations  in  the  Potomac  and  against  Baltimore  in  1814 ; 
settled  in  Paris  after  the  peace,  and  lost  his  money  in  a 
steamboat  speculation ;  was  placed  on  naval  dutv  on  tlie 
coast  of  Portugal  in  1829 ;  accepted  from  Dora  Pedro  in 
1833  the  command  of  the  squadron  of  the  young  queen  ;  in- 
flicted upon  the  fleet  of  Dom  Jliguel  a  decisive  defeat  off 
Cape  St,  Vincent  July  5,  for  which  he  was  made  Viscount 
St.  Vincent  in  the  Portuguese  nobility  and  admiral-in-chief 
bi  the  Portuguese  navy.  In  1836  he  resumed  service  in  the 
British  navy ;  was  engaged  as  commodore  on  the  coast  of 
Syria  in  1840,  when  he  stormed  Sidon  with  a  land  force, 
captured  Acre,  blockaded  Alexandria,  and  concluded  a  con- 
vention with  Meheniet  AM,  for  wliich  services  he  was 
knighted.  He  sat  in  Parliament  1842-46;  commanded  the 
Channel  fleet  1846-48;  made  vice-admiral  May,  1853;  com- 
mander of  the  Baltic  fleet  in  the  war  with  Russia  18.54,  and 
captured  lioinarsuiid,  Imt  his  refusal  to  attack  Cronstadt 
provoked  uiit'avonilili^  comment,  and  lie  thereafter  held  no 
active  command.  He  was  made  admiral  cif  the  lilue  1858. 
and  sat  in  Parliament  for  Southwark  from  1855  till  his 
death,  whicli  occurred  at  Merehiston  Hall,  Hampshire,  Eng- 
land, Nov.  6,  18()0.  He  wrote  An  Account  of  the  War  in 
Portugal  (1836)  and  The  War  in  Syria  (1843),  and  fur- 
nished materials  for  a  History  of  the  Baltic  Campaign  (1857), 


See  his  Life  and  Correspondence,  bv  Maj.-Gen.  E.  Napier, 
1863.  Revised  by  B.  B.  Holmes. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  James,  G.  C.  B.  :  soldier ;  b.  at  West- 
minster, London,  Aug,  10,  1782  ;  received  a  commission  in 
the  army  when  twelve  years  of  age  ;  fought  in  the  Irish  re- 
bellion ;  was  wounded  and  left  for  dead  in  the  battle  of  Co- 
riinna  (Jan.  16,  1809);  engaged  in  literary  work  in  England; 
returned  to  the  Peninsula  as  a  volunteer  and  obtained  a 
regular  command  in  1811  :  engaged  in  expeditions  against 
the  coa.st  of  the  U.  S.  1813 ;  governor  and  military  resi- 
dent of  Cephalonia  1823-30 ;  conquered  .Sind  in  a  series  of 
battles,  and  showed  great  abUity  as  governor  of  the  con- 
quered province  184S-47 ;  resided  in  England  1847-49, 
when  he  was  again  sent  to  India  as  commander-in-chief,  but 
found  the  Sikhs  already  beaten,  and  returned  to  England 
the  next  year,  D.  near  Portsmoutli,  Aug.  29, 1853.  He  was 
of  an  imperious  disposition,  and  often  quarreled  with  those 
of  greater  authority  ;  but  he  was  loved  by  his  soldiers  and 
was  the  object  of  much  hero-worship.  He  is  the  author  of 
Lights  and  Shadows  of  Military  iy(/i»(1840) ;  Indian  Mis- 
gonernment  and  Lord  Dalhousie  (1853). 

Napier,  John,  Laird  of  Merehiston :  mathematician ;  b. 
at  Merehiston  Castle,  near  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  1550 : 
studied  at  the  L'niversity  of  St.  Andrews;  spent  several 
years  in  travels  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  and  on  his  re- 
turn entered  upon  a  life  of  studious  leisure.  He  first  be- 
came known  as  an  author  by  his  Plain  Discovery  of  the 
Whole  Revelation  of  St.  John  (1593),  giving  in  the  dedica- 
tion some  wholesome  advice  to  King  James  upon  the  re- 
form of  his  "  house,  family,  and  court."  About  this  time 
he  was  engaged  in  researches  into  tlie  construction  of  war- 
like machines,  and  a  letter  to  Anthony  Bacon,  dated  in  1596, 
describes  his  invention  of  a  mirror  to  set  fire  to  ships  by  re- 
flecting the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  of  an  instrument  for  scat- 
tering shot  over  a  wide  area;  but  tlicse  inventions  seem 
never  to  have  been  tested  or  even  perfected.  In  1614  he 
published  liis  great  discovery  of  logarithms  in  a  work  en- 
titled Miriiici  Logarilhmorum  Catwnis  Descriptio,  which, 
according  to  Kepler,  he  had  indicated  as  early  as  1594  in  a 
letter  to  Tyelio  Brahe.  In  1617  he  published  Rabdologim, 
sen  yumerationis  per  Virgulas  Libri  duo,  describing  the 
invention  known  as  Napier's  Bones  (q.  v.).  He  died  at 
Merehiston,  A]u-.  4. 1617.  His  son  Robert  published,  1619, 
a  posthumous  work,  Mirifici  Logarithmorum  Canonis  Con- 
structio,  explaining  the  method  of  constructing  tables  of 
logarithms,  Archibald,  his  eldest  son,  was  created  Lord 
Napier  in  1627,  and  wa-s  ancestor  of  several  of  the  Napiers  of 
military  and  naval  celebi'ity  in  modern  times.  Biographies 
of  Napier  were  published  by  the  Earl  of  Buchan  (1787)  and 
by  JIark  Napier  (1834). 

Napier,  Macvey:  lawyer  and  author;  b,  in  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland,  Apr,  12,  1776:  studied  law;  became  writer  to  the 
signet  1799;  published  in  1817  an  essay  on  the  Philosoph- 
ical Writings  of  Lord  Bacon  ;  edited  tlie  Supplement  to 
the  Encyclopipdia  Britannica  (6  vols..  Edinburgh,  1815-24) ; 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Conveyancing  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  1825  ;  edited  The  Edinburgh  Review  for  sev- 
enteen years  (1829— 46) ;  superintended  theseventli  edition  of 
the  En'cyclopwdia  Britannica  (1830-42),  D.  at  Edinburgh, 
Feb.  11,  1847.  A  posthumous  work  by  Prof.  Napier,  Lord 
Bacon  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  ajijieared  in  1853. 

Napier,  Sir  William  Francis  Patrick.  K.  C.  B.  :  soldier 
and  author;  b.  at  Castletown,  Kildare,  Ireland,  Dec.  17, 
1785;  brother  of  Sir  Charles  James  and  Col.  George,  and 
cousin  of  Admiral  Sir  Charles  Napier,  who  together  consti- 
tuted a  remarkable  assemblage  of  militaiT,  naval,  and  liter- 
ary talent,  all  being  descendants  of  the  Laird  of  Merehiston. 
the  inventor  of  logarithms.  Sir  William  entered  the  army 
in  1800;  became  captain  1804:  served  at  the  siege  of  t^open- 
hagen  1807;  in  1808  accompanied  Sir  John  Moore  to  Portu- 
gal, and  was  actively  engaged  in  the  Peninsular  campaign 
1810-14;  became  major  1811,  and  lieutenant-colonel  1813, 
and  wrote  a  History  of  the  War  in  the  Peni/isitla  and  in  the 
Sonth  of  France  from  JSOT  to  ISli  (6  vols.,  1828-40),  ad- 
mitted to  be  one  of  the  most  remarkable  military  histories 
of  modern  times.  This  history  callnl  fdi-tli  a  large  number 
of  replies  and  criticisms  from  officers  alluded  to  in  tlie  text 
and  tlie  later  editions  contain  replies  printed  under  the  title 
Justiticalory  Pieces.  Napier  was  made  colonel  in  1830, 
major-general  1841,  lieutenant-governor  of  Gnernsev  1842, 
knighted  1848,  and  made  lieutenant-general  1851,  He  de- 
voted his  later  years  to  the  illustration  of  his  brother's  ex- 
ploits in  the  East,  publishing  The  Conquest  of  Scinde  (1845), 


NAPIEUIAX   LitUAKlTllMS 


NAPLES 


61 


Adminintratiun  iif  Sciiiile  {\K>1).  uiiil  Tlie  Life  of  Sir 
Charles  Napier  (1857):  In- ulso  issued  in  1855  English  Bai- 
lies and  iiiec/es  in  Ihe  /'fniH««/a,  consisting  of  passajii'S  fnnii 
liis  larger  liistorv,  revised  ami  sometimes  rewritten.  I),  at 
Sc'inde  House.  Ciapliam,  Feb.  12,  1H«0. 

Napierian   I.o:raritlinis:  S6e  Loii.tKiTiiMS. 

Napier  of  .Mau:dalu.  Kc.bf.kt  Cokxkms  Napier,  Baron  : 
soldier;  l>.  ni  ( \yloM.  Dee.  0,  1810:  S(m  of  Major  ('.  F. 
Napier,  of  llie  I{oyal  .\rtillery  ;  was  educated  at  tlie  Military 
College  at  Addiseomlie,  and  entered  the  Hoyal  Kngineers 
as  second  lieutenant  in  IHvJO;  served  throughout  the  Sutlej 
campaign  of  184.")— IB.  as  chief  engineer  in  the  battles  of 
McHidkee  and  Ferozeshnli  (severely  wounded),  and  as  l)rigade 
major  of  engineers  at  the  battle  of  .Sobraon ;  served  in  the 
I'unjaub  campaign  of  1848-4!):  was  chief  engineer  and 
wounded  during  the  siege  of  Mooltan  184!t:  commanding 
engineer  of  the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  (_iujerat  and  pur- 
suit of  the  .Sikh  army:  actively  engaged  throughout  the 
Indian  mutiny  campaigns:  chief  of  stall  to  Out  ram  in  18.jT. 
and  distinguished  in  tlie  actions  leading  to  the  lii-st  relief  of 
hucknow  and  subsequent  operations:  brigailicr  and  chief 
engineer  at  siege  and  capture  of  Lucknow :  coniinaniled  a 
brigade  at  the  capture  of  Gwalior,  reducing  the  fort  of 
Powrie  .Xug.,  18ri8;  commanded  a  division  in  the  Cliina  ex- 
peditionary force,  anil  was  distinguished  throughout  the 
campaign  resulting  in  the  surrender  of  Peking,  and  pro- 
moted to  be  major-general:  appointed  lieutenant-general  in 
1867.  and  eommamled  the  Aliyssinian  ex[)edition  resulting 
in  the  capture  of  .Magdala  and  the  release  of  the  British  pris- 
oners, (tn  Napier's  return  to  Kngland,  in  July,  1868,  he 
was  raiseil  to  the  peerage  under  the  title  of  Baron  of  Mag- 
dala, and  received  an  annual  pension  of  £2.000.  (.Sec  Abys- 
sinia and  Mauiiala.)  He  was  also  nominated  a  U.  ('.  B., 
having  ^)rcviously  been  made  ('.  1!.  and  K.  ('.  H.  forhis  serv- 
ices during  the  Indian  muliiiy.  He  was  governor  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  India  1870-76:  governor  of  Gibraltar 
1876-82.     1).  in  London,  .Ian.  14,  1890. 

Napier's  Hoin'S  (or  Rods) :  u  set  of  tal)lets  of  bone, 
hi>rn.  ivory,  or  other  material,  invented  by  the  mathema- 
tician Napier  for  facilitating  multiplication  and  division. 
Thev  are  of  no  practical  use,  and  are  only  interesting  as  a 
matiicmatical  curiosity. 

Naples  r=  Fr..  from  Ital.  Na'poU  <  Lat.  Nea'polis  =  Gr. 
NfdIiroAii,  liter..  New  Town:  »(os.  new  +  it6\is.  cily]:  city  of 
Italy:  capital  of  the  province  of  Campania,  and  formerly  of 
the  kingdom  of  the 'I  wo  .Sicilies:  on  the  liav  of  Naples  ;  in 
lat.  40  50  N.,  Ion.  14'  10'  E. :  161  miles  by  rail  S.  K.  of 
Home  (see  tnap  of  Italy,  ref.  7-F).  It  is  magnificently  situ- 
ated, rising  like  an  amphitheater  from  thi'  shore,  and  has  an 
almost  perfect  climale.  The  city  is  dominated  on  the  \V. 
iiy  the  Casth^  of  St.  Klino,  once  of  immense  strength,  whidi 
crowns  the  hill  of  St.  Krasmo  or  St.  Ermo ;  on  the  seaside 
are  the  fortresses  of  Ciustel  Nuovo.  often  compared  to  the 
Tower  of  London,  and  adormd  with  a  triumphal  arch  in 
honor  of  Alfonso  of  Anigon  (1442):  the  Caslel  dell'  Ovo. 
»i(h  its  media'val  tnnlilions  about  Vergil,  but  which  was 
probalily  built  by  the  Norman  William  I.  (ll.*>0);  also  many 
ijat  I  erics. 

Means  of  Communirnlinn,  Streels,  etc. — There  is  regular 
sleam  <(>mmunicalion  by  water  between  Naples  and  all  the 
principal  Meililerrancan  ports,  an<l  railways  connect  it  with 
Cenlrsl  and  Norlhern  Italy;  the  city  itself  is  iiitei-sected 
liy  tramways  and  omnibus  lines.  It  is  divided  into  the 
Old.  or  eastern. and  the  New, or  western, towns  by  the  ridge 
extending  from  the  palace  of  Capodimontc  to  the  sen,  thus 
ilividing  the  city  into  a  kind  of  ilonble  crescent.  The  mod- 
ern sin  etsare  broad  and  well  paved,  while  I  he  older  thorough- 
fares, lined  by  houses  of  great  heiirhl,  are,  Ihe  Via  Koina 
'Vceiited,  extremely  narrow,  and  snmelines  verv  sleep  ami 
■ooked.  and  the  giimpsi's caught  of  ihein  in  driviiigthrouirh 
lie  wider  avenues  are  strikingly  piiliirisi|Ui-.  .\mong  the 
tirincipal  strect.s  are  the  Via  lioma  (forinirly  called  the 
roledo),  a  grand  street  intersecting  Ihe  old  town;  the 
Chiaja,  or  Kiviern  di  Chiaja,  whii'h.  passing  the  charming 
gardens  of  the  Villa  Nazionale  on  Ihe  left  and  a  row 
of  line  buildings  on  the  right,  winds  for  si-veral  miles  along 
the  curving,  undulating  wcslern  shore  of  Ihe  bav,  and  is  Ihe 
fashionable  promenade  of  the  cily  ;  Ihe  Viltorio  Emmanuele, 
which  skirl.s  and  crosses  the  higher  iiortions  of  the  town, 
connnamling  views  of  surpassing  loveliness;  tlie Corso Gari- 
baldi, and  the  Via  del  Diiomo.  The  lower  part  of  Ihe  Via 
Konia  formerly  olTered  to  the  visitor  the  most  nnimaled 
I'ictures  of  Neapolitan  habits,  where  the  whole  domestic  life 


of  the  poorer  classes  might  Ite  studied  in  tlie  open  air,  but 
all  this  has  greatly  changed  since  the  unification  of  Italy 
and  the  consiM|uent  reduction  of  the  Inzzamni.  The  public 
squares,  called  laralii.  are  irregular,  and,  though  Hanked  by 
showy  edifices  ami  decorated  with  fountains,  are  not  gener- 
ally attractive.  In  the  Villa  Nazionale  stand  the  a(piariuin 
and  exhibition-rooms  of  the  famous  Zoological  Slat  ion,  estab- 
lished here  in  1870-75  by  Dr.  .Anton  Dohrn,  of  Jena. 

Churches  and  I'nhlic  Instil  ill  ions. — The  churches  number 
350,  some  very  quaint  and  curious  in  their  constrnel ion,  and 
have  more  arclueological  interest  than  arcliiteclural  merit. 
In  the  sacristy  of  the  Cathedral  of  San  Gcnnaro  is  the  almost 
priceless  treasury  of  Ihe  saint  ;  here  also  are  the  amyolle 
or  small  phials  said  to  contain  Ihe  blood  of  St.  Geniiaro, 
which  is  U'lieved  to  liquefy  twice  every  year.  Among  other 
prominent  churches  are  the  Iiicoronata,  founded  by  .Joanna 
I.,  with  damaged  fres<'oes  attributed  to  Giotto;  Sta.  Chiara, 
with  fine  frescoes  and  curious  old  monuments;  .San  Uonieni- 
co  Maggiore,  very  rich  ;  the  Church  of  the  Geroloniini,  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  city:  San  Francesco  di  Paola,  which  has 
a  cupola  of  great  size  and  iKildnessof  execution.  Of  thesis 
large  theaters.  San  Carlo  is  the  largest  and  most  elegant. 
The  National  Museum,  formerly  known  as  the  Musi^o  Bor- 
bonico.  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  nio.st  interesting  in 
the  world  ;  among  its  treasures  are  a  great  number  of  objects 
found  in  Pompeii  and  its  neighborhood.  The  National  or 
Farnese  Library  contains  over  250,000  volumes,  besides 
8.(K)0  manuscripts  on  parchment  and  paper,  and  1.8(X)  from 
Herculaneuin  on  iiajiynis;  Ihe  Brancacciana  has  over  100,- 
000  volumes;  and  l.">O.OflO  volumes  belong  to  the  library  of 
the  univei-sity.  which  was  founded  in  1224,  and  is  attended 
by  S.-TOO  students.  Outside  of  the  Capiian  gale  is  the  ceme- 
tery of  the  non-Catholics,  remarkable  for  the  simplicity  and 
elegance  of  the  nioniimenls.  The  old  Cain[>o  Santo,  the 
cemetery  of  the  victims  of  the  cholera,  and  the  new  Campo 
Santo,  are  on  Ihe  road  to  the  Poggio  Keale.  Among  the 
many  objects  of  interest  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Naples 
is  the  grotto  of  Posilipo.  the  work  of  Lncullus  or  of  Agrippa. 
This  is  a  gallery  cut  through  the  rixky  pronioiilory  of  Po- 
silipo, about  1,8.50  feet  long,  17  or  18  in  width,  and  at  the 
extremities  above  50  feet  in  height,  though  much  lower  to- 
ward the  center.  Just  over  the  ea.st  entrance  is  the  reputed 
tomb  of  Vergil. 

Jnduslry.  Trade,  etc. — Naples  has.  to  a  small  extent,  man- 
ufactuies  of  woolen,  silk,  and  linen  fabrics,  leather,  gloves, 
coral  ornaments,  tapestry,  jiorcelain.  chemicals,  machinery, 
carriages,  and  raaccaroni,  and  is  the  site  of  a  government 
ordnancc-founiliy.  Its  trade  is  large,  however;  some  3,700 
ships  of  1.700.tK)0  tons  burden  enter  the  port  annually.  The 
iiriiK-ipal  exports  are  wine,  olive  oil,  almonds,  sulphur, 
liem|i,  and  (lax;  the  chief  imports,  grain,  cottons,  woolens, 
and  earthenware.     The  fisheries  also  are  important. 

Ili.'ilory. — Naples  is  said  to  have  been  founded  as  an  off- 
shoot of  the  still  older  town.  Parlhinope  or  J'ahropnlis,  the 
site  of  which  was  probably  Posiliiio.  Both  towns  were 
Greek  colonies,  and  Greek  continueii  to  be  spoken  until  the 
second  century  of  the  Christian  era.  The  ancient  city  first 
appears  in  history  as  an  ally  of  Rome  against  the  .Samnites. 
It  continueii  faithful  to  the  Konians  in  their  wars  with  Han- 
nibal, and  eventually  became  the  favorite  resort  of  the  IJo- 
man  aristocracy,  the  ruins  of  whose  splendid  villas  slill  meet 
the  eye  in  every  direction,  .\fler  sulTcring  much  from  the 
barbarians,  it  was  besieged  (537)  liy  Belisarius,  who,  enter- 
ing the  town  through  an  aqueduct,  pave  it  up  to  his  sol- 
diers. Totila.  who  took  it  afterward,  treated  it  more  hu- 
manely. Later  it  be<'ame  the  capital  of  a  dukedom,  gradu- 
ally extending  over  Ihe  neighlKiring  towns  and  islands,  and 
liail  fierce  cnnfiicts  with  Ihal  of  Beneveiito.  In  1037  the 
eilv  fell  into  Ihe  hands  of  llie  Normans  under  Knggicro, 
and  was  well  governed  by  him  and  his  successors  as  a  jiart 
of  Iheir  kingdom.  The  Suabian  ilvnasty  followed  in  ll!t4. 
but  in  1268,  at  the  instigalion  of  llie  pope,  Conradine,  the 
Inst  of  his  house,  was  taken  prisoner  and  beheaded  by 
Charles  of  .\njon.  on  whom  the  pojie  liad  bestowed  the 
kingdom  of  Naples.  Charles  benulified  the  city  and  made 
it  his  capiial.  The  weakness  of  .loaniia  I.  and  the  ns,sa.<si- 
iialion  of  her  husband  broiii:lit  upon  Naples  Ihe  vengi'nnee 
of  his  brother.  Louis  of  Hungary,  and  for  a  century  Ihe 
greatest  disorder  and  misery  iinvailed.  In  1442  Alfonso 
of  Amgon  besieged  the  cily  niid  eiilen-d  it  thmngh  an  aqtie- 
iluct,  a.s  Belisarius  had  done  before  him.  In  1 1!l5  Naples 
joyfully  I'pened  her  gates  to  Charles  VIII.  of  France,  who, 
however,  was  soon  fon'ed  to  share  his  jirize  with  S|iain. 
Francis  I.  vninlv  endeavored  lo  recover  it   from  his  rival. 


62 


NAPLES,  BAY  OF 


NAPOLEON  I. 


Charles  V.  In  the  siege  of  1528  both  besieged  and  besie- 
gers suffered  cruelly  from  plague  and  famine.  Under  the 
government  of  the  Spanisli  viceroys  Naples  presented  a 
scene  of  disorder  and  squalor,  while  churches  were  multi- 
plied and  convents  oecxipied  the  most  beautiful  and  health- 
ful positions  in  the  city.  Strong  efforts  were  made  by  the 
best  citizens  and  the  purest  ecclesiastics  to  introduce  the 
Reformed  religion,  and  a  popular  tumult  in  1547  forced 
Charles  V.  to  annul  the  order  for  the  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition ;  but  religious  persecution  under  other  forms 
and  the  most  intolerable  despotism  finally  brought  about 
(1647)  the  famous  insurrection  of  Masaniello  (q.  r.).  Not 
long  after  a  terrible  plague  appeared,  during  which  30,000 
persons  perished  in  six  months.  In  1701  the  nobility  at- 
tempted to  overtlirow  the  existing  government  and  place  an 
archduke  of  Austria  at  its  head.  During  the  wars  of  the 
French  Revohition,  Naples  was  several  times  taken,  lost, 
and  retaken  by  the  French.  In  1815  the  Bourbons  were 
once  more  restored :  the  citizens  endeavored  to  obtain  re- 
forms, but  were  sternly  repressed  until  1860,  when,  on  Sept. 
7,  Garibaldi  entered  the  city,  and  the  people,  being  called 
upon  to  decide  their  own  destiny,  voted  for  the  annexation 
of  Naples  to  the  constitutional  kingdom  of  Victor  Emman- 
uel II.  Since  then  marked  changes  for  the  better  have 
taken  place,  and  the  material  wealth  of  the  city  has  in- 
creased. Its  sanitary  condition  has  been  greatly  improved 
by  a  system  of  drainage  that  carries  the  sewage  to  a  dis- 
tance, by  the  pure  water-supply  opened  in  1885,  and  by  the 
removal  of  unsanitary  dwellings  begun  in  1889.  Pop.  (1882) 
463,173:  (1893)  532.500.  Revised  by  S.  A.  Torrance. 

Naples,  Bay  or  (Jiilf  of  (anc  Sinus  PuteolatiKs) :  a  por- 
tion of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Italy, 
running  inland  about  10  miles  between  Cape  Miseno  and 
Cape  Campanella,  20  miles  distant  from  each  other.  Its 
shores  have  a  worldwide  reputation  for  beauty  of  scenery 
and  charm  of  climate. 

Naples,  Kingdom  of:  one  of  the  old  political  divisions 
of  Italy.     See  Italy  and  Sicilv. 

Napo,  naapo  :  a  northern  branch  of  the  upper  Amazon,  in 
Ecuador;  rising  on  the  east  slope  of  the  Andes,  S.  E.  of 
Quito,  flowing  S.  E.  by  E.,  and  joining  the  Amazon  near 
Ion.  72°  45'  W. ;  length,  by  the  principal  windings,  nearly 
800  miles;  navigable  for  small  steamers  about  500  miles. 
The  upper  portion  is  obstructed  by  rapids,  which  are  passed 
by  canoes  as  far  as  the  village  of  Napo ;  thence  a  rough  trail 
leads  over  the  mountains,  by  way  of  Archidona  and  Papa- 
llacta  to  Quito,  forming  almost  the  only  route  from  the  Ecua- 
dorian plateau  to  the  Amazon.  The  river  flows  through 
a  vast,  forest-covered  plain,  which  is  thinly  inhabited  by  a 
few  Indian  tribes ;  a  dozen  miserable  villages  on  the  banks 
are  the  only  marks  of  civilization.  The  Napo  region  is 
rich  in  gold,  but  it  is  collected  only  in  small  quantities  by 
hand-washing.  Sarsaparilla,  a  little  rubber,  etc.,  are  ob- 
tained along  the  banks.  The  principal  tributaries  are  the 
Curaray,  Aguarico,  and  Coca.  Peru  claims  the  lower  Napo, 
and  the  entire  northern  shore  is  in  territory  claimed  by  (I"o- 
lombia.  SeeOrton.  T/ie  Andes  and  fhe  Amazon  (li<7G):'Shn- 
son.  Travels  in  the  Wilds  of  Ecuador  (1886).         H.  H.  S. 

Napoleon :  village ;  capital  of  Henry  co.,  O.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  2-D) ;  on  the  Jlaumee 
river,  the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal,  and  the  \Vabash  Railroad  ; 
35  miles  S.  W.  of  Toledo.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region, 
and  contains  two  large  flour-mills,  elevators,  several  manu- 
factories, water-works,  electric  lights,  3  private  banks,  and 
4  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  3.032 ;  (1890)  2.764 :  (1894) 
estimated,  3,300.     Editor  of  "  Democratic  Northwest." 

Napoleon  I. :  soldier,  statesman,  and  Emperor  of  the 
French.  The  place  of  his  birth  was  Ajaccio,  in  the  island  of 
Corsica,  but  the  date  is  uncertain.  The  one  commonly  ac- 
cepted is  Aug.  15,  1769,  but  the  Corsican  record  shows'that 
his  mother  bore  a  son  Jan.  7,  1768,  who  was  baptized  by  the 
name  Nabulione.  It  the  earlier  date  is  the  true  one,  the  mo- 
tive for  announcing  the  other  was  doubtless  the  fact  that 
when,  in  Apr.,  1779.  he  was  admitted  to  the  military  school 
at  Bricnne  he  would  have  been  excluded  as  more  than  ten 
years  of  age  if  Jan.,  1768,  had  been  given  as  the  time  of  his 
birth.  His  fatlier.  Carlo  Buonaparte,  was  descended  from 
an  Italian  family  of  rank,  which  had  migrated  to  Corsica  in 
1529.  When  he  was  eighteen.  Carlo  Buonaparte  married 
Letitia  Romolino.  a  ('orsican  young  lady  not  fifteen  years 
of  age.  The  children  of  this  marriage  were  thirteen  in 
number,  of  whom  eight  grew  to  maturity,  Napoleon  being 


the  eldest  or  the  second.  The  mother  had  beauty  and  sa- 
gacity, but  neither  position  nor  wealth.  The  father,  though 
noble  in  rank,  was  poor  and  indolent.  Two  characteristics 
of  Napoleon's  childhood  are  specially  worthy  of  note.  He 
grew  up  in  poverty,  though  among  luxurious  noblemen. 
The  condition  of  the  country  was  one  of  uninteniipted  tur- 
bulence and  violence.  France  had  purchased  the  equivocal 
rights  of  Genoa  to  the  island  in  1768  and  had  attempted  to 
enforce  them  by  a  vigorous  and  cruel  system  of  suppression. 
The  Bonaparte  family  took  the  French  or  unpopular  side. 
L^p  to  1795  Napoleon's  interests  were  in  Corsica,  where  he 
doubtless  intended  to  pass  his  life.  In  the  course  of  five 
years  at  the  military  school  at  Brienne  he  mingled  very  little 
with  his  fellow  pupils.  One  authority  says  his  life  was  that 
of  a  •'  hermit  "  ;  it  is  certain  that  he  was  solitary  and  unhappy. 
In  1784  he  went  from  Brienne  to  a  military  school  in  Paris, 
and  a  year  later  received  the  rank  of  lieutenant  in  a  regi- 
ment at  Valence.  During  the  next  few  years  his  regiment 
was  moved  from  place  to  place,  and  on  account  of  ill-health 
he  freciuently  had  long  vacations,  which  he  passed  in  Cor- 
sica. During  this  period  he  showed  no  unusual  talent,  though 
he  had  skill  in  mathematics,  and  was  fond  of  military  history. 
His  writings  at  this  time  gave  no  promise  of  an  exceptional 
future,  though  they  indicated  that  kind  of  fierce  impatience 
which  was  characteristic  of  his  later  years.  Thoroughly 
alive  to  the  interests  of  Corsica,  his  youth  was  familiar  with 
a  country  in  a  constant  state  of  turbulent  disorder.  At  this 
period  his  allegiance  wavered  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
In  1792,  having  obtained  a  limited  command,  he  made  an  un- 
successful attempt  at  a  coup  d'etat,  but  when  pursued  he  es- 
caped to  France,  thus  probably  saving  himself  from  being 
shot  by  court  martial.  A  little  later  the  whole  family,  pur- 
sued by  the  fury  of  the  Corsicans,  fied  from  the  island  and 
subjected  themselves  to  the  risk  of  landing  in  France  in  the 
very  midst  of  the  Revolution.  Thus  ended  the  Corsican  pe- 
riod of  his  life.  His  education,  if  not  exclusively  military, 
had  been  chiefly  military  in  the  very  worst  sense  of  the  term  ; 
for  from  infancy  he  had  been  constantly  familiar  with  deeds 
of  violence. 

Soon  after  Bonaparte's  return  to  France  his  character  and 
ability  revealed  themselves.  Rising  rapidly  in  the  service, 
he  impressed  all  who  came  in  contact  with  him  with  a  sense 
of  his  irresistible  force  of  will.  When  he  was  first  appointed 
to  a  command.  Auguereau,  a  proud  but  heroic  old  soldier, 
ridiculed  his  insignificant  figure  and  his  youth  (according  to 
de  Meneval  he  was  only  about  5  ft.  2  in.  in  height),  but  after 
an  interview  with  the  little  general  Auguereau  confessed 
that  he  had  been  frightened  and  overawed  at  the  first  glance. 
Gen.  Vandamme,  one  of  the  most  energetic  and  brutal 
of  the  revolutionary  soldiers,  said  to  Marshal  d'Ornano :  "  I, 
who  fear  neither  God  nor  devil,  when  I  approach  him,  trem- 
ble like  a  child.  He  could  make  me  dash  through  the  eye 
of  a  needle  into  the  fire."  United  with  these  characteristics 
was  a  remarkable  power  of  work  and  concentration.  Roe- 
derer,  during  the  early  part  of  Napoleon's  French  career,  wrote 
of  him :  "  What  characterizes  him  above  all  other  men  is 
the  force,  flexibility,  and  constancy  of  his  attention.  He 
can  work  eighteen  hours  at  a  stretch,  on  one  or  on  several 
subjects.  I  never  saw  him  tired."  Pelet  wrote  a  little 
later :  "  Often  he  keeps  the  counselors  of  state  from  nine 
o'clock  in  the  morning  until  five  in  the  evening,  with  fifteen 
minutes'  intermission,  and  seems  no  more  fatigued  at  the 
close  of  the  session  than  at  the  beginning."  Such  powers 
were  not  long  in  producing  an  effect.  Immediately  after 
his  return  from  Corsica  Napoleon  allied  himself  with  the 
younger  Robespierre  and  the  Terrorists.  In  1793  he  was 
given  command  of  a  battalion  of  artillery,  and  so  distin- 
guished himself  in  planning  the  expulsion  of  the  British 
from  Toulon  that  he  was  at  once  naineil  general  of  brigade. 
In  the  summer  of  1794  he  saw  little  military  service,  but 
was  active  in  his  political  plans,  and,  according  to  Marmont, 
"acquired  an  ascendency  over  the  representatives  which  it 
is  impossible  to  describe."  After  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
(July  28,  1794)  Bonaparte  was  arrested  and  imprisoned,  but 
was  not  sent  to  Paris,  as  the  record  quaintly  says.  "  on  the 
ground  of  the  possible  utility  of  the  military  and  local 
knowledge  of  the  said  Bonaparte."  Gen.  Marmont  says 
he  "  moved  heaven  and  earth "  to  effect  his  escape  from 
prison.  He  finally  succeeded.  In  1795  he  showed  a  rest- 
less activity,  though  he  seemed  to  act  now  on  one  side  and 
now  on  the  other.  On  Oct.  4  he  received  the  command  of 
the  garrison,  and  on  the  following  day  showed  himself  mas- 
ter of  the  city  by  sweeping  the  streets  with  grapeshot  and 
driving  the  Terrorists  into  seclusion.     He  thus  practically 


NAPOLEOX   I. 


63 


brought  the  Revolution  to  an  end.  In  Mar.,  1796,  he  mar- 
ried Josephine  de  Bcauharnais,  a  widow  whnse  first  husband 
had  perishc'd  on  the  fjuillolini'.  Josephine  had  sweetness  of 
disposition,  and  the  favor  with  which  she  was  rcpirdud  in 
Parisian  society  was  of  a<ivanta),'u  to  her  liusband.  Thf 
iiiarria^e  register  detlans  that  lionaparle  wius  burn  in  1708, 
instead  of  176!*,  and  Josephine  in  1767,  instead  <if  1763,  the 
true  date  of  h<-r  birth.  llona|iarte"s  Kuropean  career  was 
now  to  bejjin. 

The  Fir.it  Italian  Period. — The  coalition  which  had  been 
formed  ai;ainst  France  in  17UH  was  broken  up  by  the  revolt 
in  Piilaiiil.  and  tin-  consequent  withdrawal  nf  the  Prussian 
troo|is  from  the  west.  1  ranee  in  17'.I4  reirained  all  she 
had  lost,  expelled  the  .\uslrians  fmiu  Iklgium  and  the 
Stadtliolder  from  lli>lland,set  up  her  boundary  on  the  Rhine, 
and  pushed  her  armies  into  (iernnmy.  Tliis  act  of  eontjuest 
led  to  the  coalitiim  of  Kussia,  Austria,  aiul  (Ireat  Britain  in 
179.').  The  Austrian  generals  VVurmser  and  Clerfait  forced 
the  French  armies  back  out  of  Germany  and  drove  them 
across  the  Khine.  I!i>naparte  saw  that  the  most  formidable 
enemy  of  France  was  .\ustria.  and  that  the  most  vulnerable 
point  of  attack  wius  the  Austrian  territory  in  Italy.  He 
urged  his  views  on  the  membei-s  of  the  Directory  with  so 
much  cogency  that  an  Italian  campaign  was  determined 
upon,  and  he  himself  was  placed  in  command.  His  personal 
charaeteristii'S  showed  themselves  instantly.  Though  the 
ostensible  purpose  of  the  war  was  to  free  Italy  from  Aus- 
tria, Bonaparte  issued  a  prndanuition  to  the  soldiers  in 
which  he  said:  "Soldiers,  you  are  miked  and  ill-fed;  I  will 
lead  you  into  the  most  fruitful  plains  in  the  world.  Rich 
granaries,  great  provinces  will  be  in  your  power.  There 
you  will  find  honcir  and  fame  and  wealth."  This  order  was 
issued  Mar.  27,  17!)6.  eighteen  days  after  his  marriage.  The 
course  hinted  at  in  the  proclamation  was  carried  out.  The 
commander  not  only  made  the  war  support  itself,  but  he 
levied  enormous  sums  upon  the  provinces  and  cities,  with 
which  he  filled  the  military  chest  and  made  his  commanders 
rich.  Marmont  relates  that  Boiuipaile  at  one  time  caused 
a  largo  sum  to  [aiss  through  his  hands,  and  that  when  he 
rendered  a  detailed  account  of  the  same  the  commander 
ri<liculed  him  for  not  keeping  it  for  himself.  From  the 
pope  ho  extorted  15,IX)0,000  francs.  In  this  way  he  bound 
Ills  otlicers  and  soldiers  to  him  and  overawed  his  enemies. 
His  plan  of  campaign  was  essentially  the  same  that  he  at- 
tempted nearly  twenty  years  later  at  Waterloo,  lie  sepa- 
rated the  Austrian  army  from  the  Sardinian,  and  then  de- 
feated tliera  lioth  in  turn.  In  less  than  a  month  he  fought 
five  important  battles,  and  wjus  in  complete  possession  of 
the  western  part  of  Xorthern  Italy.  Turning  to  the  E.,  ho 
met  greater  dilliculties,  but  he  showed  even  greater  ability 
and  resources,  and  his  success  was  not  less  marked.  Wurm- 
ser  had  come  to  the  rescue  from  X.  of  the  Alps  with  a  new 
army  of  .'50.000  men.  and  Bonaparte  came  near  being  over- 
whelmed and  ruined  at  Areola.  The  Austrians  were  de- 
:itcil  at  Rivoli  Jan.  14,  17!t7,  anil  a  whole  corps  d'armee 
ipitulated  at  Koverbella  Jan.  16.  These  successes  raised 
the  reputation  of  Bonaparte  above  all  the  other  French 
generals  and  made  him  from  that  time  practically  inde- 
pendent. He  determined  to  strike  at  the  heart  of  .\ustria 
from  Mantua  as  a  basis,  but  he  was  now  to  nu'ct  with  a 
new  enemy.  The  .\ustrian  general,  the  .\rchduke  Charles, 
who  had  sui'Ccede<l  (.'lerfail  in  the  campaign  against  Jour- 
dan  and  Moreau  in  .Southern  Germany,  hiul  beaten  the 
French  at  W'llrzbnrg  and  ilrivcn  tlioin  back  across  the 
Khine.  He  was  now  ordered  to  return  to  the  defense  of 
,\ustria  against  Boruiparte.  Xo  important  successes  were 
a<'lii(Ved  by  the  French,  and  Mar.  31  Bonaparte  proposed  to 
the  archduke  an  armistice  of  six  days.  The  result  wa.s  what 
are  known  as  the  Preliminaries  of  Leobcn,  which  were  the 
basis  of  the  Treaty  of  t'ampo  Formio,  signed  in  Oct.,  17!I7. 
The  unscrupulous  way  in  which  Bonaparte  had  even  now 
begun  to  deal  was  shown  in  the  treatment  of  Venice.  This 
republic,  which  hud  maintained  its  neutrality  though  over- 
run by  the  Frem-h  army,  was  now  ceded  to  Austria  in  re- 
turn for  Belgium  and  tlie  Uhenish  frontier,  though  Frani'e 
had  no  right  to  cede  Venice,  and  .\uslria  had  no  right  to 
ceile  those  portions  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Khine,  over 
which  she  had  no  control.  By  the  same  treaty  a  ('is)il(iinc 
repul)lic  was  set  up  under  the  protection  of  France.  On 
the  whole,  the  treaty  wiis  deciiledly  favorable  to  Austria, 
for  she  gained  the  territory  of  Venice  as  far  as  the  Adige 
in  return  fi.r  a  n\imber  of  straggling  provinces  over  which 
she  had  at  best  only  partial  control.  The  most  important 
'  result  of  the  campaign  was  the  great  fiut  that  it  revealed 


Bonaparte  to  the  army,  to  France,  and  to  the  world.  It 
was  also  of  iniportance  that  he  had  given  the  republican 
Venice  to  imperial  Austria;  for  by  so  doing  he  had  thrown 
an  aiiple  of  discord  among  the  old  powers  of  Europe. 

77it  A'yi/ptian  Campaign. — The  revolutitin  of  the  18th 
Fructidor  tSept.  4,  17U7),  led  by  Auguereau.  overthrew  the 
republican  constitution  which  had  been  definitely  estab- 
lished in  171).'),  and  substituted  for  it  the  government  of  the 
army.'  The  elections  had  shown  that  the  country  favored  a 
policy  of  peace,  and  consequently  the  element  in  favor  of 
peace  in  the  legislaturi'  was  on  the  j)oint  of  gaining  con- 
trol. Auguereau,  who  was  then  one  of  Bonaparte's  generals 
of  division,  surroumled  the  legislative  body  with  a  force  of 
12.000  men,  and  arrested  the  most  obnoxious  representatives. 
The  elect  ions  in  forty-eight  of  the  departments  were  annulled, 
and  a  large  number  were  proscribed  and  transported  to  die 
in  the  penal  colony  at  Cayenne.  Henceforth  during  the 
ascendency  of  Bonaparte  France  was  to  be  ruled  by  the 
sword.  Soon  after  congratulating  the  armies  on  the  fall  of 
"the  enemies  of  the  .soldier,  and  especially  the  army  of 
Italy,"  Bonaparte  left  Italy  for  Paris.  His  speech  cm  the 
occlusion  of  his  reception  by  the  Directory  indicates  that  he 
was  at  the  time  uncertain  what  course  to  pursue.  The  Di- 
rectory probably  saw  the  necessitv  of  givnig  him  employ- 
ment, and  he  was  nuide  "  geiu'ra1-in-chief  of  the  army  of 
England";  but  the  afi^airs  of  continental  Europe  did  not 
offer  him  a  favorable  op|jorlunity  for  direct  action  against 
lOjigland.  He  had  no  faith  in  the  periiianeiicy  of  the  present 
form  of  government,  and  while  the  Directory  was  demon- 
strating its  weakness  an  opportunity  offered  itself  for  showing 
his  powers  in  another  field.  For  .some  months  he  had  talked 
of  an  Eastern  policy  which  should  unite  France  with  Kussia 
in  taking  possession  of  Turkey,  for  the  jiurposc  of  weakening 
Great  Britain.  It  was  this  thought  which  now  gave  shape  to 
his  action.  France  had  not  yet  abandoned  all  its  claims  in 
India.  He  decided  to  attiuk  Egypt,  and  then  swinp  around 
upon  Turkev  from  the  East  after  he  had  taken  possession  of 
Palestine.  It  is  significant,  however,  that  at  this  very  time 
the  flames  of  war  were  bursting  out  in  all  parts  of  EJurope. 
In  the  early  si)ring  of  1798  the  Swiss  constitution  was  over- 
thrown, the  trench  seized  a  treasure  of  40.000,000  francs  at 
Bern,  the  treasury  of  the  aged  pope  was  iilunderi'd,  and  the 
pope  him.scif  was  carried  into  captivity  ;  but  these  exces,ses, 
although  they  led  to  the  new  coalition  against  France,  did 
not  change  Bonaparte's  determination.  He  was  not  only 
willing  that  in  the  condition  of  affairs  then  existing  France 
should  carry  on  the  war  without  him,  but  he  was  willing  to 
take  with  him  to  Africa  the  flower  of  the  French  army  and 
the  most  promising  of  the  generals.  With  JIurat,  Berthier, 
Desaix,  Kleber.  Lannos.  and  Marmont  he  set  out  in  com- 
miinil  of  30,000  men  on  .May  19.  1798.  Stopping  to  take 
Malta,  which  capitulated  June  12.  he  was  ready  to  begin 
the  Egyptian  campaign  early  in  July.  The  Egyptians  were 
easily  beaten.  At  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids  the  Mame- 
lukes lost  2,000,  and  the  French  only  twenty  or  thirty. 
Bonaparte,  however,  was  thrown  immediately  into  the  great- 
est embarrassment  by  the  complete  destruction  of  his  fleet 
by  Xelson  only  a  week  after  his  arrival  in  Cairo.  His  grand 
design  was  ruined  by  this  misfortune.  While  France  was 
at  war  with  nearly  all  Europe  its  best  generals  and  an  ex- 
cellent army  wi're  imprisoned  in  another  continent.  From 
July  until  the  following  February  Bonaparte  and  his  army 
remaineil  in  comparative  inactivity  near  Cairo.  Jleanwhile 
the  Turks  were  gathering  a  force  in  Syria.  He  determined 
to  anticipate  their  attack  by  advancing  against  them  with 
12.000  men.  He  enteri'd  Syria,  and  took  Jaffa  Mar.  3  by 
as,saiilt.  .More  than  2,tKtO  prisoners  were  taken.  Unwilling 
to  feed  or  to  guard  them,  he  lu-dered  them  to  be  taken 
to  the  seiushore  and  shot.  The  order  was  carried  out, 
every  precaution  having  been  taken  to  prevent  any  from  cs- 
capjiig.  At  St.  Jean  d'.Vcre  the  fortress  was  furnished  with 
supplies  by  the  British  from  the  sea.  After  vain  attempts 
for  two  months  to  reduce  the  city,  he  was  obliged  to  retir<>. 
lie  wrote  to  the  Directory  that  he  abstained  from  enter- 
ing the  city  on  account  of  the  plague  which  he  had  hearil 
was  ravaging  it.  He  afterward  cleclared  that  the  "grain 
of  sand '■  which  obstructed  his  way  at  Acre  "changed  the 
destiny  of  the  world."  At  .Mt.  Talwir.  and  later  in  the 
Bay  of  Aboiikir,  some  advantages  weri'  gained,  but  nothing 
coulil  relieve  the  general  character  of  the  disaster.  Then' 
was  now  nothing  to  show  for  the  loss  to  France  of  .some 
6.000  sold iiTS  and  .several  distinguished  generals  at  a  very 
critical  period.  On  .\ug.  22  Bonaparte  transferred  the  com- 
mand of  the  expedition  to  Kleber,  anil.  Iiikiiic  with  him  all 


64 


NAPOLEON  I. 


the  other  generals  of  distinction,  set  sail  in  two  frigates  for 
Prance.  After  a  tortuous  voyage  and  many  delays  he  land- 
ed at  Frejus  Oct.  9,  1799.  Kleber  was  soon  murdered,  and 
Egypt  and  Malta  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 

The  Coup  d'Etut  uf  I  lie  list  It  Brumaire. — During  Bona- 
parte's stay  in  Egypt  France  liad  been  threatened  with  over- 
whelming disaster ;  but  the  atlairs  of  the  allies  had  been  mis- 
managed, and  the  affairs  of  France,  on  the  whole,  had  been 
conducted  with  ability  and  skill.  The  Duke  of  York,  in  com- 
mand of  the  British  forces  in  the  Netherlands,  had  conducted 
an  unsuccessful  campaign,  and  the  Archduke  Charles  had 
gone  to  his  assistance  without  result.  The  attack  of  the  Rus- 
sians, under  Suvaroff  and  Korsakoff,  had  been  successfully  re- 
Eelled  by  Massena  near  Zurich,  and  Italy,  though  threatened, 
ad  not  been  lost.  It  would  be  too  much  to  hope  that  this 
favorable  condition  could  long  be  continued  unless  the  co- 
alition could  be  broken  or  the  power  of  Prance  strengthened. 
The  return  of  Bonaparte  therefore  was  most  opportune.  He 
was  everywhere  met  with  universal  acclaim.  The  finances 
were  in  disorder,  and  the  forces  of  the  Government  were  not 
united.  Bonaparte  saw  at  once  that  affairs  were  ripe  for  a 
change.  He  had  no  difficulty  in  bringing  the  members  of 
the  Directory  to  his  way  of  thinking.  They  caused  reports 
to  be  spread  that  the  legislative  bodies  were  in  danger  of  at- 
tack in  the  city,  and  by  this  means  induced  them  to  adjourn 
to  St.-Gloud.  Here  the  task  of  overthrowing  the  Govern- 
ment was  not  difficult.  On  the  18th  Brumaire  (Nov.  9, 1799), 
just  one  month  after  Bonaparte  landed  in  France,  the  coup 
d'etat  took  place  which  swept  away  the  constitution  of  the 
year  III.  and  placed  Bonaparte  in  power.  The  legislative 
halls  were  cleared  by  the  soldiery,  and  Sieves  drew  from 
his  pocket  a  new  constitution,  that  known  in  the  republican 
calendar  as  the  Constitution  of  the  year  VIII.  When  modi- 
fied by  Bonaparte  tlie  new  instrument  of  government  prac- 
tically put  all  power  into  the  hands  of  three  consuls.  Sieyes 
had,  no  doubt,  in  planning  the  constitution  made,  as  he 
supposed,  ample  provisions  for  himself ;  but  Bonaparte  as 
First  Consul  would  brook  no  i-ival.  He  afterward  boasted 
that  he  had  pacified  Sieyes  with  an  ample  bribe  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  state.  Sieyes  and  Ducos  resigned  as  consuls,  and 
Bonaparte  put  two  unimportant  officials  in  their  pliices. 

Tlie  Second  Italian  Cnmpaicjn. — During  all  this  period 
war  was  going  on,  and  the  enemies  were  on  the  borders  of 
the  country.  Scarcely  had  he  been  installed  as  Consul  when 
he  made  overtures  of  peace  to  Great  Britain  and  Austria.  It 
is  not  singular  that  these  were  rejected,  for,  after  the  events 
of  1799,  the  allies  must  have  been  confident  of  ultimate  suc- 
cess. The  new  Government  therefore  was  obliged  to  renew 
the  war  against  Great  Britain.  Ru.ssia.  and  Austria.  The  con- 
dition, however,  was  not  so  bad  as  it  seemed ;  for  Russia, 
attributing  the  defeat  of  Suvaroff  to  Austrian  jealousy,  re- 
fused further  aid  to  the  coalition,  and  Great  Britain,  after 
the  failure  of  York  in  the  Netherlands,  was  not  in  condition 
to  take  an  active  part.  The  only  enemy  of  importance 
therefore  was  Austria;  but  at  that  very  moment  Austria 
was  in  possession  of  Southern  Germany  and  of  a  lai'ge  part 
of  Northern  Italy,  with  powerful  armies  in  the  field.  Bona- 
parte availed  himself  of  all  the  new  enthusiasm  to  re-enforce 
the  army  and  put  it  in  order.  His  plan  of  action  was  soon 
determined  upim.  In  It.aly  the  Austrian  general  Melas  was 
advancing  toward  the  W.  with  an  army  of  120.000  men, 
while  Massena  was  trying  to  keep  him  at  bay  with  an  army 
of  40,000.  Nortli  of  the  Alps  Moreau  was  in  command  of 
about  130,000  men,  as  opposed  to  120,000  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Austrian  general  Kray,  The  plan  of  campaign 
now  entered  upon  is  generally  considered  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  ever  designed  by  Napoleon.  He  directed  Moreaii 
to  advance  to  Schaffhausen,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Switzer- 
land, to  cut  off  Kray,  and  then  to  send  a  part  of  his  army 
across  the  St.  Gothard  Pass  to  co-operate  with  the  French 
army  in  Italy,  Massena  was  to  fall  back  to  Western  Italy, 
and  Napoleon  himself  was  to  advance  across  the  middle 
Alps.  Thus  th(?  Aiistrians  would  lie  caught  either  between 
Napoleon  and  Massena,  or  between  Napoleon  and  Jloreau. 
Napoleon's  part  of  the  campaign  was  conducted  with  the 
greatest  secrecy.  Mas.sena  (in  the  early  spring  of  1800)  was 
driven  to  the  W.,  and  finally  shut  up  in  Genoa,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  a  defense  tliat  maile  his  name 
memoral)le.  Jloreau.  though  not  venturing  to  march  on 
Schaffhausen,  di'ove  Kray  back  to  the  Danulie  at  Uim,  and 
sent  the  promised  contingent  across  the  Alps.  The  suc- 
cess of  Napoleon's  movement  depended  upon  its  secrecy. 
Troops  were  collected  in  .Southern  France  in  such  a  way  as 
to  bewilder  the  enemy,     liapidly  during  the  second  week  in 


May  they  converged  upon  the  Swiss  frontier,  and  Napoleon 
placed  himself  at  their  head,  A  part  of  the  troops  ad- 
vanced by  Mont  Cents ;  but  the  main  army,  under  Napoleon 
himself,  crossed  by  the  Great  St.  Bernard.  So  secretly  had 
the  movements  been  conducted,  and  so  swift  was  the  execu- 
tion, that  Napoleon  reached  Milan  on  June  2.  The  corps 
sent  by  Moreau  across  the  St.  Gothard,  finding  that  the 
Avistrians  had  advanced  to  the  W..  followed  on  and  united 
with  Napoleon  immediately  after  his  arrival  in  Milan.  The 
approach  of  a  French  force  by  Mont  Cents  had  deceived 
Melas  and  thrown  him  off  his  guard.  Meanwhile  Napoleon, 
learning  that  Massena  had  been  obliged  to  surrender  Genoa, 
feared  that  Melas  would  try  to  escape  by  the  seaboard.  He 
therefore  determined  to  advance  at  any  risk.  Going  through 
the  Stradella  Pass  of  the  Apiennines  he  came  into  the  vicini- 
ty of  the  enemy  in  the  great  plain  of  Marengo.  His  army 
was  inferior  in  numbers,  and  still  more  inferior  in  artillery 
and  cavalry.  The  Austrian  commander  saw  his  advantage, 
and  advanced  to  a  furious  attack  on  the  morning  of  June  14. 
The  battle  raged  with  varying  fortunes,  but  near  the  end 
of  tile  day  the  Austrians  were  everywhere  successful,  and 
Melas  retired  from  the  field  believing  that  the  battle  was 
won.  At  that  moment,  however,  Desaix  arrived  with  his 
division,  and,  heading  a  furious  charge  of  the  heavy  cavalry, 
turned  the  tide,  and  changed  the  disaster  into  a  complete 
victory.  Desaix  was  killed  in  the  hour  of  triumph,  but  the 
line  of  Jlelas's  retreat  was  closed,  and  the  Austrians  had  no 
choice  but  to  make  terms.  Later  in  the  year  Moreau  over- 
whelmed the  Austrians  at  Hohenlinden,  and  was  about  to 
march  upon  Vienna  when  overtures  of  peace  were  made. 
The  Peace  of  Luneville  {Feb.,  1801)  confirmed  the  provisions 
of  Campo  Formio  in  regard  to  the  French  frontier  along  the 
Rhine,  but  it  was  far  more  disastrous  to  Austrian  interests 
in  Italy.  The  power  of  Austria  in  the  Italian  peninsula  was 
practically  destroyed,  and  the  ascendency  of  France  became 
complete.  Napoleon  then  turned  his  attention  toward  Great 
Britain.  He  succeeded  in  establishing  a  firm  alliance  with 
Russia;  but  at  the  critical  moment  the  death  of  the  czar 
and  the  victory  of  Nelson  at  Copenhagen  destroyed  his 
prospects.  Negotiations  were  o]iencd  for  peace.  After 
months  of  discussion  tlie  Treaty  of  Amiens  was  signed  in 
Mar.,  1802,  Unfortunately  the  treaty  left  many  important 
questions  unsettled.  Great  Britain  agreed  to  give  back 
Malta  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John  under  the  protectorate  of 
a  great  European  power,  but  the  conditions  were  obscure, 
and  contained  the  seeds  of  future  discord.  Great  Britain 
consented  to  the  French  status  N.  of  tlie  A1])S.  but  refused 
to  acknowledge  the  republics  in  Italy,  which  were  in  fact 
the  dependent  vassals  of  France,  These  refusals  and  am- 
biguities made  the  peace  hardly  more  than  a  truce.  The 
war,  however,  had  won  for  Napoleon  the  respect  of  Europe, 
and  had  confirmed  his  power  over  all  opponents  in  France. 
The  success  of  the  war  was  crowned  by  an  overwhelming 
majority  of  the  senate  and  the  people  creating  him  First 
Consul  for  life. 

Napoleonic  Reforms  during  the  Consulate. — The  years 
1802-03  were  devoted  very  largely  to  that  reorganization  of 
the  government  in  which  Bonaparte  showed  his  extraordi- 
nary power  quite  as  much  as  he  had  done  in  the  fields  of 
war.  It  is  true  that  the  Revolution  had  left  the  government 
in  chaos,  and  consequently  he  was  not  embarrassed  by  the 
resisting  power  of  preceilents ;  but  even  after  every  possible 
allowance  is  made  it  will  have  to  be  admitted  that  tlie  years 
of  the  Fir.st  Consulate  were  remarkable  for  the  nuniber,  the 
far-reaching  importance,  and  the  permanence  of  the  changes 
brought  about.  The  revolution  of  tlie  18th  Brumaire  met 
with  popular  favor,  and  Bonaparte  at  once  as  First  Consul 
took  the  whole  system  of  administrative  and  executive  gov- 
ernment into  his  own  hands.  In  this  new  position  he 
showed  a  faculty  for  organization  perhaps  never  before 
equaled.  His  power  of  calculation,  his  force  of  insight,  his 
tireless  industry,  his  stupendous  capacity  for  mastering  de- 
tails, and,  al.iove  all,  his  ability  at  any  moment  to  co-ordi- 
nate all  these  resources  and  bring  them  into  their  place 
in  accom])lishing  any  object  he  had  in  view,  form  one 
of  the  most  impressive  facts  in  the  history  of  the  human 
race.  In  a  few  weeks  he  reorganized  the  financial  system  of 
the  Government,  and  rapidly  brought  order  out  of  the  chaos 
of  practical  liankruptey.  By  a  wise  combination  of  energy 
and  clemency  he  altered  the  chronic  rebellion  of  La  Vendee 
into  enthusiastic  loyalty.  Though  in  the  East  he  had  avowed 
the  Mohanmiedan  faith,  he  now  stopped  the  persecution  of 
the  nonjuring  jiriests,  ordered  a  solemn  funeral  for  Pius 
VI.,  threw  open  the  church  doors  in  all  parts  of  France,  re- 


NAPOLEON   I. 


storeil  SunUuy  us  ii  sacroil  iliiy  of  nst,  uinl  rclieveii  the 
priu.sls  ami  bisliops  from  the  offensive  "  oath  to  the  state." 
In  less  than  a  year  he  hail  seoured  the  su|i|>ort  in  plaee  of 
the  ciimily  of  the  I'hurch,  and  within  the  same  period  he  had 
exterminated  the  most  important  of  his  o|)[Hinents.  Some 
of  the  reforms  hail  to  do  not  only  with  tlie  prineiples  of  the 
HevoUilion,  but  with  the  very  foundations  of  government. 
The  old  IJourUm  method  had  been  one  whieli  eentralized 
nil  power  in  the  thirty  inlendants,  who  were  directly  ae- 
eouiitable  to  the  kinj;.  The  KevoUition  had  swept  away 
this  method  and  set  np  a  system  which  Burke  cliaracterized 
as  '■  forty  thousand  republics."  Xapoleon  reverted  to  the 
old  method  with  an  improvement.  At  the  head  of  every 
department  he  placed  an  olUeer  under  whom  there  was  a 
hierarchy  of  prefects,  sub-prefects,  anil  nmyors.  each  de- 
pendent upon  the  person  above  him.  and  ihns  alt  dependent 
on  the  First  Consul.  'I'he  powers  of  local  self-t;overnnient, 
though  not  elfaced,  wore  great  Iv  curtailed  and  controlled. 
This  system,  as  Napoleon  himself  said,  placed  the  First  Con- 
sul in  every  depart ment  of  France.  II is  ne.xt  step  wa.s  a 
reform  of  a  similar  nature  in  the  courts  of  justice.  The 
Kevolution  had  swept  away  the  cumbrous  Uourbim  system 
and  substituted  for  it  an  elective  judiciary  which  had  re- 
sulted in  some  of  the  wildest  excesses  of  discord  and  injus- 
tice. Napoleon  restored  the  appointment  of  judges  and 
nioile  them  independent  of  popular  clamor.  While  strength- 
ening the  courts  of  initiative  he  provided  courts  of  appeal, 
by  means  of  which  justice  was  nmde  prompt  as  well  as  ef- 
fective. He  also  resumed  and  [lUshed  forward  the  work 
begun  by  the  Xatiomil  .\ssembly  of  collecting  and  fusing 
the  laws  and  usages  of  the  nation  into  an  orgmdc  code.  This 
work,  like  that  of  .lustinian,  was  intrusted  to  a  body  of  emi- 
nent jurists.  The  Code  Civil  was  published  in  ISOl,  but 
the  Cixie  de  Commerce,  the  Code  Peniil,  and  the  Code  d'lim- 
Inicliim  Criminelle  occupied  the  commissioners  till  near 
the  close  of  Napoleon's  career.  What  is  known  as  the  Code 
Namli'on,  which  was  nuide  up  of  these  four  parts,  at  onco 
tooK  rank  as  one  of  the  foremost  legal  product  ions  of  history; 
and  its  permanence  in  France  has  alreadv  more  than  justi- 
fied the  declaration  of  Napoleon  himself  that  his  code  would 
outlive  his  victories.  In  his  efforts  to  improve  the  svstera 
of  education  he  was  less  fortunate.  Under  the  Kevoiution 
the  National  Assembly  had  decreed  that  every  commune 
should  support  a  prinniry  school,  but  from  time  immemorial 
the  schools  had  been  in  the  hands  of  the  priests;  and,  as 
the  revolutionary  (iovernment  was  in  no  condition  to  en- 
force its  decrees,  the  weakening  of  the  clergy  had  weakened 
the  schools.  Napoleon  did  not'  provide  for  supporting  pri- 
mary schools  bv  taxation,  and  therefore  his  efforts  in  their 
Iwhalf  were  only  slightly  succes-iful.  For  the  higher  schix^ils 
he  did  more;  but  his  method  abundantly  shows  that  he  had 
no  adeiiuate  understanding  of  the  elements  of  educational 
success.  lie  endowed  a  few  secondary  schools,  and  some 
years  later  he  concentrated  the  whole  sy.stein  for  a  nation  of 
UO.tHXJ.iMM)  of  piMiple  in  the  single  university  at  I'aris  which 
was  made  immediately  ilepen«lent  on  the  central  Govern- 
ment. Another  elcnu'iit  of  prodigious  power  in  this  work 
of  centralization  was  the  re-establishment  in  Fratice  of  the 
ecclesiastical  hierarchy.  The  National  Assembly  had  swept 
away  this  great  corporation  by  the  confiscation  of  its  lands 
and  by  rei|uiring  an  elective  clergy  which  should  acknowl- 
edge supreme  allegiance  to  the  state.  I'nder  this  reyime 
the  Church  had  assumed  an  altitude  of  active  or  sullen  hos- 
tility to  the  (iovernment.  Najioleon  now  restored  the  Church 
in  all  the  most  essential  of  its  j)owers  and  sealed  its  reslo- 
i^itioii  by  the  Concordat  which  is  the  basis  of  all  ecclesias- 
tical law  in  France  down  to  the  present  day.  The  Church, 
however,  had  been  shorn  of  its  endowments,  and  was  made, 
therefore,  strictly  dependent  on  the  Government.  This  ac- 
tion was  an  element  of  great  power  in  consolidating  and  har- 
monizing the  masses  of  the  nation.  It  severed  the  Church 
from  the  liourbons  and  attached  it  to  Napoleon,  wliodepend- 
ril  upon  the  peasantry  for  his  army.  .\  similar  inlliiince. 
though  in  another  Held,  was  the  system  of  honorary  rewards 
and  dignities.  lie  established  the  Legion  of  Honor,  n  na- 
tional order  of  merit  thrown  open  to  pre-eminent  success  in 
every  walk  of  life.  It  enconragi'd  excellenee  in  all  ranks 
and  callings,  and  was  so  successful  that  institutions  of  the 
same  kind  have  been  e-^tablishid  by  nearly  all  the  govern- 
ments in  Kumpe.  In  Frii..  ISOI).  a  general  law  regulating 
the  organization  of  local  government  was  enacted,  and  at 
about  the  same  date  the  financial  system  was  concentrated 
in  the  newly  established  Hank  of  France.  While  these  sev- 
eral reforms  greatly  tended  to  establish  and  consolidate  the 
289 


permitted  to  commit  suicide.     Thus  the  reiiiiblicans  were 
outdone,  and  opposition  was  annihilated.     The  siipi 


dictatorship,  they  conserved  harmony  and  gooil  order,  ami 
for  the  most  (tart  retained  a  iwrmanenl  place  in  l-ivin  h 
government  even  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon.  Tluy  w>re 
not  enacted,  however,  without  opposition.  The  old  Hevo- 
lutionisls  strenuously  opposed  the  Concordat,  and  the  ardiiii 
re[iublicans  .saw  in  the  general  movement  a  complet< 
throw  of  the  revolutioiiarv  system.  In  Dec.  IKOtl,  tin  ■ 
sioii  of  a  bomb  aimed  at  tlie  Consul's  carriage  called  for  .n  ■  i- 
sive  action.  Na|Hileoii  acted  with  characleristic  energv.  A 
hundred  and  thirty  conspicuous  opponents  were  seized,  and 
without  trial  sent  to  the  penal  colony  at  Cayenne.  Moreaii, 
the  hero  of  Ilohenliuden,  was  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  two  years,  but  was  allowed  to  escape  to  America.  I'i- 
chegru,  found  slmiigled  in  his  bed,  was  either  murdered  or 

le  reiiublicans  were 
d.  'I'he  supremacy 
of  Napoleon  was  crowned  by  the  declaration  that  the  .Senate 
was  henceforth  to  have  constituent  powers,  thus  doing  away 
with  the  legislative  liody.  and  enabling  the  Scnali'  to  make 
any  change  in  the  constitution  that  might  be  called  for  by 
its  master.  An  oyn-n  road  was  thus  constructed  to  an  im- 
perial monarchy  far  more  loticeiit rated  than  was  the  mon- 
aroliy  swept  away  by  the  Kevolution. 

Caunes  of  the  Jt'iiieiritl  of  Wiir. — In  the  management 
of  foreign  affairs  Napoleon  was  less  fortunate.  It  is  now- 
easy  to  see  that  he  should  have  avoided  vexing  and  alarm- 
ing the  states  of  Europe,  but  he  chose  the  opiiosite  course. 
He  annexed  Piedmont  to  France,  made  himself  president  of 
the  Italian  republic,  and  the  remainder  of  Nortliern  Italy  a 
subject  province.  He  ivduced  the  Batavian  republic  to  a 
depiiideiicy  and  jilaccd  Switzerland  under  French  control 
by  the  occuiiatiim  of  Hern.  He  made  the  lesser  German 
stales  his  dependencies  by  his  interpretation  of  the  Treaty 
of  Luneville.  and  he  showed  unwonted  activity  in  all  the 
ports  and  dockyards  of  France.  A  rej)ort  of  Sebiistiani  on 
the  condition  of  Egypt  seemed  to  take  it  for  granted  that 
the  British  were  to  ne  driven  from  the  country  by  a  new 
French  occupation.  The  Moniteur.  the  organ  of  the  siate.was 
filled  with  boastful  assertions  of  French  [Kiwer.  and  emis- 
saries were  dis])atched  to  the  British  ports  to  observe  and  re- 
port on  their  conilition  and  strength.  This  unwonted  activ- 
ity created  general  unrest  throughout  Kurojie.  but  it  was 
especially  irritating  to  Great  Britain,  where  puVdic  opinion 
was  beginning  to  oppose  the  peace  policy  of  the  Govern- 
ment. The  dispute  over  the  island  of  Malta  was  the  occa- 
sion of  the  outbreak.  Great  Britain,  in  accordance  with  the 
Treaty  of  Amiens,  had  invited  Knssia.  and  a  grand-master 
chosen  by  the  iiope.  to  assume  the  protectorate  of  the  island, 
but  both  had  tleclined.  France  had  been  at  least  lukewarm 
in  suggesting  expedients  of  settlement.  Delay  and  the  jiro- 
digious  increase  of  French  power  had.  as  the  British  claimed, 
changed  the  situation.  When  the  French  envoy  now  re- 
ferred to  the  condition  at  Malta,  Lord  Ilawkesbury,  the  Brit- 
ish foreign  minister,  hinted  that  Great  Britain  might  have 
to  take  precautions,  the  stale  of  the  Continent  had  so  greatly 
changed.  Napoleon  replied  by  a  peremplorv  demand  for 
the  immediate  evacuation  of  the  island.  While  negolialions 
were  pending  the  Monilrur  |iublished  the  report  of  Sebas- 
tiani.  the  French  ofTicer  sent  to  examine  the  condition  of 
Egypt,  which,  among  oilier  irritating  slalemenls.  declaivd 
that  "the  country  could  be  recaptured  by  (),(l(IO  Freiuli- 
meii."  This  was  immedialely  followed  by  a  mes>^age  of  Napo- 
leon to  the  legislative  bodies,  saving  that  Great  Britain  by 
herself  was  unable  to  cope  with  Frame.  This  was  regarded 
as  a  direct  challenge  by  all  clas.-ies  in  (ireat  Britain,  and 
caused  an  instaiilaneons  explosion  of  wrath.  Public  opinion 
in  Gn'at  Britain  was  greatly  aggravated  by  the  absunl  de- 
mand of  Napoleon  that  the  public  prints  which  caricatured 
him  should  lie  snppres,sed.     All  attempts  to  negotiate  wen- 

iinsui ssfiil,  for  each  refu.sed  to  accept  the  terms  of  I  he  other. 

Ni'gotiatioiis  continued  for  .some  months,  during  which  liolh 
sides  carried  on  the  most  active  preparations  for  war.  Great 
Britain,  finally  instrueted  her  ambassador  to  pro|Hise  that 
she  should  retain  Malta  for  ten  years;  that  the  new  Italian 
states  should  be  recognized  by  her;  that  French  triKips 
should  Ix"  withdrawn  from  Holland  and  .Switzerland;  and 
that,  if  these  terms  should  not  be  acceded  to  in  seven  days, 
the  British  ambassador  should  demand  his  passiMirts.  The 
French  ivfiised  the  terms  olTered.  whereupon  I.oril  Whil- 
worlh  demanded  and  rrceiveil  his  passports  on  May  \'i,  IHW. 
It  is  of  importance  to  note  that  on  May  2  of  the  same  venr 
Na|>oleon,  notwithstanding  the  violent  opposition  of  Talley- 
rand mill  of  his  brothers  Lucien  and  Joseph,  sold  the  terri- 
tory of  Louisiana  to  the  V.  S.  for  the  sum  of  60,000,000 


66 


NAPOLEOX  I. 


francs.  This  transaction,  of  such  immeasurable  importance 
to  the  V.  S.,  was  ])roposed  and  pushed  throug^h  by  Jsapoleon 
purely  for  financial  reasons.  Q'he  money  I'eceived  was  all 
devoted  to  the  armament  for  the  invasion  of  England.  The 
flames  of  war  at  once  sprang  up  and  soon  tlie  whole  Euro- 
pean world  was  involved  in  the  conflagration. 

The  Renewal  of  War. — Napoleon's  first  plan  contemplated 
the  invasion  of  England,  and  preparations  were  made  on  a 
stupendous  scale.  What  he  planned  will  always  remain  a 
monument  of  his  comprehensive  genius  and  of  his  extraor- 
dinary gifts  in  arranging  even  the  minutest  details.  From 
the  Scheldt  to  the  Garonne  along  the  banl<s  of  the  rivers 
vessels  were  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  converging  at  tlie 
right  moment  upon  a  single  point  with  an  army  of  160.000 
men.  The  number  of  vessels  so  prepared  reached  the  vast 
number  of  2.800,  and  these  were  manned  by  more  than 
1.5,000  seamen  and  3,000  guns.  Before  the  end  of  1804  the 
shores  around  Boulogne  were  skirted  with  armed  vessels 
ready  to  put  to  sea.  Jleanwliile  four  great  military  camps 
had  been  formed  and  the  army  ])ut  into  conditicin  for  the 
descent.  In  Great  Britain  more  than  200,000  men  were  piit 
under  arras,  and  made  ready  to  repel  the  attacli ;  but  while 
these  preparations  were  going  on,  evidences  began  to  abound 
in  France  of  plots  against  the  life  of  the  First  Consul. 
These  had  their  inspiration  partly  in  the  interest  of  the 
Bourbons,  and  partly  in  the  disaffections  of  the  republicans. 
It  was  discovered  that  meetings  of  the  conspirators  were 
frequently  held  in  Paris  and  Strassl)urg.  The  report  of  a 
French  spy  declared  that  meetings  of  some  of  the  emigres 
had  been  held  at  the  house  of  the  Due  d'Enghieu  at  Etten- 
heim,  in  Baden.  Napoleon  determined  to  terrify  tlie  Bour- 
bon faction  by  a  decisive  act.  Though  Baden  was  a  neutral 
state,  he  ordered  a  body  of  ax-med  men  to  enter  the  territory, 
seize  the  duke,  and  bring  him  to  Paris  a  close  prisoner.  The 
papers  that  were  taken  showed  no  evidence  confirming  the 
charges.  lie  was  then  charged  with  having  been  an  emigre, 
and  with  having  been  opposed  in  sympathy  to  the  consular 
government.  There  could  be  no  answer  to  such  a  charge. 
The  duke  was  taken  in  the  night  before  a  military  trilnmal 
selected  for  the  purpose,  was  given  no  opportunity  for  being 
heard  in  defense,  and  before  morning  was  shot.  In  his  last 
will  Napoleon  declared  that  he  caused  the  duke  to  be  "ar- 
rested, condemned,  and  shot  because  it  was  necessary  for  the 
security,  the  honor,  and  the  interests  of  the  French  people." 
That  the  act  would  excite  all  the  crowned  heads  of  Europe 
to  a  new  coalition  against  him  does  not  seem  to  have  entered 
Napoleon's  mitul.  The  event  created  a  profound  sensation. 
Signs  of  opposition  began  to  show  themselves  in  all  parts  of 
Europe.  The  friends  of  Napoleon  soon  saw  that  prudence 
required  the  consolidation  of  liis  authority  in  every  possilile 
way.  The  Tribune  and  the  Senate  proposed  that  he  receive 
the  name  as  well  as  the  power  of  emperor.  The  proposal 
met  with  the  general  and  enthusiastic  favor  of  the  people 
as  well  as  of  the  legislative  bodies,  and  the  First  Consul 
was  crowned  as  emperor  at  Notre  Dame,  Dec.  2,  1804  A 
little  later  the  emperor  visited  Italy  to  be  crowned  King  of 
Lombanly,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  he  made  it 
evident  to  all  of  tiie  European  powers  that  he  was  hence- 
forth to  regard  t  lie  smaller  states  of  Italy  and  Germany  simply 
as  parts  of  his  empire.  He  either  made  the  political  blunder 
of  supposing  that  this  course  would  not  lead  to  a  general  coa- 
lition against  him.  or  the  miscalculation  of  believing  that 
he  could  carry  on  successfully  at  the  same  time  an  invasion 
of  England  and  a  war  against  continental  Europe. 

The  Austerlllz  Campaign. — It  was,  no  doubt,  on  account 
of  the  gathering  clouds  that  on  .Tan.  3, 1805,  Napoleon  wrote 
to  the  King  of  Great  Britain  making  overtures  of  peace.  To 
this  letter  the  Government  of  Great  Britain,  now  again  under 
the  energetic  guidance  of  Pitt,  replied  that  that  power  could 
not  enter  upon  any  definite  negotiations  for  peace  without 
consulting  her  continental  allies.  This  answer  gave  an  un- 
mistakal)le  intimation  of  a  new  coalition.  In  the  following 
April  a  treaty  was  signed  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia, 
and  a  little  hiter  tlie  league  was  joined  by  Austria.  Prussia, 
induced  by  promise  of  Hanover,  was  kept  neutral.  Up  to 
this  time  preparations  for  the  menaced  invasion  of  Eng- 
land had  been  unabated.  Nelson,  with  his  British  fleet, 
nianfcuvered  so  successfully  that  Villeneuve,  with  the  com- 
bined tlcets  of  France  and  Spain,  did  not  venture  to  ap- 
proach for  the  protecticm  of  the  transports  intended  for 
invasion.  In  the  presence  of  the  British  fleet  an  attempt  to 
cross  into  England  would  have  been  madness.  As  soon, 
therefore,  as  the  hostility  of  Austria  was  openly  declared. 
Napoleon  obscured  the  failure  of  his  plan  of  invasion  by 


announcing  that  the  operations  of  the  "  Array  of  England  " 
were  to  be  transferred  to  Germany.  Early  in  September 
the  camp  at  Boulogne  was  rapidly  broken  up,  and  tlie 
army  was  turned  toward  the  Rhine.  Ttie  Austrians,  80,000 
strong,  under  Gen.  Mack,  about  the  same  time  advanced  as 
far  as  Munich,  with  the  intention  of  pushing  on  into  France. 
Napoleon  stationed  himself  at  Strassburg,  and  ordered  the 
larger  part  of  liis  army  around  by  the  north  through  the 
neutral  territory  of  Hanover.  By  a  series  of  brilliant  ma- 
nceuvers  he  threw  his  troops  between  the  Austrian  army  and 
Vienna.  Mack,  taken  by  surprise,  was  driven  into  Ulni  and 
forced  to  capitulate  with  his  army  on  Oct.  20.  Gn  Nov.  13 
Napoleon  entered  Vienna,  and  established  his  headquarters 
in  the  imperial  palace.  His  situation,  however,  was  appar- 
ently by  no  means  free  from  danger.  The  violation  of  Prus- 
sian territory  had  driven  Prussia  into  the  coalition,  though 
too  late  for  active  service.  The  Austrian  Archdukes  Charles 
and  .John  had  collected  a  force  of  90,000  men  in  Hungarv, 
and  a  powerful  Austro-Russian  force  was  advancing  froni 
3Ioravia.  Napoleon  very  naturally  decided  to  deliver  a  de- 
cisive blow  before  these  armies  could  be  united,  and  for  this 
purpose  he  crossed  the  Danube  on  Nov.  22  and  marched 
u]ion  Briinn.  A  series  of  masterly  mana-uvers,  all  executed 
with  astonishing  celerity  and  accuracy,  brought  the  French 
into  a  favorable  position  at  Austerlitz.  In  the  battle  that 
followed  on  Dec.  2  the  Austro-Russian  force  was  overwhelm- 
ingly defeated.  The  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria,  com- 
pelled to  witness  the  destruction  of  their  splendid  legions, 
saved  themselves  by  iliglit.  An  armistice  was  immediately 
signed,  and  this  was  followed,  Dec.  26,  by  the  Peace  of  Pres- 
burg,  by  which  Austria  gave  her  A'enetian  territory  to  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  her  Tyrolese  territory  to  Bavaria,  and  her 
Snabian  territory  to  Wurtemberg  and  Baden. 

Though  Napoleon's  Austrian  campaign  had  everywhere 
been  triumphantly  successful,  his  project  of  invading  Great 
Britain  had  been  thwarted  by  the  annihilation  of  his  fleet  at 
the  battle  of  Trafalgar  (q.v.).  On  the  very  day  after  the 
capitulation  of  Mack  at  Ulm,  Lord  Nelson,  having  hurried 
south  as  soon  as  Napoleon  started  for  Austria,  had  met  the 
combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets  under  Admiral  Ville- 
neuve, and  of  thirty-three  line-of-battle  ships  twenty-four 
were  either  captured  or  sunk,  in  one  of  the  most  memorable 
naval  battles  in  history.  The  emperor,  therefore,  aban<lon- 
ing  all  present  thought  of  invading  England,  was  able  to 
turn  his  attention  to  the  consolidation  of  his  power  on  the 
Continent.  The  death  of  Pitt  on  Jan.  23, 1806,  and  the  suc- 
cession of  Fox  as  Foreign  Jlinister,  gave  temporary  promise 
of  peace ;  but  even  Fox  would  not  consent  to  the  demands 
of  the  emperor,  and  all  hopes  of  an  accommodation  were 
thus  brought  to  an  end.  For  the  consolidation  of  his  power 
he  now  declared  the  thi-one  of  Naples  vacant,  and  placed 
upon  it  his  brother  Joseph :  he  created  his  brother  Louis 
King  of  Holland,  and  his  brother  Jerome  King  of  West- 
phalia ;  he  raised  Bavaria  and  Wlirtemberg  to  the  dignity  of 
kingdoms ;  he  consolidated  the  smaller  German  govern- 
ments on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  into  a  confederation 
under  the  suzerainty  of  himself;  he  raised  the  subordinate 
members  of  his  family  by  marriage  to  positions  of  dignity 
and  influence  ;  and  the  most  successful  of  his  generals  he 
elevated  to  the  highest  nobility. 

The  Jena  Campaign. — Peace  was  by  no  means  established. 
In  the  summer  of  1806  the  Government  of  Prussia  discovered 
that  Napoleon  was  negotiating  to  restore  Hanover  to  Great 
Britain,  although  he  liad  promised  that  electorate  to  Prus- 
sia as  the  price  of  her  neutrality.  His  violation  of  Prussian 
territory  when  advancing  to  the  rear  of  Mack  had  given  em- 
phasis to  Prussian  distrust.  The  current  of  public  opinion, 
greatly  swollen  by  the  letters  of  yueen  Louise  and  the  advo- 
cacy of  Stein,  hai  finally  become  irresistible.  Prussia  had 
joined  in  firm  alliance  with  Russia ;  and  the  czar  in  August 
refused  to  ratify  the  treaty  with  Prance  which  had  been 
signed  by  his  representative  in  Paris.  If  Napoleon  had  sin- 
cerely desired  peace  it  would  have  been  easy  to  satisfy  Prus- 
sia ;  Viut  he  decided  to  pursue  another  course,  and  to  act  as 
he  had  done  in  the  case  of  Italy  and  Austria.  The  French 
had  not  yet  evacuated  Germany  since  the  Austerlitz  cam- 
paign. The  Prussian  army  was  mobilized,  but  before  it 
coulil  be  brought  into  fighting  condition  Napoleon  struck 
in  u)ion  the  rear  of  his  enemy,  as  he  had  done  at  Marengo 
and  at  Ulm.  The  battles  of  Jena  and  Auerstailt,  Oct.  14, 
1806,  crushed  the  Prussian  army  and  gave  the  conqueror 
Berlin  as  the  capitulation  at  Ulm  had  given  him  Vienna. 
As  Napoleon  advanced  toward  the  east  the  fortresses  estab- 
lished by  Frederick  the  Great  capitulated  one  after  another 


NAPOLEON'  I. 


almost  without  resistance.  The  French  army  was  led  on  to 
the  Vistula,  where  the  terrilile  battle  of  Kyla'u.  Feh.  8,  1807, 
left  M.iXX)  Kreiichiiien  anJ  15,<J()(J  Kiissians  uii  the  tieUl.  For 
the  first  time  Na|Mileon  had  foii^'ht  a  fjreat  battle  in  which 
he  was  only  [mrtially  victorious;  but  his  weakened  and  shat- 
tered forces  were  recruite<l  and  inanii-nvered  with  charac- 
teristic skill,  and  on  June  14,  the  anniversiirv  of  Marengo,  at 
the  battle  of  Friedlaiul  the  cause  of  the  allies  suffered  an 
overwhilminj;  defeat.  The  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  which  wa*si;;iied 
in  .Inly,  1S07,  deprivcil  Prussia  of  nearly  half  her  iidiabitants 
anil  her  territory,  and  reduced  the  army  to  4J.(MK)  men.  In 
this  treaty  Napoleon  overreached  his  goal,  for  it  was  the  se- 
verity of  these  terms  that  made  the  ]ieo|ile  of  Prussia  the 
most  inveterate  foes  of  the  ooniiueror  from  this  time  until 
the  final  downfall  in  1815. 

Napoleon  now  had  time  to  complete  the  rewards  of  his  most 
efficient  supporters.  He  had  alreativ  inaile  Berthier  the 
Prince  of  Ncudiatel.  Ueniadotte  the  Prince  of  Pontecorvo, 
and  Talleyrand  the  Prince  of  Beneventi> :  he  now  created 
four  additional  hereditary  princes  and  thirty-one  hereditary 
dukes,  t  tf  these  new  potentates,  one  (Hertliier)  received  more 
than  1.2.'>0,000  francs  a  year,  another  (l)avoust)  more  than 
750,(XM)  francs,  nine  others  more  than  2ri(),(HI0  francs  each, 
and  twenty-three  others  more  than  l(X),tMJO  francs  each. 
Thus  it  was  that  loyalty  was  secured  and  power  consolidated. 

Though  the  invasion ■fjf  Knglaml  had  been  abandoned.  Na- 
poleon soui,'ht  in  the  course  of  this  campaign  to  strike  an 
cflei'tive  blow  at  British  power  and  infiuence  by  another 
method.  The  right  to  j)revent  a  neutral  from  trading  with 
an  enemy  by  means  of  a  blockade  is  conceded  by  interna- 
tional law;  but  the  blockade  must  be  a  real  one.  It  was 
impossible  for  Napoleon  to  blockaile  British  |K>rts:  but  not- 
withstanding this  fact,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  proclaim  by 
what  is  known  as  the  Berlin  Decree  of  180G  that  the  har- 
Iwrs  of  neutrals  were  clost^l  against  British  ships  under 
penalty  of  war  with  France,  and  the  coirtiscat ion  of  ships 
and  goinls.  It  was  a  defiant  manifesto,  designed  to  create 
what  he  called  a  "continental  system,"  and  to  leave  Great 
Britain  in  commercial  isolation.  The  elfort  was  not  suc- 
cessful;  for  while  it  exasperated  (ireat  Britain  into  retalia- 
tion, it  failed  to  bind  the  continental  nations  together. 

The  S/Hiniult  Campaiyn. — Having  remodeled  the  states 
on  the  Kliine  at  his  pleasure  and  ]ilaced  members  of  his  own 
family  in  [mwer,  he  now  turned  his  attention  to  Portugal 
anil  Spain  with  a  similar  pur[M)se.  Portugal  defied  the  Ber- 
lin decree  by  keeping  her  ports  open  to  British  commerce; 
and  .Spain  was  embroiled  with  domestic  difiiculties  which 
atlorded  an  opp<5rtunity  for  interference.  In  Oct..  1807,  two 
conventions  at  Fontainebleau  provided  for  the  partition  of 
Portugal ;  for  the  giving  of  Brazil  to  .Spain  ;  for  giving  the 
King  of  Spain  the  title  of  emperor;  and  for  providing  a 
French  army  to  resist  any  intervention  of  (ireat  Britain. 
On  Nov.  ;iO.  Marshal  .lunot  arrived  with  an  army  in  Portu- 
gal, and  a  little  later  a  French  force  of  80,000  men  took 
possession  of  a  number  of  fortresses  in  Spain.  The  Spanish 
p'Ople,  it  is  true,  were  indignant  at  the  weakness  of  the 
king  and  the  dissoluteness  of  the  ipieen,  but  the  heir-appar- 
ent, Ferdinanil.  was  a  favorite,  and  the  popular  movement 
was  designed  to  overthrow  the  king  and  place  the  prince  on 
the  throne.  While  Napoleon  wiu<  supposed  to  support  this 
movement  he  wius  welcome;  but  he  soon  disclosed  another 
puriK>se.  His  Course  was  perhaps  the  most  unfortunate  one 
a-lopted  by  him  in  the  whole  of  his  career.    S]>ain  for  fifteen 

years  had  I n  perfectly  subservient  to  revolutionary  France 

and  to  Napoleon,  and  it  would  not  have  been  dillicult  by  a 
more  miMlerale  pdiiy  to  have  insured  peace  and  have  pilaced 
S|Miin  under  permanent  obligation.  Napoleon,  however,  ar- 
ranged for  a  meeting  with  King  Charles  IV.  and  his  son 
Ferdinand,  and  at  the  end  of  a  stormy  interview  extorted 
from  lH)tli  an  abdication.  The  event  was  followeil  by  an 
outburst  of  indignation  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  an 
uprising  that  has  seldom  had  a  parallel  in  history.  Napo- 
leon olfered  the  throne  to  his  brother  I.ouis,  who,  seeing 
the  dilllculties.  refused  it.  He  then  gave  it  to  his  brother 
Joseph.  So  general  and  fervid  was  the  opiwisilinn  that  be- 
fore the  summer  was  over  the  em|n'ror  was  obliged  to  in- 
vade the  country  in  person  with  an  army  of  180.(MK)  men. 
Junot  was  defeated  by  the  British  in  Port uijal,  and  Spain 
was  everywhere  open  to  communications  with  (ireat  Britain. 
The  result  was  not  only  a  determined  insurreiii.m  by  a  na- 
tion of  11.000,0(M)  of  jieople,  but  an  iiisurreitiou  everywhere 
supported  by  the  |iowit  and  re-iources  of  (ireat  Britain. 
Napoleon  may  have  lielieved  that  he  could  regenerate  jinii 
improve  the  bad  government  of  Spain,  but  he  committed 


the  blunder  of  misjudging  human  nature,  and  nothing  can 
excuse  the  perfidy  of  invading  the  country  with  an  armed 
force  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  settling  a  domestic  dilli- 
culty,  and  then  demanding  an  alKlicatioii  of  the  king  and  of 
the  iieir-apparent  in  order  that  he  might  impose  hisown  gov- 
ernment upon  a  confiding  people.  There  could  be  only  one 
result.  The  Peninsular  war,  led  on  the  iiart  of  the  British 
by  Sir  John  Moore  and  Sir  .\rlhur  Wellesley.  and  on  the 
part  of  the  French  by  Napoleon  himself  and  such  marshals 
as  Soult,  Ney,  Lannes,  Ma.ssena,  and  Bessieres,  continued  to 
drain  the  resources  of  France  until  the  lost  of  the  French 
were  driven  across  the  Pyrenees  in  1814. 

The  Wai/idiii  Campaiqn. — .\s  soon  as  the  magnitude  of 
the  Spanish  war  revealed  itself,  unmistakable  signs  of  difli- 
culty  appeared  in  the  Fast.  Napoleon  led  his  army  into 
Spain  and  advanced  as  far  as  Madrid,  where  he  reinstated 
Joseph,  who  had  been  obliged  to  flee  for  his  life  ;  but  no 
Sooner  had  he  begun  the  active  work  of  the  campaign 
against  Sir  John  Moore  than  he  was  obliged  to  leave  Span- 
ish affairs  in  the  hands  of  his  marshals  in  order  that  he 
might  devote  himself  to  the  lising  discontents  in  Germany. 
By  a[>pointmenl  he  met  the  czar  at  Erfurt  and  completed 
the  negotiations  for  an  alliance  that  had  been  secretiv  be- 
gun at  Tilsit.  The  most  serious  source  of  iliHiculty,  liow- 
ever,  was  in  .\ustria.  That  Government  had  so  far  recov- 
ered from  the  Austerlitz  disaster  as  to  be  able  to  put  an 
army  of  nearly  40(I.O(Mt  men  into  the  field.  Affairs  in  Italy 
were  in  such  condition  that  nearly  all  the  Austrian  troops 
could  be  used  N.  of  the  Alps.  The  course  of  .Austria  was  in- 
spired by  the  insurrection  of  Ilofer  in  the  Tyrol,  the  occu- 
pation of  the  French  in  Spain,  the  rising  haired  of  Najio- 
leon  in  Germany,  and  especially  by  the  policy  of  France  now 
revealed  of  extending  the  power  of  Russia  in  the  south. 
War  was  begun  in  .\pr.,  18(1!).  Napoleon  was  compelled  to 
fill  the  ranks  of  his  army  with  conscripts  from  France  and 
from  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine.  He  entreated  the 
czar  to  send  a  re-enforcement  from  Poland  to  the  Galician 
frontier,  but  his  request  was  only  partially  and  tardily  com- 
plied with.  The  Archduke  Charles,  now  in  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  .Austrian  forces,  advanced  with  an  army  of  150.- 
000  men  across  the  Inn  and  the  Isar.  The  French  army 
was  widely  scattered,  Davoust  being  at  Katisbon,  Massena 
at  I'liM.  and  Oudinot  at  .\ugsburg.  In  the  face  of  a  ])ower- 
ful  and  enterprising  enemy  it  would  have  seemed  imiiossible 
to  bring  them  together.  The  movements  which  now  extri- 
cated the  French  from  their  positions  constitute  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  Napoleon's  military  exploits.  With  an 
army  greatly  inferior  in  point  of  numbers  and  experience, 
Xa]ioleon  not  only  rescued  his  forces  from  a  i)erilous  piosi- 
tion,  but  defeated  the  enemy  in  the  decisive  battles  of  Abens- 
berg  and  Fickmiihl.and  drove  him  across  the  Danube.  The 
French  entered  Vienna  on  May  13 ;  but  the  armv  of  the 
.Archduke  Charles  was  still  far  superior  to  that  of  Napoleon. 
The  campaign  that  ensued  was  one  of  the  most  interesting 
in  all  the  Napoleonic  period.  Impatient  to  crush  the  enemy 
by  another  .Austerlitz.  the  conqueror  crossed  the  Danube  into 
the  great  plain  of  the  .Manhfield.  a  little  N.  E.  of  Vienna. 
The  archduke  attacked  with  fury  on  .May  21  and  20  at  As- 
pern  and  Esling.  and  finally  drove  the  French  back  to  a 
precarious  position  on  the  island  of  l.obau.  Here  thesuper- 
numan  energy  and  resources  of  Napoleon  were  shown  as 
nowhere  else  in  all  his  career.  His  army  was  huddled  in 
upon  an  island,  the  briilges  of  which  were  either  broken 
down  or  in  command  of  a  victorious  foe;  but  instead  of 
asking  for  terms  or  weakening  his  elTorts.  lie  kept  up  an 
altitude  of  the  most  vigorous  and  aggressive  defiance.  On 
the  night  of  July  4,  under  cover  of  a  false  attack  and  a  furi- 
ous cannonade,  he  threw  six  bridges  across  the  river,  and 
marched  KKt.lMX)  men  to  the  left  bank.  In  the  course  of  the 
.5th  the  Archduke  Charles,  baflled  and  almost  paralyzed, 
brought  his  forces  into  line  for  battle.  The  armies  were  the 
largest  that  had  ever  confronted  each  other  in  modern  war- 
fare. Napolei'U  had  received  re-enforcements  until  he  imw 
had  lOO.tMKl  men  and  (i(K) cannon,  while  the  army  of  the  arch- 
duke consisted  of  about  the  same  numlier  of  cannon  and 
nearly  as  many  men.  In  the  battle  of  Wagram  the  French 
were  victorious,  but  as  the  .Austrians  began  their  retreat 
the  advance  guard  of  the  long-expected  army  of  the  AnOi- 
duke  John  came  in  sight.     Had  he  been  a  few  hours  earlier 

the  end  of  the  battle  might  have  Ihhmi  like  that  of  Waterl 

An  armistice  was  agreed  to  at  /iiaiin  on  July  11.  and  the 
Treaty  of  .Schoiibrunn  was  siiriied  Oct.  14.  By  this  act  the 
humiliation  of  .Austria  wa,s  made  nearlv  as  complete  as  was 
that  of  Pnissia  by  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit.'  More  than  that,  tbo 


68 


NAPOLEON  I. 


terms  of  the  treaty,  by  raising  the  Polish  question,  set  at 
nought  the  agreements  tliat  had  been  made  witli  the  czar  at 
Tilsit  and  Erfurt.  The  great  significance  of  the  treaty  was 
the  fact  that  Russia  was  converted  by  it  into  an  enemy,  and 
the  Kussian  war  began  to  loom  up  as  soon  as  the  Austrian 
war  was  brought  to  a  close.  The  alienation  was  soon  eon- 
verted  into  something  like  bitterness  by  the  divorce  of  Jo- 
sephine and  the  subsequent  marriage  of  the  emperor.  The 
emperor's  policy  of  an  hereditary  empire  required  that  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  a  succession  to  the  imperial 
throne.  To  this  end  Napoleon  had  for  some  time  contem- 
plated a  divorce.  On  his  return  to  Paris  after  the  treaty 
of  Schonbrunn,  he  determined  to  carry  out  this  policy  with- 
out delay.  He  first  asked  the  czar  for  the  hand  of  his  sis- 
ter, but  a  little  later  withdrew  the  offer  and  contracted  with 
the  Emperor  of  Austria  for  the  Archduchess  ^Maria  Lnnise. 
By  this  marriage,  Austria,  after  being  weakened  and  hnmili- 
ated.  was  practically  adopted  as  a  dependent  stale. 

The  Russian  Invasion. — The  emperor  now  had  leisure 
and  opportunity  for  the  further  development  of  the  plans 
he  had  adopted  in  1806.  With  this  end  in  view  he  entered 
upon  a  commercial  policy  which  sought  at  once  to  insure 
the  independence  of  continental  Europe  and  the  destruction 
of  Britisli  supremacy.  Perhaps  the  latter  was  the  cause  of 
the  former ;  but  whether  his  British  policy  was  the  parent  or 
the  child  of  his  policy  on  the  Continent,  he  found  he  could  not 
secure  continental  independence  without  closing  additional 
ports  by  means  of  additional  annexations.  lie  annexed 
Holland  and  cut  it  up  into  nine  French  provinces.  He 
rounded  out  his  interior  frontier  by  annexing  the  kingdom 
of  Westphalia  with  all  the  territory  added  from  Prussia 
after  Tilsit.  He  extended  the  northern  maritime  border 
so  far  as  to  include  Oldenburg,  which  was  then  under  the 
protectorate  of  Russia.  These  events,  taking  place  in  1809, 
1810,  and  1811,  convinced  Russia  that  there  was  no  possibil- 
ity of  peace  except  by  crushing  the  power  of  Napoleon,  or 
by  an  acknowledgment  of  a  Napoleonic  suzerainty  over  the 
whole  of  Western  Europe.  Great  Britain  had  taken  that  posi- 
tion early  in  the  century.  The  Austrian  marriage,  the  birth  of 
a  Napoleonic  heir  (May  11,  1811),  the  looseness  with  which 
Napolecm  had  interpreted  the  obligations  he  had  entered 
into  with  the  czar  at  Tilsit,  the  seizing  of  the  northern 
provinces — these  were  enough  to  com])lete  the  evidence,  and 
so  taken  together  were  the  cause  of  tlie  war  with  Russia. 
Napoleon  now  had  Austria  and  Germany  under  his  control, 
and  entered  into  the  war  with  the  assistance  of  their  troops. 
Sweden,  thovigh  now  ruled  by  Bernadotte,  formed  an  alliance 
with  Russia.  The  great  contest  therefore  brought  together 
Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  Russia  on  the  one  side,  France, 
Austria,  and  the  rest  of  Germany  on  the  other.  Great 
Britain  at  war  with  the  U.  S.,  and  still  in  the  thick  of  the 
contest  on  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  could  take  no  jirominent 
part  in  the  great  struggle  now  about  to  begin.  Napoleon, 
with  the  help  of  his  allies,  was  able  to  begin  the  invasion 
with  an  army  of  more  than  600,000  men. 

The  general  plan  of  the  campaign  was  like  all  the  cam- 
paigns of  Napoleon  in  its  aggressive  features,  but  it  was 
fatally  defective  in  its  failing  to  take  into  account  the  con- 
dition of  the  invaded  country,  and  the  spirit  of  the  invaded 
people.  From  the  very  first  the  czar  refused  to  negotiate 
for  peace  so  long  as  the  French  were  upon  Russian  soil. 
Eylau  and  Friedland,  not  to  speak  of  Kesseldorf  and  Kuners- 
dorf,  had  abundantly  shown  that  Russian  soldiers  were 
among  the  most  formidable  and  persistent  fighters  of  Eu- 
rope. It  is  one  of  the  most  singular  facts  in  the  career  of 
Napoleon  that  he  did  not  perceive  the  elements  of  the  sit- 
uation, but  regarded  Russia  as  he  had  regarded  Italy.  Aus- 
tria, and  Germany.  His  recent  experience  in  Spain  "should 
have  taught  him  that  the  enemy  would  only  have  to  fall 
back  in  order  to  lure  him  on  to  certain  destruction,  as  Peter 
the  Great  had  lured  on  the  conquering  armies  of  Charles 
XII.  The  failure  of  Napoleon's  Russian  campaign  is  often 
attributed  to  the  unwonted  severity  of  the  winter,  but  if 
the  winter  had  been  no  more  severe  than  usual,  the  result 
must  have  been  substantially  the  same.  The  number  re- 
turning would  have  been  som'ewhat  greater,  but  the  failure 
of  the  expedition  would  have  been  scarcely  less. 

Napoleon  advanced  across  the  Niemen  on  ,Tune  24,  1813. 
That  he  was  so  late  in  beginning  the  campaign,  and  that  he 
did  not  leave  Vilna  until  .July  lO^shows  either  that  he  had  no 
adequate  understanding  of  what  was  before  him,  or  that 
much  of  his  old  eiu;rgy  was  already  gone.  The  forces  of  the 
enemy  were  divided  into  three  armies,  neither  of  which  could 
be  brought  to  a  decisive  engagement.     Bad  roads  and  huge 


baggage-trains  delayed  the  advance.  The  French  pushed  ,' 
forward  with  the  main  line  between  the  rivers  Dwina  and 
the  Dnieper,  evidently  intending  to  strike  at  Moscow.  Napo- 
leon's method  of  making  war  support  itself  told  rapidly  upon 
Russian  patience,  and  the  clamors  for  a  battle  at  length  be-  I 
came  irresistible.  The  czar,  in  answer  to  the  demands  for 
a  vigorous  resistance,  placed  Kutusofi  in  command  of  the 
entire  Russian  force,  a  fact  that  indicated  a  change  of  pol- 
icy. The  battle  of  Borodino,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary 
of  modern  times,  followe'd  on  Sept.  7,  and  left  about;  80,000 
men  on  the  field.  The  French  were  victorious ;  but  they 
did  not  press  their  advantage,  and  relatively  they  were  no 
stronger  than  before.  On  the  14th  they  entered  Moscow, 
but  were  surprised  to  find  it  practically  deserted.  The 
next  night  fires  broke  out  in  all  parts  of"  the  city.  These, 
begun  by  the  governor  of  Moscow  before  the  evacuation, 
had  probably  been  kept  up  by  Russians,  partly  in  the  inter- 
ests of  patriotism  and  partly  in  the  interests  of  plunder. 
Na]iiileon  was  obliged  to  evacuate  the  Kremlin  almost  im- 
mediately after  occupying  it.  What  was  next  to  be  done? 
Would  the  czar  negotiate  for  peace  1  The  pressure  upon 
him  by  faint-hearted  councilors  was  very  great ;  but  Stein, 
a  representative  of  Germany,  and  Jackson,  a  representa- 
tive of  Great  Britain,  urged  the  opposite  course  with  so 
much  cogency  that  the  czar  stood  firm.  Napoleon  hesitated 
six  weeks  before  leaving  Moscow.  -After  blowing  up  the 
Kremlin  he  abandoned  the  old  capital  Oct.  20.  Recruits 
for  the  Russian  army  were  coming  in  from  every  quarter, 
while  the  force  of  Napoleon  was  constantly  growing  weaker. 
He  turned  southward  in  the  hope  of  richer  fields,  but  he 
could  not  bring  the  enemy  to  a  decisive  battle,  and  was 
obliged  to  return  to  the  north.  He  reached  Smolensk  on 
Nov.  9.  Winter  came  on  with  unusual  severity  to  complete 
the  work  already  far  advanced.  The  sufferings  of  the  re- 
treat form  one  of  the  luost  melancholy  pages  of  history. 
As  in  Egypt  and  in  S))ain,  Napoleon  left  the  defeated  army 
in  the  hands  of  subordinates  and  returned  to  France.  Pass- 
ing through  Poland  and  Germany  in  disguise  he  reached 
Paris  in  the  early  part  of  December.  After  unparallele<l 
sufferings,  a  remnant  of  the  army  tottered  into  Vilna  on 
the  evening  of  the  6th  of  the  same  month.  It  is  estimated 
that  by  battle,  by  disease,  by  starvation,  and  by  frost,  half  a 
million  men  had  perished. 

The  Leipzig  Campaign. — The  disasters  of  the  Russian 
campaign  seemed  to  precipitate  the  distrust  and  discontent 
that  were  now  everywhere  prevalent.  Even  in  France  the 
old  fervor  for  the  emperor  was  gone.  The  conscriptions 
had  drained  the  country  of  able-bodied  men,  and  the  levies 
for  the  great  Russian  movement  had  met  with  so  much 
opposition  that  young  men  were  willing  to  maim  them- 
selves in  order  to  be  exemjit  from  the  service.  Napoleon's 
departure  for  the  war  evoked  no  enthusiasm,  and  his  return  . 
was  met  with  ominous  indifference.  Still  his  genius  was  I 
able  to  prevent  any  general  uprising  in  France.  In  Ger-  i 
many  the  situation  was  far  different.  Though  Prussia  and 
Austria,  as  well  as  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  had  been 
drawn  into  the  Russian  expedition,  they  had  fought  with- 
out zeal,  and  were  probably  not  dissatisfied  with  the  result. 
The  Prussian  contingent  in  the  north  and  the  Austrian  in 
the  south  had  not  shared  the  fate  of  the  French.  The  sig- 
nal for  a  general  revolt  was  the  course  of  Prussia.  Field- 
Marshal  York,  commanding  a  Prussian  wing  of  the  invad- 
ing army,  and  seeing  that  tlie  tide  had  turned,  abandoned 
the  cause  of  the  French,  and  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
opposition  to  Napoleon.  The  movement  was  contagious 
and  soon  amounted  to  a  popular  uprising  throughout  Prus- 
sia. It  was  now  found  how  effectually  the  Napoleonic  re- 
quirement tliat  the  army  should  be  kept  down  to  42,000  men 
had  been  avoided.  By  terms  of  short  service  and  rigorous 
drill  nearly  all  the  young  men  in  the  country  had  passed 
into  and  out  of  the  army,  and  had  received  a  good  military 
training  in  the  course  of  the  six  years  that  had  elapsed  since 
the  Peace  of  Tilsit.  In  a  few  months  the  Prussian  army 
amounted  to  some  230.000  men.  In  Austria  the  movement 
was  slower,  owing  to  the  liond  that  had  been  established 
by  the  marriage  and  the  V)irth  of  an  heir;  but  Napoleon 
twice  refused  definite  offers  by  Austria,  looking  toward  the 
establishment  of  peace  on  a  basis  that  would  have  secured 
French  retention  of  a  large  part  of  the  conquered  territory. 
The  result  of  these  refusals  was  that  Austria  joined  the  new 
coalition  with  Prussia  and  Russia.  The  campaigns  that  fol- 
lowed in  1813  were  intricate,  and  for  a  long  time  without 
decisive  results.  It  was  the  general  policy  of  the  allies,  in- 
spired  by  Scharnhorst,  the  organizing  military  genius  of 


XAl'OLKON    J. 


69 


Prussia,  lo  avoid  frcneral  engagements,  except  when  they 
coiiM  b(>  foujfht  with  nmiiifest  ailvuntaf;c.  Tlie  liattlos  of 
IjiUzi-ii,  Bautzen,  and  Dresden  j^ave  Napoleon  some  advan- 
tage, but  were  not  followed  up  with  energy,  and  were  by 
no  means  decisive.  Ulileher  met  and  routed  Ney  at  the 
Kalzliaeh.  Napoleon  formed  a  grand  design  of  holding 
Sihwartzenberg  and  the  Austrians  in  eheek  with  the  corps 
of  Murat  in  the  south,  while  lie  advanced  rapidly  upon  his 
allies  in  the  north,  and.  after  defeating  them,  returning  and 
crushing  the  Austrians  ;  but  the  design  could  not  be  carried 
out  l>ecause  of  (he  inherent  weakness  of  the  situation.  At 
the  decisive  moment  IJavaria  threw  o(T  lier  allegiance  to  Xa- 
(Hileon  and  joined  the  allies,  Westphalia  repudiated  Jerome, 
and  the  confeileralion  of  the  Hliine  showed  such  unmistaka- 
ble signs  of  disloyalty  as  to  threaten  the  emperor's  commu- 
nications with  France.  For  these  many  reasons  the  plan 
had  to  be  abandoned.  Murat  was  unable  to  keep  Schwart#- 
enlM'rg  in  check,  and  Blilchcr.  followed  by  Bernadotle.  vigor- 
ously pressed  back  the  forces  from  the  north.  The  allies 
rapidly  concentrated  about  Leipzig,  an<l  Napoleon  was  com- 
pelled either  to  fight  a  great  battle  or  to  withdraw.  He  de- 
cided to  risk  a  general  engagement,  llis  force  at  Leipzig  was 
bImmU  lliO.lWOmen,  while  that  of  the  allies,  Austrians.  Bava- 
rians. Kussians.  Prussians,  and  Swedes  exceeded  300,(M)0. 
The  allies  began  the  attack  on  the  morning  of  Oct.  16,  and 
the  battle  continued  until  the  lilth.  The  defeat  was  so  dis- 
astrous to  Napoleon  that  he  was  able  to  rescue  only  about 
6(>,(J<M)  nii'n  from  the  wreck  of  his  army.  The  garrisons  on 
the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  and  the  Vistula  were  left  unsupported 
and  surrounded  by  enemies,  so  that  the  total  loss  to  the 
French  could  hardly  have  been  much  less  than  17"),000. 

The  Jnraiiion  of  France. — After  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Leipzig  Napoleon  slowly  made  his  way  back  to  the  Hhine, 
while  his  (lanks  and  rear  were  constantly  harassed  by  the 
forces  of  Blilcher  and  Schwartzenberg.  Austria  attempted 
to  negotiate  for  a  pernmnent  peace  on  the  basis  of  the 
•  natural  boundaries,"  i.  e.  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the 
lihine ;  but  Napoleon  wils  unwilling  to  abandon  Germany, 
and  so  lost  the  last  chance  of  saving  Holland,  Belgium,  Co- 
logne. Mentz.  and  Manheim.  In  the  westward  movement 
that  followed,  Bliicher  cros,sed  the  Hhine  at  Manheim  with 
about  HO,(XX)  men,  and  Schwartzenberg  at  Biusel  with  no 
less  than  1()I),0(M).  The  defensive  campaign  now  fought 
by  Na[)olcon  gave  abumlant  evidence  that  his  masterly 
strategic  ability  wius  in  no  way  diminished.  Wellington, 
who  wa.s  one  of  the  most  discriminating  of  military  critics, 
characterized  it  as  "very  brilliant,  probably  the  ablest  of  all 
his  performances."  In  a  general  way  his  policy  may  be 
described  as  a  determination  to  prevent  the  two  invading 
armies  from  uniting,  ami  by  keeping  between  the  two, 
striking  out  to  the  right  and  left  as  there  might  be  oppor- 
tunitv.  The  forces  of  the  French  probably  did  not  exceed 
one-tliird  the  nunil)ers  of  the  allies.  At  La  Kothiere  Na- 
poleon was  defeated,  and  his  cause  now  seemed  hopeless. 
Blilcher  pushed  on  with  characteristic  energy,  Schwartz- 
enberg with  characteristic  caution.  With  almost  unpre- 
cedented force  and  skill  the  mighty  Frenchman  threw  his 
army  upon  the  advancing  forces  of  I'russiji,  and  not  far 
from  Troyes  defeated  them  three  times  in  succession,  be- 
tween Feb.  10  and  14.  He  then  turned  upon  the  hosts  of 
Schwartzenln-rg.  which  were  advancing  along  the  Seine  on 
the  way  to  I'aris.  and  defeated  them  at  Nangis  an<l  Monte- 
•  rean  after  a  series  of  movements  which  showed  extraordi- 
nary skill.  An  armistice  foHowed  in  the  closing  days  of 
Februarv.  but  the  enemies  could  not  agree  upon  terms  of 
peace.  The  allies  had  discovered  that  Napoleon  was  now 
sup|K>rted  with  no  enthusiasm  bv  the  French,  ami  they  there- 
fore demaniled  that  the  lx)un(laries  should  be  established 
nn   the    luisis  of  the  France  of   Louis  XVI.     The  emperor 

■rnfully  refused  to  consider  these  terms,  and  the  war  ae- 
■  nlingly  was  renewed.  Blilcher  had  recovered  and  united 
with  the  Austrian  force  on  the  Seine.  Napolc'oii  fought 
two  disastrous  luittles  at  Craonne  anil  Laon.  in  which  he 
lost  nearly  a  fourth  of  his  army.  He  now  a<lopted  a  co\irse 
which  could  hardly  have  U'cn  the  result  of  anything  but 
desiMiration — he  threw  himself  in  the  rear  of  the  enemy 
and  called  for  re-enforcements  from  t ho  troops  shut  up  in 
the  fortresses  along  the  Khine.  This  movement  left  the 
way  to  I'aris  opi-n  for  the  allies.  Having  already  iliscov- 
ered  a  formidable  conspiracy  in  the  city,  leil  by  Talleynind, 
to  repudiate  Napoleon,  tliev  did  not  he>itate  to  nwirch  di- 
rectly upon  the  capital.  .Niarniont  ami  .Mortier  nuide  an 
honorable  but  fruitless  defense,  and  on  Mar.  2!Mlie  united 
armies  roaohrd  the  heights  of  .Montinartre.     The  capitula- 


tion was  signed  on  the  evening  of  the  same  day.  Mean- 
while Napole<in,  finding  no  forces  to  meet  him  in  his  east- 
ward movement,  and  fearing  that  the  allies  were  marching 
upon  Paris,  turned  westwanl  once  more  and  reachetl  a  vil- 
lage near  Fontainebleau  before,  on  the  evening  of  the  30tli, 
he  heard  the  terrible  news  that  the  capital  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  enemy.  He  sent  an  embassy  at  once  to  treat  for 
peace,  but  the  allies  were  in  no  haste.  Strange  scenes  in 
Paris  met  the  eyes  of  the  envoys.  A  revolution  was  every- 
where going  on  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  Xajioleon 
and  reinstating  the  Bourl>ons.  Talleyrand  assured  the 
allies  that  pulilic  opinion  was  ready  for  a  complete  rcjiudia- 
tion  of  Na|>oleonic  authority.  The  czar,  smarting  still 
under  the  remembrances  of  1H12,  was  in  condition  to  dic- 
tate the  policy  ;  and  answer  was  finally  returned  that  the 
allies  would  not  treat  with  Xapoleon  or  with  any  one  of  his 
name.  The  emperor  had  gathered  about  him  at  Fontaine- 
bleau an  army  of  80.000  men,  and  now  prepared  to  renew  the 
attack;  but  the  extent  to  which  the  |)oison  of  discontent  and 
distrust  had  permeated  all  branches  of  the  service,  as  well 
as  of  the  tioveniment,  was  now  revealed.  While  Marmont 
himself  was  treating  with  the  allies  as  an  envoy  of  Xapo- 
leon. his  corps,  20,0(XI  strimg,  deserted  the  standiinl  of  the 
I'mperor  and  passed  over  tt)  the  enemy.  Kven  worse  than 
this,  the  Senate,  which  ever  since  ls04  had  been  his  subserv- 
ient tool,  now  proclaimed  that  Xapoleon  had  forfeited  his 
crown.  The  populace  lore  down  the  emperor's  statue  from 
the  column  of  Auslerlitz.  ami  evidences  of  his  name  were 
rapidly  effaced.  Seeing  that  the  contest  could  not  longer 
l)e  carried  on  without  civil  war,  the  emperor  signed  an  un- 
conditional abdication  on  Apr.  (i,  1814.  The  evidences  of 
defection  on  Hie  part  of  the  oflicei-s  he  hail  raised  to  power 
tormented  hiiu  with  the  impression  that  he  was  forsaken 
and  execrated  by  mankind.  In  a  moment  of  anguish  he 
swallowed  poison,  but  the  dose  did  not  prove  fatal.  The 
allies  decided  to  place-  the  Comtc  de  Provence  on  the  throne 
as  Louis  XVIII..  and  to  banish  Napoleon  to  the  island  of 
Elba.  Bidding  a  touching  and  nu'morable  farewell  to  the 
soldiers  of  his  guard  at  Fontainelileau.  he  was  soon  on  his 
way  to  the  little  island  in  the  Mediterranean.  As  he  passed 
through  the  towns  that  had  been  nuidc  desolate  by  the  com- 
mercial destruction  of  his  continental  system,  he  was  de- 
nounced as  a  monster  of  crime,  and  the  cause  of  all  the 
sufferings  of  the  French  iieo|)le.  At  Avignon  the  crowd 
attacked  the  carriages  anu  wanted  to  throw  him  into  the 
Rhone.  He  was  obliged  to  disguise  himself,  and  more  than 
once  his  life  seemed  to  be  in  extreme  danger. 

T/if  ^\'at^rl()0  Cnmpaign. — Scarcely  liatl  Napoleon  landed 
on  the  island  of  his  exile  when  new  troubles  broke  out  in 
France.  Louis  XVIII..  and  those  he  called  about  him.  not 
only  re-established  many  of  the  most  offensive  features  of 
the  old  Bourbon  government,  but  unsettled  domestic  affaii-s. 
played  havoc  with  the  positions  of  [)ublic  men,  and  threw 
the  titles  of  estates  into  dire  confusion.  These  changes,  so 
sudden  and  intolerable,  were  enough  in  theni.selves  to  sug- 
gest a  new  revolution.  Jleanlime  the  old  soldiers,  who 
had  bien  left  in  the  garrisons  or  as  prisoners  in  tiermany, 
probably  :!00.00()  in  number,  came  streaming  tiack  into 
Krance  with  tln'ir  enthusiasm  for  their  chief  unabated. 
The  congress  at  Vienna,  called  lo  settle  all  disputed  ques- 
tions arising  from  the  new  conditions,  added  to  the  discon- 
tents. Meeting  in  September,  the  plenipotentiaries  pa.s.sed 
the  whole  of  the  winter  without  completing  their  worn,  but 
as  the  months  pas.sed  on  it  became  apparent  that  France 
would  in  the  end  lie  humiliated  and  the  great  [Miwers  would 
be  greatly  enriched.  In  all  these  facts  Xapoleon  saw  what 
he  thought  to  be  an  opporl unity  to  revive  the  old  loyalty 
lo  himself,  lie  formed  the  desperate  resolution  to  abandon 
Elba  and  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  malcontents.  Set- 
ling  sail  with  aliout  1.100  soldiers  on  Feb.  'iii.  181.5,  he  landed 
Mar.  1  near  Cannes.  He  had  not  misjudged  the  feelings  of 
the  old  soldiery,  for  he  was  at  once,  wherever  he  appeared, 
hailed  with  acelamalions  of  joy.  On  Mar.  l:!.  at  Lyons,  he 
issued  an  imperial  decree  dissolving  the  chambers  eslal>- 
lisheil  by  I.iiuis  XVIII.  and  summoning  an  extraordinary 
meeting  in  the  Field  of  May.  On  Mar.  lit  the  king  left 
Paris;  on  the  20th  the  emperor  arrived.  Although  the  peo- 
ple generally  maintained  a  sullen  silence,  the  siildiers  were 
enthusiastic.  Many  of  the  old  commanders  flocked  to  his 
side,  and  he  soon  had  an  army  of  more  than  lOO.tKKI  men: 
but,  as  so  often  before,  he  had  not  estimated  the  powers  of 
his  enemies  aright.  On  Mar.  i;)  the  news  of  his  lamliiig 
in  France  reached  the  repres<^ntatives  of  the  powers  al  Vi- 
enmi.    They  Bt  once  forgot  their  differences  and  proclaimed 


YO 


NAPOLEON  I. 


him  "  an  enemy  and  disturber  of  the  peace  of  the  world." 
On  the  2.5th  the  new  coalition  was  signed,  and  the  troops 
everywhere  marching  toward  home,  were  ordered  to  halt 
and  fall  into  line  for  the  coming  campaign.  The  allies  put 
at  once  700,000  men  into  the  field,  and  the  reserves  at  their 
disposal  were  probably  twice  as  many  more.  Napoleon 
early  in  June  commanded  about  200,000.  When  the  cam- 
paign began,  on  June  12,  the  emperor's  force  numbered 
122.401.  The  allies  consisted  of  Great  Britain,  Prussia,  Rus- 
sia, and  Austria,  besides  the  subordinate  states  of  Germany, 
and  it  is  evident  that,  whatever  the  result  of  the  first  great 
battle,  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  emperor  could  not  now 
long  be  postponed.  Napoleon  advanced  with  characteristic 
rapidity.  His  plan  was  to  strike  in  between  his  enemies,  as 
he  had  so  often  successfully  .done  before,  and  defeat  them 
individually  before  they  could  unite.  The  army  under 
Wellington,  consisting  of  British,  Hollanders,  Belgians,  and 
Germans,  numbered  10.5.950  and  was  stationed  at  Brussels. 
The  Prussian  army  of  Bliicher,  numbering  more  than  116,- 
000  well-disciplined  troops,  was  approaching  from  the  E. 
to  join  his  British  ally.  Napoleon's  purpose  was  to  pre- 
vent their  union  and  to  defeat  first  the  one  and  then  the 
other.  On  June  16  the  French  and  Prussians  fought  at 
Ligny,  but  the  Prussians,  though  defeated,  were  able  to 
withdraw  from  the  field  in  good  order.  Napoleon  now 
made  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  Bliicher  withdrew  to 
the  E.  by  way  of  Namur,  while  in  fact  he  took  the  road  N. 
leading  to  Wavre,  a  village  about  8  miles  E.  of  Waterloo. 
Marshal  Grouchy,  with  a  strong  French  force  of  about  33,- 
000  men,  was  ordered  to  pursue  Bliicher  and  prevent  his  junc- 
tion with  Wellington.  Grouchy  naturally  took  the  Namur 
road  instead  of  that  to  Wavre.  The  mistake  at  Ligny  led 
to  another  that  was  still  more  important.  After  tlie  bat- 
tle of  Ligny.  Napoleon's  army,  only  about  15  or  18  miles 
from  that  of  Wellington,  if  tlie  old-time  energy  had  been 
shown,  could  have  overtaken  Wellington  by  Genappe  and 
Nivelles  in  time  to  fight  the  battle  on  the  17th.  The  night 
of  the  16th  Napoleon  passed  at  Fleurus,  a  village  about  3 
miles  S.  of  Ligny,  though  the  left  of  his  army,  under  Ney, 
was  at  Quatre  Bras.  The  delays  that  now  occurred  have 
bafiled  many  of  the  critics,  but  the  most  recent  investiga- 
tions have  shown  that  Najjoleon  was  so  overcome  with 
fatigue  and  illness  on  the  evening  of  the  16th  that  he  went  to 
bed  immediately  after  the  battle,  and  did  not  allow  himself 
to  be  disturbed  till  late  on  the  morning  of  the  17th.  He 
reached  Ligny  about  noon,  where  he  heard  that  Bli'icher  had 
moved  toward  the  N.  Going  to  Quatre  Bras  early  in  the 
afternoon,  he  learned  that  Wellington  hact  fallen  "back  to 
the  high  ground  S.  of  Waterloo.  Furious  rains  retarded 
the  movement  of  the  army,  but  before  dark  the  heads  of 
the  emperor's  columns  reached  the  hills  in  front  of  La  Belle 
Alliance,  less  than  2  miles  S.  of  Wellington's  line.  If,  in 
the  course  of  the  night,  the  army  had  moved  forward  so  as 
to  begin  the  attack  at  <iaybreak,  the  result  might  have  been 
different,  but,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Napoleon  knew 
of  Bliicher's  movement,  the  French  army  was  so  slow  in 
coming  into  line  that  it  was  noon  of  the  18th  before  the 
battle  began.  The  delay  is  not  very  satisfactorily  explained 
by  Napoleon's  over-confidence  in  his  own  destiny  and  his 
underestimate  of  the  power  of  his  foes:  and  it  can  not  proi:>- 
erly  be  attributed  to  the  rain,  since  the  defeated  army  of 
Bliicher  was  able  to  advance  a  much  greater  distance  over  in- 
ferior roads.  It  is  evident  that  the  Napoleon  of  Waterloo  was 
not  the  Napoleon  of  Marengo  or  Austerlitz.  When  the  attack 
began  the  French  columns  were  thrown  against  the  British 
squares  with  the  fury  of  desperation.  Attacks  were  re- 
peated on  the  British  "right,  on  the  left,  and  on  the  center. 
About  four  o'clock  the  imperial  forces  captured  the  impor- 
tant strategic  point  at  La  Haye  Sainte.  A  gap  was  now 
opened  in  the  British  lines,  and  Napoleon  followed  up  the 
advantage  by  an  attack  of  the  guard  ;  but  the  head  of  the 
Prussian  columns,  under  Billow,  had  already  reached  the 
field,  and  at  this  moment  Bliicher's  veterans  came  on  as  an 
irresistible  re-enforcement.  The  Prussian  force  charged 
upon  the  French  right  with  impetuosity.  The  French 
forces  were  thrown  into  some  confusion,  when  Wellington 
ordered  a  general  charge  along  the  whole  line.  This  move- 
ment not  oidy  decided  the  day.  but  drove  the  imperial  armv 
from  the  field.  The  |)ursuit  was  followed  up  with  so  much 
energy  by  the  victors  that  the  French  army  was  shattered 
in  pieces,  an<l  the  fragments  were  sent  flying  in  all  direc- 
tions toward  the  frontier.  Napoleon  himself  hastened  to 
Paris  to  make  an  appc-d  to  the  chambers,  and,  if  possi- 
ble, to   repair  the   crusliing  disaster.      His   appeal  fell  on 


insensiMe  ears.    There  was  nothing  left  for  him  but  abdi- 
cation. 

Final  Abdication,  Banishment,  and  Death. — He  pro- 
claimed his  son  Napoleon  II.,  but,  notwithstanding  this  fact, 
the  chambers  set  up  a  provisional  government.  Ttie  allies, 
under  the  impetuous  counsels  of  Bliicher,  pressed  on  to 
Paris.  Napoleon  saw  that  he  could  do  nothing  to  resist  the 
current,  and,  accordingly,  he  decided  to  embark  for  Amer- 
ica ;  but  on  reaching  La  Roehelle  he  found  the  harbor  thor- 
oughly guarded  by  British  cruisers,  and  so  changed  his 
purpose.  On  July  15  he  placed  himself  under  the  flag  of 
Great  Britain,  and  was  received  on  board  the  Bellerophon 
with  high  honors.  At  the  same  time  he  wrote  a  letter  to 
the  prince  regent  declaring  that  he  "committed  himself  to 
the  protection  of  the  laws  of  the  most  powerful,  the  most 
persevering,  and  the  most  generous  of  his  foes";  but  the 
coalition  had  learned  a  lesson  at  Elba.  In  a  few  days  the 
British  Government  decided  upon  its  course.  The  dignified 
protest  of  the  emperor  was  disregarded,  and  early  in  August 
the  great  exile  was  on  his  way  to  the  rocky  island  of  St. 
Helena,  in  the  Southern  Atlantic,  where,  after  six  years  of 
mental  and  physical  distress,  he  died,  Jlay  5,  18'21,  after 
much  suffering,  from  an  ulcer  in  the  stomach.  In  his  last 
will  he  distributed  his  fortune  with  munificent  forethought, 
and  expressed  his  desire  that  his  remains  might  "repose 
on  the  banks  of  the  Seine  amid  the  people  whom  he  had 
loved  so  well."  This  wish  was  respected  by  the  British 
Government,  but  the  remains  were  not  removed  until  1840. 
In  that  year  the  "  solitary  tomb  under  the  willow-tree  was 
opened,  the  winding  sheet  was  rolled  back  with  pious  care, 
and  the  features  of  the  hero  were  exposed  to  the  view  of 
the  spectators.  So  perfectly  had  the  body  lieen  embalmed 
that  the  features  were  undecayed,  the  countenance  serene, 
even  a  smile  on  the  lips,  and  his  dress  the  same,  since  im- 
mortalized in  statu.iry,  as  when  he  stood  on  the  fields  of 
Austerlitz  and  Jena."  The  remains  of  the  mighty  dead 
reached  Paris  early  in  December,  and  on  the  15th,  followed 
by  a  procession  of  600,000  people,  were  deposited  in  their 
final  resting-jjlace  under  the  dome  of  the  Church  of  the 
Invalides  on  the  banks  of  the  Seine. 

Oeneral  Estimate  of  his  Career. — Taken  all  in  all.  Napo- 
leon was  by  far  the  greatest  of  the  modern  masters  in  the 
art  of  war.  In  those  military  comljinations  which  are 
known  as  strategy  he  has  never  had  an  equal,  and  he  was 
so  consummate  a  master  of  details  that  he  could  often  pre- 
dict to  a  day  or  an  hour  the  time  when  a  remote  result 
would  be  accomplished.  By  a  kind  of  inspiration  or  intui- 
tion he  was  able  to  detect  the  weakest  point  in  the  policy  of 
the  enemy,  and  he  had  unrivaled  skill  in  throwing  himself 
between  the  opposing  forces  and  beating  them  in  detached 
parts.  The  boldness  and  swiftness  of  his  movements  often 
stunned  and  almost  paralyzed  his  foes.  If  he  met  with  re- 
verses, he  was  often  able  to  conceal  them  by  some  achieve- 
ment that  seemed  to  cover  everything  with  a  blaze  of  glory. 
By  means  of  his  bulletins  and  reports  he  kept  an  impression 
of  his  invincible  power  in  the  minds  and  imaginations  of 
the  people,  and  it  long  seemed  to  many  of  the  thoughtful 
minds  of  Europe  that  his  imperial  system  would  be  perma- 
nently established.  Stupendous  as  were  his  successes,  a  care- 
ful analysis  of  his  career  will  show  that  his  failures  were 
still  greater.  It  is  not  probable  that  at  the  beginning  of  his 
career  he  had  any  clearly  defined  policy  in  view.  He  was, 
in  a  very  exceptional  sense,  a  pftiduct  of  revolution,  and  yet* 
he  was  so  far  from  having  sympathy  with  revolutionary  ideas 
that  he  reinstated  many  of  the  most  offensive  features  that 
the  revolution  had  overthrown.  When  he  came  into  the  revo- 
lutionary current  and  sought  to  control  it,  he  saw  tliat  the 
most  effective  way  to  wield  all  the  forces  of  France  was  to 
unite  them  against  the  traditionary  toe  of  the  nation.  Dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  France  had  been  almost  constantly 
at  war  with  Great  Britain.  The  result  had  been  humiliating 
to  the  French  in  the  extreme.  William  III.  and  Marlbor- 
ough had  beaten  the  French  on  the  Continent:  and  the 
statesmanship  of  Chatham  had  accomiilished  the  stupendous 
result  of  driving  the  French  out  of  America  and  out  of  India. 
A  general  hatred  of  the  British  was  as  dominant  a  factor  in 
French  life  from  1775  to  1800  as  was  hatred  of  tlie  Gcruums 
during  the  generation  following  1870.  Connected  with  this 
hatred  was  a  natural  desire  to  recover  what  had  been  lost. 
When  Napoleon  came  upon  the  scene,  France  and  Great 
Britain  were  at  war.  Napoleon  found  in  this  fact  the  great- 
est of  opiiortunities.  His  Egyptian  campaign  was  designed 
primarily  as  a  blow  at  British  jiower  in  the  East,  and  its  de- 
sign, as  well  as  its  failure,  was  made  all  the  more  conspicuous 


NAPOLEON   I. 


NAPOLEON   in. 


71 


when  he  sent  Sobostiani  to  exiilure  the  country  with  a  view 
to  a  new  attack.  The  refusjii  of  Great  Britain  to  pivo  up 
Malta  in  consequence  of  tliese  new  revelations  led,  us  we  have 
seen,  to  a  renewal  of  the  war  with  the  same  purpose  in  view. 
The  coloss<il  preparatii>ns  for  the  invasion  of  Englaml  fol- 
loweil ;  but  Pitt  succeeileil  in  forniint;  a  continental  coiilition, 
anil  France  was  now  obli>;e(i  to  tijilit  not  orilv  Great  Itrilain 
but  .\ustriaanil  Unssia  as  well.  As  the  Freni'Ii  tleet  had  been 
unable  to  keep  Nelson  from  {juanlin;;  the  Channel,  Na^loleon 
saw  that  the  chances  of  a  successful  invasion  were  daily  bo- 
coniinj;  less  ami  less,  ami  accordingly  he  changed  his  purpose 
and  determined  to  strike  the  British  allies  instead  of  Great 
Britain  herself.  I'lm  and  .Vusterlitz  concealed  the  defeat  at 
Boulogne,  as  Jfarengo  had  concealed  the  defeat  in  Egypt. 
The  war  with  Prussia,  which  bigan  with  Jena  and  emled 
with  Eriedlaml  ami  Tilsit,  huniiliati'd  the  people  of  Fred- 
erick the  trreat,  and  by  so  doing  prepared  the  way  for  the 
Nemesis  of  Leipzig  and  Waterloo;  but  even  I  he  tumults  of  this 
great  wardiilnot  turn  Naixileon  for  an  instant  from  the  line  of 
his  great  i>urpose.  The  annihilation  of  the  French  navy  at 
Trafalgar  showed  the  great  comiueror  the  utter  futility  of 
renewing  the  project  of  invasion  :  but  the  Berlin  decree  was 
aimed  at  the  same  result.  By  destroying  i-.immercial  rela- 
tions with  continental  markets  he  believe<l  that  Great  Britain 
could  be  subdued;  but  in  order  to  accomplish  this  purpose 
he  must  close  all  the  ports  of  Europe.  The  Spanish  Penin- 
sula and  the  Kussian  Baltic  ports  were  still  open.  The 
Spanish  war  was  brought  on  by  sending  his  bnjther  to  Mad- 
rid and  .lunot  to  Portugal  for  the  purpose  of  completing 
the  blockaile  in  the  Peninsula;  and  he  brought  on  the  Kus- 
sian war,  with  all  its  horrors,  by  insisting  upon  a  closing  of 
the  purls  of  ()lilenl)urg.  The  failures  of  the  Sjianish  and  the 
Russian  wars,  among  the  most  stupendous  in  history,  were  but 
the  crowning  failure  of  his  policy  in  regard  to  Great  Britain. 
Even  this  was  not  all.  The  failure  of  Napoleon  in  regard  to 
France  was  no  less  complete.  It  is  true  that  during  the 
consulate  and  early  empire  he  wrought  important  reforms 
that  have  been  permanent;  but  it  may  well  be  doubled 
whether  the  most  of  these  reforms  were  not  the  natunil 
fruit  of  the  Revolution.  In  making  up  our  judgment  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  a  great  nalional  upheaval  or  dis- 
aster, followed  by  a  restoration,  is  always  a  period  of  great 
reform,  Greece  after  the  Persian  invasions.  Great  Britain 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Stuarts,  Prussia  after  Tilsit,  even 
France  after  .Sedan,  give  us  intimations  of  what  was  the 
natural  seipience  of  the  Revolution  of  178!);  but  whatever 
opinion  may  ultimately  come  to  prevail  in  regard  to  the 
administralive  reforms  of  the  Napoleonic  piriod,  it  will  have 
to  bo  admitted  that  what  he  fondly  called  his  continental 

fxiliey  was  a  complete  failure.  In  Italy,  in  ."^pain,  in  Swilzcr- 
and,and  in  Germany  his  work  perished  with  his  overthrow. 
lie  found  France  in  the  pcai'eful  and  unquestioned  possession 
of  Belgium  and  the  left  bank  of  the  ijhine,  and  he  left  it 
shorn  of  much  of  the  richest  and  most  [>opuloiis  portion  of 
the  realm,  ll  was  as  the  fruit  of  his  policy  that  t'ologne, 
Bonn,  Toblentz,  Meiit/.,  and  all  the  rich  intervening  terri- 
tory which  for  twenty  years  had  Ixdongcd  to  France,  I )ecume 
permanently  a  part  of  (lermany.  It  was  not  alone  or  even 
chielly  in  losses  of  a  material  nature  that  the  baneful  in- 
fluence of  Napoleon's  career  left  its  impression  on  France. 
Far  more  damaging  was  the  fact  that  it  gave  to  the  people 
those  erroneous  lieliefs,  unwholesome  sentiments,  and  false 
ideals  in  which  were  bound  up  all  the  misfortunes  of  the 
second  empire  and  the  war  of  ISTO, 

AiTUOKiTiKs. — (Jur  knowledge  of  Napoleon  was  greatly 
moditieil  liy  the  publication,  under  the  authority  of  the  set'- 
ond  empire,  of  the  Vorrespimdance  tie  V Kmpi-reur  yupoli-iin 
/.,  in  thirty-two  volumes  4to.  rnfortunately,  however,  the 
publislu'cl  portion  of  the  corresixindcnce  is  by  no  means 
complete.  The  edilurs  were  umler  instructions  to  give  to 
the  publii-  (inly  "what  the  emiieror  himself  wouM  have 
given  to  the  publiir  hail  he  survived  himself."  Of  the  en- 
tire correspondence  in  the  P'reiich  archives,  luimbering 
about  HO,(K)0  lei  I  ei-s,  only  about  3(M100  are  included  in  the 
published  collection;  but  the  published  letters  have  thrown 
new  light  on  almost  every  important  event  of  Napoh'on's 
life.  Tile  most  important  of  the  systematic  works  that  have 
received  ihe  benelil  of  these  letters  and  dispatches  are:  Lan- 
fiey,  Ilistiinj  of  ynpolmii  I.  (4  vols.);  .!ung,  Jiiimipiirle 
it  noil  Trmp.1  (It  vols.);  Taine,  Mmlirn  Jin/ime:  Seeley, 
Short  Ilintorfi  of  \iipoffon  the  Kir»t  \  Morris,  yaj)*tleon^ 
Warrior  ami  liiiler;  Ropes,  The  J''irit  yaptilron:  Ropes, 
Waterloo;  (iardiier,  (^iiotre  Brax,  Ligni/.  and  Waterloo; 
Browning,  England  and  Xapoleon  in  tiSo3.     Of  the  more 


elaborate  standard  works  published  before  the  Correspon- 
dance,  Thiers,  Consulate  and  Empire  (20  vols.);  Jouiini, 
Political  and  Military  Life  of  Napoleon  I.  (4  vols.);  and 
Alison,  History  of  Europe  from  ITS9  to  1S15  (14  vols.),  are 
the  most  inqiortant.  Of  the  almost  countless  JJemoires  the 
most  worthy  of  note,  as  throwing  imiKirtant  light  on  the 
period  by  personal  obscners,  are  those  of  d'Abranles,  Remu- 
sat,  Talleyrand,  Metternich,  Marbot,  Pastjuier,  Montholon, 
Gourgauii,  Bourrienne,  de  Mencval,  Las  Casas,  O'Mcara, 
Marmont,  Jlusscua,  Sachet,  de  Segur,  and  Miotde  Melito, 

C  K.  Adams. 

Napoleon  II.,  Francis  ,Toseph  Charles;  the  only  child 
of  Napoleon  I.  by  Marie  Louise  of  Austria;  b.  in  the  Tui- 
leries.  Mar.  20,  Itill,  and  baptized  June  9  as  King  of  Rome. 
After  the  defeat  at  Waterloo,  Napoleon  I.  abdicated  in 
favor  of  liis  son,  and  proclaimed  him  Emperor  of  the 
French  (June  22,  1815)  under  the  title  of  Napoleon  II.,  but 
the  allied  powers  ]iaid  no  attention  to  this  ])rc>ilamation. 
lie  was  educated  in  Vienna,  where  he  was  known  as  the 
Duke  of  Reiclistadt,  from  a  small  estate  in  Bohemia.  He 
was  instructed  in  military  science,  and  in  ISIiO  \vas  raised 
to  the  rank  of  major.  In  Apr.,  1832,  he  was  suddenly  seized 
with  consumption,  and  died  at  .Schoiibrunn,  July  22,  1832. 
As  Xajioleoii  HI.  iusceiided  the  French  throne,  the  Duke  of 
Keichstadt  is  reckoned  among  the  French  sovereigns  by  the 
Bonapartists  and  known  as  Napoleon  II.,  though  he  never 
occupied  the  throne. 

Napoleon  III.,  Charles  Louis:  Emjierorof  the  French; 
the  youngest  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte,  King  of  Holland,  and 
Ilortoiise  Beauharnais,  the  slepilaughler  of  Napoleon  I. ;  b. 
in  Paris,  .\pr.,  20,  1808,  The  parents  lived  separately,  the 
children  with  the  mother.  After  the  fall  of  Najioleon  I,, 
Queen  Hortense  repaired  in  1816  to  Arenenberg  in  Thur- 
pau,  and  Louis  attended  for  eight  years  the  gymnasium 
of  Augsburg,  and  after  1824  for  some  time  the  military 
school  of  Thun.  On  the  dethronement  of  the  Bourbons  by 
the  revolution  of  1830  he  took  an  active  part  in  jiublic  alTairs. 
He  joined  in  the  unsuccessful  reyolt  of  the  Italians  against 
the  papal  rule  in  Komagna  and  after\yard  returned  to 
France,  but  the  law  e.viling  the  Bonapartes  was  .still  in 
force  and  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  country.  After  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother  in  1831, and  of  the  Duke  of  Keich- 
stadt in  1832,  he  became  the  heir  of  the  house  of  Bonaparte. 
A  sort  of  conspiracy  in  Strassburg  |)roclaiined  him  emperor 
Oct.  30,  1836,  but  only  for  two  hours.  He  \yas  arrested  and 
sent  to  the  U.  S.  without  trial.  He  returned  to  Switzerland 
in  1837.  just  before  the  ilenth  of  his  mother,  and  spent  the 
next  two  ycai-s  in  London,  where  he  was  generally  liked, 
thougii  he  inspired  no  great  respect  for  his  abilities.  On 
Aug.  6,  1840.  he  landed  at  Boulogne  with  fifty  men  and 
conquered  the  toll-gates.  This  time,  however,  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment  for  life,  and  he  remained  in  the 
citadel  of  Ham  till  May  2.5,  1846.  when  he  succeeded  in 
making  his  escape.  He  bore  his  imprisonment  with  cour- 
age, spending  much  of  the  lime  in  writing  papers  on  politi- 
cal questions.  His  pamphlets  Jii^verien  I'olitiques  (1832) 
and  i)es  Ideex  napoleunienne.i  (LS!!))  hail  already  appeared, 
and  while  at  flam  he  published  De  rExtinction  dn  Panpe- 
rinme  (1844).  After  his  escape  he  again  went  to  London, 
where  he  lived  till  1S48,  when  the  February  revolution  in 
Paris  brought  his  name  into  prominence.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Assembly  from  Paris  and  from  three  deiiartments. 
On  Sept.  26  he  took  his  seat,  and  on  Dec  20  was  elected 
president  of  the  French  republic  by  n  majority  of  over 
.1,000,000,  .Soon,  however,  a  quarrel  arose  lielween  him  and 
the  .\ssenibly,  the  latter  suspecting  him  of  an  intention  of 
overthrowing  the  constitution,  while  he  in  turn  maintained 
that  the  Assembly  opposed  all  his  jilaiis  for  iiroinoting  the 
welfare  of  Ihe  people.  The  trouble  finally  culminated  in 
his  masterly  bin  unscrupulous  seizure  of  power  by  the  coup 
d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851.  tin  that  day  Paris  found  its  walls 
placarded  with  pri«lamations  to  the  effect  that  the  presi- 
dent had  discharged  Ihe  .Assembly,  charging  it  with  iieing 
the  "hotbed  of  sedition,"  and  appealing  to  the  people  in 
support  of  the  course  he  had  taken.  All  civil  and  military 
oOicei-s  likely  to  oppose  his  scheme  were  then  arrested,  the 
army,  which  was  hostile  to  the  Parisian  iiopiilace,  was  skill- 
fully disposed  in  the  street.s  anil  finally  the  brutal  and 
needless  ma.ssncre  of  the  crowds  on  the  boulevards  on  Dec. 
4  completed  the  work  of  overawing  the  city.  Reports  that 
Paris  enthusiastically  approved  Ihe  president's  course  were 
dispatched  to  Ihe  provinces,  and  on  Dec.  20-21  the  people 
of  rrancc  were  called  upon  to  vote  on  the  questions  as  to 


72 


NAPOLEON. 


NARCISSUS 


whether  or  not  the  course  of  the  president  should  be  sus- 
tained, and  whether  he  should  be  authorized  to  draw  up  a 
new  constitution  and  to  retain  the  presidential  chair  for  ten 
years.  A  negative  answer  would  have  meant  temporary 
anarchy,  and  the  result  of  the  vote  was  an  almost  unani- 
mous acceptance  of  the  proposals  submitted,  the  dissenting 
minority  numljering  only  640,000  out  of  a  total  of  8,000,- 
000  votes.  From  this  time  on  he  possessed  in  effect  arbi- 
trary power,  and  on  Dec.  2,  1853,  was  proclaimed  emperor, 
a  second  plebiscite  having  resulted  in  a  still  larger  majority 
in  his  favor  than  the  first.  On  Jan.  30,  1853,  he  married 
Eugenie  de  Jlontijo,  and  Mar.  16,  1856,  she  bore  him  the 
Prince  Imperial,  who  died  June  1,  1879.  For  the  first  ten 
years  of  his  reign  he  was  a  conspicuous  and  at  times  a  brill- 
iant figure  among  European  sovereigns.  The  Crimean  war 
(1854-56),  which  was  only  a  half  success,  immensely  ex- 
pensive, and  small  in  its  results,  nevertheless  added  to  the 
military  reputation  of  France,  and  the  Italian  war  (185!)), 
although  disappointing  to  the  Italians  on  account  of  their 
failureto  secure  Venice,  made  him  immensely  popular.  The 
Mexican  war  (1862-63)  was  showy  enough,  in  that  it  gave 
him  a  crown  to  dispose  of,  but  after  Maximilian's  overthrow 
and  death  people  began  to  view  the  emperor's  policy  with 
some  suspicion,  and  although  he  entertained  Europe  well 
enough  by  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  the  World's  Ex- 
position, the  rebuilding  of  Paris,  by  congresses  and  visits, 
France  began  to  lose  sometliing  of  her  prestige  in  foreign 
relations.  Both  in  the  Danish  war  of  1864  and  in  the  wc-r 
of  1866  Napoleon's  policy  betrayed  weakness  and  inconsist- 
ency, and  its  results  were  luimiliating  and  disappointing  to 
France.  One  of  the  chief  motives  for  the  fatal  war  with 
Germany  in  1870  was  the  desire  to  strengthen  the  empire 
by  an  access  of  military  glory.  Napoleon,  who  was  then 
slowly  dying  of  an  incurable  disease,  seems  to  have  been 
the  victim  of  gross  misrepresentations  as  to  the  resources  of 
France  and  her  readiness  for  war.  During  the  contest  he 
was  misled  by  his  advisers  and  urged  on  to  rash  measures 
by  the  dread  of  a  popular  uprising  against  his  government. 
He  was  made  prisoner  with  his  entire  army  at  Sedan,  Sept. 
2,  1870,  and  sent  to  the  castle  of  Wilhelmshohe,  near  Cassel, 
whence  lie  afterward  removed  to  England.  D.  at  Chisel- 
hurst,  in  England,  Jan.  0,  1873.  Among  Napoleon's  other 
writings  are  Histoire  du  Jules  Cesar  (1865-66) ;  miscellane- 
ous works  publislied  under  the  title  CEuvres  de  Napoleon 
III.  (1854-69) ;  and  a  collection  of  posthumous  works, 
CEuiires  posthumes  (1873).  See  Delord,  Histoire  du  second 
empire  (1869-75);  Gottschall,  Napoleon  III.,  Eine  biog- 
raphisehe  Sludie  (1871)  ;  von  Sybel,  Napoleon  III.  (1873)  ; 
Jerrold,  The  Life  of  Napoleon  III.  (1877):  Hugo.  Histoire 
d'un  Crime  (1877) ;  Simson,  Die  Beziehimgen  Napoleons 
III.zu  Preussen  und  I)entxrhlaiid  (1882);  C.  E.  de  Maupas, 
Story  of  the  Coup  d'Elat  (Kng.  trans.  1884);  memoirs  of 
the  Duke  of  Colnirg ;  Fyffie,  Modern.  Europe  (1890) ;  and 
Murdock,  Reconstruction  of  Europe  (1891).     F.  M.  Colby. 

Napoleon,  Prince  Napoleon  Joseph  Charles  Paul 
Bonaparte  :  See  Bonaparte,  N.  J.  C.  P. 

Napoleon  IV.,  Prince  Louis  Napoleon:  the  name  given 
by  the  Bona))artists  to  the  only  child  of  Napoleon  III.  and 
the  Empress  Eugenie,  though  he  never  ascended  the  throne. 
He  was  born  Mar.  16,  1856,  and  was  educated  in  the  Tuile- 
ries ;  but  when,  on  Sept.  4,  1870,  the  people  of  Paris,  after 
the  battle  of  Sedan  and  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  III.,  pro- 
claimed the  republic,  he  escaped  with  his  mother  to  Eng- 
land. He  received  a  military  education  at  the  Royal  Mili- 
tary Academy  at  Woolwich.  During  the  war  against  the 
Zulus,  in  South  Africa,  he  volunteered  his  services,  and  was 
killed  June  1,  1879. 

Nanoleona  :  a  genus  of  two  species  of  small  trees,  of  the 
Myrtle  family,  natives  of  tropical  Africa.  The  large 
flowers  are  crimson  and  orange  in  color,  and  of  great  beauty 
of  form.  These  plants  are  now  grown  in  conservatories, 
sometimes  under  the  old  name  of  lielvisia. 

Nappe  [=  Fr.  sheet,  cloth  <  Late  Lat.  nappa,  variant  of 
Lat.  niappa,  cloth,  table-cloth] :  in  mathematics,  one  sheet 
of  a  surface.  Thus  if  an  hyperbola  is  revolved  about  its 
conjugate  axis,  it  will  generate  a  surface  which  is  every- 
where continuous ;  this  surface  is  an  hyperboloid  of  one 
nappe  ;  if  the  curve  is  revolved  about  its  transverse  axis,  it 
will  generate  a  surface  composed  of  two  parts  or  sheets ; 
this  surface  is  called  an  hyperboloid  or  two  nappes. 

Naqiiet,  nifakil',  Alfred  Joseph  :  chemist  and  politician  ; 
b.  at  Carpentras,  in  the  department  of  Vaucluse,  France, 
Oct.  6,  1834 :  studied  medicine  at  Paris,  and  was  appointed 


professor  at  the  medical  school  in  1863.  His  principal 
scientific  works  are  Principes  de  Chimie  fondes sur  les  Theo- 
ries 3Iodernes  (1865):  De  V Atomicite  (1868) ;  Precis  de  Chi- 
mie legale  (1872).  He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  the 
congress  of  Geneva,  auil^his  speeches  on  this  occasion  cost 
him  fifteen  months'  imprisonment,  besides  a  fine.  For  his 
Religion,  Propriete,  Famille  (1869)  he  was  also  punished  by 
imprisonment  and  a  fine.  In  1873  he  published  La  Repu- 
blique  radicate,  but  his  journal  (La  Reputilique,  1876)  was 
not  successful.  He  was  prominent  as  a  senator,  radical 
politician,  and  Boulangist,  1882-90. 

Nara :  an  ancient  town  of  Japan  ;  situated  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  province  of  Yaniato,  about  27  miles  S.  by  E. 
of  Kioto  (see  map  of  Japan,  ref.  6-C).  The  name  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  nara,  a  species  of  oak  no  longer  common 
in  the  neighborhood.  For  seven  reigns  (709-784  a.  d.)  Nara 
was  the  imperial  seat,  and  retains,  in  its  wonderful  old 
temples,  relics  of  its  past  glory.  In  a  pagoda,  156  feet  high, 
is  contained  the  largest  image  of  the  Great  Budilha  in  the 
empire.  It  is  53  feet  in  height,  and  is  ascribed  to  a  Chinese 
founder  of  the  eighth  century.  Some  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  wood-carving  in  Japan  are  to  be  found  in  the  various 
temples  and  shrines,  as  well  as  collections  of  invaluable 
anticjues.  Modern  Nara  is  noted  for  its  cutlery,  sold  mostly 
to  pilgrims  as  souvenirs,  and  for  its  park,  where  is  kept  a 
herd  of  tame  sacred  deer.     Pop.  21,000.  J.  M.  DixoN. 

Naraka  [Sanskr.]  :  in  Brahmanism  and  the  religious  sys- 
tems developed  from  it,  the  place  to  which  the  wicked  are 
consigned  for  punishment;  hell.  Manu  enumerates  twenty- 
one  such  places,  and  describes  with  great  elaborateness  tfie 
varied  punishments  meted  out  for  different  crimes.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Buddhist  system  there  are  eight  large  hot  hells, 
eight  large  cold  hells,  eight  large  hells  of  utter  darkness,  and 
ten  large  cold  hells  on  the  edge  of  the  universe.  Each  of 
these  has  innumerable  smaller  hells  attached  to  it.  The 
eight  large  hot  hells  are  situated  in  tiers  beneath  Jambud- 
wiPA  (q.  v.);  each  has  four  gates,  and  outside  each 'gate  are 
four  other  hells,  making  136  hot  hells  in  all.  The  lowest  of 
the  eight  large  hot  hells  is  called  Avichi,  or  the  hell  of  un- 
intermitted  suffering.  To  it  are  consigned  all  those  who 
disobey  parents,  or  who  speak  ill  of  Buddha  or  his  law. 

The  eight  large  cold  liells  are  situated  beneath  the  double 
range  of  iron  mountains  which  form  the  periphery  of  the 
universe.  The  eight  hells  of  utter  darkness  are  situated  be- 
tween these  two  ranges,  and  are  called  "  living  "  or  "  vivify- 
ing "  hells,  because  if  a  being  dies  in  one  he  is  immediately 
reborn  in  another,  where  he  continues  500  years,  and  is 
then  reborn  in  a  third,  and  so  on  until  his  sins  have  been 
expiated,  when  he  is  again  born  on  earth  in  some  one  of 
the  remaining  five  gatis.  (See  Gati.)  Attached  to  each  of 
the  cold  hells  on  the  edge  of  the  universe  are  100,000.000 
smaller  hells,  while  besides  all  this  there  are  84,000  other 
hells  situated  on  mountains,  in  deserts,  on  the  water,  etc. 

All  these  hells  are  in  charge  of  Yama  (q.  i:),  the  judge  of 
the  dead,  who.  with  the  assistance  of  eighteen  officers  and  an 
army  of  demons,  determines  the  kind,  degree,  and  duration 
of  torture  to  which  each  male  culi)rit  must  be  subjected. 
His  sister  performs  the  same  duties  in  regard  to  female  cul- 
prits. See  Buddhism.  R.  Lilley. 
Narbada :  See  Nerbudda. 

Narboune.  nalirbiin'  (anc.  Narbo  3Iartius):  town;  in  the 
department  of  Aude.  France  :  on  a  branch  of  the  Canal  du 
Midi ;  8  miles  from  the  Mediterranean  (see  map  of  France, 
ref.  9-F).  It  is  an  old  town,  and  was  known  to  the  Greeks 
500  b.  c.  In  118  B.  c.  it  was  colonized  by  the  Romans,  and 
in  the  times  of  the  emperors  it  became  a  magnificent  city, 
the  capital  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  adorned  with  temples, 
triumphal  arches,  and  amphitheaters,  and  famous  for  the 
saluljrity  of  its  air.  Three  emperors,  Carus  (282-283)  and 
his  two  sons,  Carinus  and  Numerianus  (283-284),  were  born 
here.  In  710  the  Saracens  took  and  burned  it ;  in  859  the 
Northmen  plundered  it ;  yet  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  it  was  a  city  with  40.000  inhaliitants  and  exten- 
sive commercial  connections :  in  1271  it  began  building  its 
magnificent  Gothic  cathedral,  which  was  never  finished. 
The  town  sank  suddenly.  All  its  sjilendor  has  now  shrunk 
into  a  collection  of  anticjuities.  Even  its  pure  air  has  been 
spoiled  by  poisonous  gases  from  swamps  in  the  vicinity. 
Its  only  celebrity  at  ])resent  is  due  to  its  honey,  which  is  the 
best  in  France.     Pop.  (1891)  27,150. 

Narcissus  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  vdpKurffos,  perhaps  deriv.  of  vapxri, 
numbness,  torpor.  Cf.  Narcotics]  :  name  of  a  genus  of  bulb- 
ous plants  of  the  family  Amaryllidacea;,  natives   of  the 


XARCISSUS 


XARVAEZ 


OKI  Wurlii.  Tlic  genus  includps  tlic  jrardpn  and  preen- 
huuse  plants  (.ailed  jon(|iiil.  narcissus  dalTudil,  and  [lolyan- 
thus,  cultivated  for  ornament.  Tbey  mostly  liavc  hand- 
some flowers,  appearing  iu  spring,  and  many  are  very  fra- 
grant.    .See  Daffodil. 

Narcis'siis  [=Iiat.  =  Cir.  tiapxiavos,  persoiiifieal ion  of 
«i(Mti<rffot.  narcissus] :  the  beautiful  son  of  the  Bieotian  river- 
god  Cepliisiis  and  the  nymph  Kiriope.  The  nymph  Echo 
{(].  r.)  loved  him.  but  he  repulsed  her.  and  was  punished  by 
fallini;  in  love  with  his  own  imaKeasrelleeted  in  a  fountain, 
so  that  not  attainins;  thi'  beloveil  inui;,'e  he  pineil  away 
and  died.  When  the  Naiads  came  to  bury  his  body,  they 
found  only  a  (lower — the  narcissus.  The  myth  is  thouirht 
to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  Ho'otian  pa-derasty,  having 
been  invented  to  frighten  unresponsive  boys.     J.  R.  S.  S. 

Narcotics  [from  (ir.  va(iKa!rtK6s,  benumbing,  deriv.  of 
yapKoii',  benumb,  deriv.  of  yipiai,  numbness]:  in  nu'dieine, 
such  drugs  as  have  the  power  of  stupefying  the  cerebral  fac- 
ulties, or  inducing  sleep,  or  deadening  ordinary  sensibility. 
No  exact  division  of  narcotics  can  be  made,  but  such  drugs 
OS  opium,  belladonna,  stramonium,  heid)ane.  Indian  hemp, 
chloral,  and  the  ethers  are  those  to  which  the  term  is  com- 
monly applied. 

Narcotine:  See  OpifM. 

Nard  :  See  .SciKK.v.vRD. 

Nares,  narz.  Sir  GEORciE  Strono,  K.  (_'.  15.,  F.  K.  S. :  navi- 
jitor:  b.  at  Danestown,  .Scotland,  in  1»^:S1 ;  was  educated  at 
i  he  Itiiyal  Xaval  I'ollcge.  Greenwich  ;  engaged  in  the  Arctic 
expedition  18.53-.j4,  and  was  in  1S7.5  at  the  head  of  the  expe- 
dition sent  out  in  search  of  the  north  pole,  commanding  the 
Alert,  which  rcacheil  lat.  83'  37'  N.  lie  afterward  made  a 
survey  of  the  South  Pacific  in  the  same  ship.  lie  published 
7'Ae  .Vni'rt/  Cmlfl's  Guide  (I860:  reprinted  in  1863  under 
the  name  of  Si-nmnn:ihip;  4th  ed.  186)H);  lii ports  on  Ocean 
Soundings  and  Temperature  (in  the  Challenger:  6  parts, 
ls74-7o):  Ttie  Official  Report  of  the  Arctic  Expedition 
(1M76);  Nnrrnlive  of  a  Voyage  to  the  Polar  Sea  in  1S75-76 
i  vols.,  1878).  In  the  period  between  his  first  and  his  sec- 
nd  Arctic  expeditions  ne  was  mostly  employed  in  explora- 
tions of  the  southern  polar  seas  and  the  coasts  of  China, 
being  in  command  of  11.  M.  S.  Challenger  1873-74. 

Nares.  Robert.  F.  R. S. :  clergyman  ami  author:  t>.  at 
York,  England,  June  9,  175:J:  was  educated  at  Christ 
(Church,  Oxford;  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England 
1778;  became  rector  of  .Sharnford,  Leicestershire'!  preacher 
at  Lincoln's  Inn  1788;  assistant  librarian  at  the  British 
Museum  17!r)-1807:  canon  of  LichfieM  IVMI :  archdeacon 
of  Stafford  18(N);  prebenilary  of  Lincoln  and  rector' of  All 
Hallows,  Lonilon.  With  Mr.  Heloe  he  founded  and  edited 
The  liritish  Critic  17!):i-!»7:  was  a  contributor  to  The  Clas- 
siriil  Journal;  was  vice-oresident  of  the  Royal  Society 
183;) ;  publishe<l  several  volumes  of  sermons  and  theology, 
and  was  author  i>f  Elements  of  Orthoepy  (3d  ed.  London, 
1794),  and  a  valuable  Glossary,  or  a  Collection  of  Words, 
Phrases,  Names,  and  Allusions,  etc.,  which  have  been 
thoui/ht  to  require  illustration  in  the  Works  of  English 
Authors  (1833;  new  ed.  bv  .J.  O.  Ilalliwell  anil  Thf>mius 
Wright,  2  vols.,  18.>9;  new"e.l.  1888).  I),  in  London,  Mar. 
ai.  1839. 

Naritin.  naa-reen'yo,  A.ntoxio:  patriot:  b.  at  Bogota. 
N.w  (iranada,  ll^Ti.  He  had  only  the  limited  education 
alTonled  by  a  college  in  his  native  city,  but  he  accpiired 
some  fame  as  an  author  and  orator,  and  hidd  n'sponsiblo 
positions  nniler  the  viceroys.  .\l)out  1793  he  translated  and 
^ecri'tly  printed  a  French  work  advocating  republican  prin- 
ciples. .Subsc(|uently.  fearing  the  authorities,  he  burned  all 
the  copies,  but  one  of  them  had  Inien  seen  by  a  royalist  olli- 
cer,  anil  Narirto.  after  a  teilious  trial,  was  condemned  to  ten 
years'  [x^ial  servitndi'.  and  si'ul  a  prisoner  to  Spain  (179.5). 
lie  es<'apiMl,  and  in  1797  returned  to  New  (iranaila.  but  was 
again  arresti-d,  and  was  only  released  by  the  ri'Volution  of 
I'^IO.  He-  at  on<:e  joined  the  patriots,  ami  was  nuule  presi- 
di'nl  (1811).  anil  snbs«'i)nently  dictator  of  Cundinamarca, 
which  end>raceil  the  city  of  B<)gola.  Nariilo  was  the  leader 
of  the  centralist  republicans,  and  Cundinamarca  refused  to 
join  the  New  (iranadan  confedcnitiuii ;  civil  war  broke  out. 
and  Narifto  defeated  the  federalists,  who  attaikid  Bogota, 
•Ian.  9,  18l;i.  Soon  after  he  roigned  his  dictatorship  and 
marched  to  the  south  against  the  royalist  forces;  at  first 
successful,  he  was  defeated  at  I'usto  in  May,  1814,  captured 
and  sent  to  .Spain,  where  he  remained  a  prisoner  until  1820. 


Returning,  he  wa.s  senator  and  vice-president  of  Colombia 
in  1822.    I),  at  Villa  de  Leiva,  Dec.  13,  1833. 

IIerbert  H.  SMiTn. 
Naro.  naa'ro  :  town:  in  the  province  of  tiirgenti,  Sicily ; 
about  15  miles  from  the  town  of  Girgenti  (see  map  of  Italy, 
ref.  10-F).  It  is  well  built,  and  contains  some  fine  churches 
and  an  old  feudal  castle  with  four  towers.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood are  remains  of  ancient  aqueducts,  grottoes,  and  scp- 
ulchers.  There  are  also  productive  suljihur  mines  in  the 
vicinity.  Naro  is  sjiid  to  have  Ix'cn  budt  by  the  Saracens 
on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Molyum.  Tasso  in  his  Uerusa- 
temme  Liberata  calls  it  Saja.     Pop.  about  10,4U0. 

Narragaiisets :  See  Aloo.nquux  Ixdians. 

Narragansett  Bay:  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  extending 
28  miles  into  the  .State  of  Rhode  Island.  It  is  deep  and 
well  sheltered  from  the  sea,  receives  the  estuaries  of  the 
Providence  and  Taunton  rivers,  and  contains  the  islands  of 
Ai|uidneck  (or  Rhode  Island  proper),  Conanicut,  Prudence, 
and  other  smaller  ones.     It  has  valuable  lisheries. 

Nar'st'S  :  soldier  and  administrator :  b.  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  tifth  century;  was  a  euinich  and  a  slave  in  the  palace 
of  the  Byzantine  emperors.  His  talents  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  Justinian,  who  made  him  keeper  of  the  privy 
purse  and  a  member  of  the  council.  In  .538  he  went  to 
Italy  as  commander  of  a  force  sent  either  to  re-enforce  or 
to  watch  Belisarius.  but  he  was  recalled  in  539.  Neverthe- 
less, after  the  death  of  Belisarius,  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  in  Italy  in  5.53,  and  his  success  as  a  general  was 
most  brilliant.  Near  Tadini  he  defeated  the  Gothic  king 
Totila,  who  was  killed  in  the  Ijattle.  He  then  conf|uerca 
Rome ;  defeated  Teias.  Totila's  successor,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Sarna,  and  completely  crushed  the  power  of  the  Goths 
in  Italy.  Justinian  made  him  governor  of  Italy,  with  the 
title  of  exarch.  He  fixed  his  residence  at  Ravenna,  and 
governed  the  country  with  much  severity,  but  also  with 
much  wisdom.  After  the  death  of  Justinian  and  the  acces- 
sion of  Justin  II.,  he  was  ignominiously  deprived  of  his 
office  in  565,  and  died  in  retirement  at  Rome  about  573.  It 
is  s^iid  that  the  invasion  of  the  Lombards,  which  took  place 
shortly  before  his  death,  was  an  intrigue  by  him  to  get  re- 
venge on  the  court  of  Constantinople. 

Narlliex  :  See  Gum  Resiss. 

Narthe\  [Gr.  yipSri^.  mime  of  a  hollow-stemmed  plant, 
the  giant  fennel:  a  casket,  case.  From  this  latter  signifi- 
cation came  in  eccles.  Gr.  the  application  to  a  part  of  a 
church] :  a  vestibule  or  inclosed  porch  extending  across  the 
whole  front  of  a  church.  In  the  early  Christian  and  Byzan- 
tine churches  it  was  commonly  vaulted,  and  entered  from 
the  atrium  or  forecourt  by  a  number  of  doors  corresf)ond- 
ing  with  those  leading  into  the  church  proper.  The  un- 
baptizcd  and  heretics  were  not  allowed  to  pass  beyond  the 
narthex  into  the  church.  Like  most  of  the  arrangements 
of  the  Christian  basilica  the  narthex  appears  to  have  been 
imitated  from  the  Roman  secular  basilicas,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  ruins  of  the  basilica  of  Maxentius  at  Rome.  The 
most  magnificent  examples  of  the  narthex  are  those  of 
Santa  Sofia  at  Constantinople,  now  a  mosque,  but  formerly 
a  Christian  church,  built  in  .5.38  a.  d..  and  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome,  built  by  Maderna  in  1635.  The  term  is  al.so  applied 
to  porches  less  wide  than  the  whole  front,  and  also  to  those 
still  larger  than  the  front  would  allow,  as  in  the  case  of  St. 
Mark's  church  at  Venice,  where  the  narthex  is  carried 
along  the  north  flank  as  far  as  the  transept.  This  use  of 
the  term  is  limited  to  the  Byzantine  or  Romanesque  styles. 

A.  1).  F.  Hamlin. 

Narvaoz.  nalir-van  eth.  Panfilo,  de:  soldier;  b.  at  Valla- 
dolid,  Spain,  about  1478.  He  went  to  Santo  Domingo,  jirob- 
ably  in  1.5(»3,  and  from  1513  was  the  princinal  lieutenant  of 
VeliL^quez  in  the  conquest  of  Cuba,  where  he  settled.  Cor- 
tes, who  had  been  sent  by  Vela.squez  to  conquer  Mexico, 
threw  off  his  authority  there,  and  Narvaez  was  sent  to  su- 
persede and  imprison  him  as  a  rel)el.  He  sailed  with  a 
powerful  armament,  and  in  Apr..  1.530.  landed  at  Vera 
Cruz  with  900  men:  but  on  May  38  he  was  defeated  and 
captured  bv  Cortes  at  Cempoala.  losing  an  eye  in  the  en- 
gagement;  Ins  soldiers  were  incorporated  in  the  army  of 
Cortes  and  ti«>k  part  in  the  siege  of  Mexico.  Narvaez  was 
well  treated,  and  was  soon  released.  He  went  to  .Spain,  and 
in  1.536  obtained  a  grant  to  conquer  Florida,  of  which  he 
was  made  governor.  In  Mar..  1.538.  he  sailed  from  Cul)a 
with  live  vessels  and  400  men  ;  landed  probably  at  .\palache 
Bay.  and  marched  inland;  but  after  losing  half  his  men  in 


u 


NARVAEZ 


NASH 


ennountei's  with  the  Indians  was  obliged  to  return.  Unable 
to  find  his  ships  he  built  boats,  in  which  he  made  his  way 
westward  along  the  ooast,  nearly  to  the  mouth  ot  the  Mis- 
sissippi ;  there  he  and  nearly  all  his  men  perished  in  a 
storm.  Tlie  four  survivors  reached  Mexico  after  years  of 
wandering.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Narvaez,  Ramon  Maria,  Duke  of  Valencia ;  statesman ; 
b.  at  Loja,  Spain,  Aug.  4,  1800 ;  entered  the  army  in  youth, 
and  in  the  first  C'arlist  war  attained  the  position  of  captain- 
general  of  Old  Castile.  He  took  part  in  an  attempted  revo- 
lution against  Espartero  in  1839,  and  had  to  take  refuge  in 
France,  where  he  plotted  with  the  ex-queen,  Maria  Chris- 
tina. In  her  interest  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  an 
expedition  with  which  he  penetrated  to  Madrid  in  1843  and 
overthrew  the  government  of  Espartero.  In  the  following 
year  he  became  Prime  Minister ;  was  created  field-marshal, 
Count  of  Canadas  Alias,  and  Duke  of  Valencia,  and  effected 
the  formation  of  a  new  constitution  (1845),  suppressing  all 
his  opponents  with  rigor.  In  1846  he  quarreled  with  the  ex- 
queen,  resigned  his  post,  and  went  as  ambassador  to  Prance ; 
resumed  power  in  1847,  but  soon  lost  it  again  for  the  same 
reason  as  before.  In  1849  he  was  again  at  the  head  of  the 
government  during  the  dijiloraatic  quarrel  with  Great  Brit- 
ain which  culminated  in  the  withdrawal  of  the  British  am- 
bassador. Sir  Henry  Bulwer.  In  1851  he  went  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Vienna ;  became  again  Prime  Minister  in  1856 ;  re- 
pressed several  revolutionary  outbreaks,  and  took  stringent 
measuresagainst  the  press;  was  overthrown  Xov.,  1857 ;  was 
again  Prime  Jlinister  from  Sept.,  1864,  to  June,  1865,  and 
from  July,  1866,  until  his  death,  at  Madrid,  Apr.  23,  1868. 

Narwhal  [from  Swed.  and  Dan.  narhval;  the  latter  ele- 
ment is  akin  to  Eng.  whale],  or  Sea-iinicoru :  a  cetacean 
(Monodon  monoceros)  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  Delph  in- 
idre,  or  dolphins.  It  is  most  nearly  related  to  the  white 
whale  (Delphhiapterus  catodon),  and  forms  with  it  the  sub- 
family De/phinafiterince.  Belonging  to  an  order  in  which 
many  of  the  members  never  develop  teeth  at  all,  it  is  sup- 
plied with  a  tooth  altogether  out  of  projjortion  to  its  size  ; 
and  this  tusk  is  moreover  developed  in  utter  contravention 
of  the  rules  of  bilateral  symmetry,  wliieh  in  every  other 
known  case  among  vertebrates  govern  the  production  of 
the  teeth.  In  both  sexes  the  lower  jaw  is  edentulous;  in 
the  male  the  upper  jaw  is  provided,  on  the  left  side,  with  a 
tusk  from  6  to  8  feet  long,  straight,  spirally  grooved  exter- 
nally, and  hollowed  within  into  a  persistent  pulp-cavity. 
On  the  right  side  the  corresponding  tooth  generally  remains 
hidden,  smooth,  and  solid,  within  the  jaw,  but  sometimes  is 
produced  symmetrically  with  the  other.  These  teeth  are 
generally  described  as  incisors,  but  erroneously,  as  the  al- 
veoli are  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  intermaxillary  and 
maxillary  bones,  and,  according  to  Mivart,  are  even  '•  em- 
bedded entirely  in  the  maxilla."  In  addition  to  these,  there 
are  two  small  rudimentary  molars  concealed  in  the  upper 
jaw.  The  female,  altliough  as  a  rule  without  apparent 
teeth,  has  the  incipient  tusks  concealed  in  the  jaw;  one  of 
these  is,  however,  said  to  be  sometimes  developed  as  in  the 
male.  The  narwhal  in  form  of  body  resembles  the  por- 
poises ;  its  mouth  is  small,  and  its  single  spiracle  or  blow- 
hole is  situated  on  the  top  of  the  head.  Its  flippers  or 
"  fins  "  are  small,  and  it  has  no  dorsal  fin.  It  attains  to  a 
length  of  from  10  to  15  feet,  exclusive  of  the  tusk,  and  in 
color  is  whitish,  marbled  with  brown.  The  single  species 
inhabits  the  Arctic  seas,  where  it  lives  largely  on  cuttle- 
fishes, and  in  its  turn  serves  an  important  purpose  in  the  do- 
mestic economy  ot  the  Eskimos,  yielding  them  a  large  supply 
of  oil,  etc.,  and  an  ivory  of  considerable  commercial  value. 
It  has  become  somewhat  rare.       Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Nasalization  :  the  adding  of  nasal  resonance  to  a  sound 
or  sounds.  Thus  in  French  the  adding  of  nasal  resonance 
to  the  vowel  e  of  peiie,  nier  yields  the  nasalized  vowel  of 
fin,  plaindre,  bien;  to  the  i'>  of  peur,  peuple  yields  the 
vowel  of  un,  parfuin ;  to  the  o  of  mart,  porfe  yields  the 
vowel  of  rond,  noin;  to  the  a  nf  Idcfie  yields  the  vowel  of 
an,  dent,  ttinps.  'I'he  physiological  process  of  nasalization 
consists  in  dropping  tlie  soft  palate  toward  the  base  of  the 
tongue  and  opening  the  passage  into  the  nasal  cavity.  This 
has  the  effect  in  the  sounding  of  a  vowel  of  adding  a  second 
resonance  chamber,  which  conditions  not  only  the  color  of 
the  sound,  but  the  natural  or  iidierent  pitch  of  the  vowel. 
This  pitch  is  lower  lliaii  in  I  he  corresponding  pure  vowels. 
The  "nasal  twang,"  widely  characteristic  ot  American  Eng- 
lish, consists  in  a  partial  luisalizing  of  the  entire  current  of 
speech-breath.     Tlie  nasal  valve  is  left  partly  open,  so  that 


the  nasal  cavity  participates  to  some  extent  in  yielding  the 
characteristic  resonance  of  all  the  voiced  sounds.  An  excel- 
lent test  of  the  extent  of  nasalization  may  be  made  by  hold- 
ing a  lighted  candle  before  the  nostrils  and  shielding  the 
flame  from  the  breath  emitted  at  the  mouth.  The  flicker- 
ing of  the  flame  will  then  indicate  the  presence  of  nasalized 
breath.    See  Phonetics.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Nasals :  a  class  of  speech-sounds  characterized  by  the 
opening  of  the  nasal  passages.  The  term  in  its  narrower 
use  applies  to  the  common  sounds  of  n,  m,  ny,  the  dental, 
labial,  and  palatal  nasals  respectively.  These  are  formed  by 
making  with  the  tongue  or  lips  the  closures  for  d,  b,  or  g 
respectively,  and  deflecting  the  voiced  breath  through  the 
nasal  passages.  The  sounds  are  used  both  as  consonants 
(non-syllabic)  and  as  vowels  (syllabic).  They  appear  as 
nasal  vowels,  e.g.  in  written  (pronounced  ri'tn),  sicken  (pro- 
nounced si  kit).  The  nasal  vowels  differ  from  the  nasalized 
vowels  in  that  the  latter  leave  the  oral  cavity  open.  See 
Nasalization.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Nascent  State  [nascent  is  from  Lat.  nas'cens,  nascen'tus, 
pres.  partic.  of  nas'ci,  be  born] :  in  chemistry,  a  state  in 
which,  at  the  instant  of  evolution  from  previous  combina- 
tion, some  substances  manifest  tendencies  to  combine  di- 
rectly with,  and  even  to  decompose,  bodies  upon  which  in 
ordinary  circumstances  they  are  inactive.  The  most  famil- 
iar and  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  this  class  of  phe- 
nomena are  exhibited  by  the  element  Hydrogen  (q.  v.). 
When  evolving  from  combination  in  a  diluted  acid  by 
means  of  a  soluble  metal,  it  is  endowed  with  affinities  so  in- 
tensified that  it  will  not  only  combine  with  other  elements 
that  may  be  present,  such  as  sulphur,  phosphorus,  arsenic, 
carbon,  etc.,  but  will  in  many  cases  decompose  oxides  or 
other  compounds  of  these  elements,  combining  with  and 
carrying  off  the  latter  in  gaseous  or  volatile  forms.  Thus 
when  common  iron,  which  contains  carbon,  is  dissolved  in 
a  diluted  acid,  hydrocarbon  gases  and  vapors  of  an  inter- 
esting kind  are  found  mixed  with  the  hydrogen  gas,  giving 
it  a  peculiar  disagreeable  odor,  pure  hydrogen  being  odor- 
less. According  to  the  prevailing  views,  the  ex]5lanation 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  nascent  state  is  not  difficult. 
There  is  good  evidence  in  favor  of  tlie  idea  that  hydrogen 
gas,  or  free  hydrogen,  consists  of  molecules  which,  in  turn, 
consist  of  atoms.  Free  hydrogen  is  a  compound  of  atoms 
ot  hydrogen.  In  order  that  this  may  act  upon  other  things, 
it  is  necessary  th^t  the  atoms  be  separated  from  each  other, 
or  the  molecules  of  hydrogen  must  be  decomposed.  There- 
fore, tree  hydrogen  does  not  act  readily.  When,  however, 
the  element  is  set  free,  it  is  in  the  condition  of  atoms  which 
are  free  to  act  upon  whatever  they  may  come  in  contact 
with.  If  they  find  nothing  else  with  which  they  can  com- 
bine, they  combine  with  each  other  in  pairs,  thus  forming 
the  comparatively  inert  free  hydrogen. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Naseby,  nazbi:  village;  in  the  county  of  Northampton, 
England ;  famous  for  the  battle  in  which  Fairfax  utterly 
defeated  Charles  I.  On  the  morning  of  June  14,  1645,  the 
two  armies  stood  arrayed  opposite  each  other — the  royal 
commanded  by  the  king  himself,  with  Prince  Rupert  on  his 
right  wing  and  Sir  Marmaduke  Langdale  on  his  left,  and 
the  Parliamentary  commanded  by  Fairfax,  with  Cromwell 
on  his  right  wing  and  Ireton  on  his  left.  The  Parliamen- 
tary forces  numbered  nearly  14,000  men,  while  Charles  had 
barely  7,500.  The  attack  was  made  by  the  royal  forces,  and 
Prince  Rupert  succeeded  in  overwhelming  Ireton  and  put 
his  corps  to  flight.  On  the  other  side  Cromwell  routed 
Langdale,  but,  while  Prince  Rupert  left  the  general  battle 
in  order  to  pursue  Ireton,  Cromwell  wheeled  round  and  at- 
tacked the  royal  center  in  the  rear.  Ot  the  Parliamentary 
army  there  were  only  about  1,000  killed,  while  of  the  royal 
army  there  were  about  800  killed  and  about  4,500  were  made 
prisoners. 

Nasll,  John:  architect;  b.  in  London,  England,  in  1752; 
obtained  in  1797  a  patent  for  improvements  in  the  construc- 
tion ot  the  arches  and  piers  of  bridges;  was  much  employed 
in  designing  mansions  for  the  nobility  and  gentry.  In  1815 
he  was  taken  into  the  Government  service,  and  for  many 
years  thereafter  was  engaged  in  laying  out  streets  and 
building  public  edifices  in  London.  Part  of  Regent  Street, 
the  terraces  of  Regent's  Park,  Haymarket  theater,  and 
Buckingham  Palace  show  the  character  of  his  work.  D, 
at  East  Cowes  Castle,  May  13,  1835. 

Nash,  Richard,  known  as  Beau  Nash  :  leader  of  fashion  ; 
b.  at  Swansea,  VVales,  Oct.  18,  1674 ;  studied  at  Oxford,  but 


XASH 


NASUVILLK,  BATTLE  OP 


75 


fi: 


was  cxfH'lled  about  1690;  held  for  some  timo  a  commission 
in  the  Himy,  aiul  lx';,'aii  the  study  of  law  at  the  Temple ; 
beeauie  famous  as  a  iliiier-out,  a  fjamester,  ami  leader  of 
fashionable  dissipation,  and  in  1704  undertook  the  manage- 
ment of  the  balls  at  Hath,  then  the  most  celebrated  water- 
ing-[>laeo  in  Enfrlaml.  For  fifty  years  he  was  master  of 
ceremonies,  acquirinfj  a  wide  notoriety  for  his  strictness  in 
enforein^  decorum  in  the  midst  of  fravety  and  dissipation, 
and  was  poiiularly  calleil  "  the  kinu'  of  iialh."  lie  made  his 
livini;  chiefly  by  pimini;.  and  was  noted  for  generosity.  In 
his  old  age  he  fell  into  neglect  and  often  sullercd  from 
privation.  1).  at  Hath,  Feb.  :i.  1761.  lie  wa.s  honored  by  a 
5ublic  funeral,  and  his  A//«  was  written  by  Uoldsmith  (pub- 
ished  anonymously,  1702). 

Nash,  TnoM.vs:  author;  b.  at  Lowestoft,  Suffolk,  Eng- 
land, in  ir)t57:  grailuated  at  Cand)ridge  in  15H4;  settled  in 
Li>nd<m  in  15H!I:  attacked  the  Nonconformists  in  several 
pamphlets  written  in  grotesi|ue  style;  wrote  a  number  of 
unimportant  dnimas.  He  lived  in  extreme  poverty.  Among 
the  most  interi'sting  of  his  lampoons  and  miscellaneous 
pamphlets  are  Pierre  J'enni/eitii,  hin  Siippliciiliun  to  the 
Deril  (l.yj-2);  The  Terrors  of  the  Sight  i.loi>i);  and  Ilaie 
with  yuu  to  Saffron  Wnltlen  (I'iiiti).  I),  in  London  probaldy 
in  1601.  See  his  Complete  H'orA;*,  edited  bv  Grosarl  (6  vols., 
Lon.lon,  18«:J-**4).  Kevised  by  II.  A.  Beeks. 

Nashua:  city  (incorpomtcd  as  a  city  in  185:3);  one  of  the 
capitals  of  Ilillsboro  to.,  N.  H.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Xew  Hampshire,  lef.  10-E) :  on  the  Nashua  river, 
neurits  junction  with  the  Merrimack,  and  on  the  Concord 
and  Montreal  and  the  Boston  and  Maine  railways;  Ji.'j  miles 
S.  of  Concord,  40  miles  N.  \V.  of  Boston.  Since  1S36  it  has 
been  noted  for  its  manufactures,  for  the  promotion  of  which 
s  su|)orior  water-|H)wer  was  obtained  from  the  rivers  by 
means  of  a  connecting  canal  3  miles  long,  60  feet  wide,  and 
8  feet  deep,  with  a  head  and  fall  of  36  feet.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cotton  goo<ls,  sheetings,  embroidery,  iron 
and  steel,  foundry  products,  furinture,  edge  tools,  paper, 
and  liK'ks.  The  city  hiis  a  public  library  (founded  1H67) 
with  over  10.000  volumes.  3  national  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  :?:i70.000.  2  savings-banks  witli  combined  deposits 
of  nearly  $:?.")! )0.(K)0.  a  banking  company  with  deposits  of 
over  ^l.OTo.OOO.  and  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  The 
assessed  valuation  in  lS!»3was  !f;I2,.")02.142.  and  the  net  debt 
on  .Ian.  1,1894,  was  |;563,ltiO.  Pop.  (1880)  13,397;  (1890) 
19,311.  Editor  of  "  Teleorai'u," 

Naslivillo:  city:  capital  of  Washington  co..  111.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county.  See  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  9-1)) ;  on  the  Cen- 
tralia  and  Chester  and  the  Louis,  and  Niish.  railways ;  50 
miles  E.  by  .S.  of  .St.  Louis,  120  miles  S.  of  Springfield.  It 
is  in  an  agricultural  and  coal-mining  region,  and  has  8 
churches,  high  .school,  public  school.  :i  Hour-mills,  2  coal 
mines,  a  .State  bank  with  capital  of  ^25.000.  and  a  daily  and 
4  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (18H0)  2.222;  (1890)  2.0S4 ; 
(1894)  estimated.  3.O0O.  Editok  of  '•  Democrat." 

NasllvHle:  city;  capital  of  the  State  of  Tennessee  and 
of  Havidson  County  (for  liKation,  st^e  map  ot  TeiinesM^e,  ref. 
0-E);  on  the  Cumberlaiul  river.  200  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  on  the  Louisville  ami  Nashville  and  the  Nash.,  Chat, 
and  .St.  L.  railways;  233  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Jlemjihis.  The 
city  rests  on  a  rocky  foundation,  the  river  blnflfs  rising  to  a 
height  of  80  feet  above  low  water.  It  is  noted  for  its  edu- 
cational institutions,  commerce,  and  manufactures.  A  new 
charter  granted  in  1883  vested  its  government  in  a  mayor 
and  a  salarieil  boanl  of  public  works.  The  city  contains 
the  Central  Tiiines.see  College  (Methodist  F'piscopal.  i>pened 
1866);  Kisk  Universitv  (Congregational,  opened  1866);  Van- 
derbilt  Universitv  (.MetluMlist  Episcopal  South,  chartered 
1H73);  Hoger  Williams  I'niversily  (Baptist,  opened  IStU); 
the  l'eal)ody  Normal  College  (opened  1875);  St.  Cecilia 
Acadi'iny  (UOman  Catholic,  opened  IWiO);  Montgomery  Bell 
.\cademy  (iion-seclarian,  o|>eiied  lH(i7) ;  Roscobel  Female 
College  (MaptisI) ;  the  Nashville  College  t'lT  Young  Ijidies 
(Methodist  Episcopal  .South,  opened  1880);  Ward's  Senii- 
narv  for  Young  Ladies;  ('larks  Select  School  for  Young 
Lailies  ;  and  2  l>iisiness  co'.leges.  In  the  school  year  1890^- 
91  there  were  26,7;iH  childn'n  of  school  age.  of  whom  10,501 
were  enrolled  in  the  public  s<-h(M)ls  and  1.200  in  private  and 
parochial  schools.  There  were  18  pubIi<'-schooi  buildings. 
\'<'-\  regular  teachers,  and  public-s<-hool  property  valued  at 
^320.6(Kt.  The  libraries  in  the  educational  institutions  con- 
tained over  35.000  volumes,  and  4  others,  including  the  .Stale 
Library,  hail  togi'ther  over  40.0<M)  vnlumes.  The  city  also 
contains  the  State  School  (or  the  Blind  (established  1844), 


anil  the  headquarters  of  the  Tennessee  Historical  Society, 
the  Tennessee  Confederate  Memorial  and  Historical  Associa- 
tion, and  of  the  Engineering  Association  of  the  Southwest. 
There  are  about  70  churches.  The  Merchants'  Exchange 
reported  commercial  receipts  in  the  year  ending  Aug  31 
1892,  valued  at  $19,340,610.  These  included  45.991  bales  of 
cotton,  4,604,900   bush,  of  wheat,  2,645,400  bush,  of  corn 


H  .15  B  H  ' 


^1 


^iulM  Cupllol,  Moali^iiie,  Xeuu, 


842.000  bush,  of  oats.  7.543.256  lb.  of  bacon.  3.046,593  lb.  of 
bulk  lueats,  ami  10:J.792  cases  of  boots  and  .shoes.  The  cen- 
sus returns  of  1890  showed  that  389  manufacturing  cstal> 
lishments  (representing  67  industries)  reported.  These  had 
a  combined  ca|iital  of  §9.106.626.  emploved  7,434  persons, 
paid  1:3.318,961  for  wages  and  $7,727,010  "for  materials,  and 
had  products  valued  at  $13,673,730.  The  principal  indus- 
try according  to  amount  of  capital  employed  was  the  manu- 
facture of  lumber  products,  which  had  22  establishments 
and  $1,587,620  capital,  employed  1,.524  [persons,  and  had 
products  valued  at  .*2.217.420.  In  1x94  there  were  3  na- 
tional banks  with  combined  capital  of  $:3.000.000,  and  4 
State  banks  with  capital  of  $400,000;  2  daily.  20  weekly, 
17  monthly,  and  2  other  periodicals  :  and  a  debt  (including 
a  water  debt  of  $1,497,000)  of  $3,057,500.  The  a.sses.sed 
valiiati<ins  in  1893  aggregated  $37,521,500.  Pop.  (1880)  43,- 
3r,();  (ls!i{i)  76.108. 

NashvUle.  IJattle  of:  a  battle  of  the  civil  war  in  the 
V.  S. ;  fought  Dec.  15  and  16, 1864,  between  the  Union  forces 
under  Gen.  G.  II.  Thomas  and  the  Confederates  under 
Oen.  .J.  B.  Hood.  After  the  liatlle  of  Franklin  (see  Fkaxk- 
LIN.  Battle  of)  (ien.  Thomas  concentrated  his  forces  at 
Nashville,  Tenn..  which  was  well  fortified  with  Held  works 
extending  along  the  crests  of  the  low  hills,  surrounding  the 
city  on  tlie  .S..  with  both  flanks  resting  on  the  Cumberland 
river.  Gen.  Hood  took  up  a  position  in  his  front  Dec.  2-4. 
Thomas's  army,  all  hough  eipial  to  or  greater  than  Hood's 
in  numbei's.  needed  a  few  days  for  organization,  and  was 
without  hoi-ses  for  the  cavalry.  He  delayed  making  an  at- 
tack upon  Hood  until  he  felt  himself  fully  prepared  to  .se- 
cure the  best  results.  His  army  was  ready  to  attack  on  Dec. 
8,  but  was  prevented  by  a  sleet-storm  which  covered  the 
country  with  ice  and  made  a  movement  impossible  up  to 
the  15t'h.  The  iui|iatience  of  the  Secretary  of  War  and  of 
Gen.  Grant  at  this  delay  was  so  great  that  on  the  9th  Grant 
issued  an  onler  directing  Thomas  to  turn  over  his  command 
toSchoflelil:  but  this  order  was  revipked  before  it  reached 
him.  On  the  i;>th  (ien.  Logan  was  sent  to  supersede 
Thomas,  but  stoppeil  at  Louisville  upon  learning  the  result 
of  the  battle  which  had  taken  place. 

On  the  morning  of  Dec.  15  Tliomns  moved  out.  Making 
a  demonstration  <^n  his  left,  he  extended  his  right,  turned 
Ho(m1's  left,  carried  his  lines  from  left  to  right,  and  drove 
him  back  to  a  new  position  about  2  miles  to  his  rear.  On 
the  16th  Thomas  again  attacked.  He  was  held  in  check  by 
Hood's  right  on  Overton's  Hill,  but  by  turning  his  left  he 
swept  him  from  his  new  line  and  drove  him  from  the  field 
routed  and  in  disorder.  The  well-einiiiiped  cavalry  pre- 
pared for  this  contingency  now  led  the  pursuit,  closely  fol- 
lowed bv  the  infantry.  The  pursuit  was  pushed  vigorously 
to  the  Tennes,scc  river,  whicli  I  hi'  Confederates  crossed  at 
Decatur  on  Dec.  27;  from  here  they  fell  back  to  Tupelo, 
Mis,s.,  where  what  remained  of  the  army  was  broken  up  and 
the  parts  sent  to  ilifTerent  fields.  The  fotal  Union  loss  was 
3.057,  of  whom  hss  than  400  were  killed.  The  Confederate 
loss   in   killed   and   wounded   was  never  accurately  deter- 


76 


NASHVILLE,  UNIVERSITY  OF 


NATAL 


mined,  but  probably  did  not  differ  materially  from  that  of 
the  Union  array.  There  were  captured  on  the  field  about 
4,500  prisoners,  including  four  generals,  besides  .54  guns  and 
numerous  small  arms.  During  the  retreat  a  large  number 
of  prisoners  were  captured  and  deserters  received.  During 
the  campaign  of  November  and  December  over  15.000  pris- 
oners and  deserters.  72  cannon,  and  3,000  small-arms  were 
taken.  See  Cos,  Battles  of  Franktin  and  jyashville,  Scrib- 
ner"s  War  Series,  and  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War. 

James  Mercur. 

NasliTille,  University  of:  an  institution  founded  in 
1785,  fifteen  years  before  the  State  of  Tennessee  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union,  and  chartered  by  the  Legislature  of 
North  Carolina  as  Davidson  Academy.  The  Legislature 
gave  it  240  acres  of  land,  now  included  in  the  city  of  Nash- 
ville. In  1806  the  academy  became  Cumberland  College, 
which  in  1826  was  organized  as  the  University  of  Nashville. 
In  1850  the  university  was  closed  on  account  of  the  scourge 
of  cholera  ;  in  1855  the  literary  department  was  reorgan- 
ized as  a  military  school  with  Col.  Bushrod  R.  Johnson  as 
superintendent ;  in  1861  tlie  teachers  and  students  went  to 
the  war ;  after  the  close  of  the  war  the  institution  again  be- 
came a  military  school  under  the  direction  of  Gen.  E.  Kirby 
Smith ;  in  1875  the  Peabody  board  and  the  trustees  of  the 
University  of  Nashville  united  in  forming  a  college  for  the 
training  of  Southern  teachers.  Eben  S.  Stearns,  LL.  D., 
was  elected  president  and  chancellor ;  at  his  death  in  1887 
he  was  succeeded  by  William  H.  Payne,  LL.  D.  The  build- 
ings are  situated  on  an  elevated  campus  of  16  acres,  a  mile 
from  the  public  square.  The  Pealaody  board  has  estab- 
lished 184  scholarships,  each  worth  IJIOO  a  year,  and  each 
student's  railway  fare  is  paid  from  his  home  to  Nashville 
and  back.  The  medical  department  was  organized  in  1850 ; 
the  number  of  students  annually  in  attendance  varies  from 
300  to  400.  The  total  number  of  students  in  the  general 
departments  exceeds  1,000.  W.  H.  Payxe. 

Na'sniytll.  James  :  mechanical  engineer  and  astronomer ; 
b.  in  Edinburgh,  Aug.  19,  1808 ;  the  son  of  an  artist ;  was 
educated  at  the  School  of  Arts  and  the  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity ;  removed  to  London,  and  in  1834  to  Manchester,  where 
he  becauie  a  successful  machine  constructor  and  inventor. 
The  steam-hammer,  steam  pile-driver,  and  improved  forms 
of  ordnance  are  among  his  inventions.  He  also  acquired 
fame  as  a  practical  astronomer,  giving  special  attention  to 
selenography,  in  which  he  employed  telescopes  and  other  in- 
struments of  his  own  construction.  He  published  Bemarks 
on  Tools  and  Machinery,  in  Baker's  Elements  of  JJechanism 
(1858),  and  TTte  Moon  considered  as  a  Planet,  a  World,  and  a 
Satellite  (1874).  D.  in  London,  Mav  7,  1890.  See  Life,  by 
Smiles  (1883).  Revised  by  R.  H.  Thurston. 

Nasr-ed-diii,  officially  called  Chah  ex  Char  (King  of 
Kings) :  Shah  of  Persia";  b.  Julv,  1831 ;  eldest  son  of  the 
monarch  ileheraet  (or  Muhammad)  Shah,  by  Queen  Velliat 
of  the  Kadiar  tribe,  and  grandson  of  Abbas  Jlirza ;  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  Sept.  10.  1848 ;  sujjpressed  several  re- 
volts of  the  nomadic  tribes ;  maintained  neutralitv  during 
the  Crimean  war,  at  the  close  of  which  he  signed  "a  treaty 
with  Russia:  waged  a  nominal  war  against  Great  Britain 
in  1856,  which  was  tenuinated  by  the  Treatv  of  Paris  1857; 
gave  his  support  to  the  passage  of  the  Anglo-Indian  tele- 
graph through  his  dominions  1866;  visited  the  principal 
countries  of  Europe  1873,  and  wrote  an  amusing  diary, 
which  was  translated  by  J.  W.  Redhouse.  The  shah's  de- 
sire to  introduce  reforms  and  material  improvements  into 
his  kingdom  actuated  this  visit,  and  was  exemplified  bv  the 
fact  that  he  had  learned  French  and  Turkish  in  order  to 
familiarize  himself  with  the  history  and  condition  of  Euro- 
pean countries.  He  also  visited  Russia  in  1878.  Assassi- 
nated at  Teheran,  May  1,  1896. 

Nas'.sau  :  a  part  of  the  province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  Prussia. 
Before  1866  it  was  an  imlependcnt  duchv  of  Germany,  with 
an  area  of  1,800  sq.  miles,  and  a  population  of  <1864)  468,- 
311  inhabitants.  The  country,  extending  along  the  Rhine, 
the  Main,  and.  the  Lahu,  and  traversed  S.  by  the  Taunus 
and  N.  by  the  Westerwald,  is  beautiful  and  rich.  The 
mountains  are  covered  with  extensive  forests  abounding 
in  game,  and  contain  iron,  lead,  copper,  coal,  marble,  and 
building-stone.  The  valleys  produce  wheat,  tobacco,  flax. 
and  fruit  of  superior  (juality,  and  grapes  from  which 
are  made  the  choicest  Rhenish  wines,  such  as  Johannis- 
berger,  Hochheimer.  Ki'idcsheirner.  and  Marcobrunner.  The 
mineral  springs  of  Nassau  are  famous;  the  watering-places 
which  are  built  around  them,  such    as    Wiesbaden,   Ems, 


and  Sellers,  are  visited  by  people  from  all  parts.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  the  ruling  family  split  into  two  branches, 
called  after  the  brothers  Walram  and  Otho.  The  younger 
branch,  the  Othonic,  became  the  reigning  family  in  the 
Netherlands,  while  the  Walram  line  obtained  the  title  of 
Dukes  of  Nassau  by  the  formation  of  the  Rhenish  confeder- 
acy ill  1806.  and  their  troops  fought  under  Napoleon  against 
Prussia  a:id  Austria  in  Spain  and  Russia.  The  duke,  however, 
was  shrewd  enough  to  abandon  Napoleon  at  the  right  moment, 
and  in  reward  he  received  a  considerable  augmentation  of 
his  territory  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  In  1815  he  granted 
a  constitution ;  but  when,  in  1818,  the  constitution  came 
iiito  operation  and  the  house  of  representatives  demanded 
an  account  of  revenue  and  expenditure,  the  duke  employed 
force  to  silence  the  representatives.  When  the  revolution 
of  1848  came,  the  duke  was  obliged  to  grant  a  more  liberal 
constitution,  but  soon  adopted  a  reactionary  policy.  In 
1866,  when  the  war  between  Prussia  and  Austria  broke  out, 
he  openly  supported  the  latter :  hence  was  forced  to  flee  be- 
fore the  Prussians,  who  overran  the  duchy,  and  on  Oct.  3 
Nassau  was  incorporated  with  Prussia. 

Nassau  :  town  of  the  island  of  New  Providence,  and  capi- 
tal of  the  Bahama  Islands  (q.  v.).  It  has  a  good  harbor,  is 
fortified  and  well  built,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  salubrious 
climate.     Pop.  about  11,000. 

Nassau,  Adolphus  William  Charles  Augustus  Fred- 
erick, Duke  of:  b.  July  24,  1817;  assumed  the  sovereignty 
of  Nassau,  Aug.  20,  1839.  His  state  was  joined  to  Prussia 
in  1866,  and  he  received  over  15,000,000  gulden  as  indemni- 
fication. On  the  death  of  the  King  of  the  Netherlands,  Nov. 
23,  1890,  he  became  Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg  {q.  v.). 

Nassau,  Joax  Mauritz,  van.  Count  of  Nassau-Siegen 
(commonly  called  Mauritz  or  Maurice  of  Nassau) :  general 
and  administrator:  b.  near  Delft,  Holland,  June  17,  1604. 
He  early  fought  against  the  Spaniards  and  particularly  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  siege  of  Breda.  162.5.  From  Jan., 
1637,  to  May,  1644,  he  was  governor-general  of  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  Brazil,  and  this  period  was  the  most  prosper- 
ous in  the  history  of  the  colony.  Nassau  was  repulsed  in  an 
attack  on  Bahia  1638 ;  but  he  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
over  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  fleet  Jan.,  1640,  and  was 
able  to  send  expeditions  against  the  Portuguese  in  Africa 
and  the  Spanish  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  After  his  return  he 
was  lieutenant-general  of  cavalry,  and  from  1647  governor 
of  Cleves;  in  1652  he  was  made  a  prince  of  the  German  em- 
pire. As  commander  of  the  Netherlands  army  in  1665  he 
repulsed  the  invading  army  of  the  Bishop  of  Miinster.  He 
defended  the  frontier  in  1672.  and  was  prominent  in  the 
campaign  of  1674  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  D.  at  Cleves, 
Dec.  20,  1679.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Nast,  Thomas  :  illustrator ;  b.  at  Landau.  Bavarian  Pal- 
atinate, Sept.  27,  1840;  went  with  his  father  to  the  U.  S. 
in  1846  :  received  art  instruction  under  Theodor  Kaufmann ; 
began  when  fifteen  years  old  to  furnish  illustrations  for 
papers ;  was  in  Europe  1860-61,  and  during  the  civil  war  be- 
gan a  long  series  of  powerful  and  effective  [lolitical  carica- 
ttu'es,  many  of  which  ajipeared  in  Harper's  Weekly.  He  has 
edited  JS'ast's  Illustrated  Almanac  and  Kast's  Weekly,  and 
has  given  many  public  lectures,  illustrateil  with  pictures 
drawn  in  the  presence  of  the  audience.  In  1894  he  went  to 
London  to  undertake  an  important  task  in  connection  with 
The  Pall  Mall  Magazine.     Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Nastnr'tium  [  =  Lat. ;  na'sus,  nose  +  torque're,  tor  turn, 
twist.  Named  from  the  wry  face  caused  by  its  pungent 
taste] ;  name  of  a  genus  of  cruciferous  herbs,  mostly  aquatic, 
containing  many  species,  among  which  are  water-cress  and 
horseradish.  (See  Cresses.)  Popularly,  the  name  nastur- 
tium is  given  to  Tropcfolutn  ma/us.  a  fine,  showy,  climbing 
herb,  a  native  of  Peru,  often  seen  in  gardens.  Its  flowers 
are  used  in  salads,  and  its  pungent  buds  and  fruit  are 
pickled  and  incorrectly  called  capers. 

Natal' :  a  British  colony  on  the  southeast  coast  of  Africa, 
extending  along  the  Indian  Ocean  from  lat.  28'  to  31°  S. 
Area  about  20,460  .sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1S!)1)  46,788  Europeans, 
41.142  Indian  coolies,  and  4.55.9s:!  Kallirs.  a  total  of  54:^,913. 
Natal  is  a  temperate,  healthful, and  undulating  but  not  moun- 
tainous region,  more  productive  than  the  neighboring  Cape 
Colony,  on  account  of  the  greater  rainfall.  It  is  attractive  to 
European  colonists,  who  have  douliled  in  nundjer  since  1879, 
while  the  foreign  trade  has  doubli'd  in  the  same  time.  The 
chief  products  are  sugar,  wool,  hides,  cotton,  and  ostrich- 
feathers.    The  large  coal-fields  now  developing  are  becoming 


NATAL 


XATIONALISM 


of  great  advantage  to  the  eoloiiy.  Railway  lines  owned  by 
the  liuvernmeiit  connect  the  jMirt  of  Durhun  with  I'ieler- 
marilzbiirg,  the  capitul.  and  the  frontier  of  the  South  Afri- 
can Ke|ml)iie.  The  caiiital  is  a  handsome  town,  noted  for 
the  beauty  of  its  churches,  residences,  and  ganlens. 

('.  C.  Adams. 
Natal,  often  calh'd  Rio  (irandc  do  Norte:  capital  and 
principal  town  of  the  state  of  Ivio  Grande  do  Norte,  Brazil ; 
on  the  Potengi  or  Kio  Grande.  2  miles  above  its  mouth. 
The  river  is  navigable  to  tliis  point  and  for  some  miles  far- 
ther, but  the  bar  does  not  admit  vessels  of  over  13  feet 
draught.  The  town  is  on  low  land  and  has  a  pictures(|ue 
appearance,  owing  to  the  cocoanut-groves  around  it  ;  but 
the  climate  is  hot,  and  yellnw  fever  is  a  freciuenl  visitant. 
Natal  was  founded  in  l.w!).  and  was  held  bvlhe  Dutch  from 
16;j.j  to  ie54.     I'op.  about  il.OOO.  '  11.  II.  S. 

Natalip.  Queen  of  Servia  :  See  Milax  I. 

Nafato'rcs  [Lat.,  plur.  of  nalator,  swimmer,  deriv.  of 
nnlii  n,  swim]:  the  luune  for  an  artificial  combination  of 
birds,  agreeingonly — and  but  part  ially  evm  in  this  respect — 
in  being  adapted  for  swimming.  It  was  furnierly  regarded 
as  an  order  or  sub-class,  but  is  now  discarjerl. 

Natchesan  Indians:  a  name  ajiplie<l  to  two  tribes  of 
North  American  Indians,  called  Natchez  and  Taensa.  I. 
Nnlchez. — Gf  this  tribe  Commander  P.  Lemoyne  d'Ibervillc, 
in  lOli'.l,  mentions  nine  villages  which  were  contiguous  and 
constituted  one  town  only.  Probably  there  were  more  of 
them,  and  apparently  only  a  part  spoke  the  Natchez  lan- 
guage. They  were  situated  on  or  around  St.  Catharine 
creek,  near  Natchez  City,  Miss.  This  Natchesan  confederacy 
was  controlled  by  a  head  chief  who  belonged  to  the  ruling 
family  of  the  xitnx,  and  wielded  a  more  centralized  power 
than  the  chiefs  of  other  Mississippian  tribes.  His  confeder- 
acy formi'il  a  iiart  of  the  larger  league  of  the  Chicasa  and 
Yazoo  river  villages.  The  Natchez  people  had  three  serious 
conllicts  with  the  coloidal  French  troops,  the  last  of  which 
(in  1730)  brought  on  their  dispersion  and  <lecimation.  At 
that  time  the  population  of  the  cnufederacy  pnibiihly 
reached  1,2(H).  Seatteri'd  remnants  of  the  tribe  stUl  linger 
among  the  Creeks  and  Cherokecs. 

II.  Taenm. — The  Taensa  people,  who  lived  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Mississippi  river,  above  the  Natchez,  an-  now,  on 
the  strength  of  two  passages  in  de  Montigny's  and  Gravier's 
letters  (about  1700),  classed  with  the  Natchesan  family. 
These  people  were  in  1714  settled  on  Mobile  Hay.  and  about 
the  vear  17t)4  removed  W.  of  the  Mississippi  river.  Both 
the  'I'aensas  and  the  Natchez  had  a  house  of  worship  where 
the  per|>etual  tire  was  kept. 

See  ilargry,  Deeouvertta  (Paris,  1880),  iv.,  17U,  and  ptiKsim. 

A.  S.  Gatschkt. 

Natchez  :  city  (settled  by  the  French  1716,  settlers  mas- 
sacred by  Indians  1729,  occupied  by  the  English  1763-79 
and  by  the  Spanish  1779-98,  made  capital  of  the  Territory 
of  Mississippi  1798,  became  a  city  180:!);  capital  of  Adams 
CO.,  Miss,  (for  location,  see  map  of  Mississippi,  ref,  8-E) ; 
on  the  Mississippi  rivir.  and  tlie  .New  Orleans  and  N.  \V. 
and  the  Yazno  and  Miss.  Val.  railways;  100  miles  S.  W. 
of  .lackson,  2H0  miles  N.  \V.  of  New  Orleans.  The  busi- 
ness part  of  the  city  is  a  narrow  stretch  of  river  bank,  and 
the  larger  part,  occupied  by  public  buildings  and  residences, 
is  the  summit  of  a  blulT  150  feel  above  the  river.  The  en- 
tire brow  of  the  bUilI  in  the  city  limits  has  been  converted 
into  a  public  park.  Its  location  on  the  river  gives  the  city 
a  large  commercial  importance.  It  hanrlles  50.000  bales  of 
cotton  anmially,  and  has  steam  saw,  plaiung,  grist,  and  cot- 
ton mills,  cottonseed-oil  factory,  steam-ginneries,  ice-fac- 
tory, and  other  nuiini factories.  There  are  a  natiomil  bank 
with  capital  of  |1(M).000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  Jf.^O,- 
000,  and  incorporated  and  private  banks,  an<l  a  monthly,  2 
dailv,  and  3  weeklv  periodicals.  The  assessed  valuation  in 
189:{  was  :i!4.197,0e2,  and  the  net  debt  .m  Feb.  1,  1894,  was 
Iii347,403.     Pop.  (1880)  7,058  ;  (1890)  10,101. 

F,i>iToR  OK  "  Democrat." 

Natchltodirs:  See  Caddoas  Indians. 

Nalchilochcs  :  town  (founded  by  I  he  Spaniards  in  1713); 
capital  of  Natchiloihes  parish.  La.  (for  location  of  parish, 
sec'  map  of  Lciuisiana,  ref.  8-B) ;  on  the  Cane  river,  and  the 
Natchitoches  Kailroad  ;  95  miles  S.  of  Shrevcport,  450  miles 
N.  of  New  Orleans.  It  is  in  the  Red  river  valley,  in  a  fertile 
region  yielding  largi>  crops  of  cotton,  corn,  sugar-cane,  and 
all  kinds  of  vegetables.  The  surrounding  country  cunlaiiis 
larg«  tracts  of  Bermuda  grass,  on  which  cattle-raising  is 


carried  on  extensively.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
Normal  School:  has  seven  churches,  a  cathedral.  Convent 
of  the  Divine  Providence,  U.  S.  land-ollice,  free  iron  draw- 
bridge across  the  river,  a  .State  bank  with  capital  of  $10,000, 
and  two  weeklv  newspapers  ;  and  contains  an  oil-mill,  iee- 
factory,  and  other  manufactories.  Pop.  (1880)  2,785  ;  (1890) 
1,820  ;' (18114)  estimated,  2,700.    Editor  ok  "  Enterprise." 

Xatlc'idaj  (McmI.  Lat.,  named  from  Na'tica,  the  typical 
genus,  from  Media'V.  Lat.  na  tica,  buttock,  deriv.  of  Ijat. 
nates,  buttocks]:  a  family  of  Gasteropod  molluscs  with 
globular  shells  containing  numerous  species,  occurring  in 
the  shallow  seas  and  on  the  shores  of  the  ocean  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  The  naticas,  or  sea-snails,  have  a  very  largo 
fleshy  foot :  the  shell  has  the  aperture  rounded  in  front  and 
pointed  behind.  These  animals  are  very  voracious,  feeding 
upon  other  molluscs,  which  they  kill  by  rasping  holes  in  the 
shell  with  their  lingual  ribbon.  (See  Gasteropoda.)  The 
members  of  one  species  lay  their  eggs  in  those  curved  bands 
known  to  people  on  the  shore  as  sand-saucers.        J.  S.  K. 

Nalifk  :  town  (settled  by  .John  Eliot  1651,  church  of 
Christian  Indians  established  1660,town  incoriiorated  1781); 
Middlesex  co.,  Mass.  (for  locaticm  of  county,  see  nnip  of 
JIassachusetts,  ref.  2-11) ;  on  the  Charles  river,  and  the  Bos- 
ton and  Albany  Kailroad  ;  17  miles  S.  W.  of  Boston.  The 
town  contains  several  villages  and  business  centers,  watcT, 
gas,  and  electric  light  plants,  Jloise  Institute  with  library 
of  over  16.000  vcdumes.  national  bank  with  cai>ital  of  :j;100[- 
000,  savings-bank  with  deposits  of  nearly  ^1,200,000,  a 
monument  to  the  memory  of  John  Eliot,  and  three  weekly 
newspapers.  The  principal  manufactures  are  boots  and 
shoes,  woodenware,  clothing,  rubber  goods,  chaii-s,  and 
baseballs.  A  portion  of  Cochituate  Lake,  from  which 
Boston  derives  a  part  of  its  water-supplv,  is  within  the  town 
limits  on  the  N.  Pop.  (1880)  8.479;  '(1890)  9.118:  (1895) 
8,814.  tiDiToR  OK  '■  Bulletin." 

National  or  Constituent  Assembly,  The:  a  conven- 
tion of  delegates  of  the  French  people,  constituted  as  a  na- 
tional assembly  June  17,  1789.    See  France,  Uistorv  ok. 

National  Itanlis:  See  Bank. 

National  Convention,  The  :  an  assembly  of  deputies  of 
the  Fniich  people  at  the  extreme  stage  of  the  Revolution. 
See  Fkaxi  i:.  History  ok. 

National  Debt :  See  Debt,  Piblic. 

National  (iiiard  [trans,  of  Ft.  yarde  nationah]:  a  kind 
of  mililia  in  France,  mostly  recruited  from  the  bourgeois 
class,  and  representing  the  burgher  interests.  In  some  of 
the  French  towns  the  national  guards  had  long  been  known, 
but  they  were  first  organized  in  Paris  in  1789  by  the  revolu- 
tionary Committee  of  Safety.  There  were  4S.(K)0  in  Paris, 
and  in  1790  a  jiaper  organization  of  4,000,000  in  France, 
and  the  whole  were  under  La  Fayette  and  carried  the  tri- 
color flag.  Frefjuent  clianges  in  organization  were  made. 
In  1795  thev  were  defeated  and  broken  up  by  Napolecm,  were 
reorganized  by  him  in  1814,  dissolved  by  Charles  X.  in  1827, 
were  again  reorganized  in  18;i0,  and  again  in  1831.  They 
fell  away  from  Louis  Philippe  in  1848,  were  remcxleled  in 
1851,  dissolved  and  reorganized  in  18.55,  served  against  the 
Gernuins  in  the  war  of  1870-71,  and  in  the  latter  year  a 
part  of  them  took  a  share  in  the  Communist  struggle.  After 
the  re-establishment  of  the  government  they  were  disarmed 
and  ceased  to  exist.  In  some  other  European  countries  and 
in  some  of  the  U.  S.  there  are  militia  organizations  called 
national  guards.     See  SIilitia.        Revised  by  J.  Merclr. 

Nationalism:  a  theory  of  social  reconstruction  through 
the  niitiiinalization  of  the  entire  system  of  production  and 
distribution.  It  demands  the  extension  of  the  functions  of 
government  to  include  the  contrcd  of  all  economic  opera- 
tions, and  all  personal  services  now  rendered  for  profit  or 
hire.  In  the  U.  S.  in  1888  it  was  taken  as  the  basis  for  a 
party  organization  by  readers  of  Lnnking  liafkwnrd.  a  work 
portraying  an  ideal  state  framed  in  accordance  with  the 
above  theory.  Approving  of  the  economic  system  there  pic- 
tured, and  i)elieving  it  attainable,  they  organized  so-called 
nat  jimalist  clubs,  and  liegan  the  work  of  propagandisin.  It 
is  [proposed  that  the  economic  government  of  nations,  now 
conduetcMl  by  irresponsible  private  persons  for  their  personal 
ends,  shall  be  a.ssimilatecl  in  the  method  and  purpose  of  its 
administration  to  the  so-called  political  government,  and 
that  just  as  under  the  latter  all  citizens  not  willfully  evading 
their  duties  to  the  state  have  equal  claims  to  the  benefit.s 
and  services  afTordecl  by  the  government,  without  regard  to 
the  extent  to  which  thev  have  contributed,  whether  bv  tax  or 


NATIONAL  MUSEUM   OF   THE  UNITED  STATES 


personal  service  to  its  support,  so  they  should  share  equally 
in  the  benefits  resulting  from  collective  action  in  economic 
matters,  notwithstanding  unavoidable  inequality  in  their 
contributions  of  service. 

In  order  to  protect  the  people  in  their  equality  the  demo- 
cratic polity  gives  to  all  citizens,  whatever  tlieir  inequalities 
in  intellisence,  character,  or  possessions,  an  equal  voice  in 
law-making.  Nationalists  propose  the  strict  application  of 
these  fundamental  principles  of  democracy  to  tlie  organiza- 
tion of  the  economic  system  of  nations.  According  to  their 
plan  all  economic  operations  shall  be  carried  on  by  the  peo- 
ple under  a  uniform  law  of  service,  but.  while  this  law  will 
be  equal  for  all.  it  is  expected  that  the  nature  of  the  services 
rendered  will  vary  as  widely  as  do  the  amounts  of  tax  and 
military  service  under  the  present  system.  Efforts  will  be 
made  to  prevent  and  punish  willful  evasion  of  duty,  but  no 
account  will  be  made  of  the  difference  in  tlie  value  of  tlie 
•  services  rendered  in  distributing  the  resulting  total  product 
among  tlie  citizens.  It  appears  obvious  to  the  adherents  of 
nationalism  that  it  is  merely  the  strictly  logical  evolution 
of  democracy,  and  that,  unless  a  reversion  to  personal  or  clan 
government  shall  check  the  progress  of  democracy,  national- 
ism must  inevitably  in  the  near  future  furnish  the  solution  of 
the  industrial  and  social  problem.  It  should  be  understood 
that  while  the  nationalist  movement  oi'iginated  with  ad- 
mirers of  the  economic  system  depicted  in  Looking  Back- 
ward, it  by  no  means  follows  that  the  various  details  and 
devices  introduced  in  that  book  in  depicting  the  systems  in 
operation  form  any  necessary  part  of  the  plan  of  national- 
ism, which  is,  on  the  contrary,  confined  to  general  principles, 
leaving  details  to  be  filled  out  as  occasion  arises.  Nation- 
alists agree  in  deprecating  the  use  of  violent  methods  to 
bring  about  the  desired  reorganization,  but  favor  a  gradual 
and  peaceable  evolution,  advocating  as  first  steps  toward 
nationalism  all  measures  looking  toward  the  assumption 
by  municipality.  States,  and  tlie  nation  of  the  ownership 
and  operation  of  all  forms  of  business,  discharging  quasi- 
public  functions,  such  as  lighting  and  water-works,  milk- 
supply,  tramway  system,  telegraphs,  railways,  etc.,  and 
wherever  any  sort  of  business  has  become  an  oppressive 
trust  monopoly  they  would  have  the  State  or  the  nation 
take  such  business  into  its  own  hands.  The  growth  in  pop- 
ularity of  nationalistic  ideas  in  the  U.  S.  since  the  incep- 
tion of  the  movement  in  1888  has  been  notalile.  The 
idea  of  assumption  by  municipalities  of  all  sorts  of  quasi- 
public  functions,  such  as  lighting,  water-works,  and  local 
transit,  has  found  great  favor,  and  is  being  widely  adopted. 
In  general  polities  a  national  party  under  the  name  of  the 
People's  Party  (q.  v.)  has  adopted  for  its  platform  nearly 
the  entire  immediate  programme  of  nationalism,  includ- 
ing nationalization  of  the  telegraphs,  telephones,  railways, 
and  money  system,  and  secured  1,000,000  votes  in  the  presi- 
dential election  of  1893  for  a  ticket  representing  these 
ideas.  The  nationalist  movement,  while  represented  by 
organization  and  publications  in  all  parts  of  the  Union, 
has  at  present  the  most  general  popular  backing  in  the 
States  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Pacific. 

Edward  Bellamy. 

National  Museum  of  the  United  States:  an  institution, 
located  in  Wasliington.  D.  C,  which  dates  its  existence  from 
Aug.  10,  1846,  when  the  act  of  Congress  establishing  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  was  formally  approved,  and  all 
Government  collections  assigned  to  its  charge.  The  use  of 
the  present  name,  however,  did  not  begin  until  much  later, 
and  was  first  legally  sanctioned  in  the  act  providing  for  the 
erection  of  a  building  to  contain  the  material  received  at 
the  close  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  of  1876. 

The  germ  of  the  museum  is  to  be  found  in  a  collection  of 
minerals,  containing  alxiut  10,000  specimens,  wliich  formed 
a  portion  of  Sudthson"s  bequest  to  the  U.  S.,  and  was,  so  far 
as  can  be  ascertained,  the  first  scientific  cabinet  owned  by 
the  Government.  Tliis  collection  was  lost  in  the  Are  of 
186.),  which  destroyed  a  portion  of  tlie  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion. 

Tlie  idea  of  a  national  museum  was  first  prominently 
brought  forward  by  llic  Niitional  Institution  for  the  Promo'- 
tion  of  Science. a  scientific  society  organized  in  Washington, 
May  1.5,  1840,  whose  olgects  were,  among  others,  '•  to  proinote 
science  and  tlie  useful  arts,  and  to  establish  a  national  mu- 
seum of  natural  history.''  This  institution,  which  was  for 
many  years  the  official  custodian  of  the  Government  collec- 
tions, made  an  earnest  and  nearly  successful  atteiniit  to  se- 
cure both  the  management  of  the  Smittison  fund  and  the 


care  of  all  collections  belonging  to  the  U.  S.,  and  the  failure 
of  the  effort  was  the  death-blow  to  the  association.* 

The  Government  collections,  consisting  mainly  of  the  ob- 
jects collected  by  the  Wilkes  exploring  expedition,  were 
transferred  to  the  Smithsonian  building  in  1857,  the  regents 
of  that  institution  having  accepted  the  trust  on  the  condi- 
tion that  Congress  should  provide  the  funds  necessary  for 
their  preservation.  Prior  to  that  date  material  had  been  re- 
ceived but  not  displayed,  and  up  to  1876  the  exhibition  of 
specimens  for  the  benefit  of  the  public  may  be  said  to  have 
been  considered  as  of  secondary  importance,  as  well  as  large- 
ly precluded  by  lack  of  funds  for  their  proper  preparation. 
At  the  clo.se  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  of  1876  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  came  into  the  possession  of  the  collections 
prepared  to  illustrate  the  animal  and  mineral  resources,  the 
fisheries,  and  the  ethnology  of  the  native  races  of  the  U.  S., 
and  in  addition  a  large  amount  of  material  was  presented 
by  the  governments  of  thirty  foreign  nations. 

As  these  objects  could  Viy  no  possibility  be  displayed  in 
the  Smithsonian  building,  the  bulk  of  them  were  placed  in 
storage,  and  Congress  was  asked  for  funds  for  the  erection 
of  a  museum  building.  After  a  delay  of  two  years  Con- 
gress on  Jlar.  3,  1879,  passed  a  bill  appropriating  |2o0,000 
for  tlie  construction  of  a  building  300  feet  square.  On  Apr. 
14  of  the  same  year  ground  was  broken  for  its  erection,  and 
with  the  beginning  of  1882  the  work  of  installation  was 
actively  begun.  The  structure,  which  is  of  brick,  has  small 
architectural  pretensions,  but  is  well  adapted  for  exhibition 
purposes,  the  sixteen  halls  into  which  it  is  divided  afl'ording 
on  one  floor  80,000  sq.  feet  of  space.  The  main  portion  of 
the  building  is  only  a  single  story  in  height,  but  at  each 
corner  and  on  either  side  are  towers  three  stories  high,  used 
for  laboratories  and  ofiice-s.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  there  is 
neither  basement  nor  attic,  the  only  space  available  for  the 
storage  of  duplicate  specimens  is  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
exhibition  cases,  and  the  rapid  growth  of  the  collections  has 
caused  this  defect  to  be  severely  felt. 

The  formal  organization  of  the  museum  staff  was  in  1881, 
when  the  various  departments  were  first  defined  and  their 
curators  appointed.  Other  departments  have  from  time  to 
time  been  established,  until  there  are  thirty-three  depart- 
ments, and  a  scientific  staff  of  forty-one,  including,  how- 
ever, a  number  of  honorary  curators  who  receive  no  salary. 

By  act  of  Congress  the  regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution are  charged  with  the  duty  of  preserving  and  utiliz- 
ing all  objects  of  art,  all  objects  of  foreign  and  curious  re- 
.search  (i.  e.  ethnological  collections),  all  geological  and 
mineralogical  specimens  belonging,  or  hereafter  to  belong, 
to  the  U.  S.  The  National  Museum  is  thus  the  museum  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  its  officers  are  appointed 
by  the  secretary  of  that  institution.  A  practical  distinction 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  money  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
museum  is  annually  appropriated  by  Congress,  while  the 
operations  of  the  Smithsonian  are  carried  on  by  the  fund 
bequeathed  by  Smithson. 

By  virtue  of  the  provisions  above  noted  the  museum  has 
been  greatly  enriched  by  various  Government  explorations 
and  surveys,  and  especially  by  the  material  gathered  during 
the  investigations  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission.  Aside 
from  specimens  thus  obtained  the  collections  are  increased 
by  exchanges,  by  gifts,  and  to  a  limited  extent  by  purchase, 
a  privilege  that  has  been  granted  comparatively  recently, 
the  earlier  appropriations  being  simply  for  the  "preser- 
vation of  collections." 

The  museum  is  naturally  richest  in  material  relating  to 
North  America,  particularly  so  in  specimens  illustrating 
the  arts  and  occupations  of  the  Indians,  to  which  the  Catlin 
]iaintings  form  an  interesting  supplement.  In  zoiJlogy  the 
.series  of  deep-sea  fishes  and  invertebrates  is  very  extensive, 
the  collections  of  shells  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world, 
and  the  mammals  and  birds  of  North  America  are  repre- 
sented by  large  series.  The  departments  of  metallui-gy  and 
geology  contain  material  exhibiting  the  mineral  resources 
of  the  U.  S.,  and  many  illustrations  of  the  phenomena  of 
physical  geology.  The  fisheries  of  the  U.  S.,  and  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  those  of  other  countries,  are  well  shown  by 
means  of  apjiaratus,  models  of  vessels,  and  illustrations  of 
modes  of  capture,  and  the  section  of  animal  products  con- 
tains many  examples  of  the  direct  ami  indirect  ways  in 
whicli  animals  are  of  use  to  man.     The  historical  collections 

•  For  a  full  account  of  the  steps  leadiof;  to  the  founding  of  the 
National  Museum,  see  the  article  by  Dr.  G.  Brown  Goode  on  The 
Genesis  of  the  United  States  Xtitional  Miiseurti  in  the  Report  of  the 
ignited  States  yational  Museum  for  IH'JI,  pp.  :?73-880. 


NATIMSM 


NATURAL  GAS 


79 


include  personal  relies  of  such  well-known  men  as  Wash- 
ington, JelTerson,  and  Grant.  The  eoUootion  of  niusieal  in- 
siriiMK'nts  is  goiMl.  and  tlic  seetion  of  {jra[ihio  arls  gives  a 
coniprohensive  liistory  of  the  art  of  illustrating. 

Ill  IHHi  ll>e  nuinher  of  specimens  in  all  deparlinents  was 
pstiinaled  at  atjout  200,000 ;  in  180:i  the  total  wiis,  appro.vi- 
niatelv,  :5,277,000.  While  the  exhibition  series  is  very  ex- 
tensive, containing  tlie  best  specimens  in  their  respective 
groups,  or  those  of  the  highest  educational  value,  the  great 
proportion  of  this  material  is  in  the  study  series  to  which 
especial  attention  has  been  paid. 

Tlu!  chief  publications  of  the  museum  consist  of  papers 
issued  at  intervals,  corresiwnding  to  the  bulletins  of  other 
institutions,  and  longer  or  monographic  papers,  of  the 
nature  of  memoirs  anil  issued  as  bulletins.  Fifty  of  tlie 
liulletins  have  been  published  audI.O(K)of  the  shorter  pa- 
pers, these  latter  forming  seventeen  volumes  of  the  l^octetl- 
iny.^  of  the  U.  S.  Xational  .Museum.  The  museum  also 
publishes  an  Annual  Keporl  containing,  in  addition  to  the 
repMfts  of  the  assistant  secretary  and  the  curators  on  the 
comlition  and  progress  of  the  various  departments,  papers 
of  general  interest,  and  often  of  considerable  length,  ile- 
scriptive  or  illustrative  of  the  collections.  Articles  by  mu- 
seum otlicers  or  based  on  its  collections  are  also  printed  in 
\.\w  Smithsonian  publications  or  in  those  of  other  Govern- 
ment ilepartments. 

The  Work  of  the  museum,  by  the  accumulation  and 
study  of  specimens,  their  exhiliitioti,  and  by  the  publication 
of  [lapers,  is  thus  threefold,  and  its  aim  is  to  be  in  every 
particular  an  educational  museum  in  the  broadest  sense  of 
the  term. 

Every  aid  is  given  to  students,  and,  in  addition,  a  large 
amount  of  work  is  done  in  reporting  on  material  submitted 
to  the  museum  for  iilenlilication  or  other  information.  The 
building  is  open  to  the  public  every  day  but  Siiiidav. 

Frederic  A.  Lucas. 

Nutivism  (in  philosophy):  the  doctrine  that  the  mind  has 
certain  kinds  of  knowledge,  or  principles  of  organization  of 
lis  experience,  native  to  itself  or  inborn.  It  is  opposed  to 
empiricism,  which  holds  that  knowledge  is  derived  exclu- 
sivily  frnm  experience.  Other  terms  for  uativism  are  aprio- 
rinm  and  I.nti'ITio.nalism  (q.  v.).  3.  M.  B. 

Natolia  :  Sec  Anatolia. 

Nn'trolite  [Kng.  natron,  soda  (via  Fr.  and  Span,  from 
.\ral>.  nalrun.  nitriin,  whence  Eng.  niter)  +  Gr.  Kl0os.  stone] : 
a  mineral  belonging  to  the  zcolitic  section  of  liydrous  sili- 
cates, and  essentially  a  silicate  of  aluminium  and  sodium, 
with  !(•.')  percent,  of  water.  It  occurs  generally  in  slender 
crystals  assignable  to  the  trimetric  system,  also  frequently 
in  radiated  fibrous  masses.  It  is  met  with  most  commonly  in 
volcanic  rocks,  but  (X'casionally  also  in  granite  and  gneiss. 
Hergfii  Hill,  N.  .1.,  Copper  Falls,  I^ake  Superior,  Mich.,  and 
localities  in  Nova  Scotia  have  yielded  fine  specimens. 

Natron :  See  Sodr-.m. 

Natii'iia  Islands:  a  group  of  islands  situateil  in  the 
China  Sea,  between  Borneo  and  the  peninsula  oOIalacca, 
beliinging  to  the  Dutch.  .\rea,  664  s<i.  miles.  iTip.  l.'tOO. 
Tliey  are  high  and  mountainous,  and  produce  ri(te,  maize, 
sago,  and  cijcoanuts.  Fishing  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
inhabitants. 

Natural:  a  term  used  in  music.  The  regular  notes  of 
the  scali-  when  unafTected  Iiy  sharps  or  flats  (as  in  the  key 
of  C  major)  are  sjiid  to  be  nalunil,  nr  in  their  original  and 
ordinary  condition;  and  when  any  iicile  has  been  modified 
by  llie  use  of  a  ^  or  i  (whether  placi-d  at  the  clef  or  occur- 
ring as  an  acciilental),  such  alteration  may  be  revoked  by 
prefixing  to  the  note  the  sign  5.  This  sign  is  called  a 
"  natural,"  because  it  restores  to  the  altered  note  its  original 
clianieler.  The  natural  is  also  of  service  in  cases  where  a 
change  of  key  takes  place,  as  at  the  <>|icnillg  of  a  se<'ond 
or  thin!  movement,  where  such  sharps  or  flats  in  the  signa- 
ture as  are  no  lunger  needecl  are  revoked  by  the  sulislitu- 
tioii  of  as  many  naturals.  Pouble  sharps  and  doiilde  Hats 
are  restored  to  simple  sharps  and  Hats  by  t  he  signs  CZ  anil  E^. 

Kevised'by  Dl-dlkv  Buck. 

Natural  Rridgp:  an  arch  of  great  size  and  licauly, 
carvi'il  ..r  .lodid  in  the  horizontal  strata  of  Cambro-Si- 
lurian  magnesiaii  limestone  (Knox  dolomite)  in  Uockbriilge 
lo.,  Va.  The  bridge  is  a  snuiU  remnant  of  the  roof  of  a 
former  cavern,  now  for  the  greater  part  opened  into  a  gorge. 
tlipMigh  whii-h  Cedar  creek  Mows  to  .Inmes  river.  The  gorge 
wi.lens,   and   is   clothed    with    trees  above  and    below   the 


bridge;  under  the  arch  the  walls  are  bare  and  vertical, 
about  .50  feet  apart.  The  arch  has  a  thickness  of  44  feet 
and  a  span  of  from  4.5  to  60  feet.  The  crown  of  the  arch  is 
almost  200  feet  aliove  the  creek,  while  the  lop  of  the  bridge 
is  236  feet  above  the  water.  A  public  road  leads  across  the 
bridge,  the  widtli  of  the  top  being  about  30  feet. 

W.  .M.  Davis. 

Natural  fJas:  a  form  of  l)itumen  that  under  natural  con- 
ditions exists  as  a  gas.  Before  its  true  relations  had  been 
discovered  it  was  familiar  to  the  inhabilanls  of  certain  lo- 
calities as  escaping  from  springs  and  crevices  in  rocks,  pro- 
ducing the  |)henomena  of  burning  springs  and  fire-wells,  and 
furnishing  the  fuel  for  the  perpetual  fires  of  Baku  and  other 
shrines  of  the  Fire  Worshipei-s. 

HiKtori/. — Travelers  overland  to  Persia  and  India,  from 
the  time  of  Marco  Polo  in  the  fourteenth  century  to  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  describe  the  burning  springs 
of  Asia  Minor  and  the  fires  of  Baku.  .\bbe  Hue,  in  his 
Travels  in  C/ii;i«. deseribes  the  fire-wells  and  the  method  of 
drilling  them.  The  gas  from  these  wells  was  used  in  China 
for  boiling  brine  and  in  domestic  heating.  Natural  gas 
was  also  used  in  the  fire-temples  of  Tibet  and  Northern  India. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  burning  springs  that  were  common  in  the 
valleys  of  the  western  slopes  of  the  .\ppalacliian  chain,  from 
the  St.  Lawrence  river  to  Alabama,  early  attracted  atten- 
tion. In  the  valley  of  the  upper  Cumberland,  in  Southern 
Kentucky,  accumulations  of  gas  beneath  the  thin  horizontal 
strata  of  that  region  sometimes  gained  sufficient  force  to 
tear  up  a  mass  of  earth  and  stone  with  explosive  violence, 
thus  producing  what  are  locally  called  "gas  volcanoes." 

The  earliest  attempt  to  utilize  the  gas  was  made  at  Fre- 
donia,  N.  Y.  The  gas  was  first  used  in  1824  from  wells  dug 
into  tlie  rock  strata  that  underlaid  the  town,  but  later  wells 
were  drilled.  At  about  this  period,  as  borings  for  brine 
were  made  in  the  valleysof  the  streams  that  drain  the  west- 
ern slopes  of  the  .Mleghanies,  gas  was  often  encountered, 
and  was  frequently  utilized  as  fuel  to  evaporate  the  brine. 
This  was  particularly  true  of  the  valleys  of  the  Kanawha 
and  Muskingum  rivers. 

As  the  development  of  the  petroleum-fields  increased, 
the  vast  accumulations  of  natural  gas  tliat  often  accom- 
panied the  petroleum  were  utilized  for  fuel. 

The  iiiiineiise  number  of  test-wells  that  were  drilled  for 
petroleum  during  1865  and  1866  throngliout  the  valleys  of 
the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  led  to  the  discovery  in 
many  localities  of  deposits  of  natural  gas  outside  the  limits 
of  any  productive  petroleum-field.  Yet  for  many  years  few 
atti  iiipts  were  made  to  utilize  the  gas.  Among  these  the 
NelT  Wells  near  (iambier.  Knox  co.,  <).,  may  be  mentioned. 
In  drilling  the  first  of  these  wells  water  was  encountered  in 
large  (piaiitities  at  a  depth  of  66  feet.  At  a  depth  of  600 
feet  gas  was  struck  under  great  pressure.  Tlie  boring 
throughout  its  whole  length  became  alternately  filled  and 
discharged.  The  enormous  volume  of  water  thrown  out — 
perhaps  10,000  barrels  per  day — kejit  the  derrick  soaked  so 
thoroughly  that  at  night  the  gas  could  be  fired,  when  a 
struggle  between  the  burning  gas  and  water  followed.  -An- 
other similar  plienonu-non  was  witnessed  in  a  well  at  Kane, 
Pa.,  on  tlie  Philadelphia  and  Erie  H.iilroad.  This  well  wius 
drilled  2,000  feet  deep,  liiil  as  no  oil  was  obtained  the  casing 
was  withdrawn  and  the  well  abandoned.  Then  the  struggle 
between  the  gas  and  water  began.  The  stratum  from  wliich 
the  gas  issued  was  encountered  at  about  1.4(K)  feet.  The 
fresh  water  flowed  into  the  well  on  top  of  the  gas  until  the 
pressure  of  the  confined  gas  tiei'ame  greater  than  the  weight 
of  the  superincumbent  water,  when  the  water  was  forced  out 
of  the  well  to  a  great  height,  producing  all  of  the  phenom- 
ena of  a  geyser. 

(Tradually  the  great  value  of  the  escaping  gas  for  fuel 
began  to  lie  appreciated.  In  several  instances  the  gas  was 
used  to  generate  power  without  being  burned,  tlie  pressure 
of  the  escaping  gas  alone  being  sulVicient  to  operate  an 
engine,  as  if  the  gas  were  steam.  More  frefiucntiy  the  gas 
escaping  from  one  well  was  used  as  fuel  under  the  boilers  in 
drilling  an  adjoining  well.  The  gas  was  also  gradually  intro- 
duced into  the  towns  that  were  adjacent  to  oil  territory-. 
\\s  1880,  besides  Fredonia,  N.  Y.,  natural  gas  was  being 
used  notably  in  Rf)chesler,  Sheflield,  Erie,  and  Bradford,  in 
Pennsylvania:  Painesville.  East  Liverpool, and  Gambler,  in 
Ohio;  and  in  New  Cumberland,  W.  Va. 

The  town  of  Findlay.O..  was  si'tlled  in  18;}6.  In  18:Wone 
of  the  selllers  dug  a  well  which  yielded  sulphurous  water 
and  infianimablc  gas.     By  a  rude  contrivame  the  gas  was 


80 


NATURAL  GAS 


carried  into  the  house,  and  then  used  for  domestic  heating. 
The  extended  use  of  natural  gas  in  the  so-called  oil  region  of 
the  Ohio  valley  led  in  1884  to  the  formation,  in  Pindlay,  of  a 
companytodrill  for  gas.  The  successful  drilUng  of  the  first 
well  at  Findlay  was  immediately  followed  by  others,  until  in 
Jan.,  1886,  the  famous  Karg  well  was  drilled  to  a  depth  of  1,144 
feet  in  twenty-four  days.  It  is  estimated  to  have  yielded 
from  a  4-inch  pipe  12,080,000  cubic  feet  daily.  The  total 
gas-production  in  Findlay  soon  amounted  to  25,000,000 
cubic  feet  daily,  numerous  manufactories  were  established, 
and  the  place  increased  rapidly  in  population.  Other  towns 
throughout  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  had  the  same  experi- 
ence. The  gas  was  carried  into  Chicago,  Detroit,  and  other 
cities  more  than  100  miles  distant  from  the  wells  through 
pipes  that  had  scarcely  been  laid  before  the  decreased  pres- 
sure and  volume  of  the  gas  necessitated  the  substituticjn  of 
pumps  for  the  natural  pressure  of  the  gas.  Natural  gas  as 
a  fuel  has  become  an  important  factor  in  the  commercial 
and  industrial  world  of  the  central  U.  S.,  but  it  is  generally 
conceded  that  an  artificial  substitute  must  soon  take  its 
place  in  the  progress  of  civilization. 

Geographical  Distribution. — Natural  gas  is  very  generally 
distributed.  It  is  particularly  abundant  in  those  regions 
that  furnish  petroleum  and  other  forms  of  bitumen,  but  it  is 
also  found  in  other  regions  where  metamorphic  or  volcanic 
action  has  not  disturbed  the  crust  of  the  earth.  In  the  U.  S. 
the  most  eastern  point  that  has  furnished  it  is  Dutchess  eo., 
N.  Y.,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hudson  river.  The  points, 
however,  E.  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  at  which  it  has 
been  observed  are  few,  if  any,  S.  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
It  has  been  reported  from  nearly  every  county  in  New  York 
State  except  the  Adirondack  region,  but  it  is  in  the  region 
tributary  to  the  city  of  Buffalo  that  large  and  remunerative 
quantities  have  been  obtained.  Throughout  the  entire  oil 
region  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  and  extending  into  Arm- 
strong and  Westmoreland  Counties  to  the  E.,  enormous 
quantities  of  natural  gas  have  been  supplied,  particularly 
to  the  city  of  Pittsburg.  West  Virginia  and  Eastern  Ken- 
tucky have  long  furnished  gas,  while  nearly  the  whole  State 
of  Ohio,  Northern  and  Central  Indiana,  and  Central  Illi- 
nois have  been  prolific  fields,  in  many  instances  furnish- 
ing enormous  quantities  for  many  years.  Outside  this  terri- 
tory, lying  in  the  northern  Mississippi  basin,  there  is  scarcely 
a  section  of  country  to  the  W.  and  S.  of  large  extent  that 
has  not  yielded  natural  gas,  but  rarely  in  quantities  of  eco- 
nomic importance. 

On  the  Pacific  slope  natural  gas  occurs  throughout  nearly 
the  entire  State  of  California.  It  accompanies  petroleum  in 
the  counties  of  Los  Angeles  and  Ventura.  A  large  part  of 
the  fuel  consumed  in  the  city  of  Stockton  is  supplied  from 
wells.  A  large  area  around  Sacramento  yields  natural  gas 
in  quantities  sufficient  to  make  it  an  important  factor  in  tlie 
fuel-supply  of  that  region. 

Outside  the  U.  S.  the  peninsula  of  Ontario,  in  Canada, 
has  yielded  natural  gas  in  quantities  locally  valuable.  In 
South  America  and  the  Eastern  continent,  with  the  exception 
of  China,  natural  gas  has  never  been  developed  by  artesian 
borings,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  exists  is  unknown. 


The  Chemistry  of  Natural  Gas. — The  natural  gas  which 
is  the  subject  of  this  article  should  be  distinguished  from 
natural  gas  which  occurs  in  volcanic  regions  and  is  the 
product  of  volcanic  action.  In  a  general  way  the  first  may 
be  distinguished  as  a  combustible  gas,  the  second  as  con- 
sisting of  the  products  of  combustion. 

The  following  results  of  analyses  will,  by  comparison  with 
those  that  are  given  of  combustible  gases,  illustrate  more 
clearly  the  generic  differences  between  the  two  classes  of 
gases.  Nos.  I.  and  II.  are  analyses  of  the  gases  rising  through 
the  Lago  di  Nafta  in  the  Val  del  Bove  of  Etna.  No.  III.  is 
an  analvsis  of  the  gases  evolved  from  fumaroles  on  the  island 
of  St.  Paul. 


CONSTITUENTS. 

I- 

II. 

m. 

COo 

94  23 

1-82 
0-28 
3-79 

84-58 
2  42 
4-62 
1-89 
617 

14-24 

iroi  ■ 

68-75 

CH, 

o 

N 

H,S 

No  combustible  gases  are  evolved  by  the  Caldeira  de  Pumas, 
San  Miguel,  Azores,  which  differs  in  this  respect  from  the 
geysers  of  Iceland  and  the  Suflioni  of  Tuscany,  both  of  which 
invariably  yield  hydrogen  and  marsh-gas  (CH,),  mingled  with 
various  incombustible  gases.  The  gases  evolved  from  sol- 
fataras  contain  CO2,  HjS,  0,  and  N.  The  Great  Solfatara 
yields  steam,  hydrogen  sulphide  (HjS),  carbonic  acid  (COj), 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen. 

The  composition  of  the  combustible  natural  gas  of  Penn- 
sylvania, etc.,  is  found  to  vary  not  only  in  different  wells, 
but  in  the  same  wells  on  different  days. 

The  following  analyses  were  made  on  four  different  days 
in  four  months  of  gas  from  Westmoreland  co.,  Pa.,  used  at 
the  Cambria  iron- works : 


CONSTITUENTS. 


Marsh-gas,  CH, 

Hydrogeu 

Ethyl  hydride,  CaH, 

Ethylene,  C'jH^ 

Oxygen 

Carbonic  oxide.  CO. 
Carbonic  acid,  COa . , 
Nitrogen 


1. 


67-00 
2300 
600 
100 
0-80 
0-60 
0-60 
3-00 


49-58 
35-92 
12-30 
0-60 
0-40 
0-40 
0-40 


3. 

57-85 
9-46 
5  20 
0-80 
2- 10 
1-00 

23-41 

4. 


75- 16 
14-45 
4-80 
0-60 
1-20 
0-30 
0-30 
2-89 


Analysis  of  the  Predonia  gas  shows  it  to  be  a  mixture  of 
marsh-gas  (CH4)  and  ethyl  hydride  (CqHs),  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen.  Analysis  of  the  gas  from 
two  burning  springs  in  West  Virginia  showed  it  to  consist 
almost  exclusively  of  marsh-gas,  with  a  small  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen,  and  traces  of  carbonic  oxide 
and  oxygen. 

In  the  following  table  is  shown  the  composition  of  the 
gas  of  five  wells  in  the  oil  regions  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
immediately  following  that  is  a  table  showing  the  composi- 
tion of  the  gas  from  seven  wells  in  Northwestern  Ohio  and 
Central  Indiana,  all  of  which  yielded  gas  from  the  Trenton 
limeston%: 


ANALYSES  OP   GAS   FROM   WELLS   IN   THE  OIL   REGIONS   OF   PENNSYLVANIA. 


NAME  or  WELL. 


Burns's  gas-well 

Leechburg  gas- well.. . 

Harvey  gas-well 

Cherry-tree  gas-spring. 
Pioneer  Run  well 


Oiygen, 


0-83 


Hydrogen. 


Per  cent. 
6-10 
0-56 
1350 
22-50 


COMBUSTIBLE  CONSTITUENTS. 


Methyl 
hydride,  CH,. 


Per  cent. 

75-44 
89-65 
80-11 
60-37 


Ethyl  hydride, 
CjH,. 

Per  cent. 
18-12 
4-39 
6-72 
6-80 

Propyl  hydride, 


Per  cent. 

trace, 
trace, 
trace. 


chiefly. 


Carbonic  ozide^ 
CO. 


Per  cent, 
trace. 
0-26 
trace. 


Carbonic 
acid,  COq. 


Per  ami, 
0  34 
0-35 
0(Jti 
S-28 

small. 


Nitrogen. 


7-33 
small. 


Speclfle 
gravity. 


0-6148 
0-5580 
0-5119 


AXALYSES    OP    GAS    FROM    THE    TRENTON    LIMESTONE   OF   OHIO    AND    INDIANA. 


Fostoria,  O 

Findlay,  O.,  sp.  gr.  0'566 

St.  Mary's,  O 

Muncie,  Ind 

Anderson,  Ind 

Kokomo,  Ind 

Marion,  led 


Oxygen. 


Per  cent. 
0-35 
0-39 
0-35 
0-35 
0-42 
0-30 
0-55 


COMBUSTIBLE   CONSTITUENTS. 


Hydrogen. 


Per  cent. 

1-89 
1-64 
1-74 
2-35 
1-86 
1-42 
1-20 


Marsh-gal, 
CH,. 


Per  cent. 
92-84 
93-35 
93-85 
92-67 
93-07 
94  16 
93-58 


Olefltint  gw.     Carbonic  oxide, 
CjHj.  CO. 


Per  cent. 
0-20 
0-35 
0-20 
0-25 
0-49 
0-30 
0  15 


Per  cent. 
0-65 
0-41 
0-44 
0  45 
0-73 
0-55 
0-60 


Carbonic 
acid,  CO3. 


Per  cent. 
0-20 
0-25 
0-23 
0-26 
0-26 
0-29 
0-30 


Per  cent. 
3-82 
3-41 
2-98 
3-63 
3-03 
2-80 
3-42 


Hydrogen 
Bulpliide,  HgS. 


Per  cent. 
0-15 
0-20 
0-31 
015 
0-15 

018 
0-20 


NATLUAL   UISTUKY 


NATURALIZATION' 


81 


A  comparison  of  these  several  tables  shows  that  marsh- 
pas  is  the  priii<'i|>al  I'oiistitueiit  of  all  of  these  fjases;  at 
the  same  time  it  will  also  be  observed  that,  while  a  marked 
variation  is  found  in  the  gases  from  I'ennsylvania,  a  very 
remarkable  uniforniily  prevails  in  tlie  Trenton  limestone 
gas  from  wells  scattered  over  a  very  wide  area.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  gas  of  I'ennsylvania  is  uniformly  asso- 
ciated with  petroleum  in  ;;reater  or  less  iiuantity,  and  it 
therefore  is  nearly  impossible  to  secure  it  free  from  the  lii,'ht- 
er  products  of  petroleum  that  under  varying  conditions  of 
tempeniliire  and  pressure  assume  the  li(juid  or  gaseous  form 
And  nmtually  ilissolve  each  othi'r. 

The  presence  of  hydrogen  sulphide  in  the  gas  from  the 
Trenton  limestone  is  characteristic  of  the  bitumens  issuing 
from  that  furmalion. 

As  related  to  the  constituents  of  the  petroleums  issuing 
from  the  older  nicks  of  the  northern  Mississippi  basin,  nat- 
ural gas  is  composi'd  to  the  extent  of  nujre  than  !M)  per 
cent,  of  the  initial  member  of  the  marsh-gas  or  paratlin 
sericsof  hydrocarbons,  of  which  tlmse  petroleums  are  largely 
composed.  .Some  varieties  also  contain  olefiant  gas,  which 
is  the  initial  member  of  the  ethylene  series,  a  series  of  hy- 
drocarbons also  found  in  small  cpnintity  in  Pennsylvania 
and  other  petroleums.  As  the  production  of  oils  similar  to 
petroleum  by  artiticial  means  is  always  accompanieii  by 
the  formation  of  varying  (pumtilies  of  marsh-gas  and  olefiant 
gas,  it  is  not  surprising  that  similar  operations  in  nature 
should  result  in  similar  products.  So  also  the  natural  prod- 
ucts of  combustion  are  similar  to  the  gases  issuing  from 
fumaroles  and  other  forms  of  volcanic  action.  See  IIvdro- 
akhoss. 

Drilling  of  Wells  and  Distribution  of  Oas. — The  method 
•  ■f  drilling  wells  for  mitural  gas  is  precisely  like  that  em- 
ployed in  the  drilling  of  petroleum-wells.  (See  VVell- 
DRII.U.NO.)  The  distribution  of  the  gas  is  conducted  in  a 
manner  precisely  similar  to  that  of  distributing  ordinary 
illuminating  gas. 

Uses  uf  Xaliirril  Oax. — With  the  exception  of  the  Neff 
wells  lu'ar  (iandiier.  O.,  and  a  few  others,  natural  gas  is  used 
I'xclusively  for  fuel.  The  gas  of  the  Neff  wells  was  used 
for  the  prnduction  of  lampblack  soon  after  they  wenMlrilled. 
The  black  is  obtained  from  the  imperfect  combustion  of  the 
gas,  by  which  a  large  part  of  the  carbon  is  deposited  in  a 
dense  form  of  lampblack  of  excellent  quality,  known  as 
diamond  black. 

Natural  gas  is  the  most  valuable  form  of  fuel  known. 
Theoretically,  1  lb.  of  Pittsburg  coal  is  equal  to  18"33  cubic 
foet  of  Pittsi)urg  gas;  but  experimentally  7'5  feet  of  gsis  is 
equal  to  1  lb.  of  coal.  P'indlay  gas  has  been  |>roved  to  be 
somewhat  tx-tter.  .\t  the  height  of  the  use  of  natural  gas 
in  Pittsburg.  "JS.OOO  domestic  services  and  900  manufacturers' 
services  supplied  the  eitv.  These  used  between  400,000,000 
and  i>00.0(M),(HH)  feet  per  day,  displacing  8,500,000  tons  of 
coal  per  year.  It  has  been  found  excellent  for  the  manu- 
facture of  iron,  steel,  and  glass,  for  burning  fire  and  other 
brick  and  pottery,  and  for  the  generation  of  steam. 

See  UlTlMK.N,  IlVDRlH  ARBONS,  PeTROLKI'M.  and  In^TMIVAT- 
TNli  (tAS.  S.  F.  Pei'hAM. 

Natural  History  :  a  term  u>ed  in  <liffercnt  .senses  at  dif- 
fert'nt  tinu's  ami  by  different  |)ersons.  (I)  Formerly  it  was 
extended  to  embrace  the  consideration  <•!  all  the  objects,  as 
well  as  the  phenomena,  of  nature,  and  hence,  in  addition  to 
mineralogy,  zoology,  and  botany,  embraced  chemistry,  phys- 
ics, and  astronomy;  and  protests  were  maile  by  physicists  at 
ihealteiupt  to  reslrictthe  liTm  toitspresent  more  generally 
accepted  sense.  (2)  It  is  now,  however,  limited  to  the  history 
of  till-  natural  objects  known  iiniler  the  names  of  minerals, 
plants,  and  animals  in  their  normal  conditions.  (3)  There  is 
also  a  tendency  to  St  ill  further  restrict  it  to  zoology,  for  which 
it  is  frequently  usi'd  in  conversation,  and  occa.sionally  in 
(H)pular  literature,  as  an  interchani.'eable  t4'rm.  This  last 
usage,  however,  is  not  sanctioned  by  good  authority  or  by 
'he  necessities  of  the  ca,se,  the  word  ziwilogy  Inking  all-siitli- 

•  nt,  and  the  common  name  being  necessary  for  that  branch 
IV  hose  objects  of  stuilv  belong  to  the  three  kingdoms  in 
ipiestion.  The  objects  taken  cognizance  of  by  natural  his- 
tory fall  naturally  into  two  great  grou|)s;  (1)  the  mineral 
tmpiri'  or  mineral  kinijilnm.  considiTed  under  the  bead  of 
MixFiiAi.ooY  ;  and  (2)  the  nn/anir  (>;»/>i>(',  discusseil  un<ler 
the  lei  m  HloLoov.  Biology  is  itself  subdivided  into(n)  bota- 
ny, which  treats  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  (4)  zix'ilogy. 
which  has  for  its  domain  the  aninud  kingdom.  Nothing 
1  an  be  predicated  respecting  characters  common  to  all  the 
290 


bodies  which  belong  to  the  several  kingdoms  indicated 
which  does  not  more  properly  |>ertain  to  the  science  of  so- 
matidogy,  which  falls  within  the  sphere  of  the  phvsicist; 
and  there  is  little  in  common  even  as  to  methods  of  study 
or  tcnninohigy. 

Natnralizution  :  an  act  or  process  performed  by  an  alien 
when  he  transfers  his  allegiance  from  the  country  of  his 
origin  and  from  his  sovereign  to  another  country  and  sov- 
ereign. His  original  allegiance  renmins  until  replaced  by 
the  new.  There  may  be  partial  or  qualified  naturaliza- 
tion, which  docs  not  make  aliens  comjiletely  equal  in  all 
respects  to  native-born  citizens  or  subjects;  thus  by  the 
Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  (.Art.  II.,  Sect.  2.  §  5)  no  naturalized 
citizen  can  become  President  of  the  l'.  S.,an(l  for  some  time 
in  England  no  such  person  coulil  be  a  member  of  the  privy 
council  or  of  either  house  of  Parliament.  Complete  naturali- 
zation gives  all  the  rights  and  imiKxses  all  the  obligations  of 
a  native-liorn  citizen.  Most  states  give  privileges  of  natu- 
ralization, but  there  is  great  difference  in  regard  to  the  con- 
ditions. Hence  a  conflict  of  laws  may  arise  with  respect  to 
the  same  individual  on  his  return  to  his  original  country. 
The  Knglish  doctrine  for  a  long  tinu>  was  that  allegiance  to 
the  crown  was  perpetiuil  and  indissoluble.  Hence  an  Eng- 
lislinum  naturalized  by  the  law  of  the  U.  .S.  was  held  to  be 
still  a  British  subject,  and  nuiny  such  were  in  the  earlvjiart 
of  the  nineteenth  century  taken  on  the  high  seas  out  of  U.S. 
vessels,  on  the  ground  of  owing  military  duty  to  the  crown, 
and  were  impressed  into  the  English  naval  service.  If  the 
allegiance  were  indis-soluble.  jure  gentium,  it  would  not 
follow  that  this  procedure  of  taking  these  pei-sons  out  of 
neutral  vessels  was  authorized,  since  it  was  an  attempt  to 
enforce  a  municipal  law  of  one  state  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  another  ;  at  present  this  claim  must  be  abandoned  as  far 
as  the  U.  S.  are  concerned,  owing  to  the  new  position  in  re- 
gard to  naturalization  which  treaty  has  imposed  on  Great 
Britain,  and  in  regard  to  taking  persons  out  of  neutral 
vessels  on  the  high  seas,  which  that  Government  took  in  the 
case  of  the  Trent. 

Naturalization  involves  all  rights  of  person  and  property, 
including  generally  that  of  holding  real  estate,  liut  does  not 
extinguish  claims  which  were  in  force  at  the  time  the  person 
concerned  altered  his  allegiance.  Thus  numbers  of  young 
men  have  left  different  parts  of  Germany  to  escape  from 
the  military  dutv  required  for  a  certain  time  of  all  able- 
Ijodied  nmles.  'I'hc  fact  of  passing  through  the  forms  of 
allegiance  according  to  the  laws  of  the  U.S.  would  not  pro- 
tect such  persons  from  the  operation  of  laws  to  avoid  which 
thev  removeil  from  their  native  country. 

How  far  the  incomplete  process  of  naturalization  is  to 
have  effect  in  entitling  a  pei'son  to  protection  is  a  matter  of 
doubt,  since  it  depends  on  the  pereon  himself  whether  he 
will  complete  the  act  according  to  bis  expressed  intention. 
The  case  of  Koszta,  who  was  seize<l  in  a  Turkish  ]>ort  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Austrian  consul-general,  next  was  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  French  consul-general  in  consequence  of 
the  threat  of  force  made  by  a  captain  of  a  U.  S.  vessel  then 
in  the  port,  ami  finally  set  free  so  as  to  go  to  the  U.  S.,  is  in 
point.     This  was  in  18.54. 

Treaties  of  the  U.  S.  with  German  powers  and  with  Great 
Britain  have  so  defined  the  claims  of  the  original  and  the 
adopted  country  as  to  jirevent  conflict  of  laws  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. In  the  treaty  with  the  North  German  confederation, 
and  in  that  with  B.-ivaria  nuule  in  ISOS.  five  yearsof  uninter- 
rupted residence  with  formal  naturalization  constitutes 
citizenship  on  both  sides.  The  mere  declaration  to  become 
a  citizen  is  of  no  effect.  Hesidence  is  iniderstood,  as  the 
Bavarian  treaty  expres,«es  it,  in  the  Jural  sense,  so  that  it  is 
not  interrupted  bv  a  transiept  absence.  A  person  returning 
to  his  former  residence  is  not  |)rotected  by  his  nalundization 
from  responsibility  for  crimes  committed  Ix'fore  his  emigra- 
tion; and  such  a  |ierson  residing  more  than  two  years  in  his 
original  country  is  In-ld  to  have  renounceil  his  naturaliza- 
tion. In  the  Bavarian  treaty  it  is  agri'cd  that  the  treaty 
shall  ni>t  affect  a  provisiim  of  the  military  law  by  which 
Bavarians, emigrating  before  the  end  of  the  prescribed  mili- 
tary service,  can  not  on  their  return  be  admitted  to  perma- 
nent residence  in  the  land  until  they  shall  have  become 
thirty-two  years  old  ;  but  it  is  understood  that  if  acertificatc 
of  emigration  has  been  granted  liability  to  military  service 
shall  be  wiped  out  by  naturalization.  .Such  treaties  were 
made  with  Baden,  Bavaria,  Belgium.  Hesse,  Mexico,  the 
North  German  Union  and  WUrtemlierg  in  18(58;  with 
Sweden   and    Norway  in    1809;    with    Austria  and   Groat 


82 


NATURALIZATION 


Britain  in  1870 ;  with  Denmark  in  1872.  It  should  be  added 
that  in  the  treaties  with  Austria  and  Baden  evasion  of  mili- 
tary service,  when  the  emigrant  actually  was  in  the  ranks  or 
had  been  drawn,  was  not  to  be  pardoned  though  naturaliza- 
tion followed.  This  was  expressly  stated  in  these  treaties, 
but  the  same  rule  would  probably  hold  good  in  the  other 
treaties,  desertion  being  a  crime.  The  convention  with 
Great  Britain  provides  tliat  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  either 
nation,  naturalized  according  to  the  laws  of  the  other,  shall 
be  held  to  be  for  all  purposes  subjects  or  citizens  of  the 
other ;  that  they  may  again  exchange  their  nationality  on 
terras  to  be  agreed  upon  within  a  certain  time  after  the  date 
of  the  convention  ;  and  tliat  on  renewing  tlieir  residence  in 
either  country  they  may  be  readmitted  to  the  cliaracter  and 
privileges  of  a  citizen  or  subject,  and  not  be  claimed  by 
either  country  on  account  of  the  previous  naturalization. 
In  1868  the  U.  S.  gave  up  the  claim  to  indelible  allegiance. 

Revised  by  T.  S.  Woolsey. 

Laws  Governing  Naturalization  in  the  United  States 
AND  Great  Britain. — At  the  common  law  a  foreigner  or 
temporary  resident  in  a  country  is  bound  to  yield  a  local  or 
temporary  allegiance  to  the  state  and  obey  its  laws,  and  is 
entitled  to  protection  by  its  government,  and  redress  for  his 
injuries  in  its  tribunals.  This  allegiance,  however,  is  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  allegiance  which  is  due  from  a  citi- 
zen to  the  state;  and  tlie  right  to  protection  and  redress 
does  not  include  many  of  the  rights  which  belong  to  a  citi- 
zen to  acquire  and  dispose  of  property,  to  exercise  political 
franchises,  etc.  See  the  articles  on  Alien,  Allegiance,  and 
Citizen. 

Before  the  formation  of  the  U.  S.  the  American  colonies 
of  Great  Britain  each  exercised  the  prerogative  of  adopting 
naturalization  laws,  and  the  laws  passed  mainly  aimed  to 
promote  immigration ;  but  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  pro- 
vides that  "  Congress  shall  have  power  to  establish  an  uni- 
form rule  of  naturalization."  This  power  vested  in  Congress 
by  the  Constitution  is  held  to  be  exclusive  ;  and  in  the  exer- 
cise of  it  variou.-?  statutes  have  been  passed  prescribing  the 
qualifications  and  formalities  requisite  for  an  alien  to  be- 
come naturalized.  This  exclusive  authority,  however,  does 
not  deprive  the  States  of  the  right  to  regulate  by  statute  the 
abilities  and  disabilities  of  aliens  in  regard  to  tlie  acquisi- 
tion and  transferor  property,  nor  does  it  prohibit  them  from 
investing  aliens  with  the  privileges  of  State  citizenship,  such 
as  the  right  to  vote  in  State  elections,  hold  State  offices,  etc. 
(See  Citizen.)  The  Federal  naturalization  laws  are  very 
liberal,  and  in  nearly  all  respects  naturalized  citizens  are 
placed  on  the  same  footing  as  those  who  are  native-born. 
The  Constitution  provides  that  no  naturalized  citizen  shall 
be  eligiljle  to  the  office  of  President  or  Vice-President,  and 
that  no  person  shall  be  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  who  shall 
not  have  been  a  citizen  for  nine  years,  or  to  the  House  of 
Representatives  unless  he  shall  have  been  a  citizen  for  seven 
years. 

In  substance,  the  naturalization  laws  of  the  U.  S.  at  pres- 
ent provide  that  to  become  naturalized  the  alien  must  de- 
clare on  oath  before  a  circuit  or  district  court  of  the  U .  S., 
or  a  district  or  Supreme  Court  o[  the  Territories,  or  a  court 
of  record  of  any  of  the  States  having  common-law  jurisdic- 
tion and  a  seal  and  a  clerk,  two  years  at  least  prior  to  his 
admission,  that  it  is  bona  fide  his  intention  to  become  a  citi- 
zen of  the  U.  S.,  and  to  renounce  forever  all  allegiance  and 
fidelity  to  any  foreign  prince,  state,  or  sovereignty  of  which 
the  alien  may  be  at  the  time  a  citizen  or  subject.  His  full 
admission  to  citizenship  can  not,  however,  take  place  until 
he  has  resided  within  the  U.  S.  for  the  continued  terra  of  five 
years  next  preceding  his  admission,  and  one  year  at  least 
within  the  State  or  Territory  where  the  court  is  held  to 
which  he  raakes  application.  At  the  time  of  this  application 
to  be  admitted  he  must  declare  on  oath  before  some  one  of 
the  courts  above  mentioned  that  he  will  suppoi't  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  U.  S.,  and  that  he  absolutely  and  entirely 
renounces  and  abjures  all  allegiance  to  every  foreign  power, 
and  particularly  to  that  state  of  which  he  was  before  a  citi- 
zen. These  proceedings  must  be  recorded  by  the  clerk  of 
the  court.  It  must  be  made  to  appear  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  court  admitting  the  alien  to  naturalization  tliat  he  has 
duly  fulfilled  the  prescribed  qualifications  in  regard  to  the 
term  and  place  of  residence,  and  that  during  that  time  he 
has  beliaved  as  a  man  of  good  moral  character,  is  attached 
to  the  principles  of  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.,  and  is  well 
disposed  to  the  good  order  and  happiness  of  the  same.  If 
the  alien  has  borne  any  hereditary  title  or  been  of  any  of  the 
orders  of  nobility  in  the  kingdom  or  state  from  which  he 


came,  he  must  also  make  an  express  renunciation  of  his  title 
or  order  of  nobility ;  and  this  renunciation  must  be  recorded 
in  the  court. 

If  the  alien  is  a  minor  the  rules  in  regard  to  his  admission 
of  citizenship  are  somewhat  different.  If  he  has  resided  in 
the  U.  S.  tliree  years  next  preceding  his  twenty-first  birth- 
day, and  five  years  (including  the  three  of  minority)  before 
making  his  application  to  be  naturalized,  the  residence  be- 
ing continuous,  he  is  not  required  to  make  the  preliminary 
declaration  above  descril)ed  of  intention  to  become  a  citi- 
zen ;  but  he  must  make  the  same  declaration  at  the  time 
of  his  admission  as  is  required  of  other  applicants;  and 
must  further  declare  on  oath,  and  prove  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  court,  that  for  two  years  next  preceding  it  has  been 
his  bona  fide  intention  to  become  a  citizen,  and  must  in  all 
other  respects  comply  with  the  naturalization  laws.  The 
minor  children  of  alien  parents  who  are  naturalized  become 
thereby  citizens  themselves,  without  any  application  on 
their  own  part  being  necessary  if  thev  are  then  dwelling  in 
the  U.  S. 

It  a  husband  dies  before  he  is  actually  naturalized  but 
after  he  has  taken  the  preliminary  oath  of  intention  to  be- 
come a  citizen,  his  widow  and  children  are  declared  to  be 
citizens,  and  are  entitled  to  all  rights  and  privileges  as  such 
upon  taking  the  oath  prescribed  by  law.  There  are  also 
special  statutory  provisions  in  regard  to  the  naturalization 
of  aliens  who  have  served  in  the  U.  S.  army,  and  of  foreign 
seamen.  The  general  provisions  of  the  naturalization  laws 
apply  to  aliens  of  African  nativity  and  to  persons  of  African 
descent.  Under  the  laws  as  they  now  (1894)  stand  Chinese 
and  Japanese  can  not  become  naturalized. 

Aliens  who  are  citizens  or  subjects  or  denizens  of  a  coun- 
try with  which  the  U.  S.  is  at  war  at  the  time  of  their  ap- 
plication can  not  be  naturalized  until  the  restoration  of 
peace. 

In  Great  Britain  no  general  naturalization  law  was  enacted 
until  the  year  1844.  Before  that  tirae  naturalization  could 
be  effected  only  by  special  act  of  Parliament,  but  it  had 
been  provided  by  statute  that  an  alien  naturalized  in  this 
mode  should  still  remain  under  important  disabilities ;  he 
was  still  incapable  of  being  a  member  of  the  privy  council 
or  of  Parliament,  or  of  holding  a  civil  or  military  office,  or 
receiving  grants  of  land  from  the  crown.  A  practice,  how- 
ever, has  existed  from  an  early  period  for  the  king  to  grant 
letters  of  denization  to  aliens,  which  have  the  effect  of  re- 
moving an  alien's  disqualifications  to  a  limited  extent.  A 
denizen  is  described  as  occupying  a  kind  of  middle  state  be- 
tween an  alien  and  a  natural-born  subject,  having,  as  it  were, 
an  intermediate  legal  status.  Thus  he  may  take  lands-by 
purchase  or  devise,  though  an  alien  can  not ;  but  he  can  not 
take  by  inheritance.  A  denizen,  moreover,  can  not  belong 
to  the  privy  council  or  Parliament  or  hold  any  public  office 
of  trust.  A  comprehensive  statute  in  regard  to  the  naturali- 
zation of  aliens  was  enacted  in  1870  (.'j3  Vict.,  ch.  14),  and 
this  with  slight  changes  or  additions  is  the  law  at  present 
in  force.  By  this  it  is  provided  that  an  alien  who  has  re- 
sided in  the  United  Kingdom,  or  has  been  in  the  service 
of  the  crown,  for  a  term  of  not  less  than  five  years,  and  in- 
tends, when  naturalized,  to  continue  either  his  residence  or 
his  service,  may  apply  to  one  of  her  Majesty's  principal 
secretaries  of  state  for  a  certificate  of  naturalization.  The 
applicant  must  present  such  evidence  of  residence  or  service 
and  intention  to  reside  or  serve  as  the  Secretary  of  State  may 
require,  and  the  Secretary  may  then,  in  the  exercise  of  his 
own  discretion,  with  or  without  assigning  a  reason,  give  or 
withhold  a  certificate  a?  he  thinks  most  conducive  to  the 
public  good,  and  no  appeal  lies  from  his  decision :  but  such 
certificate  will  not  take  effect  until  the  applicant  has  taken 
the  oath  of  allegiance.  An  alien  to  whom  a  certificate  of 
naturalization  is  granted  is  entitled  in  the  United  Kingdom 
to  all  political  and  other  riglits.  powers,  and  privileges,  and 
is  subject  to  all  obligations,  to  which  a  natural-born  British 
subject  is  entitled  or  subject,  with  this  qualification,  that  he 
shall  not,  when  within  the  foreign  state  of  which  he  was 
previously  a  subject,  be  deemed  to  be  a  British  subject  unless 
he  has  ceased  to  be  a  subject  of  that  state  in  pursuance  of 
the  laws  thereof  or  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  a  treaty  to 
that  effect. 

For  a  fuller  treatment  of  the  whole  subject,  and  the  par- 
ticulars of  statutory  provisions,  see  the  works  of  Cockburn 
and  Howell  on  Xationality  ;  the  works  of  Scott,  Cutler,  Bi- 
doulac,  and  Boese  on  Niituralization;  Hansard  on  Aliens 
and  yaturalizatinn  ;  and  the  works  of  Woolsey  and  Wheaton 
on  Iiitenuitioval  Law.  F.  Stu'rges  Allen. 


NATL'KAL    I'lllLuSolMl V 


NATURAL  THEOLOGY 


83 


Natural  I'liiltisophy  :  tliut  bruricli  of  pliysionl  science 
which ileals  with  properties  of  bodies  that  are  uiuu'coiiipaiiied 
by  essential  chaiips  of  the  bodies  themselves.  See  Me- 
CHAJIKS. 

Natural  Selection:  See  Evolution. 

Natural  Tlieoloyy:  a  science  treatinf;  of  the  existence 
and  chaniiter  of  (iod  iis  these  may  be  known  from  reason 
and  nature.  It  invest ipites  the  evidences  of  his  being  and 
seeks  to  determine  his  attributes  and  relations  to  tlie  world. 
The  conchisions  thus  reached  ami  .scientilically  established 
form  what  is  rif;htly  termed  rational  theism, or  the  doctrine 
of  Ciod  as  ascertainable  apart  from  supernatural  revelation. 

The  primarv  iijeu  upon  whicli  it  proceeds  is  that,  if  there 
be  a  fiod  as  liie  Cri'ator  or  First  Cause  of  the  imiverse,  his 
existence  ami  character  must  be  found  impressed  upon  it 
and  discov(ral>lo  from  it.  The  author  of  a  work  is  revealed 
in  the  work  he  has  done.  The  world  is  viewed  as  a  visible 
expression  of  the  being  and  thought,  if  there  be  any,  of  its 
source.  One  of  the  primary  conceptions  of  science  is  that 
nature  holds  and  presents  in  its  constitution  and  order 
some  record  of  its  origin,  legible  to  the  reason  of  those  who 
honestly  study  it.  Natural  theology  therefore  seeks  to  ex- 
amine this  record,  lake  its  testimony,  and  thus,  if  possible, 
ascend  through  nature  up  to  nature's  God. 

Iliatonj. — JClTorts  to  construct  a  luitural  theology  appear 
very  early.  The  most  ancient  literatures  of  the  nations 
present  many  of  its  truths  or  conclusions  in  more  or  less 
systennitized  form.  The  Vedas  of  the  Hindus,  the  Zcnd- 
Aveata  of  the  I'ersians,  the  Book  of  the  Dead  and  other 
writings  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  contain  illustrations  of 
the  earliest  recorded  efforts  of  tlie  huriiau  mind  toward  a 
knowledge  of  Deity.  Socrates  and  I'lato  amcjng  the  (Jrecks, 
and  Cicero  and  Seneca  among  the  Komans,  made  earnest 
and  to  some  degree  successful  efforts  to  give  rational  ac- 
count of  men's  spontaneous  faith  in  the  divine  existence. 
In  all  ages  of  the  Christian  Church  theologians  have  claimed 
that  the  works  of  initure  exhibit  the  being,  power,  wisdom, 
and  goodness  of  their  author,  ami  that  revelation  presup- 
poses and  recognizes  this  truth.  The  T/ti'o/i/i/ia  Ntiftirali/i 
aire  Liber  Vreiitnntrum  of  the  S|)anish  physician  UiiyMiund 
de  Sabunde,  in  the  early  part  of  the  lifteeuth  century,  how- 
ever, seems  to  have  been  the  first  attempt  to  construct  a 
distinctively  natural  theologv.  During  the  seventeenth 
century  natural  theology  maile  i-onsiderable  progress,  rose 
to  increa-sed  prominence  in  the  eighteenth,  and  reached  a 
golden  period  in  the  early  part  of  tlie  nnietecnth  century 
through  the  celebrated  IJridgewater  Treatises  and  other  alile 
works.  The  subject  has  continued  to  hold  a  place  of  undi- 
minished interest  amid  the  surpassing  phih>sophical  and 
scientific  progress  with  which  the  nineteenth  century  closes. 

Jts  Fumlamenlal  Poshila/m. — In  its  reasoning  it  assumes 
as  valid  the  so-called  intuitional  or  a  priori  truths,  espe- 
cially the  law  of  causation,  which  demands  an  ade((uate 
cause  for  every  event.  In  this,  however,  it  does  only 
what  all  true  science  does.  Whatever  psychological  cx- 
pl.inatiim  may  be  given  of  these  truths  or  beliefs,  it  is  un- 
deniable that  their  authority  is  supreme  and  invincible  in 
the  practical  thinking  and  reasoning  of  the  race,  and  that 
neither  science  nor  philosophy  can  impeach  their  validity 
Without  suicide. 

(Ireat  variety  has  marked  the  thoistic  evidences  from  the 
numerous  sources  whence  they  are  drawn.  Since  the  proper 
proofs  of  the  divine  existence  must  be  regarded  as  includ- 
ing all  the  phenomena  of  the  whole  world  of  matter  and 
mind  open  to  our  study  and  interpretation,  these  evidences 
must  be  literally  countless  and  inexlmustiblo.  They  are 
impressively  cuiiiulative,  as  the  immeasurable  realm  of  na- 
ture, life,  and  history  is  more  and  more  explored.  They 
appear  in  thousands  of  different  ways  to  dilTerent  minds. 
If  it  is  fair  lo  assume  a  single  evidence,  there  are  many  evi- 
dences. If  there  is  one,  there  are  innumerable  points  of 
light  revealing  the  ilivine.  Natural  theology  therefore  rests 
its  conclusions  not  simply  cm  one  or  severid  formal  proofs, 
but  upon  the  aggregate  testimony  of  the  whole  cosniical  sys- 
tem and  all  its  particulars,  upon  the  force  and  consilience 
•  ■f  the  indications  in  nature,  thought,  and  history  as  they 
me  fimnd  running  ui)  ami  compacting  their  varied  logic  in 
one  common  demand. 

Formn  nf  Arijiime)il. — DilTerent  methods  of  viewing  na- 
ture's testimony,  as  well  a-s  dillerence  as  to  the  parts  con- 
sidered, have  given  the  thci.stic  reasoning  a  number  of  lead- 
ing characteristic  forms.  These  stand  simply  for  generic 
methods  of  shaping  our  view  of  nature's  witness  to  the  ri'al 


existence  and  attributes  of  the  Being  for  whom  the  idea  of 
God  stands  in  the  human  mind.  .Sometimes  the  method  is 
a  priori,  proceeding  directly  from  iileas  which  are  held  to 
be  necessary  in  the  mind's  own  insight  and  consciousness. 
Sometimes  it  is  a  punleriori,  as  necessary  inference  or  log- 
ical conclusion  from  observed  facts.  Commonly  (he  rea- 
soning is  found  to  unite  the  two  methods.  Sometimes  the 
argument  is  ba.scd  upon  the  existence  and  phenomena  of 
mind;  sometimes  upon  the  facts  of  physical  organizati<m 
and  life:  sometimes  on  the  order  and  glory  of  the  heavenly 
bodies;  sometimes  on  the  structure  and  adajilation  evident 
in  the  chemical  elements  and  material  atoms.  Besides 
some  forms  of  presumptive  proof,  such  as  the  universality 
of  the  iilea  of  (iod  in  the  human  miiui,  .so  normal  as  to 
force  itself  in  some  form  or  other  into  the  belief  of  all  ages 
and  trilies;  the  religious  instinct  of  the  race,  showing  a 
natural  and  profound  adjustment  of  the  human  constitu- 
tion to  worship;  the  benign  iiilluence  of  belief  in  God, 
quickening  the  sense  of  duly  and  responsibility,  in  which 
personal  and  siuial  life  reaches  its  best  and  hap|iiest  order; 
and  the  fact  that  all  the  phenomena  of  the  world  are  best 
explained  on  the  assumption  of  the  existence  of  God.  the 
theistic  argunient.s,  though  nr<iught  out  in  greatly  diversi- 
fied way.s,  have  for  the  most  part  fallen  untler  the  follow- 
ing tvpes: 

1.  The  on/o7o<7te(jZ  argument.  The  germs  of  this  were  in- 
volved in  Plato's  "ideas," but  it  was  first  formulated  byAn- 
selm  in  the  eleventh  century.  From  the  existence  in  the 
human  mind  of  the  iilea  of  a  most  perfect  being  it  con- 
cluded that  the  most  perfect  being  exists — because  real  ex- 
istence is  a  necessary  part  of  the  idea  of  the  most  perfect 
being.  Descartes,  Bishop  Butler,  Leibnitz,  Cousin,  Samuel 
Clark,  and  many  other  eminent  writers  have  used  this 
method  of  argument ;  but,  standing  alone,  it  has  often  been 
shown  to  be  unsound,  in  confouiuling  real  objective  exist- 
ence with  the  simple  idea  of  it  in  the  mind.  Its  only  force 
rests  on  the  neci'ssify  of  the  idea  in  human  thought.  The 
universality  of  the  idea  proves  it  to  be  spontaneous  and  nec- 
e.-isary  in  the  action  of  mind  in  the  presence  of  nature.  Our 
knowledge  of  actual  being  compels  us  to  believe  in  self- 
oxistent  or  unoriginated  being.  Thus  (iod  becomes  the  ulti- 
mate necessity  in  human  thought.  This  method  of  reasoning, 
however,  besides  being  too  metaphysical  for  general  a[)pre- 
hension,  fails  to  exclude  pantheistic  conceptions  or  make 
clear  the  distinction  between  God  and  the  universe  itself. 

2.  The  cosmological  or,  more  exactly,  w/iological  argu- 
ment. This  reasons  from  the  existence  of  the  world  as  con- 
tingent and  dependent,  to  the  existence  of  (ioil  as  the  neces- 
sarv  unconditicjiied  .self-i'xistent  cause.  That  the  world  has 
had  a  beginning  is  indisputable,  and  science  is  Imsy  only 
with  the  question  linw  it  came  to  be.  In  all  its  parts. and  as 
a  whole,  nature  is  found  to  be  finite  and  conditioned.  In 
searching  for  the  cause  of  it  all,  the  inexorable  demand  of 
the  law  of  causation  can  never  be  satisfied  till  a  cause  is 
rea<hed  that  is  not  itself  an  effect,  a  first  cause,  a  self-ex- 
istent, absolute  cause.  This  draws  the  line  clearly  between 
self-existent  being  and  all  originated  and  deiieiident  being. 
Modern  research  ami  progress  have  not  discredited,  but 
rather,  if  ])ossible,  strengdiened.the  force  of  this  argument, 
for  they  have  left  no  place  for  the  anciently  asserted  notion 
that  the  world  itself  may  be  regarded  as  eternal,  and,  de- 
spite former  metaphysical  questionings,  they  have  recog-- 
nized  with  the  most  absolute  confidence  the  validity  and 
universality  of  the  law  of  causation  for  the  real  system  of 
the  world. 

3.  The  teUolnijienl  argument.  This  seems  to  have  been 
the  earliest  form  of  theistic  rea.-^oning,  and  still  remains  the 
most  prominent  and  impressive.  It  is  usually  known  as 
the  proof  from  design  or  "  final  cause."  Its  peculiarity  is 
that  while  based,  as  is  the  cosmological.  on  the  principle  of 
causation,  it  considers  specificallv  the  marks  of  order  and 
purpose  everywhere  in  nature,  'feleologv,  or  clear  adjust- 
ment of  structure  lo  [iredctermined  ends,  is  so  omnipresent 
a  reality  in  the  world  that  wc  are  never  out  of  sight  of  it.  It 
seems  to  bo  coextensive  with  the  highest  law  of  the  universe. 
The  world  appears  to  be  a  thought  with  purpose  or  intent 
shining  all  through  it.  from  its  iiriniary  adajited  atoms 
acting  like  "manufactured  articles  '  up  through  all  the  ag- 
gregations in  which  atoms  are  built  into  a  cosmos.  The 
correlate  to  all  this  is  a  Thinker,  as  the  creator  of  the  world. 
The  excellence  of  this  argument  is  that  its  conclusion  leads 
directly  and  necessarily  to  the  intelligence  and  personality  of 
the  self-oxistent  First  Cause.  This  argument,  together  with 
the  cosmological,  has  been  assailed  by  severe  criticism  in 


84 


NATURAL  THEOLOGY 


NAUPLIA 


some  modern  philosophies  and  forms  of  speculative  science. 
The  chief  philosophical  objection,  apart  from  that  which 
has  sought  to  vacate  the  law  of  causation  itself  as  but  a 
"  form  of  thought,"  has  been  the  claim  that  the  world,  being 
only  finite,  can  not  demand  the  infinite  as  its  cause.  This  is 
conceded ;  but  the  value  of  the  argument  remains  practical- 
ly the  same  ;  for  all  that  is  sought  from  this  form  of  proof 
is  the  existence  of  a  personal  creator  of  the  actual  universe. 
This  is  enough;  but  the  main  objection  has  come  from  a 
form  of  speculative  science  in  connection  with  the  hypothesis 
of  evolution.  This  is  thought  by  some  to  show  how  the 
universe  of  structure  and  organism  has  been  immanently 
evolved  from  primordial  matter  without  intelligent  pur- 
pose. The  answer  to  this,  believed  to  be  amply  sufficient, 
is  that  any  atheistic  hypothesis  of  evolution  must  resolve 
itself  into  the  incredibility  of  "chance,"  and  especially  that 
the  great  majority  of  evolutionists  themselves  maintain 
that  evolution,  being  not  a  cause,  but  only  a  mode,  does  not 
set  aside  teleology,  but  enlarges  its  scope  and  range.  Nu- 
merous discussions,  especially  the  masterly  work  on  Fined 
Causes,  by  Paul  .Janet,  have  thoroughly  vindicated  the  high 
place  of  this  form  of  proof. 

4.  The  moral  argument,  drawn  from  the  facts  of  con- 
science and  ethical  law  in  the  world.  It  is  sliaped  in  dif- 
ferent ways,  according  as  it  reasons  directly  from  the  exist- 
ence of  conscience  or  from  the  course  of  history,  with  their 
realities  of  moral  law  and  necessary  presuppositions  of  a 
moral  law-giver.  In  the  ethical  capacities  and  obligations 
human  nature  reaches  its  highest  ascent.  As  the  cosmical 
system  thus  culminates  in  ethical  law,  its  author  must  be  a 
moral  governor.  To  this  argument  evolutionism  suggests 
the  objection  that  what  is  reputed  to  be  ethical  law  is  but 
the  race's  experiences  of  utility  transformed  into  judgments 
of  approval  and  incorporated  as  mental  instincts  by  heredi- 
tary descent,  but  this  objection  fails  by  disregarding  the 
fact  of  an  irreducilile  distinction  between  the  judgments  of 
utility  and  those  of  right  or  righteousness. 

Divine  Attributes. — Natural  theology  claims  that  the  evi- 
dences of  the  divine  existence  necessarily  fix  some  funda- 
mental conceptions  of  the  divine  nature  and  attributes. 
Over  against  the  negations  of  agnosticism  it  claims  to  be 
able  to  know  not  only  that  God  is,  but  to  some  degree  itihat 
he  is.  Reflected  from  the  realities  which  prove  his  being, 
we  learn  some  of  the  perfections  which  belong  to  him  and 
by  which  he  is  indeed  God.  Hence  natural  theology  affirms 
of  him  self-existence,  as  the  aljsolute  First  Cause;  eternity, 
as  necessarily  involved  in' self-existence ;  personality,  as  the 
logical  presupposition  for  the  cosmic  order  and  design  ; 
unity,  as  the  one  and  only  ground  of  the  universe ;  omni- 
science, omnipresence,  omnipotence,  infinite  wisdom,  perfec- 
tions reflected  from  the  immensity  of  nature ;  holiness  or 
righteousness,  necessarily  presupposed  from  the  moral  con- 
stitution of  man  and  the  world  ;  and  goodness,  evident  from 
the  general  arrangement  of  nature's  structures  for  creature 
enjoyment. 

Ood's  Relation  to  the  World. — This  also  is  in  a  measure 
reflected  from  the  evidences  of  his  Ijeing;  but  it  presents 
many  profound  and  difficult  problems  which  at  once  chal- 
lenge thought  and  baffle  satisfactory  solution.  Yet  as  the 
Cause  of  the  world  God  is  necessarily  apprehended  as  be- 
fore and  above  it,  in  a  divine  transcendence.  As  nature, 
however,  exhibits  the  divine  causation  as  working  every- 
where within  it,  the  divine  immanence  is  equally  certified. 
He  is  in  the  world,  but  not  a  part  of  it.  There  are  thus  ex- 
cluded both  a  pantheistic  identification  of  God  with  na- 
ture, and  a  deistical  separation  or  withdrawal  from  it.  The 
world  is  God's  woi-ld,  and  nmst  have  its  purpose  and  plan 
in  the  divine  counsel ;  but  here  natural  theology  joins  on 
to  supernatural  revelation,  which  gives  the  fuller  needed 
knowledge  both  of  tlie  divine  attributes  and  of  God's  rela- 
tion and  purposes  with  respect  to  nature  and  man. 

LiTKRATL'RE. — Besides  the  older  discussions  by  Clarke, 
Newton,  Derham,  Nieuwentyt,  Paley,  and  the  Bridgewater 
Treatises,  the  chief  later  works  are  TuUoch's  Tfieism  (New 
York,  1855);  Thompson's  Chri,itian  Tlieism  (London,  1855); 
Buchanan's  Modern  .-l/Act.sm  (Boston.  1867) ;  iMahan's  Sci- 
ence of  Natural  Tlieology  (Boston.  1867):  Cliadbourne's 
Natural  Theolofifi  (Boston,  1867) ;  ■^!wkson's  Ptiilo.iophi/  of 
Natural  Tlieohxjii  (N'ew  York.  IS75);  Cocker's  Tlieistie  Con- 
ception of  tlie  World  (New  York,  1875);  J.  P.  Cooke's  Re- 
ligion and  Chemistry  (Boston,  1864) ;  Fairbairn's  Studies 
in  tfie  Philosopliy  of  Religion  and  Tlislori/  (Xew  York, 
1876) ;  Flint's  r/iemM  (Edinlmrgh,  IS78);  mihff^Anli-The- 
istic  ?7(eyrie.s(I';dinburgh,1870);  .);mi'{'s Final  ( 'a uses  (trans. 


from  French,  Edinburgh,  1878) ;  Diman's  Theistic  Argu- 
ment (Boston,  1881) ;  Bowne's  Studies  in  Tlieism  (New 
York,  1879);  Ila,Tvis's  Philosophical  Basis  of  Tlieism  (Bos- 
ton, 1883) ;  Fisher's  Grounds  of  Theistic  and  Christian 
Belief  (New  York,  1883)  and  Natural  Theology  (1893) ; 
Valentine's  Natural  Theology  or  Rational  Theism  (Boston, 
1890) ;  Bowne's  Philosophy  of  Theism  (New  York,  1887). 

M.  Valentine. 
Nauck,  nowk,  Aughst  :  scholar ;  b.  in  Auerstildt,  near 
Merseburg,  Germany,  Sept.  18,1833:  was  educated  in  the 
gymnasium  of  Schulpforta  and  at  Halle.  After  teaching 
at  various  gymnasia  in  Berlin,  he  was  called  in  1856  as 
member  extraordinary  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences 
to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  i-emaincd  until  his  death  Aug. 
3,  1893.  Nauck  was  one  of  the  greatest  text-critics  of  mod- 
ern times.  Of  his  many  works,  exclusively  confined  to 
Greek,  tlie  following  are  tlie  most  famous:  Ari.-itophanis 
Byzantii  fragmenta  (1848) ;  Euripides  with  the  ti-agments 
(3d  ed.  1877) ;  Tragicorum  Gra'corum  fragmenta,  his  mas- 
terpiece, and  the  standard  work  on  the  subject  (3d  ed.  1889, 
with  Tragicm  dictionis  index,  1893) :  Sophocles  with  Ger- 
man notes,  first  edited  by  Sehneidewin  (text  cd.  1867) ; 
Homer's  Odyssey  (1874)  and  Fiad  (1877) ;  lamhlichus  de 
vita  Fytli((t/oi-iea  (1884) ;  Porphyrii  Opuscula  selecta  (3d  ed. 
1886).  Cf.  Th.  Zielinski,  A  ugust  Nauck  (Berlin,  1894),  where 
a  complete  list  of  his  writings,  131  in  all,  is  given. 

Alfred  Gudeman. 
Nancratis,  or  Naiikratis  :  a  garrison  city  established  by 
PsAMMETiciius  I.  (q.  c.)  about  665  B.  c,  for  his  Ionian  and 
Carian  mercenaries.  It  was  located  at  what  is  now  called 
Tell  Nebirch,  on  a  canal  W.  of  the  Rosetta  branch  of  the 
Nile,  near  Sais,  the  capital  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  and 
close  to  the  Libyan  frontier  (30' .50  N.  lat.,  30°  30^E.  of 
Greenwich).  Its  site  was  discovered  by  W.  M.  Flinders 
Petrie  in  1883,  and  exjilored  by  him  in  1885-86.  Its  origin 
was  entirely  Greek.  The  subsequent  history  of  the  Persian, 
Ptolemaic, "and  Roman  periods  of  the  city  is  in  doubt,  on 
account  of  the  excavations  made  by  natives,  which  uncov- 
ered the  Greek  antiquities  but  destroyed  all  later  accre- 
tions. A  factory  for  making  Greek  imitations  of  Egyptian 
scarabs  was  found  by  Petrie,  with  remains  dating  down  to 
Apries  (Hophra),  but  none  from  the  reign  of  Amasis.  This 
dates  the  original  town  quite  exactly,  but  the  discoveries  at 
Daphnje  (see  Tahpanhes)  serve  to  determine  the  time  more 
closely  still.  The  pottery  found  at  Naucratis  was  clearly 
Greek,  and  apparently  formed  of  Greek  clay ;  in  style  it 
was  quite  distinct  from  that  of  Daphne.  Naucratis  con- 
tained a  number  of  large  buildings — a  temple  to  Hera,  an- 
other to  Aphrodite,  a  small  one  to  the  Dioscuri,  the  Panhel- 
lenion,  the  largest  of  all  and  the  Greek  religious  center  of 
Egypt,  and,  oldest  of  all,  a  temple  to  the  Milesi.an  Apollo, 
in  the  center  of  the  town.  The  whole  was  originally  forti- 
fied. The  discovery  of  NaucratiSjWas  important,  not  only 
in  itself,  but  in  its  results,  since  it  threw  light  upon  the 
earliest  intercourse  between  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  also 
upon  the  history  of  the  Greek  alpliabet,  the  Naucratian  speci- 
mens of  Greek  caligraphy  being  among  the  oldest  known. 
After  the  time  of  Amasis  and  "the  destruction  of  Daphnse 
the  place  was  the  only  one  wliere  trade  with  Greece  was  al- 
lowed. See  Herodotus,  ii.,  178 ;  Strabo,  xvii.,  i.,  18,  S3,  33  ; 
Petrie,  Ten  Years'  Digging  in  Egypt :  and  Edwards,  Pha- 
raohs, Fellas,  and  E.rplorer.i.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Nauaratiick :  borough  (incorporated  in  1893,  made  co- 
terminous witli  the  town  in  1895);  New  Haven  co..  Conn. ; 
on  the  Xaugatuck  river,  and  on  the  Naugatuck  Division  of 
the  N.  Y.,  N.  11.  and  Hart.  Railroad  ;  5  miles  S.  of  Waterbury 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  10-P).  Its  manu- 
factures include  ruliber  and  woolen  goods,  malleable  iron, 
paper  boxes,  pins,  buttons,  belt-lacing,  and  electro-plated 
ware  ;  and  it  has  a  public  lilirary  (3,600  vols.),  a  public-school 
building  (both  tlie  gift  of  a  citizen),  a  national  bank  with 
caiiital  of  1100,000,  a  savings-bank,  and  three  weeklv  news- 
papers.    Pop.  (1M80)  4,374 ;  (1800)  6.318;  (1894)  8,335. 

T.  F.  Kane,  sliperlvtendent  of  schools. 
Nau'plia:  town  of  Greece,  in  the  Peloponnesus;  on  a 
rocky  peninsula  in  the  Argolic  Gulf  (see  map  of  Greece,  ref. 
17-K).  Of  small  importance  in  the  classic  period,  it  was 
entirely  deserted  at  the  time  of  Pausanias  (174  A.  D.),  but 
became  prominent  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Ottomans 
and  Venetia.ns  long  disjiuted  its  possession  ;  it  was  held  by 
the  former  from  1715  to  1835,  when  it  was  captured  by  the 
Greeks,  who  made  it  the  seat  of  their  government  from  1839 
to  1834.     Its  deep  harbor,  well  sheltered  from  the  winds,  is 


NAUl'l.lLS 


NAUTILID^ 


85 


protcctoil  liy  the  citadels  of  Pulaiiioiles  and  Itskale,  the  for- 
mer 720  feet  alxive  the  tuwii.  and  the  hitter  built  <in  the  site 
(if  the  aiieieiit  aeropulis.  Kroiii  a  iiiililarv  standpoint  Nau- 
plia  is  the  most  important  town  in  the  kintjdom,  and  the 
Greeks  call  it  the  tiibraltar  of  tire«ee.     Fop.  (181SH)  5.4.'>9. 

E.  A.  (iROSVKNOR. 

Naiiplius  [Lat..  a  kind  of  shellfish,  from  (ir.  faCi,  ship  + 
vKfTy.  to  stiil) :  a  name  fji^'e'ii  to  the  younj;  of  a  oertuiu  crus- 
tacean under  the  impn's-sioii  that  it  was  adult, and  now  used 
as  a  term  for  a  parlieular  st.a;re  in  the  developnieut  of  these 
forms.  A  naiiplius  lias  an  unsej;tnenled  body,  a  single  me- 
dian eye,  and  three  pairs  of  apjM-nilages,  Of  these  the  an- 
terior pair  is  simple  and  sensory,  the  two  remaining  pairs 
are  two-branched  and  serve  as  swimming  organs,  while 
their  ba-sal  joints,  on  cither  siile  of  the  mouth,  are  used  for 
the  comminution  of  food,  A  nauplius  stage  oe'curs  in  the 
history  of  most  K-vto-Mostraia  (q.  c),  but  it  is  rare  in  the 
(lei'ehJpnient  of  other  Crustacea.  From  tlie  wide  distribu- 
tion of  the  stage  it  was  formerly  regarded  as  indicatingtliat 
the  Crustacea  lia<l  descended  from  a  naupliiforra  ancestor, 
but  many  zoologists  no  longer  regard  it  as  having  any  phi- 
logenetic  significance.    See  Crustacea.     J.  S.  Kinoslev. 

Nauspa  [=  Lat.,  from  Or.  vavo-fo.  sea-sickness] :  the  sense 
of  im[iending  vomiting.  It  is  a  symploni  of  many  diseases, 
and  occui-s  as  a  result  of  irritation  of  some  part  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  or  of  the  nervous  centers  whicli  preside  over 
its  functions.  In  some  casi'S  nausea  passes  on  to  vomiting, 
in  others  it  goes  no  further  than  to  produce  a  feeling  that 
vomiting  might  occur  if  the  conditions  provoking  nausea 
were  to  continue.  Vomiting  may  occur  without  nausea. 
The  exciting  causes  of  nausea  are  very  numerous.  It  may 
be  provoked  by  certain  drugs  known  as  emetics,  such  as 
ipecacuanha,  tartar  emetic,  apomorphia,  sulphate  of  zinc, 
sulphate  of  copper,  and  alum  ;  while  lukewarm  water,  with 
or  without  the  addition  of  ground  mustard  seeds,  and  to- 
bacco are  familiar  excitants  of  vomiting.  Nausea  is  also 
often  observed  after  the  administration  of  morphia  and 
after  prolonged  debauches.  Nausea  may  be  provoked  by 
mechanical  irritation  of  various  parts  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  as,  for  instnncc,  tickling  tlin  fauces.  Overloading  the 
stomach  is  a  well-known  cause  of  nausea  and  vomiting,  and 
another — ecpially  known  to  medical  men — is  the  irritation 
caused  by  the  compression  of  a  loop  of  intestine  which  some- 
times takes  place  in  hernia  or  in  a  form  of  entanglement  of 
the  bowels  within  the  abdominal  cavity.  Nausea  may  be 
caused  by  blows  upon  the  head,  the  abdomen,  the  testicles 
or  the  ovaries,  and  it  is  a  symptom  of  various  disorders  or 
diseases  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  the  brain,  and  the 
kidneys.  Nausea  and  vomiting  arc  induced  by  many  poisons, 
and  often  occur  in  the  early  months  of  pregnancy,  some- 
tiiues  being  in  the  latter  case  of  a  most  intractable  charac- 
ter. Nausea  (K'curs  in  surgical  shock,  in  fainting,  and  after 
the  adininislration  of  ether,  A  peculiar  form  of  nausea  with 
vomiting  is  seen  in  some  ca.ses  of  consumption  and  in  a  dis- 
ea-ic  of  the  ear  calli'il  Meniere's  disease  or  labyrinthine  ver- 
tigo, and  in  hysteria.  In  many  fevers — especially  in  chil- 
dren— nausea  is  an  early  symptom,  and  vomiting  occurs 
almost  invariably  in  whooping-cough,  all  hough  there  is  usu- 
ally little  nausea  (in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term)  in  connection 
with  the  vomiting.  In  addition  to  these  causes  of  nausea 
may  be  menliimed  the  mental  impression  miu\e  by  disgusting 
sights  or  ixlors,  terrifying  circumstances,  and  the  fact  that 
individual  peculiarities  (idiosyncrasies)  make  certain  persons 
prone  to  nausea  from  causes  whicli  ilo  not  similarly  affect 
most  persons. 

Nausea  is  often  a  salutary  condition,  either  as  a  warning 
of  some  impending  danger  or  as  an  indication  of  the  pres- 
ence of  some  insidious  disease;  it  is  also  the  customary 
forerunner  of  vomiting,  which  itself  is  very  often  a  most 
salutary  process. 

For  the  elaboration  of  these  ideas  and  mucli  that  ought  to 
be  understood  in  connection  with  nausea  and  vomiting  con- 
joined, see  the  article  on  VoMiTiNo.    Charles  \V.  Uulx.e.s. 

Nautrh  (nawch)  Girls:  Sec  Bayadkrb. 

Nautical  Almanac:  See  Epiiemeris. 

Nniillcal  Schools:  schools  principally  for  the  purpose 
of  training  boys  for  the  merchant  marine.  They  were  of 
early  origin,  and  were  maintained  with  more  or  less  success 
by  the  various  nations  engaged  at  different  times  in  the 
struggle  for  commercial  supremacy.  In  (treat  Britain  there 
arc  a  number  of  vessels  upon  w  hich  schools  are  maintained, 
some  reformatory,  others  industrial  in  their  nature,  but  all 


for  the  purpose  of  educating  as  sailors  a  class  which  other- 
wise would  be  unprovided  for.  In  addition,  there  are  two 
scluHil-ships  upon  which  boys  are  trained  with  a  view  to  be- 
coming officers  in  the  merchant  service. 

liy  act  of  Congress,  Jiuie  20,  1874,  the  Secretary  of  the 
U.  .S.  Navy  was  authorized,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
nautical  education,  to  furnish,  upon  aiailication  of  a  Gov- 
ernor of  a  State,  a  suitable  naval  vessel,  with  her  apparel, 
charts,  books  ami  instrunients  of  navigation,  to  be  used  for 
the  benefit  of  anv  nautical  school  established  at  New  York, 
Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Norfolk,  San  Francisco, 
(Wilmington,  Charleston,  Savannah,  Mobile,  New  Orleans, 
15aton  Kougc,  (ialveston,  and  in  Narragansett  Bay,  added 
later),  upon  condition  that  there  shall  be  maintained  a 
school  for  the  instruction  of  youths  in  navigation,  seaman- 
ship, marine  enginery,  and  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
construction,  enuipment,  and  sailing  of  vessels,  or  any  par- 
ticular branch  thereof.  The  I'resiiient  was  authorized  at 
the  same  time  to  detail  jiroper  officers  of  the  navy  that 
could  be  spared  ius  superintendents  or  instructors. 

By  virtue  of  this  act  old  wooden  sailing  ves.sels  were  as- 
signed as  follows:  St.  Mary's  to  New  York  in  1874  ;  James- 
town to  San  Francisco  in  1876 :  Saratoga  to  Philadelphia 
in  1889;  and  the  steam-sloop  Enterprise  to  Boston  in  1892. 
While  the  nautical  school  in  San  Francisco  lasted  but  a 
short  time,  1  hat  in  New  York  has  been  maintained  ever  since 
its  incejition.  and  has  served  as  a  model  for  the  others.    Ap- 

EUcation  for  admission  to  it  must  be  made  in  writing  to  the 
oard  of  education  of  New  York  city,  which  controls  the 
school,  or  in  person  on  board  the  St.  JIary's.  The  qualifica- 
tions of  candidates  are  as  follows  :  Age  between  sixteen  and 
twenty  years  ;  average  size,  sound  const itvit ion.  and  freedom 
from  physical  defects;  inclination  for  seafaring  life;  and 
knowledgeof  reading, writing, spelling. and  arithmetic.  Can- 
didates admitted  are  required  to  furnish  their  outfits  and  to 
deposit  ^fliO  to  cover  cost  of  uniform  :  the  latter  amount  is 
forfeited  should  the  lad  desert  or  be  withdrawn  or  expelled. 
The  St.  Mary's  passes  nine  months  of  the  year  at  sea,  during 
which  instruction  is  given  in  seamanship  and  navigation ; 
the  course  lasts  two  years,  and  at  its  conclusion  the  pro- 
ficiency attained  is  iletcrinincd  bv  examination. 

According  to  the  Postal  Subsidy  Act  of  Mar.  3,  1800,  all 
subsidized  ships  must  draw  their  apprentices  from  the  nau- 
tical schools.  C.  Belknap. 

Nautiridoc  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  yau'tilus.  the  typic- 
al genus,  from  Lat.  nan  tihis  =  Or.  yaurihos,  nautilus,  liter., 
sailor,  deriv.  of  vainiis,  sailor,  deriv.  of  i/oCs,  ship]  :  the  only 
existing  family  of  the  once  numerous  group  of  Tetrabran- 
chiate  Cephalopods.  (See  JIollvsca.)  The  animal  differs 
from  that  of  other  Cephalopods  (squids  and  cuttlefish)  by 
having  numerous  tentacles,  an  eye  formed  on  the  type  of 
the  pin-hole  camera  (i.  e.  without  a  lens),  four  gills,  and  a 
chambered  shell.     This  shell  is  well  known.     It  is  coiled  in 


Section  of  a  uautilus,  ebowinfr  its  interior. 

a  flat  spiral,  and  the  interior  is  divided  by  partitions  into 
numerous  <'hainbers,  which  are  connected  with  each  other 
by  a  tubular  structure,  the  siphiincle.  The  animal  occu- 
pies the  large  outer  chamber.  The  only  existing  genus  is 
.Vrtu^/iM,  and  of  the  habits  of  this  almost  nothing  is  known, 
for  while  the  shells — familiar  as  the  "  jiearly  nautilus" — are 


86 


NAUVOO 


NAVAL  ACADEMIES 


common,  the  animals  are  among  the  greatest  rarities.  These 
animals  feed  on  small  crabs.  Fossil  forms  belonging  to  this 
family  are  numerous,  over  2,000  species  being  described  : 
only  six  living  species  are  known.  J.  S.  Kingsley. 

Nauvoo :  city  (founded  by  Jlormons  in  1840,  subsequent- 
ly occupied  by  a  company  of  French  Icarians,  now  settled 
principally  by  Germans) ;  Hancock  co..  111.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  5-B) ;  on  the  Mississippi 
river,  "at  the  head  of  the  lower  rapids:  Smiles  S.  of  Fort 
Madison,  la..  12  miles  X.  of  Keokuk.  The  nearest  railway 
station  is  that  of  the  Chi.,  Burl,  and  Quincy,  at  Montrose, 
la.,  directly  opposite,  wliich  is  reached  in  summer  by  ferry 
and  in  winter  on  the  ice.  The  city  contains  5  churches, 
high  school,  3  district  schools,  St.  Mary's  Academy  for  girls, 
a  State  bank  with  capital  of  §25,000,  and  2  weekly  newspa- 
pers. The  principal  business  is  agriculture  and  horticulture. 
About  100,000  gal.  of  wine  are  made  annually,  and  from 
fifty  to  eighty  carloads  of  table-grapes  and  twenty  of  straw- 
berries are  shipped  each  season.  For  events  during  the  Mor- 
mon occupation,  see  Mormo.ns.  Pop.  (1880)  1.402;  (1890) 
1,208:  (1894)  estimated,  1.300.   Editor  of  "  Ixdependen't." 

Navajos  :  See  Athapascan  Indians. 

Naval  Academies  :  schools  especially  devoted  to  the 
training  of  officers  for  the  naval  service. 

France. — Special  instruction  in  the  art  of  war  originated 
in  France,  but  it  was  carried  on  with  no  well-defined  policy 
until  1810,  when  two  schools  for  the  navy  were  established, 
one  at  Brest,  the  other  at  Toulon.  In  1816  they  were  united 
at  Angouleme,  and  in  1827  the  school  was  removed  to  Brest, 
where  it  has  since  remained.  The  naval  school  is  on  boiird 
the  Borda,  an  old  ship  of  the  line,  anchored  in  Brest  roads ; 
at  its  head  is  a  captain,  assisted  by  a  commander,  and  a  staff 
of  8  lieutenants,  12  professors,  and  1  principal  mechanician 
(engineer)  as  instructors.  About  4.5  candidates  are  admitted 
annually.  Admission  is  gained  to  the  school  by  public  com- 
petitive examinations  held  annually  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  The  qualifications,  in  addition  to  a  good  bodily 
constitution  and  an  age  between  fourteen  and  seventeen 
years,  comprise  a  knowledge  of  historv,  geography,  French, 
English,  Latin,  drawing,  physics,  chemistry,  arithmetic,  alge- 
bra, geometry,  plane  trigonometry,  and  analytical  and  de- 
scriptive geometry.  The  course  of  instruction  embraces  lit- 
erature, history,  geography,  English,  drawing,  physics,  chem- 
istry, astronomy,  analytical  and  mechanical  science,  naval 
architecture,  and  the  theory  and  practice  of  seamanship,  gun- 
nery, steam-engineering,  and  small-arms.  These  are  supple- 
mented by  practical  exercises  and  drills  of  various  kinds,  and 
by  an  annual  practice  cruise  of  two  months.  The  discipline 
maintained  is  severe  and  the  students,  from  whom  over  ten 
hours'  daily  work,  Sundays  included,  is  expected,  are  subjected 
to  constant  surveillance.  With  certain  exceptions,  the  pupils 
are  required  to  pay  700  francs  yearly  for  subsistence,  and 
1,000  francs  for  outfit.  After  two  years  at  the  school  those 
found  qualified  at  the  annual  examination  are  transferred, 
with  about  four  graduates  yearly  from  the  Polytechnic 
School  at  Paris,  to  the  Flore,  a  screw  steamer,  eighteen  guns, 
for  the  final  practice  cruise  of  ten  months,  after  which, 
upon  passing  an  examination  in  professional  subjects,  they 
become  eligible  for  active  service  as  midshipmen. 

The  school  of  naval  architecture,  founded  in  Paris  in  1765, 
and  after  several  changes  finally  estiiblished  at  Cherbourg  in 
1872,  is  under  the  management  of  the  naval  constructors, 
the  corps  which  designs  and  supervises  the  construction  of 
ships  and  engines  for  the  navy.  At  the  head  of  the  school 
is  a  director  of  naval  construction,  who  gives  instruction, 
assisted  by  two  naval  constructors  and  two  civil  professors. 
The  course  of  instruction  covei-s  two  years,  and  includes  the 
following  subjects  :  Ship-building,  strength  of  materials, 
naval  arcliitecture,  free-hand,  mechanical,  and  ship  and  en- 
gine plan-drawing,  worksliop  technology,  steam-engine, 
thermodynamics,  naval  ordnance,  compass  deviation  and 
compensation,  accounts,  and  English.  Graduates  of  the 
Polytechnic  School  to  the  nuinl)er  of  four  annually  are  as- 
signed to  this  scliool,  wliere  they  receive  theoretical  instruc- 
tion for  eight  months  of  the  year,  and  practical  illustration 
for  the  remaining  four  months  in  the  dockyard  at  Cher- 
bourg (first  year)  and  in  the  national  engine  works  at 
Indret  (second  year).  Those  found  qualified  at  the  end  of 
the  course  are  appointed  assistant  naval  constructors.  Pri- 
vate students  having  the  necessary  qualifications  are  ad- 
mitted to  this  school  by  permission  of  the  Ministry  of  Ma- 
rine, and  upon  the  conchision  of  the  course  are  given  diplo- 
mas stating  the  work  done  and  the  proficiency  attained. 


The  gunnery  school  for  officers  is  on  board  the  Souverain, 
twenty-five  guns,  at  Toulon :  in  special  cases  the  course  is 
two  years.  At  Lorient  there  is  an  artillery  school  for  the 
instruction  of  officers  of  the  marine  artillery  exclusively, 
and  at  tlie  same  place  a  number  of  olficcrs  are  annually 
trained  at  small-arms,  A  torpedo-school  was  established  at 
Boyardville,  Isle  of  Oleron,  in  1869,  and  transferred  in  1886 
to  Toulon.  Lately  it  has  become  the  school  of  submarine 
defense,  that  of  torpedoes  having  been  separated  and  placed 
on  board  the  Algesiras  at  llyeres.  The  course  is  five 
months,  but  those  who  show  special  aptitude  receive  a  sup- 
plementary course  of  four  months;  the  instruction  is  both 
theoretical  and  practical.  Special  schools  are  also  main- 
tained at  the  various  naval  ports  for  the  training  of  officers 
of  the  medical  and  commissariat  staff,  the  course  lasting  in 
both  classes  two  years.  In  France,  engineer  officers  of  the 
navy  are  selected  from  mechanicians. 

Great  Britain. — The  system  is  complex,  and  the  changes 
made  since  the  foundation  of  the  Royal  Naval  Academy  at 
Portsmouth  in  1729  have  been  many  ;  they  have  resulted  in 
tlie  formation  of  two  schools,  one  for  the  training  of  naval 
cadets,  the  other  for  the  education  of  officers  of  higher  rank. 
The  training-school  for  cadets,  established  in  1857,  at  first 
at  Portsmouth,  but  now  on  board  the  Britannia,  at  Dart- 
mouth, is  in  charge  of  a  captain,  assisted  by  9  officers,  9 
naval  instructors.  2  French,  1  Latin  and  2  drawing  masters, 
and  6  warrant  officers.  About  40  cadets  are  ap[pointed  to  the 
school  semi-annually  by  the  admiralty,  the  qualifications  for 
admission  being,  in  addition  to  a  sound  physique  and  an  age 
between  thirteen  and  fourteen  and  a  half,  knowledge  of  ele- 
mentary mathematics.  English.  French,  Latin,  and  Scripture 
liistory.  The  cadets  are  required  to  pay  for  their  outfit, 
clothing,  materials  used,  and  also  a  fee  of  £'70  yearly  (in  some 
cases  reduced  to  £40),  but  receive  their  subsistence  and  a 
small  weekly  allowance  for  pocket-money.  The  course  of 
study  embraces  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  plane  and 
spherical  trigonometry,  astronomy,  navigation,  dictation  and 
composition,  physics,  and  French,  and  lasts  two  years;  the 
cadets  are  then  sent  to  sea,  and  after  a  year's  service  be- 
come ensigns.  After  five  years"  sea-service,  and  after  attain- 
ing the  age  of  nineteen,  the  ensign  is  examined,  wherever 
he  may  be,  in  seamansliip,  and  upon  passing  receives  an  ap- 
pointment as  acting  sub-lieutenant.  He  then  returns  to 
England  for  instruction  and  examination  in  navigation  and 
gimnery,  and  if  successful  is  commissioned  sub-lieutenant. 

The  Royal  Naval  College  was  re-established  in  1873  at 
Greenwich,  to  provide  for  the  education  of  officers  of  all 
ranks  above  midshipmen  in  theoretical  and  scientific  study 
bearing  upon  their  profession.  At  its  head  is  a  flag-officer, 
assisted  by  a  captain,  a  civilian  director  of  studies,  and  a 
corps  of  thirty-one  professors  and  instructors.  Courses  of 
study  (compulsory)  are  provided  for  acting  sub-lieutenants, 
gunnery  and  torpedo  lieutenants,  naval  construction  stu- 
dents, acting  assistant  and  assistant  engineers,  probationary 
lieutenants  of  the  marine  artillery,  naval  instructors,  and 
(voluntary)  for  other  officers  on  half-pay,  and  private  stu- 
dents. The  courses  vary  in  length  from  six  months  for 
acting  assistant  engineers  and  sub-lieutenants  to  three  ses- 
sions of  nine  months  each  for  construction  students  and  as- 
sistant engineers. 

The  gunnery-school  is  on  board  the  Excellent  at  Ports- 
mouth ;  the  course  for  gunnery  lieutenants  is  six  months, 
for  acting  sub-lieutenants,  marine  artillery,  and  other  offi- 
cers, three  months.  The  torpedo-school  is  on  board  the 
Vernon. also  at  Portsmouth;  the  course  lasts  nine  months. 

United  States. — The  U.  S.  Naval  Academy  was  founded 
in  1845  by  George  Bancroft.  Secretary  of  the  Navy  during 
the  administration  of  President  Polk.  For  several  years 
prior  to  this  there  was  a  school  at  the  Naval  Asylum  in 
Philadelphia,  where  the  midshipmen  prepared  tliemselves 
for  examination  for  promotion.  The  Naval  School,  as  it 
was  at  first  called,  was  formally  opened  Oct.  10.  1845,  in 
Fort  Severn,  at  Annapolis,  y\A..  which  had  been  transferred 
by  the  War  to  the  Navy  Department  for  the  purpose.  The 
course  was  fixed  at  five  years,  of  which  the  first  and  last 
only  were  to  l)e  passed  at  the  school,  and  the  intervening 
three  at  sea.  The  first  midshipmen  that  received  a  course 
of  instruction  and  graduated  from  the  school  were  those 
who  entered  the  service  in  1840.  In  18.50  the  school  was  re- 
organized ;  the  name  was  changed  to  the  U.  S.  Naval  Acad- 
emy; the  course  was  increased  to  seven  years,  the  first  and 
last  two  years  to  be  passed  at  the  school,  the  intervening 
three  at  sea;  the  number  of  instructors  was  increased,  and 
separate  departments  of  instruction  established ;   a  vessel 


XAVAL   ACADEMIES 


NAVAL  SIGNALS 


87 


was  provided,  and  aiiniuti  practice  cruii^es  instituted ;  and 
provision  was  made  for  an  annual  board  of  visitors  to  in- 
spect and  report  upon  the  condition  of  the  school  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  In  1851  the  requirement  of  sea-serv- 
ice was  abolished,  leaving  the  course  four  consecutive  years 
of  study. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  1H61  the  Naval  Acail- 
emy  wiis  removed  to  Newport,  K.  I.,  where  it  remaitiod  until 
the  summer  of  IHC'i,  when  it  was  re-established  at  Annapo- 
lis. In  1S(0  the  title  of  caiiet-midshipnmn  was  substituted 
for  that  of  midshipman,  ami  three  years  later  the  course 
was  increased  by  the  addition  of  two  years'  sea  service  in 
cruisinij  vessels,  at  the  expiration  of  which  the  cadet-mid- 
shipman returned  to  the  Naval  Academy  for  exaniinalion 
in  professional  subjects  prior  to  final  j;raduation.  in  lHtJ6 
the  education  of  engineer  otlicers  was  begun  at  the  Naval 
.Vcademy  by  the  admission  oT  a  class  of  acting  third  assist- 
ant engineers,  who  |)ursued  a  special  course  of  instruction 
for  two  years.  Later  cadet-engineers  were  admitted  annu- 
ally until  1H.S2,  when  it  was  provided  by  act  of  Congress 
that  naval  cadets  should  be  appoiiiteil  in  place  of  cadct- 
miilshipmen  and  engineers,  and  that  from  those  who  suc- 
cessfully completed  the  si.^c  vears'  course  appointments 
shoulcl  thereafter  be  made  to  fill  the  vacancies  in  the  lower 
grades  of  the  line  and  of  the  engineer  and  marine  corps, 
and  that  those?  for  whom  no  vacaiu-y  existed  should  be  dis- 
charged with  a  year's  pay.  l!y  act  of  Congress,  Mar.  2, 
IHHU,  it  is  provided  that  tlie  academic  Ixiard  shall,  prior  to 
the  beginning  of  each  academic  year,  separate  I  lie  first 
(highest)  i-lass  of  naval  cadets  into  two  ilivisions  in  the  pro- 
portion which  the  aggregate  number  of  vacancies  that  have 
occurred  during  the  iireceding  fiscal  year  in  the  lowest 
grades  of  commissioned  officers  of  the  line  and  of  the  marine 
corps  shall  bear  to  those  which  have  occurred  in  the  engi- 
neer corps,  and  that  the  cadets  so  iissigned  shall  thereafter 
pursue  separate  courses  of  study:  those  in  the  line  and 
marine  division,  one  arrangeil  to  fit  them  for  service  in  the 
line  of  the  navy;  those  in  the  engineer  division,  one  to  fit 
them  for  service  as  naval  engineers.  It  is  further  provided 
that  all  vacancies  in  the  line  and  in  the  marine  and  engi- 
neer corns  shall  be  filled  by  appointments  from  final  gradu- 
ates at  the  end  of  the  six  years  course,  in  order  of  merit,  the 
assignments  to  be  made  l)y  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  upon 
recommendation  of  the  academic  txjard. 

At  the  head  of  the  Naval  -Vcademy  is  the  superintendent, 
a  naval  officer  of  high  rank,  who  is  iissisted  by  the  comman- 
dant of  cadets,  and  by  the  academic  l)oard,  which  is  com- 
posod,  in  mhlition  to  the  foregoing,  of  the  heads  of  the  differ- 
ent departments  of  study,  who  are,  with  one  exception,  naval 
olTicers.  One  naval  cadet  is  allowed  for  each  member  and 
delegate  of  the  House  of  Kepresentatives,  and,  by  appoint- 
ment of  the  President,  one  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  and 
leu  for  the  country  at  large.  Should  a  member  of  Congress 
fail  to  fill  the  vacancy  that  may  exist  in  the  cailetship  for 
his  district  by  .July  f,  the  .Secretary  of  the  Navy  is  authorized 
to  do  so.  In  I  he  regidar  senuence  of  affairs  vacancies  occur 
therefore  in  cadetships  once  in  six  years.  The  examina- 
tions for  admission  are  held  at  Annapolis  in  May  and  .Sep- 
temljcr ;  the  re(piirements,  in  addition  to  robust  constitution, 
freedom  from  physical  defects,  and  an  age  between  fifteen 
and  twenty  years,  are  a  knowledge  of  spelling,  grammar, 
geogi-aphy,  history  of  the  C  S.,  arithmetic,  and  algebra  as 
far  as  equations  of  the  first  degree.  If  admitteil.  cadets  are 
required  to  sign  an  engagement  to  serve  in  the  navy  for 
eiglit  years,  unless  sooner  dischargeil,  and  to  make  a  deposit 
of  f200  to  cover  the  cost  of  outfit;  the  expenses  of  travel 
from  their  homes  to  .Vnnapolis  are  refunded  to  them,  and 
they  receive  $5(>()  a  year,  liut  are  reipiired  to  pay  for  their 
9ul)si3tence,  clothing,  and  i>ther  expenses. 

For  the  first  three  years  all  the  cadets  pursue  the  same 
'  lurse  of  stuily,  which  includes  English  sluilies.  history, 
I'rench,  Spanish,  or  (lerman,  algebra,  geometrv  (including 
descriptive  and  amilytical),  trigonometry, calculus,  mechan- 
ics, astronomy,  phvsics,  chemistry,  mechanical  drawing,  ami 
seamanship.  During  the  fourth  year  the  course  of  study  is 
the  same  for  l>oth  divisions  of  the  class  in  naval  construc- 
tion, method  of  least  squares,  applied  mechanics, electricity, 
and  hygiene,  but  wliili'  the  cadets  of  tin-  line  division  |iursue 
acourse  in  seamanship,  onlinince,  gunnery,  infantry  tactics, 
navigation,  surveying,  compass  rieviation,  and  international 
law,  those  of  the  engineer  divisiim  receive  a  separate  course 
of  instruction  in  marine  lioilcrs  and  engines,  and  in  design- 
ing machinery.  Thi-  aeademii-  year  begins  Oct.  1  ami  ends 
May  31,  and  is  "livih'd  into  two  terms;  the  system  of  in- 


struction is  by  means  of  daily  recitations  (oral),  and  by 
monthly,  semi-annmil,  and  annual  examinations  (written)'; 
those  found  physically  or  mentally  disqualified  at  the  half- 
yearly  examinations  are  droppeil ;  the  instructors  are  almost 
exclusively  naval  oflicers.  The  course  of  study  is  sujiple- 
mented  by  a  very  thorough  system  of  ]>ractical  exercises  in 
seamanship,  sigmils,  numagemeut  of  l)oats  under  oars  and 
sail, and  of  steam-launches, in  infantry,  howitzer, and  great- 
gun  drill,  in  ordnance,  gunnery,  and  torpedoes,  in  marks- 
manship with  revolvers,  rifles,  and  rapid-fire  guns,  in  navi- 
gation, surveying,  and  compass  deviation,  in  nnichine-shop 
work  and  in  running  engines,  and  in  athletics,  incliuling 
fencing  with  small  aiul  broad  sworils,  bayonet  exercise,  box- 
ing, swimming,  and  dancing.  The  departments  of  study 
are  amply  illustrated  by  models  and  apparatus  of  all  kinds; 
the  observatory  contains  a  large  collection  of  instruments,  in- 
cluding an  e(|uatorial  telescope;  the  lil)rary  contains  32,000 
volumes.  The  Monongaliela,  a, wooden  sailing  vessel,  and 
the  Hancroft,  a  steel  barkentine-rigged  vessel,  W8  tons  dis- 
placement, with  triple-expansion  engines,  and  twin  screws, 
carrying  an  arnuunent  of  four  4-incli  rapid-fire  guns,  and 
seven  guns  of  smaller  calibers,  with  lubes  for  botli  Howell 
and  \Vhiteliea<l  torpediK'S,  are  stationed  at  the  Naval  Acade- 
my for  purposes  of  instruction  in  sail  and  spar  drill,  and  in 
great-gun,  torpedo,  and  other  exercises,  and  for  use  in  mak- 
ing; the  summer  jiradice  cruises. 

Immediately  after  the  annual  examination  the  cadets  of 
the  graduating  class  are  ordered  to  cruising  vessels  for  the 
two  years'  service  [prior  to  final  examination;  the  first  and 
third  classes,  with  the  candidates  that  have  been  admitted, 
are  endiarked  on  board  the  practice-vessels  for  the  annual 
cruise  of  three  months ;  the  second  class  remains  at  the 
academy  for  practical  instruction  in  the  nuichine-shop  for  a 
month,  and  then  joins  the  others  on  the  cruise.  AH  the 
cadets,  except  those  of  the  fourth  class,  are  granted  leave  to 
visit  their  homes  in  Septcjnlwr. 

The  limits  of  this  article  do  not  permit  description  of 
other  systems  of  naval  education  ;  in  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  all  nations  makingauy  pretensions  to  naval  power  pro- 
vide for  the  trainingof  luival  otlicers;  the  methods  pursued 
resend)le  more  or  less  closely  those  already  described  above. 

Hkkkrence. — Fiireign  Systems  of  yaval  Education,  by 
.1.  K.  .Soley,  late  professor  U.  S.  navy.  C.  Hklknap. 

Naval  Architoc'ture:  See  Ship-buildi.vo. 

Naval  Signals:  the  means  of  transmitting  intelligence 
at  sea  by  the  agency  of  sight  or  hearing.  The  code  of  day 
and  night  signals  used  in  the  U.  S.  navy  is  contained  in  two 
volumes — the  General  Siffnat-book  and  the  Fleet  Drill- 
book.  The  first  contains  about  7,000  words  and  sentences 
arranged  alphaljetically  and  regularly  numbered.  Resort 
is  had  also  to  a  vociibulary  of  .sonu"  lO.CtOO  conversational 
words,  to  which  is  added  an  alphabet  and  a  geogra[>hical 
list  of  nearly  11,000  phui'S,  each  letter  and  word  having  its 
apprt)priate  number.  The  Fleet  l>rill-buok  relates  to  the 
tactical  formations  of  a  fleet  or  squadron.  Now,  every  ves- 
sel in  the  navy  having  a  set  of  these  books,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  signal  a  message  from  one  ship  to  an- 
other, to  indicate  the  volume  and  the  number  in  that  vol- 
ume curres[ionding  to  the  re(iuired  wonls  or  sentences.  To 
do  this  there  are  nine  rectangular  signal-flags  representing 
the  digits,  one  to  stand  for  zero  or  ten.  and  three  triangular 
pemiants  called  repealers,  wherewith  to  make  duplicate 
numbers.  The  sentence,  for  example,  "Anchor  in  the  order 
of  steaming"  may  stand  opposite  No.  112  in  the  signal- 
book.  To  nnike  this  we  first  bend  on  signal-flag  No.  1, 
next  the  first  repeater,  and  lastly  No.  2.  Had  the  signal 
been  No.  122.  we  should  first  bend  on  signal-flag  No.  l.then 
No.  2,  and  lastly  the  second  repeater,  because  the  second 
nmnber  in  the  hoist  is  to  be  repeated;  and  so  on.  The 
lowest  flag  in  the  hoist  represents  the  units.  IJesides  the 
afpove-nanu'il  flags  there  are  the  cornet,  the  danger-signal, 
the  guide-flag,  the  annulling  flag,  the  telegraph  flag,  the 
dispatch,  iimiraiitine,  aiul  convoy  flags;  also  the  answering 
ipeinuint,  the  preparatory,  interrogatory,  numeral,  geograph- 
ical, and  |iosilion  pennants,  their  names  suggesting  their 
uses,  save  the  cornet,  which  indicates  a  vessel's  numlier  in 
one  case,  and  serves  as  a  recall  in  another.  Flags  of  vari- 
ous colors  are  availal>le  as  signals  only  for  a  distance  but 
little  over  3  miles.  Heyond  that  long-distance  signals  are 
used,  such  as  the  .semaphore,  the  cojlapsing  drum,  or  the 
use  of  cones,  balls,  and  sipiares — in  which  the  shape  fakes 
the  place  of  coh)r.  Aii/hl-xiijiinls are  made  acconling  to  the 
svstem  of  Lieut.  F.  \V.  N'erv,  U.  S.  navy,  by  which  fire-balls 


88 


NAVAL  TACTICS 


NAVE 


or  stars  are  shot  to  a  height  of  about  400  feet.  Only  two 
colors  are  used,  red  and  green,  with  which  any  desired  sig- 
nal may  be  made,  a  rocket  being  used  to  indicate  a  ship's 
number  and  as  a  signal  of  execution.  Electric  lights  are 
now  used  fur  distant  night  signaling.  The  search-light 
may  be  used  for  signaling  a  ship  below  the  horizon,  by  re- 
flecting the  light  on  a  cloud.  Signals  have  been  exchanged 
in  this  manner  between  two  ships  60  miles  apart.  Fog- 
signals  are  made  by  firing  guns,  blowing  horns,  the  steam- 
whistle,  and  by  sounding  the  ship's  bell.  The  long  and 
short  blasts  of  the  steam-whistle,  by  representing  the  two 
elements  of  the  army  code,  furnish  the  means  of  signaling 
in  thick  weather. 

The  army  code,  as  it  is  generally  called,  invented  by  Gen. 
A.  J.  Myer,  U.  S.  army,  is  used,  with  certain  modifications, 
as  a  part  of  the  naval  signal  system.  By  this  method  the 
signalman  spells  each  word  of  the  message,  shortening  the 
process  by  abbreviations.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  are 
represented  by  signs,  each  sign  and  its  corresponding  letter 
having  an  arbitrary  number  assigned  to  it.  A,  for  ex- 
ample, may  be  represented  by  22,  B  by  2112,  C  by  131,  etc. 
The  usual  manner  of  making  these  numbers  is  by  a  flag  at- 
tached to  a  staff  and  waved  by  the  signalman.  At  night  the 
staff  is  surmounted  by  a  torch.  The  signalman,  facing  the 
point  of  communication,  and  holding  the  staff  in  a  vertical 
position  to  his  front  center,  dips  his  flag  to  the  right  to 
represent  1,  to  the  left  for  2,  and  to  his  front  for  3,  each 
dip  describing  the  quadrant  of  a  circle.  Nos.  1  and  2  are 
made  in  a  vertical  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of 
communication  ;  No.  3  in  a  vertical  plane  in  that  line.  All 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  made  up  of  combinations 
of  1  and  2,  No.  3  being  used  to  mark  the  end  of  a  word, 
and  when  repeated  the  end  of  a  sentence  or  message. 
Two  practiced  signalmen  can  communicate  freely  by  this 
method,  transmitting  with  accuracy  and  expedition  long 
messages.  Its  great  advantage  consists  in  not  requiring  a 
signal-book.     See  Signal-service. 

Tlie  international  code  of  signals  furnishes  a  species  of 
universal  language  to  the  entire  maritime  world.  One  sys- 
tem of  flags  having  been  adopted  Ijy  all  nations,  and  each 
one  having  a  signal-book  common  to  all,  printed  in  its  own 
language,  it  is  plain  that  on  the  meeting  of  two  ships  at  sea 
signals  may  be  made  and  understood  whatever  their  re- 
spective nationalities.  A  full  explanation  of  the  system 
may  be  found  in  the  preface  of  International  Code,  together 
with  a  description  of  distance  signals,  semaphore,  boat,  and 
weather  signals.  S.  B.  Luce. 

Naval  Tactics :  See  Tactics. 

Navarino,  naa-va"a-ree'no  (anc.  Pylos):  town  of  Greece; 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  on  the  Bay  of  Navarino;  situated  on  a 
rocky  promontory,  with  a  strong  citadel  (see  map  of  Greece, 
ref.  i8-J).  Pop.  (1889)  2,128.  In  the  harbor  the  Turco- 
Egyplian  fleet  was  destroyed  by  the  allied  British,  French, 
and  Russian  fleets  Oct.  21,  1827.  The  former  consisted  of 
120  vessels  of  all  sorts,  carrying  2,240  cannon ;  the  latter  of 
only  26  vessels,  with  1,.324  cannon.  The  Turco-Egyptians 
lost  3  ships  of  the  line,  16  frigates,  26  corvettes,  13  brigs, 
and  5  fire-ships,  and  6,000  men  killed.  The  allies  lost  one 
gunboat,  140  men  killed,  and  300  wounded.  See  Mehemet 
Ali  Pasha.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Navarre  (Span.  JVavarra) :  a  province  of  Northern  Spain ; 
between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Ebro.  Area,  6,046  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (1887)  804,122.  The  whole  country  is  mountainous, 
traversed  by  branches  of  the  Pyrenees,  whose  tops  generally 
are  bare,  while  their  sides  are  covered  with  forests  of  beech- 
trees  or  afford  excellent  pastures  where  numerous  cattle  and 
sheep  are  reared.  The  mountains,  which  contain  much  iron 
and  salt,  inclose  many  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys,  such  as 
that  of  Koncesvalles  and  Roncal,  which  produce  wheat,  olive 
oil,  figs,  grapes,  chestnuts,  and  many  varieties  of  fruits.  The 
inhabitants  are  an  almost  pure  Basque  race,  speaking  the 
Basque  language  to  a  considerable  extent  (see  Basques),  and 
very  jealous  of  their  old  customs  and  privileges ;  they  are 
hardy,  industrious,  and  hospitable.  Besides  agriculture, 
cattle-breeding,  and  manufactures  of  iron,  glass,  paper,  and 
soap,  they  are  ranch  engaged  in  hunting  and  in  smuggling. 
The  old  kingdom  of  Navarre  (which  originally  included  also 
what  is  now  the  French  depiirtment  of  Basses-Pyrenees)  suc- 
cessfully resisted  the  invasions  of  the  Saracens,  and  remained 
independent  until  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  conquered  it  in 
1512  and  annexed  it  to  Aragon  ;  it  preserved  many  peculiar 
privileges,  however,  which  were  not  finally  abolished  until 
1876. 


Navarrete,  naVvalir-ra'ta,  Francisco  Manuel,  de  :  poet; 
b.  at  Zamora,  diocese  of  Michoacan,  Mexico,  July  16,  1768. 
On  the  completion  of  his  studies  at  Zamora  he  went  into 
business  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  but  felt  a  strong  call  to  the 
religious  career,  and  about  1787  became  a  Franciscan.  He 
obtained  much  fame  as  a  preacher,  and  on  account  of  his 
scholarship  was  made  Professor  of  Latin  in  the  college  of 
Valladulid.  His  first  poems  were  published  in  the  Diario 
de  Mejico  in  1805,  and  before  his  death  he  had  composed  a 
considerable  quantity  of  verses,  some  of  them  upon  religious 
themes,  but  others  modeled  upon  the  works  of  his  beloved 
Latin  poets.  He  died  July  19,  1809,  in  the  monastery  of 
Tlalpujahua,  after  trying,  it  is  said,  to  bum  all  he  had 
written  :  but  his  brother  was  able  to  gather  a  considerable 
body  of  poems  and  to  issue  them  under  the  title  Enlreteni- 
mientos  poeticos  del  P.  Navarrete  (Mexico,  1833 ;  Paris, 
1835).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Navarrete,  Martin  Fernandez,  de:  naval  officer  and 
historian;  b.  at  Avalos,  Logroiio,  Spain,  Nov.  8,  1765.  He 
entered  the  navy  in  1781  and  took  part  in  the  attack  on 
Gibraltar  Sept.,  1782;  in  1789  he  had  attained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant,  and  was  already  known  as  a  promising  author. 
He  then  received  orders  to  collect  documents  relating  to 
the  Spanish  navy,  and  for  this  purpose  he  examined  all 
the  principal  archives  and  libraries  of  Spain.  Returning  to 
active  service  in  1793.  he  served  against  the  French;  in 
1796  he  was  attached  to  the  Dejiartment  of  Jlarine,  holding 
important  positions  in,  it  until  1807,  when  he  resigned  rather 
than  recognize  Joseph  Bonaparte.  After  the  restoration  he 
was  again  given  office,  and  for  many  years  he  was  one  of 
the  highest  authorities  on  naval  affairs.  From  1833  he  was 
director  of  tiie  hydrographic  office,  and  from  1824  director 
of  the  Madrid  Academy  of  History,  which  owed  its  fame 
largely  to  his  exertions.  In  later  life  he  was  several  times 
senator.  His  best-known  work  is  the  collection  of  annotated 
documents  entitled  Coleccibn  de  los  viajes  y  descubrimitn- 
tos  que  hicieron  por  mar  los  Espafloles  desde  fines  del  siglo- 
XV.,  etc.  (7  vols.,  1835-65).  He  also  wrote  Vida  de  Cervan- 
tes, published  by  the  Academy  with  its  edition  of  Don  Qui- 
xote (1830) ;  Biblioteca  maritima  espaHola  (posthumous, 
1851),  etc.  He  edited  the  first  four  volumes  of  the  great 
collection  of  documents  relating  to  the  historv  of  Spain. 
D.  at  Madrid,  Oct.  8,  1844.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Navasota:  city;  Grimes  co.,  Tex.  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Texas,  ref.  4-1) ;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Brazos  and  the 
Navasota  rivers,  and  on  the  Houston  and  Texas  and  the 
Gulf,  Colorado  and  Santa  Fe  railways;  70  miles  N.  of  Hous- 
ton. It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  cotton-growing  region,  and 
is  principally  engaged  in  milling  and  several  branches  of 
the  cotton  industrv.  It  contains  a  national  bank,  a  private 
bank,  and  three  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  1,611 ;  (1890), 
3,997. 

Nave  [via  0.  Pr.  from  Lat.  navis,  ship,  Mediaev.  Lat.,  body 
of  a  church  >  Mod.  Fr.  nef,  Ital.  nave} :  in  architecture,  a 
term  used  to  designate  in  general  the  principal  hall  of  a 
church  as  distinguished  from  the  choir,  transepts,  chapels,, 
or  side  aisles.  It  is  also  sometimes  applied  in  secular  archi- 
tecture to  large  and  imposing  halls  of  more  than  usual  length 
and  loftiness,  which  resemble  in  form  and  proportion  the 
nave  of  a  church.  The  typical  arrangement  of  the  nave  and 
side  aisles  in  Christian  architecture  was  derived  from  the 
Roman  secular  basilicas.  These  were  halls  witli  nave,  side 
aisles,  a  species  of  transept,  and  an  apse  or  tribune.  The 
naves,  separated  from  the  aisles  by  arcades  or  colonnades, 
were  lighted  by  clerestory  windows  and  covered  with  wooden 
roofs,  sometimes  with  open  trusses,  sometimes  with  richly 
paneled  or  coffered  ceilings.  In  a  cruciform  church  the 
nave  extends  from  the  front  to  tlie  transepts,  and  is  com- 
monly flanked  by  single  or  double  side  aisles  on  either  hand. 
There  are,  however,  many  parish  churches  in  England  hav- 
ing a  double  nave,  i.  e.  two  nearly  or  quite  equal  naves  side 
by  side,  without  side  aisles.  In  Southern  Europe  especially, 
though  not  exclusively,  there  are  also  many  churches  having 
a  nave  flanked  by  chapels  without  intervening  side  aisles,  as 
in  the  cathedral  at  Alby  in  France,  the  cathedral  at  Gerona 
in  Spain,  and  in  a  number  of  Italian  churches  of  the  Renais- 
sance. In  churches  with  a  nave  and  aisles  the  former  is 
separated  from  the  latter  either  by  columns,  as  in  the  early 
Christian  basilicas  of  Rome  and  the  East  and  their  mediipval 
copies  in  Italy,  or  by  piers,  square,  polygonal,  or  clustered,, 
as  is  the  case  in  all  Romanesque,  Lombard,  Norman,  and 
Gothic  churches,  and  generally  in  those  of  the  Renaissance. 
The  piers  or  columns  sustain  arches  called  pier-arches,  upoa 


NAVE 


NAVIGATION' 


89 


which  are  built  the  upper  side  walls  of  the  nave,  which  rise 
above  the  side-aisle  vaulting  and  roofs,  and  are  pierced  with 
windows;  the  wall  thus  pierced  is  called  the  cltrmtory. 
Above  it  is  the  ceiling  or  vault  of  the  nave.  In  most  niedi- 
aival  churches  of  importance  in  France,  England  and  West- 
ern Kurope  generally  the  broad  band  of  wall  between  the 
pier  arches  and  clerestory  windows,  corresponding  to  the 
"lean-to"  roofs  over  the  side-aisle  vaulting,  is  pierced  with 
arches  forming  a  triforium  or  gallery ;  but  nuiiiy  German 
churches,  and  a  few  elsewhere,  have  the  siile  aisles  nearly  or 
tpiite  as  high  as  the  nave,  all  the  light  being  received  from 
windows  in  the  side  walls.  Another  type  of  basilica  nave 
that  was  destined  to  profoundly  influence  Christian  archi- 
tecture was  evolved  in  the  basilica  of  Jla-Xenlius  and  C'on- 
stantine,  where  the  tepidariuni  hulls  of  the  greater  thermae 
were  imitated  with  their  huge  groined  vaults  in  three  com- 
partments spanning  the  great  hall,  while  the  three  compart- 
ments or  bathing  recesses  on  either  side  were  converted  into 
side  aisles  by  piercing  arches  through  the  wing  walls  or  but- 
tresses separating  these  recesses.  These  wing  walls,  contin- 
ued above  the  vaulted  roofs  of  the  side  aisles,  formed  but- 
tresses to  withstand  the  lateral  thrust  of  the  nave-vaulting. 
This  Constaiitinian  type  of  nave,  with  the  substitution  of 
domical  for  groined  vaulting,  became  the  prototype  of  By- 
zantine structures  like  Aya  Solia  ("St.  Sophia"  so  called)  in 
Constant  inoplc.  It  had  the  advantage  of  greater  loftiness  as 
compared  with  the  earlier  types,  and  of  being  thoroughly  fire- 
proof. It  solved  in  one  way  the  problem  of  the  vaulted  nave 
with  side  aisles  which  the  architects  of  the  Middle  Agesafter- 
ward  sought  for  ;tt)0  years  to  solve  in  another  way.  Gothic 
architecture  is  indeed  the  outcome  of  long-continue<l  experi- 
ments in  the  adaptation  of  vaulting  to  the  typical  basilica 
plan  of  iiagan  and  early  Christian  Rome.  (See  ARcniTEc- 
TURE.)  In  this  effort  to  vault  with  masonry  the  nave  as  well 
as  the  aisles  of  the  original  basilica  type  by  methods  which 
reached  their  culmination  in  the  splendid  cathedrals  of  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries — like  Salisbury,  Amiens, 
Strassbnrg.  and  Culogne — the  nave  took  on  an  entirely  new 
form.  In  place  of  the  monolithic  columns  which  formerly 
separated  it  from  the  aisles,  heavy  piers — square  or  round  in 
the  earlier  examples,  but  in  the  later  ones  resembling  clusters 
of  shafts  al)out  a  central  core — sustained  the  greatly  thick- 
ened clerestory  walls  by  means  of  heavy  arches  richly  moulded, 
some  of  the  shafts  being  carried  up  to  receive  the  spring 
of  the  ribs  of  the  groineil  vaulting.  The  width  of  the  nave 
was  considerably  reduced  owing  to  the  dilliculty  of  con- 
structing vaults  of  large  span,  while  the  span  of  the  pier- 
arches  was  increased,  the  number  of  bays  in  the  nave  being 
correspondingly  reduce<l.  As  the  complexity,  retinenient, 
and  perfection  of  the  construction  advanced,  the  piers  were 
made  lighter  and  loftier;  each  vaulting-rib  wils  given  its 
own  shaft,  carried  clear  to  the  ground ;  the  arches,  at  first 
round,  became  pointed ;  the  clerestory  was  made  higher 
and  its  wall-surface  treated  as  a  mere  screen  between  the 
vaulting  and  the  supporting  shafts;  the  clerestory  windows 
were  made  of  enormous  size,  and  filled  with  magnificent 
stained  glass  lield  by  elaborate  geometric  or  "Howing" 
traceries  in  stone;  the  triforium  was  made  a  wholly  sub- 
ordinate but  ornate  feature  between  the  clerestory  and  the 
pier-arches;  and  in  England,  and  to  some  extent  in  Ger- 
many, the  vaulting  itself  was  made  highly  ilecorative  by  the 
rich  patternsof  a  complex  system  of  vault  ing-ribs.  In  Italy, 
however,  the  Gothic  system  wius  never  ci>mprehended,  ami  the 
broad  clivisions  and  ample  scale  of  parts  of  the  old  Homan 
vaulted  halls  seem  to  have  prevailed  in  such  naves  as  that 
of  the  I)ui>mo  at  Elorence,  where  there  are  only  five  bays  of 
nearly  "i5  span  each,  against  an  average  span  of  18  to  25 
feet  for  the  7  to  12  bays  of  French  and  English  Gothic 
naves.  The  English  naves  are  lower  than  the  French,  70  to 
80  feet  to  the  crown  of  the  vault  being  a  common  height, 
against  100  to  l.'iO  f<et  for  the  French:  but  the  vistas  of 
English  mives  are,  on  the  other  hand,  enhauced  by  the  al- 
most excessive  length  of  the  choirs  beyond. 

In  the  I{enais.sance  period  Italy  took  the  lead  in  the 
building  of  imposing  churches;  the  dome  at  the  crossing  of 
the  nave  and  transepts  became  the  central  and  culminating 
feature  of  the  ilesign.  and  this  arrangement  was  imitated  in 
most  of  the  large  Renaissance  <hnrches  of  England,  France, 
and  (rermany,  as  at  .St.  Paul's  (liiindim),  the  I'anth(?on 
(I'arisi,  atnl  many  others.  <»f  the  Italian  churches  St.  Peter's 
IS  the  arrhilype ;  its  stupendous  nave,  ;{;10  feet  long  to  the 
opening  of  the  dome,  is  H7  feet  wide  and  133  feet  high.  In 
this,  as  in  most  of  the  Italian  churches  of  the  Renaissance, 
the  vault  is  a  barrel-vault  with  jienetrations,  richly  adorned 


by  paneling  executed  in  stucco  and  gilded.  The  arrange- 
ment of  piers,  invariably  treated  with  one  or  another  of  the 
cla-ssic  orders,  varies  greatly,  with  corresponding  variety  in 
the  architectural  effect  of  the  nave.  Stucco  enrichments, 
inlays  of  i)recious  marble,  and  sumptuous  pictorial  decora- 
tions in  fresco  on  the  vaults  and  spandrels  contribute  to 
these  effects.  See  articles  Architecture  and  Cat  In' J  rale  in 
Viollet  le  Due's  Dicliimnaire  liaisunne;  Mrs.  Van  Rensse- 
laer's Engliuli  Cathedrals:  Parker's  (luthic  Architecture: 
LUbke's  Mediivral  Architecture ;  Prof.  Moore's  Development 
of  (rothic  Architecture;  Vi-rga^^son's  lligtori/  of  Architecture 
and  Iliiitonj  of  Modern  Architecture;  also  ARniiTEiTURE 
and  Rk.naissa.vck  ARcniTEcriRK.  A.  1).  F.  IIamm.n'. 

Na'vesink  (or  Nevcrsiiik)  Highlands:  a  range  of  hills 
on  the  south  side  of  .Sandy  Hook  Bay,  in  Monmouth  co., 
N.  J.  They  are  important  landmarks  to  ships  approaching 
New  York.  The  highest  point,  Mt.  Mitchell,  is  283  feet 
high.  Two  first-class  lighthouses,  53  feet  high,  stand  100 
feet  a])art  on  ground  lOo  feet  high.  The  southeasternmost 
tower  is  in  lat.  40'  23'  43"  N.,  Ion.  73°  58'  49'  W.  Both  show 
fixed  white  lights. 

Navicular  Disease:  See  Farriery. 

Navigation  [from  Lat.  nariga'tio,  a  sailing,  deriv.  of 
naviga  re,  sail;  »«('!.■<.  ship -t- o^crc,  lead,  drive,  conduct]  : 
the  art  of  conducting  a  ship  from  port  to  port  and  across 
the  ocean  with  safety  and  dispatch,  and,  more  particularly, 
of  determining  her  position  from  time  to  time  on  the  face  of 
the  globe  by  observations  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

The  inlialiitants  of  ancient  Sidon  were  the  pioneers  in 
this  branch  of  knowledge.  Neglecting  the  history  of  its  de- 
velopment, this  article  gives  a  brief  description  of  the  prac- 
tical navigation  of  a  ship  in  making  a  voyage.  The  reader 
is  referred,  for  a  complete  understanding  of  the  subject,  to 
Coffin's  Xavigatinn  and  Nautical  Astronomy  and  to  Bow- 
dilch's  Navigator. 

Before  proceeding  to  sea,  the  ship  should  be  furnished 
with  charts  of  the  ocean  to  be  traversed;  a  sextant  or  oc- 
tant, a  compass  fitted  with  attachments  for  observing  azi- 
mutlis:  a  nautical  almanac  for  the  current  year;  a  chronom- 
eter running  on  mean  time  whose  error  for  a  given  meridian 
(generally  that  of  (i  recnwich,  England)  and  daily  rate  of  error 
are  known  ;  a  stanilanl  work  on  practical  navigat  ion ;  a  lead- 
line properly  marked  for  taking  soundings;  and  a  log-line 
for  measuring  the  ship's  speed.  When  the  cargo  is  stowed 
and  the  vessel  otherwise  ready  for  sea  the  local  deviation  of 
her  compass  .-should  be  determined.  In  inm  or  steel-built 
ships  the  local  deviation,  due  to  the  magnetism  of  the  ship, 
is  usually  very  great,  and  renders  the  compass  unreliable. 
When  this  is  found  to  be  the  ca.se,  the  compass  is  adjusted 
by  placing  near  it  other  magnets  wliich  neutralize  the  ship's 
magnetism.  These  are  generally  horizontal  magnets,  acting 
in  the  direction  of  the  ship's  magnetic  force;  a  vertical 
magnet  directly  under  the  ci'nter  of  the  needle;  vertical  soft 
iron  bars,  called  Flinders  Imrs,  with  one  end  on  the  level 
of  the  compass  needle;  and  two  hollow  spheres  of  soft  iron, 
placed  on  a  line  throtigh  the  center  of  the  C(mipass,  with 
their  centers  in  the  plane  of  the  needle,  and  at  equal  dis- 
tances from  the  compass.  Full  directions  for  determining 
the  deviation  and  for  the  adjustment  of  the  compass  will  be 
found  in  the  Admiralty  Manual  of  Compass  Deviation. 

As  the  ship  stands  out  to  sea  a  departure  is  taken.  This 
is  finding  the  ship's  latitude  and  longitude  from  the  chart 
by  the  bearing  and  distance  of  one  landmark,  or  from  the  bear- 
ing of  two  or  more  marks  whose  positions  are  laid  down  on  it. 
As  soon  as  this  departure  is  taken  the  course  is  shaped  for 
the  port  to  which  the  ship  is  bound,  due  regard  being  had 
for  the  winds,  currents,  and  dangers  to  navigation  to  be  en- 
countered by  the  way,  and  from  this  time  on  the  courses 
steered,  the  speed  of  the  shin,  etc.,  are  duly  noted  in  the  log- 
txwk.  Suppose  the  ship  sails  at  night.  .\t  or  about  8  a.  si., 
or,  better  still,  when  the  sun  iK'ars  most  nearly  true  E.,  and 
yet  has  sufficient  altitude  to  avoid  the  irregular  refraction 
near  the  horizon,  its  altitude  (angular  distance  above  the 
sea  horizon)  is  measured  with  the  sextant,  and  the  instjint 
of  observation  is  noteil  by  the  ehrononu'ter.  With  the  lati- 
tude and  longitude  of  the  ship  at  the  lime  of  taking  the  de- 
parture, with  the  courses  and  distances  sailed,  the  former 
correcleil  for  variation,  leeway,  and  deviation  to  the  time  of 
the  obscrvati(m,  we  compute  by  trigonometry  the  latitude 
and  longitude,  or  the  jmsition  by  dead  reckoning.  From 
the  altitude  of  the  sun  observed  (corrected,  as  all  altitudes 
of  the  sun  taken  at  sea  have  to  be,  for  semi-diameter,  paral- 
lax, dip,  refraction,  ami  the  index  error  of  the  sextant),  we 


90 


NAVIGATION 


NAVIGATION,  FREEDOM  OF 


have  tlie  true  altitude  of  the  sun's  center  as  seen  from  the 
center  of  the  earth ;  from  Tlie  Nautical  Almanac  we  obtain 
the  sun's  declination  for  the  instant  of  the  o^J^ervation;  and 
by  the  dead  reckoning  we  have  the  approximate  latitude, 
data  giving  the  three  sides  of  the  astronomical  triangle;  and 
from  this  we  compute  one  of  its  angles,  the  hour-angle  of  the 
sun,  the  local  apparent  time,  which  is  converted  into  mean 
time  by  the  application  of  the  equation  of  time  taken  from 
the  almanac;  the  difference  between  the  local  mean  and  the 
chronometertimes  gives  the  longitude  by  observation.  When 
taking  the  sun's  altitude  its  bearing  "by  compass  and  the 
ship's  heading  by  compass  should  be  noted.  With  the  same 
data  as  above  the  sun's  true  bearing  can  be  computed,  and 
by  comparing  its  true  and  compass  bearings  the  errors  of 
that  compass  on  that  heading  of  the  ship  are  obtained. 

Near  noon  the  observer  again  begins  to  observe  the  sun, 
and  continues  to  do  so  as  long  as  the  altitude  increases,  not- 
ing the  sextant  reading  at  the  greatest  altitude  attained. 
The  sun  is  said  to  dip  when  the  altitude  begins  to  decrease. 
The  greatest  altitude  is  assumed  to  be  that  when  on  the 
meridian,  which  is  correct  within  small  limits.  By  combin- 
ing the  sun's  meridian  altitude  with  its  declination  we  ob- 
tain the  declination  of  the  zenith,  which  is  the  latitude  of 
the  position.  Tlie  ship's  run  worked  from  tlie  place  of  de- 
parture gives  the  latitude  and  longitude  by  dead  reckoning ; 
from  tlie  longitude  by  the  a.  m.  observation  corrected  for  the 
ship's  run  to  noon  we  have  the  longitude  by  observation, 
and  from  the  meridian  altitude  the  latitude  by  observation. 
Any  difference  between  the  ship's  position  by  observation 
and  dead  reckoning  is  ascribed  to  current,  and  its  set  and 
amount  are  the  bearing  and  distance  of  the  position  by  ob- 
servation from  tliat  by  dead  reckoning.  From  the  noon 
position  by  observation  tlie  reckoning  begins  as  from  the 
place  of  departure.  In  the  afternoon,  when  the  sun  bears 
most  nearly  \V.,  the  observations  for  longitude  and  variation 
are  repeated,  and  the  aljove  observations  continue  daily 
throughout  the  voyage. 

The  sun,  however,  may  be  obscured  by  clouds  at  the  time 
of  its  crossing  the  meridian,  and  then  it  becomes  necessary 
to  resort  to  some  other  method  than  the  one  above  given  for 
finding  the  latitude.  Appropriate  formulas  have  been 
deduced  for  this  by  consiileriug  in  tlie  astronomical  triangle 
the  coaltitude,  codeclination,  and  the  hour-angle.  This 
last,  at  sea,  is  always  somewhat  in  doubt,  but  small  errors 
in  the  hour-angle,  when  tlie  angle  itself  is  small,  produce  but 
slight  errors  in  the  latitude  ;  under  most  circumstances  good 
latitude  results  can  be  obtained  from  observations  taken 
within  one  hour  of  the  transit  over  the  meridian.  Observa- 
tions of  other  heavenly  bodies,  as  well  as  those  of  the  sun, 
may  be  used  for  determining  the  latitude,  longitude,  and 
error  of  the  compass.  They  are  less  resorted  to,  however, 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  clearly  seeing  the  horizon  at 
night,  this  obscurity  throwing  some  doubt  upon  the  accuracy 
of  all  altitudes  measured  after  dark  at  sea. 

The  position  at  sea  can  also  be  found  by  a  method  intro- 
duced to  the  nautical  world  by  Capt.  Thomas  H.  Sumner  in 
1843,  and  known  as  Sumner's  method.  If  an  altitude  of  the 
sun  or  other  heavenly  body  be  measureil,  and  the  Greenwich 
time  noted,  we  can  with  its  hour-angle  and  declination  plot 
its  position  on  a  terrestrial  globe.  With  this  as  a  center  and 
the  coaltitude  (zenith  distance)  as  the  radius,  draw  a  circle ; 
the  observer  was  at  the  instant  of  observation  somewhere  on 
this  circle.  After  the  lapse  of  sufficient  time  repeat  the 
aliove.  and  the  observer,  who  is  supposed  to  be  stationary, 
will  lie  found  on  a  second  circle.  As  he  is  thus  on  two 
circles  he  must  be  at  one  of  their  intersections.  In  practice 
the  observations  are  so  timed  that  the  intersections  are  far 
apart,  and  the  observer  has  no  difficulty  in  knowing  at  which 
one  he  is.  It  is  not  essential  that  he  remain  stationary  be- 
tween the  ob.servations,  as  Ijy  appropriate  reductions  any 
change  may  be  allowed  for.  In  practice  the  plotting  is  made 
upon  a  chart,  and  only  a  small  part  of  the  circumference 
coming  within  the  belt  in  which  the  sliip  is  known  to  be  is 
laid  down,  and  that  by  points  computed  from  each  observa- 
tion. The  line  joining  the  points  calculated  from  one  ob- 
servation is  called  the  line  of  position.  The  intersection  of 
the  lines  obtained  from  the  two  observations  gives  the  ship's 
position.  The  bearing  of  the  heavenly  body  is  always  at 
right  angles  to  the  line  of  position,  and  the  "method  "gives 
the  best  results  when  the  azimuth  at  tlie  time  of  the  .second 
observation  differs  from  that  at  tlie  first  byaliout  !)0'.  The 
line  of  jiosition  is  of  much  use  in  finding  the  bearing  of  the 
port  in  approaching  land.  For  instance,  supjiose  we  have 
determined  a  single  line  and  laid  it  down  on  the  chart  and 


find  that  it  cuts  tlie  land,  say.  20  miles  to  the  N.  of  the 
port  to  which  we  are  bound.  If  we  .sail  due  S.  for  '20  miles 
and  draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  first  line,  the  ship  is  some- 
where on  this  second  one.  As  the  new  line  passes  through 
the  port  the  course  to  the  port  is  known,  though  not  the  dis- 
tance ;  and  by  keeping  a  good  lookout  for  the  land  and  get- 
ting casts  of  the  lead,  the  ship  can  sail  on  her  way  with  con- 
fidence. 

If,  on  a  long  voyage,  the  ship  passes  within  sight  of  any 
known  land,  the  longitude  given  by  the  land  and  that  by 
observation  should  be  compared  as  a  check  u]ion  the  running 
of  the  chronometer.  The  chronometer  can  also  be  checked 
by  an  observation  called  a  lunar.  The  almanac  gives  for 
every  three  hours  of  Greenwich  mean  time  the  moon's  angu- 
lar distances  (as  seen  from  the  center  of  the  earth),  from  the 
sun,  planets,  and  certain  stars.  Carefully  measure  with  the 
sextant  the  distance  between  the  moon  and  one  of  these 
heavenly  bodies,  and  note  the  time  by  the  chronometer.  The 
angle  measured  can  lie  reduced  to  what  it  would  have  been 
had  the  observation  been  made  at  the  earth's  center.  By 
comparing  our  reduced  angle  with  the  almanac  angle  of  the 
same  magnitude  for  the  body  observed  we  obtain  the  Green- 
wich mean  time,  which,  compared  with  our  noted  time,  gives 
tlie  error  of  the  chronometer. 

The  winds  and  currents  of  the  ocean  have  a  material  in- 
fluence upon  the  speed  of  ocean  voyages,  even  with  modern 
steamers;  with  sailing  vessels  they  are  most  important,  and 
are  truly  said  to  control  the  mariner  in  his  course,  and  to 
know  how  to  steer  his  ship  on  this  or  that  voyage  so  as  al- 
ways to  make  the  most  of  them  is  the  perfection  of  naviga- 
tion. The  voluminous  works  of  Horsburgh.  Findlay,  Ker- 
hallet.  and  Maury  contain  full  information  as  to  the  winds 
and  currents.  For  many  years  Maury  accumulated  the  log- 
books from  many  ships  in  every  part  of  the  ■world,  and 
tabulated  and  plotted  the  wimls  and  currents  they  had  en- 
countered. The  information  thus  collected  has  been  graph- 
ically represented  by  the  British  Board  of  Trade,  and  con- 
veys at  a  glance  most  complete  information  as  to  the  winds 
and  currents  of  the  ocean  highways.  The  approaches  to  the 
ports  and  the  ajipearance  of  the  land  in  their  vicinity  are 
described  in  local  Sailing  Directions,  which  are  very  com- 
]ilete  for  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and  are  the  guides  for  enter- 
ing port  and  anchoring.  A.  H.  McCobmick. 

Navigation,  Freedom  of:  the  right  to  navigate  freely 
the  waters  of  seas  or  rivers.  While  the  jurisdiction  over  the 
sea,  near  the  land,  and  within  bays  and  gulfs  inclosed  with- 
in not  very  remote  headlands,  is  conceded  to  the  territorial 
sovereign,  it  is  admitted  now  on  all  hands  that  the  open  or 
high  sea  is  common  to  all  nations.  Yet  this  rule  has  not  al- 
ways been  conceded.  Thus  Portugal  claimed  the  exclusive 
use  of  the  African  seas,  together  with  the  empire  of  Guinea, 
under  a  bull  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  given  out  in  1454.  The 
pope's  claim  to  do  this  seems  to  have  been  connected  with 
his  being  the  vicar  of  Christ,  to  wliom  the  heathen  were 
given  "as  an  inheritance  and  the  uttermost  parts  of  the 
earth  as  his  possession."  The  bulls  of  Alexander  VI.,  issued 
in  1403,  soon  after  Columbus  had  discovered  America,  car- 
ried out  this  assignment  of  parts  of  the  world  still  further. 
One  of  them  granted  to  S]iain  the  lands  lying  W.  of  a  me- 
ridian drawn  100  leagues  W.  of  the  Azores,  and  another  di- 
vided the  occupation  of  the  seas  between  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal. It  was  to  attack  such  pretensions,  with  others,  that 
Grotius  wrote  his  3Iare  Liberum  in  1600.  Other  nations, 
especially  Protestant  ones,  paid  no  regard  to  these  grants, 
but  the  English  in  the  seventeenth  century  claimed  prop- 
erty in  the  narrow  channels  adjoining  Great  Britain,  and 
on  that  account  demanded  that  especial  resiiect  should  be 
paid  to  their  flag.  This  brought  on  war  with  Holland.  In 
the  peace  of  1674  it  was  stipulated  that  even  fleets  should 
furl  the  flag  and  lower  the  topsails  in  honor  fif  any  English 
vessel  of  war  between  Cape  Stateri  in  Norway  and  Cape 
Finisterre  in  North  Spain — quite  beyond  the  claim  of  juris- 
diction. Russia  at  a  mucli  later  date  claimed  exclusive 
jurisdiction  over  the  Pacific,  N.  of  the  .51st  degree  of  lati- 
tude, on  the  ground  that  its  territory,  and  no  other,  bordered 
on  the  ocean  beyond  that  line  ;  but  this  claim  was  abandoned 
in  treaties  made  with  the  U.  S.  in  18'24  and  with  Great 
Britain  in  1825.  All  such  claims  may  be  considered  as  be- 
ing now  mere  matters  of  history. 

The  free  navigation  of  rivers  forms  another  branch  of 
this  topic.  Where  a  navigable  stream  flows  through  several 
countries  and  into  the  sea,  liy  strict  law  exclusive  rights  of 
navigation  of  its  lower  waters  and  access  to  the  ocean  are 


NAVIGATION,   IXI-AND 


-NAVV 


91 


possessed  only  l>y  tlie  stiitv  williiii  whose  teirilory  its  mouth 
lies.  Tlius  ui  the  close  of  tlie  eislileenth  century  llic  Span- 
ish c<ili)ny  of  Louisiiiim  eoulil  impose  its  own  comlitions 
upon  tnillio  on  the  Mississippi  river  between  theOliio  viilley 
and  the  Uiilf  of  Mexico.  In  vain  it  was  attempted  toestab- 
hsh  free  navi;;ation  of  the  whole  river  us  a  natural  ri;;ht. 
Failini;  this,  us  necessity  itnnv  and  liberal  ideas  also,  partly 
throuf;li  ne;;otiation,  partly  llirou;;h  force,  most  of  the  f,'reut 
navi<;able  rivers  of  the  world  have  been  nuidc  free  to  the 
world's  commerce.  Hy  the  Ijouisiana  purchase  the  V.  S. 
acquired  the  entire  Jlississippi.  The  Rhine  and  the  Sclieldt 
were  opened  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  181.5;  their  free 
navi;;ation  was  reatlirmed  in  18;il.  In  is;!.)  the  Douro  was 
opene<l  to  the  common  use  of  both  .Spain  an<l  I'ortupd.  Uy 
various  decn'es  and  treaties  between  IS.j;i  and  IS.'i!)  the  navi- 
;;atioii  of  the  Rio  ile  la  I'lata  system  was  declared  free.  The 
Treaty  of  I'aris  in  1850  opened  the  Danube.  The  Emperor 
of  Bnizil  made  the  Auntzon  free  by  imperial  decree  in  1866. 
In  1854  the  common  right  to  navi{;ate  the  St.  Lawrence 
wa.s  arranjfed.  This  treaty  expired  in  1806,  but  the  free 
mutual  use  forever  of  the  .s't.  Lawrence  river,  its  canals,  and 
Lake  Michii;an  was  apiin  provided  for  by  the  Treaty  of 
WashiufCton  in  1H71.  subject,  however,  to  certain  conditions 
and  rii;hts  of  rcfrulation  "on  terms  of  eiimdity."  In  1871 
al.so  the  navigable  Alaskan  rivers  were  o|>ened  to  the  free 
use  of  both  tTreat  Britain  aiul  the  U.  S.  The  treaty  of  1846, 
which  secured  the  Oreffon  country  for  the  U.  S.,  stipulated 
liir  the  free  mivigution  of  the  Columbia  by  the  Hudson  Bay 
Comjiany  and  its  trade.  Lastly,  at  the  Congo  conferetice  in 
Berlin,  1S84-8.J.  the  free  nuvigation  of  the  Congo  and  the 
Niger  was  declared,  subject  to  the  regulations  of  an  inter- 
national commission.  Thus  in  this  direction  little  more  re- 
mains to  be  usked  for.  These  various  decrees  and  treaties 
all  prove  that  the  free  navigation  of  rivers  has  been  grante<l 
as  a  concession,  not  secured  as  a  right. 

Revised  by  T.  S.  Woolsev. 

Navigation.  Inland:  See  Canals,  Rivers,  and  1/Akes. 

Naviiration  l.a«s:  See  International  Law. 

Navigator's  Islands:  a  group  of  volcanic  i.slands  in 
Polynesia,  now  usually  called  .Samoa  (q.  v.) 

Navy  [from  O.  Fr.  Jtarie,  navy  <  Late  Lat.  na'via,  ships, 
neut.  plur.  for  Lat.  nitres,  fern.  plur.  of  na'i'is,  ship]:  a  fleet 
or  assemblage  of  ships  or  vessels;  siiecifically,  the  whole  of 
tlie  war  vessels  of  a  nation;  the  war  marine  of  a  state. 
Navies  have  grown  out  of  either  military  necessities  or  the 
requirements  of  an  ocean  commerce  obstructed  by  pirates. 
Trade  and  mivigation  may  be  sai<l  to  be  the  parents  of 
navies,  those  countries  most  largely  interested  in  the  for- 
mer generally  botisting  of  the  most  powerful  fleets.  Whih' 
foreign  traile  produces  wealth,  and  at  the  same  time  trains 
a  class  of  men  to  the  hardships  of  the  sea,  it  requires  pro- 
tection and  assistance  in  return.  This  is  rendered  by  the 
military  marine,  whose  service  is  largely  recruited  from  the 
commercial.  The  Carthaginians,  descended  from  the  I'Ikc- 
iiicians,  were  the  most  successful  navigators  of  their  day, 
their  powerful  navy  being  the  natural  offspring  of  an  ex- 
tensive ocean  trade.  The  Romans,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
not  a  commercial  people.  Their  luivy  was  forced  into  ex- 
istence as  an  implement  necessary  in  the  great  game  of 
war,  but  it  always  occupied  a  minor  position  in  comparison 
with  their  land  forces.  The  military  value  of  a  navy  was 
demonstrated  in  the  earliest  pages  of  its  history.  We  may 
cite  the  first  Persian  invasion  of  (ireece  as  the  earliest  case 
in  point.  Defeated  at  Marathon,  the  Pei-sians  ha.slily  took 
to  tlieir  ships,  and  threatened  .\thens.  Having  no  navy  to 
oppose  tiiem,  it  was  only  by  the  rapid  march  of  Miltiades 
that  the  barbarians  were  prevented  from  landing  again. 
The  facility  with  which  the  Persians  transported  a  large 
army  to  a  great  distance  by  means  of  their  lleet:  theail- 

vunlagi'  they  I'njoyed  of  striking  th taslsof  (Ireece  at  any 

parliridar  point,  and  i>f  afterward  transferring  the  held  of 
operations  to  other  parts,  imposing  exhaustive  marches  on 
their  enemies,  taught  the  Greeks  the  necessity  of  a  floating 
force.  The  Athenians  were  among  the  first  known  to  au- 
thentic history  to  maintain  a  navy  respectable  in  its  char- 
acter and  (list  inguisheil  for  its  organization,  its  discipline, 
and  its  elTiciency.  By  a  skillful  use  of  this  arm  during  the 
Peloponnesian  war  they  were  enaliled  to  hold  certain  stra- 
tegic points,  giving  them  great  advantage  over  their  eiu'- 
Miies,  as  Sestos,  by  which  they  kept  control  of  the  Uelles- 
P'Hit  and  the  corn-trade  of  the  Kuxine. 

A  navv  proportioned  to  the  <'ommercMal  tonnage  of  a  coun- 
t  ry  and  the  extent  of  its  shorc-liuo  is  the  best  and  least  expen- 


sive protection  to  the  coasts  and  commerce  of  that  country. 
Since  an  edlcient  naval  force  (unlike  an  array)  can  not  Ije  im- 
provised, every  nuiritime  state  has  found  it  necessarv  to  main- 
tain a  permanent  navy :  and  such  navies  have  seldom  lent 
themselves  to  the  subvcrsicm  of  the  political  organization  of 
the  slate.  Besiiles  the  ordinary  duties  of  policing  the  seas 
to  keep  down  piracy  and  of  alTording  a  moral  support  to 
ministers  at  foreign  courts  and  merchants  in  foreign  trade, 
navies  are  constantly  engaged  in  the  fields  of  science,  and 
have  contributed  generously  to  the  common  stock  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  advancement  in  civilization. 

From  these  general  views  the  reader  may  understand 
how  and  why  navies  have  come  into  existence.  To  render 
it  clearer,  many  examples  might  be  drawn  from  modern  his- 
tory. I)ut  we  may  cite  the  origin  of  the  U.  S.  mivy  alone  as 
a  fair  illustration.  In  Sept.,  1775,  the  British  troo])s,  closely 
invested  in  Bo.ston,  coulil  receive  supplies  only  by  water. 
To  intercept  these.  Gen.  Washington,  by  virtue  of  Ins  com- 
mission as  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Continental  forces, 
detaileil  certain  of  his  ollicers  and  men  familiar  with  nau- 
tical pursuits  to  ojjcrate  afloat  in  small  armed  cruisers. 
N'essels  were  purcha.st'd.  titled  out.  armed,  and  nwinne<l  by 
tlie  seamen  of  New  F.ngliind,  and  cruised  in  Massachusetts 
Bay  with  such  success  that,  while  depriving  the  enemy  of 
lu'cessary  supplies,  their  prizes  furnislied  the  colonial  array 
with  such  nuiterials  of  war  lus  alone  rendered  the  succes.sful 
prosecution  of  hostilities  pos.sible.  The  measures  adopted 
by  Washington  being  confirmed  bv  Congress,  other  vessels 
were  soon  added  to  the  list  by  legislative  authority,  prize- 
laws  enacted,  an<l  a  navy  gradually  formed.  The  coun- 
try was  so  exhausted  by  the  struggle  that  on  the  termi- 
nation of  the  Revolutionary  war  the  navy  for  a  time  passed 
out  of  existence.  Its  re-c.stablishment  under  the  present 
constitution  furni.shcs  another  illustration.  The  commerce 
of  the  republic  sjircad  to  every  sea,  but  the  new^  flag  was 
treated  with  little  respect  by  either  civilized  or  uncivilized 
states:  the  former  disregarded  its  neutral  rights,  the  latter 
did  not  hesitate  to  offer  it  insult.  The  V.  S.  was  bound 
therefore,  in  the  interests  of  peace  and  civilization,  to  create 
a  navy.  Pi'ace  with  Algiers  ]iut  an  end  for  a  time  to  naval 
preparations,  when  statesmen  were  again  admonished  of  the 
necessity  of  an  armed  force  on  the  ocean  by  the  depreda- 
tions of  French  cruisers  ;  but  as  hostilities  with  France  were 
of  short  duration  and  never  fully  recognized,  the  first  notable 
service  of  the  young  navy  v>-as  to  fulfill  the  mission  for  which 
it  was  primarily  created  by  putt  ing  down  the  Barbary  ])owers, 
who  had  been  plundering  U.  S.  nieichantmen  and  imprison- 
ing V.  S.  citizens.  The  successful  prosecution  of  the  war 
with  Tripoli,  liy  which  the  dey  was  coinpelled  to  recognize 
the  laws  of  nations,  redounded  greatly  to  the  credit  of  the 
navy.  The  war  of  1812  with  Great  Britain  was  the  next  in 
which  the  navy  was  c.^llcd  to  take  a  prominent  part.  Al- 
though the  U.S.  had  nothing  on  the  ocean  that  could  con- 
tend against  the  powerful  fleets  of  Great  Britain,  yet  the  few 
single  engagements  that  were  fought  developed  so  much  pro- 
fe.ssicmal  skill  on  the  part  of  the  oflicers,  such  fine  qualities 
on  the  part  of  the  .seamen,  that  the  republic  soon  saw  itself 
possessed  of  all  the  elements  for  one  of  the  finest  navies  in 
the  world.  On  the  lakes,  where  the  forces  of  the  two  coun- 
tries were  more  nearly  e(|Ual,  this  was  still  more  manifest, 
for  the  results  of  the  victories  gained  on  Erie  and  Cham- 
plain  were  irame<liale  and  important, the  British  themselves 
admitting  that  they  lost  thcMc  all  but  their  honor.  During 
the  Mexican  war  and  the  civil  war  the  field  of  operations  of 
the  navy  was  confined  to  l>lockading  and  to  service  on  shore, 
there  being  no  sea-going  ships  on  either  occasion  to  contend 
with. 

The  single  fights  of  isolated  cruisers,  however  heroic,  rarely 
have  any  elTect  upon  the  ultimate  results  of  a  war.  The  real 
fiirhtinir  strength  of  a  navy  is  measured  by  its  line  of  battle, 
and  the  I'.  S.  has  never  had  ships  in  sutlicient  number  and 
of  reipiisite  military  value  to  form  a  line  of  battle;  so  that  in 
reality  its  strength  lus  a  naval  power  has  never  l)ecn  tested. 

Among  (he  notable  scientific  undertakings  of  the  navy  of 
the  V.  S.  may  be  mentioned  the  V.  .S.  Exploring  Expedition 
and  that  to  ,Tapan,  the  interoceanic  canal  surveys.  Arctic 
voyages,  and  those  for  deep-sea  soundings,  the  Pacific  explora- 
tions for  hidden  dangers,  and  the  ilislaiit  voyaire  of  the  Swa- 
lara  (which,  like  thai  of  ('apt.  Cook  to  Otah'eile  in  17611.  was 
undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  ol)serving  the  transit  of 
Venus),  and  besides  tliese  the  War  College,  the  Naval  Oli- 
servatorv,  the  Coast  Survey,  Ilydrographic  OlTice,  torpedo 
station,  and  Naval  Academy  ore  all  contributing  to  .scien- 
tific research  and  the  common  stock  of  usefid  information. 


92 


NAVY 


NAVY   DEPARTMENT 


Organization  of  the  U.  S.  Navy. — The  Constitution  of  the 
U.  S.  imposes  on  Congress  the  duty  of  providing  and  main- 
taining a  navy,  and  of  making  rules  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  the  naval  forces.  It  declares  the  President  to 
be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  requires 
him  to  commission  all  officers  of  the  U.  S.  Such  commis- 
sions continue  in  force  only  during  the  pleasure  of  tlie 
President  of  the  U.  S.  for  the  time  being.  The  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  presides  over  the  Navy  Department,  and  is  the 
duly  constituted  adviser  of  the  President  on  all  questions 
relating  to  naval  affairs.  In  his  former  duties  he  is  assisted 
by  an  assistant  secretary  and  the  chiefs  of  eight  bureaus,  as 
follows :  Equipment,  yards  and  docks,  navigation,  ordnance, 
medicine  and  surgery,  supplies  and  accounts,  steam-engi- 
neering, and  construction  and  repairs.  The  ctiiefs  of  bu- 
reaus are  appointed  by  the  President,  with  the  sanction  of 
the  Senate,  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  while  so  acting 
have  the  relative  rank  of  commodore,  unless  already  holding 
a  higher  grade.  The  law  declares  that  the  orders  of  the 
chiefs  of  bureaus  shall  be  considered  as  emanating  from  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  "  and  shall  have  full  force  and  effect 
as  such."  The  active  list  of  the  line  officers  is  divided  into 
eleven  grades,  the  number  in  each  grade  being  limited  by 
the  act  of  Aug.  5,  1882,  as  given  below.  The  relative  rank 
between  officers  of  the  navy  and  army  on  the  active  or  re- 
tired list  is  as  follows : 

The  admiral  of  the  navy  to  rank  with  general  of  the  army. 

The  vice-admiral  "  "  heuteuant-geueral  of  thearniy. 

6  rear-admirals  "  "  major-generals 

10  commodores  "  "  brigadier-generals    " 

45  captains  *'  "  colonels  "  " 

85  commanders  "  "  lientenant-colonels    *'  " 

74  lieutenant-commanders  "  "  majors  **  " 
250  lieutenants                        "  "  captains                       "  " 

75  lieutenants  (jr.  grade)      "  "  first  lieutenants 

Ensigns  "  '*    second  lieutenants    "  " 

The  offices  of  admiral  and  vice-admiral  expired  on  the  death 
of  Admiral  D.  D.  Porter  and  of  Vice- Admiral  S.  C.  Rowan. 

All  staff  officers  are  appointed  by  the  President,  with  the 
sanction  of  the  Senate.  By  act  of  Aug.  o,  1883,  the  active  list 
of  the  medical  corps  consistsof  15  medical  directors,  15  medi- 
cal inspectors,  50  surgeons,  and  90  assistant  surgeons,  with 
the  relative  rank  respectively  of  captain,  commander,  lieu- 
tenant-commander or  lieutenant,  and  of  lieutenant  (junior 
grade)  or  ensign.  The  pay  corps  consists  of  13  pay-directors, 
13  pay-inspectors,  40  paymasters,  20  passed  assistant  pay- 
masters, and  10  assistant  paymasters,  having  a  like  relative 
rank  ;  and  the  engineer  corps  of  10  chief  engineers  having 
the  relative  rank  of  captain,  15  of  commander  and  45  that 
of  lieutenant-commander,  60  passed  assistant  engineers,  and 
40  assistant  engineers.  Tlie  law  authorizes  the  appointment 
of  24  chaplains,  who  are  permitted  to  conduct  public  worsliip 
according  to  the  manner  and  forms  of  the  Church  of  which 
they  are  members.  The  law  also  authorizes  the  appoint- 
ment of  13  professors  of  mathematics,  and  as  many  naval 
constructors  as  the  service  may  require.  The  foregoing  offi- 
cers are  commissioned.  The  President  is  authorized  to  ap- 
point for  vessels  in  actual  service  as  many  boatswains,  gun- 
ners, sailmakers,  and  carpenters  as  may,  in  his  opinion,  be 
proper.  These  are  called  warrant  officers.  All  officers  not 
entitled  to  hold  commissions  or  warrants,  except  secretaries 
and  clerks,  are  called  petty  officers.  The  number  of  enlisted 
persons  in  the  navy,  including  seamen,  ordinary  seamen, 
landsmen,  mechanics,  firemen,  coal-heavers,  appreiitices,  and 
boys,  is  limited  by  act  of  Mar.  3,  1893,  to  9,000. 

The  pay  of  all  officers  of  the  navy  is  fixed  by  law,  and 
maybe  seen  by  reference  to  the  Na'vy  RefiisteriasatA  for 
the  year.  The  pay  allowed  to  petty  officers  (excepting 
mates),  and  the  pay  and  bounty  upon  enlistment  of  seamen 
and  others  of  inferior  rating,  are  left  by  Congress  to  the 
President,  with  the  sole  proviso  that  the  total  amount  of 
|>ay  for  officers  and  seamen  shall  not  exceed  the  amount 
appropriated  for  that  purpose.  By  the  act  of  Aug.  5,  1882, 
vacancies  in  the  lower  grades  of  the  line.  Engineer  Corps, 
and  Marine  Corps  are  to  lie  filled  from  the  graduates  of  the 
Naval  Academy.  The  JIarine  Corps  forms  part  of  the  naval 
organization. 

Naval  discipline  is  maintained  by  the  code  embraced  in 
the  "act  for  tlie  better  government  of  the  navy  of  the 
U.  S.,"  commoidy  known  as  the  "Articles  of  War."  By 
navy  regulation  of  Dec.  26,  1891,  the  ships  of  the  navy  of 
the  U.  S.  are  classed  as  follows: 

Ships  of  5,000  tons  displacement  and  above  are  classed 
as  firxt  rates ;  those  of  and  above  3,000.  but  below  5,000 
tons  displacement,  as  second  rates ;  those  of  1,000  and  above. 


but  below  3.000  tons  displacement,  as  third  rates;  and  all 
those  of  less  than  1.000  tons  displacement,  as  fourth  rates. 

Vessels  are  named  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  under 
direction  of  the  President,  as  follows:  First  rates  after  the 
States  of  the  Union,  second  rates  after  cities,  third  rates 
after  important  events,  or  names  connected  with  the  naval 
history  of  the  U.  S.,  fourth  rates  after  lakes  and  rivers  of 
U.  S.  Vessels  of  special  class  to  be  named  appropriately  to 
the  service  for  which  they  are  designed.  The  number  of 
cruising  vessels  (which  are  built  of  steel)  has  been  fixed  at 
seventy. 

The  act  of  Apr.  21,  1806,  authorizes  the  President  to  keep 
as  many  ships  in  commission  during  peace  as  he  thinks 
proper,  but  Congress  practically  limits  the  number  by  the 
amount  annually  appropriated  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
navy. 

The  following  table  shows  the  area,  docks,  etc.,  of  the 
navy-yards  and  stations  of  the  U.  S. : 


NAVY-YARDS  AND 
STATIONS. 


Portsmouth,  N.  H 

Boston,  Mass 

New  London,  Conn 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Leagite  island.  Pa 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Norfolk,  Va 

Port  Royal,  S.  C 

Pensacola,  Fla 

New  Orleans.  La 

Key  West,  Fla 

Mare  island.  Cal 

Puget  Sound,  Wash 

Sackett's  Harbor.  N.  Y, 
Coaster's    Harbor    isl 
and,  Newport.  K.  I... 
Naval  Home,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa 


86 

161ft 

922J 
42 

8ai 

41 
83i 


2i 

900 
192i 

3J 

90 

24t^ 


Dry  docki. 


1  granite. 

1 1  granite,  i 

"i  1  timber,   j 

1  timber. 


Floating 
docks. 


1  balance. 


J  1  granite.  (_ ' 

/ 1  timber.  (  ; 

1  building. 


1  appropri- 
ated for. 


1  granite. 
1  appropri- 
ated for. 


1  sectional 
(in  part 
only). 


]  stern 
I  dock. 
1  sectional. 


Ship   I 
houses.  I 


Sllpi. 


Shore  Stations. — Naval  apprentice  station.  Naval  War  Col- 
lege, and  naval  torpedo  station  at  Newport,  R.  I.;  Naval 
Academy  at  Annapolis,  Md. ;  Naval  Observatory  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  S.  B.  Luce. 

Navy  Department :  that  department  of  a  government  to 
which  is  intrusted  the  control  and  administration  of  its 
navy.  The  official  designation  for  this  department  varies 
in  different  countries.  That  of  Great  Britain  is  called  the 
Board  of  Admiralty,  constituted  by  the  lords  commissioners 
for  discharging  the  office  of  lord  high  admiral,  a  controller 
of  the  navy,  and  an  expert  civilian.  Of  these  the  first  lord 
has  supreme  authority,  and  is  a  member  of  the  cabinet. 

That  of  the  U.  S.  is  officially  denominated  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Navy,  and  its  head  or  chief  is  a  civil  officer, 
called  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  who  receives  his  appoint- 
ment from  the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  and  is  a  member  of  the  President's 
cabinet.  His  salary  is  fS.OOO  per  annum,  without  allow- 
ances of  any  description.  As  the  President  is,  under  the 
Constitution,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy 
of  the  V.  S.,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  is  in  reality  his  rep- 
resentative in  the  Navy  Department.  With  the  exception  of 
cases  in  which  independent  powers  are  specially  invested  in 
him  by  law,  his  acts  are  regarded  as  having  the  direction 
and  sanction  of  the  President,  and  have  full  force  and  effect 
as  such.  Prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  Navy  Department 
the  administration  of  naval  and  maritime  affairs  was  in- 
trusted to  committees,  agents,  and  boards  appointed  under 
resolutions  and  acts  of  the  Continental  or  the  Federal  Con- 
gress, and  for  nearly  ten  years  (1789-98)  to  the  Secretary  of 
War.  The  establishment  of  a  separate  Navy  Department 
was  due  to  the  increase  in  the  size  and  importance  of  the 
navy,  which  took  place  partly  as  a  result  of  the  naval  contests 
with  Great  Britain,  and  partly  from  the  necessity  of  afford- 
ing a  reasonable  degree  of  protection  to  the  maritime  inter- 
ests of  the  nation. 

By  the  act  of  Apr.  30,  1798,  it  was  organized  as  a  separate 
department,  to  be  denominated  the  Department  of  the  Navy, 
the  chief  thereof  to  be  called  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
whose  duty  it  should  be  to  execute  such  orders  as  he  should 
receive  from  the  President  of  the  IT.  S.  relative  to  the  pro- 
curement of  naval  stores  and  materials,  and  the  construction. 


XAXOS 


NEAL 


93 


nrinameiit,  and  (-(1111111110111  of  vessels  of  war,  as  well  as  to 
other  matters  connected  with  tlic  naval  estal>lisliiiieiit  of  the 
U.  S.  It  IS  from  this  act,  through  the  President,  that  the 
general  powers  of  the  Seeietary  of  the  Xavy  are  derived. 
Subsc(iuent  acts  have  provided  for  the  method  of  diseharg- 
ing  the  ministerial  duties  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Xavy,  and 
under  the  present  law  the  department  is  organized  in  bu- 
reaus.    See  N.tVY  (Oiyanizaliun  uf  the  V.  S.  A'ticy). 

June  8,  1880,  an  act  was  passed  authorizing  Ihe  appoint- 
ment of  a  judjje-advocate-general  of  the  navy,  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  from  olliccrs  of  the 
Marine  Corps  or  the  navy.  The  judge-advocate-general  has 
charge,  especially,  of  matters  relating  to  courts  martial,  and 
assists  the  secretary  in  various  ways  and  in  other  nuittei-s 
coming  before  the  department ;  he  is  to  a  great  e.\tent  his  hiw- 
oflicer.  If  appointed  from  the  Marine  Corps,  he  has  the  rank 
and  allowances  of  a  colonel ;  if  from  the  navy,  that  of  captain. 
The  duties  of  the  otlice  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  are 
performed  under  his  immediate  sujiervision.  By  act  of  Con- 
gre.ss  apj>roved  July  1.  1890,  the  ollice  of  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  (once  before  created  and  abolished)  was  revived. 
The  assistant  secretary  is  appointed  by  the  President,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  (under  the 
■  lause  in  the  legislative  appropriation  act  approved  -Mar.  3, 
l>:il)  performs  "such  duties  as  maybe  prescribed  by  the 
>. cretary  of  the  Navy,  or  required  by  law."  lie  is,  by  virtue 
of  Section  178  of  the"  Revised  Statutes,  Acting  Secretary  of 
llic  Navy  during  the  absence  of  the  secretary.  There  is  at- 
tached to  the  office  a  chief  clerk  of  the  department.  The 
chief  clerk  has  the  care  and  custody  of  the  tiles  and  records 
of  the  ollice,  and  the  supervision  of  the  duties  of  the  other 
clerks  and  the  subordinate  employees  thereto  attached.  Au 
otlice  of  naval  intelligence,  the  head  of  which  is  an  officer  of 
the  navy,  designated  chief  intelligence  officer,  is  attached  to 
the  secretary "s  office ;  also  an  office  of  naval  war  records, 
combined  with  the  library,  in  cliarge  of  an  officer  of  the 
navy,  who  is  designated  superintendent  of  naval  war  records. 

Kevised  by  S.  B.  Luce. 
Nax'OS  (in  Or.  N(i{os):  the  largest  and  most  fertile  of  the 
Cydades  islands  ;  20  miles  in  length  and  14  in  breadth.  It 
was  celebrated  for  its  wine,  and  therefore  was  one  of  the 
chief  .scats  of  the  worship  of  Dionysus.  Tliis  fact  is  embod- 
ied in  the  myth  of  Ari.\dne  (q.  v.),  whom  Dionysus  found 
hero  after  her  abandonment  by  Tiikskl's  (q.  c).  For  this 
rciuson  the  ancients  thought  that  it  had  been  colonized  by 
Thracians.  but  in  the  earliest  known  times  it  was  inhabited 
by  Carians,  who  were  driven  out  bv  lonians  and  Cretans. 
Its  shape  is  somewhat  round,  and  lience  in  poetry  it  was 
called  Strongyle.  The  island  flourished  most  under  Lygda- 
mis  the  tyrant,  who  was  put  into  power  by  Pisistratus.  It 
Was  devastated  by  the  Persians  in  490  B.  c.  Four  Naxian 
ships  fought  at  Salaiuis  on  the  side  of  the  Persians.  It  then 
became  a  member  of  the  Athenian  confederacy,  but  was 
crushed  by  Athens  in  466  h.  c.  and  wa^  colonized  by  Athe- 
nian citizens  in  453  b.  r.  (,'habrias  gained  a  victory  over  the 
Spartans  at  Naxos  in  376.  and  forced  the  island  once  more 
to  join  the  Athenians.  The  island  was  then  owned  in  turn 
by  Macedonia  and  Fgypt,  and  was  given  by  Antony  to 
Uhode.s.  Henceforth  tlie  island  playetl  an  insignilicant  role 
until  it  was  con(iiiered  by  the  Venetians  in  1206  \.  i).,  when 
it  became  the  capital  of  a  duchy  and  Ihe  center  of  Venetian 
iiwer  in  the  .(Egean.  It  fell  to  the  Turks  in  l.")7!l,  but  now 
I'longs  to  (ireoco.  A  range  of  mountains  of  while  marble, 
similar  to  that  of  Paros,  runs  through  the  island.  It  is  high, 
but  contains  many  lH>autiful,  well-watered,  and  fertile  val- 
leys, which  produce  wheat,  wine,  tigs,  and  olives  in  almn- 
(lancc  and  of  suiierior  (pialitv.  See  (truter,  /><■  Xaj'o  iiimila 
Mlalle,  1833);  Kngel,  (^iKTullnne-i  Xaxim  (Gottingen,  1835); 
Kugit,  l)e  iiiKiiln  iXaxo  (Paris,  1867);  Tozer,  Islondu  of  the 
.  /•.'</•  ""  (I  >xford,  18iM)).  J.  K.  S.  STERRi-hr. 

NiizarrnuH:  See  Manu.kans. 

Nuzamio  [from  \Mt.  Xdznre  nun=  Ctr.  Iia(apriv6s.  deriv. 
f  Na^aptT,  Nazarelh| :  a  term  employed  in  several  signitica- 
Mons  in  the  New  Testament  and  in  ecclcsiaslical  history. 
As  lirst  used  (.Malt.  ii.  23)  it  is  applied  to  Christ's  residence 
at  Nazareth  as  the  fiillillmcnt  of  a  prophecy  that  "  iie  shall 
I"' called  a  Nazarene";  but  as  no  such  passage  occurs  tex- 
tiially  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  term  has  been  referred  to 
the  Nazarites;  or  to  i\>/.<('r,  "  t he  Unineh  "  (I.sa.  xi.  1):  of, 
rather,  it  (.•x|irpssos  reproach,  Nazareth  being  a  proverbially 
(■ontem|>lilile  jilace  (John  i.  46). 

Nazareth    [  =  Lal.  =  (ir.    NaiapiS,    Na(aptr,    from    Ilob. 
yazanth]:  a  village  of  Palestine:  in  the  ancient  district  of 


t 


Galilee  ;  70  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem  ;  in  the  modern  eyalet  of 
Beyrout ;  celebrated  as  the  place  of  the  Annunciation  and 
the  abode  of  Christ  during  most  of  his  life  (see  map  of  Pal- 
estine, ref.  ti-D).  The  Homan  Catholics  have  erected  a 
church  on  the  spot  where  the  angel  came  to  Mary  to  an- 
nounce the  birth  of  the  Saviour,  and  the  Greeks  a  church  on 
another  spot  where  the  event  took  iilace,  according  to  their 
belief.  Chapels  have  also  been  built  over  Joseph's  workshop 
and  over  ciirist's  table  where  he  used  to  eat  with  his  disci- 
ples. The  village  is  in  a  little  valley  about  a  mile  long  and 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  just  N.  of  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon. 
From  the  hill  overlooking  the  village  is  obtained  one  of  the 
finest  prospects  in  Palestine.  The  po(julation  in  1891  was 
abimt  7,.')00,  and  the  Christian  jpart  of  it  is  steadily  increas- 
ing. Besides  Mohammedans  (about  2,000),  there  are  Ortho- 
dox Greeks,  Koinan  Catholics,  Uoman  Catholic  Greeks, 
JIaronitcs,  and  a  few  Protestants. 

Nazareth:  borough  (established  1740  V>y  George  White- 
field  as  the  site  for  a  school  for  Negroes,  site  soon  abandoned 
and  purchased  by  Count  /inzendorf,  wlio  established  a  set- 
tlement for  Moravians  in  1743.  incorporated  1858);  North- 
ampton CO.,  Pa.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref. 
4-.I):  on  the  Bangor  and  Portland  Kailway:  7  miles  N.  W. 
of  F.a.ston,  60  miles  N.  of  Philarlelpliia.  '  It  contains  the 
Whitelield  House,  erected  in  1740,  now  l)elonging  to  the 
Moravian  Historical  Society,  and  having  a  valuable  library 
and  collection  of  Moravian  antiquities;  Nazareth  Hall,  the 
Moravian  military  boardiiig-sclKiol  for  boys,  founded  in 
1785;  f(mr  churches;  gradecl  public  schools  ;  board  of  trade, 
organized  in  1877  ;  fair  grounds  of  the  Northampton  County 
Agricultural  .Society;  manufactories  of  seamless  underwear 
and  hosiery,  agricultural  implemenls.  paper  boxes,  and  gui- 
tai-s  ;  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  The  borough  has  become 
noted  as  a  quiet  summer  resort,  and  has  manv  attractions 
for  tourists.  Pop.  (1880)  984 ;  (1890)  1,318  :  (1894)  estimated, 
l,fjOO.  KuiToK  OF  '•  Item." 

Nnzarite  [from  (ir.  NafopfTijj.  from  lleb.  nazar,  sejiarate 
one's  self,  vow,  abstain] :  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  an 
ascetic  of  either  sex  who  had  taken  a  vow  to  abstain  from 
wine,  strong  drink,  including  date  and  palm  wine,  and 
evervthing  that  is  made  of  the  vine,  to  let  the  Imir  grow, 
and  to  touch  no  dead  body.  Nazaritism  is  older  than  the 
time  of  Jloses  (Num.  vi.  2)'.  The  vow  might  be  either  for  a 
specified  time  or  for  life.  Samson  and  Samuel  were  Naza- 
rites  for  life,  and  so  was  John  the  Baptist. 

Nonch,  Longrh,  lorh  na' :  a  lake  in  the  province  of  Ulster, 
Ireland;  17  miles  long,  10  miles  broad.  Area,  153  sq. 
miles.  It  receives  from  the  S.  the  umier  Bann  and  the 
Blackwater,  and  communicates  on  the  A.  with  the  Atlantic 
by  the  lower  Bann.  The  shores  are  marshv,  and  in  its 
vicinitv  is  found  much  carbonized  wood.  Tradition  savs 
that  the  lake  was  made  by  an  inundation  in  companilively 
recent  times.  'J'homas  Moore  praised  the  lake,  but  it  is  now 
unattractive.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Neal,  necl.  Daxiei,  :  historian ;  b.  in  London,  England. 
Dec.  14,  1678;  studied  at  the  rniversities  of  Utrecht  and 
Leyden:  became  a  Dissenting  minister  in  London  1703; 
preached  at  Lorimer's  Hall  1706-07,  and  to  a  congregation  in 
.lewin  Street  from  1707  until  his  death,  which  occurred  at 
Bath  Apr.  4.  1743.  Besides  minor  writings  he  published  a 
I/i.iton/  of  Neiv  England  (2  vols.,  1720)  and  a  History  of 
Ihe  Piirifans  (4  vols.,  1732-38).  The  latter  work  wius  re- 
printed in  1754.  1759,  179;i-97  (with  Memoir  by  Joshua 
Toulmin),  1822.  and  1837.  and  an  edition,  revised,  corrected, 
and  enlarged,  was  issued  by  Rev.  J.  (.).  Choules  (New  York, 
2  vols.,  1S44).  Manv  replies  to  Neal  appeared,  the  chief  be- 
ing bvBishop  Isaac'Madox  and  Dr.  Zachary  Gray,  and  Neal 
piildished  several  rejoinders.  The  lli.itonj,  although  not 
free  from  a  Puritan  bias,  is  an  instructive  work. 

Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

Neal,  John  :  aullior  ;  b.  at  Portland.  Me.,  Aug.  '25.  1793  ; 
was  brought  up  in  the  Society  of  Friends,  but  left  it  when 
twenty-live  vears  old  :  lM?came  a  shop-lioy  at  twelve;  was 
admitted  to' Ihe  Slaryland  bar  in  1819.  having  previously 
followed  various  occiipations ;  was  in  Europe,  most  of  the 
time  Ihe  a.s,sociateof  Beiilham.  1824-27,  and  a  correspondent 
of  liltickwood :  returned  to  Portland  and  established  The 
Yankee  in  1828.  and  was  engaged  as  editor,  lecturer,  hnv- 
ver.  poet,  novelist,  and  teacher  of  gvmua.slics.  Among  his 
works  an-  AV./i  Cool,  a  novel  (1817);  The  Battle  of  Xuiiinra  : 
Ooldnii  and  Other  I'oems  (1818);  Otho,  a  tragedy  (1819); 
Brother  Jonathan  (IS25);  Ji'achel  Ihjer  (1828);  Benthams 


94: 


NEALE 


NEBRASKA 


Morals  and  Legislation  (1830) ;  The  Down-eaaiers  (1833) ; 
True  Wumanhood  (1859);  Wandering  Recollections  of  a 
Somewhat  Busy  Life  {ISIO):  and  a  very  large  number  of 
other  works.     1).  at  Portland,  June  21,  1876. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Neale,  John  Mason  :  theologian  and  hymn-writer ;  b.  in 
London,  England,  Jan_.  24,  1818 ;  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Canibridg?,  and  graduated  1840;  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England  1843 ;  was  made  incumbent  of  Crawley 
in  Sussex,  and  warden  of  Saokville  College,  East  Grrinstead, 
May,  1846.  He  became  one  of  the  literary  champions  of 
the  High  Church  party,  and  was  tlie  founder  of  the  sister- 
hood of  St.  Margaret  1856 ;  obtained  the  Seatonian  prize  at 
Cambridge  for  an  English  sacred  poem  on  nine  occasions  be- 
tween 1845  and  1861.  He  published  nearly  seventy  volumes, 
chiefly  upon  theological  and  ecclesiastical  subjects,  of  which 
the  best  known  were  The  History  of  the  Hohj  Eastern 
Church,  the  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria  (4  vols.,  London, 
1847-51);  Mediceval  Preachers  (1857);  History  of  the  so- 
called  Jansenist  Church  of  IhiUaiid  (1858):  Essays  on 
Liturgiulogy  and  ('hurch  History  (1863) ;  Mediiei'al Hymns 
from,  tlie  Latin  (1851):  and  Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Cliurch 
(1863).  He  also  published  an  edition  of  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's 
Progress  (1833)  lor  the  use  of  children  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  and  his  notes  to  that  work  gave  rise  to  much 
controversy.  He  wrote  the  popular  hymns  on  the  Mew 
Jerusalem  {Jerusalem  the  Golden.,  etc.)  on  the  basis  of  the 
original,  besides  a  great  number  of  other  hymns,  ]iartly 
original,  partly  translated;  Hymns  for  the  Sick  (1843); 
Hymns  for  Children  (1843-46, 3  series) ;  Rh i/thm  of  Bernard 
de  Moriaix  (1858).     D.  at  East  Grinstead,  Aug.  6,'  1866. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Neander,  na-aan'der,  Johann  August  Wilhelsi  ;  ecclesi- 
astical historian,  whose  real  name  was  David  Jlendel :  b.  at 
^  Gottingen,  Jan.  17,  1789,  of  Jewish  parents  and  in  humlile 
"  circumstances;  was  educated  in  Hamburg,  where  he  fre- 
<iuented  the  .lohanneum  ;  embraced  Christianity  in  1806, 
when  he  changed  his  name ;  studied  theology  at  Jena  and 
Gottingen,  and  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  at 
Heidelberg  1813,  and  Ordinary  Professor  of  C'lmrch  History 
at  the  University  of  Berlin  1813,  where  he  died  July  14, 1850. 
With  immense  learning  and  decided  genius  he  Joined  great 
simplicity  of  character,  earnestness,  and  enthusiasm.  By  his 
works  he  rightfully  won  the  title  of  the  "father  of  Church 
history."  The  old  conception  of  history  as  a  mere  concate- 
nation of  individual  exertions  he  abandoned,  and  represented 
the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  as  a  general  process  by 
which  a  divine  force  works  its  way  into  the  life  of  the  hu- 
man race.  By  this  idea,  first  developed  by  Hegel  and  after- 
ward manifoldly  elaborated  by  the  romantic  school,  Nean- 
der remodeled  or  regenerated  the  scienceof  Church  history; 
and  he  was  prominent  in  that  circle  of  theologians  whose 
center  was  Sehleiermacher,  and  which,  in  the  earlier  part 
of  this  century,  awakened  the  educated  classes  of  the  Ger- 
man nation  from  their  rationalistic  indifference  and  led 
them  back  to  Christianity,  without  throwing  them  into  tlie 
arms  of  Romanism,  as  the  romantic  school  did.  As  a  writer 
of  history  he  lacks  dramatic  power,  and  his  style  is  heavy. 
His  principal  work  is  his  General  History  of  the  Christian 
Religion  and  Church,  from  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age  to 
the  Council  of  Basel  in  1431  (6  vols.,  in  11  parts,  1835-53). 
translated  into  English  liy  Prof.  Jose|jh  Tori'ey  ;  but  several 
of  his  monographs,  on  Julian  the  Apostate  (1812),  St.  Ber- 
nard (1813),  Gnosticism  (1818),  St.  Chrysostom  (1831),  3Ie- 
morials  of  Christian  Life  in  Early  and  Middle  Ages 
(translated  into  English  by  Ryland,  London,  1853),  iire 
models  of  that  kind  of  composition.  He  also  wrote  History 
of  the  Planting  and  Training  of  the  Christian  Church  by 
the  Apostles  (translated  by  Ryland,  Edinburgh.  1843,  3 
vols.  ;  revised  by  E.  G.  U'obin'son,  New  York,  1864)  and 
7'he  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  (translated  by  John  JlcClintock, 
New  York,  1848),  in  refutation  of  Strauss,  etc.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  Wor/cs  a|ipeared  at  Gotha  in  13  vols.  (1863-66). 
His  library  was  purchased  after  his  death  for  the  Bajitist 
theological  seminary  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.  See  his  Life,  by 
A.  Wiegand  (Erfurt,  1890).         Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Nearchus,  nc'e-aar'kus  :  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander 
the  Great;  commanded  the  fleet  during  the  Indian  expedi- 
tion, and  I'onducted  it  at  the  end  of  the  cam|iaign  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Indus,  through  the  IVrsiiin  Gulf,  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Tigris.  Of  his  voyage  he  wrote  an  account,  IlapivKoiis, 
of  which  the  substance  is  in  Arrian's  Indica,  and  shows  the 
trustworthiness  of  the  author. 


Neat-work :  See  Foundation. 

Neb-ueb :  name  given  to  the  dry  pods  of  a  species  of 
acacia,  especially  A.  arabi.a,  a  native  of  the  East  and  of 
Senegal.  These  pods  contain  much  tannic  acid,  and  are 
usei.l  by  tanners  in  Egypt  and  in  some  other  countries. 
They  have  also  been  used  in  dyeing. 

Ne'bo  [Heb.  N'bo,  the  planet  Mercury,  worshiped  by  the 
Chaldeans  and  Assyrians  as  a  god  :  Assyr.  Nabu :  Accadian, 
Nabin]  :  one  of  the  principal  divinities  of  the  Babylonian 
pantheon,  generally  identified  with  the  Egyptian  Thoth  and 
the  (ireek  Hermes.  His  greatest  temjjie  was  at  Borsippa 
(Birs-Nimrud). 

Nebo  [Heb.  N'bo,  appar.  named  from  being  a  seat  of  the 
worship  of  the  god  Nebo  {g.  v.)] :  a  mountain  of  Eastern 
Palestine,  "  over  against  Jericho  "  (Dent,  xxxii.  49),  identi- 
fied, in  1875,  by  Prof.  John  A.  Paine,  of  the  American 
Palestine  Exploration  Society,  with  Jebel  Nebba,  5  miles 
S.  W.  of  Heshbon.  It  is  3,68.5  feet  high.  There  was  also  a 
city  of  the  same  name  (Num.  xxxii.  3)  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood. 

Nebraska  [from  Indian,  liter.,  shallow  water,  or  Water 
Valley] :  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America  (North  Central 
group)  ;  twenty- 
fourth  in  order 
of  admission  into 
the  Union ;  popu- 
larly known  as 
the  "  Blackwater 
State." 

Location  and. 
Area. — It  lies  Ije- 
tween40"and43° 
N.  lat.,  and  95' 
33'  and  104'  W. 
Ion. ;  South  Da- 
kota lies  N.,  the 
Missouri  river 
separates  it  from 
Iowa  and  Mis- 
souri on  the  E., 
Kansas  and  Col- 
orado lie  S.,  and 
Colorado  and 
Wyoming  W. ;  extreme  len, 
208  miles.     Area,  76,840  sq^njiles  (49.177,600  acres). 

Physical  Features. — Nebraska  is  one  of  the  prairie  States, 
with  gently  rolling  surface  in  the  E.,  which  breaks  into  a 
few  hills  in  the  extreme  W.  The  general  slope  of  the  sur- 
face is  toward  the  southeast  corner,  which  is  about  875  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  From  here  the  as- 
cent is  very  gradual  both  to  the  N.,  up  the  Missouri,  and  to 
the  W.,  toward  the  foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
thenorthcast  corner  the  elevation  is  1,140  feet ;  in  the  N.W.,at 
Mansfield,  it  is  3,628  feet ;  and  at  the  southwest  corner  3,858 
feet.  The  general  elevation  along  the  entire  western  bouiul- 
ary  exceeds  4,000  feet.  The  highest  jioint  in  the  State  is 
Scott's  Bluft',  situated  a  little  to  the  S.  of  the  point  where 
the  North  Fork  of  the  Platte  enters  the  Slate.  Its  elevation 
is  over  6,000  feet.  The  gentle  inclination  of  the  surface 
allows  water  to  flow  off  slowly,  so  that  rivers  are  generally 
wide  and  shallow.  Nebraska  ranks  second  in  the  area  of  its 
rivers  and  small  streams  (630  sq.  miles).  The  forks  of  the 
Platte  river,  rising  in  Colorado  and  flowing  through  C'olo- 
rado  anil  Wyoming,  unite  in  Western  Nebraska  and  run 
the  full  length  of  the  State,  turning  a  third  of  it  into  a  fer- 
tile valley.  The  North  Platte  river  from  its  source  to  its 
mouth  at  the  Missouri  has  an  estimated  length  of  more 
than  1,400  miles,  making  it  the  seventh  river  in  length  in  the 
U.  S.  Tlie  Niobrara  river  flows  tlirougii  the  northern  por- 
tion of  the  State,  flowing  into  the  Jlissouri.  The  extreme 
S.  E.  is  drained  by  the  Missouri  directly,  but  the  S.  and 
S.  W.  are  drained  by  the  Re))ublican.  a  tributary  of  the 
Kau.sas.  The  rich  black  soil,  in  a  past  age  the  bottom  of  a 
great  fresh-water  lake,  washes  into  the  streams  and  renders 
them  very  dark  colored.  Along  with  the  deposits  of  lime- 
stone, sandstone,  and  shale,  in  the  .southeast  counties  are 
light  veins  of  coal.  These  arc  not  productive  enough  for 
niore  than  local  use.  Rocks  of  the  Permian  age  appear  only 
in  and  near  Gage  (bounty,  in  the  S.  E.  Tlie  rocks  of  tlie  Da- 
kota group  are  found  witliin  an  area  extending  from  the 
upper  half  of  the  eastern  border  to  the  Kansas  line,  through 
Saunders,  Lancaster,  Saline,  and  Jefferson  Counties.  The 
"  rotten  limestone  "  and  "  chalk  rock  "  of  the  Colorado  group 


Seal  of  Nebraska, 
th  E.  to  W.  430  miles,  N.  to  S. 


NEBRASKA 


95 


are  seen  within  a  strip  of  counlry  extendinj*  N.  and  S.  next 
\V.  of  the  Dakota  fjroup,  with  an  average  width  of  HO  miles. 
The  remaining  surface,  excepting  a  small  showing  of  the 
Colorailo  group  at  the  re-entrant  angle  of  the  boundary,  is 
the  area  of  the  lake  deposits.  The  western  central  part  of 
the  .State  is  an  unusually  fertile  country.  The  had  lands,  or 
••  mauviiisi's  terres,"  cut  into  deep  gulches  by  the  tributaries 
of  the  While  and  Big  t'heyenne  rivei-s,  are  not  absolutely 
worthless  as  was  once  supposed.  Vegetable  life  has  not  ob- 
tained a  foothold  except  in  a  few  places,  but  where  it  has, 
grasses  ami  other  plants  grow  in  abundance.  The  State 
geologist  lias  ]ironounced  the  marl  of  this  region  to  be  as 
fine  soil  as  the  State  can  show. 

Soil  find  PrmluctiuHK. — Xcbraska  is  pre-eminently  an 
agricultural  .Stati'.  As  a  mineral-producing  State  it  ranks 
Blmosl  last.  Tlu'  output  of  lW<y  (census  of  1«!)0)  was  valued 
at  ♦•J.J7,(ll!t.  .V  small  part  of  this  was  the  value  of  1,400 
tons  of  coal  mined  in  Uichardson  t'ounty  for  local  use.  The 
lest  wiis  for  limestone,  which  is  (juarried  extensively  and 
used  in  all  kinds  of  inasoiirv.  Comparatively  little  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  lime.  .\  soil  of  unusual  richness  cov- 
ers the  .State  to  an  average  depth  of  about  200  feet.  .S.  of 
the  I'latte  it  seems  to  be  one  uniform  stretch  of  loess  forma- 
tion, (.'overing  two  or  three  tiers  of  counties  along  the  en- 
tire eiustern  bonier,  much  glacial  drift  is  found,  and  at  the 
very  S.  K.  some  rock  soil.  N.  of  the  I'latte,  beginning  at 
about  the  !l!)th  meridian,  there  is  sand,  which  increases  to 
the  \V.  The  center  of  this  region  is  (iniiit,  Thomas,  and 
Hooker  (.'ounties.  The  subsoils  are  as  rich  as  the  black  soil. 
and  raise  a  full  crop  the  lirst  year  after  being  turned  up. 
All  that  ever  causes  a  failure  of  crops  is  lack  of  sullicient 
water.  ('oin|)aratively  little  fertilizing  is  done  because  the 
soil  yields  abundantly  without.  All  crops  that  are  adapted 
to  this  latitude  are  grown  in  Nebraska. 
The  following  summary  from  the  census  reports  of  1S80 
iid  18!)U  shows  the  extent  of  farm  operations  in  tli.  Siii.  : 


FARMS,  ETC. 

1880. 

1890. 

Per  c«nt.' 

T'  )Ial  nuiiilMT  of  farms 

Total  ttcrfUKe  of  farms 

Value    of     farms,     iiieludilig 
buililintfs  and  feiicea 

8105,932.541 

11.3.808 
21.593,444 

S40S..'i58,9I3 

798 
1171 

279-8 

•  Increase. 


The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  value 
of  the  principal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  \'>i'X\: 


CROO 

' 

\    .  1 

VllM. 

Corn 

1.238,493 
l..'>9(I.Jf!l 

'.IS.1K3 

ni.r,',*! 

14.4:f. 

112.l«3 

2.071.7311 

ln7.2;s.M;«  bush. 
l(l.(lh7,fWy      •• 

23.'.'>«..>1.'.      •' 
iWI.IHS      •• 
112l),2M0      •• 

sr.MSK     ■• 
4.90,->..'a;    ■■ 

2..'>S9.IItWt..r,, 

S42.405  ■vyi 

Wheat 

OatH 

Rye 

Barley 

5.277,4M9 
317,1177 

2W.3K7 

Potatoes 

■  ■  ''■'■,*  770 

Hay 

Totals 

ll,442,(Mg 

$09,295,081 

On  .Ian.  1,  1S04.  the  farm  animals  eompriseil  70H.4.57 
hors<'S.  value  :J:-,'!I.10(),H(W;  4().!t:i!»  mules,  value  *2.67-.J,!»:!-.> : 
5:i.'),.'>:t0  milch  cows,  value  iiilO..">01.S(ll  ;  l.til:i,2-,>;!  oxen  and 
other  cattli'.  value  *->«.!l4 1  .tj:^  1  :  •377.!l.")2  sheep,  value  ^M:\,. 
014;  ami  U.OSS.lim  swim',  value  $ltJ,«U,U81;  total  heail, 
5,271.071;  total  value.  ^;N(i.t>7H.227. 

Mention  shoidd  be  made  of  the  intriMluction  and  rapidly 
increasing  produilion  of  alfalfa  as  a  forage  plant,  and  of 
the  success  of  nui-series  ami  seed  farms,  of  which  there  were 
nearly  l.").tH)0  acres  in  IHIIO.  .Many  millions  of  trees  have 
been  planted  in  the  .Stale  since  .\rbor  Day  originated. 

FUira. — The  State  is  the  meeting-ground  for  the  floras  of 
the  Kocky  Mountains  and  of  tin-  .Mississippi  valley.  In  all, 
more  than  2,700  species  of  vegetable  life  have  been  cata- 
logued, ltra.s.<es  are  es|)eclally  abumlant,  ami  al)out  l.'iO 
native  species  have  been  found.  The  Composita-  anil  the 
lii'gununosH"  art-  also  nnim'ronsty  represented.  There  are 
140  species  of  woody  plants,  of  which  sixty-two  are  trees. 
Among  the  most  useful  of  these  are  yellow  nine,  ri'd  cedar, 
seventeen  species  of  oak.  seven  mcud>ers  of  the  walnut  fam- 
ily, a  dozen  of  the  willow,  the  white  mid  the  red  elm,  red 
mulberry,  [dane-ln-e,  papaw,  basswood,  two  species  of  maple, 
and  the  box-ehler. 

Fauna. — The  large  mammals  are  almost  extinct.  The 
bison  does  not  iK-eur  wild.  Klk,  deer,  and  antelope  are  very 
rare.     In  the  western   part  of  the   Slate  there  are  many  of 


the  smaller  animals,  such  as  wild-cats,  wolves,  coyotes,  and 
foxes.  Twenty-three  species  of  reptiles  are  found,  none 
poisonous  except  three  species  of  rattlesnake.  About  400 
species  of  birds  are  found,  including  the  migratory  ones. 
Owing  to  the  position  of  Nebraska,  midway  between  the  N, 
and  the  .S.  and  between  the  K.  and  the  W'.,  the  number  of 
insects  is  very  large.  Of  the  Ortliuplira,  275  species  arc 
found,  and  other  orders,  so  far  as  tfiey  have  been  studied, 
appear  in  correspomlingly  large  numbei-s. 

Cliiiialt. — The  mean  annual  temperature  varies  from 
4()'8  to  riI-4  .  The  .southeast  pall  of  the  State  has  both 
higher  temperature  and  greater  rainfall  than  the  other  por- 
tions. The  facts  of  greatest  value  to  agricultural  interests 
are  that  there  are  many  consecutive  days  in  the  s|)ring  and 
summer  with  temperature  above  .50  ,  and  that  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  annual  rainfall  occurs  during  the  months  when 
crops  are  growing.  The  rainfall  for  the  whole  State  is  not 
quite  as  large  its  for  the  States  immediately  K..  but  the  fall 
is  better  distributed  according  to  the  needs  of  the  crops. 
The  following  tables  show  the  temperature  and  rainfall  for 
the  year  1802: 


TEHPERATURE. 


Mmi  Unipcmturr  for 


PRECIPITATION. 


0-8B 
0-99 
1  -62 
400 
5-68 
218 
2-57 
3-20 
0-48 
1-71 
0  27 
0-61 


24- 


8.  E.    CtJ.l.     Wnl. 


102| 
1-.32I 

5-40, 
1-21 
2-50; 
3-281 
0-35 
1-1)3 
0.37 
0-41 


28-46:22-42  1972 


1-06 
0-91 
0-74 
4-16 
3-14 
2-30 
1  70 
2-28 
0-55 
2-22 
0-08 
0-58 


Divisions. — For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  di 
vidcd  into  ninety  counties,  as  follows : 

COUNTIES   ASD   COUNTY-TOWNS,   WITH   POPULATION. 


.\dams 

Antelope... 
Arthur +  ... 
Bauuert.. . 
Blaiuet .... 

Booue 

Bo.x  Butte  . 

Boyd: 

Brown  t 

Buffalo 

Burt 

Butler 

CttKS 

Cedar 

Chose 

Cherry  t . . . 
Cheyenne. . 

Clay 

Colfax 

Cinning 

Custer 

Dakota 

Dawest 

Dawson 

Deuel  t 

Dixon 

l»iMi(je 

DoukIos  . . . 

Dmidy 

Fillmore  , . 
Frnnklin... 
Frontier . . . 

Furnas  

('■ntte 

Garfield  t . . 

(Josper 

Oram 

OnM'ley 

Hall 

Ilnnitlton. . 

Harlan 

Haves 

Hil'ehcock. 

Hoh 

ll(M.ker-f,. 

Howard 

Jefferson . . 


•R.f. 

Pop.       1 

n-K 

le.i-).'. 

9-F 

3,953 

10-C 

lO-A 

9-D 

10-F 

4,170 

!»-B 

8-E 

8-D 

10-E 

7,581 

9-H 

0,937 

10-(J 

9,194 

10-H 

10,683 

8-G 

2,899 

Il-C 

70 

R-C 

lO-B 

l..V>8 

It-F 

ll.SiM 

10-0 

0,688 

9-Q 

6.509 

10-E 

2,211 

9-G 

3.813 

8-A 

10-E 

8.909 

10-B 

9-(J 

4,177 

10-0 

11.803 

10-H 

37,645 

11-C 

87 

11-K 

10,801 

11-E 

6,465 

11-D 

9,34 

II-D 

6,407 

11-0 

1S,1(M 

9-E 

11-D 

1,673 

9-C 

10-F 

1,461 

lO-F 

8.578 

Irt-F 

8,267 

ll-E 

6.080 

II-C 

119 

Il-C 

1.018 

H-E 

3,887 

9-f 

lO-F 

4,391 

Il-O 

8,096 

COI-NTY  TOWNS. 


10.31W 
91 
2,4;« 
1,140 
8.(1H3 
5,494 

4,.359 

22.102 

11, 009 

15.4.^4 

24.1180 

7,0-J8 

4.807 

6.4-J8 

5.093 

10,310 

10,4M 

12.-JI-.5 

21.077 

5..380 

9  7'ii 

lIu2U 

2.SI13 

8.0S4 

I9.2CO 

l.')8,(l«I.S 

4,012 

1G.IV>> 

7.093 

8.497 

9,8.10 

30.!H4 

l.ti.'i9 

4.810 

•l.')8 

4.809 

10.513 

14.090 

S.l.'rft 

3.9.'i3 

5.799 

18.072 

420 

9.I.30 

14.H30 


Neligll  . 


Harrisburg 

Brewster 

Albion 

Heuiiii^ford 

Butte 

Ainsworlh 

Kearney 

Tekamah 

David  City 

Plattsmouth 

Hartinpton 

Imperial 

Valentine 

Sidney 

Clay  Center.. . . 

.Sch'uvler 

West"  Point 

Broken  Bow  . . . 

Dakota 

Chadron  

l.e.xin>rton 

ChupiH'll 

Ponea 

Fremont 

Omaha 

Benkelman .... 

Oeneva  

I  BloominKton... 
I  Stockville 

Beaver  City.... 

Beatrice 

Burwell 

Elwood 

Hyannis 

(Jreeley 

Orand  Island... 

Aurora 

A  Imn 

Hayes  Center.. 

Trenton 

O'Neill 

Mullen 

SI.  Paul 

Fnirlnirv 


Pop. 

1890. 


13.684 
1,209 


7a3 
8,074 
1.844 
8,088 
8,398 

169 


390 
8,160 
1,812 
1,647 

i',867 
1,398 

V.ooi 

6.747 

140,468 

.357 

1,680 

464 

768 

13,886 

STS 

873 


7,5,30 

1,868 

905 

'967 
1.226 

V.JflS 
2,630 


•  Ri'ferenco  for  looaflon  of  rountles.  si'e  map  of  Nebraska. 

t  Formed  since  census  of  18K0.        ;  Formed  since  census  of  1890 


96 


NEBRASKA 


JohDson 

Kearney  

Keith   

Keya  Pahat. . . 

KimbaUl- 

Knox 

Lancaster 

Lincoln 

Logant 

Loupt 

McPhersont. .. 

Madison 

Merrick 

Nance 

Nemaha 

Nuckolls 

Otoe 

Pawnee 

Perkins 

Phelps 

Pierce  

Platte 

Polk 

Red  Willow. .   . 

Richardson 

Eockt 

Saline 

Sarpy 

Saunders 

Scott's  Bluff  t.. 

Seward 

Sheridan  t 

Sherman 

Sioux 

Stanton 

Thayer 

Thomas 

Thurston  t 

Valley 

Washington  . . . 

Wayne 

Webster 

Wheeler 

York 

Unorganized. . . 


11-H 
11-E 
10-C 

8-E 
10-A 

8-F 
10-G 
lO-D 

9-D 

i)-E 
10-C 

9-F 
10-F 
lO-F 

n-H 

ll-F 
11-H 
11-H 
10  C 
11-E 

9-F 
lO-F 
10-F 
11-D 
11-H 

9-E 
11-G 
10-H 
lO-G 

9-A 
10-G 

8-B 
10-E 

8-A 

9-a 

11-G 
9-D 
9-G 

10-E 

10-H 
9-G 

ll-F 
9-F 

10-G 


Totals 452,403 


Pop. 
1880. 


7,59.5 

4,072 

194 


3,6B6 
28,090 
3,632 


5,589 
5,341 
1,212 

10,451 
4,2;« 

15,727 
6,920 

'  2,447 
1,202 
9,511 
6,846 
3,044 

15,031 

i4,49i 
4,481 
15,810 


11,147 

'  2,061 

699 

1,818 

6,113 

"169 
2,324 
8,631 
813 
7,104 
644 
11,170 
2,913 


Pop. 

1890. 


10,333 
9,061 
2,556 
3,920 
959 
8,682 

76,395 

10,441 

1,378 

1,662 

401 

13,669 
8,758 
5,773 

12,930 

11,417 

25,403 

10,340 
4,364 
9,869 
4,864 

15.437 

10.817 
8,837 

17..574 
3,083 

20,097 
6,875 

21, .577 
1.888 

16,140 
8,687 
6,399 
2,452 
4.619 

12,738 

517 

3,176 

7,092 

11,809 
6,169 

11,210 
1,683 

17,279 
695 


1,058,910 


COUNTY-TOWNS. 


Tecumseh 

Minden 

Ogalalla 

Springview  . . . , 

Kimball 

Niobrara 

Lincoln 

North  Platte . . . 

Gandy  

Taylor 

Tryon 

Madison 

Central  City  . . . 

Fullerton 

Auburn 

Nelson 

Nebraska  City . 
Pawnee  City . . . 

Grant 

Holdrege 

Pierce 

Columbus 

Osceola 

Indianola   

Falls  City 

Bassett  

Wilber 

PapiUion 

Wahoo 

Gering 

Seward 

Rushville 

Loup 

Harrison 

Stanton 

Hebron 

Thedf  ord 

Pender 

Ord 

Blair 

Wayne 

Red  Cloud 

Bartlett 

York 


Pop. 


*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  Nebraska. 

t  Formed  since  census  of  1880.         }  Formed  since  census  of  1890. 

N.  B.— Arthur  County  is  now  part  of  McPhers.  >n  Cnuilv:  Tliurston 
County  was  formerly  Blackbird  County;  Boyd  County  was  organized 
in  1891  from  part  of  South  Dakota. 

Principal  Cities  and  Towns,  with  Population  for  1890. — 
Omaha,  140,453;  Lincoln,  55,ir)4;  Beatrice,  13,836;  Hast- 
ings, 13,584;  Nebraska  I'itv,  11,494;  Plattsmouth,  8,393; 
Kearney,  8,074 ;  South  Omaha,  8,063  ;  Grand  Island,  7,536 : 
anil  Fremont,  6,747. 

Population  and  Races.— \%m,  38,841 ;  1870, 133.993  ;  1880, 
453,403;  1890,  1,058,910  (native,  856,368;  foreigners,  303,- 
543;  males,  573,824;  females,  486,086;  white,  1,046,888; 
colored,  12,033,  of  whom  8,913  were  of  African  descent,  214 
Chinese,  3  Japanese,  and  3,893  civilized  Indians). 

Industries  and  Business  Interests. — Nebraska  has  not 
yet  taken  rank  as  a  manufacturing  State,  but  a  good  begin- 
ning has  been  made.  In  1890  there  were  reported  31^014 
manufacturing  establishments,  which  had  $37,569,508  capi- 
tal, employed  23,876  persons,  paid  !fl2,984,571  for  wages 
and  .$67,334,533  for  materials,  and  had  products  valued  at 
193,037,794.  The  most  important  industries  were  smelting 
at  Omaha ;  pork-packing  at  Omaha,  Lincoln,  and  Nebraska 
City;  di.stilling  and  brewing  at  Omaha  and  Nebraska  Citv; 
limestone-quarrying  and  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  at 
Norfolk  and  Grand  Island;  linseed  oil  at  Omaha:  cotton 
goods  at  Kearney;  and  flour  and  starch  at  Nebraska  f'itv. 
The  Chicago,  Burlington  and  yuincy  Railroad  has  car-shops 
near  Lincoln,  and  the  Union  Pacific  at  Omaha.  In  1893 
there  were  ninety-eight  creameries  in  the  State,  which  yield- 
ed butter  to  the  value  of  .f  10,000,000.  See  Lincoln  and 
O.MAIH. 

Valuations. — The  assessed  valuations  of  taxable  proiiertv 
in  1893  aggregated  .1:194,733,124,  and  included  15,289,859 
acres  of  improved  land,  valued  at  $60,299,544;  13,041,457 
acres  of  unimproved  hind,  valued  at  $27,051,620;  176.435 
improved  town  and  city  lots,  valued  at  $30,888,037;  and 
355,751  unimproved  town  and  city  lots,  valued  at  $9,833,- 
807. 

Banking.— Qn  Dec.  19,  1893,  there  were  133  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $12,838,100,  surplus  and 
{jrofits  of  $3  021,538,  and  ileposits  of  $19,903.638 ;  and  503 
btate  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $10.81.5.74.5.  surplus 
and  profits  of  $2,654,298.  and  deposits  of  $17,178,549. 

Posf-ojicps  and  Periodicals.— On  Jan.  1,  1894,  there  were 


1,119  post-offices,  of  which  95  were  presidential  (3  first-class, 
10  second-class,  82  third-class)  and  1,024  fourth-class,  458 
money-order  offices,  and  27  postal-note  offices.  There  were 
33  daily,  1  tri-weekly,  8  semi-weekly,  559  weekly,  4  semi- 
monthly, and  34  monthly  periodicals;  total,  639. 

Libraries. — In  1893  there  were  31  libraries  of  1.000  vol- 
umes and  over,  which  contained  150,668  bound  volumes 
and  13,197  pamphlets.  They  were  classified  as  follows : 
General.  6  ;  school,  8 ;  college.  5  ;  college  society,  1 ;  law,  1 ; 
public  institution,  3 ;  State,  1  ;  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  1 ;  social,  3  ; 
historical,  1 ;  not  reported.  2. 

Means  of  Communication. — The  following  is  the  mileage 
of  the  railways  in  Nebraska,  given  by  the  'board  of  trans- 
portation in  Mar.,  1894:  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy 
C'B.  and  M."),  2,253-07;  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis,  and 
Omaha,  261-85;  Fremont,  Elkhorn,  and  Missouri  Valley, 
985-19;  Sioux  City  and  Pacific,  26-95;  Chicago,  Rock  Island, 
and  Pacific,  348-33  ;  Missouri  Pacific,  379-46 ;'  I'acific  R.  R.  in 
Nebraska,  71-22;  Union  Pacific,  467-48  ;  Omaha  and  Repub- 
lican Valley,  414-44;  St.  Joseph  and  Grand  Island,  112-53: 
Kearney  and  Black  Hills,  65-73;  Kansas  Citv,  Wyandotte 
and  Northwestern,  30-10;  Nebraska  and  Western"  (Pacific 
Short  Line),  129-16;  total,  5,529-23. 

Churches. — The  census  of  1890  gave  the  following  statis- 
tics of  the  principal  religious  bodies; 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Roman  Catholic 

Methodist  Episcopal 

Lutheran,  S.vnodical  Conference 
Presb.  in  the  U.  S.  of  America. . . 

Baptist 

Congregational 

Disciples  of  Christ 

Lutheran.  General  Council 

United  Brethren  in  Christ 

Lutheran,  General  Synod 

Evangelical  .-Association 


Organiza- 
lioDS. 

Churches 
and  halli. 

213 

220 

51.503 

649 

6S0 

41,086 

135 

93 

12,339 

228 

187 

12.159 

230 

234 

11.917 

172 

144 

10,145 

100 

84 

7.715 

88 

83 

7.204 

147 

140 

5.673 

73 

73 

3.731 

81 

84 

3,458 

Value  of 
church 
property. 

$1,179,160 
1,242,200 
168.570 
576,210 
514,710 
640,204 
269,.375 
206.001 

84,950 
3.30,420 

86,100 


Schools. — The  system  of  public  education  is  very  com- 
plete. Prom  the  district  schools  and  city  grades,  through 
the  high  schools  to  the  university,  the  system  is  a  unity.  In 
addition  there  are  a  State  normal  school,  schools  for  the 
blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  refractory  youth  and  feeble-minded 
youth,  and  an  eflficient  system  of  teachers'  institutes  and 
university  extension.  The  management  of  the  State  Uni- 
versity is  vested  in  a  board  of  regents,  two  members  being 
elected  biennially  for  the  term  of  six  years.  The  normal 
school  is  under  tlie  direction  of  a  board  of  seven  members, 
including  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
and  the  State  treasurer. 

In  the  school  year  1891-93  there  were  343.629  children  of 
school  age.  of  whom  253,909  were  attending  the  public 
schools;  6,510 school  districts;  6,334  school  buildings;  9,085 
teachers ;  316  graded  schools ;  182  private  schools ;  and  a 
total  expenditure  in  educational  work  of  $4,434,338, 

Charitable,  Befonnatory,  and  Pencil  Institutions. — These 
comprise  the  State  School  for  Feeble-minded  Youth,  at 
Beatrice ;  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumlj.  at  Omaha ; 
School  for  the  Blind,  at  Nebraska  City ;  Industrial  School 
for  Boys,  at  Kearney ;  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  at  Ge- 
neva; Home  for  Fallen  Women,  at  Milford ;  State  lunatic 
asylums,  at  Lincoln,  Norfolk,  and  Hastings;  Home  for  the 
Friendless,  at  Lincoln :  Sailors'  and  Soldiers'  Home,  at 
Grand  Island;  and  the  State  penitentiary,  at  Lincoln. 

Political  Organisation. — There  arc  few  unusual  features 
in  the  constitution  of  the  State.  The  State  officers  are 
Governor,  secretary,  auditor,  treasurer,  attorney-general, 
Lieutenant-Governor,  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
and  comrais.sioner  of  public  lands  and  buildings,  each  elected 
by  the  State  at  large  for  two  years.  The  clerk  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  is  the  State  librarian.  Much  f>f  the  executive 
work  is  done  by  boards,  chief  among  which  are  those  for 
public  lands  and  buildings,  equalization,  transportation, 
school  lands  and  buildings,  health,  and  State  ]irinting.  The 
Legislature  consisted  in  1894  of  33  Senators,  elected  from 
30  districts,  and  100  Representatives  from  67  districts,  each 
for  a  term  of  two  years.  Sessions  are  held  biennially,  be- 
ginning on  the  fii-.st  Tuesday  in  January  of  odd-numbered 
yeai-s,  and  are  limited  to  60  days.  A  three-fifth  vote  passes 
a  bill  over  the  governor's  veto.  The  .judicial  di>partment 
consists  of  a  Supreme  Court  of  three  members,  district  courts 
in  15  districts,  C(5unty  courts,  justices'  courts,  and  in  cities 
police  courts. 


NKHUASKA  rnv 


NEBL'L-i; 


History. — A  Spuiiiaril  miiiu'd  Coronado  came  up  from 
Mexico  Its  far  as  llu'  snutli  part  of  Nebraska  as  early  as  \'A\. 
Father  Maniiietle  iiiappe.l  <nit  the  I'hilte  and  Missouri  in 


Dutisiie,  a   KreiK  liMian,  eaiue  into  the  plains  W.  of 
the  Missouri  in  171!l.     Twenty  years  later  the  Mallet  liroth- 


1673. 


ers  explored  the  Platte  rountry.  The  fur-tradiuf,'  periods, 
in  the  latter  i)art  of  which  the  Nebraska  country  served  us 
tradinji-Kround,  nuiv  be  divided  as  follows:  French,  ltiy4- 
176;3;  British,  l7«:t-lSl«;  American,  181t)-34.  In  1810  the 
American  Fur  Conipanv  located  a  tradinf;-post  at  liellcvue, 
on  the  hi^ch  bliilTs  jusi  'N.  cf  the  month  »{  the  I'latte  river. 
Ijcwis  and  Clarke's  expedition  hail  oassed  up  the  west  liank 
of  the  Missouri  river  in  1SU4,  anil  other  expeditions  fol- 
lowed, viz.,  Major  hoii;,',  I.HH»;  \V.  II.  Ashley,  1822;  Rev. 
Samuel  I'urker,  18:i.">;  and  tlen.  Fremont,  1842.  The  l'.  S. 
Government  established  old  Fort  Atkinson,  afterward  called 
Fort  Calhoun,  in  1820.  It  wils  abandoned  in  1828.  Mis- 
sionaries to  the  Inilians  l)e;;an  to  penetrate  the  region  \V.  of 
the  Missouri  river  verv  earlv.  One  of  the  earliest  was  Moses 
Jlerrill.  who  preached'  to  tlie  Otoes  from  1833  to  1840.  The 
Mormons  removed  from  Illinois  in  1846,  and  their  "  winter 
quarters,"  a  few  miles  X.  of  where  Oinaha  now  is,  are  said 
to  have  contained  at  one  time  l.j,0(X»  people.  Nearly  all  of 
them  shortly  made  their  way  beyon<l  tiie  mountains  to  Salt 
Lake  City.  The  next  K'cat  movement  of  population  to  the 
West,  that  of  the  pild-liunters,  bei,'inning  in  1849,  gave  to 
the  west  bank  of  the  .Missouri  its  liist  towns,  and  Nebraska 
City  ami  I'laltsmouth  had  become  towns  of  some  size  when 
the  lands  were  formally  thrown  open  to  settlers.  The  first 
organization  ui  the  country  by  the  famous  Kansa.s-Nebraska 
Bill  in  18.14  made  one  Territory  of  all  the  region  between 
parallel  40  ,  the  summit  of  the  Kocky  Mountains,  the  Can- 
ada line,  and  the  Missouri  river.  From  1803  to  1854  the 
tract  was  nothing  in  fact  but  Indian  country,  known  on 
the  statute-books  as  Louisiana  Tirrilory  (I80.J).  or  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Missouri  (1812).  Tlie  Territorial  form  of  govern- 
ment lasted  from  1854  to  1867,  during  which  the  capital 
was  at  Omaha,  and  settlements  grew  westward  from  the 
Mis-souri  slowly.  With  statehood  in  1867  came  also  the 
Union  I'acitic  Ttuilway,  and  a  change  of  the  capital  to  Lin- 
coln,  where  it  has  since  remaineil.  With  the  exception  of 
the  controversy  over  one  of  the  electoral  votes  at  tne  time 
of  the  presidential  election  of  1876,  there  have  been  few  im- 
p..rt,".iit  ev.  iits  in  the  recent  history  of  the  State. 


OOVERXORS   OF  NEBRASKA 
Tirritoriat. 

KrancU  Burt 18M 

T.  B.  (.•uniiiiK  (octiuKI 1S.M-.S5 

JIark  \V.  Izard ISVj-.V* 

Win.  A.  KiehanlBon 1H.V* 

J.  8.  Mori,  in  meting) lS58-.')9 

Samuel  \V.  lilaek lMSg-61 

Alvin  SaTiiulem 1861-86 

David  Butler 1866-67 


Robert  W.  Furnas 18r»-T5 

Silas  ( ;arl)er 18T5-;9 

Albinus  Nanee 18T9-)tS 

James  \V.  Dunes 18H.1  S7 

John  M.  Tliayer ISsT-ill 

James  E.  Boyd ]8«I  93 

Lorenzo  Crounse 189.V95 

Silos  A.  Holeonibe 18115- 


State. 

Dnvi.l  Biiller 1H67-71 

W.  II.  James  (acting) . . .  .^1871-73 

.\iTnoRiTiKS.— Publications  of  the  State  Board  of  Agri- 
ulture.  Slate  Horticultural  .Soeiety,  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 
tistics, reports  of  Slatt^  ollicers.  slatules,  and  publications 
of  the  Slate  Historical  Society;  census  of  U.  S.,  bulletins 
and  three  volumes  for  18!I0;',I.  A.  Barrett,  IliMonj  and 
Ooivnimeiit  of  Xrbrax/ia  (Lincoln,  1801);  .lohnson,  jlis- 
tonj  of  XeOra.ika ;  yfbni.'<k(i  Stiile  Uazelher  for  181)3. 

JaV  A.MOS  Barrktt. 

Npliraska  City :  city;  capital  of  Ofoc  co..  Neb.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  man  of  Nebraska,  ref.  11-11);  on  the 
Missouri  river,  and  the  Burlington  and  the  JIo.  Pac.  rail- 
ways; 44  miles  S.  of  Omaha,  57  miles  E.  of  Lincoln;  ele- 
vation al)ove  sea-level,  i)07  to  !)72  feet.  The  river  here  has 
two  arms,  which  are  crossed  by  a  pontoon  bridge  that  cost 
If  IM.IHKI.  and  by  a  steel  railway  bridge  that  cost  ^1,000.000. 
The   city  contains   17  chnrehcs,   a   high   school,  10   oublic- 

hool  buililings,  the  State  .Sehool  for  the  Bliml,  tioman 
I  illiiilic' convent,  V.  S.  (iovernment  bnilding.  jiublie  library, 
liospital.  3  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  !(;2(Hi.- 
IHH).  a  Stale  bank  with  a  capital  of  ijt.lO.OOO,  ami  a  monlhlv, 
4  daily,  and  5  weekly  perioclicals.  The  industrial  establish- 
ments include  two  large  pork-nacking  plants,  extensive 
stock-yards,  cologne  spirits  ami  ulc-ohol  distillery.  Hour  ami 
starch  mills,  vilrilied  brick-works,  several  breweries,  foun- 
dries, and  machine-shops,  creamery,  canning-works,  boiler- 
shops,  niarble-vards,  plow  and  wagon  factories,  lumb«r- 
£91 


yards,  and  planing-mills.  The  city  is  in  the  center  of  a 
rich  corn  an<l  fruit  belt,  and  has  ade(piate  sewerage,  gas, 
electric -light,  water,  lire  department,  and  street-railway 
services.    Pop.  (1880)  4,183;  (18110)  11,4!)4. 

KuiTOR  OF  "  News." 

Ncliucliadncz'zar  (from  Ileb.  n'hHkh(ulnift!<tmr,a\t\->av. 
the  prince  of  the  god  Nebu  or  Mercury;  but  the  form  in 
Jer.  xlix.  28  (Nebuchadrezzar)  agrees  luore  nearly  with  that 
found  on  the  cuneiform  monuments,  Nuhii-ku'durri-usur, 
Nebo,  defend  the  crown]:  the  greatest  of  the  Kings  of  Bab- 
ylon, son  and  succ.es.sor  of  Nabopolassar,  the  founder  of  the 
empire;  was  of  marriageable  age  at  the  lime  of  his  father's 
revolt  against  Assyria  (u.  c.  625).  at  which  time  Amuhia, 
daughter  of  the  Median  king,  was  betrothed  to  him  ;  is  sup- 
posed to  have  commanded  the  Babylonian  auxiliaries  in 
Cvaxarcs's  war  against  Lydia,  and  to  have  brought  the  hos- 
tilities to  a  close  by  his  mediation  on  the  occasion  of  the 
famous  eclipse  foretold  by  Thales,  B.  c.  610 ;  regained  Car- 
chemish  on  the  Kuphrales  from  the  Egyptian  king  605; 
subjugateil  Syria  and  Palestine,  carrying  tlie  principal  Jews 
into  cuptivily  in  the  same  year;  succeeded  to  the  throne 
604;  besiegeil  Tyre  508;  comjileted  the  reduction  of  Judica 
586;  dcstroyc<l 'ryie  after  a  siege  of  thirteen  years  585;  in- 
vaded and  ravaged  Egypt  some  years  later;  rebuilt  in  a 
splciulid  manner  all  the  cities  of  Upper  Babylonia;  con- 
structed vast  temples,  a(|ucducts,  an<l  palaces,  the  ruins  of 
which  still  testify  to  their  grandeur.  He  wa.s,  indeed,  the 
most  successful  and  the  most  powerful  monarch  who  sat  on 
the  thnme  of  Baliylon.  Of  liis  insanity  and  the  events 
preceding  it  we  have  no  other  account  than  from  the  book 
of  Daniel,  though  numerous  inscriptions  tell  us  about  his 
occupations  at  home.  I),  about  561.  See  Uawlinson's  Ji'ii'e 
Great  Monarchies;  also  the  book  of  Daniel. 

Nebtllie  f  =  Lat..  plur.  of  nrh'ula,  cloud  ;  cf.  Gr.  vttptKri, 
cloud  :  Sanskr.  niihlias-  :  0.  IL  Germ,  nehul]  :  a  class  of 
celestiiil  objects  characterized  by  a  certain  cloudy  aspect  re- 
sembling the  light  of  the  Milky  Way  or  the  Magellanic 
clouds,  or  in  numerous  ca.ses  the  dillused  light  of  a  comet's 
tail.  By  means  of  powerful  telescopes  many  bodies  having 
this  nebulous  api)earance  can  be  shown  to  be  merely  clusters 
of  ajiparcntly  faint  stars,  but  it  does  not  seem  at  present  im- 
proper to  treat  of  clusters  aiul  nebula'  under  one  general 
name — nebuhe.  The  nebula'  are  distinguished  from  the 
fixed  stars  by  their  apparent  diameter,  since  the  latter  bodies 
appear,  even  under  the  greatest  magnifying  powers,  without 
sensible  magnitude.  'I'hcy  are.  on  tlie  other  hand,  dis- 
tinguished from  the  planetary  and  cometary  disks,  not  only 
by  their  peculiar  luster,  but  by  their  immobility,  since,  as 
yet,  a  ]no|)er  nioliou  has  not  been  <lemonstrated  for  any 
nebula  except  the  trilid  (d.  ('.  43.'J5),  although  changes  are 
known  to  have  occurred  within  the  body  of  one  nebula  and 
perhaps  other.s.  (See  llolden  in  Silliman's  Am.  Jour..  May, 
1876.)  On  account,  therefore,  of  their  fixity,  it  has  always 
been  considered  tluit  the  nebula)  belong  to  the  regions  of 
space  very  far  removed  from  our  solar  system.  Knowledge 
of  these  celestial  bodies  has  bei!n  jieculiarlv  dependent  upon 
the  successful  construction  of  large  telescopes,  and  is  there- 
fore almost  exclusively  the  result  of  the  labors  of  modern 
ustidiiomers.  beginning  with  Sir  William  Ilerschel. 

The  term  "clouilv  stars"  is  first  found  in  the  catalogue 
of  Ptolemy,  but  eacli  of  the  five  objects  so  named  by  him  is 
now  known  to  be  a  coarse  cluster  of  stars,  easily  resolvable 
into  its  elements  by  feeble  telescopes.  The  Arabian  astrono- 
mer Sufi  in  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century  makes  mention 
of  tin-  Magellanic  clouds  and  of  the  .\ndromeda  nebula.  The 
first  recoriled  telescopic  oliservation  of  a  true  neliiila  is  by 
Simon  Marius.  who  in  1612  had  appro|priately  described  the 
great  nelinla  in  Androme<la  as  ai>pearing  to  the  naked  eye 
like  the  flame  of  a  candle  .seen  tnrough  a  semi-transparent 
sheet  of  horn.  In  1656  Iluyghens  recorded  the  discovery 
of  a  similar  nebulous  body  in  Orion,  which  had  been  dis- 
covered without  the  use  of  a  telescope  liy  Cysut  in  1619. 
The  largest  gi'iieral  collection  of  nebula'  ]irevious  to  the 
timeof  .Sir  Willi.iiii  Ilei-schel  was  that  published  by  Messier, 
whose  first  catalogue  (1771 )  contained  45  nebula' and  clus- 
ters; while  his  second  and  third  catalogues  {Cotm.  des 
TempM.  1783  and  1784).  contained  103.  Sir  William  Herschel 
discovered  several  thousand  new  nebula'  and  clusters,  the 
places  of  which,  with  appropriate  descriptions,  were  com- 
municated by  him  to  the  IJoyal  .SiX'iety  of  London  in  three 
successive  memoirs — in  1786.  1.000  new  nebula' ami  clusters; 
in  1789, 1.000  additional  nebula'  ami  dusters:  and  in  1802,a 
third  catalogue  of  500  of  these  bcnlies.    The  next  great  work 


98 


NEBULA 


is  due  to  Sir  John  F.  W.  Herschel,  son  of  Sir  William,  wlio 
in  1825  to  1830,  with  a  20-foot  reflector,  revised  a  portion 
of  the  work  of  his  fatlier  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  com- 
piling a  catalogue  of  3,306  nebula^,  of  which  000  were  new. 


telescopes.  Herschel  classified  both  nebulse  and  clusters 
into  orders,  defined  by  their  actual  shapes.  Thus  we  have 
first,  circular;  second,  elliptic  :  tliird,  annular  ;  fnurth,  long 
or  ray-like ;  fifth,  spiral ;  and  sixth,  very  irregular  nebuhe. 


Fio.  1.— The  nebula  in  Orion  (O.  P.  Bond). 


He  then  transported  his  telescope  and  other  apparatus  in  183.3 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  devoted  the  years  1834  to  1838 
inclusive  to  a  "  telescopic  survey  of  the  whole  surface  of  the 
heavens."  Of  the  seven  portions  into  which  this  great  work 
was  divided,  the  first,  on  the  nebuL^  of  the  southern  lieavens, 
contained  a  catalogue  of  3,049  nebula?,  of  which  about  500 
were  new.  Some  of  the  nebuhe  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
observed  by  Sir  Jolin  Herschel  had  also  been  catalogued  by 
Dunlop,  who  in  1838  had  presented  to  the  Royal  Society  a 
catalogue  (full  of  errors,  however)  of  639  nebula;  and  clusters 
observed  at  Pa.ramatta. 

Equally  brilliant  were  the  labors  of  William  Parsons, 
Earl  of  Rosse,  who  applied  reflecting  telescoiies  of  3  and  6 
feet  diameter  and  30  and  53  feet  focal  length  to  the 
study  of  the  nebida^,  and  who  directed  his  efforts  rather  to 
the  minute  study  of  interesting  objects  than  to  the  dis- 
covery of  new  ones.  Besides  several  earlier  smaller  papers, 
he  communicated  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for 
1844  and  18.50  the  results  of  his  examinations  of  several 
of  the  nebuUE  observed  by  Sir  John  Herschel,  and  in  this 
paper,  among  other  interesting  phenomena,  announced  the 
existence  of  spiral  nebuhe.  Further  observations  were  pub- 
lished by  him  in  1860  and  1861.  The  astronomical  labors 
of  the  Earl  of  Rosse  have  been  worthily  continued  by  his 
eldest  son.  Equally  effective  were  the  labors  of  Lassell, 
who  by  the  establishmeHt  of  a  magnificent  reflector  of  4 
feet  aperture  at  Malta  contributed  greatly  to  this  Ijranch 
of  astronomy.  The  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
/Society,  vols,  xviii.,  xxxvi.,  contain  his  work  on  this  subject, 
as  well  as  that  of  his  assistant  Mr.  Marth,  who  discovered 
about  600  new  nebuhp.  The  great  reflectors  at  Melbourne, 
Australia,  and  at  Paris  and  Toulouse,  France,  are  also  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  nebuUe. 

Wliile  the  British  observei-s  of  nebulip  have  preferred  the 
use  of  large  reflectors,  those  of  other  nations  have  been  slow 
to  adopt  them  ;  the  most  important  observations  made  by 
others  in  which  reflectors  have  been  used,  at  least  so  far 
as  yet  published,  are  contained  in  the  memoir  of  E.  P. 
Mason,  of  New  Haven,  t-'onn.,  printed  in  the  seventh  vol- 
ume of  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society. 

The  most  comprehensive  list  of  nebulie  and  clusters  that 
has  as  yet  been  puljlished  is  the  General  Catalogue  of  Sir 
Jolin  Herschel  in  iXic  Philosophical  Transact injis  ol  1864, 
in  which  work  he  has  coml)ined  in  one  catalogue  all  the 
observed  positions  of  nel)uliP  accessible  to  him  in  1863,  to 
the  numl)er  of  5,079,  which  by  a  comprehensive  system  of 
references  and  synonyms  enables  one  to  recognize  by  whom 
a  given  nebula  was  tirst  oliserved,  and  what  is  its  general 
appearance.  Since  tlie  pulilication  of  this  catalogue  a  great 
number  of  aildilional  neliulie  have  been  observed,  which  are, 
however,  so  faint  as  to  be  visible  only  in  the  most  powerful 


Fig.  2.— The  spiral  nebula  51  M  Canum  Venaticorum  (.Earl  of  Rosse), 

Evidences  are  at  hand  of  slight  variations  in  brightness, 
size,  and  form  of  a  few  nebulfe.  The  frequent  occurrence 
of  double  neliuhe  suggests  the  classification  of  these  objects 
in  this  regard,  and  we  find  in  the  Gienerai  Catalogue  of  Sir 
John  Herschel,  out  of  5,079  objects,  of  which  4.0.50  are  un- 
resolved or  true  nebuloe,  329  double  nebuhe.  49  triple,  SO' 
quadruple,  and  11  more  or  less  complex  multiple  nebula\ 
D'Arrest  remarks  that  among  nebuhe  the  double  and  prob- 
ably binary  iieliul,-e  occur  more  frequently  than  do  similar 
stellar  combinations  in  comparison  with  the  total  number 
of  fixed  stars. 

The  application  of  spectrum  analysis  to  these  bodies  af- 
fords another  system  of  classification.  This  difficult  branch 
of  observational  astronomy  we  owe  to  William  Hoggins, 
F.  R.  S.,  of  London,  who  in  Aug..  1864,  first  turned  his  deli- 
cate spectroscope  and  moderately  powerful  refracting  tele- 
scope upon  the  planetary  nebuhv.  Secchi.  d'Arrest,  and,  to 
a  less  extent,  a  few  others,  but  especially  Bredichin  of  Mos- 
cow and  the  younger  John  Herschel,  have  also  contributed 
to  our  knowledge  of  this  subject.  It  is  apparent  from  the 
observations  of  these  spectroscopists  that  among  the  nebulie- 
there  are  some  whose  spectra  have  the  characteristics  be- 
longing to  the  spectra  of  gases,  and  this  almost  entirely 
irrespective  of  the  apparent  resolvability  or  stellar  nature 
of  the  nebulous  mass.  Other  nebula>  have  the  equally  char- 
acteristic sjiectra  peculiar  to  glowing  solids.  In  a  third 
and  numerous  class  of  nebula;  we  place  all  those  whose 
spectra  combine  the  characteristics  of  both  the  preceding- 
classes.  The  relative  motions  of  the  earth  and  some  nebulae 
are  also  indicated  by  Huggins's  later  observations.  Photog- 
raphy has  also  been  applied  witii  success  to  the  study  of 
nebula',  and  has  revealed  pecul- 
iarities whicli  were  not  otherwise 
observed.  Foremost  in  this 
branch  of  research  is  Isaac  Rob- 
erts, F.  R.  S. 

The  consideration  of  the  im- 
perceptible gradation  that  exists 
as  we  pass  from  the  faintest, 
most  diffuse,  and  most  irregular, 
by  insensilile  grailations.  down  to 
the  well-deliiied,  brightest,  and 
smallest  of  the  planetary  neb- 
uhe, led  Sir  William  Herschel  to 
imagine,  most  naturally,  that  the 
fixed  stars,  (uirsun,  and  the  plan- 
ets of  our  solar  system  were  but  the  results  of  the  sy.stem- 
afic  operations  of  evolution  by  means  of  which  inhabit- 
able worlds  endowed  with  warmth,  light,  anil  life  were 
brought  forth  out  of  primitive  and  gaseous  matter;  and, 
however  much  of  hypothesis  may  be  inherent  in  such  a  sys- 


Fia.  .^.— The  annular  nebula 
57  M  LyrsB  ( Earl  of  Rosse). 


NEBULAU   HYI'DTIIESIS 


NECESSITY 


99 


tern  as  this,  or  however  little  yrouml  there  iiiuy  hnve  been 
for  belief  in  the  nebuliir  hypothesis  us  tirsl  lulvaiiectl  by 
Herscliel,   ami  subsequently  ehitiorated   by   I.a|ilHce,  there 


^rrt-at  iifVmlft  in  AiiilrMiiicda  tt;,  p,  Uitn(l\. 


would  seem  at  the  pri'seiil  day  to  lie  no  reason  to  reject  all 
of  its  propositions.     See  Xkbi'Lak  Hyi'otiiesis. 

t'l-ivVKLAND  Abbe. 

Nihulai-  Hy|>othosis:  the  modern  theory  of  the  forma- 
tion oi  >iai-s  ami  planets.  The  idea  that  the  earth  was,  in 
some  way,  formed  or  created  by  the  collection  and  arranjje- 
ment  of  matter  originally  in  a  chaotic  state  .seems  to  have 
been  a  part  of  the  heritage  of  our  race,  beinR  familiar  even 
in  prehistoric  times.  The  first  verse  of  the  book  of  (jenesis 
may  be  cited  a.s  an  imlication  of  this;  but  it  was  impossible 
to  form  any  si'ientitic  basis  for  such  a  theory  until  after  the 
discovery  of  universal  jcravitation.  Perhaps  Swedeidxirfj 
has  as  {food  a  right  as  any  other  to  be  regarded  as  first  to 
suggest  the  moileni  theory.  The  accord  of  his  work  with 
recent  ideas,  however,  was  more  in  his  description  of  the 
succession  of  the  iihenomena  than  in  his  reference  to  the 
theory  of  gravitation,  for  although  Sir  Isaac  Xewton  pub- 
lished Ids  I'linripiii  before  Swedenborg  wrote,  it  does  not 
appear  that  gravitation  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  specu- 
lations of  the  latti'r. 

The  (iermaii  philosopher  Kant  is  very  generally  regariled 
as  the  actual  founder  of  the  iielmlar  hypothesis,  because  he 
reached  it  l)nth  inductively,  by  a  stuily  of  the  structure  of 
the  solar  system,  and  ileductively,  by  showing  how  gravita- 
tion coiihl  have  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  system  from 
nebulous  matter.  He  was  the  first  to  show  that  the  hy- 
pothesis explains  the  fact  that  the  orbits  of  the  planets  and 
satellites  are  all  very  nearly  in  the  same  plane,  and  that 
the  revolutions  both  around  the  sun  and  nii  their  axes  are 
all  in  the  same  direction.  W'e  now  know  that  this  is  not 
true  of  the  satellites  of  rraniis  ami  Xe|itune.  but  Kant  was 
not  aci|uaiiited  with  those  Imdies.  To  explain  this  common 
direction  of  motion,  Kant  lussiiines  that  all  the  materials 
out  of  which  the  bodies  of  our  solar  system  were  formeil 
were,  in  the  beginning  of  things,  resolved  into  their  original 
elements,  ami  lilleil  all  that  region  of  the  universe  in  which 
these  binlies  now  move.  Kant,  hftwever,  was  too  little  ac- 
quainted with  the  laws  of  mi'cliaiiics  to  show  clearly  Imw 
this  coiidi'iisjition  of  the  original  matter  would  have  re- 
sulted in  the  j)lanets  perforiiiing  revolutions  both  around 
the  central  body  and  on  their  own  axes.  Ho  did  not  con- 
fine himself  to  the  solar  system,  but  [loinlcMl  out  that  the 
whole  galaxy  seemed  to  be  a  system  somewhat  of  the  same 
kind,  thus  assigning  to  the  hypothesis  the  widest  |)ossible 
M'ope. 

Ilerscliel  reached  the  sjime  conclusions  in  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent Way.  by  his  telescopic  exaiiiinations  of  the  nebulie. 
He  found  that  no  sharp  line  could  be  ilrawii  between  the 
netmla'  prop'rly  so  called,  which  seemed  to  be  composed 
wholly  of  glowing  vapor,  ami  dusters  of  stars.  Tlie.se  two 
classes  of  bodies  seemed  to  shade  into  each  other  by  insensi- 


ble gradations.  He  therefore  conceived  that  the  stars  art 
formed  by  the  actual  condensation  of  nebula". 

The  author  to  whom  the  hypothesis  has  been  most  fre- 
quently referred  is  Laiilace,  the  fact  that  he  was  antici- 
pated by  Kant  having  been  very  generally  overlooked.  Like 
Kant,  he  concluded  that  the  remarkaole  uniformity  in  the 
directions  of  the  rotation  of  the  planets  could  not  have  been 
the  result  of  chance.  lie  liad  the  great  advantage  over 
Kant  of  being  a  ma.ster  of  the  mathematical  theory  of  the 
rotation  of  bodies,  and  therefore  better  qualified  than  his 
predecessor  to  show  how  such  rotations  might  originate, 
lie  begins,  however,  not  with  an  assumed  uniform  nebulous 
mass,  as  Kant  and  others  did,  but  with  the  sun  itself,  sur- 
rounded by  a  fiery  atmosphere,  which  extended  beyond  the 
present  limits  of  the  solar  system.  This  atmosphere  con- 
sisted of  the  elements  which  now  form  the  planets  and  sat- 
ellites; and  he  showed  how,  by  its  gradual  cooling  and  con- 
densation, combined  with  a  slow  axial  rotation,  successive 
rings  would  be  formed  which  would  themselves  gradually 
condense  into  planets  and  satellites.  The  zone  of  asteroids 
between  Jlars  and  Jupiter  is  explained  by  supposing  that, 
owing  to  the  general  uniformity  of  the  ])articular  ring 
which  formed  these  bodies,  it  did  not  condense  around  a 
single  nucleus,  but  contracted  into  a  great  number  of  small 
bodies. 

Since  then  the  most  eminent  writer  on  the  subject  is  Her- 
bert Spencer,  who  has  made  the  hypothesis  a  part  of  his 
general  theory  of  evolution,  and  shown  how  the  process  by 
which  nebulous  matter  condensed  into  planets  was  analo- 
gous to  that  which  is  seen  in  the  generation  and  growth  of 
animals,  and  in  the  whole  tendency  of  progressive  natural 
changes. 

The  most  interesting  question  suggested  by  the  hypothe- 
sis is  as  to  what  extent  it  can  be  considered  as  proved.  The 
most  we  can  say  is  that  a  number  of  natural  phenomena 
point  to  it,  or  are  explained  by  it.  but  that  no  one  of  them 
can  be  considered  as  actually  proving  it.  It  must,  however, 
be  admitted  that  if  we  are  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  solar 
system  otherwise  than  by  the  arbitrary  fiat  of  the  Creator, 
tins  is  the  only  exj>lanation  that  can  lie  ofTiTcd.  It  explains 
the  fact  that  the  Kautii  (</.  v.)  is  an  intensely  hot  body,  only 
the  surface  of  which  has  cooled  off.  It  explains  also  the 
origin  of  the  sun's  supply  of  heat,  and  shows  why  our  cen- 
tral luminary  did  not,  like  the  earth,  cease  to  give  off  heat 
ages  ago.     See  Exkruv.  S.  Xewcomb. 

Nece'dnh :  village  ;  Juneau  co..  Wis.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  6-1));  on  the  Yellow 
river. "and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.  and  the  Chi.  and  X.  W. 
railways;  1!)  miles  X.  of  Mansion,  the  county-seat,  and  147 
miles  X'.  W.  of  Milwaukee.  It  is  built  up  around  a  high 
bluff,  in  an  agricultural  and  lumber  region  ;  contains  four 
churches,  public,  high,  and  graded  schools,  and  a  weekly 
newspaper;  and  is  engaged  in  general  farming,  cranberry 
cultivation,  milling,  and  the  manufacture  of  pine  and  hard- 
wood lumber.    Pop.  (18S0)  1,475;  (18!10)  1.708;  (180.",)  1.680. 

EniTOR  OK  ■•  Kei'iislica.n." 

XoPOSSity  [via  O.  Fr.  from  Lat.  neces'sitax.  deriv.  of  jie- 
ce.ige,  necessary,  unavoidable] :  in  philosophy,  the  name  of  a 
doctrine  which  treats  of  the  essential  relation  which  a  being 
has  toward  another.  It  has  importance  theologically,  mor- 
ally, and  scientifically.  On  it  hinge  the  questions  of  God, 
freedom,  and  iinniortalily,  their  solutions  being  determined 
aflirnialively  or  negatively  according  to  the  type  of  necessity 
which  is  assumeil  as  predominant  in  the  universe.  Three 
kinds  or  species  of  necessity  may  be  enumerated  as  includ- 
ing the  manifold  distinctions  under  this  head  ;  («)  Phi/xical 
or  causal  nfreKxili/.  whereby  a  somewhat  is  subject  to  ex- 
tenial  constraint,  <lelermiiied  to  be  what  it  is  by  another 
outsiile  it.  This  necessity  is  founded  on  causation,  and  is 
known  also  niiiler  such  designations  as  fate  (.(Ifioptitvri  of  the 
Stoics),  destiny  (H('rc.W/«.i  coiii»'(/iitiiti,t  of  the  Schoolmen), 
natural  selection  (as  understoo<l  by  the  ancient  Epicureans 
andatomists;  the  Darwinian  meaning  of  this  term  implies 
various  degrees  of  self-activity  and  reaction  against  the  en- 
vironment, ami  thus  suggests  freedom  rather  than  necessity); 
and  such  epithets  as  material,  natural,  blind,  brute  are  given 
to  it.  {h)  ijiii/iral  or  nuliKtanlinl  iii'ci'.ixili/,  iiiWeil  also  ideal 
or  formal,  absolute,  "  metaphysical  or  mathematical  "  (Leib- 
nitz), iii-ceKxitdn  cotisei/iiitiliir  (.Schoolmen),  is  variously  de- 
fined as  "that  which  can  not  but  be  in  the  nature  of  things"  ; 
"connection  lietween  parts  of  mental  or  verbal  propositions"; 
"that  the  opposite  of  which  implies  contradiction."  This 
form  of  necessity  is  founded  on  sulistantiality.  "the  connec- 


100 


NECHO 


NECKER 


tion  of  existence  and  essence,"  and  is  first  a  subjective  ne- 
cessity, the  opposite  of  which  is  inconceivable,  and.  secondly, 
the  condition  also  of  objective  reality.  It  is  exein|ilifled  in 
"necessary  truths"  or  "necessary  ideas,"  the  contrary  of 
which  can  not  be  conceived,  (c)  Moral  or  tdeological  neces- 
sity is  defined  as  "  connection  of  end  and  means,"  "  moral 
obligation  or  conscience."  "that  of  motives,"  "that  of  ra- 
tional determination  or  freedom."  It  is  called  in  its  various 
phases  "categorical  imperative  "  (Kant),  "hypothetical  ne- 
cessity" (applied  by  Leibnitz  to  the  divine  predetermina- 
tion), "  overruling  Providence  "  (n-piiraia  of  the  Stoics).  It  is 
founded  on  Final  Cause,  and  embraces  phases  of  manifesta- 
tion within  the  consciousness  of  man,  as  well  as  those  based 
upon  the  divine  will ;  hence  the  wide  differences  in  the 
above  definitions  and  epithets.  Logical  necessity,  as  the 
distinctive  characteristic  of  a  priori  truth,  was  first  enunci- 
ated by  Leibnitz  (Nouveanx  Esaais).  and  afterward  made 
the  basis  of  the  critical  system  by  Kant.  In  liis  Critic  of 
Pure  Reason  Kant  places  the  category  of  Necessity  after 
those  of  Possibility  and  Reality,  as  forming  their  identity. 
A  reality  which  has  unrealized  possibilities  is  contingent 
(this  is  lianfs  thought),  while  a  reality  that  has  realized  all 
of  its  possibilities  is  a  necessary  being,  and  can  not  be  other- 
wise, having  no  other  possibilities;  this  makes  tlie  sphere  of 
reality  coextensive  with  the  sphere  of  possibility.  They  who 
set  up  physical  or  material  necessity  as  the  higlu-st  princi- 
ple, if  consistent,  make  God  to  be  a  blind  force,  mind  to  be 
an  emanation  from  matter,  and  deny  freedom  and  immor- 
tality. They  who  make  moral  or  teleological  necessity  the 
first  principle  hold  God  to  be  personal,  and  interpret  nature 
and  history  as  stages  in  the  realization  of  free,  personal  be- 
ings. Logical  necessity  is  held  to  be  identical  with  God's 
moral  necessity  by  some.  Psychologically,  the  perception 
of  necessity  marks  the  entrance  into  the  stage  of  reflection. 
Sense-perception  perceives  no  necessity ;  to  it  all  is  contin- 
gent. Each  individual  is  to  it  independent  and  valid  by  it- 
self. Without  transcending  experience  one  can  not  perceive 
necessity  (although  this  is  denied  by  Occam,  the  great  nomi- 
nalist). Reflection  throughout  all  its  stages  is  dominated  by 
the  iilea  of  necessity.  Each  thing  is  dependent  upon  others 
— upon  all  others.  In  this  princii)le  are  contained  antino- 
mies or  unavoidable  contradictious  wliich  it  is  the  object  of 
philosophy  to  solve.  The  process  of  their  evolution  and  solu- 
tion is  called  dialectic.  By  it  the  subsidiary  character  of 
physical  necessity  may  be  shown.  It  proves  to  be  only  a 
phase  in  the  process  of  moral  or  teleological  necessity,  wliich 
is  implied  in  free  will.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  the 
dialectic  statement  of  the  attitudes  successively  assumed  by 
consciousness  toward  necessity  :  («)  All  things  are  necessi- 
tated; each  is  necessitated  by  the  totality  of  conditions; 
hence  whatever  is.  must  be  as  it  is,  and  under  the  conditions 
can  not  be  otherwise.  (This  is  the  standpoint  of  complete 
fatalism ;  its  incompleteness  and  inadequateness  is  seen 
when  applied  to  explain  change.)  (b)  Things  change — 
something  new  begins  and  something  old  ceases;  according 
to  the  principle  of  necessity,  the  new  must  be  necessitated 
by  the  totality  of  conditions,  just  as  the  old  was.  If  the 
same  totality  of  conditions  necessitates  both  states  (the  new 
and  the  old),  it  follows  that  it  is  adapted  to  both,  and  lience 
indifferent  to  each  ;  it  allows  one  to  pass  into  the  other,  and 
therefore  does  not  absolutely  condition  or  constrain  either. 
Hence  there  must  be  two  totalities  of  conditions,  or  indeed 
a  new  one  for  every  change  in  the  world,  for  the  totality  of 
conditions  includes  the  reality  of  each  thing,  and  therefore 
changes  whenevm-  anything  changes,  (c)  Since  every  change 
involves  change  in  the  totality  of  conditions  according  to 
the  principle  of  necessity,  and  inasmuch  as  all  external  ne- 
cessity is  included  within  the  totality  of  conditions,  it  fol- 
lows that  this  totality  is  its  own  internal  necessity,  moves  or 
changes  itself,  originates  its  own  action,  is  causa  sni,  spon- 
taneity, freedom.  The  presupposition  lying  beiiind  any 
form  of  ]jhysical  necessity  is  therefore  self-determination, 
which  is  discovered  to  be  moral  necessity  (divine  or  in  God) 
when  carefully  considered.  William  T.  Harkis. 

Neclio.  or  Neco  (Egypt.  Nekau)  :  the  second  king  of  the 
twenty-sixth  Earyptian  dynasty:  son  and  successor  of  Psam- 
metichos  I.  He  rulc(l  from  610  to  .594  B.  c.  Herodotus 
(ii.,  158;  iv.,  42)  relates  his  attempt  to  join  tlie  Xile  with 
the  Red  Sea  by  a  canal  through  the  Wadi  Tuniilat.  whicli 
apparently  followed  tlie  line  of  a  previous  waterway,  nat- 
ural or  artificial,  that  existed  under  Seti  I.  and  liamses 
II.,  and  coincided  generally  with  the  fresh-water  canal  used 
during  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal.     Herodotus  (iv.. 


42)  also  tells  of  the  first  circumnavigation  of  Africa  during 
the  reign  of  Necho.  Necho  continued  the  internal  policy 
of  his  father  by  encouraging  Greek  colonization  and  trade. 
Taking  advantage  of  political  complications  in  the  East,  he 
attempted  to  restore  Egyptian  power  in  Asia,  and  in  608 
B.  c.  he  marched  through  Palestine  to  Jlegiddo,  where  he 
met  the  army  of  Josiah.  King  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xx.xv.  21- 
24).  He  also  intervenetl  in  tlie  political  affairs  of  the 
Hebrews  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  1-4).  With  the  rise  of  Baby- 
lonian power  he  saw  his  sway  in  Asia  threatened  and 
marched  to  Carchemish,  where  he  met  Nebuchadnezzar  in 
604,  and  was  routed.  In  spite  of  subsequent  appeals  for 
aid  from  the  Hebrews,  he  remained  in  Egypt  during  the 
rest  of  his  reign,  and  there  he  died  in  594  b.  c.  The  threat- 
ened invasion  of  Nebuchadnezzar  was  deferred  till  the  reign 
of  Hophra  (Apries),  in  567  b.  c.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Neckar  :  a  river  of  Germany  ;  rising  in  the  Schwarzwald 
Mountains,  on  the  frontier  of  Wiirtemberg  and  Baden.  It 
flows  with  a  tortuous  course  of  210  miles  through  a  beauti- 
ful tract  of  land  between  low,  vineclad  hills,  and  joins  the 
Rhine  at  Mannheim.  It  receives  from  the  left  the  Enz  and 
from  the  right  the  Jaxt,  but  it  is  shallow  and  difficult  of 
navigation.     Its  basin  contains  4,980  sq.  miles. 

Necker,  Jacques  :  French  statesman  ;  b.  at  Geneva, 
Sept.  30,  1732  ;  went  in  1747  to  Paris  as  a  clerk  in  a  bank- 
ing-house :  established  afterward  a  business  of  his  own,  and 
accumulated  a  great  fortune  during  the  Seven  Years"  war. 
In  1764  he  married  Suzanne  Churchod,  by  whom  he  had 
one  daughter,  afterward  the  celebrated  Mnie.  de  Stael.  En- 
couraged by  his  wife  to  mark  out  for  himself  a  public 
career,  he  retired  from  his  business,  secured  the  position  of 
syndic  or  director  in  the  French  East  India  Company,  and 
subsequently  became  the  diplomatic  representative  of  Ge- 
neva in  Paris.  He  acquired  great  authority  in  financial  mat- 
ters by  his  Eloge  on  Colbert  and  Essai  sur  la  Legislation 
et  le  Commerce  des  Grains,  the  latter  work  being  an  attack 
on  the  economic  policy  of  the  far  abler  Turgot.  After  the 
removal  of  Turgot  in  1776  Necker  was  called  to  take  part 
in  the  administration  of  the  finances,  and  after  the  short 
administration  of  Clugny  he  was  appointed  director-gen- 
eral of  the  finances  in  1777.  Under  his  direction  the  finan- 
cial condition  was  in  some  respects  greatly  improved.  The 
administration  was  systematized ;  taxation  became  more 
equitable  and  public  confidence  was  restored,  though  his 
persistent  borrowing  added  greatly  to  the  national  debt.  His 
wife,  in  the  meanwhile,  made  his  home  the  rendezvous  of  the 
political  and  literary  celebrities  of  the  time,  and  rivaled  the 
famous  Mine.  Geoffrin  as  the  mistress  of  a  salon.  A  certain 
vanity  in  his  bearing,  however,  made  him  disliked  by  the 
courtiers;  he  lost  the  favor  of  the  queen  by  thwarting  her 
wishes,  and  after  the  publication  of  his  Compte  Rendu  au 
Roi  sur  les  Einances  de  I'Etat  in  1781,  revealing  the  condi- 
tion of  the  treasury,  he  was  suddenly  dismissed.  He  re- 
lurned  to  Geneva,  and  bought  Coppet,  an  estate  in  its  vicin- 
ity, where  he  resided  for  several  years,  and  wrote  his  Admi- 
nistration des  Einances.  which  was  pulilishcd  in  1784.  He 
returned  to  Paris  in  1787,  but  was  siiou  banished  for  an  at- 
tack which  lie  putlislied  on  the  financial  policy  of  Calonne. 
Meanwhile  the  administration  of  Fleury,  Calonne,  and 
Lomenie  de  Brienne  had  brought  financial  matters  in 
Prance  to  a  crisis,  and  in  Sept.,  1788,  Necker  was  recalled 
and  made  comptroller-general  and  Jlinister  of  State.  He 
was  regarded  as  the  savior  of  France,  and  when  the  king 
once  more  dismissed  him,  on  July  11,  1789,  because  he  de- 
clined to  participate  in  a  royal  measure  by  which  the  con- 
stitution of  the  third  estate  as  a  national  assembly  was  to 
be  annihilated,  Paris  rose  in  insurrection,  and  he  returned 
to  his  office  in  triumph  after  a  brief  absence.  He  was,  how- 
ever, a  good  banker  rather  than  a  great  financier,  and  as  a 
statesman  he  was  wholly  unequal  to  the  tiisk  set  before  him. 
In  the  National  Assembly  he  was  completely  outshone,  not 
only  in  political  but  even  in  financial  questions,  by  Mira- 
beau  and  others,  and  when  he  resigned  (Sept.  4,  1790)  he 
had  entirely  lost  not  only  his  popularity  as  a  hero  of  free- 
dom, but  also  the  respect  he  enjoyed  as  a  financial  author- 
ity. He  lived  afterward  at  Coppet,  half  forgotten  by  the 
%vorld.  and  died  there  Apr.  0.  1804.  His  (Euvres  Completes 
were  publisiied  in  seventeen  volumes  in  Paris  in  1822  (re- 
vised ed.  1833).  See  Mine,  de  Stael-Holstein,  La  Vie  privee 
de  M.  JVec/cer.  and  Auguste  de  Stael-Holstein,  A'otice  sur  la 
Vie  de  M.  decker  in  his  edition  of  tlie  collected  writings  in 
1833.  See  also  d'Haussonville,  Le  Salo7i  de  Mme.  Necker  i 
(1882).  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 


I 


NECROMAXtY 


NEEDLKS  AND   XEEDLE-MAKING 


101 


Nccromaiu-y  :  Stu  Maoic. 

Nfcro'sis  (Moil.  Liit.,  from  Ur.  veKfiuais.  a  making  dead. 
«l<;riv.  of  vcKpouK.  iiiakf  dead,  uiurlify,  dt-riv.  of  vtKp6t. 
corpsi-]:  till' dvalh  of  a  large  piet-o  of  bone  or  of  a  whole 
bone  in  the  living  sniijeet.  as  dLstinguished  from  caries,  the 
ulceration  or  molecular  death  of  bone.  Necrosis  may  result 
from  injury,  from  |H-riostitis,  from  phos[)liorus-i)oisoning, 
»nd  from  syphilis.  It  may  l)e  .superficial,  ceTitral,  or  total. 
Necrosis  almost  always  calls  for  surgical  interference  fi>r  its 
com[iletc  cure.  The  dead  bone  linally  separates  as  a  seques- 
trum from  the  living  Ume.  and  until  it  is  (piite  detached  it 
is  worse  than  useless  to  att<-mpt  to  operate.  The  se<|ues- 
truni  is  iisually  inclosed  in  a  ca,s<>  of  new  bone,  which  must 
be  cut  through  before  the  removal  can  take  place.  If  the 
patient  be  young  and  otherwise  hejilthy,  the  removal  of 
the  se(iuestruin  is  usually  followed  by  recovery.  In  all 
cases  a  generous  diet,  with  appropriate  tonic  treatment,  is 
called  for. 

Till'  term  necrosis  is  also  used  to  designate  a  variety  of 
destriiclive  iliseases  of  the  soft  parts,  of  which  caseation  and 
gangrene  arc  typical  examples. 

Nectaiicbo  I.  (Egypt.  Xeehl-Hor-Ifeh):  the  first  king  of 
the  tliirtielh  Egyotiaii  dynasty,  reigning  from  SSO  to  36!:! 
B.  c.  In  spile  of  tlie  I'ersian  wars  he  left  his  name  on  many 
monuments  and  buildings.  The  extant  evidence  points  to 
this  lus  a  brilliant  season  in  Egyptian  history.  Greek  in- 
fluence was  flit  in  all  departments  of  life,  and  the  warlike 
operations  of  the  period  were  carried  on  largely  by  the  aid 
of  Greek  nnnenaries.  Early  in  his  reiiin  he  assisted  the 
King  of  Cyprus  against  the  Persians  under  .\rtaxerxes  II., 
but  u])on  the  failure  of  the  allied  arms  he  was  compelled 
to  derend  himself  against  a  I'ersiau  inviusion  which  was 
only  checked  when  liigh  Nile  flooiled  the  whole  country. 
The  conllict  was  continued  uniler  Teos,  or  Tachos,  his  suc- 
cessor, and  also  during  the  reign  of  Xkcta.nkbo  II.  (361- 
349  B.  <-.).  the  last  native  King  of  Egypt.  Ochus,  the  Persian 
king,  marched  to  I'elusium  and  thence  to  Memphis  after 
having  defeated  the  allied  forces  of  Cyprus,  Pluenicia,  and 
Egypt.  Seeing  the  futility  of  further  ix-sistance,  Xectanebo 
11.  gathered  what  valuables  he  could  and  lleii.  probably  to 
Ethiopia,  some  say  to  Macedon.  From  his  reign  we  possess 
evidences  of  the  working  of  the  mines  of  Ilanimaniat  and 
of  considerable  architectural  activity.  The  Persian  rule, 
which  succeeded,  gave  j)lace  (333  B.C.)  to  that  of  Alexander 
tlie  Great.  C.  K.  G. 

Nectarine  [from  Old  Fr.  uerltirin]:  a  tree  and  its  fruit, 
ililTering  from  the  peach,  from  which  it  is  derived,  mainly 
in  having  a  smooth  skin  instead  of  a  downy  one.  There  are 
numerous  sub-varietie.s,  of  which  some  are  freestones.  The 
nectarine  is  n\nch  grown  in  California,  and  can  be  grown 
wherever  the  peach  thrives.  Nectarines  have  sprung  from 
the  peach  by  bud-variation  an<l  from  seeds.  L.  ll.  B. 

Neelariniida':  See  Scn-bird. 

Nedjed  ;  an  .\rabic  word  signifying  elevated  land  or  pla- 
teau. The  Arabs  use  the  term  in  connection  with  other 
names,  as  Xedjed-el-IIedjaz,  or  Xedjed-el-Onwin.  By  Euro- 
pean writers  the  term  is  specially  applied  to  the  vast,  vague 
Ulterior  territory  of  Northern  and  Central  .\niliia.  No  re- 
liable cliscri|ilion  of  tliis  region  exists,  but  Palgravc's  vari- 

.^  Works  concerning  it  are  of  interest.  E.  A.  G. 

Needle-grnn  [transl.  of  Curm.  ziindnadelijewehr  \  zunden, 
to  light,  lire  +  nadel,  needle  +  ifeuv/ir,  gun] :  a  form  of 
brceeii-loading  small  arms  designed  for  military  use,  and  for 
a  long  time  the  regulation  weapcm  of  the  German  infantry. 
It  is  the  invention  of  Nicolaus  Dreyse,  and  was  extensively 
niannraclured  at  Sommenla,  Prussia,  his  native  town.  Its 
eflicieiiey  was  ilenionsi  rated  in  the  war  of  1866  between 
Prussia  and  .\ustria.  .\s  in  the  chassepot,  the  cartridge  is 
cxploiled  by  means  of  a  needle  thrust  into  the  detonating 
mass  along  the  bore  of  the  piece.     See  Smali,  arms. 

Needles  and  Needle-Minkiiig  \needle  is  from  M.  Eng. 
nedle  <  (I.  Ijig.  turill  :  i ).  II.  derm,  nndnl  (  >  .M(k1.  Germ. 
nadel).  Cf.  (Jerm.  nuhrn,  s<-w  <  O.  II.  Germ,  niijnn]:  I. 
Nekiilks. — \  needle  is  an  instrument  nseil  by  hand  or  in 
machinery  for  the  purpose  of  carrving  the  thread  in  sewing 
or  the  making  of  hosiery.  The  (irincipal  kindsare:  (I)  The 
sewing-nceillr  used  by  haml,  which  is  a  small  piece  of  steel 
wire  pointed  at  one  end  and  pieri'e<l  at  the  other  so  as  to 
receive  the  threail.  (2)  Needles  used  by  hand  in  knitting, 
crocheting,  etc.  The  former  are  straight,  slender  rods  with 
rounded  ends,  while  the  latter  have  a  h(H>k  at  one  end, 
(3)  Needles  used  in  knitting-machines  and  sewing-machines ; 


they  are  of  a  considerable  variety  of  forms.  Historically, 
the  needle  in  its  earliest  form  was  doubtless  a  strong  thorn 
or  a  sharp  splinter  of  bone,  wiKid,  or  stone,  with  which  the 
skins  intenued  to  be  joine<l  were  perforated  along  their 
edges,  these  being  afterward  luced  together  by  hand.  The 
next  step  WBJi  to  make  an  eye  in  the  splinter,  so  that  one 
operation  should  pierce  the  material  and  carry  the  thread 
through  it;  and  by  degrees  needles  came  lobe  smoothed 
and  finished  with  much  neatness,  as  is  shown  by  excellent 
prehistorii^  specimens  to  be  seen  in  the  British  JIuscum, 
Niany  bronze  needles  have  been  found,  varying  in  length 
from  1  to  8  inches,  the  longest  having  probably  Iwen  used 
for  hairpins;  tho-sf  discovered  in  Egyptian  tondis  are  in- 
variably coarse,  though  Wilkinson  (Ancient  Eyi/plians,  in., 
384)  iLssures  us  that  finer  kinds  must  have  existed. 

Judging  by  the  ilelicate  embroidery  handed  down  to  us, 
all  through  the  .Middle  -Vges  line  needles  must  have  been 
used.  We  read  of  their  manufacture  at  Nuremberg  during 
the  fourteenth  century.  They  were  introduced  into  Eng- 
land under  yueen  Elizabeth,  and  the  numufacture  seems  to 
have  Ihairished,  for  about  1.W7  the  "  Pinners  and  Xeedlers" 
petitione<l  against  the  iinjiortation  of  foreign  [linsand  needles. 
Knitting-needles  were  first  used  in  the  fifteenth  century; 
and  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  peculiar 
kind  of  needles  nscd  in  machinery  were  first  made. 

Knitting  and  Crucliet  *Yp«//c.v.— Knitting-neeilles,  for  use 
by  hand  in  pairs  or  sets  of  four  or  five,  are  made  of  steel, 
ivory,  Ijonc,  or  wood ;  they  arc  of  various  lengths,  and  of 
cylindrical  shape  with  rounded  ends.  They  are  of  such 
simi>le  construction  and  so  well  known  that  they  need  no 
further  description.  .Much  skill  has  been  displaycil  in  the 
production  of  hooked  needles  for  crocheting,  and  much  in- 
geniously constructed  machinery  and  many  special  a|ipli- 
ances  have  been  employed  for  the  purpose.  The  hand-used 
needles,  however,  do  not  possess  the  greatest  interest  in  com- 
parison with  those  used  in  automatic  machines,  by  which 
knit  goods  are  produced. 

Xeedles  I'.'ted  in  Marliineri/.— These  are  chiefly  employed 
in  knitting  and  .sewing-machines.  (1)  ;Spring  and  Latch 
JVeedles. — Spring  neetlles  of  steel  for  hosiery  or  stockinet 
work  are  made  by  reducing  the  working  end  on  a  taper  to  an 
approximate  point  and  bending  the  reduced  portion  over 
upon  itself  so  as  to  form  an  open  loop,  a  groove  having  lieen 
previously  made  so  as  to  come  opposite  the  point.  In  the 
operation  of  this  needle  the  point  stands  out  at  the  proper 
time  for  the  yarn  to  be  taken,  which  is  to  be  curried  through 
the  loop  to  form  the  stitch.  As  the  forwar<l  motion  con- 
tinues, the  point  is  depressed  into  the  groove  by  coming  in 
contact  witli  mechanism  arranged  for  the  purpose,  and  thus 
the  passage  through  the  loop  without  catching  is  insured. 


^L 


Fig.  1.— Latch  needle. 

In  the  lafcli  needles,  instead  of  the  spring  barb,  there  is  a 
short  rigid  hook,  formed  liy  tapering  the  working  end  near- 
ly to  a  point  ami  bending  in  combination  with  the  latch, 
'f  he  latter  is  contained  in  a  groove  milled  in  the  body  of  the 
needle  and  pivoted  upon  a  rivet  whieli  passes  through  the 
walls  of  (he  groove.  The  latch,  the  walls  between  which  it 
is  riveted,  and  the  diameter  of  the  rivi-t  are  each  only  about 
one-hundredth  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  so  that  extreme 
delicacy  is  rcfjiiireil  in  the  maiiufaelm'e  of  these  needles. 
The  lai<h  must  work  with  the  utmost  freedom,  resting  at 
each  stitch  with  its  point  toward  the  hooked  eml  and  the 
opposite  or  shank  end  alternately.  Its  ofiice  is  to  prevent 
the  yarn  from  being  caught  under  the  hook  except  at  the 
proper  limes,  thus  aiiling  in  forming  ond  ciu-ting  off  the 
stitch. 

(2)  Sewing-machine  Needles. — Of  these  there  is  such  variety 
as  to  preclude  the  possibility  in  limited  space  of  describing 
each  in  detail,  but  broadly  they  may  be  describeil  as  hav- 
ing either  an  eye,  hook,  orliarb,  at  the  pointed  end,  and  are 
useil  with  a  single  thread  in  making  a  single  loop-stitch 
both  with  eye  and  with  barb.  The  needle  liost  known  to 
the  public  is  the  one  with  the  eye  at  the  pointed  end,  with  a 
long  groove  on  one  siile  anil  a  short  groove  on  the  opposite 
side.  It  is  used  in  connecliim  with  a  shuttle,  or  other  de- 
vii'c,  for  carrying  a  second  thread  wlii<>h  is  passed  through 
n  loop  of  the  thread  in  the  needle,  thus  forming  the  doulile- 
lock  stitch.  The  grooves  are  of  importance  in  protecting 
the  thread  from  wearing  or  being  cut  off  in  passing  through 
the  fabric  operated  upon. 


102 


NEEDLES  AND  NEEDLE-MAKINU 


NEEDLES,   THE 


Besides  tlie  ordinary  needles  for  use  on  cloth  are  the  wax- 
thread  needles  for  use" on  leather,  including  many  shapes  for 
the  different  nuiehines.  These  needles,  in  place  of  having 
an  eye,  are  formed  with  hooks  by  which  the  thread  is  pulled 

through  a  hole 
made  by  an  awl. 
or  by  the  needle 
itself     in     some 


Fig.  ^. — Sewing-machiue  needle. 


FiQ.  3.— Welting-maehine  needle. 


cases.  They  are  used  for  difficult  leather-work  once  con- 
sidered impossible  of  accomplishment  by  machinery. 
Among  these  is  the  needle  used  in  the  Goodyear  welting- 
machine.     It  is  a  segment  of  a  circle  in  shape.    (See  Fig.  3.) 

It  puts  welts  upon 
boots  and  shoes  with 
a  rapidity  and  accu- 
racy unapproachable 
by  handwork. 

II.  Needle  -  mak- 
ing: (1)  The  Seifing- 
needle. — The  manu- 
facturer buys  his 
wire  in  large  bundles, 
each  containing  several  coils.  The  coils  are  first  cut  into 
two-needle  lengths  by  a  guillotine  shearing-machine.  The 
cut  wires,  technically  called  blanks,  having  been  taken  from 
a  round  coil,  are  slightly  bent ;  the 
next  process,  therefore,  is  to  straight- 
en them.  The  blanks  are  inclosed  in 
two  strong  iron  rings  (Fig.  4),  then 
heated  red  in  a  furnace,  and  allowed 
to  cool  gradually.  When  cool  they 
are  removed  to  an  iron  jilate  and 
rubbed  backward  and  forward  witli 
an  instrument  called  a  smooth  file, 
consisting  either  of  one  broad  curved 
bar  which  is  introduced  between  the 
two  rings  or  of  three  narrow  bars  joined  at  the  ends,  into 
the  intervals  of  which  the  rings  fit  (Fig.  5).  The  blanks  are 
next  pointed  at  both  ends,  which  was  formerly  done  by  hand 


Fia.  4. 


%^  .-:^^^ZLJy-^ 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  6. 

on  a  grindstone.  The  blanks  are  withdrawn,  one  following 
another,  from  a  hopper,  by  a  pulley  revolving  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  grindstone,  ami  are  held  to  the  face  of  the  pulley 
by  an  India-rubber  band.  Between  the 
pulley  and  the  grindstone  the  blanks  re- 
volve on  their  axes  and  become  pointed  at 
one  end,  and  the  process  is  repeated  for 
t  he  other  end.  The  wire  blanks  are  next 
fed  automatically  into  a  belt-driven  ma- 
chine, in  which  a  punch  and  dies  form 
the  prints  for  the  eyes.  Then  oval  holes 
are  punched  through  the  two  prints  of 
each  lilank  by  a  vertical  belt  -  driven 
])unching-machine  (Fig.  6).  The  needles 
are  now  strung  or  "  spitted "  upon  two 
fine  wires  (Fig.  7),  the  "burrs"  or  pro- 
jections caused  by  stamping  are  filed  off,  and  the  double 
needles  are  <livided  between  the  eyes  by  being  gently  bent 
to  and  fro.  Each  row,  still  strung  on  its  wire,  is  grasped  bv 
the  points  in  a  sort  of  vise  (Pig.  8),  and  the  heads  are  laid 
upon  a  raised  plate  of  metal  and  filed  into  shape.  Now 
begin  the  tempering  processes.  The  needles  are  heated  red 
in  a  furnace,  then  cooled  suddenly  in  cod  oil,  and  so  ren- 
dered excessively  brittle.  They  are  next  tempered  by  ex- 
posure to  slow  heat,  during  which  they  are  stirred  about 
with  a  shovel  until  a  blue  oxide  forms  on  them,  when  they 
are  removed  and  allowed  to  cool  gradually.  Each  one  is 
next  examined  by  being  rolled  with  the  finger  on  a  smooth 
steel  slab,  and  any  that  do  not  roll  truly  are  weeded  out. 
In  parcels  of  about  50,000  they  are  next  washed  and  scoured 
with  soap,  to  remove  any  of  the  oil  which  adheres.  The 
eyes  are  then  blued  and  polished.     According  to  one  method 


Fm. 


Fig.  8. 


the  polishing  is  done  by  threading  the  eyes  loosely  on  wires 
carried  by  standards  fixed  to  a  tray  which  moves  quickly 
with  an  alternating  motion  in  a  horizontal  ]ilane.  In  alwiut 
an  hour,  witli  the  use  of  a  little  emery  and  oil,  the  swinging 
of  the  needles  on  the  wire 
smooths  their  eyes  so  that  they 
may  not  cut  the  thread  ;  but 
the  eyes  of  the  best  needles  are 
hand-polished  with  fine  emery 
on  tlax  threads.  The  heads 
are  next  ground  and  the  points 
set  by  hand  on  a  revolving 
stone  of  fine  grain.  The 
shanks  are  then  polished  by 
machinery.  The  needles,  in 
rows  one  deep,  are  fed  longi- 
tudinally between  transverse 
leather-covered  rollers  with 
holding  rollers  above  them. 
Besides  revolving  on  their  axes  the  rollers  have  a  lateral 
alternating  motion,  thus  giving  a  high  polish  to  the  needles. 

The  older  method  of  polishing  needles  is  to  put  several 
thousands  of  them,  first  along  with  sand  and  emery-powder, 
and  afterward  with  oil  and  putty- 
powder,  in  canvas  bundles  wound 
round  with  cords.  A  number  of 
these  then  are  put  in  a  kind  of 
mangle  and  rolled  backward  and 
forward  for  at  least  fifty  hours. 
It  is  now  necessary  that  the  nee- 
dles should  be  laid  with  their 
heads  one  way.  A  gun-metal  disk  revolving  in  a  vertical 
plane  takes  up  each  needle  by  a  groove  in  its  circumference, 
and  drops  it  on  an  inclined  glass  plate.  Owing  to  their 
slia]K'  the  needles  describe  an  arc  in  falling,  so  that  those 
with  their  heads  in  one  direction  go  to  the  right,  and  the 
others  to  the  left.  As  the  finished  needles  differ  slightly  in 
their  lengths,  those  of  one  size  require  to  be  seiiarated  from 
the  others  by  the  sorting  process,  in  which  gauges  are  used. 
Finally  the  needles  are  papered,  either  by  being  spitted  on 
cloth  pasted  to  paper  or  by  being  made  uji  in  packets. 
There  are  many  sorts  and  sizes,  including  large  needles  used 
in  sail-making,  and  special  kinds  employed  for  upholstery, 
surgical  purposes,  etc. 

(2)  The  Seinnci-machine  Needle. — To  reduce  the  blade  from 
the  size  of  the  sliank  to  the  required  size,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  put  in  the  grooves,  the  wire  was  formerly  stamped 
between  dies.  This  threw  out  the  superabundant  mate- 
rial at  each  side  as  a  flash  or  fin.  These  fins  at  the  very 
first  were  cut  off  by  hand-shears ;  later,  with  a  die  and  puncli 
in  a  press ;  then  the  needles  were  rounded  up  and  pointed 
by  filing.  As  the  demand  for  sewing-machine  needles  gradu- 
ally ran  up  into  millions,  step  by  step  the  methods  changed. 
Stamping  gave  way  to  rolling,  grinding,  turning,  and  mill- 
ing, until  a  machine  was  invented  by  ().  L.  Hopson  and  H. 
P.  Brooks,  and  improved  by  E.  J.  Manville.  It  swages  down 
the  wii-e  from  tho  original  size  so  as  to  produce  any  size  of 
blade  required,  and  as  the  reduction  is  made  by  compres- 
sion, it  effects  a  saving  of  material.  The  length  being  in- 
creased by  the  swaging  process,  in  some  cases  there  is  a  sav- 
ing of  half  the  material  over  the  old  methods. 

The  liladesare  cylindrical  and  true  to  the  intended  size  to 
a  degree  hitherto  unknown.  Simultaneously  there  have 
been  imiirovements  in  the  methods  of  grooving.  Auto- 
matic groovers  have  come  into  use,  which  clamp  and  hold 
the  needle,  start  in  with  the  short  grooves  and  withdraw 
the  cutter  at  the  proper  time,  after  having  proceeded  the 
right  distance,  while  the  cutter  on  the  opposite  side  goes  on 
until  the  long  groove  is  completed.  Machines  also  for  point- 
ing, polisliing  the  eyes,  etc.,  have  been  devised  to  perform 
automatically  what  was  formerly  done  by  hand. 

S.  W.  Goodyear. 

Needles,  The  :  a  cluster  of  rocks  on  the  west  extremity  of 
the  Isle  of  \\'ight,  which  take  their  name  from  their  pyram- 
idal shape.  Five  in  number,  they  are  composed  of  chalk, 
dotted  with  thin  strata  of  flint.  The  violent  wave-action 
here  is  constantly  changing  the  form  of  these  rocks,  only 
three  of  which  now  rise  to  any  considerable  height  above 
the  water.  The  Needles  Light  is  situated  on  the  outer  part 
of  the  farthest  of  these  celebrated  rocks,  which  was  ])reviously 
leveled  nearly  to  the  water's  edge  to  receive  it.  The  name 
is  applied  by  British  navigators  to  many  similar  structures 
elsewhere.  Revised  by  M.  W.  IIarrinoton. 


NKEXAII 


NEGLIGEXfE 


103 


Npc'niih :  eity  (founded  in  1836  as  a  Government  post); 
Winiieba-jo  oo.,'\Vis.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of 
Wisconsin,  ref.  5-E);  on  the  Kox  river,  at  the  outlet  of 
Ijike  \Viniiel)af;o,  ami  on  the  Chi.  and  X.  \V.,  the  Chi.,  Mil. 
and  .St.  I'.,  and  the  Wis.  Cent,  railways:  14  miles  N.  of  Ush- 
kosh,  the  county-seat.  It  contains  15  churches,  5  school- 
houses,  a  commercial  collejje,  '-i  |>ul>lic  parks.  2  national 
banks  with  comliined  capital  of  ^140,0(M),  nntnu factories  of 
paper,  flour,  anil  stove.s,  and  2  daily  and  4  weekly  news- 
papers. The  city  has  abundant  waier-powi-r,  and  luus  be- 
come a  popular 'summer  resort.  Poo.  (1880)  4.202;  (1890) 
5,08:i;  (IHU.j)  5,781.  Editor  of  "Times." 

Noesinia,  nee'she'c-maa,  .Joskph  H.irdv:  preacher  and 
educator;  \i.  in  Tokio,  Japan,  in  the  year  184;!  Anxious  for 
a  foreign  education,  he  olitained  a  passiige  in  a  V.  S.  brig, 
and  finally  landed  at  Ikiston,  where  he  found  a  ])atron  in 
tlie   gentleman    whose    name    he   assumed.      An    academic 

irse  at  Andover  and  Amherst  was  followed  by  a  llieolog- 

,il  course  at  .Vndover.  He  attached  himself  in  1872  tis  sec- 
retary to  Viscount  Tanaka,  conimi.ssioner  of  education, 
then  at  Washington,  with  whom  he  visited  Europe.  N'ee- 
sima's  name  is  inseparably  associated  with  the  founding  of 
the  Doshisha  College  at  Kioto,  c.f  which  he  became  presi- 
dent. 1>.  Jan.  2:!,  18!»0.  He  wa-s  held  in  high  esteem  by  all 
classes  of  his  countrymen.  See  his  Life  and  Letters,  edited 
by  Arthur  .S.  lIardy'(Bi>ston,  18112).  J.  M.  Dixo.v. 

Neps  von  Esenheck.  iiiis  v5n-ii  z^n-bek.  Christian  Gott- 
FRlEli  1).\XIK|, :  bdlanist;  b.  at  Heichenberg,  Westphalia, 
Feb.  14,  1776:  studied  medicine  at  Jemi.  and  was  Professor 
of  Hotanyal  Erlangen  1818-;J0.and  at  Ureslau  1830-52.  His 
principal  wurks  are  Das  System  der  I'ilze  iiml  Schwcimme 
(181'!);  Si/.ilemii  Lnurinarum  (1836) ;  Ayroslulogia  lirasili- 
enais ( 182!)) ;  Die  Entwirkeliiny  tier  PlIanzensulKtam  (1819) ; 
Die  yaturphilosopltie  (1841).  I).  at'Hrcslau,  Mar.  16,  1858. 
Kevised  by  Ciiaklks  K.  Hkssky. 

Ne  Kx'ont  Heg'no  [Ijat.,  let  him  not  go  out  of  the  king- 
d' iiij.  Writ  of:  a  writ  used  at  present  only  in  legal  pro- 
ceedings to  restrain  a  person  from  ileparting  from  tlie  juris- 
diction of  the  court.  The  exact  date  when,  and  the  circum- 
stances under  which,  this  writ  was  first  issued  are  involved 
in  obscurity,  but  it  is  known  that  according  to  the  rules  of 
earlv  English  law  the  king  by  virtue  of  his  prerogative 
might  issue  a  writ  prohitating  a  subject  from  going  abroad 
without  license;  but  it  has  been  thought  that  lliis  was  not  a 
rule  of  the  common  law.  A  section  of  King  John's  Great 
Charter  allowed  subjects  to  depart  from  the  kingdom  at 
their  pleasure.  In  later  chartei-s  this  provision  was  not 
found,  and  it  came  to  be  understood  as  law  that  a  subject 
did  not  possess  the  right  of  leaving  the  realm  without  the 
king's  license,  and  writs  could  tx>  issued  to  enforce  the  law. 
TTiis  rule  of  law  has  liecome  practically  obsolete,  subjects 
Iwing  allowed  freely  to  leave  the  kingdom  except  in  time 
of  war  and  public  danger. 

.■\t  the  present  time  the  writ  of  ne  exeat  is  used  simply 
as  a  judicial  procee<ling  in  the  onlinary  administration  of 
justice.  It  is  i.ssued  by  a  court  of  chancery  (or  equity)  to 
prevent  a  party  to  a  suit  from  withdrawing  from  the  juris- 
diction of  (lie  court,  and  thus  rendering  its  decree  ineffec- 
tual. The  substance  of  the  imittcr  is  that  the  defemlant  be- 
comes liable  to  give  bail  or  security  that  he  will  not  with- 
draw himself  fruni  the  jiower  of  the  court  to  compel  him  by 
its  process  to  aliide  its  order,  in  default  of  which  he  will  be 
imprisoned.  It  can  oidy  be  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of 
enforcing  eipiitable  demands,  except  in  the  case  of  alimony 
and  of  an  aciiim  fur  an  account.  .Mimony  in  the  case  of  a 
partial  divorce  was  granted  in  England  by  the  ecclesiiislical 
court,  which  had  no  power  of  exacting  bail,  and  the  courts 
of  eiiuity,  to  pri'Vent  a  failure  of  justice  in  such  a  case, 
aideii  the  plaintiff  by  means  of  this  writ.  In  the  ease  of 
mutual  aeCDunt  the  court  uf  equity  has  concurrent  jurisdic- 
tion with  the  courts  of  law.  and  is  thus,  having  jurisdiction, 
not  debarreil  from  issuing  the  ne  eieat,  though  a  court  of 
law  also  has  pi >wer  over  the  case.  It  should  be  added  that 
the  claim  must  be  [iccuniary  in  its  nature.and  so  far  mature 
that  present  payment  or  performance  can  be  rightly  de- 
manded. All  that  is  necessary  to  give  the  court  juri.silic- 
tion  is  the  presence  of  the  defendant,  whether  citizen  or 
alien. 

In  the  I'.  S.  the  equity  courts  of  the  respective  Stales  as- 
sume the  same  |)ower  over  this  subject  that  is  exercised  by 
the  English  courts  of  chancery,  except  where  their  inherent 
authority  has  Ik'cu  taken  away  liv  statute,  or  where  the  writ 
has  been  expressly  abolished,  as  in  the  State  of  New  York. 


Where  this  remedy  exists  it  may  be  granted  in  the  form  of 
an  order  as  well  as  of  a  writ.  For  further  details,  see 
IJeames's  lirief  Viete  of  the  H'r/V  of  A'e  Exeat  Heijno 
(Lomlon,  1812);  the  works  of  Daniell  and  Barbour  on  C'lian- 
cery  Practice  ;  and  Story's  Ei/iiity  ■/iiris/,ni<lriice. 

Kevised  by  F.  Stirgks  Allen. 

Nogntivp  Quantity :  a  quantity  taken  in  asense  opposite 
to  that  w  liicli  we  have  agreed  to  call  positive.  The  terms 
positive  and  neyalive  are  correlative;  if  we  agree  to  con- 
sider a  quantity  taken  in  any  sense  as  positive,  it  will  be 
negative  when  taken  in  a  contrary  sense.  Thus  if  we  agree 
to  call  distance  cstinmted  to  the  right  of  some  point  positive, 
then  distance  estimated  to  the  left  of  that  point  will  be 
negative.    See  Imaoinarv  t^fAXTlTiES. 

Necran'nec:  city  (founded  in  1865);  JIarquetfe  co.,  Mich, 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  2-F) ;  on 
the  Chi.  and  X.  W.,  and  the  Duluth,  S.  Sh.  and  Atlantic  rail- 
ways; 12  miles  W.  of  Marquette.  It  is  on  Iron  .Mountain,  at 
an  elevation  of  900  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  .Superior, 
and  is  principally  engaged  in  iron-mining  and  lumbering. 
There  are  5  churches,  graded  and  convent  schools,  a  national 
bank  with  capital  of  §.")0,01K),  and  a  weekly  ne«spai>er. 
Pop.  (1880)  3,031;  (1890)  6,078;  (1894)  5,940. 

Editor  of  '"Iron  Herald." 

Negligence  [from  0.  Fr.  <  Lat.  negllgen'tia,  deriv.  of 
negli grre,  neglect;  neg-,  not  +  lei/ere,  gather]:  as  a  legal 
cause  of  action,  has  been  defined  to  consist  "in  the  neglect 
of  the  use  of  ordinary  care  or  skill  toward  a  pei-son  to  whom 
the  defendant  owes  the  duty  of  observing  ordinary  care  and 
skill,  by  which  neglect  the  plaintiff,  without  contributory 
negligence  on  his  part,  has  sutlered  injury  to  his  person  or 
properly."  (Brett,  Master  of  Bolls,  in  Ileaven  vs.  I'ender,  11 
t^ueen's  Bench  Division  503.)  The  elements  of  the  wrong, 
it  will  be  observed,  are  (1)  a  legal  duty  to  use  care;  (2)  the 
neglect  to  perform  such  duly:  (3)  legal  damage  caused  by 
such  neglect  to  the  ]ierson  to  whom  the  duty  was  owed. 

(1)  Legal  Duty. — In  order  that  negligence  amount  to  a 
tort,  the  duty  \vhich  has  been  neglected  must  be  other  than 
a  contract  duty,  although  it  may  arise  out  of  contract.  A 
person  who  negligently  fails  to  pay  his  promissory  note  at 
maturity,  and  thereby  causes  the  |iayee  to  lose  a  iirofitable 
bargain  which  he  could  have  obtained  had  the  money  been 
paid,  is  liable  for  the  breach  of  his  contract,  but  not  to  an 
action  in  tort  for  negligence.  A  comniun  carrier,  however, 
who  contracts  to  transport  goods  safely,  and  who  negligent- 
ly injures  them,  may  be  sued  by  the  shipper,  either  in  tort 
or  for  the  breach  of  contract.  In  such  a  lase  "  the  contract 
creates  a  relation,  out  of  which  relation  springs  a  duty  in- 
dependent of  the  mere  contract  obligation." 

Extent  of  Duty. — .\  person's  coniluct  may  be  very  care- 
less on  a  particular  occasion,  without  subjecting  him  to  an 
action  for  negligence  on  behalf  of  one  damaged  by  such 
carelessness.  Whether  his  carelessness  is  actionable  negli- 
gence will  depend  upon  whether  he  was  under  a  duty  to  the 
injured  party  to  exercise  care.  A  farmer  leaves  maple- 
sirup  in  uncovered  buckets  in  an  open  shed.  His  neigh- 
bor's cow  wanders  from  her  owner's  iiremises  into  the  shed, 
and  dies  from  drinking  the  sirup,  lie  is  not  liable  in  dam- 
ages to  the  ncighlior.  for  he  was  under  no  duty  to  guard 
trespassing  cattle  against  a  harmful  beverage;  but  had  he 
given  his  neighbor  tlie  legal  right  to  turn  the  cow  into  the 
lot  surrounding  this  shed  he  would  have  incurred  a  duty 
toward  the  neighl.n;r  to  make  the  place  reasonably  .sjife,  and 
his  carelessness  in  dealing  with  tlie  sirup  would  have  been 
actionable  negligence.  (Busli  vs.  lirainard,  1  Cowen  (New 
York)  78.)  A  trespiusser  who  suffers  damage  from  the  mere 
carelessness  of  another  has  no  cause  of  action  in  negligeneo, 
because  the  other  is  under  no  duty  to  exercise  care  toward 
such  an  one.  The  only  duty  is  to  refrain  from  willful  or 
wanton  misconduct  lowartl  him. 

The  duty  to  exercis<?  care  is  at  times  very  broad  in  its 
sweep,  extending  to  those  with  whom  the  subject  of  the 
iluly  has  no  contract  or  personal  relation;  while  at  other 
times  it  is  confined  within  narrow  limits.  One  who  deals 
in  dangerous  instruments  or  )ioisonous  substances,  or  ex- 
plosives, is  bound  to  use  reasonable  exertions  to  prevent 
their  doing  liarm  to  others.  This  obligation  is  not  confineil 
to  his  customers,  but  extends  to  strangers  whose  use  of 
these  articles  is  the  natural  and  probable  consequence  of  his 
|>arting  with  them.  Hence  a  whole.sjile  druggist  who  sends 
out  the  extract  of  belladonna  carelessly  lalM-led  as  the  ex- 
tract of  dandelion  is  liable  in  damages  to  one  who  takes  it 
as  a  medicine,  though  the  injured  party    '■"--  '<    frmi  a 


104: 


NEGLIGENCE 


dealer  who  bought  it  from  a  purchaser  of  the  wholesale  drug- 
gist. {Thomas  vs.  Winchester,  6  New  York  397.)  So  a 
tradesman  who  sells  gunpowder  to  a  young  child  is  liable 
to  third  persons  who  are  injured  by  the  child's  use  of  it. 
The  tradesman's  duty  was  not  confined  to  his  purchaser, 
but  extended  to  all  who,  he  reasonably  might  have  contem- 
plated, would  suffer  from  his  carelessness.  Tlie  same  doc- 
trine has  been  applied  by  some  courts  to  the  manufacturer 
of  chattels,  who  carelessly  sends  them  into  the  trade  with 
defects  which  render  them  dangerous  to  their  users.  (Schu- 
bert vs.  Clark  Co.,  49  Minn.  331.)  Other  courts  have  refused 
to  apply  it  in  such  cases,  declaring  that  "  if  a  contractor 
who  erects  a  house,  who  builds  a  bridge,  or  performs  any 
other  work;  a  manufacturer  who  constructs  a  boiler,  a  piece 
of  machinery,  or  a  steamship,  owes  a  duty  to  the  whole 
world  that  his  work,  or  his  machine,  or  his  steamship,  shall 
contain  no  hidden  defect,  it  is  difficult  to  measure  the  ex- 
tent of  his  responsibility,  and  no  prudent  man  would  engage 
in  such  occupations  upon  such  conditions."  These  courts 
confine  the  duty  of  the  contractor  or  the  manufacturer  to 
the  parties  with  whom  he  deals.  Curtin  vs.  Somerset,  140 
Penn.  70 ;  Eeizer  vs.  Kingsland,  etc.,  Co.,  110  Mo.  605. 

Degrees  of  Care. — After  it  has  been  determined  that  a 
particular  person  was  under  a  duty  to  exercise  care  toward 
another,  it  becomes  important  to  inquire  what  amount  of 
care  was  incumbent  upon  him.  Upon  this  topic  various 
theories  have  been  maintained.  One  is  that  the  law  recog- 
nizes three  degrees  of  care :  Great  care,  or  that  which  is 
usually  bestowed  upon  the  matter  in  hand  by  the  most  com- 
petent and  prudent  class  of  persons.  Ordinary  care,  or  that 
which  is  usually  bestowed  upon  tlie  matter  in  hand  by  the 
average  person.  Slight  care,  or  that  which  is  usually  be- 
stowed by  persons  of  average  prudence,  having  no  special 
knowledge  of  or  experience  in  such  matters.  (Shearman 
and  Redfleld  on  Negligence,  4th  ed.,  g  47.)  According  to 
another  theory  there  are  but  two  degrees  of  care — that 
required  of  one  who  is  not  and  does  not  profess  to  be  a  good 
man  of  business,  or  an  expert  in  the  affairs  under  considera- 
tion, and  that  re(|uired  of  one  who  is  or  professes  to  be  such 
an  expert.  (See  Wharton  on  Negligence,  bk.  i.,  chap,  ii.)  A 
third  theory,  and  the  one  generally  accepted  at  present,  rec- 
ognizes but  one  legal  standard  of  care  for  all  cases,  and 
that  is  the  care  usually  exercised  by  the  ordinarily  prudent 
person  in  like  circumstances.  Whether  an  oculist  has  been 
negligent  in  operating  upon  an  eye  and  whether  a  carrier 
has  been  negligent  in  transporting  a  barrel  of  apples  are  to 
be  determined  by  the  application  of  the  same  test.  Each 
has  failed  to  use  ordinary  care,  and  hence  has  been  negli- 
gent if  he  has  fallen  below  the  standard  of  reasonable  skill 
and  attention  which  the  ordinary  man  of  his  class  would 
exercise  in  dealing  with  the  like  matter  in  like  circumstances. 
According  to  this  theory  the  legal  standard  of  care  remains 
constant ;  but  the  amount  of  care  which  that  standard  re- 
quires in  a  given  case  varies  with  its  facts. 

Amo^mt  of  Care. — The  manner  in  which  this  varies  with 
the  circumstances  surrounding  the  one  who  is  bound  to  use 
due  care  is  well  illustrated  by  the  case  of  the  occupier  of 
land  or  buildings.  We  have  seen  that  he  is  under  no  duty 
of  care  toward  a  trespasser.  His  only  obligation  is  to  refrain 
from  inflicting  willful  or  wanton  injury  upon  such  wrong- 
doer. Toward  licensees  (see  Licenses),  including  guests  who 
are  enjoying  gratuitous  hospitality,  his  duty  does  not  extend 
beyond  warning  them  of  any  secret  danger,  known  to  him- 
self, but  not  reasonably  apparent  to  them.  Indeed,  one 
who  for  his  own  benefit  uses  the  property  of  another  under 
a  bare  permission  must  take  it,  as  arule,'with  all  its  faults. 
All  that  he  has  a  right  to  expect  is  that  the  owner  will  use 
reasonable  care  not  to  subject  him  to  new  perils  without 
notice.  In  case  the  occupier  of  land  or  buildings  invites 
others  to  enter  or  use  them  in  connection  with  his  business, 
his  duty  is  "to  make  the  place  as  little  dangerous  as  such  a 
place  could  reasoiuil)ly  be.  having  regard  to  the  contrivances 
necessarily  used  in  carrying  on  the  business."  (Indermaur 
vs.  Dames,  Law  Reports,  1  Common  Pleas  274.)  If  the  prop- 
erty abuts  on  a  highway,  the  risk  of  harm  from  its  defective 
condition  or  its  improper  use  is  very  great ;  consequently  the 
owner  is  bound  to  use  an  amount"  of  care  and  skill  to' pro- 
tect passers-by  from  injury  whii^li  is  commensurate  with  the 
danger.  If  lie  is  constructing  a  building  on  tlie  line  of  a 
city  street,  he  is  bound  to  know  that  materials  will  probably 
fall  and  injure  passers-by  unless  special  safeguards  are  pro"- 
vided.  His  failure  to  take  such  precautions  may  well  amount 
to  a  want  of  reasonal)le  care — "an  omission  to  do  something 
which  a  reasonable  man,  guided  upon  those  considerations 


which  ordinarily  regulate  the  conduct  of  human  affairs, 
would  do."  (Jager  vs.  Adams,  123  Mass.  26.)  Similar  con- 
siderations determine  what  is  reasonable  care  on  the  part 
of  passenger-carriers.  A  railway  comiiany,  to  be  fi'ee  from 
negligence,  must  inspect  its  road-bed  and  rolling  stock  more 
frequently  and  thoroughly  than  a  stage-coach  proprietor  is 
bound  to  do. 

Duty  to  Insure  Safety.— In  some  cases  the  English  com- 
mon law  requires  one  who  brings  upon  his  land  that  which 
exposes  his  neighbor  to  extraordinary  risk  "  to  insure  his 
neighbor  against  any  consequent  harm,  not  due  to  some 
cause  beyond  human  foresight  and  control."  Thus  the 
owner  of  animals  is  bound  to  keep  them  on  his  own  land 
at  his  ]jeril.  If  they  escape  and  trespass  upon  a  neighbor's 
land,  the  owner  is  liable  for  the  natural  consequences  of 
that  trespass,  without  regard  to  the  care  he  has  taken  to 
keep  them  at  home.  So  the  keeper  of  a  mischievous  ani- 
mal, having  knowledge  of  its  propensities,  is  bound  to  keep 
it  securely.  He  does  not  perform  his  duty  by  using  reason- 
able care  to  prevent  its  doing  harm.  Again,  one  who  starts 
a  fire  on  his  premises  for  any  purpose  is  boimd  to  keep  it 
there  at  his  peril.  The  same  doctrine  has  been  applied  by 
the  English  courts  to  one  who  constructs  a  reservoir  on  his 
land.  In  the  leading  case  on  this  subject,  decided  in  1868 
(Rylands  vs.  Fletcher,  Law  Reports.  3  House  of  Lords  330), 
it  was  declared  that  "  the  true  rule  of  law  is  that  the  per- 
son who  for  his  own  purposes  brings  on  his  land  and  col- 
lects and  keeps  there  anything  not  naturally  there,  and 
likely  to  do  mischief  if  it  escapes,  must  keep  it  in  at  his  peril ; 
and  if  he  does  not  do  so,  is  prima  facie  answerable  for  all 
the  damage  which  is  the  natural  consequence  of  its  escape. 
He  can  excuse  himself  by  showing  that  the  escape  was  owing 
to  the  plaintiff's  default ;  or  perhaps  that  the  escape  was  the 
consequence  of  I'is  major,  or  the  act  of  God."  Later  cases- 
have  recognized  exceptions,  where  the  escape  was  caused  by 
the  act  of  a  stranger ;  where  the  source  of  danger  was  main- 
tained for  the  common  benefit  of  the  plaintiff  and  the  de- 
fendant ;  and  where  its  existence  was  authorized  by  law. 

The  doctrine  of  Eylaiuls  vs.  Fletcher  has  been  adopted 
without  qualification  in  some  of  the  U.  S.  (see  Baltimore, 
etc.,  Co.  vs.  Jianstead,  28  Atlantic  Reporter  273,  Sid.  Court 
of  Appeals,  1894),  but  in  most  jurisdictions  it  has  been  re- 
pudiated {Marshall  vs.  Welwood,  38  New  Jersey  Law  339), 
and  the  liability  of  one  who  constructs  a  reservoir  on  his 
land,  or  brings  upon  it  a  steam-boiler,  or  kindles  a  fire,  is 
confined  to  damages  caused  by  his  failure  to  exercise  rea- 
sonable care ;  that  is,  a  care  proportioned  to  the  manifest 
risk  to  which  his  use  of  his  land  exposes  his  neighbor.  Even 
in  the  case  of  trespassing  animals  the  common-law  doctrine 
has  been  greatly  modified  by  statute  in  tlie  various  States, 
or  has  been  declared  by  the  courts  inapplicable  to  the  con- 
ditions and  habits  of  the  people.  Morris  vs.  Fruker,  5  Col- 
orado 435. 

(2)  Breach  of  Duty. — In  an  action  for  negligence  the 
plaintiff  must  show  not  only  that  the  defendant  owes  to 
him  the  duty  of  exercising  reasonable  care,  but  also  that  the 
duty  has  been  violated.  A  iierson  driving  along  a  street 
must  use  reasonable  care  in  selecting  and  controlling  his 
horse.  If,  however,  the  animal  becomes  unmanageable 
through  no  fault  of  the  driver,  and  runs  away  and  injures 
the  person  or  property  of  another,  the  latter  has  no  cause 
of  action  for  damages  against  the  former.  The  harm  re- 
sults not  from  the  drivei''s  negligence,  but  from  inevitable 
accident.  Whether  a  person  has  failed  to  use  reasonable 
care  in  a  particular  case  is  generally  a  question  of  fact  for 
the  jury.  At  times  a  positive  duty  is  laid  u]ion  him  by  con- 
tract, by  statute,  or  otherwise.  Here  the  only  question  will 
be  whether  he  has  done  the  act  required,  or  has  abstained 
from  tluit  which  was  prohibited.  Accordingly,  if  a  statute 
or  ordinance  forbids  the  suspension  of  signs  over  a  street, 
or  of  awnings  over  a  sidewalk,  or  requires  boats  moving  at 
night  to  display  head-lights,  or  the  owners  of  buildings  hav- 
ing elevator-wells  to  protect  them  by  rails,  a  person  who 
inadvertently  violates  any  of  these  provisions  fails  to  use 
due  diligence.  Such  positive  requirements  represent  the 
minimum  of  reasonable  care,  but  as  a  rule  the  question  of 
reasonable  care  is  one  of  fact.  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
court  is  bcjund  to  submit  every  action  for  negligence  to  the 
jury.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  dispose  finally  of  the 
whole  case  wherever  the  only  inference  that  can  fairly  be 
drawn  by  reasonable  men  from  all  the  evidence  is  that  there 
was  no  negligence.  The  respective  functions  of  the  court 
and  jury  have  been  stated  briefly  as  follows :  "  The  judge 
has  to  say  whether  any  facts  have  been  established  by  evi- 


NEGLIGEN'CE 


105 


dencc  from  which  negligence  may  be  reasonably  inferred ; 
the  jurors  have  to  sav  whether  from  those  facts,  when  sub- 
mitted to  them,  negligence  ought  to  be  inferred.  It  is  a 
question  of  law  for  the  judge  whether  there  is  evidence 
which,  if  it  is  l)clieved,  and  the  counter  evidence,  if  any, 
not  believed,  would  establish  the  facts  in  controvei^sy.  It 
is  for  the  jury  to  say  whether  and  how  far  the  evidence  is 
to  be  iM'lieved." 

The  common  law  does  not  presume  negligence,  but  re- 
quires the  one  who  biuses  a  claim  upon  it  to  establish  its  ex- 
istence by  a  fair  preiiunderancc  of  proof.  lie  is  not  bound 
to  provi.'  it  beyond  a  reasonable  doubt,  and  ho  makes  out  a 
prima  facie  case  by  showing  that  the  harm  done  was  such 
as  Would  not  have  occurred  in  the  ordinary  course  of  things 
had  the  detenilant  useil  reasonable  care.  Where  one  is  in- 
jured by  a  building  falling  into  the  street  without  appar- 
ent cause,  or  bv  a  barrel  rolling  out  of  a  warehouse  window 
to  the  sidewalk,  or  by  a  railway  train  jiunping  the  track, 
oc  by  a  briilge  breaking  under  an  ordinary  load,  the  very 
circumstaiici's  of  the  injury  raise  the  presumption  of  negli- 
gence, and  recpiire  an  explanation  from  tlie  defendant. 
This  doctrine  has  been  extended  by  statute  in  England  and 
in  some  of  the  L'.  .S.,  so  that  in  certain  cases,  chielly  those 
of  damages  resulting  from  the  operation  of  railways,  proof 
of  injury  sustained  by  the  [)laiiiliir  makes  luit  &  prima  facie 
case,  which  the  defendant  is  rei(uired  to  overcome. 

(3)  Damage  ('aH-sfil  by  thf  Di^fentlant. — A  breach  of  duty 
to  use  care  must  cause  legal  damage  to  the  object  of  that 
duty  in  order  to  amount  to  actionable  negligence.  Whether 
oliysical  suffering  consequent  upon  a  nervous  shock  caused 
by  another's  negligence  cimstitutes  legal  damage  is  a  sub- 
ject of  judicial  disagreement.  It  was  carefully  considered 
oy  the  Privy  Council  in  Victorian  Railways  Commissioners 
vs.  Cou/las  (i:i  Aj)peal  Cases  222),  and  the  conclusion  was 
reached  that  no  Kiiglish  decision  treated  such  an  injury  as 
legal  damage.  It  was  thought  unwise  to  extend  the  lia- 
bility for  negligence  to  this  cliuss  of  cases,  because  of  the 
great  dilViculty  that  would  ensue  in  determining  whether 
the  alleged  injuries  had  been  caused  by  the  negligent  act, 
and  of  the  wide  field  that  would  be  opened  to  imaginary 
claims.  The  sjime  view  has  been  taken  by  courts  in  the  U.  S. 
(See  Kii'ing  vs.  Pittsburg  Railway  Co.,  147  Penn.  40.)  On 
the  other  nan<i,  it  has  been  held  that  if  the  fright  or  nerv- 
ous shock  produced  by  defendant's  negligence  causes  the 
victim's  person  to  collide  with  some  object,  or  even  causes 
nervous  c<invulsions  and  illness,  the  defendant  is  liable. 
(Purrell  vs.  .S'^  Paul  Railway  Co..  48  Minn.  1:54.)  In  some 
juri.silictions  mental  suffering,  although  neither  an  incident 
nor  a  producer  of  physical  injury,  has  been  adjudged  to  con- 
stitute legid  damage;  as  when  a  child  has  been  prevented 
from  atteniling  his  parent's  funeral  by  the  negligence  of  a 
telegraph  company  m  transmitting  a  message.  The  wi'ight 
of  authority,  however,  is  against  this  view.  See  Kesler  vs. 
Western  I'nion  t '«.,  o.")  Kederal  Ueporler  6015. 

Not  only  must  ttie  defemlant's  negligence  sustain  the  re- 
lation of  cause  to  plaint i It's  harm,  but  it  must  be  the  i)roxi- 
mate  cause.  IWlween  the  negligence  complained  of  and  the 
injury  there  must  be  an  unbroken  connection.  If  a  new  and 
independent  cause  intervenes,  this  and  not  the  remote  cause 
bears  the  whole  legal  res()onsibility  for  the  harm.  "The 
rule  is  dillicult  of  application  ;  but  it  is  generally  held  that, 
in  order  to  warrant  lindiiig  that  negligence  or  an  act  not 
amounting  to  wanton  wrong  is  the  proximate  cau.se  of  an 
injury,  it  must  appear  that  the  injury  was  the  natural  and 
probable  consequence  of  the  negligence  or  wnmgful  act, 
and  that  it  ought  to  have  been  foreseen  in  the  light  of  the 
attending  cinumstance.s."  In  applying  this  rule  it  has 
been  held  that  the  proximate  cause  of  the  loss  of  good.s, 
which  had  been  negligently  clclnyed  by  a  common  carrier, 
anil  ilestroyed  by  an  extraordinary  freshet  while  thus  de- 
layed, was  the  floixl,  and  not  the  negligence.  (Hailrond  Co. 
vs.  Reeves,  10  Wallace  (U.  S.)  17(>.)  Ci>nsisteiitly  with  this 
holding,  it  has  been  deciiled  that  the  negligence  of  the  State 
in  permitting  a  lu'idge  to  remain  in  an  unsafe  conditiim  wius 
the  proximate  cause  of  the  death  by  drowiiini;  of  a  father, 
who  plunged  into  the  canal  to  .sjive  his  child  U()on  the  hit- 
ter's falling  into  the  water  by  reason  of  the  defect  in  the 
bridge,  ((tibney  vs.  State,  lit?  X.  Y.  1.)  In  the  formerca.se 
the  destruction  of  the  property  by  the  Hood  was  not  the 
natural  and  probable  consequence  of  the  carrier's  delay.  In 
the  latter  case  the  father's  desperate  efforts  to  save  his  chilil 
were  the  natural  and  probable  result  of  the  danger  to  which 
the  defendant's  negligence  had  subjected  him. 

Concurring  Causes. — It  is  not  necessary  that  the  defend- 


ant's misconduct  bo  the  sole  cause  of  plaintiff's  damage. 
One  who  is  injure<l  by  a  collision  of  the  trains  of  two  rail- 
way comi>anies  can  maintain  an  action  again.st  either,  or 
both,  if  both  are  in  fault.  If  but  one  was  negligent,  he 
must  look  to  that  one  for  redress.  Even  though  it  be  shown 
that  defendant  was  negligent  at  the  time  of  the  harm,  if 
such  fault  was  simply  a  condition  of  the  injury,  while  its  im- 
mediate cause  was  the  indei)endent  wrongful  act  of  a  third 
person,  the  latter  will  be  treated  as  solely  responsible  there- 
for. If,  however,  such  act  by  a  stranger  might  have  been 
foreseen  as  a  reasonably  probable  result  of  defendant's  neg- 
ligence, it  will  not  relieve  him  from  liability. 

Contributory  yegliyeiice. — If  one  of  the  concurring  causes 
of  plaintiff's  injury  is  his  own  lack  of  pro[ier  care,  he  can 
not  recover,  although  but  for  defendant's  negligence  the 
harm  would  not  have  happened.  Ilowever,  it  is  to  be  re- 
membered that  [daiiiliff's  want  of  care  must  be  a  cause  of 
the  injury,  in  order  to  defeat  his  recovery.  If  it  is  a  con- 
dition only,  it  will  have  no  such  result.  This  is  illustrated 
by  a  case  where  the  plaintiff  was  put  to  work  on  a  platform 
surrounding  the  ilefcndant's  building,  and  was  warned  not 
to  go  on  a  certain  part  which  was  not  railed,  because  of  the 
danger  of  slijiping  on  the  ice  and  falling  off.  While  on  the 
forbidden  iiart  he  wjls  knocked  to  the  ground  by  bricks  fall- 
ing from  tlie  building  by  reason  of  defendant's  negligence, 
and  concerning  which  he  had  not  been  warned.  It  was  held 
that  plaintiff's  going  upon  the  slippery  part  of  the  platform 
was  not  the  proximate  cause  of  his  injury.  Hy  passing  to 
that  part  he  took  the  risk  of  dangers  pointed  out,  but  not 
the  risk  of  different  perils  to  which  he  was  subjected  by  de- 
fendant's negligence.  (Southwick  vs.  Hall,  5!)  Conn.  261.) 
Moreover,  the  plaintiff  may  have  been  negligent  with  respect 
to  the  very  source  of  the  injury,  and  yet  if  the  defendant 
might  have  avoided  inllicting  the  harm  by  exercising  reason- 
able care,  after  the  occurrence  of  plaintiff's  negligence,  the 
defendant  is  liable.  While  in  one  sense  the  carelessness  of 
the  plaiiititT  contributed  to  the  harm,  it  was  not  its  proxi- 
mate cause.  ITeiice  one  who  recklessly  drove  against  a 
donkey,  which  had  been  carelessly  turned  into  the  highway 
by  its  owner  with  its  forefeet  fettered,  was  held  liable  for 
the  injury.  It  is  the  duty  of  one  who  has  been  harmed  by 
the  negligence  of  another  to  use  reasonable  efforts  to  make 
the  damage  as  small  as  possible.  If  he  has  sustained  a  per- 
sonal injury,  he  is  bound  to  take  proper  care  of  himself,  and 
this  may  include  suitable  medical  treatment.  When,  how- 
ever, he  uses  proper  care  in  .selecting  a  physician,  and  the 
latter  aggravates  the  injury  by  unskillfiuness,  the  original 
wrongdoer  is  liable  for  the  increased  damages.  They  are  an 
incident,  a  natural  and  probable  consequence,  of  the  defend- 
ant's wrongful  act.  Pullman  Palace  Car  Co.  vs,  Bluhm, 
109  111.  20. 

A  person  is  not  chargeable  with  contributory  negligence 
who  acts  without  deliberation,  and  as  the  event  discloses, 
unwisely,  in  the  attempt  to  extricate  himself  from  a  peril 
brought  upon  him  by  another's  fault.  In  such  a  case  the 
defendant  must  show  that  the  plaintiff's  conduct  was  un- 
reasonable under  the  circumstances,  and  reckless.  Nor  is 
it  contributory  negligence  for  one,  in  the  discharge  of  duty, 
to  remain  in  a  situation  made  dangerous  by  the  negligence 
of  another.  An  engineer  who  remains  at  his  post  in  the  at- 
tempt to  save  his  train  from  disaster  is  an  example.  So  a 
person  who.  without  recklessness,  exposes  himself  to  danger 
to  save  a  human  life  imperiled  by  another's  negli|;ence,  and 
is  injured,  mav  recover  damages.  Pennsylvania  Co.  vs. 
Lanijendorf.  48  Ohio  316. 

W'"liile  contributory  negligence  is  a  bar  to  the  plaintiff's 
action  for  <lamages  at  common  law,  it  is  not  in  Admirai-TY 
(if.  v.).  although  his  willful,  gros.s,  or  inexcusable  fault  will 
defeat  him.  If  both  parties  are  negligent  the  damages  are 
divided  between  them,  though  not  always  equally.  (The 
Max  .V(trri.i,  i;(7  V.  S.  1.)  As  this  dcK-trine  applies  to  all 
maritime  torts.a  pei-son  injured  by  the  nc'jligence  of  another 
will  often  lind  it  to  his  advantage  to  bring  his  suit  in  ad- 
miralty rather  than  in  a  common-law  court. 

Imputed  Segligence. — The  fault  of  one  may  be  imputable 
to  another  when  the  former  occupies  the  relation  of  servant 
to  the  latter.  (See  Mastkr  and  Skrvant.)  In  some  juris- 
dictions this  rule  has  been  extended  so  as  to  charge  a  pas- 
senger with  the  negligence  of  his  carrier,  and  a  child  with 
the  negligence  of  his  parent  or  guardian.  The  leading  ca.se 
in  support  of  the  first  view  is  Thornr/ood  vs.  Bryan  (8  Com- 
mon Hench  Reports  115),  which  held  that  a  passenger  in  an 
omnibus  wils  to  be  considered  so  far  idenlilied  with  the 
owner  that  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  owner  or  his  scrv- 


106 


NEGOTIABLE  INSTRUMENTS 


ant  was  to  be  deemed  the  negligence  of  the  passenger. 
The  case  has  been  overruled  in  England  {The  Bernina.  13 
Appeal  Cases  1),  and  is  generally  repudiated  in  the  U.  S. 
(Little  vs.  Hackett,  116  U.  S.  366!)  Its  doctrine  is  clearly 
unsound.  Neither  the  owner  nor  his  servant  is  under  the 
control  of  tlie  passenger.  It  the  carrier's  negligence  is  im- 
putable to  the  passenger  so  as  to  defeat  his  recovery  against 
a  negligent  third  person,  it  ought  to  be  imputable  to  him, 
so  as  to  render  him  liable  to  a  third  person  injured  by  the 
carrier's  negligence.  Equally  unsound  is  the  doctrine  that 
a  parent's  negligence  is  imputable  to  his  infant  child.  The 
legal  right  and  duty  of  the  parent  to  protect  the  child  exist 
for  the  infant's  benefit,  not  for  his  detriment.  It  is  true  that 
the  parent's  negligence  may  be  the  proximate  cause  of  the 
child's  injury  in  a  particular  case,  and  the  third  party's 
negligence  only  the  remote  cause.  When  such  are  the  facts, 
the  parent  and  not  the  third  party  is  responsible ;  but  if 
their  negligent  acts  concur  to  produce  the  harm,  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  parent's  misconduct  should  protect  the  tliird 
party  froni  liability  to  the  infant.  Newman  vs.  Phillips- 
iiirg  Co..  53  N.  .J.  Law  446. 

Death  hy  Nef/Ugence. — At  the  common  law,  if  an  injury 
occasioned  by  negligence  caused  death,  no  civQ  action  could 
be  maintaine'd.  It  is  plain  that  no  action  could  be  brought 
in  the  name  of  the  person  killed.  Other  persons,  it  is  said, 
are  not  pecuniarily  damaged,  as  they  could  only  claim  com- 
pensation on  the  ground  of  loss  of  service,  and  the  relation 
of  master  and  servant,  whether  expressly  created  or  implied 
from  that  of  husband  and  wife  or  parent  and  child,  is  at  an 
end.  This  defect  in  the  law  was  remedied  in  England  by 
"Lord  Campbell's  act "(9  and  10  Vict.,  c.  93;  see  also  27 
and  28  Viet.,  c.  95),  the  provisions  of  which  have  been  suVj- 
stantially  re-enacted  in  most  of  the  U.  S.  The  substance  of 
the  statute  is  that  the  action  is  to  be  brought  by  the  execu- 
tor or  administrator  of  the  person  killed,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  husband  or  wife  or  next  of  kin.  The  amount  to  be  re- 
covered depends  upon  the  pecuniary  damages  sustained, 
and  is  generally  limited  to  a  specified  amount.  It  has  been 
held  both  in  England  and  the  U.  S.  that  the  rule  upon  this 
subject  in  admiralty  is  the  same  as  at  common  law.  {Tlie 
Harristiurg.  119  U.S.  199.)  In  Scotland  the  surviving  law- 
ful children  or  parents,  husband  or  wife  of  the  deceased, 
"  acquire  a  claim  in  their  own  right  to  damages  and  sola- 
tium, founded  partly  on  tlie  nearness  of  relationship,  partly 
on  the  existence  during  life  of  a  natural  obligation  of  ali- 
ment."    Bell's  Principles,  g  2030,  9th  ed. 

Criminal  Negligence. — Where  a  particular  intent  is  neces- 
sary to  constitute  a  crime,  as  in  larceny  or  perjury,  it  can 
not  be  committed  by  mere  carelessness.  Negligence,  how- 
ever, may  satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  law  for  a  general 
criminal  intent,  where  a  person,  being  under  a  public  or 
private  duty,  neglects  to  perform  it,  and  thus  causes  an 
injury  to  society  or  to  particular  persons.  Though  there  is 
no  positive  intent  to  do  wrong,  there  is  culpability  in  the 
failure  to  discharge  the  duty.  Thus  a  public  officer,  being 
under  a  public  duty  to  keep  a  prisoner  safely,  is  criminally 
liable  if  he  by  neglect  permit  him  to  escape.  Statutes  some- 
times declare  that  official  neglect  in  specified  cases  shall 
constitute  a  crime  of  a  particular  grade.  The  same  general 
rule  would  be  applied  to  a  violation  of  a  private  obligation 
causing  a  wrong  to  society.  Thus  a  neglect  to  scour  the 
bed  of  a  river,  whereby  adjoining  lands  are  overflowed,  may 
constitute  a  public  nuisance.  It  is  a  well-known  rule  in  the 
law  of  Homicide  (q.  ?'.)  that  an  act  of  neglect  causing  death 
may  amount  to  the  crime  of  M.\xslaughter  (q.  v.).  while  a 
positive  intent  to  kill  will  constitute  Murder  {q.  r.).  In 
case  of  criminal  homicide  by  negligence,  contributory  neg- 
ligence on  the  part  of  the  deceased  is  no  defense.  The  plain- 
tiff in  criminal  prosecutions  is  the  State,  not  the  injured 
party  nor  any  one  in  privity  with  him.  In  addition  to  the 
authorities  cited  above,  see  Bevans's  Principles  of  the  Lairs 
of  Negligence  (London.  1889);  Pollock  on  Torts:  Bishop's 
Nen^  Criminal  Law  (Chicago,  1892).   Feascis  M.  Burdick. 

Negotiable  Iiistrnmeiits  ;  written  contracts  which  are 
transferal>le  by  indorsement  or  delivery,  so  that  the  trans- 
feree can  enforce  them  in  his  own  name,  and  free  from  any 
equities  against  prior  holders,  provided  he  takes  them  before 
maturity,  for  value  and  without  notice.  In  these  respects 
they  differ  from  an  ordinary  chose  in  action.  An  assignee 
of  such  a  claim  can  ik.I  maintain  a  suit  upon  it  in  his  own 
name  at  common  law;  the  assignment  does  not  bind  the 
debtor  until  notice  thereof  is  given  to  him.  and  the  as- 
signee gets  no  better  title  than  that  of  his  assignor.     (See 


Assignment.)  If  negotiable  paper  is  payable  to  order,  it  is 
regularly  transferable  by  indorsement — that  is,  by  the 
payee's  writing  and  signing  on  the  back  of  the  instrument 
a  direction  for  its  payment  to  his  transferee,  followed  by 
delivery.  If  it  is  payable  to  bearer,  it  is  transferable  by 
delivery  only.  Even  if  the  paper  is  payable  to  order,  its 
transfer  by  the  payee,  without  indorsement,  will  pass  all  his 
interest  in  it,  and  will  give  the  transferee  the  right  to  com- 
pel an  indorsement.  By  statute,  in  many  of  tlie  U.  S.,  he 
can  maintain  a  suit  in  his  own  name  on  the  paper,  although 
only  an  assignee.  In  such  case,  however,  even  when  a  pur- 
chaser without  notice,  he  gets  no  better  title,  until  he  ob- 
tains an  indorsement,  than  his  transferrer  liad  ;  so  that  if 
the  paper  becomes  due,  or  he  has  notice  of  equities  before 
the  indorsement,  he  will  be  subject  to  all  the  defenses  that 
existed  against  his  transferrer. 

Defenses. — These  are  of  two  kinds :  (1)  legal  or  real,  and 
(2)  equitable  or  personal.  The  first  class  is  sometimes  called 
legal  ilefenses,  because  they  rest  on  fixed  legal  nilcs,  and 
exclude  all  consideration  of  equities  between  the  parties. 
They  are  also  termed  real  defenses,  because  they  attach  to 
the  res — the  instrument — and  are  thus  available  against  any 
holder,  without  I'egard  to  his  merits  or  demerits.  This  class 
includes  the  defense  that  the  instrument  never  had  an  in- 
ception, as  when  a  bill  or  note  fully  executed  by  the  defend- 
ant is  stolen  from  him  before  delivery,  or  when  it  is  ob- 
tained from  him  by  an  imposition  as  to  the  contract  he  is 
making;  it  includes  defenses  based  upon  the  incapacity  to 
make  a  binding  contract,  as  in  the  case  of  an  infant  or  an 
insane  person  :  those  based  on  illegality,  which  by  statute 
renders  the  instrument  absolutely  void,  as  usurious  bills  and 
notes  in  some  of  the  V.  S. ;  and  those  Viased  on  the  extin- 
guishment of  the  contract,  by  alteration  or  cancelation. 
The  second  class  has  received  the  apjiellation  of  equitable, 
because  its  basis  is  the  equities  between  the  parties.  It  is 
also  called  personal,  from  the  fact  that  a  defense  of  this 
class  is  available  only  against  the  party  whose  conduct  ren- 
ders it  inequitable  for  him  to  recover,  or  against  one  in  priv- 
ity with  such  person.  It  includes  the  case  of  negotiable 
paper  obtained  by  ordinary  fraud,  or  by  duress,  or  for  which 
there  was  no  consideration,  or  which  was  illegal  but  not  de- 
clared void  Viy  statute,  or  which  has  licen  )>aid  or  discharged 
but  not  taken  up.  This  class  is  not  available  against  a  lio>ia- 
fide  holder — that  is  one  taking  the  paper  before  due,  for 
value  and  without  notice  of  defects. 

Forms  of  Negotiable  Instruments. — Negotiable  paper  or- 
dinarily takes  the  form  of  a  Bill  of  Exchange  {q.  v.).  a 
Check "(g.  v.).  or  a  Projiissory  Note  (q.  v.).  but  is  not  limited 
to  these.  Commercial  usage  is  constantly  evolving  new 
forms,  many  of  which  have  received  judicial  sanction,  and 
thus  have  been  added  to  the  list  of  negotiable  instruments. 
The  earliest  kind  of  negotiable  paper  recognized  by  the 
English  courts  was  the  foreign  bill  of  exchange,  that  is  a 
bill  between  an  English  and  a  foreign  merchant.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  domestic  or  inland 
bills  Ijctween  traders  gained  recognition,  followed  very  soon 
by  iidand  bills  between  non-traders.  Next  came  jiromissory 
notes,  which,  after  receiving  the  sanction  of  several  judicial 
decisions,  were  held  non-negotiable  by  Lord  Holt,  only  to 
be  declared  by  act  of  Parliament  "to  have  the  same  effect 
as  inland  bills  of  exchange."  (3  and  4  Anne,  ch.  9, 
1704.)  Then  followed  goldsmiths'  or  bankers'  notes,  checks, 
exchequer  bills,  bonds  of  corporations,  whether  public  or 
private,  and  government  scrip.  (Goodwin  vs.  Poherts.  Law 
Reports,  10  Exchequer  337;  1  Appeal  Cases  476.)  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  instrument  contain  an  order  or  a  prom- 
ise to  pay  money.  In  the  case  just  referred  to,  the  writing, 
called  government  scrip,  bound  the  Russian  Government  to 
deliver  a  bond  in  exchange  for  the  scrip ;  and  yet  the  court 
held  that  "the  usage  of  the  money-market  has  solved  the 
question  whether  scrip  should  be  considered  security  for  and 
tlie  representative  of  money  by  treating  it  as  such." 

A  promissory  note  of  an  individual  or  of  a  corporation 
under  seal  is  held  generally  non-negotiable,  because  of  the 
radical  differences  at  common  law  Vietween  an  ordinary 
contract  and  a  Bond  (q.  r.)  Corporate  bonds,  however,  are 
treated  in  almost  every  jurisdiction  as  negotiable,  if,  con- 
taining words  of  negotiability,  they  are  issued  as  market- 
able securities,  and  are  regarded  by  the  mercantile  commu- 
nity as  such.  The  .Supreme  Court  of  the  L*.  S.  has  declared  : 
"There  is  nothing  immoral  or  contrary  to  good  policy  in 
making  them  negotiable,  if  the  necessities  of  commerce  re- 
quire that  they  should  be  so.  A  mere  technical  dogma  of  the 
courts  or  the  common  law  can  not  prohibit  the  commercial 


NEGKI 


NEGRO 


107 


world  from  iiiventinj;  or  using  iiiiy  sjioeics  of  sec-iirity  not 
known  in  llie  last  century.  L'sagt's  of  trade  and  coinineree 
are  acknowludici'il  l>y  cmirts  as  parts  of  the  common  law, 
although  they  may  have  iH'en  unknown  to  liraeton  or  Hhick- 
stonc ;  and  this  malleabilitv  to  suit  the  necessities  and 
usages  of  the  mercantile  world  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
charailerislics  of  the  (rommon  law."  {Mrrcer  I'oiiiiti/  vs. 
Ilacki'll,  1  Wallace  fi'i.)  In  a  number  of  the  I'.  S.  the  com- 
mon-law rule  as  to  the  negotiability  of  instruments  under 
seal  has  been  abrogated,  and  the  English  Bills  of  Exchange 
Act  of  IH-'S  (.^  91)  authorizes  corporations  to  issue  negi>- 
tiable  paper  un<ler  corporate  seal. 

Some  forms  of  ilelx>ntures,  dividend  warrants,  certificates 
of  stiM-k.  anil  receiver's  certificates  have  Ijcen  declared  by 
the  courts  iiiin-negoliable.  See  Bill  ov  EAniNu,  Lktters 
OF  Chkdit,  anil  WARtiioisi:  Hkikiits.  See  Daniels,  iWi/o/i- 
abh  InKlrniiti-ntx  (New  York,  lyjl);  t'lialmer.  BHIh  of  Ex- 
thuiujt  (London,  isyi).  Eraxcis  .M.  IU-rdick. 

Nei^ri,  Ada:  poet  ;  b.  in  1S71  of  peasant  parents  at  Lodi, 
in  Lombardy,  Italy.     Her  youth  was  sfK-nt  in  e.xtreme  pov- 
erty, and  when  she  was  eighteen  she  became  a  teacher  in  the 
comiuunal  school  of  the  remote  hamlet  of  Matta-Viscoiiti. 
Here  she  began  to  write  verses,  which  for  some  time  «p- 
ired,  almost  unnoticed,  in  the  columns  of  the  lUuxtraziime 
iftiliiri-  ami  the  Corrirn-  dtlln  Stni  of  Milan.      In  1S!(2 
, ...  se  were  collected  in  a  volume  entitled  Fitlalild,  which  at 
once  attracted  general  interest  in  Italy.     They  are  verses  of 
P'lVerty,  toil,  regret  for  the  hard  conditions  of  the  life  of 
poor,  jMissionate  huiging  for  a  state  of  society  in  which 
.  h  things  shall  be  impossible.     They  brought  upon  their 
Young  author  charges  of  revolt,  socialism,  and  anarchism, 
iiut  they  also  secured  recognition  for  her  remarkable  talents. 
She  was  given  a   money  prize  that   is  awanled   to   Italian 
women  who  distinguish   themselves  in  literature,  and  she 
wa-s  also  transferred   from  her  lonely  post  to  the  normal 
school  for  women  at  Milan,  where  she  is  now  (18!t4)  teach- 
ing Italian  literature.  A.  K.  Marsh. 

I  Negri,  nagn'e.  P.voLo:  obstetrician;  b.  in  Verona,  Italy, 
Dec.  is,  IS.5:t;  educated  at  the  University  of  Padua;  assist- 
ant in  the  .Milan  .School  of  Obstetrics  1879-82 ;  professor 
ami  director  of  the  .School  of  Obstetrics  in  Xovara  1882-8(>, 
anil  since  1HH6  has  held  the  same  position  in  the  School  of 
Obstetrii-s  in  Venice.  Among  his  many  published  works 
are  Infunin  nl  parlo  prr  it  f route  (Milan,  1882);  Studj  e 
rieerche  ili  Oslrlriria  (IS.S.'));  /;('  una  t/raridiinza  ejtra- 
iit-rinit  (Venice.  ISH(I);  Sulla  iilrocefalia  ripetuta  del  felo 
~'tO);  < 'in'/ioinlii  liipiirotomie  (\Si>2). 

-Npsrrillos.  Netrritos  [Span. dimins. of  negro,  black,  a  Xe- 
gru].  Ariifiirus.  .lirooroos :  names  given  to  the  various  black 
or  Negro-re-eml>ling  peophs  of  the  Pacific  area.  .Some  of  the 
hill-men  of  Earther  India,  and  possibly  the  Andaman  isl- 
anders, are  of  this  slock.  The  wild  men  of  the  Philippines 
are  the  typical  Negrillos.  They  have  woolly  hair,  longer 
and  less  crisped  than  the  Negroes.  The  hair  of  some  tribes 
grows  in  patches,  like  that  of  some  South  Africans.  The 
features  of  most  are  of  a  decideilly  .\fricaii  cast,  but  their 
languages  are  clearly  not  African.  The  skin  is  sometimes 
perfectly  black.  It  seems  generally  but  not  universally  ad- 
mitted that  the  straight  hair  and  less  uniform  features  of 
the  black  Au>tralian  natives,  with  their  peculiarities  of  lan- 
guage, separate  Ihein  from  the  true  Negrillo  stock.  The 
whole  race  are  referred  by  Latham  to  the  "Oceanic  Mongo- 
lida'."  Their  languages  seem  to  have  some  verbal  roots  in 
common  wilh  the  Malays.  (See  Araki'Ra.)  See  Wallace, 
Malay  Arrliipiliit/o ;  Axial.  Researches  (iv.,  393;  x.,  218). 

NpSr'-^einbilaii  (i.e.  the  nine  states);  a  confeileration 
of  six  small  slates  in  the  .S.  W.  of  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
now  under  British  protection.  There  were  originally  nine, 
but  by  political  vici.<situdes  they  were  reduced  to  six.  See 
Malay  Pknixsula  and  Straits  Settlement.      M.  W.  II. 

Nrgro  [from  Portug.  or  Span,  negro,  black  ;  Fr.  iioir: 
llal.  II,  ro  <  Lat.  iiiper.  black] :  a  term  employed  in  ethnology 
to  designate  one  of  the  five  nices  or  varieties  of  the  luunaii 
species.  As  synonyms,  African,  Aiist-African,  and  Mclanic 
have  lieen  used  by  writers. 

I.iiriiliiin. — The  purest  types  of  the  Negro  or  black  race 
are  found  in  .\frica,  S.  of  the  .Sahara  Desert,  and  especially 
in  the  Sudan  (in  Anibic,  Heled  ex  Sudan.  Land  of  the 
Blacks);  but  numerous  Irilies,  as  ilark  in  color  as  the  black- 
est Africans,  reside  in  India  and  the  islands  of  Melanesia, 
when>  I  hey  are  believed  to  be  I  he  descendants  of  the  earliest 
human  inhabitants.    These,  however,  differ  in  other  phvs- 


ica!  traits  from  the  African  Negro,  and  for  that  reason  are 
called  yegritic.  The  eastern  portions  of  Africa  are  piopkd 
by  tribes  usually  very  dark  in  color,  but  with  features  and 
hair  of  intermediate  racial  character,  and  they  are  therefore 
known  as  Negroids;  while  in  the  center  of  the  contijient  a 
number  of  small-sized,  dark-colored  tril»es  are  grouj>ed  to- 
gether a'.  .\egrilliM,n  Spanish  word  meaning  small  Negroes. 

I'ligxical  Trails. — Tliere  are  no  physical  traits  strictly 
peculiar  to  the  African  Negro,  but  lie  luesents  in  a  larger 
degree  than  any  other  nice  a  series  of  characteristics  which 
are  incomplete,' arrested,  or  fetal  in  their  origin.  The  skull 
is  usually  long  (dolichocephalic),  its  bones  thick,  and  its 
sutures  ossified  in  comparatively  early  life.  The  face  is 
prognathic — that  is.  the  lower  jaw-bone'  and  often  the  alve- 
olar processes  of  the  upper  jaw  protrude;  the  chin  is  not 
prominent;  the  teeth  are  usually  strong  anil  regular,  and 
have  the  third  molar,  or  wisdoiii  tooth,  better  developed 
than  in  the  white  race.  The  nose  is  fiat  and  wide,  the  lips 
thick  and  everted.  The  pelvis  is  narrowed — that  is,  its 
antero-posterior  diameter  is  greater  in  projiortion  to  its 
transvei-se  than  in  other  races.  In  the  long  bones,  the 
femur  and  the  humerus  are  unusually  long,  and  the  latter 
is  less  twisted  upon  its  axis  than  in  other  varieties.  The 
convolutions  of  the  brain  are  simpler,  and  its  average  weight 
a  few  ounces  less  than  in  persons  of  the  sjime  height  in  the 
white  race.  A  further  comparison  shows  in  the  Negro  a 
larger  liver  and  proporlionately  smaller  lungs;  the  muscu- 
lar strength  is  about  the  s)iine,'but  the  muscles  of  the  calf 
of  the  leg  are  less  developed.  The  sole  of  the  foot  is  flatter, 
the  heel-bone  (os  calcis)  projects  farther  backward,  and  the 
articulation  of  the  great  toe  is  more  obliijue,  bringing  it 
more  into  opposition  to  the  remaining  toes,  and  thus  con- 
ferring ujion  it  a  higher  prehensile  power.  The  skin  is  soft 
to  the  touch,  slightly  cooler,  and  furnished  with  numerous 
odoriferous  glands  which  exliale  the  well-nuirked  and  neeul- 
iar  odor  belonging  to  the  race.  The  color  of  the  skin  is 
rarely  comoletely  black.  I'sually  it  is  a  more  or  less  dark 
brown,  ana  this  is  tnic  of  some  of  the  purest  Sudanese 
types.  The  eyes  are  black  or  dark  brown.  The  hair  is  dark 
and  frizzly  or  woolly,  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  that  it 
will  felt  like  the  wool  of  a  sheep,  a  peculiarity  rarely  or 
never  found  in  other  branches  of  the  species.  This  depends 
upon  the  unusual  narrowness  of  its  transverse  section.  It  is 
generally  distributed  equally  over  the  head,  but  sometimes 
grows  in  isolated  patches  or  bunches  (lophoconiic).  The 
beard  is  generally  deficient,  but  by  no  means  always,  and 
the  distribution  of  hair  on  the  surface  of  the  bodv  is  or- 
dinarily less  than  in  the  white,  but  greater  than  in  the 
Asiatic  races.  To  some  of  these  peculiarities,  especially  to 
those  relating  to  his  viscera,  we  may  attribute  the  general 
immunity  of  the  Negro  from  certain  diseases,  as  yellow  and 
miasmatic  fever,  hepatitis,  dysentery,  and  calculus,  and  his 
unusual  liabilitv  to  others,  as  pneumonia  and  phthisis. 

Inlellecludl  j'railx. — In  no  jiarl  of  its  extensive  lerritory 
does  the  Negro  race  appear  to  have  developed  an  independ- 
ent culture  beyond  the  stage  of  barbarism.  Wherever  in 
Africa  we  find  traces  of  such,  we  also  discover  relics  which 
assign  it  unquestionably  to  .some  branch  of  the  .Semitic  or 
Ilamitic  stocks,  who  from  the  dawn  of  history  have  occu- 
pied large  portions  of  the  African  continent,  and  extended 
their  influeiu'o  by  war  and  commerce  throughout  it.  Where 
such  influence  did  not  exist  the  native  Negroes  lived  in  sav- 
agery. They  developed  no  important  food-plant,  they  ilo- 
mesticated  no  animal  for  draft  or  burden.  Ihey  constructed 
no  walls  of  stone.  Many  of  Iheir  tribes  are  agricultural, 
but  the  [ilants  which  they  )>rincipally  cultivati' — the  .sor- 
ghum, millet,  rice,  yams,  manioc,  and  tobacco^were  all  in- 
Inxluced  from  Asia,  Europe,  or  America.  Other  tribes  are 
pastoral,  but  Iheir  cattle  and  sheep  ari^  descended  from  the 
ancient  stocks  domesticated  bv  Ihe  Egyptians;  their  horses 
are  friun  the  sjime  source;  anil  the  ass.  indigenous  to  Africa, 
appears  lo  have  been  tamed  first  iiy  the  Semites.  The 
towers  and  walls  of  cut  stones  discovered  in  Soiitliea.«tern 
Africa — the  "  Cireat  /.imlmbwe" — like  the  more  modern 
brick-l>uilt  cities  of  the  Sudan,  were  constructed  under  the 
direction  of  .Semitic  and  Ilamitic  invaders.  The  knowledge 
of  smelling  ami  forcing  iron  is  of  ancient  dale  throughout 
.\frica,  but  a  long  acquainlance  wilh  this  most  us<'ful  metal 
hiLS  helped  the  Negro  little  toward  civilization.  Many  tribes 
are  skilled  in  wi'aving,  in  pottery,  in  dyeing,  and  in  Ihe 
preparation  of  salt  and  soap.  As  a  rule,  they  are  fond  of 
music,  and  Ihe  invention  of  some  siini)le  instruments,  as  the 
mandolin  and  marimba,  is  attributed  to  them.  Their  gov- 
ernments ore  generally  the  crudest  despotisms,  and  slavery 


108 


NEGRO 


NEHEMIAH,   THE  BOOK   OF 


has  been  everywhere  prevalent.  Woman  generally,  though 
not  invariably,  is  little  more  than  a  slave,  and  polygamy  is 
universal.  Cannibalism  in  its  most  abhorrent  forms  is  stiU 
prevalent.  Their  religions  are  generally  fetiehisras,  incul- 
cating childish  superstitions  and  cruel  rites.  During  the 
nineteenth  century,  however,  Mohammedanism  has  made 
rapid  strides  in  Central  Africa,  and  has  exercised  a  bene- 
ficial effect  on  the  native  morals. 

Divisions. — 1.  True  Negroes.  Tribes  of  the  true  Negro 
type  are  rarely  found  in  Africa  outside  of  the  area  bounded 
on  the  N.  by'  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  on  the  S.  by  the 
equator,  and  lying  between  the  head-waters  of  the  Nile  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Within  this  territory  we  have  in  the 
Central  Sudan  the  important  Negro  monarchies  of  Bornu, 
Bagirmi,  and  Wadai,  the  two  former  located  in  tlie  fruitful 
depression  which  surrounds  Lake  Tchad.  Farther  to  the 
W.,  in  the  basin  of  the  Niger,  are  numerous  kingdoms  and 
some  cities  of  magnitude,  as  Sansandig,  with  30.000  inhabit- 
ants, and  the  better  known  Tirabuctoo,  with  about  20.000. 
In  Senegambia  are  the  JIandingoes  and  Wolofs,  the  latter 
especially  presenting  a  very  pure  instance  of  the  Negro 
type.  On  and  near  the  coast  of  Guinea  are  the  petty  king- 
doms of  Ashantee.  Dahomey,  and  Panti,  which  were  long 
the  purveyors  of  the  slave-trade  to  America.  2.  The  Ne- 
groids. Most  of  the  African  continent  S.  of  the  equator 
and  its  eastern  shores  were  and  are  yet  largely  peopled  by 
tribes  of  dark  hue,  but  lacking  some  of  the  most  prominent 
traits  of  the  true  Negro.  In  color  they  are  a  deep  brown, 
the  hair  is  crisp  but  not  woolly,  the  nose  is  straight  rather 
than  flat,  the  features  assimilate  closer  to  the  European  type, 
and  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  Negro  is  absent,  or  but  slightly 
noticeable.  In  these  Negroids  we  recognize  the  products  of 
an  intermixture  of  blood  between  true  Negroes  and  mem- 
bers of  the  Semitic  and  Ilamitie  stocks,  an  intermixture 
■which  has  been  going  on  for  10,000  years  or  more.  In  the 
North  it  has  formed  The  Nubian  group,  in  the  South  the  Ban- 
tus.  The  former  embraces  the  Nubas  proper,  the  Nyam 
Nyams,  the  Monbuttus,  and  many  tribes  of  less  note.  Their 
occupations  are  pastoral  and  agricultural,  but  as  a  rule  they 
are  in  the  condition  of  savagery,  and  some  of  them  are  no- 
torious cannibals.  The  Bantu  group  occupies  the  whole  of 
Africa  S.  of  the  equator,  except  the  territory  of  tlic  Bush- 
men and  Hottentots.  It  includes  the  Suahelis  and  Kaffirs 
on  the  east  coast,  the  Sakalavas  of  Madagascar,  the  Zulus, 
the  Bechuanas,  and  the  numerous  tribes  of  the  Congo  basin 
and  east  coast.  They  are  generally  pastoral  and  agricul- 
tural, and  slightly  higher  in  the  scale  of  development  than 
the  Sudanese  Negroes.  3.  Tlie  Negrillos.  These  are  the 
African  pygmies,  a  curious  little  people,  averaging  in  the 
adult  males  about  4+  feet  high.  Their  color  is  brown,  the 
face  prognathic,  chin  retreating,  lips  protruding,  ears  large, 
nose  flat,  hair  woolly  and  well  distributed  over  the  body, 
which  exhales  a  strong  and  olTensive  odor.  They  liave  no 
settled  abodes,  do  not  cultivate  the  soil  nor  domesticate  ani- 
mals, and  depend  on  hunting  and  fishing  for  a  livelihood. 
They  are  unerring  marksmen,  and  use  poisoned  arrows. 
By  many  writers  the  Bushmen  and  Hottentots  of  South 
Africa  are  believed  to  be  a  branch  of  these  Negrillos. 

Negroes  in  America. — The  deportation  of  Negroes  from 
Africa  to  become  slaves  in  America  began  early  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  was  continued  to  such  an  extent  and  for 
so  long  a  time  that  it  is  estimated  that  at  present  there  are 
on  the  American  continent  over  20,000,000  persons  of  Ne- 
gro ancestry,  about  one-third  the  number  being  within 
the  area  of  the  U.  S.  The  slaves  were  chiefly  derived  from 
three  sources — the  coast  tribes  about  the  GuU  of  Guinea,  cap- 
tives obtained  by  these  from  the  Jlandingoes  and  other  na- 
tions of  t  lie  interior,  and  from  the  Bantu  tribes  of  the  Congo 
basin  and  S.  of  it.  The  languages  of  these  mixed  masses 
were  soon  lost,  and  English,  Spanish,  or  Portuguese  adopted 
by  them.  In  spite  of  the  rigors  to  which  they  were  often 
subjected,  the  rate  of  tlieir  increase  was  high  and  in  some 
instances  remarkable,  as  in  the  slave  population  of  the  U.  S. 
during  the  twenty  years  before  the  civil  war.  when  it  far  sur- 
passed tliat  of  flic  whites.  Where  opportunities  of  education 
have  been  afforded  them  they  have  often  shown  considerable 
capacity  for  learning,  and  in  some  instances  Negroes  of  pure 
blood  have  obtained  creditat)le  positions  in  the  learned  pro- 
fessions. Naturally,  there  has  been  in  all  parts  a  frequent 
intermixture  of  blood,  almost  invariably  between  white  men 
and  Negro  women.  This  has  led  to  crossings,  which  liave 
been  legally  defined  into  as  numy  as  sixteen  degrees — mulat- 
toes,  quadroons,  octoroons,  et<'.  The  higher  tlie  percentage 
of  while  biood  the  more  intelligent  as  a  rule  is  tlie  individ- 


ual ;  but  often  this  intelligence  is  accompanied  by  perversity 
and  indolence,  and  a  feeble  physical  constitution.  Crossings 
with  the  American  Indian  have  also  been  frequent,  especial- 
ly in  Spanish  countries.  These  are  said  to  develop  a  phys- 
ically powerful  variety,  comljining  the  best  qualities  of  both 
the  parent  races.     In  Brazil  they  are  known  as  Cafusos. 

D.  G.  Bkinton. 
NegTopont :  See  Ecbcea. 

Negro,  Rio :  See  Rio  Negro. 

Ncgros  (in  Span,  Is!a  de  Xegros.  or  Negro  island) :  one 
of  the  larger  of  the  Philippine  islands ;  near  the  center  of  the 
group,  in  lat.  10°  N.,  Ion.  123'  E, ;  somewhat  rectangular  in 
form,  140  miles  long  by  40  broad  ;  area,  4,700  sq.  miles.  It 
has  two  or  three  active  volcanoes  and  many  extinct  ones. 
The  streams  are  little  else  than  mountain  torrents  ;  the  in- 
terior is  heavily  wooded.  It  was  discovered  by  Goyti  in 
1.565,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Negro  island  because  of  the 
number  of  negritos  seen  by  him.  but  in  1848  Arenas  found 
only  3,475.  The  most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Visaya  Ma- 
lavs,  now  generally  professing  Christianity.  Pop.  (1887) 
242,433.  M.  W.  H. 

Negriizzi,  na-groot'se1>,  Constantin  :  poet ;  b.  in  Jassy, 
Rouiiiaiiia,  about  1809 :  was  taken  to  Bessarabia  by  his  father 
in  1821  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Greek  revolt  under  Ypsilanti, 
and  became  acquainted  with  the  poet  Pushkin,  His  writ- 
ings include  translations  into  Roumanian  from  Pushkin  and 
Victor  Hugo,  an  historical  poem,  Aprode  Purice.  and  lyric 
poems  published  under  the  title  Sins  of  Youth.  His  works 
were  published  in  1873.     D.  Aug.  25,  1868.  E.  S.  S. 

Negruzzi,  Iacob  :  poet ;  son  of  Constantin  Negruzzi ;  b. 
at  Jassy,  Jan.  11,1843;  was  in  Berlin  1852-63,  afterward 
becoming  professor  at  Jassy,  and  in  1880  at  Bucharest.  In 
1867  he  established  the  useful  literary  periodical  Convorhiri 
liter-are,  of  which  he  lias  since  been  tlie  editor,  and  in  which 
his  verses  were  first  printed.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Rou- 
manian Academy.  He  has  published  Poesit  (1872) ;  the  idyl 
Jliron  $i  Florica  ;  the  novel  Jlihaiu  Vtreanu  :  Copii  dupa 
natnra  (Copies  from  Nature) ;  comedies,  satirical  verse, 
translations  from  Schiller,  etc.  E.  S.  Sheldon. 

Nelieini'ah  [from  Heb.  Nehemyah,  liter,,  whom  Jehovah 
comforts] :  the  latest  of  the  Jewish  leaders  in  the  return 
from  the  Babylonian  exile,  Nehemiah's  first  administra- 
tion seems  to  have  extended  from  445  to  433  b.  c,  and  his 
second  began  after  an  unknown  but  not  very  long  interval 
(Neh,  xiii,  6-7).  ProbaVjly  he  was  a  very  young  man  in  B.  c. 
445,  and  probably  in  his  second  administration  at  Jeru- 
salem he  lived  to  be  a  very  old  man.  Josephus  says:  "He 
came  to  a  great  age,  and  then  died"  (Ant.  xi,  vi.  8).  Ac- 
cording to  Neh.  xii.  26,  23,  cf.  2  Mac,  i,  23,  his  "  days  "  ex- 
tended "  to  the  days  of  Johanan  the  son  of  Eliashib,"  who 
became  high  priest  between  380  and  370  B.  c,  or  earlier. 

The  works  attributed  to  Nehemiah  are  the  fortifying 
and  peopling  of  Jerusalem,  the  suppressing  of  extortion, 
and  the  carrying  into  permanent  effect  of  the  reforms  that 
had  been  previously  attempted  by  Ezra.  These  reforms 
mainly  consisted  in  the  enforcement  of  the  laws  of  Mo.ses, 
the  establishment  of  the  temple-worship  on  a  creditable 
liasis,  and  the  breaking  up  of  intermarriages  between  the 
Jews  and  people  of  other  races.  Later  traditions  assign 
to  him  two  other  important  works,  the  collection  of  a  li- 
brary (2  Mac.  ii.  13).  and  the  completion  of  the  books  of 
Chronicles,  and  thus  of  the  Old  Testament  (Baba  Batra 
fol.  14,  a;  cf.  2  Mac.  ii,  9-13,  where  1  Chronicles  is  cited, 
apparently,  under  the  title  The  Memoirs  according  to  Nehe- 
miah). Willis  J.  Beecher. 

Nehemiah,  The  Book  of :  one  of  the  canonical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament.  It  has  a  title,  and  by  its  very  form 
must  always  have  been  a  separate  piece  of  composition ;  but 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  are  counted  as  one  book  in  the  scheme 
which  groups  the  Old  Testament  writings  into  twenty-two 
books.  It  is  now  commoiily  said  that  the  book  was  written 
bv  some  later  scribe,  in  ]iart  from  memoirs  made  by  Nehe- 
miah, In  proof  of  this,  it  is  alleged,  first,  that  the  book 
mentions  events  later  than  Nehemiah's  time ;  and,  second, 
that  it  is  in  a  confused  state,  the  different  parts  speaking  of 
Nehemiah  sometimes  in  the  first  person  singular,  sometimes 
in  tlie  first  person  plural,  and  sometimes  in  the  third  per- 
.son :  but  no  one  can  prove  that  the  book  mentions  any 
event  later  than  the  early  part  of  the  pontificate  of  Johanan 
(xii,  23).  when  Nehemiah  was  still  living(xii,  26, 2  Mac.  i.  23) ; 
for  Jaddua  (xii,  22,  10)  may  have  been  registered  in  his 
father's  lifetime,  and  the  Darius  of  the  same  verse,  "upon" 


N'EnKlt 


NEKRASOV 


109 


whose  reipn  the  rcRistration  was  boffun,  is  most  naturally 
Uariiis  Xnthus  ;  ami,  further,  the  boiik,  supposing  it  to  have 
beon  written  by  Neheiiiiah  in  his  old  age,  is  capable  of  an 
analysis  in  which  the  alleged  confusion  of  the  pronouns 
vanishes. 

On  this  hypothesis,  it  consists  of  two  parts:  first,  an  ac- 
count of  the  lirst  months  of  Nelieniiah's  first  adniinistratiuti, 
with  sujipleineiitary  notes  (i.  1-xii.  '26) ;  and.  second,  an  ac- 
count of  certain  events  in  Xeheniiah's  second  administra- 
tion (xii.27-xiii.).  The  second  of  these  two  parts  is  simply  a 
narriilive  by  Xehemiah,  in  which  he  speaks  of  himself  in  the 
lirst  person  singular,  excejit  in  xii.  47,  where  he  uses,  olli- 
cially,  the  third  j)erson.  The  main  portion  of  the  first  of 
the  two  parts  is  likewise  a  narrative  writti^n  by  Neliemiah 
in  the  first  [iei-s<jn  (i.  1-vii.  5).  In  vii.  (i-viii.  1  ii  incorpo- 
rates nuitter  quoted  from  Ezra  ii.  1-iii.  1.  Then  follows  an 
official  account  of  the  great  convocation  (viii.-x.).  The  fii-st 
sentence  of  the  official  account  blends  curiously  with  the 
closing  sentence  of  the  passage  quoted  from  Ezra.  Then 
Nehemiah  takes  U[i  his  narrative  (xi.  1-2),  at  the  point  where 
he  left  it  in  vii.  -1.  but  continues  it  for  these  two  vei-ses  only. 
lie  then  finishes  what  he  has  to  say  touching  his  first 
administration  by  appending  to  it  the  long  genealogical 
note — (xi.  .'t-xii.  •iti),  wiiich  is  in  part  a  iluplicate  of  1  C'hron. 
ix.  3,  neq.,  and  covei-s  a  perioil  of  six  generations,  from  the 
grandfather  to  the  great-grandson  of  Eliasliib,  who  was 
nigh  priest  when  Xeheniiah's  fii^st  administration  closed. 
\Vilh  the  facts  thus  accounted  for,  we  must  hold  Xehemiah 
to  be  the  author  of  the  book,  and  not  merely  of  some  of  its 
materials.  Willis  ,J.  Bekciikr. 

Noher,  Bkrnm.vrd.  von:  painter;  b.  at  liiberach,  Wt'ir- 
tcmberg,  (lermany.  .Ian.  l(i,  ISOti ;  received  his  lirst  instruc- 
tion in  painting  from  his  father,  ami  finished  his  studies  in 
the  academies  of  Stuttgart  and  Munich  and  in  Rome.  The 
first  great  work  he  executed  after  his  return  to  Munii'h  was 
the  immense  fresco  on  the  Isarthor  representing  the  en- 
trance of  the  Emperor  Louis  the  Bavarian  into  Munich. 
In  1M41  ho  went  to  Weinmr.  where  he  decorated  the  Goethe 
and  Sihiller  galleries  with  frescoes.  In  1844  he  was  made 
director  of  the  art-st-hool  in  Leipzig,  and  in  1854  of  that  in 
.Stuttgart.  Mtsides  historical  subjects,  he  painted  several  of 
a  religious  nature.     I),  at  .Stuttgart,  .Ian.  17,  188ti. 

Xcidliart  von  Reucntlinl:  a  Bavarian  knight  and  poet 
who  lived  during  the  lii-st  half  of  the  thirleeiilh  century, 
lie  took  part  in  the  crusjide  of  Duke  Leopold  of  Austria 
(1217-l!l),  previous  to  which  he  had  already  gained  the  repu- 
tation of  a  poet,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Wolfram  von 
Escheiibach.  Kor  unknown  reasons  he  incurred  the  en- 
mity of  Duke  Ludwigof  Bavaria  and  lost  his  fief  in  Bavaria. 
He  turned  to  .Austria  and  was  given  a  house  al  Melk  l)y 
l>uke  Fn-deric.  Xo  further  historical  traces  of  hira  are 
found  after  the  year  12:!ti.  Although  Xeidhart  is  cla.s.seil 
with  the  minnesingers  in  meilia-val  mnnuscripts,  he  can  not 
pro|>erly  lie  placed  among  thost>  poets.  His  poems  may  be 
divideil  into  Sninnifrlieder  (Heigen),  and  M'iiiterlieder 
(Tanztifdrr).  While  the  former  were  presumably  composed 
for  the  amusenu'iit  of  the  villagers,  the  latter,  which  arc 
mostly  satirical  in  contents  and  ridicule  the  bragging  peas- 
ants, were  chielly  ilelivered  bi'fure  the  court  circles,  who 
seem  to  have  enjoyed  their  bonrish  caricatures.  In  many 
of  Neidhart's  pooins.  esnecially  in  the  SommerUeder.  we  no- 
tice traces  of  old  popular  songs,  which  he  with  great  skill 
and  excellent  elTect  adapted  to  his  artistic  purposes.  He 
found  a  great  many  imitators,  but  must  of  their  imitations 
are  coarse,  and  lack  Xeidliaii's  gracefulness  and  humor. 
The  fact  that  Xeidluirt  during  the  following  two  ceiiluries 
became  a  legendary  hero  in  t lie  pupidar  songs  is  sufficient 
proof  of  the  imjiression  he  made  <iii  his  conteinporarli's.  .Sec 
yeiil/inrl  von  /{riienlliiil,  edited  by  .M.  llaiipt,  ls,")S.  and  by 
l-'r.  Keinz,  18H!);  |{.  .M.  Meyer,  i'linmologie  der  (ledirbte 
Xeidliitrln  von  /{nienllin/  (1883):  Bielschowsky,  ^I'f.if/i.  (/<T 
d.  Dort'/xiexie  iin  l.t.  Jiilirh.  (\S\)\);  Die  Xeidhnrt-Legfnde, 
Xeitsehrifl  f.  deiitachf.i  Allerthum  (III,  (J4).         .1.  (Jokbkl. 

Nt'ilglH-r'ry  (iir  Nilgirli  Hills:  an  almost  isolateil  group 
of  m.iUiituins  ill  Soiilhirii  lliiidiistaii.  between  hit.  11  10 
and  1 1  ;is  X.,  and  between  Ion.  70  ;!0  and  77  1(1 .  and  cuv- 
ering  an  area  of  700  sq.  miles.  They  consist  of  granite,  cov- 
ered with  a  laver  of  rich  blai'k  soil  10  feet  ileep,  and  rise  in 
the  highest  peak,  Dodabi'lta,  to  the  height  of  8.7(!0  feet. 
Their  sides  are  covered  with  impeiietmble  jungles  of  tro[>- 
ienl  forests,  hot,  unhealtlifiil.  ami  swarniing  with  wild  ani- 
mals; but  at  an  elevation  nf  abmit  .'i.OOO  feet  llii'y  form  a 
talilo-land  remarkable  fur  its  healthful  climate,  ami  on  this 


account  much  freq\icntc<l  bv  Europeans.  The  native  popu- 
lation comprises,  besides  tlic  Badahai-s  and  other  llindu 
tribes,  the  Todas,  who  differ  much  from  all  other  races  in 
India,  being  tall  and  well  formed,  with  strongly  marked 
Semitic  features. 

Neill.  EnwAKD  I>iKFiELn,  D.  D.  :  author;  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia, I'a.,  Aug.  U,  182;i ;  educated  at  the  University  of 
I'eniisylvania,  Amherst  t'ollege,  and  Andover  Theological 
Seminary;  was  a  I'resbyterian  minister  in  St.  Paul,  Minn., 
!S4!I-G0  :  chancellor  of  the  L'nivei-sity  of  Minnesota  ISoS-Gl ; 
cha|ilain  of  the  First  Minnesota  Regiment  and  hospital  chap- 
lain 18(il-(i4;  private  secretary  to  President  Johnson  1865- 
G!»;  consul  to  Dublin  186!»-70:  president  of  Macalester  Col- 
lege, Minneapolis,  1873-84  ;  Professor  of  History  and  Litcro- 
lure  there  from  1884 ;  and  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal 
church  of  St.  Paul  1884-8;t.  1).  (here  Sept.  26,  I8!»;!.  Author 
of  Aniialx  of  l/if  Jliiiiiesuld  llislorivol  Society  (1856);  J/in- 
lory  of  Minnmoia  (Philadelphia.  1858);  Terra  Mariie,  or 
Threads  of  Maryland  Colonial  Jlixtory  {IKtU):  The  Fair- 
faxes of  England  and  America  (1868);  History  of  the  Vir- 
ginia I'omjxiny  (Albany,  1801));  English  Colonization  of 
America  during  the  Seventeenth  Century  (London,  1871); 
Founders  of  Maryland  (Albany.  1876) ;  Virginia  Velusla 
(1885) ;  Virginia  Carolorum  (1886) ;  and  Concise  History  of 
Minnesota  (Minneapolis,  1887). 

Xeillsville :  city ;  capital  of  Clark  co..  Wis.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  U'iscoiisin.  ref.  4-C);  on  the  Bhu^k 
river,  and  tlie  Chi..  St.  P.,  Minn,  and  Omaha  Railway;  60 
miles  X.  E.  of  La  Crosse.  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  dairying, 
and  stock-raising  region,  with  considerable  tracts  of  heavy 
timber;  <ontains  6  churches,  high.  ward,  and  Roman  Catho- 
lic and  Lutheran  parochial  schools, 2  .State  banks  with  com- 
liined  capital  of  .$50,000.  and  3  weekly  newspapers;  and  has 
manufactories  of  furnituri'.  slaves,  spokes,  wagons,  fiour, 
and  lumber.     Pop.  (1880)  1,050;  (1890)  1.936;  (1895)  2,200. 

Editor  of  "  Times." 

Noilson.  Lilian  Adelaidk:  actress:  b.  near  Saragossa, 
Spain.  Mar.  '■\.  1850;  went  to  England  when  a  child  and  ap- 
peared in  Margate  as  Julia  in  The  Hunchback  in  1865.  In 
.Inly  of  the  same  year  she  played  the  part  of  Juliet  at  the 
Royalty  theater.  London,  and  from  this  time  ajipeared  in 
various  parts  with  considerable  success,  but  did  not  arouse 
much  enthusiasm  till  1870-71. when  Uvr  Amy  liobsart  brought 
her  into  high  favor  with  the  public.  She  was  equally  suc- 
cessful in  the  U.  S.,  where  she  made  a  tour  in  1872,  appear- 
ing at  Booth's  theater  in  New  York  as  Juliet  and  elsewhere 
as  Beatrice.  Lady  Teazle,  and  her  other  favorite  characters. 
.She  was  again  in  the  U.  S.  in  1877  and  in  1879,  and  at  each 
time  wa-s  received  with  enthusiasm.  In  1872  she  married  a 
Mr.  Philip  Lee,  from  whom  she  was  divorced  in  1877.  D. 
in  Paris,  Aug.  15,  1880. 

Xeiva,  niiee-viiii :  a  city  of  the  department  of  Tolima, 
Colombia;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Magdalena,  above 
the  junction  of  the  Xeiva.  This  point  is  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion for  light  craft,  and  is  sometimes  attained  by  steamers 
during  exi-eptional  fiomls;  much  of  the  commerce  of  Popa- 
van  and  the  soulhern  departments  passes  through  it.  The 
district  is  noted  for  its  cacao,  and  has  an  active  trade  in  cat- 
tle. Formerly  large  quantities  of  cinchona  were  obtained  in 
the  neighboring  mountains,  but  most  of  the  trees  have  been 
ilestroyed.  Xeiva  was  founded  in  1550  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  cif  that  mime;  after  it  had  been  destroyed  by  Indians 
it  was  rebuilt  on  its  present  site.  It  was  the  capital  of  Toli- 
ma until  about  1SS.S.  Pop.  9,000:  with  the  dislri.t  (1893) 
l.'j.OtK).  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Npkni'sov,  XikolaI  Alkkseevkh  :  poet;  sim  of  an  army 
oniccr;  b.  in  a  village  in  Podulia,  Russia,  Xov.  22,  1822. 
At  sixteen  he  was  sent  to  St.  Petei-sburg  to  enter  a  military 
academy,  but  gave  it  up  for  the  nnivei-sity  and  a  literary 
career.  In  18-10  appeared  a  volume  of  verses.  Five  yeara 
later  he  wrote  the  first  of  his  celebrated  poems.  In  1847, 
with  A.  P.  Pamiev,  he  founded  the  SniTemennik  (Contem- 
porary), which  he  conducted  until  it  was  suppressed  in  1866. 
To  it  almost  all  the  great  Russian  wrilei>i  of  the  day  con- 
tributed. In  186S  he  became  editor  of  the  (//ir/if.iAT;in.vl<l 
X<7>mAi' (National  Annals),  which  continued  the  success  of 
liis  former  journal.  D.  Dec.  27.  1877.  Xekriisov  belongs  to 
the  realistic  schix"!.  Whether  he  describes  the  daily  round 
of  the  peasant's  existence  or  the  dark  sides  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, or  whether  he  reveals  his  own  experiences  and  senti- 
ments, his  lone  is  one  of  melancholy.  Frequently,  as  in  -1 
Moral  Man  (English  trans.,  Cornhill  Magazine.  Mar..  186:1), 


no 


NfiLATON 


NELSON 


he  lashes  the  upper  classes  with  savage  irony.  The  form  of 
his  verse  is  at  times  far  from  perfect,  but  the  substance  often 
glows  witli  intense  feeling  and  wonderful  descriptive  power. 
His  two  longest  poems  are  J/oroz  Krasni/l  JS'os  (Red-nosed 
Frost;  anon,  trans.,  2d  ed.,  Boston.  187"?),  perhaps  his  mas- 
terpiece, and  Komu  khorosho  zliit  v  Russi'i  (To  Whom  is 
Life  good  in  Russia  i).  which  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  There 
have  been  several  editions  of  his  works  (otli  complete  ed.  St. 
Petersburg,  1890).  A  few  of  his  pieces  have  been  rendered 
into  English,  with  scant  success  in  Russian  Lyrics  in  Eng- 
lish Verse,  by  C.  T.  Wilson  (1887) ;  rather  better  in  Rhymes 
from  the  Russian,  by  J.  Pollen  (1891).  See  the  chapter  on 
Nekrasov  in  Studies  in  Russian  Literature.  C.  E.  Turner 
(1883);  also  an  article  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  for 
Dec.  1.5,  1858,  by  JI.  H.  Delaveau,  and  one  in  Regards  His- 
toriques  et  Litieraires,  by  F.  M.  de  Vogiie,  originally  pre- 
fixed to  the  French  translations  of  Nekrasov's  works. 

A.  C.  COOLIDGE. 

Nfilatoii,  nd'la"a'ton',  Auguste  :  surgeon ;  b.  in  Paris, 
France,  June  18, 1807 ;  graduated  M.  D.  from  the  Paris  school 
in  1836;  became  Associate  Professor  of  Clinical  Surgery  in 
1839  and  professor  in  1851 ;  became  a  fellow  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Jleilicine  in  1863,  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1867, 
and  a  Senator  of  the  empire  in  1868  ;  invented  a  new  method 
of  extracting  calculi  from  the  bladder,  which  he, applied 
with  great  success.  D.  Sept.  21,  1873.  He  wrote  Elements 
de  Pathologie  chirurgicale  (5  vols.,  1844-60;  2d  ed.,  6  vols., 
1868-So).  Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Nellgh  :  city ;  capital  of  Antelope  eo.,  Neb.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Nebraska,  ref.  9-F);  on  the  Elkhorn  river,  and 
the  Fremont,  Elkhorn  and  Mo.  Valley  Railroad;  33  miles 
W.  by  N.  of  Norfolk,  160  miles  N.  W.  of  Omaha.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Gates  College  (Clongregational,  chartered  in  1881), 
and  contains  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  150,000,  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  $30,000,  and  four  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  326;  (1890)  1,209. 

Nellore,  nel-lor' :  town  of  British  India,  Presidency  of 
Madras ;  capital  of  the  district  of  Nellore ;  on  the  Panar, 
near  its  mouth,  in  lat.  14°  27'  N.  (see  map  of  Southern  India, 
ref.  5-E).  It  is  ill  built,  but  is  clean,  airy,  and  healthful. 
Pop.  about  30,000. 

Nelson:  province  of  New  Zealand.  Area,  10,269  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (1891)  34,770.  The  capital.  Nelson,  on  the  northern 
extremity  of  Middle  island,  at  the  head  of  Blind  Bay,  has  a 
good  harbor.  It  is  well  built,  and  its  surroundings  are  very 
fertile  and  beautiful ;  pop.  (189C)  6,659. 

Nelson,  David,  M.  D.  :  clergyman ;  b.  near  Jonesboro, 
Tenn.,  Sept.  24,  1793;  graduated  from  Washington  College, 
Virginia ;  studied  medicine  in  Danville,  Ky.,  and  in  Phila- 
delphia; was  surgeon  with  a  Kentucky  regiment  in  the  war 
of  1812 ;  and  after  the  war  was  a  physician  in  Jonesboro. 
In  early  life  he  pi-ofessed  Christianity,  but  relapsed  into  in- 
fidelity; becoming  convinced  anew  of  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity, he  left  a  lucrative  practice  to  enter  the  Presbyterian 
ministry,  and  was  licensed  in  1825.  For  nearly  three  years 
he  preached  in  Tennessee,  and  was  connected  with  The 
Calvinistic  Magazine,  published  at  Rogersville.  In  1828  he 
succeeded  his  brother  in  the  Presbyterian  church  at  Dan- 
ville, Ky. ;  in  1830  removed  to  ;\lissouri,  established  Marion 
College,  12  miles  from  Palmyra,  and  was  made  president ;  in 
1836,  being  forced  by  his  zeal  for  emancipation  to  fiee  from 
Missouri,  he  removed  to  the  vicinity  of  Quincy,  111.,  and 
established  there  an  institution  for  the  education  of  voung 
men.  D.  in  Oakland,  111.,  Oct.  17,  1844.  In  addition  to 
articles  for  tlie  press  and  the  hymn  My  Days  are  gliding 
swiftly  by.  he  published  the  widely  used  and  formerly  much 
admired  Cause  and  Cure  of  Infidelity  (New  York',  1836; 
republished  in  London  and  elsewhere).  C.  K.  Hovt. 

Nelson,  Henry  Addison,  D.  D.  :  professor  and  editor;  b. 
at  Amherst,  Mass.,  Oct.  31,  1820;  was  educated  at  Hamilton 
College  (1840)  and  Auburn  Theological  Seminary  (1846); 
was  a  teacher  in  Eaton  and  in  Homer,  N.  Y.,  1840-4'3 ;  pastor 
of  the  First  Presbyterian  church  of  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1846-56 ; 
of  the  First  Pre"sbyterian  church  of  St.  Louis  1856-68; 
Professor  of  Systematic  an<l  Pastoral  Theology  in  Lane 
Seminary  1868-74;  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  church 
of  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  1874-85 ;  and  since  1886  he  has  Iwen  the 
.editor  of  The,  Church  at  Home  and  Abroad.  In  1867  he 
was  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  at  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
He  has  published  See i ng  Jesus  (XHiS^)) ;  Sin  and  Salvation 
(ISSl) :  and  Home  Wh  ispers  (Philadelphia),  besides  contribut- 
ing to  religious  papers.  C.  K.  Hoyt. 


Nelson,  Horatio:  Viscount  Nelson  of  the  Nile,  Duke  of 
Bronte ;  b.  at  Burnham  Thorpe,  Norfolk,  Englan<l,  Sept. 
29,  1758;  the  fourth  son  of  Rev.  Edmund  Nelson,  rector 
of  the  parish.  He  attended  school  at  Norwich  and  at 
North  Walsham  ;  obtained  at  the  age  of  twelve  an  appoint- 
ment as  midshipman  ;  accompanied  Capt.  Phipiis's  Arctic 
expedition  1773;  served  in  the  East  Indies  1775-76;  be- 
came lieutenant  Apr.  8,  1777,  and  post-captain  in  1779  ;  was 
given  command  of  a  man-of-war,  with  which  he  proceeded 
to  San  Juan  del  Norte,  Nicaragua ;  took  Fort  San  Carlos 
in  the  San  Juan  river;  cruised  in  the  North  Sea  1781-82; 
served  again  in  the  West  Indies  1782-87,  where  he  gained 
much  ill-will  by  his  vigorous  attempts  to  prevent  smuggling 
between  the  U.  S.  and  the  British  colonies.  On  the  recom- 
mendation of  Lord  Hood  he  was  made  captain  of  the 
Agamemnon  in  1793,  and  was  dispatched  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  commanded  a  small  squadron  on  the  coast  of  Cor- 
sica which  co-operated  with  Paoli,  and  took  Bastia  May, 
1794 ;  aided  in  the  siege  of  Calvi,  where  he  lost  an  eye  ;  par- 
ticijiated  in  Admiral  Hotham's  victory  over  the  French 
sijuadron  JMar.  15, 1795 ;  took  the  island  of  Elba ;  blockaded 
Leghorn  Aiir.  to  Oct.,  1795;  was  made  commodore  1796; 
distinguished  himself  under  Admiral  Jervis  in  the  naval 
victory  over  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  Feb.  14, 
1797;  was  appointed  rear-admiral  Apr.,  1797;  took  part  in 
the  blockade  and  attempted  bombardment  of  Cadiz  May  to 
July,  and  in  the  unsuccessful  attack  upon  Santa  Cruz, 
Tenerifle,  July,  1797,  where  he  lost  his  right  arm  ;  was  made 
a  Knight  of  the  Bath  and  received  a  pension  of  £1,000.  In 
May,  1798,  he  took  command  of  the  Mediterranean  squadron 
off  Toulon ;  followed  Napoleon's  expedition  to  Egypt  and 
destroyed  the  French  fleet  at  the  Bay  of  Aboukir  (generally 
called  the  battle  of  the  Nile),  being  wounded  in  the  engage- 
ment, Aug.  1,  1798,  for  which  victory  he  was  made  Baron 
Nelson  of  the  Nile,  and  received  an  additional  pension  of 
£2,000 ;  proceeded  to  Naples  in  September ;  occupied  Leg- 
horn in  November ;  aided  the  Government  of  Naples  in  re- 
sisting the  French  invasion  and  in  recovering  the  capital 
after  it  had  been  taken,  but  stained  his  reputation  by  vio-' 
lating  the  capitulation  concluded  June  23,  1799,  and  hang- 
ing Caraccioli,  the  insurgent  admiral ;  was  made  Duke  of 
Bronte  (Sicily)  by  the  King  of  Naples;  aided  in  the  siege  of 
Malta;  returned  to  England  in  company  with  Sir  William 
and  Lady  Hamilton  Nov.,  1800 ;  was  received  with  un- 
bounded popular  entliusiasm.  He  was  made  vice-admiral 
Jan.,  1801  ;  was  second  in  command  of  the  Baltic  fleet  in 
the  naval  battle  of  Co[ienhageii,  Apr.  2,  for  which  he  was 
made  viscount;  took  command  of  the  squadron  for  the  de- 
fense of  England  against  the  contemplated  French  invasion 
in  July  ;  attacked  the  French  flotilla  off  Boulogne,  Aug.  15 ; 
resided  with  the  Hamiltons  at  their  seat  in  Jlerton,  Surrey, 
during  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  1802-03;  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  Mediterranean  fleet  on  the  resumiition  of 
hostilities  May,  1803 ;  blockaded  Toulon  ;  unsuccessfully 
pursued  a  French  fleet  to  the  West  Indies  May,  1805 ;  re- 
turned to  England  in  July ;  again  took  command  of  the 
Mediterranean  fleet,  and  inflicted  a  total  defeat  on  the  com- 
bined French  and  Spanish  squadrons  off  Cape  Trafalgar, 
losing  his  life  in  the  engagement,  Oct.  21,  1805.  Lord  Nel- 
son was  buried  with  much  pomp  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
Jan.  8,  1806.  He  had  learned  his  tactics  from  Napoleon, 
'•  plunging  headlong  into  the  enemy's  fleet,  and  doubling 
upon  a  part  of  their  line,  in  the  same  manner  as  Napoleon 
practiced  in  battles  on  land."  See  Life,  by  Southey  (2  vols., 
1828);  his  Letters  and  Dispatches,  edited  by  Sir  N.  Harris 
Nicolas  (7  vols.,  1844-46) ;  E.  de  Porgues,  Jlistoire  de  Nelson 
(1860) :  Lady  Hamilton  and  Lord  Nelson  (2  vols.,  1888) ; 
and  The  Queen  of  Naples  and  Lord  Nelson  (2  vols.,  1889), 
by  J.  C.  Jeaft'reson. 

Nelson,  Samuel,  LL.  D.  :  jurist:  b.  at  Hebron,  N.  Y., 
Nov.  10,  1792  ;  graduated  at  Middlebury  College  in  1813 ; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1817;  became  a  successful  law- 
yer of  Cortland  co.,  N.  Y. ;  .iudge  of  the  circuit  court  1823- 
31.  of  the  State  Supreme  Court  1831-37,  its  chief  justice 
1837-45 ;  in  1845  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  U.  S.  Su- 
preme Court,  from  which  he  retired  in  1872  ;  was  a  member 
of  the  joint  high  commission  to  settle  the  Alabama  claims 
1871.     D.  at  Cooperstown,  N.  Y.,  Dee.  13,  1873. 

Nelson,  Thomas  :  Governor  of  Virginia ;  b.  in  York  co., 
Va.,  Dec.  26.  1738;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  before  his  return,  when  just  twenty-one,  was 
chosen  to  the  house  of  Inirgesses  of  Virginia  ;  was  a  member 
of  the  Williamsburg  convention  1774,  of  the  convention  of 


NELSON   KIVEK 


NEMATOCiNATIlI 


111 


1775,  (ind  of  llie  Virginia  constitutional  convention  of  1776; 
was  in  ('uiiifriss  177(i>-77  ami  177!>;  signed  tlie  Doclnriition 
of  linlc'pfnileiic'f ;  served  as  coloiiid,  mid  iifterwiird  sis  a 
general  oflieer.  i:i  the  army;  was  HoveriKir  ul'  Virf;inia  in 
ITHl ;  expended  his  {;real  fortune  for  tlie  cause  of  liberty, 
and  at  the  sie'^e  of  Yorktown  directed  the  artillery  to  play 
upon  liis  own  mansion,  the  supposed  headi|uarlers  of  Corn- 
wallis.  lie  died  in  comparative  poverlv  in  Hanover  co., 
Va.,  .Ian.  1.  ITS!). 
Nelson  Kivcr.  Canaila  :  See  Saskatcuewax  River. 
Nelsonvillc  :  See  Cowaxsville,  tjuebec,  Canaila. 
Nclsonvillo:  village;  Athens  co.,  O.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Ohio,  ref.  7-0);  on  the  I'ol.,  Hock.  Valley  and  Tole- 
do Uailway;  14  miles  N.  \V.  of  Athens,  03  miles  S.  K.  of 
Columbus.'  It  is  in  the  great  coal-belt  of  Ohio,  and  is  prin- 
cipally engaged  in  coal-mining  and  shipj)itig.  It  lias  2  pri- 
vate I'lanks  and  H  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (18(^0)  3,0'J5 ; 
(IWHI)  4,.")"is. 

Ncliini'bo  (the  tVyloneso  name) :  a  genus  of  water-lilies 
(I\'ymph(race(e),  containing  only  two  or  three  species.     The 

^'etiimbo  specio- 
sa  (the  Egyptian 
bean,  lotus  of 
Tiliet  and  India) 
furnislies  in  Chi- 
na and  the  East 
iiuuh  food.  Its 
seeds,  roots,  and 
stalks  are  cookeil, 
and  are  very  pal- 
atable, abound- 
ing in  starch. 
This  plant  is 
nearly  or  quite 
extinct  in  Egypt, 
where  it  was  once 
worshiped.  The 
y.  tufea  of  the 
U.  S.  has  pale- 
yellow  flowers 
(those  of  the  ^A'. 
«/jeci'o.s«  generally 
are  rose  colored). 
Its  roots  and 
set'ds(water-chiM- 
quapins)  are  edi- 
ble. It  grows  in 
shallow  waters  of 
the  Western  antl 
Southern  States,  but  is  rare  in  the  Middle  States. 

Revised  by  Cuakles  E.  Bessey. 

Ncniafcriniii :  same  as  Nemathelmixtmes  (</.  v.). 

Npinathelniin'tlios  [from  Gr.  vTjtia,  thread  -I-  fVii-s. 
parasitic  Wfirrii|  :  a  large  group  of  "worms,"  most  of  wliicli 
are  parasitic,  ami  which  from  their  cylindrical  shape  re- 
ceive their  syslenia(i(f  name  as  well  as  the  common  terms  of 
"  roundworms"  and  "threadworms."  They  may  bo  recog- 
nized by  their  cylindriial,  unjointed  bodies.  Externally 
they  are  covereil  bv  a  thick  cuticle,  and  no  traces  of  ap- 
pendages can  be  found.  The  jieculiarities  of  internal 
structure  can  best  be  mentioned  by  treating  the  two  groups 
of  round  Worms  separately. 

Ill  the  lirsl,  the  .VcANTnoCEl'llAU  (spinc-hcaded  worms), 
there  is  no  digestivir  tra<'t,  nourishment  being  absorbed 
through  the  skin.  The  body  ends  anteriorly  with  a  "pro- 
boscis "  covi-red  with  spines,  by  means  of  which  the  parasite 
anchi>rs  itself  to  the  walls  of  the  intestines  of  it-s  host.  The 
sexes  are  separate,  and  the  eggs,  |iassing  out,  re<iuiro  to  be 
eaten  by  some  arthropod  before  beginning  their  di'velop- 
iiieiit.  In  the  bo<lies  of  these  new  hosts  they  partially  de- 
velop, but  not  until  they  are  again  eaten  by  some  fish,  bird, 
or  mammal  do  they  complete  their  history.  The  ordiT  con- 
tains but  a  single  genus,  KrhiiiDrlninrhut,  the  adults  of 
which  occur  only  in  fishes,  birds,  and  maninials.  The  pig 
is  quite  frecpii-ntly  infested  with  these  parasites,  anil  recent 
investigations  have  shown  that  the  iiiterinediate  hosts  in 
this  instance  are  the  larva-  of  ".Inne  bugs"  and  similar 
beetles.  The  eggs  are  passed  with  the  droppings  of  the  pigs 
to  the  ground,  IIh'V  arc  eaten  by  the  larva",  and  these  latter 
are  devoured  by  the  pig  as  he  roots  them  from  the  ground. 

The  lecoiid  order.  Ni:matoiia  or  Nkmatoioea  (neiiialoile 
worni.s),  contains  those  wore  uuinerons  f,>niis  in  which  the 


-■  tuiea. 


alimentary  canal  is  present,  while  the  proboscis  never  oc- 
curs. In  most  the  sexes  arc  separate,  and  freiiueiitly  the 
male  dilTers  in  appearance  (especially  in  size)  from  the  fe- 
male of  the  .same  siiecies.  A  few  forms  occur  either  in 
the  water  or  in  moist  earth,  but  most  are  parasitic,  and 
some  attain  great  importance  (e.  g.  Trichina,  q.  v.),  from 
the  serious  results  which  follow  their  invasion  of  the  animal. 
Space  will  permit  the  mention  of  but  few  forms.  7'y- 
lenchux  injures  wheat  by  boring  into  the  kernel,  while  the 
species  of  Jlrleroiterii  live  in  turnips  and  other  root  crop.s. 
Ant/iiilliila  furnishes  the  "vinegar  eels."  those  small  worms 
wluchoccasionally  occur  in  vinegar  or  stale  paste,  and  which 
are  introduced  with  the  woit.  Most  of  the  species  of 
Filitria  are  injurious  to  various  vertebrates,  one,  Filaria 
meditiensis,  being  the  much-dreaded  Oii.\ea-worm  (q.  v.)  of 
the  tropics.  Doclimius  di/oi/eHd/is,  occurring  in  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  Old  World,  has  recently  appeared  in  Hrazil. 
This  form  lives  in  the  duodenum  of  man,  and,  sucking  the 
blood,  causes  the  disease  known  as  Egypt  ian  chlorosis,  which 
sometimes  results  in  death.  To  the  genus  Axraris  belongs 
the  larger  roundworm,  Asmrin  lunihriroides,  which  reaches 
a  length  of  a  foot  or  more,  being  the  worm  most  often  affect- 
ing children.  Allied  to  this  is  the  much  smaller  Oxyuris 
verminilarin,  or  "  pinworm,"  which  lives  in  the  rectal  re- 
gion of  children,  causing  an  intolerable  itching. 

DifTering  considerably  from  the  ordinary  nematodes  are 
the  hairworms  (Gorili(tcc(t),  which  are  frequently  regarded 
as  horse  hairs  turned  into  worms  by  soaking  in  water.  In 
these  the  body  is  long  and  thread-like,  and  in  the  adult 
either  the  mouth  (Gordiiix)  or  the  vent  (Mermis)  is  lost. 
There  are  yet  many  unsolved  points  in  the  history  of  these 
forms.  Gonlius  lays  its  eggs  in  the  water,  and  from  these 
there  hatches  out  a  short  larva  with  sj>iny  proljoscis  which 
lives  in  the  body  of  aquatic  insects.  When  these  are  eaten 
by  other  insects  the  metamorphosis  takes  place,  and  after 
feeding  for  a  while  on  the  new  host  the  worm  bores  its  way 
out  and  lays  its  eggs.  In  Jlermis  the  history  is  much  the 
same,  except  that  the  eggs  are  laid  in  moist  earth,  and  the 
forms  infested  by  it  are  moths,  crickets,  grasshoppers,  and 
beetles. 

The  principal  naiiers  on  round  worms  are  European  in 
origin.  Among  tlicse  maybe  mentioned  Diesiiig,  .S'(/.v7pHia 
Ilelminthum  (N'ieiina,  IfSoO-ol);  Leuckart,  Die  mennch- 
lichen  Parasiten  (Leipzig,  1876);  Villot,  J/oH(«/rn/(/(i'«  des 
Dragonneuux  (Gordius)  (Paris,  1874).         J.  S.  Ki.nuslev. 

Nomatisti'i<lit>  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  yemnlixtius, 
the  typical  genus;  (jr.  vrma.  vriimTos,  thread  +  'urrioy,  web, 
sail] :  a  family  of  teleocephalous  fishes,  related  to  the  mack- 
erels and  dolphins.  The  family  is  represented  by  a  single 
species,  Nematislius  pecforalix,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  Mexico.  It  is  especially  distinguished  as  the  type 
of  a  family  by  the  composition  of  the  ventral,  as  well  as 
structure  of  the  other  fins. 

Ncnialo'da.  or  Ncni'afodes:  SceXEMATiiELMixTiiES. 

Ncmafiig'nulhi  (Mml.  Lat.;  Gr.  ini/ia.  vTiiua-os,  seam, 
thread  -I-  7>'<{9os,  jaw|  :  the  "  catfishes,"  an  order  of  teleost 
fishes  distinguished  by  many  peculiarities  of  the  skeleton 
and  brain.  The  skull  has  a  nearly  rectilinear  dorsal  out- 
line, there  being  no  anterior  geniculation  ;  the  supra-occip- 
ital is  confluent  with  the  parietals ;  the  plerotic  Ixuie  is 
simple;  no  symplectic  bone  is  differential;  the  intermaxil- 
lary bones  are  attached  to  the  inferior  surface  of  the  eth- 
moid ;  the  supra-maxillaries  are  styliform,  articulated  at 
their  bases,  and  inclosed  in  filamentous  extensions  of  the 
skin,  developed  as  the  su|iiamaxillary  barbels  ;  the  suboper- 
ciiluin  is  wanting;  in  the  branchial  aiiparatus  (according  to 
Cope)  the  third  superior  pharyngeal  bone  is  wanting  or 
small,  and  resting  on  the  fourth,  the  second  directed  back- 
ward ;  one  or  two  pairs  of  basibranchihyals  and  two  pairs  of 
branchihyals  are  developed;  the  branchia' are  pectinated  ; 
in  the  scapular  arch  the  eoracoid  elements  are  soldered  with 
the  proscaimla  (clavicle  of  some),  and  the  iiiesocoracoid  is 
represented  by  a  bridge-like  arch  ;  "  interdaves  "  are  devel- 
opeil ;  the  post-temporal  (supra-scapiila  of  some)  is  co-ossi- 
fied with  llie  skull  ;  no  poslero-temporal  or  supra-clavide  is 
represented  ;  the  four  anterior  vertebra- are  greatly  modified 
ami  more  or  less  perfei-tly  coalesced  ;  the  brain  has  an  im- 
mense cerebellum,  which  extends  forward  over  the  optic  lobes; 
the  optic  lobes  are  quite  peculiar  in  their  thalami :  the  heart 
has  no  bulbils  arteriosus;  the  air-blailder  connects  bv  a 
duct  with  the  roof  of  the  n-sophagus.  These  and  other 
characters  unite  to  ilistingiiish  the  catfishes  and  related 
forms  from  all  other  types  as  an   indepindciit   order.     The 


112 


NEiMATOIDEA 


NEMESIANUS 


order  is  represented  by  numerous  species,  most  of  which  are 
found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  ahnost  all  warm  and  temperate 
countries,  but  some  are  also  marine.  Although,  apparently, 
in  many  respects,  an  ancient  type,  no  forms  that  can  be  cer- 
tainly referred  to  it  have  been  found  in  the  older  rocks. 
The  order  has  been  differentiated  into  the  families :  (1) 
TrichomyderiiUv,  (3)  Siluridie,  (3)  Chacidce,  (4)  Plotosidit, 
(5)  Clariidm,  (6)  Gitl/ie/i/liyidie,  (7)  Argiida,  (8)  Loricari- 
idce,  (9)  Lisoridie,  (10)  llypophthalmidw.  (11)  AspredinidiF. 
Of  these,  the  first  ten  liave  a  well-developed  oiiereulum, 
while  in  the  eleventh  the  operculum  is  wanting.  The  first, 
sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  families  are  pe- 
culiar to  South  America;  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  ninth 
are  peculiar  to  the  fresh  waters  or  seas  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
the  eastern  hemisphere ;  and  the  second  is  cosmopolitan. 
All  the  North  American  species  belong  to  the  Silurid.1 
(}.  )'.).  Theodore  Gill. 

Neiiiatoi'doa :  See  Nematelminthes. 

NSnieova.  nyem'tso-va"a,  Bo2exa  :  novelist ;  b.  at  Vienna, 
Feb.  4,  1830 :  was  educated  at  Skalice  ;  married  an  official 
at  Kosteleo  in  1837,  and  in  1843  settled  in  Prague.  At 
Kostelec  she  wrote  two  stories,  Chudi  tide  (Some  Poor  Peo- 
ple) and  Dobr/j  clovek  (A  Good  Man) ;  her  first  poems  ap- 
peared in  1843,  in  the  Kvefy.  In  1845  she  removed  to  Taus, 
an  ancient  Bohemian  town,  where  she  wrote  her  sketches, 
Obrazy  z  okoli  Domazlickeho,  and  novels  Karla  (Charlotte) 
and  Pohorskd  vesnice  (The  Village  in  the  Mountains,  Prague, 
1856),  two  pictures  of  Bohemian  country  life.  Ndrodui  bdch- 
orky  a  povesti,  a  collection  of  Bohemian  folk-tales,  was  pub- 
lished at  Prague  1845-46.  It  was  followed  by  her  masterpiece, 
Babicka  (The  Grandmother,  Prague,  1855),  a  novel  of  Bo- 
hemian country  life,  since  translated  into  many  languages 
(English  by  Frances  Gregor,  Chicago,  1891).  .She  visited 
Northern  Hungary  several  times,  gathering  material  for  her 
new  works  :  S/oveiiske  pohddky  a  povesti  (Slovak  Folk-talcs, 
Prague,  1858),  UJierske  mfsto  (A.  Hungarian  City),  etc.  1). 
Jan.  31,  1863,  at  Litomy.sl.  Her  collected  works,  Sebnuie 
spisy,  were  published  in  8  vols,  at  Prague  and  Litomysl  in 
1863-63.  J.  J.  Kral, 

Ne'mea :  a  valley  situated  in  Argolis,  Greece,  between 
the  cities  of  Phlius  and  Cleouic,  and  celebi-ated  in  Grecian 
story  as  the  site  where  Argos  was  slain  by  Mercury,  and 
where  the  Nemean  lion  was  overcome  by  Hercules.  Nemea 
owes  its  later  celebrity  entirely  to  the  renown  of  the  games 
held  there.  It  was  merely  a  stretch  of  pasture-land,  meas- 
uring about  4  miles  by  1.  and  liemraed  in  by  Mts.  Trikaranos, 
Apesas,  and  Tretos.  On  Mt.  Apesas  Perseus,  King  of  Ar- 
gos, had  sacrificed  to  Zeus ;  on  Mt.  Tretos  the  cave  of  the 
Nemean  lion  was  anciently  shown,  with  its  double  issue,  a 
feature  common  to  many  grottoes  now  visible  on  Mt.  Tretos. 
There  remain  at  Nemea  three  remarkably  slender  Doric 
columns  and  a  heap  of  ruins  of  the  Doric  temple  of  Nemean 
Zeus,  under  whose  [jatronage  the  biennial  games  were  con- 
ducted. The  structure,  to  judge  by  its  style,  was  erected 
only  in  the  third  century  B.C.. and  was  early  destroyed,  pre- 
sumably by  an  earthquake.  Nemea  is  nowa  way  station  30 
miles  distant  from  Corinth  on  the  Nauplia  division  of  the 
Peloponnesian  Railway,  but  continues  uninhabited.  Com- 
pare Leake,  Travels  in  the  Morea,  iii.,  pp.  336-336 ;  Cur- 
tius,  Peloponnesos,  ii.,  pp.  505-510  ;  Baedeker's  Greece,  p.  357. 

Alfred  Emerson. 

Ne'iiiean  Games:  thethirdof  the  Panhellenicor  national 
athletic  and  musical  festivals  of  ancient  Greece,  celebrated 
biennially  at  Nemea  in  Argolis.  Like  other  similar  Grecian 
celebrations,  they  originated  as  a  funeral  festival,  estab- 
lished in  prehistoric  times  in  honor  of  Opheltas  or  Arche- 
morus.  The  death  of  this  young  prince,  witnessed  bv  the 
leaders  of  the  Argive  expedition  against  Thebes,  and  his 
funeral  pomp  celebrated  by  them  with  games  of  phvsical 
prowess,  after  the  fashion  of  heroic  times,  presaged  the 
failure  of  their  expedition.  The  historic  games  occurred,  al- 
ternately in  spring  and  .nutunin.  in  the  second  and  fourth 
year  of  each  Olympiad.  The  first  Xemead  was  an  autumn 
festival  coincident  with  the  fifty-first  Olympiad  (575  B.  c). 
The  greatest  jiopularity  of  the' Nemean"  games  w.is  from 
about  500  to  350  n.  r. "  The  contests  were  athletic,  eques- 
trian (horse-races),  an<l  musical.  Probablv  there  was  little 
ditterence  betwi'eu  Die  aflilctic  system  of  "Nemea  and  that 
of  Olympia.  Tlie  only  contests  'recorded,  however,  are  the 
foot-race  or  stadion  (300  yards  dash),  wrestling,  pontatlilon, 
and  pankration  (see  Grecian  Games),  in  each  case  for  men 
and  boys  ;  the  double  course,  tlie  long  run,  and  the  race  in 
armor  also  occurred,  to  which  the  famous  adventure  of 


<[^, 


Kreugas  and  Damoxenus  at  Nemea  adds  the  boxing-match. 
Damoxenus  having  intentionally  killed  his  adversary,  the 
judges  awarded  the  victor's  wreath  to  the  dead  body  of 
Kreugas,  amid  loud  acclamations.  Among  the  winners  in 
chariot-races  was  Alcibiades  of  Athens,  who  allowed  him- 
self to  be  painted  seated  in  the  lap  of  the  nymph  Nemea. 
Among  the  musical  contests  was  one  for  flute-players.  The 
prize  in  every  case  was  a  wreath  of  wild  celery,  on  a  bed  of 
which  plant  Archemorus  had  exjiired.  The  twelve  judges 
wore  gray  robes  in  sign  of  mourning  for  Archemorus.  Par- 
ticipants in  the  games  and  ofliciarembassies  enjoyed  safe 
conduct  during  the  sacred  month.  The  conduct  and  pro- 
tection of  the  games  lay  at  first  with  Cleonae,  after  573  B.C. 
with  Argos.  This  city  refused  even  to  recognize  games 
held  at  Nemea  under  the  auspices  of  Cleonse  and  the 
Archiran  League,  when  the  fortune  of  war  compelled  the 
Argives  to  hold  their  own  at  Argos.  On  this  occasion 
Aratus,  the  Archaean  general,  sold  the  contestants  in  the 
Argive  celebration  into  slavery,  a  good  illustration  of  the 
real  necessity  for  the  sacred  truce.  In  Gra-co-Roman  times 
the  Nemean  games  were  regularly  held  at  Argos,  and  imita- 
tions of  them,  also  called  Nemean,  were  instituted  elsewhere. 
It  is  not  known  when  the  festival  was  abolished.  The  sta- 
dion and  theater  used  in  the  games  are  still  recognizable. 
Compare  .1.  H.  Krause.  Fyfliien.JVemeen.  und  Isthmien,pp. 
119-133,  and  in  Pauly's  Bealencyrlojiadie  des  klassischen 
Altertlnnns  (Stuttgart,  1848),  under  JS'eiiieen. 

Alfred  Emerson. 

Nenier'tines  [Gr.  Ntjiucpttis,  a  iiereid] :  a  group  of  low 
worms,  almost  exclusively  marine,  in  which  the  usually 
flattened  elongate  body  is  without  a  body- 
cavity,  tlie  mouth  is  near  the  anterior  end. 
and  the  usually  sacculated  intestine  ter- 
minates in  a  posterior  vent.  In  front, 
above  the  mouth,  is  a  slit-like  opening 
from  which  an  extremely  extensile  pro- 
boscis can  be  protruded.  This  is  the 
means  by  which  the  worm  obtains  its  food, 
the  proboscis  coiling  around  the  jirey. 
The  larger  forms  live  in  the  mud  of  the 
shores,  the  smaller  ones  swim  freely.  It 
is  difficult  to  say  what  the  size  of  a  large 
nemertean  is,  one  of  the  species  of  the 
LT.  S.,  Cerebratulus  ingens,  measuring 
about  a  foot  in  length  in  its  contracted 
conilition.  but  yet  being  able  to  extend  to 
a  dozen  feet  or  more.  In  some  cases  the 
nemertine  development  is  direct,  but  in 
others  a  peculiar  larval  stage  is  intro- 
duced, inside  of  which  tlie  worm  is  grad- 
ually formed,  and  from  which  it  later 
escapes,  leaving  the  old  skin.  The  ne- 
mertines  are  subdivided  into  four  orders: 
in  the  first,  the  Iloploneniertiiii,  the  pro- 
boscis bears  a  couple  of  spines.  In  the 
others  these  spines  are  lacking.  The  ;S'c/i?'- 
zonemertini  have  a  pair  of  grooves  on  the 
sides  of  the  head  which  are  doubtless  sen- 
sory (?  olfactory)  in  function.  In  the 
Pala-onemertini  these  grooves  are  lacking. 
The  last  group,  the  Halacoldeliini  differ 
from  all  the  rest  in  having  a  sucker  on 
the  posterior  end  of  the  body,  and  tlie 
members  live  in  the  gill  cavities  of  certain 
clams.  The  presence  of  this  sucker  led  to 
their  being  formerly  regarded  as  leeches. 
The  literature  of  the  group  is  small.  The 
Hubrecht  stand  first.  M'Intosh  (Ray  Society)  has  described 
the  British  species,  while  Verrill  has  catalogued  those  of  New 
England.  J.  .S.  Kingsley. 

Neiiiesia'nns,  Marcis  Avrehus  Olympius  :  a  Latin 
poet:  b.  at  Carthage  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century  of 
our  era;  flourished  at  the  court  of  the  Emperor  Carus,  and 
wrote  didactic  poems  on  hunting,  fishing,  etc.  We  possess 
only  the  first  335  verses  of  the  Cynegetica  and  four  eclogues 
(Bucolien),  whose  author  was  for  a  long  time  identified  with 
Calpurnius,  These  eclogues  are  full  of  reminiscences  of 
Vergil.  Ovid,  and  other  poets,  and  are  less  correct  in  form 
than  the  seven  eclogues  of  Calpurnius.  See  Baehrens,  I'oet. 
Lat.  Mimre.%  iii.,  pp.  174-303  (Leipzig,  ISSI);  H.  SclienkI, 
Calpurnii  et  Nemesinni  Biicolicu  (Leipzig,  1885  ;  also  with 
introduction,  commentary,  and  appendix  by  C.  Keene,  Lon- 
don, 1887).  "  M.  Warren. 


A  nemertine. 
various  papers  of 


XEMESIS 


NKO-LAMAUCKIANISM 


113 


Neni'esis  [=  Lat.  =  lir.  NtV«ris.  personification  of  vf/tfirii, 
riuliteoiis  aiifjfr,  anjjT  ri;;litly  allotted,  orij;.  an  allotment, 
iluriv.  of  i/ffuiv.  ilistributi'.  allotj:  oriffiiially  the  abstract 
idea  of  strict  divine  retrilmtion,  in  whicli  sense  alone  Ho- 
mer uses  the  word.  In  llisiod  she  is  a  goddess,  the  daughter 
of  Nitflit  ('Afoi/.  22;t),  and  sister  of  Fraud,  Love,  old  Af;e, 
and  Strife.  I'ropcrly  speakinf;.  Nemesis  deals  out  to  men, 
ai'cordin^;  to  their  deserts,  (;ood  or  ill  fortune.  .She  takes 
eoffni/.anee  only  of  nnin's  past  deeds,  while  the  Kates  (i/.  r.) 
are  appointed  to  nnin  bi-fore  his  birth,  ami  spin  his  fate  with- 
out reference  to  his  merit  or  demerit.  In  the  claisieal  pe- 
riixl,  however.  Nemesis  has  Iwcome  a  go<liless  who  deals  out 
mostly  ill-fortune;  she  avenges  pride  and  chastises  the 
wicked  :  she  briuffs  low  the  very  fortumite  and  restores  to 
him  his  proper  mea.sure  of  felicity.  She  therefore  is  the 
goddess  who  watches  over  mifimiire  in  the  abstract,  tliey».s/ 
meamirf.  In  art  she  is  represented  as  a  maitlen  holding  her 
rit;ht  fore-arms  in  front  of  her  breast,  so  that  the  fore-arms 
from  elbows  to  tin;;er-tips  gave  the  just  measure  of  the  ell. 
The  bridle  in  her  left  indicates  that  she  keeps  man  within 
the  just  nieiLsure  of  fortune.  The  Temple  of  Nemesis  at 
Uhamnus  gained  importance  after  the  I'ersian  wars.  The 
I'ersians,  the  story  goes,  brought  with  them  to  Marathon  a 
block  of  Parian  marble,  in  order  to  erect  a  trophy  worthy 
of  their  victory,  but  after  their  defeat  at  Marathon  carved 
from  the  block  a  colossal  statue  of  Nemesis,  which  was 
placed  in  the  temple  at  Hhamnus.  By  some  the  statue  was 
asi-ribed  to  Agoracritus,  a  pupil  of  I'hidias.  What  is  sup- 
iKwed  to  be  the  head  of  this  statue  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  See  I'osnaiisky,  Xi-mesis  iiiitl  Adni.iteia,  p.  92 
II.;  Hossbach,  /iiir  XemmiK  den  Ayiirakritos  in  Allien. 
Millheil.,  XV.,  p.  04  fX.\  Brunn,  Oriechische  Kunxtler 
{Brunswick,  IS-V!)  i.,  p.  240  ff. :  sec  also  the  article  Xemenis 
in  Uaumeisler's  Denkiiiuler.  J.  K.  S.  Sterkett. 

Nenilcllthj'ida'  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Xemichtht/.t. 
the  generic  name;  Or.  vrina,  thread  +  lx9is.  tisli]:  a  family 
of  fishes  of  the  order  A/ioites  or  eels,  distinguished  by  its 
thread-like  bmly  and  snipe-like  bill.  The  body  is  extremely 
elongated  and  band-like,  with  the  tail  tapering  into  a  point, 
and  the  anus  not  far  behind  the  throat,  the  abilnminal  cav- 
ity, however,  extemling  nnich  farthi'r  back:  the  head  is 
very  nnich  elongated,  and  the  jaws  extended  into  a  long 
and  sleiiiler  bill.  Several  species  are  known,  most  of  them 
irdiabiting  great  depths  in  the  ocean. 

Nonioiirs.  ne-moor',  Lofis  Cuarles  Piiii.ipi'e  Raphael 
d'Okleans.  Due  de:  second  son  of  King  Louis  Philippe  ;  b. 
in  Paris,  (»ct.  2o.  1814.  He  served  with  his  elder  brother  at 
the  siege  of  .\ntwerp,  and  in  18S6  and  1887  in  the  two  ex- 
peditions against  Constantine.  in  Algeria,  in  the  latter  of 
which  he  commanded  one  of  the  three  brigades  upon  which 
fell  the  heaviest  part  of  the  short  but  blixiily  siege  ;  com- 
matiiling  also  the  rear-ginird  on  the  return  march,  during 
which  great  ravages  were  nnicle  in  the  ranks  by  the  cholera, 
the  prince  endeareil  himself  to  his  soldiers  by  his  self-ex- 
posure and  devotion  to  the  sick.  His  marriage  the  year 
after  with  a  princess  of  .Saxe-Cobnrg  became  the  cause  of 
the  deposition  of  the  Sonlt  ministry,  one  of  the  earlier  omi- 
nous signs  of  imipienl  discontent  with  the  reigning  family. 
t)n  the  abdication  of  the  king  he  assumed  command  of  tlie 
troops  then  in  the  court  of  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries,  and 
protected  the  widowed  Duchess  of  Orleans  anil  her  children. 
After  the  fruitless  and  hazardous  apiieal  bv  her  personal 
presence  in  the  l'haml>er  of  Deputies,  he  took  measures  for 
the  safe  withdrawal  from  France  of  herself  and  all  the 
members  of  the  royal  family,  after  which  he  succeeded  him- 
self in  reaching  Kni;land.  His  life  of  exile  in  Knglaud  was 
[>as.sed  in  great  seclusion,  and  was  marked  bv  devotion,  ilur- 
ing  the  contiiunmie  of  their  lives,  to  the  ex-king  and  iiueeii. 
.\fter  the  abrogation  of  the  decree  of  exile  he  was  ri'Stored 
<iia  likewise  the  Due  dWiimale)  to  his  former  rank  of  yene- 
ral  de  diri.iiiiii  in  the  French  army,  but  his  name  was  re- 
moved from  the  army  list  in  .luiie,  IHHti,  according  to  the 
law  excluding  from  military  service  the  mi'uiliers  of  once 
'  iLTiiing  families  in  France.     I).  June  25,  181)0. 

Nriicioni,  F.nrico:  |)fiet  and  critic  :  b.  in  Florence.  Italy, 
in  ISIO.  lie  was  educated  in  his  native  place,  and  early  Iw- 
oaiiie  a  member  of  the  group  of  young  men  of  letters  known 
as  gli  iimici  priliinii,  to  which  Chiarini,  CavaciiH'chi.  and 
Targioni-Toz/.etti  also  belonged.  He  engaged  in  private 
teaching  at  first,  but  in  ISOll  he  tiegaii  to  write  critical  ar- 
ticles for  l5argoni"s  llalia  yiiorti.  In  IM7S  his  first  volume 
of  poems,  I'oexie,  appeared,  and  this  has  lieen  followed  by 
Medaijlioni  (Koine,  1885).  As  a  [>oct  ho  shows  everywhere 
292 


the  influence  of  t'arducci  and  his  scIukjI.  The  volume  of 
his  verse,  however,  is  small  compared  with  that  of  the 
critical  articles  he  has  contributed  to  the  Italian  literary 
periodicals.  Well  acipiainted  with  Knglish  and  1-Yench  lit- 
erature, as  well  as  Italian,  he  has  served  as  an  interpreter  of 
the  chief  modern  poets  of  all  three  nations  to  his  country- 
men. Owing  to  his  literary  successes,  he  has  been  given  a 
l)rofe.ssiir>hip  in  the  Istituto  Noriuale  Femminile  at  Flor- 
ence. A.  K.  Marsh. 

Nen'llilis  :  the  suiiposed  author  of  the  Ilistoria  lirito- 
mim  or  Jutlui/iiiin  /iriliiiiniir,  a  Latin  history  of  Britain 
from  the  arrival  of  Brutus  the  Trojan,  grandson  of  ^-Eneas, 
to  A.  u.  055.  According  to  several  i>a.ssages  of  this  work, 
the  writer  was  a  monk  of  Bangor.  Wales,  but  no  particu- 
lars of  his  career  are  known,  and  it  is  even  disputed  whether 
ho  belonged  to  the  sevi'iith  or  the  ninth  century.  Dr.  (iuest 
(184'J)  assigns  the  work  which  bears  the  name  of  Nennius 
to  the  eighth  century,  but  suiiposes  the  iireface  to  have  been 
written  in  the  ninth' or  tenth  century.  The  best  edition  of 
the  text  is  that  edited  for  the  Knglisfi  Historical  Society  by 
Kev.  Joseph  Stevenson  (18;W).  Bohn's  Antiquarian' Li- 
brary (IK48)  contains  a  translation  by  Gunn.  See -V«;ik- 
iiieiila  Historica  Britaiiiiicd  (1848)  ai'id  L'llisloria  Jirilo- 
num,  by  de  la  Borderie  (Paris,  1888). 

Ne'oceiie  Period  [neocene  is  from  Gr.  ytos.  young +  Kiui/is, 
new]:  the  division  of  geologic  time  folh)wing  the  Eocene 
period  and  preceding  the  Pleistocene;  the  middle  part  of 
the  C'enozoic  era.  The  animals  and  plants  of  this  period 
include  those  regarded  as  the  immediate  ancestors  of  exist- 
ing species,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  are  identical  with 
living  forms.  The  greatest  dilTcrences  are  found  in  the 
vertebrates,  especially  in  the  mammals.  The  strata,  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  other  periods,  are  characterized  by  the 
abundance  of  lacustrine  beds. 

In  the  L'.  S.  Neocene  rocks  occupy  a  broail  belt  along  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  from  New  Jersey  to  the  Kio 
Grande,  covering  nearly  the  whole  of  Florida  and  Missis- 
sipjii,  approximately  half  of  Delaware,  .Maryland,  South 
Carolina.  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Louisiana,  "and  smaller 
portiojis  of  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tetinessee.  Arkansas, 
and  Texas.  These  beds  are  marine,  as  is  also  a  fringe  of 
deposits  along  the  coasts  of  Washington,  Northern  Oregon, 
and  Southern  California.  Fresh-water  strata,  recording 
the  existence  of  Neocene  lakes,  cover  the  Llano  Kstacado  of 
Texas  and  New  .Mexico,  broad  districts  of  the  great  plains 
in  Oklahoma,  Kunsjis.  Nebraska,  Colorado,  and  Wyoming, 
and  smaller  areas  in  I'tah,  Nevada,  Montana,  Idaho,  and 
Oregon.  The  beds  include  many  valuable  deposits  of  marl 
and  phosuhates.  See  GEOLociy'and  Cexozoic,  and  consult 
Biillelin  A'o.  S4  of  the  L'.  S.  Geological  Survey,  bv  Dall  and 
Harris.  G.  K.  ('Jilbert. 

N(Mi-I)urwiiiiaiis:  See  Evolution. 

Neodcsha,  nc"e-ti-de-shaa' :  city  (founded  in  1800);  Wil- 
son CO..  Kan.  (for  location  of  county,  .see  map  of  Kansjis,  ref. 
7-1);  at  the  junction  of  Fall  and  Verdigris  rivers,  and  on 
the  St.L.  and  San  Fran,  and  the  Mo.  I'ac.  railways;  14 
miles  N.  of  Independence.  It  hius  5  churches,  high  and 
graded  schools,  |iiiblic  hall  owned  by  the  city,  natural-gas 
and  petroleum  wells,  railway  repair-shops,  and  2  weekly 
newspapers.  It  is  in  a  fertile  agricultural  region,  has  ex- 
ceptional water-power,  and  is  principally  engaged  in  gen- 
eral farming,  stock-raising,  and  milling.'  Pop.  (1880)  024; 
(18110)  1,528;  (1895)  State 'census,  1.78:?. 

Editor  of  "  Register." 

Neodynilnni  :  See  Didvmil'm. 

Nco-griininiiiriniis:  a  translation  of  the  German  term 
Jinii/i/riiinniiiH/,i  r.  first  applied  by  Friedrich  Zarncke  to  the 
new  sehi>ol  of  comparative  philologists  which  arose  in  Leip- 
zig about  1877-7S,  and  was  distinguished  by  its  enunciation 
of  a  stricter  method  of  historical  tests  in  linguistic  research. 
This  method  recognizeil  two  leading  principles:  (1)  That 
the  laws  of  sound  o|ierate  uniformly,  i.  c.  with  like  results 

he  appar 
lained  liy 
tiou  of  the  psychological  principle  of  analogy.  The  com- 
pletest  statement  of  these  principles  may  be  found  in  Ost- 
liolT-Brnginann.  MonihidtiyiMrlie  I'nlersurhinnien,  vol.  i.,  in- 
trod.  (IM7H).  and  in  Paul.  Principien  der  S/irarhgeachichte 
(1st  ed.  1880;  2d.  ed.  IHSO).  Bexj.  Ii>e  Wheei.er. 

Np»-I.niiinrrklnnisni  :  a  tenn  introduced  for  that  school 
of  evolutioiii>i~.  esMccially  strong  in  the  l'.  S.,  which  be- 
lieves with  Lainari'K  that  use  and  disuse  are  important  fac- 


in  like  conditioned  materials;  (2)  that  the  aiipan^nt  excep- 
tions to  the  laws  of  sounil  are  to  be  explained  by  the  ojiera- 


114 


NEOPHYTIC  FLORA 


NEPI60N 


tors  in  tlie  development  of  new  organs,  but  which  differs 
from  Lamarck  in  admitting  that  natural  selection  may  also 
be  an  efficient  element  in  variation.  For  the  principles 
involved,  see  Evolution  and  IIereuitv.  J.  S.  K. 

Neophytic  Flora:  See  Plants,  Fossil. 

Neo-Pla'toiiism  :  in  the  more  limited  sense  of  the  word 
a  philosophical  school  which  originated  in  Alexandria  in 
the  third  century  after  Christ,  was  professedly  founded 
on  the  doctrines  of  Plato,  but,  as  has  been  shown  by  Hegel, 
is  more  indebted  to  the  ideas  of  Aristotle  than  to  Plato,  and 
denotes  the  last  attempt  of  the  speculative  spirit  of  the 
Greek  civilization  to  establish  a  scientific  basis  for  its  de- 
velopment. The  school  was  founded  by  Ammonius  Saccas 
(175-241  A.  D.),  further  developed  by  Plotinus  (305-270),  and 
continued  by  Porphyrins  (233-305),  lamblichus,  Proclus 
(412-485),  and  others.  In  a  wider  sense,  the  name  is  applied 
to  tlie  whole  speculative  tendency  which  grew  up  in  Alex- 
andria from  the  amalgamation  of  Greek  philosophy.  Oriental 
theosophy,  and  Jewish  and  Christian  theology,  anil  of  which 
the  aljove-mentioned  philosophical  school  is  only  one  indi- 
vidual manifestation,  while  it  produced  most  remarkable  in- 
tellectual characters  in  the  most  different  fields  of  specula- 
tion. Thus  Philo  Judams  (42  a.  d.),  Clemens  Alexandrinus 
(220).  Origen  (185-254),  and  the  Gnostics  are  severally  repre- 
sentatives of  systems  akin  to  the  Neo-Platonic  form  of 
speculation.  In  the  celebrated  commentary  of  Alexander 
of  Aphrodisias  on  Aristotle's  psychology  tliere  are  to  be 
found  many  of  the  leading  ideas  w'hich  form  the  foundation 
of  Neo-Platonism.  For  the  general  character  of  this  tend- 
ency and  the  special  ideas  of  the  school,  see  Philosophy 
and  the  special  articles  Plotinus,  Proclus,  etc. 

Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Neo'sho :  city  (incorporated  in  1846,  seat  of  the  Legisla- 
ture which  adopted  the  ordinance  of  secession  in  1861); 
capital  of  Xewton  co..  Mo.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  Missouri,  ref.  7-D) ;  on  the  St.  L.  and  San  Fran,  and  the 
Kan.  City,  Pitts,  and  Gulf  railways;  73  miles  S.  W.  of 
Springfield,  315  miles  S.  W.  of  St.  Louis.  It  is  in  a  lead- 
raining  an<l  agricultural  region,  has  a  number  of  valuable 
mineral  springs,  and  is  principally  engaged  in  lead-mining 
and  manufacturing.  It  is  the  seat  of  Scarritt  Collegiate 
Institute  (Methodist  Episcopal  South,  chartered  1888),  and 
has  a  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  station,  with  extensive  build- 
ing and  grounds.  There  are  12  churches,  a  State  bank  with 
capital  of  $40,000,  a  private  bank,  and  3  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,631 ;  (18!)0)  2,198;  (1894)  estimated,  2,500. 

Editor  op  "  Times." 

Neosho  River  :  a  stream  which  rises  in  Morris  co.,  Kan., 
flows  generally  S.  S.  E.,  enters  the  Indian  Territory,  and 
joins  the  Arkansas  near  Fort  Gibson.  It  is  some  300"  miles 
long.  Its  chief  tributary,  the  Cottonwood,  is  much  larger 
and  longer  tluiu  the  Xeosho  above  tlie  junction. 

Neotropical  Region  :  See  America,  South. 

Nepal,  Nepaul,  or  Nipal :  an  independent  state  of  Hin- 
dustan, situated  between  Tibet  and  British  India,  and  be- 
tween Ion.  80°  6'  and  88'  14'  E.  Area,  54,000  sq.  miles.  Pop 
estimated  at  2,000,000.  The  southern  part  of  the  country 
consists  of  a  belt  of  low  land  covered  with  tropical  forests, 
which  yield  many  sorts  of  valuable  timber ;  the  climate  is 
hot,  and  utterly  unheaUhful.  and  wild  animals,  such  as  ele- 
phants, tigers,  and  loopards,  aliouiul.  Prom  this  low  land 
the  ground  gradually  rises,  first  into  hills,  where  rice, 
maize,  millet,  sugar,  indigo,  and  coffee  are  cultivated, 
mostly  on  artificial  terraces  along  the  hill-sides ;  tlien  into 
mountains,  in  whose  elevated  valleys  wheat,  oranges,  wal- 
nuts, grapes,  and  other  kinds  of  fruits  are  grown  ;  and  then 
into  alps,  among  which  are  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Hima- 
laya—as, fcr  instance,  Jlt.  Everest— on  whose  pastures  large 
herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  reared.  Iron,  copper, 
lead,  tm,  zme,  and  salt  have  been  found  and  are  mined ; 
cotton  cloths  and  earthenware  are  manufactured ;  timber, 
hides,  ivory,  fruits,  sheep,  cattle,  and  elephants  are  exported. 
Ihe  inhabitants  consist  of  several  tribes,  of  which  the  Gur- 
khas, wlio  are  of  Rajput  descent  and  faith,  form  the  warrior 
caste  and  hold  the  government,  while  the  Newars,  who  are 
of  Tibetan  origin  and  are  Buddhists,  make  the  artisans  of 
the  country.  Betwec'U  the  various  tril)es  there  exists  a 
great  difference,  not  oidy  in  cliaracter  and  religion,  but 
even  in  language;  they  all  have  succumbed  to  the  conquer- 
ing tril)e  of  the  Gurkhas,  which  invaded  the  country  in  the 
latter  halt  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  government  is  a 
iiuhtary  oligarchy,  with  a  titular  sovereign,  who  is  a  mere 


Portion  of  a  plant  of  Nepenthes 
distiUatoriii  (much  reduced). 


figurehead,  the  real  power  being  in  the  hands  of  a  prime 
minister,  called  the  mayor  of  the  palace.  Capital,  Khat- 
MANUU  (q.  v.).  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Nepen'tlies  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  viiweveils,  banishing  pain 
or  sorrow;  j/?)-,  not-l-ireVflos,  suffering,  sorrow];  a  remark- 
able genus  of  pitcher-plants  (the  sole  type  of  a  peculiar 
family,  yepmitkaeeie)  of  over  thirty  species,  all  natives  of 
the  southern  tropical  region  of  which  the  Indian  Archipel- 
ago is  the  center,  ranging  from  Madagascar  to  New  Cale- 
donia. They  are  all  woody  climbers,  with  apetalous  and 
inconspicuous  dioecious  flowers.  Their  peculiarity  is  in  the 
leaves ;  these  are  rather  long  and  narrow,  traversed  by  a 
very  strong  midrib,  which  is  prolonged  into  a  tendril  serv- 
ing for  climbing,  the  apex  of  this  developed  into  a  tubular 
or  oblong  pitcher,  closed  with  a  hinged  lid.  Until  the 
pitchei'is  full  grown  the  lid 
closes  the  orifice.  A  watery 
liquid,  having  a  slight  acid 
reaction,  is  secreted  in  the 
pitcher  in  small  quantities. 
At  maturity  the  lid  opens, 
and  remains  so,  more  or  less 
elevated  on  its  hinge ;  the 
watery  secretion  still  con- 
tinues, especially  if  animal 
matter  is  introduced,  but  it 
may  now  escape  by  evapo- 
ration. About  the  rim  of 
the  pitcher  a  sweet  secre- 
tion forms  under  favorable 
circumstances,  which  is  at- 
tractive to  insects  ;  and 
dead  insects  are  generally 
found  in  the  pitcher.  The 
researches  of  Dr.  Hooker 
go  far  to  prove  that  the 
liquid  within  possesses  di- 
gestive properties,  and  that 
its  powers  of  dissolving  animal  matter  are  augmented  by  a 
peculiar  secretion  which  is  only  poured  out  in  quantity  when 
insects  or  other  animal  substances  are  introduced.  JVepen- 
thes  (list  ilia  fori  a  ot  Ceyli  in  was  the  earliest  known  species, 
and  together  with  N.  plii/llanip/iora  and  N.  ampullaria  of 
the  Archipelago  has  been  long  known  in  cultivation.  Some 
species  found  in  Borneo  have  pitchers  a  foot  or  two  in  length. 
Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Ne'pheline  [from  Gr.  e^ctieKri,  mist,  cloud] ;  a  silicate  of 
alumina,  soda,  and  potash,  crystallizing  in  the  hexagonal 
system  and  allied  to  the  feldspars.  It  occurs  in  volcanic 
rocks ;  in  some  instances  so  completely  taking  the  place  of 
feldspar  as  to  form  a  nepheline  rock.  Davi/ne  and  ekeolite 
are  varieties  of  nepheline. 

Neplli :  city ;  capital  of  Juab  co.,  Utah  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Utah,  ref.  5-L) ;  on  the  Union  Pac.  and  the  San 
Pete  Valley  railways;  90  miles  S.  of  Salt  Lake  City.  It  is 
in  an  agricidtural,  sheep-raising,  gypsum,  marble,  and  salt 
region,  and  has  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  an 
incorporated  bank  with  capital  of  $30,000,  and  a  weekly 
newspaper.     Pop.  (1880)  1,797;  (1890)  2,034;  (1895)  2.515. 

Neplirid'la  [from  dimiu.  of  Gr.  vfipp6s,  kidney]:  a  term 
introduceil  by  Lankester  for  those  excretory  organs  which 
can  be  redu<'cd  to  the  type  of  ciliated  funnels  connecting 
the  body-cavity  (cwlom)  with  the  exterior.  To  this  cate- 
gory belong  the  excretory  organs  of  most  worms,  molluscs, 
Crustacea,  ami  vertebrates.  The  excretory  organs  of  insects 
are  entirely  dilferent. 

Neph'rite  [from  Gr.  ve<pp6s,  kidney.  Named  from  being 
formerly  worn  as  a  remedy  for  kidney  diseases]  :  See  Jade. 

Nephritis;  See  Bright's  Disease. 

Nephthys  [P^gypt.  Ni'h-hai,  mistress  of  the  house] :  an 
Egyiitian  goddess,  daughter  of  Seb  and  Nut  (sky)  and  sis- 
ter of  Osiris,  Isis,  and  Set.  She  is  usually  represented  as  the 
wife  of  Set,  Ijut  also  as  the  mother,  by  Osiris,  of  Anubis,  the 
jackal-headed  god  of  the  dead.  She  appears  principally  as 
the.  companion  of  Isis,  with  whom  she  is  represented  as 
mourning  the  dead,  being  painted  on  burial-chests  at  the 
heail  of  the  chest,  with  wings  exfcniled  for  the  protection 
of  the  departed.  When  reprcscntcil  alone,  she  appears  with 
tlie  signs  ("house"  and  "bowl")  which  express  her  name 
ideographically.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Nepigoii  [from  Cree  Atiiiiiipij/on,  deep,  clear  lake];  a 
large  lake  in  the  Thunder  Bay  district  of  Ontario,  Canada, 


XEPOMUK 


NEPTUNE 


115 


30  or  40  miles  N.  of  Luke  Superior,  with  which  it  is  con- 
Dcctecl  hy  Ncpiffoii  rivi-r,  eiiiplyiiij,'  into  Ni'|>if;oii  Hay  of 
Laku  Suiiirior.  It  iiiea.sun-.s  iilxml  70  iiiiU'S  N'.  uiul  S.  by 
50  E.  uiiil  W..  is  thic-kly  studilfil  with  isliiiiils  and  has  clecp- 
Iv  inilriilc'cl  shores.  It  is  a  inuih-iiruisiMl  ri'^jion  forsuiuinur 
h'liiiliiiK  anil  especially  lishinj;.  The  .lanuary  mean  tem- 
perature is  about  7  I''.,  or  that  of  (ioillliaali  in  Greenland. 
Ill  Jnly  the  mean  temperature  is  that  of  .Sun  Fnuuisoo. 
The  retfiou  about  the  lake  appears  to  be  as  favoralilo  for 
aKrieuliurc  as  .Manitol)a  or  l^uebec.  M.  W.  11. 

Ne'poniiik,  John  :  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholie  t'hureh 
and  the  latron  .saint  of  Bohemia:  b.  at  I'omuk.  Hohemia. 
about  i;i3(l;  studied  at  the  I'niversity  of  I'rafjue;  became 
rector  of  the  Church  of  .St.  tiall  in  tliat  city,  and  was  ap- 
pointed court  preacher  to  the  Emperor  Wenceslas  in  I;i7y. 
In  this  position  he  opposetl  and  reproved  with  umlaunted 
couraKe  the  suspiciousness  and  cruelty  of  Wenceslas,  wlio 
had  demanded  that  John  should  reveal  to  him  the  secret 
confessions  n(  his  wife,  the  Empress  Sophia,  daujrhler  of 
Albert.  Duke  of  Bavaria.  On  .lolm's  refusal,  he  was  im- 
prisoneil,  cruelly  tortured,  bound  hand  and  foot,  and  ea.st 
into  the  .Miildau  in  i:!!):i.  His  body  was  found  and  buried; 
many  miracles  were  wruu^'ht  at  his  grave  ;  legends  gathered 
around  his  name,  and  on  .Mar.  19,  172il,  he  was  canonized 
by  Pope  Benedict  XIII.  The  Cathedral  of  Prague  contains 
a  niagnilicent  monument  of  marble  and  silver  to  his  honor. 
His  festival  is  held  on  May  Ki.  See  Abel,  Die  Legemh  den 
keiliqeii  Xepomuk  (\^h>);  Frind.  Der yeschiclilliche  Jiiluiiin 
von  Ae/«*muA-(.1861);  and  Der  heilige  Juhunn  I'on  Xepomitk 
(lti7»). 

Ne'|»09,  CoRNKi.irs  :  a  Konian  historian  from  Upper  Italy, 
cf  whiise  life  nothing  is  known  l>ut  that  he  was  a  friend  of 
Atticus.  Cicero,  and  Catullus,  ami  that  he  liveil  between  !l!t 
and  24  ii.  c. ;  wrote  various  works,  all  of  which  have  been  lost 
with  the  excention  of  parts  of  his  ])e  Virix  lUunlribus, 
which  originally  contained  at  least  sixteen  books.  The  ex- 
tant lives  of  Calo  anil  Atticus  were  from  the  bciok  De  lalinis 
hiMoriein.  The  work  De  ercelleiilihiix  iliicibus  e.rleranim 
gentium,  now  commonly  used  as  a  school-book,  and  gen- 
erally ascribed  to  Cornelius  Xeiios,  was  first  printeil  in  1471 
under  the  luime  of  ^Emilius  Probus,  an  obscure  writer  of 
the  fourth  century,  but  in  a  new  edition  of  1.56!)  Dionysius 
Ijnmbinus  claimeil  the  authorship  of  the  liook  for  Cornelius 
Neiios,  and  identilied  it  as  a  part  of  his  lost  De  Viris  llliis- 
Irioux.  chietly  on  the  ground  that  the  purity  of  the  lan- 
guage and  the  simplicity  of  the  style  would  be  impossible 
with  a  writer  of  the  fourth  century  ;  and  this  opinion,  modi- 
fied by  various  hypotheses,  has  been  generallv  accepted,  al- 
though Unger  (/Vt>r  sugenannle  ('iirmliux  .\V/)«.s-.  Nlunich. 
tSUl)  attributes  it  to  llyginus.  Editions  and  translations  are 
very  numerous.  Among  the  most  useful  editions  are  those 
of  Van  Staveren.  revised  by  Bardili  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart, 
1820),  of  Brenii  (Zurich,  1827).  of  Siebelis  (11th  cd.  1885), 
and  of  Nipperdey  (!llh  ed.  1885),  and  a  larger  edition  revised 
by  Lupus  (Berlin,  lM7i»).  Revised  by  M.  Wahrkx. 

NeptllliP  [from  \jiiX.  Xeptu  huk]:  in  Roman  mythology, 
the  god  iif  the  sea.  In  sharp  contrast  to  the  seafaring 
Gri'eks.  the  Romans  reveal  by  their  mythology  and  language 
very  little  early  familiarity  with  the  sea.  \Viirds  pertain- 
ing to  the  sea  or  seafaring  are  for  the  most  part  luirrowcd 
from  the  Gn'ck,  and  a  native  sea-god  independent  of  the 
Greek  Poseidon  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed.  The 
name  Neptune  was  common  to  Etruscans  and  Romans,  and 
perhaps  originally  indicateil  a  ginl  of  all  water  or  moisture. 
There  is  practically  nothing  left,  however,  to  imiicate  the 
attributes  and  character  of  this  original  goil,  for  at  an  early 
ilale  he  is  compleli'ly  identified  with  the  (iivek  sea-god 
Poseidon.  Only  one  early  temple  to  Neptune  is  reported. 
It  wiLs  located  near  the  Circus  Elaminius,  and  contained  a 
famous  marine  group  by  ,Scopas,  n>presenting  Neptune  and 
his  train,  .\fter  the  clefent  of  Sexlus  Pompey  and  the  vic- 
tory at  .\ctium,  the  worship  of  Neptune  was  revived,  and 
Agrippa  erected  in  his  honor  the  great  lemiile  in  the  Campus 
Martins,  calleil  either  liy  the  (ireek  iiaiiie,  the  Poseidonium, 
or  the  Basilica  Neptiini.  G.  L.  Hkxhrickson. 

Npptiliip  [named  fmin  Xi'ptunr,  a  Roman  deity):  the 
outermost  planet  of  the  solar  system.  Its  discovery  is  justly 
rcganled  as  the  most  remarkalde  aslronomii'al  luhieveineiit 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Up  to  about  the  beginning  of 
the  century  it  was  found  that  itie  motions  of  all  the  planets 
could  be  perfectly  accounted  for  by  the  attraction  of  the 
son  and  tlieir  mutual  attraction  on  each  other:  but  when, 
about  1S2().  Bouvanl  proceeded  toconstruct  tablesof  rranii-. 


then  the  outermost  known  planet,  an  apparent  exception 
presented  itself,  and  the  observations  could  not  be  recon- 
ciled with  the  motions  computed  from  the  attraction  of  the 
sun.  Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  Although  Uranus  was  discovered 
by  Sir  \Villiam  llerschel  in  1781,  it  was  afterward  found 
that  a  number  of  astronomers  had  actually  seen  it  and  ob- 
served its  ]>osition  before  that  time,  supposing  it  to  be  a 
fixed  star.  One  of  these  observations  was  by  Flamsteeil  as 
far  back  as  1695.  Bouvard.  finding  that  he  could  rec- 
oncile the  observations  made  after  1781  with  the  theory, 
omitted  the  older  ones  entirely,  leaving  it  to  the  fuluit"  to 
find  why  they  could  not  be  so  reconciled;  but  it  was  soon 
found  tiiat  the  planet  began  to  deviate  from  the  tables  far 
more  rapidly  than  coulil  be  accounted  for  by  the  neces- 
sary uncertainty  of  the  data  on  which  the  tables  were 
fonndeil.  The  cause  of  this  deviation  was  the  subject  of 
consideration  among  astronomers,  and  it  seems  to  have  oc- 
curred to  several  that  it  might  be  due  to  the  action  of  an 
unknown  planet  beyond  Uranus ;  but  the  problem  of  find- 
ing this  planet  was  one  which  for  some  time  no  one  ven- 
tured to  attack.  In  1840.  however,  the  deviations  had  be- 
come so  wide,  amounting  to  two  minutes  of  arc,  that  they 
attracted  more  alteiitiiin  than  before,  and  three  astrono- 
mers took  up  the  problem  of  tracing  them  to  their  cause. 
The  first  of  these  was  the  illustrious  Bessel,  of  Kiinigsberg, 
who  began  work  about  1840  by  making  a  critical  exami- 
nation of  the  correctness  of  Bouvard's  comi)utations,  and 
setting  one  of  his  assistants,  Fleming,  at  the  work  of  mak- 
ing a  careful  reduction  of  the  Greenwich,  Paris,  and  Kdnigs- 
bcrg  observations.  The  death  of  Fleming  anil  the  ill-health 
of  He.s,sel  prevented  the  work  from  being  carried  further. 

John  C.  Adams  was  then  a  student  at  Cambridge.  In  the 
summer  of  1841  he  became  acquainted  with  the  state  of  this 
question  by  reading  a  report  of  -Mr.  Airy.  It  occurred  to 
him  that  it  ought  to  be  within  the  power  of  nuithematics  to 
calculate  the  position  and  movements  of  the  disturbing 
planet  from  the  observed  deviations  of  I'ranus.  and  he  de- 
termined to  attack  the  problem  as  soon  as  his  .studies  would 
permit.  In  the  autumn  of  184.5  he  had  so  far  advanced  as 
to  have  computed  an  approxiuuite  orbit  of  the  hypothetical 
planet,  and  about  the  end  of  October  of  that  year  he  com- 
municated the  position  of  the  planet  to  Prof.  Airy,  within  a 
degree  and  a  half  of  the  real  position  of  Neptune.  Had  an 
expert  astronomer  pointed  a  telescope  of  6  inches  aperture 
in  the  direction  indicated  by  Adams,  and  swept  for  the 
planet,  he  mtist  have  recognized  it  by  its  disk  after  a  few 
minutes'  examination  ;  but  Prof.  Airy  had  so  little  confi- 
dence in  the  prediction  that  he  did  not  take  the  trouble  to 
look  for  the  object. 

In  the  meantime  a  third  person  entered  the  field.  This 
was  Urbain  J.  Leverrier.  then  a  young  man  of  little  over 
thirty,  who  had  proved  his  mathematical  ability  by  a  very 
important  paper  on  the  secular  variations  of  the  orbits  of 
the  planets.  In  June,  1846,  he  presented  to  the  Paris  .\cad- 
emy  of  Sciences  a  paper  in  which  he  assigned  an  approxi- 
mate position  of  the  iilanet,  agreeing  very  nearly  with  that 
already  found  by  Adams.  When  .\iry  heard  of  this  he  began 
to  consider  I  he  planet  worth  looking  for.  and  at  his  suggestion 
Prof.  Challis,  director  of  the  Camtiridgc  Observatory,  began 
a  search.  Instead,  however,  of  trying  to  recognize  the  planet 
by  its  disk,  he  began  the  work  of  preparing  an  extensive 
catalogue  of  the  stars  in  a  space  of  several  degrees  each  side 
of  the  computed  place  of  the  planet,  which  would  necessarily 
occupy  a  considerable  time.  Meanwhile  Leverrier  was  en- 
gaged' in  determining  more  accurate  element.s,  which  he 
communicated  to  the  .Vcademv  about  the  end  of  August. 
Being  now  entirely  confident  that  the  ]ilanet  must  be  very 
near  the  assigned  place,  he  wrote  to  l>r.  (ialle.  of  Berlin, 
requesting  him  to  .search  for  it.  Galle  received  the  letter 
on  Sept.  2:i.  1846,  and  the  sjime  evening  went  to  the  tele- 
,<tcope,  and  proceeded  to  compare  the  stars  in  the  neiglibor- 
hood  of  the  assigned  place  with  a  star-chart  of  that  region 
which  had  just  lieen  finished,  lie  soon  found  a  star  of  the 
seventh  or  eighth  mai;nituile  which  was  not  on  the  chart, 
within  a  degree  of  the  position  .sent  by  Leverrier.  As  it 
pres»>iited  a  s<-nsible  disk,  there  couhl  be  no  rea.s<iiiable doubt 
that  it  was  the  object  souirht :  but.  desirous  of  pnK'eeding 
with  caution,  he  waited  till  the  following  night,  when  he 
found  that  it  had  actually  changed  its  position  among  the 
stars.  There  was  no  lonirer  any  douiit  of  the  reality  of  the 
discovery.  After  eonsiilerable  discussion  astronomers  in 
general  agreed  upon  the  name  Neptune  for  the  newly  dis- 
covered planet. 

.Subsequent    investigations  of   the   motions   of   Neptune 


116 


NERBUDDA 


NERTCHINSK 


have  been  made  mostly  by  astronomers  of  the  U.  S.  The  first 
one  in  the  field  was  Sears  C.  Walker,  then  astronomer  at  the 
Naval  Observatory.  Washington.  He  computed  an  accurate 
orbit  of  the  planet  from  all  accessible  observations,  and  then 
proceeded  to  inquire  whether  it  had  not  been  observed  as  a 
star  at  some  former  time,  as  Uranus  had  been.  Computing 
the  place  of  the  planet  for  those  previous  years  in  which  its 
path  was  known  to  have  been  swept  over  by  observers  of 
catalogues  of  stars,  he  found  that  on  May  10,  1795,  Lalande 
had  observed  a  star  almost  exactly  on  the  path  of  Xeptune, 
which  was  now  missing  from  the  heavens,  and  which  must 
have  been  the  planet.  When  the  news  of  this  discovery 
reached  Europe,  search  was  made  among  the  original  manu- 
scripts of  Lalande,  and  it  was  found  that  the  planet  had 
also  been  observed  on  May  8,  but  finding  the  two  observa- 
tions discordant,  owing  to  the  motion  of  the  planet  during 
the  interval,  he  had  rejected  his  first  observation  entirely. 
He  thus  missed  the  great  discovery  by  not  investigating  the 
cause  of  the  discordance  between  his  observations.  These 
observations  have  been  very  valuable  in  fixing  the  orbit  of 
the  planet.  Neptune  moves  in  an  orbit  nearly  circular,  hav- 
ing an  eccentricity  of  only  0-00872 ;  yet  on  account  of  the 
great  dimensions  of  this  orbit,  the  absolute  eccentricity  in 
miles  exceeds  35,000.000,  and  the  diflferenee  of  its  distances 
from  the  sun  in  aphelion  and  perihelion  is  more  than  50,- 
000,000.  The  inclination  of  the  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  is  1" 
47',  and  its  mean  radius  about  2,746,000,000  miles.  The 
period  of  revolution  of  the  planet  is  about  164f  years,  and 
its  diameter  about  37,000  miles.  Its  bulk  is  therefore  more 
than  100  times  that  of  the  earth,  but  its  density  is  so  much 
less  (one-sixth)  that  it  has  only  about  17  times  as  great  a 
mass. 

Neptune  has  a  single  satellite,  discovered  in  1847  by  Las- 
sell,  of  Liverpool.  Its  period  is  5d.  21h.  2m.  44s.,  and  its 
mean  distance  from  the  planet  about  230,000  miles. 

S.  Newcomb. 

Nerbudda:  a  river  of  Central  India,  and  next  to  the 
Indus  the  largest  river  of  India,  emptying  on  the  west 
coast.  It  rises  in  lat.  33°  40'  N.  and  Ion.  81'  52'  E.,  crosses 
the  peninsula  with  a  course  of  620  miles,  flowing  a  little  S. 
of  W.,  and  falls  into  tlie  Bay  of  Cambay,  forming  a  large 
estuary.  It  is  narrow  and  deep,  but  serves  as  a  commercial 
highway  only  for  the  last  90  miles  of  its  course,  on  account 
of  its  rapid  current  and  numerous  waterfalls.         C.  C.  A. 

Ne'reidS  [from  Gr.  fIriprftSes,  plur.  of  Nijpets,  a  Xereid, 
liter.,  daughter  of  Nereus ;  NTjpeuj,  a  sea-god  -i-  femin.  pa- 
tronymic ending  -is,  -iSos,  descended  from] :  the  fifty 
daughters  of  the  sea-god  Nereus  by  Doris,  his  wife.  They 
were  genuine  Greek  goddesses,  who  lived  in  the  depths  of 
the  sea  in  a  grotto  resplendent  with  gold  and  silver.  They 
were  friendly  to  mariners  and  often  acted  as  pilots,  notably 
to  the  Argonauts  and  the  Greek  expedition  against  Troy. 
They  were  represented  in  art  as  beautiful  and  youthful 
maidens,  sometimes  clothed  and  sometimes  nude.  They  dis- 
ported themselves  on  the  waves  of  the  sea  along  with  va- 
rious sea-monsters,  and  are  often  depicted  riding  on  the 
backs  of  dolphins  or  seated  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  Tritons 
{g.  v.).  Among  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Nereids  were 
Amphitrite,  Thetis  (the  mother  of  Achilles),  and  Galatea. 
See  the  article  NereMen  in  Baumeister's  Denkmahr. 

J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Nereids :  See  Sea-mouse. 

Neri,  na  ree,  Filippo,  dei,  known  in  English  as  St.  Philip 
Neri:  saint;  b.  at  Florence,  Italy,  in  July,  1515;  was  adopted 
by  a  wealthy  uncle  as  his  heir ;  secretly  went  to  Rome  to 
study  theology  and  canon  law  ;  distributed  his  property  to 
the  poor  1.538  ;  devoted  himself  to  the  care  of  pilgrims  and 
the  destitute  sufferers  in  hospitals,  and  fn  that  woi-k  was  as- 
sociated with  Ignatius  Loyola ;  took  holv  orders  1.551,  and 
founded  the  order  of  Priests  of  the  Oratorv,  approved  by 
Gregory  XIII.  in  1575.  D.  at  Rome,  May"  36,  1595;  was 
canonized  in  1632.  See  Oratory,  Conqregatiox  of  the, 
and  Faher's  Spirit  and  Genius  of  St.  Philip  ^Veri  (1850). 

Nerit'idae  [Mod.  Lat.,  name  from  Xe'rila.  the  tvpical 
genus,  from  Lat.  ne'riln  =  Gr.  vTipcWiis,  sea-mussel,"  peri- 
winkle, deriv.  of  Nijpeus.  a  sea-god] :  a  family  of  Azvgo- 
branch  moUusks  (see  Gasteropoda)  containing  some  "200 
species,  cliaracterized  liy  having  a  solid  semi-globose  shell 
with  a  straight  coliimellar  lip,  which  may  bear  a  prominent 
tooth  near  its  middle.  In  one  species "(iVfriVa  peloronta) 
the  columella  at  the  base  of  this  tooth  has  a  red  blotch, 
whence  the  name,  which  signifies  "  bleeding  tooth."  The 
aperture  is  closed  by  a  calcareous  operculum,  which  locks 


into  the  columella.     Most  of  the  species  are  marine,  but 
some  extend  into  brackish  and  others  into  fresh  water. 

Ne'ro,  Lucius  Domitius  (after  his  adoption  by  the  Em- 
peror Claudius  called  Nero  Claudius  C.^sar  Drusus  Ger- 
MAXicus) :  Roman  emperor  from  54  to  68  a.  d.  ;  the  son  of 
Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus  and  the  younger  Agrippina, 
daughter  of  Germanicus ;  b.  at  Antium  in  37  a.  d.  After 
the  marriage  of  his  mother  to  the  Emperor  Claudius  (49 
A.  D.)  he  was  adopted  by  the  latter,  and  a  few  years  later 
married  the  emperor's  daughter  Octavia.  As  early  as  his 
fourteenth  year,  on  the  assumption  of  the  toga  of  man- 
hood, the  intrigues  of  his  mother  had  caused  his  succession 
to  the  imperial  dignity  to  seem  assured,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  emperor  had  a  natural  son  of  great  promise,  the 
young  Britannicus.  In  54  A.  D.  Claudius  died  (poisoned,  our 
authorities  agree,  by  Agrippina,  in  order  to  insure  and 
hasten  her  son's  succession),  and,  the  claims  of  Britannicus 
being  ignored,  Nero  was  saluted  as  emperor  first  by  the 
pra?torian  guard  and  then  by  the  senate.  At  this"  time 
Nero  was  only  seventeen  yeare  of  age  and  still  under  the 
influence  of  his  tutors,  Burrus  and  the  philosopher  Seneca, 
who,  during  the  first  years  of  his  reign,  practically  ruled 
the  empire.  The  high  hopes  which  had  been  raised  by 
belief  in  the  ability  and  noble  nature  of  Nero  were  not  at 
first  disappointed,  so  long  as  the  infiuence  of  Seneca  kept 
the  baser  qualities  of  his  nature  in  check  ;  but  the  jealousy 
of  Agrippina,  who  saw  her  influence  over  her  son  waning, 
gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  unparalleled  series  of  crimes 
which  make  up  the  chief  history  of  Nero's  reign.  His  first 
victim  was  Britannicus,  the  son  of  Claudius,  for  whom  Ag- 
rippina had  threatened  to  secure  the  imperial  throne  in 
his  stead.  In  59  a.  d.  he  caused  the  death  of  his  mother, 
and  from  this  time  on  he  abandoned  himself  to  a  career  of 
the  wildest  and  most  enormous  profligacy  and  crime.  In- 
deed, the  record  of  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  is  little 
more  than  a  tedious  enumeration  of  the  victims  of  his  fear 
and  hate.  The  conflagration  in  64  a.  d..  which  swept  away 
the  greater  part  of  the  city,  was  attributed  to  X'ero  in  liis 
own  time,  and  practically  all  authorities  after  Tacitus 
charge  him  with  it ;  but  Tacitus  reports  the  rumor  without 
giving  it  credence,  and  its  truth  may  well  be  questioned. 
To  avert  suspicion  from  himself  the  deed  was  charged  to 
the  Jews  and  Christians  of  Rome,  and  some  of  the  latter 
perished  for  it  as  the  first  victims  of  Roman  persecution. 
The  city  was  rebuilt  by  Nero  in  a  more  durable  and  better 
manner,  with  wider  streets  and  more  adequate  precautions 
against  fire.  The  chief  feature  of  the  reconstruction  was 
the  magnificent  palace  called  "the  golden  house,''  which 
stretched  over  a  vast  area  of  the  best  portion  of  the  city, 
from  the  Palatine  across  the  intervening  valley  to  the  Es- 
quiline.  (See  Middleton,  i?e?Ha('n.5:  of  Ancient  i?o»!f,  Lon- 
don, 1892,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  145-1.53.)  In  the  following  year  a  con- 
spiracy against  the  life  of  Nero  was  disclosed,  and  the  leaders 
of  it,  as  well  as  many  innocent  persons  on  whom  suspicion 
fell,  were  punished.  Among  the  latter  was  his  former  tutor 
and  friend,  the  philosopher  Seneca,  whom  he  ordered  to  die. 
Nero  possessed  accomplishments  as  a  singer,  actor,  and  ath- 
lete of  no  common  kind,  and  was  fond  of  displaying  him- 
self. In  the  yeai'  64  he  appeared  thus  in  public  at  N^aples, 
and  two  years  later  he  journeyed  through  Greece.  %vhere  he 
found  a  more  appreciative  audience,  taking  part  in  the  con- 
tests of  the  Greek  festivals.  On  his  return  to  Italy  early  in 
68  he  tarried  long  in  Naples,  and  was  finally  recalled  to 
Rome  by  the  news  of  the  revolt  of  Gaul  under  Julius  Vin- 
dex.  This  movement  was  joined  by  Spain  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Galba,  who  had  been  saluted  as  emperor  by  his  sol- 
diers. Virginius,  the  governor  of  LTpper  Germany,  lent  his 
support  to  the  insurrection,  and  the  senate  proclaimed  Nero 
a  public  enemy  and  condemned  him  to  death.  At  this 
Nero  fled  for  refuge  to  the  villa  of  a  faithful  freedman, 
but,  as  he  was  being  overtaken  by  his  pursuers,  put  an  end 
to  his  own  life.  See  H.  Schiller,  Geschictife  des  rom.  Kaiser- 
reichs  miter  der  Regierung  des  Nero  (Berlin,  1873). 

G.  L.  Hendrioksox. 

Nero :  See  Claudius. 

Nertcliiiisk  :  town  of  Eastern  Siberia,  province  of  Trans- 
baikalia :  527  miles  E.  of  Irkutsk,  on  the  basin  of  the  Amur; 
on  the  Xertcha  river,  3  miles  from  its  confluence  with  the 
Shilka.  The  town  was  founded  in  1654.  It  was  removed 
from  the  Shilka  in  1813  to  avoid  the  frequent  inundations 
of  this  river,  but  in  1840  it  was  seriously  injured  by  floods 
from  the  N^ertcha.  The  country  around  aliounds  in  good 
pasturage  and  in  rich  ores  of  many  minerals,  inckiding  gold, 


XEKLDA 


KESSELRODE 


117 


silver,  and  precious  stones.  The  richest  mineral  district  lies 
between  the  Shilka  and  the  Arffiin.  and  embraces  3.250  sq. 
miles  belonjjintc  to  the  czar.     l'oi«.  ;i,lK)0.  M.  W.  H. 

Nerilda.  ner  o'o-daa.  Jan  :  poet  and  novelist  ;  b.  at  Prague, 
Bohemia, . I uly  10,  lN;i4  :  studied  law  and  raiMlern  lanj;uaf;es 
at  the  University  of  Pnij;uc,  adopted  a  literary  career,  and 
edited  various  jourtnds  ;  (Jbriizi/  iivoln  (Pictures  of  Life, 
18.'")U-<>0) ;  Rodiniid  krunikii  (The  Paniily  Chronicle.  1863- 
64);  Kvi'ly  (lilossonis,  1n0.")-6<j).  In  ixti)  he  became  the 
regular  feuilletonist  to  the  Sdnnliii  Am/^  (National  Gazette), 
»  position  which  he  hehl  until  his  death  Aug.  22,  1801.  Ner- 
uaa  must  !«■  considered  the  head  of  the  new  romantic  school 
of  poi'try  in  Bohemia,  which  originated  In  the  fifties  in 
opposition  to  the  old  •'  national  "  school.  In  the  production 
of  short,  witty  discourses  on  timely  topics  he  ha.s  no  equal 
among  .'Slavonic  writers,  lie  disseminated  free  thought,  and 
was  therefore  caluuiniated  by  the  priests.  His  first  poems 
appeared  in  the  Liimir  (18.>t)  and  the  almanac  Mdj  (.May, 
18.VH).  He  pulilisluil:  poems,  Ilrljitoimi  kviti  (Flowers  from 
the  L'hurchyard,  Prague,  18.58),  reflections  on  contemporary 
life;  Knihy  ivmiI  (ISooks  of  Verse,  1808),  epic,  lyric,  and 
occasional:  PUn!'  konmicke  (Cosmic  Songs,  1878),  songs  of 
the  universe,  highlv  praised  by  (ierman  critics;  liallady  a 
romance (V'^i);  Pni.il^  Hio^cy  (Sim |ile  Motives,  1884);  iCpvry 
ixilri'iii  (Friday  .Songs,  left  in  manuscript),  patriotic  lyrics. 
Dramas  :  Fraiirfxcii  di  liimini  (1800),  a  tragedy,  and  come- 
dies I'rndund  Idnkd  (The  Sold  Love,  18T!>)  and  three  others. 
Novels,  stories,  and  sketches:  Arahesky  (1804:  2il  cd.  1880); 
RHznl  lide  (Various  People,  1871)  :  Obrazy  z  eiziny 
(Sketches  from  Foreign  Lamls,  1872) ;  FeuiUelony  (1876,  et 
teq,);  Mnliinlriiii.iki  /xiridky  (Little  Side  Stories.  1878, 
188;t).  stories  of  Prague  life,  his  uuisterpiece.  His  collected 
works,  editetl  bv  Ignat  Herrmann,  were  publisheil  at  Prague 
(181)3-94).  "  J.  J.  KR.iL. 

Ner'va,  M.\Rri's  Cotceius  :  Roman  emperor  from  96  to 
98  A.  i>.  As  a  member  of  the  senate  he  had  won  a  good 
name  for  pruileiice  and  integrity,  and  after  the  murder  of 
Domitian  he  wius  ileclared  emperor.  Though  not  an  ad- 
ministnitur  of  great  abilitv  or  force,  he  reformed  many  of 
the  worst  abuses  of  Domitian's  rule,  and  succeeded  in  a 
measure  in  "  blending  things  once  irreconcilable,  sovereignty 
and  freedom  "  (Turitux).  Feeling,  however,  that  he  was  not 
strong  enough  alone  to  withstand  the  hostility  of  Domi- 
tian's former  instrument  of  servitude,  the  pnctorian  guard. 
he  adopted  and  associated  with  himself  Trajan,  then  coni- 
maniler  of  the  army  on  the  Rhine.  After  three  months  of 
joint  rule  Xerva  diiMl  suddenly  (ut  the  age  of  sixty-six)  and 
was  su<>ceeded  by  Trajan.  G.  Ij.  Hendriukson. 

Nerval.  (iKRARi)  uk:  See  GERARn  de  Nerval. 

Ncru'S  Iplur.  of  nenv,  via  O.  Fr.  from  Lat.  nerviu.  sinew, 
tenilon,  til>cr,  nerve,  akin  to  (ir.  vtvpov,  sinew,  nerve]:  the 
cords  of  communication  between  the  central  nervous  system 
and  the  peripheral  parts — the  skin,  internal  surfaces,  muscu- 
lar up|>aratus,  organs  of  special  sense.  These  cords  vary  in 
diameter  from  a  microscopic  dimension  to  10  millimeters, 
their  lengths  also  vary  widely,  from  a  few  lines  to  2  feet 
anil  more.  Every  nerve,  whether  microscopic  or  larger  in 
size,  is  a  compound  structure  made  uii  of  nervous  and  con- 
nective tissue.  For  the  structural  (letails,  see  Histoloov 
(A'cnvji  and  Xerre-ceiitrrK).  The  fund  ions  of  nerves  are  gen- 
eral and  special.  As  general  functions  or  properties  are 
recognized — (1)  conductibility,  (2)  excitability.  F5y  the  for- 
mer, sensory  iuifiressions  are  conveyed  from  peripheral  parts 
through  nerve-iibers  centripetally  to  the  nervous  centers: 
the  siiinal  conl  and  brain  are  thus  affected  by  the  external 
worhl.  Again,  conduction  takes  place  in  a  centrifugal  di- 
rection, motor  excitations  being  sent  from  the  nervous 
centers  to  peripheral  apparatus:  the  activity  of  the  organ- 
ism is  mmle  externally  manifest.  Excitability  is  the  prop- 
erty which  nervc's  have  of  reading  to  impressions  imh'pend- 
ently  of  the  nervous  centers — a  property  which,  after  sec- 
tion of  a  nerve,  survives  for  about  three  days  in  the  distal 
portion.  The  special  functions  of  nerves  are  treated  of 
under  other  headings.  (See  Sensation,  F,ve,  Ear.  Taste, 
etc.)  A  very  important  functiim  of  certain  nerve-fibers  is 
that  relating  to  nutrition.  It  is  known  that  when  certain 
flbi-rs  of  a  nerve  are  cut  atrophy  and  degeneration  take  place 
in  the  parts  supplic'd  by  this  nrrvc\  These  fibers,  known  as 
tropliir  tihrrs,  are  probably  present  in  most  nerves,  but  es- 
pecially in  certain  ones.  .Vnother  highly  imiHirtant  set  of 
nerves  are  those  which  govern  the  blotnl-vessels  and  n'gulate 
their  state  of  contraction  or  distention.  In  this  wav  these 
nerves  are  also  closely  concerned  with  nutrition,     \ervcs 


arc  liable  to  various  diseases,  such  as  inflammation  (neuritis), 
or  tumors  (neuroma),  and  often  receive  injuries.  See  His- 
tology. Revised  by  William  Peiter. 

Ner'vli  :  an  ancient  Belgie  race,  probably  of  Oernianic 
or  Dutch  stock,  who  desperately  opposed  Ca-sar  in  several 
blooilv  wars  (.57-52  B.C.).  Their  chief  towns  were  Baya- 
cum  (liavay)  and  Vamaracum  (Cand)ray). 

Nervous  Diseases:  affections  of  the  nervous  system — 
that  is,  of  the  brain,  spinal  cord,  or  external  nerves.  They 
may  be  either  functional  or  organic.  Hy  functional  nervous 
diseases  are  meant  such  as  present  no  anatomical  alteration 
of  nerve  structure  to  the  naked  eye  or  to  other  means  of  ex- 
amimition  at  our  command.  Though  this  group  has  bc'cn 
nnilerially  lessened  in  number  by  the  more  accurate  meth- 
ods of  study  recently  ac(iuired,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  there  will  always  be  left  a  certain  number  in  which  the 
disorder  of  nerve  action  is  possibly  rather  of  a  chemical 
than  of  a  structural  origin.  Whether  this  be  true  or  not, 
for  the  present  there  are  certain  nervous  diseases  in  which 
structural  changes  are  not  discoverable.  These  are  often 
spoken  of  as  netiruwu.  Many  vague  ccjnditions  are  included 
in  this  group,  and  in  the  course  of  many  organic  diseases  of 
other  parts  of  the  body  nervous  disorclers  of  a  functional, 
probably  often  toxic,  nature  are  developed.  The  term  neri"- 
6i/AHc.s,s  is  applied  loosely  to  many  distinct  conditions;  but 
there  is  a  form  of  unstable  nervous  equilibrium  which  has 
occupieil  much  attention  of  late,  and  which  is  variously 
known  as  nervous  exhaustion,  nervous  break-down,  and 
neurasthenia.  This  disorder  assumes  many  forms,  accord- 
ing to  the  part  of  the  nervous  system  involved  and  the 
causes  at  work.  It  is  of  immense  importance  to  recognize 
it  as  a  distinct  affecticm  as  well  as  its  influence  in  further- 
ing other  and  organic  diseases.  Overwork,  excesses,  and 
disease  are  at  the  bottom  of  this,  which  is  really  a  condition 
of  wasted  nerve  force.  Epilepsy,  hysteria,  certain  forms  of 
insanity,  and  neuralgia  are  among  the  more  .serious  nerve 
disorders  of  the  functional  kind.  In  all  of  them  heredity 
plays  a  [lart — n  jt  necessarily  in  every  case,  but  in  many. 
The  vices  as  well  as  the  diseases  of  the  ancestor  are  visited 
upon  the  offspring:  the  child  of  a  druidien  father  may  be 
an  epileptic;  the  child  of  an  epileptic  insane.  Alternaiely, 
from  generation  to  generation,  one  and  another  finidional 
nervous  disease  crops  out  in  families  with  this  neunijiathic 
taint,  slight  exciting  causes  suflicing  to  upset  the  originally 
weak  nervous  organization.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most 
stable  nervous  system  may  succumb  to  unusual  and  im- 
proper st  rains. 

'Hie  organic  affections  of  the  nervous  system  may  be 
classified,  as  are  the  diseases  of  other  organs,  by  the  nature 
of  the  structural  changes.  These  miiy  be  ana'uiia,  conges- 
tion, inflammat  ion.  degenerative  changers,  malignant  growths, 
and  the  like,  as  elsewhere.  An  idc^al  system  of  classificatiim 
would  take  these  changes  alone  into  consideration.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  the  knowledge  of  the  physiology  and 
pathology  of  the  nervous  system  has  not  vet  reached  the 
point  where  this  is  pcwsiblc.  We  are  constranied  to  consider 
nervous  diseases  from  the  clinical  standpoint,  grouping  to- 
gether diseases  whose  external  nninifestations  or  symptoms 
are  the  same  when  in  reality  their  essential  nature  is  proba- 
bly widely  different.  Thus' we  recognize  St.  Vitus's  dance 
by  certain  symptoms,  yet  it  is  probable  that  this  is  not  es- 
sentially a  disease,  but  a  form  of  expression  of  various  dis- 
eases, just  as  dropsy  nuiy  result  from  heart  disease  or  dis- 
ease of  the  kidneys.  The  individual  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system  arc  considered  under  the  names  of  the  diseases  them- 
selves. William  Pepper. 

Ncrvons  System:  See  nisTOLOGV, Nervfjs, and  Anatomy, 

COMI'.VIIATIVE. 

Nes'selrode.  Karl  Robert,  Count  von  :  Russian  diplo- 
mnlist  ;  b.  at  Lisbon.  Dec.  14, .1780,  where  his  falhc>r  was 
Russian  ambassador;  entered  *ery  early  on  a  cliplomatic 
career;  gained  the  confidence  of  the  Emperor  Alexander; 
was  nuide  Minister  of  Foreign  -Affairs  in  1812.  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  all  the  important  negotiations  with 
Franco  and  the  allies  at  the  dose  of  the  Napoleonic  wars. 
He  represented  Russia  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and  after- 
ward at  the  congresses  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  usually  favor- 
ing a  peaceful  and  moderate  nolicy.  At  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
1818  he  showed  gn^at  zeal  in  the  interest  of  France,  urging 
that  the  occupation  of  that  country  bv  the  allies  should 
cease.  For  this  he  was  rewarded  by  tlic  French  Govern- 
ment, which  added  enormously  to  his  wealth.  He  became 
vice-chancellor  of  the  empire  "in  1829,  chancellor  in  1844, 


lis 


NESSLBR 


NESTORIANS 


and  governed  the  relations  of  Russia  with  foreign  powers  to 
1856,  when,  after  signing  the  Peace  of  Paris,  he  retired  into 
private  life,  and  died  at  St.  Petersburg,  Mar.  23,  1863.  His 
relation  to  Alexander  I.  and  Nicholas  depended  partly  upon 
hypocrisy  ;  he  had  a  great  talent  for  concealing  his  own  su- 
periority and  making  others  embrace  his  ideas,  in  the  belief 
that  they  themselves  had  produced  them.  His  Autobiog- 
raphy, written  in  French,  and  somewhat  disappointing  as  to 
its  contents,  was  published  after  his  death. 

Nessler,  Victor  :  opera-composer  ;  b.  in  Alsace,  Jan.  28, 
1841  ;  was  a  pupil  of  Theophil  Stern  at  Strassburg ;  studied 
theologv,  but  gave  it  up  for  music  ;  conducted  several  sing- 
ing societies  in  Leipzig,  and  also  at  the  theater  from  1870  to 
1879.  He  lives  at  Strassburg.  His  operas  are  popular,  and 
include  Dornroschens  Braulfahrt  (1867);  Inningard  (1876); 
Der  Rattenfdnger  von  Hameln  (1879) ;  Der  Wilde  Jager 
(1881) ;  Der  Trompeter  von  Sackingen  (1884).  He  has  also 
composed  several  operettas,  cantatas,  etc.  I).  E.  H. 

Ness,  Loch  :  a  lake  in  the  county  of  Inverness,  Scotland ; 
in  the  valley  of  Glenmore  ;  23  miles  long  and  \\  miles 
broad.  It  communicates  with  the  Moray  Firth  by  the  river 
Ness. 

Nestor,  The  Chronicle  of:  nearly,  if  not  quite,  the  old- 
est chronicle  we  possess  of  the  early  history  of  Russia.  It 
is  supposed,  on  no  very  good  evidence,  to  have  been  written, 
or  at  least  compiled,  by  a  monk  named  Nestor,  who  was 
born  at  Kiev  in  1066  and  died  in  1113.  However  that  may 
be,  it  is  a  document  of  the  greatest  importance  for  our 
knowledge  of  the  time  it  describes.  Although  it  has  the 
faults  of  other  medieval  histories,  with  little  pretense  to 
literary  merit  or  critical  insight,  the  wide  knowledge  of  the 
chronicler  and  the  general  trustworthiness  of  his  facts  put 
the  work  above  most  others  of  its  class.  It  begins  with  the 
creation,  and  comes  down  to  the  year  1113.  describing  many 
events  that  occurred  during  the"  lifetime  of  the  writer  or 
were  related  to  him  by  older  eyewitnesses.  The  language  is 
one  of  transition  froui  the  old  Church  Slavonic  to  Old  Rus- 
sian. The  most  ancient  manuscript  extant,  the  so-cailed 
Laurentian  (Lavrentinskil  Spisok.  facsimile,  St.  Petersburg, 
1870),  dates  from  1377,  and  was  not  known  to  the  editors  of 
the  first  printed  text  (1767).  A  revised  edition  was  published 
at  Vienna  in  1860.  The  chronicle  has  been  translated  into 
Bohemian,  Polish,  German,  and  French.  The  last  French 
version  is  bv  L.  Leger  (1884).  See  the  works  of  Schliizer  (5 
vols.,  Gcittingen,  1802-09),  Miklosich  (1855),  Sukholimov, 
and  others.  Nestor  also  left  a  story  of  the  lives  of  certain 
saints,  called  tlie  Paterikon.  A.  C.  Coolidge. 

Nestor  [—  Lat.  =  Gr.  NeVtibp]  :  son  of  Neleus  and  Ghloris 
and  King  of  Pyhis  iij  Mcssenia.  When  Heracles  captured 
Pvlus  and  slew'all  the  other  sons  of  Neleus,  Nestor  escaped 
death  because  he  was  alisent  at  Gerenia.  For  this  reason 
he  bears  the  epithet  of  Gerenian  in  Homer.  In  his  youth 
he  fought  against  the  Epeans  of  Elis,  against  the  Arcadians, 
and  on  the  side  of  the  LapithiB  against  the  Centaurs.  He 
also  took  part  in  the  Calydonian  boar-hunt,  and  in  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition.  When,  as  an  old  man,  he  was  ruling 
over  the  tliird  generation  of  his  subjects,  it  became  neces- 
sary for  him  to  join  tlie  expedition  against  Troy  because 
his  son  Anlilodius  had  been  a  suitor  of  Helen.  At  Troy  he 
was  one  of  the  foremost  of  the  heroes  both  in  the  council 
and  the  fi'ay,  being  distinguished  for  his  wisdom,  justice, 
and  eloquence.  After  the  Trojan  war  he  resumed  the  reins 
of  government  at  Pylus,  where  Telemachus,  when  on  his 
way  to  Sparta,  found  him  enjoying  a  peaceful  and  happy 
old  age.  His  house  at  Pylus  was  shown  as  late  as  the  time 
of  Pausanias.  His  name  is  still  applied  to  the  oldest  and 
wisest  councilor  of  a  class — e.  g.  the  Nestor  of  Philologians. 

J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Nesto'rlaiiS  :  a  portion  of  the  Oriental  Church,  adherents 
of  Nestorianism  (dioprosojjysni,  two-person-ism),  a  Clu-islo- 
logical  theiiry  which  takes  its  name  from  Nestorius.  who 
was  not  its  first  nor  ablest,  but  became  its  most  renowned, 
representative.  I.  Nestorius  was  a  native  of  Germanieia  in 
Syria,  became  a  pupil  of  Theodoras  of  Mopsuestia  (393-428), 
and  from  him  received  the  views  characteristic  of  the  school 
of  Aniioch  with  which  his  own  name  was  to  be  identified. 
First  a  monk,  then  a  jiresbyter  in  Antioeh,  his  ascetic  piety 
and  gifts  as  a  preaclier  caused  him  to  be  chosen  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  the  great  calamity  of  his  lite  (428-431). 
Like  no  few  of  the  great  heresiarchs,  he  began  as  a  zealot  of 
orthodoxy  and  as  a  persecutor  of  heretics.  The  new  i)atri- 
arch  and'  liis  presbyter,  Anastasius,  whom  he  had  brought 


with  liim,  heard  in  Constantinople  on  every  hand  the  dar- 
ling jihrase  of  tlie  school  of  Alexandria,  "  Mary,  mother  of 
(jod  " — a  phrase  which,  except  with  explanations  and  limi- 
tations which  totally  changed  its  meaning,  the  extreme 
wing  of  the  school  of  Antioeh  would  not  tolerate.  The 
presbyter  (428)  assailed  this  phrase  and  the  theology  it  repre- 
sented. Proclus.  the  unsuccessful  rival  of  Nestorius  for  the 
patriarchate,  eagerly  caught  at  the  opportunity  of  assailing 
Nestorius  through  his  presbyter.  Nestorius  stood  by  Anas- 
tasius. Dorotheus,  the  court  bishop,  pronounced  an  anath- 
ema against  those  who  should  style  Mary  the  mother  of 
God.  At  the  festival  of  the  Annunciation  (429)  Nestorius 
and  Proclus  preached  in  the  same  church  against  each 
other.  The  monks  and  people  rose  in  fury,  renounced  fel- 
lowship with  the  patriarch  (''We  have  an  emperor,  but  no 
bishop."  they  said),  and  treated  him  with  such  insolence 
that  in  his  anger  he  had  the  monks  scourged,  and  at  a  local 
synod  convened  in  429  anathematized  his  opponents  as 
Manichipans. 

II.  There  entered  now  into  the  conflict  the  most  formi- 
dable foe  encountered  by  Nestorius.  This  was  Cyril,  Bishop 
of  Alexandria  (412-444).  His  theology  was  antagonistic  to 
that  of  Antioeh,  and  his  see  was  the  rival  of  Constantinople. 
Nestorius  afforded  hiin  the  opening  for  dealing  one  decisive 
blow  against  both  the  objects  of  his  dislike.  It  was  a  con- 
test bet  ween  a  great  theologian  and  a  shallow  popular  ora- 
tor, between  a  sagacious,  unscrupulous  man  of  the  world 
and  a  monk  whose  excellences  and  defects  showed  the 
traces  of  the  passiveness  and  the  narrowness  of  the  cloister. 
Worst  of  all  for  Nestorius,  there  was  a  statement,  neces- 
sarily crude  in  certain  aspects,  yet  in  the  main  strong  and 
sharply  defined,  of  the  logical  result  of  the  dominant  move- 
ment of  the  mind  of  the  Church  for  ages,  over  against  a  set 
of  clumsy  propositions,  which  never  toucli  the  real  question 
in  discussion,  but  persistently  misstate  it,  and  whose  pre- 
cise force  in  various  respects  is  an  oliject  of  dispute  to  this 
hour.  Cyril  charged  Nestorius  with  making  two  persons, 
of  two  natures,  and  thus  denying  the  proper  personal  deity 
of  Christ,  making  him  in  one  person  God,  in  another  per- 
son man,  and  not,  as  he  was  in  truth,  in  one  person,  the 
God-man,  so  that  every  act  and  every  passion  was  personal, 
though  it  were  according  to  one  or  the  other  nature.  Nes- 
torius was  charged  with  teaching  a  moral,  ideal,  voluntary 
connectinn  (awi^tia)  of  two  persons,  instead  of  tlie  natural, 
real,  and  inseparable  union  (tVwiris)  of  two  natures  into  one 
person.  At  the  synod  of  Alexandria  (430)  Cyril  issued 
twelve  anathemas,  to  which  Nestorius  replied  in  the  same 
form. 

III.  The  third  CEcumenical  Council  was  convened  by  the 
desire  of  both  parties  at  Ephesus  (431).  The  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius  II..  who  called  it,  was  friendly  to  Nestorius.  After  a 
delay  of  fifteen  days,  in  consequence  of  tlie  involuntary  de- 
tention of  .loliii  and  the  other  Syrian  bishops,  the  council 
[iroceeded  in  their  absence,  in  a  very  hurried  way,  to  con- 
demn and  depose  Nestorius  and  fifty  bishops  who  sympa- 
thized with  him.  It  acknowledged  the  anathemas  of  Cyril 
as  tlie  true  doctrine  of  the  Church.  The  delayed  bishops 
held  a  separate  council,  and  made  decisions  reversing  all 
that  had  been  done  by  the  other.  Nestorius  voluntarily  re- 
tired to  his  old  cloister.  The  emperor  attempted  to  unite 
the  parties  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (432),  but  without 
success.  The  deposition  of  Cyril,  Jlemiion,  and  Nestorius 
had  been  jironounced  in  form  by  the  emperor,  but  only  in 
the  case  of  Nestorius  did  it  take  effect.  The  overthrow  of 
Nestorius  made  it  safe  for  Cyril  to  accept  the  advances  of 
the  emperor  toward  a  settlement  of  the  controversy.  A  for- 
mula was  ijrepared  by  Theodoret  (433)  wliicli  confessed  that 
there  is,  without  confusion,  such  a  union  of  the  two  natures 
in  the  one  Christ  as  to  justify  the  language  that  Mary  is  the 
mother  of  God.  This  was  signed  by  Cyril  on  the  one  side, 
and  on  tlie  other  side  John  of  Antioeh  concurred  in  the 
anatliema  pronounced  on  Nestorius.  Many  of  the  earnest 
men  on  both  sides,  but  especially  those  of  the  school  of 
Antioeh,  were  dissatisfied  with  the  compromise.  The  em- 
peror urged  it.  Theodoret  yielded  on  condition  that  he 
should  not  be  required  to  .sigii  the  condemnation  of  Nesto- 
rius. Meletius  and  .Alexander  continued  their  resistance, 
and  were  ileposed.  Nestorius  had  now  lost  all  favor  with 
tlie  emperor.  Even  the  poor  shelter  of  the  cloister  was  de- 
nied liim.  and  he  was  hunted  from  one  place  of  exile  to  an- 
otlier  until  liis  death. 

IV.  The  Nestorian  party  did  not,  however,  become  ex- 
tinct. Their  school  at  Edessa,  a  daughter  of  the  school  at 
Antioeh,  trained  men  for  the  priesthood  of  the  Church  in 


I 


NESTORIANS 


NESTS  OF  BIRDS 


119 


Persia.  Il>as,  Bisliop  of  Edcssa  (4;}8-4o7),  was  one  of  its 
great  iianu'S.  Tlumuis  Barsiima.s,  Bislio|i  of  Nisibis  (435- 
489),  lalioreil  to  socure  a  |)  'rinuiu'iit  |ilaoe  for  Xesloriaiiisiii 
in  I'orsia.  lie  t'staMished  a  patriarc-lmtr  in  Stlfiuia,  ami 
when  the  sch<Mil  at  Kilessa  was  (lestroyed  l)y  onler  of  Zcno 
(48U)  he  foiiniled  a  seho(jl  at  Nislhis.  It  wa.s  the  poliey  of 
the  I'ersiun  kind's  to  foster  the  division  lietwecn  their  own 
Christian  siilijeets  and  the  Christians  of  the  Honian  empire. 
The  Nestorians  established  a  distinet  ehiirch  government, 
and  caMed  themselves  not  Xestorians — which  was  the  title 
by  which  their  enemies  stif;mati/.ed  them — but  Chaldee 
Christians,  with  reference  to  tlieir  earlier  home  and  the  lan- 
gua-je  which  they  em|)loycil  in  their  church  service.  At 
the  Council  of  S'eleucia-Clesiphon  (4!>8-U'J).  a  statement  of 
their  doctrine  and  of  its  divergency  from  what  claimed  to 
be  orthoilox  was  made,  and  the  Church  of  Persia  was  for- 
mally separated,  making  its  doctrinal  basis  the  assertion 
that  Christ  consists  of  two  substaiu'cs.  two  natures,  and  of 
two  persons  or  hypostases,  in  one  "  partsupo  "  of  filiation, 
the  natures  continuing  to  subsist  unchanged,  and  the  i>er- 
sons  also.  The  term  "partsupo"  (pai-sopa)  has  been  the 
subject  of  a  good  deal  of  dispute,  as  more  than  any  other 
determining  the  orthodoxy  or  heterodoxy  of  the  Nestorians. 
There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  is  formed  from  the  Greek 
wpiaanor.  The  Peshitto-Syriao  uses  it  to  render  that  word 
in  its  sense  of  face,  appearance,  outward  appearance,  mani- 
festation of  presence,  jierson  (in  the  popular  sensi'),  an<l  in 
the  Neslorian  usage  it  often  corres|ion<ls  with  Asseman's 
definition  of  it,  "  nature  numifested  to  the  senses; "  but  in 
connection  wilh  "  filiation"  it  seems  to  correspond  very 
nearly  with  what  is  called  "  hypostatical  relation."  and 
woulil  mean  that  though  there  are  two  persons  in  Christ, 
there  are  not  two  sonships,  but  that  the  human  derivative 
sonship  coincides  so  far  with  the  divine  essential  Sonship  as 
to  stand  in  the  unity  of  the  relation  of  the  Son,  though  not 
in  the  unity  of  his  person — in  unity  of  the  partsupo,  but 
not  ill  unity  of  the  iptoino  (chauma-hypostasis).  The  meta- 
physical diiliciilty  running  through  the  entire  Christ ological 
contiovei-sies  of  the  ancient  Church  connected  itself  with 
the  identification  or  distinction  of  the  ideas  of  nature  and 
person.  Ni'slorianism  allirmed  the  concrete  identity  of  the 
two.  (See  Christoloov,  MoxoPHYstTES,  and  Monothelites.) 
See  W  eismann,  11.  -V.  J.  I.,  &M  \  Schrockh,  K.  O.,  xviii., 
311  ;  Badger,  Xexlorinns  and  tlieir  Rituals  (\S~yi),  ii.,  cli.  vi. 

V.  Ill  the  sixth  century  Nestoriaiiism  spread  into  Kgypt  and 
-Vrabia.  into  liidiii,  and  in  the  eighth  in  China.  .\1  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eleventh  century  there  were  Nestorians  in  Tartary. 
(See  Prester  John.)  The  Nestorian  jiatriarch  Zesu/.abes 
entered  into  a  formal  compact  first  with  Jlohammed,  and 
subseiiuently  with  Umar.  During  the  Arabian  domination 
the  high  places  of  state  were  open  to  them.  In  the  tenth 
century  tliey  were  oppressed,  and  from  that  time  there  has 
been  a  decline  in  their  intellectual  and  theological  activity. 

VI.  The  Nestorians  reinaineil  under  one  ecclesiastical 
head  until  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  thirteenth  Inno- 
cent IV.  anil  Nicholas  I\'.  had  made  attempts,  which  were 
not  successful,  to  bring  al>oiit  a  union  of  the  Nestorians 
with  the  see  of  Koine.  The  influence  of  Home,  however, 
was  suflicient  to  diviile  them  in  the  choice  of  their  iazelich 
(the  catholic — their  name  for  their  patriarch)  in  1.>")1.  One 
parly  favoreil  .Sulakas,  who,  umler  the  name  of  .John,  had 
been  consecrateil  by  .Iiilius  III.  The  others  adhered  to 
Simeon  Barmas.  The  partisans  of  ,lohn  went  over  to  the 
Church  of  lioiue,  and  form  the  I'nitcd  Nestorians,  or,  as  they 
are  freipiently  named,  giving  them  the  title  of  the  ancient 
undivided  body,  Chahlee  Christians.  They  number  about 
90,OUO  souls,  acknowledge  the  primacy  of  the  pope  and  the 
seven  sacraments,  and  observe  the  ritual  of  the  (trei'k  Church. 
Tlii-ir  |)alriarch  has  his  see  at  Diarbekir.  Thi'  non-uniled 
Nestorians  acknowledge  three  sacraments  only — baptism,  the 
liord's  Supper  (in  both  kinds  and  without  solitary  masses), 
and  ordination.  Thi'V  have  been  styled  for  these  and  other 
reasons  "the  Protestants  of  the  East."  They  have  no  pic- 
tures or  images.  Their  clergy  are  allowed  lo  marry.  They 
have  a  population  of  about  TO.IMX).  The  internal  energy 
which  once  marked  the  Nestorian  clmrclies  has  almost  vaii- 
isheil.  The  Nestorians  of  Inilia  are  called  the  Chrislians  of 
St.  Thomas,  or  .Syrian  Chrislians.     Those  on  the  coast  were 

brought  into  nomiti:il  union  with  the  s f  Koine  in  l."i!l!i. 

These  have  nearly  KM)  churches,  a  popnlal ion  of  about  I.50.- 
tiot),  and  a  theological  seminary  at  Pulinguiina.  The  Chris- 
tians of  St.  Thomas  in  the  interior  declined  the  union  with 
the  popi',  and  when  n  renewed  effort  was  made  in  l(i.")3  to 
bring  them  into  it  they  fled  to  the  tihauts,  and  placed  them- 


selves under  the  protection  of  the  rajah.  They  have  between 
sixty  and  seventy  churches,  and  number  about  70,000.  The 
Nestorian  monks  and  nuns  observe  the  rule  of  St.  Anthony. 
Their  center  is  the  cloister  of  llormoz.  Their  vows  are  not 
strict.  It  is  possible  to  be  freed  from  them  and  to  marry. 
In  addition  to  their  religious  duties,  the  monks  occupy  them- 
selves with  manual  labor;  lay  sisters  provide  their  support. 
Some  of  the  cloisters  have  the  monks  and  nuns  in  separate 
cells,  under  one  roof.  Flesh,  butter,  and  milk  are  forbulden. 
The  costume  of  the  brethren  and  sLsters  ciuislsts  of  a  black 
upper  robe  and  skirt.  The  brethren  wear  a  blue  turban,  the 
sisters  a  black  veil. 

VII.  Missionaries  from  the  V .  S.  have  labored  among  the 
Nestorians  in  Turkey  and  Persia.  The  most  distinguished 
has  been  Kev.  Dr.  .Iiistin  Perkins,  who  began  work  in  \KH. 
The  Kurds  and  Turks  waged  a  war  of  extermination  against 
the  Nestorians  of  the  mountains  in  1K43,  and  as  a  result  the 
Protestant  missions  were  swept  away  in  1846.  Mission 
efforts  have  since  been  renewed  with  success. 

VIII.  The  oMer  literature  is  given  in  AValch,  Bilil.  Tlieol. 
Sil.;  Wilier. //(/«(//). ;  an<l  Daiiz,  I'nir.  It',  /i.  .See  Smith 
ami  Ihvighl.  lieseurclies  (1833);  Grant's  >\'e«^ori'ons  (1841) ; 
Wiggers,  Statisti/c  (1842);  Perkins  (184;J;  also  in  1861); 
Wingard,  Pros.  Stale  of  the  Cliurch  (from  the  Swedish, 
184.')l;  Layard.  :\7)ie(r/i  (lH4i));  Christian  Year-book  (\%m)\ 
K.  Aiulerson.  Histori/  of  J/ixsions  to  the  Oriental  Churches 
(1873);  Laurie.  M'omoii  anil  her  Saviour  in  Persia  (1863); 
Dr.  (/rant  ami  the  Muiintain  yestorians  (1874);  German, 
Die  Kirche  der  Thomaxchristen  (1877);  hegge,  Nestorian 
Monuments  in  China  (1888).      Revised  by  S.  AI.  Jackson, 

Nests  of  Birds  fO.  Eng.  /im/  :  Germ.  »?.«/< Ten t.  nesl-< 
Indo-Eur.  HiW«.s>Sanskr.  n'li/a-  :  Lat.  ni  ihii]:  While  nest- 
building  species  are  found  among  all  cla.sses  of  animals, 
there  is  no  other  group  whose  members  so  universally  con- 
struct nests  and  are  such  adejjts  at  the  art  as  birds.  There 
are,  however,  many  species  whidi  build  no  nest  whatever. 
Some,  like  the  niurre  (tVi'n)  and  razorbill  (.l/c« /(«•'/«).  de- 
posit their  eggs  on  the  rocky  shelves  of  sea-washed  cliffs; 
others,  like  some  goatsuckers,  lay  their  eggs  directly  on  the 
ground;  others  occupy  deserted  nests  or  those  from  which 
they  have  driven  away  the  rightful  owners;  while  a  few, 
including  the  European  cuckoo  and  the  cowbird  (Molothrus) 
of  the  U.  S.,  drop  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds,  and 
leave  their  young  to  the  care  of  these  adopted  parents. 

While  the  ends  attained  by  building  a  nest  are  various,  it 
may  be  said  that  primarily  the  object  is  to  fiirnisli  a  safe 
receptacle  for  eggs  and  young,  a  place  where  the  former 
can  lie  kept  together  in  small  comiias.s.  so  lliat  tliey  can  be 
readily  covered  by  the  parent,  and  where  the  latter  will  be 
measurably  .secure  from  accident  until  old  enough  to  shift 
for  themselves.  Protection  from  eneniics.  either  by,conceal- 
ment  or  inaccessible  location,  protection  from  the  weather, 
and  retention  of  heat  are  also  among  the  advantages  of  a 
nest. 

Attempts,  more  or  less  fanciful,  have  been  made  to  group 
birds  according  to  the  structure  or  location  of  their  nests, 
but  such  artificial  systems  have  faileil;  birds  nearly  related 
often  differ  in  their  mode  of  niditication,  while  even  one 
and  the  same  species  may,  under  varying  conditions,  alter 
the  manner  of  building  its  nest. 

In  spile  of  these  variations  we  may,  however,  keeping  in 
mind  that  the  division  is  largely  artificial,  divide  birds 
roughly  into  two  groups — tree-builders  and  ground-buildei-s.* 

The  "grouiid-luiilding  birds,"  iiieluding  all  that  occupy 
its  surface  or  jjenetrate  within  it.  and  those  that  resort  to 
high  (•lilTsand  to  remote  islands,  comprise  not  far  from  one- 
half  of  all  the  species,  including  all  the  diving  birds,  nearly 
all  the  swimmers,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  shore-birds 
and  waders.  The  groiind-bri'cdiiig  birds  that  build  within 
the  earth  are  separated  into  a  group  by  themselves,  known 
as  "  minei-s."  The  latter  include  both  those  which  dig  out 
their  own  luirrow  ami  those  thai  make  use  of  natural  cavi- 
ties or  of  holes  maile  by  other  animals.  Proiniiieiit  among 
the  true  "miners"  is  llie  common  biink-swallow  (Ctiricola 
ripnriii).  This  familiar  species,  abundant  in  both  the  old 
and  the  new  hemispheres,  is  foiiiul  in  large  colonies,  and 
excavates  its  burrow  on  the  steep  face  of  a  sandbank  or  a 
gravel-bi-d.  Its  hole  is  usually  not  more  than  2^  or  3  feet 
in  ileplli,  yet  where  ils  excavation  has  been  dug  Ihrongh  a 
IkmI  of  coarsi'  gravel  I  he  chaiuu'l  has  iH'eii  known  to  be  1>  or 
10  feet  deep;  but  this  apparently  inconsistent  action  is  ac- 

•  Til*-  Ipmn  u.wd  In  this  nrtlele  are  lliose  used  by  Prof.  Rennle  in 
his  work  uu  The  Arctiilecturt  oj  Birds. 


120 


NESTS  OF  BIRDS 


counted  for  by  the  supposition  that  the  swallow  digs  on 
until  it  finds  a  locality  sufficiently  safe  for  its  nest,  which 
is  not  the  case  where  the  gravel  is  large  and  coarse,  and  li- 
able to  fall  down  upon  and  break  the  eggs.  Where  the 
firmness  of  the  sand  permits,  these  holes  are  as  circular  as 
if  planned  with  a  pair  of  compasses.  The  galleries  are  usu- 
ally more  or  less  tortuous,  and  are  at  their  termination  en- 
larged into  a  chamber  in  which  is  placed  a  loose  but  soft  and 
warm  nest.  The  kingfisher  (t'eryle  alcyon),  another  typical 
miner,  mines  a  long  tortuous  gallery  about  5  feet  in  length, 
which  is  sometimes  wholly  in  one  direction,  but  usually 
turns  at  a  right  angle,  to  the  left  or  right,  when  at  the 
depth  of  3  feet ;  at  the  end  of  the  gallery  it  excavates  a  small 
chamber,  in  which  it  deijosits  its  eggs  on  the  bare  earth. 
Occasionally,  if  the  eartli  is  damp,  it  makes  a  small  floor  of 
miscellaneous  materials.  The  European  kingfisher  (Alcedo 
ispida)  very  commonly  makes  a  nest  of  fish-bones,  which, 
being  indigestible,  are  rejected  in  good-sized  pellets.  The 
common  fork-tailed  petrel  (Thalassidroma  leachii)  of  the 
coast  of  the  U.  S.  is  a  very  interesting  "  miner  "  of  peculiar 
habits.  It  digs  a  winding  and  sometimes  intricately  tortu- 
ous burrow,  often  of  great  length,  at  last  causing  its  channel 
to  descend  and  to  double  directly  under  its  first  gallery,  and 
makes  a  large  chamber  at  its  terminus,  which  frequently 
is  directly  under  the  opening,  though  separated  from  it  by 
the  intervening  floor  of  earth.  It  makes  no  nest,  but  lays 
its  single  egg  on  the  bare  soil. 

The  burrowing  owl  of  North  and  South  America  (Speolyto 
cunicularia),  though  able  to  dig  for  itself  when  necessity  com- 
pels, is  usually  a  parasitic  miner.  There  are  two  or  three 
races,  but  their  habits  are  identical.  The  northern  sub-species 
is  found  W.  of  the  Missouri  valley  from  California  to  Mexico. 
It  lives  in  communities,  and  is  often  very  abundant.  It  takes 
possession  of  the  burrows  of  several  species  of  small  quadru- 
peds where  these  offer,  chiefly  occupying  those  of  the  pi-airie- 
dog.  The  story  that  owl  and  prairie-dog  dwell  harmoniously 
together  is  a  myth,  the  truth  being  that  a  large  portion  of 
the  food  of  the  owl  is  formed  of  young  prairie-dogs,  even 
the  adults  sometimes  falling  victims.  In  Texas  it  dwells 
in  deserted  rat-holes,  and  in  Northern  California  in  the  bur- 
rows made  by  two  large  species  of  ground-squirrel.  In 
South  America,  wherever  the  viscacha  is  found,  tliis  owl 
makes  use  of  its  burrows.  In  the  Banda  Oriental,  accord- 
ing to  Darwin,  it  depends  upon  its  own  labor,  and  excavates 
its  own  burrow  on  any  level  spot  of  sandy  soil. 

Another  marked  group  of  birds  which  occujiy  the  ground 
are  those  which  usually  construct  no  nest.  In  this  may  be 
included  birds  of  very  different  forms  and  habits.  The 
whippoorwill  (Antrostomus  vociferus)  and  all  the  kindred 
genera,  so  far  as  is  known,  deposit  their  eggs  on  dry  beds  of 
leaves  in  the  dark  recesses  of  the  forests ;  the  more  common 
nighthawk  usually  leaves  its  eggs,  that  resemble  pebble- 
stones, on  the  bare  rock,  to  which  in  color  they  are  closely 
assimilated.  In  the  vicinity  of  cities  it  sometimes  deposits 
its  eggs  on  the  flat  roofs  of  stores  and  dwellings.  The  loon 
(Colymbus  torquatus)  chooses  a  receptacle  for  its  egg  on  the 
edges  of  islands  in  fresh-water  lakes,  so  near  the  water  that 
if  disturbed  it  can  plunge  from  its  nest  directly  into  and 
under  it.  Other  divers,  as  the  auks  and  the  guillemots,  nest 
in  communities,  using  the  bare  surface  of  rocky  cliffs  or 
crevices  in  the  rocks,  but  make  no  nest.  The  peculiar,  pear- 
shaped  egg  of  these  birds  has  a  direct  relation  to  the  places 
on  which  it  is  deposited,  since,  by  virtue  of  its  peg-top  form, 
the  egg  when  disturbed  rolls  about  in  a  circle  instead  of 
rolling  off  the  rock.  The  gannet,  which  also  breeds  on 
rocky  ledges  and  lays  an  elliptical  egg,  builds  just  enough 
of  a  nest  to  keep  the  egg  in  place.  A  few  of  the  Alcid<e, 
like  the  puffins,  burrow  into  the  ground  in  sandy  places  to 
sheltpr  themselves  and  their  eggs  from  birds  of  prey  and 
gulls.  The  penguins  breed  in  great  colonies  on  low  rocky 
or  sandy  islets,  constructing  a  slight  nest  of  pebbles,  barna- 
cles, seaweed,  bits  of  wood,  or  almost  anything  that  may 
offer.  The  gulls  and  terns  nest  on  the  ground,  but  differ  in 
regard  to  nest,  some  building  an  elaborate  one,  and  others 
having  hardly  more  than  a  hollow  in  the  bare  sand.  Nearly 
all  the  waders  make  their  nests  on  the  ground,  and  all  or 
nearly  all  of  these  are  usually  a  mere  depression.  They  are 
usually  situated  near  marshy  grounds  or  water,  though  the 
plovers  and  a  few  other  kinds  prefer  higher  and  dry  situa- 
tions. The  grebes  construct  the  foundation  of  their  nests 
of  fresh  aquatic  plants,  which  they  obtain  by  diving,  and 
finish  with  dead  weeds,  building  (juite  a  bulky  structure. 
The  nest  is  placed  in  nuirshes,  sometimes  on  a  mass  of  plants 
growing  so  low  in  t  he  water  that  the  nest  is  floated  off  by  a 


Fig.  1.— Tree-sparrow  (ft/nzella  vionticola). 


flood.  This  has  caused  the  impression  that  they  purposely 
build  floating  nests,  but  this  is  not  the  fact.  With  very  few 
exceptions  nearly  all  the  North  American  sparrows  breed  on 
the  ground.  All  the  species  of  the  several  genera  of  Am- 
modrumns,  Junco.  Ptec/rophaneK,  Zonotrichia,  Melospiza, 
etc.,  with  only  individual  e.Kceptions,  nest  on  the  ground,  as 
also  do  nearly  all  the  titlarks,  true  larks,  buntings,  and  sim- 
ilar forms,  the  world  over.  The  common  house-sparrow  and 
all  its  congeners  nest  in  various  manners,  but  not  on  the 
ground.  Some  species  exhibit  the  singular  peculiarity  of 
always  nesting  on  the  ground  in  certain  localities,  and  in 
other  regions  as  invariably  building  in  bushes  or  trees  high 
above  it.  Thus  the  prairie  lark-finch  in  Illinois  and  Wis- 
consin always  nests  on  the  ground.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the 
same  specirs  usually  nests  in  trees.  The  same  is  noticed  in 
the  black-throated  bunting,  which  in  the  E.  of  the  U.  S. 
nests  on  the  ground,  but  in  the  Mississippi  valley  usually  a 
few  feet  above 
it.  All  the 
Spizellie,  with 
one  marked 
exception,  nest 
in  trees  or 
bushes.  S. 

monficola,  al- 
though known 
as  the  tree- 
sparrow,  nests 
in  bushes  or  on 
the  ground. 

A  few  of  the 
slender  -  billed 

oscines  always  build  on  the  gi-ound,  but  some  nest  indiffer- 
ently on  the  ground  or  in  different  situations.  The  common 
brown  thrush  of  North  Amerk-a,  {Ilarporh i/nchu.s  riifiis)  is  a 
remarkable  instance  of  this,  in  some  localities  usually  nesting 
upon  the  ground,  and  in  other  districts  always  above  it. 
The  gray-cheeked  thrush  (Turdus  alicio!)  nests  sometimes 
on  the  ground,  but  occasionally  in  more  or  less  elevated  situ- 
ations. The  robin  redbreast  (Erithacus  ruhfcula)  of  Europe 
nests  naturally  on  the  ground,  l)ut  there  are  many  instances 
recorded  of  striking  deviations  from  these  selections. 

Among  the  American  thrushes,  Turdus  fuscescens,  T. 
pallasi,  Cinclus  mexicumis  always  nest  on  the  ground.  All 
the  species  of  the  genera  Myiodioctes,  Opnrornis,  Seiurus, 
Mniofilta,  GeofJtlyplf:,  Ilelmintherus,  and  Ilehninthophaga, 
except  H.  lueia\  build  with  rare  exceptions  on  the  ground. 
The  large  group  of  Uendroica>,  except  I),  pahnarnm,  nest 
in  elevated  situations  so  far  as  is  known.  Many  ground- 
building  birds  resort  to  ingenious  means  of  concealment. 
The  common  quail,  the  meadow-lark,  and  other  species  sink 
their  nests  by  the  side  of  a  high  tussock  of  grass,  and  form 
an  archway  over  the  nest  with  the  natural  growth.  The 
common  snow-bird  and  the  savanna-sparrow  often  build 
their  nests  on  the  steep  side  of  an  excavation  under  a  pro- 
jecting sod.  The  song-sparrow  and  the  grass-finch  often 
construct  a  covered  approach  to  the  nest,  which  is  hidden 
in  high  grass  or  by  bushes.  The  Canada  fly-catcher,  so  far 
as  is  known,  always  selects  a  large  tussock  of  grass  in  the 
midst  of  boggy  and  almost  impassable  ground. 

The  sea-ducks,  swans,  geese,  the  gulls,  terns,  albatrosses — 
in  short,  the  marine  birds  in  general — resort  to  the  ground 
to  construct  their  nests.  A  very  few  build  in  trees,  either 
exceptionally  as  individuals  or  as  species,  and  in  the  former 
class  may  be  mentioned  the  North  American  herring-gull 
(Larus  argentafus  smithsonianus),  which  sometimes  resorts 
to  trees  in  localities  where  its  nest  on  the  ground  has  been 
repeatedly  ])luiidered.  Wood-ducks  of  all  kinds,  and  sev- 
eral of  those  that  freciucnt  lakes  and  rivers,  nest  in  hollow 
trees.  A  few,  like  tlic  dusky  duck,  nest  indifferently  on 
trees  or  on  the  ground,  usually  selecting  tlie  latter.  Sev- 
eral kinds  of  sea-ducks  are  noted  for  adding  to  their  nests 
a  warm  lining  of  the  softest  down  plucked  from  their  own 
breast.  This  is  done  by  the  long-tailed  duck,  by  the  smew, 
by  the  king-duck,  the  Pacific  eider  (Somateria  V.-nigra), 
and  by  the  common  eider.  Of  these,  however,  the  smew 
always  nests  in  hollow  trees.  Owing  to  the  commercial 
value  and  importance  of  its  down,  the  eider  {Somateria 
moUissima)  is  cherished  and  protected  in  Iceland  and  on 
the  northwestern  coast  of  Europe.  It  usually  constructs  in 
the  first  place  a  rough  platform  nest  of  various  marine 
plants,  both  sexes  working  in  concert,  piling  up  a  rude  foun- 
dation of  drift.  Over  this  rough  nuittress  the  female  spreads 
a  bed  of  the  finest  down,  freely  taken  from  her  own  breast. 


NESTS  OF   BIRDS 


121 


Sometimes  two  ffiiinlcj  make  use  of  the  same  nest,  each 
contribntiii;;  ii  siipiil y  of  tlowu  and  five  vg'^.  Birils  of  very 
different  species  sometimes  make  a  common  use  of  the  same 
nest. 

Very  many  shore-liir<ls,  waders,  etc.,  and  also  birds  which 
nest  oil  tlie  ground  in  swampy  places,  construct  larf;o  and 
elalioratc  nests  of  reeds,  rushes,  and  other  water-plants  in 
a  moist  and  decuyin);  slate,  chosen  lieeause  of  I  heir  pliable 
condition,  and  not  because  a  moist  nest  is  desired.  On  the 
contrary,  notwitlislandin;;  the  prevalent  error,  these  nests 
arc  not  userl  until  they  are  dry,  and  are  aliundoned  when, 
owinfi  to  rains  or  HoikIs.  they  liecome  so  damp  that  they 
can  no  lon^-r  be  occupied.  iSncli  nests  as  those  of  the  wil- 
let  and  the  bitterns  are  of  this  (h;scripti»ii.  Very  numv  of 
the  land-birds  of  the  I'.  S.,  as  the  song-thnish,  the  roViin, 
etc.,  use  moist  materials  in  buililinjr  their  nest,  but  occupy 
it  only  when  it  has  become  dry.  The  rol)in  (.V.  miijrnturm) 
works  from  preference  in  rainy  wealher.  .\ll  or  nearly  all 
the  (Jiilliiue  (X'cnpy  nests  on  the  irnmnd,  some  inakin;;  a 
rude  nest,  others  only  using  a  hollow  in  theearth.  'Ihe 
wild-turkey  uses  gri'al  precaution  to  conceal  her  nest  alike 
from  liirds  of  prey  and  prowling  animals,  and  from  her  own 
mate,  hostile  t"  his  own  progeny.  When  forced  to  leave 
them  in  search  of  food,  she  covers  her  eggs  with  leaves,  and 
if  approacheil  when  on  the  nest  the  mother  will  die  sooner 
tlian  leave  her  charge. 

By  far  the  most  reMiarka))le  group  of  ground-nesting  birds 
are  the  "mouu  1-buildei-s  "  of  .Xusiralia  and  the  eastern  ar- 
chipelagoes of  ,\sia,  known  as  the  brush-turkey  in  .\ustra- 
lia.  .\11  the  siwcies  of  this  group  belong  to  the  family 
Meoai'odid.k  [q.  v.),  and  arc  all  somewhat  remarkable  for 
the  manner  in  which  Ihe  hatching  of  their  eggs  is  effected. 
The  Taletjatlit  lalhiiiiii  when  about  to  deposit  her  eggs  col- 
lects a  large  heap  of  decaying  vegetable  matter  as  their  de- 
pository, and  trusts  entirely  to  the  heat  engendere<l  by  the 
prix'ess  of  dei'omposition  for  the  development  of  her  off- 
spring. The  MfU'iptnliiii  fiimii/iis  constructs  large  mounds 
of  earth,  varying  from  20  to  60  feet  in  circumference  and 
from  5  to  15  feet  in  height.  In  these  the  eggs  are  carefully 
buried  to  the  depth  of  6  feet.  Of  the  other  species  of  this 
singular  family,  some  merely  deposit  their  eggs  in  holes  ex- 
cavated on  the  seashore  to  the  depth  of  3  feet,  but  nearly 
all  the  niembei-s  of  this  family  are  more  unequivocally 
mound-builders. 

Several  species  belonging  to  clifferent  genera  have  been 
CTouped  together  in  some  systems  as  "  masons,"  so  called 
because  they  knead  together,  in  the  maimer  of  the  house- 
buililer,  a  rude  mortar  of  tempered  earth  or  clay.  It  is  not 
a  well-marked  group,  and  all  its  meml)ers  might  claim  a 
place  in  other  connections.  The  cliff-swallow  (Pc/ror/ie/itfon 
lunifnins)  of  North  America  is  a  typical  "  mason,"  building 
a  remarkably  synniu-trical  nest  of  plastic  earth  or  clay  by 
the  united  efforts  of  several  working  in  concert  where  they 
arc  in  societies,  sometimes  by  only  the  solitary  pair.  The 
normal  shape  of  the  ne.st  is  that  of  an  inverleii  retort,  the 
larger  portion  being  attached  to  the  cliff  or  side  of  a  build- 
ing. It  is  archeil  over  at  the  top,  and  extends  down  in  front 
in  a  covered  passageway  open  at  the  bottom.  In  the  wild 
state  on  the  siiles  of  high  cliffs  the  nest  is  an  elaborate  and 
ingenious  structure,  sheltering  Its  inmates  from  the  weather 
and  from  their  enemies.  I'nder  the  shelter  of  man  all  this 
protection  is  not  neetled,  and  under  the  eaves  of  barns  and 
other  buildings  these  birds  build  a  simpler  and  equally  safe 
nest,  but   alwavs  of  kiieudeil  earth.     The  barn-swallow  of 


Km  8— UnniHwnllow  (f/ir/idon  er|/t/iro(;<M(«r). 

North  America,  the  house-swallow  of  Kurope,  and  several 
other  species  of  //ii'iim/iHf.i  ari'iiNo  true  masons.  'I'lie  barn- 
swollow  (Chdiiiun  eri/lhroi/tinter).  which  once  nested  only 


in  caves  or  under  overhanging  cliffs,  now  attaches  its. 
elaborately  wrought  ne.st  to  the  sides  of  rafters  in  barns, 
under  the  jirotection  of  their  roofs,  and  even  to  the  porches 
of  dwellings.  These  are  made  of  the  tinest  mason-work,  and 
put  together  in  the  most  artistic  manner,  piece  by  piece, 
with  an  order  and  a  regularity  riuite  curious.  Attached  to 
the  nest  there  is  often  an  equally  elaborate  extra  jilatforra 
designed  for  the  use  of  the  mate,  on  which  it  can  sit  when 
not  collecting  food,  and  where,  when  the  young  no  longer 
require  the  cover  of  a  parent,  the  latter  may  stay  and  keep 
them  company. 

The  term  carpenters  is  applied  to  the  members  of  a  small 
but  noteworthy  group  of  birds,  from  the  fact  that  with 
their  chisel-like  bills  they  hew  for  themselves  holes  in  the 
trunks  or  limbs  of  trees!  At  the  bottom  of  these  holes, 
which  may  be  more  than  3  feet  in  depth,  the  eggs  are  laid 
without  other  nest  than  the  few  line  chips  which  have  been 
left.  The  woodpeckers  are  typical  carpenters,  and  con- 
spicuous among  them  is  the  great  ivory-billed  woodpecker 
of  the  Southern  I'.  S.,  a  species  now  become  very  rare. 
This  bird  digs  into  some  of  the  largest  and  hardest  trees  of 
the  forests,  being  particularly  partial  to  the  cypress,  and  a 
pair  have  been  known  to  cut  into  the  living  wood  to  a 
depth  of  ,')  feet.  The  wrynecks  (hinx),  Ihe  nuthatches,  and 
some  of  the  titmice  are  carpenters  on  a  smaller  scale. 

Among  birds  which  breed  in  holes  of  tree,*,  but  do  not 
excavate  these  dwellings  themselves,  are  the  blue-bird,  the 
tree-swallow,  some  of  the  titmice,  owls,  parrots  (with  one  ex- 
ception), and  the  great  horiibiUsof  the  Old  World. 

Certain  classes  of  birds  build  what  are  styleil  "platform 
nests."  These  are  found  among  only  a  few  families,  and 
their  character  varies  very  essentially,  some  being  remarkably 
large  structures,  others  being  of  a  frail  description.  Of  the 
one  kind  are  the  huge  jilatform  structures  of  eagles;  of  the 
other,  the  slight  nests  of  the  doves  and  the  ,\iiierican  cuck- 
oos. All  or  nearly  all  the  eagles  arc  true  platform-builders, 
the  only  exceptions  being  those  that  use  ciilfs  as  substitutes 
for  platforms  and  add  little  to  their  natural  advantages. 
t)thers.  like  the  white-headed  eagle  of  the  U.  S.,  when  they 
build  in  trees,  construct  large  and  massive  structures  of  5 
or  C  cubic  feet,  and  almost  as  solid  as  the  natural  rock  plat- 
form of  the  golden  eagle.  In  striking  cintrast  with  these  are 
the  slight  nests  of  nearly  all  the  Cuium/iidii'.  the  cuckoos,  etc. 
These  are  platforms  of  the  frailest  description,  nuide  of  a  few 
sticks  loosely  laid  together,  and  as  loosely  crossed  with  other 
sticks,  the  whole  rudely 
made  and  apparently  not 
strong  enough  to  hold  to- 
gether and  preserve  the 
egg  from  failing  to  the 
ground.  An  example  is 
the  nest  of  the  Carolina 
dove.  More  substantial 
than  these  are  the  plat- 
form nests  of  nearly  all  the  species  of  true  herons,  but  not 
equal  to  those  of  birds  of  prey  in  size  or  strength,  though  like 
them  having  nocavity  or  depression  in  the  center.  The  her- 
ons known  as  bitterns,  however,  are  exceptional,  and  usually 
nest  on  the  ground. 

A  large  group  of  nest-makers  are  classed  together  by  Prof. 
Uennie  as  "basket-makers."  It  is  not  very  well  marked, 
and  its  members  are  not  always  distinguishable  from  other 


Fio.  S.- 


Carolina di>ve  {Zenaidura 
HKH-rottra). 


Fio.  4.     Mockinjr-bird  iMirnua  pult/yluttust. 

groups  known  as  "weavers."  "tailors,"  and  "  felt-makers," 
but  it  is  designeil  to  iiwdude  binls  which,  like  the  common 
miHking-liird  of  the  U.  S..  Ihe  cedar-bird,  the  Bohemian 
chatterer,  the  Knropean  bulllinch.  and  others,  construct  a 
mile  baskelwork  of  sticks,  resembling  the  common  baskets 
of  osier.     In  these  uri-  placed  more  car.  fullv  wov.ii  msts  of 


122 


NESTS  OP  BIRDS 


Fig.  5.— Ypllowheaiied  blackbird 
{Xanthocephiil !ii  xauthocephalus). 


softer  materials.  Some  of  these  are  mere  open  baskets 
placed  on  a  flat  limb ;  others  are  interwoven  with  the  smaller 
twigs  of  a  braneh.  The  mocking-bird  builds  as  an  outer 
framework  for  its  nest  a  strong  barricade  of  brambles  and 

thorns,  and  places  with- 
in this  rude  basket  an 
elaborately  woven  struc- 
ture made  of  tlie  finest 
roots.  The  common 
bullfinch  (P)/(tAh/(!  rul- 
gciris)  of  Europe  builds 
a  typical  open  basket 
placed  on  a  platform  of 
her  own  rearingof  birch- 
twigs,  or  on  a  flat  branch 
of  a  spruce  -  tree  she 
weaves  a  loose  basket  of 
flexible,  fibrous  roots. 
The  yellow  -  headed 
blackbird  {Xauthocephalus  xanthocephalus)  exhibits  great 
ingenuity,  variety,  and  skill  in  the  construction  of  elaborate 
basket-like  structures.  The  Tardus  biculor  of  Southern 
Africa  unite  in  communities  to  build  a  huge  basket-like 
structure,  with  numerous  cells  or  apartments  for  the  nests 
of  different  pairs.  These  are  like  an  aggregation  of  smaller 
baskets,  each  a  separate  nest  with  a  tubular  gallery  leading 
into  it  from  the  outer  side.  The  number  of  these  cells  varies 
from  six  to  twenty,  and  over  all  is  woven  an  inverted  basket 
for  a  roof,  wrought  of  twigs.  We  include  among  baskets- 
makers  the  remarkable  nest  of  the  Mexican  fly-catcher  {Pi- 
tangus  derbianiis),  more  striking  for  the  use  made  of  it  by 
other  and  smaller  species  than  for  its  own  peculiarity  of 
structure  and  disproportionate  size.  This  bird,  not  larger 
than  the  king-bird,  builds  a  structure  sometimes  3  or  4  feet 
in  length  ami  about  3  in  breadth.  The  cavity  is  on  the  side. 
The  structure  is  loosely  made  of  coarse  materials,  twigs, 
dried  plants,  leaves,  etc.     In  its  chinks  and  cavities  smaller 


JyMr^^''-:^ 


tm  ■■■  .  .■-■-.    ^'■•'■,/-.:'/^^ 


Fig.  6.— Magpie  (Pica  caudata). 

birds  seek  shelter,  and  are  permitted  to  build  their  own 
nests  in  peace  and  safety,  the  warlike  proprietor  of  the  whole 
keeping  all  binis  of  prey  at  a  distance.  The  magpies,  both 
lit  Europe  and  America,  build  a  curious  basket  barricade 
around  their  nest,  evidently  as  shelter  i^gainst  birds  of  prey. 
The  "  weaving  "  birds  construct  nests,  for  the  most  part, 
somrwhat  pensile,  but  of  very  various  styles  and  shapes, 
.\iiioiig  the  most  familiar  of  these  may  be  mentioned  the 
iirchard  oriole  and  the  Baltimore  oriole  of  Eastern  North 
.\meri(ra,  and  Hullock's  oriole  of  the  Pacific  coast.  All  the 
orioles  are  first-class  weavers,  and  their  nests  partake  some- 
what of  the  peculiarities  of  ihe  basket-makers  and  the  so- 
called  tailor-liirds,  and  are  all  conspicuous  for  the  wonderful 
skill  with  whicli  they  are  wrought,  their  beauty  of  design, 
and  the  strength  with  which  tiu'  materials  are  intricately 
woven  together.  The  vireos,  of  which  there  are  in  North 
America  sixteen  dilferent  species,  all,  so  far  as  we  know, 
construct  a  curious  pensile   nest,  hemispherical   in   shape 


and  peculiar  to  the  genus.  Simpler  in  design  than  the 
nests  of  the  Icteri,  they  are  still  structures  of  remarkable 
beauty  and  ingenuity.     They  are  wrought  into  the  shape 


Fig.  7. — Solitary  vireo  {Vireo  soUtarius). 

of  a  deep  cup,  and  are  usually  suspended  from  the  fork  of  two 
twigs,  around  and  over  which  the  upper  margin  of  the  nest 
forms  a  contin- 
uous covering. 
Working  down 
from  this  fold, 
the  materials 
are  neatly  wov-- 
en  into  a  hem- 
isphere trun- 
cated at  the  top. 
The  pensile 
grosbeak  of  Af- 
rica (Ploceiig 
oryx)  suspends 
a  veiy  curious 
basket,  woven 
of  straw  and 
reeds,  from  the 
end  of  a  branch, 
usually  over  a 
stream  of  water. 
This  is  in  shape 
like  an  oblong 
bag.  with  the 
entrance  from 
below.  Within 
and  on  one  side 
of  this  is  the 
real  nest.  These 
birds  build  in 
communities; 
Pringle,  the  Af- 
rican traveler, 
mentions  seeing 
twenty  togeth- 
er. Their  ob- 
vious design  is 
to    secure     the 

offspring    from      p.,Q   8,_i3ottlr-snarrow  {Ploceus  biiigalevsis). 
the   dangers  ot 

the  weather  and  from  various  enemies.  The  entrance,  al- 
ways from  below,  is  through  a  cylindrical  gallery  15  inches 
in  length,  that  hangs  from  the  spherical  nest  like  the  tube 
of  a  chemist's  retort.  The  bottle-nest  sjiarrows  of  India 
have  nests  constructed  with  equal  ingenuity.  The.se  are 
ma<le  pendent  to  branches  of  trees  by  small  loops,  and  are 
formed  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  long  grass  woven  together 
in  the  shape  of  a  bottle.  These  swing  from  the  ends  of 
long  flexible  branches,  and  effectually  secure  their  inmates 
from  harm.  Their  entrance  is  from  below.  Besides  this 
curiously  pensile  nest,  the  male  bird  also  constructs  an 
elaborate  covered  roost,  which  is  wrought  of  the  same  kind 
of  gras.s.  This  is  a  bottle-shaped  basket,  having  a  tluitched 
roof,  which  covers  a  perch  open  at  the  bottom  and  is  sus- 
pended from  the  small  end  or  neck  of  the  bottle.  This 
roost  is  occupied  by  the  male,  and  hangs  by  the  side  of  the 
real  nest,  in  which  are  his  mate  and  family.  The  object  is 
lirotection  from  sun  and  rain,  and  from  varinus  kinds  of 
enemies.  Another  remarkable  species  of  the  weaving  gros- 
beaks (Lo.via  sucia  of  Linnteus)  greatly  excel  the  remainder 


XESTS  OK   BIRDS 


123 


of  the  fumily,  at  least  in  the  extent  of  their  workmanship. 
They  build  an  enormous  struclure,  in  slia|>e  resembling  an 
open  umbrella,  wrought,  in  the  manner  of  a  ihaleheil  roof, 


^^m^M^^'^- 


_•  ^    ■!  ■%■  7  ' 


Kio.  9.  -  Social  weaver  (Pluceut  nociua). 

of  Bushman's  grass  without  any  intermixture,  and  so  com- 
pletely woven  as  to  be  impervious  to  rain.  Under  the  shel- 
ter of  this  eaiiopv  each  pair  l)uilds  its  own  particular  nest, 
placed  under  the' eaves.  Each  nest  is  3  or  4  inches  in  di- 
ameter; they  are  all  in  contact  with  one  another  arounil  the 
eaves,  and  each  nest  has  its  own  individual  aperture  form- 
ing the  entrance. 

The  tailor-bird  of  India,  which  enjoys  a  somewhat  ex- 
aggerated reputation  for  ingenuity  and  skill,  owing  to  ac- 
counts now  bclii'vc'il  to  be  more  faniifid  than  real,  is  at 
least  known  to  bend  over  one  end  of  a  leaf  and  to  sew  it 
securelv  to  the  slem-end.  and  to  place  its  tiny  nest  in  the 
hollow 'thus  created.  The  parula  warbler  (Cniiipfiiilhli/pis 
iimericana)  constructs  its  nest  of  the  long  gray  lichens  of 
the  northern  forests  of  the  U.  S.,  gathering  u]>  and  fasten- 
ing together  in  a  loop  the  long  hanging  branches  of  this 


Fio.  11 


I  iiHtjillti  Calebs). 


^  ^-w 


southern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  (Deitdroica  dominica),  of  which 
the  cut  presents  a.  renmrkable  illu>tration.  Here  the  long 
pendent  moss  of  the  swamp<  is  earri.il  up  and  fastened  in 
loops ;  mosses  8  feet 
in  length  are  fast- 
ened together  into  a 
woven  bag  of  hiilf 
the  original  h'ngth. 
In  the  center  of  this 
curious  structure, 
the  natural  appear- 
ance of  which  is 
unchanged,  is  hid- 
den the  liny  nest 
wrought  of  the  soft- 
est vegetable  <lown. 
Another  inleresl- 
ing  group,  styled  by 

Prof.    Rennie   the '"  felt -nnikei-s."   is  distinguished   not  so 
much  by  the  architectural  peculiarities  of  the  nests  as  by 
the  remarkable  changes  nuulc  in  the  character  of  the  ma- 
terials  used.     These  are   included    in  only  a   few^  families, 
but  the  latter  are  individually  very  numerous.     The  group 
includes  two  kinds,  the  true  fell-makers,  who  make  a  com- 
posite felt,  anil  those  that  use  only  a  single  material.    There 
is,  however,  very  litllc  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the 
product,  and  niany  species  indifferently  use  a  single  or  a 
composite  felting.  The 
finches    of    both     the 
Old  and  the  New  World 
arc  typical  felt-maki'is. 
(»r    these    the    canary, 
the  several  goldlinclics, 
and     the     chalVinches 
may  be   mentioned   as 
examples.     Fine  wool, 
of  eitlier  vegetable  or 
animal    origin,    serves 
as  the  base  of  this  filt- 
ing,  and  with  this  vari- 
ous   other    substances, 
such  as  mos,se.s,  lichen.s, 
spiders'    welis.  bits   of 
cotton.  l>ark,  etc.,  are 
intermingled, and  with 
wonderful       exact  ness 
felted    and  compacted 
together  into  a  texture 
apparently   homogene- 
ousanil  uniform.  With 
some,  these  felteil  nests  are  wholly  composed  of  this  single 
material,  as  in  the  nests  of  various  humming-birds,  where, 
besides  an  external  covering  of  lichens,  .-i  means  of  conceal- 
ment rather  than  an  essential  part  of  the  nest,  the  whole  is 
made  of  this  one  material.     In  Ihe  nests  of  the  linches  there 
is  always  an  external   framework,  filled  oiil   and  lined  with 
felting.'    In  these  greater  strength  is  given  lo  the  fabric  by 
bindin-^   Ihe  whole  with  strong  wiry  grasses,  fibrous  root*, 
etc.,  and  especially  by  binding  the  nest  firndy  into  the  fork 
by  twining  among  the  twiirs  bands  of  strung  felling.     The 
nest  of  I  he  goldfinch  {S/iiiiiis  Irixtis)  of  the  V.  S.  isa  striking 
illustration.     .\ll  Ihe  /'olioplilie  of  North  America  and  the 


KlK.  i-.v 


lislis). 


Fio.  10.— YellowthrooU-il  wnrbler  (i>fHi/roirci  </omiriirii). 


moss  to  make  its  nest,  often  u>in£r  no  other  malerial,  and  in 
this  manner  creating  a  Ireauliful  slriiclure.  the  entrance  to 
the  cavity  being  usually  on  one  side.  Kven  more  strikingly 
beautiful'  is  the  nest  of  the  yellow-throated  warbler  of  the 


Kio  is. 


-Bluck-tnllert  Knttlealclier  (fo/io/.d/n  rali/ornicat. 


West  Indies  are  superior  fell-makers.  Their  nests  are  largo 
for  the  binU,  remarkably  deep,  and  have  thick  soft  walls 
made  of  downy  materials,' but  abundantly  strong  for  the  oo- 


124: 


NESTS  OP  BIRDS 


NETHERLANDS,  THE 


cupants,  which  are  among  the  smallest  American  species. 
The  nests  are  models  of  architectural  beauty  and  ingenuity  of 
design.  They  are  deep  and  purse-like  in  shape,  not  pensile, 
but  interwoven  with  small  upright  twigs,  and  usually  are 
placed  near  the  tree-top,  swaynig  with  every  breeze,  the 
depth  of  the  cavity  and  the  small  diameter  at  the  opening 
preventing  tlie  eggs  from  rolling  out.  The  black-capped 
species  of  St.  Lucas  (PoiiopfUa  californica)  uses  the  living 
tendrils  of  a  wild  vine  as  the  framework  of  its  nest,  which 
is  interwoven  with  the  vine  so  intricately  as  to  be  rendered 
inseparable. 

Prof.  Ronnie  recognizes  as  a  distinct  group  what  he  calls 
"  dome-builders,"  but  nearly  all  might  easily  be  ranged  in 
one  of  the  other  groups.  They  consist  of  a  great  number 
of  species  and  belong  to  a  variety  of  families,  and  either 
occasionallv  or  uniformly  construct  covered  nests  entered 
by  holes  iii  their  sides.  With  many  species  the  domed 
cover  of  their  nest  is  not  a  uniform  feature.  The  Carolina 
wren  at  times  builds  a  domed  nest,  and  quite  as  frequently 
constructs  one  open  at  tlie  top.  Tlie  golden-crowned  thrush 
and  tlie  black  and  white  creeper  have  almost  always  a  cov- 
ered nest,  yet  botli  occasionally  build  without  any  cover. 
The  house-sparrow  usually  has  an  open  nest,  but  also  occa- 
sionally builds  one  witli  an  arched  covering.  In  the  West 
Indies,  and  in  tropical  countries  generally,  domed  nests  are 
a  predominating  feature,  and  are  undoubtedly  an  instinctive 
provision  against  the  violence  of  tropical  rains.  Travelers 
m  South  America  describe  the  nest  of  a  common  species 
known  locally  as  the  baker-bird,  or  oven-bird  (Furnarius), 
so  called  because  it  constructs  a  nest  in  the  form  of  a  baker's 
oven.  This  is  placed  in  the  most  exposed  situations,  but  at 
a  considerable  height.  The  nest  is  described  as  made  of 
tempered  clay,  and  as  liaving  a  lateral  opening  twice  as  high 
as  wide,  and  in  the  interior  divided  into  two  chambers  by  a 
partition  beginning  at  the  entrance. 

The  North  American  water-ouzel,  or  dipper  (Cinclus 
mexicrmnx)  builds  a  domed  nest  of  a  very  peculiar  charac- 
ter. It  is  hemispherical  in  shape,  of  uniform  contour,  and 
usually  liuilt  on  a  rock  on  the  edge  of  a  mountain-stream. 
Externally,  it  is  composed  of  green  moss  in  a  living  state, 
having  within  a  strong,  compactly  built  apartment  arched 
over  and  supported  by  twigs,  with  a  cup-like  depression  at 
the  bottom  composed  of  fijie  roots  and  twigs  firmly  bound 
togetlier.  These  structures  are  a  little  less  than  a  foot  in 
diameter  and  from  6  to  8  inches  in  height.  Both  species  of 
cactus-wrens  of  California  and  Cape  St.  Lucas  build  curious 
domed  nests  of  great  size  and  purse-like  in  shape.     These 

are  composed  of  long  flexible 
grasses,  and  are  lined  with 
feathers.  Botli  species  of 
Cistotliorus  build  circular 
domed  nests,  that  of  C.  stel- 
laris  ingeniously  interwoven, 
externally  of  long  wiry  grass- 
es and  finer  sedges,  lined  with 
soft  vegetable  down.  That 
of  C  palustris  is  a  stronger 
stnu'ture,  built  in  higher  sit- 
ual  ions,  of  coarse  sedges  firm- 
ly interwoven  and  cemented 
with  mud. 

Another  singular  peculiar- 
ity, found  only  in  species  be- 
longing to  a  few  genera,  is  the 
eui|)loyment  of  cement-like 
secretions  in  the  construction 
of  their  nests,  and  these  are 
grouped  together  as  "  cement- 
ers  "  in  certain  systems.  In 
some  cases  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  whether  the  birds 
generate  their  own  cement  or 
make  use  of  adhesive  substances  that  exist  in  nature.  We 
fin  I  the  nests  of  humming-birds  and  of  several  other  kinds 
(jf  birds  covered  over  with  a  coating  of  lichens  and  mosses, 
and  thus  made  to  resemble  the  moss-covered  bark  of  tlie 
trees  on  which  they  are  built,  ami  apparently  this  cover- 
ing is  made  to  adhere  by  means  of  some  adhesive  cement; 
l)ut  that  this  is  secreted  by  the  bird  itself  we  do  not  know. 
We  infer,  rather  than  know,  that  certain  swallows  temper 
the  earlh  of  which  they  construct  their  nests  with  their 
own  adhesive  secretions.  In  regard  to  otlier  eases  our 
knowledge  is  more  positive.  The  chimney-swallow  fastens 
its  simple  cradle  of  twigs  against  the   inner  walls  of  a 


Fig.  14.— Mari-h  wren  (Cistotho- 
rnti  ijttlitatris). 


hollow  tree  or  the  inside  of  the  chimney,  and  glues  together, 
twig  by  twig,  the  nest  itself,  by  means  of  a  powerful  cement 
which  it  secretes  from  its  own  throat.  The  famous  edible 
nests  of  the  little  Bornean  swift  (ColloeaUa  fiiciphaga),  for- 
merly supposed  to  be  made  of  partly  digested  seaweed,  are 
now  known  to  be  constructed  entirely  of  mucus.  These 
nests,  which  are  placed  against  the  rocky  sides  of  caves,  are 
shaped  something  like  a  section  of  a  shallow,  thin  cup,  and 
when  new  are  white  and  translucent.  They  darken  and  de- 
teriorate with  age,  nests  whicli  have  been  used  bringing  a 
much  smaller  price  than  those  which  are  perfectly  fresh.  For 
other  nests,  see  Bunting,  Dictum,  Cape  Titmouse,  etc.;  .and 
for  further  information,  see  Rennie,  The  Architecture  of 
Birds  (London,  1831) ;  Wood,  Ilomffs  without  Hands  (Lon- 
don, IBG.')) ;  Davie,  Nests  and  Eggs  of  North  American  Birds 
(Columbus,  1889);  Bendire,  Life  Histories  of  North  Ameri- 
can Birds  (Washington,  1892);  Newton,  A  Dictionary  of 
Birds  (London,  1893-94).  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Netherlands,  The  (Dutch,  De  Nederlanden,  Pr.  Les 
Pays-Bas) :  a  kingdom  of  Western  Europe ;  situated  be- 
tween lats.  50'  4.5  "and  53°  35'  N.  and  Ions.  3'  24'  and  7°  13' 
E.  :  bounded  E.  by  Germany,  S.  by  Belgium,  and  W.  and  N. 
by  the  North  Sea,  which  indents  the  coast  witli  two  large  in- 
lets, the  ZuyderZee  and  the  Dollart ;  area,  12,656  sq.  miles. 
The  country  is  also  known  as  HuUand,  but  The  Nether- 
lands is  its  official  designation.  It  has  a  number  of  colonies, 
which  are  divided  into  two  groups,  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
and  the  Dutch  West  Indies.  The  former  includes  Java, 
Madura,  Bali,  Lombok,  Banca,  Billiton,  the  Moluccas, 
Timor,  Sumatra,  Celebes,  and  parts  of  Borneo  and  New 
Guinea;  area,  719,674  sq.  miles;  pop.  31,614.000.  The 
Dutch  West  Indies  include  Dutch  Guiana,  or  Surinam  (see 
Guiana),  and  Curasao;  area,  46,463  sq.  miles  :  pop.  120,000. 
All  these  colonies  are  treated  separately ;  see  Java,  Ma- 
dura, etc. 

Physical  Feaftires. — As  the  name  indicates,  the  Nether- 
lands are  low  and  flat,  and  form  the  delta  of  the  rivers 
Rhine,  Maas,  and  Scheldt ;  there  are  no  mountains,  but  the 
naturally  formed  sandbanks  or  dunes  on  some  parts  of  the 
seacoast  attain  a  considerable  height.  The  country  is  inter- 
sected by  the  rivers  mentioned  and  their  branches,  the 
Waal,  Yssol,  Leek,  and  Vecht.  AVhere  these  are  bordered 
by  cities  they  are  called  gracht,  or  haven,  and  serve  for  in- 
ternal navigation.  Along  some  parts  of  the  seacoast  and 
along  all  the  rivers  there  have  been  constructed  tor  protec- 
tion against  inundation  huge  dikes,  30  feet  high,  70  feet 
broad  at  the  base,  some  of  Norwegian  granite,  but  the  ma- 
jority of  clay  or  peat,  strengthened  by  timber  structures. 
Among  the  canals,  of  wliich  tliere  are  1,907,170  miles,  serv- 
ing partly  for  drainage,  partly  for  communication,  the 
most  important  are  the  North  Holland  Canal,  the  North 
Sea  Canal  {gg.  v.),  and  the  New  Waterway,  built  1870-85, 
connecting  Rotterdam  with  the  North  Sea.  A  few  lakes  are 
found  in  the  province  of  North  Holland,  but  Haarlem 
Lake  {g.  v.),  formerly  the  largest  of  them,  was  drained  in 
1839-52. 

Geology. — The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  of  alluvial 
origin ;  minerals  are  nowhere  found,  except  a  kind  of  clay 
well  adapted  for  tiles,  brick,  and  pottery,  and  a  little  coal 
in  the  province  of  Ijimburg,  where  the  mines  belong  to  the 
state. 

Fauna. — All  the  animals  found  in  Western  Europe  are 
indigenous  in  the  Netherlands ;  wolves  appear  sometimes, 
but  only  during  winter  and  in  the  sparsely  inhabited  dis- 
tricts; foxes  are  plentiful ;  rabbits  abound  in  the  sandy  re- 
gions, and  often  do  great  damage  by  burrowing  through  the 
dunes.  Among  domestic  animals  the  cattle  rank  very  high, 
both  as  milk  producers  and  for  their  excellent  meat.  The 
horses  are  big  and  strong ;  the  Frisian  horse,  of  the  Perche- 
ron  type,  is  much  souglit  for  by  breeders,  as  are  also  the 
trotters  of  the  northern  provinces. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  temperate  but  variable,  and 
generally  far  from  pleasant.  Fevers  of  a  malarial  charac- 
ter, colds,  and  bronchial  and  pulmonary  affections  are  apt 
to  follow  on  the  sudden  changes  in  winds  and  temperature. 
The  country  is  fairly  healthful,  however,  except  in  districts 
where  the  soil  is  marshy,  as  in  much  of  the  jirovince  of 
Zealand. 

Soil. — A  careful  estimate  shows  that  34  per  cent,  of  the  sur- 
face consists  of  good  and  2  per  cent,  of  inferior  clay  land  ; 
45  per  cent,  is  poor  and  partially  reclaimed  sand,  and  fully 
18'5  per  cent,  is  covered  with  heath  or  other  growths  without 
value.     Considering  the  uses  to  which  the  soil  has  been  put. 


NETHEKLAXD.s,   TlIK 


125 


we  tiiiJ  tliiit  'i'l  per  cent,  is  arable  land,  35'4  pastures,  l"" 
gardens  and  oruhanls,  ti  per  cent,  occupied  by  water  and 
roads,  7  jier  cent,  woodland,  and  0'7  per  cent,  covered  with 
buildin;,'s,  the  remaimler  Ijciii;;  unimproved.  Tlie  iiriculti- 
vated  tracts  are  beciiniiii!;  less  in  areathroujjli  irrijralion  and 
the  introduction  of  (wtter  fertilizers;  but  much  remains  to 
be  done  in  this  direction,  esj^'cially  in  the  provinces  Gclder- 
land  and  Drenthe. 

Din'niunn. — The  country  is  divided  into  eleven  i)rovinces, 
as  follows,  with  area  in  s'ljuare  miles  and  population,  Ucc. 
31,  IH'Ji: 


PROVINCeS. 

Arm.            Po(MiUtJoa. 

CapluU. 

•lUf. 

North  Kraliaut .... 

Cieldf rlnrul    

North  II. illaiiil    .. 
South  Holland 

1.980             SlU.lli! 

Bols-le-duc. . . . 

7-F 
6-G 

5-E 

).IIB6 

too 

sst 

],») 

1,291 
7S0 

1,(BS 
851 

l.(iin.MM 
■ati.-iya 

336.206 
.102.508 

aro.ssir 

I35.6M 
iin,8S3 

TheHBKue 

Middelburg 

Utrecht 

I>eeu»ardea 

Zwolle 

Groningen 

Assen 

6-E 
8-C 

Utrecht 

FrU-slaiid 

Ovcryssel 

8-F 

4-H 
2-1 

S-I 

Maestricht 

10-G 

Totals 

1S,8SS 

4,669,576 

V 


•  Reference  for  location,  se«  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  vol.  iv. 

Principal  Toivnx.  with  Popnlnlion  in  isn?. — Amsterdam 
(437,802)  is  the  capital :  The  lla^'ue  (1(>!).8'.'8)  is  the  seat  of 
the  government  and  the  residence  of  the  royal  family. 
The  other  towns  of  f;rentest  piipnlation  and  importance  are 
Rotterdam.  ■.'■,'.2,2:5:$  ;*L"trei  lit,  .S!».4:{G:  (Jroninjji-n.  .J7.U67: 
llaarlein,  55,:ill ;  Arnhera,  .51.087;  and  Levden,  44,li)8  (see 
the  separate  articles  on  these  and  other  Dutch  towns). 

Populdliun. — The  people  form  in  blood  and  language  a 
brunch  of  the  Teutonic  race.  Tliey  are  characterized  espe- 
cially l>y  inilustry,  i>erseverance.  cautiousness,  frugality, 
scrupulous  cleanliness,  au<l  a  certain  sedateness  of  niiinners  ; 
they  are  iirosiKTons  and  contented,  and  their  wealth  is  quite 
cquallv  ilistributed.  t^ii  Dec.  :il.  18!f2.  the  population  was 
4,6G!*,576  (■-'.:« »T..')08  males  ami  '2.;!«-3.0UH  females).  The  aver- 
age density  per  s(inare  mile  was;5.59;  it  was  greatest  in  the 
irovince  (if  South  I lol land  (S.li^.j) and  least  in  Drenthe (131-5). 
In  IKSl)  the  |K)pulation  was  divided  as  to  religious  denomi- 
nation as  fellows:  2,7-28.870  I'rc.testants.  1.004.179  Homan 
Catholics,  !t7.274  Hebrews,  and  S1.0'.I2  of  other  denomina- 
tions. In  the  same  year  the  number  of  foreigners  in  the 
Netherl.-uids  was  48.^<-'*4.  of  whom  '28,767  were  (Termans,  i;{,- 
697  Belgians,  1.398  French,  1.339  Hritish,  and  788  Swiss. 

Inilu-ilrif/i  and  Proil  net  ions. — Agriculture  flourishes  most 
in  Kriesland  (where  the  finest  cattle  are  reared).  North  Hol- 
land, and  parts  of  (ielderland  antl  Limburg.  Kye,  barley, 
anil  H-Iu'al  are  thechief  cereals  produced,  but  fruit  and  vege- 
tables form  a  large  item  of  export,  es|ieciaUy  lo  England. 
I'otatcH's,  tobacco,  hemp,  flax,  ami  beetroot  are  also  staple 
prtMlucts.  The  raising  of  llower-bulbs  has  been  carried  on 
for  centuries,  and  is  still  the  leading  branch  of  floriculture 
in  the  N'elherlands.  Haarlem  is  the  center  of  this  inilustry, 
and  in  its  vicinity  may  l)e  seen  miles  of  flower-beds  contain- 
ing all  varieties  of  the  tulip,  crocus,  hyacinth,  etc.  In  1034 
and  16:!0  the  "  tiilipoinania,"  an  insane  s|>cculation  in  rare 
varieties  of  the  tulip,  maile  its  appearance  in  the  Xether- 
lands;  in  all  the  large  cities  regular  lidip  exchanges  were 
establisheil,  where  bullis  were  dealt  in  at  fabulous  prices, 
and  where  thousamls  of  persons  rnineil  themselves  in  their 
efforts  to  secure  S4)rne  special  six'cimens.  Gardening  has 
reacheil  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  anil  even  in  the  cities 
fine  ganlen  plots  are  often  found  attached  to  the  residences 
of  the  well-ti>-do. 

Of  inanufaci ores,  the  most  im|x>rlant  are  cheese  (Edam, 
Hoorn.  and  Norlh  Holland  generally),  gin  (Schiedam,  Kot- 
tordam),  chocolale  and  cocoa  (VVeesp.  I'lrecht,  Hiitterdam), 
potteries  (Delft,  Maestricht),  linens  (Hois-le-<luc.  Hdmond), 
carpets  (Deventer),  refined  sugar  (Amsterdam,  Hotterdam). 
long-stemmed  clay  pi|H'S  ((ionda).  beel-sngar.  potatostarch 
(Oroningen).  and  cotton  goikls  (llengelo,  Twenthe). 

The  lislierii'S  have  snnu'what  declined,  but  contribute  still 
a  large  amount  lo  the  national  wealth  :  herring, cod. .salmon, 
turbol,  and  anchovies  are  taken  on  the  coast,  and  oysters 
are  found  in  the  waters  surrounding  and  Intersecting  the 
province  of  Zealand.  t)ver  2."),(HM).(KHl  herrings  are  annually 
taken  in  the  Zuvder  Zee  alone,  and  the  total   nnmlier  of 

voters  produceirin  1S92  wa-s  12.700.0110. 

''ommfrre. — In  the  principal  seaports  (Amsterdam.  Hot- 
ordam,   llarlingen,  and  the   llelder),  a   large   part  of  the 


population  follows  the  sea  for  a  livelihood.  The  commerce 
of  the  country,  at  one  time  the  most  iiD[>ortant  in  the  world, 
has  declined  considerably,  but  is  still  extensive  and  active. 
It  is  principally  carried' on  with  the  Dutch  colonies.  Great 
IJritain.thecouiitrieson  the  Bailie,  and  the  L'.S.  In  1K92  (he 
value  of  imports  amounted  to  1.-2.'<2.1(X).(KJ0  llorins  or  guild- 
ers and  the  exports  to  1,13:19(10.000.  the  imports  from  the 
U.  S.  being  worth  148,900.000  llorins  and  the  exports  to  the 
U.  S.  23,;J00.(MK)(1  florin  =  :J;0.40).  In  that  year  l.:W5  sailing 
vessels,  of  which  491  were  Dutch,  and  7.364  steamers,  of 
which  2,04.5  were  Dutch,  entered  the  Dutch  jiorls,  while 
1,121  sjiiling  vessels  (Dutch.  .50.»)  and  .5,-243  .steamei-s  (Dutch, 
1,8S8)  cleared.  This  is  not  counting  the  vessels  going  or 
coining  in  ballast.  The  merchant  nnirine  at  the  end  of  1892 
included  447  sailing  ve-ssels,  with  349,000  cubic  meters  ton- 
nage, and  1.50  steamers,  of  479,000  cubic  meters. 

Edttcutiim. — Four  universities,  those  of  Levden  (founded 
in  1375).  Groningen  (1614),  Utrecht  (16:i6).  and  Amsterdam 
(16:i2).  all  conferring  degrees  in  law,  medicine,  philosophy, 
and  letters,  are  altended  bv  about  3.0O0  students,  and  are 
favoralily  known  abroad.  The  medium  and  lower  grade  of 
instruction  is  provided  on  a  very  liberal  scale,  and  all  the 
schools  are  unsectarian.  In  1891-92  there  were,  besides  pro- 
fessional and  technical  institutions,  38  secondary  schools, 
with  4,8:15  pupils,  4.'292  eleinenlary  scIhmiIs  (2.970  |>ublic, 
with  4.58.739  impils.  and  1.316  private,  with  200,30:!  pupils), 
and  993  infant  schools,  of  which  i:iO  were  public,  with  23,- 
421  pupils,  and  863  private,  with  79.187  pupils. 

Goiertiment. — The  governineni  is  a  coiistitulional  and 
hereditary  monarchy.  The  reigning  dynasty  is  the  House  of 
Orange-Xassau,  now  extinct  in  the  direct  male  line.  The 
national  legislature  consists  of  two  branches,  the  First  and 
Second  Chamber  of  the  States-General.  The  First  Chamber, 
of  fifty  deputies,  is  chosen  by  tiie  provincial  states;  the 
term  of  office  is  nine  years,  about  one-third  retiring  every 
third  year.  The  Second  Chamber, of  100  deputies. is  chosen 
directly  by  males  over  thirty  years  of  age.  who  pay  a  certain 
amount  in  taxes;  the  term  is  four  yeai^s.  all  retiring  to- 
gether. The  executive  power  vests  solely  in  the  sovereign  ; 
the  legislative,  jointly  on  the  sovereign  and  the  legislature; 
but  the  First  Chamber  lacks  the  right  of  introducing  or 
amending  bills.  The  j)rcsidents  of  both  chambers  arc  ap- 
pointed by  the  sovereign  from  among  the  meinbei-s.  The 
cabinet  consists  of  the  following  deparlinents :  (1)  Foreign 
Affairs,  (2)  Interior,  (3)  .Justice,  (4)  Marine,  (5)  Fiininces,  (6) 
War.  (7)  Watei-ways.  Commerce,  and  Industry,  (8)  Colonies; 
the  ministers  are  appointed  by  the  sovereign ;  they  may, 
but  usually  do  not,  belong  to  either  of  the  chambei-s.  The 
provinces  are  governed  by  royal  commissaries,  appointed  by 
the  sovereign  ;  and  each  province  has  its  provincial  legisla- 
ture (prorinriale  utaten).  elected  by  the  same  electors  who 
have  the  right  to  elect  the  membei-s  of  the  Second  Chamber. 
The  government  of  the  cities  is  vested  in  a  mayor  (liurge- 
meialrr).  a  board  of  a.ssessors  (HV^/ioi/t/tr.'i).  and  a  common 
council  ((/emccn/frrtorf).  the  membei-s  of  the  last-named  body 
being  elected  by  a  class  of  electors  paying  less  taxes  than 
the  electors  for  the  Second  Chamber. 

There  is  a  standing  army  of  7.5.0<X)  men  :  the  navy  con- 
sisted in  1893  of  7.438  men,  and  109  steam-vessels  with  a 
tonnage  of  81.9.50  tons.  In  that  year  ihe  public  debt 
amounted  to  1,098.900.9.50  florins ;  Ihe  budget  was:  receipts, 
127.;W:i.890  llorins,  and  expenditures.  i;{7.860.0'22. 

Ilislori/. — The  Netherlunds  or  Low  Countries  denoted, 
when  fii-st  spoken  of  in  history,  Ihe  whole  plain  extending 
from  Ihe  foot  of  the  Vosges  and  the  Ardennes  to  the  North 
Sea.  and  comprised  not  only  the  present  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands,  but  idso  Belgium  and  the  northernmost  parts 
of  France.  It  was  inhabited  by  three  dislincl  though 
kindred  Iriliis — Ihe  Frisians  (</.  v).  to  the  N..  Ihe  Balavians, 
of  German  slock,  in  Ihe  center,  and  Ihe  Belga",  of  Gallic 
stock,  lo  the  S.  The  Belga>  were  subjugated  by  Ca'.sar ;  the 
Balavians  were  at  tirst  allies  of  Home,  but  after  the  unsiic- 
ce.ssful  attempt  of  Claudius  Civilis  in  07  \.  u.  lo  unite 
the  Batavian  communities  into  an  organized  empire,  they 
too  were  coniruered  by  Ihe  Romans  ;  Ihe  Frisians  suliinille<I 
after  re|iealeil  defeats  and  rebellions.  In  357  tlie  Biitavians 
are  s|Miken  of  as  forming  part  of  Ihe  Roman  army  in  the 
batlle  of  Stra.ssburg  against  the  Germans,  and  as  displaying 
gri'at  valor:  but  aflerlhis  lime  Iheir  name  disappears  from 
history.  The  Belg:i'  gave  way  I o  the  Franks;  Ihe  Saxons 
1  pushed  onward  from  the  E.,  and  in  alliance  with  Ihe  Fri- 
I  sians  op|x>seil  Ihe  encroachments  of  the  Franks.  Gn  ihe  es- 
tablishment of  Ihe  gn'at  Frankish  empire  under  the  Carlo- 
I  vingians  the  whole  plain  was  incorporaled  and  the  popula- 


126 


NETHERLANDS,  THE 


NETTBMENT 


tion  Christianized ;  but  by  the  division  of  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne  the  country  was  divided,  tlie  southern  part 
falling  to  France,  the  central  to  Lotliringia,  and  tlie  north- 
ern to  Germany,  and  for  centuries  the  different  parts  fol- 
lowed the  different  destinies  of  the  main  bodies  to  which 
they  belonged.  Jleanwhile,  the  feudal  system  got  a  foot- 
hold in  the  country.  Dukedoms.  Brabant,  Limburg.  Lux- 
emburg ;  eountships,  Artois,  Flanders,  Holland  ;  bishoprics. 
Mechlin,  Utrecht,  etc..  were  formed,  and  the  remote  position . 
of  the  country  made  the  feudal  lords  more  independent  of 
the  royal  or  imperial  power  here  than  anywhere  else.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  situation  on  the  ocean  and  the  mouths 
of  three  great  rivers  invited  to  commerce,  and  flourishing 
cities  grew  up  and  surrounded  themselves  with  sfrong  forti- 
fications. By  a  marriage  the  countship  of  Flanders  became 
united  to  Burgundy  in  1384.  and  subsequently  the  Burgun- 
dian  dukes  succeeded,  partly  by  force,  partly  by  craft,  in 
gaining  possession  of  the  whole  country,  which  they  gov- 
erned well.  By  another  marriage  the  Netherlands,  with  the 
other  Burgundian  dominions,  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  house  of  Hapsliurg  in  1477.  By  the  division  of  Charles 
V.'s  empire  between  Austria  and  Spain  the  Netherlands  fell 
to  Spain,  and  it  was  a  good  consequence  of  this  combina- 
tion, so  fatal  in  other  respects,  that  the  Dutch  retained  their 
full  share  in  the  new  commerce  which  was  opened  up  by  tlie 
discovery  of  America  and  the  establishment  of  the  Spaniards 
in  the  East  Indies.  On  the  whole,  it  was  not  so  much  the 
interests  of  the  two  countries  which  clashed  as  tlie  different 
character  of  the  people  and  its  ruler.  The  Reformation  (q.  v.) 
had  made  a  deep  impression  and  spread  widely  in  the  Nether- 
lanils,  and  Philip  II.  determined  to  root  it  out.  In  1566 
war  broke  out.  The  salient  points  of  the  struggle  were  the 
formation  at  Utrecht  (Jan.  3:>.  1570;  of  a  union  between  the 
seven  nortliern  provinces.  Holland.  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Fries- 
land,  Groniugen,  Overyssel,  and  Gelderland,  and  the  recog- 
nition by  Spain  of  this  unioii  by  the  armistice  of  twelve 
years  concluded  in  1609.  (For  further  details,  see  the 
articles  on  Margaret  of  Parma.  Alva  (Ditke  of),  John 
(Don)  of  Austria,  Farxese.  the  Spanish  governors,  and 
William  of  Nassau  and  Maurice,  Count  of  Nassau,  the 
Dutch  leaders.)  By  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  the 
indeiiendenee  of  the  republic  of  the  United  Provinces  was 
formally  acknowledged,  while  the  southern  provinces, 
nearly  corresponding  to  the  present  kingdom  of  Belgium, 
remained  with  Spain  and  within  tlie  Roman  Catholic 
Churcli.  The  prosperity  of  the  young  state  was  prodigious, 
and  in  maritime  affairs  it  shared  with  England  the  su- 
premacy of  the  world.  It  crushed  the  Spaniards  and  ac- 
quired possessions  in  America  and  the  East  Indies.  It 
checked  the  Portuguese  and  several  times  defeated  the  Eng- 
lish. After  the  battle  of  Goodwin  Sands  (Nov.  29.  1653)  its 
admiral.  Van  Tromp,  paraded  a  broom  at  his  masthead 
along  the  English  coast  as  a  token  that  he  had  swept  the 
Channel,  and  in  June,  1667,  De  Ruyter  sailed  up  the  Thames 
and  blockaded  tlie  port  of  London.  In  the  Baltic  also  the 
Netherlands  became  perfect  masters  liy  the  Peace  of  Copen- 
hagen (1660),  wliich  kept  the  Baltic  waters  open  for  Dutch 
trade  ;  and  at  the  same  time  that  tliey  actually  hehl  in  their 
hands  the  commerce  of  the  world,  their  achievements  in 
philology,  theology,  natural  philosophy,  and  art  gained  the 
admiration  of  all  Europe.  Their  resistance  to  the  arrogance 
of  Louis  XIV.  was  their  greatest  glory.  (Details  of  this 
contest  will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  Louis  XIV.,  William 
OF  Nassau,  Turenne,  etc.)  After  that  period  the  impor- 
tance of  the  republic  gradually  decreased,  not  because  its  ac- 
tivity and  prosperity  really  declined,  but  simply  because  it 
was  superseded  by  England  ;  and  when  in  1783,  led  by 
jealousy  and  considering  the  opportunity  gooil  on  account 
of  the  American  Revolution,  it  declared  war  against  Eng- 
land, its  maritime  power  received  a  blow  from  which  it 
never  recovered.  Jleanwhile.  two  parties  had  developed  in 
the  interior  politics  of  the  state — one  aiming  to  raise  the 
office  of  the  stadtholder  into  royalty  and  make  it  hered- 
itary in  tlie  family  of  Orange-Nassaii,  while  the  other,  the 
so-called  "  patriots,"  strove  to  aliolish  it  altogether  and  es- 
tablish a  pure  republic.  Wlien  in  tlie  winter  of  1794-95  the 
French  army,  after  conquering  the  Spanish  Netherlands, 
entered  the  territory  of  the  United  Provinces,  it  was  h.ailed 
by  the  patriots;  tlie  stadtholder,  William  V.,  fled  to  Eng- 
land, and  the  Bataviaii  republic  was  proclaimed  May  16, 
1795.  The  country  jwid  dear,  however,  for  its  new  consti- 
tution, which,  moreover,  was  changed  several  times  accord- 
ing to  the  whims  of  Napoleon.  In  1806  the  Netherlands 
was  made  a  kingdom  under  Louis  Bonaparte  (the  kingdom 


of  Holland);  in  1810  it  was  incorporated  with  Prance. 
Meanwhile  the  state  of  its  finances  had  become  nearly  des- 
perate. The  Congress  of  Vienna  established  the  kingdom 
of  Holland  once  more,  gave  the  crown  to  the  house  of 
Orange- Nassau,  and  joined  the  former  Spanish  Nether- 
lands with  it.  This  last  measure  proved  a  new  source  of 
trouble.  The  southern  provinces  were  agricultural,  Roman 
Catholic,  and  French  or  Flemish  speaking.  The  discrep- 
ancy between  the  two  ]iarts  of  the  new  state,  both  in  polit- 
ical interests  and  in  national  character,  was  so  palpable 
that  when  in  1830  the  southern  provinces  rose  into  rebel- 
lion the  great  powers  of  Europe  immediately  consented  to 
the  separation,  and  the  kingdom  of  Beluium  {q.  v.)  was 
erected,  though  not  until  much  blood  and  more  money  were 
squandered  by  the  attempts  of  the  King  of  Holland  at  main- 
taining his  government.  The  revolutionary  movement  of 
1848  finally  occasioned  some  change  in  a  liberal  direction 
in  the  constitution,  under  the  leadershiii  of  J.  R.  Thorbecke 
(1798-1873),  and  since  that  time  further  progress  has  been 
made  in  all  directions  toward  a  more  enlightened  policy. 
The  franchise  has  been  considerably  extended,  existing  laws 
have  been  amended  in  a  more  liberal  spirit,  and  many 
material  improvements  (railways,  canals,  etc.)  have  been 
made.  In  1872  a  conflict  arose  with  the  Sultan  of  Atjih, 
on  the  island  of  Sumatra,  who  grew  uneasy  under  the  Dutch 
supremacy.  This  seemingly  insignificant  revolt  developed 
into  a  tedious  war,  which  cost  the  mother  country  vast  sums 
of  money  and  many  lives. 

For  the  language  and  literature  of  the  Netherlands,  see 
Dutch  Language  and  Dutch  Literature. 

Bibliography. — Wagenaar,  VathrfiindscJie  Historie  (41 
vols..  Amsterdam.  1770);  J.  L.  Wotlev.  The  Rise  of  the 
Dutch  Rcpubtic  (3  vols..  1856).  The  hixtury  of  the  United 
Nettierlunds  (4  vols.,  1860-67),  and  The  Life  and  Death  of 
John  of  Bcrneveld  (2  vols.,  1874) ;  J.  C.  de  Jonge,  Geschie- 
denis  van  het  Nederlandsche  Zeewezen  (5  vols..  Haarlem, 
1858-62) ;  J.  L.  Terwen,  Het  Koningrijk  der  Nederlanden 
voorgesteld  in  eene  reelis  rati  naar  de  natuur  geteeliende 
schiideracliiiye  gezichten  (3  vols..  Gouda,  1858-63);  J.  de 
Bosch  Kemper,  (iesehiedenis  van  j\ederlaiid  na  1S30  (4  vols., 
Amsterdam.  1873-75).  J.  R,  Planten. 

Nets  and  Netting  :  textures  made  by  threads  or  cords 
crossing  one  another  and  knotted  at  the  points  of  intersec- 
tion so  as  to  keep  the  shape  and  size  of  their  open  meshes. 
Fishing-nets  are  the  most  common  instance  of  the  stouter 
kinds  of  net.  although  these  are  made  of  many  degrees  of 
fineness,  and  of  many  different  materials.  In  the  decora- 
tive arts  and  in  costume  net  has  been  used,  in  Europe  and 
in  the  East,  for  fabrics  of  colored  thread  and  of  elaborate 
design,  and  as  a  ground  ujion  which  can  be  sewn  sprigs  and 
flowers  cut  from  lace.  It  is,  however,  more  commonly  used 
for  the  making  of  fringes,  edgings,  bags,  coverings  for  the 
hair,  and  "  tidies '"  or  "  antimacassars."  For  these  purposes 
a  strong  and  fine  cord  is  commonly  used,  often  of  silk.  The 
net  is  often  of  very  elaborate  pattern,  and  darning  or  simple 
forms  of  embroidery  are  used  to  make  it  still  more  decora- 
tive. 

The  term  is  much  used  also  for  open-mesh  fabrics,  which 
are  not  true  net,  because  not  knotted  where  the  threads 
cross.  Thus  mosquito-net  is  merely  a  very  coarse  and  open 
gauze.  In  ornamental  art,  too,  the  work  done  by  pulling 
out  threads  and  stitching  back  others  in  cambric  or  lawn, 
so  as  to  produce  draiim  work  or  cut  work,  is  sometimes 
called  net.  Russell  Sturqis. 

Netsuke :  the  name  given  in  Japan  to  the  elaborately 
carved  buttons  or  knobs  of  metal,  wood,  or  ivory  used  in 
attaching  the  tobacco-pouch  or  other  light  article  to  the 
belt.  Artists  formerly  vied  with  each  otlier  in  tlie  minute 
pains  they  took  to  make  these  net.'iuken  marvels  of  intricate 
workmanship.  Europeans  ajiply  the  name  to  all  miniature 
carvings  in  ivory  of  Japanese  or  Eastern  workmanship. 

Nettement,  Alfred  Frani;'ois  :  journalist  and  historian  ; 
b.  in  Paris.  Prance,  July  i'i,  1805.  After  completing  his 
education  at  the  College 'liollin,  he  began  in  1839  to  jiublish 
critiques  in  the  journal  L'l'iiirersel,  and  for  many  years  he 
wrote  for  that  and  other  periodicals.  He  was  an  ardent 
Catholic  and  legitimist,  and  throughout  the  troubled  years 
from  1830  to  1850  he  resolutely  maintained  this  position. 
After  the  Revolution  of  1848  he  founded  L'Opinion  Pu- 
lilique,  a  journal  intended  to  help  the  restoration  of  the 
grandson  of  Charles  X.  After  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  3, 
1851,  this  w.as  suppressed,  and  Nettement  was  thrown  into 
prison.     After  his  release  he  wrote  for  a  time  for  the  Revue 


NETTLE 


NEUEXDORFP 


127 


Contemportiine,  anil  after  1M.V)  edited  La  Semaine  des  fa- 
milies. Diiriiii;  all  tlii-so  years  1r-  had  hcen  produciiif;  also  a 
serii-s  <if  hislorical  works,  wliirli.  even  if  tliey  can  not  be 
called  partisan  in  tone,  reflect  very  dearlv  their  anthors 
opinions.  Anions  these  were  J/isluire  dt  ?</  reroliitinii  ih 
Juillet  ISSDCi  vols.,  ls:{:!):  Suj/ir  tl  mn  tem/jx  (l>i4-i);  Vie 
de  Marie-Therfxr  de  Franif  i\VA-\;  3d  ed.  1«T2) ;  Henri  de 
France,  etc.  (i  vols,,  IS-l."!):  /jliide.i  critiques  siir  les  ijiron- 
dins  (1H48) ;  La  remliition  franfiiise  (1848) ;  llistuire  de  la 
litterature  fraiifaise  smis  la  Hestauratiun  (2  vols..  1852) ; 
llistuire  de  la  tilteniliirr  franijaise  suns  la  rui/aiite  de  Ju- 
illet (2  vols.,  1H54  :  2il  enlarged  eil,  1858) ;  Suui-enirs  de  la 
Hestauratiun  (1K5S);  La  cunquite  d' Alyer  (\KHi) ;  llistuire 
de  la  Hestauratiun  (8  vols.,  l.st)0-72).  Besides  these  larger 
works,  he  wrote  nnnieroiis  pamphlets  anil  several  works  on 
the  history  of  the  Parisian  pre.ss,  of  which  the  most  interest- 
ing is  Etudrs  critiipies  snr  le  fenilletun  runian  (2  series,  2d 
ed.  1845-lt>).  Worthy  of  ment'ion  also  is  his  I'lV  de  Madame 
la  marquise  ile  la  Hui-liejacquetin  (1858;  2d  eil.  1865).  U. 
in  I'aris,  Nov.  15,  18GU.  A.  K.  Maksu. 

Nettle  [O.  Eng.  nelele  :  O.  II.  Germ,  nezzila  >  Mod. 
(ienn.  nemel]:  any  one  of  many  plants,  mostly  covered 
more  or  less  dcnsidy  with  poisonons  stinging  hairs.  They 
belong  to  the  family  I'rticaceir,  and  mostly  to  the  genus 
Urtica.  There  arc  over  thirty  species,  many  of  which  are 
tropical,  some  of  the  latter  having  severe  and  even  danger- 
ous stinging  i>owers.  The  stalks  of  some  kinds  abound  in  a 
strong  fiber,  which,  especially  in  Asia,  has  a  considerable 
use  in  the  arts.  The  common  net tle-flbcr  is  employed  like 
hemp  in  Italv.  This  species  {i'rtica  diuica)  is  naturalized 
in  the  I'.  S.  from  Europe.  Its  young  shoots  make  an  excel- 
lent potherb,  ami  when  older  are  sometimes  put  into  beer. 
The  most  common  stinging  nettles  of  the  Eastern  U.  S.  are, 
besides  the  above,  the  L'.  uren.i,  also  European,  ('.  ctiama- 
dryotdes  and  gracilis,  and  Lapurtea  canadensis.  The  false 
nettle  of  the  U.  S.  is  Biehmerta  cylindrica,  a  stingless  herb. 
The  so-called  Dkao-xettle  (</.  v.)  is  not  a  nettle  at  all.  In 
the  East  Indies  the  Neilgherry  nettle,  Girardinia  palmata, 
one  of  the  most  activelv  stinging  of  the  true  nettles,  yields 
an  excellent  liber,  which  brings  a  high  price  in  England. 
Revised  by  Charles  E.  Hessev. 

Nettle-rash,  or  Hives  (in  Eat.  urticaria):  an  inflamma- 
tory alTection  of  the  skin  with  elTusion,  causing  elevations 
of  the  size  of  a  pea,  or  larger.  These  wheals  are  pale,  or 
i>ale  with  a  red  margin,  or  red,  or  pale  with  a  small  vesicle 
in  the  center.  The  disea-se  is  generally  of  an  acute  char- 
acter;  the  elevations  develop  quite  surldenly  anil  disappear 
after  hours  or  days.  Kreipieiilly  they  return,  and  some 
people  do  not  lose  the  predisposition  for  many  years.  They 
may  return  at  regular  or  irregular  iiUervals,  every  day  or 
two,  without  necessarily  having  anything  in  common  with 
intermittent  fever.  The  cause  of  this  condition  is  either 
local  or  systemic.  Among  the  local  causes  are  contact 
with  nettles,  from  which  it  has  its  name;  the  influence  of 
insects;  a  hot  l)ath;  the  sun;  and  mechanical  and  chemical 
influences  of  different  kinils.  In  predisposed  iiersons.  pres- 
sure with  the  linger,  friction,  or  irritation  as  l>y  a  subcuta- 
neous injection  of  an  indilTerent  fluid,  are  suflicient  to 
prixluce  it.  .\mong  the  systemic  causes  are  substances 
which  irritate  the  nerves  of  the  blood-vessels  or  of  the 
digestive  or  genito-urinary  organs;  certain  articles  of  food, 
such  as  champagne,  beer,  sausage,  strawberries,  riuspber- 
ries,  currants,  oysters;  meilicines,  such  as  quinine  or  cod- 
liver  oil.  The  recurrence  of  menstnuition,  the  application 
of  leeches  to  the  womb,  etc.,  are  causes  which  have  been  ob- 
served. At  times  the  condition  can  be  traced  to  no  cause, 
and  then  a  general  irritability  of  the  nervous  system  must 
be  assumed  to  produce  it.  Frequently,  therefore,  it  sets  in 
with  a  chill  or  with  fever,  and  it  is  always  accompanied  by 
itching  and  burning.  Treatment,  although  simple,  is  not 
always  eflicieiit.  Eocallv  the  use  of  glycerin,  cold-iTcam, 
weak  solutions  of  carlM)lic  acid  (1-2  per  cent.),  salt-water 
bathing. etc.,  will  relieve  the  itching.  Thediet  must  be  regu- 
lated; no  colTee,  spiic,  beer,  and  but  little  nu'at  must  Ix- 
taken.  The  stomach  must  be  improved  by  the  use  of  bis- 
muth or  hydriK-hloric  acid,  acconling  to  the  indications. 
Mild  purgatives  will  be  benefleial — in  very  bad  cases  now 
and  then  an  emetic.  Insects  must  be  liHiked  for.  menstrua- 
tion regulaied,  etc.  A.  .Iaioiii  ami  F.  E.  .'^iiniieun. 

Nettleship,  Ehwahu:  ophthalmologist;  b.  at  Kettering, 
Northamptonshire,  England,  .Mar.  :{.  1845;  studie<l  medicine 
in  King's  (\illege  Hospital.  I.onilon  Hospital,  and  London 
Veterinary  t'ollege;  in  187;l  was  appointed  curator  of  Moor- 


fields  Ophthalmic  Hosnital ;  in  1877  appointed  ophthalmic 
surgeon  to  St.  Thonnis  s  Hospital.  His  Student's  Ouide  to 
i/isea.ies  uf  the  Eye,  published  in  188(J,  has  passed  through 
several  editions  both  in  England  and  the  L'.  S.       S.  T.  A. 

Nettleship.  Hexrv:  classical  scholar;  b.  at  Kettering, 
Northamptonshire.  England,  May  5.  lH:i!l:  educated  at  Ca- 
thedral SchiH)l,  l)iirhiiiii,  at  Cliarterhuuse,  and  at  Corfius 
Christi  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  180L  He 
was  assistant  master  at  Harrow  from  18(>8  to  1873,  when  he 
became  fellow  and  tutor  of  Corpus  Christi  and  classical 
lecturer  at  Christ  Church.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  Cor- 
pus Professor  of  Latin  Literature  in  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford. He  published  and  edited  a  large  number  of  works 
on  classical  subjects,  among  which  are  a  portion  of  the  com- 
mentary on  the -.i'/ie('</  in  Coninglon's  Verijil;  a  revised  edi- 
tion of  Conington"s  Vergil;  Lectures  and  Essays  on  Snlt- 
jects  cunnected  with  Latin  Literature  and  Scholarship 
(1885);  I'unlributiuns  to  Latin  Lexicography  (1889).  l5. 
July  10,  18il3. 

Nettle-tree:  a  handsome  tree  (the  Cellis  auslralis).  a 
native  of  Europe,  belonging  to  the  family  Vrticacew.  and 
valued  for  its  wood,  much  used  in  turnery.  It  has  several 
congeners  in  various  jiarts  of  the  Old  aiul  New  Worlds,  the 
common  species  of  the  V.  S.  being  called  llACKnERRY  (q.  v.). 
In  Australia,  etc.,  there  are  nettle-trees  more  properly  so 
called,  with  very  sharply  stinging  leaves  and  shoots. 

Nettleworts  (I'riicarea'):  a  group  of  dicotyledonous 
plants  commonly  regarded  as  a  family  composed  of  several 
sub-families,  although  probably  more  correctly  a  group  of 
families.  The  flowers  are  apetalous,  and  mostly  unisexual, 
with  a  single,  superior,  one-celled,  one-ovided  ovarv.  The 
sjiecies  (1,.560)  are  mostly  tropical,  with  a  considerable  num- 
ber extending  into  the  temperate  zone.s. 

The  Elms  and  their  iillies  constitute  the  sub-family  (or 
fainilv)  riiiiaciif.  imliiding  a  dozen  or  more  genera  of  trees 
and  shrubs  and  about  120  species. 

The  Mulberries  and  their  allies  (sub-family  or  family 
Muraeea)  include  nearly  1,000  trees  and  shrubs  and  a  few 
herbs.  The  figs  {Ficus).  mulberries  (J/oru«),  breadfruit 
{Artocarpu.f),  milk-tree  (Brosiinuin).  and  upas-tree  (Antia- 
ris)  are  representative  plants  of  this  sub-family.  Here  are 
also  placed  the  hemp  (Cannabis)  and  the  hop  (JIuiinilus). 

The  Nettles  (sub-family  or  family  I'riicaceu')  are  mostly 
herbs  with  stinging  hairs.  They  are .re|iresented  by  I'rtica 
(the  nettles  proper),  Bcehvieria  (ramie),  Lapurtea  (wood 
nettles,  etc.).  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Nciicliatel.  or  Nenffliiitel,  noshalitel'  (Germ.  Nenen- 
hiirg.  nui  cn-boorrh):  canton  of  .Switzerland,  bounded  by 
Fiance  and  the  Lake  of  Nenchatcl.  Area.  312  sq.  miles. 
It  is  traversed  by  several  ranges  of  the  .lura  Jlountains, sep- 
arated by  longitudinal  valleys  stretching  from  the  S.  W. 
tinvard  tjie  N.  E.  The  lower  [larts  of  these  muiiiitains  are 
generally  well  adapted  to  the  product  ion  of  wheat,  wine, 
and  fruits!  the  higher  afford  good  jia-sturage.  where  many 
cattle  are  reared  and  much  cheese  is  produced;  some  are 
covered  with  forests  yielding  good  limber;  but  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  inhabitants  is  nevertheless  manufacturing, 
e.speciallv  watchmaking,  which  employs  nearly  20.000  per- 
sons. The  first  watch  was  made  here  in  1081.  Ip  to  1848 
the  countrv  formed  the  principality'  of  Neiichatel.  and  be- 
longed to  the  King  of  Prussia  :  in  that  year  it  adopted  a  re- 
publican constitution,  and  in  1857  definitely  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Swiss  confederation.  Three-fourths  of  the  popula- 
tion, 111,!128  in  number  (in  June,  1894).  speak  French,  and 
four-fifths  are  Protestants. 

Neueliutel :  capital  of  the  canton  of  Neuchatel.  Switzer- 
land :  beautifullv  situated  oil  the  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Neu- 
chfitel  (see  map'of  Switzerland,  ref.  4-C).  It  is  well  built, 
and  has  important  manufactures  of  watches  and  laces,  and 
a  large  trade  in  wine  and  alisinthe.     Pop.  (1803)  16,772. 

NeiU'hutel.  Lake  of:  a  body  of  water  in  Switzerland.  25 
miles  long  anil  from  3  to  5  miles  broad.  It  sends  its  waters 
through  the  Aar  to  the  Khiiie. 

NeiiendorlT,  noiVn-dorf.  AnoLPH  :  composer  and  conduc- 
tor: li.  in  Hamburg,  (iermany.  .luiie  l:t.  1843;  In'gan  the 
study  of  music  at  the  age  of  six  years.  In  1S55  his  |iarents 
removed  to  New  York,  where  he  coni  inued  his  musical  st  udies. 
He  became  chorus-master  of  the  new  German  theater  in  1857, 
and  soon  after  violinist  in  the  orchestra  of  the  Stadt  theater. 
In  18.5!)  he  made  an  aiipearance  as  a  pianist,  and  then  trav- 
eled with  his  father  for  two  years  in  South  America.  In 
18(53  he  became  conductor  of  the  Uerinan  theater  in  Milwau- 


128 


XEL'FCHATEL 


NEURITIS 


kee,  but  was  soon  back  again  in  Xew  York.  Since  then  he 
has  occupied  many  positions  as  conductor,  including  one 
year  with  the  Pliilharmonie  Society.  He  introduced  Wachtel 
and  JIadame  Pappenheim  to  New  York,  and  conducted  a 
series  of  Wagners  operas  in  1877.  He  has  composed  several 
operas,  which  have  been  successfully  performed.   D.  E.  H. 

Nenfchatel :  See  Nelthatel. 

Neuilly,  no  yee'  :  town ;  in  the  department  of  Seine, 
France ;  1^  miles  from  the  western  extremity  of  Paris,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Seine,  which  is  here  crossed,  on  the 
prolongation  of  the  avenue  through  the  Champs  Elysees,  by 
the  nolile  stone  bridge  built  by  Perronet.  (See  Bridges.) 
It  was  the  favorite  summer  residence  of  Louis  Philippe,  who 
occupied  the  royal  chateau  erected  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XY., 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  mob  Feb.  2.5,  1848,  the  right 
wing  alone  being  saved,  which  yet  forms  an  object  of  inter- 
est to  visitors.  The  beautiful  grounds  about  Neuilly,  once 
the  favorite  resort  of  Parisians,  are  now  laid  out  in  walks 
skirted  by  charming  villas.  Neuilly  has  a  varied  manufac- 
turing industrv,  comprising  starch,  chemicals,  straw  goods, 
porcelain,  etc.'  Pop.  (1891)  29,444. 

Neiimaun,  noi  ma'an,  Karl  Friedrich  :  Orientalist :  b.  at 
Reichmannsdorf,  Bavaria,  Dec.  22,  1798,  of  Jewish  parents; 
studied  at  Heidelberg.  Munich,  and  Gottingen,  and  was  eon- 
verted  to  Lutheranism  :  went  in  1827  to  Yenice  to  study 
Armenian  in  the  convent  of  San  Lazaro,  tlience  to  Paris 
and  London ;  made  a  journey  to  India  and  China  in  1829- 
30;  brought  back  a  large  collection  of  Chinese  and  Hindu 
books,  which  are  now  partly  in  Berlin  and  partly  in  Munich; 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  at  Munich 
in  1881,  but  dismissed  in  18.52  on  account  of  his  liberal 
views  in  politics ;  removed  in  1863  to  Berlin,  and  died  there 
Mar.  17,  1870.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer  on  various 
topics.  His  principal  works  are  JUemoires  sur  la  Vie  ei  les 
Ouvrages  de  David,  Philosophe  Annenien  (1829);  Lehrsaal 
des  Mittelreiclis  (1836) ;  Geschichte  der  armenischen  Littera- 
tur  (1836) ;  Aaiatische  Studien  (1837) ;  Die  Volker  des  sud- 
lichen  Russ/and  (\Si7) :  Ostasiatische  Geschichte  (1840-60); 
History  of  Vartan  by  E/isteus.  and  Chronicle  of  the  Ar- 
menian Kingdom  in  Cilicia,  by  Vahram  (1830),  translated 
from  the  Armenian.  He  also  wrote  Geschichte  der  Verein- 
igten  Staaien  von,  A'ordamerika  (3  vols.,  1863-66),  and 
Hoein  Schein,  or  the  Discovery  of  America  bij  Buddhist 
Monks  (1874).  Revised  by  P.  M.  Colby. 

Nenmayer.  noiml-er,  Georg  B.,  Ph.  D. :  magnetician 
and  meteorologist ;  b.  at  Kirchheim-Bolander,  f  falz-am- 
Rhein,  Germany.  .June  21,  1826 :  was  educated  in  tlio  Poly- 
technic School.  L^'niversity,  and  Observatory,  at  Munich. 
He  was  in  Australia  for  many  years,  where  he  served  as  di- 
rector of  the  Flagstaff  Observatory  at  Jlelbourne,  and  di- 
rector of  the  Magnetic  Survey  of  Queensland.  On  his  re- 
turn he  became  successively  hydrographer  of  the  Admiralty 
at  Berlin  and  director  of  the  Deutsche  Seewarte  at  Ham- 
burg. He  has  received  the  honorable  title  of  Oeheimer 
Admiralitatsrath.  Among  his  numerous  works,  both  in 
German  and  English,  are  Results  at  Flagstaff  Observatorv 
(1860)  and  in  Yictoria  (1866-69);  h\i^  Discussions  of  these 
observations  (1862);  Anleituny  zu  wissensch.  Beobachtun- 
gen  auf  Reisen  (1874:  2d  ed.  1888);  Die  internationale 
Polarforschiing,  Die  cUutschen  Expeditionen  und  ihre  Er- 
gebnisse  (2  vols.,  1890-91);  Atlas  des  Erdmngnetismiis  (in 
Berghaus's  Physikalischer  Atlas,  1891) ;  and  (with  Prof. 
Dr.  C.  Borgen)  Die  Beobachtungsergebnisse  der  deutschen 
Stationen  im  Systeme  der  intern.  Polar forsiiiung  (2  vols., 
1874-88).  Mark  \Y.  Harrington. 

Neumiinster.  noi'miin-ster:  town  ;  in  the  duchy  of  Hol- 
stein,  Prussia;  on  the  Schwale  river;  20  miles  by  rail  S.  \Y. 
of  Kiel  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  '2-¥j)  :  has  large 
breweries,  dve-works.  tanneries,  and  manufactories  of  woolen 
and  linen  fabrics.     Pop.  (1891))  17.539. 

NtMl-Pommerii,  noipomern  :  See  New  Pomerania. 

Nciuiuen,  luJ-oo-kan' :  a  territory  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public: on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  .S.  of  the  prov- 
ince of  .Mendoza.  between  the  rivers  Limav  (a  branch  of  the 
Negro)  and  the  Colorado.  Area  officially  stated  at  42.116 
sq.  miles,  but  the  limits  are  not  well  determined ;  popula- 
tion about  30.000.  In  the  mountainous  western  portion 
there  are  many  fertile  valleys;  nuich  of  the  eastern  part. 
except  in  the  river  valleys,  is  arid  :  and  there  is  an  innuense 
bed  of  sliiugle,  said  to  lie  the  largest  in  the  world,  extend- 
ing for  600  miles  through  lliis  territory  and  Kio  Negro:  its 
average  thickness  is  50  feet.   Tlie  principal  industry,  contined 


to  the  fertile  lands  along  the  rivers,  is  cattle  and  sheep 
raising;  the  cattle  are  driven  over  the  mountains  to  the 
Chilian  markets.  Gold,  silver,  coal,  etc..  are  reported.  Un- 
til 1879  this  region  was  held  by  the  Ranqueles  Indians. 
Capital,  the  village  of  General  Acha,  witli  about  2.000  in- 
habitants. Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Neuralgia  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  nvpov.  nerve  +  SA-yos,  pain] : 
pain  in  a  nerve  due  to  functional  disturbance  either  in  its 
central  or  peripheral  extremity.  If  inflammation  be  pres- 
ent in  the  nerve-trunk.  Neuritis  (q.  v.)  is  a  more  proper 
designation.  It  is,  however,  often  diificult  to  distinguish 
between  the  two  conditions,  and  many  authors  use  the  term 
neuralgia  even  if  inflammation  be  present,  provided  pain  be 
the  predominant  symptom.  The  disease  is  rarely  met  with 
in  children,  and  is  more  frequent  in  women  than  in  men. 
The  causes  are  debility,  exposure  to  cold,  anfemia,  reflex  ir- 
ritation, as  in  facial  neuralgia  from  a  decayed  tooth,  rheu- 
matism, gout,  diabetes,  malaria,  and  lead-poisoning.  The 
pain  is  localized  in  the  distribution  of  a  certain  nerve  or 
nerves,  and  rarely  occurs  on  both  sides  at  once.  It  is  parox- 
ysmal, lasting  from  a  few  minutes  to  n)any  hours,  and  is 
deep-seated,  sharp,  burning  or  boring,  and  darting.  In  the 
intervals  there  may  be  a  dull  ache.  It  may  recur  at  regular 
intervals  even  when  not  due  to  malaria."  The  skin,  "espe- 
cially at  certain  points  on  the  affected  nei-ve,  is  extremely 
sensitive  to  pressure.  Local  cedema.  sweating,  or  redness 
may  occur.  The  hair  may  become  gray  in  spots,  or  even 
fall  out.  Neuralgias  are  classified  accortling  to  the  part 
affected.  The  following  are  the  principal  varieties  :  Facial 
(see  Facial  Neuralgia)  ;  intercostal :  brachial  (involving 
the  arm);  crural  (involvingthe  front  of  the  thigh);  sciatica; 
coccygodynia  (causing  intense  pain  at  the  end  of  the  spine, 
made  much  worse  by  sitting) ;  erythronielalgia  (in  which 
there  is  great  pain  in  the  Iieel  or  sole,  with  hypera-mia  or 
cyanosis).  There  are  also  neuralgias  of  the  internal  organs, 
of  which  gastralgia  (neuralgia  of  the  stomach)  and  nephral- 
gia (neuralgia  of  the  kidney)  are  examples.  In  epileptiform 
neuralgia  the  attack  comes  on  suddenly  with  extreme  se- 
verity, lasts  only  a  few  seconds,  and  recurs  many  times  daily. 
The  pain  is  felt  only  in  the  fifth  nerve,  and  may  be  accom- 
panied by  spasm.  In  tlie  neuralgia  of  stumps  the  patient, 
at  a  greater  or  less  time,  usually  several  months,  after  am- 
putation of  an  arm  or  leg.  begins  to'feel  pain,  not  in  the 
sear,  but  in  the  amputated  extremity.  The  apjjarent  posi- 
tion of  the  removed  member  is  plainly  felt,  and  he  often 
feels  the  fingers  violently  flexed  or  extended.  Later  the 
pain  appears  in  the  retained  part  of  the  member.  Some- 
times there  is  violent  twitching  of  the  stump.  The  affection 
is  caused  by  pressure  of  the  contracting  scar  upon  the  ends 
of  the  nerves.  \Yilliam  Pepper  and  C.  ^Y.  Burr. 

Neurasthenia :  See  Nervous  Diseases?. 

Neurilemma;  See  Histology  (Nerves). 

Neuriiie  [from  Gr.  v^vpov.  nerve],  or  Clio'liiie  [from  Gr. 
X<iAos.  gall,  bile] :  thetri-methvl-oxethvl-ammonium-hvdrate, 
(CH3)s(C2H40n)NOH.  It  is' obtained  from  the  bile,  from 
the  brain,  from  Lecithin  (q.  v.).  from  Protagon  (q.  v.),  and 
is  prepared  synthetically.  Lecithin,  which  occurs  in  the 
brain,  nerves,  yolk  of  eggs,  blood-corpuscles,  etc.,  is  now 
known  to  be  the  di-stearyl-glycerin-phosphate  of  neurine. 

Neuri'tis  [Gr.  veipoy.  nerve  -l-  Mod.  Lat.  suffix  -itis.  denot- 
ing a  disease  of  the  ]>art  to  the  name  of  which  it  is  added] : 
inflammation  of  a  nerve.  The  nerve  is  red  and  swollen. 
The  inflammation  may  be  confined  to  the  fibrous  sheath 
(perineuritis),  or  invaile  the  deeper  connective  tissue  (inter- 
stitial neuritis),  or  the  nerve-fibers  may  be  primarily  af- 
fected (parenchymatous  neuritis).  The  changes  in  the  last 
are  similar  to  those  in  Wallerian  degeneration  following 
cutting  of  a  nerve.  The  medullary  substance  becomes  seg- 
mented aiul  divides  into  globules  and  granules.  The  axis 
cylindei-s  break  uji,  become  granular,  and  finally  disappear. 
T*he  nuclei  of  the  sheath  of  Schwann  increase  in  number. 
In  the  former  the  internodal  nuclei  are  swollen,  those  of  the 
sheath  of  Schwann  jiroliferate,  and  the  nerve-fibers  may  be 
completely  replaced  by  fibrous  tissue.  The  following  are  the 
chief  varieties  of  neuritis  :  Localized  neuritis,  due  to  cold, 
wounds,  and  extension  of  disease  from  neighl)oring  parts. 
"Crutch  palsy."  in  which  the  head  of  the  crutch  pressing 
against  the  musculo-spiral  nerve  bruises  it  and  causes  palsy 
in  the  muscles  supplied,  is  quite  common.  The  hand  hangs 
from  the  wrist  and  can  not  be  extended,  the  foivarm  is  su- 
pinat.ed  with  difficulty,  and  there  is  numbness  and  tingling. 
In  the  idiopathic  form  and  in  that  from  wounds  there  is 


i 


NEL'UUI'TEUA 


NEUSTADT 


129 


proat  pain,  numbness,  ilitniniitinn  of  the  tactile  sense,  im- 
|)airiiieiit  or  absolute  loss  of  iimtion  in  tlie  niiiscles.  and  ulti- 
Mialely  wasting.  There  may  be  inuscular  cinitraeliun,  reil- 
ncss  and  glossiness  of  the  skin,«eJenia,  anil  herpes.  Multi- 
ple neuritin  may  be  idiopathk-  or  causeil  by  the  |K)isons  of 
acute  infectious  disease's,  as,  for  exanipK',  diphtheria,  typhoid 
and  scarlet  fevers,  and  small|)<)X  ;  certain  (xiisons,  among 
which  are  alcohol,  lead,  and  mercury  ;  ami,  finally,  some 
chmnic  constitutional  diseiuses,  such  as  cancer.  tubcTculosis, 
and  diabetes.  In  the  acute  form  the  onset  is  rapid.  Fever, 
backache,  headache,  anil  limb-ache  appear  tirsi,  and  are 
followed  liy  a  more  or  less  i-omplcte  palsy  of  the  legs  and 
arms,  and  sometimes  of  the  intercostal  nius<'les,  so  that  res- 
piration becomes  purely  dia|)hragmatic.  There  is  a  char- 
acteristic drop  of  the  hands  and  feet.  .Sensory  disturbances 
may  be  slifjlit  or  severe.  There  is  muscular  wasl  ins;.  The 
course  of  the  disease  varies  •,'natly.  The  oatient  may  die 
in  a  few  days  or  mav  recoveraftcra  prolonfjed  convalescence. 
In  the  alcoholic  finnx  the  onset  is  apt  to  be  gradual,  and 
there  mav  be  neuralgic  pains  in  the  arms  and  legs  for 
months  before  jmlsy  develops.  Fever  is  rare.  _  The  type  of 
the  pidsy  is  similar  to  that  already  described.  There  is  often 
deliriuin,  with  convulsions  and  halUicinatii>ns  of  grandeur. 
Occasionally  the  ineiital  symptoms  are  the  same  as  those 
met  with  ill  delirium  tremens.  The  disea.se  is  most  frei|ueiit 
in  women.  Steady,  ipiiel  driukini;  is  more  apt  to  cause  it 
than  occasional  drunkennes,s.  Enihmir  iin(ri/is  (licriberi) 
is  common  in  .Japan.  New  Zealand,  India,  Brazil,  and  the 
West  Indies.  It  was  formerly  prevalent  in  China.  Its 
causi-  ha.s  not  been  positively  determined,  but  it  is  probably 
infectious.  The  onset  may  be  sudden  or  gradual.  The  symp- 
toms are  fever,  ana>inia,  ascending  palsy,  iiichuling  some- 
times the  diaphragm  and  larynx,  inusc'ular  wasting,  (cilema 
beginning  in  the  legs  ami  becoming  general,  ami  aiia'slhe- 
sia  to  touch  but  not  to  pain.  Uealh  results  from  cardiac 
failure.  The  mortalitv-ratc  varies  from  :t  to  50  per  cent,  in 
ilillerent  epidemics.  In  all  forms  of  neuritis  tiiere  is  reac- 
tion of  degeneration  in  the  muscles. 

WiLLiA-M  Pepper  and  C.  W.  Burr. 
Neiirop'tcra  [.Mod.  Lat.:  Gr.  ydpoy.  iwrvv  +  ■irrtp6i>, 
wing|:  a  iiaine  applied  with  different  limitalions  by  differ- 
ent aulhoi-s  to  a  group  of  insects.  I5y  some  it  is  used  to  in- 
clude the  ilay-IIiis  (Kphemerida).  dragoii-llics  (()<lonata), 
stone-Hies  (I'lecoplera),  white  ants  (Isoptera),  book-lice 
(C'ornxlentia),  scorpion-tlies  (Panorpata,  or  Mecoptora),  cad- 
dis-flies (Trichoptera),  and  the  hellgramrailes  and  ant-lions. 
By  others  its  use  is  limited  to  the  last-named  forms.  With 
ita  wider  signification  it  is  diflicult  of  deliiiilion.  but  it  may 
be   said   to   include   those    forms  of  insects   in   which   the 


P^. 


f 


Fia.  'i.—CorydaltK  cornuta. 


Fio.  I.  — KgKS-  lttr\'a,  aiul  adult  of  CbrysuiMimrta. 

mouth-parts,  like  thosi>  of  grasshoppers,  are  fitted  for  biting 
and  in  which  the  gauzy  wings  are  provided  with  numerous 
cros.s-vcins.  Such  a  clelinition.  however,  brings  together  a 
heterogeneous  assemblage  i>f  forms,  some  having  a  coinplele, 
others  an  imperfect  metamorphosis,  as  well  as  some  in 
which  the  mouth-parts  are  its  well  adapleil  for  siuking  as 
for  biting.  (See  Kn  roMol.ociV.)  The  Neiiroptcra  proper  have 
a  complete  metamorphosis,  pitssing  through  larval  and  pu- 
pal stages  before  becoming  ailult  ;  the  moulh-parls  are  fitted 
for  biting,  ami  the  wings,  four  in  number,  are  membranous, 
and  are  furnished  with  numerous  veins.  The  groupor order 
contains  but  two  .Vmeriiiin  families.  The  first,  llic  Siiiliilir, 
contains  the  hillgrammite  flics.  Cori/ddliin.  flic  ai|uatic  lar- 
va' of  which,  uniler  the  name  of  "  dobsons,"  are  familiar  to 
fishermen.  When  n^aily  to  pupate  the  larva-  leave  the  water 
and  make  a  cavity  in  the  earth,  in  which  flic  pupa  remains 
inactive  for  four  or  five  weeks.  The  other  family.  lhmrri>- 
hiJii',  contains  the  ant-lions,  aphis-lions,  anil  a  few  other 
forms.  Of  thoe  the  ant-lions  are  best  known.  They  dig 
funnel-shaped  pitfalls,  at  the  liottom  of  which  the  strong- 
jawed  larva  lies  buried.  .\ny  ant  or  other  insect  venturing 
within  the  mouth  of  the  funnel  tumbles  down,  and  is  seized 
by  the  larva  at  the  l>ottom  of  the  pit.  The  ant-lions  spin 
silken  coi'oons  in  which  to  pass  the  pupal  stage,    Theaphis- 


lions  (Chrysopa)  lay  their  eggs  on  stalks  so  as  to  place  them 
above  danger.  The  larva*  hunt  for  their  prey,  wliich  con- 
sists of  other  in.sects; 
there  is  a  silken  cocoon 
for  the  pupal  stage.  The 
adults  are  frequently 
called  golden-eyed  flies 
on  account  of  the  color 
of  the  eyes  in  the  living 
iiioects.  Some  species 
emit  a  most  nauseuiis 
odor  on  being  disturbed. 
See  ExTCMOLiiov. 

J.  S.  Kl.VtiSLKY. 

Nenro'sis  [from  Cir. 
vdpoy,  nerve]  :  the  ge- 
neric name  applied  to 
disorders  of  the  nervous 
system  in  which  no  st  ruc- 
tural  change  is  discover- 
able. The  number  of 
such  affections  has  ma- 
terially decreased  with 
improved  methods  of  re- 
search. Doubtless  some 
of  them  are  of  toxic  na- 
ture, the  disturbed  ac- 
tion of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem being  d\ie  to  the 
altered  physiology  under 
the  influence  of  poisons, 
as  we  know  to  be  the 
case  in  instances  of  alco- 
holic or  opium  |ioison- 
ing.  The  long  continu- 
ance of  intoxication  or  chronic  disturbance  of  the  nervous 
system  of  a  purely  functional  nalure  may  doubtless  lead  to 
organic  changes,  so  that  in  the  end  a  functional  disease  may 
become  organic.  Among  the  neuroses  are  generally  consid- 
ered neuralgia,  chorea,  epilepsy,  i^iaralysis  agitans,  neuras- 
thenia, and  othei's.  The  causes  which  are  operative  to  induce 
these  conditions  are  considered  under  the  heading  Nervous 
Diseases. 

An  interesting  group  are  the  so-called  occupation  neuro- 
ses, such  as  writer's  or  scrivener's  cramp  or  palsy,  teleg- 
rapher's cramp,  sempstress's  cramp,  and  the  like.  In 
these  affections  the  habitual  overuse  of  certain  groups  of 
muscles  in  finely  co-ordinated  movements  occasionally 
leads  to  a  condition  in  which  every  attempt  to  perform  the 
accustomed  work  leads  to  painful  spasm  or  cramp  of  the 
muscles  involved.  Sometimes  there  is  simply  palsy,  at 
other  times  only  pain  or  cramp:  but.  as  a  rule,  cramp  and 
pain  are  associated.  In  the  treatment  of  neuroses  the  first 
indication,  as  a  general  thing,  is  to  secure  rest  of  the  entire 
nervous  system  or  of  the  parts  involved.  In  addition,  gen- 
eral tonic  treat ment  is  reipiired  for  the  underlying  loss  of 
lone,  which  is  the  predisposing  factor.    William  Pepper. 

In  jiKi/rliiiliii/i/,  the  word  neurosis  is  used  to  indicate  any 
condition  of  tlie  central  nervous  system  which  is  correlative 
to  a  particular  condition  or  function  in  consciousness. 
Every  nci/ro«M  has  its  pni/choniif.  For  exam|ile.  emotion  is 
I  a  psychosis,  which  is  supposed  to  involve  a  certain  kind  of 
nervous  process  or  neurosis.  The  distinction  in  terms  was 
suggested  bv  Huxley,  and  has  been  generally  adopted. 

.I.'M.  Baldwin. 

Neiirot'ics  [from  (ir.  MSpov,  nerve] :  in  medicine,  such 
drugs  as  are  capable  of  primarily  affecting  the  functions  of 
intellection,  sensiliility.  or  motility.  .\lcohol,  the  ethers, 
cliloml.  potiussium  bromide,  amyl  nitrite,  the  drugs  of  the 
opium  type,  iiuiiiine,  strychnine,  hemliK'k,  Calabar  bean, 
aconite,  digitalis,  etc..  are  neurotics. 

Nensledl,  noi  seed'l,  liilkp  nf  (Germ.  Xeusiedler  See):  a 
body  of  water  in  Hungary  ;  near  the  northwestern  frontier; 
a;i  miles  long  and  7  miles  broad.  Ifs  water  contains  various 
salts  in  solution,  and  has  a  brackish  taste.  The  lake  .some- 
times dries  up  entirely,  as  was  the  case  in  Kt!):!.  17:18,  and 
ISO.");  but  in  1H70  the  basin  again  liccame  filled  with  water 
through  the  llaiisiig  marsh,  and  the  farms  and  plantations 
which  .\rchilukc  .\lbrecht  had  laid  out  under  the  name  of 
New  Mexico  were  all  submerged,  rndcr  smlden  risings  of 
the  water  a  canal  conducts  it  to  the  river  Uabnitz. 

Npiistudt.  noi  sta'iit. or  WIp'iier-Nonslailt.  iwner-:  town 
of  Lower  Austria;  at  the  beginning  of  the  canal  of  same 


130 


NEU-STRELITZ 


NEVADA 


name,  and  on  the  Vienna  and  Gratz  Railway ;  36  miles  S. 
of  Vienna  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  5-E).  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  wall  and  a  deep  dilcii.  In  1834  the  town 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  tire.  It  has  since  been  handsomely 
rebuilt,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Cistercian  abbey  and  of  a  mili- 
tary academy  founded  by  Maria  Theresa.  Its  manufactures 
are  important,  and  include  locomotives,  machinery,  tacks, 
clocks,  leather,  etc. ;  and  it  has  a  good  trade  in  horses  and 
agricultural  products.     Pop.  (1890)  24,780. 

Neu-Strelllz,  noi'stra'lits :  capital  of  the  gran<l  duchy  of 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Germany ;  situated  between  two  lakes, 
62  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Berlin  (see  map  of  German  Empire, 
ref.  3-G).  It  was  founded  in  1733,  is  built  in  the  form  of 
an  eight-pointed  star,  and  contains  a  fine  palace  with  a 
library,  a  theater,  educational  and  benevolent  institutions, 
and  a'fine  park.     Pop.  (18i(0)  9,481. 

Neuter  Nation  :  See  Iroijuoian  Indians. 

Neutral  Axis:  the  line  in  a  cross-section  of  a  beam 
which  is  neitlier  extended  nor  compressed  when  the  beam  is 
deflected  by  a  load.  This  line  passes  through  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  cross-section,  provided  the  elastic  limit  of  the 
material  be  not  exceeded.  See  Elastic  Curve  and  Flex- 
ure, il.  M. 

Neutrality:  the  state  of  peace  which  a  nation  observes 
while  some  of  its  friends  are  at  war.  Anciently,  such  a 
condition  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed,  for  wars  were 
general  and  every  state  was  either  the  ally  or  the  enemy  of 
every  othei'.  In  nothing  can  the  progress  of  society  be  so 
clearly  seen  as  in  tlie  increasing  growth  and  importance  of 
the  neutral  status. 

Neutrality  is  not  only  a  privilege  to  be  free,  so  far  as  is 
possible,  from  the  losses  and  evils  of  war ;  it  is  also  a  duty 
to  avoid  aiding  either  belligerent,  remembering  that  the 
other  is  a  friend.  The  position  which  a  state  intends  to 
take  in  view  of  a  war  between  its  neighbors  should  be 
clearly  defined.  It  is  accordingly  customary  to  issue  a 
proclamation  of  neutrality,  laying  down  the  rules  which  are 
to  govern  its  intercourse  with  both  belligerents  alike ;  the 
privileges,  it  any,  which  they  may  expect ;  the  obligations 
which  it  will  itself  recognize,  and  the  duties  thereby  devolv- 
ing upon  its  subjects. 

Besides  such  proclamations  in  view  of  a  particular  war,  it 
is  also  customary  for  a  state  to  put  on  its  statute-books  gen- 
eral laws  regulating  the  actions  of  its  citizens  with  reference 
to  foreign  wars.  These  are  neutrality  acts.  They  are  only 
municipal  laws,  it  is  ti'ue,  yet  their  violation  by  the  subjects 
of  a  state  may  be  ground  for  damages  against  it  in  favor  of 
an  injured  belligerent,  as  was  proved  in  the  Alabama  case. 
The  non-existence  or  insufficiency  of  such  laws  is  no  excuse 
for  a  failure  to  observe  a  strict  neutrality,  but  may  rather 
be  a  cause  of  complaint.  For  a  full  discussion  of  this  sub- 
ject, the  rights  and  duties  of  neutral  states,  and  the  effects 
upon  neutral  trade,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  general 
article  International  Law. 

The  following  proclamation  of  neutrality,  issued  by  the 
King  of  Spain  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S., 
June  17,  1861,  affords  an  illustration  : 

"  Taking  into  consideration  the  relations  which  exist  be- 
tween Spain  and  the  United  States  of  America,  and  the  de- 
sirability that  the  reciprocal  sentiments  of  good  understand- 
ing should  not  be  changed  by  reason  of  the  grave  events 
which  have  taken  place  in  that  republic,  I  have  resolved  to 
maintain  the  most  strict  neutrality  in  the  contest  begun  be- 
tween the  Federal  States  of  the  Union  and  the  States  con- 
federated at  the  South;  and  in  order  to  avoid  the  damage 
which  might  accrue  to  my  subjects  and  to  navigation  and 
commerce  from  the  want  of  clear  provisions  to  which  to 
adjust  their  conduct,  I  do  decree  the  following: 

•'Art.  1.  It  is  forbidden  in  all  the  ports  of  the  monarchy 
to  arm,  provide,  or  equip  any  privateer  vessel,  whatever  may 
be  the  il.'ig  she  displays. 

"Art.  2.  It  is  forbidden  in  iike  manner  to  the  owners, 
masters,  or  captains  of  merchant  vessels  to  accept  letters  of 
marque,  or  contriliute  in  any  way  whatsoever  to  the  arma- 
ment or  equipment  of  vessels  of  war  or  privateers. 

"  Art.  3.  It  is  forbiilden  to  vessels  of  war  or  privateers 
with  (heir  prizes  to  enter  or  to  remain  for  more  than  twenty- 
four  hours  in  the  ports  of  the  monarchy,  except  in  case  of 
stress  of  weather.  Whenever  this  last  shall  occur,  the  au- 
thorities will  keep  watch  over  the  vessel,  and  oblige  her  to 
go  out  to  sea  as  soon  as  possible  without  permitting  her  to 
take  in  any  stores  except  those  strictly  necessary  for  the  mo- 
ment, but  in  no  cases  arms  or  supplies  for  war. 


"  Art.  4.  Articles  proceeding  from  prizes  shall  not  be  sold 
in  the  ports  of  the  monarchy. 

"  Art.  5.  The  transportation  under  the  Spanish  flag  of  all 
articles  of  commerce  is  gufcranteed,  except  when  they  are 
directed  to  blockaded  ports.  Che  transportation  of  effects 
of  war  is  forbidden,  as  well  as  the  carrying  of  papers  or 
communications  for  belligerents.  Transgressors  shall  be 
responsible  for  their  acts,  and  shall  have  no  right  to  the 
protection  of  my  Government. 

"  Art.  6.  It  is  forbidden  to  all  Spaniards  to  enlist  in  the 
belligerent  armies  or  take  service  on  board  of  vessels  of  war 
or  privateers. 

"Art.  7.  My  subjects  will  abstain  from  every  act  which, 
in  violation  of  the  laws  of  the  kingdom,  can  be  con.sidered 
as  contrary  to  neutrality. 

"Art.  8.  Those  who  violate  the  foregoing  provisions  shall 
have  no  right  to  the  protection  of  my  Government,  shall 
suffer  the  consequences  of  the  measures  which  the  belliger- 
ents may  dictate,  and  shall  be  punished  according  to  the 
laws  of  Spain." 

This  is  a  fair  sample  of  proclamations  of  neutrality,  yet 
it  is  liable  to  misconstruction.  For  in  point  of  fact  the 
conveyance  of  contraband,  blockade-running,  enlistment  in 
a  foreign  army,  or  service  on  a  foreign  ship  would  probably 
not  be  punished  hy  the  laws  of  Spain  or  any  other  country 
while  neutral.  It  is  simply  intended  to  give  warning  that 
such  acts  are  illegal,  and  that  if  penalties  are  incurred  at 
the  hands  of  either  belligerent  for  committing  them-^e.  g. 
confiscation  of  contraband  goods — no  remedy  can  lie  fur- 
nished by  their  own  Government.  On  the  other  hand,  cer- 
tain other  acts  forbidden  by  the  proclamation,  such  as  arm- 
ing a  privateer  or  ship  of  war,  would  probably  be  prevented 
under  penalty  by  the  Government.  This  somewhat  curious 
and  illogical  distinction  between  acts  apjiarently  of  equal 
criminality  rests  upon  usage,  a  usage  acquiesced  in  by  bel- 
ligerent as  well  as  neutral,  and  founded  upon  the  principles 
tliat  (1)  neutral  trade  shall  be  as  little  disturbed  as  possible 
in  time  of  war;  that  (2)  anything  resembling  the  fitting  out 
of  an  armed  expedition  on  neutral  ground  to  operate  against 
a  friendly  state  is  not  a  mere  act  of  trade,  Iiut  a  direct  act 
of  war  and  unneutral,  and  likely  to  involve  the  neutral  state 
in  diiliculties  and  make  it  responsible  for  damage  thereby 
inflicted.     See  Contraband  and  International  Law. 

T.  S.  WOOLSEY. 

Nenville,  no'veef,  AnnioNSE  Marie,  de :  military  painter; 
b.  at  St.-Omer,  Pas-de-Calais,  France,  May  31,  1836.  He 
was  a  |iupil  of  Picot;  was  awarded  medals  at  the  Salons  of 
1859  and  1861 ;  was  made  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
1881.  He  began  life  as  a  lawyer,  but  abandoning  the  law 
to  take  up  the  study  of  art,  he  soon  achieved  a  reputation, 
and  with  his  pictures  of  episodes  of  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870  reached  the  highest  rank  among  modern  battle- 
painters.  His  compositions  are  notable  for  action  and  vigor- 
ous draughtsmanship.  One  of  the  best  and  most  important 
is  T/ie  Defense  of  Le  Banrgef,  painted  in  1879,  in  the  col- 
lection of  Mrs.  W.  II.  Vandcrbilt,  New  York.  D.  in  Paris, 
May  20,  1885.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Neva:  a  river  of  the  government  of  St.  Petensburg,  Rus- 
sia. It  connects  Lake  Ladoga  with  the  Gulf  of  Finland ;  is 
35  miles  long ;  has  a  curved  and  sinuous  course,  with  many 
bars  and  other  obstructions  to  navigation  at  its  head  and 
mouth,  and  a  series  of  rapids  about  midway  of  its  length. 
It  is  broad  and  deep,  and  the  obstructions  to  navigation 
have  been  measurably  overcome  by  engineering  works.  St. 
Petersburg  occupies  the  islands  of  its  delta.         M.  W.  H.  " 

Nevada,  ne"e-vaa'da:  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America 
(Western  group) ;  twenty-third  in  order  of  admission  into 
the  Union  ;  ranked  in  1891  fifth  in  production  of  gold,  fifth 
in  silver,  and  sixth  in  aggregate  value  of  both.  | 

Location  and  Area. — It  lies  between  35°  and  42°  N.  lat., 
and  114°  and  120°  W.  Ion.;  bounded  N.  by  Oregon  and 
Idaho,  E.  by  Utah  and  Arizona,  S.  W.  and  W.  by  California; 
extreme  length  from  N.  to  S.,  483  miles;  greatest  breadth 
from  E.  to  W.,  423  miles  ;  area,  110,700  sq.  miles. 

Physical  Features. — The  greater  part  of  Nevada  is  in- 
cluded in  the  Great  American  Basin,  which  has  for  its 
walls  the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  W.  and  the  Wahsatch 
Mountains  on  the  E.  It  is  bounded  N.  and  S.  by  cross- 
ranges,  and  has  no  outlet  for  its  waters.  This  vast  basin  is 
a  table-land  about  4.000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  mountains 
rise  from  1,000  to  8,000  feet  above  its  level.  About  12,000 
sq.  miles  in  the  S.  E.  of  the  State  are  outside  of  this  basin, 
and  belong  to  the  Colorado  river  basin.     The  Sierra  Neva- 


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NEVADA 


131 


(la  Mountains  constitute  the  west  l>oun<lary  of  the  State. 
They  throw  out  one  spur,  however,  the  Washoe  Mountains, 
which  have  a  N'.  K.  direction.  Most  of  the  mountain 
chains  are  parallel  to  each  other,  ami  have  a  general  course 

from  N.  to  S.  The 
jirincipal  chains, 
bi-fjiniiinfj  at  the 
\V.,  are  the  Vir- 
ginia Mountains. 
W.  of  Pyramid 
Lake  ;  the  Lake 
range,  between 
Pyramid  and  Win- 
iifinucca  Lakes  ; 
t  he  TruckeoMoun- 
tiiins,  E.  of  Win- 
nenmcca  Lake: 
the  Trinity  and 
Antelope  Moun- 
tains, which  form 
the  west  boundary 
of  the  Lower  Hum- 
boldt river  and 
Lake  vallcv ;  the 
seal  ..f  .N.va.hi.  ^y^^^       Hulnboldt 

Mountains ;  and,  separated  from  these  by  a  broad  valley, 
the  Kast  Humboldt  .Mountains;  S.  of  the  Humboldts  are 
the  Toyabc  Mountains,  and  a  parallel  range,  the  Santa  Rosa. 
The  Pah-Utc  and  Coyote  Mountains,  also  outliers  of  the 
Toyabc  range  on  the  \\'.,  extend  northward  toward  the 
Humboldt  river  and  lake.  K.  and  .S.  E.  of  the  East  Hum- 
boldt ninge  are  I  lie  HMwards  Creek  Mountains,  the  New 
Pass  range,  the  .Shoshone  and  Reese  Kiver  ranges,  the  Hot 
Creek,  Keveille,  and  .Smokv  ranges,  the  Diamond,  Egan, 
Ungoweah,  and  tioshoot  jfountains,  parallel  ranges,  with 
valleys  U'tween.  In  the  .S.  \V.  is  an  isolated  range,  the 
White  Mountains.  The  Colorado  valley  has  numerous 
abrupt  ranges  rising  from  its  plateaus,  and  three  peaks 
of  considerable  height — viz..  Tein  Piute,  Pahranegat,  and 
Picohe.  The  most  important  ranges  of  the  Colorado  re- 
gion are  the  .Mudily,  Vega-s,  Spring  .Mountain,  and  Kings- 
ton Mountains.  Some  of  the  peaks  of  the  West  Humboldt 
and  Soutli  Toyabc  rang»?s  rise  to  the  height  of  10,000  to 
12.000  feet.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  N'evada  and  the 
Ilutnbiildt.  East  Humboldt,  and  Toyabe  ranges  have  a  con- 
siderable number  of  streams,  which,  however,  disappear 
very  suilderdy  from  the  surfiwe,  and  reappear  as  lakes  or 
pools  farther  on.  The  princiiial  rivers  arc  the  Truckee, 
which  rises  in  Tahoe  Lake  and  flows  N'.  E.  and  X.  W.  into 
Pyramiil  Lake  ;  the  Humboldt,  which  is  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  several  small  streams  in  the  X.  E.  of  the  State, 
and  after  a  general  southwest  course  falls  into  Humboldt 
Lake  ;  Walker  river,  in  the  S.  W.,  which,  after  a  circuitous 
course,  falls  into  Walker  Lake;  Carson  river,  discharging 
into  Carson  Lake  :  (^uinn's  river,  in  the  X.  W. :  Reese  river, 
in  the  central  portion  of  the  Stale;  the  Rio  Virgin,  in  the 
>S.  E. ;  and  the  I'olorailo,  which  forms  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance a  part  of  the  stiutheast  boundary.  The  principal  lakes 
are  Pyramid,  :{:t  mill's  long  and  14  wi(h>:  Walker,  nearly  as 
large;  Carson',  PJ  miles  in  diameter;  Humbolrll,  somewhat 
smaller;  Winnemucca,  is  miles  long.  H  wide;  and  t^ake  Ta- 
hoe, one-third  of  which  is  in  Nevada,  1,.500  feet  ileep.  fi.OOO 
feet  above  the  sea.  There  are  also  numerous  shallow  lakes 
of  large  extent  in  the  rainy  season,  but  dry  or  nearly  so  in 
the  dry  season. 

Mineral  Hesourcex. — Gold  is  not  an  abundant  metal  in 
Nevada,  but  some  of  the  argentiferous  ores  contain  a  large 
amount  of  golil  in  comliimition.  The  percentage  of  g<ild  in 
these  ores  varies  froni  21  to  .Vi  per  cent,  of  tlie  entire  metal- 
lic product.  Silver  is,  however,  the  staple  mineral  proiluet 
of  Nevada.  The  silver  loiles  are  found  ni  almost  every  part 
of  the  State,  some  yielding  from  iJOri  to  $100  to  the  t<in, 
others  ranging  from  $4.50  to  $2,.50O  or  more  to  the  ton.  t)f 
these  the  mines  on  the  Comstock  vein  or  lode  have  proved 
the  most  valuable.  The  product  of  the  mines  for  the  year 
ending  .Sept.  HO,  IMiil.  was  :i7.';,70H  tons;  the  gross  value, 
$."i.!U«..".«:!.  The  yield  of  the  Comstotk  IikIc  for  lH!t0  was  over 
f4.IKH),(K)ll.  The  number  i>f  men  employi'd  on  that  lode  was 
l.'iOO.  The  director  of  the  l'.  S.  mint  reported  the  product 
of  Nevada  gi>ld  mines  in  lH!t2  as  T<!.021  hue  ounces,  valued 
at  $1,.'>71,.'>(M).  and  of  Nevada  silver  mines  as  2.454,0<K1  line 
ounces,  with  a  coining  value  of  $:t.l7:i,4!l5.  There  has  been 
a  distinct  falling  off  in  the  output  of  precious  metals  in 
Nevada  since  1891,  the  calendar  year  1S!)3  showing  4«.:!tl7 


fine  ounces  of  gold,  valued  at  $9.JH..'iOO.  and  1,561.300  fine 
ounces  of  silver,  of  a  coining  value  of  $2,U18,(iol.  The  other 
minerals  of  Nevada  are  lead,  coj)per  in  various  forms,  the 
production  of  which  deert'iused  from  2M8,077  lb.  in  1883  to 
20,000  lb.  in  1893,  iron  in  numerous  forms,  as  magnetic, 
spathic,  s|>ecular,  common  iron  pyrites,  arsenical  and  mag- 
lulic  pyrites,  etc. ;  it  is  not  as  yet  mined  to  any  extent ;  an- 
timony, arsenic,  possibly  quicksilver,  numganese,  sulphuret 
of  zinc,  graphite  or  plumbago,  sulphur  (pure),  gypsum,  rock- 
salt,  nitrate  of  potassa,  carbomite  of  soda  in  immense  quan- 
tities, borax,  ligiute  or  brown  coal,  kai'lin.  sulphate  of  mag- 
nesia, agates,  amethyst,  epidote.  tournuiline,  chalcedony.  ja.s- 
per.  carnelian.  fluorspar,  .seh'tiite.  granite,  and  mica,  of  which 
l.ijOO  lb.  from  a  single  mine  were  shijiped  to  Sy^acu^e.  N.  Y., 
and  Hamburg.  Germany,  in  18U4  to  be  cut.  There  are  nu- 
merous mineral  springs  aiul  some  geysers. 

Soil  and  I'nduct ions. — While  the  State  will  never  be 
largely  agricultural,  it  possesses  a  sufficiency  of  aratde  lands 
to  supply  with  the  ai(l  of  irrigation,  and  possibly  without, 
the  needs  of  such  a  fKjpulution  as  it  is  destined  to' have,  and 
its  mountain-slopes  and  some  of  its  valleys  will  prove  to  be 
among  the  best  grazing-lands  of  the  Pacific  region.  In 
188!)  there  were  1.107  irrigated  farms  in  the  State,  covering 
an  area  of  224.403  acres.  The  average  value  of  products 
per  acre  from  these  irrigated  lands  was  $12.!(2.  (»nly  7  per 
cent,  of  the  land  under  irrigation  was  devoted  to  the  culti- 
vation of  cereals,  the  remainder  being  given  up  to  forage. 
Its  timber-lands  proper,  those  on  which  grow  the  loftv 
pines  of  the  sierras,  are  of  very  moderate  extent.  A  part  of 
the  lower  portions  of  the  mountain  regions  aiul  some  of  the 
valleys  along  which  the  rivers  flow  are  covered  with  a 
smaller  growth  of  pifion  or  luit-pine.  cottonwood.  birch, 
willow,  dwarf  cedar,  etc.  Of  the  sixty-five  natural  families 
of  plants  catalogued,  many  are  represented  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  genera  and  species.  Lupines,  clovers,  vetches,  and 
nutritious  grasses  are  the  most  characteristic  plants. 

The  following  summary  from  the  census  reports  of  1880 
and  1890  shows  the  extent  of  farm  operations  in  the  State : 


FAR.MS,  ETC 

1880. 

1890. 

PvcaL 

Total  number  of  famis 

1.404 
580,862 

$5,408.3!» 

1,277 
1,661,416 

$12,339,410 

•90 

Total  acreage  of  famis 

Value    of    farms,    including 
l)tiiUlings  and  fences 

+  813  0 
+  188-2 

•  Decrease. 


t Increase. 


The  following  table  shc^s  the  acreage,  yield,  and  value 
of  the  principal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  1803 : 


CROPS. 

\  .  1.1, 

ValM. 

Wheat 

5.013 

7.869 

1. 358 

135.931 

Sl'.511  bush. 
2S0.983     ■■ 
17fl.464     •• 
361.676  tons 

soo.ass 

1B8.5,M 

71,:iS6 

Hay 

3,615.760 

150.785 

$3,915,933 

On  Jan.  1, 1894,  the  farm  animals  comprised  55,793  horses, 
value  |;1.316.7r)4;  l.e04  mides,  value  $62,965;  18.196  milch- 
cows,  value  $.'533,143;  259.078  oxen  aiul  other  cattle,  value 
*3,.360.732;  544.077  sheep,  value  $1,164,162;  and  11.590 
swine,  value  $101,366:  total  head,  890.3:}8;  total  value, 
$6,539,132. 

fVima/f.— This  is  cliaracteri/.cd  by  great  extremes.  In 
winter  snow  falls  upon  the  summits  of  the  mountains, 
though  there  is  not  much  in  the  valleys.  The  air  is  dry. 
the  winds  are  strong,  and,  though  the  sunshine  is  bright 
and  plea.sant  al  midday,  the  nights  are  often  intensely  cold. 
In  .lanuarv  the  mercury  falls  to  from  10'  to  16'  below  zero 
in  the  vallevs,  anil  much  lower  in  the  nunintains.  Sjiring 
comes  in  abiiiil  the  end  of  Keliruary.  though  there  may  be 
piercing  winds  and  sharp  frosts,  cliilling  rain  and  snow  in 
March,  or  even  in  April.  Thunder-storms  of  great  severity 
occur  in  .April  and  Slay  and  into  ,Iune.  When  these  have 
passed  away,  the  dry  .season  prevails  until  October.  The 
temperature  rises  mrisionally  to  100  or  105  .  It  falls  every 
night  to  between  70  and  80'.  and  does  not  average  in  .July 
and  August  more  than  ".Ml  al  midday.  In  the  ea.~lern  part 
then'  are  frequent  thuniler-slorms  in  summer  and  till  Sept. 
15.  and  I  he  heat  is  longer  continued  aiul  more  oppressive. 
There  is  less  intense  cold,  very  little  snow  or  frost  in  winter 
in  Siuitheastom  Nevada,  and  the  culture  of  cot  ton  and  sugar- 
cane has  bwn  attempted  there.  The  climate  is  remarkably 
healthful  and  invigorating. 


132 


NEVADA 


NEVIN 


Diiriaions. — For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  di- 
vided into  fourteen  counties,  as  follows : 

COUNTIES   AND   COUNTY-TOWNS,   WITH   POPULATION. 


Churchill . . . 

Douglas 

Elko 

Esmeralda. . 

Eureka 

Humboldt.. 

Lander 

Lincoln 

Lyon 

Nye 

Ormsby  . . .,. 

Roopt ". 

Storey 

Washoe 

White  Pine . 

Totals  . . 


*IUf. 


5-F 
«-E 
3-1 
6-K 
4-H 

3-a 

4-H 

8-J 
.V-E 
6-H 
5-E 
4-E 
5-F 
4-E 
5-J 


Pop. 


479 
1.581 
5.716 
3,830 
7.086 
3,480 
3.624 
2,637 
2,409 
1,875 
5,412 

286 
16,115 
5,664 
2,682 


62,266 


Pop. 

1890. 


703 
1,551 
4,794 
2,148 
3,275 
3.4:M 
2,266 
2.4i;(i 

i.tisr 

1,21)11 
4,883 


COUNTY-TOWNS. 


8,806 
6,437 
1,721 


45,761 


Stillwater 

Genoa 

Elko 

Hawthorne , . . 

Eureka 

Winnemucca. , 

Austin 

Pioche  

Dayton 

Belmont 

Carson  City . . , 


Virginia  City. . 

Reno 

Hamilton 


Pop. 

1S90. 


64 
434 

766 

337 

1,609 

1,037 

1,215 

676 

576 

213 

3,950 

8,5ii 

3,563 

284 


*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  Nevada. 
t  Now  a  part  of  Washoe  County. 

Principal  Cities  and  Towns,  u'ith  Population  for  1S90. — 
Virginia  City.  8.511;  Carson  City,  3,950:  Keno,'3,.563 :  Eu- 
reka, 1,609:  Austin,  1,215;  Tuscarora,  1,156;  and  Winne- 
luueea,  1,037. 

Population  and  Races.— ISGO,  6,857 ;  1870.  42,491 ;  1880, 
63.366;  1890,45,761  (native,  31,055 ;  foreign,  14.706 ;  males, 
29,214;  females,  16,547;  white,  39,084;  colored,  6,677,  of 
whom  242  were  of  African  descent,  3,833  Chinese,  3  Japan- 
ese, and  3,599  civilized  Indians). 

industries  and  Business  Interests. — Exclusive  of  the  min- 
ing and  milling  industries,  there  were  reported  in  1890  95 
manufacturing  establishments,  which  had  a.  combined  cap- 
ital of  $l,2lf,289,  employed  620  persons,  paid  .|445,503  for 
wages  and  .$439,058  for  materials,  and  had  products  valued 
at  $1,105,063.  There  were  118  quartz-crushing  mills,  13 
sinelting-furnaces,  10  borax-works,  11  grist-mills,  and  11 
sawmills. 

Finance. — The  total  debt,  exclusive  of  an  irredeemable 
bond  of  1380,000,  on  Jan.  1,  1894,  was  $201,946 ;  cash  in 
treasury,  $190,306;  net  debt,  $11,460.  The  assessed  valua- 
tions iii  1893  were— real,  $18.029,S19:  perscmal,  $8,148,241; 
net  proceeds  of  mines,  $157,514;  total,  $26,335,574;  and  the 
State  tax-rate  wjis  $9  per  $1,000. 

Banking. — In  1894  there  were  !  national  banks,  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $282,000,  surplus  and  profits  of  $146,986, 
and  individual  dejiosits  of  $403,401 ;  and  6  State  banks,  2 
private  banks,  and  3  collection  agencies. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. — On  Jan.  1,  1894.  there  were 
171  post-offices,  of  which  5  were  presidential  (1  second-class, 
4  third-class)  and  166  fourth-class,  34  money-order  offices, 
and  1  postal-note  office.  There  were  9  daily,  1  semi-weekly, 
17  weekly,  and  1  semi-monthly  periodicals;  total,  28. 

Libraries. — In  1892  there  were  reported  8  public  libraries 
of  1,000  volumes  and  over,  which  together  contained  40,215 
bouud  volumes  and  1,970  |)amphlets.  They  were  classified 
as  general,  college,  public  institution,  State,  social,  scientific, 
Masonic,  and  not  reporting,  one  each. 

Means  of  Communication. — Nevada  had  in  operation.  Jan. 
1.  1892,  923  miles  of  railway,  costing  $16,570,715.  with  net 
earnings  of  $833,918,  and  paying  in  interest  and  dividends 
$687,750.  The  Central  Pacific  is  the  principal  trunk  line, 
running  for  450  miles  of  its  course  through  the  State. 

Churches. — The  Methodist  Episcopal  denomination  has 
(1893)  28  churches,  13  ministers,  and  895  full  members ; 
Protestant  Episcopal,  11  churches,  535  members;  Roman 
Catholic,  17  churches,  8  priests,  and  about  5,000  adherents; 
Presbyterians,  8  churches,  190  members ;  Baptists,  3  churches, 
52  members ;  Congregationalists,  1  church,  52  members ; 
Jews,  1  synagogue. 

Schools. — In  1890  the  number  of  children  of  school  age 
(six  to  eighteen  years)  was  10,022,  of  whom  7,387  were  en- 
rolled in  publico  schools,  with  average  daily  attendance  of 
5,064.  Total  e\]ienditure  for  public  schools  in  1890,  $161,- 
481,  of  which  teachers'  salaries  amounted  to  $135,«00.  Ne- 
vada has  a  State  university,  which  had  137  students  in  1890. 

History. — Nevada  is  a  part  of  the  territory  ceded  to  the 
U.  S.  by  Mexico  by  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  Feb. 
3,  1848.  It  was  at  fir,st  a  part  of  California  Territory,  and 
was  subserjuenlly  attached  to  Utah;  it  was  constituted  a 
Territory  .Mar.  2.  1861.  with  somewhat  smaller  boundaries 
than  at  present.     The  constitution  was  ratified,  and  Nevada 


admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State.  Oct.  31,  1864.  Addi- 
tions were  made  to  its  territory  by  congressional  enactment 
in  1866. 

GOVERNORS   OF   NEVADA. 


Jewett  D.  Adams 1883-87 

C.  C.  Stevenson 1887-91 

R.  K.  Colcord 1891-95 

John  E.  Jones  * 1895-96 

Reinhold  Sadler 1896- 


Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams 


Territorial. 
James  W.  Nye 1861-64 

State. 

Henry  G.  Blaisdell 1864-71 

Louis"  R.  Bradley 1871-79 

John  H.  Kinkead 1879-83 

*  D.  Apr.  10,  1896. 

Nevada;  town  (located  in  1853) ;  capital  of  Story  co.,  la. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Iowa.  ref.  4-(i) ;  on  the 
Chi.  and  N.  W.  Railway ;  35  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Des  Moines. 
It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising  region ;  contains  6  { 
churches,  graded  schools,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  I 
$50,000,  a  private  bank,  and  a  (luarterly  and  2  weekly  peri- 
odicals ;  and  h.as  flour  and  grist  mills,  2  grain  elevators, 
foundry  and  machine-shop,  planing-mill,  3  tile-works, 
creamery,  and  wagon-factorv.  The  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege is  9  miles  W.  of  the  town.  Pop.  (1880)  1,541 ;  (1890) 
1,663 ;  (1895)  2,107, 

Editor  of  "  Story  County  AA'atchman." 

Nevada  :  city;  capital  of  Vernon  co.,  Mo.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  6-E) ;  on  the  Mo.,  Kan. 
and  Tex.  and  the  Mo.  Pac.  railways;  90  miles  .S.  W.  of 
Sedalia.  It  is  the  seat  of  Christian  University  (Christian), 
of  Cottery  College  (non-sectarian),  and  of  State  Insane  Asy- 
lum No.  3  ;  has  a  beautiful  lake  and  park,  gas  and  electric 
lights,  street-railway,  artesian  well,  3  State  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $1.50.000,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
$100,000,  a  private  bank,  public-school  lilirary.  and  a  month- 
ly. 3  daily,  and  4  weekly  periodicals:  and  contains  a  large 
zinc-smelter,  foundry,  ice  plant,  mills,  and  other  manufac- 
tories.    Pop.  (1880)  1,913;  (1890)  7,262. 

Editor  of  "  Southwest  Mail." 

Nevada.  Ejima  Wixom  :  opera-singer  ;  b.  in  Nevada  City, 
Cal.,  in  1861,  She  was  educated  in  Austin,  Tex.,  and  in  San 
Francisco ;  studied  singing  in  A'ienna  under  Madame  Mar- 
chesi.  She  made  her  debut  at  her  JIajesty's  theater,  Lon- 
don, in  1880,  adopting  the  name  of  Nevada.  She  sang  after- 
ward with  much  success  in  the  chief  capitals  of  Europe. 
Returning  to  the  U.  S.,  she  made  her  first  appearance  in 
New  York  in  1884  in  La  Sonnambnla.  Her  favorite  roles 
are  Lucia,  Ainina,  and  Mignon. 

Nevada  City  :  city  ;  capital  of  Nevada  co.,  Cal.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  California,  ref.  5-D);  on  Deer  creek,  and 
the  Nevada  County  N.  G.  Railroad ;  65  miles  N.  E.  of  Sac- 
ramento. It  is  in  a  mining  and  a  fruit  and  vine  growing 
region,  and  has  several  quartz-mills,  a  weekly  and  two  daily 
newspapers,  and  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000.  Pop. 
(1880)  4,022  ;  (1890)  2,524. 

NfiT^  :  See  Glaciers. 

Nerers,  nf-var'  (anc.  Noviodunum,  ox Nevirnnm) :  capital 
of  the  department  of  Nievre,  France;  on  the  Loire,  at  the 
influx  of  the  Nievre  ;  159  miles  by  rail  S.  S.  E.  of  Paris  (see 
map  of  France,  ref.  5-F).  The  town  is  old  .and  ill-built, 
with  naiyow,  crooked  streets,  but  it  has  beautiful  prome- 
nades, extensive  manufactures  of  iron  and  cojiper  ware, 
chemicals,  porcelain,  cloth,  and  linens,  and  large  tanneries, 
breweries,  and  cannon-foundries.  It  has  been  the  see  of  a 
bishop  since  506  ;  its  cathedral,  restored  in  1879,  dates  from 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries;  and  there  is  a  fine 
stone  bridge  of  fifteen  arches  over  the  Loire.  It  contains 
several  good  educational  institutions — a  college,  a  female 
seminary,  and  a  polytechnic  school.     Po]).  (1891)  25,062. 

Neviii,  John  Williamson,  D.D.,  LL.D. ;  theologian;  b.  in 
Shippensburg.  Franklin  co..  Pa..  Feb.  30,  1803  ;  graduated  at 
Union  College,  1821,  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
1826,  where  he  remained  as  tutor,  and  wrote  his  Biblical  An- 
tiquities (3  vols..  Philadelphia,  1828).     lie  was  Professor  of  I 
Hebrew  and  Biblical  Literature  in  the  Presbyterian  The(  - 
logical  Semiuiiry  at  Allegheny  City  (1829-39).  where  he  editeil 
a  weekly  literary  jmirnal  entitled  The  Friend  (1833-34);  be- 
came president  of   the  Jlercersburg  Theological  Seminary  i 
1840.  and  was  president  also  of  JIarshall  College   1841-53. 
He  pulilished  in  1843,  at  Chambersburg,  Tlte  An.rimts  Bench,  | 
which  occasioned  much  controversy  on  the  suljject  of  reviv- 
als; and  in  1844  a  translation  (with   an  introduction)  of  Dr. 
Schaff's  inaugural  address.  Tlie  Principle  of  Prole.itantisnt, 
which  gave  rise  to  the  "  Mercersburg  theology,"  of  which  ^ 


N'EVIS 


NEWARK 


133 


Dr.  Ncvin  continued  till  his  dontli  to  Ix'  the  cliiof  exponent. 
Also  The  Mysticnl  I'rexmre  (I'liilaji-lpliiii,  1840),  which  in- 
creatt'il,  in  its  doctrinal  iis|mm|,  Ihr  controversy  alhiclrd  to; 
The  Jltstori/  funl  irenins  nf  /he  Ihidelbertj  CitteehtJiin  (1847), 
und  Anliiliiinl.  or  the  Spirit  nf  Sect  anil  Srhisni  ( 18-t8).  Dr. 
Nevin  edited  The  Menirsliiiry  Jteriew  (i|iiarti'rly,  ls4!l-.'>;i) : 
resiftned  the  direction  of  the  Theolo^jiial  Seminary  1K.")|, 
and  the  |iresidency  of  Marshall  t'ollep;  on  its  removal  to 
Lancaster  and  consolidation  with  Franklin  College  in  18.'):5. 
He  wii-s  president  of  Kranklin  and  .Marshall  College  18<i(>-T(). 
D.  Ht  Caernarvcm  Place,  near  Lancaster,  I'a.,  .lune  7,  188G. 
See  his  biography  l)y  Theodore  A|)i>el  (I'liiladelphia,  188U). 

Revised  hy  S.  .^L  Jackson. 

Nevis:  an  island  of  the  Hritish  West  Indies,  in  the  fed- 
erated Leeward  gri>n|).  It  is  ;t  miles  wide  anil  4  miles  long, 
and  rises  Ijy  gradual  slopes  to  a  height  of  3,200  feet.  The 
scenery  is  lieaiiliftil,  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the  island, 
which  comprise  smne  ti.tMKI  acres,  are  fertile  and  well  culti- 
vated. It  was  disciivcred  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  was 
settled  in  1028  by  Knglisli  emigrants  from  .'^t.  Christoi)her, 
with  which  it  forms  a  presidency,  with  one  legislative  coun- 
cil, meeting  at  St.  Kitts.  The  island  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1706;  was  restored  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht ;  was 
taken  again  by  the  French  in  178'.',  and  restored  ill  the  fol- 
lowing yiar.  Pup.  11.8li4.  Cn.vKl.KsTow.N  (</.  v.).  the  lapi- 
tal,  is  the  chief  town  and  has  a  safe  roadstead.  Sugar,  rum, 
and  molasses  arc  e.xporteil. 

Nevius,  Joiix  LiviNosTo.v,  D.  D. :  missionarv  and  author: 
b.  at  Ovid.  X.  V..  .Mar.  4.  18-,'!»;  e.lucaled  at  L'liion  College 
and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary;  was  a  missionary  of 
the  Presbyterian  Hoard  at  Xingj)o,  Chiini,  18.W-61,and  after 
18«1  in  Shantung.  D.  at  Clietoo.  in  Shantung.  Oct.  1!),  18!).'!. 
He  published  in  Knglish  Vhiiui  and  the  Chinese  (New  York, 
1868):  San-Poh  ;  or,  ^orlh  of  the  Ilill.t  (Philadelphia): 
Jfefhoils  of  Mission  Work  (1880);  and  Demon  Possession 
(18!t2);  in  Chinese,  (hiiile  to  /leiiren  (18."i7;  in  classic  Chi- 
nese, and  in  Niiigpo  dialed);  The  Two  Liyhts;  Errors  of 
Ancestral  Worship;  (f aide  to  Kranpelists;  Si/slemalic  The- 
olof/ 1/ C-i  vols.,  completed) ;  Kxplanalion  of  the  "  True  Dor- 
trine";  Commentary  on  the  Acts;  Mark's  Gospel  with 
Notts;  Manual  for  Inquirers,  Evangelists,  and  Oulsta- 
tions;  Questions  on  Matthew's  (fospel,  on  the  Acts  with 
Commentary,  and  on  Jiumans  with  Analysis  fur  Bible  and 
Theoloyical  Classes;  Defense  of  Protesrantism  ayainst  Ho- 
mn/iMHi  (1890) ;  with  other  writers.  The  Westminster  Stand- 
ards; and  .1  Mandarin  Hymn-book. — His  wife.  IIki.kx  S. 
CoA.N  Nkviis,  b.  at  Lcxli,  N.  V.,  .Ian.  8,  18:i'2,  wrote  a  luirn- 
bcr  of  books  in  the  Chinese  language,  including  A  Cate- 
chism of  Christian  Doctrine;  and  in  Knglish,  Our  Life  in 
China  (New  York,  18,571. 

Ncvoine  Indians;  See  Pima.\  Lndiaxs. 

New  Albari)  :  city;  capital  of  Floyd  co.,  Ind.  (for loca- 
tion of  county,  -see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  11-F);  on  the  Ohio 
river,  and  the  Halt,  and  Ohio  S.  W..  the  Louis.,  N.  .Vlb.  and 
Chi.,  the  Loui.s..  Kvans.  and  St.  L..  and  the  Pitts.,  ('in.,  Chi. 
and  St.  L.  railways  ;  '.i  miles  W.  of  Louisville,  Ky.  It  ilerives 
eleellenl  power  for  manufacturing  from  the  falls  nf  the 
Ohio,  2  miles  distant,  and    has  a   large  commerce  by    rail 

and   water.     Th iisus  returns  of    18i)0  showed  that   2!li) 

manufacturing  establishments  (representing  (Vi  iniluslries) 
re|H>rted.  These  hail  a  combined  cajiital  of  ^."),;i.V2..')21  ;  em- 
ployed 4..'>0.s  persons:  paid  4:2.0!lil.O!l  1  for  wages  and  !j::!.471,- 
487  for  materials;  and  had  prinlucts  valued  at  ^0,6:!;{.259. 
The  principal  industries  are  the  inainifaeture  of  irmi  and 
steel,  ciittiiii,  wiiolen,  and  hosiery  gnods.  plate  glass,  and 
tanned  leather.  The  city  has  a  new  belt  line  of  railway, 
electric  street-railways  e.vtending  thmugli  the  suburlis,  gas 
and  electric  light  plants,  new  Masonic  temple.  Odd  Fi'Uows" 
hall,  De  Pauw  College  for  yining  women,  public  high  .school 
for  while  pupils,  Scribner  High  School  for  colored  youth,;) 
libraries(Dc  I'auwCnllege, fininded  1846;  'I'ownship,  founded 
la^l;  and  Public,  founilcd  1.88."i)  containing  over  10.000  vol- 
ijme.s.  4  national  banks  with  coinliincd  capital  of  ^; 700,000,  a 
Stale  bank  with  capital  of  $l(M).000,  and  a  monthly,  2  daily. 
and  4  weeklv  periodicals.  The  as,sessed  valuation  in  18!i:i 
was  fU.llli.OOO,  and  the  net  debt  Jan.  1,  18!»4,  ii!:i67,ft8!). 
Pop.  (IMSO)  10,42:1 ;  (IbilO)  21,059.      Kditor  of  "  Lkihikk." 

New  .\nislenluni :  the  old  name  of  New  York  city, 
Bilopted  nil  ilie  lurival  of  (lov.  .Stuyvesant.  in  1047.  Previ- 
ous to  that  date  the  village  was  called  Manhattan.  On  its 
capitulation,  in  Sept..  1604,  to  the  English,  its  name  was 
changed  to  New  York. 


Newark:  town  (fotnded  in  nriS);  New  Castle  co.,  Del. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Delaware,  ref.  2-II);  on 
the  Phil.,  Wil.  and  lialt.  and  the  Halt. and  Ohio  railways; 
12  miles  S.  W.  of  Wilmington,  37  S.  W.  of  Philadelphia,' 58 
X.  E.  of  Haltiinorc.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region;  has 
several  paper-mills  and  vulcanite-fiber  works;  and  contains 
the  Delaware  State  College  (endowed  by  the  national  land 
grant,  and  chartered  in  the  year  18i(t),  Academy  of  Newark 
(non-sectarian,  chartered  in  the  year  1709),  Delaware  Nor- 
mal .Si'hool,  2  libraries  (Delaware  College  and  the  Delta 
Phi  Society,  both  founded  in  18;t,'))  containing  over  6.000  vol- 
umes, one  weeklv  and  a  inonthlv  periodical,  and  a  national 
bank  with  capital  of  if.lO.tKK). '  J'op.  (1880)  1.148;  (1890) 
1.191  ;  (1894)  estimated.  2.0(K». 

EunoR  OF  ••  Delaware  Lkdoer." 

NcHark  :  city  (settled  by  families  from  Milford,  Hran- 
ford,  and  New  Haven,  Coim.,  in  1006 ;  chartered  as  a  city  in 
18:!6):  port  of  entry;  capital  of  Essex  co.,  X.  J.  (for  loca- 
tion. See  map  of  Xew  Jitsey.  ref.  2-D);  on  the  Pa.ssaic  river, 
the  Peiiii.,  tiie  Del.,  Lack,  and  \V..  the  Erie,  and  the  Cen- 
tral of  X.  J.  railways,  and  several  lines  leased  by  them;  9 
miles  W.  of  New  York  city.  It  has  a  river  and  bay  frontage 
of  10-5  miles,  and  an  area  of  18  .si|.  miles,  of  w  Inch  two-thirds 
are  improved  and  built  up.  There  are  63  miles  of  paved 
streets,  28-38  miles  of  steam-railway  track,  and  over  20  miles 
of  trolley  lines.  The  water-supply  is  obtained  from  the  Pe- 
ipiannock  watershed.  21  miles  distant,  the  new  .system  swell- 
ing the  water  debt  to  ^7.602,000.  There  are  loJJ  separate 
.sewers,  aggregating  106  o7  miles  in  length.  The  city  is  laid 
out  regularly;  has  I  line  public  parks — Washington  I'ark, 
containing  a  statue  of  Setli  Hoyden,  the  inventor:  Military 
Park,  the  old  training  conmion,  containing  bron/e  statues 
of  Gen.  Philip  Kearny  and  of  Frederick  T.  Frelinghuysen, 
formerly  U.S.  Secretary  of  State;  and  Lincoln  Park — and  has 
broad  avenues  leading  in  various  directions  to  the  county 
lines,  and  exleiiiling  to  Kli/abetli.  the  Oranges.  Jloiitclair, 
Caldwell,  Kutherford  Park,  and  other  jjoiiit.s.  The  city 
ranks  next  after  New  Haven  in  the  number  and  age  of  its 
elm-trees.  The  river,  navigable  f-ir  some  distance  above 
the  city,  has  liecn  greatly  improved  by  the  U.  S.  (lovern- 
nient.  and,  because  of  its  sheltered  position,  has  become  a 
favorite  racing-course  for  the  National  Association  of 
Amateur  Oarsmen  and  other  rowing  as,sociations.  The  city 
is  best  known  for  the  extent  and  variety  of  its  manufac- 
tures. The  census  returns  of  1890  showed  that  2,413  iiianu- 
facturing  establishments  ^representing  18.5  industries)  re- 
ported. These  had  a  conibined  cajiital  of  $.53.847.4.52 ;  em- 
ployed 4^^,302  persons  ;  paid  $24..568,966  for  wages  and 
^38,074.11.5  for  materials  ;  and  had  products  valued  at 
1^81,399,137,  The  following  table  shows  the  principal  in- 
dustries : 


CLASSIFICATION. 


Malt  liquors 

I.,eattier 

Jewelry    

Fouiulry  and  inacbiue-shop  products.. 

Hardware 

Celluloid  and  celluloid  goods 

Hnt.s  and  caps 

Truntcs  and  vali.ses 

Men's  olotliine.  wliolesale 

Boots  and  shoes  


E>lsblbh- 

Penooi 

tunU. 

.mploj-rf. 

17 

j^,. .......,., 

SW 

50 

.'..uTia.iiw 

S,:i(W 

B8 

3,K33.II5 

I.'.IOS 

73 

3.(101. ilKj 

'i.i^i 

53 

■.>.aV),l50 

i..'>;9 

4 

2.(K«.l."(iS 

(>II3 

49 

1,4!W,4«I 

a.7ii 

14 

l.S.fll.O.V) 

i.«a 

93 

l.ii'.l.'JST 

■i.va 

71 

l.lilCOSS 

1,765 

Next  in  importJince  to  its  manufactories  are  its  financial  in- 
stitutions. In  1894  there  were  9  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $2.9.50.000.  a  State  bank  with  capital  of 
$100.(K)0.  .5  savings-banks,  a  private  liank.  .5  insurance  com- 
panies with  combined  capital  of  $1,91.5.312  and  cash  as.sets 
of  $6..535.349.  and  2  widely  known  life  companies — the 
Mutual  Heiielit  and  the  Priuleiitial  of.Vmerica.  Ollicial  re- 
ports for  1891  showed  272  buildingand  loan  a,s.sociatioiis  with 
78,700  shareholders  and  $25,0(MI,000  in  a.ssel.s.  The  a.ssc.s.sed 
valuations  in  1893  were:  Real  estate.  $97,06.5.790:  personal, 
$2.5,964,704;  total,  $123.630..5.54 ;  and  the  net  debt  in  1894 
was  $12.249,.594.  The  foreign  trade  was  represented  in  the 
calendar  year  189;t  bv  imports  of  merehaiidise  valued  at  $00.- 
442  and  t'lv  ex|M)rts  valued  at  $5.4:14.929.  In  1894  there  were 
129  churclies,  the  Roman  Catholic  Presbyterian.  Metlnxlist 
Episcopal.  Haptist.  and  Protestant  ICpisiopal.  pn'doniinat- 
iiig  in  the  order  given.  There  were  .58.S!)4  ehihln-n  of  scIiihiI 
age.  of  whom  27.:ttil  were  attending  the  public  schools  and 
9.171  attending  privati'  and  parochial  sclii^ols.  The  city 
owned   :t9  school    buildings  and    hired   7.     There  were  476 


134 


NEWARK 


NEWBERN 


public-school  teachers,  of  whom  all  but  35  were  women. 
The  evening  schools  had  3,486  pupils.  There  were  also  the 
Newark  Academy,  an  old-established  classical  institution, 
St.  Benedict's  College,  and  a  technical  school.  Of  libraries 
there  were  the  Free  Public  (founded  1888),  Board  of  Trade. 
Business  College,  Essex  County  Law,  St.  Benedict's  College, 
Young  Men's  Catholic  Association,  New  Jersey  Historical 
Society,  and  the  public-school  libraries.  The  charitable  and 
benevolent  institutions  included  the  Orphan  Asylum,  Foster 
Home,  Home  for  the  Friendless,  Krueger  Home  for  Aged 
Men  and  Women,  Faith  Home,  Home  for  Incurables,  St. 
Barnabas,  St.  Michael's,  and  the  German  hospitals.  Hospital 
for  Women  and  Children,  Newark  City  Hospital,  and  the 
Charitable  Eye  and  Ear  Infirmary.  I'here  were  39  social 
clubs  and  associations  and  8  singing  societies.  Pop.  (1880) 
136,508;  (1890)  181,830;  (1895)  315,806. 

Revised  by  Frederick  W.  Ricord. 

Newark  :  village ;  Wayne  oo.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  4-E) ;  on  the  N.  Y. 
Cent,  and  II.  R.,  the  N.  Cent.,  and  the  W.  Shore  railways, 
and  the  Erie  Canal ;  30  miles  E.  of  Rochester.  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  region  ;  contains  10  churches,  an  academy, 
union  school,  3  lower  grade  schools,  water-works,  electric 
lights,  the  State  Custodial  Asylum  for  Feeble-minded  Wom- 
en, union  school  library  (founded  1857),  a  national  l)ank 
with  capital  of  .f  50,000,  3  private  banks,  and  3  weekly  news- 
papers ;  and  is  principally  engaged  in  peppermint-distilling, 
fruit  evaporating  and  cainiing,  and  the  manufacture  of  tin- 
ware, vinegar,  and  flour.  Pop.  (1880)  3,450  ;  (1890)  3,698  ; 
(1894)  estimated,  4,000.  Editor  of  "  Gazette." 

Newark :  city :  capital  of  Licking  co.,  0.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  5-F) ;  on  the  Bait,  and  0.  and 
the  Pitts.,  Cin..  Chi.  and  St.  L.  railways,  and  the  Ohio  and 
Erie  Canal;  33  miles  N.  E.  of  Columbus.  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural, coal-raining,  and  natural-gas  region  ;  has  a  large 
trade  in  coal,  grain,  and  live  stock  ;  and  contains  7  pulilic- 
school  buildings,  circidating  library  (founded  1877),  3  na- 
tional hanks  with  combined  capital  of  350,000,  a  savings- 
bank  witli  capital  of  |75,000,  a  private  bank,  and  3  daily 
and  4  weekly  newsjiapers.  The  car-shops  of  the  Bait,  and 
Ohio  Railroad  are  located  here,  and  there  are  also  manu- 
factories of  glass,  portable  engines,  stoves,  iron-bridge  work, 
paper,  wire-cloth,  carriages,  flour,  lumber,  and  soap.  The 
assessed  valuation  in  1893  was  .$5,950,870,  and  the  total 
debt  $335,731.     Pop.  (1880)  9,600  ;  (1890)  14,370. 

Editor  of  "  Advocate." 

Newark  System  :  in  geology,  a  group  of  rocks  of  Mezo- 
zoic  age,  occurring  in  isolated  tracts  near  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Carolinas.  Except  in  Nova 
Scotia  they  are  sharply  separated  by  unconformity  from 
Archiiean  and  Paleozoic  rooks  beneath  and  from  Cretaceous 
and  Cenozoic  strata  above.  They  are  further  contrasted  liy 
their  prevailing  red  color,  and  they  are  distinguished  from 
later  formations  by  high  dips,  'fhe  system  has  received 
much  attention  from  geologists,  and,  being  of  doubtful  age, 
has  been  called  by  many  names ;  its  synonomy  is  larger 
than  that  of  any  other  formation  or  group  of  the  U.  S.  The 
largest  tract  follows  the  southeastern  margin  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  from  Southei'n  New  I'ork  across  New 
Jersey,  PennsyKania,  and  J\Iaryland  into  Virginia,  and 
smaller  areas  carry  the  .same  trend  to  North  Carolina.  A 
more  easterly  belt  is  represented  near  Richmond,  Va.,  and 
in  Central  and  Southern  North  Carolina.  A  large  tract 
occupies  the  Connecticut  valley  in  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut, and  other  tracts  border  the  Bay  of  Fundy  in  Nova 
Scotia. 

The  principal  rock  is  shale,  chiefly  red,  but  also  of  dark- 
slate  color.  Red  sandstones  associated  with  these,  though 
thinner,  are  of  such  economic  and  topographic  importance 
that  the  system  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  a  sandstone. 
Limestones  .-md  conglomerates  are  of  rarer  occurrence.  The 
nuiximum  tliickness.  measured  in  Pennsylvania,  is  27,000 
feet.  Interbediled  with  the  sedimentary  rocks,  and  also  to 
some  extent  intruded  among  them,  are  traps,  and  these 
hard  rocks  have  been  left  prominent  by  erosion,  constitut- 
ing the  conspicuous  hills  of  the  Connecticut  valley,  the 
Palisade  ridge  along  the  Hudson,  and  the  Watchung  Moiui- 
tains  of  New  Jersey.  Remains  of  plants  and  fishes  have 
been  found  in  the  shales,  ami  many  sandstone  layers  show 
the  tracks  of  large  vertebrates. 

The  sandstunes  are  quarried  for  building  material  and 
have  a  wide  use  under  the  name  of  brownstone.  The  traps 
constitute  one  of  the  best  road  materials  in  the  country. 


and  are  extensively  quarried  for  this  purpose,  as  also  for 
the  manufacture  of  paving-blocks.  Coal-seams  occur  at 
various  places,  and  were  for  many  years  mined  near  Rich- 
mond, Va.  See  Jura-Teias  Pf.riod,  and  consult  I.  C.  Rus- 
sell, Bulletin  A'o.  SS,  United  states  Oeolugical  Survey. 

G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Newark-upou-Treiit :  town  ;  in  the  county  of  Notting- 
ham, England;  on  a  navigable  branch  of  the  Trent;  130 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  8-1). 
It  has  an  ancient  parish  church,  a  grammar  school  founded 
in  1529,  a  free  library,  a  hospital,  a  town-hall,  a  corn  ex- 
change, and  a  handsome  coffee-palace.  It  has  breweries, 
iron  and  brass  foundries  and  other  factories,  and  carries  on 
a  large  trade  in  malt,  flour,  corn,  wool,  and  cattle.  Pop. 
(1891)  14,457. 

Newaygo :  village ;  capital  of  Newaygo  co.,  Mich,  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  6-H);  on  the 
Muskegon  river,  and  the  Chi.  and  N.  \V.  Railway ;  36  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Grand  Rapids.  It  has  good  water-power,  and 
contains  two  flour-mills,  large  furniture-factory,  saw  and 
shingle  mills,  and  sash-factory,  a  private  bank,  and  a 
monthlv  and  two  weeklv  periodicals.  Pop.  (IHHO)  1.097 ; 
(1890)  1,330  ;  (1894)  1.331."         Editor  of  "  Republican." 

New  Bedford :  city  (set  off  from  Dartmouth  1787,  incor- 
porated 1847) ;  one  of  the  capitals  of  Bristol  co.,  Mass.  (for 
location  of  county,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  5-1) ;  on 
the  Acushnet  river  near  its  mouth,  and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H. 
and  Hart.  Railroad  ;  55  miles  S.  of  Boston.  For  more  than 
100  years  it  has  been  the  chief  seat  of  the  U.  S.  whale-fish- 
ery. From  1755  till  about  1854  this  industry  was  at  its 
height  and  employed  400  whaling-ships,  but  it  has  since  de- 
clined steadily,  and  in  1890  employed  only  57  vessels  of  all 
kinds.  As  this  industry  declined  local  capitalists  turned 
their  attention  to  manufacturing,  and  by  1890  had  made 
New  Bedford  the  third  cotton-manufacturing  city  in  the 
country.  The  census  returns  of  that  year  showed  that  351 
manufacturing  establishments  (representing  57  industries) 
reported.  These  had  a  combined  capital  of  $19,603,583; 
employed  10,730  persons ;  paid  $4,636,135  for  wages  and 
$7,96l",817  for  materials;  and  had  products  valued  at  $15,- 
886,388.  The  principal  industry  was  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  goods,  which  had  9  establishments  and  $14,036,446 
capital;  employed  6,379  persons;  paid  $3,313,693  for  wages 
and  $4,030,914  for  materials;  and  had  products  valued  at 
$8,185,386.  There  were  also  11  foimdries  and  machine- 
shops,  10  carriage  and  wagon  factories,  4  boot  and  shoe  fac- 
tories. 4  looking-glass  and  picture-frame  factories,  and  4 
lubricating-oil  works.  The  cotton-mills  had  854,500  spin- 
dles and  13,471  looms,  and  a  woolen-mill  had  4..500  si)iudles 
and  63  looms.  There  are  43  churches,  an  excellent  system 
of  endowed  public  schools,  a  free  public  library  (founded 
1853)  containing  over  60,000  volumes  and  having  an  endow- 
ment of  $64,100.  5  other  libraries  containing  nearly  30.000 
volumes,  a  Friends  Academy,  St.  Luke's  and  St.  Joseph's 
Hospitals,  an  orphan  asylum,  a  water-service  with  over  60 
miles'  of  mains,  gas  and  electric  light  plants,  electric  street- 
railwav,  5  national  banks  with  combined  cajutal  of  $4,100,- 
000,  3"  savings-banks  with  deposits  of  $16,477,691,  a  safe- 
deposit  and  trust  company  with  capital  of  ,$200,000,  a  pri- 
vate bank,  and  3  daily  and  4  weekly  newspaiicrs.  The  city 
has  regular  steamboat  communication  witli  Providence, 
Martha's  Vineyard,  and  New  York,  and  has  become  an  impor- 
tant coal-shipping  point.  The  beautiful  hai'bor  in  Buzzard's 
Bay  is  protected  by  a  granite  fortification  on  the  extremity 
of  Clark's  Point,  which  is  connected  with  the  heart  of  the 
city  by  an  avenue  4  nnles  long.  New  Bedford  has  the  rep- 
utation of  being  the  wealthiest  city  per  capita  in  the  coun- 
trv.  The  assessed  valuations  in  1893  were  :  Real,  $25,344.- 
300 :  personal,  $19,130,795;  total.  $44,475,095  ;  and  the  net 
citv  debt  on  Jan.  1,  1894,  was  $1,833,695.  Pop.  (1880)  26.845 ; 
(1890)  40,733;  (189.5)  .55,251.  Editor  of  "Sta.ndard." 

Newberii:  city  (settled  by  the  Swiss  in  1710);  capital  of  , 
Craven  co.,  N.  C.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  North 
Carolina,  ref.  4-J) ;  at  the  junction  of  the  Neuse  and  Trent 
rivers,  and  on  the  Atlantic  and  N.  C.  and  the  Wil..  >>'ewb. 
and  Norfolk  railways;  90  miles  N.  E.  of  Wilmington,  108 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Raleigh.  It  has  direct  commmiicalion 
with  the  sea  by  Ocracoke  inlet,  and  regular  connection  with 
Norfolk.  Baltimore,  and  New  York  by  steamship.  It  is  the 
port  of  entry  for  the  Pamlico  customs  district,  has  a  valu- 
able trade  in  cotton,  lumber,  naval  stores,  and  fish,  and 
ships  early  vegetables  to  Northern  markets.  The  principal 
local  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  and  lumber' 


NEWBERRY 


NEW  BRrXSWICK 


135 


and  the  distillation  of  turpentine.    There  are  15  churches, 

public  library  (fduiulej  188(5).  hiffh  si'hool,  collegiate  insti- 
tulo,  a  iiutinnul  bank  with  capital  of  ^lOO.lMX),  a  State  bank 
with  capital  of  ijiT.'i.lXXJ,  a  cilizciis'  bank  with  capital  of 
$.50,000,  a  private  bank,  and  a  daily  ami  a  weekly  news- 
paper. The  city  was  the  capital  of  the  province  of  North 
Carolina  from  the  organ i/.atidn  of  the  Government  till  1793, 
and  was  captured  bv  a  I'nion  force  under  den.  Uurnside  on 
Mar.  14,  IStii.     I'op'.  (1880)  6,443;  (1890)  7,84:5. 

KUITOR  OK  •' JOIU.NAL." 

Ncw'hrrry :  town ;  capital  of  Newberry  co.,  S.  C.  (for 
loealii>n  ••!  county,  see  map  of  South  Carolina,  ref.  5-D) ; 
on  the  Columbia'anil  Greenville  and  the  Col.,  Newb.  and 
Laurens  railways:  47  miles  N.  \V.  of  Columbia.  It  is  the 
scat  of  .N'ewber'ry  College  (Lutheran,  chartered  18.")()),  has 
graded  s<hiiols  for  white  ami  colnred  oupils.  and  contains 
a  cotton-factory,  cottonseed-oil  mill  ami  ginnery,  fertilizer- 
works,  dm  >r,  siush,  and  blind  factory,  a  naliomil  bjink  with 
capital  of  $1.')0,(H)0,  a  savings-barik'with  capital  of  |l.j,000, 
and  three  weeklv  newspapers.  It  is  a  growing  cotton-mar- 
ket. Pop.  (1880)  2.:542:  (1890)  3,020;  (1894)  estimated, 
4,(ino.  Editor  ok  "  Her.\ld  and  News." 

XcMvherry,  .loii.v  STR(JS(i.  M.  I).,  LL.  I). :  geologist  and 
naturalist ;  b.  at  Windsor,  Conn..  Dee.  '22,  1822 ;  graduated 
at  Western  Reserve  College  in  1846,  and  at  Cleveland  Med- 
ical College  in  1848.  In  18.jl  he  established  himself  as  a 
physician  in  Cleveland,  but,  finding  no  lime  for  .scientific 
studies,  in  185.5  he  accepted  an  appointment  as  surgeon 
and  geologist  of  the  expedition  under  Lieut.  K.  S.  Will- 
iamson, U.  S.  army,  for  the  exploration  of  the  territory 
lying  between  .San  Francisco  and  the  Columbia  river.  In 
1857-08  he  was  attached,  in  the  same  capacity,  to  the  exj>e- 
dition  under  Lieut.  J.  C.  Ive.s,  U.  S.  army,  which  made  the 
lirst  expli>ratii>n  ot  the  Colorado  river.  In  18."i9  he  accom- 
panied ('apt.  .1.  N.  Macomb.  U.  S.  engineers,  in  the  explora- 
tion of  the  country  bordering  the  upper  Colorado  and  San 
.hum  rivers.  During  the  civil  war  he  was  a  member  of  the 
U.  S.  Sanitary  Commission,  ami  to  him  wius  delegated  the 
organization  and  direction  of  all  its  operations  in  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi.  In  18t)t>  he  was  appointed  Professor  of 
(leoh)gy  in  the  .School  of  Mines,  Columbia  College,  New 
York,  a  position  he  retained  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Dec.  7.  1892.  In  18()9  the  Geolog- 
ical Survey  of  Ohio  was  organized,  and  he  was  placed  at  its 
head.  Under  his  direction  the  work  wa-s  vigorously  prose- 
cuted, and  an  important  series  of  reports  were  published. 
I>r.  Newberry  was  honored  with  membership  in  most  of  the 
learned  societies  of  the  I'.  S.  and  in  many  of  Kurope;  was 
one  of  the  original  corporators  of  the  National  .\caaemy  of 
Sciences;  was  president  of  the  .\merican  .\ssociation  for 
the  .\dvan(^emenl  of  Science  (1867),  of  the  New  York  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  (1867-91),  of  the  Torrey  Botaiucal  Club 
(1880-90),  and  of  the  International  Congress  of  Geologists 
(1891),  and  received  the  Murchison  medal  of  the  Geological 
ScK'iety  of  London  (1888).  His  publications  have  been 
ehietiv  in  the  department  of  geology  and  paheontology, 
but  afso  include  papers  on  botany  and  zoology.  The  most 
important  are  a  report  On  llif  (feoloyy,  liolaiii/,  and  Zoul- 
uyy  i)f  \i>rl/iern  ( 'iilifornut  ami  Oregon ;  Tin-  (iiuliir/i/  of  the 
C'oloriulo  Expediliun  (1800);  Oeiiloyyof  the  San  Juan  Expe- 
dition (1875);  Reports  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio; 
Our  Later  Kxtinrt  Floran  (1869);  Catalogue  of  the  PlanlK 
of  Ohio  (1860) ;  Fosxil  I'tantu  collected  on  the  yorthirextern 
boundary  ( Joinin isxion  (18(i;S);  The  Hock  Oils  of  Ohio 
(18.59);  Cirrles  of  Di positions  in  American  Sedimentary 
Uocks  (1873);  Iron  Resources  of  the  i'nited  Stales  (XXH); 
The  Structure  and  Relations  of  Dinichthi/s  (1875);  Fossil 
Fishes  and  Fossil  Plants  of  the  'J'riassic  Rocks  of  Xew 
■hrsei/  and  the  Connecticut  IV/Z/ci/ (18,S8);  Palieozoic  Fishes 

'■  .\'i,rth  America  (1889).  Revised  by  G.  K.  Gh.iiekt. 

New  Itruillifpis:  city  (founded  by  Prince  Braunfels  in 
1845);  capiUil  of  Comal  co.,  Tex.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
imip  of  'lexas,  ref.  .5-11);  at  the  inlci-soction  of  the  Comal 
and  (iiiailalupe  rivers,  and  on  the  Internal iomil  and  Gl.  N. 
Railroad  ;  30  miles  N.  K.  of  San  .\ntonio,  50  miles  S.  by  W. 
of  Austin.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  ami  stock-raisini;  re- 
gion, hius  exci'lleiil  water-power,  and  contains  3  churches, 
public  school.  2  iliMiomimilional  schools,  hospital,  water- 
works, electric  li;:hts,  2  cotton-gins,  2  ndler-mills,  several 
carriage  and  machine  shops,  cottonseed-oil  mill,  a  national 
bank  with  capital  of  ijJoO.IMM).  anil  2  weeklv  newspapei-s. 
Pop.  (1H80)  1,938;  (1890)  1,608;  (18!»4)  estimated,  2,.">00. 

PfBUSUEKS  OK  ••  HeKAM)." 


Nen-  Brighton:  village  (coextensive  with  Castlcton 
township);  Richmond  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  k>cation  of  county, 
see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  8-A) ;  on  the  north  shore  of 
Stateii  l>lan(l,  and  on  the  Staten  Ishmd  Rapid  Transit  Rail- 
road: 6  miles  S.  W.  of  New  York  city,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  steam-ferry.  It  comprises  several  villages,  which 
command  a  tine  view  of  the  upper  bay  of  New  York  and  the 
Narrows,  and  the  Sailors'  Snug  Harbor,  for  aged  mariners, 
a  richly  endowed  estate  with  extensive  buildings,  and  an 
institution  for  destitute  children  of  seamen.  The  village 
contains  10  churches,  3  libraries  (Brighton  Heights  Semi- 
nary, Sailoi-s'  Snug  Harbor,  and  Trinity  English  and  Clas- 
sical School)  containing  nearlv  10.000  volumes.  2  large 
hotels,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  ?!1(M).000,  the  S.  R. 
.Smith  Inlirniary  (a  small  but  thoroughly  equipped  hospital), 
2  Weekly  newspapers,  and  many  costly  residences  of  New 
York  bu.siness  men.  There  are  two  dyeing  and  printing 
works,  several  large  jdastcr-mills,  the  largest  cotton-storage 
warehouses  on  New  York  harbor,  wall-paiier  and  silk  print- 
ing-factories, and  |)ublic  water-works  and  an  electric-light- 
ing .svstem  su|iplving  New  Brighton,  West  New  Brighton, 
and  fompkinsviire.  Pop.  (1880)  12,079  :  (1890)  16.423  :  (1892) 
State  census.  17,261.  Editor  ok  "States  Islander." 

New  Brighton  :  borough ;  Beaver  co..  Pa.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  nuiii  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  4-A) ;  on  the 
Beaver  river,  and  the  Pitts.,  Ft.  W.  and  Chi.,  the  Erie  and 
Pitts.,  and  the  Pitts,  and  Lake  Erie  railways ;  29  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  Pittsburg.  It  is  in  a  coal  and  clay  region,  con- 
tains 8  churches,  4  public-school  buildings,  library  (Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  founded  18.52),  2  national  banks  with  combined  capi- 
tal of  :t;1.50,000.  a  private  bank,  and  a  daily  and  a  weekly 
newspaper,  and  has  4  potteries,  2  iloiir-mills.  2  nlaning- 
inills,  novelty  iron-works,  bath-tub  works,  flint-glass  fac- 
torv,  sewer-pipe  works,  horse-nail  works,  gas-engine  works, 
ami  soap-factory.  Pop.  (1880)  3,653:  (1890)  5,616;  (1894) 
estimated.  6..50O.  Editor  ok  "  News." 

New  Britain  :  a  name  given  by  Damiuer  to  the  group 
of  islands  now  called  Bismarck  ArViiii'ELAuo  {g.  v.).  and  es- 
pecially to  the  largest  island  of  this  group,  now  under  Ger- 
man ])rotcction  and  called  Neu-Pommem  or  New  Pome- 

RANIA  ((/.  )'.). 

New  Britain:  city  (first  settlement  made  aViout  1650; 
became  a  town  in  18.50  :  chartered  as  a  city  in  1870);  Hart- 
ford CO.,  Conn,  (for  location  of  coiintv,  see  map  of  Connecti- 
cut, ref.  9-G);  on  the  N.  Y.  and  N.  E.  and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H. 
and  Hart,  railways;  9  miles  S.  W.  of  Hartford.  It  con- 
tains 12  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  State  ar- 
mory, State  Normal  School,  high  s<-hool.  public-sduwl  prop- 
erty valued  at  over  .^2(i0,000,  2  libraries  (Normal  School, 
founded  1851,  and  Institute,  founded  1853)  containing  over 
16,000  volumes,  public  park  of  74  acres,  gas,  water,  and 
electric-light  plants.  2  national  banks  with  combined  capi- 
tal of  ^410,000,  a  savings-bank  w  ith  deposits  of  over  |:2..530,- 
000,  and  2  daily  and  3  weekly  news])apei's.  The  iiulustries 
include  the  manufacture  ot  iron  and  brass  goods,  artistic 
bronze  house-trimmings,  builders'  hardware,  cutlery,  ho- 
siery, joiners'  tools,  and  brick.  The  assei^sed  valuation  of 
the'citv  in  1892  was  $8,1,54.0.59,  and  the  net  debt  on  Jan.  1, 
1.894.  was  $4.59.816.  Pop.  (1880)  township.  13.979;  city,  11,- 
800;   (1890)  township  and  city  coextensive,  19,007. 

Editor  of  "  Herald." 

New  Brunswiek  ;  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
formerly  a  part  of  Nova  Scotia;  bouixled  N.  by  the  Prov- 
ince of  (Quebec  and  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs,  E.  by  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  Northumberland  St  rait,  and  the  Bay  of  Fiindy, 
and  VV.  bv  the  State  of  Maine.  It  lies  between  44  30  and 
48  5  N.  hit.,  and  (53  47  and  69  5  W.  Ion.  Area.  28.100 
so.  miles  (for  h^'ation,  see  map  of  provinces  of  l^uebec  and 
New  Brunswick). 

Physical  Features. — The  physical  features  of  New  Bruns- 
wick are  a  reflection  of  its  geological  hi.story.  All  the  geo- 
logical deposits  of  greater  age  than  the  Carboniferous  form 
a  massif  or  "complex,"  divei-sified  in  places  by  ridges  of 
intrusive  granite.  Of  the  granitesr  there  are  two  principal 
bands  which  form  the  axes  of  two  ranges  of  hills,  tlie  one  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  province,  the  other  near  its 
southern  coast.  In  most  places  Ihi'  rocks  of  the  massif  are 
altered  by  heat  anil  pressure,  and  contain  in  places  ores  of 
various  metals.  Between  the  two  ranges  of  granite  hills  a 
large  triangular  area  of  the  nm.«i'/ is  covered  by  sandstones 
and  shales  of  Carboniferous  age.  which  arc  unaltered,  and 
therefore  comparatively  soft  and  friable,  and  conliiin  licds 
of  coal  and  other  mineral  de|)osits  of  economical  importance. 


136 


NEW  BRUNSWICK 


The  Carboniferous  deposits  form  an  undulating  plain  whose 
eastern  margin  borders  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  on 
the  other  two  sides  is  limited  by  the  slopes  of  the  two  hill 
ranges  mentioned  above. 

North  of  the  northern  granite  range  the  massif  forms  a 
plateau  of  calcai-coiis  slates  which  is  crossed  by  the  upper 
branches  of  the  St.  John  river,  and  extends  down  the  valley 
of  tlie  Restigouche  to  Chaleurs  Bay.  The  plateau  and  the 
plain  nearly  meet  on  the  middle  courses  of  the  St.  .Tohn  river, 
where  tlie  Palfrey  Jlountains  on  tlie  one  side  and  tl)e  Xepisi- 
guit  Hills  on  the  otiier  sink  down  to  the  level  of  the  plain. 
Similarly  in  its  lower  courses  the  St.  John  river  breaks 
through  the  southern  range  of  hills,  its  valley  dividing  the 
Nerepis  Hills  from  the  Quaco  Hills.  In  the  t^uaco  Hills  the 
rocks  consist  largely  of  ancient,  consolidated  volcanic  de- 
posits, and  the  granitic  core  appears  at  the  surface  in  only 
a  few  [)laces. 

Tlie  highest  hills  are  in  the  main  granitic  belts.  Bald 
Mountain,  in  the  Nerepis  Hills,  is  1,400  feet  high,  and  the 
Sagamore  Mountain,  in  the  Nepisiguit  Hills,  is  2,340  feet 
high.  The  largest  lake  in  the  province  is  Grand  Lake,  in 
the  hollow  of  the  carboniferous  plain,  and  is  30  miles  long; 
but  the  lower  reaches  of  tlie  St.  John  river,  among  the 
Southern  Hills,  present  several  lake-like  expansions  of  con- 
siderable size,  as  Washademoak  Lake  and  Belleisle  and  Ken- 
neliecasis  Bays. 

The  chief  rivers  are  the  St.  .lohn,  over  440  miles  long,  the 
Miraraichi,  the  Restigouche,  and  the  Nepisiguit,  the  first 
discharging  its  waters  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  other 
three  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  St. 
Croix  and  the  Petitcodiac  are  also  rivers  of  some  importance 
entering  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  St.  John  river  is  unique, 
for  one  of  so  considerable  size,  in  being  contracted  at  its 
mouth  to  400  feet,  and  having  there  a  tidal  rapid  with  alter- 
nate flow  out  and  in  twice  a  day. 

The  principal  indentations  of  the  eastern  coast  of  New 
Brunswick  are  Chaleur,  Miramichi,  and  Verte  Bays.  The 
province  is  divided  from  Prince  Edward  Island  on  this  coast 
by  the  Strait  of  Northumberland,  and  from  Nova  Scotia  by 
the  Bay  of  Fundy.  This  bay  has  two  indentations  of  its 
northern  shore.  Passaniaquoddy  at  one  end,  and  Chignecto 
Bay  at  the  other.  The  bays  of  both  shores  of  the  province 
afford  excellent  fishing-grounds. 

Mineral  Producls. — Coal  has  been  found  at  many  points 
in  New  Brunswick,  but  occurs  only  in  thin  seams ;  the  most 
important  is  that  at  Grand  Lake,  which  has  been  worked 
for  many  years.  A  valuable  deposit  of  albertite  (melanas- 
phalt)  was  formerly  worked  at  Hillsboro,  in  Albert  County, 
but  the  vein  is  exhausted.  It  occurs  in  an  extensive  deposit 
of  pyroschist,  of  which  at  present  no  use  is  made.  Quarries 
of  excellent  freestone  are  worked  in  Albert,  Westmoreland, 
Northumberland,  and  Gloucester  Counties,  and  the  product 
sent  to  the  upper  provinces  of  Canada,  and  more  largely  to 
the  U.  S.  Good  roofing-slates  are  found  in  the  northern 
part  of  Charlotte  County  and  elsewhere.  Lime  is  calcined 
at  St.  John,  where  there  are  large  deposits  of  limestone ; 
the  product  is  used  for  domestic  purposes  and  for  exporta- 
tion to  the  U.  S.  Manganese  mines  have  been  opened,  and 
are  still  operated  in  Albert  and  King's  Counties.  Extensive 
deposits  of  nickeliferous  pyrites  have  been  found  in  t'har- 
lotte  County,  but  are  not  yet  worked  with  profit.  Plumbago, 
copper,  antimony,  bismuth,  and  lead  occur;  gold  has  been 
found  in  small  quantities,  and  iron  ore  of  several  kinds  is 
known  to  occur  in  considerable  quantities,  but  is  not  mined. 
Climate. — Tlu^  <'liiuato  of  New  Brunswick  has  some  un- 
usual (-ontrasts.  'I'he  western  part  of  the  central  plain  has 
a  high  summer  temperature,  and  the  mercury  sometimes 
rises  to  i)5°  and  100  in  the  shade;  here  the  native  flora  or 
wild  plants  inidude  many  species  found  in  Eastern  Ontario 
and  Western  Massachusetts;  the  genial  temperature  is  due 
to  the  southern  range  of  hills,  which  exclude  the  moist,  chil- 
ly winds  of  the  Gulf  of  Maine.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
of  the  plants  of  Labrador  are  found  growing  on  the  islands 
and  points  of  the  southern  shore  that  jut  out  into  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  which  are  thus  bathed  in  the  cool  air  and  fogs 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  As  a  result  the  vegetation  of  this 
shore  has  a  more  arctic  (or  alpine)  aspect  than  that  of  the 
highest  hills  of  the  interior.  .Statistics  show  that  the  hot- 
test months  of  the  year  are  those  in  which  fogs  are  most 
prevalent  ahmg  the  coast.  In  1889  the  maximum  tem- 
perature at  St.  .lohn  in  February  was  43°,  minimum  — 11"; 
maximum  in  .lune  80' 7 %  minimum  45°;  mean  temperature 
for  year,  43  ;  avenige  annual  rainfall,  26'4  inches.  At  Fred- 
ericton,  80  miles  inland,  the  maximum  temperature  in  Feb- 


ruary was  43-9°,  minimum— 33°;  maximum  in  May  91-7°, 
minimum  33° ;  mean  temperature  for  year,  43'9° ;  average 
annual  rainfall,  25-8  inches. 

Soil. — Considerable  tracts  in  New  Brunswick  are  of  a  hilly 
and  broken  character,  and  so  not  suitable  for  agricultural 
purposes ;  but  the  moisture  of  the  climate  encourages  the 
growth  of  trees,  and  such  tracts  afford  excellent  timber- 
land.  Other  parts  consist  of  good  farming  land.  The  best 
soils  are  found  in  connection  with  calcareous  slates  of  Si- 
lurian age,  as  in  Carleton,  Victoria,  Restigouche,  and  Queen's 
counties;  or  with  the  red  sandstones  of  Carboniferous  age, 
as  in  the  valleys  of  King's,  Albert,  and  Westmoreland  ;  or  on 
the  flood  plains  of  the  great  rivers,  as  the  St.  John,  Mira- 
michi, and  Restigouche.  Very  fertile  diked  lands  occur 
around  the  shores  near  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The 
total  acres  occupied  in  1891  were  4,471,250 ;  under  crop. 
1,018,704  ;  in  pasture,  479.607  ;  gardens  and  orchards,  11,479  ; 
woodland  and  forest,  2,961,460.  A  great  impetus  has  been 
given  to  dairying  and  cheese-making,  both  federal  and  pro- 
vincial governments  aiding  the  farmers  in  these  directions. 
The  chief  agricultural  products  are  wheat,  buckwheat,  oats, 
rye,  hay,  potatoes,  and  other  root-crops. 

GeograpJi  ical  Divisions  and  Popidation. — The  province 
is  diviiled  into  sixteen  counties,  as  follows : 


Albert 

Carleton 

Charlotte 

Gloucester 

Kent 

King's 

Madawaska 

Northumberland  . 

Queen's 

Restigouche 

St.  John  (City).... 
St.  .John  (county). 

Sunbury 

Victoria 

Westmoreland 

York 


Totals 381,233 


*Ref. 


5-1 

5-G 

6-G 

3-H 

4-1 

6-H 

3-F 

4-H 

6-H 

3-G 

6-H 

6-H 

5-H 

4-6 

5-1 

5-G 


Pop. 


12.329 
23,365 
26,087 
21,614 
22,618 
26,617 


26,109 
14,017 

7,068 
26,127 
26,839 

6,651 
15,686 
37,719 
30,397 


Pop. 
1891. 


10,971 
22,529 
2.3,762 
24,897 
23,W5 
23,087 


25,713 
12.152 

8,308 
24,184 
25.390 

5,762 
18,217 
41,477 
30,979 


321,263 


COUNTY-TOWNS. 


Hopewell  Cape. 

Woodstock. 

St.  Andrews. 

Bathurst. 

Richibucto. 

Hampton. 

Edmundslon. 

Newcastle. 

Gagetown. 

Dalhousie. 

St.  John. 
Oroniocto. 
Grand  Falls. 
Dorchester. 
Fredericton. 


*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  provinces  of  Que- 
bec and  New  Brunswick. 

Jladawaska  and  Victoria  are  separate  counties  for  pro- 
vincial and  municipal  purposes,  but  constitute  one  county 
under  the  name  of  Victoria  for  Dominion  purposes,  and 
hence  the  census  returns  appear  onlv  under  the  latter.  The 
population  in  1834  was  74,176;  in  1840,  156,662;  in  1861, 
252,047.  In  1881  the  origins  of  the  people  were :  English, 
93,387;  French,  56,635;  Irish,  101,284;  Scotch,  49,839  ;  Ger- 
man, 6,310 ;  Dutch,  4.373.  Of  the  Irish,  fully  one-half  were 
north  of  Ireland  Protestants.  In  1891  more  than  three-fourths 
of  the  population  were  of  native  parentage.  The  cliief  cen- 
ters of  population  are  the  city  of  St.  John,  pop.  39,179, 
including  Portland,  annexed  iii  1889  (in  census  return  in 
above  table  Portland  is  included  in  St.  John  county) ;  Fred- 
ericton,  pop.  6.500 ;  Moncton,  8,763  ;  Chatham,  5,644 ;  New- 
ca.stle,  4.000;  Sussex,  3,200  ;  Woodstock,  3,288 ;  St.  Stephen, 
2.6S0;  Bathurst. 4,800;  Richibucto, 3,986 ;  St. Andrews,  1,778; 
Marvsville,  1,400. 

3ieaiis  of  CommnnicaUon. — There  are  in  operation  fully 
1,3.50  miles  of  railway,  intersecting  the  province  in  all  direc- 
tions, an(j  bringing  all  parts  into  easy  communication,  con- 
necting it  with  Nova  Scotia  and  Quebec  on  the  E.  and  N. 
and  with  the  U.  S.  on  the  W.  Chief  amcmg  the  lines  of 
railway  are  the  Intercolonial  Railway,  running  from  St. 
John  to  Moncton  and  connecting  the  latter  city  with  Hali- 
fax on  the  E.  and  Quebec  on  the  N.,  having  within  the 
province  a  length  of  345  miles ;  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
wav.  extending  from  St.  John  to  Vanccboro,  Fredericton, 
W<'iodstock,  and  Edmundston,  and  connecting  with  the  rail- 
way systems  of  Canada  and  the  U.  S.,  with  over  400  miles  of 
raiis  in  the  province  ;  the  Canada  Eastern  Railway,  running 
from  Fredericton  to  Chatham  through  the  interior  of  the 
province,  137  miles;  the  Shore  Line  Railway,  83  miles  long, 
extending  from  St.  John  to  St.  Stephen;  the  Central  Rail- 
way, 75  miles  long;  the  Kent  Northern,  34  miles;  the  Salis- 
bury and  Harvey  and  Albert  Southern.  69  miles;  the  Cara- 
quet  Railway,  68  miles;  the  Elgin  and  Havelock,  and  other 
shorter  lines. 

During  the  summer  steamers  ply  on  the  river  St.  John, 
where  is  to  be  seen  some  of  the  finest  natural  scenery  in  the 
world.     A  line  of  steamers  also  runs  between  St.  John  and 


NEW    HKUNSWICK 


13; 


Boston,  from  St.  Jolin  to  Di(;by  and  Annapolis  in  Xova  Scotia, 
and  from  Slicdiac  to  Princt-  Kdwiinl  Island.  Kofjulur  pas- 
senger and  fr<'i;,'lit  stcaiiisliips  also  run  fnmi  St.  .)<>lin  to 
Great  Mrilaiii  and  li>  llie  West  Indies.  A  very  lar^ie  amount 
of  money  tias  already  lieen  expended  in  the  eonstruetion  of 
a  slu|>-raihvay  across  the  Isthmus  of  Chi^jneelo  between  New 
Brunswiek  and  Nova  St-otia.  a  distanee  of  17  miles.  It  will 
conned  the  waters  of  the  tiulf  of  .St.  Lawrence  and  the  Hay 
of  Fundv,  and  when  completed  will  be  able  to  transport  the 
largest  sliip. 

IiiiliistrifH  (iiul  liiiKi'iieux  TnfereJits. — Ship-buildin;;  and 
lumbering:,  outside  I'f  a<;ricultnre,  were  the  staple  industries 
for  years.  Lumbering  still  occupies  a  prominent  position, 
but  ship-buililiiig,  owini;  to  the  use  of  iron  and  steel  in  the 
construction  of  ships,  has  very  considerably  declined.  The 
number  of  vessels  on  the  registry  for  lMi)3  was  1.010:  the  to- 
tal tonnage,  lo6.0,M(i.  The  industrial  establishments  in  1881 
were  H.llT.  wilji  l!l,!l2i  persons  employed;  in  1891  there 
were  .').41!t:  capital  investecl,  $16.tiOS,T.~)5 ;  number  of  em- 
plovees,  "iCBO!) :  waives  paid.  ^.j.'.CUi.OOl :  cost  of  raw  mate- 
rial, *12,-14;i,(M;i :  value  of  products.  .*'.':!.(i8.1.G;i6.  'I'll.'  value 
of  machinery  and  tools  employeil  in  IXill  was  ^.i,4 18,!»24 ; 
number  of  steam-engines  in  use,  not  including  those  used  in 
mine.s,  airriculture,  and  shipping,  .107,  with  i!;!.626  horse- 
power. There  are  live  colton-mills,  a  sugar-relinery,  two 
rolliiig-niills,  nail-mills,  a  pidp-mill,  several  foundries,  to- 
gether with  many  factories  and  other  industrial  establish- 
ments. The  total  value  of  exports  for  the  year  18!K!  (exclu- 
sive of  trade  with  the  other  provinces  of  Canada)  was 
ij!7.i."):{,t>ll,  of  which  ^3,0()!M»'i7  went  to  Ureal  Hrilain  and 
^3,7y5,074  to  the  V.  S.  For  the  sanu>  year  the  total  value 
of  imports  W!ls  *.5.76:1,884.  of  which  ^l'.!»76,225  came  from 
Great  Britain  ami  ^2,!)33.70:{  from  the  V.  S.  The  chief  ar- 
ticles of  export  were  minerals,  value  $80,417;  lish,  $7.')6,- 
437;  forest  products,  ^5,.5:W.()7G:  aninnds  and  their  prod- 
ucts, $210.."):i0;  agricultural  prodiicls.  $174.!)G8;  manufac- 
turi's,  $4»i4.!t40  ;  miscellaneous.  $2ti,6:i4. 

In  18'.(;i  there  were  engaged  in  the  fisheries  226  vessels; 
tonnage,  :},:i82;  value,  :i;8:!.7!l."> ;  men  employed  on  vessels. 
827.  .\lso  .5.!)78  boats;  value,  !?202.282 ;  men  employed  on 
boats,  10.478;  fathoms  of  gill-nets  and  seines  in  use,  528.- 
817;  value  of  nets,  seines,  lobster  plant,  etc.,  $1,489,03.5. 
The  total  value  of  the  fisheries  for  1893  was  $3,746,121. 

I'ulilirdl  On/iinizalion. — The  Government  consists  of  a 
Ijieutemirit-Governor,  appointed  by  the  Governor-General  of 
Canada,  whose  term  of  otlice  is  five  years,  or  until  his  suc- 
ces.sor  thereafter  is  appointeil;  an  executive  council,  con- 
sisting of  an  attorney-general,  solicitor-general,  proviticial 
secretary,  chief  commissioner  of  board  of  works,  surveyor- 
general,  and  two  or  three  others.  .Ml  mend)ei-s  of  the  exec- 
utive council  must  l)e  members  of  the  legislative  assembly. 
The  legislative  lussembly  is  composed  of  forty-one  niendiers 
and  elected  for  four  years,  uidess  sooner  dissolved  by  the 
Lieutenant-Governor.  The  legislative  council,  or  upper 
house,  was  abolished  in  1892.  The  franchise  is  so  broad 
that  il  nearly  approaches  nmnhood  suffrage.  Any  nude 
person  twenty-one  years  of  age,  lieing  a  British  subject,  un- 
der no  disability,  owning  real  estate  of  the  value  of  ifKM),  or 
real  and  personal  together  of  the  value  of  $400,  or  having 
an  annual  income  of  $4f)0,  or  lieing  a  priest  or  other  I'hris- 
tian  nunisler  in  charge  of  a  congri'gation,  or  a  licensed 
teiu-her  or  professor  in  any  school  or  college,  or  a  resilient 
for  twelve  months  prior  to  the  election  in  anv  electoral  dis- 
trict, may  have  his  name  put  on  the  voters'  list. 

The  juiliciary  of  the  province  is  composed  of  a  chief  jus- 
tice and  five  a.ssociate  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court ;  six 
county  court  judges,  having  jurisdiction  in  actions  of  con- 
tract to  the  extent  of  $4(K)  ami  of  torts  to  $200.  with  crimi- 
nal jurisiliction  the  stiino  lus  the  Suiireme  Court,  exci'pt  in 
capiljd  olTenses.  Parish  <iinrt  commissioners  and  justices 
of  the  neace  have  limited  jurisdiction  in  their  lucidities  for 
the  collect  mn  of  debts  and  in  preliminary  examiiuilions. 

The  total  aniMial  revenue  is  about  $t!."iO.(HM),  of  which 
$t>*3..">li9  is  received  as  a  subsidy  from  the  I)omjnion.  Tlu> 
balance  is  di-rived  from  crown  lands,  fishing  rights,  fees  of 
odlces,  and  certain  sources  of  direct  taxation.  This  revenue 
is  exiM'nded  by  tlic>  executive  Government  in  paying  interest 
on  the  public  debt,  toward  the  support  of  public  scIiimiIs, 
roads,  bridges,  agriculture,  charitable  institutions,  and 
other  public  servici'S.  The  net  debt,  incurred  chieflv  in  aid 
of  railway  construction  within  the  province,  on  t)ec.  31, 
1893.  was>2.is;t,.'iti3. 

('hiirrlips  (inil  Schnoh. — In  1801  there  were  974  church 
edifices,  lis  follows:  Uoman  Catholic,  153 ;  Church  of  Kng- 


land.  156;  Baptist,  322;  Methodist,  208 ;  Presbyterian,  108; 
others.  19.  Tiic  Konum  Catholics  numbered  li5,901;  Baf>- 
tists,  79,tM9;  members  of  the  Church  of  England,  43,095; 
Presbyterians,  40,639;   Methodists,  35..104 ;  all  olliers,  6,415. 

The  ]mblic-schools  system  is  free  and  non-sectarian,  under 
the  control  of  the  provincial  tiovernnieiit,  and  libcTally  sup- 
[xirted  from  the  public  funds.  The  pronerty  of  the  differ- 
ent localities  is  also  as.sesse<l  to  su|)port  the  schools.  During 
th(^  first  term  of  1893  there  were  1.614  schools,  taught  by 
1,693  teachers;  atten<lance  of  pupils,  60,1.54,  or  1  in  5-34  of 
the  population.  There  nmy  be  a  grammar  school  in  each 
county  and  a  s\iperior  schiMjl  in  every  parish.  In  1893  there 
were  14  grammar  and  50  superior  schools.  The  attendance 
given  above  includes  these  schools.  The  payment  of  provin- 
cial funds  for  the  year  ended  June  30.  1893." wius  $148,832.27. 
The  total  expenditure  during  the  year  for  grammar,  supe- 
rior, and  common  .schools  (not  including  district  assessment-s 
for  school  buildings,  apparatus,  fuel,  etc.)  was  $421,383.60, 
or  an  average  cost  per  pupil  of  $6.06. 

The  ]>roviiicc  also  maintains  at  Fredericton  a  normal 
school  for  tijiining  teachers;  allendaiice,  1892-93,  264. 
Three  institutions  possess  university  powers  and  confer  de- 
grees in  the  different  arts  and  faculties — the  I'niversity  of 
New  Briuiswick  (coeducational)  at  Fri'dericton,  supported 
by  the  province;  attendance  in  1893,81  ;  the  I'niversity  of 
Mt.  Allison  (coeducational),  .Sackville,  controlled  by  the 
Methodists;  attendance,  1892-93,  152;  Mt.  Allison  wa.s  the 
first  university  in  Canada  to  confer  full  university  privi- 
leges and  degrees  upon  women;  St.  Joseph's  College,  Jlem- 
ramcook,  under  the  control  of  the  Konian  Catholics,  ami 
especially  patroinzed  by  the  French  Acadians.  The  Meth- 
odists also  maintain  a  Ladies'  College  and  Boys'  Academy 
at  Sackville;  the  Baptists,  a  seminary  for  both  sexes  at  St. 
Martins:  and  the  Uoinan  Catholics,  convent  schools  at  St. 
John  and  other  parts  of  the  province. 

Vhuiildlih'  Ins/itiitiviix.  etc. — Several  of  these  are  at  St. 
John,  including  the  provincial  asylum  for  lunatics,  hith- 
erto nuiinlained  by  tlic  province,  but  now  in  part  by  the 
counties,  aiul  under  control  of  the  Government :  the  General 
Public  Hospital,  open  to  all  and  supported  by  the  province, 
by  the  numicipalily  of  St.  John,  by  fees  from  paying  pa- 
tients, and  from  income  from  invested  funds;  the  Protes- 
tant and  Konian  Catholic  orphan  a.sylnms;  the  Wiggins 
Jlale  Or]iliaii  Asylum  for  the  Ijcnefit  of  sims  of  deceased 
mariners;  the  Keformatory  for  Boys,  where  the  inmates  are 
educated  and  taught  a  trade:  and  the  Iltime  for  Aged 
Women.  The  Victoria  Hospital  at  Fredericton  is  supported 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  (ieneral  Public  Hospital.  The 
Lazaretto,  at  Tracadie.  Gloucester  County,  for  the  care  of 
those  smitten  with  leprosy,  is  supported  by  the  Dominion 
Government,  and  the  Konian  Catholic  Sisters  of  the  Hotel 
Dieu  take  charge  of  the  palieiil.s.  There  were  about  twen- 
ty-live patients  in  1893.  The  penitentiary  for  the  maritime 
provinces,  at  Dorchester,  is  supported  by  the  Dominion  for 
the  incarceration  of  convicts. 

History,  etc.  —The  province  was  formerly  a  part  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and  known  as  Sunbury  County.  A  colony  of  about 
800  persons  in  1761  from  New  England  settled  at  Manger- 
vilie  on  the  St.  John  river.  The  largest  immigration  took 
l>lace  when  the  Cnitcd  Ein|>ire  Loyalists,  mostly  from  Jlas- 
sacliusetts.  arrived  in  the  province  May  18  and  Oct.  4,  1783. 
They  founded  the  city  of  SI.  John.  Their  descendants  are 
scattered  throughout  the  province,  ami  arc  found  in  all 
walks  of  life.  By  royal  letters  patent,  dated  -Vug.  16.  1784, 
King  George  the  Third  made  it  a  separate  iirovince,  and 
appointed  'Phonias  Carleton,  a  brother  of  Sir  (\\\\  Carleton, 
captain-general  anil  governor-in-chief.  Fredericton  is  the 
capital,  where  are  fine  legislative  buildings.  The  first  legis- 
lature met  at  St.  John  .Ian.  3.  1786.  The  province  became 
a  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  July  1.  1867.  and  is  rep- 
resented in  the  Senate  of  Canada  by  ten  members,  appointed 
for  life,  and  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  sixteen  members, 
elected  for  five  years. 

.ViTiiiiRiTiKs. — For  detailed  information  a-s  to  the  history 
and  growth  of  the  province,  consult  Munro's  Ilistonj  of 
y'ew  liriniKwirk;  Johnson's  .4f/riVi///Mrrt/  Ji'iport ;  Cooney  s 
/h'-itiiri/  i)f  .\'eir  liruii.iirirk :  Hannay's  lli.ilnnj  nf  Acndia; 
Gray's  IliMliiri/  iif  ( 'onfiili  nilioii  ;  l''eni'ty's  Pnliticnl  Xiilen; 
Lawrence's  Foul-l'riiilii;  the  annual  parliamentary  reports; 
and  the  decennial  census  returns.      Alfred  A.  Stockton. 

New  Brnnswick  :  city  (settled  under  the  name  of  Prig- 
more's  Swamp  in  1681,  received  its  present  name  in  1714, 
granted  a  royal  cliarler  in  1730,  incorporaled  as  a  town  in 


138 


NEWBURG 


NEW  CASTLE 


1736,  and  as  a  city  on  Sept.  1.  1784) ;  capital  of  Middlesex 
CO.,  N.  J.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New  Jersey, 
ref.  4-D) ;  at  the  head  of  naviga'tion  on  the  Raritan  river, 
at  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal, 
and  on  the  Penn.  Railroad;  26  miles  N.  E.  of  Trenton,  33 
miles  S.  \V.  of  New  York  city.  It  is  the  seat  of  Rutgers 
College  (Reformed,  chartered  1T66),  of  a  theological  seminary 
of  the  Reformed  Church  (chartered  1784).  and  of  the  State 
Mechanical  and  Agricultural  College  (endowed  with  the 
national  land  graiU  and  now  a  part  of  Rutgers  College). 
There  are  2  private  classical  schools  for  boys,  a  grammar 
school  connected  with  the  college,  a  young  ladies'  seminary, 
a  model  farm  and  observatory  belonging  to  the  college,  2 
national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $350,000,  a  savings- 
bank  with  assets  of  |1.654,473,  a  public  library,  and  3  daily 
and  6  weekly  newspapers.  The  industries  include  the  man- 
ufacture of  wall-paper,  rubber  goods,  printing-presses,  boots 
and  shoes,  lamps  and  bronze-work,  porous  plasters,  machin- 
ery, hosiery,  and  buttons.  The  assessed  valuation  in  1893 
was  $10,200,000,  and  the  net  debt  on  Apr.  1,  1894,  was 
$1,256,276.     Pop.  (1880)  17,166;  (1890)  18,603;  (1895)  19,910. 

Editor  of  "  Home  News." 

Newbnrg :  city  (settled  by  the  whites  in  1709 ;  known  as 
the  Palatine  Parish  of  Quassaic  till  1752,  when  it  received 
its  present  name ;  chartered  as  a  city  in  1865) ;  one  of  the 
capitals  of  Orange  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  New  York,  ref.  7-1) ;  on  the  Hudson  river,  and  the 
Erie  and  the  West  Shore  railways  (the  N.  Y.  C.  and  H.  R., 
the  N.  Y.  and  N.  E.,  and  the  Newburg.  Dutchess  and  Conn, 
railways  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river) ;  60  miles  N.  of 
New  York  city.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  has  an  ele- 
vated site,  and  possesses  much  historical  interest.  The  old 
Hasbrouck  House  was  occupied  by  George  Washington  dur- 
ing a  part  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  his  proclamation 
disbanding  the  American  army  was  promulgated  there. 
The  building  contains  many  relics  of  Revolutionary  days, 
and  with  the  grounds  is  carefully  preserved.  Near  the 
building  is  a  stone  monument,  erected  by  the  Federal  and 
State  governments  to  commemorate  the  successful  close  of 
the  war.  The  city  has  regular  steamboat  connection  with 
New  York  and  the  principal  cities  on  the  Hudson,  and  con- 
tains 25  churches,  graded  public  and  parochial  schools.  Free 
Library  (founded  1852),  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Library  (founded  1881), 
Second  Judicial  District  Law  Litn-ary  (founded  1880),  Home 
for  the  Friendless,  St.  Luke's  Home,  Home  for  Children,  an 
academy,  hospital,  electric  street-railways,  3  national  banks 
with  combined  capital  of  $1,000,000,  a  savings-bank  with 
surplus  of  nearly  $1,100,000,  and  4  daily,  a  monthly,  2 
semi-weekly,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  There  is  a  large 
trade  in  coal  and  dairy  products.  The  principal  imiustries 
are  ship-building  and  the  manufacture  of  agricidtural  im- 
plements, oilcloth,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  carpets,  paper, 
shoes,  and  carriages.  Pop.  (1880)  18,049 ;  (1890)  23,087  ; 
(1892)  State  census,  34,536.  Editor  of  "  Journal." 

Newburyport :  city  (settled  about  1635,  was  separated 
from  the  town  of  Newbury  in  1764,  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1851) :  seaport ;  one  of  the  capitals  of  Essex  co.,  Mass.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  l-I);  on  the  Merri- 
mack river,  and  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  ;  3  miles  W. 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  36  miles  N.  E.  of  Boston.  It  con- 
tains the  Putnam  Free  School.  Anna  Jaques  Hospital,  Y. 
M.  C.  A.  Memorial  Building,  Old  Ladies'  Home,  high,  train- 
ing, and  graded  public  schools.  Marine  JIuseum,  jjublie 
library  (founded  1854)  containing  nearly  30,000  volumes, 
electric  street-railways,  4  national  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  670,000,  2  savings-banks  with  aggregate  deposits 
of  about  $6,500,000,  and  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers. 
The  industries  include  ship-building  and  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  goods,  boots  and  shoes,  flberloid.  carriages,  silver- 
ware, hats,  pumps,  steam-engines,  and  combs.  The  assessed 
valuation  in  1893  was  $9,705,538,  and  the  net  debt  on  Jan. 
1,  1894,  was  388,790.  Pop.  (1880)  13,538;  (1890)  13,947; 
(1895)  14,552.  Editor  of  "  Herald." 

New  Caledonia:  an  island  in  the  South  Pacific,  about 
800  miles  K.  of  (Queensland,  and  half  way  between  New 
Guinea  and  New  Zealand.  It  was  discovered  by  Cook  in 
1774  and  annexed  by  France  in  1853.  It  is  250  miles  long, 
with  a  greate.st  breadth  of  30  miles,  and  extends  N.  W.  and 
S.  E.  Along  its  axis  run  a  series  of  mountain  masses,  of 
which  the  culminating  points  reach  5.600  feet.  At  some 
distance  from  the  west  coast  is  a  coral  reef  which  protects 
the  shores,  from  the  force  of  the  waves,  and  gives  a  sort  of 
interior  navigation  with  smooth  water.     The  soil  is  fertile. 


the  climate  excellent,  and  the  plants  of  the  tropics  and  tem- 
perate zone  can  be  raised.  There  are  many  nickel  mines, 
some  of  which  yield  ore  containing  7  to  10  per  cent,  of  pure 
nickel.  Gold  was  formerly  worked,  iron  ore  is  abundant, 
and  valuable  deposits  of  copper,  mercury,  tin,  and  platinum 
are  known  to  exist.  The  chief  port  and  capital  is  Noumea, 
an  excellent  port  on  the  west  coast  near  the  south  end; 
pop.  4,600.  With  its  dependencies,  including  the  Loyalty 
islands,  60  miles  E.,  New  Caledonia  forms  a  convict  colony 
with  an  area  of  7,654  sq.  miles,  and  a  pojiulation  (1890)  of 
62,753.  The  native  population  numbered  70,000  at  the 
time  of  annexation,  but  they  are  rapidly  decreasing,  and 
now  number  less  than  25,000.  They  are  called  Kanakas. 
The  remaining  population  is  chiefly  white  and  half  of  its 
number  consists  of  convicts,  either  under  punishment  or 
liberated.  The  Isle  of  Pines,  at  the  southern  extremity,  was 
assigned  to  Communists  deported  after  the  overthrow  of  the 
Paris  Commune.  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

New  Canaan:  town  (incorporated  in  1801);  Fairfield 
CO.,  Conn,  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Connecticut, 
ref.  13-D) ;  on  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  Hart.  Railroad ;  5  miles 
N.  W.  of  Norwalk,  8  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Stamford.  It  is  de- 
lightfully situated  among  hills  ranging  from  300  to  500  feet 
above  tide-water,  has  fine  drives  into  the  country  and  to  the 
beaches  on  Long  Island  Sound,  and  contains  many  summer 
homes  of  New  York  physicians  and  business  men,  boot, 
shoe,  and  clothing  factories,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
$100,000,  a  savings-bank,  a  librarv  and  reading-room,  and 
a  weekly  newspap'er.  Pop.  (1880)  2,673  ;  (1890)  2,701 ;  (1894) 
estimated,  3,000.  Editor  of  "  Messenger." 

New  Castile :  See  Castile,  New, 

Newcas'tle  :  a  port  of  entry;  capital  of  Northumberland 
County,  New  Brunswick  ;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Miramichi, 
30  miles  from  its  mouth  (see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  4-H).  The 
river  is  to  this  point  navigable  for  large  ships.  Its  ship- 
building, lumber-trade,  and  fisheries  are  imjiortant.  Sal- 
mon, herring,  bass,  mackerel,  oystei'S,  and  lobsters  are 
largely  exported.     Pop.  4.000. 

Newcastle:  a  town  of  New  South  Wales;  80  miles  N.  N. 
E.  of  Sydney;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hunter  river,  terminus 
of  a  railway  running  to  the  counties  N.  W.  and  N.  (see  map 
of  Australia,  ref.  6-J).  '  Tliis  is  the  center  of  the  principal 
coal  industry  of  Australia.  The  coal  is  sent  largely  to 
China.  There  is  also  a  large  commerce  in  cereals.  The 
town  is  unattractive,  and  is  given  a  sable  color  by  the  large 
amount  of  coal  handled.  The  tonnage  of  the  port  is  very 
large.     Pop.  (1891)  12,913.  M.  W.  H. 

New  Castle :  city  (formerly  the  county-seat) ;  New  Castle 
CO..  Del.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Delaware,  ref. 
2-H);  on  the  Delaware  river  at  the  head  of  Delaware  Bay, 
and  on  the  Phil.,  Wil.  and  Balto.  Railroad  ;  5  miles  S.  of 
Wilmington,  the  county-seat,  36  miles  S.  W.  of  Philadel- 
phia. It  has  an  excellent  harbor  with  navigation  open  al- 
most the  entire  year,  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  has 
manufactories  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  carpets,  rolling- 
mill  products,  piping,  and  agricultural  implements.  There 
are  a  library  (founded  1812),  a  branch  of  the  Farmers"  Bank 
of  Delaware  (State),  and  a  dailv  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880) 
3,700;  (1890)4,010. 

Newcastle :  town  ;  capital  of  Henry  co.,  Ind.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  6-F) :  oii  the  Blue  river,  and 
the  Ft.  Wayne,  Cin.  and  Louisv.,  the  Cleve..  Cin.,  Chi.  and 
St.  L.,  and  the  Pitts.,  Cin..  Chi.  and  St.  L.  railways  ;  15  miles 
S.  of  Muncie,  42  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  region,  has  important  manufactures,  and  con- 
tains a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $J 00.000.  a  State  bank 
with  capital  of  $130,000,  and  three  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)  2,299  ;  (1890)  2.697. 

New  Castle:  city;  capital  of  Lawrence  co..  Pa.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  4-A);  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Shenango  and  the  Neshanuock  rivers, 
which  here  form  the  Beaver  river,  and  on  the  Erie,  the 
Penn.,  the  Pitts,  and  Lake  Erie,  the  Pitts,  and  W.,  and  the 
W.  N.  Y.  and  Penn.  railways;  52  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Pitts- 
burg. It  is  in  a  bituminous  coal,  limestone,  fire-clay,  iron- 
ore,  and  sandstone  region,  and  has  numerous  blast  furnaces 
and  mills,  3  machine-shops,  wire-rod  mill,  steel-billet  mill, 
large  wire-nail  mill,  tin-plate  mill,  asphalt-block  works, 
stove-works,  2  glass-factories,  grist  and  planing  mills,  sev- 
eral foundries,  and  a  paper-mill.  There  are  three  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $500,000,  20  churches.  16 
schools,  2  colleges,  a  library  (Y.  M.  C.  A.,  founded  1886), 


XEWTASTLE 


NEWCOMEN' 


139 


and  a  monthly,  3  dailv.  and  4  weekly  periodicals.      Pop. 
(18S0)  8,418;  (isUO)  11,800,  with  suburbs.  l.i.OOO. 

EllITOR  OK  ••  COURAKT." 

Newcastle.  I»ukeok  :  .See  Cavendish,  William. 

Ncncu>ll('.  Thomas  Pklham  IIolles,  Duke  of:  Prime 
Minister  uf  Great  Britain;  Li.  in  ItiU^i,  the  son  ol  the  iirst 
Ijord  Pilliain.  to  wlnxse  peerage  anil  estates  ho  succeeded  in 
1712.  lie  had  previously  inherited  the  larjie  estates  of  his 
uncle,  and  was  one  of  the  wealthiest  land-owners  in  Eng- 
land. .Ml  the  weight  of  his  innuence  was  thrown  on  tlie 
Whig  side,  and  his  serviies  lo  the  Imuse  of  Hanover  won 
him  the  gratitude  of  the  king,  lie  was  made  Earl  of  Clare 
in  1714.  l)uke  ot  Newcastle  in  171t~>,  and  in  1724  U'caine 
Secretary  of  .State  in  Walpole's  ministry.  His  abilities  are 
repre-senteil  as  of  a  mean  order,  but  he  held  this  olliee  for 
thirty  years,  ami  when  he  laid  it  down  he  became  Prime 
Minister,  succeeding  his  bnither.  Henry  Pelham.  in  that 
otTice  in  1754.  He  roigiied  in  17">0.  but  was  recalled  in  the 
following  year  to  form  the  ministry  rendered  brilliant  by 
the  genius  of  Pitt.  Newcastle,  who  was  merely  the  nominal 
head,  resigned  in  1762.  and  after  this,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  months  in  KfM,  when  he  was  Lord  Privy  .Seal,  he 
held  no  oflicial  position.     I),  in  .\ug.,  1708.    E.  .M.  Colbv. 

NeweaslIe-iipon-Tyne :  city  (with  the  constitution  of  a 
county):  in  the  county  of  Northumberland.  England:  on  the 
left  bunk  of  the  Tyne,  8  miles  from  its  mouth  ;  27.5  miles 
from  London  and  117  from  Edinburgh  (see  map  of  Eng- 
land, ref.  :i-H).  The  city  is  built  fur  the  most  part  on 
steep  hills  and  gently  rising  ground.  It  presents  a  striking 
appearance,  owing  to  the  contnusts  of  antiquated  and  mod- 
ern buildings.  Among  the  former  are  several  towers  be- 
longing to  the  old  walls,  the  keep  and  chapel  of  the  old  cas- 
tle, and  the  Black  Gate.  The  Church  of  .St.  Nicholas  (13.59- 
143.5).  now  the  cathedral,  was  built  upon  the  site  of  an 
earlier  structure.  destMyed  by  fire  in  1216.  of  which  a  few 
remains  .still  exist.  .St.  .lohn's  church,  built  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.,  contains  much  original  Norman  work,  with 
other  later  aildilioTis.  St.  Andrew's  church,  dating  from  the 
twelfth  century,  is  built  in  the  Transition  style.  The  cen- 
tral part  of  Newcastle  owes  its  stately  buildings  chiefly  to 
Kichurd  Grainger  (1798-1861).  Grey  Street  (named  from 
Earl  Grey)  and  (irainger  Street  are  the  finest  thoroughfares 
in  the  city.  The  tnwn-hall.  built  in  1863.  .stands  near  the 
cathe<lral,  and  close  by  are  the  corn-market  and  the  cor- 
poratiiin  ortiees.  (Jther  nutable  buildings  are  the  Guild- 
liall,  the  Exchange,  the  M.iot  Hall  for  the  meetings  of  as- 
sizes, and  the  Central  News  room  and  art-gallery.  The  Mu- 
seum of  the  Natural  History  .Society  (18.84)'  contains  a 
collection  of  British  binls  and  a  uniipie  series  of  Bewick's 
wo<«l-cuts.  The  Pulilic  Library  contains  nearly  70.000 
volunu's.  and  the  library  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical 
S<K'iety  has  4t),0(XI  volumes.  Two  important  colleges — the 
College  of  .Science  (1871)  and  the  College  of  .Medicine  (1851) 
— are  atliliatwl  to  the  I'niversity  of  Durham.  There  is  also 
the  Rutherford  College  (1878).  There  are  several  public 
parks,  including  the  Town  Moor,  an  extensive  common  987 
acres  in  extent,  the  Lea/.es  ornamental  park.  Brandling  Park, 
besides  .\rmstrong  Park  and  .lesmond  Dene,  fur  which  New- 
castle is  indrbied  lo  Lord  .\riiistrong.  The  Tyne  is  cfossed 
by  three  bridgi-s  wliiih  connect  Newcastle  with  GATKsiiKAf) 
{q.  v.),  which  is  virtually  a  part  of  Niwcastle.  The  High 
Level  Bridge,  built  by'ltobert  Stepheiis,)n  (1S46-49).  is  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  long.  It  contains  a  carriage-way  00  feet 
above  high  water,  by  which  the  precipitous  streets'on  both 
sidas  of  the  river  are  avoiiled.  and  a  railway  at  a  hi'ight  of 
118  feet  above  high  water.  The  .Swing  Bridge,  finished  in 
1876,  which  is  281  feet  in  length,  is  worked  by  hydraulic 
machinery.  It  was  erected  on  the  site  of  a  Koman  and  two 
later  bridges. 

The  port  of  Newcastle  is  the  fourth  in  importance  in  the 
United  Kingdom;  London,  Livi'rpool.  and  Cardiff  coming 
first.  The  total  tonnage  (ex<luiling  that  coa.slwi.se)  enlereil 
and  cleared  in  1892  was  4.20.5,.580.  The  Tvne  is  navigable 
for  large  vessels  as  far  a.;  Elswick,  a  townsliip  on  the  wi'st- 
crn  outskirts  of  Newca.stle,  where  the  engineering  and  ord- 
nance works  of  Sir  W.  (i.  .Vrm.strong,  .Mitchell  &  Co.  are 
situateil.  Thes<'  occupy  an  area  of  125  acri's  ami  present  a 
frontage  i>f  about  a  mile  to  the  river.  The  princiiuil  article 
of  trade  is  coal.  The  output  of  the  coal-fields  of  Durham 
and  Northuml>erland.  of  which  Newcastle  is  the  center, 
was  in  lM!r,>  ;;;i,:!(i'2,H61  tons ;  and  in  the  sjime  year  4.117.4.50 
tons  of  coal  and  coke,  exclusive  of  that  used  by  steann-rs  en- 
gaged in  the  foreign  trade,  were  exi>orted,  mainly  to  Ham- 


burg, the  Baltic,  and  the  Mediterranean.  In  1891  the  total 
number  of  jierscms  employeil  in  the  coal  business,  including 
those  washing  and  coking  coal,  was  123.404,  of  whom  three- 
fourths  were  working  underground.  In  shii>-building  the 
Tyne  ccjiues  next  to  the  Clyde.  In  1892  92  steamships  (not 
incluiling  war  ves.sels),  with  a  gross  tonnage  of  176,743, 
were  launched  at  the  Tyne  ports,  which  include  North  and 
South  .Shields.  The  principal  manufactures  are  l<n-omotive 
and  marine  engines,  heavy  ordnance,  lead  and  its  com- 
pounds, chemical  manures,  earthenware,  fire-brick,  alkali, 
cement,  and  gla.ss  of  various  kinds.  One  of  the  alkali-works 
turns  out  the  largest  cjuaiilily  of  caustic  soda  of  any  work.s 
in  the  world.  In  l.'S91  over  40.000  tons  of  various  goods 
and  180,0(M(  tons  of  coal  and  coke  were  exported  to  the  I'.S. 

In  the  times  of  the  Uomans  there  was  a  stationary  camp 
at  the  bridge  called  I'ons  ^-Etii.  Later,  on  account  of  its 
fortified  pasition  giving  protection  to  the  monks  of  the 
neighboring  nioiuusteries,  the  town  was  called  Monkches- 
ler.  Kobert  of  Courtlmse,  stin  of  Willium  the  Coiuiueror, 
built  a  castle  here  which  was  calleil  Newcastle  and  became 
the  nucleus  of  the  modern  town.  In  the  reign  of  Edward 
I.  it  was  surrounded  by  walls,  and  afterward  on  four  differ- 
ent occasions  defeated'  the  altempts  of  the  .Scots  to  effect 
its  capture.  In  1640,  having  declared  in  favor  of  the  king, 
it  was  taken  by  the  Scotch  Covenantci-s  under  Ijeslie,  who 
held  it  for  a  year.  In  1644  it  was  taken  again  after  a  siege 
of  ten  inonth.s. 

Newcastle  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  1882. 
Since  1835  the  city  has  been  governed  by  a  corjjoration 
composed  of  a  mayor.  16  alilcrmcn,  and  48  town  councilors. 
It  returns  2  mend'icrs  to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1893)  196,997; 
with  tiiiteshcad,  287,935.  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Xp  well  Hang:  See  Niuciiwaso. 

Newcomh. Simon:  astronomer  and  mathematician;  b.  at 
Wallace,  Nova  Scotia,  Mar.  12.  1835;  removed  to  the  U.  S. 
in  boyhood  ;  taught  school  in  Maryland  for  several  years ;  in 
1857  was  employed  as  a  computer  on  The  yaulicat  Almanac. 
In  the  following  year  he  first  gave  special  attention  to 
theoretical  astronomy  ;  was  appointed  in  1861  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  the  navy,  and  stationed  at  the  Naval  Ob- 
servatory, for  which-  he  supervised  the  construction  and 
erection  of  the  great  telescope:  was  secret ary  of  the  com- 
mission created  by  Congress  in  1871  for  the  observation  of 
the  transit  of  Venus,  Dec.  9,  1874,  and  t<Kik  part  in  organ- 
izing the  expeditions  sent  to  remote  quarters  of  the  earth 
upon  that  occasion.  Since  1877  he  lias  been  superintendent 
of  T?ie  Kaulicat  Almanac,  published  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment. The  Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  England  in  1874 
awarded  to  him  its  gold  medal  for  his  tables  of  Uranus  and 
Neiituiie.  From  1884  until  1S93  lie  acted  as  Professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Astronomy  in  .lohiis  Hopkins  University. 
In  1878  he  received  the  Iluygheiis  mcilal  of  the  Dutch  So- 
ciety of  Sciences  and  in  1890  thcCo|>ley  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.  Besides  numci oils  astronomical  inves- 
tigations, he  has  written  a  number  of  mathematical  text- 
books and  several  works  on  economic  subjects,  and  was  one 
of  the  associate  editors  of  the  revised  edition  of  Juhniiou's 
Uni vernal  ( 'i/cln/Hrilia. 

Newooiiien.  Thomas;  the  inventor  of  the  modern  form 
of  the  .stcaiii-engine  :  b.  in  Devonshire.  England,  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century;  practiced  the  trade  of  a 
blacksmith  :  became  interested  in  the  applications  of  steam, 
and  in  1705  patenteil  a  fire-engine. 

The  engines  of  the  Marquis  of  Worcester  and  of  Savery 
and  of  all  their  predeces-'^ors  in  this  field  were  more  or  less 
re|iroiluctions  of  the  old  steam-fountain  of  Hero  (n.  r.  120); 
but  Newconien  made  an  entirely  new  de|iarture  and  con- 
structed in  1705  the  lii-st  real  stetim-engine.  consisting  of  a 
train  of  mechanism  in  which  the  steam-motor  was  at  ihc  one 
end,  and  the  pump  lo  which  its  work  was  apj)lied  was  at 
the  other,  the  intermediate  parts  being  the  simplest  pos- 
sible and  giving  direct  coniie<'tion  between  the  driving  and 
the  driven  parts.  In  the  earlier  engines  the  same  ves- 
sel hail  usually  served  as  boiler,  engine,  and  pump,  and  i>er- 
formecl  I'ach  of  its  si'veral  oniceswith  incfliciciicy.  New- 
coinen.  following  .Savery.  built  a  steam-boiler  of  which  the 
only  function  wils  to  make  and  supply  the  steam  reijuired  ; 
he  made  a  working  cylinder  of  which  the  sole  purpose  was 
the  transformation  of  the  heat  of  the  steam  into  u.s<"fiil 
work  by  a  thermodynamic  oiwration.  lie  then  tninsferred 
the  |«)Wer  thus  generated  to  a  pump,  by  means  of  which  it 
wai*  applied  to  the  useful  work  of  raising  water  from  the 
depths  of  a  mine.     The  net  result  was  the  accomplishment 


140 


NEW  CUMBERLAXD 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


of  this  work  with  an  economy  greatly  exceeding  that  at- 
tained by  the  best  machines  of  his  predecessors.  The  new 
engine  also  demanded  but  an  insignificant  steam-pressure, 
and  tlius  was  much  safer  where  working  at  considerable 
depths  than  was  the  Savery  engine,  which,  under  similar 
conditions,  employed  a  comparatively  high  pressure.  Its 
greater  safety  and  immense  economy  soon  drove  the  latter 
entirely  out  of  the  market. 

The  "principal  defect  of  the  Xewcomen  engine  was  the 
combining  of  the  functicms  of  working  cylinder  and  con- 
denser in  the  same  vessel,  and  it  was  tlie  invention  of  an 
improvement  upon  the  Xewcomen  engine,  the  separate  con- 
denser, that  gave  James  Watt  his  opportunity  and  his  fame. 
The  modern  condensing  pumping  engine,  however,  is  a 
Newcoraen  engine  rather  than  a  Watt  engine,  and  Xew- 
comen, rather  than  Watt,  is  "  the  inventor  of  the  steam- 
engine."  R.  H.  Thurston. 

NewCtiniberland :  town:  capital  of  Hancock co.,W.Va. 
(for  location,  see  map  of  West  Virginia,  ref.  2-U);  on  the 
Ohio  river,  and  the  Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  Ijouis  Railwav; 
9  miles  X.  of  Steubenville,  0.,  30  miles  W.  of  Pittsburg,  Pa. 
It  has  manufactories  of  fire-brick,  terra-cotta  work,  sewer- 
pipe,  antl  foundrv  and  machine  shop  products,  a  private 
bank,  and  two  weeklv  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  1.218  ;  (1890) 
2,30.5. 

New  Decatur:  town:  Morgan  co..  Ala.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Alabama,  ref.  1-C) :  on  the  Tennessee  river,  and  the 
Louisville  and  Xashville  Railroad ;  87  miles  X.  of  Birming- 
ham. It  is  in  an  agricultural,  lumbering,  and  wool-growing 
region,  and  has  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880)  not  in 
census :  (1890)  3..565. 

Newell,  S.1MUEL:  missionary:  b.  at  Durham,  Me.,  July 
24,  1784;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1807:  studied  theology 
at  Andover  Seminary :  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  memo- 
randum (dated  June  27,  1810)  from  students  of  that  in- 
stitution which  led  to  the  formation  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions :  was  ordained 
as  a  foreign  missionary  at  Salem  with  four  associates  Feb.  5, 
1812  ;  sailed  for  Calcutta  with  Judson  :  in  the  same  month 
was  ordered  to  retire  by  the  British  authorities  of  Bengal ; 
went  to  the  Isle  of  France,  thence  to  Ceylon,  and  settled  at 
Bombay  in  1817,  where  he  wrote,  with  his  companion  mis- 
sionary, Gordon  Hall,  a  work  entitled  The  Conversion  of 
the  World,  or  the  Claims  of  Six  Hundred  Jlillions  (An- 
dover. 1818),  which  had  an  extensive  circulation.  He  also 
prepared  a  memoir  of  his  first  wife.  Harriet  (Atwood)  X'ew- 
ell,  who  died  at  the  Isle  of  France,  Xov.  30,  1812.  at  the  age 
of  nineteen  years — a  work  which  had  a  wide  popularity, 
and  was  translated  into  several  languages.  D.  at  Bombav, 
Mar.  30,  1821. 

New  England :  collectively,  the  States  of  Maine,  Xew 
Hampshire.  Vermont.  Massachusetts.  Rhode  Island,  and 
Connecticut.  The  territciry  comprised  in  these  States  was 
originally  called  Xorth  Mrginia.  when  granted  in  1606  by 
James  I.,  to  the  Plymouth  Company  for  colonization,  but 
received  its  present  name  from  Capf.  John  Smith,  who  ex- 
plored it  in  1614,  and  made  a  map  of  the  coast.  The  first 
white  settlers  were  chiefly  natives  of  England.  In  1890  the 
population  of  Xew  England  was  4,700,745.  See  the  articles 
on  the  individual  States. 

Newfoundland :  an  island  and  British  colony  in  Xorth 
America,  lying  across  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence. It  is  situated  between  the  parallels  of  46°  36'  aO  and 
51°  39'  N.  lat.,  and  between  the  meridians  of  52°  37'  and 
59°  24'  50'  W.  Ion.  Its  greatest  length  from  Cape  Ray  (the 
southwestern  extremity  of  the  island)  to  Cape  Xormaii  (the 
farthest  northern  land)"is  317  miles,  and  the  greatest  breadth 
from  Cape  Spear  (the  most  easterlv  point)  to  Cape  Anguille 
(the  most  westerly)  is  316  miles.  The  total  area  is  42.200  sq. 
miles.  Its  coast  is  1.000  miles  round,  measuring  from  head- 
land to  headland ;  but  so  deeply  indented  are  its  shores 
with  bays  that  if  these  were  circumnavigated  the  operation 
would  more  than  double  that  extent  of  coast-line.  It  is 
that  part  of  the  continent  of  Xorth  America  which  lies 
nearest  to  Europe,  the  distance  between  the  rao.st  eastern 
part  of  Xewfoundland  and  Valentia.  in  Ireland,  being  1.640 
miles.  By  the  two  great  bays  of  Trinity  and  Placentia  it  is 
almost  severed  into  two  portions,  the  "southern  being  the 
peninsula  of  Avalon.  on  which  St.  Johx's  (q.  v.).  the  capital. 
IS  situate<l,  and  which  is  united  to  the  northern  by  a  narrow 
isthmus,  in  (me  place  only  3  miles  in  width.  Tlie  Avalon 
peninsula  is  further  divided  by  the  bays  of  St.  Mary  and 


Conception  :  and,  having  thus  an  extensive  frontage  on  the 
Atlantic  and  numerous  harbors,  and  being  in  proximity  to 
the  best  fishing-grounds,  it  is  the  most  thickly  populated 
portion  of  the  island.  On  all  sides  the  great  arms  of  the 
-Vtlantic  penetrate  far  into  the  land,  some  of  the  bays  being 
90  miles  in  length.  Within  a  degree  of  the  eastern"  coast  is 
the  Great  Bank  of  Xewfoundland — the  greatest  submarine 
island  of  the  globe,  600  miles  in  length  and  200  in  breadth — 
the  chief  breeding-ground  of  the  cod.  The  whole  Atlantic 
coast  of  Labrador.  1.100  miles  in  extent,  with  its  valuable 
fisheries,  is  also  attached  to  Xewfoundland  and  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  colony. 

Climate. — The  fogs  generated  on  the  Banks  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Arctic  current  and  the  Gulf  Stream  are  felt 
only  on  the  southern  and  southeastern  shores  of  the  island 
when  southerly  winds  prevail.  The  climate  is  variable,  but 
taken  as  a  whole  is  more  temperate  and  more  favorable  to 
health  than  that  of  the  neighboring  continent.  In  winter 
the  thermometer  seldom  sinks  more  than  a  few  degrees  be- 
low zero,  and  that  for  but  a  few  hours.  The  summer  range 
of  the  thermometer  is  from  70°  to  80°.  and  it  is  seldom  that 
84"  is  reached.  The  average  mean  temi)erature  is  41°^2°  ; 
the  average  rainfall  is  .58'30  inches.  Tornadoes  are  unknown, 
and  thunder-storms  very  rare. 

Geology. — All  the  great  ancient  rock  systems  between  the 
Lower  Laurentian  and  the  coal  measures  are  more  or  less 
represented  at  one  part  or  another  of  the  island.  The  Lau- 
rentian system  has  an  immense  spread,  constituting  the 
principal  mountain  ranges  and  coming  to  the  surface 
through  the  more  recent  deposits  or  brought  up  by  great 
dislocations.  Three-fourths  of  the  peninsula  of  Avalon  are 
Huronian  (equivalent  to  the  Cambrian  of  English  geolo- 
gists). Lower  Silurian  rocks  have  a  large  development,  and 
in  these  the  metallic  ores  occur.  The  Carboniferous  series 
occupy  a  large  area  in  the  neighborhood  of  St.  George's  Bay 
and  Grand  Lake. 

Mountains. — The  coasts  present,  for  the  most  part,  a  for- 
bidding aspect.  Dark  cliffs,  miles  on  miles  of  rocky  walls 
from  200  to  300  feet  in  height,  bold  promontories  and  head- 
lands, greet  the  voyager  at  almost  all  parts  of  the  island; 
bvit  when  the  bays  are  entered  scenes  of  rare  beauty  are 
frequently  met  with.  On  passing  from  the  rugged  coast- 
line to  the  interior  a  hilly  country  presents  itself,  with  emi- 
nences of  no  great  elevation.  The  center  of  the  island,  which 
is  but  imperfectly  known,  consists  of  an  elevated,  undulat- 
ing plateau  traversed  here  and  there  by  ranges  of  low  hills, 
the  surface  being  diversified  by  valleys,  woods,  and  lakes. 
Much  of  the  interior  is  a  savanna  country,  the  soil  being  a 
fine  black  peat-mould.  All  the  great  hill  ranges  take  a 
northeasterly  and  southwesterly  direction.  The  principal 
of  these  is  the  Long  Range,  which  extends  along  the  west- 
ern side  of  the  island  for  nearly  its  entire  length,  having 
peaks  more  than  2.000  feet  in  height.  Parallel  to  this  is 
the  Anguille  Range.  The  ^Middle  Range  stretches  across 
the  country  from  Fortune  Bay  to  Xotre  Dame  Bay.  Ava- 
lon district  is  traversed  by  several  ranges  of  hills.  In  ad- 
dition, there  are  isolated  and  sharply  peaked  summits  hav- 
ing the  local  name  of  "  tolts." 

Bdji-'s.  Rivers,  and  Lakes. — The  largest  bay  is  Placentia,  55 
miles  wide  at  the  entrance  and  90  miles  in  length,  contain- 
ing numernus  islands.  Fortune  Bay  is  25  miles  wide  and 
70  in  lenglli.  At  its  mouth  are  the  islands  of  St.  Pierre 
and  Jliquelou.  ceded  by  treaty  to  France  as  a  shelter  for  its 
fishermen.  Bay  St.  George,  on  the  western  coast,  is  40 
miles  wide,  witli  a  good  harbor  at  its  head.  Xotre  Dame 
Bay,  on  the  northeastern  coast,  is  .50  miles  wide  at  its  mouth, 
and  with  its  numerous  arms  penetrates  more  than  80  miles 
inland.  Bonavista  Bay  presents  some  of  the  finest  scenery 
in  the  island.  Trinity  Bay  runs  70  miles  inland.  The  har- 
bor on  which  the  town  of  Trinity  stands  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  the  world.  On  the  south  side  of  the  bay  is  Heart's  Content, 
where  the  Atlantic  cables  are  landed.  Conception  Bay  is 
the  most  populous  and  commercially  important. 

The  three  largest  rivers  are  the  Exploits,  the  Ilumber, 
and  the  Gander.  The  Exploits  rises  in  the  southwestern 
angle  of  the  island,  flows  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  and 
falls  into  the  Bay  of  Exploits  after  a  course  of  more  than 
2tlO  miles.  It  drains  an  area  of  nearly  4.0(K)  sq.  miles. 
The  llumlier  drains  an  area  of  2.000  sq.  miles  and  falls  into 
the  Bay  of  Islands.  The  Gander  falls  into  Gander  Bay,  and 
drains  an  area  of  2,500  sq.  miles. 

Lakes  and  ponds  cover  nearly  a  third  of  the  entire  sur- 
face, and  in  many  districts  they  form  a  very  beautiful  fea- 
ture in  the  landscape.     The  largest  is  Grand  Lake,  56  miles 


XEWFOUNDLAXD 


141 


in  lenp^th,  with  an  area  of  193  sq.  miles,  inclosing  an  island 
22  miles  long  umi  5  miles  in  breadth.  KeJ  Indian  Lake  is 
37  miles  lonj;,  with  an  area  of  04  stj.  miU's.  tiunder  Lake  is 
33  miles  in  len{;lh. 

Fauna  and  Flora. — The  reindeer,  black  bear,  wolf, 
beaver,  and  several  species  of  fox  are  anion;;  the  indigenous 
wild  animals.  The  sjweies  of  birds,  most  of  which  are  mi- 
gratory, niimlwr  al)ont  300.  The  forests  are  chielly  found 
in  the  valleys  of  the  large  rivers  and  along  the  banks  of 
their  tributaries.  The  principal  varieties  of  the  forest  tim- 
bers are  while  pine,  white  and  black  spruce,  tamarack,  lir, 
yellow  and  white  birch.  In  the  Gander,  Kxploiis,  llurnber, 
and  (iambo  valleys  there  are  considerable  anas  of  pine- 
forests.     There  are  many  kinds  of  berry-lx'aring  iilants. 

Minrrali. —  The  first  Coppermine — that  of  'lilt  Cove — 
was  opened  in  18(>4,  on  the  shore  of  Notre  Dame  Bay.  An- 
other still  more  productive  mine  was  opened  in  1875  at 
Bolts  t'uve,  in  the  same  district,  and  in  1878  a  third,  at 
Little  Hay,  whi<-li  has  eclipsed  both  its  predeces.sois.  A  rich 
deposit  of  lead  ore  has  been  discovered  at  Port-a-I'ort,  and 
lead  and  silver  deposits  on  the  shores  of  I'laceiitia  Hay. 
Gold  has  been  found  in  small  ipiantities.  Gypsum  in  im- 
mense (|uantities  is  found  on  the  western  coast,  also  marble 
of  various  shades  of  color.  There  is  a  coal-field  in  St. 
George's  Hay  2.">  miles  wide  by  10  miles  in  length.  It  is  still 
unworked.  The  total  value  of  copper  ores  exported  U|)  to 
18!)1  w,us  $!»,l!»;t.7!)0,  and  of  all  ores  *i),,';!)4.717. 

Agrifiilture. — While  there  are  districts  irredaiinablv  bar- 
ren, especially  near  the  southern  and  southeastern  shores, 
there  are  many  fcrliU'  l)elts  which  if  cullivaled  would  sustain 
a  very  large  iiopulalion  in  comfort.  In  the  region  around 
St.  George's  Bav  there  are  730  sij.  miles  suitable  for  settle- 
ment. Bay  of  Islanils,  including  the  Deer  Lake  and  Grand 
Lake  country,  contains  tiOO  S(i.  miles,  the  valley  of  the  (ian- 
der  1,700  sij.  miles,  and  the  Kxploiis  valley  1.620  sq.  miles 
availal)le  for  settlement.  In  addition,  there  are  less  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  fertile  land  in  other  localities  fit  for  agri- 
cultural purposes,  and  also  extensive  areas  admirably  suited 
for  cattle  and  sheep  raising,  forming  an  area  of  'J.OOO.OttO 
acres.  Thus  there  are  known  to  be  close  on  .5.000,000  acres 
fit  for  agricultural  ami  grazing  purposes.  Of  this,  64,404 
acres  are  improved  land,  and  20..524  acres  are  in  pasture. 

Fisheries. — The  tisheries  constitute  the  great  stajjle  in- 
dustry. The  mast  important  is  the  cod-fishery,  which  is 
prose<'uted  around  the  shores  of  the  island,  along  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  and  (o  a  liniitc^l  extent  on  the  Hanks.  The  aver- 
age annual  value  of  this  fishery  is  aliout  ^6,000.000.  It  is 
prosecuted  from  .lune  1  till  the  middle  of  October.  The 
codfish  when  .salted  and  dried  are  exjwrted  to  Brazil,  the 
West  Indies,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and  Britain.  (See 
FisiiKRV  Relations  ok  the  U.nitkd  States.)  The  seal-fish- 
ery is  next  in  value.  It  is  carried  on  in  powerful  steamers 
and  stout  sailing  vessels  from  Mar.  1  lill  the  midille  of 
April.  The  young  seals  are  taken  on  the  ice-fields  brought 
down  by  the  .\rctic  current,  where  they  are  suckled  by  the 
mothers  till  three  or  four  weeks  ohl,  when  they  are  in  the 
liest  condition.  In  1892  the  catch  was  348,624;  average 
value,  $2  iicr  seal.  The  chief  seats  of  the  herring-fishery 
are  Labrador,  Bonne  Bay,  Hay  of  Islands,  St.  George's  Hay. 
and  Fortune  Bay.  The  salmon  and  lobster  fishc?ries  are  also 
important. 

I'ltputaiion. — The  seats  of  population  are  all  situated  on 
the  various  bays  and  harbors,  thi're  being  no  .settlement  at 
any  distance  from  the  .seacoast.  The  earliest  record  of  the 
resident  population  is  that  of  1654,  which  gives  the  number 
as  1,750;  in  1763  it  was7.0(K);  in  180-1.  20,3.80;  in  1K57,  124,- 
288;  in  1884,  l!»7..>S!t;  and  in  1801,  202.14.J.  Of  these.  53,- 
502  were  eiigagc'il  in  catching  and  curing  fish,  the  number 
of  able-liodii'd  fishermen  being  almul  30.0(H».  The  poiiula- 
tion  is  distributed  about  llie  shores  of  the  island  as  follows: 
South  coast,  from  Cape  Hay  to  (;a|)c  Hace,  34,752;  east  and 
northeast  cojist.  from  t'ape  Race  to  Cape  St.  .John,  1.50,3.'<il; 
from  Capi'  Ray  loCape  .St.  .loliii,  12,773;  Labrador(.\tlantic 
coast),  4.211.  According  to  the  census  of  1801,  there  were 
7'2,342  Roman  Catholic's,  68,075  members  of  the  Church  of 
Kngland,  .">2,«72  Mellioilists.  2,002  Jnembers  of  the  Salva- 
tion .Army,  and  1.447  Presbyterians. 

Kduralion.—'VUe  sy.stem  of  I'llucation  is  the  .se|)arale  or 
dcnoiniiialional  one.  The  legislature  each  year  appro- 
priates from  the  general  revenue  a  certain  amount  for  edu- 
cational purposes;  in  1802  the  sum  was  $144,4.50.  This  is 
divided  among  the  religious  denominations  in  proportion 
to  their  respective  numliers.  There  are  three  superintend- 
ents of  schools — one  reprivsenling  the  Church  of  England. 


one  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  one  the  Metluxlist 
Church.  The  number  of  elementary  schools  is  543.  There 
are  three  colleges — Church  of  England,  Roman  Catholic, 
and  Methinlist — one  Presbyterian  Acaiieiny,  ami  two  gram- 
mar schools.  In  the  elementary  .schools  there  are  31,422 
pupils  ;  in  the  colleges,  acailemy,  and  grammar  schools,  061). 
The  total  number  of  pupils  is  1  in  6"  14  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation. 

(hiieriimenl. — This  consists  of  a  governor,  who  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown  of  England;  a  legislative  council  or 
up[)er  chamber,  composed  of  15  members  nominated  by  the 
governor  in  council  and  holding  ofiice  for  life;  and  a  house 
of  assembly  of  36  members,  elected  every  four  years  by  the 
votes  of  the  j>eo|)le,  each  male  twenty-otie  yeai-s  of  age  hav- 
ing a  vote.  The  executive  council  consists  of  7  members 
chosen  bv  the  party  commanding  a  majority  in  the  legisla- 
ture. Tliey  are  responsible  to  the  house  of  assembly.  The 
island  is  divided  into  17  electoral  districts. 

lieveniie  and  Cummerce. — The  revenue  is  mainly  derived 
from  duties  on  imports.  The  revenue  for  the  year  1802 
amounted  to  ;s:1.883.700.  The  public  debt  at  the  dose  of  the 
vear  1802  was  ^6,303,367.    The  value  of  exports  for  the  vear 

1802  was  1^5,051.116;  the  value  of  imports  was  f 5.062,877. 
The  great  import  trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  the  L^.  S.,  and 
t'ana«la.  The  registered  shipping  of  Xewfouiidland  at  the 
close  of  1801  was:  vcssejji,  2,207;  tonnage,  98,610. 

Jiailuayn. — The  first  railway  was  opened  for  traffic  in 
1884,  from  .St.  John's  to  Harbour  Grace.  83A  miles,  with  a 
branch  to  Placentia.  27  miles  in  length,  built  in  1888.     In 

1803  the  Legislature  decided  on  an  cxtensiim  of  this  line, 
and  entered  into  a  contract  for  bnihling  a  line  to  Porl-au- 
Hasnne.  on  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  island,  viii  the 
Kxploits  valley.  Bay  of  Island.s.  and  St.  George's  Bay,  500 
miles  in  length,  to  be  completed  in  1806.  In  Sept.,  1894, 
260  miles  of  this  new  line  were  completed  and  in  operation. 

Ilixtory. — Newfoundland  was  discovered  in  1407  by  John 
Cabot,  although  five  huiiilred  years  before,  according  to 
Icelandic  sagas,  it  was  visited  by  Lief,  son  of  Eric  the  Red. 
The  value  of  its  fisheries  was  soon  afterward  made  known, 
and  fishermen  from  Normandy.  Brittany,  anil  the  Basque 
Provinces  were  attracted  to  its  encompassing  .seas.  It  was 
not  till  1.583  that  fornuil  possession  of  the  island  was  taken 
bv  Sir  Ilum]ihrey  Gilbert,  in  the  name  of  l^ueen  Elizabeth. 
\  arious  attempts  at  planting  a  colony  were  made,  the  most 
important  being  by  Sir  (ieorge  Calvert,  afterward  Lord 
Haltimori',  who  in  1623  obtained  a  patent  entitling  him  to 
the  lordship  of  the  whole  southern  peninsula.  He  built  a 
h(mse  at  I'erryland  and  introduced  .settlein,  but  was  so 
harassed  bv  the  French  that  he  abandoned  the  place  and 
settled  in  ^laryland,  where  he  founded  the  city  of  Balti- 
more. Jleantime  English  fishermen  in  increasing  numbers 
carried  on  the  valuable  cod-fisheries  on  the  Hanks  and  along 
the  shores.  The  fish  taken  were  driid  on  shore,  and  when 
winter  approached  the  fishermen  embarked  for  England, 
taking  with  them  the  products  of  their  labors.  Laws  were 
enacted  i>rohibiling  fishermen  from  remaining  behind  at 
the  close  of  the  fishing  sea.son.  forbidding  settlement,  or 
even  the  erection  of  a  house  without  a  special  licensi?.  For 
more  than  a  century  this  policy  was  persevered  in,  greatly 
retarding  the  prosperity  of  the  country  and  infiicting  cruel- 
ties anil  hardships  on  the  settlers  who  resisted  the  tyranny 
of  the  merchant  adventurers:  but  the  laws  prohibiting  set- 
tlement and  land-grants  were  at  h'ligth  repealed,  a  governor 
was  appointed  in  17'28.  and  a  new  order  of  things  began,  but 
it  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  that 
the  liusi  restrictions  were  removed. 

The  French  long  disputed  with  Great  Britain  for  the  pos- 
session of  Newfoundland,  but  the  contest  was  ended  in  1713 
by  the  Treaty  of  I'lreclit,  which  cediil  the  island  to  Eng- 
land, but  seciireil  to  the  Freiuh  the  right  of  fishing  and 
curing  fish  on  the  northern  coast  from  Poiiile  Riche  toCa]  e 
Bonavista;  the  limits  were  afterward  (178;i)  changed  to  Caj  e 
Hay  and  Cape  St.  John.  This  concession  to  the  French  has 
led  to  continual  disputes  ami  bitter  animosities,  and,  though 
they  have  no  territorial  rights,  that  |>ortion  of  the  coast  on 
which  they  have  fishing  privileires  is  l>iit  scantily  settled  and 
is  far  behind  the  rest  of  the  island. 

In  18;!2  representative  government  was  bestowed  on  New- 
foundland by  the  British  Parliament.  Ilousohold  suffrage 
was  established  and  the  people  acquired  the  power  of  mak- 
ing their  own  laws,  and  expending  their  own  nnenue.  In 
1854  the  present  form  of  government  wa.s  established,  in 
1846  the  prosperity  of  the  colony  met  a  severe  check  by  a 
terrible  fire  which  destroved  thn-e-fourths  of  St.  John's,  tlio 


142 


NEWFOUNDLAND  DOG 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


capital,  leaving  12,000  people  homeless.  Another  in  1892 
destroyed  more  than  half  the  city;  the  estimated  loss  was 
$20,000,000.  In  lH,5y  tlie  first  transatlantic  submarine  cable 
was  laid,  connect ing  Newfoundland  with  the  Old  World. 
Previously  the  island  had  been  connected  by  cable  with  the 
American"  continent.  In  1873  direct  steam  communication 
with  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  was  established,  which  gave 
an  important  impulse  to  trade.  In  1887  the  ballot  system 
was  introduced  in  the  election  of  members  of  the  legislative 
assembly  ;  and  in  1889  manhood  suffrage  was  adopted. 

M.  Harvey. 

Newfoundland  Dog :  See  Dogs. 

Newgrate:  a  prison  in  London;  at  the  west  end  of  New- 
gate Street,  opposite  the  Old  Bailey.  It  is  mentioned  as  a 
prison  in  1207.  It  was  at  the  new  gate  of  the  city.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  Sir  Richard  Whittington  in  his  will  left 
funds  to  reliuild  it.  In  166G  it  was  again  rebuilt  after  the 
great  fire.  The  present  edifice  was  erected  in  1780,  but  was 
greatly  damaged  by  a  fire  in  the  No-popery  riots  of  that 
year.  In  1808  Mrs."  Fry  Vjegan  her  labors  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  horrible  condition  which  had  for  centuries  char- 
acterized the  place.  Debtors  ceased  to  be  sent  there  in  1815, 
and  the  institution  gradually  became,  in  many  respects,  a 
model  one  of  its  kind.  Since  1877  Newgate  has  been  prac- 
tically disused,  except  during  sessions  or  when  the  gallows 
are  required.  • 

New  Glasgrow ;  town ;  Pietou  co..  Nova  Scotia ;  on  the 
Nova  Scotia  Railway ;  9  miles  S.  E.  of  Pietou  ;  on  East 
river  (see  map  of  Quebec,  ref.  2-C).  It  has  ship-yards, 
foundries,  tainieries,  and  other  manufactories,  several  im- 
portant coal  mines,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1891) 
3,776. 

New  Granada ;  See  Colombia. 

New  Guinea:  the  largest  known  island  except  Green- 
land. It  lies  just  N.  of  Australia,  between  the  equator  and 
11'  S.  lat.,  and  has  an  estimated  area  of  313,000  sq.  miles. 
If  the  bottom  of  the  shallow  channel  between  New  Guinea 
and  Australia  were  elevated  about  300  feet  the  island  would 
form  a  part  of  the  southern  continent.  On  the  other  sides 
of  New  Guinea,  however,  the  insular  mass  is  clearly  defined 
by  the  rajiid  slope  of  the  sea-bottom  to  oceanic  depths.  Most 
of  the  north  and  southeast  coasts -are  high  and  mountain- 
ous, long  ranges  paralleling  the  shores  usually  at  some  dis- 
tance inland,  the  culminating  point  of  the  island,  as  far  as 
is  known,  being  Mt.  Owen  Stanley  (about  13,200  feet)  in  the 
southeast  prolongation  of  the  island.  The  Charles  Louis 
Mountains,  which  abut  on  the  southwest  coast,  form  the 
only  important  range  whose  main  axis  is  directed  from  the 
sea  toward  the  central  regions.  The  island  is  surrounded 
by  many  large  and  small  islands,  natiu-ally  a  part  of  the 
mainland  and  doubtless  joined  with  it  in  an  earlier  geo- 
logical age.  There  are  also  many  verdant  coral  islands. 
The  coasts  are  indented  by  deep  bays,  few  of  them,  however, 
affording  first-rate  harbors.  Unlike  most  of  the  adjacent 
portions  of  Australia,  the  island  has  an  abundant  rainfall 
and  a  luxurious  flora.  Its  drainage  system  is  fairly  well  de- 
veloped, though  much  of  the  land  in  the  non-mountainous 
regions  adjacent  to  the  coasts  is  of  a  swampy  character. 
The  largest  rivers  are  the  Fly  and  the  Kaiserin  Augusta, 
both  of  which  take  their  rise  in  the  central  regions,  the  Fly 
following  a  tortuous  course  southward  to  the  Gulf  of  Papua, 
and  the  Kaiserin  Augusta  taking  a  course  almost  due  B. 
through  the  German  possessions.  Most  of  the  rivers  are 
densely  wooded  along  their  banks,  but  where  the  bush  is 
penetrated  for  a  few  miles  an  open,  undulating  country  is 
reached,  covered  with  grass  and  scattered  forest  trees. 

The  flora  of  the  western  half  of  the  island  differs  consid- 
erably from  that  of  the  remainder,  being  nearly  akin  to 
the  flora  of  the  myriad  islands  farther  W.,  while  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  rest  of  the  island  unmistakably  shows  the  influ- 
ence of  Australia.  There  are  also  many  species  peculiar  to 
New  (iuiiiea.  For  instance,  fifty  palms  are  named  as  found 
only  on  this  island.  In  its  fauna,  however.  New  Guinea  far 
more  strongly  resembles  Australia  than  the  lands  nearer 
Asia.  Only  two  mammals  and  about  fifty  birds  are  known 
to  be  peculiar  to  New  Guinea,  but  some  of  these  are  very 
remarkal)le,  as,  for  instance,  the  several  varieties  of  the 
birds  of  paradise.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Papuan, 
though  among  some  of  the  tribes  a  Malayan  admixture  is 
apparent,  and  other  natives,  particularly  in  the  S.  E.,  re- 
semble and  arc  evidently  related  to  the  Polynesians.  The 
island  is  sparsely  .settled,  which  may  be  due  to  the  almost  in- 
cessant warfare  between  the  tribes  that  was  common  every- 


where before  the  whites  obtained  a  firm  foothold  on  the 
coasts.     The  population  probably  does  not  exceed  700,000. 

The  entire  island  has  been  divided  by  treaty  among  three 
European  powers.  About  one-half  the  total  area,  com- 
prising all  of  the  island  W.  of  the  141st  meridian,  is  Dutch 
territory,  and  for  governmental  purposes  has  been  attached 
to  the  residency  of  Ternate,  Molucca  islands.  Tlie  Dutch 
have  done  very  little  to  develop  this  large  domain,  which  is 
estimated  to  contain  200,000  inhabitants. 

British  New  Guinea  (founded  1888.  area  90,000  sq.  miles, 
estimated  pop.  300.000)  comprises  the  southern  part  of  East 
New  Guinea  and  the  neighboring  islands.  British  mission- 
aries have  labored  there  with  encouraging  results,  and  have 
laid  the  foundations  of  law  and  order.  The  cost  of  the  ad- 
ministration is  guaranteed  by  New  South  Wales,  Victoria, 
and  Queensland,  and  the  administrator  is  appointed  by  the 
British  Government.  The  chief  settlement  is  Port  Moresby 
on  the  Gulf  of  Papua ;  the  white  population  is  about  250, 
and  there  are  eight  stations  along  the  coast  to  which  mails 
are  regularly  carried  by  an  Australian  line  of  steamers.  The 
country  has  a  fair  amount  of  resources,  including  gold,  and 
some  of  the  land  is  suited  for  sugar  and  other  tropical 
cultures. 

Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land  (German  protectorate  since  1884, 
area  72,000  sq.  miles,  estimated  pop.  110,000)  includes  all  of 
the  northern  part  of  Southeast  New  Guinea.  The  German 
New  Guinea  Company,  to  whom  the  administration  is  in- 
trusted, have  planted  a  number  of  stations,  opened  planta- 
tions with  success,  and  are  exporting  tobacco,  the  best  product 
so  far,  to  Europe.  Horses  and  cattle  flourish  in  some  dis- 
tricts, and  the  protectorate  has  much  fine  timber  and  other 
natural  riches.  .See  d"Albertis.  JS'eir  Guinea  (London,  1880) ; 
Chalmers  and  Gill,  irorA-  and  Aihvnlnre  in  Netv  Guinea 
(London,  1885);  Romilly,  From  my  Verunddh  in  New 
Guinea  (London,  1889).    "  '  V.  C.  Adams. 

New  Hampshire  [named  from  Ihnnpxhire  in  England]: 
one  of  the  V.  S.  of  North  America  (North  Atlantic  group); 
the  ninth  of  the  thirteen  original  States  that  ratified  the 
Federal  Constitution. 

Location  and  Area. — It  lies  between  42°  40'  and  45°  18'  23" 
N.  lat.,  and  70°  37'  and  72°  37'  W.  Ion. ;  in  general  shape  it 
is  that  of  a  right- 
angled  triangle, 
with  its  ajiex  to- 
ward the  N.  and 
the  right  angle  at 
the  S.  E. ;  extreme 
length,  178  miles: 
extreme  width,  100 
miles:  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  Prov- 
ince of  Quebec,  on 
the  E.  by  Maine 
and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  on  the  S. 
S.  E.  and  S.  by 
Massachusetts,  and 
on  the  W.  by  Ver- 
mont ;  area,  9,336 
sq.  miles  (5,975,- 
040  acres).  The 
relative  position  of 
New  Hampshire  in  the  LTnion  in  1890  was  third  in  manufac- 
ture of  cotton,  sixth  in  manufacture  of  wool,  twenty-fourth 
in  assessed  valuation,  and  thirty-third  each  in  population 
and  agricultural  products. 

Physical  Features.— The  Appalachian  range  of  moun- 
tains enters  the  State  from  Maine  and.  crossing  diagonally, 
forms  first  an  elevated  mountain  tract,  known  as  the  White 
Mountain  region,  exceeding  2,000  feet  in  height,  and  then 
passes  southwesterly  in  a  range  of  lesser  hills  along  the 
western  side  of  the  State.  Coos  County,  N.  of  the  W'hite 
Mountains,  has  an  average  elevation  of  over  1,500  feet  above 
the  sea,  while  the  S.  E.  part  of  the  State,  between  the  high- 
lands and  the  coast,  has  an  average  elevation  of  less  than 
.500  feet.  The  White  Mountain  district,  comprising  about 
1,400  sq.  miles,  and  divided  by  the  valleys  of  the  Saco  and 
Lower  Ammonoosuc  rivers  and  the  famous  "  Notch  "  into 
two  ranges,  known  locally  as  the  White  and  Franconia 
ranges,  is  one  of  great  beauty,  and  is  fitly  called  the  Switzer- 
land of  America.  Its  highest  peak  is  l\It.  Washington 
(6.286  feet),  the  highest  land  near  the  coast  N.  of  Jit.  Mitchell 
in  North  Carolina ;  but  there  are  twenty-eight  other  peaks 


Seal  of  New  Hampshire. 


NEW   HAMI'SUIUE 


143 


aliove  4,000  feet.  The  picturesque  scenery  of  the  State,  to- 
gether with  its  healthful  cliiiiule,  has  niatlc  it  allractive  as 
a  Buniiiier  n-SDrt.  Ni-w  Iliiiiipshiro  has  only  ly  miles  of 
BeacoasI,  anil  i'orlsnioiith  is  the  only  jjnixl  harbor.  Of  the 
Isles  of  Shoiils.  a  firoup  of  ei{;ht  roeky  i>lanils  lying  8  or  !) 
miles  olT  llie  toast,  time  belong  to  New  Hampshire.  There 
are  Ave  principal  drainage  basins.  The  entire  western  por- 
tion. alKiul  li.tHK*  sij.  miles,  is  drained  by  the  Connecticut 
river,  which,  rising  in  the  extreme  N.  of  New  Hampshire, 
forms  for  ihe  entire  distance  the  natural  boundary  between 
it  and  Vermont.  Its  chief  tributaries  in  New  llampshire 
are  the  Upper  and  Lower  Ainmonoosuc  in  the  mountain 
region,  the  .Muscoma  ami  Sugar  rivers  (the  latter  the  out- 
let of  Sunapee  Lake)  in  the  central  pari,  and  the  Asluielot 
river  in  the  S.  The  N.  E.  portion,  775  s<|.  miles,  is  druined 
by  the  Androscoggin  river,  which  rises  in  Lake  Uudmgcjg. 
T'he  eastern  mountain  district,  H-JO  sq.  miles,  discharges  its 
waters  through  the  Saco  river.  The  .S.  E.  basin,  825  si|. 
miles,  is  that  of  the  I'iscataqua,  which  with  its  tributary, 
the  Salmon  Falls  river,  forms  for  a  considerable  distance 
the  lioundary  with  .Maine.  The  Cocheco  river  also  Hows 
into  the  Piscataqini,  which  forms  Ihe  harl>or  of  Portsmouth, 
and  is  the  only  navigable  river  in  the  State.  The  central 
and  southern  parts,  about  li.isi'i  s<i.  mile.<,  are  drained  by 
the  Merrimack,  which  is  formed  oy  the  junctioH  of  the 
Pemigewassot,  that,  rising  in  the  mountains,  receives  the 
waters  of  .Squiim  and  New  F'ouiid  Lakes,  and  the  Winni- 
piseogee,  which  is  the  outlet  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name. 
Its  princ'iirtl  tributaries  are  theContoocook,  Sowliegan,  Sun- 
cook,  and  Nashua  rivers.  The  Merrimack  is  thickly  set  with 
manufacturing  cities,  and  is  said  to  turn  more  spindles  than 
any  other  stream  in  the  worM.  The  State  is  noted  for  the 
number  and  beauty  of  its  lakes  and  ponds,  the  water  area 
being  altout  :>00  scp  miles.  The  largest  lake  is  Winnipiscogee 
(i.  e.  The  smile  of  the  (ireat  Spirit),  in  Helknap  and  Carroll 
Counties.  It  is  lil  miles  long  and  8'2.5  miles  wide.  Its  out- 
line is  very  irregular,  and  it  contains  264  islands.  The  other 
principal  sheets  of  water  are  L'mbagog.  18  sq.  miles  (partly 
in  Maine);  Squam.  15-6 ;  Sunapee,  11"2;  New  Found,  8; 
Ossipee,  7;  and  (ireat  Bay,  6"8. 

Oeolugij  and  Mineraioqij. — New  llampshire  was  one  of 
the  earlier  portions  of  t^ie  .\incrican  continent  to  appear 
above  the  primal  ocean.  Nearly  all  its  formations  belong  to 
the  Eozoic  age,  and  few  parts  of  the  country  exhibit  in 


those  ordinarily  found  in  New  England  and  several  Canadian 
species.  In  the  northern  forests  are  deer.  fox.  bear,  raccoon, 
mink,  imirten,  and  smaller  game.  The  streams,  once  full  of 
trout,  have  been  greatly  depleted,  and  the  State  Pish  Com- 
niis-ion  is  attempting  to  restock  the  waters  with  trout  and 
salnii>n. 

Soil  and  I'roducliunK. — The  soil  is  not  fertile.  It  is  light 
and  sandy  in  the  southern  part,  but  fwrtions  of  the  Connec- 
ticut valley  and  of  Coos  County  are  well  adapted  to  farming. 
The  following  summary  from  the  census  reports  of  1880  and 
1890  shows  the  extent  of  farm  operations  in  the  State  : 


FARMS,  ETC. 

I       1880. 

1890. 

ParcmL* 

Total  number  of  farms. , . 

32.181 

29.151 

3.459.018 

$60.1132.600 

9'4 

Total  acreage  of  farms  . . 
Total  value  of  farms 

1      8.721.173 

]$75,SH,389 

70 
12-8 

•  Decrease. 

The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  value  of 
the  principal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  IH!):! : 


CROP. 

Acn«ge. 

25.074 
2.827 

28,7W 
1.003 
5,081 

21. WO 
634,487 

718.S99 

YkU. 

\'.i   t 

Corn 

794.846  bush 

.■M.gos    •■ 

9»<4,5I5      •• 

15.145      " 

Vi»M9      " 

2.598,960      •• 

672,556  tons 

ii..i  •»-.2 

Wheat 

21*  669 

t>ats 

423  341 

Rye 

Barley 

89  981 

1,6.17,345 
10  101  874 

Hay     

Totals 

$1::      ,  .  -- 

On  .Tan.  1.  1894.  the  farm  animals  comprised  .')6.741  horses, 
value  $3,267,14.5;  112,.58.5  milch  cows,  value  $2,45.'),479 ; 
92,898  oxen  and  other  cattle,  value  $2,107,888:  11.').471 
sheep,  value  $274,821  :  and  .51,6.")8  swine,  value  $538,151  ; 
total  head,  429,353  ;  total  value,  $8,643,484. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  cold  but  healthful,  the  winters 
being  severe  and  the  summers  mild  and  agreeable.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  for  the  part  N.  of  the  White 
Mountains  and  on  the  W.  as  far  S.  as  Hanover  is  41°, 
that  of  the  southern  part  is  45  ;  the  mean  winter  and  sum- 
mer temperatures  for  the  two  parts  respectively  are  17'  and 
65 \  and  23  and  665°.  The  monthly  average  temperatures 
at  the  following  places  show  the  local  variations : 


PLACE. 

Concord  

Hanover 

Stnuforil 

Ml.  Washington 


J-. 

rtb. 

Ibr. 

Ap. 

JUj. 

June. 

JtJy. 

A.*. 

Sepl. 

o.  • 

20  975° 
195 
1633 
6-6 

24-35° 
18-6 
17-8 
70 

31  3S» 
26-4 
25  53 
10-53 

44-47° 
41-0 
39  29 
20-33 

57 -.37° 
558 
52-9 
84-27 

65-47° 
65-2 
62-97 
44  43 

70  •40° 
69- 1 
67  IS 
47-6 

68-22° 
66  2 
63  53 
47-06 

60-77° 
57-7 
55-73 
40-6 

50-1° 
45-6 
43  13 
302 

:17  5" 
33-2 
.S2-47 
16-76 

26-05° 
21  0 
18-6 
9  2 

46-42° 
430 
41-13 
26- 1 

20  years. 
20     •• 
15     ■• 
15     " 


moraines  and  the  scarification  of  the  rocks  better  proofs  of  I      The   average   precipitation   in    inches,  including  melted 
the  ice  age.     The  general  movement  of  the  glaciers  during  |  snow,  is  shown  by  the  following  table : 


FLAl  t 

Lunenburgb,  Vt.. 

Concord 

I><)v«*r 

Hanover* 

W.-in       


J»=. 

K.-.. 

Ml/. 

I.                       M.T. 

Jua. 

J.lj. 

^t- 

s-.'- 

<M. 

Not. 

Dk. 

AvOTf*. 

301 

,- 

I  34 

2-7;i 

3-53 

391 

3-65 

3-39 

8-59 

3  26 

2  97 

40  09 

2  90 

:     i 

■J-97 

2-iiT 

3-23 

3-88 

3-94 

8-34 

3»4 

3  42 

2-68 

3917 

2-34 

2  »■ 

3-48 

34) 

3-60 

3-61 

365 

8-20 

3-97 

3-90 

2  38 

4205 

243 

1-86 

2  12 

1  ■!».•, 

■*"Zt 

3-06 

287 

2  93 

2-80 

2-26 

2-08 

30  05 

3  43 

338 

8K3 

8-o: 

3  30 

4-16 

355 

3  70 

402 

3  92 

347 

43  12 

Piriod. 

37  years. 

29      ■• 

20  •■ 

21  •' 
28      •' 


•  The  mean  for  38  years  before  at  Hanover  was  36-53. 


that  [M-riiKl  was  to  theS.  E.  The  terraces  of  the  next  period 
are  very  inarke<l  along  the  Connecticut  and  Merrimack  rivers. 
Ores  o^  gold,  silver, copper,  zinc,  leail,  tin,  arsenic,  iron,  bis- 
muth, manganese,  and  ino|ylj<leniiin  are  found  in  Ihe  State, 
hut  in  quantities  so  small  or  so  ilifli<'ult  of  extraction  that 
at  presi-nl  none  is  mined.  Other  minerals  are  quartz  ami 
feldspar  for  glass,  plumbago,  precious  stones,  ochers.  whet- 
atones,  and  soapstone.  Beryl  is  very  abundant,  and  the 
largest  known  crystals  have  been  fouiul  at  tirafton  and 
Acworth,  one  having  weighed  2.900  lb.  Mica  (K-curs  in  fine 
sheets  at(iniflon  and  .\lstead.  Pour-fiflhs  of  the  entire 
product  of  the  C.  S.  comes  from  New  llampshire.  There 
are  also  found  One  brick-clays,  slate,  liini'Stone  and  colored 
porphyries,  and  granite. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — .-Miout  .50  i«'r  cent,  of  Ihe  State  is 
covereil  with  forests,  but  the  large  forest  a rcius  are  restricted 
to  the  White  Mountain  district  and  to  Coos  County.  The 
principal  trees  are  the  chestnut,  hornbeam,  locust,  efm,  but- 
ternut, while  asli,  hi<-kory.  while  oak.  [loplar  in  the  .S.,  and 
the  beech,  sugar-maple,  white  antl  yellow  biri-hes.  red  oak. 
pine,  spruce,  larch,  and   fir  in  the  N.     The  binls  include 


Dirixinnn. — For  a<lministrative  purposes  the  State  is  di- 
vided into  ten  counties,  as  follows: 


COUNTIES  AND  COUNTY-TOWNS,   WITH   POPULATION 

COUNTIES. 

•Rcf 

r 

ir.iMs 

18,224 
28,734 

18,880 

88,788 

35.566 
18.161 

.146,991 

Pop. 

OODNTTf-T. 

Belknnp 

C^nrrttll 

8-F 
6-0 
10-D 

«-E 

lO-E 
8-1 
10-(. 

8-a 

8-D 

20,321 
18,124 
29.579 

23.211 

87.217 

93.247 

1  '.4.\'i 

I., (WO 

88,442 
17.804 

S7«.,ViO 

6.143 

Ossipee 

1.8.30 

Keene 

1  Colebrook    

*  Ijineaster 

iHoverhill 

'*  rivmnuth 

\  Manchester 

7.446 

Coofl        

1.736 
8.373 
2.M5 
1.8S2 
44.126 

Hlllsboro 

17.0W 

Rockinf^hain 

(  F.xeter 

i  Portsmouth 

4,--'W 
9.827 
12.790 

aiillivnn 

Newport 

2,623 

Totals 

•  Referrnce  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  New  Banipebtre. 


144 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


Principal  Cities  and  Towns,  with  Population  for  1S90. — 
Manchester,  44,126;  Nashua,  19,311;  Concord,  17,004; 
Dover,  13,790  ;  Portsmouth,  9,827  :  Keene,  7,446  ;  Rochester, 
7,396;  Somersworth,  6,207;  Jjaconia,  6,143;  Claremont, 
5,565 ;  Exeter,  4,284  ;  and  Franklin,  4.085. 

Population  and  Races. — The  population  in  1860  was  326,- 
073;  in  1870,318,300:  in  1880.346.991;  and  in  1890.376.- 
530  (natives.  304.190;  foreign.  72,340;  males,  186,566;  fe- 
males, 189,964;  whites,  375,840;  colored,  690. 

Industries  and  Business  Interests. — The  principal  in- 
dustry is  manufacturing.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are 
2,000  water-powers  in  the  State,  many  of  them  of  great 
value.  There  is  considerable  manufacture  of  paper  and 
of  boots  and  shoes,  but  that  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods 
forms  the  chief  industry.  The  lumber  and  sawmill  indus- 
try is  also  large.  The  census  returns  of  1890  showed  that 
8,239  manufacturing  establishments  reported,  having  a 
combined  capital  of  179,375,160,  employing  63,361  persons. 
paying  |34,248,054  for  wages  and  $47,754,152  for  materials, 
and  having  products  valued  at  |85,770,549.  The  cotton  in- 
dustrv  had  27  plants  and  $36,801,938  capital,  employed  19,- 
588  persons,  paid  $6,439,084  in  wages,  consumed  107,319,124 
lb.  of  raw  material,  and  had  products  valued  at  $21,958,- 
003;  the  woolen  industry  had  89  plants  and  $14,721,786 
capital,  employed  9,400  persons,  paid  $8,341,695  for  wages, 
consumed  22.152,190  lb.  of  raw  material,  and  had  jiroducts 
valued  at  $14,445,173;  and  the  lumber  and  sawmill  indus- 
try had  831  plants  and  $11,883,447  capital,  employed  8,983 
persons,  paid  $3,519,609  for  wages  and  $4,883,591  for  ma- 
terials, and  had  products  valued  at  $10,907,488.  In  1891 
New  Hampshire  was  tied  with  Rhode  Island  for  fifth  rank 
in  the  production  of  granite,  the  output  in  each  State  hav- 
ing a  value  of  $750,000. 

Finrince. — Official  reports  for  the  year  ending  May  31, 
1893,  showed  balance  on  hand,  $345,219':  receipts,  $1,718",461  ; 
disbursements,  $1,956,807;  balance,  $107,378.  The  assessed 
valuation  of  taxable  propertv  was  $274,816,343,  and  the 
tax  rate  was  $15  per  $1,000.  On  Jan.  1,  1894,  the  debt  was 
$2,007,200,  and  the  treasury  held  trust  funds  amounting  to 
$593,811.  The  total  State,  county,  and  municipal  debt  was 
$7,759,699. 

Banking  and  Insurance. — The  first  liank  in  the  State  was 
established  at  Portsmouth  in  1792,  and  the  first  savings-bank 
in  1823.  In  1894  there  were  53  national  banks,  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $6,880,000,  surplus  and  undivided  profits  of 
$3,281,854,  and  individual  deposits  of  $7,693,414  ;  one  State 
bank;  70  savings-banks,  with  combined  surplus  and  uncli- 
vided  profits  of  $6,097,817,  and  individual  deposits  of  $74,- 
377,279;  and  12  loan  and  trust  companies,  with  combined 
capital  of  $1,455,000,  surplus  and  profits  of  $312,162,  and 
deposits  of  $3,724,279.  Under  the  law,  loan  and  trust  com- 
panies may  carry  o)i  savings-bank  business.  The  insurance 
business  was  represented  in  1893  by  38  local  and  45  foreign 
fire-insurance  companies,  which  wrote  risks  amounting  to 
$84,222,346,  received  premiums  of  $1,026,598.  and  paid 
losses  of  .$595,665;  21  life  and  11  fidelity  and  casualty  com- 
panies, wliich  wrote  risks  of  $16,594,075,  received  premiums 
of  $762,189,  and  paid  losses  of  $482,524;  and  21  fraternal 
beneficiary  associations,  which  had  621,000  members,  re- 
ceived $17,394,443  for  assessments,  and  paid  $7,474,901  for 
all  liabilities. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. — On  Jan.  1,  1894,  there  were 
557  post-offices,  of  which  45  were  presidential  (2  first-class, 
8  second-class,  and  35  third-class)  and  512  fourth-class. 
There  were  14  daily,  82  weekly.  1  bi-weekly,  19  monthly 
publications,  and  1  quarterly  ;  total,  117. 

Libraries. — In  1892  there  were  re|)orted  31  public  libra- 
ries of  1,000  volumes  and  over,  which  contained  150,668 
bound  volumes  and  18,197  p.amphlets.  They  were  classified 
as  follows :  (Jeneral.  6 ;  school,  8  ;  college,  5  ;  college  soci- 
ety, 1 ;  law,  1  ;  public  institution,  2 ;  State,  1 ;  V.  M.  C.  A., 
1  ;  social,  3 ;  historical,  1  ;  and  not  reported,  2. 

Means  of  Communication. — The  first  railway  in  the  State 
was  chartered  in  1885.  The  mileage  has  increased  as  fol- 
lows: (18.50)  467;  (1860)  661  ;  (1870)  786  ;  (1880)  1,015:  (1890) 
1,142  ;  (1894)  about  1,168,  including  a  narrow-gauge  railway 
of  13  mdes,  and  excluding  lumber  roads  used  only  in  winter. 
The  railway  up  JIt.  Washington  is  noticeable  as  a  triumph 
of  engineering.  It  makes  an  .ascent  of  3.625  feet  in  2J 
miles,  with  a  maximum  grade  of  1,980  feet  to  the  mile,  and 
an  extreme  curve  of  497  feet  radius.  With  a  few  slight  ex- 
ceptions all  the  railways  of  the  State  are  embraced  in  five 
systems,  the  Boston  and  Maine,  the  Concord  and  Montreal, 
the  Pitchburg,  the  Maine  Central,  and  the  Grand  Trunk. 


Churches. — The  IT.  S.  census  of  1890  gave  the  following 
statistics  of  the  principal  religious  bodies  : 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Roman  Catholic 

Cijut^resatiimai 

Metliodist  Episcopal. 

Baptist 

b'ree-will  Baptist 

Unitarian 

Protestant  Episcopal 
Advent  Christian .... 

Christian 

Uuiversalist 


Organiza- 
tionB. 

Churches 
•nd  hiilM 

Memberi. 

68 

67 

:»,9ao 

18S 

228 

19,712 

134 

132 

12,354 

85 

100 

8,768 

94 

93 

8.004 

ae 

28 

3,2.52 

44 

5.5 

2.911 

43 

43 

1,978 

23 

24 

1,522 

33 

34 

1.204 

Value  of 

church 

property. 


$205,600 

1,405,050 

614,350 

5a5.050 

379.000 

357,200 

541,400 

36.500 

62.950 

20.3,025 


There  are  also  communities  of  Shakers  at  Enfield  and  Can- 
terbury, numbering  100  and  150  respectively. 

Schools. — In  1892  there  were  37  academies  in  the  State, 
having  180  teachers,  2,630  pupils,  and  buildings  valued  at 
$9.55,000,  and  51  high  schools,  with  125  teachers  and  8,180 
pupils.  In  1885  the  district  system  was  abolished  and  the 
town  system  established.  This  has  resulted  in  a  considerable 
increase  in  the  length  of  the  school  year,  which  in  1893  was 
24-32  weeks.  In  that  year  there  were  2,226  different  public 
schools,  of  which  648  were  graded.  The  number  of  pupils 
was  61.271.  The  total  number  of  pupils  in  schools,  public 
and  private,  was  69,452.  The  total  revenue  for  the  sup- 
port of  public  schools  was  $835,712.59.  (Jf  this  sum,  $5.58,- 
783.73  was  raised  by  the  towns,  $158,878.86  by  special  dis- 
tricts, and  $78,464.40  came  from  the  "  literary  fund,"  which 
is  the  proceeds  of  a  special  tax  on  the  cajiital  of  banks  and  on 
deposits  in  the  saving.s-banks  by  non-residents.  Each  town 
is  required  by  law  to  raise  for  school  purjioses  $850  for  every 
$1  of  its  apportionment  of  the  State  tax.  The  only  normal 
school  was  established  at  Plymouth  in  1870;  in  1893  it  had 
5  teachers  and  284  pupils.  It  is  supported  by  the  State.  Its 
course  of  study  covers  two  years.  There  are  two  colleges  in 
the  State — Dart.mouth  Colleoe  (q.  v.)  and  the  New  Hamp- 
shire College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts.  The 
latter  was  established  in  connection  with  Dartmcjuth  Col- 
lege in  1866.  and  was  removed  to  Durham  by  act  of  Legisla- 
ture in  1898.  when  it  had  a  faculty  of  twelve  members  and 
fifty-four  students. 

Charitaile,  Reformatonj,  and  Penal  Institutions. — The 
New  Hampshire  Asylum  for  the  Insane  was  established  at 
Concord  in  1888.  It  is  supported  by  the  income  of  consider- 
able invested  funds  and  by  what  is  paid  by  individuals  and 
towns  for  the  support  of  patients.  A  training-school  for 
nurses  is  established  in  connection  with  it.  There  is  also  an 
asylum  for  the  insane  in  each  county.  The  State  board  of 
health  is  also  a  commission  of  lunacy,  and  "  all  persons 
committed  to  custody  as  insane  persons  shall  be  wards  of 
the  State,  and  subject  to  State  supervision."  The  New 
Hampshire  Orphans'  Home  at  Franklin,  established  in 
1871,  is  supported  by  voluntary  contributions.  The  Indus- 
trial School,  estaljlished  at  Manchester  in  1851,  is  a  "  house 
of  reformation  tV)r  juvenile  offenders  "  of  both  sexes.  Boys 
are  instructed  in  farm  and  garden  work,  or  are  taught  some 
trade:  girls  are  instructed  in  housework,  and  are  taught  to 
make  both  men's  and  -women's  clothing.  The  State  prison 
was  established  at  Concord  in  1812. 

Government. — Manhood  suffrage  prevails,  restricted  only 
in  the  case  of  ]iaupers,  of  persons  voluntarily  excused  from 
taxation,  and  of  unnaturalized  aliens.  The  Governor,  5 
councilors,  and  the  Legislature,  consisting  (1894)  of  24  Sen- 
ators and  859  Representatives,  are  elected  biennially  in  No- 
vember and  enter  upon  office  on  the  first  Weilnesday  of 
the  next  ensuing  January.  A  majority  is  necessary  for  an 
election..  From  1734  to  1792  the  chief  nuigistratc  was  called 
President ;  after  that  date  the  title  was  Governor.  The  first 
biennial  election  was  in  1878.  In  1889  the  beginning  of  offi- 
cial terms  was  changed  from  June  to  January.  The  judi- 
ciary system  of  1874  provided  for  a  superior  court,  composed 
of  a  chief  justice  and  two  associate  justices,  and  a  circuit 
court  similarly  constituted  ;  but  in  1876  these  were  combined 
into  a  Supreme  Court  with  a  chief  justice  and  six  associate 
justices,  having  legal  and  eipiitalde  jurisiiiction. 

History. — The  first  European  who  visited  New  Hamii- 
shire  was  Martin  I'ring,  who  entered  the  Piscataqua  in 
June,  1608;  anil  tlic  first  map  of  the  coast  was  made  by 
Capt.  John  Smith  in  1614.  The  territory  was  included  in 
the  grant  made  in  1620  to  the  Plymouth  Coin])any.  and  was 
further  included  in  that  made  by  the  company  in  1622  to 
Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  and  Capt.  John  Mason  of  all  the 


XKW    IIA.MI'SUIKK 


NEW   IIAVEX 


145 


land  bftwieii  tin-  MtTriiiiaek  ami  Kennebec  rivers  ami  a  line 
60  miles  inlanil.  The  nmne  ;riven  in  the  charter  tu  the  tract 
was  "  Maine."  but  it  was  alsn  calleil  "  La<'<iMia."  The  first 
satllcnienl  was  made  in  ltj-^:J  at  Little  llarhur  (Rye)  and  at 
Dover.  .StrawtnTrv  liank  (l'i>rtsmiiulh)  was  settled  in  Wil. 
Exeter  in  16;W,  and  llanipt.in  in  l«:i!t.  In  Xuv.,  1629.  Ma- 
son and  (iori,'es  divided  ttieir  ;;rant.  Mason  takinj^  that  |iart 
\V.  of  llie  I'lM-alanua  rivi-r.  to  which  he  f;ave  the  name  of 
New  Ilauipsliire.  from  theeoiiiilv  of  Hampshire,  when-  he 
lived.  The  ellorts  of  Ma^oii  ami  his  heirs  to  enforce  their 
pro|>rielHry  rifjhts  led  to  litigation    that   was   not   wholly 

aiiieted  till  17.S7.  llis  op[Minents  based  their  claims  upon  a 
ee<l  said  to  have  Uen  obtained  bv  one  Wheelwright  from 
four  Inilian  i-hiefs  in  May,  lli2'J.  Tn  lti41  the  province  vol- 
untarily uniled  with  .Miu-sachusetts.  In  lliTT  a  royal  order 
fixed  the  iiorlheiii  boundary  of  Massachusetts  at  3  miles 
N.  of  the  Merrimack,  and  in  167K  a  r-ival  commission  eslab- 
lislieil  a  goveriiiin'nt  in  New  Hampshire.  The  king  ap- 
pointed the  governor  and  council.  an<l  the  jicople  elected  the 
assembly.  This  plan  was  interrupleil  by  the  appointment 
in  HiK."i  of  .loscph  Duilley  lustloveriior  of  New  England,  but 
in  WJi  the  separate  provincial  government  of  New  Hamp- 
shire was  esiablishcil,  which  continued  till  the  Hevolulion. 
Owing  !■•  its  frontier  position.  New  Hampshire  suffered  ter- 
ribly fr the  Indians  in  the  French  and  Indian  wars.     It 

furnisliecl  .")(HI  men  for  the  siege  of  Louisburg  in  174~>,  500 
for  the  attack  upon  frown  I'oint  in  17o5,  and  2.600  for  the 
succeeding  oiK'rations  of  the  war.  The  boundaries  of  the 
province  were  fixed  bv  royal  determination,  much  the  same 
as  now,  the  S.  and  I-,,  in  1740.  and  the  W.  in  1764.  The 
province  grew  rapidly  in  popiilalion  after  the  quieting  of 
the  Indians,  so  that  it  had  Sd.tHN)  inhaliitants  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Uevolulion.  In  that  struggle  it  took  an  active 
part,  and  one  of  the  first  assaults  on  royal  authority  wa.s  the 
canfure  of  the  fort  at  New  Castle  in  Dec,  1774.  Two 
regiments  from  New  Hampshire  were  in  the  battle  ot  Bunker 
Ilill.  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont  troops,  under  the 
command  of  Oen.  Stark,  who  l)ore  a  commission  from  New- 
Hampshire,  gained  the  decisive  victory  of  Bennington.  For 
the  whole  war  New  llam|)sliire  furnished  12.4!<7  men.  -V 
State  constitution  was  adopteil  in  17M4,  and  on  June  21, 
17SS,  the  Federal  t'oiistilulion  was  adopted  l»y  a  small  ma- 
jority. As  New  Hampshire  was  the  ninth  State  to  adopt 
thisC'onstitution.the  I  nionwasthus  secured.  The.Statecon- 
stitution  was  thoroughly  revised  in  17i)2,  slightly  modified 
in  1H.52,  and  again  revised  in  1S77.  <Jnce  in  seven  years  by 
spet'ial  Vote  is  taken  "the  sense  of  the  people  as  to  the  re- 
vision of  the  constitution  and  calling  a  convention  for  that 
piirfnisi-."  In  the  war  of  1S12  New  Hampshire  furnished 
more  than  2.(MK»  men.  anil  in  the  <ivil  war  she  furnished  18 
regiments  of  infantry,  1  of  cavalry,  1  light  and  1  ln'avy  bat- 
tery, and  -i  companies  of  sharpshooters — in  all,  32,750  men, 
or  about  10  jier  cent,  of  the  jiopulation.  Portsmouth  was 
the  capital  of^  the  province.  From  1775  to  1)^05  the  Legis- 
lature met  at  different  places,  but  since  then  Concord  has 
been  (he  capital. 


UUVEKNURS  OF   XKW    IIAMl'SIIIRK. 


Joslali  Hnrll.-lt   ITSrJ  Ht 

Joliii  TiivL.r  cjiliiian....  ITW-l-**:. 

J"lui  |jiii):.l..n IKor.  0:1 

Jen-liimli  Srnilh IWHt-llI 


John  I^iiit,'<l"ii IHlii  I'.' 

Williiim  I'lmn.T ISIJ  i:i  , 

Jiihii 'I'uyttir  (lilman IHi;f  it; 

Williiiin  i'liiiiifr iHir.  Ill 

.Sainiitl  U.-ll    isni -.Tl 

lA-vi  W,KMll>nry lUit  -.'I 

I>avi,l  I,    M..rrill IH-.M  •.•; 

Bfiijuinin  I'l.Tee W'-T-Jtl 

Jiihn  11.-II IKf.i  .'Jip 

Moilli.-«-  llBrvi-y is:)il  .11 

Jiw.  M    llnriHT  laetlnff) ..        IS-tl 

Sainurl  l>i(iHrnix>r KlI-IH 

Williiini  Hii.lgiT IKH-ml 

Isjinc  Ilill I(«li-.1'l 

IMI  I'llk.'.- Ifttfl    IJ 

urv  llulibard IHW-II 

nil  II    Sti-,lf ^)>lM_ll! 

.VnlliMiiv  ("lliv )K.|(>-47 

Jan-.!  W   Williniiw I!i47-iii 

SaiiiticI  [linstiioor IHili-.^".; 

Nimli  Miirl  in lUCa-.M 

Nalhaiiiil  H   Raker IRM-W 

Bilph  M.i.alf lS,VV.-.r 

.VcTiioRiTiKS. — Belknap,  /lin/firi)  of  ..W/r  J/nm/tMhirr: 
Sanborn,  lii.-*ttinfiif  y^w  ifain/^.'ihirf  i  a  .series  of /Vf*r('«riVi/ 
orujf  Sliilr  i'li/ii-rii  issued  bv  the  .Slate;  various  town  his- 
tories: annual  n^porls  of  tiie  various  State  commissioners; 
and  the  I'.  .S.  census  rcjiorts.  Jous  King   Lokh. 

294 


William  Haile 

Ielial..«l  i;o.H]wiii 

Nathuiiifl  .S.  B^rrry 

.Ios4*|>h  .\.  (tilniorv 

KredtTic  Sniylh 

WalltT  Ilarrinian 

1  iiislow  Sleariis 

.failles  .\.  Weston 

Kzekii'l  Straw    

.lames  .\.  Weston 

I'ersiin  (_'.  Cheney 

Iti'iiJ.  V   I'n-ie.itt 

Salt  Itenil 

Charles  II.  Hell 

.^Illlltel  W.  Hale.    ... 

MiKMiy  (*iirr(»T 

Charliis  It.  Sjivvyer 

Daviil  II.  (i lell 

Hirnin  A.Tnlile IHDI-iW 

Jnhn  U.  Sniltli I8!l!i-D5 

Charles  A.  Hllsiel IBftVaO 

Ueurge  A.  Kaiiiwlvll ItJOT- 


tKir-ss 
lav.mi 
i8iii-ia 

I8tW-lVi 

tsavtsr 

18H7-IW 
1H69-71 
IWIW 
1874-74 
)K7+7.'i 
IH7re77 
lK77-7n 
IK7!I-HI 
IKS]  Kl 
IHK-t  S.'i 
!(«.'.  sT 

1SS7  «i 

ll«l  111 


NcH  Hurinony:  town  (settled  by  the  Harmonists  under 
George  Kapp  in  1><15.  transferred  to  Hobert  Owen  for  an 
experiment  in  socialism  in  lis24.  ami  seat  of  a  "school  of 
industry"  foundetl  subscnuently  by  William  Madure);  Po- 
sey CO.,  Ind.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana, 
ref.  ll-.\):  on  the  Wabash  river,  and  the  Pecjria.  Dec.  and 
Evaiisville  Railway;  15  miles  N.  of  >lt.  Vernon,  the  county- 
seat.  20  miles  N.  W.  of  Evansville.  It  contains  4  churches, 
graded  piiblii:  sclnxil.  juiblic  library  in  a  new  building  cost- 
ing *14.IMI0  and  containing  7.000  volumes,  an  art-gallery, 
and  a  nuLseuin  ;  a  private  bank,  2  weekly  news])a]iers,  and 
saw.  planing,  and  fiour  mills.  I'op.  (1880)  1.0115;  (18U(J) 
1,1!I7;  (18!I4)  estimated,  1,500.         ElilTOH  of  "Kehister.'" 

New  Hurlford:  town  (settled  in  1733,  incorporated  in 
1738);  Litchfield  co..  Conn,  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  Connecticut,  ref.  7-F):  on  the  Farmington  river,  and  the 
N.  Y..  N.  II.  aii.l  Hart.,  llie  Phila.  and  Head.,  and  the  N.  Y. 
and  N.  K.  railways;  2!)  miles  N.  W.  of  Hartford.  It  con- 
tains 7  churches.  !»  public  s<;liools.  a  Roman  Catholic  paro- 
chial school,  ami  2  weekly  newspapers,  and  has4cotton-inills, 
a  plane,  rule,  and  level  factory,  .several  saw-mills,  brush, 
briHiiu.  and  turning  shops,  and  a  hosiery-factory.  Other 
industries  are  general  farming  and  tobacco-growing.  Pop. 
of  township  (1880)  3.302:  (1890)  3.160;  (1894)  estimated, 
3,250.  Editor  of  "  Triblxi:." 

New  Havpn  :  city:  capital  of  New  Haven  co..  Conn,  (for 
location,  .see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  Il-F);  on  the  New 
York.  New  Haven,  and  Hartford  Railroad,  and  four  of  its 
leasi'd  lines;  36  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Hartford,  and  74  miles 
E.  N.  E.  of  New  Yolk  city.  It  is  the  largest  city  in  the 
State:  is  situated  on  a  sjindy  ]ilain  at  the  head  of  New 
Haven  Bay,  and  between  West  and  (juinuipiack  rivers,  4 
miles  from  Long  Island  Sound. 

Early  residents  laid  out  a  large  square  which  was  di- 
vided by  six  streets  running  nearly  N.  and  S.,  and  six 
streets  running  nearly  E.  and  W.  As  this  method  of  con- 
struction ignored  the  shape  of  the  harbor  and  the  rela- 
tion of  New  Haven  to  other  cities  and  towns,  it  was  re- 
jected. Roads,  running  from  this  original  square  to  neigh- 
boring citios  and  towns,  were  straightened  and  converted 
into  avenues,  and  cross  streets  were  laid  out  at  various 
angles  to  them.  The  city  has  140  miles  of  street  carefully 
laid  out  and  graded.  Of  this  number  34  miles  are  paved 
with  Telford  and  macadam  pavements,  and  4i  miles  with 
Belgian  and  granite  blocks.  These  streets  are  drained  by 
80  miles  of  sewers,  constructed  on  the  combined  system. 
The  park  area,  improved  anil  unimproved,  is  819'44  acres. 
.\t  the  center  of  the  city  is  a  square,  known  as  The  Green, 
which  contains  many  elms  of  great  size  and  l)eauty.  This 
square  is  intersected  by  Temple  Street,  noted  for  a  perfect 
arch  of  old  and  stately  elms.  To  the  N.  E.  and  W.  of  the 
city  are  two  mountain  parks  known,  respectively,  as  East 
and  West  Rock  [larks.  Several  carriage  roads,  20  feet  in 
width,  and  many  fixit-paths  wind  their  way  to  the  top  of 
East  Rock.  360  feet  in  height,  and  crowned  by  a  Soldiers' 
and  Sailors' monument :  and  one  cairiageway  and  several 
foot-paths  lead  to  the  top  of  West  Rock,  which  is  420  feet 
in  height.  The  grade  of  these  roads  averages  about  3  and 
never  exceed  4  feet  in  1(X).  Four  |Hirks  have  been  laid  out 
at  the  harbor's  ed^e. 

The  town  of  New  Haven  contains  68  churches,  divided 
deiiominatiomilly  as  follows:  Congregational.  17 :  Methoil- 
ist  Episcopal.  14;  Protestant  Episcopal.  12;  Roman  Cath- 
olic, 9;  Baptist.  7:  Lutheran.  4;  Jewish,  4:  Presbjterian, 
1 :  and  I'nivei-sjilisl.  1.  New  Haven  has  an  excellent  system 
of  free  public  .sehool.s.  The  niinilicr  of  .schoolhouses  occu- 
pied and  owned  by  the  district  is 32,  with  a  seating  capacity 
of  13.43.'!.  The  number  of  pupils  registered  in  1893  was 
15.453.  and  the  average  daily  atleiidance  was  10.8;W.  The 
annual  cost  of  maintaining  the  schools  is  estimated  at  S312.- 
900.  Hopkins  (irammar  School,  established  16150.  ]>repares 
hoys  (or  Yale.  The  Yale  Campus,  two  blix'ks  W.  of  the 
city  center,  is  a  ni'tangle  containing  two  city  bhu'ks.  A 
series  of  buildings,  fronting  in.  forms  an  inclosed  court. 
Two  of  these  buildings — Vanderbilt  and  (Miorn  Halls — are 
the  chief  anhitecliiral  altraelions  of  the  city.  To  the  N.  of 
the  campus  a  second  large  quadrangle  of  university  build- 
ings is  (1894)  being  constructed.  The  Shetlleld  Si;ientifie 
School  and  the  departments  of  law  and  medicine  are  a  little 
removed  from  the  campus.     See  Vai.k  I'.nivkhsitv. 

Taxable  pro|icrty  at  a  little  more  than  one-half  its  actual 
value  wa-s  a.s.sessod  in  1893  at  ijs54.814.715.  Church,  .school, 
and   university   projiorly  exempt    from    taxation   was  esti- 


146 


NKW   HEBRIDES 


NEW  JERSEY 


mated  nt  $«,0()0.00().  The  ordinary  recei]3ts  of  city,  town. 
■  and  school  district  in  1893  were  $l,'441,03o.53.  and  the  ordi- 
nary expenses  $1,396,087.02.  The  indebtedness,  bonded 
and  floating,  of  these  three  corporations  in  1893  was  .f2,- 
696,929.09.  There  are  13  banks,  viz.,  7  national,  3  State, 
and  3  savings-banks,  and  1  bnilding  an<l  loan  association. 
The  national  and  State  biinks  furni  the  New  Haven  Clear- 
ing-house. The  principal  business  is  the  distribution  of 
goods  to  surrounding  towns  and  cities,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  carriages,  rifles,  clocks,  hardware,  and  corsets.  The 
census  returns  of  1890  showed  that  1,043  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments (representing  128  industries)  reported.  These 
had  a  combined  capital  of  $16,826,635,  employed  17,654 
persons,  paid  $9,876,270  for  wages  and  .$13,259,097  for  ma- 
terials, and  liad  products  valued  at  $28,574,038. 

Late  in  the  autumn  of  1637  Theophilus  Eaton,  a  Ijondon 
mercliant.  and  a  few  associates  settled  on  one  of  the  bays  of 
Long  Ishmd  Sound,  lie  was  joined  the  next  spring  by  Rev. 
Jlr.  Davenport  and  a  small  company,  who  na.metl  the  place 
New  Haven.  The  same  place  had  previously  been  named 
by  Block,  the  Dutch  discoverer,  Roodenberg — red  hills — 
because  of  the  appearance  of  East  and  West  Rocks.  Tliese 
settlers  acknowledged  allegiance  to  neither  king  nor  gov- 
ernment. They  accepted  the  Scriptures  as  containing  the 
only  proper  rule  for  the  government  of  both  Church  and 
state.  Under  this  theocracy  they  lived  in  simplicity  and 
indeiiendence,  until  a  liberal  charter,  procured  by  Connecti- 
cut from  CUiarles  II.  in  1662,  included  them  within  its  juris- 
diction. By  this  charter,  tt)  winch  New  Haven  after  much 
ill  feeling  submitted.  New  Haven  and  Hartford  were  made 
joint  capitals  of  Connecticut.  In  1873,  by  an  amendment 
to  the  constitution,  Hartford  was  made  the  sole  seat  of  gov- 
ernment. New  Haven  is  now  governed  by  three  corpora- 
tions— tlie  City  of  New  Haven,  the  Town  of  New  Haven,  and 
the  New  Haven  School  District.  Tlie  town  possesses  the 
most  territory  and  includes  all  of  both  city  and  sciiool  dis- 
trict. The  scliool  district  includes  all  of  the  city,  but  not 
all  of  the  town.  Each  of  these  corporations  possesses  com- 
plete autonomy,  and  is  supreme  within  its  own  jurisdiction. 
The  city  is  governed  under  a  special  charter  adopte<l  in 
1881.  A  mayor  is  the  nominal  head  of  the  executive  di- 
vision. The  departments  of  public  works,  flre,  and  police 
are  managed  by  boards  of  commissioners  called  non-parti- 
san, but  in  reality  bi-partisan.  The  legislative  division  con- 
sists of  a  court  of  common  council,  which  is  divided  into 
two  boards,  the  board  of  aldermen  and  the  board  of  council- 
men.  There  are  24  aldermen,  two  from  each  ward,  of  whom 
one  in  each  ward  is  elected  annually,  and  36  councilinen, 
all  of  whom  are  elected  annually.  The  administrative  du- 
ties of  the  town  are  performed  "by  a  board  of  7  selectmen, 
elected  by  the  people.  The  legislature  of  the  town  is  its 
adult  male  citizens  acting  in  a  properly  called  town  meet- 
ing. The- administrative  duties  of  the  school  district  are  in 
the  hands  of  a  board  of  education,  consisting  of  9  members. 
Adult  citizens  of  the  district  meet,  lay  a  school-tax,  and  vote 
supplies.  I^op.  (1880)  citv  and  town  reported  as  coextensive, 
62,883;  (1890)  city,  81,298;  town,  86,045;  (1894)  town,  esti- 
mated at  over  90,000.  Frank  S.  Bishop. 

New  Heb'rldes :  an  archipelago  of  Polynesia  consisting 
of  a  chain  of  islands  extending  from  lat.  13°  S.  and  Ion. 
166°  E.  to  lat.  20  S.,  Ion.  170"  E.,  a  distance  of  over  500 
miles.  They  are  under  the  protection  of  a  mixed  French 
and  British  commission.  The  total  area  is  about  5,100  sq. 
miles.  There  are  a  dozen  larger  islands  and  innumei-abic 
smaller  ones.  The  largest  is  Espiritu  Santo  (75  miles  by  40) 
toward  the  northern  end  (jf  the  group,  discovered  by  Qiiiros 
m  1606.  S.  E.  of  it  is  Malikolo  (56  miles  by  20),  with  a  fine 
harbor.  Banks  islands  are  in  the  northern  i)a.rt  of  the 
group.  The  islands  are  volcanic  and  nearly  free  from  coral 
reefs.  The  soil  is  generally  rich  and  deep.  The  rainfall  is 
heavy;  the  principal  rainy  season  extends  from  Decendier 
to  March.  The  temperature  does  not  fall  below  58°  F..  and 
seldom  rises  aljovo  90  .  The  islands  are  densely  wooded  and 
the  breadfruit,  sago-palin,  banana,  sugar-cane,  vam.  taro. 
arrowroot,  orange,  and  pineapple  flourish.  Mainnuils  and 
birds  are  scarce.  Whaling  is  extensively  carried  i>n  in  the 
neighboring  seas,  and  one  of  the  imiiorlaii't  products  is  bcche- 
de-mer.  Imhaus  estimat(!s  the  populalicm  at  from  75.000 
to  80,000,  among  them  150  whites— missionaries  and  traders. 
The  missions  here  have  been  successful ;  on  the  southern 
island  (.\neiteum)  the  entire  population  is  said  to  be  Chris- 
tian, and  this  influciici-  pi-edominates  over  the  southern  end 
of  the  group.    The  natives  are  Polynesian  and  I'apuan.   They 


are  usually  neat  and  clean,  strong  and  often  willing  to  work, 
but  generally  inhospitable  and  cruel.  They  vary  much  in 
the  different  islands.  See  Imhaus,  Les  NouveUes  Hebrides 
(1890),  and  Paton,  John  G.  Paton.  Missionary  in  the  New 
Hebrides:  an  Autobiography  (1891). 

Mark  W.  Harkington. 
New  Holland :  See  Australia. 

New  Iberia:  town;  capital  of  llieria  parish,  Ija.  (for 
location  of  parish,  see  map  of  Louisiana,  ref.  10-D) ;  on  the 
bayou  Teche,  and  the  S.  Pac.  Railroad ;  125  miles  W.  of  New 
Orleans.  It  is  in  a  sugar,  rice,  cotton,  and  lumlier  region, 
and  is  principally  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cypress 
lumber.  Minor  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  cotton- 
seed (iil,  brick,  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  soap,  and  mineral 
waters.  There  are  2  national  banks  with  combined  capital 
of  $100,000,  high  school,  2  public  schools,  convent,  Howe 
Institute,  seminary,  8  churches,  2  public  halls,  park  and 
race-track,  electric  lights,  iron  bridge  across  the  Teche,  and 
a  daUy  and  a  weekly  newsi)aper.  Pop.  (1880)  2,709 ;  (1890) 
3,447.  Editob  of  "  Enterprise." 

New  Ireland:  a  large  island  of  the  Bismarck  Archi|iel- 
ago,  now  called  New  Mecklenburg  (q.  v.). 

New  Jer.sey  [named  from  the  island  of  Jersey  in  the 
English  Channel] :  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  Norl  h  America  (North 
Atlantic  group);  tlie  third  of  the  original  thirteen  States 
that  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution ;  capital,  Trenton. 

Location  and 
Area. — It  is  situ- 
ated between  Del- 
aware river  and 
bay  and  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  and 
Hudson  river,  and 
between  38°  5.5' 
50-42"  and  41°  21' 
19"  N.  lat.,  and  73° 
53'  51-25'  and  75° 
33'  2-74"  W.  Ion. ; 
bounded  on  the 
N.  by  New  York, 
on  the  E.  by  the 
Hudson  river,  Stat- 
en  Island  Sound, 
Raritan  Bay,  and 
the  Atlantic,  on 
the  S.  by  Delaware 
Bay,  and    on   the 


Seal  of  New  Jersey. 


W.  by  the  Delaware  river,  which  separates  it  from  Dela- 
ware and  Pennsylvania;  extreme  length,  167?  miles  (accord- 
ing to  the  State  topographical  survey) :  greatest  breadth,  59 
miles  ;  least  breadth,  33  miles ;  area,  8,334'44  sq.  miles  (5,263,- 
641'60  acres),  of  which  7,514'40  sq.  miles  are  land  surface. 

Physical  Features. — A  .straight  line  drawn  from  Jersey 
City  to  Trenton  divides  the  State  into  two  strongly  con- 
trasted parts;  the  northern,  undulating, hilly,  and  in  places 
mountainous;  the  southern,  through  most  of  its  extent  al- 
most a  plain.  Three  mountain  ranges  traverse  the  northern 
part,  two  of  which — the  Blue  jVlountain  or  Blue  Ridge, 
called  also  Kittatinny  and  known  in  New  York  as  Shawan- 
gunk,  and  the  Highland  Range — belong  to  the  Ap])alachian 
chain.  The  third  is  a  part  of  the  low  range  which  may  be 
traced  from  Massachusetts  into  New  Jersey  through  South- 
eastern New  York.  The  Blue  Ridge,  composed  of  quartzose 
conglomerate,  with  softer  slate,  crosses  the  Delaware  river 
at  the  Water  Gajj,  where  its  summit  is  1,479  feet  aliove  the 
sea,  and  runs  N.  E.  for  40  ndlesin  an  almost  uidiroken  ridge 
to  the  New  York  Slate  line,  near  whii'h.  at  High  Point,  it 
rises  to  an  elevation  of  about  l.MOO  feet.  The  Kittatinny 
valley  lies  between  the  Blue  Ridge  on  the  N.  W.  and  the 
Highland  Range  on  the  S.  E.,  ami  is  noted  for  its  rural 
beauty  and  agricultural  wealth.  The  Highland  Range  occu- 
pies a  belt  22  miles  wide  on  the  New  York  State  line  and 
10  miles  wide  on  the  Delaware,  and  is  composed  of  numer- 
ous discfiunected  ridges,  among  which  are  Hamburgh  Moun- 
tain, reaching  a  height  at  Rutherford's  Hill  of  1,488  feet ; 
Wawayanda  Mountain,  height  1.450  feet:  Musconctcong, 
Schooley's,  and  (Ireen  Pond  Mountains.  The  third  range 
consists  of  ridges  of  trap  rock,  which  diversify  the  red  sand- 
stone belt,  a  strip  of  an  average  width  of  30  miles  crossing 
the  State  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W..  the  south  boundary  of  which 
coincides  closely  with  a  straight  line  drawn  from  .Jersey  City 
to  Trenton.  The  chief  of  these  ridges  are  the  First,  a  part 
of  which  is  better  known  as  Orange  Mountain,  534  feet  high 


C^f  M»T''<''»'Cli,Mj«a, 

c 


NKW   .JKKSKY 


u: 


at  Garret  Rock,  near  Paterson ;  the  Second,  the  less  con- 
tinuous Third  Mijuntain,  Kooky  Hill.  Ten-mile  Run  Moun- 
tain, Loiii;  Hill,  Siiurlaiid  .Moiinlaiii,  tioat  Hill,  Kound 
^I  Mintain.   I'icklf   ."Mimntain,  707  feet  high;  and  liie  Pali- 

1-s,  wliii'h  wall  in  the  Ilud9<.)n  on  the  W.  fmni  the  New 

rk  Stale  line  nearlvto  Jersey  City.  In  the  southern  part 
re  are  a  few  rounded  hill.s,  but  no  rocky  eminences.  The 
■  ivesink  Highlands,  S.  of  Sandy  llook,  which  are  a  seamark 
inapproacliinf;  N'ew  York  harbor,  reach  a  hei^flit  of  about  400 
feet.  Soulhern  N'ew  Jersey  is  a  gently  undulating,'  plain, 
from  l-IO  to  liKI  feet  in  elevation  in  the  center,  and  sloping 
gradually  to  the  Atlantic  on  the  K.  and  the  Delaware  river 
or  bay  on  the  \V.  The  prevailing  surface  is  sandy.  A  cre- 
taceous fonnalion  of  great  value,  containing  marls,  useful 
in  agriculture,  ami  pla-stic  clay  and  kaolin,  extensively  em- 
ployed in  the  maiuilacture  of  brick,  pipe.  tile.  j)orceIain,  and 
pottery,  is  fouml  in  a  belt  bouniled  on  the  N.  W.  by  a  line 
drawn  from  Karitan  Bay  on  the  X.  K.  to  the  head  of  Dela- 
ware Hay  on  the  .S.  \V.  Sand  available  for  making  glass 
exi.sts  throughout  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  In  the 
same  region  the  cedar  swamp'i  form  a  curious  and  important 
deposit  of  timber,  which  is  exhumed  in  good  condition  from 
beds  in  which  it  has  lain  for  hundreds  of  years. 

The  Hudson  river  boumls  the  State  on  the  K.  for  28  or 
30  miles.  It  receives  from  N'ew  .lersev  only  the  Wallkill 
river,  which  reaches  it  at  l{<^indout,  X.  V.  The  smallness  of 
the  drainage  into  the  Hudson  is  due  to  the  barrier  inter- 
po.scd  by  the  Palisades.  Newark  H.iy  receives  the  Passaic 
and  Hackensuck  rivers,  with  their  tributaries.  The  Rama- 
po,  \Vana<iue,  and  PeiiuaniKK'k  rivers,  whose  union  forms 
the  Pompton  river,  and  the  Kockaway  river,  all  affluents  of 
the  Passaic,  yield,  at  a  minimum  elevation  of  200  feet  above 
the  sea,  3 U,iX)0.00()  gal.  i>f  water  daily,  which  is  available 
for  the  supply  of  the  cities  of  Northern  Xew  Jersey.  Rari- 
tan  Bay  receives  the  Raritan  river,  with  its  north  and  south 
branches.  The  Elizabeth  and  Rjihway  rivers  flow  into 
Staten  Island  S<iund.  The  N'avesink,  Shrewsbury,  .Shark, 
Manas<|uan,  Mctedeconk,  Tt)rn"s,  Little  Egg  Harbor  or  Mul- 
licas.  and  Hreat  Egg  Harbor  rivers  and  Cedar  creek  flow 
into  the  Atlantic  or  into  bays  communicating  directly  with 
the  sea.  Delaware  Bay  receives  the  Delaware  river,  with 
its  fifteen  tributaries  and  four  affluents  of  these,  and  in  the 
extreme  S,  of  the  .State  Cohansey  creek  and  Maurice  river, 
as  well  as  a  number  of  smaller  streams.  The  tiilal  bays 
along  the  coast,  sometimes  called  harbors  or  sounds,  form  a 
lino  of  internal  water  communication  from  the  Meledeconk 
river  to  Cape  May  for  vessels  of  light  draught,  and  abound 
in  game,  fish,  and  shellfish.  The  principal  ones  are  Bame- 
gat  Bay.  Little  Egg  Harbor.  Great  Bay,  Absecom  Bay.  and 
Great  Egg  Harlior.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  State  are 
many  mountain  lakes  and  ponds,  remarkable  for  purity  of 
water  and  ijuile  generally  stocked  with  black  biuss.  Green- 
wood Lake,  partly  in  Xew  York,  is  from  a  third  to  half  a 
mile  wide,  and  7  or  8  miles  long.  It  is  drained  by  the 
Wana^ue.  Lake  Hopat<'ong.  the  largest  body  of  fresh 
water  in  the  State,  is  014  feet  above  mean  tide.  .5^  miles 
long,  and  fmm  a  third  to  IJ  miles  in  width,  and  is  drained 
bv  the  Musconeteoiig.  BudiPs  Lake,  on  the  top  of  Schooley's 
Mountain,  is  nearly  circular,  with  a  circumference  of  about 
3i  miles,  and  is  the  source  of  the  south  branch  of  the  Kari- 
tan. (ireen  Pond,  in  Morris  County,  1,044  feet  above  the 
sea,  is  3  miles  long  and  a  quarter  to  half  a  mile  wide.  These 
lakes  and  poiiils  are  favorite  places  of  summer  resort.  The 
Delaware  river  rei'.Mves  the  drainage  of  •i.:t44'S0  sq.  miles: 
Delaware  Bay  of  l.OfiO-10  s(|.  miles:  the  Atlantic  Gcean,  ili- 
rectly  or  through  tidal  sounds,  of  3,8o7'60  stj.  miles;  the 
nuds<in  river  ol  'J.")!!!!)  si|.  nnles. 

Oenl'ii/i/. — Hanlly  any  coal  is  found  in  Xew  Jersey,  but  in 
other  clireclions  its  mineral  ami  geological  wealth  is  great 
and  remarkably  diversified.  In  IHOl  it  was  the  ninth  State 
in  amount  of  ppnluct  of  iron  ore.  There  were  thirty-two 
mines,  which  priMluce<l  .52o.(J13  long  tons  of  ore.  of  which 
517.922  tons  \v<-re  magnetite.  Offleial  reports  for  lS!t2  and 
lS!i;t  show  a  falling  oil.  In  the  latter  year  the  lolal  prod- 
uct W(Ls  :!."i().l.")0  long  Ions,  of  which  :l.51.4.'i;t  tons  were  mag- 
netite. Xew  Jersey  su|iplies  ;!-07  per  cent,  of  the  country's 
total  output  of  iron  ore.  Mangaiuferous  zinc  ores  of  excel- 
lent i|uality  are  found  at  Franklin.  .Sussex  co..  and  supply  a 
large  |mrt  of  the  zinc  oxide  ami  metallic  zinc  used  in  the 
I'.  S.  In  ISill  there  was  a  priKlu<lion  of  granite  valued  at 
#400.000.  sjindston.'  valued  at  <;4(MMXM),  limestone  valued  at 
♦  100,(MM),  slate  valued  at  ijSlO.OOO.  ocher  valued  at  $7,200. 
and  metallic  paint  valuecl  at  |j;i:t.l7H.  Reports  for  ISirJ  anil 
1893  show  a  considerable  falling  off  in  each  of  these  items. 


Amon^  building  materials  are  a  very  fine  gneiss,  white  and 
blue  limestones,  roofing  and  writing  slates,  and  flag  and 
paving  stones.  The  trap  ridges  supply  the  best  of  road  ma- 
terial in  such  abundance  and  at  so  low  a  cost  that  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  .State  is  now  covered  with  a  network  of  ail- 
mirable  highways,  (iraphite  or  plumbago  has  been  mined 
with  profit.  Large  (|uantities  of  porcelain  and  pottery  clays 
of  excellent  quality  arc  found  ;  infusorial  earth,  used  for 
polishing  and  in  the  preparation  of  giant  powder,  is  ob- 
tained ill  .Morris  County  :  and  moulding  sand  of  goinl  quali- 
ty anil  sand  for  making  the  brick  for  reverberatory  furnaces 
abounds  in  Burlington  and  Morris  Counties.  Sulphate  of 
baryta,  manganese,  molybdenum,  iron  pyrites,  used  largely 
for  producing  sulphuric  acid,  and  green  sand  for  chemical 
purposes  and  glass-making,  are  among  the  other  mineral 
i)roilucts.  The  sum  of  iji8,(K)0  has  been  appropriated  annual- 
ly for  many  years  for  the  geological  survey  of  the  State. 

Suit  and  Productions. — The  soil  is  a  sandy  loam,  easily 
tilled,  and  lighter  in  the  southern  than  in  the  middle  and 
northern  parts  of  the  State.  Clav  marls,  pure  marls,  shell 
marls,  lime,  and  the  peat  and  marsh-mud  of  the  tide-washed 
region  arc  advantageously  used  to  enrich  the  land.  The 
forest  area  covei's  about  one-third  of  the  State.  The  pre- 
valent timber  of  the  southern  part  is  pine,  with  some  cedar 
in  the  swamps;  the  forest  of  the  northern  part  consi.sts 
chiefly  of  oak.  hickory, chestnut,  hornbeam,  tulip-tree,  bass- 
wood,  elm,  ash.  pine.  sa.s.safriis.  and  wild  cherry.  The  mag- 
nolia glauca  is  found  in  the  swamps.  Wild  grapes,  cran- 
berries, whortleberries,  blackberries,  and  raspberries  are 
abundant.  The  flora  of  the  State  is  large.  The  rattlesnake 
and  cojiperhead  are  the  only  poisonous  reptiles. 

The  following  summaiy  from  the  census  reports  of  1880 
and  18U0  shows  the  extent  of  farm  operations  in  the  State : 


FARMS,  ETC. 

1880. 

1800. 

Per  orot.* 

Total  uuniber  of  farms 

.S1.307 

2,929.773 

S190.875,8.'»3 

.*)S2>*       101 

2  0G2l)tKI          9'1 

•  Decrease. 


The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  value  of 
the  principal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  1893: 


CROPS. 

Acrwfie. 

Tbid. 

Value. 

277.183 

12:1.701 

109.744 

76.473 

13.IH7 

49.061 

632,162 

7,179,010  bush. 
1.793,I!C5      •■ 
2.622.8S2     •• 
1.024.738     " 

196,517      " 
3..'i81,C72     " 

586.840  tons 

S3.733.10l 

Wheat      

1.25.').566 

918.009 

Kje                  

7I7..317 

Buekwheat 

Potatoes 

Hav 

129.701 
2.(»«.2M 
9.182.821 

Totals              ... 

1.181.974 

$18,622,769 

On  Jan.  1,  1894.  the  farm  animals  comprised  83.321 
horses,  value  $7,105,037:  8.296  mules,  value  $843,644:  190.- 
734  milch  cows,  value  $6,713,837:  .52.641  oxen  and  other 
cattle,  value  $1,,">32,272 :  .")7,.571  sheep,  value  $23.">,177:  and 
182.830  swine,  value  $1,981,880:  total  head.  575.393;  total 
value,  $18,411,847.  Much  attention  is  paitl  to  seed-farms 
and  nursi'rics.  csjiecially  in  dislricts  within  easy  reach  of 
the  markets  of  Xew  York  and  Philadelphia.  In  1890  the 
area  in  seed-farms  was  0.272  acres,  and  the  value  of  seed- 
farm  implements  and  buildings  more  than  $2,000,000.  In 
the  .same  year  there  were  145  nurseries,  with  an  area  of  5.465 
acres,  re|)resenting  an  investment  of  about  $2,000,000.  The 
fruit  crop  is  large,  notably  in  peache.s,  apples,  and  gnipes. 

Climate. — The  following  table  exhibits  the  mean  temper- 
ature (in  degrees  F.)  and  rainfall  (in  inches)  by  months, 
from  observations  taken  through  a  scries  of  years  at  differ- 
ent points: 


Januart' . . 
February . 
Mareh     . . 

April 

May 

June 


1Wiip«n- 

um. 

UUon. 

25-7° 

2-38     ' 

S3  4 

3  89 

.17  7 

8-77 

.V)2 

291 

59  9 

AM 

098 

4« 

July 

Aiieust   

Si'ptembiT. 

OetotiiT 

Noveinlter 
December.. 


TdDpvffS-      PrKlpl* 
lurv,  Utloo. 


Avcrafce  for  the  year. . 


74-8° 
7S0 
600 
53  3 
44  4 
30  8 


S'89 
6'64 
4  01 
3  7^1 
3  If." 
3  li-l 


511     ,  47  40 


Earlv  fruits  ripen  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  earlier  in  Iho 
soutfiern  lounlies  than  in  the  northern,  although  the  mean 
tem|>i>ralur»'  of  the  spring  months  is  only  three  or  four  de- 
grci's  higher. 


148 


NEW   JERSEY 


Divisions. — For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  di- 
vided into  twenty-one  counties,  as  follows : ' 


COUNTIES 

AND 

COUNTY-TOWNS,   WITH   POPULATION 

COUNTIES. 

♦Ref. 

Pop. 
1890. 

Pop. 

1895. 

COUNTY-TOWNS. 

Pop. 
1B95. 

7-C 

2-E 
5-D 
6-C 
8-C 
7-B 
2-D 
6-B 
2-E 
3-C 
4-C 
3-D 
4-E 
2-D 
.5-D 
2-D 
6-B 
3-C 
1-C 
3-D 
3-C 

28.8.36 
47,226 
68,628 
87,687 
11.268 
45,438 
256,098 
28.649 
.   275,126 
35,353 
79,978 
61,754 
69,128 
54,101 
15,974 
105,046 
25,151 
28,311 
22,259 
72.467 
36,553 

34,750 
65.415 
59.117 

100,104 
12,865 
49,615 

312,000 
31,191 

328,0G0 
35,334 
85.538 
70,058 
75,.543 
59,536 
18,739 

133.227 
26,084 
30,447 
22,586 
85.404 
37,283 

May's  Landing. . 

Hackensack 

Mt.  HoUy  

Camden 

Cape  May  C.-H.. 

Bridgeto'n 

Newark 

Woodbury 

Jersey  City 

Flcmmgton 

Trenton 

New  Brunswick. 

Freehold 

Morristown 

Tom's  River 

Paterson 

Salem 

Somervillc 

Newton 

Elizabeth 

Belvidere ... 

1,359 

7,282 

Burlington 

63,467 

Cape  May 

Cumberland 

Essex 

Gloucester 

Hudson 

Hunterdou 

13.292 
215.806 
3.853 
182.713 
2.060 
62,518 

Middlesex    

Momnouth 

19,910 
3,157 
10,290 

Pa*isaic 

97,344 

6,337 

Somerset 

4.514 
3.426 

Union 

43,834 
1,834 

1,444,933 

1,673,106 

*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  New  Jersey. 

Principal  Cities  and  Towns,  with  Pojndation  for  1895. — 
Newark,  315,800 ;  -Jersey  City,  182,713 ;  Paterson.  97,344 :  Cam- 
den, 63,467;  Trenton,  63,518;  nobo]<en, 54,083;  Elizabeth. 43,- 
834;  Orange, 33,7i)3;  Xcw  Brunswick,  19,910:  Bayonne,  19.856; 
Atlantic  City,  18.329;  East  Orange,  17,937;  Passaic,  17,894; 
Plainfield,  13,639;  Bridgeton,  13.293;  Perth  Amboy,  13,030; 
jMillville,  10,466;  lAIorristown,  10,390;  Phillipsburg.  9,081; 
Kahwav,  7.945;  Burlington,  7,844;  Long  Branch,  7,333; 
Hackensack,  7,282;  Saleiu,  6,337;  Gloucester,  6,335;  Bordeii- 
tovvu,  4,185;  and  Princeton,  3,488. 

Population  and  Races. — The  population  in  1850  was  489,- 
555;  1800,  072,0;!5 ;  1870,  906,096;  1880,  1,131,116;  1890, 
1,444,933  (native,  1,115,958;  foreign,  328,975;  males,  720,- 
819;  females,  724,114;  white,  1,396,581;  colored,  48,353,  of 
whom  47,638  were  persons  of  African  descent,  608  Chinese, 
23  Japanese,  and  84  civilized  Indians). 

Industries  and  Bimiiir-fs  Interests. — The  manufacturing 
interest  is  of  extraordinary  volume  and  variety.  In  1890 
New  Jersey,  compared  with  other  States,  ranked  fifth  in 
combined  textile  products,  first  in  silk  fabrics,  seventh  in 
woolen,  and  eleventh  in  cotton.  The  value  of  silk  fabrics 
manufactured  in  1890  was  ,•}; 35.4II5.9S3,  against  $12,851,045  in 
1880,  and  was  nearly  one-half  giviitcr  than  that  of  any  other 
State.  The  value  of  woolen  falirics  from  55  establishments 
was  19,984,640,  against  |6,839,074  in  1880.  Seventeen  estab- 
lishments produced  cotton  fabrics  worth  $5,902,615.  The 
value  of  the  whole  textile  product  from  199  establishments 
was  $46,647,626,  against  $38,499,579  in  1880.  Eighteen  fur- 
naces made  145,040  tons  of  pig  iron  in  1890.  of  which  41.479 
tons  were  Bessemer,  and  8  establishments  made  17,999  short 
tons  of  steel.  Six  establishments  made  185,510  tons  of  cast- 
iron  pipe  and  fittings,  value  $5,032,571,  more  than  one-third 
of  the  product  of  the  U,  S.  The  census  reports  of  1890 
showed  that  9,321  manufacturing  establishments  reported. 
These  had  a  combined  capital  of  $249,890,428,  i'in|)loycd 
186,901  i)ersons,  paid  $96,509,703  for  wages  and  *1SS,960,'704 
for  materials,  and  had  products  valued  at  $353,179,917.  See 
HoBOKEN,  Nkwark,  Paterson,  and  Trenton. 

Finance. — No  State  tax  upon  individuals  has  been  im- 
posed for  many  years,  ext^ejit  one  for  school  purposes,  appor- 
tioned among  local  taxing  districts  at  the  rate  of  $5  for 
each  child  between  the  ages  of  five  and  eighteen  years,  as 
shown  by  a  school  census  taken  annually.  The  amount  thus 
collec-ti'd  l)y  the  State  is  reapportioned  equitably,  and  jiaid 
over  to  the  local  school  authorities.  This  is  additional  to 
the  amount  raiseil  by  local  taxation  for  school  purposes. 
Official  reports  of  the  State  finances  for  the  year  ending 
Oct.  31, 1893,  showeil  balance  from  previous  year.  $619,701.15; 
receipts.  .$1,963,319.80;  disbursements.  $1,857,983.83;  bal- 
ance. $734.03S.12.  The  State  debt  on  Jan,  3,  1894,  was 
$735,400,  payalilci  in  installments,  the  last  of  wliich  will  tall 
due  in  Jan.,  1902.  The  State  sclnpol  fund,  resulting  largely 
from  th(!  sail'  of  riparian  !and,s,  amounted  on  Oct.  31,  lHil3,  to 
$3,693,031.33,  from  the  income  of  which  an  appro] iriation  of 
$100,000  is  required  to  be  made  annually  tor  tlu'  siipjiort  of 
public  schools.  The  assessed  valuation  of  real  and  personal 
property  in  1893  was  $768,295,374.50. 


Bantcing. — In  Dec,  1893,  there  were  99  national  banks, 
with  acombined  capital  of  $14,608,350,  surplus  and  undivided 
profits  of  $11,136,185,  and  individual  deposits  of  $49,.593,347, 
and  21  State  banks,  with  capital  of  $1,680,460,  surplus  and 
profitsof  $l,126.356,anddepositsof  $6,667,745.  Thesavings- 
banks  on  Jan.  2,  1894,  numbered  25,  and  had  137,897  depos- 
itors, surplus  of  $3,335,976,  and  deposits  of  $34,366,298. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. — On  Jan.  1,  1894,  there  were 
896  post-offices,  of  which  86  were  ]>residential  (6  first-class, 
30  second-class,  50  third-class)  and  810  fourth-class.  There 
were  387  money-order  offices  and  19  money-order  stations. 
Of  newspapers  and  periodicals  there  were  367,  of  which  48 
were  daily,  2  tri-weekly,  2  semi-weekly,  255  weekly,  2  bi- 
weekly, 7  semi-monthly,  44  monthly,  4  bi-monthly,  and  3 
quarterly  publications, 

Liliraries. — In  1892  there  were  reported  96  public  libraries 
of  1,000  volumes  and  over,  which  contained  655,127  bound 
volumes  and  112,434  pamphlets.  The  libraries  were  classi- 
fied as  follows  ;  General,  38 ;  school,  27 ;  college,  7 ;  college 
society,  3  ;  law,  3  ;  theology,  4 ;  public  institution,  4 ;  State, 
1;  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  4;  social,  9;  scientific,  3;  historical,  1; 
I.  0.  0.  F.,  1 ;  and  mercantile,  1.  The  library  of  the  New 
Jersey  Ilistorical  Society  at  Newark  contains  about  14,000 
volumes  and  30.00(1  pamphlets;  the  State  library  at  Tren- 
ton, about  41,000  volumes,  two-thirds  of  which  are  on  legal 
sul.iiects. 

JJeans  of  Communication. — The  railway  development  of 
the  State  has  been  as  follows:  (1850)  206  miles;  (1860)  560; 
(1870)  1,125;  (1880)  1,684;  (1890)  2.099;  (1893)  main  track, 
2,162,  second  track,  708,  third  and  fourth  track.s,  178,  sidings, 
1.206 — total,  4,2.54.  The  princijial  main  lines  are  the  Penn., 
the  Central  of  N.  J.,  the  Pliila.  and  Reading,  the  N.  Y.,  Lake 
Erie  and  W.,  the  Del..  Lack,  and  W.,  the  X.  V.,  Susquehanna 
and  W.,  the  West  Shore,  and  the  Lehigh  Valley.  The  valu- 
ation of  all  railway  and  canal  property  in  1893  was  $318,- 
406.065,  and  the  taxes  were:  State,  $1,092,030.32:  local, 
$391,446.08— total.  $1,483,477.  The  Morris  and  Essex  Canal, 
built  al)out  1830,  connects  Jersey  City  and  Phillipsburg,  and 
was  formerly  a  general  commercial  route,  but  for  many  years 
has  been  used  as  a  coal  route  by  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad, 
its  lessee.  It  is  about  106  miles  long.  The  Delaware  and 
Raritan  Canal,  connecting  New  Brunswick  and  Trenton, 
about  43  miles  long,  built  in  1831-34,  affords  direct  commu- 
nication between  New  York  and  Philadelphia  by  means  of 
the  Raritan  and  Delaware  rivers.  The  street-railways,  chiefly 
electric,  aggregate  over  300  miles. 

Cli  II relies. — The  census  of  1890  gave  the  following  statistics 
of  the  principal  religious  bodies : 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Roman  Catholic - . . . 

Methodist  Episcopal 

Prnsb.  in  the  U.  S.  of  America. 

Baptist 

Pr(  itestant  Episcopal 

Reformed  C'hurch  in  America. 

Lutheran.  General  Council 

Atriean  IMelliodist  Episcopal. . 

Conj^reKational 

Metlii idist  I'rotestaut 

Friends 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Ziou 

Jews.  Orthodox 

I.,iitheran,  General  Synod. . . 


Organiza- 
ttong. 

Churches 
and  halU. 

Membera. 

219 

218 

222.274 

579 

584 

82.953 

300 

423 

68,759 

224 

268 

38,757 

184 

236 

30,103 

124 

155 

24,057 

30 

27 

7,940 

54 

69 

5,851 

33 

38 

4,912 

39 

39 

3,4.59 

43 

47 

3,261 

25 

25 

2,954 

19 

19 

2,521 

16 

16 

2,415 

Value  of 
church 
property. 

$6,050,688 

5.009,075 

6.699,100 

2,957,628 

8.815,850 

2,091.029 

339..300 

159,850 

6.55,300 

181.950 

267.700 

107,700 

44,;300 

126,100 


Schools. — The  general  supervision  of  public  schools  is  in- 
trusted to  a  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Gtix-ernor  for  a  term  of  three  years,  and  to 
one  superintendent  for  each  county,  appointed  by  the  State 
board  of  education.  The  school  census  enumeration.  May 
:iO,  1S!»3,  was :  males,  305,958 ;  females,  199,264— tot.'d,  405,232. 
The aiii>ropriations for  1892-93  were  as  follows;  State  school 
tax,  $3,151,700;  State  appropriation,  $100,000;  township 
.school  tax,  $13,303.50 ;  interest  of  surjilus  revenue.  $31,535.86; 
district  ami  citv  school  tax,  $1,405,164.78— total,  $3,701,- 
593.14.  The  value  of  school  property  in  1891-92  was  $10,- 
004,230;  number  of  male  teachers,  766;  female  teacliers, 
4,015.  The  State  Normal  School  at  Trenton,  opened  in  1855, 
has  a  three  years'  course.  The  New  Jer.sey  College  of  Agri- 
culture, at  N'ew  Brunswick,  is  the  scientific  school  of  Rut- 
gers College,  with  a  four  years'  course.  It  has  a  farm  of 
100  acres  .-nid  1;10  free  scholarships,  receives  State  aid  to  the 
amount  of  about  $7,000  annually,  and  had,  in  1892-93,  171 
students.  The  principal  higher  educational  institutions  are 
the  College  of  New  Jersey,  at  Princeton,  founded  in  1746; 


NKW    JKUSKV 

Rutjrers  ('ollc^i-,  iit  N'rw  Brunswick,  chiirtereil  as  Queen's 
Collff,'!-  (ITOti);  I{urlin,i;tou  Culleffe  (184tj)  imtl  St.  .Mary's 
Hall  (lH:i7),  at  HurliuKton  (I'rotcslaiit  Kpiscopal) ;  .Seton 
Hall  Colle^i',  at  .South  Oraufii'  (Uoiuaii  Catlmlic,  185G): 
Stevens  Institute  of  Teeliiiol(i;;j',  at  Iloljukeii:  'rheolufiical 
Seminary  (I'resbyterian),  at  I'rincetun :  Drew  'l"he<)lo{;ieal 
Seminary  (MetliiKlist),  at  .Madisnu;  (lerman  Tlieolnjfical 
Stlmdl  (i'nstiyteriaii),  at  Hloinntielil :  LawreiKcville  SehcHil; 
Peililie  liisliluti',  llij;litstown :  I'eiilenary  CuUefjiate  Insti- 
tute, at  Ihiekettstown  (.Methodist  Episenpal) ;  Newark  .Vead- 
emy  (IT'J'i):  Blair  I'resbytcrial  .Veailemy,  at  lilairstown ;  St. 
Klizalieth's  .Uwleniy,  for  girls  (Konuu)  Catholic),  near  Mor- 
ristown :  and  the  Pennington  Seminary,  for  both  sexes,  at 
Pennington. 

L'haritalile.  Refnrmntory.  ami  Peiinl  Iiinlilulidiix. — Tlirse 
comprise  the  State  prison,  at  Trenton,  built  in  1830  and 
since  much  enlarged:  the  .State  Ueform  School  tor  Boys,  at 
Jamesburg,  opene(l  in  1SG7,  witli  a  farm  of  490  acres;  the 
State  Industrial  .School  forttirls.  near  Trenton,  with  a  farm 
of  7!>  acres;  a  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  at  Trenton,  built  in 
1844;  a  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  at  Morris  Plains,  opened 
in  1870  at  a  cost  of  ^3.2")0.()(M) ;  the  Institution  for  Fceblc- 
rainde<l  Women,  at  Vineland.  opened  in  1888;  the  Training- 
school  for  Kecble-inindeil  Children  at  Vineland,  opened  in 
1888;  the  School  for  Deaf  .Mutes,  near  Trenton;  ami  the 
Soldiers'  Home  at  Kearney,  near  Newark.  There  are  juib- 
lic  county  asvlums  for  lunatics  in  Burlington,  Camden, 
Cumberland,  kssi'.\.  Gloucester,  Hudson,  Passaic,  and  Salem 
Counties. 

Political  Organization. — The  Governor  is  elected  for  a 
term  of  three  years,  and  can  not  h(d(l  the  otTice  for  two  con- 
secutive terms.  He  appoints  most  of  the  members  of  the 
judiciary,  and  many  heads  of  departments  ami  executive 
otticers.  The  Legislature  consisted  in  1894  of  a  Senate  of 
twenty-one  members,  and  a  (Jeneral  Assembly  of  sixty  mem- 
bers. Each  county  elects  one  Senator  for  a  term  of  three 
years,  one-third  of  the  binly  being  elected  each  year.  The 
Legislature  meets  annually,  with  no  limit  of  session.  The 
right  of  sullrago  is  enjoyed  by  every  male  citizen  of  the 
U.  S.,  of  tlu'  age  of  twenty-one  years,  who  shall  have  been  a 
resilient  of  the  State  one  year,  and  of  the  county  in  which 
he  claims  his  vote  five  months  next  before  the  election, 
excepting  idiots,  insane  paupers,  and  convicts  not  pardoned 
or  restored  by  law  to  the  right  of  suffrage.  A  modification 
of  the  .\ustralian  ballot  system  is  in  operation. 

Ilintori/. — The  earliest  while  settlers  of  New  Jersey  were 
the  Dutch,  who  between  l(il4  and  16'21  founded  the  colony 
of  New  Netherlands  on  the  territory  between  the  Iludgon 
and  Delaware  rivers.  In  lti(i4  this  region  passed  to  the 
P'nglish.  and  the  Duke  of  York,  who  held  a  grant  from  the 
king,  imule  it  over  to  .lohn.  Lord  Berkeley,  and  Sir  George 
Carteret.  The  province  was  named  in  honor  of  Carteret, 
who  had  distinguished  himsidf  wliile  governor  of  the  island 
of  Jersey.  The  proprietors  established  a  government,  re- 
publican in  its  character,  which  continued  until  lOTli.  when 
the  province  wa^  divided  into  East  Jersey  and  West  .lersey 
by  a  line  drawn  from  Little  Egg  Harbor  to  a  point  on  the 
Delaware  in  lat.  41  40  N.  'riie  two  divisions  remained 
distinct  until  1702,  when  the  proprietors  surrendered  their 
powers  of  government  to  the  crown,  reserving  their  exclu- 
sive right  to  dispose  of  the  soil.  Thereafter,  until  the  Revo- 
lution, New  Jersey  was  a  royal  province.  From  17(KJ  to 
1738  the  provinces  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  had  the 
same  governors.  There  were  no  Indian  troubles,  ami  the 
course  of  provincial  history  after  1702  was  prosperous  and 
uneventful.  On  .Inly  2,  1771),  two  days  liefore  the  Declara- 
tion of  Indi'pendeiicc.  tlii'  provincial  congress  adopted  a 
constitution  fur  an  indeiH-mlent  State,  which  was  ratilieil  on 
July  18,  177t),  ami  under  this  the  State  wils  governeil  until 
1844.  New  Jersey  wius  lighting-ground  during  most  of  the 
Revolution.  The  important  battles  of  Trenton.  Princeton, 
and  Monmouth,  with  other  minor  eniragnnents,  were  fought 
within  her  borilers.  Washington  was  in  winter  (luartiTs  at 
MoRKisTow.N  ((/.  r.)  in  1777.  ami  in  1779-80  ami  1780-81. 
William  Palerson.  of  New  .lersev,  was  eminently  intluential 
in  the  convention  that  framed  the  Federal  Constitution, 
which  was  ratifii'd  by  the  .State  on  Dec.  18,  1787.  In  this 
wise  anil  patriotic  art  New  Jersey  was  antieipateil  only  by 
Delaware  and  Pennsylvania.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that 
the  State  constitution  of  1770  allowed  universal  sullrage, 
both  mail'  and  fi'inale.  white  anil  colored,  subject  to  a  prop- 
erty ipuilificatioii  of  t'.'iO.  Woniiii  conlimicd  to  vote  until 
18t)7.  .\  new  constitution  was  adopted  in  1844,  and  amend- 
ed in  187.J. 


NEW   JER.SEY,  COLLEGE  OF 


149 

during  the 

numbircd 

organizing, 

"her  troops 


UOVERXUKS   OF   .NEW  JERSEY. 

William  LivinRSton }~<i-9U    Rridmaii  >I.  Price IRVJ-.'.? 

William  riili-rsou 1790-93    William  A.  Newel] IKSV-OO 

Kichuril  H<jw.-ll 17113-mu    t'luirles  S.  Oldeu Ison-6:j 

.los.-ph  Blconillcld IHOl-Oa  ,  Joel  I'arker I«6:t-«i6 

JmIiu  Uitnlirrt  luctiUKi...  ISt'S-OS  i  Marcus  L.  Ward I8<W-()9 

.l..s,-iih  m,.oinlifld 1S(M-12  !  Tlii-odore  K.  Randolijh  . . .  isiiura 

Aan.u  Oitdeii. lHia-1.'}    Jc*l  I'arker IKT2-T5 

Williiiiii  S.  PenniliKtou...   1814-15    Joscpli  I).  Bedle IW-I-TS 

Mahl.iii  tiiek.Tsi.li 1M1.V17  I  Cieuri.'.-  H.  McClellan 1«78-«1 

Isaac  H.  Willittiiisiin 1817-29    (jtornt-  L'.  Ludlow 18H1-JM 

llarrel  I).  Wall  ldeclille<h.         \ltia    Lpmi.  .\|jh.-tl IStH-OT 

I'.Ier  I>.  Vr.M.ni KiaB-ia  I  Koberl  .><.  (ireon 1HH7-90 

Samuel  L.  .Southard 18SS-ai  I  Leon  Al)bett 1890-93 

Klins  P.  Seeley 1«B  I  (ieorRe  T  We rts 1R9S-96 

I'eler  D.  Vroom 1833-.(t)    John  \V.  tJriKgs 1896- 

Phileinon  Diekerson 18Sti-87 

Williniii  Pennington 18.37-13 

Haniil  Haines IS^H-IS  | 

Charles  C.  Stratton 1W.V48  i 

lianiel  Haines 1W8-51 

George  F.  Fort 1851-51 1 

.\iTiioRiTiES. — .See  the  State  Archives,  16  vols.;  Cook, 
Geolof/i/  of  Xew  Jemey  (1868);  publications  and  Proceed- 
ings ii(  the  New  Jersey  Historical  Society;  Elmer,  Tlie  Con- 
atilntiiin  and  (ioifrnment  of  the  Prorince  and  Slate  of  Xew 
Jerneg  (1872);  Maclean.  Ilislonj  of  l/w  College  of  Xeic  Jer- 
sey (Philadelphia,  1877);  Mulford,  I'iril  and  Political  His- 
tory of  Xew  Jersey  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1831);  Raum, 
History  of  Xew  Jersey ;  Smith,  History  of  Xew  Jersey  (Bur- 
lington, 1765;  2d  ed.  1877):  Gordon.  History  and  (iazelleer 
of  Xew  Jersey  (1844) ;  Barber  and  Howe,  iVeK'  Jersey  His- 
torical Collections.  Frederic  Adams. 

New  Jersey,  Col  lege  of:  an  institution  of  learning  (whose 
corporate  name  was  changed  in  1896  to  I^inceloii  I'niversity) 
founded  under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of 
New  York,  which  then  included  New  Ji'rsey.  Chartered  by 
New  Jersey  in  174(>.  it  was  opened  in  Elizabethtown  in  May, 
1747,  received  a  more  liberal  charter  in  1748.  was  removed 
to  Newark,  and  finally  to  Princeton  in  1757,  where  a  large 
building  was  erected  named  Nassau  Hall,  in  memory  of 
William  III.  of  the  house  of  Nassau.  It  was  occupied  as  a 
barracks  and  a  hospital  both  by  the  colonial  and  the  British 
troops  in  the  Revolution,  (tcu.  Washington  drove  the  Brit- 
ish from  its  walls  .Ian.  :i.  1777.  Tlu^  Continental  Congress 
met  in  it  in  178:!.  ami  the  members  of  Congress  and  Gen. 
Washington  attended  Hie  comnu'iiccment  in  that  year. 
(ieii.  Wasliington  presented  fifty  guineas  to  the  trustees  to 
repair  the  damages  of  war,  which  were  apiironriated  for  a 
ptulrait  of  Washington  by  the  elder  Peale.  Dr.  Witherspoon 
and  two  of  the  ahuniii.  Richard  Stocktcm  and  Benjamin 
Rush,  were  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Rev.  Jonathan  Dickinson  was  the  first  president  from  .May 
to  Oct.,  1747.  Rev.  Dr.  James  McCosh  was  president  from 
1868  to  June,  1888.  Active  and  energetic,  his  reputation 
greatly  ailvanced  the  interests  of  the  college.  The  faculty 
was  enlarged,  the  nuinlH>r  of  students  increased,  new  studies 
introduced,  nine  large  buildings  erected,  and  the  funds 
greatly  augmented,  .\mong  its  benefactors  have  been  N. 
Norris  llalstrad.  who  erected  the  observatory.  John  C.  Green, 
anil  Henry  G.  Marijuand.  Mr.  Green  gave  ^750.000  to  found 
a  schoiil  of  science,  erect  a  library,  Dickinson  Hall,  and  for 
other  objects.  The  trustees  of  his  estate  erected  Wither- 
spoon Hall  and  Edwards  Hall  and  Chemical  Hall,  enlarged 
the  school  of  science,  and  endowed  a  number  of  professor- 
ships. These  donations  have  amounted  to  $2,.5tKl.(KX).  In 
1882  Jlr.  Marqiiand  erected  a  handsome  chapel,  costing 
^I25.(K10.  and  other  friends  placed  in  the  observatory  one  of 
the  largest  telescopes  ever  constructed.  William  Libbcy, 
Sr.,  who  founded  the  museum  of  geologv  and  archieologv  at 
a  I'ost  of  :j:l(KI.O00,  also  presented  to  tlie  ci>llege  the  Uni- 
versity Hotel,  which  cost  more  than  $250,000. 

The  college  year  is  divideil  into  two  terms;  most  of  the 
studies  are  elective  in  the  junior  and  senior  year.s.  There 
are  many  prizes  and  fellowships,  the  recipients  of  the  latter 
being  ri'i|uired  to  pursue  a  prescribed  cours»>  of  study  for  one 
year  after  graduation.  The  John  C.  Green  Sidiool  of  Science 
Is  now  in  operation.  There  are(1894)42  professors.  ;14  tutors 
and  assistants,  and  1,109  students.  The  post-graduate  courses 
are  increasing.  In  1892  tliev  had  110  students.  President 
Francis  L.  Patton.  D.  D..  LL.  D..  was  inaiignratod  June  20, 
18^18.  Since  that  time  the  faculty  has  been  enlarged,  the  nam- 


150 


NEW  JERSEY  TEA 


NEW  JERUSALEM,  CHURCH  OF  THE 


ber  of  stiulents  increased  by  more  than  300,  and  more  than 
$2,000,000  has  been  given  to  the  college,  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  hirge  and  beautiful  buildings.  The  college  and  society  li- 
braries contain  105,000  volumes.  The  number  of  graduates  is 
(ly!l4)  nearly  0,000,  among  whom  have  been  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  men  in  Church  and  state,  the  most  eminent 
being  James  Madison,  fourth  President  of  the  U.  S.  Within 
the  last  twenty  years  |4,000,000  have  been  contril.)uted  by 
friends  to  the  college.  The  buildings  are  mostly  of  stone, 
and  occupy  the  campus,  which  runs  parallel  with  the  main 
street  of  the  town.  The  grounds  are  shaded  with  fine  trees. 
Xassan  Hall.  East  and  West  Colleges,  the  American  Whig 
and  Cliosophic  halls  form  a  fine  quadrangle,  within  wliich 
are  planted  two  Revohuionary  cannon.  The  other  buildings 
lie  E.  and  S.  W.  of  this  quadrangle.  The  geological  and 
archieological  museum  in  Nassau  Hall  and  the  museum  of 
natural  history  in  the  Scliool  of  Science  are  rapidly  growing 
in  importance.  Sec  INIaclean,  History  of  the.  College  of  New 
Jersey  (3  vols..  Philadel[ihia,  1877).      Henry  C.  Cameron. 

Nov  Jersey  Tea :  a  small  shrub  (Ceaiiothus  americaniis) 
belonging  to  "the  Buckthorn  family  (Rhamnacece),  whose 
leaves  were  used  as  a  substitute  for  tea  during  the  American 
Revolution.  The  other  species  of  the  genus  Ceanothns  are 
abundant  in  Western  and  Southwestern  U.  S.  See  Ceano- 
THUS.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

New  Jenisaleiii.  Church  of  the :  the  name  taken  by  a 
body  of  Christian  worshipers  who  accept  as  true  the  doc- 
trines taught  in  the  theological  writings  of  Emanuel  Swe- 
denborg.  (See  Swedenborg,  Emanuel.)  In  1787,  fifteen 
years  after  Swedenborg's  death,  the  first  organization  for 
worship  on  the  basis  of  those  doctrines  was  formed  in  Lon- 
don, and  consisted  of  sixteen  persons.  Two  years  later  a 
genei'al  conference  was  held,  also  in  London,  of  believers  in 
the  new  faith.  Prom  that  time  to  the  present  similar  meet- 
ings have  been  held  annually  in  England,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  years;  anil  in  1821  a  legal  body  was  formed  under 
the  title.  The  General  Conference  of  the  Ministers  and  other 
Members  of  the  New  Church,  signified  by  the  New  Jerusa- 
lem in  the  Ajiocalypse  or  Revelation  of  John. 

This  church  has  flourished  principally  in  England,  the 
U.  S..  and  Canada,  though  a  few  scattered  societies  are  to 
be  found  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  beginnings  in 
the  U.  S.  were  but  little  later  than  those  in  England,  tlie 
first  regular  society,  with  a  minister  at  its  head,  having  been 
formed  in  Baltimore,  Aid.,  in  the  year  1792.  In  1817  the 
body  now  known  as  The  General  Convention  of  the  New 
Jerusalem  in  the  Ifnited  States  of  America  was  organized  at 
a  meeting  held  in  Philadelphia.  From  that  time  till  1893 
it  has  held  seventy-three  annual  sessions.  This  body  was 
incorporated  in  the  year  1861,  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of 
Illinois,  and  includes  the  larger  part  of  those  in  the  U.  S. 
and  Canada  who  openly  accept  the  doctrines  of  the  New 
Church.  It  consists  of  eleven  "  associations  "  and  other  lo- 
cal organizations,  comprising  in  the  aggregate  107  societies, 
or  worshiping  assemblies,  with  95  ministers  and  6,461  mem- 
bers. If  the  isolated  and  scattered  believers  be  added  to  the 
foregoing,  the  total  would  probably  be,  in  round  numbers, 
10.000.  Besides  the  above,  not  a  few  who  retain  their  con- 
nection with  other  Christian  bodies  are  known  to  favor  the 
teachings  of  Swedenborg. 

The  term  New  Cliurch,  or  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem, 
is  used  by  those  who  adopt  it  not  only  because  Swedenborg 
himself  uses  it,  but  because  his  writings  seem  to  them  to 
contain  a  complete  new  sy.stem  of  Christian  doctrine.  With- 
out setting  aside  anything  that  is  true  in  the  old  Christianity, 
the  new  system  claims  to  be  a  deeper  unfolding  of  the  Scrip- 
tures and  of  God's  nature  and  purposes  as  revealed  therein. 
Swedcidiorg  was  no  organizer  of  religious  institutions,  but 
confined  himself  to  a  statement  of  the  principles  on  which 
others,  at  their  discretion,  may  establish  them.  These  all 
center  in  three  general  or  essential  ones,  which  relate  re- 
spectively (1)  to  God,  (2)  to  Divine  revelation  or  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  (3)  to  heavenly  life  and  happiness.  These  three 
subjects  may  properly  be  considered  in  their  order. 

Vonreniiiii/  O'ikI. — 1.  (iod  is  one  in  essence  and  in  per- 
son, and  can  never  be  thought  of  otherwise  without  griev- 
ous error.  2.  Not  <mly  did  he  create  all  other  beings  in  the 
beginidng,  but  by  the  unceasing  communication  of  his  life 
he  continually  preserves  them ;  so  that  preserv.ation  is  per- 
petual creation.  3.  lie  is,  in  his  essence,  perfect  love  and 
wisdom.  Love  is  his  inmost  nature,  and  wisdom  is  the 
means  whereby  love  gives  itself  expression  and  carries  out 
its  purposes.     His  love  is  absolute  goodness,  his  wisdom  ab- 


solute truth.  4.  His  Divine  Providence  is  the  active  oper- 
ation and  oversight  of  infinite  love  and  wisdom  in  the  gov- 
errnnent  of  men.  They  live  because  he  loves  them,  and  the 
ruling  purpose  of  his  providence  is  their  spiritual  and  eter- 
nal welfare ;  but  true  happiness  can  be  realized  only  in  the 
exercise  of  freedom.  Man  is  therefore  created  a  free  agent. 
This  freedom  renders  possible  a  reciprocal  relationship  be- 
tween him  and  God  on  the  basis  of  nmtual  love ;  but  it  also 
involves  possibilities  of  an  opposite  character.  Accordingly, 
the  origin  of  evil  is  due  to  man's  abuse  of  his  freedom.  5. 
God  can  not  be  known  or  apprehended  by  finite  men  except 
so  far  as  he  is  revealed  in  a  manner  accommodated  to  their 
limited  powers  of  thought  and  sight.  The  theophanies,  or 
divine  ai;i|iearances,  recorded  in  the  (!)ld  Testament  were 
produced  by  his  filling  an  angel  with  his  presence,  and  be- 
ing thus  seen  as  a  man.  6.  Moi-e  marked  than  any  of  these 
manifestations  was  that  which  found  expression  in  the  birth 
of  Jesus  Christ,  which  event,  according  to  the  New  Church 
theology,  was  simply  the  way  in  which  the  one  God  Jeho- 
vah came  into  nearer  and  more  definite  relations  with  his 
human  family.  He  clothed  himself  with  their  nature  so 
that  outwardly  he  was  a  man  like  themselves,  but  inwardly 
"the  everlasting  Father."  His  nature  had  at  first  its  own 
distinct  life  and  consciousness.  Being  derived,  in  part, 
from  a  finite  human  mother,  it  inherited  her  imperfections, 
with  tendencies  to  evil  and  liabilities  to  temptation.  By 
means  of  temptations  successfully  resisted  he  overcame  evil 
and  hell,  and  thus  brought  redemption  to  men.  In  this 
[irocess,  which  was  gradually  effected,  his  human  nature 
was  wonderfully  transformed.  Its  evil  and  limiting  con- 
ditions were  put  away,  and  there  came  down  into  the  place 
of  them  the  perfect  goodness  and  wisdom  of  the  Father. 
In  other  words,  his  human  was  glorified,  or  made  divine. 
He  became  to  eternity  "Emmanuel,  God  with  us."  The 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  as  thus  embodying  in  himself  all  of  dei- 
ty, is  the  one  true  object  of  Christian  worship.  7.  There  is 
a  Trinity  in  God.  though  not  a  Trinity  of  persons,  but  a 
threefold  or  trinal  order  of  being,  such  as  finds  exjiression 
in  the  one  person  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  Man  is  made 
"  in  the  image,  after  the  likeness,"  of  God ;  and  in  him  is  a 
trinity  of  soul,  body,  and  proceeding  life  or  operation.  In 
God  likewise  is  the  inmost  and  in.scrutable  Divinity,  or  the 
Father;  the  Divine  Human  or  the  Son,  bringing  the  Fa- 
ther forth  to  view ;  and  the  Divine  proceeding  life  or  en- 
ergy, pictured  by  the  Ijord's  breathing  on  his  disciples. 
These  are  the  constituent  parts  or  elements  of  one  Divine 
person,  each  being  essential  to  a  full  conception  of  him. 

The  Scrijifnres. — According  to  Swedenboi'g,  the  Bible,  or 
Sacred  Scripture,  is  the  veritable  Word  of  (iod,  uttered  by 
him  through  writers  whose  minds  he  used  as  his  instru- 
ments. It  is  divine  not  only  from  the  fact  that  God  gave 
it,  but  also  because  it  partakes  of  his  nature  and  quality. 
Tlie  truth  which  it  contains  is  infinite.  Tlic  natural  or  literal 
sense  of  Scrijiture  is  its  least  and  lowest  part.  Within  that 
sense  are  higher  senses  or  degrees  of  meaning,  which  are 
distinct  from  and  yet  make  one  with  the  letter.  In  other 
words,  the  Scriptures  are  written  by  what  Swedenborg 
terms  correspondences.  That  is  to  say,  every  object,  place- 
or  person  that  is  mentioned  in  them  represents  something 
that  pertains  to  the  mental  or  spiritual  life  of  man.  By  the 
interpretation  of  these  representatives  or  correspondences  a 
connected  spiritual  sense  is  obtained  entirely  difTerent  from 
the  sense  of  the  letter,  and  serving  to  show  tliat  the  Scrip- 
tures, though  outwardly  clothed  in  thoughts  and  language 
borrowed  from  natural  men,  are  internally  and  essentially 
the  living  truth  of  God.  The  law  of  correspondence  is  not 
arbitrary,  but  coincides  with  the  law  of  creation  itself ;  for 
every  natural  object  exists  from  a  spiritual  cause,  and  is  the 
visible  form  and  embodiment  of  some  particular  phase  of 
spiritual  life,  to  which  it  is  said  to  correspond.  Cf  the  re- 
lation between  the  natural  and  spiritual  worlds  more  will 
be  .said  below.  By  means  of  correspondence  the  Word  is  in 
its  literal  sense  brought  down  to  all  possible  conditions  of 
human  character,  so  that  it  may  reach  every  man  where  he 
stands,  and  help  him  to  ascend  to  a  higher  state  of  life. 
Many  corres]iondences  are  obvious,  and  constantly  occur  in  ' 
common  language.  Heat,  for  instance,  corresponds  to  love, 
light  lo  wisdom,  and  water  to  cleansing  truth.  Most  of 
Swedenborg's  theological  writings  are  devoted  to  an  expo- 
sition of  the  spiritual  sense  of  Scripture  by  applying  there- 
to the  doctrine  of  correspondence.  Of  our  common  Bible, 
the  books  of  Ruth.  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehemiali,  Esther,  Job, 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Song  of  Solomon,  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  the  Acts  and  Epistles  in  the  New,  have  no 


M:\V    KENSINGTON 


NEWMAN 


151 


I'oiitinuous  spiritual  seiiso,  and  wore  iiflt  written  under  tlie 
same  full  ins|>initii)n  us  tlu^  reinaiuiui;  books,  wliicli  niTitiiiu 
tliat  siiisi'.  riir  first  Lliai>lci-s  of  (ieui-sls  have  only  s|)ir- 
iUial  trutli,  the  historii-al  truth  liefjinuin^  with  the  life  of 
Aliriihain.  The  reuiaiiider  of  the  Word,  with  few  exeep- 
tioMs.  deals  with  actual  history,  yel  holds  the  deeper  nu'an- 
in^  within. 

llenivnly  Life  and  Happiness. — All  of  Swedcnborji's 
teaehiutfs  are  a'lTeeted  by  the  definite  instruction  whidi  he 
giyes  respeetinj;  the  other  world.  He  shows  that  the  lat- 
ter is  not"  far  oil  in  space,  but  an  inner  realm  of  being,  al- 
ways present,  and  bearing'  the  same  relation  to  the  world 
of  nature  that  a  man's  spirit  bears  to  his  body.  Indeed, 
the  spirits  .if  all  men  are  liyinj;.  Ihoutrh  unconseioiisly.  in 
the  spiritual  world,  and  when  their  natural  bodies  die  they 
wake  to  a  clear  perception  of  its  realities.  The  spiritual 
body,  of  which  I'aul  speaks,  is  an  essential  part  of  the  hu- 
man organism.  The  spiritual  world  is  real  and  suljstaii- 
tial.  though  intaiiijible  to  natural  senses.  It  is  full  of  visi- 
ble persons  and  objects  like  those  on  earth,  as  appears  from 
the  fact  that  they  were  seen  by  the  prophets  and  otliers 
when  the  eyes  of  their  spirits  were  opened.  Such  opening 
-  I>osslblo'to  all  men.  but  is  seldom  permitted,  and  then 
Illy  for  some  spec'ial  purpose.  Swedcnbors;  allirms  that  it 
Wit-i  his  own  freipient  experience,  in  order  that  he  miglil  un- 
derstand the  tiling  which  it  was  his  utlice  to  teach;  but  he 
warns  his  readers  against  the  dangers  of  intercourse  with 
spirits,  except  when  it  comes  unsought,  and  so  by  Divine 
permission. 

Heaven  is  in  its  essence  a  state  of  the  mind,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  hell.  The  one  is  a  stale  which  is  ruled  by  love  of 
the  Lord  and  the  neighbor;  the  other,  a  state  in  which 
love  of  self  and  the  world  is  supreme.  So  far  as  man  cher- 
ishes heavenly  atlectious  he  is  brought  into  harmonious  re- 
lations with  heaven,  and  is  actually  making  heaven  his 
home.  In  like  maimer,  so  far  as  he  cherishes  selfish  and 
Worldly  loves,  or — what  is  the  same — indulges  his  evil  tend- 
encies, he  brings  himself  under  the  iulluence  of  infernal 
-pirits.  and  becomes  identified  with  them.  After  death  he 
linils  a  permanent  abode  in  the  other  world,  according  to 
the  choice  which  he  has  made  here.  No  one  is  condemned 
to  hell,  but  each  one  who  goes  there  condemns  himself. 
The  pure  atmos|phere  of  unselfish  love  which  rules  in  heaven 
is  but  torment  to  those  who  are  conftrined  in  evil,  and  they 
turn  away  from  it  to  a  more  congenial  life  and  companion- 
ship. .Iames  Keeu. 

New  Koiisiiigtou :  borough  (founded  in   18!)1):   Wcst- 

morelauil  t Pa.  {for  location  of  county,  see  mat)  of  Peini- 

>y|yania.  ref.  'y-\i) ;  on  the  Allegheny  river,  ami  the  Alle- 
i:heny  Valley  liailway ;  18  miles  N!  E.  of  Pittsburg.  It 
•  ontains  4  churches,  3  school  buiUlings,  a  bank,  a  weekly 
iicwspa|x>r,  and  several  glass-works,  foundry  and  innchine- 
>liop.  and  reduction,  cold-rolled  steel,  stone,  aiul  white-lead 
works.     Pop.  (181)4)  estimated,  7,0()U. 

Editor  ok  "  Dispatch." 

New  Lebanon  ;  town ;  Columbia  co..  N.  Y.  (for  location 
of  county,  SIC  map  of  New  York,  ref.  0->l) ;  on  the  Lebanon 
Springs  Kailroad  ;  "^4  miles  S.  E.  of  Alliany.  It  contains 
the  villages  of  Lebanon  Springs,  a  sununer  resort  noted  for 
its  thermal  springs.  New  Lebanon  Center,  West  Lebanon. 
New  Britain,  ami  Tihlcn's,  and  the  Shaker  community  of 
Mt.  Lebanon;  is  in  an  agricultural  region;  atiii  contains  a 
seminary  for  girls,  several  hotels,  churches,  public  schools, 
and  manufactories  of  thermometers,  glass,  nuichinery,  Mo\ir, 
luMd)er.  pharmaceutical  preparations,  brooms,  and  vinegar. 
Pop.  (\H>i{))  -i.-iir, ;  (18!>0)  1.70."). 

New  Leon  :  .See  Nlevo  Leox. 

New  Lexington:  village:  oanital  of  Perry  co.,  0.  (for 
hxation  of  county,  see  map  of  (tliio.  ref.  6-(i) :  on  the  Ohio 
Cent,  and  the  ('in.  ami  .Musk.  Valley  railways;  21  miles 
S.  W.  of  Zanesville.  .">:!  miles  .S.  of  (''olinnbus.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  hills  containing  valuable  deposits  of  coal,  and 
has  a  court-house,  complete<l  In  l.'iST  at  a  cost  of  :f  l."i().(KH). 
town-hall  which  cost  :i>12.<)(H>,  public-scluM)l  building  which 
cost  sjt'iO.IMM),  St.  Aloysins  I'Vmale  Academy,  a  private  bank, 
and  two  weekly  newspapers.  The  iinlustries  aii'  loal-min- 
iiig  ati.l  manufacturing.  Pop.  (18M0)  l.:i.-iT:  (IS'.td)  1.170; 
(18!)l)  l.Sdd.  Editor  ok  "  IIekald." 

New  Light  and  Old  Light:  terms  used  for  the  two  [lar- 
ties  in  the  Asso.'iatc  .Synods  of  Scotlaml,  about  1H(X),  and 
used  later  for  the  two  piirties  in  the  Uefornu'd  Prc-bylerian 
Church  in  the  1'.  •^.     S,-.'  Prksuvteria.n  CiiiRiu. 


New  Lisbon  (now  Lisbon):  village;  capital  of  Columbi- 
ana CO..  <). :  on  the  Beaver  river,  and  the  Erie  and  the  Pitts., 
Marion  and  Chi.  Hailway;  '.i't  udles  E.  of  Canton,  otj  udles 
W.  N.  W.  of  Pittsburg.  Pa.  (see  nuip  of  Ohio,  ref.  4-J).  It 
is  in  an  agricultural,  coal,  iron,  and  wool-growing  region,  and 
has  manufactories  of  fire-brick,  sewer-pipe,  and  woolen  goals, 
a  national  bank  with  capital  of  ^.^tMXMt,  a  private  bank,  and 
four  weekly  news].apers.     Pop.  (1880)  a,()'.'8  ;  (18!)0)  2,278. 

New  London  :  city  (founded  in  l(54(j,  name  changeil  from 
Naumeag  in  l(i.")8,  plundered  and  burned  by  the  British  in 
1781,  chartered  as  a  city  in  1784) ;  port  of  entry  ;  one  of  the 
capitals  of  New  London  co..  Conn.  (f<ir  location,  see  map  of 
Connecticut,  ref.  11-K);  on  the  Thames  river,  here  crossed 
by  a  noted  bridge  (see  URiWiKs),  9  miles  altove  its  entrance 
itilo  Long  Island  Sound,  and  on  the  Cent.  Yt.,  the  N.  Y.  and 
N.  E.,  and  the  N.  V.,  N.  II.  and  Hart,  railways;  40  miles 
S.  E.  of  Hartford.  50  miles  E.  of  New  Haven.  The  site 
rises  from  the  river  to  a  series  of  hills  back  of  the  city  and 
eommaiuls  an  attractive  stretch  of  scenery.  The  harbor  is 
considcreil  the  best  on  the  Sound,  is  S  miles  wide  and  30 
feet  deep,  Ihoruughly  iirotected  against  storms  and  floating 
ice,  defended  at  its  entrance  by  Fort  Trumbull,  and  was 
once  the  base  of  large  commercial  operations.  New  Lon- 
don hits  daily  steamboat  communication  with  New  York,  is 
much  frequented  in  summer  by  tourists,  and  contains  many 
sumnu-r  residences  of  peoijle  doing  business  elsewhere. 
There  are  12  churches,  the  Bulkeley  High  School  for  boys, 
the  Williams  Memorial  Institute  for  girls,  the  Haven  Public 
Library  building,  the  New  London  County  Historical  So- 
ciety (with  vahuible  library),  '.i  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  ^.^'lO.OOO,  2  savings-banks  with  surplus  of 
nearly  ^400,000,  »  State  bank  with  capital  of  .$:!00.000,  and 
a  weekly,  a  quarterly,  and  3  daily  periodicals.  The  city  has 
ample  water,  sewerage,  gas,  and  electric  light  plants,  and 
contains  4  ship-yards,  extensive  silk-mills,  iron-foundries, 
woolen-mill,  cotton-gin  factory,  large  .-iawmill,  printing- 
iiress  uuiiuit'actory.  and  numy  minor  industries.  The  river 
here  is  a  favorite  racing-course  for  college  rowing-clubs. 
Above  the  city  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  the 
U.  S.  Government  has  established  a  naval  .station.  Among 
the  attractions  is  Fort  Griswold,  an  earthwork  with  a  small 
battery,  the  scene  of  a  massacre  on  Sejit.  6.  1781.  which  is 
commemorated  by  a  shaft  127  feet  high.  Po]).  (1880)  10,- 
.'j37  :  (18i)0)  13.757".  Editor  ok  "Telkuhaph." 

New  London:  city;  Waupaca  co..  Wis.  (for  location  of 
couuly.  see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  5-E) ;  at  the  conttuence 
of  the  Wolf  and  the  Embarras  rivers,  and  on  the  Chi.  and 
N.  W.  and  the  Green  Bav,  Win.  aiul  SI.  P.  railways;  21 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Appletim.  30  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Green 
Bay.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  lumber  region  ;  has  plan- 
ing, saw,  and  Hour  mills,  breweries,  and  screen  door  and 
window,  furniture,  excelsior,  and  embossed-wood  factories; 
and  contains  a  private  bank,  weekly  newspajier.  and  water 
for  domestic  purposes  pronounced  the  luircst  in  the  State. 
Pop.  (1880)  1.808  ;  (1890)  2,050  ;  (1895)  2,494. 

Editor  ok  "  Tribune." 
Newman,  F^DWARD,  F.  L.  S. :  entomologist;  b.  at  Ilainp- 
stead,  England,  -May  13,  1801  ;  began  in  childhood  to  study 
natural  history,  especially  entomology  ;  established  and 
edited  The  Eniumoloiiiral  Magazine  18:«.  The  Kniumologist 
1840.  The  Zniiltnjist  1843.  anil  The  Phijtolixjisi  1844;  became 
in  1840  a  publisher,  and  issued,  besides  nniny  popular  works 
bv  other  writers,  his  own  Ilixluri/  of  liritinh  t'ernx  (1840); 
Dirlionan/  of  Jirilish  Jiinis  (l'8t)ti) ;  llliixlrated  yaJiiral 
Ilixtory  of  K'ritinh  .Vo/A.s  (1869) ;  Jlliislraled  A'ii/hici/  Jlin- 
tory  of  hritish  Butterflies  (1871).  and  several  minor  trea- 
tises. He  gave  almost  exclusiye  attention  for  several  yeai-s 
to  insects  injurious  to  vegetation.     D.  .lune  12.  1876. 

Newman,  F'rancis  William,  LL.  I). :  author:  b.  in  Lon- 
don, .lune  27,  1805;  educated  at  Ealing  and  at  Worcester 
College,  Oxford,  and  graduated  with  double  fii-st-class  hon- 
ors 182ti;  was  fellow  of  Baliol  1820-30,  when  he  resigned  on 
account  of  theological  objections  to  subscribing  tlu'  Thirty- 
nine  Articles;  traveled  extensively  in  the  East,  acipiiring  a 
familiar  knowledge  of  .\rabic  and  of  Oriental  literature,  but 
gniilually  beconung  widely  aliemited  from  Anglican  theol- 
ogy ;  was  chussieal  tutor  in  Bristol  College  from  IKU— 10, 
Professor  of  Classics  at  Manchester  New  College,  London, 
1840-16,  and  Professor  of  the  Latin  Language  and  Litera- 
ture at  University  College,  London,  ls.|0-63;  since  that 
time  has  devoted  lumself  exclusively  to  literature.  Similar 
in  mental  charaetiristics  to  his  brother,  he  has  diverged 
from  the  Church  of  England  in  precisely  the  op[iosile  dirvc- 


152 


NEWMA?ir 


NEW   MEXICO 


tion,  though  the  title  of  his  first  book  betrays  the  same 
longing  for  ecclesiastical  unity  which  led  Dr.  John  H.  New- 
man to  the  Church  of  Rome.  He  is  the  author  of  Catholic 
Union  :  Essayn  toward  a  Church  of  the  Future  and  the  Or- 
ganization of  Philanthropy  (1844);  a  scholarly  i?('s/o/-y  0/ 
the  Helirew  Jlonarclii/  (1847) ;  the  Soul,  its  Sorrows  and 
Aspiration/i  (1849  :  n.  e.  1882) ;  a  remarkable  autobiography 
entitled  Pfiases  of  Faith,  or  Passages  from  the  History  of 
my  Creed  (1850;  n.  e.  1881) ;  The  Odes'of  Horace  translated 
into  Unrhymed  Enylish  Meters  (1853) ;  Tlie  Iliad  of  Homer 
translated  into  Unrhymed  English  Meters  (18.56) ;  Theism. 
Doctrinal  and  Practical  (1858 ;  n.  e.  as  Hebrew  Theism. 
1874) ;  an  f^nglish-Arabic  Dictionary  in  Roman  type  (2  vols., 
1871) ;  Early  History  of  Cardinal  Xewmfin  (1891) ;  besides 
treatises  on  many  other  subjects,  including  mathematics, 
social  science,  politics,  elocution,  philology,  and  general  lit- 
erature, which  exhibit  great  scholarship  and  wonderful  ver- 
satility. .Some  have  been  gathered  up  in  his  Miscellanies 
(4  vols.,  1869-90).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Newman,  John  Henry,  D.  D.  :  religious  leader ;  b.  in 
London,  Feb.  21,  1801  ;  educated  at  Ealing  and  at  Trinity 
College,  Oxford;  graduated.B.  A.  1820  ;  was  chosen  a  fellow 
of  Oriel  1823  ;  took  Anglican  orders  1824  ;  was  vice-princi- 
pal of  St.  Albans  Half  1825-36;  tutor  of  Oriel  1826:  op- 
posed Catholic  emancipation  1829  ;  was  one  of  the  univer- 
sity preachers  1830;  joined  with  Hurrell  Proude  in  forming 
a  conservative  Anglo-Catholie  party  within  the  Church  of 
England  :  visited  Rome  and  Sicily  1832-33  ;  took  part  with 
Keble  and  Pusey  in  originating  the  Oxford  Movement ;  was 
a  leader  in  the  propaganda  of  High  Church  doctrines  by 
means  of  the  celebrated  I'raets  for  the  Times ;  rapidly  de- 
veloped his  tendencies  toward  Roman  Catholicism  ;  was  in 
1828-43  incumbent  of  St.  Mary"s,  Oxford,  and  chaplain  of 
Littlemore,  and  acquired  great  fame  as  a  preacher  and 
writer;  founded  at  Littlemore  in  1842  a  community  of  as- 
cetics. In  1845  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood, 
and  in  1849  established  a  branch  of  the  brotherhood  of  St. 
Philip  Neri  at  Edgbaston,  where  he  took  up  his  residence. 
He  delivered  lectures  on  Anglican  Difficulties  in  1850,  and 
on  Catholicism  in  England  in  1851.  The  latter,  in  which 
he  depicted  the  popular  prejudices  against  Roman  Catholics 
with  great  powers  of  irony  and  satire,  gave  rise  to  an  action 
for  libel  by  Dr.  Uiovani'ii  Giacinto  Achilli.  The  verdict 
went  against  Newman,  and  he  was  condemned  to  pay  tlOO, 
after  a  famous  trial  which  cost  him  upward  of  £10,600,  for 
which  he  was  reimlnirsed  bv  his  friends.  He  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  the  Tracts  for  the  'Times  (1833^1),  including  the 
famous  Tract  A'o.  00;  Parochial  Sermons  (6  vols.,  London, 
1834—42)  ;  Essay  on  Deivlopment  of  Christian  Doctrine 
(1845) ;  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Century  (1833) ;  T?ieon/  of 
Religious  Belief  (1844) ;  Loss  and  Gain  (1848) ;  CaUista.  a 
Sketch  of  the  Third  Century  {1S55) ;  Apologia  pro  Vita  Mea 
(1864).  afterward  recast  as  A  History  of  my  Religious  Opin- 
ions (1865) ;  An  Essay  in  Aid  of  a  Grammar  of  Assent 
(1870) ;  A  History  of  Arianism  (1875) ;  many  sermons,  lec- 
tures, essays,  poems,  and  other  works,  including  a  reply  to 
Gladstone's  pam[)ldpt  on  The  Vatican  Decrees  (1875)  and  A 
Letter  addressed  to  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Xorfolk.  He 
was  made  a  cardinal  Alay  12,  1879.  D.  at  Edgbaston,  Bir- 
mingham, Aug.  11,  1890."  See  his  Letters,  written  while  in 
the  Chin-ch  of  England  (2  vols.,  1891),  and  E.  A.  Abbott, 
Anglican  Career  of  Cardinal  Newman  (3  vols.,  1893). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Newman.  John  Philip,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  bishop  ;  b.  in  New 
York  city.  Sc^jit.  1,  1S26;  educated  at  Cazenovia  Seminary; 
became  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  ;  was 
for  several  vears  pastor  of  the  Metropolitan  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.  Washington,  D.  C,  and  chaplain  of  the  U.  S. 
Senate  1869- r4 ;  was  pastor  Madison  Avenue  Congregational 
Church,  New  York.  1882-84.  In  1886  he  again  became  pastor 
of  the  Metropolitan  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  was 
elected  bishop  :\Iay  24.  1888.  and  settled  in  Omaha,  Neb. 
He  is  a  miMnl)er  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archa^ologv,  and 
author  of  Fnmi  Dan  to  Bee.'rsheba:  The  Tlirones  and  Pal- 
aces of  Haltyton  and  Xineveh  (1875);  Christianity  Tri- 
umphant [\XHl):  America  for  Americans  (1887);  The  Su- 
premacy of  Law  (1S90).  Revised  by  A.  Osbobn. 

Newmarket:  town  of  Ensland;  partly  in  the  countv  of 
Carnliridgc,  partly  in  that  of  Suffolk;  69'miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  10-K).  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  most  famous  race-course  in  England,  and  in  1891  had 
6,213  inhaliitants,  most  of  whom  are  jockeys,  grooms,  train- 
ers, and  stablemen. 


Newmarket :  post-village  of  York  County,  Ontario,  Cana- 
da; on  the  Northern  Railway;  34  miles  N.'of  Toronto  (see 
map  of  Ontario,  ref.  4-D).  it  has  two  weekly  newspapers, 
important  manufactures,  and  trade.  Pop.  of  sub-district 
(1891)  2,143. 

New  Market :  town ;  R(.ckingham  co..  N.  II.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  New  Hampshire,  ref.  10-G) :  on 
the  Lamprey  river,  and  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad; 
14  miles  \V.  of  Portsmoutli,  38  miles  E.  of  Concord.  It 
contains  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  §80.000.  a  town 
library  (founded  1872).  and  a  daily  and  two  monthly  peri- 
odicals, and  is  principally  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  goods.     Pop.  (1880)  2.368;  (1890)  2.742. 

Editor  of  "Advertiser." 

Newmarket  Road,  Battle  of;  See  Fraziers  Farm, 
Battle  of. 

New  Mecklenburgr.  or  New  Ireland  (native  Tambara) : 
an  island  of  the  Bismarck  Archipelago,  N.  E.  of  New 
Guinea.  It  is  the  second  largest  island  of  the  group,  and  is 
separated  from  the  largest  (New  Pomerania)  by  a  strait  so 
narrow  that  it  was  long  undiscovci-ed,  and  was  later  half 
choked  by  a  volcanic  eruption  near  it.  It  is  about  200  miles 
long  by  20  or  30  broad,  lies  N.  W.  and  S.  E..  and  contains 
about  4.000  sq.  miles.  It  is  generally  mountainous,  higher 
at  the  western  end.  It  is  but  little  known,  anil  attempts  to 
colonize  have  been  unsuccessful.  In  climate  and  popula- 
tion it  is  similar  to  New  Pomerania  {g.  v.).  It  is  under 
German  protection.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

New  Mexico :  one  of  the  Territories  of  the  U.  S.  of  North 
America  (Western  group) ;  organized  Sept.  9,  18.50 ;  capital, 
Santa  Fe. 

Location  and  Area. — It  lies  between  31°  20'  and  37°  N. 
lat.,  and  103'  2  and  109=  2'  W.  Ion.;  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  Colorado, 
on  the  E.  by 
Indian  Terri- 
tory and  Tex- 
as, on  the  S. 
liy  Texas  and 
Mexico,  on 
the  W.  by  Ari- 
zona ;  length 
from  N.  to  S., 
.345  miles  on 
the  east  side, 
380  miles  on 
the  west  side ; 
lireadth  from 
E.  to  W.,  330 
miles  on  the 
north  line, 
3.52  miles  on 
the  south ; 
area,  122,.580 
sq.  miles  (78,- 
451,200  acres). 

Physical  Features. — New  Mexico  forms  a  part  of  the  lofty 
table-land  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  Rocky  Jlountain 
ranges,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Sierra  Madrc.  This  table-land 
gradually  slopes  southward  to  the  Llano  E.stacado.or  Staked 
Plain,  and  to  El  Paso.  The  Llano  Estacado  is  a  broad,  al- 
most level,  treeless,  and  waterless  plain,  extending  over 
three  or  four  degrees  of  longitude  and  nearly  as  many  of 
latitude,  which  is  apparently  barren,  but  is  capable,  if  irri- 
gated, of  yielding  large  crops.  From  the  elevated  table- 
land there  rise  hundreds  of  summits  of  the  Rockv  Moun- 
tains, and  W.  of  the  Rio  Grande  the  peaks  of  the  Sierra 
Madre  lift  themselves  from  3,000  to  10,000  feet  above  the 
mesa  or  plateau.  The  mountain  chains  E.  of  the  Rio 
Grande  valley  are  known  locally  as  the  Guadalupe,  Sacra- 
mento, and  Organ  Mountains,'  and  still  farther  E.  the 
Sierras  Blanca.  tlueca,  Capitana,  etc..  which  form  the  west- 
ern boundary  of  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Pecos.  W.  of  the  Rio 
Grande  the  Sierra  Madre  is  divided  into  numerous  chains 
and  some  isolated  peaks.  The  principal  of  these  mountain 
chains  are  the  Sierra  San  JIateo,  the  Zuni  Mountains,  the 
Sierra  del  Datil,  and  the  Sierra  Mimbrcs.  Still  farther  W. 
the  San  Juan  Mountains  enter  New  Mexico  from  Colorado, 
and  the  heavy  masses  of  the  Mogollon  Jlouiitains  and  the 
Pinaleno,  Peloncito,  and  Chiricahua  Mountains  from  Ari- 
zona. The  principal  riverof  New  Jlexico  is  the  Rio  Grande, 
which  has  a  general  direction  from  N.  to  S.,  but  is  not  navi- 
gable in  any  part  of  its  course  through  New  Jlexico.     It  re- 


Seal  of  New  ^Ifxico. 


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\E\V   .MEXICO 


153 


ccivos  from  the  \V.  two  tributaries,  the  Rio  Chama  and  the 
Kio  I'liiTi'o.  anil  from  the  E.  sovi-ral  smalltT  streams.  The 
Rio  Pci'os,  a  large  aflluent  of  the  Kio  tiraiide,  drains  the 
soulheasterii  ami  eastern  porlinn.  and  the  ( 'unadian  river  and 
two  or  three  of  its  hranehes  the  northeastern.  The  western 
piirtion  is  dniiiied  by  the  l:»ri,'e  trilmliiries  i>{  the  I'olorado 
river  and  their  allluenls,  tiinl  iiarlieiihirly  l>y  the  San  .liian. 
Little  Colonido,  and  Gila,  each  of  whieh  has  three  or  four 
considerable  tributaries. 

Suil  anil  Prudiielioim. — The  mountain  ranges  are  par- 
ly ooverecl  (where  they  are  not  basidtie)  with  itine, 
:,ir,  s|iniee,  anil  other  evergreens.  The  foot-hills  have 
extensive  traets  of  piilon  or  nut-oino  and  a  smaller  cedar, 
and  in  the  river-lmttonis  are  belts  of  cottonwooil,  syca- 
■  re.  and  other  deciduous  trees.  In  the  southern  part  there 
numerous  groves  of  oak  and  walnut;  in  the  Llano  Es- 
1  I  lo  the  mesquite  grows  to  a  varying  height  of  from  5  to 
20  feet.  In  the  southern  and  southwestern  iiortions  the 
tree-cactus  is  a  marked  feature  in  the  landsca[ie.  There 
are  many  indigenous  grasses,  the  most  widely  spread  and 
valuable  of  all  lieing  the  nutritious  meaqiiitf  iir  (/niiiid  grass, 
whieh  grows  during  the  rainy  season  of  July  and  August, 
ripens  in  the  autumn,  and  dries  on  its  stalk,  furnishing  to 
cattle,  in  its  stalks  and  rich  seeds,  a  valualde  and  natural 
hay  of  which  they  are  exceedingly  fond.  The  arable  soils, 
uniler  the  inlluence  of  irrigation',  yield  fair  crops.  The 
r.  .S.  census  of  IsStO  showed  a  total  of  3,08.5  farms  under 
irrigation  in  New  Mexico,  not  including  those  of  Pueblo 
Indians.  The  irrigated  area  actually  in  crop  amounted  to 
!tl.7-45  acres.  The  average  value  of  products  per  acre  was 
f  ll'.sO,  and  the  average  annual  cost  of  water  :J'.1.54  per  acre. 
The  following  summary  from  the  census  reports  of  18K0 
and  18U0  shows  the  extent  of  farm  operations  in  Xew 
Mexico: 


FARMS.  ETC. 

1880,             1800. 

Total  numh^rnf  farms 

Total  fter**aKe  <tt  fariiis 

Total  value  of  farms 

5.1Ki:l                4,45K            .;   - 
8S1.1.11             7W.88a         i-aii 

S-Mu.ayo  1  ss.i40,soo      +47-6 

•  Decrease. 


+  Increase. 


The  following:  table  shows  the  avreajje,  yield,  and  value 
of  the  prineipal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  1803: 


(R.^PS. 

AcnH>, 

YMd. 

VlllM. 

1  "rri 

Wlieat 

25,i» 
89,571 
11,815 
1,M.3 
618 
S9.Mfi 

(V«i.4J2  bush. 
8<M.79S     •■ 
a.'7.478     •• 
.•«,.3S9      " 
4.3.afiO      " 
»«.(*«  toiw 

$451,880 
498  .'ii)5 

Iiatx 

r>itatue8 

Hay 

28.9S4 
701  480 

Totals 

117,948 

81.870,204 

On  .Ian.  1,  IH!I-|,  the  farm  animals  comprised  92.!IC:?  horses, 
value  :f  l,4<i«,")(l7:  .■i,74T  mules,  value  :fllT.r):«);  18.400  milch 
cows,  value  )f:!(is.(MIO:  I.'224,54t!  oxen  and  other  cattle,  value 
*ll,.").")G,.Wt;  -.',021.18.8  sheep,  value  4::i,(}8<l.l6<J ;  and  27,521 
swine,  value  ^2O4,.jU0;  total  head,  4,288,365— total  value, 
|17,404,32!». 

Minerd/s. — Gold  and  silver  are  abundant.  The  oldest 
mining  districts  are  the  Old  ami  N'cw  Placers,  Pinos  Altos, 
Cimarron,  .\rroyo  Hondo,  Manz-ano,  and  Moreno,  and  tracts 
in  the  Organ  .Mmintains,  the  Sierras  Ulanca,  Carriza,  Jica- 
rilla.  and  the  Mogollon  and  Magdalena  .Mountains.  The 
director  of  ilie  U.S.  mint  estimated  the  product  of  gold 
from  New  Mexico  mines  in  1H!I2  at  4.").!l.'iti  fine  ounces,  val- 
ued at  !f!l.")O.0O0,  and  of  silver  at  1.07."i,0()0  nunces,  having  a 
coining  value  of  if  1.38!).8!t9.  The  output  of  silver  and  lead 
decrea-sed.  while  that  of  gold  increased,  since  18il0.  Copper 
is  foutid  in  very  rich  ores  in  several  i)arts.  The  product  in 
181)1  was  1,2:!:1,1!I7  lb.  Galena  mines  in  the  Organ  Moun- 
tains yield  80  per  cent,  of  pure  lead,  iM-sides  about  ^."lO 
worth  of  silver  to  the  ton.  Iron  and  .sidt  are  abiimlant. 
Anthracite  coal  is  found  in  the  Placer  .Mountains  on  the 
east  border  of  the  Rio  (ininde  valley,  :fO  or  40  miles  S.  S.  \V. 
of  .Santa  Ei>,  and  bituminous  in  nearlv  evirv  couutv.  The 
production  in  18!»2  was,  at  Gallup,  2!i2.<I."iO  tons;  at  Blos- 
burg  and  Uaton,  24-».!l.")5  tons;  at  Cerrillos.  18,747  tons;  at 
Monero,  20,000  tons;  and  at  Carthage,  4!»,."i2!)  tons — total, 
625,881  tons.  Gypsum  is  found  in  si>veral  counties,  and  a 
remarkably  large  and  pure  depi»iit  exists  on  the  San  Angus- 
tin  Plains  in  l>onmi  .\na  Couiitv,  near  an  extinct  volcano 
and  a  salt  lake.     .Vdjoining  this  de[>osit  is  an  extensive  one 


of  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  soda,  in  the  bctl  of  an  ancient 
river  or  lake.  Valencia,  Mora,  and  Taos  Counties  also  contain 
carbiinute  of  so<Ia.  Valuable  deposits  of  fine  clay  have  been 
found  near  Socorro  and  near  .Santa  P'e,  and  there  is  a  Ijcd 
of  superior  kaolin  in  the  suburbs  of  Saiila  Ke.  Large  beds 
of  alum  have  U'cn  discovered,  and  some  of  them  worked, 
on  the  (iihi  river.  New  Mexico  is  rich  also  in  precious 
stones,  and  the  prinluction  is  steadily  increasing.  'I  he  most 
valuable  are  enufralds,  turquoise,  euclase,  sapphires,  garnets, 
milk  and  fire  o[ials,  peridots,  aiul  agates.  The  petrified 
woods  arc  largely  used  by  jewelers  for  inlaid  work.  There 
are  numerrms  mineral  springs  in  New  Mexico,  and  the  hot 
springs,  about  5  miles  from  Las  Vegas,  and  at  t>io  Caliente, 
in  Taos  County,  have  a  very  high  reputation.  Ihe  temper- 
ature varies  from  80    to  140    V, 

t'timale. — The  climate,  though  varied,  is  dry.  In  the  N. 
the  range  of  the  thermonieter  is  between  10  and  75  F.  In 
Ihe  S.  the  temperature  is  very  mild,  the  thermometer  rarely 
indicating  as  low  a  temperature  as  'Ai".  The  rainy  season  in 
the  southern  part  is  in  .July  and  August.  The  amount  of 
annual  rainfall  is  1580  inches.  The  prevalent  wiiuls  are 
E.  S.  E.,  .S.  \V.,  W..  and  N.  The  climate  has  justly  a  high 
reputation  for  healthfulness. 

lUrisiunH. — For  admniistrative  purposes  New  Mexico  is 
divided  into  eighteen  counties,  as  follows: 

rofNTIES   AND   COl'XTV-i..w\.;    with    I'oPL'LATIOX.- 


Bernalillo 

Chaves  t 

Colfax 

Donna  Ana . . 

EiUlyt 

Grant 

Ouailnlupet. 

Lincoln 

Mora 

Kio  Arriba... 
San  Juan  i. .. 
San  Mipuel  . . 

Snnta  ¥(" 

Sierra  X 

Sueorro 

Taos 

Union  + 

Valencia 


Totals  . 


•Rrf. 


lO-Q 
12-U 
9-T 
14-R 
14-U 
I4-P 

n-u 

12-S 
9-T 
9-R 
9-P 
10-S 
10-S 
13-R 

t§ 
9-U 
11-Q 


I  NTY-tOWSS. 


17,235 


3,398 
7,612 


2.513 
9.751 
11,023 

ab',638 
10,867 

'  7,875 
11,029 

13,695 


20,913 

'  7.974 
9,191 

'  9,657 

'  7.6ei 

10.018 

11,.M4 

l.HK) 

24.204 

S.KIO 
9..595 
9,888 

13,876 


119.565    I.W,.-i93 


Albuquerque 

Roswell 

Raton 

Las  Cnices 

EMdy 

Silver  City 

Puerto  de  Luna.. 

Lincoln 

Mora 

Tierra  Amarilla.. 

Aztec 

Las  Vegas 

Santa  F^ 

Hillsboro 

Socorro 

Taos 

Clayton 

Los  Lunas 


1690. 

3,78S 

348 

1J3S5 


2,108 


2.385 
6.185 


•  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  New  Mexico, 
t  Formed  since  1890  census.  J  Formed  since  1880  census. 

Principal  Cities  and  Towns,  with  Population  for  1S90. — 
Santa  Fc,  6,185;  Albuquerque,  new,  3.785;  Las  Vegas, 
2,385:  East  Las  Vegas,  2.385;  Silver  City,  2.102;  Albu- 
quer(|ue,  old,  1,733;  Socorro,  1,601;  Raton,  1,255;  and 
Deming.  1.136. 

Population  and  Races.— ^mQ,  93,516:  1870,  91,874;  1880, 
119,.565;  1890,  1.53,593  (native,  142.334;  foreign,  11.259; 
males,  8;J,055 ;  fenniles,  70.5:18:  white,  142,719;  colored, 
10,874,  comprising  1,9.56  persons  of  African  descent,  361 
Chinese,  3  .lapanese,  and  8,554  civilized  Indians). 

Indu.-itries  and  Jiusine.'Ui  Inten'.^ts. — The  principal  indus- 
tries are  silver,  gold,  and  coal  mining,  stock-raising,  and 
agriculture.  Manufacturing  is  in  its  infancy.  The  census 
of  1890  showed  that  127  nuinufacturing  establishments  re- 
[Hirled.  These  had  a  combined  capital  of  ^965,938,  em- 
ployed 944  persons,  paid  ^5:12.727  for  wages  anil  $691,420 
for'nnitcrials,  and  had  prodiu'ts  valued  at  :J1,516,19.5. 

Finance. — In  1893  the  a-ssessed  valuation  of  taxable  prop- 
erty was  !?41.ti02.l98.  The  wealthiest  counlies  in  their 
order  were:  Birnalillo,  assessed  valuation.  !f6.4:{0.243 :  San 
Miguel,  as.ses.sed  valuation,  :f4.985.605:  Grant,  assessed  val- 
uation, $4,341,208;  Colfax,  as,sessed  vaUuitii.n.  $:i.s2.s.9(Ht ; 
Socorro,  a.ssessed  valuation,  $3,4;!3.016;  and  Donmi  .\na, 
assj'ssed  valuation,  $3,022,044.  The  iKinded  debt  on  Feb.  1, 
1894,  was  $920.(KK1:  floating,  $5,000.  There  were  also  old 
militia  warrants  outstanding  aggregating  $650,000.  a  por- 
tion of  which  was  believed  to  be  fraudulent,  and  none  of 
whieh  is  olUcially  included  in  the  statements  of  pid>lic  in- 
dcblednes.s. 

Hnnklnij. — In  1893  there  were  10  national  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  $750,01K),  suri)lus  atid  profits  of  $228,- 
298,  and  individinil  deposits  of  $1,:181..547 :  2  other  banks 
with  capital  of  $113,800.  surplus  of  $10,402,  and  deposit.s  of 
$304,347:  and  2  .•Mivings-banks  with  capital  of  $80,000,  sur- 
pbi-^  of  $13,779,  and  deposits  of  $18().92:i. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals.— (>i\  .Ian.  1,  1804,  there  were 


154 


NEW   MEXICO 


NEW  NETHERLANDS 


276  post-offices,  of  which  11  were  presidential  (3  second- 
class,  9  third-class)  and  365  fourth-class.  The  newspapers 
and  periodicals  comprised  7  daily,  48  weekly,  1  semi-month- 
ly, and  1  monthly ;  total,  57. 

Libraries.— In  1893  there  were  reported  5  public  libraries 
of  1,000  volumes  and  over,  which  contained  11.154  bound 
volumes  and  3,230  pamphlets.  The  libraries  were  classified 
as  follows:  College,  3;  law,  1;  and  garrison,  1. 

3Ieans  of  Commuuicii/ioii.—The  total  railway  mileage  of 
New  Mexico  on  June  30,  1891,  was  1,401.  In  1893  the  Leg- 
islature passed  an  act  exempting  from  taxation  for  six  years 
after  completion  any  new  railway  lines  or  extensions  of  ex- 
isting ones  begun  and  partially  opened  for  traffic  within 
three  years. 

Churches. — ^The  census  of  1890  gave  the  following  statis- 
tics of  the  principal  religious  bodies : 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Roman  Catholic 

Methodist  Episcopal 

Presb.  in  the  U.  S.  of  America. . . 

Methodist  Episcopal  South 

Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter 

day  Saints 

Baptist 

Congregational 


Organtea- 

Churches 

tiOQS. 

aDd  haUs. 

317 

347 

100,576 

32 

23 

1,750 

39 

39 

1,275 

25 

25 

548 

5 

5 

442 

15 

5 

.3.55 

4 

4 

175 

Value  of 
church 
property. 


$296,755 
71,200 
45,675 
32,600 

1,432 
22,000 
17,800 


Schools. — In  1891  the  Legislature  passed  an  act  establish- 
ing a  common-school  system  under  direction  of  a  board  of 
education,  consisting  of  the  Governor,  the  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  the  presidents  of  the  university, 
of  the  Agricultural  College,  and  of  St.  Michael's  College. 
According  to  the  official  report  of  Dec.  31,  1893,  there  were 
43,999  children  of  school  age,  of  whom  33,151  were  enrolled 
in  the  public  schools,  and  15,833  were  in  average  daily  attend- 
ance. There  were  533  school  districts,  508  schools,  and  557 
teachers,  niany  of  whom  taught  both  in  English  and  Span- 
ish; but  English  is  reiiuired  to  be  taught  by  law,  and  is 
taught  in  every  public  school  in  New  Mexico.  The  total  re- 
ceipts for  public-school  purposes  were  $347,688.  The  insti- 
tutions for  advanced  instruction  are  the  University  of  New 
Mexico,  at  Albuquerque;  Agricultural  College,  at  Las  C'ru- 
oes;  School  of  Mines,  at  Socorro;  and  the  New  Jlexico  Mili- 
tary Institute,  at  Roswell.  Under  the  supervision  and  con- 
trol of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  are  public  schools  in 
Albuquerque,  San  Miguel,  and  Los  Alamos ;  parochial  and 
select  schools  in  Albuquerque,  San  Miguel,  Santa  Fe,  Me- 
silla,  Los  Alamo.s,  and  Las  Vegas:  St.  Vincent's  Academy, 
in  Albuquerque;  an  academy  in  Silver  City;  Academy  of 
Our  Lady  of  Light,  in  Santa  Fe ;  St.  Joseph's  Convent,  in 
Fernandez  deTaos;  Annunciation  Convent,  in  Mora;  Acade- 
my of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  in  Las  Vegas ;  Academy 
of  the  Visitation,  in. Las  Cruces;  Convent  of  Our  Lady  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  in  Bernalillo;  Convent  of  Our  Lady  of 
Mount  Carmel,  in  Socorro ;  and  St.  Michael's  College,  in 
Santa  Fe  ;  and  a  number  of  schools  for  Indian  children. 

Charitable,  Penal,  and  Reformatory  Institutions. — An 
orplian  asylum,  a  hosjiital,  and  a  sanitarium  are  maintained 
in  Santa  Fe  under  the  direction  of  Roman  Catholic  Sisters 
of  Charity.  Silver  City  has  a  hospital  conducted  by  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy.  The  New  Mexico  penitentiary  and  a  pub- 
lic deaf  and  dumb  asylum  are  maintained  in  Santa  Fe. 

History. — At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  American 
continent  New  Mexico  had  a  large  and  industrious  popula- 
tion, either  Aztec  or  Toltec,  who  had  their  walled  towns, 
their  stone  dwellings  several  stories  in  height,  their  manu- 
factures of  cotton  and  wool,  their  rude  but  effective  weap- 
ons of  war,  and  who  cultivated  and  irrigated  the  soil  and 
gathered  therefrom  large  crops.  They  were  idolaters.  The 
Spanish  adventurers  Alvar  Nunez,  Marco  de  Niza,  and  Coro- 
nado  penetrated  to  this  region  in  1537,  1539,  and  1540.  In 
1581-83  the  country  was  explored  by  Spanish  adventurers, 
from  whose  account  it  was  named  New  Mexico.  Between 
1595  and  1599  Juan  de  Oiiate  was  sent  thither  by  the  Vice- 
roy of  Mexico  to  establish  forts,  colonies,  and  missions,  and 
to  take  possession  of  tlie  whole  country  in  the  iiaiuc  of  the 
King  of  .Spain.  (Inate  was  successful,  but  in  1680  the 
Indians  rose  and  drove  the  Spaniards  out  of  tlie  country. 
In  1698  tlie  Spaniards  regained  a  portion  of  their  former 
power.  In  1823  tlie  iiihabilanls  of  New  Mexico  united  with 
those  of  Mexico  in  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  Spain,  and 
thenceforward,  until  1M46,  they  were  governed  in  the  same 
way  with  the  other  slates  of  Mexico.     In  1846  Gen.  Stephen 


Kearny,  with  a  small  U.  S.  force,  captured  Santa  Pe,  and 
soon  after  conquered  the  whole  Territory  and  raised  the 
LT.  S.  flag  there.  In  1848  the  region  was  ceded  to  the  U.  S. 
by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo.  By  the  treaty  of  Dec. 
30,  1853,  what  was  known  as  the  Gadsden  purchase  was 
added  to  the  Territorial  area,  which  then  comprised  the 
whole  of  Arizona  and  a  portion  of  what  is  now  Colorado. 
Arizona  was  set  off  from  it  in  1863  and  the  portion  of  Colo- 
rado in  1865.  During  the  early  part  of  the  civil  war  New 
Mexico  was  the  scene  of  a  protracted  and  bloody  strife.  In 
1859  the  Legislature  passed  a  law  recognizing  the  existence 
of  slavery  in  the  Territory,  but  this  was  repealed  in  1861, 
and  with  it  was  abolished  the  system  of  peonage— a  modi- 
fied slavery  which  had  existed  for  two  and  a  half  centuries. 
Efforts  to  secure  the  admission  of  New  Mexico  into  the 
Union  as  a  State  were  begun  prior  to  its  creation  as  a  Ter- 
ritory. In  1874^75  both  Houses  of  Congress  adopted -a  bill 
to  provide  an  enabling  act  for  the  admission  of  the  Terri- 
tory as  a  State,  but  some  Senate  amendments  were  not  voted 
on  in  the  House,  and  the  bill  failed.  In  1876  the  Senate 
again  adopted  its  bill,  but  it  was  not  acted  on  by  the  House 
during  that  Congress.  Nothing  further  was  done  till  the 
summer  of  1894,  when  both  Houses  passed  an  enabling  act. 
This  bill  made  the  usual  provision  lor  the  formation  and 
ratification  of  a  constitution  and  the  organization  of  a  State 
government.  It  provided  for  the  guarantee  of  perfect  tol- 
eration of  religious  beliefs,  for  the  assumption  and  payment 
by  the  State  of  the  debts  and  liabilities  of  the  Territory, 
and  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  system  of 
public  schools  free  from  sectarian  control.  The  bill  also 
appropriated  64,000  acres  of  land  for  the  erection  of  public 
buildings  at  the  capital ;  100,000  acres  for  the  support  of  an 
agricultural  college  ;  500,000  acres  for  permanent  water-res- 
ervoirs ;  46,0f0  acres  for  the  support  of  a  State  university ; 
100,000  acres  for  an  insane  asylum  ;  200,000  acres  for  State 
normal  schools;  100,000  for  a  State  school  of  mines;  100,- 
000  for  a  deaf  and  dumb  asylum  ;  100,000  for  a  State  reform 
school ;  and  8,600,000  acres  for  miscellaneous  purposes — in 
all,  9,910,000  acres, 

GOVERNORS   OF   NEW   MEXICO. 


LfKis  Wallai-e 1878-81 

Li. Mifl  A.  Slieldon 1881-85 

Eilriiiin.l  (J,  Ross 1885-89 

L.  Bradford  Prince 1889-93 

W.  L.  Thornton 1893-97 


James  S.  Calhoun  1851-52 

William  C.  Lane 1852-5:3 

Solon  Borland 18.53 

David  Jlerriwether 185:3-57 

Abraham  Rencher 1857-61 

Henrj-  Conollv 1861-65 

Robert  B.  Mit'chell 1865-67 

W.  F.  M.  Arny  (acting)...  1867-69 

William  A.  Pile 1869-71 

Marsh  Giddings 1871-76 

Samuel  B.  Axtell 1876-78 

Revised  by  Antonio  Joseph. 

NewMilford:  town  (founded  in  1703);   Litchfield  co., 

Conn,  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref. 
9-D):  on  the  Housatonic  river,  and  the  N,  Y..  N.  H.  and 
Hart.  Railroad;  16  miles  N.  of  Danbury,  36  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Bridgeport.  It  contains  five  churches,  several  public  and 
private  schools,  library  (founded  1886),  a  national  bank 
with  capital  of  ^135,000,  a  savings-bank,  a  private  bank,  and 
a  weekly  newspajier.  It  is  the  center  of  the  tobacco  industry 
of  the  Housatonic  valley,  and  has  two  hat-factories,  a  pot- 
tery, and  minor  industries.     Pop.  (1880)  3,907 ;  (1890)  3,917. 

Editor  of  "  Gazette." 

Neivnan  :  city ;  capital  of  Coweta  co.,  Ga.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map" of  Georgia,  ref,  3-F);  on  the  Atlantic  and 
W,  Point  and  the  Cent,  of  Ga,  railways;  39  miles  S,  of  At- 
lanta, It  contains  7  churches,  2  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $150,000.  Walker  High  School.  College 
Temple  Library  (founded  1853),  and  a  weekly  newspaper. 
There  are  harness,  furniture,  and  cigar  factories,  marble- 
works,  cottonseed-oil  mill,  ice-factory,  cotton-mills,  distiller- 
ies, a  manufactory  of  engines,  boilers,  saw  and  grist  mills, 
cotton-presses,  and  several  tanneries.  Tliere  are  large  fruit 
interests  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  (1880)  2,006;  (1890)  3,859; 
(1894)  estimted,  3.300,  with  sulnirbs,  4,500. 

Editor  of  "  Herald  and  Advertiser." 

New  Nantucket :  See  Baker  Island. 

New  Netherlands:  the  old  name  of  the  country  situated  ( 
between  Delaware  and  Connecticut  rivers.  The  exclusive 
right  to  trade  here  was  granted  Oct.  11.  1614,  by  the  states- 
general  to  the  explorers.  In  1623  New  Netherlands  was 
made  a  province  or  county  of  Holland,  and  the  states-gen- 
eral granted  it  the  armorial  distinction  of  a  count.  Iir 
Sept.,  1664,  the  colony  of  New  Netherlands,  which  Charle 


^ 


:> 


oi 


XEWXHAM   fOLLEUE 


NEW   OKLEAXS 


155 


II.  had  i^ranteil  to  liis  tirotluT.  the  Duke  of  York,  was  con- 
iiuerfil  liy  the  ciiiiinilatiuu  of  Xuw  Amsterdaiu. 

Neniiiium  Collefre:  an  institution  at  Cambridge,  Eng- 
lanil,  forini'il  Ijy  thu  anialptiualion  of  an  as.soi-iat  ion  for  pro- 
viding li'i'turi's  fur  Women  in  C'anil)ridge  and  an  association 
for  providing  a  liall  of  residence  for  women  attending  the 
lectures.  It  was  incorporated  in  1880.  The  college  stands 
on  a  site  of  alx'Ut  Hi  acn-s,  and  contains  acconnnodations 
for  the  principal  an<l  vice-principals,  with  resident  Ie<tiirers, 
and  alMint  UO  students.  The  main  liuildings  are  (_'lougli 
Hall.  Ulil  Hall,  and  Sidgwick  Hall.  The  lilprary  numliers 
7,400  v.ilumes.  The  nundier  of  resi.lent  tutoi-s  (lSi»;{)  is 
ten,  of  students  153.  In  1881  the  rniversily  of  Cambridge 
0|>ened  to  students  of  Xewnham  and  Girton  Colleges  its  tri- 
pos and  previous  examinations.  There  is  a  system  of  in- 
struction by  corresjioridencc  in  connection  with  the  college. 
Instruct iim  is  provideil  for  partly  by  lectures  given  at  Newn- 
ham  College,  and  partly  by  le<tun's  of  the  univei-sity  and  the 
colleges  of  the  univei-sity  that  ari'  open  to  students.  .V  con\- 
plote  course  of  study  involves  preparation  for  a  trijios  ex- 
amination for  which  the  usual  length  of  residence  is  three 
years.  There  are  a  considerable  nuinlxr  of  scholai-shiiis  of 
the  annind  value  of  t'oO.  The  fti-st  nrincipal,  Miss  A.  J. 
Clough.  died  in  1893.  and  was  succeedeii  liy  .Mrs.  Henry  Sidg- 
wick. the  wife  of  Prof.  Siilgwick.  Miss  Helen  (iladstone  and 
Miss  .lane  Lee  are  the  vice-principals.  The  college  is  gov- 
erned by  a  council,  most  of  the  members  of  which  are  con- 
nected with  Cambridge  L'nivei-sity.  C.  II.  Tiiurber. 

N»'W  Orleans  [named  in  honor  of  the  Puke  of  Orleans]  : 
city;  capital  of  Orleans  parish,  La.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Louisiana,  ref.  lO-F);  second  city  in  exports  and  twelfth  in 
population  in  the  U.S.;  on  both  banks  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  107  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  960  miles  in  direct 
line  S.  W.  of  Washington,  and  TOO  miles  from  St.  Louis. 
From  tlu^  fact  that  it  was  originally  built  within  a  great  loop 
of  the  Mississinpi,  the  city  derived  its  sobricpiet  of  the  Cres- 
cent City.  Tlie  present  form,  due  to  gradual  expansion 
along  the  banks  of  the  river,  is  rather  that  of  the  letter  .S. 
The  city  embraces  nearlv  the  whole  of  the  parish  of  Or- 
leans, or  at>jut  15.>  S(j.  miles;  but  the  settled  area  hardly  ex- 
ceeds 40  si|.  miles.  The  Mississippi  in  front  of  the  city  has 
a  width  in  plai-es  of  ;5,000  feet,  and  a  nniximum  depih  of 
208  feet:  total  length  of  actual  harbor,  7  miles  on  each 
bank.  The  jetties  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  permit  vessels 
of  the  highest  tonnage  to  come  <lirectly  to  the  city.  Hy  a 
canal  in  the  rear  New  Orleans  has  water  comnmnioation 
with  Lake  I'ontchartrain.  The  chief  railways  are  the  Illi- 
nois Central.  SoulhiM-n  Pacific,  Louisville  and  Nashville, 
TexiLS  and  I'aciHc.  New  Orleans  and  Northeastern,  ami  the 
Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Valley.  Of  street-railways  there  are 
about  115  miles. 

Plan  oikI  (ieneral  Appearance. — New  Orleans  was  laid 
imt  in  rectangular  form,  with  ramparts  on  three  sides  and  a 
fort  at  each  corner.  The  plan  of  the  city  is  now  very  irreg- 
ular, as  the  stri'ets  follow  the  curving  lines  of  the  river. 
The  land  is  low  and  flat,  its  greatest  elevation  being  10  ft. 
8  in.  above  sea-level.  It  is  protected  from  the  waters  of  the 
river  by  a  high  levee;  but  during  the  spring  floods  these 
waters  ix'casionally  overflow  and  submerge  jiortions  of  the 
city.  The  drainai;e  is  toward  the  lake,  which  in  limes  of 
high  wind  overflows  the  si'ttlements  in  the  rear  of  the  city. 

i'he  city  is  divided  by  Canal  Street  into  two  portions, 
the  Creole  and  the  American.  In  the  Creole  quarter  or 
Vieiix  Carre  the  streets  arc  narrow  and  the  houses  are 
welded  into  compact  bhicks,  except  at  the  lower  extremity, 
or  Esplanade  .\ venue.  It  is,  however,  the  most  interesting 
portion  of  the  city,  for  here  are  the  old  cathedral,  the  Ca- 
liildo,  and  many  other  relics  of  French  and  Spanish  domi- 
nation. In  the  .Vmerican  quarti-r.  l»'sides  the  business  por- 
tion, are  residences  surroiimled  by  st retches  of  green  turf, 
beds  of  flowers,  and  clustering  trees,  among  which  are  the 
great  nnignolia,  the  palmetto,  the  palm,  the  fruit-bearing 
banana,  the  tig.  and  the  orange-tree.  The  climate  is  Iroj*- 
ical.  The  proximity  of  the  lake  and  the  river  renders  the 
atmosphiTC  very  moist  and  eipializi'S  the  temperature.  The 
highest  averaire  summer  temperature  is  94"  F..  and  the  low- 
estaverage  in  wint.T  is  37  F.  The  total  lenclh  of  the  streets 
is  about  .")(!0  miles,  of  which  only  about  135  miles  are  paved. 

The  area  of  public  .squares  ami  parks  within  the  inhabited 
portion  is  about  (IfiO  acres,  but  only  the  s<iuares  can  be  re- 
ganled  a.s  improveil.  Chief  among  the  parks  are  the  old 
City  Park  ami  .\udubon  Park,  at  the  western  end  of  the 
city,  which  contains  330  acres  and  was  the  site  of  the  Cotton 


Exposition  of  1884-85.  There  are,  besides,  numerous  well- 
kept  open  siiuares,  among  them  Congo  .Square,  where  the 
slaves  once  held  tlie  votxioo  rites,  Lafayette  Square,  which 
fronts  the  city-hall,  ami  .lackson  Square,  the  old  Place 
d'Annes,  which  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant events  in  Louisiana  history. 

Jidildinyn. — .\inoug  the  notable  buildings  are  the  U.  .S. 
custom-house  and  post-oflice,  covering  a  whole  square  and 
built  of  granite ;  city-hall,  of  granite,  modeled  after  the 
Temple  of  Minerva  at  Athens;  the  cathedral  on  .lackson 
.Square,  the  Supreme  Court  buildings  (old  Cabildo),  the 
mint,  the  cotton  exchange,  the  arclibishop's  palace,  the 
Howard  Library,  and  the  new  buildings  of  Tulane  L'niver- 
sity.  The  St.  Charles  Hotel,  the  most  famous  hostelry  in 
the  South,  was  destroyed  by  fire  iu  1894.  The  old  St.  Louis 
Hotel,  in  "  reconstruction  days  the  State  Capitol,  is  now 
the  Hotel  Koyal. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  New  Orleans  is 
the  system  of  disposing  of  the  dead.  As  water  is  generally 
found  at  a  depth  of  a  few  feet,  it  is  customary  to  place  the 
remains  of  the  dead,  except  those  of  the  nooresl  classes  and 
the  .lews,  in  tombs  of  brick  or  marble  rising  in  several  tiers 
above  groutul. 

Churches. — New  Orleans  has  145  churches,  divided  de- 
nominationally as  follows:  Baptist.  35;  Koman  Catholic, 
;i3 ;  Methodist  Episcopal,  23;  Presbyterian,  13;  Methodist 
South.  11;  Protestant  E])iscopal,  11;  Congregational,  7; 
Jewish,  (i;  Swedish  Lutheran,  5;  Christian,  1;  Unitarian, 
1 ;  Greek,  1. 

Schools  and  Colleges. —  In  1894  there  were  48  public 
schools  for  white  chihlren  and  13  for  colored,  and  13(1  pri- 
vate schools  for  the  former  and  17  for  the  latter.  The  pub- 
lic-school enrollment  was  19.738  whites  and  5.976  colored; 
the  schools  for  white  children  had  482  teachci-s  and  those 
for  colored  48.  and  the  total  cost  of  the  public  schools  was 
!*:S51.(J00.  The  private-school  enrollment  was  14,154  whites 
and  2.45(i  colored.     There  are  no  mixed  schools. 

The  only  univei'sity  for  while  people  is  Tii^NE  Univer- 
sity ((/.  c).  There  are  four  universities  for  colored  people: 
Southern  University,  a  .State  institution  which  receives 
1^10,000  a  year  from  the  State;  Straight  University,  Con- 
gregational, established  in  1869  by  the  American  Missionary 
Association;  New  Orleans  University,  opened  in  1865  and 
supported  by  the  Freedman's  Aid  Society  of  the  Methodist 
Church;  and  Leland  University.  Baptist,  incorporated  in 
1870.  Among  the  colleges  for  while  people  are  Soule's 
Business  College,  College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
(.lesuit).  and  Ursuline  Convent  for  Women  (Koman  Catholic). 

Charitable  Institutions. — The  most  noted  charitable  in- 
stitution is  the  Charity  Hospital,  built  in  1832,  which  re- 
ceives from  the  State  $80,000  annually.  The  Touro  In- 
firmary was  endowed  by  a  Hebrew  philanthropist.  .Imlah 
Touro,  and  costs  for  maintenance  about  ^30.000  aiumally. 
There  is  also  a  .lewish  Home  for  Widows  and  Orphans,  main- 
tained by  Israelites.  The  institutions  sup|>orted  by  the  city 
are  the  Home  for  Aged  and  Infirm.  House  of  IJefugc  for 
Boys,  and  an  insane  asylum.  There  are  twenty  asylums  for 
orphans  and  friendless  children.  The  chief  public  libraries 
are  the  Fisk  Free,  coutaininsr  12.000  vi>lunies:  the  State, 
39,000  volumes;  and  the  Howard,  29,000  volumes. 

Finances. — The  city  comiit roller's  reports  for  1893  gave 
the  following  figures:  Heceipts  (including  sjile  of  railway 
franchise  for  $700,000),  $4.45!),340;  expenditures.  $3,741,'- 
9.50;  total  bonded  debt.  $15,335,037:  valuation  of  real  estate, 
$!l5.047,5(iO ;  personal  propertv,  $41,930,097— total,  $136,- 
967.657.     Tax-rate.  $2  per  $100. 

Commerce. — The  commercial  receipts  and  shipments  for 
the  year  ending  Sept.  1,  1893,  were  : 


RECEUTS  ASn  SHIPMENTS. 

Rt^ceiptA  of  (loniestic  pnxluce  from  interior 

l>y  rail,  river,  nnil  canal 

By  e«  »asl  \v  ise  vessels 

Hy  U  Tritrn  ves-neU 

LuKCer  and  local 

Totals 

Shipments  by  river  and  roll 

Kx ports,  ootistwlse 

ExiHirlK.  forvl(cn 

Total  (tlilpnients 

Total  reeei|)t« 

Ornnd  totals 


ToonAfv. 


4.a!fr,7«) 

655.449 

78r.(W 

SK.OOO 


5,.'>!>i;.f«fi 

S,  l:     - 

KW.SU 


$150,382,178 

Ofl,lWO,.'iOO 

2T,0S5.a05 

900.000 


S'.'IS.'^-.T.SSS 


6.:-" 


156 


NEW  ORLEANS 


NEW   POMERANIA 


Manufactures. — The  chief  manufactures  in  1893  were : 
Tobacco,  $3,243,708;  lumber,  $8,964,320:  sugar,  reiined, 
$8,352,500  ;  cottonseed  products,  $7,368,800  ;  rice-cleaning, 
15,223,312;  malt  liquors,  $4,285,450  ;  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  if;2,459,625  ;  cotton  goods,  $1,426,280  ;  coop- 
erage, $1,190,041 ;  and  furniture,  $1,483,000. 

Banking. — In  1894  there  were  9  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $3,125,000 ;  7  State  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  $2,230,000  ;  2  private  banks ;  and  a  commercial 
bank.  The  bunk  clearances  in  the  previous  year  aggre- 
gated $527,830,300. 

The  Mnrdi-cjras  Carnival. — A  unique  feature  of  New  Or- 
leans is  the  annual  celebration  of  the  carnival,  which  takes 
place  on  Shrove  Tuesday,  or  Mardi  gras.  It  originated  some 
twenty  years  before  the  civil  war.  but  since  then  the  cele- 
bration has  been  on  a  grander  scale.  It  is  far  more  splen- 
did than  the  carnivals  of  Nice.  Rome,  and  other  continental 
cities,  and  annually  attracts  to  New  Orleans  thousands  of 
visitors.  Though  JIardi  gras  itself  is  tlie  most  iiuportant 
occasion,  the  festivities  begin  on  the  previous  TImrsday  with 
a  ball  given  by  a  secret  organization  called  the  Knights  of 
Momus.  On  the  following  Monday  evening  there  is  a  street 
parade  and  a  ball  given  by  a  similar  organization  called  the 
Knights  of  Proteus.  On  Mardi  gras  itself  the  whole  city  is 
given  over  to  gaiety.  Thousands  of  maskers  throng  the 
streets  from  sunrise  to  sundown,  wlien  the  law  requires  all 
masks  to  be  laid  aside.  At  11  o'clock  in  the  morning  occurs 
the  parade  of  Rex,  the  king  of  the  carnival,  and  in  tlie  even- 
ing the  king  and  queen  hold  a  reception.  On  Tuesday  even- 
ing there  is  a  second  parade  and  ball,  given  by  the  Mystic 
Krew  of  Comus,  both  the  ball  and  the  parade  being  the 
crowning  events  of  the  carnival  season.  The  parades  con- 
sist of  series  of  floats  drawn  through  the  streets  by  mules, 
and  representing  scenes  taken  from  myth,  history,  and  fic- 
tion. While  the  organizers  of  these  pageants  are  not  known 
with  absolute  certainty,  it  is  generally  understood  tliat  they 
are  the  members  of  the  two  most  prominent  clubs,  the  Bos- 
ton and  the  Pickwick. 

Hiatory. — The  city  was  founded  in  1718  by  Sieur  de 
Bienville,  second  governor  of  Louisiana  under  the  French 
domination ;  was  nami^d  in  honor  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
regent  of  Prance  ;  and  was  the  capital  of  Louisiana  in 
1722-1852  and  1865-80.  For  many  years  the  city  experi- 
enced the  usual  vicissitudes  of  French  colonial  settlements. 
When  Louisiana  became  a  royal  province  and  restrictions 
on  commerce  were  practically  removed.  New  Orleans  began 
to  increase  in  population  and  trade.  On  the  transfer  of  the 
province  to  Spain,  the  city  was  the  scene  of  an  unsuccessful 
conspiracy  to  establish  a  republic.  In  the  last  decade  of 
the  eighteenth  century  the  invention  of  Whitney's  cotton- 
gin  and  the  successful  granulation  of  sugar  by  de  Bore 
gave  a  vast  impetus  to  the  progress  of  the  State  and  city. 
In  1801  the  production  of  sugar  rose  to  5,000,000  lb.,  and  of 
molasses  to  250,000  gal.,  and  the  exports  of  cotton  were  34,- 
000  bales.  The  purchase  of  the  Louisiana  territory  by  the 
Government  further  stimulated  local  development. 

The  early  settlers  were  a  motley  collection.  All  classes 
and  conditions  were  represented,  from  the  French  and 
Spanish  officials  to  the  sturdy  cnureurs  de  bois,  or  Canadian 
adventurers.  At  first  some  women  from  the  houses  of  cor- 
rection in  Prance  were  sent  over  as  wives  for  the  colonists; 
but  fortunately  these  were  supplemented  by  the  famous, /(7/f.s 
a  la  cassette,  or  casket  girls,  who  were  of  good  family  and 
good  morals,  and  who  made  excellent  wives.  Soon  after 
Louisiana  became  a  part  of  the  U.  S.  there  was  an  influx  of 
persons  from  other  parts  of  the  republic  seeking  their  for- 
tunes, as  well  as  a  lai'ge  number  of  French  planters  and 
their  slaves  from  San  Domingo.  The  Creoles,  or  descend- 
ants of  French  and  Spanish  ancestors,  gradually  assimilated 
themselves  to  L''.  S.  institutions,  and  fought  bravely  against 
the  British  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans. 

The  liattle-ficld  of  Chalmette  lies  5  miles  below  the  city. 
When  the  approach  of  thc^  British  forces  was  announced, 
(icu.  Andrew  Jackson  hud  been  busy  in  New  Orleans  for 
three  weeks  in  reviewing  and  disciplining  the  militia  and 
other  troops,  and  as  he  had  been  infornuvl  that  there  were 
spiles  in  the  city  he  proclaimed  martial  law.  On  Dec.  23, 
1814,  he  marched  out  of  the  city  and  boldly  att.-icked  the 
enemy  on  the  evening  of  the  same  day.  The  British  had 
nearly  5,000  men,  while  .lackson  liad  only  2,100.  tliough  the 
latter  received  nuilerial  assistance  from  llie  Ciircilina,  a  U.  S. 

funboat,  which   anchored   opposite   tlie   British   camp   and 
ombarded  it.     The  action  was  indecisive,  but  it  retarded 
the  progress  of  the  British  and  gave  Jackson  the  necessary 


time  to  fortify  the  plain  of  Chalmette.  On  Jan.  8,  1815, 
the  British  made  a  final  attempt  to  storm  Jackson's  breast- 
works, and  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter. 

The  city  experienced  great  losses  during  the  years  1812- 
15  from  the  suspension  of  banks  and  other  financial  trou- 
bles, but  from  1816  to  1840  there  was  a  period  of  marvelous 
expansion.  The  arrival  in  1812  of  the  first  steamboat 
marked  the  beginning  of  an  immense  trade  with  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley,  and  large  crops  of  sugar  and  cotton  were 
raised.  The  only  impediments  to  growth  wei-e  the  almost 
annual  overflows  of  the  Mississippi  alid  the  terrible  epi- 
demics of  yellow  fever.  In  twenty-seven  years  fifteen  of 
these  epidemics  occurred,  together  with  a  visitation  of  the 
cholera  in  1831.  In  1834  gas  was  introduced,  and  in  1836  a 
system  of  water-works.  In  1837  New  Orleans  suffered 
greatly  from  the  financial  panic.  Fourteen  of  its  banks 
suspended  in  one  day  ;  but  with  a  return  to  more  cautious 
business  methods  there  came  a  restoration  of  confidence 
and  more  prosperity  than  before.  The  cotton  exports  rose 
to  1,000,000  bales,  and  the  population  was  tripled  in  ten 
years,  causing  an  enlargement  of  the  corporate  liujits.  In 
1841-42  a  system  of  free  schools  was  established ;  in  1853- 
55  there  were  terrible  visitations  of  yellow  fever,  and  out  of 
a  population  of  150,000  nearly  37,000  persons  died ;  in  1860 
the  city  reached  the  acme  of  its  prosperity,  the  exports,  im- 
ports, and  domestic  products  amounting  in  value  to  $334,- 
000.000. 

In  1862  Louisiana  was  closely  blockaded  by  a  Federal 
fleet  under  Admiral  Parragut.  On  Apr.  24  he  succeeded  in 
passing  the  forts  that  defended  the  river,  and  on  the  follow- 
ing day  he  anchored  in  front  of  the  city.  In  order  that  the 
enemy  might  not  profit  by  the  stores  laid  up  in  the  city, 
12.000  bales  of  cotton  had  been  piled  upon  the  levee  and  set 
on  fire,  and  hundreds  of  barrels  of  sugar  and  molasses  were 
added  to  the  burning  mass.  After  a  few  days  of  negotiation 
the  city  surrendered  and  was  handed  over  to  Gen.  B.  F. 
Butler,  who  had  followed  Parragut  with  a  large  army.  As 
the  military  governor  of  New  Orleans,  Butler  was  the  object 
of  much  adverse  criticism  from  the  Southern  people,  who 
maintain  that  he  treated  the  inhabitants  with  great  indig- 
nity. The  claim  that  he  kept  the  city  in  the  best  sanitary 
condition  it  has  ever  known  was  afterwartl  disproved  by 
the  ollicial  sanitary  reports.  After  the  period  of  "recon- 
struction "  New  Orleans  renewed  its  career  of  prosperity. 
Moreover,  the  manufacturing  interests,  which  before  the  war 
were  insignificant,  now  rapidly  grew  more  important,  so 
that  in  1894  the  money  invested  in  factoi-ies,  machine-shops, 
etc.,  amounted  to  $25,000,000.  Pop.  (1880)  216.090:  (1890) 
342,039 ;  (1894)  estimated,  260,000.  John  R.  Ficklen. 

New  Philadelphia:  city;  capital  of  Tuscarawas  co.,  0. 
(for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  4-H) ;  on  the 
Tuscarawas  river,  the  Ohio  Canal,  and  the  Cleve.,  Lorain, 
and  Wheel,  and  the  Pcnn,  railways;  24  miles  S.  by  W.  of 
Canton,  98  miles  N.  of  Marietta.  It  is  in  a  coal,  iron-ore, 
and  salt  region  ;  contains  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
$50,000,  3  private  banks,  and  5  weekly  newspapers ;  and  has 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements,  sheet  and  muck 
iron,  woolen  goods,  roofing  tile,  wire  nails,  cast-iron  pipe, 
sewer-pipe,  brooms,  flour,  carriages,  paper,  and  machinery. 
Pop.  (1880)  3,070;  (1890)  4,456.- 

Editor  of  "  Ohio  Democrat." 

New  Pliilippines :  another  name  for  Caroline  Isl- 
ands {(J.  v.). 

New  Poiiierania  (in  Germ.  Neu-Pommern;  native  Bi- 
rara).  formerly  New  Britain  :  the  largest  island  of  the  Bis- 
marck Archipelago,  It  lies  off  the  northeast  coast  of  New 
Guinea,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  50  miles  wide, 
extends  E.  and  W.,  and  is  about  300  miles  long,  with  75  miles 
of  greatest  breadth;  area  about  9,000  sq.  miles.  It  is  com- 
posed of  several  mountainous  masses  connected  by  low  land, 
and  the  isthmus  that  connects  the  body  of  the  island  with 
the  northeastern  part,  called  Gazelle  Peninsula,  is  very  nar- 
row. The  mountains  are  more  or  less  volcanic,  especially  at 
the  ends  of  the  island.  Several  volcanoes  are  active,  and  a 
severe  eruption  occurred  in  1878.  The  island  is  very  pictur- 
esque. The  contours  of  the  mountains  are  attractive,  the 
vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and  the  foliage  rich  with  a  variety  of 
tints.  The  climate  is  like  that  of  New  Guinea.  The  south- 
eastern monsoon  occurs  from  Jlay  to  September,  and  is  ac- 
companied liy  heavy  ruins.  The  dry  season  is  with  the  north- 
western monsoon  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  but  it  is  fre- 
quently broken  by  rain.  The  inhabitants  are  Melanesian, 
less  attractive  than  these  people  generally  are.     They  are 


XKWl'OKT 


NKW   IJEU  .SANDSTONE 


157 


warlike,  and  are  cannibals.  They  possess  comiiilerabic  inun- 
ual  talent,  anil  carry  on  mmmo  cuMiMierco  with  the  ncif;lil>or- 
iiiU  islaiiils.  The  S.  coast  is  llie  iiiori-  lU-nsely  |M)fmluIeil. 
The  iiopiilatinu  is  cstiniatuii  at  llXJ.tXW.  They  wure  |iliiccij 
under  (.iernian  [irotectiou  in  1884.       M.  \V.  U.tKKi.vuTuN. 

Newitort:  t-iwn  :  in  the  county  of  .MonMionlh.  Kn^iand: 
on  the  r<k;  14.)  miles  \V.  of  London  (see  map  <if  Kiif;land, 
ref.  rj-b').  It  has  a  very  larj,'e  export  trade  in  coal  and  iron, 
over  80  acres  of  ilocks,  in>n-foundries,  and  inanufaetures  of 
India-rubber,  pottery,  etc.  lu  18;lU  a  Cliartist  insurrection 
in  which  ten  persons  were  killed  occurred  here.    I'op.  (181)1) 

Newport:  city  (settleil  in  I7!»l):  Campbell  co.,  Ky.  (for 
Incation  of  county.  See  map  of  Keiitueky,  ref.  l-I);  on  the 
Ohio  river  at  the  mouth  "f  the  Lickin;;  river,  and  on  the 
Louis,  and  NjL..h.  and  the  I'lies.  and  (Jhio  railways;  op|X)sile 
I'incimmli,  <>.,  and  C'ovinslon,  Ky.,  with  both  of  which 
cities  it  is  conne<ted  by  niilway  and  font  and  waj;on  bridjjcs. 
It  contains  'ii  churches,  .'t  national  banks  willi  combined 
capital  of  it;40lt,(HMJ,  j^as,  electric  liijht,  water,  seweraj;e,  and 
street-railway  services,  public  park,  .Masordc  temple,  (tdd 
Fellows' library  (f'>unded  1808).  and  a  weekly  and  monthly 
|>ericHlical.  The  industries  include  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel,  nuts  and  bolts,  watcli-cases,  stoves,  shoes,  and  pip- 
ing. The  llit,'hland  suburlis  are  very  picturesipie,  and  con- 
tain the  costlv  residences  of  nianv  I'lncinnati  business  men. 
I'op.  (1880)  30,4;ja;  (1890)  24,918;  (1894)  estimated,  30,000. 

Editor  of  "  Joubsal." 

Xpwport :  town  (settled  in  1763);  capital  of  Sidlivan  co., 
-N.  II.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  New  Uam[>shire, 
ref.  8-I>);  on  the  .Sugar  river,  and  the  Boston  ami  .Maine 
Hailroad  ;  40  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Oonconl.  It  contains  .5 
churches,  the  Richards  Free  Library,  .\iiti(|uarian  buililinp, 
public  hi;,'li  and  jjnided  schixils,  and  'Z  weekly  newspapers, 
nnil  has  manufai'ti>ries  of  biH)ts  and  shoes,  Hannel  jj^oimIs, 
l.idies"  unilerwear,  woolen  poods,  and  lumber.  It  is  a 
«unimer  resort,  and  .'5  miles  distant  is  Austin  t'orbin's  noted 
Ulue  Mountain  Park.     Pop.  (1880)  i.GVi;  (1890)  2.62:!. 

Editor  ok  ".Vrhis  an'D  Si-kctator." 

Newport :  boroudi  (laiil  out  by  Paul,  .lohn,  and  Daniel 
Uider  and  named  Kidersvillc  in  ISO.j;  name  chatiired  to  its 
iires<'nt  one  in  1820;  incorponited  as  a  Ijorough  in  1840): 
Perry  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Penn- 
sylvaniii,  ref.  .j-F);  on  the  .Juniata  river,  the  Pennsylvania 
( 'anal,  and  the  Penn.  and  the  Newport  and  .Sherman  Val. 
railways;  6  miles  N.  E.  of  New  Hloomtield,  the  count  y-si^at :  28 
miles  N.  W.  of  Ilarrisburg.  It  is  in  a  jrrain-growing  reunion  : 
I'ontains  6  churches,  7  public  schools,  2  hotels,  a  national 
bank  with  capital  of  !j.5(),(J00,  a  private  bank,  water-works 
completed  in  189:i,  and  2  weekly  newspa[)ers:  and  has  plan- 
ing, saw,  and  Jurist  mills,  iron-furnaces,  ami  t'inncries.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,399;  (1890)1,417;  (1894)  estimated.  2.000. 

Editor  ok  ••  Ledger." 

Newport :  city :  one  of  the  capitals  of  the  .State  of  Rhode 
Island,  capital  of  Newport  County,  and  port  of  entry  (for 
l(K'ation,  see  maji  of  Kliode  Island,  ref.  .'i-ll):  on  Niirra<;an- 
selt  Bay,  and  the  Newport  and  Wickford  and  the  N.  Y.,  X.  II. 
and  Hart,  railways;  5  miles  N.  of  the  .Vtlanlic  Ocean,  19 
miles  S.  by  \V.  of  Pall  River,  Mass.,  30  miles  S.  of  Provi- 
dence. It  was  settled  by  colonist-s  from  Uojjor  William.s's 
party  in  1B38  and  by  (Quakers  in  1643;  was  chartered  with 
Proviilenee  and  Portsmouth  uinler  the  name  of  Providence 
Plantations  in  1613;  was  one  of  the  most  imiHirtant  com- 
mercial points  in  the  colonies  prior  to  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  for  some  years  preceding;  1769  had  a  larger  forei-rn 
commerce  than  New  York;  was  captured  by  the  British  on 
Dec.  6,  1776.  and  occupied  till  Oct.  '2.5.  1779;  and  was  the 
heailiiiiarlers  of  Roehaudieau's  FnMich  fleet  in  1780.  It  has 
liecomc  one  of  the  most  jMipnlar  places  of  siunmer  resort  in 
the  U.  .S.  Besiili's  its  location  on  a  grand  and  commodious 
harbor,  its  batliiii'.;  facilities,  its  superb  lirives.  large  hotels, 
and  ostly  summer  resiliences,  it  has  many  natural  atlrac- 
I ions  and  .several  objects  of  large  historical  interest.  The 
harbor  is  defended  by  Fort  Ailatns,  one  of  the  strongest 
fiirlilications  in  the  country.  .\t  its  entrance  are  the  ruins 
of  Fort  Louis,  and  near  by  the  Dumplings  r<K-ks.  The 
Hanging  Kin-ks,  Spouting  Cave,  the  (Men.  and  the  chasm. 
^0  feet  deep,  liK^ally  known  as  Purgatory,  attract  many 
t  i(irj>ts.  On  Coaster's  Harbor  island  is  the  U.  .S.  Naval  j 
War  College,  which  was  established  in  1.884  and  consoli- 
dated with  the  tor|«>ilo  station  in  188!i.  and  with  the  Naval 
Training-school   in   1894.     Newport  claim.s,  and  the  claim  [ 


is  disputed  by  Providence,  to  have  hail  the  (ii-st  Baiitist 
church  building  erected  in  America  (1040).  The  city  also 
claims  to  have  had  the  lirst  public  school  opened  in  Ann  r- 
ica  (16-10)  and  the  lii-st  synagogue  (1762).  and  to  have  the 
oldest  newspaper  in  the  L'.  S.,  the  Menuri/,  established  by 
James  Franklni,  a  nephew  of  Benjamin,  in  17.'J8.  Among 
the  nolalde  buildings  are  the  Old  .Stone  Mill,  or  Hound 
Tower,  in  Touro  Park,  said  by  some  antii|inirians  to  have 
been  built  by  the  Norsemen  500  years  before  the  arrival  of 
Colundius.  and  by  othei-s  to  have  been  the  stone  windmill  of 
Gov.  Beni'dict  .\rnold,  mentioned  in  his  will ;  Trinity  church 
(Protestant  Kpix-opal,  erected  17'2.j):  Fii-st  Iia|jlist  church ; 
Central  Baptist  clmrcli  (erected  173.5);  the  Redwood  Lilirarv 
(erected  K.'iO);  State-house  (erected  1742);  city-hall  (erected 
1763);  synagogue  which,  with  its  ancient  cemetery,  is  cared 
for  from  the  income  of  a  S|M>cial  trust  fund,  though  there 
are  no  .lews  in  the  city  and  the  building  is  unused;  the 
Channing  Memorial  chu'rch  ;  the  Perry  mansion;  the  Public 
Library  and  the  Home  fur  Friendless  t'hildrcn  (both  f<iunded 
Uy  Christoplier  Townsend):  and  the  Industrial  .ScIhkiI. 
Touro  Park  <-ontains  a  bronze  statue  of  Com.  Matthew  C. 
Perry,  the  gift  of  Mrs.  August  Belmont ;  Washington  Soiiare, 
a  similar  one  of  Com.  Oliver  H.  Perrj- ;  and  Ei|uality  Park, 
a  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monument."  The  citv  has  regular 
steamboat  communication  with  New  York  and  Providence. 
There  are  26  wharves,  10  churches,  10  pidilic-school  build- 
ings, the  Rogers  High  School  (endowed  bv  William  S.  Rogers 
with  ^IOO.tK)0),  14  public  fountains,  o'libraries  (People's, 
Newport  Historical  Six-iety,  Redwood,  Circulating,  and  Fort 
Adams  Post)  containing  over  70,000  volumes,  6  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $79.5,'250, 2  State  banks  with 
capital  of  ^17.5.000.3  savings-banks,  electric  street-railway.s, 
public  park  (land  presented  by  Levi  P.  Morton  in  1886).  aiid 
3  daily  and  3  weekly  newspapei-s.  In  1893  the  assessed 
valuations  were:  Real  estate.  li;27.7.57.0()O:  personal,  ^7,096,- 
800— total,  ?34..8.53.8(>0 ;  and  on  .Ian.  1,  1894,  the  net  Ixjiided 
debt  was  :^:587,793;  floatin"  ^72,457.  The  citv  owned  \>ri<\>- 
erty  valued  at  $671,421.  Pop.  (1880)  15,693  ;'(1890_)  19.457; 
( 1895)  21.5:i7.  Editor  of  '•  News." 

Newport:  town  (incorporated  in  1781,  settled  in  179;J, 
chartered  under  the  name  of  Ducasbow  in  1802,  name 
changed  to  present  one  in  1816);  capital  of  Orleans  co., 
Vt.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  '2-D);  on  Lake 
Mempiiremaoog  (y.  !■.).  and  the  Boston  ami  Maine  and  the 
Canadian  Pac.  railways ;  44  miles  N.  by  W.  of  .St.  Johnsbury. 
It  contains  5  churches,  1  high,  2  graded,  and  15  di.strict 
schools,  several  nmnufactories,  and  a  weekly  newspajjcr;  is 
a  popular  summer  resort;  and  is  in  an  agricultural  region. 
Pop.  (1880)  town.  2.426.  village.  y'20;  (1890)  town,  3.047, 
village,  1.730.     PiBLisiiER  OK  "Express  AND  Standard." 

Newport  News:  town,  port  of  entry,  and  capital  of  War- 
wick CO..  Va.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Virginia,  ref.  7-1) :  on 
the  .lames  river.  Hampton  Roads,  and  the  Ches.  and  Ohio 
Railway:  14  miles  N.  of  Norfolk.  70  miles  S.  E.  of  Rich- 
monil.  It  is  in  a  rich  peanut-growing  region,  has  one  of 
the  best  harbors  in  the  world,  and  is  connected  with  Ilam|>- 
ton  and  Old  Point  Comfort  by  electric  railway.  It  has  an 
extensive  ship-building  jilant,  with  dry  dock  large  enough  to 
take  in  the  largest  steamships;  extensive  warehouse  piers ;  a 
grain  elevator  with  a  capacity  of  1,7.50,000  bush. ;  improved 
sy.stem  of  waler-^Vln•ks.  electric-light  and  gas  plants.  4  wood- 
working mills,  ice-factorv.  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
$100,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $1(H),(K)0.  a  private 
bank,  and  several  guarantee  and  trust  companies,  ami  a 
weekly  and  2  daily  newspapers.  The  foreign  commerce'  of 
the  port  is  carried  on  princijiallv  by  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
Steamship  Company's  line,  making  direct  connection  with 
England,  and  in  grain  shipmi'uts  the  port  has  beconu>  the 
fourth  in  the  l".  S.  In  the  calendar  year  1893  the  imports 
of  foreign  merchandise  amounted  in  value  to  :j;.5.5.219,  and 
the  exports  of  domestic  merchandise  to  $10,580,'2(55.  Pop. 
(1890)  4.449;  (18<)4)  estimated,  5.000. 

Editor  ok  "  Commercial." 

New  ProvHJeiice:  See  Bahama  Isla.nds. 

New  Ki'd  Sandstone:  an  important  geologic  fornnitii-n 
oftiri'at  liriinin.  The  rix'ks  inclndeil  under  this  term  be- 
long [Mirtly  to  the  Tria.ssic  |H'rio(l  and  partly  to  the  Perininii 
epoch,  which  is  n.sually  regardeil  as  [lart  of  the  Carbonifer- 
ous iH'riml.  For  many  years  the  name  of  the  British  fornoi- 
tion  wius  used  to  ilesignate  a  unit  of  the  geologic  lime  scale, 
ami  formations  in  other  countries,  especially  America,  re- 
ceiveil  the  same  name.  This  usage  survives  to  a  great  ex- 
tent  in  (ireat   Britain,  but  is  obsoliMeiil    elsewhere.     The 


158 


NEW  RICHMOND 


NEW  SOUTH   WALES 


American  formation  to  which  the  name  was  most  frequently 
applied  is  now  called  Newark  System  (q.  v.).  See  also  Old 
Red  Sandstone.  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

New  RlclimoiKi  (Richmond  Junction  Station):  village; 
Clermont  Co..  0.  (I'or  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Ohio, 
ref.  7-C):  on  tlic  (Jhio  river,  and  the  Cin.,  Portsmouth  and 
Va.  Railroad;  20  miles  E.  of  Cincinnati.  It  contains  7 
churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  and  2  public  schools,  a  national 
bank  with  capital  of  $80,000,  and  a  weekly  newspaper,  and 
has  woolen,  saw,  and  grist  mills,  3  furniture-factories, 
foundry,  and  brick  and  cooperage  factories.  Pop.  (1880) 
2,54.5  ;  (1890)  2,370,  with  suburbs,  2,825. 

Editor  of  "  Independent  New.s." 

New  Richmond :  city  (settled  in  1855,  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  1885) ;  St.  Croix  co..  Wis.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  4-A) :  on  the  Willow  river,  and  the 
Chi..  St.  P.,  Minn,  and  Omaha  and  the  Wis.  Cent,  railways ; 
18  miles  N.  E.  of  Hudson,  the  county-seat,  35  miles  N.  E.  of 
St.  Paul,  Minn.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  is  a  milk, 
cream,  and  butter  center,  and  the  principal  industries  are 
lumbering,  flour  and  feed  milling,  and  the  shipping  of  live 
stock,  grain,  and  farm  produce.  There  are  8  churches,  a 
public  and  a  Ronum  t'atholie  parochial  school,  each  graded 
and  with  a  high-school  department,  2  State  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  .185,000,  electric-light  plant  and  water- 
works owned  bv  the  city,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)  729;  (1890)  1,408;  (1890)  1,680. 

Editor  op  "  Republican." 

NewRochelle:  village:  Westchester  eo.,  N.  Y.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  8^) ;  on  an  inlet 
of  Long  Island  Sound,  locally  known  as  New  Rochelle  har- 
bor, and  on  the  N.  Y..  N.  II.  and  Hart.  Railroad ;  20  miles 
N.  E.  of  the  New  York  city-hall.  Its  situation  and  prox- 
imity to  the  metropolis  make  it  the  place  of  permanent  resi- 
dence of  many  New  York  business  men  and  a  popular 
summer  resort.  The  village  contains  several  colonial  Dutch 
and  English  mansions,  public-school  property  valued  at 
over  $100,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  .f  30,000,  and 
four  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  5,276 ;  (1890)  8,317  ; 
(1892)  State  census,  9,990. 

New  Siberian  Islands:  an  archipelago  N.  of  Asia  and 
N.  E.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Lena  delta,  so  called  from  the 
name  given  to  one  of  them  (1806)  by  a  Russian  merchant. 
Being  not  far  distant  from  the  mainland  and  often  con- 
nected with  it  by  an  ice-bridge,  the  fauna  of  these  Arctic 
islands  is  particularly  rich,  and  includes  white  bears  and 
foxes,  reindeer,  and  many  birds.  The  islands  are  also  rich 
in  fossil  woods  and  the  remains  of  extinct  animals,  notably 
those  of  the  mammoth.  In  the  island  of  New  Siberia  is  a 
range  of  hills,  partly  composed  of  carbonized  wood,  appar- 
ently belonging  to  the  .Jurassic  period.  See  De  Long,  The 
Voijaqe  of  the  Jeannette  (3  vols.,  1883);  Nordenskjohl,  The 
Voyage  of  the  Vega  (1886).  C.  C.  Adams. 

New  South  Shetland  Islands:  See  South  Shetland 
Islands. 

New  South  Wales :  the  oldest  of  the  seven  Australasian 
colonies  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  the  middle  colony  on  the 
east  coast  of  Australia,  with  Queensland  on  the  N.,  South 
Australia  on  the  W.,  and  Victoria  on  the  S.  It  lies  between 
lats.  28"  and  38°  S.  and  the  meridians  141°  and  154°  E.  The 
western  boundary  is  the  meridian  of  141°  E. ;  most  of  the 
southern  is  formed  by  the  Murray  river,  and  of  the  northern 
by  the  parallel  of  29°  S.  hit.  The  area  is  given  officially  at 
310,700  sq.  miles,  but  planiraetric  measures  make  it  308,560. 
It  is  a  fifth  larger  than  Texas  and  larger  than  any  state  of 
Europe,  Russia  only  excepted.  Three  distant  and  isolated 
islands — Norfolk,  Pitcairn,  and  Lord  Howe — are  politically 
under  the  supervision  of  the  governor.  Their  combined 
area  is  less  than  15  sq.  miles. 

The  name  of  New  South  Wales  was  given  to  Southeast 
Australia  by  Capt.  Cook,  on  his  exploratory  voyage  in  1770, 
from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  coast  to  that  of  South 
Wales.  It  was  afterward  applied  to  the  first  colony,  which 
took  in  all  Australia  E.  of  the  135th  meridian,  and  was  later 
cut  down  to  its  present  limits. 

PhgMcnl  Coiitig)iration. — The  coast  is  over  700  miles 
long,  with  numerous  capes,  headlands,  and  bays.  It  extends 
N.  to  Point  Danger  and  S.  to  Cape  Howe.  Many  of  the 
bays  are  excellent  natural  ports.  Of  these.  Port  Jackson, 
about  the  middle  of  the  coast,  has  attained  the  greatest 
commercial  importance,  as  on  it  is  situated  Sydney,  the  capi- 
tal.    A  little  farther  S.  is  Botany  Bay  {q.  v.).     Many  rivers 


from  the  mountains  inland  empty  at  the  coast,  where  their 
mouths  give  a  series  of  ports  capable  of  improvement  by  the 
removal  of  their  sandbars.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Hunter 
river  is  Newcastle,  the  port  second  in  importance. 

The  surface  of  the  colony  falls  niiturally  into  three  divi- 
sions— the  coast  lands,  the  table-lands  just  behind  these,  and 
the  great  interior  plains.  The  coast  lands  embrace  the  strip 
between  the  coast  and  the  Great  Dividing  Range  of  moun- 
tains, which  runs  nearly  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  is  from  20 
to  120  miles  distant  from  it,  farther  at  the  N.  than  at  the  S. 
They  are  usually  flat,  fertile,  and  well  adapted  to  agricul- 
tural operations.  The  eastern  vcrsant  of  the  mountains  is 
generally  rugged  and  sometimes  precipitous,  while  the 
streams  "that  descend  it  are  generally  rapid  and  shallow,  and 
flow  through  deep  and  rugged  valleys.  Of  the  fourteen 
rivers  on  this  slope,  the  longest  are  the  Hawkesbury  (330 
miles);  the  Hunter  (.300  miles);  the  Shoalhaven  (360  miles); 
and  the  Clarence  (340  miles).  Many  of  these  streams  form 
large  lagoons  at  their  outlets. 

The  Great  Dividing  Mountains  include  several  distinct 
ranges.  At  the  S.  the  Australian  Alps  come  in  from  Vic- 
toria. They  are  the  highest  mountains  in  Australia,  and 
the  culminating  point  is  Mt.  Kosciusko,  7,350  feet  high,  in 
the  extreme  S.  of  this  colony  near  the  headwaters  of  the 
Murray  river.  Though  it  does  not  reach  the  perpetual 
snow-line  by  several  hundred  feet,  snow  is  seldom  entirely 
absent  from  it.  The  next  range  on  the  N.  is  that  of  the  Blue  , 
Mountains,  so  called  from  the  tint  of  the  eucalyptus  for-  9 
ests  which  clothe  their  sides.  They  are  not  sharply  divided  i 
from  the  Alps,  but  they  are  lower  and  their  crest  is  broader, 
forming  practically  a  series  of  table-lands.  N.  of  the  Blue 
Mountains  is  the  Liverpool  Range,  striking  a  bold  arc  from 
the  coast  inland  to  beyond  the  Darling  river.  Farther  N. 
is  the  New  England  Range,  which  resumes  the  direction, 
parallel  to  the  coast,  broken  by  the  Liverpool  Range.  Inland 
from  the  New  England  Range  is  a  mountain  complex,  of 
which  the  highest  known  is  Ben  Lomond  (5,070  feet  high). 
The  chain  is  in  places  60  or  80  miles  wide. 

W.  of  this  is  the  great  interior  basin  of  the  Darling  river. 
Next  the  mountains  it  is  well  forested  and  well  watered,  but 
with  progress  westward  it  becomes  smoother,  the  trees  dis- 
appear, and  the  water  becomes  more  scanty.  This  is  the 
salt-bush  country,  consisting  of  red  loamy  plains  with  loose 
soil,  with  some  grass  which  dries  up  and  disappears  in  the 
dry  season,  and  with  abundant  growth  of  ill-looking  weeds 
and  low  brush.  This  area  stretches  in  the  N.  into  Queens- 
land, and  in  the  W.  it  is  separated  from  the  still  more  alka- 
line and  arid  interior  of  the  continent  by  broken  ranges  of 
low  mountains,  called  the  Barrier  or  Stanley  Mountains  and 
the  Grey  Range.  The  interior  basin  is  not  far  above  sea- 
level  (300  to  500  feet),  but  in  it  are  found  the  great  rivers  of 
the  continent.  The  Murrumbidgee  (1,350  miles  long)  and 
the  Lachlan  (700  miles)  are  right-hand  affluents  of  the  Mur- 
ray. The  Darling  river  rises  in  the  northeast  angle  of  the 
colony,  and  empties  into  the  Murray  near  the  southwest  an- 
gle after  a  course  of  1,160  miles.  Its  right-hand  tributaries 
are  in  several  cases  longer  than  it  is  itself  above  their  re- 
sjiective  months,  and  rise  far  N.  in  Queensland.  Of  the  left- 
hand  tributaries  which  lie  in  New  South  Wales  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  Macquarie  (750  miles  long) ;  the  Namoi  (600 
miles) ;  the  Bogan  (450) ;  and  the  Gwydir  (445).  These 
streams  receive  very  few  affluents  after  leaving  the  moun- 
tains in  which  they  rise,  and  as  they  pass  through  an  arid 
region  they  are  commonly  smaller  below  than  al)ove.  Some- 
times they  fail  to  reach  the  stream  to  which  they  ordinarily 
contribute.  In  the  N.  W.  there  are  many  streams  which 
are  permanently  lost  in  lagoons  or  in  the  sand. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  as  distinct  for  the  three  districts 
of  the  coast,  mountains,  and  the  interior  basin  as  are  the 
physical  features.  The  coast  climate  is  warm  and  moist, 
and  is  rendered  mild  and  agreeable  by  an  ocean  current 
which  passes  along  it  from  N.  to  S.,  temjjering  both  summer 
and  winter.  The  mean  annual  temperature  in  the  coast 
lands  ranges  from  60'  F.  in  the  S.  to  68°  in  the  N.,  and  is 
somewhat  higher  a  few  miles  inland  than  on  the  immediate 
coast,  on  account  of  the  sea-breeze  extending  but  a  short 
distance  inland.  The  summer  mean  temperatures  range 
from  67°  to  76°  F.,  and  the  winter  from  51°  to  56°.  At 
Sydney,  lat.  33°  51'  S.,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  63°, 
that  of  summer  71°,  and  that  of  winter  54-5°.  The  rainfall 
is  heaviest  on  the  coast,  and  increases  from  S.  to  N.  from 
36  to  73  inches  annually.  At  the  base  of  the  mountains  it 
is  10  or  15  inches  less.  The  rainy  .season  comes  in  late  sum- 
mer, and  the  fall  is  sometimes  torrential. 


XEW  SOUTH  WALES 


159 


III  the  mountain  district  the  temperatures  are  as  varied 
as  the  elevations.  In  inhabited  altitudes  the  mean  annual 
temperatures  run  from  40°  around  3It.  Kosciusko  to  60  in 
the  X.  Frost  and  snow  are  well  known  in  the  S.  The 
mean  annual  rainfall  is  more  uniform  from  S.  to  N.  and 
varies  from  25  to  S')  inches. 

In  the  interior  valley  the  rainfall  varies  from  2't  inches  in 
the  E.  to  9  or  10  in  the  extreme  \V'.,  and  this  is  likely  to  fall 
in  heavy  rains.  The  summers  are  hotter  and  the  winters 
colder  than  on  the  coast,  while  the  mean  annual  temperature 
is  not  very  dilTerent.  The  drier  air  makes  the  extremes 
more  endurable,  and  the  climate  is  considered  tonic. 

In  ;;encral,  till!  winters  Ihroujrhout  the  colony  are  especial- 
Iv  mild.  Occasionally  hot  winds  from  the  interior  make  a 
great  disirount  on  the  character  of  the  climate,  as  also  do  the 
"southerly  busters,"  a  wind  like  the  Texan  northers.  On 
the  whole,  the  clinuite  is  healthful  and  agreeable,  and  the 
only  serious  maladies  depending  on  it  are  dysenteries  and 
inllammation  of  the  eyes. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — These  have  the  general  Australian 
character  and  are  not  sharply  divided  from  those  of  the  ad- 
joining colonies.  The  flora  gives  the  impression  biith  of 
novelty  and  monotony.  The  director  of  the  Sydney  Bo- 
tanic (jardens  has  said  that  no  country  gives  a  greater  va- 
riety and  abundance  of  trees  yielding  strong,  beautiful,  and 
durable  timber  than  New  South  Wales,  and  claimed  that 
good  timber  can  l)e  obtained  in  all  parts  of  the  colony,  ex- 
cept in  some  areas  of  the  Monaro,  Murrumbidgee,  and  Mur- 
ray districts.  The  banks  of  the  coast  rivers,  especially,  are 
thickly  covered  with  forest  trees.  In  the  W.  they  are  re- 
1 1  need  to  scrub,  except  where  the  ground  is  subject  to  over- 
How.  The  forests  are  largely  composed  of  Myrtaceie,  char- 
acteristic among  which  are  a  numerous  species  of  eucalyp- 
tus. The  members  of  the  Pea  family  and  the  composites 
are  especially  common,  and  of  the  genus  Acacia  the  colony 
has  over  100  species.  The  alpine  flora  is  less  different  from 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  a  considerable  number  of 
its  species  are  the  same  as  those  of  Euroiie.  The  grasses  of 
the  interiorare  especially  nutritious  for  stock,  which  in  cases 
of  drought  may  find  sustenance  in  the  saltworts,  composites, 
umljellifers,  and  plants  of  the  Geranium  family.  Five  spe- 
cies of  palms  extend  southward  into  the  colony,  two  of 
them  beyonil  Sydney. 

The  native  mamnuils  are  marsupial,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions, and  there  are  many  fossil  marsupials  of  enormous 
size.  The  domestic  animals  have  all  been  introduced.  A 
less  desirable  immigrant  was  the  rabbit,  which  has  multiplied 
so  enormously  as  to  have  become  a  serious  pest.  Among  the 
birds,  many  families  elsewhere  familiar,  as  the  vultures  and 
woodpeckers,  arc  unknown.  Among  the  more  characteristic 
species  are  the  emu,  bustard,  brush  turkey,  lyre-bird,  honey- 
sucker,  and  morepork.  Lizards  are  very  numerous,  crocodiles 
unknown,  and  wliile  some  families  of  well-known  poisonous 
snakes  are  wanting,  their  places  are  taken  by  others  equally 
dangerous.  Insects  are  especially  numerous  and  varied, 
though  butterflies  are  represented  by  relatively  few  species. 
Fish  are  abundant,  but  the  fisheries  are  little  developed. 
One  species  of  shark  receives  its  name  from  Port  .lackson. 
Oysters  ai)ound.  are  of  g(X>d  quality,  and  are  for  sale 
throughout  the  year. 

Minerals  and  Mines. — Gold  has  been  found  at  many 
places,  especially  in  the  mountain  district.  It  had  long 
been  known  to  exist,  but  it  was  not  until  1851  that  it  was 
found  in  such  paying  quantities  as  to  attract  general  atten- 
tion. This  was  in  the  Hallarat  district,  now  in  Victoria, 
which  colony  and  (Queensland  now  surpass  Xew  Scmth  Wales 
in  the  annual  output  of  gold,  but  some  remarkalile  finds 
have  been  made  in  the  latter  colony.  About  IsSl  a  nugget 
was  found  on  the  Temora  which  weighed  116  11).,  and  in 
1K.51  one  was  found  on  the  Turon  which  weighed  106  lb. 
In  187;}  a  mass  of  ore  weighing  6:)0  lb.  was  exhibited,  which 
was  estimated  to  contain  £2,000  worth  of  gold.  It  was 
from  Hill  End.  The  total  value  of  the  gold  coined  and  ex- 
ported from  1851  to  18il2  inclusive  is  f8S).202.(!66,  but  the 
production  is  at  present  decreasing.  Of  silver  and  silver- 
lead  ore,  Xew  South  Wales  produces  more  than  iiO  jier  cent, 
of  all  the  silver  in  the  Australasian  colonies.  The  leading 
mines  are  at  Hoorook,  in  the  New  England  district,  near 
Bathurst,  W.  of  Sydney,  and  in  the  Western  Barrier  Kange. 
The  last  is  a  recent  discovery  and  has  already  proved  to  be 
of  immense  value.  In  1891  the  output  was  ;i50,661  oz.  of 
silver,  and  i;j8,855  tons  of  silver-lead  ore.  The  total  value 
of  silver  and  silver-lead  ore  exported  to  the  end  of  1892  was 
£13,660,715,  and  the  annual  output   is  increasing.     Copper 


ore  was  discovered  in  1858,  and  is  known  to  come  to  the 
surface  in  many  places.  The  total  output  to  the  end  of 
1892  has  been  to  the  value  of  .t;:!,.596,482.  Tin  is  found  in 
the  granitic  and  basaltic  regions  in  the  extreme  N.,  and  has 
been  profitably  worked  since  1872.  The  output  to  the  end 
of  1892  was  ot  the  value  of  £5.828,657,  but  the  annual  pro- 
duction is  now  decreasing.  The  tin  has  so  far  been  taken 
from  alluvial  deposits  in  existing  or  ancient  stream  beds, 
but  this  source  has  now  been  exhausted  and  lode-mining 
undertaken.  The  stanniferous  area  probably  covers  10,000 
sq.  miles.  Coal  was  discovered  in  1797,  but  no  serious  at- 
tempt was  made  to  mine  it  for  fifty  years.  The  coal  meas- 
ures extend  along  the  seacoast  from  lat.  .31'  30'  to  lat.  85' 
30'  S.,  and  are  exposed  above  sea-level  at  each  en<l.  The 
seams  of  coal  are  nearly  horizontal  and  are  from  3  to  40 
feet  in  thickness.  The  total  area  underlaid  by  the  coal 
measures  is  estimatetl  at  24,000  sq.  miles.  The  output  of 
coal  is  greatest  at  Newcastle,  on  the  Illawarra  coast,  and  at 
the  western  foot  of  the  Blue  Mountains.  The  Illawarra 
coal  is  more  anthracitic.  A  sort  of  cannel  coal. called  kero- 
sene shale,  is  mined  for  use  in  enriching  illuminating  gas. 
In  1847  40,732  tons  of  coal  were  raised  in  the  Newcastle  re- 
gion, and  this  was  the  total  output  for  the  year.  This  has 
grown  steadily,  untd  in  1892  there  were  101  coal  mines  em- 
plojing  10,514"  men,  wit  h  an  output  of  3,780,968  tons  of  coal. 
The  value  of  the  total  production  to  the  end  of  1892  was 
£27,271,429.  Iron  exists  in  abundance,  and  many  of  the 
rarer  metals  are  known.  The  diamond,  sapphire,  emerald, 
ruby,  opal,  and  many  other  precious  stones  have  been  found, 
and  building-stones,  limestone/  fireclay,  and  clay  for  brick 
and  pottery  are  abundant.  In  1891  there  were  twenty 
smelting  furnaces  in  operation,  and  33,508  persons  were 
employed  in  mining  and  smelting. 

Agriculture. — The  industrial  life  of  the  colony  began  in 
grazing,  and  pastoral  pursuits  still  continue  to  form  an  im- 
portant element  of  its  wealth.  West  of  a  line  drawn  from 
lat.  36^  S.  and  Ion.  145'  E.  to  lat.  29'  S.  and  Ion.  1.50°  E.  the 
land  is  almost  exclusively  pastoral,  and  there  are  many  con- 
siderable areas  of  pastoral  land  E.  of  this  line.  In  the  pas- 
toral district  the  climate  is  so  mild  that  stock  require  no 
feeding  in  winter.  The  sheep  district  is  to  the  W.  of  the 
line  above  mentioned.  The  chief  limitations  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  flocks  are  the  general  aridity  and  the  occa- 
sional droughts.  Careful  breeding  for  nearly  a  century  has 
developed  an  especial  race  of  Australian  merino  sheep  with 
several  good  qualities,  aside  from  adaptation  to  the  climate. 
They  are  rather  more  free  from  disease  than  other  breeds. 
The  land  in  the  pastoral  region  is  largely  owned  by  the  state 
and  rented  to  the  graziers.  The  total  number  of  sheep  on 
Jan.  1,  1893,  was  58,080,114.  The  chief  dairy  district  is  on 
the  coast  S.  of  Sydney.  Pleuro-pneumonia  has  become  epi- 
demic among  the  cattle  several  tinu>s  and  proved  very  de- 
structive. The  total  number  of  horned  cattle  on  Jan.  1, 
1893,  was  2,147,074.  Horses  are  raised  for  home  use  and 
for  the  supply  of  the  cavalry  in  India.  Swine  are  apparent- 
ly reared  only  for  domestic  use. 

About  0'5  per  cent,  of  the  land  is  under  cidtivation,  and 
this  is  principally  in  holdings  of  less  than  500  acres.  The 
laws  are  fax'orable  to  hana-Jide  settlers  for  the  acquirement 
of  the  title  to  lands  in  small  holdings.  The  chief  crops  are 
wheat,  maize,  barley,  oats,  |)otatoes,  hay,  tobacco,  sugar, 
wine,  and  oranges.  Lucerne  is  much  used  for  hay,  and  in 
the  Hunter  river  district  six  crops  are  taken  animally.  Much 
wheat,  oats,  and  barley  is  cut  for  forage.  Wheat  is  grown 
less  than  formerly  because  of  the  nist,  and  the  jiroduction 
is  now  insufficient  for  home  needs.  The  average  yield  is  13 
bush,  per  acre,  while  for  all  Australasia  it  averages  10,  for 
the  U.  S.  12,  anil  for  Russia  7.  The  annual  consumption  of 
wheat  per  person  in  the  colony  is  6'5  bush.,  while  in  the 
United  King<iom  it  is  5,  and  in  Kussia  2.  Maize  is  culti- 
vated for  horse  food,  especially  on  the  coast  N.  of  Port  Ste- 
phens; the  average  yield  is  31  bush,  per  acfe.  The  tobacco- 
crop  has  decrea.sed  ot  late  vears.  Sugar  can  be  profitably 
raised  in  the  extreme  N.  S.,  but  the  production  is  snuill. 
The  vine  flourishes  generally  in  the  coast  and  mountain 
districts,  and  the  production  of  native  wiiU'S  is  limited  only 
by  the  demand.  -Most  of  the  fruits  of  the  warm  and  tem- 
[)erate  zones  are  grown,  but  the  orange  is  the  principal 
fruit  product.  It  does  best  on  the  west  vei-sant  N.  of  Syd- 
ney. The  production  of  1893  was  estinuited  at  700,000 
cases.  In  1891-92  there  were  117,693  persons  engaged  in 
agriculture.  A  forest  conservation  departnu'Ut  was  created 
in  1887.  There  are  twenty-(UU'  state  forests  and  1.0.58  tim- 
ber reserves,  with  a  combinetl  area  of  about  5,800,000  acres. 


160 


NEW  SOUTH   WALES 


The  amount  of  lumber  sawn  increases  slowly  from  year  to 
year.     In  1893  it  was  nearly  230.000,000  sq.  feet. 

The  need  of  irrigation  has  not  been  yery  seriously  felt  be- 
cause of  the  sparseness  of  population  and  the  utilization  of  the 
arid  area  for  grazing.  A  hydrographic  survey  was  recently 
begun.  Irrigation  in  1891  was  employed  only  for  23,106 
acres,  but  this  is  rapidly  increasing  by  private  enterprise. 

Population. — The  aborigines  have  nearly  all  disappeared 
from  this  colony.  The  census  of  1891  gave  their  number  at 
5,097  full  blacks  and  3,183  half-castes,  or  8,280  in  all,  of 
whiim  4.559  were  males.  By  the  same  census  the  total 
population  was  1,132,234,  with  20  per  cent,  more  males  than 
females.  On  Dec.  31,  1892,  the  population  was  officially  es- 
timated at  1,197,650,  an  increase  of  nearly  6  per  cent.  Slore 
than  64  per  cent,  were  Ijoru  in  the  colony  and  nearly  72  per 
cent,  in  Australasia.  The  Chinese  formed  1-16  per  cent,  of 
the  population,  and  there  were  very  few  other  aliens.  Only 
12,478  were  de).iendent  on  charity.  Of  the  total,  41 1,710  lived 
in  Sydney,  more  than  one-third  of  all.  The  nest  largest  town 
is  Broken  Hill,  with  a  population  of  23.500,  and  there  are 
only  five  other  towns  with  more  than  6,000.  The  average 
density  of  population  is  four  per  square  mile  when  Sydney 
is  included.  Outside  of  Sydney  the  density  is  greatest  in 
the  counties  to  the  W.  of  Sydney,  E.  of  and  over  the  Blue 
Mountains,  next  in  the  coast  counties.  Over  much  of  the 
interior  basin  there  is  an  ayerage  of  less  than  one  person  to 
the  square  mile. 

In  1892  there  were  8,022  marriages,  40,041  births  (2.289 
illegitimate),  and  14,410  deaths.  The  excess  of  births  over 
deaths  was  25,631,  and  this  excess  in  the  decade  ending  with 
1892  gave  two-thirds  of  the  increase  of  population.  The 
ayerage  annual  death-rate  is  14'65  per  1,000,  while  tliat  of 
the  United  Kingdom  is  19-07,  and  of  Germany  2o'31.  From 
1888  to  1892,  inclusive,  the  average  annual  immigration  was 
65,000,  but  the  number  of  emigrants  was  large,  averaging 
55,000.  Assisted  immigration  became  the  policy  of  the 
colony  in  1832,  but  practically  ceased  in  1887.  Tlie  nmn- 
ber  of  assisted  immigrants  in  1892  was  only  179.  Tlie  in- 
flux of  Chinese  became  so  embarrassing  that  in  1881  a  poll 
tax  of  £10  was  placed  on  each  immigrant,  and  tliis  was 
made  £100  in  1888. 

State  aid  to  religion  was  abolished  in  1862.  About  half 
of  the  population  are  classified  as  adherents  of  the  Church 
of  England,  one-fourth  Roman  Catholics,  one-tenth  Presby- 
terians, and  one-tenth  Methodists. 

Commerce. — The  value  of  the  total  imports  in  1892  was 
£20,776,526,  and  of  the  exports  £21,972,247,  somewhat  less 
than  tlie  average  for  five  years.  Wool  is  the  staple  export — 
about  half  of  the  total  in  value — then  come  tin,  copper, 
tallow,  and  leather.  The  chief  imports  are  iron  goods, 
clothing,  and  cotton  and  woolen  cloths.  The  trade  of  the 
U.  S.  with  Australasia  is  chiefly  with  New  South  Wales  and 
New  Zealand.  The  main  exports  to  the  U.  S.  are  specie, 
coal,  and  wool,  especially  the  first,  so  that  the  trade  value  is 
even  less  than  tlie  nominal  valuation  would  indicate.  About 
10  per  cent,  of  the  total  exports  go  to  the  U.  S.,  and  5  per 
cent,  of  the  imports  are  from  that  country.  The  tariffs  in 
force  in  1890  wei'e  less  in  this  colony  than  in  the  others,  and 
were  on  few  articles  and  were  siiecifie.  In  1891  the  tariffs 
were  changed  in  the  direction  of  higher  duties  and  more  of 
them.  The  chief  revenue  from  duties  is  derived  from  stim- 
ulants and  narcotics.  The  total  registered  shipping  consists 
of  60  sailing  vessels  and  46  steamers,  with  a  combined  ca- 
pacity of  9,130  tons.  About  3.000  foreign  vessels  annually 
enter  and  clear,  of  which  over  90  per  cent,  are  British. 
About  one-thii-d  enter  Port  Jackson  and  nearly  as  many 
the  port  of  Newcastle. 

The  colony  is  ill  supplied  with  navigable  rivers,  and  rail- 
way transportation  is  consequently  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance. The  construction  of  railways  was  begun  in  1855, 
and  they  are  now  extended  until  connection  with  the  neigh- 
boring colonies  is  eomjilete.  Intercolonial  commerce  is, 
however,  hampered  liy  the  differences  of  gauges,  tliat  of 
New  Soutli  Wales  beiiig  the  Knglish  standard  of  4  ft.  8.!  in., 
while  that  of  Victoria  is  5  ft.  3  in.,  and  the  narmw-g.auge 
of  3  ft.  6  in.  is  often  used.  From  Sydney  and  Newcastle 
the  railways  pass  to  the  W.  of  the  Dividing  Jlountains  and 
then  extend  N.  and  .S.  (.)ne  runs  N.  W.  to  Bourke,  on  the 
Darling.  The  important  mining  region  in  the  Barrier 
Range  is  reached  by  a  i-aihvay  from  Adelaide,  in  South 
Australia.  Tlie  average  cost  per  mile  of  railways  in  the 
colony  is  high,  being  £14.5.59.  This  is  higher  than  else- 
where in  these  colonies.  an<l  £3,400  higher  than  the  average 
in  the  U,  S.     Tlie  totai  mileage  on  June  30,  1893,  was  2,351 


belonging  to  the  Government  and  81  to  private  persons:  also 
419  miles  of  tramway  belonging  to  the  Government,  built  at 
a  cost  of  £1,118,471."  At  the  end  of  1892  there  were  26,443 
miles  of  telegraph  and  telephone  wire,  with  a  service  of  706 
stations,  receiving  and  sending  4,000,000  messages  per  year ; 
net  revenue.  £185,014. 

The  money  in  circulation  in  1892  was:  Gold,  £9,000,496; 
notes,  £1,439,872;  silver,  £578,452;  other,  £139,005.  The 
money  coined  during  the  year  amounted  to  £2,852,970,  and 
was  mostly  gold.  The  total  bank  assets  were  £53,317,892, 
of  which  10  per  cent,  was  in  coin,  and  the  total  liabilities 
were  £37.171,380.  The  number  of  depositors  in  savings- 
banks  was  167,726,  with  an  average  deposit  of  £34  each. 
During  a  very  severe  financial  crisis  in  1893  eight  banks 
failed,  but  reopened  afterward  on  a  reconstructed  basis. 

Administration. — The  executive  is  vested  in  a  governor 
appointed  by  the  British  crown,  who  is  commander  of  the 
troops,  has  an  annual  salary  of  £7.000,  and  is  assisted  by  a 
cabinet  of  ten  ministers.  The  legislative  power  is  intrusted 
to  a  parliament  of  two  houses — the  Legislative  Council  of 
73  members  (in  1892),  appointed  by  the  crown  for  life,  and 
the  Legislative  Assembly  of  125  members  (1893),  elected 
one  each  from  the  same  number  of  districts,  and  receiving 
£300  per  annum.  The  suffrage  is  restricted  only  by  sex 
and  residence.  Education  is  under  state  control,  and  is 
compulsory  between  the  ages  of  six  and  fourteen.  It  is  free 
for  the  poor  only.  In  1892  there  were  2,724  public  schools 
(5  of  which  were  high  schools),  with  210,461  pupils  enrolled 
and  4,636  teachers ;  cost,  £768,395  ;  also  723  private  schools, 
of  which  243  were  Roman  Catholic.  In  1891  the  University 
of  Sydney  had  1,068  students  and  44  professors  and  lectur- 
ers; the  revenue  for  1892  was  £37.591.  There  is  also  a 
technical  college,  which  with  its  branches  had  in  1892  an 
attendance  of  6.205  pupils.  A  free  public  library  in  Syd- 
ney has  97,348  volumes. 

In  1892  the  colony  had  60  jails,  with  2,622  prisoners  (on 
Dec.  31),  and  a  police  force  of  1,756  men.  During  the  year 
56.350  persons  were  convicted  before  magistrates. 

The  public  debt  on  Dec.  31,  1892,  was  £54,473.433.  with 
an  average  rate  of  interest  of  3'824  per  cent.  The  money 
had  been  mostly  expended  in  ]iul.ilic  works,  which  yield  an 
annual  return  of  2'45  per  cent,  of  the  entire  indebtedness. 
The  total  revenue  for  1892  was  £10.501,104.  and  the  expend- 
iture £10,536,820.  The  entire  weallli  of  the  colony  at  the 
end  of  1893  was  estimated  at  £593.280.5110.  The  "military 
and  naval  force  contains  10,560  men,  mostly  militia.  The 
postal  department  has  1,423  offices,  with  an  income  of  £447,- 
945,  barel.v  covering  the  expenditure. 

History. — Capt.  Cook  and  Sir  Joseph  Banks  landed  at 
Botany  Bay  Apr.  27.  1770.  They  made  some  inspection  of 
the  bay,  and  on  Banks's  recommendation  the  home  Govern- 
ment finally  decided  to  emjiloy  this  remote  spot  as  a  penal 
colony.  In  1787  Capt.  Arthur  Pliillip  was  accordingly  ap- 
pointed governor  of  the  new  colony  of  New  South  Wales, 
occupying  the  whole  of  Australia  E.  of  the  meridian  of 
135'  E.  and  some  small  islands.  He  was  sent  out  with 
about  800  convicts  and  a  small  military  force.  They  ar- 
rived at  Botany  Bay  Jan.  19,  1788,  but  as  Phillip  did"  not 
find  this  bay  suitable  he  removed  seven  days  after  to  Port 
Jackson,  6  miles  N.,  and  founded  the  city  of  Sydney.  Thus 
the  colony  began  with  a  convict  settlement  and  with  the 
arbitrary  government  necessary  to  such  a  population.  Con- 
victs continued  to  arrive  from  time  to  time  until  1841.  The 
total  number  was  about  83.000,  of  whom  43,000  were  liv- 
ing when  their  importation  ceased.  Of  these,  18,000  had 
liecome  free  either  by  exjiiration  of  sentence  or  by  pardon. 
In  the  meantime  there  had  been  a  large  immigration  of  free 
men  and  women,  and  their  number  was  increased  by  births 
in  the  colony.  The  census  of  1841  gave  a  total  population 
of  114,601,  or  a  ratio  of  8  persons  without  to  3  with  convict 
history,  or  9  free  persons  to  every  2  convicts.  The  history 
from  i788  to  1841  is  that  of  a  penal  colony  with  a  rajudly 
growing  ratio  of  free  persons.  After  1841  the  convict  pe- 
culiarities slowly,  and  after  1851  rapidly,  disappeared  until 
they  were  extinguished. 

An  important  element  in  the  history  of  the  colony  was 
the  development  of  the  production  of  wool,  still  its  greatest 
staple,  largely  due  to  the  importation  of  superior  breeding 
animals  by  Capt.^Macarthur. 

On  the  cessation  of  convict  importation  the  colony  suf- 
fered from  lack  of  labor,  and  this  want  l.iecame  more  urgent 
during  ten  years,  when.  hapi>ily.  the  discovery  of  gold-fields 
in  1851,  of  such  a  character  as  to  attract  worldwide  atten- 
tion, caused  an  enormous  influx  of  strong  and  healthy  men. 


NKW   Sl'AI.V 


NEWSPAPERS 


161 


ami  put  an  end  to  the  lalior  I'aniino,  while  adding  materially 
to  the  colony's  wealth. 

When  the  colony  was  established,  in  1787,  the  instructions 
issued  to  (ioveriior  Phillip  and  the  goyernnient  established 
by  him  were  tliornuiihly  autocratic.  In  the  cour.se  of  time, 
and  especially  under  arbitrary  governors,  tliey  liccame  in- 
toleralile  to  tlie  I'l-ee  settlers.  .Vgitation  resulted  in  an  in- 
vestigation in  ISI!)  by  Bigge  of  ilu'  judicial  estal)lishment 
and  tile  appointnumt  in  lS2a  of  a  Legislative  I'ouncil  of 
five  persons  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  the  number  was 
afterward  increased.  In  1824  tlie  liberty  of  tlie  jiress  was 
nhtaineil,  in  182S  the  right  of  trial  by  jury,  and  in  1886  the 
principle  of  religious  liberty  was  settled.  In  1842  the  right 
of  mMni<'ipal  election  was  first  exercised,  and  in  1843  the 
Legislative  Council  was  made  partly  elective.  In  18.5.5  the 
(^ueen  assented  to  an  act  conferring  a  constitution  on  the 
colony,  and  in  18.56  came  the  first  ministry  under  a  respon- 
sible governnu'nt.  In  18.57  Victoria  and  in  18.59  t^ueens- 
land  were  separated  from  the  parent  colony.  Under  its 
present  institutions  New  South  Wales  has  continued  to 
prosper. 

Kki'KKKntes. — The  official  publications  are  numerous  and 
useful.  Besides  the  u~ual  blue  books  and  reports  may  lie 
mentioned:  Barton.  Ilistoiii  uf  Sur  South  Waloi  from  t/ie 
Records,  vol.  i..  1788-89  (1889).  The  Stafisliciairs  Report 
nil  the  Eleventh  (1891)  CetmiK.  first  installment  (1898),  con- 
tains a  review  of  all  the  statistics  of  the  population  since 
the  establishment  of  the  colony.  Kussell  has  published  sep- 
arately (n.  d..  but  probably  1898)  a  I)iiu)r<vii  of  the  Isother- 
Diril  Ijines  of  Sew  Soutli,  Walrx.  and  in  his  annual  Remiltg 
of  Rdiii.  River,  and  Eraporation  Ol/.ierfotioiix  made  in 
S'ew  Soiitli  Wnlei!  in  1S9J  (1898)  an  average  I'ainfall  chart  of 
the  colony.  See  also  Robinson,  New  Soiit/i  Wiileti,  the  Old- 
est mill  Richest  of  the  Australian  Colonies  (1878);  Lang, 
Historical  and  Statistical  Account  of  New  Soutli  Wales  (4th 
ed.  2  vols.,  1874);  Heid,  An  Essai/  on  Xeu^  Sout/i  Wales, 
the  Mother  Colony  of  Australia  (\H~~i) ;  Woods,  i^('.s7i  anil 
Eisheries  of  Xeie  South  ir(//('.<  (1882) ;  Liversidge,  Miner- 
als of  Xew'South  Wales  (1888) ;  and  Coghlan.  A  Statistical 
Account  of  the  Seven  Colonies  of  Australasia  (1892). 

Mark  W.  Harrington. 

New  Spain  :  See  Mexico  (Ilistory). 

Newspapers :  printed  sheets  containing  news,  issued  at 
regular  intervals — usually  each  day  or  each  week — and  in- 
tended for  distribution  by  sale  or  gratis.  Modern  journals 
convey  intelligence  of  current  events,  report  the  transac- 
tions of  public  bodies,  officials,  etc..  and  contain  also  edi- 
torial comments  on  public  questions,  items  of  interest  in  tlie 
various  fields  of  huuum  activity,  announcements,  advertise- 
ments, market  reports,  communications  fnmi  ])ublic  and 
private  persons,  and  in  many  cases  short  works  of  fiction. 

The  |ieriodical  collection  and  publication  of  the  news  of 
the  day  bei,'an  in  Europe  with  the  weekly  issue  of  Das 
Eraiikfurter  Journal,  by  Egenolf  Emmel.  at  Frankfort, 
(termany.  in  161.5,  168  years  after  the  discovery  of  printing 
from  metal  types.  There  had  been  news-sheets  long  before; 
in  Europe  the  earliest  were  manuscript  papers  prepared  with 
.some  regularity,  and  known  in  Rome  as  the  Acta  Diurna 
and  in  Venice  as  the  Gazzetta.  According  to  tradition,  the 
first  printed  news-sheet  appeared  at  Nuremberg  in  1457,  and 
was  called  tlie  llazelte.  liut  no  copy  is  extant.  In  1584  a 
news-sheet  was  printed  in  the  same  city,  of  which  there  was 
a  copy  in  the  [jibri  collection,  with  a  descri|ition  in  the  cata- 
logue. This  sheet  was  entitled  the  Xeue  Zeitiing  aus  Ilis- 
panien  und  Italien.  Ulric  Zell,  it  is  believed,  printed  a 
news-sheet  in  Cologne  as  early  as  14!19,  called  the  Chronicle; 
and  in  1598  anot  her,  I  he  Mereurius  (lallo-Iielijicus.  was  print- 
eil  there.  Some  8110  of  these  occasional  news-sheets,  all 
issued  before  1610.  are  preserved  in  libraries. 

The  is.sueof  the  Fraiilifurter  Journal  was  followed  the  next 
year  (1616)  by  that  of  the  .Xieuive  Tijdini/heu,  at  Antwerp; 
and  in  1622  by  the  first  newspaper  in  the  English  language. 
The  Week-ley  yewes,  begun  by  Nathaniel  Huiter,  on  Jlay  28 
of  that  year.  Butter  is  mentioned  as  early  as  l(ill.occa.sion- 
ally  printing  a  news-slip,  and  in  1621  he  pul>lished  one  or 
two  numbers  of  The  Conriinl  or  Weeklet/  Xewes  from 
Forain  Parts.  lie  served  several  of  the  nobility  and  gen- 
try as  a  gatherer  of  news.  whi<h  he  regularly  dispatched  in 
written  communications  to  his  patrons  in  the  country. 
'I'his  system  of  manuscript  news-letters  in  England  did  not 
disappear  with  the  establishment  of  printeil  newspapers. 
Those  who  insisted  most  on  precise  and  full  information 
continued,  especially  in  the  cotmlrv.  to  dejiend  more  or  less 
29.'i 


upon  them  until  nearly  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Tlie  fir.st  daily  paper  in  England,  The  Daily  Conrant, 
was  issued  in  1702,  and  the  first  penny  paper,  'The  Orange 
Postman,  in  1709. 

Theophraste  Henaudot  issued  the  Gazette  de  France,  the 
first  French  newspaper,  on  I^lay  30,  1631.  The  Gazette,  with 
an  occasional  interruption,  has  lieeii  published  from  1681  to 
the  present  day,  and  is  one  of  the  oldest  jiapers  in  the  world. 
Reiuuulot  was  a  physician  and  a  gossip,  and  became  one  of 
the  best -informed  men  of  his  day.  Like  Butter  in  England, 
he  wrote  news-circulai-s  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Gazette,  and,  like  Butter,  he  sold  his  papers  in  the  streets 
by  newsboys  and  newswonien,  who  were  known  as  "  hawk- 
ers" and  "  Mercury-women."  The  Gazelle  was  uikUt  the 
[latronage  and  control  of  Richelieu.  The  first  daily  paper 
in  France,  the  Journal  de  Paris  ou  Poste  au  Soir,  ajipeared 
in  1777.  The  Journal  de  la  Ville  de  Paris  was  published  a 
centuiy  earlier,  but  only  once  a  week,  with  the  daily  occur- 
rences recorded  in  the  .style  of  a  diary  of  events. 

The  Post  och  Inrikes  Tidning  was  founded  in  1644  as  the 
official  orgjin  of  Sweden.  The  Ilaarlenisrtie  Courant  ap- 
peared in  1(5.56.  The  St.  Petershury  Gazette  was  established 
in  1708.  and  printed  under  the  authority  of  Peter  the  Great, 
who  took  an  active  interest  in  its  management.  The  first 
Spanish  paper,  the  Giiceta  de  Madrid,  appeared  in  1704. 
There  were  a  Gazette  and  a  Conrant  in  Amsterdam  in  1705. 
The  first  paper  in  India  was  issued  in  1781.  and  the  first  in 
Turkey  was  printed  in  Smyrna  in  1827  by  M.  Blecque,  just 
a  century  after  the  introduction  of  printing  in  the  Otto- 
man enijiire.     It  was  called  the  Spectator  of  the  East. 

A  chronological  list  of  a  number  of  the  earliest  news- 
papers of  Europe  still  in  existence  is  appended : 

NAMES.  When  esUbllihed. 

Franlcfdrt  Gazette  (first  year  called  Journal) ItllS 

Ga/ette  de  France IB.'il 

Leii>zii^  fiazt'tte ItiOO 

London  (iaz.-tte I6K> 

StandOrd  i  Kng.)  Mercury 1095 

Edinlmrgh  tVmrant 1705 

Rostocl;  Gazette 1710 

Newcastle  (Eiig. )  Courant 1711 

Leeds  i  Eng,  I  Mercury 1718 

Berlin  Gazette ." 1722 

Berlingske  Tidende 1749 

Leicester  lEng. )  Journal 17.V3 

Dut)lin  Freeman's  Jonrnal 17.55 

Pluming  Post  (London* 177:J 

The  Times  (London). 1785 

Journal  des  Ix^bats 17S9 

Allgemeiue  Zeitung 1798 

All  the  goyernments  of  Europe  were  early  represented  by 
newspajier  organs,  which  are  an  easy  means  of  communi- 
cating orders  in  council,  special  edicts,  jiroclamations,  and 
laws  to  the  people.  The  London  Gazette  was  the  first  of 
these  ;  it  was  established  in  1665,  and  is  still  published.  It 
was  originally  The  O.rford  Gazette.  Le  Moniteur  Vniversel, 
Journal  Officiel  de  I'Enipire  Francais.  was  started  in  1789  ; 
but  Louis  Napoleon  abandoned  the  pa|ier  in  1S(>9.  because 
it  was  owned  by  private  individu:il.s.  and  established  an- 
other with  the  simple  title  of  Journal  Officiel  de  l' Empire 
Franfais.  Italy  is  represented  by  the  Gazzetta  Officiate; 
Spain,  by  the  Gaceta  de  3Iadrid.  and  Russia  by  the  Prani- 
telztaennii  Vy-ftaik.  The  Invalide  Rus.ie  of  St.  Peter.sburg 
was  the  organ  of  the  Russian  Government  for  many  years. 
It  was  estalilished  in  1818  to  raise  a  fund  for  tlie  relief  of 
wounded  .soldiers.  Russia  is  also  represented  in  Brussels  by 
//f  yord,  the  utterances  of  which  are  considered  semi-official. 
Austria  is  officially  heard  through  the  Gazette  of  Vienna. 

Comment  as  an  accompaniment  of  the  news,  anil  par- 
ticularly of  the  political  news,  did  not  begin  in  England  un- 
til about  1704.  when  Swift.  Bolingbroke.  T)e  Foe,  and  olliers 
began  political  discussions  in  various  newspapers,  which  ulti- 
nialely  developed  into  the  "leaders"  and  "paragraphs  "of  the 
present  day.  The  "editorial  "  as  an  essential  feature  of  the 
newspaper  diil  not  ajipear  in  France  until  during  the  Revo- 
lution of  178!);  in  Germany,  not  till  a  few  years  later;  and 
elsewhere  in  Europe,  not  until  the  nineteenth  century.  Edi- 
torial discussion  has  rarely  been  long  conducted  anywhere 
else  with  what  woiiM  be  regarded  in  the  U.  S.  as  legitimate 
and  desirable  freedom,  excepting  in  Great  Britain  and  her 
(•(dollies.  (Jreat  progress  in  these  directions,  however,  lias 
lieen  made  during  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
in  France,  Italy,  parts  of  Germany,  and  among  the  Scandi- 
navian races.  In  the  three  countries  in  which  the  news- 
paper develoiiment  has  been  greatest,  it  may  be  -said  that 
in  general  the  most  attention  has  been  given  in  Great 
Britain  to  editorial  discussion,  in  France  to  art,  the  drama. 


162 


NEWSPAPERS 


light  literature,  gossip,  and  persiflage,  and  in  the  V.  S.  to 
news. 

The  leading  English  newspapers  are  those  of  London, 
among  which  the  most  important  are  Tlie  Times,  Daily  Tele- 
graph, Stainlard.  Daily  JWhw,  Morning  Past,  and  Daily 
Chronicle,  all  morning  dailies;  The  Pall  Mall  Gazette  and 
The  St.  James's  Gazette,  afternoon  dailies ;  and  The  Ob- 
server, a  Sunday  newspaper.  The  Times  has  long  been 
considered  the  most  influential  and  profitable  newspaper  in 
Europe.  Its  circulation  (for  some  time  probably  much  above 
60,000  copies  daily)  was  aflfected  by  the  growth  of  the  cheap 
press  after  the  reiieal  of  the  stamp-tax  in  1855,  and  by  its  own 
adherence  to  the  high  price  of  flvepence  for  a  long  time  after 
good  eight-page  journals  were  sold  in  London  for  a  penny. 
Its  circulation  is  thought  to  be  below  50,000,  but  it  is  still 
justly  recognized  as  the  leading  journal,  and  its  advertising 
patronage  is  enormous.  The  most  widely  circulated  of  the 
cheap  papers  is  The  Daily  2'elegraph,  closely  followed  by  The 
Standard,  The  Daily  Chronicle,  and  The  Daily  Xews;  while 
The  Morning  Post,  which  was  originally  a  high-priced  jour- 
nal of  Tory  politics,  giving  especial  attention  to  social  af- 
fairs, has,  since  reducing  its  price  to  one  penny,  made  rapid 
strides.  A  number  of  the  provincial  journals  in  Great  Brit- 
ain have  also  large  circulations  and  great  influence. 

French  journalism  deals  less  with  news,  and  in  many  in- 
stances seems  less  successful  in  developing  great  permanent 
properties.  Among  the  leading  Paris  journals  are  Le 
Temps.  La  France,  La  Presse,  once  conducted  by  Girardin, 
Le  Siecle.  Le  Conslilutionnet,  to  which  Saint- Beuve  was 
long  a  brilliant  contributor,  the  Debals,  which  enjoyed  the 
services  of  both  Girardin  and  Prevost-Paradol,  La  Justice, 
the  organ  of  Clemenceau,  and  La  Republique  Franfciise, 
once  identified  with  Gambetta.  Figaro,  a  paper  devoted 
chiefly  to  jiaragraphs,  the  drama,  Paris  gossip,  and  general 
flippancy,  made  the  fortune  of  its  founder,  Villemessant,  and 
attained  a  circulation  greatly  larger  than  that  of  any  of  the 
papers  before  mentioned.  It  now  presents  also  acute  polit- 
ical and  literary  criticism,  and  it  is  generally  read  by  the 
educated  classes  of  all  parties.  Le  Gaulois  is  a  younger 
paper,  successfully  following  in  part  the  same  lines.  The 
most  widely  circulated  newspaper  in  the  world  is  Le  Petit 
Journal,  which  often  prints  over  1.000,000  copies  per  day, 
sold  at  five  centimes.  Several  newspapers  in  Germany,  al- 
though hampered  by  the  restrictions  on  the  press,  have  at- 
tained great  prominence,  notably  the  Yossische  Zeitung,t\\e 
Norddeutsche  Allgemeine  Zeitung,the  Neue  Preussische  Zeit- 
ung,t\i(!  Volk-szeitung,tl\e  Cologne  Gazette, andtheJIamburg- 
sche  Correspondent.  In  Russia  newspapers  are  not  permit- 
ted to  discuss  political  questions,  and  a  rigorous  press  cen- 
sorship is  maintained.  Periodicals  entering  or  leaving  the 
empire  are  fre(|uently  mutilated  or  defaced  in  parts  by  the 
authorities.  Tiie  Journal  de  St.  Petersbourg,  established  in 
1824,  is  a  serai-official  organ,  and  the  Novoe  Yremya  (New 
Times),  and  the  Novosli  (Latest  News)  are  daily  papers 
of  large  circulation.  In  Spain  freedom  of  the  press  has 
been  tolerated  only  since  about  1855.  The  most  influential 
papers  are  the  Correspondenc ia  de  Espana  and  the  Impar- 
cial,  both  in  Madrid.  Holland  has  many  newspapers  of 
note,  the  best  known  being  the  Allgemeene  Ilaialelshlad 
and  the  Courant,o{  Amsterdam,  the  llaarlemsche  Ciiurant, 
and  the  Journal  de  la  Ilaye,  De  Xederlandsche  Stooinpost, 
and  the  Slaals-Courant,  of  The  Hague.  The  most  widely 
known  newspaper  of  Belgium  is  the  Independance  Beige, 
which  from  a  news  point  of  view  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant in  Europe ;  next  are  the  Journal  de  Bru.reltes  and  the 
Ftoile  Beige.  In  Austria  the  most  influential  newspapers 
are  the  Neue  Freie  Presse  and  the  JVeue  Wiener  Taglilatt. 
The  principal  paper  of  Sweden  is  the  Stockholm  Dagblad ; 
of  Norway,  Den  Morgenblad;  of  Denmark,  the  Aftenposten 
of  Copenhagen ;  and  of  Italy,  the  Secolo  of  Milan. 

The  oldest  existing  official  journal  is  that  known  to  for- 
eii^iiers  as  the  Peking  Gazette,  but  among  the  Chinese  as 
King  Pao,  or  Metropulitan  Announcements.  The  exact  date 
of  its  estaldishment  is  not  kiioWn,  but  it  is  mentioned  as 
early  as  the  period  K'ai-yuen  (T13-T41).  It  is  issued  daily, 
is  printed  from  movalile  wooden  type,  and  consists  of  ten  or 
twelve  leaves  of  Uiin  brown  pai)er'(7i  by  3|  inches),  stitched 
with  paper  twine  in  |)amphlet  fcirm.with  yellow  paper 
covers,  and  contains  a  l)rief  alistraet  of  the  record  kept  by 
the  imperial  household  of  auiliences.  presentations,  and  im- 
perial movements,  the  names  of  the  oflicials  on  palace  duty 
for  the  day,  etc.,  folidwed  by  di'crees,  rescripts,  memorials 
from  the  provincial  governments  and  from  the  censorate, 
appeal  cases,  ordinances  of  aiipoiiitments,  promotions,  etc. 


The  whole  management  of  the  Gazette  is  in  the  hands  of 
sixteen  post-officials,  military  mandarins  nominated  by  and 
representing  as  many  provinces  and  regions,  who  are  charged 
with  the  transmission  of  official  documents  and  correspond- 
ence to  their  respective  districts.  Their  scribes  attend 
daily  at  the  chancery  of  state  and  copy  such  documents  as 
the  grand  council  of  state  (see  China)  may  see  fit  to  give  out 
for  publication.  As  soon  as  printed,  copies  are  dispatched 
to  the  provinces,  where  extracts  are  usually  published  local- 
ly for  more  general  circulation,  and  many  persons  make  a 
livelihood  by  furnishing  written  copies  to  subscribers. 

Jlodern  Chinese  newspapers  are  few  in  number,  and  are 
found  chiefly  in  Hongkong  and  the  treaty-ports.  Several 
of  these  are  owned  and  conducted  by  foreigners,  and  all  are 
th^  result  of  foreign  influence.  The  most  important  are 
those  published  at  Hongkong  (4),  Canton  (2),  and  Shanghai 
(3  or  4).  Of  these  the  Shin  Pao  and  IIu  Pao,  published  at 
Shangliai,  have  a  large  circulation,  even  in  the  interior, 
though  postal  facilities  are  practically  non-existent.  The 
chief  foreign  papers  are  in  English,  and  are  published  at 
Shanghai.  The  most  important  are  The  North  China  Her- 
ald, The  Celestial  Empire,  and  Hie  China  Gazette.  Three 
dailies  are  issued  at  Hongkong — the  Press,  the  Mail,  and 
the  Telegraph,  and  several  Portuguese  papers  at  Macao. 

In  Japan,  as  in  China,  vernacular  journalism  dates  from 
the  arrival  of  foreigners  in  the  country.  The  first  real 
newsjiaper,  the  JS'is.'ihin  Shinjishi,  was  established  by  a 
Scotclnnan.  J.  R.  Black,  in  1872.  Twenty  years  later  tliere 
were  648  newspaper's  and  periodicals  in  Japanese,  all  owned 
and  conducted  by  natives.  The  most  influential  are  pub- 
lished at  Tokio,  the  capital,  and  include  besides  the  Kwam- 
po,  or  Official  Gazette,  the  Shimpo  and  Kokkai,  which 
are  semi-official,  the  SJtu-sei  and  the  Xippo  (conservative), 
the  Mainichi  Shimbun  and  the  Yomitiri  Shinibun  (liberal), 
the  Jiyu  and  the  Minken  (radical),  the  Sichi-nichi  Shimbun 
(opiiortunistj.and  the  Cho-ya  Shimbun  and  Kokumin  Shim- 
bun  (independent).  The  press  laws  are  very  severe,  and  sus- 
jiensions,  confiscations,  imprisonment,  and  fines  are  almost 
daily  occurrences.  Indeed,  so  common  is  imprisonment  that 
some  newspapers  maintain  a  "  prison  editor,"  whose  duty  is 
simply  to  go  to  jail  when  the  paper  has  been  convicted 
(without  trial)  of  some  press  olfense.  The  chief  foreign 
pajiers  inihlished  at  the  treaty-ports  are  in  English.  The 
most  important  are  the  Japan  Mail  (%veekly  and  daily),  the 
Gazette  and  the  Herald  (dailies  with  large  "  mail "  edi- 
tions), and  the  Kobe  Herald.  The  Echo  du  Japon  (in 
French)  is  published  at  Yokohama. 

The  most  remarkable  field  for  newspaper  enterprise  and 
newspaper  literature  has  been  the  U.  S. :  and,  in  propor- 
tion to  population,  the  development  of  newspapers  has 
been  far  greater  here  than  anywhere  else.  The  colonial  press 
firtit  appeared  in  Boston,  Ma.ss..  in  16i)0.  On  Sept.  25  of  that 
year  15enjamin  Harris  published  a  sheet  with  the  title  of 
Publick  bceurrences  both  Foreign  and  Doin£sfick.  It  was 
the  intention  of  the  publisher  to  issue  this  paper  once  a 
month.  Its  size  was  three  pages  of  a  folded  sheet,  leaving 
one  page  blank,  with  two  columns  to  a  page,  and  each  page 
was  about  11  by  7  inches.  The  eflEort  failed,  however,  in 
(consequence  of  the  opposition  of  the  provincial  authorities, 
who  suppressed  it  after  its  first  issue.  The  only  copy  known 
to  be  extant  is  on  file  in  the  state  paper  office  in  London.  A 
reprint  of  Tlie  London  Gazette  was  issued  in  New  York  in  J 
1696  which  gave  the  news  of  an  important  battle  in  Europe  ^ 
leading  to  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  This  was  done  by  William 
Bradford  on  the  order  of  Gov.  Fletcher,  but  it  was  not  in- 
tended as  a  regular  newspaper.  In  general,  the  colonists 
relieil  upon  a  few  London  papers,  received  by  occasional 
vessels  arriving  from  England,  for  news  from  Europe,  and 
on  the  gossips  at  the  coffee-houses  for  local  intelligence. 
Meanwhile,  John  Campbell,  the  postmaster  of  Boston,  be- 
came a  news-gatherer,  and  furnished  the  New  England 
governors  and  a  few  friends  with  periodical  news-letters  or 
circulars.  These  led  on  Apr.  24,  1704.  to  the  publication  of 
The  News-Letter,  which  has  often  been  called  the  first  news- 
paper printed  in  America.     This  is  Campbell's  prospectus: 

Advertisement. 

This  News-Letter  is  to  be  continued  weekly  :  ami  all  persons  who 
have  any  HimBcs,  Lands.  Tenements.  Farms,  Ships,  Vessels.  Goods, 
Wares  or  Merchandizes,  &c.  to  be  sold  or  let ;  or  Servants  Runaway, 
or  (ioods  Stole  or  Lost :  may  have  the  same  inserted  at  a  Reasonable 
Rate,  from  Twelve  Pence  to  Five  Shillings  and  not  exceed :  W  ho 
may  aprei*  with  John  Campbell  Post  Master  of  Boston. 

All  persons  in  Town  or  County  may  have  said  News-Letter  every 
Week,  Yearly,  upon  reasonable  terms,  agreeius  with  John  Camp- 
bell, Post-master  for  the  same. 


NEWSPAPERS 


163 


Tlie  yews-Letter,  in  its  early  days,  wjus  soiiu'tiiues  priiitcil  on 
a  single  sheet,  foolscap  size,  but  oftener  on  a  half  sheet, 
with  two  columns  on  each  side.  It  went  out  of  existence 
when  the  British  trooi)s  evacuate<l  Boston  in  1770.  It  en- 
joyed a  monopoly  of  jouriuilism  in  America  for  fifteen 
years,  and  yet  had  a  circulation  of  only  300  copies.  In  1719 
William  Brooker  was  appoinlcil  postmaster  of  Boston  in  the 
place  of  Campbell,  and  in  conseriueiu-e  of  some  dillieulty 
about  T/ie  Neifn-Letlcr  and  the  mails  the  new  postmaster 
thought  it  expedient  to  establish  another  newspaper.  On 
Dec.  21  of  that  year  he  issued  Tlie'Iionfun  (hni'tte.  The  ap- 
i)earance  of  this  sheet,  adde<l  to  the  loss  of  ollice,  fired  the 
indignation  of  Campbell,  ami  thereupon  began  in  America 
a  "war  of  editoi-s"  which  has  never  ceased. 

On  Dec.  22,  171!l.  the  day  after  the  Gazette  appeared,  the 
initial  paper  in  Philadelphia.  Tlie  American  Week/;/  Mercury, 
was  issued  l)y  Andrew  Kradford,  a  son  of  the  lirst  ]n'inter  in 
Peinisvlvania.  A  paper  that  attracted  more  attention  was 
Tlie  S^eir  England  Vournnt,  established  by  James  Franklin 
.\ug.  7,  1721.  Benjamin  Franklin  began  his  career  lus  a 
jirinter's  apprentice  on  this  paper.  The  f 'oHCff/i/ created  a 
.sensation,  and  its  pulilislier  was  soon  in  dillieulty.  First  it 
had  a  wordy  war  with  Tlie  Xeirs-Le/ter.  Then  James 
Franklin  had  a  good  deal  of  trouble  with  the  clergy,  espe- 
cially with  Cotton  and  Increase  Mather,  and  finally  the  jour- 
nalist and  the  Government  officials  had  their  differences. 
The  communications  in  the  Coiirant  produceii  so  much  talk 
and  scandal  in  the  ([uiet  town  of  Boston  that  its  publisher 
was  forbidden  to  issue  his  paper  except  under  very  arbitrary 
restrictions,  and  for  attempting  to  evade  these  he  was 
thrown  into  prison.  On  Feb.  11,  1722,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
then  only  sixteen  years  of  age,  was  placed  in  charge  as  editor 
and  publisher,  and  he  remained  for  several  months  in  this 
position.  There  continued  to  be  the  same  independent 
spirit  in  the  nuinagement  of  the  paper,  and  its  troubles 
finally  induced  Janu^s  Franklin  to  abandon  its  |)ublication. 
He  went  to  Newport,  H.  I.,  where  he  established  the  Gazette 
in  1732. 

Tlie  next  paper  that  appeared  in  America  was  Hie  New 
Yurk  Gazette,  the  first  in  that  province.  It  was  published 
by  William  Bradford,  and  the  first  number  was  issued  on 
Oct.  23,  1725.  In  1727  Tlie  New  England  Weekly  Journal 
was  published  liy  .Samuel  Kneeland.  The  Maryland  Ga- 
zette also  appeared  in  1727,  the  first  in  that  colony.  It  was 
published  till  1736,  and  revived  in  174!».  In  1728  Benja- 
min Franklin  made  his  reappearance  as  a  journalist. 
Samuel  Keiraer  had  started  a  paper  in  that  year  in  Phila- 
delphia, which  he  named  The  Universal  InMructijr  in  all  the 
Arts  and  Sciences,  and  Pennxylrania  Gazelle.  Franklin 
had  contemplated  such  an  enterprise,  and  had  confided  his 
intention  to  a  fellow-printer,  wlio  treacherously  informed 
Kein\er  of  the  plan,  and  the  Instructor  was  the  result. 
Franklin,  in  ordiu-  to  prevent  the  success  of  Keimer"s  jour- 
nal, immediately  began  writing  "'several  amusing  ))ieces 
for  Bradford's  paper  (tlie  Mercury].  undiT  the  title  of  Busy 
Body."  In  less  than  a  year  Keinier  sold  his  paper,  with  its 
ninety  subscribers,  to  Franklin,  who  condensed  its  name  to 
Pennxylrania  Gazette,  and  made  it  a  success.  On  Jan.  8, 
1731,  The  South  Carolina  GazetJe  was  issued,  the  first  in  that 
province.  It  was  printeil  in  Charleston,  and  lived  a  year, 
but  wtLS  revived  in  1734. 

The  most  important  newsmiper,  politically,  in  early  colo- 
nial times  was  .started  in  New  Vork  in  1733.  On  Nov.  5 
of  that  year  John  Peter  Zenger  issued  the  first  Humber 
of  The  Xew  York  Weekly  Journal.  It  was  a  rival  of  Brad- 
ford's Gazette  professionally  and  politically,  and  Zenger 
was  a  fearless  journalist.  The  Journal  made  war  on  the 
administration  of  Gov.  Cosby,  and  in  1734  its  editor  was 
arrested  for  libel  on  theCJovernmeiit  and  thrown  into  prison, 
and  in  the  hope  of  crushing  the  paper  the  authorities  kept 
liim  nine  months  in  confinement.  In  spite  of  the  imprison- 
nmit  of  its  editiir,  the  Journal  continued  to  appear  regu- 
larly :  and  on  Aug,  '■>,  1735,  the  case  was  brought  before  the 
court  for  trial.  It  was  the  first  action  for  newspaper  libel 
on  the  American  continent.  Zenger  wils  aciiuitled,  and  the 
verdict  was  greeted  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm  by  an  im- 
nu'iise  audience.  Tlie  Virginia  Gazette,  the  first  in  that 
province,  mnije  its  de.hut  in  Williamsburg  in  173():  and  two 
newspapers  printed  in  German,  the  pioneers  in  any  foreign 
language  in  the  U.  S.,  apju'ared — one  in  Germantown,  Pa., 
in  173!),  and  the  other  in  Philadelphia  in  1743. 

Mo.st  of  these  colonial  papers  confined  themselves  strictly 
to  the  merest  mention  of  the  news  of  the  day.  If  any 
opinions  were  uttered,  they  were  subservient  to  tiie  authori- 


ties. The  Franklins  and  Zenger  were  the  exceptions,  and 
they  originated  and  practiced  that  independent  si)irit  which 
was  infusetl  in  a  new  class  of  papers  that  appeared  siibse- 

?uent  to  1745.  This  new  class  was  the  Revolutionary  press, 
t  was  still  of  the  colonial  .stamp,  because  the  counirv  was 
yet  composed  of  colonies,  with  go%'ernors  appointed  to 
rule  over  tliein  by  Great  Britain,  but  the  jx'ople  and  the  press 
had  become  restless,  more  .self-reliant,  and  more  independent 
of  the  colonial  authorities.  The  pioneer  was  The  Independ- 
ent Adcerti.ser,  issued  in  Boston  on  Jan.  4,  1748,  under  the 
ins|iiration  of  Samuel  Adams.  One  of  its  contributors  was 
Jonathan  Mayliew,  who,  on  the  occa.sion  of  an  election, 
preached  a  sermon  strongly  advocating  the  republican  form 
of  goverimient.  David  Fowle,  the  printer  of  the  ]iaper,  hav- 
ing issued  a  pamphlet  which  severely  denounced  the  Legis- 
lature for  certain  acts,  was  arrested  and  imjirisoned.  On 
his  release  he  quitted  Bo.ston  and  went  to  Portsmouth.  N.  II., 
where  he  started  The  New  JIampshire  Gazette  in  1756,  and 
the  young  patriots  of  the  Adrerli.'ier  had  to  bide  their  time. 
One  or  two  new  papers  ajipeared  in  Boston  and  New  'i'ork, 
and  pamphlets  were  i.ssued  by  the  opponents  of  the  Govern- 
ment in  the  next  year;  but  the  real  organ  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary party  made  its  a]i)iearance  on  Apr.  7.  Wo.').  It  was 
naiiKMl  1'he  Boston  (razette  and  Country  Gentleman,  and 
all  the  vigorous  writers  for  The  Independent  Adeertiser  con- 
tributed to  its  columns.  The  Newport  (R.  I.)  Mercury  was 
established  on  June  12,  1758,  by  James  Franklin,  a  nephew 
of  Benjamin  Franklin.  The  pre.ss  on  which  the  elder  James 
Franklin  and  his  brother  Benjamin  so  often  worked  in  Bos- 
ton remained  in  the  Mercury  office  for  100  years.  It  was 
then  [iresented  to  the  JIassachusetts  Charitable  Mechanics' 
Association.  On  Feb.  16,  1759,  the  old  Gazette  of  William 
Bradford  was  revived,  and  afterward  immortalized  by  Frit- 
neau.  On  Oct.  29.  1764,  The  Connecticut  Courant  was  is- 
sued in  Hartford,  and  is  still  pulilished  there  as  a  weekly. 

In  opiiosing  the  Stamp  Act  of  1765  the  ]iatriotic  news- 
papers had  a  prodigious  influence  on  the  colonists.  The 
Maryland  Gazette,  the  Newport  Mercury,  and  many  other 
papers  printed  the  resolutions  of  the  Virginia  House  of 
Burgesses  against  it,  and  several  suspended  |>ublication  in 
consequence  of  the  act — notably  The  Pennsylvania  Journal 
and  Weekly  Advertiser.  In  1766  a  second  Gazette  appeared 
in  Williamsburg,  printed  by  William  Rind.  The  first  print- 
ed statement  of  the  adciption  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence on  July  4,  1776.  was  made  in  the  Gazutte  on  the 
19tli  of  that  month,  and  the  document  in  full  appeared  in 
the  same  paper  on  the  26th.  On  May  29,  1767,  The  New 
York  Journal,  or  General  Advertiser,  was  brought  out 
under  the  inspiration  of  George  Clinton  and  Philip  Schuyler. 
It  was  a  revival  of  Zenger's  paper,  and  was  edited  by  Alex- 
ander McDougall.  Alexander  Haniilton,  when  only  sixteen 
yeai's  of  age,  was  a  clever  contributor  to  its  columns. 

Opposite  in  political  sentiment  to  these  patriot  journals 
was  The  Rvyul  Gazetteer,  which  was  established  in  New 
York  in  1762  by  James  Rivington.  The  leading  conlribu- 
tors  to  the  Gazetteer  were  Attorney-General  Seabury,  Jlyles 
Cooper,  jiresident  of  King's  (now  Columbia)  College,  the 
Rev.  John  V'ardill,  and  the  Rev.  Samuel  Chandler.  Major 
-Andre  also  wrote  for  the  jiaper.  and  his  well-known  satire, 
The  Cow  Cha«e.  appeared  in  the  Gazetteer  on  the  very  day 
of  his  capt  lire.  It  was  subse(iuent  ly  called  Jtivinyton's  jioyul 
Gazette,  with  the  royal  arms  over  the  office  door.  It  was 
an  ably  conducted  newspaper,  lis  otSce  was  twice  mobbed 
for  its  zeal  for  the  crown — once  by  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  and 
once  by  a  party  of  Connecticut  militia.  After  enjoying 
royal  favor  for  many  year.s,  Rivington,  in  1782,  who  then 
saw  the  "end  of  things,"  shaped  his  course  to  meet  coming 
events.  The  title  Royal  was  dropped,  and  the  paper  was 
afterward  known  as  Nivinglons  New  York  Gazette  and 
I'niver.tal  Advertiser,  and  the  royal  arms  were  removed 
from  over  the  door  of  the  office.  The  circulation  of  the 
Gazette  reached,  in  its  best  days,  the  large  ninnber  of  3.000. 
Another  organ  of  the  crown  was  started  in  Boston  in  1767. 
It  W(us  7'/ie  Chronicle,  and  the  handsomest  journal,  ty|)o- 
graphically,  published  in  the  colonies.  It  exhibiteil  great 
pretensions  to  literature.  John  Mein,  one  of  its  imblislier.s, 
assisted  liy  a  pre-Revolutionary  wit  of  Boston  named  Joseph 
Green,  and  a  few  others,  was  very  severe  on  the  Whigs  of 
those  day.s,  but  popular  sentiment  beeame  so  inimical  to 
him  that  he  was  compelled  to  stop  the  publication  of  ?7ie 
Chronicle  and  leave  the  country. 

The  Mas.iachusetls  Spy.  "calculated  on  an  entire  new 
plan,"  was  \he  next  inlluentially  patriotic  paper  started  in 
the  colonies.    Its  first  number  came  out  in  Julv.  1770,  under 


164 


NEWSPAPERS 


the  auspices  of  Isaiah  Thomas,  the  autlior  of  the  Flixtory  of 
Printing  in  tliv  United  States.  It  was  a  power  with  the 
people,  and  earlv  in  1T71  urged  a  recourse  to  arms.  On  the 
night  of  Apr.  18,  1TT5.  the  material  of  the  Spy  was  conveyed 
across  the  t'harles  river  and  carried  to  Worcester,  where  the 
paper  was  ever  afterward  printed,  and  where  it  is  now  known 
as  The  Worcester  Spy.  On  Jlay  8.  1T75,  it  first  api)eared 
there  with  the  motto  in  large  type:  "Americans!  Liberty 
or  Death!  .Join  or  Die!"  The  Government,  to  stem  this 
revolutionary  tide  after  the  suspension  of  The  Chronicle,  re- 
sorted to  the  old  News-Letter,  which  was  then  known  as  The 
Massachusetts  Gazette  and  Weefcly  News-Letter. 

In  the  first  vear  of  the  Revolution  eight  newspapers  were 
started— four  "in  Pliiladelphia.  where  Thomas  Paine  and 
Philip  Freneau  lived  and  wrote.  The  first  newspaper  in 
New  Jersey,  the  (fazette.  was  issued  on  Dec.  3,  1777:  the 
first  in  Jlississippi  Territory  appeared  in  1779,  a  pioneer 
among  the  pioneers;  and  in"  1781  the  first.  The  Gazette  or 
Green  Mountain  Po.it  Boy,  was  published  in  Vermont. 
Forty-nine  newspapers  were  established  in  the  colonies  from 
1745  to  1783,  but  of  all  those  publications  not  one  appeared 
daily.  While  New  York  was  occupied  by  the  British  troops 
four  papers  were  published  there,  and  an  arrangement  was 
made  in  their  days  of  publication  by  which  tlie  piiljlic  had 
a  newspaper  each  day.  The  first  daily  paper  in  America 
was  not  issued  till  1784.  It  was  The  American  Daily  Ad- 
verti.ser,  and  was  published  in  Philadelphia  by  Claypoole, 
who  was  the  first  to  introduce  reporting  on  the  continent. 
Of  the  63  newspapers  which  had  been  started  in  America 
from  1690  to  1783,  only  43  were  in  existence  on  the  conclu- 
sion of  peace  with  Great  Britain. 

When  the  Constitution  went  into  operation  in  1789  there 
were  printed  in  each  week,  in  the  U.  S.,  76,4::!8  copies  of 
newspapers.  JIany  foreign  writers  of  ability  were  employed 
by  both  the  great  'political  parties  on  the  press,  and  nuiny 
of  the  political  chiefs  wrote  for  the  journals.  There  were 
few  or  no  regular  editorial  articles,  but  the  topics  of  the 
day  were  warmly  discussed  in  communications  over  all  sorts 
of  signatures.  "Most  of  the  foreign  writers  were  political 
exiles,  and  they  naturally  fell  into  the  ranks  of  the  Demo- 
crats and  wrote  for  the  papers  of  that  party,  strongly  against 
Great  Britain  and  in  favor  of  aiding  republican  France;  and 
they  were  very  severe  on  the  administrations  of  Washington 
ami  Adams.  One  of  these  papers.  The  National  Gazette, 
was  established  in  Philadelphia  in  Oct.,  1791,  by  Philip  Fre- 
neau while  a  clerk  under  Jefferson  in  the  State  Department. 
Jefferson  placed  a  high  estimate  on  his  services  as  a  jour- 
nalist. The  Gazette  was  published  till  1793.  In  1797  Fre- 
neau started  The  Time  Piece  in  New  York,  which  was  after- 
ward edited  by  Matthew  L.  Davis,  and  subsequently  Ijy 
John  Daly  Burk,  one  of  the  United  Irishmen.  Two  influ- 
ential journals  were  estalilished  in  1793:  The  New  England 
Palladium  in  Boston,  and  The  Minerva  (afterward  and  still 
known  as  The  Commercial  Advertiser)  in  New  York.  Noah 
Webster,  the  lexicographer,  previously  a  lawyer  in  Hart- 
ford, was  induced  tc)  take  charge  of  the  latter,  and  there- 
by strengthen  the  Federal  party.  William  L.  Stone  was 
siibsequentlv  and  for  many  years  its  editor.  It  was  after- 
ward conducted  by  Thurlow  Weed,  and  has  since  had  a 
variety  of  changes"  in  editors  and  politics.  It  is  the  oldest 
paperin  New  York.  The  Palladium  was  merged  with  The 
Boston  Adverti.ter.  The  news|iapers  that  attracted  the 
most  attention  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  and  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteontli  century  were  The  Aurora  in 
Philadelphia  and  IVie  Evening  Post  -AnA  American  Citizen 
in  New  York.  The  Aitrnra  was  edited  by  Benjamin  F'rank- 
lin  Bache,  a  grandson  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  till  1798,  and 
then  passed  under  the  editorial  care  of  William  Duanc,  who 
had  become  very  much  embittered  against  Great  Britain. 
It  was  a  powerful  organ  of  Jefferson's.  The  Evening  Post 
was  started  on  Nov.  Hi,  1801.  and  was  strongly  Federal  in  its 
polities.  Alexander  Hamilton,  John  Jay,  and  their  friends 
established  it,  and  placed  William  Coleman  in  the  editorial 
chair,  where  he  retnained  for  nearly  thirty  years,  and  was 
succeeded  by  William  Leggett  and  William  Cullen  Bryant. 
The  American  Citizen  was  a  continuation  of  7'he  New  York 
Journal  and  Argus.  James  Cheetham  became  its  editor  in 
1801.  and  acted  with  that  portion  of  the  Democratic  jiarty 
of  which  the  Clintons  were  l<>aders.  The  bitterness  of  these 
three  journals  kept  up  the  jxilitical  excitement  in  New  York 
to  a  high  pitch  and  for  a  long  time.  Another  Democratic 
paper  was  issued  in  New  York  in  1802  by  the  friends  of 
Aaron  Burr,  in  opposition  to  the  Citizen.  It  was  The  Morn- 
ing Chrojiicle,  and  editeil  liy  Dr.  Peter  Irving.     Washing- 


ton Irving  nuide  his  first  appearance  as  a  writer  in  T?ie 
Chronicle,  over  the  signature  of  "Jonathan  Oldstyle."  It 
ceased  to  exist  in  1803. 

With  the  increase  of  piopulation  in  the  Northwest,  the 
necessity  of  newspapers  became  evident,  and  on  Nov.  9, 
1793,  The  Centinel  of  the  Northwe.sfern  Territory  was  found- 
ed in  Cincinnati  by  William  Maxwell,  the  first  newspaper 
and  the  first  printing-office  beyond  the  Ohio.  Nathaniel 
Willis,  an  old  Boston  printer,  started  The  Scioto  Gazette  in 
Cliillicothe  in  1796,  and  in  1799  The  Western  Spy  and  Ham- 
ilton Gazette  was  issued.  *  Singular  as  it  may  seem,  some  of 
these  newspapers  appeared  in  advance  of  any  in  Central  or 
Western  New  York.  The  Otsego  Herald,  or  Western  Ad- 
I'ertiser,  was  the  first  newspaper  printed  in  Central  New 
York.  It  appeared  (18  by  21  inches  in  size,  each  of  the 
four  printed  pages  being  9  by  1.5i  inches)  at  Cooperstown 
Apr.  3,  1795,  and  was  continued  until  1831.  Elihu  Phinney 
was  its  founder,  editor,  and  the  pioneer  journalist  in  that 
section  of  the  country.  William  L.  Stone,  Thurlow  Weed, 
and  other  distinguished  journalists,  worked  at  tlie  case  in 
his  office,  and  J.  Fenimore  Cooper  often  "set  type"  there 
for  amusement,  and  he  described  in  The  Pioneers  the  print- 
ing-estalilishment  of  the  Herald  in  its  days  of  infancy. 

The  Eiciimond  Enquirer,  edited  for  forty  years  by  Thomas 
Ritchie,  started  on  May  9,  1804,  became  a  leading  and  pow- 
erful organ  of  public  opinion  for  half  a  century.  Among 
other  prominent  journals  that  appeared  at  that  time  was  The 
Albany  Register,  established  in  1803  or  1804.  an  influential 
paper,  especially  under  the  care  of  Solomon  Southwick.  who 
was  its  chief  editor  in  1808.  In  the  overthrow  of  factions 
it  succumbed  to  The  Albany  Argus,  which  was  started  in 
1813,  and  managed  with  ability  and  skill  by  Edwin  Cros- 
well  till  the  defeat  of  Martin  Van  Buren  in  1840.  It  was 
the  mouthpiece  of  the  Albany  Regency,  as  the  Enquirer 
was  of  the  Richmond  Junta.  Another  pa[)er  of  note  was 
The  Hudson  Balance,  a  leading  Federal  paper  in  1804,  ed- 
ited by  Harry  Croswell.  It  had  to  carry  on  the  contest 
against  the  Democratic  organs  with  Tlie  Commercial  Adver- 
tiser  and  The  Evening  Post  of  New  York.  New  ]iarty  papers 
continue<l  to  make  their  appearance,  and  were  at  that  time 
mostly  Democratic.  They  grew  out  of  the  troubles  and 
jealousies  of  the  party-leaders.  After  the  death  of  Cheet- 
ham. the  Tammany  llall  Democrats  set  up  a  jiaper  named 
The  National  Advocate.  Henry  Wheaton  was  its  editor  for 
a  number  of  years.  It  then  passed  into  the  hands  of  Mor- 
<lecai  Manasseh  Noah  :  James  Gordon  Bennett  was  also  one 
of  its  editors.  Other  influential  party  papers  of  that  period 
were  The  Portland  {'Sle.)Argu.i,  established  in  1803,  The  New 
Hampsh  ire  Patriot  in  Concord  in  1808,  The  Hartford  (Conn.) 
Time.-i  in  1817,  The  Charleston  (S.  C.)  Mercury  i"n  1822,  The 
Crlohe  in  Washington,  and  The  Post  in  Boston  in  1831,  ^he 
Nashville  (Tenn.)  Union,  and  The  Coluynbus  (O.)  Statesman. 
The  newsjiapers  in  opposition  a  large  portion  of  this  time, 
although  some  of  these  were  originally  Democratic,  were 
The  National  Intelligencer.^issued  in  Washington  in  1799- 
1800:  The  Providence  (R.I.)  JoHCJia/.  established  in  1820; 
The  Boston  Courier,  started  bv  Joseph  Tinker  Buckingham 
in  1824;  The  i?(>/imon(?  (Va.)  Il7u>.  in  1826:  The  New  York 
Courier  and  Enquirer,  in  1827  ;  The  Albany  Evening  Jour- 
nal, originally  established  by  Thurlow  Weed  a.s  an  Anti- 
Masonic  organ  in  1830;  Tlie  Louisville  (Ky.)  Journal,  first 
issued  in  1831,  and  edited  for  thirty  years  by  George  D. 
Prentice;  The  Boston  Atlas,  started  by  John  11.  Kastburn 
and  the  Webster  Whigs  in  1832 ;  and"  The  Neio  York  Ex- 
press, set  up  by  the  Clay  Whigs  in  1836.  These  journals 
represented  the'National  Republican  and  Whig  parties,  and 
made  their  mark  on  the  pages  of  political  history  ;  Init  they 
were  not  confined  wholly  to  politics.  With  the  ))rogress  of 
the  country,  and  with  the  discussions  of  the  great  questions 
that  came  up  before  the  people,  they  expanded  their  field 
of  discussion  and  enlarged  their  collections  of  news.  Es- 
pecially in  New  Y'ork.  iii  order  to  obtain  large  circulations, 
efforts  were  made  to  acquire  the  earliest  news  in  advance  of 
one  another.  More  attention  was  devoted  to  commercial 
and  foreign  intelligence,  and  they  became  large  advertising 
mediums.  Other  papers  were  established  during  this  long 
period  which  were  not  strictly  party  papers,  but  the  num- 
i)er  was  small.  One  of  the  most  valuable  was  Niles's  Week- 
ly Jiegister.  whicli  was  brought  out  in  Baltimore  in  1811, 
and  continued  till  1848. 

The  "organs"  at  the  national  capital  were  an  important 
feature  of  the  party  journalism  of  the  period.  The  first  of 
this  class  was  The  National  Intelligencer  and  Washington 
Advertiser.    This  paper  had  been  removed  from  Philadel- 


NEWSPAPERS 


165 


pbia,  where  it  was  known  as  77ie  Independent  Gazetteer,  on 
the  removal  of  the  scat  of  poverninent  from  that  city. 
This  was  in  17!l!»-lS(Hl.  "Vhn  Intelligencer.  l\wn  owned  by 
Samuel  ilurvison  Smith,  beeiime  the  organ  of  Jefferson.  In 
1810-12  it  passed  into  the  hands  ot  (iales  &  Seaton,  and 
these  journalists  introduced  the  full  reports  of  the  delmtcs 
in  Congress.  Un  the  advent  of  Jackson  on  Mar.  4,  1829. 
the  Intellii/encer  ceased  to  lie  the  organ  of  the  (Tovernment. 
and  became  that  ot  the  Whig  party,  and  T/ie  United  Slates 
Telegraph,  edited  by  DutT  (jreen,  was  accepted  as  the  organ 
of  Jackson's  administration  :  but  a  ru()ture  between  Presi- 
dent Jackson  and  Vice-President  Calhoun  caused  the  estab- 
lishment (in  1H31)  of  Tlie  Globe,  with  Francis  P.  Blair  and 
Amos  Keiulall  as  editors,  and  this  journal  became  the  organ 
of  the  Democratic  party,  continuing  till  the  advent  of  Har- 
rison in  1H41,  when  the  Intelliijeneer  resumed  its  old  posi- 
tion. The  early  ileath  of  Harrison,  throwing  the  Whig 
party  into  confusion,  led  John  Tyler  to  select  The  Madiso- 
nian.  started  in  1S41.  to  be  his  organ.  On  the  election  of 
James  K.  Polk  in  1844  The  Globe  did  not  return  to  power 
with  its  party,  but  a  new  paper,  called  the  I'nimi.  was  es- 
tablished, with  Thomas  Ritchie  as  editor,  and  that  journal 
became  the  otlieial  (jrgan.  On  the  election  of  Gen.  Taylor 
in  1848  a  new  paper  was  started  for  his  organ,  as  the  In- 
telligeticer  favored  the  Webster  wing  of  the  Whig  |iarty. 
The  new  paper.  The  Republic,  was  edited  by  Alexander  Bul- 
litt and  ,lohn  O.  Sargeant.  The  National  Era  served  the 
Free-Soil  party  in  the  national  capital  from  1847,  and,  be- 
sides other  powerful  contributions  to  the  growing  anti- 
slavery  excitement,  first  gave  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  by  Mrs. 
Stowe,  to  the  world.  When  Franklin  Pierce  came  into 
power  in  18.^2-.53,  The  Vjiion  resumed  its  position  with  the 
Government,  but  with  Gen.  Robert  Armstrong  as  editor  and 
Caleb  Cushiug  and  A.  O.  P.  Nicholson  as  contributors,  and 
continued,  with  John  Appleton  (previously  editor  of  The 
Portland  Argus)  as  conductor,  through  the  administration 
of  James  Buchanan.  The  Union  was  the  last  of  the  offi- 
cial organs  at  the  national  capital. 

The  Rev.  John  Andrews  established  in  Chillicothe.  0.,  the 
first  religions  newspajier  in  the  U.  S.  It  was  entitled  The 
Hecordrr.  anil  the  initial  number  was  issued  in  1814.  Na- 
thaniel Willis  thought  and  talked  of  such  an  enterprise  in 
Portland,  Me.,  in  1808,  Vint  did  not  receive  sufficient  en- 
couragement to  carry  out  his  plans  til!  1816.  On  Jan.  3  of 
that  year  he  issueil  the  first  number  of  TTte  Boston  Recorder. 
The  American  Farmer  was  the  first  of  the  agricultural 
press.  It  wjis  |iublishcd  in  Baltimore  by  John  S.  Skinner, 
and  the  first  number  appeared  on  Apr.  3.  1818.  The  Plough- 
bug,  maiuiged  by  Solomon  .Southwick,  followed  in  1821,  and 
was  published  in  Albany.  The  Xew  England  Farmer  next 
appeared  in  Aug.,  1822.  As  far  back  as  1T9.5  The  Boston 
Prices  Current  and  Marine  Intelligencer  was  published, 
but  in  a  few  years  it  became  a  political  newspaper  ;  and  the 
first  successful  commercial  paper  was  The  New  Orleans 
Prices  Current,  established  in  1822. 

Up  to  1833  newspapers  in  the  U.  S..  whether  daily  or 
weekly,  were  distributed  almost  exclusively  by  subscription. 
and  at  a  price  which,  considering  their  size  and  the  amount 
of  reading-matter  they  gave,  would  now  seem  high.  Their 
advertisements,  however,  were  cheaj),  as  was  natural,  con- 
sidering that  the  circulations  were  small.  It  was  only  by 
becoming  an  annual  subscriber  that  one  could  obtain  a  city 
paper  for  less  than  six  cents.  There  were  no  street  sales,  no 
news-stands  or  news-agencies,  and  but  small  sales  at  the 
ollici'S.  No  paper  in  the  C(mntry  in  183.'5  circulated  over 
5,(X)0  copies:  very  few  over  half  that  number.  With  all  the 
enterprise  that  .lames  Watson  Webb,  of  The  Courier  and 
Enquirer,  and  Hale  and  Ilallock,  of  The  Journal  of  (Com- 
merce, of  New  York,  and  Richard  Houghton,  of  The  Boston 
Atlas,  displayed  Ixitween  the  years  1830  and  1840  in  news- 
schooners  and  pony  expresses,  not  one  of  these  journals 
could  boast  of  a  subscripti(m-list  of  over  o.OOO  names. 

The  penny  press  appeared  in  New  York  in  1833.  The 
Morning  Post  was  started  on  the  first  day  of  that  year. 
Horatio  D.ivid  Shepard  was  the  editor,  and  Horace  (Jreeley 
and  Francis  V.  .Storey  were  the  printers.  It  was  first  sold 
for  two  cents,  and  then  for  one  cent.  In  three  weeks  it  was 
dead.  On  Sept.  3,  1833.  The  Sun  was  issued  by  Benjamin 
Day,  anil  sold  at  one  cent  per  copy.  At  first  it  depended 
for  its  success  on  local  news,  and  largely  on  piipiant  police 
reports.  It  gradually  gained  a  large  circulation,  and  es- 
poused the  Democratic  side  in  politics.  In  1867  it  was  re- 
organized, and  came  for  the  first  time  under  the  direction 
of  a  forcible  political  editor,  Charles  A.  Dana,  who  had  en- 


joyed hirgc  experience  on  political  journals  and  as  .\ssist- 
ant  Secretary  of  War.  Under  him  it  became  an  influential 
political  journal,  and  also  by  a  careful  selection  and  skill- 
ful condensation  of  news  commended  itself  to  many  political 
opponents.  For  years  it  sold  from  120.000  to  140,000  copies 
daily,  adhering  to  its  tour-page  size  and  two-cent  price. 

Nearly  two  years  after  I  he.  Sun  (on  May  6,  1835),  another 
snuill,  cheap  paper.  The  New  York  Herald,  made  its  first 
apjicarance,  edited  by  James  Gordon  Bennett,  who  had  also 
enjoyed  large  previous  experience  on  other  journals.  With- 
in twenty  years  it  attained  a  circulation  of  36.000  copies, 
and  has  since  that  time  greatly  increased,  though  with  vary- 
ing i>rices  and  success.  It  displayed  great  enterprise  in  the 
collection  of  news.  In  the  latter  years  of  his  life  Mr.  Ben- 
nett gradually  yielded  the  management  of  the  Herald  to 
his  only  son,  Viearing  his  name,  who  on  his  father's  death 
succeeded  to  the  absolute  control.  The  son  made  a  liberal 
use  of  a  portion  of  the  large  fortune  left  him  in  equipping 
an  expedition  in  search  of  Livingstone,  which,  besides  dis- 
covering the  African  explorer,  made  important  contribu- 
tions to  geographical  .science.  He  also  fitted  out  a  generous 
but  unfortunate  Arctic  exploration  enterprise.  He  gave 
great  attention  to  yachting,  coaching,  base-ball,  lawn  ten- 
nis, racing,  polo,  and  other  s]iorts.  and  continued  the  policy 
of  his  father  in  making  the  most  energetic  and  far-reaching 
collection  of  all  manner  of  news  likely  to  interest  a  miscel- 
laneous public  his  first  object. 

On  Apr.  10.  1841.  Horace  Greeley,  who  had  already  at- 
tained distinction  as  the  most  forcible  political  editor  then 
in  the  Whig  ranks,  issued  the  first  number  of  The  New 
YorJ:  Tribune,  which  he  continued  to  conduct  until  his 
nomination  for  the  presidency  in  1872,  and  of  which  he  re- 
mained one  of  the  proprietors  until  his  death.  The  Tribune 
also  was  at  the  outset  a  penny  paper,  but  it  differed  from 
the  other  cheap  journals  of  that  period  in  giving  larger  at- 
tention to  politics,  literature,  and  social  discussions.  Con- 
tributors to  its  columns  set  forth  and  advocated  the  system 
of  Fourier.  It  encouraged  efforts  to  establish  comnmnistic 
and  educational  associations.  It  gave  almost  the  first  seri- 
ous attention  to  the  Rochester  knockings  and  other  alleged 
manifestations  of  Spiritualism  ;  it  pressed  upon  workingmen 
the  advantages  of  co-operation  and  arbitration,  instead  of 
trades-unionism  and  strikes,  as  a  method  for  securing  their 
best  interests :  and  it  became  the  most  conspicuous  cham- 
pion of  the  warfare  through  political  agencies  upon  the  sys- 
tem of  slavery.  It  made  the  first  great  use  of  the  Atlantic 
cables  for  transmitting  war  correspondence.  It  translated 
the  famous  cipher  dispatches  relating  to  alleged  illegal  at- 
tempts by  Mr.  Tilden's  partisans  to  secure  electoral  voles 
for  him  in  the  disputed  electiim  of  1876.  It  established 
and  has  conducted  for  many  years  the  pioneer  Fresh  Air 
Fund,  by  which  large  numliers  of  poor  children  from  the 
most  destitute  portions  of  the  city  are  taken  to  country 
homes  lor  a  two  weeks'  vacation  during  the  slifiing  heat  of 
summer.  This  is  of  especial  importance  as  the  type  of  nu- 
merous charitable  undertakings  by  other  newspapers.  The 
Tribune  established,  within  a  few  months  after  its  first  issue, 
regular  weekly  and  semi-weekly  editions,  and  its  weekly  soon 
became  t  he  most  widely  circulated  polit  ical  journal  in  the  U.  S. 

Tlie  New  York  Times  was  established  by  Henry  J.  Ray- 
mond, who  had  formerly  been  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
Tribune,  in  Sept.,  1851.'  It  was  designed  to  fill  substan- 
tially the  same  field  with  the  Tribune,  but  in  a  more  con- 
servative and  moderate  way.  It  also  began  as  a  penny 
paper,  and  attained  success  almost  al  the  outset.  Its  great- 
est reputation  was  achieved  after  Gov.  Raymond's  death  by 
its  vigorous  exposure  of  the  'I'weed  ring,  in  which  it  dis- 
played courage  and  pertinacity,  and  from  which  it  derived 
great  profit.  During  Gov.  Raymond's  life  and  for  some 
years  afterward  it  was  Republican.  It  gradually  displayed 
free-trade  leanings,  in  1884  supported  the  Democratic  presi- 
dential ticket,  and  has  since  fornmlly  declared  itself  a  Demo- 
cratic journal. 

On  .iune  1. 1860,  Tlte  New  York  World  was  established  by 
a  number  of  religious  gentlemen,  for  the  purpose  of  having 
a  newspaper  in  the  metropolis  without  the  police  report.s 
and  the  theatrical  advertisements  and  notices  that  occupied 
.so  much  space  in  the  other  city  journals,  and  with  a  dis- 
tinctly evangelical  tone.  After  spending  a  large  sum  of 
money  this  idea  was  abandoned,  and  I  lie  World  passed 
into  Democratic  hands.  On  July  1,  18()1,  the  World  and 
The  Courier  and  Enquirer  were  united.  It  had  a  long  and 
doulitfid  struggle,  but  at  last  under  Joseph  Pulitzer  at- 
tained an  unusually  large  circulation. 


166 


NEWSPAPERS 


The  Eerald.  Tribune,  Sun.  Times,  and  TTorW  all  became 
large  quarto  or  eiirhl-patre  newspapers.  As  their  system  of 
collecting  news  extended,  and  the  lalior  and  expense  be- 
stowed upon  its  preparation  increased,  the  price  of  all  of 
them  except  Tlie  Sun  was  raised,  first  to  three,  and  finally, 
during  the  civil  war,  to  four  cents.  They  also  one  after  an- 
other began  the  issue  of  regular  Sunday  editions,  for  which 
the  price  was  five  cents,  the  Tribune  being  tlie  latest  to 
yield  to  this  innovation.  After  some  fluctuations  the  World 
fixed  the  price  at  two  cents,  and  was  followed  in  this  for  a 
time  by  the  Times  and  Herald,  but  these  returned  later  to  the 
Tribune's  price,  three  cents.  All  these  papers  also  advanced 
again  to  five  cents  the  price  of  their  Sunday  issue,  which 
had  now  become  a  magazine  in  itself,  ranging  according  to 
the  pressure  of  news  and  advertisements  from  twenty  to 
forty-eight  pages  for  each  issue.  The  size  of  the  pa]ier  in 
the  week-day  issues  was  also  gradually  increased.  It  is 
rarely  that  any  of  these  papers  has  now  less  than  ten  pages, 
while  twelve,  fourteen,  and  sixteen  pages  are  more  common. 
This  great  increase  in  size  and  in  the  quantity  of  reading- 
matter  furnished  has  been  made  practicable  by  several 
causes:  (1)  Theenorraous  reduction  in  thecost  of  the  paperon 
which  they  are  printed.  In  1872  white  news  print  cost  from 
twelve  to  thirteen  cents  a  pound  ;  in  1894  it  could  be  bought 
for  two  and  a  quarter  cents.  (2)  The  introduction  in  most 
of  the  papers  of  machinery  for  type-setting,  which  can  be 
made  to  reduce  greatly  t)ie  cost  of  composition.  (3)  The  in- 
troduction of  improved  printing-machinery,  by  which  the 
papers  are  printed,  cnt,  pasted,  folded  and  counted,  ready 
for  delivery  by  a  single  machine,  needing  only  three  opera- 
tors, at  the  rate  of  from  20,000  to  40,000  copies  per  hour. 
(4)  Great  reductions  in  the  cost  of  telegraphing  both  on  the 
ocean  cables  and  by  the  domestic  lines,  coupled  with  the 
system  of  leasing  telegraph  lines  between  important  news- 
points  for  an  individual  newspaper  or  a  few  associates,  and 
the  liberal  use  of  long-distance  telephone  lines.  (5)  A  vast 
increase  in  the  number  of  newspaper  readers,  thus  increas- 
ing the  profit  both  on  circulation  and  from  the  consequent 
advertising.  Seventy  columns  of  news  and  editorial  com- 
ment, besides  many  pages  of  advertisements,  are  now  often 
sold  for  two  or  three  cents.  Nearly  all  news  is  now  received 
by  telegraph,  and  a  large  part  of  it  is  specially  collected  for 
each  paper  by  its  own  corps  of  correspondents.  The  ex- 
penses for  the  collection  of  city  news  have  also  immensely 
increased  since  1860.  Where  eight  or  ten  reporters  former- 
ly served  a  newspaper  it  now  often  has  sixty  to  seventy. 
Counting  "casuals"  and  "special  assignment  men,"  it  is 
common  for  a  New  York  newspaper  of  the  first  class  to  have 
100  or  more  men  serving  almost  every  night  in  its  city  de- 
partment. The  editorial  department  has  made  a  similar  ad- 
vance, while  specialists  are  retained  in  large  numliers  for 
the  treatment  of  literary,  artistic,  musical,  dramatic,  and 
other  topics. 

The  same  increase  in  labor  and  expense  and  improvement 
in  the  collection  of  news  which  have  been  noted  in  the 
New  York  papers,  especially  since  1860,  may  be  observed 
proportionately  throughout  the  press  of  the  country.  The 
great  distances  in  the  U.  S.,  the  excellent  telegraphic  serv- 
ice, and  the  facilities  afforded  by  the  United  and  the  Asso- 
ciated Presses  stimtdate  the  growth  of  first-class  news- 
papers in  all  large  cities.  Thus  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  and  San  Francisco  have 
come  to  possess  strong  and  enter|)rising  journals,  many  of 
them  as  large  as,  or  larger  than,  the  New  York  papers,  and 
sometimes  conducted  on  a  scale  of  equal  expenditure.  In 
Chicago,  the  Tribune,  Herald,  Hews,  Times,  and  Inter- 
Oeean  are  of  this  class;  in  St.  Louis,  The  Globe-Democrat 
ami  Republic;  in  Cincinnati,  TTie  Commercial-Oazette  and 
Enquirer ;  in  New  Orleans,  The  Times-Democrat  and  Pica- 
yune ;  anil  in  San  Francisco,  the  Chronicle,  Examiner, 
Bullelin.  and  Call. 

A  large  number  of  the  more  substantial  newspapers  now 
erect  large  buildings  of  their  own  wherein  they  establish 
their  machinery  and  offices,  while  they  derive  a  handsome 
income  from  the  rent  of  the  portions  of  the  building  not  oc- 
cupieil  by  themselves.  In  New  York,  the  Tribune  was  the 
first  to  construct  a  large  eleven-story  fire-proof  building  of 
this  class.  It  has  sinc'C  Ijeen  follow("d  by  tlie  Times.  World. 
and  some  others;  while  the  Herald,  adopting  a  different 
idea,  has  constructed  a  large  but  low  building  in  the  heart  of 
the  np-town  amusement  and  advertising  quarter,  entirely  for 
its  own  use.  In  most  of  the  great  cities  of  the  country  the 
leading  newspapers  now  own  buildings,  often  the  niostcon- 
spicuous  in  the  place,  accommodating  many  tenants  as  well 


as  themselves.  Even  on  the  Pacific  coast  the  buildings  of 
The  San  Francisco  Chronicle,  Portland  Oregonian,  and 
Seattle  Post-Intelliyencer  are  of  the  most  approved  modern, 
high,  fire-proof  class,  and  among  the  most  prominent  in  their 
respective  cities. 

The  period  since  the  civil  war  has  been  marked  also  by 
the  rapid  development  of  local  journalism  throughout  the 
U.  S.  Nearly  every  city  of  1.5.000  inhabitants  must  have  its 
own  daily  paper — often,  indeed,  when  not  half  that  size. 
Nearly  every  county-seat  must  have  its  weekly  pajier,  and 
in  the  more  populous  counties  some  village  in  almost  every 
township  will  also  have  a  weekly  issue.  An  immense  sys- 
tem of  printing  what  are  called  "  patent  outsides  "  for  such 
papers  has  sprung  up.  under  which  two  pages  of  news  and 
miscellany  are  edited  and  printed  at  some  central  office  for 
a  great  multitude  of  smaller  papers,  the  half-printed  sheets 
being  then  forwarded  to  the  several  offices,  to  be  filled  out, 
in  each,  with  the  local  news  and  editorial  comment  of  its 
own  locality.  Another  economical  device  for  the  small 
country  papers  is  the  use  of  what  is  called  "  plate  matter." 
Late  news,  correspondence,  and  miscellany  likely  to  be  gen- 
erally acceptable  for  such  papers  is  put  in  type  in  a  central 
office,  say  in  New  York  or  Chicago,  and  stereotype  plates  of 
it  are  then  made  and  sold  to  the  country  press.  Thus  a 
country  pa]ier  often  presents  to  its  few  hundred  readers  four 
pages  of  attractive  reading  matter,  of  which  less  than  a  page 
has  been  prepared  and  put  in  tyjie  in  its  own  office. 

The  Daily  Graphic  of  New  York  is  believed  to  have  been 
the  first  illustrated  daily  newspaper  in  the  world.  It  regu- 
larly printed  engravings,  often  of  considerable  merit,  on 
four  of  its  eight  pages.  Its  system,  however,  proved  too  ex- 
pensive, and  it  led  a  precarious  existence,  finally  dying  in 
1888.  Meantime  many  of  the  larger  daily  journals  gradu- 
ally adopted  the  plan  of  illustrating  their  news  columns 
with  portraits  of  the  leading  persons  referred  to,  and  this 
proved  so  popular  that  the  system  was  largely  extended. 
Many  of  the  newspapers  established  art  departments  in  their 
offices.  Here  they  accumulated  enormous  collections  of 
l)hotographs  of  almost  every  prominent  personage  in  Amer- 
ica and  Europe,  together  with  engravings  of  public  build- 
ings, and  every  other  species  of  information  likely  to  be 
useful  in  enabling  them  suddenly  to  produce  pictures  in 
illustration  of  any  news  article.  Various  new  methods  of 
reiiroducing  photographs  on  metal  and  then  transferring 
them  to  the  stereotype  pages  were  introduced.  Skillfid  ar- 
tists were  also  employed  to  attend  important  public  trials, 
conventions,  sessions  of  Congress  and  of  the  Legislature, 
etc.,  and  to  make  spirited  sketches  of  the  principal  speakers 
and  the  surroimding  scenes.  In  this  manner  a  large  num- 
ber of  newspapers  not  only  in  New  York  l)ut  in  the  other 
jirincipal  cities  of  the  country  are  liberally  illustrated  every 
day.  The  system  has  also  been  seized  upon  by  the  offices 
furnishing  "plate  matter"  to  country  papers,  and  the  re- 
motest rural  weekly  can  now  accompany  its  news  of  the 
latest  nomination  for  Governor  or  Congress  with  a  portrait 
of  the  candidate,  or  its  mention  of  the  latest  notetl  death, 
whether  of  prince,  or  president,  or  opera-singer,  with  a  tol- 
erable representation  of  the  features  of  the  deceased.  Illus- 
trated weeklies  are  numerous,  and  some  of  them  have  great 
circulations.  Harper's  Weehl;/  and  FraitJc  Leslie's  being  the 
most  prominent  in  New  York.  Comic  newspapers  were  for 
a  long  time  unsuccessful  in  the  U.  S.,  but  since  1880  several 
have  become  profitable.  Puck.  Judge,  and  Life  being  those 
best  known  in  New  York.  Of  class-papers  tlie  name  is  le- 
gion ;  half  a  dozen  are  devoted  exclusively  to  the  affairs  of 
Wall  Street.  Every  trade  has  it.s  own  organ,  and  often 
numerous  competing  organs.  The  growth  of  the  religious 
press  has  been  marked  by  great  steadiness,  and  many  of  the 
journals  belonging  to  the  larger  denominations  are  among 
the  most  stable  and  successful  newspaper  properties  in  the 
country. 

An  estimate  of  the  number  of  newspapers  in  the  world  in 
1891  showed  a  total  of  41.000,  of  which  24.000  were  published 
in  Europe.  The  distribution  was  approximately  as  follows: 
Tlie  V.  S..  12..500;  Germany,  5,500;  France,  4,100;  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  4.000  ;  Austria-Hungarv.  8.500 ;  Italy. 
1.400:  Spain.  850;  Russia.  800;  Switzerland,'4.50;  Belgium, 
300;  Holland.  :500.  (.)t  this  total  1T,.500  were  pulilislied  in 
I  he  English  language.  T,5(I0  in  the  German,  6.800  in  the 
French.  l.SOO  in  the  Spanisli.  and  1..500  in  the  Italian.  In 
189:^  the  Newspaper  Press  Directory,  of  Ijondon.  gave  the 
number  of  newspapers  in  the  United  Kingdom  as  2.26s,  ,<ind 
of  magazines,  incluiling  the  quarterly  reviews,  as  1,961 — a 
total  of  4,229  periodicals. 


XEW  STYLE 


NEWTON 


167 


The  following  tabic,  from  the  American  Newspaper  Di- 
rectory for  18y4.  shows  Ihi"  number  ami  freiiuenty  of  issue 
of  newspapers  and  periodicals  in  the  U.  S.  and  in  Canada : 


>.  .  >.! 

^ 

>, 

.  >. 

>. 

>■  i     1 

■5 

STATES. 

!l 

1% 

1 

11 

3 
g 
s 

bI 

Alabama 

19 

1 

166 

1 

4 

16 

207 

Alaska 

3 

1 

i 

5 

Arizona 

■'9 

16 

'i 

29 
191 

'4 

17 

39 

Arkansas 

»« 

California 

93 

'6 

448 

4 

86 

637 

Colorado 

31 

3 

230 

2 

22 

'i 

289 

Connecticut 

44 

1 

112 

'3 

3 

35 

2 

6 

206 

Delaware  

6 

27 

1 

5 

1 

40 

D.  of  Columbia. 

4 

33 

2 

20 

2 

'4 

65 

Florida 

15 

i 

'2 

103 

i 

1 

8 

.. 

131 

Oforsia 

22 

238 

4 

38 

.. 

i 

303 

Maho 

3 

2 

47 

52 

Illinois 

134 

i 

19 

1,070 

6 

si 

235 

'5 

19 

1,520 

Indian  Territory 

2 

34 

2 

38 

Til, liana 

110 
60 
38 
21 

i 
2 

i 

'5 
14 

6 

546 
814 
635 
226 

'2 
s 

1 

10 
3 
5 

'79 
70 
50 
25 

i 
2 

'3 
4 
3 

753 

Iowa 

978 

Kansas 

732 

Kentucky 

289 

Louisiana 

15 

1 

141 

3 

12 

172 

Maine 

13 

2 

106 
135 

i 
2 

5 
4 

57 
37 

i 

'5 
5 

192 

Maryland 

197 

Massachusetts.. 

80 

2 

358 

8 

11 

171 

4 

30 

6&t 

Michigan 

5:j 

11 

565 

3 

15 

76 

3 

1 

727 

Minnesota 

37 

3 

438 

3 

11 

54 

2 

1 

549 

Mississippi 

9 

'2 

150 

2 

7 

170 

Missouri 

85 

2 

"8 

675 

i 

17 

107 

"2 

io 

907 

Montana 

11 

1 

1 

63 

2 

6 

8t 

Nebraska 

33 

1 

8 

559 

4 

34 

639 

Nevada 

9 

1 

17 

1 

28 

New  Hampshire 

14 

82 

i 

is 

i 

117 

New  Jersey 

48 

2 

2 

255 

2 

'7 

44 

'4 

3 

367 

New  Mexico .... 

7 

48 

1 

1 

57 

New  York 

177 

"2 

36 

1,114 

'2 

43 

554 

23 

50 

2,001 

North  Carolina. 

18 

163 

1 

5 

20 

1 

208 

North  Dakota  . . 

9 

118 

1 

1 

6 

135 

Ohio 

140 
10 

'4 

24 

1 

775 
73 

3 

19 
1 

125 
5 

2 

16 

1,108 

Oklahoma 

90 

Oregon 

18 

4 

141 

1 

21 

185 

Pennsylvania. .. 

I8:i 

'3 

21 

925 

8 

23 

216 

'8 

21 

1,408 

Rhode  Island  . . . 

16 

1 

37 

2 

13 

1 

70 

South  Carolina . 

8 

i 

6 

97 

'4 

8 

i 

125 

South  Dakota.. 

16 

1 

224 

1 

18 

1 

261 

Tennessee 

17 

4 

222 

4 

26 

2 

275 

Texas 

10 
3 

i 

8 
7 

551 
34 
63 

4 
5 
3 

36 
8 
11 

i 

T 

656 

Utah 

64 

Vermont 

80 

Virginia 

30 

'2 

6 

181 

1 

40 

'3 

'4 

270 

Washington 

18 

2 

183 

2 

21 

1 

227 

West  Virginia  . . 

12 

1+4 

i 

1 

8 

166 

Wisconsin 

49 

'5 

450 

4 

8 

33 

'2 

551 

Wj-oming 

5 

32 

37 

Totals,  U.  S... 

1,853 

29 

223 

14,077 

62 

290 

2,501 

70 

197 

19,302 

Brit.  Columbia.. 

7 

1 

15 

1 

1 

25 

Manitoba 

2 

3 

36 

1 

11 

,, 

53 

New  Hrunswick. 

8 

2 

27 

'i 

10 

48 

N.W.  Territories 

1 

2 

12 

15 

Nova  Scotia  — 

7 

2 

3 

45 

i 

i 

7 

66 

Ontario 

43 

,, 

6 

362 

2 

13 

80 

i 

507 

Prince  Ed.  Isl'd. 

3 

1 

11 

1 

16 

Quebec 

16 

'i 

4 

75 

'2 

■5 

28 

i 

132 

Totals,  Canada 

87 

~~& 

22 

583 

6 

21 

138 

2 

862 

Newfoundland.. 

2 

1 

2 

5 

Grand  totals . . 

1.W2 

32   246 

14,662 

68 

311 

2.639 

70 

199 

20.16U 

Revised  by  Wuitelaw  Reid. 
New  Style  :  See  Calendar. 

Newt:  a  name  applied  to  various  small,  tailed  batrachi- 
ans  belonjfing  to  the  genera  Triton,  Salamandra,  etc.,  but 
particularly  applicable  to  Triton  cristatus  of  Europe.  The 
newts  have  vertically  flattened  tails,  and  some  have  fleshy 
ridges  along  the  back.  They  frequent  ditches  and  sluggish 
water  generally,  feeding  on  insects  and  other  aninuil  matter. 
They  are  liarndess,  altliough  they  are  popularly  regarded  as 
venomous.  F,  A.  L. 

New  Taconia,  Wash. :  See  Tacoma. 

New  Testameut:  See  Bible,  The. 

Newton:  <'ily  (settled  in  1826,  made  the  county-seat  in 
1S;!1):  capital  of  .Jasper  co..  111.:  on  the  Enibarras  river, 
and  the  Peo.,  Dec.  and  Evans,  and  the  Ind.  and  111.  S.  rail- 
ways: 140  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  St.  Louis  and  220  S.  of  Chicago 
(see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  8-G).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  coal, 
and  dairy  region  ;  has  steam  and  water  power  saw,  flonr, 
anil  grist  mills,  creamery,  and  canning  and  egg-case  fac- 
tories ;  and  contains  6  churches,  public  schools  with  gram- 
mar and  high  grades,  a  high-school  librarv.  a  private  bank, 
and  :5  weekly  mpers.  Pop.  (1S,':*0)  1,168  :  (1890)  1,428  :  (18U4) 
estimated  with  suburbs,  2,000.  Editor  ok  "  Press." 


Newton  :  city  ;  capital  of  .Jasper  co.,  la.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  5-II) ;  on  the  Iowa  Cent,  and 
the  C'hi.,  Rock  Is.  and  Pae.  railroads:  35  miles  E.  of  Des 
Moines.  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  horse-breeding,  and  stock- 
raising  region;  lias  2  foundries  and  machine-shops,  2  can- 
ning-factories, flour-mills,  and  liarvcsting-inaehine  works; 
antt  contains  9  churches.  Normal  College  (built  in  1893  at 
a  cost  of  $25,000),  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  §50,000, 
a  savings  and  2  private  banks,  and  4  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  2,607 ;  (1890)2,564;  (189.5)3.213. 

Editors  of  "  Herald." 

Newton :  city ;  capital  of  Harvey  Co.,  Kan.  (for  location 
of  county,  sec  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  7-G) :  on  the  Atch.,  Top. 
and  S.  Fc  and  the  Mo.  Pac.  railways ;  135  miles  S.  W.  of  To- 
peka.  It  is  in  a  fruit  and  grain  growing  region,  with  valua- 
ble coal  mines  and  stone  ipiarries  in  its  vicinity.  There  are 
13  churches,  public-school  buildings  that  cost  f90,000.  Free 
Library  (founded  1885),  2  national  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  $1(J0,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  §41,000, 
and  a  daily  and  4  weekly  newspajiers.  The  manufactories 
include  railwav  machine-shops,  iron-foundries,  carriage  and 
sugar  factories,  and  brick-works.  Pop.  (1880)  2.601 ;  (1890) 
5,605;  (189.5)  5,148.  Editor  ok  "  Rei'ublican." 

Newton  :  city  (settle<l  in  1630.  sc|iarated  from  Cambridge 
and  incor|Hiiated  as  a  town  in  1679.  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1873) ;  Middlesex  co.,  Jlass.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map 
of  Massachusetts,  ref.  2-H);  on  the  Charles  river,  and  the 
Boston  and  Albany  Railroad;  7  miles  W.  of  Boston.  It 
contains  13  villages,  derives  large  water-power  for  manu- 
facturing from  the  river,  and  is  the  place  of  residence  of 
many  people  doing  business  in  Boston.  The  city  is  noted 
for  the  healthfulness  and  beauty  of  its  location.  There  are 
more  than  30  churches,  2  academies,  the  Newton  Theological 
Institution,  Lasell  Female  Seminary,  a  lyceum,  public  li- 
brary (founded  1869)  containing  over  35.000  vtdumes,  a  na- 
tional Ijank  with  capital  of  §200,000.  a  savings-bank,  and  a 
monthly  and  3  weekly  jieriodicals.  The  manufactories  in- 
clude rolling,  paper,  and  print-cloth  mills,  and  boot  and 
shoe,  hosiery,  carriage,  cordage,  emery-cloth,  glue,  dye,  ink, 
and  soap  factories.  In  the  center  of  the  city  is  a  cemeterv 
of  about  90  acres.  Pop.  (1880)  16,995 :  (1890)  24,379  ;  (1895) 
27.590.  Editor  OF  "Journal." 

Newton  :  town ;  capital  of  Sussex  co.,  X.  J.  (for  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref.  1-C) :  on  the  Del., 
Lack,  anil  W.  Railroad:  25  miles  X.  N.  W.  of  Morristown, 
62  miles  N.  W.  of  New  Yoi'k  city.  It  is  in  an  agricultural, 
copper,  and  iron  region :  contains  a  non-sectarian  collegiate 
institute,  the  Dennis  Library  (founded  1873),  2  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  §::500,000,  and  2  weekly 
newspapers;  and  is  principally  engaged  in  mining  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  shoes  and  paper  boxes.  It  is  a  summer 
resort.     Pop.  (1880)  2,513 ;  (1890)  3,003  ;  (1895)  3,426. 

Editor  of  "  Herald  and  Democr.^t." 

Newton,  Alfred  :  ornithologist :  b.  at  Geneva.  Switzer-' 
land,  of  English  parents.  June  11,  1829.  He  is  a  fellow  of 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge.  England,  where  he  is  Pro- 
fessor of  Zoology  and  Comparative  Anatomy.  Prof.  Newton 
has  a  wide  acquaintance  with  ornithology,  and  his  writings 
abound  in  numerous  references  to  its  literature,  especially 
to  that  of  an  early  date.  His  published  papers  are  numer- 
ous; he  is  the  author  of  the  article  Ornitliologi/  in  the 
ninth  edition  of  the  Enri/cln/jfpdia  Brifannica.m^  well  as  of 
the  shorter  ornithological  articles,  and — with  Dr.  Parker — 
of  the  article  liinls.  A  more  recent  work,  in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  Gadow,  is  A  Dictionary  of  Birds.     F.  A.  Lucas. 

Newton,  Sir  Charles  Thomas.  K.C.  B..  D.C.  L.:  archa>- 
ologist ;  b.  at  Bredwardine,  Ilerefordsliire,  England,  in  1816  ; 
was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  School  and  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford, gradviating  with  JKmors  in  1837.  He  was  a.ssistant  cu- 
rator of  antiquities  in  the  British  Museum  from  1840  until 
18.52,  when  he  was  appointed  vice-consul  at  Mytilene.  He 
explored  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Ionian  .Archijielago, 
making  extensive  excavations  at  Budruni  (Halicarnassus)  on 
the  site  of  the  mausoleum  erected  by  (^ueen  Artemisia,  and 
at  Cnidus  and  Branchida-.  At  Constantinople  he  disin- 
terred the  Serpent  of  Delphi.  His  splendid  collection  of 
coins,  inscriptions,  scidptures,  and  vases,  acquired  by  ex- 
cavation or  purchase,  he  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 
He  was  named  consul  at  Rome  (1860).  was  keejier  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  anticiuities  of  the  British  JIuseum  (1861- 
85).  and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Arch.Tologv  at  I'niver- 
.sity  College,  London  (1880).    In  Mar..  1861,  he  I'uarried  Ann 


168 


NEWTON 


Mary  (1833-66),  daughter  of  the  painter  Joseph  Severn,  the 
friend  of  Keats.  She  was  an  accomplished  artist  and  made 
copies  of  the  treasures  discovered  bv  her  husband.  He  died 
at  Westgate-on-the-Sea,  England,  Nov.  28, 1894.     E.  A.  G. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac  :  physicist ;  b.  at  Woolstrop,  Lincoln- 
shire, England,  Dec.  25.  1642  (old  style) ;  posthumous  and 
only  child  of  Isaac  Newton,  a  farmer  of  good  family. 
Young  Newton  was  early  sent  to  the  village  school,  and  af- 
terward to  the  free  grammar  school  at  Grantham.  Ilis 
mother's  only  wish  was  to  give  him  sufficient  education  to 
enable  him  to  fulfill  with  credit  the  duties  of  a  country 
squire.  She  therefore  removed  him  early  from  school,  and 
intrusted  him  with  some  sliare  in  the  management  of  his 
own  estate  of  Woolstrop.  The  boy's  passion  for  mechanics 
and  science  was  so  strong  that  he  entirely  neglected  his  less 
congenial  duties.  He  construeted  mechanical  toys  of  great 
delicacy  ;  one  sun-dial,  made  in  his  boyish  days,  is  still  in 
the  house  at  \Voolstro]i,  ami  another  in  the  Royal  Society 
rooms.  His  mother,  wisely  regarding  his  passion  for  study, 
sent  him  again  to  school,  and  in  1660  he  entered  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  The  same  year  Dr.  Barrow  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Greek :  Newton  soon  found  in  him  a 
safe  guide  and  cordial  helper,  not  only  in  tlie  classics,  but 
also  in  mathematics.  When  Newton  entered  Cambridge 
the  philosophy  of  Descartes  reigneil  supreme :  one  of  the 
first  books  read  by  the  student  was  undoubtedly  Descartes's 
Analytical  Geometry.  This  new  application  of  algebra  to 
geometry  had  opened  up  a  whole  world  of  new  possibilities. 
Yet.  strange  to  say,  Newton  scarcely  speaks  of  the  Cartesian 
method,  and  later,  in  his  Optics,  fails  to  do  simple  justice  to 
Descartes  in  regard  to  the  tlieory  of  the  rainbow.  Newton 
had  the  habit  of  noting  down,  as  he  read,  points  which  ad- 
mitted of  further  development.  His  jottings  and  the  sub- 
sequent developments  of  certain  points  in  Wallis's  Arith- 
metica  Infiniforum  led  him  to  many  remarkable  discoveries. 
(See  Binomial  and  Fluxioxs.)  These  discoveries  with 
which  he  enriched  mathematical  science  were  made  before 
he  had  completed  his  twenty-fourth  year.  It  woidd  seem 
that  he  recognized  the  powerful  instrument  which  lay  in  his 
hand  for  the  solution  of  the  many  problems  in  physical 
science,  for  he  neitlier  published  his  discoveries  nor  maile 
them  known  to  his  friends.  Having  secured  these  treas- 
ures, he  turned  his  attention  toward  natural  pliilosophy. 
In  1661  he  had  been  made  sub-sizar,  and  in  1664  seholar  : 
in  1665  he  took  his  degree  as  B.  A. :  in  1667  became  junior 
fellow  and  JI.  A.  :  in  1668  senior  fellow ;  and  in  1669  he 
succeeded  Dr.  Barrow  as  Lucasian  Professor  of  Jfathematics. 
The  plague  in  1665  drove  him  to  his  country-seat  at  Wool- 
strop  ;  while  there  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  subject  of 
grarify.  Whether  the  storj-  of  the  falling  apple  be  true  or 
not,  he  certainly  began  to  connect  the  mysterious  force 
which  draws  bodies  toward  the  center  of  the  earth  with  that 
which  holds  the  planets  in  their  orbits.  Taking  the  known 
velocity  of  falling  bodies,  he  made  a  calculation  upon  the 
force  necessary  to  deflect  the  moon  from  a  right  line  and 
make  it  revolve  in  its  orbit  round  the  earth.  One  of  the 
quantities  in  this  problem  is  the  semi-diameter  of  tiie  earth, 
which  he  took  too  small  by  nearly  one-sixth,  supposing  a 
degree  on  the  earth's  surface  to  be  only  60  miles.  There 
was  a  discrepancy  between  the  results  of  his  calculation 
and  the  known  facts  amounting  to  about  one-sixth,  which 
caused  him  to  reject  his  theory  as  incomplete,  and  the  mag- 
nificent discovery  of  universal  gravitation  lay  neglected 
for  sixteen  years.  In  1668  Mercator  published  his  Lnga- 
rithmotechnia.  His  quadrature  of  the  hyperbola  involved 
some  of  the  first  principles  of  the  method  long  before  jier- 
fected  by  Newton.  Mercator's  discovery  was  sent  by  Col- 
lins to  Barrow,  and  shown  by  Barrow  to" Newton.  At  once 
the  young  mathematician  laid  before  his  master  his  own 
MSS.  Barrow  was  struck  by  the  riches  of  the  collection, 
and  wrote  to  Collins  of  it.  The  copy  raa<le  at  that  time 
was  found  among  Newton's  papers  at  his  death  :  the  MSS. 
were  sent  to  Collins,  and  their  value  at  once  acknowledged 
by  the  first  mathematicians  of  the  age  ;  but  he  still  refused 
to  publish.  Newton's  attention  was  now  directed  toward 
the  subject  of  light.  By  repeated  experiment  he  showed 
that  light  is  not  homogeneous,  but  that  a  ray  of  white 
light  is  the  resultant  of  innumerable  rays  of' light  pos- 
.sessing  different  colors,  rates  of  vibration,  and  refrangi- 
bility.  In  1672  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Koyal  .So- 
ciety of  London.  Soon  after  a  communication  on  light  was 
read  before  that  society,  which  stirred  up  a  violent  contro- 
versy.    Newton  advocated  tlu'  material  or  corpuscular  the- 


ory ;  Hooke.  the  undulatory  theory  of  light.  Newton 
brought  forward  many  remarkable  experiments  and  much 
mathematical  knowledge  to  his  support.  Hooke  liad  little 
more  than  an  hypothesis  to  offer.  The  undulatory  theory 
has  since  been  accepted  as  the  true  one,  though  itsfounda- 
tion  is  far  deeper  and  surer  than  that  laid  by  its  earlier  ad- 
vocates. In  1671  Newton  completed  a  reflecting  telescope 
made  with  his  own  hands,  which  is  still  in  the  library  of  the 
Royal  Society.  About  this  time,  in  investigating  the  colors 
of  thin  plates,  he  invented  his  very  ingenious  hy]")thesis  of 
"fits  of  easy  reflection  and  transmission."  In"  1682  a  new 
measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  came  to  his  knowl- 
edge :  this  gave  him  the  information  requisite  to  make 
again  his  calculation  relative  to  gravity.  As  he  apjiroached 
its  completion  his  agitation  became  so  great  that  he  was 
forced  to  intrust  it  to  a  friend  to  finish.  The  result  justi- 
fied his  intense  feeling :  observation  and  calculation  cor- 
roborated each  other  ;  the  crowning  glory  of  Newton's  life, 
the  magnificent  theory  of  universal  gravitation  was  com- 
plete. (See  Gravitation.)  His  discovery  was  given  to  the 
world  under  the  title  Philosophice  yaturalis  Principia 
Mafhematica  in  1687.  This  work  treats  of  unresisted  mo- 
tion, of  resisted  motion,  and  from  them  deduces  the  order 
of  the  physical  universe.  So  new  and  startling  an  exposi- 
tion of  truth,  and  one  so  at  variance  with  preconceived  no- 
tions, roused  vigorous  opposition.  It  was  half  a  century 
after  the  publication  of  Newton's  Principia  before  th& 
French  mathematicians  fully  accepted  its  teachings.  In 
Great  Britain  the  Newtonian  philosophy,  in  spite  of  its- 
profundity,  was  earlv  introduced.  St.  Andrews  College 
adopted  it  in  1690,  Cambridge  in  1699.  and  Oxford  in  1704. 
For  many  years  Newton's  means  had  been  very  limited — 
so  much  so  at  times  that  it  is  upon  the  records  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  1674  that  tlie  usual  dues  were  not  recjuired  of  him, 
on  account  of  his  inability  to  pay  them.  In  1689  he  became 
M.  P.  for  Cambridge.  At  the  expiration  of  the  year  Parlia- 
ment was  dissolved.  In  1692  an  accident,  by  which  he  lost 
the  fruit  of  twenty  years  of  labor,  undermined  his  health 
and  impaired  his  intellect  for  a  time.  The  story  of  this  loss 
— that  it  was  occasioned  by  a  favorite  dog  which  upset  a 
burning  candle  among  his  papers  and  reduced  them  to  ashes 
— is  credited  by  Biot  and  pronounced  a  fiction  by  Brewster. 
In  1695  he  was  appointed  warden  of  the  mint,  with  a  salary 
of  from  £500  to  £600  per  annum,  and  in  1699  he  w.as  pro- 
moted to  the  mastership  of  the  mint,  with  a  salary  of  from 
£1.200  to  £1..500  per  annum.  The  duties  of  this  office  he 
fulfilled  with  great  ability.  For  twenty  years  before  his 
death  his  niece.  Jlrs.  Conduitt,  took  charge  of  his  establish- 
ment in  London.  His  health  became  greatly  impaired,  and 
in  1725  he  went  to  Kensington  to  live,  and  the  duties  of  his 
office  were  performed  by  Mr.  Conduitt.  On  Feb.  28  he  pre- 
sided for  the  last  time  at  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society : 
the  fatigue  produced  an  accession  of  his  disorder,  and  he 
died  Mar.  20,  1727.  and  was  Ijuried  with  great  jjomp  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  Two  controversies  which  embittered 
Newton's  life  have  not  been  mentioned — the  one  with  Leib- 
nitz in  1676  in  regard  to  the  authorship  of  the  binomial  theo- 
rem and  the  infinitesimal  method,  where  both  were  inde- 
pendent discoverers  ;  and  another  with  Flamsteed,  the  first 
astronomer-royal,  in  his  later  years.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  his  works,  with  the  dates  of  their  publication  ;  (1)  Prin- 
cipia (1687):  (2)  Optics  (1704);  {^)  Arithmetica  T^niversalis 
(1707):  (4)  Anali/sis  per  Eijuationes  Siimero  Terminorum 
Jnfinitas(\':U):{5)Melli(i(liis  Differentialis  ;  (6)  De  Mnmli 
Systeina/a  (1728):  (7)  T/ie  ('limnology  of  Ancient  King- 
doms Amended  (1728):  (8)  Taiile  of  Assays  :  (9)  Optical 
Lectures  (1728) ;  (10)  Observations  on  the  Prophecies  of 
Daniel  and  tlie  Apocalypse  of  Sf.  John  (1738);  (11)  A 
Method  of  Fluxions  and  Analysis  of  Infinite  Series  (1736) ; 
(12)  A  Historical  Account  of  Two  Rotable  Corruptions  of 
Scripture  (1754).  The  principal  works  of  Newton  have  been 
collected  and  reprinte<!  by  Dr.  Horsley  under  the  title  of 
Xeuioni  opera  qua'  crsfant  omnia  (5  vols..  1779-85).  There 
is  also  an  English  triin>lation  of  the  Principia  which  was  re- 
printed in  the  V.  S..  but  can  now  be  found  only  at  the  anti- 
quarian book-stores.  His  various  communications  to  the 
Royal  Society  are  to  be  found  in  vols,  vii.-xi.  of  its  Transac- 
tions. S.  B.  Hekrick. 

Newton,  John  :  clergj'man  and  author ;  b.  in  Ijondon, 
England,  July  24,  1725;  was  the  son  of  a  sea-caiitain.  with 
whom  he  made  several  voyages  to  the  Jlediterranean ;  was 
pressed  into  the  navy  as  a  seaman  in  1744:  became  a  mid- 
shipman ;  exchanged  into  a  vessel  engaged  in  the  slave-trade 


XEWTON 


NEW   VUKK 


169 


at  Ma<leira ;  resided  some  time  near  Sierra  Leone  in  the  em- 
ploy of  a  slave-dealer:  returned  to  Kiifflaud  in  1747. and  for 
four  years  I  henceforward  ooninianded  a  liiverpool  slave-ship, 
feeling,  as  he  subseiiuotilly  said,  no  scruples  as  to  the  nature 
of  his  oc<'Upation  ;  obtained  the  survcyorship  of  the  ixirt  of 
Liverpool  (then  u  small  place)  in  1755;  taught  himself 
Latin,  Greek,  and  IL'hrew;  was  deeply  affected  liy  the  re- 
ligious movement  directed  by  Wesley  and  W'hitefieUl ;  took 
orders  in  the  Church  of  Kngland  in  1764  ;  became  soon  after- 
ward curate  of  Olney,  IJuckinghamshire,  where  he  formed  a 
close  intimacy  with  tlit^  poet  t'owper;  published  n  Xa na- 
tive of  his  early  life  and  remarkable  religious  experience, 
and  with  Cowper  wrote  the  Olm-i/  /lyi/ins,  many  of  which 
have  passed  into  popular  use  in  public  worship;  became  in 
1779  rector  of  St.  Mary  Woolnoth,  London;  was  a  leader  of 
the  C'alvinistic  or  evangelical  party  in  the  Church  of  Kng- 
land,  and  author  of  numerous  religious  treatises,  which  at 
the  tinu>  enjoved  great  popularitv,  atul  were  collected  as  his 
Works  (G  vols.,  isi(i).  D.  in  London,  Dec.  31,  1807.  See 
his  Life,  by  Kev.  Richard  Cecil  (London,  lb08). 

Npwtoil,  Gen.  .loHx:  soldier  and  engineer;  b.  at  Nor- 
folk. Va.,  Aug.  24,  1823;  graduated  at  West  Point,  and  was 
appointed  second  lieutenant  of  engineers  .July,  1842;  with 
the  exception  of  some  three  years  at  West  Point  as  assistant 
I'rofessor  of  Engineering  and  while  chief  engineer  of  the 
rtah  expedition  of  18.58,  he  was  engaged  in  the  construction 
of  fortifications  on  the  Atlantic  and  (tuU'  coasts,  surveys 
and  improvements  of  rivers  and  harbors,  until  the  outbreak 
of  civil  war  in  1801,  when,  after  serving  as  chief  engineer 
of  the  department  of  Pennsylvania  and  of  the  Shenandoah, 
he  was,  in  Sejit..  1S61.  ajipointed  a  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers, and  commamled  a  brigade  in  the  defen.ses  of  Wash- 
ington, at  the  same  time  performing  the  duties  of  an  engi- 
neer in  the  cimstruction  of  those  works,  until  the  spring  of 

1862.  With  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  he  led  his  <'omMiand 
in  the  expedition  to  West  Point,  at  Gaines's  Mill,  and  at 
(ilenilale,  Va.,  at  South  Jlountain  and  Antietam.  JId.,  and 
at  Fredericksburg,  Dee.,  1862.  where  he  commanded  a  di- 
vision;  promoted  to  be  major-general  Mai'..  1863,  he  com- 
manded the  third  division  of  the  Sixth  Corps  in  the  storm- 
ing of  .Marye  Heights  May  3.  1863.  He  served  with  great 
distinction  at  Gettysburg,  where,  after  the  death  of  Reyn- 
olds, he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  First  Corps  .July  2, 

1863,  which  he  led  during  the  rest  of  the  battle  and  com- 
mandcMl  until  the  reorganization  of  the  army  Mar.,  1864, 
when  he  was  transferred  to  the  West,  where  he  led  a  division 
of  the  Fourth  Corps  in  all  the  battles  of  the  campaign 
which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Atlanta,  Sept..  1864 :  com- 
manded various  districts  in  Florida  from  Oct.,  1864,  to 
Jan.,  18G6.  He  was  breveteil  lieutenant-colonel  for  bravery 
at  Antietam,  colonel  at  Gettysburg,  brigadier-general  for 
Peachtree  Crei^k,  and  major-general  for  services  in  the  field 
dm-ing  the  war.  When  he  resumed  duty  with  his  corps,  in 
which  he  had  risen  to  be  lieutenant-colonel,  he  was  charged 
with  important  engineering<lutics — in  removing  the  obstruc- 
tions at  Hell  Gate  and  other  points  on  the  East  river,  the 
proposed  eidargement  of  the  Harlem  river,  the  improvement 
nf  the  Hudson  from  Troy  to  Xew  York  and  of  the  channel 
lietween  New  Jersey  and  Staten  Island,  of  many  other  rivers 
and  harbors,  and  served  upon  numero\is  boards  upon  civil 
and  military  works.  He  was  promoted  to  be  colonel  June 
311,  1S7!I,  and  appointeil  chief  of  engineers,  with  the  rank  of 
Irrigadier-general.  .Mar.  6,  1884.  He  was  retired  from  active 
~erviee  in  the  army  in  Aug.,  1886.  at  his  own  recpiest.  He 
was  commissioner  of  public  works  in  New  York  city  Aug., 
1X86.  to  Nov.,  1888,  and  liecame  president  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company  in  Apr.,  1888.  D.  in  New  York,  ^lay  1, 
1895.  Revised  by  James  MiCRCL'ii. 

Newton,  RicuARn  IIeber,  D.  D.  :  clergvman  ;  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia. Oct.  31,  1840;  educated  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  at  the  Philadelphia  Divinity  School;  wa,s  or- 
dained deacon  in  the  Episcopal  Church  in  1862;  became 
his  father's  assistant  in  St.  Paul's  church,  and  afterward  in 
the  Church  of  the  Kpiphany.  I'hiladelphia;  accented  the 
charge  of  Trinity  church.  Shamn  Springs,  New  S'ork,  in 
1863,  but  returned  to  Philadelphiji.  and  became  the  rector  of 
St.  Paul's  church  in  that  city  in  1866.  In  1869  he  was  called 
to  the  Jlemorial  (afterward  All  Souls')  church.  New  York, 
where  he  became  very  popular  as  a  preacher,  and  has  built 
up  a  strong  parish.  A  IJroad  Churchman  of  advanced  views, 
he  incurreil  the  suspicion  of  heterodoxy  on  account  of  his 
alleged  rationalism,  but  he  defended  himself  with  ability 
and  continued  in  his  pastorate.     His  works  are  T/ie.  Jlmtils 


of  Trade  (1876);  Studies  of  Jesus  (1880);  M'omanhood 
(1880);  Riff/it  and  Wront/  Uses  of  t/ie  Bible  (1883);  The 
Book-  of  t/i'e  Beginnings  (1884) ;  r/iilislinit,-m  (1885) ;  Social 
Studies  (1886);  Churcli  and  Creed  (Ib'Jl);  and  many  arti- 
cles in  the  leading  magazines. 

Newton's  Kings  :  See  Tnix  Plates,  Coi.oks  ok. 

Newton  Theological  Institntiou  :  an  institution  for 
the  training  of  young  men  for  the  Baptist  ministry;  at 
Newlon  Center,  Mass.  It  was  the  fir.st  Baptist  theological 
seminary  of  high  grade  in  America,  and  was  founded  in 
1825.  It  has  a  fine  location,  7  miles  from  Boston,  with  four 
buildings;  the  library  has  20,000  volumes;  the  funds  of  the 
institution  amount  to  §400,000.  The  number  of  students 
in  1892  was  eightv-six.  President,  Alvah  Hovey,  D.  D., 
LL.  D. 

Newtown :  town ;  Fairfield  co..  Conn,  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  11-E);  on  the  Housa- 
lonic  river,  and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  Hart,  and  the  N.  Y. 
and  N.  E.  railways ;  9  miles  E.  of  Danbury.  19  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  Bridgeport.  It  has  manufactories  of  "flour,  eider,  lum- 
ber, carriages  and  wagons,  condjs,  and  buttons,  and  con- 
tains a  public  librarv  (founded  1876),  a  savings-bank,  and  a 
weekly  new.spai3cr.   "Pop.  (1880)  4.013;  (1890)  3..539. 

Newtown :  borough  (founded  in  1687,  incorporated  in 
1838.  formerly  the  county-seat);  Bucks  co..  Pa.  (tor  location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  5-J) ;  on  the  Phila.. 
Newtown  and  N.  Y.  Railroad;  14  miles  S.  E.  of  Doyles- 
town.  the  county-seat.  It  was  laid  out  by  William  Penn ; 
contains  six  churches,  a  public  school  with  high-school  de- 
partment, a  Friends  school,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
1100,000.  and  a  weekly  newspaper:  and  has  a  planing-mill, 
carriage-factorv,  iron-foundrv,  and  machine-shops,  artesian 
water,  and  electric  lights.  Pop.  (1880)  1.001;  (1890)  1.213; 
(1894)  estimated,  1.700.  Editor  of  "Enterprise." 

New  rini ;  city  (founded  in  1854.  destroyed  in  a  raid 
and  massacre  by  the  Indians  in  1862,  nearly  destroyed  by  a 
cyclone  in  1881):  capital  of  Brown  co..  Miiin.  (for  "location 
of  county,  see  map  of  Jlinnesota.  ref.  10-D) :  on  the  Jlinne- 
sota  river,  and  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  Railwav :  34  miles  W.  N. 
W.  of  Mankato.  100  miles  .S.  W.  of  St.  Pa"ul.  It  contains  5 
churches.  4  public  and  2  parochial  schools.  Turner  hall  and 
gymnasium.  Turnverein  Library  (founded  1864),  St.  Alex- 
ander's Hospital,  a  State  bank"  with  capital  of  §50,000,  a 
private  bank,  and  5  weekly  newspapers;  and  has  4  flour- 
mills  with  daily  capacity  of  2.400  barrels.  3  breweries  with 
annual  capacitv  of  30.000  barrels,  foundrv,  creameries,  and 
vinegar-works. "  Pop.  (1880)  3,471 ;  (1890)  :j,741 ;  (1895)  4.790, 
mostly  Germans.  Editor  of  •'  Review." 

New  Westminster:  city  (formerly  capital  of  British 
Columbia) ;  British  Columbia,  Canada  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Canada,  ref.  8-D);  on  the  Frazer  river,  10  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  on  the  Canada  Pae.  and  the  Great 
North,  railways;  75  miles  N.  E.  of  Victoria,  the  present 
provincial  capital.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and 
contains  the  former  provincial  government  buildings,  a 
lunatic  asylum,  a  penitentiary,  the  Bank  of  British  Colum- 
bia and  a  branch  of  the  Bank  of  Montri'al,  and  a  ilaily 
newspaper  with  weekly  edition.  The  city  has  valuable  fa- 
cilities for  general  commerce,  but  since  it  ceased  to  be  the 
provincial  capital  its  principal  industry  has  been  the  ship- 
ment of  fish,  lumber,  grain,  and  furs.  The  climate  is 
mild,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  47\  and  rain  is  fre- 
quent and  abundiint.     Poi).  (1881)  1,500;  (1891)  6.641. 

M.  W.  II. 

New  Whatcom:  See  Whatcom,  New\ 

New  Years  Day:  The  custom  of  keeping  the  first  day 
of  the  year  as  a  day  of  festivity  is  a  widely  prevalent 
one,  but  the  day  on  which  the  year  begins  varies  much 
in  different  countries.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
since  the  establish nuuit  of  the  (iregorian  year  (or  new 
style)  it  falls  upon  the  festival  of  the  Circumcision,  a 
holiilay  of  obligation,  which  also  is  the  feast-day  of  sev- 
eral saints,  of  whom  St.  Sylvester  is  the  most  widely  hon- 
ored. In  the  other  churches  it  has  no  specially  religious 
char.icter. 

New  York  [named  from  York,  in  England,  in  honor  of 
the  Duke  of  York]:  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America 
(North  Atlantic  group);  an  original  State  of  the  Union;  the 
first  in  wealth  and  population;  popularly  known  as  the 
'■  EtTipire  .State." 

Area  and  horatinn. — It  lies  between  lat.  40'  29'  40'  and 
45    0  42    N.,  and  Ion.  71    51'  and  79    45  54'  W.     The  At- 


170 


NEW   YORK 


lantic  Ocean  bounds  the  State  in  part  on  the  S.  and  B., 
while  Long  Island  Sound  is  tlie  boundary  N.  of  the  island, 
which  gives  the  name.     The  rest  of  the  southern  boundary 

is  formed  by  New 
Jersey  and  Penn- 
sylvania, and  of 
the  eastern  bound- 
ary by  Connecti- 
cut, Massachusetts 
and  Vermont,  with 
Lake  Champlain 
setting  off  the  last- 
named  State.  On 
tlie  W.  the  State 
is  bounded  by  a 
point  of  New  Jer- 
sey near  the  ocean, 
liy  Pennsylvania 
near  Lake  Erie,  by 
the  eastern  waters 
of  that  lake,  by 
the  Niagara  river 
ailjoining  Canada, 
and  by  Lake  On- 


Seal  of  New  York. 


tario.  Lake  Ontario,  the  St.  Lawrence  river,  and  Canada 
constitute  the  northern  boundary.  Tlie  outline  of  the  State 
roughly  resembles  that  of  a  shoe,  with  a  pointed  heel  pro- 
jecting into  the  ocean,  a  stub  toe  touching  Lake  Erie,  and 
the  ankle  terminating  on  Canada.  The  area  is  47,620  sq. 
miles,  and  the  extreme  measurements  are  311f  miles  from 
N.  to  S.,  and  413  miles  from  W.  to  E.,  including  Long  Island. 
Physical  Features. — Besides  the  navigable  waters  which 
form  so  large  a  part  of  its  boundaries,  and  the  East  river,  a 
strait  of  the  sea  separating  Manhattan  Island  and  West- 
chester County  from  Long  Island,  the  State  has  facilities 
for  navigation  in  Lakes  George.  Schroon,  and  Saranae  in 
the  N.  E.,  in  Otsego,  Oneida,  Cazenovia,  Onondaga,  and 
Skaneateles  in  the  central  region,  and  in  Owasco,  Cayuga, 
Seneca,  Canandaigua  farther  W.,  and  in  Chautauqua  Lake 
in  the  extreme  W.,  while  hinidreds  of  smaller  lakes  are  used 
for  pleasure-boats.  The  Hudson  river,  near  the  eastern 
border,  is  navigable  for  1.51  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  is  the 
chief  feature  in  the  river  system,  which  is  notable  from  the 
fact  that  the  waters  run  to  all  points  of  the  compass.  The 
Mohawk  flows  13.5  miles  from  the  W.  into  the  Hudson, 
carrying  many  branches,  such  as  the  East  and  West  Canada 
creeks  from  the  X.  and  the  Schoharie  from  the  S.  Into  the 
Oswego  river,  which  has  several  affluents,  the  lakes  from 
Oneida  to  Canandaigua  discharge,  and  through  that  river 
into  Lake  Ontario,  and  thus  into  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
Genesee,  rising  in  Pennsylvania,  crosses  New  York,  and  falls 
into  Lake  Ontario.  In  the  southern  central  region,  the 
Chenango,  the  Tioga,  and  the  Chemiuig  empty  into  the  Sus- 
quehanna, which  seeks  the  ocean  through  the  Chesapeake, 
while  farther  E.  various  streams  contribute  to  the  Delaware, 
finally  emptying  into  Delaware  Bay.  In  the  N.  E.  the  Chazy 
and  the  Saranae  flow  into  Lake  Champlain,  while  the  St. 
Kegis,  the  Raquette,  and  the  Oswegatchie,  with  others,  are 
affluents  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  In  the  western  counties, 
Cattaraugus  creek  runs  into  Lake  Erie,  while  the  Alleghany 
river,  entering  New  York  from  Pennsylvania,  returns  to 
carry  its  waters  into  the  Ohio,  and  thus  into  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  From  this  watershed  the  interior 
lakes  and  the  larger  rivers  generally,  except  the  Mohawk, 
cross  the  lines  of  latitude. 

The  trend  of  the  interior  waters  of  New  York  is  deter- 
mined mainly  Ijy  its  mountains  and  its  hills.  These  belong 
to  the  Appalachian  system.  On  the  E.  the  Green  and  Hoo- 
sac  Mountains  wall  the  Hudson,  while  on  the  W.  the  Helder- 
bergs,  the  Cat.skills.  and  the  Shawangunk  jNIountains  shut 
in  that  river,  and  turn  the  affluents  of  the  Delaware.  Sev- 
eral ranges  in  the  northeastern  counties,  of  which  the  Adi- 
rondack is  the  most  prominent,  are  the  highest  in  the  State. 
Mt.  Marcy  or  Tahawas.  in  that  range,  is  .5,379  feet  high,  and 
Dix  peak  4.916  feet.  Tlie  Chateaugay  Range,  extending 
from  Lake  ('haiiipliiiii  to  the  Mohawk  in  Herkimer  Countv, 
is  dominated  l>y  Mt.  Seward,  4.384  feet  high.  The  Mohawk 
valley  furnishes  tlie  single  pathway  from  E.  to  W.  between 
the  hills  and  mountains. 

Waters  from  such  hills  and  mountains  make  falls  which 
are  grand  and  pictures<|ue,  like  Niagara,  on  ihe  river  be- 
tween Lake  Erii'  and  Lake  Ontario  ;  'J'renton,  on  the  West 
Canada  creek:  till-  lligli  Falls  nf  the  Genesee,  at  Piirtagc:  the 
Taghanic  and  others,  near  Ithaca;  and  very  many  on  streams 


in  various  counties.  Power  for  industrial  uses  is  developed, 
as  by  the  Niagara,  at  Little  Palls  and  Cohoes  on  the  Mo- 
hawk, at  Fulton  and  elsewhere  on  the  Oswego,  at  Rochester 
on  the  Genesee,  at  Waterloo  and  Seneca  Falls  on  the  Seneca, 
at  Watertowu  on  the  Black  river,  in  the  northeastern  region 
in  many  places,  and  at  a  number  of  other  points. 

Islands  are  abundant.  Manhattan  Island  is  occupied  by 
the  busy  part  of  New  York  city.  Long  Island  and  Staten 
Island  are  the  largest  of  groups  in  the  waters  adjacent  to 
the  ocean.  Lake  George  is  beautified  by  many  islands  vary- 
ing in  size.  In  the  St.  Lawrence  the  Thousand  Islands  are 
only  a  part  of  1.500  lying  between  New  York  and  Canada. 

The  groups  in  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Coney  Island,  on  the 
southern  shore  of  Long  Island,  are  pojaular  summer  resorts. 
Saratoga,  near  the  upper  Hudson,  Richfield  and  Sharon,  in  the 
central  counties,  are  noted  watering-places,  while  Chautauqua 
Lake  has  given  name  to  a  system  of  educational  meetings. 
An  increasing  number  of  points  in  the  Adirondack  region 
attract  visitors,  and  some  of  them  are  commended  as  winter 
sanitaria  for  pulmonary  patients. 

Oeiilogy. — This  is  described  by  Prof.  Grove  K.  Gilbert,  of 
the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  as  follows:  The  formations  of 
the  State  represent  nearly  all  parts  of  geologic  time.  Be- 
ginning with  the  older,  an  Archa-an  area  is  approximately 
coincident  with  the  Adirondack  Jlountains,  and  a  smaller 
body  at  the  S.  is  the  principal  constituent  of  the  Highlands 
of  the  Hudson.  The  rocks  are  chiefly  gneisses  and  granites, 
and  by  their  hardness  and  ability  to  resist  decay  have  par- 
tially escaped  the  great  erosion  to  which  the  country  has 
been  subjected.  Against  and  about  these  ancient  masses 
lie  Pahcozoic  strata,  constituting  four-fifths  of  the  rocky 
foundation  of  the  State.  Along  the  eastern  border  the 
Palaeozoic  rocks  are  plicated,  crushed,  and  metamorphosed, 
so  that  a  belt  of  schists  and  slates  runs  from  Lake  Cham- 
plain to  New  Yorli  city.  For  a  short  distance  W.  of  this 
belt  and  S.  of  the  Adirondacks  the  strata  are  disturtied  Ijy 
folds  and  faults,  but  without  metaniorphism,  and  they  ex- 
tend thence  westward  in  gently  undulating  sheets  to  the 
limits  of  the  State.  The  older  Palaeozoic  rocks  join  the 
Adirondacks  on  the  N..  E.,  S.,  and  S.  W.  in  regular  order. 
In  the  central  and  western  parts  of  the  State  belts  of  out- 
crop trend  from  E.  to  W..  and  the  rocks  dip  southward  at 
an  average  of  25  feet  per  mile.  In  general  these  rocks  have 
little  influence  upon  the  topography,  producing  only  occa- 
sional ridges  on  the  general  plain :  but  near  their  eastern 
margin  are  massive  sandstones  which  have  resisted  the  erod- 
ing agents,  preserving  an  upland  tract  known  as  the  Cats- 
kill  Mountains.  The  Palaeozoic  formations  represent  the 
Cambrian,  Silurian,  and  Devonian  periods.  Beginning  with 
the  lowest  they  are  as  follows:  (Cawirio^i)  Georgia  slate, 
Potsdam  sandstone ;  (Silurian)  Calciferous  sandrock,  Tren- 
ton limestone,  Utica  shale  and  Hudson  slate,  Jledina  group, 
Clinton  group,  Niagara  group,  Salina  group,  Waterlime 
group,  Helderberg  limestone;  (Deroriian)  Oriskany  sand- 
stone, Corniferous  and  Onondaga  limestones,  Hamilton 
group.  Portage  group,  Chemung  group,  and  Catskill  group. 
Of  periods  later  than  the  Paleozoic,  the  Jura-Trias  is  rep- 
resented by  the  Newark  sandstones  and  shales,  which  occupy 
a  portion  of  Rockland  County  S.  of  the  Highlands;  the 
Cretaceous,  by  a  few  outcrojis  on  Long  Island  ;  and  the  Pleis- 
tocene, by  glacial  drift  and  lacustrine  and  estnarine  clays  of 
wide  extent.  The  ice-sheet  of  the  Pleistocene  covered  the 
entire  State,  and  produced  many  of  the  details  of  its  topog- 
raphy. By  its  grinding  action  it  gave  smooth  forms  to  all 
hills  composed  of  soft  rocks,  and  it  deepened  a  number  of 
valleys  in  the  great  Devonian  shale  formations  in  the  cen- 
tral and  western  parts  of  the  State.  Cayuga  and  Seneca 
Lakes,  and  a  number  of  smaller  lakes  lying  approximately 
parallel  to  them,  occupy  some  of  these  deepened  valleys. 
The  glacial  drift  lies  in  an  irregular  sheet  over  most  of  the 
surface,  being  in  places  so  thin  as  hardly  to  be  noticed,  and 
elsewhere  several  hundred  feet  in  thickness.  The  greater 
number  of  the  wells  of  the  State  penetrate  only  this  forma- 
tion, and  it  constitutes  most  of  the  soils.  About  the  shores 
of  Lake  Erie.  Lake  Ontario,  and  I^ake  Chamjilain.  and  in 
the  St.  Lawrence  valley  are  clay  deiiosits  overlying  the  drift, 
and  there  is  a  similar  deposit  in  the  valley  of  the  Hudson. 
These  are  sediments  from  great  bodies  of  standing  water 
which  covered  certain  valleys  while  the  ice  was  melting 
away.  In  the  Erie  and  Ontario  basins  they  are  limited  by  a 
series  of  terraces  and  beach  ridges  marking  the  coast-lines 
of  the  lakes  by  which  they  were  deiiosited.  One  of  these 
old  beaches,  running  from  Lewiston  to  Sodus,  has  a  height 
above  Lake  Ontario  of  from  125  to  200  feet. 


NP:\V   YORK 


171 


Soil  and  Productions. — About  one-lialf  of  tlie  area  of  t}ie 
State  is  adapted  to  cultivation,  and  the  products  include 
nearly  all  those  of  the  temperate  zone.  The  estimated 
value  of  the  farm  products  is  placed  by  the  census  of  18i)0 
at  |ll61,5"J3,0()!t,  (fivin^  New  \  ork  second  rank  among  the 
States,  surpassed  only  by  that  of  Illinois  by  5;2:3,lGti,004.  In 
the  number  of  farms.  New  York  with  2'3(i.2:i8  is  exceeded 
only  by  Illinois,  Missouri,  Ohio,  and  Texas.  In  produc- 
tion of  wool  Xew  York  ranks  sevenlh  among  the  States.  On 
June  1, 1H!I0,  there  were  l,440,'j:30  milch  cows,  a  larger  num- 
ber than  in  any  other  State  except  Iowa,  which  had  58,188 
more.  New  York  was  by  far  the  fir.st  among  the  Slates  in  jiro- 
duction  of  milk,  with  l)6:i,UlT,240  gal.,  as  also  in  butter  with 
98,241,813  lb.,  and  in  cheese  with  4,:«4,oa8  lb.  Butter  is 
made  in  consiilerable  part  in  creameries  receiving  milk  from 
a  number  of  farms,  while  cheese  comes  mainly  from  factor- 
ie.s.  The  first  rank  belongs  to  the  State  in  buckwheat.  Out 
of  39,171,270  lb.  of  hops  produced  in  the  census  year  in  all 
the  States,  2O,0():i.O2!(  lb.  were  raised  on  30,670  acres  in  New 
York.  The  dairy  prospei-s  chiefly  in  the  central  counties 
and  on  the  lower  Hudson.  Hops  are  produced  in  Oneida, 
Lewis,  M,tdison,  Otsego,  and  Schoharie  Counties.  Onondaga 
and  Wayne  Counties  and  the  Chemung  valley  cultivate  some 
tobacco,  while  broom  corn  is  a  favorite  crop  in  the  lower 
Mohawk  valley.  Orain  is  raised  in  the  western  and  south- 
western counties.  Attention  is  given  in  Northern  New 
Vork  to  peas,  beans,  and  potatoes.  On  Long  Island  and 
in  less  degree  near  all  the  cities  market-gardens  thrive.  In 
the  central  and  western  parts  apples,  plums,  pears,  and 
cherries  are  al)undant  in  favorable  years,  and  in  the  S.  and 
W.  peaches  are  raised,  while  grapes  are  cultivated  along  the 
Hudson  and  the  interior  lakes  to  the  \V.,  whence  wines  of  ac- 
ceptable brands  are  sent  to  market.  For  the  calendar  year 
1893  the  principal  agricultural  products  are  thus  stated : 


Com 

Wheat 

OaU 

Rye 

Barley 

Buckwheat. 

Tobacco 

Potatoes 

Hay 


Totals . 


Acre«^ 


517. 

472, 
1,2.58. 

229. 

270, 

285. 
8, 

357, 
5,885, 


,1.35 
,142 
,«97 
,8;j8 
012 
488 
133 
291 
652 


9,284,988 


Yield. 


13,255.483  bush. 
6.846.059     ■■ 

30.208.728  " 
3.124.586  " 
5,493.424  " 
4,111,027    " 

-jxajm  lb. 

25.010,.370  bush. 
7,298,208  tons 


,390,516 
203,005 
,062,618 
1.57.489 
,296,0»4 
,466,616 
,118,775 
,755,704 
,688,697 


$133,139,474 


The  farm  animals,  as  reported  on  Jan.  1,  1894,  were  as 
follows : 


Horses 

Mules 

Milch  cows 

Oxen  and  other  cattle. . 

Sheep 

Hogs 


Totals 5,03.3,336 


702,821 

4,819 

1,572,443 

706,597 
1,388,051 

658,605 


V>liie. 


$50,466,294 
.376.334 
40,.537,5SI 
18.484,9,S9 
3,962.885 
5,940,680 


8119.768.70)3 


The  following  summaries  from  the  U.  S.  census  reports  of 
1880  and  1890  show  that  there  has  been  a  general  decrease 
in  farming  operations  in  the  State  : 


FARMS,  ETC. 


Total  number  of  farms 

Total  acres  in  farms 

Value  of  farms,  including  build- 
ings and  fences 


1880. 


241,0.tS 

23,780.754 

$1,056,176,741 


1890. 


226.2231 

21,961,562 


6  2 
7-6 


3968,127,286       83 


*  Decrease. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — The  maple  has  been  proposed  as  the 
State  tree  because  it  is  so  common.  Sugar  is  made  from  ma- 
ple sap  in  the  northern  counties  and  to  some  extent  el.se- 
where.  Ten  species  of  oak  are  found,  while  a  like  number 
of  the  pine  family  is  reported.  The  elm  beautifies  the  land- 
scape in  ino.st  of  the  pastoral  counties.  The  hickory,  beech, 
birch,  ash,  hemlock,  spruce,  cedar,  pojilar,  willow,  whitewood, 
chestnut,  basswood,  butternut,  sycamore,  locust,  ailaiitus, 
black  walnut,  yew,  and  sumac  may  be  eiiumerateil.  Of  (low- 
ering plants  L.l.jO  varieties  are  noted,  and  54  species  of  ferns. 

The  State  includes  portions  of  three  faunal  regions,  the 
Canadian,  .Vlleghanian.  and  Cai-olinian.  The  Canadian  is 
restricted  lo  the  northern  and  more  elevated  parts,  mainly 
to  the  .\dirondacks  and  Catskills.  The  .Vlleglijinian  in- 
cludes nearly  all  the  more  level  parts,  w-hile  the  Carolinian 
occupies  barely  the  lower  Hud-son  valley  and  a  small  area 


just  eastward  of  Lake  Erie.  The  number  of  indigenous 
land  mammals  is  about  55 ;  about  350  kinds  of  birds,  not 
incluiling  .stragglers,  visit  the  State  during  their  migrations, 
or  spend  the  greater  part  of  the  year  in  it.  Only  a  little 
more  than  one-third  of  these  rear  their  ycuiig  within  the 
Stale.  .So  far  as  known  not  a  single  species  of  bird  or  mam- 
mal is  peculiar  lo  this  State.  Many  southern  forms  reach 
the  .southern  border,  extending  a  short  distance  up  the  Hud- 
son. Others  from  the  northward  come  to  the  mountains  and 
to  the  higher  districts  of  the  Adirondacks  and  the  Catskills. 
Most  of  these  range  outside  of  the  State  in  all  directions. 
Settlement  and  the  removal  of  the  forests  have  extirjiated 
numy  of  the  larger  mammals,  such  as  the  elk,  which  was  kiKiwn 
in  nujst  parts  of  the  State,  anil  the  inoo.se  aii<l  the  caribou, 
which  were  fonnei-ly  found  in  the  Adirondacks.  The  wolf 
and  the  beaver  have  also  been  practically  exterminated,  while 
the  panther,  wild  cat,  and  black  bear  are  restricted  to  the 
least  settled  mountainous  regions.  The  larger  water-fowl, 
the  eagles,  and  the  larger  birds  of  prey,  the  herons,  and  the 
other  wading  birds,  have  become  rare,  while  at  least  two 
species  formerly  common  on  Lotig  Island,  IIk"  heath-hen 
and  pied  duck,  have  become  extinct.  The  wild  turkey  has 
shared  the  same  fate,  while  only  a  few  pairs  represent  the 
wild  pigeons  formerly  present  in  hundred  thousands. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  State  is  temperate,  wilh 
marked  changes  of  heat  and  cold  and  variations  of  mois- 
ture. Four  stations  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  show  the 
following  record  for  1890  : 


TEMPERATURE. 

AnQQal 

DAYS. 

LOCALITY. 

Mai. 

Mln. 

Clear. 

fair. 

Ctondj'. 

With 
isln. 

New  York 

95° 
98 
93 
95 

6° 
-4 
zero. 

6 

52  30  in. 
44-89  in. 
40-86  in. 
43-09  in. 

82 
69 
74 

56 

150 
162 
97 
116 

133 
144 
194 
193 

144 
175 
167 
208 

Rochester 

Divisions. — For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  di- 
vided into  sixty  counties,  as  follows  : 

COUNTIES   AND   COUSTT-TOWNS,    WITH   POPULATION. 


Albany 

Allegany 

Broome 

Cattaraugus.* 

Cayuga 

Chautauqua . . 

Chemung 

Chenango  

Clinton 

Columbia 

Cortland 

Delaware 

Dutchess 

Erie 

Essex 

Franklin 

Fulton 

Genesee 

Greene 

Hamilton 

Herkimer 

Jefferson 

Kin^ 

Lewis 

Livingston 

Sladison 

Monroe 

Montgomery. . , 

Xew  York 

Niagara 

Oneida 

Onondaga 

Ontario 

Orange 

(Orleans 

Oswego 

Otsego 

Putnam , 


Queens 

Rensselaer 

Richmond  . . . . 

Rockland 

St.  Lawrence. 

Saratoga 

Schenectady.. 
Schoharie  . . . . 
Schui'ler 

Seneca 


5-J 

6-D 

6-G 

6-C 

4-F 

6-B 

6-F 

5-G 

1-J 

6-K 

5-G 

6-H 

7-J 

5-C 

2-J 

l-I 

4-1 

4-D 

6-J 

3-1 

4-H 

2-G 

8-B 

3-H 

5-D 

4-G 

4-D 

4-1 

8-J 

4-C 

4-H 

4-F 

5-E 


4-D 
S-G 
5-H 
7-J 

8-C 

5-J 
8-A 
8-J 
]-H 
4-J 
4-J 
5-1 
5-F 

5-F 


Pop. 

18S0. 


154,890 
41,810 
49,483 
55,806 
65,081 
65.343 
43,065 
39.891 
50.897 
47,928 
25.825 
42,721 
79,184 

219.884 
34,515 
32.390 
30.985 
32.806 
32.695 
3,933 
42.669 
66.103 

599.495 
31,416 
39,562 
44,112 

144,903 

38.315 

1,206,299 

54,173 

115,475 

117.893 
49,541 

88,220 

30,128 

rr,9ii 

51,397 
15,181 

90,574 

115,328 
38.991 
87.690 
85,997 
55,156 
2.3,588 
32,910 
18,842 

29,378 


Pop. 


164..555 
43.240 
63.973 
60.866 
65,303 
75.202 
48.265 
37.776 
46.437 
46.172 
28,657 
45,496 
77,879 

323.981 
&3,052 
38,110 
37.650 
3:i,365 
31.598 
4.763 
45,1)08 
(3K.S06 

83H.547 
29.806 
37.801 
43.893 

189,586 

45.i;99 

1,515.301 

62.491 

122.922 

146.217 
48,453 

97.859 
.30.803 
71.883 
50.861 
14.849 

128.059 

124.511 
51.693 
35.162 
85.048 
57.6fK3 
Sil.797 
29.164 
16.711 

28.227 


COUNTY-TOWJiS. 


Albany 

Belmont 

Binghamton . . . 
Little  Valley... 

Auburn 

Maj-^-ille 

Ehuira 

Norwich 

Plattsburg 

Hudson 

Cortland 

Delhi 

Poilghkeepsie. . 

Buffalo 

Elizubethtown . 

Malone 

Johnstown 

Batavia 

Catskill 

Lake  Pleasant . 

Herkimer 

Watertown 

I^rooklyii 

Lowville 

(Jeneseo 

Morrisville 

Rochester 

Fonda 

New  York 

Lockport 

Utica 

Syracuse 

Canandaigua  . . , 

i  (Joshen 

'l  Newburg 

.\lbion 

Oswego 

Cooperstowu 

Carmel 

i  Jamaica ..'.... 

I  L.  L  City 

Troy 

Richmond 

New  City 

Canton 

Ballston  Spa 

Schenectady 

Schoharie 

Watkins 

lOvid 

)  -W'aterloo 


Pop. 

1890. 


^4,923 

950 

35.005 

698 

25,858 

1,164 

30,893 

5,212 

7,010 

9,970 

8,590 

1,564 

22,206 

255,664 

573 

4,986 

7,768 

7,221 

4,920 


14,725 

806,343 

2,511 

2,886 

728 

133,896 

1.190 

,.51.5..301 

16.038 

44,007 

88,143 

5,868 

2.907 

23.087 

4..'i86 

81,842 

8,657 


6,361 
30.506 
60,956 


2,580 
3,527 
19.902 
1,028 

"641 
4,350 


'  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  New  York. 


172 


NEW   YORK 


COUNTIES   AND   COUXTV-TOWXS — CONTINUED. 


COUNTIES. 

*R«f. 

Pop. 

1880. 

Pop. 

1890. 

COnNTY-TOWNS. 

Pop. 
1890. 

6-E 

8-K 
7-1 
6-F 
5-F 
7-J 
3-J 
4-K 
4-E 
8-J 
5-D 
5-E 

77,586 

53,888 
32,491 
32.673 
34,445 
85,8:38 
25,179 
47,871 
51,700 
108,988 
30,907 
21.087 

81,473 

62,491 
31,031 
29,935 
32,923 
87,062 
27,866 
45,690 
49,729 
146.773 
31,193 
21,001 

)  Bath 

3,261 

Steuben 

Suffolk 

SulUvan 

Tioga 

Tompkins 

■|  Corning 

Riverhead 

Montieello 

8,550 
■'1,616 

Ithaca 

11.079 

Ulster        ...  . 

Kingston 

Lake  George 

Argyle . . 

81,261 
158 

Warren 

Washington  . . . 

Westchester . . . 
Wyoming 

White  Plains. . . . 

4,042 
3.120 

Penn  Yan 

4.854 

Totals 

5,083.871 

5.997,Si3 

*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  New  York. 

Cities. — The  following  table  comprises  all  the  cities  of  the 
State,  and  gives  their  population  according  to  the  U.  S.  cen- 
sus of  1890  and  the  State  census  of  1893  : 


CITIES. 


New  York . . 
Brooklyn . 

Buffalo 

Rochester 

Albany 

Syracuse  

Troy 

Utica 

Binghamton... 

Y'onkers 

Elmira 

Long  I.  City . . . 

Auburn 

Newljurg 

Cohoes 

Poughkeepsie. 


1890.       1893, 


1.801.739 
957.163 
278.796 
144,a34 
97,130 
91,941 
64.986 
46,608 
34,514 
31.419 
29.911 
35.745 
24,7.37 
24,536 
3.3,234 
23,196 


CITIES. 

1890. 

1892. 

Oswego 

21.842 

21.966 

Kingston 

21,261 

21,495 

Schenectady 

19,902 

23,858 

Amsterdam 

17,336 

18,543 

Jamestown 

16,0:M 

18,687 

Loekport 

16,038 

16,088 

14.991 

13,638 
16.982 

Watertown 

14.725 

GloversviUe 

13,864 

14.694 

Middletown 

11.977 

11.612 

OgdHnsburg  

11.662 

11.9.59 

It  haca 

11  079 

13  460 

Honiellsville  . . . 

10,996 

11,898 

Hudson 

9,970 

9,633 

Dunkirk 

9,416 

10,040 

Corning 

8,.550 

10,025 

Government. — The  Legislature  consists  (1897)  of  a  Senate 
of  .50  membei-s  chosen  for  three  years,  and  an  Assembly  of 
150  members  elected  annually.  Senators  are  chosen  by  dis- 
tricts formed  on  the  basis  of  population  without  dividing 
counties,  while  Assembly  districts  are  also  based  on  popula- 
tion, save  that  each  county  has  at  least  one  member,  except 
Fulton  and  Uamilton.  The  Governor  is  elected  for  two 
years';  he  has  the  power  to  pardon,  may  remove  certain 
officers,  and  has  the  right  of  veto  extending  to  separate 
items  of  appropriation  bills,  but  the  veto  may  be  overridden 
by  two-thirds  of  tlie  members  elected  to  each  house.  The 
Lieutenant-Governor  is  president  of  the  Senate,  and  his  term 
of  office  corresponds  with  that  of  the  Governor,  whose  place 
he  fills  in  case  of  disability.     The  secretary  of  State,  comp- 


State  prisons.  JIany  commissions  and  State  boards  are  ap- 
pointed in  the  same  manner.  The  court  of  appeals,  con- 
sisting of  a  chief  Judge  and  six  associate  judges,  has  appel- 
late jurisdiction  only  in  questions  of  law.  The  Supreme 
Court,  composed  of  judges  elected  for  fourteen  years  in  eight 
districts,  hiis  general  jurisdiction  in  both  law  and  equity; 
and  from  it  the  Governor  designates,  for  terms  of  five  years, 
seven  justices  to  constitute  an  appellate  division  for  the 
hearing  of  appeals  from  the  Supreme  Court.  The  courts  of 
oyer  and  terminer  no  longer  exist,  aud  the  courts  of  ses- 
sions are  abolished,  except  in  New  York  County,  the  county 
courts  taking  the  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  ses- 
sions. There  is  a  surrogate's  court  in  each  cc.unty.  In 
the  counties  supervisors  representing  towns  and  wards  ex- 
ercise general  powers,  partly  legislative  and  partly  rela- 
tive to  auditing  accounts,  control  of  county  buildings,  and 
care  of  the  poor.  The  cities  are  governed  under  special 
charters  from  the  Ijegislature  varying  in  their  provisions. 
In  the  towns,  which  all  elect  their  own  officers,  the  high- 
ways and  bridges  and  immediate  local  concerns  are  di- 
rected by  the  town  board,  while  justices  of  the  peace  pro- 
nounce upon  minor  civil  and  criminal  cases  subject  to  ap- 
peal. 

•  Population  and  Races. — Since  1820  New  York  has  had 
the  first  place  among  the  States  in  population.  Its  elements 
have  from  an  early  day  been  much  diversified.  In  1890  the 
foreign  born  numbered  1..5T1.0oO,  while  in  the  whole  U.  S. 
the  number  was  9,249,.54T.  Of  the  native  whites  in  tlie 
State  there  were  of  foreign  parentage  1.837,453.  Of  the 
total  population,  2,976,893  were  males  and  3.020,960  females. 
The  colored  persons  were  72,901,  and  Intlians  on  the  reser- 
vations in  1892,  5,064.  The  foreign  born  consisted  of  498,- 
602  Germans,  483.375  Irish.  144,060  English,  93,193  Cana- 
dians, 64,141  Italians,  58,466  Russians,  35,333  Scotch,  33,- 
145  Austrians.  28,430  Swedes,  22,718  Poles,  20,443  French. 
15,598  Hungarians,  11,.557  Swiss,  9.129  Bohemians.  8,602 
Norwegians.  8.366  Dutch.  8,108  Welsh.  6.238  Danes,  3,135 
Chinese,  and  nearly  all  other  countries  had  representatives. 
Industries  and  Business  Interests. — These  surpass  those 
of  any  other  .State  of  the  Union  in  variety  and  magnitude. 
First  in  agriculture,  its  rank  in  manufactures  is  also  at  the 
head.  While  the  total  products  of  the  U.  S.,  according  to 
the  census  of  1890,  were  in  value  $9,370,107,624,  those  of 
New  York  were  151.711.577.671,  or  $380,054,570  more  than 
those  of  Pennsylvania,  the  second  in  order.  The  capital 
invested  in  New  York  was  |;l, 130.161, 195  in  65,840  estab- 
lishments reported,  employing  an  average  of  850,084  per- 
sons, whose  wages  were  ^466,846,642,  an  amount  greater  by 
$161,290,413  than  in  Pennsylvania.  Hardly  any  industry 
permissible  in  the  temperate  zone  is  unrepresented.  The 
cities  made  the  following  exhibit : 


Albany 

Auburn 

Binghamton.. 

Brooklyn 

Buffalo 

Cohoes 

Elmira 

Kingston 

Newburg 

New  York 

Rochester 

Syracuse 

Troy 

Utica 

Y'onkers 


iQdustries. 

Establuh- 

me&ts. 

123 

1,294 

.53 

809 

93 

702 

229 

10,.561 

176 

3,559 

49 

210 

84 

521 

44 

122 

49 

211 

292 

25,-399 

158 

1,889 

187 

1,175 

10:} 

8.37 

72 

473 

71 

645 

Capital. 


$16. 
10. 

9. 

125. 

67 

10. 

5. 

2, 

4. 
420. 
45. 
17. 
22, 
12. 
11, 


,441.365 
,832.611 
,022,851 
,840,052 
,867.154 
,999.637 
,792.9.59 
,374,607 
,107,523 
238,602 
,6:31,677 
207,955 
382,018 
,257.855 
,Sa3,074 


Persons 
employed. 


14.670 

6.001 

10.077 

103.683 

49,998 

8,711 

4..566 

1.648 

3,186 

ail  ,757 

32.429 

15.417 

25.092 

11.416 

12,913 


Wages  paid. 


$7,817,564 
8.478.574 
4.306,863 

61.975,103 

24,617.408 

3,085,4W 

2.212,144 

728,118 

1,535,738 

228.5.37.295 

16,501.405 
7.477,373 
9.502,580 
3.535,1.30 
6,826,431 


Cost  of 
materials. 


Sll  ,.362.01 7 

3.519.477 

7..583.413 

1.37.335.749 

51.162,770 

5.3.30,033 

4,025,0.57 

1.842.395 

1.948..501 

a57.086..305 

37.915,353 

12,112,.349 

1:3.061.878 

6,582.8:}4 

11,622.634 


MiG»IlaneoDi 
exjieaies. 


81,767.707 

1,309,790 

836,468 

14,884,466 

7.179,615 

753,857 

485,4.52 

228,402 

384,853 

60,823,425 

5.674,753 

2.358.337 

2,838.611 

869.440 

849.379 


Value  of 
product. 


$84.430..396 

9.0M.093 

14,9.33.001 

248.750.184 

96,448.654 

10.386.460 

7.719,343 

2.848.222 

4.483.451 

763.8.33.98:3 

73.164.696 

25,.540.304 

29.064.935 

13,205.578 

23,024,028 


troller,  attorney-general,  treasurer,  and  State  engineer  and 
surveyor  are  elected  for  two  years.     The  Governor,  with 


Some  of  the  leading 
follows : 


manufactures  may  be  tabulated  as 


ClASSinC.tTION. 


Combined  textiles 

Cotton  goods.%- 

Woolen  goods 

Silk  goods 

Dyeing  and  finishing 

Clothing 

Liquors,  malt 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  protlucts. . 

Boots  and  shoes 

Tobacco  


Establish' 
meals. 


566 
42 
339 
185 
49 
8,357 
158 
777 
140 
391 


Capital. 


870.918.577 

13.290,745 

46,461.914 

11.165.918 

4.963.095 

75.697.050 

5:3,090,639 

52,619,671 

8,370,287 

6,543,914 


Persons 
employed. 


59,.'i44 
8,401 

37,992 

13.151 
2..S.39 

70.593 
8.961 

29,.370 
9.670 
6,162 


Wages  paid. 


821.182,0.30 
2.563.730 

13,033,901 
5..5S4.399 
1,481.723 

37.164.217 
7.206,778 

20,111,787 
4,250.326 
2.389,344 


Cnet  of 
materials- 


S46.086.670 

5.-5.54.993 

30.390.598 

10.141.079 

I.449.:344 

56.033.725 

18.322.817 

19.461.882 

7.545.687 

3,296,521 


Miseellaueous 
expenses. 


84..5.53..3.55 

733.663 

2.662.282 

1,1.57.410 

372.710 


Value  of 
product 


882.5.35,242 
9.777.295 
63..340.I51 
19,417.796 
3,fi:36,05I 
11S,087,037 
43,064.193 
53.M6.060 
1.3.911, .377 
8,396,213 


the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  appoints  the  superin-  1      During  the  fiscal  ve.ar  ending  June  .30,  1893.  the  collec- 
tendents  of  pulilic  works,  of  banking,  of  insurance,  and  of    tions  of  internal  revenue  were  T  From  the  manufacture  of 


NEW   YORK 


173 


ilistilled  spirits.  1:4.841.338;  tobacco,  $5,527,033;  fermented 
lii|iiiirs,  ^'J,311,6t)l  :  oleomargarine,  $1,656;  and  penalties, 
$l().l:!;i— total,  |l!»,6y6,-2T6. 

Mineral  Jieauttrceit. — The  mo.'st  important  mineral  prod- 
ucts are  clay,  cement  rock,  building-stone,  salt,  and  iron 
ore.  All  the  clays  proper  are  of  Pleistocene  age,  the  most 
important  for  economic  uses  being  the  lacustrine  and  estu- 
arine  clays  of  the  Erie,  Ontario,  Champlain,  and  Ihulson 
valleys,  but  numerous  smaller  deposits  are  locally  used  for 
brick-making.  Shales  of  the  Salina,  Hamilton,  and  Che- 
iiuing  formations  are  also  ground  up  for  this  purjiose.  As 
the  greater  clay  deposits  are  readily  exploited  and  practi- 
cally inexhaustible,  the  magnitude  of  the  industries  in  vari- 
ous districts  depends  chielly  on  the  demand  of  neighboring 
lities,  and  the  Hudson  river  industries,  supplying  New 
York  citv.  are  the  most  imporlant.  In  1S!)2  the  output  of 
bricks  was  estimated  at  l,:il)O,()0O.00O,  valued  at  §8,500.000. 
Hoofing  tile,  drain  tile,  etc.,  are  also  manulactured.  Half 
the  hydraulic  cement  of  the  U.  S.  is  produced  in  New  York, 
the  productive  formation  being  the  Waterlinie  group.  The 
Yield  in  1893  was  3.780,000  barrels,  valued  at  $3,075,000, 
and  the  greater  part  of  this  was  obtained  from  I'lster 
County.  Erie,  Onondaga,  and  Schoharie  Counties  furnished 
smaller  amounts.  In  the  proiluction  of  building-stone 
New  York  ranks  sixth  in  the  V.  S.  The  limestone  quar- 
ried in  18i)3  was  valued  at  !{;1.103..500:  marble,  at  $206,- 
;tOO;  sandstone,   at  $415,300;  granite,  at  $181,500;  slate. 


Clinton  formation  running  E.  and  W.  across  Wayne,  Ca- 
yuga, Oswego,  and  Oneida  Counties.  Siderite  is  fotind  near 
the  city  of  Hudson,  associated  with  the  Hudson  slate. 

Commerce. — The  commerce  of  New  York  is  in  large  part 
that  of  the  nation,  as  its  chief  port  serves  not  only  for  the 
State,  but  also  for  much  of  the  continent.  There  are  eleven 
customs  districts  and  ports  of  entry,  the  business  of  whicli 
is  thus  reported  : 


lUPORTS. 

EXPORTS. 

CUSTOMS  DISTRICTS 
AND  POKTS. 

For  tliu  yrtr  coding  D«c.  31. 

For  the  year  endiog  D«c.  31. 

1893. 

1893. 

1893. 

1893. 

Albany     

$116,410 

4,449.968 

273,795 

4,031.868 

13.993 

ft44.ti82 

572.613.2.'>9 

2,998,570 

1,673,132 

1,911,993 

975 

$219,000 
3,366,214 

247.523 

4,273,117 

3,.579 

650,367 

493.115.588 

2.407,421 

2,123,616 

1,756,423 

"    "$562,465 

200.885 

2,583,213 

869,222 

377,722,98:i 

94,9a5 

1..318.467 

1,949,943 

Buffalo  Creek 

Cape  Vincent 

Champlain 

Duukirk 

Genesee 

New  York 

$3,826,743 

203.171 

3,938,519 

765',687 

357.997,688 
3,880,737 
4.019,308 
1,851,408 

Oswegatchie 

OsweKo 

Sag  Harbor 

Totals 

$588,728,645 

$507,222,818 

$.385,292,163 

$376,482,161 

The  following  table  shows  the  tonnage  movement  in  the 
foreign  trade  with  the  U.  S.  during  the  fiscal  year  1892-93 : 


CUSTOMS  DISTRICTS  AND  PORTS. 


Buffalo  Creek . 
Cape  Vincent . 

Champlain 

Genesee 

New  York 

Niagara 

Oswegatchie. . 
Oswego 


Totals.. 


ENTRANCES. 


Sailing.         To&Qij;c.  Steam. 


627 

293 
1,043 

422 

2,121 

75 

118 
1,263 


3,91 


103,2.56 
15.486 

101.976 

109.135 

1.18.3.188 

22',317 

.33..577 

279,379 


1,848,312 


315 
776 
38 
319 
2.906 
448 
684 
465 


5,951 


ToDnage. 


100,469 
172.402 
3.380 
147.046 
>,831,844 
171,617 
48,836 
111,673 


6,587,267 


CLEARANCES. 


Sailing. 


624 

287 

1,000 

471 

1,830 

62 

77 

1,238 


5,589 


Tonnage.  Steam. 


99.412 

13.940 

97,829 

120,732 

1,0;K,07I 

17.541 

20.628 

268.290 


1,673,443 


276 
772 
25 
313 
2,795 
441 
579 
406 


5,607 


Tonnage. 


68.569 
171.941 
2.172 
156.029 
5,604.363 
169,067 
38,213 
59,396 


6,259,740 


Total 
veatela. 


1,482 
2,128 
2,106 
1,525 
9,6.52 
1,026 
1,458 
3,.372 


23,109 


Total  tonnage. 


361,706 
373,769 
205,367 
532,942 
13,654.464 
380,532 
141,254 
718,738 


16,368,762 


at  $205,000.  Limestone  is  obtained  chiefly  from  the  Tren- 
ton, Niagara,  aiul  the  Oiuuidaga  formations.  These  are 
so  widely  distributed  in  the  central,  western,  and  north- 
ern parts  of  the  State  that  they  afford  lime-rock  and  build- 
ing-stone for  local  use  at  very  many  points.  Along  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Adirondacks  certain  beds  of  the  Trenton 
limestone  are  of  such  texture  as  to  take  a  high  polish,  and 
are  extensively  quarried  and  marketeil  under  the  name  of 
marble.  Crystalline  marbles  are  also  found  in  abundance 
among  the  metamorphic  rocks  in  St.  Lawrence.  Columbia, 
and  Westchester  Counties.  The  Potsdam,  Medina,  and 
Catskill  sandstones  and  various  thinner  beds  of  the  Hamil- 
ton and  Chemung  groups  are  widely  distributed,  and,  like 
the  limestones,  are  quarried  at  many  points  for  local  use. 
Sandstone  is  also  shipped  to  a  distance  from  various  quar- 
ries of  the  Pot.sdam  N.  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains  and  of 
the  Medina  in  Monroe,  Orleans,  and  Niagara  Counties.  A 
special  grade  of  sandstone,  known  as  "  bluestonc,"  is  ob- 
tained from  the  various  layers  of  the  Hamilton,  Chemung, 
and  Catskill  formations  in  Albany.  Greene,  Ulster,  and  Scho- 
harie Counties,  and  is  carried  to  New  York  and  other  cities, 
where  its  principal  use  is  as  flagging.  Granite  is  derived 
from  crystalline  rocks  in  Westchester  County  and  in  the 
Highlan<ls.  and  there  is  an  important  quarry  on  one  of  the 
Thousand  Islands.  Slale.  quarried  in  Washington  County, 
is  derived  from  the  Hudson  Kivcr  forination.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  salt.  New  York  is  exceeded  onlv  by  Michigan. 
The  yielil  in  1893  was  5,662.000  barrels,  valued  at  $1,870.- 
000.  This  was  derived  directly  or  indirectly  from  the 
Salina  group,  a  part  being  mined  and  the  rest  obtained  from 
brines.  The  Onondaga  di.strict.  near  Syracuse,  was  for 
many  years  one  of  the  most  productive  in  the  country,  but 
the  Warsaw  district,  of  Wyoming.  Genesee,  and  Livingston 
Counties,  which  had  rapidly  developed,  overtook  the  older 
di.strict  in  1887,  and  in  1893  doubled  its  outjiut.  In  the 
jiroduction  of  iron  ore  the  State  ranks  fifth  in  the  U.  S., 
the  output  of  its  mines  in  1893  being  534.000  tons,  valued 
at  $1,223,000.  I\Iagnetile  isolitainedin  great  amount  along 
the  ea-stern  flank  of  the  Adirondacks.  and  in  less  aiiHUinl  on 
the  northern  and  western  flanks,  and  in  the  Highlands. 
Limonite  is  associated  with  Lower  Pahcozoic  rocks  along  the 
eastern  border  of  the  State,  a<ljoiniiig  Massaehii.setts  and 
Connecticut.  Hematite  is  obtained  from  luetamorphit; 
rocks  in  Jefferson  County,  and  also  from  a  stratum  of  the 


Wealth.— Of  the  total  wealth  of  the  U.  S..  placed  by  the 
census  of  1890  at  $65,037,091,197,  New  York  possessed 
$8,576,701,991.  Of  the  real  estate  with  improvements 
amounting  to  $39,544,544,333.  tlie  share  of  New  York  was 
$5,817,704,667.  Of  the  machinery  of  mills  and  their  prod- 
uct on  hand,  stated  at  $3,058,593,441,  New  York  held  $594,- 
476,039.  Of  railways  and  equipments,  including  street-rail- 
ways, amounting  in  the  U.  S.  to  $8,685,407,323,  those  in  this 
Sta'te  were  valued  at  $534,671,937. 

In  1894  the  total  assessed  value  of  real  estate  was  $3,761.- 
679.384.  and  of  [lersonal  property  $488,202,674,  exclusive  of 
$102,506,261  corporate  projierty  not  subject  to  taxation  lo- 
cally for  State  purposes.  The  tax-rate  in  1894  was  $2.18 
per  $1,000.  The  State  public  debt,  Sept.  30,  1893,  amounted 
to  $121,354,87. 

Banking. — In  Dec,  1893,  there  were  334  national  banks, 
which  had  a  combined  capital  of  $87,796,060,  surplus  and 
profits  of  $83,523,851,  and  individual  deposits  of  $385.,527,- 
505.  The  State  banks  in  Nov.,  1893,  numbered  203.  and  had 
a  combined  capital  of  $33,175,258,  surplus  and  ju-ofits  of 
$28,570,566,  and  individual  deposits  of  $178,886,734.  The 
report  on  the  savings-banks  on  Jan.  1,  1894,  showed,  num- 
ber of  banks  125.  number  of  depositors  1.585.155.  amount  of 
deposits  $617,089,449,  and  surplus  and  profits  $87,141,452. 
The  total  banking  interests  showed,  number  of  banks  662, 
capital  $120,971,318.  deposits  $1,181,503,688.  and  surplus 
and  profits  $199,235,809.  There  were  also,  on  Jan.  1,  1894, 
34  loan  and  trust  companies,  with  combined  cajiital  of  $28.- 
350.000.  deposits  $266,092,954,  and  surplus  and  profits  to 
the  amount  of  $41,435,530. 

Insurance. — On  Jan.  1,  1894,  there  were  32  regular  or 
"old-line"  insurance  companies  in  ojieration.  of  which  12 
were  home  corporations  and  20  were  corporations  of  other 
States  authorized  to  transact  business  in  New  York.  The 
home  companies  received  as  premiums  during  the  previous 
year  $123,559,156  and  paid  dividends  of  $257,277,  and  the 
other  companies  received  as  premiums  $69,147,682.  and  paid 
dividends  of  $511,285.  There  was  a  total  of  $75,903,820 
paid  in  selllement  of  claims,  of  which  the  home  companies 
paid  $47,329,075  and  the  other  companies  $28,574,745.  On 
the  same  date  there  were  39  fire-insurance  companies  of  all 
classes  belonging  in  the  State,  which  received  as  premiums 
$32,937,961,  paid  losses  of  $21,906,980,  and  (excepting  4 
companies)  paid  dividends  of  $1,613,635. 


174 


NEW  YORK 


Means  of  Communication. — The  development  of  the  rail- 
ways of  the  State  is  shown  in  the  following  summary  as  re- 
ported on  Dec.  ;:!1  in  the  several  years:  (1851))  1,361  miles; 
(1860)  3,683 :  (1870)  3,938  ;  (1880)  5,991 :  (1890)  7,745-85 ; 
(1893)  8,116-10.  The  report  of  the  board  of  railway  com- 
missioners to  the  Legislature  in  Jan.,  1894,  showed  that  the 
gross  earnings  from  operations  of  roads  in  the  State  in  the 
fiscal  year  ending  .Tune  30,  1893.  were  |234,354.615 ;  gross 
expenses,  $157,138,964;  net  earnings.  177,225,650.  The 
board  also  reported  47  street-railways  in  operation  by  the 
overhead  trolley  system  and  3  by  the  cable  system,  and  ele- 
vated railways  in  operation  in  the  cities  of  New  York  and 
Brooklyn. 

The  canal  mileage  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  aban- 
donment of  a  number  of  such  waterways  as  had  ceased  to 
be  profitable.  In  1893  the  principal  canals  wliully  in  the 
State  were  the  Erie,  extending  from  Albany  to  Biitl'alo, 
built  in  1817-63;  tlie  Cliamplain,  from  Whitehall  to  Water- 
ford,  built  in  1817-37;  the  Oswego,  from  Syracuse  to  Os- 
wego, built  in  1835-63  ;  the  Cayuga  and  Seneca,  from  Monte- 
zuma to  Cayuga  and  Seneca  lakes,  built  in  1825 ;  and  the 
Black  River,  from  Rome  to  Carthage,  built  in  1836-41.  The 
amount  of  freight  carried  by  these  canals  in  the  year 
was:  Erie,  3,235,736  tons;  Champlain,  848,965;  Oswego, 
92,634 ;  Cayuga  and  Seneca,  38,761 ;  and  the  Black  River, 
115,877— total  tonnage,  43,331,963.  The  principal  canal, 
partly  within  and  partly  without  the  State,  was  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson,  extending  from  Honesdale,  Pa.,  to  Ron- 
dout,  N.  Y.,  built  m  1836-38. 

Churches. — The  census  of  1890  gave  the  following  statis- 
tics concerning  the  religious  bodies  having  a  membership  of 
2,000  and  upward : 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Roman  Catholic 

Blethodist  Episcopal 

Presh.  Cliurch  in  the  U.  S.  of  A. 

Baptists,  Regular 

Protestant  Episcopal 

Reformed  Church  in  America. 

Congregational 

Lutheran,  General  Council 

Jews,  Opthodox 

Lutheran  Synod.  Conference.. 
Germ.  Evang.  Synod  of  N.  A. . 

Jews,  Reformed 

Lutheran,  General  Synod 

United  Presb.  of  N.  A 

Free-will  Baptist 

Universalist 

Christian  Connection 

African  Meth.  Bpis.  Zion 

Spiritualists 

Evangelical  Associatioo 

Methodist  Protestant 

Unitarian 

Disciples  of  Christ 

Wesleyan  Methodist 

Free  Methodist 

Friends,  Orthodox 

Reformed  Church  in  the  U.  S. . 

Friends,  Hicksite 

Seventh-day  Baptist 

African  Methodist  Episcopal . . 
Ref .  Presb.  in  the U.  S.  .\  , Synod 

Lutheran,  Buffalo  S\  nod 

Independent  congr^i^^al  ions 


Orezniza- 
tions. 


959 
2,12.3 
784 
875 
7.-J1 
302 
301 
113 
152 
67 
60 
27 
95 
66 
134 
168 
120 
4S 
34 
86 
90 
18 
41 
114 
142 
50 
13 
45 
28 
34 
18 
12 


CbuKbes 
BDd  halls. 


967 
2,136 
943 
924 
860 
260 
326 
117 
162 
65 
50 
27 
100 
66 
134 
164 
120 
47 
33 
85 
93 
23 
48 
112 
143 
51 
13 
46 
27 
35 
19 
12 
27 


1,153.1.30 
212.492 
154,083 
129,711 
127,218 
62,228 
46,686 
39.4.30 
29.064 
22,642 
17,409 
16,743 
15.611 
9,719 
8,636 
8,626 
7,620 
6,668 
6,-351 
6,222 
4,759 
4,470 
4,316 
3,913 
3,751 
3,644 
3,432 
3,331 
3,274 
3,124 
2,328 
2,268 
4,232 


Value  of 
church 
properly. 


835,769,478 

I6,944,.360 

21.293.992 

12,938,913 

30,707,213 

7,446,280 

5,175.262 

1,91.5,510 

1,919,500 

1,0.66,4.66 

6.si,.5;n 

2,396,700 
1,224.700 
707,400 
529,0.->fl 
1,79K.260 
267.8.60 
371.400 

33,-2.50 
401,860 
293.000 
1.1I7..500 
36:i.«.60 
136.9.60 
343,9.60 
203.900 
204,200 
561,850 

71,025 
231  ,,600 
469,600 

4H.0I0 
733,400 


Schools. — The  regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of 
New  York  have  SHpervision  of  education ;  they  are  elected 
by  the  Legislature  on  joint  ballot.  Charters  of  academics, 
colleges,  and  universities,  libraries  and  museums  proceed 
from  them.  A  university  convocation  is  held  annually 
under  the  auspices  of  this  body,  and  examinations  in- vari- 
ous studies  are  conducted  by  its  authority,  while  plans  for 
"university  extensioji"  are  promoted  by  it.  The  State  li- 
brary and  State  museum  .are  under  its  care.  Twentv-two 
colleges  for  men.  8  for  women,  and  6  for  both  sexes,  with  7 
law  schools,  15  of  medicine,  3  of  pharmacy,  3  of  dentistry,  1 
of  the  eye  and  ear,  2  veterinary,  11  of  theology,  3  of  peda- 
gogy, and  9  other  professional  and  technical  schools  are  re- 
garded as  members  of  this  university.  (See  Colleoes.)  The 
su[)erintendent  of  public  instruction,  elected  by  the  Jjcgis- 
lature,  is  the  head  of  the  common-school  system.  Superin- 
tendents in  cities  ami  commissioners  over  groups  of  towns 
have  more  inimcdiale  oversight.  In  1893  there  were  11.161 
school  districts  and  12.015  pul)Iic--schc)()i  buildings,  includiug 
34  log  structure.s.  The  sum  of  .'j;4,O61,093  was  expended  for 
houses  and  sites,  furniture  and  repairs,  of  which  the  cities 
spent  .$3,688,966  and  the  ouuntry  districts  |1,372,126.     The 


total  valuation  of  public-school  property  was  149,913,605 — 
in  cities,  $34,131,958 ;  in  towns,  $15,781,647. 

During  the  year  1,083,328  pupils  attended  school  for  at 
least  a  part  of  the  time — 550,034  in  cities,  533,594  in  towns. 
In  cities  the  attendance  was  47  per  cent,  of  the  persons  of 
school  age,  in  the  towns  74  per  cent. ;  32,475  teachers  were 
employed — 5,068  males,  27,408  females — and  tliese  received 
for  wages  $11,883,094,  making  an  average  in  cities  of  $728.36 
and  in  towns  $303.57.  Institutes  to  the  number  of  110  were 
held  during  the  year  for  teachers,  of  whom  over  15,000  at- 
tended. Normal  schools  were  maintained  at  Albany,  Brock- 
port,  Buffalo,  Cortland,  Fredonia,  Geneseo,  New  Paltz,  One- 
onta,  Oswego,  Plattsburg,  and  Potsdam,  with  a  total  of  7,625 
pupils,  property  valued  at  $1,915,235,  and  expenditures  for 
the  year  of  $355,535.  The  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  in  New  York  furnishes  instruction  to  the  normal 
schools  and  teachers'  institutes,  and  to  teachers  of  common 
schools  in  cities  near  by,  making  reports  on  that  branch  of 
its  work  to  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 

Libraries. — In  1892  there  were  reported  511  libraries  of 
1,000  volumes  and  upward  each,  which  contained  4,036,530 
bound  volumes  and  379,544  pamphlets.  The  libraries  were 
classified  as  follows :  General,  99  ;  school,  326 ;  college,  37 ; 
college  society,  4;  legal,  21;  theological,  10;  medical,  14; 
Government,  1 ;  public  institution,  19 ;  State,  1 ;  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
30;  social,  31 ;  scientific.  13  ;  historical,  5 ;  garrison,  3;  mer- 
cantile, 3;  and  inisceIlaneou.s,  4. 

JVeiL'spapers  and  Periodicals. — In  1894  there  were  2,001 
newspapers  and  periodicals,  of  which  177  were  daily,  2  tri- 
weekly, 36  semi-weekly,  1,114  weekly,  3  bi-weekly,  43  semi- 
monthly, 554  monthly,  33  bi-monthly,  and  50  quarterly  pub- 
lications. 

Post-offices. — The  total  number  of  post-offices  on  Jan.  1, 
1894,  was  3,615,  of  which  287  were  presidential  (15  first- 
class,  77  second-class,  195  third-class)  and  3,328  fourth-class. 
There  were  1,526  money-order  olRces,  69  money-order  sta- 
tions, and  7  postal-note  offices. 

Charitahle,  Reformatory,  and  Penal  Institutions. — The 
board  of  charities  exercises  visitorial  powers  over  State  hos- 
pitals, county  poor-houses,  and  asylums,  and  over  241  incor- 
porated and  157  licensed  asylums,  which  in  1893  contained 
18,879  inmates.  The  State  asylums  have  also  local  boards 
of  managers.  The  State  institutions  for  the  insane  are  lo- 
cated at  Utica,  Poughkeepsie,  Middletown,  Buffalo,  Willard, 
Binghamton,  Ogdensburg,  and  Rochester.  The  aggregate 
cost  of  the  buildings  was  $8,.509,271.  A  State  institution 
for  feeble-mindetl  children  is  maintained  at  Syracuse,  and 
one  for  feeble-minded  women  at  Newark.  At  Rome  there 
is  a  State  custodial  asylum.  Educational  in.stitutions  for 
the  blind  are  located  at  New  York  and  Batavia,  and  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb  at  New  York,  Fordham.  Malone,  Albany, 
Rochester,  and  Buffalo.  There  are  reformatories  at  Elmira, 
Rochester,  Canaan  Four  Corners,  and  Randall's  Island,  and 
for  women  at  Hudson  and  Albion.  For  soldiers  and  .sailors 
there  is  a  home  at  Bath.  The  State  paupers  committed  to 
the  several  public  institutions  in  1893  numbered  l,4t>6.  The 
total  expenditures  for  charitable,  correctional,  and  reforma- 
tory purposes  in  1893  were  for  an  average  of  80,543  benefi- 
ciaries $20,407,982;  in  1880,  for  47,701  beneficiaries,  they 
were  $8,482,648.  The  ratio  of  beneficiaries  to  pojmlation 
was  in  1880  1  to  107;  in  1893,  1  to  85.  A  superintendent 
of  State  prisons  has  charge  of  institutions  at  Auburn,  Clin- 
ton, and  Sing  Sing,  containing  in  1892  an  average  of  3,753 
inmates  and  in  1893  3,679.  The  expenditures  for  the  year 
1893  were  $504,164.34.  The  earnings  of  convicts  en,gaged 
in  several  industries  left  a  deficiency  of  .$477,266.97.  There 
are  separate  buildings  at  Auburn  for  women  convicts,  and  a 
hospital  at  iMatteawan  for  insane  criminals. 

Ilislory. — When  in  1664  the  English  seized  the  colony  of 
New  Netherland,  they  called  it  New  York,  in  honor  of  the 
Duke  of  York.  The  discovery  of  the  coast  belongs  to  Gio- 
vanni da  Verrazauo,  a  Florentine  navigator,,  who  at  the  close 
of  Apr.,  1524,  anchored  near  wliat  is  now  Sandy  Hook,  anil 
entered  the  bay  and  the  "  very  great  river."  French  adven- 
turers, Raulin  Seculart  and  Jean  Alphonse,  about  1545  visit- 
ed the  same  waters,  and  perhaps  built  works  on  Castleton 
Island  below  Albany,  of  which  the  ruins,  it  is  claimed,  still 
remain.  The  English  title  was  at  first  based  on  the  discov- 
ery of  the  North  American  coast  by  John  Cabot,  June  24, 
1497,  duly  recorded  on  maps  by  liis  son  Sebastian,  but  not 
otherwise.  Jacques  Carticr,  under  commission  from  Fran- 
cis I.  of  France,  on  a  seeond  voyage  in  1545  ascended  the  St. 
Lawrence  to  Montreal,  and  heard  stories  of  the  country  to 
the  S.  and  W.    Actual  entry  in  force  by  Europeans  into  the 


NEW  YORK 


1 


O 


territory  now  Xew  York    was  first  made  from  the  N.  by 

Samiicrile  ('humplain,  a  favorili'  of  the  French  king  Henry 
IV..  sent  out  to  establisli  Xew  France.  In  an  expcilition 
ajj'ainsl  tlie  Iroquois  he  sailed  down  the  lake  that  bears  liis 
name  and  attacked  a  party  of  Indians  at  Tieonderoga,  Es- 
sex County.  He  was  afterward  repulsed  in  an  attack  on  a 
village  near  Fenner,  JIadison  County.  While  Cliaiuplaiti 
was  engaged  in  conlliets  with  the  Iroquois  in  the  north,  the 
Half  MooH.  a  Dutch  vessel  coiurnauded  by  Ileudrick  Hudson, 
an  I'jiglishnian  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch  Fast  Hulia  Com- 
pany, seeking  a  western  passage  to  China,  anchored  .Sept.  li, 
IfiO'.i.  in  the  lower  liay.  and  eight  days  later  ••  went  into  the 
river,"  now  the  Iluilson.  On  the  10th  the  Half  Moon  an- 
chored at  the  point  where  Albany  now  stands.  Dutch  mer- 
chants eouimissioned  a  ship  in  the  summer  of  1610  for 
trade  to  Xew  Xetherlaud,  and  in  1G13  other  vessels  arrived 
for  a  similar  purpose.  A  few  huts  were  built  on  the  south- 
ern pioint  of  JIanhattau  Island,  the  beginnings  of  New  Am- 
sterdam. Fven  earlier  Hendrik  Christiaciiscu  had  erected 
a  strong  house  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  just  below 
Albany  ami  called  it  Fort  Nassau.  This  became  a  center  of 
trafUc  with  the  Indians,  but  it  was  so  damaged  by  a  freshet 
as  to  be  aliandoneil  in  1G17.  A  new  trading-house  was  set 
up  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tawasentha,  near  Alliany.  by  a  com- 
pany of  Amstenlam  merchants;  there  an  alliance  was 
formed  by  this  Dutch  company  on  the  oiu>  side  and  the 
Iroquois  and  other  redmeu  on  the  other,  and  this  treaty, 
renewed  in  1645,  was  maintaiiu'cl  during  the  entire  period 
of  the  Dutch  occupation.  The  Iroquois  were  thus  arrayed 
against  the  French  in  Canada,  and  an  impress  given  to  the 
history  of  the  colony.  In  16'21  the  Dutch  West  India  Com- 
pany succeeded  the  earlier  traders.  The  first  colony  came 
out  by  the  Xew  Nelherland  under  the  auspices  of  this  com- 
pany in  16'3:i.  and  consisied  in  large  part  of  Walloous,  per- 
sons of  French  lilood  resident  in  Holland.  Eight  men  were 
left  on  JIanhattan  Island,  and  another  party  made  its  home 
on  the  west  shore  of  Long  Island.  The  ship  sailed  up  the 
Hudson,  and  most  of  the  newcomers  landed  at  Fort  Orange, 
set  out  the  year  before,  and  eighteen  families  started  the 
town  which  has  grown  into  the  city  of  Albany.  Other  ves- 
sels followed,  and  in  1636  the  population  had  become  200. 
The  next  y<'ar  the  government  was  made  more  formal,  with 
Peter  Jlinuit  a.s  director-general,  assisted  by  a  council  of  five. 
The  settlers  engaged  largely  in  the  fur-trade,  but  tried  to 
cultivate  tobacco,  and  soon  raised  wheat  for  export. 

During  the  administration  of  Kieft  as  director-general 
(16:38^7)  and  of  Peter  Stuyvesant  (1647-04)  the  colony  was 
disturbed  by  Indian  wars,  by  quarrels  with  the  Dutch  West 
India  ('ompany  over  the  finances,  and,  when  war  broke  out 
between  Kiurland  and  Holland,  by  the  aggressions  of  the 
English.  Finally,  in  1664.  Col.  Xicolls.  the  personal  repre- 
sentative of  the  Duke  of  York,  appeared  in  the  bay  with 
an  English  fleet  and  forced  the  Dutch  to  surrender  Manhat- 
tan Island.  He  set  up  a  government  and  sutinnoned  two 
delegates  from  each  town  to  consider  a  code,  "the  Duke's 
Laws,"  which  was  accepted  perforce.  The  Dutch  tempora- 
rily reconi[uercd  the  island  in  1673,  but  this  conquest  was 
not  known  to  the  states-general  when  the  Treaty  of  West- 
minster was  signed,  providing  for  the  restoration  by  Eng- 
land and  Holland  of  all  lands  captured  during  the  war.  Oct. 
15.  1674.  orders  reached  Colve.  the  director-general,  to  give 
iqi  Xew  Netherland.  and  so  the  Dutch  rule,  in  the  main 
prudent  and  beneficent,  ceased  to  exist  over  what  thence- 
forth was  to  be  New  York. 

The  transfer  of  tiie  j)roviuce  from  the  Dutch  took  place 
Nov.  !),  1674.  With  M^aj.  Ednnind  Andros.  the  new  gov- 
ernor of  the  territories  of  the  Duke  of  Viirk  in  .Vmerica,  was 
associated  a  council  of  ten  appointed  l)y  him.  "  All  persons 
(  of  what  religion  soever"  were  to  be  treated  alike,  while 
special  guarantees  were  accorded  to  the  Dutch  inhabitants, 
and  efforts  were  put  forth  to  hold  the  Iro(|Uois  in  friendship 
by  a  board  of  commissioners.  In  response  to  urgent  appeals 
the  duke  consented  to  an  assembly  of  delegates  from  the 
freeliolders,  which  met  Oct.  17.  I6S8.  and  a  Charter  of  Lib- 
erties was  enacted,  certain  duties  on  imports  were  voted, 
and  courts  were  estal)lished.  .lurisdiction  to  Lake  Ontario 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  was  a.s.scrted  by  Gov.  Dongan.  while, 
to  meet  complaints  of  raids  by  the  Iroquois  E.  and  W.  and 
S.,  a  conference  was  held  in  Albany  with  the  redmen  at 
which,  with  the  governor  of  New  York,  were  present  repre- 
sentatives of  Massachusetts  and  Virginia,  and  .luly  HO,  1684, 
an  important  treaty  was  negotiated.  When  James  II.,  after 
whom  th(>  <'oloiiy  was  named,  asceiide<I  the  throne  he  repudi- 
ated the  Charter  of  Liberties,  and  objected  to  the  powers 


claimed  "  for  the  people  met  in  general  assembly."  New 
York  was  restive  under  King  James's  consolidation  of  the 
northern  colonies  as  the  Dojuinion  of  New  England.  The 
settlers  took  kindly  to  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary, 
but  Nicholson,  the  lieutenant-governor,  scouted  at  it,  and 
when  (jov,  Andros  was  placed  under  arrest  in  Boston  deemed 
it  "most  safe  to  forbear  acting  without  definite  instruc- 
tions." His  weakness  gave  opportunity  for  a  revolt  under 
the  leadei-ship  of  Jacob  Leisler,  a  captain  of  militia,  who 
organized  a  government  in  the  absence  of  Gov.  Nicholson, 
and  declared  in  favor  of  the  new  sovereigns,  but  was  after- 
ward convicted  and  hanged  for  refusal  to  recognize  the  mili- 
tary representative  of  Gov.  Sloughter.  See  Leislkr.  Jacob. 
Before  the  Declaration  of  Independence  forty-four  differ- 
ent persons  served  as  the  executive  head  of  the  province, 
counting  the  Dutch  directors.  With  most  of  the  governors 
the  assembly  had  differences  over  the  revenue,  and  some  of 
them,  notably  Fletcher  and  Cornbnry,  and  later  Clarke  and 
the  first  George  Clinton,  rest  under  allegations  of  corrupt 
use  of  public  money,s.  For  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
production  of  naval  stores  2,584  immigrants  were  brought 
from  the  Palatinate  in  1711,  most  of  them  settling  on  the 
banks  of  the  Hudson.  Eleven  years  later  a  hundred  fami- 
lies from  the  same  country  found  homes  on  the  Mohawk, 
and  in  1738  eighty-three  Scotch  families  were  brought  over 
to  defend  Lake  George.  To  provide  funds  for  expeditions 
against  Canada  paper  money  was  tirst  issued.  The  settlers 
reached  out  for  trade  with  their  neighbors  N.  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  lakes,  and  to  extend  it  a  trading-post  was 
set  up  at  Oswego  in  1722.  Relations  with  the  Iroquois  re- 
quired frequent  attention,  the  governors  were  inclined  to 
arbitrary  acts,  freedom  of  religion  was  matter  of  discussion, 
efforts  were  put  forth  to  promote  education,  while  so  urgent 
was  the  pressure  for  popular  rights  that  in  1729  the  Lords 
of  Trade  were  notified  that  "  most  of  the  previous  and  open 
steps  which  a  dependent  province  can  take  to  make  them- 
selves independent  at  their  pleasure  are  taken  by  the  as- 
sembly of  New  York."  That  assembly  was.  in  fact,  assert- 
ing its  control  over  the  finances  and  struggling  for  the  in- 
dependence of  the  courts.  Negro  slaves  had  been  imported, 
and  belief  in  a  plot  by  some  of  them  led,  in  1741,  in  New 
York  city,  to  cruel  persecutions  and  a  most  unreasoning 
panic. 

The  French  and  Indian  war  (1755-63)  fell  with  especial 
severity  on  New  York.  With  their  Indian  allies  the  French 
struck  swiftly  as  far  as  the  Mohawk,  but  in  a  sharp  fight  at 
Fort  Edward  near  Lake  George  were  repulsed  by  Gen. 
William  Johnson.  Hostilities  raged  on  the  upper  Hudson, 
along  the  Mohawk  westward  to  Oswego,  then  again  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Champlain.  Disasters  were  the  frequent  lot 
of  this  province,  and  a  defeat  on  Lake  George  in  July,  1758, 
opened  the  door  to  Montcalm,  but  it  was  closed  by  the  cap- 
ture of  Fort  Frontenac  in  August,  and  the  next  year  Fort 
Niagara  surrendered  to  Gen.  William  Johnson,  and  the 
French  -were  driven  back  from  Tieonderoga  and  Crown 
Point.  Xew  York  contributed  its  full  share  to  tlie  splendid 
victory  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham  in  1750.  In  the  next 
few  years  the  colony  nmnifested  much  discontent  with 
British  rule.  It  led  in  the  union  of  the  colonies  Oct.  18, 
1764.  by  clothing  a  committee  of  correspondence  with  power 
to  correspontl  with  its  neighbors  on  the  oppressive  acts  of 
Parliament  and  "on  the  impending  dangers  which  threaten 
the  colonie-s  of  being  taxed  by  laws  to  be  passed  in  Great 
Britain."  In  the  colonial  congress  held  in  Xew  York  Oct. 
7,  1765.  the  members  of  this  committee  took  active  part, 
and  petitions  for  redress  of  grievances  were  presented  to  the 
king.  The  Stajup  Act  provoked  violent  protests,  the  patri- 
otic association  known  as  the  .Sons  of  Liberty  was  organ- 
ized, and  at  last  on  Jan.  18,  1770,  a  collision  occurred  in 
Ni!W  York  city  resulting  in  bloodshed.  This  irregular  fight- 
ing Wfis  the  real  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  Yet 
this  province,  more  engaged  in  commerce  than  any  other, 
for  a  while  abandoned  the  sacrifii'e  involved  in  total  non- 
im|)ortation  and  restricted  itself  to  the  exclusion  of  tea.  On 
that  line  it  was  ])nsitive  ami  bold,  and  "the  Mohawks"  were 
organized  in  Oct.,  1773,  for  aggressive  action;  but  the  ves- 
sels expected  were  kept  back  by  a  storm  and  did  not  arrive 
until  four  mcmtlis  after  the  historic  tea-party  in  Bostcm  har- 
bor; on  their  arrival  "  the  Mohaw'ks"  repeated  in  New  York 
the  exploit  planned  for  the  earlier  date. 

Its  situation  and  tojiography  joini'd  wiUi  political  events 
to  east  upon  this  province  the  brunt  of  the  war  of  the  Revo- 
lution, and  an  account  of  the  importjint  military  events  that 
took  place  within  its  boundaries  will  be  found  in  the  article 


176 


NEW   YORK 


United  States  (q.  i:).  From  tlie  seizure  of  Tieonderoga, 
May  10,  1775,  and  of  Crown  Point,  immediately  afterward, 
armies  marched  and  countermarched  on  its  soil.  Its  chief 
citv  could  not  be  successfully  defended  even  by  Washington, 
and  from  the  autumn  of  1776  imtil  Xov.  25, 1783,  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  British.  In  1777  a  constitution  was  adopted 
by  the  colony.  The  vast  western  domam  which  New  York 
claimed  by  royal  grant,  by  purchase  from  the  redmen,  and 
afterward"  by  "the  British  "treaty,  it  voted  Apr.  19,  17S0,  to 
transfer  to  the  Union  to  become  the  Northwest  Territory. 

Parties  divided  on  the  powers  of  the  confederacy,  and 
afterward  on  tlie  project  of  the  national  Constitution  :  the 
ratification  of  that  instrument  was  in  doubt  until  the  con- 
vention actually  voted,  when  the  majority.  30  to  37,  was  se- 
cured through  recommendation  of  amendments  which  in 
due  time  became  part  of  the  nation's  fundamental  law. 

The  population  of  the  entire  State  in  1783  was  233,896. 
fifth  in  rank  in  the  Union.  Many  Tories  had  emigrated, 
and  the  disposition  was  strong  to  drive  out  those  who  re- 
mained, but  this  prejudice  was  gradually  dissipated.  Set- 
tlers came  in  rapidly  after  the  peace.  Industries,  trade,  edu- 
cation, the  amenities  of  life,  developed  with  equal  step. 
The  Legislature,  which  had  met  in  Kingston,  Poughkeep- 
sie,  and  New  York  successively,  in  1790  chose  Albany  as  its 
home.  A  brilliant  galaxy  of  political  leaders  directed  af- 
fairs these  early  days — Alexander  Hamilton,  George  Clin- 
ton, Philip  Schuyler,  Aaron  Burr,  Rufus  King,  .John  .Jay, 
the  Livingstons,  De  Witt  Clinton.  Several  of  them  fostered 
aspirations  for  the  presidency  of  the  V.  S.,  but  internal 
rivalries  repelled  the  prize.  These,  however,  did  not  prevent 
united  action  in  the  second  war  with  Great  Britain.  The 
embargo  act  of  1807  struck  severely  the  commerce  of  the 
chief  city,  and  stirred  up  opposition  :  but  when  that  was  re- 
pealed, and  Great  Britain  repudiated  the  project  of  a  treaty 
to  recall  the  orders  in  council  while  the  impressment  of 
seamen  continued,  the  war  spirit  ran  high.  Great  sacrifices 
were  undergone,  and  in  1812  the  tide  of  conflict  rolled 
heavily  upon  the  State.  On  its  soil  preparations  were  hur- 
ried forward  for  the  invasion  of  Canada,  and  collisions  of 
arms  were  frequent  on  Lake  Ontario,  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
Lake  Champlain.  Ogdensburg  was  captured  by  the  British, 
but  they  were  beaten  at  Sackett"s  Harbor,  and  both  sides 
claimed' the  victory  at  Chrysler's  Farm.  Fort  Niagara  was 
taken,  and  Black  Rock  and  Buffalo  burned  by  the  British, 
who  in  turn,  July  5,  1814,  suffered  defeat  by  Gen.  Winfield 
Scott  at  Chippewa,  and  July  25  at  Lundy's  Lane.  An  in- 
vasion by  way  of  the  Saranac  and  Lake  Champlain  was 
gallantly  repulsed  in  September  of  the  same  year.  A  levy 
en  masse  of  the  militia  of  Herkimer,  Oneida,  Lewis,  and 
Jefferson  Counties  was  made  for  the  defense  of  the  northern 
frontier,  while  New  York  exhibited  equal  activity  against 
expected  attack.  The  treaty  of  peace  was  welcomed  by  the 
people  who  had  suffered  so  much  from  the  war.  Initial 
steps  had  been  taken  for  the  construction  of  waterways, 
and  the  question  soon  entered  into  party  politics,  with  De 
Witt  Clinton  as  their  lea<ling  advocate  and  Gov.  Tompkins 
obstructing,  in  part  out  of  rivalry  toward  Clinton.  The 
canal  policy  triumphed,  and  gave  vast  impetus  to  popula- 
tion and  business,  to  which  also  later  the  railway  system 
contributed  in  large  degree.  Out  of  the  patroon  system  (see 
Patroons)  and  the  concentration  of  lands  in  lew  hands 
agrarian  riots  sprang  tip  in  1839  and  1845.  and  on  a  smaller 
scale  in  1866.  In  the  civil  war  (1861-65)  New  York  bore  its 
fidl  share,  in  spite  of  resistance  to  the  draft  in  the  chief 
city  and  threats  elsewliere.  The  State  was  credited  by  the 
War  Ue])artment  with  448,850  men  sent  into  the  field  and 
18,197  who  paid  commutation. 

The  first  constitution  of  New  York  was  in  force  forty-four 
years;  that  framed  in  1821  for  twenty-five  years;  that  of 
1846  with  some  amendments  down  to  the  adoption  of  the 
new  constitution  of  1894.  Proposals  for  radical  changes 
have  often  been  rejected.  A  convention  was  held  in  1867 
and  submitted  a  revised  constitution,  which,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  articles  referring  to  the  judiciary,  was  re- 
jected by  tlie  people.  Several  amendments  jiroposed  by  the 
Legislature,  and  in  1874  by  a  commission,  were  adopted  by 
popular  vote.  A  convention  met  at  Albany  in  1894  for  a 
general  revision.  JIo.st  of  the  thirty-four  amendments  sub- 
mitted by  them  were  adopted  by  the  jieople.  Among  others 
a  secret  ballot  was  prnvidiid  for;  the  use  of  balloting-ma- 
chines  was  perriiitleil;  local  and  inunicipal  elections  in  the 
six  largest  cities  were  separated  from  State  and  national 
elections,  the  former  occurring  in  odd-numbered  years  and 
the  latter  in  even-numbered  years;  etc. 


GOVERXORS  OF  THE  COLONY  AND  THE  STATE. 


Directors-General — Dutch. 

Adrian  Joris 168:3-34 

Coruelis  Jacobzeu  May.. .  16^4-2.5 

William  Verhulst 1625-26 

Peter  Minuit 1626-33 

Wouter  vau  Twiller 163.3-38 

William  Kief t 163.'i-47 

Petrus  Sluyvesant 1647-64 


Colonial  Governors- 

Richard  Xioolls 

Francis  Lovelace 


-English. 
...   1664-68 
...  1668-73 


Robert  Monckton 1762 

CadwalladBrColdenlact.)  1763-65 

Henry  Moore 1765-69 

faihvallader  Colden  tact.)  1769-70 

Eaii  of  Dunmore 1770-71 

William  Tryon 1771-74 

Cadwallader  Colden 1774-75 

Peter  vau  Brugh  Livingston     1775 

William  Tryon 1775-«0 

James  Robertson  § 1780-83 

Andrew  Elliott  ^acting,l  §  .        1783 

Governors  of  the  State. 

George  Clinton 1777-95 

John  Jav 179.5-1801 

George  Clinton 1801-04 

Morgan  Lewis I8O4-07 

Daniel  D.  Tompkins 1807-17 

John  Tavler  ( acting) 1817 

De  Witt  "Clinton 1817-23 

Joseph  C.  Yates 182S-25 

De  Witt  Clhiton 1825-28 

Nathaniel  Pitcher  (acting)  1828-29 

Martin  Van  Buren 1829 

Enos  T.  Throop 1829-33 

William  L.  Marcy 1833-39 

William  H.  Seward 1839^3 

William  C.  Bouck 1843-45 

Silas  Wright 1845-47 

John  Young 1847-49 

HamUton  Fish 1849-51 

Washington  Hunt 1851-53 

Horatio  Seymour 1853-55 

Myron  H.  Clark 1855-57 

John  A.  King 1857-59 

Edwin  D.  Morgan 1859-63 

Horatio  Seymour 1863-65 

Reuben  E.  Fenton 1865-69 

John  T.Hoffman 1869-73 

John  Adams  Dix 1873-75 

Samuel  J.  Tilden 1875-77 

Lucius  Robinson 1877-80 

Alonzo  B.  Cornell 1880-83 

Grover  Cleveland 1883-85 

David  B.  Hill  (acting) 1885-86 

David  B.Hill   1886-92 

Roswell  P.  Flower  1892-95 

Levi  P.  Morton 1895-96 

Frank  S.  Black 1897- 


Directors-General — Dutch. 

Coruelis  Evertse,  Jr 1673 

Anthony  Colve 1673-74 

Colonial  Governors — English. 

Edmond  Andros 1674-83 

.\nthony  Brockholles*....  1677-83 

Thomas  Dongan 168.3-88 

Francis  Nicholson(acting)  16.S8-89 

Jacob  Leisler 1689-91 

Henrv  SI.  .lighter 1691 

Ricliaiil  liiK.'ldsby  * 1691-92 

Beujauiid  Fletcher 1692-98 

Earl  of  Bellamont 1698-1700 

John  Xanfan  (acting)...  1699-1701 
William  Smith  t  < 

Abraham  de  Peystert  ^  . .  1701-02 
Peter  Schuyler  t  ) 

Lord  Cornbury 1703-08 

Lord  Lovelace 1708-09 

Peter  Schuyler  t 1709 

Richard  Ingoldsby  (act.). .  1709-10 

Gerardus  Heekraan  J 1710 

Robert  Hiuiter 1710-19 

Peter  Schuyler  i 1719-20 

William  Burnet 1780-28 

John  Jlontgomerie 1728-31 

Rip  vau  Dam  t 1731-38 

William  Cosby 1738-36 

George  Clarke  (acting) . . .  1736-43 

George  Clinton 1743-53 

Dan  vers  Osborne 1753-55 

James  de  Lancey  (acting).        1755 

Charles  Hardy 17.55-57 

Janit^s  lie  Lancey  (acting),  17.'j7-60 

Cadwallader  Colden  t 1760-61 

Robert  Monckton 176) 

Cadwallader  Colden  (act.)  1761-62 

*  Commanders-in-chief.  +  Councilors.  }  Presidents. 

§  During  the  Revolution  ;  not  recognized  by  the  patriots. 

Authorities. — Of  the  early  French  writers  editions  have 
been  iiulilished  in  Quebec,  notably  Journals  of  Samuel  de 
Chaniphiiii  (6  vols.) :  Les  21aurs  des  Saurayes  Ameri- 
cains,  by  the  Jesuit  Father  Lafitau :  Relations  des  Jesii- 
ite-i.  Consult  also  Charlevoix's  JVew  France,  translated  by 
J.  G.  Shea,  6  vols. ;  Five  JS'ations,  by  Cadwallader  Colden  ; 
League  of  the  Iroquois,  by  Lewis  H.  Jlorgan.  J.  R.  Brod- 
head's  History  covers  the  period  from  1609  to  1691.  The 
State  has  published  Documentary  History,  4  vols. ;  Docu- 
ments relating  to  the  Colony,  11  vols.;  Geology  and  JVatu- 
ral  History,  24  vols. ;  Addresses  at  Centennial  Celebrations. 
2  vols.  See  also  J.  D.  Hammond's  Political  History,  2  vols. ; 
Life  of  Joseph  Brant,  of  Red  Jacket,  of  Sir  William  John- 
son, by  William  L.  Stone ;  New  York,  by  Ellis  H.  Roberts, 
2  vols".,  in  American  Commonwealth  Series.  Histories  of 
many  of  the  towns,  cities,  and  counties  are  sejiaiately  pub- 
lished. Ellis  II.  Roberts. 

New  York  (the  Nieuic  Amsterdam  of  the  original  Dutch 
settlei-s) :  the  chief  city  of  the  U.  S.  in  population,  com- 
me)-ce,  maiiufaetures.  and  finance.  It  lies  in  (reckoned 
fi-om  its  cit3--hall)  hit.  40=  42-7'  N.,  Ion.  74°  00-1  \V.  fi-om 
Greenwich ;  "at  the  junction  of  the  Hudson,  at  this  point 
called  the  North  river,  and  the  narrow  strait  forming  the 
southwest  extension  of  Long  Island  Sound  and  known  as  the 
East  river.  The  boundaries  of  the  city  are  identical  with 
those  of  the  county  of  New  York,  in  the  State  of  the  same 
name,  ancl  include  Manhattan  Island  and  some  of  the  adja- 
cent mainland  N.  of  it.  Governor's.  Bedloe's,  and  Ellis  isl- 
ands in  the  bay  at  the  S.  (these  three  the  property  of  tl)e 
r.  S.  Government),  and  Blackwell's,  Ward's,  Randall's,  and 
a  few  minor  islands  in  the  East  river  or  Sound. 

Area  and  Plan. — Manhattan  Island  is  13A  miles  long,  and 
varies  in  width  from  a  few  hundred  yards  at  each  end  to 
2^}-  miles  at  Fourteenth  Street,  the  area  being  aliout  22  sq. 
miles,  or  14,080  aci-es.  The  mainland  portion  of  the  city 
covers  some  12.000  acres,  and  the  small  islands  400  acres 
more.  Tlie  total  land  area  of  the  city  is  therefore  nearly 
26..500  acres.  Its  length,  from  tlie  northern  boundary  to  the 
southern  eini  of  Manhattan  Island,  is  16  miles,  and  its  great- 
est width,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Bronx  to  the  shore  of  the 


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NEW  YORK 


177 


Hudsuii  river.  4*  iiiiK'S.  Niiiiierous  villages  and  towns  have 
been  absorbed  by  New  York  in  its  growth,  the  names  of 
some  of  which  are  still  applied  to  the  correspondiiif;  parts 
of  the  city.  Amouj:  these,  on  Manhattan  Island,  are  Green- 
wich and  t'hclsea,  on  the  Hudson  river  in  the  lower  central 
portion  of  the  <'ity  ;  Yorkville,  on  the  east  side  at  Kifihtieth 
.SiriM't.  and  Harlem,  also  (in  the  east  siile.  further  norlh; 
.■uiil  Blooniinjjdale.  ManliattanviUe,  Carniansville,  Fort 
Washington,  or  Washingtim  Heights,  and  Inwood,  on  the 
west  side,  extending  in  a  line  along  the  Hudson  river  from 
the  central  part  to  the  nortlH'rn  end  of  the  island.  The  sur- 
f.ice  of  the  land  is  generally  rolling,  and  in  some  places 
hilly,  the  highest  point  on  .Manhattan  Island,  at  Washing- 
ton'lleights,  being  'i'-M  feet  abnvi>  tide-lcv.l. 

The  substructure  of  the  island  consisls  of  crystalline 
rocks  of  the  Archa'an  period,  flanked,  and  in  some  jjliices 
deeply  covered,  with  drift  de|)osits  of  the  (Uacial  era.  The 
outcropping  rocks  are  chiefly  gneiss,  mica-schist,  and  horn- 
blende, and  are  part  of  a  great  licit  extending  from  northern 
New  England  to  Xorlh  Carolina.  Much  of  the  city  is  built 
directly  upon  this  foundation.  In  some  quarters,  however, 
till,'  drift  is  too  deep  to  be  excavated,  and  the  buildings  rest 
either  u|ion  it  or  u])on  massive  wooden  piles  driven  into  it. 
S.  and  K.  of  the  city-hall  there  is  a  vast  bed  of  beach 
sand,  upon  which  some  of  the  largest  buildings  in  the  city 
rest,  atid  these,  together  with  those  that  rest  upon  piles,  are 
&s  stable  and  jiroljably  as  .secure  as  those  bedded  upon  solid 
rock. 

Slreet  P/(tn. — The  oldest  part  of  the  city,  at  the  southern 
enil  of  Manhattan  Island,  is  irregular  in  plan,  the  streets 
being  at  uneiiual  intervals,  not  always  parallel  or  at  right 
angles,  and  gcmerally  narrow.  From  Fourteenth  Street 
northward  to  l.^oth  Stn'et  most  of  the  thoroughfares  are  laid 
out  with  nmthematical  precision,  broad,  straight  avenues 
running  <in  parallel  lines  X.  and  S.,  and  cross  streets  at 
right  angles  to  them  running  E.  and  W.  N.  of  15.5th 
Street,  and  indeed  for  some  distance  S.  of  it  along  the  Hud- 
son river,  the  streets  are  somewhat  irregular,  as  are  also 
those  in  the  mainland  part  of  the  city,  where  they  follow  the 
lines  of  country  lanes  and  village  roads. 

Broadway  is  the  principal  tlioroughfare  of  the  business 
region,  a  wide  avenue  extending  lengthwise  through  the 
southern  and  central  jiart  of  Maidiattan  Island.  From 
Bowling  Green  to  Tenth  Street  the  cross  streets  abut  upon 
it.  or  cross  it.  chiefly  at  right  angles  and  at  irregular  inter- 
vals. At  Tenth  Street  it  deflects  to  the  westward,  and  from 
that  point  to  Fifty-ninth  Street  the  streets  cross  it  at 
slightly  oblii|ue  angles  and  at  uniform  intervals.  N.  of 
Fifty-ninth  Street  its  extension  is  known  as  the  Boulevard, 
and  pursues  a  .somewhat  winding  course. 

Fifth  Avenue  is  a  sort  of  "median  line,"  dividing  the 
cross  streets,  from  Ninth  to  140th  into  E.  and  W.,  the  hon.se- 
numbering  of  ea<-h  half  beginning  at  Fifth  Avenue  and 
running  toward  the  rivers.  Below  Forty-second  Street  the 
avi'uue  is  largely  devot<'d  to  business  establishments  of  the 
highest  cla.ss,  clubs,  hotels,  etc. ;  above  that  point  it  is  one 
of  the  most  fashionaljle  residen(-e  streets  of  the  city.  Other 
choice  residence  distri<'ts  are  found  on  Madison,  Park,  West 
Kml,  and  St.  Nichi>las  Avenues,  Riverside  Drive,  Murray 
Hill,  and  Fifty-seventh,  Seventy-second,  and  various  other 
cross  streets. 

Wall  .Street  and  adjacent  portions  of  New,  Broad,  Na.s.sau, 
and  William  Streets  are  the  seat  of  the  financial  interests  of 
the  city.  The  wholesale  dry-goods  trade  is  chiefly  centered 
on  Broadway  and  the  .streets  immediately  W.  of  it,  from 
Leonard  to  Houston,  while  the  fashiunable  retail  shopping 
trade  occupies  Broadway  from  Tenth  to  Twenty-lhiid 
Streets,  ancl  pcu-tions  of  Fifth  and  Sixth  Avenues  and  Four- 
teenth and  Twenty-third  Streets. 

Parks. — The  most  im]>ortant  of  New  York's  pleasure- 
grounds  is  t'eiilral  Park,  in  the  very  heart  ipf  the  cily.  It  is 
liounded  by  Fifth  and  Eighth  Aveiiues  and  Fifly-ninth  and 
llDlh  Streets,  and  is  nu)re  than  3J  miles  long  and  half  a  mile 
wide.  Its  area  is  840  acres,  and  it  contains  9  miles  of  car- 
riage roads,  (5  miles  of  bridle  roads,  and  30  miles  of  foot- 
palhs.  .Miiiut  half  the  area  is  devoled  to  woodland,  more 
than  500,000  trees,  shruljs,  and  vines  having  been  planted, 
besides  a  considerable  natural  growth  of  timber.  'I'he  park 
is  entered  through  a  .score  of  gates,  ami  fifty  ornamental 
bridges  and  arches  carry  the  roads  and  paths  over  other 
roads  or  over  the  lakes.  Conspicuous  among  the  features 
of  the  park  are  the  Belvedere,  a  castellateil  observatory 
on  the  highest  point  of  ground;  the  JIall,  a  broad  prome- 
nade, lined  with  six  rows  of  large  elms,  among  which  stand 
29i; 


many  statues  of  famous  men  ;  the  Terrace  and  Bethesda 
Fountain,  fine  pieces  of  stone-vs'ork  and  bronze  at  tlie  north- 
ern end  of  the  Mall  ;  the  lakes,  six  picturesijue  bodies  of 
water,  covering  43f  acres ;  the  menagerie,  an  extensive  col- 
lection of  live  animals,  birds,  etc.,  in  the  old  ai-senal  build- 
ing;  the  reservoirs  of  the  Croton  water  system.  14;!  acres  in 
extent;  the  Mi'tropolilan  Jluseum  of  .\rt:  and  the  ObelLsk, 
or  Cleopal  ra"s  Needle,  a  monument  which  was  made  probably 
about  1500  B.  ('..  and  was  given  to  the  city  of  New  York  in 
1877  by  the  Khedive  of  Kgy|)t.  Central  I'ark  was  first 
planned  in  1857;  the  landscape  design  was  nuide  by  Fred- 
erick Law  Olmsted  and  Calvert  Vaux,  and  the  architectural 
designs  by  Calvert  Vaux  and  .1.  Wray  Mould.  It  ranks  by 
common  consent  among  the  most  beautiful  pleasure-grounds 
of  the  world. 

Numerous  smaller  parks  and  squares  are  .scattered  about 
the  city,  such  as  the  Battery,  at  the  southern  end  of  Man- 
hattan Island  ;  Bowling  Green,  at  the  lower  end  of  IJroad- 
way  ;  City-hall  Park,  now  largely  occupied  by  ])ublic  build- 
ings ;  Union  Square  and  MadiSon  Square,  around  which  are 
clustered  njany  of  the  great  hotels  and  business  houses;  and 
Washington  Square,  with  its  imposing  Memorial  Arch  at 
the  foot  of  I'Mflii  Avenue.  Morningside  Park  is  a  long,  nar- 
row pleasure-ground  on  the  steej)  eastern  face  of  the  high 
ridge  W.  of  Eighth  Avenue,  between  110th  and  123d  Streets, 
and  Riverside  Park  is  a  similar  strip,  twice  as  long,  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  same  ridge,  running  down  to  the  Hud- 
son river.  In  the  mainland  pait  of  the  city  are  proje('ted 
and  partially  laid  out  four  large  ideasure-gromids  connected 
by  broad  parkways.  These  are  Van  Cortlandt  Park,  1.069 
acn's ;  Crotoiui  Park,  135  acres  ;  Bronx  Park,  653  acres  ;  and 
Pelham  Bay  Park,  1,700  acres.  The  total  park  area  of  the 
city,  exclusive  of  parkways  is  nearly  5.000  acres. 

Harbor. — The  landlocked  harbor  of  New  York  comprises 
the  lower  Ijay,  the  upper  bay.  the  East  river,  and  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  North  or  Hudson  river,  and  may  be  entered 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  either  from  the  N.  E..  by  way  of 
Long  Island  Sound,  or  from  the  E.  and  S.  by  way  of"  the 
channels  at  Sandy  Hook.  The  latter  is  the  more  frequented 
cour.se  for  ocean-going  vessels.  The  lower  bay.  which  in- 
cludes also  Raritan.  Sandy  Hook,  and  Gravesend  Bays,  af- 
fords 88  sq.  miles  of  anchorage.  It  is  entered  by  twochan- 
nels  near  Sandy  Hook,  over  a  bar  about  18  miles  S.  of  the 
city,  the  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  being  32  feet  at  high 
tide.  In  this  bay  are  two  small  islands  of  artificial  con- 
struction, named  Swinburne  and  Hofi'man  islands,  and  oc- 
cupied by  the  hospitals,  etc.,  of  the  quarantine  station. 
The  northern  point  of  Sandy  Hook  is  elaborately  fortified 
for  harbor  defense.  From  the  Lower  Bay  entrance  is  had 
to  the  upjjer  bay  through  a  picturesque  strait  called  the 
Narrows.  8  miles  from  the  city.  This  strait  is  scarcely 
a  mile  wide;  on  the  eastern  shore  is  Fort  Hamilton;  on  the 
western,  Fort  Tompkins — an  earthwork  with  batteries  at 
the  top  of  the  bluff,  overlooking  Fort  Wadsworth,  which  is 
situated  at  the  water's  edge  and  gives  tiame  to  the  whole 
garrison.  A  narrow  and  winding  channel  known  as  .Staten 
Island  Sound  and  the  Kills  also  connects  the  two  liay.s,  but 
is  used  only  liy  vessels  of  light  draught.  The  upper  bay,  or 
harbor  [iroper.  has  14  sq.  miles  of  anchorage,  and  contains 
{governor's  island,  used  as  a  national  military  station,  Ellis 
island,  where  all  immigrants  are  landed,  and  Bedloe's  isl- 
and, crowned  with  Bartholdi's  c<ilossal  statue  of  Liberty 
Enliijlili'ui)ig  tlir  Wijr/il,  a  gift  from  the  French  jieojile. 
The  North  river  is  nearly  a  mile  wide,  deep  enough  for  the 
largest  ships,  and  affords  the  city  16  miles  of  available  water- 
front, of  which  more  than  one-third  is  now  fully  occupied 
with  docks  and  piers.  The  East  river  is  less  than  half  as 
wide  !is  the  North,  but  is  as  deeji.  and  the  cily  has  several 
miles  of  wharfs  on  it.  The  northeastern  entrance  to  the 
harbor,  from  Long  Island  Sound,  leads  through  Hki.l  G.vtf. 
{(/.  V.)  into  the  East  river.  At  Throgg's  Xeck  is  Fori  Schuy- 
ler, an  inclosed  pentagonal  casematcd  masonry  work  with 
exterior  batteries.  The  harbor  is  yearly  visited  by  about 
16,000  seagoing  craft,  under  steam  or  sail.  The  port  of 
entry,  or  customs  district,  of  New  York,  comprises  New 
York,  Brooklyn,  .Jersey  City,  Hoboken,  Long  Island  City,  and 
the  minor  adjacent  cities  and  towns  on  the  North  river,  East 
river,  and  New  York  Bay. 

Cliitiatv. — The  clinuile  of  X'ew  York,  which  is  materially 
afTected  by  the  proximity  of  the  ocean,  is  on  the  whole  tem- 
perate and  salubrious,  although  at  times  subject  to  sudden 
changes  of  temperature  and  other  conditions.  Thousands 
of  visitors  from  the  West  and  .South  spend  much  of  every 
summer  in  New  York  for  health  and  pleasure.    The  average 


178 


NEW  YORK 


temperature  (Fahrenheit  scale)  and  rainfall,  by  months,  from 
1870  to  1894  have  been  as  follows  : 


January 

February... 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September . 

October 

November.. 
December . . 


Average  annual  rainfall. . 


TemperatOK. 

RiinfaU. 

30-5° 

3  98  inches. 

31-5 

3-92       " 

36-7 

4-04 

480 

3-40 

59-2 

3-32 

690 

316        •• 

T3-6 

4-25       '• 

723 

4-71        '• 

65  2 

3  65        •• 

55-2 

3-38 

43-5 

3-78       " 

33-9 

327        •' 

44  "76  inches. 

Architecture. — In  no  city  is  a  more  bewildering  variety  of 
architecture  to  be  observed  than  in  New  York.  The  vary- 
ing tastes  of  a  hundred  years  of  rapid  and  startling  changes 
are  there  to  be  seen.  Many  Streets  are  lined  with  monoto- 
nous fagades  of  brownstone  high-stoop  houses  of  the  fashion 
of  a  generation  ago.  A  few  show  still  older  rows  of  brick 
with  marble  trimmings  and  quaint  wrought  ironwork.  Man- 
sard roofs  are  not  uncommon,  nor  are  high,  steep,  tiled  roofs 
of  Dutch  and  German  pattern. 

Business  buildings  are  perhaps  most  varied  of  all.  Gran- 
ite, marble,  brownstone,  brick,  terra-cotta,  iron,  and  other 
materials  are  used.  Such  streets  as  Broadway.  Wall  Street, 
and  lower  Fifth  Avenue  present  a  constantly  changing 
panorama,  with  no  two  buildings  alike  and  scarcely  any  two 
even  resembling  each  other.  Structures  of  ten  and  twelve 
stories  are  seen  on  every  hand,  while  those  of  fifteen  and 
twenty  and  even  more  are  rajiidly  increasing  in  number. 
Among  the  more  attractive  buildings  in  tlie  central  part 
of  the  city  may  be  mentioned  Madison  S(|iuirc  Garden. 
This  structure  contains  a  tlieater,  a  concert-hall,  a  small  as- 
sembly-room, together  with  restaurants  and  dressing-rooms, 
and  an  amphitlieater  eapaljle  of  holding  17.000  spectators. 
The  exterior  of  this  building  is  of  an  ornate  Kenaissance 
style,  and  is  adorned  by  tlie  highest  tower  in  New  York, 
closely  copieil  from  the  tower  of  the  Giralda  at  Seville. 

Some  of  the  newer  hotels  are  decorative  in  design.  The 
Waldorf  and  the  Holland  House  may  be  mentioned,  also 
the  Imperial  at  Broadway  and  Thirty-second  Street.  There 
are  many  others  much  larger  than  these.  Of  the  a|iartment- 
houses,  all  built  since  1870,  perhaps  the  most  interesting  is 
the  Dakota,  overlooking  Central  Park.  Se\;eral  of  the  large 
clubs  have  showy  edifices.  The  Union  League  Club,  at 
Fifth  Avenue  and  Thirty-ninth  Street,  is  of  Louis  XY.  style 
of  architecture,  and  the  Century  Club,  in  West  Forty-third 
Street,  has  a  beautiful  fagade  in  Italian  Renaissance.  The 
Academy  of  Design,  on  Fourth  .\  venue,  offers  a  serious  study 
of  Italian  Gothic,  and  the  building  of  the  American  Fine 
Arts  Society,  in  West  Fifty-seventh  Street,  is  a  re|)roduction 
of  the  house  of  Francis  1.  in  Paris.  Of  the  churches.  Trin- 
ity, at  the  head  of  Wall  .Stj-eel,  is  pure  English  Gothic,  as  is 
also  Trinity  chapel  belonging  to  the  same  parish.  The 
Church  of  All  Souls,  on  Fourth  .Vvenue.  is  a -massive  build- 
ing of  an  Italian  Byzantine  character,  of  red  brick  and 
cream-colored  stone  in  stripes,  and  has  an  elaborate  porch. 
St.  Tliomas"s.  on  Fifth  Avenue  at  the  corner  of  Fifty-third 
Street,  is  of  English  Gothic.  Its  high  tower  is  crowned  by 
a  lantern  somewhat  in  the  character  of  that  at  Boston,  in 
Lincolnshire.  The  .Judson  Memorial  church,  fronting  on 
Washington  Scjuare,  is  an  interesting  Italian  design,  with  a 
square  campanile.  On  Fifth  Avenue  there  are  two  syna- 
gogues remarkable  for  their  architecture — the  Temple 
Emanu-El  at  Forty-fourth  Street,  and  the  Temple  Beth-El 
at  Seventy-sixth  Street.  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  (Roman 
Catholic),  at  Fifth  Avenue  and  Fiftieth  Street,  is  of  the 
Decorated  (iotliic  style  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Its  twin 
spires  are  liHO  feet  high. 

Put/lie  Buildinffs. — The  city-hall,  standing  in  a  park 
bounded  by  Broadway.  Park  Row,  and  Centre  and  Cham- 
bers .Streets,  is  a  small  building  of  beautiful  design,  dating 
from  1803-12.  It  is  built  of  white  marble,  excepting  the 
rear  wall  at  the  .\..  which  is  of  brownstone  painted  white, 
the  builders  having  supposed  the  city  would  not  extend  N. 
of  it,  and  that  therefore  the  brownstone  wall  would  seldom 
be  seen.  The  style  of  architecture  is  a  late  revived  Classic. 
Among  the  many  precious  relics  preserved  there  are  the 
chair  in  which  Washington  sat  at  his  first  inauguration  as 
President  and  the  desk  on  wliich  he  wrote  his  first  message 
to  the  Congress. 


Directly  in  front  of  the  city-hall,  occupying  the  southern 
corner  of 'the  park,  is  the  U.  S.  post-ofiice  or  Federal  Budd- 
ing, a  huge  and  ponderous  edifice  of  gray  granite  in  a  mixed 
revived  Classic  style,  with  domes  modeled  somewhat  after 
those  of  the  Louvre.  Its  ground  plan  is  an  irregular  quad- 
rangle, the  north  side  measuring  279  feet,  the  south  144,  and 
tlie  east  and  west  2Q2i  feet  each,  and  it  is  five  stories  high. 
It  was  completed  in  1875  at  a  cost  of  nearly  17,000,000. 

The  county  court-house  stands  in  the  park  at  the  rear  of 
the  city-hall.  It  is  of  white  marble,  in  Corinthian  style, 
with  a  wing  in  Romanesque,  measuring  150  by  250  feet. 
The  erection  of  it  was  begun  in  1861.  and  it  has  been  occu- 
pied since  1867,  but  never  has  been  fully  completed.  In  its 
construction  and  furnishing  the  city  was  swindled  out  of 
vast  sums  by  the  notorious  "  Tweed  ring." 

The  criminal  courts  building  is  an  imposing  edifice  of 
brick,  terra-cotta,  and  granite,  in  Italian  Renaissance  style, 
on  the  block  bounded  by  Centre,  Elm,  White,  and  Franklin 
Streets,  first  occupied  in  1894.  On  the  next  block,  to  the  S., 
connected  with  the  criminal  courts  by  a  bridge  over  Frank- 
lin Street,  is  the  city  prison,  best  known  as  the  Tombs,  a  low, 
nia.ssive  structure  of  granite,  in  pure  Egyptian  design,  the 
best  example  of  such  architecture  built  in  modern  times. 

The  U.  S.  custom-house  is  a  huge,  gloomy  building  of  dark 
granite,  on  Wall  Street,  originally  a  merchants'  exchange. 
It  is  noteworthy  for  its  portico  of  eighteen  monolithic  gran- 
ite columns,  each  38  feet  high  and  4J  feet  in  diameter.  At 
Wall.  Nassau,  and  Pine  Streets  is  the  V.  S.  sub-treasury, 
modeled  after  the  Parthenon.  The  L"^.  S.  barge  office, at  the 
Battery,  and  the  .Jefferson  Market  court-house  and  prison,  at 
Sixth  and  Greenwich  Avenue.s.  are  handsome  edifices. 

Cliurrlie.i. — Places  of  worship  in  1893  numbered  .537,  in- 
cluding 52  Baptist.  11  Congregational,  53  JewLsh,  25  Lu- 
theran, 65  Jlethodist  Episcopal,  58  Presbyterian,  80  Protestant 
Episcopal,  32  Reformed,  84  Roman  Catholic,  and  77  miscel- 
laneous. 

Education. — The  system  of  public  education  in  New  York 
comprises  (1894)  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  an  in- 
stitution of  regular  collegiate  rank  for  boys;  the  Normal 
College  for  girls,  110  grammar  schools,  120  primary  schools, 
30  evening  schools,  1  nautical  school  (on  school-ship  St. 
Mary's),  and  48  corporate  schools  (industrial,  reformatory, 
etc.)  under  direction  of  the  board  of  education  :  a  total  of 
311.  There  is  also  a  kindergarten  system.  The  attendance 
of  all  children  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  fourteen  years 
is  compulsory,  unless  they  are  otherwise  under  instruction, 
and  12  truant  agents  are  constantly  employed  in  looking  up 
delinquents.  The  daily  attendance  of  scholars  is  about 
165.000.  There  are  4,250  teachers  on  salaries  of  from  $600 
to  .$3,000  a  vear,  and  the  vearlv  cost  of  the  entire  depart- 
ment is  aboiit  14,500.000. 

Institutions  of  higher  learning  are  numerous.  Besides  the 
two  colleges  of  the  public-school  system,  there  are  Columbia 
College,  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  St.  John's 
College  at  Fordham.  the  C'ollege  of  .St.  Francis  Xavier  on 
West  Sixteenth  Street,  Rutgers  Female  College,  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminajy,  the  General  Theological  Seminary  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  the  College  of  Dentistry,  the 
College  of  Pharmacy,  the  College  of  Economics,  five  colleges 
of  mt'dicine,  and  a  host  more  for  general  or  special  instruc- 
tion. Schools  of  art.  law,  music,  architecture,  design,  me- 
chanics, business  training,  and  industrial  trades  abound. 
The  Cooper  Institute,  founded  and  endowed  by  Peter  Cooper, 
gives  free  instruction  in  many  useful  and  practical  branches 
of  learning,  and  the  Ship-building  Academy,  similarly  es- 
tablished by  W.  II.  Webb,  affords  thorough  tuition  in  ship- 
building and  general  seamanship.  In  the  trade  schools, 
founded  by  Col.  Richard  T.  Auchmuty.  at  First  Avenue  and 
Sixty-seveiith  Street,  instruction  is  given  In  carpentering, 
bricklaying,  painting,  blaeksmithing.  plumbing,  and  kindred 
prac'ticiil  vocations.  The  National  Academy  of  Design,  the 
.Society  of  American  Artists,  the  Art  Students'  League,  and 
the  schools  connected  with  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art  are  among  the  foremost  seats  of  art  study  and  teaching. 

The  Society  Library,  founded  in  1740  and  maintained  by 
the  annual  dues  of  Its  members,  is  the  oldest  in  the  city.  It 
has  nearly  100,000  volumes  for  circulation  and  reference, 
and  a  good  reading-room.  The  .\stor  Library,  on  Lafayette 
Place,  opened  in  1854,  founded  by  John  Jacob  Astor,  and 
liberally  enlarged  and  endowed  by  other  members  of  his 
famllv,  has  more  than  250,000  well-selected  volumes.  Their 
use  Is  free,  but  they  can  not  be  taken  from  the  building.  The 
Lenox  Library,  on  Fifth  Avenue,  facing  Central  Park,  was 
opened  in  1877,  and  was  the  gift  of  James  Lenox  to  the  city. 


NKW    VUKK 


179 


Its  collections  of  books,  manuscripts,  pictures,  etc.,  are  ex- 
tensive mill  iif  great  value,  liut  partake  more  of  tile  character 
of  a  iiiuseiini  thiiii  a  ]iraellcal  working  library.  This  is  also 
true  of  the  large  and  spleiuliil  store  of  literary  and  artistic 
treasures  in  the  Iniilding  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society. 
The  Mercantile  Library,  in  Clinton  Hall,  on  Astor  Place, 
founded  in  IS2(),  is  the  chief  circulating  library.  It  has 
about  i.50,(K)0  viiluines,  which  are  loaned  out  to  subscribing 
nieinliers.  wlm  |iay  a  small  annual  fee.  It  has  also  a  particu- 
larly well-stocked  reailiug-rooni  of  ]iapers,  magazines,  etc. 
The  Cooper  Institute  contains  a  large  free  library  and  read- 
ing-room. The  Free  Circulating  Library,  at  4!)  IJond  Street, 
ha-s  a  number  of  branches  throughout  the  city,  and  loans 
about  .jO(),Ol)0  volumes  yearly.  There  are  about  fifty  other 
public  libraries,  mostly  free,  including  collections  of  law, 
medical,  and  other  special  works. 

The  principal  museums  nf  N'ew  York  are  the  iMetropolitan 
Museum  (if  .\rl  in  Central  I'ark  and  the  American  Museum 
of  Xalural  History  iu  .Maiiliallan  Sijuare.  adjoining  Cen- 
tral Park.  The  former,  a  private  corporation  under  State 
and  municipal  patronage,  was  founded  in  1869.  Its  collec- 
tions are  free  to  the  public,  except  on  two  days  of  each 
week,  and  comprise  an  array,  unrivaled  in  America,  of 
paintings,  statuary,  bronzes,  glass  and  metal  ware,  puttery, 
Cypriote,  Etruscan,  Egyiitian.  and  other  antiquities,  mu- 
sical instruments,  laces,  tapestries,  etc.  The  .Museum  of 
Natural  History  was  founded  at  aliout  the  same  time,  on 
the  same  plan,  and  is  similarly  conducted.  It  contains 
magnificent  collections  of  mounted  specimens  of  mammalia, 
birds,  fishes,  reptiles,  and  insects;  the  Jesup  collections  of 
over  .lOO  specimens  of  .\iuerican  woods  and  l.oOO  of  builil- 
ing-stones;  the  Edwards  entomological  collection  of  3.50,- 
000  specimens  ;  the  Tiffany  collection  of  gems ;  ethnological 
and  archaeological  collections;  and  a  fine  library. 

Publictitiuns. — Being  the  business  capital  of  the  L^  S.,  the 
port  receiving  the  bulk  of  foreign  mails,  and  the  point  upon 
which  the  land  and  subnnirine  telegraph  systems  converge, 
New  York  is  the  chief  news  center,  and  its  newspaper  press 
therefore  has  surpassing  influence  and  importance.  Among 
its  best-known  morning  journals  are  the  Ihrahl.  Sun,  Tri- 
bune, Timix,  WtirUl,  Prrxs,  Ufrardi'r,  ■fuiirim/.  and  Adrer- 
tiiter.  Among  papers  in  foreign  languages  are  the  Cuurrier 
des  Etiitg-Vnis  (French);  Staat.s  Ze.ituiiy,  ^eui  Yorker 
Zeitung.  and  Xnv  Yorker  Yolkszet'fiinc/  (German);  II  Pro- 
greso  Itulo-Amen'eano  and  L'Ero  il'Italia  (Italian);  Ldx 
Novedade.t  (Spanish) ;  and  Illas  Lidii  and  yew  Yor.fke  Linty 
(Bohemian).  Evening  papers  are  The  Evening  Post,  Conimer- 
cinl  Advertiser,  Mail  and  Express,  Evening  Telegram,  Daily 
News,  Evening  Sun,  ami  Evening  World.  There  are  other 
daily  |>apers  devoted  to  commercial,  financial,  legal,  and 
other  special  topics. 

The  weekly  press  numbers  hundreds  of  journals,  in  many 
languages,  conspicuous  among  which  are  the  weekly  editions 
of  the  great  daily  papers.  Harper's  Weekly,  Leslie'sWeekly, 
and  the  Illustrated  American  make  a  feature  of  illustrations. 
Puck,  Judge,  Life,  Truth,  and  others  are  humorous  and  sa- 
tirical. The  Uullotik,  Churchman,  Independent,  Oliserver, 
Examiner,  Evangelist,  Anwriran  Hebrew,  Christian  Advo- 
cate, Freeman's  Jonrn<il,  uml  others  are  reiiresentative  re- 
ligious journals  of  high  literary  quality.  There  are  also 
scores  of  trade,  technical,  educational,  juvenile,  fashion, 
scientifie,  and  other  [leriodic-als,  including  some  in  Oreek, 
Arabic.  Armenian,  Hebrew,  and  Chinese.  Among  monthly 
publications  such  magazines  as  Harper's,  Srrilmer's,  lite 
Century,  The  (Josmopolilan,  and  others  have  a  worldwide 
reputation.  All  told,  nearly  800  periodicals  are  published 
in  New  York. 

In  equal  degree  New  York  is  the  center  and  chief  seat  of 
the  book-publishing  and  general  printing  triules.  The 
names  of  Harper.  Scriliner.  Appleton.  Putnam,  and  Ran- 
ilolph  have  long  been  household  words  among  readers  of 
English  the  world  over,  while  many  younger  firms  have 
risen  to  almost  ecpial  eminence  with  those  older  houses. 
The  book-iuqiorting  trade  is  al.so  jirincipally  conducted  in 
New  York,  and  most  of  the  leading  London  publishers  have 
branch  houses  or  agents  there. 

Benevolent  Institutions. — The  charities  of  New  York  are 
founded  and  conducled  on  a  scale  commensurate  with  the 
requirements  of  its  teeming  ]iopulation.  Thi'  Municipal 
Depart incnt,  of  Charities  and  Correction,  at  'I'liird  .\ venue 
and  Eleventh  Street,  maintains  extensive  hospitals,  asylums 
for  the  insane,  almshouses,  etc..  on  Blackwell's.  WariTs.  and 
Randall's  islamls.  Viesides  doing  a  va.st  relief  work  for  the 
general   poor.      The  institutions  and  societies  founded   by 


private  beneficence  are  inimbered  by  hundreds.  Each  re- 
ligious .society,  trade,  and  profession  has  one.  and  there  is 
one  for  every  class  of  surt'erers  and  unfortunale.s. 

Bellevue  Hospital,  at  the  foot  of  East  Twenty-sixth  Street, 
is  a  large  and  admirable  institution,  maintained  by  the  city 
at  a  cost  of  over  ijlOO.tHtO  a  year.  It  has  connected  with  it  a 
dispensary  for  the  relief  of  outdoor  poor,  a  medical  college 
of  high  rank,  a  training-school  for  male  nurses  founded  Ijy 
D.  U.  Mill.s.  a  similar  school  for  female  nurses,  and  various 
other  important  adjuncts.  'I'he  Chiirity  Hospital  is  on  ]{la(-k- 
well's  island.  The  Cancer,  Jluunt  Siiuii,  New  York,  I'resliyte- 
rian,  St.  Luke's.  Roosevelt,  and  Women's  hospitals  are  among 
the  best  know'n  private  institutions.  Beside  these  there  are 
perhaps  fifty  more  hospitals  and  as  many  dispensaries, 

I'laees  of  Entertainment. — The  size  and  vast  business  ac- 
tivities of  New  York  make  it  the  resort  of  myriads  of  visi- 
tors, for  whose  entertainment  a  great  number  of  hotels  have 
been  erected,  .\mong  the  best  known  of  these  are  the  Astor, 
Metropolitan.  Fifth  Avenue.  Hotrnian  House.  Waldorf,  Mur- 
ray Hill.  Park  Avenue,  Savoy.  Plaza.  Holland  House,  New 
Netlierland.s,  Central,  Wiiulsor,  Buckingham.  Brunswick, 
Brevoort.  and  (iraiid  Union. 

Proportionately  numerous  are  theaters,  opera-houses,  and 
music-halls.  The  Metropolitan  Opera-house,  at  Broadway 
and  Fortieth  Street,  ranks  among  the  largest  in  the  world. 
Leading  theaters  are  Daly's.  Abbey's.  Palmer's,  the  Star,  the 
Broadway,  the  American,  the  Empire,  the  Garden,  the  Ly- 
ceum, the  Fifth  Avenue,  Iloyt's,  etc.  The  total  number  ex- 
ceeds forty. 

Clubs  and  cluli-life  form  an  ini|iortant  feature  of  New 
York.  There  are  hundreils  of  such  organizations,  including 
a  score  or  more  of  the  first  rank.  Among  these  may  be 
named  the  Union.  Metropolitan.  Union  League.  Century, 
Jlanhattaii,  Lotos,  Colonial,  Knickerbocker,  St.  Nicholas, 
University,  Republican,  Democratic,  New  York,  Authors', 
Gentlemen's  Riding,  Grolier,  Aldine,  etc.  There  are  also 
athletic,  yachting,  press,  jockey,  and  other  clubs  devoted  to 
special  objects.  Some  of  the  great  social  clubs  named  have 
1.300  or  more  members  each,  and  houses  fairly  jialatial  in 
size  and  equipment. 

Government. — The  executive  head  of  the  city  government 
is  the  mayor,  who  is  elected  by  jjopular  vote  for  a  term  of 
two  years,  and  is  removable  from  otlice  for  cause  only  by 
the  Governor  of  the  State,  He  appoints  the  heads  of  most 
of  the  executive  departments.  During  his  absence  or  dis- 
ability the  president  of  the  board  of^  aldermen  is  acting 
mayor,  with  full  powers  after  ten  days.  The  legislative 
powers  of  the  city,  restricted  to  minor  matters,  are  exer- 
cised by  a  board  of  aldermen  of  thirty-one  memliers  meet- 
ing, usually  weekly,  in  the  city-hall.  Aldermen  are  elected 
for  a  term  of  two  years,  one  from  each  of  thirty  districts, 
and  one,  the  president,  from  the  city  at  large.  The  county 
officers  elected  are  county  clerk,  sheriff,  register,  etc. 

The  civil  courts  sitting  in  New  York  are  as  follows;  Fed- 
eral— U.  S.  circuit,  U.  .S.  circuit  of  appeals.  U.  S.  district ; 
State — sn)ireme.  court  of  arbitration  of  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce; county — common  pleas,  superior,  surrogate's;  city — 
city  court,  six  judges  ;  district — eleven  district  courts.  The 
criminal  courts  are  oyer  and  terminer,  general  .sessions, 
special  sessions,  and  six  police  courts.  The  law  officers  for 
tlie  ])iM)ple  in  criminal  actions  are  the  district  attorney 
(elected)  and  his  staff"  of  five  assistants  and  nine  dei)uties. 

The  magnitude  of  the  yearly  operations  in  some  of  the 
executive  departments  is  indicated  liy  the  following  statis- 
tics (ISSCi):  Buildiiig.s,  2.'27.5  new  structures  planned,  valued 
at  $r)4.H.5!),.SlH.  Charities  and  corrections,  expenditures, 
|2,2-.;r),()0().  Fire.  4,13'>  fires,  expend ilnres  !j!2,22:J.0tl().  76 
companies.  8.")  engines,  1,073  men.  Police.  3.654  men.  aljout 
90.000  arrests,  expendilures  .^5.300.000.  Public  works,  ex- 
penditures :i;3.000.000.  Street-cleaning. about  I.SilO.OOOloads 
of  dirt,  garbage,  ashes,  snow,  etc.,  removed,  and  (iO.ti.'iO  miles 
of  streets  cleaned.  Vital  statistics:  The  health  deparlment 
reiiorled  44.370  deaths.  .")l..'il(i  births,  and  16.144  marriages. 
The  de.-itli-rate  was  23-46  per  1.000. 

Post-office. — New  Y'ork  not  only  has  aii  enormous  mail  of 
its  own.  but  it  is  the  port  of  entry  and  departure  for  the 
bulk  of  thecountfy's  foreign  mails.  In  the  main  iio.st-oflice 
3.000  men  are  employed,  and  there  are  forty  branch  and  suli- 
stations.  During  the  year  ending  .Tunc  30.  1894.  there  were 
delivered  tlmmgli  lock-lmxes  and  by  carriers  4.").').I91.()31 
pieces  of  ordinarv  mail  matter.  The  total  number  of  pieces 
of  mail  matter  of  all  kinds  handled  was  1.336.225.767.  The 
aggregate  business  of  the  nioncv  order  department  amount- 
e<l  to  1103.355.487.83.     The  total  receipts  of  the  office  were 


180 


NEW   YORK 


$6,942,873..51,  and  the  total  expenditures  $2,791,951.05  (in- 
cluding $1,218,785.28  expended  for  free-delivery  service), 
giving  a  net  revenue  of  $4,150,923.46. 

Markets. — The  largest  public  market  is  Washington,  on 
the  block  bounded  by  Washington,  West,  Vesey,  and  Fulton 
Streets,  in  which  alinost  every  imaginable  commodity  for 
food  is  sold.  Fulton  Market,"  at  Fulton,  Beekraan,  South, 
and  Front  Streets,  is  a  large  establishment,  and  is  the  chief 
fish-market  of  the  city.  There  are  a  dozen  more,  scattered 
about  the  city,  all  under  municipal  control. 

Water  anil  Light. — The  water-supply  of  New  York  is 
drawn  chiefly  from  great  reservoirs  in  the  basin  of  the  Cro- 
ton  river,  in' the  upper  part  of  Westchester  County,  about 
40  miles  N.  of  the  city.  Two  underground  conduits  (see 
Aqueducts)  bring  the  water  to  four  huge  reservoirs  in  Cen- 
tral Park,  with  a  capacity  of  nearly  1,250,000,000  gal.  Thence 
it  is  distributed  throughout  the  city  by  means  of  .some  400 
miles  of  underground  iron  pipes.  The  carrying  capacity  of 
the  two  aqueducts  is  400,000,000  gal.  a  day.  The  first  is  8 
feet  in  diameter,  and  enters  Manhattan  Island  by  way  of 
High  Bridge  over  Harlem  river ;  it  was  completed  in  1842. 
The  second  is  12  feet  in  diameter,  and  was  completed  in 
1890  at  a  cost  of  over  $25,000,000. 

The  streets  and  buildings  of  the  city  have  a  dual  system 
of  lighting — by  gas  and  by  electricity.  There  are  about 
25,000  street  gas-lamps.  Electric  lights  are  less  numerous, 
being  confined  to  the  principal  streets  and  avenues,  and 
some  of  the  parks. 

Finances.— T!\\ii  city  debt  in  1880  was  $142,447,400;  in 
1890,  $148,124,216.  The  assessed  valuation  of  real  estate  in 
1894  was  $l,6i;i057,735  ;  of  personal  property,  $:390,274,302— 
total,  $2,003,332,037.  Appropriations  for'supjiort  of  the 
city  government,  etc.,  in  1894  were  $38,664,257,  of  which 
more  than  $35,000,000  was  raised  by  taxation. 

Immigration. — The  vast  majority  of  aliens  coming  to  the 
U.  S.  are  landed  at  New  York.  From  1855  to  1889  they 
were  received  at  Castle  Garden,  at  the  Battery,  under  State 
supervision.  Since  1889  they  have  been  under  charge  of  the 
Federal  Government,  and  are  received  on  Ellis  island,  in 
the  bay.  The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  passen- 
gers landed  from  1881  to  1892  inclusive,  and  the  number  of 
trips  made  by  the  ships : 


YEAR. 

Cabin. 

SleeraKe. 

Trips. 

1881 

51,229 
57,947 
58,596 
.59,503 
55,160 
68,742 
78,792 
86,303 
96,686 
111,8:M 
105,025 
120,991 

441,604 
455,450 
388,267 
320,807 
281,170 
300,918 
371,619 
383,595 
315,227 
371,593 
445,290 
■       358,486 

937 

1882 

1,021 
972 

1883 

1884 

943 

1885 

1886.... 

906 

1887 

1888 

899 

1889 

891 

1890 

914 

1891 

1892  

957 

Totals 

950,803 

4,374,026 

11,132 

Manufactures. — New  York  was  in  1890  the  seat  of  25,40.3 
manufactories,  in  about  300  different  branc-lies  of  industi-y ; 
the  direct  capital  investment  in  these  was  $420,118,273;  the 
number  of  employees  of  all  kinds  3.54,291,  receiving  in  wages 
1230,102,167;  the  cost  of  materials  used  .$366,432,722,  and 
the  value  of  products  $777,222,721.  Among  the  leading  in- 
dustries were  the  following : 


INDUSTRIES. 

No.  of  eitah- 
iishmtiDts. 

Capital. 

Em- 
ployeeB. 

Value  of 
products. 

Boots  and  shoes 

2,796 

6,303 

35 

58 

343 

6 

52 

389 

131 

1,166 

146 

1.295 

$4,151,127 

49.940,324 

1.274,571 

21,690,647 

15,036..597 
57,605,812 
28,653,206 
4,539,206 
8,597.015 
35,469.979 
7,771,030 
16,.392.842 

9,514 

80,944 

670 

3,042 

10,.381 

8.6:i3 
3,344 
7,6.57 
5,9.58 

22.31 1 
9,460 

22,096 

$13,088,672 

I38,33K,.W0 

17,037,1)19 

5,540,910 

Clothing 

Cofft-e  and  spice 

Electric  apparatus,  light 

19.543,794 
12.672,963 
23.0'.>6,9r,5 
12,873  387 
12,82H,541 
54,488,179 
13.5r9,4li2 
35,.560,025 

Gas 

Malt  liquors 

Millinery 

Musicalinstruments 

Printing  and  publishing . . 

romwerce,— Considerably  more  tlian  .50  per  cent,  of  the 
total  foreign  trade  of  the  U.  S.  i)asses  through  tlie  port  of 
New  York.  The  imports  at  New  York  for  the  fi.scal  vear 
ending  .Tune  30,  ],S93.  were  $5SI,H29,741  ;  and  the  exports, 
$452,.53.5,663— total,  $1,034,365,404.  The  tolal  of  the  U.  S. 
for  the  same  year  was  $1,907,851,912.     For  llie  fiscal  vear 


ending  June  30, 1894,  the  imports  were  :  Free,  $234,040,555  • 
dutiable,  $181,755,436— total,  $415,795,991.  Exports  for  the 
same  time  amounted  to  $359,192,983.  The  decrease  was  due 
to  temporary  depression  of  trade. 

Exchanges. — The  chief  exchanges  are  the  Stock  Exchange, 
with  a  fine  building  on  Broad  Street ;  the  Consolidatetl,  also 
dealing  in  stocks;  the  Produce,  whose  great  building  on 
Whitehall  Street  is  a  conspicuous  landmark  of  the  city  ;  the 
Cotton,  the  Coffee,  the  Heal  Estate,  and  the  Coal  and  Iron. 
The  Stock  Exchange,  in  1893,  was  the  scene  of  these  trans- 
actions:  Government  bonds,  $1,914,200;  State  and  railway 
bonds,  $355,181,6.50;  shares  of  stocks,  .$80,013,902.  At  the 
Priiiluce  Exihange  dealings  covered  5,61 3,250  barrels  of  flour, 
1.0.->2.(iOS.(lilO  bush,  of  wheat,  177,428,000  bush,  of  corn,  and 
80,.')20,0U0  bush,  of  oats. 

Banks. — New  York  contains  50  national  banks  with  a 
capital  of  $52,450,000,  and  46  State  banks  with  a  capital  of 
$16,472,700.  Most  of  the  former  and  some  of  the  latter 
form  a  Clearing-house  Association,  through  which  a  daily 
exchange  of  checks  and  bills  and  payment  of  balances  are 
effected.  The  Clearing-house  began  operations  on  Oct.  11, 
18.53,  and  in  the  first  forty  years  of  its  existciuM'.  to  Oct.  11, 
1893,  its  exchitnges  aggregated  $l,031,(ils.,"',!i;;,4.")4,  and  bal- 
ances $45,981,837,600— a  grand  total  of  $1,007,000,431,054. 
The  figures  for  the  year  ending  Oct.  1,  1893,  were:  Ex- 
changes, $34,421,380,869;  balances,  $1,696,207,17.5— total, 
$36,117,588,045. 

There  are  also  twentv-five  .savings-banks  with  total  de- 
posits (1893)  of  more  than  $346,000'^000. 

Insurance. — Both  fire  and  life  insurance  have  their  Amer- 
ican headquarters  in  New  York,  and  the  buildings  erected 
liy  some  of  the  companies  are  among  the  most  notable  in 
the  city.  Such  are  the  buildings  of  the  Equitable,  Man- 
hattan, JIutual  Reserve,  Home,  and  New  York  Life-insur- 
ance companies  on  Broadway,  of  the  Mutual  Life  on  Nas- 
sau Street,  and  of  the  Metropolitan  Life  on  Madison  Square. 
In  1893  there  were  invested  in  New  York  assets  of  domestic 
and  foreign  fire-insurance  companies  amounting  to  about 
$240,000,000.  Even  more  imposing  are  the  figures  reported 
by  the  thirty-one  life-insurance  companies  doing  business  in 
New  York,  their  assets  aggregating  in  1893  more  tlian  $905,- 
000,000,  of  which  more  than  half  belonged  to  New  York 
companies. 

Travel  and  Transportation. — Local  transportation  facili- 
ties include  five  lines  of  elevated  steam-railways,  and  nu- 
merous surface  street-railways,  on  which  cars  are  propelled 
by  horse-power,  cables,  and  electricity.  A  uniform  rate  of  five 
cents  fare  prevails.  The  number  of  passengers  carried  in 
1890  was  408,963,266,  of  wliom  189,974,848  were  on  the  ele- 
vated railways.  The  East  river  bridge,  connecting  New  York 
with  Brooklyn  (for  description,  see  Brooklyn),  is  traversed 
by  about  115,000  persons  daily.  In  1893  42,615,105  passen- 
gers were  carried  in  the  bridge  cars.  The  ferries  on  the 
North  and  F]ast  rivers  and  the  liay  convey  scores  of  thou- 
sands daily  from  and  to  tlie  suburbs.  Harlem  river,  which 
separates  Manhattan  Island  from  tlie  mainland,  is  ci'ossed 
by  a  number  of  bridges,  among  them  the  lofty  and  grace- 
ful Washington  bridge.  (See  Bridges.)  General  domestic 
travel  is  facilitated  by  the  centering  at  New  York  of  a  dozen 
important  trunk  railways  and  numerous  subsidiary  lines, 
several  imiiortant  steamboat  lines  on  Ijong  Island  Sound 
and  the  Ihulson  river,  and  a  vast  coasting  trade  between 
New  York  and  Eastern  and  Southern  ports.  Foreign  trans- 
portation is  i-epresented  by  nearly  all  the  transatlantic  steam- 
ship lines.  Most  of  the  railways  have  their  termini  in  Jersey 
City,  Hoboken,  Brooklyn,  and  Long  Island  City,  whence 
passengers  and  freight  are  transferred  to  New  York  by  ferry. 
Three  imjiortant  lines,  with  their  connection.s,  enter  the  city 
directly,  and  have  their  termini  in  tlie  Grand  Central  station, 
at  Fourth  Avenue  and  Forty-second  Street.  This  is  a  great 
structure  of  brick,  iron,  and  glass,  with  .separate  waiting- 
rooms,  ticket-offices,  etc.,  for  each  of  the  three  railways. 
The  principal  train-shed  is  nearly  700  feet  long  and  240  feet 
wide,  roofed  with  a  single  arched  sjian  of  iron  and  glass  110 
feet  high,  and  will  holil  at  one  time  1.50  ordinary  passenger 
cars;  there  is  an  additional  train-slied  half  as  large  adjoin- 
ing this  on  the  E.  About  1.50  trains  arrive  and  depart 
daily  by  a  four-track  railway  on  Park  Avenue,  partly  under- 
ground and  partly  elevated. 

History. — The  original  Indian  name  of  New  York  was 
Manhattan.  The  first  European  visitor  was  Giovanni  Ver- 
razani,  who  entered  New  York  Bay  in  1525,  but  made  no 
landing.  The  real  discoverer  and  explorer  of  those  regions 
was  Hendrick  Hudson,  an  English  mariner  emjiloyed  by  a 


NEW   YOKK 


181 


Duttli  trailing  company.  lie  explored  New  York  Bay  and 
the  great  rivi-r  which  hears  his  name  in  160!(.  in  his  little 
ship  the  Half  Moon.  Two  years  later  Adrian  Bloek  visited 
Maidiatlan.  made  a  laiidina;,  and  estahlished  a  trading  sta- 
tion. In  Uil4  Ilie  .States-tteneral  of  Holland  ehartereil  the 
United  Xew  Xetherland  ('onipany  to  engage  in  trade  at 
Manhattan,  and  a  fort  and  trading-house,  were  built  on  the 
sonthern  point  of  the  island  ami  called  Fort  Amsterdam. 
A  permanent  village  settlement  was  etYected  in  l(V-2:!  under 
the  name  of  New  Amsterdam.  The  first  white  mule  child 
horn  on  (he  island  was  Jean  Vignc.  in  lfil4,  and  llie  first 
while  girl,  Sarah  Uapalje.  was  born  in  1G2.5.  I'eter  .Miiuiit. 
the  tirsl  important  governor  of  the  ni'W  colony,  arrived  in 
UyiH.  and  thereafter  the  growth  of  the  place  was  rapid.  In 
\('h>2  the  place  was  incorporated  as  a  city  under  the  name  of 
New  Amslcrdam,  and  the  next  year  was  inclosed  at  the  N. 
by  a  wall  of  earth  and  timber  2.840  Icet  long,  on  the  present 
site  of  Wall  Street.  On  .Mar.  12.  I()(i4,  the  whole  colony  was 
granted  by  Charles  II.  of  Kngland  to  his  brother,  the  Duke 
of  York,  and  in  August  was  forcibly  seized  by  a  British 
fleet.  The  place  was  now  nanu'd  New  York,  in  honor  of  its 
new  owner.  In  167:!  a  Dutch  flei^t  seized  it  again  and  re- 
named it  New  Orange,  but  a  year  later  it  was  resiored  to  the 
English.  An  organized  government  and  code  of  laws  were 
established  in  1G91,  and  on  Apr.  9  of  that  year  the  first  colo- 
nial assemblv  met  in  the  city.  In  172.5  the  first  newspaper, 
The  Aeii'  York  (iciZftle,  was  fomided  ;  in  1730  a  fortnightly 
stage  service  to  Philadelphia  was  established;  in  17.53  the 
Royal  Exchange  was  o|iened  at  the  foot  of  Broad  Street ;  in 
1754  King's,  now  Columbia,  College  wa-s  chartered;  and  in 
17(i8  the  Chandler  of  Commerce  was  organized. 

The  spirit  of  resistance  to  British  rule  made  its  appear- 
ance in  New  York  at  an  early  date.  The  Stamp  Act  Con- 
gress was  organized  in  17fi5 ;  so  w-as  the  league  known  as 
the  Sons  of  Liberty.  The  Stanij)  Act  was  publicly  burned, 
cargoes  of  taxed  tea  were  thrown  overboard,  a  liberty  pole 
was  erected  on  the  common,  now  the  City-hall  Park,  and 
vigorous  public  demonstrations  were  made  against  the 
British  garrison.  One  of  the  earliest  conflicts  of  the  war 
occurred  in  .lohn  Street  between  Sons  of  Liberty  and  Brit- 
ish troops.  In  the  spring  of  1776  the  bulk  of  the  Ameri- 
can army  was  ma.ssed  in  New  York,  and  on  .Tuly  8  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence  was  publicly  proclaimed  and  read 
to  the  troops.  On  the  same  day  the  equestrian  statue  of 
George  III.,  on  Bowling  Green,  was  pulled  down  and  trans- 
formed into  bullets  for  the  use  of  the  patriot  army.  After 
the  battle  of  Long  Island  the  American  troops  were  gradu- 
ally withdrawn  from  JIanhattan  Island  northward,  several 
skirmishes  being  fought  on  Harlem  Heights.  The  city  then 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  who  held  it  under  rigid 
military  rule  until  Nov.  25,  17.SS,  when  the  last  of  their  gar- 
rison evacuateil  th(!  city,  and  the  American  troops  took  pos- 
session. A  few  weeks  later  Washington  took  farewell  of  his 
oflicers  at  Krannces's  Tavern,  at  the  corner  of  Broad  and 
Pearl  Streets. 

New  York  was  soon  chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  young 
republic.  In  .Jan.,  1785,  Congress  removed  thither  from 
Philadelphia  and  met  in  Federal  Hall,  at  the  corner  of  Wall 
and  Nassau  Streets,  now  the  site  of  the  U.  S.  sub-treasury. 
In  the  same  building  Washington  wius  inaugurated  as  Presi- 
dent on  Apr.  'iO,  178!t,  and  there  the  first  Congress  under 
the  Constitution  held  its  meetings.  New  York  remained 
the  natioiuil  capital  for  five  years. 

The  free-school  system  of  the  city  was  organized  in  1805 
on  a  small  scale;  in  the  following  year  steam  navigation 
wa-s  first  accomiilishcd  on  the  North  river  by  Robert  Ful- 
ton ;  hi  1807  the  steamer  Clermont  began  ri'gular  trips  to 
Albany,  and  in  1818  the  first  line  of  Sound  steamers  was  es- 
tablished; transatlantic  steam  navigation  began  in  1819 
with  the  Savainiah,  built,  at  New  York.  In  the  war  of  1812 
New  York  sent  out  twenty-six  privateers,  with  2,2:i9  sailors. 
The  port  was  then  blockaded  by  the  British  until  the  end  of 
the  war,  but  the  city  was  defended  against  invasion.  On 
Nov.  11,  1826.  the  first  canal-boat  arrived  from  Buffalo  by 
way  of  the  newly  finished  Krie  Canal.  In  18;i2  the  city  was 
ravaged  by  .\siatic  choliTa.  and  in  Dec,  18;i5,  a  fire  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  city  raged  for  three  days,  destroying 
600  buildings  and  more  than  SSO.OOO.OOO  worth  of  property. 
Water  was  introduced  through  the  Croton  aipieduct  in 
1842.  The  electric  telegraph  was  invented  by  Prof.  Morse 
in  the  University  of  the  Citv  of  New  York,  and  a  line  com- 
pleted to  Philadelphia  in  1845.  In  1849  occurred  the  fa- 
mous Astor  Place  riots,  due  to  ji-alousy  between  the  friends 
of  the  actors  Forrest  and  Macreatlv.     The  first  American 


World's  Fair  was  opened  in  1853  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  on 
what  is  now  Bryant  Park. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Sonthern  secession  movement,  in 
1860,  the  mayor  of  New  York,  Fernando  Wood,  proposed  to 
make  it  a  free  city,  on  the  ]ilan  of  those  of  media'val  (ier- 
many.  Such  schemes  were  (juickly  dismissed  when  the  war 
began  in  Apr.,  1861,  and  New  York  thenceforth  supjiorted 
the  national  (iovernment  with  great  zeal.  The  local  militia 
w<'re  hurried  to  the  front,  the  U.  S.  Sanitary  Commission,  the 
U.  S.  Christian  Connuission.  the  LTnion  Defense  Committee, 
and  other  ])atriotic  bodies  were  organized,  and  116,382  sol- 
diers Were  sent  from  the  city  to  the  Union  army.  In  the 
summer  of  186:!  the  disafJ'ected  and  criminal  cla.sses  of  the 
city,  especially  those  of  foreign  origin,  formed  mobs  to  op- 
pose the  enforcement  of  the  Draft  Act.  For  several  days 
\n  July  large  bands  of  rioters  roamed  abont  the  city,  burn- 
ing buildings,  murdering  citizens,  and  stealing  w'iiatever 
they  could  lay  their  hands  upon.  The  office  of  tlie  TrihuriR 
newspajier  was  set  on  tire,  the  Colored  Orjihan  Asylum  was 
burned,  and  Negroes  were  murdered  by  S'/ores  in  various 
parts  of  the  city,  iind  it  was  luit  until  the  Seventh  Regiment 
hurried  back  from  Washington  that  order  was  fully  restored. 
Jlore  than  1.000  men  were  killed  and  wounded,  and  about 
$2,000,000  worth  of  property  destroyed. 

In  the  speculative  days  of  the  war,  and  the  years  imme- 
diately following  it,  political  corruption  became  rampant  in 
the  municipal  government.  It  reached  its  climax  in  1870 
and  1871,  when  the  notorious  Tweed  ring  was  exposed  and 
overthrown,  after  having  robbed  the  city  of  more  than  $20,- 
000,000.  In  1871  serious  riots  took  place  between  the 
Orangemen  and  Ribbonmen,  rival  factions  of  the  Irish  popu- 
lation. In  1869  occurred  the  famous  "  Black  Friday."  aris- 
ing from  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  "  corner  "  gold  :'  and  in 
1873  there  was  another  disastrous  (lanic  on  Wall  Street. 
May  24,  1883,  witnessed  the  openitig  of  the  Brooklyn  bridge. 
The  funeral  of  Gen.  Grant  occurred  on  Aug.  8,  1885,  with 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  impressive  funeral  processions 
ever  seen  in  the  U.  S.  Work  was  begun  on  Grant's  tomb 
and  monument  in  the  presence  of  enormous  crowds  on  Apr. 
27,  1891,  and  exactly  a  year  later  the  cornerstone  of  the  edi- 
fice was  laid.  The  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  dis- 
covery of  America  was  celebrated  in  New  York  in  Oct., 
1892,  on  a  magnificent  scale,  the  city  being  profusely  deco- 
rated and  thronged  by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  visitors. 
On  one  day,  Oct.  12.  the  elevated  railways  carried  1.07.5.537 
and  the  Brooklyn  bridge  cars  223,625  passengers.  On  Apr. 
27  and  28,  1893,  occurred  further  demonstrations  in  honor 
of  the  memory  of  Columbus,  including  a  naval  review  of 
U.  S..  British,  French,  German,  Spanish,  Russian,  Italian, 
Dutch,  Brazilian,  and  Argentine  ships  of  war,  and  a  land 
parade  of  soldiers  and  sailors  of  all  those  nationalities. 

The  commiuiity  of  interests  of  New  York,  Brooklyn,  and 
other  adjacent  cities  led  in  1890  to  the  promulgation  of  a 
plan  for  uniting  them  into  a  single  municipality — a  so-called 
"Greater  New  York."  A  State  commission  to  consitler  the 
expediency  of  such  consolidation,  and  to  formulate  plans  for 
effecting  it,  was  formed,  and  in  Nov.,  1894,  the  question  was 
submitted  to  popular  vote  .ind  carried,  excejrt  in  Mount  Ver- 
non, Westchester,  and  Flushing.  An  act  of  consolidation 
was  signed  by  the  Governor  Jlay  11, 1896,  to  take  effect  Jan. 
1,  1898,  and  the  commission  ajipointed  to  draft  a  charter  for 
the  new  city  presented  its  report  to  the  Legislature  Feb.  22, 
1897. 

Population.— (rm)  33.131;  (18001  60.489;  (1880)  1.206,- 
299;  (1890)  1.515,:i01.  Prom  1790  to  tlu;  present  day  New 
York  has  continuously  ranked  as  the  most  po|)uloHs  city 
in  the  U.  S.  In  1890,  of  tlie  inhabitants  of  Xew  York, 
875,358  were  native  born,  and  639,943  foreign  born;  23.601 
were  colored  (of  African  descent) ;  747.579  were  male,  and 
767,722  feuuile;  of  male  inhabitants  of  voting  age,  177,729 
were  native  and  269.069  foreign  born;  there  were  312,766 
families,  housed  in  81.828  dwellings;  of  the  foreign-born 
inhabitants.  190,418  came  from  Ireland.  210.723  from  Ger- 
manv,  35.907  from  Kngl  iid,  27,193  from  Austria,  12,223 
from"  Hungary,  48,790  from  Russia,  39.951  from  Italy,  10,.533 
from  France, '8.099  from  Bohemia,  6,759  from  Poland,  and 
2,048  from  China. 

BrnLiociRAi'HV. — J.  W.  Francis.  Old  New  York  (1858);  J. 
W.  Gerard,  Old  Slreetn  of  Ne.iv  York;  and  The  Old  Sladt- 
hui/s  of  New  Amsterdam  (187-75);  Ifi.'<tories  of  New  York 
citV.  bv  W.  L.  Stone.  Jr.  (1872),  bv  Martha  J.  Lamb  (3  vols., 
1881).  bv  Benson  J.  Lossing  (2  vols.,  1885),  and  by  Theodore 
lioosevclt  (1891);  Memorial  Jli.story  of  the  Citr/  of  Neto 
York,  edited  by  James  Grant  Wilson  (1893) ;  John  Flavel 


182 


NEW  YORK  SYSTEM 


NEW  ZEALAND 


Mines,  A  Tour  Arnund  New  Yorl;  (1893);  Thomas  A.  Jan- 
vier, In  Old  New  Yurk  (1894) :  Appletons'  Dictionary  of  New 
For^  (annual) ;  Kint/'s  Hnndln/uk  uf  New  York  City  (1893); 
and  J.  C.  Bien,  Atlufi  of  the  Metropolitan  District  (1891). 
W.  P.  Johnson.     Revised  by  Whitelaw  Reid. 

New  York  System  :  in  geolofry,  a  division  of  the  Paleo- 
zoic rocks  in  North  America,  including  representatives  of 
the  Cambrian,  .Silurian,  and  Devonian  periods.  In  the  sys- 
tematic work  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  New  York,  the 
most  important  single  contribution  ever  made  to  American 
stratigraphy,  it  was  found  impossible  to  classify  the  forma- 
tions in  accordance  with  the  categories  which  had  been  es- 
tablished by  earlier  work  in  Europe ;  and  the  geologists  not 
only  gave  local  names  to  the  individual  formations  of  the 
Stale,  but  grouped  them  under  classific  terms  which  were 
in  part  novel.  Tlie  New  York  System,  which  was  an- 
nounced in  various  reports  in  1842  and  1843,  comprises  all 
the  formations  of  the  State  from  the  Potsdam  sandstones 
Vjelow  to  the  Chemung  group  above,  both  inclusive.  It  con- 
tains twenty-eight  formations,  grouped  in  four  divisions,  in 
which  the  Champlain  division,  as  defined  by  Hall,  extends 
from  the  Potsdam  to  the  Oneida,  the  Ontario  from  the  Me- 
dina to  the  Niagara,  the  Helderberg  from  the  <.)nondaga  to 
the  Corniferous,  and  the  Erie  from  the  Marccllus  to  the 
Chemung.  The  system  thus  set  forth  constituted  for  many 
years  the  standard  of  reference  for  American  rocks  of  cor- 
responding age,  and  was  of  great  utility  as  affording  an  in- 
dependent basis  for  the  taxonomy  of  American  formations. 
It  has  largely  fallen  into  disuse,  first  because  the  progress 
of  stratigrapliic  study  showed  that  no  natural  break  deter- 
mined its  upper  limit,  the  Appalachian  rock  series  being 
continuous  to  the  top  of  the  coal-measures  ;  second,  because 
with  the  progress  of  paleontologic  study  it  became  ]iossible 
to  classify  the  formations  under  the  categories  afforded  by 
the  periods  of  European  chronology,  and  thus  give  them  a 
more  definite  place  in  the  general  geologic  history  of  the 
globe.  C-onsult  Creology  of  New  York,  parts  i.  to  iv.,  1842- 
43,  and  Bulletin  No.  SO,  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
See  also  Geolooy  and  Paleontology.         G.  K.  Gilbert. 

New  York,  University  of  the  City  of:  an  institution 
of  learning  chartered  Apr.  18,  1831,  and  opened  in  1832. 
Until  1883  the  corporation  was  a  council  of  thirty-two 
members  elected  by  the  subscribers  to  the  endowment,  to- 
gether with  five  representatives  of  the  city  government. 
In  1883  the  charter  was  changed  so  as  to  make  the  council 
self-perpetuating,  one-fourth  the  members  going  out  each 
year  unless  re-elected.  The  political  element  was  dropped, 
as  also  a  clause  forbidding  to  any  religious  denomination  a 
majority  of  the  council.  In  1832-35  a  building  was  erected 
on  Washington  Srpiare,  E.,  and  was  replaced  1894-95  by 
a  larger  structure  intended  partly  as  a  source  of  income 
and  partly  for  the  accommodation  of  the  School  of  Law, 
School  of  Pedagogy,  and  the  graduate  department.  In  1893 
a  tract  of  20  acres  at  200th  Street,  on  the  Harlem  river,  was 
purchased,  on  which  new  buildings  for  the  undergraduate 
department  have  been  erected.  The  faculty  of  arts  and  sci- 
ence dates  from  1832;  until  1886  its  instruction  was  to  un- 
dergraduates only.  The  college  requires  a  four  years' 
course  for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts  or  of  science.  A 
technical  school  is  also  supported,  which  gives  the  degree 
of  C.  E.  to  its  students  one  year  after  they  have  become 
bachelors  of  science.  In  1886  the  Graduate  Seminary  was 
founded,  which  receives  candidates  for  the  degrees  of  mas- 
ter of  arts  or  science  and  doctor  of  philosophy.  In  1890  the 
School  of  Pedagogy  (begun  provisionally  in  1887)  was  per- 
manently established,  giving  degrees  of"  Pd.  D.  and  Pd.  JI. 
It  is  the  first  University  School  of  Pedagogy  in  America. 
There  ai-e  three  jirofessors  besides  numerous  lecturers.  The 
faculty  of  arts  and  science  has  20  professors  and  over  400 
students.  It  has  included  m,anv  names  eminent  in  literarv 
and  scientific  effort,  as  Henry"  P.  Tappan.  S.  E.  B.  Morse, 
Davies,  Loomis.  Tayler  Lewis'  and  the  Drapers.  The  fac- 
ulty of  medicine,  founded  1841,  numbered  among  its  earlier 
members  Drs.  Valentine  Mott,  Bedford,  Paine,  Post,  and 
Draper.  Its  buildings,  after  several  removals,  are  upon 
Twenty-sixth  Street,  opposite  Bellevue  Hospital.  This  fac- 
ulty has  over  20  [irofcssors  and  more  than  .30  lecturers  and 
assistants;  it  enrolls  about  550  students.  Three  full  winter 
courses  of  eight  months  each  are  required  for  the  degree  of 
M.  D.  The  faculty  of  law,  founded  1858,  comprises  4  pro- 
fessors and  7  lecturers.  The  course  for  LL.  B.  is  completed 
in  two  years.  In  1891  graduate  courses  were  opened  leading 
to  the  degree  of  LL.M.    There  are  about  300  students.    The 


chancellors  have  been  Drs.  Matthews,  Prelinghuysen,  Ferris, 
Crosby,  Hall,  and  MacCracken.  The  value  of  the  property 
of  the  university  approaches  |2,000,000  in  value. 

Henry  M.  MacCracken. 

NewZeaLind  :  a  British  colony,  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean, 
S.  E.  of  Australia.  The  northwest  point.  Cape  Maria  van 
Diemen,  is  1,175  miles  from  Sugar-loaf  Point,  on  the  coast 
of  New  South  Wales,  and  West  Cape  is  850  miles  from  Tas- 
mania. The  colony  consists  of  three  islands,  lying  N.  E. 
and  S.  W.,  and  many  islets,  between  the  parallels  33°  and 
53'  S.  and  the  meridians  166°  30'  and  173°  W.  Of  the 
three  principal  islands,  or  New  Zealand  proper.  North  isl- 
and, or  New  Ulster,  has  a  length  of  about  515  miles  and  a 
breadth  of  about  250  nules,  with  an  area  estimated  at  44,- 
467  .sq.  miles — about  that  of  Pennsylvania.  The  South  isl- 
and, or  New  Munster,  officially  called  Middle  island,  has  a 
length  of  about  525  miles  and  a  breadth  of  180  miles.  Its 
area  is  estimated  at  58,525  miles.  The  southernmost  island 
is  Stewart  island,  or  New  Leinster.  It  is  triangular,  about 
25  miles  by  30,  and  has  an  area  of  665  sq.  miles.  Attached 
to  the  colony  are  the  Chatham,  Auckland.  Kermadee,  Camp- 
bell, Antiiiodcs,  and  Bomity  islands.  The  last  three  groups 
are  uninhaliited.  The  Chatham  islands  lie  300  miles  E.  of 
New  Zealand,  and  have  an  area  of  375  sq.  miles.  The 
Auckland  islands  lie  180  miles  S.  of  Stewart  island,  and  have 
an  area  of  312  sq.  miles.  The  Kermadee  islands  lie  660 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  New  Zealand,  and  have  an  area  of  15  sq. 
miles.  The  total  area  of  the  colony  is  estimated  at  104,471 
sq.  miles ;  it  is  a  little  larger  than  Colorado  and  a  little 
smaller  than  Italy.    The  capital  is  Wellington  {q.  v.). 

Physical  Configuration. — New  Zealand  lies  on  a  great 
submarine  plateau  which  in  the  N.  E.  Joins  that  of  Poly- 
nesia. N.  W.  that  of  New  Guinea  and  Queensland,  and  to 
the  S.  that  of  the  Antarctic  seas.  Between  the  islands  and 
Tasmania  lie  the  great  depths  called  the  Thomson  Abyss. 
The  coasts  of  the  colony  are  more  than  4,000  miles"  in 
length.  There  are  many  natural  ports,  especially  on  the 
northern  ends  of  North  and  Middle  islands,  and  on  the  east 
coast  of  Stewart  island.  The  harbor  of  Auckland  is  espe- 
cially commodious,  and  approaching  within  a  mile  of  its  wa- 
ters, and  only  2  or  3  miles  of  the  city,  is  the  greater  harbor  of 
Manukau,  entering  from  the  opposite  coast.  On  the  south- 
west coast  of  Middle  island  is  a  series  of  narrow  fiords  which 
are  too  deep  to  afford  anchorage.  A  mountain  range  begins  E. 
of  the  center  of  North  island  and  extends  S.W.  to  the  south- 
ern angle  of  Middle  island.  On  North  island  it  is  relative- 
ly low,  not  exceeding  6,000  feet.  On  Middle  island  it  hugs 
the  west  coast  from  the  middle  southward,  and  culminates 
in  Mt.  Cook.  13,349  feet  liigh  (first  ascended  in  1882).  This 
range  is  called  the  Southern  Alps.  Many  of  its  mountains 
reach  the  altitude  of  perpetual  snow,  and  have  glaciers  ex- 
tending down  their  sides  to  about  1,000  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  best  known  is  the  Tasman  glacier  on  the  south- 
western slopes  of  Mt.  Cook.  The  fiords  of  the  extreme  S.  W. 
are  surrounded  by  snow-capped  moiuitains.  and  are  very 
picturesque.  Near  the  center  of  North  island  and  to  the 
S.  E.  of  it  are  several  volcanic  cones  of  considerable  lieight 
— Ruapela  (9,100  feet),  Egmont  (8,300  feet),  both  now  ex- 
tinct, and  Tongariro  (6,.500)  occasionally  active.  In  the 
northern  half  of  North  island  mountains  are  less  frequent  and 
lower.  The  plains  lie  mostly  in  the  southwestern  quarter 
of  North  island,  and  Mt.  Egmont  is  surrounded  by  exten- 
sive and  fertile  plains.  Four-fifths  of  Middle  island  is 
mountainous,  but  the  mountains  are  to  a  great  extent  open, 
grassy,  and  adapted  to  pastoral  pursuits,  while  the  backbone 
of  the  .Siiuthcrn  Alps  is  crossed  by  many  low  passes.  The 
bolder  western  vcrsant  is  rioh  in  minerals.  The  plains 
adapted  to  agriculture  lie  in  the  western  part  of  this  island. 
The  rivers  are  usually  rapid,  short,  closed  by  bars  at  their 
mouths,  and  not  adairted  to  navigation.  There  are  two  lake 
regions  in  the  islands;  the  first  is  on  the  eastern  slopes  of 
Middle  island.  These  lakes  are  in  the  mountains,  are  long, 
slender,  and  picturesque,  and  two  of  them  (Te  Anau  and 
Wakatipu)  are  of  considerable  size.  The  other  is  in  North 
island,  and  its  largest  lake  is  Taupo,  the  largest  in  the  isl- 
ands, with  an  iirea  of  2.50  sq.  miles.  It  lies  in  the  center  of 
the  island,  and  is  drained  by  the  Waikato  river,  one  of  the 
most  important  in  the  colony.  From  Lake  Taupo  in  a 
northeasterly  direction  to  the  Bay  of  Plenty  lies  the  area  to 
which  the  name  of  Lake  District  is  given,  remarkable  for 
its  geysers,  hot  and  suljiluircius  springs,  and  natural  terraces. 
The  terraces  are  marble-white  or  tinted,  smooth,  apjiarently 
artificial,  but  formed  by  deposits  from  the  water.     With 


NEW  ZEALAND 


183 


the  warm  blue  water  they  form  natural  baths  of  great 
beauty,  the  curative  prnperties  of  which  are  well  estab- 
lished. At  Whakarewarewa,  ni'ar  Ijuke  Rolorua,  in  tlie 
couutv  of  the  same  name,  and  about  "Jo  miles  from  tlie  head 
of  the  Hay  of  Plenty,  there  is  a  group  of  eight  geysers,  of 
which  one  throws  a  column  to  the  height  of  ;iO  or  lio  feet. 
Tlu'  geysers  are  varied  with  lioiling  springs,  steam  jets,  and 
mud  volcanoes.  The  geyser  piienomena  appear  to  Ije  in  de- 
cadence. Since  their  discovery  nuiny  of  the  lincst  geysers 
have  ceased  action,  and  new  (in<>s  arc  more  seldom  formed. 

Climate. — The  islands  of  New  /ealand  stretch  through 
fourteen  degrees  of  latitude,  and  possess  a  great  variety  of 
<-limate.  In  general  the  climate  is  mild,  agreeable,  and 
healthful,  especially  that  of  North  island,  but  they  are  sub- 
ject to  occasional  sudilen  changes  of  temperature  and  weath- 
er. The  mean  annual  temperatures  are  about  those  of  Vir- 
ginia and  Delaware  near  the  coa.st,  but  the  summers  are  as 
cool  as  those  of  New  Hrunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.  The 
mean  dilfiTeuce  betweim  the  temperature  of  the  hottest  and 
that  of  the  coldest  months  is  only  14  ,  or  about  that  of 
Cuba.  The  North  island  is  decidedly  warmer  than  Middle 
island,  the  former  being  bathed  by  a  warm  ocean  current 
from  the  N.,  while  the  south  and  west  shores  of  the  latter 
receive  a  cool  current  from  the  S.  W.,  and  each  island  shel- 
ters the  other  from  its  own  current.  Snow  very  seldom  de- 
scends to  sea-level  on  North  ishmd.and  only  occasionally  on 
Middle  island.  The  perpetual  snow  line  is  about  "..WO  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  is  reached  by  Ruapela  on  North  island 
jind  by  many  mountains  on  Middle  islaiul.  Ice  occasionally 
forms  in  winter  in  all  parts  of  New  Zealand.  The  annual 
rainfall  averages  40  to  .^0  inches  on  Middle  island  and  30 
to  40  inches  on  North  island,  and  is  heaviest  on  the  west 
cosist.  At  Ilokitika,  on  the  west  coa^t  of  Jliddle  island,  in 
lat.  42'  41'  S.,  the  average  annual  rainfall  is  103  inches. 
The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly,  and  gales  are  frequent. 

Geology  and  Mining. — Volcanic  action  lias  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  geologic  history  of  New  Zealand,  but 
has  long  ceased  in  Middle  island  and  is  visibly  diminishing 
in  North  island.  The  .surface  covered  still  by  volcanic 
rocks  is  considerable,  and  these  with  the  non-fossiliferous 
■crystalline  and  schistose  rocks  cover  about  half  of  the  sur- 
face. The  series  of  fossiliferous  rocks  is  (piite  complete. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  occurs  a  calcare- 
ous sandstone  called  '"  Damaru"  stone,  which  is  ornamental 
and  very  valuable  as  a  building-stone,  as  it  is  easily  worked, 
but  hardens  in  weathering.  Saurian  renuuns  of  great  size 
have  been  obtained  from  the  Pernnan  beds  of  5lt.  Potts. 
Gold  was  discovered  in  the  islands  in  18.57,  but  it  was  not 
until  1861  that  it  attracted  general  attention,  and  caused  a 
large  influx  of  miners.  Placer-mining  is  to  be  fouiul  chiefly 
in  Middle  island,  in  the  Otago,  Westland,  and  Nelson  dis- 
tric^ts.  The  easily  worked  placer-fields  are  jn'obably  now 
exhausted,  but  there  is  still  much  opportunity  for  hydraulic 
mining  on  a  large  scale.  The  principal  quartz  mines  are 
on  the  northern  end  of  North  island,  near  Auckland,  but 
several  auriferous  reefs  are  worked  in  the  gold-fields  of 
Middle  island.  In  18!)3,  of  the  238,007  oz.  raised  237.393 
were  exported.  The  value  of  the  total  export  of  gold  from 
the  colony  to  the  end  of  1802  was  £48,387,801.  New  Zea- 
land stands  second  of  the  seven  Australasian  colonies  in  the 
total  amount  of  gold  produced,  Victoria  standing  first. 
Queensland  has,  however,  passed  ahead  of  New  Zealand  in 
the  annual  production.  In  1800  the  average  production  of 
gold  per  man  employed  in  mining  it  was,  for  this  colony, 
nearly  ,t3!)3  in  value,  far  surpassing  that  for  the  other  colo- 
nies. Most  of  the  mining  is  done  on  (iovernrnent  lanil.  In 
the  i>roduction  of  coal  this  colony  stands  second  among  the 
Australasian  colonies.  Most  of  the  coal-beds  are  on  the  west 
coast  of  theMiildle  island,  and  the  chief  miiu's  are  at  Otago. 
(Ireymouth,  and  W'estport.  The  only  imjrortant  coal-meas- 
ures of  the  North  island  are  those  of  \\  aikato.  The  total 
output  of  coal  in  New  Zealand  to  the  end  of  1802  w.hs  7,638.- 
724  tons,  valued  at  £4.10.5,287,  and  the  annual  output  is  in- 
creasing. Lignite  exists  in  large  (pnintities.  hut  is  used  only 
locally.  Oil  shales  have  been  found,  but  the  oil  has  not 
proveil  suitable  for  illuminating  purposes,  though  good  for 
lubrication.  The  mineral  product  of  the  colony  next  in  im- 
portance is  kauri  gum.  and  this  is  peculiar  to  New  Zealand. 
It  is  a  resinous  product  of  the  kauri-tree,  luit  is  founil  in  the 
soil  where  forests  of  this  tree  once  existed,  or  at  the  base  of 
living  trees.  It  is  nuich  used  as  a  base  for  line  varnishes 
and  for  other  purposes.  In  1802  the  production  of  kauri 
gum  was  8,705  tons,  valued  at  £517,678.  The  total  produc- 
tion of  kauri  to  the  end  of  1802  was,  in  value,  £6,340,421. 


Flora. — Ne%v  Zealand  is  remarkably  rich  in  forests ;  one- 
third  of  its  surface  was  covered  by  them  in  18.30,  but  this 
has  been  reduced  to  one-fifth.  ,Some  of  the  larger  forests 
disappeared  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent,  a  year,  but  before  the 
damage  was  complete  the  matter  was  taken  up  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  principles  of  forest  conservation  were  put 
in  operation.  The  New  Zealand  forests  are  chai-acterized 
not  oidy  by  their  extent,  but  by  the  "relatively  large  ratio 
of  forest  species  to  the  entire  flora.  The  most  valualilc  tree 
is  the  kauri,  which  now  grows  oidy  on  the  North  island  and 
chiefly  in  the  province  of  Auckland.  It  reaches  120  to  160 
feet  in  height,  5  to  12  feet  in  diameter  at  the  butt,  and  is  un- 
rivaled for  spars,  for  which  purpose  nuudi  is  exi)orted. 
There  are  a  score  more  of  useful  species  of  trees.  Three- 
fourths  of  the  species  of  the  flora  are  endemic,  and  the 
number  of  species  common  to  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
is  small.  The  North  island  has  a  flora  in  numy  respects 
distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  group,  having  peculiarities 
which  it  shares  with  the  isolated  ishnids  lying  lieiween  it 
and  the  groups  of  Melanesia  and  Polynesia.  '  Among  the 
valualile  plants  of  the  flora  is  the  New  Zealand  llax  or  hemp, 
from  which  ti  valuable  fiber  is  obtained.  It  is  a  liliaceous 
plant  (Pliurminm  ieniix),  and  the  leaves,  from  which  the 
liber  is  obtained,  are  from  3  to  0  feet  long  and  2  to  3  inches 
bvoail.  The  wild  ])lant  is  chiefly  relied  on  for  the  supply. 
The  filler,  though  nearly  as  strong  as  Manilla  lienqi.  is  not 
suitable  for  shi|i's  cordage,  as  it  does  not  well  stand  ex- 
posure to  alternate  wetting  and  drying. 

The  fauna  of  New  Zealand  has  several  singular  features. 
There  are  no  indigenous  land  mammals  except  two  species 
of  small  bats.  There  are  no  snakes ;  the  few  lizards  are 
harndess;  one  .species  of  frog  only,  and  relatively  few  spe- 
cies of  insects  are  to  be  found.  Among  the  birds  the  most 
remarkable  native  sjiecies  are  the  wingless  and  hairy  sjie- 
cies  of  apteryx  or  kiwi,  of  which  there  are  four  kinds,  and 
the  gigantic  wingless  moa.  The  last  has  been  long  extinct, 
but  native  tradition  represents  it  as  formerly  hunted  as  food. 
Colonization  has  introduced  many  species,  as  the  domesti- 
cated animids  and  birds,  game  birds,  small  birds,  and  rab- 
bits.    The  last  have  become  a  serious  jiest  in  many  districts. 

Agrienltnre. — New  Zealand  is  the  best-adapted  of  the 
seven  Australasian  colonies  to  agriculture,  including  the 
pastoral  industries,  the  climate  and  soil  being  both  fa- 
vorable for  these  pursuits  throughout  the  islands.  The 
average  yield  of  crops  per  acre  is  generally  higher  in  this 
than  in  the  other  colimies,  but  the  average  value  per  acre  is 
lower.  It  is  estimated  that  two-thirds  of  the  land  is  suita- 
ble for  cultivatiim  or  grazing.  Of  this  about  one-fifth  is 
under  actual  cultivation.  About  one-half  of  the  land  in 
1803  was  still  in  the  possession  of  the  (iovernmenl.  The 
rural  public  lands  are  either  sold  on  favorable  terms  or 
leased.  In  1801  there  were  43,777  holdings,  comprising 
nearly  20,000,000  acres,  of  which  about  one-third  was  lea.sed, 
and  there  were  68,607  persons  engaged  in  agricultural  anil 
pastoral  pursuits.  The  wheat  produced  is  generally  more 
than  sufficient  for  home  needs,  and  the  average  product  is 
from  20  to  25  bush,  per  acre.  Oats  are  extensively  grown 
and  yield  30  bush,  jier  acre,  ami  barley  and  hay  are  im- 
portant crops.  Maize  is  but  little  grown,  likewise  tobacco 
and  the  vine.  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand  are  the  only 
ones  of  these  colonies  producing  |iotatoes  for  export. 

The  number  of  live  stock  in  New  Zealand  in  Aiir,.  1801, 
was:  Horses. 21 1.040:  horned  cattle,  831,831 :  sheep,  18,227,- 
126;  swine.  308.812;  poultry.  l,7!»O,070.  In  1800  it  shipped 
806.014  cwt.  of  fresh  and  frozen  meats,  seven  or  eight  times 
as  muc'h  as  all  the  other  colonies  together.  The  capital  em- 
ployed in  the  industry  of  preparing  fresh  meats  for  ship- 
ment was  for  that  year  £1,464.6.59 — more  than  in  any  other 
manufacturing  industry.  The  colony  also  takes  the  lead  in 
dairy  products,  and  in  amount  exported  far  surpasses  all 
the  other  colonies.  In  the  number  of  swine  it  is  similarly 
pre-eminent,  and  exports  a  considerable  quantity  of  pork  to 
the  other  colonies. 

Population. — The  aborigines  are  of  a  Polynesian  race 
called  JIaori,  are  fine  looking,  though  short  and  rather  .squat. 
In  1878  the  nundier  returned  was  43..505  and  in  1801  43.642, 
of  whom  2,110  were  half-castes.  There  are  about  20  [ler 
cent,  more  males  than  females  among  them.     See  M.\ORls. 

Aside  from  the  Maoris,  the  total  population  in  1801  was 
628.658.  of  whom  07  jier  cent,  were  British  subjects  and 
more  than  one-half  were  born  in  New  Zealand.  The  alien 
populaticm  numbered  14..504,  of  whom  4,444  were  Chinese. 
In  1806  the  total  population  was  743.214.  of  whom  39,834 
were  Maoris.     In  1892  there  were  4,002  marriages,  17,876 


184 


NEW  ZEALAND 


NQORNU 


births  (of  which  593  were  illegitimate),  and  6,459  deaths, 
giving  a  surplus  of  11.417  births  over  deaths.  The  death- 
rate  was  10-00  per  1,000.  In  the  same  year  there  arrived 
18,123  imniigrants  and  13.164  emigrants  departed,  but  in  the 
five  years  1888-92  inclusive  there  had  been  nearly  9,000  more 
emigrants  than  immigrants.  There  is  no  state  aid  to  religion, 
e.xcept  in  a  few  cases  of  endowments  obtained  at  the  time  of 
settlement.  Over  40  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  adher- 
ents of  the  Church  of  England,  23  per  cent.  Presbyterian,  13 
per  cent.  Roman  Catholic,  and  10  per  cent.  Methodist. 

The  chief  towns  (with  population  Apr..  1896)  are:  Welling- 
ton (the  capital),  41.758  (with  suburlis) :  Aucliland  (with  sub- 
urbs), 57,616 :  ChrisI church  (with  suburlj.'i),  51,330 ;  Duneiiin 
(with  suburbs),  47,280 ;  Invercargill,  9,996 ;  Napier,  9,231 ; 
Nelson,  6,659 ;  and  Oamaru,  5,225. 

Commerce. — On  Mar.  31,  1897,  there  were  2,181  miles  of 
railway  open  to  trafhc,  of  wliich  167  miles  were  of  private 
ownersliip,  the  remainder  public.  The  telegraph  system  is 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Government.  On  Dec.  31,  1896, 
the  colony  had  6.245  miles  of  line,  comprising  15,764  miles 
of  wire.  The  telephone  is  also  in  the  hands  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  there  are  3,160  miles  of  wire  laid,  serving  3,811 
subscribers.  In  1893  the  registered  vessels  of  the  colony 
numbered  493,  with  a  combined  tonnage  of  74.581 ;  314 
were  sailing  vessels,  179  steamers.  In  18'io  611  vessels  en- 
tered and  597  cleared  from  the  ports  of  the  colony.  Aliout 
two-thirds  of  these  vessels  were  colonial,  less  than  one-third 
British.  Auckland  is  the  most  important  port,  after  which 
come  Wellington,  Lyttelton,  Dnnedin,  and  Bluff  Harbor. 
Nearly  all  imports  are  taxed,  and  on  luxuries,  such  as 
spirits,  wine,  and  tobacco,  the  duty  is  high.  The  total  im- 
ports in  1895  were  valued  at  £6,400,129,  and  the  exports  at 
£8,550,234.  The  chief  imports  in  order  of  importance  were 
clothing  and  cloths ;  iron  and  steel  goods ;  sugar,  paper, 
books,  and  stationery :  spirits,  wine,  and  beer;  and  s(ieeie. 
Among  the  exports  the  wool  equaled  in  value  nearly  all  the 
others  put  together.  Next  in  order  was  frozen  meat,  then 
gold  ;  grain,  pulse,  and  flour;  kauri  gnni ;  hides,  skins,  and 
leather;  and  butter  and  cheese.  Two-thirds  of  the  imports 
and  exports  are  with  the  United  Kingdom,  but  only  5  or  6 
per  cent,  with  the  U.  S. 

In  1892  there  were  6  banks  of  issue  in  the  colony,  of  which 
3  were  wholly  New  Zealand  institutions.  The  value  of  the 
notes  of  these  banks  in  circulation  was  £959,943.  The  aver- 
age deposits  in  these  banks  were  £13,587,335,  and  in  the  pri- 
vate savings-banks  ,£3.580,544. 

Administration. — The  executive  power  is  in  the  hands  of 
the  governor,  appointed  by  the  crown,  with  a  salary  of 
£5,000.  He  has  the  power  of  proroguing  Parliament  and 
vetoing  legislation.  The  Parliament,  here  called  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  consists  of  the  Legislative  Council  and  tlie 
House  of  Ifeiiresentatives.  The  members  of  the  first  are  ap- 
pointed. Those  in  office  before  Sept.  17, 1891,  are  life  mem- 
bers; those  subsequently  hold  for  seven  years.  They  num- 
ber 44  in  1807,  and  are  paid  £150  per  annum.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  House  number  74,  including  4  Maoris,  are  elected 
for  three  years,  and  receive  £340  per  year.  Electors  nuiy  be 
male  or  female,  must  be  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  have  a 
freehold  estate  of  £25  value.  For  Maori  representation  any 
adult  native  may  vote  in  the  4  exclusively  Maori  districts. 

Prinuiry  education  is  in  public  schools,  and  is  compulsory 
between  the  ages  of  seven  and  thirteen  in  districts  to  be  de- 
cided on  by  the  education  department.  The  University  of 
New  Zealand  is  solely  an  examining  body  granting  degrees 
under  a  royal  charter.  With  it  are  3  affiliated  colleges,  viz., 
the  Otago  University,  at  Dnnedin,  the  Canterbury  College, 
at  Christchureh,  and  the  Auckland  University  College,  with 
a  total  of  39  instructors  and  ()95  students. 

The  total  revenue  in  1895-96  was  £4,610.403,  of  which  over 
one-(|uarter  came  from  the  railways  and  less  than  one-sixth 
from  direct  taxation.  Theamountof  expenditure  was  £4,403,- 
749,  excluding  the  charges  of  the  sinking  fund  met  by  deben- 
tures. The  total  expenditures  for  public  works  from  1870 
to  Mar.  31,  1893,  was  £27,736,153,  including  discount  and 
charges  for  raising  loans.  The  net  public  debt  in  1892  was 
,£38,154,962,  m.aking  £58  13.s.  Zd.  per  head  of  popidation. 
The  debt  is  slowly  increasing.  The  outstanding  loans  of 
local  governing  bodies  amounted  to  £6,081,934, 

Ilistori/. — New  Zealand  was  discovered  in  1043  by  Tas- 
man,  who  did  not  land  on  it.  Cook  visited  the  islands  sev- 
eral times  from  1769  to  1777,  circumnavigated  them,  ex- 
plored and  surveyed  their  shores  in  part,  and  introduced 
several  domesticated  animals  and  plants.  The  country  was 
little  visited,  however,  because  of  the  bad  reputation  of  the 


natives.  In  1814  Rev.  Samuel  Marsden  established  a  mission 
at  the  Bay  of  Islands,  on  the  east  coast  of  North  island,  80 
miles  S.  E.  of  North  Cape.  He  was  followed  by  many  others, 
and  within  a  generation  the  whole  population  had  become 
nominal  Christians,  In  1839  the  New  Zealand  Land  Com- 
pany dispatched  a  preliminary  expedition  to  treat  with  the 
natives  for  the  purchase  of  land.  By  the  treaty  of  Waitangi 
in  1840  many  of  the  native  chiefs  ceded  the  sovereignty  to 
Great  Britain,  and  in  the  same  year  five  shiploads  of  immi- 
grants arrived.  Disturbances  with  the  natives  occurred  from 
time  to  time  afterward.  The  most  serious  was  in  1863-64, 
when  tlie  colonial  forces  had  to  be  supported  by  several  Brit- 
ish regiments  and  ships  of  war.  Final  and  complete  surren- 
der of  the  natives  occurred  in  1875.  In  1853  a  royal  act  con- 
ferred constitutional  government  on  the  colony.  The  colony 
was  divided  into  0,  afterward  9,  provinces,  each  with  its  gov- 
erning council.  In  1875  this  was  abolished  and  the  present 
system  established.  Since  1893  women  may  vote,  but  are  not 
eligible  as  Representatives  or  in  the  Legislativ,p  Council. 

References.- -^The  official  publications  of  periodical  char- 
acter are  numerous  and  full.  Those  of  Sir  James  Hector 
are  especially  valuable  for  the  geology  and  climate.  See 
also  Hoehstetter,  JVeui  Zealand,  its  Pliysical  Geography, 
Geology,  and  Natural  History  (2  vols.,  1868);  Griffin,  New 
Zealand,  her  Commerce  and  Resources  (1884) :  Rusden,  //j'.s-- 
fory  of  Neiv  Zealand  (1885) ;  Gudgeon.  History  mid  Doings 
of  the  3Iaoris  {1885) ;  Grey,  Polynesiaii  3Iytliol(jyy  and  Ma- 
ori Legends  (1885) ;  Larnach,  Handbook  of  New  Zealand 
Mines  (1887) ;  Wakefield,  New  Zealand  after  Fifty  Years 
(1889) ;  Coghlan,  A  Statistical  Acc.ovnt  of  the  Seven  Colo- 
nies of  Australasia  (1893).  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

New  Zealand  Flax :  See  Fiber. 

Ney,  Michel:  Duke  of  Elchingcn,  Prince  of  Moskva, 
marshal  and  peer  of  France  ;  b.  at  Saarlouis,  Jan.  10,  1769; 
entered  the  French  army  in  1788;  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1797  after  the  battle  of  Neuwied,  general  of  di- 
vision in  1799,  after  he  had  greatly  distinguished  himself  by 
the  capture  of  Mannheim  and  in  Massena's  campaign,  and 
marshal  in  1804.  He  commanded  in  the  Austrian,  Prus- 
sian, and  Spanish  campaigns,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Elchingen,  Jena,  Eylau,  and  Friedland.  He  was  ordered 
to  Spain  in  1808,  and  was  successful  in  maintaining  French 
rule  over  Galicia,  but  in  1810,  while  under  the  <-ommand  of 
Massena,  with  whom  he  constantly  quarreled,  he  met  with 
some  reverses  in  Portugal,  especially  during  the  retreat  from 
Torres  Vedras.  His  greatest  exploits  were  the  battle  of 
Borodino  while  the  grand  army  crossed  the  Moskva,  his 
command  of  the  rear  guard  during  the  retreat  from  Mos- 
cow, and  his  exertions  in  order  to  organize  a  new  army. 
After  the  abilication  of  Napoleon  he  submitted  to  the  Bour- 
bons, and  was  well  received  by  Louis  XVIII.  When  Na- 
poleon returned  from  Elba,  Ney  repaired  to  Paris,  assured 
the  king  of  his  fidelity,  and  received  the  command  of  a 
corps  of  4.000  men,  with  which  he  marched  against  the 
em])eror,  purposing  to  capture  him  and  carry  him  to  Paris; 
but  when  he  saw  the  enthusiasm  with  which  Napoleon  was 
received  everywhere  he  yielded  to  the  demands  of  his  sol- 
diers and  went  over  to  the  side  of  the  emperor.  In  the 
Waterloo  campaign  Ney  fought  the  battle  of  Quatre  Bras 
against  the  British  on  the  same  day  that  Napoleon  defeated 
the  Prussians  at  Ligny,  and  at  Waterloo  he  commanded  the 
center  with  great  bravery.  After  the  second  restoration  he 
was  captured,  arraigned  for  high  treason,  and  placed  first 
before  a  court  martial,  which  declared  itself  incompetent, 
and  then  before  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  which  by  a  large 
majority  condemned  him  to  death.  He  was  shot  Dec.  7, 
1815,  in  the  garden  of  the  Luxembourg,  where  a  monument 
now  stands  in  his  honor.  See  Histoire  complete  du  Proces 
dii  Marerhal  Ney  (2  vols.,  1815);  Nouval,  Vie  du  Marechal 
Ney  (1833) ;  and  Verronais,  Vie  niilitaire  de  Michel  Ney 
(18.53). 

Nez  Percfi  Indians  ;  See  Siiahai'tian  Indians. 

Ngornil,  or  Anarornii:  city  of  Bornu, Central  Sudan;  on 
the  southwest  shores  of  Lake  Chad;  18  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Kuka.  The  great  fluctuations  of  the  level  of  the  lake  some- 
times cause  the  flooding  of  the  city,  and  sometimes  leave  a 
broad  level  plain  between  it  and  open  water.  The  place  is 
an  important  trade  center,  and  its  importance  and  popula- 
tion are  periodically  increased  during  the  markets,  when  a 
large  traffic  is  carried  on  in  cotton,  amber,  metals,  corals, 
and  slaves.  It  is  flimsily  built,  has  been  moved  back  farther 
from  the  lake  shore  than  its  early  situation,  and  is  subject 
to  attacks  from   the   predatory  tribes   wdiich   occupy  the 


NIAGARA 


NIAGARA   FALLS 


185 


islanils  of  the  lake.  Its  i>()j)ulution  is  variously  estimated  at 
frniii  '20.(1(10  to  50.000.  Mark  W.  HARKixiiTox. 

N'iaiTiii'ii  [from  an  Iroquois  Indian  word  m<'aning  tliundcr 
of  wairr) :  a  rivor  of  Xortli  America,  formin;^  the  bound- 
ary between  the  State  of  Xew  York  and  the  province  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  and  coinicctint;  Lake  Krie  willi  Lake  ()m- 
tarii>.  It  is  ;i.'i  miles  lonu,  and  ha.s  a  total  fall  of  326  feet. 
It  is  navij^able  in  its  upper  course  from  its  issue  from  Lake 
Krie  to  tlic  beginninj;  <if  the  rapiils  at  Niagara  Falls,  a  dis- 
tance of  16  miles,  during  which  its  fall  is  less  than  20  feet ; 
and  in  its  lower  course  from  Lcwiston  to  Lake  Ontario,  a 
<Iistance  of  about  7  nules,  during  winch  its  fall  is  only  2  feet. 
Along  its  ndddh-  cours<',  which  contains  the  ceU'lu-ated 
Niagara  Falls  and  is  crossed  Ijy  two  >uspeiision  bridges,  on 
the  Canadian  side  is  the  Wetland  Canal,  through  which  the 
navigation  interrupted  liy  the  rapids  and  falls  of  the  ndddle 
course  of  the  river  is  carried  on.  In  its  uj)per  course  it 
forms  many  islands,  and  its  average  depth  is  23  feet.  In 
its  lower  course,  from  Lcwiston  to  its  mouth  in  Lake  On- 
tario, its  depth  varies  from  100  to  l.'iO  feet. 

Niagara  Falls:  cataracts  of  the  Niagara  river,  discov- 
ered by  Father  Hennepin  in  16TS,  and  remarkable  for  vol- 
ume of  water  rather  than  for  height.  The  general  features 
of  the  region  about  the  falls  lo(jking  S.  \V.  are  shown  in 
the  accompanying  cut,  L'p  stream  (S.)  from  the  falls  the 
river  flows  smoothly  in  a  broad  channel,  little,  depressed  be- 
low the  general  surface  of  the  limestone  upland  of  Western 
New  York.  About  a  mile  above  the  falls  the  river  begins  a 
descent  of  50  feet  in  the  upper  rapids.  At  the  falls  it 
plunges  160  feel  into  a  narrow  gorge  about  7  miles  long,  200 
to  350  feet  deep.  800  to  I..500  wide  at  the  top,  and  generally 


250  to  500  wide  at  the  water-line.  Except  for  the  upper  2 
miles,  the  river  pursues  a  tunudtuous  course  in  swift  rapids, 
with  a  descent  of  100  fc;et,  emerging  from  the  gorge  at  the 
northern  elifled  nuirgin  or  escarpment  of  the  upland  be- 
tween Lewistou,  N,  Y,,  and  (^ueenston,  Ontario.  The  vol- 
ume of  water  passing  the  falls  is  280,000  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond (U.  S.  Lake  Survey). 

The  river  is  divided  l>y  Goat  island  .just  above  the  gorge, 
thus  making  two  falls :  the  ('aiia<lian  or  Horseshoe  fall  on 
the  W.,  the  "American"  fall  on  thi>  K.  The  f(M-mer  has  a 
strongly  incurved  brink  measuring  3,010  feet  around  the 
curved  crest  line,  or  1,230  feet  across  the  chord.  The  face 
of  Goat  island,  separating  the  two  falls,  is  1,310  feet.  The 
American  fall,  with  slight  incurvature,  measures  1,060  feet 
from  siile  to  side.  For  2  nnles  down  the  gorge,  between  the 
Camidian  fall  and  the  lower  rapids,  the  waters  flow  with 
relatively  smooth  surface  through  a  great  pool  1.450  feet 
in  greatest  width  and  18!)  feet  in  depth  .just  above  the 
upper  suspension  bridge,  the  exceptional  depth  being  at- 
tributoil  to  the  jiounding  action  of  the  water  beneath  the 
fall.  Great  bloc'ks  or  tables  of  rock  sometimes  fall  from  the 
limesbme  clill  that  incloses  the  gorg(^  In  1818  a  block  fell 
on  the  t'.  S.  side;  in  1828.  1855,  and  1887  blocks  fell  from 
the  Caiuiilian  side,  one  of  these  being  the  foruu-rly  well- 
known  Table  Rock.     In  winter-time  a  great  mound  of  ice 


forms  from  the  spray  beneath  the  falls,  and  the  walls  of  the 
gorge  and  the  ti'ees  near  the  falls  are  encased  in  ice. 

In  order  to  restore  as  nearly  as  possible  th(^  natural  con- 
ditions of  the  falls,  which  had  been  seriously  defaced  by 
private  owners,  and  in  order  to  save  visitors  froin  annoyance 
and  imposition,  which  had  become  extrenu',  the  laud  on 
either  side  of  the  falls  has  been  converted  into  public  parks. 
The  New  York  State  reservation,  coidaining  nearly  107 
acres  (cost,  l5;l.433.429..50).  was  oiiened  July  1.5.  1885':  the 
Queen  Victoria  Niagara  Falls  Park  on  the  Canadian  side, 
embracing  154  acres  (cost,  S;436,8 13,24),  was  ojieued  May  24, 


Niagara  Falls  reservations. 

1888.  The  gorge  is  spanned  by  three  bridges,  for  which  see 
NiACiARA  Falls  (the  city)  and  Bridoes.  The  finest  general 
views  of  the  falls  are  to  be  had  from  the  middle  of  the 
upper  suspension  bridge,  and  from  the  high  terrace  N,  of 
the  Horseshoe  falls  on  the  Canadian  side.  An  electric  rail- 
way follows  the  brink  of  the  gorge  from  the  falls  to  the  es- 
c,-irpment  above  t^ueenston.  The  Cave  of  the  Winds,  a  hol- 
low behind  the  falling  waters,  is  entered  by  many  visitors. 
Engineering  enterprise  has  constructed  a  tunnel  from  the 
bottom  of  the  gorge  just  below  the  "American"  fall,  run- 
ning back  under  the  city  of  Niagara  Falls  for  7,000  feet. 
See  Tunnels  and  Tunneling, 

The  ffeoloijical  Iiistfiry  of  yiayara  is  of  great  interest,  be- 
cause of  the  association  of  the  age  of  the  falls  with  one  of 
the  closing  stages  of  the  glacial  period.  -The  origin  of  the 
limestone  upland  in  which  the  gorge  is  cut  must  be  first 
considered.  It  consists  of  rclati\'e!y  resistant  strata,  80  to 
100  feet  thick  and  dipping  gently  to  the  S.,  of  heavy  Niag- 
ara (Silurian)  limestone.  The  surface  of  the  limestone  has 
been  revealed  by  the  gradual  stripping  off  of  overlying 
weaker  rocks,  and  its  former  northward  extension  has  been 
much  reduced  by  the  erosion  of  its  margin.  The  retreat  of 
the  margin  has  been  accelerated  by  the  undermining  of  the 
weaker  strata — Niagara,  Clinton,  and  Medina  shales  and 
sandstones — beneath  it :  hence  the  upland  is  now  ternd- 
nated  by  a  north-facing  bluff  or  escarpment  about  250  feet 
above  the  lowland  plain  that  stretches  northward  from  its 
base,  and  nearly  40  feet  above  the  present  level  of  Lake 
Erie. 

After  the  present  form  of  the  upland  had  lieen  essentially 
produced  by  the  slow  weathering  of  ages,  the  region  was 
glai-iated,  tlie  entire  surface  being  buried  under  a  heavy  ice- 
sheet.  It  is  comnundy  believed  that  the  basin  of  Lake  Erie 
in  weaker  rocks  S.  of  the  Niagara  limestone  upland  and 
that  of  Lake  Ontario  in  weaker  rocks  N.  of  the  escarp- 
ment were  in  greater  [lart  excavated  by  ice  action;  but  it 
is  dillic^ult  to  measure  the  results  of  this  process,  and  to  de- 
fine how  far  other  processes,  such  as  the  wari>ing  or  obstruc- 
tion of  broad  preglaeial  valleys,  nuiy  have  had  to  do  with 
foruung  the  ba.sins.  lie  this  as  it  may,  it  is  known  that 
when  the  ice-sheet  evacuated  the  region  the  lakes  occupied 
the  basins,  much  as  we  now  see  them  ;  and  that  wherever 
the  former  rivers  of  the  re.gion  ran,  the  post-glacial  discharge 
of  Lake  Erie  took  the  course  of  the  Niagara  river  across  the 
plateau  and  fell  over  the  escarpment  on  its  way  to  Ontario; 
thus  the  cataract  was  formed  at  the  face  of  the  ('lifTs,  Since 
then,  the  strong  wearing  of  the  river  has  caused  the  reces- 
sion of  the  fjdls  at  a  much  nu)re  rapid  rate  than  the  general 
retreat  of  the  cliff  face  under  the  weak  attack  of  the 
weather:  thus  the  narrfuv  gorge  has  been  formed,  and  the 
falls  now  stand  about  7  miles  back  from  their  original  po- 
sition. Their  recession  continues,  and  eventually  the  gorge 
will  be  cut  back  to  Lake  Erie. 


186 


NIAGARA  FALLS 


KIBELUNGENLIED 


The  gorge  makes  a  peculiar  bend  at  the  whirlpool,  which 
calls  for  special  exj)lanation.  It  is  belieTed  that  at  this 
point  the  receding  falls,  which  were  then  working  back  to 
the  S.  W.,  came  upon  tlie  dritt-filled  valley  of  a  small 
pre-existing  stream,  whicli  once  carried  the  drainage  of  a 
small  area  of  the  uphuid  out  to  the  lowland  on  the  N. 
The  further  recession  of  the  falls  proceeded  southward,  up 
the  buried  valley,  from  which  the  drift-filling  was  rapidly 
washed  out ;  hence  tlie  abrupt  angle  at  the  middle  of  the 
gorge.  The  impetus  of  tlie  river  has  excavated  a  basin 
northwestward  from  the  angle,  in  line  with  the  old  drift- 
filled  vallev,  but  to  a  greater  deptli :  and  here  the  waters 
whirl  around  before  escaping  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
gorge. 

The  time  required  for  the  recession  of  the  falls  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  study.  The  falls  have  been  carefully 
surveyed  on  four  occasions.  First  in  1843  under  James 
HaU.'of  the  Natural  History  Survey  of  New  York;  in  1875 
by  the  U.-S.  Lake  Survey;  in  1886  by  R.  S.  Woodward,  of 
the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey ;  and  in  1890  by  A.  S.  Kibbe,  of 
the  New  York  State  Engineers.  The  fall  on  the  U.  S.  side 
shows  moderate  change,  its  average  annual  recession  in  forty- 
eight  years  being  half  a  foot.  Between  1843  and  1890  the 
Canadian  fall  receded  150  to  230  feet  along  a  distance  of 
900  feet  on  the  western  half  of  its  front,  and  270  feet  at  the 
apex  of  its  curve.  This  gives  an  average  recession  near  the 
middle  of  from  4  to  6  feet  a  year ;  and  if  this  rate  had  been 
constant,  only  about  7,000  years  would  have  been  required 
for  the  erosion  of  the  gorge. 

There  is  indication,  however,  that  the  recession  of  the 
falls  has  not  always  been  at  so  rapid  a  rate,  and  that  its  age 
is  greater  than  7.000  years.  The  volume  of  water,  the  most 
important  factor  in  determining  the  rate  of  retreat,  has 
probably  varied  greatly,  for  studies  of  the  shore-lines  of 
the  Great  Lakes  make  it  clear  that  their  basins  have  been 
gently  uplifted  on  the  N.  since  the  ice-sbeet  withdrew, 
causing  changes  in  their  lines  of  discharge.  Before  the  up- 
lift, it  is  quite  possible,  even  probable,  that  Lake  Huron 
drained  across  the  Province  of  Ontario  directly  to  the  lake 
of  that  name;  in  that  event,  Niagara  river  must  have  had 
but  a  small  fraction  of  its  present  volume,  and  the  recession 
of  the  falls  must  have  been  slow.  The  great  dcptli  of  water 
in  tlie  pool  below  the  falls  seems  to  indicate  a  decided  in- 
crease in  the  volume  of  water  about  the  time  that  the  falls 
had  receded  to  a  point  somewhat  above  the  cantilever  bridge. 
The  height  of  the  falls  has  decreased  during  the  retreat,  for 
the  limestone  cap  of  theu]>land  descends  gently  southward, 
while  the  rapids  below  the  falls  ascend  southward  :  and  this 
loss  of  height  must  have  had  some  effect  on  the  rate  of  re- 
cession. It  is  probable  that  after  the  arrival  at  the  drift- 
filled  valley  by  which  the  whirlpool  is  explained  there  was 
an  increased  rate  of  recession  for  a  time.  These  and  other 
factors  on  which  the  retreat  of  the  falls  depends  are  at 
present  so  uncertain  that  no  definite  statement  can  be  made 
as  to  the  time  since  the  river  first  leaped  over  the  escarp- 
ment. The  age  of  the  falls  is  of  importance  because  it 
gives  means  of  dating  a  closing  stage  of  the  glacial  period. 
It  is  pretty  well  ascertained  that  during  the  earlier  stages  of 
the  northward  recession  of  the  continental  ice-sheet  the  St. 
Lawrence  valley  was  olistructed  by  ice.  and  the  waters  of 
Erie  and  Ontario  were  united  in  a  great  lake,  whose  waters 
ran  out  to  the  ,S.  W.  by  the  Wabash  river,  across  Ohio  and 
Indiana  to  the  Ohio  river.  At  a  later  stage  of  ice  retreat, 
an  outlet  was  opened  eastward  down  the  Jlohawk  ;  tlien  the 
eastern  waters  fell  to  a  lower  level  than  the  edge  of  the 
Niagara  plateau,  separating  the  two  lakes,  Ontario  occupy- 
ing the  lower  basin  N.  of  the  escarpment,  while  Erie  lay  in 
the  higher  basin  S.  of  the  escarpment  and  drained  north- 
ward over  its  rim. 

An  account  of  the  geology  of  the  Niagara  gorge  is  given  in 
the  Natural  Il/ntori/  of  New  York.  Geology  of  the  Fourth 
District,  by  .lames  IliiU  (1842) ;  a  history  "of  the  river,  by 
G.  K.  Gilbert,  is  given  in  the  Sixth  Annual  Report  C'oni- 
miss.  New  York  State  reservation  at  Niagara  (1890).  An 
account  of  the  various  surveys  of  the  falls  with  maps  and 
measurements  is  presented  by  .-V.  S.  Kibbe,  in  the  Seventh 
Annual  Report  (1891).  A  popular  account  of  Niagara  is 
given  in  The  Niagara  Book,  by  various  authors. 

W.  51.  Davis. 

Niagara  Falls:  city  (formed  by  the  consolidation  of  the 
villages  of  Niagara  Falls  and  Suspension  Bridge,  incorpo- 
rated in  1893);  Niagara  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
New  York,  ref.  4-C) ;  on  the  Niagara  river,  and  the  Erie,  the 


Lehigh  Valley,  the  Mich.  Cent.,  and  the  N.  Y.  Cent,  and 
Hudson  River  railways :  13  miles  S.  of  Lake  Ontario,  20 
miles  N.  of  Buffalo.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  three  re- 
markable bridges,  viz.,  the  upper  suspension,  built  of  steel, 
a  foot  and  carriage  bridge,  about  300  feet  below  the  falls  on 
the  U.  S.  side,  821  feet  span  and  260  feet  above  the  water,  built 
to  replace  one  destroyed  in  the  winter  of  1889;  the  canti- 
lever. 910  feet  in  length,  a  short  distance  up  stream  from 
the  Whirlpool  Rapids,  built  in  1883,  the  first  bridge  of  its 
kind  constructed  in  the  V.  S. ;  and  the  railway  suspension, 
300  feet  N.  of  the  cantilever,  built  of  steel,  with  a  carriage- 
way 28  feet  below  the  track.  (See  Bridges.)  For  ages  the 
enormous  power  of  the  river  was  allowed  to  go  to  waste, 
though  many  projects  were  conceived  to  utilize  it.  The  first 
practical  step  and  triumph  of  engineering  skill  was  the  con- 
struction of  a  hydraulic  canal,  extending  from  a  point  above 
tlie  falls,  through  the  center  of  the  city  to  the  gorge.  From 
this  a  5.000  horse-power  was  obtained.  Since  then  a  great 
tunnel  has  been  completed  at  a  cost  of  about  .f  4.000,000,  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  a  vastly  increased  water-power  for 
manufacturing  purposes.  (See  Tunnels  and  Tunneling.) 
The  land  and  islands  surrounding  the  "  American "  falls 
(that  is.  the  falls  on  the  If.  S.  side)  have  been  appropriated 
for  a  State  reservation,  and  the  land  on  the  Canadian  side 
of  the  river  now  constitutes  a  similar  reservatitm.  From 
the  lands  within  the  New  York  State  reservation  the  greater 
part  of  the  scenery  for  which  the  locality  is  famous  is  visi- 
ble. (For  description  of  the  falls  and  reservations,  see 
Niagara  Falls).  The  city  contains  10  churches,  Niagara 
University  (Roman  Catholic, organized  1856.  chartered  1883), 
De  Veaux  College  (Protestant  Episcopal,  chartered  1853),  a 
national  bank  with  capital  of  f  100,000,  3  State  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  $200,000,  and  2  daily,  a  semi-weekly, 
and  2  weekly  newspapers.  It  has  numerous  hotels  and  board- 
ing-houses. The  industries  include  the  manufacture  of  paper, 
pulp,  flour,  silver-plated  ware,  paper-coating,  and  macliinery. 
The  assessed  valuation  of  the  citv  in  1893  was  .$9,704,165, 
and  the  total  debt  in  1894  was  |512.000.  Pop.  of  village 
(1880)  3,320 ;  (1890)  5,502  ;  of  city  (1893),  State  census.  13.638. 

Editor  of  "  Gazette." 

Niagara  Falls:  another  name  for  Clifton  (q.  v.),  a  town 
of  <  )ntario,  Canada. 

Niagara  Group :  an  American  geological  formation  rep- 
resenting part  of  the  Upper  Silurian  period:  so  named  by 
the  Geological  Survey  of  New  York  on  account  of  its  typical 
development  along  Niagara  river.  It  is  exposed  throughout 
the  breadth  of  New  York  a  short  distance  S.  of  Lake 
Ontario,  and  has  a  thickness  of  300  feet,  consisting  of  shale 
below  and  limestone  above.  At  Niagara  Falls  there  are  80 
feet  of  shale  overlaid  by  85  feet  of  limestone.  In  Ohio, 
Michigan,  and  other  Western  States,  the  shale  becomes  thin, 
but  the  limestone  increases  to  600  or  800  feet.  It  occurs 
also  in  New  Brunswick,  Newfoundland,  etc..  where  it  is 
thicker  than  in  New  York.  The  limestone  is  largely  used 
for  biiilding  purposes,  especially  for  aVmtments  of  bridges, 
etc.  The  deposit  is  marine,  and  in  many  places  abounds  in 
fossils;  some  of  the  earliest  land-plants,  consisting  of  the 
trunks  of  trees  which  drifted  far  from  shore,  are  found  in  it. 

Israel  C.  Russell. 

Niare,  Zainouse,  or  Bush-cow  [niare  and  zamoiise  are 
from  native  names] :  a  wild  ox  {Biibaliis  piimilus)  found  in 
Western  and  Western  Equatorial  Africa.  It  has  no  dew- 
lap, has  sharp,  crooked,  and  short  horns,  large  and  finely 
fringed  ears,  and  a  fierce  disposition.  It  is  of  a  rather  small 
size :  it  is  sometimes  trained  for  the  saddle,  and  may  be 
taught  to  obey  the  bit  as  well  as  horses ;  but  its  pace  is  only 
4  or  5  miles  an  hour.  F.  A.  L. 

Nias':  an  island  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  a  short  dis- 
tance to  the  W.  of  Sumatra,  near  the  equator.  It  is  70  miles 
long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  16  miles;  is  mountainous, 
aiui  is  surrounded  with  coral  reefs,  but  is  fertile,  producing 
rice,  sugar,  and  large  quantities  of  pepper.  The  inhabitants 
arc  estimated  at  from  200.000  to  250,000.  They  are  closely 
allied  in  appearance  and  language  to  the  Battas,  an  inde- 
pendent and  warlike  race  in  Sumatra.  Nias  is  especially  re- 
markable for  the  persistency  with  which  the  slave-trade  has 
continued  there.  It  is  due  to  intertribal  wars.  Modigliani's 
Zhi  viaggio  a  Nias  (1890)  is  an  excellent  monograph  on  the 
island.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Nibeliingenlied,  neebc-loong-en-leet' :  the  greatest  popu- 
lar epic  of  tlie  Middle  High  German  period.  It  was  com- 
posed by  an  anonymous  poet  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  ecu- 


NIBELUNGENLIED 


XICANDER  OF  COLOPHON 


187 


tury.  The  poem  is  divided  into  cantos,  called  adventures,  the 
number  of  which  varies  in  the  different  manuscripts.  We 
pan  further  distiiifiuish  in  the  epic  two  grvtd  parts,  in  the 
first  of  which  the  scene  is  laid  on  the  Khine.  with  Worms  as 
the  center,  while  the  chief  events  of  the  second  part  take 
place  on  the  lower  Danube,  at  the  residence  of  Altila.  King 
of  the  Huns.  The  principal  hero  of  the  first  part  is  Sieg- 
fried, I'rince  of  the  Xetherlands,  who  assists  tiunther.  the 
King  of  the  H\irgundiaiis,  in  obtaining  the  hand  of  Urun- 
hilde,  or  Urynhilil,  the  powerful  t^ucen  of  Iceland,  and  who 
is  rewarded  with  Kricmhilde,  the  licautiful  sister  of  (iunther. 
The  envy  and  jealousy  of  I'runliilde  cause  a  r|uarrcl  be- 
tween her  and  Kricmhilde.  and  finally  leail  to  the  murder 
of  Siegfried  by  Hagcn.  the  faithful  vassal  of  Gunther  and 
deadly  enemy  of  Siegfried.  The  central  figure  of  the  sec- 
ond part  is  kricmhilde.  who.  after  the  death  of  Siegfried. 
thinks  of  nothing  but  of  avenging  herself  on  the  niunlerers 
of  her  husband.  For  t  his  purixise  she  marries  Attila.  and  in- 
vites Gunther.  who  had  consented  to  the  nmrdor  of  Siegfried. 
to  visit  her  with  his  Hurgundiansat  .Vttila's  residence.  Con- 
trary to  the  advice  of  Hagcn.  Gunther  an<l  his  brothers. 
Gemot  and  Gieselher.  accept  Krieudiilde's  invitation.  They 
march  to  the  Danulie,  and  finally  arrive  at  Attila's  court, 
where,  after  a  long  and  dreadful  siruggli".  all  are  killed,  in- 
cluding Kriemliilde.  Oidy  Attila.  his  friend  Dietrich  Ton 
Bern,  and  the  hitter's  faithful  companion  11  ildebrand,  sur- 
vive to  lament  the  fearful  catastrophe. 

The  sul)ject-mattcr  of  the  poem  is  based  upon  the  Ger- 
man hero-legends  which  originated  in  the  times  of  the  mi- 
gration of  the  tribes,  and  which  formed  the  favored  con- 
tents of  many  single  hero-songs  previous  to  their  final 
combination  into  one  great  epic.  The  account  in  the  Xi- 
bulungenlied  of  the  annihilation  of  the  Hurgundians  by  the 
Iluns  has  [)rcservcd  the  reminisc<'nce  of  the  historical  fact 
that  .\ttila.  in  -l;!?.  defeated  the  Burgumlians  under  tiuuda- 
liari  (Gunther).  whose  capital  was  Worms.  The  name  of 
Kriendiilile  may  also  be  historical,  if  the  report  of  Jordanis 
is  correct,  according  to  which  (cap.  4!l)  .Vttila  died  by  the 
side  of  a  girl  namecl  Hdico.  which  name  is  the  diminutive  of 
Ililde.  In  Dietrich  vou  Bern  we  have  the  fatuous  Theodoric 
the  Great  (4Ti5-5"i(!)  of  history,  who  is  the  most  prominent 
figure  in  thetierman  hero-legend.  Though  he  reigned  long 
^fter  the  death  of  .\ttila  (4."):!).  the  legend  nevertheless  has 
l>im  api)ear  as  a  fugitive  at  .\ttila's  court,  thus  illusl rating 
the  free  manner  in  which  the  legend  treats  historical  tiiith. 

Concerning  Siegfried  aiul  his  relations  to  Kriemhilde  and 
Bruidiilde  there  are  no  historical  accounts,  uidess  we  accept 
the  views  of  some  recent  investigators  who  see  in  him  the 
historical  .Arminius.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  in  the  Xibe- 
lumieulii'd  Siegfrieil  and  Brunhilde  present  certain  features 
of  character  (their  extraordinary  physical  .strength.  Brnn- 
hilde's  strange  aversion  to  marriage,  etc.)  which  are  seemingly 
supernatural,  a  immber  of  scholars  holil  the  view  that  botii 
are  of  mythological  origin.  This  opinion  derives  its  main 
support  from  the  Old  Norse  version  of  tlie  Siegfried  legend 
in  the  Eddas,  according  to  which  Siegfried  and  Bruniiildc 
.seem  to  belong  to  the  family  of  Germaiuc  gods  and  demi- 
gods. Otitside  of  tlie  Norse  versions  no  trace  of  such  divine 
origin  for  them  has.  however,  been  found  in  Germanic 
mythology,  and  there  is.  moreover,  not  the  slightest  reason 
offered  to  e.xplain  the  strange  fact  of  this  old  Germanic 
myth  of  .Siegfried  and  Bruidiilde  combining  with  the  his- 
toric legend  of  the  Bnrgundians.  All  the  mythological 
•speculations  concerning  the  divine  pre-existence  of  Sieg- 
fried ami  Brunhilde  nmst  therefore  be  dismissed  as  more 
or  less  clever  conjectures.  It  is  far  more  |)robable  that  tlie 
Siegfried  legend,  like  the  legend  of  the  Kurgiindians.  pre- 
.served  the  remini.scence  of  the  tragic  fate  of  some  national 
hero,  who  presumably  lived  before  the  migration  of  the 
tribes,  in  an  age  which  was  accustomed  to  adorn  its  heroes 
with  superhuman  attributes. 

Both  legends,  that  of  Siegfried  as  well  as  that  of  the  Bnr- 
gundians. originated  among  the  Franeonians.  whence  they 
migrated  to  tlie  North  and  to  other  (n'rinau  tribes.  We  can 
distinguish  two  such  migrations  of  the  legends  to  the  North, 
one  which  probably  took  |ilace  as  early  as  the  sixth  cen- 
tury and  a  second  oiu'  <luring  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
account  of  which  is  embodied  in  the  Tliidrekxaga.  Lach- 
raann  believed  that  the  yibelungenlli'd  in  the  form  haiuled 
down  to  us  was  not  written  by  a  single  poet,  but  was  a  con- 
glomeration of  old  hero-songs.  While  tlie  existence  of  such 
songs  must  be  admitted  at  least  for  the  beginning  of  the 
twelfth  century,  it  is  i|iiite  obvious  that  the  skillful  plan 
and  artistic  unity  of  the  poem  could  not  be  attained  oy  a 


mere  compiler,  but  must  be  ascribe<l  to  the  conscious  work 
of  a  single  poet.  Who  this  great  poet  was  we  do  not  know, 
and  all  the  guessing  as  to  his  identity  and  home  has  proved 
fruitless. 

That  the  Nibelunge.nlie.d  was  a  Very  poimlar  epic  can  be 
seen  from  the  number  of  manuscripts  .still  extant.  Among 
these  (ten  complete  manuscripts  and  eighteen  fragments)  the 
most  important  are  the  three  which  date  back  to  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  which,  since  Lachmann,  are  usuallv 
quoted  as  A,B,  C.  As  to  their  respective  age  and  authentic- 
ity, Lachmann,  the  editor  of  MS.  A.  held  that  this,  the  most 
imperfect  of  the  three,  was  the  original,  while  Hollzniann, 
and  especially  Zarncke.  attempted  to  prove  the  greater  an- 
tiquity of  MS.  C;,  of  which  Zarncke  made  an  excellent  edi- 
tion. This  difference  of  opinion  was  mainly  due  to  oppos- 
ing views  concerning  the  origin  of  the  ijoem.'and  it  resulted 
in  a  long  and  bitter  fight  between  the  leaders  and  followers 
of  both  schools,  known  as  the  famous  Nibelungenstreit. 
The  view  now  held  by  most  scholars  is  that  of  KarrBartsch, 
who  showed  in  his  Unlcrxiichuiigcn  uher  das Nibehnigeiilit'd 
that  none  of  the  three  JISS.  represents  the  original,  that  the 
latter  is  lost,  and  that  JIS.  B,  which  was  edited  by  I5artsch, 
preserved  the  original  more  faithfully  than  the  others. 

For  several  centuries  the  yibuhiiigenlu'd  was  entirely  for- 
gotten, until  Bodmer,  in  1757,  called  attention  to  it  by  edit- 
ing parts  of  the  epic.  His  efforts  created,  however,  little 
interest  among  his  contemporaries.  Frederick  the  Great,  for 
instance,  treating  with  contempt  all  attempts  to  revive  me- 
diaeval German  literature.  A  cliangc  in  the  critical  estima- 
tion and  understanding  of  the  poem  was  brought  about  by 
the  Bomanticists  and  by  the  rise  of  national  feeling  during 
the  wars  with  Napoleon  I.  Then  the  poem  was  interpreted 
and  studied  at  several  universities,  and  in  1815  Zeune  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  epic  for  the  young  men  who  were  to 
carry  it  with  them  to  the  battle-fields.  Since  then  the  Xi- 
belunganlind  has  constantly  increased  in  popularity.  The 
greatest  philologians  of  the  nineteenth  century,  like  the 
Grimms,  Lachmann,  Miilleidioff.  Zarncke,  Bartsch.  and 
Scherer.  devoted  themselves  to  its  elucidation,  and  numerous 
translations  carried  the  knowledge  of  it  into  the  widest  cir- 
cles. While  in  former  periods  the  poem  had  to  suffer  from 
unjust  comparisons  with  Homer,  it  is  now  universally  con- 
sidered the  greatest  national  e])ic  of  the  Germans,  in  "wliich 
the  wild  passions  and  valorous  deeds  of  a  heroic  age  and 
the  most  tender  and  .sacred  emotions  of  the  human  brea.st 
find  their  artistic  expression.  For  although  the  characters 
of  the  epic  appear  in  the  knightly  guise  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, we  can  still  notice  that  that  the  principal  heroes  really 
belong  to  a  more  primitive  period.  With  marvelous  skill 
the  author  has  depicted  his  times  as  well  as  those  of  the 
older  heroic  age.  carefully  preserving  the  epic  style  despite 
the  lyrical  character  of  the  strophe  which  he  employs,  and 
thus  creating  a  work  of  poetr)'  rich  in  colors,  full  of  liramatic 
life  and  of  the  deepest  ethical  sentiments — a  picture  of  the 
Germanic  character  and  mind  in  their  period  of  youth. 

BinLiOGRAPHV. — The  principal  editions  of  the  Nibelun- 
geiilied  by  Lachmann,  Zarncke.  and  Bartsch  have  lieen 
mentioned  above.  An  excellent  list  of  the  most  noteworthy 
literature  on  the  subject  is  given  by  Zarncke  in  the  intro- 
duction to  his  edition  of  the  poem.  See  Hermann  Fischer. 
Die  Forsc)nitigen  uher  das  XibelungenUtd  kl-i'I  A".  Lach- 
mann (1874):  K.  von  Muth.  Einhiimig  in  das  Nibehmgen- 
lied  (1877) ;  K.  Lachmann.  Ueber  die  ursprungliche  Cfes- 
falt  ties  Oed.  van  der  Nibejungen  Noth  (1816):  A.  Holtz- 
mann.  I'nl frsuchungen  uher  das  yibelungenUed  (1854) :  P. 
Zarncke.  Zur  Xihehnigenfrage  (1854);  K.  Miillenhoff.  Zfrr 
(resell,  der  yihehiiigen  Xut  (1855):  K.  Bartsch.  I'ulersu- 
chungen  uher  das  Xibehinqenlied  (1865) :  W.  Willmanns.  Bei- 
truge  z.  Erkl.  u.  Gesch.  a.  2fibelunge7ilieds  (1877) ;  R.  Hen- 
ning.  Xihelungenstudien  (18815):  W.  Grimm.  Die  dentsrhe 
Ileldensage  (1889);  A.  Hassmann.  Die  deulsche  IFeldensage 
u.  ihre  Ileimath  (1857):  K.  Hcinzel.  Ueber  d.  Xibelungen- 
sage  (188.5) :  W.  Jliiller,  Jfytlio/ogie  d.  d.  I/eldensaye  (1886) ; 
W'.  Golther,  Sludien  zur  germ.  Sagengeschicliie  (1888): 
Soplius  Bugge,  Sfudien  uher  die  Entsfehuug  d.nord.  Gutter 
u.  Ilelden.tage  (1882):  K.  Mogk.  Die  lillesle  Wandeniiig  d. 
d.  lleldensage  iiach  d.  Xorden  in  Forscliungen  zur  germ. 
PliHologie  (18!)4):  liichtcnberger,  Le  pueme'  et  la  legende 
des  Xibelungen  (18!)]).  The  be.st  modern  High  German 
version  of  the  XibelungenUed  is  by  K.  Simrock  (52d  ed. 
1893).  "         Jt;ui:s  GoEnEL. 

Xirandpr  orColo]ihoii :  Greek  didactic  poet  of  the  sec- 
ond century  u.  f.     He  was  the  author  of  a  lost  epic  poem. 


188 


NICARAGUA 


NICCOLINI 


'ETepoMv/iem,  ill  five  books,  which  suggested  Ovid's  Metamor- 
phoses. We  still  have  a  poem,  ©TjpiaKa  (Remedies  against 
the  Bites  of  Venomous  Animals)  and  'AA€|t<j)ap;uaKa  (Remedies 
against  Poisons),  in  which  the  author  has  sought  to  enliven 
the  ungrateful  theme  by  digressions  and  descriptions.  There 
are  editions  by  J.  J.  U.  Schneider  (1816)  and  by  0.  Schneider 
(1856).  B.  L.  G. 

Nioara'grua :  a  republic  of  Central  America,  between 
Honduras  on  the  N.  W.  and  Costa  Rica  on  the  S.,  extend- 
ing from  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific.  Area  about 
40,000  sq.  miles.  The  general  outline  is  nearly  an  isosceles 
triangle ;  one  side  forms  the  Caribbean  coast,  wliich  runs 
from  N.  to  S.  about  800  miles ;  the  Pacific  coast  trends 
from  S.  E.  to  X.  W.  and  terminates  in  the  Bay  of  Fonseca, 
which  separates  Nicaragua  from  Salvador.  The  main 
mountain  axis  enters  the  country  from  Honduras,  passes 
across  it  in  a  southeasterly  direction,  and  terminates  at  the 
San  Juan  river ;  it  is  nearly  parallel  with  the  Pacific  coast 
and  about  00  miles  distant  from  it.  Eastward  from  this 
range  the  country  falls  to  low  and  often  swampy  lands 
along  the  (Caribbean  coast.  Near  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
roughly  parallel  to  it  and  to  the  central  range,  there  is  an 
irregular  line  of  volcanic  peaks.  Nearly  all  the  active  and 
quiescent  volcanoes  of  Nicaragua  are  in  this  line,  and  some 
of  them  rise  to  more  than  (5,000  feet.  Between  the  vol- 
canoes and  the  central  range  is  the  lake  valley,  300  miles 
long,  the  most  striking  natural  feature  of  Nicaragua,  and 
one  which  has  largely  determined  its  history.  In  it  are  the 
two  beautiful  lakes  Managua  and  Nicaragua,  respectively 
134  and  110  feet  above  sea-level  in  the  dry  season,  and  con- 
nected by  a  short  river,  the  Panaloya  or  Tipitapa  ;  from  the 
southeastern  end  of  Lake  Nicaragua  the  waters  are  dis- 
charged through  the  San  Juan  river,  108  miles  long,  to  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  Though  the  outlet  is  to  the  Atlantic  side, 
the  lake  valley  is  properly  on  the  Pacific  slope.  The  line  of 
volcanic  mountains  is  not  continuous ;  on  the  contrary,  its 
peaks  are  scattered,  some  of  them  near  the  coast  and  some 
bordering  the  lakes  ;  indeed,  several  of  them  are  on  islands 
in  Lake  Nicaragua.  Between  these  volcanic  cones  the 
divide  between  the  lakes  and  the  Pacific  is  merely  a  line  of 
low  hills,  and  in  some  places  even  these  are  wanting.  Lake 
Managua  is  32  miles  long  by  16  wide,  and  deep  enough 
everywhere  for  the  small  steamers  which  ply  on  it.  The 
Momotombo  volcano,  on  its  northern  side,  is  one  of  tlie 
highest  peaks  in  the  country  (6,3.55  feet),  and  the  shores 
everywhere  are  remarkable  for  their  picturesque  beauty. 
Northwest  from  the  lake  the  plain  of  Leon  stretches  to  the 
Pacific,  and  is  now  crossed  by  a  railway.  The  Tipitapa 
river,  between  the  two  lakes,  has  little  water  in  the  dry 
season,  and  is  never  navigable  for  large  vessels.  Lake 
Nicaragua  is  93  miles  long  by  34  wide,  and  from  13  to  83 
feet  deep ;  its  three  largest  islands,  Ometepe,  Zapadero, 
and  Solentiname,  are  simply  mountains  rising  from  the 
water,  and  the  first  is  a  more  or  less  active  volcano.  At 
one  point  the  lake  is  separated  from  the  Pacific  by  a  neck 
hardly  13  miles  wide,  and  without  high  hills ;  here  it  is  pro- 
posed to  make  the  Pacific  section  of  an  interoeeanic  ship- 
canal,  on  a  line  17J-  miles  long.     See  Ship-oamals. 

The  total  population  of  the  republic  by  the  census  of  1890 
was  only  360,000 ;  of  these,  198,000  were  classed  as  Indians 
(generally  civilized  peasantry)  and  144,000  as  mixed  races. 
Much  the  greater  part  of  this  population  is  gathered  about 
the  lakes  and  in  the  space  between  them  and  the  Pacific. 
All  the  northeastern  part  is  very  thinly  inhabited,  mainly 
by  semi-civilized  or  wild  Indians,  and  portions  of  it  are  cov- 
ered with  heavy  forests.  On  the  eastern  coast  is  the  Mos- 
quito Reserve  or  Mosquitia  (q.  v.),  where,  as  yet,  the  Nica- 
raguan  Government  has  only  a  nominal  authority.  The 
eastern  and  northeastern  regions  have  several  good-sized 
rivers,  flowing  through  fertile  valleys;  only  the  low  coast 
lands  are  unlicalthtiil.  The  only  important  industries  of 
Nicaragua  are  agriculture  (especially  coffee-growing),  graz- 
ing, the  collection  of  rubber  and  dVe-woods  in  the  forests, 
and  gold-mining;  the  annual  product  of  the  gold  mines 
(nearly  all  in  the  northern  districts)  does  not  exceed  23.000 
oz.  The  annual  exports  iit)w  (1894)  average  in  value  about 
$4,000,000.  the  priiu'ipul  items  being  coffee,  rubber,  dye- 
woods,  hides,  gohl  bullion,  and  fruits  (from  the  Mosquito 
Coast).  Of  the  total  exports,  about  one-fourth  are  to  the 
U.  S.  The  imports  considerably  exceed  the  exports,  about 
one-fifth  coming  fnim  the  U.  S.  There  are  132  miles  of 
Government  railways  cciiuiccting  the  lakes  with  the  Pacific 
coast  at  Corinto;  about  1,600  miles  of  telegraph  lines  are 


also  operated  by  the  Government.  The  common  language 
is  Spanish,  but  some  of  the  Indians  still  speak  their  own 
dialects.  The  government  is  a  centralized  republic ;  the 
executive  is  a  president,  chosen  tor  four  years,  and  not  eligi- 
ble for  re-election  for  the  succeeding  term  ;  congress  consists 
of  a  senate  (two  senators  from  each  of  the  twelve  depart- 
ments) and  a  chamber  of  deputies  (one  for  every  20,000  in- 
habitants). All  male  adult  citizens  are  electors.  The  Roman 
Catholic  is  recognized  as  the  state  religion,  but  other  cults 
are  tolerated.  The  national  debt  in  1891  was  $3,037,536, 
about  two-thirds  of  which  was  in  foreign  bonds,  payable  in 
1919,  with  interest  at  6  per  cent.  The  revenue  for  1891  was 
$2,847,739,  and  the  expenses  for  the  same  year  amounted  to 
$3,968,961.  Interest  on  the  debt  is  regularly  paid.  The 
coast  of  Nicaragua  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1502, 
and  the  country  was  first  explored  by  Gil  Gonzalez  Davila, 
who  reached  the  lake  region  from  the  Pacific  side  in  1523  ; 
he  found  a  large  Indian  population.  Granada  (the  original 
cajiital)  and  other  towns  were  founded  by  Francisco  Her- 
nandez de  Cordoba  in  1524-25.  Not  long  after  Nicaiyigua 
was  made  a  province  of  Guatemala,  and  it  continued  sO' 
until  the  Central  American  countries  became  independent 
of  Spain  in  1831.  Prom  1823  to  1839  it  was  a  state  of  the 
Central  American  confederation.  During  this  period,  and 
after  it  assumed  the  position  of  an  independent  state,  there 
were  frequent  civil  wars,  culminating  in  1856  in  the  subjec- 
tion of  the  country  to  the  filibuster  William  Walker,  who, 
however,  was  expelled  in  Apr.,  1857.  With  the  new  consti- 
tution of  1858  and  the  presidency  of  Tomas  Martinez  began 
a  period  of  peace  and  comparative  prosperity,  occasionally 
broken  by  short  wars  with  some  of  the  other  Central  Amer- 
ican countries.  In  1893  there  was  a  civil  war.  resulting  in 
the  election  of  Gen.  Jose  Santos  Zelaya.  In  1895  Nicaragua 
united  with  Honduras  and  Salvador  to  form  the  "Greater 
Repuldic  of  Central  America."  (See  Honduras.)  Since 
1857  the  capital  has  been  Managua. 

AfTHORiTiES. — Squier,  JVicaniffiia,  its  People.  Scenery, 
Ilonuments,  etc.  (1852);  Belt,  Hie  Naturalist  in  Nicaragua 
(1873) ;  Bureau  of  the  American  Republics,  Ilanilhook  of 
Nicaragua  (1893).  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Nicaragua  (town) :  See  RrvAS. 

Nicaragua,  Lake :  See  Nicaragua. 

Nicaragua  Ship-caniil :  See  Ship-canals. 

Niceolini,  Giovanni  Battista  :  poet ;  b.  at  S  Giuliano,. 
near  Pisa,  Italy,  Oct  31,  1783.  He  studied  first  at  Florence, 
then  jihilosophy  and  jurisprudence  at  Pisa  but  later  turned 
to  classical  literature.  In  Florence  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  already  famous  Ugo  Foscolo.  who  conceived  a 
deep  affection  for  him  and  greatly  influenced  his  literary 
ideals.  Indeed,  he  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  made  him 
the  Lorenzo  of  the  Ultime  letfre  di  Jacopo  Ortis.  Ni<'- 
colini's  first  poetical  success  was  a  poem  {La  Pieta)  on  the 
plague  in  Leghorn  (1804).  In  1807  ^filise  Bonaparte,  then 
Queen  of  Etruria,  made  him  professor  of  history  and  my- 
thology in  Florence,  wliere  his  lectures  made  a  sensation. 
After  the  Restoration  he  was  for  a  time  librarian  of  the 
grand  ducal  palace,  but  the  sneers  of  the  courtiers  drove 
him  back  to  his  earlier  employment.  In  the  meantime  he 
had  begun  to  write  plays.  His  flrst  piece,  Polissena  (1810), 
was  later  crowned  by  the  Accademia  della  Crusca  (1818). 
This  was  followed  by  the  less  important  Medea,  Edipo,  Ino 
e  Temisfo,  and  by  versions  of  the  Seven,  against  Tliehes  and 
Agamemnon  of  jEschylus.  In  1815  his  first  drama,  em- 
ploying modern  material  and  showing  an  approach  to  the 
romantic  manner,  Matilda  (in  imitation  of  the  Douglas  of 
the  English  John  Home),  had  but  moderate  success.  In 
Nahiicco  (printed  anonymously  in  London,  1819)  he  entered 
upon  the  drama  of  political  tendencies,  slightly  veiling 
under  Assyrian  names  figures  of  the  Napoleonic  era  (Na- 
bucco  =  Napoleon  :  Mitrane  =  Pius  VII. ;  Arsace  =  Car- 
not).  Ceasing  now  for  a  time  to  write  plays,  he  took  part 
vigorously  in  the  struggle  for  literary  reform  then  raging. 
In  1837,  however,  he  produced  a  new  drama,  Antonio  Fos- 
carini,  intended  to  show  a  way  of  reconciliation  between 
romanticism  and  classicism,  but  also  full  of  political  inten- 
tions. A  violent  controversy  at  once  followed  the  represen- 
tation of  this.  In  Giovanni  da  Procida  (1830)  he  uttered 
his  first  unmistakable  revolutionary  cry,  a  protest  against 
foreign  domination  in  Italy.  Lodoinco  Sforza  detto  it  Mora 
(1833)  was  unimportant,  as  was  also  Rosmunda  d'lnghil- 
terra  (1837);  hut  A rnaldo  da  Brescia,  a  dramatic  poem 
(secretly  printed  at  Marseilles,  184.3),  was  a  political  event  of 
the  first  importance,  by  reason  of   the  vehemence  of  its 


NICCOLO   DA   PISA 


NICHIREN 


189 


criticism  of  the  Guelph  ideiis  then  iloiniiiant  in  Italy.     His 

later  plays,  Fillppo  SIrozzi,  Buitrice  Ce.nci  (in  imitation  of 
•Shelley),  and  Mariu  e  i  Cimbri  (a  national  lyric  drama),  are 
less  interesting.  Xiecolini  was  critic  as  well  as  poel,  and 
we  have  from  him  si'veral  interesting  treatises:  1)H  suh- 
Ume  e  di  Michflangiolu  (1825);  DeW  imitaziune  nell'  arte 
dramatica  (1828) ;  SulV  rumanzo  atorico  (1837) :  and,  above 
&l\,  Discorso  nulla  friii/edia  yreca  (IS44).  He  died  at  Flor- 
ence, Se[)t.  20,  1861,  leaving  in  manuscript  a  Sloria  della 
casa  di  Ilohenxlaiifi'it.  The  first  collected  edition  of  his 
works  wius  in  three  volumes  (Florence,  1831  :  4th  ed,  1808). 
This  has  now  lieen  superseded  hy  Prof,  (.'ornido  GargioUi's 
complete  edition  in  ten  volumes  (Milan,  18G2.  .sve/.).  See 
also  Vaniicc'i,  liicoril!  della  vita  e  delle  open  di  <! iuvanni 
Battista  Aicrnlini  (2  vols.,  Florence,  18G6).    A.  U.  JIarsu. 

Niccoloda  Pisa,  nc"e-ko-lo-daa-pee'sa"ii :  sculptorand  archi- 
tect ;  b.  at  the  beginning  of  the  I  hirteenth  century.  1 1  is  style, 
•which  is  unlike  that  of  the  artists  of  his  own  epoch,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  formed  on  the  study  of  the  anticpie.  The 
Kmperor  Frederick  II.,  when  in  Rome  in  1221,  secured  Xic- 
colo's  services,  and  a  little  later  commissioned  him  to  design 
and  erect  the  fortifications  of  the  castle  at  t'a])ua  and  other 
jdaces.  In  122.")  Ni<'Ci)lo  was  called  to  Bologna  to  build  the 
<'onvent  and  church  of  tlie  Dominicans.  In  1231  he  was  at 
I'adua  erecting  the  Basilica  of  St.  Anthony ;  he  afterward 
built  the  Cliurch  of  .S.  Maria  Gloriosa  dei  Frari  in  Venice. 
1  jiter  he  made  many  designs  for  the  Church  of  San  Giovanni 
at  Siena  and  some  buildings  and  improvements  at  Pisa,  where 
he  was  obliged  tolay  the  foundations  of  his  buildings  on  piles, 
1  le  built  the  Church  of  St.  Jlichael  and  several  palaces  in  this 
manner;  al,-;o  the  campanile  of  the  Augustinians.  He  made 
designs  for  San  Domenic'o  at  Viterbo  and  for  San  Lorenzo 
at  Naples.  He  eidarged  and  embellished  the  cathedral  at 
V'olterra.  At  Lucca  he  sculptured  several  works,  among 
others  a  Deposition,  (dated  1237)  over  a  door  of  the  cathe- 
dral, lie  erected  the  monastery  and  Church  of  Ss.  Trinita 
at  Florence,  which  .Michelangelo  admired  so  much.  His 
statue  of  a  Virf/in  and  Cfiild  which  ho  ina<le  for  San  Do- 
nu'nico  at  Bologna  was  continually  imitated  liy  other  sculp- 
tors, and  he  was  consulted  on  every  important  question  in 
architecture  and  in  eugiui'ering.  In  12(jl)  he  built  the  famous 
liaptistery  at  Pisa,  in  1207  sculptured  the  area  or  shrine  of 
San  Domenico  in  the  church  of  that  saint  in  Bologna,  and 
in  1268  the  pulpit  for  the  Siena  cathedral.  Charles  X.  of 
Anjou  sent  for  him  to  come  to  Naples  to  build  the  abbey 
of  Tagliacozzo.  Niccolo  was  recognized  as  the  greatest 
sculptor  of  the  age.    D.  at  Siena  in  1378.    W.  J.  Stillman. 

Niccolo  of  Arezzo,  called  also  Niccolo  Lambert:  and 
Niccolo  m  Pikro:  sculptor  and  architect;  b.  at  Arezzo  in 
IS.W.  He  studied  sculpture  with  Moccio  of  Siena,  whom 
he  .soon  surpassed.  Two  statues  for  the  campanile  of  Sta. 
Maria  dei  Fiori  proved  his  skill,  but  on  account  of  the 
plague  he  left  Florence  in  1383  and  went  to  Arezzo,  where  he 
worked  at  a  bas-relief  for  the  Brotherhood  of  Sta.  Maria 
della  Misericordia.  The  wall  of  Borgo  San  Sejjolcro  having 
been  demolished  by  an  earthc|uake,  Niccolo  was  sent  to  re- 
pair it.  He  was  driven  from  Arezzo  by  civil  war  and  re- 
turned to  Florence,  where  he  took  part  in  the  work  at  Or 
San  Jlicliehr  and  Sta.  Maria  dei  !■  iori,  and  was  chosen 
one  of  the  seven  sculptors  to  compete  for  the  gales  of  the 
Baptistery.  Boniface  IX.  requircnl  him  to  come  to  Rome 
after  this  to  repair  the  Cast(d  St.  Angelo.  It  is  supposed 
that  he  afterward  went  to  Milan  in  the  service  of  the  Vis- 
conti.s,  and  that  he  was  the  architect  called  Niccolo  Selli  of 
Arezzo  who  worked  for  .lohn  Galcazzo  at  the  time  the  Ccr- 
tosa  of  Pavia  was  begun.  In  1411  the  monument  of  Po])e 
Ah'xander  V.  was  intrusted  to  him  at  Bologna.  This  line 
wiirk  still  exists  at  the  Certosa.  His  work  is  often  mistaken 
fortliat  of  Andrea  Pisano.     D.  in  Bologna  in  1417. 

W.  J.  Stillmax. 

Nice,  nees,  or  Nicae'a  |Gr.  tJimi,  liter.,  victory,  or  Nfitaio 
(sc.  iri(\ir,  city),  city  of  victory,  liter.,  I'emin.  of  vixaios.  per- 
taining to  victory;  cf.  Mod.  Turk,  nain'e,  Isni/:  <(ir.  ds 
Ndcoiov.  to  Niciea] :  an  ancient  capital  of  Bithynia  ;  44  miles 
S.  K.  of  Byzantium.  According  to  Strabo,  it  was  founded 
by  Aniigonus  (<1.  301  is.  c.)  and  rebuilt  by  Lysimachus  (d. 
281  B.  c.).  who  changed  its  name  from  Antigonia  to  Nica'a. 
in  honor  of  liis  first  wife.  It  was  rectangular,  1(1  stadia  in 
circuit,  and  surrounded  by  massive  walls.  Two  ircu- 
inenical  councils  were  held' here :  the  fir.st  (32.T),  consist- 
ing of  318  bishops,  was  the  first  General  Council  of  the 
Christian  Church,  and  the  most  important  of  the  series.  It 
condemned  Arius,  formulated  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  de- 


termined when  Easter  should  be  observed.  The  second 
(787),  reckoned  the  seventh  cceumenical,  of  350  bishops, 
sanctioned  the  use  of  pictures  in  worship.  Nice  was  cap- 
tured (1078)  by  the  Seljuk  Turks  and  retaken  (1097)  by  the 
Greeks  and  crusaders,  who  brought  their  ships  7  miles  over- 
land. From  1204  to  1261,  while  Constantinople  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Franks  and  Venetian.s,  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  Byzantine  empire.  Since  1330  it  has  been  held  by  the 
Ottomans.  In  the  solitary  church  (of  the  eleventh  century) 
still  existing  is  a  rude  realistic  picture  of  the  first  council. 
See  IsNiK.  E.  A.  Grosvknor. 

Nice  (Ital.  i\^('22a) :  capital  of  the  department  of  Alpes- 
Maritinie.s,  France;  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  on  both  sides  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Paglione;  140  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Marseilles 
(see  map  of  France,  rcf.  8-1).  It  consists  of  the  old  town, 
the  new  town,  and  the  port,  and  the  three  divisions  have 
very  different  appearances,  but  they  are  all  connected  with 
eacli  other  and  surrounded  by  beautiful  promenades,  drives, 
and  public  gardens,  which,  together  with  the  exceedingly 
mild  and  salubrious  climate,  yearly  attract  thousands  of 
foreigners  who  spend  the  winter  here.  It  has  spinning  and 
weaving  factoricts,  and  manufactures  of  artistic  pottery, 
wax,  essences,  and  perfumeries;  flowers  and  fruits  are 
raised  on  a  large  scale,  and  the  preservation  of  the  latter 
forms  a  prominent  industry.  Its  trade  in  oil,  wine,  hemp, 
and  silk  is  also  very  important.  In  1388  it  acknowledged 
the  supremacy  of  the  house  of  Savoy,  and  in  1814  became 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  but  was  in  1860  ceded  to 
France.     Pop.  (1891)  74,250. 

Nice,  Councils  of:  See  Nice  or  Nic^a. 

Nicene  Creed :  See  Creed. 

Niceph'orus  :  Byzantine  historian  and  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople; commonly  regarded  as  a  saint  and  called  the 
Confessor ;  was  born  in  750.  Although  a  layman,  he  was 
against  his  will  appointed  patriarch  by  Nieephorus  I.  in 
806,  but  was  persecuted  and  finally  deposed  in  815  by  the 
iconoclast  Leo  V.,  the  Armenian,  who  banished  liim  to  a 
monastery  in  the  Princes'  islands.  There  he  composed 
many  works,  deservedly  admired  for  their  accuracy,  learn- 
ing, and  finished  .style.  Among  them  are  a  Brief  History 
of  Constantinople  from  602  to  770,  a  Clironoloyy  from  Adam 
to  the  time  of  the  author,  and  various  treatises  on  the  icono- 
clastic controversy.  D.  in  828.  Banduri  was  jjrejiaring  a 
comprehensive  edition  of  Nicephorus's  works,  but  died  be- 
fore it  was  complete.  Some  were  published  bv  Neri  (1849) 
and  others  by  Petra  (1852)  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Nieephorus :  name  of  three  Byzantine  emperors.  Ni- 
cephorus  1.(803-811).  A  soldier,  eventually  general-in-chief. 
He  rebelled  against  Constantine  VI.,  by  whom  he  was  de- 
feated. His  life  was  spared,  but  his  eyes  were  put  out.  In 
803  a  popular  insurrection  broke  out  against  the  Empress 
Irene,  the  sole  sovereign,  and  raised  Xiccijhorus  to  the 
throne.  He  was  ambitious  and  brave,  but  perfidious.  He 
fought  against  his  two  great  contemjmraries,  Charlemagne 
and  Haroun-al-Rashid,  was  constantly  unsuccessful,  and 
obtained  |)eace  liy  paying  tribute  to  each.  Making  war 
against  Crum.  King  of  the  Bulgarians,  he  invaded  Bul- 
garia; but  his  whole  army  was  destroyed  in  the  passes  of 
the  Balkan.s,  and  Nii'e]}horus  was  captured  and  put  to  death 
(811).  His  skull,  lined  with  silver,  served  as  a  driidiing- 
cup. — NicEPHORis  II.  .See  Puocas  II. — Nicepiioris  III., 
Botoxiates  (1078-81).  An  intrejiid  and  able  general  before 
his  accessi<m,  on  the  throiu^  he  was  indulgent  and  pusillani- 
mous. His  reign  was  distracted  by  insurrections,  which  he 
was  too  fei'lile  to  suppress.  Finally,  attacked  by  the  parti- 
sans of  Alexius  Comnenus  and  desirous  of  averting  civil 
war,  he  resigned  his  crown  and  became  a  monk. 

E.  A.  Grosvexor. 

Nich'ireii  [liter., lotus  of  the  .sun] :  a  Japanese  priest;  b. 
1222  A.  I).;  founder  of  the  llokke-.shiu  or  Nichiren-shiu,  one 
of  the  mo.st  popular  of  Buddhist  sects.  His  fanaticism  and 
bitter  qmirrels  with  other  .sects  caused  him  to  be  banished 
to  Cape  Idzu,  whence  he  returned  in  1263  a.  u.  after  a  two 
years'  exile.  A  second  banishment  and  a  period  passed  as 
a  hermit  in  the  mountains  of  Ko.shiu  nuirked  the  close  of 
his  career.  I),  in  1282.  The  incidents  of  his  life  figure 
largely  in  Japanese  art.  The  chief  temples  of  the  sect  are 
at  Ikegami.  6  miles  S.  of  Tokio,  and  its  chief  book  is  the 
Hokkekio,  divided  into  two  sections  of  fourteen  chapters 
each,  the  first  giving  Bmhlha's  life  unto  his  thirtieth  year, 
the  secoinl  the  rest  of  his  teachings.  These  Buddhists  recog- 
nize a  dilficult  observance  for  the  clergy  and  an  easy  one  for 


190 


NICHOL 


NICHOLS 


the  laity.  Tlieir  eentral  doctrine  teaches  tliat  every  living 
plant  or  being  may,  by  successive  transmigration,  attain  to 
Buddhaship.  Man  works  out  his  own  salvation  by  observ- 
ing the  law  and  by  prayer,  not  by  relying  on  Amida  Bud- 
dha, as  some  other  sects  teach.  There  are  two  forms  of 
teaching;  one  symbolic,  the  other  the  pure  truth.  Sliaka 
(that  is,  Sakya-muni.  or  the  Buddha),  whose  emblem  is  the 
lotus,  is  worshiped ;  and  the  founders,  Nichiren  and  Kishi- 
mojin,  are  held  in  reverence.  J.  M.  Dixojj. 

Nichol,  Jonx  Prixgle,  LL.  D.  :  astronomer;  b.  at  Brech- 
in, Scotland,  .Jan.  13,  1804,  the  son  of  a  bookseller ;  taught 
school  in  early  life ;  studied  for  the  ministry  of  the  Scot- 
tish Church,  and  was  licensed  to  preach,  but  soon  devoted 
himself  to  science;  became  a  successful  popular  lecturer 
upon  astronomy,  in  which  capacity  he  visited  the  U.  S.,  and 
Professor  of  Practical  Astronomy  in  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow. Among  his  works  were  Vieivs  of  the  Architer.ture  of  the 
Heavens  (1838) ;  The  Stellar  Universe  (1848) ;  The  Planet- 
ary System,  its  Order  and  Physical  Structure  (1851) ;  and 
Cyclopcedia  of  the  Phi/sicnl  Sciences  (1857).  B.  at  Rothe- 
say, Scotland, 'Sept.  19,'l859. 

Nicholas,  Saint  :  Bishop  of  Myra,  in  Lycia,  Asia  Minor  ; 
b.  at  I'atara,  in  Syria.  He  is  the  chief  patron  saint  of 
Russia ;  patron  of  numerous  seaports  ;  patron  saint  of  chil- 
dren, especially  schoolboys,  poor  maidens,  travelers,  mer- 
chants, and  sailors;  one  of  the  most  popular  saints  of  the 
Christian  Church.  On  the  day  of  his  birth  he  stood  up 
in  his  batli  witli  folded  hands  niutely  thanking  God  that  he 
saw  the  light.  He  would  nurse  only  once  on  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays.  He  was  while  a  little  boy  pointed  out  as  a  saint.  He 
became  a  priest  and  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  Holy  Sion, 
near  Myra,  and  rose  to  be  abbot ;  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Pal- 
estine, and  on  his  return  settled  in  Myra,  which  \vas  only  3 
miles  from  Patara,  where  he  was  chosen  bishop.  In  325  he 
attended  the  (Ecumenical  Council  of  Nice,  and  boxed  tlie  ear 
of  Arius  because  he  was  so  horrified  at  Arius's  blasphemy. 
He  was  a  miracle-worker  upon  a  stupendous  scale.  He 
quelled  storms  at  sea,  foretold  the  future,  multiplied  loaves 
of  bread,  and  even  raised  the  dead.  He  died  on  Dec.  (5, 
326,  and  was  buried  at  Myra,  but  his  relics  were  removed  to 
Barri,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1087.  The  most  famous 
story  told  about  him  is  to  the  effect  that  by  the  clandestine 
gift  of  three  purses  of  gold  lie  portioned  off  tliree  penniless 
girls  whose  bankrupt  father  had  contemplated  for  them  a 
life  of  shame.  It  is  this  story  which  occasioned  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  saint  with  three  golden  balls,  placed  some- 
times upon  the  book  he  carries,  sometimes  at  his  feet,  again 
in  his  lap.  The  stories  of  his  deliverance  of  sailors  and  ship- 
wrecked persons  made  hira  the  patron  saint  of  merchants,  and 
as  the  early  merchants  wore  necessarily  money-lenders,  the 
three  golden  balls  of  their  patron  saint  were  adopted  by  the 
merchants'  guild.  So  it  came  to  pass  ultimately  that  the 
golden  balls  of  St.  Nicholas  became  the  symbol  of  the  pawn- 
broker. The  care  he  showed  in  the  protection  of  children 
made  him  their  patron,  and  led  to  tlie  fiction  that  he  would 
give  them  presents  on  the  eve  of  his  festival  (Dee.  6).  This 
idea  has  been  transferred  to  Christmas  eve,  and  in  the 
famous  poem  of  Clement  C.  Moore,  'Twas  the  night  before 
Christmas,  the  saintly  Bishop  of  Myra  appears  in  any  but  a 
dignified  way;  yet  Santa Claus  is  a" corruption  of  the  Dutch 
name  of  St.  Nicholas,  and  the  Dutch  in  New  Amsterdam 
celebrated  a  San  Claus  holiday. 

Samuel  Macauley  Jacksox. 

Nicholas;  the  name  of  several  popes.  Nicholas  I.  (858- 
868),  a  Roman  by  birth,  an  imperious  and  energetic  chai-- 
acter;  asserted  "the  papal  authority  with  great  success 
against  the  metropolitan  in  his  controversy  with  Hincmar 
of  Reims,  and  even  against  the  royal  and  imperial  power, 
compelling  Lothaire.  King  of  Lorraine,  who  was  supported 
by  his  brother,  the  Emjieror  Louis,  to  abandon  his  mistress, 
Walrada,  and  reinstate  his  legitimate  wife,  Theutberga,  in 
her  rights  as  queen.  Less  successful  was  his  contest  with 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Photius,  who  had  usurped 
the  see  after  the  deposition  of  Ignatius  by  the  emperor. 
Nicholas  excommMiiicatcd  Photius  and  dema"nded  the  rein- 
statement of  Ignatius,  but  the  emperor.  Michael  III.,  sup- 
ported Photius.  who  in  his  turn  excommunicated  Nicholas. 
arguing  that  the  highest  ecclesiastical  authority  had  been 
transferred  from  the  .see  of  Rome  to  that  of  Constantinople 
by  the  transference  of  the  imiierial  residence. — Nicholas 
IL  (1058-61),  wlio  was  guided  throughout  his  pontificate 
by  the  advice  of  Hildchrand,  afterward  Gregory  VII.,  held 
the  famous  Easter  Council  in  Rome,  1059,  which  placed  the 


papal  election  in  the  hands  of  the  cardinals,  and  required 
the  assent  of  the  emperor  only  in  the  last  instance. — Nicho- 
las III.  (1277-80)  deprived  Charles  of  Anjoii  of  his  vica- 
riate of  Tuscany,  and  forced  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  to  cede 
the  Roinagua  and  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna. — Nicholas  IV. 
(1288-92)  was  an  unimportant  pontiff,  remembered  chiefly 
for  his  abuse  of  the  absolving  power  in  annulling  the  treaty 
by  which  Charles  of  Anjou  had  obtained  from  Alphonso  III. 
of  Aragon  his  release  from  prison. — Nicholas  V.  (1447-55), 
b.  at  Pisa  in  1398,  a  peaceable  and  learned  man  ;  reorganized 
and  enlarged  the  A'atican  Library  and  the  University  of 
Rome,  and  gathered  in  Rome  a  great  number  of  the  most 
celebrated  scholars  of  the  age,  among  whom  were  many 
Greeks  who  fled  to  Western  Europe  on  the  downfall  of  the 
Eastern  empire. — In  1328,  Louis  of  Bavaria  raised  Peter  de 
Ccirbario  as  anti-pope  to  John  XXII.,  under  the  name  of 
Nicholas  V.,  but  he  died  shortly  after  in  the  papal  dungeon, 
and  is  not  counted  in  the  papal  succession. 

Nicholas  I.,  Nikolai  Pal'lovitch  ;  Czar  of  Russia  (1825- 
55) ;  b.  at  St.  Petersburg,  July  7,  1796  ;  the  third  son  of  the 
Emperor  Paul.  Before  his  accession  he  traveled,  visited 
England,  married  in  1817  the  eldest  daughter  of  Frederick 
William  III. -of  Prussia,  and  lived  at  St.  Petersburg  in  do- 
mestic retirement,  occupied  by  military  studies.  On  the 
death  of  Alexander  I.,  the  elder  brother,  Constantine,  re- 
signed the  crown,  and  thus  Nicholas  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  A  formidable  military  conspiracy,  which  endan- 
gered not  only  his  succession  but  the  very  existence  of  the 
empire,  he  put  down  with  admirable  courage  and  presence 
of  mind,  but  also  with  a  relentless  severity  which  ap- 
proached cruelty.  In  his  reign  wars  were  carried  on  in  Cen- 
tral A^ia,  the  Caucasus.  Turkey.  Poland,  Hungary,  and  with 
the  Western  powers,  but  he  himself  possessed  slight  military 
skiU.  He  was  a  good  administrator  and  a  vigorous  but  in- 
tolerant ruler.  Asa  diplomat  also  he  had  some  talent.  For 
several  years  after  1849  Russia  occupied  the  first  place  in 
tlie  iiolitical  system  of  Europe,  and  her  plans  with  respect 
to  Turkey  were  rapidly  maturing  when  they  received  a 
sudden  check  from  Napoleon  III.  by  the  alliance  between 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Turkey,  and  the  ensuing  Cri- 
mean war.  The  misfortunes  of  the  Russian  arms  during 
this  war  were  a  great  humiliation  to  him,  and  are  said  to 
have  shortened  his  lite.  D.  Mar.  2,  1855.  See  Russia  (Ilis- 
tory). 

Nicholas  II.:  Czar  of  Russia;  son  of  Alexander  III.;  b. 
May  18,  1868;  received  a  careful  education,  in  which  espe- 
cial attention  was  paid  to  the  modern  languages  and  scien- 
tific studies;  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  eighteen;  in 
1890-91  traveled  extensively  in  the  East,  visiting  Egypt, 
India,  Cliiiia.  and  .lapan,  and  he  has  also  visited  most  of  the 
countries  vt  Western  Europe.  On  the  death  of  his  father, 
Nov.  1,  1894.  Nicholas  succeeded  to  the  throne,  having  pre- 
viously become  affianced  to  the  Princess  Alix  of  Hesse- 
Darin  stailt. 

Nicholas  de  Cusa:  See  Cusaxus. 

Nicholasville :  town  ;  capital  of  Jessamine  co.,  Ky.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Kentucky,  ref.  3-H) ;  on  the  Queen  and 
Cresc.  Route  and  the  Richmond.  Nich..  Irvine  and  Beatty- 
rillc  railways ;  12  miles  S.  of  Lexington.  It  is  noted  for  the 
thorciughbred  horses  raised  and  trained  there,  has  several 
grain  elevators,  flour-mills,  and  hemp-factories,  and  handles 
a  large  quantity  of  tobacco  annually.  There  are  a  national 
bank  with  capital  of  $100,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of 
.f  100,000.  a  private  bank,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)  2,303;  (1890)  2,157. 

Nichols.  EnwARD  Leamington,  Ph.  D. :  physicist;  b.  in 
Leamington,  England,  Sept.  14,  1854:  prepared  for  col- 
lege at  Peekskill  Military  Academy;  graduated  at  Cornell 
University  1875;  studied  in  Leipzig.  Berlin,  and  at  Giittin- 
gen.  where  (1879)  he  took  the  degree  of  Ph.  I).;  was  ap- 
pointed Fellow  in  Physics  at  Johns  Hopkins  University  in 
1879.  He  became  connected  with  Edison  in  electrical  work 
at  Menlo  Park  in  1880 ;  was  Professor  of  Physics  and  Chem- 
istry in  Central  University,  Richmond,  Ky.,  1881-83;  Pro- 
fessor of  Physics  and  Astronomy  in  the  University  of  Kan- 
sas. Lawrence.  1883-87;  in  188f  became  Professor  of  Phys- 
ics in  Cornell  University,  where  he  has  been  largely  instru- 
mental in  developing  the  course  in  electrical  engineering. 
Prof.  Nichols  is  a  member  and  vice-president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers.  He  is  the  author  of 
about  fifty  papers  and  memoirs,  chiefly  upon  experimental 
physics,  whicli  have  ajipeared  in  the  Annalen  der  Physik 
und    (Viimie,   Philosophical    Magazine,   Electrical    World, 


NICHOLS 


NICKEL 


191 


Aynerican  Jvurnnl  nf  Scieure,  Nature,  mid  tlu'  Tninsar/io/ia 
of  the  several  seieiitilic  sooielies;  also  of  a  Laboratort)  Miin- 
ual  of  Physics  and  Applied  Mechanicx  (2  vols..  New  York, 
1894),  and  of  a  small  voluiiie  of  Icetures  entitled  The  Gnl- 
vanonieter  (Xew  Vurk,  1S!)().  8inec  iy!)3  he  has  been  edi- 
tor of  Tlie  Physical  Review,  and  associate  editor  of  ■lohii- 
soii's  I'nirersal  Cycloptedia,  m  charge  of  physics  ami  its 
applications.  C.  II.' Tiurbek. 

Nichols,  John  :  author:  b.  at  Islington,  a  suburb  of  Lon- 
don, Euirland.  Feb.  2,  1740;  was  apprenticed  to  the  emi- 
nent printer  William  Bowvcr;  became  his  partner,  succes- 
sor, and  liiograiiher,  and  was  a  distinguished  benefactor  to 
English  letters,  not  only  by  the  enterprise  and  liberality 
displaveil  in  several  costly  undertakings,  l)ul  by  his  careful 
editorship  of  numerous  works  and  by  ills  own  learned  writ- 
ings. Xicliols  printed  in  1778  for  priv.ile  distribution  a 
brochure  of  fifty-two  pages.  Brief  Mi  inoirs  af  Mr.  Boicyer, 
which  was  soon  expanded  into  a  quarlo  volume.  Biograph- 
ical and  Literary  Anecdolrs  uf  M'i Ilium  Bowi/er.  Printer, 
F.  S.  A.,  and  of  Many  of  his  Learned  Friends  (1783);  and 
the  latter  work  became  so  popular  as  to  be  ultimately  recast 
into  the  valuable  series  vtitMed  Li/era rt/  Anecdotes  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  (9  vols.  8vo,  1812-1.")),  and  was  followed 
by  Iltitslrations  of  Literary  History  (8  vols.  8vo,  1817-58), 
completeil  by  his  son,  .John  Bowver  Xichols.  Prom  1778 
uiitii  his  death  .Mr.  Nichols  was  the  editor  and  publisher  of 
7V(«  (fentleinan's  Magazine.  Among  his  elegant  volumes 
iipon  English  local  history  were  Bibliotheca  Topographica 
Britannica  (.52  Xos.,  1780-00);  Tlie  Progresses.  Processions, 
Festivities,  and  Pat/eants  of  Queen  Elizabeth  (4  vols.,  1788- 
1821)  and  of  h'ing  James  L(i  vols.,  1828) ;  and  The  History 
and  Antiquities  of  the  Town  and  Counti/  of  Leicester  (7 
parts,  8  vols.,  1795-1815).  I),  in  London;  Nov.  26,  1826.— 
.lou.v  tiouou  XirnoLS,  son  of  John  Bowver  Xichols,  contin- 
ued the  publishing  business,  editeil  several  genealogical 
journals  and  was  author  of  works  on  anti(juarian  subjects. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beeks. 

Nicholson,  J.\mes:  sailor;  b.  at  Chestertown,  JId.,  in 
1737;  was  engageil  in  the  capture  of  Havana  1762;  took 
coininand  in  1775  of  the  Defense,  a  small  Maryland  vessel, 
with  which  he  recaptured  several  prizes  from  tlie  British  ; 
was  appointed,  June,  1776,  to  the  command  of  the  Virginia 
(twenty-six  guns),  ami  in  Jan.,  1777,  succeeded  Commodore 
Esek  iroiikins  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Continental 
navy,  and  retained  that  post  throughout  the  war;  was  en- 
gaged with  his  crew  as  volunteers  in  the  battle  of  Trenton  ; 
fought  a  severe  but  indecisive  engagement  with  the  British 
ship  Wyoming  June  2,  1780,  and  was  taken  prisoner  after  a 
gallant  resistance  with  his  vessel,  the  Trumbull  (thirty-eight 
guns),  in  Aug.,  1781,  by  the  Britisli  vessels  Iris  and  (reneral 
Monk,  .\fter  the  war  he  became  commissioner  of  loans  in 
New  Vork,  wliere  he  died  Sept.  2,  1804. 

Nicholson,  John;  soldier;  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  Dec.  11, 
1821  ;  entered  the  military  service  of  the  Eiust  India  Com- 
pany in  1838;  engaged  in  the  disastrous  campaign  in  Af- 
ghanistan 1840-42 ;  was  for  some  months  a  prisoner  among 
the  Afghans;  took  part  in  the  Sikh  war  of  1845;  became 
assistant  resident  at  Lahore:  rendered  ini])ortant  services 
in  the  Sikh  war  of  1S48.  after  which  lie  became  deputy 
coramissioner  of  the  Puiijaub,  and  aci|uired  such  influence 
over  the  savage  tribes  of  the  frontier  that  he  became  the 
object  of  a  kind  of  hero-worship  among  a  sect  which  sprang 
up  called  the  Nekkul-Seynees,  which  insisted  upon  pay- 
ing him  the  honors  of  a  prophet  despite  his  energetic  re- 
fusal, carried  to  the  point  of  inllicting  floggings  to  cure  his 
misguided  worshipers  of  their  delusion.  With  Sir  John 
Lawri'iice,  Xicliolson  divides  the  honor  of  having  saved  the 
I'unjaiil)  to  British  allegiance  during  the  great  mutiny  of 
1857;  he  raiseil  the  famous  "  movable  column,"  with  which 
he  destroyed  all  the  rebel  forces  between  Lahore  and  Delhi, 
and  was  assigned  the  post  of  honor  in  the  final  assault  upon 
Delhi,  in  which  he  was  mortallv  wounded  Sept.  14,  and  (lied 
Sept.  2:i.  1857. 

Nicias,  nis  i-as  (in  Gr.  Nik(os):  an  Athenian  statesman  and 
general  from  the  period  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  was 
very  wealthy,  the  leader  of  the  aristocratic  jiarly  after  the 
death  of  I'ericles,  and  the  fierce  opponent  of  ('Icon  ;  wary, 
cautious,  and  su])erstitiou.s,  but  prudent  and  energetic.  His 
military  successes — the  capture  of  Miiioa  in  427,  of  Melos 
in  420,  of  Sphacteria  in  425,  of  Cytlii'ra  in  424 — enabled  him 
after  the  death  of  Cleon  to  negotiate  a  peace  of  fifteen  years 
between  Athens  and  Sparta  in  42L  which  received  his  name. 
Neither  of  the  parties,  however,  fuHilled  the  conditions,  and 


in  415  Alcibiades  induced  the  Athenians  to  make  an  cxpc- 
ditii>n  against  Sicily.  Xicias  tried  to  dissuade  the  people 
from  the  undertaking,  but  in  vain.  He  then  accepted  the 
eommand — first  in  connection  with  Alcibiades,  afterward 
alone — and  laid  siege  to  Syracuse.  Ke-enforcements  were 
sent  to  the  city  from  Sparta.  The  .\llieiiian  fleet  was  de- 
feated and  destroyed,  and  when  Xicias  retreated  with  his 
troojis  to  the  interior,  he  was  soon  compelled  to  surrender, 
and  he  himself  was  put  to  death  (41:)).  I'lularch  has  writ- 
ten a  very  interesting  sketch  of  his  life  and  character. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Nickel  [Germ.,  from  Swed.  nickel,  shortened  from  kop- 
parnickel.  copper-nickel,  an  ore  containing  the  metal];  a 
metal  allied  to  colialt  and  to  iron.  Although  one  of  the 
princi]ial  ores  of  nickel  was  described  by  Hiarni  in  1694 
under  the  name  of  ku[ifer-nickel,  signifying  false  copper, 
it  was  not  until  1754  that  Cronstadt  announced  the  discov- 
ery of  a  "semi-metal  "  which  he  pi-oposed  to  give  the  name 
nickel.  It  was  reserved  fOr  Bergman,  in  1779,  to  show  that 
it  was  really  a  new  metal. 

Propi-rties. — Pure  nickel,  fir  the  metal  obtained  by  gal- 
vanic deposition  from  a  solution  as  juire  as  possilile,  is  a 
silvery-white  metal  with  a  strong  luster,  not  tarnishing  on 
exiiosure  to  the  air.  It  can  be  polished  so  as  to  be  decep- 
tively like  polished  silver.  It  is  very  ductile,  hard,  and  te- 
nacious. A  nickel  wire  will  sustain  H  times  the  weight  re- 
quired to  break  an  iron  wire  of  the  same  size.  The  specific 
gravity  of  nickel  varies,  according  to  different  observers, 
between  8'27  and  S'd'A.  Its  atomic  weight  is  58'6;  its  coeffi- 
cient of  linear  expansion  0'0000727 ;  its  specific  heat  O'll ; 
and  its  electric  conductivity  7'374.  Its  malleability  is  di- 
minished by  an  admixture  of  carbon  or  manganese.  It  is 
attracted  by  the  magnet,  and  may  be  rendered  magnetic 
by  the  same  means  as  iron,  its  magnetic  power  compared 
with  that  of  iron  being  given  as  35  :  55,  or  as  8  :  9,  or  as 
3  :  3.  Repeated  ignition  destroys  its  magnetic  property, 
and  it  loses  this  power  at  a  lower  temperature  than  iron. 
Nickel  is  very  difficult  of  fusion.  Adams  succeeded  in  fus- 
ing pure  nickel  in  a  sealed  porcelain  crucible  lined  with 
pure  alumina  and  bedded  in  a  Hessian  crucible  at  a  heat 
which  fused  platinum.  Crookes  and  Rohrig  put  its  melting- 
point  at  1,900 -2,100' C.  Nickel  is  soluble  in  dilute  sul- 
phuric and  hydrochloric  acids,  but  slowly  and  with  com- 
parative difficulty.  Nitric  acid  attacks  and  dissolves  it 
readily,  as  does  aqua  regia.  Strong  nitric  acid  renders  it 
]iassive.  It  combines  directly  with  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine, 
fluorine,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  arsenic,  forming  soluble 
compounds. 

Occurrence. — In  the  earlier  days  of  nickel-mining  the  de- 
posits in  Saxony,  Cornwall,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Hungary 
furnislied  arsenide  and  sulpho-arsenide  ores.  Practically 
the  ores  utilizcil  now  on  a  large  scale  are  the  nickel- 
bearing  pyrrhotites,  which  occur  most  extensively  in  the 
Sudbury  district,  Canada,  and  the  silicates,  among  which 
garnierite  is  the  principal  one,  mined  in  New  Caledonia.  In 
the  U.  S.  nickel-mining  was  prosecuted  for  the  longest 
period  at  the  Gap  mine  in  Pennsylvania,  opened  for  copper 
in  1744,  but  worked  for  nickel  since  1863,  A  small  amount 
of  nickel  has  also  been  annually  produced  as  a  by-jiroduct 
bv  the  Muirla  Mottelead  mine  in  Jlissouri.  llining  liasalso 
been  conducted  on  a  small  scale  at  Lovelock  Station,  Nev., 
and  at  Riddles,  Ore.  Since  1885,  when  the  iirodiict ion  of 
nickel  in  the  U.  S.  was  277,904  lb.,  it  has  declined,  irregu- 
larly, until  it  was  only  49,399  lb.  in  1893. 

At  the  New  Caledonia  niinesthe  nickel  ore,  associated  with 
cobalt  ore  and  wit  h  chrome  ore,  is  found  at  the  contact  of  ser- 
peiitine  and  argillaceous  schists.  Jlining  began  in  1873,  but 
development  was  hampered  bv  thedilficiillv  in  extracling  the 
nickel  from  the  ores.  From"  1876  to  1890  the  Thio  district 
exported  59,448  tons  of  ore,  carrying  8  to  13  [ler  cent,  of 
metal  and  338  tons  of  nickel  matle.  In  1890  the  jiroduct 
was  22,689  metric  tons,  in  1891  it  rose  to  60,921  tons,  and 
in  1892  to  83,114tons,  tlie  ore  carrying  7  [ler  cent,  of  metal. 
From  lack  of  demand  only  36,(K)0  tons  was  exported  to 
France,  the  balance  going  to  slock,  which  rose  to  80,000 
Ions.  Ill  1892  l<"'raiice  produced, chiefiy  from  NewCidcdonia 
oris.  2.741,776  lb.  of  nickel  :  Sweden  in  the  same  vear  made 
33,000  lb..  Xorway  275,000  lb.,  and  Germany  1,494,000  lb._ 

In  the  Sudbury  district, opened  since  1887,  the  ore,  a  mix- 
ture of  pure  chalcopyrile  and  nickeliferous  pyrrhotite,  oe- 
curs  in  irregular  lenticular  masses  in  the  lluronian  rocks  in 
proximity  to  dikes  of  diorite.  There  are  indications  that  in 
depth  the  ore  becomes  more  nickeliferous  and  le.ss  (cupriferous. 


192 


NICKEL 


Thus  at  the  Copper  Cliff  mine  tlie  ore  carries  4  per  cent,  of 
copper  and  4'5  per  cent,  of  nickel  at  a  depth  of  400  to  500 
feet,  while  at  700  feet  the  ore  runs  on  an  average  0'5  per  cent, 
of  copper  and  8  to  10  per  cent,  of  nickel.  Generally  speaking, 
the  ore  in  the  district  runs  from  1  to  5  per  cent,  of  nickel  and 
from  1  to  4  per  cent,  of  copper.  The  total  product  of  nickel 
by  the  Sudbury  mines,  as  determined  by  the  Ontario  Geo- 
logical Survey."  was  3,992,982  lb.  It  is  sliipped  in  the  form 
of  a  copper-nickel  matte,  12,427,986  lb.  of  this  product  hav- 
ing been  imported  into  the  U.  S.  in  1893.  The  statement 
has  been  made  by  good  authority  that  the  Sudbury  mines 
can  be  worked  at  a  profit  when  nickel  sells  as  low  as  2o  cents 
per  pound.  The  district  controls  the  markets  of  the  world. 
While  formerly  the  metallurgy  of  nickel  was  much  compli- 
cated by  the  presence  of  arsenic,  cobalt,  etc.,  the  treatment 
of  the  New  Caledonia  and  Sudbury  ores  is  much  simpler. 
The  first  process  is  to  obtain  by  smelting  in  blast  furnaces  a 
matte,  which  is  a  mixture  of  sulphides  of  nickel,  copper,  and 
iron,  a  preliminary  operation  being,  when  sulphur  is  in  ex- 
cess in  tlie  ore,  to  roast  it  in  heaj:*  or  furnaces.  The  matte 
is  either  roasted  in  reverberatory  furnaces,  producing  an 
oxide,  which  is  reduced  by  carbon,  or  it  is  blown  in  a 
Bessemer  converter.  The  matte  is  also  smelted  with  alka- 
line sulphides  in  excess. 

Uses. — For  some  time  the  use  of  nickel  was  confined  to 
the  purposes  of  coinage  and  the  making  of  certain  alloys. 
In  Jamaica,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Germany,  Servia,  Brazil, 
Mexico,  Venezuela,  Chili,  and  the  V.  S.  small  coins  have 
been  made  with  an  alloy  of  nickel  with  zinc  and  cojiper, 
pure  nickel  being  altogether  too  hard  for  this  use.  The 
IT.  S.  cent,  authorized  by  the  act  of  Feb.  21,  1857,  consists 
of  88  parts  of  copper  and  12  of  nickel. 

Nickel  is  largely  used  in  the  preparation  of  German  silver 
or  nickel  silver.  This  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  brass  to 
which  one-sixth  to  one-third  of  nickel  has  been  added. 
Tradition  tells  us  that  this  alloy  has  been  in  use  in  China 
from  a  remote  period  ;  its  use  in  Europe  became  common 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  white 
copper,  or  packfong,  of  the  Chinese  contains  40'4  parts  of 
copper,  31'6  of  nickel,  25'4  of  zinc,  and  2'6  of  iron.  German 
silver  should  be,  approximately.  1  part  of  nickel,  1  of  zinc, 
and  2  of  copper.  For  casting  purposes  a  little  lead  is  some- 
times added.  A  cheaper  kind  contains  8  parts  of  copper, 
3  of  nickel,  and  3'5  of  zinc.  If  the  amount  of  nickel  fall 
below  2  parts  in  11-12,  the  silver  produced  will  be  little 
better  than  brass  ;  8  parts  of  copper,  3  of  nickel,  and  3-5  of 
zinc  make  a  beautiful  alloy  closely  resembling  silver.  Tlie 
preceding,  with  4  parts  of  nickel,  makes  a  very  beautiful 
compound  having  a  faint  shade  of  blue.  The  Chinese  tiite- 
nag  has  8  parts  of  copper,  3  of  nickel,  and  6-5  of  zinc.  This 
alloy  is  fusible,  hard,  and  not  easily  rolled.  The  color  of 
good  German  silver  is  nearly  silver  white,  its  fracture  small- 
grained,  specific  gravity  8-4  to  8-7.  It  is  as  ductile  as  ordi- 
nary brass,  but  harder  and  capable  of  being  polislied.  In 
making  it,  the  three  metals  sliould  be  granulated  and  well 
distributed  through  the  crucible,  covered  with  charcoal,  and 
well  stirred  while  in  fusion. 

The  chief  use  of  nickel  is  for  nickel-plating,  or  the  deposi- 
tion of  nickel  upon  other  metals  by  means  of  electricity. 
For  many  years  the  fact  was  well  known  that  a  liriliiautiy 
white  deposit  of  metallic  nickel  could  be  obtained  by  tlie 
electrolysis  of  a  solution  of  any  one  of  many  nickel  salts, 
but  the  possibility  of  electro-plating  with  nickel  was  not 
demonstrated  until  Dr.  Isaac  Adams,  Jr.,  solved  the  problem 
and  created,  in  fact,  a  new  art.  He  showed  the  way  of  sup- 
plying a  nickel-plating  solution  regularly  and  continuous- 
ly with  the  metal  regularly  and  continuously  withdrawn 
from  it.  The  use  and  value  of  nickel  on  account  of  its 
hardness,  beauty,  luster,  and  the  polish  which  it  takes  were 
rapidly  recognized  as  soon  as  nickel-plated  ware  became 
common. 

The  best  practical  solution  for  nickel-plating  is  a  solution 
of  the  douljle  sulphate  of  nickel  ajid  ammonia.  If  properlv 
prepared  and  used,  tliis  solution  has  the  property  of  giving 
a  deposit  with  a  smooth  surface  which  can  be  jio'lished  with 
little  labor,  and  it  gives  a  verv  thick  deposit  before  it  ac- 
quires a  rough  or  matted  surface.  The  solution  should  be 
of  a  salt  as  pure  and  neutral  as  po,ssible,  and  kept  free  from 
substances  which  would  impair  its  working  properties,  chief 
among  which  are  nitric  acid,  the  alkalies,  and  lime.  Nitric 
acid  and  caustic  alkali  are  used  for  cleaning  goods  about  to 
be  plated,  and  hence,  without  scrupulous  care,  a  little  nitric 
acid  or  alkali  will  find  its  way  into  the  plating-vat.  Nitric 
acid  in  very  small  quantities'  ruins  the  vat,  the  work  com- 


ing out  black  and  streaked.  The  presence  of  potash  or 
soda  is  at  once  manifested  by  a  deposit  of  green  oxide  or 
sub-oxide  of  nickel  upon  the  article  being  plated.  Copper, 
zinc,  and  arsenic  are  also  detrimental,  and  must  be  excluded 
or  their  bad  effects  neutralized. 

While  in  electro-plating  an  anode  of  pure  metal  is  con- 
venient and  useful,  in  working  out  the  problem  of  nickel- 
plating  Dr.  Adams  brought  to  light  the  curious  fact  that  a 
plate  of  pure  metallic  nickel — used  as  an  anode — does  not 
satisfy  the  conditions  requisite  to  successful  jjlating.  Such 
a  plate  does  not  dissolve  regularly  in  the  solution  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  it  does  not  furnish  from  itself  as  much  metal 
as  is  deposited  upon  the  objects  plating.  If  a  i>late  of  nickel 
combined  with  carbon — a  carbide  of  nickel — be  employed, 
the  metal  will  be  fed  into  the  solution  on  one  side  just  as  fast 
as  it  is  deposited  out  on  the  other,  and  thus  the  great  de- 
sideratum attained — viz.,  the  possibility  of  continuous  and 
uniform  work.  Such  cast-nickel  plates,  or  anodes,  are  now 
successfully  made,  and  form  an  article  of  commerce. 

Joseph  Wharton,  of  Philadelphia,  early  began  experi- 
menting to  determine  whether  nickel  could  not  be  pro- 
duced in  a  pure  and  malleable  condition  susceptible  of 
being  worked  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  iron,  and  of 
being  applied  in  the  manufacture  of  various  objects  re- 
quiring strength  of  material  and  a  material  that  can  not 
be  easily  oxidized.  One  of  his  earliest  experiments  was  to 
take  the  somewhat  sjiongy  mass  got  by  reduction  of  the 
oxide  of  nickel,  and,  after  heating  it  to  full  redness,  work 
it  under  a  steam-hammer  into  a  bar.  In  1873  Jlr.  Whar- 
ton sent  to  the  Vienna  Exhibition  a  sample  of  nickel  in  the 
form  of  axles  and  axle-bearings,  and  at  the  exhibition  in 
Philadelphia  in  1876  he  exhibited  a  remarkalile  series  of 
objects  made  of  wrought  nickel,  such  as  bars,  rods,  a 
cube,  a  horseshoe  magnet,  and  magnetic  needles  of  forged 
nickeh  Dr.  Fleitniann,  of  Iserlohn,  Westphalia,  Prussia, 
has  improved  and  cheapened  the  ojieration  of  refining 
nickel  and  toughening  it,  and  has  reduced  the  liability  to 
the  presence  of  blowholes  in  castings  by  adding  to  the 
molten  charge  in  the  pot,  when  ready  to  pour,  a  very  small 
quantity  of  magnesium.  Complete  malleability  of  nickel 
was  obtained  at  Wharton's  works  in  Camden,  N.  J.,  before 
Fleitmann's  invention  or  process,  but  this  last  is  more 
rapid  and  better  than  the  old  method.  The  metal  so 
treated  becomes  remarkably  tough  and  mallealile,  and  may 
be  rolled  into  sheets  and  drawn  into  wire.  Cast  plates  can 
be  successfully  rolled.  The  cast  plates,  such  as  are  made 
for  anodes,  after  reheating,  are  rolled  down  to  the  desired 
thickness.  It  is  found  that  it  is  a  great  improvement  to 
the  nickel  anode  plates  to  roll  them  down  ;  they  dissolve  with 
greater  uniformity  in  the  bath.  Nickel  so  treated  with 
magnesium  has  lieen  rolled  into  sheets  as  thin  as  paper. 
Dr.  Fleitmann  has  also  succeeded  in  welding  sheet  nickel 
upon  iron  and  upon  steel  plates  so  as  to  coat  them  equally 
on  each  face  with  a  layer  of  nickel.  The  quantity  preferred 
by  weight  is  ^  iron  and  -^  nickel,  -^^  of  nickel  being  placed 
on  each  surface.  To  secure  union,  the  iron  or  steel  must  be 
perfectly  flat  and  clean.  A  pile  is  made  with  outer  facings 
of  sheet-iron,  to  protect  the  nickel  from  scaling.  When  the 
whole  is  heated  to  the  proper  degree,  it  is  ])assed  through 
the  rolls.  The  two  metals  become  so  firmly  united  that 
they  may  be  rolled  down,  two  or  three  together  or  sepai'ate- 
ly,  to  the  thinness  desired. 

The  unusual  properties  displayed  by  meteoric  iron,  which 
is  invariably  associated  with  nickel,  attracted  attention  to 
the  alloy,  but  it  was  not  until  1885  that  Marheau's  manu- 
facture of  nickel  steel  in  the  crucible  and  its  addition  to  or- 
dinary steel  brought  out  the  valuable  ]irnjierlies  of  small 
additions  of  nickel  to  steel.  James  Riley  conducted  some 
experiments  at  the  works  of  the  Steel  Company  of  .'-icotland, 
with  open-hearth  steel,  and  showed  that  steel  containing 
4'7percent.  of  nickel  had  an  elastic  limit  of  28  tons  i)er  square 
inch,  and  a  breaking  strain  of  40  tons,  whereas  sindlar 
steel  without  nickel  showed  only  16  and  30  tons  respective- 
ly. The  elongation  and  contraction  of  area  of  the  steel 
were  not  materially  imjiaired.  In  1890  the  Creusot  works 
in  France  began  experiments  with  nickel  steel  for  armor 
plate,  and  in  1891  successful  results  were  obtained  with 
plates  of  U.  S.  manufacture.  The  amount  usually  alloyed 
with  armor-plate  steel  by  the  Bethlehem  works  is  Z\  per 
cent,  of  nickel.  Some  experiments  have  lieen  made  in  the 
direction  of  using  nickel  steel  for  heavy  forgings  and  for 
common  industrial  purposes.  For  the  hitter.  Imwevcr,  the 
alloy  is  still  too  costly.  Nickel  has  declined  slo.-idily  in  price, 
and  it  is  believed  that  the  figure  reached  earlv  in  1894  of  40 


NICKEL-PLATIXG 


NICOLL 


193 


to  45  cents  per  pouiul  does  not  reHect  tlie  ultimate  capacity 
for  placing  it  in  the  market  at  a  low  liguro. 

Kevi-sed  by  U.  Kircdhoff. 

Nifkel-plating':  See  Nickel. 

NicktTson  :  city  (founded  in  1ST8);  Kono  co..  Kan.  (for 
localiciii  of  counly,  see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  7-F);  on  the 
Atrli.,  Top.  and  S.  Fe  and  the  Mo.  Pac.  railways;  11  miles 
N.  W.  of  Hutchinson,  US  miles  N.  W.  of  Wichita.  It  is  in 
an  afiricultural  and  stock-raising  region;  contains  a  high 
scdiool,  2  brick  schoolhouses,  2  private  banks,  and  a  weekly 
newspaper;  and  has  large  .stock-yards,  roller  tlour-miU,  rail- 
way machine-shops,  salt-works,  and  creamery.  ]'op.  (1880) 
5'J1\  (IH'JO)  1,«(J2;  (1895)  1,5G0.       Editors  of  "Argosy." 

Nic'obiir  Islands:  a  group  of  twelve  inhabited  and  seven 
iminhaliited  islands  in  llie  Indian  Ocean.  12.")  miles  N.  W.  of 
the  northern  point  of  Sumatra;  area.  (i:i.")  sq.  miles,  with 
6,!tl)0  inhabitants  belonging  to  the  Malayan  race,  with  only 
a  low  state  of  civilization.  The  islands  are  very  fertile, 
producing  coeoanuts,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  bamboo,  and 
<uaiiges  in  at>undance.  All  attempts  by  the  Danes  to  colo- 
nize them  failed.  Since  ISU'J  they  have  belonged  to  Great 
liritain. 

Nicotle'mus:  a  member  of  the  Sanhe<!rim,  mentioned 
thrice  in  the  Gospel  of  John — iii.  1-21,  as  conung  to  Jesus 
by  night ;  viii.  45,  as  demanding  that  Jesus  should  be  heard 
before  being  judged  ;  and  xix.  :i8-42,  as  assisting  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  in  laying  out  the  body  of  Christ. 

Nicol,  Erskine:  genre-painter;  b.  at  Leith,  Scotland, 
July,  182.5.  He  .studied  in  the  Trustees'  Academy,  Edin- 
burgh; settled  in  London  in  186.3;  associate  of  tlie  Royal 
Academy,  London;  was  awarded  a  second-class  medal  at 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867.  His  painting  is  robust,  and 
his  works  are  popular  on  account  of  their  subjects,  which 
include  life  and  manners  in  Great  Britain.  Pnijing  the 
Rent  is  in  the  collection  of  Mrs.  W.  H.  Vanderbilt.  New 
\'ork ;  Paddy's  Mark  is  in  the  Corcoran  Gallerv,  Washing- 
ton. "W.  A.  C. 

Nieolai,  CiiRiSTOPn  Fbiedrich  :  critic  and  editor;  b.  in 
I'.erlin.  Mar.  18,  17.!:^;  was  educated  in  the  schools  of  Ber- 
lin, and  became  in  1749  ai)prentice  in  a  bookstore  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder,  where  he  privately  studied  classical  and 
English  writers,  mathematics,  history,  and  philosophy.  In 
17.52  he  returned  to  Berlin  and  entered  the  publishing-house 
of  his  father.  Through  the  publication  of  his  Briefe  ilbfr 
den  gegenwartigen  Zii.staiid  der  VTissenschaften  (1756),  he 
made  the  aciiuaintance  of  Lcssing,  and  subsequently  of 
Moses  Mendelssohn,  with  whom  he  associated  in  publishing 
the  Bibliothek  der  sr/ioiien  Win.ienxc/iKf/cn  (1757-58)  and 
the  Briefe.  die  neiteste  Litteratur  Iji-trelTend  (\1'i^-%~i).  In 
1765  Xicolai  founded  the  Al/gemeine  deiilite/ie  Bihliothek.  a 
)>eriodical  which  he  continued  until  1792,  and  by  which  he 
exerted  a  great  influence  on  German  literature.  He  also 
j)ublished  a  novel,  LeAeft  idkI  Meinungen  den  IJerrn  Magis- 
tern  Selid/ilnn  Xol/iiinker,  a  descriptinu  of  a  journey  through 
Germany  and  Switzerlanil  in  twelve  volumes,  and  a  number 
of  smaller  works.  While  ynung  and  under  tin?  stimulating 
influence  of  Le.ssing's  genius,  Nicolai  rendered  valualjle  serv- 
ices lo  German  literature,  not  only  as  a  ])ul)lisher  of  influ- 
<Mil  i;d  jo\irnals,  but  also  as  a  critic.  lie  was  among  the  first 
in  Germany  to  point  to  Shakspeare's  greatness  as  a  dranui- 
tist.  In  his  later  years  he  failed  to  understand  the  new  era 
in  German  literature  inaugurated  by  Herder  and  Goethe. 
Thus  he  attempted  to  ridicule  Goethe's  Werl/ter  by  a  silly 
parody  called  Freiiden  des  jungen  Wirf/ier  (1775).  and  in  a 
similar  manner  he  tried  to  make  fun  of  Herder's  enthusiasm 
for  the  Volkslied  by  publishing  the  Klegner  fegner  Alma- 
nacli  (1778).  His  antagonists  handled  him  mercilessly  and 
stamped  him  as  the  representative  of  shallow  reasoning  and 
barren  rationalism.  D.  in  Berlin,  Jan.  8,  1811.  See  von 
(ii)cking,  Xicolain  Letjen  iind  I itterarinclier  yarlilann  {\H20) ; 
Foss,  Friedrioh  Nicolai  in  Archiv  f.  Litteratiirgeschic/ite 
<ii.  875).  JirLirs  Goebel. 

Nieolrtioff,  or  Nikolaiev,  nw-kw-laayef :  town;  chief 
naval  station  of  Southern  Russia  and  great  grain  em[ioriuni ; 
on  the  Bug,  20  miles  from  its  mouth,  ami  80  nnlcs  N.  E.  from 
Odessa  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  lO-(').  It  is  strongly  defend- 
ed and  advantageously  situated.     Pop.  (1891)  76,578. 

E.  A.  G. 

Nicolas.  Sir  Nicholas  IlARRrs,  F.  S.  .V.:   liistorian  and 
antiquarian;   h.  at  East   Looe,  Cornwall.  England,  Mar.  10, 
1799;    liocame   a   lieutenant    in   the   Krilisli    navv  in   1815; 
297 


studied  law ;  was  called  to  the  bar  1825 ;  was  joint  editor  of 
T/te  It'etruspective  Review  1826  and  of  the  Excerpta  Histo- 
rica  1881 ;  nuide  a  knight  of  the  Hanoverian  Guelphic  order 
1881,  chancellor  of  the  Ionian  order  of  St,  JHchael  and  St. 
tieorge  1882,  of  which  he  became  grand  cross  1840.  I),  at 
Cape  Cnre,  near  Boulogne,  France,  Aug.  3.  1848.  Among 
his  works  are  Si/nopsis  tif  the  I'eerage  uf  England  (1825); 
Uistorg  of  the  Battle  of  Agincourt  (1827);  The  Chronology 
of  History  (1885) ;  History  of  the  Orders  of  Knighthood  of 
the  British  Emjiire  (4  vols.,  1841-42) ;  Dispatches  and  Let- 
ters of  Lord  kelson  (7  vols.,  1844) ;  Memoirs  of  Sir  Chris- 
topher llatton  (1847). 

Nicolaiis  (in  Gr.  tiiK6xaos)  of  Damascus  :  Greek  historian, 
intimate  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  tutor  of  the  children  of 
Antony  and  Cleopatra ;  wrote  a  Universal  History  m  144 
books,  important  fragments  of  which  have  been  preserved, 
together  with  portions  of  his  biography  of  Augustus.  See 
Muller,  Fragmenta  lUsturicorum  (fraicorum,  vol.  iii.,  pp. 
343-464.  B.  L.  G. 

Nicolay,  John  George  :  historical  writer;  b.  at  Essingen, 
Rhenish  Bavaria,  Germany.  Feb.  26,  1882 ;  was  taken  to  the 
U.  S.  by  his  father  in  his  childhood;  was  educated  in  the 
common  schools  of  Oliio  anil  Illinois;  entered  the  ollice  of 
77ie  Pike  County  Free  Press.  Pittsfield,  III.,  in  1848,  becom- 
ing finally  editor  and  proprietor ;  sold  his  newspaper  and 
became  clerk  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  Slate  of  Illinois 
at  Springfield  ;  made  the  acquaintance  of  Abraham  Lincoln, 
who  chose  him  as  his  secretary  upon  his  nonrination  as 
President  at  Chicago ;  was  private  secretary  of  President 
Lincoln  1861-65;  was  U.  S.  consul  in  Paris,  France,  1865- 
69;  edited  for  a  time  The  Chicago  Bepiiljlican;  was  mar- 
slial  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  L''.  S.  1872-87.  He  is  the 
author  of  77ie  Outbreak  of  Rebellion  (Xew  York,  1881), 
and  joint  author  with  John  Ilav  of  Abraham  Lincoln :  a 
History  (10  vols..  New  York,  189i  ;  sup]).,  2  vols.,  1894). 

C.  n.  Thurber. 

Nicole,  nee  kol',  Pierre  :  moralist  and  theologian  ;  b.  at 
Chartres,  France,  Oct.  19,  1625.  He  studied  at  Paris  at  the 
College  d'llarcourt  and  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  was  a  preco- 
cious scholar  in  the  classics  and  theology.  He  entered  Port 
Royal  as  a  master  of  classical  studies,  and  soon  became  the 
spokesman  of  its  ideas  and  its  efficient  but  anonymous  de- 
fender in  its  contentions  with  the  Jesuits.  He  was  the 
stanch  and  life-long  friend  of  Arnauld.  and  was  associated 
with  him  in  the  composition  of  the  famous  Logique  or  Art 
de  penser  ot  Fort  Royal,  and  of  many  controversial  works. 
He  fled  with  him  to  the  Netherlands  from  the  renewed  re- 
ligious persecutions  in  167!),  but  his  more  pacific  spirit  led 
him  to  relinq\iish  theological  controversv  as  a  condition  of 
returning  to  J'aris  (1688).  D.  Nov.  16,  1695.  He  furnished 
Pascal  the  materials  for  some  of  the  Lettres  Provinciates, 
supervised  the  first  collected  edition,  and  published  (16.59), 
under  the  pseudonym  of  William  Wendrock.  a  Latin  trans- 
lation of  them  that  rivaled  the  original  in  popularity.  In 
his  eighteen  letters  under  the  title  IjCs  Imaginaires  et  les 
Visionnaires  (1667)  he  expressed  the  austere  puritanism  of 
Port  Royal  in  its  condemnation  of  the  dranui  and  fictiim 
generally. and  excited  Racine  to  a  bitter  personal  reply.  His 
chief  title  to  enduring  fame  is  his  thirteen  volumes  oS  Essais 
de  Morale  and  Lettres,  y>egm\  in  1671,  which  assure  him  a 
place  in  the  .second  rank  of  morali.sts.  They  were  regarded 
by  his  contemporaries  as  masterpieces  of  literary  style,  but 
now  only  the  Essai  sur  te  moyen  de  conserver  la  paix  avec 
les  hommes  is  cited.  They  are  judicious  in  thought  and 
just  in  expression,  but  lack  depth.  A.  G.  Canfield. 

NicoU.  William  Rohertsox.  LL.  T).  :  a  minister  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at  Aberdeen.  Oct.  10,  1851  ; 
was  educated  al  .Vberdeen  L'niversity  and  the  Free  Church 
College  of  Aberdeen;  was  minister  at  HulTtown  1874-77, 
and  at  Kelso  1877-86;  since  1884  lie  has  been  the  editor  of 
The  Expositor;  since  1886  editor  of  The  British  Weekly,  of 
which  he  was  the  founder:  since  18!U  editor  of  The  Book- 
man, of  which  he  was  the  founder:  the  projector  and  editor 
of  The  Expositor's  Bible  (to  be  com|)leted  in  aliout  40  vols.); 
the  Theological  Educator:  The  Foreign  Biblical  Library; 
The  Household  Library  of  Expiisiliiin ;  The  Clerical  Li- 
brary; The  Sermon  Bible;  The  Sermon  Year  Book;  and 
similar  publications.  He  is  the  author  of  Tlie  Incarnate 
Saviour  (1881);  The  Lamb  of  find  (1886) ;  ■Tames  Mncdow- 
ell;  Memoir  of  Prof.  AVnirfiV"  (1890) ;  The  Key  of  the  Cfrare 
(1898) :  and  viith  C.  K.  Shorter  a  new  lAfe  of  the  Brontes 
(189.5).  C.  K.  HovT. 


194 


NICOMEDIA 


NIEBUHB 


Nicome'dia  (in  Gr.  NiKOfi-hSeia) :  the  capital  of  ancient 
Bithynia,  at  the  head  of  tlie  Sinus  Astacenus,  founded  by 
Nicoraedes  I.  (278-248  B.  c.)  in  26-t  b.  c.  after  the  destruction 
of  Astacus  (a  little  to  the  S.  E.  of  it)  by  Lysimacluis.  From 
293  to  330  A.  D.  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Eastern  Konian  em- 
pire, and  contained  many  splendid  buildings.  It  has  suffered 
rery  severely  from  earthquakes,  as  in  358  and  362  A.  d.  Ar- 
rian  was  born.  Hannibal  died,  and  Diocletian  abdicated  here. 
Coustantine  died  at  his  Villa  Ancyrona,  close  by.  The  mod- 
ern Turkish  town  of  Ismid  occuiiies  the  old  site. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Nicopolis  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  SiKdnoKn.  liter.,  city  of  victory ; 
vIkti,  victory  -I-  Tr6\is,  citv] :  name  of  ten  ancient  cities,  one  in 
Egypt,  four  in  Asia,  anil  five  in  Europe,  each  commemorat- 
ing a  victorv.  The  most  nnportant  are  :  (1)  in  Epirus.  built 
by  Augustus  after  the  naval  battle  of  Actium  (31  B.  c).  Long 
a  splendid  citv,  after  manv  vicissitudes  it  was  destroyed  by 
the  Bulgarians  (1034).  Its  extensive  ruins  are  5  miles  X.  of 
Prevesa.  A  heroic  battle  was  fought  here  (Oct.  3,  1798) 
by  760  French,  Prevesans,  and  Suliotes  against  7,000  soldiers 
of  Ali  Pasha  of  Yanina.  See  Bellaire's  Les  lies  loniennes 
sous  la  dominalum  fratifaise.  (2)  A  town  in  Bulgaria  on 
the  Danube  (Bulg.  Nicopol),  probably  ancient  Xkopolls  ad 
Istruin,  founded  by  Trajan  after  the  second  Dacian  war 
(106).  Bayezi<l  I.  there  won  a  great  battle  (1396)  over  the 
allied  French,  Hungarians,  and  Germans.  European  his- 
torians assert  that  60,000  Ottomans  were  slain.  Pop.  (1888) 
5^156.  E.  A.  Grosvexor. 

Nicosia,  nee-ko-seeaa,  or  Lefcosia (anc.  Tremittis):  capi- 
tal of  Cvprus  since  1192;  surrounded  by  high  walls  raised 
by  the  Venetians  and  still  intact ;  famous  for  its  wines  and 
carpets  (see  map  of  Europe,  ref.  8-H).  When  captured  by 
the  Ottomans  (1-570)  20,000  persons  were  massacred.  Pop. 
12.51.5.  E.  A.  G. 

Nicosia  :  town  of  Sicily ;  40  miles  N.  W.  of  Catania  (see 
map  of  Italy,  ref.  9-F).  It  is  picturesque  and  venerable  in 
appearance  "with  its  mediieval  cathedral  and  four  churches, 
but  its  inhabitants  are  reputed  the  most  illiterate  and  un- 
civilized of  the  island.     Pop.  15,460.  E.  A.  G. 

Nicotine,  or  Nicotia  :  See  Tobacco. 

Nictlieroy,  nrek-ta-roi'  :  former  capital  of  the  state  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  Brazil ;  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  bay.  opposite  Rio 
de  Janeiro  city  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  6-G).  The 
business  portion,  sometimes  called  Praia  Grande,  contains 
few  buildings  of  interest,  but  the  suburbs  of  Icarahy,  Sao 
Domiugos,  Sao  Lourenijo,  etc.,  scattered  for  a  long  distance 
along  the  shores  of  the  bay  and  among  the  hills,  contain 
many  charming  residences  and  are  favorite  holiday  resorts. 
Nict'herov  was  repeatedly  boml)arded  during  the  naval  re- 
bellion of  1893-94.     Pop.  over  20.000.  H.  H.  S. 

Nicne'sa.  Diego,  de  :  a  Spanish  commander :  b.  at  Baeza, 
Spain,  about  1465.  He  went  to  Espanola  in  1502.  acquired 
considerable  wealth  there,  and  later  was  agent  for  the  col- 
onists in  Spain.  For  his  subsequent  history,  see  the  arti- 
cle Dariex. 

Niciim.  John.  D.  T).  :  Lutheran  clergyman ;  b.  in  Wur- 
temberg,  Jan.  6.  1851 ;  educated  at  Muhlenberg  College, 
AUentown,  Pa.,  and  the  Theological  Seminary,  Philadel- 
phia ;  became  pastor  at  Frackville,  Pa.,  1876.  Frankford, 
Philadelphia,  1878.  Syracuse,  X.  Y.,  1880.  Rochester,  X.  Y., 
1887.  Ilis  chief  works  are  History  of  the,  Neie  York  Min- 
isterium  (1888),  and  a  translation  with  additions  of  Wolfs 
The,  Lutherans  in  America  (1891).  He  is  a  member  of  the 
American  Society  of  Church  History  and  a  contributor  to 
its  printed  proceedings,  as  well  as  to  The  Lutheraii  Church 
Reriew,  The  Independent,  and  the  various  Lutheran  Church 

fiapers.  Dr.  Xicinn  has  also  been  active  in  securing  uniform 
egislative  action  for  the  Lutlicran  churches  in  the  State  of 
Xiw  York.  H.  E.  .Jacobs. 

Nidiina,  nce-daa'na  [Sanskr..  cause,  from  vdd,  to  bind]: 
one  of  the  twelve  links  of  the  Buddhist  chain  of  cause  and 
effect  which  Gautama  thought  out  under  the  Bo-tree  during 
the  third  watch  of  the  night  in  which  he  became  Enlightened. 
He  saw  that  Iijiinranee  (In  a  previous  state  of  existence,  of 
the  Four  Xoble  Truths)  was  tlie  first  cause  of  life  with  all  its 
misery  and  .sorrow.  From  tliis  ignorance  comes  Conforma- 
tions, or  the  character-forming  qualities  derived  from  for- 
mer births;  from  conformations  come  Consciousness  :  from 
consciousness  Corporeal  Form  and  Name  (that  is,  individual 
being) ;  from  this  come  the  Six  Organs  of  Sense  :  from  these 
Contact;  and  from  contact  with  the  objects  of  sense  comes 
Sensation;  from  sensation  comes  Desire,  or  lust,  which  in 


turn  brings  Attachment,  or  clinging  to  the  object  of  desire 
(life):  from  this  clinging  to  life  comes  Continuity  of  Be- 
coming. This  leads  to  Birth  in  one  of  the  six  Gati  (q.  r.), 
and  with  birth  come  Sickness.  Disease,  and  Death.  But 
if  Ignorance,  the  first  cause,  be  removed  by  the  comjilete  ex- 
tinction of  desire,  each  link  will  in  turn  be  removed,  re- 
birth will  be  avoided,  sorrow  and  suffering  will  come  to  an 
end.  and  Xirvana  will  be  attained.  See  Monier-Williams's 
Buddhism  (London  and  X'ew  York.  1889);  Oldenberg's 
Buddha  (trans,  by  Hoey,  London.  1882);  Alabaster's  Wheel 
of  the  Law  (London.  1871):  and  the  other  works  mentioned 
under  the  article  Blddhism.  R.  Lilley. 

Niebelungen :  See  Xibelvxgexlied. 

Niebiilir,  nee  boor.  Barthold  Georg  :  historian  and 
statesman ;  b.  at  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  Aug.  27.  1776 ; 
studied  law  and  philosophy  at  Iviel  and  Giittingen  ;  was  ap- 
pointed private  secretary  to  Count  Schimmelmann,  Danish 
Jliuister  of  Finance,  in  1796,  and  next  year  secretary  to  the 
royal  library  in  Copenhagen:  visited  England  in  1798,  and 
entered  the  civil  service  of  the  Danish  Government  in  1799; 
but  his  enthusiasm  for  England  and  hatred  to  Xapoleon 
made  it  very  unpleasant  for  him  in  Copenhagen,  and  in 
1806  he  removed  to  Berlin,  where  from  this  year  till  1809 
he  held  various  offices  in  the  financial  dejiartment  of  the 
Prussian  Government.  He  soon  fell  out.  first  with  Stein, 
then  with  Hardenberg,  and  finally  resigned.  Appointed 
histnri<igrapher  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  he  delivered  in  1810- 
11a  course  of  lectures  on  the  history  of  Rome  at  the  newly 
established  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  this  sphere  his  brill- 
iant genius  and  immense  learning  at  once  found  their 
proper  application.  From  1816  to  1822  he  resided  in  Rome 
as  Prussian  amljassador  to  the  papal  court,  though  in  reality 
wholly  occupied  by  scientific  studies;  and  in  the  latter  year 
he  removed  to  Bonn  as  professor  at  the  university.  Here  he 
developed  a  great  literary  activity  ;  founded  the  Bhei/iisches 
Museum  (1827).  superintended  the  new  edition  of  the  Corpus 
Scriptormn  Historiw  Byzantino',  and  continued  his  great 
work,  the  Rom  isch  e  Geschich  te.  Under  the  violent  impression 
which  the  French  Revolution  of  1830made  on  him,  he  broke 
down  mentally  and  physically,  an'd  died  Jan.  2,  1831.  His 
Romische  Geschichte  (3  vols.,  1811-32)  is,  so  far  as  it  goes — 
namely,  to  the  first  Punic  war — a  complete  reconstruction 
of  the  history  of  Rome.  The  entire  narrative  of  the  found- 
ing of  Rome,  and  the  subsequent  regal  period,  all  of  which 
had  up  to  Xiebuhr's  time  been  accepted  as  authentic  history, 
he  discarded,  after  a  thorough  critical  analysis,  as  purely  leg- 
endary. Some  of  his  hypotheses  have  been  rejected,  such 
as  that  of  the  epical  source  of  the  early  Roman  legends ; 
others  have  lieen  modified,  stich  as  that  of  the  origin  of  the 
plebs;  but  the  fundamental  distinction  between  history  and 
legend,  and  the  methods  employed  in  distinguishing  them, 
inaugurated  a  new  epoch  in  the  study  of  history,  and  his 
wonderful  intuition  into  the  correlation  between  the  various 
elements  of  which  a  social  organism  is  composed,  as  well  as 
the  astonishing  power  of  imagination  with  which  from  a 
few  scanty  remnants  he  reconstructed  the  whole  organism, 
will  always  bear  witness  to  his  eminent  genius.  Other 
works  are:  Kleine  hisforische  und  philologische  Schriften 
(2  vols.,  1828):  Lectures  on  Roman  History  (S  vols.,  1843): 
Lectures  on  Ancient  History  (3  vols.,  1851);  edition  of 
Fronto  (1816).  See  Susanna  Winkworth,  Life  and  Letters 
of  B.  G.  Kiehuhr  (3  vols..  London.  1852);  F".  Eyssenhardt, 
Barthold  Georg  Mebuhr  {Gotha,  1886);  Bursian,  Gesch.der 
class.  Philol.  in  Deutschland.  pp.  647-663. 

Revised  by  Alfred  Gudeman. 

Niehllhr,  Karsten;  traveler:  b.  at  Li'idingworth,  in  the 
Hanoverian  district  of  Hadeln,  Mar.  17.  1733;  studied 
mathematics  at  Gottingen ;  became  lieutenant-engineer  in 
the  Danisli  service  in  1760,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
sent  as  mathematician  to  an  expedition  to  Arabia,  Persia, 
and  the  neighboring  countries  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
information  liearing  on  Xew  Testament  history  and  gcogra- 
phv.  Though  all  his  companions  in  the  expedition  per- 
ished Xiebuhr  continued  his  travels  for  several  years,  and 
on  his  return  to  Denmark  applied  himself  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  valuable  work  on  Arabia,  Beschreibung  von  Ara- 
hien  (Copenhagen,  1772).  He  also  published  Reisebeschrei- 
bung  von  Arabien  und  andern  umliegenden  Ijdndern  (1774- 
78)  and  Reisen  dnrch  Syrien  nnd  Pah'istinn  (1837).  an<l 
edited  the  papers  of  Forslial,  the  naturalist,  who  died  on  the 
journey — De.'<criptiones  animalium  (1775)  and  Flora  .^gyp- 
tiaro-Arabica  (1776).  D.  at  Meldorf,  Holstein,  Apr.  26, 
181.5. 


NIEL 


XKiHTIXGALE 


195 


Niel,  la'e-el ,  Adolpue:  marshiil  of  Franee ;  b.  at  Miiret, 
Haute-(iarunne,  France,  Oct.  4,  1803;  was  uducateil  at  the 
ftcole  I'olytechnique  of  Paris  and  the  Military  Acailcniy  of 
Metz;  liistinguished  himself  in  the  expedition  against  Con- 
stantino IHiiG,  and  was  made  commander  of  the  engineering 
corps  in  Algeria;  took  part  in  the  expedition  against  Rome 
in  l.S4'J;  conducted  the  siege  of  Bomarsund  in  \^'>i,  and 
planneil  the  operations  which  led  to  the  fail  of  Sebastopol ; 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Italian  campaign  of  185!),  was 
made  a  marshal  of  France  after  the  battle  of  Solferino,  and 
Minister  of  War  in  1867.     D.  in  Paris,  Aug.  KJ,  18Ci). 

Nicl'lo-work  :  ornamental  work  in  which  plates  of  metal 
are  engraved  with  ornamental  tigures,  the  lines  of  which  are 
then  filleil  with  a  black  alloy  and  the  whole  burnished.  The 
art  is  practiced  in  Kussia.  and  to  a  certain  extent  by  the 
silversmidis  of  \yesterii  Europe  and  the  U.  S.  Some  of  the 
earliest  ami  best 'niellos  are  Byzantine;  the  most  celebrated 
are  Italian  of  the  Cinipie-ceiito  period,  and  printing  from 
engraved  plates  is  thouglilto  have  originated  in  niello-work 
of  that  time.  K.  S. 

Nienicewicz,  nyem-tscv  icli,  .Iulian  Ursvx  :  poet;  b.  at 
Skoki,  Poland,  Feb.  16,  17o7;  received  a  military  education, 
but  left  the  service  in  1788,  and  entered  into  Polish  politics 
as  a  deputy  from  Lithuania;  fought  in  17!(4  at  the  side  of 
Kosciuszko;  was  carried,  together  with  him,  as  a  prisoner  to 
St.  Petersburg,  and  later  accompanied  him  to  the  U.  S.  He 
returned  to  Poland  in  1807,  ami  plaved  a  conspicuous  part 
in  politics  tiiere  till  18:i0.  Shortly  after  the  fall  of  Warsaw 
he  went  to  Paris  (18y;i),  where  lie  resided  till  his  death.  May 
21,  1841.  In  Polish  literature  he  became  very  celebrated  as 
the  author  of  elegies,  e.g.  Dumania  w  Ursynoivie  and  Muje 
przemiany,  and  of  the  memorable  historical  songs  Spieivy 
hf/iiloriczne  (Warsaw,  1816-18-19).  He  also  wrote  dramas, 
Puwrld  /xi.ilii  (The  Messenger's  Return),  Kiniinierz  irielki, 
Sdmiitti/j,  Dworek  nn  ijoAcincu  ;  and  romances,  DirnJ  Siecie- 
chowie  (1815),  Lejba  i  Siora  (1831),  Jan  z  Te^zyna  (:i  vols., 
Warsaw,  1835).  Two  volumes  of  his  Memoirs  were  published 
at  Posen,  1871.  Revised  by  J.  .1.  Khal. 

Nie'moii:  river  of  Prussia  and  West  Russia.  It  rises  a 
few  miles  S.  of  the  city  of  Minsk,  becomes  navigable  at 
Grodno,  and  divides  at  Winge  into  the  Russ  and  the  Gilge, 
both  of  which  fall  into  the  Kurisehes-ITatT.  It  is  500  miles 
limg,  navigaljle  400  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  is  of  consider- 
able commercial  consequence, 

Niepce,  ni"e-eps',  Joseph  Nicephore  :  one  of  the  inventors 
of  photography ;  b.  at  ('lutlons-sur-Saone,  France,  Mar.  7, 1765 ; 
entered  the  army  17!)3,  and  saw  active  service  in  Italy;  was 
administrator  of  the  district  of  Nice  1795-1801.  In  the  lat- 
ter year  he  returned  to  Chalons,  and  devoted  himself  to  re- 
searches in  chemistry  and  lithography.  In  1813  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  obtaining  sun-pictures,  and  afterward  in  con- 
junction with  Dagueure  (q.  i'.)  he  invented  several  of  the 
earlier  processes  used  in  Puotooraphy  i.q.  v.).  D.  .luly  5, 1833. 
— His  nejihew,  Ci„vi-i)E  Marie  Fraxc.ois  N'iepce  de  Saixt- 
'Victor(1805-70),  also  a  soldier,  wrote  Traits  Pratique  (1856) 
on  photography,  and  liecherches  Photograph iqiies  (1855). 

Nievo,  ncH'-il'vd,  Ippoi^ito  :  poet  and  novelist ;  b.  at  Padua, 
Italy,  Xov.  ;i0,  18:i3.  He  studied  philosophy  and  history  at 
the  university  in  his  native  place,  but  while  still  a  student 
became  ardently  interested  in  the  revolutionary  movements 
then  going  on.  Ho  joined  Garibaldi  as  a  volunteer,  and 
accompanieil  him  as  an  officer  on  his  Sicilian  expedition. 
On  his  return,  in  Mar.,  1861,  he  was  lost  in  the  wreck  of  the 
steamer  Krcole,  near  the  Gulf  of  Xaples.  He  had  published 
several  stories  showing  great  talents:  Jl  coiifc  perorajo, 
Angelo  ili  bontd,  and  Le  avveiitiire  del  Barone  di  Xira.stro. 
Still  more  interesting,  however,  is  his  posthumous  Confes- 
sioni  di  un  ottuageiiario  (2  vols.,  Florence,  1867) — a  kind 
of  historical  romance,  giving  a  survey  of  the  history  of  Italy 
from  1775  down  to  18.58,  and  full  of  episodes  drawn  with  a 
most  skillful  hand.  His  verses  have  Vieen  published  under 
the  title  Poesie  di  Ippolito  yievo  (Florence,  1883). 

A.  R.  JlAR,sn. 

Niftvrc,  nc'e'evr' :  central  department  of  France;  .situated 
along  the  Ijoire  and  its  two  affluents,  the  Allier  and  Xicvre, 
and  the  Yonnc,  an  alUnent  of  the  Seine.  Area,  3,633  sq. 
miles.  It  is  mountainous,  and  not  very  fertile.  Wine  is 
extensively  produced,  but  wheat  is  not  raised  in  suflicient 
quantity  for  home  consumption.  Timber  aiul  minerals  are 
al)\iiidMnt.  Iron,  coal,  copper,  lead,  and  silver  are  mined, 
and  there  are  marl)le  quarries  and  manufactures  of  glass 
and  pottery.     Pop.  (18!ll)  343,.581.     Capit:il.  Nevers. 


Nigpr:  the  third  largest  river  in  Africa,  in  respect  of  its 
length  and  the  size  of  its  ba.sin.  It  drains  an  area  of  about 
1,150,000  sq.  miles.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  three 
little  rivers,  in  about  8  20'  X.  lal.  and  10'  W.  Ion.,  and  is 
known  to  most  of  the  natives  in  its  upper  course  as  the 
Joliba  and  in  its  middle  ami  lower  courses  as  the  Quorra. 
It  is  2,500  miles  long,  and  is  nolalile  by  two  facts:  (1)  Its 
delta,  which  begins  100  miles  from  the  sea,  is  the  largest  in 
Africa,  the  mouths  of  its  outermost  branches  being  200 
miles  apart,  the  whole  including  14.000  S(|.  miles  of  low 
alluvial  plain  covered  with  forest  and  jungle.  (2)  The 
Niger  is  the  oidy  river  in  Africa  which  attords  uninter- 
rupted steam  navigation  between  the  sea  and  the  heart  of 
the  continent.  ()n  this  route,  however,  the  Niger  is  followed 
only  as  far  as  the  conlluence  with  its  greatest  tributary,  the 
Benue,  on  which  light-draught  steamers  journey  as  ifar  as 
Yola  in  Adanuiwa.  Rising  among  mountains,  the  Niger 
flows  sluggishly  N.  to  the  edge  of  the  Sahara,  and  then,  de- 
scribing a  great  bend,  it  flows  S.  E.  and  S.  to  the  Gulf  of 
(iuinea,  its  course  running  nearly  all  the  way  through  an 
undulating  plain.  The  French  have  navigated  the  river  in 
light-draught  gunboats  from  Bammaku,  on  the  upper  Niger, 
to  the  port  of  Tiniljuklu.  .\scendiiig  from  the  sea,  rock  ob- 
structions stop  navigation  at  Rabiia.  The  main  channel 
through  the  center  of  the  <lelta  is  known  as  the  Nun  river. 

C.  C.  Adams. 
Nlg'er  Territories;  the  region  in  Northwest  Africa  gov- 
erned by  the  Royal  Niger  Company  under  a  charter  granted 
by  Great  Britain  in  1886.  The'conq)any,  through  their 
agents,  made  treaties  with  alxmt  300  native  states  and  tribes, 
and  the  region  embraces  about  .500.000  so.  miles,  including 
the  Niger  delta,  but  most  of  it  E.  of  the  Niger,  and  between 
the  Sahara  and  the  Benue  river.  Their  authority  over  most 
of  this  territory  is  merely  nominal,  and  they  have  (1894) 
apparently  no  influence  whatever  over  the  great  states  of 
Sokoto  and  Bornu.  The  cajjital  is  Asaba,  above  the  Niger 
delta,  where  public  buildings,  including  a  prison  and  hos- 
pitals, have  been  erecteil.  The  head  station  of  the  military 
force  is  at  Lokoja,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Niger  and  Benue 
rivers.  Trade  is  making  gradual  but  encouraging  progress, 
amounting  (1893)  to  nearly  £400.000.  A  council  in  Lon- 
don governs  the  territories.  The  importation  of  spirituous 
liquors  is  prohibited  in  nineteen-twentieths  of  the  area. 

C.  C.  Adams. 
Night-blindness:  See  Blindness. 

Night-hinvk  :  a  name  applied  in  North  America  to  birds 
of  the  genus  C/wrdeiles.  belonging  to  the  family  Caprimul- 
gida\  or  goatsuckers.  They  are  sometimes  confoun<ied  with 
the  whip-poor-will,  from  which  they  may  be  readily  distin- 
guished by  their  forked  tails  and  absence  of  bristles  about 
the  mouth.  The  beak  is  small,  gape  of  mouth  wide,  wings 
very  long.  The  plumage  is  mottled  with  black,  white,  gray, 
and  tawny,  and  there  is  a  conspicuous  white  patch  on  the 
wing.  The  common  species.  Chordeiles  i-irgiiiiannn,  is 
abundant  in  Eastern  X'^orth  America,  and  there  are  two  sub- 
syjecies,  one  in  Florida  and  one  in  the  Southwest.  The 
Texan  night-hawk  (C  tej-ensis),  found  also  in  the  .Southwest, 
is  smaller  and  lighter  colored.  The  eggs  are  laid  upon  the 
bare  ground,  without  a  nest.  The  birds  are  well  known  by 
their  sharp  cry  and  the  loud  booming  sound  )iroduced  at 
twilight  by  the  rapid  rush  through  the  air.  Night-hawks 
devour  enormous  quantities  of  insects,  over  600  having  been 
found  in  one  bird.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Nig'ht-Iicron  :  a  iiojnilar  naiiui  for  several  species  of 
herons  belonging  to  the  genus  Niicticorax,  distinguished 
from  other  herons  by  stouter  bills  and  shorter  legs  and 
necks.  Tlu'  most  common  species  is  Xijcticora.r  ntictirora.r. 
which  is  founil  in  both  I'urope  and  North  America,  although 
the  Anu'rican  bird  is  accorded  the  rank  of  a  sub-s]iccies, 
N.  n.  nu'fius.  It  is  about  2  feet  in  li'ngth.  and  when  adult 
of  a  light  ashy  color,  top  of  head,  scapulars,  and  interscapu- 
lars dark  glossy  green.  There  are  two  long,  slender  white 
plumes  hanging  from  the  tail.  This  bird,  locally  known  as 
qua  or  i|uawk  from  its  cry.  breeds  in  colonies,  nesting  in 
high  trees  in  swampy  localities,  yi/clicorax  fiolareii.i  of 
the  Southern  V.  .S.  is  a  rarer  and  somewhat  handsomer  bird. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 
Nig'htinsrale  [0.  Eng.  nihtegnh:  niht,  nif;hl  +  ga Ian. 
sing] :  Daiiliax  lusrinia,  a  small  and  inconspicuous  member 
of  the  family  Si/lriid<p.  famed  for  its  song,  which  is  heard 
not  oidv  at  night,  but  during  the  day  as  well.  The  night- 
ingale IS  about  the  size  of  a  bluebird,  and  is  reddish  brown 
above,  grayish   white  below.     It   is  common    throughout  a 


196 


NIGHTINGALE 


NIHILISM 


great  part  of  Europe,  ranges  east  into  Persia,  and  occurs  in 
Northern  Africa.  It  also  visits  England,  particularly  the 
eastern  and  southern  counties,  where  its  song  maybe  heard 
from  the  midiUe  of  April  to  the  middle  of  June.     The  Per- 


m 


f^^'^ 


The  nightingale  (Duulias  luscinia). 


sian  nightingale  (Danlias  hafizi)  is  said  to  be  the  buUjul  of 
the  poets,  but  that  lumie  is  now  generally  applied  to  birds 
of  the  genus  Pi/cnnnotus,  members  of  another  family,  the 
Ixid(F.  The  nightingale  feeds  principally  upon  worms  and 
insect  larva?.  The  nightingale  of  the  East  Indies  is  the 
Kittacincla  macmra,  a  bird  resembling  the  true  nightin- 
gale. It  sings  by  night  or  in  a  darkened  cage,  and  its  song 
is  regarded  as  equal  to  tliat  of  the  true  nightingale. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Nightingiile,  Florexce  :  b.  at  Florence,  Italy,  in  May, 
1828,  of  wealthy  English  parents.  Prompted  by  philan- 
thropic instincts,  she  early  turned  her  attention  to  the  re- 
lief of  humanity,  and  studied  systems  of  nursing  and  hos- 
pital management  under  the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  Paris  and 
subsequently  at  the  Kaiserswerth  institution  on  the  Rhine. 
During  the  Crimean  war  she  was  sent  by  the  British  war 
department,  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  select  nurses,  for  the 
relief  of  the  sufferings  of  the  sick  and  woundeil  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  in  this  position  displayed  marvelous  en- 
ergy and  ability  ;  and  the  testimonial  of  £.50,000  subscribed 
for  her  by  a  grateful  public  she  devoted  to  the  founding  of 
a  training-school  for  nurses.  Her  chief  writings  are  Notes 
on  Hospitals  (18.59) ;  J\fotes  on  Nursing  (1860) ;  On  the 
Sanitary  State  of  (tie  Army  in  India  (1863) ;  Notes  on 
Lying-in  Institutions  (1871) ;  Life  or  Death,  in  India 
(1873),  etc.  Revise(l  by  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Night-jar :  See  Goatsucker. 

Nightmare  [nig/it  +  mare  <  0.  Eng.  mara.  incubus,  bad 
dream  :  0.  H.  Germ,  mara  >  Moii.  "Germ,  mahr,  ghost, 
nightmare] :  a  terrific  dream  (ephiaUes.  Iiypnophobia,  in- 
cubus, succubus)  in  which  there  appears  to  be  a  disagreeable 
object,  as  a  person,  animal,  or  golilin,  present  and  often 
upon  the  breast  of  the  sleeper,  accompanied  by  the  inability 
to  cry  out,  move,  or  call  for  help.  .Some  patients  have 
merely  a  sense  of  terror,  oppression,  and  inability  to  call, 
without  any  dream.  It  is  often  ascribable  to  heart  disease 
cr  asthma,  more  frequently  to  obstruction  in  the  circulation 
caused  by  the  pressure  of  food  or  flatulency  in  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  especially  when  the  sleeper  lies  upon  his  back 
and  the  wiMght  of  the  overloaded  viscera  falls  upon  the 
aorta.  Many  of  the  symptoms  of  nightmare  mav  occur  to 
nervous  and  anxious  "patients  in  a  half-wakeful  "state  just 
after  going  to  bed.  The  careful  voluntary  suspension  of 
the  eff(U-t  to  think  (a  suspension  often  difticult  to  accom- 
plish) will  usually  prevent  these  attacks,  which  seem  to  be 
due  to  the  performance  of  the  function  of  thinking  at  a 
time  when  the  sujiply  of  blood  to  the  brain  is  deficient. 
The  ancients  liclii'veil  tlial  devils  and  witches  were  present 
during  an  attack  of  nightmare.  They  affirmed  that  the 
evil  spirits  which  pla<'eil  themselves  upon  the  patient  were 
males,  called  incu'bi.  while  female  spirits  and  witches,  suc- 
eubi,  were  thought  to  lie  beneath  the  sleeping  sufferer. 


Nightshade  Family  :  the  Solanacea,  a  group  of  gamo- 
petalous  dicotyledons,  numbering  1,500  species,  mostly  na- 
tives of  the  warm  climates.  They  are  nearly  all  herbs  or 
small  shrubs,  a  few  only  being  trees ;  their  flowers  are  regular, 
with  a  superior  two-celled  ovary,  and  numerous  ovules.  The 
potato  (Sulanum  tuberosum),  tomato  {Lycopersicum  esctt- 
lentum),  and  tobacco  (Nicotiana  tabacuni)  are  members  of 
this  family,  as  are  also  the  species  of  Petunia,  Datura,  Oes- 
trum, Lycium,  etc.,  many  of  which  are  familiar  ornamental 
plants.  Charles  E.  Be.ssey. 

Nlgid'lus  Fig'iilus,  Publius:  Latin  grammarian;  pra-- 
tor  5t^  B.  c.  As  a  follower  of  Pompey  banished  by  Ca'.sar,  he 
died  in  exile  45  B.  c.  Next  to  Varro  the  most  learned  man 
of  his  time,  he  treated  not  only  grammar,  but  also  subjects 
connected  with  natural  science  and  religion.  See  A.  Swo- 
boda.  P.  Nigidii  Figuli  operum  reliquiiv  (Vienna,  1889). 

M.  W. 

Nihilism  [from  Lat.  nihil,  nothing] :  a  philosophy  of 
universal  negation  ;  a  nickname  given  to  the  tenets  of  the 
extreme  section  of  Russian  revolutionists  and  rebels  against 
the  czar's  authority,  who  are  erroneously  supposed  to  be 
partisans  of  universal  destruction,  without  having  any  posi- 
tive constructive  element  in  their  programme. 

Origin  of  the  Naine. — The  term  Nihilism  was  invented  by 
the  great  Russian  novelist  Ivan  Turgenev.  and  appears  for 
the  first  time  in  his  novel  Fathers  and  Cltitdren.  It  is 
used  as  a  nickname  of  the  hero  BazarotT,  who  impersonates 
an  intellectual  movement  which  came  into  existence  during 
the  epoch  of  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs  (1861).  and  which 
since  the  appearance  of  Turgenev's  novel  has  actually  been 
known  in  Russia  under  the  name  of  Nihilism. 

Primitive  and  genuine  Nihilism  was  a  school  of  philosoph- 
ical and  ethical  individualism  which  flourished  in  Russia 
between  18.55  and  1865.  and  is  now  entirely  extinct.  It  was 
the  first  manifestattion  of  the  awakening  of  the  feeling  of 
independence  in  the  masses  of  educated  Russians.  It  had 
no  political  aspects,  however,  and  was  by  its  very  nature 
opposed  to  political  action.  It  proclaimed  man's  absolute 
independence  of  all  claims  which  the  family,  society,  the 
state,  had  upon  him.  It  was  a  vehement  and  impassioned 
protest  of  the  individual  man  against  the  subjugation  which 
was  imposed  u)>on  him  by  ancient  traditions  in  the  name  of 
the  family  and  the  community.  These  early  Nihilists  did 
not  deny  everything,  for  they  believed  fii'iiily,  fanatically, 
ill  science  and  in  the  power  of  the  individual  mind ;  but; 
they  refused  to  bow  to  any  other  authority,  and  deprecated 
all  that  was  based  upon  emotions,  fancy,  supposed  reve- 
lation. Something  similar  took  place  in  Germany  in  the 
so-called  Sturm  vnd  Drang  period,  and  for  similar  i-easons. 
With  all  its  grotesque  exaggerations  this  early  Nihilism  was 
a  grand  and  useful  movement  in  a  country  where  the  indi- 
vidual had  been  crushed  and  downtrodden  for  generations. 
The  recognition  of  the  rights  of  women  and  of  children  in 
modern  Russia  is  due  to  the  struggle  of  the  early  Nihilists. 
They  paved  the  way  for  the  modern  militant  Nihilism,  in 
which  the  idea  of  individual  independence  has  received  a, 
broad  political  and  social  conception :  but  this  social  feel- 
ing came  from  quite  a  different  source. 

The  Origin  of  the  3Iodern  Political  Movement. — Political 
aspirations  manifested  themselves  with  the  Russian  people 
at  a  very  early  date,  almost  as  soon  as  Western  Europe  set 
them  a  good  example.  The  Napoleonic  wars  resulting  in 
the  invasion  of  France  and  the  temporary  occupation  of  her 
provinces  by  the  Russian  and  German  armies  brought  a 
consideralile"  section  of  the  best  Russian  troops  into  contact 
with  the  French,  fresh  from  their  great  Revolution.  The 
result  was  a  political  fermentation  among  the  officers  and 
even  soldiers  of  the  imperial  guard  whicli,  ten  years  later 
(Dec.  14,  1825),  brought  about  the  famous  Decembrist  insur- 
rection, which  for  a  moment  imperiled  the  throne  of  the 
Emperor  Nicholas.  This  insurrection,  which  had  for  its  aim 
the  emancipation  of  the  serfs  and  the  establishment  of  a  free 
constitution  in  Russia,  and  which  was  led  and  su])ported  by 
men  of  the  highest  i)ositinn  in  the  country,  opened  the  long 
struggle  for  freedom  which  has  been  going  on  in  Russia. 
The  revolt  was  put  down,  six  of  its  leaders  perishi'd  on  the 
scaffold.  125  were  sent  to  the  Siberian  mines,  and  all  sym- 
pathizers and  accom]ilices  were  treated  with  extreme  sever- 
ity :  but  the  traditions  of  this  first  liberal  movement  could 
not  be  extirpated,  and  in  the  next  general iuu  there  arose  in 
Russia  a  great  writer  and  patriot,  Alexander  Ilertzen  (see 
IIertzen.  Alexander),  who,  having  voluntarily  expatriated 
himself  in  order  better  to  serve  the  cause  of  Russian  free- 


NIHILISM 


197 


<lom,  scttlcil  in  Lonilon  and  there  started  his  famous  Kiilokol 
(Alarm  Hell),  a  periodical  which  had  an  cn<irmuus  influence 
in  Russia.  Moreover,  he  founded  a  free  printinjc-olllce.  which 
did  for  Ifussia  what  the  free  presses  of  Switzerland  and  the 
Netherlands  did  fur  France  in  the  time  of  Voltaire  and 
Diderot.  The  leadiuf;  jxiints  of  the  projjranime  of  llertzen 
and  the  democ-rals  of  his  time  were  those  of  the  Deecm- 
lirisls,  namely,  free  constitutional  governnK'Ut  for  the  coun- 
try anil  the'emancipation  of  the  serfs.  Owing  to  better 
knowledge  of  the  agrarian  arran};enients  and  of  the  aspira- 
tions of  the  peasantry,  they  laid  proper  stress  upon  the 
agrarian  (piestion,  advocating  the  emaucijiation  of  the  serfs 
with  land  i^ndowmeiit.  and  they  had  the  satisfaction  of'see- 
iiig  thai  their  plan,  although  mutilatetl,  was  accepted  in 
priniMple  by  the  (joverinuent  in  ll^fil. 

Transformation  of  the  Iiuliridudlislie  Nihiliitm  info  a 
Piilitir(il  and  Social  Movejnent. — With  the  majority  of  the 
educated  classes  aspirations  for  liberty  found  their  satisfac- 
tion in  the  indivi(lualisllc  rebellion  described  above.  The 
years  lS()0-(i4  mark  the  fullest  dominion  of  this  school, 
which  fouml  Its  prophet  in  Dmitry  I'isarev,  an  essayist  and 
literary  critic  of  the  Hiixskoi  S/oro  (1-iussian  Word),  the  or- 
gan of  this  Individualistic  Xihilism  ;  but  even  at  this  jjcriod 
there  was  in  the  movement  an  undercurrent  making  in  an- 
other direction.  It  nuiy  be  called  social  Nihilism  as  op- 
posed to  the  individualistic,  atid  was  represented  in  1860 
by  Nlidiolas  Tchernyshevsky,  the  publicist,  journalist,  econo- 
mist, and  novelist,  lie  was  a  .socialist  and  the  father  of  the 
Kussian  revolutionary  movement.  He  preached  the  abso- 
lute devotion  of  the  imlividual  to  the  cause  of  his  country, 
but  he  gave  the  idea  of  self-sacrifice  an  individualistic  in- 
terpretation as  the  fulfillment  of  the  highest  personal  hap])i- 
ness  for  people  of  a  high  intellectual  and  moral  development. 
The  theory  of  moralized  egotism  and  egotistical  self-abne- 
gation was  developed  by  Tchernyshevsky  with  admirable 
skill,  and  .served  as  a  transition  to  the  doctrine  of  absolute 
devotion  to  the  good  of  the  community.  As  time  went  on 
and  tluMlisastrous  results  of  the  economic  shortcomings  of 
the  emancipation  act  of  1861  became  more  and  more  ap- 
parent, the  influence  of  Tchernyshevsky  gained  upon  that 
of  the  genuine  Nihilism  represented  by  Pisarev.  The  gen- 
eration of  1870  was  educated  by  Tchernyshevsky,  but  it 
took  from  him  the  kernel  of  his  ethics,  dropping  as  useless 
his  theory  of  all-j)ervading  individualism.  Another  writer, 
Schapov,  whose  name  Is  little  known  abroa<l,  must  be  men- 
tioned here,  because  his  Influence  in  shaping  the  views  of  the 
present  revolutionary  movement  was  perhaps  even  greater 
than  that  of  Tchernyshevsky.  Sehapov  is  the  historian  of 
the  Kussian  j)ea.santry.  His  object  has  been  to  bring  to  light 
the  constructive  principles  of  political  and  social  life,  ad- 
hered to  by  the  masses  of  the  peasantry  as  opposed  to  those 
which  the  Muscovite,  ami  afterward  the  St.  Petersburg  mon- 
archy, forced  upon  them.  These  principles  are  self-govern- 
ment and  local  autonomy  In  administrative  and  ecclesias- 
tical matters,  as  oijposed  to  the  administrative  and  ecclesias- 
tic centralization  of  the  state  :  and  in  the  economic  domain 
communistic  ownership  of  land,  meadows,  forests,  fisheries, 
and  all  natural  riches,  as  opposed  to  the  system  of  private 
property  maintained  by  the  state.  Thus  he  has  shown  the 
nuus.ses  of  Russian  peasantry  to  be  an  excellent  plastic  ma- 
terial for  the  building  up  of  a  community  <liametrically  op- 
posed to  the  centralized  despotism  which  has  been  consti- 
tuted by  temporary  lilstorieal  necessity — namely,  the  mili- 
tary struggle  with  alien  conrpierors. 

Nihilism  since,  1S70. — L'pon  the  ground  thus  prepared 
foreign  influences  began  to  work  powerfully  after  1870, 
which  is  the  epoch  corresponding  to  the  greatest  develop- 
ment  (if  internatiomd  socialism.  At  that  tinu'.  as  nowadays, 
international  socialists  were  divided  into  two  sections,  the 
social  democrats  and  the  anarchists.  The  former  advocated 
the  abolition  of  private  property  in  the  instruments  of  labor 
and  their  collective  ownership  by  the  worknu'ii  ;  but  they 
wished  to  preserve  the  present  poiltical  organizations,  which 
should  be  made  an  instnnnent  with  which  to  rclmild  the 
economic  structure  of  the  community.  Thus  for  the  social 
democrats  the  practical  object  was  to  fake  possession  of 
political  power.  Peaceful  electoral  agitation  was  their  chief 
weapon.  The  anarchists,  h(>iiiled  then  by  the  TJussian  Jli- 
cliael  liakunin  (see  I?aki:nmn',  Michaki,),  advcu'ated  the  total 
abolition  of  the  state  and  the  sulistitution  for  it  of  a  series 
of  small,  al>solutely  Independent,  and  freely  constituted  com- 
munes. Of  these  two  doctrines,  the  latter  had  by  far  the 
greater  fascination  for  the  Russian  socialists  of  1870.  It 
seemed  the  shortest  way  to  universal  happiness,  and  it  flat- 


tered the  national  feeling  of  the  Russians.  The  political 
backwardness  of  tlieir  country  was  no  longer  a  drawback, 
but  an  advantage.  The  antii|uatinl  autocracy  was  easier  to 
overtlirow  than  a  constitutional  monarchy  based  upon  the 
popular  vote.  According  to  liakunin,  the  village  commune 
(niir)  had  oidy  to  be  freed  from  the  oppressive  futor.'ihip  of 
the  state  to  become  an  ideal  form  of  the  anarchical  organ- 
ization of  .society.  In  fact,  Bakunin"s  anarchy  was  but  a 
queer  mixture  of  the  Prudhonlan  doctrine  with  the  Slav- 
ophilism of  Khomiakov  or  peasantism  of  Sehapov.  The 
Kussian  anarchy  of  1870  was  a  mere  dream  of  universal 
harmony;  but  it  had  for  its  practical  result  the  complete 
estrangement  of  the  extreme  revolutionary  party  from  the 
majority  of  advanced  Russians.  The  autocracy  was  op- 
posed simjily  because  it  was  a  government,  no  sub.sfantial 
difference  being  admitted  to  exist  between  Kussian  autoc- 
racy and,  for  example,  the  Engllsli  parliamentary  ref/ime. 
Accordingly,  nothing  was  expected  and  nothing  was  asked 
from  the  educated  cla.sses  and  the  liberal  opposition,  which 
was  In  favor  of  a  constitutional  government  for  Russia. 
The  socialists  of  this  epoch  based  all  their  hopes  upon  the 
pea.saiifs.  Thousands  of  young  people  of  both  sexes,  most 
of  them  belonging  to  the  upper  classes,  went  on  a  crusade 
among  the  peasants.  They  renounced  all  their  privileges 
and  became  themselves  comniim  manual  laborers  in  the 
fields,  in  factories,  at  the  wharves  and  railways,  in  all  places 
where  common  workpeople  assembled.  The  movement  failed 
completely.  In  1873-74  some  1,500  propagandists  and  agita- 
tors, or  their  friends  and  relatives,  were  arrested  in  the 
thirty-seven  provinces  of  the  empire  and  thrown  into  prison. 
Half  of  them  were  released  after  a  few  months'  detention; 
the  rest  were  kept  in  solitary  confinement  for  from  two  to 
four  years,  during  which  seventy-three  of  them  eitlier  died 
or  lost  their  reason.  In  1877  a  part  of  them  (11)8)  were  tried 
and  condemned  to  various  punisluneids.  from  simple  exile 
to  fen  years'  penal  servitude  in  the  Siberian  mines. 

A  number  of  other  trials  of  the  same  nature  followed, 
serving  to  the  Russian  socialists  as  an  object  lesson,  show- 
ing the  ehildi.sh  inconsistency  of  their  indifference  to  the 
forms  of  political  government.  Sounder  views  gained 
ground  very  rapidly,  but  passions  spoke  first.  The  wanton 
cruelty  with  which  political  prisoners  were  treated,  the 
horrors  of  preliminary  detention,  the  barbarous  punishments 
inflicted  for  trifling  offenses,  proved  unendurable  even  to 
the  mild,  patient  Russians.  The  .spirit  of  revenge  was 
kindled,  giving  birth  to  the  first  attacks,  known  by  the 
name  of  terrorism,  ujion  the  Government.  The  terrorism 
began  with  the  shot  of  Vera  Zassulitch  at  Gen.  Trepoff, 
who  had  ordered  the  flogging  of  a  political  prisoner.  On 
Mar.  81,  1878,  she  was  aciiultfed  by  the  jury,  although  she 
had  never  denied  her  act.  In  1878  the  terrorism  was  ac- 
cepted as  a  system  of  warfare  by  the  Russian  revolutioni.sts, 
whose  organ  was  a  pajx-r  called  Zemlia  i  VoUu  (Land  and 
Liberty).  This  was  the  first  practical  struggle  with  the 
worst  representatives  of  political  despotism,  ancl  it  gradiuUly 
led  to  a  very  radical  change  in  the  theoretical  lu-ogramme. 
In  1880  the  most  energetic  and  numerous  section  of  the 
Russian  revolutionists  jiroclaimed  that  the  aim  of  their  at- 
tacks upon  the  Government  was  the  obtaining  of  a  consti- 
tution for  Russia.  This  was  the  Karodnaia  Volia  party 
with  the  "  executive  committee  "  at  its  liead.  which  nuiy  be 
c<insldered  the  embodiment  of  Nihilism  as  understood 
abroad.  A  miiuirlfy  nuide  a  split,  founding  a  paper  called 
Tcherni/  I'eri'did,  which  kept  to  the  exclusively  socialist 
agitation,  repudiating  all  interference  in  politics.  The 
paper  had  but  a  short  life,  the  police  having  discovered  and 
sequestrated  Its  printing-oflice  immediately  after  the  pub- 
lication of  Us  first  number,  and  the  party  had  such  a  small 
following  that  it  could  not  recover  from  this  blow.  It  was 
soon  dissolved. 

The  whole  of  the  revolutionary  strength  rallied  under  the 
lianner  of  the  Karodnaia  Volia,  which  In  1880  thus  formu- 
lated its  programme  of  political  and  economic  reforms: 
1.  A  permaiu'ut  representative  assendily,  having  supreme 
control  and  direction  in  all  general  state  affairs.  3.  Provin- 
cial self-government,  secured  by  the  election  of  all  public 
functioiuirles,  3.  Independence  of  the  village  commune 
as  an  economic  and  administrative  unit.  4.  t'imipletc  lili- 
erty  of  conscience,  speech,  press,  meetings,  association,  and 
electoral  agitation.  5.  Manhood  suffrage.  6.  Substitution 
of  the  standing  army  liy  a  territorial  militia.  7.  National- 
ization of  land,  8.  A  .series  of  measures  tending  to  trans- 
fer the  posses.sion  of  factories  to  workmen. 

These  points  make  the  programme  a  socialistic  one,  but  it 


198 


NIIGATA 


NIKOLA   I.   PETROVIC-NJEGO^ 


is  strictly  social  democratic.  It  is  intended  that  the  re- 
moulding of  the  country's  economic  structure  shall  be  carried 
out  exclusively  by  the  future  national  parliament.  For  the 
present  the  obtaining  of  such  a  parliament  is  the  object  to 
which  are  directed  all  the  efforts  of  the  revolutionary  body 
known  to  outsiders  by  the  name  of  Nihilists.  The  early 
formless  anarchism  has  disappeared  so  completely  as  to 
leave  no  trace  whatever.  In  fact,  since  1879  there  have  not 
been  any  anarchist  manifestoes  or  pamphlets,  or  any  declar- 
ation of  anarchist  opinion  at  any  of  the  numberless  trials. 
There  were  two  ways  in  which  the  Nihilists  tried  to  carry 
out  their  campaign  against  autocracy.  The  first,  which  is 
widely  known,  is  that  of  direct  attempts  against  the  repre- 
sentatives of  autocracy.  The  second,  which  is  little  known, 
was  the  organizing  of  military  insurrections  similar  to  that 
of  the  Decembrists.  These  insurrections  did  not  take  place : 
the  police  succeeded  in  discovering  the  plots  before  they 
were  matured.  In  the  years  1882-84  about  300  military 
officers  of  all  arms  were  arrested  all  over  the  empire. 

In  1888  the  minority,  which  had  seceded  from  the  bulk  of 
the  party  and  founded  the  unsuccessful  Tcherny  Perediel, 
started  in  Switzerland  a  paper.  The  Social  Democrat,  tnlly 
indorsing  the  programme  of  the  German  socialists.  Owing  to 
the  remarkably  rapid  growth  of  this  party  among  German 
workmen,  and  the  direct  and  indirect  influence  of  this  mo- 
mentous fact  upon  Russian  workmen,  this  party  has  made 
striking  progress  among  the  workmen  of  all  large  Russian 
cities.  It  has  for  its  immediate  object  the  overthrow  of 
the  autocracy,  but  reckons  only  upon  the  power  of  the  prole- 
tarians, while  the  majority  of  the  revolutionary  party  gives 
greater  prominence  to  the  agrarian  question,  appealing 
chiefly  to  the  masses  of  the  peasantry  on  the  one  hand  and 
to  the  liberty-loving,  educated  classes  on  the  other.  Its 
weapon  is  organized  public  opinion,  which  will  force  the 
Government  to  yield  to  the  legitimate  demands  of  the  peo- 
ple, which  "include  alike  the  conception  of  the  right  of  the 
people  to  political  freedom  and  the  conception  of  their  right 
to  satisfy  their  nuiterial  needs  on  the  basis  of  national  pro- 
duction. The  party  considers  the  guarantees  of  these  rights 
to  be  :  1.  Representative  government  on  the  basis  of  universal 
suffrage.  3.  Freedom  of  religious  belief.  3.  The  independ- 
ence of  courts  of  justice.  4.  Freedom  of  the  press.  5.  Free- 
dom of  meetings  and  associations.  6.  Inviolal^ility  of  the 
individual  and  his  rights  as  a  man."  The  programme  adds 
the  demand  for  wide  jirovincial  and  territorial  self-govern- 
ment, considering  that  in  view  of  the  variety  of  tribes  ami 
nations  composing  the  empire,  "  a  necessary  condition  of  po- 
litical freedom  is  the  recognition  of  the  right  to  political 
self-determination  for  all  tlie  nationalities  entering  into  its 
composition." 

Bibliography. — (1)  On  the  early  part  of  the  movement : 
Nicholas  Tnrgcnev  (uncle  to  the  novelist).  La  Rtissie  et  les 
Russes  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1847:  also  Germ,  trans.);  Alexander 
Hertzen,  La  cnnspii-atirm  Russe  de  1S35  (London,  1858).  and 
Du  dfreliyppemmt  (h.s  iilees  revolulionnaires  en  Riissie  (Lon- 
don, 1858);  Golovin,  J/e(nf  Beziehungen  zu  Hertzen  und 
zu  Bakunin  ncbst  einer  Ei-ileitung  ilber  die  Decemhristen. 

(3)  Upon  the  modern  movement :  Geoi'ge  Kennan,  <S'(- 
heria;  Edmund  Noble.  The  Rnaiiian  Revolt;  Peter  Kropot- 
kin,  article  in  The  Furtniqhthj  Reciew  (London,  June,  1882) ; 
Adolph  Thun,  Oe.schichle  d.  Riiss.  mhilismus  (Basel,  18S:j) ; 
L.  Tikhomirov,  Riissiff.  Pn/i/iral  and  Social  (London,  1887) ; 
Stepniak,  Underi/round  Russia  (London,  1883)  and  Tlie 
Russian  Storm  C'loud  (London,  1886).  S.  Stepniak. 

Nligata,  nee'ce-gaa'tiui :  a  city  and  port  of  .Japan;  situ 
ated  on  the  west  coast  of  the  main  island,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Shinanogawa ;  seat  of  the  local  government  of  Echigo 
(see  map  of  .lapan,  ref.  5-D).  The  town  is  built  on  a  nar- 
row strip  of  laud  between  the  river  and  the  ocean,  which  is 
barred  from  view  by  high  siiiid  hills.  Opened  to  foreign 
trade  in  186!t,  and  noiuinally  a  treaty-port  and  the  residence 
of  foreign  consuls,  Niigata  has  virtually  no  foreign  trade. 
The  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  prevents  vessels  of  for- 
eign build  from  entering,  ami  the  open  roadstead  is  unsafe. 
During  high  westerly  winds  vessels  have  to  seek  shelter  at 
the  isle  of  Sado,  abo'ut  41)  miles  distant,  which,  lamed  for 
its  gold  mines,  forms  part  of  the  prefecture  of  Niigata. 
Niigata  i.?  a  bigoted  center,  of  Buddhism.  A  species  of 
nuislin,  chijimi,  made  from  hemp,  is  manufactured  in  the 
country  districts  :  the  apples  and  watermelons  of  the  |irov- 
ince  ares  considered  the  nest  in  the  empire.     Pop.  40,778. 

J.  M.  Dixon. 

Nijmwegen :  See  Nymwkgkn. 


Nijnii-Novgorod,  or  Ni,jegoro(l :  government  of  Central 
Russia,  along  the  Volga  and  its  affluents,  the  Oka  and  the 
Vetlooga.  Area,  19,797  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  mostly 
level :  the  soil  is  not  very  fertile,  but  excellently  cultivated ; 
large  quantities  of  grain,  hemp,  and  flax  are  raised.  In  the 
northern  part  extensive  forests  are  fomid,  which  have  given 
rise  to  considerable  ship-building  and  manufactures  of  all 
kinds  of  wooden  implements.  There  are  also  manufactures 
of  Russian  leather,  soap,  iron,  and  many  other  articles. 
Pop.  (1890)  1,569,500. 

Nijnii-Novgorod  :  town  of  Russia  :  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  same  name ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga, 
at  its  confluence  with  the  Oka ;  275  miles  by  rail  E.  of 
IMoseow  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  6-F).  The  town  is  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  the  principal  one  being  situated  on  the 
steep  promontory,  triangular  in  shape,  and  400  feet  high,  at 
the  apex  of  which,  on  the  highest  point,  stands  the  Kremlin 
or  citadel,  surrounded  by  a  wall  30  feet  in  height.  This  por- 
tion of  the  town  is  mainly  made  up  of  three  handsomely 
built  streets ;  the  low  town  consists  of  one  long  street  along 
the  Volga.  The  whole  town  is  built  of  wood,  and  has  few 
attractions.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  for  a  great  fair 
held,  from  July  15  into  September,  on  a  triangidar  space 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Oka  with  the 
right  bank  of  the  Volga,  and  so  low  as  to  be  in  other  sea- 
sons often  entirely  inundated.  (See  Fair.)  The  ground  is 
laid  out  for  street's,  and  the  Russian  Government  has  estab- 
lished a  system  of  permanent  sewerage,  extending  from  river 
to  river,  "which  is  in  itself  an  object  of  interest.  As  the 
time  for  the  fair  approaches,  a  great  town  springs  up,  with 
churches,  theaters,  hospitals,  etc.,  all  built  of  wood  in  a  sub- 
stantial manner.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  flock 
here  on  these  occasions,  the  only  means  of  access  from  the 
town  being  by  a  bridge  of  boats  across  the  Oka.  The  waters 
are  almost  completely  covered  with  boats  engaged  in  con- 
veying goods  and  people,  and  a  large  number  of  jieople  oc- 
cupy their  boats  as  residences  during  the  fair.  The  exten- 
sion of  railways  and  perfection  of  other  means  of  internal 
communicatioii  through  Russia  and  contiguous  fiortions  of 
Asia  does  away  largely  with  the  motive  for  fairs  of  this 
kind,  and  this  at  Nijnii  is  diminishing  in  imjiortance.  Pop. 
(1890)  73,033.  Revised  by  A.  C.  C'ooLiDUE. 

Ni.jiiii-Tagilsk  :  town  ;  in  the  government  of  Perm, 
Russia;  in  the  Ural  numntains;  in  a  district  exceedingly 
I'ich  in  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  platinum  (see  map  of  Russia, 
ref.  5-1).  It  contains  a  mining-school,  extensive  forges, 
and  manufactures  of  machinery.     Pop.  about  40,000. 

Nikko  [lit.,  sun's  brightness] :  a  village  of  Japan,  about 
80  miles  by  rail  N.  of  "Tokio.  situated  at  the  Vmse  of  the 
great  range  of  mountains  of  which  Nantai-san  is  the  chief 
(see  map  of  Japan,  ref.  6-E).  Here  are  situated  the  finest 
temples  in  the  empire.  Always  associated  with  religious 
edifices,  Nikko  became  of  first  "importance  as  a  religious  re- 
sort on  the  death  of  Iveyasu  (g.  v.).  whose  nutusolenm  was 
erected  on  the  southern  slope  of  a  hill  called  llotokc  Iwa. 
About  fifty  years  after  the  burial  of  lyeyasu  in  1617,  a  son 
of  the  emperor  became  abbot  of  Nikko,  and  henceforth,  till 
1868,  a  prince-abbot  was  always  in  residence.  A  long  and 
magnificent  avenue  of  cvyptoinerias  leads  up  to  Nikko,  and 
its  temples  are  marvels  of  elegance  and  beauty.  Note- 
worthv  sights  are  the  red-lacquered  bridge,  crossed  only  by 
the  ciiiperiir,  which  has  been  recently  renewed,  and  several 
fine  waterfalls.  Nikko,  which  is  a  favorite  summer  resort, 
is  2,000  feet  above  sea-level.  J.  M.  DixoN. 

Nikolaevsk,  ne'e-ko-laa'evsk  ;  fortified  town  of  Eastern 
Siberia;  on  the  Amur,  33  miles  from  its  mouth  (see  map  of 
Asia,  ref.  3-1).  It  was  founded  in  1851.  and  is  an  important 
port.     Pop.  2,500. 

Nikola  I.  Petrovi6-N,jegOS.  pefrov-ich-fiegosh :  poet ;  b. 
at  t'etinje,  Jlontenegro.  Oct.  7. 1841  ;  was  educated  at  Trieste 
and  Paris  (1856-60) ;  .succeeded  his  uncle  Danilo  (assassinated 
Aug.  13, 1860)  as  reigning  Prince  of  Montenegro  ;  waged  suc- 
cessful wars  on  the  Turks  in  1862  and  again  in  1876,  consider- 
ably enlarging  his  territory.  Hegave  hiscountrya  new  code 
(if  lawsand  asort  of  constitutional  government.  Ilepublished 
some  of  his  jioems  composed  in  the  Servian  language  in  the 
almanac  Orlir,  over  the  signature  "  N."  They  are  lyric 
songs  eulogistic  of  freedom,  and  epics  modelc<l  after  the 
folk-song.  "  lie  wrote  two  historical  tragedies.  Viihiiin  and 
Balkanska  rarica.  In  1873  he  printed  a  collection  of  his 
for  liis  private  use.     Some  of  bis  poems  have  Ijeen 


poei 

translated  into  other  Slavonic  languages. 


J.  J.  Krai.. 


NIKON 


NILSSON 


199 


Nikon  :  Patriarch  of  Moscow ;  b.  at  Nijnii-Novgorod. 
Russia,  1605;  educated  in  a  monastery;  rose  to  be  patri- 
arch 10.53;  introduced  (rreek  music  into  the  Russian  Church 
and  revised  the  Russian  liturjjy  and  confession  of  faith. 
These  reforms  excited  the  violent  oi)position  of  the  con- 
servatives, some  of  whom  split  off,  establishing  the  sect 
called  Raskolniks  or  Old  Believers,  liy  their  intrigues  he 
was  compelled  to  retire  to  a  monastery  16.5y,  and  in  1666 
he  was  deposed.  The  new  czar  canceled  this  action  and  re- 
stored him  to  his  see,  and  he  was  hastening  to  resume  his 
place  when  death  overtook  him  Aug.  IT,  1681.  See  Stan- 
ley, Iliiftory  of  the  Eastern  Church,  and  W.  Palmer,  The 
Patriarch  and  the  Txar,  a  translation  of  Nikon's  replies  to 
his  enemies  and  a  history  of  liis  career  (6  vols.,  London, 
1871-70).  Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 

Nile  [from  Lat.  Ni'lu^  =  Gr.  NtJXos,  Nile]  :  probably  the 
longest  and  most  celebrated  river  in  the  world,  and  the  most 
remarkable  of  the  four  great  streams  of  Africa.  It  flows 
from  the  equatorial  regions  along  and  inside  the  eastern 
axis  of  the  continent,  and  after  a  course  of  4,300  miles  (esti- 
mated) reaches  the  Mediterranean  in  31"  30  N.  lat.  by  two 
principal  mouths,  forming  a  delta  which  begins  near  Cairo, 
100  miles  from  the  sea.  and  extends  150  miles  along  the 
shores.  The  upper  half  of  the  Nile  drains  vast  tropical 
regions  abundantly  watered  and  receives  many  tributaries; 
the  lower  or  northern  half  traverses  the  rainless  portion  of 
the  great  desert  regions,  where  its  valley,  bordered  by  bare 
rocky  bluffs,  appears  like  a  band  of  verdure  in  the  midst  of 
this  desolate  country. 

The  basin  of  the  Nile  is  about  1,500,000  sq.  miles,  or  half 
the  size  of  the  U.  S.,  exclusive  of  Alaska.  For  centuries 
from  300  B.  c.  the  ancient  geographers  declared  that  the  river 
rose  far  S.  in  great  lakes  whose  position  was  approximately 
given  by  Ptolemy.  Their  information  was  discredited  by 
later  geographers,  and  the  source  of  the  Nile  was  the  great- 
est geogra[)hical  problem  until  it  was  solved  by  several  ex- 
plorers, chief  among  whom  were  Speke,  the  discoverer  of 
Victoria  Nyanza,  and  Baker  and  Stanley,  who  revealed  Lakes 
Albert  Nyanza  and  Albert  Edward  respectively.  The  ulti- 
mate head-waters  are  not  yet  definitely  determined.  The 
Congo-Nile  water  jiarting  S.  of  Victoria  Nyanza  ajiproaches 
within  25  to  125  miles  of  the  southern  shores  of  that  lake. 
It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  Kagera  affluent  of  Victoria  Ny- 
anza, rising  among  the  mountains  near  the  northeastern 
shores  of  Tanganyika  Lake  (Baumann,  1892),  is  the  most  re- 
mote source.  The  main  fact  is  that  the  Nile  proceeds  from 
three  lakes  lying  on  high  plateaus  under  the  equator — Vic- 
toria Nyanza  (3,800  teet),  Albert  Edward  (3,8.50  feet),  and 
Albert  Nyanza  (3,300  feet).  Victoria  Nyanza  is  very  remark- 
able, considering  its  size,  for  the  small  gathering-ground 
from  which  it  collects  its  waters.  The  true  Nile  issues  from 
the  north  end  of  it  as  a  powerful  and  rapid  stream  flowing 
toward  the  N.  \V.  into  Albert  Nyanza,  where  it  is  joined  by 
the  waters  received  from  Albert  Edward.  Thence  it  runs 
with  rapid  course,  and  leaves  the  plateau  regions  to  enter  the 
great  plains  of  the  lOgyptian  .Sudan.  Here  it  receives  from 
the  \\  .  the  waters  of  a  vast  network  of  rivers  collected  by 
the  Bhar-el-iVrab  and  the  Bliar-el-dazal,  and  those  of  the 
eastern  plateaus  through  the  Sobat.  After  the  junction  of 
these  rivers,  under  the  name  of  15har-el-Abiad,  or  White 
Nile,  it  follows  again  a  northern  course  between  the  table- 
lands of  Kordofan  and  the  plains  of  .Senna.-ir  to  Kliartuni, 
where  the  Blue  Nile,  or  Bliar-el-.\zrek,  brings  to  it  the 
united  waters  of  the  Abyssinian  plateau  ami  its  snowy 
mountains.  Lower  down,  about  S\  lat.  17  40,  another 
powerful  stream,  the  .Vtl)ara,  or  Black  Nile,  pours  in  the 
waters  of  Northern  Abyssinia.  From  this  point  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, along  its  course  of  nearly  1.500  miles,  it  receives 
not  a  single  tributary  of  intportance.  Thence  making  a 
great  bend,  it  forms  a  series  of  rapids,  the  so-called  cataracts 
of  the  Nile,  the  last  of  which  is  at  Assuan,  at  its  entrance 
into  Egypt. 

Like  all  streams  fed  by  the  periodical  rains  of  the  tropics, 
the  Nile  has  its  regular  season  of  freshets  overflowing  its 
broad  valley,  transforming  Egypt  into  a  widespreadinglake 
from  which  the  cities  rise  like  islands.  At  Khartmn  the 
river  begins  to  rise  early  in  April,  but  in  Egypt  generally  on 
June  2.5.  The  waters  then  gradually  increase  until  Sept.  27. 
At  Thebes  the  flood  reaches  40  feet;  at  Cairo,  27;  and  at 
Rosetta,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  46  feet.  After  their  re- 
treat the  waters  leave  behind  them  mud  and  moisture,  in 
which  seeds  ileposited  produ<'e  a  most  luxuriant  vegetation 
and  a  succession  of  rich  crops.    Egypt's  proverbial  fertility 


thus  entirely  depends  upon  this  annual  inundation  of  the 
Nile,  which  renews  the  manure  of  its  soil  and  provides  the 
necessary  moisture  in  this  rainless  climate.  A  rise  of  only 
20  feet  at  Cairo  causes  a  scarcity  ;  more  than  27  feet  is  un- 
favorable, and  these  excessive  floods  have  in  recent  years 
caused  great  destruction  of  property,  including  crops.  '  The 
White  Nile  contributes  very  little  to  the  fertility  of  Egypt, 
the  rich  sediment  being  derived  from  the  Abyssinian  tribu- 
taries, chiefly  the  Atbara.  At  the  flooil  period  an  enormous 
volume  of  the  water  goes  to  waste,  though  it  is  sorely  needed 
at  low  water.  The  necessity  of  a  vast  scheme  of  water-stor- 
age is  admitted,  and  engineers  (1894)  are  selecting  sites  for 
great  reservoirs  which  may  be  filled  at  flood  periods  and 
emptied  at  low  water.  The  Nile  is  navigable  for  small  ves- 
sels for  the  greater  part  of  its  course,  but  in  the  While  Nile 
masses  of  aquatic  vegetation,  known  as  the  sud,  sometimes 
impede  and  even  imprison  vessels. 

Revised  by  C,  C.  Adams. 

Xiles:  city;  Berrien  eo.,  Mich,  (see  map  of  Michigan, 
ref.  8-H);  on  the  St.  Joseph  river,  and  the  Cleve.,  Cin.,  Chi. 
and  St.  L.  and  the  Mich.  Cent,  railways;  48  miles  S.  Sv.  of 
Kalamazoo,  "JO  mdes  E.  of  Chicago.  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
region,  derives  large  power  for  manufacturing  from  the 
river,  antl  contains  flour  and  paper  mills,  iron-foundries, 
carriage  and  wagon  factories,  and  other  industrial  works,  two 
national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  ^150,000,  a  State 
bank,  capital  $35,000,  and  a  dailv  and  three  weeklv  news- 
papers.    Pop.  (1880)  4,197;  (1S90)'4,197;  (1894)  4.508. 

Niles ;  city  ;  Trumbull  co..  O.  (for  location  of  county,  see 
map  of  Ohio,  ref.  2-J) ;  on  the  Mahoning  river,  and  the  Erie, 
the  Penn..  and  the  Pitts,  and  W.  railways:  5  miles  S.  E.  of 
Warren,  the  county-seat,  .58  miles  E.  of  Cleveland.  It  con- 
tains 9  churches,  public,  high,  and  grammar  schools,  electric 
lights,  and  street-railways,  water-works,  several  manufac- 
tories, and  a  daily  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  Pojj.  (1880) 
3,879  ;  (1890)  4,289.  Editor  of  "  Independent." 

Nil^liaii,  or  Nylghau  [Hind.,  liter.,  blue  ox;  nil,  blue 
+  gau,  ox,  cow ;  cf.  Sanskr.  ydus  :  Gr.  floSs  :  Lat.  bos] :  a 
large  antelope  (Portax  tragucamtlus)  found  in  India,  in- 
habiting the  jungles,  but  ajiparently  preferring  the  vicinity 
of  cultivated  land.  The  male  is  of  a  blue-gray  color  when 
full  grown,  and  stands  about  4  feet  high  at  the  shoulders. 
The  females  and  young  males  are  tawny  red.  The  horns 
are  6  or  7  inches  long.  It  is  at  times  very  wild,  courageous, 
and  resolute,  but  ordinarily  falls  an  easy  victim  to  the  spear 
or  rifle  of  the  hunter.  It  has  never  been  thoroughly  tamed. 
The  flesh  is  very  poor,  but  the  hides  have  a  limited  use  in 
the  arts.  "  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Nilssoii.  Christine:  singer;  b.  near  W^exio,  Southern 
Sweden,  Aug.  3.  1843,  of  a  peasant  family.  Her  father  and 
brother  obtained  a  humble  lifing  by  playing  music  at  peas- 
ant festivities  in  the  neighborhood.  C'hristine  attracted  the 
attention  of  Count  Tomerhjelm  by  her  playing  and  singing 
in  a  pulilie  market-place,  and  went  by  his  aid  to  Ilalmstad, 
Stockholm,  and  Paris,  where  she  finished  her  musical  educa- 
tion by  three  years'  study  under  Wartel.  and  made  her 
det)ut  with  eminent  success  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique,  Oct.  24, 
1864,  in  La  Trariala.  In  1867  she  appeareil  in  London  in 
both  opera  and  oratorio,  and  in  1868  she  made  a  great  sen- 
sation in  Paris  by  her  representation  of  0|)helia  in  Am- 
broise  Thomas's  Hamlet.  In  that  year  also  she  sang  in  the 
Crystal  Palace,  London,  .at  the  Handel  festival.  She  first 
apjieaivd  in  the  U.  S.  in  1870  in  concerts,  and  in  1871  sang 
in  opera  with  great  success.  No  singer  ever  visited  the  U.  S., 
with  the  excepli<m  of  Jenny  IJnd,  who  created  such  an  in- 
.stantaneous  furore.  She  reappeared  in  London  in  1872,  and 
in  that  year  was  married  in  Westminster  Abbey  to  Auguste 
Rouzeaud,  who  was  connected  with  a  Paris  banking-house. 
He  afterward  failed  in  business,  and  died  in  an  asylum  for 
lunatics  in  1882.  In  1873  she  sang  with  great  success  in  .St. 
Petersburg.  From  1872  to  1877  she  sang  in  London  in 
Italian  opera  at  Drury  Lane  and  at  her  Majesty's  theater, 
taking  the  part  of  Elsa  in  Lohengrin  in  1875.  She  visited 
her  native  country  in  1876  and  again  in  1885.  In  1883  she 
made  another  professional  tour  in  the  U.S.;  married  in 
Paris  Count  Casa  de  Miranda,  a  Spanish  nobleman.  Mar.  12, 
1887.  Soon  after  she  retired  from  the  stage.  Her  favorite 
roles  are  Mignon,  Elsa,  and  JMargherita.  Her  voice  pos- 
sesses remarkable  sweetness,  brilliancy,  and  evennes.s. 

B.  B.  Vallextixe. 

Nilssoii,  Sven:  naturalist  and  archjEologi.st :  b.  Jlar.  8, 
1787,  in  Asinundtorfs  parish,  in  Skaane,  Sweden,  where  his 


200 


NIMEGUEN 


NINEVEH 


father  was  a  peasant.  He  was  Professor  in  Natural  History 
in  the  University  of  Lund  1832-56,  and  became  widely 
known  as  a  high  authority  in  zoology  and  palivontology. 
His  most  important  zoological  work  is  his  Sk-aiidinaviens 
Fauna,  in  four  volumes.  A  fifth  volume  of  Illuminated 
Figures  of  the  Scandinavian  Fauna  properly  belongs  to 
the  set,  and  the  whole  constitutes  a  monumental  work.  In 
his  later  years  he  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to 
Scandinavian  antiquities,  and  by  his  celebrated  work  Skan- 
dinaviska  Nordens  Ur-invdnare,  in  two  magnificent  vol- 
umes, he  became  one  of  the  founders  of  the  science  of  arch- 
aeology. The  first  part  of  this  work  on  the  inhabitants  of 
Scandinavia  during  the  stone  age  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish and  published  in  London  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  in  1868. 
The  second  part  treats  in  a  similar  manner  of  the  bronze 
age.     Nilsson  died  Nov.  30,  1887.     Rasmus  B.  Anderson. 

Nimegiien:  See  Nymwegex. 

Niines,  neeni  (anc.  JVetnausus] :  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Gard,  France;  beautifully  situated  in  a  valley 
between  hills  covered  with  vineyards  and  orchards  (see  map 
of  Prance,  ref.  8-G).  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  has  many 
excellent  educational  institutions,  and  its  manufactures  of 
cottons,  lace,  hosiery,  brandy,  and  especially  of  silks,  are 
very  important.  The  old  portion  of  the  city  is  poorly  built, 
and"  is  separated  by  boulevards  from  the  eight  modern  sub- 
urbs, whicli  form  the  larger  part  of  the  town.  The  archi- 
tectural monuments  which  the  city  contains  from  the  Ro- 
man period  are  of  the  highest  interest.  The  Maison  C'arrce 
is  a  beautiful  Corinthian  temple,  well  preserved,  thoroughly 
restored  since  1789,  and  now  used  as  a  museum  of  paintings 
and  antiquities.  IjCS  Arenes  is  the  best  preserved  amphi- 
theater which  exists,  containing  from  thirty-two  to  thirty- 
five  ranges  of  seats.  In  the  early  Middle  Ages  it  was  em- 
ployed repeatedly  as  a  stronghold ;  afterward  poor  people 
used  it  as  a  sort  of  free  tenement-house.  Since  1858  it  has 
been  completely  restored.  Pont  du  Gard,  the  magnificent 
aqueduct,  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Nimes.  The  citadel,  now 
used  as  a  prison,  dates  from  1687.  The  Romans  occupied 
the  city  in  121  B.  c,  and  during  the  first  emperors  it  was  a 
magnificent  city.  Subsequently  it  suffered  mucli  from  the 
Visigoths,  Saracens,  and  Normans,  and  in  the  fourteenth 
century  it  was  nearly  deserted.  Under  Francis  I.  it  rose 
again,  and  although  it  suffered  much  liy  tlie  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  and  during  the  Revolution,  it  is  very 
prosperous.     Pop.  (1891)  71,623. 

Nirarod  :  according  to  Gen.  x.  8-12,  a  son  of  Cush  and 
grandson  of  Ham,  "a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord,"  "a 
mighty  one  in  the  earth,"  who  founded  an  empire  in  Shinar 
or  Babylonia  and  extended  his  authority  northward  over 
the  territory  of  Assyria.  This  narrative  is  probably  in  part 
an  echo  of  certain  etlinic  movements.  That  Assyria  was  a 
colony  from  Babylonia  is  an  assured  result  of  cuneiform 
study.  The  name  Nimrod,  however,  has  not  yet  been  found 
in  tKe  cuneiform  literature.  The  character  is  believed  by 
many  to  be  identical  with  the  hero  of  the  great  epic,  com- 
monly called  the  Izdubar  epic.  The  Orientid  imagination 
was  deeply  impressed  by  the  Ijiblical  jiicture  of  Nimrod, 
and  made  of  him  a  tyrant  who  persecuted  Abraham  and  was 
guilty  of  many  other  acts  of  cruelty.  D.  G.  Lyon. 

Nimrfid,  or  Ximroud  :  the  modem  Arabic  name  of  the 
ruins  which  represent .  the  ancient  Assyrian  city  Calah 
(Assyr.  Kalkhu,  Heb.  nSs).     They  lie  on  tlie  east  side  of 

the  Tigris,  about  20  miles  S.  E.  of  Mosul,  and  about  7  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  the  upper  Zab,  Calah  was  built  by 
Shalmaneser  I.  about  1320  b.  c,  and  was  after  Asshur  and 
Nineveh  the  third  Assyrian  capital.  After  tlie  rise  of  Calah 
the  three  cities  flourished  contemporaneously,  certain  of  the 
kings  having  palaces  in  more  than  one  of  them.  When  As- 
sur-nazir-pal  (884-860)  ascended  the  throne  he  found  Calah 
in  ruins  and  Assyria  in  a  weak  condition.  A  great  warrior, 
he  restored  the  military  power  of  the  nation  and  rebuilt  the 
city.  Here  resided  likewise  his  son.  Shalmaneser  II.  (860- 
824),  and  his  great-grandson,  Kamman-nirari  III.  (811-782). 
Shalmaneser  II.  has  left  inscriptions  at  Calah.  Asshur,  Nine- 
veh, Balawat,  and  other  places.  Of  later  kings  who  adorned 
Calah  may  be  mentioned  Tiglath-pileser  III.  (745-727),  Sar- 
gon  (722-705),  and  Esarhaddon  (681-668).  Sargon's  chief 
architectural  work  was,  however,  at  his  new  capital,  Dur- 
Sharrukin,  and  that  of  his  sons  was  at  Nineveh.  With  the 
accession  of  tlie  Sargon  dynasty  therefore  the  importance  of 
Calah  began  to  decline.  The  buildings  erected  here  were 
not  only  palaces,  but  also  temples  and  ziygurats,  or  towers, 


pyramidal  in  shape.  In  the  last  year  of  the  reign  of  Asshur- 
nirari  (754-745),  as  we  learn  from  the  eponyra  canon,  Calah 
was  the  scene  of  an  insurrection.  Tiglath-pileser  III.,  tlie 
successor  of  Asshur-nirari,  may  have  made  use  of  this  in- 
surrection to  seize  the  throne. 

The  ruins  are  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  Tigris,  but 
formerly  the  river,  which  has  shifted  its  course  several  times, 
ran  along  the  western  and  southwestern  sides  of  the  citv. 
The  inclosure  is  almost  rectangular  in  shape,  not  quite  a 
mile  and  a  half  from  E.  to  W.,  and  somewhat  less  than  a 
mile  from  N.  to  S.  The  southern  wall,  beginning  at  the 
southeast  angle  of  the  inclosure,  runs  W.  for  half  a  mile, 
then  turns  S.  and  extends  another  half  mile  to  the  old  bed 
of  the  Tigris,  The  greatest  length  from  N.  to  S.  is  there- 
fore almost  as  much  as  that  from  E.  to  W.  The  principal 
buildings  were  on  an  artificial  mound  or  platform  in  the 
southwest  angle  of  the  inclosure,  extending  about  two-fifths 
of  a  mile  N,  and  S.  and  about  one-fourth  of  a  mile  E.  and  W. 
The  Tigris  seems  to  have  washed  the  west  and  south  sides 
of  the  mound.  George  Smith  enumerates  the  buildings  as 
follows:  1.  A  tower  on  the  northwest  corner  of  the  mound, 
faced  with  stone  to  the  height  of  20  feet,  167  ft.  6  in.  each 
way,  built  by  Shalmaneser  II.  2.  Temples  around  the  tower 
built  by  Assur-nazir-pal.  3.  The  northwest  palace  (S.  of 
the  tower),  about  350  feet  square,  built  by  Assur-nazir-pal, 
repaired  by  Sargon.  4.  The  center  palace  (S.  of  the  north- 
west palace),  built  by  Shalmaneser  II.,  added  to  by  Ram- 
man-nirari  III.,  dismantled  by  Tiglath-pileser  III.,  who 
rebuilt  it :  destroj'ed  by  Esarhaddon,  5.  The  southwest  pal- 
ace (S.  of  the  center  palace),  built  by  Esarhaddon  out  of 
materials  of  the  northwest  and  center  palaces.  6.  The 
southeast  palace  (E.  of  the  southwest  palace),  built  by  Shal- 
maneser II.  7.  Temple  of  Nebo  (N.  of  the  southeast  pal- 
ace), built  by  Ramman-nirari  III, 

The  first  excavations  at  Nimrud  were  begun  by  A.  H. 
Layard  in  1845.  He  was  encouraged  thereto  by  Botta's  suc- 
cess at  Khorsabad.  The  expenses  were  borne  by  Sir  Strat- 
ford Canning,  and  the  work  was  successful  from  the  start. 
Many  large  and  beautiful  alabaster  bas-reliefs  were  secured 
for  the  British  Museum.  Those  come  particularly  from  the 
palace  of  Assur-nazir-pal  and  are  of  great  value,  not  only  as 
works  of  art,  but  also  for  the  light  which  they  shed  on  the 
military  methods  and  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  times.  In 
the  attention  paid  to  the  adornment  of  weapons  and  furni- 
ture, and  in  the  representation  of  the  minute  and  elaborate 
embroidery  on  the  dress  of  the  king  and  his  attendants, 
these  sculptures  are  hardly  equaled  by  any  of  the  work  of 
the  two  remaining  Assyrian  centuries.  j\Iany  of  these  bas- 
reliefs  were  in  duplicate,  and  not  a  few  of  the  duplicates 
were  sent  to  the  U.  S.  (See  Assyria,  under  History.)  Plas- 
ter reproductions  of  the  British  Museum  reliefs  may  be 
seen  in  the  Harvard  Semitic  Museum  at  Cambridge,  ia 
the  Jletropolitan  Museum  at  New  York,  and  in  smaller 
numbers  at  other  places.  Layard's  work  at  Nimrud  occu- 
pied parts  of  several  years.  Others  have  also  carried  on 
excavations  there,  notably  Hormuzd  Rassam  and  George 
Smith. 

See  articles  Assyria  and  Assyrian  Explorations  and 
the  literature  there  cited,  and  for  the  topography,  Felix 
Jones's  Vestiges  of  Assyria,  sheet  2.  t>.  G.  Lyon. 

Ninepins:  See  Bowls  and  Bowling. 

Nine-poiut  Circle :  See  Circle. 

Nineveh  (Assyr.  Nina   and  ]!^inua,    Heb.    ni3'3,   Gr. 

NTvos.  Septuagint  version.  Niveuf):  the  most  celebrated  city 
of  the  Assyrians.  Classical  tradition  ascribes  the  founding 
of  the  city  to  Ninus  and  his  wife  Semiramis,  but  this  is  incor- 
rect, Ninus  seems  to  lie  a  mythical  personage.  The  name 
Semiramis  has  with  probable  correctness  been  identified 
with  Sammuramat,  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Ramman-nirari 
III.  (811-782),  but  Nineveh  had  existed  for  many  centuries 
before  the  time  of  Sammuramat.  The  name  of  the  city 
resembles  the  Assyrian  word  for  fish  {niinu,  Ileb.  pj),  and 
some  persons  seek  a  connection  between  the  two.  They 
find  corroboration  in  the  complex  ideogram  (the  sign  for 
fish  inside  the  sign  for  receptacle)  by  which  the  city  is  rep- 
resented, and  also  in  the  story  concerning  the  great  fish 
which  swallowed  Jonah,  the  prophet  to  Nineveh. 

'l^he  history  of  the  city  is  intimately  connected  with  that 
of  Assyria.  Here  was  the  royal  residence  during  most  of 
the  best-known  period  of  Assyrian  history.  The  begin- 
nings of  Nineveh  antedate  our  knowledge.  A  temple  to 
Ishtar,  at  all  periods  the  favorite  deity  of  the  city,  existed 


NINEVEH 


NINGPO 


201 


tliure  ill  till'  iiiiioteeiith  century  b.  i'.  The  library  of  As- 
surljiuiipitl  furnishes  a  copy  of  a  hymn  addressed  lo  Islitar 
of  Nineveh,  tlie  oriijinal  of  which  seems  to  have  come  from 
the  eiijliteentli  or  uineteentli  century  B.c.  In  the  time  of 
the  Kl-.Vmarna  correspondence  (sixteenth  century  H.  c), 
the  worshi[)  of  this  Ninevite  jjoddess  was  known  in  tile 
land  of  Mitanrn,  and  seems  to  have  been  even  introduced 
into  Kifvpt.  After  this  time  the  temple  of  Ishlar  was  re- 
stored by  many  of  the  kings  of  Assyria.  As  Nineveh  had 
overshadowed  the  older  capital  Asshur,  so  it  in  turn  was 
overshailowed  by  Calah  on  the  erection  of  this  latter  city  l>y 
Shalmaneser  I.  '  (Sec  XimkC D.)  Witli  the  accession  of  the 
Sargon  dynasty  (7'22-(i(IG).  however,  the  loss  was  more  tliaii 
regained.'  Sargon  himself  preferred  to  build  a  new  city  and 
palace,  Iml  Ins  successors  Sennacherib,  EsarhacUUju,  and 
A.ssurlianipal  lavished  their  time  and  wealth  on  the  adorn- 
ment of  Nineveh.  The  extensive  conquests  of  this  dynasty, 
especially  in  the  west,  as  far  as  the  Mediterranean  and 
Egypt,  added  greatly  to  the  royal  resources.  C'cdar-ti'ees 
for  the  roofs  of  the  "buildings  were  cut  down  in  LiOianon 
by  Manasseh  the  Judcan  and  neighboring  kings,  and  trans- 
ported thence  to  Nineveh.  Sennacherib  informs  us  that 
he  tore  down  the  palace  of  his  predecessors,  because  it  was 
too  small  and  in  decay,  and  that  he  erected  another  on  a 
grander  scale.  This  structure  must  have  covered  numy  acres, 
because  it  was  made  large  enough,  not  only  for  the  residence 
of  the  king  and  his  attendants,  but  also  for  the  royal  horses 
and  for  the  storage  of  booty.  In  the  Bavian  inscrijjtion  he 
informs  us  that  lie  enlarged  the  city,  fortified  it  with  lofty 
walls,  irrigated  the  country  around  by  a  system  of  canals, 
and  surrounded  the  capital  with  parks  and  plantations. 
Elsewhere  he  tells  ns  that  he  built  the  "  Royal  Street "  53 
cubits  wide,  leading  to  the  park  gate,  and  published  a  decree 
forbidding  the  abutters,  under  penalty  of  death,  from  laying 
any  part  of  the  foundation  of  a  house  within  the  limits  of  the 
street.  Esarhaddon,  who  restored  Babylon,  which  had  been 
destroyed  liy  his  father,  built  a  palace  at  Calah  and  also  one 
at  Nineveh.  The  last  named  was  considered  by  its  builder 
superior  to  any  that  had  gone  before.  It  was  likewise  sur- 
rounded by  a  park  containing  rare  foreign  plants,  and  its 
completion  was  celebrated  by  a  great  feast.  Assurbanipal 
lived  in  the  palace  built  by  his  grandfather  Sennacherili,  the 
restoration  of  which  he  records  at  length  and  with  evident  sat- 
isfaction. He  found  it  necessary  also  to  strengthen  the  city 
walls,  which  had  suffered  much  from  continued  heavy  rains. 
The  restoration  and  adornment  of  the  temples  of  Ishtar  and 
Nebo  at  Nineveh  also  engaged  his  attention.  In  the  palace 
of  Assurbanipal  was  situated  the  royal  library,  that  store- 
house to  whicli  we  are  so  much  indebted  for  our  knowledge 
of  Assyrian  affaii-s.  Hence,  too,  have  come  many  of  the 
finest  lias-reliefs  in  alabaster.  In  the  time  of  the  Sargon- 
id:c  Nineveh  was  politically  the  chief  city  in  the  world. 
West  and  south,  even  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt,  were  subject. 
Ambassadors  came  from  all  known  regions  bearing  tribute  ; 
the  harem  was  crowded  with  princesses  from  many  lands, 
whose  fathers  felt  honored  in  being  thus  allied  to  the  great 
ruler;  the  city  was  thronged  with  captives  and  booty,  archi- 
tecture and  learning  flourished.  The  prophet  Nahum  gives 
an  idea  of  the  strength  and  splendor  of  the  city.  A  speedy 
decline  followed  Assurbanipal.  The  war  with  Babylon  in 
the  middle  of  his  reign,  though  successful,  was  a  serious 
blow  to  the  greatness  of  Nineveh.  His  successors  were 
weak,  and  [irolmlily  had  neither  time  nor  means  for  exten- 
sive building  operations.  In  the  sack  of  the  city  by  the 
Babylonians  and  their  allies  in  606  B.  c.  the  palaces  and 
tenijiles  were  reduced  to  ruins,  burying  in  llieir  fall  the  best 
products  of  the  Assyrian  development. 

The  tradition  of  the  site  of  Nineveh  lias  survived  until 
to-day.  The  ruins  lie  on  the  Tigris,  E.  of  Mosul.  Tlie  river 
touches  the  inclosure  now  only  at  the  northwest  and  south- 
west angles.  The  inclosure  has  four  sides  of  unequal  length. 
It  is  'about :!  miles  long  (N.  E.  to  S.  W.)  while  its  greatest 
breadth  is  a  little  less  than  l.V  miles  in  the  northern  portion, 
and  its  least  breadth  about  three-fifths  of  a  mile  at  the 
southern  end.  The  surrounding  parks  and  villages  may 
formerly  have  been  rei'koned  as  part  i^f  the  city.  In  .louiiii 
Nineveh  is  spoken  of  as  a  "great  city"  "of  three  days' 
journey."  The  ruineil  wall  and  moat  are  still  distinct.  The 
east  side  is  furthermore  defended  by  several  outer  lines  of 
embankment.  The  river  Khausar  (Assyr.  Kliuxur)  flows 
through  the  city  from  the  E.,  dividing  it  into  two  nearly 
equal  portions,  and  emptying  into  the  Tigris.  Near  it  is 
the  principal  mound,  now  called  Kouyunjik,  which  is  ob- 
long in  shape,  about  ;!,UOU  feet  from  N.  to  S.,  and  about  half 


as  muidi  from  E.  to  W.  across  its  center.  It  has  as  yet  been 
only  in  part  explored.  P.  E.  Botta.  French  consul  at  Mosul, 
was  first  to  make  the  attempt.  His  success  in  digging  at 
Khtirsabad,  which  he  believed  to  be  Nineveh,  turned  his 
attention  from  Kouyunjik,  and  A.  II.  Ijayard  reaped  the 
great  harvest  of  discovery.  Other  explorers  have  been  Koss, 
llormuzd  Kassam,  and  George  Smith.  The  last  named 
enumerates  the  buildings  in  the  mound  as  follows :  (1)  Three 
ruined  temples,  built  and  restored  by  many  kings  in  differ- 
ent ages.  (2)  A  palace  founded  by  Shalmaneser  1.  (B.C. 
1820),  restored  by  several  subsequent  monarchs,  destroyed 
by  Sennacherib.  (8)  A  palace  founded  by  Kamman-nirari 
III.  (B.  c.  811-782),  restored  by  Sennacherib  and  Esarhaddon. 
(4)  A  palace  built  by  Tiglath-pileser  HI.  (b.  c.  745-727).  (5) 
Temple  of  Nebo  and  Merodach,  restored  by  Sargon  (b.  c. 
723-705).  (6)  The  southwest  palace,  built  by  Sennacherib 
(b.  c.  705-681).  (7)  The  north  palace,  built  by  Sennacherib, 
restored  by  Assurbanipal  (b.  c.  668-626). 

Nebbi  Yunus  (the  prophet  Jonas)  is  another  mound  of 
smaller  extent  within  the  inclosure,  about  three-quarters  of 
a  mile  S.  E.  of  Kouyunjik.  Here  also  are  the  ruins  of 
royal  buildings,  a  palace  of  Sennacherib  and  one  of  Esar- 
haddon ;  but  excavations  have  been  attended  with  more 
difficulty  than  at  Kouyunjik,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a 
Mohammedan  cemetery  on  the  mound. 

If  the  Ninevite  palaces  could  be  restored  as  they  were  in 
the  days  of  Assurbanipal  they  would  jirove  to  be  works  of 
surprising  magnificence.  Jlany  of  the  bas-reliefs  were  so 
calcined  by  the  fire  that  they  crumbled  on  exposure  to  the 
air.  Others  have  .been  ruined  by  the  action  of  the  rain, 
which  has  carved  deep  ravines  down  the  sides  of  the  mounds, 
and  still  others,  during  the  long  centuries,  have  been  dug 
out  by  the  natives  to  burn  into  lime  or  to  use  in  building 
houses.  Those  which  reached  the  British  Museum,  wonder- 
ful as  they  are,  are  but  a  very  small  portion  of  what  once 
existed. 

The  English  explorers  at  Nineveh  were  more  interested 
in  sculptures  and  inscriptions  than  they  were  in  architecture. 
They  have  accordingly  not  niaile  sucli  full  measurements, 
drawings,  and  sketches  as  the  French  have  done  at  Khorsa- 
bad  and  at  Telloh.  The  result  is  that  we  shall  never  know 
the  finest  Assyrian  palaces  so  well  as  we  do  those  of  less  im- 
portance. 

See  Felix  Jones's  Vestiges  of  Assyria,  sheet  1  (Ichno- 
graphic  Sketch  of  the  Remains  of  Ancient  Nineveh),  and 
Assyria  and  Assyrian  Explorations.  D.  G.  Lyon. 

Ningpo  :  a  foo  or  departmental  city  of  Cheh-kiang,  China, 
and  one  of  the  five  ports  opened  to  foreign  residence  and 
tr.<ide  by  the  treaty  made  at  Nanking  in  1842.  It  is  situ- 
ated at  the  confiuence  of  the  Ts'-ki  and  the  Fung-hwa  riv- 
ers with  the  Yung,  11+  miles  from  the  sea,  and  125  by  water 
from  Shanghai  :  lat.  29'  55'  N..  Ion.  121"  22'  E.  (see  map  of 
China,  ref.  6-K).  Its  walls,  which  are  25  feet  -high  and  22 
feet  thick  at  the  base,  have  a  circuit  of  nearly  5  miles,  and 
are  pierced  by  six  gates.  The  streets  are  clean  and  well 
paved  and  the  shops  and  houses  well  built.  Fire-walls  cross 
the  city  at  distances  of  200  to  300  yai'ds.  The  city,  which  is 
an  irregular  oval  in  shape,  contains  many  fine  buildings, 
among  which  are  a  seven-story  [lagoda  ItiO  feet  high  dating 
from  the  eighth  century,  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  a  lofty 
drum-tower  near  the  center  of  the  city,  the  Teiiqile  of  the 
(^uocn  of  Heaven,  founded  near  the  close  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, but  rebuilt  in  1680  by  the  Fuh-kien  merchants  (hence 
usually  known  as  the  "Fuh-kien  Temple"),  many  other 
Buddhist  and  Taoist  tenqiles,  and  numerous  pai-lows  or 
meuio]-ial  arches.  The  fcu-eign  settlement  is  scfiaralcd  from 
the  nalivi'  city  by  the  Ts'-ki,  and  occupies  the  angle  be- 
tween that  river  and  the  Y'ung. 

The  gold  and  silver  smiths  of  Ningpo  are  noted  for  the 
delicacy  and  tastefulness  of  their  work,  and  Ningpo  con- 
fectionery is  celebrated  all  over  China.  The  specialty  of 
the  place,  however,  is  its  elegantly  carved  and  inlaid  furni- 
ture. Silk-culture  is  extensively  carried  on  in  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  silk-weaving  is  an  important  indiis- 
Irv.  In  1808  4U8  piculs  of  silk  )iie(  r-gooils  were  exjiorted. 
The  development  of  manufacturing  interests  •in  Japan  has 
given  a  great  impetus  to  cotton-culture,  and  in  1808  the 
steam  cotton-ginning  establishments  of  Ningpo  cleaned  over 
6(1.000  piculs  of  raw  cotton.  Owing  to  its  proximity  to 
Shanghai  the  foreign  trade  with  Ningpo  is  not  as  great  as 
was  anticipated  when  the  port  was  opened  in  1842.  Ac- 
cording to  the  returns  of  the  imperial  maritime  customs, 
the  net  volume  of  trade  of  the  port  amounted  in  1893  to 


202 


NINIGRET 


NIRVANA 


15,478,005  taels  (116.251,905  U.  S.  gold),  of  which  6,996,717 
taels  representeil  foreign  imports,  2,192,663  taels  native  im- 
ports, and  6,288,626  taels  exports.  The  chief  articles  of  ex- 
ports were  tea  (;j,935,.5gi  taels),  raw  cotton  (1,006,116  taels), 
silk  and  silk  jjiece-goods,  and  aluin.  The  imports  include 
opium  (5.289  piculs),  cottons  (639,800  piculs),  yarn,  sugar  (90,- 
237  piculs),  tin  (581  piculs),  vermilion  (581  piculs),  lead,  kero- 
sene oil,  and  rice  (204,854  piculs).  The  number  of  vessels  en- 
tered during  the  year  was  524  (tonnage,  458,646  tons),  cleared 
530  (tonnage  459,642).  Of  the  381  steamers  that  entered  and 
cleared  162  carried  the  British  flag  and  215  the  Chinese. 

Ningpo  has  long  been  an  important  center  of  trade.  In 
1522  the  Portuguese  settled  here  by  permission  and  flour- 
ished, but  their  rapacity  led  to  their  expulsion  in  1542,  when 
800  of  the  1.200  Portuguese  residents  were  massacred,  and 
25  Portuguese  vessels  and  43  junks  were  destroyed.  The 
city  was  occupied  bv  the  British  from  Oct.  13.  1841,  to  May 
7,  1842,  and  was  captured  Dec.  9, 1861,  by  the  Taipings,  who, 
however,  were  comiielled  by  the  foreign  fleets  then  in  the 
river  to  retire  on  May  10,  1862.  It  is  an  important  center 
of  missionary  work.     Pop.  estimated  (1893)  255,000. 

R.  LiLLEY. 

Ninigret :  an  Indian  chieftain  of  the  Narragansett  tribe, 
sachem  of  Niantic  and  uncle  of  Miantonoinoli ;  was  neutral 
during  tlie  Pequot  war  of  1633,  but  aided  the  English  in 
that  ol  1637.  Having  afterward  visited  tlie  Dutch  at  Man- 
hattan and  the  Western  Indians,  he  was  suspected  of  plot- 
ting against  the  colonists,  and  war  was  declared  against  him 
by  the  commissioners  of  the  united  colonies  1653,  but  it  was 
not  immediately  carried  into  effect.  Meanwhile  Ninigret 
waged  war  upon  the  Indians  of  Long  Island,  and  having  re- 
fused to  obey  a  summons  to  Hartford  in  1654,  Maj.  Simon 
Willard  was  sent  against  him,  and  he  was  forced  to  flee.  In 
1660-62  he  sold  a  large  portion  of  his  territory  to  the  colo- 
nists, abstained  from  participation  in  King  Philip's  war 
1675-76,  and  died  soon  afterward. 

Nino,  neen'yo,  Pedro  Alonso:  navigator;  b.  at  Moguer, 
Spain,  about  1455.  He  was  early  connected  with  Portuguese 
trading  and  exploring  expeditions  to  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa;  was  commander  of  a  supply  fleet  which  sailed  for 
Santo  Domingo  in  1496:  and  was  with  Columl)us  on  his 
third  voyage  (1498)  to  Trinidad  and  the  coast  of  Pai-ia.  Re- 
turning to  Spain  immediately  after,  he  associated  himself 
with  Cristobal  Guerra,  a  merchant,  for  a  trailing  expedition 
to  Paria.  They  left  Palos  in  June,  1499,  followed  the  track 
which  Columbus  had  taken,  coasted  Venezuela  to  Curaaua, 
and  by  peaceful  trading  obtained  a  large  amount  of  pearls 
and  some  gold  from  the  Indians  ;  in  Apr.,  1500,  they  returned 
to  Spain.  This  was,  from  a  financial  point  of  view,  the  first 
successful  voyage  to  America.  Niiio  was  accused  of  keeping 
back  a  part  of  the  royal  perquisites,  was  arrested,  and  died 
before  his  suit  was  decided.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Ninon  <le  I'Enclos  :  See  L'Enclos. 

Nio  (anc.  'los) :  an  island  of  the  .lEgean,  now,  but  not 
anciently,  reckoned  as  one  of  the  Cyclades.  It  lies  N.  of 
Theara  and  S.  W.  of  Naxos,  and  is  11  miles  long  and  5 
broad.  Area,  20  sq.  miles.  It  is  rough,  but  quite  produc- 
tive, and  has  a  fine  harbor  and  some  4,000  inhabitants. 

Ni'obe  [=:  Lat.  =  (ir.  Ni60ri] :  daughter  of  Tantalus,  King 
of  Phrygia,  and  Dione  or  Taygete ;  sister  of  Pelops,  and 
wife  of  Amphion,  King  of  Thebes,  to  whom  she  bore  six 
sons  and  six  daugliters  (though  the  number  varies).  She 
was  on  intimate  terms  with  Leto,  a  wife  of  Zeus,  but  boast- 
ed arrogantly  that  slie  was  superior  to  Leto  because  she 
had  twelve  goodly  cliildren,  whereas  Leto  had  but  two,  for- 
getting that  these  two  were  the  gods  Apollo  and  Artemis. 
Enraged  at  her  presumption,  Apollo  slew  her  sons  and  Ar- 
temis her  daughters.  After  lying  unlmried  for  nine  days 
the  children  were  buried  by  the  gods  at  Thebes.  In  pity  for 
the  grief  of  Niolie,  tlie  gods  changed  her  into  stone  and 
fixed  her  forever  on  the  side  of  Mt.  Sipylus,  E.  of  Magnesia, 
on  the  Ileriuus.  Though  turned  to  stone  Xiolie  still  wept, 
for  to  this  day  water  oozes  from  the  eyes  of  the  rock-relief, 
a  story  wliich  has  been  noticed  by  Homer,  Sophocles  and 
Ovid.  Nowadays  the  so-called  Niobe  of  Jit.  Sipylus  is 
referred  to  the  art  of  the  Hittites,  who  held  sway  in  Asia 
Minor  before  the  advent  of  the  Phrygians.  The  celebrated 
group  of  Niobe  and  her  chiMren.  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery  in 
Florence,  represents  the  killing  of  the  children  by  Apollo 
and  Artemis.  It  was  discovered  in  1583  on  the  Esquiline 
in  Rome,  and  is  pruliably  not  the  group  nor  a  copy  of  the 
group  mentioned  by  Pliny  as  standing  in  the  pediment  of 


the  temple  of  Apollo  .Sosianus,  for  the  reason  that  the  ex- 
isting statues  can  not  be  grouped  in  a  pediment.  Probably 
this  group  represents  Niobe  standing  on  the  summit  of  a 
hill,  up  which  the  children  hasten  to  her  for  protection. 
Remnants  of  another  and  more  excellent  group  are  pre- 
served in  Rome  (Museo  Chiaramonti).  The  group  men- 
tioned by  Pliny  was  ascribed  in  antiquity  to  Scopas  or 
Praxiteles.  See  any  History  of  Greek  Art  under  Scopas, 
or  the  Age  of  Scopas,  but  especially  see  Stark,  Niobe  und 
die  Niobiden  (Leipzig,  1863),  and  his  Nach  dem  Orient 
(1874),  p.  243  S.  ;■  Schweisthal,  L'image  de  Kiobe  et  I'autel 
de  Zeus  Hypatos  au  mont  Sipijh  in  the  Revue  Archeo- 
logigue  (1887,  pp.  213-232) ;  Weber,  Le  Sipglos  et  ses  monu- 
ments (Vaxia,  1880);  Humann,  Ein  Ausflug  in  den  Sipylos 
(Brunswick,  1885) ;  Ramsay,  Sipylos  and  Cybele  in  Journal 
of  Hellenic  Studies,  vol.  iii. ;  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of 
Art  in  Phrygia,  etc.  (London,  1893).  p.  37  ff. ;  the  articles 
Niobe  and  Skopas  in  Baumeister's  Denkmdler. 

J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 
Niobium :  See  Columbium. 

Niobrara  River,  or  in  Fr.  L'Ean  qui  Court  (i.  e.  the 

running  water):  a  tributary  of  the  Missouri.  It  rises  in 
Laramie  Co.,  Wy.,  and  flows  450  miles  to  the  E.,  through 
Northern  Nebraska,  in  its  lower  course  separating  South 
Dakota  from  Nebraska.  It  is  a  shallow  and  very  rapid 
stream.  Its  upper  valley  is  treeless  pasture-land.  It  next 
traverses  the  Great  Sandhill  region,  believed  to  be  almost 
valueless.  It  then  flows  through  a  rocky  region  with  fertile, 
well-timbered  ravines,  and  its  lower  valley  has  good  farm- 
ing land,  with  aljundant  trees. 

Niort,  ne~e'or' :  capital  of  the  department  of  Deux-Sevres, 
France;  on  the  Sevre-Niortaise ;  43  miles  N.  E.  of  La  Ro- 
chelle  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  6-D).  It  is  a  handsome 
town  with  beautiful  promenades  and  many  elegant  build- 
ings. It  is  a  railway  Junction,  and  its  tanneries,  dyeworks, 
and  manufactures  of  chamois,  gloves,  and  shoes  are  im|)or- 
tant.  The  public  gardens  are  very  beautiful.  Pop.  (1891) 
23,313. 

Nip'isssing' :  a  lake  and  district  of  Ontario,  Canada.  The 
lake  is  in  lat.  46°  30'  N..  about  half  way  between  Georgian 
Bay  and  the  Ottawa  river.  It  is  about  40  miles  long,  30 
wiile  in  its  greatest  breadth,  and  of  very  irregular  outline. 
It  receives  many  streams,  of  which  the  most  important  is 
the  Sturgeon  river  from  the  N.,  and  empties  by  the  French 
river,  about  40  miles  long,  into  Georgian  Bay.  The  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway  runs  along  its  northern  shore.  The 
lake  is  subject  to  sudden  gales,  which  make  navigation  dan- 
gerous. Two  steamers  run  on  the  lake  in  the  summer.  The 
scenery  is  very  picturesque,  and  a  summer  Imtel  has  been 
constructed  on  one  of  the  numerous  islands.  Gold  has  been 
discovered  on  the  shores  near  the  outlet.  The  district  has  a 
climate  as  favorable  as  that  of  Ottawa,  Canada.  Good 
farming  lands  abound,  and  the  country  is  being  rapidly 
settled.  Mark  \V.  Harri.n'oton. 

Nipmucs :  See  Algonquiax  Indians. 

Nipperdey,  Karl  Ludwig  :  Latinist;  b.  in  Schwerin, 
Germany,  Sept.  13.  1821 ;  studied  under  Lachmann  and 
Ilaupt  at  Berlin ;  became  privat  docent  in  Leipzig  1850, 
professor  in  Jena  1852.  D.  by  suicide  Jan.  3,  1S75.  He 
edited  Ca'tiar.  Cornelius  Nepos.  and  the  Annals  of  Tacitus 
with  German  notes,  an  exegetical  masterpiece  (Ofh  ed.  bv 
G.  Andrcsen.  1893).  Cf.  R.  Sch.'ill,  K.  A.  (Jena,  1875),  who 
also  pulilished  C.  N.  Opuscula  (Berlin,  1877).  A.  G. 

Nijtpon  :  .See  Japan. 

NirvfiMa,  nwr-vaa'na  [Sanskr.  (in  Pfili  nibhana),  a  blow- 
ing out  (of  the  flame  of  life,  or  the  like),  extinguishment,  ex- 
tinction ;  nir,  euphonic  form  of  nis,  out  -I-  vdna,  a  blowing, 
deriv.  of  v  vd,  blow] :  the  highest  aim  and  the  highest  good 
of  the  Buddhist  saint :  the  blissful  condition  of  those  who 
by  the  removal  of  ignorance  and  the  extinction  of  desire 
have  arrived  at  a  point  where  rebirth  is  no  longer  necessary 
and  the  misery  and  sorrow  incident  to  life  are  at  an  end. 
(See  NidSna.)  "  This  is  accomplished  by  walking  in  the  No- 
ble Eightfold  Path.     See  Buddhism. 

The  attainment  of  Nirvana  is  not  necessarily  coincident 
with  death.  Gautama  liecame  enliglitened  and  attained 
Nirvana  under  the  bo-tree.  He  lived  many  years  there- 
after, just  as  an  engine  may  still  run  by  its  momentum 
after  the  steam  is  sliut  off;  but  no  craving  remained  and 
there  could  lie  no  rebirth,  tor  nothing  remained  to  be  re- 
incarnate. At  his  death  he  passed  away  "  witli  that  utter 
passing  away  in  which  nothing  whatever  is  left  behind." 


NISARl) 


NITRIC  ACID 


203 


Men  nowadays  can  not  attain  Xirvana.  Fur  ■•onliirliton- 
ment "  all  conditions  must  bu  favoralile.  When  (iautania 
was  on  cartli  lens  of  tlicmsands  acliirvi'd  it,  and  diniinisli- 
int;  numbers  after  )iis  dowasc;  but  the  o])p(jrl unity  at  last 
passed  by,  and  until  another  Budilha  eomes  men  can  hope 
only  to  be  |-eborn  in  a  more  favorable  enviroinueiit. 

Nirvana,  like  mueh  else  in  Buddhism,  is  an  inheritance 
from  the  older  Indian  philosophy,  moditied  by  the  rejection 
of  pantheism ;  but  a  pantheistic  influence  remains  in  the 
Mahayana  schools,  and  some  teachers  make  Nirvana  mean 
absorption  into  the  Absolute. 

Nirvana,  like  many  other  Buddhist  ideas,  was  too  subtle 
for  popidar  comprehension.  The  poal  was  too  distant,  and 
now  most  Buddhists  are  content  to  lie  reliorn  in  one  of  the 
heavens,  and  in  the  Norlhern  school  it  has  for  the  most  part 
been  supplanted  by  the  doctrine  of  a  Western  paradise  of 
sensuous  Oriental  bliss,  where  desire  is  not  extinguished  but 
is  gratified  for  luiinerous  anms.     See  .Sukhavati. 

See  Oldenberg's  Jiuddha,  translated  bv  Iloev  (London, 
1884):  Alabaster's  Wheel  of  the  Ldiv  (London.  "iSTl) :  Mo- 
nier-Williams's  Biidillii.-iDi  (liondon  and  New  York.  188!)) ; 
Max  .MiiUer's  essay  on  Jinddhixt  yihilifint  ;  KUinwood's 
Orieidid  lielii/iDH':  and  C'hrisU'a/ii/i/  (Scv;  York.  1892);  and 
the  works  mentioned  under  the  article  Buddhism. 

(ii;oROK  William  Knox. 

Nisard,  lu'e  zaar  ,  .Teax  Marik  Naimilkox  Dksike  :  literary 
historian;  b.  at  Chatillon-sur-.Seine,  France,  Mar.  30,  1806. 
lie  was  liberally  educated,  taught  in  the  £colc  Normale 
from  18:i0  to  1840,  was  made  Professor  of  illoquence  ut 
the  College  de  France  in  1843,  and  director  of  the  Kcole 
Normale  in  18r)7.  He  <lrew  attention  to  himself  by  criti- 
cism noticeable  for  its  lack  of  sympathy  with  the  romantic 
movement  and  the  severity  of  its  judgments  on  its  repre- 
sentative writers.  The  ideal  French  cpialities  of  mind  were 
to  him  good  sense,  clearness,  precision,  and  truth,  and  these 
he  found  in  their  perfection  in  the  literature  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  From  this  standpoint  his  main  work.  His- 
tnire  de  la  liftereiliire  Frangaiiie  (4  vols.,  1844-61),  is  writ- 
ten. Its  interest  centers  in  its  judgments  of  the  main 
classical  writers,  the  mediaeval  literature  as  well  as  all 
merely  mediocre  writers  being  mainly  neglected  and  tlie 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  being  regariled  as 
periods  of  decay.  The  same  standard  of  criticism  is  ap- 
plied with  wider  range  of  subject  in  his  various  volumes 
of  essays:  Etudes  d' IliMnire  et  de  Litterature {I85f)) ;  Nou- 
veAle.i  jfjtudeti  (1864):  Melnngex  d'Hixtoire  et  dt  Litlerature 
(1868);  /yP;S  qnntre  r/raiids  JIi.iti)riens  Latins  (1874);  Por- 
traits et  Eludes  d'JIistoire  Lit  tern  ire  (1875):  Renaissance 
et  Reforme  (1877).  lie  was  chosen  to  the  Academy  in  1850. 
I),  at' San  Kenio.  Italy,  Mar.  26,  1888.        A.  G.  C.-uxfield. 

Niscli,  or  Nissa  (ane.  Kaissus):  second  city  of  Servia;  on 
theNissava:  115  miles  .S.  E.  of  Belgrade  (.see  map  of  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, ref.  10-.I):  always  an  important  military  cen- 
ter, now  the  southern  key  of  Servia,  Here  the  Ottoman 
armies  alwavs  mustered  before  a  European  war.  J'op. 
(189:i)  19.S77.'  E.  A.  G. 

Nislia)nir' :  town  ;  in  the  province  of  Khorassan,  Persia; 
on  the  Seka:  5;i  nules  W.  of  M<'shed  (sec  map  of  Persia  and 
Arabia,  ref.  2-.1).  Il  is  a  large  city  surrounded  with  walls 
and  ditches,  but  poorly  built  and  partly  in  ruins.  The  sur- 
rounding [ilain,  however,  .situated  at  an  elevation  of  4,200 
feet,  is  densely  peopled  and  well  cidtivated.  It  has  been  a 
city  of  great  importance.  The  Greeks,  who  called  it  Ni(;aya 
and  Nicioa,  believeil  it  to  be  the  birthplace  of  (he  god 
Dionysos.  Pop.  of  the  town  (1884)  11,000,  according  to 
Schindler.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Hakrixotox. 

Ni'si  I'ri'iis  [Lat..  unless  sooner] :  a  term  of  Knglish  law 
used  (mostly  a<ljectivi'ly)  to  designate  a  trial  of  issues  of 
facts  in  a  civil  case  before  a  single  judge  an<l. a  jury,  the  recoril 
of  the  trial,  the  writ  by  which  the  jury  is  summoned,  or  the 
whole  systi'in  of  iiroceeding  at  such  trials.  The  phrase  is 
also  commonly  employed  in  the  U,  .S.  with  a  similar  mean- 
ing, though  in  some  States  the  expression  "trial  at  circuit" 
is  used.  (See  Circuit.)  The  rulings  and  opinions  rendered 
by  the  judge  in  trials  of  this  kind  are  termed  nisi-prius  de- 
cisions. Nisi-priiis  trials  and  decisions  are  distinguished 
from  those  at  bar  or  in  banc,  that  is,  those  before  a  fidl 
court,  either  for  the  trial  of  issues  of  fact  or  for  the  hearing 
of  a[ipeals  upon  iiiieslions  of  law  from  an  inferior  court. 
The  origin  of  this  pecidiar  technical  phrase  is  as  follows: 
By  the  ancient  English  practice  actions  of  various  kinds 
were  trieil  oidy  in  the  superior  courts  sitting  at  Westmin- 
ster, and  it  was  therefore  necessary  for  parties  and  counsel 


to  resort  thither  from  all  jiarts  of  the  realm  to  attend  to 
the  hearing  of  the  causes  in  which  they  were  interested. 
In  order  to  renie<iy  this  inconvenience,  it  was  provided  by 
Magna  Charta  that  actions  of  certain  kinds  should  be 
triable  in  the  county  where  the  cause  of  action  arose,  be- 
fore justices  to  be  sent  into  each  county  once  a  year.  Sub- 
sefjuently,  this  system  of  local  trial  was  extended  to  other 
a<-tions,  till  it  became  the  uniform  practice  to  try  all  com- 
mon-law actions  (as  distinguished  from  suits  in  courts  of 
equity)  in  the  first  instance  before  a  judge  and  jury  in  the 
county  where  the  cause  of  action  aro.se;  but  the  action  was 
still  nomiiutlly  instituted  as  before,  in  the  superior  court, 
and  the  jury  were  summoned  by  writ  to  ajijicar  there,  "un- 
less before"  (nisi  prius)  Ihcday  appcjinted  the  just  ices  came 
into  the  proper  county  to  hi>l(l  a  session  of  court.  These 
imjiortant  Latin  words  in  the  writ  then  became  a  convenient 
designation  for  the  system  of  trial.  These  matters  are  now 
regulated  by  the  judicature  acts,  and  the  venire  no  longer 
contains  the  w-ords  nisi  prius  or  7iisi,  but  the  words  occur 
in  the  reciu'dand  judgment  roll.  X('.s/-j5;-i'H.s  decisions  upon 
ciuestions  of  law  are  more  commonly  reported  in  England 
than  in  the  V.  S.  As  they  are  rendered  by  a  single  judge, 
and  often  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  they  are  not  generally 
deemed  to  have  as  high  value  and  authority  as  decisions 
rendered  by  a  full  court  or  an  ai)pellate  court.  Their 
weight  and  importance  of  conr.se  vary  with  the  ability  and 
reputation  of  the  presiding  judge.  The  most  valuable'Eng- 
lish  nisi-prius  reports  are  those  of  Peake,  Espinasse,  Camp- 
bell, Carrington  and  Payne,  and  Foster  and  Finlason.  For 
fuller  [)articulars,  see  the  works  of  Arehbold,  Selwyn, 
Stephens,  etc.,  on  nisi-prius  law,  and  Henry  J.  Stephen's 
yew  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  England  (11th  ed,, 
London,  1890).  Revised  by  F.  Stirges  Allex. 

Nissa,  or  Nish  :  same  as  Nisch  (g.  v.). 

Nisseii,  IIeixhich:  archa>ologist  and  historian:  b.  in 
Iladersleben,  Germany,  Apr.  8,  1S39 ;  studied  in  Kiel  and 
Berlin ;  was  privat  docent  in  I3onn  in  1867 ;  professor  in 
Marburg  1869-1876:  was  called  to  Gottingen  in  1877,  to 
Strassburg  in  1878,  and  to  Bonn  in  1884,  His  [irincipal 
works  are  Kritische  Cntersuchuniien  iiher  die  Quellen  de.r 
Jf.  und  5.  Decade  des  Livius  (186;i);  Das  Temptum  (1869); 
Ponipeiaiiische  Studien  zur  Stddtelxunde  des  Allerthiims 
(1877);  llalische  Laitdesh-unde:  (iriechische  niid  Roniische 
JUetroloyie  (in  .1.  Muller's  Ilandbnch  der  class.  Altrrthums- 
wissenschaft  (1887).  Alfred  G  idem  ax. 

Nithisdale,  or  Nithsdale,  William  JIaxwell,  Earl  of : 
1).  in  Scotland  in  1676 ;  married  Lady  Winifred  Herbert, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Powis;  took  part  in  the  rebellion 
headed  by  the  Earl  of  Mar  1713  ;  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Government  at  Pre.ston ;  was  committed  to  the  Tower  of 
London,  and  condemned  to  death;  escaped  from  the  Tower 
disguised  in  the  clothes  of  the  countess,  who  had  paid  him 
a  visit  and  remained  in  his  stead;  took  refuge  with  the 
Venetian  ambassador,  and  made  his  way  to  the  Continent. 
D.  at  Rome,  Mar.  20,  1744.     The  coiuitess  died  in  1749. 

Nito'cris  (Xeit-Aker,  Nit-Aqert):  an  Egyptian  queen; 
the  last  ruler  of  the  sixth  dynasty,  who  reigned  .seven  years. 
Her  name  has  been  found  in  the  royal  list  of  the  Turin 
papyrus,  but  upon  no  monuments.  Our  information  conies 
maiidy  from  llerodotus  (ii.,  100).  She  is  said  to  have  re- 
ceived the  throne  after  tlie  nuirder  of  her  brother  by  con- 
spinitors.  who  afterward  made  her  regent.  Her  brother's 
death  she  avenge<i  by  drowinng  those  implicated  in  the 
jilot  in  a  large  subterranean  chandjer  into  which  they  were 
invited  to  [lartake  of  a  feast  of  inauguration.  To  escape 
retribution  she  took  her  own  life.  She  is  also  said  to  have 
built  the  third  largest  ])yramid,  but  she  appeare  rather  to 
have  enlarged  and  faced  with  granite  the  pyramid  of  My- 
cerinos  of  the  fourth  dynasty,  in  which  it  is  believed  that 
her  funeral  chamljer  was  located.  .A  stcu'V  similar  to  that 
of  Cinderell.'i  attaches  to  her  under  the  name  of  Khodopis. 
Nitocriswas  also  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Psammetichus  II., 
and  of  his  daughter,  llerodotus  also  mentions  a  Nilocris, 
Queen  of  Babylon  (i..  185  f.).  OlIAKLES  R.  GiLLETT. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  and  Nitrates:  See  Nitric  .Vciu. 

Nitre:  See  Saltpetre. 

Nitric  Acid  [nitric  is  a  deriv.  of  niter^ :  one  of  the  com- 
pounds which  nitrogen  forms  with  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 
So  far  as  known,  nitric  acid  was  first  prepared  by  the  .Vra- 
bian  chemist  Geber  (probably  in  the  nintli  centm'V  a.  d.)  by 
distilling  a  mixture  of  niter  or  saltpeter,  cyprian  vitriol  (sul- 
phate of  cop]icr),  and  alum.     He  called  it  aqua  dissolutica. 


204 


NITRIC  ACID 


NITROBENZENE 


Later  it  was  prepared  by  other  methods  and  called  aqtia 
fortis.  spiritus  nitri  aci'dus,  and  acidum  nitri.  Glauber 
first  showed  that  the  acid  can  be  most  easily  made  by  treating 
saltpeter  with  sulphuric  acid.  Tliis  led  to  the  name  spiritus 
nitri  fumans  Glauberi.  Lavoisier  diseovereil  that  nitric 
acid  contains  oxygen,  and  later  showed  that  it  contains  nitro- 
gen. Nitric  acid  occurs  in  nature  in  combination  as  salts 
called  nitrates.  The  ammonium,  potassium,  and  sodium 
salts  are  very  widely  distributed  over  the  earth's  surface, 
and  in  a  few  places  nitrates  are  found  in  very  large  quan- 
tities. Small  quantities  of  nitrates  occur  in  the  air  and  in 
all  bodies  of  natural  water.  From  the  soil  the  nitrates  pass 
into  the  plants.  Nitrates  are  formed  wherever  organic  sub- 
stances containing  nitrogen,  especially  refuse  animal  matter, 
undergo  decomposition  in  the  soil  in  contact  with  alkaline 
bases  or  their  carbonates.  This  conversion  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  nature,  and  it  has  been  the  subject  of  much  in- 
vestigation. It  was  first  thought  that  nitrification,  as  the 
process  is  called,  was  due  simply  to  the  action  of  oxygen, 
but  the  work  of  Schlosing  and  Wilntz,  as  well  as  that  of 
Warrington,  has  shown  that  it  is  caused  by  the  action  of 
organized  ferments.  (See  Ferme.ntation.)  It  ajipears  that 
the  nitrifying  ferment  is  present  in  the  soil,  and  that  where 
the  conditions  are  favorable  it  acts  upon  waste  nitrogenous 
matter  yielding  nitrates.  Thus  the  waste  matter  is  con- 
verted into  material  that  is  of  value  for  vegetation.  Gener- 
ally the  nitrates  do  not  accumulate  in  the  soil,  because  they 
are  soluble  in  water.  Bodies  of  water  in  the  neighborhood 
of  places  where  animal  matter  is  undergoing  nitrification 
always  contain  nitrates,  and  their  presence  is  an  indication 
that  the  water  is  probably  contaminated  with  sewage. 

Nitric  acid  is  made  from  either  potassium  nitrate,  KXO3, 
commonly  called  saltpeter,  or  sodium  nitrate,  NaXOs,  com- 
monly called  Cliili  saltpeter  or  cubic  niter,  by  treating  with 
sulphuric  acid.  At  the  same  time,  in  case  potassium  nitrate 
is  used,  either  potassium  sulphate,  K3SO4,  or  acid  potassium 
sulphate,  HKSO4  (bisulphate  of  potash),  is  formed,  or  both 
may  be  formed  according  to  the  proportion  of  sulphuric 
acid  used.     The  equations  representing  the  reactions  are  : 

KNO3  -I-  H,S04  =  KHSO^  +  HNO3, 
2KNO3  +  HjSO,  =  KSOi  +  2HNO3. 

In  the  laboratory  the  preparation  of  the  acid  is  carried  on 
in  glass  vessels  so  constructed  that  the  acid  does  not  come 
in  contact  with  anything  but  glass.  On  the  large  scale  the 
composition  of  the  saltpeter  by  the  sulphuric  acid  takes 
place  in  cast-iron  retorts,  and  the  acid  formed  is  condensed 
in  earthenware  jars.  Generally  the  proportion  of  saltpeter 
and  sulphuric  acid  is  such  that  the  product  left  in  the  re- 
torts is  acid  potassium  sulphate,  as  this,  being  easily  melted, 
can  be  removed  from  the  retorts  with  less  difficulty  than  the 
ordinary  sulphate,  which  is  hard  and  requires  to  be  broken 
up  before  it  can  be  taken  out.  It  will  be  seen  then  that  all 
the  nitric  acid  used  is  obtained  from  nitrates  found  in  na- 
ture, and  these  have  probably  been  formed  by  the  action 
of  the  nitrifying  ferment  upon  organic  matter  containing 
nitrogen. 

The  acid  obtained  by  the  process  described  is  not  pure, 
but  always  contains  water  and  other  compounds  of  nitrogen 
which  are  formed  by  the  action  of  heat  in  the  acid.  In  this 
state  it  is  always  more  or  less  colored.  The  nitrates  from 
which  nitric  acid  is  made  always  contain  other  substances, 
especially  chlorides,  and  the  acid  itself  is  therefore  impure 
for  this  reason.  On  the  large  scale  natural  sodium  nitrate, 
or  Chili  saltpeter,  is  now  used  altogether  in  the  preparation 
of  nitric  acid,  both  concentrated  and  dilute.  Pure  nitric 
acid  is  made  from  the  commercial  product  by  distilling  it 
again.  The  chlorine,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  oxides  of  nitro- 
gen pass  over  first,  then  comes  pure  acid,  and  the  iodic  acid, 
from  the  iodate  in  the  saltpeter  (see  Iodine),  and  sulphuric 
acid,  and  non-volatile  impurities  remain  in  the  retort.  Ni- 
tric acid  perfectly  free  from  water  has  probal)ly  never  been 
prepared,  but  Roscoe  prepared  an  acid  containing  99'0  to 
99-8  per  cent,  of  the  compound  IINO3.  This  concentrated 
acid  is  an  exceedingly  energetic  substance.  It  acts  upon 
organic  matter,  disintegrating  it,  and  in  many  cases  setting 
fire  to  it.  It  must  be  handled  with  the  greatest  care.  In 
dilute  form  it  also  acts  readily  upon  other  things  producing 
deep-seated  changes.  The  acid  found  in  the  market  gener- 
allv  contains  about  68  per  cent,  acid,  the  rest  being  princi- 
pally water.  The  pure  acid  boils  at  86'  C.  (186-8°  P.),  under- 
going slight  decomposition.  It  acts  upon  metals  as  iron, 
copper,  silver,  tin,  zinc,  etc.,  yielding  in  most  cases  salts 
called  nitrates  which  are  soluble  in  water.     Thus  when  sil- 


ver is  treated  with  the  acid  nitrate  of  silver,  AgNOs,  is  formed, 
and  this  dissolves  in  the  water  which  accompanies  the  acid. 
The  metal  is  therefore  said  to  dissolve  in  the  acid.  When- 
ever nitric  acid  acts  upon  a  metal  a  reddish-brown  gas  is 
seen.  This  is  nitrogen  peroxide,  NO2.  Upon  organic  sub- 
stances nitric  acid  acts  in  different  ways.  In  its  most  con- 
centrated form  it  decomposes  them.  The  action  in  these 
cases  is  mainly  oxidation.  The  substances  are  burned  up 
by  the  oxygen  given  up  from  the  acid.  When  the  action 
does  not  go  to  this  length  nitro-products  and  ethereal  salts 
of  nitric  acid  may  be  formed.  Thus  when  the  acid  acts 
upon  Benzene  {g.  v)  Nitrobenzene  (q.  i:)  is  formed,  thus : 

CaH,  -t-       HNO3       =  CeHs.NO,  +  H,0. 
Benzene.      Nitric  acid.     Nitrobenzene.  Water. 
When  it  acts  upon  Glycerin  (g.  ;•.)  nitroglycerin  (see  Ex- 
plosives) is  formed,  thus : 

(  OH  (  O.NO3 

CsHs-^  OH  +  3HNO3  -  C^nJ  O.NO3  +  3H3O. 
(  OH  (  O.NO2 

Glycerin.  Trinitroglycerin. 

Nitrocellulose  (g.  v.)  is  formed  by  the  action  of  the  acid 
upon  cotton  which  is  nearly  pure  Cellulose  {g.  v.).  Nitro- 
cellulose is  guncotton.  (See  Pyroxylin  and  Explosives.) 
Picric  Acid  (g.  !>.)  is  formed  by  treating  Carbolic  Acid 
ig.  V.)  with  nitric  acid.  It  is  trinitrophenol,  and  is  formed 
as  represented  in  the  equation  : 

CaHsOH  -I-  3HNO3  =  C6Hj(NOj30H  +  3H3O. 
Carbolic  acid  Picric  acid 

or  phenol.  or  trinitrophenol. 

Nitric  acid  is  sometimes  used  in  calico-printing  to  produce 
a  yellow  pattern  on  an  indigo  ground,  in  consequence  of  its 
power  to  destroy  the  color  of  indigo.  "  It  serves,  further, 
under  the  name  rouitle,  for  producing  a  compound  of  iron 
fraudulently  used  for  '  loading '  or  '  weighting '  black  silks 
in  the  process  of  dyeing"  (Wagner). 

Nitrates. — These  are  the  Salts  (g.  v.)  of  nitric  acid.  The 
most  common  are  the  potassium  and  sodium  salts,  which 
will  be  more  fully  treated  under  Potassiu.m  and  Sodium 
(gg.  v.).  The  calcium  salt  is  made  artificially.  (See  Cal- 
cium and  Saltpeter.)  Nitrate  of  silver,  or  lunar  caustic,  is 
of  value  in  tlie  arts,  as  is  nitrate  of  lead ;  nitrates  of  barium 
and  strontium  are  used  in  pyrotechny ;  and  nitrate  of  iis- 
wi(?A  in  medicine.  Each  of  these  receives  notice  under  the 
head  of  the  metal  contained  in  the  salt.     Ira  Remsen. 

Nitriflcatlon  :  See  Niteic  Acid. 

Nitrite  of  Aiiiyl :  an  amber-colored,  highly  volatile  liquid, 
smelling  like  ripe  bananas,  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  alcohol.  It  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on 
iiinylic  alcohol  or  "  fusel  oil."  Its  formula  is  CsAnNO.,. 
Aniyl  nitrite  was  discovered  in  1844,  but  was  not  used  as  a 
medicine  till  1865,  when  it  was  brought  to  notice  by  Dr.  B. 
W.  Richardson,  of  London.  If  two  or  three  drops  of  it  be 
poured  on  a  handkerchief  and  the  vapor  inhaled,  almost 
immediately  the  blood-vessels  of  the  head,  face,  and  neck 
are  felt  to  throb  rapidly  and  violently;  the  face  becomes 
crimson  and  hot,  and  the  head  aches  from  the  sensation  of 
fullness.  Simultaneously,  there  is  felt  an  indescribable  com- 
motion within  the  chest,  with  a  feeling  of  breathlessness 
and  oppression  due  to  a  violent  and  disorderly  throbbing  of 
the  heart.  These  effects  come  on  within  a  few  seconds  after 
breathing  the  fumes  of  the  arayl  nitrite,  and  disappear  en- 
tirely within  a  few  minutes,  unless  an  overdose  be  taken. 
Physiologically,  the  singular  symptoms  are  largely  referable 
to  depression  of  the  vagus  nerves  and  the  vasomotor  system 
of  nerves,  and  to  paralysis  of  the  unstriped  muscular  ele- 
ments in  many  parts  of  the  body.  Hence  in  spasmodic  af- 
fections of  these  parts  this  substance  is  used  medicinally. 
In  angiyia  pectoris,  or  "  Ijreast-pang,"  and  in  spasmodic 
asthma  it  often  relieves  with  a  suddenness  and  completeness 
almost  magical,  if  the  condition  is  due  to  spasm  of  the  arte- 
rioles.   It  is  given  by  inhalation  or  internally. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Nitrites :  See  Nitrous  Acids. 

Nitrobenzene,  Nitrobenzol.  or  Essence  of  Mirbane 

(CsIleNOj) :  a  heavy  yellow  liquid  ;  discovered  in  1834  by 
Jlitscherlich  ;  produced  by  treating  benzene  with  strong 
nitric  acid.  On  mixing  the  two  liquids  they  become  warm, 
assume  a  brown  color,  and  soon  emit  red  fumes  and  boil. 
The  color  becomes  finally  orange.  On  adding  water  the 
nitrobenzene  separates  and  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  ves- 
sel. A  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  nitrate  of  soda  is 
preferred  to  nitric  acid:    dHt-l-HNOs  —  CnHeNOj-f-HjO. 


i 


NITROCELLULOSE 


NITROUS  OXIDE 


205 


The  nitrobenzene  is  waslieil  witli  water,  a  trace  of  free  aeiii 
neutralized  by  a  very  dilute  solution  of  soda,  unchanged 
benzene  distilled  off  by  steam,  and  the  lii|ui<i  freed  from 
moisture,  which  makes  it  turbid,  by  filtration  over  dry 
|)ow(lered  chloride  of  sodium  (coinmon  salt),  it  has  an  odor 
like  that  of  bitter  almonds,  whence  it  is  often  called  im- 
|iroperly  artificial  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  It  is  extensively 
used  as  a  perfunu'  for  soap.  Its  chief  importance  is  due, 
however,  to  the  fact  that  it  is  converted  by  reducing  agents 
into  aniline  :  CMIiNU,  +  11,  =  t',Il,X  +  21130.  See  Ani- 
line, Aniline  Colors,  and  Benzene. 

Revised  by  Ika  Kemsen. 

Nitrocellulose:  a  general  term  for  the  product  result- 
ing from  the  treatment  of  cellulose,  as  cotton,  wood-fiber, 
etc.,  with  a  mixture  of  strong  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids, 
whereby  one  or  more  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  an 
equal  number  of  molecules  of  nitryl  (NOa).  Several  varie- 
ties are  known.  Iladow  {('/leiit.  Soc.  Qu.  Jour.,  vii.,  201) 
gives  the  formulas  of  three,  as  follows  : 

C,8H3,(NO,)»(),5  or  C,H,(N0,)305, 

C,Jl3,(N0„)6O,6, 

CieHiafXOaiTOn,  Gladstone's  cotton  xyloldin. 

The  first  is  called  trinitrocellulose.  and  is  chiefly  used  as 
an  explosive.  The  guncotton  for  photographers'  collodion 
consists  of  mixtures  of  the  last  two.  See  Collodion  and 
I'vRoxvLixE  ;  also  Kxplosives.      Revised  by  Iea  Remsen. 

Nitrogelatin  :  See  Explosives. 

Nitrogen  [Lat.  ni  trnm,  niter  +  -gen,  producing,  found 
in  (ir.  yivvav,  beget,  produce,  and  Lat.  generare,  beget,  pro- 
duce]:  a  chemical  element,  from  TO'l  to  79'3  per  cent.,  by 
volume,  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  earth.  It  is  also  found, 
in  small  but  essential  proportion,  in  the  bodies  of  all  ani- 
mals and  plants,  and  in  those  constituents  of  the  solid  earth 
which  are  formed  from  their  remains,  such  as  coal  and 
other  apozoic  mineral  matter.  In  the  earth  and  waters  it 
occurs  also,  though  in  relatively  very  minute  proportion,  in 
tlie  form  of  nitrates  and  of  ammonia. 

Before  1773  air  was  considered  homogeneous  and  elemen- 
tary, being  convertil)le  by  continued  respiration  wholly  into 
citrbtmic  acid,  then  called  "fixed  air"  and  hy  several  other 
names.  At  that  date,  however — which  was  two  years  pre- 
vious to  the  discovery  of  oxygen  by  Priestley — the  English 
chemist  Rutherford  discovered  that  after  separating  from 
air  that  had  lieen  repeatedly  breathed  all  its  carbonic  acid, 
a  peculiar  irrespirable  gas  was  left.  Hence  this  chemist  is 
recorded  as  the  discoverer  of  nitrogen.  Soon  afterward 
Scheole  and  Lavoisier  discovered  that  air  consists  of  this 
gas  and  oxygen,  ami  that  it  remains  behind  after  the  oxy- 
gen is  removed. 

Preparation. — Nitrogen  gas,  nearly  pure,  may  be  pre- 
pared by  separating  from  atmospheric  air  its  other  constit- 
uents, which  are  oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  and  water.  The 
oxygen,  constituting  a  little  over  one-fifth  of  the  volume, 
may  l)e  abstracted  by  passing  air  over  some  metals  at  in- 
candescence. On  a  small  scale,  metallic  copper  in  wire  or 
turnings  is  used,  and  iron  may  also  be  used  and  is  much 
cheaper,  but  may  give  nitrogen  contaminated  with  carbonic 
oxide.  Small  remaining  traces  of  oxygen,  together  with 
carbonic  acid,  which  is  always  present,  are  most  certainly 
removed  by  jiassing  through  a  potash  or  soda  lye  to  which 
ha-s  been  added  some  pyrogallol.  If  the  nitrogen  is  re- 
quireii  to  be  anhydrous,  sulphuric  acid  or  chloride  of  cal- 
cium must  also  be  employed  to  make  it  so.  These  modes  of 
obtaining  nitrogen  from  its  most  abundant  source,  the  at- 
mosphere, are,  however,  the  most  troublesome  and  expen- 
sive modes  of  all.  It  is  much  easier  and  cheaper  to  obtain 
it  from  a  nitrite,  nitrite  of  potassium  being  generally  used. 
This  is  mixed  in  solution  with  sal  ammoniac  and  boiled, 
when  pure  nitrogen  gas  comes  off: 

Nn.Cl  +  KNO,  =  KCl  +  211,0  +  N,. 
Ammonium  nitrite,  when  heated,  breaks  up  entirely  into 
pure  nitrogen  and  water : 

NH.NO,  =  N,  -I-  SHjO, 
l)ut  this  salt  is  more  expensive. 

Nitrogen  when  pure  is  a  ga.s,  colorless,  inodorous,  and 
tasteless,  of  density  =  •i)7  (air  =  1).  It  is  but  slightly  solu- 
ble in  water.  Chemically,  nitrogen  has  an  exceptional  in- 
ertness toward  most  other  substances;  but  some  metals,  as 
titanium,  tungsten,  boron,  and  carbon,  combine  powerfully 
with  it  at  very  high  temperatures.  By  the  electric  spark  it 
may  be  made  to  condiine  with   oxygen  directly  to  form 


nitric  acid,  and  Bunsen  found  that  when  100  volumes  of 
air  were  mixed  with  226  volumes  of  the  explosive  mixture 
(in  the  proportion  to  form  water.  2:1)  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  and  the  whole  exploded,  ll-.^j  per  cent,  of  the  air  at 
once  disappeared,  combining  to  form  nitrogen  acids.  Dur- 
ing electric  storms  nitric  acid  is  believed  to  be  formed  in 
the  air  in  small  proportic^n.  Nitrogen  and  carbon  may  be 
made  to  combine  directly  to  form  ci/anogen,  by  heat  in  the 
presence  of  an  alkaline  substance.  Baryta  performs  this 
function  best,  and  it  has  even  been  proposed  to  use  this 
method  for  the  manufacture  of  ammonia,  which  is  easily 
obtained  from  the  cyanide  of  barium. 

The  nitrogen  of  the  air  serves  as  an  essential  food  for 
plants.  To  a  considerable  extent  it  is  first  converted  into 
ammonium  salt.*,  i)articularly  the  nitrate.  These  find  their 
way  into  the  soils,  and  then  are  converted  into  substances 
that  can  be  used  by  the  plants.  By  the  growlh  of  plants 
nitrogenous  compounds  arc  constantly  being  withdrawn 
from  the  soil,  but  it  appears,  further,  that  plants  have  the 
power  to  take  up  from  the  air  a  part  of  the  nitrogen  which 
they  need,  whether  directly  or  not  has  not  yet  been  deter- 
mined. 

Nitrogen  forms  a  large  number  of  important  compounds, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  Ammonia,  Nitric  Acid, 
Nitrous  Oxide,  etc.  These  are  described  under  the  proper 
heads.  The  compound  sometimes  called  hyponitric  acid  is 
now  more  commonly  known  as  nitrogen  peroxide.  It  has 
the  composition  NO2.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Nitroglycerin:  See  Explosives. 

Nitro-hydrochloric  Acid  (Eng.  also  a'gua  re'gia,  Fr. 
eau  regale.  Germ,  konigswasser,  goldsclieidewa.iser,  salpet- 
ersalzsciure) :  the  product  of  mixing  together  strong  nitric 
and  hydrochloric  acids.  The  name  agua  regia,  royal 
water,  refers  to  the  power  of  such  mixture  to  di.'vsolve  gold, 
the  ■'  king  of  metals  " — a  power  which  neither  of  the  acids 
possesses  alone.  Aqua  regia  fumes  in  the  air,  lias  a  deep- 
yellow  or  red  color,  and  evolves  free  chlorine  and  a  com- 
pound, NOCl,  known  as  nitrosijl  chloride.  It  was  believed 
at  one  time  that  another  compound  of  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and 
chlorine,  of  the  composition  NOCI2,  was  also  formed,  but 
later  investigations  make  it  appear  probable  that  this  sup- 
posed compound  is  nitrosyl  chloride,  containing  some  free 
chlorine  mixed  with  it.  The  energetic  action  of  agua  regia 
is  due  to  the  free  chlorine  and  to  the  chlorine  givc>n  iip  by 
the  unstable  nitrosyl  chloride.  It  is  highly  valuable  in  the 
arts  and  in  the  laboratory  in  operations  with  gold  and  plat- 
inum. It  is  also  used  in  the  destruction  of  organic  bodies 
in  the  wet  way.  as  when  a  mineral  poison  is  to  be  isolated 
from  a  stomach  or  other  viscus  in  toxicological  cases,  though 
more  powerful  agents  are  sometimes  substituted  in  this 
case.  A  somewhat  cheaper  substitute  for  the  ordinary  aqua 
regia  may  be  made  by  dissolving  nitrate  of  soda  in  strong 
hydrochloric  acid.  Freely  diluted  with  water  it  forms  a 
valuable  tonic  in  cases  of  indigestion. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Nitroleuiii :  another  name  for  Nitroolvcekin. 

Nitrous  Acids  and  Nitrites :  When  potassium  nitrate, 
KNO3.  is  heated  it  gives  up  part  of  its  oxygen,  and  is  con- 
verted into  potassium  nitrite,  KNO3,  and  from  this  other 
nitrites  can  be  made.  These  are  salts  of  an  acid  of  the 
formula  UNO,,  which,  however,  can  not  be  made  in  the 
free  state.  Nitrites  are  formed  in  nature  in  the  deeomposi- 
ticm  of  organic  matter,  and  they  are  often  found  in  well 
waters.  Their  presence  beyond  a  certain  limit  indicates 
contamination  with  sewage.  Ira  Remsen. 

Nitrous  Oxide.  Nitrogen  Monoxide,  or  Laugliing- 

gas:  a  colorU'ss,  transparent,  nearly  odorless  gas,  having  a 
sweet  taste,  and  freely  soluble  in  cold  water.  It  is  obtained 
from  ammonium  nitrate,  which  by  being  heated  in  a  retort 
breaks  up  into  waterand  nitrogen  monoxide.  This  gas  sup- 
ports combustion  nearly  as  energetically  as  pure  oxygen, 
but  its  most  important  jiroperty  is  its  ana-sthetic  cffcc't  on 
the  animal  system  when  breathed  instead  of  ordinary  air. 
Being  free  from  all  irritant  or  offensive  properties,  it  is  as 
readily  inhaled  as  air.'but,  being  inca]>able  of  decomposition 
in  the  boilv,  it  furnishes  no  oxygen  for  the  needs  of  the 
blood.  Inlialing  the  gas  thus  amounts  to  temporarily  cut- 
ting off  the  u.sual  supply  of  oxygen  through  tlie  breath, 
while  not  interfering  with  the  respiratory  movements  or  the 
elimination  of  carbonic  acid.  The  result  is  that  the  indi- 
vidual, without  any  distress  or  disagreeable  sensation  what- 
ever, becomes  speedily  asphy.xiated  into  com|ilete  uncon- 


206 


NITZSCH 


NJORD 


sciousness.  In  this  condition  anaesthesia  is  perfect,  and  sur- 
gical operations  can  be  performed  without  pain,  as  Ijy  the  use 
of  chloroform  or  ether.  On  withdrawing  the  gas  and  allow- 
ing air  to  be  breathed,  the  blood  becomes  immediately  re- 
arterialized.  The  recovery  of  consciousness  is  then  as  swift 
as  its  loss,  and  there  are  no  unpleasant  after-effects.  When 
pure  and  intelligently  given,  the  use  of  the  gas  is  perfectly 
safe ;  but  of  course  if  it  be  continuously  breathed  too  long, 
the  asphyxia  will  end  in  death.  When  breathed  diluted 
with  air  an  exhilarating  or  intoxicating  effect  is  produced, 
under  the  influence  of  which  the  experimenter  is  irresistibly 
impelled  to  do  all  kinds  of  silly  and  extravagant  acts ;  hence 
the  old  name  of  "  laughing-gas."  Nitrogen  monoxide  can 
be  liquefied  and  solidified  by  pressure,  and  in  this  state  a 
large  supply  can  be  conveniently  kept  for  use  in  a  small  iron 
cvlinder.  For  use  in  surgery  the  gas  is  inhaled  througli  a 
mouthpiece  so  made  that  tfie  expired  gases  do  not  mix  with 
the  contents  of  the  bag.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Nitzsch,  Christian  Ludwig:  anatomist  and  ornithologist ; 
b.  in  Beucha,  Germany,  Sept.  3,  1782.  D.  at  Halle,  Aug. 
16,  1837.  His  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  birds  was  com- 
prehensive, and  he  was  the  first  to  appreciate  the  impor- 
tance of  the  condition  of  tlie  carotid  artery  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  birds.  His  reputation,  however,  rests  upon  the  fact 
that  he  was  the  founder  of  the  science  of  Ptervlographt 
(q.  v.),  or  the  arrangement  of  the  feathers  of  birds.  His 
first  essay  was  published  at  Halle,  Saxony,  in  1833,  under 
the  title  Pterylographice  Ai'ium  Pars  Prior,  and  after  his 
death  his  papers  were  edited  by  Burmeister  and  the  work 
issued  at  Halle  in  1840  with  the  title  Pteryloyraphie.  An 
English  translation,  by  Dr.  Sclater,  was  printed  by  the  Ray 
Society,  London,  in  1867.  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Nitzsch,  Gregor  Wiluelm  :  classical  scholar ;  b.  in  Wit- 
tenberg, Germany,  Nov.  22,  1790;  was  Professor  of  Ancient 
Literature  in  Kiel  1837 ;  was  deposed  18.52 ;  was  called  to 
Leipzig  as  Professor  of  Classical  Philology;  d.  July  22,  1861. 
He  is  chiefly  known  as  the  most  learned  and  persistent  ad- 
vocate of  the  unity  of  the  Homeric  epics,  whose  nuclei  he 
ascribed  to  one  poetic  genius.  He  wrote  Erkluritnde  An- 
merkungen  zu  Homers  Odyssee  (3  vols.,  1826-^0) :  Melefemata 
de  historia  Homeri  (2  vols.,  1837) ;  Die  Sagenpoesie  der 
Oriechfii  {\8o2) ;  Beit  rage  zur  (reschiehte  der  epischen  Poesie 
der  Crriechen  (1862).  See  Liibker,  Cr.  W.  J^ifz-'ich  in  seinem 
Lehen  and  Wirkeii  (Jena,  1864).  Alfred  Gudeman. 

Nin-chwan^,  or  Xen'-clnvaii^ :  the  town  of  the  province 
of  Shing-king  or  Southern  Jlanchuiua,  designated  in  the 
treaties  made  with  China  in  1858  as  a  place  to  be  opened  to 
foreign  residence  and  trade.  It  is  a  walled  village,  standing 
in  a  purely  agricultural  region,  about  40  miles  from  the  coast 
of  the  Gulf  of  Liao-tung,  on  a  small  silted-up  branch  of  the 
Liao  river,  in  lat.  40'  2.5'  N.  and  Ion.  122°  40'  E.  (see  map  of 
China,  ref.  3-K).  The  walls  are  of  mud  and  much  broken 
down,  and  the  population  is  small.  Being  entirely  unsuit- 
able for  foreign  trade,  the  village  of  JIuh-kow-ying,  usually 
called  Yingtse,  or  "  the  camp,"  about  30  miles  nearer  the  coast, 
was  chosen  by  foreigners  as  the  port  of  Niu-chwang,  and  this 
is  the  town  now  designated  Kiic-chwang  in  diplomatic  and 
consular  documents  and  in  customs  and  trade  reports.  It 
was  opened  to  trade  in  the  spring  of  1861.  It  is  situated  on 
the  left  or  south  bank  of  the  Liao  river,  aljout  13  miles  from 
its  mouth,  where  there  is  a  dangerous  bar.  The  f(jreign  settle- 
ment lies  above  the  native  town  (in  the  other  ports  it  is  usu- 
ally below)  and  extends  along  the  river  bank  for  over  1,000 
yards.  The  main  road  leading  from  the  coast  to  the  in- 
terior bounds  it  in  the  rear.  The  river  here  is  about  half  a 
mile  wide,  and  has  a  depth  at  low  water  of  7  to  9  fathoms. 

The  native  town  consists  of  one  long  main  street  running 
E.  and  \V.  parallel  to  the  river,  and  eight  or  ten  shorter 
ones  at  right  angles  to  this  thoroughfare.  The  surrounding 
country  is  flat  and  marshy,  only  a  few  feet  aliove  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  presents  a  very  dismal  appearance.  The 
river  is  closed  by  ice  for  four  and  a  half  or  five  months 
every  year.  In  winter  the  temperature  is  frequently  as  low 
as  zero;  in  summer  it  rises  to  80°  and  87°.  The"  hottest 
monlhs  are  June,  July,  and  August. 

The  chief  ind\istry  of  the  place  fe  the  manufacture  of 
bean  oil  and  bean-cake,  pulse  being  a  staple  agricultural 
product  in  Shing-king. 

The  trade  of  the  port  in  1803,  according  to  the  imperial 
maritime  customs  report,  amounted  to  17.659,8.54  haikwan, 
or  ('ustom-house  tacis  (;$  18.542,846  U.  S.  gold).  Of  this,  im- 
ports of  foreign  origin  amounted  to  5.548,403  tads,  and  of 
native  origin  2,801,027  taels;  exports  of  native  proiluce  to 


foreign  ports  2.167,111  taels,  and  to  Chinese  ports  7,143,- 
313  taels.  The  chief  foreign  imports  were  cotton  and  wool- 
en goods,  metals,  kerosene  oil  (both  V.  S.  and  Russian),  and 
needles,  and  the  chief  native  imports  raw  cotton,  silk  piece- 
goods,  and  sugar.  The  chief  exports  were  beans  (4,392,648 
taels),  bean-cake,  used  as  food  for  cattle  in  Northern  China 
and  as  manure  in  Southern  China  (2.327,215  taels),  bean  oil 
(345,365  taels),  ginseng  (741,932  taels),  and  raw  silk  (510,- 
008  taels).  In  the  same  year  397  vessels,  chiefly  ocean-going 
steamers,  with  a  tonnage  of  296,654  tons,  entered  the  port 
and  the  same  number  cleared.  Of  these,  52  per  cent,  were 
British,  25  per  cent.  German,  14  per  cent.  Chinese,  -and  6 
per  cent.  Japanese.     Pop.  (1893),  60,000.  R.  Lilley. 

Nix.  or  Nix'ie  (Germ,  7iix) :  in  the  popular  mythology 
of  the  Teutonic  races,  a  water-spirit  usually  malignant,  and 
often  assuming  the  human  form,  thougli  able  to  take  any 
other  sha])e  at  will.  Nixies  were  resorted  to  to  determine 
the  future,  and  their  good  will  might  be  obtained  by  gifts. 
From  the  same  etymological  root  we  have  "  Old  Nick"  as  a 
name  for  the  devil. 

Ni'za,  or  Niz'za,  Marcos,  de :  a  Franciscan  missionary, 
discoverer  of  Arizona;  b.  at  Nice,  Italy,  about  1495.  He 
went  to  America  in  1531,  labored  in  Guatemala,  and  in  1534 
was  with  Alvarado  in  Peru.  Later  he  was  in  Mexico,  and 
was  one  of  three  Franciscans  who  accompanied  Coronado 
to  the  N.  in  1538.  In  the  next  year,  under  Coronado's  in- 
structions, he  led  an  expedition  to  verify  Cabeza  de  Vaca's 
reports  of  rich  cities  to  the  N.  W.  From  friendly  natives 
he  heard  accounts  of  seven  "  great  cities "  (probably  the 
Zuili  pueblos),  but  after  sending  a  Negro  of  his  party  to 
Cibola,  one  of  them,  where  he  was  killed,  Niza  contented 
himself  with  a  distant  view  of  the  place  and  returned.  He 
brought  to  Coronado  an  exaggerated  account  of  the  riches 
of  the  seven  cities  obtained  from  the  re]iorts  of  the  Indians, 
and  probably  embellished  by  his  own  fancy.  The  illusion 
was  dispelleci  by  Coronado's  expedition  in  1540.  (See  Vas- 
QUEZ  DE  Coronado.)  Niza  accompanied  it,  but  was  sent 
back  in  disgrace  after  the  true  character  of  the  pueblos 
had  been  discovered,  and  died  soon  after  at  Mexico.  His 
report  has  been  repeatedly  published.  H.  H.  Smith. 

Niza'ml:  Persian  poet  of  the  romantic  epic;  b.  in  1141 
(a.  h.  535),  probably  at  Ganjah  in  Arran.  where  most  of 
his  days  at  least  were  spent.  His  full  name  is  Abu  Mo- 
hammed Niziim-ad-Din.  His  father,  Yusof  bin  Muyid,  was  a 
native  of  Kumm ;  his  mother,  as  we  learn  from  his  writ- 
ings, was  of  Kurdish  descent.  Much  of  the  first  part  of  Niza- 
ini's  life  was  passed  amid  the  sternness  of  religious  asceti- 
cism ;  illumination  came  in  the  form  of  an  outburst  of  poetic 
inspiration,  when,  according  to  received  accounts,  he  was 
already  aiy^roaehing  his  fortieth  year,  and  he  gave  to  the 
world  the  Makhzan-al-asrdr  (Treasury  of  Mysteries),  the 
first  of  his  well-known  works.  The  beautiful  romantic  epic, 
Khosru  and  Shlr'in,  a  story  of  love,  followed  (about  1180). 
This  won  court  favor  for  Niziimt,  but  he  still  preferred  his 
life  of  retirement.  His  Dlviin,  or  collection  of  short  odes 
alphabetically  arranged,  was  next  completed.  The  romantic 
love-story  of  Laila  and  Majnun  added  fresh  laurels  to  his 
fame.  Niziimi  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  heroic  sub- 
ject of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  produced  the  Iskandar- 
namah,  treating  in  the  first  part  the  conqueror's  victories, 
and  in  the  second  part  presenting  Alexander  in  the  light  of 
prophet,  philosopher,  and  ethical  teacher.  The  poet's  last 
romance  is  called  Haft  Paikar  (The  Seven  Portraits),  writ- 
ten about  A.  D.  1197.  and  purporting  to  be  seven  stories  nar- 
rated by  the  wives  of  the  Sassanian  King  Bahram-CJor. 
The  above  enumerated  fivefold  group  of  poems  by  XizamI, 
omitting  the  D'lvan,  is  known  as  the  Khamsali  ((Quin- 
tuple), or  is  sometimes  called  the  Panj  Ganj  (Five  Treas- 
ures). D.  at  Ganjah  in  1203  (a.  h.  599).  See  W.  Bacher. 
Nizdml's  Leben  und  IVccA-e  (Leipzig.  1871);  S.Robinson, 
Persian  Poetry  for  English  Readers  (\mi)  \  and  Rieu,  ('«/«- 
logue  of  the  Persian  3ISS.  in  the  British  Museum  (vol.  ii., 
p.  563.  seq.,  1881).  There  is  a  lithographed  edition  of  Niza- 
mi's  works  (Bombay,  1834  and  1S;!!»:  Teheran,  1845) ;  litho- 
graphed editions  also  of  separate  poems  have  appeared  in 
Europe,  Persia,  and  India;  there  are  partial  translations  by 
J.  Atkinson.  Ilindley,  von  Hammer,  and  H.  Wilberforce 
Clarke.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Nizaiirs  Dominions:  See  Haidarabad. 

Njonl :  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  a  divinity  that  pre- 
sides over  the  winds,  quiets  the  sea,  and  is  worshiped  by 
sailors  and  fishermen.  He  was  reared  in  Vanaheim,  but  the 
Vans  gave  him  as  a  hostage  to  the  Asas  when  the  war  be- 


xo 


NOBLE 


207 


tween  them  was  eiuled.  His  wife  is  Skado,  (laiiglitcT  of  the 
giant  Thjasse.  His  tlwelliiif;  is  Xoatun,  near  the  sea.  He  is 
the  opposite  of  tlie  sea-giant  ^Egir,  who  represents  the  tur- 
bulent ocean.     See  Scandi.vavian  Mythoi.oov.      H.  H.  A. 

No:  the  name  given  to  classical  dramatie  performances 
in  .Japan,  ami  usually,  but  wrongly,  a.ssociatecl  with  dancing. 
The  No  has  been  compareil  to  the  old  Greek  drama  from  its 
stateliness,  solemidy  chanted  choruses,  quasi-rciigious  ele- 
ment, and  from  the  fact  that  it  is  performc(l  in  the  open 
air.  Scenery  is  absent,  but  the  robes  of  the  performers  are 
magnificent.  The  music,  though  scarcely  agreeable  to  West- 
ern cai^,  has  a  mysterious  grace  of  its  own.  These  No  per- 
formances are  kept  up  by  the  aristocracy,  and  are  a  feature 
of  polite  Japanese  society.  Each  piece  takes  about  an  hour 
to  act,  but.  in  addition  to  the  half-dozen  pieces  that  make 
up  a  complete  performance,  various  comic  interludes  are 
interspersed,  causing  the  performance  to  take  up  the  greater 
part  of  a  day.  J.  51.  Uixox. 

Noah  [from  Heb.  Xoncli.  Noah,  liter.,  rest] :  the  patriarch 
who,  on  account  of  his  piety,  was  saved  by  (iod  from  tlie 
Deluge,  and  thus  became  the  second  founder  of  the  human 
race ;  he  %vas  a  son  of  Lamech,  and  the  father  of  Shem,  Ham, 
and  Japheth  (Genesis  v.  28-ix.),     See  Deluge, 

Noah,  MoRDKCAi  Manikt.  :  lawyer  and  editor ;  b.  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  July  ly,  ITiS") ;  became  a  lawyer  at  Charleston, 
S.  0.;  engaged  actively  in  politics  as  a  Democrat:  went  as 
consul  to  Riga  1811.  to  Morocco  and  Algiers  1813-15 ;  settled 
in  New  York,  and  was  connected  as  editor  or  proprietor  suc- 
cessively with  seven  newspapers,  of  which  the  most  impor- 
tant were  I'he  Xiitloiinl  Advocate  antl  Tlie  Enquirer  (1826), 
afterward  mergeil  in  'Tlie  Courier  and  Encjuirer.  Soon  after 
his  return  from  Morocco,  Maj.  Noah  endeavored  to  form 
a  Jewish  colony  ujjon  Grand  island  in  the  Niagara  river, 
where  they  were  to  build  a  "  New  Jerusalem  "  under  his  ad- 
ministration as  "judge  in  Israel,"  but  few  of  the  Hebrew 
race  responded  to  the  invitation.  Noah  was  elected  sheriii 
of  New  York,  and  subse(|Uently  appointed  surveyor  of  the 
port  and  judge  of  the  court  of  sessions.  He  published  sev- 
eral successful  dramas :  a  volume  of  Travels  (1819) ;  a  trans- 
lation of  a  spurious  linok  of  dasher  (1840) :  a  Discourse  on 
the  Restoration  of  the  Jews  (1845);  Gleanings  from  a  Gath- 
ered Harvest  (1845);  and  other  miscellaneous  works,  chiefly 
speeches.     D.  in  New  York  city.  Mar.  22,  1851. 

Noailles.  n'7aar,  Loris  Marie,  Viscount  de:  soldier;  b. 
in  France,  Apr.  17,  1756;  was  second  son  of  the  Marshal  de 
Mouchy  and  a  brother-in-law  of  Lafayette,  with  whom  he 
served  in  the  American  war  of  independence ;  was  a  good 
tactician  ;  commanded  the  Soissonnais  regiment  at  the  siege 
of  Yorktown.  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to  receive 
the  capitulation  of  Cornwallis.  He  bore  a  patriotic  part  in 
the  French  National  Assembly  of  1789,  proposing,  on  the 
night  of  Aug.  4,  that  the  noliility  should  voluntarily  give 
up  their  privileges — a  proposition  which  lie  maintained  with 
great  fervor,  and  which  gave  him  great  influence  in  the  As- 
sembly;  receiveil  an  important  connnand  in  the  array,  but 
resigned  in  May,  1792,  in  despair  for  the  cause  of  libertv, 
and  went  to  the  U.  .S.,  while  the  viscountess,  remaining  in 
Paris,  became  a  year  later  a  victim  to  (he  Kcvohilionary 
tribunal.  In  I80:i  Noailles  re-entered  the  French  array, 
went  to  St.  Doraingo,  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  engage- 
ment with  an  English  vessel,  and  died  at  Havana,  Jan.  9, 
1804. 

No-am'on  (Nah.  iii.  8,  ^tpls  'hyLfuiv).  or  No  (Fzek.  xxx.  14^ 
16.  Jer.  xhi.  25,  AiiairoKis):  the  Hebrew  name  of  Thebes  in 
Upper  Egypt,  the  Diospolis  Magna  of  the  (ireeks.  The 
name  corresponds  with  the  Egyptian  yu-amen,  city  of 
Anum,  or  Xu,  "  the  city  "  par  excellence.  C,  R.  G. 

Nohility:  n-s  a  term  of  rank,  a  state  of  .social  dignity, 
transmissible  by  descent  and  often  accomjianied  by  political 
privilege.  In  ancient  Kgypt,  as  now  in  India,  nobility  was 
udierent  in  the  highest  castes,  the  sacerdotal  and  the  mili- 
tary. In  .Sparta  the  nobility  originated  from  conquest;  at 
.\tliens  it  resulted  fro?n  older  settlement,  the  nobles  or 
eujiatrids  being  the  descendants  of  those  who  at  one  time 
had  constituted  the  entire  people.  In  Rome  the  jiatricians, 
who,  as  at  Athens,  had  originally  been  the  whole  [)eople, 
formeil  for  a  long  time  an  exclusive  caste,  allowing  no  in- 
termarriage with  inferiors,  and  possessing  nearly  all  the 
political  jKivver :  l>ut  gradually  the  plebeians  gained  equal 
jiolitical  rights,  and  after  this  those  among  them  who  be- 
came curule  magistrates  were  not  only  accounted  noble 
themselves  bv  virtue  of  llieir  office,  but  also  transmitted 


dignitv  to  their  descendants.  Nobility  in  the  old  (ierman 
tribes  wits  of  immemorial  origin,  the  earliest  records  of  Teu- 
tonic peoples  showing  clearly  the  division  into  noble,  simple 
freeman,  and  bondman.  The  origin  of  the  existing  nobil- 
ity of  Kiirope,  however,  can  generally  be  traced  to  personal 
service  to  the  king,  who  granted  certain  privileges  or  im- 
munities either  as  a  reward  for  past  or  an  inducement  to 
future  service.  (See  Feidalism.)  Thus  in  Gaul  the  lands 
conquered  by  the  Franks  were  divided  into  governments 
over  which  vari(ms  officers  were  appointed — dukes  (from 
Lat.  dux.  a  leader),  counts  (from  comites,  companions),  and 
manpiises  (guardians  of  the  frontier  '•  marches  ").  Both  in 
France  and  Germany  lanils  and  dignities  bestowed  origi- 
nally for  life  became  hereditary,  and  their  possessors  acquired 
practical  in<lependence  of  tlie  crown.  The  result  was  the 
feudal  anarchy  of  the  Jliddle  Ages.  The  greater  nobles 
were  often  able  to  defy  the  royal  autliority,  while  against 
their  tyranny  over  their  own  vassals  there  was  no  redress. 
\Vith  ihe  decline  of  feudalism  their  jiower  was  gradually 
weakened.  Surnames  and  armorial  bearings,  adopted  in 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  and  soon  becoming  gen- 
eral, increased  tlu'  excUisiveness  of  the  nobles,  especially  in 
Fiance  and  (Jermany.  In  the  latter  country  a  child  could 
inheiil  no  lief  of  the  empire  unless  both  his  parents  were  of 
pure  blood  ;  and  in  France,  though  the  son  by  marriage  of 
a  noble  father  and  a  mother  of  ignoble  birth  might  inherit 
property  and  receive  knighthood,  he  could  enter  no  order 
of  chivalry.  The  granting  of  letters  of  nobility  was  a  blow 
to  aristocratic  esclusiveness,  French  sovereigns  often  re- 
plenished their  treasury  by  compelling  rich  subjects  to  buy 
letters  of  nobility,  as  English  kings  obliged  people  to  pur- 
chase knighthood.  The  policy  of  Richelieu,  Mazarin,  and 
Louis  XIV.  was  directed  to  depriving  the  nobles  of  their 
political  power,  while  leaving  them  their  dignities  and 
revenues.  Nobility  was  abolished  in  France  June  19,  1790. 
and  the  title  of  noble  became  a  title  to  banishment  or  the 
guillotine.  In  1806  Napoleon  founded  a  new  nobility,  cre- 
ating princes,  dukes,  counts,  barons,  and  chevaliers.  The 
imperial  noblesse,  generally  a  reward  for  services  rendered 
to  France,  was  the  only  "kind  acknowledged,  and  edicts 
were  issued  against  usurpers  of  titles.  At  the  Bourbon 
restoration  the  old  noblesse  was  again  recognized,  and  that 
of  Napoleon's  creation  was  suffered  to  remain.  In  1848  no- 
bility was  abolished  by  the  provisional  government,  but  was 
again  restored  bv  X'apoleon  III. 

The  Italian  nobility  lived  generally  in  strong  castles,  and 
were  feared  by  the  people,  w  ho,  when  it  was  possible,  ex- 
cluded them  from  pt>litical  power,  as  in  Florence  and  Genoa, 
where  high  birth  was  a  disiiualification  for  government. 
At  present  Italian  nobles  are  of  two  kinds — those  of  ancient 
lineage,  and  others  who,  having  bought  estates,  take  the 
titles  belonging  thereto.  Titles  descend  to  the  eldest  son 
only,  but  the  vounger  children  are  called  by  courtesy  dei 
pri'ncijii,  dei  dnchi,  etc,  Spanish  nobility  is  very  ancient : 
being  hijo  d'ah/o  (son  of  somebody)  implies  noble  birth  and 
entitles  a  gentleman  to  be  called  don.  which  name,  how- 
ever, is,  like  esquire  in  the  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain,  very 
generallv  given.  The  estates  and  titles  of  the  higher  nobles 
or  grandees  are  entailed.  Russian  nobility  was  formerly 
patriarchal,  but  Peter  the  Great  introduced  the  European 
system  of  titles.  In  England  the  Anglo-Saxon  nobles  some- 
times possessed  suilicient  power  to  set  at  naught  the  will  of 
the  sovereign,  but  from  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  when 
William  the  Comiucror  made  every  vassal  dependent  upon 
the  king,  the  barons  had  no  such  irresponsible  power  as 
they  gained  on  the  Continent.  In  Great  Britain  the  term 
nobility  is  used  in  an  exclusive  sense,  being  limited  to  the 
five  teniporal  ranks  of  the  peerage,  duke,  marquis,  earl,  vis- 
count, and  baron.  Baronet  is  a  title  of  honor  and  confers 
no  political  [irivileges.  See  the  articles  on  these  respective 
titles;  Sir  J.  Lawrence  On  the  XoliiUti/^  of  the  British 
Gentry:  C.  P.  Menestricr,  Les  Diverses  EspHces  de  la  No- 
blesse (Paris,  1683);  Le  lilason  de  la  Noblesse  (Paris,  1683) ; 
the  works  of  Hallam,  Stubbs,  May,  Gui/.ot.  and  other  his- 
torians. Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Nohlo,  Joiix  WiLLOcK,  LL.  D. :  lawver ;  b.  at  Lancaster, 
O.,  Oct.  26.  1831  :  was  educated  at  Miami  University,  Ohio, 
and  at  Vale  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1851  :  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  and  settleil  in  St.  Louis  in  1855.  but  re- 
moved to  Keokuk,  la.,  in  1856 ;  was  city  attorney  1859-60 : 
enlisted  in  the  Union  army  as  a  private  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war ;  became  first  lieutenant  and  adjutant  in  the 
Third  Iowa  Cavalry  ;  became  judge-advocate  of  the  Army  of 


208 


NOBLESVILLE 


NOLA 


the  Southwest  and  afterward  t)f  the  department  of  the  Mis- 
souri ;  was  promoted  to  a  colonelcy  in  1865 :  breveted  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteers  Mar.  13  same  year :  served  as 
U.  S.  district  attorney  at  St.  Louis  1867-70,  then  resumed 
private  practice;  became  Secretary  of  the  Interior  un- 
der President  Harrison,  receiving  liis  commission  Mar.  6, 
1889. 

Noblesrille  :  city ;  capital  of  Hamilton  co.,  Ind.  (for  loca- 
tion of  county,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref.  6-E);  on  the  White 
river,  and  the  t'hi.  and  .S.  E.  and  the  Lake  Erie  and  W.  rail- 
ways; 20  miles  N.  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
and  natural-gas  region;  contains  9  churches,  a  public  high 
and  3  ward  schools,  and  a  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers, 
and  has  a  large  strawboard-mill,  flour-mill,  and  carbon- 
works.  Pop.  (1880)  2,221;  (1890)  3,054;  (1894)  estimated, 
5,000.  Editor  of  "  Ledger." 

Nobnna'g'a :  general  and  statesman ;  b.  in  1533  of  a  petty 
noble  family  named  Ota,  in  the  province  of  Owari,  Japan. 
He  early  showed  himself  an  intrepid  and  capable  soldier. 
Having  increased  his  domains  and  power,  he  found  himself 
in  collision  with  the  Buddhist  priesthood,  whose  headquar- 
ters at  Hiyeisan  he  burned  to  the  ground  in  1573.  After 
deposing  the  last  shogun  of  the  Ashikaga  house,  he  became 
virtual  ruler  of  Japan  under  the  title  of  Dainagon,  and  be- 
gan the  work  of  political  reconstruction  and  concentration, 
to  be  perfected  later  by  Hideyoshi  and  lyeyasu.  Again 
from  1575-80  he  had  to  struggle  against  a  new  coalition  of 
Buddhist  monks.  In  1582  he  fell  a  victim  to  treachery. 
Nobunaga  favored  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  possibly 
as  a  counterpoise  to  Buddhism.  J.  M.  Dixon. 

Nocera.  no-cha'raa  (anc.  ^'uceria  Alfaterna) ;  town  in 
the  province  of  Salerno,  Italy ;  in  a  district  well  suited  to  the 
raising  of  sheep  and  cattle  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  7-F).  It 
is  a  bishop's  see,  and  has  cotton-manufactures.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  Carthage  for  taking  part  with  Rome,  flourished 
again,  and  was  again  destroved  by  the  Normans.  Pop. 
about  12,500. 

Noctilion'idae  [Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Nocti'lio,  the 
typical  genus,  from  Lat.  nox.  night ;  ef.  Lat.  vesperfi'lio. 
bat,  deriv.  of  res' per,  evening] :  a  family  of  insectivorous 
bats  (Cheiroptera)  without  nasal  appendages.  The  ears  are 
moderate,  and  provided  with  a  distinct  tragus  to  each ;  the 
tail  pei'forates  the  interfemoral  membrane  through  its 
upper  surface,  or,  when  that  is  truncated,  is  produced  be- 
yond it ;  the  intermaxillary  bones  are  generally  united  (some- 
times separated);  the  molars  are  large  and  have  W-shaped 
ridges ;  the  incisors  are  variable  (},  {,  |,  or  ^  by  2) ;  the  mid- 
dle tinger  has  two  phalanges;  the  stomach  is  sacciform  and 
its  extremities  inclined  toward  each  other.  The  species  are 
mostly  confined  to  the  tropical  regions  of  both  hemispheres. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Noctilu'cine  [from  Lat.  jioc/Z/u'en,  something  that  shines 
at  night;  tiox,  noctis,  night  -t-  luce' re,  shine]:  a  name  given 
by  T.  L.  Phipson  to  an  organic  substance  supposed  to  cause 
the  production  of  light  in  phosphorescent  fish,  insects,  and 
decaying  matter.  At  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  semi-fluid 
and  whitish  in  color.  It  contains  nitrogen  and  water.  It 
dries  up  readily,  yielding  amorphous  films.  Xoetilucine  is 
slightly  soluble  in  water  and  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether. 
Sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  dissolve  it  with  decomposition. 
When  moist  it  absoj'bs  oxygen  and  evolves  carbon  dioxide. 
In  ozone  it  is  more  luminous  than  when  in  oxygen,  the  lu- 
minosity apparently  being  due  to  oxidation.  The  spectrum 
of  the  light  emitted  is  nearly  monochromatic.  Xoctilucine 
is  secreted  in  a  pure  form  by  tlie  luminous  centipede,  Sm- 
lopendra  elecfrird.  See  Chem.  Sews,  xxvi.,  130,  No.  668 ; 
Am.  Chem.,  iii.,  244;  ComptesMendus,  Ixxv.,  No.  9;  Watt's 
Did.,  2d  supplement,  p.  861. 

Noctuina;  See  Lepidoptera. 

Nodal  Points  or  Lines :  See  Acoustics. 

Noddy:  popular  name  of  a  species  of  tern  {Anous  stoli- 
dii.<<)  whose  pcijiular  and  scientific  names  relate  to  the  stupid, 
stoUd  lieliavior  of  the  bird,  which  often  alights  on  ships,  and 
suffers  itself  to  be  taken  by  hand.  The  noddy  is  about  16 
inches  in  length,  including  the  long,  graduated  tail;  the 
adult  is  sooty  brown  in  color,  but  has  a  whitish  head.  The 
species  is  widely  distributed  over  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
globe,  and  nests  in  great  numbers  on  mangrove  and  other 
bushes.  The  nest  is  l)uilt  of  sticks:  the  eggs  are  buff  with 
reddish-brown  markiiiirs,  and  in  some  localities  are  taken  in 
considerable  numbers  for  food.  F.  A.  Lucas. 


Nodes  [from  Lat.  no'du.f.  earlier  *t/iio'dus,  knot  :  Eng. 
kiiot] :  the  points  in  which  the  path  of  any  planetary  or 
cometary  body  intersects  the  plane  of  the  ecliijtic,  or  any 
other  plane  of  reference  ;  also  the  points  in  which  the  orbit 
of  any  satellite  intersects  the  plane  of  the  orbit  of  its  pri- 
mary. Nodes  are  distinguished  as  ascending  and  descend- 
ing. The  ascending  node  is  that  through  which  the  body 
passes  from  the  south  to  the  north  side  of  the  plane  of  ref- 
erence ;  the  descending,  that  through  which  it  passes  from 
N.  to  S.  The  first  is  denoted  by  the  sign  Q,  the  second  by 
the  sign  ?_S.  The  nodes  of  most  other  members  of  the  solar 
system  undergo  gradual  displacement  in  the  heavens,  mak- 
ing, in  a  period  of  time  longer  or  shorter,  a  complete  revo- 
lution. The  period  for  the  moon  is  short,  being  but  about 
18|  years,  but  for  the  planets  it  i-eaches  many  thousands  of 
years.  The  direction  of  nodal  movement  is  generally  retro- 
grade, or  from  E.  to  W.  Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Nodier,  no  di-a',  Charles:  author;  b.  at  Besan(;on, France, 
Apr.  29,  1780;  studied  at  Strassburg,  and  led  subse()uently 
an  errant  and  adventurous  life,  first  as  an  ardent  republican, 
then  as  a  zealous  rovalist,  writing  sentimental  novels,  as 
Stella  (1802)  and  Le  Peintre  de  Salzbourg  (1803),  after 
the  model  of  Werfher,  and  satires  against  Bonaparte,  as  La 
JS'apoleone  (1802),  and  editing  Telegraphe  lUyrien  in  1814 
under  the  auspices  of  Junot  and  jb^ouche ;  became  a  con- 
tributor to  the  Journal  des  Debats  in  1815 ;  librarian  to 
the  library  of  the  arsenal  of  Paris  in  1824,  member  of  the 
Academy  in  1834,  and  died  in  that  city  Jan.  26,  1844.  He 
was  a  very  prolific  writer,  and  touched  almost  every  field 
of  literature  from  lexicography  to  satire.  Some  of  his 
works  have  an  interest  still;  Dictionnaire  des  Onomafopees 
fran^aises  (1808) ;  Ilistoire  de  Socieles  ,'<ecretes  de  I'Armee 
(1815).  His  chief  literary  significance,  however,  lay  in  his 
knowledge  of  the  German  literature  and  the  services  he  ren- 
dered romanticism  by  rallying  the  young  romanticists  about 
him.  Revised  by  A.  R.  Marsh. 

No6,  Amedee,  de  :  See  Cham. 

Noel.  Baptist  Wriothesley.  M.  A. ;  clergvman  ;  a  brother 
of  the  first  Earl  of  Gainsborough;  b.  July  10,  1799,  at 
Leightmont,  Scotland ;  graduated  at  Cambridge  1826:  be- 
came one  of  the  queen's  chaplains  and  incumbent  of  St. 
John's,  Bedford  Row.  London,  but  in  1848  left  the  Estab- 
lished Church  and  became  a  Baptist  minister  in  London. 
He  was  an  eloquent  preacher:  published  a  number  of 
volumes  of  sermons,  besides  numerous  other  works,  chiefly 
religious  {Notes  of  a  Tour  in  Switzerland.  Essay  on  Chris- 
tian Baptism,  1849;  Letters  on  the  Church  of  Rome,  1851 ; 
A  Selection  of  Psalms  and  Hymns,  1852,  enlarged  1853; 
Hymns  about  Jesus,  mostly  original,  1869) :  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  philanthropic  labors  among  the  poor  of  Lon- 
don.    I),  at  Stanmore,  Middlesex,  England,  Jan.  20,  1873. 

Noe'tiaiis:  name  given  to  the  followers  of  Noetus,  a 
Patripassian  who  flourished  probably  aliout  200  A.  D.  (in- 
stead of  230,  the  date  formerly  given).  All  we  know  of  him 
is  derived  from  Hippolytus  (d.  236),  Epiphanius  (d.403),  and 
Theodoret  (d.  457,  8),  and  they  do  not  quite  agree  in  their 
statements,  Hippolytus  and  Theodoret  saying  he  was  born 
at  Smyrna,  and  Epiphanius  calling  him  an  Ephesian.  Per- 
haps he  was  born  at  Smyrna  and  lived  at  Ephesus.  He  was 
excommunicated  for  his  heresy,  which  Hippolytus  connects 
with  the  pantheism  of  Heraclitus.  Through  his  disciples, 
Epigonus  and  Cleomenes,  the  Roman  bishops  Zephyrinus 
(202-218  A.  D.)  and  Callistus  (218-223  a.  d.)  were  carried  over 
into  the  same  heresy.     See  Patripassiaxs. 

Noko'mis;  town  (incorporated  in  1867);  Montgomery  co., 
111.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  7-D) ; 
on  the  Cleve..  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  Louis  Railway;  16  miles 
N.  E.  of  Hillsboro,  the  county-seat,  85  miles  N.  E.  of  St. 
Louis.  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  fruit-growing,  and  stock- 
raising  region  ;  contains  6  churches,  graded  pulilic  school, 
a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  and  3  weekly  news- 
[lapers  :  and  has  a  flonr-mill  and  2  grain  elevators.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,062;  (1890)  1,305;  (1894)  estimated,  1,450. 

Editors  of  "  Free  Press-Gazette." 

No'la;  town;  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  Italy:  aliout  14 
miles  N.  E.  of  Naples  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref."6-F).  The 
Castello  Cicala  and  the  ex-convent  of  the  Capuchins  on  a 
hill  above  the  town  give  it  a  picturesque  aspect,  but  the  in- 
terior has  a  cicsolate  appearance.  Of  the  sixteen  churches, 
(he  old  Italian  Gothic  cathedral  is  the  only  one  of  interest. 
Xola  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  renowned  cities  of 
Campania,  being  of  older  origin    than    Rome  itself.     The 


nOldeke 


NOMIXALISTS 


209 


Samnites  first  cniii|Uorcd  the  Pelas^ian  settlers,  were  in 
turn  driven  ont  by  the  Konians,  hut  reciivered  it  during  the 
Social  wars,  and  the  inhabitants  burneil  it  rather  than  yield 
to  Sulla;  Sparlaeus  uccupied  it  afterward.  In  the  time  of 
Vespasian  it  was  called  Aiiyuxta  Frlix,  and  this  was  its 
most  flourishing  perio<i.  It  wasstniiiirly  walli'il.  had  twelve 
gates,  inagniiicent  temples,  and  two  large  amphitheaters, 
between  which  rose  the  temple  of  Augustus,  said  to  have 
been  erected  on  the  site  of  the  house  in  which  that  emperor 
<lied.     Pop.  {\m\)  7,41t6. 

Nol'dt'ke, Tiikodor:  Orientalist;  b. at  Ilarbnrg,  Hanover, 
Mar.  2,  ISiO ;  was  educated  at  the  gymnasium  in  Lingen, 
Hanover,  and  at  the  I'niversity  of  Gottingen  ;  was  privat 
d.icent  in  tbittingen  1861-04;  pi"ofessorin  Kiel  1864-72;  has 
been  Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  at  .Strassburg  since 
1872;  is  author  of  Gi-schirhte  des  Koruns  (1860);  I'nler- 
gurliniif/i'ii  ziir  Krilik-  c/es  iillni  TcvtomfH/.^  (186!)) ;  Gram- 
matik  ili'i-  iii->isi/n\iclieu  Sprai'hif  (1S68) ;  Mniiiidinc/ii;  Gram- 
matik  (1875);  Si/rische  Grammalik  (1880);  Gesehichte  des 
Perserreiehes  zur  jieit  der  Sassanideti  (1870) ;  Aufsdfze  ziir 
persisehen  Oeschichte  (1887) ;  Orientalische  Skizztn  (1892) ; 
besides  a  large  number  of  important  contribidions  to  jour- 
nals, etc.  He  is  one  of  the  first  authorities  in  Arabic  phi- 
lology and  Oriental  history.  B.  I.  \V. 

Nolet  <le  Krouwero  van  Steelaud,  no  la-dp-brow  a-ra- 
vaan-stiilaant,  .loAN.NES  Cauoi.i's  Hubekti's:  Flemish  poet; 
b.  at  Rotterdam,  Holland,  .Ian.  28,  ISIT).  After  studying 
in  the  University  of  Louvain  he  went  to  Brussels,  where 
he  became  instructor  in  the  university,  and  where  he  has 
since  lived.  In  184!)  he  became  a  member  of  the  Brussels 
Academy.  For  a  generation  he  was  the  leading  literary 
man  of  Ijelgium.  His  career  as  a  writer  began  with  a  brief 
Geschiedenis  vdri  liet  Joodxche  Volk  van  de  schepping  der 
wereld  tot  na  de  veriweslhig  van  Jeruzalem  (The  Hague, 
18;i5).  His  first  important  poetical  work,  however,  was  No- 
ami  (Louvain,  1840).  This  was  followed  by  Amhiovix  (1841) ; 
Dichtluimen  (1842);  Ernst  en  lioert  (1847);  Zivart  op  wit 
{1853);  Net  groote  dielsc/ie  raderldtid  (1857);  Gedichten, 
f/c.  (2  Deel,  1859).  In  prose  he  has  published  the  somewhat 
•caustic  book  Een  Reisje  in  het  Xoorde  (1843) ;  Het  Com- 
munismus  in  zijne  vroegere  en  latere  vormen,  1871),  etc.  In 
his  earlier  years  he  was  an  ardent  admirer  of  (iermany  and 
of  (ierinan  ideas  (cf.  his  view  de  Germaneii.  1847);  but  after 
1866  he  conceived  a  deep  antipathy  for  Prussia,  and  strove 
against  German  influence  upon  Belgian  literature.  This 
feeling  he  Inis  most  clearly  expressed  in  his  academic  ad- 
dress, Du  pan-germaHisme  ef  de  se/i  influences  sur  la  littera- 
ture  flamande  (1868).  His  CEuvres  completes  (.7  vols.,  1859- 
84)  (umtain  his  Gedichten  (3  vols.,  1859-71),  his  earlier  prose 
works  (2  vols.,  1873),  his  later  Poezij  en  Prozn  (1877),  and 
I'uf-zij  en  lettercrifiek  (1884).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Nolhac.  n»  hrak',  Pierre,  de  ;  scholar ;  b.  at  Ambert.  Pny- 
de-Dome,  France,  Dec.  15, 18.5i).  After  studying  in  Paris  he 
passed  three  years  (1883-85)  in  Kome,  as  a  memlier  of  the 
French  school.  Returning  to  Paris  he  wjis  for  a  brief  time 
attached  to  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  and  was  then  (1886) 
ap|)ointed  Professor  in  the  ftcoledes  Hantes  Eludes,  and  as- 
sociate director  of  the  Museum  of  Versailles.  He  has  occu- 
pied himself  chiefly  with  the  beginnings  of  humanism  and 
of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy  and  France,  and  has  published 
numerous  brilliant  stuilii'S  in  this  field.  .Among  these  are 
Le  dernier  iimoiir  de  Ponmtrd  (1832);  Leitres  de  Jiiachim 
du  liellay  (1883);  JjU  bibliotheque  d'un  humaniste  (1883); 
Les  collections  d'antiquites  de  Fulvio  Orsirii  (1884);  Le 
Canzoniere  aulographe  de  Petrarque  (1886) :  Fnc-Mmiles  de 
Vieriture  de  Pelrtirqueet  notices  sur  sri  biltliotheque  (1887); 
Petites  notes  surVartJtiiUen  (1887) ;  Lii  bililifi/beque  de  Ful- 
vio Orsini  (1HS7);  Frasuie  en  Itiilie  {1S88);  IjCS  etudes 
grecques  de  Petrarque  (1888);  Les  rorrespondants  d'Alde 
Manure,  maferiaux  nouveaux  d'histoire  litteraire.  14S3- 
7,5/4(1889);  Petrarque  et  l' human isme  (W.)'2):  fjtudes  sur 
la  cour  de  France:  La  reine  Marie-Antoinette  (1892). 
Besides  these  dc  Nolhac  has  published  a  volume  of  verse, 
Pai/sagex  d'Aurerg/ie  (1888).  .\.  R.  Marsh. 

Nol'Iokcns.  .TosEfii,  R.  A. :  painter;  b.  in  London,  Eng- 
land, Aug.  11,  1737;  soriofji  painlerfrom  .\ntvver]>:  liecame 
a  pupil  of  the  scviljitor  Schumaker;  afterward  sl\idied  at 
Rome,  where  he  remained  ten  years;  was  very  successful 
in  executing  bas-reliefs,  groups  of  figures,  and  Inists  ;  settled 
in  London  1770;  made  busts  of  George  III.,  Fox.  Pitt, 
Warren  Hastings,  Johnson,  Garrick,  and  the  principal  ce- 
lebrities of  the  time,  which  were  generally  considereil  excel- 
lent likenesses;  execnteil  inunerous  commissions  for  public 
298 


monuments  and  statues,  as  well  as  mythological  groups; 
married  a  laiiy  of  rank,  an<l  ax'cumulated  a  handsome  for- 
tune.    I),  in  Lond(m,  Apr.  23,  1823. 

Nol'Ii'  I'ros'eqiii  [Lat.,  to  be  unwilling  to  prosecute]: 
a  declanilion  or  undertaking  by  the  plaintiff  or  prosecuting 
oflicer  in  an  action  or  prosecution  at  law  that  he  will  dis- 
continue further  proceedings  in  the  cause  against  the  de- 
fendant. It  is  entered  ujion  the  records  of  i he  court,  ami 
puts  an  end  to  the  particular  jiroceeding  or  litigation,  in 
the  course  of  which  it  is  introduced.  It  was  formerly  a 
common  prac'ti<-e  to  enter  a  nolle  prosequi  both  in  civil  and 
in  crimimd  cases,  but  in  civil  actions  other  modes  of  effect- 
ing a  discontiimance  of  the  proceeding  are  now  more  gen- 
erally adopted.  In  criminal  prosecutions,  however,  the 
former  practice  still  remains  commoidy  in  force.  It  usually 
lies  in  the  discretion  of  the  prosecuting  oflicer  to  enter  a 
not.  pros,  (as  the  phrase  is  commotdy  abbreviated),  but  it  is 
sometimes  provided  that  he  must  olptain  the  leave  of  the 
court  before  such  a  course  can  be  taken.  The  causes  which 
most  frequently  induce  such  action  arc,  that  there  is  an  in- 
suffieiency  of  evidence  to  procure  the  defendant's  conviction, 
or  that  the  testimony  of  one  of  several  defendants  who  have 
been  indicted  is  desired  to  be  introduced  against  the  others. 
Such  a  stc]i  might  also  be  taken  liccause,  on  account  of  the 
state  of  public  opinion  at  a  ])articular  time,  it  was  improb- 
able that  a  Jury  could  be  obtained  which  would  be  likely  to 
convict  the  prisoner,  or  because  the  trial  would  be  detri- 
mental to  the  public  interests.  A  nolle  prosequi  may  be  en- 
tered at  any  stage  of  the  case ;  but  according  to  the  pre- 
ponderance of  authority  a  nolle  prosequi  entered  after  the 
c<impletion  of  the  impaneling  of  a  jury  in  the  ea.se  will 
luive  the  same  eft'ect  as  an  acquittal.  Otherwise  it  does  not 
operate  as  an  acquittal,  but  only  as  an  indefinite  suspension 
of  the  proceedings,  and  the  prosecution  may  be  again  insti- 
tuted against  the  defendant  when  the  prosecuting  oflicer 
deems  it  desirable.  See  Bishop's  Criminal  Procedure  and 
Bishop's  Criminal  Law.     Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Noma :  See  Cancrum  Oris. 

Nom'bre  de  IH'oS:  a  former  Spanish  settlement  on  the 
northern  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Nicuesa's  tran- 
sient settlement  of  that  name  was  probably  on  or  near  the 
site  of  the  modern  Porto  Bello  ;  it  was  abandoned  in  1511. 
In  1519  a  new  town  of  Nomlire  de  Dios  was  founded  on  the; 
Bay  of  San  Bias,  and  this  became  the  northern  terminus  of 
the  route  over  the  isthmus  from  Panama.  During  the  six- 
teenth century  all  the  trade  of  Peru,  and  much  of  that  from 
Western  Jlexico,  Guateumla,  and  the  Sjiice  islands,  passed 
through  it ;  it  was  thus  one  of  the  most  important  ports  in 
America.  Owing  to  its  unhealthful  location  it  was  only 
frequented  by  the  merchants  on  the  arrival  of  the  annual 
fleets  from  Spain ;  about  sixty  of  the  liouses  were  built  of 
wood,  the  rest  being  thatched.  The  town  was  attacked  by 
Drake  in  1572,  and  destroyed  by  him  in  1595.  It  was  aban- 
doned in  1.597,  Porto  Bello  taking  its  place.  H.  H.  S. 

Nome'idiB  [;\Iod.  Lat.,  named  from  Xti'meuf;,  the  typical 
genus]:  a  family  of  suutll  fishes  related  to  tlie  mackerels. 
The  body  is  oblong,  compressed,  and  covered  with  cycloid 
scales;  the  lateral  line  continuous  and  iinarnu^d  ;  the  head 
compressed:  the  oitercula  unarnu'd ;  the  lujstrils  doidjle ; 
the  mouth  with  a  lateral  cleft,  upper  jaw  scarcely  protrac- 
tile ;  teeth  small  and  conical,  on  the  palate  as  well  as  jaws ; 
branchial  ajiertures  extensive;  braiu-hiostegal  rays  five  or 
six:  dorsal  more  or  less  divided,  aiul  with  the  spinous  por- 
tion shorter  than  the  soft.  The  skeleton  has  inunerous  ver- 
tebra' (in  Xomeus  16  +  20);  the  stomach  very  numerous 
pvloric  iippendages.  The  species  are  all  marine,  and  found 
in  tropical  or  warm  temperate  seas. 

NominaHsin  :  the  doctrine  of  the  Nominalists  {q.  v.). 

Noni'inalists  [from  Lat.  nomen.  nominis,  name]:  tlio.se 
.Schoolmen  who  held  the  doctrine  that  universals  (general 
notions,  such  as  those  of  man,  animal)  have  no  real  exist- 
ences corresponding  to  them,  but  are  mere  names  or  words 
( ttatus  voris).  The  chief  Nominalists  were  Roscellinus  and 
William  of  Occam  (q.  v.).  In  modern  times  their  doctrine 
has  been  adopted  by  Thomas  Holibes  (but  not  consistently, 
in.'ismui-h  as  lie  holds  the  doctrine  that  the  stale  is  a  general 
power,  or  lc<viatlian,  more  real  than  the  individual  citizen) 
and  John  Stuart  Mill.  Ilerltert  ."spencer,  though  claiming 
to  be  a  Nominalist,  is  likewise  a  Realist  when  he  holds 
that  the  persistent  force  is  an  ultimate  reality  producing 
and  annulling  the  particular  forces.  AVielard  was  a  Con- 
cept ualist  or  moderate  Nominalist,  and  in  this  class  we  are 


210 


NOMINATING  CONVENTIONS 


NONNUS 


to  place  John  Locke,  Thomas  Reid,  DugalJ  Stewart,  Dr. 
Thomas  Brown,  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  other  modern 
psychologists.  See  also  Conceptualism,  Realism,  and  Phi- 
Losopuv  {Hislori/  of  Philosophy).       William  T.  Harris. 

Noiuinatiiii;  Couveiitions :  in  the  U.  S.,  meetings  of 
delegates  of  a  political  party  to  nominate  candidates  for  na- 
tional. State,  or  local  offices.  Such  nominations  were  former- 
ly made  by  the  legislative  Caucus  ((/.  v.).  which  in  the  case  of 
State  elections  began  to  give  place  to  the  nominating  conven- 
tion in  1835.  In  national  elections  the  choice  of  candidates 
by  the  congressional  caucus  occasioned  much  complaint, 
and  in  1834  the  nominees  of  the  caucus  were  defeated  in  the 
presidential  election.  From  that  time  there  was  a  steady 
tendency  toward  a  more  popular  method  of  choosing  candi- 
dates, and  in  1831  the  first  national  nominating  convention 
was  held  by  the  Anti-Masonic  party  at  Baltimore.  Similar 
conventions  were  held  by  the  two  great  national  parties  in 
1833,  and  since  1840  all  candidates  for  the  presidency  have 
been  chosen  in  this  way.  The  conventions  meet  in  the  sum- 
mer immediately  preceding  the  presidential  election,  which 
is  held  in  November.  They  are  eompo.sed  of  delegates 
chosen  by  the  voters  of  the  party,  each  State  being  entitled 
to  twice  as  many  delegates  as  it  has  persons  representing 
it  in  Congress.  Delegates  from  the  Territories  and  the 
District  of  Columbia  are  also  admitted,  though  these  po- 
litical divisions  have  no  vote  in  the  presidential  election. 

Nomlna'tioii :  in  politics,  an  act  of  designation  to  office, 
the  ratification  of  which  depends  upon  another  person  or 
body  of  persons.  The  President  of  the  U.  S.  nominates  to 
the  Senate  the  incumbents  of  high  Federal  offices,  and 
makes  the  appointments  only  after  approval.  The  head  of 
an  executive  department  nominates  to  the  President  those 
whom  he  desires  as  his  subordinates,  and  a  national,  State, 
county,  or  t(.iwn  convention  of  a  political  party  nominates 
its  candidates  for  office  in  anticipation  of  the  elections.  See 
NoMi.VATiXG  Conventions. 

Notnos :  one  of  the  territorial  divisions  of  ancient  Egypt. 
See  Egypt,  Ancient. 

Nomsz,  Johannes  :  poet :  b.  at  Amsterdam,  Holland,  in 
1738.  Little  is  known  of  his  life,  except  that  it  was  dissi- 
pateil  and  unstable.  For  a  time  his  name  was  in  every- 
body's mouth,  and  he  was  confidently  expected  to  be  one  of 
the  greatest  stars  in  the  constellation  of  Dutch  poets;  but 
his  conduct  and  the  fickleness  of  his  political  opinions 
brought  him  into  discredit,  and  he  died  neglected  in  a  hos- 
pital at  Amsterdam,  Aug.  35,  1803.  In  tlie  course  of  his 
life  he  had  tried  his  hand  at  almost  all  kinds  of  literature, 
though  with  best  success  as  a  playwright.  His  first  work 
was  a  translatitm  of  Piron's  Ferdinand  Corfez  (1764).  He 
made  many  other  translations  during  his  life,  among  them 
Racine's  Athalie,  Corneille's  Le  Cid,  Voltaire's  Za'lre.  La 
Fontaine's  Fables,  part  of  Tasso's  Gerusaletnme  Liherata, 
etc.  He  wrote  more  than  fifty  dramatic  pieces  of  his  own, 
the  best  among  tliem  tieing  perhaps  Maria  van  Lalain.  De 
Ruiter,  iiwA  Antlionius  Hambroek.of  de  Belegering  van  For- 
moza.  He  composed  two  considerable  epic  poems:  Wi/lem 
de  Eersfe.  of  de  Grondlegging  der  nederlandsche  vrgheid 
(Amsterdam,  1779);  and  Maurits  van  Nassau,  Prins  van 
Oranje  (1780).  Other  poetical  work  was  his  Trionf  der 
Teekenkunst  (1708),  and  occasional  pieces  in  his  llengelwer- 
ken  (Amsterdam,  1783).  In  prose  he  essayed  the  romance, 
with  mediocre  success  even  in  his  best  work,  Mohammed,  of 
de  Ilervorming  der  Arabieren  (1780).  In  his  Ver/elsels  (3 
parts,  1781-85)  he  imitated  the  Cojifes  ?;iO)-a".i:  of  Marmontel. 
Dramatic  criticism  is  the  subject  of  his  Historie  van  Piet 
Snot  de  Toneelspectafor  ;  personal  reminiscences  of  Myne 
Uitspanningen  (3  parts,  1789).  The  literary  model  of  Nomsz 
was,  more  than  any  one  else,  Voltaire ;  but  it  is  clear  that  he 
never  really  understood  the  purposes  which  the  Frenchman 
cherished  in  spite  of  his  scoffings.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Non-commissioned  Offlcers:  army  officers  intermediate 
between  the  privates  and  the  commissioned  officers,  such  as 
corporals,  sergeants,  sergeant-majors,  etc.  They  are  not 
commissioned,  but  (in  the  U.  S.)  receive  a  warrant;  in  the 
British  army  the  latter  is  the  case  only  with  the  higher 
grades.  In  the  U.  S.,  besides  those  above  mentioned,  there 
are  ordnance,  quartermaster,  commissary,  and  saddler — 
sergeants,  hospital  stewards,  drum-majors, "orderly  sergeants, 
and  certain  musicians  who  liave  the  rank  of  sergeant  or 
corporal.  In  the  British  army  there  are  included  bombard- 
iers, master  gunners,  staff  clerks,  band-masters,  etc. 

Non-conductors:  See  Electricity. 


Nonconformists,  or  Dissenters:  a  name  applied  to 
those  residents  of  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  who  are 
not  connected  with  the  Church  of  England.  There  are 
nearly  300  denominations  in  Great  Britain.  The  larger  and 
more  important  may  be  traced  back  to  the  Presbyterians, 
Brownists  (afterward  called  Independents),  Anabaptists,  and 
Roman  Catliolicsof  the  sixteeutli  century,  or  to  the  Method- 
ists, who  arose  much  later.  See  the  articles  on  those  relig- 
ious bodies ;  also  Friends. 

Nonius,  Marcellus  :  a  Latin  grammarian  from  Africa, 
of  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  whose  work,  Com- 
pendiosa  doctrina  ad  iilium.  in  twenty  books,  is  extremely 
valuable  because  of  its  numerous  citations  from  earlier 
writers,  no  longer  extant.  The  compilation  in  itself  is  me- 
chanical, and  shows  little  scholarship  or  judgment.  See 
editions  of  L.  Quicherat  (Paris,  1871)  and  L.  Muller  (3  vols., 
Leipzig,  1888).  M.  Warren. 

Nonjurors :  those  members  of  the  Church  of  England 
who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and 
Mary.  Sancroft,  Arclibishop  of  Canterbuj-y,  with  several  of 
the  bishops  and  about  400  priests,  declined  to  take  it,  upon 
the  ground  that  they  were  already  bound  by  their  oath  of 
allegiance  to  King  James  II.  In  consequence  of  their  refusal 
they  were  deprived  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1691  of  their  ec- 
clesiastical preferments.  The  dejirived  bishops  were  San- 
croft, Turner,  Frampton,  White.  Ken,  and  Lloyd.  Many  of 
the  laity,  regarding  tlie  deprivations  as  unlawful,  adhered  to 
these  prelates  and  formed  a  religious  communion,  which 
they  called  the  faithful  remnant  of  the  Church  of  England. 
The  earlier  Nonjurors  were  not  Jacobites.  On  the  contrary, 
many  of  them  had  opposed  the  violent  measures  of  King 
James,  and  most  of  them  were  disposed  to  submit  peaceably 
to  the  new  settlement  of  the  succession.  They  were  willing 
to  live  as  orderly  citizens,  but  not  to  bind  themselves  by 
new  oaths  during  the  life  of  King  James,  nor  to  recognize 
the  claims  of  Parliament  to  deprive  bishops  of  their  sees. 
Some  of  the  chief  men  in  the  kingdom  in  influence  and 
learning  were  among  the  Nonjurors.  The  motives  of  the 
first  Nonjurors  appear  to  have  been  strictly  religious ;  those 
of  their  successors  were  political.  After  the  death  of  James 
II.  and  of  Lloyd  anil  Ken,  the  last  of  the  deprived  bishops, 
many  of  them  returned  to  the  Established  Church,  while 
the  rest,  looking  forward  to  the  possible  restoration  of  the 
exiled  royal  family,  determined  to  keep  up  an  ejiiscopal 
succession.  Dissensions,  however,  arose  among  them,  and 
they  were  divided  into  two  communions.  Gordon,  the  last 
bishop  of  the  original  line,  died  in  1779,  and  Boothe,  the 
last  bishop  of  the  Nonjurors  of  the  Separation,  in  1805. 
Nonjuring  congregations  continued  to  exist  a  little  longer; 
and  it  is  saiil  that  a  imnjuring  clergyman  was  living  as  late 
as  1815.  Tlie  regular  body  adhered  strictly  to  the  doctrine 
and  discipline  of  the  Church  of  England,  but  the  separation 
introduced  many  changes.  A  book  of  Devotions  for  Primi- 
tive Catholicks,  compiled  by  Dr.  William  Deacon,  one  of 
their  bishops,  was  used  for  some  time  in  the  congregations 
of  the  latter  body.  It  differs  widely  from  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer.  The  Nonjurors,  being  to  a  great  extent  cut 
off  from  active  life,  devoted  themselves  to  literature.  The 
celebrated  historian  Jeremy  Collier  was  one  of  their  bishops. 
Leslie,  the  controversialist,  William  Law,  the  able  polemic 
and  mystic,  and  Robert  Nelson,  the  well-known  commenta- 
tor on  the  feasts  and  fasts,  belonged  to  their  communion. 
Among  the  more  celebrated  of  their  writings  were  Deacon's 
Devotions,  already  mentioned  ;  a  treatise  on  the  Intermedi- 
ate State,  by  Archibald  Campl)ell,  a  Scottish  bishop  resident 
in  London  ;  and  a  learned  and  elaborate  folio  called  The 
Hereditary  Right  of  tlie  Crown  of  England.  This  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  written  by  Harbin,  a  nonjuring  clergy- 
man, during  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  at  a  time  when  the 
restoration  of  the  Stuarts  was  tliought  to  be  possible.  Bil- 
kiah  Beaford,  however,  another  nonjuror,  assumed  the  re- 
sponsibility of  it,  and  was  fined  and  imprisoned  for  pub- 
lishing a  seditious  libel.  A  history  of  flic  Nonjurors  was 
published  in  1845  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Lathbury. 

Revised  by  W.S.  Perry. 

Nonnus :  a  Greek  epic  poet  of  Panopolis,  in  Egypt.  His 
date  is  uncertain,  but  he  is  commonly  assigned  to  the  fifth 
century  a.  d.  Originally  a  heathen,  he  became  a  Christian 
in  his  old  age.  The  heathen  side  is  represented  by  the 
Dionysiara  iAtovvaioKi).  or  Adventures  of  Bacchus,  a  vast 
epic  in  forty-eight  books,  without  plan,  without  unity,  of 
endless  details,  of  extravagant  fancies,  a  strong  contrast 
to  the  simplicity  and  plastic  clearness  of  the  old  epic.     Yet 


NON-RESIDEXCE 


NORELIUS 


211 


Nonnus  is  a  penius  in  his  wav,  and  his  versification  is  un- 
equaled  for  rapiility  ami  smoothness,  tliouph  fatiguing  by 
reason  of  its  uniform  flow.  An  edition  wa.s  i)ul)iished  by 
Graefe  (181'J-26)  and  one  by  Kochly  (1859).  The  Christian 
side  of  N'onnus  is  represented  by  his  hexametrical  transcrip- 
tion of  the  (iospel  of  St.  John.  See  editions  by  Passow  (1834), 
Marcellus  (1801).  B.  L.  Gii.dersleeve. 

Non-residence :  See  Citizen. 

Nonsuit,  or.  more  fully,  Jiidgrment  of  Nonsuit:  in  law, 
a  jud<rment  allowing  or  ordering  the  plaintilf  to  discontinue 
the  action  which  he  has  instituted.  A  nonsuit  is  generally 
granted  on  the  ground  of  a  default  or  insuHicieiicy  of  the 
evidence  offered  by  the  plaintiff,  and  in  case  of  a  nonsuit 
the  plaintiff  pays  the  costs  of  the  action.  A  nonsuit  may 
generally  l)e  taken  either  at  any  time  before  the  rendering 
of  the  verdict  by  the  jury  or  a  judgment  by  the  court,  ac- 
cording to  t  lie  common-law  practice;  or,  as  in  some  of  the 
U.  S.,  at  any  time  before  the  case  is  finally  submitted  to  the 
jury  or  the  court. 

A  nonsuit,  being  merely  a  default,  is  no  bar  to  another 
action  on  the  same  ground;  and  the  plaintiff  frequently 
finds  it  to  his  advantage  to  elect  to  be  nonsuited,  in  order 
that  he  may  begin  his  suit  over  again,  or  prosecute  it  at  a 
later  time,  when  his  evidence  may  be  more  conclusive  or 
otlier  circumstances  more  favorable.  He  may  submit  to  a 
nonsuit  by  failing  to  appear  for  the  trial  of  the  case,  by  ab- 
senting hi'mself  when  the  verdict  of  the  jury  is  about  to  be 
rendered,  etc.  When  the  judgment  for  nonsuit  is  the  result 
of  his  voluntary  act,  he  can  not  appeal  from  the  judgment 
or  have  it  set  aside.  He  may  be  nonsuited  involuntarily  on 
tiie  motion  of  the  defendant  when  his  evidence  is  insutBcient. 
or  for  any  other  cause  for  which  a  nonsuit  may  be  ordered. 
Formerly,  in  the  English  practice,  a  compulsory  nonsuit  on 
the  gnnind  of  the  insufficiency  of  the  evidence  could  not  be 
ordered  by  the  court  against  the  plaintiff',  but  he  might  in- 
sist that  the  case  should  go  to  the  jury;  but  it  was  usual 
for  the  plaintiff  in  such  a  case  to  submit  to  a  nonsuit,  with 
leave  to  make  a  moticm  to  the  full  court  to  set  the  judgment 
aside.  By  the  judicature  acts,  however,  it  has  been  provided 
that  a  nonsuit  may  be  ordered  by  the  judge  at  or  after  the 
hearing  or  trial  upon  such  terms  as  to  costs,  and  as  to  any 
other  action  and  otherwise  as  may  seem  fit;  and  if  the 
plaintiff  ilnes  not  appear  when  the  action  is  called  for  trial 
the  defendant  is  entitled  to  a  judgment  dismissing  the  ac- 
tion. It  was  also  provided  that  any  judgment  of  nonsuit, 
unless  the  court  otherwise  directed,  should  have  the  effect  of 
a  judgment  ujion  the  merits,  except  in  case  of  mistake,  sur- 
prise, and  accident  ;  but  this  provision  has  been  abrog.ated. 

The  former  Knglish  practice  still  prevails  in  the  Federal 
courts  of  the  V.  S.  ami  in  several  of  the  States,  and  no  non- 
suit can  be  ordered  without  the  conseitt  of  the  plaintiff ;  but 
in  other  States  the  plaintiff  can  be  compelled  to  be  nonsuited 
for  insufficiency  of  evidence.  In  those  States  in  which  a 
code  of  civil  procedure  has  been  adopted  a  nonsuit  is  called 
a  dismissal  of  the  complaint.  For  a  fuller  treatment,  see 
the  works  on  practice  referred  to  under  the  article  Pr.\ctice. 

F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Noot'ka  Dog^:  a  large  dog  found  among  the  Indians  of 
Vancouver's  island,  British  CoUnnbia,  chiefly  remarkable 
tor  its  long  woolly  hair,  which  is  spun  and  woven  into  cloth 
by  the  natives. 

Nootka  Indians:  See  Wakashan  Indians. 

Noph  (Kzik.  XXX.  16;  Isa.  xix.  1:3;  Jer.  ii.  Ifi),  or  Moph 
(Hos.  ix.  6):  the  Hebrew  name  of  Memphis,  capital  of  Lower 
Egypt. 

Norbertines :  the  name  of  a  monastic  order,  better  known 
as  Premonstratensians  {q.  v.). 

Nord,  nor:  the  most  northerly  department  of  France; 
boundeii  X.  K.  by  Helgium  and  X.  \V.  by  the  Straits  of 
Dover.  Area,  2,1!!:!  si|.  miles.  The  ground  is  generally  low 
and  the  surface  flat,  with  the  exception  of  the  southeastern 
part,  where  some  hills  and  low  mountains  occur  which  are 
rich  in  coal  and  inm.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  excellently 
cultivated,  yiehiing  large  crops  of  wheat,  hemp,  flax,  beet- 
root, tobacco,  and  fruits.  Tlie  Aa  and  tlu;  Scheldt,  with 
their  numerous  tributaries,  all  navigable,  pass  thrnugli  the 
country,  which,  moreover,  is  traversed  by  several  canals. 
JIanufacturing  of  linen,  silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods, 
lace,  beetroot-sugar,  porcelain,  chemicals,  and  iron  is  ex- 
tensively carried  on :  the  fisheries,  too,  are  important.  The 
department  is  stronglv  fortified,  and  has  many  battle-fields. 
Pop.  (18<)1)  l.T:«>,:i41.' 


Nordenskjijld,  norden-skyold,  Adolf  Erik:  explorer; 
b.  at  Helsingfors,  Finland,  X'ov.  18,  1832;  descended  from  a 
Swedish  family  whose  members  through  several  generations 
had  distinguished  themselves  as  scientists.  He  studied 
geology,  mineralogy,  and  natural  history  in  the  university 
of  his  native  town,  and  very  early  received  aiipointment  in 
the  mining  department  ;  but  he  could  not  avoid  incurring 
the  suspicion  of  the  Russian  Government,  and  was  finally 
compelled  to  leave  the  country.  He  settled  in  Sweden,  and 
was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  mineralogical  nmseuiii 
of  Stockholm  in  1858 ;  accompaiued  Torell  on  his  Arctic 
expeditions  in  1859  and  1861 ;  led  similar  expeditions  him- 
self in  1864,  1868.  and  1872,  an<l  made  a  scientific  journey 
to  Greenland  in  1870.  The  results  of  his  researches  were 
published  in  geographical  and  mineralogical  monographs, 
and  especially  in  his  licJogOrehe  for  en  Kxpi'ilitioiL  till 
OriJnland  (1871).  Meanwhile,  his  attention  had  been  turned 
to  Siberian  explorations,  and  in  1875  he  sailed  through  the 
Karian  Sea  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei,  ascended  the  river 
in  a  small  boat,  and  returned  home  overland.  The  next 
year  he  repeated  the  voyage,  but  returned  from  the  Yenisei 
by  sea.  His  experiences  having  given  him  a  reasonable  hone 
of  accomplishing  the  northeast  passage,  he  started  in  July, 
1878,  in  the  "^'ega,  supported  partly  by  the  Swed  ish  Government 
and  partly  by  two  merchants.  Thus  the  Vega  became  the 
first  vessel  which  doubled  the  northernmost  point  of  the 
Old  World,  Cape  Tchelyuskin.  She  wintered  in  Bering 
Straits,  and  reached  Japan  on  Sept.  2,  1879;  and  the  north- 
east passage  was  found.  On  his  return  home  Xf)rdenskjold 
was  created  a  baron  and  loaded  with  honors.  The  full  re- 
port of  his  voyage  was  published  in  .Swedish,  English,  Ger- 
man, and  French  in  1884. 

Nordliausen,  nort'how-zen  :  town  of  Prussia,  province  of 
Saxony;  at  the  foot  of  the  Ilarz  Mountains,  on  the  Zorge; 
48  miies  by  rail  X^.  X.  W.  of  Erfurt  (see  map  of  Germany, 
ref.  4-E).  It  has  large  distilleries,  manufactures  of  tobacco, 
chemicals,  and  leather,  and  an  active  trade.  It  was  founded 
in  874,  and  was  finally  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1815.  Pop. 
(1890)  26,847. 

Nordlioff,  nort'hof,  Charles:  journalist;  b.  at  Erwitte, 
in  Westphalia,  Prussia,  Aug.  81,  18:30.  In  1835  his  parents 
emigrated  to  the  U.  S. ;  in  1843  he  was  app.renticed  to  a  printer 
in  Cincinnati ;  at  the  age  of  fourteen  went  to  sea,  and  was  a 
sailor  for  nine  years ;  then  worked  in  newspaper  offices.  Be- 
tween 1861  and  1871  he  was  editorially  connected  with  the 
Xew  York  Evening  Post,  subsequently  served  as  a  corre- 
spondent of  The  jyew  York  Tribune,  and  became  an  editor  of 
The  Xew  York  Herald,  Among  his  published  works  are 
Maii-nf-war  Life  (Cincinnati,  1855);  The  Merchant  Ves- 
sel and  W'haliny  and  Fishiny  (Cincinnati.  1855-56) ;  Cape 
Cod  and  Along  Shore,  a  collection  of  stt)ries  (Xew  York, 
1868) ;  California  for  Health,  Pleasure,  and  Residence 
(Xew  York,  1872) ;  Northern  California,  Oregon,  and  the 
Sandwich  Islands  (Xew  York.  1873) ;  The  Commxmistic  So- 
cieties of  the  United  States  (Xew  York,  1874) ;  Politics  for 
Young  Americans  (1875);  Tlie  Cotton  Stales  in  the  Spring 
and  Summer  of  1S75  (1876) ;  God  and  the  Future  Life 
(1881) ;  Peninsular  CaUfornia  (1888). 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 
Noreen,  Adolph  Gotthard  :  philologist ;  b.  at  Ostra  Era- 
tervik,  Sweden,  Mar.  13,  1854;  was  educated  at  the  gymna- 
siuin  of  Karlsta<l  in  Viirmland  and  at  the  University  of 
Upsala  (1873-77);  privat  docent  at  Upsala  1877-87 ;  since 
1887  Professor  of  the  Scandinavian  I;anguages  at  the  same 
university;  author  of  Aldre  Vastgotalagen  (1876);  Fryks- 
dalsmaleh  Gudldre  (1877) ;  Ordhok  oper  Fryksdalsmdlets 
(1878);  Sve7isk  sprdkldra  (i..  1881);  Altislandisrhe  und  alt- 
norwegische  Grammatik  (1884;  2d  ed.  1892);  Forldsningar 
i  urgermansk  judlare  (1888-90;  also  in  Germ,  transl.);  Oe- 
schi'chte  der  nordischen  Sprachen  (in  Paid's  Grundriss, 
1889) ;  besides  many  lesser  works,  articles  in  journals,  and 
reviews.  He  is  one  of  the  most  active  and  aggressive  of  the 
vounger  school  of  comparative  philologists,  and  a  leading 
authority  in  the  field  of  Scandinavian  grammar.    B.  I.  W. 

Norellus,  E.,  D.  D. :  clergyman  ;  one  of  the  pioneers  of 
the  Swedish  Lutheran  Church  in  the  U.  ,S. ;  b.  in  Hassein, 
Sweden,  Oct.  26. 1833  ;  emigrated  to  the  U.  S.  1850 ;  studied 
at  Columbus,  0.  After  a  pastorate  of  a  year  at  Lafayette, 
Ind.,  he  became  in  1856  missionary  in  ^linnesota,  with  Red 
Wing  as  his  center,  and  published" in  1857  the  first  Swedish 
paper  in  Minnesota.  Almost  his  entire  ministerial  life  has 
been  spent  in  that  State.  He  has  been  president  of  the  Au- 
gustana  synod,  and  editor  of  Augustana.  the  organ  of  that 


212 


NORFOLK 


NORMAL 


body.     lie  published  in  Swedish  a  history  of  the  Swedish 
Lutheran  cliurelies  of  the  U.  S.  (1893).  H.  E.  Jacobs. 

Norfolk,  nortiik:  county  of  England ;  bounded  N.  and 
N.  E.  bv  the  North  Sea,  S.  and  S.  E.  by  Suffolk,  and  W.  by 
Cambridge,  Lincoln,  and  the  Wash.  Area,  3,11!)  sq.  miles. 
The  surface  is  level  or  slightly  undulating,  well  tempered,  and 
well  watered,  the  principal  rivers  l«ing  the  Ouse,  the  Yare, 
the  Bure,  and  the  Waveney,  whicli  in  their  course  link  to- 
gether the  numerous  broads  of  the  northeastern  district. 
The  soil  consists  chiefly  of  a  sandy  loam.  Barley,  turnips, 
and  mangold  are  the  cliief  agricultural  products,  and  cattle 
and  poultrv,  especially  geese  and  turkeys,  are  extensively 
reared  for  the  London  market.  There  are  manufactures  in 
Norwich  {q.  v.).  and  important  herring-fisheries  connected 
with  Yarmouth  and  other  ports.     Pop.  (1891)  456,474 

Norfolk  :  city ;  Madison  co..  Neb.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Nebraska,  ref.  9-F) ;  on  the  t^hi.,  St.  P.,  Minn, 
and  Om.,  the  Fremont,  Elk.  and  Mo.  Val.  and  the  Union 
Pac.  railways ;  75  miles  S.  W.  of  Sioux  City,  130  miles  N.  W. 
of  Omaha.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  sugar-beet  raising 
region ;  has  8  churches,  5  public-school  buildings,  electric 
lights,  electric  street-railway,  and  a  daily  and  4  weekly 
newspapers ;  and  contains  the  largest  beet-sugar  factory  in 
the  State  (established  1891).  Pop.  (1880)  547;  (1890)  3,038; 
(1894)  estimated,  7,000.         Publisher  of  "  Daily  News." 

Norfolk:  city,  port  of  entry,  and  U.  S.  naval  station 
(settled  in  1705,  bombarded  and  nearly  destroyed  by  the 
British  in  1776,  chartered  as  a  city  in  1845);  Norfolk  co., 
Va.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Virginia,  ref.  7-1) ;  on  the 
Elizabeth  river  (an  arm  of  Chesapeake  Bay),  the  Albemarle 
and  Chesapeake  Canals,  and  the  Norfolk  and  W.,  the  Ches. 
and  0.,  the  N.  Y.,  Phila.  and  Norfolk,  the  Norfolk,  Alb.  and 
Atlantic,  the  Norfolk  and  Carolina,  and  the  Norfolk  and 
Southern  railways;  8  miles  from  Hampton  Roads,  17  miles 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  88  miles  S.  E.  of  Richmond.  It 
has  an  excellent  harbor,  large,  safe,  and  of  sufficient  depth 
to  accommodate  the  largest  war  vessels,  and  is  in  regular 
steamship  communication  with  various  U.  S.  and  European 
ports.  The  climate  is  genial,  tempered  by  the  Gulf  Stream, 
which  runs  nearer  the  shore  off  Capes  Henry  and  Hatteras 
than  at  any  other  point  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Norfolk  and 
Portsmouth,  on  tha  opposite  side  of  the  river,  constitute  the 
largest  naval  station  in  the  U.  S.,  and  a  single  U.  S.  customs 
district.  The  foreign  trade  in  the  calendar  year  1893  was 
represented  by  imports  of  merchandise  valued  at  |110,680, 
and  by  export's  of  domestic  articles  valued  at  $10,689,533. 
The  city  is  an  important  coaling-station,  handling  1,600,000 
tons  annually ;  has  a  cotton  business  of  about  1,000,000 
bales  annually,  an  annual  oyster  business  valued  at  |1.000,- 
000,  and  an  annual  truck  business  valued  at  about  $4,000,- 
000;  and  is  the  principal  peanut-market  of  the  country. 
There  are  30  churches,  an  academy,  a  mission  college,  a  col- 
lege for  young  ladies,  public-school  property  valued  at  over 
.f  100.000,  3  liliraries  (Norfolk  Literarv  Association,  founded 
1870;  Norfolk  Law,  founded  1884;  and  the  Webster  Scien- 
tific and  Literary  Association)  containing  nearly  13.000 
volumes,  2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $600,- 
000,  6  State  banks  with  capital  of  $584,350,  3  private  banks, 
board  of  traile,  and  cotton  exchange.  Norfolk  has  the 
Holly  system  of  water-works,  drawing  its  supply  from  sev- 
eral lakes  7  miles  distant ;  thorough  sewerage  ;  gas  and  elec- 
tric light  plants;  and  4  daily,  5  weekly,  and  2  monthly 
periodicals.  The  census  returns  of  189Ci  showed  that  366 
manufacturing  establishments  (representing  56  industries) 
reported.  These  had  a  combined  capital  of  $3,130,819,  em- 
ployed 3,791  persons,  paid  $1,393,613  for  wages  and  $3,388,- 
516  tor  materials,  and  had  products  valued  at  $4,634,363. 
The  principal  manufactures  reported  were  :  Lumber  and 
mill  jiroducds  from  logs  and  bolts.  6  establishments,  $776.- 
203  capital,  and  $704,953  value  of  products;  and  agricul- 
tural implements,  3  establishments,  $303,585  capital.  an<l 
$381,750  value  of  products.  In  1893  the  assessed  valuation 
of  taxalile  property  was  $22,082,930,  and  on  Feb.  15.  1894, 
the  net  debt,  including  a  water  debt  of  $700,000,  was  $3,130,- 
200.     Pop.  (1880)  21,966  ;  (1890)  34,871. 

Editor  of  "  Viroinian." 

Norfolk,  Dukes  of  (1483),  Earls  of  Arundel  (1139),  of 
Surrey  (1483),  and  of  Norfolk  (1644) :  a  family  of  the  Eng- 
lish noliility  which  enjoys  the  distinction  of  hereditary 
earl-marshal,  premier  duke,  and  premier  earl  of  England. 
The  earldom  of  the  East  Angles  was  conferred  by  Henry  I. 
(1135)  upon  Hugh  Bigod,  who  lost  that  title  by  rebellion 
against  Stephen  and  Henry  II.,  but  was  reconciled  to  the 


latter  monarch  and  made  Earl  of  Norfolk  1167.  His 
grandson,  Roger,  was  made  earl-marshal  on  the  failure  of 
the  male  line  of  the  Earls  of  Pembroke  1235,  but  both  titles 
became  extinct  on  the  death  of  his  nepliew,  of  the  same 
name,  1307.  After  having  been  held  by  Thomas  of  Broth- 
erton,  brother  of  Edward  II.  (1313-38),  and  by  Thomas 
Mowbray  (1386-1413),  both  titles  were  granted  by  Richard 
III.,  June  38,  1483,  to  John  Howard,  lord-admiral  of 
England,  France,  and  Aquitaine,  a  distinguished  statesman 
and  military  leader,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Bos- 
worth  Field,  Aug.  33,  1485,  and  attainted  shortly  after- 
ward.— His  son,  Thomas  Howard,  who  had  been  ennobled 
(as  Earl  of  Surrey)  at  the  same  time  as  his  father,  whose 
attainder  he  also  shared,  was  restored  to  his  original  title 
1488 ;  distinguished  himself  in  war  and  diplomacy ;  was 
made  earl-marshal  1510,  and  second  Duke  of  Norfolk  Feb. 
1,  1514,  as  a  reward  for  having  gained  the  battle  of  Flod- 
den  Field;  d.  at  Framlingham,  May  21,  1534. — His  son, 
Thomas  Howard,  third  duke,  in  many  respects  the  most 
noted  member  of  the  family,  b.  about  1474,  took  a  very 
prominent  part  in  public  affairs ;  repeatedly  commanded 
armies  of  invasion  against  Scotland ;  presided  over  the 
court  which  sentenced  Queen  Anne  Boleyn  to  death.  May 
19,  1536;  suppressed  the  rebellion  known  as  the  "Pilgrim- 
age of  Grace "  1537 ;  was  thrown  into  the  Tower  Dec, 
1546,  sentenced  to  death  and  attainted  Jan.  37,  1547,  but 
escajied  through  the  opportune  death  of  Henry  VIII.  on 
the  following  day:  had  his  title  restored  liy  Queen  Mary; 
d.  Aug.  25,  1554.  The  cause  of  his  fall  might  doubtless  be 
traced  to  the  pirevious  misconduct  and  disgraceful  death  of 
his  niece,  Catharine  Howard,  third  queen  of  Henry. — His 
brother.  Lord  Edward  Howard,  had  been  lord  high  ad- 
miral of  England,  and  was  killed  in  an  attempt  to  destroy 
the  French  fleet  1513;  while  his  eldest  son,  Henry  How- 
ard, celebrated  as  a  poet  under  the  title  of  Earl  of  Surrey, 
aspired  to  the  hand  of  the  Princess  Mary,  and  was  beheaded 
on  Tower  Hill.  Jan.  19,  1.547. — Surrey's  son.  Thomas  How- 
ard, b.  about  1536,  became  fourth  duke;  intrigued  for  the 
hand  of  JIary,  Queen  of  Scots,  and  was  beheaded  at  Lon- 
don, June  3, 1572. — His  grandson,  Thomas  Howard,  b.  1592, 
was  restored  in  blood  by  act  of  Parliament  as  Earl  of  Ar- 
undel and  of  Surrey  1603 ;  was  distinguished  in  the  service 
of  t'harles  I. ;  was  restored  to  the  earldom  of  Norfolk  1644, 
and  is  known  to  history  under  the  title  of  Arundel,  through 
the  great  coUeetion  of  Grecian  marbles  made  in  his  name. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Norfolk  Island :  an  island  in  the  South  Pacific,  about 
half  way  between  New  Caledonia  and  New  Zealand :  lat.  29' 
S.,  Ion."  168°  E. ;  area,  10  sq.  miles;  pop.  750;  under  the 
supervision  of  the  governor  of  New  South  Wales.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  solitary  and  inaccessible  of  the  islands  of  the 
globe.  Originallv  it  was  inhabited,  and  was  discovered  by 
Cook  in  1774.  From  1788  to  1805  and  from  1835  to  1842  it 
was  used  as  a  penal  colony  by  New  South  Wales.  In  1856 
many  of  the  descendants  of  the  mutineers  of  the  Bounty 
were  transported  thither  from  Pitcairn  island.  These  num- 
bered 149  at  the  time  of  the  transfer;  their  descendants  now 
com) 
mission 

The  clinuite  is  agreeable  and  healthful,  and  the  soil  fertile, 
but  the  inhabitants  are  indolent.  M.  W.  H. 

Nor'ioiini :  province  of  the  Roman  empire,  extending 
between  the  Danube  and  the  Save,  and  bounded  E.  by 
Pannonia  and  W.  by  Vindelicia  and  Rlu-etia.  It  corre- 
sjionded  approximately  to  the  portion  of  Austria  proper  S. 
of  the  Danube,  together  with  the  provinces  of  Styria, 
Carinthia,  and  Salzburg.  It  was  conquered  late  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus.  Its  principal  city  was  Noreia  (the  mod- 
ern Neumarkt  in  Styria). 

Revised  by  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Normal  [from  Ijat.  norma,  carpenter's  square,  rule; 
etymol.  doubtful,  possibly  for  *ndnm(i.  ninth,  ninth  let- 
ter, in  allusion  to  the  shape  of  letter  L ;  cf.  gemien  < 
*genmen  (i),  carmen  <  *ranmi-n  (?)] :  a  term  used  in  mathe- 
matics. A  normal  to  a  plane  curve  is  a  .straight  line  in  that 
plane  perpendicular  to  a  tangent  at  the  point  of  contact. 
The  equation  of  the  normal  in  rectangular  co-ordinates  is 

in  which  »/'  and  .r'  are  the  co-ordinates  of  the  point  on  the 
curve.  When  the  length  of  a  normal  is  spoken  of,  we  gen- 
erally mean  the  distance  from  the  point  of  normalcy  to  the 


imprise  all  the  inhabitants  except  those  of  the  Melanesian 
ission  station  and  school  established  here.    Pop.  (1896)  750. 


NORMAL 


NORMANS 


213 


.V  = 


point  in  which  the  normal  cuts  the  axis  of  x.     In  this  case 

the  formula  for  the  length  is     

N=y  '^\+p\ 
in  which  y  is  the  ordinate  of  the  point  of  contact,  and  p' 
the  corresponding  value  of  the  first  differential  coellicient 
of  the  ordinate.  The  distance  from  the  point  on  the  curve 
to  the  center  of  the  corresponding  osculating  circle  is 
sometimes  taken  as  the  length  of  the  normal,  in  which  case 
this  length  is  given  by  the  formula 

(1  +  />'»)' 
■        ?■        ' 

p'  having  the  same  signification  as  before,  and  p'  being 
the  corresponding  value  of  the  second  differential  coeflicient 
of  the  ordinate. 

A  normal  to  a  curve  of  double  curvature  is  a  straight 
line  lying  in  the  osculating  plane  and  perpendicular  to  the 
tangent  at  its  point  of  contact.  In  this  case  the  length 
of  the  normal  is  the  same  as  the  length  of  the  radius  of  the 
osculating  circle  to  the  curve  at  the  point  of  contact.  A 
plane  is  said  to  be  normal  to  a  curve  at  any  point  when  it  is 
perpendicular  to  the  tangent  at  that  point.  A  normal  line 
to  a  surface  is  a  straight  line  perpendicular  to  a  tangent 
plane  to  the  surface  at  the  point  of  contact.  Any  plane 
through  a  normal  line  to  a  surface  is  a  normal  plane. 

Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 
Normal :  city ;  McLean  eo..  111.  (for  local  iim  of  county,  see 
map  of  Illinois,  rcf.  5-E) ;  on  the  Chi.  and  Alton  and  the  111. 
Cent,  railways;  2  miles  X.  of  Bloomington,  124  miles  S.  S.  W. 
of  Chicago.  '  It  is  noted  as  the  seat  of  the  Illinois  State  Nor- 
mal University,  organized  in  1857,  which  in  1890-91  had 
19  instructors"  and  682  professional  and  graduate  and  14.5 
non-professiomil  students.  It  is  also  the  seat  of  the  Illinois 
Soldiers'  Orphans"  Home,  founded  in  1869.  The  Normal  Uni- 
versity has  a  library  of  over  7,000  volumes,  and  the  Orphans' 
Home  one  of  over  '3,000.  The  city  is  in  a  coal  region,  has 
extensive  nurseries,  and  contains  a  national  bank,  a  savings- 
bank,  and  3  periodicals.  Pop.  (1880)  2,470;  (1890)  3,459. 
Normal  Schools  :  See  Schools. 

Norman  :  village  (founded  in  1889) ;  capital  of  Cleveland 
CO.,  Okl.  (fur  location,  see  map  of  Oklahoma,  ref.  3-D);  near 
the  (Canadian  river,  and  on  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  Santa  Fe 
Railroad:  50  miles  S.  of  Guthrie.  It  is  in  a  corn,  grain, 
and  cotton  region,  and  contains  the  University  of  Oklaho- 
ma, 8  churches,  2  public-school  buildings.  High  Gate  Female 
College  (Methodist  Episcopal  South),  3  State  banks,  flour 
and  cottonseed-oil  mills,  and  a  dailv.  a  monthlv,  and  3 
weekly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1890)  787 ;  (1894)  estimated,  3,000. 
Editor  of  "  State  Democrat." 
Normandy  [Fr.  Normandie,  deriv.  of  Normand,  Nor- 
man. See  Normans]  :  an  old  province  of  France,  bordering 
on  the  English  Channel,  and  comprising  an  area  of  10,534 
sq.  miles;  now  divided  into  the  departments  of  Seine-In- 
ferieure.  Sure,  Orne,  Calvados,  and  Manche.  The  ground 
is  naturallv  fertile,  and  the  inhal)itants  are  descendants  of 
the  old  NoRMA.vs  (^r.  v.).  When,  in  1066,  their  duke,  William 
II.,  conijuered  England.  Xorniandy  entered  into  a  close  po- 
litical relation  to  that  country,  which  continued,  generally 
as  a  formal  union,  until,  in  1204,  Philip  Augustus  cfmquered 
the  province  and  made  it  a  part  of  France.  After  the  battle 
of  Agincourt,  in  1415,  the  English  once  more  held  it,  but 
only  till  1449,  wlien  Charles  VIII.  finally  united  it  to  France. 
Norman  French  :  properly,  the  French  diaiect  or  dialects 
of  Normandy,  or  the  region  occupied  by  the  inva<ling  Nor- 
mans or  Northmen,  which  was  granted  their  leader  bv 
Charles  the  Simple  early  in  the  tenth  century.  In  English 
the  term  is  used  to  dcsiginile  the  Old  French  brought  into 
England  as  a  result  of  the  Norman  contjuest,  and  there  hav- 
ing a  history  somewhat  different  from  that  of  any  form  of 
French  in  France.  At  the  time  of  the  conquest  the  French 
brought  into  England  was  not  very  different  from  that 
whi<'h  is  the  parent  of  the  modern  literary  French,  but  some 
words  of  a  distinctly  ditTerent  dialect  type  came  in  also  (cf. 
catch  and  chase,  respectively  from  cachier  and  chiicier  in 
Old  French,  the  latter  of  which  has  become  the  modern 
chasser,  tlie  origin  of  both  being  the  same).  In  England 
certain  changes  arose  ;  for  instance,  the  diphthotig  (V  became 
close  e,  and,  at  a  later  time,  a  before  a  nasal  followed  by  a 
consonant  appears  very  often  as  an.  whence  our  frequent 
spellings  with  an  as  in  hiunrh.  aunt,  avaiint,  hnimt,  etc. 
"The  original  French  diphthong  ei  became  to  a  great  extent 
oi  in  literary  French,  even  in  the  Old  French  time,  but  this 


change  did  not  take  place  in  Anglo-French.  The  letter  M 
had  two  distinct  values  in  the  early  French  of  England,  one 
like  or  nearly  hke  that  of  modern  French  «,  the  other  about 
like  English  u  in  rude  (short  or  long).  Of  these  two 
sounds  the  second  was  often  rejjresenled  later  by  ou,  while 
in  many  such  words  the  lili^rary  French  developed  a  sound 
written  e«;  hence  in  modern  English,  for  example,  the  com- 
mon adjective  ending  -ous  (  =  Jjat.  -osua),  corresponding  to 
modern  French  -eux,  as  in  generuus.  Fr.  ijinireux.  The  Old 
French  c/i.y.  and  ^  before  e  and  *  still  keei)  in  English  in 
old  borrowings  from  French  their  Old  French  sounds,  as  in 
c/i«»/, ///.s/,  Jew, yes/,  etc.,  while  in  modern  literary  French 
they  have  changed  their  value.  Some  %vords  were  rather 
eariy  taken  into  English  from  the  literary  French,  and  such 
borrowings  have  continued  uj)  to  modern  times.  In  eon- 
sequence  of  this  and  of  borrowings  directly  from  Latin  and 
other  languages  at  various  times  in  the  history  of  English, 
our  language  shows  two  or  more  different  forms  for  many 
words.  Compare  chair  and  chaise  (and  even  shay) ;  petri- 
fy and  pier;  peer  and  par  (cf.  also  pair):  cavalier  and 
chevalier,  feehle  and  foi hie.  etc.  A  dictionary  of  the  French 
as  used  in  England  is  much  needed.  For  the  language  and 
its  relations  to  English,  see  especially  Behrens,  Beitrdge  zur 
(reschichte  der  franzusischen  Sprache  in  England  (in 
Franzosische  Studien,  v.),  and  tlie  same  in  Paul's  Orundriss 
der  germanischen  Philulnyie,  i.,  799-836;  also  .Skeat,  Prin- 
ciples of  English  Etymology,  2d  series.  The  Foreign  Element 
(1891 ;  this  book  is  reviewed  in  Modern  Language  JS'oles, 
Nov.,  1892).  E.  S.  SiiELDON. 

Normans  [from  Fr.  Xormand,  from  Dan.  Xormand,  liter., 
Northman]:  I.  The  Northmen. — Toward  the  end  of  the 
eighth  century  Western  Europe  Ijegan  to  be  scourged  by  the 
inroads  of  Scandinavian  pirates,  known  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  British  isles  as  "  East-men  "  and  "  Danes  " — to  those  of 
the  Continent  as  "  North-men."  They  were  of  Teutonic 
stock,  a  vigorous,  seafaring  rac^e,  not  yet  Christianized,  peo- 
pling the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Baltic  and  of  the  penin- 
sulas of  Jutland  and  Scandinavia.  Need  and  the  national 
thirst  for  adventure  and  for  strife  drove  forth  swarms  of  Vi- 
kings (i.  e.  bay-men,  frequenters  of  bays  and  inlets)  from  the 
thickening  population  down  upon  the  sunnier,  richer,  weak- 
er south.  These  scoured  the  coasts  of  Englaiui.  Germany,  and 
France,  pressed  with  their  small,  sharp,  open  vessels  up  the 
narrowest  streams,  burned,  slew,  and  plundered,  and  sailed 
away  laden  with  booty  and  with  slaves.  About  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century'  these  raids  began  to  assume  an  al- 
together new  character  and  importance.  The  consolidation 
of  the  three  great  Scandinavian  kingdoms  broke  the  power 
of  the  petty  kings  and  independent  nobles,  and  drove  many 
of  them  forth,  with  their  followers,  to  seek  a  freer  life  in 
some  new  home.  Northmen  threw  themselves  in  larger 
bands  upon  England,  which  the  Wessex  kings  had  not  yet 
fairly  centralized  :  upon  the  Frankish  kingdoms,  fast  falling 
asunder  under  the  later  Carolingian  rulers ;  harried  the 
country,  besieged  and  sacked  the  cities,  wintered  at  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers,  and  by  the  end  of  the  century  had 
wrested  from  Alfred  half  his  kingdom,  and  had  begun  to 
plant  colonies  upon  the  coasts  of  France.  Northmen  ravaged 
.Spain  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  fell  upon  Western 
Italy,  penetrated  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and  there  met 
othe'rs  of  their  countrymen  who  had  j)ressed  down  through 
Russia.  In  the  Russia  of  that  day  .Scandinavian  invaders 
(Varangians)  had  become  the  riding  class,  a  military  aristoc- 
racv  ;  and  those  who  made  their  way  still  farther  south  had 
formed  the  famous  Varangian  body-guard  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors,  which  maintained  its  existencte  and  its  distinctive 
character  for  five  centuries.  During  the  latter  half  of  the 
ninth  century,  also.  Scandinavians,  sailing  westward,  found 
and  settled  Iceland,  where  the  old  free  Germanic  community 
life  held  for  nearly  400  years ;  whence  Greenland  was  visited 
and  colonized;  whence,"  also,  it  seems,  navigators  made  their 
way  farther  down  the  North  American  coast  to  a  "  Viidand  " 
where  settlements  were  attempted,  and  to  a  still  more  south- 
erly ■'  Ilvitranianaland." 

With  the  establishment,  early  in  the  tenth  century,  of 
settlements  upon  the  Continent,  with  the  occupation  which 
Scandinavian  energy  found  at  home  in  wai-s  between  the  three 
new  kingdoms,  and'with  the  gradual  triumph  of  Christian- 
ity in  the  north,  Europe  gaine<l,  at  last,  comparative  rest. 
England's  period  of  miserv  and  humiliation  under  Ethclred 
(979-1016),  which  terminated  with  the  establishment  of  a 
Danish  dynasty  (1017-42),  marks  the  last  great  outburst  of 
the  pent-up  heathenism. 


214 


NORMANS 


NORRIS 


II.  Normandy. — Of  all  the  settlements  of  the  Northmen, 
one  alone  was  destined  to  play  a  really  important  part  in 
history.  By  the  treaty  of  Claire-sur-Epte  (912)  Charles  the 
Simple  enfeoffed  a  viking,  Rolf  or  RoUo,  with  the  lands 
upon  either  side  of  the  Seine  of  which  he  and  bis  followers 
were  in  actual  possession.  In  return  the  new  duke  of  the 
Nortlirnen  recognized  the  Carolingian  king  as  his  overlord, 
and  received  baptism.  It  seemed  highly  probable  that  this 
latest  Teutonic  settlement  would  prove  a  powerful  diver- 
sion in  favor  of  the  waning  authority  of  the  Prankish  kings 
of  Laon  against  the  increasing  influence  of  the  French 
ducliy  of  Paris,  which  had  first  risen  to  importance  as  a 
mark  against  the  Northmen,  and  at  whose  expense  the 
"Terra  Northmannoruui"  was  now  created.  Duke  Rolf, 
indeed,  remained  loyal  to  his  Carolingian  lord,  and,  fight- 
ing in  his  cause,  won  for  himself  the  Bessin :  but  William 
"Longsword"  (927-94^),  who  added  to  his  domains  the 
Cotentin,  was  largely  French  in  feeling,  and  his  allegiance 
to  the  Carolingians  was  a  wave"hig  one.  The  third  duke, 
Richard  "  the  Fearless  "  (943-996),  became  the  "  man  "  of 
Hugh  the  Great  of  Paris,  and,  later,  of  his  son  "  Capet,"  to 
whose  establishment  upon  the  throne  he  lent  decisive  aid. 
It  was  thus  the  settlement  of  these  northern  pirates,  says 
Freeman,  which  finally  made  Gaul  French  in  the  modern 
sense.  It  was  at  the  same  time  the  alliance  with  Romanic 
France  which  brought  the  Northmen  fully  under  the  influ- 
ence of  French  language,  law,  and  custom,  which  made  them 
Normans,  the  foremost  apostles  alike  of  French  chivalry  and 
of  Latin  Christianity.  Under  Richard  "the  Good"  (996- 
1026)  Norman  arras  began  to  be  borne  beyond  the  borders 
of  the  Norman  tlucliy.  Robert  of  Toesny  warred  against  the 
infidel  in  Spain  ;  Kainulf  began  his  career  of  conquest  in 
Apulia.  To  the  brothers  Richard  III.  (1036-28)  and  Robert 
"the  Devil  "  (1028-3.5)  succeeded  the  "  Bastard  of  Falaise," 
William  the  Conqueror.  The  duchy  of  Normandy — which 
before  his  conquest  of  F.ngland  (1066)  he  had  widened  by 
the  winning  of  Maine  (1063)— he  left  at  his  death  (1087)  to 
his  first-born  Roljert,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  (1106)  by 
his  brother,  Henry  I.  of  England.  Thenceforth  it  was  held 
by  the  English  kings  until  its  seizure  by  the  French  crown 
in  1203. 

For  the  Norman  conquest  of  England  and  its  political 
consequences,  see  England,  History  of.  For  the  influence 
which  Norman  institutions  exercised  in  the  development  of 
the  English  common  law,  see  Municipal  Law  of  England. 

III.  The  Normans  in  the  Sicilies. — The  Sicilies  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eleventh  century  were  divided  and  disputed 
between  Langobards,  Greeks,  and  Saracens.  A  band  of 
Norman  knights,  entering  Apulia  upon  a  pilgrimage,  lent 
their  aid  to  the  Langobards,  who  were  Ijatin  Christians,  in 
an  attempt  to  expel  the  Greeks.  This  enterprise  miscarried  ; 
but  the  reckless  courage  and  strict  discipline  of  the  Normans 
brought  their  further  assistance  into  great  demand,  and 
won  them  soon  great  fame  and  influence.  In  1030  they 
built  the  city  of  Aversa;  eight  years  later  their  leader 
Rainulf  received  from  Conrad  II.  of  Germany  the  title  of 
count.  Such  beginnings  drew  from  overcrowded  Normandy 
fresh  swarms  of  adventurers,  with  whose  aid  the  Greek 
viceroy  won  from  the  Moslems  (1038)  the  greater  part  of  the 
island  of  Sicily.  Swindled  in  the  sharing  of  the  booty,  the 
Normans  attacked  the  Greek  possessions  in  Southern  Italy 
with  such  success  that  their  leader,  William  "  Iron-arm," 
son  of  Tanored  d'HauteviUe,  soon  styled  himself  Count  of 
Apulia;  in  which  title  we  find  his  brother  and  successor, 
Drogo,  confirmed  by  the  German  emperor,  Henry  III.  With 
the  third  Apulian  count,  Humphrey,  Pope  Leo  IX.  came 
into  strife  over  Benevento.  Defeated  and  captured  in  the 
battle  of  Civitate  (1053),  the  pontiff  was  fain  to  strike  a  peace 
upon  the  condition  of  Norman  vassalage  to  the  holy  see. 
Still  another  son  of  Tancred.  the  famous  Robert  Guiscard, 
succeeded  his  brother  Humphrey  (1056).  "By  the  grace  of 
God  and  of  St.  Peter,  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria,"  he  spent 
the  first  twenty  years  of  his  long  rule  in  making  good  his 
title  over  Greek,  Langobard,  and  Norman.  Meanwhile  his 
younger  brother,  Roger,  passing  witli  a  few  hundred  knights 
into  .Sicily,  won  a  series  of  brilliant  victories,  and  finally, 
with  Robert "s  aid.  made  himself  master  of  the  island.  In 
1081  Robert  invaded  Greece  and  defeated  the  East  Roman 
emperor  at  Durazzo  in  Albania.  Already  Byzantium  trem- 
bled, when  disturbances  in  Apulia  and  the  repeated  sum- 
mons of  the  pope,  in  hot  strife  with  Henry  IV'.  of  Germany, 
drew  the  Guiscanl  back  to  Italy.  Bursting  into  the  Cam- 
pagna  with  6.000  horse  and  30,000  foot,  he  pressed  back  the 
German  emperor,  delivered  Gregory  (besieged  in  St.  Angelo), 


and  sacked  Rome  (1084).  Dying  the  next  year,  he  left  the 
ducal  title  to  his  second  son,  Roger.  His  first-born,  Boe- 
niund,  won  great  fame  in  the  first  crusade  and  established 
an  independent  principality  in  Antioch.  In  1127  the  Guis- 
card line  became  extinct,  and  Roger,  second  Count  of  Sicily, 
united  the  conquests  of  the  house  of  Tancred,  reigning  as 
King  of  Sicily  and  Naples ;  as  did  also  his  son  and  grandson 
after  him,  William  I.  (1154-66)  and  William  II.  (1166-89). 
From  the  raising  of  the  siege  of  St.  Angelo,  through  all  the 
conflicts  between  the  papacy  and  the  German  empire,  the 
former  found  in  the  Sicilies,  under  the  Norman  supremacy, 
its  firmest  support;  but  in  1186,  through  the  marriage  of 
Henry  VI.  of  Germany  with  Constance,  aunt  and  heiress  of 
the  childless  William  II.,  the  succession  to  the  Sicilian 
throne  passed  over  to  the  imperial  house  of  Hohenstaufen. 
Upon  William's  death  (1189)  the  pope  and  the  Norman 
nobility  set  up  the  illegitimate  Tancred  ;  but  in  1194,  invad- 
ing the  Sicilies  with  a  German  army,  Henry  crushed  out  all 
opposition.  His  son  by  Constance,  Frederick  II.,  afterward 
united  and  ruled  both  realms.  Under  the  Noi'man  kings 
and  the  half-Norman  Frederick  the'"Sicilies  furnished  the 
one  example  of  the  time  of  full  religious  toleration.  Greek 
and  Saracen  dwelt  together  in  the  enjoyment  of  civil  equal- 
ity and  freedom  of  faith.  The  art  and  the  learning  of  both 
races  found  generous  encouragement.  Sicily  and  Spain,  the 
points  at  which  the  Eastern  civilization  touched  the  West- 
ern most  closely,  became  the  centers  from  which  the  culture 
of  the  Saracen  and  the  reawakening  of  scientific  study 
spread  throughout  Europe.  In  1266  Cliarles  of  Anjou,  in 
league  with  the  papacy,  defeated  and  slew  King  Manfred, 
Frederick's  son,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  Sicilies. 
After  the  overthrow  of  their  supremacy,  the  Normans,  as  in 
France  and  in  England,  became  blended  with  the  races 
they  had  ruled. 

Literature. — Palgrave,  History  of  Normandy  and  Eng- 
land (London,  1857) ;  Freeman,  History  of  the  Norman  Con- 
quest of  England  (Oxford,  1870),  especially  vol.  i.,  ch.  iv.,  and 
vol.  ii.,  eh.  viii.  Munroe  Smith. 

Norns  (Icelandic  plural  Nornir) :  the  goddesses  of  fate  in 
Scandinavian  mythology.  There  are  three — Urd  (the  Past), 
Verdande  (the  Present),  and  Skuld  (the  Future).  They  dwell 
near  Urd's  fountain,  by  one  of  the  roots  of  the  great  ash 
Ygdrasil,  where  the  gods  meet  in  council.  They  water  the 
branches  of  Ygdrasil  to  keep  the  tree  from  withering  and 
fading.  They  weave  the  web  of  men's  lives,  stretching  it 
from  the  radiant  dawn  to  the  glowing  sunset.  The  destiny 
of  the  world  is  in  the  hands  of  the  norns,  and  even  the  gods 
must  submit  to  their  decrees.  The  three  witches  in  Shak- 
speare's  Macbeth  have  their  origin  in  the  Scandinavian 
norns.  Rasmus  B.  Anderson. 

Norolla.  n(;-rdn'ya"a,  Gaspar  Maria  de  Nava  Alvarez, 
Conde  de  :  poet  and  soldier ;  b.  at  Castellon  de  la  Plana,  Spain, 
May  6, 1760  ;  d.  in  Madrid  in  1815.  He  became  a  royal  page 
in  1766:  captain  of  dragoons  in  1778.  He  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  siege  of  Gibraltar.  When  peace  with 
Great  Britain  was  declared,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Russia.  In  1792  he  returned  to  the  army,  and  became  lieu- 
tenant-general in  command  of  part  of  the  Spanish  army  in 
Galicia.  Throughout  his  career  he  cultivated  letters  as  a 
pastime.  He  wrote  a  tragedy  in  verse,  Madama  Gonzalez; 
and  two  comedies  in  prose.  El  Hombre  marcial  and  El 
Cortejo  enredador.  He  wrote  also  many  lyrics  and  occa- 
sional poems  (published  under  the  title  Poesias,  2  vols., 
Madrid,  1799),  and  a  dull  epic,  Ommiada  (2  vols.,  Madrid, 
1816).  He  translated  into  S)ianish  various  poems  from  the 
Arabic.  Persian,  and  Turkish  (PoesUis  asicificas,  Paris.  1833). 
The  best  of  his  work  is  to  be  found  in  vol.  Ixiii.  of  Rivade- 
neyra's  Biblioteca  de  Autores  EspaUoles  (Madrid,  1871). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Noroiiha,  Fernando,  de :  See  Fernando  de  Noronha. 

Norridgewocks :  See  Alqonquian  Indians. 

Norris,  William  Edward  :  novelist ;  b.  in  London,  1847, 
a  son  of  Sir  William  Norris,  chief  justice  of  Ceylon.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1874. 
Among  his  novels,  which  have  been  likened  to  Thackeray's, 
are  J/o/ri'moHj/ (1881) ;  Thirlby  Ball  (\mi):  Adrian  Vi'dal 
(1885);  The  Rogue  (1888);  Marcia  (1890);  Mr.  Chaine's 
Sons  (1891);  His  Grace  (1893);  A  Deplorable  Affair  (1893). 

Norris,  William  Fisher  :  ophthalmologist ;  b.  June  6, 
1839,  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania ;  is  assistant  surgeon  and  brevet  captain 


NORRISTOWN 


NORTH   BALTIMORE 


215 


r.  S.  army ;  surgeon  of  the  Wells  Eye  Hospital ;  Professor 
of  Oplithulmology,  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  is  ituthor 
of  Medical  OphthalmoUKjij  (in  Peppar's  Syitcm  nf  Medicine), 
ami,  with  Charles  A.  Oliver,  of  A  Tejci-book  uf  Diseases  of 
the  Eye.  C.  II.  T. 

Norrlgtown :  borongh  (incorporated  in  1812,  enlargptl  in 
1853);  capital  of  MontRoniery  co..  Pa.  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  rcf.  6-J);  on  the  Schuylkill  river, 
the  Schuylkill  Canal,  and  the  Phila.  and  Kcadinfj,  the  Pcnn. 
and  the '.Stoney  Creek  railways;  16  miles  X.  \V.  of  Phila- 
delphia. It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  mineral  region,  and  in 
some  parts  is  200  feet  above  tlie  river.  The  watcr-suiijily  is 
from  the  Schuylkill  river,  the  distribution  being  from  a 
reservoir  at  a  height  of  nearly  200  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  river.  Several  bridges  across  tlie  river  connect  the 
borough  with  that  of  ]5ridgeport.  The  borough  is  the  seat 
of  one  of  the  State  hospitals  for  the  insane,  having  twenty 
buildings  and  accommodations  for  nearly  2,000  patients, 
and  has  over  20  churches,  pul)lic-schiiol  property  valued  at 
$200,000,  3  national  banks  witli  comliincd  capital  of  .'f.j.'iO,- 
000,  4  liljraries  (the  Xorristown  Library  .\ssociati<in,  founded 
1796;  Montgomery  County  Law.  founded  ISO!);  tlie  William 
McCann  High  School,  founded  18T0  ;  and  the  insane  hospital, 
founded  1880)  containing  together  over  20,000  volumes,  and 
3  daily,  5  weekly,  and  2  other  periodicals.  The  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  shirts, 
hosiery,  glass,  carpets,  brick,  flour,  and  iron  furnace  and 
rolling-mill  products.     Pop.  (1880)  13.063:  (1890)  19,701. 

Editor  OF  "Herald." 

Norr'kopin^:  town  of  Sweden,  in  lat.  o9°  X.,  on  the 
Motala,  near  the  Baltic.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  sev- 
eral substantial  bridges,  and  lined  with  commodious  quays 
and  spacious  docks  (see  map  of  Xorway  and  Sweden,  rfcf. 
12-P).  Norrkliping  ranks  as  the  second  manufacturing  city 
in  Sweden  ;  it  has  important  ship-building  and  sugar-refining 
establishments,  a  salmon-fishery,  and  manufactures  of  paper, 
tobacco,  leather,  cotton,  linen  and  woolen  goods,  and  other 
articles.  In  1888  its  factories  numbered  7.5.  Pop.  (1891) 
32,826.  Revised  by  R.  B.  Anderson. 

Norse  Literature  :  See  Edda. 

Norse  Mythology  :  See  Scandinavian  Mythology. 

North,  Christopher  :  See  Wilson,  John. 

North,  Edward,  L.  H.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  educator;  b.  at  Berlin, 
Conn.,  Jlar.  9, 1820 ;  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in  1841 ; 
was  principal  of  the  Grammar  School,  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  1841- 
42;  was  Dexter  Professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Hamilton 
College  1843-62;  has  been  Professor  of  Greek  Language 
and  Literature  in  the  same  institution  since  1862.  He  has 
been  necrologist  of  the  alumni  society ;  editor  of  the  Tri- 
ennial, and  of  Alumniana  in  the  Hamilton  Literary  Month- 
ly; since  1881  a  member  of  the  board  of  trustees  ;  was  act- 
ing president  1892.  C.  K.  HovT. 

North,  Francis  :  jurist ;  Baron  Guilford,  son  of  the 
fourth  Baron  North;  b.  in  England,  Oct.  22,  1637;  studied 
at  Cambridge  and  at  the  Middle  Temple;  was  called  to  the 
bar  1661;  was  retained  by  the  crown  in  important  cases; 
was  knighted  and  became  solicitor-general  1671 ;  appointed 
attorney-general  1673,  chief  justice  of  the  common  pleas 
167.5,  privv  councilor  1679,  lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal 
1682;  created  Baron  Guilford  Sept.,  1683.  I).  Sept.  5, 
1685.— Of  his  brothers,  Sir  Duiilkv,  b.  May  16,  1641,  was  a 
wealthy  Turkey  merchant  and  M.  P.,  author  of  Discourses 
upon  Trade,  etc.,  wliich  entitles  him  to  a  high  rank  among 
the  political  economists  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
even  anticipates  the  doctrines  of  Ailam  Smith  and  the  Man- 
chester school.  D.  Dec.  31,  1691. — John,  b.  in  London,  Sept. 
3,  1645,  became  a  fellow  of  Cambridge,  Professor  of  (;reek, 
master  of  Trinity  College,  doctor  of  divinity,  and  editor  of 
Plato's  Dialogues.  D.  at  Cambridge,  Apr.,  168;i. — Hooer, 
b.  about  1650,  became  attorney-general  under  .lames  II., 
was  author  of  biographies  of  the  above  three  brothers  (1740- 
42)  and  of  several  treatises  on  law,  politics,  and  music.  D. 
Mar.  1,  1734. 

North,  Frederic,  Earl  of  Guilford,  best  known  as  Lord 
North:  statesuum;  b.  in  England,  Apr.  13,  1733;  educated 
at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford;  entered  the  House 
of  Commons  as  a  Tory  at  an  early  age;  became  a  lord  of 
the  treasury  1759,  and  in  17<>3  moved  the  expulsion  of  John 
Wilkes;  supported  the  American  .Stamp  Act  1765;  became 
joint  jiayinaster  of  the  forces  1766;  became  Chancellor  of 
the  K,xche(]Uer  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons  on  the 
death  of  Charles  Townshend  1767;  First  Lord  of  the  Trea.s- 


ury  and  Prime  Minister  1770;  proposed  the  colonial  tea 
duty  1773,  and  the  Boston  Port  Bill  Mar.,  1774;  retired 
from  ollice  Mar.  20,  1782;  became  joint  Secretary  of  State 
with  Fox  in  the  "coalition  ministry"  1783;  bec'ame  blind 
1787;  succeeded  to  the  earldom  1790;  died  Aug.  5,  1792. 

North  Adams :  town;  Berkshire  co.,  Mass.  (for  locution 
of  county,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  2-C) ;  on  the  IIoo- 
sac  river,  and  the  Boston  and  Albany  and  the  Fitehburg 
railways;  at  the  west  terminus  of  the  Hoosac  tunnel.  (See 
Tunnels  and  Tunneling.)  It  is  sumnnuled  by  the  high 
anil  (licluresque  Berkshire  hills,  comprises  several  villages, 
and  has  Greylock,  the  highest  mountain  in  Massachusetts, 
and  Hudson's  brook,  where  there  is  an  interesting  natural 
liridge  of  .soft  marble,  in  its  vicinity.  The  town  contains  a 
large  nmnber  of  cotton  and  woolen  mills  and  shoe-factories, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  manufacturing  places  in  the  North- 
ern and  Eastern  States  to  make  use  of  Chinese  labor.  It  has 
2  national  banks,  capital  $700,000.  2  saving.s-banks.  a  daily 
and  3  wecklv  newspapers,  and  a  public  library  (founded 
1884)  with  over  10,000  volumes.  Pop.  (1880)  10,191 ;  (1890) 
16,074;  (1895)  19.13.5.  Editor  of  "Transcript." 

North  America:  Sec  A.merica. 

Northami>'ton.  or  Northamptonshire  :  an  inland 
county  of  England ;  bounded  N.  by  Leicester,  Rutland,  and 
Lincoln.  E.  by  Huntingdon,  Bedford,  and  Bucks,  S.  by  Ox- 
ford, and  W.  by  Warwick.  Area,  984  so.  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  finely  diversified  with  richly  wooded  hills  and  well- 
watered  valleys,  and  the  soil,  consisting  mostly  of  a  black 
mould  or  a  brown  loam,  is  very  fertile.  Wheat  and  green 
crops  are  largely  grown.  On  the  broads  many  cattle  are 
grazed  and  dairy  farming  is  carried  on.  The  principal 
minerals  are  limestone  ami  ironstone  of  a  gooil  qualiiy.  It 
returns  four  members  to  Parliament.     Pop.  (1891)  302,184. 

Northampton :  capital  of  the  county  of  Northampton, 
England;  on  the  Nene;  50  miles  S.  E.  of  Birmingham  (see 
map  of  England,  ref.  lO-I).  It  has  a  fine  town-hall,  a  free 
lilirary,  a  museum,  schools  of  science  and  art,  and  thirteen 
churches,  among  which  is  St.  Sepulchre's,  one  of  the  few  re- 
maining round  churches  in  England.  In  the  neighborhood 
of  the  town  is  a  fine  racecourse  at  which  there  are  two  meet- 
ings anniuilly.  Its  manufactures  of  hosiery  and  lace  have 
declined,  but  those  of  leather,  boots,  and  shoes  are  very  im- 
l)ortant :  also  its  breweries,  iron-foundries,  and  flour-mills. 
The  ])arliamentarT  borough  returns  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment.    Pop.  (1891)  61,016. 

Northampton:  city  (settled  in  1754);  capital  of  Hamp- 
shire CO.,  Mass.  (for  location  of  county,  see  map  of  Massa- 
chusetts, ref.  3-E) ;  on  the  Connecticut  river,  and  the  Bos- 
ton and  Maine,  the  Conn.  River,  and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and 
Hart,  railways;  17  miles  N.  of  Springfield,  95  miles  W.  of 
Boston.  It  has  an  elevated  site,  affording  a  fine  view  of 
Mt.  Holyoke  and  Mt.  Tom,  and  is  connected  with  Hadley 
by  a  bridge  across  the  river.  Among  its  notable  institu- 
tions are  Smith  College  for  young  women  (non-sectarian, 
chartered  1871),  the  Clarke  Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes 
(founded  1867,  endowed  by  John  Clarke  with  |3.0()0,000).  a 
classical  school  for  girls,  the  State  Lunatic  Asylum  (estab- 
lished 1858),  and  a  Soldier.s'  and  Sailors'  Memorial  Hall  (cost 
175.000).  There  arc  6  libraries  (Public.  Smith  College  Ref- 
erence, Clarke  Institution,  Burnham  Classical  School,  Hamp- 
shire County  Law,  and  Lunatic  Asylum)  containing  over 
40,000  volunu's;  3  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
.$1,150,000,  2  savings-banks,  and  a  monthly,  2  daily,  and  2 
weekly  periodicals.  The  industries  include  the  manufac- 
ture of  baskets,  sewing-machines,  pocket-books,  cotton, 
woolen,  and  silk  goods,  brushes,  paper,  buttons,  and  cut- 
lery. The  beauty  and  salnbritv  of  its  location  have  made 
it  a  popular sumiiier  resort.  Pop.  (1880)  12.172;  (1890)  14,- 
990;  (189.5)  16,746.  Editor  of  "  Herald." 

North  Anna,  Battles  of:  See  Wilderness,  Battles  of 

THE. 

Norlli  .\ttlohoro:  town;  Bristol  co.,  Mass.  (for  location 
of  count  V,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  4-1);  on  the  N.  Y., 
N.  H.  and  Hart.  Railroad;  14  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Providence, 
30  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Boston.  It  is  noted  for  its  manufac- 
tures of  jewelry,  and  contains  a  public  library,  national 
bank  with  capital  of  ij(150,()00,  savings-bank,  and  a  daily 
newspaper.     Pop.  (1890)  6.727  ;  (1895)  6,576. 

North  Baltimore:  village;  Wood  co.,  0.  (for  location 
of  eounly.  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  2-1));  on  the  Bait,  and  O. 
and  the  Cin..  Ham.  and  Dayton  railways:  38  miles  K.  of 
Defiance.     It  is  in  a  natural-gas  region",  has  manufactures 


216 


NORTH  BAY 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


of  lumber  and  staves,  and  contains  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  |60.000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $37,5n0,  and 
two  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (liiSD)  701 ;  (1890)  2,857. 

North  Bay  :  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada ;  on  the  north 
shore  of  Lake  Nipissing:  station  on  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railway ;  244  miles  N.  W.  of  Ottawa  (see  map  of  Ontario, 
ref.  1-E).  It  was  founded  in  1884  and  dcvelojis  rapidly. 
Population,  principally  French  Canadian,  1,400.    M.  W.  H. 

Northbrook,  Thomas  Georue  Barino,  Viscount :  states- 
man ;  eldest  son  of  the  first  baron  :  b.  at  Stratton  Park,  near 
Winchester,  England,  in  1826  ;  graduated  at  Oxford  1846  : 
was  successively  private  secretary  to  Mr.  Laboucliere  at  the 
Board  of  Trade,  to  Sir  George  Grey  at  the  Home  Office,  to 
Sir  Charles  Wood  at  the  India  Board  and  at  the  Admiralty ; 
entered  Parliament  in  the  Liberal  interest  1857';  was  a  lord 
of  the  admiralty  1857-58  ;  Under  Secretary  of  State  for 
India  June,  1859-.Tan.,  1861,  for  War  from  the  latter  date  to 
June,  1866,  and  again  on  the  accession  of  Mr.  Gladstone  to 
office  Dec,  1868,  till  Fell.,  1872.  when  he  was  appointed  Vice- 
roy and  Governor-General  of  India,  having  succeeded  to  the 
barony  in  Sept.,  1866.  In  1876  he  resigned  and  was  cre- 
ate<l  a  viscount ;  in  1880  he  was  appointed  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty  in  Glatlstone's  cabinet,  but  in  1886  opposed  the 
home-rule  policy  of  the  Premier. 

North  Brookfleld  :  town  ;  Worcester  co.,  Mass.  (for  lo- 
cation, see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  3-F);  on  the  North 
Brookfleld  branch  of  the  Boston  and  Albany  Railroad ;  20 
miles  W.  of  Worcester,  one  of  the  county-seats.  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  and  dairying  region,  is  extensively  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  shoes,  and  has  two  libraries  (Ap|ileton, 
founded  1859,  and  Free  Public,  founded  1880)  containing 
over  10,000  volumes,  a  savings-bank,  and  a  weekly  news- 
paper.    Pop.  (1880)  3.437;  (1890)  3,871  ;  (1895)  4,635. 

North  Cape  :  See  Cape  North. 

North  Carolina  [Mod.  Lat.  (sc.  terra,  land),  land  of 
Charles,  liter.,  femin.  of  CaroWnus,  pertaining  to  Charles, 
deriv.  of  Ca'rolus,  Charles.    Named  in  honor  of  Charles  I.]  : 


Seal  of  North  Caroliua. 

one  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America  (South  Atlantic  group) ; 
the  twelfth  of  the  original  thirteen  States  that  ratified  the 
Federal  ('onstitution. 

Location  and  Area. — It  lies  between  33°  50'  and  36°  33' 
N.  lat.  and  75°  27'  and  84°  20'  W.  Ion. ;  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Virginia,  on  the  E.  and  S.  R.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
on  the  S.  by  the  Athmtic,  South  Carolina,  and  part  of  Geor- 
gia, on  the  W.  by  Tennessee.  Extreme  length  from  E.  to 
W.,  503^^  miles;  extreme  breadth  N.  to  S.,  187^  miles;  aver- 
age breadth,  100  miles.  Area,  52,250  sq.  miles,  of  which 
3,670  are  water  surface. 

Physical  Features. — A  line  drawn  from  Wcldon,  on  the 
Roanoke  river,  to  Raleigh,  and  thence  to  Columbia,  S.  C, 
divides  the  State  into  two  geologic  regions — the  eastern  or 
coastal  plane  region,  the  formations  of  which  are  compara- 
tively recent  in  age  and  are  composed  mainly  of  sands  and 
days,  willi  occiusional  composites  of  marl  and  limestone; 
and  the  western,  the  fornuitions  of  which  are  of  older  rocks, 
mostly  granites,  gneisses,  and  crystalline  schists,  containing 
two  narrow  and  irregular  strips  of  coal-bearing  red  sand- 
st<me  and  shale  (Triassic  or  Newark).     Along  the  western 


border  of  this  eastern  region  the  surface  is  undulating,  and 
has  an  elevation  varying  from  200  lo  300  feet  above  the  sea. 
Eastward,  approachingihe  ocean,  the  elevation  decreases  to 
but  a  few  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  surface  becomes  near- 
ly level,  in  many  places  marshy,  and  extensively  intersected 
by  the  sounils  and  est  uaries  of  the  rivers.  The  western  re- 
gion, undulating  along  its  eastern  border,  becomes  more 
hilly  westward  tlirough  the  middle  and  Piedmont  counties 
until  the  hills  become  small  mountains,  and  these  in  turn 
give  place  to  the  Blue  Ridge  and  adjacent  mountain  chains, 
which  reach  their  maximum  development  in  the  Black 
Mountains.  The  eastern  region  contains  large  areas  of  the 
finest  farming  lands  of  the  State  and  valuable  forests  of 
pine.  The  occasional  economic  mineral  products  are  marls, 
limestone,  and  phosphate.  In  the  middle  and  western  coun- 
ties the  mineral  products  occur  on  a  larger  scale.  Granite 
and  granitic  gneiss  suitable  for  building,  monumental,  and 
paving  stone  are  widely  distributed.  Sandstones — brown, 
red,  and  gray — are  found  in  the  middle  section,  and  mar- 
ble— white,  pink,  and  blue — occurs  in  the  western.  Slate 
suital>le  for  roofing  has  been  quarried  in  two  counties;  the 
conglomerates  of  the  Triassic  are  successfully  used  as  mill- 
stones ;  kaolin  occurs  in  large  quantities  and  of  excellent 
quality.  Talc  is  mined  on  a  considerable  scale  in  the  ex- 
treme southwest ;  agalniatolite  is  found  abundantly  in  Chat- 
ham and  Moore  Counties ;  baryta  occurs  extensively,  and  is 
mined  in  Madison  County ;  corundum  is  extensively  mined 
in  Jackson,  Macon,  and  Clay  Counties ;  mica  occurs  as  large 
crystals  associated  with  quartz  and  feldspar;  and  veins  of 
bituminous  and  anthracite  coal  in  the  Triassic  formations 
in  Chatham,  Moore,  Rockingham,  and  Stokes  Counties. 
Iron  ores,  copper,  silver,  and  gold  are  widely  distributed 
through  the  State.  For  nearly  a  century  gold-mining  has 
attracted  attention,  and  upward  of  123.000,000  worth  has 
been  obtained.  More  than  180  species  of  minerals  have  been 
discovered,  including  gems  such  as  the  diamond,  ruby,  sap- 
phire, hiddenite,  emerald,  beryl,  amethyst,  garnet,  and  zircon. 

North  Carolina  is  well  drained,  though  none  of  its  streams 
are  large.  In  the  mountain  plateau  are  the  Hiwassee,  Ten- 
nessee, Pigeon,  French  Broad,  Nolechucky,  and  the  Watauga, 
all  flowing  toward  the  Jlississippi  river.  The  New  river  flows 
northward  into  the  Ohio.  Eastward  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  the 
Broad,  Catawba,  and  Yadkin  flow  to  the  Atlantic  through 
South  Carolina,  the  Broad  becoming  the  Wateree  and  the 
Catawba  the  Congarec,  the  two  imiting  to  form  the  Santee. 
The  Yadkin,  uniting  with  the  Uwharrie,  becomes  the  Pedee. 
The  Dan,  the  longest  river  in  the  State,  has  part  of  its  course 
in  Virginia.  Other  rivers  rising  at  some  distance  from  the 
mountains  are  the  Tar,  near  its  mouth  called  the  Pamlico, 
the  Ncuse,  the  Cape  Fear,  formed  by  the  Haw  and  the  Deep,, 
the  Lumber,  changing  its  name  in  South  Carolina  to  Little 
Pedee,  and  the  Waccamaw.  All  of  the  rivers  E.  of  the  Blue 
Kidge  are  navigable  100  or  more  miles  for  light  craft. 

The  largest  sheets  of  inland  water  are  Albemarle  and 
Pamlico  Sounds.  The  former  is  about  50  miles  long  and  of 
variable  width,  the  maximum  lie.ing  about  15  miles,  and 
Pamlico  is  about  75  miles  long  and  15  to  25  miles  broad. 
Between  them  and  the  ocean  are  long,  narrow  islands  of 
sand,  which  extend  into  the  ocean,  in  some  places  100  miles,, 
foi'ming  dangerous  shoals,  of  which  Cape  Hatteras,  Cape 
Lookout,  and  Cajie  Fear  are  the  most  prominent  visible 
points.  Lakes  are  found  oidy  in  the  eastern  section.  The 
largest  is  Mattaiiuiskeet.  in  Hyde  County,  15  miles  long  and 
5  to  7  wide.  Waccamaw  Lake,  in  Columbus  County,  is  8 
miles  long  and  about  5  miles  broad. 

The  area  occupied  by  the  swamps  is  nearly  4,000  sq.  miles, 
mostly  in  the  counties  bordering  on  the  ocean  and  the 
sounds.  Some  are  mere  peat-bogs,  having  a  growth  of  juni- 
per and  cypress,  while  the  best  have  black  gums,  poplars, 
ash.  and  maple.  The  largest  continuous  area  of  swamp  is 
between  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  Sounds,  nearly  3,000  sq. 
miles.  More  than  100  sq.  miles  of  the  Great  Dismal  Swamp 
is  in  North  Carolina. 

The  mountain  section  is  a  high  plateau  boimded  on  the  E. 
by  the  Blue  Ridge  and  on  the  W.  by  the  chain  known  under 
the  names  of  Iron,  Smoky,  and  Unaka  Mountains.  Between 
these  are  the  cross  chains,  called,  beginning  at  the  N.,  the 
Black,  Craggy,  Pisgah  and  New  Found,  Balsam,  Cowee, 
Nantehala,  Valley  River,  Cheowah,  and  Long  Ridge  Moun- 
tains. The  average  elevation  of  the  Blue  Ridge  is  about 
4,000  feet,  the  highest  peaks  being  the  Grandfather  and  the 
Pinnacle,  nearly  6,000  feet  high.  The  Smoky  Mountains 
have  peaks  higher  than  this,  as  Clingman's  Dome  (6,660)  and 
Mt.  Guyot  (6,636  feet).    The  highest  E.  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 


A    T    L    ^         j^ 


* 

1 


I 

i 


NORTH   CAROLINA 


217 


tains  arc  luinmg  the  Black  Aluuiitiuns,  Mt.  Mitt-hell  beiiif; 
6,688  feet  high.  In  all.  there  are  4;i  [jeaks  over  6,000  feet 
high  ami  82  between  5,000  ami  6,t)00  feet.  East  of  the  Blue 
Rlilgo  are  various  lower  and  smaller  delaehed  ranges,  such 
as  the  Sauraluii,  Brushy,  South,  Ijinville,  Green  Kiver,  'I'ryon, 
and  Hungry  Mountains.  Belonging  to  the  first  named  is  the 
pieturesque,  .solitary  peak  c-alled  I  he  I'ilot,  with  the  Pinna- 
ele.  a  sheer  mass  of  rock  like  a  eastle. 

Flora  and  Fauna. — North  Carolina  has  an  e.Ktraordinary 
variety  of  flora.  Out  of  22  oaks  indigenous  to  the  U.  S.  she 
has  li>.  She  has  all  the  8  pines,  4  of  the  5  spruce,s.  6  of  the 
8  hickories,  and  all  of  the  7  magnolias.  Some  of  the  best 
varieties  of  grapes  h.id  their  origin  here.  No  country  has  a 
more  abundant  display  of  rhoiloilundrons,  kalmias,  honey- 
suckles, jasmines,  ferns,  and  grasses.  In  the  waters  and 
swaini)s  of  the  east  are  turtles  and  terrapins,  including  the 
much-sought  diamond-backed  variety.  Swarms  of  wild 
geese,  swans,  ducks,  and  the  other  aciuatic  fowls  attract  the 
sportsman,  as  does  the  quail  (or  partridge)  on  the  uplands. 
Large  catches  of  mackerel,  bluefish,  flounder,  mullets,  etc., 
are  mtuie  in  the  ocean.  an<l  of  herrings,  shad,  rock  bass,  etc., 
in  the  s<iuii(ls  and  rivers.  Immense  numbers  of  menhaden 
and  olher  lisli  are  caught  to  be  made  into  fertilizers. 

Snil  and  I'rudiicliuns. — 'Phe  soil  varies  considerably  in 
character,  being  generally  a  loam  which  becomes  more  sandy 
in  the  eastern  and  frequently  more  clayey  in  the  central  and 
western  regions.  The  great  variety  of  soils  and  the  wiilc 
range  of  climate  give  rise  to  a  rich  and  varieil  forest  growth. 
In  the  southea.stern  counties,  under  the  intluenees  of  the 
(iulf  Strcjim,  are  found  the  magnolias,  palmettos,  live-oaks, 
anil  other  semi-tropical  trees,  while  on  the  higher  moun- 
tains of  the  west  are  thfe  spruces  and  firs,  characteristic  of 
Canada  and  New  England.  The  pines  (chiefly  Pinus  tmda  and 
P.  palustris)  are  the  characteristic  timber  trees  of  the  east- 
ern counties ;  oaks  predominate  in  the  midland  and  western 
counties,  but  in  the  mountain  forests  they  are  interspersed 
abundantly  with  chestnut,  hemlock,  and  the  tulip-tree.  Hick- 
ories and  other  hard-wood  trees  also  abound  in  the  central 
and  western  counties,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  east. 

The  following  summary  from  the  census  reports  of  1880 
and  1890  shows  the  extent  of  farm  operations  in  the  State : 


FARMS,  ETC. 

1880. 

1890. 

Per  cent.* 

Total  number  of  farms 

157,009 
22,303,558 

$1.35,793,002 

178,359 
23,651,896 

8183,977,010 

13  2 

1-3 

Value  of  farms,  with  buildings  and 

35  5 

*  Increase. 


The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  value  of 
the  principal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  18113 : 


CROPS. 

Acreage. 

Yield. 

Value. 

Corn 

2.435,310 

734,111 

544,220 

55.908 

88,208 

18,321 

182,805 

29,954.813  bush. 
5,937,710      " 
7,673,502      " 
430,493      " 
44,897,873  lb. 
1,777.137  bush. 
310,769  tons 

814  977  157 

4,275,151 
3,376,341 
301,344 
3,-591,830 
1,066,282 
3  452  644 

Oats 

Tobacco 

Potatoes 

Hay 

Totals 

4,048,8.83 

831,010,749 

In  189.5  the  cotton  crop  amounted  to  339,499  bales. 

On  Jan.  1,  1894,  the  farm  animals  comprised  134,517 
horses,  value  $9,712,005 ;  109,762  mules,  value  $8,521,935 ; 
274,794  milch  cows,  value  $4,119,162;  386,463  oxen  and 
other  cattle,  value  §4,308,446;  376,309  sheep,  value  $559,- 
195;  and  1,334,966  swine,  value  $5,328,916. 

Climate. — The  following  table  shows  the  mean  monthly 
and  annual  temperature  in  degrees  Fahrenheit. 


January . . . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

.June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 
December. 

Year. . 


Eastern 
DUtrict. 


46-0 
49-5 
67-8 
07-4 
75- 1 
78-8 
77-2 
73  3 
63  4 
53-7 
45-2 


60-7 


Central 
District. 


40-7» 

44-2 

49-2 

.59-8 

68-2 

75-7 

78-7 

760 

09  8 

59-2 

49' 1 

432 


59-5 


Western 
District. 


38-5° 

41-8 

46  0 

56-3 

641 

70-9 

744 

72  2 

66-3 

65-3 

456 

39-8 


55-9 


40-8'> 

44'3 

480 

57-7 

66-9 

74-4 

77-8 

75-6 

70-2 

69-7 

49  7 

42-7 


590 


The  following  table  shows  the  mean  monthly  and  annual 
precipitation  in  inches.  It  will  be  noticed  that  North  Caro- 
lina belongs  to  the  region  of  the  U.  S.  characterized  by  the 
largest  precipitation. 


January  

February . . 

.March 

April... 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. , 

October 

Xoveniber . . 
December  . , 


Eastern 
District. 


4-60 
3-48 
4-64 
4-20 
401 
4  40 
5-98 
6'66 
5-64 
404 
3-43 
416 


Ce&tnl 

District. 


Year 55-23 


4-30 
4-25 
4-21 
3  75 
400 
400 
4-66 
5-33 
4-30 
3-47 
3  ■.53 
3-73 


49-85 


Western 
District. 


4-75 
5-40 
5-56 
3-75 
4  34 
4-34 
5- 19 
5-42 


3-35 
3-92 


■52 
■25 
90 
■84 
■34 
■34 
■44 

■o» 

■86 
■66 
■40 


63-29 


The  average  fall  of  snow  is  less  than  5  inches.  The  aver- 
age date  of  the  fir.st  killing  frost  is  Oct.  10.  Tornadoes  with 
funnel-shaped  clouds  occur  at  rare  intervals.  The  storms 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  especially  off  Hattcras,  are  violent  and 
destructive  to  shipping. 

Divisions. — For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  di- 
vided into  ninety-six  counties,  as  follows  : 

COUNTIES   AND   COUNTY-TOWNS,  WITH   POPULATION. 


.\lamance 

Alexander 

Alleghany 

.■\.nson 

Ashe 

Beaufort 

Bertie 

Bladen 

Brunswick 

Buncombe 

Burke 

Cabarrus 

Caldwell 

Camden 

Carteret 

Caswell 

Catawba 

Chatham 

Cherokee 

Chowan 

Clay 

Cleveland 

Columbus 

Craven 

Cumberland 

Currituck 

Dare 

Davidson 

Davie 

DupUn 

Durham 

Edgecombe 

Forsyth; 

Franklin 

Gaston 

Gates 

Graham 

Granville 

Greene 

Guilford 

Halifax 

Harnett 

Haywood 

Henderson 

Hertford 

Hyde 

Iredell 

Jackson  

Johnston 

Jones 

Lenoir 

Lincoln 

McDowell 

Macon 

Madison 

Martin 

Mecklenburg 

Mitchell 

Montgomery 

Moore 

Nash 

New  Hanover 

Northani])ton 

Onslow 

Orange 

Pamlico 

Pasquotank 

Pender 


*Ref. 


2-G 

2-D 

2-D 

4-F 

2-D 

3-J 

2-J 

4-H 

5-H 

3-C 

3-D 

3-E 

2-D 

2-K 

4-J 

3-(i 

S-D 

3-G 

3-A 

3-J 

3-A 

3-D 

5-G 

4-1 

4-G 

2-K 

3-D 

3-F 

2-E 

4-1 

2-G 

3-1 

2-F 

2-H 

3-D 

2-J 

3-A 

2-H 

3-1 

2-F 

2-1 

3-G 

3-B 

3-C 

2-1 

3-K 

3-E 

3-B 

3-H 

4-1 

4-1 

3-D 

3-C 

3-B 

3-C 

3-1 

3-E 

2-C 

3-F 

.3-0 

2-H 

.VH 

2-1 

5-1 

2-G 

4-J 

2-J 

5-H 


Pop. 


14,613 

8,355 

5,486 

17,994 

14,4,37 

17,474 

16,.399 

16,168 

9,389 

21,909 

12,809 

14,964 

10.291 

6,274 

9,784 

17,825 

14,946 

23.453 

8,182 

7.900 

3,316 

16.571 

14,439 

19,729 

23,836 

6,476 

3,243 

20,333 

11,096 

18,773 

26,i8i 
18,070 
20,8-29 
14,2.54 

8,897 

2,335 
31,280 
10,037 
23..'i85 
3n,3(«l 
10,862 
10,271 
10,-281 
11,843 

7,765 
22,675 

7,343 
23,461 

7,491 
15,344 
11,061 

9,836 

8,004 
12,810 
13,140 
34,175 

9,435 

9,374 
16.821 
17,731 
21, .376 
20,032 

9,829 
33,698 

6,.3'23 
10,369 
12,468 


Pop. 
1690. 


18.271 
9,430 
6,5-23 
20.027 
15.628 
31,072 
19,176 
16,763 
10,900 
35.266 
14,939 
18,142 
12,298 
5,667 
10,825 
16,028 
18,689 
25,413 
9,976 
9,167 
4,197 
20,.394 
17,856 
20,533 
27,321 
6.747 
3.768 
21,702 
11,621 
18.690 
18,041 
34,113 
28,434 
21,090 
17,764 
10,252 
3,313 
24,484 
10,039 
28.052 
28,908 
13,700 
13..340 
12,589 
13,851 
8,903 
25,462 
9,512 
27,-239 
7,403 
14.879 
12,586 
10,939 
10,102 
17,805 
1.5.221 
43.673 
13,807 
11,239 
30,479 
20,707 
24,026 
31,243 
10,;»3 
14,948 
7,146 
10,748 
12,514 


COUNTY-TOWNS. 


Graham 

Taylorsville 

Sparta 

■V\' adesboro 

Jefferson 

Washington.. . . 

Windsor 

Elizabethtown . 

Southport 

Asheviile 

Morgauton 

Concord 

Lenoir 

Camden 

Beaufort 

Yancey  viile 

Newton 

Pittsboro 

Murphy 

Edenton 

Hayesville 

Shelby 

White  ville 

Newbern 

Fayetteville 

Currituck 

Manteo 

Lexington 

Slocksville 

Kenansville 

Durham 

Tarboro 

Winston 

Louisburg 

Dallas 

Gatesville 

Robbinsville . . . 

Oxford 

Snow  Hill 

Greensboro  

Halifax 

Lillington 

Waynesville. . . . 
Hendersonville 

Winton 

Swan  Quarter. . 

Statesville 

Webster 

Smithfleld 

Trenton 

Kinston 

Liiicolnton 

Marion 

Ki-anklin 

Marshall 

WlUiainston  ... 

Charlotte 

Bakersville 

Troy 

Carthage 

Nashville 

Wilmington 

Jatrkson 

Jacksonville . . . 

Hillsboro 

Bayboro 

Elizabeth  City  . 
Burgan- 


Pop. 
1690. 


991 

525 

9S 

1,.500 
413 

3,545 
.522 
312 

1,207 
10,335 

1,557 

4,339 
67a 
lOO 

2,007 
450- 

1,03a 
36a 
803 

2,205 
111 

1,894 
372- 

7,843 

4,222 
50 
100 

1,440 
562 
291 

5,485 

1,924 

8,018 
667 
441 
232 
100 

2.907 
283. 

3,317 
361 
107 
455 

1,216 
419 
100 

2.318 
209 
5.50 
207 

1,7-26 
957 
799 
281 
203 
751 
11,557 
476 
131 

4a5 

401 
20,0.56 
7.50 
170 
662 
252 
3,251 
366. 


•  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  North  Carolina. 


218 


NORTH   CAROLINA 


COUNTIES   AND   COUXTY-TOWNS — CONTINUED. 


COUNTIES. 

*R.f. 

Pop. 

1880. 

Pop. 
1890. 

COUNTY-TOWNS. 

Pop. 

1890. 

Perquimans 

2J 

2-G 

3-1 

3-C 

3-F 

4-F 

4-a 

2-F 

»-E 

3-C 

4-H 

3-F 

2-F 

2-E 

3-B 

3-C 

3-K 

4-E 

3-H 

3-H- 

2-H 

3-J 

2-D 

3-H 

2-D 

3-H 

a-E 

2-C 

9,466 
13,719 
21,794 
5,062 
20,836 
18,245 
23,880 
21 ,744 
19,965 
15,198 
22,894 
10,505 
15,353 
15,302 
3,784 
5,340 
4,545 
18,056 

47,939 

22,619 

8,928 

8,160 

24,951 

19,181 

16,064 

12,420 

7,694 

9,293 
15,151 
25,519 

5,902 

Hertford 

Roxboro 

Greenville 

Oolumbns 

738 
421 

Pitt  

1,937 

Polk 

100 

Randolph 

Richmond 

25,195     .\shboro 

23,948     Rockingham... 
31,4^5     Lumberton 

510 

1,600 

584 

Rockingham 

25,363 
24,123 
18,770 
25,096 
12,136 
17,199 
19.281 
6,577 
5,881 
4,225 
21.2.59 
17,581 
49,207 
19,360 
10,800 
10.611 
26,100 
22.675 
18,644 
13,790 
9,490 

Wentworth 

Salisbury 

Rutherf  ordton . . 
Clinton 

242 
4,418 

Rutherford 

Sampson 

Stanly 

..... 
839 

Albemarle 

Danbury 

248 

Stokes 

144 

178 

Bryson  City 

Brevard  .... 

Transylvania 

Tyrrell 

327 

Columbia 

Monroe 

209 

1.866 

Henderson 

Raleigh 

Warrenton 

Plymouth 

4,191 

Wake 

12,678 
740 

^^  ashmgton 

Watauga 

Wavne 

Wilkes 

1,212 
144 

Goldsboro 

Wilkesboro 

Wilson 

Yadkinville 

Burnsville 

4,017 

336 

2  126 

Yadkin 

175 

100 

1,399,750 

1,617.947 

*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  North  Carolina. 

Principal  Cities  and  Towns,  with  Population  for  1S90. — 
Wilmington,  20.056:  Raleigh,  12,678;  Charlotte,  11,557: 
Asheville,  10,235;  Winston,  8.018;  Newbern,  7.843;  Dur- 
ham, 5,485 ;  Salisbury,  4,418  ;  Concord,  4,339  ;  Fayetteville, 
4,222;  Henderson,  4^191 ;  Goldsbcu-o,  4,017:  Washington, 
3,545;  Greensboro,  3,317;  Elizabeth  City,  3,251. 

Population  and  Maces.— In  1860,  992,622  ;  1870, 1,071,361 ; 
1880,  1,399,750;  1890,  1,617,947  (native,  1,614,245 :  foreign, 
8,702;  males,  799,149;  females,  818.798:  white,  1.055,383; 
colored,  562,.565,  including  561.018  of  African  descent. 

Industries  and  Business  Interests. — The  census  of  1890 
showed  that  3,667  manufacturing  establishments  reported. 
These  had  a  combined  capital  of  ?!32, 74.5,995,  employed  36,- 
214  persons,  paid  §7,830,536  for  wages  and  i?22.789.187  for 
materials,  and  had  products  valued  at  .'S40.;iT."i.4."iO.  In  1894 
there  were  146  cotton-mills,  with  665,000  sjiindlcs  and  9,128 
looms ;  14  woolen-mills :  28  fruit-canning  and  14  oyster- 
canning  establishments;  16  fertilizer  works;  14  oil-cake 
factories ;  8  hosiery-mills  ;  16  building-stone  quarries ;  and 
more  than  100  factories  manufacturing  tobacco  in  some 
form.  The  tobacco  industry  has  made  rapid  progress,  and 
the  towns  of  Durham,  Winston,  and  Henderson  have  been 
created  by  it.  Durham  has  manufactured  in  a  single  year 
620,200,000  cigarettes,  4,865,835  lb.  of  plug  and  smoking  to- 
bacco, 2,263,250  cigars,  and  71,500  lb.  of  snutf,  and  paid  a 
revenue  tax  on  these  manufactures  of  §616,129 ;  and  Win- 
ston has  paid  a  revenue  tax  of  over  §660,000  on  similar 
manufactures.  The  manufacture  of  wagons,  carriages,  fur- 
niture, sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  paper,  and  of  miscellaneous 
iron-work,  shows  a  rapid  increase  and  a  large  volume.  The 
fisheries  industry  represents  a  capital  of  $506,560,  employs 
over  5,000  persons,  95  vessels,  and  nearly  2,800  boats. 

Pinances  and  Banking. — Under  the  compromise  offered 
by  the  State  of  its  admitted  indebtedness,  .$3,298,950  of  cou- 
pon bonds,  bearing  4  per  cent,  payable  semi-annually,  have 
been  issued.  H  all  the  bonds  outstanding  should  be  brought 
in  for  exchange,  the  total  4  per  cent,  debt  would  be  .$3,615,- 
570.  There  is  also  a  debt  of  $2,720,000,  for  which  .$3,000,- 
000  stock  in  the  North  Carolina  Railroad  Company  is  held. 
These  bonds  bear  6  per  cent,  interest,  but  the  dividends  on 
the  stock  are  more  than  sufficient  for  their  payment. 

The  assessed  valuations  in  1892  were :  Real  estate,  $155,083,- 
714  ;jjcrsonal,  $.82,410,049  ;  railway,  $24,233,963— total,  $261,- 
717,726.  lu  1893 1  here  were  24  national  banks,  with  combined 
capital  of  $2,676,000,  surplus  and  profits  of  $1,168,867,  and 
deposits  of  $3,907,043;  33  State  banks,  with  capital  of  $1,- 
913,.530,  surplus  of  $373,896,  and  deposits  of  $2,446,621; 
and  4  savings-banks,  with  capital  of  $40,000  and  deposits 
of  $301,234. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. — On  Jan.  1,  1894  there  were 
2,883  post-offices,  of  which  36  were  president  ial  {8  second- 
class,  28  third-class)  and  3,847  fourth-class  ;  305  were 
money-order  offices.  Of  newspapers  and  periodicals  there 
were  18  of  daily  publication,  163  weekly,  1  bi-weekly,  5 
semi-monthly,  20  monthly,  and  1  quarterly — total,  208. 


Means  of  Comnninicntion. — At  the  close  of  1893  there 
were  within  the  limits  of  the  State  3,577'33  miles  of  railway, 
of  wliich  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  system  had  714'97  miles ; 
the  Richmond  and  Danville  Line  system,  1,128'69;  the  Sea- 
board Air  Line  system,  661'65 ;  and  miscellaneous  lines, 
1,072-03.  Tl;e  total  cost  of  all  the  railways  was  $91,799,- 
192.47.  The  Albemarle  and  Chesapeake  Canal  is  an  impor- 
tant communication  between  the  eastern  counties  and  Nor- 
folk, and  the  portion  in  North  Carolina  is  valued  at  about 
$100,000. 

Churches. — The  census  of  1890  gave  the  following  statis- 
tics of  the  principal  religious  bodies ; 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Baptist,  Regular,  South 

Baptist.  Regular.  Colored 

Methodist  Episcopal  South 

African  Meth.  Episcopal  Zion 

Presbyterian  in  the  U.  S 

Methodist  Episcopal 

African  Methodist  Episcopal 

Methodist  Protestant 

Disciples  of  Christ 

Primitive  Methodist 

Lutheran,  United  Synod  in  the 

South 

Protestant  Episcopal 

Presb.  in  the  U.  S.  of  America 


Orgimiza- 
tioQfi. 

churches 
and  halls. 

Members. 

1,480 

1,479 

153,648 

1.193 

1.198 

136,856 

1,288 

1.230 

114,385 

541 

540 

111,949 

282 

284 

27,477 

287 

282 

16,433 

61 

147 

16,166 

199 

194 

14,.351 

186 

153 

12,437 

317 

315 

11,914 

119 

110 

11,759 

178 

171 

8.186 

109 

105 

6,516 

Value  of 
church 
property. 

$1,662,405 
717,862 
1,471,135 
485,711 
678,565 
195,645 
112,998 
126,800 
71,1.57 
130,100 
263,690 

546.010 
89,180 


Schools.— In  1892  there  were  594,577  children  (380,718 
white,  214,907  colored)  of  school  age,  of  whom  330,719  (214,- 
907  white,  115.812  colored)  were  enrolled  in  the  public 
schools,  and  34,800  (34,400  white,  400  colored)  in  private 
schools.  The  appropriations  for  support  of  the  public 
schools  aggregated  $608,564  ($405,231  for  white  schools, 
$203,333  for  colored).  There  are  12  colleges  for  women.  106 
endowed  academies,  seminaries,  and  other  private  secondary 
schools,  and  the  following  institutions  for  higher  education  : 
University  of  North  Carolina,  at  Chapel  Hill  (non-sectarian, 
chartered  1789) ;  Biddle  L^niversity,  at  Charlotte  (Presby- 
terian, organized  1867);  Davidson  College,  at  Davidson 
(Presbyterian,  organized  1837) ;  Guilford  College,  at  Guil- 
ford :  North  Carolina  College,  at  Jit.  Pleasant  (Evangelical 
Lutheran,  organized  1859) ;  Catawba  College,  at  Newton ; 
Shaw  University,  at  Raleigh  (Baptist,  organized  1865) ; 
Rutherford  College,  at  Rutherford  (non-sectarian,  organ- 
ized 1852);  Livingstone  College,  at  Salisbury  (American 
Methodist  Episcopal  Zion) ;  Trinity  College,  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege (Methodist  Episcopal  South,  organized  18.52) ;  andXVake 
Forest  College,  at  Wake  Forest  (Baptist,  organized  1834). 
There  are  an  agricultural  and  mechanical  college  for  white 
students  and  one  for  colored,  five  State  normal  schools  for 
colored  teachers,  a  number  of  county  normal  schools  for 
white  teachers,  graded  schools,  supported  by  special  taxa- 
tion, in  nearly  all  the  prosperous  towns,  and  a  State  normal 
and  industrial  school  for  girls  at  Greensboro. 

Charitable,  Pefonnatory,  and  Penal  Institutions. — The 
various  charitable  institutions  are  under  the  sujiervision  of 
a  State  board  of  public  charities.  The  State  maintains  hos- 
pitals for  the  insane  at  Raleigh  and  Morganton  for  whites, 
and  at  Goldsboro  for  colored  patients;  an  institution  for 
the  blind  at  Raleigh ;  an  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
at  Morganton ;  and  appropriates  $10,000  annually  toward 
the  support  of  the  Oxford  Orphan  Asylum,  a  Masonic  insti- 
tution. There  are  also  orphan  asylums  maintained  by  the 
Presbyterian.  Baptist,  and  Protestant  Episcopal  Churches, 
and  by  the  order  of  Odd  Fellows.  The  State  penitentiary 
has  an  extensive  farm  for  the  employment  of  convicts. 

Political  Organization. — The  executive  department  is 
composed  of  the  Governor,  Lieutenant-Governor,  secretary  of 
State,  auditor,  treasurer,  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion, and  attorney-general.  The  Governor  is  ineligible  for 
re-election  until  after  an  intervening  term.  He  has  full 
pardoning  power  after  conviction ;  can  l5e  removed  from 
office  by  the  House  of  Representatives  beginning  an  im- 
peachment, but  resumes  office  if  acquitted ;  has  no  veto 
power;  and  does  not  sign  legislative  acts.  The  Senate  and 
the  House  of  Representatives  are  limited  to  .50  and  120 
members  respectively.  The  judges  of  the  Supreme  and  Su- 
perior courts  are  elected  by  the  people  for  eight  yeare ;  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  are  elected  by  the  General  Assembly.  The 
liistinction  between  law  and  equity  practice  is  abolished. 
Among  the  declarations  of  the  constitution  are  that  the 
State  has  no  right  to  secede  from  the  Union ;  that  the  pri- 
mary allegiance  of  citizens  is  due  to  the  U.  S. ;  that  the 


NORTH   CAROLINA 


219 


State  shall  not  lend  its  credit  except  by  a  vote  of  the  people  ; 
that  the  General  Assembly  shall  provide  public  scliools,  the 
white  and  colored  races  to  be  taught  scpiiralely.aiid  suiiporl 
the  university:  tiiat  capital  punishment  sliall  be  inflicted 
only  for  murder,  ai'son,  burfilary,  and  rape;  tliat  the  suf- 
fraice  shall  be  allowed  to  males,  twenty-one  years  old  or  up- 
ward, born  in  the  U.  S.,  or  naturalized,  and  residents  of  the 
State  twelve  months  and  of  the  county  ninety  days;  and 
that  all  voters  are  eligible  to  hold  office,  excepting  such  as 
deny  the  being  of  Almighty  (iod. 

Ilixtory. — The  first  charter  for  a  settlement  was  granted 
to  Sir  Walter  Ualeigli  in  loSJ.  He  sent  a  tlcct  under  Ama- 
das  and  Harlow,  who  sighted  the  coast  on  July  27  of  that 
year.  Tin-  m-xt  year  a  colony  was  sent  to  Koanoke  island 
under  Ralph  Lane,  as  govern<u-,  but  the  colonists  returned 
to  England  in  1586,  shortly  before  Sir  Richard  Greenville 
arrived  with  succor.  In  1587  another  colony  arrived  with 
John  White  as  governor,  who  shortly  went  to  England  for 
re-en forceruents,  leaving  among  the  colonists  his  daughter, 
wife  of  Ananias  Dare,  and  her  infant,  Virginia,  the  first 
while  child  liorn  in  America.  In  102!)  a  charter  was  granted 
for  part  of  the  territory  previously  known  as  Virginia,  be- 
tween 31'  and  36'  30'  N.  hit.,  under  the  name  of  Carolina,  to 
Sir  Rol)ert  Heath.  Nothing  having  been  accomplished  un- 
der this  charter,  Charles  II.  in  1663  conveyed  the  territory 
between  36  and  31'  X.  lal.,  under  the  same  name,  to  eight 
lords  proprietors,  and  in  1665  enlarged  the  grant  to  36  30' 
and  2'.y  N.  lat.  Palatine  powers  were  granted  to  the  lords 
proprietors  and  they  inaugurated  a  government  under  the 
'■fundamental  constitutions,"  drawn  by  John  Locke.  This 
'■  grand  model  "  was  singularly  unsuileil  to  the  character  and 
condition  of  the  people,  was  never  fully  put  into  operation, 
and  was  after  a  while  abaniUmed.  In  1712  Edward  Hyde 
•was  connnissioned  (iovernor  of  North  Carolina,  as  distin- 
guished from  South  Carolina.  In  1728  (often  erroneously 
stated  as  1729)  the  shares  of  seven  of  the  lr>rds  proprietors 
were  sold  to  tlie  crown  for  t'2,500  each,  but  John,  Lord  Car- 
teret, afterward  Earl  Granville,  retained  his  one-eightli  part 
of  the  soil,  surrendering  only  tlie  jurisdiction.  In  1744  his 
share  was  laid  off  to  him  in  severalty,  a  rectangular  area 
bounded  by  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Atlantic,  lat  3.)'  34' 
\.,  and  the  Virginia  line.  Much  land  wassold  by  him  prior 
to  tlie  Revolutionary  war.  After  the  sale  to  the  crown  ami 
transfer  of  jurisdiction  the  colony  increased  rapidly  in  pros- 
perity, gaining  much  immigration,  especially  from  Virginia, 
I'eunsylvania,  north  of  Ireland,  the  highlands  and  lowlands 
of  .Scot laud, and  from  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  including 
Moravians.  As  the  governors  and  other  chief  officers  repre- 
sented first  the  lords  ]>roprietors  and  then  the  crown,  col- 
lisions with  the  people  .-iometimes  occurred.  The  first, 
called  the  '•  Culpepper  rebellion,"  in  1678,  seems  to  have 
arisen  from  liarsh  attempts  to  enforce  tlie  navigation  laws. 
The  second,  called  the  "  Cary  reliellion,"  in  1708-10,  appar- 
ently had  its  beginning  in  the  unwillingness  of  the  (Quakers 
to  take  oaths  of  office,  and  degenerated  into  a  party  squab- 
ble between  the  aristocracy  and  the  tlemocratic  element.  In 
Gov.  Johnston's  time  (1734r-o2)  the  counties  of  old  Albe- 
marle refused  to  submit  to  an  attempt  to  deprive  them  of 
their  larger  number  of  representatives,  and  set  at  naught 
Ihe  eiiaetuient  of  the  jjegishitiire.  Afterward  they  refused 
to  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  superior  courts  because 
the  crown  disallowed  the  court  law  passed  by  the  General 
Assembly.  These  disputes  were  settled  without  bloodshed, 
but  in  Gov.  Tryon"s  incumbency  a  body  of  men,  chiefly  in 
the  district  allotted  to  Earl  Granville,  calling  themselves 
regulators,  exasperated  at  the  large  fees  of  officers  and  the 
pressure  of  taxes  and  ([uit-rents,  combined  with  the  scarcitv 
of  currency,  rose  in  arms,  broke  up  a  court,  and  tlireateneil 
to  march  on  the  capital,  Xewbern.  They  were  easily  de- 
feated by  Tryon  with  Ihe  militia,  .May  12,  1771,  In  1711  oc- 
curri'd  the  Tusearora  war,  in  which  the  Indians  were  de- 
feated by  aid  of  a  force  sent  from  South  ('arolina,  and  the 
remnant  afterward  joined  Ihe  Five  Nations  in  New  York, 
making  the  Six  Nations,  North  Carolina  was  forward  in 
resisting  the  measures  of  the  liritish  Parliament  which  led 
to  .the  War  of  Independence,  and  in  eo-opi'iatiiig  with  the 
other  colonies.  'I'he  first  provincial  congress  was  held  on 
Aug.  25,  1774,  The  General  Assemblv  of  the  State  has 
placed  on  its  seal  the  date  of  May  20,'l77.5,  as  that  of  the 
resolutions  passed  by  the  [jeojile  of  Mecklenburg  demanding 
iiidejiendeiice.  On  Apr.  12,  1776,  the  first  resolutions  au- 
thorizing delegates  in  Ihe  Continental  Congress  to  vote  for 
independence  were  passed  by  the  provincial  congress  of 
North   Carolina.     In  July  and  August    following  a   large 


force  of  militia  crushed  the  power  of  the  Cherokee  Indians, 
On  Dec.  18,  1776,  the  first  State  constitution  was  adopted. 
Troojis  of  the  State  fought  gallantly  in  all  the  battles  of  the 
Revolutionary  war  from  Brandywine  to  Yorktown.  In  1780- 
81  the  people  suffered  terribly  from  the  invading  army,  but, 
in  spite  of  a  considerable  Tory  element,  continued  steadfa.st. 
They  assisted  in  winning  the  batth'  of  King's  Miaintain  and 
crippling  Cornwallis  at  Guilford  Court-house,  and  by  their 
persistent  hostility  forced  him  to  his  fate  at  Yorktown. 

North  Carolina  sent  delegates  to  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention in  1787,  but  her  convention  of  1788  di'cided  to  post- 
pone the  question  of  ratification  of  the  Federal  Constitution, 
in  order  to  seiaire  certain  amendments.  Finding  tliat  the 
most  imiiortant  of  these  were  certain  of  adoption,  ratifica- 
tion was  carried  by  a  large  majcjrity  in  1789.  In  the  same 
year  the  General  Assemlily  offered" to  cede  the  territorv  of 
Tennessee  to  the  D.  S.,  w'hich  was  accepted  in  1790."  In 
1791  the  General  Assemlily  took  steps  for  the  location  of 
the  seat  of  government,  which  had  been  theretofore  migra- 
tory. The  new  capital  was  called  the  citv  of  Raleigh.  The 
University  of  North  Carolina  was  chartered  in  1789  and 
opened  in  1795.  In  1820  much  attention  was  given  to  im- 
provement of  the  river  transportation  by  slackwater  navi- 
gation, and  there  was  large  waste  of  money  on  insufficient 
works.  This  fever,  and  the  subsequent  rise  of  the  railway 
excitement,  led  to  a  heated  contest  between  the  eastern  and 
western  counties  for  a  change  of  the  constitution  under 
which  each  county  elected  a  Senator  and  two  members  of 
the  lower  House.  The  agitation  culminated  in  a  convention 
held  in  1835,  which  required  the  division  of  the  State  into 
fifty  senatorial  districts,  each  paying  one-fiftieth  of  the  pub- 
lic taxes,  and,  confining  the  Hou.se  to  120  members,  gave 
one  to  each  county  and  divided  the  remainder  among  the 
counties  in  propor"tion  to  the  federal  population.  The  public 
school  system  had  been  pressed  as  early  as  1820.  but  little 
w-as  done  until  the  distribution  of  the  surplus  money  of  the 
U.  S.  in  1837.  North  Carolina  investing  her  share  in  bank 
and  railway  stock  and  devoting  the  stock  to  the  schools.  A 
good  system  was  being  developed  when  the  civil  war  made 
the  fund  worthless.  What  has  been  done  since  that  war 
has  been  effected  by  taxation. 

North  Carolina  did  not  at  first  favor  secession  from  the 
Union  as  the  best  mode  of  settling  the  questions  relating  to 
slavery  and  its  extension  into  the  territories.  When  the 
question  of  calling  a  convention  of  tlie  peojile  for  consid- 
ering these  matters  was  had  the  vote  in  Feb.,  1861,  was 
adverse  by  a  few  hundred  majority ;  but  when  war  broke 
out  she  promptly  and  by  a  unanimous  vote  in  convention, 
May  20  following,  jiassed  an  onlinance  of  secession,  and 
supported  it  by  large  levies  of  money  and  of  troops,  who 
formed  a  great  part  of  the  army  of  Gen,  Lee  in  Virginia. 
In  August  following  Fort  Ilatteras  was  captured  by  the 
Federal  forces.  In  the  spring  of  1862  the  wiiole  o'f  tiie 
country  along  the  sounds  from  Beaufort  to  the  Virginia  line 
was  in  their  hands.  Plymouth  was  recaptured,  with  1,600 
prisoners,  by  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Hoke  in  Apr., 
1864,  but  recovered  by  the  Federals  in  October.  Wilming- 
ton was  largely  used  "by  the  Confederates  as  a  point  from 
and  to  which  their  steamers  could  run  despite  the  blockade. 
An  unsuccessful  atteni|)t  was  made  in  Dec..  1864,  to  stop 
this  by  capturing  Fort  Fisher  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cape  Fear. 
Another  attack  (Jan.  15,  186.5)  succeeded.  Wilmington  was 
soon  after  ea]>tured;  .Sherman's  army  marched  into  Ra- 
leigh on  Apr.  13,  and  on  the  26th  Johnston's  army  was  sur- 
rendered. The  scheme  of  reconstruction  inaugurated  by 
President  Johnson  was  begun  on  May  29,  1865,  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  W.  W.  Ilolden  as  provisional  governor,  who 
called  a  convention  of  the  jieople  for  which  only  the  white 
men  included  in  the  President's  amnesty  ]U'c>clamatioii  were 
allowed  lo  vote.  This  convention  repudiateil  the  war  debt, 
abolished  slavery,  and  declared  the  ordinance  of  secession 
void.  The  government,  under  the  "reconstruction  laws" 
of  Congress,  was  iii;iugurated  July  1,  1868.  The  General 
Assembly  ratified  the  fourteenth  amendment  to  the  U.  S. 
Constitution  on  the  next  day,  and  the  fifteenth  amendment 
on  Mar.  4, 1869.  Duiiug  the  Ku-Klux  Klan  excitement  (iov. 
Holden  declared  martial  law  in  .Maniance  and  tJasw-ell  Coun- 
ties, and  made  many  arrests  of  leading  citizens.  For  his 
conduct  connected  with  this  movement  he  was  impeached 
and  convicted.  The  present  constitution  was  adopted  in 
1870,  the  centennial  of  the  adoption  of  the  fir.st  constitution 
of  free  North  Carolina.  Since  the  civil  wai-,  although  her 
losses  therein  were  immense  lioth  in  men  and  money,  the 
people  of  the  State  have  made  luplable  progres.s. 


220 


NORTHCOTB 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


GOVERNORS   OF   NORTH   CAROLINA. 


Richard  Caswell 1784-87 

Samuel  Johnston 1787-89 

Alexander  Martin 1789-92 

Richard  D.  Spaight 1702-95 

Samuel  Ashe 179,5-98 

William  R.  Davie 1798-99 

Benjamin  Williams 1799-1802 

James  Turner 1802-05 

Nathaniel  Alexander 1805-07 

Benjamin  Williams 1807-08 

David  Stone 1808-10 

Benjamin  Smith 1810-11 

William  Hawkins 1811-14 

William  Miller 1814-17 

John  Branch 1817-20 

Jesse  Franlilin 1820-21 

Gabriel  Holmes 1821-24 

Hutcliings  G.  Burton 1824-27 

James  Iredell 1827-28 

John  Owen 1828-30 

Monttord  Stokes 183C-32 

David  L.  Swaiu 1832-.35 

Richard  D.  Spaight,  Jr. . .  1835-37 

Edward  B.  Dudley 1837-41 

John  M.  Morebead 1841-45 

William  A.  Graham 184.5-19 

Charles  Manly 1849-51 

David  S.  Reid 1851-.54 

Warren  Winslow  (acting).  1854-55 

Thomas  Bragg 1865-59 

John  W.  Ellis 18.59-61 

H.  T,  Clark  (acting) 1861-02 

Zebulon  B.  Vance 1862-65 

W.  W.  Holden  (prov.) ....         1865 

Jonathan  Worth 1865-68 

William  W.  Holden 1868-70 

Tod  R.  Caldwell 1870-74 

Curtis  H.  Brogden 1874-77 

Zebulon  B.  Vance 1877-78 

Thomas  J.  Jarvis 1878-85 

Alfred  M.  Scales 1885-89 

Daniel  G.  Fowle 1889-91 

Thomas  M.  Holt 1891-93 

Elias  Carr 1893-97 

Daniel  L.  Russell 1897- 


Under  the  Lords  Proprietors. 

William  Drummond 166;}-67 

Samuel  St^-phens 1667-70 

Peter  Carteret 1670 

Samuel  Stephens 1670-74 

Peter  Carteret 1674-75 

John  Jenkins  (acting) 1675 

John  Harvey  (acting) 1675-76 

Thomas  Eastcburch 1676-77 

Thomas  Miller  (acting).. .  1677-78 

John  Harvey  (actingi 1678 

John  Jenkins 1678-81 

Henry  W'ilkinson l(ai-«3 

Seth  Southwell  (Sotbel). . .   1683-89 

Philip  Lu.hvell 1689-01 

Alexander  Lillington 1691-94 

Thomas  I  larvey l(in4-99 

Henderson  Walker 1699-1704 

Robert  Daniel 1704-05 

Thomas  Cary 1705-06 

William  Glover  (acting) . .  1706-07 
Thomas  Cary  (actingi, ...  1707-08 
Thomas  Cary  and  W^illiam 

Glover,  contestants 1708-10 

Edward  Hyde  1710-12 

Thomas  Pollock  (acting). .  1713-14 

Charles  Eden 1714-22 

Thomas  Pollock  (acting). .        1722 

William  Reed  (acting) 1722-24 

George  Burrington 1724-25 

Edward  Mosely  (acting). .  1725 
Sir  Richard  Everard 1725-29 

Under  the  Crotvn. 

George  Burrington 1729-.34 

Nathaniel  Rice  (acting). . .  1734 

Gabriel  Johnston 1734-52 

Nathaniel  Rice  (acting). . .  1752 

Matthew  Rowan  (acting) .  17.52-.54 

Arthur  Dobbs 1754-65 

William  Tryon 1765-71 

James  Hazell  (acting) 1771 

Josiah  Martin 1771-75 

Governors  of  the  State. 

Richard  Caswell 1777-79 

Abner  Nash    1779-81 

Thomas  Burke 1781-82 

Alexander  Martin 1782-84 

Authorities. — Reports  of  the  North  Carolina  Geological 
Surveys,  by  W.  C.  Kerr  and  Joseph  A.  Hohnes.  State  ge- 
ologists; Curtis.  Wood//  Plant.'i;  Handbook  of  JS'ortli  Caro- 
lina, issued  by  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture ;  Climatol- 
ogy of  North  Carolina,  lS-20-92,  issued  by  the  State  agri- 
cultural experiment  station  -.  State  auditor's  Report ;  State 
treasurer's  Report ;  Reports  of  presidents  of  the  State  hos- 
pitals and  other  institutions ;  Constitutions  of  Nort-h  Caro- 
lina (1776,  1835,  1868,  1876);  Saunders,  Colonial  Records 
(10  vols,  fol.,  with  prefatory  notes) ;  Acts  of  the  Assembly ; 
Journals  of  the  State  Senate  and  House,  and  of  tlie  State 
conventions;  U.  S.  Census  Report  of  North  Carolina; 
Hawkes,  History  of  North  Carolina ;  Wlieeler,  History  of 
North  Carolina ;  Moore,  History  of  North  Carolina. 

Kemp  P.  Battle. 

North'cote,  Sir  Stafford  Henry,  F.  R.  S. :  statesman;  b. 
in  London,  England,  (let.  27,  1818 ;  educated  at  Eton  and 
at  Baliol  College,  O.xford,  and  graduated  with  honors  1839 ; 
was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  1847:  was  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  the  Universal  Exhibition  of  1851 ;  entered 
Parliament  as  a  Conservative  1855;  took  an  active  part  in 
all  questions  relating  to  art  and  education  ;  was  president  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  in  Lord  Derby's  third  administration 
1866;  Secretary  of  State  for  India  Mar.,  1867-Dec.,  1868; 
elected  governor  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  Jan.,  1869 ; 
was  a  member  of  the  high  joint  commission  which  drew 
up  the  Treaty  of  Washington  1871 ;  became  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer  in  Disraeli's  cabinet  1874;  published  Twenty 
Years  of  Financial  Policy  (1862) ;  became  Earl  of  Iddes- 
leigli  (1885).     D.  in  London,  Jan.  12.  1887. 

North  Dakota ;  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America  (North 
Central  group);  the  twenty-sixth  State  admitted  to  the 
Union. 

Location  and  Area. — It  lies  between  lat.  46°  and  49°  N. 
and  Ion.  96°  25'  and  104°  W.  of  Greenwich ;  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  Canadian  provinces  of  Assiniboia  and  Mani- 
toba, on  the  E.  by  Minnesota,  on  the  S.  by  South  Dakota,  on 
the  W.  by  Montana;  and  has  an  area  of  70,795  sq.  miles, 
of  which  600  sq.  miles  are  water  surface;  capital,  Bismarck. 

Physical  Features. — The  State  is  naturally  divided  into 
the  Red  river  valley,  the  James  river  valley,  the  Devil's 
Lake  and  Turtle  Jlountain  region,  the  Mou.?e  river  section, 
the  coteau  or  Missouri  slope  country,  and  the  West  North 


Seal  ot  North  Dakota. 


Dakota  division.  The  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North  is 
a  broad  level  plain  from  i50  to  60  miles  wide,  sufficiently 
elevated  above  the  river  to  be  free  from  overflows,  and  con- 
tains the  rich- 
est of  bottom- 
land mould. 
The  James  riv- 
er valley  is  one 
of  the  most 
noted  artesian- 
well  districts  in 
the  world.  Im- 
mediately N.  of 
Devil's  Lake, 
a  veritable  in- 
land sea,  is  the 
Turtle  Moun- 
tain and  Big 
Coulee  country. 
The  mountains 
are  a  range  of 
hills  extending 
over  a  region 
20  by  40  miles, 
the  greater  part 
in  the  State  and 

the  remainder  in  Manitoba.  Bear  and  St.  Paul's  buttes  are 
tlie  liighest  points,  and  have  an  elevation  of  only  a  few  hun- 
dred feet.  'The  Mouse  river  enters  the  State  from  Assiniboia 
in  the  middle  of  Ward  County,  and  after  a  long  sweep  in  ox- 
bow shape  passes  out  of  the  State  at  the  northwest  corner  of 
Bottineau  County  into  Manitoba.  There  are  valuable  de- 
posits of  coal  along  the  river,  and  the  territory  it  incloses  is 
particularly  adapted  to  stock-raising.  The  valley  of  this 
river  shows  a  general  depression  of  from  200  to  300  feet  be- 
low the  level  of  the  surrounding  plain.  The  Rivitjre  de 
Lacs,  a  tributary  of  the  Mouse,  has  a  valley  75  miles  long, 
with  an  abundance  of  wood  ami  coal  in  the  bluffs.  The 
coteau  or  Missouri  slope  country  lies  W.  of  the  divide  be- 
tween the  James  and  the  Missouri  rivers,  is  full  of  small 
hills,  and  has  large  geological  interests.  The  West  North 
Dakota  division  lies  W.  of  the  Missouri  river,  is  more  undu- 
lating than  tlie  eastern  section  of  the  State,  has  widely  sepa- 
rated liills,  broad  valleys,  and  conical  buttes,  is  well  watered, 
and  has  but  little  snow.  Besides  the  rivers  mentioned,  good 
drainage  is  afforded  by  the  Sheyenne,  Goose,  Pembina, 
Maple,  Heart,  Knife,  Cannon  Ball,  Green,  Sweetbriar,  Cur- 
lew, Little  Missouri,  and  otiier  streams.  The  rainfall  gener- 
ally is  sufficient  to  mature  crops. 

Geology. — In  the  valley  of  the  Red  river  a  glacial  drift  is 
found  beneath  lake  mud,  and  cuttings  for  railways  in  the 
territory  between  the  valley  proper  and  bordering  lands 
disclosed  lake  shore  lines  with  sand  and  gravel  beds.  These 
have  been  traced  around  the  entire  valley,  proving  it  an 
ancient  lake,  which  has  been  named  Lake  Agassiz.  Lignite 
is  the  principal  mineral.  The  whole  of  the  country  W.  of 
the  Missouri  river  and  a  large  part  of  that  E.  of  it  are  un- 
derlaid with  deposits  cropping  out  in  veins  from  4  to  20  feet 
in  thickness,  and  in  many  localities  farmers  can  dig  their 
own  supplies  from  the  hillsides.  The  Turtle  Mountain  re- 
gion contains  a  large  variety  of  building  and  foundation 
stones;  the  Red  river  valley,  salt,  limestone,  and  hydraulic 
lime  ;  and  in  other  localities  are  iron,  natural  gas,  and  pot- 
tery and  brick  clays. 

Soil  and  Productions. — Almost  the  entire  soil  is  exceed- 
ingly fertile,  and  some  parts  are  exceptionally  so,  especially 
in  the  Red  river  valley,  which  contains  the  great  wheat 
farms.  Much  of  the  surface  is  underlaid  by  limestone  and 
glacial  drift.  The  Red  river  valley  is  well  wooded  in  parts ; 
the  Devil's  Lake  region  contains  oak  and  other  timber ;  the 
Turtle  Mountains  have  poplar,  balm  of  Gilead,  ash,  and  oak  ; 
and  along  the  Missouri  river  are  cottonwoods  of  large  size. 

In  1890  North  Dakota  had  27.611  farms,  containing  7,660,- 
333  acres,  valued  at  175,310,305.  The  following  table  is  for 
the  calendar  year  1893: 


CROPS. 

Acreage. 

Yield. 

Value. 

Corn 

20,142 

2,753,980 

490,963 

186,964 

19.550 

429,280 

416,9.39  bush. 

26.438,208     " 

10,752,090     " 

2,841.853      " 

1,;148,950      " 

553,771  tons 

8158,4.37 
11, .368,429 

Wheat 

3,010,.585 
880  974 

Barley 

660,986 

Hay 

2,060,028 

Totals 

3,900,879 

$18,139,439 

I 


t 


NORTH   DAKOTA 


221 


On  Jan.  1,  1894,  the  farm  animals  comprif^ed  163,490 
horses,  value  !f;9,4;i6,«4!) :  7,S40  mules,  value  $563,274  ;  140,- 
700  milch  cows,  value  .t2.7H4,4.")3 ;  250,566  oxen  anil  oilier 
cattle,  value  |4,21!),!n4;  370,HS0  sheep,  value  $754,073;  and 
99,275  swine,  value  $654,226— total  head,  1,032,760;  total 
value.  $18,412,789. 

Climate. — The  winters  are  cold  and  rainless  and  usually 
break  in  March.  Farniinf;  begins  early  and  plowinfr  gener- 
ally continues  till  about  the  middle  of  November.  The  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere  renders  the  low  temijerature  endura- 
ble bv  man  and  bea.s|.  Summers  are  warm  by  day  and  cool 
bv  night,  with  i|uite  constant  breezes.  The  autumnal  weather 
is'the  nio.st  delightful  of  the  year  and  frecjuently  extends  far 
into  December.  The  mean  animal  temperature  at  the  wide- 
ly separated  signal  stations  is:  Hismarck,  39'4' ;  Fargo, 37° ; 
Pembina,  34'4  ;  and  Fort  Buford,  38'7'  ;  and  the  mean  an- 
nual rainfall,  Hismarck,  20-10  inches;  Fargo,  27'17;  Pem- 
bina, 21-91 ;  and  Fort  Huford,  13-91. 

Divisions.— For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  di- 
viiled  into  45  counties,  as  follows: 

COUNTIES   AND   COUNTY-TOWNS,  WITU    POPULATION. 


COUNTIES. 

•R.r. 

Pop. 

1S80. 

Pop. 

1890. 

COUNTY-TOWNS. 

Pop. 

1890. 

Aired 

a-B 
.3-F 
2-E 
3-B 
1-D 
4-B 
3-D 
3-F 
1-F 
4-E 
3-B 

a-E 

4-D 
2-E 
2-F 
2-F 
4-B 
3-E 
4-E 
4-E 
2-D 
4-E 
2-B 
2-C 
3-C 
4-C 
2-F 
S-C 
1-F 
2-D 
2-E 
4-F 
4-F 
1-E 
4-F 

a-c 

2-F 
3-E 
1-E 
2-F 
8-B 
1-F 
1-C 
i^-E 
1-B 

i',585 
1,323 

3,246 
8,998 

■■■38 

37 

6,248 

'"89 
20 



"'266 

4^862 

"asi 

537 
3,597 

V.OO? 
4,i23 

"m 

1 

7,(M5 
2,460 

170 
2,893 
6 
4,247 
19,613 
6,471 
5,573 

159 
1.377 
1,971 
1.210 
18,357 
2,817 
81 
1,211 
3.187 

597 

1.5*4 

3,248 

3 

860 

4-28 
4,728 
4.293 

464 
14,:»l 

905 
4,418 
5..S93 
10,751 
2  427 
5^076 
2..-irt4 

5.'-2i;6 

1,450 

10,217 

24 

16,5Sr 

1,681 

1.212 

109 

511 

Valley  City 

Minnewaukon. . , 

1,089 

Bottineau 

145 

Burleigh 

Bismarck 

2,186 

5,604 

Cavalier  

Langdon 

EUendale 

New  Rook  ford.. 

Willianisport 

Carrington 

Grand  P'orks 

Cooperstown 

291 

761 

Dunn 

Eddy 

Foster 

Grand  Forks 

4,979 
368 

Hettinger 

Kidder       

Steele 

1.33 

La  Moure 

Napoleon 

309 

211 

Mcintosh 

Washburn 

Stanton 

Morton 

1,328 
227 

Oliver 

Pembina. 

Pembina 

Rugby 

Devils  Lake  .... 

Lisbon 

Wahpeton 

Rolla 

670 

Ramsey 

H46 

Richland 

1  510 

Rolette 

178 

Stark 

Dickinson 

Sherbrooke 

.Jamestown 

897 

Steele 

200 

Traill 

Caledonia 

267 

Wallace 

Walsh 

1,594 
575 

Ward 

Wells., 

Williarhs .- 

Unorganized  ter.t. 

Sykeston 

Williston 



■'295 

Totals 

J  36,909 

§  182,719 

•  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  North  Dakota. 

+  Formerly  part  of  Borentan  County.  Dakota  -Tt^rritory. 

{This  footing  includes  populatii>n" of  the  following  counties  not 
existing  in  1894,  viz.:  Howard  (12i,  Mountraille  it:)),  Stevens  (247), 
Wiillflle  (432). 

S  This  footing  includes  population  of  the  following  counties  not 
existing  in  1894.  viz. :  Bnford  (803),  Church  (74).  Planner)-  (72),  Oar- 
Held  i.-iS),  Mountraille  (122),  Renville  (99),  Sheridan  (5),  Stevens  (16). 

Principal  Ci7(V.s-  and  Towns,  u-ith  Population  for  lSf)0. — 
Fargo,  5,(iti4  :  Grand  Forks,  4,979;  Jamestown, '2,296:  Bis- 
marck, 2,186;  Grafton,  1,594;  Wahpeton,  1,510;  Mandan, 
1,328;  and  Vidlev  Citv.  1,089. 

Popiilalion  and  /^(('ms.— ( 1 890)  182.719  (natives.  101,258; 
foreign,  81.-161;  inides,  101..590;  females.  81.129;  white. 
182,123;  col(u-ed.  596,  comprising  373  persons  of  .\frican 
descent,  28  Chinese,  1  Japan(>se,  and  194  civilized  Indians). 

Imhistries  and  linsiness  Interests. — The  census  reports  of 
1 890 showed  that  382  manufacturing  establishments  reported. 
These  had  a  combined  capital  of  $2,894,5.53,  emploved  1.847 
persons,  paid  $1,002,8,81  for  wages  and  $3,087,161  for  mate- 
rials, and  had  products  valued  at  $5,028,107.  The  princi- 
pal manufactures  are  flour,  lumber,  liutler.  leather,  cigars, 
brick.s,  and  woolen  goods,  and  the  most  important  indus- 


tries are  farming  and  stock-raising.  The  various  grain  ele- 
vators and  warehouses  along  the  lines  of  the  principal  rail- 
ways had  in  1893  a  capacity  of  89,51 1.000  bush. 

Finance  and  llankitiq. — In  1893  the  a.sscssed  valuations 
of  taxable  property  aggregated  $90.10.5.280.  and  the  Slate 
debt  was  $795,807.  There  were  32  national  banks,  with 
combined  capital  of  $2,215,000.  surplus  and  profits  of  $752,- 
123,  and  deposits  of  $4,137,014,  and  72  .State  banks,  with 
capital  of  $1,092,340,  surplus  of  $282,425,  and  deposits  of 
$1,848,005. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. — On  Jan.  1,  1894,  there  were 
518  post-ollices,  of  which  22  were  presidential  (2  second- 
(das.s,  20  third-class)  and  496  fourtli-cla.ss,  and  145  were 
money-order  ollices.  Of  newspapers  and  periodicals  there 
were  9  daily  publications,  118  weekly,  1  bi-w-eekly,  1  semi- 
monthly, and  6  monthly — total,  135. 

Means  of  Communication . — The  State  is  crossed  from  E. 
to  W.  by  the  Northern  Pacific  and  the  Grc.-it  Northern  rail- 
ways, while  three  other  large  systems  enter  it  from  the  .S..  E., 
and  S.  E. — the  Minneapolis.  St.  Paul  and  .Sault  Ste.  Marie, 
the  Chicago,  .Milwaukee  and  .St.  Paul,  and  the  Chicago  and 
Northwesteni.  The  mileage  of  these  within  the  .State  and 
of  several  minor  local  lines  on  June  30,  1893,  aggregated 
2,223.  The  construction  of  the  Northern  Pacific  line  through 
the  State  was  promoted  by  a  Government  grant  of  10,000,- 
000  acres  of  land,  and  aided  materially  the  develoi)ment  of 
the  central  part  of  the  State. 

Chiirc/ies. — The  constitution  guarantees  perfect  tolera- 
tion of  religious  .sentiment,  deelai-es  that  no  inhabitant  of 
the  State  shall  ever  be  molested  in  person  or  property  on 
account  of  his  or  her  mode  of  religious  w-orship.  and  makes 
these  provisions  irrevocable  without  the  consent  of  the  U.  S. 
and  the  people  of  the  State.  The  State  constitutes  a  mis- 
sionary district  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  with  a 
bishop,  and  Jamestown  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church.  The  census  of  1890  gave  the  follow- 
ing statistics  of  the  prineiiial  religious  bodies; 


DENOMINATIONS. 

Orgamz.- 
Uons. 

Churdies 
and  balls. 

Mtmbera. 

VMiie  of 
church 
property. 

Roman  Catholic 

Lutheran,  United  Norwegian 

115 
162 
131 
99 
53 
54 

115 
144 
IS-i 
91 
52 
53 

26.427 
10,283 
4,804 
3.036 

2.784 
2,298 

$171,550 
77,.5.W 
139  985 

Presb.  in  the  U.  S.  of  America  . . . 
Lutheran,  Norwegian  Evangelical 
Baptist 

120.425 
22.975 
90,300 

Other  leading  denominations  were  the  Congregational,  with 
1,616  members:  the  Lutheran,  General  Council,  1..582  mem- 
bers: and  the  Lutheran,  Synodical  Conference,  1,136. 

Schools. — The  constitution  made  it  the  duty  of  the  Legis- 
lature to  provide  and  maintain  a  system  of  public  schools 
which  should  be  open  to  all  children  of  the  State  and  be. 
free  from  sectarian  control.  It  also  provides  that  this  re- 
quirement shall  be  irrevocable  without  the  consent  of  the 
LT.  S.  and  the  people  of  the  State,  and  that  no  money  raised 
for  the  support  of  the  public  schools  shall  be  apiu-opriated 
to  or  used  for  the  snpjiort  of  any  sectarian  school.  All  pro- 
ceeds of  the  public  lands  granted  by  the  U.  S.  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  common  schools,  all  |icr  centum  that  may  be 
granted  by  the  U.  S.  on  the  .sale  of  public  lands,  the  pro- 
ceeds of  pro])erty  that  shall  fall  to  the  State  by  escheat,  the 
proceeds  of  all  gifts  and  dimations  to  the  State  for  common 
schools  unless  otherwise  specified,  and  all  other  jiroperty 
otherwise  ac(iuired  for  common  schools,  are  constituted  a 
perpetual  trust  fund  for  the  su|ip(irt  of  public  schools,  and 
tlie  State  is  jiledged  to  make  good  all  losses  thi^  ftmd  may 
sustain.  The  L'.  S.  granted  the  State  for  educational  pur- 
poses 2,000.000  acres  of  land.  Prior  to  the  creation  of 
North  and  .South  Dakota  the  Territory  had  expended  for 
jiublic  education  $10,000,000  in  five  years,  and  North  Da- 
kota entered  the  I'nion  with  1.362  public  .schools  and  with 
high  and  graded  schools  in  its  principal  cities  and  towns. 
State  institutions  include  a  university  and  school  of  mines 
at  (irand  Forks,  an  agricultural  cidlege  at  Fargo,  and  nor- 
mal schools  at  Valley  City  and  Mayville,  and  the  constitu- 
tion provided  fm-  the  establishment  of  a  school  of  forestry 
to  be  located  in  one  of  four  specified  counties  as  the  electors 
might  decide,  and  for  a  scientific  school  or  other  educa- 
tional or  charitable  institiiticm  at  Wahjieton.  Denomina- 
tional colleges  are  maintained  at  Fargo  and  Wahpeton. 

Charitalde.  Nefonnatori/.  anil  Penal  Inslitidiotis. — These 
include  a  school  for  the  deaf  at  DeviPs  Lake,  State  Hiispital 
for  the  Insane  and  Home  lor  the  Feeble-minded  at  James- 


222 


NORTH  EAST 


NORTH   SEA 


town.  Soldiers'  Home  at  Lisbon,  and  State  penitentiary  at 
Bismarck. 

Political  Organization. — The  constitution  provides  that 
every  man  may  freely  write,  speak,  and  publish  his  opinions 
on  all  sulijects,  being  responsible  for  the  abuse  of  that  privi- 
lege, and  in  all  trials  for  libel  the  truth  may  be  given  in 
evidence.  Every  citizen  is  free  to  obtain  employment 
wherever  possible,  and  any  person,  corporation,  or  agent 
thereof  maliciously  interfering  or  hindering  in  any  way 
any  citizen  from  obtaining  or  enjoying  employment  already 
obtained  from  any  other  corporation  or  person  is  deemed 
guilty  of  misdemeanor.  Women  qualified  by  age,  residence, 
and  citizenship  may  vote  for  public-school  officers  and  on 
all  questions  pertaining  solely  to  school  matters,  and  are 
eligible  to  any  school  office.  All  elections  are  by  secret 
ballot.  The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  Governor, 
a  Lieutcnant-Grovernor.  secretary  of  State,  auditor,  treas- 
urer, superintendent  of  public  instruction,  commissioner  of 
insurance,  three  commissioners  of  railways,  attorney-gener- 
al, and  a  commissioner  of  agriculture  and  labor — all  elected 
for  terms  of  two  years.  The  Governor  may  disapprove  of 
separate  items  in  a  bill.  The  Legislative  Assembly  holds 
biennial  sessions  limited  to  sixty  days,  and  comprises  a  Sen- 
ate, limited  to  from  30  to  .50  members,  and  a  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, limited  to  from  50  to  140  membere;  Senators 
elected  for  four  years.  Representatives  for  two.  The  judi- 
cial authority  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court  of  three  justices 
having  appellate  jurisdiction  only,  in  district  and  county 
courts,  in  courts  that  may  be  created  in  special  districts, 
cities,  and  towns,  and  in  justices  of  the  peace.  The  number 
of  Supreme  Court  justices  may  be  increased  to  five  when  the 
population  of  the  State  reaches  600,000. 

Histonj. — Capt.  Lewis  and  ('apt.  Clarke,  U.  S.  A.,  in  their 
expedition  of  1804-06.  spent  their  first  winter  in  camp 
among  the  Mandan  Indians  near  the  present  town  of  Man- 
dan.  Lord  Selkirk  built  a  fort  at  Pembina,  on  the  Red 
river,  in  1810 ;  the  first  steamer  ascended  the  upper  Jlissouri 
river  in  1830:  and  .John  C.  Fremont  crossed  the  country 
from  the  Missouri  river  to  the  James  and  penetrated  as  far 
N.  as  Devil's  Lake  in  1839.  George  Catlin  made  many 
sketches  of  Indian  lite  here  in  1841,  and  Lieut.  Warner  ex- 
plored the  region  for  the  U.  S.  Government  in  185.5.  The 
region  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase.  In  1851  the 
first  land  was  obtained  of  the  Sioux  Indians,  and  in  1857 
the  first  settlement  was  made  at  Sioux  Falls,  now  in  South 
Dakota.  The  eastern  part  of  the  Dakotas  was  included  in 
the  region  allotted  to  Minnesota  on  its  creation  as  a  Terri- 
tory in  1849.  In  1861  the  Territory  of  Dakota  was  created, 
extending  from  lat.  43'  38'  to  49'  N.,  and  from  ^Minnesota 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  From  this  tract  Idaho,  Mi)ntana, 
and  Wyoming  were  set  off  as  Territories.  A  long  agita- 
tion for  statehood  led  to  a  division  of  the  Territory  and  the 
creation  of  the  States  of  North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota, 
both  of  which  were  admitted  to  the  Union  Nov.  2,  1889. 

GOVERNORS  OF  NORTH  DAKOTA. 

John  Miller 1889-91    Frank  A.  Briggs 1897- 

Antlrew  H.  Burke 1S91-93 

Elmer  C.  D.  Shortridgc  . .  1893-95 

Roger  AJUn 1895-97 

Revised  by  W.  H.  H.  Beadle. 

North  East :  borough  :  Erie  co..  Pa. ;  on  the  Lake  Shore 
and  Mich.  S.  and  the  Nickel  Plate  railways;  15  miles  N.  E. 
of  Erie,  the  county-seat  (see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  1-A). 
It  is  in  the  heart  of  a  rich  agricultural  region  ;  has  a  fine  park, 
electric  lights,  and  gravity  water- works ;  a  furnace,  2  wooden- 
ware  and  2  grape-basket  factories  ;  a  tannery,  a  winery,  tem- 
pcred-copper  works,  and  a  wire-goods  factorv,  and  3  banks. 
Many  stores  and  residences  are  lighted  and  heated  with  natu- 
ral gas.  The  borough  has  a  Roman  Catholic  college,  a  graded 
public  school,  an  opera-house,  and  3  newspapers.  "Pop.  (1890) 
1,538  ;  (1894)  estimated,  2,252.         Editor  of  "  The  Scn." 

Norther :  a  cold,  piercing  northerly  wind  occurring  in 
Mexico  and  Texas,  coming  on  with  great  suddenness  and 
following  warm  ami  moist  weather.  It  usually  advances 
with  a  bar  of  stratus  cloud,  and  strikes  the  observer  when 
this  cloud  is  about  45=  above  his  horizon.  There  is  often  a 
fall  of  35  in  temperature  in  two  hours,  and  this  fall  is  said 
to  amount  sometimes  to  70°.  Northers  mav  be  either  wet 
or  dry,  the  latter  being  more  frequent.  They  occur  forty 
or  fifty  times  a  year,  generally  in  the  months  between  Sep- 
tember and  May. 

Northers  are  simply  "cold  waves"  which  flow  southward 
instead  of  eastward,  or  southeastward,  as  in  the  better  known 


types  of  such  waves.  They  occur  in  the  rear  of  well-marked 
"lows"  or  cyclones,  when  the  cold  northern  air  is  drawn 
bodily  into  lower  latitudes.  The  cold  current  of  air  is 
shallow,  but  may  be  of  great  horizontal  extent.  They  fre- 
quently extend  over  the  Western  Gulf,  causing  very  cold 
weather  and  dangerous  seas,  and  occasionally  they  extend 
to  Guatemala,  causing  frost  on  the  higher  lands,  aiid  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean  to  the  southwai'd.  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Northern  Croirn :  See  Corona  Borealis. 

Northern  Lights :  See  Alrora. 

Northfield  :  town  ;  Franklin  co.,  Mass. ;  on  the  Connecti- 
cut river,  at  the  point  where  the  States  of  Massachusetts, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont  meet  (see  map  of  Massachu- 
setts, ref.  1-E).  It  is  50  miles  N.  of  Springfield.  Mass.,  and 
12  miles  S.  of  Brattleboro,  Vt.,  on  the  Vermont  Central  Kail- 
road.  It  is  a  beautiful  town,  the  birthplace  of  Dwight  L. 
Moody,  who  has  made  it  a  center  of  Christian  work  and 
influence  by  founding  (1879)  a  seminary  for  young  women  of 
ability  and  earnest  purpose.  The  seminary  offers  general, 
college  preparatory  and  English  courses,  has  large  grounds, 
nine  buildings,  and  is  attended  by  about  3.50  students  annu- 
ally. At  Gill,  4  miles  from  Northfield,  is  Mt.  Hermon  School, 
for  boys,  founded  in  1881  by  Mr.  Moody  and  friends.  There 
are  two  Protestant  and  one  Roman  Catholic  churches,  and 
two  hotels.  The  larger  and  newer  one  (the  Northfield)  is 
used  from  October  to  April  as  a  training-school  for  Chris- 
tian workers.  There  are  also  a  corn-canning  factory  and  a 
ereamcrv.  The  business  interests  are  chiefly  agricultural. 
Pop.  (1890)  1,869 :  (189.5)  1,851.  Evelyn  S.  Hall. 

Northfield:  city:  Rice  co.,  Minn,  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Minnesota,  ref.  10-E):  on  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.  and 
the  Minn,  and  St.  L.  railways;  37  miles  S.  of  St.  Paul.  It 
is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  contains  Carleton  College 
(Congregational,  chartered  in  1866).  St.  Olaf  College  (Lu- 
theran, chartered  in  1874).  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
:f;75.000.  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  S;50,000.  and  2  weekly, 
a  bi-wceklv,  and  2  monthly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1880)  3,396; 
(1890)  2.659  ;  (1895)  3,456. 

Nortllfleld :  town :  Washington  co.,  Vt.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  5-C) ;  on  the  Central  Vt. 
Railroad  :  10  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Montpelier,  40  miles  S.  E.  of 
Burlington.  It  is  in  a  highly  productive  granite  and  slate 
region,  is  the  seat  of  Maverick  LTniversity  (chartered  in  1834), 
and  has  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $100,000.  a  savings- 
bank,  and  a  weekly  and  a  monthly  periodical.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,313 ;  (1890)  1,233. 

North  Holland  Canal :  a  waterway  extending  from  Buik- 
sluyt,  opposite  Amsterdam,  to  the  Helder,  a  distance  of  51 
miles.  In  the  sixteenth  century  Amsterdam  was  one  of  the 
first  commercial  ports  of  Europe.  The  gradual  advance- 
ment of  the  art  of  navigation,  together  with  the  increase  in 
draught  of  vessels,  demanded  an  access  more  favorable  than 
was  afforded  by  the  difficult  and  shoal  channels  through 
the  Zuyder  Zee.  To  supply  such  an  access  the  North  Hol- 
land Canal  was  cut.  It  is  124  feet  broad  at  the  surface  and 
31  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  is  available  for  vessels  drawing  18 
feet  of  water.    See  also  North  Sea  Canal. 

North  Platte  :  city :  cajiital  of  Lincoln  co..  Neb.  (for  lo- 
cation, see  map  of  Nebraska,  ref.  10-D);  near  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  North  and  South  Platte  rivers ;  on  the  Union 
Pacific  Railway  :  291  miles  W.  of  Omaha.  It  is  in  an  ag- 
ricultural and  stock-raising  region,  and  contains  railway 
shops,  3  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $125,000, 
and  3  weekly  ne%yspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  363 ;  (1890)  3,055. 

North  River:  See  Hudson  River. 

Northroj),  Cyrus,  LL.  D.  :  educator:  b.  at  Ridgefield, 
Conn..  Sept.  30,  1834:  gr.aduated  at  Yale  CoUege  in  18.57, 
and  at  the  Yale  Law  School  in  1859 :  practiced  law  at  Nor- 
walk.  Conn. ;  was  clerk  of  the  State  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  1861 ;  of  the  State  Senate  in  1862 :  editor-in-chief 
of  The  New  Eaven  Daily  Palhidium  1862-63;  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  and  English  Literature  in  Yale  College  1863-84; 
collector  of  customs  under  Presidents  Grant  and  Hayes :  was 
elected  president  of  the  University  of  Minnesota  in  1884, 
and  still  holds  that  position. 

North  Sea,  or  German  Ocean  (anc.  Ma're  Germa'nicum): 
a  body  of  water  lying  between  Great  Britain  and  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  having  the  former  and  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  isles  on  the  W..  and  Norway,  Denmark.  Germany. 
Holland.  Belgium,  and  part  of  France  on  the  E.  and  S.  It-^ 
extreme  length  from  Dover  Straits  to  the  most  northern  cl' 


NORTH  SEA  CANAL 


NORTHUMBKIA 


223 


the  Shetland  isles,  between  which  niul  the  coast  of  Noi'way 
it  merges  into  the  North  Atlantic,  is  about  700  miles ;  great- 
est breaillh  about  420  miles.  By  the  Skager  Rack  Inlet  and 
its  extension,  the  Katlepit.  between  the  coasts  of  Denmark 
and  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  it  conimiuiicates  with  the  Bal- 
tic Sea.  By  'the  Straits  of  Dover  and  Exolisu  Channel 
(o.  i:)  it  has' its  southern  communication  with  the  Atlantic. 
The  depth  varies  from  06  to  SOU  feet,  the  greatest  depths 
being  in  the  northern  portions  between  the  ncjrth  of  Scot- 
land and  Norway.  (See  Johnston's  Physical  Gtoyruphy.) 
If  a  line  be  ilrawn  from  the  northern  point  of  Denmark  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Ilumber,  all  S.  has  :iO  fathoms  or  less, 
which  is  said  to  be  the  average  depth.  A  line  from  the  same 
point  to  Edinburgh  will  leave  S.  of  it  nearly  all  the.  50- 
lathora  depths.  Farther  N.  the  depth  increases  rapidly,  and 
is  said  to  attain  190  fathoms  near  the  Norway  coast.  The  bed 
of  the  sea  is  traversed  liy  several  vast  shoals,  the  greatest  of 
which,  the  Dogger  Bank,  occupies  the  center  of  the  sea  from 
lat.  54°  10'  to  5r  24'  N.,  Ion.  1°  to  6°  7'  E. ;  another  extends 
from  the  Firth  of  Forth.  Scotland,  in  a  northeasterly  direc- 
tion, a  distance  of  110  miles,  while  others  run  from  Ilolstein 
and  Jutland  more  than  100  miles  to  the  N.  W.  The  great 
oceanic  tidal  wave,  deflected  arounil  the  British  isles,  enters 
this  sea  from  the  N.  Pursuing  its  course  southward,  it  rules 
the  tides  as  far  S.  as  the  Thames  and  opposite  coast,  sensibly 
affects  the  tides  of  the  Continent  through  the  Channel,  but, 
encountering  the  tide  wave  from  the  English  Channel  in 
the  southern  portions,  the  tidal  phenomena  are  there  the 
result  of  the  conflict,  or  rather  tlie  union,  of  the  two  dis- 
tinct waves,  each  exaggerated  by  a  shelving  bottom  and  the 
contraction  between  converging  shores.  At  the  Orkneys  the 
rise  is  but  12  feet,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ilumber  and  Thames 
18  to  20  feet.  The  North  Sea,  notwithstanding  the  mani- 
fest dangers  due  to  its  currents,  fogs,  banks,  and  contracted 
area,  teems  with  shipping,  and  is  to  the  northern  nations 
what  the  Mediterranean  was  to  the  ancients.  Its  fisheries 
of  cod.  mackerel,  herring,  etc.,  are  important,  and  contribute 
in  no  small  degree  to  the  wealth  and  characteristic  develop- 
ment of  its  marginal  population.  The  island  of  Heligo- 
land (q.  V.)  is  the  only  one  which  properly  belongs  to  the 
North  Sea.  The  numerous  islands  along  "the  coast  of  Nor- 
way, Denmark,  and  Holland  are  rather  fragments  of  a  broken 
coast-line  than  islands  in  the  sea.  One-ninth  of  the  total 
river  discharge  of  Europe  is  received  by  the  North  Sea  from 
the  Humber,  Thames,  the  Rhine  ami  .Scheldt,  Eider,  Elbe, 
Weser,  etc.,  and  from  the  firths  and  fiords  of  the  Scotch 
and  Norway  coasts.  The  Zuvder  Zee  (q.  v.),  which  is  en- 
tered from  the  North  Sea  at  the  Heliler.  is  separated  by  the 
chain  of  sand  islands,  Texel,  Terschelling.  etc.,  which  are 
the  existing  fragments  of  the  ancient  coast-line.  The  North 
Sea  Canal  (q.  v.)  makes  Amsterdam  virtually  a  seaport  of 
the  North  Sea.  See  Zjir  Pliysik  iles  Meeres,  by  Dr.  Meyer, 
from  the  second  annual  report  of  the  Kiel  commission  for 
investigation  of  the  German  seas  (Berlin,  1874). 

Revised  by  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

North  Soa  Canal  of  Holland  (called  in  Holland  The 
Amsterdam  Canal):  a  waterway  connecting  Amsterdam 
with  the  North  Sea.  Such  a  canal  had  been  proposed  even 
before  making  the  NoEtrn  Holland  Canal  (q.  v.).  That 
work  answered  the  existing  exigencies,  but  was  found  not 
equal  to  those  arising  from  the  modern  developments  of 
commerce.  The  bold  project  of  a  direct  water  communica- 
tion with  the  North  Sea  was  revived  in  1854.  Nine  differ- 
ent "commissions"  of  engineers  and  other  experts  succes- 
sively studied  and  reported  upon  the  subject;  and  it  was 
not  until  .Ian..  lS(i:i.  tliat  the  law  authorizing  the  construc- 
tion was  perfected  and  the  work  undertaken.  The  projei-t 
involved  the  shutting  oft  of  Lake  Y  at  its  ea-:tern  end  from 
the  Zuyder  Zee  by  a  dam  one  mile  in  length  with  locks  ade- 
quate to  the  purposes  of  all  the  coasting  trade  of  the  Zuy- 
der, and  of  the  lighter  draught  vessels  for  the  North  Sea, 
which  still  may  enter  hy  the  liclder.  The  formation  of  this 
dam  and  the  construction  of  its  triple  locks,  founded  by 
means  of  a  eofler-dam  .5.50  feet  in  diameter  in  18  feet  of 
water  on  !(,000  piles,  are  among  the  mo.st  remarkable  works 
i>f  modern  hydraulic  engineering. 

The  canal  is  2:i  feet  deep  and  14;^  miles  long.  In  passing 
through  the  Y  and  VVijkermeer  Lakes,  the  depth  of  which 
averages  about  6  feet,  the  channel  is  lin\ited  by  two  embank- 
ments 44:i  feet  apart,  formed  of  material  mostly  clredged 
from  the  bottom.  There  are  38^  miles  of  these  embank- 
ments. Through  the  sand  downs  of  the  isthmus  separating 
the  Wijkermeer  from  the  North  Sea,  the  channel  is  formeci 


for  about  4  miles  by  a  cut  !)0  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  The 
great  sea-loek  called  the  Vmuiden  is  .situated  two-thirds  of 
a  mile  from  the  shore-line.  It  has  a  double  (in  length)  lock- 
pond  nearly  400  feet  long.  00  feet  wide,  with  25  feet  depth 
on  the  lock-sills.  An  artificial  harlior  was  constructed  at 
the  sea  entrance  (for  which  see  Hakhoks).  The  canal  was 
oiieiied  for  trallic  on  Nov.  1,  1876.  The  waters  of  the  Y  and 
Wijkermeer  are  drained  into  the  canal,  reclaiming  18,142 
acres  of  arable  land.  To  keep  the  level  of  the  canal  down 
to  1'6  feet  below  high  water  at  Amsterdam,  and  thus  permit 
the  adjacent  lands  to  be  drained,  centrifugal  pumps  driven 
by  steam-power  are  placed  at  the  Zuyder  Zee  locks,  pum]iing 
from  the  canal  into  the  Zuyder  Zee,  and  also  at  eiglit  points 
along  the  reclaimed  land.  At  low  water  natural  drainage 
can  be  effected  through  the  North  Sea  through  the  sea-loek. 
The  works  cost  about  |15,000,000.  The  traffic  on  the  canal 
is  large  and  constantly  increasing.  For  further  particulars 
see  Professional  Papers  No.  22,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S. 
army,  by  J.  (i.  liariuird,  and  the  work  of  Croizette  Desnoy- 
ers;  also  a  full  description  of  the  works  in  Proc.  hist.  C.  I!., 
vol.  Ixii.,  1880.  Revised  by  J.  J.  R.  Croes. 

North  Toiian  anda,  N.  Y. :  See  Tonawanda. 

Northumberland :  the  northernmost  county  of  Eng- 
land ;  bounded  E.  by  tlie  North  Sea,  separated  from  Scot- 
land by  the  Tweed  and  from  the  county  of  Durham  by  the 
Tyne  and  Derwent.  Area,  2,016  sq.  miles.  The  western 
part  of  the  county  consists  of  the  bare  Cheviot  Hills  and 
wild  moorlands,  which,  however,  afford  sustenance  to  nu- 
merous flocks  of  hardy  sheep.  Toward  the  east  coast  are 
large  fertile  valleys  with  good  pasturage  and  soil  fitted 
for  tillage.  The  principal  source  of  wealth  is  in  the  rich 
mines  of  lead,  copper,  and  coal,  especially  the  latter,  in  the 
Cheviot  Hills,  and  the  manufactures  which  dejicnd  upon 
coal.  The  number  of  collieries  is  about  115.  The  county 
returns  four  members  to  Parliament.     Pop.  (1891)  506,096. 

Northumberland :  borough ;  Northumberland  co..  Pa. 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  4-G) ;  at  the 
junction  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Susquehanna  river;  on 
the  Del.,  Lack,  and  \V.,  the  Penn.,  and  the  Phila.  and  Read- 
ing railways:  2  miles  N.  of  Sunbury,  the  county-seat.  60 
miles  N.  of  Harrisburg.  It  contains  rolling,  flour,  and  saw 
mills,  nail-factories,  agricultural-implement  works,  and  other 
manufactories,  and  a  weeklv  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880)  2.293; 
(1890)  2,744. 

Northumberland,  Algernon  Perot,  Fourth  Duke  of, 
F.  R.  S.,  F.  .S.  A..  D.  C.  L. :  second  son  of  the  second  duke ; 
b.  in  England,  Dec.  15,  1792 ;  educated  at  Eton ;  entered 
the  navy  in  childhood;  retired  in  1815;  was  created  Baron 
Prudhoc  1816;  spent  many  years  in  travel,  especially  in 
Egypt  and  other  Eastern  countries;  collected  a  magnificent 
Oriental  museum ;  founded  churches,  schools,  and  chari- 
table institutions,  and  promoted  historical,  philological,  and 
archa^ilogical  research;  married  Lady  Eleanor  Grosvenor, 
daughter  of  the  Marquis  of  Westminister.  1842;  succeeded 
his  iirother  Hugh  in  tne  dukedom  1847;  restored  and  deco- 
rated upon  a  splendid  scale  the  ancient  seat  of  the  family, 
Alnwick  Castle;  was  first  lord  of  the  Admiralty  1853; 
made  a  Knight  of  the  Garter  1858;  was  president  of  the 
Royal  Institution.     D.  at  Alnwick  Castle,  Feb.  12,  1865. 

Northumberland.  John  Didley,  Duke  of:  statesman; 
b.  in  England  in  1502 :  son  of  Edmund  Dudley,  the  minister 
of  Henrv  VII.:  commanded  the  English  squadron  during 
the  war  with  France  1544—15  :  was  an  executor  of  the  king's 
will  1547;  intrigued  against  the  protector  .Soiiierset  1.549; 
ac(iuired  chief  power  in  thi'  council  1550;  was  created  Duke 
of  Northumberland,  lonl  high  steward,  aiul  earl  marshal 
1551  ;  married  his  fourth  son.  Lord  Guilford  Dudley,  to 
Lady  tlane  Grey,  May,  1558  ;  prevailed  on  Edward  to  adopt 
Lady  Jane  as  his  successor,  June;  placed  her  on  the  throne 
July  10,  and  was  executed  as  a  traitor  Aug.  22,  1558. 

Northnm'bria  :  the  largest  kingdom  of  the  Saxon  Hep- 
tarchy. cml)raeing.  as  its  name  imports,  the  region  N.  of  the 
Ilumiier.  and  at  one  lime  extending  to  the  Forth  in  Scot- 
land. It  was  formed  into  a  kingdi>m  by  Ida  about  547  by 
the  union  of  Beriiicia  and  Deira.  The  kingdom  was  divided 
at  the  death  of  Ida.  but  reunited  under  Ethelfrith  598.  be- 
came the  lending  British  power  under  Oswald  684-42.  and 
wa.s  extinguished  by  Egbert  827.  when  the  name  of  Eng- 
land was  first  ajiplied  to  the  kingdom  resulting  from  the  ag- 
gregation of  the  minor  states  to  Wessex  and  Norfhumbria. 
The  present  county  of  Northumberland  shows  a  survival  of 
the  name  of  a  kingdom  numy  times  greater  in  extent. 


224 


NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY 


NORUMBEGA 


Northwestern  University  :  an  institution  established 
at  Evanston,  111. ;  one  of  the  largest  universities  in  the  U.  S., 
having  nearly  2,500  students  and  more  than  300  professors. 
It  maintains  the  following  degree-conferring  departments: 
A  college  of  liberal  arts,  a  medical  school,  a  woman's  medic- 
al scliool,  a  law  school,  a  school  of  pharmacy,  and  a  dental 
school.  The  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  is  the  theological 
department  of  the  university.  The  charter  of  the  univer- 
sity requires  a  majority  of  its  board  of  trustees  to  be  mem- 
bers of  tlje  Methodist  Ejjiscopal  I'luirch,  and  the  university 
is  the  largest  and  richest  of  the  educational  institutions  in 
affiliation  with  that  church.  The  college  of  lil)eral  arts  iind 
the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  are  at  Evanston,  the  other  pro- 
fessional schools  are  in  the  city  of  Chicago.  The  campus  at 
Evanston  lies  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  N.  of  Chi- 
cago, and  includes  50  acres  of  ground.  The  charter  of  the 
university  prohibits  the  sale  of  liquor  within  4  miles  of  the 
university.  Provision  is  made  in  the  college  of  liberal  arts 
for  graduate  and  undergraduate  work.  Its  medical  school, 
formerly  known  as  the  Chicago  Medical  College,  was  the  first 
school  of  medicine  in  the  U.  S.  to  insist  on  an  examination 
preliminary  to  admission,  on  a  graded  course  of  instruction, 
as  well  as  on  a  lengthened  period  of  study,  and  is  one  of  the 
few  medical  schools  of  the  country  requiring  a  bona  fide 
four  years'  course.  Its  law  school,  formerly  known  as  the 
Union  College  of  Law,  is  now  one  of  the  most  thorough  in 
the  U,  S.  It  jirescribes  fifteen  hours  of  class-room  work  a 
week,  and  requires  its  law  professors,  with  one  or  two  ex- 
ceptions, to  devote  their  whole  time  to  the  work  of  the 
school,  withdrawing  them  from  active  practice  for  that  pur- 
pose. Its  school  of  pharmacy  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
kind  in  the  U.  S.  The  universitv  holds  property  amounting 
in  18!H  to  $4,000,000,  and  its  ordinary  income  is  $250,000. 

Henry  Wade  Rogers. 

Northwest  Passage:  a  communication  by  sea  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  which  was  long  vainly 
sought  by  navigators.     See  Polar  Research. 

Northwest  Provinces,  or  Agra :  a  great  political  divi- 
sion of  British  India,  situated  around  the  upper  and  middle 
course  of  the  Ganges.  It  consists  of  tlie  provinces  of  Delhi, 
Merut,  Rohilkhand,  Agra,  Allahabad,  and  Benares,  and  com- 
prises an  area  of  83,286  sq.  miles,  with  (1891)  34,254,254  in- 
habitants.    Cajiital,  Allahabad. 

Northwest  Territories  :  a  portion  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  comprising  the  provisional  districts  of  Alberta, 
AssiNiBOiA,  Athabasca,  and  Saskatchewan  (qq.  v.),  besides 
unorganized  territory  with  an  area  of  1)06,000  sq.  miles. 
This  vast  region  is  bounded  S.  by  tlie  49th  parallel,  which 
divides  it  from  the  U.  S.  and  touches  the  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  at  nearly  115"  W.  Ion.,  thence  the  boundary  runs 
N.  W.  along  the  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  until  it 
reaches  Alaska,  and  thence  due  N.  to  tlie  Arctic  Ocean.  A 
marked  feature  of  the  region  is  its  division  into  two  plat- 
eaus, running  generally  N.  W.  and  S.  E.,  the  more  easterly 
one,  with  an  average  altitude  of  1,600  feet,  being  adapted 
for  agriculture,  and  that  toward  the  W.,  reaching  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  with  an  average  altitude  of  3,000  feet, 
being  adapted  for  grazing.  The  principal  rivers  ai'e  tlie 
Mackenzie,  emptying  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  Saskatche- 
wan or  Nelson,  emptying  into  Hudson  Bay,  and  the  Atha- 
basca, flowing  into  the  lake  of  the  same  name.  The  most 
important  timlier  is  spruce ;  coal  exists  in  a  vast  region  E. 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  extending  from  the  frontier,  with  a 
width  of  from  150  to  200  miles,  1,000  miles  N. :  large  coal 
deposits,  as  well  as  lignite  and  petroleum,  exist  also  else- 
where throughout  the  territories.  Iron,  gold,  silver,  galena, 
and  copper  also  occur.  The  product  of  the  fisheriesof  the 
Northwest  Territories  for  1893  amounted  to  19,836,000  lb., 
valued  at  $793,549.  The  government  of  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritories is  administered  by  a  lieutenant-governor  and  Leg- 
islative Assembly,  the  seat  of  government  being  at  Re- 
gina.  An  executive  committee,  appointed  by  the  Assembly, 
acts  as  an  advisory  boily  with  the  limitenant-governor  in 
the  expenditure  of  territorial  funds  and  money  a|ipro|)riated 
by  the  Parliament  of  Canada.  Justice  is  adniinistered  by 
a  stipendiary  magistrate,  with  jurisdiction  over  all  cases, 
civil  and  criminal,  and  by  justices  of  the  pea<'e  ap[iointed 
by  the  lieutenant-governor.  For  the  maintenance  of  order 
among  the  Indians  and  settlers  there  is  a  Ijodv  of  mounted 
poli(te  numbering  1,000.  I'op.  (1896)  about  I(i0.(in0.  includ- 
ing Inilians.  Neil  Maclionald. 

Northwest  Territory  :  the  name  fcirnuM-ly  applied  in 
the  U.  S.  to  the  tract  of  land  included  between  the  Missis- 


sippi and  Ohio  rivers  and  the  Great  Lakes,  comprising  the 
present  States  of  Ohio,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Michigan,  and 
Wisconsin.  The  original  States  had  ceded  it  to  the  na- 
tional Government,  which  provided  for  its  administration 
by  the  ordinance  of  1787.     See  Territory. 

Norton,  Charles  Eliot:  son  of  Rev.  Andrews  Norton 
(1786-1852) ;  b.  at  (.Cambridge,  Mass.,  Nov.  16, 1827 ;  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  1846;  engaged  in  commerce  in  Boston; 
went  to  India  as  supercargo  1849 ;  returned  home  through 
Europe  1850 :  wrote  Considerations  on  some  Recent  Social 
Theories  (1853) ;  edited,  with  Dr.  Ezra  Aljbot,  his  father's 
posthumous  writings  (1855);  resided  in  Europe  1855-57; 
published  Notes  of  Travel  and  Stiidi/  in  Ifali/  (1860) ;  edited 
the  papers  of  the  Loyal  Publication  Society  1861-65 ;  was  as- 
sociate editor  of  T7ie  North  American  Be'rieir  (1864-68);  is- 
sued a  translation  of  Dante's  Vita  Nuov<i  (WGH) ;  lived  in 
Europe  1868-73;  published ///ft/»c(>a/  JSIndies  of  Church- 
building  in  the  3Iiddle  Ages  (1880),  and  a  translation  of 
Dante's  Divina  Commedia  (3  vols.,  1891-92);  edited  Corre- 
spondence of  Carlyle  and  Emerson  (1883) ;  Correspondence 
between  Goethe  and  Carl ijle  {1887):  Reminiscences  and  Let- 
ters of  Carlyle  (5  vols.,  1886-88) ;  Letters  of  James  Russell 
Lowell  (2  vols.,  1894).  lie  was  made  Lift.  I),  by  Cambridge 
UniversitLy  1884  and  LL.  D.  by  Harvard  1887,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Archa?ological  Institute  of  America  1879-90.  He 
has  been  since  1874  Professor  of  the  History  of  Art  in  Har- 
vard University. 

Norumbega  :  the  name  given  by  early  French  explorers 
to  a  country,  river,  and  city  supposed  to  be  situated  some- 
where in  the  eastern  part  of  the  U.  S.  or  Canada,  and  said 
to  have  been  discovered  by  Verrazano  in  1524.  The  site  of 
the  city  was  given  on  a  map  published  at  Antwerp  in  1570. 
In  1604  Chaniiilain  ascended  the  Penobscot,  supposing  that 
stream  to  be  the  Norumbega,  but  after  going  22  leagues  dis- 
covered no  indications  of  a  city  or  of  civilization,  except  an 
old  and  moss-grown  cross  in  the  woods. 

According  to  B.  P.  De  Costa,  in  his  Norvmbega  and  its 
English  Explorers,  published  in  .lustin  Winsor's  Narrative 
and  Critical  History,  vol.  iii.,  the  name  is  found  in  the 
map  of  Hieronimus  da  Verrazano  of  1529  as  "  Aranbega," 
the  initial  "  N  "  being  omitted,  and  De  Costa  says  it  is  there 
restricted  to  a  definite  and  apparently  unimportant  locality. 
The  name,  with  a  variety  of  spellings  (Norumbegne,  No- 
rumbergue.  Anorabegra,  Anorumhega,  etc.),  occurs  on  many 
old  maps  and  in  the  works  of  various  French  and  English 
explorers  of  North  America.  Norumbega  was  by  some 
writers  thought  to  embrace  all  New  England,  while  Lok,  in 
1582,  according  to  De  Costa,  seems  to  have  believed  that 
the  Penobscot  formed  its  southern  boundary.  In  his  No- 
rumbega and  its  English  Explorers  De  Costa  expresses 
himself  with  great  caution  in  regard  to  the  location  of  No- 
rumbega, but  in  his  Lost  City  of  New  England  he  is  of  the 
opinion  that  if  the  ruins  of  the  city  are  ever  found  they  will 
be  found  on  the  Penobscot. 

Arthur  James  Weise,  of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  in  his  work  7'he  Dis- 
covery of  America  to  the  Year  15^'5,  arrives  at  the  conclusion 
that  the  name  is  a  contraction  of  the  Old  Prencli  L'Anormee 
Berge  (The  Grand  Scarp),  and  claims  that  the  adjective 
anormee  and  the  noun  berge  definitely  describe  the  wall  of 
rocks  known  as  the  Palisades  on  the  Hudson  river  above 
New  York  city.  Weise  has  no  doubt  that  by  the  term  No- 
rumbega river  the  Hudson  is  meant,  and  that  the  country 
around  the  Palisades  was  called  by  the  French  explorers  La 
terre  d'anormee  berge,  afterward  contracted  and  corrupted 
into  Norumbega  and  its  numerous  variations.  Weise,  in 
identifying  the  river  called  by  the  French  writer  "  Norom- 
begue  "  with  the  present  Hudson,  lays  great  stress  upon  the 
statement  by  the  same  writer  that  the  water  of  the  river  was 
salty  to  the  height  of  40  leagues,  and  shows  that  the  Hudson 
is  brackish  beyond  the  citv  of  Poughkeepsie. 

Finally,  in  1890,  Prof.  Eben  N.  Ilorsford,  of  Cambridge, 
JIass.,  presented  an  entirely  new  theory.  In  this  year  ap- 
peared his  Discovery  of  the  Ancient  Cify  of  Xorumbega.  In 
it  he  claims  to  have  hjund  the  ]irecise  site  of  the  ancient 
city,  and  locates  it  with  absolute  confidence  on  the  C'harles 
river  in  Massachusetts,  at  its  junction  with  Stony  Brook 
near  Waltham.  He  makes  Norumbega  identical  with  the 
Vinland  of  the  Norsemen  (see  Vinland).  claiming  that 
Xorumbega  is  an  Indian  corruption  of  Norregr  (Norway), 
and  that  it  has  borne  that  name  aiiinng  tlic  aliorigines  ever 
since  the  Norse  explorers  in  the  tenth  anil  fcjilowing  centu- 
ries made  their  headipiarters  there.  He  takes  Xorumbega 
to  be  the  name  the  explorers  did  not  bestow,  but  found.    So 


c 


XORWALK 


XORWAY 


225 


thorouKlily  convinced  was  Pmf.  Ilorsford  of  the  correctness 
of  his  theory  tlmt  lie  built  on  the  site  which  he  i<lentified  as 
Nonunliejju  a  tower  in  coninienioration  of  the  Norse  discov- 
erers and  colonists.  Prof.  Horsford's  discoveries  have  not 
received  much  recognition  among  scholars.  The  origin  of 
the  name  Xorumbega  and  its  site  are  still  a  matter  of  doubt. 
See  ViNLAXD. 

In  addition  to  works  already  cited,  see  Horsford's  John 
Cabut'-t  Lundfdll  in  J4:i7  and  the  Site  of  Xorumbega  and 
The  DeUnws  of  Surumbega.  Rasmus  B.  Anderson. 

Norivalk  :  town  (site  |)urchased  from  the  Indians  in  1640, 
permanently  settled  in  1651,  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1653, 
burned  by  ihe  Hessians  during  the  Revolutionary  war,  in- 
corporated as  a  borough  in  l»:i6);  Fairfield  co..  Conn,  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  12~I)) ;  on  Xorwalk 
river,  about  2  miles  from  Long  Island  Sound,  and  on  the 
N.  y.,  N.  II.  and  Hart.  Railroad  \  42  miles  X.  E.  of  Xew  York 
city,  60  miles  S.  W.  of  Hartford.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor, 
regular  steamboat  connnunication  with  Xew  York  city,  large 
coasting  trade,  and  extensive  oyster  and  flower  interests. 
There  are  over  16  churches.  4  public  halls,  2  public  libraries, 
public  park,  public  high  school,  institute,  school  for  girls  and 
young  ladies,  public-school  property  valued  at  over  !t;15(),000, 
3  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  ^540,000, 2  savings- 
banks,  and  a  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  felt,  iron,  ami  woolen  goods,  locks,  flour, 
bolts,  screws,  fur  hats,  straw  hats,  shoes,  machinery,  and 
paper.  The  town  contains  the  citv  of  Sol'th  Xorwalk 
(q.  v.).     Pop.  (1880)  13,<J56;  (1890)  17! 747. 

Editor  ok  "  Gazette." 

Norwalk  :  city;  capital  of  Huron  co.,  O.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  Ohio.  ref.  2-F) ;  on  the  Wheeling  and 
Lake  E.  and  the  Lake  Shore  and  Mich.  S.  railways;  56 
miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Cleveland.  It  is  in  a  farming,  dairying, 
and  stock-raising  region  ;  has  manufactories  of  organs,  sew- 
ing and  knitting  machines,  agricultural  implements,  tobacco, 
flour,  and  lumber ;  and  contains  2  national  banks  wit  h  com- 
bined capital  of  $150,000,  2  State  banks  with  capital  of 
f88,000,  a  public  library  with  over  6,000  volumes,  and  a 
(iailv,  a  monthlv,  and  5  weeklv  periodicals.  Pop.  (1880) 
5,704;  (18'J0)  7,193. 

Norway  [Old  Xorse.  JYocce^rr,  the  northern  way;  Xorw. 
Norge'\:  the  western  part  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula; 
situated  between  57'  59  and  71'  11'  X.  lat.,  and  4  59  and 
31"  ir  E.  Ion.,  bordering  on  Russia  and  Sweden  on  the  E., 
and  surrounded  on  all  other  sides  by  the  sea  (see  map  of 
Norway  and  .Sweden).  Its  length  from  S.  \V.  to  X.  E.  is 
1,118  miles,  its  breadth  264  miles  in  its  widest  part.  It  has 
a  coast-line  of  1,700  miles;  including  the  fjords  there  is  a 
continental  coast-line  of  10.500  miles.  The  area  is  124,445 
sq.  miles,  three-fourths  of  which  is  uninhabitable. 

Oeology. — The  mountains  of  Xorway  are  of  Archa>an  for- 
mation, with  su[H-rincumbent  strata  of  gneiss,  hornblende, 
and  quartz,  in  many  places  penetrated  by  masses  of  granite 
and  gabliro.  Above  this  foundation  are  strata  of  conglom- 
erate and  sparagmite,  or  of  Silurian  and  Devonian  forma- 
tions, containing  the  oldest  fossil  remains.  The  general 
configuration  of  the  country  presents  a  grand  display  of  ice 
action,  and  extensive  glaciers  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  largest 
is  the  .lostedalsbriP,  with  an  area  of  350  sq.  miles,  six  times 
the  size  of  the  largest  Swiss  glacier. 

MoiDilainii. — The  mountain  system  practically  covers  the 
whole  kingdom.  It  presents  no  wtdl-defined  chains,  lint  has 
numerous  table-lan<ls,  among  which  individual  peaks  are 
very  irregularly  scattered.  The  Jotun-fjeldene  ((iiant  Moun- 
tains) are  the  highest  in  Europe  X.  of  the  Alps,  with  Gald- 
hopiggen  (8.528  feet),  (ilittertind  (8,495  feet),  and  others  of 
but  slightly  less  altitude. 

Fjordx  (iiid  liivirx. — The  fjords  are  the  most  characteristic 
natural  features.  I'nliki'  the  Scotch  firths,  they  are  long  and 
narrow  arms  of  the  sea,  filling  the  deep  excavations  made  by 
glacial  ice.  The  two  most  famous,  both  for  size  and  grandeur 
of  scenery,  are  the  Sogne  and  Hardanger  fjords.  The  thirty 
larger  ones  have  an  average  length  of  00  miles.  The  rivers 
are  numerous,  but  owing  to  falls  and  rapids  oidy  a  few  are 
navigable.  Glommen,  in  the  S.  K.,  is  the  principal  one.  The 
lakes,  in  reality  expansions  of  river-beds,  are  also  i\unierons. 

Idan(h. — With  the  exception  of  two  short  stretches,  the 
whole  coast  has  a  chain  of  islands,  calleil  Skja'rgaarden  (tlie 
islanil  bell).  Between  this  rock  rampart  ami  the  mainland 
there  is  a  deep  channel  which  atTords  shelter  from  the  ocean 
storms,  and  makes  coast  ami  fjord  navigation  comparativelv 
sate.  Of  the  50.000  islands  1,100  are  inhabited,  195  being 
2'j9 


of  considerable  size.  The  most  important  are  the  Lofoten 
(Loffoden)  islands,  within  the  Arctic  Circle. 

Climate. — On  account  of  the  Gulf  Stream  the  climate  is 
milder  than  that  of  any  other  country  in  the  same  latitude. 
Those  parts  that  are  removed  from  the  influence  of  the  sea 
have  a  cold  winter  and  hot  summer;  tlie  coast  regions  have 
a  mild  winter  and  cool  summer.  Only  the  more  interior 
fjords  freeze.  Barley  ripens  as  far  north  as  70'  X.  lat.,  and 
potatoes  can  be  raised  in  the  most  northerly  regions.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  of  the  southern  part  of  the  coun- 
try and  the  coast  is  44^  F.  At  Xorth  Cape  it  is  35,  but  in 
some  (larts  of  the  interior  it  is  below  32\  as  at  Karasjok 
(Finmark),  where  it  is  26°.  The  rainfall  is  greatest  on  the 
western  coast,  where  it  is  77  inches;  on  the  southwest  coast 
it  is  40  inches,  in  the  Lofoten  islands  45  inches,  while  in 
the  most  northerly  and  the  southeastern  parts  it  is  only  13 
inc'hes. 

Prudiictn. — The  soil  is  not  very  fertile,  except  in  a  few  of 
the  valleys.  Oidy  about  1.000  sq.  miles  are  under  cultiva- 
tion, but  the  arable  area  is  much  larger.  The  mineral 
products  are  silver,  iron,  copper,  and  some  gold,  nickel  and 
zinc,  but  none  are  of  much  importance.  The  flora  is  not 
rich  in  species,  except  in  arctic  plants,  but  is  quite  luxuri- 
ant, the  profusion  of  wild  flowers  being  particularly  distin- 
guished by  their  large  size  and  brilliancy  of  coloring.  Thfc 
principal  forests  (covering  an  area  of  25,000  sq.  miles)  are  o) 
fir,  pine,  and  birch.  Wild  fruits  are  not  abundant,  although 
some  berries  are  exported,  but  thegi'asses  are  numertius  and 
afford  excellent  pasturage.  The  fauna  is  varied.  The  cIk, 
the  largest  terrestrial  animal  of  Europe,  is  found  in  the 
southern  part.  The  reindeer  is  the  most  important  wild 
animal,  large  herds  of  which  have  been  semi-domcstlcated 
by  the  I^apps.  The  bear  and  fox  are  numerous.  Of  niarine 
animals,  whales  and  seals  have  been  abundant,  but  are  rap- 
idly disappearing.  The  eider  duck  is  the  most  important 
bird,  and  is  carefully  protected  by  law.  Fish  abound  along 
the  coiist  and  in  nearly  all  the  rivers  and  lakes.  The  cod, 
herring,  and  mackerel  are  the  most  valuable,  and  are  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities.  Salmon,  trout,  and  lobsters  are 
also  plentiful. 

Population. — The  Xorwegians,  with  the  Swedes,  Danes, 
and  Icelanders,  belong  to  the  Scandin-avian  branch  of  the 
Teutonic  race.  They  are  hardy,  of  great  endurance,  and 
usually  of  large  stature.  According  to  the  census  of  1891 
the  population  was  2,000.917  (965.911  males  and  1,035,006 
females) ;  of  these.  474,129  lived  in  cities  and  towns.  One 
and  a  half  per  cent,  are  of  Ugro-Finnic  race,  engaged  in 
herding  reindeer  and  in  fishing.  Only  3  per  cent,  are  immi- 
grants, mostly  Swedes. 

Principal  Towns. — The  six  largest  cities,  with  population 
in  1891,  are  Christiania,the  capital  (151,239):  Bergen (53,684); 
Trondhjem  (29,102):  Stavanger  (23,899);  Drammen  (20.687); 
and  Christiansand  (12,813).  Hammerfest,  the  most  norther- 
ly city  in  the  world  (70°  39),  has  2.160  inhabitants. 

Divisions. — The  chief  administrative  divisions  are  the 
towns  of  Christiania  and  Bergen  and  18  amts.  These  are 
subdivided  for  local  govei'nment  into  over  560  communes. 
The  amts,  with  area  in  square  miles  and  population  Jan,  1, 
1891,  are  as  follows : 


AMIS. 

Christiania  (town) 

Akerslius  (or  Ap^erliuus) 

Sniaalenene  (Snialeuene) 

lledeniarlven 

Christians — 

Biislverud 

.larlstiHi'j;  og  Larvik  (Laurvig) 

RratstierK 

Ned.MRs  iXeilenas  Robj-gdelaget).. . 

I.isier  o^'  Matuial 

Stavan^^er 

Siimlre  Hergenhns  (-huus) 

Berjjen  ttownt 

Nortire  Bergenluis 

Rdnisdal 

Siindre  Trondh.ieni  (Throndhjem).. . 

Nordre  Trondhjem 

Nordlnnd 

Troins.'i 

Finniarken  (Finmark) 

Totals 


Sq.  milea. 


1^,445 


Population. 


6 

151,2.'?9 

2.055 

99.111 

1,600 

12ll.:«) 

lo.oai 

119,12'.l 

9,793 

108.076 

5,T90 

104.769 

896 

100.957 

5,8(i5 

92.0;i4 

3,609 

81.043 

2,805 

7S,7:i8 

3.532 

117.00S 

6,026 

128,213 

5 

53.6(M 

r,l.'i2 

87.r..'>a 

5,788 

127.806 

7,184 

123.817 

8,791 

81,2:i« 

14.517 

1.31.8.')() 

10.1.34 

6.5,125 

18,296 

29,170 

2.000,917 


Industries. — The  principal  pursuits  are  agriculture,  fish- 
ing, navigation,  cattle-raising,  dairying,  and  lumbering. 
Agriculture  is  mainly  confined  to  Southern  Xorway,  and  is 
making  rapid  progress,  but  breadstulTs  are  still  imported: 


226 


XORWAY 


the  important  products  are  potatoes,  oats,  barley,  and  rve. 
Fishing  is  carried  on  very  extensively,  engaging  about  130,- 
000  men,  the  annual  proceeds  (including  the  whale  and  seal 
fisheries)  being  about  24,000.000  kroner.  The  most  impor- 
tant fisheries  are  along  the  Lofoten  islands.  Norway's  ship- 
ping (80  per  cent,  of  which  is  in  the  foreign  carrying  trade) 
is  surpassed  in  tonnage  only  by  Great  Britain,  the  U.  S., 
and  France.  In  1800  there  were  engaged  7,432  vessels,  of 
1,703.699  tons  burden,  with  .58,205  sailors,  the  gross  receipts 
of  which  were  121,824,000  kroner.  In  recent  years  there  has 
been  great  progress  in  manufacturing,  in  which  the  enormous 
water-power  furnished  by  the  numerous  streams  and  water- 
falls has  begun  to  be  utilized. 

Education. — Compulsory  education  obtains  from  the  ages 
of  eight  to  fifteen.  Illiteraev  does  not  exceed  2  per  cent. 
In  1888  there  were  6,282  schools  with  3,845  teachers  in  the 
country  districts,  and  in  cities  and  towns  143  schools  with 
1,121  teachers.  There  are  six  seminaries  for  the  education 
of  teachers.  Higher  education  is  promoted  by  high  schools. 
Latin  schools,  various  private  and  technical  schools,  and 
the  university  at  Christiania  (founded  1811),  with  about 
50  professors  and  (1892)  1,366  students.  The  state  religion 
is  Lutheran,  but  till  other  creeds  are  tolerated. 

Governmeni. — According  to  its  constitution  Xorway  is  a 
free  and  independent  kingdom,  united  with  Sweden.  The 
two  countries  have  a  king  and  the  foreign  service  in  com- 
mon :  in  all  other  respects  they  are  independent  of  each 
other,  each  having  its  own  parliament,  ministry,  army,  etc. 
The  cabinet  consists  of  two  ministers  of  state  and  not 
less  than  seven  councilors  of  state,  of  which  one  minister 
and  two  councilors  are  stationed  at  the  Swedish  capital 
in  attendance  upon  the  king.  Since  1884  the  cabinet  of- 
ficers have  had  seats  in  parliament.  The  legislative  branch 
of  the  Government  is  vested  in  a  Storthing  (parliament), 
which  meets  annually,  consisting  of  112  members,  chosen 
indirectly  by  a  college  of  electors.  Elections  to  the  Stor- 
thing occur  triennially.  Although  in  reality  unicameral, 
the  Storthing  elects  one-fourth  of  its  number  to  form  an 
upper  house,  the  Lagthing,  the  remaining  members  consti- 
tuting the  Odelsthing.  In  case  both  branches  fail  to  agree, 
a  two-thirds  vote  in  joint  session  is  necessary  to  pass  a 
measure.  Tlie  king  has  the  right  of  a  suspensive  veto,  but 
a  bill  passed  by  three  successive  triennial  Storthings  be- 
comes law  without  the  royal  sanction.  The  Norwegian  con- 
stitution is  the  only  one  to  which  the  Napoleonic  wars  gave 
rise  that  survived  the  succeeding  reaction.  The  jury  sys- 
tem, in  which  a  majority  can  convict,  but  availalile  only  in 
criminal  procedure,  was  introduced  in  1890.  Direct  taxa- 
tion was  introduced  in  1893.  The  state  debt  (Jan.,  1894) 
was  $33,648,912,  mostly  due  to  railway  building,  begun  in 
1854.  In  1891  there  were  about  1,000  miles  of  railway ;  the 
construction  of  500  miles  more  was  ordered  by  the  Storthing 
in  1894.  Tlie  metric  svstem  is  used,  and  the  monetary  stand- 
ard is  the  krone  (|.268),  divided  into  100  ore.  The  array, 
with  reserves,  numbers  about  30.000  men  and  900  officers ; 
the  navy  has  51  vessels  with  about  150  guns. 

Ilistori/. — Norway  has  been  inhabited  by  the  ancestors  of 
its  present  population  since  time  immemorial.  It  was  long 
supposed  that  the  aborigines  were  Lapps,  and  that  Teutonic 
tribes  settled  there  shortly  before  the  Christian  era  ;  but  ar- 
chisologists  have  shown  that  the  implements  representing 
the  stone  age  were  made  by  the  ancestors  of  the  present  in- 
habitants, and  that  the  country  has  been  continuously  oc- 
cupied by  the  same  race  ever  since.  In  line  with  this  the 
contention  has  been  made  with  considerable  force  that  the 
Baltic  country,  especially  Denmark  and  Southern  Sweden, 
was  the  cradle  of  the  Aryans,  or  at  least  that  this  was  the 
center  of  Aryan  diffusion,  and  that  here  the  blond,  blue- 
eyed,  dolichocephalic  Teutonic  race  was  developed.  The 
earliest  history  of  Norway  nmst  be  studied  in  its  archie- 
ological  remains.  The  oldest  Runic  inscriptions  date  from 
between  the  third  and  fifth  centuries  A.  D.,  but  they  are 
only  of  philological  importance.  The  historical  ]ieriod  does 
not  begin  until  the  ninlh  century.  The  traditions  of  the 
centuries  preceding  are  covered  over  with  a  numtle  of  my- 
thology. In  HT2  the  numerous  petty  kingdoms  were  united 
by  Ilarald  Fairhair  after  a  long  and  desperate  struggle. 
At  this  time  viking  expeditions  were  common,  and  it  was 
through  them  that  the  Xorsemen  became  Christians.  Har- 
ald's  son,  Haakon  the  Good,  made  a  fruitless  attempt  to  in- 
troduce Christianitv,  and  his  efforts  were  successfully  con- 
tinued by  Olaf  T'ryggveson  an<l  Olat  the  .Saint  (1030). 
From  the  time  of  Ilarald  Fairhair  until  1319,  w^ith  the  ex- 
ception of  three  short  intervals,  Xorway  was  ruled  by  kings 


of  the  Fairhair  line.  Many  of  them  were  grand  figures, 
and  their  lives  are  vividly  portrayed  in  the  sagas.  The 
most  important  of  them,  after  Harald,  are:  Olaf  Tryggve- 
son  (995-1000),  Olat  the  Saint  (1014-30),  Sverre  Sigurdson 
(1184-1202),  and  Haakon  the  Old  (1217-63).  Of  these  Sverre 
was  the  greatest.  He  was  a  soldier-statesman  of  a  high 
order.  Starting  out  witli  a  handful  of  untrained  men.  he 
gathered  an  army  with  which  he  defeated  the  reigning  king, 
and  in  the  teeth  of  the  opposition  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
and  the  nobility  he  built  up  a  democratic  kingdom.  Dur- 
ing Haakon  the  Old's  reign  Norway  was  at  the  height  of  lier 
power  as  a  state.  Foreign  potentates  sought  Haakon's 
friendship  "  in  view  of  his  power  and  experience  on  the 
seas,"  and  it  is  said  that  in  1256  the  pope  desired  his  elec- 
tion as  Emperor  of  Germany.  Haakon's  successor  was  his 
son  Magnus,  known  as  the  tawmender.  Of  the  four  exist- 
ing codes  of  law  he  compiled  one  for  the  whole  kingdom 
that  remained  in  force  400  years.  His  son  Haakon  (d.  1319) 
was  the  last  independent  Norwegian  king,  and  with  him 
the  Fairhair  kings  in  the  male  line  became  extinct.  Haakon 
was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Magnus  Smek  (the  son  of 
Duke  Erik  of  Sweden),  and  he  was  King  of  both  Norway 
and  Sweden  from  1332  to  1355,  when  Norway,  imder  Magnus 
Smek's  son,  Haakon  VI..  again  became  independent,  al- 
though only  nominally.  Aliout  this  time  (1349-50)  the  black 
death  ravaged  Norway,  reducing  the  population  one-third. 
Some  of  the  valleys  were  entirely  depopulated.  This  and 
the  devastating  wars  of  previous  periods  sajiped  the  strength 
of  the  nation,  and  that  proud  spirit  of  independence  char- 
acteristic of  the  old  Norsemen  seemed  to  have  vanished. 
Haakon  VI.  married  the  Danish  princess  Margaret.  Their 
son  Olaf  was  in  1376  elected  King  of  Denmark,  and  upon 
the  death  of  the  father,  in  1880,  he  also  became  King  of 
Norway.  Olaf  died  in  1387,  whereupon  his  mother.  Queen 
Margaret,  became  ruler  of  the  two  countries.  In  1397,  by 
the  Peace  of  Calmar,  she  effected  a  union  with  Sweden,  thus 
bringing  the  whole  Scandinavian  race  under  one  scepter. 
Sweden  revolted  in  1523,  but  Denmark  and  Norway  re- 
mained united  until  1814.  During  the  long  union  with  Den- 
mark, Norway's  interests  were  neglected  by  the  Oldenburg 
kings,  who  considered  the  country  a  province  of  Denmark ; 
but  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  dormant 
national  spirit  was  awakened.  The  condition  of  tlie  Nor- 
wegian peasantry,  due  to  their  system  of  land  tenure,  gave 
them  a  feeling  of  personal  independence,  but  the  impulse 
that  aroused  the  national  spirit  came  from  France.  The 
new  ideas  of  the  times  found  expression  in  highly  jiatriotic, 
though  bombastic,  vei'se.  and  when  the  opportunity  for  re- 
gaining their  national  liberty  presented  itself  the  people 
were  prepared.  Sweden  had  demanded  Norway  as  remu- 
neration for  participation  in  the  alliance  against  Napoleon, 
and  after  the  battle  of  Leipzig  Frederick  VI.  of  Denmark 
was  forced  (Treaty  of  Kiel,  Jan..  1814)  to  cede  Norway  to 
Sweden ;  but  the  Norwegians  refused  to  be  disposed  of  in 
this  way,  declared  their  independence  (Apr.  10,  1814),  and 
on  May  17  adopted  a  free  constitution.  A  Danish  prince. 
Christian  Frederick,  was  elected  king.  Bernadotte,  who- 
had  been  made  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden,  invaded  Norway  to 
enforce  submission,  but  met  with  indifferent  success.  Anx- 
ious to  have  peace  before  the  Council  of  Vienna  convened, 
Bernadotte  offered  an  armistice,  and  at  the  convention  of 
Moss  pledged  himself  to  accept  the  constitution  of  May  17 
in  case  Norway  would  unite  with  Sweden  under  one  king. 
As  the  Norwegian  king  had  proved  a  failure,  the  proposition 
was  accepted,  but  on  the  basis  that  Norway's  equality  in  the 
union  should  be  unconditionally  recognizeil.  The  union  was 
effected  Nov.  4,  1814,  the  conditions  of  which  are  specified 
in  an  Act  of  Union  (Rigsakt).  Since  that  time  Norway  has 
made  great  progress  industrially  and  intellectually  ;  but  she 
has  had  many  a  struggle  with  Sweden  in  defense  of  her  con- 
stitutional rights.  Especially  since  1872  party  spirit  has  run 
high  on  questions  of  national  interest,  particularly  in  rela- 
tion to  the  consular  and  diplomatic  service.  The  house  of 
Bernadotte  is  still  the  ruling  dynasty,  the  present  (1894) 
representative  of  which  is  Oscar  II. 

BiBUooRAPUv.  —  Munrli's  Drt  7iorsA-e  FolTxS  Historie 
(Christiania,  1852-63):  Sars's  I'dsigt  onr  den  norske  His- 
torie (Christiania,  1873-93)  and  Bistorixk  Indledning  til 
Griindloven  (Christiania,  1882) ;  S.  Ibsen's  Vnionen  ((Jhris- 
tiania,  1887);  Overland's  lllnstreret  Norges  Historie  (Chris- 
tiania, 1885-94);  Hansen's  ilenneskexla-gtms  JElde  (Chris- 
tiania, 1894) ;  Laing's  translation  of  T}ie  Siigas  of  tlie  Kings 
of  Norway  (2d  ed.,  edited  by  Anderson,  London,  1889) ; 
Boyesen's  The  Story  of  Norway  (New  York,  1886) ;  Keary's 


NORAVEGIAX    LANGUAGE 

The  Vikings  in  Western  Clirixlendom  (New  York.  1801)  and 
Norwaij  and  Ihe  Xunvegians  (New  York,  lsi)2) ;  IV-iika's 
Die  litrliunft  der  Arier  (Vieiiim.  188(>) :  Kemlairs  The. 
Cradle  of  the  Aryans  (Loudon,  1889).      Julius  E.  Olson. 

Norwegrian  Langruasre :  strictly  the  old  written  lanjrua-re 
in  use  in  Norwav  down  lo  the  time  of  the  Kefornialion.and 
the  [lopnlar  dialeets  that  have  sueeeeded  it.  The  literary 
langiiau'e  since  the  Reformation  is  only  Norwegian  by  virtue 
of  loeafdilTerentiation  :  in  reality  it  is  Danish, or  more  eorreot- 
Iv  Dano-Norwegian.  Genctieally,  Norweeian  proper  forms 
■with  Icelandic  the  West  Norse  division  of  the  .Scandinavian 
branch  of  tiie  Germanic  lan;;uases.  Chronologically,  its 
history  falls  into  two  main  periods.  01<1  and  New.  Althon{;h 
minor  dialectal  ditTerences  are  distinctly  traceable  even  at 
the  beiiinniiiir  of  the  Yiking  age  in  the  eighth  century.  Old 
Norwegian  tirst  appears  beside  its  otfshoot.  Old  Icelandic, 
and  the  Kast  Norse  dialects.  Old  .Swedish  and  Old  Danish, 
as  a  separate  dialect  of  Old  Norse  after  the  introduction  of 
Christianitv  at  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  ceidurv.  Con- 
sidered |)rincipally  with  reference  to  Icelandic,  which.  ()n 
account  of  its  literature,  is  the  far  more  important.  Old  Nor- 
wegian has  had  three  periods  of  development.  Of  these  the 
first  extended  from  the  year  1000  to  1200,  down  to  which 
time  there  is  but  little  dilTerence  in  the  forms  of  Iceland 
and  Norway.  In  the  second  period,  from  1200  to  1350,  eor- 
responding"to  the  Classical  period  of  Icelandic,  the  language 
becomes,  however,  ditferentiated  in  important  points.  (See 
IcELANDif  Laxuuaoe.)  In  the  third  period,  1350  to  1530,  or 
down  to  the  Reformation,  there  were  not  only  numerous  pho- 
netic changes  within  the  language,  but,  more  important  still, 
there  was  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  as  the  result  of  political  con- 
ditions, the  influence  first  of  .Swedisliaml  then  of  Danish.  At 
the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  Daiush  influence  became 
paramount.  In  the  following  century  Norwegian  was  rap- 
idly displaced  by  Danish  in  its  last"  use  in  documentary 
writings,  and  at'the  time  of  the  Reformation  as  a  written 
language  it  had  wholly  disappeared.  As  a  spoken  language 
Norwegian  still  continues  to  exist  in  numerous  popular  dia- 
lects. Even  in  the  oldest  period  a  tendency  tf>ward  dialectal 
division  is  noticeable,  and  doubtless  this  co'ndition  was  after- 
ward increased  by  the  loss  of  the  language  from  literature. 
A  movenuint,  headed  by  Ivar  Aasen  in  1848,  has  been  made 
to  rehabilitate  popular  Norwegian  in  a  normalized  form  as 
the  national  language,  but  tlms  far  without  important  re- 
sult. The  malerialfor  the  history  of  Norwegian  is  con- 
tained in  part  in  Runic  inscriptions,  whii'h  are,  however, 
with  few  e.Kceptions.  subsequent  to  the  first  MSS.  The  old- 
est extant  MSS.  date  from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 
The  arunent  literature  specifically  Norwegian  is  neither  large 
nor  important. 

The  present  linguistic  condition  of  Norway  owes  its  origin 
to  the  political  connection  with  Denmark  which  followed 
the  Calmar  Union  of  1397.  Danish  after  this  time  not  only 
quickly  superseded  native  Norwegian  as  a  written  language, 
as  has  alri'ady  been  noticed,  but  presently  became,  besides, 
the  oflicial  medium  and  the  recognized  language  of  culture, 
a  condition  that  was  still  more  deeply  rooted  by  the  advent 
of  the  Reformation  by  way  of  Dennuirk  and  the  Danish 
translation  of  the  Bible.  The  supremacy  of  the  Danish 
language  continues  to-day  with  the  difference  that  a  Dano- 
Norwcgian  form  has  beeii  developed  that  shows  characteris- 
tic difTerentiatiuns  from  the  Danisli  of  Dennuirk,  Vioth  in 
vocabulary,  whi<ti  has  incorporated  from  the  dialects  Nor- 
wegian words  and  idioms,  and  in  the  phonology  of  the 
spoken  speech.  It  is,  nevertheless,  in  all  respects  funda- 
mentally Danish,  and  has  followed,  since  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, Danish  lines  of  developmeid. 

liiiii.iooRAPHY. — Noreen,  Altiildndische  und  Altnorwea- 
i«che  (frammatik  (Halle,  1884):  Sargent,  Grammar  of_  the 
Dand-Nonivgian  iMnguage  (Oxford,  IH02);  Aasen,  Koruk 
Orammatik {('hiisVum'ia,.  18()4:  agranunarot  the  Norwegian 
popular  dialects  written  in  Danish),  ami  Norsk  Ordbog  med 
dansk  Furklarint/  (Christiania.  1873:  a  dictioiuiry  of  Nor- 
wegian forms  with  Danish  definitions.  Most  Danish  dic- 
tionaries have  appended  a  list  of  words  specifically  Nor- 
wegian). An  exhaustive  scientific  treatment  of  the  lan- 
guage by  Noreen  is  containi'd  in  Paul's  (inindriss  der 
germanischen  Philologie,  vol.  i.  (Strassburg.  1891). 

William  II.  Carpenter. 

Norwearian  Literatnro :  the  written  or  printed  expres- 
sion of  the  thought  ..f  I  hi'  people  of  Norway.  It  may  with 
rea-son  be  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  the  early  Runic  in- 
scriptions, dating  back  as  far  as  the  sixth  century  a.  d.  ; 


NORWEGIAN   LITERATURE 


227 


but  a  literature  proper  di<l  not  arise  until  with  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity  (about  1000  A.  D.)  there  came  the 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  alphabet  and  a  more  suitable  writ- 
ing material  than  wooden  sticks  or  stone  slabs.  Norwegian 
literature  in  its  earliest  period  is  related  to  that  of  Iceland 
(see  IcELAXOic  Litekaturk),  but  is  of  less  extent  and  less 
importance.  Scaldic  poetry  was  cultivated  in  Norway  be- 
fore Ihe  Icelandic  scalds  obtained  a  mono^ioly  of  praising 
the  Norwegian  kings  in  their  "dniiias."  Eyvind  Finnsson 
(called  Scidda.ipiUir.  the  "spoiler  of  the  scalds,"  because  no 
other 'scald  could  stand  comparison  with  liim)  has  in  his 
llukonarmdl  given  a  vivid  and  ijoetic  expression  to  his 
grief  at  the  death  of  King  Haakon  the  Good.  Of  the 
poems  of  the  Elder  Edda  (see  Icelandic  Literature) 
at  least  one,  and  one  of  the  most  important  of  them  all, 
the  lldvii'indl,  bears  intrinsic  evidence  of  having  been 
produced  in  Norway.  The  saga-writing,  on  the  other  hand, 
always  remained  a'  truly  Icidandic  art.  ami  the  thorough 
knowledge  we  possess  of"  Norwegian  history  in  the  Jliddle 
Ages  is  due  to  Icelandic  historians;  so  even  when  the  Nor- 
wegian kings  wanted  their  history  written  to  order  they 
applied  to  Icelanders.  Of  Norwegian  historic  writers  we 
nuiy  mention  Theodoricus  Monachus,  whose  llistoria  de 
Antiqiiitdle  Rerum  Xorragii'nxium  was  written  in  Latin 
alxnit  1175.  and  the  unknown  writer  of  the  lliatoria  Nor- 
veqia,  written  also  in  Latin  about  1 180  a.  d.  Of  the  histor- 
ical sagas  written  in  the  Old  Norse  language  hardly  any 
can  with  certainty  be  attributed  to  Norwegian  authors. 
The  chief  exponents  of  Norwegian  prose  literature  in  the 
Jliddle  Ages,  then,  are  the  laws,  Froslapingslog,  Oiilapings- 
log,  Jijarkei/jar  Rettr.  Hirskrd,  etc.,  all  published  in  Norges 
(ramie  Love  (The  Old  Laws  of  Norway,  5  vols.,  Christiania, 
1845-92) ;  furthermore,  translations  of  homilies,  saints' 
lives,  and  romantic  sagas.  The  Kontings  Skuggajd,  or  Spe- 
culum Regale,  deserves  particular  attention.  The  anony- 
mous author  of  this  "  King's  Mirror  "  describes  himself  as  a  . 
Norwegian,  living  in  the  far  nortlu^rn  part  of  the  country, 
Ilalogaland.  In  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  father  and 
son,  the  book  gives  us  a  description  of  court  customs  and 
court  morals  as  they  ought  to  lie.  The  author  makes  sev- 
eral interesting  digressions  on  tlic  physical  history  of  Ire- 
land, Iceland,  Greenland,  on  whales,  seals,  etc.  A  little 
piece  worth  mentioning  is  the  plea  of  King  Sverri  against 
the  pope  and  clergy,  who  sided  against  him  in  the  civil  war, 
first  edited  by  Wer'lauff  under  the  title  Anecdoton  Sverreri, 
lately  by  G.  Storm,  of  Christiania,  under  the  title  En  Tale 
mod  Biskoperne. 

When  Norway  through  the  Calmar  L'nion  (1397)  became 
united  with  Denmark  the  Norwegian  language  lost  its  pres- 
tige, and  was  gradually  supplanted  among  the  higher  classes 
and  in  the  cities  by  the  Danish  language,  while  the  Nor- 
wegian language  continued  to  live  on  the  tongues  of  the 
country  people.  It  was  this  same  country  people  who,  when 
the  Norwegian  literature  fell  into  decay,  harbored  a  treasure 
of  national  traditions  embracing  the  popular  ballads  and 
tales  which  in  recent  times  have  been  made  an  object  of 
study,  and  served  to  strengthen  national  sentiments  and  in- 
spire a  national  literature. 

During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  as  well  as 
immediately  after  the  Reformation,  there  was  little  literaiy 
activity  in  Norway,  as  was  also  the  case  in  Denmark.  Ab- 
salon  Pederson,  a  "chaplain  of  Bergen,  alioul  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  wrote  Bergens  Kapilelsbog  and  a 
Norges Beskrivelse  (Description  of  Norway),  where  he  shows 
himself  to  be  inspired  by  a  high  patriotic  feeling.  Another 
ecclesiastic,  Peder  Claussun  Friis  (1545-1614),  rector  of  the 
parish  of  Undal,  besides  writing  abiuit  the  natural  history, 
topograjihy,  and  history  of  Norway  {Om  Diur,  FJske,  Fugle 
0(1  Tra-er  iidj  Norriqe.  Kvrriges  og  omiiggende  0ers  Beskri- 
vefse.nud  Korl  Ertrart  af  Norriges  KrHuike).  made  a  very 
good  translation  of  Snorri  Sturluson's  JJres  of  the  i\oc- 
wegiau  Kini/s  (see  Icelandic  Literati-he)  and  of  the  old 
Norwegian  law.  Particularly  the  former  of  these  two  trans- 
lations served  to  arouse  the  national  spirit,  and  thus  pave 
the  way  for  a  subsequent  national  devclopnuMit. 

In  tlie  eighteenth  century  Norway  contributes  to  the  com- 
mon "  Danish-Norwegian  literature"  two  of  its  most  prom- 
inent names,  Ilolbergand  Wessel,who  were  both  born  in  Nor- 
way, and  spent  their  childhood  and  early  youth  I  here.  Ilolbcrg 
(sec  HoLiu'.R(!,  LuDvio,  and  Danish  Literature),  although 
he  has  been  called  the  father  of  Danish  literature,  bears  in 
many  instances  witness  of  his  Norwegian  origin,  and  Jolinn 
Herman  Wessel  (1742-85),  whose  Kjo'rliqhed  ndrn  Strampcr 
(Love  without  Stockings),  a  travesty  of  the  then  usual  high- 


228 


NORWEGIAN  lilTERATURE 


sounding  tragedies  in  the  Freneli  iniinner,  is  still  an  attrac- 
tion on  the  Danish  and  Norwegian  stage,  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  the  chief  figure  of  Det  Norske  Selskab,  a  kind 
of  Norwegian  club  in  Copenhagen,  where  Norwegian  stu- 
dents and  literati  met  and  discussed  the  questions  of  the 
day,  made  verses,  and  cultivated  patriotism.  Among  the 
lesser  lights  of  the  Selskab  may  be  mentioned  Johan  Nordal 
Brun  (afterward  bishop  in  Bergen,  and  author  of  two  patri- 
otic songs  that  are  sung  by  every  Norwegian),  Clans  Fast- 
ing, the  two  brothers  Friman.  Edvard  Storm,  who  kept 
aloof  from  the  society,  wrote  some  fine  romances  in  the 
Gudbrandsdal  dialect,  and  his  Shiclairs  Vise,  celebrating 
the  destruction  of  the  troops  of  the  Scotch  Col.  Sinclair  by 
Norwegian  peasants,  is  still  very  popular.  Another  Nor- 
wegian poet  of  great  local  prestige  was  Fetter  Dass,  rector 
of  Alstahang  parish,  in  Northern  Norway  (d.  1708).  His 
Nordlands  Troin.pet,  although  written  in  the  Danish  lan- 
guage, interspersed  with  many  dialect  words,  is  still  to  be 
found  in  every  home  in  that  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  widely  read  books  in  Norway. 

The  last  century  of  the  union  with  Denmark  had  wit- 
nessed a  gradual  development  of  national  spirit  in  Norway ; 
so  when  the  dissolution  of  the  union  with  Deuuuirk  came 
in  1814  the  Norwegians  felt  themselves,  as  a  nation,  ready  to 
take  tlioir  fate  into  tlieir  own  hands;  but  the  first  decenniums 
after  the  separation  were  not  particularly  well  adapted  for 
the  development  and  growth  of  a  national  literature.  The 
nation  was  still  too  much  engaged  in  building  up  its  polit- 
ical fortunes  and  restoring  its  financial  and  economic  re- 
sources. Naturally  the  first  products  of  Norwegian  litera- 
ture after  the  war  were  natioiuil  sohgs  that  were  direct  ex- 
pressions of  joy  and  pride  at  the  new-born  liberty,  high 
sounding  and  bombastic  in  phraseology.  Among  the  poets 
of  this  period  we  may  mention  Simon  Olaus  Wolff  (d.  ISHQ) 
and  Henrik  Anker  BJerregaard  (d.  1842),  both  authors  of 
national  songs.  The  last  mentioned  also  wrote  a  national 
drama,  FJeUleventyret,  in  which  two  of  the  characters  are 
representatives  of  certain  national  types.  Mauritz  Chi'is- 
toffer  Hansen  (d.  1842)  was  a  novelist  of  some  note ;  in  his 
earlier  rather  fantastic  productions  he  was  influenced  tiy  the 
German  and  Danish  romanticists,  but  some  of  his  later  nov- 
els, describing  everyday  life,  have  merit. 

A  great  step  in  the  direction  of  a  national  Norwegian 
literature  was  made  by  the  poets  of  the  following  genera- 
tion, chief  among  which  stand  Henrik  Arnold  VVergeland 
(1808-4.5)  and  Johan  Sebastian  Cannncrmeyer  Welliaven 
(1807-73).  Wergeland's  father  was  a  Lutheran  minister 
and  member  of  the  constitutional  convention  at  Eidsvold  in 
1814.  who  was  distinguished  by  his  intense  Norwegian  pa- 
triotism and  his  hatred  toward  Denmark,  to  which  feeling 
he  gave  vent  in  a  book  entitled  Danmarks  poUtiske.  Forhry- 
delser  iinod  Nurge  (Denmark's  Political  Crimes  against  Nor- 
way). Tliis  patriotism  was  to  the  full  extent  inherited  by 
his  son  Henrik,  with  whom  it  took  a  distinctly  practical 
turn;  he  was  very  active  in  the  advancement  of  the  com- 
mon people,  writing;  popular  essays,  establishing  parish 
libraries,  and  editing  a  newspaper.  For  Arbeidnklansen  (For 
the  Working  Class),  where  by  means  of  short  stories  and 
treatises  he  exhorted  the  common  people  to  thrift,  clean- 
liness, industry,  and  patriotism,  showing  himself  to  lie  in- 
fluenced in  this  work  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  Wergeland 
was  also  to  a  certain  extent  cosmopolitan  in  his  tastes  and 
studies,  a  pupil  of  Voltaire  and  the  other  eighteenth  cen- 
tury philosophers.  He  was,  as  a  i)oet,  very  productive,  one 
of  his  first  works  being  the  unwieldy  poem  Skahflsen, 
Ilennesket  og  Messias  (The  Creation,  Man,  and  Jlessias)  in 
three  volumes,  afterward  rewritten  by  the  autlior  on  his 
deathbed,  in  one  volume,  Ilennesket.  Among  the  most 
beautiful  of  his  poems  are  Jsden  (The  Jew),  Jedinden  (The 
Jewess),  ]ioetical  pleas  for  the  admission  of  the  Jews  into 
Norway,  whence  up  to  that  time  they  were  excluded  by 
law ;  Den  eiigelske  Lods  (The  English  Pilot) ;  Norges  Stor- 
thing; Til  min  Qyldenlak;  Jan  van  Ihiyntims  Blomstoer- 
stykke.  Some  of  his  stories  and  poems  for  children  are  also 
excellent.  Wergeland's  excess  of  patriotism  and  his  demo- 
cratic tendencies  made  him  distasteful  to  the  "intelligent" 
party,  which  was  headed  by  liis  great  antagonist  Welhaven, 
who  in  his  cycle  of  poems  Norges  Dcemring  (The  Dawn  of 
Norway,  1834)  treated  this  excessive  Norwegiauism  with 
such  severe  irony  that  he  was  considered  by  many  as  a 
traitor  to  his  native  country.  In  opposition  to  Wergeland 
he  advocated  the  connection  of  Norwegian  literature  and 
civilization  with  Danish  intellectual  life.  Welhaven  is,  in 
contradistinction  to  Wergeland,  characterized  by  a  great 


critical  ability  (even  exercised  against  himself).  He  has 
not  written  much ;  mostly  romances,  ballads,  and  other 
poems,  all  of  exquisite  poetical  form  and  beauty,  showing 
the  influence  of  Goethe  and  the  romanticists.  In  some  of  his 
poems  Welhaven  gives  fine  pictures  of  the  natural  scenery 
of  Norway,  as  in  Bergens  Stift,  and  after  Asbjarnsen  and 
Moe  had  published  their  popular  and  fairy  tales  he  took  up 
national  subjects  in  his  romances  (Aasgaardsreien,  Dyre  fra 
Yaa,  Eivind  Boldt.  etc.) ;  so  the  animosity  that  a  large 
part  of  the  people  had  borne  against  him  gradually  sub- 
sided, and  when  in  1867  he  retired  from  his  chair  as  profes- 
sor of  literature,  Bj^rnson,  who  may  be  said  to  be  a  pupil 
and  successor  of  Wergeland.  wrote  one  of  his  most  beautiful 
poems  in  his  honor,  while  the  same  Bjarnson  in  1881  made 
the  speech  at  the  unveiling  of  the  Henrik  Wergeland  monu- 
ment in  Christiania.  Thus  later  times  have  acknowledged 
that  these  great  antagonists,  Wergeland  and  Welhaven,  were 
equally  important  and  necessary  factors  in  the  development 
of  a  N(.irvvegian  literature.  Younger  but  less  gifted  con- 
temporaries and  partisans  of  Welhaven  were  P.  A.  Munch, 
the  poet  and  dramatist  (see  Munch,  Peter  Andreas),  and 
P.  A.  Jensen  (d.  1867).  Also  Camilla  Collett  (b.  1813).  a 
sister  of  Henrick  Wergeland,  was  more  closely  allied  to  Wel- 
haven's  school  than  to  her  brother.  Her  chief  work,  the  so- 
ciety no^el  Amtmandens  Dotre  (1857),  where  she  raises  the 
cry  against  the  social  oppression  of  woman,  makes  her  a 
pioneer  in  the  movement  for  the  emancipation  of  woman, 
and  also  to  a  certain  extent  makes  her  a  forerunner  of  the 
society  novels  of  a  recent  day  as  represented  by  Lie  and 
others. 

We  have  seen  how  Welhaven's  national  romances  were  in- 
fluenced by  Asbjarnsen's  and  Moe's  popidar  fairy  tales. 
These  two  men  were  the  earliest  and  most  important  repre- 
sentatives of  the  movement,  started  in  tlie  beginning  of  the 
forties,  to  study  the  national  treasures  of  poetry,  music,  and 
language  which  for  centuries  liad  been  neglected.  As  part 
of  this  movement  must  be  considered  M.  B.  Landstad's  work 
in  collecting  and  publishing  national  ballads,  a  work  that 
was  continued  by  the  learned  Sophus  Bugge ;  at  the  same 
time  Aasen  (see  Aasen,  Ivab  Andreas)  wrote  his  grammar 
and  dictionary  of  the  Norwegian  popular  language,  Lindc- 
mann  collected  national  airs,  while  Eilert  Sundt  made  the 
Norwegian  gypsies  and  the  condition  of  the  woi'king  people 
the  subjects  of  his  jiarticular  study.  At  the  same  time  the 
historical  studies  of  Rudolph  Keyser  and  P.  A.  Munch 
awakened  or  deepened  the  interest  in  the  early  history  of 
the  nation.  This  is  a  period  of  national  romanticism: 
Tidemand  and  Gude  made  national  scenery  and  home  life  a 
subject  of  their  paintings ;  Kjerulf  and  Ole  Bull  produced 
a  series  of  national  eom|iositions.  The  chief  literary  figure 
is  still  Welhaven,  with  P.  A.  Slunch  and  some  lesser  lights 
(like  H.  H.  Schuize,  Nicolai  0stgaard,  Bernhard  Herre,  and 
llarald  Meltzer)  grouped  around  him. 

In  the  year  1857  Bjernson's  novel  (SyntiHiv  Solbakken) 
appeared,  opening  a  new  era  in  Norwegian  literature,  the 
period  of  Bjernson  and  Ibseu.  Both  these  authors  at  first 
allied  themselves  with  the  romantic  school  of  writers.  Bjern- 
son  (see  Bj0KNSON,  Bjbrnstjerne)  in  his  novels  treated  sub- 
jects borrowed  from  the  peasant  life,  of  which  he  gives  a 
characteristic,  even  if  somewhat  idealized,  description,  while 
he  devoted  his  earlier  dramas  to  historical  subjects,  and  Ib- 
sen's (see  Ibsen,  Henrik)  earlier  productions  are  all  of  an 
historical  nature.  Since  about  1870  both  these  authors,  in 
their  dramas  and  novels,  have  turned  to  reiiroducing  Nor- 
wegian city  and  home  life  in  a  realistic  manner,  and  their 
pictures  of  Norwegian  social  life  have  made  them  famous 
the  world  over.  Around  these  two  giants,  as  it  were,  of 
Norwegian  literature  are  grouped  other  authors  also  of  great 
talent,  such  as  Jonas  Lie,  Alexander  Kielland,  Kristoffer 
Janson,  and  Arne  Garborg.  Janson  and  (iarborg  have 
partly  been  writing  in  the  common  literary  language  of 
the  country,  the  Dano-Norwegian  language,  partly  in  the 
so-called  Landsmaal,  in  which  also  Aasmund  Olafsson  Vinje 
wrote  his  poems.  Of  late  years  there  has  grown  up  in  Nor- 
way a  school  of  writers  whose  efforts  have  been  directed 
toward  naturalistic  description  and  the  study  of  individual 
psychology.  These  writers  do  not  care  about  [ilots,  but  for 
minute  psychological  characterization.  The  above-men- 
tioned Arne  Garborg  partly  belongs  to  this  school,  although 
he  does  not  participate  in  its  vagaries,  such  as  those  indulged 
in  by  men  like  Hans  Ja-ger  in  his  Kristiania  Bohemen  (1885), 
a  book  that  was  confiscated  by  the  police,  its  author  being 
sentenced  to  prison.  Another  author  belonging  to  this 
school  is  Kuut  Hamsun,  whose  name  suddenly  gained  a  cer- 


NORWICH 


NOSOLOGY 


229 


tain  notoriety  by  his  book  upon  the  intellectual  life  of 
modern  America'  (Fra  del  Muderne  Amerikas  Aandsliv), 
ami  whose  novels.  Suit  (Starving).  Jlysterier,  A'y  Jord  (Xew 
Earth)  show  a  marked  resemblance  to  the  style  of  Dostojev- 
ski  and  other  Russians.  Gunnar  Ileiberg  has  with  his 
dramas  (Konij  Jlidas,  Bidkonen,  Kunshiere)  also  gained  a 
certain  fame  outside  of  Scandinavia,  and  Vilhelm  Krag  has 
shown  himself  to  be  a  poet  of  considerable  force. 

BiBLiooRAPHV. — F.  W.  Horn.  History  uf  tlie  Literature 
of  the  Scandinavian  Sorth,  translated  by  R.  B.  Anderson 
(Chicago,  1884) ;  Chr.  Broch  and  M.  Seip.  Xorsk  og-  Dannk 
Literaturhintorie  (Christiania,  1K90);  lleiirik  Ja?ger, ///«.?- 
tri-ret  Norsk  Literaturhistorie  (Christiania.  1892  tl.);  J.  E. 
Kraft  and  Chr.  Lange,  Numk  Forfatterlej-ikon.  1S14-5G.  A 
valuable  source  of  information  is  the  yet  unfinished  work 
bv  .1.  B.  Halvorsen,  Norsk  Forfatterlexikon,  18U-80  (Chris- 
tiania. 1881  /.).  P.  Groth. 

Nonvit'h.  norrij :  capital  of  the  county  of  Norfolk,  Eng- 
land :  on  the  Weiisum,  immediately  above  its  confluence 
with  the  Yare:  114  miles  X.  X.  E.  of  London  (see  map  of 
England,  ref.  9-L).  It  is  a  large,  old.  and  prosjjerous  town, 
covering  the  slopes  of  a  hill  wliicli  rises  gradually  from  the 
river.  It  is  irregularly  built,  but  full  of  specimens  of  early 
architecture.  The  cathedral  was  founded  m  1096  by  Bishop 
Herbert  de  Lozinga.  It  still  retains  its  original  Xorman 
plan  to  a  great  extent,  but  the  spire  (fourteenth  century), 
lU.')  feet  in  height,  is  mixed  Decorated  and  Perpendicular, 
while  the  cloisters  (1297-1480)  are  mainly  Decorated  in  style ; 
and  there  are  remaining  two  fine  arches  of  the  Early  Eng- 
lish Lady  chapel  (demolished  about  1580).  The  total  length 
is  407  feet,  the  length  of  tlie  nave  204  feet,  and  the  length 
of  the  transepts  178  feet.  The  castle,  situated  at  the  highest 
point  of  the  city,  originally  extended  as  far  as  the  fine  mar- 
ket-place, but  tiie  keep  is  now  the  only  part  remaining.  It 
was  long  used  as  a  prison,  but  is  now  a  museum  well  known 
for  its  collection  of  raptorial  birds.  The  Grammar  School,  a 
Decorated  building  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century, 
was  formerly  a  chapel.  .St.  Andrew's  Hall,  in  which  since 
1824  the  triennial  musical  festivals  have  been  held,  is  the 
nave  of  the  Black  Friars'  church,  rebuilt  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  It  is  a  fine  example  of  Perpendicular  work. 
Among  forty-four  churches,  mostly  dating  from  the  fif- 
teenth century,  St.  Peter  JIancroft  is  perhaps  the  finest 
parish  church  in  England.  It  has  an  ornamented  tower 
with  a  peal  of  twelve  bells.  There  arc  manufactures  of 
worsted,  silk,  and  cotton  fabrics,  especially  craiies:  also  of 
mustard,  starch,  ornamental  ironware,  and  shoes,  while 
breweries  and  nursery-gardens  in  the  outskirts  of  the  town 
give  employment  to  many. 

Xorwich  was  the  Caer  Owent  of  the  Britons,  and  the  Venfn 
Icemiruin  of  the  Romans.  The  name  Nord  Vie  (Xorth 
town)  probably  has  reference  to  the  large  Roman  camp  of 
Caister,  3  miles  to  the  S.  It  was  often  plundered  by  the 
Danes,  and  in  1216  it  was  sacked  by  the  French  dauphin 
Louis.  In  18:16  several  thousand  Flemish  weavers  settled 
at  Xorwicli,  and  during  tlie  latter  part  of  th(!  sixteenth  cen- 
tury there  was  a  large  influx  of  Dutch  and  Walloon  refu- 
gees, who  did  nuieh  to  foster  manufactures.  In  1602  nearly 
half  of  th(^  inhabitants  died  of  the  plague.  Norwich  has 
been  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  since  1096,  and  is  a  municipal 
and  parliamentarv  borough,  the  last  returning  two  members 
to  Parliament.     Pop.  (1893)  104.184. 

Norwich  :  city  (site  purchased  from  the  Indians  in  10o9, 
settled  in  1660,  received  city  charter  in  1784,  present  charter 
granted  in  1871);  one  of  tlic  ca|)itals  of  Xew  London  co., 
Conn,  (for  location  of  county,  sec  map  of  Connecticut,  ref. 
10-K) ;  on  the  Tluunes  river,  and  the  Cent.  Vt.  and  the  X.  Y. 
and  X.  E.  railways;  16  miles  X.  of  Long  Island  Sound,  35 
miles  S.  E.  of  Hartford.  It  is  in  a  valley  surrounded  by 
hills,  has  excellent  water-power,  and  is  noted  for  its  manu- 
factures. It  contains  a  free  academy  with  a  normal  train- 
ing de[)artment,  an  art  school,  ami  kindergarten ;  public- 
school  (jroperty  valued  at  nearly  $200,000;  two  libraries 
(Otis,  founded  1848,  and  Xorwich  Circulating,  founded 
1871)  cimtaining  over  23,000  volumes  :  27  churches  ;  10  pub- 
lic halls  ;  .")  national  banks  with  combined  cajiital  of  $2,000.- 
000.3  savings-banks  willi  surplus  of  over  s.500.000,  and  a 
loan  and  trust  company  with  capital  o[  $100,000;  an  art 
museum;  a  free  public  hospital;  5  public  squares;  and  2 
daily,  2  weekly,  and  2  monthly  periodicals.  There  are  gas 
and  electric  light  plants,  electric  street-railway,  thorough 
sewerage  system,  and  improved  system  of  water-works. 
Prior  III  1S12  the  citv  had  large  commercial  interests;  since 


then  it  has  developed  rapidly  as  a  manufacturing  center. 
Its  principal  manufactures  are  cotton,  silk,  and  woolen 
goods,  paper,  firearms,  wood-working  and  other  machinery, 
[irinting-presses,  envelope  printing-presses,  rolling-mill  and 
foundry  products,  stoves  and  furnaces,  leather-belting,  ro[)e, 
harness.  Iiosierv,  nickel  goods,  files,  and  corks.  Pop.  (1880) 
15,112 ;  (18!W)  16.156.  Editor  of  "  Buli.eti.v." 

Xorwicli  :  village ;  cajiita!  of  Chenango  co..  X.  Y.  (for  lo- 
cation of  county,  see  map  of  X'ew  York,  ref.  5-11);  on  the 
Chenango  river,  and  the  Del.,  Lack,  and  \V.  and  the  X.  Y., 
Out.  and  W.  railways;  40  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Binghamton, 
90  miles  W.  of  Albany.  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  dairying, 
and  hop-growing  region;  contains  2  libraries  (Academy and 
L'nion  School,  founded  1850,  and  the  Xorwich  Circulating, 
founded  1875),  2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
$225,000,  and  a  daily,  a  semi-weekly,  and  a  weekly  news- 
paper ;  and  has  several  creameries,  blast  furnace,  foundry, 
shops  of  the  N.  Y.,  Ont.  and  \V.  Railway,  brewery,  and 
manufactories  of  pharmaceutical  preparations,  silk  goods, 
hammers,  chaire,  and  sash,  doore,  and  blinds.  Pop.  (1880) 
township,  5,756 ;  (1890)  vill.-ge,  ,5,212. 

Editor  of  "Chexanoo  Telegraph." 

Norwood's  Tincture  :  an  alcoholic  preparation  of  Amer- 
ican hellebore  ( Veratrum  viride),  which  is  supposed  to  be 
saturated. 

Nosebleed :  See  Epistaxis. 

Nosol'ogy  [Gr.  v6<Tos,  sickness,  disease  +  \6yos,  discourse, 
reason]  :  the  doctrine  or  science  of  diseases,  more  especially 
as  regards  theirclassification  and  nomenclature.  The  classi- 
fication of  diseases  may  be  based  upon  theories  as  to  meth- 
ods of  causation,  upon  the  symptoms  produced,  upon  the 
parts  affected,  or  upon  the  final  results  observed.  So  com- 
plete and  satisfactory  classification  of  all  forms  of  disease 
can  be  made  with  the  present  knowledge  upon  any  single 
one  of  these  plans,  for  of  some  diseases  we  do  not  know  the 
cause ;  most  symptoms  may  belong  to  several  different  dis- 
eases; the  same  disease  may  affect  very  different  localities, 
and  the  final  pathological  results  are  often  very  obscure  un- 
less 8,  post-mortem  examination  has  been  obtained,  and  they 
may  even  then  be  doubtful.  It  is  impossible  to  devise  a 
single  nosological  scheme  of  classification  which  will  be  well 
adapted  to  all  the  different  purposes  for  which  such  schemes 
are  needed — that  which  will  best  meet  the  wants  of  the  vital 
statistician  or  health  oflicer  will  not  suit  the  pathological 
anatomist.  A  very  important  part  of  a  nosological  scheme 
is  the  nomenclature  of  the  individual  forms  of  disease  or  of 
lesions  which  are  to  be  classified.  It  is  essential  that  differ- 
ent men,  in  different  countries,  and  at  different  periods,  shall 
know  what  is  meant  by  the  name  of  a  disease,  such  as  small- 
pox, pneumonia,  diarrhcea,  Graves's  disease,  or  amyotroi)hie 
lateral  sclerosis. 

With  increase  of  knowledge,  the  use  of  new  means  of 
diagnosis  and  of  instruments  of  precision,  and  of  more  mi- 
nute examination  of  diseased  tissues,  comes  the  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  disorders  of  function  or  of  structure,  formerly 
classed  together  under  a  single  name,  may  differ  so  greatly 
as  to  cause  and  result  as  to  make  it  necessary  to  give  them 
different  names.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  differences 
between  tyjihus  and  typhoid  fever  were  unknown,  and 
hence  it  is  impossible  to  compare  the  statistics  of  that 
period  with  those  of  the  present  day  to  ascertain  the  relative 
prevalence  or  fatality  of  these  two  very  distinct  diseases.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  a  disease  is  not  a  distinct  sepa- 
rate entity,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  and  implied  in  the 
way  it  is  mentioned,  as,  for  instance,  when  cholera  is  said 
to  enter  a  house  or  ravages  a  town.  It  is  a  condition  of 
the  body,  and  for  purposes  of  nomenclature  it  is  usually 
a  groupof  conditions  more  or  less  unusual.  Sometimes  a 
name  is  devised  for  a  group  of  symptoms,  such  as  loco- 
motor ataxy,  sometimes  for  a  ])athological  lesion,  such  as 
spinal  sclerosis.  A  con.siderabic  number  of  different  groups 
of  morbid  conditions  are  known  by  the  names  of  the  per- 
sons who  first  discovered  them,  a.s.  for  example,  Addison's 
disease,  Hright's  disease,  and  such  names  for  a  time  serve 
a  good  purpose.  Jonathan  Hutchinson  prefers  to  give  the 
new  disease  the  name  of  the  patient  instead  of  the  name  of 
the  doctor. 

The  older  attempts  at  a  systematic  classification  of  dis- 
eases, including  those  of  Sauvagcs.  the  first  of  which  ap- 
peared in  1731,  of  Linn.Tus  in  1763,  of  Vogel  in  1764,  of 
Cullen  in  1772,  of  Pinel  in  1813,  and  of  Good  in  1817.  have 
long  since  passed  into  oblivion,  and  are  now  nierely  histor- 
ical curiosities.     The  svsten>  devised  by  Dr,  William  Farr 


230 


NOSOLOGY 


NOSTRILS,   DISEASES  OP 


for  use  in  tlie  statistical  reports  of  the  registrar-general  of 
England  has  heen  the  basis  of  most  of  tlie  systems  used  by 
statisticians  in  Great  Britain  and  America,  its  most  com- 
plete development  being  the  nomenclature  of  diseases  issued 
by  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  in  1884,  as  a  large  octa- 
vo volume  of  over  400  pages.  It  is  proposed  Ijy  the  college 
to  revise  this  every  ten  years,  and  the  work  of  revision  is 
now  (1894)  in  progress. 

The  schemes  of  Dr.  Farr  and  other  vital  statisticians  in- 
clude only  those  forms  of  disease  which  are  reported  as 
causes  of  death,  for  which  between  300  and  400  terms  are 
sufficient,  while  for  the  purposes  of  hospital  registration  and 
the  needs  of  pathologists  and  systematic  writers  on  the 
diagnosis  and  treatment  of  disease  a  much  more  extensive 
list  is  recjuired.  The  classification  of  these  into  groups  is  a 
necessity  due  to  the  laws  of  mental  action,  since  eacli  one 
who  studies  and  thinks  about  diseases  must  think  of  them 
in  certain  relations  to  each  other  and  to  the  environment, 
but  the  groupings  required  for  different  purposes  are  very 
different.  Tlie  nomenclature  of  the  Royal  College  of  Phy- 
sicians divided  all  diseases  into  two  great  classes,  viz.,  gen- 
eral and  local  diseases.  The  general  diseases  include  those 
which  affect  the  whole  body,  or  which  may  be  distributed  in 
several  parts  at  one  time,  and  these  are  divided  into  several 
groups.  Group  A  includes  the  diseases  dependent  on  mor- 
bid poisons,  or  the  specific  febrile  diseases,  such  as  small- 
pox, measles,  etc.  Group  B  includes  the  diseases  dependent 
on  external  agents  other  than  morbid  poisons,  such  as  para- 
sites, chemical  poisons,  effects  of  injuries,  of  climate,  of 
errors  of  diet,  etc.  Group  C  includes  the  so-called  develop- 
mental diseases,  such  as  immaturity,  malformation,  and  old 
age;  and  Group  D  includes  a  number  of  unclassified  affec- 
tions, such  as  gout,  rheumatism,  tubercle,  scrofula,  leprosy, 
cretinism,  and  diabetes.  Recent  discoveries  in  patliology 
and  bacteriology  make  very  extensive  changes  in  this  classi- 
fication necessary.  The  list  of  parasitic  diseases  must  be 
greatly  extended',  and  tins  list  can  not  form  a  homogeneous 
group.  A  nosology  which  groups  together  consumption,  Asi- 
atic cholera,  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  erysipelas,  pya;mia, 
boils,  glanders,  gonorrhoea,  pneumonia,  and  leprosy,  all  of 
wliich  are  probably  due  to  vegetable  micro-organisms,  would 
be  of  very  little  use  for  any  purpose  except  possibly  to  writers 
on  bacteriology. 

For  the  purposes  of  medical,  sanitary,  and  vital  statistics 
special  forms  of  nosological  classification  are  required,  and 
in  our  present  want  of  knowledge  certain  diseases  must  re- 
main unclassed.  It  must  be  remembered  that  one  of  the 
most  important  means  of  advancing  knowledge  on  these 
subjects  is  by  comparing  what  is  observed  now  with  what 
was  observed  in  times  past,  and  hence  the  observations  must 
be  published  in  such  a  form  that  comparison  is  possible.  If, 
for  exam|)le,  we  arc  told  that  the  number  of  deaths  from 
zymotic  diseases  in  New  York  in  IS?.!  was  1,000,  we  can  not 
compare  it  with  the  figures  at  a  later  period  to  much  pur- 
pose, because  the  so-called  zymotic  diseases — which  are 
Class  I.  in  Farr's  nosology — did  not  at  that  time  include 
some  diseases  which  would  now  be  reckoned  as  belonging  to 
it,  as  consumption,  tetanus,  and  puerperal  peritonitis. 

The  sanitarian  wants  a  nosology  based  as  far  as  possible 
upon  causes  of  disease,  yet  he  does  not  want  all  tubercular 
diseases  reported  together,  but  desires  that  the  number  of 
deaths  due  to  consHm|)tioii  shall  be  stated  apart  from  those 
due  to  tubercular  meningitis  or  to  tubercular  disease  of  the 
bones,  and  ho  does  not  want  a  nosology  which  includes 
smallpox,  typhoid  fever,  malarial  fevers,  and  lobar-pneu- 
monia  in  one  group.  For  many  purposes  the  simple  arrange- 
ment of  the  diseases  in  alphabetical  order  is  preferalile  to 
any  nosological  grouping,  yet  some  grouping  is  absolutely 
necessary  occasionally  to  save  space.  It  is  best  applied  to 
what  are  called  local  diseases,  yet  many  of  these  would  more 
properly  be  classed  as  manifestations  of  affections  of  the 
whole  system,  such  as  of  gout  or  rheumatism.  For  most 
purposes  cancer  of  the  liver  or  of  the  breast  should  be  classed 
under  cMiK'er,  yet  at  times  it  must  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion witli  diseases  of  the  liver. 

The  majority  of  the  cases  of  fatal  disease  are  more  or  less 
complicated,  and  belong  to  .several  classes.  The  old  idea 
that  diseases  can  be  divided  into  classes,  orders,  genera,  and 
species,  as  is  done  for  plants  and  animals,  is  now  entirely 
abandoni'd,  and  it  is  evident  tliat  we  must  have  not  one  no- 
sological sy.stem,  but  seveial.  adapted  to  different  purposes; 
yet  it  is  also  extremely  desirable  that  there  should  be  more 
uniformity  in  the  schemes  used  in  reports  of  deaths  than 
now  exists.  J.  S.  Billlnos. 


Nostoc  threads. 


Nostoc  [Fr. ;  cf.  Germ.  7iostocli] :  a  genus  of  AlgiB  growing 
in  fresh  water  or  in  damp  places  on  the  ground.  All  the 
species  are  composed  of 
tlireads,  consisting  of 
small  globular  cells,  be- 
tween which  are  insert- 
ed, at  intervals,  larger 
cells  called  heterocysts. 
The  threads  are  intri- 
cately wound  round  one 
another,  and  the  whole 
surrounded  by  a  mass 
of  jelly.  They  repro- 
duce asexually  by  di- 
vision of  their  cells.  Of  the  Nostocs  proper  there  are  twenty 
species  in  the  U.  8.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Nostrada'mus,  whose  true  name  was  Michel  de  Notre- 
dame:  physician  and  astrologer;  b.  Dec.  14,  1503.  at  St.- 
Remi.  in  Provence,  of  Jewish  parents;  studied  medicine  at 
Avignon  and  Montpellier,  and  settled  as  a  physician  first  at 
Agen,  in  the  present  department  of  Lot-et-Garonne,  and 
afterward  at  Salon,  near  Aix.  During  the  time  of  the  plague, 
wliicli  at  this  period  twice  visited  Southern  France,  he  ren- 
dered great  service.  His  immense  fame,  however,  was 
built  on  his  capacity  as  an  astrologer.  In  1555  he  pub- 
lished his  Propheties,  written  in  quatrains,  and  giving  in 
an  obscure  and  enigmatical  manner  prophecies  concerning 
the  coming  centuries.  Many  royal  persons — Catherine  de' 
Medici,  Henry  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  others — consulted  him 
and  loaded  liiin  with  presents ;  the  last-mentioned  even 
made  him  his  life-physician.  In  after  times  also  tlie  book 
found  students  and  admirers ;  the  latest  is  M.  E.  Bareste, 
whose  Nostrndamus  appeared  at  Paris  in  1843.  In  1781 
the  book  was  forbidden  by  the  pope,  as  it  was  found  to  con- 
lain  a  prophecy  of  the  abolition  of  the  papal  authority. 
Nostradamus  also  published  an  almanac  containing  weather 
prophecies.     D.  at  Salon,  July  3,  1566. 

Nostrils  and  their  Diseases:  The  nostrils  or  nares  are 
divided  into  the  anterior  nares,  which  can  be  seen  by  external 
inspection  of  the  openings  of  the  nose,  and  the  posterior 
nares,  to  be  seen  only  by  aid  of  small  circular  mirrors  placed 
in  the  back  of  the  throat  to,  reflect  light,  admitted  through 
the  mouth,  to  the  nasal  cavities  above.  The  most  common 
of  their  diseases  is  catarrh. 

Nasal  catarrh  is  produced  by  cold  air,  by  insufflating  dust, 
or  by  irritants.  It  is  the  beginning  of  many  cases  of  laryn- 
gitis and  Ijronchitis,  and  is  an  important  local  condition  in 
a  number  of  the  infectious  diseases,  as  in  measles  and  influ- 
enza. Simple  recent  nasal  catarrh  produces  a  watery,  alka- 
line serum.  When  more  pronounced  the  catarrhal  flow  is 
less  serous,  contains  mucous  corpuscles,  is  viscid  or  even 
tenacious,  and  is  yellowish  in  color  and  purulent.  Chronic 
catarrh  may  result  in  constriction  of  the  anterior  nares,  in 
the  development  of  outgrowths  of  the  mucous  membrane, 
or  even  polypi.  In  the  posterior  nares.  by  extension  to  the 
throat,  catarrh  may  result  in  permanent  or  obstinate  naso- 
pharyngeal catarrh.  Such  chronic  catarrh  may  give  rise 
only  to  habitual  coughing  and  hawking  of  mucus,  but  it 
often  impairs  the  hearing  by  tumefaction  at  the  aperture  of 
the  Eustachian  ducts  or  by  extension  to  the  middle  ear. 
Nasal  polypus  is  an  attached  tumor  in  the  nostrils,  origi- 
nally a  small  projecting  mass  of  granulaticms  or  enlarged 
glandular  tissue.  When  chronic  nasal  catarrh  has  resulted 
in  ulceration  and  death  of  the  cartilages  or  bcmes  of  the 
nose,  the  discharge  is  often  extremely  otrensive.  This  dis- 
ease is  known  as  ozama.  Close  examination  will  discover 
particles  of  necrosed  matter.  Oza>na  is  more  often  the  re- 
sult of  nasal  catarrh  in  strumous,  tubercular,  and  syphilitic 
l»n'sons.  Epistaxis  or  nose-bleed  is  the  result  of  local 
causes,  as  irritating  or  picking  the  nostrils;  it  is  a  fre(|uent 
occurrence  in  persons  having  disease  of  the  mitral  valve  of 
the  heart;  it  is  a  symptom  peculiar  to  typhoid  fever;  it  is 
often  due  to  excessive  exercise  and  to  excitement.  The  ca- 
tarrhal <liseases  of  the  nostrils  are  treated  by  topical  appli- 
cations, inlialations,  and  sprays.  Ozama  demands  the  in- 
sufflation or  injection  of  antiseptic  washes  or  the  surgical 
removal  of  the  dead  bone.  Polypus  is  removed  by  cutting 
or  tearing.  Nose-bleed  is  checked  liy  cold  applications  on 
the  nose,  by  plugging  the  nostril  with  lint,  or  tlie  introduc- 
tion of  styptics,  as  tannic  acid  and  iiersulphale  of  iron.  In 
extensive  lilceding  from  the  nose  the  nostrils  have  to  be 
plugged  from  behind  as  well  as  from  before. 

Revised  by  William  Pepper. 


NOTA 


NOTATION 


231 


Nota,  Albf.rto,  Baron:  writer  of  comedies;  b.  at  Turin, 
Italy,  Nov.  15,  1775.  His  fattier  hail  squaiulcred  his  for- 
tune, anJ  the  younj;  man  was  obliged  to  toil  for  a  livelihood. 
He  studied  law  at  Turin,  and  became  an  advocate  at  the  age  of 
eighteen.  Afterstrugglingalongin  his  profession  foratime, 
he  obtained  ollieial  employment, and  in  l^dl  he  was  made  sub- 
stitute for  the  proc'urator  of  the  court  at  Vercelli.  Somewhat 
later  he  became  the  secretary  and  librarian  of  the  Prince  of 
Carignano  (later  King  Charles  Albert).  He  was  accused  of 
liheralism,  however,  and  had  to  give  up  his  post.  He  re- 
moved to  Milan,  but  had  to  return  to  Turin  and  resume  his 
profession.  In  1818  he  once  more  entered  the  royal  service, 
and  was  made  undergeneral-intendant  of  the  de[)artment  of 
Nice.  Thence  he  was  transferred  to  Bobbio  (1820),  San 
Kemo  (1823).  and  finally  became  general-intendant  at  Casale 
(1833)  and  Coiii  (1840).  D.  at  Turin,  Apr.  18,  1847.  During 
all  his  life  he  wrote  comedies,  tlie  earlier  and  best  of  which 
show  that  his  chief  models  were  Moliere  and  (loldoni.  From 
the  former  he  <lerived  Ids  fondness  for  general  comic  types, 
from  the  latter  his  method  of  depicting  character.  Ilis 
defect,  however,  was  a  certain  remoteness  and  gi'tieralily  of 
manner,  markedly  in  contrast  with  the  originality  and  vis 
comica  of  the  greatest  mastei"s  of  the  comic  art.  His  first 
successful  piece  was  /  Primi  passi  al  mal  costume  (acted  in 
Turin.  1808).  This  was  followed  bv  i?  Progettista  (1800); 
II  Nuovo  Ricci)  (1800);  VOspite  francese  (1810);  /  Liii- 
ganti  (1811);  //  Filosofo  celibe  (1811);  I/Aiiimalato  per 
immnginnzione  (1813);  //  Benefaltore  e  I'Orfdim  (1814); 
La  Donna  amhiziosa  (1817);  La  Lusinghiera  (1818);  Ales- 
sina  ossia  la  costama  rora  (1822) ;  La  Fiera  (1826);  La 
Novella  Sposa  (1826) ;  Jl  Torquato  Tasso  (1826),  etc.  After 
the  la.st  date  his  comic  style  began  to  feel  the  sentimental 
influences  of  his  time,  and  suffered  greatly.  Between  1816 
and  184:3  there  were  no  less  than  twelve  editions  of  his  works, 
and  many  of  the  pieces  were  translated  into  the  chief  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  The  best  Italian  edition  is  Commedie 
di  Alberto  Nota  (8  vols.,  Turin,  1842-43).      A.  R.  Marsh. 

Not'ables :  in  France,  persons  of  nolile  birth  or  social 
distinction,  from  whom  the  members  of  the  Assembly  of  the 
Notables  were  chosen.  This  body,  which  was  first  convened 
by  the  Valois  king  Charles  V.,  owed  its  origin  to  the  desire 
of  the  monarch  to  secure  a  more  serviceable  instrument  of 
despotic  power  than  the  older  States-General,  which  came 
into  frequent  collision  with  the  royal  will.  As  its  members 
were  dependent  upon  the  crown,  with  which  their  interests 
were  often  iilentical,  they  generally  consented  to  what  the 
king  proposed.  The  last  A.ssembly  of  the  Notables  met  in 
Nov.,  1788.  In  the  previous  year  it  had  accepted  in  part 
the  reforms  proposed  by  the  Government,  but  now  it  refused 
to  listen  to  the  demand  for  the  double  representation  of  the 
Third  Estate  in  the  States-General.  It  opposed  all  innova- 
tions, and  was  dissolved  Dec.  12,  1788. 

Notacan'tliidie  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Notacan'thus. 
the  typical  genus;  (ir.  vSnov.  back -(- fiKoxflo,  spine,  thorn] : 
a  family  of  fishes  of  the  order  Opisthomi.  The  body  is 
elongated  (but  not  eel-like),  and  the  tail  tapers  strongly 
backward  ;  it  is  covered  with  very  small  cycloid  scales  ;  the 
lateral  line  is  cons|iicuous;  the  head  is  conic,  and  the  snout 
more  or  less  produced ;  the  mouth  is  inferior,  the  cleft  mod- 
erate, and  the  lower  jaw  quite  movable;  the  teeth  are  mi- 
nute and  pointed;  the  branchial  apertures  are  normally  ex- 
ten<led ;  there  are  about  eight  branch iostegal  rays;  the 
dorsal  fin  is  only  represented  by  a  number  (7-30)  of  short 
disconnected  spines  about  the  middle  of  the  length;  the 
anal  is  elongated,  and  armed  with  numerous  (12-15)  spines 
in  front;  the  caudal  small  and  (typically  at  least)  connected 
with  the  anal:  the  pectorals  are  well  developed,  and  the 
ventrals  are  abilominal  and  composed  of  spinous  (2—4)  and 
articulated  (7-8)  rays.  Several  species  are  kiunvn  chiefly 
from  the  oceanic  aby.sses.  Revised  by  F.  A.  LfCAS. 

Notary  Piiltlic,  or  simjily  (as  often  called)  Notary:  a 
public  oillcer  existing  among  all  civilized  nations,  and  in- 
vested in  almost  every  country  in  Euro])e  and  America  with 
essentially  the  .same  functions  and  privileges  accorded  to 
notaries  in  ancient  time — nanudy,  tlie  preparing  and  atb'st- 
ing  of  various  instruments,  I  tie  authenticating  an<l  certify- 
ing of  o.xamineil  copies  of  documents,  the  noting  and  pro- 
testing of  bills  of  e.Kchange.  the  administering  of  oaths  and 
various  other  authenticating  or  solemnifying  acts.  The 
manner  of  appointment  of  notaries  varies  in  different  coun- 
tries. In  England  Ihey  are  appointed  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  acting  as  the  Court  of  Faculties;  in  Scotland 
they  are  admitted  by  the  Lords  of  Session ;  in  the  States  of 


the  V.  S.  they  are  ordinarily  appointed  by  the  Governor. 
The  particular  functions  and  duties  and  the  dignity  at- 
tached to  the  office  of  notary  vary  in  different  countries; 
thus  in  England  (where  a  notary  must  have  served  a  clcrk- 
shi|))  and  many  of  the  countries  of  Kurope  notaries  are 
called  upon  to  draw  up  papers,  such  as  wills,  which  in  the 
U.  S.  would  be  prepared  by  an  attorney  and  simply  acknowl- 
edged or  sworn  to  before  a  notary.  In  England  notaries 
have  always  exercised  the  right  of  administering  oaths,  but 
in  the  L'.  S.  they  can  administer  oaths  only  when  given  the 
power  so  to  do  by  statute,  whi<'h  has  been  done  by  the  U.  S. 
and  many  of  the  individual  States.  In  (ireat  Britain  and 
the  U.  S.  a  notary  may  refuse  to  act  if  he  sees  tit,  but  in 
some  countries,  as  France,  he  can  not  refuse  his  services. 

A  notary  is  a  ministerial  officer,  and  is  liable  to  a  party 
injured  by  the  negligent  performance  of  any  duty  under- 
taken by  him.  Statutes  also  frequently  declare  his  respon- 
sibility "for  misconduct,  both  civil  and  criminal.  It  is  clear 
that  in  the  absence  of  any  statute  his  conduct  is  governed 
by  that  general  rule  of  law  which  prescribes  that  any  person 
who  enters  upon  an  undertaking  requiring  ordinary  care 
and  skill  is  liable  to  any  one  injured  by. this  failure  to  exer- 
cise such  care  and  skill.  Still  a  notary  is  not  liable  to  his 
employer  if  he  commits  an  error  acting  under  his  employer's 
direction.  WhiTe  a  bill  of  exchange  is  given  to  an  agent 
for  collection,  and  the  agent  employs  a  notary  to  make  pro- 
test of  it  (see  Bill  of  Exciiaxge),  and  the  notary  is  negli- 
gent and  thus  discharges  the  drawer  and  indorser.s.  there  is 
much  divergence  of  judicial  opinion  as  to  the  resjiective  lia- 
bilities of  the  agent  and  notary  to  the  principal — some  deci- 
sions holding  that  when  the  act  is  strictly  lurtarial  (i.  e.  when 
the  bill  is  a  foreign  one)  the  notary  alone  is  lial)le  to  the 
principal,  and  that  when  the  bill  is  an  inland  bill  he  is  lialde 
only  to  the  agent  who  employed  him;  other  cases  holding 
that  in  either  case  the  remedy  of  the  j>rincipal  is  solely 
against  the  notary. 

A  notary  can  not  transfer  liis  official  powers  or  autliority 
to  another,  and  therefore  when  called  upon  to  perform  a 
strictly  notarial  act  he  must  in  general  perform  it  person- 
ally; but  W'here  there  is  a  settled  commercial  usage  in  a 
place  where  a  foreign  bill  is  to  be  protested,  that  protest  may 
be  made  by  a  notary's  clerk,  a  protest  so  made  will  be  held 
valid  elsewhere,  since  the  protesting  of  foreign  bills  is  a 
matter  of  mercantile  usage  subject  to  local  customs.  In 
Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  courts  will  generally  take  judi- 
cial notice  of  the  seal  of  a  notary ;  but  the  notary's  certifi- 
cate of  a  certain  fact  generally  has  no  more  legal  weiglit  as 
evidence  than  the  certificate  of  any  other  person,  except  his 
certificate  that  a  foreign  bill  was  duly  protested. 

For  fuller  information,  see  Brooke's  Office  and  Practice  of 
a  Notary  of  England  (5th  ed.  1890),  and"  the  works  of  Prof- 
fatt  and  Rex  on  Notaries.  F.  Sturges  Allex. 

Notation  [from  Lat.  nnta'tio.  deriv.  of  notare.  to  note]: 
in  mathematics,  a  conventional  method  of  representing 
quantities  and  operations  by  means  of  symbols.  It  explains 
the  meaning  of  individual  symbols,  Imth  of  operation  and 
of  quantity,  and  shows  how  to  combine  them  so  as  to  ex- 
press in  the  simplest  manner  every  mathematical  operation. 
A  simple  and  comprehensive  system  of  notation  is  essential 
to  the  progress  of  every  science,  but  in  no  branch  is  a  com- 
plete system  more  necessary  than  in  nuithematics,  and  in  no 
branch  has  there  been  a  greater  diversity  of  systems  pro- 
posed. Our  present  system  is  the  result  of  the  labors  ef 
many  men,  living  in  difTerent  ages,  speaking  different  lan- 
guages, and  possessing  different  haliits  of  thought ;  from 
these  diverse  sources  a  mathematical  language  luis  sprung 
up,  defective  in  many  respects,  and  yet  sufficiently  simple 
and  copious  for  most  of  the  pur|)oses  of  analysis  and  in- 
vestigation. Each  department  of  nuithematics  has  its  own 
notation ;  in  this  article  will  only  be  considered  the  nota- 
tion of  aritlnnetic.  or  the  method  of  writing  numbers. 

There  are  at  present  in  general  use  oidy  two  systems  of 
arithmetical  notatioji,  the  common  sy.stem  and  the  Roman; 
in  addition  to  these  we  shall  also  explain  the  method  of  the 
ancient  Greeks. 

(1)  Tilt  Common  Si/stem. — This  is  sometimes  called  the 
Arabic,  because  the  figures  which  it  employs  were  intro- 
duced into  Plurope  by  the  Arabs.  The  following  figures, 
expressing  values  regularly  increasing  by  one  from  nothing 
to  nine,  are  used  in  this  system  :  0,  1,  2.  3.  4,  5,  0.  7.  8.  9. 
These  figures,  taken  separately,  are  called  digit.'<.  'J'he  first 
one.  named  naught,  is  also  called  a  cipher  or  zero:  it  .>.tands 
for  no  number.     The  remaining  ones  are  called  ."igniftcant 


232 


NOTATION 


figures.  All  integral  numbers  are  expressed  by  writing  the 
proper  digits  in  a  line.  The  digit  on  the  right  is  said  to 
stand  in  the  Jirsf  place,  the  one  preceding  this  in  the  second 
place,  the  nest  preceding  in  the  third  place,  and  so  on. 
This  order  of  arrangement  is  called  the  scale  of  the  system. 
The  same  digit  always  indicates  the  same  number  of  units, 
but  the  value  of  theunit  indicated  depends  on  the  place  it 
occupies  in  the  scale.  If  a  digit  stands  in  the  first  place,  it 
expresses  simple  units  or  ones;  if  in  the  second  place,  it  ex- 
presses teyis;  if  in  the  third  place,  it  expresses  hundreds; 
the  value  of  the  unit  in  any  place  is  always  ten  times  that 
of  the  unit  in  the  next  lower  place.  Thus  the  combination 
3T6  stands  for  3  h  undreds.  7  tens,  and  6  ones,  or  for  the  num- 
ber three  hundred  and  sei-enty-six.  If  we  place  a  point— 
which  we  call  the  decimal  point— on  the  right  of  the  first 
place,  we  mav  continue  the  scale  downward  to  any  extent ; 
in  this  case  "the  digit  on  the  right  of  the  point  is  said  to 
stand  in  the  first  place  of  decimals,  the  next  stands  in  the 
second  place  of  decimals,  and  soon.  The  unit  of  the  first 
place  of  decimals  is  one-tenth ;  that  of  the  second  place, 
one-hundredth  ;  that  of  the  third  place,  one-thousandth,  and 
so  on.  Thus  the  combination  -325  standi  for  3  fens,  2  hun- 
dredths, and  5  thousandths,  or  for  the  number' 325-//ioii- 
sandths.  The  scale  thus  completed  is  called  the  decimal 
scale  ;  it  will  he  noted  that  this  scale  is  continuous  through- 
out; that  is,  in  proceeding  from  right  to  left  the  unit  of 
each  place  is  ten  times  that  of  the  preceding  place.  If  we 
place  a  cipher  in  each  place,  we  may  write  the  decimal 
scale  as  follows : 


Period  of     Period  of     Period  of    Period  of 
billions.        milliong.     tboauods.        units. 


Period  of      Period  of 
thoasandths.  milliontha. 


S 

. 

.*-> 

_o 

i^- 

,e 

otc. 
f  bi 
ions 

V-  11^ 

^  2 

■r    ''-. 

, 

•S 

■a  — 

S  £'2 

, 

^-i 

""2 

o  a5«_ 

g=>-  = 

O.J 

$'% 

i;  ° 

^ 

"^   r.   S 

r/T 

^ 

d-=.2 

c 

3  r;-^ 

£S 

s: 

.S  ii'H 

_c 

a 

5 

-ii 

—    t^ 

SZ  B 

0  0  0 

,0  0  0 

,000 

,000 

0 

0  0 

,0  0  0 

For  convenience  of  reading,  the  scale  is  separated  into  peri- 
ods, each  of  whicli  embraces  three  places,  and  is  named  as 
shown  above.  The  denominations  above  billions  are  trillions, 
quadrillions,  quintillions,  etc.,  deriving  their  names  from  the 
Latin  numerals.  If  a  digit  is  written  in  the  place  of  any 
cipher  in  the  blank  scale  above  given,  it  will  express  a  cor- 
responding number  of  units  of  the  name  indicated ;  thus 
the  combination  326,812,435-2T8,812,  expresses  the  number 
326  millions,  812  thousands,  435  units,  and*278  thousandths, 
812  millionths.  It  will  he  oliservcd  that  the  unit  of  each 
place  is  some  power  of  10:  thus  the  unit  of  the  first  place 
is  10",  or  1;  that  of  the  second  place  is  10',  or  10;  that  of 
the  third  place  is  10',  or  100.  and  so  on.  In  like  manner 
the  unit  of  the  first  decimal  place  is  10~',  or  -jV:  that  of  the 
second  place  of  decimals  is  10-'',  or  yiiy;  that  of  the  third 
place  is  10"',  or  tdW-  ""J  ^o  on-  It  '^  from  this  law  of  re- 
lation that  we  name  the  scale  a  decimal  scale  ;  for  like  rea- 
son we  call  this  system  of  indicating  numbers  the  decimal 
system.  In  the  system  just  explained  the  units  correspond- 
ing to  the  different  places  are  in  geometrical  progression, 
the  base  or  radix  of  which  is  10.  Similar  scales  might  be 
constructed  having  any  other  number  as  a  radix,  but  such 
scales  are  not  in  common  use. 

There  is  an  unfortunate  ambiguity  in  the  use  of  the  terms 
billions,  trillion.s,  etc.  In  the  French  system,  which  is  gen- 
erally used  in  the  V.  S.,  each  of  these  denominations  is  1.000 
times  the  preceding  one ;  but  in  the  English  system  it  is 
1,000,000  times,  the  billicm  being  a  million  millions. 

(2)  The  Roman  Method. — In  the  Roman  method  of  nota- 
tion seven  capital  letters  are  used.  These  letters  and  the 
values  they  express  are  shown  below  : 

Letters,  I.,  V.,  X.,  L„    C„    D..      M. 

Values,  1,    5,    10,  50,  100,  .500,  1000. 

Any  other  number  is  expressed  by  a  combination  of  these 
letters  on  the  general  principle  that  such  a  combination 
represents  the  sum  of  the  values  of  its  constituent  letters, 
these  being  arranged  from  left  to  right  in  order  of  value, 
and  the  use  of  the  same  letter  five  times  or  more  being 


avoided  by  using  letters  of  greater  value  ;  but  when,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  above,  the  same  letter  would  occur  four 
times,  it  is  customary  to  employ  the  sub-principle  that  when- 
ever a  letter  precedes  one  of  greater  value  the  value  of  the 
two  is  that  of  their  difference  instead  of  their  sum.  Thus 
III.  denotes  3;  VI.,  6:  LX.,  60 ;  XC,  90 ;  XIV.,  14;  and 
JIDCC'LXXVL,  1TT6.  This  system  is  used  only  for  dates, 
headings  of  chapters,  and  the  like. 

(3)  The  Grecian  Method. — In  representing  numbers  the 
ancient  Greeks  used  either  (1)  the  initi.al  letter  of  the 
word  denoting  the  number- — e.g.  n  (Pente)  5,  A  (Deka)  10, 
etc.;  or  (2)  they  used  letters  of  their  alphabet,  to  which 
they  added  fhe  three  obsolete  characters  r',  ?',and  ft'.  Thus 
the  consecutive  numbers  from  1  to  9  were  re|)resented  by 
the  characters  a,  j3.  y  .  S.  e  ,  r,  f,  77,  and  6 — simple  tmifs; 
the  tens  from  1  ten  to  9  tens,  or  the  numbers  from  10  to 
90,  were  represented  by  the  characters  i',  k,  \,  fi',  v  .  {',  6,  jr , 
and  9' — tens;  and  the  hundreds  up  to  nine  hundred  were 
represented  by  the  characters  p  .  a  .  t  ,  v  ,  (p',  x  ■  +  •  '>''.  ""d 
ft' — hundreds.  Thousands  were  expressed  by  a  subscript 
dash  ;  thus  the  number  3,000  was  written  ,7.  The  letter  M 
written  below  any  symbol  increased  its  value  ten  thousand 
times  ;  these  conventional  principles  enabled  them  to  write 
any  number  up  to  1,000.000.000.  The  following  examples 
show  how  numbers  were  expressed  in  this  system  : 

,9  ft'  V  '  8',  nine  thousand  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine. 
,St  n  ^',  four  thousand  three  hundred  and  eighty-two. 
,y  a' ,  three  thousand  and  one. 
Other  devices  for  expressing  numbers  were  conceived  by  Ar- 
chimedes, ApoUonius.  and  others,  but  the  entire  system  was, 
like  that  of  the  Romans,  extremely  unwieldy  and  ill  fitted 
to  practical  computations.  Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Notation  (in  music) :  the  mode  or  system  by  which  mu- 
sical thoughts  are  represented  in  writing,  including  all  the 
signs,  characters,  figures,  and  arliitrary  marks  necessary 
to  render  such  thoughts  intelligible.  The  system  now  in 
use  is  mainly  a  product  of  the  last  three  or  four  centuries, 
and  in  all  civilized  nations  musical  symbols  are  the  same. 
Ill  ancient  times  the  recording  of  musical  ideas  was  a  subject 
of  perplexity  and  uncertainty.  To  convey  from  one  mind 
to  another  a  clear  idea  merely  of  the  pitch  and  the  duration 
of  several  tones  or  sounds,  though  comprising  only  a  very 
limited  series,  required  of  course  certain  signs  or  symbols 
which  should  possess  a  fixed  meaning.  The  earliest  signs 
adopted  for  this  purpose  seem  to  have  been  the  letters  of 
the  aljihabet,  which  were  sometimes  placed  erect,  sometimes 
inverted,  mutilated,  commingled,  or  cast  into  various  fanci- 
ful forms,  so  that  by  degrees  more  than  100  of  such  char- 
acters came  into  use.  After  this  greater  simplicity  was  se- 
cured by  the  use  of  only  a  few  Roman  letters,  the  lower  oc- 
tave being  represented  by  capitals,  the  second  octave  by 
small  letters,  and  the  third  by  small  letters  doubled.  Be- 
sides the  letter  system  another  mode  of  representing  mu- 
sical sounds  came  into  use,  the  leading  feature  of  which  was 
a  single  straight  line,  the  various  sounds  being  indicated 
chiefly  by  dots,  either  on  the  Une  or  more  or  less  distant 
from  it.  An  illustration  of  this  is  given  at  a  in  the  follow- 
ing example,  taken  from  a  work  by  Padre  Martini,  with  its 
interjiretation  in  black  notes  at  b  and  in  modern  notes  at  c; 


g= 


c      (  Transposed  from  C  to  F.) 


^ 


As  late  as  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  number- 
less crooked  marks,  loops,  curves,  hooks,  wavy  lines,  and 
other  sitfiis,  besides  the  dots,  were  used  with  the  single 
straight'line,  forming  a  svstem  not  easy  to  be  interpreted 
even'bv  the  most  skillful  of  modern  musicians.  The  intro- 
duction of  several  lines  with  their  spaces,  and  notes  of  fixed 
form  and  duration,  was  the  next  important  step.  The  lines 
were  at  first  only  four  in  number,  though  we  sometimes  find 
the  staves  belonging  to  two  or  three  voices  (with  their 
proper  clefs)  so  crowded  together  as  to  look  like  one  stave 
of  eight  or  twelve  lines.  The  ancient  notes  belonging  to 
the  four-line  stave  are  described  in  the  article  Large  {g.  v.). 
To  indicate  the  pitch  of  the  notes  two  clefs  were  used— 


NOTE 


NOTICE 


233 


line  to  mark  thp  pliioe  of  midillo  (',  and  tlic  other  that  of 
the  F  below.  These  clefs  were  not  permanently  fixe<i,  but 
were  placed  on  such  a  line  as  would  serve  most  conveniently 
to  keep  the  notes  within  the  bounds  of  the  stave  and  the 
spaces  above  and  below.  The  stave  now  in  universal  use 
consists  of  five  lines,  and  to  each  stave  is  prelixed  a  clef  to 
desij,'nate,  as  from  a  starling-point,  tlie  various  dc^jrees  of 
acuieness  or  i;ravity  of  the  notes  employed.  Of  these  clefs 
that  of  K  for  the  bass  and  thai  of  (i  for  the  upper  parts  are 
of  most  freiiuent  use  in  modern  mvisic,  the  C  clef  being  re- 
served for  certain  orchestral  parts,  and  also  occasionally 
used  for  the  tenor  and  alto  in  church  music.  The  round- 
headed  form  of  notes  is  now  exclusively  used,  the  olil  scjuare 
breve  seldom  a]ipearinK  except  in  tlu'  music  of  tlie  church. 
The  seinihreve  is  now  taken  as  the  staiulard  of  unity  or  the 
note  of  lonjcest  duration,  but  the  extent  of  that  duration  is 
determined  liy  the  will  of  the  composer  or  perfonuer.  The 
actual  speed  of  a  niece  of  music  is  indicated  by  regulative 
terms  or  signs  at  the  beginning,  or  is  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  performer:  but  in  all  cases  the  time  given  to  the 
semibreve  determines  the  time  of  each  minim,  crotchet, 
quaver,  etc.,  because  these  notes  stand  to  it  in  the  relation 
of  *,  i.  i.  i',;,  etc.  Intervals  of  silence  also,  corresponding 
in  duration  with  the  several  kinds  of  notes,  are  indicated  by 
characters  called  ren/s.  To  meet  the  want  of  notes  bearing 
other  ratios  to  the  semibreve.  as  J,  J.  i\,  etc.,  the  simple 

Srocess  of  adding  a  dot  to  a  note  was  adopted,  whereby  its 
uratitm  became  one-half  long('r — a  dotted  minim,  for  in- 
stance, being  J  of  a  semibreve,  a  ilotled  crotchet  f,  etc.  The 
dot  is  sometimes  doubled:  in  this  case  the  time  expressed 
by  the  first  dot  is  increased  one-half.  These  dots  are  equally 
applicable  to  the  rests.  The  use  of  liars  was  not  general 
till  aljout  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  to  the 
same  perioii  is  to  be  referred  the  grouping  of  ipiavers.  semi- 
quavers, etc.,  by  ties  or  ligatures  connecting'  their  stems. 
Under  the  head  of  notation  are  also  com|irised  the  numer- 
ous signs  of  expression,  emphasis,  loudness  and  softness,  re- 
tardation and  acceleration  of  speed,  various  kinds  of  orna- 
ment, and  all  the  marks  belonging  to  the  {irovince  of  har- 
mony.    See  Grove's  Dictionarij  of  Music  and  Musicians. 

kevised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Note  [from  O.  Fr.  note  <  Lat.  710' fa.  mark,  sign,  note :  cf. 
nosrcre,  no  fion,  know,  recognize] :  in  music,  tlie  character 
by  which  a  tone  is  recoriled  and  represented  to  the  eye. 
(Si'e  XoT.vTioN'.)  In  a  less  accurate  sense,  the  terra  "note" 
is  often  used  for  the  sound  of  which  it  is  the  representative, 
as  when  we  say  a  high  note  oi'  a  low  note,  meaning  a  high 
or  low  sound.  Though  not  strictly  correct,  this  usage  of  the 
word  is  common  even  in  scienlifto  works  and  in  ordinary 
converse. 

Lk.vuixg  Xotk. — The  leading  note  is  the  .seventh  degree 
of  the  major  scale,  or  the  semitone  next  below  the  oc- 
tave. In  the  scale  of  C  the  leading  note  will  thus  be  B ; 
in  that  of  Bt.  it  will  be  A,  and  .so  in  the  other  keys.  In 
major  keys  with  sharps  the  last  sharp  of  the  signature  is 
always  on  the  leading  note.  From  a  certain  natural  tend- 
ency to  resolve  itself  upward  into  the  octave,  the  major 
seventh  of  the  scale  is  said  to  lead  the  ear  in  that  direction, 
or  cause  it  to  expect  that  the  next  progression  will  be  to  the 
octave,  and  hence  its  name  of  leading  note.  In  minor  scales 
the  seventh  in  its  natural  form  is  not  properly  a  leading 
note,  bluing  a  minor  seventh  above  the  tonic.  It  is  thus  a 
whole  Icme  below  the  octave,  and  does  not  possess  any  special 
upward  or  leading  tendency.  This  defect,  however,  is  re- 
moved by  the  use  of  an  accidental  sharp,  which  brings  the 
seventh  into  the  same  relation  to  the  octave  as  in  the  ma- 
jor mode,  and  makes  it  eciually  characteristic.  The  lead- 
ing note  is  considered  as  the  most  seiisilive  interval  of  the 
scale,  becau.se  it  creates  in  the  mind  of  tlie  hearer  a  pecul- 
iar longing  or  desire  for  an  Jiscent  into  the  octave  above, 
which  it.  already  seems  almost  to  touch.  In.stances  of  this 
are  given  at  a.  b.  and  c  in  Ex.  1,  and  these  m,iy  be  com- 
pared with  the  true  progression  as  repri'sented  in  eacli  case 
by  the  black  dots: 


Exceptions  to  this  general  rule,  however,  occur  in  good  com- 
positions when  special  effects  are  to  be  produced,  or  in  flow- 
ing melodies  where  the  leading  note  is  not  prominent  as 
«Hf/i,  or  when  by  an  upward  spring  the  leading  note  in  its 
resolution  passes  over  the  octave  and  takes  the  third  or  fifth 
above.  Scmie  cases  of  this  kind  will  be  seen  in  Ex.  2  under 
the  asterisks : 

^^^^^^^^^^ 


h^^ 


^m^^^m 


^i^^^^p 


The  leading  note,  as  third  in  the  chord  of  the  seventh  on 
the  dominant,  is  subject  also  to  the  rules  relating  to  the 
resolution  of  sevenths  ;  but  in  this  ca.se  tlie  rule  of  the  lead- 
ing note  as  such,  and  that  affecting  it  as  third  in  the  chord 
of  the  seventh,  are  coinciilent  in  re(|uiring  that  the  pro- 
gression should  be  one  semitone  upward — i.  e.  into  the  tonic. 

Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Notliiiagel,  Herm.\x;j,  Ilofrath:  physiologist  and  neu- 
rologist: b.  in  Alt  Lietzegoericke.  Bramlenburg.  Sept.  28, 
1841 :  was  educated  in  Berlin  :  was  privat  docent  in  lierlin 
and  Breslau  :  became  Professor  of  Medicine  in  Freiberg 
(Baden)  in  1872,  in  Jena  in  1874,  in  Vienna  in  1882.  His 
(U'incipal  works  are  Topisr/ie  Diaijnostik  ihr  Oehirnkrank- 
heiten  (Berlin):  Arzneimitti'lhhrf  (seven  editions,  Berlin) : 
Beitrof/e  2ur  Physiologie  und  Paf/io/or/ie  des  Darmes  (in 
Zeitschrift  fur  klin.  Mfdii'in) :  Bearbeitung  einzehifr  Kiipi- 
tel  der  Gehirnkranlclieilen  (in  Ziem.ssen"s  Pathologie  und 
Tlierapie):  also  a  large  numlier  of  special  researches  on 
medical  and  physiological  topics.  J.  M.  Baldwin. 

Notice  [Fr.  notice,  from  Lat.  nofifia,  knowledge,  ac(|uaint- 
ance,  a  being  known,  deriv.  of  noscere,  tiotus,  know]  :  a  legal 
term  used  with  varying  significations.  At  times  it  is  syn- 
onymous with  knowledge,  as  when  a  court  is  said  to  take 
"judicial  notice"  of  matters  of  general  knowledge.  (See 
EviDEXCE.)  Again,  it  designates  the  act,  means,  or  instru- 
ment by  which  information  is  conveyed,  e.  g.  notice  to  quit 
(see  Landlord  and  Texaxt),  notice  of  dishonor  (see  Bill 
of  ExcHAXiiE),  notice  of  acceptance  of  proposals  (see  Con- 
tract, Assignment,  Guaranty),  notice  in  legal  proceedings 
(see  Procedure).  It  is  also  employed  as  a  technical  term 
to  denote  information  concerning  a  fact,  which  "  is  regarded 
as  equivalent  in  its  legal  effect  to  full  knowledge  of  the 
fact,  and  to  which  the  law  attributes  tlie  same  consequences 
as  would  be  imputed  to  knowledge."  To  illustrate:  If  a 
person  buys  and  receives  property  on  credit  by  false  rcjire- 
sentations  concerning  his  financial  ability,  the  vendor  upon 
discovering  the  fraud  may  rescind  the  .sale  and  retake  the 
property  from  the  vendee,  or  from  any  purchaser  from  the 
vendee  having  knowledge  of  the  fraud.  This  right  is  equal- 
ly available  against  a  second  purchaser,  who  had  notice  mere- 
ly of  the  fraud  and  not  knowledge. 

Actual  and  Conslructire  Xoticc. — While  technical  notice 
is  divided  commonly  into  actual  and  constructive,  both 
text  writers  and  judges  rliffer  in  their  definitions  of  these 
terms.  It  is  agreed  that  actual  notice  is  properly  applied 
to  authentic  inforniation  concerning  a  fact  which  is  direct- 
ly coinniunicated  to  the  party  to  be  chargeil  by  notice.  It 
al.so  a])]ilics  wliere  a  person  has  the  iiieans  of  knowledge  to 
which  lu!  dishonestly  shuts  his  eyes.  lieyond  this  all  is  de- 
batable ground.  It" is  believed,  however,  that  the  weight  of 
authority  supjiorts  the  following  views:  Notice  concerning 
a  fact  is  to  be  deemed  actual  when  it  consists  of  informa- 
tion that  would  put  a  prudent  man  upon  iii(|uiry,  which  if 
followed  up  would  result  in  ac(|uaintiiig  him  with  the  fact, 
provided  that  the  circnnistances  authorize  the  finding,  with- 
out the  aid  of  any  legal  presumplion.  that  the  fact,  or  .some 
aspect  of  it.  was  brought  home  to  the  consciousness  of  the 
parly.  The  following  is  an  example:  A  person  who  was 
negotiating  for  the  purchase  of  certain  lands  with  the  one 
who  held  the  record  title  wa.s  told  by  their  prior  owner,  who 
was  still  in  possession,  that  the  latter  had  a  claim  on  them, 
and  that  the  former  had  better  let  them  alone  or  he  would 
get  himself  into  trouble.  He  nevertheless  concluded  the 
purchase  without  making  any  inquiries  concerning  the  na- 
ture of  (he  claim.  Had  he  iiupiiri'd  lit  would  have  learned 
that  the  party  in  possession  was  a  mortgagor  of  the  prem- 


234 


XOTIDAXDID^E 


NOTT 


ises.  It  was  held  to  be  a  question  for  the  jury  whether  the 
purcliaser  had  actual  ncitice  of  the  mortgagor's  interest. 
{Briiikham  vs.  Junes,  ii  Wis.  498;  but  see  Lamb  vs.  Pierce, 
113  Mass.  72.)  If  in  the  above  case  the  only  information  ac- 
quired by  the  purcliaser  concerning  the  former  owner's  in- 
terest inthe  land  hail  been  tliat  he  was  still  in  possession  of 
it,  we  should  have  had  at  most  an  example  of  constructive 
notice.  Tlie  law  casts  upon  him  who  purchases  property 
from  one  not  in  possession  the  duty  of  inquiring  as  to  the 
possessor's  interest,  and  if  he  fails  to  perform  that  duty  it 
charges  him  with  notice  of  all  the  facts  that  reasonable  in- 
quiry would  have  discovered.  The  inference  of  notice,  how- 
ever,  in  this  case  is  not  one  of  fact,  but  results  from  a  pre- 
sumption of  law.  That  presumption  may  be  reljutted.  The 
purchaser  may  show  that  he  made  due  inquiry  and  yet 
failed  to  discover  any  defect  in  his  vendor's  title. 

In  many  cases  constructive  notice  is  absolute,  or,  as  is 
often  said,  the  legal  presumption  tliat  the  party  chargeable 
with  notice  has  acquired  information  concerning  the  fact  in 
question  is  conclusive.  He  will  not  be  allowed  to  dispute  it. 
This  kind  of  constructive  notice  is  frequently  the  creature 
of  statute.  Under  recording  acts  (see  Record  of  Convey- 
ances) a  duly  executed  and  registered  deed  is  absolute  no- 
tice to  subsequent  purchasers  and  incumbrancers  not  only 
of  its  existence,  but  of  all  interests  in  the  property  thereby 
conveyed.  Constructive  notice  has  a  prominent  place  in 
the  law  of  negotiable  paper.  A  purchaser  of  such  paper  is 
conclusively  taken  to  have  read  it,  and  therefore  is  never 
allowed  to  dispute  that  he  had  notice  of  anything  apjiarent 
on  its  face,  as,  for  example,  a  restrictive  indorsement  or 
notarial  marks  of  dishonor  for  non-acceptance.  If  he  ac- 
quires it  after  maturity  he  is  also  charged  absolutely  with 
notice  of  all  equities  available  against  his  transferrer.  So 
a  purchaser  of  real  estate  is  conclusively  deemed  to  have 
read  every  instrument  which  forms  a  part  of  his  chain  of 
title  and  to  be  notified  of  every  interest  therein  referred  to. 
Tills  doctrine  is  necessary  to  the  security  of  titles. 

Whenever  notice  of  a  fact  is  established,  whether  by  di- 
rect evidence,  by  an  inference  of  fact,  or  by  an  inference  of 
law,  its  legal  consequences  to  the  one  chargeable  with  it  are 
the  same  as  those  that  would  flow  from  his  knowledge  of 
the  fact. 

What  Constitutes  Notice. — This  is  often  determined  by 
statute,  as  in  the  case  of  the  recording  acts,  or  by  an  equal- 
ly positive  rule  of  unwritten  law,  as  in  the  case  of  negotia- 
ble paper.  Where  no  such  rule  exists,  it  is  a  question  of 
fact  in  each  case  whether  the  evidence  shows  (1)  that  the 
party  to  be  charged  with  notice  received  information  of  a 
character  that  subjected  him  to  the  duty  to  incpiire  further, 
and  (2)  that  such  further  inquiry  would  have  resulted  in 
knowledge  of  the  requisite  fact.  A  mere  rumor  or  a  vague 
report,  or  a  general  statement  by  one  having  no  interest  in 
the  subject-matter  of  the  transaction,  will  not  impose  on  one 
the  duty  of  inquiry.  Such  information  ordinarily  furnishes 
no  clew  to  the  truth.  "  To  set  on  foot  an  inquiry  into  the 
foundations  of  mere  rumors  would  in  most  cases  be  a  vain 
and  impracticable  pursuit."  If  the  information,  though 
given  by  a  stranger  to  the  transaction,  is  definite  and  ap- 
parently credible,  and  especially  if  it  refers  to  an  authen- 
tic .source  of  knowledge,  it  will  impose  upon  the  recipient 
the  duty  of  further  inquiry.  Acts  may  constitute  notice. 
One  who  fences  and  cultivates  a  piece  of  land  thereby  gives 
notice  tliat  he  claims  an  interest  therein.  Visible  structures 
may  give  notice.  The  purchaser  of  a  house  showing  four- 
teen chimney  tops  and  but  twelve  flues  is  notified  of  an 
easement  in  two  chimneys  on  the  part  of  the  adjoining 
house.  See  Wade  on  the  Law  of  Notice;  Poineroy's  Equi- 
ty Jurisprudence,  eh.  ii.,  §  5.  Francis  M.  Buruick. 

Notidan'idse  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Notidnnus,  the 
typical  genus ;  Gr.  coiToi',  back  +  Uav6s,  sightly,  comely] : 
a  family  of  selachians  of  the  order  Sqiiati  or  sharks,  dis- 
tinguished from  all  others  by  the  increased  number  of 
bianrliial  apertures.  In  the  form  of  the  body  they  resem- 
liUi  the  typical  >liarks.  The  skin  is  shagreen-like;  the  head 
di-pri'sscd,  oval,  with  the  snout  protulierant ;  the  eye  has  no 
iiictitant  membrani';  I  lie  nostrils  are  inferior  and  distant 
from  the  mouth:  the  moulli  has  a  crescent-like  cleft;  the 
teeth  are  very  unlike  in  the  opposite  jaws,  those  in  the  up- 
per jaw  being  broad  and  armed  with  .several  cus[)S,  one  of 
which  extenils  beyond  the  others,  but  in  the  lower  jaw  are 
six  pectinated  teeth  on  eui/h  side  forward  and  several  small- 
er posterior  ones ;  tile  branchial  a[HTlurcs  are  six  or  seven 
in  number;  small  spiracles  are  [lersistent  on  each  side  of 


tlie  neck  ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  single  and  inserted  far  backward 
behind  the  ventrals  ;  the  anal  is  well  developeil  ami  behind 
the  dorsal ;  the  pectorals  have  an  anterior  edge  straight 
from  the  base:  the  ventrals  normal.  The  family  is  distin- 
guished, in  addition  to  these  peculiarities,  by  a  number  of 
others,  and  is  composed  of  two  genera,  llexanchus  and 
Ileptanchus,  represented  in  most  warm  seas.         T.  Gill. 

Notion  :  a  concept  or  general  idea.  The  word  is  used 
mainly  in  logic,  and  is  generally  made  to  include  the  name 
given  to  the  class  of  objects  to  which  a  concept  or  idea  has 
reference.  Thus  "horse,"  considered  as  a  "concept"  or 
"  idea,"  is  the  mental  state  or  inner  meaning  of  the  thinker, 
while  "  notion  "  includes  the  name  horse  by  which  this 
"  concept "  or  "  idea  "  is  expressed  in  reference  to  the  ob- 
ject of  thought.  J.  M.  B. 

No'to:  town  of  Sicily;  16  miles  S.  W.  of  Syracuse  (see 
map  of  Italy,  ref.  lO-G).  It  stands  on  a  hill  not  far  from 
the  sea  and  commands  a  charming  valley.  The  old  town 
(Neetuni  or  Netuni),  built  alrout  450  B.  c.  on  the  ruins  of 
one  still  more  ancient,  flourished  under  the  Romans  and 
shared  in  all  the  vicissitudes  of  Sicily  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
but  was  utterly  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  1693.  The  mod- 
ern town  was  founded  in  1T03  4  miles  S.  E.  of  the  ancient 
site.  It  carries  on  trade  in  grain,  wine,  oil,  and  fruits. 
Pop.  15,925.  E.  A.  G. 

No'toolionl.  or  Chorda  Dorsalis  [niituchord  is  from 
Gr.  vSiTov,  back  +  x^P^tj,  cord  ;  chor'da  dorsalis  is  Mod.  Lat., 
from  Lat.  chor'da.  cord  -I-  dorsa'lis,  pertaining  to  the  back, 
deriv.  of  dorsuDi,  back]:  a  rod  of  tissue  of  cartilaginous  or 
softer  nature  which  occurs  in  Vertebrates,  Tunicates,  and 
some  other  forms  between  the  alimentary  tract  and  the  nerv- 
ous system.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  embryo  the  noto- 
chord  arises  from  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  digestive  canal  and 
becomes  cut  off  from  it  to  take  its  permanent  position.  In 
some  forms  (Ampliioxus)  it  persists  througliout  life  as  the 
sole  skeletal  structure,  and  extends  from  one  end  of  the 
body  to  the  other.  In  the  Exteroi'xeusta  (</.  v.)  it  occurs 
only  at  the  anterior  end,  and  in  the  Tunicata  (g.  v.)  it  is 
developed  only  in  the  tail  of  the  larva^.  In  the  Vertebrates 
it  never  quite  reaches  the  anterior  end.  and  in  most  it  usu- 
ally undergoes  more  or  less  complete  degeneration.  Around 
it  is  a  sheath  of  connective  tissue,  the  notochordal  sheath,  and 
from  thickenings  and  ossifications  in  this  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebra"  are  developed,  and  with  their  growth  the  noto- 
chord  loses  its  supportive  value  and  becomes  more  or  less 
completely  obliterated.  In  adult  man  the  only  remnant  of 
it  is  the  so-called  "  nucleus  of  the  intervertebral  disk."  To 
the  naturalist,  one  of  the  most  interesting  features  con- 
nected with  the  notochord  is  that  it,  a  skeletal  structure,  is 
derived  from  the  alimentary  tract,  and  hence  is  entodermal 
in  origin.     See  Embryology.  J.  S.  Kingsley'. 

Notopter'idae  [Mod.  Eat.,  named  from  Notop'terus.  the 
typical  genus;  Gr.  vHirov,  back  +  -mepSv.  fin]:  a  family  of 
teleoceiibalous  fishes  of  the  sub-order  I'hysostoiui.  distin- 
guished by  many  peculiar  characters.  The  family  is  com- 
posed of  fresh-water  fishes,  attaining  considerable  size,  and 
peculiar  to  the  fresh  waters  of  India  and  Africa. 

Nototheni'idae  [Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Notothe'nia.  the 
typical  genus;  from  Gr.  *v6ToBiv.irom  the  south;  viJTos, 
south  -I-  -Bev,  from] :  a  family  of  teleocephalous  fishes,  of  the 
swh-ovAer  Acanttwpteri.  representing  in  the  southern  seas  to 
some  extent  the  codfishes  of  the  northern.  The  species  are 
all  inhabitants  of  the  southern  seas.  The  greatest  number 
belong  to  the  ty|)ical  genus  (Kotuthenia).  and  some  of  them 
are  abundant  on  the  S.  coasts  of  Soutli  America  and  con- 
tiguous islands,  as  well  as  Kerguelen's  Land,  Australia,  etc. 

Nott,  Eliphalet,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  educator ;  b.  at  Ashford, 
Conn..  June  25,1773;  graduated  at  Brown  University  1795; 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  that  year  and  settled  at  Cherry 
V'alley,  N.  Y..  uniting  the  duties  of  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  with  those  of  principal  of  an  academy;  was  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Albany  1798-1804,  acquiring  celebrity  as  a 
pulpit  orator,  especially  by  a  sermon  on  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander Hamilton;  was  electeil  president  of  Union  College, 
Schenectady,  X.  V.,  1804.  and  retained  that  post  until  his 
death  Jan.  29,  1866.  Dr.  Nott  accjuired  a  considerable  for- 
tune by  several  inventions  in  stoves  and  other  apparatus 
for  warming  buildings,  and  gave  large  sums  for  the  endow- 
ment of  Union  College  and  the  foundation  of  scholarships 
for  poor  students.  Under  his  management  Unicui  College 
became  one  of  the  strongest  literary  iustiliilions  in  the  U.S., 
and  3,700  students  were  graduated  from  it  during  his  presi- 


NOTTINGHAM 


NOVAKOVIC 


235 


dencT.     AinoiiK  his   publications  wpre   Coinis/'ls  to  Young 
Men  (1810)  and  Lectures  on  Te in /le ranee  (1847). 

Not'ti  nullum,  or  Nottiiiarliiiiiisliire.  or  Notts:  an  inland 
county  of  Kngland  ;  bounded  N.  by  Yorkshire,  E.  by  Lin- 
colnshire, S.  by  Leicestershire,  and  W.  by  Derbyshire. 
Area,  824  S(].  miles.  Tlie  eastern  part,  the  vale  of  the 
Trent,  is  level. and  low;  the  rest  is  hilly,  partly  consistinfr 
of  moorland,  partly  covered  with  remnants  of  the  famous 
old  Forest  of  Sherwood,  the  liaunt  of  Kobin  liood.  In  the 
south  are  the  wolds,  consistinff  of  upland  moors  and  pas- 
ture lands,  broken  at  intervals  by  fertile  hollow.s.  The 
f)rineipal  industry  of  the  inhabitants  is  the  manufacture  of 
ace  and  of  cotton  hosiery,  and  those  branches  are  devel- 
oped more  extensively  and  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection 
than  in  any  otiier  pari  of  England.  Much  of  tlie  surface  is 
laid  out  for  gardening  purposes.  Coal,  inferior  to  that  of 
Newcastle,  iron  ore,  marl,  and  good  building-stone  arc 
found.     l'o|i.  (1801)44."),.j!)!). 

Nottingham:  capital  of  the  county  of  Notts.  England ; 
on  the  Lceu,  near  its  junction  with  the  Trent;  38  miles  S. 
by  E.  of  Sheffield  and  126  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  London  (.see 
maj)  of  England,  ref.  8-1).  It  was  formerly  irregularly 
built,  but  its  appearance  has  undergone  a  great  change, 
owing  to  the  widening  of  the  streets  and  otiu'r  improve- 
ments. On  tlie  summit  of  a  rock  rising  abi'uplly  from  the 
river  stands  the  castle  (lG74-8:i),  built  on  the  site  of  a  Xor- 
man  fortress.  It  was  restored  in  1878.  and  is  now  an  art 
museum.  Close  by  is  St.  Mary's  church,  a  cruciform  struc- 
ture in  the  Per|)endicular  style  with  a  tine  tower,  and  a 
hanilsome  market-place,  ^i  acres  in  extent,  at  one  end  of 
which  is  the  Exchange,  rebuilt  in  1814.  Among  modern 
erections  are  the  Ciiildhall  (1888)  and  the  University  Col- 
lege, with  its  splendid  range  of  buildings.  The  latter  is 
chiefly  for  science  teacliing.  and  accommodates  in  its  wings 
a  free  library  and  a  natural  history  museum.  The  High 
School  (1868)  has  a  large  income  from  endowments.  Among 
modern  churches  may  be  mentioned  the  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral  of  .St.  Barnabas,  designed  by  Pugin,  in  the  Early 
English  style.  Then;  is  a  pulilic  park  of  l.-jO  acres,  and  a 
common,  called  Hulwell  Forest,  of  i:!5  acres,  besides  a  jjic- 
turesque  arboretum  of  17  acres.  The  Trent  is  crossed  by 
an  iron  aiul  granite  bridge  (1871),  and  the  Trent  Bridge 
cricket-ground  is  the  scene  of  the  home  msitches  of  the 
county,  which  for  many  years  has  been  the  berceiiu  of  first- 
class  cricketers. 

Nottingham's  manufaclures  of  cotton  and  silk  hosiery 
and  of  bobbiiu't  and  lace  are  mo.st  imjiortant  :  bicycles,  bas- 
kets, cigars,  and  needles  are  also  made,  and  iron  and  brass 
works,  malting  business,  and  trade  in  grain  and  cattle  are 
extensively  carried  on. 

After  having  been  occupied  for  some  time  by  the  Danes, 
■when  it  constituted  one  of  tlieir  five  boroughs,  it  was  re- 
stored and  repeopled  by  Edward  the  Elder,  who  rebuilt  the 
fortress  and  threw  a  bridge  over  the  Trent.  Parliaments 
met  at  Nottingham  in  1*34, 1337,  and  1357.  In  1642  Charles 
I.  began  the  Parliamentary  war  by  setting  up  his  staiulard 
here.  Nottingham  is  the  seat  of  a  sulTragaii  bislioji  in  the 
iliocese  of  Lincoln,  and  a  municipal,  county,  and  parlia- 
mentarv  borough,  the  last  returning  three  members  to  Par- 
liament".    Pop.  (1893)  220,.551.  R.  A.  RoBt:i{Ts. 

Nottingham.  IIexkaoe  Finch,  D.  C.  Tj.,  First  Earl  of; 
statesman  ;  .son  of  Sir  Ileneage  Findi,  recorder  of  London ; 
b.  in  Kent,  Dec.  23.  1621  ;  educated  at  Westminster  School 
and  at  Christ  Church.  Oxfonl ;  studied  law  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  164.5;  was  a  meniljcr  of  the 
Convention  Parliament  Apr.,  1060;  made  kniglit,  baronet, 
and  solicitor-general  liy  Charles  II.  .Iiinc.  1660;  was  returned 
to  Parliament  for  the  Cniversity  of  Oxford  1661;  be<'ame 
Attorney-tieneral  May,  1670;  LorJl  Kecperof  the  Privy  Seal, 
with  the  title  of  Baroii  Finch  of  Davenlry,  Nov..  1673  ;"  Lord 
High  Chancellor  of  England  Dec.^ii),  1675;  presided  at  the 
trial  of  Lord  Stafford  1680;  was*  created  Earl  of  Notting- 
ham May  12,  1681,  and  died  in  London,  Dec.  18,  1682. 
Famed  in  his  own  time  for  |iowers  of  oratory,  his  portrait 
was  given  by  Di-ydcn  under  the  character  of  Amri  in  his 
Al/.saldiii  and  Ar/iilo/j/trl. — His  son  and  successor  in  the  earl- 
dom, Daxiei,  Finch,  li.  about  1647;  educated  at  Christ 
Church.  Oxford;  becanu' a  privy  councilor  and  First  Com- 
missioner of  the  Admiralty  1679;  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners to  treat  with  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  1688;  was 
Secretary  of  State  undi'r  William  and  Mary  1689-93;  at- 
tended William  to  the  congress  at  The  Hague  1690;  was 
again  Secretary  of  .Stale  under  Anne  1702-04;  became  one 


of  the  lords  justices  for  the  administration  of  affairs  1714; 
was  Lord  President  of  the  Council  .Sept.,  1714-Feb.,  1715 1 
wrote  an  answer  to  Whiston  on  the  Trinity  (1721).  for  which 
he  was  thanked  by  the  University  of  Oxford;  succeeded  to 
the  earldom  of  Winchelsea  1729,  and  died  Jan.,  1730. 

Nonniea ;   cajiital  of  New  Caledonia  (g.  v.). 

Nonn  [from  O.  Fr.  noun,  nam  >  Fr.  nom  :  Ital.  name. 
Span,  nombre  <  O.  Sjian.  noiiime  :  Portug.  nonie  <  Lat. 
no  men,  luime] :  in  gramimir,  a  name  or  appellation  of  .some- 
thing, whether  it  be  a  substance,  creature,  i|uality,  action, 
Iihenomenon,  or  any  other  entity,  concerning  whicii  name  a 
statement  may  be  nuide  in  a.sentence.  A  verb  is  the  name 
of  something  as  trtdy  a.s  is  a  noun.  The  word  talk  is  the 
name  of  an  action.  "In  the  sentence.  Talk  is  cheap,  it  is  a 
name  concerning  which  a  statement  is  made;  so  in  the  sen- 
tence, It  ix  nil  for  talk,  it  is  a  noun  bv  virtue  of  its  func- 
tion. In  the  sentence,  7'/iet/  talk,  a  W(U-d  of  like  form,  if 
not  identically  the  same  word,  is  also  the  name  of  an  action, 
but  witii  dilferent  function.  The  adjective  is  a  name  of  an 
attribute;  so  is  a  noun.  In  the  sentence,  WIrile  in  a  color, 
we  call  wMte  a  noun  by  reason  of  its  function,  while  in  iron 
chain,  .•itone  irall,  names  which  commonly  appear  as  nouns 
serve  in  the  role  of  adjectives.  In  the  sentence,  7'here  are 
loo  niani/  if.t  and  atitlx.  the  conjunctions  if  and  and  are 
nouns  by  virtue  of  their  function.  The  distiiiguishing  char- 
acteristic of  a  noun  therefore  is  not  the  fact  that  "it  is  a 
name,  but  its  function  as  furnishing  subject-matter  for 
statement  in  the  sentence.  Fnjni  the  side  of  form  it  is  the 
distinctive  mark  of  the  nonn  as  contrasted  with  the  verb 
that  the  former  has  cases,  the  latter  persons.  This  distinc- 
tion is  developed  most  finely  in  the  highlv  inflected  lan- 
guages like  Greek  and  Latin." 

Nouns  are  either  concrete,  as  names  for  substance,  or  ab- 
stract, as  names  of  attriliute.s.  actions,  or  phenomena.  Con- 
crete nouns  are  either  common  or  proper.  A  common  noun 
is  an  appellation  which  may  be  shared  by  all  the  individuals 
of  a  class  or  ajiplied  to  the  entirety  of"  a  material,  as  majt. 
tree,  or  -irater,  wood.  A  pro]Ji'r  noim  is  permanently  and 
definitely  appropriated  to  mark  an  individiuil  person  or 
thing.  The  name  citij  may  be  applied  to  any  individual  of 
a  class,  but  Cliiengo  has  been  ai)])ropriated  like  a  tag  or  a 
trade-mark  to  designate  one  certain  individual.  Proper 
names  may  generally  be  traced  historically  to  common 
names  which  from  persistent  connection  with  individuals 
have  lost  their  meaning  and  become  purely  svmbolic  instead 
of  representative;  thus  NeuxaMle,  JVeuburg.  Neuchatel 
were  originally  common  names,  a  new  castle,  and  the  name 
Smith,  a  class  name,  smith.  Projier  nouns  may  in  their 
turn  become  common  when  extended  to  a  class  of  individ- 
uals sharing  the  prominent  characteristic  of  the  original 
holder  of  the  name  ;  thus  academi/,  czar  (Civaur),  palace,  a 
Xapuleon,  i.  e.  an  autocrat,  a  Judas,  i.  e.  a  traitor. 

Common  nouns  may  be  divided  into  material  nouns,  as 
water,  iron,  and  class-nouns,  and  these  into  indiviilual 
nouns,  as  man,  house,  and  collective  nouns,  aty  people. crotcd, 
army.  Bexj.  Ide  Wheeleb. 

Novac'ulite  [Lat.  novacula.  razor -l-  suffix  -ite'\:  a  fine- 
grained, gritty,  homogeneous,  siliceous  rock,  translucent  on 
thin  edges  and  having  a  conchoidal  fracture.  It  is  known 
to  occur  at  several  localities  in  Eurojie,  in  Chimi.  and  in 
Georgia  and  the  Carolinas,  and  it  constitutes  an  important 
Silurian  formation  in  Arkansa.s.  where  it  is  quarried  for  the 
manufacture  of  whetstones.  The  variety  quarrieil  contains 
99  5  per  cent,  of  silica,  and  is  so  compa3t  as  to  absorb  but  i 
per  cent,  of  water.  As  an  al)rasive  material  it  is  distin- 
guisheil  by  its  fineness,  and  its  chief  use  is  for  giving  the 
final  finish  to  cutting  edges.  Sec  the  annual  report  of  the 
Geological  Survey  of  Arkansas  for  1891.     G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Nova  (or  New)  Ooa;  See  Goa. 

Novakovif.  nov  liiik-ov'icli,  Stojan  :  author;  b.  at  Sabac, 
Servia,  Nov.  1  (o.  s.).  1842;  was  educated  at  Belgrade,  where 
he  became  professor  in  1865,  receiving  in  1867  the  position 
of  national  librarian,  lie  was  appointed  iMinister  of  Edu- 
cation in  1873,  and  reappointed  in  1874.  aiul  again  in  1880. 
During  his  term  of  ollice  he  reorganized  the  Servian  schools. 
In  1876  he  became  Profcs.sor  of  .Servian  Philologv  and  Lit- 
erary History  at  the  High  School  of  Belgrade ;" in  1883  he 
became  a  senator;  in  1884  Mini.ster  of  the  Interior;  in  1886 
resigned  and  was  appointed  minister  to  Turkey.  Jlis  great- 
est work  is  a  history  of  Servian  literature,  jstorija  srpske 
kniiietmosti  (1867;  '2(1  ed.  1871).  In  1869  he  published  an 
exhaustive  Servian  bibliography  for  the  period  from  1741- 


236 


NOVALIS 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


1867,  which  he  continued  in  tlie  Glasriik.  Of  her  noteworthy 
works  of  his  are  ^rpska  sintaksa  (8d  ed.  Belgrade,  1874) ; 
Kosovo,  a  collection  of  folk-songs  {3d  ed.  Belgrade,  1876) ; 
Primjeri.  an  historical  chrcstomathy  (1877) ;  Pripovefka  o 
Aleksandru  Velikom  (The  Servian  Alexandreis,  1878) ;  Srpska 
gramatika  (Belgrade,  1879).  «T.  J.  Kral. 

Novalls:  pseudonym  of  Priedrich  Leopold,  Freiherr 
VON  IIardenberg,  a  poet.  He  was  born  at  Wiederstadt,  a 
family  estate  situated  in  the  county  of  Mansfeld,  Saxony. 
M.ay  2,  1772;  studied  philosophy  at  Jena,  where  he  was 
deeply  influenced  by  Fichte  and  Schiller,  and  afterward  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence,  chemistry,  and 
mathematics  at  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg.  The  sudden  death 
of  his  betrothed  overwhelme<l  him  with  grief,  which  devel- 
oped into  profound  melancholy.  During  this  period  he  wrote 
the  famous  Hyiiinea  an  die  Nacht  and  the  Oeistliche  Lied- 
er,  the  most  perfect  of  his  poetical  productions.  In  1707  he 
went  to  the  mining-school  of  Freiberg  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  geology.  By  coming  into  renewed  contact  with 
life,  and  by  a  faithful  devotion  to  his  studies,  he  soon  over- 
came the  morbid  state  of  his  mind.  Shortly  after  his  return 
from  Freiburg  he  Joined  in  Jena  tlie  circle  of  young  writers 
who  gatliered  arouml  the  Schlegels  and  Tieck,  and  whi_)  are 
generally  known  as  the  founders  of  the  romantic  school  in 
Germany.  IMore  profoundly  than  any  of  the  other  members 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  the  unity  of  poetry,  philosophy,  and 
religion,  and  assigned  to  poetry  the  gigantic  task  of  solving 
the  final  problems  of  life.  To  the  principles  of  romanti- 
cism as  he  understood  them  he  tried  to  give  artistic  expres- 
sion in  his  unfinished  romance,  Heinrich  von  Ofterdinyeu. 
which  he  wrote  in  opposition  to  Goethe's  Willielm  JIaister. 
The  air  of  mysticism  surrounding  this  fragment  and  tlie 
deep  philosophical  thoughts,  frequently  assuming  the  tone 
of  oracles,  still  fascinate  the  reader,  though  as  a  novel  the 
work  must  be  pronounced  an  utter  failure.  It  was  only  in 
the  domain  of  lyric  poetry  that  the  vague  emotions  of  No- 
valis's  deeply  agitated  soul  found  their  adequate  and  highly 
musical  expression.  D.  at  Weisscnfels,  Mar.  25.  1801.  His 
writings  were  collected  and  published  by  L.  Tieck  and  F. 
Schlegel  (2  vols.,  1802;  3d  vol.  1846):  an  excellent  edition 
of  his  poems  was  made  by  W.  Beysehlag  (1869),  and  an  Eng- 
lish translation  of  a  selection  of  his  works  was  published  in 
London  in  1891.  See  also  A.  Schubart,  Nnvalis  Leben  (1887), 
and  I.  Bing,  Priedrich  von  Uardenberg  (1893). 

Julius  Goebel. 

NoTara,  no-vaa'nui :  town ;  in  the  province  of  Novara, 
Italy  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  2-B) ;  aljout  30  miles  \V.  of 
Milan,  on  a  rising  ground  in  the  midst  of  the  great  fertile 
plain  between  the  Sesia  and  the  Po.  The  cathedral  rivals 
St.  Ambrogio  of  Milan  in  antiquity,  having  been  founded 
A.  D.  400.  Charitable  institutions  of  all  sorts  abound,  and 
the  provision  for  general  education  is  liberal.  Novara  is  the 
largest  grain-market  in  Piedmont,  and  its  manufactures  are 
numerous  and  extensive.  Among  these  are  cotton  and  linen 
cloths,  starch,  candles,  sausages,  earthenware,  hides,  etc. 
Novara  is  of  [ire-Roman  origin  ;  its  inhabitants  were  noted 
for  their  industry  in  the  time  of  Pliny:  and  it  has  played  a 
considerable  part  in  the  history  of  Northern  Italy.  Early  in 
the  twelfth  century  it  was  taken  and  burned  by  the  emperor 
Henry  V.  In  1.500  Ludovico  il  Moro  was  held  a  prisoner 
here ;  in  1513  it  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  that  ended  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  French  from  Italy ;  in  1821  the  constitu- 
tional troops  were  here  defeated  bythe  Austrians;  and  here 
again,  in  1849,  the  Austrians  triumphed  over  the  Sardinian 
army.     Pop.  (1890)  19,577. 

Nova  Scotia  [Lat.,  New  Scotland]:  originally  Acadia;  a 
province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  consisting  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Nova  Scotia  proper  and  the  island  of  Cape  Breton, 
which  is  separated  from  I  lie  nuiinland  bv  the  Gut  of  Canso. 
It  lies  between  43'  25  and  47°  N.  lat.,  and  59°  40'  and  66"  25' 
W.  Ion.  Its  extreme  length  is  3.50  miles,  and  its  breadtli 
varies  from  50  to  100.  Total  area,  20.907  sq.  miles.  The 
peninsula  is  joined  lo  New  Brunswick  by  an  isthmus  13 
miles  wide,  across  which  a  shiii-railwav,  joining  the  waters 
of  the  Bay  of  Fniidy  and  15av  Verte.  is' (1894)  in  process  of 
construction.  The  coast  waters  of  Nova  Scotia  are  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  on  the  N.,  the  Atlantic  on  the  N.  E.,  E., 
and  S.,  and  the  Bay  of  Fundy  on  the  W.  (see  map  of  Quebec, 
New  Crunswick,  and  Nova  .Scotia). 

PIn/.iicn/  Peatiires. — The  province  is  intersected  by  chains 
of  lofty  hills,  and  is  itKhsiitcd  with  deep  bays  and  noble  har- 
bors all  along  its  coast.  On  the  southeastern  or  Atlantic 
side  there  are  twelve,  cajiable  of  affording  slicker  to  the 


largest  ships,  while  every  few  miles  along  the  shore  are 
smaller  harbors,  easy  of  access,  forming  an  admirable  shel- 
ter for  the  hundreds  of  flshing-vessels  which  ]ily  their  calling 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  The  shore  is  studded  with 
small  islands.  The  interior  is  covered  with  a  network  of 
lakes  whicli  find  their  outlet  in  numerous  small  rivers,  most 
of  which  are  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  from  5  to  12 
miles.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Shubenacadia,  Avon,  An- 
napolis, Lahave,  Musquodoboit,  and  St.  Mary's.  The  sur- 
face is  generallv  hillv,  but  the  greatest  elevation  is  only  2.100 
feet. 

Geology.— The  more  regular  geological  formations  run, 
for  the  most  part,  parallel  to  the  general  trend  of  the  Atlan- 
tic coast-line.  The  region  forming  the  southern  half  of  the 
peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  lies  on  the  Atlantic  in  the  form  of 
a  curved  wedge,  whose  apex  is  formed  by  Cajie  Canso,  and 
its  base  by  the  narrow  triple  belt  of  Silurian,  Triassic  sedi- 
mentary, and  Triassic  igneous.  This  area  is  essentially  Cam- 
brian, broken  in  several  districts  by  the  irruption  of  vast 
masses  of  granite,  and  in  many  places  well  covered  with 
drift  from  the  more  northerly  formations  ;  it  is  the  location 
of  the  extensive  series  of  gold-bearing  rocks.  The  Bay  of 
Pundy  is  warded  off  from  this  region  by  the  narrow  triple 
Ijulwark  already  mentioned,  consisting  of,  first,  a  huge  wall 
of  massive  Triassic  trap  about  120  miles  long,  containing 
very  interesting  minerals  and  forming  the  range  called  the 
North  Mountains.  Next  come  the  narrow  Triassic  intervals 
at  the  foot  of  this  range,  drained  by  the  Cornwallis  and 
Annapolis  rivers  toward  Minas  basin,  ami  covered  by  the 
waters  of  St.  Mary's  Bay  toward  the  Atlantic.  Lastly,  a 
Silurian  strip,  with  Devonian  patches,  lying  against  the 
l>arallel  range  of  the  South  Jlountain,  coterminous  with  the 
Cambrian  area. 

The  northern  half  of  the  peninsula  and  the  contiguous 
island  of  Cape  Breton,  to  the  eastward,  are  principally  occu- 
pied by  Carboniferous  and  Permian  strata,  through  which 
rises,  in  the  W.,  the  chain  of  the  Cobequid  Jloiintains,  a 
mass  of  ancient  igneous  rock  100  miles  long.  This  is  flanked 
on  the  S.  with  narrow  strips  of  Silurian,  Devonian,  Carbon- 
iferous, Triassic,  and  the  waters  of  the  Minas  basin.  Through 
the  Carboniferous  and  Permian  in  the  E.  jirotrude  in  irreg- 
ular patches  of  greater  or  lesser  extent  areas  of  old  igne- 
ous, Cambrian,  Silurian.  Devonian,  and.  in  the  highlands  of 
Cape  Breton.  pre-Cambrian  rocks  also.  Within  these  regions, 
from  the  Silurian  to  the  Carboniferous,  are  foiuul  great  de- 
posits of  iron,  limestone,  marble,  gypsum,  coal,  freestone, 
manganese,  copiier,  etc.  The  coal-fields  are  extensive  and 
of  great  value.  There  are  besides  vast  deposits  of  bitumi- 
nous shale  rich  iu  petroleum. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Nova  Scotia  is  remarkably 
temperate,  being  greatly  affected  by  the  ocean  currents 
which  surround  it.  The  extremes  of  temperature  are  not  so 
great  as  farther  inland.  Along  the  coast  the  mercury  rarely 
falls  to  zero,  but  occasionally  it  falls  10°  below;  in  summer 
it  rarely  reaches  90°.  For  Nova  Scotia  the  mean  tempera- 
ture of  summer  is  about  61°,  of  winter  about  23°.  The  aver- 
age mean  annual  temperature  is  about  42° ;  the  average 
annual  percentage  of  cloud,  60  per  cent. ;  average  precipita- 
tion of  water  (rain  and  snow)  per  annum,  about  45  inches. 
\\'inlry  weather  lasts  generally  from  Dcceinlier  to  March. 
The  spring  is  usually  backward,  but  vegetation  is  very  rapid. 
From  Jlay  to  November  the  weather  is  very  pleasant  and 
healthful. 

Aj/rictilliiral  Prodtic/s. — The  dike  lands  around  tlie  Bay 
of  Fuudy  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  production  of  hay. 
The  interval  lands  all  over  the  province  arc  rfch  and  pro- 
ductive. The  upland  is  of  varying  degrees  of  fertility. 
Wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  and  Indian  corn,  to- 
gether with  almost  every  variety  of  vegetables,  are  produced 
abundantly.  Apples,  pears,  plums,  cherries,  and  ,all  the  small 
fruits  of  temperate  climates  are  largely  cultivated.  Away 
from  the  sea  grapes  ripen  in  the  open  air.  Increased  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  cultivation  of  fruit,  the  Government 
having  established  a  school  of  horticulture  at  'Wolfville. 
and  considerable  quantities  are  shipped  to  the  English 
market.  In  1891  the  farm  products  included  165,806  linsli. 
of  wheat,  227,.530  of  barley,  1,5.59,842  of  oats.  .5.113,612 
bush,  of  potatoes,  63,391  tons  of  hav,  1,051,592  bush,  apples, 
9,004.118  lb.  of  butter,  589,363  lb.  "of  cheese,  and  1,072,234 
lb.  of  wool. 

The  forests  of  Nova  Scotia  are  very  valuable,  although 
they  have  been  greatly  injured  by  fires.  They  consist 
chiefly  of  white  and  red  pine,  oak,  tamarack,  rock  maple, 
hickory,  elm,  and  walnut. 


NOVA   SCOTIA 


NOVATION 


237 


Vii'isions  and  Population. — The  inovince  (including  Cape 
Hreton)  is  divided  into  eighteen  counties,  with  population 
in  1881  and  18i)l  as  follows  : 


Annapolis  — 

Aiiti^ouish 

rapt-  Breton.. 
I'.ilcln'ster  — 
( 'iitiil)t*rtaDd. . 

|iit,-l'.v 

(liiyNhorough. 

tlnlit'ax 

IlrtlltS 

Inverness 

Kind's 

I.uii'-nlmrg ... 

l'lc'l"U    

(^lu.-rn's 

Kichtiiond  . . . . 

Shi'llmrne 

Victoria 

Yarmouth 


•B.f. 


8-A 

2-C 
1-D 

a-B 

2-B 
2-A 
3-C 
.'J-B 
'Z-B 
1-D 
2-B 
3-B 
2-C 
3-B 
2-D 
S-A 
1-D 
3-A 


Totals 440.572    450,396 


Fop. 
1881. 


20,598 
IM.OliO 
31.268 
2U.?20 
2r.3B8 
19.881 
17,808 
U7.i)17 
23.359 
25.1)51 
2:j.4«9 
28.583 
35,535 
10^57 

islTai 

14,913 
12,470 
21,2&1 


Pop. 

1691. 


19.350 
1B,1I4 
34,244 
27,l(i0 
34.52'.l 
19,897 
17.195 
71,358 
2a,0.'-)2 
25.779 
22,4«9 
31,075 
34..'>4I 
10.610 
14,399 
14,956 
12,433 
22,216 


COUNTY-TOWNS. 


Annapolis 

Antigonish 

Sydney 

Truro 

Anihei-st 

KiKby 

Gnysborough . 

Halifax 

Windsor 

Port  Hood  ... 

Keutviile 

Lunenburg 

Pictou 

Liverpool 

Arichat 

Shelburne 

Baddeck 

Yarmouth 


Pop. 


2,427 
5,102 
3,781 
2,000 

38,556 
2,838 

L686 
4.044 
2,998 
2,465 


6,089 


*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  Province  of  Que- 
bec, etc. 

Principal  Towns. — The  chief  towns  are  Halifax,  the  capi- 
tal (pop.  :^8.r).")6);  Dartmouth  (C.249);  Truro  (.5.102);  Yar- 
mouth (6,080):  Lunenburg  (4,0-14);  Spring  Hill  (4,813):  Am- 
herst (3,781) ;  New  Glasgow  (3,77(i) :  Pictou  (2,!)98)  :  North 
.Sydney  (2..J22) :  Windsor  (2,838) ;  and  Liverjiool  (2,465).  The 
eastern  half  of  the  province  was  settled  almost  wholly  by 
.Scotch, the  center  and  west  by  English,  .Scotch,  Irish,  Amer- 
ican loyalists,  and  a  few  Canadian  French.  The  county  of 
Lunenburg  is  almost  wholly  German.  The  Miemac  Indians 
number  2.129. 

IndiLilries. — In  addition  to  farming  the  chief  industries 
of  the  province  are  tishing.  luml)ering,  and  mining.  The 
fishery  returns  for  1891  show  that  during  that  year  14,06.5 
vessels  and  boats,  valued  at  $1,416,048  and  manned  by  24,- 
070  men,  were  engaged  in  the  work.  The  catch  was  valued 
at  ^7,011,300;  comprising  cod,  .§2,464,082  :  m.aekerel,  $1,399,- 
694 ;  lobster.  $1,100,927 :  herring,  $621.722 ;  all  others, 
$1,423,97.5.  The  products  of  the  forest  included  202,938 
cubic  feet  of  white  jiine  timber,  3.082,940  cubic  feet  of 
other  timber,  and  5,19.5,498  pine  and  spruce  logs.  The 
principal  mining  industries  are  coal  and  gold.  In  1893 
there  were  mined  2,229,715  tons  of  coal,  while  the  [u-oduc- 
lion  of  gold  amounted  to  18,849  oz. 

Prior  to  the  introducti(m  of  steel  and  iron,  ship-building 
was  very  extensively  carrii'd  on.  .'V  large  inimber  of  vessels 
are  still  built,  the  number  on  the  returns  for  1802  being 
2,740,  with  a  tcmnage  of  425,870.  Since  1880  the  nuanufac- 
turing  industries  have  greatly  increased.  There  are  two 
large  sugar-refineries  and  a  cotton-factory  at  Ilalifa.x.  a  cot- 
ton-factory at  Wind.stu-,  and  a  cotton-iluck  fa<'tory  at  Yar- 
mouth, smelling-works  and  rolling-mills  at  Londoiulerry. 
large  iron-works  at  Ferona,  steel-works  and  glass-works  at 
New  Gla.sgow,  and  numerous  smaller  establishments,  includ- 
ing woolen-mills,  tanmu'ies,  foundries,  shoe-factorie.s.  can- 
ning-factories, agricultural-implement  works,  gunpowder 
ami  dynamite  works.  A  railway  system  connected  with  the 
great  lines  of  the  continent  extends  throughout  the  province. 
Religion,  Education,  etc. — According  to  the  census  of  1891 
there  are  in  the  province  122,452  Ronum  Catholics,  108,520 
Presbyterians,  83.122  Hapti.sts,  64,410  members  of  the  Church 
of  England,  54.1.52  Methodists,  5,882  Lutherans,  and  3.112 
C'ongregationalists.  The  Koman  Catholics  have  two  dioceses : 
the  archbishopric  of  Halifax  ami  the  bishopric  of  .Vrichat. 
There  is  also  a  bishop  of  the  (_'hurch  of  England,  whose  ilio- 
cesB  extends  to  Prince  Edward  Island  as  well  as  Nova  Scotia. 
Public  schools  are  supported  by  a  grant  from  the  Govern- 
ment amounting  to  $222,000,  and  by  direct  taxation  of  the 
municipalities.  In  1893  there  were  2.2-52  schools  with  2.319 
teachei-s  and  over  100,000  pupils.  Each  of  the  eighteen  coun- 
ties has  an  academy.  There  is  a  provincial  luirmal  school 
at  Truro.  There  are  also  six  colleges:  Dalhousie  College 
and  University,  at  Halifax,  which  is  non-denominational; 
King's  College  aiul  I'niversity  (Episco[)al),  at  Windsor; 
Acadia  College  (Baptist),  at  Wolfville;  St.  Francis  Xavier 
(lioinan  Catholic),  at  .-Vntigonish  ;  St. -Vnn's  (Koman  t'atho- 
lic),  in  Digby  County  ;  and  a  Presbyterian  Theological  Col- 
lege, at  Halifax.  There  is  an  institution  for  the  l)lind  ami 
an  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  at  Halifax.  The  prov- 
ince has  an  admirable  system  of  public  charity. 


IIi,itonj  atid  Government. — Nova  Scotia  was  visited  by 
the  Cabots  in  1497.  It  was  first  settled  in  1604  by  the 
French  under  de  Jloiits.  At  that  time  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick,  and  a  part  of  Maine  were  called  Acadia.  The 
settlement  of  Port  Koyal  was  attacked  by  the  Engli.sh  col- 
onists of  Virginia  under  Sir  Sanmel  Argidl  in  1614.  They 
captured  the  place,  and  claimed  the  territory  as  belonging  to 
England.  For  many  years  Acadia  was  a  l)attle-iield  for  the 
French  and  English.  In  1621  James  I.  granted  the  whole 
peninsula  to  Sir  William  Alexander.  It  was  then  for  the 
lirst  time  called  Nova  Scotia.  A  small  Scotch  .settlement 
was  formed  opposite  Port  Koyal,  but  it  did  not  [)rosper. 
After  numy  years  of  war  Nova  .Scotia  was  finidly  ceded  to 
Great  Britaiii  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  In  1749 
Halifax  was  settled  by  Lord  Cornwallis.  In  1755  the 
Acadians  were  ex|)elled  from  King's  and  Annapolis  Counties. 
The  struggle  now  went  on  for  the  island  of  Cape  Breton. 
It  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris.  1703. 
Nova  Scotia  joined  the  Dominion  of  Canada  in  1867.  The 
Dominion  pays  an  annual  subsidy  to  the  province  for  pur- 
po.ses  of  the  jirovincial  government.  The  province  also  en- 
joys a  royalty  on  coal,  gold,  and  other  minerals.  The  local 
legislature  consists  of  an  upper  house  of  twenty  members, 
and  a  house  of  assendjly  of  thirty-eight.  The  executive  is 
composed  of  a  lieutenant-governor  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor-general in  council,  and  eight  members,  three  with 
portfolios  and  five  without. 

AuTHORiTiKS. — See  the  histories  by  Haliburton,  Murdoch, 
and  Campbell ;  Nova  Scotia  ^Irc/u't'cs,  compiled  by  Aikeus; 
Dawson's  Acadian  Geology ;  and  the  public  documents  of 
Canada  and  Nova  Scotia.  Joh.n  Forrest. 

Novii'tian  (Lat.  JS''oi'alia'nus) :  a  schismatic  Koman  bish- 
op of  the  third  century,  sometimes  called  "the  first  anti- 
pope,"  founder  of  the  rigorous  Puritanic  sect  called  Nova- 
tians.  Perhaps  he  had  been  a  Stoic  philosopher.  He  was 
learned  and  eloquent,  but  of  melancholy  temperament ;  was 
baptized  by  sprinkling  while  on  a  sick-bed,  and  not  con- 
firmed, Vjut  notwithstanding  this  twofold  irregularity  .soon 
after  became  a  presbyter.  In  251  he  was  |icrsua(led  by 
Novatus  from  Carthage  to  be  made  bishop  in  oi)]iosition  to 
Cornelius,  but  was  formally  excommunicated  the  same  year 
by  the  dominant  party.  He  then  set  out  to  organize  an  op- 
position church,  but  according  to  Socrates  (Jlist.,  iv.,  28) 
sulfered  martyrdom  in  the  reign  of  Valerian  (253-260  a.  d.). 
We  have  a  letter  of  his  to  Cyprian,  in  the  name  of  the  pres- 
byters and  deacons  of  Rome  (E/)..  xxxi.).  Ue  wrote  alsi>  De 
f')7/).s  Judaicis  (about  250)  and  De  Trtnitate  (about  256).  a 
very  valuable  treatise.  There  is  an  excellent  edition  of  his 
writings  by  f'dward  Welchman  (Oxford,  1724),  but  the  best 
is  by  John  Jackson  (London,  1728);  those  mentioned  are 
translated  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (New  York,  vol.  v., 
pp.  308-311.  611-6.50).  The  sect  spread  E.  and  W.,  and  con- 
tinued till  after  450  A.  i).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksom. 

NoTiitiaiiism :  See  Novatiax. 

Novation  [from  Lat.  nora'tio.  liter.,  a  making  new.  deriv. 
of  nova  re,  renew,  make  new,  deriv.  of  no'vns,  new ;  cf.  Eng. 
neu']:  in  Roman  law,  the  substitution  of  a  new  obligation 
(see  Ohliuatiox)  for  an  old  one,  the  old  obligation  being 
thereby  extinguished.  In  the  new  obligation  the  parties 
nuiv  be  the  same  as  in  the  old.  or  there  may  be  a  new  ob- 
ligee or  creditor,  or  there  may  be  a  new  obligor  or  debtor. 
In  the  two  latter  cases  (which  come  under  the  head  of 
"delegation")  novation  was  resorted  to  by  the  Romans  be- 
cause in  princii)le  (as  at  English  common  law)  obligations 
were  not  capable  of  being  transferred  to  new  parties. 

Kn(/lisli  Law. — The  fact  that  novation,  like  other  Roman 
contracts,  was  inde])endent  of  "consideration"  in  the  Eng- 
lish sense  (see  Co.nsidkratiox)  makes  the  Konuui  pdes  of 
novation  hirgely  inapplicable  in  English  law.  Novation 
■without  change  of  parties  does  not  seem  to  bo  recognized 
at  all  ;  novation  with  change  of  parties  is  recognized  in  Imt 
one  class  of  ca.ses.  Where,  for  example.  "A  owes  B  £100 
and  B  owes  C  .t'lOO.  and  the  three  meet  and  it  is  agreed  be- 
tween them  that  A  shall  pay  C  the  .£100,''  it  is  said  that 
"  B's  debt  is  extinguished,  and  C  can  recover  that  sum 
against  A."  (liullen.  J.,  in  Tatlock  vs.  Harris,  3  T.  R. 
174.)  Such  a  transaction  is  .strictly  a  double  novation, 
since  the  new  contract  between  A  and  C  replaces  and  ex- 
tinguishes two  [irevious  obligati<m.s.  viz.,  that  of  A  to  H 
and  that  of  B  to  C.  It  comes  easily  within  the  I'Inglish 
rules  of  consideration,  because  C's  surrender  of  his  claim 
against  B  is  a  sufficii'ut  consideration  for  his  contract  with 
A  ;  B's  surrender  of  his  claim  against  A  is  a  suflicient  con- 


238 


NOVA  ZEMBLA 


NOVEL 


sideration  for  the  release  which  he  receives  from  C  ;  and 
A's  release  from  B"s  claim  is  a  sufficient  consideration  for 
his  promise  to  C. 

Both  in  the  Roman  and  the  English  law  the  substitution 
of  a  new  creditor  by  novation  requires  the  consent  of  the 
debtor,  and  the  new  creditor  sues  on  the  new  obligation — 
facts  which  in  both  systems  distinguish  novation  from  the 
cession  of  an  obligation  or  assignment  of  a  debt.  Both  at 
Roman  law  and  at  English  common  law  a  method  was  de- 
vised for  ceding  or  assigning  a  claim  without  the  consent  of 
the  debtor,  and  with  the  effect  of  enabling  the  new  credi- 
tor (the  cessionary  or  assignee)  to  sue  on  the  old  obligation. 
In  both  systems  the  method  devised  was  the  same — the  as- 
signee was  made  procurator  or  attorney  of  the  old  creditor, 
and  sued  in  the  old  creditor's  name.  (See  Mandate  and 
Power  of  Attorney.)  In  modern  European  law,  as  in  Eng- 
lish equity  and  the  modern  legislation  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  U.  S.,  rights  of  action  on  contract  are  regularly  assign- 
able, and  the  assignee  sues  in  his  own  name. 

3Iodern  Codes. — In  most  of  the  European  and  South 
American  codes,  and  also  in  the  codes  of  Louisiana,  Cali- 
fornia, and  North  and  South  Dakota,  the  Roman  rules  of 
novation  are  restated  with  little  change ;  but  the  impor- 
tance of  the  doctrine  is  far  less  than  in  the  older  Roman 
law.  In  modern  European  law  obligations  are  regarded  as 
capable  of  transfer  not  only  on  the  active  side  (to  a  new 
creditor),  but  also  on  the  passive  (to  a  new  debtor) ;  and 
although  in  the  latter  case  the  assent  of  the  creditor  is  nec- 
essary, it  is  not  assumed  that  a  new  obligation  has  been 
contracted  between  him  and  the  new  debtor.  Novation 
between  the  same  parties  is  regarded  as  possible,  but  an 
agreement  to  change  the  form  or  the  substance  of  an  obli- 
gation or  its  modalities  (e.  g.  time  or  place  of  payment)  is 
not  assumed,  in  case  of  doubt,  to  imply  the  creation  of  a 
new  obligation.  Munroe  S.mith. 

No'va  Zem'bla  (in  Russian,  Noi'aya  Zemlya,  i.  c.  New 
Land) :  two  large  islands  separated  by  a  very  narrow  strait, 
forming  an  enormous  crescent  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  and 
separating  the  Sea  of  Barents  from  Kara  Sea,  N.  of  North- 
eastern Russia  and  Northwestern  Siberia ;  belonging  to  Rus- 
sia. Area,  34,.500  sq,  miles.  They  are  uninhabited,  but  are 
visited  during  the  summer  by  whalers  and  hunters  of  bears 
and  reindeer.  The  islands  are  very  desolate,  and  have  been 
explored  by  Baron  Nordenskjold. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Novel  [from  O.  Pr.  novelle,  nouvdle  ( >  Pr.  nouvelle) 
piece  of  news,  liter.,  femin.  of  novel  (whence  Eng.  novel, 
new,  strange)  <  Lat,  novel'lus,  dimin.  of  no'vus,  new]  :  in 
English,  a  fictitious  prose  narrative,  which  describes  real 
life,  past  or  present,  the  term  romance  being  applied  to 
narratives  of  a  more  or  less  fantastic  character.  The  dis- 
tinction is  not  always  closely  observed,  and  no  history  of 
the  novel  can  be  at  all  satisfactory  without  including  fre- 
quent reference  to  romance ;  they  are  simply  two  kinds  of 
prose  fiction,  one  the  work  of  realism,  the  other  of  idealism. 

Early  Forms  of  Fiction. — Piotitious  narratives  are  found 
in  many  early  and  remote  literatures.  There  are  Chinese, 
Japanese,  and  Egyptian  novels,  and  toward  the  close  of  the 
ancient  Greek  literature  we  find  prose  romances  of  a  some- 
what fantastic  sort,  which  were  imitated  freely  at  the  time 
of  the  revival  of  letters.  In  Roman  literature  the  Meta- 
morphoses or  Oolden  Ass  of  Apuleius  is  the  only  survival  of 
a  form  of  story  that  was  extremely  common,  and  the  Sati/ri- 
con  of  Petronius  gives  us  a  satirical  representation  of  the 
corruption  of  imperial  Rome,  It  was  not  from  these  frag- 
ments, however,  that  the  modern  novel  arose,  but  rather 
from  other  sources,  one  of  which  was  the  collections  of  short 
tales  by  unknown  authors  that  appeared  in  Italy  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  The  most  important  of  these  was  called 
II  Novellino.  It  contained  a  number  of  stories  already  told 
a  thousand  times  in  prose  or  verse,  familiar  in  rhymed  fa- 
bliaux, or  as  historical  or  biographical  anecdotes.  They 
had  accumulated  from  all  sources — from  the  classics,  from 
the  East ;  they  were  the  common  property  of  the  world. 
There  were  many  collections  of  this  sort,  but  they  are  all 
mere  inchoate  beginnings  in  comparison  with  the  Decam- 
eron of  Boccaccio  (Vih'ii),  a  collection  of  100  tales,  also  gath- 
ered from  various  sources,  but  told  with  such  charm  and 
grace  of  style  that  the  book  became  the  model  for  modern 
prose.  Other  Italian  novelists  followed  in  Boccaccio's  foot- 
steps, a7ul  their  work  spread,  in  translations,  over  tlie  rest 
of  Europe.  It  was  the  English  play,  rather  than  the  novel, 
that  was  fed  from  this  sujjjily.     More  important  sources  of 


the  modern  novel  are  to  be  found  in  Spain,  a  country  which 
acquired  power  and  influence  as  Italy  lost  them. 

Spanish  Romance. — In  Spain  it  is  possible  to  observe 
many  instances  of  the  never-ending  conflict  between  ideal- 
ism and  realism.  Nowhere  has  the  division  between  these 
two  ways  of  looking  at  the  world  been  more  sharply  drawn. 
The  romancers  had  the  additional  charm  of  looking  at  a 
world  which  had  many  of  the  qualities  of  fairyland.  The 
most  celebrated  of  these,  the  Amadis  of  Gaul  (q.  v.),  forms 
the  link  that  connects  the  mediieval  romance  with  the  mod- 
ern novel.  While  it  is  a  fantastic  representation  of  the 
glory  of  chivalry  it  also  contains  much  of  the  tendency  to 
analytic  reflexion  which  has  become  the  main  cliaraoteris- 
tic  of  later  fiction,  and  it  led  directly  to  a  host  of  imitators, 
from  which  the  novel  was  laboriously  developed.  The  ori- 
gin of  {\ie  Amadis  is  very  obscure :  its  sources  are  to  be 
found  in  Poi-tugal,  Spain,  Prance,  and  England,  and  to  this 
innate  cosmopolitanism  it  owed  ]terhaps  a  good  part  of  its 
success,  for  it  became  po]iular  throughout  Europe,  It  was 
the  work  of  various  hands,  and  was  probably  first  printed 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  a  literary  represent- 
ative of  the  popular  taste,  and  was  widely  read  "in  its  many 
translations.  In  Spain  it  had  many  followers.  In  that  coun- 
try many  mediaeval  forms  still  survived.  The  long  conflict 
with  the  Moors  had  intensified  tlie  zeal  for  the  Church  as 
well  as  a  love  of  warfare,  and  both  these  feelings  found  full 
expression  in  the  romances  which  flourished  until  they  were 
smiled  away  from  out  the  world  by  Don  Quixote.  Their 
only  rival  in  popular  favor  was  the  pastoral  novel.  The 
first  and  most  important  novel  of  this  sort  was  Montemayor's 
Diana,  which  appeared  aliout  1559.  It  owed  much  of  its 
form  to  Sannazaro's  Arcadia  (1502),  itself  inspired  by  Boc- 
caccio's Ameto.  The  Diana  was  widely  translated  and  imi- 
tated. While  it  would  be  hard  to  devise  any  form  of  fiction 
that  should  be  less  like  life,  in  time  the  pastoral  secured  a 
hold  on  reality  by  the  habit  which  soon  became  common  of 
describing  real  persons  and  incidents  under  the  disguise  of 
sliepherds  and  shepherdesses  and  their  doings.  The  novel 
lay  hidden  beneath  those  cumbersome  trappings. 

Spanish  Novels. — The  realistic  novel  had,  however,  a 
more  definite  pedigree  in  that  alongside  of  these  unreal 
works  of  fiction  there  grew  up  in  Spain  another  and  very 
dissimilar  form  which  was  destined  to  have  a  great  vogue. 
This  was  the  picaresque  novel,  a  story  describing  real  life. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Spanish  picaro,  or  scamp, 
who  is  always  the  hero  of  these  novels.  The  first  to  appear 
was  the  LazariUo  de  Tormes,  in  1553.  It  was  written  by 
Ilurtado  de  Mendoza,  and  at  once  attained  great  success 
aliroad  as  well  as  at  home.  It  was  followed  by  other  stories 
of  the  same  sort  by  different  authors.  The  most  famous  of 
these  was  Guzman  de  Alfarache,  by  Jlateo  Aleman.  While 
the  extravagant  romances  gave  expression  to  the  most  seri- 
ous ideals  of  the  Spaniards,  these  new  picaresque  novels  in- 
dicated a  reaction  against  their  cloying  impossibility.  By 
the  representation  of  evil  deeds,  of  petty  mischief,  of  ridicu- 
lous misadventure  on  the  part  of  unmoral  heroes  of  low 
liirth,  many  being  reminiscences  of  the  medieval  tales, 
tliese  novels  became  not  merely  formidable  rivals,  but  severe 
criticisms  of  the  romances  which  were  already  hastening  to 
their  end.  The  death-blow  was  given  them,  as  was  said 
above,  by  Don  Quixote  (1605-15). 

French  Romances. — Both  the  idealistic  and  the  realistic 
novels  made  their  way  all  over  Europe,  but  it  was  in  France, 
then  acquiring  the  importance  which  Spain  was  losing,  that 
their  influence  was  greatest.  It  was  the  romance  that  found 
here  a  more  congenial  home  than  the  picaresque  novel,  for 
it  better  suited  the  artificial  society  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. D'Urfe's  Astree  was  the  most  famous  of  the  pastoral 
novels,  while  there  was  a  liost  of  heroic  novels  of  ponder- 
ous size  and  inflated  incidents,  such  as  La  Calpi'enede's 
Pharamond  (1647),  Gomberville's  Polixandre  (1637),  and 
Mile,  de  Scudery's  CleUe  (1660),  with  which  the  series  closed. 
Tlic  heroic  novels  deserve  to  be  mentioned  with  respect  for 
the  good  they  accomplished  in  expelling  the  pastoral  stories 
from  any  possible  authority  over  writers  and  readers.  Their 
imiiosing  formality,  their  fantastic  artificiality,  also  served 
a  good  purpose  in  portraying  models  of  decorum  and  honor 
for  the  civilization  of  a  number  of  readers. 

Realistic  Novels  in  France. — While  these  were  the  ac- 
cepted novels  of  the  century,  there  ran  alongside  of  them 
a  counter-current  of  realistic  fiction,  bearing  much  analogy 
to  the  Spanish  pioarescpie  novel,  from  which  it  sprang, 
Barclay's  Euphormio  (1G03)  is  the  earliest:  it  was  quickly 
followed  by  Sorel's  Francion  (1632),  the  first  French  novel 


NOVEL 


239 


of  manners.  Sorel's  Berger  extravagant  was  a  caricature 
ot  the  extravagant  pastorals.  Scarron's  Human  comique 
(1652)  ami  Furetieres  Roman  /louryeoix  {1606)  were  realistic 
novels  tliat  really  expressed  not  merely  a  literary  but  also 
a  political  reaction  afjainst  accepted  ideals.  The  lonj;  ro- 
mances fell  by  their  own  weight,  but  they  are  always  spoken 
of  with  respect;  the  realistic  stories  are,  however,  the  ones 
that  are  rea<l  by  posterity,  and  have  hail  the  most  influence. 
Mrne.  de  La  Fayette's  Princexxe  tie  ('If.i'es  (1678),  thanks  to 
its  brevity  as  well  as  to  its  delicate  sentiment,  still  survives 
as  a  study  of  passion  told  with  rare  directness  and  sim- 
plicity. It  marked  the  end  of  the  long  ronuitice  by  show- 
ing how  unnecessary  was  the  [lainfid  accumulation  of  mere 
incidents,  Le  Sage's  (tH  Jila-^  was  the  successful  realistic 
novel,  and  its  form  shows  how  dependent  was  this  school 
upon  the  Spanish  picaresr|ne  story. 

Beginnings  of  Hngtish  Fiction. — In  England  the  novel 
slowly  accpiired  importance,  .John  Lily's  Euphiies  (1579- 
yO)  Wiis  a  didactic  book  in  the  form  of  a  story,  Sidney's 
Arcadia  (1.5!(0)  was  the  Knglish  representative  of  the  pas- 
toral, but  the  novels  that  were  reail  for  more  than  a  century 
were  for  the  most  part  translations  of  foreign  nuisterpieces. 
The  heroic  romances  of  Spain  and  the  picaresque  novels 
were  both  extremely  popular.  These  last  inspired  crude 
imitations  in  T.  Xash's  Jac/c  Wilton  (1594).  and  in  The  Eny- 
lis/i  RiKjiti'  (166.5-71).  In  their  time  the  French  heroic  ro- 
mances were  also  translated  and  admired,  but  they  had  more 
direct  iMilueuce  on  the  drama  Ihan  on  fiction, 

English  \oivl,t. — The  uuist  important  forerunners  of  the 
Knglish  novel  were  Swift's  (fuUicer's  Tranels  (1726) — to 
speak  only  of  modern  times,  fantastic  voyages  had  already 
been  written  by  French  satirists — and  De  Foe's  Robinson 
Crusoe  (1719),  as  well  as  in  his  other  stories  now  almost 
wholly  overshadowed  by  that  more  famous  book;  but  satire 
is  never  a  lasting  inspiration — as  Rabelais  had  shown — ami 
Do  Foe's  masterpiece,  though  it  had  many  imitators,  founded 
no  school.  X  more  fruitful  source  was  "the  Spectator,  with 
its  intelligent  recognition  i>f  the  great  advance  in  power  of 
the  bourgeoisie,  and  with  Addison's  untiring  efforts  to  civil- 
ize this  elas.s.  When  they  had  acquired  power,  the  romances 
became  the  reading  of  tiie  ignorant  and  of  children.  Just 
as  the  flourishing  monarchies  of  Spain  and  France  had  pro- 
duced an  aristocratic  romance,  dealing  with  great  people 
who  were  envelojied  in  a  misty  splendor,  England,  now 
free,  began  to  portray  its  own  social  and  political  ideals  in 
the  modern  novel.  Citizens  became  the  heroes  in  the  place 
of  grandees  deposed,  and  they  preferred  reading  something 
near  their  own  experience  rather  than  a  mere  dilution  of 
fairy  tales.  It  was  France,  however,  with  its  longer  literary 
training,  that  produced  the  first  novels  of  this  sort,  though 
distinctly  under  the  influence  of  English  ideas;  and  Mari- 
vaux,  who  had  already  brought  out  a  sort  of  French  Spec- 
tator modeled  on  Addison's,  had  the  honor  if  not  of  inspir- 
ing yet  of  preceding  Kichanlsou  with  his  Marianne  (1731- 
41),  a  novel  bearing  much  resemblance  to  I'amela  (1740). 
In  both  mjvels  there  is  a  heroine  of  humble  birth  who  rises 
through  a  series  of  probable  incidents  to  a  position  of  com- 
fort and  .security,  of  perfect  respectability,  the  new  ideal. 
If  Marivanx  Wiis  the  first  to  do  this,  it  was  Richardson  who 
won  all  thi^  credit  for  it,  and  it  was  his  greater  seriousness 
that  si'curcd  it  for  him.  His  influence  lasted  throughout 
the  eighteent h  cent  ury,  and  he  was,  i f  possible,  more  warmly 
admired  on  the  Continent  than  in  England,  His  Pamela. 
Clarissa  Harlowe  (1748),  and  Sir  Charles  Grandison  (1753) 
all  indicated  the  importance  of  the  citizen  as  contrasted 
with  the  noble,  anil  the  strong  moral  inflnencres  that  were 
then  at  work  to  prepare  the  citizen  for  his  duties.  In  all 
his  novels  Richardson  preached  virtue,  prosily  it  seems  to 
US.  l)ul  eloquently  it  seemed  to  many  of  his  contemporaries. 
Fielding,  however,  agreed  with  modern  readers,  and  was 
moved  by  his  weariness  of  Richariison's  inartistic  praise  of 
virtue  to  describing  people  as  he  saw  them  and  not  as  mor- 
alists might  wish  them  to  be.  His  Joseph  Andrews  (\~,iQ) 
is  almost  a  caricature  of  Pamela.  It  is  easy  to  see  in  it.  as 
elsewhcfre  in  Fielding's  work.' reminiscences  of  the  Spanish 
[iicaresque  novels;  yet  what  in  those  books  is  meager,  dis- 
jointed, and  void  of  atmosphere,  becomes  in  Fielding's 
stories  a  vast  and  ainmated  picture  of  life.  The  influence 
of  Cervantes  is  more  important.  Especially  is  this  true  of 
Tom  Jones  (1749).  his  greatest  work.  In"  the  novels  of 
Smollett  we  also  distinguish  the  Spanish  influence,  as  well 
as  that  of  Le  Sage. 

In  Sterne's  Tristram  Shandy  (1759-67)  there  appeared  a 
new  spirit,  a  combination  of  humor  and  pathos,  delicate 


psychological  study,  and  total  disregard  of  incident.  Sterne 
had  read  many  French  books  and  had  learned  the  value  of 
suggestion  as  a  literary  instrument,  and  both  this  book  and 
his  Sentimental  Journey  (176S)  express  the  new  cosmo- 
politanism of  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  centurv.  It  is 
possible  to  see  the  influence  of  Cervantes  in  his  lunnor;  his 
sympathy  with  eccentric  persons  and  with  animals  is  a  sign 
of  a  growing  interest  in  objects  hitherto  ignored  or  derided, 
and  this  part  of  his  work  foretold,  though  dimly,  the  great 
change  that  was  impending.  He  was  also  preparing  for  it 
by  his  iconoclastic  denunciation  of  pedantry.  In  short,  he 
%yas  a  disturbing  writer.  In  Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wake- 
field (1760),  on  Ihe  other  hand,  we  find  the  graceful  opti- 
mism, the  exquisite  form,  of  the  best  work  of  the  centurv.  and 
an  apparent  unconsciousness  of  the  necessity  and  certainty 
of  change. 

Beginning  of  Modern  Romantic  Movement.— Tho  change 
in  England  had  begun  with  a  return,  already  perceptible  in 
other-  arts,  to  an  interest  in  the  Middle  Age.s",  Horace  Wal- 
pole's  Castle  of  Otranto  (1765)  introduced  Ihe  gloomv  clois- 
ters, the  knig"ht-at-arms,  the  wiiul  whistling  about  "battle- 
ments, all  the  parafihernalia  of  romance.  A  number  of 
novels  followed  in  the  same  direction,  for  instance,  Mrs. 
Radclitrs  Mysteries  of  Udolpho  (1794). 

Rou,^seau. — In  France,  meanwhile,  Rousseau's  Nouvelle 
Helolse  (1761)  had  opened  a  larger  study  of  the  world.  The 
book  was  filled  with  a  new  love  of  nature;  it  dealt  with 
novel  social  problems,  breathing  the  spirit  of  democracy; 
its  main  characters  had  an  infinite  capacity  for  suffering; 
it  contained  most  ardent  descriptions  of  the  familiar  pas- 
sion of  love,  and  the  whole  impression  made  by  the  story 
was  most  noteworthy.  We  find  in  it  many  reminiscences 
of  Richardson's  Clarissa  Harlowe.  a  strange  ancestor  for 
this  new  movement,  and  among  its  descendants  is  to  be 
counted  Goethe's  Werther  (1774).  It  was  on  the  Continent 
that  its  influence  was  greatest.  In  England  there  was  a 
reaction  from  the  revolutionary  spirit.  In  its  place  we  find 
amusing  pictures  of  life  by  Jliss  Burney  and  tales  by  Miss 
Jane  Austen,  and  unimpeachable  morality  taught  by  Miss 
Edgeworth. 

Scott. — It  was  Scott  who  gave  the  English  novel  world- 
wide importance.  He  expressed  most  vividly  the  patriotic 
and  median-al  revival  of  his  time ;  he  brought  back  the 
past  and  he  threw  a  new  light  on  the  present.  He  vivified 
history,  he  taught  the  love  of  nature,  and  delighted  genera- 
tions with  his  abundant  invention.  He  made  over  not  only 
the  art  of  novel-writing,  but  that  of  writing  history.  lit 
France  we  see  his  influence  in  Dumas  and  Victor  Hugo, 
and  in  Germany  the  historical  novel  still  survives,  though 
without  proving  a  dangerous  rival  to  Scott's  fame.  While 
Scott  inspired  many  followers,  the  new  problems  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  called  many  writers  away  to  their  discussion, 
Dickens  studied  social  alnises  and  often  hid  direct  practical 
teaching  under  a  mask  of  raillery,  Thackeray  drew  pictures 
of  the  new  polite  society,  and  his  acute  observations  and 
gentle  ridicule  were  miscalled  cynicism.  Bulwer  combined 
romanticism  and  the  study  of  the  present  with  more  popu- 
larity than  success. 

George  Sand. — In  France  George  Sand  enqjloyed  the 
novel  as  a  means  of  asserting  the  rights  of  women,  just  as  in 
England  Miss  Bronte's  Jane  Eyre  touched  the  subject. 
Balzac  made  a  profound  study,  half  romantic  and  half  real, 
of  the  motley  society  he  saw  about  him.  A  complete  view 
of  society  brought  into  fiction,  notably  in  the  work  of 
George  Sand,  a  new  cla.ss,  the  country  people,  whose  virtues 
she  set  in  sharp  contrast  with  the  vices  of  those  who  dwelt 
in  cities.  Auerbach  did  the  same  service  for  Germany  in 
his  Village  Tales. 

American  J\'oreli.sl.i. — J.  F.  Cooper  in  tlie  V.  S.,  inspired 
by  Scott,  had  drawn  rimiantic  pictures  of  the  red  Indian. 
Hawthorne,  with  far  more  literary  art  and  a  subtler  im- 
agination, described  New  England  life  in  the  past  and  in 
the  present,  and  also  Italy  in  The  Marble  Faun.  All  his 
pages  were  lit  by  the  last  and,  in  the  estimatiim  of  many, 
the  most  beautiful  rays  of  romanticism,  now  approaching 
its  end.  Mrs.  II.  B.  Stowe's  Cncle  7'oni's  Cabin,  with  its 
vivid  drawing  of  the  wrongs  of  slavery,  is  perhaps  more 
noteworthy  as  a  campaign  document  than  as  a  work  of  art. 

Realistic  Movement. — Everywhere  we  find  the  novel 
something  more  than  a  mere  piece  of  literature.  It  was 
continually  employed,  and  not  always  consciously,  to  ex- 
press Ihe  writer  s  emotions  and  interests,  sometimes  narrow 
or  special  in  its  aim.  Again,  as  in  George  Eliot's  hand,  wo 
find  life  criticised  in  its  relation  to  the  principles  of  mo- 


240 


XOVELLO 


NOVUM  OEGANUM 


rality.  It  is  easy  to  observe  the  gradual  change  in  the  meth- 
ods of  novel-writing.  The  great  wave  of  romanticism 
gradually  spent  its  force  after  enriching  the  world  with 
new  sympathies  and  a  larger  vision.  It  was  succeeded  by  a 
tendency  toward  realismr  In  Kiigland  the  two  had  long 
been  co'mbined,  as  in  Scott,  without  antagonism.  Balzac 
in  France  alternated  between  the  two,  but  the  movement 
toward  an  exacter  study  of  life  may  be  observed  in  him  as 
well  as  in  his  contemporaries.  Zola,  the  most  important  of 
living  French  novelists,  has  advocated  realism  with  tireless 
energy,  but  he  has  not  been  able  to  escape  the  influences 
under  which  he  was  born,  and  although  he  has  continually 
struggled  to  be  a  faithful  disciple  as  well  as  preacher  of  real- 
ism, his  work  often  contradicts  his  theories.  When  he  is  fur- 
thest from  the  literary  theory  whicli  he  detests,  he  is  only 
too  prone  to  substitute"  the  study  of  repulsive  details  for  an 
exact  study  of  life,  and  It  is  in  the  representation  of  a  great 
picture  rather  than  in  the  faithful  study  of  incidents  tliat 
he  is  greatest.  The  movement  toward  realism,  which  owes 
much  to  the  scientific  advance  of  the  present  diiys,  has  also 
been  greatly  aided  by  the  example  of  the  eminent  Russian 
novelists  Turgeneff  and  Tolstoi".  The  former  aided  tlie 
movement  for  the  abolition  of  serfdom  by  his  Stories  of  a 
Sportsman,  whicli  were  followed  by  longer  novels  written 
with  the  utmost  art.  Tolstoi  seemed  to  abandon  all  the 
current  theories  of  composition  and  to  portray  life  un- 
shaped,  but  crowded  with  event  as  we  see  it,  never  model- 
ing itself  into  a  rounded  whole.  In  France  Flauljert  and 
de  Maupassant  rigidly  confined  themselves  to  the  portrayal 
of  exact  truth,  and  the  movement  holds  sway  over  the  later 
novelists  of  the  U.  S.,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Scandinavia.  That 
this  is  but  a  temporary  movement  is  obvious,  for  every  art 
that  grows  cliauges,  and  already  among  the  younger  writers 
there  is  an  effort  to  give  greater  sway  to  imagination. 

Thomas  Sergeant  Perry. 

Xovel'lo,  VixcEXT :  musician ;  b.  in  London,  England, 
Sept.  6,  ITbl :  was  of  Italian  descent:  became  organist  of 
the  Portuguese  chapel  at  an  early  age ;  was  one  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Royal  Society  of  JIusicians  and  a  founder  of  tlie 
Philharmonic  Society ;  was  a  voluminous  editor  of  old 
musical  classics  and  composer  of  numerous  pieces  of  con- 
siderable merit.  D.  at  Nice,  France,  Aug.  9,  1861. — His 
daughter,  Clara  Axastasia,  born  in  London,. June  15,  1818, 
a  distinguished  soprano  singer  and  prima  donna,  married 
Count  Gigliucci,  an  Italian  nobleman,  in  1843.  and  retired 
from  the  stage  in  1860. — Anotlier  daughter  is  a  distinguished 
Shakspearean  scliolar.     See  Clarke,  JIary  Cowden". 

November  [from  IjaX..  Xovem'ber,  Xovem'bris  (sc.  meiisis, 
month),  originally  the  ninth  month  of  the  Roman  year, 
deriv.  of  /wre.m,  nine]  :  the  eleventh  month  of  the  year,  con- 
taining thirty  days. 

Nov'gorod  :  government  of  European  Russia,  bounded 
W.  by  tlie  government  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  comprising  an 
area  of  4T,2;!6  scj.  miU>s.  The  ground  is  low,  the  surface 
mostly  undulating,  tlie  soil  not  very  rich,  and  the  climate 
cold.  Lakes  and  navigable  rivers  are  numerous,  and  con- 
nected with  each  otlier  liy  canals.  Rye,  barley,  and  oats 
are  grown.  Large  forests  and  meadows  are  found,  and  tim- 
ber and  hay  are  the  chief  articles  of  export.  Pop.  (1890) 
1,254,900. 

NoTgorod,  called  also  Novgorod  Velikii  (the  great) : 
capital  of  the  government  of  XovgiU"od,  European  Russia  ; 
on  the  Volkhov,  near  its  issue  from  Lake  Ilmen  :  110  miles 
by  raU  S.  S.  E.  of  St.  Petersburg  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  6-D). 
It  is  an  old  town,  and  was  in  the  fifteenth  century  the 
largest  and  most  imjiortant  town  of  Northern  Europe.  It 
was  in  862  made  the  capital  of  the  Russian  monarchy, 
founded  in  that  year  by  Rurik,  on  the  thousandth  anniver- 
sary of  which  event  a  magnificent  monument  was  erected  in 
the  city,  which  otherwise  is  rather  poorly  built.  It  is  now 
entirelv  dependent  for  its  trade  on  St.  Petersburg  and 
Archangelsk.     Pop.  (1890)  20,599. 

Novikov',  Nikola!  Ivaxovich  :  writer;  b.  on  his  father's 
estate  in  the  government  of  Moscow,  Russia,  Apr.  27,  1744. 
Although  he  was  educated  for  the  army,  his  literary  tastes 
were  so  noticeable  that  the  Empress  Catherine  II.  had  him 
transferred  to  the  civil  service,  from  which  he  retired  in 
1768.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  Russian  journalists. 
His  first  paper  was  a  satirical  one  called  Trvien  (The  Drone, 
1769-70).  In  1772  he  founde.l  Zhiropisets  (The  Painter), 
which  had  a  great  success,  and  in  1777  he  started  a  monthly 
review  called  Utrenny't  Sret  (The  Morning  Light),  and  con- 


tinued it  for  years  under  various  names.  He  also  leased  for 
a  decade  and  gave  new  life  to  the  Moscoviikyla  Vedomosti 
(Moscow  Gazette),  previously  a  mere  official  sheet  of  the  uni- 
versity. He  reproached  his  fellow  countrymen  with  their 
mania  for  everything  foreign,  and  strove  in  every  way  to 
bring  the  best  national  things  into  honor,  not  only  writing 
Ah  Attempt  at  a  Dietionary  of  Russian  Writers,  but  pub- 
lishing nineteen  volumes  of  his  Dreimaia  Hossiskaia  Vir- 
liofeka  (Old  Russian  Library),  a  collection  of  documents  of 
historical  value.  He  had  become  a  Freemason,  and  in  course 
of  time  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  philanthrojiic  work,  while 
his  ideas  showed  an  increasing  tendency  toward  mysticism. 
His  fame  and  influence  grew  apace,  so  that  the  Masons  were 
for  a  time  the  fashion  of  the  day,  but  he  had  numerous  ene- 
mies, wliile  the  empress,  who  had  originally  supported  him, 
became  more  and  more  suspicious.  The  Frencli  Revolution 
brought  about  a  sharp  reaction  against  everything  that  sa- 
vored of  liberalism.  Severe  measures  were  taken  against  the 
Masons,  and  Novikov  was  thrown  into  prison,  from  which 
he  was  not  released  until  the  accession  of  the  Emperor  Paul. 
D.  July  31,  1818.  See  works  on  him  by  Longinov  (1867), 
Neselenov  (1875),  and  others.  A.  C.  Coolidoe. 

No'vi  Li'gure  :  town  ;  in  the  province  of  Alessandria, 
Italy  ;  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Apennines,  at  the  head 
of  a  wide  and  fruitful  plain  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-C).  It 
was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  having  four  gates  with 
drawbridges.  Novi  contains  a  public  lilirary.  museum,  acade- 
mies of  literature  and  art,  a  valuable  private  iiicture-gallery, 
and  silk-factories.  It  is  said  to  have  been  destroyed  by 
Attila  :  in  999  it  is  spoken  of  as  Corte  A'ora  or  Castro  Novo, 
and  from  that  time  till  1447,  when  it  gave  itself  to  Genoa,  it 
maintained  a  semi-independence.  This  town  gave  its  name 
to  the  battle  of  Aug.  15. 1799,  between  the  French  and  Rus- 
sians, in  which  the  French  general,  Joubert,  lost  his  life. 
Pop.  about  10,000. 

NoT'iilS:  a  Latin  writer  o{  fahiitce  Atellaiice  of  about 
100  B.  c.  Some  forty-three  titles  of  his  plays  are  known, 
and  the  fragments  (117  verses)  are  given  by  Ribbeck.  Frag. 
Comiconun  Rom.,  pp.  254-272  (Leipzig,  1873).         31.  W. 

NoTorosslsk  :  town  of  the  Black  Sea  district.  Russia :  30 
miles  S.  E.  of  Anapa  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  10-E).  It  is 
the  port  for  Yekaterinodar,  and  terminus  of  a  railway  opened 
in  1888;  also  the  port  for  the  Stanitza  Ilskaia  or  petroleum 
district.  Coal  and  ores  of  metals  are  found  in  tlie  neighbor- 
hood.    Pop.  (1880)  2,000  ;  (1890)  10,000.  M.  W.  H. 

Novo  Tclierkask  ;  town  of  Russia  (founded  in  1806) ; 
on  the  Don  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  10-E).  It  is  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  Don  Cossacks ;  is  finely  built,  has  a 
large  cathedral,  and  is  the  see  of  an  arclibisliop.  Its  manu- 
factures are  extensive,  and  it  carries  on  an  active  trade  in 
cattle,  grain,  and  wine.     Pop.  (1890)  38,476.  E.  A.  G. 

No'vum  Or'gamiiu  [Lat.,  liter.,  new  instrument  (or 
metliod)]  :  the  name  given  by  Francis  Bacon  to  his  great 
work  treating  of  the  proper  mode  of  studying  nature  in 
order  to  extend  the  dominion  of  man  over  the  inanimate 
world.  Bacon's  great  aim  was  to  recall  the  minds  of  men 
from  what  he  deemed  the  vain  and  useless  speculations  of 
the  ancient  philosophers  to  the  pursuit  of  the  practical  and 
useful.  In  order  to  present  the  different  points  of  bis  sub- 
ject in  a  manner  at  once  comprehensive  and  striking,  he 
has  given  them  in  the  form  of  a[)horisms.  In  the  second 
aphorism  of  his  first  book  he  tells  us  that  as  the  naked 
hand  is  often  unable  to  perform  its  projier  work  without 
the  aid  of  an  instrument,  so  the  human  intellect,  left  to  itself, 
is  comparatively  inefficient,  and  needs  the  help  of  instru- 
ments no  less  tlian  the  hand.  To  supply  this  need  he  coni- 
|)oseil  his  great  work  (published  in  1620),  comprising  the 
ripe  and  rich  results  of  a  life  of  study.  "  In  our  juilgment," 
says  Macaulay.  "  Bacon's  greatest  performance  is  the  first 
book  of  the  Xovtim  Organum.  All  the  peculiarities  of  his 
extraordinary  mind  are  found  there  in  the  highest  perfec- 
tion. Many  of  the  aphorisms,  but  particularly  those  in  wliich 
he  gives  examples  of  the  influence  of  tlie  idula,  show  a 
nicety  of  observation  that  has  never  been  .surpassed.  Every 
part  of  the  book  blazes  with  wit,  but  with  wit  which  is  em- 
ployed only  to  illustrate  and  decorate  truth.  No  liook  ever 
made  so  great  a  revolution  in  the  mode  of  thinking,  over- 
threw so  many  prejudices,  introduced  so  many  new  opinions. 
Vet  no  book  was  ever  written  in  a  less  contentious  spirit.  .  .  . 
What  we  mo.st  admire  is  the  vast  capacity  of  that  intellect 
wliich  without  effort  takes  in  at  once  all  the  domains  of 
science — all  tlie  past,  the  present,  and  the  future,  all  the 


NUWELL 


NUISANCE 


241 


errors  of  2,000  years,  all  the  encouraging  signs  of  the  pass- 
ing times,  all  the  bright  hopes  of  the  coiiuiig  age."  £iisaij 
on  Lord  liacun,  secoml  part,  where  will  be  found  niauy  elo- 
quent and  admirable  [jassages  upon  the  philosophy  of  Bacon, 
tnough  the  remarks  of  theeritie  on  the  ancient  philosophers, 
particularly  Plato,  arc  to  be  received  with  great  allowance. 

Now'ell,  Increase:  colonist;  b.  in  England  about  l.jUO; 
was  chosen  as  assistant  governor  of  Massachusetts  Colony 
1629.  previous  to  its  actual  foundation;  emigrated  with 
Winthrop  in  16;iO;  was  ruling  elder  of  Wilson's  church 
lG:iO-y2  ;  one  of  the  founders  of  the  church  in  Charlestown 
16;W;  comnussioncr  for  military  alfairs  on  the  occasion  of 
the  tirst  Pequot  war  1G34,  and  secretary  of  the  colony  1036- 
49.  D.  at  Boston,  Nov.  1,  lO.^.j. — Uis  son  Sa.muel,  b.  at 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  Xov.  12.1634;  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  16o3;  became  chaplain  in  Philip's  war.  and  assistant 
treasurer  16>^0-86,  ami  afterward  treasurer  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. He  was  a  stanch  supporter  of  ihe  old  charter,  and 
■went  to  England  in  its  behalf  in  16^8.  He  did  not  succeed, 
however,  in  accomplishing  anything  for  his  purpose,  as  he 
(.lied  in  September,  soon  after  his  arrival  in  London. 

Noyes,  Henry  Drurv,  A.M.,  M.I).:  ophthalmologist;  b. 
in  New  Vork  city.  Mar.  24,  1832;  graduated  M,  D.  from  the 
New  York  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in  1855  ;  was 
elected  I'rofessor  of  Ophthalmology  and  (Jtology  in  Bellevue 
Ilosintal  Medical  College  in  1864,  a  chair  he  still  holds;  was 
attending  surgeon  to  Charity  Hospital,  New  York,  1865-75; 
has  been  surgeon  to  New  York  Eye  and  Ear  Infirmary  since 
1869,  and  is  a  member  of  many  scientific  societies.  He  is 
the  author  of  A  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Eye  (New  Y'ork, 
1881):  a  Text-hook  on  Diseases  of  the  Eye  (New  York,  1890; 
2d  ed.  1894),  and  of  numerous  monographs  published  in 
medical  journals.  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Noypa. -louN  IlrMPHREV:  religious  leader ;  b.  at  Brattle- 
boro,  Vt.,  Sept.  6,  1811  ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in 
1830;  studied  law.  but  subse(piently  stmlied  divinity  at  An- 
dover  and  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  and  was  licensed  to  preach ; 
founded  iu  1838  a  community  of  Perfectionists  near  Putney, 
Vt. ;  removed  in  1847  to  Lenox,  Madison  eo.,  N.  Y'.,  where 
he  established  the  Oneida  Community  (q.  v.).  Subsequently 
he  established  another  branch  at  Wallingford,  Conn.  He 
was  the  author  of  various  works  sustaining  his  peculiar 
views.     D.  at  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y'.,  Apr.  13,  1886. 

Nil  (or  Nun) :  an  Egyptian  deity,  representing  the  pri- 
meval celestial  ocean  on  which  Ra,  the  sun-god,  sails  and 
whence  he  proceede<l.  He  was  called  "the  oldest  of  the 
gods,"  and  was  regarded  as  the  father  of  Ra  and  of  the  gods 
in  general,  being  the  author  of  creation  and  the  source  of  all 
things.  The  corresponding  female  principle  was  Nu-t  (jr 
Nun-t  ( =  Nile-water),  and  together  they  appear  to  have 
signifieil  the  male  and  female  personification  of  the  waters 
of  the  Nile  inundations.  C.  R.  G. 

Niibiil:  a  large  region  in  Northeastern  Africa,  forming  a 
part  of  the  Egyptian  possessions,  but  mostly  under  Malulist 
control  since  1882.  It  has  never  been  a  political  entity.  I)ut 
it  may  be  roughly  des(fribed  as  bounded  N.  by  Egypt,  E.  by 
the  lied  Sea,  S.  bv  Abyssinia,  Seiiaar,  and  Kordofan,  and 
W.  by  tlie  Liljyan  l)eser"t  and  the  waste  .S.  of  it.  Area  about 
3-")0.0i)l)  sq.  miles.  Lying  X.  of  the  region  of  tro]iical  rains, 
thi'counlry  is  excessively  dry,  and  not  unhcalthful;  agri- 
culture and  stock-raising,  the  main  occupations  of  the  peo- 
ple, are  confined  to  the  province  of  'I'aka,  a  few  oases,  and  to 
a  narrow  fringe  along  the  Nile.  The  most  arid  and  desolate 
I)art  of  this  region  is  the  Xuliian  waste,  in  the  northern 
part  of  Xuliia,  which  wouhl  bo  impassable  were  it  not  for  a 
few  oases  and  wells.  These  verdant  spots,  scattered  through- 
out the  north,  have  made  a  numlicr  of  important  caravan 
routes  practicable,  and  for  centuries  a  large  trade  was  car- 
ried on  along  these  routes,  until  it  was  destroyed,  for  the 
most  part,  by  the  Jlalidist  revolt.  The  most  productive 
region  is  tiie  province  of  Taka,  in  the  extreme  .south,  which 
is  well  watered  by  streams  from  the  Abyssinian  highlands. 
The  people  area  mixture  of  Semitic,  Hamitic,  and  Negro 
elements,  speaking  dialects  of  the  Xuba  language  as  well  as 
Arabic,  and  fanaticallv  Mohammedan  iu  their  religious  faith ; 
they  number  probaljly  less  than  1.000.000.      C.  C.  Adams. 

S'lible.  nyooblrt  :  an  interior  province  of  Chili;  between 
ConcepciMii  iuid  the  .\rgentiTU'  frontier;  crossed  by  lal.  37 
S.  -Viva.  3.5.56  so.  miles.  11  lies  partly  on  the  steep  slope 
of  the  Andes  anil  partly  in  the  plain  "called  the  Valley  of 
Chili ;  the  soil  of  the  latter  is  very  fertile,  and  this  is  one  of 
the  chief  wheat-growing  provinces.  The  mountain  lands 
300 


vield  excellent  timber.  Capital  and  largest  citv,  Chilian, 
Pop.  (1«91)  estimated,  157,349.  IU-ruert  H.  Smith. 

N'libti :  a  Hyksos  King  of  Egypt,  who.se  reign  fell  400 
years  before  the  clo.se  of  the  reign  of  Kanises  II.,  as  is  shown 
by  a  granite  stele  erected  by  the  latter  at  Tanis.  (See  Rec- 
ords of  I  lie  Past,  ser.  i.,  vol.  v.,  p.  33  11.;  Aeqi/ptische  Zeit- 
schrift.  \H-:s,  p.  89-106;  1879,  p.  138-143;  Kirch.  Egypt,  p. 
76;  VViedenuinn.  .4f (/(//*/.  Gescliiclite,  \>.  295.)  This  tablet 
was  found  by  Mariette,  copied,  and  reburicd.  Recent  ex- 
cavators have  not  succeeded  in  finding  it  again.  If  the 
Exodus  of  the  Hebrews  occurred  under  Mene|itah,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Ramses  II.,  the  record  of  this  tablet,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  biblical  statement  that  the  sojourn  of  Israel 
in  Egypt  lasted  430  years,  wouhl  show  that  Joseph  lived  in 
the  time  of  one  of  the  early  Ilyksos  kings.  This  "  era  of  400 
years  "  is  the  only  example  of  the  kind  in  Egyptian  history, 
and  it  appears  to  have  been  u.sed  in  only  one  other  instance, 
the  reign  of  Bocchoris.  the  .scjle  king  (jf  the  twenty-fourth 
dynasty,  who  is  said  by  George  Syncellus,  quoting  Manetho, 
to  have  lived  990  years  after  Xubli.   Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Niicleobraiichin'ta  :  a  name  applied  by  de  Blainville  to 
thegroupof  molluscspreviously  called  by  Lamarck  Heterop- 
ODA  (q.  v.). 

Nucle'oliis  and  Nllfleus:  See  IIistolocv  (The  Cell). 

Nucleus  (of  the  earth):  See  Geology. 

Nudibranebia'ta  [Mod.  Lat.,  liter.,  naked-gilled  ones; 
Lat.  nu  diis,  naked  +  branchio',  from  Or.  ppdyxM.  gills]  :  a 
group  of  Opisthobraiichiate  molluscs  in  which  the  gills, 
when  present,  project  freely  into  the  water.  A  shell  is  al- 
ways lacking  in  the  adult,  on  which  account  these  forms  are 
commonly  known  as  naked  molluscs.      .See  Gasteropoda. 

Nueva  Espafia  (Xew  Spain) :  See  Mexico. 

Nuevo  Loon,  iio'iwT  vo-la-dn  ,  or  >'e«'  Ijcon  :  state  of 
Mexico :  bounded  X^.  E.  and  E.  by  Tamaulipas,  S.  W.  by 
San  Luis  I'otosi.  and  W.  and  X.  by  Coahuila;  separated 
from  the  frontier  of  Texas  only  by  a  narrow  portion  of 
Tamaulipas.  Area,  25,980  sq.  miles.  It  is  traversed  from 
N.  W.  to  S.  E.  by  the  eastern  Sierra  Jladre  ;  from  one-third 
to  one-fourth  of  the  territory  S.  W.  of  the  Sierra  is  in- 
cluded in  the  Mexican  plateau,  which  here  has  an  average 
elevation  of  about  6.000  feet ;  the  northern  and  northeastern 
portions  are  in  the  tierra  caliente,  low  rolling  lands  or 
plains  falling  toward  the  Rio  (irandc  and  varied  with  a 
few  isolated  mountains.  The  climate  of  the  plateau  and 
the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  is  mild  and  agreeable  ;  some  parts  of 
the  lowlands,  however,  are  hot  and  unhcalthful.  Rains  in 
1;ood  years  are  abundant,  but  they  are  very  irregular,  and 
droughts  sometimes  last  for  several  years ;  these  are  espe- 
cially felt  on  tlie  plateau,  where  there  is  a  lack  of  running 
water  and  springs.  IMuch  of  tlie  populat  ion  is  gat  hered  along 
the  northeastern  slope  of  the  Sierra,  a  well-watered,  fertile, 
and  very  beautiful  district.  The  principal  occupation  is 
agriculture ;  the  most  important  crops  are  maize  on  the 
higher  lands  and  sugar-cane  on  the  lower  ones.  The  mines 
are  rather  unimportant,  though  rich  silver  deposits  were 
worked  during  the  colonial  period.  Nuevo  Leon  was  settled 
during  the  last  vears  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Pop.  (1893) 
estimated.  271,987.  Hkrhert  H.  Smith. 

Nuisance  [from  0.  l''r.  noisance.  nuisance  <  Lat.  nocen- 
lin,  transgression,  guilt,  deriv.  of  noce're,  hurt,  harm] :  a 
rather  indefinite  legal  term  which  nuiy  be  said,  however,  to 
denote  those  acts  or  omissions  which  unlawfully  disturb  a 
person  or  the  public  in  the  enjoyment  of  property  or  the  ex- 
ercise of  common  rights.  In  the  early  English  law  nui- 
sance {noctimentum)  had  in  some  respects  a  broader,  and  in 
others  a  narrower,  signification  than  it  bears  at  present.  On 
the  one  haii<l,  it  was  confined  to  annoyances  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  a  freehold  ;  while  now  the  possessor  of  any  inter- 
est in  land,  and  in  some  cases  of  movables,  may  complain 
of  a  nuisance.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  applied  to  any 
form  of  such  annoyance.  Bracton  ojiens  his  discussion  of 
the  topic  with  this  statement  :  "  And  it  is  to  be  known  that 
of  nuisances,  one  is  tortious  and  hurtful,  and  another  hurt- 
ful (dnmnosnni)  but  not  tortious  (injnriosum)."  (3  De  Legi- 
bu.'i  AngHir,  ohs.  xliii.-xlvi.)  Now  the  term  is  limited  to 
harm  which  is  actionable,  which  produces  legal  injury  as 
well  as  damage. 

In  some  instances  (he  same  act  may  be  treated  by  the  in- 
jured party  as  a  nuisance  or  as  some  other  kind  of  tort. 
One  who  wrongfully  floods  his  neighbor's  land,  or  erects  a 
building  with  eaves  projecting  over  the  adjoining  premises, 
or  allows  a  tree  to  grow  so  near  his  line  that  the  branches 


242 


NUISANCE 


overhang  another's  propertv,  thereby  commits  both  a  tres- 
pass and  a  nuisance.  The  same  act  or  omission  produces 
two  wrongs.  One  ts  the  interference  with  the  possession, 
the  other  is  the  incommodity,  the  discomfort,  the  annoyance 
to  the  possessor.  Again,  a  person  who  maintains  an  inse- 
cure structure  which  endangers  his  neiglibor's  property 
commits  a  nuisance,  and  is  also  chargeable  with  actionable 
negligence  if  injury  ensues. 

An  act  or  omission  which  would  constitute  a  nuisance  at 
common  law  may  be  legalized,  and  thus  cease  to  be  action- 
able. It  is  not  to  be  understood,  however,  that  every  statute 
which  authorizes  a  person  to  do  a  particular  thing  or  to 
carry  on  a  particular  business  will  protect  him  from  lia- 
bility where  the  thing  is  so  done  or  the  business  so  car- 
ried on  as  to  constitute  a  common-law  nuisance.  As  a  rule 
it  will  relieve  him  from  any  public  prosecution,  but  it  will 
not  bar  a  private  action,  unless  it  shows  a  clear  intent  on  the 
part  of  the  legislature  to  authorize  the  affair  even  though 
a  nuisance  should  result.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  two 
decisions  of  the  House  of  Lords.  In  one  (Ihtropolitdn 
Asylnm  District  vs.  Hill.  6  Appeal  Cases  193 ;  cf.  Morton 
vs.  Mayor,  etc.,  of  New  York,  140  N.  Y.  207)  it  was  held 
that  the  statute  in  question  empowered  the  district  to  build 
a  smallpox  hospital  only  in  case  this  could  be  done  with- 
out creating  a  nuisance.  Its  hospital  turned  out  to  be  a 
nuisance  to  Hill,  and  the  statute  in  no  way  affected  his 
rights.  In  the  other  (London  liy.  Co.  vs.  Truman.  11  Ap- 
peal Cases  i^)}  it  was  held  that  the  company  received  au- 
thority by  statute  to  build  its  road  and  maintain  a  cattle- 
yard  whether  a  nuisance  was  created  or  not.  Hence  the 
property-owners  who  suffered  extreme  discomfort  by  reason 
of  the  noises  and  odors  of  the  cattle-yard  were  witliout  re- 
dress. In  the  U.  S.  legislative  power  is  limited  by  constitu- 
tional provisions,  and  a  statute  undertaking  to  legalize  a 
nuisance  may  be  unconstitutional  as  an  attempt  to  authorize 
the  taking  of  propertv  without  compensation.  Baltimore 
By.  Co.  vs.  Fifth  Baptist  Church.  108  U.  S.  317. 

Public  Nuisance. — An  act  or  omission  which  endangers 
the  lives,  safety,  health,  property,  or  comfort  of  the  public, 
or  by  which  the  public  are  obstructed  in  the  enjoyment  of 
any  common  right,  is  a  public  nuisance.  The  obstruction 
of  highways,  disorderly  houses,  indecent  perfonnances  in 
public,  exhibiting  or  selling  obscene  articles,  selling  diseased 
food,  the  public  exposure  of  per-sons  having  contagious  dis- 
eases, the  pollution  of  water  used  by  the  public,  the  manu- 
facture, storage,  or  display  of  dangerous  explosives  to  the 
peril  of  the  public,  the  exercise  of  offensive  trades  in  thickly 
settled  neighborhoods  or  adjoining  public  thoroughfares  are 
examples.  There  is  considerable  authority  for  the  state' 
raent  that  a  purpresture  or  encroachment  upon  public  prop- 
erty does  not  amount  to  a  nuisance  unless  it  subjects  the 
public  to  some  degree  of  inconvenience.  The  tendency  of 
modern  decisions,  however,  is  to  treat  every  unlegalized 
purpresture  as  a  nuisance  per  .se.  Persons  responsible  for  a 
pulAic  nuisance  may  be  proceeded  against,  at  common  law 
and  under  modern  statutes,  by  indictment  for  a  misde- 
meanor. Upon  conviction  the  court  may  subject  them  to 
fine  and  imprisonment,  and.  if  the  nuisance  still  continues, 
may  order  its  abatement.  It  may  be  abated  also  without 
indictment  in  a  suit  by  the  proper  officer  in  behalf  of  the 
crown  or  people,  but  a  mol)  has  no  right  to  act  for  the  pub- 
lie  in  abating  it.  Nor  does  aljatement  extend  to  the  de- 
struction of  property  which  does  not  of  itself  constitute 
the  nuisance,  but  is  merely  accessory  to  it.  Brightman  vs. 
Inhabitants  of  Bristol,  6.5  Maine  426. 

Whether  a  public  nuisance  will  sustain  a  private  action, 
either  for  damages  or  abatement,  depends  upon  the  harm  it 
inflicts  upon  the  individual  complaining.  If  it  is  a  dis- 
turbance of  all  persons  alike  in  the  enjoyment  of  common 
rights,  the  injury  of  any  individual  is  said  "  to  be  merged 
in  the  common  nuisance  ami  injury  to  all  citizens,  and  the 
right  is  to  be  vindicated  and  the  wrong  punished  by  a  pub- 
lic prosecution,  and  not  by  a  multijilicity  of  separate  actions 
in  favor  of  private  persons."  Where  the  public  nuisance, 
however,  produces  particular  damage  to  an  individual  be- 
yond that  which  he  suffers  in  common  with  his  fellows,  he 
may  bring  a  private  action.  Accordingly,  one  whose  resi- 
dence is  rendered  unfit  for  comfortable  or  respectable  occu- 
pation by  an  ailjoining  house  of  prostitution  can  maintain 
an  action  against  those  responsilile  for  the  nuisance.  Craw- 
ford vs.  Tyrrell.  128  N.  Y.  341. 

Prirnte  Nuisance. — This  "affects  only  one  person  or  a 
determinate  number  of  persons,  and  is  the  grouixl  of  civil 
proceedings  only."     It  is  no  defense  to  an  action  for  a  nui- 


sance that  it  benefits  more  persons  than  it  harms.  A  street- 
railway  may  improve  greatly  its  passenger  service  by  sub- 
stituting steam  motors  for  horses  ;  but  unless  the  change  is 
authorized  by  legislation,  and  in  the  U.  S.  com])ensation  is 
made  to  aljutting  land-owners  f(ir  the  interference  with  their 
easements  of  access,  of  light,  and  of  air,  the  benefit  conferred 
on  its  many  patrons  will  be  no  answer  to  a  suit  by  one  whose 
premises  are  injured  and  made  uncomfortable  by  the  noise, 
the  vibrations,  the  cinders,  the  smoke,  and  the  dust  resulting 
from  the  new  a]ipliances.  {Bassner  vs.  Brooklyn  City  By., 
114  X.  Y.  443.)  Xor  can  the  defendant  relieve  himself  from 
lialiility  by  showing  that  he  has  exercised  the  utmost  care 
to  save  the  plaintili  from  harm.  The  essence  of  the  wrong 
we  are  now  considering  is  tlie  unlawful  incommodity  to  the 
plaintiff,  not  the  negligence  nor  the  bad  motive  of  the  defend- 
ant. A  man  "  may  not.  under  color  of  enjoying  his  own,  set 
up  a  nuisance  which  deprives  another  of  the  enjoyment  of 
his  property."  (See  Hauck  vs.  Tide  Water  Pipe  Line  Co., 
I.i3  Penn.  366.)  It  is  no  justification  for  a  nuisance  that  the 
defendant  has  maintained  it  for  many  years  without  com- 
plaint; nor  that  he  was  careful  to  establish  it  in  a  suitable 
place,  distant  from  habitations :  nor  that  the  plaintiff  bought 
and  took  possession  of  his  property  with  knowledge  of  the 
nuisance.  If  it  were,  a  person  might  prevent  the  growth  of 
a  town,  or  the  proper  development  of  a  locality,  by  estab- 
lishing a  useful  but  offensive  business,  such  as  burning  lime, 
smelting  copper,  manufacturing  gas,  or  slaughtering  animals. 
Any  place  where  an  oiieration  is  carried  on,  so  that  it  does 
actionable  injury  to  another,  is  not,  in  the  meaning  of  the 
law.  a  suitable  place.  St.  Heletis  Smelting  Co.  vs.  Tipping, 
11  House  of  Lords  Cases  642. 

However,  the  place  where  an  alleged  nuisance  is  main- 
tained is  often  a  circumstance  of  importance  in  determining 
whether  the  plaintiff  has  sustained  actionable  injury.  A 
man  who  chooses  to  reside  in  a  city  must  endure  the  noises 
and  discomforts  which  are  incident  to  the  locality.  He  has 
no  right  to  complain  if  his  neighbor  blasts  rock,  or  erects  an 
iron  building  to  his  temporary  annoyance.  (Booth  vs.  Rail- 
way. 140  X.  Y.  267.)  So  a  man  having  an  estate  under 
which  tliere  are  veins  of  valuable  minerals  "  must  take  the 
gift  with  the  consequences  and  concomitants  of  the  mineral 
wealth  in  which  he  is  a  participator."  Were  persons  so 
circumstanced  allowed  to  stand  on  their  extreme  rights,  the 
business  of  the  whole  country  would  be  seriously  hampered. 

The  courts  have  found  it  impossible  to  define  the  amount 
or  the  exact  character  of  the  annoyance  or  inconvenience 
which  will  con.stitute  a  nuisance.  It  is  settled,  however,  that 
the  state  of  things  complained  of  need  not  be  actually  in- 
jurious to  health.  If  it  seriously  interferes  with  the  rational 
enjoyment  or  reasonable  comfort  of  the  plaintiff's  premises 
it  is  enough.  On  the  other  hand,  where  damage  to  property 
is  complained  of,  it  must  be  "  such  as  can  be  shown  by  a 
plain  witness  to  a  plain  juryman."  It  must  be  substantial 
and  actual,  not  contingent  or  remote  or  sentimental.  In  a 
leading  English  case  Lord  Justice  James  illustrated  this 
doctrine  in  the  following  manner:  "It  would  have  been 
wrong,  as  it  seems  to  me.  for  this  court  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VI.  to  have  interfered  with  the  further  use  of  sea-coal  in 
London  because  it  had  Ijeen  ascertained  to  their  satisfaction 
that  by  the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria  both  white  and  red 
roses  would  have  ceased  to  bloom  in  the  Temple  Gardens. 
If  some  picturesque  haven  opens  its  arms  to  invite  the  com- 
merce of  the  world,  it  is  not  for  this  court  to  forljid  the  em- 
brace, although  the  fruit  of  it  should  be  the  sights  and 
sounds  a)id  smells  of  a  common  seaport  and  shi]i-building 
town,  which  would  drive  the  dryads  and  their  masters  from 
their  ancient  solitudes."  (Salvinvs.  North  Brancepeth  Coal 
Co..  Law  Reports,  9  Chancery  Appeals  70.5.)  When  the 
nuisance  is  alleged  to  consist  in  defendant's  use  of  his  prop- 
erty to  the  inconvenience  and  discomfort  of  the  plaintiff,  the 
latter  must  show  that  the  noises,  the  odors,  the  sights,  or 
other  annoyances  complained  of  rendered  his  premises  un- 
comfortable to  ordinary  persons.  If  one's  right  to  use  his 
property  were  to  depend  upon  the  effect  of  the  use  upon  a 
person  of  peculiar  temperament  or  disposition,  or  upon  one 
suffering  from  disease,  the  standard  for  measuring  it  would 
be  so  uncertain  and  fluctuating  as  to  paralyze  industrial  en- 
terprises.    Rogers  vs.  Elliott.  146  ilass.  349. 

Partie.<t  Liable. — The  person  who  creates  a  nuisance  is 
answerable  therefor,  and  the  owner  and  occnjiant  of  land 
upon  which  it  exists  is  also  lialile.  ,as  a  rule,  where  he  has 
the  legal  right  and  is  under  a  legal  duty  to  keep  the  premises 
in  pnipercimdition.  Where  a  municipal  corporation  unlaw- 
fully authorizes  an  individual  to  commit  a  nuisance  it  is 


NDKHA 


NULLIFICATION 


243 


liable  for  all  resulting  damages.     Cohen' vs.  Mayor,  etc.,  of 
Xew  York.  113  X.  Y.  532. 

Remedies. — These  are  abalcmeiit.  damages,  and  injunc- 
tion. The  victim  of  a  nuisance  may  abate  it,  without  in- 
stituting a  legal  proceeding;  but  where  he  thus  takes  the 
law  into  his  own  liands.  even  in  ilefense  of  person  or  prop- 
erty, lie  acts  at  his  peril,  lie  must  be  prepared  to  show  tliat 
the  thing  abated  was  a  nuisance,  and  tliat  he  did  no  un- 
necessary damage  in  abating  it.  {People  vs.  Board  of  lltalth, 
140  N.  Y.  1.)  In  an  action  for  damages  the  plaintiff  nuiy 
recover  nominal,  actual,  or  exemjilary  damages,  according 
to  the  facts.  (See  Damaoks,  JIeasurk  of.)  "The  most  ef- 
ficient and  flexible  remedy  is  tiiat  of  injunction.  Under  this 
form  the  court  can  jirevent  that  from  being  <lone  which  if 
done  would  cause  a  nuisance  ;  it  can  comnumd  the  destruc- 
tion of  buildings  or  the  cessation  of  works;  and  its  orders 
may  be  either  absolute  or  conditioiuil  upon  the  fulfillment 
by  either  or  both  of  the  parties  of  sucii  undertakings  as  ap- 
pear just  in  the  ijarticular  case."  .See  Injunction;  also  Pol- 
lock's Law  of  Tort.t,  and  Wood's  Law  of  Xaigances. 

Francis  JI.  Burdick. 

Xn'kllii :  a  walled  town  of  Asiatic  Russia,  government  of 
Trans-Caucasia;  at  the  foot  of  the  Caucasian  Alps  (see  map 
of  Knssia,  ref.  12-0).  The  inhabitants,  consisting  mostly 
of  Persians,  Tartars,  and  Armenians,  with  very  few  Russians, 
are  engaged  in  breeding  silkworms.  The  vicinity  is  one 
garden  of  mulberry-trees.     Pop.  (1893)  35,894. 

NiiUiflcation  [from  Lat.  niillifiea'fio.  contempt,  liter., 
making  void,  deriv.  of  nulltlica  re,  despise,  liter.,  make  void 
<ir  as  nothing;  7iullii.s, none  +  fa  cere,  make.  For  meaning 
cf.  Eng.  null] :  the  act  of  making  null.  void,  or  invalid.  The 
■word  has  acquired  a  special  meaning  in  the  political  history 
of  the  U.  S.,  as  signifying  what  has  been  claimed  to  be  the 
right  of  one  or  more  of  the  States  in  the  American  Union  to 
declare  a  law  passed  by  the  national  Congress  unconstitu- 
tional, and  to  refuse  to  be  bound  by  such  an  act.  This 
claim,  of  course,  implies  the  right  of  each  individual  State 
to  interpret  the  Federal  Constitution  for  itself,  and  thus  to 
impose  a  check  upon  the  law-making  power  of  the  general 
(lovernment.  According  to  this  doctrine,  a  State  which 
nullified  a  law  of  Congress  was  entitled  to  all  its  former 

frivileges,  though  refusing  obedience  to  the  law  in  question, 
f,  in  case  of  such  nullification,  the  President  should  at- 
tempt to  enforce  the  authority  of  Congress,  the  enforcement 
would  be  an  unconstitutional  act,  and  the  State  would  have 
the  right  to  retire  from  the  Union. 

Jliatory  of  the  Doctrine. — Soon  after  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution  numerous  questions  arose  involving  the  rela- 
tions of  the  Federal  Covernment  to  the  individual  States. 
During  the  administration  of  President  John  Adams  there 
was  so  much  opposition  in  some  parts  of  the  country  to  the 
alien  and  sedition  laws  that  the  people  in  several  of  the 
States  boldly  took  the  ground  that  the  U.  S.  Government 
had  no  constitutional  right  to  pass  and  enforce  a  law  that 
was  manifestly  antagonistic  to  the  interests  of  any  individ- 
ual State.  This  opinion  took  the  most  formal  and  promi- 
nent expression  in  the  Kentucky  resolutions  of  1798  and  the 
Virginia  resolutions  of  1799.  In  the  Kentucky  resolutions, 
which  were  written  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  it  was  held  that 
the  (iovernment  was  a  compact  between  States,  and  that  in 
this  compact  the  Government  "was  not  made  the  exclusive 
or  final  judge  of  the  extent  of  the  powers  delegated  to  itself, 
and  that,  as  in  all  other  cases  of  compact  among  powers 
having  no  common  judge,  each  party  has  an  ecjual  right  to 
judge  for  itself,  as  well  of  infractions,  as  of  the  mode  and 
measure  of  redress."  Though  the  jieople  who  adopted  these 
resolutions  never  went  f\irther  than  the  expression  of  a  po- 
litical opinion,  the  resolutions  are  entitled  to  the  distinction 
of  having  definitely  formulated  the  doctrine  of  nullification. 
At  the  Hartford  Convkxtiox  ((/.  r.)also  free  expression  was 
given  to  opinions  of  a  similar  nature  in  regard  to  the  atti- 
tude of  Congress  toward  the  New  England  States.  The 
mo.st  striking  example  illustrative  of  the  doctrine  was  shown 
bv  some  of  the  Southern  States  nearly  twenty  years  later. 
The  occasion  was  the  passage  of  the  tariff  law  of  1838.  and 
the  attitude  of  Congress  towjird  the  Tm'ritorics  in  the  North- 
west. The  people  of  .South  Carolina  cleemed  the  action  of 
Congress  oppressive  to  the  .Southern  States,  and  accordingly 
advanced  again  the  theory  that  the  law  might  be  made  void 
by  State  action.  The  fiuestion  was  discussed  in  one  of  the 
most  memorable  debates  in  the  history  of  Congress  by  Sen- 
ator llayne,  of  South  Carolina,  on  the  one  side,  and  by 
Daniel  Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  on  the  other.     In  Web- 


ster's celebrated  reply  to  llayne,  delivered  Jan.  36,  1830,  the 
views  in  opposition  to  the  right  of  mdlification  were  put 
with  such  cogency  and  elocjuence  that  the  people  of  the 
North,  especially  of  the  Whig  party,  were  convinced  that 
the  doctrine  could  not  be  maintained  on  any  constitutional 
grounds.  The  people  in  the  South,  however,  were  by  no 
means  convinced.  Acconlingly.  in  Nov.,  1833,  soon  after 
(Jen.  Jackson's  second  election  to  the  [jrcsidency,  a  conven- 
tion was  summoned  to  meet  at  the  capital  of  .South  Carolina 
to  consider  the  question  still  at  issue.  The  convention  di'ew 
up  and  unanimously  passed  an  "ordinance  of  nullification," 
wliich  embodied  the  views  on  State  sovereignty  held  by  Cal- 
lujun.  (See  Calhoi'n,  Joun  C.)  Thi'  tariff  law  ju.st  enacted 
was  ]ironouuced  "  null  and  void,  and  no  law,  nor  binding 
on  tills  State,  its  officers,  or  citizens."  The  ordinance  also 
declared  that  no  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S. 
should  be  permitted;  that  any  appeal  from  the  decision  of 
a  court  of  the  State  upholding  this  onlinance  should  be 
treated  as  contempt ;  that  all  officers  and  jurors  were  re- 
quired to  obey  the  ordinance;  that  all  legislative  acts  to  en- 
force its  provisions  should  be  obeyed ;  and  that  any  meas- 
ures of  force  adopted  by  the  general  Government  for  the 
purpose  of  levying  duties  on  the  foreign  commerce  of  South 
Carolina  would  justify  the  .State  in  regarding  itself  no  long- 
er a  member  of  the  Union.  Fortunately  for  the  country 
at  the  time  of  this  action  Gen.  Jackson  was  President.  His 
vast  popularity  in  the  South,  as  well  as  in  the  North,  gave 
to  his  authority  great  advantages,  and  he  did  not  hesitate 
to  act  with  characteristic  decision  and  promptness.  He  or- 
dered the  collector  of  customs  to  make  use  of  the  revenue 
cutters  and  any  other  vessels  that  might  be  available  for  the 
purpose  of  seizing  all  cargoes  liable  to  pay  duties.  On  the 
meeting  of  Congress  in  Dec,  1833,  the  President's  annual 
message  declared  that  it  was  his  intention  to  treat  all  armed 
resistance  as  treason  against  the  U.  S.  This  remarkable 
paper,  written  by  Edward  Livingston,  the  Secretary  of  State, 
not  only  set  forth  the  constitutional  objections  to  nullifica- 
tion with  great  power,  Init  it  also  showed  clearly  that  the 
Government  would  be  desperately  in  earnest  in  the  enforce- 
ment of  its  authority.  This  utterance  and  the  special  mes- 
sage addressed  to  Congress  in  Jan.,  1833,  very  generally 
commended  themselves  to  all  except  the  special  advocates 
of  nullification.  The  so-called  Clay  compromise  of  1833 
propitiated  South  Carolina  so  that  the  ordinance  of  nullifi- 
cation was  abandoned. 

It  would  not  be  correct  to  suppose  that  the  spirit  of  nulli- 
fication has  been  confined  to  South  Carolina,  or  indeed  to 
the  Southern  States.  In  1830  Ohio  i)assed  resolutions  ap- 
proving the  Kentucky  and  Virginia  resolutions  of  1798-99. 
Alabama  in  1838  entered  a  formal  protest  against  the  valid- 
ity of  the  tariff  of  that  year,  and  in  1831  prohibited  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  U.  S.  bank  in  that  State.  In  the  same  year 
the  Legislature  of  Maine  (Mar.  38)  passed  a  resolution  de- 
claring that  the  U.  S.  Government  in  fixing  the  boundary 
by  treaty  with  Great  Britain  between  Jlaine  and  Canada 
had  exceeded  its  constitutional  powers,  and  had  encroached 
upon  the  rights  of  the  State  of  Maine.  The  Ijegislature  as- 
serted that  the  Government  of  the  U.  S.  had  violated  the 
Constitution  of  the  U.  S.,  and  "imiiaired  the  sovereign 
rights  and  powers  of  the  State  of  Jlaine,"  and  that  "the 
State  of  Jlaine  is  not  bound  under  the  Constitution  to  sub- 
mit to  the  decision  which  is,  or  shall  be.  made  under  that 
convention."  It  further  resolved  that  no  decision  of  any 
umpire  provided  by  the  treaty  would  have  any  force  "un- 
less the  State  adopt  and  sanction  the  decision."  A  still 
more  striking  case,  involving  also  the  (piestion  of  boundary- 
line,  occurred  in  Wisconsin.  By  the  t)rdinance  of  1787  or- 
ganizing the  Northwest  Territory  the  line  between  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois,  and  the  territory  on  the  N.  was  deter- 
mined as  "an  east  and  west  line  drawn  through  the  south- 
ern bend  or  extreme  of  Lake  Michigan."  When  the  three 
Southern  States,  however,  were  organized  their  northern- 
line  was  fixed  so  as  to  iiudude  a  very  considerable  strip  of 
land  N.  of  the  boundary  designated  by  the  Ordinance. 
Jlichigan  at  a  later  period"  claimed  all  the  territory  to  which 
she  was  originally  entitled,  and  the  so-called  Toledo  war 
might  have  become  serious  had  not  Congress  satisfied  the 
claim  by  granting  to  the  new  State  the  u|i|)er  peninsula  as 
a  compensation;  but  the  claim  of  Wisconsin  could  not  be 
so  casilv  disposed  of.  According  to  tlie  line  established  by 
the  Onlinance,  Chicago,  Rockford,  Galena,  and  other  im- 
portant towns  of  Northern  Illinois,  besides  8,500  sq.  miles  of 
tlie  best  of  farming  land,  would  belong  to  Wisconsin.  From 
1838  to   1846  the  inhaliitants  of  the   territory  in  dispute 


2U 


NUMANTIA 


strongly  desired  to  be  a  part  of  Wisconsin  instead  of  Illinois, 
chiefly,' no  doubt,  on  account  of  the  State  debt  of  Illinois 
incurt-ed  tor  internal  improvements.  The  claim  of  the  peo- 
ple rested  on  the  fact  that  the  Ordinance  was  a  compact 
which  could  onk  be  annulled  "  bv  the  consent  of  all  parties, 
and  therefore  was  superior  to  the  Constitution  and  the  acts 
of  Congress  in  its  binding  force.  In  1843  an  address  to 
Congress  was  prepared,  in  which  the  people  declared  that  if 
their  request  was  not  granted,  tlie  people  of  Wisconsin,  '■  re- 
lyino-  on  their  own  resources,  and  looking  to  Him  who  aids 
the  injured  for  protection,  would  seek  in  themselves  for  that 
measure  of  redress  which  their  own  right  arm  can  bring 
them."'  This  belligerent  tone,  however,  was  ineffectual.  A 
majority  of  the  people  were  too  indifferent  to  the  subject  to 
venture"  upon  active  hostilities,  and  finally  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  U.  S.,  in  SIrader  vs.  Graham  (3  H.  589).  de- 
clared that  the  Ordinance  of  1787  '■  was  superseded  by  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.,"  and  that  the  six 
articles  forming  the  compact  of  the  Ordinance  "are  not  su- 
periiu-  and  paramount  to  the  Constitution."  Thus  the  claim 
fell  to  the  ground. 

In  the  same  State  a  conflict  of  authority  grew  out  of  the 
arrest  and  detention  of  a  fugitive  slave  in  1854.  The  U.  S. 
deputy  marshal  had  seized  a  fugitive  slave  by  the  name  of 
Glover  under  authority  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  A  local 
judge  issued  a  writ  oi  habeas  corpus,  but  as  this  was  not  re- 
spected by  the  U.  S.  authorities.  Glover  was  rescued  by  a 
mob  incited  and  led  on  by  an  editor  named  Booth.  Booth 
was  arrested  for  aiding  in  the  escape  of  a  fugitive  slave, 
and  at  once  made  application  to  A.  D.  Smith,  a  justice  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Wisconsin,  for  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus, 
on  the  ground  that  he  was  detained  under  an  unconstitu- 
tional act  of  Congress.  The  justice,  after  prolonged  argu- 
ments, discharged  Booth,  holding  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law 
unconstitutional.  In  the  decision  it  was  held  that  "  the 
State  will  never  consent  that  a  slave-owner,  his  agent,  or 
an  officer  of  the  U.  S.,  armed  with  process  to  arrest  a  fugi- 
tive slave  from  service,  is  clothed  with  entire  immunity  from 
State  authority."  Booth  was  then  arrested,  convicted,  and 
sentenced  by  "U.  S.  authority.  The  State  Supreme  Court 
issued  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus ;  but  the  action  was  overruled 
by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S..  and  Booth  was  remanded 
to  serve  out  his  term.  This  very  interesting  instance  of  con- 
flict of  authority  will  be  found  fully  discussed  in  1  Wis. 
Reports  1-218;  "ll  Wis.  517;  31  Howard  506-526;  and  in 
Hare's  Am.  Constitutional  Law,  1202. 

The  several  instances  given  are  enough  to  show  that  there 
was  throughout  the  country  a  more  or  less  prevalent  belief 
that  a  State  had  the  supreme  constitutional  right  of  ultimate 
decision  in  case  of  an  alleged  infraction  of  the  Constitution 
by  the  Government  of  the  U.  S.  The  attempt  of  the  several 
Southern  States  in  1861  to  secede  was  founded  upon  the  as- 
sumed right  of  nullification,  and  it  was  not  till  the  close  of 
a  terrible  war  that  the  question  was  authoritatively  and 
finally  settled. 

Authorities.— Hampden,  The  Genuine  Book  of  Nulhfl- 
cation  (Charleston,  1831)  contains  a  large  list  of  references 
to  cases  where  the  authority  of  the  general  Governinent  has 
been  either  defied  or  disputed.  The  question  of  constitu- 
tional right,  however,  will  be  found  most  satisfactorily 
treated  in  the  Debates  in  Congress,  especially  in  the  Speeches 
of  Webster,  Calhoun,  and  Hayne.  See  also  Greeley,  Ameri- 
can Contfict;  Stephen,  War  between  the  Stales:  Lincoln, 
Speeches  and  Messages ;  Xicolav  and  Hay,  Life  of  Lincoln  ; 
Histories  of  the  Civil  War,  by"  Davis,  Draper,  Pollard,  and 
others:  also  Thwaites.  Boundaries  of  Wisco7isi7i;  Sanford, 
State  Sovereignty  in  Wisconsin.  C.  K.  Adams. 

Numaii'tia:  an  ancient  city  of  Spain;  the  capital  of  the 
Celtiberian  Arevaci ;  situated  on  the  Douro,  near  the  pres- 
ent Soria  in  Old  Castile.  It  became  very  celebrated  on  ac- 
count of  the  heroic  Viilor  with  which  it  defended  its  inde- 
pendence against  the  Romans.  Of  its  population,  8,000  men 
were  capable  of  bearing  arms,  and  with  this  force  it  fought 
successfully  against  Quintus  Fulvius  Nobilior  in  153  B.  c, 
Quintus  Ca'cilius  MetelUis  in  143,  Quintus  Pompeius  in  141, 
Marcus  Popilius  La^nas  in  130.  and  Cneius  Hostilius  Man- 
cinus  in  137;  but  in  134  Publius  Cornelius  Soipio  the 
Younger  received  the  command.  With  an  army  of  60,000 
men  he  laid  siege  to  Xnmantia,  and  inclosed  it  completely. 
His  propositions  of  surrender  were  rejet'ted,  and  the  siege 
continued  for  fifteen  months.  When  Scipio  entered  the 
city  he  found  no  one  to  oppose  him.  Those  whom  plague 
and  famine  and  the  arrows  of  the  besiegers  had  spared  had 


NUMBER 

fallen  upon  their  own  swords.  He  felt  that  he  himself  had 
been  utterly  defeated,  and  in  his  fury  he  leveled  the  vacant 
houses  with  the  ground. 

Nu'ma  Pompil'lus:  in  the  mythical  history  of  Rome, 
the  successor  of  Romulus.  His  reign,  which  is  said  to  have 
lasted  from  715  to  672  B.  c,  was  regarded  by  the  Romans  as 
a  sort  of  golden  age  of  peace  and  prosperity.  All  the 
ecclesiastical  institutions  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  re- 
ligious ceremonial  of  the  Romans  were  ascribed  to  him,  and 
he  is  also  said  to  have  improved  the  social  and  political  in- 
stitutions of  Rome. 

Number  [from  0.  Fr.  nombre  <  Lat.  nu'merus,  number]  : 
abstractly  considered,  the  measure  of  the  relation  between 
quantities  of  the  same  kind;  in  this  sense  it  is  identical 
with  the  term  ratio  or  quotient.  Technically  considered,  it 
is  a  single  thing,  or  a  collection  of  things  of  the  same  kind  ; 
it  is  in  this  sense  that  the  term  is  generally  employed  in 
mathematics.  Bv  an  extension  of  meaning  always  permis- 
sible in  the  use  of  mathematical  terms,  the  term  number  is 
made  to  include  0,  x.  and  also  all  surds;  we  shall  use  the 
term  in  this  extended  signification  in  the  following  article. 
For  methods  of  writing  numbers,  see  Notation. 

Classes  of  Xumbers. — Numbers  are  divided  into  classes 
in  many  different  ways,  according  to  their  different  prop- 
erties. "The  names  of" some  of  these  classes  are  given  below, 
with  a  brief  statement  of  their  peculiar  properties. 

(1)  Odd  and  Even  Xumbers. — The  scries  of  integers,  0,  1, 
2,  3,  4,  etc.,  called  the  series  of  natural  numbers,  is  subdi- 
vided into  two  series — the  series  of  odd  numbers,  1,  3,  5,  7, 
etc.,  none  of  which  is  exactly  divisible  by  2,  and  the  series 
of  even  numbers.  0,  2,  4,  6,  etc.,  each  of  w-hich  is  exactly  di- 
visible by  2.  The  following  are  some  of  the  properties  of 
these  two  classes  of  numbers ;  1.  the  sum  or  the  difference 
of  any  two  even  numbers,  or  of  any  two  odd  numbers,  is 
always  an  even  number ;  2.  the  sum  of  any  number  of  even 
numbers,  or  tlie  sum  of  an  even  number  of  odd  numbers,  is 
an  even  numlier,  but  the  sum  of  an  odd  number  of  odd  num- 
bers is  an  odd  number ;  3,  the  product  of  any  number  of 
even  numbers  is  an  even  number,  and  the  product  of  any 
number  of  odd  numbers  is  an  odd  number;  4,  all  the  inte- 
gral powers  of  even  numbers  are  even  numbers,  and  all  the 
integral  powers  of  odd  numbers  are  odd  numbers,  and  con- 
sequently the  difference  between  any  power  of  an  odd  num- 
ber and  the  number  itself  is  an  even  number. 

(2)  Prime  and  Composite  Numbers. — A  prime  number  is 
one  that  can  not  be  exactly  divided  by  any  other  number 
except  1 ;  all  numbers  that"  are  not  prime  are  said  to  be 
composite— that  is.  composed  of  two  or  more  factors;  thus 
3,  3,  5,  7,  etc..  are  prime  numbers ;  4,  6,  9,  etc.,  are  composite 
numbers.     See  Prime  Numbers. 

(3)  Figurate  Numbers. — Figurate  numbers  are  those 
which  can  be  derived  from  the  general  form 

n(n  +  l)(?t  +  2)  .  .  .  (n  +  m) 
1.2  .3  ...  (TO  -H  1) 
by  making  particular  suppositions  on  the  arbitrary  integers 
TO  and  n.  If  we  assume  m  equal  to  any  whole  number,  and 
then  make  n  —  1.  2,  3,  etc.,  we  shall  have  one  series  of  fig- 
urate numbers;  by  giving  to  to  every  value  from  0  up,  we 
obtain  in  successi"on  an  infinite  number  of  figurate  series. 
See  Figurate  Numbers. 

(3)  Polygonal  and  Pyramidal  Numbers. — These  numbers 
are  so  named  because  they  express  the  different  numbers  of 
equal  spherical  balls  that" can  be  symmetrically  arranged  so 
as  to  form  certain  polygonal  and  pyramidal  figures.  The 
polygonal  numbers  are  "formed  by  taking  the  successive 
sums  of  the  terms  of  an  arithmetical  progression  whose  first 
term  is  1 ;  if  the  common  difference  is  1,  we  have  triangular 
numbers;  if  the  common  difference  is  3,  we  have  square 
numbers ;  if  the  common  difference  is  3,  we  have  pentagonal 
numbers :  and,  in  general,  if  the  common  difference  is  ?h— 2, 
we  have  )?i-gonal  numbers.     Thus, 

(  Arithmetical  series.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  6.  7,  etc.; 

\  Triangular  numbers,  1,  3,  6,  10,  15,  21,  28,  etc. 

(  Arithmetical  series,  1.  3,  5,  7,  0,  11,  etc.; 

]  Square  numbers,  1,  4,  9,  16,  35,  36,  etc. 

I  Arithmetical  series,  1,  4.  7.  10.  13.  16,  etc.; 

j  Pentagonal  numbers,  1,  5,  13,  32,  35,  51,  etc. 
Pyramidal  numbers  are  derived  from  polygonal  numbers 
according  to  the  same  law.     Thus, 

(  Square  7iu7nbers.  1.  4,  9,  16,  35,  etc.; 

}  Square  pyramidals.  1,  .5,  14,  30,  55,  etc. 


NUMBERS,   BOOK   OF 


NUMISMATICS 


245 


Here  each  miinbor  of  the  second  lino  is  fornu-d  by  aiUiing 
the  corresponding  number  of  the  first  line.  The  last  line  of 
numbers  j;ives  tlie  nunilier  of  equal  spherical  balls  that  can 
be  piled  in  dilterent  pyramids  having  scpiare  bases.  It  is  a 
general  principle  that  any  whole  number  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  1,3.  or  :S  triangular  numbers,  or  to  the  sum  of  1,  2,  3, 
or  4  S(|uare  numbers,  or  to  tlie  sum  of  1,  2,  3,  4,  or  5  pen- 
tagonal numbers,  etc.  Thus  the  number  23  is  ctivuil  to 
21  ^.  1  +  i_  or  to  0  +  9  +  4  +  1.  or  to  22  +  1.  etc. 

(4)  RvduiKhint.  Defective,  and  Perfect  yumbers.—U  the 
sum  of  all  the  divisors  of  a  number  (except  itself)  is  greater 
than  tlie  number,  it  is  said  to  be  redundant;  thus  12  is  a 
redundant  number,  because  1  +  2  +  3  +  4  +  C>  12.  If  this 
sum  is  li'ss  than  I  lie  number,  it  is  said  to  be  defective;  thus 
10  is  a  defective  number,  because  1  +  2  +  3  <  10.  If  this 
sum  is  just  eiiual  to  tlie  number,  it  is  said  to  be /)cr/ec< ; 
thus  6  is  a  perfect  number,  because  1  +  2  +  3  =  6.  If 
(2"  — 1)  is  a  prime  nuuilier.  then  is  2"-'  (2°  — 1)  a  perfect 
number;  thus  2''  — 1,  or  127,  is  prime,  and  2«(2''— l),or  8128, 
is  a  perfect  number. 

(.1)  Amicable  Numhzrx. — Two  numbers  are  said  to  be 
amicable  when  each  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  ;iil  the  divisors 
of  the  other.  Thus  284  and  220  are  amicabli'  numliers,  as 
are  172'.l(>  and  18410.  and  also  0363.583  and  !l43T0.5(i. 

(6)  Bernuulti'a  XumJjers. — These  are  tlie  coefficients  of 
the  different  |io\vers  of  x  in  the  series  obtained  liy  develop- 
ing the  expression  x(«»  — 1)-'.  These  numbers  are  used  in 
the  higher  branches  of  applied  mathematics,  and  for  this 
reiuson  they  have  been  eomputed  and  tabulated.  The  gen- 
eral formsof  Bernoulli's  numbers  may  lie  found  in  the  larger 
French  books  on  the  calculus.  For  a  complete  discussion 
of  the  theory  of  numbers  the  reader  is  referred  to  Gauss's 
Disquisiliunes  Arithmelicce,  Dirichlefs  Zahlenlheorie,  or  to 
Legendre's  Ussai  sur  la  Theorie  des  JS'oml>reit. 

Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Nnmbers,  Book  of:  the  fourth  book  of  the  Pentateuch, 
so  called  because  it  contains  an  account  of  the  second  cen- 
sus of  the  Hebrews,  made  at  Sinai  in  the  second  month  of 
the  second  year  of  the  Exodus  (ch.  i.);  it  also  contains  (cli. 
xxvi.)  an  account  of  a  third  census,  thirty-eight  years  later. 
Its  contents  treat  largely  of  the  history  of  the  tribes  in  the 
journey  through  the  wilderness,  and  in  it  are  also  portions 
of  the  Mosaic  Law.     See  Hexateuch  and  Pentatel'ch. 

Niimeriils,  or  Fig'iires  [nnmeraJs  is  from  Lat.  ntimera'lis. 
pertaining  to  numbers,  deriv.  of  nu'menis,  number]:  the 
characters  by  means  of  which  numbers  are  expressed.  See 
Notation. 

Nniiiorator:  See  Fractions. 

Niimiiria:  that  part  of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa 
which  extended  between  Mauritania  in  the  W.  and  Africa 
Propria,  tlie  ancient  territory  of  Carthage,  in  the  E.,  cor- 
respontling  nearly  to  the  modern  Algeria.  It  was  inhab- 
ited by  the  same  race  of  people  as  Mauritania,  the  Moors, 
the  ancestors  of  the  modern  Berbers,  and  it  was  divided  be- 
tween many  difTerent  tribes.  By  the  help  of  the  Homans, 
as  a  reward  for  his  support  in  the  Wiirs  against  Carthage, 
Massinissa  succceilcd  in  uniting  the  tribes  and  est;iblisliiiig 
an  empire,  several  of  whose  rulers  becanu'  famous  in  Roman 
history,  as  for  instance  Jugurtha  and  Julia.  In  4f!  n.  c.  Nu- 
midia  was  made  a  Koman  province,  and  the  Romans  formed 
several  colonics  here,  of  which  Hippo  Regius  was  the  most 
noticeable. 

Niliiiid'ida^  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Xu'niida,  the  typical 
genus,  from  Lat.  Nn'niida,  a  Numidiaii] :  a  family  of  galli- 
naceous birds  typified  by  the  well-known  Gi-inea-kowls 
(q.  ('.).  The  general  form  is  familiar  to  all,  and  in  this  re- 
spect all  the  species  of  the  family  agree,  the  body  being 
squat,  with  the  head  small  and  the  neck  comparatively 
long,  but  not  as  much  so  as  in  the  turkeys;  the  head  is  al- 
ways mori'  or  less  wattled  and  naked;  the  bill  moderate; 
the  nostrils  large,  oval,  and  [lartly  covered  by  a  membrane; 
the  tarsi  moderately  long;  the  hind-toe  a  little  elevated; 
the  tail  depres.sed  or  bent  downward.  The  family  is  sus- 
tained, according  to  Prof.  Huxley,  by  a  number  of  osteolog- 
ical  characters.  It  differs  from  all  others  by  the  absence 
in  its  representatives  "of  any  backward  process  of  the  sec- 
ond metacarpal, and  in  the  obtnsenessaud  somewhat  outward 
inclination  of  the  costal  processes.  The  acromial  process  of 
the  scapula  is  also  singularly  recurved."  In  most  other  re- 
spects, however,  it  agrees  essentially  with  the  Meleagridm  and 
PhasianidiT,  having  the  same  kind  of  sternum,  skull,  etc.,  but 
slightly  modified.     The  family  is  peculiar  to  Africa.     The 


speciesare chiefly  found  in  the  woodlands,  and  especially  along 
tlie  margins  of  rivers,  and  congregate  in  flocks  of  200  and  300 
individuals,  scattering  along  in  search  of  food,  which  con- 
sists of  insects  as  well  as  small  grains.  The  eggs  are  nu- 
merous antl  are  laid  in  a  rude  nest,  generally  concealed  in 
the  bush.  The  dozen  or  so  species  are  contained  in  three 
genera:  (1)  Xumida,  including  the  common  guinea-fowl 
(yumida  meleagris);  (2)  Agelaiitea, 'v;\\.\\  one  species;  and 
(3)  Phasidus,  also  with  one  species.  These  nearly  average 
in  size  the  domestic  species.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Niiinismat'ics  [from  Lat.  numis'ma.  coin  (by  analogy  of 
num'niuti,  coin),  from  Gr.  i/6fu<rixa.  something  sanctioned  by 
usage,  es]iecially  a  coin,  deriv.  of  mixiCfty.  own  as  a  custom, 
deriv.  of  vi/xos.  custom,  law] :  the  study  of  coins  and,  with 
these,  of  medals;  though  pro|ierly  only  of  those  struck  in  a 
die,  excluding  those  cast.     (See  JIedai.  and  Medallio.v.)    It 
has  been  usual  to  divide  coins  for  purposes  of  stuily  (omit- 
ting minor  details)  into  three  grand  classes:  (1)  Ancient, 
from  their  earliest  existence  in  the  seventh  century  B.  c.  to 
the  deposition  of  Roninlus  Augustulus  (a.  d.  47(5);  (2)  Jfe- 
(if'o'f'n/,  from  this  perioil  to  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century;  (3)  3/udern.  from  about  ITiOO  to  the  present  time. 
The  ancient  coins  are  classed  under  (1)  Greek.  (2)  Koman, 
(3)  Gricco-Oriental.  or  Byzantine,  under  each  of  which  it  is 
customary  (following  the  arbitrary  ari'angement  ]iroposed 
by  Eckhel  of  Vienna)  to  take  the  countries  in  tlicir  order 
from  W.  to  E.,  the  cities  of  each  country  being  placed  al- 
phabetically.    Of  the  three,  the  Greek  are  unquestionably 
the  most  important.     Heads  and  full-length  representatives 
of   divinities  and  legendary  persons  are   found  on  these; 
sometimes,  too,  celebrated  games — i^.  g.  those  of  Olympia — 
are  conunemorated,  as  in  the  chariot -r.ue  types  of  Syracuse; 
or  well-known  myths,  as  that  of  the  Laliyrinth,  on  coins  of 
Cnossus  in  Crete.     Maritime  states  are  often  denoted  by 
dolphins  and  other  fish  ;  rivers,  like  the  Achelous.  by  bulls 
with  hnman  heads.     The  materials  of  the  coins  are  gold, 
silver,  bronze,  electrum,  an   alloy  (sometimes  natural)  of 
silver  with  gold,  or  potin  or  billon,  bronze  or  copper  washed 
with  silver.     It  is  supposed  that  the  metal  was  first  formed 
in  roundish  lumps  and  then  struck  cold,  but  no  ancient  die 
is  known  to  exist  in  any  museum  ;  the  materials,  however, 
for  coining,  the  hammer,  the  anvil,  and  the  tongs,  may  be 
seen  on  a  denarius  of  the  Roman  family  Carisia.     Inscrip- 
tions on  Greek  coins  are  generally  in  the  genitive,  on  Ro- 
man  and    Oriental   in   the  nominative,  the   won!   v(i/ii<r/ia 
(coin)  being  in  the  first  case  understood.     The  finest  period 
of  Greek  art  lasts  from  460  to  390  k.  c,  and  is  nearly  coinci- 
dent with  the  best  period  of  sculpture ;  and,  as  a  rule,  tlie 
colonial   coins  of   Italy  and   Sicily   rival  those   of  Greece 
proper  in  beauty,  and  are  even  more  varied  and  rich.     In 
one  instance,  that  of  Athens,  the  coins  remain  to  the  last 
rude  and  ugly,  perhaps  owing  to  their  great  commercial 
importance,  the  peoples  of  the  Mediterranean  objecting  to 
any  change  of  type.     In  weight.  Greek  coins  are  generally 
very  accurate,  Viut  different  countries  and  towns  jireferred 
the  different  standards  of  the  Phcenician.  Aginela".  or  Attic 
talent.     Thirteen  multiples  or  submultiples  of  the  Athenian 
drachma  (67'5  troy  grains)  arc  known:   and  of  these,  100 
went   to  the  mina,  and  60  mina'  to  the  talent.     The  two- 
drachma  piece  (didrachm)  and  the  four-drachma  piece  (te- 
tradrachm)  are  the  most  usual  sizes,  tlie  gold  generally  fol- 
lowing the  standard  of  the  silver.     Bronze  coins  are  usually 
submultiples  of  the  oheloK.  itself  one-sixth  of  the  drachma. 

Greek  coins  are  found  in  Kurope  in  Spain.  Gaul,  Britain, 
Italy,  Sicily.  Thrace.  Macedonia.  Thessalia.  .Mlica.  Bceotia, 
and"  the  Peloponnesus;  and  in  Asia  in  Ionia,  Phrvgia,  Lyd- 
ia,  Caria.  Cilicia,  Phoenicia,  and  Egypt.  In  Italy  we  find 
magnificent  specimens  of  the  colonial  coinage  at  lleraclea, 
Metapontum,  Neapolis,  Pandosia,  Tarentnui,  Terina,  Thu- 
rium,  and  Rhegium  :  of  very  early  types  at  Caulonia,  Cro- 
ton,  Pa'Stuni,  Populonia,  and  Sybaris ;  of  the  ancient  mode 
of  writing,  from  right  to  left,  on  some  of  the  earliest;  and 
of  the  use  of  the  digamma  at  Heraclca.  The  finest  coins  of 
Sicily  are  in  like  manner  colonial,  with  some  resemblance 
to  those  of  Italy,  the  earliest  ascending  in  date  to  B.  c.  4!t0 
or  480.  At  Agrigentum  the  name  of  the  jieopio  is  written 
houstrophedon — i.e.  from  right  to  left  and  from  left  to  right, 
as  an  ox  plows.  The  Syracusan  decadrachms  represent  the 
largest  of  ancient  Greek  coins.  Connected  with  Sicily  are 
some  very  fine  coins  bearing  Pluenician  inscriptions,  some- 
times attributed  to  Carthage;  indeed,  there  is  no  doubt  the 
best  specimens  were  struck  for  that  great  city  in  Sicily  at 
Panorraus  and  other  places,  and  by  Greek  artists.  The 
beautiful  coins  of  Philistis  commemorate  a  lady  not  men- 


246 


NUMISMATICS 


NUN 


tioned  in  history,  but  believed  to  be  the  wife  of  Hiero  II.,  as 
her  name  is  found  carved  on  a  seat  in  the  theater  at  Syra- 
cuse. 

In  Greece  proper  we  find  very  early  and  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  Greek  art  at  Abdera,  tEnos,  and  Thasos,  and  in  va- 
rious towns  of  Jlacedonia  and  its  neighboi-hood,  as  Acan- 
thus, Amphipolis,  Chalcidice,  Lete,  and  Neapulis.  The 
types  in  nianv  cases  refer  to  old  and  well-known  myths,  as 
the  Gorgon's  lioail  at  Neapolis.  Two  remarkable  coins  exist 
of  Geta,  King  of  the  Edoni.  both  of  which  were  found  in 
the  Tigris,  and  therefore  may  have  been  carried  back  to 
Persia  after  the  defeat  of  Xerxes.  Of  Philip  and  Alex- 
ander the  Great  coins  abound  in  gold  and  silver,  but  are 
less  frequent  in  bronze,  the  former  being  of  good  art  and 
the  latter  confirming  the  extent  of  his  conquests;  while 
those  of  Lysimachus,  King  of  Thrace,  are  noteworthy  for 
the  portrait  they  exhibit'of  Alexander  himself,  with  the 
symbols  of  the  Young  Ammon.  Thessaly  exhibits  some 
good  specimens  in  the  money  of  Larissa,  with  some  resem- 
blance in  fabric  to  those  of  Sicily ;  and  E]5irus  offers  the 
beautiful  series  from  Arabracia,  with  the  noble  head  of  its 
king.  Pyrrhus,  treated  as  the  Jupiter  of  Dodona.  Tlie  coins 
of  Pyrrhus  were  probably  struck  at  Tarentum  or  Syracuse. 
Athens  naturally  affords  the  largest  series  of  Greek  coins ; 
some  specimens  are  as  early  as  500  B.  e.  Those  of  the  adja- 
cent island  of  .(Egina  are  very  interesting  from  their  antiq- 
uity, and  from  the  tradition  that  Pheidon,  King  of  Argos, 
first  struck  coins  here  in  the  eighth  century  B.  c.  In  the 
Peloponnesus  the  series  of  the  money  of  Corinth  claims  es- 
pecial attention  from  its  great  extent  and  long-preserved 
excellence.  At  Elis  we  find  the  digamma  on  early  types  of 
the  time  of  Xerxes,  and  a  magnificent  series  of  the  finest 
period,  with  the  head  of  Juno  and  her  name,  HPA,  inscribed 
on  a  bandeau  over  her  forehead.  With  these  may  be  ranged 
scarcely  less  noble  specimens  from  Trazene,  Arcadia  (with 
the  head  of  Zeus  ^tophoros),  and  Stymphalus — the  latter 
possibly  Cretan.  Sparta  naturall_y  records  her  famous  ruler, 
Lycurgus,  though  on  a  late  copper  coin.  Mantinea  and 
Her*a  have  good  archaic  types. 

Asia  Minor  offers  us  coins  partly  Greek  and  partly  Graeco- 
Orieutal ;  there  is  a  magnificent  head  of  Mithridates  VI.  of 
Pontus ;  in  Mysia  we  have  a  unique  series  of  dectnim  coins, 
called  staters  of  Cyzicus,  with  other  splendid  tr(jphies  of 
Greek  art,  in  the  money  of  Cyzicus,  Phoca3a,  and  Pergamus. 
The  tetradrachms  of  tlie  last  place  are  called,  from  their 
peculiar  type,  cisfophori.  Ilium  in  Troas  naturally  records 
its  local  traditions,  placing  Hector  (EKTnP)  on  its  money, 
and  jEneas  carrying  Anehises  and  leading  Ascanius.  Lydia 
comes  next,  with  its  rude  and  archaic  gold  coins,  probably, 
the  earliest  specimens  of  Greek  numismatic  art,  though  those 
of  ^-Egina  could  not  have  been  much  later ;  then  comes  Ionia, 
with  its  great  series  of  Smyrna  and  Ephesus,  and  the  noble 
coins  of  ClazomeniP.  Magnesia  records  its  river  by  the  type 
of  a  bull  butting  within  the  pattern,  hence  called  "  Miean- 
der."  Early  coins  of  Plioca^a  exhibit  the  seal,  whence  its 
name ;  and  Chios,  Samos,  Calymna,  and  Cos  early  produced 
many  curious  specimens.  The  coins  of  Rhodes  have  an  im- 
portance of  their  own,  and  comprise  very  fine  specimens,  with 
the  head  of  Apollo,  probably  the  same  type  as  was  afterward 
known  as  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes.  On  the  opposite  coast 
Lycia  and  Pamphylia  afford  a  remarkable  series,  the  elder 
ones  inscribed  in  the  local  character  and  languages,  and 
Side  in  the  latter  province  having  some  especially  fine  tetra- 
drachms, with  the  pomegranate  fruit  (iiSri)  as  their  type.  In 
Pisidia  we  have  curious  locally  inscribed  coins  at  Selge,  re- 
sembling those  of  Aspendus  in  Pamphylia.  Phrygia  offers 
several  coins  of  interest  of  the  imperial  times  with  local 
myths,  such  as  that  of  Deucalion  and  NHE,  and  Cilicia  some 
remarkable  coins  inscriljed  with  Phoenician  characters  and 
struck  by  the  Persian  rulers  of  that  district.  These  are  called 
"satrap"  coins.  There  are  also  some  interesting  types  at 
Tarsus,  bearing  legends  similarly  written.  These,  and  the 
types  prevailing  along  the  coast  of  Syria,  at  Sidon,  Tyre, 
Aradus,  and  Byldus,  together  with  the  early  money  of  the 
Bactrian  series,  miglit  perliaps  best  be  termed  Gra'co-Ori- 
eulal.  The  native  coins  of  Carthage  and  of  Juda'a  must  be 
called  Oriental ;  they  do  not  exhibit  anything  worthy  of  re- 
mark, excej  it,  perhaps,  the  earliest  "sliekels"  of  Juda>a,whicli 
were  probably  strui/k  soon  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
Babylon. 

Roman  numismatics  begins  about  230  or  240  B.  c.  with  a 
massive  copper  coinages,  termed  teolinically  (es  grave,  having 
the  as  for  its  largest  size,  and  the  inicia  (or  ounce)  for  its 
unit.     At  first  the  as  actually  weighed  1  lb.,  and  lience  was 


called  as  libralis,  the  ounce  being  its  twelfth  part ;  but  it 
was  soon  and  rapidly  reduced.  The  leading  types  of  the 
Roman  as  are  the  Janus  bifrons  and  the  prow  of  a  galley. 
Other  and  similar  coins  were  struck  in  the  neighboring 
towns  of  Etruria  and  in  Umbria  and  Apulia.  About  170 
B.  c.  gold,  silver,  and  copper  coins  were  issued  by  various 
Roman  families,  who  were  permitted  by  the  state  to  strike 
coins — often,  too,  beyond  the  bounds  of  Italy ;  and  with 
Julius  Cit'sar  began  the  imperial  series,  which  lasted  till  476 
A.  D.  The  main  characteristic  of  Roman  art  is  individuality 
as  opposed  to  idealism ;  faithful  portraiture,  often  exceed- 
ingly good,  as  in  the  cases  of  Nero,  the  Antonines,  the  two 
Faustinas,  etc.,  with  a  remarkable  permanence  of  religious 
types  on  the  reverses.  Many  historical  events  are  recorded 
on  them,  as  the  crowning  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  by  Lepidus, 
the  introduction  of  elephants  into  Rome  by  Metellus,  the 
construction  of  the  port  of  Ostia  and  of  the  Colosseum  by 
Nero  and  Vespasian  respectively,  and  the  overthrow  of 
Juda?a  by  Titus. 

It  is  probable  that  all  the  finest  Roman  coins  were  exe- 
cuted by  Greek  artists,  and  their  chief  value  for  study  is 
the  illustration  they  afford  of  contemporary  sculptm'e,  and 
the  influence  they  have  exercised  over  mediaeval  and  mod- 
ern art.  After  Julius  C;esar  the  senate  reserved  to  itself 
the  striking  of  the  copper  money,  which  for  a  long  time  is 
always  marked  with  S.  C.  (senatus  consultu).  Names  for 
Roman  coins  are  scarce,  but  we  know  that  the  earlier  gold 
and  silver  coins  were  termed,  respectively,  the  aiirevs  and 
the  denarius,  the  latter  of  which  names  was  preserved 
through  the  Middle  Ages  as  the  denier  of  France.  Besides 
the  regular  coins,  the  Romans  had  also  what  are  termed 
/nedalliotis  (see  Medallion),  and  conforniates,  which  were 
probably  tickets  of  admission  to  the  theaters  or  games. 
Christian  types,  as  the  lahanim  or  standai'd  bearing  the 
cross,  are  found  from  Constantine  downward,  and  on  one 
are  seen  the  celebrated  words,  ''Hoc  signo  victor  eris." 
With  the  imperial  Roman  it  is  usual  to  class  the  imperial 
Qreek  coins,  struck  in  the  Greek  cities  by  nearly  every  em- 
]ieror,  and  in  some  cases,  as  at  Antioch  and  Alexandria, 
forming  a  series  unrivaled  in  number  and  duration. 

The  Greek  coinage  of  the  Byzantine  emperors  down  to 
the  capture  of  the  city  by  the  Turks  in  14.53  is  generally 
supposed  to  begin  with  Anastasius  in  A.  D.  4i)l.  The  in- 
scriptions on  it  are  at  first  in  Latin,  thence  continuously  in 
Greek,  its  varying  orthography  showing  the  gradual  change 
of  the  language.  The  Byzantine  coinage  is  mostly  in  gold, 
and  its  chief  interest  is  that  it  was  the  principal  coinage  of 
Jliddle  and  Eastern  Europe  till  the  introduction  of  the 
florins  and  ducats  of  the  Italian  republics;  and,  further, 
becau.se  the  money  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  of  the  Ostro- 
goths in  S|iain  and  of  Nicaea,  Thessalonica,  and  Trebizonde, 
was  framed  on  Byzantine  models. 

The  early  mediaval  types  are  a  barbaric  imitation  of  the 
Roman,  their  art  being  progressively  worse  as  they  were 
removed  farther  and  farther  from  Italy,  whicli  always  re- 
tained some  traces  of  her  earlier  civilization.  The  earliest 
mediaeval  coins  are  those  of  the  Lombard  and  IMei'ovingian 
kings  and  of  the  dukes  of  Benevento,  and  in  Britain  the 
small  silver  pieces  called  sceatas.  In  France  and  in  Eng- 
land the  denier  and  the  penny-sterling  (i.  e.  Easterling)  were 
the  conunon  and  the  most  important  coins.  Coins  were  (ex- 
cept in  England,  where  the  right  of  striking  coins  was 
always  much  restricted)  issued  by  princes  and  ecclesiastics, 
as  well  as  by  kings,  and  somewhat  later  by  free  cities  and 
corporations.  Mediieval  coins  are  not  relatively  so  impor- 
tant to  us  as  the  seals  of  the  same  ej^och,  of  which  many 
originals  and  many  impressions  exist.  The  coins  are  nearly 
always  inferior  in  beauty  to  those  seals,  and  still  more  de- 
cidedly inferior  to  the  cast  medallions  of  Italy.  (See  Medal 
and  Medallion.)  It  is  only  in  very  modern  times  that  the 
same  care  and  pains  have  been  spent  upon  die-sinking  for 
coins  that  are  given  to  the  other  arts. 

Besides  the  various  series  above  enumerated  there  exists 
a  vast  number  of  coins  struck  by  different  Oriental  rulers 
from  the  beginning  of  the  empire  of  the  khalifs  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  These  coins  are  not  very  important  in  the  history 
of  art,  but  very  valuable  in  determining  the  dates  of  dynas- 
ties; as  a  ruli'.  with  the  exception  of  the  Chinese,  they  are 
written  in  tlie  characters  of  the  Mohammedan  conquerors, 
or  in  some  modification  of  the  Devanagari  (or  Sanskrit) 
alphabetic  system.  Revised  by  Russell  Sturuis. 

Niniimtilite:  See  Foraminifeea. 

Nun:  See  Nu. 


NUNATAKS 


NURSEKY 


247 


Nunataks:  See  Glaciers. 

Nuncio:  See  Lkoatks  and  Lkiiation. 

Nunez,  noon  vuth,  Kafael  :  statesman  ;  I),  at  Cartagena, 
New  Granada,  Sept.  28,  l.S2o.  Jle  stuilied  in  his  native  eity  ; 
was  elected  to  congress  in  18.51.  an<l  thereafter  took  a  pninii- 
nent  part  in  politics;  was  secretary  of  the  treasury  liS.5.>- 
.57  and  1.S61-62  ;  and  edited  El  I'ori'tiiir  and  other  journals. 
From  18(i:i  to  180.5  he  lived  in  Xew  York,  where  he  con- 
ducted a  Spanish  newspaper;  later  he  was  in  Kurujie  until 
1874,  acting  as  consul  of  Coloniljia  at  Havre  and  Liverpool. 
Returning  to  his  native  country,  he  was  the  candidate  of 
the  liberal  party  for  the  presidency  in  1875,  but  was  de- 
feated; was  governor  of  tlie  state  of  Holivar.  senator,  and 
secretary  of  the  treasury  for  a  short  time  in  1878;  and  was 
elected  president  in  187'j.  His  term  of  two  years  (1880-82) 
was  very  prosperous.  He  was  again  elected  for  the  term 
beginning  Apr.,  1884;  in  188.5  a  rebellion  was  put  down, 
aii(l  in  18.80  a  new  constitution  was  adopted,  by  wliich  the 
federal  system  was  abolished,  and  the  presidential  term  was 
extended"  to  six  years.  Under  this  constitution  Dr.  Xiiiiez 
became  president  in  1886,  and  again  in  1.891.  1).  in  Bogota, 
Sept.  18,  18SI4.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Nunez  (le  Arce,  -d((-aarth(7,GASPAR  :  dramatist  and  poet; 
b.  at  Valladolid,  Spain,  Aug.  4,  18:J4.  His  studies  were  pur- 
sued at  Toledo,  and  even  before  they  were  completed  he  was 
given  tlie  freedom  of  the  city  for  a  successful  drama.  Soon 
after  he  went  to  Madrid,  where  he  began  to  write  for  various 
periodicals,  ami  also,  both  alone  and  in  association  with  the 
poet  Antonio  Hurtado,  to  produce  plays.  From  his  own 
j)en  we  have  the  comedies  ^  Quien  es  el  aufor  ?  (18.59) ;  La 
Cuenta  del  Zupatero  (1859) ;  Como  se  empfne  iin  mitrido 
(1860);  iVj  tanloni  tan  poco  (1865);  and  the  dramas  Di'iidas 
idelahonra;  Qm'en  di-he,  pai/a  ;  Jimticia  piujridniiial ;  and 
£/  Haz  de  Lena.  The  last  of  these,  produced  in  1882.  and 
devoted  to  the  story  of  Don  Carlos,  is  one  of  the  best  recent 
Siianish  plays.  With  Hurtado  he  wrote  El  Laurel  de  la 
2'(6i'a  (1803);  Herir  en  la  so  hi  Acre  (1866) ;  La  Jota  arago- 
ne«n  (1866) ;  Una  puyinii  de  iiro,  b  el  Sitio  de  Cartagena  en 
1X15  (1873).  It  is,  however,  i|uite  as  much  by  his  poetry  as 
by  his  plays  that  Xunez  de  Arce  has  obtained  his  command- 
ing place  in  Spanish  letters.  On  the  whole,  he  is  the  best 
exponent  in  Spain  of  the  doubts  and  pessimistic  inclinations 
of  the  nineteenth  century;  but  at  the  same  time  he  has 
often  shown  remarkable  patriotic  passion  in  denouncing 
the  political  evils  of  his  country.  Through  the  wretched 
revolutions  of  the  last  half  of  the  century,  his  voice  has 
again  and  again  been  raised  against  the  cruelty  and  selfish- 
ness of  self-styled  patriots,  and  more  than  once  his  words 
have  echoed  througliout  Siiain.  He  has  given  the  title 
Oritos  del  Comhate  (5th  ed.  18.S5)  to  the  collection  of  these 
passionate  poems.  Besides  this  volume,  he  has  published 
several  longer  poems  that  have  had  remarkable  popularity  : 
Ultima  lamentucion  de  Lord  Bi/ron  (23d  ed.  1884) ;  Maruja 
(9th  ed.  1886);  La  Pesca  (1.5th  ed.  1880);  La  Selva  U«cura 
(15th  e<l.  18.86);  El  \'erligo  {25th  ed.  1886):  La  Vi.-<iun  de 
Fray  Martin  (loth  ed.  1886):  Un  Idilio  rj  una  Eleg'ia  (18tli 
ed.  1886).  In  1800  Nunez  de  .Vrce  went  as  correspondent 
of  the  Madrid  journal  Ilieria  to  the  war  between  Sjjain  and 
Morocco;_and  this  is  described  in  his  lieeiierdas  de  la  (fiie- 
rra  de  Africa.  He  early  began  to  take  part  in  politics, 
always  on  the  liberal-monarchical  side,  and  in  1865  he  was 
first  elected  to  the  Cortes.  In  18.82  he  was  Minister  of  Colo- 
nial Atlairs.  He  was  elected  to  the  Spanish  Academy  in 
1M7G.  Ho  has  published  his  four  chief  dramas  under  the  title 
Ohrax  dramdtieaa  (Madrid,  1879);  various  tales  and  articles 
as  Misreldnea  literaria  (Barcelona,  1886).     A.  K.  Marsu. 

Nlifiez  Vela,  -valaa,  Blasco;  first  Yiceroy  of  Peru;  b. 
at  .\vihi,  Spain,  about  14!l(».  He  held  various  civil  and 
military  ollices,  and  was  appointed  Viceroy  of  I'eru  in  154;!, 
with  spe<.ial  directions  to  enforce  the  new  laws  for  the 
abolishment  of  Indian  slavery.  lie  reached  Lima  in  May, 
1544.  He  had  already  shown  his  good  intentions  by  refus- 
jng  the  forced  services  of  Indian  porters  during  his  jour- 
ney, and  laying  an  embargo  on  a  cargo  of  silver,  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  the  product  of  slave  labor;  but  he  lacked 
■discreliciii  to  introduce  so  great  a  reform  against  the  vio- 
lent opposition  of  the  cohmists.  A  revolt  quickly  broke  out. 
lieaded  by  Gonzalo  I'izarro.  Vela  made  matters  worse  by 
imprisoning  his  predecessor,  the  governor  \'aca  de  l^astro, 
and  in  Sept..  1544,  he  killed  the  factor,  Carbajal,  after  ac- 
cusing him  of  conspiring  with  Pizarro.  He  was  finally  de- 
posed and  arrested  liy  the  .Audiencia,  and  put  on  board  a 
■ship,  to  be  sent  to  Spain.     The  captain  of  the  ship  allowed 


him  to  land  at  Tumbez,  where  he  began  to  organize  an 
army ;  but  Pizarro  pursued  him,  and  he  fled  through  C^uilo 
to  Pojiayan.  Thence,  re-enforced  by  Benalcazar,  he  returned 
to  Ijuito,  but  was  defeated  and  killed  by  Pizarro  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Anaiiuito,  Jan.  18,  1546.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Nu'uivak  :  an  island  in  Bering  Sea,  belonging  to  the 
U.  S. ;  in  hit.  60"  X.,  Ion.  100  W. ;  olf  Cape  Vancouver  and 
separated  from  the  niaiidand  by  Ktolin  Straits,  about  40 
miles  wide.  It  is  an  irregular  quadrilateral,  about  50  miles 
long  by  30  broad,  and  contains  about  1,200  sij.  miles.  It  is 
unexplored,  but  is  known  to  be  liglitly  wooded  in  sheltered 
places  and  to  contain  many  high  hills.  It  is  lowest  in  the 
northern  part,  and  has  no  harbors.  It  is  inhabited  by  In- 
nuits,  very  degraded  and  filthy. and  noted  for  the  beauty  of 
their  ivory  carvings  and  of  their  skin  canoes.  Their  chief 
articles  of  trade  are  fox-skins,  oil,  and  ivory.       M.  W.  II. 

Xuiniery  :  See  Monaiiiism. 

Xur-eil-din  Mahniml.  or  Malek-al-A<leI  (just  luince) : 
Sultan  of  Syria;  b.  at  Damascus  in  1117;  son  of  Zenghi, 
Emir  of  Bassorah,  who  had  conquered  Northern  Syria. 
After  Zenghi  died  (1140).  his  elder  son,  Seif-ed-din,  "suc- 
ceeded to  the  northern  half  of  his  dominions,  while  Xur-ed- 
din  took  possession  of  the  rest.  In  1147  he  defeated  Count 
Joseclin  de  Courtnay  and  ca]>tured  Edessa,  the  bulwark  of 
the  Christian  kingdom  of  .lerusalein.  For  its  recapture 
Louis  VII.  of  France  and  Conrad  III.  of  Germany  under- 
took the  second  crusade.  Xur-ed-din  defeated  Louis,  took 
Antioeh,  Trii)olis,  and  Damascus  (1154),  which  he  made  his 
capital,  overthrew  Baldwin  III..  King  of  .Jerusalem,  near  the 
Jordan  (1155),  and  gradually  mastered  nearly  all  Syria  and 
Palestine.  The  civil  dissensions  of  the  Jlussulmans  in 
Egypt  led  him  to  interfere  in  that  country,  which  was  sub- 
dued and  pacified  by  his  generals,  the  Kurds  Schir-Kou  and 
Salah-ed-din.  D.  at  Damascus  in  1174.  Nur-ed-din  was  a 
man  of  noble  character,  revered  by  the  Mussulmans  and  ad- 
mired by  the  Christians.  His  victories  were  due  not  only  to 
his  diplomacy  and  military  skill,  hut  to  his  firm  persuasion 
that  he  was  chosen  by  God  as  the  soldier  of  Islam. 

E.  A.  Grosvexor. 

Nii'reniberg'  (Germ.  NUrnherg) :  town  of  Bavaria  ;  on  the 
Little  Pegnitz,  here  crossed  by  seven  bridges,  and  on  three 
railway  lines ;  95  miles  X'^.  by  W.  of  Munich  (see  map  of 
(jerman  Empire,  ref.  O-E).  Uf  all  German  cities  it  is  the 
most  interesting  and  characteristic  with  respect  to  its  archi- 
tecture. The  houses  face  the  street  with  their  gables,  and 
balconies  profusely  ornamented  with  carvings  in  stone  or 
wood  overhang  the  sidewalks.  It  is  very  rich  in  splendid 
media^-al  monuments  which  show  that  its  ancient  boast  of 
being  the  commercial,  industrial,  and  literary  center  of  Ger- 
many was  not  vainglorious,  (if  its  many  remarkable  build- 
ings, the  most  striking  is  the  Church  of  St.  Sebald,  a  Gothic 
structure  ornamented  with  paintings  by  Albert  DUrer,  and 
containing  the  famous  tomb  of  .St.  Sebald  executed  in  bronze 
by  Peter  Vischer,  who,  with  his  five  sons,  worked  on  it  for 
nearly  thirteen  years.  The  town-hall,  the  largest  building 
of  its  kind  in  Germany,  with  subteiranean  dungeons  and 
torture-chambers,  the  castle,  and  the  Church  of  St.  I^awrence 
are  also  interesting  edifices.  The  AUirecht  Durer  Platz  con- 
tains a  statue  of  the  great  artist,  erected  in  1840.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  of  Nuremberg  are  carvings  in  wood, 
bono,  and  metals,  children's  toys  and  dolls,  lead-pencils, 
chemicals  and  ultramarine,  looking-glasses,  watches,  car- 
riages, and  machinery.     Its  trade  is  veiT  extensive. 

Xuremberg  was  once  the  wealthiest  and  most  important 
of  the  free  imperial  cities  of  Germany.  Among  the  earliest 
of  German  cities  to  accept  Priitestantism.it  gave  hearty  sup- 
port to  the  followers  of  Luther,  and  was  Hie  seat  of  impor- 
tant diets  during  the  Heformation.  It  gave  its  name  to  the 
religious  peace  of  1533,  which  granted  temi)orary  liberty  of 
worship  to  Protestants  in  order  to  secure  united  action 
against  the  Turkish  inva<lers.  Although  it  sufi'ered  greatly 
iluring  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  and  gradually  declined  until 
in  1806  it  lost  its  imiependence  and  was  annexed  to  Bavaria, 
it  is  still  a  great  and  rich  town.  Its  fortifications,  consisting 
ol  a  double  wall  and  a  moat,  were  demolished  during  the 
occupation  by  the  Prussians  in  18(>0,  and  hare  been  trans- 
formeil  into  p'romenade.s.  Pop.  (1890)  142.590,  of  whom  about 
25.0(H)  are  Koman  Catholics. 

Nursery:  in  horticulture,  an  e.stabli.shment  for  the  rear- 
ing of  plants  ;  in  the  L*.  S..  however,  there  is  a  tendency  to 
restrict  the  term  to  those  areas  devoted  to  the  growing  of 
woody  plants  alone,  like  trees  and  shrubs,  while  the  propa- 


248 


NUESE-SHARK 


NUTHATCH 


gatiou  of  herbaceous  plants  is  referred  to  floriculture.  The 
peculiarity  of  nurseries  in  the  U.  S.  as  distinguished  from 
those  of  other  countries  is  the  enormous  quantity  of  fruit- 
tree  plants  which  are  propagated,  a  circumstance  wliich 
arises  from  the  fact  that  fruit-growing  is  the  chief  horticul- 
tural pursuit  of  the  republic.  In  1890  the  nurseries  of  the 
U.  S.  occupied  172,806  acres  of  land,  aud  represented  an  in- 
vested capital  of  .$53,425,669.51.  Tliey  employed  45,657  men, 
2,279  women,  and  14,200  animals.  There  was  a  total  of  3,386,- 
856,778  plants  growing  for  sale,  of  which  518,016,612  were 
fruit-trees  and  685,603^396  were  grape-vines  and  small  fruits. 
The  greatest  number  belonging  to  a  single  species  were  240,- 
570.666  apple-trees,  grown  upon  20,232^  acres.  Evergreen 
trees  were  represented  by  822,038,324  plants,  and  deciduous 
ornamental  and  forest  trees  by  1,297,408,257.  The  most 
important  nursery  region  of  the  U.  S.,  considering  both 
extent  and  variety  of  the  industry,  is  AVestern  New  York, 
particularly  the  counties  of  Ontario,  Monroe,  Wayne,  and 
Niagara. 

The  nursery  interest  may  be  diviiled  into  two  categories 
with  respect  to  the  use  and  economy  of  the  land — the  grow- 
ing of  fruit-trees  and  plants,  and  the  growing  of  ornamentals. 
The  market  value  of  fruit  stocks  is  measured  by  their  age 
and  size  combined,  and  it  is  therefore  essential  that  they  be 
grown  upon  unworn  land  in  order  that  the  greatest  possible 
growth  may  be  obtained  in  a  given  time.  It  is  almost  a 
universal  pi-actice  to  grow  only  one  crop  of  fruit-trees  upon 
the  land.  Nursery  lands  are  therefore  largely  rented  for  a 
term  of  four  or  five  years,  after  which  farm  crops  are  raised 
upon  the  soil.  A  high  system  of  fertilizing  would  undoubt- 
edly restore  the  soil  to  a  condition  to  allow  of  successful 
nursery  business,  but  in  practice  it  is  found  to  be  cheaper  to 
plant  upon  land  which  has  never  been  used  for  nursery  pur- 
poses. Ornamental  stocks  are  valued  according  to  their  size 
alone,  and  these  can  therefore  be  satisfactorily  grown  upon 
land  already  used  for  nursery  crops. 

Fruit-trees  are  grown  from  seeds,  and  the  seedlings  are 
budded  or  grafted  (see  Grafting)  with  whatever  varieties 
of  the  same,  or  in  some  cases  allied,  species  the  nurseryman 
may  desire.  Ordinarily,  the  growing  of  seedlings  is  a  sepa- 
rate business  from  the  propagating  and  growing  of  named 
varieties.  The  seedlings  of  plums,  pears,  quinces,  and  gen- 
erally of  cherries,  are  mostly  grown  in  France,  where  labor 
and  seeds  are  cheap  and  tlie  climate  is  adapted  to  the  woi-k. 
These  seedlings  are  exported  to  the  U.  S.  at  the  end  of  tlie 
first  season's  growth  and  are  planted  in  nursery  rows.  The 
following  summer  (that  is,  the  second  season  from  the  seed) 
these  seedlings  are  budded  to  the  various  named  varieties. 
These  buds  do  not  grow  until  the  following  spring,  at  least 
not  in  the  North  ;  so  that  when  the  bud,  which  is  to  make 
the  body  and  top  of  the  tree,  begins  to  grow,  the  root  is  two 
years  old.  The  trees  are  ready  for  sale  when  the  bud  or 
top  is  two  or  three  years  old.  Apples  are  now  mostly 
grown  upon  seedlings  raised  in  the  rich  soil  of  the  Western 
States.  These  seedlings  are  dug  and  shipped  in  the  fall  of 
the  first  year.  The  purchaser  may  root-graft  these  stocks 
the  same  winter  and  [ilant  them  in  the  spring,  or  he  may  set 
them  in  nursery  rows  anil  bud  them  the  following  .July  cjr 
August.  Peaches  are  budded  in  late  August  or  September 
(in  the  North)  of  the  first  year,  and  the  trees  are  ready  for 
sale  at  the  close  of  the  following  year.  That  is,  peach-trees  are 
sold  when  the  top  is  one  year  old  and  the  root  two  years 
old.  Ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  are  multiplied  in  a  great 
variety  of  ways.  Some  are  budded  or  grafted,  and  many 
are  increased  directly  by  seeds,  cuttings,  or  layers.  (See 
CuTTrNGS.)  Grapes  are  almost  wholly  grown  from  cuttings 
of  the  mature  wood  (see  (iiiATK),  as  are  also  currants  and 
gooseberries.  Kiispberries  and  lilackberries  are  multiplied 
both  by  means  of  cuttings  of  the  roots  and  by  suckers  which 
spring  from  near  the  base  of  the  plant ;  but  the  blackcap 
raspberries  are  usually  propagated  liy  bending  over  the 
growing  shoots  or  canes  and  allowing  the  tip  to  root  in  the 
soil,  after  the  manner  of  a  layer.  (See  Layering.)  For  de- 
tailed accounts  of  unrscry  practice,  consult  Barry's  Fruit 
(jarden.  Fuller's  I'm/mi/ii/ion  (if  Plants,  and  Bailey's  A'wr- 
sery  Boole.  L.  11.  Kailev. 

Niirso-slmrk  :  a  large  sliark  (Somtiinsus  mirmcf/i/intiis) 
found  in  Arctic  or  cold  norlhern  w-ntcrs.  It  is  of  a  roliust 
form  and  .'ittains  a  length  of  from  12  to  20  feet,  but  has  very 
small  teeth  and  is  sluggish  in  its  motions.  This  name  is 
also  applied  to  a  smaller  and  more  slender  shark  (O'lni/li/niox- 
toma  nrrata),  occurring  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  adjacent 
waters.  F.  A;  L. 


Nnsairieh,  Ansyreeh,  Ansarie.s,  or  Ansoniaiis :  a  Mus- 
sulman sect.  They  inhabit  the  lower  Ansyrean  mountain 
range  between  Lebanon  and  Antioch,  in  Syria,  and  also  are 
numerous  in  towns  and  villages  along  the  coast.  They 
sprang  from  the  Shii'tes,  with  whose  heresies  they  united 
many  Christian,  Jewish,  and  pagan  ideas.  Their  prophet 
Nusair  taught  that  God  had  appeared  several  times  in 
human  form,  as  in  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  Jlohammed,  and 
All,  and  will  once  more  manifest  himself  in  El  JMahdi  or 
the  Jlessiah.  They  regard  Christ  as  a  prophet,  revere  the 
Virgin  JIary,  observe  Christmas,  adore  the  sun  and  moon, 
accept  the  Koran,  which  they  claim  was  revealed  to  a  Mo- 
hammed of  their  sect  and  not  to  the  Arabian  prophet, 
maintain  the  divinity  of  All.  who  they  say  was  incarnated 
■seven  times,  practice  polygamy,  indulge  in  wine,  and  believe 
in  the  transmigration  of  souls.  In  their  belief,  whoever  is 
apostate  or  unfaithful  to  his  religion  will  after  death  be 
traiLsformcd  into  a  Jew,  Mussulman,  Christian,  or  animal. 
They  endeavor  to  keep  their  creed  secret,  and  nuiny  of  their 
doctrines  are  unknown.  Their  neighbors  give  them  a  bad 
reputation,  l>ut,  though  ignorant  and  superstitious,  they  are 
kindly  and  hospitable.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Nut:  an  Egyptian  deity,  wife  of  Seb  (or  Qeb)  and  moth- 
er of  Osiris,  Isis,  Nepthys,  and  Set-Typhon.  She  was  the 
personification  of  the  heavens,  and  is  represented  as  a 
woman  .standing  like  a  quadruped  upon  her  hands  and  feet, 
while  her  body  symbolized  the  heavens  in  which  the  stars 
appear.  Similarly  she  is  represented  by  the  figure  of  a  cow. 
Nut  is  to  be  distinguished  from  Nu-t.    See  Nu.     C.  R.  G. 

Nutation:  .See  Precession  of  the  Equinoxes, 

Nutcracker:  a  bird  of  the  crow  family,  so  called  from 
the  readiness  with  which  it  cracks  the  nuts  that  form  a  part 
of  its  food.  Its  scientific  name  is  Nucifragn  caryocatactes, 
and  it  is  nearly  related  to  the  jays.  It  is  a  little  over  a  foot 
in  length :  the  thick,  soft  plumage  is  dark  brown,  with 
white  or  whitish  spots  on  the  head  and  neck  ;  the  wings  and 
tail  are  black,  the  latter  with  a  white  band.  The  initcrack- 
ers  frecpient  the  pine  forests  of  Northern  Asia  and  Europe, 
feeding  on  grubs,  the  seeds  of  the  pine,  etc.     They  associate 


The  European  nutcracker. 

in  flocks  and  are  active  and  noisy,  except  during  the  breed- 
ing season.  Although  the  birds  are  very  common,  the  eggs 
were  for  a  long  time  unknown,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
birds  nest  early  in  the  spring  while  the  snow  is  still  on  the 
ground,  and  at  this  time  are  shy  and  quiet.  The  American 
nutcracker,  better  known  as  Clarke'scrow  {Picirorrus  colum- 
hianuf!)  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  pine  woods  of  the  western 
parts  of  the  U.  S.  It  is  of  a  gray  color,  wings  black  with  a 
white  mark  on  the  secondaries,  tail  white,  except  central 
feathers,  which  are  black.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Nutgalls :  See  (Jall  Insects,  Gallotannic  Acid,  and 
Gai.i.s. 

Nuthatch  :  any  one  of  a  number  of  small  birds  belong- 
ing to  the  famdy  Sitliilii\-dni\,  with  a  few  cxceiitions,  to  the 
genus  iSitta.  They  have  round,  pointed  beaks,  long  wings, 
short,  rather  square  tails.  They  are  active  climbers,  and 
may  be  seen  scrambling  about  trees,  often  head  downward. 


NUTMEG 


NTJX  VOMICA 


249 


in  seareli  of  insects  and  their  eggs.  They  get  their  popular 
name  from  a  liabit  of  placing  a  seed,  or  small  nut,  in  some 
convenient  crevice,  and  hacking,  or  Aa/cA(;i,7.  out  the  con- 
tents with  hlows  of  the  beak.  The  greater  miniber  of 
species  are  found  in  Kurope,  Asia,  and  North  America,  but 
a  few  peculiar  genera,  which  may  possibly  not  rightfully  be- 
long to  the  grou)),  are  found  in  New  Zealand,  Australia,  and 


■'.1S^'¥^i:P^ 


Madagascar.  The  common  European  species  is  Sitta  eu- 
ropea:  the  common  nuthatch  of  Eastern  North  America  is 
S.  raro/iiiensi)!,  a  bird  6  inches  in  length,  bluish  ash  above, 
dull  white  below  :  wings  blackish,  tail,  e.Kcept  central  two 
feathers,  brown,  and  nape  black.  It  nests  in  holes,  which  it 
hews  out  for  itself,  and  lays  a  mimber  of  white  eggs  speckled 
with  reddish  and  purplish  colors.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Nutmeg:  See  Mvristica. 

Nutria  Kiir:  See  Covpee. 

Nutrition  [from  Lat.  niitri  re.  ntiurisli,  whence  Eng.  nnur- 
istt] :  the  process  by  which  appropriate  nuiterial  is  taken  into 
living  organisms  and  utilized  to  maintain  their  existence,  pro- 
mote tlieir  development,  and  facilitate  the  performance  of 
their  functions.  This  definition  covers  vegetable  as  well  as 
animal  nutrition.  The  discussion  of  the  former  will  be 
found  in  the  articles  on  botanical  subjects;  in  this  only  ani- 
mal nut  ril  ion  will  be  considered.  Animal  nutrition  includes 
the  absorption  of  gases  and  of  water,  aiul  the  preparation, 
appropriation,  and  assimilation  of  solid  food.  The  absorp- 
tion ol  gases  and  water  takes  place,  in  very  simple  organisms, 
through  their  general  surface  :  in  higher  organisms  the  ab- 
sorption of  gases  (and  perhaps  to  a  very  limited  extent  of 
water)  takes  place  through  lungs  or  gills  l)y  the  function  of 
respiration;  the  absorption  of  lii|uids  takes  place  chiefly  in 
the  stomach,  and  of  semi-liquids  and  solids  in  the  intestines. 
The  function  of  respiration  accomplishes  an  exchange  of 
gases,  by  which  those  needed  by  animal  tissues  in  active  life 
are  received  into  the  blood,  and  those  excreted  by  them  an; 
conveyed  out  of  the  body.  This  is  as  really  a  part  of  the 
process  of  nutrition  as  that  which  consists  in  appropriating 
nourishment  taken  into  the  stomach,  and  its  details  nuiy  be 
found  in  the  article  on  Respikatio.n. 

Uriefly  stated,  nutrition  is  the  result  of  appropriating 
food,  and  food  is  anything  which,  when  ap]iropriated  by  the 
tissues — or,  more  properly,  the  cells — of  the  body,  contrib- 
utes to  their  life,  growth,  or  functional  activity.  The 
simplest  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  (amo'bie,  bac- 
teria) are  nourished  by  direct  absorption  of  suitable  ma- 
terial from  the  surroumling  media,  in  tliis  respect,  as  in 
nuiny  others,  resembling  the  individual  cells  of  higher  or- 
ganisms. For  the  latter,  the  first  step  in  the  process  of 
taking  food  (after  any  form  of  prejiaration)  is  called  by 
physiologists  "prehension"  (laying  hold  of);  the  second 
(applicable  to  solid  or  semi-solid  food)  is  usually  "ina.stica- 
tion  "  (chewing) ;  the  third  is  usually  "  deglutition  "  (sw-.mI- 
lowing).  Souu'  aninuils,  like  birds,  perform  the  ad  of  mas- 
tication in  the  stomach  (giz/.ard) ;  others,  like  fishes,  do  not 
masticate  at  all;  others,  like  cattle,  nuisticate  their  food 
after  it  has  been  once  swallowed  and  then  regurgitated 
—what  is  called  "rumination."  In  the  highest  animal  or- 
ganism, man,  the  three  processes  named  above  are  followed 
by  DuiKSTioN  (7.  r.),  and  this  by  absorption  through  the  walls 
of  the  sloiTuich  of  licpiiils  and  the  products  of  gastric  diges- 
tion, which  llu'U  enter  the  blood-vessels  and  lymph-channels 
and  are  I'onveyed  in  the  blood  and  lym|ih  to  the  remotest 
parts  of  the  body.  The  undigesteil  food  passes  into  the  in- 
testinal canal,  where  it  is  further  elaborated  (for  the  details 
of  which  process  see  DtnF.sTiox),  the  prepared  [xirtion  being 
taken  up  by  blood  and  lymph  vessels  of  the  wall  of  the  in- 
testines and  conveyed  into  the  circulation,  while  the  residue 
is  carried  on  and  finally  expelled  by  the  jirocess  of  defeca- 


tion. After  nutritive  material  enters  the  circulation,  it  is  car- 
ried to  various  parts  of  the  body  and  comes  in  contact  willi 
individual  cells,  which  then  (in  health)  take  up  and  appro- 
priate to  their  nourishment  what  they  need.  A  necessary 
complement  to  the  process  of  appropriation  is  that  of  excre- 
tion, which  consists  in  the  casting  oil  by  each  cell  of  effete 
matter,  the  product  of  its  own  vital  activities,  which  is  con- 
veyed by  the  blood-vessels  to  the  various  points  of  exit  from 
the  body — the  lungs,  the  skin,  the  kidneys,  and  the  bowels. 

A  correct  understanding  of  the  process  of  nutriliun  in- 
volves, as  a  fundamental  conce|)ti(m,  the  fact  that  the  most 
complex  being  is  a  community  of  individual  cells,  each  liv- 
ing by  itself,  growing,  developing,  reproducing  its  like,  de- 
caying, and  dying  in  due  time,  and  from  the  beginning  to 
tlu-  end  of  its  existence  maintaining  its  iiulividuality.  The 
life  and  health  of  a  man  depend  upon  the  life,  health,  and 
harmonious  action  of  the  cells  of  which  his  body  is  com- 
posed, and  the  state  of  nutrition  of  a  man  corresponds  to 
the  state  of  nutrition  of  his  cells.  When  a  man  grows  fat 
it  is  because  the  cells  which  make  up  his  adipose  (fat)  tissue 
are  in  a  state  of  high  nutrition  ;  when  lie  grows  thin,  it  is 
because  they  are  under-nourished.  When  a  man  grows 
muscular,  it  is  because  his  muscle-cells  are  well  nourished  ; 
and  when  these  are  impoverished,  his  muscles  will  be  weak 
and  small.  All  the  steps  in  nutrition  previous  to  the  appro- 
priation of  food  by  each  cell  are  but  preliminary  to  that  final 
act  in  which  each  cell — like  an  anueba  in  a  drop  of  water — 
takes  from  its  surrounding  medium  that  which  is  suited  to 
its  needs.  By  means  of  a  process  of  %vhich  nothing  is  cer- 
tainly known  the  material  that  each  cell  appropriates  un- 
dergoes clumges  which  make  it  like  that  which  already  oc- 
cupies the  cell,  and  fit  it  to  take  the  place  of  that  which, 
having  served  its  purpose,  is  uiulergoing  further  changes 
that  render  it  tnisuited  to  the  use  of  the  cell,  and  is  about  to 
be  cast  out  into  the  same  current  which  has  brought  the 
needed  supply  of  nutrient  material.  This  is  the  real  process 
of  nutrition.  '  Charles  W.  Dulles. 

Nut'tall,  Thomas  ;  botanist  and  ornithologist  ;  b.  in 
Y(U-kshire,  England,  in  1786;  was  brought  up  a  printer; 
went  to  the  U.  S.  in  youth ;  devoted  mucii  time  toliotanical 
and  ornithological  studies  ;  traveled  in  nearly  every  State  of 
the  Union;  explored  the  (treat  Lakes,  the  upper  courses  of 
the  Missouri  and  Arkansas  rivers;  crossed  to  Oregon,  the 
Sandwich  islands,  and  California.  He  published,  among 
other  works.  The  Genera  of  North  American  Plants  (2  vols., 
1H18);  ,-1  Journal  of  Travels  into  the  Arkansas  Territory 
(1821);  A  Manual  of  the  Ornithvlogi/  of  the  United  Slates 
and  Canada  (1832-34) ;  and  '/'he  yiirth  American  Si/lra  (3 
vols.,  1842-49),  being  a  continuation  of  F.  A.  Michaux's 
work  on  the  same  subject.  Nuttall  was  curator  and  lecturer 
at  the  botanic  garden  of  Ilarvaivl  College  at  Cambridge 
1822-28  ;  returned  to  England  al)out  1841  on  inheriting  an 
estate.     D.  at  St.  Helens.  Lancashire,  Sept.  10,  1859. 

Nux  Voni'ica  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Lat.  nux,  nut  +  vo'mere.  vom- 
it] :  an  important  drug  cimsisting  of  the  seeds  or  beans  of 
a  small  tree  (Strychnos  nux  vomica)  of  the  natural  order 
Z.«f/a«!>(C£'fp.  growing  in  the  coast  districts  of  India.  The 
leaves  are  roundish-oblong,  stalked,  smooth,  and  with  ter- 
minal corymbs.  The  fruit  is  a  globular  berry,  about  as 
large  as  a  small  orange,  with  a  brittle  shell  and  several 
seeds  lodged  in  a  white  gelatinous  pulp.  The  seeds  are 
gray,  disk-shaped,  a  little  less  than  an  inch  in  dianu'ter,  and 
about  a  sixth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  They  have  a  very 
Ijitter  taste  and  are  exceedingly  poisonous,  bot h  these  quali- 
ties depending  on  the  presence  of  the  alkaloids  strychnine 
and  brucine.  Of  these,  strychnine  is  the  more  powerful  and 
important.  It  is  a  white  powder,  almost  wholly  insoluble 
in  water,  odorless,  but  of  an  intensely  bitter  taste.  It  is 
highlv  poistmous.  producing  in  poisonous  dose,  wit  hin  lialf  an 
h(>ur  "after  taking,  violent  tetanic  spasms,  the  body  during 
the  paroxvsms  being  ar<'hed  backward,  with  every  muscle 
convnlsed'and  stiff.  The  mind  is  unaffected.  Death  occurs 
within  an  hour  or  two  or  earlier  from  a  spasmoilic  prolonged 
sjiasm  of  the  muscles  of  respiration,  so  tiiat  the  patient  can 
not  breathe.  The  physiological  astidotes  are  bromides  and 
chloral,  and  drugs  producing  motor  paralysis,  such  as  Cala- 
bar bean,  liemlock,  tobacco, "nil rite  of  amyl,  the  ana-sthetic 
ethers,  etc.,  are  useful  in  mitigating  the  severity  of  the 
spasms.  Jtedicinally,  strychnine  and  preparations  of  nux 
vomica  seeils  are  used  in  small  repeated  doses  in  cases  of 
nervous  debility  and  paralysis  of  various  kinds,  to  hi'lp  in 
restoring  proper  functioiml  activity  in  the  affected  muscles 
or  organs.  Revised  by  II.  A.  IIaek. 


250 


>ryACK 


NYAYA  PHILOSOPHY 


Nj-'ack  :  village  :  Rockland  co.,  X.  Y.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  New  York.  ref.  8-J) :  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Hudson  river,  and  on  the  Erie,  the  N.  Y.,  Ont.  and 
W.,  and  the  W.  Shore  railways ;  28  miles  N.  of  New  York 
city,  with  which  it  has  daily  steamboat  communication, 
and' opposite  Tarrvtown,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
ferry.  It  contains'Kookland  College  (non-sectarian,  opened 
in  i874),  Nyack  .Seminary  (Protestant  Episcopal),  Nyaek 
Library  Association  (founded  1879).  public,  high,  and  union 
schools,  several  private  schools,  electric  lights.  2  daily  and  3 
weekly  newspapers,  a  private  bank,  and  manufactories  of 
shoes,"  pianos,  pipe-organs,  steam-vachts.  boilers,  engines, 
and  paper  boxes.  Pop.  (1880)  3.881 :  (1890)  4.111  ;  (1894) 
estimated  with  South  Nyaek  and  I  pper  Nyack.  9.000. 

Editor  of  "  Jourxal." 

Nyan'za :  a  word  for  lakes  in  Eastern  Equatorial  Africa, 
and  especially  applied  to  two  great  lakes,  the  Victoria  JVy- 
anza,  or  V/.'ereice.  and  the  Mwufan,  or  Albert  yyanza. 
Nyassa  is  another  form  of  the  same  word.  See  Albert  Nv- 
AXZA,  Ntassa,  and  Victoria  Nyaxza. 

Nyas'sa :  one  of  the  large  lakes  of  inner  Africa :  about 
340  miles  long  and  from  15  to  34  miles  wide ;  700  feet 
deep  in  the  south  and  shallower  toward  its  northern  end ; 
area  about  14.220  sq.  miles.  Its  waters  run  to  the  Zambesi 
through  the  Shire  river.  The  shores  for  the  most  part  are 
steep.particularly  on  the  west  and  northeast  coasts,  and  in 
general  the  lake  gives  the  impression  of  a  deep  clefc  in  the 
highland  filled  with  water.  Many  small  rivers  flow  into 
the  lake  on  the  west  coast,  but  the  water  receipts  of  the  east 
coast  are  small.  German  and  English  steamers  ply  on  the 
lake,  whose  coasts  are  divided  between  those  nations.  The 
lake  offers  (1894)  the  best  route  to  Central  Africa  from  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Many  thousands  of  natives  live  around  its 
shores.  C.  C.  Adams. 

Nyaya  Philosophy  :  the  youngest  of  the  six  systems  of 
Brahmanical  philosophy  (MiM.lxsA,  Vedanta,  S.^xkhya,  Yo- 
ga, NvAYA,  and  V.\ii;eshika,  q.  v.).  founded  probably  some 
time  after  the  Christian  era,  and  by  a  man  named  Gotama, 
or,  as  he  is  often  nicknamed,  Aksha-pada.  literally.  "Having 
his  eyes  on  his  feet."'  The  system  bears  the  Sanskrit  name 
nydya,  that  is  logic,  because  its  importance  is  chiefly  due 
to  its  extraordinarily  thorough  and  acute  exposition  of  for- 
mal logic,  an  exposition  which  has  held  its  own,  even  until 
to-day,  in  India,  and  which  serves  as  the  basis  of  all  philo- 
sophical studies,  and  whose  terminology  has  made  its  way 
into  the  younger  treatises  of  all  the  other  systems.  The  im- 
portance attached  to  the  Nyaya  system  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  Gotama,  in  the  opening  sentence  of  his  manual,  the 
yydya-sutras,  in  enumerating  the  sixteen  fundamental  log- 
ical conceptions,  declares  that  upon  the  right  understanding 
of  their  nature  depends  the  attainment  of  the  supreme  wel- 
fare, that  is.  the  lil)eration  of  the  soul  from  the  round  of  ex- 
istence. The  Nyaya  philosojjhy,  however,  aims  not  merely 
to  develop  a  system  of  logic,  but  rather  also  a  complete  phil- 
osophical system ;  and  is,  in  this  aspect,  a  continuation  and 
supplement  of  the  ^'ai<;eshika  system,  and  reipiires,  accord- 
ingly, for  its  proper  understanding,  some  knowledge  of  the 
ViifESHiKA  {q.  v.).  The  metaphysical  bases  of  both  systems 
are  the  same  ;  both  regard  the  world  as  a  conglomerate  of 
eternal,  causeless,  and  unchangeable  atoms  ;  and  both  agree 
in  their  psychology,  holding,  namely,  that  the  souls  are  eter- 
nal and  endless,  that  they  possess  certain  qualities,  and  that 
they  can  apprehend  only  by  means  of  the  atomistic  organ  of 
thought  that  belongs  to  them. 

The  Indie  philosophies  in  general  separate  strictly  two 
kinds  of  causes,  the  material  cause  (upaddna-kdrann)  and 
the  instrumental  cause  {nimiftn-lidrnna).  The  material 
cause  of  a  thing  is  the  matter  from  which  it  proceeds  and 
of  which  it  consists.  As  instrumental  cause  of  a  thing  is 
regarded  not  only  the  occasicm  of  its  coming  into  being,  but 
also  the  means  by  which  it  is  produced.  While  the  material 
cause  of  a  certain  object  is  always  the  same,  the  instrumental 
causes  thereof  need  by  no  means  be  so.  Instead  of  the  usual 
term  ttpdddnn-kdrana,  the  Nyaya  employs — with  evident 
reference  to  the  sixth  category  of  the  Viii^eshika  system — 
the  term  snmardyi-k-drniin,  inherent  cause  :  and  assumes, 
moreover,  a  tliird  kind  of  cause — which  we  should  ilenomi- 
nate  the  formal  cause — namely,  the  a-samavdyi-kdrdiin.  or 
non-inherent  cause.  Thus,  to  use  the  stock-example,  the 
threads  are  the  inherent  cause  of  the  cloth;  the  connection 
of  the  threads,  the  non-inherent  cause;  the  loom  and  tools 
of  the  weaver,  his  iiersonal  skill,  his  activity,  and  the  weaver 
himself  are  the  instrumental  causes.     Or,  again,  the  cloth  is 


the  inherent  cause  of  its  qualities,  while  the  qualities  of  the 
threads  are  the  non-inherent  cause  of  the  qualities  of  the 
cloth. 

The  Nyaya  recognizes  four  sources  of  true  knowledge,  to 
wit:  1,  Perception  (pratyaksha);  2,  inference  (anumdna); 
3,  analogy  {upamdna) ;  and  4,  trustworthy  testimony  (fabda). 
Of  these,' the  second  palpably  outranks  the  rest.  Inference 
is  of  three  sorts :  a.  Prom  cause  to  effect  (purvcifat).  as  when 
from  the  gathering  of  the  clouds  you  conclude  that  it  is  go- 
ing to  rain  ;  b,  from  effect  to  cause  {(esJtavat).  as  when  from 
the  swelling  of  the  streams  you  conclude  that  it  has  rained ; 
c,  from  the  particular  to  the  general  {sdmd/iyafo  drshta), 
answering  to  our  induction,  as  when,  at  the  sight  of  a  blos- 
soming mango-tree,  you  infer  that  the  mangos  in  general 
are  in  bloom;  or  when,  from  the  consideration  of  the  single 
senses,  you  arrive  at  the  general  idea  of  the  instrument  of 
perception. 

The  syllogism  of  the  Nyaya  has  five  members,  and  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  stock-example  : 

1.  I^opositiom  pratijnd) :  This  mountain  has  fire, 

2.  Reason  ihetu) :  because  it  has  smoke. 

.3.  lixample  idrshidnia} :  Whatever  smokes  has  fire,  as  a  kitchen 
hearth. 

4.  Application  (upanaya) :  This  mountain  smokes. 

5.  Conclusion  (ju"gram«nal ;  Therefore  it  has  fire. 

All  this,  compared  with  the  Aristotelian  syllogism,  seems 
needlessly  prolix,  since  4  and  5  are  only  repetitions  of  3  and 
1 ;  but  Gotama  was  not  aiming  at  the  utmost  brevity,  but 
rather  to  teach  how  to  present  the  syllogism  in  the  best  and 
clearest  manner  to  another — that  is,  the  flve-mcmbered  syl- 
logism is  merely  the  tripartite  logical  one  modified  by  rhe- 
torical considerations.  The  conception  that  underlies  the 
Nyaya  syllogism  is  called  invariable  concomitance  or  perva- 
sion (vydpti).  Instead  of  proceeding  with  one  of  the  "uni- 
versal affirmatives  "  of  Occidental  logic,  as  "  Every  smoke 
presupposes  the  existence  of  a  fire."  the  Nyiiya  proceeds  with 
the  invariable  concomitance,  e.  g..  of  smoke  by  fire.  The 
observed  characteristic  (lingo),  e.g.  smoke,  is  the  invariably 
concoraitated  {vydpya)\  the  inferable  bearer  of  the  charac- 
teristic (lingin),  e.  g.  fire,  is  the  invariable  concomitant  {vy- 
dpaka).  Although  strange  in  form,  this  is  logically  correct. 
Smoke  is  invariably  accompanied  by  fire,  albeit  the  converse 
is  not  true.  The  definitions  of  vydpti  and  the  doctrine  of 
its  aiiplication  are  important  not  only  in  the  Nyiiya  system, 
but  also  in  the  other  philosophic  writings  of  the  Hindus. 

Such  are  some  of  the  .salient  features  of  the  Nyiiya.  The 
system  goes  on  to  discuss  other  logical  topics,  fallacies,  and 
various  faults  of  controversy,  often  with  comiilicated  detail 
and  hair-splitting  subtlety.  For  an  outline  of  these  matters, 
.see  Garbe's  translation  of  Anirnddha's  Commentary  on  the 
Sdnkhya-sutras  (Calcutta.  1892).  pages  233-237. 

One  important  point,  which  concerns  both  the  Vai^eshika 
as  well  as  the  Nyiiya  system,  still  demands  our  notice.  The 
fundamental  works  (sTitras)  of  both  schools  are  without  any 
mention  of  God ;  and  since,  moreover,  they  declare  the  souls 
and  likewise  the  substance  of  the  external  world  to  be  eter- 
nal and  uncreated,  and  since,  in  agreement  with  the  general 
Indie  view,  they  hold  the  fate  of  the  individual  to  be  the 
I^roduct  of  his  good  and  evil  deeds  in  former  existences, 
there  is,  accordingly,  little  room  to  doubt  that  tlie  original 
character  of  both  systems  was  atheistic.  This  may  be  due 
to  the  influence  of  the  Sankhya  system.  (See  S.\xkhya.)  In- 
deed, the  Nyaya  and  Vaiceshika  doctrines,  although  pre- 
senting nuiny  striking  contrasts  to  the  Sankhya,  show  va- 
rious peculiarities  which  seem  to  rest  upon  some  of  the 
fundamental  conceptions  of  the  Siinkhya  :  such  are  their 
pessimistic  coloring;  their  rejection  of  IjHss  in  heaven  as 
transitory  and  as  leading  to  new  misery ;  their  teaching  that 
even  good  works  are  a  hindrance  to  the  attainment  of  salva- 
tion ;  the  view  that  salvation  involves  the  ces.sation  of  joy 
no  less  than  of  sorrow — in  short,  a  condition  of  absolute  un- 
consciousness. Here.  too.  belongs  the  fondness  for  the  nu- 
merical groupings  of  the  categories  and  the  like. 

In  later  times,  both  Nyiiya  and  Vfdceshika  go  over  to  the- 
ism ;  but  they  do  not  go  so  far  as  to  hold  the  personal  God 
to  be  the  creator  of  matter.  Their  theology  is  worked  out 
in  the  Kusumdnjuli  (written  by  a  Nyiiya  teacher  named 
Udayanachiirya  about. 1300  A.D.)and  in  various  works  which 
treat  of  both  systems  together.  According  to  these,  God  is 
a  definite  eternal  soul,  as  are  all  other  individual  eternal 
souls;  but  with  this  difference,  that  he  is  free  from  the  quali- 
ties which  condition  the  migration  of  the  other  souls  (merit, 
sin,  aversion,  joy.  sorrow),  and  that  he  alone  possesses  the 
qualities  by  which  he  is  fitted  to  govern  the  universe,  to  wit, 
omnipotence  and  omniscience. 


NYBLOM 


NYMWEGEN 


251 


Next  to  the  Veilfinta.  the  Xyuya  has  produced  the  great- 
est number  of  text-books.  Filzeilward  Hall's  Index  to  the 
bibU(jijr(tph;i  of  the  Indian  p/i  ilowp/i  ical  si/ntems  enmneratei 
203.  'I'lie  JVi/di/d-Kutras  were  edited  with  the  coinnieutary 
of  Vi(;vanStha  IJhattaeharya  by  Ximai  C'handrai;iromani 
(Calcutta.  18:iM),  and  with  that  of  Vatsyayana  by  .layaniira- 
yana  Tarkapanrhanana  [JiHiliotlteca  yH'//f<(, Calcutta,  IHOo). 
These  .sulran,  except  the  last  and  hardest  (the  fifth)  book, 
were  translated  into  English,  with  extracts  from  \'ic;vami- 
tha's  commentary,  by  .1.  K.  Hallantyne  (Allahabad,  18i)0-o4). 
T/ie  Kuxumdfijali,  with  commentary,  was  edited  and  trans- 
lated by  E.  B.  Cowell  (BihI.  Intl..  Calcutta,  1864).  Among 
the  modern  works  that  mingle  Xyaya  and  Vai(;eshika  doc- 
trines are  especially  useful  the  B/(ds/id/j(in'c/iedii  of  Vi(;va- 
natha,  edited  and  translated  by  E.  Koer  {liil/l.  Ind.,  Calcut- 
ta, 18.50),  and  the  Tarkn.fitmijralta  of  Annabhatta,  edited, 
translated,  and  annotated  by  J.  R.  Ballantyne,  under  the 
title.  Lectures  on  the  Xydija  I'lnlo.io//hy,  enibraciny  the  text 
of  the  T.  S.  (Allahabad,  1849  ;  2d.  ed.  1852).  Uf  the  last 
three  works  various  other  editions  exist. 

Among  Eurcjpeau  works  on  Xyaya- Viiivcshika,  most  im- 
portant are  1 1.  T.  Colebrookc's  treatise  in  the  Trannactions 
of  the  Royal  A.fiastic  Society,  i.,  92-118,  1824,  reprinted 
with  valuable  notes  by  Cowell  in  Colebrooke's  J//.sct/to«eo«s 
£/isay.s,  2d.  ed.,  i.,  280-318  (London,  1873),  and  three  articles 
by  Jlax  Milller,  Beitrage  ziir  Kenntnis.'i  der  indischen  Phi- 
lu.v>phie,  in  volumes  vi.  and  vii.  of  the  Zeitschrift  der 
deutschen  morgenldndischen  (lexellschnft. 

KirnARU  Gakbe.     Translated  by  C.  R.  Lanmax. 

Nyblom,  nil  blom.  Karl  Rupert,  Ph.  D. :  poet  and  critic  ; 
b.  iii  Swnlen,  in  1832;  graduated  at  Upsala  in  1857;  was  in 
istiil  ajipi'lnted  assistant  profes.sor  in  the  university,  and  in 
ls(i7  I'riil'essor  of  ^Esthetics,  Literature,  and  Art  History. 
In  1879  ho  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Swedish  Academy, 
which  institution  had  already  in  1853  awarded  him  its  prize 
for  the  poem  Arion.  X'yblom  has  been  very  productive 
both  as  a>sthetic  author  and  as  poet.  Among  his  a'sthetio 
works  nuiy  be  mentioned  k'niixtxtiidier  i  Paris  (Art  Studies 
in  I'aris,  18G4),  aiul  others  collected  under  the  title  EstetisJca 
Stiidier  (^Esthetic  Studies,  1873).  As  a  poet  he  has  pub- 
lished Dil:ter  (Poems,  1860);  Bilder  friin  Italien  (Pictures 
from  Italy,  by  (.'arlino,  1864 ;  2d  ed,  1883,  entitled  Pt  tar  i 
Siidern) ;  Xyii  Dikter  (Xow  Poems,  1865) ;  Vers  och  Prosa 
(by  Carlino,  1870) ;  I'alda  Dikter  (Selected  Poems,  1876). 
Besides  these  original  productions  he  has  translated  Thomas 
Moore's  Irish  Melodies  (Irlandska  Jlelodier,  1858) ;  Shak- 
s[)iyarc's  ftonnets;  American  //Mmorj«/s  (Amerikanska  Hu- 
morister,  1874).  From  1865-68  he  edited  Svejisk  Literatur- 
iidskrift  (Magazine  of  Swedish  Literature). — His  wife,  a 
1  native  of  Denmark,  lias  shown  considerable  talent  as  a  nov- 
elist. P.  Groth. 

Xyboill,  nil  bom,  .Tohan  :  poet  and  jmblicist ;  b.  in  Sweden 
in  1815;  studied  at  Upsala,  but  never  coniidetcd  a  course. 
.Since  18()0  he  has  resided  at  \'esterils,  at  the  beginning  earn- 
ing his  living  as  a  newspaper  writer.  His  earlier  poems  are 
remarkable  I'or  their  splendor  of  expression,  warmth  of  feel- 
ing, and  vivid  imagination,  but  his  later  efforts  have  to  a 
large  extent  fallen  below  the  standard  of  his  earlier  work. 
Among  his  poems  may  be  noted  Byron  i  (jrekland  (Byron 
in  Greece,  1838);  Sista  Natten  i_All>ainbra  (Last  Xigiit  in 
the  Alhambra) ;  Dannemora  och  Osterby  (1847).  His  com- 
plete poems  {Sanilnde  Dikter)  appeared  184-1-48;  4th  ed. 
1880.  P.  Grotii. 

Nyctalo'pia ;  See  Blindness. 


Nye,  Edgar  Wilson-  :  humorist ;  b.  at  Shirley.  Me.,  Aug. 
25, 1850.  He  went  to  Wyoming  when  a  young  man,  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  afterward  gained  repu- 
tation as  a  humorous  writer  and  lecturer  under  the  pseudo- 
nym Bill  Nye,  and  removed  to  Xew  York.  Among  his  works 
are  Hill  Ni/e  and  the  Boomerani/  (1881) ;  The  Forty  Liars 
(1883);  Baled  Hay;  Remarks  (1886).     D.  Feb.  22,  1896. 

Nyernp,  ni'iV'-ro'op,  Hasmvs  :  scholar;  b.  on  the  island  of 
Fi'inen,  Denmark,  in  1759.  After  passing  the  philoUigical  and 
theological  examinations  he  entered  the  Royal  Library  and 
began  his  literary  activity,  which  continued  until  his  death. 
His  chief  merit  is  the  interest  he  aroused  in  Scandinavian 
folk  literature  and  arclia'ology.  The  Jluseum  of  X'orthern 
.Vntiipnties  in  Copenhagen  is  a  result  of  his  earnest  efforts. 
His  religious  and  political  views  were  far  in  advance  of  his 
t  ime.  D.  .June  28,  1829.  He  iiublished  Bidrai;  til  den  danske 
Digtekun.sts  Ilistorie  (with  Rahbek,  6  vols.,  1800) ;  Ilistorisk- 
statistisk  Skildring  af  Tilstanden  i  Danmark  og  A'orge  i 
ifldre  og  nyere  Tider  (4  vols.,  1803-06);  Udvalgte  danske 
Viser  fra  jliddelalderen  (with  Abrahamson  and  Rahbek,  5 
vols.,  1812-14);  Almindelig  Morskabslmsning  i  Danmark 
og  Xorge  igjennem  Aarhundreder  (1816) ;  Dansknorsk  Lit- 
eral urlex  ikon  (with  J.  E.  Kraft,  1818) ;  Peder  Laales  Ord- 
■■iprog  (1828),  etc.  D.  K.  Dodge. 

Nylandor,  nii'laiin-der,  Williaji  :  liehenologist ;  b.  in 
Uleaborg,  Finland,  in  1823.  He  was  Professor  of  Botany 
for  many  years  in  the  L^nivcrsity  of  Helsingfors,  and  w'as 
afterward  a  resident  of  I'aris.  Author  of  many  books  and 
papers  on  the  structure  and  classification  of  the  lichens, 
among  them  Synopsis  Jlethodica  Lichenum  (1858-59); 
Liehenes  Scandinavice  (1861) ;  Synopsis  Lichenum  JS'ovcb 
Culedoniw  (1868) ;  Recognilio  Nonograpliiea  Ramalinanmi 
(1870);  Liehenes  Xone  Zekmdice  (1888);  Liehenes  Instila- 
riim  Guineensium  (1889).  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Nylgliau  :  See  Xilghau. 

Nymph  :  See  Entomology. 

Nymphs  [from  Lat.  nym'pha  =  Gr.  viiKpri.  nymph]  :  maid- 
en divinities,  inferior  in  rank  to  the  other  gods.  They  were 
neither  mortal  nor  immortal,  but  lived  to  a  great  age ;  they 
ate  ambrosia,  and  associated  with  the  gods  even  in  Olympus. 
They  enjoyed  the  sweets  of  love  with  Hermes  and  the  Sileni, 
and  from  the  union  sprang  high  trees  which  in  the  end  had 
to  die,  and  with  them  died  also  the  X'^ymphs.  They  were 
very  numerous,  inhabiting  mountains  and  valleys  (Oreads, 
Xa'pwce),  springs,  rivers,  fountains,  lakes  (Ncpads.  Ocean  ids, 
Krencem,  Limnads),  forests  and  trees  (Hamadryads.  Dryads), 
groves  and  grottoes  (Alseids,  ete.1,  seas  (Nereids).  v\ c.  They 
were  beneficent  genii  of  their  dwelling-places,  where  they 
hunted,  danced,  sang,  wove,  and  aided  mankind  in  manifold 
ways.  Goats,  lambs,  fruit,  and  oil  were  offered  to  them,  but 
no  "wine.     In  art  they  are  represented  as  charming  maidens. 

J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Nymphs.  Grotto  of  the:  See  Capri. 

Nym'wegen.  or  Nijnnvegen  (Fr.  Ximegue  :  Germ.  Nim- 
wegen) :  town  of  the  Xetherlands,  province  of  Gelderland  ; 
on  the  Waal:  73  miles  by  rail  K.  of  Rotterdam  (see  map  of 
Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  6-H).  It  is  important  on  account 
of  its  commanding  position  on  the  Rhine  and  Waal,  and 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  beer,  brandy,  eau  de  cologne, 
tobacco,  and  cigars.  Treaties  of  jieace  were  concluded  here 
between  Holland  and  France  (Aug.  11,  1678),  between  Hol- 
land and  Spain  (Sept.  17,  1678),  and  between  Prance  and 
Germany  (Feb.  5,  1679).     Pop.  (1892)  34,138. 


o 


:  the  fifteenth  letter  of  the  English  aljihabet. 
Form. — Tlie  form  is  derived  tlirougli 
the  Latin  0  from  the  early  Greek  and 
Phoenician  O,  the  sixteenth  letter  of  the 
Phoenician  alphabet  as  adopted  by  the 
Greeks. 

N(ime. — The  Semitic  name  ayin.  mean- 
ing "  eye,"  had  reference  to  the  shape  of 
the  letter,  and  this  name,  on  account  of  its  meaning,  gave 
the  letter  its  place  in  the  alphabetical  series  with  pe, 
"mouth,"  qoph,  "head,"  resh,  "head"  (side-view),  sliin^ 
tooth,  i.  e.  in  a  group  of  letters  whose  shapes  suggested 
resemblances  to  the  head  or  its  parts.  The  sound  de- 
noted by  the  Semitic  letter  was  a  guttural  breathing  not 
existing  in  the  Greek  language.  The  Greeks  therefore 
applied  the  sign  to  denote  a  vowel-sound,  as  they  did  also  in 
the  case  of  aleph  (a),  he  (e),  and  yod  (i).  They  used  it  at 
first  for  all  the  various  sounds  of  o:  the  short,  the  open-long 
(later  u),  and  the  close-long  (later  ov).  The  alphaljet  of 
Miletus  developed  early  (not  later  than  800  B.  c.)  a  differ- 
entiated form.n,  which  was  applied  to  express  the  long  (open) 
0.  This  symbol  was  adopted  into  use  at  Athens  toward  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  following 
century  in  all  Greek  alphabets.  The  early  Greek  (Attic) 
name  for  o  was  oS  (cf.  ef,  the  older  name  for  epsilon,  and  B 
that  for  upsilon) ;  the  later,  post-classical  name,  omicron,  8 
IJUKp6ii  (little  o),  to  distinguisli  from  omec/a,  &  fxeya  (big  o).  In 
Latin  the  practice  of  calling  the  letter  by  its  long  sound 
was  revived,  and  this  name,  o,  has  been  continued  into 
English. 

Sound. — The  simple  letter  o  is  used  in  English  to  denote 
two  principal  groups  of  o-sounds :  (1)  The  close  o,  vidgarly 
called  "  long  o " :  (a)  In  stressed  monosyllables,  bef(,ire  a 
voiced  consonant  or  finally,  this  o  appears  as  long  and  is  ac- 
companied by  a  vanisli-sound  or  glide  like  u,  i.  e.  it  is  a 
diphthong ;  thus  node,  rode,  old,  go,  no,  so.  The  same  sound 
is  denoted  variously  also,  e.  g.  by  e>v  in  sJieiv,  sew,  by  eau  in 
beau,  by  ou  in  dough,  though,  by  oiu  in  throw,  crow,  by  oa 
in  moan,  (b)  In  stressed  monosyllables  before  a  voiceless 
consonant  the  sound  is  halt-long,  as  in  note,  ghost,  post, 
(c)  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  the  vanish-sound 
nearly  or  quite  disappears,  even  under  the  accent,  as  in 
notary,  October,  social.  {(I)  In  unaccented  open  syllables 
the  close  o  appears  as  a  short  slack  ("  wide  ")  vowel,  as  in 
obey,  poetic. 

(2)  The  open  o,  vulgarly  called  "  short  o."  In  phonetics 
it  is  the  low-back-round  vowel.  It  appears  in  two  forms : 
(a)  Slack  ("  wide  "),  as  in  not,  pot,  mob,  fog,  odd,  box.  The 
vowel  in  soft,  often,  frost,  broth,  strong,  etc.,  i.  e.  before  /,  s, 
]>,  n,  is  generally  the  same  with  slightly  increased  quantity. 
The  same  sound  is  denoted  by  a  in  wasp,  stoan,  load,  quality, 
yacht,  etc.,  by  ou  in  hough,  ow  in  knoioledge.  (It)  Tense 
("  narrow  "),  in  the  position  before  r,  as  in  corri,  lord,  or, 
abhor.  The  same  sound  is  denoted  by  a  in  all,  water,  law, 
etc. ;  by  ou  in  cough,  trough.  There  is  also  a  recent  tend- 
ency in  England  to  use  the  sound  in  door,  floor,  four,  oar, 
board,  glory,  etc.,  where  more  generally  the  sound  classified 
above  as  1  (a)  is  used. 

0  stands  also  for  the  following  ^-sounds:  (1)  The  high- 
back-narrow-round  of  do,  prove,  shoe,  two,  who,  lose,  etc. 
The  same  sound  is  denoted  liy  oo  in  spoon,  too,  hy  ou  in  yotith. 
through,  by  u  in  rude,  truth,  by  ew  in  Jew,  crew,  by  ui  in 
fruit,  sluice.  (2)  The  high-back- wide-round  of  wolf,  woman, 
bosom.  This  sound  is  denoted  also  by  oo  in  book,  wood,  by 
u  in  bull,  full,  push,  by  ou  in  should,  could.  (3)  The  un- 
rounded vowel  of  S071.  ton.  dove,  love,  month,  oven,  mother, 
does.  This  sound  is  denoted  also  by  u  in  up.  but,  by  ou  in 
tough,  rough,  double,  southern,  cousin,  touch,  by  oo  in  blood, 
flood. 

Source. — (1)  Of  the  close  o  as  in  no  the  chief  sources  are : 
(a)  O.  Eng.  a  :  Germ,  ei,  e  <  Teutonic  ai  <  Indo-Kurop.  at, 
oi;  home  <  0.  Eng.  ham  :  Germ,  heim  :  Goth,  haims,  cf.  Gr. 
Kotfiiai ;  goat  <  0.  Eng.  gat  :  Germ,  geiss,  cf.  Lat.  ha'dus ; 
-one  in  alone,  only  <  O.  Eng.  an  :  Germ,  ein  :  Gotli.  aiiis  ; 
cf.  Gr.  ohi\,  Lat.  uiitis;  dough  <  O.  Eng.  dag  :  Germ.  teig. 
cf.  Gr.  Toixoi;  bone  <  0.  Eng.  bun  :  Germ.  Jem;  oak  <  0. 


Eng.  ac:Germ.  eiche:  lode  {loadstone)  <  0.  Eng.  lad,  cf. 
Germ,  leiten  :  Goth,  laidjan ;  dole  <  0.  Eng.  dCd  (dwl) :  Germ. 
theil  :  Goth,  dails;  toe  <0.  Eng.  /«  :  Germ,  zehe;  mole  < 
0.  Eng.  mal :  Goth,  mail;  whole  <  0.  Eng.  hat :  Germ.  heil. 
(b)  0.  Eng.  short  ",  which  later  suffered  lengthening  in  open 
syllables  and  before  Id.  nib;  as  hole  <  hoi;  stolen  <  stolen; 
knoll  <  C7wll;  bolt  <  bolt;  gold  <  gold;  mould  <  molde; 
foal  <  fola ;  shoal  <  scolu ;  sworn  <  sworen ;  shorn  <  scoren ; 
hoard  <  hard;  board  <bord;  over<ofer;  cove<cofa; 
clove  < clofe ;  smoke  <  smocian  ;  folk  <folc  ;  throat <]>rotu ; 
float  Kflotian;  rose  <  ?-ose;  comb  <  comb,  (c)  0.  Eng.  long 
0  preserved  (i.  e.  not  changed  to  u,  as  in  non  >  noon)  be- 
fore w;  as  flow  <fldwan;  blow  <  blowan;  grow  <growan; 
stow  <  stowian;  gloto  <  glowian;  row  <  rowan;  low  < 
hlowan.  (d)  0.  Eng.  ea  (a)  before  I  +  consonant  <  Teutonic 
a ;  as  old  <  0.  Eng.  eald  ;  Germ.  alt.  cf.  Lat.  alo ;  cold  <  0. 
Eng.  ceald  :  Germ,  kalt ;  Goth,  kalds ;  hold  <  0.  Eng.  healdan : 
Germ,  halten  :  Goth,  haldan  ;  bold  <  0.  Eng.  beald  ;  Germ. 
bald :  Goth.  JaZjis. 

(2)  Of  the  open  o  the  chief  sources  are :  (a)  M,  Eng.  short 
open  0.     This  was  derived  either  from  O.  Eng.  o,  as  in  moth 

<  moiiiie,  lost  <  gelosed,  broth  <  broh,  god  <  god,  horn  < 
horn,  corn  <  corn,  or  from  0.  Eng.  o,  b  before  nasal  <  Teu- 
tonic a,  as  in  long  <  long  :  Germ,  lang ;  song  <  song  :  Germ. 
sang;  sof t  <  softe  ;  Germ,  sanft;  brought  <brohte;  Qoth. 
brahta(*branhta);  thought  <  "bohte  ;(iot\\.  ]>ahta  (*]>anhta). 
(b)  M.  Eng.  a  <  0.  Eng.  a  (ea)  <  Teuton,  a,  as  in  salt  < 
sealt :  Germ,  sah,  warm  <  wearm  ;  Germ.  warm,  (c)  M.  Eng. 
au  <  0.  Eng.  ((-(-guttural  (or  u')  <  Teuton,  a;  as  in  draw 

<  dragan ;  cause  <  O.  Fr.  cause ;  sauce  <  0.  Fr.  sauce,  (d) 
JI.  Eng.  0  <  O.  Fr.  o ;  cord  <  0.  Fr.  corde ;  order  <  O.  Fr. 
ordre. 

(3)  0  in  its  value  as  «  (oo)  is  generally  derived  from  0. 
Eng.  0.  This  may  represent  Teutonic  6,  as  in  stool  <  0.  Eng. 
stol  :  Goth,  stols;  food  <  0.  Eng.  foda  :  Gnth.  fodeins;  mood 

<  mod  ;  Goth.  mops.  Or  it  may  represent  Teutonic  aw,  as 
in  goose  <  0.  Eng.  gos  ;  Germ,  'gans;  tooth  <  0.  Eng.  tab  ; 
Germ,  zahfi.  In  certain  words  o  (pronouncecl  ii)  may  come 
from  an  0.  Eng.  a  preceded  by  w ;  as  who  <  hwa,  two  <  twa, 
swoop  <  stvdpan,  swoon  <  swmiian. 

(4)  0  in  its  value  as  ii  is  chiefly  derived  :  (a)  From  M.  Eng. 
0,  0.  Eng.  0,  which  was  shortened  in  closed  syllables  after 
having  changed  to  u;  thus  in  hoof  <  hof,  roof  <  hrof,  book 

<  boe,  good  <  god.  Before  nasals  this  0.  Eng.  o  may  repre- 
sent Teutonic  an,  as  in  soon  <  sona  ;  0.  H.  Germ,  sun  ;  spoon 

<  span  ;  0.  H.  Germ.  span,  (b)  From  M.  Eng.  u,  after  w  or 
before  I,  as  in  wolf  <  M.  Eng.  wulf,  0.  Eng.  wulf :  Goth. 
tvulfs ;  wool  <  wtille ;  pull  <  pullian. 

(5)  0  in  its  value  as  unrounded  u  is  chiefly  derived :  (a) 
From  0.  Eng.  u,  as  in  son  <  0.  Eng.  sunne,  love  <  0.  Eng. 
lufian  ;  tongue  <  tunge  ;  won  <  gewiinnen  ;  some  <  sum.  (?) 
From  0.  Eng.  o  <  Teutonic  o,  as  in  honey  <  0.  Eng.  honeg  : 
Germ,  honig;  oven  <  0.  Eng.  ofen  :  Germ.  ofen.  (e)  From 
O.Eng.  o.  as  -in  mother  <  muder.  brother  <  brohor,  glove  < 
glof  flood  <flod.  blood  <  blod,  done  <  gedbn. 

Symbolism.— O  =  oxygen  (in  chemistry);  Ohio;  Old,  as  in 
0.  T.,  Old  Testament,  0.  Eng.,  Old  English ;  0  =  11  (in 
medi.-Bval  Roman  notation) ;  0.  F.  =  Odd  Fellows ;  0  K  = 
all  correct ;  0.  S.  =  Old  Style  (calendar  previous  to  Mbi). 

Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Oa'llli :  one  of  the  Hawaiian  islands.  (See  IIawaii-Nei.) 
The  second  in  area  and  tlie  most  populous.  Ilonolulu,  the 
cajiital,  is  on  this  island. 

Oak  [0.  Eng.  oc  ;  0.  II.  Germ.  <;(7(  >  Jlod.  Germ,  eiche ; 
this  name  for  the  tree  (aik-)  is  apparently  restricted  to  the 
Teutonic,  and  proljably  replaced  an  Indo-Euro]).  name,  of 
which  Lat.  ijucrrus,  rnvX  Germ,  f oh  re  are  representatives]: 
any  one  of  a  genus  ( Quercus)  of  trees  of  t  he  family  ( 'upn  lifera>, 
related  closely  to  the  chestnuts  and  beeches,  and  somewhat 
distantly  to  the  hazels,  hornbeams,  alders,  and  birches,  with 
which  they  agree  in  their  amentaceous  staminate  flowers, 
small  periantli,  three-celled  ovary,  and  exalbuminous  seeds, 
but  from  which  I  hey  are  separated  by  the  )>roduction  of  the 
familiar  "  acorn  "  fruit.  (Figs.  1,  2.  3.)  The  ovary  contains 
two  ovules  in  eacli  cell ;  but  after  fertilization  one  of  these 
(853) 


OAK 


OAKLAND 


253 


grows  rapidly  at  the  expense  of  the  rest,  so  that  at  maturity 
there  is  but  one  cell,  and  tliis  usually  eontains  hut  one  seed. 
The  little  root  of  the  embryo  is  direeted  to  the  point  of  the 


Fio.  1.— The  oak  of  Europe  iQ.  robur)^  with  flowers  and  fruit. 

acorn.    The  cup  of  the  acorn  is  an  involucre,  which  grows 

up  around  the  fruit  after  fertilization. 
There  are  about  300  species  of  oaks,  nearly  all  of  which 

grow  naturally  in   the  north   temperate   zone.     They  are 

most  abundant  in  North  America,  Kurope,  and  Asia.     They 

are  absent  from 
Australia,  Af- 
rica (except  the 
extreme  north- 
ern portion). 
South  America 
(except  Colom- 
bia), and  Mada- 
gascar. In  the 
I'.  S.  there  are 
aliout  forty-five 
species,  besides 
half  a  dozen  or 
more  pretty 
well  marked 
varieties. 

The  white  oak 
(Q.  alba,  Fig. 
2,  a)  is  one  of 
the  most  valu- 
able trees  of  the 
Eastern  U.  S. 
Its  tough,  hard 
wood  is  used 
in  the  manu- 
facture of  wag- 
ons, the  frames 
of  railway-cars, 
heavy  machin- 
ery, and  imple- 
ments in  which 
gi-eat  strength 
is  required.  It 
is  also  much 
used  in  making 
fine  furniture, 
and  for  the  in- 
side woodwork 
of  houses.  Bur- 

-n.  whitpoak;  /..  Inir  nak  ;  c,  che.stnutoak;  "^^    ^^i^"'"n'^",l 
d.  Uveoak  (ouefoiirtli  natural  size).  carpa.  V  Ig.  2,  0) 


is  notable  for  its  large  acorns  and  fringed  cups.  It  occurs 
K.  of  the  Kocky  .Mountains.  The  chestnut-oak  {Q.prinus, 
Fig.  2,  c)  occurs  in  the  northeastern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  Live- 
oak  (y.  virginiana,  Fig.  2,  d)  occurs  from  Virginia  to  Texas 
and  Mexico  near  the  coast.  It  is  evergreen,  and  attains  a 
height  of  from  1.5  to  18  meters  (.50  to  60  feet).  Its  wood  is 
very  heavy,  hard,  and  tough,  and  in  the  days  of  wooden 
ships  was  held  in  high  repute  for  ship-building.  The  Cali- 
fornia live-oak  (Q.  agrifoiia,  Fig.  3,  a)  is  a  large  spreading, 


Flo 


Fio.  -3. — a,  CaUfornia  live-oak  ;  b.  red  oak  ;  c,  laurel  oak  ;  d,  cork- 
oak  (.one-fourth  natural  size). 

evergreen  tree  of  the  coast  region  of  California.  The  red 
oak  {Q.  rubra,  Fig.  3,  b)  is  a  fine  tree  ranging  from  the  great 
plains  eastward.  Laurel  oak  {Q.  imbricaria.  Fig.  3,  c)  is  a 
close-topped  tree  with  pretty  foliage.  Its  range  is  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  the  red  oak.  The  cork-oak  (Q.  snber. 
Fig.  3,  d)  of  the  Mediterranean  region  is  of  great  importance 
for  the  commercial  cork  which  it  produces. 

The  oak  of  England—"  British  oak  "—is  Q.  rolur  (Pig.  1), 
a  fine  tree  with  foliage  resembling  that  of  the  white  oak. 
It  grows  also  throughout  Europe  and  Western  Asia. 

Many  oaks  attain  a  great  age.  Trees  from  400  to  500 
years  old  are  of  common  occurrence  in  the  great  forests  of 
the  U.  S.  In  Europe  some  trees  are  supposed  to  be  more 
than  1,000  years  old.  Chajiles  E.  Bessey. 

Oak-apple    and    Oak-galls  :    See    Gall    Insects    and 

Galls. 

Oak  Harbor:  village:  Ottawa  co..  0.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Ohio,  ref.  2-E) ;  on  the  Portage  river,  and  the  Lake 
Shore  an<l  3Iich.  S.  and  the  Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie  rail- 
ways; 23  miles  E.  of  Toledo.  It  is  principally  engaged  in 
lumber  manufacturing,  and  has  a  State  bank  with  cajiital 
of  135,000,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  U87 ; 
(1890)  1,681. 

Oakland:  citv;  capital  of  Alameda  co.,  Cal.  (for  loca- 
tion, sec  Muip  of  California,  n-f.  T-B) ;  on  San  Francisco  Bay, 
and  the  SdUthern  Pacific  Railroad :  opposite  and  7  miles  E. 
of  .•>an  Franciseo.  An  estuary  of  the  bay  separates  the  city 
from  Alameda,  and  steam-ferries  connect  the  cities  of  Oak- 
land and  San  Francisco.  Its  location  on  the  bay  and  at  the 
western  terminus  of  the  railway  system  gives  the  city  a  large 
commercial  importance.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  fruit- 
raising  region  :  is  lighted  by  gas  and  cK'ctricity  ;  has  elec- 
tric street-railways,  [laid  fire  department,  and  ellicient  po- 
lice, water,  and  sewerage  services :  and  contains  many  costly 
residences  of  San  Francisco  business  men.  The  census  of 
1800  showed  tliat  103  manufacturing  establishments  (repre- 
senting 44  industries)  reported.  These  had  a  combuied 
capital  of  $4,015,014,  emploved  2,944  persons,  paid  ^1,794,- 
317forwai:es  and  $3,246,222  for  materials,  and  had  prod- 
ucts valueii  at  .«;5.6T2,888.     The  manufactories  include  flour 


254 


OAK-LUNGS 


GATES 


and  planing  mills,  marble  anil  iron  works,  tanneries,  smelt- 
ing and  refining  works,  fruit-preserving  works,  potteries,  a 
cotton-mill,  a  large  jute-factory,  and  carriage,  windmill,  and 
other  factories.  In  1890-91  there  were  10,183  children  en- 
rolled in  public  schools,  and  3.133  in  private  and  parochial 
schools  ;  15  public-school  buildings,  and  public-school  prop- 
erty valued  at  .f  1.003,970.  There  were  3  colleges,  the  Pa- 
cific Theological  Seminary  (Congregational),  7  private  acad- 
emies and  secondary  schools,  a  private  normal  and  training 
school,  a  business  college,  and  8  libraries  of  all  kinds,  con- 
taining over  34.000  volumes.  In  1894  there  were  4  state 
banks,  3  national  banks,  a  savings-bank,  and  4  daily,  10 
weekly,  and  7  monthly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1880)  34,555; 
(1890)  48,683.  Editor  of  "  Enquirer." 

Oak-lungs:  See  Lungwort. 

Oan'iies :  the  man-fish  god  of  the  Babylonians,  resem- 
bling Dagon  of  the  Philistines.  He  is  said  to  have  issued 
from  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  to  have  founded  the  civilization 
of  Lower  ChaUhva.  As  represented  by  art,  a  man's  head 
was  under  that  of  the  fish,  and  a  woman's  feet  were  joined 
to  its  tail. 

Oases,  o-a'seez  [sing,  oasis  =  Lat.  =  Gr.  ooo-u.  Cf.  Coptic 
ouahe,  dwelling-place,  oasis,  deriv.  of  oiiih,  dwell] :  fertile 
areas  in  deserts.  Like  many  geographical  terms,  oasis  origi- 
nally had  only  a  local  application,  being  the  name  of  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  Sahara  (g.  v.).  The  cause  of  barrenness  of 
deserts  generally  being  their  dryness  (see  Deserts),  any  local 
supply  of  moisture  may  induce  fertility  amid  arid  surround- 
ings. Oases  are  therefore  usually  found  in  depressed  dis- 
tricts, where  a  more  or  less  subterranean  supply  of  water  is 
gathered  from  the  occasional  rainfall  on  the  surrounding 
more  elevated  regions.  The  Saharan  oases,  El-Kharga,  El- 
Siwah,  etc.,  are  of  this  kind.  Wells  are  frecpiently  dug  in 
order  to  increase  the  supply  of  water  for  irrigation  ;  and  by 
using  better  methods  than"  those  of  the  Arabs  the  French 
have  improved  the  condition  of  various  Algerian  oases.  In 
Persia  and  Central  Asia  many  settlements  or  oases  on  the 
margins  of  the  interior  deserts  are  located  at  points  where 
streams  escape  from  deep  valleys  in  the  inclosing  barren 
mountains ;  here  the  water  may  frequently  be  led  over  the 
plain  before  disappearing  in  the  central  arid  area,  as  at 
Kashgar,  Yarkand.  and  Khotan.  In  other  cases  the  oasis  is 
near  the  termination  of  the  stream,  where  its  dwindling 
waters  are  easily  led  about  in  irrigating  canals,  as  at  Merv. 
Many  settlements  in  the  western  arid  region  of  the  U.  S. 
and  in  the  drier  parts  of  South  America  are  similarly  lo- 
cated. Although  the  term  oasis  is  often  used  in  a  figurative 
or  poetical  sense  to  indicate  a  place  of  great  attractions,  the 
actual  oases  of  deserts  can  not  be  so  described.  Their  water- 
supply  is  often  scanty  and  impure ;  they  are  generally  ex- 
cessively dusty  ;  their  products  are  narrowly  limited  in  vari- 
ety, and  often  fall  short  in  quantty.  W.  JI.  Davis. 

Oat,  or  Oats  [0.  Eng.  (item,  a  name  not  found  outside 
English,  and  of  doubtful  etymology ;  it  displaces  a  Teutonic 
word  represented  by  Germ,  hafer  or  haber  <  0.  II.  Germ. 
habaro  :  Dutch  haver ;  cf.  haversack] :  the  common  name 
for  the  seeds  and  plants  of  the  numerous  species  of  a  genus 
of  grasses,  Avena,  generally  characterized  by  having  the 
spikelets  in  loose  panicles,  the  gliimes  as  long  as  the  florets, 
the  palea3  firm  and  almost  cartilaginous,  and  the  outer  one 
of  each  floret  provided  with  an  awn,  which  is  twisted  at  the 
base,  but  this  generally  disappears  in  cultivation.  The  cul- 
tivated ostt  {Avena  saiiva)  is  an  annual,  though  the.  genus 
contains  several  perennial  species.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
developed  from  Avena  fatua  found  growing  wild  in  Europe, 
where  it  is  considered  a  weed.  It  is  also  wild  in  California, 
where  it  is  sometimes  cut  when  green  and  cured  for  hay. 
The  oat  is  decidedly  a  northern  plant  and  thrives  best  in  a 
cool,  moist  soil,  reaching  the  highest  state  of  development  in 
the  higher  latitudes,  anil  rapidly  degenerating  when  grown 
in  a  hot  country.  Some  varieties  when  threshed  part  with 
the  hull,  and  are  called  hull-less  oats;  Avena  nuda  is  one  of 
these  varieties.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  varieties 
regarding  the  awn ;  in  some  it  is  entirely  wanting,  while  in 
others  it  is  long  and  l)ent ;  and  as  it  is  hygroscopic,  consid- 
erable motion  is  produced  when  it  is  changed  from  a  dry  to 
a  moist  atmosphere.  Avena  sterilis  is  one  of  the  so-called 
animated  oats. 

Oats  are  produced  as  one  of  the  chief  cereals  in  nearly  all 
countries  where  they  can  be  grown ;  they  furnish  the  most 
common  grain  food  for  liorses,  and  are  much  used  also  as 
food  for  men.  There  arc  more  than  150  varieties  in  the 
U.  S.  ;  in  1893  the  acreage  was  37,373,033,  the  product  was 


638,854,850  bush.,  and  value  |187.576,093.  The  most  pro- 
ductive States  were  :  Iowa,  95,448,331  bush. ;  Illinois,  83,843,- 
178;  Wisconsin,  46,680,366;  Minnesota,  41,563,196 ;  Indi- 
ana, 33,093,170 ;  Pennsylvania,  30.601,098  ;  and  New  York, 
30,308,738.  The  oats  grown  in  the  Southern  States  are  in- 
ferior, and  are  mostly  of  the  red  or  dun  varieties.  In  most 
of  the  States  the  legal  bushel  is  33  lb.  Jlost  varieties  are 
cultiTated  for  the  grain,  although  a  few  are  useful  for  fod- 
der. The  oat  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  requires  an  abundance 
of  available  plant-food  for  perfect  development. 

The  following  analyses  are  the  average  of  many  analyses 
made  at  experiment  stations  in  the  U.  S.  They  are  both 
given  in  per  cent. : 

FERTILIZER   ANALYSIS. 


SUBSTANCE. 


Grain. , 
Straw. 


Nitrogen, 


1-60 
0-65 


Phosphoric  acid. 


o-rr 

0-22 


0-55 
1-22 


fodder  analysis. 


SUBSTANCE. 

Water. 

Ait. 

Protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

N.-free 
extract. 

Fat. 

Grain. 

11-0 
9-2 

30 
51 

4  0 

9-5 

37-0 

59-7 
42-4 

50 

Straw 

2-3 

The  oat  has  comparatively  few  insect  enemies,  but  is  sub- 
ject to  about  the  same  fungus  diseases  as  wheat,  rust  being 
quite  prevalent,  particularly  if  the  weather  is  hot  and  moist. 
It  is  also  subject  to  loose  smut  in  a  way  similar  to  wheat, 
the  smut,  however,  being  more  destructive  to  oats  than  to 
wheat.  Early  varieties  and  early-sowed  grain  are  the  least 
likely  to  be  attacked  by  fungus  diseases.      G.  C.  Watson. 

Oates,  Titus,  alias  Ambrose  :  a  notorious  informer ;  b. 
in  Ijondon,  England,  about  1620 ;  educated  at  Merchant 
Taylors'  School  and  at  Cambridge ;  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England ;  officiated  in  several  parishes ;  became 
a  chaplain  in  the  navy ;  was  dismissed  from  that  post  on  a 
charge  of  disgraceful  conduct;  professed  conversion  to  Ro- 
man Catholicism  ;  became  a  Jesuit ;  resided  some  months 
in  the  colleges  at  Valladolid  and  St.-Omer;  was  expelled 
from  both  institutions  for  alleged  misconduct ;  returned  to 
England  in  1678,  and  gave  information  to  the  authorities 
of  the  existence  of  a  "Popish  plot"  for  the  extirpation  of 
Protestantism  in  England,  accusing  several  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  noliility  and  gentry  of  participation  in  the  pre- 
tended conspiracy.  The  admitted  zeal  for  Roman  Cathol- 
icism displayed  by  James,  Duke  of  York,  the  suspected  in- 
clination of  King  Charles  II.  to  the  same  faith,  and  the 
unexpected  corroboration  of  a  part  of  Oates's  testimony  by 
the  discovery  of  some  incriminating  papers  in  the  j)Osses- 
sion  of  one  of  the  accused  gave  color  to  the  charges,  and  the 
murder  of  Sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey,  the  magistrate  before 
whom  the  testimony  was  taken,  produced  conviction  in  the 
popular  mind.  Oates  thereupon  developed  his  original  tes- 
timony into  a  circumstantial  account  of  the  intended  burn- 
ing of  London  and  the  shipping  in  the  Thames,  a  massacre 
of  Protestants,  and  a  landing  of  a  French  army  in  Ireland, 
adding  that  the  pope  had  intrusted  the  government  of  Eng- 
land to  the  Jesuits,  that  the  chief  officers  of  state  had  al- 
ready been  parceled  out  among  the  great  Roman  Catholic 
lords,  tliat  the  king  was  to  be  assassinated,  and  that  the 
queen  was  privy  to  the  plot.  The  king  was  incredulous 
from  the  first,  and  refused  to  countenance  the  attacks  upon 
his  wife  ;  but  among  the  people  the  excitement  was  in- 
tense, many  believing  that  the  Roman  Catholics  intended 
to  repeat  in  England  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  The 
Iiouses  of  Roman  Catholics  were  searched,  and  extraordinary 
lirecautions  taken  against  the  supposed  danger.  Oates  was 
lodgeil  in  Whitehall,  received  a  large  pension,  and  had 
guards  assigned  him.  The  accused  Roman  Catholics  were 
put  on  trial  Nov.,  1678 ;  several  were  convicted  and  exe- 
cuted; and  fresh  victims  were  added  from  time  to  time  for 
two  years.  After  the  execution  of  Lord  .Stafford,  Dec,  1680, 
there  was  a  revulsion  of  jjublic  sentiment:  the  bad  charac- 
ter of  Oates  was  exposed :  the  Duke  of  York  ol)tained  a  ver- 
dict of  £100,000  against  him  for  dcfan]atit>ii  (1685).  and  he 
was  imprisoned  as  a  debtor.  On  the  accession  of  James  11. 
severer  measures  were  taken :  Oates  was  convicted  of  per- 
jury, sentenced  to  .stand  in  the  pillory  five  times  a  year  in 
as  many  different  towns  during  his  life,  to  be  whipped  from 
Aldgate  to  Newgate,  and  thence  to  Tylnirn,  and  to  be  im- 
jirisoned  for  life.  Public  sentiment  being  now  fiercely 
against  him,  he  was  mobbed  and  nearly  killed  at  the  first 


OATH 


OB 


ioo 


pillorv,  and  received  1,700  lashes  at  the  whipping.  After 
the  accession  of  William  and  Jlary,  Parliament  declared 
the  conviction  of  Oalcs  illegal.  He  was  |)ardoned,  received 
a  pension  of  t'JJOO  per  annum,  and  survived  in  obscurity 
seventeen  years  longer,  dying  in  London.  .July  ',':i,  170.5. 
Oates's  career  is  described  at  some  length  in  Mucaulay's 
Ui.itiirtj  of  EiKjland.  See  also  the  accounts  in  Lingard's 
and  Burnet's  works.  Kevised  by  F.  M.  t'oLuv. 

Oath  [M.  Eng.  othe  <  0.  Eng.  o5  :  Germ,  eid  :  Icel.  eifir : 
Goth,  nifs  <  Teuton,  aiha-z  :  0.  Ir.  oflh,  oath  ;  akin  to  Gr. 
Iras,  defined  as  ipKos  by  Hesychius  ;  cf.  trriKos.  firm] :  in  law, 
a  solemn  asseverat  ion  or  promise  under  sanction  of  the  mak- 
er's religion,  in  tlie  presence  of  i>ne  legally  authorized  to 
administer  it.  If  a<lministered  without  authority,  it  has 
no  legal  effect  as  an  oath  (see  Perjury),  although  tiie  trans- 
action may  subject  the  parties  to  punishment  under  statutes 
against  unlawful  oaths.  (Stephen's  Diyest  of  the  Criminal 
Law,  ^§  83-8.5.)  In  certain  contingencies  a  person  has  au- 
thority to  administer  an  oath  to  himself.  {\S'^ili<<>n  vs.  De 
Coula,  2'i  Chancery  Division  841.)  The  ol)ject  of  an  oath 
is  so  to  affect  the  conscience  of  the  maker  as  to  guaranty 
his  future  conduct  or  present  veracity.  The  means  em- 
ployed in  most  legal  systems  is  an  invocation  to  a  superior 
power  to  attest  the  maker's  good  faith  or  veracity,  or  an 
imprecation  of  divine  vengeance  upon  him  for  false  swear- 
ing, or  both.  Primitive  oaths  contain  often  no  express  ap- 
peal to  a  deity.  For  e.\ample,  two  men  grasp  an  animal, 
which  is  chopped  in  two,  as  emblematic  of  what  will  be- 
fall the  one  wlio  is  false  to  his  vow  ;  or  the  swearer  calls  on 
a  fierce  beast  to  punish  him  if  he  lies.  In  other  eases, 
however,  the  primitive  oath-taker  calls  upon  a  river,  like 
the  Ganges,  or  upon  the  sun,  or  other  great  natural  oliject 
which  he  worsliips,  to  destroy  him  if  he  swears  falsely. 

The  most  important  legal  oaths  in  modern  times  are  those 
required  of  ofli<'ials  anil  those  re<|uired  of  witnesses.  Offi- 
cial oaths  are  usually  promissory,  as  the  following  examples 
will  show.  The  British  sovereign  upon  coronation  sol- 
emidy  promises  an<l  swears  to  govern  the  people  of  Great 
Britain  and  dominions  thereto  belonging  according  to  the 
statutes  in  Parliament  agreed  on  and  the  laws  and  customs 
of  the  same;  to  cause  law  and  justice  in  mercy  to  be  exe- 
cuted in  all  his  judgments;  to  maintain  the  laws  of  God 
and  the  Protestant  reformed  religion  established  by  law; 
and  to  secure  unto  the  bishops  and  clergy  of  the  nation  all 
such  rights  and  privili'gcs  as  by  law  shall  appertain  unto 
them.  The  oath  required  of  the  President  of  the  U.  S.  is 
that  he  will  faithfully  execute  the  office,  and  will,  to  the 
best  of  his  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  l".  S.  (.\rt.  2,  S;  1,  cl.  8.)  An  English  judge 
takes  an  oath  to  "  do  right  to  all  manner  of  people,  after  the 
laws  and  usages  of  this  realm,  without  fear  or  favor,  affec- 
tion or  ill-will":  and  similar  promises  are  made  by  juilges 
in  the  U.  S.  upon  taking  office.  A  juror's  oath  is  pronus- 
sory,  binding  him  to  try  the  issue  joined  in  the  particular 
case,  and  give  a  true  verdict  according  to  the  evidence.  At 
times  test  oaths  are  required  of  officers.  Of  this  kind  was 
the  oath  pre.scribe<l  by  sj  17.56  of  the  V.  S.  Revised  Statutes 
(repealed  by  ch.  40,  Laws  of  1884),  often  called  the  iron-clad 
oath,  to  the  effect  that  the  affiant  had  never  voluntarily 
borne  arms  against  the  I".  .S.  since  he  had  been  a  citizen 
thereof,  nor  voluntarily  given  aid,  countenance,  coimsel,  or 
encouragement  to  persons  engaged  in  armed  hostility  there- 
to. Such  official  oaths  are  declaratoiT.  The  ordiiuiry  wit- 
ness oath  is  promissory  in  form,  the  witness  swearing  that 
the  evidence  he  shall  give  shall  be  the  truth,  the  whole  truth, 
and  nothing  but  the  truth.  An  aflidavit  is  in  the  form  of  a 
declaratory  oat  h. 

In  the  absence  of  express  statutory  directions  the  oath  is 
administered  in  that  form  which  the  one  taking  it  considers 
most  binding  on  his  conscience.  According  to  the  ordinary 
common-law  form,  the  affiant  holds  the  New  Testament  in 
his  bare  right  hand,  assents  to  the  promise  to  tell  the  truth 
addressed  to  him  by  the  proper  ollicer.  jind  kisses  the  book, 
.lews  are  sworn  on  the  Pentateuch,  the  closing  lajiguage  of 
the  oath  being,  "."^o  help  you  .lehovali  " ;  Mohaiinnedans  on 
the  Koran,  and  Parsees  on  their  sacred  books.  A  ]iart  of 
the  ceremony  of  swearing  a  Hindu  consists  in  his  touching 
the  foot  of  a  Brahmin,  or,  if  a  Brahmin  is  sworn,  in  his 
touching  another  Brahmin's  hand.  In  some  parts  of  India 
the  native  takes  his  oath  on  water  from  the  Ganges.  Chi- 
nese oath-takers  break  a  saucer  or  behead  a  fowl  as  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  ceremony,  thereby  imprecating  punish- 
ment upon  them  for  false  swearing. 


As  the  religious  sanction  is  an  essential  element  of  the 
oath,  it  can  not  properly  be  taken  by  an  atheist.  Under 
the  U.  S.  Constitution  and  the  constitutions  of  several 
States  any  religious  test  as  a  ijualification  to  any  office  or 
public  trust  is  forbidden,  and  officers  are  allowed  to  substi- 
tute an  affirmation  for  an  oath.  (See  U.  S.  Constitution,  Art. 
6,  cl.  3,  and  U.  .S.  K.  S.,  S  I.)  In  nearly  one-lialf  of  the  U.  .S. 
atheists  are  no  longer  incom]ietent  as  witnesses,  but  are  per- 
mitted to  give  their  evidence  uiuler  the  sanction  of  a  solemn 
aflirmation.  (Stimson's  American  Slalufe  Lau;  g^  4.5,  46, 
47.)  Persons  having  conscientious  scruples  against  taking 
an  oath  are  generally  allow(;d  to  affirm.  The  Oaths  Act  of 
1889  (51  and  52  Vict.,  c.  46)  permits  every  person  who  objects 
to  be  sworn,  either  Ijecause  he  has  no  religious  belief  or  be- 
cause the  taking  of  an  oath  is  contrary  to  his  religious  be- 
lief, *' to  make  a  solemn  affirmation  instead  of  taking  the 
oatli,  in  all  places  and  for  all  purposes."  This  legislation 
was  induced  largely  by  the  punishment  inflicted  upon 
Charles  Bradlaugh  for  sitting  and  voting  in  Parliament,  in 
.July.  1880,  without  taking  an  oath.  Clarice  vs.  Bradlaugh, 
7  Queen's  Bench  Division  38. 

The  employment  of  oaths,  even  in  legal  proceedings,  has 
been  criticised  as  irreligious,  aii<l  also  as  useless.  Pothier 
declared  ;  "  In  the  exercise  of  my  profession  for  more  than 
forty  years  ...  I  have  not  more  than  twice  known  a  party 
restrained  by  the  sanctity  of  the  oath  from  persisting  in 
what  he  had  before  asserted."  (1  Pothier,  On  Evidence,  § 
831.)  It  has  been  said  in  reply  ;  "  Even  the  good  might  be 
too  negligent  and  the  bad  would  frequently  have  no  con- 
cern at  all  abcjut  their  words  if  it  were  mit  for  the  solemnity 
of  this  religious  act.''  The  tendency  of  modern  legislation 
is  to  substitute  declarations  for  unnecessary  oaths  (see  Prom- 
issory Oaths  Act,  31  and  32  Vict.,  c.  72),  and  to  treat  a  sol- 
emn affirmation  as  affording  a  guaranty  of  the  good  faith 
and  veracity  of  the  maker  equally  trustworthy  with  that 
furnished  by  the  oath. 

Referetice  to  Oath. — This  in  Scotch  law  is  the  last  resource 
of  a  party  who  despairs  of  any  other  evidence.  It  is  allowa- 
ble in  civil  actions  only,  and  by  it  the  party  who  refers 
places  tho  cause  on  the  sole  issue  of  his  antagonist's  oath. 
Whatever  the  antagonist  swears  to  is  indisputably  true  for 
that  cause,  though  in  another  proceeding,  as  a  prosecution 
for  (lerjurv,  it  may  be  proved  to  be  false.  Bell's  Principles 
of  the  Law  of  Scotland.  f;g  2263  to  2269  ;  E.  B.  Tvlor's  Or- 
dealx  and  Oaths.  34  Macmillan's  Mag.  1  ;  J.  E.  Tvlor  On, 
Oaths  (London,  1835);  Juiikin  On  the  Oath  (New  York, 
1845) ;  Ford  On  Oaths  (London,  1890).       P.  M.  Burdick. 

Oaxaea,  or  Oajaca,  o-aa-haa'kaa :  a  state  of  Mexico ; 
bounded  S.  by  the  Pacific  and  bordering  on  Guerrero,  Pue- 
bla.  Vera  Cruz,  and  Chiapas ;  the  eastern  portion  is  in- 
eluded  in  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  Area,  28,778  sq. 
miles.  With  the  exception  of  a  narrow  coast  belt  it  is  moun- 
tainous throughout,  the  principal  range  being  the  Sierra 
Madre  del  Sur,  which  crosses  it  from  E.  to  W.,  with  peaks 
nearly  12,000  feet  in  height.  Many  of  the  intervening  val- 
leys are  below  3.000  feet.  The  soil  nearly  everywhere  is 
fertile  and  well  watered ;  the  climate,  except  in  the  coast 
belt,  is  delightful  and  very  salubrious.  Almost  the  only 
prominent  industry  is  agriculture  ;  the  principal  crops  are 
maize  (for  home  consumption)  on  the  highlands,  and  sugar, 
cotton,  and  indigo  in  the  warm  valleys;  coffee-planting  has 
also  risen  in  importance.  The  cochineal  insect  is  indige- 
nous, but  comparatively  small  <juantities  are  now  exported. 
The  mountain  forests  liave  abundance  of  valuable  timber. 
The  mineral  deposits  are  said  to  be  extensive  and  very  rich; 
but  few  mining  improvements  have  been  introduced,  and 
the  |)resent  annual  yield  of  gold  and  silver  does  not  exceed 
f2,000,000.  The  state  has  many  interesting  antiquities. 
(See  Mexican  Axtiqi-ities.)  Pop.  (1893)  estimated.  81!).- 
460,  of  whom  seven-eighths  are  civilized  Indians,  principally 
Zapotecs  and  Mixtecs.  IIerkert  II.  Smith. 

Onxaca  :  capital  and  principal  city  of  the  Mexican  state 
of  the  same  name  ;  situaterl  near  the  center  of  the  state,  in 
a  beautiful  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  JIadre  del  Sur, 
3,9(X)  feet  above  the  sea  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  8-H).  The 
valley  was  granted  in  fief  to  Hernando  Cortes  (whence  his 
title  of  Marques  del  Valle),  and  the  town  was  officially 
founded  in  1532.  Owing  to  its  isolation  it  has  had  little 
share  in  the  [irogress  of  modern  Mexico.  It  is  the  scat  of  a 
bishopric  and  has  a  theological  seminary,  a  goofliniblic  li- 
brary, cathedral,  etc.     Pop.  (1889)  28,500.'  H.  H.  S. 

Ob,  or  OhI,  o  be'e  :  a  river  of  Western  Siberia.  It  rises  in 
the  Altai   Mountains  within  the  Chinese  dominions,  and 


256 


OBADIAH 


OBERHAUSEN 


flows  in  a  northern  and  northwestern  direction,  with  a  tor- 
tuous course  of  2,600  miles,  into  the  Gulf  of  Obi,  an  inlet  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  shore  of  Siberia.  It  receives  many 
affluents,  of  which  the  principal  is  the  Irtish  (1,500  miles 
long),  coming  in  from  the  left,  200  miles  below  Tobolsk.  It 
is  navigable  "from  Tomsk  to  its  mouth,  and  forms  the  com- 
mercial highwav  between  China  and  European  Russia.  From 
May  15  to  Sept!  15  steamers  and  ligliters  ply  between  Tomsk 
and  Tiumen  on  the  Tobol,  near  the  frontier  of  Russia. 

Revised  by  51.  W.  Harrlngtox. 

Obadi'all  [from  Heb.  •Obad'ydh.  liter.,  worshiper  of  Je- 
hovah] :  one  of  tlie  minor  Hebrew  prophets,  of  whom  noth- 
ing is  known,  except  what  can  be  inferred  from  his  book, 
the  briefest  book  of  the  Old  Testament.  This  is  a  mono- 
graph on  the  Dav  of  Jehovah,  and  especially  on  the  rela- 
tions of  Edom  to' that  day.  Punishment  has  just  been  in- 
flicted on  Edom  (verses  1-6)  for  an  offense  committed 
against  Jacob  (7-14),  and  the  impending  day  of  Jeliovah 
will  complete  the  overthrow  of  Edom  and  the  triumph  of 
Jacob  (15-21).  The  book  lias  strong  affiliations  with  Joel 
and  with  Jer.  xlix.  7-32.     Different  scholars  assign  it  to  all 

E laces  among  the  prophets,  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest ; 
ut  the  way  in  which  it  mentions  Judah,  Joseph,  Ephraim, 
Samaria,  seems  to  indicate  a  date  before  the  overthrow  of 
the  northern  kingdom.  Its  position  among  the  books  of 
the  minor  prophets  indicates  that  it  belongs  to  the  earlier 
group  of  them,  and  it  fits  well  the  historical  situation  in 
the  reign  of  Amaziah,  King  of  Judah,  2  Kings  xiv.  7-8,  10 : 
2  Chron.  xsv.  11-12, 19.  According  to  this  view  the  similar 
sentences  in  Jer.  xlix.  are  quoted  from  Obadiah. 

W.  J.  Beecher. 

Oban'do.  Jose  Maria  :  general  and  politician ;  b.  in  Xew 
Granada  about  1797.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  birthplace 
and  parentage;  it  is  said  tliat  he  was  stolen  when  a  child 
and  was  adopted  by  a  family  of  Popayan.  whose  name  he 
took.  In  1822  he  joined  the  republican  army,  and  later  he 
became  prominent  as  a  leader  of  the  liberals  in  the  dis- 
turbances which  ended  in  the  dissolution  of  the  first  re- 
public of  Colombia.  The  republic  of  New  Granada  having 
been  formed,  Obando  was  vice-president  and  acting  presi- 
dent in  the  provisional  government  Xov.  23,  1831,  to  Mar. 
10,  1832.  Under  Santander  he  was  Secretary  of  War  1832- 
37,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  the  presidency.  Marquez  was  elected  and  Obando  led 
a  revolt  against  him  which  lasted  until  1841,  but  he  was 
eventually  defeated  and  banished  for  several  years.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  prominent  in  congress,  was  president  of 
Cartagena  1850,  and  was  elected  president  of  Xew  Granada 
for  the  term  beginning  in  1853.  In  1854,  owing  to  a  con- 
flict with  congress,  he  assumed  dictatorial  powers,  and  was 
deposed.  In  tlie  civil  war  of  1860  he  supported  the  federal- 
ists, commanding  a  force  in  Gauca,  where  he  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  Cruz  Verde,  June  29,  1861.         H.  H.  Smith. 

Obeld',  El :  the  capital  of  Kordofan.  in  the  Sudan,  Africa. 
It  derives  its  importance  primarily  from  the  fact  that  it 
lies  in  a  depression  of  a  vast  serai-arid  plain  and  its  wells 
never  lack  water  (see  map  of  Africa,  ret.  4-F).  When  the 
Mahdist  revolt  occurred  (1882),  tlie  town  had  about  100,000 
inhabitants.  It  was  a  great  supply  center  for  Darfur  and 
other  parts  of  the  Sudan,  and  sent  large  quantities  of  os- 
trich featliers  and  Kordofan  gum  to  the  Nile.  The  houses 
were  mud  huts  with  the  exception  of  the  Eg^-ptian  Govern- 
ment buildings,  which  were  of  sun-dried  brick.  Insurrec- 
tions, epidemics,  and  the  ruin  of  commerce  in  the  Mahdist 
domain  greatly  injured  tlie  town.  C.  C.  Adams. 

Ob'elisk  [from  Lat.  obelis'cus  =  Gr.  o$c\t(rKos,  dimin.  of 
o$e\6s,  spit,  ]iointed  pillar] :  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  the  quadrilateral,  tapering  monolithic  monuments  erected 
by  the  Egyptians  in  front  of  their  temple  pylons  as  votive 
offerings  to  the  gods  and  as  memorials  of  the  victorious 
might  conferred  by  the  deities  upon  the  Pharaohs.  They 
are  usually  composed  of  Syenite  granite,  and  were  cut  from 
the  rock  with  great  skill.  There  is  now  near  Syene,  in 
Upper  Egy]it,  a  partially  finished  obelisk  which  measures 
10^  feet  square  at  the  i)ase  and  92  feet  in  length,  72  feet 
of  it  being  completed.  These  great  masses  were  finished 
on  three  sides  before  being  finally  detached  from  the  bed- 
rock by  the  use  of  drills  and  wet  wedges.  They  were  made 
slightly  conve.t,  to  obviate  the  concave  effect  produced  by 
sides  that  were  exactly  flat.  The  usual  method  of  inscrip- 
tion was  with  a  single  column  of  hieroglyphs  down  the 
center  of  each  side;  three  lines  to  the  side  ordinarily  indi- 
cate a  later  usurpation.     They  were  placed  in  pairs,  for 


architectural  effect,  before  the  great  pylons  of  the  temples, 
and  were  devoted  to  the  glorification  of  the  Pharaoh  in 
bombastic  and  laudatory  phrase.  With  the  exception  of  a 
small  obelisk  found  in  the  necropolis  of  Memphis  by  Lep- 
sius,  the  oldest  one  known  is  that  now  standing  at  Heli- 
opolis  (the  city  whose  hieroglyphic  name  was  written  with 
the  sign  of  the  obelisk),  erected  by  Usertasen  I.,  the  second 
king  of  the  twelfth  dynasty.  Its  companion  fell  in  the 
twelfth  century.  It  is  of  Syenite  granite,  66  feet  high,  but 
is  now  partially  buried  at  the  base  and  has  its  deeply  cut 
hieroglyphs  obliterated  on  two  sides  by  bees'  nests.  Till  a 
comparatively  recent  date  its  top  was  covered  by  a  metal 
sheathing.  Cleopatra's  Needles  was  the  name  given  to  a 
pair  of  obelisks  removed  from  Heliopolis  to  Alexandria  in 
Roman  times,  one  of  which  is  now  on  the  Thames  Embank- 
ment in  London,  and  the  other  in  Central  Park,  New  York, 
the  latter  having  been  presented  by  the  Khedive  Ismail. 
They  were  originally  erected  by  Thothmes  III.  It  was  one 
of  the  great  feats  of  Queen  Hatasu  (g.  v.)  to  Iiave  com- 
pleted and  erected  one  of  the  largest  obelisks,  109  feet  high, 
in  the  short  space  of  seven  months.  (See  Edwards's  Fel- 
lahs, Pharaohs,  and  Explorers,  p.  268  fl:.)  At  Luxor  one 
obelisk  is  still  in  gitu  at  the  E.  of  the  temple  pylon ;  the 
western  and  smaller  one  now  stands  in  the  Place  de  la  Con- 
corde at  Paris,  being  75  feet  high,  and  weighing  212  tons. 
This  pair  was  erected  by  the  great  Ramses.  At  Karnak,  at 
about  the  center  of  the  temple  as  it  now  exists,  stood  two 
obelisks  which  indicated  the  entrance  to  the  temple  at  the 
time  of  Thothmes  I.  Both  were  erect  in  1738,  when  Po- 
cocke  visited  the  jilace,  but  one  has  since  been  destroyed. 
The  other  stands  76  feet  high.  At  Phila>  in  the  portion  of 
the  Temple  of  Isis  built  by  Nectanebo,  were  two  sandstone 
obelisks,  the  western  one  being  still  in  situ,  while  its  mate 
is  in  England.  Tliese  monoliths  had  on  their  bases  Greek 
inscriptions  which  gave  assistance  in  the  original  decipher- 
ment of  the  hieroglyphic  character.  Two  others  in  granite 
in  the  same  temple  have  been  destroyed.  Sloldenke  gives  a 
list  of  50  obelisks,  erect  and  prostrate  or  in  fragments,  20 
of  which  are  in  Egypt,  2  in  Constantinople,  12  in  Rome,  7 
in  other  parts  of  Italy,  2  in  France.  5  in  England,  2  in  Ger- 
many, and  1  in  New  York.  The  list,  however,  includes 
copies  and  uninscribed  stones.  See  Cleopatra's  Needle  {in 
the  Bv-paths  of  Bible  Knowledge  Series);  Gorringe,  Egyp- 
tian Obelisks  (New  York,  1882) ;  Moldenke.  The  Kew  York 
Obelisk  (New  York,  1891) :  Maspero,  Egyptian  Archmology 
(London,  1887) ;  Ebers,  Cicerone  durch  das  alte  iind  neue 
Aegypten  (Stuttgart,  1886),  etc.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Ober-Anniiergaii,  o  bf  r-aa  nif  r-gow :  a  village  of  Bavaria, 
with  a  population  of  1,200 ;  beautifully  situated  on  the 
Ammcr,  46  miles  S.  W.  of  Munich  ;  celebrated  for  the  per- 
formance of  a  mystery  representing  the  passion  and  death 
of  Christ,  which  takes  place  here  every  ten  years  (see  map 
of  German  Empire,  ref.  7-F).  The  custom  originated  in 
1634,  when  the  population  made  a  vow  to  this  effect  if  the 
village  escaped  from  further  invasion  of  the  plague,  which 
prevailed  in  the  vicinity  and  had  begun  to  ravage  their 
community.  The  performance  requires  nearly  600  actors, 
many  of  whom  are  children,  chosen  among  the  inhabitants 
themselves,  lasts  from  8  a.  m.  to  5  p.  M.,  with  an  intermission 
of  an  hour  and  a  half,  is  repeated  on  Sunday,  Monday,  and 
Friday  geiieraUy,  from  May  to  September,  and  attracts  very 
large  audiences,  as  it  is  the  only  place  in  which  mysteries  are 
still  performed  in  true  mediieval  style.  See  W.  T.  Stead's 
Tlie  Passion  Play  in  1S90  (London,"  1890),  which  gives  the 
text  of  the  play  in  German  and  English. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Oberge,  Eilhard,  von  :  media?val  German  poet  who  ap- 
pears in  documents  from  the  years  1189-1207  as  a  vassal  of 
Flenry  the  Lion.  With  the  latter  he  probably  visited  Eng- 
land, where  he  may  have  learned  about  the  legend  of  Tris- 
tan and  Isolde,  which  he  for  the  first  time  introduced  into 
German  literature  by  his  epic  poem  Tristant  und  Isolde. 
Of  this  poem  only  a  few  fragments  are  extant,  from  which, 
however,  we  may  gather  that  Oberge's  account  of  the  leg- 
end in  many  respects  differeil  from  the  later  version  of  Gott- 
fried von  Strassburg.  .See  Franz  Lichtenstein,  Eilhard  von 
Oberge  (1878);  W.  Golther,  Tristan  und  Isolde  (1887). 

Jl'LIUS  GOEBEL. 

Obprhaiisen.  o-bcrhowzfn:  town;  in  the  Rhine  province, 
Prussia  ;  5  miles  from  the  east  bank  of  the  river  Rhine  and 
20  miles  X.  of  Diisseldorf  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref. 
4-Cl.  It  is  a  busy  railway  center;  has  zinc-smelting  works, 
manufactures  of  wire  rope,  glass,  porcelain,  etc.     Extensive 


OliEHLl.V 


OBLATKS 


251 


coal-pits  are  in  the  vicinity.  It  is  of  modem  origin,  its  first 
houses  tx'ing  built  in  184.5,  luiil  received  its  municipal  char- 
ter in  1N75.     Pop.  (18'J0)  2r,,24y. 

Oberliii :  village;  Lorain  co.,  O.  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Ohio,  ref.  2-(t)  ;  on  the  Lake  Shore  and  Mich.  Southern 
Kailway  :  35  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  (Ucvcland,  10.5  miles  X.  N.  E. 
of  Columbus.  It  is  the  seat  of  Oberlin  Colleuk  (q.  v.),  and 
contains  a  manual-training  school,  a  business  college,  a 
school  of  telegraphy,  a  national  bank,  a  State  bank,  and  a 
bi-moiithlv,  a  quarterly,  and  three  weekly  periodicals. 
Pop.  (1880)  3,242  ;  (18U0)  4.376.  Kuitor  ok  •'  New.s." 

Oberlin,  Jouaxn  Friedrich  :  philanthropist  ;  b.  at 
Strassburg,  Aug.  31,  1740;  early  showed  a  remarkable  ile- 
gree  of  benevolence;  was  educated  at  the  Strassburg  Uni- 
versity; was  ordained  to  llie  Lullieran  ministry;  becanu' 
in  1806  pastor  of  Steintlial  or  the  Han  de  la  Roclie,  a  wild 
district  in  the  Vosges  Mountains.  Here,  under  Ids  wisely 
directed  care,  deep  ignorance  was  succeeded  by  general  in- 
telligence; moral  darkness  gave  place  to  ]iiety  and  a  re- 
markable improvement  in  the  industry  and  thrift  of  the 
distric't,  which  retained  its  prosiierity,  and  in  l.SDO  had 
6,000  inliabitants.  The  Han  de  hi  luiclie  was  visited  by 
many  philanthropists,  to  wliom  ()l)erliu"s  work  served  as  a 
model.  D.  at  Waldbach,  June  1,  1826.  See  Butler's  Life 
ofJohann  Friedrich  Oberlin  (London,  1882);  and  the  Writ- 
ings edited  by  Burkhardt  (4  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1843). 

Oberlin  CoUegre  :  an  institution  of  learning  at  Oberlin, 
O. ;  founded  in  1833  by  Rev.  John  J.  Shipherd  and  Philo 
P.  Stewart.  It  was  chartered  Feb.  28,  1.834,  as  Oberlin  Col- 
legiate Institute,  and  retained  that  name  until  1850.  The 
plan  was  to  establish  a  Christian  .scliool  for  the  liberal  edu- 
cation of  both  sexes,  encouraging  students  to  a.ssist  them- 
selves by  manual  labor.  By  1.h;{.5  tliere  were  theological, 
college,  la<iii;s',  and  preparatory  departments;  there  was 
added  in  1867  a  conservatory  of  music.  The  theological 
senunary  has  an  intimate  relation  to  the  Congregational 
churches  of  the  U.  S.,  but  is  not  authoritatively  controlled 
by  them.  Its  graduates  receive  the  degree  of  D.  B.  The 
seudnary  building  contains  accommodations  for  100  stu- 
dents, besides  the  chapel  and  lecture-rooms.  In  the  college 
proper  there  are  three  courses,  the  classical,  the  philosoph- 
ical, and  the  seientitic,  leading  respectively  to  the  degrees 
of  A.  B.,  Ph.  B.,  and  S.  B.  The  three  courses  are  on  an 
C(iuality  as  to  requirements  for  admission  and  graduation. 
After  the  freshman  year  two-thirds  of  the  work  is  elective. 
The  preparatory  school  is  called  the  academy.  It  offers 
four-year  courses  leading  to  the  different  college  courses. 
Tlie  general  faculty  consists  of  tlie  president,  36  professors, 
and  52  permanent  instructors.  lecturers,  and  tutors.  Of 
these,  6  professors  and  17  instructors  are  in  the  conservatory 
of  music.  The  productive  endowment  is  ^620,000.  The 
tuition  is  $40  per  year.  The  libraries  contain  40,000  vol- 
uines.  The  men's  gymnasium,  the  women's  gymnasium, 
and  an  atidetic  field  furnish  opportunities  for  physical  cul- 
ture. The  c:heruical.  botanical,  and  zoological  laboratories 
have  separate  buildings.  There  is  a  valuable  museum  and 
herbarium.  Asa  Mahan  was  president  from  18:i5  to  1,850, 
Cliarles  U.  Finney  from  1851  t.i  1806,  James  II.  Fairchild 
from  1866  to  1800.  In  18i»l  William  (i.  Ballanline  was  ap- 
poiided.  The  board  of  trustees  consists  of  twiMity-four 
members,  four  of  whom  are  elected  annually.  The  alumni 
elect  one-fourth  of  the  board.  Xegro  students  have  never 
been  refused  adndssion,  and  they  have  constituted  from  3 
to  5  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  The  total  attendance  of  stu- 
dents, averaging  from  1.300  to  1,500  a  year,  is  about  equally 
divided  between  the  t\vo  sexes,  ami  idiout  half  of  all  come 
from  outside  the  State  of  Ohio.  Alhert  A.  Wrkjiit. 

O'bersteiner,  IlEiSRim,  M.I).:  alieni.st  ;  b.  in  Vienna, 

Austria,  Nov.  i;^,  1847;  studied  medicine  in  the  university 
"f  that  city,  graduating  in  1870  ;  was  appointed  director  of 
the  insane  asylum  of  Ober-Diilding  in  1872,  and  Extraordi- 
nary Professor  of  Psychiatry  at  the  Vienna  University  in 
1880.  His  most  important  work  h  Anleitung beim  Stiidiiim 
des  Baues  der  nerviixen  Central-Oryane  im  gesunden  und 
Icriinken  Zuslande  (Vienna,  1888).  S.  T.  A. 

Obes'ity  [from  Lat.  obe'sitas.  deriv.  of  obe'sus.  fat, 
plump  ;  liter.,  having  eaten  one's  fill ;  oh  +  e'dcre,  eat] ;  an 
abnornud  deposit  of  adi|josetiss>ie  under  the  integument  and 
around  the  viscera.  The  amount  of  adipose  tissue  in  the  or- 
ganism may  be  considerably  augmented  wit  hout  givingrise  to 
any  inconvenience  on  the  part  of  Iheiiniiyidual  in  thewayof 
encumbering  his  movements  or  interfcriug  witli  the  func- 
301 


tions  of  the  viscera,  etc. ;  but  such  a  condition  would  not 
come  within  the  scope  of  this  article.  It  is  still  a  (condition 
of  health,  and  the  term  obexity  sliouki  be  applied  only  to 
those  cases  where  the  deposit  of  fat  is  so  gn^at  as  to  incom- 
mode the  patient.  Among  the  predisposing  conditions  to 
obesity  may  be  mentioned,  first,  hereditarij  susceplibHily. 
It  is  conunon  to  meet  certain  families  in  which  most  of  the 
mend^ers  are  corpulent,  and  sometinn'S  the  tendency  to  be- 
come so  may  be  traced  through  several  successive  genera- 
tions, luaciivity  and  sedentary  occupations  exert  a  very 
material  iidluence  over  the  production  of  fat,  especially 
when  combined  with  a  rich  diet.  In  women  the  predispo- 
sition to  corpulence  exists  in  the  first  years  of  child-bear- 
ing, and  again  after  the  "change  of  life  "  ;  in  men,  between 
the  ages  of  forty  and  sixty.  The  exciting  cause  is  generally 
found  to  be  malassimilation,  due  to  some  derangement  of 
tlie  digestive  organ.s.  Fatty  food  may  be  directly  deposited 
as  such  in  the  tissue,  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  only 
source  of  tissue  fat.  Thi^  albuminoids  ingested  are  con- 
verted into  two  portions,  one  a  fatty,  the  other  a  nitrogen- 
ous, and  thus  albuminous  food  aids  largely  in  the  pro- 
duction of  adipose  tissue.  Starches  and  sugars  aid,  not  so 
much  by  conversion  into  fat  as  by  being  readily  oxidizable, 
and  therefore  preventing  destruction  of  existing  fats  or 
fatty  elements  newly  presented.  The  synqitoms  of  obesity 
may  be  enumerated  as  follows;  Diminution  of  mental  and 
bodily  activity,  impeded  action  of  the  viscera,  the  organs  of 
respiration,  circulation,  and  digestion.  The  slightest  exer- 
tion will  bring  on  panting;  the  blood  is  comparatively  de- 
ficieiU  in  quality  and  quantity,  and,  as  a  result,  the  nuiscles 
become  weak  and  flabby.  The  countenance  becomes 
bloated  and  sallow,  and  the  patients  are  liable  to  suffer 
from  a  variety  of  affections  which  depend  on  malassimila- 
tion. as  gout,  rheumatism,  etc.  Often  fatty  degeneration  of 
the  heart  or  liver  cfiexists,  and  we  then  have  the  symptoms 
of  these  maladies  superadded.  Harvey  has  shown  in  his 
woik  on  corpulence  that  the  senses  of  hearing,  taste,  smell, 
or  sight  are  often  absent  altogether  or  blunted  to  a  very  an- 
noying extent  in  corpulent  persons.  1'he  only  methods  of 
treatment  that  promise  good  results  are  the  hygienic  and 
dietetic.  The?.e  methods,  which  have  become  famous  from 
the  labors  of  Banting,  Oertel.  and  others,  depend  for  their 
success  upon  the  regulation  of  exercise  in  such  manner  that 
the  processes  of  oxidation  of  food  may  proceed  in  normal 
manner;  and  regidation  of  the  food,  that  no  excess  of  fatty 
elements,  and  indeed  a  less  quantity  than  normal,  may  be 
presented  to  the  organism.  To  this  end  fatty  foods  are  to 
be  reduced  almost  to  nothing,  and  with  them  also  carbohy- 
drates, whereas  the  albuminous  food,  though  also  reduced, 
is  still  given  in  somewhat  liberal  measure.  The  last  is  nec- 
essary that  the  general  systematic  tone  and  functions  may 
be  maintained  for  the  purposes  of  etlicieiit  circulation  and 
destruction  of  fat.  Exercise  requires  definite  regulation  to 
suit  the  needs  of  each  case.  Cold  bathing,  by  stimulating 
the  general  system  and  by  furnishing  a  certain  amount  of 
exercise,  is  a  useful  adjunct.  \Villia.m  Pepper. 

Obi  :  a  river  of  Siberia.     See  Ob. 

Ob'iter  dictum  [Lat.,  liter.,  said  incidentally;  obiter, 
by  the  way  ;  liirtum,  ncut.  pert,  partic.  of  di  cere,  iiay] :  in 
law,  a  renuirk  or  suggestion  made  by  a  judge  or  a  court  in 
disposing  of  a  question  which  is  not  necessary  to  its  decision, 
sometimes  termed  a  dictum.  Such  a  suggestion  is  not  re- 
garded as  authoritative  \vhcn  the  point  comes  up  for  posi- 
tive decision.  A  dictum  may,  however,  have  much  influ- 
ence from  its  reasonableness  or  from  the  high  reputation  of 
the  tribunal  from  which  it  emanates.  iMuch  law  is  generated 
in  this  manner,  one  court  uttering  dicta  and  another  at  a 
later  date  eml)odying  them  into  decisioiis. 

Revised  by  F.  M.  BfRDlcK. 

OblateS,  ob-lffts'  [from  Lat.  oljta'tu.'i  (nffer're).  offered  > 
Span,  oblado  -.Ft.  oblat]:  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
persons  associated  after  the  manner  of  monks  or  nuns,  but 
without  solemn  vows.  Some  oblat es  are  secular  priests; 
others  are  without  orders.  The  institute  of  oblates  was  one 
of  the  numy  reforms  introduced  in  the  diocese  of  Milan  by 
St.  Charles  Borromeo  toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  made  u.se  of  their  services  chiefly  in  the  wild  and 
inaccessible  alpine  <iistricts  of  his  diocese.  The  institute 
.still  exists. — The  Oblates  ok  Mary  Im.maculate  are  a  con- 
gregation of  regular  clerks,  founded  in  1815  by  Bi.^hop 
Mazenod  of  JIarseilles.  They  visit  the  poor  and  the  i>ris- 
ons. — The  Oblate  Sisters  ok  Proviuen'CE  are  a  sisterhood 
founded  at  Baltimore  in  1825. 


258 


OBLIGATION 


Obligration  [from  Lat.  obh'ga're.  oblige,  liter.,  bind  before 
or  against  :  uh,  against,  before  +  liga're,  bind] :  in  Roman 
and  modern  law,  a  legal  relation  in  whicli  one  party,  tlie 
obligee  or  creditor,  has  a  claim  against  the  other  party,  the 
obligor  or  debtor,  who  is  burdened  with  a  corresponding 
duty.  The  duty  of  the  obligor  is  usually  to  do  something  ; 
either  to  convey  property  or  pay  money  (dare),  or  to  render 
some  service  (facere).  It  may  be,  liowever,  that  the  obligor 
is  merely  to  refrain  from  doing  a  particular  act  (non  facere). 
In  the  broadest  sense,  the  claims  of  the  state,  of  a  husband, 
of  a  parent,  and  the  corresponding  duties  of  the  citizen,  the 
wife,  the  child,  etc.,  may  be  regarded  as  obligations  (tlie  so- 
called  obligations  ex  re  venientes) ;  but  such  rights  and  du- 
ties are  mere  incidents  of  pre-existing  and  more  general 
relations,  while  obligations  in  the  narrower  and  proper  sense 
are  special  and  independent  relations.  The  term,  moreover, 
is  regularly  confined  to  private  law ;  and  within  this  field, 
to  relations  of  an  economic  character,  when  the  dare  or 
facere  is  of  economic  value  to  the  obligee.  Obligations,  ac- 
cordingly, are  treated  as  a  special  class  of  property  rights  ; 
property  (bona,  biens,  Vermogen)  consisting  from  a  legal 
point  of  view  partly  of  rights  in  rem,  and  partly  of  obliga- 
tions or  rights  in  personam.  (See  Jurisprudence.)  In  the 
case  of  rights  in  rem,  the  object  over  which  the  right  or 
power  is  exercised  is  a  thing ;  in  the  case  of  obligations  it  is 
sometimes  said  to  be  the  person  of  the  debtor.  The  obliga- 
tion, however,  is  rather  a  right  against  a  person  than  over  a 
person  ;  it  does  not  seize  or  cover  the  person  of  the  obligor 
as  rights  in  rem  seize  and  cover  things ;  it  is  simply  a  right 
to  demand  from  the  obligor  a  particular  act  or  course  of 
action.  For  this  reason  the  Germans  define  the  obligation 
as  a  power  over  the  will  of  the  debtor — a  definition  which  is 
open  to  the  objection  that  the  law  regards  only  his  conduct. 

In  primitive  society  the  remedial  rights  of  the  creditor — 
the  means,  that  is,  by  which  his  claim  was  enforced — were 
rights  over  the  person  in  the  fuUest  sense ;  they  could  be 
pushed  to  the  point  of  making  the  debtor  a  slave.  In  mod- 
ern society,  however,  since  the  general  abolition  of  imprison- 
ment for  debt,  the  ultimate  sanction  of  the  obligation  is 
found  in  the  possible  seizure  and  sale  of  the  debtor's  prop- 
erty :  and  some  jurists  accordingly  define  the  obligation  as 
a  right  not  over  the  person  but  over  the  purse  or  estate  of 
the  obligor. 

Rights  over  things  and  claims  in  personam  have  often 
been  brought  under  a  single  category  by  declaring  that  the 
obligation  is  a  thing,  an  "  incorporeal  thing."  Old  German, 
French,  and  English  law  go  a  step  further,  and  assign  obli- 
gations or  claims  to  the  category  of  movable  things.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  word  "  things  "  in  any  such  classification  is 
used  in  the  sense  of  property  rights ;  and  that  when  we  de- 
clare a  claim  to  be  a  movable,  we  merely  mean  that  an  obli- 
gation, when  regarded  as  an  asset  or  portion  of  an  estate,  is 
governed  by  the  rules  which  govern  personal  property,  and 
not  by  the  rules  which  govern  real  property. 

Uslablishment. — Obligations  are  called  into  existence  by 
the  law  in  consequence  of  various  facts,  the  most  important 
of  which  are  the  acts  of  individuals.  Among  these  acts 
again  the  most  important  are  agreements  or  contracts  and 
wrongful  acts  or  torts  (de/icta).  The  Roman  lawyers,  like 
the  English,  started  with  the  idea  that  all  obligations  were 
either  ex  contractu  or  ex  delicto  ;  and  as  it  became  necessary 
to  recognize  obligations  otherwise  created,  they  treated 
them  as  analogous  either  to  contractual  or  to  tortious  obliga- 
tions (obligationes  quasi  ex  contractu,  quasi  ex  delicto),  thus 
obtaining  a  classification  which,  if  not  wholly  scientific,  was 
at  least  convenient,  and  which  has  generally  been  retained 
in  the  modern  European  codes.  One  of  the  chief  objections 
to  this  classification  is  that  it  confuses  original  and  substan- 
tive rights  created  by  legal  acts  with  secondary  and  reme- 
dial rights  resulting  from  the  infringement  of  substantive 
rights— an  error  which  English  lawyers  avoid  by  treating 
torts  as  a  subject  wholly  distinct  from  contracts  and  quasi- 
contracts.  On  the  other  hand,  the  English  habit  of  treating 
obligations  principally  if  not  exclusively  under  the  head  of 
contracts,  and  of  devoting  treatises  on  contracts  mainly  to 
the  discussion  of  obligations,  is  somewhat  confusing,  since 
contract  is  a  method  of  creating  all  kinds  of  private  rights, 
not  obligations  merely,  but  also  rights  i?i  rem  and  family 
rights.  An  extreme  illustration  of  the  way  in  which  these 
various  functions  of  contnict  maybe  confused  is  found  in 
the  declaration  of  the  courts  in  the  U.  S.,  that  to  divest  a 
person  of  title  acquired  by  grant  is  to  impair  the  obligation 
of  contract. 

Parties. — Every  obligation  has  at  least  two  parties,  and 


may  have  more:  there  may  be  a  plurality  either  of  obligors 
or  of  obligees.  In  such  cases  the  creditors  may  be  partial 
creditors  and  the  debtors  partial  debtors,  each  of  the  credi- 
tors having  a  right  to  demand  his  share  and  each  debtor 
being  held  to  pay  his  share  and  no  more.  In  the  Roman  law, 
and  in  all  the  modern  European  codes  except  the  Prussian, 
the  presumption  is  that  joint  obligations  are  of  this  character 
(nomina  ipso  jure  divisa  sunt).  It  is  possible,  however,  that 
each  of  the  creditors  may  be  entitled  to  demand,  or  each  of 
the  debtors  bound  to  render  full  performance,  and  that  when 
one  creditor  has  secured  or  one  debtor  has  rendered  such 
performance  the  obligation  is  extinguished.  In  such  a  case 
the  continental  jurists  call  the  obligation  "solidary  "  (obliga- 
tion  solidaire,  Gesammtschuldverliallniss).  The  majority 
of  German  writers  draw  a  further  distinction  between  "cor- 
real "  obligations  (Lat.  correi,  joint  parties)  where  there  is 
really  but  one  obligation  with  a  number  of  joint  creditors  or 
joint  debtors  (e.  g.  partners,  principal  and  surety),  and 
"  merely  solidary  '"  obligations,  where  there  is  really  a  plu- 
rality of  obligations,  but  when  the  content  or  object  of 
all  the  several  obligations  is  identical.  Such  a  relation 
exists,  as  a  rule,  only  between  codebtors  (e.  g.  joint  tort- 
feasors). This  distinction  was  unknown  to  the  early  codi- 
fiers,  and  is  generally  rejected  in  the  new  codes. 

In  declaring  an  obligation  "  solidary  "  the  law  defines  the 
relations  between  the  creditors  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
debtors  on  the  other,  but  not  the  relation  between  the  several 
creditors  or  debtors.  Whether  the  single  creditor  who  has 
obtained  performance  must  divide  with  the  other  creditors, 
and  whether  the  single  debtor  who  has  discharged  the  entire 
debt  has  recourse  or  regress  against  the  other  debtors,  are 
distinct  and  independent  questions.  Most  of  the  European 
codes  lay  down  the  general  rule  that  such  an  adjustment 
shall  take  place  unless  it  is  excluded  by  the  contract  of  the 
parties,  or  by  a  special  rule  of  law.  As  between  joint  wrong- 
doers regress  is  denied  in  nearly  all  the  German  codes  (in- 
cluding the  imperial  draft  code)  if  the  offense  was  a  willful 
or  malicious  one  (delictum  dulosum).  but  permitted  where 
the  common  liability  was  incurred  by  negligence  (delictum 
culposum).  The  Code  Napoleon  permits  regress  in  both  these 
cases. 

Content. — It  is  essential  to  the  validity  of  an  obligation 
that  the  act  to  be  performed  by  the  debtor  (Germ.  Leistung} 
shall  be  objectively  possible  (impossibiliu?)!  Jtulla  obligatio)  • 
that  it  shall  be  legally  and  morally  permissible  (immoral 
contracts  are  void  ipso  jure) ;  and  that  the  obligee  or  credi- 
tor shall  have  some  interest  in  its  performance.  Whether 
the  interest  must  be  a  pecuniary  interest,  i.  e.  an  interest 
capable  of  pecuniary  measurement,  is  disputed  ;  but  modern 
Eurojiean  theory  and  legislation  incline  to  enforce  all  obliga- 
tions where  the  creditor  has  even  a  sentimental  interest  in 
securing  performance.  When  the  debtor  can  be  compelled 
to  render  specific  performance,  this  rule  is  easy  of  applica- 
tion ;  but  when  such  performance  can  not  be  secured  the 
measurement  of  damages  presents  serious  difficulties — diffi- 
culties which  can  be  avoided,  however,  by  previous  stipula- 
tion of  a  definite  penalty  (pa;na  conventiunalis)  for  breach 
of  the  contract. 

Performance  (solutio.  paiement.  Erfullung). — An  obliga- 
tion need  not  in  principle  be  fulfilled  by  the  obligor;  any 
person  may  fulfill  it  for  him  unless  the  creditor  has  a  special 
interest  in  securing  performance  from  his  debtor,  i.  e.  unless 
the  performance  of  another  is  necessarily  a  different  thing 
from  performance  by  the  debtor,  which  is  never  true  of 
obligations  dare  and  not  always  of  obligations  facere.  That 
which  the  debtor  is  bound  to  do  must  be  done,  unless  the 
creditor  agrees  to  accept  something  else  as  an  equivalent  (in 
solufnm  datio).  If  the  creditor  chooses  to  take  less  than  is 
due  him,  and  takes  it  as  full  performance,  the  debt  is  ex- 
tinguished, for  Roman  and  modern  European  law  have  noth- 
ing precisely  equivalent  to  the  English  doctrine  of  con- 
sideration. In  the  absence  of  special  provision  as  to  time  of 
performance,  the  debtor  may  perfnrm  as  soon  as  he  will  and 
must  perform  as  soon  as  the  creditor  demands  it.  The  des- 
ignation of  a  time  of  performance  does  not,  in  piinciple, 
negative  the  former  rule ;  the  debtor  may  still  anticipate  the 
time  unless  the  creditor  has  a  demonstrable  interest  in  its 
observance  (dies  in  dubio  pro  reo) :  nor  does  the  designation 
of  a  time  necessarily  exclude  performance  after  the  time  has 
elapsed.  The  legal  importance  of  a  designated  time  is  that 
non-|)ertormance  regularly  puts  the  debtor  in  default  with- 
out demand  or  notice  from  the  creditor  (dies  interpellat pro 
homine).  If  no  place  of  performance  is  expressly  or  im- 
pliedly indicated,  the  debtor  may  perform  wherever  he  finds 


OBLIGATION 


OBLIGATION   OF   CONTRACTS 


259 


MiP  creditor,  and  must  perform  (i.  c.  may  be  req\iired  to  per- 
form) ill  his  own  place  of  residence.  The  hitter  rule,  how- 
ever, is  subject  to  two  important  exceptions.  If  the  duty  of 
the  obligor  is  to  transfer  possession  of  a  specific  Ihiiif;  (re*' 
certa),  he  can  not  be  reipiiivd  to  transport  it  from  the  place 
where  it  was  wlien  the  obligation  was  incurred.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  ol)Iigatioii  is  to  jiay  money,  European  cus- 
tom and  law  regularly  require  payment  to  the  creditor  in  his 
[ilacc  of  residence.  If  a  place  of  fultiUment  is  expressly  or 
implic^dly  indicated,  the  debtor  can  not  free  himself  by  per- 
formanci'  elsewhere. 

Default  (morn,  demcure,  Verzug). — If  the  creditor  refuses 
to  accept  or  otherwise  prevents  performance  at  the  proper 
place  and  time,  he  is  in  default  (mora  crediforia).  The 
obligation  is  not  extinguished,  but  the  liability  of  the  debtor 
is  minimized.  He  has  a  counter-i^laim  for  any  losses  or  ex- 
penses occasioned  by  the  creditor's  default ;  and  if  perform- 
ance becomes  impossilile  without  fraud  or  gross  negligence 
on  his  part,  he  is  freed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  failure  of 
the  debtcu-  to  perform  at  the  proper  place  and  time  puts  him 
in  default,  and  makes  him  liable  for  all  resultant  damage  to 
the  creditor.  The  hitter's  claim  becomes  a  claim  for  per- 
formance plus  damages  for  delay.  If  the  creditor  can  not 
secure  performance  at  all,  his  claim  changes  into  a  claim  for 
a  pecuniary  equivalent.  He  is  to  be  put  into  as  good  a  posi- 
tion, economically,  as  if  he  had  secured  performance  at  the 
proper  place  and  time.  This  claim  is  also  termed  a  claim 
for  the  recovery  of  damages. 

The  rules  regarding  default  are  not  applicable  to  the  obli- 
gations ex  delicto,  for  these  are  not  claims  for  performance, 
but  claims  for  damages.  This  was  practically  recognized  by 
the  Koniiin  jurists  in  their  statement  that  he  who  has  dis- 
honestly appropriated  a  thing  is  in  default  from  the  outset 
(fur  .temper  in  mora). 

l)amaijei<  (quod  interest,  dommaffes-interef.t,  Schadenser- 
.so/^)  include  not  only  direct  loss  (damnum,  emergens),  but 
whatever  the  plaintiff  can  prove  that  he  would  have  gained 
(lucrum  ce.tsan.><)  if  the  contractual  obligation  luul  been 
duly  performed,  or  if  the  tort  had  not  been  committed. 
When  the  action  is  based  on  a  willful  or  malicious  wrong 
(delictum  dolosum)  vindictive  damages  may  be  i-ecovered. 

J'j'.rlinction. — Normally,  of  course,  obligations  are  extin- 
guished by  perfoniiance.  They  are  not  extinguished  by 
tender  of  performance ;  but  if  it  is  a  sura  of  money  or  a 
specific  article  that  is  due,  and  if  this  be  tendered  and  re- 
fused, the  debtor  may  free  himself  by  depositing  it  in  a 
suitable  place  {.lequestrafio,  coiisignation,  offentliche  Hiitter- 
legung).  Obligations  are  extinguished  when  the  creditor 
accepts  something  in  lieu  of  performance;  also  by  Novation 
(q.  !'.)  ari<i  by  releasi^  (afceptHatio,  remise,  Erta.s.t).  They 
are  extinguished  without  the  consent  of  the  creditor  by  con- 
fusion (e.  g.  by  the  fact  that  the  creditor  becomes  heir  to 
the  debtor,  or  i-ice  versa),  and  by  offset  with  a  counter- 
claim (compen-mtio,  compensation.  Aufrechnung).  In  these 
last  two  instances  the  creditor,  if  not  directly  paid,  is  at 
least  satisfied  :  he  has  secured  an  equivalent.  Obligations 
may  be  extinguished  without  satisfaction  by  the  discharge 
of  the  bankrupt  debtor  (see  Baxkrui'Tcy)  by  Limitation 
(q.  v.),  etc.  Some  obligations,  principally  ex  delicto,  are  ex- 
tinguished by  the  death  of  one  of  the  original  parties. 

Transfer. — Kxcept  in  the  case  of  inheritance  the  Roman 
law  {like  the  Ilnglish)  was  loath  to  recognize  the  possibility 
of  transferring  obligations  to  new  parties.  Ultimately, 
however,  methods  of  transfer,  inter  vivos,  were  devised.  See 
Mandate  and  Novation. 

Natur(d.  Obligations. — This  term  was  used  by  the  Romans 
in  a  double  sense:  (1)  To  describe  moral  obligations  to  pay 
or  do  something  without  regard  to  the  (|uestion  whether 
the  law  attaches  to  such  obligations  a  complete  .sanction,  a 
partial  sanction,  or  no  sanction  at  all.  In  this  .sense  the 
legal  obligations  constitute  simply  a  special  cla.ss  of  natural 
obligations.  (2)  To  describe  a  moral  obligation  to  whicfi 
the  law  attaches  some  of  the  effects  of  a  legal  obligation, 
although  it  does  not  permit  recovery  by  action.  These  are 
the  natural  obligations  in  the  technical  sense;  they  are  im- 
perfect legal  obligations. 

The  recognition  accorded  to  such  obligations  may  vary 
greatly.  Some  of  them,  although  not  directly  actionable, 
may  be  enforced  as  counter-claims;  many  of  them  furnish 
a  sufficient  basis  for  novation  and  for  guaranty ;  most  of 
them  have  no  legal  recognition  except  this,  that  paynient 
voluntarily  made  can  not  Ije  recovered  as  indrtiitum.  .Mod- 
ern codifiers  have  shown  little  sympathy  for  the  natural 
obligation,  but  they  can  not  wholly  escape  it.    Recovery  of 


payment  at  least  is  regularly  excluded,  and  that  without 
any  assumption  that  the  payment  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  gift 
or  donation. 

Cases  in  which  a  natural  obligation  is  more  or  less  fully 
recognized  are,  e.  g.,  claims  outlawed  by  limitation,  claims 
void  by  reason  of  defective  f<irin  of  contract,  claims  against 
minors,  and  (less  generally)  play-debts.      Munkoe  S.mitii. 

Obligation,  Moral  :  the  fact  that  we  recognize  an 
"  ought  "  or  right  in  conduct  as  binding  upon  us.  In  con- 
sciousness, moral  obligation  ap[iears  as  a  sense  of  direct 
responsibility  to  conform  to  the  moral  law.  We  recognize, 
in  Kant's  phrase,  a  "categorical  imperative"  which  is  bind- 
ing upon  all  men  universally.  There  are  three  great  theo- 
ries of  the  origin  and  meaning  of  moral  obligation  :  First, 
the  naturalistic  view,  which  holds  that  imr  sense  of  duty  is 
the  result  of  custom  and  experiences  of  utility;  either  indi- 
vidual custom,  under  the  pressure  of  compulsory  obedience, 
or  race  cu-stom  which  has  become  a  matter  of  nervous  habit. 
So  Hume,  Spencer,  Darwin,  Bain,  Sidgwick.  Second,  the 
intuitive  view,  according  to  wliich  moral  obligation  is  an 
innate  sense  of  an  external  law  of  right,  and  of  our  duty  to 
conform  to  it.  (See  Intuitionalism.)  Among  its  advocates 
are  Kant,  Reid,  Hamilton,  McCosh,  and  the  theologians 
generally.  Third,  the  idealistic  doctrine,  that  man's  sense 
of  obligation  arises  from  the  presence  in  him  of  the  abso- 
lute, realizing  itself  through  his  mental  and  moral  life,  and 
thus  revealing  itself  more  and  more  a-s  he  advances  in 
righteousness,  and  realizes  his  true  jirinciple  of  being.  So 
Hegel,  Green,  Caird,  etc.  J.  M.  Baldwin. 

Obligation  of  Contracts :  an  important  topic  of  consti- 
tuti(mal  law  in  the  U.  S.,  by  reason  of  g  10  of  Article  I.  of 
the  Federal  Constitution,  which  declares  that  "no  State 
shall  .  .  .  pass  any  .  .  .  law  impairing  the  obligation  of 
contracts." 

This  term  was  not  a  common  one  when  it  was  incorporated 
into  the  Constitution.  It  had  not  been  employed  in  statutes, 
nor  defined  by  courts.  It  did  not  appear  m  any  of  the  orig- 
inal drafts  of  the  Constitution.  Its  proposal  and  adoption 
excited  but  little  discussion  in  the  constitutional  convention. 
(Madison  Papers,  pp.  1443,  15.53,  1581.)  It  appears  to  have 
elicited  no  comment  from  any  State  convention,  and  the 
writers  of  The  Federalist  did  not  feel  called  upon  to  explain 
or  defend  it,  save  in  the  most  general  terms.  (See  Nos.  7 
and  44.)  It  was  suggested  by  the  following  clause  in  the 
ordinance  of  1787  for  the  government  of  the  Northwestern 
Territory :  "  No  law  ought  ever  to  be  made  in  said  Territory 
that  shall  in  any  manner  whatever  interfere  with  or  conflict 
with  private  contracts  or  engagements  bona  tide  and  with- 
out fraud  previously  formed  "  :  and  its  unoppo.sed  adoption 
was  induced  by  the  state  of  things,  which  Wadison  thus  de- 
.scribes  in  his  introduction  to  the  debates  on  the  Constitu- 
tion :  "  In  the  internal  administration  of  the  States  a  viola- 
tion of  contracts  had  become  familiar  in  the  form  of 
depreciated  paper  made  a  legal  tender,  of  property  substi- 
tuted for  money,  of  installment  laws,  and  of  the  occlusions 
of  the  courts  of  justice,  although  evident  that  all  such  in- 
terferences affecited  the  rights  of  other  States,  relatively 
creditors,  as  well  as  citizens  creditors  within  the  Slate." 
(Madison  Paper.f,  p.  712.)  Notwithstanding  this  clause  be- 
came a  part  of  the  Constitution  without  serious  challenge, 
it  has  proved  a  prolific  source  of  litigation  to  suitors  and  of 
perplexity  to  courts.  The  questions  it  has  raised  are  so 
manifold,  and  the  number  of  judicial  decisions  resolving 
them  is  so  great,  that  no  attempt  will  be  made  in  this 
article  to  do  more  than  to  give  an  outline  of  the  principles 
which  have  been  declared. 

The  Extent  of  the  Prohiliition. — In  terms,  the  provision 
applies  only  to  legislation  by  the  States.  Hence  it  is  often 
asserted  that  the  Federal  Congress  is  at  liberty  to  pass  laws 
impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  unless  such  laws  con- 
flict with  other  parts  of  the  Constitution.  (Cf.  Evans  vs. 
Eaton,  Peters's  Circuit  Court  Reports  ;i22.  and  Hepburn  vs. 
Crrisu'old.  8  Wallace,  p.  637.)  The  better  view,  however,  is 
that  of  Chief  Justice  Chase,  that  a  law  of  Congress,  "not 
made  in  pursuance  of  an  express  power,  whicli  necessarily 
and  in  its  direct  operation  impairs  the  obligation  of  con- 
tracts, is  inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of  the  Constitution." 
Hepburn  vs.  Griswold,  8  Wallace,  p.  fi'.?;i.  Cf.  Legal  Tender 
Cases,  12  Wallace,  pp.  501,  549,  and  600 ;  Cooley's  ConMUu- 
tional  Law,  314. 

The  law  of  a  State,  in  order  to  come  within  the  constitu- 
tional prohibition,  must  be  a  statute  enacted  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  legislation,  or  a  constitution  established  by  the 


360 


OBLIGATION   OF   CONTRACTS 


people  of  a  State  as  their  fundaiueiital  law.  This  provision 
is  not  aimed  at  decisions  of  State  courts  wliich  refuse  to 
give  effect  to  contracts;  nor  to  the  acts  of  administrative 
or  executive  boards  or  officers ;  nor  to  the  ordinances  of 
municipal  corporations  to  which  the  State  has  not  given  the 
force  of  law  ;  nor  to  the  doings  of  other  corporations  or  indi- 
viduals. Xew  Orleans  ^Yattr-wol■ks  vs.  Louisiana  ISuyar 
Co.,  125  U.  S.  18. 

A  State  law  which  impairs  though  it  does  not  destroy 
the  obligation  of  a  contract  is  unconstitutional ;  but  not 
every  statute  which  affects  the  value  of  the  contract  impairs 
its  obligation.  "  It  is  one  of  the  contingencies  to  which 
parties  look  now  in  making  a  large  class  of  contracts,  that 
they  may  be  affected  in  many  ways  by  State  and  national 
legislation."  (Hamilton  Gas  Light  Co.  vs.  Hamilton  City, 
146  U.  S.  258.)  Therefore,  statutes  which  prescribe  reason- 
able regulations  for  the  exercise  of  contract  rights  are  not 
prohibited.  A  railway  company  may  be  compelled  to  fence 
its  track,  to  check  the  speed  of  its  trains  at  specified  places, 
or  to  maintain  flagmen  at  street  crossings,  even  though  its 
charter  does  not  impose  any  such  burdens. 

What  Contracts  are  Protected. — The  Supreme  Court  early 
established  the  doctrine  that  the  provision  applied  to  exe- 
cuted as  well  as  to  executory  contracts.  In  the  language  of 
Chief  Justice  Marshall,  "  a  contract  executed  as  well  as  one 
which  is  executory  contains  obligations  binding  on  the 
parties.  A  grant,  in  its  own  nature,  amounts  to  an  ex- 
tinguishment of  the  right  of  the  grantor,  and  implies  a 
contract  not  to  reassert  that  right."  (Fletcher  vs.  Peck,  6 
Cranch  87.)  A  contract  to  marry  is  within  the  protection 
of  this  constitutional  provision,  but  the  contract  of  marriage 
is  not.  Marriage  is  more  tlian  a  contract ;  it  is  a  status 
which  can  not  be  dissolved  by  tlie  will  of  the  parties,  but  is 
subject  to  the  regulation  and  control  of  the  State.  It  is 
therefore  competent  for  a  State  to  cliange  its  divorce  laws 
at  will.  It  may  abolish  old  causes  for  divorce  from  marriage 
entered  into  before  the  enactment  of  the  law,  or  create  new 
ones  without  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts.  (JSay- 
nardrs.  Hill,  125  U.  S.'IOO ;  Hunt  ys.  Hunt.  131  U.  S.,  appen- 
dix clxv.)  It  is  often  said  that  the  clause  in  question  covers 
all  implied  contracts;  and  a  few  .State decisions  support  the 
proposition.  (U.  S.  vs.  Williams.  19  Pacific  Reporter  288 
(Mont.) ;  Butler  vs.  Rockwell,  29  Pacific  Reporter  458  (Colo.).) 
The  later  decisions  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  however, 
have  distinguished  contracts  implied  in  fact  from  those  im- 
plied in  law  or  Quasi-Contracts  (q.  v.),  and  have  declared 
that  the  constitutionalprohibition  upon  the  States  does  not 
extend  to  the  latter.  This  prohibition,  it  is  said,  "  was  in- 
tended to  secure  the  observance  of  good  faith  in  the  stipula- 
tions of  parties  against  any  State  action.  When  a  transac- 
tion is  not  based  upon  the  assent  of  the  parties  it  can  not  be 
said  that  any  faith  is  pledged  with  respect  to  it ;  and  no  case 
arises  for  the  operation  of  the  prohibition."  (Freeland  vs. 
Williams,  I'il  U.  S.  403 :  Morley  vs.  Lake  Shore  Ri/.  Co., 
146  U.  S.  162.)  Hence  a  judgment,  whetlier  for  a  tort  or 
upon  a  contract,  is  not  a  contract  within  this  clause  of  the 
Constitution. 

A  statute  is  not  a  contract,  ordinarily,  and  may  be  re- 
pealed or  amended  at  the  will  of  the  State.  It  may,  how- 
ever, amount  to  a  contract  between  the  State  and  other  par- 
ties, and  thus  fall  within  the  constitutional  prohibition.  This 
was  held  for  the  first  time  in  yew  Jersey  vs.  Wilson,  7 
Cranch  164,  where  a  statute  of  New  Jersey,  which  provided 
for  the  conveyance  to  the  Delaware  Indians  of  certain  lands 
which  should  not  thereafter  be  subject  to  any  tax,  any  law 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding,  was  declared  to  be  a  con- 
tract, and  therefore  not  repealable  by  tlie  Legislature  after 
the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution.  A  few  State 
courts  have  held  that  the  power  of  taxation  can  not  be  sur- 
rendered by  the  Legislature,  and  that  a  statute  undertaking 
to  make  such  surrender  is  nugatory  and  does  not  give  rise  to 
the  obligation  of  a  contract.  Such  decisions  have  been  over- 
ruled by  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  on  the  ground  that  "gov- 
ernment was  not  organized  for  the  purposes  of  taxation,  but 
taxation  may  be  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  government. 
As  such,  taxation  becomes  an  incident  to  the  exercise  of  the 
legitimate  functions  of  government,  liut  nothing  more. 
While  a  government  can  not  surrender  all  power  of  taxation, 
it  may  in  the  exercise  of  a  reasonable  discretion  surrender 
part."  (Stone  vs.  Missis.'<i/jpi,  101  U.  S.  at  p.  820.)  In  order 
that  a  statute  be  construed  as  exempting  a  party  from  taxa- 
tion, its  terms  inu.st  be  clear  and  unequivocal ;  and  in  order 
that  it  amo\mt  to  a  contract,  a  consideration  must  be  fur- 
nished by  the  recipient  of  the  immunity. 


Statutes  creating  public  offices  and  providing  for  the  com- 
pensation of  their  incumbents  are  not  contracts  between  the 
State  and  the  officials.  They  provide  merely  for  the  proper 
performance  of  public  functions.  Hence  State  officers,  in 
the  absence  of  any  provision  in  the  State  constitution,  and 
Federal  officers,  in  the  absence  of  a  provision  of  the  Federal 
Constitution,  hold  their  places  subject  to  legislative  change 
of  tenure  and  salary  at  any  moment.  (Butler  vs.  Penn- 
sylvania, 10  Howard  402.)  This  rule  does  not  apply  to  a 
person  who  is  engaged  by  the  State  under  a  statute  to  render 
certain  services,  not  as  an  officer,  but  as  an  employee.  Hall 
vs.  Wisconsin.  103  U.  S.  5. 

Corporations. — The  statutory  charter  of  a  public  corpora- 
tion is  not  a  contract  between  itself  and  the  State,  so  far  at 
least  as  public  duties  and  powers  are  concerned.  It  is 
created  for  the  purpose  of  performing  governmental  func- 
tions, and  must  be  subject  always  to  legislative  control  and 
modification.  (East  Hartford  vs.  Hartford  Bridge  Co.,  10 
Howard  533;  Dillon  On  Municipal  Corporations,  3d  ed., 
gg  60-79.)  If  it  is  organized  not  to  exercise  the  functions 
of  government,  but  primarily  for  the  purposes  of  the  corpo- 
rators, though  the  public  may  be  benefited  indirectly,  its 
charter  may  and  generally  does  originate  a  contract  obliga- 
tion between  itself  and  the  State  wliich  can  not  be  impaired 
by  subsequent  legislation.  The  leading  case  on  this  point  is 
Dartmouth  College  vs.  Woodnmrd.  4  Wheaton  519,  decided 
in  1819,  reversing  the  decision  of  the  superior  court  of  New 
Hampshire,  1  N.  H.  Ill,  rendered  in  1817.  Two  principal 
questions  were  involved :  (1)  Whether  an  educational  college 
is  a  public  or  a  private  corporation  ;  (2)  whether  the  charter 
of  Dartmouth  College  contained  a  contract  between  the  State 
and  the  corporation.  The  court  held  that  an  educational 
corporation  is  private  and  not  public,  unless  it  is  founded 
and  maintained  by  the  State  as  a  part  of  its  governmental 
machinery.  The  second  question  was  decided  in  favor  of 
the  college  also.  Chief  Justice  Jlarshall's  reasoning  is 
briefly  as  follows:  The  objects  for  which  a  corporation  is 
created  are  universally  such  as  the  government  wishes  to 
promote.  They  are  deemed  beneficial  to  the  country ;  and 
this  benefit  constitutes  the  consideration  and.  in  most  cases, 
the  sole  consideration  of  the  grant.  The  charter  of  Dart- 
mouth was  sought  and  granted  for  the  purpose  of  perpetuat- 
ing the  application  of  the  bounty  of  her  donors  to  the  speci- 
fied objects  of  that  bounty.  This  is  plainly  a  contract,  to 
which  the  donors,  the  trustees,  and  the  crown  (to  whose 
rights  and  obligations  New  Hampshire  succeeded)  were  the 
original  parties.  It  is  a  contract  made  on  a  valuable  con- 
sideration. It  is  a  contract  on  the  faith  of  which  real  and 
personal  property  has  been  conveyed  to  the  corporation.  It 
is  then  a  contract  within  the  letter  of  the  Constitution. 

This  was  one  of  the  most  momentous  decisions  ever  ren- 
dered by  the  Supreme  Court.  While  it  has  been  severely 
criticised,  it  has  been  followed  by  the  Federal  tribunals,  and 
with  few  exceptions  by  the  State  courts.  Its  doctrine,  to 
use  Justice  Black's  vigorous  expression.  "  is  sustained  not 
by  a  current  but  by  a  torrent  of  authorities."  (See  Shirley's 
Dartmouth  College  Causes,  ,St.  Louis,  1879.)  Sir  Henry 
Maine  has  declared  that  it  is  this  provision  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, as  construed  in  the  Dartmouth  College  ease,  "which 
has  in  reality  secured  full  play  to  the  economical  forces  by 
which  the  achievement  of  cultivating  the  soil  of  the  North 
American  continent  has  been  performed  ;  it  is  the  bulwark 
of  American  individualism  against  democratic  impatience 
and  socialistic  fantasy."  (Popular  Gorernment,  pp.  247-248.) 
The  decision  led  to  a  radical  change  in  .State  legislation  re- 
lating to  corporate  charters.  Thereafter  the  States,  as  a 
rule,  either  by  general  laws  or  by  special  provisions  in  the 
charters,  reserved  the  right  to  amend  or  to  repeal  them. 
See  Greenrrood  vs.  Freight  Co..  105  U.  S.  13. 

Even  where  a  charter  amounts  to  a  contract  between  the 
State  and  the  corporation,  the  courts  are  unanimous  in 
holding  that  no  collateral  agreements  restricting  State  ac- 
tion will  be  implied.  If  any  such  are  claimed  by  the  corpora- 
tion, they  must  be  shown  to  have  been  stated  expressly  in  the 
charter.  (The  Charles  River  Bridge  vs.  Tlie  Warren  Bridge, 
11  Peters  420;  The  Binghainfon  Bridge  Case.  3  Wallace 
51.)  Although  a  State  binds  itself  by  an  express  collateral 
agreement,  it  does  not  thereby  lose  its  right  to  exercise  the 
power  of  eminent  domain.  Nor  does  the  constitutional 
provision,  under  discussion,  interfere  with  the  fair  exercise 
of  the  police  power  by  a  State.  Hence  State  licenses  to 
carry  on  particular  trades  or  corporate  charters  for  lotteries 
may  be  modified  or  annulled  if,  in  the  o]iinion  of  the  Legis- 
lature, the  license  or  franchise  is  inconsistent  with  the  public 


UBNOS 


OBSEHVATORY 


261 


safety,  healtli,  or  morals.  "The  governmental  duty  of  self- 
protection  can  not  In-  coiitrai-ti-ii  away,  nor  can  the  exercise 
of  rights  frrantcii.  nor  tin-  use  of  property  be  witlidrawn 
from  the  implied  liability  to  governmental  regulation,  in 
particulars  essentia!  to  the  |)reservation  of  the  community 
from  injury."     iV'tw  York  Rij.  vs.  Bristol.  151  U.  S.  .j.lO. 

State  Insolvent  Laws. — In  the  absence  of  a  Federal  bank- 
ruptcy law  the  States  may  provide  by  scatute  for  the  dis- 
charge of  insolvents  from  debts  contracted  after  such  legis- 
lation, without  impairing  the  obligaiion  of  contracts.  The 
obligation  of  a  contract  is  the  duty  of  performing  it,  which 
is  recognized  and  enforced  by  the  law  applicable  thereto. 
In  a  State  where  an  insolvent  law  exists,  this  obligation  is 
conditional,  not  abscjlute  ;  it  is  an  obligation  to  pay  the  debt 
if  not  discharged  therefrom  in  accordance  with  law.  .Such 
a  statute,  however,  has  no  extraterritorial  force,  and  does 
not  relieve  the  debtor  from  liability  to  a  creditor  who  is  an 
inhabitant  of  another  State,  and  does  not  become  a  party 
to  the  insolvency  proceedings.  Ogden  vs.  Sdundi-r.f,  \'i 
Wheaton  213. 

State  Latvs  Affecting  the  Remedy. — There  has  been  much 
judicial  confusion  upon  this  topic,  because  of  the  frequent 
failure  of  the  courts  to  observe  the  two  senses  in  which  the 
term  remedy  is  used.  It  is  applied  to  the  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding by  which  a  legal  riglit  is  enforced,  and  also  to  the 
law  which  gives  or  delines  tlie  right.  Any  State  legislation 
which  impairs  the  right  of  action  upon  a  contract  is  prohib- 
ited, while  that  which  affects  only  the  procedure  in  an  ac- 
tion is  not.  This  distinction,  though  often  lost  sight  of  by 
the  State  courts,  has  been  uniformly  observed  by  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  U.  S.  "  In  modes  of  proceeding  and 
forms  to  enforce  the  contract,  the  Legislature  has  control. 
and  may  enlarge,  limit,  or  alter  them,  provided  it  does  not 
deny  a  reuu-dy  or  so  embarrass  it  with  conditions  or  restric- 
tions as  seriously  to  impair  the  value  of  the  right."  (Penni- 
man'.i  Case.  103  L'.  S.  714.)  Imprisonment  for  debt  is  held 
to  be  a  relic  of  ancient  barbarism,  and  a  punishment  rather 
than  a  remedy.  Therefore  a  State  law  abolishing  it  even 
as  to  existing  debts  does  not  impair  the  obligation  of  con- 
tracts. Francis  M.  Birdick. 

Obnos :  the  name  given  by  Manetho  to  Unas,  the  ninth 
and  last  king  of  the  fifth  P^gyptian  dynasty.  His  reign, 
according  to  the  royal  Turin  papyrus,  lasted  thirty  years, 
while  Manetho  gives  him  thirty-three  years.  In  the  account 
of  Manetho  a  new  epoch  seems  to  have  begun  with  his  suc- 
cessor, since  he  sums  up  the  years  from  Menes  to  Unas  as 
though  a  period  of  the  history  had  been  completed.  Little 
is  known  concerning  Obnos-Unas  except  that  he  built  a 
pyramid  at  Saqqarah,  which  was  opened  in  1881,  and  found 
to  contain  pa-ssageways  lined  with  alabaster,  on  which  were 
inscribed  writings.  Charles  R.  Gii.lett. 

O'bop  [Ital.,  from  Fr.  hautbois'],  or  Hautboy  [from  Fr. 
hautbois;  liaut.  high -l- 4<//«,  wood.  Named  fnjin  its  high 
tone]:  a  musical  wind  instrument  of  an  elongated  conical 
form  and  with  a  high  piercing  tone,  ranging  from  ('  below 
the  treble  clef  to  G,  the  fourtli  line  above  the  stalf.  A|ipar- 
ently  it  was  at  first  used  solely  liy  military  bands,  but  from 
the  time  of  Bach  it  has  been  one  of  the  most  important 
wind  instruments  in  the  orchestra.  Beethoven  had  an  es- 
pecial fondness  for  the  oboe.  Custom  has  led  the  A  of  this 
uistrument  to  be  considered  the  standard  pitch  from  whicli 
the  other  instruments  of  the  orchestra  tune.  I).  B. 

O'Bripii,  William,  JI.  P.:  political  leader;  b.  at  Mallow, 
Ireland,  tict.  2,  bSoS  ;  was  educated  at  Cloyne  Diocesan  Col- 
lege and  (Queen's  College,  Cork  ;  entered  Parliament  in  1883. 
He  is  a  journalist,  and  was  editor  of  United  Ireland.  He  is 
leader  of  the  National  League:  has  been  four  times  impris- 
oned under  the  ('rimes  Act  of  1887,  and  has  visited  the  L'.  S. 
twice.  Mr.  O'Brien  is  one  of  the  widest  known  leaders  of 
the  Irish  party,  and  is  the  senior  member  for  Cork  city. 

O'Brien,  William  Smith:  ])olitieal  leader:  b.  at  Drome- 
land,  County  Clare,  Ireland,  Oct.  17.  1803:  son  of  a  baronet 
of  ancient  lineage ;  was  educated  at  Harrow  an<l  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge  :  entered  Parliament  for  the  borough  of 
Ennis  1826.  Though  he  at  fii-st  supported  the  Tories,  he 
was  afterward  returned  as  an  advanced  Liberal  for  the 
County  Limerick,  wliich  he  represented  thirteen  years;  be- 
came the  ally  of  O'ConncU  and  worked  earnestly  to  secure 
Catholic  emancipation,  but  in  the  agitation  for  the  repeal 
of  the  legislative  union  between  (treat  Britain  and  Ireland 
he  favored  a  resort  lo  forcil)le  measures  if  necessary,  ami  as 
the  head  of  the  organization  known  as  Young  Ireland  he 
ceased  to  be  in  aecoiil  with  O'Connell.     He  went  to  Paris 


-Apr.,  1848,  as  a  representative  of  the  Irish  confederation  to 
solicit  aid  from  the  Fri-iuh  repiiblie:  aided  in  convoking 
an  Irish  national  convention  (.May),  which  was  not  allowed 
lomeet;  was  tried  for  sedition  in  the  same  month,  but  ac- 
quitted ;  attempted  a  rising  among  the  peasantry  at  MuUi- 
nahonc,  in  the  south  of  Ireland,  .luly,  but  was  compelled  to 
flee  ;  was  captured  at  Thurles  Aug.  Vy ;  trieil  and  convicted 
by  a  special  <ommission  at  Cloinnel,  with  T.  F.  Meagher 
and  JIac.Manus.  on  a  charge  of  high  trea-son  (Oct.  9);  sen- 
tenced to  be  hanged  :  was  transported  for  life  to  Tasmania, 
Julv,  184!);  was  pardoned  ]8.-)(;:  traveled  in  the  U.  S.  18.i9. 
1).  at  Bangor,  North  Wales,  .lune  17,  1864. 

Obsequens,  JfLius:  a  Latin  writer,  probably  of  the 
fourth  century,  who  cora])iled  a  record  of  |irodigies  (prodi- 
yiorum  liber)  happening  between  the  years  249  and  12  n.  c, 
the  ultimate  source  being  Livy.  No  manuscript  of  this 
work  exists.  The  editio  princeps  was  published  by  Aldus 
(Venice,  1508),  a  revised  text  by  0.  Jahn  (Leipzig,  1863). 

Obsequies :  See  Finekal. 

Observaii'tine  Friars  and  Nuns  [in  Lai,  nanu'.  Fra'tres 
stricti(i'ri.i  obxervati  fi(r.  liter.,  brothers  of  stricter  observ- 
ance]:  a  inoniistic  order  of  the  Koman  Catholic  Church. 
The  primitive  rule  of  St.  Francis,  like  that  of  many  other 
orders  of  monastics,  having  lieen  modified  by  various  popes 
on  account  of  the  extreme  severity  of  its  diseipline,  there 
arose  within  the  order  a  new  party  desirous  of  returning  to 
the  austere  rule  of  former  days.  Certain  followers  of  the 
severe  rule  in  1368.  under  Paoletto  di  Foligno.  were  organ- 
ized as  a  separate  congregation,  called  Brethren  of  the 
Stricter  Observance,  or  Observantines:  these  arc  now.  as 
they  have  long  been,  far  more  numerous  and  influential 
than  the  Conventuals,  or  followers  of  the  mitigated  rule. 
The  Capuchins  and  other  congrejiations  follow  a  still  severer 
rule,  and  are  called  Brethren  of  the  Strictest  Observance. 

Observatory :  an  establishment  for  the  systematic  ob- 
servation, record,  and  study  of  natural  phenomena,  espe- 
cially those  which  pertain  to  astronomy,  meteorology,  or 
magnetism.  Establishments  for  scientific  observation  date 
from  very  ancient  times.  The  celebrated  nniseum  of  the 
Ptolemies  at  Alexandria  included  astronomy  among  its  ob- 
jects, and  observations  of  importance  to  that  science  as  then 
understood  were  made  there.  The  Arabs  of  the  Middle 
Ages  akso  continued  the  work  of  the  Greek  astronomers,  and 
many  of  their  observations  and  writings  h.ive  come  down  to 
us;  but  probably  none  of  their  establishments  formed  what 
we  should  now  call  an  astronomical  observatory. 

Coming  nearer  to  our  own  times,  the  first  observatory 
celebrated  in  astronomical  history  is  that  of  Tycho  Brahe, 
founded  in  1576.     It  was  situated  on  the  island  of  Hveen, 


l^scrvalurw 


in  the  Sound.  X.  of  Copenhagen,  and  was  very  appropriate- 
ly named  Uranienborg.  the  city  of  the  heavens.  The  foun- 
dation-stone was  laid  with  great  ceremony,  and  the  estab- 
lishment was  fitted  with  instruments  designed  by  Tveho 
himself,  larger  and  finer  than  any  previously  known.     They 


262 


OBSERVATORY 


were  mostly  designed  to  measure  arcs  from  one  star  to  an- 
other in  tlie  heavens,  a  method  of  observation  which  has 
since  been  entirely  superseded.  Although  Tycho"s  observa- 
tions suffer,  when  compared  with  ours,  in  value  from  having 
been  made  just  before  the  invention  of  the  telescope,  they 
are  renowned  for  having  afforded  Kepler  the  material  for 
establishing  his  laws  of  the  motions  of  the  planets.  See 
Kepler  and  Orbit. 

The  century  which  followed  Tycho  Brahe  was  made  cele- 
brated by  the  discovery  of  the  telescope  and  the  foundation 
of  several  great  observatories.  A  very  natural  belief  was 
then  current,  which  is  prevalent  even  at  present,  that  the 
instruments  of  an  astronomical  observatory  should  be  as 
high  as  possible  above  the  earth.  Thus  the  observatory  of 
Horreljow  is  pictured  as  eight  stories  high,  and  an  immense 
buililing  was  erected  at  St.  Petersburg  as  an  observatory  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Practically,  however,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  loss  is  as  great  as  the  gain  in  mounting 
astronomical  instruments  at  a  great  elevation  above  the 
ground.  Although  a  clearer  horizon  is  obtained,  this  ad- 
vantage is  slight,  and  is  more  than  counter-balanced  by  the 
exposure  to  heavy  winds,  from  which  astronomical  instru- 
ments should  be  thoroughly  protected. 

The  decade  1661-70  is  celebrated  in  the  history  of  science, 
not  only  by  the  organization  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don and  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris,  but  by  the 
erection  of  the  Greenwich  and  Paris  observatories,  both  of 
which  are  still  in  existence.  About  that  time  also  was  in- 
troduced the  greatest  improvement  ever  made  in  the  art  of 
determining  the  apparent  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
by  observation.  The  measurement  of  the  angle  between  two 
heavenly  bodies,  as  practiced  by  Tycho  Brahe,  was  made  dif- 
ficult by  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  stars.  In  consequence 
of  this  motion  no  star  would  remain  at  apparent  rest  rela- 
tive to  the  instrument,  and  it  was  therefore  impossible  to 
point  two  sights  of  the  latter,  or  two  telescopes,  simultane- 
ously at  two  stars.  If  pointed  correctly  on  one  the  other 
would  move  away,  or  rather  the  instrument  would  be  car- 
ried away  by  tlie  rotation  of  the  earth.  To  Roemer  of  Co- 
penhagen, celebrated  in  connection  with  the  determination 
of  the  motion  of  Light  (q.  v.),  occurred  the  idea  of  utilizing 
this  very  troublesome  motion  to  determine  the  right  ascen- 
sions of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Let  the  telescope  move  only 
in  the  meridian,  and  let  the  stars  in  succession  pass  through 
its  field.  Note  the  time  of  passage  by  a  good  clock  regu- 
lated to  sidereal  time,  and  we  have  at  once  the  means  of  de- 
termining their  relative  right  ascensions.  Thus  arose  the 
transit  instrument,  which  is  a  most  useful  appliance  of  an 
astronomical  observatory. 

Ever  since  the  time  of  Tycho  men  have  taken  delight  in 
founding  munificent  establishments  of  the  kind  in  ijuestion  ; 
but  all  that  the  astronomer  really  wants  besides  his  office- 
rooms,  library,  etc.,  is  something  to  shelter  his  instruments 
from  the  wind  and  weather.  The  more  flimsy  this  shelter 
is,  the  better,  for  a  reason  not  at  first  sight  a]>parent.  One 
of  the  first  requisites  to  good  astronomical  oliservations  is 
that  the  instrument  and  the  air  around  it  shall  be  as  nearly 
as  possible  of  the  same  temjierature  as  the  air  outside,  no 
matter  how  cold  the  weather  may  be.  If  this  is  not  the  case, 
the  currents  of  warm  and  cold  air  around  the  instrument 
will  cause  irregular  refraction,  which  will  be  multiplied  as 
many  times  as  the  instrument  magnifies,  and  thus  destroy 
all  accurate  vision.  The  heavier  and  more  massive  the  walls 
around  his  instrument,  and  the  more  closely  it  is  protected 
froin  the  outer  air,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  fulfill  this  con- 
dition. Sheet-iron  is  therefore  a  favorite  material  for  an 
observing-room,  and  all  defects  of  construction  which  have 
no  worse  result  than  admitting  cold  air  are  readily  forgiven. 

From  the  astronomer's  point  of  view,  the  most  important 
feature  (jf  an  observatory  is  found  in  the  instruments  with 
which  it  is  fitted  up.  Of  these  the  first  in  importance  arc 
the  transit  instrument  and  the  Ei^uatorial  Tclescope  (q.  i:). 
The  former  has  two  distinct  uses.  One  is  to  determine  the 
time  or  regulate  the  astronomical  clock  and  fix  its  rate, 
which  is  necessary  because  nearly  every  astronomical  ob- 
servation recpdres  a  somewhat  accurate  statement  of  the 
moment  at  wliich  it  was  made.  The  other  is  to  determine 
the  right  ascensions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The  equatorial 
telescope  is  the  instrument  which  inost  interests  the  public. 
It  can  be  readily  pointed  at  any  visible  object  and  so  moved 
by  clockwork  that  the  object  is'kept  within  the  field  of  view. 
If  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  to  be  determined,  a 
meridian  circle  is  also  a  necessity.  As  this  is  formed  merely 
by  adding  circles  and  other  ajipliances  to  a  transit  instru- 


ment, the  latter  is  not  essential  when  the  observatory  pos- 
sesses a  meridian  circle.  Still  it  is  convenient  to  have  a 
separate  transit  instrument,  because  it  can  be  used  for  de- 
termining the  time  independently  of  observations  made 
with  a  more  complex  instrument. 

Other  instruments  are  of  less  universal  application.  The 
prime  vertical  transit,  being  mounted  so  as  to  move  through 
the  zenith  in  an  east  and  west  circle  at  right  angles  to  the 
meridian,  is  ([uite  limited  in  application,  yet  observations  of 
extreme  precision  have  been  made  with  it  at  Pulkowa  and 
elsewhere.  This  observatory  is  also  supplied  with  a  verti- 
cal circle,  an  instrument  of  somewhat  peculiar  construction 
for  measuring  altitudes  on  or  near  the  meridian.  The  alt- 
azimuth is  also  found  at  two  or  three  European  observatories. 
It  has  over  the  meridian  circle  the  apparent  advantage  tliat 
it  can  be  pointed  at  any  part  of  the  heavens,  so  that  the  po- 
sition of  a  heavenly  body  at  any  moment  can  be  determined  : 
but  the  very  faculty  of  swinging  around  on  a  vertical  axis, 
wliich  such  an  instrument  must  always  do,  interferes  with 
the  precision  of  the  observation,  and  is  therefore  a  serious 
drawback.  If  an  observer  desires  to  find  new  comets  a 
C'oMET-FiN'DER  (q.  V.)  is  a  Very  necessary  appliance. 

The  discovery  and  introduction  of  the  spectroscope  and 
consequent  investigations  on  the  constitution,  temperature, 
and  other  peculiarities  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  were 
before  impossible,  have  added  greatly  to  the  outfit  of  most 
great  observatories.  The  application  of  photography  to  as- 
tronomy has  resulted  in  the  same  way.  These  new  methods 
of  research  have  not,  however,  led  to  such  changes  in  the 
construction  of  great  instruments  as  might  be  supposed. 
An  equatorial  telescope  is  essential  to  the  astronomical  use 
of  the  spectroscope,  which  is  simply  fastened  to  its  eye-end 
in  order  that  the  spectrum  of  any  object  in  the  focus  may 
be  examined.  If  a  photograph  is  to  be  taken,  an  equatori- 
ally  mounted  telescope  or  something  equivalent  to  it  is  also 
a  necessity ;  but  the  ordinary  visual  telescope  is  not  well 
adapted  to  take  a  photograph  because  the  object-glass  is 
not  achromatized  for  the  photographic  rays.  The  telescope 
must  therefore  either  have  a  special  object-glass  made  for 
it,  in  which  the  flint  glass  shall  be  proportionately  less  pow- 
erful than  in  the  optical  telescope,  or  a  so-called  "corrector  " 
must  be  put  over  the  object-glass  of  the  visual  telescope  so 
as  to  correct  it  for  the  photographic  rays. 

Every  enlightened  nation  lias  one  or  more  observatories 
of  a  national  character,  while  several  universities,  both  in 
America  and  Europe,  possess  them  as  part  of  their  educa- 
tional establishments.  An  exhaustive  catalogue  of  the  ob- 
servatories now  existing  would  mount  up  into  the  hundreds. 
We  shall  only  mention  those  of  each  country  which  may  be 
considered  as  scientifically  most  important,  or  which  are 
celebrated  for  some  work  done  or  discovery  made  in  connec- 
tion with  them. 

Russia. — The  great  observatory  of  Pulkowa,  founded  by 
the  Emperor  Nicholas  about  the  years  1838-40  as  a  monu- 
ment of  his  reign,  acquired  such  celebrity  tliat  it  was  once 
designated  as  the  astronomical  capital  of  the  world.  It 
owes  its  high  reputation  to  its  first  director,  W.  Struve,  one 
of  the  most  renowned  practical  astronomers  of  his  time, 
who  not  only  devised  superior  instruments,  but  used  them 
with  a  precision  never  before  reached.  Its  principal  work 
has  been  the  determination  of  astronomical  constants,  espe- 
cially those  of  nutation  and  aberration,  and  the  preparation 
of  more  accurate  catalogues  of  the  principal  fixed  stars  than 
were  before  made.  Its  work  in  these  lines  has  set  the 
standard  for  the  world  during  nearly  half  a  century. 

German)/. — The  University  Observatory  of  Konigsberg, 
founded  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  is  renowned  for 
the  work  of  Bessel,  the  greatest  practical  astronomer  of  his 
time.  There  is  also  a  national  observatory  at  Berlin,  but 
the  city  has  so  grown  around  it  that  its  work  is  seriously 
interfered  with.  At  present  the  most  noted  national  cstab- 
lislimcnt  of  tlie  kind  in  Oermany  is  the  astro-physical  ob- 
servatory at  Potsdam,  founded  shortly  after  the  Franco- 
German  war  as  a  noble  way  of  expending  a  portion  of  the 
indemnity  received  from  Prance.  As  its  title  implies,  it 
is  especially  fitted  up  for  spectroscopic  and  photo-metric 
studies.  Its  researches  in  tliese  departments  have  given  it 
a  position  worthy  of  German  science.  The  researches  of 
Vogel  upon  the  S|iectrum  and  motions  of  the  variable  star 
Algol  are  an  example  of  its  activity.  The  work  of  making 
the  most  accurate  possible  determination  of  the  magnitude 
of  several  thousand  of  the  principal  stars  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  is  being  carried  forward  to  completion  as  rapidly 
as  possible.     The  leading  universities  of  Germany  are  also 


OBSERVATOKY 


OBSIDIAN 


2G3 


supplied  witli  otiscrvatDries,  among  whiih  that  of  Bonn  is 
worthy  of  special  mention  as  having  affordeJ  Argelatider 
and  his  successors  the  means  of  cataloguing  and  studying 
the  stars  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  More  recent  yet  is 
the  Strassburg  observatory,  founded  about  1H73,  and  lilted 
up  with  the  most  modern  instruments. 

France. — Measured  by  Ihe  number  of  its  astronomers  and 
the  amount  of  work  done,  the  observatory  of  Paris  is  easily 
the  first  of  Europe.  Its  activities  cover  every  branch  of 
astronomy,  theoretical  and  practical.  Its  directors  have 
been  the  most  celebrated  astronomers  of  France,  beginning 
with  the  Cassinis.  and  including  more  recently  such  men  as 
Arago  and  Le  Verrier.  In  popular  interest  it  is.  however, 
outstripped  by  the  observatory  of  Nice,  already  mentioned. 
This  fine  establishment  is  situated  on  the  summit  of  Mont 
Gros,  a  hill  some  1,200  feet  in  height,  3  or  3  miles  N.  E.  of 


Nice.  It  commands  a  splendid  view  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  among  the  subjects  for  which  it  is  noted  is  the  discov- 
ery of  small  |)lanets  by  photography  and  the  study  of  the 
physical  aspects  of  V'eiuis  and  Mai's.  There  are  also  observa- 
tories at  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  and  elsewhere,  at  which  eminent 
French  astronomers  are  seeking  to  add  to  the  scientific  lau- 
rels of  their  country. 

England. — The  Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich  over- 
shadows all  other  British  observatories  in  importance.  In 
the  original  warrant  of  Charli-s  II.,  appointing  Flamsteed 
a-strononier-royal,  it  was  prescribed  that  he  sliould  "  apply 
himself  with  the  most  exact  care  and  diligence  to  the  rec- 
tifying the  tables  of  the  motions  of  the  heavens  and  the 
places  of  the  fi.\ed  stars,  in  order  to  find  out  the  much  de- 
sired longitude  at  sea  for  the  perfecting  the  art  of  naviga- 
tion." Ttie  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  history  of  the 
Greenwich  Obs(!rvatory  is  the  conscientious  persistenc^e  with 
which  the  policy  thus  comprehensively  outlined  has  been 
pursued  for  more  than  two  centuries  by  a  succession  of  men 
whose  nanu!s  stand  high  among  those  of  the  astronomers  of 
their  times.  Without  deviating  in  any  way  from  this  policy 
the  scope  of  the  observatory  has  been  extended  so  as  to  in- 
clude photographic  and  spectroscopic  observations.  The 
universities  of  Kdinliurgli,  Candiridge,  Oxford,  and  Dublin 
have  also  noteworthy  establishments  of  the  sort.  Among 
Irish  observatories  the  greatest  interest,  perhaps,  centers 
around  that  of  Lord  Hosse,  at  Birr  Castle,  Parsonstown, 
celebrated  for  the  largest  telescope  ever  t)uilt. 

The  United  States. — An  etniini!ration  of  the  observatories 
of  this  country  is  not  possible.  Many  have  been  founded 
by  private  munificence,  become  known  for  a  short  time  by 
the  work  of  some  astronomer,  and  finally  disappeared  from 
the  sight  of  the  scienlilic  world.  The  old  naval  observatory 
at  Washington  wascelebrated  in  its  early  years  for  tlu'  work 
of  Sears  Cook  Walker  in  investigating  the  motions  of  Nep- 
tune, and  for  the  part  which  it  took  in  applying  telegraphy 
to  the  deternunation  of  longitiules.  and  Cor  the  invenlion 
of  the  electro-clinuiograph.  In  IHTIi  it  was  sujiplied  with  a 
new  eipiatorial  telescope  of  26  inches  aperture,  which  at  the 
time  was  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  existence.  Four  years 
later  it  acquired  new  celebrity  by  Prof.  Hall's  discovery  of 
the  .satellites  of  Mars.  More  recently  a  iu>w  and  nuignifi- 
cent  establishment  has  been  erected  on  an  elevation  N.  of 
Georgetown,  which  in  its  buildings  and  outfit  fairly  rivals 
any  in  the  world.  The  Cincinnati  Observatory  is  one  of  the 
oldest  in  the  country,  having  been  founded  by  Prof.  i>.  M. 


Mitchell.  Its  work  has  from  time  to  time  been  interrupted, 
but  its  activity  persists  until  the  present  day.  The  Dudley 
Ol)siTvatory  at  Albany,  though  always  suffering  from  want 
of  the  pecuniary  support  necessary  to  such  an  establishment, 
has  in  recent  times  acquired  great  importance  by  the  work 
of  Prof.  Boss,  its  director  and  astronomer,  in  cataloguing  a 
zone  of  stars.  A  new  structure  has  recently  been  erected 
for  it.  Princeton  College,  the  L'niversily  of  \'irginia.  and 
several  other  institutions,  are  also  supplied  with  fine  estab- 
lishments of  the  sort,  of  which  the  work  redounds  to  the 
credit  of  the  U.  S.  At  Princet(m,  Prof.  Young  has  devoted 
himself  very  largely  to  spectrosco|)ic  work  and  the  study  of 
the  sun.  Although  his  telescope  is  not  of  the  largest  size, 
it  was  the  first  one  after  the  Lick  telesco[)i!  with  which  the 
fifth  satellite  of  .hipiler  was  actually  seen.  The  observatory 
of  Georgetown  University,  I).  C..  though  among  the  more 
modest  of  institutions  of  the  kind,  is  aciiuiring  celebrity 
through  the  a[)plication  of  photography  to  the  registration 
of  transits  and  zeinth  distances.  The  remarkable  feature  of 
this  work  is  that  a  star  as  it  pa.sscs  across  t  he  field  of  the 
telescope  is  nuule  to  photograph  its  image  on  a  plate  in  the 
focus  of  the  instrument,  not  continuously,  but  at  intervals 
of  one  or  two  seconds,  thus  forming  a  row  of  dots  on  tlie 
plate.  The  same  method  is  being  applied  to  the  determina- 
tion of  latitudes  with  the  zenith  telescope.  The  success  of 
this  work  is  due  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  director,  Father 
Uagen,  S.  J.,  and  his  able  assistants. 

The  Harvard  Observatory  dates  from  1843,  the  great 
coMu>t  of  that  year  being  the  immediate  incentive  to  its 
roun<lation.  Under  the  energetic  management  of  its  pres- 
ent director  it  has  grown  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  in  ex- 
istence. It  was  early  celebrated  for  the  work  of  the  Bonds, 
and  the  discovery  of  the  eighth  satellite  of  Saturn  ;  more  re- 
cently its  principal  work  has  been  the  photometry  of  the 
heavens,  the  photographing  of  the  constellations,  and  the 
study  of  the  spectra  of  the  fixed  stars.  The  Lick  Observa- 
tory in  California  is  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  of  its  rise. 
(See  Lick.)  It  was  not  comjileted  until  1888,  but  has  since 
risen  into  great  prominence  by  the  activity  of  its  astrono- 
mers under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Holden.  The  observa- 
tions of  Burnham  on  double  stars,  and  of  Barnard  on  the 
planets  and  satellites,  are  among  its  noteworthy  contribu- 
tions to  science.  The  discovery  of  the  fifth  satellite  of 
Jupiter,  made  by  Barnard  in  1893,  is  of  especial  interest. 
The  observatories  of  Ann  Arbor  and  Hamilton  College  are 
noted  for  the  discovery  of  minor  planets  made  by  their 
former  directors,  Watson  and  Peters.  In  recent  times  the 
Sladison  Observatory  has  done  excellent  work  with  its  me- 
ridian circle  and  equatorial  telescope. 

Magnetic  and  Meteorological  Observatories. — The  princi- 
pal object  of  a  magnetic  observatory  is  to  record  the  changes 
continually  going  on  in  the  earth's  magnetism.  The  outfit 
necessary  for  this  purpose  is  quite  modest,  and  in  conse- 
quence such  establishments  do  not  fill  so  great  a  place  in  th(! 
public  eye  as  astronomical  observatories.  The  most  noted 
in  America  is  that  of  Toronto,  Canada,  where  continuous 
observations  have  been  kept  up  for  a  considerable  period. 
The  Greenwich  Observatory  has  also  a  magnetic  depart- 
ment, where  similar  records  are  made  and  kept. 

A  meteorological  observatory,  as  its  name  implies,  is  de- 
voted especially  to  records  pertaining  to  the  weather,  the 
readings  of  the  barometer,  thermometer,  etc.  In  a  well- 
fitted  modern  meteorological  observatorj'  the  conditions  of 
the  wind  and  weather  are  automatically  recorded  on  sheets, 
so  as  to  preserve  a  permanent  record,  available  for  study 
and  comparison  at  any  future  time.  S.  Newcomb. 

Obsid'ian  [from  Lat.  Obsidia'nus  (corrected  reading  Ob- 
sia'nus)  lapxis.  supposed  to  bi^  obsidian.  lit(U"..  the  stcuie  of 
Obsi'tliiis  (corrected  reailing  Oh'siiix).  name  of  the  man  said 
by  Pliny  to  have  found  it  in  Elhio|iia  :  (ir.  i\f/tay6s] :  an  acid 
volcanic  glass  formed  by  the  very  rapid  cooling  of  molten 
material  upon  or  very  near  the  earth's  surface.  In  chemical 
composition  obsidian  may  correspond  either  to  rhyolite, 
trachyte,  phonolite.  or  andesite.  Its  practical  identity  with 
these  rocks  is  often  shown  by  a  mass  of  any  one  of  them 
passing  gradually  into  obsidian  at  its  edge,  where  the  cool- 
ing has  been  most  rapid,  and  the  crystallization  of  individ 
ual  minerals  in  this  way  prevented.  Among  the  acid  vol. 
canic  glasses  obsidian  is  distinguished  by  its  low  percentage 
of  water  (generally  less  than  1  per  cent.)  and  its  vitreous 
luster  from  pitrhstone.  which  contains  4  or  5  per  cent,  of 
water  and  has  a  resinous  luster,  though  it  is  otherwise 
identical  with  ol)sidian.     Olisidian   is  usuallv  dark  in  color 


264 


OBSTETRICS 


and  compact  in  texture.  Frequently  it  is  jet  black  from  in- 
cluded microscopic  crystallites  of  magnetite,  and  often  also 
of  a  red  color.  The  particles  included  in  the  glass  very 
commonly  show  by  their  arrangement  the  flow  movement 
which  took  place  in  tho  viscous  mass  before  final  solidifica- 
tion. If  the  obsidian  has  acquired  a  porous  or  spongy  tex- 
ture by  escaping  gases  at  the  time  of  cooling,  it  is  called 
pumice.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cooling  was  slow  enough 
to  allow  of  the  separation  of  some  crystals,  the  rock  be- 
comes an  obsidian  porphyry  or  ritrojthyre.  The  glassy 
equivalents  of  the  more  basic  volcanic  rocks,  like  trap  or 
basalt,  are  called  basalt  obsidian  or  iachylite.  Because  of 
the  greater  tendency  of  such  basic  masses  to  crystallize, 
their  glassy  forms  are  much  rarer  than  the  true  obsidians 
and  pitchstones. 

Obsidian  and  its  allied  glasses  occur  in  many  volcanic 
regions.  Some  of  the  best-known  localities  are  in  the  Lipari 
islands,  Iceland,  Mexico,  Siberia,  Xew  Zealand,  Peru,  and 
the  western  parts  of  the  U.  S.  Obsidian  Cliff  in  the  Yel- 
lowstone National  Park  has  become  well  known  through  the 
researches  of  Prof.  Joseph  P.  Iddings, 

The  perfect  conchoidal  fracture  of  obsidian,  and  the 
readiness  witli  wliich  it  yields  very  sharp-edged  fragments, 
have  made  it  a  favorite  material  among  primitive  people 
for  the  manufacture  of  arrow-points,  axes,  and  knives. 
This  was  especially  the  case  with  the  early  inhabitants  of 
Mexico,  who  named  their  principal  source  of  supply  C'erro 
de  las  Xavajas,  the  hill  of  knives.  Obsidian  has  also,  both 
in  ancient  and  modern  times,  been  cut  as  a  gem  stone. 

Pumice  or  spongy  obsidian  is  extensively  used  in  the  arts 
for  dressing  leather  or  parchment,  for  polishing,  and  for 
toilet  punwses.  The  supply  of  this  is  obtained  largely 
from  the  Lipari  islands.  Gr.  H.  Williams. 

Obstetrics,  Obstetricy,  or  Tocology  [obstetrics  is  from 
Lat.  obstetrix,  midwife,  deriv.  of  obsta're,  stand  before  ;  ob, 
before,  against  +  stare,  stand ;  tocology  is  from  Gr.  t6kos. 
birth  +  \6yos.  discourse,  reason] :  the  branch  of  medical  sci- 
ence emljracing  the  knowledge  of  the  processes  accompany- 
ing the  reproduction  of  the  human  species,  the  assistance 
to  be  rendered  the  mother  before,  daring,  and  after  labor, 
both  natural  and  irregular,  and  the  care  to  be  taken  of  the 
child  during  the  first  weeks  of  its  life  ;  also  called  midwifery, 
particularly  in  (ireat  Britain.  Although  nature  has  adapted 
woman  t(.)  bring  forth  children  without  any  other  assistance 
than  that  afforded  her  by  her  own  inherent  powers,  still, 
from  the  very  earliest  ages,  it  has  been  found  agreeable  and 
beneficial  to  a  woman  in  labor  to  offer  her  sundry  more  or 
less  important  services  in  her  hour  of  need,  by  which  pres- 
ent discomforts  might  in  a  measure  be  removed  or  possible 
future  accidents  averted.  The  earliest  records  which  we  find 
of  such  assistance  show  it  to  have  been  rendered  exclusively 
by  women.  Thus  the  Jews  employed  women,  called  mejel- 
ledeth;  the  Greeks  first  made  use  of  old  female  nurses,  who 
lived  in  the  house  and  took  care  of  the  children.  These 
nurses  were  called  miea  (grandmother,  nurse),  and  subse- 
quently, when  their  jiractice  rose  to  the  dignity  of  a  profes- 
sion, they  were  known  as  mceeutrixe.  A  special  tutelary 
divinity  (Ilithyia  or  Artemis)  protected  the  art.  These 
women  appear,  however,  to  have  been  unlucky  in  their 
practice,  for  at  an  early  period  a  law  was  passed  in  Athens 
prohibiting  women  from  practicing  physic  in  any  of  its 
branches.  As  early  as  the  time  of  Hippocrates  (about  400 
B.  c.)  we  therefore  find  men  (m(Eeutai,  maeuteres)  called  in 
as  assistants  in  difiicidt  cases;  and  somewhat  later,  He- 
rophilus  is  mentioned  as  a  teacher  of  obstetrics  at  Athens. 
In  the  writings  attributed  to  Hippocrates  is  found  the  first 
evidence  of  scientific  research  into  and  rational  understand- 
ing of  the  phenomena  of  chUdbirth.  Among  the  Romans, 
women  {obstetrices)  likewise  assisted  in  confinements;  but 
the  Emperor  Augustus  is  reported  to  have  called  the  phy- 
sician Antonius  Musa  to  attend  the  Empress  Livia  in  "a 
difficult  labor,  and  this  precedent  has  been  followed  in  many 
countries.  At  the  time  of  Pliny  the  royal  law  (lex  regia) 
already  provided  for  the  perfoniianee  of  Ca?sarean  section 
after  the  death  of  women  during  pregnancy  and  labor.  Cel- 
susand  Rufus  Ephesus,  during  the  first  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  and  Galen,  ^Etius,  and  Paulus  J^gineta  in  the  sec- 
ond, fifth,  and  seventh  ci'tiluries,  respectively,  wrote  works  on 
obstetrics.  During  the  Jliddle  Ages  medical  science  remained 
at  a  standstill  in  Kurope.  liut  among  the  Arabs  and  Per- 
sians considerable  progress  was  made  in  obstetrics,  which 
was  practiced  by  women  alone,  physicians  being  called  in 
only  as  consultants.     The  writings  of  Rhazes  of  Bagdad 


(a.  d.  800),  Avicenna  of  Ispahan  (a.  d.  900),  and  Abulcasem 
(A.  D.  1100)  became  celebrated,  and  were  generally  accepted 
throughout  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  East.  Up  to  the  six- 
teenth century  very  indefinite  ideas  had  existed  as  to  the 
shape  and  capacity  of  the  bony  canal  (pelvis)  through  which 
the  child  has  to  pass  in  order  to  be  born ;  in  l.')43  Andrew 
Vcsalius  gave  the  first  correct  description  of  the  normal 
pelvis,  and  200  years  later  (1754)  Levret  in  France  and 
Sraellie  in  Englaml  (ITol)  completed  the  description  by 
stating  the  exact  dimensions  of  the  various  diameters  of  the 
pelvic  cavity.  The  great  surgeon  Ambroise  Pare  (1550) 
was.  however,  the  first  actual  exponent  of  modern  scientific 
obstetrics — "  the  famous  restorer  and  im|)rover  of  mid- 
wifery," as  Smellie  aptly  calls  him.  He  first  recommended 
turning  the  child  by  the  feet.  His  successors  Guillemeau, 
and  especially  Mauriceau,  worthily  develojied  and  improved 
on  the  teachings  of  Pare.  That  most  valual)le  of  obstet- 
rical instruments,  the  forceps,  was  invented  by  an  English- 
man, Paul  Chamberlen,  about  1647;  it  has  .since  been  greatly 
modified  and  improved.  In  Germany  the  first  scientific 
work  on  obstetrics  was  published  by  Eucharius  Rosslin  in 
1513;  and  in  1690  Justine  Siegemund,  court  midwife  at  the 
electoral  court  of  Brandenburg,  became  celebrated  through 
her  book  on  midwifery.  Although  numerous  careful  obser- 
vations and  studies  had  been  made  by  Smellie  and  Ould 
(1742)  in  England,  who  described  the  manner  of  the  entrance 
of  the  child's  head  into  the  pelvis,  by  Levret  (1747),  Solayres 
de  Renhac  (1771),  Baudelocque  (1781).  Madame  Lachapelle 
(1795)  in  France,  and  Boer  (1791)  and  Schmitt  (1804)  in 
Germany,  Naegele  the  elder  (1819)  was  the  first  to  give  a 
clear,  systematic,  and  tolerably  correct  explanation  of  the 
mechanism  of  labor;  that  is,  of  the  manner  of  jjassage  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  child  through  the  pelvic  canal. 
From  him  dates,  in  a  great  degree,  the  present  advanced 
state  of  obstetrical  science  ;  for  on  the  accurate  comprehen- 
sion of  this  mechanism  depends  in  a  large  measure  the  cor- 
rect appreciation  of  the  means  to  be  employed  in  abnormal 
cases.  Among  the  more  important  improvements  in  the 
art  and  practice  of  obstetrics  during  the  nineteenth  century 
are  the  following:  The  use  of  the  ear  (auscultation)  to  detect 
the  presence  of  a  living  child  in  the  womb;  the  perfection 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  mechanism  of  labor ;  the  induction 
of  premature  labor ;  the  more  frequent  use  of  the  forceps 
and  the  less  frequent  employment  of  craniotomy  (perfora- 
tion of  the  child's  head);  the  substitution  of  turning  and 
extraction  by  the  feet  for  forceps  and  craniotomy  in  many 
cases  of  pelvic  deformity;  the  employment  of  ana'sthetics 
in  natural  labor.  Obstetrical  science  and  practice  have 
long  been  taught  at  all  medical  universities.  Hospitals  for 
the  accommodation  of  women  during  the  lying-in  state — so- 
called  lying-in  hospital.s — have  been  instituted  in  many  cities 
of  Europe,  and  in  a  less  degree  in  the  U.  S.  They  are  al- 
most invariably  connected  with  medical  schools,  and  afford 
excellent  opportunities  for  the  study  of  the  obstetrical  art. 
The  largest  lying-in  hospital  at  present  is  in  Vienna,  in 
which  about  10,000 women  are  confined  annually;  others  are 
at  Paris,  Berlin,  Dublin,  etc.  Societies  devoted  solely  to  the 
advancement  of  the  department  of  obstetrics  exist  in  Lon- 
don, Berlin,  Edinburgh,  Dublin,  Xew  York,  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  and  other  cities.  Journals  containing  only  articles 
on  obstetrical  topics  are  published  in  Germany,  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  U.  S.  On  the  European  continent, 
and  to  a  certain  degree  in  Great  Britain,  women  in  labor 
are  attended  only  by  midwives,  who  are  taught  in  special 
schools  to  perform  the  minor  duties  of  an  obstetrician,  such 
as  to  separate  the  child  from  the  mother  by  tying  and  di- 
viding the  umbilical  cord,  removing  the  afterbirth,  and  car- 
ing for  the  comfort  of  the  mother  and  the  child.  Physicians 
are  called  in  only  in  difficult  cases.  In  the  U.  S.,  however, 
and  among  the  better  classes  of  Great  Britain,  the  safer  plan 
is  followed  of  intrusting  every  confinement,  whether  natural 
or  abnormal,  to  the  care  of  an  educated  physician,  who  is 
assisted  by  a  competent  nurse,  and  who,  in  case  of  need,  may 
be  able  to  foresee  and  prevent  accidents  which  the  super- 
ficial and  inferior  teaching  of  a  midwife  would  incapacitate 
her  from  perceiving  or  avoiding. 

The  study  of  obstetrics  is  divided  into  three  chapters:  1. 
The  anatomy  of  the  organs  taking  part  in  the  process  of  re- 
production in  the  female:  2,  the  functions  of  those  organs 
during  reproduction  :  their  physiology  ;  3,  the  disorders  and 
diseases  affecting  these  and  other  organs  during  tlie  same 
period:  their  pathology. 

1.  Anatomy. — In  the  bony  receptacle  (pelvis)  at  the  end 
of  the  trunk  are  situated  the  female  generative  organs,  viz.. 


OBSTETRICS 


265 


the  two  ovaries,  containin<;  the  female  perms  or  ova ;  lictwcen 
tlii'iii  the  womb  or  uterus,  (o  which  they  are  atlaeheil;  on 
litlier  side  also  the  two  KuUopiun  tulies,  opening  into  the 
uterus;  linally.  the  vajrina  or  passage  leading  from  the 
mouth  of  the  womi)  to  the  external  organs.  The  breasts, 
all  hough  coining  into  function  only  after  the  birth  of  the 
child,  are  generally  included  in  this  list. 

3.  I'/iysiuloyy. — The  fuiictiniis  of  these  organs  are  men- 
struation, conception,  gestation  or  pregnancy,  labor  or 
parturition,  and  lactation.  They  are  limiled  to  a  certain 
|i,riipd  of  life,  generally  beginning  with  the  twelfth  to  the 
fifteenth  year  and  continuing  till  the  forty-fifth  or  forty- 
eighth  year.  The  youngest  authentic  case  of  [larturition 
on  record  occurred  at  the  age  of  nine  years,  the  oldest  at 
(ifty-four  years.  Menstruation  and  repro<luction  are  gen- 
rraily  coincident,  although  cases  are  reported  in  which  re- 
jieated  impregnation  took  place  without  menstruation 
having  ever  occurred.  Conception  having  taken  place,  the 
impregnated  ovum  passes  through  one  of  the  Fallopian 
tubes  to  the  uterus,  where  it  becomes  attached  and  grows 
and  develops  (its  nourishment  being  derived  from  the 
mother  through  a  convolution  of  ves.sels  called  the  after- 
birth or  iilacenta,  from  which  a  cord  of  vessels,  the  umbil- 
ical cord,  runs  to  the  abdomen  of  the  child),  until  at  the 
end  of  a  period  varying  from  273  to  280  days  it  is  ready  to 
be  expelled  by  the  contractions  of  the  powerful  muscular 
fibers  of  the  woml)  (labor-pains).  In  occasional  rare  cases 
the  term  of  pregnancy  may  be  prolonged  to  300  or  306 
days  ;  but  most  statements  of  this  kind  by  women  are  not 
reliable  and  usually  tlepend  on  errors  of  reckoning.  The 
signs  of  pregnancy  are  manifold.  Tlie  chief  symptoms 
are:  Cessation  of  tli(^  menses,  nausea,  particularly  in  the 
morning,  enlargement  of  the  abdomen  and  the  breasts,  dis- 
coloration of  the  space  around  the  nipple  ;  later,  the  move- 
ment of  the  chilli  (or  fu^tus)  and  the  pulsations  of  the 
child's  heart,  audible  only  to  a  practiced  ear  applied  to  the 
abdomen.  A  physical  examination  of  the  abdomen  and 
genital  organs  will  at  all  times  reveal  the  state  of  affairs; 
still,  only  in  exceptional  cases  is  it  possible  to  decide  upon 
the  existence  of  pregnancy  before  the  beginning  of  the 
tliinl  month.  Enlargement  of  the  abdomen  from  dropsy, 
ovarian  and  other  tumors,  may  simulate  pregnancy.  The 
jiart  of  the  child  presenting  itself  at  the  mouth  of  the  womb 
during  pregnancy  or  labor  is  called  the  presentation.  Dur- 
ing pregnancy  the  child  frequently  changes  its  position; 
during  labor,  however,  the  part  originally  presenting  gen- 
erally remains.  The  most  frequent  position  of  the  child 
in  the  womb  is  the  longitndiiuil,  corresponding  with  the 
lung  axis  of  the  mother,  and  by  far  the  most  common 
presentation  is  that  of  the  head  (96  in  100),  generally  the 
crown  or  vertex,  seldom  the  face  (1  in  200) ;  nuich  less 
frequent  is  the  presentation  of  the  other  extremity  of 
the  child,  the  breech  or  feet  (3  in  100).  A  transverse 
presentation,  when  the  long  axis  of  the  child  crosses  the 
long  axis  of  the  mother,  is  met  with  about  once  in  200 
labors,  and  always  requires  artificial  rectification.  Labor 
or  parturition  is  the  act  of  delivery  of  the  fcctus  and  its 
appendages  (the  placenta  and  the  membranes  inclosing 
the  child)  through  the  natunil  pa.ssages.  It  nuiy  be  divided 
into  three  stages :  1.  From  the  first  pains  till  the  com- 
plete dilatation  of  the  mouth  of  the  womb;  2,  the  birth  of 
the  cliild  ,  3,  the  expulsion  of  the  afterliirth  and  mem- 
branes. First  stagf. — .\t  the  end  of  pregnancy  labor  is 
ushered  in  by  .so-called  premonitory  pains,  resulting  from 
the  beginning  contractions  of  the  womb  and  lasting  an 
indefinite  time,  several  hours  or  days.  A  mucous,  slightly 
bloody,  discharge  accompanies  these  pains,  which  gradually 
become  more  severe ;  the  mouth  of  the  womb  becomes 
fully  dilated,  and  the  bag  of  waters  (in  which  the  child 
floats)  is  protruded.  Strand  xfage. — The  bag  ruptures,  the 
waters  arc  discharged,  the  pains  become  still  more  severe, 
the  presenting  part  of  the  child  passes  through  the  pelvic 
caiuil,  always  adapting  its  longest  diameter  to  the  longest 
one  of  the  pelvic  cavity,  and  is  expelled  through  the  ex- 
ternal orifice,  being  ra])idly  followed  by  the  remainder  of 
the  chihrs  body.  The  third  stage  comprises  the  delivery 
of  the  placenta  and  membranes,  which  generally  takes 
place  within  thirty  minutes.  The  average  durati<m  of 
labor  in  first  confinements  is  twelve  hours, although  eighteen 
to  twenty-four  hours  would  not  be  considered  abnormal; 
wo!nen  who  have  hjid  chililren  are  generally  delivered  more 
rapiilly,  within  six  or  eight  hours.  After  labor  the  lying- 
in  state  begins,  during  which  the  function  of  lactation  is 
inaugurated,  anrl  llu-  womb  gradually  returns  to  its  natural 


size  and  configuration  before  conception,  which  latter 
event  ordinarily  takes  place  within  six  weeks.  The  child, 
having  been  separated  from  its  connection  with  the  mother 
by  the  ligation  and  division  of  the  umbilical  cord,  is 
washed,  dressed,  and  applied  to  the  breast  as  .soon  as  the 
mother  lias  recovered  from  her  exertions.  By  an  early 
application  of  the  child  the  febrile  excitement  known  as 
"  milk  fever,"  ordinarily  occurring  on  the  third  or  fourth 
day,  with  the  flow  of  milk  into  the  breasts,  is  in  a  great 
measure  avoide<l.  The  period  which  a  woman  after  labor 
is  confined  to  her  bed  varies  in  different  countries;  while 
in  civilized  communities  seven  to  ten  days  is  considered 
the  proper  time,  in  the  East  and  among  savage  races  the 
mother  resumes  her  daily  avocations  immediately  after  de- 
livery, and  among  the  lower  classes  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S. 
puerperal  women  very  frccpiently  leave  their  beds  on  the 
third  or  fourth  day  without  evil  consequences. 

3.  Patliologij. — Pregnancy  does  not  always  last  the  stated 
time  of  280  ilays,  but  often  is  interrupted  at  an  earlier  pe- 
riod, either  by  causes  depending  on  diseases  of  the  mother 
or  of  the  foetus  and  its  appendages,  or  by  accident  or  in- 
tention. Such  interruptions  may  occur  at  any  time,  and 
during  the  first  six  months  are  called  abortion  or  miscar- 
riage, during  the  last  three  prematiire  delivery.  A  fa'tus 
born  before  the  twenty-eighth  week  is  ordinarily  not  via- 
ble, although  several  instances  have  occurred  in  which 
children  born  as  early  as  the  twenty-sixth  week  were  by 
extraordinary  care  raised  to  maturity.  The  danger  to  the 
life  of  the  mother  from  abortion  may  at  times  be  great, 
either  from  uncontrollable  loss  of  blood  or  from  inflamma- 
tion of  the  uterus  or  bowels  (peritonitis).  This  is  particu- 
larly liable  to  be  the  case  when  the  abortion  has  been  forcibly 
induced,  as  by  sudden  shock  or  with  a  criminal  purpose. 
Tardieu  relates  thirty-four  cases  of  criminal  abortion,  in 
which  the  death  of  the  mother  resulted  in  twenty-two.  The 
danger  is  greatest  during  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
months ;  during  the  first  two  months  the  impregnated 
ovum  often  escapes  almost  unperceived.  A  common  cause 
of  abortion  is  disease  of  the  placenta.  The  physiological 
discomforts  of  pregnancy,  such  as  nausea,  neuralgic  ]>ains, 
constipation,  may  occasionally  become  so  aggravated  as  to 
be  actual  sources  of  danger,  and  the  pregnant  woman  is 
liable  to  dropsy,  haemorrhoids,  congestion  of  the  kidneys, 
and  numerous  other  complaints.  Occasionally  the  im- 
pregnated ovum  does  not  pass  into  the  uterus,  but  becomes 
attached  in  the  Fallopian  tube  or  drops  into  the  abdominal 
cavity  and  develops  there.  This  condition  is  called  ex- 
trauterine pregnancy  (tubal  or  abdominal),  and  generally 
ends  fatally  about  the  third  or  fcjurth  month  by  rupture  of 
the  tube  or  peritonitis.  In  rare  cases  the  child  has  been 
retained  until  term  and  removed  by  ojieration  alive  or  dejui, 
or  it  has  died  and  been  discharged  piecemeal  through  the 
bowel,  vagina,  etc.  The  removal  of  the  pregnant  tube  with 
the  ovum  intact  by  aVxlominal  section  has  been  success- 
fully performed  by  Tail,  of  Birmingham,  England,  Veit,  of 
Berlin,  Mnnde,  and  others  during  tlie  early  months  of  preg- 
nancy ;  and  numerous  cases  are  re]iorted  wlu'lv  after  ruji- 
ture  the  abdomen  has  been  opened,  the  bleeding  lube  ligated 
and  removed,  and  the  woman  recovered. 

Labor  is  either  natural  or  preternatural — natural  when 
nothing  occurs  to  mar  the  progress  of  the  unaided  birth  of 
the  child  and  appendages,  preternatural  when  the  assist- 
ance of  art,  either  manual  or  instrumental,  is  re<piired. 
The  causes  of  preternatural  labor  may  lie  either  in  the 
mother  or  the  child.  Tlie  iimther. — Deformities  of  the  pel- 
vis or  of  the  soft  genital  organs,  rupture  of  the  uterus, 
vagina,  or  the  external  parts  (perineum),  flooding  (either 
during  labor,  when  the  placenta  is  situated  over  the  mouth 
of  the  woml)and  isdetached  during  dilatation  of  that  orifice 
— placenta  pra'via — or  after  labor  from  the  open  vessels  of 
the  normal  placental  attachment),  convulsi<ms,  inversion  of 
the  uterus.  Tlie  child. — Too  large  size,  mon.strosity,  ab- 
normal presentation,  transverse  or  oblique  (requiring  man- 
ual or  instrumental  interference),  compression  and  protru- 
sion of  the  umbilical  cord  (dangerous  to  the  life  of  the 
child,  but  not  to  the  mother,  and  not  impeding  delivery), 
too  firm  attachment  of  the  placenta.  The  operations  which 
may  become  necessary  during  pregnancy  or  labor  are:  The 
induction  of  abortion,  when  the  preservation  of  the  life  of 
the  mother  renders  it  imperatively  necessary  that  the  preg- 
nancy be  interrupted,  and  of  priMiiature  delivery,  when  the 
birth'  of  a  fully  develojied  child  at  term  is  impossible  on 
account  of  pelvic  deformity  ;  C.'csarean  section,  the  removal 
of   the  child   and   appendages  through   nn   incision  in  the 


266 


OCALA 


OCCULTATION 


abdomen  and  uterus,  in  cases  where  the  pelvic  deformity 
is  so  at^gravated  as  to  preclude  the  natural  or  instrumental 
delivery  of  even  a  rautdated  child  by  the  natural  passages ; 
the  extraction  of  the  child  with  the  forceps;  version  or 
turning,  an<l  manual  extraction  by  the  feet,  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  change  the  position  of  the  child  and  accomplish 
rapid  delivery  ;  craniotomy,  the  perforation  of  the  head  and 
removal  of  the  brain  of  'the  living  or  dead  child  to  enable 
the  passage  of  the  diminished  head  through  the  contracted 
pelvis,  thus  sacrificing  the  child  for  the  sake  of  the  mother, 
etc.  Of  recent  years  the  operation  of  CiEsarean  section  has 
been  more  successful  both  for  mother  and  child,  owing  to 
increased  experience  in  abdominal  operations  and  careful 
antiseptic  rules.  A  modification  of  the  old  operation  was 
introduced  by  Prof.  Porro,  of  Italy,  and  consists  in  remov- 
ing the  uterus  and  ovaries  after  extracting  the  child.  It 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  supplanted  the  original  method. 
Of  the  dangers  which  assail  the  woman  after  delivery  the 
most  frequent  are  sore  nipples  and  inflammation  of  the 
breasts  and  childbed  or  puerperal  fever.  The  general  mor- 
tality during  parturition  has  decreased  in  consequence  of 
the  improvement  in  the  study  and  practice  of  obstetrical 
science.  According  to  a  compilation  by  Winckel  (Path, 
and  Therap.  of  the  Puerperal  State,  1869)  from  more  tiian 
a  million  labors,  it  averaged  about  6  in  1,000  cases  in  pri- 
vate practice  and  30  in  1,000  cases  in  lying-in  hospitals,  the 
large  mortality  in  the  latter  institutions  being  mainly  due 
to  the  epidemics  of  puerperal  fever  breaking  out  in  them 
from  time  to  time,  the  disease  being  rendered  particularly 
virulent  by  the  generally  poor  physical  condition  of  the  pa- 
tients and  the  necessary  crowding  to  which  they  were  more 
or  less  subjected.  The  mortality  from  puerperal  fever 
(which  is  now  recognized  to  be  simply  blood-poisoning  or 
septiea;mia,  the  poison  usually  having  been  introduced  from 
without,  often  in  some  mysterious  manner)  has  so  much  de- 
creased through  the  careful  observance  of  the  antiseptic 
rules  now  practiced  in  all  surgical  manipulations  that  even 
in  maternity  hospitals,  where  formerly  the  death-rate  was 
the  largest,  the  average  percentage  of  deaths  from  tliis 
cause  is  less  than  1  per  cent.  Paul  P.  Munde. 

Ocala :  city  (founded  in  1851) ;  capital  of  Marion  eo., 
Pla.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Florida,  ref.  4-1) ;  on  the  Pla. 
Cent,  and  Peninsular,  tlie  Pla.  Southern,  and  the  Savannah, 
Pla.  and  W.  railways;  midway  between  Jacksonville  and 
Tampa.  It  is  the  center  of  the  orange  belt  of  the  penin- 
sula ;  contains  5  churches  for  white  people  and  6  for  col- 
ored, 3  public-school  buildings,  industrial  school,  several 
private  schools,  2  national  banks,  a  State  bank,  and  a  daily 
and  4  weekly  periodicals;  and  is  principally  engaged  in 
orange  and  vegetable  growing  and  phosphate-mining.  Pop. 
(1880)803;  (1890)2,904;  (1894)  estimated,  4,000;  with  snb- 
urbs,  5,000;  (1895)  4,597.  Editor  of  "Banner." 

Ocaua,  o-kaan'yiiii :  a  town  of  the  department  of  San- 
tander,  Colombia ;  235  miles  N.  X.  W.  of  Bogota ;  3,83()  feet 
above  the  sea  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  1-C).  It  is  the 
center  of  the  trade  between  Lake  Maracaibo  and  Venezuela 
on  the  E.  and  the  Magdalena  valley  on  the  W. ;  the  sur- 
rounding district  is  one  of  the  finest  agricultural  regions  of 
Colombia.  Ocana  was  founded  in  1572.  It  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  Santander.  H.  H.  S. 

Oc'cam,  or  Ock'ham,  William  of  :  a  Scholastic  philoso- 
pher ;  b.  at  Occam,  in  the  county  of  Surrey,  England ;  d. 
in  Munich,  Bavaria,  in  1347,  at  an  advanced  age.  He  was 
educated  first  at  Oxford,  and,  after  he  became  a  Franciscan, 
in  1319,  at  Paris  under  the  famous  Duns  Scotus.  He  re- 
jected the  realism  of  his  master,  and  became  the  most  emi- 
nent of  Nominalists.  Throughout  his  life,  consistent  with 
the  strictest  tenets  of  his  order,  he  strenuously  contested 
the  pretensions  of  the  pope  to  political  power  and  secidar 
possessions,  first  taking  the  side  of  Philip  the  Fair  against 
Boniface  VIII.,  and  subsequently  opposing  .John  XXII.,  Iiy 
whom  he  was  summoned  to  trial  before  an  ecclesiastical 
court  at  Avignon,  whence  he  took  refuge  in  1328  with  the 
Emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria,  just  then  in  the  midst  of  his 
struggle  with  the  pope.  He  promised  his  pen  in  suppiirt  of 
that  monarch  in  return  for  his  own  protection  (7'«  me  rfe- 
fendas  gladin,  ego  le  ili-fendam  calitmo).  Toward  the  close 
of  his  life  he  became  desirous  of  making  his  peace  with  the 
pope,  but  he  never  signed  the  recantation  demanded  by 
him.  No  other  scholar  since  the  days  of  Abelard  had  a]5- 
plicd  himself  .so  zealously  to  logic.  Ilis  skill  in  handling 
logical  weapons,  his  acuteness  in  making  distinctions,  his 
fertility  in  invent  ing  reasons,  gave  him  the  name  of  Dactor 


invincibilis.  His  careful  discriniinaticjn  between  the  logic- 
al, real,  and  grammatical  significance  of  terms  enabled 
him  to  silence  his  opponents.  The  hypostatic  entities  of  the 
Schoolmen  before  him  were  disposed  of  by  liis  doctrine  of 
the  subjective  nature  of  thought.  Ilis  favorite  principle 
was,  "  Kntia  non  sunt  multiplicauda  jira'ter  neccssitatem." 
In  his  Cent iliiii> inn  Tlieotoyieiim  tlie  greater  |)art  of  his  hun- 
dred demonstrations  attempt  to  prove  tliat  tlieological  dog- 
mas, such  as  the  existence,  unity,  or  infinity  of  God,  the 
Trinity,  creation,  incarnation,  transubstantiation,  etc.,  in- 
volve contradiction  of  logical  principles,  are  irreconcilable 
with  reason,  and  to  be  accepted  only  by  faith.  This  doc- 
trine struck  a  fatal  blow  at  Scholasticism.  That  form  of 
philosojihy  had  arisen  solely  out  of  the  necessity  which  was 
felt  of  proving  the  rationality  of  the  dogma.  It  had  been 
seen  that  agnosticism  would  not  only  undermine  rational 
theology,  but  also  the  faith  in  the  dogmas  themselves,  be- 
cause it  would  come  to  be  held  that  they  are  inconceivable, 
and  hence  were  words  to  which  our  minds  attach  no  mean- 
ing ;  but  in  the  triumph  of  Nominalism  this  ohler  and 
more  correct  view  was  for  a  time  eclipsed.  If  the  objects 
of  faith  could  not  be  proved  by  philosophy,  nor  even  recon- 
ciled with  reason,  Scholasticism  had  no  task  to  fulfill  ex- 
cept the  negative  one  of  destroying  what  illusions  it  had 
already  created.  Its  decline  was  rapid.  The  chief  works 
of  Occam  are  (a)  Tractatus  Logices,  (b)  Quodliheta  Sep- 
tem,  (c)  Super  guattior  Ubros  Sententiarum,  (d)  Expositio 
Anrea  super  totam  Artem  Veterum.  Besides  these  there 
were  commentaries  and  polemics.       William  T.  Harris. 

Occasional  Causes,  Doctrine  of:  a  doctrine  invented 
by  the  Cartesians  to  explain  the  action  of  mind  and  matter 
upon  each  other.  Their  theoi-y  was  that  Cod,  the  First 
Cause,  on  the  occasion  of  certain  volitions  within  the  mind, 
produces  certain  actions  or  motions  of  the  body  ;  since,  .said 
they,  the  soul,  a  thinking  substance,  can  nf>t  act  upon  mat- 
ter, which  is  pure  extension.  This  doctrine  was  first  fully 
set  forth  by  Geulincx,  and  it  made  necessary  extensive  and 
ingenious  treatises  on  the  part  of  Leibnitz,  Malebranche, 
and  other  jihilosophers  of  that  epoi'h  to  exjilain  away  the 
difficulties  involved.  Kevised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Occipital  Bone  :  See  Osteology. 

Oc'com,  or  Occuni,  Samson  :  an  Indian  jireacher  of  the 
Mohegan  trilie  ;  b.  at  Mohcgan,  near  Norwich,  Conn.,  about 
1723  ;  was  educated  at  the  Kev.  Ebeiiezer  Wheelock's  Indian 
school  at  Lebanon  ;  in  1766  accomjianied  Rev.  Natlianiel 
Whitaker,  D.  D.,  who  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Scotland, 
England,  and  Wales  to  raise  funds  for  the  establishment  of 
schools  for  the  education  and  Cliristianization  of  the  North 
American  Indians.  Being  the  first  preacher  of  these  abo- 
riginal tribes  who  had  visited  Great  Britain,  he  created  a 
sensation,  and  drew  large  audiences  everywhere.  He  offici- 
ated in  George  Whitefield's  chapel  in  Tottenham  Court  Road, 
London,  antt  greatly  conti'ibuted  to  the  success  of  Dr.  Whit- 
aker's  mission.  The  projected  school  subsequently  became 
Dartmouth  College,  New  Hampshire.  After  his  return  he 
continued  in  the  ministry,  preaching  chiefly  to  the  Indians. 
In  1786  he  removed  with  a  colony  of  Indians  to  what  is 
now  Oneida  eo.,  N.  Y. ;  subsequently  he  lived  among  the 
Stockbridge  Indians.  D.  at  New  Stockbridge,  N.  Y.,  .July 
14,  1792.  He  wrote  an  account  of  the  Montauk  Indians, 
published  by  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  (1st  series, 
X.,  106),  and  wrote  the  hymn,  Awaked  bg  Sinai's  Awful 
Sound. 

Occultation  [from  Lat.  occulta'tio,  a  hiding,  deriv.  of  oc- 
cnttrt're.  intensive  of  occu'lere,  hide  ;  ob-,  intensive  -|-  ceta're, 
hide] :  in  astronomy,  the  hiding  of  one  heavenly  body  be- 
hind another.  The  most  common  cases  of  this  phenomenon 
arc  I  he  occultation  of  stars  by  the  moon,  .several  of  wliicli  can 
usually  be  seen  every  month  with  the  aid  of  a  small  telescope. 
Indeed,  by  closely  scrutinizing  the  moon,  when  it  is  three  or 
four  days  old,  it  will  be  found  that  .scarcely  an  liour  passes 
without  some  star  being  hidden  behind  the  dark  edge  of  her 
disk.  Two  important  astronomical  conclusions  have  l)een 
drawn  from  such  occultations.  One  is  that  the  apparent  di- 
ameters of  even  the  brightest  stars  do  not  exceed  a  small 
fraction  of  a  .second.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  vvlien 
occulted  by  the  dark  limb  of  the  moon,  they  retain  their  full 
brilliancy  until  the  limb  actually  covers  them,  and  then  dis- 
appear completely  with  absolute  suddeiniess,  no  matter  how 
obliipie  may  lie  the  motion.  There  is  never  a  visible  fading 
away  of  the  light,  which  would  tie  the  case  it  the  star  were 
of  sensible  magnitude,  because  then  it  would  only  1)P  gradu- 
ally covered  by  the  moon. 


OCCUPANCY 


OCEAN 


267 


Another  conclusion  is  tliiit  the  moon  lias  no  atniosphorc, 
or  at  li-ast  none  dense  enongli  to  exert  any  refraction  upon 
tlie  rays  of  light.  Did  such  an  atmosphere  exist,  the  star, 
when  near  occultatioii,  would  be  seen  through  it,  and  its 
light  would  suffer  a  certain  amount  of  refraction.  When  a 
bright  star  is  occulted  it  sometimes  appears  to  be  entirely 
projected  upon  the  moon's  limb  before  it  disappears,  as  if 
the  moon  itself  were  transparent.  This,  however,  is  purely 
an  effect  of  irradiation,  which  makes  the  moon's  bright 
limb  appear  larger  than  it  really  is. 

Observations  of  o(.-cultations  are  useful  both  for  the  de- 
termination of  longitudes  and  for  fixing  the  positiim  of  the 
moon.  The  best  (ietermination  yet  made  of  longitudes  in 
Australia  was  made  by  I'rof.  .Vuwers  from  a  great  number 
of  occultalions  of  the  moon  ol)served  in  that  region.  The 
work  of  determination  is,  however,  more  laborious  than  that 
of  a  determination  by  the  telegraph. 

Stars  are  occasionally  occulted  by  the  planets.  This  occur- 
rence is  a  comparative  rarity,  owing  to  the  small  size  of  the 
planets  and  the  disappearance  of  the  star  at  the  approach  of 
the  brilliant  body  of  the  planet  itself.  S.  Newcojib. 

000111)81107:  See  Property. 

Occupation  [from  Lat.  occiipa'iio,  a  seizing,  deriv.  of 
oecupa're.  seize,  take  possession  of,  occupy] :  in  Roman  law, 
the  act  of  taking  possession.  The  possession  tlius  acquired, 
if  the  law  allowed,  could  end  in  full  ownership.  Tims,  or- 
cupalicius  ager,  in  one  of  tlie  old  Latin  grammarians,  de- 
notes land  deserted  by  its  own  cultivator  and  occujiied  or 
taken  possession  of  by  another.  The  principal  objects  which 
could  by  Roman  law  be  thus  taken  possession  of  were — (1) 
wild  animals,  which  in  ttieiriree  state  were  held  to  be  with- 
out an  owner,  and  wherever  taken  belonged  to  the  captor. 
If,  after  being  taken,  they  recovered  their  freedom,  they 
again  became  without  an  owner  and  could  belong  to  a  new 
captor.  (2)  Tilings  abandoned  by  an  owner  with  the  inten- 
tion of  giving  up  his  ownership  and  without  intending  to 
transfer  his  right  to  another,  (-i)  Treasure-trove  belonged 
by  Roman  law  to  the  tinder  in  certain  cases  only,  as  where 
it  had  been  hid  in  an  unusual  way  and  so  long  that  the 
owner  was  not  to  be  discovered.  Where  it  was  found  by  a 
man  on  his  own  ground  or  on  ground  without  an  owner,  it 
belonged  wholly  to  him.  Where  it  was  found  on  the  ground 
of  another,  it  went  half  to  the  finder,  half  to  the  proprietor 
of  the  soil ;  to  the  state  if  the  land  was  public.  (4)  In  war 
the  foe  was  looked  on  a.s  without  rights,  anil  thus  his  prop- 
erty was  without  an  owner  and  capable  of  acquisition. 
Things  taken  from  a  public  enemy  during  war,  however, went 
first  to  the  state,  which  could  give  rights  over  them  to  others, 
as  to  the  captors. 

Occupatioyi  as  a  Means  of  Acquiring  Territory. — Discov- 
ery, exploration,  and  settlement  resulting  in  beneficial  use, 
found  a  valid  claim  to  territory  hitherto  unoc?  upied.  The 
third  of  these  is  the  essential  point.  By  beneficial  use  is  meant 
any  commercial  use  of  the  resources  of  the  new  country,  by 
fishing  or  fur-trading  stations  as  well  as  by  cultivating  the 
soil.  The  rights  of  a  civilized  discoverer  are  held  to  be  par- 
amount to  those  of  prior  savages,  but  the  ownership  of  the 
latter  should  be  extinguished  by  purchase.  Where  settle- 
ments of  different  nationality  are  made  on  the  .same  coast, 
the  territory  is  eqnital)ly  <livided  between  them.  The  ex- 
tent of  country  which  occupation  in  its  early  stage  may 
fouiul  claim  to  is  vast  but  indefinite,  inclu<ling  generally 
the  drainage  areas  of  the  rivers  explored.  The  history  of 
the  U.  S.  claim  to  Oregon  and  of  the  formation  and  colon- 
ization of  the  Congo  Free  .State  may  be  read  in  illustration. 

Military  Occupation. — In  the  Instruction.'!  for  the  Gov- 
eminent  of  Armies  of  the  United  States  in  the  Field,  issued 
in  1803,  sec.  i.,  it  is  declared  that  "a  place,  district,  or  coun- 
try occupied  by  an  enemy  stands  in  consequence  of  the  oc- 
<-upation  under  the  iiuirtial  law  of  the  invading  or  occupy- 
ing army."  "  .Martial  law  is  the  imnu'diate  and  direct  effect 
and  consequence  of  occupation  or  conquest,"  whether  a 
proclamation  to  that  effect  has  been  made  or  not.  It  "con- 
sists in  the  suspension  by  the  occupying  military  authority 
of  the  criminal  and  civil  law,  and  of  the  domestic  adminis- 
tration and  government  in  the  occupied  place  or  territory, 
and  in  the  substitution  of  military  rule  and  force  for  the 
same,  as  well  as  in  the  dictation  of  general  laws,  as  far  as 
military  necessity  requires  this  suspension,  substitution,  or 
dictation.  The  connnander  of  the  forces  may  proclaim  that 
the  administration  of  all  civil  and  penal  law  shall  continue, 
either  wholly  or  in  i)art  as  in  times  of  peace,  uidess  other- 
wise ordered  by  the  military  authority."     In  1874  at  Brus- 


sels was  held  a  conference  of  delegates  of  European  powers 
to  work  over  a  Code  of  the  rules  to  be  observed  in  civilized 
warfare.  Their  project,  as  modified  by  discussion,  speaks  as 
follows  of  military  authority  within  the  territory  of  an 
enemy :  "  A  territory  is  considered  to  be  occupied  when  it 
is  found  in  point  of  fact  placed  under  the  authority  of  a 
hostile  army.  Occupation  extends  only  to  the  territory 
where  such  authority  is  established  and  is  in  a  position  to  be 
exercised. 

■'  The  legal  authority  being  suspended  and  passing  into  the 
hands  of  the  occupant,  he  will  take  all  possible  steps  to  re- 
establish anil  secure  order  and  public  business. 

"  With  this  in  view  he  will  maintain  the  laws  in  force  in 
time  of  peace  unchanged,  except  in  case  of  necessity." 

This  code  has  never  received  governmental  sanction;  it 
simply  represents  the  opinion  of  the  delegates.  There  are 
two  questions  which  interest  us  in  this  question  of  occupa- 
tion :  The  first  is,  what  is  occupied  territory  <  the  second,  wliat 
legal  changes  does  occupation  worki    See  Brussels  Con- 

FEREN'CE. 

Without  going  into  these  questions  at  length,  it  is  enough 

to  say  that  occupation,  being  a  result  of  military  force,  must 
depeiul  ujion  the  continuance  of  such  force.  This,  however, 
does  not  miply  that  the  presence  of  the  invading  army  nnist 
be  constant  in  a  given  district.  It  does  require  that  the 
military  power  of  the  dispossessed  sovereign  shall  be  inop- 
erative in  it. 

As  to  the  second  query,  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  occujia- 
tion  is  not  completed  conquest.  Such  change  of  sovereignty 
as  is  implied  in  conquests  residts  only  from  a  subsequent 
treaty  of  cession  or  from  prescriptive  possession.  The  origi- 
nal sovereign  retains  his  rights,  but  temporarily  they  are 
suspended.  Meanwhile  the  will  of  the  occupant  prescribes 
the  laws  of  the  occupied  territory  as  a  matter  of  military 
necessity  and  in  recognition  of  a  state  of  fact.  Such  neces- 
sity should  be  the  limit  of  his  exercise  of  this  right.  He 
should,  and  probably  will,  keep  in  force  the  former  laws,  so 
far  as  relates  to  local  order  and  government.  He  will  not 
exact  any  form  of  military  service  from  the  inhabitants. 
The  taxes  imposed  upon  them,  except  when  in  the  nature  of 
penalties,  should  be  expended  for  their  benefit.  On  the 
other  hand,  all  unorganized  oppo.sition  to  the  occupant  is 
unlawful  and  in  its  graver  forms  criminal.  What  proceed- 
ings within  the  occupied  district  on  the  part  of  discontented 
inhabitants  should  be  punished  with  severity  it  is  not  easy 
to  define  by  general  rules.  Thus  much,  however,  may  be 
said — that  guerrilla  warfare  by  parlies  who  have  no  uniform, 
or  who  put  on  and  take  off  a  uniform  at  pleasure,  and  are 
without  any  connection  with  the  national  army,  is,  and  on 
account  of  the  atrocity  and  insidiousness  with  which  such 
warfare  is  apt  to  be  carried  on  ought  to  be.  punished  with 
severity.  Revised  by  T.  S.  Woolsey. 

Ocean  [from  Lat.  ore'anus  —  Or.  i>K€ca'6s.  the  river  sur- 
rounding the  habitable  world:  old  iircverb  o- ^-  part ic.  of 
root  kei  (uer/iiot).  lie :  cf.  Skr  ai;dydna-.  lying  around  |:  the 
vast  body  of  salt  water,  occupying  the  g:reater  depressions  of 
the  earth's  surface.  The  ocean  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the 
hydrosphere,  between  the  solid  geosphere  and  the  gaseous 
atmosiihere.  Its  area  is  1.50,000.0(X)  sq.  miles,  or  three- 
quarters  of  the  earth's  surface.  Its  average  depth  is  about 
2  miles  (according  to  Kriimmel,  open  oceans,  2,000  fathoms; 
all  salt  water,  1,800  fathoms);  its  yolume  is  300,000,000 
cubic  miles,  or  rb  of  the  earth's  volume ;  its  mass  is  13  x 
10"  tons,  or  jV^  of  the  earth's  nuiss. 

A  marked  characteristic  of  the  ocean  is  its  continuity, 
and  the  fact  that  the  land  areas  which  rise  above  it  are 
mostly  gathered  into  large  continental  masses,  lying  for  the 
greater  part  in  one  henusphere,  instead  of  being  scattered 
through  the  ocean  in  small  islands.  The  hemisphere  which 
has  Southern  England  for  its  pole  includes  nearly  all  of  the 
land,  while  the  hemisphere  having  New  Zealand  for  its  pole 
includes  the  greater  oceans.  The  oceans  of  the  land  hemi- 
sphere are  the  Atlantic  with  its  Arctic  gulf,  the  Indian,  aiul 
a  part  of  the  Northein  Pacific  :  I  he  lands  in  the  water  hemi- 
sphere are  Australia  and  the  islands  thereabouts,  a  part  of 
South  America  and  the  Antarctic  lands.  The  South  Pacific 
and  Antarctic  Oceans  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  great 
ocean  area  of  the  world,  from  which  the  North  Pacific,  the 
Indian,  and  the  Atlanlic-Arctii'  waters  extend  in  the  form 
of  great  arms,  the  first  broad  and  blunt,  the  last  long  and  rel- 
atively narrow. 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  earth's  history,  the 
ocean  is  that  part  of  its  mass  which  remains  liipiid  at  exist- 


268 


OCEAN 


ing  temperatures,  but  which  was  probably  vapor  or  gases  dur- 
ing tlie  earth's  early  youth,  when  the  earth  was  a  glowing  mass, 
and  which  will  be" frozen  solid  in  the  earth's  old  age.  In  the 
economy  of  the  earth,  the  ocean  is  the  great  reservoir  from 
which  nearly  all  the  circulating  waters  are  derived  by  evap- 
oration. Its  vapors  are  carried  by  the  winds,  condensed  to 
fall  as  rain  or  snow  on  the  ocean  again  or  on  the  lands ;  re- 
turning from  the  lands  as  rivers,  bearing  land  waste  in  sus- 
pension or  solution.  The  waves  of  the  ocean  beat  on  the 
shores  of  the  lands  and  consume  them.  Thus  the  ocean 
gains  contributions  of  all  kinds  of  materials  afforded  by  the 
lands,  the  coarser  parts  being  deposited  near  shore,  the 
finer  susjiended  particles  being  strewn  farther  off  shore,  but 
seldom  more  than  200  or  300  miles  away,  while  the  dissolved 
parts  remain  in  solution  until  abstracted  by  organic  or 
physical  process.  The  currents  of  the  ocean  are  of  extreme 
importance  in  determining  the  distribution  of  temperatures; 
the  tides  sweep  the  shores  and  bays.  The  level  surface  of 
the  ocean  is  the  standard  of  reference  in  all  measures  of  the 
earth's  form,  and  of  the  altitude  of  the  lands. 

Classific.aHon  of  the  Ocean  Areas. — The  parts  of  the 
ocean  are  divided,  first,  according  to  depth;  second,  accord- 
ing to  form.  Soundings  are  now  made  with  great  accuracy 
even  in  depths  of  over  a  mile.  Fine  steel  wire  is  used  instead 
of  rope,  and  the  sinker  is  automatically  detached  on  toucliing 
the  bottom.  Thermometers  may  be  attached  to  the  wire  at 
various  points,  with  automatic  devices  for  registering  the 
temperature  at  the  greatest  depth  to  which  they  descend. 
Samples  of  the  bottom  and  of  water  from  various  depths 
are  brought  U|).  When  dredging  is  attempted  wire  rope  is 
used  to  haul  the  dredge.  Soundings  have  shown  that  the 
great  oceanic  areas  are  all  over  1,000  fathoms  in  dejith. 
while  the  waters  close  around  the  continents  are  often  less 
than  100  fathoms  in  deptli  for  a  considerable  distance  off 
shore.  This  shallow  belt  really  belongs  to  the  continent, 
although  at  present  overflowed  by  the  sea;  it  is  called  the 
continental  shelf;  nearly  all  the  littoral  islands  are  borne  upon 
it  (see  Islands),  and  it  receives  nearly  all  the  waste  from 
the  adjacent  lands.  It  is  well  <leveloped  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  U.  S.,  being  over  .500  miles  wide  in  the  N.  E., 
where  Newfoundland  rises  from  it.  and  narrowing  south- 
westward,  but  it  is  almost  wanting  along  tlie  Pacific  coast. 
The  shelf  encroaches  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  deep  basin 
of  the  Gulf  being  only  about  half  the  water  area.  Shelves 
occur  along  tlie  northeast  and  southeast  coasts  of  South 
America,  but  not  on  the  western  coast.  A  broad  shelf  ex- 
tends from  Europe  across  the  North  Sea  and  beyond  Great 
Britain.  Two  extensive  platforms  of  this  kind  stretch  S.  E. 
from  Asia  and  N.  from  Australia,  bearing  many  islands. 

The  deep  oceans  really  cotistitutc  a  single  water  body,  with 
arms  running  between  the  lands;  but  we  shall  later  see 
good  reason  for  subdividing  them  according  to  their  sur- 
face circulation.  Partly  set  aside  from  the  great  ocean  are 
the  mediterraneans:  the  classic  Mediterranean,  the  greatest 
example  of  the  kind,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
the  Red,  Celebes,  Sulu,  China,  and  other  marginal  Asiatic 
seas  of  less  size.  These  are  all  of  1.000  or  3,000  fathoms 
depth,  or  more ;  but  they  communicate  with  the  great 
ocean  only  by  relatively  narrow,  or  at  least  shallow,  pas- 
sages. It  is  noticeable  that  the  ordinary  geographical  ter- 
minology of  the  oceanic  areas  gives  no  clew  to  their  physical 
features.  Ocean  should  never  be  applied  to  the  waters  on 
the  continental  shelf,  as  in  the  German  Ocean.  Onlf  should 
be  reserved  for  deep  re-entrants,  such  as  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
and  not  applied  to  shallow  bays,  such  as  the  Persian  Gulf 
or  the  (iulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Sea  might  advisedly  lie  ap- 
plied to  mediterraneans,  like  the  Caribbean  or  the  Chinese 
Sea,  and  not  to  shallow  waters,  like  the  Yellow  Sea  or  the 
North  Sea,  or  to  open  gulfs,  like  the  Arabian  Sea.  Bay 
should  be  reserved  for  shallow  re-entrants,  like  Delaware 
Bay,  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  not  given  to  deep  gulfs,  such  as 
the  Bay  of  Biscay  or  of  Bengal.  The  ordinary  use  of  these 
terms  is  in  hopeless  confusion. 

The  greatest  depths  thus  far  discovered  are  in  the  Pacific, 
N.  E.  of  .Japan,  4,6.5.5  fathoms,  and  in  the  Atlantic,  N.  of 
Porto  Rico,  4,561  fathoms.  The  great  oceanic  depression 
sinks  nuich  deeper  beneath  the  sea-level  than  the  mean 
height  of  the  land  rises  above  it.  The  reason  for  this  is 
primarily  the  great  volunu;  of  the  ocean,  but  various  sec- 
ondary causes  should  be  considered:  the  strength  of  sun- 
shine giving  active  evaporation,  rapid  atmospheric  circula- 
tion, and  plentiful  rainfall ;  the  chemical  activity  of  the 
atmosphere  in  weathering  rocks  into  soil;  the  relatively 
slow  rate  of  continental  and  mountain   upheaval — all  these 


Sulphate  of  potassium 2'465 

Bromide  of  inaijnesiuiu  .. .     0"217 
Carbonate  ol:  calcium 0"345 


combine  to  permit  tlie  forces  of  degradation  to  reduce  the 
greater  jiarts  of  the  lands  nearly  to  sea-level.  Only  here 
and  there  on  tlie  earth,  and  only  now  and  then  in  geological 
time,  are  great  land  elevations  possible.  Viewed  in  this 
way.  it  can  be  hardly  accidental  that  the  largest  and  driest 
continent  has  the  highest  mountains  and  plateaus. 

The  greater  part  of  the  deep  ocean  floor  is  smooth  and  mo- 
notonous, without  the  variety  of  relief  that  characterizes  the 
lands.  Excepting  within  a  few  hundred  miles  of  the  shore, 
it  receives  no  significant  share  of  mechanical  land  waste. 
Excepting  volcanic  cones,  and  excepting  occasional  in- 
equalities near  continents,  not  characteristic  of  the  open 
oceans,  the  ocean  floor  is  a  gently  undulating  plain  of  cal- 
careous or  argillaceous  mud  or  "  ooze,"  the  argillaceous 
ooze  preponderating  at  depths  greater  than  2,500  fathoms. 
The  ooze  is  derived  for  the  most  part  from  the  disintegra- 
tion of  the  skeletons  of  minute  ftjrnis  of  life  (chiefly  Porami- 
nifera  which  live  near  the  ocean  surface),  with  a  small  share 
of  volcanic  dust.  The  broad  and  gentle  undidations  of  the 
bottom  by  which  the  shallower  "swells"  descend  to  the 
deeper  "  abysses  "  do  not  serve  to  break  its  monotony.  All 
is  cold  and  dark,  without  changes  of  days,  weather,  or  sea- 
sons. 

Compn.iit-'on  of  Ocean  Wafer. — In  100  parts  of  ocean 
water,  :VTt  parts  iirc  dissolved  salts,  whose  composition  as 
determined  by  Dittmar  for  the  Cliallenc/er  Report  is: 

Chloride  of  sodium 77758 

Chloride  of  map:nesium  . . .  10"  878 
Sulphate  of  magnesium . . .  4"737 
Sulphate  of  calcium 3 '  600 

Besides  these  substances,  many  others  exist  in  minute  pro- 
portions, as  bromine,  iodine,  fluorine,  phosphorus,  silicon, 
boron,  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  cobalt,  nickel,  iron, 
manganese,  aluminium,  barium,  strontium,  etc.  {Forch- 
hamnier). 

It  is  noticeable  that  those  minerals  which  are  easily  sol- 
uble make  a  considerable  part  of  sea  salt,  even  though 
relatively  rare  in  the  earth's  crust,  while  the  more  common 
and  less  soluble  rocks  are  faintly  represented  in  the  sea ; 
yet  two  of  the  latter,  silica  and  limestone,  although  occur- 
ring in  very  small  projiortion,  are  used  as  the  framework  of 
most  marine  animals.  Atmospheric  gases  also  occur  in  sea 
water :  near  the  surface  the  proportion  of  oxygen  to  nitro- 
gen is  about  one  to  three,  but  in  deep  water  the  oxygen  is 
greatly  diminished.  Carbonic  acid,  believed  to  be  loosely 
combined  with  certain  of  the  salts,  exists  in  much  greater 
proportion  than  in  the  atmosphere,  its  source  presumably 
being  in  volcanic  vents,  whence  it  must  issue  as  a  liquid 
under  the  great  pressure  of  the  deep  ocean. 

The  salinity  of  the  surface  waters  varies  by  small  but 
significant  amounts.  The  average  density  is  1-026,  but  it 
rises  to  1'037  in  the  dry  trade-wind  belts  of  the  open  ocean, 
where  evaporation  is  in  excess  of  rainfall,  and  to  over  1'028 
in  inclosed  seas,  like  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Seas. 
A  lower  measure  (1'026)  is  found  around  the  equator  under 
the  moist  air  and  heavy  rains  of  the  doldrums,  where  it  is 
occasionally  possible  to  gather  water  that  is  almost  fresh  at 
the  surface  after  a  heavy  downpour;  and  also  especially 
among  islands,  where  the  movement  of  the  waters  is  re- 
tarded and  the  rainfall  is  increased,  as  about  Java  and  Su- 
matra, where  the  density  is  r025.  The  sea  surface  is  also 
slightly  fresher  in  high  latitudes,  where  evaporation  is  de- 
ficient, and  in  long  arms  of  the  sea  (hut  not  in  trade-wind 
latitudes),  as  the  Black  Sea  (1-021  to  1-014).  the  Baltic  (1-023 
to  1-004),  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Large  springs  some- 
times rise  through  the  saltwater  near  the  shore,  bringing 
water  almost  fresh  to  the  surface. 

The  density  of  the  ocean  at  the  bottom  is  hardly  greater 
than  at  the  top,  so  little  is  water  compressilile,  in  spite  of 
vast  pressures  exerted  ujion  it,  the  ocean  being  unlike  the 
atmosphere  in  this  respect.  According  to  Tait,  an  ocean 
2  miles  deep  loses  about  76  feet  of  depth  by  compression; 
the  depression  of  the  actual  ocean  surface  in  this  manner 
being  about  116  feet,  thus  laying  bare  about  2.000.000  sq. 
miles  of  coastal  lowlands  that  would  be  submerged  if  the 
ocean  should  now  assume  a  uniform  density. 

Although  the  water  on  the  open  ocean  is  remarkably 
transjiarent,  it  is  believed  that  sunlight  is  practically  extin- 
guished at  a  depth  of  a  few  hundred  fathoms.  Under  a 
clear  sky  mid-ocean  water  has  a  strong  blue  color,  but 
under  heavy  clouds  it  becomes  gray  or  leaden,  and  when 
streaked  with  foam  under  a  heavy  storm  the  water  seems 
almost  black.  On  "soundings"  near  shore  the  color  gen- 
erally becomes  greenish  ;  near  large  rivers  it  may  be  tinged 


OCKAN 


269 


with  yellow,  even  out  of  sIkIiI  of  liiiid.  Patrlies  of  red  or 
whitisli  color  are  somelimes  caused  by  swarms  of  minute 
animals  or  plants. 

Thi:  mean  teniperatnre  of  llie  ocean  sitrface  varies  with 
latitude  and  with  tlie  movement  of  its  currents.  The  con- 
trast of  equatorial  and  polar  temperatures  is  less  in  the 
ocean  surface  waters  than  in  the  air  over  the  lands,  being 
from  about  85'  to  HO'  in  the  first  and  from  90'  to  10°  or 
0°  in  the  second.  This  is  because  of  the  eipnilizing  tend- 
ency of  ocean  currents.  Tlie  annual  variation  of  tempera- 
ture is  relatively  small  over  all  parts  of  the  ocean  surface, 
not  only  on  account  of  the  currents,  but  also  because  the 
tem|)efature  of  the  water  is  chaiif;cd  with  j;reat  dilliculty, 
by  reason  of  its  various  |)hysical  properties.  ]t  warms 
slowly  because  of  its  retlectinj^  power,  by  which  much  sun- 
shine is  thrown  back  ;  its  transparence.  I)y  which  much  sun- 
shine is  allowed  to  peiu'trate  beneath  the  surface  and  little 
is  absorbed  to  warm  the  surface  layer;  its  volatility,  by 
which  much  sinishine  is  expended  in  warmer  latitudes  in 
sup|)lying  latent  licat  for  evaporation;  its  mobility,  by 
which  the  surface  layer  is  freipu-ntly  mixed  with  less 
warmed  or  cooled  water  from  beneath;  its  currents,  by 
which  water  now  wanneil  is  replaced  by  cooler  water.  Con- 
versely, these  physical  properties  all  retard  its  coolinjc.  It  is 
on  account  of  this  conservatism  with  respect  to  temperature 
that  the  climate  of  the  great  south  temperate  oceanic  zone 
is  so  inhos])ilable — not  excessively  cold  in  winter,  luit  warm 
in  summer.  Iitit  always  of  a  penetrating  chill.  The  islands 
of  .South  Georgia,  no  farther  from  the  equator  than  JVliddle 
England,  have  snow  in  midsummer,  with  glaciers  descend- 
ing to  the  sea-level ;  this  contrast  not  being  due  to  any  ex- 
ceptional (K)nditions  in  the  soulbern  islands,  the  climate  of 
whose  latitude  they  fairly  represent,  but  to  the  exceptionally 
favorable  condition  of  Knglanil,  which  lies  to  leeward  of  a 
large  drift  of  warm  ami  well-tempered  ocean  waters.  The 
conservatism  of  the  oci'an  as  to  temperatures  affects  the 
winds  that  l)low  over  it.  an<l  these  in  turn  affect  the  cli- 
mate of  leeward  coasts;  hence  the  milder  climate  of  West- 
ern Kurope,  where  the  wiiuls  prevailingly  blow  from  the 
ocean,  in  contrast  to  the  severe  climate  of  Eastern  Xorth 
America,  where  the  winds  prevailingly  blow  from  the  lands. 

See  Cl.lMATOLOOY. 

.Salt  water  has  its  maximum  density  at  its  freezing-point, 
28',  being  in  this  respect  strongly  contrasteil  with  fresli 
water,  which  is  densest  at  3!)  .  The  coldest  waters  of  the 
ocean  therefore  accumulate  at  the  bottom,  but  in  freezing 
salt  water  expands  and  its  ice  floats.  As  the  ice-crystals 
form,  the  salt  is  partially  excluded  from  them.  The  floe- 
ice  of  polar  seas  is  thus  formed.  When  drifted  by  winds 
or  currents  two  floes  may  collide,  thus  forming  pack-ice. 
Unless  melted  by  drifting  into  warmer  latitudes,  the  ice 
may  become  heavier  and  heavier  in  successive  winters;  tints 
t  he  paleocrystic  ice-sheets  or  old  heavy  ice-floes  of  Arctic  ex- 
plorers are  explained.  Icebergs  are  shed  into  the  sea  from 
glaciers;  they  may  float  into  sub-temperate  latitudes;  they 
sometimes  carry  bowlders  anil  gravel,  which  arc  dropped  to 
the  sea-floor  as  the  icebiTg  melts. 

The  diMribulion  of  temperature  in  the  deeper  oceans  is 
dependent  on  their  su])ply  of  cold  polar  water  which  creeps 
along  the  bottom  toward  the  eipiator.  In  the  polar  oceans 
the  variation  of  temperature  with  depth  is  slight,  the  whole 
mass  being  within  a  few  degrees  of  its  freezing-point;  in 
the  equatorial  oceans  the  decrease  is  rapid  until  a  lemjiera- 
ture  of  40°  or  38°  is  reached  at  a  depth  of  about  400  fath- 
oms, then  there  is  a  slow  cooling  to  a  temperature  of  34  ;  or 
33'  at  the  bottom.  The  mediterranean  seas,  inclosed  by 
comparatively  shallow  barriers,  can  ni^t  receive  a  supply  of 
deep  cold  waters;  hence  their  bottom  temperature  is  de- 
pendent cither  on  their  own  coldest  surface  waters  in 
winter  or  on  the  temperature  of  the  open  ocean  water  at 
the  depth  of  their  deepest  inlet.  Thus  the  Mediterranean, 
with  a  maximum  depth  of  2,170  fathoms,  has  a  uniform 
temperature  of  .55'  at  all  depths  beneath  260  fathoms,  this 
being  the  temperature  to  which  the  whole  sea  is  reduced 
in  winter.  The  Cari!)bean  Sea  and  the  (iulf  of  Jlexico, 
with  depths  of  3,428  and  2.nH  fathoms,  have  bottom  tem- 
peratures of  30'.  As  this  is  much  lower  than  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  surface  in  winter,  the  depth  of  the  deep- 
est inlet  from  the  Atlantic,  710  fathoms,  was  predicted 
from  the  previously  known  depth  at  which  39'  occurred  in 
the  adjacent  open  ocu'an.  The  Sulu  Sea,  inclosed  by  the 
Philippine  islands,  is  remarkable  in  having  great  deptli, 
2.550  fathoms,  yet  its  bottom  temperature  is  50'5  ;  hence 
its  deepest  inlet  is  thought  to  be  about  200  fathoms,     be- 


fore considering  the  cause  of  the  movement  of  the  cold 
polar  waters  toward  the  equator,  other  movements  of  the 
ocean  must  be  examined. 

^\'nl^es  are  jiroduced  by  the  winds  blowing  over  the  ocean 
surface.  While  the  wave-fnrm  moves  forward  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind,  the  water  particles  describe  orbital  paths, 
moving  forwanl  at  the  crest,  backward  in  the  trough,  fall- 
ing and  rising  between.  When  little  waves  ride  on  the  sur- 
face of  larger  ones,  they  are  more  exposed  to  the  wind  on 
the  larger  crests  than  in  the  troughs;  hence  while  on  the 
crests  they  are  blown  forward,  and  thus  increase  the  orbital 
velocity  of  tlie  particles  in  thi^  larger  wave,  and  in  turn 
increa.se  the  movement  of  the  larger  wave.  It  is  in  great 
part  for  this  reason  that  a  film  of  oil. that  spreads  spontane- 
ously over  llic  water  and  prevents  the  forimition  of  little 
waves,  prevents  also  the  increase  in  size  and  the  combing 
or  breaking  of  the  larger  waves;  and  hence  in  rough 
weather  is  of  great  service  in  decreasing  the  violence  of  wave- 
motion  near  a  laboring  vessel. 

Strong  gales  and  hurricanes  produce  waves  of  great  size, 
but  none  of  greater  height  than  30  or  40  feet  have  been 
carefully  measured.  When  a  great  size  is  attained  the 
progressive  velocity  of  the  wave  may  be  as  much  as  60 
or  80  miles  an  hour ;  the  wave-length,  or  distance  from 
crest  to  crest,  a  ijuarter  to  half  a  mile ;  lience  such  waves 
succeed  one  another  in  ]>eriods  of  fifteen  or  twenty  seconds. 
While  their  velocity  of  progression  is  exceeded  by  the 
stronger  blasts  of  wind  in  the  gales  that  cause  them',  it  is 
frequently  the  case  that  they  outstrip  the  average  gale,  al- 
though in  such  cases  the  forward  orbital  velocity  of  the 
water  particles  in  the  wave-crest  is  much  less  thaii  that  of 
the  wind.  Once  excited  in  a  storm-area,  tlie  waves  swing 
outward  on  all  sides,  diminishing  their  height,  but  preserv- 
ing their  length,  velocity,  and  pei'iod,  and  gradually  fall- 
ing to  a  broad  heaving  of  the  surface,  known  as  a  swell. 
The  winter  storms  of  temperate  latitudes  thus  cause  a  long, 
low  swell  across  the  doldrums  of  tlie  equator,  even  into 
the  hemisphere  opposite  to  that  of  their  source.  When  the 
swell  runs  ashore  on  a  gently  shoaling  coast,  its  height  in- 
creases, the  length  and  velocity  of  the  successive  waves  de- 
crease;  but  their  period  remains  unchanged;  close  to  the 
shore  they  roll  over  and  fall,  and  are  hence  called  breakers 
or  surf;  thc^y  dash  violently  tqion  the  beach,  rushing  for- 
ward in  a  sheet  of  foam,  and  returning  under  the  next  wave 
to  form  the  dreaded  undertow.  When  a  strong  wind  blows 
on  a  steep  coast  over  deep  water,  another  effect  is  produced  ; 
here  the  waves  attain  great  size,  but  instead  of  dashing 
against  the  shore  they  dance  up  and  down  in  front  of  it. 
The  stronger  the  wind,  the  deejier  the  on-shore  water  must 
be  to  manifest  this  motion. 

Long  flat  waves  are  produced  by  earthquake  shocks  or 
volcanic  explosions  under  or  near  the  sea.  The  waves  over- 
whelm the  coasts  near  their  source,  causing  great  destruc- 
tion. In  the  Strait  of  Suiidji,  after  the  explosion  of  the 
volcano  Krakatoa,  Aug.  26,  1883,  the  sea  rose  over  100  feet 
on  the  neighboring  coasts,  drowning  over  30,000  persons. 
Waves  thus  excited  swing  far  and  wide  across  the  ocean, 
like  waves  from  sti>rms.  impereeplible  in  the  open  sea.  but 
increasing  considerably  when  running  on  a  shoaling  coast. 
Their  velocity  of  pnigrcssion  is  very  great  ;  tlic  waves  from 
the  earthquake  at  Siiiioda.  .lapan.  Dec.  23,  1854.  were  regis- 
tered in  San  Francisco  in  twelve  and  a  half  hours;  the 
waves  from  the  eartlif|uake  at  Arica.  Peru,  Aug.  13,  1868, 
were  registered  at  Sydney,  Australia,  in  twenty-three  hours. 

Storm-waves  or  destructive  overflows  of  the  sea  are 
caused  on  low  coast  lands  when  violent  on-.shore  winds  con- 
spire with  a  rising  tide.  The  densely  po|iulated  delta  of  the 
Ganges  has  repeatedly  suffered  in  this  manner;  in  the  cy- 
clone wave  of  Nov..  1876.  it  is  reported  that  over  100.000 
persons  were  drowned.  Similar  storm-waves  occurred  on 
the  Louisiana  coast  in  Oct..  1893,  and  on  the  low  Carolina 
coast  in  August  of  the  same  year. 

Ocean  currents  are  of  several  kinds.  The  great  surface 
currents  are  caused  by  the  winds  ;  the  deep  movement  from 
the  polar  seas  is  due  chiefly  to  difference  of  density  result- 
ing from  dill'ercnce  of  temperature;  the  ojijiosed  surface 
and  bottom  currents  in  certain  straits  are  caused  by  dif- 
ference of  density;  active  alternating  currents  in  estuaries 
and  sounds  are  caused  by  the  Times  (q.  v.). 

Wind-made  currents  are  caused  by  the  brushing  forward 
of  water  in  wave-crests,  whereby  a  general  forward  move- 
ment is  communicated,  first  to  the  surface  stratum,  then 
to  deeper  layers.  Where  the  winds  are  steady,  as  in  the 
trade-wind  belts,  the  currents  are  regular;  where  the  winds 


270 


OCEAN 


OCEANIA 


are  frequently  interrupted  by  stormy  shifts,  as  in  the  tem- 
perate zones,  the  surface  currents  vary  more  or  less  with 
the  winds,  but  the  general  drift  of  the  sub-surface  waters 
follows  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  wind.  Where  the 
winds  vary  periodically,  as  in  the  monsoon  region  of  the  Ind- 
ian Ocean,  the  currents  vary  also,  their  time  of  change  being 
a  little  later  than  that  of  the  winds.  The  general  winds  of 
the  world  have  an  eddy-like  circulation  around  each  of  the 
five  chief  oceans  ;  but  the  ocean  currents  are  much  better 
hemmed  in  than  the  winds,  and  their  circulatory  movement 
gives  good  physical  warrant  for  the  division  of  the  great 
continuous  ocean  into  the  parts  generally  recognized — tlie 
North  and  South  Pacific,  the  North  and  South  Atlantic,  the 
Indian  ami  the  Antarctic  Oceans.  The  great  eddies  of  the 
northern  oceans  turn  slowly  from  left  to  right ;  of  the 
southern  oceans  from  right  to  left,  except  that  the  Ant- 
arctic has  a  drift  from  left  to  right,  or  west  to  east,  around 
the  pole,  which  it  shares  with  the  three  adjoining  oceans. 
The  Arctic  should  be  regarded  as  hardly  more  than  a  great 
gulf  at  the  end  of  the  long  Atlantic.  The  currents  of  the 
ocean  eddies  may  be  called  drifts  where  they  are  broad  and 
slow-moving,  and  streams  where  they  are  concentrated  to 
narrow  courses  and  rapid  flow  near  coasts  or  through  straits. 

The  circulation  of  the  North  Pacific  is  relatively  simple 
and  regular ;  its  strongest  movement  is  on  the  W.,  where 
the  equatorial  member  of  the  eddy  turns  sharply  from  its 
westward  course  and  flows  N.  E.  past  Japan,  forming 
the  Japanese  current,  or  Kuro-siwo ;  there  is  a  moderate 
backset  or  reversed  eddy  in  the  Alaskan  bay,  a  small 
amount  of  leakage  from  the  Arctic  through  Bering  Strait, 
and  some  cold  waters  flowing  southwestward  past  Kam- 
chatka. The  South  Pacific  eddy  is  less  regular ;  it  bears 
a  vast  volume  of  cooled  water  northward  along  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  forming  the  Humboldt  or  Peruvian 
current,  and  thus  producing  near  the  Galapagos  islands  the 
lowest  temperatures  in  the  equatorial  ocean  ;  but  it  loses 
distinctness  among  the  many  islands  on  its  western  side, 
it  gives  off  branches  through  the  Australasian  archipelago 
to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  it  is  confluent  on  the  S.  with 
the  great  Antarctic  eddy.  The  South  Indian  Ocean  has  a 
normal  right  to  left  eddy,  but  on  the  N.  it  is  complicated 
by  the  alternating  monsoon  currents  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
and  the  Arabian  Sea.  Very  little  if  any  v.-ater  passes  from 
the  Indian  Ocean  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  At- 
lantic. The  South  Atlantic  eddy  is  confluent  with  the  Ant- 
arctic on  the  S.,  and  separated  from  Patagonia  by  a  wedging 
current  of  cold  water ;  but  it  is  very  peculiar  in  giving  forth 
a  great  branching  current  across  the  equator,  to  join  with 
the  North  Atlantic  eddy  oflf  the  coast  of  Guiana.  The  North 
Atlantic  eddy  receives  the  branch  current  just  mentioned  ; 
it  is  complicated  on  the  W.  by  the  branches  outside  of  the  An- 
tilles, as  well  as  through  the  Caribbean  and  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  strong  stream  issuing  from  the  Gulf  between  Florida 
and  Cuba,  known  as  the  Gulf  Stream,  is  the  most  famous 
current  of  the  world,  running  80  or  90  miles  a  day  in  its  nar- 
rowest part.  As  the  North  Atlantic  is  the  only  ocean  com- 
municating with  Arctic  waters,  all  their  circulation  is  de- 
pendent on  the  great  branch  of  the  North  Atlantic  drift 
which  splits  off  W.  of  France,  passes  northeastward  along 
the  coast  of  Norway,  and,  after  making  the  round  of  the 
Arctic,  returns  on  either  side  of  Greenland  to  form  the  Lab- 
rador current,  which  wedges  its  way  southward  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  U.  S. 

Within  each  oceanic  eddy  the  more  quiet  waters  about 
the  center  contain  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  floating  sea- 
weed or  sargasso,  as  it  is  called  by  the  Portuguese,  hence 
the  name  Sargasso  Sea.  Between  the  paired  eddies  of  the 
North  and  South  Pacific  and  Atlantic  there  are  counter- 
currents  of  somewhat  variable  strength,  somewhat  N.  of 
the  equator,  running  from  W.  to  E. ;  they  are  presumably 
caused  chiefly  by  the  southwest  winds  that  occur  here,  par- 
ticularly in  the  northern  summer  season.  The  latter  are  the 
extension  of  the  southeast  trade  into  the  northern  hemisphere, 
where  it  turns  to  a  southwest  wind.  It  is  by  a  similar  ex- 
tension of  the  southeast  trade  of  the  Indian  Ocean  into  the 
northern  hemisphere,  where  it  forms  the  southwest  monsoon 
of  the  northern  summer,  that  the  currents  there  are  reversed 
from  the  course  that  they  maintain  under  the  northeast 
monsoon  of  winter. 

The  very  slow  movement  of  the  deep  cold  polar  water 
towaril  the  equator,  proved  by  the  distribution  of  tempera- 
tures already  descrilied,  has  by  many  geographers  been  re- 
ferred to  the  rcHiix  of  an  excess  of  surface  waters,  brushed 
by  the  winds  toward  the  poles ;  but  this  excess  is  not  proved. 


Moreover,  the  branch  current  that  crosses  the  equator  from 
the  South  to  the  North  Atlantic  should,  if  the  winds  were 
the  only  cause  of  the  bottom  movements,  produce  a  north- 
to-south  movement  of  the  deep  waters  beneath  the  Atlantic 
equator;  but  the  distrilmtion  of  bottom  temperatures  there 
indicates  that  the  deep  movement  under  the  equator  in  the 
Atlantic  is  chiefly  from  S.  to  N. ;  hence  some  other  cause 
than  surface  winds  must  be  inferred  for  the  bottom  move- 
ment. This  cause  is  found  in  the  greater  density  of  the  cold 
polar  waters ;  the  fact  of  greater  density  being  doubted  by 
no  one,  but  its  sufficiency  to  cause  movement  being  often 
questioned.  It  appears,  however,  from  calculation,  that  the- 
effective  equatorward  force  here  applied  is  not  much  less 
than  the  force  by  which  the  tides  are  swung  back  and  forth 
twice  a  day,  as  has  been  shown  by  Ferrel ;  and  as  the  equa- 
torward force  acts  perpetually,  it  should  be  regarded  as  the 
chief  cause  of  the  bottom  movement. 

Salinity  currents  are  found  well  exhibited  at  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar,  where  the  less  saline  surface  current  is  inward 
and  the  denser  undercurrent  outward  ;  similarly  in  the  Bos- 
phorus,  between  the  dense  Mediterranean  and  the  fresher 
Black  Sea  ;  at  the  strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb ;  and  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  Baltic.  The  undercurrent  in  these  various 
straits  always  moves  from  the  denser  to  the  less  dense  water 
body. 

The  distribution  of  life  in  the  ocean  has  been  much  stud- 
ied by  the  exploring  expeditions  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
This  life  is  extremely  abundant  and  varied  in  the  littoral 
waters  of  the  torrid  zone,  and  exists  in  remarkable  variety 
even  in  much  colder  latitudes,  both  the  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal forms  of  the  polar  seas  being  much  more  numerous 
than  those  of  Arctic  lands.  Besides  those  forms  found  along 
the  shores  in  relatively  shallow  water,  there  are  others  which 
inhabit  the  open  sea  near  the  surface,  hence  called  pelagic- 
forms  :  and  others  again  which  inhabit  the  bottom  of  the 
deepest  oceans,  in  spite  of  the  intense  pressure  of  the  over- 
lying water,  of  the  monotony  of  the  surrounding  physical 
conditions,  and  of  the  absence  of  sunlight.  From  the  fact 
that  certain  abysmal  forms  possess  eyes  and  are  marked  by 
varied  colors,  it  is  inferred  that  light  from  some  other 
source,  such  as  phospliorescent  animals,  may  cause  a  faint 
illumination  there.  The  intermediate  depths  of  the  ocean 
have  been  imperfectly  explored,  but  if  they  possess  any 
characteristic  fauna  it  is  a  very  sparse  one.  The  pelagic 
fauna  of  the  surface  is  remarkable  chiefly  for  the  excessive 
abundance  of  minute,  almost  transparent,  forms,  chiefly  of 
the  lower  orders  of  life.  It  is  from  the  minute  calcareous 
and  siliceous  skeletons  of  these  animals  that  the  ooze  of  the 
bottom  is  chiefly  supplied.  Although  the  plants  and  ani- 
mals of  the  land  are  thought  to  have  been  evolved  from 
more  primitive  forms  that  inhabited  the  seas,  where  the 
earliest  forms  of  life  presumably  existed,  yet  the  larger  ma- 
rine mammals,  such  as  whales,  walruses,  etc.,  are  believed 
to  have  been  developed  from  land  mammals. 

Bibliography. — Boguslawski  and  Krlimmel,  Ozeanogror- 
phie  (Stuttgart,  1884-87);  Reports  of  the  Chnltenger  Expe- 
dition ;  Thomson.  77ie  Voyage  of  the  Challenger  (London, 
1877);  Sigsbee,  Deep-sea  Sounding  and  Dredging,  a  De- 
scription and  Discussion  of  the  Methods  and  Appliances 
iised  on  Board  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  Steamer 
Blake  (Washington,  1880) ;  A.  Agassiz,  Three  Cruises  of  the 
Blake  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1888).  W.  M.  DA^^s. 

Ocean  Grove:  town;  Monmouth  co.,  N.  J.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref.  4-E) ;  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
and  the  Cent,  of  N.  J.  and  the  Penn.  railways;  1  mile  from 
Asbury  Park,  6  miles  S.  of  Long  Branch.  It  is  a  popular 
summer  resort,  and  is  widely  known  as  the  seat  of  the  Ocean 
Grove  Camp  Meeting  Association  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church.  This  association  was  organized  in  186!)  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Rev.  E.  H.  Stokes.  D.  D.,  who  still 
(1894)  retains  its  direction.  The  first  preaching-stand  was 
erected  in  1874,  the  congregation  using  seats  of  pine  planka 
laid  on  trestles  and  without  backs.  The  first  permanent 
building,  a  frame  structure  covered  with  green  pine  boughs, 
was  erected  in  1875 ;  an  auditorium,  seating  5,000  people 
and  costing  $10,000,  was  built  in  1880;  and  a  second  audi- 
torium, the  largest  audience-room  for  evangelistic  services 
in  the  U.  S.,  comfortably  seating  10.000  persons  and  costing 
175,000,  was  dedicated  Aug.  9-13,  1894.  The  town  has  nu- 
merous hotels,  boarding-houses,  and  summer  cottages,  and 
two  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  620;  (1890)  2,754. 

Ocpa'nia.  or  Ooeanica  ;  a  term  of  no  precise  application, 
used  by  various  geographical  writers  to  denote  lands  in 


OCELLUS 


O'CONNELL 


271 


greater  or  less  areas  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  some  incluiling  only 
Polynesia,  Melanesia, ami  iMicronesia.  and  otiiers  adding  Aiis- 
stralasla  and  the  East  Indian  Arclii|ielago.  Many  leading 
geographers  and  niap-niakcrs  do  no!  now  employ  the  term  at 
all  on  act^iiunt  (1)  of  the  eonl'iisioii  aliove  noted;  (2)  beeause 
it  has  been  made  to  int-lude  both  iic'eanic  and  (Mintinental  isl- 
ands, though  its  use  should  be  conlined  to  oceanic  islamls  : 
and  (;})  because  it  has  been  used  to  exclude  a  large  part  of 
the  oceanic  area  to  whose  lands  it  would  be  in  strictness 
equally  applicable,  as  the  Atlantic  islands.     C.  C.  Adams. 

Ocellus  [I^at.,  a  little  eye] :  a  name  given  to  the  smaller 
organs  of  vision,  especially  in  the  Arthropoda.  In  these 
the  ocelli  are  small,  simple  organs,  each  with  its  own  lens 
and  retinal  layer,  and  are  contrasted  with  the  larger  com- 
pound organs  of  vision  so  typical  of  the  group.  Sec  Enro- 
ll oi.oii  v. 

O'celot  [from  Tilex.  ocelo/l]  :  one  of  the  handsomest  of  the 
cat  family  found  in  America,  the  Felis  pardalis  of  the  natu- 
ralists. It  is  found  from  Southeast  Texas  to  Patagonia,  and 
formerly  ranged  to  Louisiana.  The  color  varies  from  tawny 
yellow  to  reddish  gray,  marked  wiih  innnerous  black  spols, 
and  dark  stripes  and  bldi-hes  edged  with  black.     There  is 


The  ocelot. 

almost  always  one  of  these  stripes  along  the  region  of  the 
shoulders,  and  there  are  two  black  stripes  on  each  cheek. 
The  under  [larts  are  whitish.  The  ocelot  is  extreinely  vari- 
able in  its  markings,  and  it  is  still  an  open  question  as  to 
whether  or  not  several  distinct  species  have  been  combined 
under  one  name.  The  total  length  varies  from  3  to  4  feet, 
the  tail  being  1 1  to  15  inches  long.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Oclier,  o'kcr  [from  Fr.ocre<Lat.  oc7rr(i  =  Gr.  dSxpa,  3'ellow 
ooher,  deriv.  of  iixpis,  pale,  pale  yellow] :  any  one  of  certain 
pigments  made  of  clays  colored  by  hydrated  peroxide  of 
iron  in  variable  proportions,  varying  in  shade  from  pale 
yellow  to  deep  orange.  The  term  is  also  more  broadly  ap- 
plied to  any  clay  riehly  colored  by  peroxide  of  iron.  Rud- 
dle, or  red  chalk,  is  a  variety  of  ocher  consisting  of  decom- 
posed hemati/e.  In  mineralogy,  earth  varieties  of  hematite 
or  iron  peroxide,  if  briglit  tinted,  are  known  as  red  ocher, 
while  argillaceous  and  decomposing  limonitex,  or  hydrated 
peroxides,  give  rise  to  brown  ocher.  Moreover,  the  term  is 
used  in  that  science,  in  combination,  to  express  the  earthy, 
pulverulent,  decomposing  oxides  of  other  elemcnl.s. 

Ocliino,  o-kee'no.  UF.nNARDiNo:  preacher;  b.  at  Siena,  in 
the  Papal  States,  1487;  joined  the  strictest  branch  of  the 
Francis<'an  order,  and  afterward  the  still  stricter  order  of 
the  Capuchins, and  acquired  a  great  reputation  .'is  a  preacher. 
Paul  III.  chose  him  for  confessor,  and  other  honors  were 
heaped  upon  him.  He  was  chosen  in  1.538  by  the  Capuchins 
to  be  their  general ;  but  in  Naples  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  Spanish  mystic  Juan  Valdez,  with  Peter  Martyr, 
and  others,  and  from  that  time  began  to  preach  on  justifica- 
tion by  faith,  on  the  futility  of  indulLcences.  et<'.  Sus]iicions 
arose  with  respect  to  his  orthodoxy:  and  when,  in  1542,  he 
published  in  Venice  his  Dinlogi  VII.  Srirri.,  he  was  sum- 
mone<l  to  Rome  to  explain  and  retract.  Fully  aware  of  the 
danger,  he  fle<l  to  (ieneva,  where  he  |)ublishcd  six  volumes 
of  Italian  sermons  (Prcdictie,  1542-44),  of  which  twenty-five 
were  translated  into  English  (1548).  From  (ieneva  he  went 
to  Augsburg,  and  thence  to  SIrassburg,  London,  Zurich, 
Cracow,  etc.,  in  each  place  preaching  to  the  Italians,  pub- 
lishing a  number  of  books,  but  leading  a  somewdiat  erratic 


life.  T).  at  Schlackaii,  Moravia,  1.565.  In  the  first  works  he 
published  after  his  flight  from  Italy  he  advocated  Calvinia- 
tic  views,  but  in  the  htter  Socinianism  becomes  more  and 
more  apparent,  especially  in  his  catechism,  published  at 
Basel  (1561).  See  his  Jjife.  by  ISenralh  (Leipzig.  1,S75;  trans. 
inti>  Kiiglisli,  New  York,  I8TT).    Revised  by  S.  .M.  Jackson. 

Oclioa  y  Konna,  Euobnio,  de  :  poet,  critic,  and  scholar; 
b.  at  Lezo,  (iuipuzcoa,  Spain,  Apr.  19,  1815;  d.  Feb.  29, 
1872.  After  studying  at  the  College  of  San  Mateo,  and 
then  in  that  of  Santo  T(;ma-s  at  Madrid,  he  went  in  1829  to 
Paris  to  study  in  the  Ecole  dcs  Arts  et  Metiers.  He  also 
essayed  painting,  but  trouble  with  his  eyes  obliged  him  to 
abandon  this.  In  1834  he  returned  to  Madrid,  and  began 
to  write  for  the  Gaceta  de  Madrid,  which  llu'  famous  Al- 
berto Lista  was  then  directing.  The  revolution  of  La 
Granja,  however,  forced  him  to  return  to  Paris,  where  he 
occupied  himself  with  editing  works  of  the  .Spanish  classic 
writers  for  the  extensive  CulecrAcn  de  los  mejores  autores 
enpaiioles  planneil  by  Haudry,  as  well  as  with  other  literary 
undertakings.  He  brought  out  the  first  modern  editions  of 
the  works  of  the  Marquis  of  Santillana, //«rnd?i  PeVes  de 
Pulgdr.  etc.  In  1844  lie  returned  to  Madrid  and  became 
under-librarian  in  the  National  Library.  In  1847  he  was 
made  director  of  the  state  jirinting  establishment ;  and 
soon  after  chief  of  bureau  in  the  ministry  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. In  1844  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Spanish 
Academy,  and  a  little  later  of  the  Academy  of  History.  Be- 
sides his  work  as  editor,  he  made  many  translations  from 
the  English  and  French,  among  others  of  Hume's  llixlory 
iif  England  ;  Na|}oleiin  lll.'s  Jules  Cexar;  Scott's  Mo7i- 
a.stery  and  SI.  l-tunan's  Well;  Vergil's  Eclogues  (1879). 
He  prepared  for  Eivadeneyra's  Biblioteca  de  Autores  Es- 
/lailoles  an  Epistolario  espaiiol  (vols.  xiii.  and  xlii.).  By 
commission  of  Louis  Philippe  he  compiled  an  exhaustive 
catalogue  of  the  Sjianish  manuscripts  in  the  libraries  of 
Paris  (1844).  Worthy  of  mention  also  are  his  play,  Incerti- 
dumbre  y  Amor  (1836) ;  Paris,  Londres,  y  Madrid  (1861) ; 
Misceldnea,  de  Literatura,  Vinjes  y  Novelas  (1867).  His 
poetical  and  critical  contributions  to  periodicals  were  very 
numerous.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Ock'ley.  Simon:  Orientalist;  b.  at  Exeter.  England,  in 
1678  ;  studieil  at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  distinguishing 
himself  by  his  attainments  in  the  Oriental  languages;  took 
orders  ill  the  Church  of  England;  became  vicar  of  Swave- 
sey,  near  Cambridge,  1705  ;  published  a  ^jixWn  Introduction 
to  the  Oriental  Languages  (1706):  a  History  of  the  Jews 
(1707),  translated  from  the  Italian  of  Rabbi  Leon  of  Jlodena, 
with  an  original  Supplement  concerning  the  Caraites  and 
Samaritans,  and  several  translations  from  Oriental  manu- 
scripts: became  Professor  of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  1711; 
published  The  History  of  the  Sarace7ts  (2  vols.,  1708-18). 
I),  at  Swavesey,  Aug.  9,  1720. 

Ociniil'g^ee  River:  a  stream  which  rises  in  the  central 
part  of  Georgia  by  several  head-streams,  flows  in  a  generally 
S.  S.  E.  course,  and  above  Colquitt  joins  the  Oconee  to  form 
the  Altamaha  river.  Small  steamboats  ascend  to  jMacon. 
Its  lower  course  is  through  sandy  pine  woods;  its  iqiper, 
through  a  granite  region,  where  there  are  many  rapids.  It 
is  300  miles  long. 

O'Con'nell,  Daniel:  patriot  ;  b. at  Carhen, County  Kerry, 
Ireland,  Aug.  6, 1775;  the  son  of  a  gentleman  of  small  estate, 
but  of  ancient  family  ;  was  educated  at  St,  Omcr  and  Douay, 
and  in  1794  began  to  study  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn ;  in  1798 
was  called  to  the  bar;  rose  at  once  to  distinction  as  a  bar- 
rister, and  very  soon  became  prominent  in  Irish  pcditics, 
addressing  himself  to  the  work  of  the  emancipation  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  and  of  Ireland.  In  1815  he  was  challenged 
by  .McU'rman  d'K.sterre  of  Dublin,  whom  he  mortally  wound- 
ed ;  and  a  duel  with  .Mr.  Peel  was  soon  after  prevented  by 
the  police.  In  1823  he  f(mnded  the  Catholic  Association, 
which  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  favor  of  the  repeal 
of  legislation  unfavorable  to  Ireland,  but  the  Government 
brought  in  a  bill  to  suppress  it,  and  it  dissolved  itself  in 
1825.  In  1828  he  was  chosen  to  Parliament  from  County 
Clare,  but  was  excluded  by  the  Test  oath  ;  in  1829,  however, 
the  Konian  Catholic  emancipation  look  place,  and  O'ConnclI 
entered  the  House  of  Commons.  His  life-work  was  one  of 
agitation,  both  among  the  people  and  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, for  the  repeal  of  the  Union.  In  1842  he  began  to 
hold  monster  meetings  in  Ireland,  and  in  1843  he  was  ar- 
rested on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  and  sedition,  convicted, 
anil  heavily  fined  ;  but  the  Lords  reversed  the  judgment 
Sept.  7,  1844.     In  the  meanwhile  the  Young  Ireland  party, 


272 


O'CONNOR 


OCTOCORALLrA 


falling  under  the  control  of  more  impetuous  spirits,  began 
to  discredit  the  moral  force  policy  of  O'Connell  and  advo- 
cate more  violent  measures  than  he  approved.  In  1845  liis 
influence  was  fast  declining,  and  in  1846  his  support  of  the 
Whig  ministry  tended  to  make  him  even  more  unpopular 
with  the  Irish  party.  In  1847.  enfeebled  by  overwork  and 
by  anxiety  for  Ireland,  where  the  famine  had  broken  out, 
he  started'  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  but  died  at  Genoa,  May 
15,1847.  He  is  buried  at  Glasnevin,  Dublin.  Sue  Life  and 
Speeches  of  Daniel  O'Conne/l.  hy  his  sou,  John  O'Connell 
(London,  1846);  Cusack,  The  Liberalor.  his  Life  and  Times 
(London,  1872);  Justin  McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own 
Times  (1879-80).  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

O'Connor,  Roderick,  popularly  called  Rory  :  the  last  in- 
dependent King  of  Ireland;  b.  in  Connaught  in  1116;  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  Connauglit  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  Turlogh  O'Connor,  1156;  disputed  the  supremacy 
for  several  years  with  the  O'Xeals  and  the  O'Briens;  as- 
sumed the  title  of  King  of  Ireland  1166:  assembled  a  par- 
liament of  lords  and  clergy  at  Athboyll67;  aided  in  the 
expulsion  of  Dermot,  King  of  Leinster,  1168;  defeated  the 
Enghsh  invaders  under  Strongbow  in  several  engagements, 
but  subsequently  came  to  terms  with  them  and  reinstated 
Dermot  in  his  kingdom  ;  afterward  carried  on  war  with  the 
English  with  varying  success,  until  in  1175.  after  an  inter- 
view with  Henry  II.  of  England,  he  acknowledged  that 
monarch  as  lord  paramount  of  Ireland,  retaining  for  him- 
self his  ancestral  kingdom  of  Connaught.  His  sons  having 
revolted  against  him,  Roderick  retired  in  1186  to  a  monas- 
tery, where  he  died  in  1198. 

O'Connor,  Thomas  Power,  M.  P. :  journalist  and  poli- 
tician ;  b.  at  Athlone,  1848 ;  educated  at  Queen's  College. 
Galway,  and  graduated  at  the  Queen's  University;  became 
a  journalist ;  entered  Parliament  1880 ;  became  one  of  tlie 
most  prominent  leaders  of  the  Parnellite  party  and  of  the 
Land  League ;  lectured  in  the  U.  S.  1881 ;  was  elected 
president  of  the  Irish  National  League  of  Great  Britain 
1883 ;  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  Scotland 
division  of  Liverpool,  for  which  he  still  (1894)  sits,  1885 ;  is 
the  author  of  Lord  Beaeonsjield,  a  Biography  (1876);  The 
Parnell  Movement  (1885),  and  other  works ;  editor  of  tlie 
Cabinet  of  Irish  Literature :  started  The  Star  newspaper 
(1887),  which  he  sold  1890,  and  started  The  Sun,  1893. 

C.  H.  TUIRBER. 

Oconoinowoc :  city:  Waukesha  eo..  Wis.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-E) ;  on  Oconomowoc  creek  and 
Lake  Labelle,  and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.  Railway ;  31 
miles  W.  of  Milwaukee.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  regi(m,  is 
surrounded  by  numerous  beautiful  lakes,  lias  excellent 
drives,  valuable  mineral  springs,  and  commodious  hotels. 
and  as  a  summer  resort  has  been  called  the  Saratoga  of  the 
West.     Pop.  (1880)  2,174;  (1890)  2,729;  (1895)  3,178. 

O'Conor,  Charles,  LL.  D.  :  jurist ;  b.  in  New  York  city, 
Jan.  22,  1804;  son  of  Thomas  O'Conor,  who  emigrated  from 
Ireland  to  the  U.  S.  for  ])olitical  reasons  in  1801,  and  de- 
voted himself  largely  to  journalism  and  the  writing  of  pam- 
phlets on  Irish  and  Roman  Catholic  questions.  Cliarles 
O'Conor  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1824.  and  by  his  untir- 
ing industry  and  native  talent  became  tlie  recognized  leack'r 
of  the  legal  profession  in  New  York.  He  first  gained  re- 
pute in  nisi  prius  cases  before  juries,  but  the  case  which 
first  gave  him  an  established  reputation  was  that  of  the 
fugitive  slave  Jack  (1835).  The  most  celebrated  of  his  cases 
were  the  Lispenard  will  case  (1843),  the  Forrest  divorce  case 
(begun  in  1850  and  finally  disposed  of  in  1868).  and  the 
Parrish  will  case  (1862).  He  deprecated  the  civil  war.  and, 
believing  that  its  aim  was  inconsistent  with  the  original 
principles  of  the  confederation  under  the  Constitution,  he 
sympatliized  with  the  Southern  States,  and  became  senior 
counsel  for  Jefferson  Davis  when  he  was  indicted  for  trea- 
son. He  never  held  public  office  except  that  of  di.strict  at- 
torney for  a  few  months  during  the  administration  of  Presi- 
dent Pierce  and  that  of  a  member  of  the  constitutional 
convention  in  1864.  In  1868  he  was  nominated  for  the 
presidency  by  the  extreme  Democrats,  and  received  about 
22.000  votes.  He  was  noted  for  his  integrity  and  simplicity 
of  character.  I),  at  his  residence  on  the  island  of  Nantucket, 
May  12,  1884.  F.  Sti-roes  Allen. 

Oconto:  city;  ca]iital  of  Oconto  co..  Wis.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  4-F) ;  on  Green  Bay.  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Oconto  river,  and  on  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  and  the  Chi., 
Mil.  and  St.  P.  railwavs;  30  miles  N.  bv  E.  of  Green  Bav. 


It  is  in  a  lumbering  region,  and  contains  a  public  park,  a 
national  bank  (capital  ^60,000),  flour  and  planing  mills,  iron- 
foundries,  wagon-factories,  and  three  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  4,171 ;  (1890)  5,219;  (1895)  6,017. 

Octahedron  [from  Gr.  oirroeSpov,  liter.,  an  eight-sided 
thing,  neut.  of  oKraeSpos.  having  eight  sides  or  bases ;  okti6, 
eiglit  -I-  ISpa,  seat,  base] :  a  solid  bounded  by  eiglit  triangu- 
lar planes.  If  regular,  its  faces  are  equilateral.  It  has 
twelve  edges  and  six  solid  angles,  each  formed  by  four 
equal  plane  angles.  Its  solid  contents  are  equal  to  the  cube 
of  one  of  its  edges  multiplied  by  "4714045. 

Octane:  CsHie,  the  eighth  of  the  marsh-gas  series  of 
hydrocarbons.  It  occurs  naturally  in  American  petroleum, 
and  can  be  obtained  from  that  portion  of  the  oil  that 
boils  between  115'  and  130'.  It  may  be  produced  by  the 
dry  distillation  of  tlie  lime-soap  of  menhaden  oil,  by  passing 
the  vapor  of  the  thirteenth  of  the  same  series,  tridecane, 
CjsHje,  through  a  red-hot  tube,  and  also  from  octyl  iodide, 
phthalic  acid,  indigo  blue,  acenaphthene.  etc.  By  long- 
continued  fractional  distillation  it  may  be  separated  into 
two  hydrocarbons,  having  different  boiling-points,  but  the 
same  composition.  Ira  Remsen. 

Octa'ria :  sister  to  Augustus,  Emperor  of  Rome.    She 

was  first  married  to  C.  Marcellus,  and  after  his  death  to 
jMark  Antony.  She  was  a  woman  of  remarkable  beauty  and 
great  accomplishments,  and  her  life  reveals  a  conspicuous 
nobility  of  character.  Her  son,  M.  Marcellus,  was  adopted 
by  Augustus,  and  it  was  expected  that  he  would  be  his  suc- 
cessor, but  he  died  prematurely  in  23  B.  c.  In  32  B.  c.  Octa- 
via  was  divorced  by  Antony,  but  she  continued  to  devote 
herself  to  his  children,  and  even  educated  his  children  by 
Cleopatra.  She  died  heart-broken  in  her  fifty-fourth  year 
in  11  B.  c.     Augustus  pronounced  the  funeral  oration. 

Revised  by  G.  L.  H. 

Octo'ber  [from  Lat.  Octo'ber.  originally  the  eighth  month 
of  the  Roman  year,  deriv.  of  oc  to,  eight]:  the  tenth  month 
in  tlie  Julian  and  Gregorian  years. 

Octocoral'lia  [Mod.  Ijat.,  from  Gr.  oktio.  eight  -I-  KopoXAioK, 
coral] :  a  group  of  animals  belonging  to  the  Scyphomedus^ 
(q.  v.),  order  Anthozoa.  They  are  marine  polyps,  the  parts  of 
which  are  arranged  in  eights.  Thus  there  are  eight  feath- 
ered tentacles  surrounding  the  mouth,  while  the  central 
cavity  of  the  body  is  partly  divided  into  chambers  by  eight 
radiating  partitions,  which  extend  from  the  mouth  region 
to  the  opposite  end  of  the  body.  With  very  few  exceptions 
the  individuals  or  poly]is  form  large  assemblages  or  colonies, 
varying  considerably  in  shape.  The 
hard  skeletal  portions  are  of  two  kinds. 
The  first,  spicules  of  varying  shape,  oc- 
cur in  the  flesh,  and  are  the  product 
of  the  middle  body  layer  or  mesogloea. 
They  are  always  present,  and  in  dried 
specimens  they  form  the  bulk  of  the 
"bark"  which  covers  the  axial  portion. 
This  latter  is  not  always  present.  When 
it  occurs  it  is  horny  in  character,  and 
is  frequently  hardened,  as  in  the  pre- 
cious coral,  by  the  deposition  of  salts  of 
lime.  It  arises  from  the  outer  layer  or 
ectoderm  of  the  body.  The  group,  which 
is  also  known  as  Alcyonaria.  contains 
about  700  sjiecies.  the  principal  ones  be- 
ing arranged  in  four  families.  In  the 
PennatuJidw,  or  "  sea-pens,'' there  is  a 
"  root  "  (Fig.  1)  which  is  buried  in  the 
raud  or  sand,  while  from  the  exposed 
portion  the  separate  polyps,  variously  ar- 
ranged, project.  In  some  (e.  g.  Penna- 
tnla)  the  polyps  occur  on  lateral  out- 
growths, so  that  the  resemblance  to  a 
qtiill  is  strongly  marked.  In  the  Ourgo- 
nidfe,  including  the  sea-fans  and  sea- 
whips,  the  colony  is  firmly  fastened  to 
some  solid  sujuiort.  has  a  horny  or  cal- 
careous axis,  which  like  the  colony  itself 
may  consist  of  simple  whip-like  branch- 
es, or  stronger  irregularly  branching 
parts  as  in  the  red  or  jirecious  coral  of 
the  ;\Iediterranean.  or  lastly  as  in  the 
sea-fans,  of  a  broad  fiat  network  of  interlacing  branches. 
In  the  "  organ-pipe  corals"  (T'/'AZ/wr/rffp)  each  polyp  sils  in 
a  tubular  calcareous  sheath,  the  tubes  of  a  colony  being 


Fio. 


\.~Kophoblem- 
iion. 


OCTOPODA 


01)1)  FELLOWS,  IXDEPENDENT  ORDER  OF   273 


Fio.  2.— Part  of  a  colony  of  Anthetia  lineata 
(natural  size). 


mmu'rniis  paiiors 
Edwarils,  ;tii(l  tin 


united  at  re<,nilar  intervals  by  horizontal  platforms.     In  the 
Akijonidcs  (Fig.  2)  or  cork  polyps,  the  ses.sile  colonies  lack 

any  solid  axis,  and 
the  polyps  are  in- 
serted in  lulies  in  a 
nsually  leathery  ba- 
sis. See  Dana,  Zoo- 
plii/tesof  t/it  United 
Sttttts  J^xpluring 
Expedition  (184S) ; 
Kcilliker,  Pennatu- 
lids  of  the  Challen- 
ger Voyage  (1880) ; 
Wilson,  Embryolo- 
gy of  Renilla ;  and 
by  Verrill.  Koren  and  Daniclssen,  Milne 
'  older  anthoi's.  J.  S.  Ki.nusley. 

Oi't»»p'(>(ln  [Mod.  liat.,  plur.  of  Octo'piis:  Gr.  oierd.  eiffht 
-(- n-oiis,  iroSiJ!.  foot]:  a  snb-order  of  Cephalopods  or  cuttle- 
fislies,  in  whii-h  l)Ut  eisht  arms  (feet)  !ire  developed  aroiuid 
the  nioulli  :  the  body  is  sac-like,  ami  no  Irne  shell  is  devel- 
oped. \n  reprodiiciicin  the  peciUiar  1 1 kitocotvle  (</.  r.)  is 
introduced.  .Miont  fifteen  genera  and  KMI  species  are  known. 
Octopus,  the  principal  genus,  contains  several  large  species, 
one  of  which,  weighing  in  large  specimens  (iO  lb.,  occurs  in 
the  Mediterranean,  while  an  Alaskan  .species  has  a  "radial 
spread  of  nearly  28  feet."  The  genus  Argoiiaiila  contains 
the  ■■  paper-naiitihis"  or  "  paper-sailor,"  in  wliich  the  female 
.secretes  a  cali-areous  egg-case,  which  is  the  "slicU"  so  laniil- 
iar  in  cabinets.  This  is  not  a  true  shell,  but  is  formed  by 
one  pair  of  arms  of  the  female  which  are  expandi'd  and 
modified  for  the  purpose.  The  stories  about  this  form  float- 
ing about  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean  and  raising  its  arms 
as  .sails  to  catch  the  breeze  are  now  known  to  have  no  foun- 
<lation  in  fact.  J.  S.  Kingslev. 

Octopus:  See  Mollusca  and  Octopoda. 

0(1(1  Fellons,  Independent  Order  of:  a  secret  benevo- 
li'iit  and  benetit  association  whicli  had  its  origin  in  London, 
England,  about  1745.  The  earliest  societies  or  lodges  of 
odd  Fellows  are  described  as  a.s.semblages  mainly  for  social 
purposes,  having  an  initiation  ceremony,  a  collection  lieing 
made  to  aid  needy  iiu-mbers.  About  the  year  ISOO  the  loilges 
in  London  and  Liverpool  were  known  as  the  London  Order. 
In  180!)  a  member  of  a  London  lodge  removed  to  Manches- 
ter and  introduced  the  order  into  that  city,  where  it  was  so 
favorably  received  that  several  lodges  were  speedily  organ- 
ized, and  in  1814  the  lodges  in  Manchester  and  vicinity 
were  consolidated  uniler  the  title  of  The  Lidejiendent  Order 
of  Odd  Fellows  of  tlie  Manchester  Unity.  A  granil  lodge, 
composed  of  those  who  had  filled  the  chair  of  noble  grand 
(the  presiding  ollicer)  a  regular  term  in  a  subordimite  lodge, 
was  organized  and  a.ssumed  supervision  of  the  subordinates. 
The  London  associations  and  other  lodges  throughout  the 
kingdom  refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the  .Man- 
chester orgainzation.  and  several  other  "rnities"  sprang 
into  existence.  The  Manchester  adherents  attaine<l  greater 
prosperity  than  any  of  their  rivals,  and  the  increase  of 
lodges  in  (Ireat  Britain  determined  the  .Manchester  authori- 
ties to  organize  an  ainmal  movable  committee  to  take  the 
place  of  the  local  grand  lodge,  the  first  meeting  of  which 
was  held  at  Ilanley,  Stalfordshire,  May  19  and  20,  182:!, 
and  was  attended  by  ninety-eight  deputies,  represent  ing  the 
several  subordinate  lodges.  The  early  laws  were  crude  and 
imperfect,  and  the  receipts  were  iiuidequate  to  meet  the  an- 
tliorized  disliurscmcnts.  The  annual  nioval)le  eonnnittec 
eventually  established  a  system  of  rales  based  on  the  expe- 
rience acc{uire<l,  which  enabled  the  subordinates  to  meet  the 
relief  reipiirements  and  accnmidate  an  ample  reserve  fund. 

The  Mancluvster  I'nity,  the  most  im|iorlant  body  of  Odd 
Fellows  in  Euro|ie,  has  organized  lodges  in  tlie  United  King- 
dom, France,  Turki^y,  Africa,  Xorth  and  South  .\iiu'rica. 
JOast  anil  West  Indies,  and  Australasia.  There  are  many 
minor  orders,  hi  18!);!  the  >Linchester  Unity  hail  4..J.51 
lodges,  722,720  ailult  and  !)0,057  juvenile  im-mbers. 

United  StateK. — Societies  or  lodges  of  Odil  Fellows  were 
organized  in  New  York  and  other  cities  of  the  U.  S.  as  earlv 
as  1800,  but  had  a  brief  existence.  t)n  Apr.  2(),  181i'), 
Thomas  Wildey  and  four  others,  who  had  been  members 
of  Odd  Fellows'  lodges  in  England,  organizi'd  a  lodge  in 
Baltimore.  Md..  calling  it  Washington  Lodge  No.  1.  A 
meml)er  of  a  lodge  at  Preston.  England,  visited  this  self- 
instituted  body  in  llic  latter  ]]art  of  the  year  181!),  and  on 
his  return  to  his  home  procured  from  tlie  Duke  of  York 
302 


Lodge  of  the  Manchester  L'nity,  located  at  Preston,  a  docu- 
ment dated  Feb.  1.  1820,  clothing  the  Haltimore  organiza- 
tion with  the  powers  of  a  grand  as  well  as  of  a  subordi- 
nate lodge  under  the  title  of  "  Xo.  1,  Washington  Ijodge, 
the  Grand  Lodge  of  Maryland  and  of  the  United  States  of 
America."  This  action  of  a  subordinate  was  confirmed  by 
the  grand  committee  of  the  Manchester  Unity.  On  Feb. 
22, 1821,  Washington  Lodge  surrendered  the  Engli.sh  charter 
to  a  ■■  bo<ly  of  past  grands,"  and  "  the  (iraml  Lodge  of  Mary- 
land and  the  United  States"  was  organized,  the  niembeiTS 
of  Washington  Lodge  receiving  a  subonliuate  charter  from 
the  new  grand  lodge.  In  1828  the  self-instituted  lodges  in 
Philadelphia.  Xcw  York,  and  Boston  were  induced  to  rec- 
ognize the  Maryland  organization,  and  that  body  imme- 
diately forwarded  charters  to  the  subordinates,  as  well  as 
grand  lodge  charters  for  Pennsylvania,  New  Y'ork,  and 
Massachusetts.  On  Apr.  1.5,  1824,  it  was  deemed  advisable 
to  se])arate  the  powers  of  tlie  luitioiuil  from  the  State  organ- 
ization, and  the  project  was  consummated  Feb.  S2,  1825, 
when  the  first  meeting  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  the  \J.  S.  was 
held.  On  Sept.  17,  1878,  the  name  of  the  supreme  body 
was  changed  to  The  Grand  Lodge  of  the  Independent  Order 
of  Odd  Fellows,  and  on  Sept.  18.  1871).  the  present  title.  The 
Sovereign  Grand  Lodge  of  the  Independent  Order  of  Odd 
Fellows,  was  adopted. 

In  1826  Thomas  Wildey,  the  presiding  officer  of  the 
Grand  Lodge  of  the  U.  S..  known  as  the  "grand  sire," 
visited  England  and  obtained  from  the  grand  committee  of 
the  Manchester  Unity  an  independent  charter,  granting 
to  the  Grand  Lodge  of  the  U.  S.  authority  "to  coiuluct  the 
business  of  Odd  Fellowship  without  the  interference  of  any 
other  country,  so  long  as  the  same  is  administered  accord- 
ing to  the  principles  and  purity  of  Odd  Fellowship."  Inti- 
mate relations  lietween  the  two  grand  bodies  contiiuied  for 
several  years,  but  in  1842,  after  fruitless  efforts  on  the  part 
of  the  heads  of  the  order  in  (ireat  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  to 
reconcile,  by  correspondence,  vital  differences  in  the  work 
which  had  arisen,  James  L.  Ridgely,  grand  corresponding 
and  recording  secretary,  and  Isaac  D.  Williamson,  grand 
chaplain  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  the  U.  S.,  were  commis- 
sioned as  special  deputies  to  the  Manchester  LTnity  to  adjust 
the  matters  in  dispute.  The  commissioiu'rs  attended  the 
meeting  of  the  annual  movable  committee  at  Wigan.  May 
10,  1842,  and  after  a  conference  continued  through  several 
days  found  that  their  efforts  for  harmonious  co-operation 
were  futile.  The  commissioners  presented  an  elaborate  re- 
port of  their  proceedings  to  the  Graiul  Lodge  of  the  U,  S. 
in  Sept.,  1842,  and  that  body  adopted  a  series  of  resolutions 
on  the  subject.  The  hostilities  of  the  Jlaiichester  Unity 
threatened  in  1842,  and  cimsummated  in  184o  by  their  at- 
tempt to  institute  lodges  in  the  U.  S.,  resulted  in  an  entire 
severance  of  the  existing  relations. 

Tfie  Objects  of  the  Order.— The  objects  of  Odd  Fellowship 
are  "to  visit  the  sick,  relieve  the  distressed,  bury  the  dead, 
and  educate  the  orphan."  It  seeks  "  to  improve  and  elevate 
the  character  of  man,  imbue  him  with  pro]>er  conceptions 
of  his  capabilities  for  good,  enliglitcn  his  mind,  eidarge  the 
spliere  of  his  affections,  and  lead  liim  to  a  cidtivation  of  the 
true  fraternal  relation  designed  by  the  great  Author  of  his 
being."  The  motto  "  Friendsliip.  Love,  and  Truth"  was 
known  and  used  in  c(mnection  with  the  order  in  1775.  The 
organization  for  attaining  these  objects  has  two  branches, 
closelv  connected,  yet  distinct— lodges  and  eiu'ampments. 

In  1851  the  ladies'  degree,  or  degree  of  Kebckah,  was 
adopted.  Then  only  .Scarlet  degree  mendiers  and  their 
wives  were  eligible  to  membership;  now  the  following  are 
eligible  to  mcmbershi]"  in  a  Kebckah  lodge:  .Ml  pi^rsons 
who  have  received  the  degree  of  Rebekah;  all  Odd  Fellows 
in  good  standing  and  their  wives;  all  iniimirried  white 
women  who  have  attained  the  age  of  eighteen  yeai's,  who 
believe  in  a  Supreme,  Intelligent  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the 
Universe,  and  who  are  of  irood  moral  character.  The  female 
membership  of  this  degree  Dec.  :il.  18!i:i,  was  I08.7;!2. 

In  188-.J  a  degree  for  Uniformed  Patriarchs  was  adopted, 
and  this  was  revi.sed  and  became  what  is  now  termed  "The 
degree  of  Patriarchs  Militant,"  a  military  side  of  the  en- 
campment branch  of  the  order.  To  be  eligible  one  must  be 
a  Royal  Purple  degree  member,  in  good  standing  in  his 
lodge  and  encampnuuit.  The  unit  of  the  military  organ- 
ization is  a  "canton,"  which  consists  of  at  least  fifteen 
meml)ers.  called  "chevaliers."  The  cantons  are  organized 
into  battalions,  regiments,  brigades,  and  divisions.  The 
grand  sire  is  e.T  officio  the  head  aiul  commander-in-chief  of 
the   Patriarchs   Militant,  and   his  instructions  are   issued 


274  ODD  FELLOWS,  INDEPENDENT  ORDER  OF 


ODESSA 


through  the  adjutant-general  and  department  commanders 
of  the  several  jurisdictions.  The  grand  secretary  of  the 
Sovereign  Grand  Lodge  is  adjutant-general. 

Qualijication  for  Jlemberiihip. — To  become  a  member  of 
a  lodge  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Sovereign  (jrand 
Lodge,  the  applicant  must  be  a  free  white  male  of  good 
moral  character,  who  has  arrived  at  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years,  and  who  believes  in  a  Supreme  Being,  the  Creator 
and  Preserver  of  tlie  Universe.  No  one  but  a  member  who 
has  attained  the  third  (previous  to  1880,  the  fifth)  or  Scarlet 
degree  in  a  lodge  is  eligiljle  to  membership  in  an  encamp- 
ment, and  can  remain  a  member  of  the  encampment  only 
so  long  as  he  continues  in  good  standing  in  his  lodge.  This 
latter  requirement  is  subject  to  the  following  exceptions ; 
When  he  takes  a  withdrawal  card  from  his  lodge  or  is  sus- 
pended by  it  for  non-payment  of  dues,  his  standing  in  his 
encampment  is  not  affected  for  a  year  thereafter,  or  if  his 
lodge  becomes  extinct  and  he  is  aged  and  infirm  he  may 
still  retain  his  membership  in  his  encampment. 

Charters  fur  Subordinate  and  Grand  Bodies. — Five  or 
more  members  of  the  third  or  Scarlet  degree  holding  with- 
drawal cards  granted  by  legal  lodges  may  apply  for  a  cliar- 
ter  for  a  lodge  to  the  grand  lodge  of  the  State  or  Territory 
in  whicli  it  is  proposed  to  locate.  Five  or  more  members 
having  tlic  third  or  Royal  Purple  degree,  and  holding  legal 
withdrawal  cards,  may  petition  the  grand  encampment  of 
the  State  or  Territory  in  which  it  is  proposed  to  locate  for 
a  subordinate  encampment.  Application  for  a  lodge  in  a 
State  or  Territory  in  which  no  grand  lodge  has  been  organ- 
ized must  be  made  to  the  Sovereign  Grand  Lodge,  and  the 
same  rule  applies  to  a  petition  for  an  encampment.  On  the 
petition  of  ten  or  more  lodges  the  Sovereign  Grand  Lodge 
will  issue  a  warrant  for  a  grand  lodge  of  the  State,  Terri- 
tory, or  province  in  which  the  petitioning  lodges  are  located, 
or  for  a  grand  encampment  on  a  like  application  by  five  or 
more  subordinate  encampments. 

Powers  of  Subordinates. — A  subordinate  lodge  is  invested 
with  the  power  to  initiate  and  confer  the  initiatory  and  the 
three  degrees  on  persons  regidarly  proposed  and  elected 
residing  within  the  district  assigned  to  it.  An  encamp- 
ment confers  in  like  manner  three  degrees.  Lodges  and 
encampments  have  the  power  to  regulate  tlie  fees  for  initia- 
tion, degrees,  and  weekly  dues,  and  may  determine  the 
amounts  to  be  paid  for  weekly  benefits  to  sick  or  disabled 
members,  funeral  benefits,  etc.,  but  such  amounts  must  not 
be  less  than  the  minimum  prescribed  by  the  grand  body 
having  jurisdiction. 

Tfie  Sovereign  Orand  Lodge. — A  grand  lodge  or  grand 
encampment  is  composed  of  the  past  presiding  officers  of  its 
subordinates,  and  the  representatives  of  the  several  grand 
bodies  constitute  the  Sovereign  Grand  Lodge.  Each  grand 
body  is  entitled  to  one  representative  if  the  membership  in 
its  jurisdiction  is  less  than  1.000;  if  1,000  or  more,  then  to  two. 

Statistics. — The  statistics  from  1830  (previous  to  which 
they  are  incomplete)  to  Dec.  31,  1893,  are  as  follows:  Ini- 
tiations, 1,947,711;  members  relieved,  1,809,045;  widowed 
families  relieved,  "iOO.yO'J ;  members  buried,  176,320;  re- 
ceipts, 1168,0.56.287.65;  paid  for  sick  and  funeral  benefits 
and  the  care  of  widows  and  orphans,  .$64,376,265.92.  Ac- 
cording to  the  returns  for  1893.  the  following  is  the  con- 
dition of  the  order  in  the  U.  S. :  Grand  lodges,  55 ;  sub- 
ordinate lodges,  10,259 ;  lodge  members,  780,192 ;  grand 
encampments,  50;  subordinate  encampments,  2.557;  en- 
campment members,  136,090;  Rebekah  lodges,  3,292:  Re- 
bckah  lodge  members  (male  and  fenuilc),  202.442;  cantons 
(in  51  departments),  648;  canton  members.  23,113;  value  of 
canton  military  equipment,  etc.,  ;f  l,2(i5,H5tj.l5 ;  receipts, 
18,291,020.48;  members  relieved,  90.610 ;  wulowed  families 
relieved,  6,320;  members  buried,  9,199;  paid  for  the  relief 
of  members  and  widowed  families,  burial  of  the  dead,  educa- 
tions of  orphans,  $3,170,121.17. 

The  Sovereign  Grand  Lodge  has  organized  grand  lodges 
in  every  State  and  Territory  of  the  U.  S.,  the  provinces 
of  Canada,  and  independent  grand  lodges  in  the  German 
empire,  Denmark,  Switzerland,  and  Australasia.  Subordi- 
nate lo<iges  have  been  organized  in  France,  Holland,  Sweden, 
Mexico,  Cuba,  Chili,  Peru,  Japan,  and  the  Sandwich  islands. 
Grand  and  subordinate  encampments  have  been  instituted 
in  nearly  every  locality  where  lodges  are  established.  Twenty- 
seven  tTionthly.  seven  semimonthly,  and  fourteen  weekly 
periodicals  in  the  interest  of  the  order  are  published — forty- 
one  in  the  U.  S.,  and  one  each  in  England,  Germany,  Den- 
mark, Switzerland,  Canada,  Japan,  and  .\ustralasia. 

Theodore  A.  Ross. 


Ode  [via  Fr.  and  Lat.  from  Gr.  ifSii,  song,  ode,  earlier 
aoi5^,  deriv.  of  aetSetr,  later  aSfti/,  sing] :  in  the  modern  use, 
a  lyric  piece  of  more  dignified  character  than  the  song,  and 
usually  one  in  which  profound  feelings  are  expressed.  The 
ancients  originally  included  under  this  name  all  kinds  of 
lyric  verse.  Pindar,  Alcaeus,  Anacreon,  Sappho,  Simonides, 
and  others  among  the  Greeks,  and  Horace,  Catullus,  and 
others  among  the  Romans,  were  writers  of  odes. 

Revised  by  M.  W.  Humphreys. 

O'denheiiiier.  William  Hexry,  D.D.,  LL.D.:  bishop; 
b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Aug.  11,  1817;  graduated  at  the 
L'niversity  of  Pennsylvania  1835;  took  orders  in  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  1838  ;  became  rector  of  St.  Peter's, 
Philadelphia,  1840.  and  Bishop  of  New  Jersey.  Oct.  13. 1859. 
Author  of  Jerusalem  and  Viciitity  (1855) ;  Origin  and  Com- 
pilation of  the  Prayer-book ;  Tlte  True  Catholic  no  Romanist 
(1842);  llioughts  on  Immersion  (1843);  TTie  Young  Church- 
man Catechized,  i.,  ii.  (1844);  llie  Devout  Churchman^s 
Companion:  Private  Prayer-book  (1851):  Bishop  White's 
Opinions;  Ringleburgius  on  Study  :  with  Rev.  F.  M.  Bird 
prepared  a  collection  of  poems  on  the  Holy  Spirit ;  sermons, 
addresses,  charges,  etc.  D.  at  Burlington,  1<.  J.,  Aug.  14, 
1879.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perrt. 

O'dense :  town  of  Denmark ;  capital  of  the  island  of 
Filnen  (see  map  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  ref.  14-C).  It  is 
an  old  and  prosperous  city,  with  good  educational  institu- 
tions and  an  active  trade.  It  has  a  castle  and  a  Gothic  ca- 
thedral built  1086-1301,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Protestant  bish- 
opric. Several  large  sugar-refineries  and  iron-foundries  are 
in  operation.     Pop.  (1890)  30,277. 

O'denwald,  o'den-ya'alt :  a  mountain  region  of  Germany, 
occupying  the  southern  part  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  ex- 
tending for  a  distance  of  about  45  miles  from  the  Neckar, 
which  to  the  S.  separates  it  from  the  Black  Forest,  to  the 
Main,  which  to  the  N.  separates  it  from  the  Spessart  Moun- 
tains. Its  western  declivities  toward  the  plain  of  the  Rhine 
are  abrupt,  but  to  the  N.  it  slopes  down  through  several 
terraces,  and  to  the  S.  E.  it  gradually  disappears  in  the 
level  plains.  Its  highest  peaks  rise  to  about  2.000  feet.  The 
mountains  are  covered  with  pine,  oak,  and  beech,  and  the 
valleys  with  orchards  and  vineyards. 

O'der :  a  river  of  Germany.  It  rises  in  Moravia  at  an 
elevation  of  1,950  feet  above  the  sea,  enters  Prussian  Silesia, 
where  it  becomes  navigable  at  Ratibor,  traverses  the  prov- 
inces of  Brandenburg  and  Pomerania,  and.  after  a  course  of 
550  miles,  empties  through  the  Stettiner  Half  into  the  Bal- 
tic. Its  navigation  is  difiicult,  and  along  its  lower  course 
expensive  embankments  are  required  to  protect  the  sur- 
rounding country  against  inundation. 

Odes'sa  :  fortified  town  and  seaport  of  South  Russia;  in 
the  government  of  Kherson ;  46  29'  N.  lat.  and  30°  41'  E. 
Ion. ;  on  a  bay  of  the  Black  Sea,  midway  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Dnieper  and  Dniester  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref. 
13-C).  When  ceded  by  the  Ottomans  at  the  Treaty  of  Yassy 
(1791),  its  site  was  occupied  by  a  miserable  Tartar  village 
called  Hadji  Bey.  It  is  now  in  population  and  commerce 
the  fourth  city  in  Russia — surpassed  only  by  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  and  Warsaw — and  the  most  important  port  on  the 
Black  Sea,  communicating  by  regular  steamship  lines  with 
the  chief  ports  of  Europe.  Founded  in  1794  by  Catherine 
II.,  it  rapidly  increased  under  its  sagacious  governor,  the 
Due  de  Richelieu  (1803-15).  In  consequence  of  an  insult 
to  the  British  colors  it  was  bombarded  (Ajir.  22,  1854)  by 
the  allied  Anglo-French  fleet,  when  the  buildings  nearest 
the  water  were  destroyed.  Alexander  I.  in  1817  declared 
it  a  free  port  for  thirty  years.  The  bay  of  Odessa  is  exposed 
to  violent  east  winds,  has  a  soft  bottom,  and  is  shallow  in 
many  places;  hence  the  .spacious  modern  double  harbor,  ca- 
pable of  accommodating  350  vessels,  is  largely  artificial, and 
protected  by  long  moles ;  it  is  frozen  up  part  of  the  year. 
The  summers  are  hot,  with  little  rainfalls — the  clouds  of 
white  dust  are  almost  intolerable — and  the  winters  are  long 
and  severe.  The  city  stands  on  a  plateau  or  succession  of 
cliffs  nearly  200  feet  high,  with  a  narrow  belt  of  shore,  occu- 
pied by  barracks,  bathing  establishments,  and  shipping 
houses.  Along  the  edge  of  the  plateau  runs  an  elegant 
boulevard,  planted  with  trees  and  lined  with  palatial  resi- 
dences. Communication  with  the  beach  is  afforded  by  a 
magnificent  flight  of  stone  steps.  The  city  is  well  built  and 
has  broad,  straight  streets.  In  the  environs  are  villas  and 
orchards,  beyond  which  stretches  a  barren  steppe.  It  has 
many  benevolent  institutions,  and  is  a  great  educational 


ODIC   FORCE 


O'DONXKLL 


275 


center;  has  a  university  (formerly  Uichelieu  I^yceiim)  with 
rich  tiiusi'um,  observatory,  and  library.  It  is  tlie  hcaclijuar- 
ters  of  the  Eighth  Arniy-curps.  The  Bisliop  of  Kherson 
and  the  governor  of  the  province  reside  here.  There  are 
numerous  breweries  and  manufactories,  as  of  cordage,  sail- 
cloth, soap,  and  candles,  but  Odessa  is  specially  important  as 
the  southern  outlet  for  grain,  which  constitutes  the  greater 
part  of  the  entire  exports,  valued  (1891)  at  |62,a'Jl,10<).  The 
imports,  principallv  raw  cotton  (1891),  were  valued  at  flo,- 
747,780.  Hop.  (1892)  :i;{2.690,  the  niajt)rity  Russians,  but 
there  are  many  .Jews.  Greeks,  Armenians,  Italians,  Germans. 
Roumanians,  and  Tartars ;  also  a  considerable  number  of 
British  residents.  E.  A.  Grosvenoh. 

Odic  Force  [Germ. :  cf.  Gr.  6S6s.  way,  passage] :  a  term 
originally  applied  by  Reichenbach  to  a  peculiar  iridescence 
which  some  people  couhl  see  about  the  arms  of  a  magnet. 
It  was  afterward  the  name  for  a  mysterious  force  supposed 
to  be  transmitted  from  a  hypnotist.  (See  Hvpnotism.)  It 
has  received  the  synonym  pxye/u'c  force  from  ('mokes,  who 
performed  several  startling  ex]>eriMienls  wilh  Home,  the 
spiritualist.  Sergeant  Coxe,  anil  others,  which  he  asserted 
were  due  to  its  action. 

Odin  :  in  .Scandinavian  mythology,  the  father  of  gods 
and  men.  As  such  he  is  styled  Alfather.  He  has  a  great 
number  of  names,  one  of  which  is  Valfather — that  is,  "  tlie 
father  of  the  slain,"  since  those  who  fall  in  battle  go  to  his 
great  hall,  called  Valhal — that  is,  "the  hall  of  the  slain." 
War  is  called  Odin's  amusement.  The  sword  is  called 
Odin's  fire.  He  is  one  of  the  wisest  of  gods.  He  is  de- 
scribed as  a  tall,  long-bearded,  one-eyed  old  man.  In  the 
dawn  of  time  he  pawned  one  eye  for  a  drink  of  Mimer's 
fountain  of  wisdom  beneath  Ygdrasil.  From  his  high  seat 
Hlidskjalf  he  looks  out  upon  all  the  world  and  sees  all  that 
is  going  on.  On  his  eight-footed  horse  Sleipner  he  rides 
through  the  air  and  upon  the  waters,  clad  in  his  blue  cloak 
ami  golden  helmet,  and  wielding  his  spear  Gungner.  He 
needs  no  food.  He  lives  on  mead ;  the  food  set  before  him 
he  gives  to  his  two  wolves,  Gere  and  Freke.  Two  ravens, 
Ilugin  (thought)  and  Munin  (memory),  sit  upon  his  shoul- 
ders and  tell  him  all  that  they  see  and  hear.  At  dawn  he 
sends  them  out  to  gather  news  and  they  return  to  him  in  the 
evening.  His  servant  is  Herraod,  the  swift  messenger.  He 
possesses  the  gold  ring  Draupner,  from  which  eight  other 
rings  of  the  same  weight  as  the  original  drop  every  ninth 
night.  Both  the  spear  Gungner  and  the  ring  Draupner 
were  made  for  him  by  the  dwarfs.  Oilin  invented  the 
runes,  the  old  Scandinavian  alphaliet.  From  the  giant 
Suttung  he  secures,  after  a  desperate  struggle,  the  skaldic 
mead,  which  the  giant  kept  concealed  in  a  mountain  cavern. 
Hence  poetry  is  called  Odin's  drink,  or  the  drink  of  the 
asas.  Odin  is  fouml  in  all  Teutonic  countries,  and  by  the 
name  Vata  he  can  lie  traced  back  to  India.  The  Anglo- 
.Saxons  and  Olil  High  Germans  called  him  Wod.-in.  In  the 
Scandinavian  tongues  the  w  is  dropped,  hence  Old  Xorse 
6<Mnn.  The  Latin  writers  usually  replace  this  divinity  with 
the  Roman  Mercury,  hence  diex ^ilercurii,  the  fourth  day  in 
the  week,  became  in  Old  Xorse  Oftins-dagr,  in  Dan.  Onsilay, 
in  Anglo-Saxon  Wodansdag,  in  Englisli  Wednesday,  etc. 
Odin  was  the  progenitor  of  kings,  and  the  greatest  families, 
the  Ynglings  in  Sweden,  the  .Skjoldungs  in  Denmark,  and 
the  Hallygians  in  Norway,  traced  their  pedigrees  back  to 
him.  .See  .Sianui.navia.s"  .SivTnoLOiiV  and  bibliography  un- 
der the  same.  Rasmis  15.  Andkkson. 

Odoa'cor:  ICing  of  Italy  from  476  to  493  A.  n. :  descended 
from  some  one  of  the  Gernumic  tribes  along  the  Danube. 
At  about  the  age  of  thirty  he  entered  the  service  of  the  West 
Roman  empire,  and  held  a  high  position  in  the  imperial 
guard  when  (in  475)  Orestes,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army,  deposed  the  emperor,  Julius  N'epos,  and  placed  his 
own  son,  liomulus  .Vugustulus,  on  the  throne.  The  army, 
consisting  of  barbarian  mercenaries,  now  demanded  of 
Orestes  that  one-third  of  the  soil  of  Italy  should  be  given 
up  to  them  for  permanent  settlement ;  and  when  Orestes 
refused,  the  soldiers  chose  Odoacer  for  their  leader,  and  a 
war  broke  out  which  ended  with  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Orestes  and  the  abdication  and  banishment  of  Romulus 
(Aug.,  476).  This  date  is  assumed  as  marking  the  fall  of  the 
Western  empire,  for  Odoacer  did  not  assume  the  title  of 
emperor,  but  that  of  King  of  Italy.  He  was  acknowledged 
by  Zeno,  the  Byzantine  emperor,  took  up  his  residence  at 
Ravenna,  and  governed  with  energy  ami  moderation.  For 
several  years  Italy  enjoyed  peace.  The  laws  and  institu- 
tions were  maintained,  the  Church  was  respected,  and  sev- 


eral campaigns  in  Dalmatia  and  Xoricum  were  successfully 
carried  through.  Meanwhile  Thcodoric,  the  King  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  crossed  the  Alps,  instigated  and  perhaps  sup- 
ported by  Zeno,  and  in  three  great  battles  Odoacer  was  de- 
feated, and  finally  shut  up  in  Ravenna.  Here  he  held  out 
for  more  than  two  years,  i)ut  capitulated  on  the  condition 
that  he  and  Theodoric  should  ruh-  as  joint  kings.  The 
agreement  was  confirmed  by  a  solemn  oath,  but  a  few  days 
afterward  Theodoric  put  Odoacer  to  death.  Mar.  5,  49a.  S'ee 
Pallmann,  GeschickU  der  Volkerwuiideruiig. 

Revised  by  G.  L.  Hexdeickson. 

OdobK'nidae  :  a  family  of  mammals  belonging  to  the  or- 
lier  Pinnipedia,  containing  the  walruses  and  related  to  the 
families  Phucidw, or  true  seals,  and  Olariidw, or  eared  .seals. 
The  form  is  peculiar,  but  resembles  that  of  the  P/iocidm 
more  than  that  of  the  OlariidcB ;  the  hinder  legs  are  flexible 
forward  ;  no  external  ears  are  developed  ;  the  skull  is  oblong 
and  truncated  in  front;  the  dentition  is  very  peculiar,  the 
canine  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  being  cnormoiisly  developed 
and  specialized  as  tusks,  while  those  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
atrophied;  the  incisors,  except  the  external  of  the  upper 
jaw,  are  early  lost ;  the  molar  teeth  are  i.  but  the  posterior 
are  generally  east  in  the  adult ;  the  anterior  limbs  are  about 
as  large  as  the  posterior ;  in  the  anterior  feet  the  toes  de- 
crease in  a  curved  line,  and  are  destitute  of  claws  ;  in  the 
posterior  feet  the  five  digits  scarcely  increase  toward  the  in- 
ner, and  all  are  provided  with  claws;  the  skin  is  very  thick. 
The  family  is  represented  by  the  walruses  or  morses  (see 
Walrus),  which  are  found  only  in  the  high  northern  seas. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Odom'eter,  or.  more  correctly.  Hodoni'eter  [Gr.  iS6s, 
way,  journey  +  ^eVpoi/,  measure] :  an  instrument  by  means 
of  which  the  distance  traveled  by  a  carriage  or  other  ve- 
hicle, or  even  a  person  walking,  is  registered.  In  the  case 
of  a  carriage  it  is  usually  a  train  of  wheelwork  attached  to 
the  axle  and  one  of  the  wheels  of  the  carriage.  It  registers 
the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  wheel  by  moving  an  index 
on  a  dial.  A  similar  instrument,  called  acyclometer,  can  be 
attached  to  a  bicycle  or  a  tricycle.  The  name  pedometer  is 
usually  given  to  an  instrument  for  measuring  walking  dis- 
tances. The  mechanism  depends  upon  the  relative  move- 
inent  of  a  comparatively  heavy  suspended  body  accompanv- 
ing  each  step.  Thus  the  number  of  steps  is  measured,  aiid 
the  user  must  find  the  distance  he  walks  in  a  given  number 
of  ste])S  before  he  can  interpret  the  reading  of  the  instru- 
ment as  applied  to  his  own  case. 

Odona'ta  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  oSois.  oSon-oj,  a  tooth,  in 
allusion  to  the  long  teeth  on  the  labium] :  that  order  of 
insects  which  includes  the  dragon-flies.  (See  Exto.mologt.) 
These  are  insects  which  pass  through  an  incomplete  meta- 
morphosis, which  have  strong  biting  jaws,  and  which  have 
four  membranous  net-veined  wings,  the  hinder  pair  about 
equaling  the  others  in  size.  The  dragoti-flies  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  water,  and  from  these  hatch  out  active,  rapacious 
larva",  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  apparatus  (mask)  which 
they  have  for  seizing  their  food.  The  lower  liii  (labium), 
when  not  in  use,  is  folded  beneath  the  mouth,  but  on  the 
approach  of  some  other  insect  it  can  be  extended  some  dis- 
tance beyond  the  head,  so  that  the  sharp  jaw-s  which  it  bears 
can  grasp  the  prey.  With  growth  there  are  repeated  moults, 
and  gradually  the  wings  appear  as  small  oulgrowths  on  the 
back.  At  last  the  larva  or  nymph  clindis  .some  reed,  the 
skin  splits  down  the  back.  an<l  from  the  opening  the  adult 
dragon-fly  appears.  The  adults  prey  upon  insects  and  are 
of  especial  value  in  destroying  mosquitoes.  The  numerous 
superstitions  connected  with  these  forms  are  without  foun- 
dation. For  American  species,  see  Hagen.  Proceedings  of 
the  Jioaton  Society  of  Natural  History,  xviii.  (187.')). 

J.  S.  KiNGSLEV. 

O'Don'nell,  Leopold,  Marshal,  Duke  of  Tetuan,  Count 
of  Lucena:  soldier;  b.  .Ian.  12. 1809.  at  Santa  Cruz  in  Tene- 
riffe;  entered  the  S[i«nish  army;  became  a  colonel,  and  for 
his  services  against  the  Carlists  at  Luceiui  (1839)  was  made  a 
grandee  and  lieutenant-general.  In  1840  he  side<l  with  the 
queen-mother  and  went  to  France,  where  he  intrigued  against 
his  former  ally,  Esnartero.  In  1843,  after  the  lattcr's  fall, 
O'Donnell  was  made  captain-general  of  Cuba,  where  he  be- 
came moderately  wealthy.  In  18.54  he  became  Espartero's 
war  minister ;  succeeded  him  as  prime  minister  in  18.56,  and 
was  several  times  afterward  a  member  of  the  cabinet.  In 
18.59-60  he  commanded  in  Morocco;  cai)tured  Tetuan  Feb. 
6.  1860;  retired  from  public  life  in  July.  1866.  D.  at  Ba- 
yonne,  Nov.  5,  1867. 


276 


O'DOXOJU 


CEDIPUS 


O'Donojii,  o-don-o-hoo'.  Juan  :  last  Spanish  viceroy  of 
New  Spain  (Mexico);  b.  aljout  1753.  He  attained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-{;eiieral  in  tlie  army,  and  had  held  high  civil 
positions  in  the  Peninsula  when,  in  IH'il.  he  was  appointed 
captain-general  and  acting  viceroy  of  New  Spain.  On  his 
arrival  at  Vera  Cruz  he  found  tliat  the  I'evolution,  led  by 
Iturbide,  had  acquired  such  strengtii  that  his  own  authority 
was  practically  nullified,  O'Donojii  himself  held  liberal 
opinions,  and  under  the  circumstances  he  was  convinced 
that  the  only  sensible  course  was  to  treat  with  the  insur- 
gents. On  Aug.  23  he  met  Iturbide  at  Cordoba  and  signed 
a  treaty  by  which  Mexico  was  recognized  as  an  independent 
empire,  and  it  was  agreed  to  invite  one  of  the  Spanish 
Bourbon  princes  to  reign  over  it ;  Mexico  city  was  surren- 
dered to  the  revolutionists.  Pending  advices  from  .Spain, 
O'Donojii  was  elected  one  of  the  provisional  regents.  He  died 
in  Mexico,  Oct.  8. 1831,  before  lie  could  learn  of  the  scornful 
nullification  of  his  treaty  by  the  Spanish  Cortes.   H.  H.  S. 

Odontoglos'sae  [Mod.  Lat. :  Gr.  oSois,  6S6vtos,  tooth  -|- 
7A(So-<ro,  tongue]  :  a  term  applied  by  Xitzsch  to  an  order  of 
birds  comprising  the  flamingoes  only,  on  account  of  the 
tooth-like  pi'ojections  bordering  the  tongue.  It  is  the 
equivalent  of  the  Amphimorphie  of  Huxley.         F.  A.  L. 

Odon'tophore :  the  rasping  tongue  of  cephalopod  and 
gasteropod   Mollusca  {q.  v.). 

Odoiitor'nifhes  [Mod.  Lat.;  Gr.  hSois.  oUvros,  ioo{h  + 
ipvts  (plur,  opinBis),  bird]:  a  name  applied  by  Prof.  Marsh  to 
a  sub-class  of  birds  containing  all  those  provided  with  teeth. 
These  are  all  fossil  forms,  as  lehthyornis  and  Hesperorxis 
(q.  v.),  which  so  far  have  been  found  in  the  Jurassic  and  Cre- 
taceous strata.  F.  A.  L. 

0"Dwyer,  Joseph,  JL  D.,  LL.  D.  :  pa^diatrist ;  b.  in  Sum- 
rait  CO.,  0.,  Oct.  13,  18-11  :  graduated  M.  D.  from  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeon.s,  New  York,  in  1866;  devoted  him- 
self to  diseases  of  children,  and  invented  the  method  of 
treating  croup  and  diphtheria  by  intubation ;  received  de- 
gree of  LL.  D.  from  St.  John's  College,  Fordham.   S.  T.  A. 

Odyniec,  od-in'yets,  Antoni  Kdward  :  author ;  b.  at 
Giejstuny,  Poland;  was  educated  by  Basilian  priests  at 
Boruny;  studied  literature  at  the  University  of  Wilna; 
published  two  volumes  of  his  poems,  Poezye  (Wilna,  1835- 
26).  At  Warsaw,  where  he  resided  in  1826-39,  he  published 
two  volumes  of  the  almanac  Melitde  (1829,  1830 ;  3d  vol. 
Leipzig,  1836).  which  contained  contributions  from  the  fore- 
most poets  of  the  romantic  school,  and  a  drama  in  verse, 
Izora  (1829).  In  1829,  with  his  intimate  friend  Miekiewicz, 
he  traveled  in  other  parts  of  Europe  ;  alone  he  visited  Paris 
and  London  ;  in  1831-37  lived  at  Dresden.  Dunnghis  stay 
in  foreign  lands  he  wrote  excellent  translations  from  Byroii, 
Moore,  Walter  Scott,  and  others  (Leipzig,  183.S-43,  \Vilna, 
and  Warsaw,  1874,  in  4  vols.).  At  the  same  time  he  was  a 
regular  contributor  to  a  number  of  journals.  In  1837  he 
returned  to  Lithuania,  and  for  two  years  was  editor-in-chief 
of  a  universal  encyclopiedia,  Encyklopedya  pou'szeehna 
(Wilna  and  Warsaw).  At  Wilna  he  was  for  twenty  years 
political  editor  of  the  Kuryer  WiUnski.  His  collected 
poems  appeared  at  Wilna,  in  1859,  as  Poezye  Ant.  Edw. 
Otii/i'ica  (3d  ed.  Warsaw,  1874).  His  drannis,  Felicita  (Wilna, 
1849,  Poznaii,  185.S),  Barbara  liaJziwilbwna  (Wilna,  1858), 
and  Jerzy  Luhiimir.tki  (Wilna,  1861),  are  more  lyrical  than 
dramatic.  In  1865  he  removed  to  Warsaw  where,  in  the 
A'roni/ca  Rodzinna,  he  published  a  series  of  masterly  letters, 
I^i^iy  J  podrbzy  (Letters  of  Travel ;  separate  ed.  Warsaw, 
1875-78),  descriptive  of  his  travels  with  Miekiewicz,  which 
mark  liira  as  the  greatest  Polish  letter-writer.  D.  at  War- 
saw, Jan,  15,  1885.  J.  J.  Kral. 

Odj's'seus  (in  Gr.  'OSvaafis.  in  Lat.  lUixes):  King  of 
Ithaca^,  son  of  Laertes  an<l  Anticlea,  a  daughter  of  Autoly- 
cus.  The  name  means  the.  hater,  and  was  interpreted  in 
various  ways  (cf,  Od.  19,  400-412,  and  1,  62  ft.).  He  W(m  as 
his  wife  Penelope,  the  daughter  of  Icarius  of  Sjiarta,  in  re- 
turn for  suggesting  to  Tvndareus  the  oath  taken  by  the 
-suitors  of  Helen  (q.  v.).  When  his  son  Teleraachus  was  a 
babe,  Odysseus  was  prevailed  upon  bv  a  ruse  of  Palamedes 
and  Nestor  to  join  the  expedition  against  Trov,  whither  he 
sailed  with  tAvelve  sliips.  At  'I'roy  he  was  dist'inguislied  for 
bravery,  pertinacity,  eloquentte,  and  cunning.  He  therefore 
took  part  in  expeditions  that  reciuired  a  spy's  cool  and  skill- 
ful work.  The  arms  of  Achilles  were  aw.'irded  to  him  after 
that  hero's  death,  a  fact  which  drove  Ajax  mad.  At  the 
close  of  the  Trojan  war  he  was  driven  bv  the  ill-will  of  Po- 
seidon to  vaiious  parts  of  the  world.     The  story  of  his  re- 


turn is  told  by  Homer  in  the  Ody.isey.  Finally,  after  ten 
years'  wanderings  and  twenty  years'  ab.sence  from  home,  he 
reached  Itliaca  in  safety,  and  with  the  lielp  of  his  son  Tele- 
machus  and  a  few  faithful  servants  he  slew  the  suitors  of 
Penelope.  In  works  of  art  lie  is  usually  recognized  by  his 
conical  sailor's  cap.  See  the  article  Odysseim  in  Banmeis- 
ter's  Denkmdler.  J.  R.  S.  Stekrett. 

(Efolaiupa'dius,  Johannes,  whose  true  name  was  Hans 
IIussGEX :  theologian;  b.  at  Weinsberg,  Suabia,  in  1482; 
studied  first  jurisprudence  at  Bologna,  then  theology  at 
Heidelberg,  subsequently  Greek  under  Reuchlin  at  Stutt- 
gart, where  he  also  learned  Hebrew  from  a  baptized  Spanish 
Jew,  and  received  an  appointment  as  preaclier  in  1516  at 
Basel,  where  he  assisted  Erasmus  in  his  edition  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament.  Lutlier's  writings  made  a  very  deep 
impression  on  him.  In  1518  he  became  preacher  "in  the 
principal  church  of  Augsburg;  from  1530  to  1533  was  an 
inmate  of  the  convent  of  Altenmilnster,  near  Augsburg.  In 
1532  he  returned  to  Basel  as  preacher  and  Professor  in  The- 
ology, and  after  the  disputations  at  Baden  (1526)  and  Bern 
(1528)  he  succeeded  in  introducing  the  Reformation  in  Basel 
and  Ulm.  In  the  controversy  between  Luther  and  Zwingli 
concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  lie  gradually  adopted  the 
views  of  Zwingli,  which  he  maintained  in  his  De  genuina 
verlorum  Domini,  "Hoc  est  cutpus  meum,"  Expositione 
(1535),  and  in  his  disputation  with  Luther  at  Marburg  in 
1539.  His  gentleness  of  character  procured  for  him  the 
name  of  the  "Swiss  Melanchthon."  1).  at  Basel,  Nov.  24, 
1531,  Besides  the  above-mentioned  dissertation  he  wrote 
De  ritu  paschali ;  Epistola  canonicorum  indoctorum  ad 
Eccium.  and  several  commentaries  and  introductions  to  the 
books  of  tlie  Old  Testament.  There  are  biographies  of  him 
by  Hess  (Zurich,  1791),  Ilerzog  (Basel,  1843,  2  vols.),  and 
Hagcnbach  (Elberfeld,  1859).     Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

(Ecumenical  Councils:  See  Councils,  CEcumenical. 

(Ede'nia  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  oiSTj/ia.  swelling,  tumor, 
deriv.  of  oihfiv.  swell] :  in  pathology,  a  condition  in  which  a 
tissue  or  organ  is  puffed  or  swollen  with  fluid  exuded  from 
the  blood.  It  is  most  frequent  in  the  loose  tissues  under  the 
skin,  and  here  constitutes  the  condition  called  "  dropsy." 
When  widespread  throughout  the  organism,  the  name  ana- 
sarca is  ajiplied.  CEdema  may  be  caused  by  obstruction  to 
the  circulation,  causing  di-stension  of  the  veins  and  capil- 
laries; it  may  be  due  to  a  watery  condition  of  the  blood,  or 
to  changes  in  the  blood-vessels.  Where  stasis  of  the  blood 
in  the  veins  is  at  fault  a  cyanotic  hue  of  the  skin  is  noted, 
while  in  cases  due  to  watery  blood  or  diseases  of  the  blood- 
vessels tlie  skin  may  be  wholly  normal  in  ajipearance. 

(Edema  of  tlie  gluttis  is  a  condition  in  which  the  epi- 
glottis and  tissues  of  the  larynx  are  inflamed  and  oederaa- 
tou.s.  It  occasions  great  obstruction  to  breathing,  and,  un- 
less relieved  promptly,  will  cause  death  by  suffocation. 

(Edema  of  tlie  Ivngs  is  often  the  immediate  cause  of  death 
in  heart  disease,  Bright's  disease,  and  other  chronic  affec- 
tions. William  Pepper. 

Oe'denburg'  (Hung.  Soprony) :  town  of  Western  Hun- 
gary ;  near  the  Ijake  of  Neusiedl ;  37  miles  S.  E.  of  Vienna, 
with  which  it  communicates  by  railway  (see  map  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  ref.  5-F).  It  is  a  prosperous  and  handsomely  built 
town,  with  a  large  trade  in  wlieat,  wine,  and  cattle,  and 
manufactures  of  sugar  and  soap.  Its  old  fi>rtifications  have 
been  demolished,  with  the  exceiition  of  a  huge  watch-tower, 
the  highest  in  Hungary;  remains  of  the  Roman  time  are 
also  found.     Pop.  (1890)"  20.543. 

(Ed'ipus  [=  Ijat.  =  Gr.  OiUirovs] :  in  Grecian  mythology, 
a  son  of  Lains,  King  of  Thebes,  and  Jocasta,  who  was  ex- 
posed by  his  father  on  account  of  an  ill-boding  oracle,  but 
was  saved  by  a  shepherd  and  brought  to  Corinth.  Misun- 
derstanding" another  oracle,  he  left  Corinth  and  went  to 
Thebes.  On  the  way  he  slew  his  father  unawares  and  at 
Thebes  married  his  mother.  She  bore  him  two  sons,  Eteo- 
cles  and  Polynices,  and  two  daughters,  Antigone  and  Is- 
mene  ;  but  the  hidden  horrors  of  his  life  were  subsequently 
revealed  to  him.  Jocasta  hanged  herself;  between  Eteocles 
and  Polynices  there  was  a  deatlily  hatred,  and  they  slew 
each  other;  (Edi|ius  put  out  his  own  eyes  and  wandered 
blind,  guided  by  Antigone,  from  Thebes  to  Colonus  in  At- 
tica, where  he  died  in  the  grove  of  the  Eiimenides.  The 
legends  of  (Edipus,  of  which  the  two  baneful  oracles  and 
his  meeting  with  the  Sphinx,  whose  enigma  he  unriddled, 
form  the  mystical  but  singularly  suggestive  center,  were 
often  treated  by  the  Attic  tragedians,  and  there  still  exist 


(EIILEXSCIlLACiKR 


OERTEL 


277 


two  trapedies  on  tliis  subject  liy  Sophocles.  King  CEdi'pits 
and  (Eilipun  at  <'i>loniis.  See  the  articlo  Oidi/m.t  in  I4uu- 
meister's  DinkmiiUr.  J.  K.  S.  Stkrrett. 

(Elilciisc'hliiijer,  o  Icn-slila-gpr,  Adam  G0TTI.0B :  poet;  b. 
in  Fredcriksljei-fr,  a  snlmrb  of  Copenliaf;en,  Dennmik,  Nov. 
14,  1779.  Ilis  parents,  who  were  of  German  extraction,  were 
in  moderate  circumstances,  and  unlil  liis  twelfth  year  the 
future  poet  receiveil  no  rci,ailar  instnictiun.  At  that  time 
he  attracted  the  atlentionOf  Edvard  Storm,  by  whom  he 
was  placed  in  school,  where  he  remained  four  years.  On  his 
leavings  school  it  was  at  first  determined  that  he  should  be- 
come a  tradesman,  then  he  began  to  prepare  for  the  univer- 
sity, and  finally  api)eared  on  the  stage  with  but  slight  suc'- 
ccss.  In  ISOd.with  the  assistance  of  the  brothers  t)ersled. 
he  entered  the  university  as  a  student  of  law,  but  his  natu- 
ral love  for  poetry  made  his  professional  studies  distaste- 
ful to  him.  In  1802.  after  a  sixteen  hours'  conversation 
with  the  Norwegian  critic  Steffens.  who  had  returned  from 
Germany  filled  with  the  ideas  of  tlie  new  romantic  school. 
he  came"  to  a  full  realization  of  what  poetry  was  for  him. 
In  the  symbolical  poem  (liddhornene.  tiie  motive  of  which 
was  takt'U  from  the  theft  of  the  Uld  Xorse  gold  horns  from 
the  museum  in  Copenhagen,  he  made  the  dcclanition  of  his 
poetic  faith.  His  legal  studies  were  relimpiished  and  a  col- 
lection of  poems  in  his  early  style,  already  in  the  printer's 
liands,  was  destroyed  and  other  poems  written  hastily  in 
their  place,  among  these  Sonet  Ilanxaften-Spil.  This  new 
poetic  departure  roused  much  opposition  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  old  school,  and  stamped  (Khlenschliiger  as  the 
undisputed  leader  of  romanticism  in  Denmark.  In  1805  he 
received  a  (ioveriunent  stipend  and  spent  the  succeeding 
four  years  in  travel.  Six  months  were  spent  in  Halle  with 
StefTens.  three  in  Weimar  in  intimate  companionship  with 
Goethe,  and  a  year  and  a  half  in  Paris,  where  he  was  little 
influenced  by  the  life  about  him.  In  Switzerland  he  vis- 
ited Madame  de  Staiil,  at  whose  home  he  met  many  of  the 
leading  writers  of  the  day.  Soon  after  his  return  ti)  Co- 
penhagen he  was  appointed  Professor  of  -Esthetics  at  the 
viniversity.  a  position  for  which  he  was  not  specially  fitted. 
During  this  ])eriod  ffihlenschlager's  popularity  was  enor- 
mous, one  of  his  warmest  admirers  being  Baggesen.  but  on 
the  hitter's  return  to  Copenhagen  in  1813  the  relations  of 
the  two  poets  became  strained,  ffihlensehlager  was  pain- 
fully lacking  in  self-criticism,  and  this  induced  him  to  pub- 
lish many  works  that  were  wholly  unworthy  of  his  genius. 
Uaggi'scn's  unfavorable  criticisms  of  those  angered  their 
author  and  his  friends.  Twelve  of  the  latter,  among  them 
Paul  Moller  and  Ilauch.  formed  themselves  into  a  body- 
guard called  Ti/lctfn,  and  challenged  Baggesen  in  Latin  to 
defend  his  position.  To  this  Grundtvig  and  others  replied, 
and  the  controversy  continued  until  1819,  to  be  renewed 
later  by  Johan  L.  Ileiberg.  The  criticism  of  the  latter  is  of 
real  value,  distinguishing  clearly  the  faults  and  virtues  of 
(Ehlenschliiger.  his  wonderful  richness  of  vocabulary,  his 
lack  of  dramatic  instiiu;t,  the  epic-lyric  character  of  his 
works,  and  their  genuine  nationality.  It  was  this  latter 
quality  th.at  induced  Tegner  in  the  summer  of  1829  to  crown 
(Ehlenschliiger  in  the  Cathedral  of  Liuid  as  the  northern 
king  of  singers.  His  position  in  Danish  literature  is  best 
shown  by  the  fact  that  his  statue  shares  with  Uolberg's  the 
place  of  honor  before  the  National  theater.  Among  his 
works  mav  be  mentioned  Pnefiske  Skriflir  (2  vols.,  180.1) : 
Jf(ik-on  Jnrl  (1807):  linldnr  liiin  iinde.  (1807):  Pahwtoki- 
(1809):  Axel  og  Vallioiy  (li^lO) :  Convgi/io  (\Xll);  I/agliarlh 
og  Signe  (1815);  Nordens  Guder  (1819);  Drunning  Mar- 
greta  (1833);  Dina  (1842).  D.  Jan.  20.  1850.  See  (Ehlen- 
seli lagers  paetinke  Skrifter.  udg.  af.  F.  L.  Liebenberg  (32 
vols..  Copenhagen,  1857-62);  Erindringer  (4  vols.,  Copen- 
hagen, 18.50-51).  D.  K.  DoDOE. 

Oehler.  Gtstav  FHif;i)ni('ii.  von.  D. D. :  theologian:  b.  at 
Ebingen.  Wiirteinberg,  June  10,  1812:  educated  at  Tiibin- 
gcn,  where  he  became  Professor  of  Old  Testament  Theology 
1852,  and  where  he  died  Feb.  19.  1872.  He  was  orthodox. 
conservative,  yet  progressive.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  Old 
Testament  Theology,  a  posthumous  work,  made  up  from  his 
lectures  by  his  son  (2  vols.,  Tiibingen.  1873-74 ;  2(1  ed.  1882  ; 
English  trans.,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh.  1874-75;  revised  by  Prof. 
G.  E.  Day.  New  York.  1883).  It  is  the  leading  book  in  this 
depart ment.thovigh  many  prefer  the  more  modern.  H.Schidtz 
(1892).  \\\s  Lelirliurh  d'er  Si/niMik.  ctlUvd  by  Joliann  l)e- 
litzsch.  appeared  in  Tiibingen  1876  (2d  ed.,  by  T.  Hermann. 
Stuttgart,  1891).  See  his  Life,  by  Josef  Knapp  (Tiibingen, 
1876).  S.  M.  Jackso.v. 


(Enan'tliic  Ether  [cenanthic  is  from  (ir.  olvii/eri.  the  first 
shoot  of  the  vine,  vine  blossom  :  olfri),  the  vine  +  Si/8jj,  bloom]: 
a  name  given  by  Liebig  and  Pelouze  to  a  substance  existing 
in  all  wines,  giving  them  their  characteristic  odor.  It  re- 
mains behind  as  an  oily  liquid  when  large  ([uantities  of  wine 
are  distilled  ;  obtained  in  larger  tiuant  it ies  l)y  distilling  wine- 
lees  after  mixing  with  half  their  bulk  of  water.  It  consists 
essentially  of  capric,  caiirylie.  and  a  very  little  butyric  acids, 
partly  free,  mostly  in  the  form  of  ethereal  salts  of  isoamyl 
and  ethyl  alcohols.  A  solid  substance  called  a-nanthic  ether 
is  manufactured  in  Bavaria  and  used  for  flavoring  inferior 
wines.  Kevised  by  Ika  Kemsex. 

(Eiiop'ldes  (in  Gr.  OiVoiriSrir) :  a  Grecian  astronomer  an<I 
philosopher  of  Chios,  who  is  commonly  supposed  to  have 
been  a  contemporary  of  Anaxagoras;  is  named  among  the 
Greeks  who  visited  Egypt  and  became  acquainted  with  the 
learning  of  the  Egyptians;  is  .said  to  have  claimed  the  dis- 
covery of  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic:  invented  a  cycle  for 
bringing  into  agreement  the  solar  and  lunar  year,  which 
invention  he  inscribed  on  a  brazen  tablet  and  .set  up  at 
Olympia.  He  proposed  also  a  theory  of  the  rise  and  fall 
of  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  and  an  explanation  of  the  Milky 
Way  as  the  original  pathway  of  the  sun. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

ffinothera :  See  Primrose. 

Oersted,  orsted.  Anders  Sandoe:  the  greatest  of  Danish 
jurists;  b.  in  Rudkjobing.  Denmark.  Dec.  21.  1778;  brother 
of  Hans  Christian  Oersted.  In  1810  he  became  a  judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  a  position  which  he  held  only  three  years. 
He  occupied  various  positions  in  the  king's  cabinet  and  in 
the  Diet,  and  in  1853  he  became  Prime  Minister  of  Denmark. 
Oersted's  chief  fame  rests  on  his  services  to  Danish  jurispru- 
dence, which  in  its  present  condition  may  be  regarded  as 
the  result  of  his  labors.  He  was  a  man  of  remarkable  in- 
dustry, learning,  and  clear  insight,  and  all  these  he  brought 
to  bear  on  a  thorough  revision  of  the  system  of  jurispru- 
dence. Among  his  most  important  works  are  Haandbog 
over  den  danske  og  norske  Lo%-kyndighed,  a  manual  of  Dan- 
ish and  Norwegian  jurisprudence  (6  vols.,  1822-33).  and 
Eunomia  (4  vols.,  1815-22).  His  last  work  was  The  History 
of  my  Life  and  Times  (Af  mit  Livs  og  min  Tids  Ilistorie, 
4  vols..  1851-57).  His  contrilmtions  to  the  jieriodical  litera- 
ture of  his  time  are  very  numerous.     D.  May  1.  1860. 

Rasmus  B.  Anderson. 

Oersted.  Hans  Christian  :  physicist ;  b.  at  Rudkjobing, 
in  the  Danish  island  of  Langeland.  Aug.  14,  1777.  Ilis 
father  was  an  apothecary,  and  in  the  sliop  he  made  his 
first  studies  and  experiments.  In  1794  he  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Copenhagen.  In  1799  he  took  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor of  philosophy,  after  presenting  a  thesis  entitled  Jrr/ii- 
tectonics  of  Xat'ural  Metaphysics.  After  traveling  from 
1801  to  1803  in  Holland.  Germany,  and  France,  he  was  a|>- 
pointed  Hxtraordinary  Professor  in  Natuijd  Philosophy  at 
the  University  of  Copenhagen  in  1806.  and  his  lectures  soon 
attracted  attention  on  account  of  their  po|iular  form  and 
their  enthusiasm.  To  awaken  the  interest  of  his  country- 
men for  tlie  study  of  nature  was  the  aim  of  his  life,  and  he 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  polytechnic  school  in  Coiien- 
hagen.  of  which  he  was  director  from  1829.  and  in  intro- 
ducing natural  science  as  an  element  of  instruction  in  the 
Latin  schools.  During  a  scientific  journey  in  Germany  in 
1812  and  1813  he  wrote  an  essay  on  tlu'  identity  of  chemical 
and  electrical  forces,  in  which  he  for  the  fir.st  time  shadowed 
forth  his  ideas  of  the  unity  of  electricity  and  magnetism 
which  he  had  entertained  since  1800.  but  his  great  discov- 
ery on  this  point  was  not  made  until  1819.  and  was  commu- 
nicated to  the  world  in  a  little  pamphlet  in  1820.  E.r/ieri- 
menta  circa  epicaciiitn  cotiitictus  elertriri  in  aciim  niag- 
neticam.  The  discovery  was  immediately  acce]ited.  jind 
honors  were  showered  on  th^  discoverer.  His  other  writings 
comprise  a  large  number  of  minor  essays,  most  of  which 
were  translated  into  German,  and  two  larger  w-orks.  Natur- 
Uirens  mechaniske  Deel  (Manual  of  Mechanical  Physics)  and 
Aanden  i  yaturen.  which  has  been  translated  into  English 
by  Miss  Horner  under  the  title  The  Soul  in  Sature.  The 
Danes  are  very  proud  of  Oersted's  name.  There  arc  two 
monuments  in  his  honor  in  Copenhagen,  and  Oersted  Park 
is  named  for  hiin.     D.  in  Copenhagen.  Mar.  9,  1851. 

Revised  by  R.  B.  Ander-son. 

Oerlel.  Jirtfl.  ^Iax  .Joseph.  M.  D.  :  physician:  b.  at  Dil- 
lingen,  Bavaria,  Mar.  20,  1835  :  studied  medicine  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Munich,  graduating  M.  D.  in  1863 ;  was  assistant 


278 


OESEL 


OFFICES  AND  OFFICERS 


at  Pfeuffer's  clinic  for  four  years,  subsequently  studying 
laryngology  with  Czermak.  Ue  paid  special  attention  to 
diseases  of  the  heart  and  lungs,  and  invented  a  system  of 
graduated  exercise  in  hill-climbing  for  the  treatment  of  cer- 
tain respiratory  and  circulatory  disturbances.  In  1876  he 
was  made  professor  extraordinary  in  the  Munich  university. 
He  contributed  several  monographs  to  von  Ziemssen's  Cy- 
dop<vdia  of  Practice  and  of  Therapeutics.  Other  important 
works  are  Ueber  Terrain-Curorte  (Leipzig,  1886) ;  Die  Patho- 
genese  der  epidemischeii  Diphtherie  (Leipzig,  1887). 

S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Oe'sel :  an  island  in  the  Baltic,  belonging  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Livonia,  Russia.  Area,  1,000  sq.  miles.  Pop.  53,120. 
Wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  are  raised,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses  are  reared,  and  considerable  fishing  is  carried  on.  It 
was  governed  by  the  Teutonic  Knights  for  a  long  period ; 
passed  into  the  possession  of  Denmark  in  1559;  was  ceded 
to  Sweden  in  1645,  and  finally  ceded  to  Russia  in  1721.  The 
population  is  principally  Esthonian. 

(Esoph'agus  [Lat.  =  Gr.  ol(TO(payos  :  oiao-  etym.  obscure, 
commonly  but  probably  erroneously  connected  with  oXaw, 
the  f  ut.  of  iptpttv,  bear  +  ipaytiv,  to  eat] :  the  gullet,  that 
part  of  the  alimentary  canal  that  leads  from  the  pharynx 
to  the  stomach.  In  the  adult  man  it  is  9  inches  long,  ex- 
tending in  a  nearly  vertical  line  from  the  fifth  cervical  ver- 
tebra through  the' posterior  mediastinum  and  through  the 
oesopliageal  foramen  of  the  diaphragm,  ending  in  the  car- 
diac orifice  of  the  stomach.  It  hsis  an  outer  or  muscular 
coat,  containing  an  outer  layer  of  longitudinal  muscle- 
fibers,  and  another  of  similar  annular  fibers,  the  upper 
fibers  being  chiefly  striped  and  partly  voluntary  in  the  up- 
per parts,  but  entirely  involuntary  and  non-striated  in  the 
lower  portion.  The  middle  or  cellular  coat  abounds  in 
glands  which  open  by  long  ducts.  The  innermost  or  mu- 
cous coat  is  lined  by  scaly  epithelium.  In  caliber  the  o'soph- 
agus  is  the  smallest  part  of  the  alimentary  tube.  In  the 
lower  animals  the  oesophagus  has  several  modifications,  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  is  that  singular  dilatation  which 
is  called  the  crop,  and  which  is  observable  in  gallinaceous 
and  vulturine  birds,  etc.  Most  articulate  and  many  mol- 
luscous organisms  have  also  a  so-called  a-sophagus.  See 
Histology  (The  Digestive  Organs). 

Ofail'to  :  a  river  of  Southern  Italy,  called  by  the  ancients 
Autidus.  It  rises  6  miles  E.  of  Monte  Marano,  enters  the 
Adriatic  4  miles  X.  W.  of  Rarletta,  after  a  course  of  75 
miles.  The  battle  of  Cannte  was  fought  on  its  riglit  bank 
near  its  mouth. 

Of'fa :  King  of  Mercia ;  reigned  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighth  century ;  greatly  extended  the  boundaries  of  his  king- 
dom, but  is  especially  "famous  as  the  builder  of  the  so-called 
Offa's  dike,  which  for  several  centuries  was  the  boundary  be- 
tween England  and  Wales.  He  established  an  undisputed 
suzerainty  over  the  Heptarchy ;  murdered  Ethelbert,  King 
of  East  Anglia,  and  took  possession  of  his  kingdom  792 ; 
founded  the  abbey  of  St.  Albans;  drew  up  a  code  of  laws. 
I),  in  7901 

Offenbach,  y  fen-baai-h :  town ;  in  the  grand  duchy  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  Germany;  on  the  Main;  5  miles  S.  E.  of 
Frankfort  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  5-1)).  It  has 
extensive  manufactures  of  carriages,  musical  instruments, 
jewelry,  carpets,  hosiery,  paper,  tobacco,  and  pipes.  Pop. 
(1890)  35.064. 

Offenbach,  Jacques:  composer;  b.  at  Cologne,  Germany, 
June  21,  1819,  of  Jewish  parentage;  studieil  from  1835  to 
1837  at  tlie  Conservatory  of  Paris ;  played  afterward  the 
violoncello  in  the  orchestra  of  the  Theatre  Comique ;  be- 
came in  1847  leader  of  the  on/hestra  of  the  Theatre  Fran^ais ; 
established  in  18.55  the  Boutfes-Parisiens,  and  composed  a 
great  number  of  burlesque  operas  and  scenes,  of  which  La 
Fille,  de  Madame  Angot,  BarSe  f/leue,  Orphee  aiix  Enfers, 
La  Belle  Ilelene.  and  La  Grande  Duchesse  were  the  most 
applauded.     D.  in  Paris,  Oct.  4,  1880. 

Oltiee  Found  :  See  Ixquest  of  Office. 

Ollices  and  OfBcers  [from  Lat.  nffi'ciiim.  performance, 
service,  duty,  official  duty  ;  opus  or  ops.  work,  toil  -I-  facere, 
do  :  cf.  offici  na,  workshop.  Derivation  from  ob  +  facere  is 
unlikely,  as  officere  has  the  sense  of  to  hinder] :  in  general, 
a  )>ublic  ofTice  is  understood  to  be  a  right  or  a  duty  con- 
ferred or  imposed  by  law  on  one  or  more  persons  to  act  in 
the  execution  and  application  of  the  law;  while  officers  are 
those  persons  upon  whom  an  office  has  been  conferred  or 
imposed.     It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  carefully  between 


office  and  employment.  For  as  the  government  may  enter 
into  both  public  legal  and  private  legal  relations,  it  may 
have  both  officers  and  employees.  The  term  officer  is  a 
term  of  the  public  law ;  the  term  employee  is  a  term  of  the 
private  law.  It  has  been  said  that  the  former  "embraces 
the  idea  of  tenure,  duration,  emolument,  and  duties."  ( Unit- 
ed States  vs.  Hartivell.  6  Wallace  385.)  An  office  finds  its 
sources  and  its  limitations  in  some  provision  of  public  law ; 
an  employment  is  based  upon  a  contract.  An  office  not 
being  a  contract,  it  is  held  that  it  may  be  terminated  at 
any  time,  and  that  the  salary,  if  any,  attached  to  it  may  be 
diminished  during  its  term  without  violating  the  provisions 
of  the  Federal  Constitution,  preventing  a  State  from  impair- 
ing the  obligation  of  a  contract.  {Butler  vs.  Pennsijlvania, 
10  Howard  402.)  Where,  however,  a  salary  has  been  at- 
tached to  an  office,  it  is  held  that  if  the  salary  has  been 
earned  it  becomes  a  claim  against  the  Government  in  the 
nature  of  a  contract  which  may  be  enforced  by  suit  against 
the  Government  where  the  Government  may  be  sued,  and 
may  not  be  diminished  in  amount  even  by  a  State  Legisla- 
ture. (Fisk  vs.  Police  Jury,  116  United  States  131.)  This 
fact  that  an  office  finds  its  sources  and  limitations  in  the 
public  rather  than  the  private  law  has  a  great  influence 
over  all  contests  which  may  arise  relative  to  the  duties  and 
to  the  rights  of  officials,  the  courts  holding  very  strictly  to 
the  rule  that  the  provisions  of  the  private  law  are  not  to  be 
applied  to  this  public  legal  relation.  Fitzsimmons  vs. 
Brooklyn.  102  New  York  536 ;  Andrews  vs.  Portland,  79 
Maine  484. 

Offices  differ  in  the  way  in  which  they  are  organized. 
Thus  an  authority  may  consist  of  one  person  or  more  than 
one  person.  The  first  method  is  known  as  the  single-headed 
system  ;  the  second  is  usually  called  the  board  system.  Each 
of  these  methods  of  organizing  offices  has  its  advantages. 
The  single-headed  system  is  generally  chosen  for  all  offices 
whose  duties  require  energy,  rapidity  of  action,  and  a  well- 
defined  responsiliility  ;  the  board  system  for  all  branches  in 
which  carefulness  of  deliberation  and  impartiality  of  de- 
cision are  necessary.  The  former  method  of  organizing 
offices  is  therefore  usually  chosen  for  all  executive  and  ad- 
ministrative offices  ;  the  latter  for  judicial  offices. 

Officers,  like  offices,  may  be  variously  classified.  In  many 
states  there  is  an  important  distinction  between  professional 
and  honorary  offices.  The  first  are.  those  who  devote  their 
entire  time  to  the  discharge  of  their  duties;  the  latter  are 
those  who  merely  employ  a  part  of  their  time  in  the  dis- 
charge of  public'funetions.  relying  on  some  other  occupa- 
tion as  the  means  of  their  livelihood,  and  generally  having 
short  terms  and  receiving  no  or  a  very  small  salary.  A  sys- 
tem of  administration  relying  mainly  upon  these  honorary 
officers  is  called  a  self-government  system,  while  a  system 
relying  upon  professional  officers  is  known  as  a  bureaucratic 
system.  In  the  V.  S.  the  rule  is  that  the  administrative 
organization  is  based  upon  the  self-government  system,  while 
upon  the  continent  of  Europe  the  organization  is  usually 
bureaucratic.  At  the  same  time,  in  certain  branches  of  ad- 
ministration in  the  U.  S.,  e.  g.  in  the  municipal  adminis- 
tration, the  bureaucratic  system  is  Ijeing  adopted  on  account 
Oi  its  greater  efficiency,  and,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
salaries  are  paid,  its  greater  economy.  It  has.  however,  the 
disadvantage  of  preventing  the  people  as  a  wliole  from  ac- 
customing themselves  to  the  discharge  of  public  duties  and 
of  fostering  the  development  of  an  official  class  which  has 
the  monopoly  of  government. 

The  otficial  relation  is  usually  formed  in  either  one  of  two 
ways,  bv  election  by  the  people  or  by  appointment  by  some 
governiiiental  authority.  Originally  the  method  of  filling 
offices  in  the  U.  S.  was  by  an  executive  appointment,  the 
only  exception  being  found  in  the  case  of  the  purely  local, 
such  as  the  town  offices;  but  as  a  result  of  the  partisan  use 
of  the  power  of  appointment,  and  as  a  result  of  the  increas- 
ingly democratic  character  of  the  people  throughout  the 
States,  the  method  of  election  grew  more  popular,  and  most 
of  the  important  offices  are  filled  by  popular  election.  In 
the  Fedend  Government,  wliich  was  formed  before  this  demo- 
cratic spirit  had  so  fully  developed,  the  Constitution  pro- 
vi<ies  that  most  of  the  offices  sliall  be  filled  by  appointment. 
The  tendency,  however,  in  the  U.  S.  would  seem  to  be  toward 
the  adoption  of  the  appointive  system.  Tliis  tendency  is 
particularly  marked  in  the  cities  where  the  application  of 
the  j)rinci|ile  of  popular  election  of  all  important  officers 
had  led  to  a  diffusion  of  responsibility  and  to  inetlicient  ad- 
ministration. Originally  in  the  English  and  U.  S.  system  of 
administration  acceptance  of  office  was  regarded  as  oblig- 


OFFICES  AND   OFFICERS 


279 


atory,  ami  we  fiiul  cases  in  the  early  English  reports  where 
those  persons  wlio  have  refused  to  accept  olliee  have  been 
indicted,  and  also  where  they  have  been  forced  by  the  courts 
to  assume  the  burdens  of  the  office ;  the  duty  to  serve  as 
otRcer  of  the  Government  being  regarded  just  as  obligatory 
as  the  present  duty  to  serve  upon  the  jury.  In  the  course 
of  llie  nineteenth  century,  however,  this  obligation  to  serve 
as  otlicer  has  been  in  many  cases  abolislieil,  and  to  fill  the 
various  Government  offices  reliance  is  placed  upon  the  well- 
known  ilesire  of  most  persons  to  serve  in  official  capacities. 

The  law  generally  provides  certain  (jualilications  for  of- 
fice; the  power  to  hold  office  being  regarded  not  as  a  riglit 
belonging  to  every  individual,  but  as  a  privilege  which  is 
granted  only  to  those  who  are  qualilied  to  perform  official 
duties.  These  qualifications  differ  somewhat  in  the  case  of 
elective  and  appointive  offices,  being  more  stringent  in  the 
case  of  the  latter  tliau  in  the  case  of  the  former.  For  elec- 
tive offices  the  (|ualiiications  consist  usually  in  the  posses- 
.sion  of  citizenship  or  the  right  to  vote,  the  attainment  of  a 
certain  age,  anil  the  possession  of  good  character:  to  the 
majority  of  offices  men  only  are  eligible.  In  the  case 
of  purely  local  offices  residence  in  the  locality  in  which 
the  duties  of  the  office  are  to  be  performed,  or  some  equiva- 
lent therefor,  is  generally  requirecl,  while  in  some  cases  the 
possession  of  real  [>roperty  or  the  payment  of  a  certain 
amount  of  taxes  is  required.  In  the  case  of  appointive  of- 
fices, in  addition  to  these  requirements,  the  law  often  pro- 
vides quite  stringent  requirements,  which  are  to  insure  the 
possession  by  the  incumbent  of  the  office  of  the  necessary 
intellectual  qualifications.  The  ])Ossession  of  these  intel- 
lectual (pialifications  is  to  be  shown  in  either  one  of  two 
ways.  In  the  case  of  offices,  the  iierformanee  of  whose 
duties  requires  the  possession  of  technical  knowledge,  it  is 
usually  provided  that  no  one  is  qualified  who  has  not  re- 
ceived a  tliorough  course  of  training  to  be  evidenced  by  the 
possession  of  some  diploma  or  certificate.  Such  is  the  case 
generally  for  judges  and  the  law  olficers  of  the  Government, 
who  must  be  admitted  to  the  bar  and  must  have  practiced 
for  a  certain  time.  Such  is  also  the  case  fcir  the  engineer- 
ing service  of  the  Government,  where  the  incumbent  nnist 
be  a  cpialified  engineer  or  surveyor.  In  the  case  of  the 
great  majority  of  appointive  offices  where  the  duties  are 
largely  of  a  clerical  nature,  the  civil  service  reform  move- 
ment has  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  less  stringent  but.  at 
the  same  time,  of  rather  important  educational  and  intel- 
lectual qualifications,  usually  to  l)e  shown  by  examinations. 
These  are  either  competitive  in  character  or  ordinary  pass 
examinations,  where  it  is  merely  reipiired  of  the  candi<late 
who  presents  himself  for  appointment  that  he  must  have 
passed  the  examination  at  a  certain  standanl.  For  a  further 
consideration  of  this  matter,  see  Civil  Service  and  Civil 
Service  Reform. 

All  officers  have  by  law  certain  rights  upon  which  they 
may  insist,  and  also  certain  duties  which  they  may  be  com- 
pelled to  perform.  Among  the  rights  possessed  by  officers 
may  be  mentioned  the  right  to  exercise  the  functions  of  the 
olIii«.  Any  one  who  has  been  properly  appointed  or  elected 
may,  by  appeal  to  the  courts,  force  the  granting  to  him  of 
the  oflice  which  he  has  been  chosen  to  fill.  In  the  second 
place  the  criminal  law  oilers  a  special  protection  to  all 
officers  who  conu'  in  contact  with  the  peo[)le,  as  bearers  of  a 
direct  command  of  a  <-ompctent  authority  to  do  or  not  to 
do  some  particular  thing.  In  such  a  case  they  may  use 
force  to  execute  their  orders,  and  any  resistance  offered  to 
them  is  made  a  crime.  Where  the  law  specifically  provides 
that  officers  shall  receive  a  salary,  they  have  also  the  right 
to  such  compensation,  which  may  be  enforced  by  an  act  ion 
in  the  courts,  but  inasmuch  as  the  official  relation  is  a  rela- 
tion of  pulilic  and  not  of  private  law,  the  claim  for  salary 
can  not  be  baseil  upon  the  fact  that  services  of  an  otriciiil 
character  have  been  rendered,  but  is  to  l)e  found  solely 
in  the  fact  that  the  law  has  stated  that  a  compensation 
shall  be  attached  to  a  given  office.  As  has  been  said, 
the  compensation  is  governed  entirely  by  the  rules  of  the 
jiublic  law.  Thus  Ww  fact  that  a  person  does  not  discharge 
the  <luties  of  the  office  has  no  effect  upon  his  right  to  obtain 
salary  ;  he  will  not  lose  the  right  to  the  salary  from  the  fact 
that  by  sickness  he  has  been  unable  to  perform  his  duties, 
so  long  as  he  has  not  been  actuallv  removeil.  {O'Luin/  vs. 
Hoard  of  Ediirntion.  !)3  New  York  1.)  The  salary  of  offi- 
cers is  enforced  by  suit  against  the  Government  where  suit 
is  allowed,  or  by  application  to  the  proper  court  for  a  mnn- 
rfa;H«.<  to  force  the  accounting  offii'ers  to  grant  the  salary. 
In  some  cases  in  addition  to  the  salary  there  is  a  civil  pen- 


sion attached  to  the  office,  though  this  is  not  common  in 
the  U.  S.  outside  of  the  judicial  service  and  the  police  and 
fire  services  of  the  various  nmnicipalities. 

Among  the  duties  imposed  upon  officers  may  be  men- 
tioned the  requirement  to  take  the  oath  of  office  before  be- 
ginning to  perform  its  functions,  the  giving  of  an  official 
bond,  and  in  general  the  faithful  j)erformance  of  the  detailed 
duties  assigned  to  the  ofiice  by  the  statutes  providing  for  it. 
The  performance  of  the  duties  of  the  offii't^  is  insured  by  a 
threefold  responsibility.  In  the  first  place,  if  anybody  is 
injured  by  the  negligence  of  an  officer  in  the  performance 
of  his  duties,  in  many  cases  he  may  recover  <iamages  from 
such  officer.  In  the  second  place,  tlie  law  often  punishes  as 
a  crime  the  non-performance  of  official  duties.  In  the  third 
place,  the  violation  of  duties  where  the  administrative  system 
is  at  all  centralized,  and  where  the  superior  administrative 
officers  have  a  strong  disciplinary  power,  will  result  in  an  ad- 
ministrative responsibility.  Thus  in  many  cases  the  sujierior 
officers  have  the  power  to  impose  fines  and  to  suspend  and 
even  to  remove  didinquent  officers.  In  the  U.  S.  Federal 
Government  the  disciplinary  power  is  very  strong,  but  in 
the  States  very  generally,  the  system  being  so  extremely  de- 
centralized, we  find  very  few  examples  of  this  disciplinary 
power.  The  only  possible  exception  to  this  statenuuit  is  to 
be  found  in  the  cities  where,  as  a  result  of  recent  develop- 
ment, the  disciplinary  power  of  the  mayor  over  _lhe  rest  of 
the  city  officers  has  been  very  largely  increased. 

The  official  relation  is  terminated  in  various  ways.  In 
the  fii'st  place  the  law  often  |irovidcs  a  fixed  term  for  an 
office.  In  this  case  the  ex]iiratioii  of  the  term  renders  the 
otlicer  incapable  to  perform  his  duties  except  where  it  is 
provided,  as  it  often  is,  that  he  shall  hold  over  until  his 
successor  enters  the  office.  Further,  in  order  to  prevent  an 
official  interregnum,  the  courts  often  hold  that  an  officer 
will  be  regarded  as  an  officer  de  facto  after  the  expiration 
of  his  term,  and  that  his  acts  may  not  be  questioned  col- 
laterally in  the  courts  in  an  action  to  which  such  officer  is 
not  a  party.  The  term  of  office  is  usually  fixed  in  the  U.  S. 
at  from  two  to  four  years.  The  attempt  lias  been  made, 
however,  to  do  away  with  this  fixed  term  for  all  offices 
whose  duties  are  not  of  the  highest  importance,  in  the  hope 
that  the  tenure  will  become  one  practically  during  good 
behavior.  (See  on  this  point  the  article  on  Civil  Service 
AND  Civil  Service  Reform.)  As  a  general  thing  also  the 
official  relation  may  be  terminated  by  the  resignation  of  the 
officer.  This  is  absolutely  true  except  in  the  cases  where 
the  office  is  obligatory,  and  the  .statutes  proviile  that  an 
officer  shall  hold  over  until  his  successor  shall  enter  upon 
the  performance  of  his  duties.  In  such  a  case  resignation 
l)y  the  officer  will  have  no  effect  upon  his  duty  to  continue 
the  performance  of  official  duties.  (Badger  vs.  United 
States,  93  I'nited  States  599.)  Again,  loss  of  qualifications 
generally  entails  loss  of  office.  Thus  the  attainment  of  a 
certain  age.  which  in  the  I'.  S.  often  vacates  the  office, 
sometimes  renders  one  holding  an  office  unipialified  to  per- 
form its  duties.  In  these  cases,  however,  of  loss  of  qualifi- 
cations it  is  usually  provided  that  the  loss  of  qualifications 
must  be  determined  by  the  courts,  and  all  persons  dealing 
with  officers  are  not  reipiired  to  find  out  whether  they  have 
iH'come  dis<|ualified.  inasmuch  as  the  principle  applicable  to 
de  facto  officers  will  be  applied  in  these  cases  of  loss  of  quali- 
fications. The  official  relation  may  also  be  terminated  by 
removal.  Where  the  officii  is  filled  by  election  it  is  usually 
held  by  the  courts  that  unless  the  statute  so  specifically 
provides  the  officer  may  not  be  removed,  but  that  where 
an  officer  is  appointed  and  there  is  no  |irovision  made  by 
the  law  as  to  his  term,  he  may  be  removed  by  the  ajipoint- 
ing  officer,  the  power  of  removal  being  held  to  be  incident 
to  the  power  of  appointment.  (See  7i'.r  parte  Jhiinen,  12 
Peters  230.  239.)  In  a  great  many  cases,  however,  the 
power  of  removal  of  an  appointing  officer  is  limited  to 
the  case  where  cause  presents  itself.  In  such  a  case  the 
removal  may  be  reviewed  by  the  courts,  it  being  held  by 
the  courts  that  what  is  cause  is  a  question  of  law  over 
which  tliey  have  jurisdiction.  (See  People  vs.  Fire  Com- 
iiiinsinners,  73  New  York  437.)  In  these  cases  of  removal 
for  cause  the  courts  also  insist  that  the  individual  removed 
shall  be  given  an  opportunity  to  l)e  heard  in  his  defense; 
and  the  proceedings  for  the  removal  take  on  somewhat  the 
character  of  a  regular  trial.  (I)nllam  vs.  Will.ion,  53 
Jlichigan  393.)  Finally  the  official  relation  may  be  termi- 
nated by  the  action  of  the  Legislature,  which  has  the  power, 
as  a  result  of  the  fact  that  the  official  relation  is  a  relation 
of  public  law  ami  is  not  in  the  nature  of  a  contract,  to  ter- 


280 


OFFSET 


OGYGES 


minate  the  official  relation  by  abolishing  the  office,  by 
shortening  the  term,  by  declaring  the  office  to  be  vacant,  or 
by  transferring  the  duties  of  one  office  to  another,  or  finally 
also  by  means  of  impeachment.  State  vs.  Douglas.  26  Wis- 
consin 428,  and  Augusta  vs.  Sweeny,  44  Georgia  4G3. 

Frank  J.  Goodnow. 

Offset :  in  surveying,  a  short  distance  measured  at  right 
angles  to  a  straight  line  in  order  to  locate  the  position  of  a 
point.  The  method  of  determining  the  position  of  an  ir- 
regular line  by  means  of  offsets  is  to  run  a  straight  course 
in  the  general  direction  of  the  line,  and  at  suitable  points 
of  this  course  to  measure  offsets  to  the  line  in  question  ; 
then,  knowing  the  distance  of  each  offset  from  the  origin 
of  the  course,  the  length  of  each  offset,  and  its  direction, 
whether  to  the  right  or  left,  the  corresponding  points  of  the 
irregular  line  may  be  plotted.  The  method  of  offsets  is 
particularly  valuable  in  filling  in  the  outlines  of  a  topo- 
graphical survey,  and  especially  in  tracing  the  courses  of 
roads,  streams,  and  coast-lines. 

Ofterdiiigen.  oftfr-ding-en,  Heixrich,  von  :  the  name  of 
a  supposed  minnesinger  who  is  mentioned  in  the  Middle 
High  German  poem  Saengerkrieg  auf  der  Wartburg.  but  of 
whom  we  have  no  furtlier  reliable  accounts.  Despite  the  lat- 
ter fact  he  became  the  favorite  hero  of  the  romantic  school 
(Novalis),  and  was  at  one  time  even  supposed  to  be  the  au- 
thor of  the  Ifibelungenlied.  J.  G. 

Oaram :  See  Irisfi  L.vxguage  and  Literature. 

Oarar'ev,  XikolaI  Platen'ovich  :  author ;  b.  on  his  father's 
estate  in  the  government  of  Pensa.  Russia,  in  1818 :  d.  1877. 
During  a  trip  to  the  Caucasus  in  1838  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  tlie  banished  poet  Prince  Odoevskii,  with  whom  lie 
became  intimate  and  to  whom  he  addressed  some  of  his  ear- 
liest verses.  His  fii-st  poems  to  be  printed  appeared  in  the 
Otechest  vennyia  Zapis  ki  (Annals  of  the  Country)  in  1840, 
and  for  a  number  of  years  after  this  he  continued  to  con- 
tribute to  various  journals.  In  1848  Ogarev  settled  in  Lon- 
don, where  he  took  an  important  part  in  editing  Kntokol  (the 
Alarm  Bell)  and  other  revolutionary  publications  of  Hertzen, 
his  friend  from  college  days.  A  third  edition  of  his  poet- 
ical works  appeared  in  1863.  A.  C.  Coolidge. 

Og'den  :  city ;  capital  of  Weber  co..  Ut.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Utah,  ref.  3-L);  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ogden  and 
Weber  rivers,  the  mouth  of  Ogden  canon,  and  the  foot-hills 
of  the  Wasatch  Mountains;  on  the  Union  Pac,  the  Central 
Pac,  and  the  Rio  Grande  West,  railways:  37  miles  N.  of 
Salt  Lake  City.  It  derives  excellent  power  for  industrial 
purposes  from  the  rivers,  has  an  abundant  supply  of  water 
from  mountain  springs  and  good  natural  drainage,  and  is 
in  an  agricultural,  fruit-growing,  iron,  salt,  lime,  building- 
stone,  and  coal  region.  The  main  and  branch  railway  con- 
nections give  it  importance  as  a  commercial  receiving  and 
shipping  point.  It  contains  Ogden  Academy  (Congrega- 
tional), a  military  academy.  I'i  public  schools,  public-school 
property  valued  at  ?;250,600,  various  manufactories,  3  na- 
tional banks,  a  State  bank,  an  incorporated  bank,  a  loan 
and  trust  companv,  and  a  serai-weeklv.  a  monthlv,  and  3 
daily  periodicals.  'Pop..  (1880)  6,06S);  "(1890)  14,889;  (1895) 
15,828.  Editor  of  "  Standard." 

Ogdensbiirg' :  city  (known  as  the  "  Maple  City,"'  founded 
in  1749,  incorporated  in  1868)  and  port  of  entry;  St.  Law- 
rence CO.,  N.  Y.  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref. 
1-H);  at  the  confluence  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Oswe- 
gatchie  rivers ;  on  the  Central  Vt.  and  the  Rome,  Water- 
town  and  Ogdensliurg  railways :  ojiposite  Prescott,  Canada, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  steam-ferry ;  175  miles  X.  N.  W. 
of  Albany.  It  is  well  Ijuilt,  has  handsome  maple-shaded 
streets,  and  obtains  power  from  the  river,  which  serves 
tnany  mamifactories.  The  city  is  the  headquarters  of  a 
line  of  screw  steamers  jilying  "between  Chicago  and  inter- 
mediate lake  ports,  and  annually  handles  a  large  amount  of 
grain  and  lumber,  besides  general  lake  and  river  freight. 
There  are  a  U.  S.  Government  building,  a  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  several  public  parks,  public-school  property  val- 
ued at  $100,000,  large  grain  elevators  and  warehouses,  3 
libraries  containing  together  about  15,000  volumes,  a  na- 
tional bank,  a  State  bank,  ami  2  dailv  and  4  weeklv  news- 
papers. Pop.  (1880)  10.341  ;  (1890)  11.'662  :  (1892)  St"ate  cen- 
sus, 11,9.59.  Editor  of  "  Journal."' 

Og6,  5 '^ha',  Jacques  Vincent  :  one  of  the  forerunners  of 
Haitian  independence;  b.  at  Dondon  about  17.55.  He  was 
a  light  mulatto  of  a  wealthy  family ;  was  educated  in  Paris, 
and  served  in  the  army  of  one  of   the  German   electors. 


When  the  French  Revolution  broke  out  he  was  chosen  depu- 
ty for  Haiti  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  where  he  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  Amis  des  Noirs  society.  In  1790' 
he  organized  a  secret  expedition  in  the  U.  S.  with  the  object 
of  freeing  the  slaves  of  Haiti ;  landed  at  t'ape  Pran(;ais,  Oct. 
23.  with  250  men,  and  at  first  gained  some  partial  successes; 
but  he  was  soon  after  defeated,  and  gave  himself  up  on 
condition  that  his  lite  should  be  spared.  Notwithstanding 
this  he  was  broken  on  the  wheel  .at  Cape  Fran^-ais  Feb.  26, 
1791.  His  death  excited  the  colored  population  to  fury  and 
led  to  the  massacre  of  the  whites  soon  after.  H.  H.  .S. 

O^liaiu,  or  Ogam  :  See  Irish  Language  and  Litera- 
ture. 

OgU'shy.  Richard  James  ;  soldier  ;  b.  in  Oldham  co.,  Ky., 
July  25,  1824;  left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  eight  years,  he 
removed  to  Decatur,  111.,  in  1836 ;  learned  the  carpenter's 
traile,  which  with  farming  occupied  his  time  until  1844, 
meanwhile  studying  law,  and  in  1845  was  licensed  and  be- 
gan practice  at  Sullivan.  In  1846  he  returned  to  Decatur, 
and  was  commissioned  first  lieutenant  in  the  Fourth  Illi- 
nois Regiment  (Col.  E.  D.  Baker"s).  with  which  he  partici- 
pated at  Vera  Cruz  and  Cerro  Giordo.  Resuming  his  prac- 
tice at  Decatur  in  1847,  he  pursued  a  course  of  study  at  the 
Louisville  Law  School,  graduating  in  1848 ;  in  1849  he  jour- 
neyed overland  to  California  and  engaged  in  mining  until 
1851,  wlien  he  again  resumed  his  residence  and  practice  at 
Decatur.  In  1858  he  was  defeated  for  Congress,  but  was 
elected  to  the  State  Senate  in  1860,  which  seat  he  resigned, 
and  accepted  the  colonelcy  of  the  Eighth  Illinois  Volun- 
teers; commanded  a  brigade  at  capture  of  Forts  Henry  and 
Donelson ;  was  made  brigadier-general  Jlar.  21,  1862,  re- 
maining in  command  of  brigade  until  the  battle  of  Corinth, 
where  he  was  severely  wounded  and  disabled  until  Apr., 
1863,  when  he  returned  to  duty,  having  meanwhile  (Nov., 
1862)  been  promoted  to  be  major-general,  and  was  as- 
signed to  the  Sixteenth  Corps.  Resigned  May,  1864,  and 
in  November  of  that  vear  was  elected  Governor  of  Illinois 
(1865-69) ;  re-elected  i"n  1872,  but  chosen  IT.  S.  Senator  Jan., 
1873.  and  served  through  the  term  ending  1879 ;  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Illinois  1885-89. 

Oglethorpe,  James  Edward  ;  founder  of  the  State  of 
Georgia;  b.  in  London,  Dec.  21,  1698;  entered  the  army 
about  1712  ;  studied  at  Oxford  for  a  short  time  ;  served  un- 
der Prince  Eugene  and  Marlborough  1715-17;  entered  Par- 
liament in  1722  for  Haslemere ;  obtained  a  charter  in  1732 
and  a  grant  for  the  founding  of  Georgia  and  the  coloniza- 
tion of  poor  debtors  in  that  province ;  founded  Savannah 
1733;  received  the  Protestant  emigrants  of  Salzburg  1734. 
and  soon  after  revisited  England,  but  returned  to  Savannah 
with  John  and  Charles  Wesley  in  1735.  In  1738  he  took  a 
regiment  of  troops  thither,  and  after  war  was  declared  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Spain  he  commanded  the  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina  forces  in  an  invasion  of  Florida.  He 
made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  St.  Augustine  1741.  and  in 
1742  repelled  by  stratagem  the  attack  of  the  .Spaniards  upon 
Georgia;  returned  finally  to  Englaiul  1743;  served  against 
the  Pretender  1745.  and  was  court-martialed  for  miscon- 
duct 1746.  but  acquitted.  In  1765  he  retired  as  a  general 
upim  half  pay.  D.  at  Cranham  Hall.  Essex.  Jan.  30.  1785. 
See  biographies  bv  Harris  (Boston,  1841),  Wright  (Loudon, 
1867),  and  Bruce  (New  York,  1890). 

Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Ogowe :  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Western  Africa ; 
rises  between  2°  and  8'  S.  lat..  near  14"  E.  Ion.,  and  after  a 
general  N.  W.  course  for  about  300  miles,  turns  S.  W.  near 
the  equator,  then  W.,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  through 
many  streams,  forming  a  large  delta  extending  nearly  50' 
miles  along  the  coast  a  little  S.  of  the  ecpiator.  Many  at- 
tempts to  explore  the  Ogowe  were  defeated  by  the  natives, 
but  Savorgnan  de  Brazza  (beginning  in  187(1)  revealed  its 
entire  course,  which  is  considerably  impeded  by  cataracts. 
In  its  upper  reaches  the  Ogowe  traverses  wide  savanna-s, 
but  lower  down  runs  mostly  through  dense  forests.  There 
are  many  large  islands  in  the  lower  part,  where  the  river  is 
very  wide  and  shallow.  A  large  part  is  navigable  in  high 
water  by  light-draught  vessels  ;  many  Euro]iean  trading- 
posts  are  on  its  banks;  the  native  ]M>pulation  is  numerous; 
and  the  river  is  the  most  important  natural  factor  in  the 
work  of  developing  the  French  Congo  territory.    C.  C.  A. 

Og'yges  (in  Qr-'nyiyTts  anA'Clyvyos):  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, the  first  King  of  Thelies.  whose  oldest  gate  was  called 
after  him  the  Ogvgian.    During  his  time  the  waters  of  Lake 


r 


OlIAKA 


OHIO 


281 


Copais  rose  above  its  banks  and  inuncbitcd  the  whole  valley 
of  Bueotia.  An  O^ygian  deluge  is  also  spoken  of  in  Attiea, 
and  Ogygcs  himself  is  sometimes  represented  as  a  Ba'otian 
autochthon,  sometimes  as  an  Egyptian  king,  and  was 
brought  into  manifold  conneetions  with  the  earliest  leg- 
endary history  of  (ireece.      Revised  by  J.  ii.  S.  Sterrett. 

O'Hiira,  Theodore  :  soldier  and  |ioet ;  b.  at,  Danville, 
Ky.,  Feb.  11,  \>*'iO.  He  served  in  the  army  during  the 
Mexican  war.  and  afterward  practiced  law  at  Washington, 
I).  C.  On  the  outln-eak  of  the  civil  war  he  took  part  with 
the  South  and  became  a  colonel  in  the  Confederate  army. 
D.  near  Guerryton,  Ala..  June  6,  186T.  He  is  rememl)ered 
chiefly  by  his  very  popular  poem  The  Bivouac  of  the  Dead, 
written  to  commemorate  the  Kentuckians  killed  at  Buemi 
Vista  during  the  war  with  Mexico.  H.  A.  B. 

O'Higariii!*  '■  "u  interior  province  of  Chili.  S.  of  Santiago, 
from  which  it  was  separated  in  1883.  Area.  2,524  sq.  miles. 
The  eastern  portion  is  included  in  the  Andes ;  tlie  western 
part  is  in  the  "  valley  of  Chili  "  and  is  very  fertile,  produc- 
ing wheat,  wine,  fruits,  etc.  Near  Rancagua,  tlie  capital, 
there  are  celebrated  hot  springs.    Pop.  (1891)  92,893. 

O'Higgiiis  (Span.  pron.  o-ee'ge"ens).  Ambro.sio  :  adminis- 
trator; b.  in  County  Meath,  Ireland,  about  1T30.  llis  real 
name  was  Ambrose  Iliggins,  and  he  was  of  a  poor  and  re- 
spectable family.  His  uncle,  a  priest  in  Cadiz,  Spain,  took 
charge  of  his  education,  eventually  gave  him  a  small  outfit 
of  goods,  and  sent  liim  to  trade  in  South  America.  He 
landed  at  Buenos  Ayres  and  nuide  his  way  over  the  Andes 
to  Chili,  wliere  for  uumy  years  he  was  a  trader  and  peddler 
in  a  small  way.  Eventually  he  obtained  a  commission  in 
the  army,  distinguished  himself  in  the  Araucanian  wars, 
rapidly  rose  in  rank,  and  in  1788  was  nuide  captain-general 
of  Chili ;  Ijefore  this  time  he  had  changed  his  name  to 
O'Higgins,  as  a  more  aristocratic  form.  His  rule  was  very 
successful:  he  was  created  Marquis  of  Osorno.  and  in  1796 
was  nominated  Vicerov  of  Peru,  a  position  which  he  retained 
until  his  death  at  Lima,  Mar.  18,  1801.  H.  H.  S-MITH. 

0"Higrg:iiis,  Bernardo:  soldier:  illegitimate  son  of  Am- 
brosio  O'Higgins;  b.  at  Chilian.  Chili,  Aug.  20.  1776.  He 
was  educated  in  England,  where  he  associated  with  Miranda 
an<l  other  prominent  Spanish-American  republicans :  re- 
turned to  Cliili  in  1802.  joined  the  revolutionists  in  1810. 
and  soon  attained  pronunence  as  a  military  leader.  On  the 
deposition  of  Carrera  from  the  command  of  the  army  (1813) 
O'Higgins  was  chosen  to  fill  his  place.  The  violent  opposi- 
tion of  Carrera  and  his  faction  divided  the  country  into 
two  hostile  camps;  civil  war  was  impending,  when  the  ar- 
rival of  a  Spanish  army  froTn  Peru  foreeil  the  rivals  to 
combine  their  forces  against  the  common  foe.  Relying  on 
the  aid  promised  by  Carrera,  O'Higgins  encountered  Osorio 
at  Rancagua;  Carrera — intentionally,  as  was  charged — did 
not  re-enforce  him,  and  he  was  disastrously  defeated  tJct.  2, 
1814.  Chili  was  deserted  to  the  Spaniards,  and  the  patriot 
leaders  tied  over  the  Andes.  O'Higgins  joined  the  army  of 
San  Martin  at  Mendoza. ami  in  the  patriot  invasion  of  Chili 
(1817)  was  his  principal  lieutenant:  his  charge  decided  the 
victory  of  Chacabuco  Fel).  12.  1817,  and  the  consequent 
occupation  of  Santiago.  San  Martin  declined  the  o0ice  of 
supremo  director  of  Chili,  and  on  Feti.  15  it  was  given  to 
O'Higgins  with  dictatorial  powers.  O'Higgins  governed 
for  nearly  six  years,  during  which  the  last  Spaniards  were 
driven  from  Chili,  and  the  country  was  rapidly  developed  ; 
his  steady  su])]Kirt  of  San  JIartin  did  much  to  secure  the 
overthrow  of  the  Spaniards  in  Peru.  His  efforts  to  form  a 
popular  representative  government  were  less  successful ;  the 
opposition  of  the  aristocratic  party  and  of  the  old  adherents 
of  Carrera  at  length  led  ti>  a  revolution,  and  O'Higgins  wjis 
forced  to  resign  .Ian.  28,  182)i.  He  went  to  Peru,  and  died 
at  Lima,  Oct.  24,  1842.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Ohio  :  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  Xorth  America  (Xorth  Central 
grou|>);  the  fourth  State  admitted  into  the  Union;  popu- 
larly known  as  the  "  Buckeye  State." 

Location  and  Area. — It  lies  between  lat.  38°  27'  and  41" 
57'  N.,  and  Ion.  80°  34'  and  84  49  W. :  is  bounded  X.  by 
Michigan  and  Lake  Erie.  E.  by  Pennsylvania  and  West 
Virginia,  S.  Iiy  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  anil  W.  liy 
Indiana;  greatest  length  from  Vi.  to  W.  aliout  215  miles, 
greatest  breadth  from  X.  to  S.  about  210  inilis;  area,  41,- 
060  s(|.  miles,  of  which  300  sq.  miles  are  w.iter  surface. 

I'/ii/xical  Features. — The  surface  consists  of  an  undulating 
plain,  from  450  to  1..550  feet  above  the  sea-h>vel.  The  high- 
est point  is  near  Bellefontaine.  in  Logan  County,  wiiicli  lias 


an  altitude  of  1.5.50  feet.  The  higliest  extended  portions 
are  in  the  central  part,  while  the  watershed  separating  the 
St.  Lawrence  system  from  the  Jlississippi  valley  .system 
runs  from  X.  E.  to  S.  W.  across  the  State,  attaining  an 
average  height  of 
from  1,100  to  1.300 
feet.  This  divid- 
ing range  enters 
the  State  in  Ash- 
tabula County  but 
a  few  miles  from 
Lake  Erie,  and 
crosses  irregiilarl\ 
to  the  central  weM 
ern  border,  pars- 
ing thence  S.  W. 
into  Indiana.  The 
northern  side  of 
this  watershed  is 
naturally  smaller 
and  the  rivers  are 
shorter,  though  the 
descent  from  I  lie 
high  central  table- 
land is  more  gentle 
than  in  the  southern  slope.  In  the  northwestern  part  the 
lands  were  originally  swampy.  There  are  a  few  small  lakes 
in  .some  of  the  western  counties.  The  rivers  in  the  northern 
or  St.  Lawrence  system  emptying  into  Lake  Erie  are  the 
Maumee,  Sandusky,  Huron.  \'ermili(ui.  Black,  Rocky.  Cuya- 
hoga. Chagrin,  Grand.  Ashtabula,  and  Conneaut.  In  the 
southern  system  as  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  are  the  iMahon- 
ing,  the  Walhonding,  and  Tuscarawas,  which  unite  to  form 
tlie  Muskingum,  the  Scioto,  Little  Miami,  and  Great  Miami. 
Of  these  only  the  Maumee  is  navigable,  and  that  for  only 
about  20  miles  from  Lake  Erie. 

(feifhii/y. — The  entire  geological  series  of  Ohio  consists  of 
stratified  rocks  of  Pala'ozoic  time,  having  an  aggregate 
thickness,  if  the  average  of  the  different  strata  be  reckoned, 
of  about  3.500  feet.  The  important  geological  feature  is  the 
Cincinnati  axis  or  anticlinal.  The  main  fold  extends  X.  W. 
from  Southwestern  Ohio  into  Indiana,  and  thence  an  off- 
shoot extends  N.  E.  across  Ohio  to  the  islands  of  Lake  Erie. 
From  this  Cincinnati  axis  the  strata  dip  gently  on  the  two 
sides  in  a  W.  and  S.  E.  direction.  The  Trenton  limestone 
underlies  Xorthcrn  and  Western  Ohio  at  a  depth  of  from 
l.OUO  to  2.000  feet,  whence  it  has  been  traced  to  the  extreme 
southwestern  part,  where  it  shows  an  outcrop.  The  Utica 
black  shale,  which  overlies  this  in  the  X.  W.,  shows  an  outcrop 
nowhere  in  the  State.  The  Hudson  River  group  underlies 
the  entire  State,  and  covers  in  the  outcrop  about  4.000  sq. 
miles  in  the  S.  W.  It  consists  of  alternate  layers  of  lime- 
stone and  shale.  The  Medina  shales  (red  or  yellow  non- 
fossiliferous  shales)  and  the  Clinton  limestone  occur  as  out- 
crops only  in  the  southern  and  soutliwestern  part.  The 
Clinton  limestone  yields  small  quantities  of  petroleum,  at  a 
few  points  is  the  source  of  gas,  and  occasionally  contains 
hematite  ore,  but  not  in  workable  quantities.  The  Xiagara 
group,  shales  and  limestones.  occu]iies  about  3.000  S(|.  miles 
in  its  outcrop'  in  the  W.  and  S.  Tlie  Lower  Iblderberg 
limestone  occupies  a  large  area,  though  it  is  covered  for  the 
most  part  by  drift  deposits.  The  outcrop  of  the  Devonian 
limestone  (Upper  Heldcrberg  or  Corniferous)  is  found  in  a 
narrow  strip  running  from  the  center  of  the  State  to  the  X. 
and  including  the  islands  in  Lake  Erie,  also  in  a  similar 
belt  through  the  northwestern  counties.  The  Ohio  shale 
overlies  the  preceding  in  Central  Ohio,  and  in  its  outcrop 
stretches  in  a  belt  from  10  to  20  miles  across  the  center  of 
the  State.  The  natural  gas  ami  the  petroleum  of  Xorlh- 
eastern  Ohio  come  from  tlicse  shales.  Passing  from  the 
Devonian  system,  the  Subcarboniferous  system  brings  in 
the  Waverly  group  of  shales  and  san<lstones,  which  sliow  a 
broad  licit  across  the  Stale,  immediately  E.  of  the  Devonian 
shale  outcrop,  and  forms  the  western  rim  of  the  coal-basin 
which  occupies  all  of  the  eastern  and  southeastern  parts.  Of 
the  five  strata  making  up  the  Waverly  group  the  most  im- 
portant is  the  Berea  grit,  which  is  a  source  of  fine  building- 
stone  and  of  grindstone  grit,  and  where  it  dips  beneath  the 
surface  is  the  repositorv  of  invaluable  su|iplies  of  petroleum, 
gas,  and  salt  water,  "the  Carboniferous  system,  including 
the  Conglomerate  series  and  the  coal-measures,  form  the 
surface  of  about  one-quarter  of  the  State,  extending  from 
the  Waverly  group  to  and  beyond  the  southeastern  bound- 
arv.     The  Conglomerates  and  the  lower  coal-measures  con- 


282 


OHIO 


tain  thirteen  distinct  seams  of  bituminous  coal,  while  in  the 
upper  coal-measures  there  are  ten  seams,  less  valuable  than 
those  in  the  lower  measures.  The  different  seams  vary 
widely  in  character,  but  embrace  all  varieties  of  bituminous, 
steam,  coking,  gas,  and  eannel  coal.  Tlie  seams  range  in 
thickness  from  a  few  inches  to  18  feet.  The  lower  measures 
furnish  the  greater  portion  of  the  coal  mined  in  the  State. 
The  amount  of  coal  in  this  district  is  estimated  by  Prof. 
Orton  at  20,000,000,000  tons,  or,  at  the  ordinary  rate  of  con- 
sumption, sufficient  to  supply  the  demand  for  1,000  years. 
These  seams  in  all  the  coal-measures  occur  in  interstratiflca- 
tion  with  shales,  limestone,  fire-clays,  and  iron  ore.  The 
glacial  drift  covers  about  two-thirds  of  the  State  with  sand, 
gravel,  and  clay  to  the  depth  of  from  2.5  to  300  feet. 

Mineral  Productions.— The  mineral  resources  of  Ohio  are 
such  as  to  give  her  a  prominent  place  among  the  States. 
While  the  variety  of  her  mineral  products  is  not  large,  they 
represent  a  vast  amount  of  capital,  and  the  volume  and  val- 
ue of  the  productions  are  annually  increasing  in  nearly  every 
line.  She  ranked  fifth  among  the  States  in  value  of  mineral 
productions  for  the  census  year  1889-90,  which  is  given  as 
$26,6.53,439.  In  the  production  of  iron  ore  there  has  been  a 
marked  falling  off,  the  output  in  1886  being  344,484  tons; 
in  1889,  2.52,409  tons  ;  and  in  1892,  89,732  tons.  In  1859  the 
first  well  was  drilled  in  the  U.  S.  for  petroleum.  Ohio  had  a 
fairly  conspicuous  part  in  the  great  economic  movements 
resulting  from  this  beginning,  and  has  made  several  uni(iue 
contributions  to  the  subject.  Tlie  oil-field  of  Mecca.  Trum- 
bull County,  is  one  of  these.  It  yields  a  heavy  luliricating 
oil  of  great  excellence  fi'om  wells  only  30  to  50  feet  deep,  the 
oil  being  drawn  by  buckets  as  in  ordinary  water-wells.  The 
Macksburg  oil-field  of  Noble  and  Washington  Counties  was 
the  first  in  the  State  to  attain  large  proportions.  Better  than 
its  oil  production  is  the  knowledge  that  it  has  yielded  of  the 
laws  of  petroleum  accumulation.  In  its  best  year,  1885-86, 
it  yielded  fully  750,000  barrels.  In  1873  the  inftaramable  gas 
that  always  accompanies  oil  was  first  turned  to  account  in  a 
large  way.  An  iron-mill  in  Pittsburg  was  supplied  with 
gaseous  fuel  brought  in  by  a  pipe  line  from  a  well  10  or  12 
miles  distant.  This  led  to  the  drilling  of  deep  test-wells  in 
almost  every  county  in  Ohio,  and  one  of  these  wells,  drilled 
in  Pindlay  in  Nov.,  1884,  led  to  the  most  surprising  discov- 
ery ever  made  m  the  economic  geology  of  the  State,  namely, 
that  the  Trenton  limestone  of  Lower  Silui-ian  age  is,  under 
certain  condition.s,  a  prolific  source  of  gas  and  oil.  The 
surface  rocks  of  Northwestern  Ohio,  which  are  Upper  Silu- 
rian limestones,  hold' at  a  depth  of  1,000  to  1,500  feet  reser- 
voirs of  oil  tliat  yield  not  less  than  5,000  barrels  to  the  acre, 
and  volumes  of  gas,  under  a  pressure  of  400  to  600  lb.  to  the 
square  inch,  flowing  out  at  a  rate  of  10.000,000,  20,000,000,  or 
30,000,000  cubic  feet  a  day.  The  Trenton  limestone  also  fur- 
nishes by  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  illuminating  oils  of 
the  U.  S.  The  natural  gas  of  Ohio  is  used  to  a  large  extent 
in  manufacturing,  especially  glass-making ;  also  for  domes- 
tic fuel,  both  in  and  out  of  the  State.  (See  Natural  Gas.) 
The  gas  used  in  Columbus,  Newark,  and  Lancaster  is  derived 
from  the  Clinton  formation  of  Upper  Silurian  age,  and  the 
fact  that  this  stratum  is  petroliferous  is  another  contribu- 
tion of  Ohio  to  the  knowledge  of  this  class  of  products. 
Of  crude  petroleum  the  annual  output  has  increased  over 
three  hundredfold  since  1880.  The  nature  and  amount  of 
the  mineral  productions  of  Ohio  for  the  census  year  (1889- 
90),  together  with  her  rank  in  each,  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS. 


Bituminous  coal,  tons 

Crude  petroleum,  barrels 

Sandstone,  cubic  feet 

Limestone,  value 

Lime  burned,  barrels 

Gypsum,  tons 

Natural  gas,  receipts  from  consumers. 


9,976,787 
12,471,466 
16,016,2.58 
$1.514.9.34 

l,725.a36 

3 
2 
1 

3 

9,920 
$1,120,997 

3 

In  1893  the  production  of  coal  was  14,.599,908  tons ;  of  fire 
clay,  1,253,110  tons.  The  clays  constitute  a  resource  which 
is  already  the  basis  of  a  large  industry  that  seems  destined 
to  become  one  of  the  foremost  in  the  State.  Ninety-eight 
per  cent,  of  all  the  grindstones  produced  in  the  U.  S.  are 
from  Ohio.  The  State  ranks  second  in  number  of  stone 
quarries  of  all  kinds  and  in  value  of  their  products. 

Soil  and  Prorlnrtion«. — In  the  southea-stern  ])ortion  the 
soils  are  formed  directly  from  the  underlying  and  outcrop- 
ping rocks,  while  in  the  rest  of  the  .Slate,  aliove  the  line  of 
the  terminal  moraine,  llie  .soil  is  of  foreign  origin,  being  de- 


rived from  tlie  clay  and  gravel  of  the  drift,  a  mixture  of 
the  various  formations  lying  in  the  path  of  the  glacial  ice. 
These  drift-soils  fall  into  three  classes — the  limestone  soils 
in  the  western  part  of  the  State,  the  clay  of  the  uplands,  and 
the  swamp  lands,  especially  of  the  northwe-st.  Of  these  the 
fii'st  two  are  the  best,  and  are  excellently  adapted  to  agri- 
culture. The  uplands  are  especially  suited  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  wheat,  and  every  cereal  product  which  the  latitude 
permits  is  raised  in  the  State.  In  the  northeastern  part 
dairy  products  constitute  the  great  staple.  Of  the  soils  out- 
side the  drift-covered  area,  the  limestone  in  the  extreme 
eastern  and  southeastern  counties  are  among  the  best  in  the 
State.  Many  of  the  soils  are  well  adaptetl  for  fruits  and 
berries,  which  are  raised  in  great  abundance.  The  grape  is 
largely  cultivated. 

The  native  trees  embrace  eighty-eight  known  varieties,  the 
most  common  of  which  are  the  oaks,  hickories,  maples,  elms, 
the  ash,  poplar,  and  beech.  Fourteen  varieties  of  oaks  are 
found,  including  the  white  (the  most  common  tree  in  the 
State),  red,  black,  yellow,  burr,  swamp  Spanish,  and  swamp 
white ;  four  varieties  of  maple ;  six  of  hickory ;  three  of 
elm  ;  white,  red,  green,  blue,  and  black  ash  ;  papaw  ;  bass- 
wood  ;  buckeye;  yellow  and  honey  locust;  catalpa;  butter- 
nut; black  walnut;  three  varieties  of  birch — cherry,  yel- 
low, and  red  ;  chestnut ;  beech  ;  five  varieties  of  poplar,  in- 
cluding the  quaking  ash,  cottonwood,  and  balsam  poplar ; 
five  varieties  of  pine  ;  hemlock  ;  and  tamarack.  The  flora 
of  the  State  embraces  a  wide  variety  and  large  number  of 
species,  but  none  peculiar  to  Ohio. 

Agriculture  has  always  been  the  leading  occupation, 
though  the  value  of  the  land  has  decreased  in  common  with 
that  of  immediately  neighboring  States.  This  fact,  due  in 
great  measure  to  the  opening  of  the  trans-Mississippi  lands, 
is  beginning  to  produce  its  effects  in  changing  the  character 
of  Ohio  agriculture.  While  the  cereal  products  still  continue 
far  in  the  lead,  fruit  and  truck  farming  are  receiving  in- 
creasing attention.  Ohio  is  the  foremost  State  in  the  num- 
ber of  sheep  and  the  amount  of  wool  produced,  while  dairy 
farming,  especially  in  the  Western  Reserve,  constitutes  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  and  extensive  occupations. 

The  following  summary  from  the  census  reports  of  1880 
and  1890  shows  the  extent  of  farm  oiierations  in  the  State : 


FARMS,  ETC. 


Total  number  of  farms 

Total  acreage  of  farms 

Value  of  farms,  with  buildings 
and  fences 


1880. 


247,189 
24,529,226 

$1,127,497,353 


251,430 
23,352,408 

81,050,031,828 


«l-7 
t4-8 


t  Decrease. 


*  Increase. 

The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  value  of 
the  principal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  1893 : 


CROPS. 

Acreage. 

Yield. 

Value. 

Corn          

2,709,549 

2,683,904 

952..300 

63.189 

34,955 

13,841 

41,659 

177,576 

2,486,295 

64,487,266  bush. 

38,916,608      ■• 

27,235,780     " 
960,473      " 
793,479     " 
166,092      " 

18,246,642  lb. 

]0,S99,4(B  bush. 
3,306,772  tons 

$25,794,906 

22,182,467 

Oats           

8,170,734 

451,423 

372,935 

99,655 

1,186,038 

Potatoes          

6,900,603 

33,233,059 

9,163,268 

$98,.S91,818 

On  Jan.  1,  1894,  the  farm  animals  comprised  864,360 
horses,  value  $47,408,225;  20.700  mules,  value  |1,230,326; 
767  735  milch  cows,  value  $19,915,046;  803,236  oxen  and 
other  cattle,  value  $16,780,881;  3.765.704  sheep,  value 
$8  506,725;  and  3,350,838  swine,  value  $15,046,303— total 
head,  8,573,573;  total  value,  $108,877,506. 

rv/mn^e.— The  location  of  the  State  subjects  it  to  the  cli- 
matic conditions  of  both  the  lake  region  and  the  Ohio-Mis- 
sissippi vallev.  and  hence  to  a  wide  range  in  temperature 
and  rainfall.  "  Not  only  is  the  annual  range  great,  but  the 
changes  are  often  sharp  and  sudden,  especially  in  the  central 
part.  The  summers  are  extremely  warm  in  the  southern 
part,  the  thermometer  not  infrequently  reaching  100'.  In 
the  central  section  the  heat  is  rarely  so  intense,  while  in  the 
north  it  is  materially  tempered  by  the  presence  of  the  large 
body  of  water  on  the  boundary.  'The  winters  are  quite  vari- 
alile",  seldom  rigorous  in  any  part  of  the  State,  but  occasion- 
allv  severe  in  the  northern  [)art,  where  the  snowfalls  are 
also  often  heavy.  In  general,  the  climate  is  healthful,  and 
has  proved  itself  conducive  to  vigorous  animal  and  vegeta- 


OLIIO 


283 


ble  growth.  The  fi>llc)\vin<r  table  presents  tlic  important 
facts  lis  to  temperatiii-e  and  rainfall,  and  is  hsused  on  the  oli- 
servationsof  the  Ohio  Weather  and  Crop  Service,  extending 
over  a  period  of  years : 


COUNTIES   AND   COUNTY-SEATS— CONTINUED. 


TEUPEIIATURE. 

PRECIPITATION. 

MONTHS. 

M«n. 

Mu. 

Mil. 

Meu. 

Hu. 

Min. 

January 

February 

26  0° 

31-3 
353 
49-8 
59-6 
099 
72-9 
699 
61  2 
518 
40-5 
32  5 

760 
80 
87 
95 
99 
102 
108 
104 
100 
99 
80 
78 

-W 

-18 

-17 

10 

21 

SI 

40 

33 

23 

12 

-8 

-32 

313  in. 

3-97 

2-85 

3-09 

4-60 

4-08 

3  37 

320 

290 

2-62 

3  06 

2-48 

8-33  in. 
10 -:w 

9  58 

9-49 
11-67 
10-88 
10-83 
11-53 
10-25 

8-39 

8-00 

6-52 

0-64  in. 
0  42 
0-;i3 

0-20 

May 

0-76 

0-63 

July 

0  07 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

0-10 
0-25 
0-11 
0-68 
0-50 

Year 

50-1 

108 

-34 

39-35 

Scioto 

Seneca 

Shelby 

Stark 

Summit 

Trumbull  ... 
Tuscarawas  . 

Union 

Van  Wert.. . . 
Vinton  — . .. 

Warren 

Washington  . 

Wayne 

Wilhams 

Wooii 

Wyandot 


Divisions.  —  For  administrative    purposes  the  State  is 
divided  into  eighty-eight  counties,  as  follows : 

COUNTIES  AND   COUNTr-SEATS,  WITH   POPULATION. 


Adams 

Alien 

Ashland 

Ashtabula 

Athens  

AuRlaize 

IJelmont 

Brown 

Butler 

Carroll 

Champaign  — 

Clark 

t;iermont 

Clinton 

C^olumbiana . . 
Coshocton  — 

Crawford 

Cuyahoga 

Darke  

Defiance 

Dehiware 

Kric    

J'airlield 

^'ay^*tte 

I''raiiklin 

Fulton 

Gallia 

Geauga 

l.Jreelie 

iruernsey 

Hamilton 

Hiiiiroek 

Ilanlin 

IlaiTison 

Hetiry 

Highland 

Hix-kiug 

Holmes 

Huron 

Jaekson  

.lefTiTson 

Knox 

I.ak.- 

Lawrence 

Licking 

I'Ogan 

Lorain 

Lucas 

Madison 

Mahoning 

Marion 

iVIediua 

Meit'S 

Mercer 

Miami 

Monroe 

Montgomery  . 

Morgan 

Morrow 

Muskingum.. , 

Noble 

Ottawa 

Paulding 

Perry 

Pickaway 

Pike 

Portage 

Preble 

Putnam 

Richland  .... 

Ross 

Sandusky 


8-D 

8-D 

3-G 

1-J 

7-G 

4-D 

5-1 

8-D 

6-C 

4-1 

.■j-D 

5-D 

7-C 

7-D 

3-J 

4-G 

3-F 

2-H 

5-C 

2-C 

4-E 

2-F 

6-F 

6-E 

5-E 

1-D 

8-Q 

2-1 

6-D 

5-H 

7-C 

2-D 

3-D 

4-1 

2-D 

7-D 

6-F 

4-G 

2-F 

7-F 

4-JI 

4-F 

l-I 

8-F 

5-F 

4-D 

2-G 

1-E 

.VE 

8-J 

4-E 

2-G 

7-G 

4-C 

5-C 

6-1 

6-C 

6-H 

4-F 

5-0 

6-H 

1-E 

2-C 

6-G 

6-E 

7-E 

3-1 

6-C 

8-D 

3-F 

7-E 

a-E 


Fop. 


ai,oo5 

31,314 

23,883 

37,139 

28,411 

25,444 

49,638 

32,911 

42,.579 

16,416 

27,817 

41,948 

30,713 

24,756 

48,602 

26,642 

30,58;3 

196,943 

40,496 

22,515 

27,381 

32,640 

34,21*1 

20,.364 

86,797 

21.053 

28,124 

14,251 

31, .349 

27,197 

313,374 

27,784 

27,023 

20,4.16 

20,585 

30,281 

21,126 

30,776 

31,609 

23,686 

33,018 

27,431 

16.326 

39,068 

40,150 

26,267 

,35„526 

67,.377 

20,129 

42,871 

20,565 

21.453 

82,825 

21,808 

.36.158 

26,496 

78,550 

20,074 

19,072 

49,774 

21,188 

19,762 

18,485 

28,218 

27,415 

17,927 

27,500 

24,583 

23,713 

.36,306 

•10,:i07 

.'i2,0.)7 


Pop. 

1890. 


28,093 

40,644 

22,223 
43,655 
35.194 
28.100 
57,413 
29,899 
48,597 
17,566 
26,980 
52,277 
33,553 
24,240 
59,029 
26.703 
31,927 

309,970 
42,961 
25,769 
27,189 
35,462 
33.939 
22,:»9 

124,087 
22,023 
27.005 
13,489 
29.8-20 
28,645 

374,573 
42.563 
28.939 
20.8:W 
25.080 
29,048 
22.B58 
21,139 
31,949 
28,408 
39,415 
27,600 
18,2.-i5 
39,.556 
43,'279 
27,:)86 
40,295 

102,996 
20,0,57 
,'),5,979 
24,727 
21,742 
29.813 
27.2-JO 
39,7.>1 
25,175 

100,K)2 
19,113 

is,rjii 

51,210 
20,7.M 
21.974 
2.5,932 
31,1.51 
26,9.59 
17,482 
27,868 
2:).421 
30.188 
38.072 
39,4.54 
30,617 


COUNTY-SEATS. 


West  Union 

Lima 

Ashland 

Jefferson 

Athens 

Wapakoneta 

St.  Clairsville 

Georgetown 

Hamilton 

CarroUton 

Urbana  

Springfield 

Batavia 

Wilmington 

Lisbon 

Cosliocton 

Bucyrus 

Cleveland 

Green\'ille 

Defiance 

Delaware    

Sandusky 

Lancaster 

Washington  C.-H 

Columbus 

Wauseon 

Gallipolis 

Chardon  

Xeuia 

Cambridge 

Cincinnati 

Findlay 

Kenton 

Cadiz 

Napoleon 

HUlsboro 

Logan 

Millersburg 

Norwalk 

Jackson 

Steubenville 

Mt.  Vernon 

Painesville 

Ironton 

Newark 

Bellefontaiue 

Elyria 

Toledo 

London  

Youngstown 

Marion 

Medina 

Pomeroy 

tVlina 

Troy 

Woodsfleld 

Dayton  t 

'  Mc'Connellsville . . 

Mt.  Iiilea<l 

Zant'sville 

Calilwell   

Port  Clinton 

Paulding 

New  Lexington .. 

Circleville 

Waverly 

Ravenna 

Katon 

Ottawa 

!iIansHeld 

Chlllicothe 

Fremont 


Pop. 

1890, 


825 
15,981 
3,566 

i,:M6 

2,G20 

3,610 
1,191 
1,478 

17,,5M 
1,228 

6,510 

31,895 
9,53 

3,079 
2,278 
3,672 
5,974 
261,353 
5,473 
7,694 
8,224 

18,471 
7,6.55 
5.742 

88,1.50 
2,060 
4,498 
1,084 
7,301 
4,361 
296,908 

18.553 
5,.557 
1,716 
2,704 
3,620 
3.119 
1,923 
7,195 
4,320 

13,394 
6,027 
4,765 

10,939 

14,270 
4,245 
5,611 

81,434 
3,313 

33,220 
8,327 
2,073 
4,726 
2,702 
4,494 
1,031 

61,220 
1,771 
1,3-29 

21.009 
1.248 
2.049 
1,879 
1,470 
6,.556 
1.567 
3,417 
2,9:il 
1,717 
13,473 
11,288 
7,141 


Totals  . 


•Kef. 


8-E 
2-E 
4-C 
8-H 
2-H 
2-J 
4-H 
4-E 
3-C 
7-F 
6-C 
7-H 
3-G 
1-C 
2-D 
3-E 


Fop. 
ISSO. 


33,511 
38,947 
24,137 
64,031 
43,788 
44,880 
40,198 
22,375 
23,028 
17,223 
28,392 
43,'244 
40,076 
23,821 
34,022 
22,395 


Fop. 

1390. 


35,377 

40,869 
24,7W 
84,170 
,54,089 
42,373 
46.618 
22.860 
29.671 
16,045 
25.468 
42,380 
39,005 
24,897 
44,.S92 
21,722 


3,198,063    3,672,316 


COUNTY-SEATS. 


Portsmouth 

Tiffin 

Sidney 

Canton 

.\kron 

Warren 

New  Philadelphia 

Marysville 

Van  Wert 

McArthur 

Lebanon 

Marietta 

Wooster 

Bryan 

Bowling  Green 

Upper  Sandusky. 


Pop. 
1890. 


12,394 

10,801 

4,850 

26,189 

27,W1 

5,973 

4.456 

2.810 

5,512 

888 

3,050 

8,273 

5.901 

3.068 

3.467 

3,572 


*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  Ohio. 

i  Since  the  census  was  taken  the  court  of  common  pleas  of  Mont- 
gomery County  has  decided  that  the  annexation  of  that  part  of  Day- 
tun  city  included  in  Harrison,  Jlad  River,  and  Van  Buren  townships 
was  illegal.  The  population  of  this  territory  is  3,242,  and  is  included 
in  total  for  Dayton  city. 

Principal  Cities  and  Villages,  with  Population,  for  1S90. 
—Cincinnati,  296.908;  Cleveland,  2(il.:!.i:i;  Columbus,  88,- 
150;  Toledo,  81,4;J4 ;  Davton,  61,220;  Youngstown,  33,220; 
Springfield,  81,895;  Akron,  27,601  ;  Canton,  26,189;  Zanes- 
ville,  21,009;  Pindlav,  18,553;  Sandusky,  18,471;  Hamilton, 
17,565;  Lima,  15,98i  ;  Newark,  14,270';  Mansfield,  13,473; 
Steubenville,  13,394;  Portsmouth,  12,394;  Chillieothe,  11,- 
288 ;  East  Liverpool,  10,956  ;  Ironton,  10,939  ;  Tiffin,  10,801 ; 
and  Massillon,  10,092.  There  were  seventy  cities  and  vil- 
lages with  a  population  of  4,000  and  upward  each. 

Population  and  Races.— imO,  2,339,511;  1870.  2,665,260; 
1880,  3,198,062  ;  1890,  3,672,316  (native,  3,213,023 ;  foreign, 
4.59,293;  males,  1,855,736  ;  females,  1,816,.580;  white,  3,584,- 
805  ;  colored,  87,511,  comprising  87.113  persons  of  African 
descent,  183  Chinese,  22  Japanese,  and  193  civilized  Indians). 

Industries  and  Business  Intere.fts. — Ohio  is  among  the 
foremost  States  in  variety  and  amount  of  her  industrial 
products.  In  1890  it  ranked  third  in  the  number  of  manu- 
facturing establishments;  fifth  in  amount  of  capital  in- 
vested, value  of  product,  and  wages  paid ;  and  fourth  in 
number  of  persons  employed.  The  total  number  of  estab- 
lishments was  28,673,  employing  331,548  persons.  The 
capital  invested  was  .«;402,793.0"l9 ;  wages  paid,  $158,768,883  ; 
cost  of  materials  used,  $341,016,464  ;  and  value  of  products, 
$641,688,064.  The  following  table  includes  the  chief  indus- 
tries in  1890 : 


*  Reference  for  location  of  counties.  se<'  map  of  Ohio. 


INDUSTRIES. 


Agricultural  implements 

Boots  and  shoes,  factory  product 

Brick  and  tile 

Carriages  and  wagons 

Clothing,  men's,  factory  product . . . 
Clothing,  women-s,  factory  product . 

Coffee  and  spice,  roa^stiug.  etc 

Flouring  and  grist  mill  products 

Foundry  and  machinesliop  products. 

Furniture 

Glas 


Iron  and  steel 

Iron  and  steel,  nails  and  spikes . 

Ix'ather 

Ijiciuors,  distilled 

Liquors,  malt 

Lumber,  planing-mill  products.. 


Paper  

Petroleum-refining 

Printing  and  publishing 

Saddlery  and  harness 

Shipbuilding 

Slaughtering  and  meat-packing.. 

T(»bacco  (chewing,  snuff,  etc.) 

Tobacco  (cigars  and  cigarettes). . 


C«plt«l. 

employed. 

$29,399,930 

8,.326 

3,176,318 

5,991 

6.212.«i8 

9.301 

13,9.52.571 

l(l..504 

I3.106.-29(l 

16,3.57 

2.(1.56.4.55 

2,636 

1.4I7.7'2K 

608 

13,472.4.55 

4,290 

32.5S9.r98 

26,028 

7,255,804 

6.408 

4,094,677 

6.651 

31,865.847 

21,373 

3,723,812 

2,6.54 

4,380,015 

1.509 

2,109,879 

484 

21,491.924 

3.4SH 

7.908,742 

5,938 

3.900,.580 

824 

7,581, .536 

3,042 

15.871. i:« 

2.281 

11.442.602 

10.791 

2.694.665 

8.208 

2.950.811 

2.822 

3.582.,540 

l.t«i3 

2,105,848 

1,940 

2,729,275 

6,575 

Value  of 
product. 

$14,333,258 

8.489,728 

5,813,437 

18,777,866 

20,6(14,134 

4.352,098 

7,806,763 

39,468,409 

43,617,072 

8,780,689 

5,649,182 

57,1.34,110 

7,929,912 

6,701,670 

12,033,884 

15,899,629 

12,910,538 

4,528,764 

7,209,750 

16..343.493 

17.015.401 

6.340.455 

3.804.8.38 

17.012.198 

5,991,177 

7,024.748 


Finanre.— The  value  of  property  in  1892,  the  basis  for 
taxation  of  1893,  was:  Real  estate  in  cities  and  villages, 
$.581.57.5,849;  real  estate  not  in  cities  and  villagt>s,  $58."),729,- 
798;  personal  property,  .*.563,ll.")0,S20— total,  $1,731,2.">6,4()7. 

The  rate  of  taxation"  for  1893  for  State  purposes  was  2-75 
mills  per  dollar.  The  total  taxes  levied  were  $37.682.93!).38, 
of  which  $4,759,127.23  were  for  State  puriioses,  $9,436,920- 
.05  for  county  purjioses,  and  $23,486,892.07  for  township, 
city,  school,  aiid  special  purposes.  The  receipts  of  the  State 
for  general  purposes  in  1892  were  $3,740,298.10;  exiiendi- 


284 


OHIO 


tures,  13.762,535.03.  The  funded  State  debt,  Nov.  15,  1892, 
was  $2,041,665. 

Banking. — On  May  4, 1893,  there  were  in  operation  in  the 
State  219  national  banks,  with  capital  of  §27,356,845 :  surplus 
and  undivided  profits.  $9,758,726;  circulation,  $l^,073,»32  ; 
deposits,  165,882,345.  In  1892  there  were  86  State  banks, 
with  capital  of  $7,618,325  and  deposits  of  $30,308,570;  12 
stock  savings-banks,  with  capital  of  $1,860,000,  and  deposits 
of  $9,659,304 :  4  mutual  savings-banks,  with  deposits  of  $24,- 
946,909  ;  and  229  private  banks,  with  capital  of  $4,732,435. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. — On  Jan.  1,  1894,  there  were 
3,291  post-offices,  of  which  186  were  presidential  (8  first-class, 
53  second-class,  125  third-class)  and  3,105  fourth-class,  with 
1,056  money-order  offices,  23  money-order  stations,  and  39 
postal-note  offices.  Of  newspapers  and  periodicals  there 
were  140  daily,  4  tri-weckly,  24  serai-weekly,  775  weekly,  3 
bi-weekly,  19  "semi-monthly,  125  monthly,  2  bi-monthly,  and 
16  quarterly  publications;  total,  1,108. 

Cleans  of  Communication. — In  Jan.,  1894,  there  were  in 
the  State  8,'643-18  miles  of  railway  (all  but  191-4  miles  being 
of  standard  gauge),  owned  by  88  corporations  and  operated 
under  .54  systems.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  system  operated 
the  lines  of  12  distinct  corporations  within  the  State,  and 
the  Pennsylvania  Company  10  lines.  The  State  is  crossed 
by  five  of  the  great  east  and  west  trunk  lines,  viz. :  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michi- 
gan Southern,  the  Xew  York,  Lake  Erie  and  Western,  and  the 
New  York,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis.  The  Cleveland,  Cincin- 
nati, Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  the  Columbus,  Hocking  Valley 
and  Toledo,  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  and  Dayton,  the  Co- 
lumbus, Sandusky  and  Hocking,  the  Norfolk  and  Western, 
and  others  traverse  the  State  from  N.  to  S.,  and  aflEord  with 
many  smaller  lines  thorough  facilities  for  the  distribution 
of  Ohio's  products  and  especially  those  of  the  coal  districts. 
The  cost  of  the  railways  within  the  State  was  $431,455,825; 
cost  of  equipment,  $59,333,385 ;  net  earnings  were  .$29,565,- 
216  :  and  dividends  paid,  $12,600,728. 

There  are  four  canals,  built,  owned,  and  operated  by  the 
State,  having  an  aggregiite  length  of  697  miles,  distributed 
as  follows  :  Ohio  Canal  (from  Lake  Erie  at  Cleveland  to  the 
Ohio  river  at  Portsmouth),  including  feeders,  334  miles ; 
Miami  and  Erie  Canal  (from  the  Ohio  river  at  Cincinnati  to 
Lake  Erie  at  Toledo),  including  branches,  282  miles;  Hock- 
ing Canal  (branch  of  the  Ohio  Canal),  56  miles;  Walhonding 
Canal,  25  miles.  The  total  cost  of  construction  was  $14,340,- 
572.99 ;  the  total  expenditures  for  superintendence  and  re- 
pairs to  Nov.  15,  1892,  were  $10,068,747.12;  total  receipts, 
$15,878,875.  For  many  years  the  earnings  were  largely  in 
excess  of  the  expenses,  and  the  canals  added  many  times 
their  cost  to  the  value  of  commodities  produced,  in  lessening 
the  cost  of  transportation  to  the  markets,  but  for  several 
years  they  have  been  operated  at  a  loss. 

Churches. — The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  an  arch- 
diocese, Cincinnati,  and  two  dioceses,  Cleveland  and  Colum- 
bus; and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  divides  the  State 
into  the  dioceses  of  Ohio  and  Southern  Ohio.  Tlie  census  of 
1890  gave  the  following  statistics  of  the  religious  bodies  hav- 
ing a  membership  in  the  State  of  5,000  and  upward  : 


DEN0MINAH0NS. 


Roman  Catholic 

Methodist  Episcopal 

Presb.  in  the  U.  S.  of  America 

Baptist.  Regular 

Piseiples  ofX'hrist 

United  Brethren  in  Christ 

Reformed  Church  in  the  U.  S 

Con^egational 

German  Evan,  Synod  of  N.  A 

Lutheran,  Joint  Syn.  of  Ohio,  etc. 

Christian 

M.-tliodist  Protestant 

Lutheran,  General  Synod 

Pr'  il<'stant  Episcopal 

Lutheran,  (Jeneral  Council 

Lutheran,  Sj-nodical  Conference. 

United  Presb^-terian 

Evangelieal  .\ssoriation 

German  P'.van.  Protest,  of  N.  A  . . 

Friends,  Orthodox 

African  Methodist  Episcopal 

Brethren,  or  Dunkards,  Conserva- 
tive   

Bapt  ist .  FYee-will 

Jews,  Reformed 

United  Brethren  in  Christ,  Old 
Constitution 


Or{!atiiza> 

ttODI. 

Cburchea 
and  halls. 

Members. 

586 

591 

.336.114 

a,.S40 

2,:333 

240.650 

618 

M7 

82,444 

616 

632 

5r.6a5 

475 

475 

54.425 

745 

725 

47.678 

294 

288 

35,W6 

847 

260 

32.281 

107 

107 

31.617 

191 

201 

31.261 

273 

265 

25,952 

2.** 

2:i3 

18.931 

189 

1S5 

18.4.37 

166 

191 

17.4.>1 

118 

114 

15.915 

54 

,55 

15.440 

136 

140 

14.710 

216 

210 

14.673 

22 

23 

11.793 

95 

97 

10.884 

111 

114 

10,025 

95 

1.33 

8.490 

128 

127 

6,982 

17 

17 

6,i)76 

2S0 

254 

5,822 

Value  of 

chureh 

property. 

S7..395.(>10 

8.749.970 

5.754.3.50 

2.543.888 

1,462.250 

1,198.870 

1.128,275 

2.044..5a^) 

836.200 

8:59.272 

392..500 

441.000 

1.0.39,9.50 

2,0(i9.787 

4«!.100 

409.975 

697..5.50 

491.975 

4:«.,1(10 

202.250 

318.250 

1.53..365 
149.350 
6.36.225 


Schools. — Ohio  was  the  recipient  of  the  first  gift  of  land 
from  Congress  for  the  support  of  public  education,  and  also 
received  the  first  grants  of  land  from  Congress  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  college  or  seminary  of  learning,  through  which 
grants  the  idea  of  a  State  university  became  firmly  fixed  in 
the  public  mind  as  an  essential  part  of  the  educational  sys- 
tem of  every  Western  State,  When  the  State  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  the  control  and  disposal  of  these  lands  jtassed 
to  it,  with  the  single  restriction  that  whatever  the  manner 
of  that  disposal  might  be  only  the  income  should  be  used 
for  the  purposes  specified.  The  State  at  first  leased  the 
lands  for  long  periods,  but  after  1827  the  policy  of  selling 
was  adopted.  The  proceeds,  borrowed  by  the  .State,  have 
been  constituted  a  permanent  irreducible  debt  on  which  the 
State  pays  6  per  cent,  interest.  Nearly  all  of  the  original 
grant  of  704,488  acres  has  been  sold,  producing  a  fund  the 
income  of  which  is  $203,696.56.  The  unsold  lands  are  leased. 
In  addition  to  this  income  there  is  levied  annually  a  tax  of 
1  mill  on  the  dollar  of  all  taxable  property  for  the  main- 
tenance of  a  State  common  school  fund,  which  is  distributed 
annually  to  each  county  in  proportion  to  school  enumera- 
tion. Since  1821  the  townships  and  school  districts  have 
had  authority  to  levy  taxes  for  tlie  further  support  of  schools. 
Finally,  fines  for  many  petty  offenses  are  by  law  payable  to 
the  townships  for  school  purposes.  Since  1889  a  compulsory 
education  law  has  been  in  force.  In  1892  there  were  1,136,- 
539  children  of  school  age,  of  whom  800,356  were  enrolled  in 
the  public  schools;  12,825  school  houses ;  .$244,013  income 
from  land  grant,  $1,693,494  from  common  school  fund,  |408,- 
255  from  fines,  licenses,  etc.,  $1,.509,984  from  sale  of  bonds, 
and  $8,757,138  from  local  taxes— in  all,  $12,612,886;  and 
school  property  valued  at  $34,527,816. 

The  land  given  by  Congress  in  1787  for  a  seminary  of 
learning  in  the  Northwest  Territory  passed  in  1803  to"  the 
Ohio  L'niversity  at  Athens.  Miami  University  at  Oxford 
became  in  like  manner  the  beneficiary  of  a  similar  grant  in 
the  Symmes  purchase  of  lands  in  the  Miami  valley.  Like 
the  Ohio  University,  its  trustees  are  nominated  by  the  Gov- 
ernor, and  both  institutions  receive  small  annual  apjiropria- 
tions  from  the  State  treasury.  The  Ohio  State  University 
at  Columbus  was  established  by  the  State  to  receive  the  con- 
gressional land  grant  of  1862.  '  In  1891  a  permanent  annual 
levy  of  one-twentieth  of  a  mill  on  the  taxable  property  of 
the  State  was  granted  to  this  university.  In  the  number  of 
colleges  Ohio  outranks  any  other  State.  Among  them  are 
several  well-known  denominational  institutions.  In  1890-91 
there  were  37  colleges,  with  727  professors  and  instructors, 
and  12.030  students  in  all  departments.  Among  the  best 
established  of  these  colleges  are  Adelbert,  Kenyon,  Marietta, 
Oberlin,  Ohio  Wesleyan,  Cincinnati,  and  Wooster.  There 
are  several  medical  colleges.  3  law  schools,  and  numerous 
commercial  colleges  in  the  State. 

Libraries. — According  to  a  \J.  S.  Government  report  on 
public  libraries  of  1.000  volumes  and  upward  each  in  1891, 
Ohio  had  193  libraries,  containing  1,320,099  bound  volumes 
and  171,977  pamphlets.  The  libraries  were  classified  as 
follows:  General,  39;  school  37;  college,  47;  college  so- 
ciety, 12;  law,  5;  theological,  9;  medical,  7;  public  insti- 
tution, 7  ;  State,  1 ;  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  4 ;  social,  12  :  .scientific,  5 ; 
historical,  3 ;  I.  0,  0.  F.,  2 ;  mercantile,  1 ;  historical  and 
scientific,  1 ;  historical  anil  theological,  1, 

Charitable.  Beformatury.  and  Penal  Institutions. — The 
care  of  the  insane,  deaf  and  dumb,  and  blind  is  enjoined 
upon  the  State  by  the  constitution,  and  systematic  provision 
has  lieen  made  for  these  and  other  dependent  classes,  as  well 
as  for  the  delinquent  classes.  The  general  organization  of 
these  in.stitutions  is  the  same.  The  affairs  of  each  are  man- 
aged and  officers  and  employees  selected  by  a  se|iarate 
board  of  trustees.  These  boards  usually  consist  of  five 
members  appointed  by  the  Governor  and  so  arranged  that 
the  terra  of  one  member  expires  each  year.  There  are  five 
State  hospitals  for  the  insane,  and  the  erection  of  a  sixth 
one,  near  Jlassillon,  was  provided  for  in  1893.  Those  in 
operation  are  at  Athens,  Cleveland,  Columbus,  Dayton,  and 
Toledo,  The  State  also  in  part  supports  the  Longvicw 
A.sylum  at  Carthage.  An  asylum  for  epileptics,  on  the  cot- 
tage plan,  near  Gallipolis,  was  authorized  in  1890,  For 
the  training  of  other  defective  classes  there  are  institutions 
for  feeble-minded  youth,  the  deaf  and  ilumb.  .and  the  blind 
— all  at  Columbus,  The  .State  has  also  provided  homes 
for  the  permanent  or  protracted  residence  of  certain  classes 
of  its  citizens,  as  follows:  Working  Home  for  the  Blind,  at 
Iberia;  Soldiers"  and  Sailors' Orphans"  Home, at  Xeiiia;and 
Soldiers'  and   Sailors'   Home,  at  Saiiduskv.     The   State  re- 


OHIO 


OHIO  KIVER 


285 


formatory  institutions  consist  of  a  boys'  imlustriiil  scliool. 
at  Lancaster,  and  a  girls'  industrial  home,  at  Delaware.  A 
State  reformatory  at  i'\IanslieUl  has  been  authorized,  which 
will  occupy  an  intermediate  |)osition  between  the  industrial 
homes  and  the  State  penitentiary  at  Columbus.  In  ad- 
dition there  are  children's  homes  in  forty  of  the  counties. 
and  an  infirmary  in  every  county.  A  State  board  of  chari- 
tie.s  and  correction,  consisting  of  six  members  appointed 
by  the  Governor,  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  investigating 
the  whole  system  of  pul)lie  duirities  and  correctional  insti- 
tutions, ami  of  examining  into  the  condition  and  manage- 
ment of  prisons,  jails,  infirmaries,  public  hospitals,  and  asy- 
lums. In  1803  the  expenditure  of  public  money  for  chari- 
table, ri'formatory,  and  penal  ]nn'poses  was  .^3.!(.")!l.704.3!». 

Political  Oryanizatiijii. — The  govennnent  of  Ohio,  while 
conforming  to  tlie  general  type  of  State  governments,  pre- 
.sents  a  few  peculiarities.  The  legislative  [)ower  is  vested  in 
a  General  Assembly  of  two  branohe.s,  chosen  biennially  and 
meeting  in  even-numbered  years;  but  since  1854  there  has 
always  been  an  adjourned  session  in  the  intermeiliate  year. 
The  normal  number  cjf  Senators  is  Jio,  of  Keprescntatives 
100,  but  by  a  peculiar  system  of  apportionment  the  whole 
number  is  generally  a  little  larger  or  a  little  snuiUer  (as,  in 
1893,  Senators  31,  Representatives  107).  The  ap|)ortion- 
ment  is  made  decennially  by  the  Governor,  auditor,  and 
secretary  of  State.  'J'he  concurrence  of  a  majority  of  all 
members  of  each  house  is  necessary  to  the  enactment  of  a 
law,  liut  the  approval  of  the  Governor  is  not  necessary. 
The  executive  <lepartnu'nt  is  vested  in  the  Governor  and 
the  usual  State  oUicers.  All  elected  .State  oHicers  are  chosen 
for  two  years,  exccjit  the  au<litor.  chosen  for  four  years,  and 
the  school  commissioner  and  members  of  the  l)oard  of  pub- 
lic works,  whoso  terms  are  three  years.  These  olliccrs  are 
divided  into  two  groups,  elections  for  which  occur  in  alter- 
nate years,  thus  necessitating  .State  elect  ions  each  year.  The 
Governor  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  military  forces. 
grants  reprieves  and  ]iardiins. and  exercises  such  apjiointing 
power  as  may  be  conferred  on  him  by  hiw.  lie  does  not 
possess  the  veto  power,  and  as  his  relation  to  the  apjiointive 
ofTiecs  is  depemU-nt  on  the  Legislature,  his  power  in  the  gov- 
ernment is  less  than  that  of  the  Governor  of  most  States. 
The  judicial  system  end)races  a  Supreme  Court,  circuit 
t'ourts,  and  courts  of  common  pleas.  The  Supreme  Court 
consists  of  six  judges  chosen,  one  each  year,  for  terms  (since 
1892)  of  six  years.  The  State  is  divided  into  eight  circuits  with 
three  judges  in  each,  chosen,  one  every  two  years,  for  terms 
of  six  years.  The  judges  in  each  circuit  sit  as  a  single  court. 
There  are  ten  common  pleas  districts,  nine  of  which  have 
three  sulxlivisions  each,  with  one  judge  in  each  subdivision, 
and  more  if  the  Legislature  so  provides.  The  common  pleas 
judges  are  elected  for  five  years.  The  elective  franchise  is 
limited  to  sane  male  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  over  twenty-one 
years  of  age  who  havi'  resided  in  the  .State  one  year,  in  the 
county  thirty  days,  and  in  the  priH'inot  twenty  day.s.  Those 
who  have  been  convicted  of  infamous  crimes  are  excluded 
from  voting  or  holding  otTice.  The  local  government  is  a 
mixture  of  the  county  system  of  the  .South  and  the  township 
system  of  New  Kngland.  The  greater  share  of  local  powers 
is  exercised  by  the  county.  The  county  commissioners 
construct  and  care  for  tlu^  public  works  and  buildings  of 
the  county,  and  have  the  power  to  levy  taxes  for  these  pur- 
poses. They  may  create  new  and  change  the  boundaries  of 
old  townships.  All  other  county  officers  report  to  them  an- 
nually. Their  term  of  office  is  three  years.  The  county 
trea.su rer  receives  all  taxes  within  1  he  county — State,  county, 
and  local  (township,  city,  village,  or  district). 

IliMory. — The  territory  end^raced  within  Ohio  was  dis- 
covered and  exjilorations  were  l)egun  by  the  French  under 
La  Salle  about  1070.  The  French  possession  of  the  terri- 
tory till  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  nndis- 
turl)ed,  though  by  charters  of  .James  I.  and  Charles  II.  Vir- 
ginia and  Connecticut  were  granted  jurisdiction  over  the 
region.  About  1748  and  1749,  when  the  Knglish  began  to 
establish  trading-posts  an<l  to  plan  for  the  settlement  of  the 
Ohio  region,  disputes  arose  with  the  French  resulting  in 
war.  In  17ti:i  the  Treaty  of  Paris  estaljlished  the  English 
possession.  No  attempts  at  settlement  beyond  temporary 
trading-posts  were  made  before  the  war  of  independence. 
During  that  period  several  battles  were  fought  with  the 
Indian.s  on  this  territory,  and  disputes  arose  between  the 
States  as  to  the  ownership  of  the  western  lands.  Massachu- 
setts, Cimnecticut,  New  York,  and  Virgiina  lai<l  claim  to 
the  northwestern  region,  while  the  other  States  reganlcd  the 
land  as  the  joint  possession  of  the  thirteen.     Maryland's  re- 


fusal to  accede  to  the  Articles  of  Confederation  unless  the 
individual  States  gave  up  their  claims  brought  about  a  ces- 
sion to  Congress  of  the  title  to  the  lan<ls  in  question,  save 
that  Connecticut  reserved  a  tract  (popularly  known  as  the 
Western  Reserve)  along  Lake  Erie.  v\'.  of  Pennsylvania, 
containing  3,GG6,'291  acres,  and  Virginia  reseived  a  similar 
tract,  to  pay  her  land  bounties,  between  the  Miami,  .Scioto, 
and  Ohio  rivers,  containing  3,709,848  acres.  In  1783  jiro- 
visions  were  made  by  Congress  for  the  survey  and  sale  of 
western  lands,  and  in  1787  the  famous  ordinance  for  the 
goverinuent  of  the  territory  N.  W.  of  the  Ohio,  forbidding 
slavery  in  the  entire  region,  was  passed.  In  the  same  year 
the  Ohio  Company,  an  association  formed  in  Boston,  pur- 
chased a  large  tract  on  the  JIuskingum,  and  in  Apr.,  1788, 
the  lir.st  settlement  was  made  at  Marietta,  by  a  colony  from 
Massachusetts.  In  July  of  the  same  year  the  territorial 
government  was  formally  organized.  In  Decend)era  settle- 
ment was  nuide  in  Cincinnati.  During  the  next  four  years 
the  settlers  were  disturbed  by  Indian  raids,  Init  in  1794'Gen. 
Anthony  Wayne  won  a  victory  over  the  Indians  on  the 
Maumee,  and  the  treaty  of  Greenville  in  179.5  secured  peace 
for  the  territory.  Settlements  followed  rapidly,  and  in  1799 
the  second  stage  of  territorial  life  was  entered  upon,  when  a 
legislature  was  elected  which  met  at  Cincinnati.  Ohio  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  State  on  Feb.  19.  1803.  The 
constitution  was  revised  by  a  convention  in  1850-51,  and 
the  revision  was  so  complete  as  practically  to  make  a  new 
constitution.  It  was  ratified  in  .fune  and  went  into  effect 
in  Septendier  of  the  same  year.  Another  revision  was  made 
in  1873,  but  the  constitution  was  rejected  in  1S74.  Chilli- 
cothe  was  the  State  capital  in  1800-10  and  1812-1(5,  Zancs- 
ville  in  1810-12,  and  Columlius  has  been  the  capital  since 
1816.  During  the  war  of  1812  the  State  suffered  from  Brit- 
ish and  Indian  raids,  and  during  the  civil  war  it  was  twice 
invaded  by  Confederate  troops.  The  history  of  Ohio  has 
fjecn  in  the  main  that  of  a  peaceful  industrial  development. 

GOVERNORS   OF   OHIO. 


William  MediU  (aetingi, 

July,  lS.")3-Jan.,  '54 

William  Medill 18M-56 

Salmon  P.  Chase 1866-60 

William  Deniiison 18«jO-63 

David  Tod 1863-64 

John  Brough  * 1861-65 

C.  Anderson  (acting) 1865-66 

Jacob  Dolson  Cox 1800-68 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes 1868-72 

Edward  F.  Noyes 1872-74 

William  Allen 1874-76 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes 1876-77 

ThoinasL.  Younptacting)  1877-78 

Richard  M.  Bishop 1878-80 

Charles  Foster 1880-84 

(ieorge  Hoadlv 1884-86 

Joseph  B.  Foruker 1886-90 

James  E.  Campbell 1890-92 

William  Mc-Kiidev,  Jr  . . . .  1892-96 

Asa  S.  Bushncll. ." 1896- 


Territorial. 
Arthur  St.  Clair . .  July,  17»^1802 
C.  \V.  Byrd  ^acting) 1802-03 

State. 

Edward  Tiffin 1803-07 

Thomas  Kirker  (acting) . .  1807-08 

Samuel  Huntington 1808-10 

Return  Jona,  M.-if,-s 1810-14 

Othniel  Loukt-r  laiting)  ..         1814 
Thomas  Wortliingtou ....  1814-18 

Ethan  Allen  Brown 1818-33 

Allen  Trimble  (acting).. . .         1833 

Jerein  iah  3b  (rrow 1833-36 

Allen  Trimlile 183t)-:)0 

Duncan  Mc Arthur 1830-;J3 

Robert  Lneas Itm-m 

Joseph  Vance 18:^6-38 

Wilson  Shannon 18:)R-40 

Thomas  Corwin lWO-43 

Wilson  Shannon 1812-44 

T.  W.  Bartlev  (acting). . . .        1844 

Mordecai  B.artley 1844-46 

William  Belli) 1846-49 

.Sealmrv  Ford Jan.,  1849-,50 

Reuben'  Wood 1850-July,  '53 

AfTiioRiTiES. — Geology:  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio,  espe- 
ciallv  the  volumes  bv  Edward  Orton,  State  geologist.  Sta- 
tistics:  (?eH.-i».s'  Reports  and  Ihille.tin.s  (l^m);  Ohio  Statis- 
tics, compiled  annually  by  the  secretary  of  State;  Ohio 
Weather  and  Crop  Ilejiorls;  K.nctiiii-e  Documintit.  Ya\\\- 
cation  :  Knight  and  Commons,  Jli.ttori/  of  lliylier  Education 
in  Ohio.  History:  Hinsdale,  The  Old  JS'orthwest ;  King, 
Ohio:  Ryan,  Ohio;  Short,  Ohio:  a  Sketch  of  Industrial 
Pn>i/ri:<is'.  Gkorge  W.  Knioht. 

Ohio  River:  the  largest  of  the  affluents  of  the  Missis- 
sippi in  respect  to  its  discharge  of  water,  which  averages 
158,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  that  of  the  Missouri  being 
but  120,000  feet.  The  Ohio  originates  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in 
the  confluence  of  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers. 
Its  length  below  Pitt.sl)urg  is  975  miles;  total  length  to  its 
ultimate  source,  1.2(i5  miles.  A  straight  line  from  Pitts- 
burg to  Cairo,  111.,  at  its  mouth,  measures  615  miles.  Its 
drainage  area  is  202.400  so.  miles,  according  to  Ellet,  or 
214,()()0.  according  to  Ihniiiihrevs.  Its  elevation  at  Cairo  is 
322  feet;  at  I'ittsburg,  1.021  feet.  Its  mean  fall  is  -72  of  a 
foot  to  tiie  mile.  Its  mean  rate  of  flow  is  about  3  miles  an 
hour.  Its  mean  rise  in  flood  is  some  30  feet  id>ove  extrenie 
low  water;  occasionally,  as  in  .July,  1884,  the  rise  exceeds  60 
feet.      Above  Cincinnati  it  is  in"  many  places  fordable  at 


280 


OHIO   STATE  UNIVERSITY 


OIL  RIVERS 


low  water  for  six  or  eight  weeks ;  but  during  the  rest  of  the 
year  it  is  navigaljle  througliout  its  length  for  flat-bottomed 
steamboats.  It  has  two  classes  of  islands :  one  kind  is  fer- 
tile, and  the  other  mere  sandbanks,  called  "tow-heads"  by 
boatmen.  With  its  numerous  tributaries  (some  of  them  navi- 
gable tlie  year  through),  it  1ms  fully  5.000  miles  of  high-water 
navigation.  It  has  no  important  rapids,  except  at  Louisville, 
Ky.,  where  it  falls  23+  feet  in  3  miles.  It  was  discovered  in 
1669  by  the  French  under  La  Salle,  and  called  by  them  La 
Belle  Riviere  (the  beautiful  river). 

Revised  by  Reuben  G.  Thwaites. 

Ohio  State  University:  an  institution  of  learning  at 
Columbus,  0.,  where  it  owns  and  occupies  337  acres  of  land 
within  the  city.  It  is  founded  on  the  congressional  land 
grant  for  education  made  in  1863.  and  was  opened  in  1873. 
Its  land  is  worth  at  least  $1,250,000;  it  has  eight  buildings 
for  instruction  worth  $330,000;  other  buildings  worth 
$45,000 ;  a  laboratory  equipment  worth  $75,000 ;  agricul- 
tural and  horticultural  equipment  worth  $15,000 ;  museums 
worth  $50,000;  and  a  library  of  13,000  volumes.  Its  cash 
endowment  is  $544,745.97.  Annual  income  (1892) :  Inter- 
est on  endowment,  $32,684.75 ;  proceeds  of  State  tax,  $85,- 
000;  congressional  appropriation,  $19,000;  fees  and  rents, 
about  $20.000— total,  $156,684.75.  It  offers  courses  of  study 
for  degrees  in  arts,  three  in  philosophy  (the  Latin,  tiie 
modern  language,  and  the  English),  science,  agriculture, 
horticulture  and  forestry,  civil,  mining,  mechanical,  and 
electrical  engineering,  pharmacy,  and  veterinary  medicine ; 
also  a  two-year  course  in  agriculture  and  one  in  mining. 
Military  instruction  and  training  are  given  by  an  officer 
of  the  U.  S.  army.  A  law  department  was  opened  in  1891, 
and  a  school  of  industrial  arts  and  manual  training  in  Sept., 
1893.  The  university  has  (1894)  67  professors,  associates, 
and  assistants,  and  800  students.  W.  H.  Scott. 

Oliio  University:  a  coeducational  institution  at  Athens, 
0.,  projected  in  1787  in  the  purchase  made  from  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  U.  S.  by  the  Ohio  Company.  By  a  con- 
tract between  these  two  parties  two  townships  of  land  were 
set  apart  and  placed  under  the  care  of  the  Legislature  of 
the  State.  The  university  was  organized  under  an  act  of  the 
Legislature  passed  in  1804.  Instruction  began  to  be  given 
as  early  as  1809,  and  the  first  graduate  was  the  well-known 
Thomas  Ewing,  whose  diploma  bore  date  1815.  The  regular 
faculty  was  organized  in  1822,  and  the  first  president  was 
elected  in  that  year.  Owing  to  adverse  legislation  the 
original  endowment  fund  was  very  much  reduced,  and 
the  income  is  consequently  small.  For  several  years  the 
Legislature  has  supplemented  the  income  of  the  institution 
by  an  annual  appropriation  varying  from  $5,000  to  $30,000. 
The  trustees  are  appointed  by  the  Governor  of  the  State, 
who  is  an  ex  officio  mferaber  of  the  board.  Cliarlos  W.  Super, 
Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  became  president  in  1883.  The  present  (1894) 
faculty  consists  of  8  professors,  5  associate  professors,  and  6 
instructors.  The  number  of  students  in  1893-94  exceeded 
300,  of  whom  110  were  in  the  collegiate  department.  The 
institution  is  non-sectarian.  Charles  W.  Super. 

Oliio  Wesleyan  University:  a  coeducational  institution 
at  Delaware,  Ohio;  organized  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1844.  The  grounds  em- 
brace University  Campus,  Monnett  Campus,  Barnes  Hill, 
and  Merrick  Park.  Upon  University  Campus  is  a  famous 
sulphur  spring  and  an  arboretum  consisting  of  over  600 
varieties  of  trees  and  shrubs.  There  are  eight  buildings, 
including  University  Hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of  $175,000. 
The  total  value  of  grounds  and  buildings  is  estimated  at 
$470,000.  The  endowment  is  $455,000,  of  which  $255,000 
still  pays  annuities  to  donors.  Tlie  presidents  have  liuen 
Edwin  Thompson,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Freilerick  Merrick,  D.  D., 
L.  D.  McCabe,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Charles  H.  Payne,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
and  since  1889  James  W.  Bashford,  D.  D.,  Ph.  I).  The  uni- 
versity embraces  graduate,  collegiate,  preparatory,  musical, 
art,  and  commercial  departments.  The  number  of  students 
enrolled  in  1894  was  1,139.  These  came  from  thirty  States 
and  Territories  atid  ten  foreign  countries.  About  33  per 
cent,  of  its  graduates  liave  entered  the  ministry,  and  a  large 
number  have  become  missionaries.  J.  W.  Bashford. 

Ohl,  ol,  Jeremiah  F.,  Mus.  Doc.  :  clergyman  ;  b.  in  North- 
ampton CO.,  Pa.,  June  26,  18.50.  Studied  in  Muhlenberg 
College,  Allentown,  Pa.,  and  Theological  Seminary,  Phila- 
delphia; was  pastor  at  Quakertown,  Pa.,  1874-93;  director 
of  Deaconess  Institute.  iMilwankee,  Wis.,  and  Professor  of 
Liturgies  and  Church  Music  in  Lutheran  Tlieological  Semi- 
nary, CJhicago,  111.,  since  1893.    He  has  published  School  and 


Parish  Hymnal  (Philadelphia,  1892),  besides  numerous  mus- 
ical contributions  in  sheet  and  pamphlet  forms. 

H.  E.  Jacobs. 

Oiilenscliliiger,  Adam  Gottlob  :  See  CEhlenschlager. 

Olim :  the  unit  of  resistance  in  Electricity  (q.  v.).  The 
practical  ohm,  which  was  till  lately  in  use,  is  a  resistance 
equal  to  that  of  a  certain  standard  coil  of  wire  made  of 
German  silver.  It  was  constructed  by  a  committee  of  the 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1863. 
Tlie  legal  or  congress  ohm,  adopted  by  the  International 
Electrical  Congress  in  Paris  in  1884,  is  defined  as  the  resist- 
ance, at  a  temperature  of  0°  C,  of  a  column  of  pure  mer- 
cury, 106  cm.  in  length  and  1  sq.  mm.  in  cross-section. 
These  are  close  approximations  to  a  certain  theoretical  ohm 
which  is  10'  C.  G.  S.  units  of  resistance.      R.  A.  Roberts. 

Olim,  om,  Georg  Simon  :  physicist ;  b.  at  Erlangen,  Ba- 
varia. Mar.  16,  1787;  studied  in  his  native  city,  and  was 
appointed  Professor  in  Physics  in  1817  at  the  Jesuit  College 
of  Cologne,  director  of  tlie  Polytechnic  School  in  Nuremberg 
in  1833,  and  professor  in  1849  at  Munich,  where  he  died 
July  7,  1874.  He  discovered  the  so-called  Ohm's  law  (see 
Electricity)  set  forth  in  his  Qalvanische  Kette,mathema- 
tisch  bearbeitet  (Berlin,  1827),  which  was  translated  into 
English  in  Taylor's  Scientific  Memoirs  (vol.  xi.,  London, 
1841),  and  was  rewarded  with  the  Copley  medal  by  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.  Besides  his  principal  work,  Beitrage, 
zur  Molectilarp/ii/sik  (Nuremberg,  1849),  he  wrote,  among 
others,  Bestimmung  des  Gesetzes,  nach  welchem  die  Metalle 
die  Contact-Elektricitclt  leiten  (1826). 

Olini's  Law :  See  Electricity. 

Oidium  :  an  old  name  for  the  first  stage  (conidial)  of  the 
powdery  grape-mildew.     See  Mildew. 

Oil-cake :  the  residue  which  is  left,  after  the  expression 
of  fixed  oils  from  crushed  or  ground  seed  of  any  kind.  It 
is  used  both  as  food  and  as  a  direct  fertilizer.  The  cake  is 
frequently  pulverized  before  using,  and  is  then  called  oil- 
meal.  Linseed-oil  cake  is  valuable  for  fattening  cattle.  It 
is  largely  exported  from  the  U.  S.  to  Great  Britain.  Cotton- 
seed meal  is  used  for  feeding  cattle,  and  is  a  valuable  manure. 
Rape-cake  and  colza-cake  are  fed  to  slieep  or  applied  direct- 
ly to  the  land.     Bean-cake  is  similarly  used  by  the  Chinese. 

Oil  City :  city  (incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1862  and  as 
a  city  in  1870) ;  Venango  co..  Pa.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Pennsylvania,  ref.  3-B) ;  at  the  junction  of  the  Allegheny 
river  and  Oil  creek ;  on  the  Allegheny  Valley,  the  Erie,  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Mich.  South.,  and  the  West.  N.  Y.  and  Pa. 
railways;  8  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Franklin,  the  county-seat,  18 
miles  S.  of  Titusville.  It  is  in  the  center  of  the  great  ]ietro- 
leum-oil  district,  and  in  its  early  days  was  wholly  de]iend- 
ent  on  that  industry.  It  contains  several  large  oil-refineries, 
pipe-works,  iron-foundries,  engine  and  boiler  works,  and 
other  manufactories;  and  has  street-railways,  electric  lights, 
city  hospital,  public  library,  an  oil  exchange,  public-school 
property  valued  at  over  $100,000,  a  national  bank,  a  State 
bank,  3  private  banks,  and  a  senii-weekly,  a  weekly,  and  2 
daily  periodicals.  From  Clark's  Summit,  near  the  city,  a 
splendid  view  of  the  region  is  had.  Pop.  (1880)  7,315 ;  (1890) 
10,932.  Editor  of  "  Derrick." 

Oil-cloth :  See  Carpets. 

Oil-engine :  See  Gas-engine. 

Oil  Islands:  See  Chagos  Archipelago. 

Oil  of  Tar :  See  Tar. 

Oil  of  Turpentine:  See  Turpentine. 

Oil  Rivers:  chiefly  branches  of  the  Niger.  They  form 
the  Niger  delta,  though  some  of  them  have  .sources  inde- 
pendent of  tliat  river.  From  them  comes  most  of  the  palm 
oil  exported  from  West  Africa.  They  form  a  wonderful 
network  of  more  or  less  navigable  rivers  and  creeks  extend- 
ing from  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  British  colony  of  La- 
gos to  the  northern  frontier  of  the  German  Cameroons. 
The  land  along  the  lower  part  of  these  rivers  is  marshy  and 
covered  with  mangrove,  but  at  some  distance  above  tide- 
water the  marshy  banks  become  firm  dry  land  and  the  man- 
grove is  gradually  sujiplanted  by  the  screw  pine  and  other 
vegetation.  The  rivers  are  under  the  administration  of  a 
British  imperial  comnii.ssioner.  and  the  chief  port  is  Akasa 
at  the  month  of  the  main  Niger.  The  climate  of  this 
delta  region  is  less  unhealthful  for  Europeans  than  in  the 
other  West  African  possessions  of  Great  Britain. 

C.  C.  Adams. 


OILS 


287 


Oils  [plur.  of  oil,  from  O.  Fr.  oile,  uile  >  Fr.  huile  <  Lat. 
oleum,  from  Gr.  fKcuof,  olive  oil,  oil,  deriv.  of  i\aia,  olive- 
tree]  :  liquid  fats  (see  Fats  and  Food)  existing  reiuly  formed 
in  nature.  They  are  mostly  fluid  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
unctuous  to  the  touch,  staiu  paper  with  a  permanent  greasy 
8pot,  are  insoluble  in  water,  little  soluble  in  alcohol  (castor 
oil  excepted),  completely  dissolved  by  ether,  often,  but  not 
always,  tasteless  and  odorless,  and  form  soaps  with  alkaline 
bases,  setting  free  glycerin.  In  short,  the  oils  are  glycer- 
ides,  and  fall  under  the  general  designation  of  fat-oils,  in- 
cluding certain  pasty  sorts,  like  palm  oil,  cocoa  oil,  and 
other  butter-like  vegetal  fats.  The  fat  vegetal  oils  are  all 
fixed,  while  the  essential  oils  are  all  volatile.  The  volatility 
of  some  of  the  fatty  acids  forms  no  exception  to  this  state- 
ment. The  essential  or  volatile  oils  mostly  exist  ready 
formed  in  plants,  from  which  they  arc  obtained  by  distilla- 
tion. They  are  distinguished  from  the  fat-oils  not  mnre  liy 
their  volatility  and  odor  than  by  their  action  with  alkaline 
bases,  not  being  capable  of  sa|)onification.  The  volatile  oils 
are  therefore  separately  considered  (111.),  while  the  fixed 
fat-oils  are  conveniently  grouped  with  reference  to  their 
origin,  as  I.  Vegetalile  Oils  an<l  II.  Animal  Oils. 

I.  Veqetabi.e  Oils. — In  plants  the  fat-oils  exist  chiefly  in 
the  seeds,  sometimes  in  the  flesh  or  Jiulp  about  the  seeds,  as 
in  the  olive,  dogberry,  etc.,  and  much  more  rarely  in  the 
roots,  as  in  the  earth-almond  {(_'i/pirus  esculenlitis),  which 
contains  26  per  cent,  of  oil  disseminated  in  minute  globules 
in  the  cellular  tissue.  In  the  oil-producing  seeds  the  oil  is 
often  associated  with  albuminous  matters,  gum  and  muci- 
lage; as  in  linseed,  for  example.  When  such  seeds  are 
bruised  or  ground  and  diffused  in  water,  these  albuminous 
bodies  suspend  the  oil.  entangled  in  a  milky  emulsion  of  a 
glairy  and  nmcilaginous  consistency.  Linseed  is  a  promi- 
nent example  of  this  sort  of  seeds.  The  vegetal  oils  are 
usually  divided  into  two  groups:  (1)  The  drying  oiln,  like 
linseed  oil,  which  on  exposure  to  air  absorb  oxygen  and  dry 
to  a  resinoid  surface  or  varnish :  atid  (2)  the  fatly  or  non- 
drying  oilx,  of  which  olive  oil  is  an  example.  The  latter 
class  become  rancid  on  exposure  to  air,  but  as  a  rule  such 
oils  do  not  dry  up,  although  many  of  them  thicken. 

Purification  of  Oils.— The  crude  oils  come  from  the  press 
more  or  less  changed  by  the  heat  employed,  and  contami- 
nated by  albumen,  resinous  and  coloring  matter,  which 
must  be  removed  to  fit  the  oils  for  nice  purposes.  The 
treatment  originally  proposeii  by  Thenard  in  1801  is  still  in 
general  use — mixing  the  oil  with  2  or  3  per  cent,  of  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  in  a  lead-lined  vat,  and  stirring  it  until 
it  assumes  a  greenish  tint.  After  twenty-four  hours'  repose 
about  2  per  cent,  of  its  volume  of  water,  of  about  170  P.,  is 
added,  and  the  whole  agitated  vigorously  until  the  liquid 
appears  milky,  when  the  mixture  is  transferred  for  rest  to 
large  reservoirs  at  a  constant  temperature  of  about  80"  F. 
After  some  days'  rest  the  clear  oil  is  decanted  and  filtered 
either  through  cotton,  carded  wool,  or  flannel,  sometimes 
through  river  sand  and  branches  of  tre(«  free  of  leaves. 
The  saturation  of  the  acid  is  accomplished  after  Dubrun- 
faut  by  clialk  without  the  use  of  so  much  water.  The  oil- 
cake itself  is  sometimes  cm[)loyed  in  a  state  of  dry  powder, 
to  avoid  filtration,  .50  kilog.  of  the  powdered  cake  being  ca- 
pable of  clarifying  200  hectoliters  of  oil  in  successive  por- 
tions of  about  6  hectoliters  each.  Oils  like  cottonseed  and 
palm  oil  are  treated  in  England  by  a  mixture  of  nitric  acid 
and  potassium  chlorate,  which  rapi<lly  oxidizes  the  coloring- 
matters.  About  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  this  mixture  suflices, 
and  an  excess  of  chlorate  is  to  be  avoided  as  well  as  of  ni- 
tric acid,  which  with  alkalies  gives  a  strong  red  color  to  the 
oil.  JIany  other  methods  of  purificati<m  have  been  proposed 
for  oils,  of  which  we  mention  oidy  that  of  air-treatment  with 
acid  by  Michaud,  who  proposed  in  1869  to  blow  air  through 
the  oil,  while  the  acid  is  permitted  to  fall  in,  in  numerous 
small  streams.  The  oil  charged  with  air  forms  with  the 
feculence  a  mixture  of  less  density,  which  gathers  as  a 
bulky  scum  on  the  surface,  which  is  skimmed  off,  while  the 
operation  is  repeated  until  this  scum  ceases  to  appear.  The 
oil  is  then  treated  by  a  current  of  steam  until  it  is  warmed 
to  212,  and  with  a  diminishing  quantity  of  steam  it  is  in 
half  or  three-quarters  of  an  hour  ready  to  separate  from  the 
water  and  filter. 

Physical  Properties. — All  the  oils  are  lighter  than  water, 
but  their  densities  varv  greativ  with  temperature  ;  c.  g.  olive 
oil  at  12'  0.  has  sp.  gr.  •!I1H;  'at  26  .  •itll  :  and  at  04",  "862. 
The  congealing-poinls  of  the  oils  vary  also  greatly,  being 
for  olive  oil  2'  (C);  colza,  —  6'2.5  ;  groundnut,  —  7°;  al- 
monds, —  10° ;  grape,  —  16  ;  poppy  and  castor,  —  18° ;  lin- 


seed, —  27-6° ;  pine,  —  30°.  The  oils  vary  ecjually  in  elec- 
tric conductivity,  that  of  olive  oil  being  677  times  less  than 
the  others.  This  peculiarity  was  made  the  basis  of  Rous- 
seau's diagomefer,  an  instrument  designed  to  detect  adul- 
teration in  olive  oil  by  the  varying  intensity  of  an  electrical 
current  moving  a  magnetic  needle. 

Chemical  Properties. — The  effects  of  air  upon  the  vege- 
table oils  have  already  been  given.  In  general,  the  non- 
drying,  both  vegetable  and  animal,  become  rancid  by  expo- 
sure to  air,  while  the  drying  oils  become  gummy  or  resin- 
ous. This  effect  is  quickened  or  intensified  by  boiling  them 
with  oxide  of  lead,  peroxide  of  manganese,  and  borate  or 
acetate  of  manganese — an  operation  attended  with  the  pro- 
ducticm  of  a  high  color.  For  colorless  varnishes  drying  oils 
are  treated  in  the  cold  by  oleate  of  lead  prcjiared  by  acting 
on  oleic  acid  by  litharge.  The  same  result  is  obtained  by 
the  use  of  protoxide  of  manganese,  precipitated  by  an  alkali 
flj()m  a  protosalt  of  manganese,  rapidly  washed,  and  incor- 
porated with  the  oil.  On  driving  into  the  mixture  a  finely 
divided  current  of  air  the  manganese  is  peroxidized  in 
the  midst  of  the  oil,  giving  after  washing  with  oil  a  color- 
less and  very  drying  oil.  The  action  of  acids  and  alkalies 
upon  oils  is  considered  under  Oleic  Aciu  and  Soap.  See 
also  Castor  Oil,  Linseed  Oil,  Olive,  etc. 

II.  Animal  Oils. — The  animal  oils  and  fats  have  a  con- 
stitution closely  identical  with  the  non-drying  vegetal  oils. 
They  are  in  general  ethereal  salts  of  glycerin  and  the 
fatty  acids,  so  rich  in  oleic  acid  as  to  remain  fluid  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures.  The  animal  oils  have,  as  a  class,  a 
characteristic  and  very  persistent  odor,  referable  to  their 
origin,  which  in  some  of  the  fish  oils  is  peculiarly  offensive. 
This  animal  odor  adheres  with  great  obstinacy  to  the  soaps 
made  from  even  the  sweetest  animal  oils.  The  liquid  ani- 
mal oils  are  largely  derived  from  marine  animals.  Sperm 
oil  occurs  in  the  cavity  of  the  head  of  the  sperm  whale 
(Physeter  macrocephalus),  mixed  with  spermaceti,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  crystallization  and  pressing  in  the 
cohl.  It  is  saponified  with  difficulty  by  potash,  yielding  the 
same  fatty  acids  as  spermaceti  fat.  It  is  esteemed  the  most 
valuable  of  animal  oils,  and  brings  the  highest  price.  Whale 
or  train  oil  is  obtained  from  the  blubber  of  the  right  whale 
(Balcena  misticetus),  from  the  blackfish,  and  from  other 
species  of  whales.  Its  sp.  gr.  varies  from  '919  to  •929. 
Dolphin  oil  and  porpoise  oil  contain  a  peculiar  fat  called 
delphinine,  phocenine,  or  dolphin  fat.  It  is  a  neutral,  very 
mobile  oil,  of  sp.  gr.  0'948-0-9o4,  of  a  faint,  peculiar,  some- 
what ethereal  odor,  like  that  of  valeric  acid.  Seal  oil.  shark 
oil.  sea-calf  oil  are  fat-oils  obtained  from  the  blubber  of 
these  animals,  and  have  characteristics  in  common  with 
whale  oil.  The  menhaden  of  the  Atlantic  coast  are  exten- 
sively taken  for  their  r)il  and  the  fish-guano  produced  from 
the  compressed  fish  after  boiling  to  separate  tlie  oil. 

Cod-liver  Oil.    .See  Cod-liver  Oil. 

III.  Essential  or  Volatile  Oils. — The  essential  oils  of 
plants  consist  chiefly  of  mixtures  of  hydrocarbons  with  acid 
of  oxygenized  bodies  of  the  same  class.  They  are  mostly 
isomeric  or  polymeric  with  oil  of  turpentine,  represented  by 
CoIIu.  Turpentine  oil  is  the  product  of  various  species  of 
(-'onifera',  and  is  obtained  from  wounds  or  incisions  in  the 
bark,  from  which  it  exudes  in  combination  with  the  resin 
and  other  vegetable  juices,  and  is  .se[)arated  from  them  by 
distillation.  While  all  the  volatile  oils  thus  obtained  from 
coniferous  plants  are  alike  in  general  properties,  as  of  odor, 
solvent  power,  etc.,  they  really  differ  much  in  density,  and 
more  especially  in  optical  jiroperties,  some  revolving  the 
polarizeil  beam  to  the  right  (dextro-rotatory),  while  others 
revolve  it  to  the  left  (hevo-rotatory).  an<l  in  unlike  degrees. 
Most  kin<ls  of  turpentine  oils  are  mixtures  of  two  or  more 
isomeric  or  polymeric  hydrocarbons,  differing  in  physical 
and  sometimes  in  chemical  jiroperties.  The  oxidized  con- 
stituents of  the  essential  oils  are  sometimes  the  direct  prod- 
ucts of  the  oxidation  of  the  hydrocarbon  itself,  in  which 
case  they  are  usually  viscid  resins  ;  while  in  other  cases  the 
two  classes  appear  distinct.  The  hydrocarbons  from  essen- 
tial oils  may  be  arranged  in  three  polymeric  groups,  having 
the  formuliLS,  respectively,  C,oIIi«,  CnH^*,  C^oHn-  The  first 
group  comprises  the  greater  number  of  these  bodies — tur- 
pentine, orange,  caraway,  nutmeg,  anise,  thyme,  etc.;  tlie 
second,  those  from  cloves,  rosewood,  cubebs,  calamus,  etc. ; 
while  the  last  group  has  only  one  representative,  colophene. 
These  groups  are  distinguished  by  the  vapor-densities  of  the 
bodies  belonging  to  them — viz.,  the  first  group  requires  a 
theoretical  vapor-density  of  4-71,  while  actual  experiment 
on  oil  of  turpentine,  pepper,  juniper,  lemon,  orange,  etc., 


288 


OILS 


OKA 


gives  closely  approximate  results.  For  calamus  and  pat- 
chouli oils  Gladstone  got  densities  of  6-80  and  7'2,  respect- 
ively, while  theory  requires  for  the  formula  CisH^i  =  7'06 
sp.  gr. 

The  volatile  oils  generally  absorb  oxygen  rapidly,  rarefy- 
ing and  gaining  color  in  the  process,  and  sometimes  form- 
ing crystals  of  camphor-like  bodies.  Oil  of  turpentine  in 
four  months  absorbs  twenty  times  its  volume  of  oxygen, 
and  in  forty-three  months  128  volumes ;  it  thus  acquires 
the  propei-ties  of  ozone,  and  its  bleaching  power  is  seen  on 
the  cork  used  to  stop  the  bottle  containing  it.  Chlorine, 
bromine,  iodine,  and  hydrochloric  acid  gas  are  all  absorbed 
by  turpentine  and  other  oils  of  that  group,  which  are  thus 
changed  generally  into  resins,  balsams,  or  camphors.  The 
oils  of  lemon,  orange,  etc.,  by  exposure  seem  spontaneously 
to  lose  their  delicate  perfume  and  change  to  the  odor  of  tur- 
pentine. The  volatile  oils  aregenerally  obtained  by  distilling 
the  parts  of  plants  .in  which  they  exist,  as  the  leaves,  bark, 
roots,  and  even  wood,  either  alone  or  more  usually  %vith 
water,  the  vapor  of  which  carries  over  mechanically  the 
oils  of  a  higher  boiling-point.  These  usually  emit  at  213"  a 
vapor  of  considerable  tension,  which  gives  the  characteristic 
odor  of  the  plant,  and  is  condensed  with  the  steam,  separat- 
ing in  the  receiver  into  a  milky  or  turbid  layer,  usually,  but 
not  always,  lighter  than  the  water.  Many  oils  of  delicate 
perfume,  like  oil  of  lemons,  orange,  etc.,  exist  in  cells  in 
the  skin  of  the  fruit  and  leaves  in  a  state  sufficiently  abun- 
dant to  jiermit  their  separation  by  mechanical  pressure, 
while  heat  would  impair  their  delicacy.  The  essences  are 
only  the  watery  solutions  of  essential  oils,  and  are  often 
prepared  in  domestic  economy,  as  rose-water,  essence  of 
pennyroyal,  mint,  etc..  by  distillation  or  by  addition  of  the 
oils  to  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  hold  them  in  emul- 
sion or  hydration,  forming  the  so-called  distilled  tcaters  of 
the  apothecary. 

Some  of  the  volatile  oils  contain  acids,  aldehydes,  etc., 
the  study  of  which  has  shed  important  light  on  organic 
chemistry — e.  g.  oil  of  winter-green  (GauUheria  procumbens) 
and  meadow-sweet  (Spircpa  ulmaria)  furnishing  salicylate 
of  methyl  and  salicylic  aldehyde.  Bitter  almonds  furnish 
benzoic  aldehyde,  and  aldehydes  of  analogous  constitution 
are  obtained  from  the  essential  oils  of  cumin  (Cicuta  virosa), 
oil  of  cinnamon  and  cassia,  etc.  Sulphur  exists  in  certain 
oils,  as  of  garlic  and  mustard.  The  number  of  the  vola- 
tile oils  of  vegetable  origin  is  very  large.  Gmelin  in  his 
Handbook  describes  over  170.  There  are  large  areas  of  the 
earth  where  plants  with  a  terebinthine  or  balsamic  odor 
abound  almost  exclusively,  as  in  portions  of  Nevada  and 
California.  The  properties  of  the  plants  referred  to  remain, 
for  the  most  part,  to  be  investigated. 

The  odors  of  volatile  oils  are  by  no  means  all  agreeable. 
Many  are  pungent,  irritating,  and  even  repulsive;  their 
taste  is  usually  aromatic,  often  burning.  Alcohol  and  ether 
are  their  proper  solvents.  Many  volatile  oils  are  the  result 
of  decomposition  of  other  compounds  by  heat,  fermentation, 
and  the  action  of  acids ;  such  are  eupione,"creosote,  fusel 
oil,  oil  of  wine,  etc.  ;  while  others  which  exist  ready  formed 
in  plants,  like  those  of  Spinea  ulmnria  and  Gaidtheria 
procumbens.  may  Ije  formed  artificially.  Tliere  are  volatile 
oils  of  animal  origin,  as  in  ants,  castoreura,  skunk,  etc. 

The  adulteration  of  volatile  oils  is  often  practiced  with 
fixed  oils,  when  it  may  be  detected  by  a  permanent  greasy 
stain  left  on  paper  after  evaporation  and  warming  ;  by  dis- 
tilling off  the  volatile  oil.  leaving  the  fixed  oil  behind  ;  or 
by  dissolving  the  volatile  oil  in  three  or  four  volumes  of  80 
per  cent,  alcohol,  when  the  greater  part  of  the  fixed  oil  re- 
mains behind.  Alcohol  is  also  a  frequent  adulterant,  and 
may,  when  the  quantity  is  large,  be  detected  by  dilution  of 
the  adulterated  oil  with  water,  when  it  becomes  very  tur- 
bid. Oil  of  turpentine  is  often  used  to  adulterate  the  costly 
oils  of  the  same  series,  as  of  orange,  lemon,  neroli,  etc. 
It  may  often  be  detected  by  the  smell,  or  after  setting  fire 
to  it  and  then  blowing  it  out. 

The  odor  of  volatile  oils  is  closely  connected  with  their 
oxidation.  Oil  of  turpentine,  lemon,  clove,  and  the  like, 
when  distilled  in  carbonic  acid  or  nitrogen,  and  over  litne, 
are  nearly  odorless.  Air  restores  the  odor.  Moisture  seems 
essential  also  to  the  development  of  the  odor  of  volatile  oils. 
All  odorous  flowers  are  more  fragrant  when  moistened  with 
dew,  and  in  dry  climates  roses  and  other  fragrant  blooms 
are  scentless  after  the  dry  season  sets  in  and  dew  no  longer 
falls.  Violets  dried  over  calcium  chloride  under  a  bell  lose 
all  odor,  but  regain  it  completely  when  moistened  again 
with  water;  and  paper  raoistened'with  a  volatile  odor  and 


then  perfectly  dried  ceases  to  emit  odor  until  it  is  again 
moistened  with  a  little  water.  Rose-leaves  and  other  fra- 
grant petals  yield  a  much  stronger  water  if  distilled  from  a 
bath  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid — a  fact  noticed  by  Al- 
bertus  Magnus.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  many  distilled 
waters  when  kept  in  well-closed  bottles  become  slimy,  lose 
their  proper  odor,  and  acquire  an  offensive  smell ;  whereas 
if  kept  in  loosely  covered  vessels  they  remain  unchanged,  or 
even  recover  their  proper  odor  when  ex|)osed,  after  change, 
to  air  again.  Gmelin  suggests  that  this  is  due  to  albumi- 
nous and  mucous  matters  carried  over  in  the  distillation, 
which,  when  they  putrefy,  rob  the  volatile  oil  of  a  portion 
of  its  oxygen,  depriving  it  of  its  proper  odor.  See  Neues 
Uandworterbuch  der  Chemie,  Oele  and  Oele  Atlierische. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 
Oinomania;  See  Delirium  Tremens. 

Olse.  waaz  :  river  of  France.  It  rises  in  the  Ardennes, 
Belgium,  and  joins  the  Seine  after  a  course  of  158  miles, 
half  of  which  is  navigable. 

Olse  :  department  of  France,  along  the  Seine  and  the 
Oise.  Area,  2,261  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  flat,  and  the 
soil  rich  and  very  \vell  cultivated.  The  wine  is  of  inferior 
quality,  but  large  crops  of  wheat  are  raised,  and  enormous 
quantities  of  fruit  and  vegetables  are  sent  to  the  Paris 
markets.  Iron  manufactures  are  carried  on,  besides  various 
industries  on  a  small  scale.  Pop.  (1891)  401,835.  Capital, 
Beauvais. 

O.jeda,  or  Hojeda,  6:-hada"a,  Alonso,  de  :  cavalier  and  ad- 
venturer ;  b.  at  Cuenca,  Spain,  about  1468.  He  was  noted 
for  his  daring  athletic  feats  and  harebrained  enterprises. 
In  1493  he  joined  Columbus  for  the  second  expedition  to 
the  Xew  World,  and  during  the  two  years  following  he  led 
several  military  expeditions  and  explorations  in  the  interior 
of  Espaiiola.  His  most  audacious  feat  was  the  capture  of 
the  Indian  chief  Caonabo  from  the  midst  of  his  tribe. 
Ojeda  was  again  in  Spain  when  accounts  arrived  of  the 
third  voyage  of  Columbus  and  the  discovery  of  the  coast  of 
Paria,  and  through  the  influence  of  Bishop  Fonseca  he  was 
permitted  to  fit  out  a  trading  and  exploring  voyage  to  the 
same  region.  With  him  were  associated  Amerigo  Vespucci 
and  Juan  de  la  Cosa.  probably  as  pilots.  Leaving  Cadiz 
Jlay  20,  1499.  witli  four  ships,  they  followed  nearly  in 
Columbus's  course,  reached  the  coast  of  Guiana,  passed 
bet%veen  Trinidad  and  the  mainland,  and  followed  the  con- 
tinent westward,  trading  with  the  Inilians  for  gold  and 
pearls.  At  Lake  Maracaibo,  their  farthest  point,  they  found 
Indian  villages  built  on  piles  in  the  water,  whence  they 
called  the  place  Venezuela ;  and  this  name  passed  in  time  to 
the  surrounding  country.  Returning  they  touched  at  Espa- 
iiola, and  reached  Spain  in  June.  1500.  In  1502  Ojeda  ex- 
plored the  same  coast  to  Cape  Vela.  Soon  after  he  was  im- 
prisoned in  Espanola,  and  again  by  his  debtors  in  Spain : 
but  his  influence  in  court  circles  procured  his  release,  and 
in  1505  he  made  a  third  voyage  to  South  America,  exploring 
on  this  occasion  as  far  west  as  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  In  1508 
he  obtained  a  royal  grant  to  colonize  and  govern  the  region 
called  Xueva  Andalucia.  corresponding  to  the  northern 
coast  of  Colombia  from  Cape  Vela  to  the  Gulf  of  Barien. 
Xicuesa  received  a  similar  grant  of  the  Darien  region.  The 
two  governors  fitted  out  expeditions  at  Santo  Domingo,  and 
Ojeda  sailed  in  Xov.,  1509,  with  400  men.  At  Cartagena 
Bay  he  landed  with  part  of  his  force  to  capture  Indians  for 
slaves.  The  Indians,  after  their  first  surprise,  gathered  in 
great  numbers,  attacked  the  Spaniards,  and  killed  all  except 
Ojeda  and  one  other,  who  escaped  by  concealing  themselves 
in  the  swamps ;  they  were  rescued,  when  nearly  dead,  by  a 
party  sent  from  the  ships.  Ojeda  then  sailed  to  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  where  he  founded  the  colony  of 
San  Sebastian;  but  Ids  reckless  treatment  of  the  Indians 
provoked  their  hostility,  and  the  Spaniards  were  forced  to 
keep  within  the  fortifications,  where  they  suffered  terribly 
from  hunger.  Ojeda  himself  was  severely  wounded  by  a 
poisoned  arrow.  De  at  length  left  the  colony  in  charge  of 
Francisco  Pizarro.  and  sailed  away  to  seek  re-enforcements ; 
but,  after  being  shipwrecked  on  Cuba,  he  finally  reached 
Santo  Domingo,  with  fortunes  completely  broken.  Unable 
to  secure  aid  for  his  colony,  he  died  at  S.anto  Domingo  in 
complete  poverty  about  loi4.  For  the  subsequent  history 
of  the  colony,  see  Dahiex.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Ojibwas;  See  Amo.NQriAN  Indian's. 

O'ka:  a  river  of  Central  Russia  and  the  chief  affluent  of 
the  Volga.    It  rises  in  the  government  of  Orel,  becomes  nayi- 


OKAW    UIVKR 


OKLAno.MA 


289 


gable  at  the  city  of  Orel,  and  joins  the  Volga  at  Nijnii- 
Novgorod,  after  a  course  of  Ki7  miles.  As  it  runs  througii 
some  of  tiie  most  fertile  aiui  densely  peopled  regions  of 
Kiissia,  it  is  of  great  im[iortanee  as  a  commercial  highway. 

Okaw  River:  See  Kaskaskia. 

Okayama.  o-kaa-yaa  inaa :  a  town  and  prefecture  in  the 
provinee  of  Bizen,  Central  Japan;  situated  on  the  northern 
sliore  of  the  inland  sea.  and  eonneeted  by  rail  with  lliogo 
and  the  East  (see  map  of  .Japan,  ref.  6-B).  It  is  an  inu)or- 
tant  mission-station.     Poj).  of  the  town.  32,989.     J.  M.  1). 

Okpclio'beo,  Lake:  the  largest  lake  in  the  Southern  U.S. 
It  lies  in  Southern  Florida:  is  40  miles  long,  has  an  area  of 
about  1,2.50  sq.  miles,  and  is  only  12  feet  in  maximum  depth. 
It  contains  but  few  fishes.  It  n'ceives  several  streams,  of 
which  Kissinimee  river  is  tlie  most  important.  A  large  jiart 
<jt  the  lake  is  grown  up  with  grass  and  weeds.  Its  waters 
are  discharged  through  the  Everglades  mainly  by  the 
Caloosa  river.  Nearly  all  the  shores  of  the  lake  are  impene- 
trable, swampy  jungle,  and  the  lake  itself  is  nearly  inacces- 
sible. It  contains  a  few  low  islands.  It  has  been  partially 
drained. 

Okeleiio'kee  Sn'aiu|> :  one  of  the  largest  swamps  of  the 
r.  S. ;  covers  an  area  of  about  500.000  acres,  in  Charlton. 
Ware,  and  Clinch  cos.,  (ia.,  and  Maker  co.,  Fla.  It  is  about 
40  miles  X.  and  .S.  by  :H)  E.  and  W.  The  eastern  part  is 
mostly  an  open  lake  dotted  with  small  floating  islands. 
The  lake  portion  is  12  miles  in  width.  This  swamp  has 
forests  of  heavy  timber.and  is  the  abode  of  countless  rattle- 
snakes, moccasins,  ami  alligators,  besides  many  species  of 
game-birds. 

O'ken  (originally  Ockenfuss),  Lorknz  :  naturalist;  b.  at 
Bohlsbach.  Baden,  .\ug.  1,  1779;  studied  medicine  and 
natural  science  at  Wiirzburg  and  (fiittiugen,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Meilicine  at  .Jena  in  1807  and  of  Nat- 
ural Science  in  1812.  In  1S16  he  began  the  pulilication 
of  /.s(.<,  a  periodical  of  a  miscellaneous  character,  though 
<-hietly  devoted  to  natural  history  and  philosophy.  Some 
political  criticisms  which  it  contained  gave  the  Government 
an  o[)portunity  of  interfering,  and  in  1819  Oken  resigned 
his  office  and  lived  as  a  private  teacher  till  1828.  when  he 
received  a  professorship  at  Munich.  In  18^2  he  removed  to 
a  similar  position  in  Zurich,  where  he  died  Aug.  11,  ISol. 
His  principal  works  are  Lckrhuch  ihr  yatDrpJii/n.sophie 
(1808-11;  Eng.  trans,  by  Dr.  Tulk.  London.  1847);  Lelir- 
buch  der  Naturgpar.hirhle  (1818-27);  Die  Zein/ung  (180.5); 
Cebfr  die  Hedeiitung  der  Srhddelkitocheii  (1806).  etc.  As  a 
pu|)il  of  Schclling.  the  general  character  of  Oken's  works 
has  not  been  acceptable  to  naturalists,  speculation  having 
biMMi  cultivated  too  miudi  at  the  expense  of  observation,  and 
his  hypotheses  now  exist  chiefly  as  a  warning  against 
"transcendental"  excesses.  Even  the  hypothesis  of  the 
verteliral  compositioti  of  the  .skull,  which  he  developed,  after 
but  independently  of  Goethe,  has  now  little  acceptance. 

Okhotsk'  Proviiiee  of  Siberia:  .See  Maritime  Provi.nce. 

Okhotsk,  Sea  of:  a  large  inlet  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  .\sia,  between  the  island  of  Saghalin, 
Siberia,  Kamchatka,  and  the  Kurile  islands.  Its  northern 
part  is  frozen  from  November  to  ApriU 

Oklaho'ma:  one  of  the  Territories  of  the  C.  S.  of  North 
.\meriea  (Scjuth  Central  group);  organized  May  2,  1890; 
<apital.  Guthrie. 

IjiirdHim  imd  Area. — It  lies  between  34^  and  37°  X.  lat. 
and  90°  and  10:i  W.  Ion.:  is  boundeil  N.  by  Kansas  and  Col- 
orado. E.  by  Indian  Tenitory,  S.  by  Indian  Territory  and 
Texius,  \V.  "by  Texas  and  New  .Mi'xico.  Area,  39,030  sq. 
ndles,  of  which  200  S(j.  miles  are  water  surface. 

I'/ii/sinil  Features. — The  greater  part  of  Oklahoma  is  an 
uplaicl  prairie,  rising  gradually  toward  the  N.  and  W.  The 
Wichita  Mountains  in  the  S.  are  the  principal  elevations. 
The  Ciuuirron  and  Canadian  rivers,  important  tributaries 
of  the  .\rkansas.  with  a  general  course  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E., 
water  the  northern  and  central  portions,  while  the  Red 
river  forms  apart  of  the  southern  boundary,  and  its  two 
forks,  with  numerous  smaller  feeders  drain  the  southwestern 
portion. 

Soil  and  I^roducfinnii.— The  soil  in  general  is  similar  to 
that  on  the  same  meridians  in  Texas  and  Kansas,  and  is 
adapte<l  to  the  cultivation  of  almost  every  kind  of  plant. 
Whe.-it  has  averaged  20  bush,  to  the  acre  throughout  tlkla- 
homa,  with  nuiximum  production  in  places  of  62  bush.,  and 
cr)rn  and  oats  have  averaged  40  bush,  to  the  acre.  Cotton 
yields  an  average  of  500  lb.  to  the  acre,  llorticulturi' 
303 


thrives  in  every  section,  the  more  hilly  portions  being  cs- 
jiecially  adapted  to  apples  and  grapes.  The  woodlands  con- 
tain walnut,  oak,  hickory,  |iecan,  and  other  trees  common 
to  the  latitude.  In  1893  the  farm  lands  under  cultivation 
comprised  2.372,482  acres,  and  with  buildings  and  imple- 
ments were  valued  at  ^13,363,106.  The  corn  area  was  284,- 
2.54  acres;  wheat,  222.310;  oats,  109.374;  cotton,  21.311; 
sorghum,  18,7.55;  Hungarian  millet,  14,121  :  potatoes,  6,890; 
and  vineries.  8.059.  The  farm  aiumals  on  .Jan.  1, 1894,  coni- 
priseil  29,,51.5  horses,  value  !j;  1,1 6.5,843 ;  .5,427  nmles,  value 
.?;263.210;  20,273  milch  cows,  value  |304,9oO;  121,219  oxen 
and  other  cattle,  value  §1,878,895:  18,222  sheep,  value  $38,- 
266;  and  24,1.58  swine,  value  §126,830.  The  minerals  so  far 
as  known  comprise  gold,  silver,  coal,  iron,  salt,  gypsum,  as- 
Iihaltum,  petroleum,  building-stones,  and  flagging-.slones. 
A  number  of  building-stone  quarries  have  been  worked 
jirofitably,  but  no  extensive  mining  operations  have  been 
undertaken. 

CI iiiiate.— The  climate  of  Oklahoma  is  so  equable  that 
the  staple  products  of  both  North  and  .South  can  be  culti- 
vated with  profit  by  the  farnuT.  The  average  annual  tem- 
perature is  58-4°.  The  mean  animal  rainfall  is  about  3.5 
inches. 

Diri.'^ions.— For  administrative  purposes  Oklahoma  is 
(1894)  divided  into  twenty-three  counties,  as  follows  : 

COUNTIES   AND   COUNTY-TOWNS,   'WITH   POPULATION. 


COUNTIES. 

*Ref. 

Pop. 
1690. 

Pop. 

I894.t 

COU.NTY-TOWSS. 

Pop. 

I89e. 

5-G 
8-C 
3-C 
3-D 
2-B 
3-B 
S-B 
3-D 

a-c 

l-D 
3-E 
2-D 
1-C 
2-B 
2-D 
.3-D 
2-D 
2-E 
4-E 
2-E 
3-B 
4-B 
3-B 

2,Gr4 

None. 

7,158 

6,005 

None. 

None. 

'  8,332 

None. 
12,770 

iV,742 

'  7.215 
None. 

'6.338 

2.810 

5.89!) 

13,890 

12.710 

1,040 

215 

2.572 

14.:570 

15.1.")5 

14,n:K 

14.554 

19..5.32 

16.000 

2.241 

14.994 

20,525 

7..570 

13,407 

12,275 

8.615 

1.02S 

5.338 

1. 000 

Reaver 

\\  atonga 

P:1  Keiio 

Blaine 

Canadian  

285 

C'levelaud 

"D"t 

Norman 

787 

Day  t 

Custert 

Kayt 

Kingfisher 

Grant  J 

loland 

-Arapahoe 

Newkirk 

Kingfisher 

Poudcreek 

Chandler 

Guthrie 

i.i.ii 

Lincoln  { 

Logan 

2  788 

Woods  i 

WoiMln'ard  t 

Garflplil  t 

Alva 

Woodward 

Enid 

Oklahoma 

Oklahoma 

Perry 

Stillwater 

Tecumseh 

Pawnee 

Cheyenne 

4.151 

Noble;    

Payne  

480 

Pottawatomie  t 

Pawnee  t 

Roger  :\Iills; 

Greer  § 

Washita  t 

Cloud  Chief 

•       ■  ■  • 

Totals 

61.H.31 

219.779 

*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  Oklahoma. 
+  (iovernor's  report.  t  Formed  since  1890  census. 

§  Claimed  by  Texas. 

Principal  CHies  and  Tntrnx.  ivifji  Population  for  1S90. — 
( Iklahoma.  4,151 ;  Guthrie,  2,788  :  fZast  Guthrie,  2,"l41 :  King- 
fisher, 1,134;  Norman,  787;  Stillwater,  480:  West  Guthrie, 
404;  Fri.sco.  327;  Edniond.  294;  El  Reno,  285;  Reno,  234; 
Lexington,  223  ;  and  Maugum.  202. 

Population  and  P(ire.<i. — 1890.  including  inhabitants  of 
Greer  Countv,  which  was  claimed  by  Texas.  61.834  (native, 
59,094  :  foreign,  2.740;  males.  34.733;"  females.  27,101 ;  while, 
•58.826;  colored,  3,008.  including  2.973  |)ersons  of  African 
descent,  25  Chinese,  and  10  civilized  Indians). 

Tndustrie.f  and  Bu.sine.'t.s  Interexts. — Though  Oklahoma 
was  organized  as  a  Territcu-y  on  May  2.  1890,  the  census 
returns  show  that  on  June  1  following  72  manufacturing 
establishments  reported.  These  ha<i  a  combined  capital  of 
$95,519.  employed  195  persons.  |)aid  .$71,918  for  wages  and 
|!56,518  for  materials,  and  had  products  valued  at  §180,44.5. 

Finance. — In  1894  the  a.ssessed  valuations  aggregated 
i;i9,947,8!8.38,  Oklahoma.  Logan,  Kingfisher,  Canadian, 
Cleveland,  and  Payne  Counties  having  the  largest  in  their 
order.  A  number  of  the  counties  }iad  is.sued  bonds  for 
public  p\irposes. 

Banking. — In  .July.  1894.  there  were  6  national  banks, 
each  with  capital  of  !i!.50.000,  19  State  banks,  17  private 
bank.s,  4  incorporated  b;ink.s,  and  4  nuseellaneous  banks — 
in  all,  .50;  and  a  loan  and  trust  company. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. — On  .Jan.  1,  1894,  there  were 
280  posl-otTices,  of  which  7  were  presidential  (2  .second-class, 
5  third-class)  and  273  fourth-class,  with  48  nioney-ordcr 
olTices  and  2  po.stal-note  offices.  Of  newspapers  and  period- 
icals, there  were  10  daily,  1  semi-weekly,  73  weekly,  1  semi- 
monthly, and  5  monthly  publications;  total,  90. 


290 


OKLAHOMA 


OLAF 


Means  of  Communicution. — The  Atchison.  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  Railnnid  had  in  1894  a  main  track  of  117-68  miles 
and  side  track  of  lo'SO  miles  within  tlie  Territory,  across 
K,  P.  Logan.  Oklahoma,  and  Cleveland  Counties;  and 
116'30  miles  of  main  track  and  8'08  miles  side  track  across 
M.  N.  and  Day  Counties.  The  Chicago,  Kock  Island  and 
Pacific  Railroad  liad  116'86  miles  of  main  track  and  7'7<i 
miles  of  side  track.  It  extends  S.  from  Caldwell,  Kan., 
and  crosses  the  Cherokee  Strip.  Kingfisher,  and  Canadian 
Counties,  into  the  Chickasaw  country.  The  Choctaw  Coal 
and  Railway  Company  connects  Oklalionia  with  the  coal- 
fields of  the  Choctaw  nation,  and  had  31'40  miles  of  main 
track. 

Churches. — In  1893  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  had  25 
organizations,  with  a  reported  membership  of  10.000;  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  North,  165  organizations,  2,136 
members;  the  Baptists,  25  organizations,  800  members;  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  24  organizations,  750  members;  tlie 
Congregationalists,  24  organizations,  616  members;  and  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  6  organizations.  166  members, 
There  were  50  organizations  of  the  Voung  People's  Society 
of  Christian  Endeavor,  with  1,000  members. 

Schools. — The  school  population  of  Oklahoma  in  1894  was 
74,384.  Besides  direct  taxes  the  school  districts  receive  the 
proceeds  of  fines  in  criminal  cases,  and  also  moneys  arising 
from  the  rental  of  lands  set  apart  for  educational  purposes. 
The  Legislature  has  established  a  university  at  Norman,  a 
normal  school  at  Edmond,  and  an  agricultural  and  mechan- 
ical college  at  Stillwater.  The  thirteenth  section  of  the 
former  Cherokee  Outlet  has  been  reserved  for  the  benefit  of 
these  institutions. 

History. — Oklahoma  (beautiful  land)  is  a  part  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase  of  1803.  and  of  the  tract  set  apart  for 
Indian  tribes  by  act  of  Congress  June  30,  1834.  Patents 
granted  to  the  "  five  civilized  tribes  "  covered  materially  all 
the  lands  in  Indian  Territory.  By  a  treaty  in  1866  the 
western  half  of  the  Creek  territory,  containing  3,402,450 
acres,  was  ceded  to  the  U.  S.  for  .settlement  of  other  civilized 
Indians  and  freednien,  the  Government  to  pay  30  cents  an 
acre.  The  Serainoles  at  the  same  time  ceded  tlieir  tract  of 
over  2.000.000  acres  at  15  cents  an  acre,  purchasing  200,000 
acres  of  the  Creek  cession.  Remnants  of  seven  tribes  were 
located  by  the  Government  on  the  cede<l  lands,  but  a  large 
portion  remained  unoccupied.  In  1879  schemes  were  pro- 
jected by  speculators  for  taking  possession  of  these  unoccu- 
pied lands.  Parties  of  settlers  entered  the  Territory  with 
the  intention  of  obtaining  homes.  President  Hayes  issued 
proclamations  forbidding  such  movements,  and  ordering  the 
ejectment  of  all  intruders.  Many  of  the  invaders  were 
arrested  and  expelled  from  the  Territory,  but  new  expedi- 
tions were  started.  Cblonization  companies  were  formed, 
and  lands  guaranteed  to  members.  This  state  of  things  con- 
tinued till  1887.  Legislation  then  began  to  be  discussed  in 
Congress  looking  toward  the  formation  of  a  new  Territory 
in  the  coveted  region.  The  first  bill  for  territorial  organiza- 
tion-passed the  House,  but  was  lost  in  the  .Senate.  Mean- 
while the  Creeks  and  Seminoles  were  induced  to  enter  into 
an  agreement  for  the  complete  cession  and  release  of  their 
lands  provisionally  ceded  in  1866.  The  Government  paid 
for  these  cessions  .'i;4.193.799,  receiving  an  aggregate  of 
5,439,865  acres.  President  Harrison's  proclamation  opened 
the  unoccupied  portion  to  settlement  Apr.  22,  1889.  A  mili- 
tary force  equal  to  a  regiment  of  cavalry  and  more  than  a 
regiment  of  infantry  was  employed  to  keep  out  intruders 
until  noon  of  the  designated  day,  and  to  preserve  order 
among  the  throngs  of  expectant  settlers.  Two  land-offices 
were  opened  and  a  IT.  S.  court  established.  More  than  50,- 
000  per.sons  entered  the  Territory  on  tlie  first  day.  During 
the  afternoon  of  that  day  a  bankVas  opened  at  Guthrie  with 
a  capital  of  .'iSoO.OOO.  Four  months  later  the  town  of  Guthrie 
had  four  daily  newspapers,  water-works,  street-car  and  elec- 
tric-light companies,  and  six  banks.  For  the  first  year  the 
settlers  had  no  organized  government,  but  early  in  1890  a 
law  was  passed  by  Congress  and  signed  by  the  President 
creating  Oklahoma  Territory.  The  Tcrrit(;rv  was  made  to 
include  the  lanils  ceded  bv  the  Creeks  and  Seminoles,  to- 
gether with  the  Public  Land  Strip,  or  No-Man's  Land.  The 
Cherokee  Strij)  was  to  be  added  to  the  Territorv  whenever 
the  Indian  title  should  be  extinguished,  without  further 
legislation.  The  district  known  as  Greer  County  was  claimed 
by  Texas,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  jiidicial  deter- 
mination of  the  title.  Further  cessions  were  made  by  the 
Sac  and  Fox,  Pottawatomie,  Shawnee,  Chevenne,  and  Arap- 
ahoe Indians,  and  as  a  result  nearly  300,000  acres  of  land 


formerly  held  by  these  Indians  was  opened  to  white  settlers 
during  1891.  In  Sept.,  1893,  the  Government  having  per- 
fected its  title  to  the  Cherokee  Strip  by  treaty  and  purchase, 
this  entire  tract,  consisting  of  some  6,000,000  acres  'of  land,. 
was  opened  to  settlement  by  the  President's  proclamation! 
The  scenes  at  the  first  settlement  of  Oklahoma,  in  1889,  were 
repeated.  It  was  estimated  that  90.000  people  struggled  to 
possess  themselves  of  a  title  to  the  soil.  Much  suilering 
resulted  from  lack  of  water  and  provisions.  The  incorpora- 
tion of  the  Strip  makes  the  southern  boundary  of  Kansas- 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  Territory. 

GOVERNORS   OF   OKLAHOMA. 

George  W.  Steele 1890-93 

Abraliam  J.  Seav 1892-93 

William  C-  Renfrow 1893-97 

Revised  by  William  C.  Renfrow. 

Oklahoma  City :  city  (settled  Apr.  22.  1889) ;  capital  of 
Oklahoma  co..  Okl.  (for  location,  see  map  of  C)klahoma,  ref.- 
3-1)) ;  on  the  North  Canadian  river,  and  the  Atch..  Top.  and 
Santa  Fe  Railroad ;  25  miles  S.  of  CTUthrie.  The  river  lias 
a  fall  of  27  feet  in  4  miles,  and  the  power  thus  obtained  has 
been  brought  into  the  city  for  manufacturing  purposes  by 
means  of  a  canal.  The  city  is  the  largest  cotton-market  in 
Oklahoma;  contains  flour-mills,  cotton-gins,  brick-yards,. 
Iiaeking-houscs,  and  several  hotels ;  and  has  a  large  trade  in 
agricultural  products  and  lumber.  There  are  3  national 
banks  and  2  daily  and  4  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1890). 
4,151.  Editor  of  "  Gazette." 

Okra :  See  Gumbo. 

Ok'ubo.  TosHiJiicHi :  statesman ;  b.  in  the  province  of 
Satsuma.  .Jajiaii,  about  1830  a.  d.  Trained  under  the  able- 
lord  of  .Satsuma.  who  died  in  1858,  he  early  directed  all 
his  energies  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Tokugawa  shogunate- 
or  hakiifii,  whose  most  determined  enemies  were  found  in 
the  Satsuma  clan,  and  Okubo  became  their  leading  spirit.- 
Their  ideal  was  the  restoration  of  the  imperial  power  as  it 
existed  before  1200  A.  D.,  and  this  change  was  effected  in 
1868  by  means  of  Western  appliances.  From  1870-78  Okubo- 
was  the  most  powerful  minister  in  the  imperial  cabinet. 
He  went  on  a  special  mission  to  China  in  1874,  and  success- 
fully settled  the  Formosan  difficulty.  Later.  Saigo  Taka- 
niori  separated  from  him  and  raised  a  revolt  in  Satsuma; 
but  the  suppression  of  this  rebellion  in  1877  left  C)kubo's  policy 
triumphant.  On  Jlay  14.  1878.  when  on  his  way  to  the 
palace  in  Akasaka.  Tokio.  he  was  murdered  by  six"  bravoes 
belonging  to  tlie  party  of  the  deceased  Saigo.  A  handsome 
monument  has  been  erected  on  the  spot.  Okubo  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  Iwakura  embassy  which  visited 
Washington  in  1872.  'j.  M.  Dixon. 

Ok'nilia.  Shioexobu  :  statesman  and  financier ;  b.  in  the 
province  of  Kiushiu,  Hizen.  Japan,  in  1837.  He  studied  Dutch 
at  Nagasaki,  and  also  English  ;  after  the  restoration  entered 
the  Foreign  Office,  and  became  a  councilor  of  state  in  1870, 
with  charge  of  the  Finance  Department.  For  the  next 
twelve  years  he  directed  the  finances  of  Japan,  but  the  de- 
[ireciation  of  the  fiat  currency  and  other  circumstances  led 
to  his  removal.  In  1882  was  organized  the  Kaisliinto,  or 
constitutional-liberal  party,  of  which  he  is  the  acknowl- 
edged leader ;  it  seeks  the  overthrow  of  clan  rule,  and  the 
subordination  of  cabinets  to  the  parliament.  In  Oct.,  1889, 
Okunia,  who  had  returned  to  office  as  Minister  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  was  attacked  by  an  assassin,  and  had  his  leg  blown 
off  liy  a  dynamite  bomb.  Okunia's  lilieral  schemes  tor  a  re- 
vision of  ihe  existing  treaties  fell  through,  and  he  resigned 
office  in  Nov..  1891.  He  founded  a  college  in  Tokio — the 
.Senimon-Gakko — largely  devoted  to  the  stu<iy  of  political 
economy.  J.  M.  DixoN. 

O'laf.  Saint:  the  patron  saint  of  Norway;  b.  about  995; 
King  of  Norway  1015-28 ;  a  son  of  Harald  Griinske,  a  grand- 
son of  Harald  the  Fair-haired;  commanded  a  Viking  fleet 
when  twelve  years  old,  and  was  one  of  the  most  famous  and 
most  dreaded  sea-kings  of  the  North  before  he  was  nineteen. 
In  1014  he  returned  from  a  ]iillaging  jaunt  along  the  coasts 
of  France  and  Spain,  and  installed  hini-self  in  his  patrimony, 
the  throne  of  Norway.  He  now  set  abouk  introducing 
Christianity  among  his  countrymen,  but  his  measures  were 
so  severe  and  violent  that  the  Norwegians  rose  in  reliellion 
against  him,  and  when,  in  1028,  Knnd  (Canute)  the  Great, 
King  of  Denmark  and  England,  who  laid  claim  to  Norway, 
landed  with  an  army  near  Throndhjem.  then  called  Nidaros, 
Olaf  was  compelled  to  flee  to  Russia.     Two  years  afterward. 


OLAF  TRYGVASOX 


OLD  AGE,   DISEASES  OP 


291 


he  rcturneil  wilh  aiil  fruiii  Russia  iiiul  Sweden,  and  gave 
battle  at  Stiklestad,  near  Tlirondhjein,  July  2!).  WM\  but, 
his  army  was  routeil.  and  he  himself  slain  and  buried  on  the 
spot.  Subseijucntly,  when  Norway  became  thorouji-hly 
Christ iaiiized,  his  liody  was  taken  to  the  cathedral  of 
Throndhjem  and  enshrined  behind  the  high  altar.  (Jreat 
miraeles  were  reporti'd  :  crowds  of  pilgrims  journeyed  to  his 
shrine:  legends  and  folk-lore  gathered  around  his  name: 
and  in  the  following  century  he  was  solemnly  canonized  and 
declared  the  patron  saint  of  the  country.  On  Aug.  21,  1847, 
King  Oscar  I.  instituted  the  order  of"  St.  Olaf.  See  Nor- 
way. Revised  by  K.  B.  Anderson. 

Olaf  Try?vns<tn:  King  of  Norway  UiiS-lOOO:  b.  in  964: 
great-grandson  of  Ilarald  llaarfager,  and  a  son  of  Trvgve 
(Old  Xoi-se,  7'ri/i/i/ci),  who  was  viceroy  in  Southeastern  Nor- 
wav,  and  who  was  assassinated  by  (iudriid,  son  of  Krik 
liloodaxe.  The  widow  of  Trygve  and  her  son  fied  throuj^h 
Sweden  to  Russia.  The  stories  of  his  expei'ienees  in  Russia 
and  of  his  Viking  expeditions  in  Baltic  and  British  waters 
are  so  full  of  miracles  and  romance  that  it  is  difficult  to  sift 
the  wheat  from  the  chatr.  Meanwhile  it  is  certain  that  the 
young  man  became  celebrated  as  the  greatest  hero  and  ath- 
lete of  his  time.  He  plumlered  in  England  with  the  Danish 
king  Svend,  but  made  peace  with  King  Ethelred  in  il!)4.  ac- 
cepted the  Christian  faith,  and  was  bajilized.  King  Ethel- 
red  himself  being  his  god-father.  Olaf  promised  never 
again  to  attack  England,  and  the  following  summer  (9!t.j) 
he  returned  to  Norway.  He  arrived  there  in  the  most  op- 
portune moment,  the  ruler,  Hakon  Jarl,  liaving  just  been 
driven  from  his  throne  and  murdered  liy  this  thrall.  Olaf 
found  no  trouble  in  getting  possession  of  the  crown.  lie 
devoteil  all  his  time  and  strength  to  the  introduction  of 
Christianity,  but  his  methods  were  too  severe  and  the  cause 
made  but  little  progress.  He  founded  Nidaros  (now  Thrond- 
hjem), and  made  it  the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  lie  also 
sent  C'hristian  missionaries  to  the  Orkneys,  Faeroes,  Iceland, 
and  to  Greenland.  Leif  Erikson,  who  discovered  Vinland 
(see  ViXLAND),  was  the  missionary  he  sent  to  Greenland. 
Finally  he  organized  an  expedition  against  the  Wends  (in 
I'onierania)  to  secure  some  possessions  belonging  to  his 
(pieen,  Thyra,  a  sister  of  Svend  Forkbeard  of  Denmark.  At 
the  same  time  an  alliance  was  formed  against  him  by  the 
Danish  king  Svend.  the  Swedish  king  Olaf,  and  the  banished 
Norwegian  Jarl  Erik  llakonson.  The  allied  forces  attacked 
olaf  near  Svolder  (an  island  near  Riigen  in  the  Baltic),  and 
after  one  of  the  fiercest  naval  engagcMueiits  known  in  old 
Xorse  history  he  fell  Sept.  9  in  the  year  1000.  ^  Olaf  Tryg- 
vascm  is  the  most  conspicuous  figure  in  old  Norse  history, 
and  he  is  the  subject  of  many  a  song  and  story.  See  Nor- 
w  AV.  Rasmus  B.  Anderson. 

Oliltlie:  city;  capital  of  Johnson  co.,  Kan.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  5-K) :  on  the  Missouri  river,  and  the 
Atch.,  Top.  and  Santa  Fe  and  the  Kans.  City,  Ft.  Scott  and 
Memphis  Railways:  22  miles  .S.  W.  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.  It 
is  in  an  agricidtural  region:  contains  an  academy, the  Kan- 
sas Institution  for  the  I'Mucation  of  the  Deaf  and  Dundi.  a 
commercial  college,  2  liliraries,  a  national  bank.  Slate  liaidi, 
and  [jrivate  bank,  and  '>  weekly  newspa|>ers;  and  has  tlour- 
miUs,  canning-factorv,  and  a  number  of  wood-working  es- 
tablishments.    Pop.  (1880)  2,28r);  (18!)0)  3.294:  (189."))  a.4.")0. 

Kditor  of  ••  Herald." 

Ol'bers,  Heinrkii  Wii.uelm  Mathias:  astronomer:  b.  at 
Arbergen.  near  Bremen,  Oct.  11,  1758:  studied  medicine  at 
(i('ittingen,  and  practiced  as  a  physician  at  Bremen,  where 
he  died  .Mar.  2,  1840.  His  leisure  hours  he  gave  to  the  study 
of  astronomy,  especially  comets.  He  invented  a  new  method 
of  calculating  the  orbits  of  comets  from  tliree  oUservations, 
which  proved  easier  and  more  accurate  than  the  old  one ; 
anil  his  calculations  and  observations  of  coniet.s,  collected 
and  imlilished  in  {\n-  AstmnoDii.srliKx  Jiilirbuch  in  1782-1829 
and  18:i:j.  enjoy  a  great  reputation.  Of  the  planets  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  which  were'  eagerly  sought  after  by  the 
astronomers  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cenlury,  he 
discovered  two— Pall!U<,  Mar.  28,  18(J2,  and  Vesta.  Mar.  29, 
18((7. 

01(1  A^e,  Diseases  of:  The  natural  history  of  the  bodies 
of  animals,  in  couuuon  with  thai  of  all  living  beings,  in- 
cludes the  following  stages :  l-"irst,the  emlu-yonic  stage;  sec- 
ond, that  of  infancy:  third,  that  of  adolescence;  fourth,  that 
of  adult  life  or  maturity;  fifth,  that  of  old  age  (senescence)  or 
decline,  which  is  terminated  at  <leath.  Each  of  these  stages 
is  marked  by  physiological  conditions  diireriiig  in  the  main 
from  those  of  other  stages.     In  man,  it  is  well  known  that 


the  physiological  activity  of  infancy  and  adolescence  is  in 
marked  contra.st  to  the  physiological  delibera1eness(we  may 
say)  of  adult  life  and  the  physiological  iimctivity  of  old  age. 
Likewise  there  are  certain  diseases  that  are  vei-y  common 
in  early  life,  but  })ractically  unknown  in  old  age;  so  also  in 
old  age  certain  disorders  are  more  likely  to  occur  than  at 
other  times  of  life.  Conditions  which  predispose  to  these 
diseases  are,  in  general,  the  physical  inaliility  to  perform 
movements  and  exercises  which  in  earlier  life  are  not  only 
easy  but  usiudly  pleasant ;  the  inactivity  of  the  muscles  of 
the  internal  organs,  such  as  the  intestines  or  the  bladder; 
and  the  rigidity  of  the  blood-vessels,  which  opposes  an  ob- 
stacle to  the  motion  of  the  blood  pro]i(dled  by  a  heart  which 
does  its  work  less  actively  than  fornicrlv ;  and  the  increas- 
ing fragility  of  these  blood-ve.ssels.  lii  addition  to  this, 
every  tissue  in  the  body  of  an  old  person  differs  from  similar 
tissues  in  the  young  just  as  surely  as  an  old  leaf  differs  from 
a  newly  developed  one.  This  dill'erence  can  be  seen  to  a 
certain  extent  in  the  microscope,  but  beyond  this,  changes 
which  elude  sight  and  chemical  analysis  "mark  the  old  tis- 
sues, and  are  clearly  evinced  by  the  functional  inactivity  of 
these  tissues.  They  are  the  occasion  of  accidents  and  dis- 
eases to  which  the  old  are  more  liable  than  the  yoinig. 
Among  the  diseases  of  old  age  we  can  not  properly  class 
those  changes  in  the  liair  and  the  scalp  which  make  one 
gray  and  the  other  Imld,  nor  perhaps  that  connnon  altera- 
tion of  the  skin  known  technically  as  vitiligo  (leucoma), 
which  consists  in  the  disappearance  of  the  pigment  matter 
from  beneath  the  cuticle  in  certain  places,  so  that  there  are 
p.atches  lighter  in  color  than  the  general  hue  of  the  skin  ; 
but  there  is  a  special  tendency  in  the  ol<l  to  the  formation 
of  small  collections  in  the  skin,  due  to  the  stopping  up  of 
the  sebaceous  follicles  and  the  snppressicm,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, of  the  function  of  perspiration;  and  they  are  often 
sufferers  from  crysijielas  and  carbuncles. 

In  the  eyes,  the  development  of  far-sightedness  (presby- 
opia) can  not  be  considered  a  disease,  but  the  formation  of 
cataracts  (o]iacities  of  the  crystalline  lens)  can. 

In  the  ears,  the  dull  hearing  is  physiological,  and  the  dis- 
position to  the  accumulation  of  wax  (cerumen)  in  the  exter- 
nal auditory  canal  comes  in  the  same  category. 

In  the  muscular  system,  the  changes  of  old  age  consist  in 
weakening  of  the  muscle  fibers  and  disappearance  of  the  fat 
which  norjually  surrounds  them,  resulting  in  leanness,  which 
is  a  familiar  feature  of  advanccil  age.  In  what  nuiy  be 
called  early  old  age  there  is  sometimes  a  development  of  ab- 
normal quantities  of  fat  bencatli  the  skin  and  among  the 
muscles,  but  if  persons  with  this  deveh)pment  live  longthey 
almost  invariably  lose  their  fat  and  present  the  normal  pic- 
ture of  senility.  The  muscular  system  of  old  persons  is  not 
more  subject  to  disease  than  that  of  adults. 

The  bones  of  the  old  undei'go  an  alteration  of  the  projior- 
tions  of  their  animal  matter  (organized  matter)  compared  to 
their  mineral  ingredients  (unorganized  nnitter).  The  former 
is  reduced  in  relative  quantity,  the  latter  is  increased.  As 
a  consequence,  the  bones  are  more  brittle  and  more  liable  to 
fracture.  An  example  of  fracture  caused  by  trifling  vio- 
lence is  seen  in  that  of  the  neck  of  the  thigh-lione  (femur). 
This  part  of  the  lione  may  be  broken  by  a  wrench  occasioned 
by  tripping  njion  a  carpet,  or  even  by  the  weight  of  the 
body  alone — w  hat  is  known  as  ••  spontaneous  "  fracture.  Con- 
nected with  tliese  changes  in  the  bones  there  is  often  .stiff- 
ness in  the  joints,  due  jiartly  to  alteration  in  the  membrane 
covering  the  ends  of  the  bones  which  make  up  the  joint, 
partly  to  diminished  .secretion  of  the  lubricating  fluid  (syn- 
ovia) of  the  joint,  and  partly  to  (he  weakness  of  the  muscles. 

More  serious  troubles  than  those  of  the  jKirts  already 
mentioned  occur  in  the  interna!  organs  of  old  persons.  The 
circulatory  ajijiaratus  undergoes  chang<'s,  which — if  luit  in 
themselves  pathological — jiredispose  to  accident  and  dis- 
ease. The  tissues  composing  the  walls  of  the  heart  and 
blood-vessels,  as  age  ailvances.  lose  their  elasticity  and  con- 
tractile force  by  the  substitution  of  fat  for  nuiscle-cells,  and 
eventually  the  de|)Osit  of  calcareous  salts.  Fatty  degenera- 
tion of  the  heart,  with  the  deposit  of  various  sails  immc- 
diat(dy  under  the  thin  lining  niendirane  (endothelium)  of  the 
heart  and  arteries,  weakens  the  heart,  and  may  be  followed 
by  dilatations  of  its  walls  or  of  the  walls  of  the  arteries,  re- 
sulting in  the  latter  case  in  aneurisms.  Further,  fragments 
of  such  deposits  on  the  valvi'S  of  I  he  heart  and  of  the  aorta 
may  become  detached  and  l)e  carried  forward  in  the  circu- 
lation (embolism)  until  they  lodge  in  some  vessel  too  small 
to  permit  their  further  progress,  and  by  blocking  it  up  cut 
off  the  circulation  of  a  certain  area  in  the  brain  or  lungs  or 


292 


OLD   AGE,   DISEASES  OP 


OLD  CATHOLICS 


some  other  portion  of  the  body  (infarct).  When  fatty  or 
calcareous  degeneration  occurs  in  the  nutrient  arteries  of 
the  heart  (coronary  arteries)  the  result  may  be  what  is  Itnown 
as  angina  pectoi-is,  or  some  other  form  of  disease,  which  in 
time  is  surely  fatal.  When  an  embolus  lodges  in  the  brain 
and  becomes  an  infarct,  the  result  is  disturbance  of  that  part 
of  the  brain  ;  and  this  may  go  so  far  as  to  cause  paralysis  of 
the  portion  of  the  body"  over  which  it  presides.  In  the 
lungs  an  infarct  is  likely  to  cause  pneumonia.  In  the  kid- 
ney an  infarct  causes  also  destruction  of  a  certain  portion 
of  its  working  tissue.  An  infarct  occurring  in  a  toe  is  a 
common  cause  of  what  is  called  senile  gangrene.  The 
changes  in  the  circulatory  apparatus  of  old  persons  some- 
times leads  to  unusr..--.l  distension  of  the  blood-vessels  (pleth- 
ora) or  to  dropsy  caused  by  the  leakage  of  their  contents 
through  their  impaired  walls. 

The  respiratory  apparatus  of  old  persons  is  especially 
liable  to  injury  and  disease.  This  is  seen  in  the  develop- 
ment of  asthma,  which  may  be  considered  here,  although  it 
is  often  regarded  as  a  disease  belonging  to  the  nervous  sys- 
tem and  only  showing  its  effects  in  the  lungs.  A  very  com- 
mon cause  of  asthma  is  the  development  of  emphysema, 
•  which  is  a  dilatation  of  the  air-cells  (alveoli)  that,  like  the 
leaves  on  a  tree,  are  found  at  the  ends  of  the  minutest  rami- 
fications of  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  lining  membrane  of 
the  bronchial  tubes  is  especially  prone  to  disease  in  old  per- 
sons, who  suffer  often  and  severely  with  bronchitis,  and  in 
whom  this  disease  is  almost  as  dangerous  as  it  is  in  little 
children,  whose  bronchial  tubes  are  so  small  that  they  are 
easily  blocked  up  by  an  excess  of  their  normal  secretion. 
In  advancing  age  there  is  a  tendency  to  the  development  of 
consumption  (phthisis),  which  finds  its  largest  number  of 
victims  before  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  then  diminishes 
in  frequency  until  aliuut  the  age  of  fifty  years,  when  persons 
with  weak  lungs  pass  through  a  second  period  of  danger. 

The  disorders  of  the  digestive  apparatus  in  old  persons  are 
to  a  certain  extent  connected  with  the  loss  of  their  teeth  and 
the  imperfect  activity  of  their  salivary  glands.  Partly  on  this 
account  and  partly  because  of  the  growing  old  of  the  raucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach,  indigestion  is  very  frequently 
found  in  the  old.  The  liver,  which  is  part  of  the  digestive 
apparatus  and  a  most  important  organ  in  jiroducing  regular 
evacuations  of  the  bowels,  undergoes  senile  changes  which 
sometimes  result  in  jaundice,  and  frequently  in  constipation 
or  in  actual  obstruction  of  the  bowels,  the  former  impair- 
ing the  health  and  the  latter  being  very  dangerous  to  life. 
These  changes  sometimes  lead  to  dropsy,  because  they  con- 
strict the  large  (portal)  vein  which  brings  back  to  the  heart 
the  blood  from  the  abdominal  viscera. 

After  middle  life  and  in  old  age  the  kidneys  often  under- 
go changes,  consisting  in  alterations  of  their  structure  caused 
by  gout  (gouty  kidney),  which  are  like  those  of  the  form  of 
kidney  disease  called  Bright's  disease.  In  old  age  albumin 
or  sugar  may  be  excreted  by  the  kidney  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  constitute  a  true  albuminuria,  or  a  diabetes  mellitus.  In 
some  cases  dropsy  may  occur.  The  old,  like  the  very  young, 
are  liable  to  the  discharge  of  small  concretions  from  the 
kidney — what  is  called  gravel.  Such  concretions,  remain- 
ing in  the  kidney  of  the  old,  may  cause  the  formation  of 
stones  (calculi),  and  tliese  in  turn  may  give  rise  to  an  in- 
flammation accompanied  by  the  formation  of  m.atter  (pus), 
constituting  what  is  known  as  pyelitis.  In  the  old,  and  es- 
pecially in  men,  the  urinary  bladder  is  frequently  the  seat 
of  disease.  Owing  to  the  weakness  of  the  muscles  in  its  wall, 
there  is  often  in  the  old  an  inability  to  properly  evacuate  this 
organ,  leading  sometimes  to  accumulation  of  its  contents 
(technically  called  "  retention  ").  which  may  result  in  partial 
Iiaralysis  of  the  organ  and  dribbling  away  of  its  contents, 
which  deceives  the  sufferer  into  the  notion  that  the  organ 
must  surely  be  empty.  This  involuntary  evacuation  some- 
times depends  upon  a  weakness  in  the  circular  muscular 
fibers  at  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  and  is  then  called  "  incon- 
tinence."' In  old  men  the  prostate  gland,  which  is  situated 
close  to  the  neck  of  t  he  bladder,  sometimes  grows  to  such  a 
size  as  to  furnish  a  mechanical  obstacle  to  the  proper  evacua- 
tion of  the  bladder.  In  such  cases,  and  in  others  in  whicli 
the  bladder  is  not  properly  emptied,  there  often  develops  an 
inflammation  of  I  lie  liladder  (cystitis),  which  may  occasion 
very  serious  ilillicully  and  even  death.  This  inflammation 
is  sometimes  propagated  along  the  tubes  which  lead  from  the 
kidneys  to  the  bladder  (uroter.s),  and  sets  up  what  has  been 
mentioned  atiove  as  pyelitis. 

The  brain  and  ni'rvcms  system  in  the  old  are  peculiarly 
liable  to  functional  and  organic  disorders.     V'ertigo  is  onlv 


a  manifestation  of  a  defect  in  the  circulation  within  the 
brain.  Stoppage  of  the  circulation  by  an  infarct  may  cause 
a  passing  disturbance  or  a  paralysis  which  leads  to  death. 
The  breaking  of  a  blood-vessel  in  the  brain,  with  tlie  pour- 
ing out  of  blood  into  the  general  tissue  of  the  brain,  con- 
stitutes what  is  called  apoplexy.  There  is  also  another  form 
of  apoplexy  called  serous,  in  which  there  is  an  internal 
dropsy  caused  by  the  passing  of  the  watery  parts  of  the 
blood  through  the  thinned  walls  of  the  blood-vessels.  In 
the  old,  palsy  with  its  tremblings  is  frequently  seen,  and 
changes  which  elude  detection  by  the  microscope  give  rise 
to  what  is  called  senile  dementia. 

The  constitutional  diseases  to  which  the  old  are  especially 
liable  are  gout  and  rheumatism.  To  mention  the  many 
disturljances  which  may  depend  upon  these  diseases  would 
recjuire  much  more  space  than  can  here  be  given  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  those  who  wish  information  on  these  points  may 
consult  articles  under  these  titles. 

Protection  against  the  diseases  of  old  age  is  best  secured 
by  attention  to  the  general  principles  of  health.  The  old 
should  be  well  housed,  well  clothed,  with  especial  care  to 
protect  their  extremities;  they  should  lest,  and  avoid  strains 
of  body  or  mind  as  far  as  possible.  Sloilerate  exercise  is 
healthful ;  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  rest,  and  not 
activity,  is  the  normal  state  of  the  old.  In  eating  and  drink- 
ing, the  old  should  exercise  temperance,  as  suggested  by  na- 
ture. The  comparative  inactivity  of  the  body  in  old  age  is 
accompanied  by  a  comparatively  limited  demand  for  food, 
and  this  should  be  taken  at  rather  longer  intervals  than  is 
common  in  the  more  active  stages  of  life.  Speaking  from 
the  physiological  standpoint,  the  use  of  spirits  should  be 
regulated  by  the  custom  of  each  individual.  Those  unused 
to  wine  have  no  need  for  it  when  older ;  those  accustomed 
to  it  may  usually  continue  its  use  in  moderation. 

C'HARLES  W.  Dulles. 

Old'castle,  Sir  .John,  Baron  Coliham.  popularly  known  as 
"the  good  Lord  Cobham  " :  religious  reformer:  b.  in  Eng- 
land about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century:  fought 
with  credit  in  the  French  wars;  obtained  by  marriage  the 
title  of  baron ;  was  an  early  convert  to  the  doctrines  of 
Wycliffe  ;  took  part  with  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster, 
in  his  efforts  to  promote  ecclesiastical  reform,  jiresenting  a 
remonstrance  on  the  suliject  in  Parliament,  entitled  I'weh'e 
Conclusions  addressed  to  the  Parlitinient  of  EiiyJand ;  wrote 
a  number  of  discourses  and  satirical  verses :  declared  the 
pope  to  be  Antichrist ;  consequently  was  accused  of  heresy, 
and  thrown  into  the  Tower  in  the  first  year  of  Henry  V. 
(1413);  escaped  to  Scotland,  and  thence  into  Wales;  was 
falsely  accused  of  raising  an  army  of  20.000  Lollards  to 
overthrow  the  king:  thereupon  was  outlawed  by  Parliament 
and  a  price  set  on  his  head.  He  was  captured  in  \A'ales,  was 
hung  in  chains  alive  upon  a  gallows,  and  burned  to  death  by 
a  slow  fire  at  St.  Giles's  Fields,  London,  Dec.  25,  1417.  See 
his  Life,  by  Gilpin  (1808). 

Old  Catholies:  a  body  of  seceders  from  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church.  The  movement  dates  from  a  protest  against 
the  papal  infallibility  decree  of  the  Vatican  Council  in  1870 
as  being  contrary  to  history  and  conscience.  Dr.  Dollinger 
(q.  v.).  who  had  done  more  than  any  one  else  to  incite  to  re- 
bellion against  the  Vatican  decrees,  in  an  open  letter  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Munich  (formerly  his  pupil),  declared  (Mar. 
28, 1871)  that  "  as  a  Christian,  as  a  theologian,  as  an  historian, 
and  as  a  citizen,  he  could  not  accept  the  Vatican  decrees"; 
whereupon  he  was  excomnmnieated  Apr.  17,  1871,  as  being 
guilty  of  '•  the  crime  of  o|ien  and  fm-mal  heresy."  His  col- 
league, Prof.  Friedrich,  incurred  the  same  fate.  The  latter 
became  an  Old  Catholic.  l)ut  Dollinger  <lid  not  follow.  The 
movement  spread  with  considerable  rapidity  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland.  It  professed  to  retain  the  whole  Catholic  sys- 
tem, with  the  exception  only  of  the  Vatican  decrees,  which 
were  regarded  as  dangerous  innovations.  It  never  identified 
itself  with  Protestantism  in  any  form  :  but  it  is  regarded 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  as  neo-Protestant.  since  it 
denies  her  authority,  rejects  her  specific  doctrines,  and  affili- 
ates with  many  religious  liodies  considered  by  her  outside 
the  pale  of  the  true  faith.  It  was  formally  organized  in 
1873  by  the  election  of  Prof.  Joseph  Hubert  Reinkens  as 
bishop.  He  was  conseci%ted  by  the  Jansenist  bishop  Hey- 
kamp  at  Rotterdam  Aug.  11,  1873,  and  recognized  in  this 
new  dignity  by  the  Prussian  Government.  He  resides  at 
Bonn  on  the  Rhine.  1'he  Old  Catholics,  or  "  Christian  Cath- 
olics," of  Svvitzi'riand  elected  Edward  Herzog,  formerly  a 
priest  at  Oltcn,  their  bishop.     He  was  consecrated  by  Bishop 


OLDEXBUKG 


OLEAN 


293 


Iteinkensat  Rheinfelden,  Sept.  18, 1876,  and  resides  at  Berne. 
In  1880  he  visited  tlie  U.  S.  as  a  guest  of  the  General  Con- 
vention of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  then  in  session 
at  New  York,  The  Old  Catliolics  are  most  in  sympathy 
with  the  Episcopal  Churoh  of  En^'land  and  the  U.  S.,  but 
still  retain  the  ma-ss  and  most  of  the  doctrines  and  cere- 
monies of  the  Koman  Church.  The  question  of  clerical  celi- 
bacy nearly  created  a  split  among  them.  They  have  a  theo- 
logical faculty  at  Bonn,  and  one  at  Bern.  The  movement 
never  exteniled  beyond  (jeruiany  and  Switzerland,  but  Pere 
Hyacinthe.  the  elocpient  ex-preacher  of  Xutre  Danu',  who 
has  a  small  congregation  of  admiring  followers  in  Paris,  has 
recently  declared  himself  an  Old  Catholic.  The  (Md  Catho- 
lics of  Germany  and  Switzerland  held  a  second  interna- 
tional congress  at  Lucerne  Sept.  i;i-15,  18!J2,  at  which  they 
resolved  to  publish  an  international  theological  quarterly 
review,  to  be  edited  by  Prof.  Midland,  of  Berne.  The  Old 
Catholic  congregation  in  Bonn  is  the  most  flourishing. 
though  not  very  large,  and  celelirateil  in  IS!I2  its  twentieth 
anniversiiry,  at  which  Bishop  Keinkens  and  Prof,  von  Schulle 
delivered  addresses.  The  movement  seems  to  have  almost 
spent  itself.  For  the  Old  Cathi>lic  side,  see  Job.  Friedr.  von 
^  liulto,  Der  Altkatholicismus,  Geschichte  seiner  Entwicke- 
■iij,  etc.  (Giessen,  1887) :  Fr.  N'ippold,  Neueste  Kirchenge- 
fr/iichle  (Berlin.  4th  ed.  1892);  Proceedini/s  of  the  Second  In- 
ternational Old  Catholic  Congress  (Lucerne,  18!):J);  Revue 
infernal ioiui/e  de  t/imlogie,  edited  by  K.  Michaud.  For  a 
resume  of  the  Koman  Catholic  view  of  this  schism,  see  Her- 
gennjother,  Kirchengeschichte  (\o\.  iii.,  pp.  979-984). 

Philip  Schaff. 

Olilenbiir^,  oldf n-boorch :  grand  duchy  of  North  Ger- 
many. It  consists  of  three  distinct  parts,  viz. :  Oldenburg 
proper,  bordering  X.  on  the  German  ()eean  and  surrounded 
on  the  other  sides  by  Hanover  ;  the  ju-incipality  of  Lubeck. 
wholly  inclosed  by  Holstein,  the  Baltic,  and  territory  of 
the  free  city  of  Lubeck:  ami  the  principality  of  Birken- 
feld,  situated  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  Total  area,  2..508  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  (1890)  354.968.  Oldenburg  proper  is  low  and 
flat;  large  dikes  have  been  erected  along  the  shores  of  the 
ocean  and  the  rivers  W'eser  and  Jahde.  The  soil  is  partly 
marshy,  partly  sandy,  in  some  places  covered  with  extensive 
forests,  in  others  with  heath.  Agricidture  and  cattle-breed- 
ing are  the  chief  occupations;  of  manufactures  there  are 
none.  Oldenburg  was  established  as  an  independent  state, 
ruled  by  a  count,  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century.  The 
family  that  established  its  power  then  has  ruled  ever  since. 
giving,  moreover,  new  dynasties  to  Russia,  Denmark,  and 
Sweden.  In  1773  Oldenburg  was  made  a  duchy,  and  in  181o 
a  grand  duchy.  A  constitution  was  given  to  the  grand 
duchy  Feb.  18,"  1849,  whicfh.  revised  by  a  ilecree  of  Xov.  22, 
1852,  granted  liberty  of  the  press,  trial  by  jury,  and  equality 
of  all  citizens  in  political  and  social  matters.  The  legisla- 
tive power  is  exercised  by  a  Landtag  or  diet ;  the  executive, 
by  a  responsiVjle  ministry  under  the  grand  duke. 

Oldenburg  :  city  of  Germany  ;  cat)ital  of  the  grand  duchy 
of  Oldenburg.  It  has  several  good  educational  institutions, 
museums,  and  scientific  collections:  a  public  library  with 
100,000  volumes,  a  fine  ducal  palace  with  beautiful  gardens ; 
two  large  and  inuch-frec|uented  cattle  and  horse  fairs;  and 
an  active  trade  on  the  river  Ilunte,  here  mivigable  for  small 
vessels.     Pop.  (1890)21,646. 

01(1  English:  See  Kxglisii  Language  and  English  Lit- 

ERATlllF,. 

Old'iiam :  town  :  in  the  county  of  Lancashire,  England ; 
on  the  Jlcdlock ;  6  miles  from  Manchester  (see  map  of  Eng- 
land, ref.  ~-G).  In  1760  it  consisted  of  only  sixty  houses,  but 
the  discovery  of  rich  coal  mines  in  its  immediate  vicinity 
occasioned  the  establishment  of  large  cotton-factories,  anil 
soon  it  became  one  of  the  lea<ling  manufacturing  towns  of 
England.  It  has  nearly  300  cotton-mills  with  (.vrr  12,(100.- 
000  spindles,  which  consume  one-fifth  of  the  total  imports 
of  cotton  into  Englaiul.  Its  other  manufactures  include 
velvets,  silks,  hats,  cords,  etc.,  besides  great  weaving-machine 
works.  The  parliamentary  borough,  which  is  larger  than 
the  municipal,  returns  two'members.  Poi).  of  former(1890) 
146,716:  of  latter  (1893)  136,469. 

Oldhu'niia  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Dr.  Oldham,  late  di- 
rector of  the  Geological  .Survey  of  Inilia] :  a  peculiar  or- 
ganism having  a  branching,  p'lant-like  form,  thought  by 
some  to  be  a  polyzoon.  by  others  a  vegetable;  found  in  the 
Cambrian  rocks  of  Ireland,  and  interesting  as  one  of  the  first- 
known  forms  of  life. 


Old  Light :  See  New  Light. 

Old  .Mans  Beard:  See  Fringe-tree. 

Old  Persian  :  See  Persian  Language. 

Old  Prussian  Languag'e :  an  extinct  variety  of  the 
Lithuanian  language.  It  was  the  language  of  the  early  in- 
habitants of  the  territory  between  the  Deiine,  the  Alle.'and 
the  Weichsel.  Only  the  scantiest  means  of  information 
concerning  it  have  been  handed  down  to  us.  This  is  attribu- 
table to  the  fact  that  the  German  orders,  which  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  had  subdued  the  Prussians,  after  thi^  bloody 
st  niggle  forbade  the  use  of  the  language,  which  was  in  con- 
sequence after  the  introduction  of  the  Reformation  into 
Prussia  already  so  far  repressed  that  even  the  kiiully  en- 
couragement of  Duke  Albrecht,  the  first  secular  ruler  of  the 
(irovince.  could  not  avail  to  prevent  its  speedy  extinction. 
From  the  period  prior  to  the  secularization  of  Prussia  there 
is  preserved  but  one  record  of  the  language,  namely,  the  so- 
called  Elbing  Vocabulary,  a  manuscript  dating  from  about 
1400.  which  was,  however,  copied  from  an  original  belong- 
ing to  the  thirteenth  century.  This  vocabulary  contains 
803  Prussian  words  » ith  a  German  translation,  aiid  appears 
to  have  been  prepared  for  the  use  of  officials  of  the  orders 
who  acted  as  judges.  The  other  sources  of  the  Old  Prussian 
are,  with  the  exception  of  certain  lesser  materials  and  vari- 
ous names  of  places  and  persons,  two  translations  differing 
in  dialect  of  Luthers  lesser  catechism  (Konigsberg,  1.545), 
and  a  translation  of  Luthbr"s  Knchiridiun  (Konigsberg, 
1561).  These  versions  are  unfortunately  so  imperfect  and 
the  orthography  of  the  Elbing  Vocabulary  is  so  bad  that  all 
these  texts  yield  little  more  than  a  caricature  of  the  Old 
Prussian  language,  which  was  entirely  extinct  by  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  For  the  stiidy  of  the  Old  Pnis- 
sian  we  are  limited  almost  exclusively  to  the  works  of  G.  H. 
F.  Xesselman  :  Die  Sprache  der  alien  Freussen  an  ihren 
Ueberrcsten  erlaulert  (Berlin,  1845) ;  Eiu  deutscli-preus- 
sisches  Yocabularium  (Konigsberg,  1868);  Thesaurus  I ingwe 
prussicw  (Berlin.  1873).  These  fail,  however,  to  satisfy  sci- 
entific needs.     See  Lettic  Race.  A.  Bezzenbergek. 

Old  Red  Sandstone :  an  imjiortant  geologic  formation 
of  Devonian  age  occurring  in  Scotland  and  Wales.  The 
name  was  formerly  applied  also  to  one  of  the  units  of  geo- 
logic chronology,  but  in  that  sense  has  been  ri!|ilaced  by  De- 
vonian. This  change  accords  with  the  general  tendency  in 
geologic  nomenclature  to  avoid  giving  a  chronologic  mean- 
ing to  potrographic  terms,  which  can  be  actually  descriptive 
onlv  in  restricted  districts.  The  formation  in  Scotland  has 
an  "estimated  thickness  of  6,000  to  20,000  feet,  including 
shales,  conglomerates,  and  volcanic  tuffs,  as  well  as  the  char- 
acteristic red  sandstones.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  laid 
down  in  inland  lakes  or  seas,  and  is  distinguished  by  its  re- 
markable fish  remains,  which  constitute  a  principal  theme 
of  Hugh  Miller's  classic  works,  7'/ie  Old  Red  Sandstone  and 
Footprints  of  the  Creator.  See  Devonian  Period,  ami 
Archibald  Geikie's  paper  on  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  Eu- 
rope ill  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh, 
vol.  xxviii.  (1879).  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Old-Sehool  Baptists:  See  Anti-Mission  Baptists. 

<H(I  Style:  .See  Calendar. 

01(1  Testament:  See  Bible. 

Old  Wife,  or  Old  Stpiaw:  a  common  name  for  the  hmg- 
tailed  duck  (Harelda  glacialis).  an  abundant  and  prettily 
marked  species  of  the  northern  hemisphere  generally,  though 
most  common  along  the  coast.  The  breeding  plumage  is 
varied  with  black,  white,  and  brown,  and  the  two  central 
tail-feathers  of  the  male  reach  a  length  of  8  or  9  inches.  For 
the  fish  of  this  name,  see  Wrasse.  F.  A.  L. 

Oleaein'idie  f  Jlod.  Lat..  from  Oleacina,  the  name  of  one 
of  the  genera] :  a  family  of  terrestrial  gasteropod  molluscs 
of  the  order  Pulmonata.  The  shell  is  spiral,  and  in  most 
oblong  and  with  a  narrow  aperture,  but  in  some  is depre,s.sed 
and  heliciform.  with  a  wide  aperture.  The  family  includes 
numerous  species. 

Oloan  :  city  (chartered  1893);  Cattaraugus  ec.  X.  Y.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  X'ew  York.  ref.  6-C) ;  at  the  junction 
of  the  Alleglienv  river  and  Olean  creek :  on  the  Erie,  the 
West.  X.  Y.  and"  Pa.,  and  the  Cent.  X.  Y.  and  West,  rail- 
ways: 69  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Buffalo.  It  is  on  the  border  of 
the  largest  hemlock  lumber  belt  in  the  U.  S.,  is  close  to  the 
Pennsylvania  oil-fields,  and  is  the  center  of  large  lumber 
and  tanning  interests.  It  is  also  the  eastern  terminus  of 
the  Ohio  pipe-line  and  the  western  terminus  of  a  pipe-line 


294 


OLEANDER 


OLGA 


from  the  Pennsylvania  oil-fields  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard, 
and  contains  one  of  the  largest  refineries  of  the  Standard 
Oil  Company,  with  immense  storage  tanks.  There  are  11 
churches,  7  |)ublic-school  buildings,  public  library,  a  com- 
mercial college,  St.  Mary's  parochial  school,  2  banks,  2 
daily,  a  semi-weekly,  2  weekly,  and  3  monthly  periodicals, 
and  a  State  armory.  The  city  is  lighted  by  electricity,  and 
has  natural  gas  for  fuel  and  lighting,  electric  street-railway, 
3  flour-mills,  4  foundries  and  machine-shops,  railway-shops, 
2  planing-mills,  marljle,  glass,  barrel,  and  lubricating  works, 
and  othvr  industries.  Pop.  (1880)  3,036 ;  (1890)  7,3.58 :  (1894) 
estimated  with  suburbs,  14,000.  James  H.  McKee. 

Olean'der  [Fr.  oUandre  :  Ital.  olenndro  :  Span,  elocmlro, 
under  influence  of  olfium  from  Lat.  *lonindriim.  itself  a 
corruption,  under  influence  of  laurus,  lorus.  of  rhododen- 
dron =  (Jr.  f>oS6SfvSpov :  fi6Soi'.  rose  +  SivSpoy.  tree] :  an  ever- 
green shrub  {Serium  oleander)  of  the  family  Apoci/naceie, 
a  native  of  warm  parts  of  the  Old  World,  and  now  exten- 
sively cultivated.  In  colder  regions  it  thrives  as  an  orna- 
mental shrub,  but  requires  protection  from  frost.  Its  flow- 
ers are  usually  of  a  rich-pale  red,  but  are  sometimes  white, 
JV.  odoriim,  the  fragrant  oleander,  a  native  of  India,  is  a 
more  tender  species,  with  sweet-scented  flowers.  The  wood 
and  all  parts  have  a  poisonous  action  resembling  that  of 
digitalis,  best  treated  by  a  judicious  use  of  stimulants. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Olearos:  See  Antiparos. 

Oleas'ter  [Lat.,  wild  olive-tree,  deriv.  of  o'lea.  olive- 
tree]:  a  small  tree  (Elmagnus  angustifolia)  of  the  family 
Ukfaffnacew,  a  native  of  warm  regions  in  the  Old  World'; 
is  planted  as  an  ornamental  tree  for  its  silvery  foliage.  Its 
flowers  are  exceeilingly  fragrant.  Several  other  species  of 
Elceagnns  are  cultivated  for  ornament,  and  one,  the  goumi 
of  the  Japanese  (E.  longipes),  is  now  somewhat  grown  for 
the  acid  berries.  L.  H.  B. 

Ole  Bull :  See  Bull,  Ole  Bornemann. 

Oleflant  Gas  :  See  Ethylene. 

O'leflnes  [deriv.  of  olefiant;  Lat.  o'leum,  oil  + -J! care. 
make,  produce] :  hydrocarbons  of  the  general  formula 
C„Hj„,  homologous  with  ethylene,  02114,  so  called  from  their 


property  of  forming  oily  compounds  with  chlorine,  like 
Dutch  liquid,  CjfLOlj.  They  are  found  among  the  products 
of  destructive  distillation,  and  may  be  formed  by  tlie  expo- 


sure of  paraflins  to  liigh  temperatures  under  pressure ;  thus : 
Butane.  Ethyl  hydride.  Ethylene. 
Cill.o     =     CjHe      -f      C'jH,. 

See  Ethylene,  Hydrocarbons,  and  Tar. 

O'leic  Acid  [o/eic  is  from  Lat.  o'leum,  oil] :  an  acid 
(formula  dellsiOj).  discovered  in  1811  by  Chevreul ;  the 
most  important  of  the  group  of  fatty  acids  of  the  general 
formula  C„nj„_jOa,  set  free  by  the  saponification  of  olein, 
the  fluid  component  of  most  oils  and  natural  fats.  It  is  ob- 
tained by  treating  olive  oil,  almond  oil,  or  animal  oils,  bv  a 
caustic  alkali,  prefcralily  by  potash,  decomposing  the  "re- 
sulting soap  by  tartaric  acid,  and  heating  the  fatty  acid, 
after  first  washing  it  with  water  in  the  "water-bath  with 
half  its  weight  of  oxide  of  lead  in  fine  powder  for  some 
hours.  The  oleate  of  lead,  separated  by  ether  and  filtration 
from  the  stearate,  is  decomposed  by  dilute  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  the  ethereal  solution  of  oleic  acid  is  then  separated 
from  the  acid-water,  washed,  and  the  ether  distilled  from  it. 
Oleic  acid  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  crystallizes  from  it  on 
cooling  in  brilliant  crystals  which  melt  at  .57°  P.  to  a  clear 
colorless  oil.  At  39"  F.  this  fluid  acid  solidifies  to  a  hard 
white  crystalline  mass,  which  expands  as  it  cools.  Oleic 
acid  distills  over  unchanged  in  a  vacuum,  and  is  even  soluble 
in  strong  sulphuric  acid  at  ordinary  temperatures  without 
decomposition.  It  is  without  smell  or  taste  when  pure,  ancl 
is  insoluble  in  water.  Alcohol  and  ether  dissolve  it  in  all 
proportions,  and  in  solutions  it  reacts  neutral.  Bv  air  it  is 
slowly  oxidized  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  it  rapidly  ab- 
sorbs oxygen  wdien  melted,  becoming  rancid  bcjth  to  smell 
and  taste,  and  then  develops  a  strong" acid  reaction.  It  dis- 
solves the  solid  fats,  and  is  itself  dissolved  by  sodium  chlo- 
ride (as  in  bile),  forming  a  soa|)  with  an  acid  reaction. 

Very  large  quantities  of  crude  and  high-colored  oleic 
acid  are  proiluced  in  the  lime  .saponification  of  lard  atid 
tallow  by  Chi'vreurs  methoil  in  the  manufacture  of  stearin 
candles.  The  insoluble  liinc-soa]i  formed  in  this  process  is 
decomposed  by  dilute  snipluiric  acid,  and  the  cake  of  fatty 
acids  which  forms  on  tlu^  surface  of  the  cooled  mother- 
liquor  holds  the  oleic  acid  entangled  in  the  stearic  and  nuir- 


garic  acids,  from  which  it  is  in  great  jiart  freed  by  filtra- 
tion at  32°  in  the  hydraulic  press.  This  impure  oleic  acid, 
which  is  found  in  commerce  under  the  name  of  red  oil, 
yields  pure  oleic  acid  after  separation  from  its  lead-salt, 
after  a  second  saponification  with  an  alkali,  and  is  salted 
out  with  sodium  chloride  mixed  with  sodium  carbonate,  by 
which  means  only  can  it  be  freed  from  the  associated  color- 
ing-matters. At  66°  F.  the  specific  gravity  of  oleic  acid  is 
0'898.  Nitrous  acid  converts  oleic  acid  into  elaidic  acid, 
an  isomeric  forin  of  oleic  acid,  without  forming  a  second  de- 
composition product.  Nitric  acid  acts  on  oleic  acid  with 
violence,  evolving  volatile  acids  of  the  general  formula 
C„IIj„Oj — namely,  acetic,  butyric,  propionic,  caproie,  etc. — 
and  mixed  acids  of  the  general  formula  C„Il2„_,02,  such  as 
suberic,  pimelic.  adipic,  etc. ;  the  number  and  proportion 
of  these  depending  on  the  activity  and  duration  of  the  re- 
action. With  the  metals  oleic  acid  forms  neutral  oleates 
M'(CieIIss02)  or  M'XCisHssOj)^,  according  to  the  equivalence 
of  the  metal.  The  neutral  oleates  of  the  alkali  metals  are 
soluble  in  water,  and  are  not  completely  thrown  down  from 
solution,  as  are  the  stearates  and  palmitates,  by  the  addition 
of  another  soluble  salt.  The  acid  oleates  are  liquid  and  in- 
soluble in  water.  Absolute  alcohol  and  ether  dissolve  the 
oleates  in  the  cold,  by  which  reaction  they  are  distinguished 
and  separable  from  the  stearates  and  palmitates. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsbn. 
O'lein,  or  Ela'iii  [from  Or.  tXawv.  oil] :  that  portion  of 
oil  or  fat  which  remains  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures; 
the  oily  principle  of  solid  fats.  It  is  of  variable  composi- 
tion, but  in  all  cases  it  consists  of  oleic  acid,  or  of  some  acid 
homologous  with  the  oleic,  coiubined  in  various  definite 
proportions  with  glycerin.  Drying  oils  and  volatile  oils  do 
not  contain  olein.  The  olein  of  commerce  is  chiefly  a  crude 
oleic  acid  prepared  from  palm  oil  in  the  British  candle- 
factories.  "Lard  oil"  is  a  similar  product  derived  from 
lard  in  the  V.  S.  Both  are  now  chiefly  used  for  oiling  ma- 
chinery.   See  Oleic  Acid. 

Oleomargarine  [Lat.  oleum,  oil  +  margarine] :  See  But- 
ter, Artificial;  Cheese,  and  JIaroarine. 

Oler'icultlire  :  that  branch  of  liorticulture  which  treats 
of  the  art  and  science  of  growing  kitchen-garden  vegetables. 
It  is  synonymous  with  the  term  vegetable-gardening.  The 
strawberry  is  referred  to  olericulture  in  Europe,  but  in  the 
U.  S.  to  pomology :  the  melon  to  pomology  in  England,  but 
in  the  U.  S.  to  olericulture.  Truck-gardening,  or  trucking, 
is  a  term  applied  to  that  style  of  vegetable-gardening  which 
grows  vegetables  upon  a  somewhat  large  scale  for  strictly 
commercial  purposes,  in  distinction  iTon\  farm-gardening  or 
kitchen-gardening,  in  which  plants  are  grow'U  for  home  use. 
Market-gardening  is  identical  with  truck-gardening,  al- 
though the  eleventh  census  of  the  U.  S.  separated  them, 
using  the  latter  term  to  designate  the  industry  when  "car- 
ried on  in  favored  localities  at  a  distance  from  market, 
water  and  rail  transportation  being  necessary,"  while  mar- 
ket-gardening is  "conducted  near  local  markets,  the  grower 
of  vegetables  using  his  own  vehicle  for  transporting  his 
products  direct  to  either  the  retailer  or  consumer." 

The  truck-gardening  interests  of  the  U,  S.,  as  reported 
by  the  eleventh  census,  employed  534,440  acres  of  land  in 
1890.  The  most  important  trucking  districts  are  the  New 
England,  the  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  the  peninsular, 
eom]>rising  the  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  peninsula,  the 
Norfolk,  the  Southern  Illinois,  and  the  South  Atlantic. 
The  most  notable  single  trucking  center  is  Norfolk,  Va., 
where  light  warm  soil,  the  proximity  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
and  excellent  water  and  rail  transportation  combine  to 
afford  the  best  natural  conditions  and  economical  market 
facilities.  The  truck-gardening  interests  of  the  U.  S.  have 
been  greatly  modified  and  extended  by  the  introduction  of 
simple  and  efficient  forcing-houses.  (See  Greenhouse.) 
Such  crops  as  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  radishes,  lettuce,  and 
others,  are  now  grown  with  quite  as  much  profit  in  winter 
as  in  summer.  The  largest  acreage  devoted  to  a  single  crop 
in  the  census  year  was  114,381  acres  planted  to  watermelons; 
this  was  followed  by  77,094  acres  in  cabbages,  56,163  in  pease, 
and  37.970  in  asparagus. 

See  Vilmorin-xVndrieux's  Vegetable  Garden  (English  edi- 
tion);  Henderson's  Gardening  for  Profit ;  Burr's  Field  and 
Garden  VegetaUes  of  America;  Greiner's  ITow  to  Make  the 
Garden  Pag.  L.  II.  Bailey. 

Olga,  Saint  :  a  patron  saint  of  Russia,  who  in  903  became 
the  wife  of  the  Grand  Duke  Igor  I.  of  KiefP.  He  was  mur- 
dered 945,  and  Olga  became  regent  in  the  name  of  their 


OLIBANUM 


OLIVE 


295 


son  SviatcislafT.  She  punislKHl  the  munlorers  pnielly  and 
iiiado  a  vifioi-Dus  ruler.  When  Sviatot^lalT  eiuleil  his  minor- 
ity (Oo/j)  and  aseended  the  throne,  she  retired  to  C'on.stanti- 
nojile.  enibraeed  C'liristianity  and  was  baptized  under  the 
name  of  Helena.  She  returneii  to  Kussia,  labored  earnestly, 
but  with  indilTerent  sueees.s.  to  introduce  Christianity — her 
son  never  acee])led  it — and  died  at  KietT  in  !)(>!•,  afjcd  about 
eighty  years.  Her  day  in  the  Kussian  ealendar  is  .luly  11. 
See  Castreniont,  Ilis/uiredt  rintrudiicliim  tlu  ('hrialianisme 
surle  continent  Husse,  et  la  vie  de  Saintit  Otya  (I'aris,  1879). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  JaiIvSOX. 

Olib'aiUllll  [  =  Ijate  I,at.,  from  Arab.  al.  the  +  Itiban 
(wlienoe  (ir.  Klfiavos).  frankineense] :  a  truni  resin  whieh  ex- 
udes from  the  tree  Bosweltia  seriuitd.  whieh  grows  in  Africa 
and  India.  It  occurs  in  oblong  or  rounded  lamina>,  opaque, 
of  yellow  or  reddish  color,  dull  and  waxy  on  the  fracture. 
It  "melts  with  ditlieully  and  imperfectly  when  heated,  and 
burns  with  a  liright  flame.  It  has  a  Ijalsamic,  resinous  smell 
and  an  acrid  liitter  taste.  Triturated  with  water,  it  forms 
a  milky,  imperfect  solution.  Alcohol  dissolves  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  it.  Hraeonnot  {Ann.  Chim.  Phijx.  (2),  Iviii.,  60) 
found  100  parts  of  it  to  yield  8  of  volatile  oil,  56  of  resin, 
30'8  of  gum,  and  o-2  of  a  glutinous  body  insoluble  in  water 
and  alcohol,  with  some  mineral  matter.  It  is  used  for  fumi- 
gation and  in  t  he  pre|iaral  ion  of  plasters  It  has  been  burned 
from  antiquity  in  religious  ceremonies.  See  Bosweli.ia, 
Frankini  K.NSE.  and  ^'.  .S'.  /Jisp.;  ./f(/ire.s6.,  18.58,  482  ;  Ann. 
Chi'm.  u.  I'lutrm.,  xxxv.,  :i06 :  Zi-il.f.  Chem.  (2).  vii.,  201. 

Olifuiit  River,  or  Elvphaut  River:  See  Limi-opo  River. 

(H'igarcliy    [from    Gr.    oKiyapx^"-''    o^'yos,   few  +  fipx""- 

rule]:  a  form  of  government  in  which  the  sujirenie  power 
is  vested  in  a  small  class  of  persons.  It  differs  from  aristoc- 
racy in  the  extent  of  the  governing  class,  whieh  in  an  aris- 
tocracy usually  embraces  the  entire  body  of  the  nobles, 
while  in  an  oligarchy  a  certain  political  clique  or  coterie 
has  the  controlling  influence.  Oligarchies  have  been  among 
the  most  unjust  and  oppressive  of  governments,  and  for  the 
most  part  have  been  short-lived. 

Oligocene  Period  [oligncene  is  from  (ir.  oKiyos.  snuill  + 
Katy6s.  new):  a  division  of  geologic  time  succeeding  the 
Kocene  period  and  preceding  the  N'eocene.  In  the  classifica- 
tion of  C'enozoic  or  Tertiary  time  by  Lyell  three  divisions 
were  recognized :  Eocene  (older),  Miocene,  and  Pliocene. 
Subsequently  it  was  found  advantageous  in  classifying  cer- 
tain European  formations  to  substitute  two  divisions  for 
the  Eocene,  the  name  Eocene  being  retained  for  the  older 
and  Oligocene,  proposed  by  Beyrich,  being  ap|ilicd  to  the 
younger.  In  the  nomenclature  adopted  tjythe  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey  for  the  geologic  atlas  of  the  U.S.  the  earlier 
use  of  Eocene  is  restored.    See  Eockne  Period.     G.  K.  6. 

Oli^ocllBBtae  [Mod.   Lat.,   from  Gr.  o\lyos,  few  +  x<"V77, 

bristle]:  an  order  of  Annelid  W(]rms.  of  which  tlie  earth- 
worms may  be  taken  as  types.  In  all  the  elongate  cylin- 
drical body  is  without  distinct  head,  without  any  distinct 
appen<lages,  but  with  a  few  bristles  on  each  segment,  the 
remnants  of  the  fleshy  feet  (parapodia)  with  many  bristles 
occurring  in  other  Ainielids.  These  worms  are  hermaphro- 
dite, and  the  young  develop  without  a  metamorphosis.  Two 
divisions  are  usually  recognized.  Tlie  first  is  the  Trrricnlie, 
or  Eartiiwor.ms  (</.  c),  which  live  in  moist  e.-irth;  the  sec- 
ond, the  Limieola,  live  in  the  ooze  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water,  but  few  occurring  in  the  sea,  the  great  majority  being 
inhabitants  of  fresh  water.  Of  the  Limieohf  there  are  many 
genera,  which  are  grouped  in  five  families.  Little  is  known 
of  the  American  forms.  The  genera  of  Terririihv  are  nu- 
merous. The  student  should  considt  Wilson's  papers  on 
the  embryology  {■Juurmtl  of  .tfarp/idlof/i/.i.  and  iii.)  and  the 
numerous  papers  on  the  anatomy  and  species,  by  Beddard 
and  Henham,  in  the  (Judrtcrly  ./(iiirniil  of  .Tfirroxnipicdl  Sci- 
ence since  188Ji.  J.  S.  Kixu.slbv. 

Olin'llit:  a  town  of  the  state  of  Pernambuco,  Brazil:  on 
a  low  promontory  of  the  (toast,  about  !)  miles  N.  of  the  city 
of  Pernambuco,  with  which  it  is  united  by  railway  (see 
map  of  South  America,  ref.  4-II).  It  wa.s  the  first  settle- 
ment in  Northern  Brazil,  having  been  founde<l  in  l.~):i5;  was 

long  the  cajiital  of   Pcrnamliuco,  and  having  1 n  taken  by 

the  Dutcli,  was  the  capital  of  their  colonv  in  Mrazil  from 
lfi:iO  to  10r)4.  Until  aliout  ITIOil  was  the  most  important 
commercial  city  of  the  coast  N.  of  Biihia.  Recife,  or  Per- 
nambuco. which  had  been  a  fishing  village,  gradually  sup- 
plante<l  it  as  a  trading  center,  and  eventually  became  the 
political  capital ;  but  (Jlinda  remained  the  see  of  the  bishop. 


It  is  now  the  residence  of  many  wealthy  Pernambucans,  and 
is  a  favorite  resort  for  bathing,  etc.  Its  quaint  old  build- 
ings, erected  bv  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  are  verv  inter- 
esting.    Pop.  (i 891)  about  y,000.  Herbert  II.  Smith. 

(Mipliant.  Carolina:  See  Xairnk. 

Olipliaiit.  Laurence:  traveler,  author,  and  mystic;  b.  in 
England  in  182!),  son  of  Sir  Anthony  Olijiliant.  sulisecjiiently 
chief  justice  of  Ceylon  ;  went  to  Ceylon  in  his  youl  h  ;  visited 
Nejiaul  in  1830;  journeyed  through  .Southern  Russia  and 
th<t  Crimea,  and  in  1858  published  T/ie  ItunKiayi  Shores 
uf  the  Black  Sen;  became  private  secretary  to  Lord  Elgin, 
Governor-tiencral  of  Canada:  subsequently  was  sup<'rintend- 
ent  of  Indian  affairs  in  Canada  ;pul)lished  The  Tiiuis-Cau- 
casian  Prucince,i  the  I'rojier  Field  of  Operiiliiin.s  for  ii 
Christian  Army  (1855);  accomijanied  the  army  of  Omar 
Pasha  to  the  region  in  question ;  wrote  I'he  Trans-Cau- 
c.aainn  Cnmpaif/n  of  Omar  Punha  (1856) ;  accomjianied 
Lord  Elgin  as  private  secretary  on  his  mission  to  China  in 
1857;  wrote  ,1  Marra/ire  of  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Jlission  to 
China  and  Japan  (1860):  wasf/iO(Y/('rfV(/yri/-p.sin  .Ta|ian  1861 : 
sat  in  Parliament  for  llic  Stirling  burghs  1S61-6S:  joincil 
with  his  mother  the  senu-religious  community  established 
by  Thomas  L.  Harris  at  Portland.  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y. : 
became  correspondent  of  The  Times  in  Paris  in  1870,  and 
manager  of  the  Ai^ierican  interests  of  the  Direct  Cable 
Company:  about  1875  settled  at  Haifa,  Palestine,  having 
interested  himself  in  the  [iroject  for  colonizing  Palestine 
with  the  .lews.  I),  at  Twickenham.  England.  Dec.  23,  1888. 
Among  his  works  wei'e  The  Land  of  (lilead  (1880);  Epi- 
sodes in  a  Life  of  Adventure  (1887):  Scientific  Religion 
(1888);  and  tiie  novels  Piccndillij  (1870);  Altiora  Feto 
(188:!):  and  MasoHam  (1886).  See  Life  bv  :Mrs.  ^\.  0.  W. 
Oliphant  (1891).  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Ulipliaiit.  Margaret  0.  Wilson:  novelist;  b.  at  Wally- 
ford,  near  Musselburgh,  Scotland,  in  1828;  has  published 
over  seventy  books,  including  a  large  number  of  successful 
novels  and  other  works  of  fiction,  consisting  chiefly  of  de- 
lineations of  Scottish  and  English  life  and  character,  most 
of  which  have  lieen  republished  in  the  U.  S.  Among  them 
are  Fas-fayes  in  the  Life  of  Mrs.  Margaret  Maitland  (1849) ; 
Adam  Graeme  of  Mossgray  (1852);  The  Chronicles  of  Car- 
ling  ford  (1863) ;  Salem.  Chapel;  The  Perpetual  Curate  (1864) ; 
The  Ministers  Wife  (1869) ;  A  Hose  in  June  (1874) :  With- 
in the  Frecincts  (1879);  A  Little  Filyrim  :  in  the  Unseen 
(1882);  A  Coiintn/  O'entleman  {1887);  Sons  and  Dauc/hte.rs 
(1890);  The  Cuckoo  in  the  Kest  (1893).  She  has  written 
biographies  of  Edward  Irving  (1862),  St.  Francis  of  Assist 
(1871).  Count  Jlontalembert  (1872),  Principal  Tulloch  (1888), 
Thomas  Chalmers  (1893),  and  others;  Historical  Sketches 
of  the  Feign  of  George  II.  (2  vols.,  1869) ;  Royal  Edin- 
burgh (1890) ;  The  Literary  History  of  England  from  1790 
to  'lS25  (1882):  The  Victorian  Age  of  English  Literature 
(1893).  Revised  by  II.  A.  Beers. 

Oliphant.  Thomas  Laurence  Kinoton  :  biographer  and 
])hilologist :  b.  near  Bristol,  England,  Aug.  16,  1831 :  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Oxford;  studied  law  at  the  Inner  Tem- 
ple; is  author  of  Life  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  the  Second 
(1862):  Jacobite  Lairds  of  G  ask  (\8~iQ);  Sources  of  Standard 
English  (1873) ;  Life  of  the  Due  de  Luynes  (187o) ;  Old  and 
Middle  English  (1878;  2d  ed.  1893);  ^'eul  English  {I86li). 

Olivares,  o-l(M'-vaa  ras.  Gasparo  de  Guzman,  Count  of: 
prime  minister  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain;  b.  in  Home.  ,Tan.  6, 
1587,  his  father  being  at  that  time  theSi>ainshandiassa<lor  at 
the  ))apal  court ;  studieil  at  Salanuinca;  became  influential  in 
court  circles  as  the  trusted  fricmi  of  the  heir-apparent,  who, 
on  succeeding  to  the  throne  in  1621.  m.'ide  him  Iluke  of  San 
Lucar  de  Barraincda,  and  intrusted  the  administration  to 
his  direction.  lender  his  ministry  Spain  was  involved  in 
wars  with  Portugal.  France,  and  the  Xetherlamls;  the  peo- 
ple were  impoverished  by  the  heavy  taxes;  revolts  broke 
out  in  Catalonia  and  .Andalusia,  and  Portugal  secured  her 
independence.  The  failure  of  his  policy  caused  bis  dis- 
missal from  court,  and  having  afterward  jiublished  a  work 
that  gave  offense  to  people  in  autluirity.  he  was  banished 
to  Toro,  where  he  died  July  22,  164.5. 

Olive  [via  O.  Fr..  from  Lat.  oli'va.  o  lea.  from  Gr.  iKala, 
olive-tree]  :  a  tree  of  the  genus  (Ilea  {Olea  europira).  The 
olive-tree  has  been  grown  from  the  nuisl  ancient  times, both 
in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor;  both  fruit  and  oil  form  impor- 
tant products  of  the  Jleiliterranean  region,  where  the  bland 
"sweet"  oil  replaces  butter  and  other  animal  fats  for  table 
and  culinary  use;  while  all  over  the  world  it  is  used  for 


296 


OLIVE 


OLIVES,  MOUNT   OP 


salads  as  well  as  for  medicinal  purposes,  in  preference  to  all 
others.  The  pickled  fruit  also  is  in  its  home  an  article  of 
food  in  common  use.  while  elsewhere  esteemed  a  table  deli- 
cacy. The  tree  is  a  slow  grower,  but  attains  great  size  and 
age;  some  groves  have  an  historic  celebrity,  and  are  pre- 
served with  scrupulous  care.  The  wood  is  close-grained,  hard, 
of  a  yellowish  tint,  ami  is  much  esteemed  for  carving  and 
fine  work  genei'ally.  The  small-fruited  wild  olive  (oleaster) 
is  of  value  only  as  a  grafting  stock  for  the  improved 
varieties,  of  which  over  thirty  are  cultivated  in  Southern 
France  alone,  and  many  others  in  Spain  and  Italy,  the 
three  countries  that  chiefly  sup|)ly  the  commercial  demand. 
The  olive  has  been  extensively  propagated  in  California, 
where  the  "  mission  ohvc  "  was  early  introdnced  by  tlie  Fran- 
ciscan missinnaiies;  and  tliat  State  produces  both  excellent 
oil  and  pickled  fruit.  Attempts  to  introduce  it  into  the 
Southern  U.  S.  have  not  been  successful,  on  account  of  the 
occasional  severe  changes  and  low  temperatures  occurring 
there.  According  to  numboldt,  for  the  success  of  the  olive 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  coldest  month  should  not  fall 
below  41'5°  F.  or  5°  C.  Some  varieties  are  much  hardier 
than  others,  bear  considerable  frost,  and  require  less  heat  to 
mature  the  fruit. 

The  tree  is  propagated  either  from  twig  cuttings,  from 
sprouts  of  truncheons  of  old  wood  set  in  moist  ground,  or 
from  gnarled  woody  buds  {unvoli)  tliat  form  mostly  near 
the  base  of  the  trunk.  It  begins  to  bear  from  the  seventh 
to  the  ninth  year,  according  to  climate  and  varieties,  some 
trees  yielding  eropsalteruate  years,  others  annually.  The  crop 
increases  up  to  the  thirtieth  year,  when  single  trees,  it  is  said, 
sometimes  yield  as  much  as  300  lb.  of  oil ;  but  ordinarily 
10  to  15  lb.  per  tri'e  is  accepted  as  a  fair  crop,  corresponding 
to  about  70  to  100  lb.  of  the  fruit.  While  the  tree  is  not; 
very  exacting  as  to  soil,  is  not  exhaustive,  and  is  often  seen 
doing  well  on  stony  slopes,  it  responds  gratefully  to  fertile 
soil  and  liberal  fertilization;  the  pomace  from  the  oil-press 
is  frequently  tlie  only  return  it  receives  for  years,  and  the 
fact  that  the  oil  takes  nothing  from  tlie  soil  accounts  in 
part  for  the  persistence  of  its  jn'oduction  in  the  oldest  coun- 
tries. The  color  <jf  the  fruit  when  fully  ripe  (in  November 
and  December)  is  purple  or  purplish  black ;  its  shape  varies 
from  almost  round  to  long-oval;  the  oil  is  contained  (to  the 
extent  of  1.5  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  whole  fruit)  in  tlie  watery 
llesh,  together  witli  a  bitter  astringent  principle,  wliich  ren- 
ders the  natural  fruit  uneatable,  but  belongs  only  to  the 
juice,  and  can  readily  be  extracted  by  weak  lye.  Tlie  hard 
pit  varies  much  in  size;  the  little  oil  contained  in  its  kernel 
deteriorates  that  of  the  flesh,  and  is  excluded  from  the  best 
i|ualities  when  practicable.  The  best  varieties  for  oil  are 
not  well  suited  for  pickling;  the  pickling  olives  should  be 
large,  firm-fleshed,  and  have  a  small  pit,  like  the  "queen 
olive "'  of  Spain. 

For  oil-makinfi  the  fruit  is  not  allowed  to  get  fully  ripe, 
as  the  oil  would  then  be  Miick  and  rank-tasting;  for  the 
best  quality  the  flesh  must  still  be  firm,  the  color  golden  to 
purplish  only,  and  the  fruit  must  be  worked  quickly  after 
gathering.  It  is  usually  juilped  in  an  edge-wheel  crushing- 
mill  of  stone ;  but  as  this  crushes  the  pits,  improved  tinned- 
iron  mills  in  which  this  can  be  avoided  are  now  being  intro- 
duced. The  highest  quality,  "virgin"  oil,  is  that  which 
flows  from  the  cruslied  mass  without  pressing;  its  quantity 
is  usually  quite  small,  and  it  is  not  ordinarily  found  iii 
commerce.  The  next  best,  the  first  quality  of  commerce,  is 
obtained  by  pressing  the  cold  pulp  in  i-ou"nd  flat  baskets  or 
bags,  made  of  such  perfectly  inodorous,  strong  mat('rials  as 
palm-leaves,  esparto  grass,  bamboo,  or  (in  Cah'fornia)  can- 
vas clolli ;  tlie  oil  being  extremely  liable  to  absorb  any  odors 
with  wliich  it  may  come  in  cmitact.  the  utmost  cleanliness 
and  exclusion  of  all  damaged  fruit  must  be  carefully  ob- 
served. After  the  first  pressing,  the  pomace  or  press-cake 
is  broken  up,  reground,  and  thinned  with  cold  water  ;  tliere 
follows  a  second  pressing  which  yields  a  commoner  quality 
of  oil,  used  by  the  poorer  classes  of  the  population.  A  third, 
and  occasionally  a  fourth  pressing  with  hot  water  yields  a 
still  inferior  oil,  used  for  burning,  lubrication,  and  soap- 
making. 

The  liquids  flowing  from  the  press  are  murky-looking 
emulsions  of  the  watery  juice  with  minute  droplets  of  oil. 
They  are  usually  alloweii  to  settle  in  appropriate  tanks,  an 
operation  which  according  to  circumstances  may  re((uire 
from  a  few  weeks  to  several  months,  and  during  which  the 
air  is  excluded  as  much  as  pussilile  to  avoid  rancidity.  The 
oil  floating  on  ton  is  dippeil  or  drawn  off,  and  if  not  per- 
fectly limpid  is  filtered,  so  as  to  remove  completely  any  of 


the  acrid  juice  that  would  render  it  unpalatable.  Of  late  a 
more  rapid  process  of  separation,  by  means  of  a  water-cur- 
rent in  a  settling-tank,  has  been  introduced  with  great  ad- 
vantage. 

The  piohled  olive  is  an  important  article  of  commerce, 
and  in  the  olive-growing  countries  also  an  important  part  of 
the  daily  food.  For  home'  use  the  fruit  is  allowed  to  grow 
much  riper  than  when  intended  for  export,  and  is  then 
more  palatable  and  digestible,  but  more  dillicult  to  keep. 
In  either  case  the  acridity  may  be  extracted  slowly  by 
water  alone,  frequently  changed  and  then  replaced  by  brine, 
together  with  laurel-leaves,  coriander,  fennel,  etc.,  and  some- 
times vinegar,  according  to  taste;  but  for  export  the  fruit, 
when  barely  turning  color  and  still  quite  hard,  is  steeped  in 
caustic  lye  of  varying  strength  (4  to  6  oz.  to  a  gallon  of 
water)  for  eight  to  ten  or  more  hours,  until  the  pit  is  readily 
detached  from  the  flesh.  The  lye  is  then  replaced  by  cold 
water,  renewed  daily,  until  the  acridity  is  removed,  and 
tlien  by  brine,  which  may  or  may  not  be  flavored  as  above. 
Sometimes  the  fruit  is  also  pitted,  stufl'ed  with  capers,  and 
preserved  in  fine  oil. 

The  olive  oil  industry  has  suffered  greatly  from  the 
adulteration  (chiefly  carried  out  at  Marseilles)  with  cheaper 
oils,  especially  that  of  the  peanut  (Arachis  hijpogcea)  and  of 
cottonseed.  The  latter  addition,  if  not  too  heavy,  is  diffi- 
cult of  detection  by  the  taste,  though  easily  shown  by  chem- 
ical reagents.  K.  W.  IIilgabd. 

Olive  Family,  or  Olea'ceac  [Oleacecv  is  Mod.  Lat.,  named 
from  O'lea,  the  typical  genus,  from  Lat.  o'lea,  from  Gr. 
4Ka.ia,  olive-tree] :  a  family  of  dicotyledonous  trees  and 
shrubs,  including  about  300  species,  mostly  natives  of  warm, 
temiierate,  and  tropical  climates,  the  ash  alone  having  a 
higher  northern  range.  The  leading  character  of  the  fami- 
ly is  that  of  having  regular  gamopetalous  or  sometimes 
polypetalous  flowers,  with  the  parts  of  the  calyx  and  corolla 
tour  and  hypogynous,  while  the  stamens  are  only  two,  and 
tlie  ovary  two-celled ;  but  some  are  apetalous.  The  olive- 
tree  is  far  the  most  important  representative  of  the  family, 
and  next  to  it  the  ash-trees  with  their  excellent  tough  tim- 
ber, one  species  also  yielding  manna.  Among  the  small 
trees  or  shrubs  cultivated  for  ornament  are  lilacs,  privet, 
fringe-tree,  Forsythia,  and  jasmine. 

Oliver,  Georue,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  author:  b.  at  Pap- 
plewick,  England,  Nov.  5,  1782;  graduated  at  Cambridge 
1803;  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England;  became 
head  master  of  King  Edward's  grammar  school  at  (ireat 
Grimsby  1809  ;  vicar  of  Scopwick  1831 ;  incumbent  of  Wolv- 
erhampton 1834,  and  rector  of  South  llykehani,  Lincolnshire, 
1847;  fillcil  high  posts  in  the  ^lasonic  order,  and  wrote  sev- 
eral works  upon  Masonry  which  met  witli  wide  acceptance. 
Among  them  are  Historic  Landmarks  of  Freemasonrij,  The 
Hii^tnry  of  Initiation.  Antiquities  of  Freemasonry,  and  In- 
stitutions of  Masonic  Jurisprudence.  D.  at  Lincoln,  Mar. 
3,  18fi7. 

Oliver,  Peter,  LL.  P. :  chief  justice  of  Jlassachusetts  ;  b. 
at  lioston,  Mass.,  Mar.  26,  1713;  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  1730;  held  several  offices  in  Plymouth  County,  and 
was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Cnurt  Sept.,  1*56; 
became  chief  justice  1771 ;  was  impeached  by  the  House  of 
Representatives  1774  for  refusing  to  subscribe  an  engage- 
ment to  receive  no  pay  or  emolument  except  from  the  As- 
sembly;  accompanied  the  British  troops  on  their  retirement 
from  Boston  1776 ;  subsisted  some  years  in  England  on  a 
grant  from  the  crown.  D.  at  Birmingham,  Oct.  13,  1791. 
He  was  author  of  various  political  writings  and  of  some 
poems. 

Olives.  Mount  of.  or  Mount  Olivet,  now  Jebel  et- 
Tfir  (mount  of  the  rock):  an  I'minence  on  the  E.  of  Jeru- 
salem, from  which  it  is  separated  by  tlie  narrow  valley  of 
Jehoshapliat.  It  rises  2,693  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  100  feet  above  the  most  elevated  (lart  of  .Jerusalem. 
It  forms  the  middle  summit  of  a  ridge  of  hills  which  to  the 
N.  expands  into  a  large  elevated  table-land,  but  which 
here  contracts  and  terminates  in  a  row  of  three  hills.  The 
southernmost  of  these  hills  is  now  called  the  "Mountain  of 
Offense,"  because  Solomon  there  instituted  the  |iagan  wor- 
ship for  his  concubines.  The  northern  hill  was  the  place 
where  Titus  encamped  when  he  besieged  Jerusalem.  The 
middle  summit  is  the  proper  Mount  of  Olives.  At  its  foot, 
near  the  bridge  over  the  brook  of  Kedron,  lies  the  garden  of 
Gethsemane.  Its  swelling  sides  are  streaked  with  patches 
of  bare  rock  between  the  olive  groves,  which  are  planted 
in  terraces.     The  Church  of  the  Ascension,  built  upon  its 


ULI\'KT   CULLl'XiK 


OLMSTED 


297 


top  by  Helena,  which  was  seen  by  Sir  John  Mandeville  in 
1327,  has  disapiioared,  ami  in  its  place  is  a  small  octagonal 
chapel  within  a  paved  court  connected  with  a  iiiosciue.  In 
the  Old  Testament,  Mt.  Olivet  is  first  nicntioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  flight  of  David  from  Absalom  ('i  Sam.  xv. 
30);  next  as  the  scene  of  the  worship  of  ("heniosh  and  Mo- 
loch, set  up  by  .Solomon  (1  Kings  xi.  7),  but  destroyed  by 
Josiah  (3  Kings  xxiii.  l-'i) :  and  tinally  as  the  place  from 
which,  by  the  order  of  Kzra,  the  people  got  the  branches 
for  the  i'east  of  tat)ernaclcs  (Neh.  viii.  1.5).  In  the  New 
Testament  the  allusii>ns  are  more  numerous.  "  It  is  very 
prominent,"  Schaff  says  ( Through  liMe.  Lands,  n.  e.,  p.  272), 
"  in  the  closing  .scenes  of  our  Saviour's  ministry.  In  Heth- 
any,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Olivet,  he  had  his  most  intimate 
friends,  Lazarus,  Marl  ha.  and  Mary,  and  performed  his  last 
and  greatest  miracle  (Luke  x.  38-^12 :  .John  xi.):  from  Ml. 
Olivet  he  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem  (Luke 
xix.  2i)-;W);  here  he  spent  the  nights  intervening  between 
the  entry  and  his  pa-ssion.  and  returned  every  morning  to 
teach  in  the  temple  (Luke  xxi.  37) :  descending  from  this 
mountain,  he  wept  over  the  ungrateful  city  and  foretold  her 
fearful  (loom  (Luko  xxi.  41-44);  to  it  he  repaireii  on  the 
night  of  his  betrayal  (John  xviii.  1);  from  it  he  ascended  to 
heaven  to  take  possession  of  his  throne  (Luke  xxiv.  50;  Acts 
i.  12).''  See  also  Tobler,  /Siluahgiielle  und  d.  Oelberg  (St. 
Gall,  1852).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Olivet  College:  an  institution  of  learning  at  Olivet, 
Mich.;  founded  in  1844.  While  not  sect.irian.it  is  more 
closely  related  to  the  Congregational  denominalion  than  to 
othei-s.  Its  nine  buildings,  well  placed  in  a  charming  spot, 
are  well  built  and  finely  equipped.  The  musical  depart- 
ment and  the  department  of  science  are  exce[itionally  well 
equipped.  The  yearly  attendance  is  about  ;iOO.  The  value 
of  the  college  property  and  endowment  is  about  $;JOO,(1U(). 

WiLI.ARU  (j.  SrKliltV. 

OlIv'idjB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  O/i'ni,  the  typical 
genus,  from  Lat.  oli  ra.  olive  (see  Olive),  named  from  its 
olive  shape] :  a  family  of  (.Tasleropod  molluscs,  with  elongate 
oval  shells,  the  outer  surface  polished  and  frequently  bright- 
ly colored.  The  spire  is  short,  the  mouth  elongate,  its  inner 
lip  obliquely  plaited.  The  species  of  Olives  are  numerous 
(over  100),  and  are  arranged  among  several  genera.  Their 
beauty  makes  them  great  favorites  with  collectors. 

Olivier,  «  lee'vi-a'.  Juste  Daniel;  poet;  b.  at  Eysins, 
canton  of  Vaud,  Switzerland,  Oct.  18,  1807.  He  showed  an 
early  inclination  to  letters,  and  at  eighteen  won  a  prize  in 
the  poetical  competition  at  Lausanne.  In  18;ii0  he  published 
his  hrst  volume  of  [mvins,  Poemes  siiisses;  this  was  followed 
by //'.•li'en(>(1831);  L'  I^rocat  ion  (\83'i) ;  and  Les  Deux  Vaix 
(1835).  About  1843  he  became  involved  in  political  difli- 
cultie.s,  left  his  professorship  in  Lausanne,  and  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  lived  most  of  the  rest  of  his  life.  D.  in 
Geneva,  Jan.  7,  1876.  Later  poetical  works  are  Ijes  Chan- 
soiu  hintainPK  (1847);  Dcrnih-es  Chansons;  Theatre  de 
societe,  fantaisies  dramatiques  (1870).  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  works  in  prose;  Le  Canton  de  Vaud  (3  vols., 
1837-41);  Etudes  d'histoire  nationale  (1842);  Mouremenl 
intellectuel  de  la  Suisse  (184.5).  A.  G.  Cankield. 

(iriviiie:  See  Chrysolite. 

OUier,  o  li-a',  Loris  XAVif;R  ^doi-ard  Leopold,  M.  D.  ; 
surgeon  ;  b.  in  Lyons,  France,  in  1825;  gradualeil  M.  I),  at 
the  School  of  Medicine,  I'aris,  in  1857;  settled  in  Lyons; 
appointed  surgeon  to  the  Hotel  Dieu  and  professor  in  the 
surgical  clinic;  paid  special  attention  to  the  surgical  pathol- 
ogy of  bones  and  joints,  and  his  researches  on  the.sc  subjects 
are  highly  esteemed  by  the  medical  profession.  His  princi- 
pal works  are  Traite  experimental  rt  clinlque  de  la  regene- 
ration des  OS  et  de  la  produrtion  arlifirielle  du  lissu  osseux 
(Paris,  18(57);   Traite  des  resections (i^wns,  188.5-8!)). 

S.  T.  Armstronr. 

Ollivier',  I^milk;  statesman;  b. at  Marseilles, France, July 
2,  1825  ;  studied  law.  and  began  to  practice  as  an  advocate  at 
I'aris  in  1847.  In  1848  he  was  sent  as  commissary-general 
to  Marseilles  to  pacify  the  city,  and  shortly  after  he  was 
appointed  prefect,  but  in  184!)  returne<l  to  his  business  in 
Paris.  In  1857  he  was  electeil  a  member  of  the  Legislative 
Asseml)ly,  and  made  himself  conspicuous  by  his  courageous 
and  eloquent  opposition  to  the  government  of  Napoleon  III. 
6ra<lually,  however,  the  emperor  succeeiled  in  wiiniing  him 
over  to  his  side,  and  he  was  generally  considered  a  political 
renegaile,  when  on  Jan.  2.  1870,  he  became  Napoleon's  prime 
minister.    He  was  president  of  the  cabinet  when  the  war  was 


declared  against  Prussia,  but  he  retired  Aug.  9,  after  the 
first  reverses  of  the  French  arms.  He  was  elected  to  the 
.Vcademy  Apr.  7,  1870.  He  was  a  candidate  for  election  to 
the  Chamber  in  1876,  in  1877,  and  in  1885,  but  was  defeated 
on  each  occasion.  He  has  published,  among  other  works, 
Democralie  et  Liberie  (1867),;  Le  I'J  Janvier  (1869);  Pri)i- 
cipes  et  Conduite  (1875);  VKylise  et  VKlal  au  Concile  du 
\(itican  (3  vols.,  1879);  JI.  Thiers  d  r Academic  et  dans 
VTIistoire  (1880);  Nouveau  manuel  de  droit  ecclesiastigue 
fransais  (1885);  and  1789  et  ISS'J  (1890). 

Revised  by  F.  M.  CoLnv. 

Olinedo,  Josf.  Joaquix,  de;  poet;  b.  in  Guavaquil,  Ecua- 
dor, May  20,  1780;  d.  there  Feb.  19,  1847.  'Eiiucaled  at 
(t)uito  and  Lima,  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  from  the 
university  of  the  latter  city  in  180.5.  He  taught  law  for  a 
time  in  the  university,  then  began  practice  as  an  advocate 
in  (iuayaquil.  In  1810  he  went  ti)  Spain  as  a  deputy  to  the 
famous  Cortes  of  Cadiz,  remaining  in  the  mother-country 
until  1814.  Keturning  to  America,  he  was  a  member  of  the 
so-called  Junta  de  Gobierno  of  Guaya(|uil  (1820),  and  of  the 
Constitutional  Assembly  of  Peru  (1823).  He  was  one  of 
the  Peruvian  deputation  to  seek  military  aid  of  Bolivar; 
and  was  sent  by  the  latter  as  minister  pleni[iotentiary  to 
London,  where  he  became  a  warm  friend  of  Andres  Bello. 
Returning  home  In  1828  he  was  a  member  of  the  constitu- 
tional conventionofRlubaniba,  which  finally  separated  Ecua- 
dor from  Colombia  (1830).  Elected  successively  vice-presi- 
dent of  Ecuador  and  governor  of  the  department  of  (iuayas, 
he  presided  over  the  national  convention  of  .Vmbaloln  1835. 
In  1845  he  headed  the  successful  revolution  against  Gen. 
Flores,  and  directed  the  provisional  government  ;  but  was 
defeated  in  his  candidature  for  the  presidency.  It  is,  how- 
ever, as  a  poet  that  he  will  be  longest  remendiered,  having 
In  spite  of  the  small  amount  of  his  production  an  indisput- 
able claim  to  a  foremost  place  in  Spanish-American  letters. 
His  poetic  manner  is  that  of  (juintana.  too  rhetorical  for 
the  taste  of  the  present;  and  the  title  often  given  him,  the 
South-American  Pindar,  indicates  both  his  excellences  and 
his  defects.  Few  poets,  nevertheless,  are  more  widely  read 
by  .Spanish-Americans.  There  is  no  good  complete  edition 
of  his  works.  The  most  important  are  to  be  found  in  the 
America  Poitica  of  Gutierrez  (Valjiaraiso,  1846).  These 
should  be  supplemented  by  tlie  I'oesias  ineditas  de  Olmedo, 
edited  by  D.  Manuel  Corpancho  In  1861.  See  also  Herrera, 
Apunfes  biogrdficos  de  I).  J.  J.  Olmedo  (tjulto,  1887). 

A.  R.  JIarsh. 

Olmsted,  Dexi.sox.LL.D.:  scientist;  b.  at  East  Hartford, 
Conn.,  June  18,  1791  ;  graduated  at  Yale  1813;  was  a  col- 
lege tutor  1815-17 ;  became  in  1817  professor  of  chemistry, 
mineralogy,  and  geology,  and  executed  what  is  lielleved  to 
have  been  the  first  State  geological  survey  in  the  U.  S. 
(re|iort  published  1824-2.5) ;  became  In  1825  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  Yale  College,  and  in  1836  Professor  of  As- 
tronomy and  Xatural  Philosophy;  published  in  1831,  1832, 
and  1842  text-lmoks  on  natural  philosophy,  several  works 
on  astronomy  for  schools,  and  a  numlier  of  biographical 
memoirs;  made  important  observations  on  hall,  on  meteors, 
the  aurora  borealls,  etc.;  his  conclusions  regarding  the 
latter  f)lienomenon  are  in  vol.  viii.  of  the  Smithsonian  Coiv- 
tributions.     D.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  May  13,  1859. 

Olmsted.  Frederick  Law,  M.  A. :  landscape  architect; 
b.  in  Ilartl'ord,  Conn.,  Apr.  26.1822;  .studied  civil  engineer- 
ing, and  later  pursued  scientilic  studies  at  Yale  College. 
He  was  then  for  two  years  a  working  student  of  agriculture, 
and  afterward  seven  years  a  farmer  and  horticulturist  upon 
his  own  land.  In  18.53  and  18.54  he  made  a  study  of  the 
economical  conditions  of  the  slave  States,  traveling  a  dis- 
tance of  more  than  4.000  miles  on  horseback.  In  the  spring 
of  1857  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  preparatory 
work  of  the  projected  Central  Park  of  New  Yoik.  In  1858, 
in  association  with  Calvert  \'aux.  he  devised  a  plan  l'<u'  this 
[lark,  which  was  selected  as  the  most  satisfactory  of  thirty- 
three  plans  submitted  in  competition.  After  the  adoption 
of  the  plan  the  deslirners  were  employed  to  carry  it  out. 
.\t  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  1861  he  wa.s  appointed 
by  President  Lincoln  a  member  of  the  National  Sanitary 
Commission,  and  organized  and  managed  its  executive  busi- 
ness. He  spent  the  period  1863-65  on  the  Pacific  slope, 
serving  as  chairman  of  the  California  State  commission, 
taking  the  cu.stody  of  the  Yoscmite  and  JIariposa  reserva- 
tions, ceded  to  the  State  by  Congress  as  public  parks.  From 
1865  to  1872  he  engaged  in  Xew  'i'ork  in  the  general  practice 
of  landscape  architecture  ;  in  1872  served  lor  a  time  as  presi- 


298 


OliMtTTZ 


OLYMPIAN  GAMES 


dent  and  treasurer  of  the  jiark  commission  of  New  York ; 
in  1876  moved  to  Boston.  He  lias  been  employed  upon  up- 
ward of  eighty  publie  recreation-grounds,  among  the  more 
important  of  which  are  the  puljlic  parks  of  New  York, 
Brooklyn,  Boston,  Bridgeport,  Trenton,  Montreal.  Buffalo, 
Chicago,  Milwaukee.  Louisville,  and  Kansas  City.  He  i.s 
the  designer  of  the  grounds  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington; 
also  of  the  general  scheme  for  the  restoration  and  preserva- 
tion of  the  natural  scenery  of  Niagara  P'alls.  and,  in  asso- 
ciation with  Mr.  Vaux,  of  "the  plan  now  being  carried  out 
by  the  State  of  New  York  for  this  purpose.  Mr.  Olmsted  is 
the  author  of  the  following  works:  Walks  and  'Talks  of  an 
American  Fanner  in  England,  first  published  in  1853;  it 
has  been  several  times  reprinted;  ^1  Journey  in  tlie  Sea- 
board Slave  Sfafcx  (IS'S) ;  A  Journey  in  J'e.ras  (ly.'JT);  A 
Journey  in  the  Back  Country  (1861).  Translations  of  A 
Journey  in  Te.rashave  been  published  in  Paris  and  Leipzig. 

Ol'miitz:  town;  in  the  province  of  Moravia.  Austria:  on 
the  March ;  129  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Vienna  (see  map  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  ref.  3-F).  It  is  strongly  fortified,  and  was  the 
place  of  imprisonment  of  La  Fayette.  It  is  the  see  of  an 
archbishop.  It  has  a  well-attended  university,  two  military 
academies,  a  polytechnic  school,  manufactures  of  linens, 
cloths,  and  porcelain,  and  a  large  trade  in  grain  and  cattle. 
Pop.  (1890)  19,761. 

Olney ;  city;  capital  of  Richland  co..  111.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Ulinois,  ref.  9-G) ;  on  the  Bait,  and  Ohio  S.  W., 
and  the  Peoria,  Dec.  and  Evans,  railways ;  31  miles  W.  of 
Vincennes,  117  miles  E.  of  St.  Louis,  Mo,  It  is  an  impor- 
tant shipping  point  and  trade  center,  is  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing, and  has  a  public  library  (founded  in  1886),  a  na- 
tional bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  a  private  bank,  and 
four  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  3,513 ;  (1890)  3,831.' 

Olney,  Jesse,  A.  M. :  educator ;  b.  at  Union,  Tolland  co.. 
Conn.,  Oct.  13,  1798 ;  taught  at  Whitesborough  and  Bing- 
hamton,  N.  Y.,  anil  for  twelve  years  in  the  Hartford  Gram- 
mar School,  where  he  introduced  the  method,  now  generally 
adopted,  of  separating  geography  from  astronomy,  and  Ije- 
ginning  the  former  study  by  familiarizing  the  pupil  with 
the  description  and  surroundings  of  his  own  town,  county, 
and  State,  advancing  thence  to  national  and  foreign  geog- 
raphy, lie  puljlishcd  a  number  of  school  books  that  liad 
an  enormous  circulation,  including  a  Geography  and  Atlas 
(1828)  and  The  National  Preceptor  (1831).  He  served  ten 
terras  in  the  Connecticut  Legislature,  where  he  was  an  active 
worker  in  behalf  of  educational  interests,  and  was  elected 
State  comptroller  of  public  accounts  in  1867.  I),  at  Strat- 
ford, Conn.,  July  30,  1873. 

Olonetz' :  government  of  European  Russia,  S.  ^V.  of  the 
government  of  Archangel;  around  the  Lake  of  Onega. 
Area,  57,439  sq.  miles.  The  ground  is  low,  flat,  and  marshy, 
containing  many  large  lakes,  and  covered  with  immense 
forests.  Rye,  hemp,  and  flax  are  produced  ;  marble  and 
slate  are  found:  but  timber  and  furs  are  almost  the  onlv 
articles  exported.  Pop.  (1890)  353,600.  Capital,  Petro- 
zavodsk. 

Olozaga,  o-Io'thifa-gaa,  Salustiano  :  statesman  ;  b.  ,at 
Logrono,  Spain,  in  1803  ;  educated  for  the  bar  ;  elected  to 
the  Cortes  1833  ;  reporter  of  the  constitutional  comuiission 
1837,  when  he  insisted  on  the  retention  of  the  senate  ;  pro- 
posed and  carried  laws  providing  for  electoral  reform,  the 
suppression  of  monasteries,  the  abolition  of  ecclesiastical 
tithes,  and  a  general  amnesty  ;  was  ambassador  to  Prance  in 
1840,  formed  the  cabinet  in  1843  after  the  fall  of  Lopez,  but 
could  not  maintain  liiraself  against  the  intrigues  of  Nar- 
vaez,  and  fled  to  Portugal  and  thence  to  England ;  aided 
in  establishing  the  constitution  of  1855,  and  was  again  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Paris.  On  the  triumph  of  O'Donnell  he 
retired  from  public  life,  but  continued  to  reside  in  France, 
where  he  again  represented  his  Government  at  the  French 
court.  He  was  president  of  the  Cortes  Mar.,  1869,  and  Apr., 
1871.     I),  at  Enghien,  France,  Sept.  26,  1873. 

Olsliaiisen,  ols'how-zpn,  Hermann  ;  Bible  commentator: 
b.  at  Oldeslohe.  Hoist (un.  Aug.  21, 1796;  studied  theology  ;it 
Kiel  and  Berlin,  and  was  appointed  professor  in  1827  at 
Konigsbcrg  and  in  1834  at  Erlangen,  where  he  died  Sept. 
4, 1839.  His  Jiititixrher  ( 'ommentar  ul>er sammtliche  Schrift- 
en  des  neuen  TestanientK  appeareil  at  Konigsberg,  1830,  sqq., 
and  was  finished  l>y  his  friends  after  his  death;  translated 
into  English  for  Clark's  Foreign  Theological  Library,  and 
a  revised  edition  of  it  (by  A.  C.  Kendrick,  1).  D.)  ]iublished 
in  New  York  (6  vols.)  in'  1856-58.     He  defended  the  alle- 


gorical and  typical  methods,  while  not  neglecting  the  gram- 
iuatical  and  historical.  Revised  by  S,  M.  Jackson. 

Olssoii,  ol'sun,  Olof,  D.  D.  :  theologian  ;  b.  in  Verudand, 
Sweden,  Mar.  31,  1841  :  educated  at  Upsala  and  Leipzig,  or- 
dained 1863  ;  emigrated  to  the  U.  S.  1869.  His  first  pas- 
torate was  in  MacPhersou  co.,  Kan.,  during  which  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  :  became  Professor 
of  Theology  in  Augustana  Seminary.  Rock  Lsl.and,  111.,  1876- 
88 ;  pastor  Woodhull,  111.,  1889.  He  was  recalled  to  Au- 
gustana College  and  Seminarv,  becoming  president  of  the  iu- 
stitutiou  in  1891.  '  H.  i:.  J. 

Olyni'pia  (in  Gr.  'OKvuvia.) ;  a  plain  in  Elis,  Peloponne- 
sus, on  the  banks  of  the  Alpheus,  where  the  Olympian  games 
were  held,  containing  the  Altis  or  sacred  grove,  which  was 
said  to  have  been  inclosed  by  Hercules,  and  which  con- 
tained tht  temple  of  the  Olympian  Zens,  with  his  statue  by 
Pliidias,  and  many  other  public  buildings.  Connected  with 
the  Altis  were  the  stadium  and  the  lu])podrnnie.  (See 
Olympian  Games.)  At  the  time  of  the  Elder  Pliny  (23-79 
A.  D.)  about  3,000  statues  were  standing;  now  the  space  is 
occupied  with  grain-fields,  with  a  few  scattered  ruins.  See 
Flasch's  article  Glympia  in  Baunieister's  Denkm  filer  for  the 
history  of  Olympia  and  the  results  of  excavations  nuide  on 
the  site  by  the  German  Government.  See  also  the  official 
work  Ausgrahungen  von  Olymjtia  (Berlin,  1875-81),  and 
Boetticher,  Olympia,  das  Fest  unci  seine  Stiitte  (Berlin, 
1883).  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Olympia:  city  (settled  in  1847,  incorporated  in  1859); 
ca|iital  of  the  State  of  Washington  and  of  Thurston  County 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Washington,  ref.  5-C);  on  Des 
t'hutes  river,  Budd's  inlet  (the  southern  exti'emity  of  Puget 
Sound),  and  the  Northern  Pacific  and  the  Port  Townsend 
Southern  railways;  36  miles  S.  W.  of  Tacoma,  121  miles  N. 
of  Portland,  Ore.  It  is  in  a  timber,  coal,  iron,  sandstone, 
and  copper  region ;  is  laid  out  with  Viroad  and  regular 
streets;  has  direct  steamship  communication  with  the  prin- 
cipal ]ioints  on  the  sound  and  the  Pacific  coast:  and  con- 
tains water,  sewerage,  electric-light,  and  street-railway  serv- 
ices. A  bridge  520  feet  long  connects  it  with  Tiu'nwater, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  another,  2,030  feet  long, 
connects  it  with  the  west  shore  of  the  inlet.  The  city  de- 
rives exceptional  power  for  manufacturing  from  the  river, 
which  has  three  falls  with  a  total  descent  of  85  feet  in  a 
distance  of  1,500  feet,  and  was  improved  by  the  construction 
of  a  dam  in  1890.  Its  principal  manufactures  are  connected 
with  the  lumber  industry,  and  include  the  only  plant  in  the 
country  for  making  water-pipe  from  yellow  fir.  There  are 
7  churches,  3  academies.  State  library  with  over  16,000  vol- 
umes, a  public  library,  hospital,  several  secret  society  halls, 
2  national  banks  witli  combined  capital  of  $200,000,  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  .f 60,000,  and  a  daily  and  3  weekly 
ncwspajiers.  The  assessed  valuation  in  1893  was  $3,437,096, 
and  the  total  debt  on  Feb.  1, 1894,  was  $279,237.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,232;  (1890)4,698;  (1894)  estimated,  10,000. 

Editor  of  "  Tribune." 

Olym'piad  [from  Lat.  Olym'pias  =  Or. 'OKviini<is.'0\vfi- 
iriiiSos.  <  >lympiad,  deriv.  of  to 'OAu/ijrio.  the  Olyniiiiaii  games] ; 
the  period  of  four  years  between  any  two  successive  cele- 
brations of  the  Olympian  games.  The  Olympiad  was  early 
adopted  as  an  era  for  the  recording  of  the  dates  of  events. 
The  Olj'miiiads  were  designated  by  numbers,  the  first  being 
reckoned  from  the  victory  of  Corcebus  in  the  foot-race,  B.  c. 
776 ;  or,  again,  they  took  the  name  of  the  principal  victor 
in  the  next  previous  Olympian  games.  Events  are  recorded 
as  having  happened  in  such  and  such  an  Olympiad,  or  in 
such  a  year  of  a  certain  Olymjjiad.  To  reduce  Olympiads 
to  dates  according  to  our  reckoning  subtract  1  froiii  the 
numlier  of  the  Olympiad,  multiply  by  4,  add  the  number  m 
the  Olympiad  minus  1,  and  then  subtract  from  776.  When 
the  date  is  after  Christ  proceed  as  before,  but  aild  the  full 
number  of  the  Olvmpiad  and  subtract  therefrom  776.  The 
293d  Olympiad,  which  was  the  last  (01.  293-2),  ended  in 
394  A.  I).     See  Grecian  Games. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Olympian  fiamps:  the  greatest  national  Greek  festival. 
It  was  held  quadrennially  in  honor  of  Zeus,  in  t)lympia  in 
Elis,  Greece,  and  lasted  five  days,  beginning  just  after  the 
summer  solstice.  It  is  chiefly  famous  for  its  athletic  con- 
tests and  chariot-races.  From  the  remotest  .antiquity  Olym- 
pia was  consecrated  to  religious  rites,  and  there  for  centuries 
tlie  Greeks  lavished  their  wealth  and  their  marvelous  artistic 
skill  in  the  erection  of  temples  and  shrines.     They  brought 


OLYMPUS 


Oman 


299 


thitlii^r,  also,  once  in  four  years,  tlie  best  they  lincl  in  tlie 
way  of  physical  developniont.  and  f;>''i'luilly  contests  of 
strength,  eilthiraiice.  ami  skill  lieeanie  the  most  |)roniinent 
feature  of  the  festivals.  At  the  eastern  end  of  the  plain  a 
level  course,  the  stadium,  was  laid  out  in  yielilini^  sand.  GOO 
lllvnipian  feet  (ahont  tivio  feet)  in  lenjrth,  and  for  many 
years  the  contests  were  foot-races  in  a  straight  line  along 
the  stadium.  Only  free-born  Greeks  of  unblemished  repu- 
tation, who  had  trained  during  a  prescribed  period  in  a 
Greek  gymnasium,  were  permitted  to  enter.  Lots  were 
<lrawn  for  position,  and  at  the  feet  of  the  statue  of  Zeus 
each  contestant  swore  a  solemn  oath  to  race  fairly.  The 
pri/.e  was  a  wreath  of  olive  branches  cut  with  a  golden 
knife  bv  a  lad  whose  parents  were  still  living  from  tlie  sa- 
cred wild  olive-tree  in  Olympia.  The  wreaths  were  placed 
on  a  tal)le  at  the  feet  of  the  statue  of  Zeus  in  the  temple. 
The  victor,  his  head  encircled  with  a  fillet  of  wool,  was 
crowned  with  the  wreath  and  a  palm-branch  was  placed  in 
his  hand.  The  luime  of  the  victor,  of  his  father,  and  of  his 
birthplace  was  proclaimed  by  a  herald.  To  win  the  olive 
wreath  wasconsidered  the  highest  possible  honor.  The  victor 
could  erect  a  monunu'Ut  in  the  .sacred  grove,  and  in  some 
instances  he  was  permitted  to  erec-t  a  statue  of  him.selt. 
Beginning  with  the  fifteenth  Olympiad,  in  addition  to  the 
original  stadium  race,  a  double  race  was  run — that  is,  the 
course  to  the  end  of  the  stadium  and  back  to  the  starting- 
place.  Some  Olympiads  later  there  was  a  long-distance  race 
twelve  times  around  the  stadium.  In  the  eighteenth  Olym- 
piad the  pentathlon  was  addeil.  This  was  a  condiination 
contest  consisting  of  running,  jumping,disk-throwing,  spear- 
throwing,  and  wrestling.  Five  Olynifiiads  later  boxing  was 
added,  and  in  the  twenty-fifth  chariot -races  anil  the  pankra- 
tion,  or  combined  wrestling  and  boxing  match.  The  eon- 
tests  were  originally  confined  to  men.  but  gradually  boys 
were  admitteii  to  the  lighter  ones,  anil  at  the  14.5th  they 
were  admitted  to  the  severest  of  all,  the  pankration.  By  a 
truce  established  in  the  ninth  century  H.  c,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Sparta,  all  competitors  and  spectators  of  Greek 
descent  could  attend  the  festivals  unmolested  even  in  time 
of  war.  Pilgrims  from  all  the  Greek  cities  and  from  the 
most  distant  cohmies  thronged  to  tlie  games.  Here  poets 
and  orators  found  appreciative  audiences,  sculptors  found 
patrons,  tradesmen  sold  their  wares.  The  importance  of 
the  festivals  diminished  after  the  Peloponnesian  war,  al- 
though they  were  continued  long  after  the  Roman  conquest. 
See  the  article  GRt:(;iAX  G.^mes. 

See  t'urtius,  (Hi/mpia ;  Boetticher,  Oli/mpin,  Das  Fest 
und  seine  StCitte ;  Laloux  and  Monceaux,  Restauraiion 
d'Olympie.  B.  15.  Holmes. 

Olym'piis  [—  Lat.  =  Gr.'OAu/iTros].  Jlod.  Elynibo:  a  lofty 
range  of  mnuntains  which  se|iaraleil  Thessaly  from  Mace- 
donia. Their  siiles  are  clad  with  beautiful  forests,  but  the 
tops  are  covered  with  snow  for  nine  months  of  the  year. 
The  highest  peak  rises  9,754  feet,  and  on  its  broad,  cloud- 
veiled  summit  stood,  accoriling  to  the  oldest  myths  of 
Greece,  the  palace  of  Zeus  and  the  other  gods.  Later,  the 
abode  of  the  gods  was  moved  by  a  more  refined  sentiment 
to  the  celestial  spheres,  but  Mt.  Olympus  .still  retained  its 
charm  for  the  imagination.  See  Heuzey,  Le  Mont  Uli/nipe 
et  VAcarnanie  (Paris,  1860);  liarth,  Reise  dtirrh  diis  Innere 
der  Europdischen  TiJrkei;  Tozer,  The  HigMnnds  of  Tur- 
key (London,  1860),  ii.  Kevi.sed  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Olyn'tlms  (in  (Ir. 'OAwSos).  now  Aio  Mamas:  an  ancient 
city  of  Miicedon  :  on  tlie  Toroiiaic  (iulf;  was  at  ditferent 
periods  dependent  i}n  .\thens  or  Sparta.  ac(|uired  great 
wealth  from  its  excellent  commercial  position,  luil  wa.s  taken 
in  347  liy  Philij)  of  Macedoii,  who  sold  the  inhabitants  as 
slaves  and  dest roved  its  buildings.  See  Vomel.  I)e  Olynthi 
situ  (Frankfort,  i.H2!l).  J.  R.  S.  S. 

Oninllti:  city  (laid  out  in  1854,  incorporated  in  18.5!)); 
caiiital  of  Douglas  CO.,  Xeb. ;  on  the  Missouri  river,  and  the 
Hiirling.on  Route,  the  Chi..  Rock  Is.  and  Pac.  the  Chi..  St. 
P.  and  Om.,  the  Fremont,  KIk.  and  Mo.  Valley,  the  Mo.  Pac, 
the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P..  the  Chicago  and  Xorthwestern.  the 
Omaha  and  St.  L.,  and  the  rnion  Pac.  railwavs;  opposite 
CounciMilulfs,  la.;  476  miles  X.  by  \V.  of  St.  Louis,  4!)0 
miles  W.  of  Chicago  (for  location,  see  map  of  Xebraska.  ref. 
10-H).  The  city  is  built  on  a  plateau  about  80  feet  above 
the  river,  is  laid  out  with  wide  streets,  of  which  more  than 
60  miles  are  paved,  is  lightecl  with  gas  and  electricity,  and 
has  iraproveii  water  and  sewerage  plants  and  electric  and 
cable  street-railway.s.  The  river  is  here  crossed  bv  three 
bridges — one  of  steel,  built  by  the   Union   Pacific   Railroad 


Company,  66  feet  above  low  water,  ccst  $1,500,000;  one  of 
iron,  connecting  the  city  with  Council  Bluffs,  for  wagon  and 
street-railway  use ;  and  one  of  steel,  for  steam-railway  use, 
with  the  longest  drawbriilge  in  the  world,  between  East 
Omaha  and  Council  lilutTs.  built  by  the  Fast  Omaha  Land 
Company,  cost  ^Jl.OIJO.OOO.  The  city  has  laid  out  four  magnif- 
icent parks  on  the  X.  W.  and  S.,  containing  upward  of  700 
acres  and  connected  by  boulevards.  The  city  contains  70 
churches,  viz. :  Presbyterian,  15;  Methodist  Kpiscopal,  15; 
Congregational,  1^  ;  Roman  Catholic,  9;  Baptist,  8;  Protes- 
tant Fpiscopal,  7;  Christian,  2;  Unitarian  and  Latter-day 
Saints,  1  each.  There  are  57  luiildings  used  for  pulilic-schoo'l 
purpo.ses,  and  public-school  i>roperty  valued  at  over  11,200,- 
000.  The  in.slil  lit  ions  for  higher  education  include  Creigh- 
ton  College  (Roman  Catholic),  two  medical  colleges,  Brownell 
Hall  (Proli-stant  Episcopal),  Acailemy  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
(Roman  Catholic),  and  St.  Catharine's  Academy  (Roman 
Catholic).  There  are  six  libraries  of  various  kinds,  contain- 
ing an  aggregate  of  over  50.000  volumes — the  City  Free  Li- 
brary, with  upward  of  40,000  volumes,  occupies  a"  beautiful 
buiUling.  The  State  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  is 
located  in  the  city.  In  1894  the  city  had  9  national  banks 
with  combined  capital  of  !j;4,150,000,'5  State  banks  with  capi- 
tal of  !j;il7,500,  3  savings-banks,  and  an  incorporated  bank, 
and  4  daily,  28  weekly,  3  semi-monthly,  and  11  monthly  pe- 
riodii'als.  Omaha,  by  reason  of  its  railway  and  river  con- 
nections, is  the  distributing  center  of  a  large  area  of  coun- 
try. It  has  a  wholesale  business  of  over  §50.000.000  jier 
annum,  and  it  pays  the  Federal  Government  in  internal 
revenue  taxes  over  17,000,000  annually.  The  machine,  car- 
building,  and  repair-shops  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad 
are  here,  and  the  city  has  extensive  smelting  and  refining 
works,  packing-houses,  breweries,  and  boiler-works.  The 
census  returns  of  1890  showed  that  626  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments (representing  77  industries)  reported.  These 
had  a  combined  capital  of  $15,626,169.  employed  7.533  per- 
.sons,  paid  |4,797,482  for  wages  and  ^27.779.394  for  materials, 
and  had  products  valued  at  :^38,9()  1,523.  ( )maha  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  U.  S.  armv  Department  of  the  Platte.  Pop. 
(1880)  30,.518:  (1890)  140,452.— South  Omaha:  city  (founded 
in  1885);  Douglas  co.,  X^eb. ;  on  tlie  Burlington  Route,  the 
Chi.,  St.  P.,  Minn,  and  Om.,  the  Fremont,  VAk.  and  Mo.  Val- 
ley, the  JIo.  Pac,  and  the  Union  Pac  railways;  4  miles 
from  Omaha.  It  is  the  third  largest  meat-packing  city  in 
the  U.  S.,  and  has  extensive  stock-yards  and  four  large  pack- 
ing and  rendering  plants.  The  city  contains  5  churches,  7 
public-school  buildings,  public-school  property  valued  at 
over  $250,000,  3  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
1400,000, 3  State  banks  with  capital  of  $37,500,  several  hotels, 
a  handsome  exchange  liuilding,  a  public  park,  and  4  daily 
newspapers.     Pop.  (1890)  8.062. 

Revised  by  Prank  A.  FiTzrATHicK. 

Oniahas  :  See  Sioiax  Indians. 

Oman :  a  territory  comprising  the  southeast  portion  of 
the  Arabian  pcwiinsula.  It  has  a  coast-line  of  about  1,.500 
miles  along  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  and  the 
.\rabian  Sea.  It  contains  eight  badly  defined  districts  or 
states,  of  which  Muscat  is  the  most  important.  The  in- 
habitants, though  profes.sedly  Mussulmans,  are  less  intoler- 
ant than  those  of  Western  Arabia,  and  preserve  ideas  and 
customs  derived  from  their  original  fire-worship.  It  was 
formerly  a  [lart  of  a  powerful  and  extensive  Arabic  state  or 
imamat".  which  consisted  of  Arabic,  Persian,  anil  African- 
territories,  but  which  in  1854.  at  the  death  of  tlie  Imam  Said 
Seid.  was  divided  between  his  two  sons,  one  receiving  the 
African  territories,  and  the  other  the  Asiatic  territory,  with 
Muscat  for  its  capital.  Oman  now  consists  of  a  low,  hot, 
but,  if  well  watered,  very  fertile  coast-land,  producing  cot- 
ton, sugar,  rice,  maize,  watermelons,  and  bananas.  Behind 
this  coast-land  rises  a  mountainous  region  consisting  of  bare 
and  naked  ranges  inclosing  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys, 
where  the  coffee-tree  grows,  and  figs,  almonds,  grapes,  or- 
anges, lemons,  walnuts,  and  a|ip]es.  On  the  inner  slope  of 
these  mountains  lies  a  row  of  oases,  mostly  inhabited  by  Bed- 
ouins, and  behind  the  oases  stretch  the  Arabian  deserts. 
The  area  is  82.000  sq.  miles  and  the  population  estimated  at 
1..500.000.  but  the  authority  of  the  sultan  does  not  extend 
far  outside  his  capital.  Muscat.  The  state  is  practically  un- 
der British  protection.        Revised  by  JI.  W.  IIarrisoton. 

()'niaii,  Viktor  Emantei,.  Ph.  D. :  poet.  i>liilologist,  and 
pulilicist  ;  b.  in  Sweden  in  1833;  studied  at  Lund  and  gradu- 
ated at  .lena  in  18.59.  He  has  been  chiefly  engaged  in  news- 
pajier  work  as  contributor  to  and  editor  of  the  journals  -4/- 


300 


OMAR 


OMMYIADES 


lehanda  for  Folket  and  Nerikes  AlUhanda,  both  published 
ill  Oi-ebro,  Sweden.  His  original  literary  productions  are 
two  small  volumes  of  poems,  Li/riska  blad  (1857  and  1868) 
and  the  poetic  tale  RidJar  IJerbert  och  Jungfru  Hilde 
(1866).  Oman  has  shown  himself  a  fine  translator  in  his  re- 
production in  Swedish  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  and  Euriii- 
ides's  Medea,  besides  some  of  the  masterpieces  of  Kussian, 
Polish,  Magyar,  and  Hindu  poetry.  In  the  philological 
field  he  has  produced  a  Ldrubok  i  engelska  sprdket  (Manual 
of  the  English  Language,  1867)  and  Srensk-engelsk  Hoii- 
dordbok  (Swedish-English  Dictionary,  1872;  2d  ed.  1881), 
which  have  now  been  made  antiquated  by  more  recent  and 
complete  works.  P.  Groth. 

O'mar,  Abu  Hafsah  Ibn  ul  Khattab  :  the  second  Caliph 
of  the  Mussulmans:  b.  about  581.  At  first  a  bitter  oppo- 
nent of  the  Prophet,  he  was  suddenly  converted  to  Islam 
(617).  and  was  ever  afterward  its  zealous  apostle.  In  634  he 
was  elected  to  succeed  Abubekir.  Considering  the  title  of 
caliph,  "  successor,"  too  exalted  to  be  borne  by  one  who  did 
not  come  immediately  after  Mohammed,  he  assumed  the 
title  Euiir  ul  Muniminn,  "Commander  of  the  Believers," 
which  had  been  solemnly  decreed  him  and  which  the  caliphs 
have  borne  ever  since.  In  635  he  adopted  the  IIe.iira  (q.  i\) 
as  the  beginning  of  the  Mussulman  era.  Wholly  devoted  to 
the  interests  of  his  faith,  by  his  great  administrative  and 
military  talents  he  was  the  real  founder  of  the  vast  Arabian 
empire.  In  637  Syria  and  Palestine  were  conquered,  and 
the  mosque  of  Omar  built  at  Jerusalem  on  the  site  of  Solo- 
mon's temple.  Egypt  was  subdued  639-641  and  Persia  in 
642.  In  64U  the  union  of  the  Arabian  tribes  was  completed, 
they  for  the  first  time  being  brought  together  in  one  religion 
under  one  chief,  Omar  was  exceedingly  simple  in  his  hab- 
its, economical,  and  shrewd,  a  fanatic,  yet  tolerant  of  others, 
and  generally  fair  and  impartial.  Nevertheless,  an  act  of 
injustice  provoked  the  resentment  of  a  Persian  slave,  by 
whom  he  was  stabbed  to  death  (644).  He  was  buried  near 
the  Prophet.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Omar  Kliayyiim:  Persian  poet;  renowned  as  matheina- 
tician,  astronomer,  and  philosopher.  His  full  name  is  given 
as  Gliias  uddin  Abul  Fath  Omar  Ijin  Ibrahim  al-KhayyJim  ; 
the  epithet  Khayyam  (tent-maker)  is  [iresumaVily  due  to  his 
father's  calling,  or  to  his  own  occupation  before  he  was  in 
position  to  devote  himself  to  literary  and  scientific  work. 
Omar  Khayyiim  was  a  native  of  NaisliapQr  in  Khorassan, 
and  he  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh  and  be- 
ginning of  the  twelfth  century.  According  to  tradition,  his 
death  took  place  in  the  year  a.  d.  1123  (a.  h.  517),  but  there 
is  ground  for  believing  that  it  may  possibly  liave  occurred 
some  twenty  years  earlier,  as  his  collegiate  friend  and  com- 
panion in  years,  the  celebrated  Vizir  Xizam  ul  ]\lulk  of  Tiis. 
is  stated  to  have  been  born  a.  d.  1017  (a.  h.  4U8).  An  inter- 
esting story  is  preserved  regarding  Omar's  first  steps  in  the 
attainment  of  fortune,  but  there  is  not  space  for  it  here.  A 
generous  annuity  provided  for  him  through  the  favor  of  his 
friend  at  court,  the  Vizir  Nizam  ul  Mulk,  gave  him  the 
means  and  requisite  leisure  for  pursuing  his  mathematical 
and  astronomical  researches;  his  work  in  Araliic  on  algebra, 
Aljebr  u  al  lliikahileh,  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being  a 
standard  for  several  centuries.  Jlerit  raised  him  to  an  ap- 
pointment as  astronomer  royal  to  the  Sultan  Malikshah 
A.  D.  1074,  and  under  this  monarch's  patronage  Omar  Khay- 
yam was  instrumental  in  instituting  a  reform  of  the  Persian 
calendar  and  introducing  the  new  reckoning  of  the  Jalalian 
era,  the  so-called  7'ankh  i  Jaldli  or  Miilikshilhi  from  the 
reigning  sultan,  .Jallaluddin  Jfalikshah.  It  dates  from 
Mar.  15,  1074  (10th  Hamazan,  471  a.  h.). 

Greater  even  than  his  scientific  fame  is  the  renown  wliich 
his  pliilosophic  poetry  in  the  Liicretian  or  Voltairean  vein 
wcm  for  him.  It  is  by  his  Ifubd'i/dt,  or  Quatrains,  that  he  is 
most  generally  known.  Some  500  of  these  rhyming  four- 
line  stanzas  are  attributed  to  his  pen;  they  breathe  a  spirit 
of  free-thinking  and  often  enough  ajiproach  atheism  anil 
scolling;  at  timi'S  llie  tone  is  mystical,  and  again  metaphys- 
ical and  [)essimistic';  sometimes  the  verses  pulse  with  a 
warm  rhapsodical  beat  and  a  thoroughly  human  touch;  al- 
ways they  are  characterized  by  a  vigorous  and  poetic  imag- 
inalion.  Many  of  the  riihd'is  which  pass  under  Omar 
Khayyam's  name  are  doubtless  not  really  his,  but  there  is 
diniciilly  in  deciiling,  as  there  is  no  single  uniform  recension 
that  can  be  ailo|ited  as  exclusive  authority,  and  the  numer- 
ous manuscripts  diller  considerably  in  the  number  of  qua- 
trains they  ccmtain.  At  Naishapur  the  tomb  of  Omar  is 
shown  to  travelers ;  it  rests  beneath  the  shadow  of  blossom- 


ing fruit-trees,  and  the  spirit  of  the  astronomer-poet's  own 
prophecy  is  therefore  fulfilled,  that  his  grave  should  be  situ- 
atetl  where  the  wind  should  shower  roses  upon  it. 

BiBLloGKAPnv. — An  edition  and  translation  of  Omar 
Kliayyam's  mathematical  work.  Ijased  on  the  Leyden  and 
Paris  copies,  was  brought  out  by  Woepcke,  L'algi-bre  d'Omar 
Alkhaygdmi  (Paris,  1851).  For  the  poet's  life  and  works, 
consult  Kieu,  Catalogue  of  Persian  Manuscripts  in  the 
British  3Iuseum,  ii.,  p.  546,  and  Garcin  de  Tassy,  Note  sur 
les  liubd'iydt  de  Omer  Khaiydm  (Paris,  1857).  Editions  of 
the  quatrains  have  appeared  at  Lucknow,  Calcutta.  Paris, 
and  London.  Among  English  translations  is  the  well-known 
rendering  into  English  verse  bv  E.  Fitzgerald  (London, 
1859,  1873,  1879:  Boston,  1887),  and  one  by  E.  H.  Whinfield 
which  gives  also  the  Persian  text  (Triibner,  London,  1883: 
2d  ed.  translation  1893) ;  there  is  likewise  a  prose-rendering 
by  J.  H.  McCarthy  (Nutt,  London,  1889).  A  French  version 
accompanying  the  Persian  text  was  published  by  Nicolas 
(Paris.  1867).  Translations  of  the  Piilid'yut  have  been 
made  in  a  number  of  other  modern  languages,  which  bears 
witness  to  the  jiopularity  of  Omar's  writings  also  in  later 
times  and  among  foreign  peoples. 

A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Omar  Pasha  :  soldier:  b.  at  Plaski,  in  Croatia,  in  1806; 
son  of  an  Austrian  officer.  He  studied  at  the  military 
school  of  Thurm  and  served  in  an  Austrian  frontier  regi- 
ment, but  in  1833  for  some  unknown  reason  escaped  to  Bos- 
nia, embraced  Islam,  and  changed  his  name,  Michael  Lattas, 
to  Omar.  Soon  he  became  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Hussein 
Pasha.  Going  to  Conslaiitinople  he  was  appointed  a  teach- 
er in  the  military  school,  married  a  wealthy  Ottoman  lady, 
and  was  appointed  writing-master  to  Abcl-ul  Medjid,  tlie 
heir-apparent.  On  his  pupil's  accession  lie  was  rapidly  pro- 
moted. He  was  sent  as  military  governor  to  the  Lebanon, 
was  made  a  pasha,  and  assisted  in  suppressing  rebellions  in 
Bosnia  and  Kurdistan.  During  the  dual  occupation  of  the 
Danubian  provinces  (now  Roumania)  by  Russia  and  the  Ot- 
toman empire,  he  commanded  the  Ottoman  troo])S,  whom  he 
raised  to  a  high  degi'ce  of  efficiency.  In  the  Crimean  war, 
as  commander  on  the  Danube,  he  several  times  defeated  the 
Russians  and  forced  them  to  raise  the  siege  of  Silistria. 
His  attenqit  to  relieve  Kars  was  a  failure.  After  the  war  he 
was  governor  of  Bagdad,  but,  having  been  accused  of  mal- 
administration, he  was  removed  and  banished  to  Khar|iul 
in  1859.  He  was  restored  and  sent  to  Bosnia  in  1861  and  to 
Crete  in  1867  to  ]iut  down  rebellions.  For  a  time  he  was 
Minister  of  War  (1869),  and  continued  a  member  of  the  im- 
perial Council  till  his  death  Apr.  18,  1871.  He  was  the 
ablest  general  that  the  Ottomans  have  possessed  during  the 
nineteenth  century.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Ombay'.  or  AHor :  an  island  of  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
Solor  group,  N,  of  Timor:  in  lat.  8°  5'  to  8°  28'  S,  and  Ion. 
123°  43'  to  125°  15'  E.  It  is  65  miles  long,  12  miles  broad, 
high,  volcanic,  and  inhabited  by  savage  tribes  of  a  mixed 
Negro  and  Malay  origin.  At  Allor  the  Dutch  have  a  settle- 
ment and  carry  on  some  trade  in  wax,  edible  hirds'-nests, 
and  pepper.     Pop.  estimated  at  194,000. 

Omen  [from  Lat.  o'men,  sign,  omen  <  Old  Lat.  osmen ; 
possibly  connected  with  avgeo,  aii.riliiim.  atictor,  in  the 
sense  of  "authorization  "  ;  or  possibly  with  anscultare,  au- 
ris.  in  sense  of  "  something  heard  "  ] :  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, a  sign  by  which  the  gods  were  believed  to  indicate 
their  favor  or  opposition  to  any  proposed  public  or  private 
action.  The  omens  were  publicly  observed  by  the  magis- 
trates, assisted  by  haruspices  and  augurs,  the  former  observ- 
ing signs  of  the  first,  tlie  latter  of  sccondiiry  importance. 
In  the  time  of  Cicero,  ami  even  before  it.  the  whole  matter 
of  taking  omens,  of  divining,  soothsaying,  and  the  like,  had 
fallen  into  disrepute  among  the  intelligent,  but  with  the 
vulgar  these  arts  were  still  of  importance  up  to  tlie  time  of 
the  later  empire. 

Omentum  [Mod.  Lat.  =  Lat.,  adipose  membrane,  espec. 
the  caul]  :  the  membranous  reflectitms  of  the  peritoneum 
extending  between  certain  al>doiniual  organs  and  distin- 
guished as  the  ijrci// o»iPH^«m,  a  quailru]ile  fold  protecting 
the  small  intestine;  the  gasfro-hepatic  (nneiityni.  a  double 
fold  extending  from  the  liver  to  the  stomach  ;  and  the  gas- 
tro-splenir.  a  double  fold  exteiuling  from  the  great  pouch  of 
the  stomach  to  the  spleen. 

Ornish  ;  See  Mennoxites. 

Ommyiades.  5-mi'yadz.  or  Omniiades:  the  first  heredi- 
tary dynasty  of  caliphs,  so  nametl  from  their  ancestor  Ora- 


OMNIBUS 


ONEIDA   COMMUNITY 


301 


movah,  11  ronicite  kinsman  of  Mohainniod.  Moaviali,  ?()n  of 
the' Koroish  chieftain.  Abu  Sophian,  and  former  sec-retary  of 
the  I'l-opliet,  {governor  of  Syria  since  (i-40,  opposed  in  arms 
the  succession  of  Ali  ((!"),")).  Tlie  laller  licinj;  murdered  (GOl), 
Moaviah,  already  master  of  Arabia,  K.K.vpt.  and  Syria,  suc- 
cee<led  to  the  tli'rone  (h'sjiite  tlie  opposition  of  tlie  family  of 
Ali.  lie  made  Damascus  the  capital  of  the  Mussulman  em- 
])ire,  rendered  the  succession  hereditary  lliouj,'li  hitherto  elect- 
ive, and  was  followed  by  thirteen  jiriiices  of  his  family.  Un- 
der Moaviah  I.,  Sa'marUiind,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli  were  subdued, 
and  Kairouan.  the  ••  metropolis  of  African  Mussidmanism." 
founded,  but  his  troops  were  defeated  in  a  seven  years"  siege 
of  ('(>nstantinoi)lo  (6T2-7!I).  His  son  and  successor,  Vczid  I., 
reisineil  lhreeyears,carinf;  for  little  except  dis>ipalion.  Moa- 
viah II. and  Mervan  1.  were  both  poisoned  soon  after  accession. 
Abd-ul  JIaIck  I.  coiKpiercd  Irak  and  Persia  from  the  par- 
tisans of  the  dead  Ali.  crushed  all  internal  opposition,  and 
captured  C'arthaije  (704).  The  reign  of  Walid  I.  (70.5-715) 
was  in  every  way  the  most  brilliant  of  the  Ommyiade  rule, 
liis  geiierarilassan  siilidued  the  i\Ioors  and  accomplished 
their  entliusiastic  conversion  to  Islani,  and  Tarik  <lereated 
the  Visigoths,  and  with  .Mousa  subdued  [hv  <'ntire  Peninsula 
of  Spain  as  far  as  the  P.ay  of  Biscay.  Meanwhile  in  the 
Kast  Tartary  was  subjugated  and  the  Mnssuhnan  arms  car- 
ried victoriously  to  India.  The  ne.\tlwo  caliphs  were  Sidei- 
man  I.,  a  zealous  and  incapable  prince,  and  Omar  II..  famous 
for  his  ascetic  virtues.  Under  the  latter  France  was  in- 
vaded (71!))  and  Constantinople  again  besieged  in  vain  (717- 
7P.)).  Vezid  II.  was  succeeded  by  JIashem  I.,  whose  geiuM-al, 
Abderrahman.  captured  Nimes  in  France  (7;il)).  but  was  ut- 
terly defeateil  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Tours  by  Charles 
.Mai-tel  (7:i-').  Walid  II.  was  feeble  and  contemptible. 
Vezid  III..  Ibrahim  I.,  an<l  Mervan  II..  altogether  reigned 
six  years:  Mervan  II.  was  deposed  (750)  by  Abnl  Abbas  the 
liloody.  founder  of  tlie  Al)asside  dynasty.  The  surviving 
Ommyiades  were  all  butchered  save  two.  one  of  whom.  Ab- 
derraiunan  I.,  founded  the  Ommyiade  caliphate  of  Cordova 
in  Spain  (7-55).  where  his  family  reigned  till  10:51.  The  uni- 
versal caliphate-  of  the  Ommyiades  had  lasteil  eighty-nine 
years.  Xotwithslanding  the  general  intellectual  and  mili- 
tary brilliancy  of  their  reign,  it  was  disastrous  for  Islam. 
They  represeiited  the  worldly  and  ambitious  element,  in  op- 
position to  the  siiuple  faith  and  practices  of  earlier  days, 
and  by  the  civil  wars  they  fomented  or  occasioned,  ami  oven 
bv  their  foreign  coiKpiesis,  rendered  dismemberment  of  the 
^lussulluan  empire  inevitable.  F.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Oiiiiiihiis :  See  Carriages. 

Oiunisciciice  [Lat.  OHi'nis-.  all -t- -scr/e,  know]:  an  attri- 
bute of  (rod,  in  coiisoi|uence  of  which  lie  knows  of  all  that 
lias  been,  all  that  is,  and  all  that  shall  be.  In  its  last  phase, 
iic?  FoRi;KNowi.EU(iE  ((/.  v.),  it  has  occasioned  several  very 
subtle  theological  distinctions. 

Omsk:  capital  of  the  government  of  Omsk,  Siberia;  at 
the  conlluence  of  the  Oni  and  the  Irtiseh  (see  map  of  Asia, 
ref.  ii-H).  It  contains  military  schools,  hospitals,  manufac- 
tories, and  mining  works,  and  is  the  residence  of  the  gov- 
ernor-general. Its  fortres.s.  constructed  in  1 766.  is  the  strong- 
est in  Western  Siberia.  Po|).  (IHitO)  .54.7'-Jl.  exclusive  of  the 
garrison,  which  numbers  6.000.  E.  A.  G. 

Ou  (Egypt.  *'ift:  (if.  Iff/iu/iiilis):  the  name  apjilied  by  the 
Ilelirews  (Gen.  xli.  45.  .50;  xlvi.  20)  to  the  famous  city  of 
the  sun,  llELtofoi.ls  ((/.  i:),  which  W'as  also  known  by  them 
<'is  Hetli-SliiMiiesli.  House  of  the  .Sun  (-ler,  xliii.  l:i).  of  which 
Heliopolis  is  simply  a  translation.  The  same  Hebrew  let- 
ters that  spell  On  when  dilTerently  vocalized  give  Aveti 
(Fzek.  XXX.  17).  which  thus  becomes,  erroneously,  ii  second 
Hebrew  name  of  Heliopolis.  C.  U.  0. 

Oflil,  dnya'a,  Pkuro,  de  :  poet ;  l>.  at  Los  Confines,  on  the 
Biobio  river.  Chili,  about  1.56.5.  He  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  San  Marcos  in  Mma.  and  pa.ssed  most  of  his  life  in 
that  city,  where  he  was  Jhriil  of  the  audience.  His  best 
known  Work  is  the  e])ic  Aninrn  domiidi)  (1st  ed..  Lima.  1.506). 
It  relates  to  the  Araucai)iau  wars,  and  is  an  evident  imita- 
tion of  Frcilla's  Aronrniiii  ;  tlii>ugli  inferior  to  the  latter 
in  poetical  merit,  it  has  consideralile  historical  value.  Oi"ia 
also  published  Tunhlor  df  Lima  (1600):  Ignacio  de  Canlu- 
Arm  (l(i:iil).  etc.     I),  at  Lima  about  1640.  H.  II.  S. 

On'ilgcr :  a  species  of  wild  ass  {Eqini.i  onager,  or  F. 
/ivmi/i/iiiK)  iiilialiiting  the  plains  of  Central  Asia.  It  is  red- 
dish in  summer. gray  in  winter,  with  a  streak  of  black  along 
the  center  of  the  back,  crossed  by  a  sceoiul  liar  over  the 
shoidders. 


Oiiatc.  on-yaa'ta,  Juan,  de  :  settler  of  New  Mexico  ;  b.  at 
Guadalajara,  Jlexieo,  about  1555.  He  was  a  man  of  wealth 
and  position,  son  of  the  founder  of  Guadalajara,  and  mar- 
ried to  a  granddaughter  of  the  conqueror  Cortes.  His  prop- 
osition to  conquer  and  colonize  the  region  N.  of  the 
Hio  Grande  was  first  accepted  liy  the  Viceroy  'V'elasco  in 
1503  :  but  delays  ensued  because  Velasco's  successor,  Jlon- 
terey,  refused  to  give  him  full  jiowcrs  as  governor.  The  ob- 
ject ions  were  finally  overcome,  and  Ofiate  left  Zacatecas 
Jan.  20,  1.598,  with  l.SO  soldiers,  a  large  force  of  Indians, 
83  wagons,  and  7,000  cattle.  On  Apr.  20  the  expedition 
reached  the  Kio  Grande,  probably  at  El  Paso  del  Norte. 
Oiiate  crossed,  and  after  some  exploration  founded  San 
Juan,  the  first  capital  of  New  Mexico,  in  August.  During 
the  first  year  there  were  several  conflicts  with  the  Pueblo 
and  other  Indians,  who  were  finally  defeated  ;  subsequently 
the  colony  jirospered  greatly.  In  159!)  and  again  in  ]60'4 
Oiiate  explored  portions  of  Arizona,  following  the  Gila 
river  to  the  sea  in  the  latter  year.  There  is  evidence  that 
he  ceased  to  be  governor  about  1608.  but  the  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown.  Some  accounts  say  that  he  led  an  ex- 
pedition eastward  in  1611.  Heruert  H.  Smith. 

Oiiawa :  town ;  capital  of  Monona  co.,  la.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  4-D) ;  on  the  Sioux  City  and  Pac.,  the 
Chi.  and  N.  W..  and  the  Green  Bay.  Winona  and  .St.  P.  rail- 
ways :  37  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Sioux  City.  It  is  in  an  agricul- 
tural and  stock-raising  region,  anil  has  a  public  library 
(1867),  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  ^50.000.  and  three  week- 
ly newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  882;  (1890)  1,358;  (189.5)  1,675. 

Oiichidiiim,  on-kid'i-um  [Jlod.  Lat..  incorrectly  formed 
from  Gr.  6yKos.  angle] :  a  genus  of  slug-like  imlmonate  mol- 
luscs, noticeable  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  one  of  its  Indian 
species  has  the  whole  dor.sal  surface  covered  with  eyes  formed 
on  the  vertebrate  type.  This  species  lives  on  the  shore  be- 
tween tide-marks,  and  the  eyes  are  sujiposed  to  enable  it  to 
escape  the  fishes  which  feed  upon  it. 

OiK'ken.  JoHANN  Gerhard  :  missionary ;  li.  at  Varel, 
Oldenburg.  Germany,  about  1800:  was  in  early  life  a  do- 
mestic servant ;  lived  for  a  time  in  England,  where  he  be- 
came a  member  of  an  Independent  church:  ojiened  a 
bookstore  at  Hamburg  as  agent  of  the  Edinburgh  Bible  So- 
ciety and  the  Lower  Saxony  Tract  Society ;  organized  a 
Baptist  church,  of  which  he  became  pastor  1834;  was  ap- 
pointed a  missionary  of  the  American  Baptist  (^'onvention 
1835  :  visited  many  parts  of  Germany,  .\ustria.  Switzerland, 
and  Denmark,  preaching,  baptizing,  distributing  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  founding  churches ;  was  several  times  imprisoned  ; 
edited  religious  journals  in  English  and  German ;  visited 
the  U.  S.  in  18.52  and  in  1865.  D.  at  Zurich,  Switzerland, 
Jan.  2,  1884. 

Onc'gil :  a  large  lake  in  the  government  of  Olonetz  in 
Western  Russia.  Next  to  Lake  Ladoga,  it  is  the  largest 
lake  of  Europe,  covering  an  area  of  4,8;!0  sq.  miles.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Volga  and  the  Dwina  by  canals,  and 
communicates  with  Lake  Ladoga  by  the  Sweer.  It  abounds 
in  fish.  Onega  is  also  the  name  of  a  river  of  Northern  Rus- 
sia not  connected  with  the  lake,  but  occupying  the  basin 
next  E. ;  also  of  a  town  near  the  mouth  of  this  river,  and 
of  the  great  bay  of  the  White  Sea  into  which  this  river 
empties.  "  Revi.sed  by  M.  W.  Harri.notqn. 

Oneida,  o-ni-da  :  village  :  IVladison  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location, 
sec  map  of  New  York.  ref.  4-G) ;  on  the  X.  Y.  Cent,  and  Hud- 
son Kiver  and  the  N.  Y.,  Ont.  and  W.  railways;  26  miles  E. 
of  Syracuse.  It  is  in  an  agricidtural  and  hop-growing  re- 
gion, and  contains  a  union  school,  3  national  lianks  with 
comliined  capital  of  .$165,000.  a  State  bank  with  capital  of 
1^50,000,  a  savings-bank,  a  private  bank,  sevei-al  large  manu- 
factories, and  2  semi-weeklv  and  2  weeklv  periodicals. 
Pop.  (1880)  1.64!);  (1N90)  6,083. 

OiK'idn  Coniiiiunity  :  a  society  of  religious  communists, 
consisting  of  about  300  members,  formerly  established  on 
Oneida  creek.  Madison  co.,  N.  Y.  At  the  time  of  its  dis- 
solution in  1881  it  owneil  a  fine  estate  of  6.50  acres,  also 
a  commodious  mansion,  and  several  mills  and  manufac- 
tories. A  smaller  branch  society  was  located  at  Walling- 
ford.  Conn. 

ITisfori/.— The  founder  of  this  Community  (see  Noves, 
John  IIumimirev)  and  the  circle  of  believers  he  had  gath- 
ered around  him  at  Putney,  Vt.,  devoted  themselves  at  first 
exclusively  to  the  development  and  |iublica(ion  of  their  re- 
ligious views,  and  had  no  thought  of  becoming  a  comniu- 
ni'v;  but  their  intimacv  of  relationship  and  unity  of  faith 


302 


ONEIDA  COMMUNITY 


ONION 


gradually  led  them  to  adopt  the  communistic  manner  of 
Mfe.  In  1846  they  began  the  experiment  of  complex  mar- 
riage, but  this  step  gave  such  offense  to  their  neighbors  that 
the  little  Community  was  compelled  to  disband.  In  the 
following  spring,  however,  in  response  to  tlie  invitation  of 
another  community,  which  had  recently  been  started  under 
the  influence  of  the  Putney  school,  the  members  of  the  lat- 
ter were  once  more  united  on  the  banks  of  the  Oneida 
creek.  Here  they  were  allowed  to  carry  out  their  commu- 
nistic views  for  nearly  thirty  years  with  comparative  free- 
dom from  molestation.  During  the  first  seven  or  eight 
years  of  its  existence  poverty  and  apostacy  several  times 
brought  the  Community  to  the  verge  of  failure  ;  but  by  1855 
the  members  had  become  disciplined  by  hardship  and  la- 
bor, and  a  number  of  lucrative  business  enterprises  had 
been  started,  the  most  important  of  which  were  the  manu- 
facture of  game-traps  and  the  packing  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables. As  the  project  of  maintaining  an  expensive  pub- 
lishing branch  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y..  had  in  tlie  meantime, 
after  three  years"  trial,  been  abandoned,  the  Community 
soon  found  itself  settled  upon  a  firm  financial  basis.  During 
the  next  twenty  years  the  C)neida  Community  formed  a  con- 
spicuous feature  in  the  social  life  of  the  V.  S.,  and  its  ])ros- 
perity,  both  domestic  and  financial,  was  unquestioned.  Edu- 
cation was  always  one  of- the  leading  objects  of  the  Com- 
munity, and  an  opportunity  for  intellectual  culture  was 
afforded  every  member.  Tlie  paper  which  for  more  than 
forty  years  was  ]>uljlished  as  the  organ  of  the  society  was  a 
constant  channel  for  thought  and  literary  effort.  Soon  after 
1873  the  troubles  began  which  led  to  its  dissolution.  The 
men  and  women  who  were  admitted  to  membership  after  the 
prosperity  of  the  Community  had  been  assured  were  by  no 
means  so  whole-hearted  in  their  devotion  to  the  cause  of 
Chi'istian  communism  as  were  those  who  had  joined  in  tlie 
face  of  poverty  and  disgrace.  Furthermore,  some  of  the 
leaders  among  the  young  people  had  already  begun  to  lose 
their  faith  in  the  .religions  principles  which  lay  at  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Community  polity,  and  consequently  Noyes 
was,  to  a  large  extent,  deprived  of  their  support  in  the  series 
of  trials  upon  which  the  Community  was  about  to  enter. 
In  the  spring  of  1879  the  clergy  of  New  York  State  convened 
at  Syracuse  for  the  purpose  of  initiating  judicial  and  legis- 
lative proceedings  against  the  Oneida  Community,  ami  in 
August  of  that  year  Noyes,  who  had  withdrawn  to  Canada 
in  consequence  of  threatened  arrest,  perceiving  that  it  would 
be  inexpedient  to  hold  out  further  against  the  public  senti- 
ment of  the  State,  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Community  propos- 
ing that  the  obnoxious  social  features  of  the  institution  be 
abandoned.  This  proposition  was  acceded  to  with  scarcely 
a  dissenting  voice,  and  was  carried  out  in  good  faith.  Tlie 
entire  dissolution  of  the  Community  soon  followed.  On  Jan. 
1,  1881,  the  property  was  divided,  and  the  members  were  in- 
corporated under  the  laws  of  New  York  State  as  a  joint- 
stock  company,  in  which  capacity  they  have  since  carried  on 
the  business  of  the  old  Community.  The  peace  and  equity 
which  prevailed  in  the  division  of  the  Community  estate 
may  be  largely  ascrilied  to  the  influence  of  Noyes. 

Keligiun. — In  1834,  when  the  religious  movement  which 
culminated  in  the  Oneida  Community  was  started  at  New 
Haven,  Noyes  and  his  followers  were  called  Perfectionists, 
in  consequence  of  their  belief  that  salvation  from  sin  was 
attainable  in  this  life;  but  soon  other  varieties  of  Perfection- 
ists sprung  up,  whose  doctrines  and  tendencies  differed 
widely  from  those  of  the  New  Haven  brethren,  and  the  name 
ceased  to  be  distinctive.  The  principal  theological  doctrine 
of  Noyes  and  of  the  Oneida  communists  was  that  the  second 
coming  of  Christ  is  already  past,  having  taken  place  about 
the  year  70  a.  d.  in  connection  with  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salein  by  the  Romans ;  and  from  this  they  argued  that  the 
primitive  Church  is  now  alive  and  accessible,  and  that  it  is 
able,  by  virtue  of  its  own  victory  over  sin  and  death,  to  ac- 
cord the  same  victory  to  every  true  seeker  after  righteousness. 
They  looked  forward  to  a  tliird  coming  of  Christ  at  the  end 
of  the  "times  of  the  Gentiles,"  and  expected  that  the  final 
and  general  judgment  of  the  world  would  then  take  place. 
In  regard  to  the  Godhead  Noyes  maintained  that  it  con- 
sisted of  two  beings,  the  Father  and  the  Son,  whose  relation 
to  each  other  was  analogous  to  that  of  man  and  woman. 
He  taught  that  the  devil  had  existed  and  sinned  from  eter- 
nity, and  that  God  is  in  no  way  responsible  for  evil.  In  his 
doctrines  concerning  baptism,"  regeneration,  and  the  func- 
tions of  law  and  grace.  Noyes  was  a  close  follower  of  St. 
I'aul.  In  fact,  liis  entire  theological  system  was  based  large- 
ly on  St.  Paul's  writings. 


Social  Organization. — All  property  in  the  Oneida  Com- 
munity was  held  in  common,  and  the  education  and  sub- 
sistence afforded  to  the  members  was  considered  a  just 
equivalent  for  their  labor.  Hence  no  accounts  were  kept 
between  the  members,  except  such  as  might  be  kept  be- 
tween the  members  of  any  ordinary  family.  For  govern- 
ment and  discipline  the  Oneida  communists  relied  chiefly 
upon  the  power  of  their  religion,  but  for  the  better  ap- 
plication of  that  power  they  devised  a  system  of  public 
censorship  called  by  them  "mutual  criticism,"  which  was 
found  to  work  admirably  as  a  substitute  for  the  laws  and 
penalties  of  ordinary  society. 

The  social  organization  embraced  also  a  scheme  of  "pan- 
tagamy,"  or  complex  marriage,  which  has  often  been  wrong- 
ly confused  with  the  practices  of  "free-lovers"  and  other 
licentious  persons.     In  every   essential  particular  wherein 
marriage  morality  differs  from  prostitution,  viz..  in  respect 
to  sacredness  and  permanence  of  union,  care  and  provision 
for  women  and  children,  and  the  exclusion  of  irresponsible 
connections,  the  Oneida  Community  stood  on  the  side  of        j 
marriage.     The  mortality  among  the  children  born  under        ■ 
this  system  between  the  years  1869  and  1878  was  less  than         1 
one-third  that  of  the  corresponding  mortality  in  the  U.  S. 

Bibliography. — J.  H.  Noyes"s  llisfory  of  American  So- 
ciah'xms  (1870);  Nordhoff,  Coinminiistic  Societies  of  the 
United  States  (1875);  Ilepworth  Dixon.  New  A7nerica{18&7) ; 
Tlie  Berean,  by  J.  H.  Noyes  (1847) :  also  the  following  pam- 
phlets by  .J.  II.  Noyes:  Tlie  Bible  Art/iimeiif.  Salvation 
from  Sin,  Mutual  Criticism.  Mule  Continence,  and  Scien- 
tific Propagation.  Also  an  article  by  Dr.  Van  de  Warker  in. 
The  American  Oyncecological  Journal,  Xwg.,  1884. 

G.  W.  Noyes. 

Oneida  Lake :  a  body  of  water  in  Oneida,  Oswego,  Jladi- 
son,  and  Onondaga  cos.,  N.  Y. ;  20  miles  long  and  6  miles 
wide.  Its  surface  is  369  feet  above  the  sea.  It  abounds  in 
fish.  It  formerly,  with  its  outlet,  Oneida  river,  was  the 
channel  of  an  important  navigation,  but  it  is  superseded  by 
railways.  Tlie  river  is  a  deep,  sluggish,  tortuous  stream,  18 
miles  long,  with  low  banks.     It  falls  into  Oswego  river. 

Oiieidas :  See  Ikoquoian  Indian's. 

Oiieon'ta:  village  (settled  in  1786,  first  schoolhouse  built 

in  1790,  first  mill  started  in  1795,  first  church  built  in  1816) ;        j 
Otsego  CO..  N.  Y.  (for  location,  see  ma|:i  i.if  New  York,  ref.        I 
5-U):  on  the  Susquehanna  river,  and  the  Del.  and  Hudson         * 
Railroad ;  60  miles  N.  E.  of  Binghamton,  82  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  Albany.     It  is  the  seat  of  a  State  normal  school  (burned 
and  rebuilt  at  a  cost  of  .f  175,000  in  1894) ;  has  7  churches,  a 
State  armory,  a  public  library  with  over  4.000  volumes,  2 
national  bank.s,  and  a  daily,  a  monthly,  and  3  weekly  news- 
pa))ers,  and  contains  the  repair,  car,  and  machine  shops  of 
the  Del.  and  Hudson  Railroad,  3  planing-mills.  2  foundries,         . 
2  grain  elevators,  knitting-mill,  and  sash  and  door,  piano,        ■ 
cigar,  and  shirt  factories.     Pop.  (1880)  3,002  ;  (1890)  6,272;        1 
(1894)  estimated  with  suburbs,  over  8,000. 

Editor  of  "  Herald." 

Onesaii'der  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  'OvVjo-wSpos] :  a  Platonic  phi- 
losopher under  Nero;  the  author  of  a  '^.TpartiyiKhs  \6yos. 
dedicated  to  Quintus  Veranius,  consul  in  49  a.  d.,  which 
treats  of  the  duties  of  a  commander,  and  the  style  of  which 
is  based  on  that  of  Xenophon.  The  work  was  first  published 
in  a  Latin  translation,  often  reprinted  ;  the  first  edition  of 
the  Greek  text  was  by  N.  Rigaltius  (Paris,  1599) ;  best  edi- 
tions bv  Schwebel  (Nuremberg,  1762,  fol.)  and  A.  Kochlv 
(Leipzig,  1860).  B.  L.  G.  ' 

Onion  [from  Fr.  ognon,  oignon  <  Lat.  u'nio,  unio'nis.  a 
single  large  pearl,  an  onion,  liter.,  unity,  oneness  (whence 
Eng.  uiiimi),  deriv.  of  u'nus,  one]:  a  cultivated  biennial 
herb  and  its  bulbous  foot,  the  latter  composed  of  leaf-ele- 
ments in  a  thickened  condition;  the  Allium  cepa.  a  plant  of 
the  order  Liliacefp,  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  Asia  from  im- 
memorial time,  and  thence  introduced  into  nearly  all  civi- 
lized countries.  The  onion  differs  from  the  garlic  esjiecially 
in  having  the  elements  of  its  bulb  disposed  in  concentric 
layers  and  not  in  separate  cloves.  Among  the  marked  types 
are  the  potato  onion,  grown  from  off-set  bulbs  growing  near 
tke  root,  and  the  top  onion,  produced  from  similar  bulbs 
growing  at  the  top  of  the  flower-stalk.  Ordinary  onions  are 
raised  in  the  first  season  from  seed,  or  in  the  second  year 
from  the  small  sets  or  incompletely  grown  bulbs  of  the  pre- 
vious year's  crop.  The  onion  has  an  aromatic  sulphur  oil 
containing  allyl.  The  bulb  is  highly  nutritious.  The  crop 
requires  a  fertile  soil,  and  clean  culture,  and  as  it  is  very 


c 


OXOMASTICON 


ONTARIO 


303 


hardy  it  should  be  sown  early.  lu  medicine  it  is  a  stimu- 
lating expectorant,  valued  in  domestic  practice,  especially 
in  diseases  of  children.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Onomas'tlooii :  Sec  Dictionary. 

(Mioniatopd-'iii  [Or.  ovofurroiroila,  the  creating  of  a  name; 
ivoiio,  name  +  iroifiv.  iHake]:  the  formation  or  modification 
of  a  word  in  imitution  of  a  .smiiid.  The  .sini|ilest  and  clear- 
est cases  of  onomato|iu'ia  are  contained  in  words  wliicli  are 
direct  names  of  sounds,  as  boo-hoo,  cling-ilnnr/,  bantj.  bow- 
wow, moo,  coo,  baa.  Individual  cases  in  which  such  words 
come  to  serve  as  verbs  and  nouns  are  undeniable;  as  buzz, 
chuck,  chuckle,  hiss,  but  they  are  so  likely  to  become  then 
conventional,  and  therefore  to  submit  to  the  regular  pho- 
netic laws  of  tlie  language,  that  it  is  necessary  carefully  to 
distinguish  between  words  that  are  actively  onomatopa'tic 
and  such  as  are  only  historically  so.  For  instance,  the  verb 
cackle  was  doubtless  in  its  origin  imitative,  but  comparison 
with  -M.  Eng.  cukelm  and  Low  Germ,  kdkeln  shows  that  it 
can  not  be  wholly  the  result  of  recent  imitative  action.  It 
is  often  impossible  to  determine  whether  such  correspond- 
ences may  not  be  due  to  independent  imitative  action  in  the 
separate  languages :  thus  boom,  bunt,  buinblc-bi-e.  hum,  hum- 
ble-bee; cf.  (lerin.  bummrn,  hummeii,  sumiiien  (also  M.  H. 
Germ.),  hummel  (<).  II.  (ierm.  A «;Hi«/),  "  humble-bee,"  M. 
Eng.  humbelbee.  Dutch  hommelen,  etc.  Words  of  this  sort 
are  generally  so  near  their  imitative  source  as  to  be  contin- 
ually subject  to  renewal.  .Such  readaptation  of  historical 
material  is  distinctly  an  act  of  language-creation,  and  may 
well  serve  to  illustrate  the  original  processes  in  the  genera- 
tion of  language  ;  cf.  differentiations  like  criick  :  crash,  clack : 
clash,  smack  :  sm((sh.  The  historical  name  of  the  cuckoo, 
O.  Eng.  geac  >  il.  Eng.  (/eke  {cf.  dial,  gowk)  :  Germ,  gauch  < 
M.  H.  Germ,  gouch  :  O.  N.  gaukr,  has  yielded  in  English  to 
the  more  expressive  cuckoo,  older  cuccu,  which  probably 
represents  the  Fr.  cucu,  coucou,  and  in  Germ,  kuckuck,  a 
loan-word  from  Dutch  cuccuc.  Probably  the  French  and 
perhaps  the  Duti-li  form  is  imitative,  but  in  the  light  of 
forms  in  other  languages,  e.  g.  Gr.  k6kku^.  Lat.  cucu  lus.  it  is 
practieally  impossilde  to  tell  where  borrowing  leaves  off  and 
where  direct  imitation  of  sound  begins.  The  material  col- 
letrted  in  the  writings  of  Ilensleigh  Wedgwood,  e.  g.  in  the 
introduction  to  his  Dictionary  of  English  Etymology  {Hd 
ed.  1878),  is  confused  and  uncritical:  the  best  introduction 
to  the  subject  will  be  found  in  Paul,  Principles  of  the  His- 
tory of  Language  (3d  ed.  1886),  chap.  is. 

Besj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Ononda'^a  Indians :  See  Ikoc^uoiax  Ixdians. 

Onnndaga  Lake  :  a  body  of  water  in  Onondaga  co.,  X.  Y. 
It  is  .5  miles  long,  1  mile  wide,  and  has  a  maximum  depth 
of  65  feet,  but  its  southern  part  is  very  shallow.  Its  waters 
are  stagnant,  and  their  level  is  1^61  feet  above  tide.  They 
flow  into  Seneca  river.  The  lake  has  a  natural  [luddling  of 
marl,  which  kee[)s  the  brine  of  the  Onondaga  limestone  from 
its  waters.  The  lake  was  probably  formed  l)y  the  dissolving 
out  of  salt  rock,  and  the  subsequent  falling  in  of  the  roof  of 
the  cavern  thus  formed. 

Onosaiider :  same  as  Oxesaxdkr  (</.  v.). 

Ontario  (formerly  Fim-er  Canaua):  the  wealthiest  and 
most  populous  [)rovince  of  the  Canadian  Dominion.  It  re- 
ceived its  present  name  in  1867.  when  it  joined  Quebec  (for- 
merly Lower  Canada)  and  the  two  chief  Maritime  Provinces. 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia,  in  the  political  union  of 
the  British  North  American  jirovinces.  It  embraces  an 
area  of  222.()U()  si|.  miles  ("i.^ioO  water  surface),  extending 
from  E.  to  W.  fully  1.200  miles,  i.e.  between  the  meridians 
74  and  \)o  W.  of  (ireenwich.  and  X.  and  S.  nearly  700  miles, 
or  api)roxinuttely  from  43'  to  ^>.i  X.  lat.  The  older  and 
more  settled  portions  of  the  province,  which  date  from  1791, 
are  those  which  lie  imuu'diately  N.  of  Lakes  Krie  and  Onta- 
rio. As  the  country  was  opened  up  and  the  western  water- 
ways were  utilized  for  connuerce,  settlement  gradually  took 
j)osse.ssion  of  uiidetined  areas  in  a  northweslerly  din'ction. 
This  territorial  expansion  was  facilitated  by  the  ac(|uisition 
in  1868  of  the  vast  area  which  for  two  centuries  had  owned 
the  sway  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com[)any.  The  northern  and 
western  limits  of  Ontario  were  without  precise  determina- 
tion until  1878,  when  arbitrators,  at  the  instance  of  the  Do- 
minion, in  agreement  with  the  ])rovincial  governments, 
made  an  award,  which  after  a  time  was  accepted  by  all 
parlies  interested,  and  settled  the  precise  boundaries  of  the 
provhice.  These  are,  on  the  E.  and  X.  E..  the  Ottawa  river, 
the  Province  of  (Quebec,  and  a  line  separating  Ontario  from 


tlie  Northeast  Territory,  running  X.  to  Iludson  Bay  from 
Lake  Tcmiscaming,  close  to  the  meridian  79"  W.;  on  the 
X.  and  X.  W.,  Iludson  Bay,  the  waterways  of  the  Albany 
river.  Lake  Joseph,  and  Lac  Seul.  and  the  English  river  to  a 
point  of  intersection  with  the  meridian  line  drawn  from  the 
northwest  angle  of  the  Lake  of  tlii'  Woods,  on  the  U.S. 
boundary ;  on  the  S.  W.  and  S..  Rainy  and  Pigeon  rivers, 
Lakes  Superior,  Huron,  St.  Clair,  Erie,  and  (jntario,  with 
their  connecting  waterways  (the  St.  Jlary,  St.  Clair,  Detroit, 
and  Xiagara  rivers),  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Physical  J-'tatures. — The  physical  conformation  of  the 
older  organized  sections  of  the  province  has  little  to  dis- 
tinguish it.  Xowhere  do  the  elevations  exceed  1.000  feet. 
The  Xiagara  escarpment  extends  from  the  Blue  Mountains, 
on  Xottawasaga  Bay.  to  the  Xiagara  river,  and  therci  is  a 
slight  elevation  trending  S.  E.  from  the  Georgian  Bay  to 
the  .St.  Lawrence,  thence  into  the  State  of  Xew  York.  N. 
of  this  hydrographical  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence  the  aspect 
of  the  province  is  bolder  and  more  rugged.  Here  the  Lau- 
rentian  Hills,  trending  northwestward,  cross  the  province, 
though  reduced  now  to  a  hummocky  plateau,  locally  tenned 
the  Height  of  Land.  This  ancient  ridge  jjarts  the  water- 
ways X.  into  Hudson  May,  E.  into  the  Ottawa,  and  W.  into 
Lakes  Nepigon  and  Su|pcrior.  Among  the  many  interior 
lakes  besides  Xepigon.  which  is  situate  N*.  of  Lake  Superior, 
are  Lakes  Xipissing,  Muskoka,  and  Simcoe,  all  E.  of  Georgian 
Bay. 

Geology. — Geologically,  Ontario  partakes  of  the  character- 
istics which  belong  to  the  area  extending  from  the  Atlantic 
coast  to  Lake  Superior.  It  is  composed  almost  entirelv  of 
rocks  belonging  to  the  Archaean  and  Paheozoic  divisions. 
Throughout  the  later  geological  ages  these  rocks  have  re- 
nniined  exempt  from  important  disturbance,  but  have  been 
subjected  to  prolonged  |n-ocesses  of  denudation,  so  that  the 
m«re  resistent  rocks  form  the  higher  points.  E.  of  Kings- 
ton and  Ottawa  the  surface  is  based  on  horizontal  beds  of 
Silurian  rocks,  generally  limestones,  and  S.  of  a  line  drawn 
from  Kingston  to  the  northern  part  of  Georgian  Bay  it  is 
based  on  rocks  of  the  Paheologic  age,  but  the  series  include 
strata  as  high  as  those  of  the  Devonian  period.  The  min- 
eral-bearing area,  which  extends  from  Georgian  Bay  to  Lake 
Winnipeg  and  northward,  consists  of  Laurentian  gneissie 
and  granitic  rocks,  within  which  are  many  areas  of  plutonic 
and  volcanic  rocks,  and  of  metamorphic  slate  of  Huronian 
age.  Overlying  these  occur  the  sedimentary  and  volcanic 
rocks  of  the  Animike,  Xepigon,  and  Keewanian  group,  whose 
nearly  horizontal  stratification  contrasts  sharply  with  the  al- 
most vertic'al  older  rocks  upon  which  and  against  which  they 
rest.  In  the  u]iper  Ottawa  valley  the  lower  and  middle  di- 
visions of  the  Laurentides  are  overlaid  unconformably  by 
continuous  and  perfectly  conformable  series  of  sedimen- 
tary strata  of  the  Cambro-Silurian  system.  Some  of  the 
clays  abound  in  nodules  holding  remains  of  the  seal,  fishes, 
insects,  shells,  and  plants.  The  great  Hurimian  belt 
runs  across  the  country  from  S.  W.  to  X.  E.,  and  includes 
crystalline  schists,  breccias,  conglomerates,  argillites,  and 
syenites,  traversed  by  diabase  dikes  remarkable  for  their 
length. 

Climate. — The  summers  are  warm  and  the  winters  cold; 
but  the  cold  is  extreme  only  in  the  uninhabited  i»)rthern 
portion,  while  even  there  the  rigor  is  moderated  by  the 
snowfall  and  the  absence  of  blizzards.  In  the  pojmlous 
parts  of  the  province  the  cold  is  plea-sant  and  bracing,  while 
the  snow  is  of  much  service  to  the  lumberman  as  well  as  to 
the  farmer.  Of  the  length  of  the  winters  there  is  much 
l)opular  misconception  outside  the  provin<'e.  Sometimes 
there  is  a  late  spring,  but  the  average  winter  in  the  Ontario 
peninsula  is  not  more  than  three  months  long.  At  Toronto 
the  "close"  season  for  navigation  is  usually  from  Dec.  1.5 
to  Mar.  15.  The  following  table  indicates  the  extremes  of 
the  provincial  climate  in  widely  separate  sections : 


PLACES. 

Lati- 
tude. 

Longi- 
tude. 

Eleva- 
tion 
above 
the  lea. 

MEAN  TEM- 
PERATUKK. 

Sum- 
mer. 

Wloter. 

4.S-4.5 
48-27 
45-2« 
43-39 

81-43 
89-13 
7.5-42 
79-23 

738 
«11 

350 

65-3 
S8-0 
65-3 
64-1 

2.-1  7 

Port  .Xrthnriliead  nl  Lalce  Superior) 

9  0 
10  4 

Toronto  ^Lake  Ontario) 

34-6 

.Vof<-.— The  sunimor  tempcraturps  are  tatien  from  the  months  of 
.Inly.  August,  anil  Sppteuiber,  and  those  of  the  winter  from  January, 
February,  and  .March. 


304 


ONTARIO 


The  precipitation  (rain  ami  snow)  for  the  year  1893  in 
three  of  the  above  places  was  as  follows:  Port  Arthur,  rain 
16-06,  snow  26-8  inches— total,  18-T-l;  Ottawa,  rain  33-10, 
snow  106-0 — total,  33-70  inches :  Toronto,  rain  25-28,  snow 
42-2— total,  39-30  inches. 

Soil  and  Products. — Over  100,000  sq.  miles  is  still  in 
forest,  though  in  the  older  districts  the  woodland  is  chiefly 
young  or  second-growth  timber — spruce,  maple,  and  pine. 
Of  the  23,000,000  acres  of  occupied  and  assessed  land,  about 
one-half  is  cleared,  over  8,000,000  acres  are  woodland,  and 
nearly  3,000,000  acres  are  marshes.  Of  the  cleared  land, 
8,000,000  acres  are  under  crop,  3,500,000  acres  are  in  pasture, 
and  nearly  200,000  acres  are  devoted  to  orchards  and  gar- 
dens. Tlie  soil  and  the  climate  admit  of  the  cultivation  of 
nearly  all  the  useful  food  grains  and  roots,  and  of  many 
marketable  fruits.  The  following  figures  give  the  area  and 
yield  (in  bushels)  of  the  chief  grain  and  root  crops,  and  the 
hay  yield  (in  tons)  for  the  year  1893.  The  average  yield  tor 
the  years  1883-93  inclusive  is  appended :   ■ 


Fall  wheat 

Spring  wheat. . . 

Barley 

Oats 

Peas 

Potatoes 

Turnips 

Hay  and  clover. 


Acies. 


356.r2I 
467.315 

1,936,644 
r38,741 
148.601 
136,604 

8,766,894 


Yield. 


17,.54.'5.S48 

4,186.063 

9,806.088 

68,584.329 

14,168,935 

18,911,813 

36.973,355 

4,963,557 


AVERAGE  YIELD  POH 
1882-i)3. 


Par  year. 


IS.-219.174 
8,448,203 
17,964,493 
58,954,051 
13,979,163 
17.800,655 
45,860.817 
3,364,644 


200 

152 

85-7 

.34-6 

80-4 

115  9 

418  0 

1  43 


The  fruit  crop  for  all  but  tlie  hardier  fruits  is  somewhat 
prei-arious,  except  in  the  Niagara  district,  wliere  the  peach  is 
grown  to  fair  perfection.  Apples  are  usually  a  fine  and  profit- 
able crop  throughout  the  older  parts  of  the  province,  as  are 
cherries  and  plums,  while  strawberries,  grapes,  and  small 
fruits  are  raised  in  great  abundance  in  the  Lake  Erie  and 
Lake  (jntario  counties.  The  forests  and  woodlands  have  con- 
tributed considerably  to  the  exports  of  the  province,  besides 
affording  material  for  some  of  its  important  industries. 
Now  they  are  chiefly  valuable  to  the  crown  for  the  revenue 
derived  from  timber  dues  and  the  rents  accruing  from 
leases  to  lumbermen.  Where  the  timber  limits  are  sold 
outright,  tlie  revenues  will  in  future  years  shrink  in  value. 

Mineral  Resources. — The  mineral  "wealth  of  Ontario  is 
large,  though  economic  conditions  have  hitherto  not  been 
favorable  to  its  development.  The  chief  exports  of  min- 
eral ore  have  been  to  the  LT.  S.,  and  tlie  duties  imposed  by 
that  country  have  largely  handicapped  the  industry.  Tlie 
area  richest  in  minerals  is  that  stretching  from  Sudliurv 
district,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Nipissing,  W.  to  Port 
Arthur,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  and  on  to  the  Lake 
of  the  Woods.  Within  tliis  region  are  gold,  silver,  copper, 
nickel,  iron,  galena,  plumbago,  and  zinc  ore,  mica  and  apa- 
tite, besides  large  deposits  of  granite,  marble,  and  freestone. 
W.  of  Port  Arthur  is  an  argentiferous  region  of  great  rich- 
ness. Many  of  the  central  and  eastern  counties  also  are 
rich  in  most  of  the  metals  named,  and  also  in  phosphates 
and  other  mineral  fertilizers.  In  the  western  peninsula  are 
salt,  petroleum,  gyjjsum,  and  materials  for  building,  includ- 
ing large  deposits  of  clays  for  terra-cotta  and  pressed 
brick.  The  value  of  the  mineral  products  of  the  province 
for  1893,  exclusive  of  the  yield  from  the  precious  metals, 
was  about  $6,000,000,  one-third  of  which  was  expended  for 
labor.  Of  tliis  amount,  13,700,000  represents  the  value  of 
the  building-stone  mined  during  tlie  year,  including  rulible. 
lime,  cement,  pottery,  brick,  and  tile."  A  like  amount  rep- 
resents the  value  of  salt,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas.  Nickel 
and  copper  were  mined  to  the  value  of  |o70.000.  The  yiel<l 
of  gold  and  silver  was  trifling,  silver-mining  having"been 
practically  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  the  general  depre- 
ciation of  the  metal,  while  the  gold-mining  engaged  in  was 
mainly  of  a  testing  and  |u-ospeeting  character. 

Lire  Stock.— OnUirio  has  paid  special  attention  to  the 
breeding  of  carriage  and  .saddle  horses,  and  care  for  the 
.sanitary  condition  of  cattle  has  enabled  shippers  to  coni- 
niand  good  prices  in  Great  I?ritain,  as  well  as  to  save  them- 
selves the  annoyance  of  embargoes.  The  total  value  of  the 
live  stock  in  tlie  province  in  1892  was  estimated  at  :j;117,- 
.')00,000,  while  sales  within  the  year  amounted  to  !?32,,5on,- 
000,  The  total  value  represents  688,>il4  horses,  2,029,140 
cuttle,  996,974  hogs,  1,8.')0,473  sheep,  and  7,07H,973  turkeys, 
geese,  and  other  fowl.     The  wool  trade  increases  steadily. 


the  total  clip  for  1892  amounting  to  over  5,.500,000  lb.,  the 
average  weight  per  fleece  in  the  Lake  Ontario  counties 
reaching  6-22  lb.  The  cheese  and  butter  industries  show  a 
like  advance.  Bee-culture  is  also  a  growing  industry,  and 
honey  has  become  a  considerable  source  of  revenue. 

Population  (including  races  and  religion). — Tlie  popula- 
tion of  Ontario  in  1891  was  2,114,321,  or  more  than  half  that 
of  the  Dominion  W.  of  the  Maritime  Provinces.  Of  this 
number  1,708.702  are  native  born,  339,037  are  British  sub- 
.iects  (chiefly  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish),  while  23,440  were 
born  in  Germany,  and  43,703  in  the  U.  S.  The  increase  in 
population  since  1881  has  been  slight,  the  province  liaving 
l(.>st  heavily  by  emigration  to  the  U.  S.  and  the  Canadian 
Northwest.  Classified  by  religions,  there  were  647,518  Meth- 
odists, 453,713  Presbyterians,  385,999  members  of  the  Church 
of  England,  358,300"  Koraaii  Catholics,  96,969  Baptists,  45,- 
039  Lutherans,  16,879  Congregationalists,  and  10,320  mem- 
bers of  the  Salvation  Army. 

Divisions. — Ontario  is  for  municipal  purposes  divided 
into  42  counties  and  6  provisional  districts.  The  former  are 
comprised  within  the  older  organized  sections  of  the  prov- 
ince ;  tlic  latter  (Muskoka,  Parry  Sound,  Nipissing,  Algo- 
ina.  Thunder  Bay,  and  Rainy  River)  extend  northwest- 
ward from  the  northern  provisional  counties  to  the  prairie 
Province  of  Manitoba.  Ninety-two  electoral  divisions  re- 
turn each  a  member  in  the  Provincial  Legislature,  which 
consists  of  but  one  Chamber. 

COUNTIES  AND  COUNTY-TOWNS.  WITH  POPULATION. 


COUNTIES.  *  Ref. 


Brant 

Bruce 

Carleton 

Dufterm 

L>uudas 

Durham 

Elgin   

Essex 

Froutenac 

Glengarry 

Grey 

Haldimaud 

Haliburton 

Halton 

Hastings 

Huron 

Kent 

Lanibton 

Lanark 

Leeds  and  Gran- 
ville   

Lennox  and  Ad- 
dington 

Liiioohi 

Jliildlesex 

Norfolk 

Northumberland 

Ontario 

Oxford 

Peel 

Perth 

Peterborough. . 

Prescott 

Prince  Edward 

Renfrew 

Russell 

Simcoe 

Stormont 

Victoria 

Waterloo 

Welland 

Wellington 

Wentworth 

York 

Districts. 

Algoma  t 

Rainy  River t.. 
Thunder  Bay  t. 

--\luskokat 

Nipissing  t 

Parry  Sound  t . . 


5-D 

3-C 

2-H 

4-D 

•8-1 

4-E 

.5-B 

6-A 

3-G 

2-1 

3-C 

5-D 

2-E 

4-D 

3-F 

4-B 

6-B 

5-B 

3-H 

3-H 

3-G 
5-D 
5-B 
5-C 
3-F 
3-E 
5-C 
4-D 
4-C 
3-F 
l-I 
3-G 
1-G 
8-1 
3-D 
2-1 
3-E 
4-C 
6-E 
4-C 
5-D 
4-D 


6-H 

S-D 
I-E 
1-D 


Pop. 
1881. 


Totals l,926,9i?2     2,214,321 


33,869 
65,218 
64,103 
28.093 
20,598 
36.863 
42,361 
46.962 
48.384 
22,221 
70.539 
24.980 
5.911 
21.919 
55,061 
76..526 
54.310 
53.034 
33,973 

61,175 

26,484 
31.573 
93.081 
33,587 
41,12.3 
48.812 
50,159 
26,175 
53,693 
30,478 
22,857 
21,044 
38,166 
13,080 
74,803 
23.198 
33,655 
42,740 
31,771 
64,632 
66,952 
153.113 


24.014 

14..391 
2,090 
12,813 


Pop, 

1891. 


36,445 
64,603 
77,630 
22,311 
20,132 
38,487 
43,377 
65,340 
47,009 
22,447 
71,214 
23.410 
6..-i.-.0 
21.988 
59.084 
66.781 
68.904 
57,925 
37,725 

60,888 

24,750 
30.079 
98.344 
30.992 
38.035 
43.355 
49,849 
24,871 
51,716 
34,597 
24,173 
18,889 
46,976 
18,889 
82,787 
27,1.56 
38,991 
50,464 
30,631 
59,371 
77,114 
345,101 


41,856 

17,651 
13,163 
19,167 


COUNTY-TOWNS. 


Brantford 

Walkerton . . . 

Ottawa 

Oi-angeville.. 
Cornwall  X  ■■  ■ 
Port  Hope  . . . 
St.  Thomas  . . 

Sandwich 

Kingston 

Cornwall  X  . . . 
Owen  Sound. 

Cayuga 

^liriden 

Milton 

Belleville 

Goderich 

Chatham 

Sarnia 

Perth 


Brockville. . 


Napanee 

St.  Catharines . 

Loudon  

Simcoe 

Cobourg  

Whitby 

Woodstock 

Brampton 

Stratford 

Peterboro 

L-Orignal 

Picton 

Pembroke 

Ru.ssell 

Barrie 

Cornwall  X 

Lindsay 

Berlin 

Welland 

Guelph 

Hamilton 

Toronto 


Pop. 


753 
,061 
,154 
,968 
,790 
,042 
,366 
358 
264 
,790 
,497 
822 
,182 
450 
914 
839 
052 
693 
1.36 

793 


Chief  Towns. 
Sault  Ste.  Marie 

Rat  Portage 

Port  ,\rtluu- 

Braeebridge  . . . . 

North  Bay 

Parry  Soiiud 


3,433 
9,170 
31,977 
2,674 
4,829 
2,786 
8,612 
3,258 
9.501 
9,717 
1,008 
3,887 
4,401 
3,918 
5.5.50 
6.790 
6,081 
7.125 
2,035 
10,539 
48.9S0 
181,280 


2..5(17 
1.806 
8.698 
1.419 
1.937 
1.982 


*  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  Ontario. 
t  Provisional  districts  with  county  organizations. 
X  C<irnwall,  in  Stormont  Co.,  is  the  county-town  for  the  three  coun- 
ties of  Duudas,  Glengarry,  and  Stormont. 

Cities. — The  pojiulation  of  the  12  cities  in  1891  was  as 
follows:  Toronto.  1S1,330;  Hamilton.  4S.9S0  :  Ottawa,  44,- 
l.')4:  London,  31.977:  Kingston.  19.-264  :  Brantford.  12.753  ; 
Guel)ili.  10,539:  SI.  Tliomas,  10,366:  Windsor,  10,322;  Belle- 
ville, 9,914:  Stratford.  9.501  :  St.  Catliarines.  9.170. 

Government. — The  administration  of  provincial  affairs  is 


ONTARIO 


305 


intrusted  to  an  exocutivi'  unil  a  lei^islativc  assemlily,  which 
together  form  the  parliaTuent  of  tlie  province,  witli  a  lieu- 
tenant-governor, who  is  advised  by  a  cabinet,  composed  of 
ei"ht  members.  Toronto  is  the  seat  of  tlie  Provincial  Ciov- 
ernmenl.  The  Executive  Council  comprises  tlie  Attorney- 
General  (I'reinior),  Commissioner  of  Crown  Ijands.  Commis- 
sioner of  I'ublic  Works,  Minister  of  Education,  Minister  of 
Agriculture,  Treasurer,  Secretary,  and  Kef;istrar,  anil  an- 
other cabinet  ollicer  without  portfolio.  The  EcK'slature 
has  by  law  a  duration  of  four  years,  unless  sooner  dissolved 
by  the  lieutenant-governor.  It  is  governed  by  the  constitu- 
tional principles  which  guide  the  Federal  (iovernment  and 
parliament  at  Ottawa,  and  has  exclusive  jurisdiction  in 
(piestions  relating  to  properly  and  civil  rights,  education, 
municipal  government,  and  all  other  matters  of  loi^al  con- 
cern. Matters  of  a  general  character  are  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Dominion  authority  and  parliament,  in  the  lat- 
ter of  which  Ontario  is  represented  by  'M  members  in  the 
Senate,  ajipoinleil  by  the  crown,  and  by  !)3  members  in  the 
Commons,  elettteil  by  the  people.  The  higher  legal  ma- 
chinery of  the  province  is  grouped  under  the  Supreme 
Court  of  .Judicature  for  Ontario.  This  court  is  divided  into 
two  branches — the  court  of  ajipeal  and  the  high  court  of 
justice.  The  latter  is  again  subdividi'd  into  the  three  divi- 
■sions — queen's  bench,  chancery,  and  common  (ileas  courts. 
The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  Dominion  Government. 
Toronto  is  the  seat  of  the  higher  courts. 

Education. — In  1891,  of  the  adult  population  of  the  prov- 
ince only  3'8:?  per  cent,  were  unable  to  read  and  ~y'2()  per 
cent,  were  unable  to  write.  Though  separate  schools  con- 
tinue to  be  recognized  and  aided  by  the  province,  the  edu- 
cational system  is  in  the  main  unscctarian.  and  the  public 
schools  are  free  to  all.  The  chief  source  of  the  school  main- 
tenance is  local  taxation,  aided  by  Government  grants  from 
the  public  chest.  In  1802  the  province  expended  over 
iSit,OnO,0()0  upon  public  schools  alone.  These  were  5,889  in 
number,  wilii  an  enrollment  of  485.670  and  an  average  at- 
tendance of  i'):i.s:!().  In  ch.arge  of  these  schools  there  were 
8,-180  teachers  (5,710  female  and  2.770  male),  the  average 
salary  being  |297  for  the  former  and  §431  for  the  latter. 
Of  Roman  Catholic  (separate)  schools,  there  were  in  1893 
313,  with  ;i7,4(!0  jjupils  and  663  teachers.  Besides  the  pub- 
lic schools,  the  province  maintains  128  high  schools,  of 
which  35  are  collegiate  institutes,  employing  in  both  .522 
hiirhly  qualified  teachers,  with  a  registered  enrollment  of 
33,837  |iupils  and  an  average  attendance  of  13,448.  There 
are  also  69  teachers'  institutes,  3  well-appointed  normal 
schools  (one  in  Toronto  and  one  in  Ottawa),  besides  a  num- 
ber of  city  and  county  model  schools,  a  school  of  pedagogy, 
a  provincial  agricultural  college  and  experimental  farm,  and 
a  school  of  practical  science.  In  adilition  to  all  these  the 
province  gives  aid  to  a  number  of  industrial  schools  and 
eleemosynary  institutions,  and  maintains  schools  for  the 
blind  and  the  deaf  ami  dumb.  It  also  gives  legislative  aid 
to  meclinnies"  instil utes,  free  public  libraries,  and  art  schools. 
The  enlin^  school  system  is  under  the  administration  of  a 
department  of  the  I'rovincial  Government,  at  the  head  of 
which  is  the  Minister  of  Eilucation.  School  boards,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  |)rovincial  department,  are  intrusted 
with  the  loivil  administration. 

At  the  head  of  I  he  educational  system  of  the  province 
stands  the  national  inslitulion,  Toronto  I'niversity  and  Col- 
lege. This  institution  has  dual  functions,  viz. :  (1)  An  ex- 
amining and  degree-conferring  body,  governed  under  the 
crown  by  a  board  of  trustees,  senate,  and  convocalion ;  and 
(2)  a  leaching  body,  directed  by  a  university  council,  com- 
jiosed  of  the  president  and  professorial  staff.  .Since  18.50  it 
lias  been  iindenomlnalii>iial  and  has  attracted  towanl  it, 
miller  the  Universily  Keileratinii  Act.  a  numlirr  of  theolog- 
ical colleges,  schools  of  medicine,  of  science,  of  music,  agri- 
culture, dental  surgery,  and  pharmacy,  which  take  advantage 
of  its  comprehensive  art  course,  laboratory  work,  etc.  The 
affiliating  denominational  colleges  are  Victoria  I'liiversitv 
(Methodi.st),  Knox  College  (I'resbyterian),  St.  Michael's  Cof- 
le;;e  (Roman  Catholic),  Wycliffe  College,  and  Huron  College 
(E[iiscopaIian). 

The  other  I'ollegep  of  the  province  are  Queen's  Univei-sity, 
Kinu'slon  (l'ri-<byteriiin) ;  AlcMaster  I'liiversity,  'I'oronto 
(Haplist);  Trinity  I'niversity,  Toronto  (Episcopalian); 
Woodstock  College  (Maplist),  Alma  College,  St.  Thomas; 
Albert  College,  HcUeville;  and  Upix^r  Canada  College, 
Toronto.  The  last  named,  an  old  historic,  residential  school 
for  boys,  was  founded  by  Sir  .John  Colborne  in  1829  upon 
the  model  of  the  great  public  schools  of  Knglaiid. 
304 


liailways  and  Canals. —  The  province  has  been  liberal  in 
its  subventions  for  the  construction  and  equipment  of  local 
railways.  The  total  railway  mileage  of  Cauaiia  in  oi)era- 
tion  in  1893  was  15.020  miles,  about  half  of  which  run 
through  Ontario.  The  characteristics  of  the  vast  inland 
navigation  of  Canada  have  necessitated  canals  over  many 
of  its  waterways.  The  Dominion  (Tovernmcnt  has  un- 
dertaken the  construction  of  a  new  canal  on  the  St.  Mary 
river,  to  give  access  to  Canadian  trallic  in  its  |ias.sage  in 
and  out  of  Lake  Superior.  The  existing  canals  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  system,  which  lie  almost  wholly  within  the  prov- 
ince, are  over  70  miles  in  length  ;  the  total  height  direi'tly 
overcome  bv  locks  is  533  feet.  The  available  depth,  with 
the  exception  of  that  in  the  Welland  Canal,  is(lS94)  limited 
to  9  feet.  The  Murray  Canal  connects  the  I!ay  of  Quinte 
and  Ijake  Ontario.  The  Rideau  Canal,  which  connects  the 
Ottawa  river  with  Lake  Ontario,  was  undertaken  at  an 
early  period  for  military  purposes.  The  U.  S.  has  reciprocal 
privileges  over  the  Canadian  canal  system,  and  utilizes  it 
largely  as  against  the  pi-ivilege  Canada  enjoys  in  the  rail- 
way bonding  system  over  V .  S.  territory. 

Finance. — Ontario,  unlike  the  other  provinces  of  the  Do- 
minion, has  no  debt,  if  we  except  subventions  to  local  rail- 
ways to  the  extent  of  $1,401.-598,  a  liability  which  has  a 
period  of  forty  years  for  its  redemirtion.  What  delit  she 
had,  as  a  partner  with  Quebec  in  the  old  Province  of  Cana- 
da, was  assumed  by  the  Dominion  at  confederation.  Under 
the  arrangement  by  which  the  province  entered  the  union, 
Ontario  receives  an  annual  subsidy  from  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment of  $1,196,873.  and  had  in  1893  a  surplus  of  assets 
over  liabilities  presently  payable  of  $6,135,480.  The  in- 
debtedness of  the  municipalities  amounted  in  1890  to  nearly 
.^50,000,000,  with  assets  slightly  in  advance  of  this  sum. 

Cummcrce  and  Bu.'iiness  Interests. — So  far  as  can  be 
known,  the  trade  of  the  province  for  the  vear  1893  was  as 
follows  :  Exports,  |33,850,873  ;  imports.  148,343,756  ;  duty 
paid  on  the  latter,  $8.661,.581.  (These  figures  can  be  only 
approximately  correct,  since  much  of  the  provincial  export 
and  imjtort  tr.ide  passes  through  the  pons  of  Montreal,  Que- 
bec, and  Halifax,  and  no  separate  record  is  kept  of  it.)  The 
two  chief  customers  of  the  province  are  the  U.  .S.  and  Great 
Britain.  There  are  76  loan,  building,  and  investment  com- 
panies, with  a  subscribed  capital  of  over  $80,000,000,  doing 
business  in  Ontario.  Of  the  39  banks  making  returns  to  the 
Federal  Government  on  .Jan.  1, 1893. 10  had  their  headquar- 
ters in  Ontario.  At  that  date  the  total  liabilities  of  the  39 
banks  amounted  to  $217,195,975.  and  the  total  assets  to 
$303,696,715.  The  crisis  in  banking  and  commercial  circles 
in  the  U.  S.  in  1893  was  little  felt  in  Ontario,  owing  to  the 
conservative  efforts  put  forth  by  Canadian  banking  and 
monetary  men  to  strengthen  their  financial  resources  and 
act  cautiously  with  regard  to  credits.  Ontario  has  a  large 
export  and  domestic  trade  in  manufactures  of  all  kinds,  in- 
cluding agricultural  implements,  machinery,  edged  tools, 
musical  instruments,  sewing-machines,  besides  woolen  goods, 
tweeds,  cottons,  undressed  furs,  leather  goods,  woodenware 
manufactures,  etc. 

Ilislori/. — Canada,  even  Umg  after  the  conquest,  had  but 
a  mere  fringe  of  settlement  along  the  St.  Lawrence  jind  the 
Bay  of  Fundy.  Adventurous  spirits,  however,  had  ])robed 
the'  waterway's  to  the  far  West  and  the  region  that,  after  the 
jiassing  of  tlie  Constitutional  Act  of  1791.  was  to  become  a 
new  colony  of  the  crown,  as  yet  an  almost  unbroken  wilder- 
ness. The  close  of  the  Revolutionary  war  brought  bands 
of  Loyalists  into  the  country,  and  these  local eil  themselves 
partly  in  .Acadia  in  the  E..  and  partly  along  the  upper  St. 
Ijawrence  and  about  the  mouth  of  tlie  Niagara  river  in  the 
W.  To  give  the  western-settling  Loyalists  a  country  and  a 
home,  the  British  Government  divided  Canada  into  two 
provinces.  Western  or  Upper  Canada  being  set  olf  from  the 
old  French  province  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Ottawa  river 
forming  a  rough  dividing-line.  Oeii.  Siincoe,  an  old  Revo- 
lutionary campaigner,  was  sent  out  as  lieutenant-governor, 
and  established  his  seat  of  Upper  Canada  government  for  a 
time  at  Niagara,  where  the  first  iiarliameiit  of  the  [irovinco 
met,  and  iiflerward  at  York,  which  subsequently  resumed 
its  old  Indian  name  of  Toronto.  Toronto  was  founded  in 
1793,  and  has  since,  with  an  occasional  brief  interruption, 
been  the  provincial  capital.  The  war  of  1813  bore  hardly 
upon  the  fortunes  of  the  province,  and  it  was  also  hindered 
by  its  long  battle  against  the  paternalism  of  the  mother- 
country,  or  rather  against  the  tyranny  of  a  bureaucratic 
colonial  executive,  which  stood  in  the  way  of  progress  and 
the  attainment   of  responsible  government.     The  union  of 


306 


ONTARIO,  LAKE 


ONYX 


the  two  Canadas,  wliich  occurred  in  1841,  proved  unfortu- 
nate, for  to  the  strife  of  political  factions  was  added  a  war 
of  races  which  made  legislation  impossible  and  brouglit 
about  political  deadlock.  The  solveut  was  confederation, 
which  took  place  in  1867,  and  made  Upper  Canada  (now 
Ontario)  a  self-governed  province  of  the  Dominion.  Terri- 
torial expansion  brought  advancement,  not  only  political 
and  economical,  but  intellectual  and  social  as  well. 

Authorities. — McMullen's  History  of  Canada ;  Gold- 
win  Smith's  Political  History  of  Canada;  Dent's  Last 
Forty  Years  ;  Collins"s  Life  of  Sir  J.  A.  Macdonald,  edited 
by  G.  Mercer  Adam  ;  Toronto,  Old  and  ]!^eu\  by  the  latter 
author  ;  Picturesque  Canada  ;  Canadian  Almanac  ;  Star 
Almanac  ;  Statistical  Year-books  of  Canada,  Reports  of  the 
Bureau  of  Industries  for  Ontario,  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of 
Mines  for  Ontario,  Reports  of  the  Minister  of  Education  for 
Ontario  (1893) :  Educational  System  of  the  Province  of  On- 
tario, by  John  Millar,  B.  A.  (Toronto,  1893). 

G.  Mercer  Adam. 

Ontario,  Lake  :  the  easternmost  and  smallest  of  the  Great 
Lakes  drained  by  the  St.  Lawrence.  Its  area,  as  determined 
from  the  maps  of  the  U.  S.  Lake  Survey,  is  7,104  sq.  miles; 
another  estimate  from  the  same  data  gave  an  area  of  7,240 
sq.  miles.  The  hydrographic  basin,  including  the  lake  sur- 
face, has  an  area  of  30,790  sq.  miles.  The  mean  elevation 
of  the  surface  of  the  lake  is  247  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
326  feet  lower  than  the  surface  of  Lake  Erie.  The  maxi- 
mum depth  is  738  feet.  The  lake  is  190  miles  long  and  55 
miles  wide.  Its  discharge  is  estimated  at  300,000  cubic  feet 
per  second.  As  is  the  case  with  all  large  lakes,  it  is  subject 
to  fluctuation  of  level,  due  to  annual  variation  in  rainfall 
and  evaporation,  to  secular  climatic  changes  which  are  ir- 
regular both  in  amount  and  in  time,  to  changes  in  the  direc- 
tion and  force  of  the  wind,  and  to  variations  in  atmospheric 
pressure.  The  amount  of  these  various  oscillations  have  not 
been  studied  in  Lake.  Ontario,  but  are  believed  to  have  a 
mean  range  of  5  or  6  feet,  with  the  exception  of  local 
changes  due  to  strong  winds,  which  may  be  10  or  15  feet. 
Lake  Ontario  is  connected  with  Lake  Erie  by  the  Welland 
Canal  and  with  Montreal  by  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  can  be 
descended  by  steamers,  the  return  being  accomplished  by 
means  of  a  series  of  canals.  The  lake  seldom  freezes  except 
near  the  shore,  and  is  the  highway  of  an  extensive  commerce. 
For  a  sketch  of  the  later  geological  history  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  see  St.  Lawkente  River.  I.  C.  Russell. 

Ontog'eny  [from  Gr.  &y.  Svtos,  being  +  root 7C1'-.  produce] : 
a  term  introduced  by  Ilaeckel,  and  now  in  general  use,  for 
the  development  of  the  individual,  as  opposed  to  phylogeny 
or  the  development  of  the  race.  See  Morphology  and  Evo- 
lution. 

Ontol'oary  [Gr.  Tkivra.  the  things  that  exist  (neut.  plur. 
of  iiv.  oi/Tos.  pres.  partic.  of  ff^oi,  be) -)- Adyos.  reason,  dis- 
course] :  the  science  of  being  in  general  or  of  the  essence  of 
things.  It  is  sometimes  identified  with  metaphysics,  but 
usually  is  made  one  of  its  divisions,  and  co-ordinate  with 
rational  psychology,  cosmology,  and  theology,  according  to 
the  nomenclature  of  Wolf,  who  established  this  fourfold 
division  of  metaphysics.  The  Aristotelians  and  the  Scho- 
lastics treated  under  physics  the  problems  of  rational  cos- 
mology, and  under  metaphysics  those  of  ontology.  Aris- 
totle called  the  latter  (metaphysics)  irpiirri  (piKoa-ofia,  and  in- 
cluded under  it  also  theology.  His  De  Anima,  or  at  least 
the  portions  of  the  third  book  that  treat  of  reason  (vovs),  may 
be  regarded  as  the  first  work  (and  as  still  the  best,  according 
to  some)  on  rational  psychology,  but  psychology  was  gener- 
ally classed  among  the  natural  sciences  by  his  followers. 
Logic,  however,  as  treating  of  the  mere  forms  of  thought, 
should  belong  under  rational  psychology,  and  be  contrasted 
with  ontology,  which  treats  of  real  being  and  of  the  essence 
of  things:  (a)  of  being,  as  quality,  quantity,  infinite  and 
finite,  etc. ;  (A)  of  essence,  as  identity  and  difference,  form 
and  matter,  ground  and  seciuence,  noumenon  and  phenom- 
enon, cause  and  elTcct,  substance  and  attribute,  possibilitv 
and  necessity,  and  similar  relations.  The  general  problem 
of  ontology  is  to  find  the  highest  principle,  or  that  which  is 
true  in  and  for  itself— the  Absolute.  Inasmuch  as  psychol- 
og}-,  with  the  problem  of  certitude,  has  come  to  the" front 
rank  in  modern  philosophy,  it  has  happened  that  the  latest 
systems  of  ontology,  notalMy  those  of  Germany  since  Kant, 
have  striven  to  unite  ontology  with  psychology,  and  thus 
create  an  ontological  logic  which  should  giye  i\ie  a  priori 
laws  and  conditions  of  thought  and  l)oing.  Kanfs  work 
was  negative  in   this  respect,  and  denied  the  possil)ility  of 


knowing  things  in  themselves,  hence  of  all  ontology  ;  it  con- 
fined all  a  priori  knowledge  to  the  forms  of  the  mind,  and 
made  all  objects  of  knowledge  subjective  and  phenomenal; 
but  since  he  included  among  these  subjective  forms  of  the 
mind  such  universal,  logical  conditions  of  existence  as  time 
and  space,  quality,  quantity,  relation,  and  mode — these  cate- 
gories being  the  a  jl/;-/o;-/  conditions  of  existence /or  %ts — it 
was  jiossible  to  construct  a  science  of  ontology  within  the 
subjective  or  psychological  province.  In  fact,  no  room  was 
left  for  the  possibility  of  objective  being  outside  of  mind. 
Hence  arose  the  systems  of  Schelling  and  Hegel  and  their 
followers,  whose  ontology  is  based  on  psychology.  See 
Philosophy,  History  of.  William  T.  Harris. 

Oiiyclioph'ora  [Mod.  Lat..  from  Gr.  iwl,.  ivuxos.  claw -i- 
<pop6s.  bearing] :  a  group  of  animals,  containing  the  single 
genus  Peripatus,  of  very  doubtful  position.  First  described 
as  a  mollusc,  it  was  later  transferred  to  the  worms,  and 
upon  the  discovery  by  Moseley  (1875)  of  the  existence  of 
trache;B  it  was  elevated  to  a  class — Prutracheata — and  re- 
garded as  the  ancestor  of  all  true  insects.  The  genus  Peri- 
patus occurs  in  South  and  Central  America,  in  the  West 
Indies,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  Australia  and 
New  Zealand,  a  distribution  which  indicates  great  antiq- 
uity. The  animal,  which  has  a  length  of  an  inch  or  two, 
has  a  worm-  or  caterpillar-like  body,  with  distinct  head  and 
a  varying  number  of  pairs  of  fleshy  feet,  each  terminated 
with  a  double  claw.  t)n  the  head  are  a  pair  of  eyes,  a  pair 
of  antenna",  and  a  pair  of  horny  jaws.  The  greatest  interest 
pertains  to  its  internal  structure.  The  nervous  system  con- 
sists of  two  widely  separated  cords  connected  by  the  brain 
in  front  and  a  supra-intestinal  loop  behind  and  numerous 
cross  bands  in  the  body.  The  alimentary  canal  is  straight; 
respiration  is  effected  by  numerous  bunches  of  tubular  air- 
tuljes  (trachea")  scattered  over  the  surface.  Instead  of  the 
excretory  tubes  (vasa  Malpighii)  of  ordinary  insects,  excre- 
tory products  are  removed  by  means  of  segmentally  ar- 
ranged nephridia  like  those  of  Annelids.  The  animals  live 
in  decaying  wood,  and  for  protection  secrete  an  enormous 
amount  of  slime  from  a  pair  of  slime  glands  opening  on 
either  side  of  the  mouth.  The  young  are  born  alive,  but 
the  ditterent  forms  present  great  differences  in  their  devel- 
opment. As  will  be  seen,  in  some  features  the  Onychoph- 
ora  resemble  the  true  insects  (Hexapods),  while  in  others 
they  present  features  not  found  elsewhere  outside  of  the 
group  of  Annelids.  For  a  general  account  of  anatomy,  de- 
velopment, and  classification,  see  Sedgwick,  Quarterly  Jour- 
nal Micros.  Science  (1885-88).  J.  S.  Kingslet. 

Onychoteu'thldsB  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Onychoteu- 
tJiis,  the  typical  genus;  Gr.  &m^,  Svvxos,  claw -(- rtuflis,  cut- 
tlefish, squid] :  a  family  of  cuttlefishes  (Cephalopods),  em- 
bracing some  of  the  squid,  in  which  the  eye  has  a  sinus 
above  and  the  water  bathes  the  lens.  On  the  New  England 
coast,  N.  of  Cape  Cod,  one  member  of  the  family,  Ommas- 
trephes  illicebrosa,  is  the  most  abundant  squid,  and  is  caught 
in  large  quantities  as  bait  for  codfish. 

Onyx,  6'nix  [=  Lat.  —  Gr..  a  veined  gem,  liter.,  finger- 
nail] :  a  variety  of  chalcedonic  quartz,  composed  of  paral- 
lel layers  of  chalcedony  of  some  shade  of  brown,  green,  red, 
or  other  color  alternating  with  layers  of  white.  When  the  red 
is  a  rich  brownish-red  chalcedony  (sard)  and  the  white  bands 
pure  and  transhicent.  the  variety  is  known  as  sardonyx ;  when 
quartz  and  gray  chalcedony  are  in  combination,  chalcedonyx; 
when  the  ground  is  black  and  the  bands  are  very  thin  and 
grayish  white,  on  ('co/o.  The  varieties  of  onyx  were  highly 
prized  by  the  ancients  for  the  manufacture  of  cameos,  one 
of  which,  said  to  be  the  largest  known,  measuring  11  inches 
by  9,  is  pre.served  in  the  Museo  Borbonico  at  Naples ;  other 
great  cameos  are  at  Vienna,  in  the  British  Museum,  and  in 
the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris.  Onyx  is  now  much  used 
in  jewelry,  but  nearly  all  modern  onyx  is  the  result  of  arti- 
ficial staining  or  dyeing.  Mexican  onyx,  so  called,  is  like 
aragonite,  being  essentially  a  carbonate  of  calcium  contain- 
ing small  quantities  of  iron  and  manganese,  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  which  are  due  the  beautiful  variegated  colors  for 
which  the  stone  is  so  much  admired.  Its  hardness  is  3,  its 
specific  gravity  2'9.  It  is  formed  on  the  floors  of  caves,  be- 
ing the  result  of  a  deposition  of  calcareous  waters,  eit  her  cold 
or  hot,  between  the  successive  layers  of  which  the  iron  and 
manganese  is  deposited.  It  was  used  by  the  ancient  Mexi- 
cans, who  carved  it  into  masks,  idols,  and  a  variety  of  objects, 
but  was  fir.st  brought  to  general  notice  at  the  Centennial 
Exposition  at  Philadelphia  in  1876.  where  a  magnificent  se- 
ries of  specimens  was  shown  by  Ihe  Mexican  commission. 


OOLITE 


OPKKA 


307 


On  account  uf  tlie  softness  of  the  iimtiTiiil  it  can  be  readily 
carved  with  a  knife,  and  at  Puebla  and  other  phu^es  in 
Mexico  is  extensively  worked  into  trays,  crucifixes,  ink- 
stands, fruit,  tisli.  and  oilier  natural  objects,  many  of  the 
latter  Ijcinf;  copieil  with  ri-inarkable  skill  in  the  representa- 
tion both  of  form  and  color.  The  so-called  iiKJXdic  iiytite.  is, 
properly  speakini,'.  a  ruined  aragonite.  the  original  nuiterial 
naviii';  been  broken  u]i  into  irregular  pieces  and  recemented 
by  a  secondary  deposition  of  Mexican  onyx.  See  Aoate 
and  ('HALCKnoNY.  Revised  by  G.  F.  KuNZ. 

O'olitc  |(Ir.  t^6v.  egg  +  \Wor.  stone,  modified  by  confusion 
with  ending -(7c]:  See  Limestone. 

O'iipliorc :  See  Fekxwokts. 

Oosferzce.  os'ter-zu,  Jan'  Jacob,  van:  theologian;  b..  at 
Rotterdam,  Holland,  .\pr.  17.  1817;  studied  theology  at 
Utrecht,  and  after  holding  prominent  pastorates  he  became 
professor  there  in  1862.  D.  while  on  a  visit  at  Wiesbaden. 
July  'i'.K  l^'8->.  He  led  the  evangelical  party  in  Holland. 
Of  "liis  numerous  writings  several  have  been  translated  into 
Englisli,  among  which  are  Tlie  Image  of  ChrUt  ax  repre- 
sented in  Scripture  (li  vols.,  1855-61;  London,  1874);  The- 
ulayij  of  the  ^eiv  Textament  (1867;  London,  1870);  Chris- 
tian Dogmatics  (1870-73;  London,  1874);  Year  of  Salva- 
tion (1874);  Moses  (1876);  Practical  Theologxj  (1878). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

0|>ah  :  See  Kinofish. 

Opal  [from  Fr.  o/)a/e  <Lat.  o'palus.  from  Gr.  irdwios, 
opal]  :  a  gem  consisting  of  natural  silica  and  containing 
some  water,  sometimes  up  to  11  per  cent.  It  is  never  cry.s- 
tallized,  but  always  amorplious,  with  a  marked  conchoidal 
fracture.  Several  varieties  are  recognized,  of  which  pre- 
cious or  noble  opal  is  the  most  highly  prized.  Its  value 
arises  from  its  remarkalile  and  exquisite  play  of  colors. 
The  general  aspect  is  whitish  or  milky,  and  the  opalescence 
consists  of  countless  gleams  of  many-colored  light  or  "  fire." 
A  more  transparent  variety,  with  broader  reflections  of 
color — red.  yellow,  blue,  green,  or  violet — is  more  brilliant, 
though  less  highly  valueil  as  a  gem,  and  is  known  as  fire- 
opal  or  girasoi.  Black  opals  are  almost  invariably  the  re- 
sult of  an  artificial  staining  of  a  poor  white  opal.  The  name 
lechosos  is  given  to  those  showing  much  green  light,  and 
zeasite  to  those  that  have  much  red.  The  noble  ami  the  fire 
opal  are  the  only  kinds  used  in  jewelry.  Other  varieties  of 
various  colors,  but  lacking  the  opalescence. are  common  opal 
(translucent),  semi-opal  (nearly  opaque),  and  irood-opal  or 
opalized  wood,  which  is  formed  by  the  replacement  of  wood 
by  silica  in  solution,  and  sometimes  occurs  in  considerable 
amount  in  the  form  of  fossil  tree-trunks,  etc.,  like  agatize<l 
and  jasperized  wood.  Opal  occm-s  in  igneous  rocks — amyg- 
daloidal,trachytic,and  porphyritic — and  the  wood-opals,  etc.. 
in  regions  of  hot  siliceous  springs  derived  from  volcanic 
rocks.  The  finest  noble  opal  has  been  mined  for  a  long  time 
in  trachyte  near  Dubnik.  llungaiy.  and  of  late  abundantly 
in  a  ja-spery  ironstone  on  the  Barcoo  river  in  (Queensland. 
Australia,  and  near  Wilcannia.  New  South  Wales;  also  in 
amygdaloid  near  Colfax,  almost  on  the  .State  line  of  Wash- 
ington and  Idaho.  Mexico  and  Honduras  yield  very  fine 
fire-opal  in  trachytic  rock,  also  the  Queensland  locality  above 
named,  and  Oregon.     .See  Hyalite.         Geokoe.F.  Kunz. 

()|>cll'ka:  city;  capital  of  Lee  co.,  Ala.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Alabama,  ref.  5-1'^):  on  the  Cent,  of  (ia.  and  the 
West.  <it  .\la.  raihv.'iys;  AS  miles  N.  W.  of  Columlius.  66 
miles  F.  X.  E.  of  Montgomery.  It  is  in  a  grain  and  <'otton- 
growing  region,  annually  handles  large  quantities  of  cotton, 
dry  goods,  and  groceries,  has  several  large  cotton-ware- 
houses, flour-mills,  and  of  her  industrial  establishments,  and 
contains  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  .*75.0<)(),  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  ^100,0110.  and  a  daily  and  a  weekly 
newspaper.     Pop.  (1880)  3,245  ;  (1890)  3,70;i." 

Opcloiisas:  town:  cajiital  of  St.  Landry  parish.  La.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Louisiana,  ref.  10-D) ;  on  the  S.  I'acific 
Railroad;  45  niili-s  W.  by  N.  of  Baton  Rouge.  It  is  in  a 
cotton,  rice,  corn,  and  stock  raising  region,  and  contains  the 
Academy  of  the  luimaeulate  Conception  (Roman  Catholic). 
a  Slate  bank  wit  li  capital  of  $.50.01)0,  and  three  weekly  news- 
papers.    Pop.  (1880)  1.676;  (1890)  1,572. 

Opera  [=Ital..  liter.,  work,  composition  <Lat.o7)frn.neut. 
plur.  of  «/)".<.  work] :  a  drama  which  is  sung  with  accom- 
paniment of  instrumental  music.  Dramas  occasionally  in- 
terspersed with  songs  to  familiar  airs  are  called  vaudevilles: 
dramas  occa.sionally  accompanied  by  instruinental  music  are 
c.'illcil   melodramas.     On   its  dramatic  side  the  form   of  the 


opera  does  not  differ  widely  from  tliat  of  the  spoken  drama. 
Inasmuch,  however,  as  it  is  to  be  sung,  the  text  of  an  opera, 
the  libretto,  must  be  of  much  smaller  extent  than  that  of  an 
ordinary  drama. 

It  is  on  its  musical  side  that  the  opera  presents  its  most 
clearly  marked  peculiarities  of  form.  There  are.  or  at  least 
were  unl  il  I  he  time  of  Wagner,  several  sharply  distinguished 
forms  which  serve  to  make  up  tlie  vocal  part  of  the  compo- 
sition. The  chief  of  these  are  the  recitative,  aria,  duet,  trio, 
and  chorus.  The  recitative  is  the  least  elaborated  musical 
form  of  the  opera,  and  is  designed  for  the  more  rajiid  jirose 
passages  of  the  dialogue,  as  opposed  to  the  finished  lyrical 
parts.  It  is  not.  strictly  speaking,  melody  at  all.  but  the 
voice  moves  through  a  few  notes  only,  including  frequent 
chromatic  intervals,  and  having  little  unity  of  key  or  tonality. 
Moreover,  there  is  no  clear  division  of  time,  such  as  is  se- 
cured by  the  <iivision  into  bars,  but  the  series  of  notes  pro- 
ceeds with  abruptly  changing  movement,  divided  merely  by 
a  few  strongly  accentuated  resting-points.  The  aria  is  a 
theme  for  a  solo  voice,  being  a  complete  melodic  subject, 
and  having  divisions  of  stroiilie,  verse,  etc.  Duets  and  trios 
(duetti.  terzetti)  are  combinations  of  two  or  three  voices  in  a 
complete  melodic  subject.  In  addition  to  these  there  are 
the  ensemble  pieces,  in  which  all  the  principal  actors  and 
singers  (commonly  fnmi  four  to  six  in  number)  unite  in 
some  harmonized  strain.  The  finale  is  an  example  of  an 
ensemble  movement.  Lastly,  there  is  the  full  mass  of  har- 
monized voices  as  given  in  the  chorus.  In  this  the  several 
parts  are  each  rendered  by  a  number  of  voices,  supplied  by 
a  band  ot  subsidiary  actors  specially  set  apart  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  instrumental  part  of  o]jcratic  music  reipiires  a 
large  orchestra  to  render  it  adequately. 

The  opera  is  pre-eminently  a  modern  art.  being  dcveloiied, 
as  might  be  expected,  later  than  the  sinqile  forms  of  modern 
music  itself.  It  grew  up  in  Italy  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  during  the  [leriod  of  the  Renaissance, 
and  when  ]iolyiihonic  mu?ic  had  pretty  well  exhausted  its 
resources,  and  a  basis  had  been  laid  by  Palestrina  for  our 
present  system  of  harmony.  It  was  in  Florence,  about  the 
year  1600,  that  the  first  opera  aiipeared.  Certain  patrons  of 
art  set  themselves  in  the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  to  redis- 
cover the  vocal  music  of  the  Greek  drama,  and  by  the  help 
of  certain  singers  and  composers,  among  whom  were  Caccini 
and  Peri,  they  invented  recitative  as  the  nearest  representa- 
tive of  Greek  dramatic  intonation.  This  first  o]iera.  the 
earliest  known  example  of  which  is  a  piece  entitled  Eiiryd- 
ice.  composed  by  Peri,  consisted  of  recitative,  or,  as  the 
Italians  called  it,  aria  parlaiite.  choruses,  a  few  duets  and 
trios,  together  %vith  instrumental  [jrelude  and  interludes. 
This  early  recitative  has  more  of  equal-time  division  than 
our  present  mode.  For  fifty  years  this  opera  remained  the 
luxury  of  nobles,  being  performed  only  before  courts  during 
special  festivities;  after  that  it  gradually  became  a  iio]nilar 
entcrtaininent.  The  instrumental  |>art  of  the  opera  was 
greatly  improved  by  Montevcrde.  who  added  the  overture 
(toccata).  Later  in  the  century  tlu'  melody  of  the  aria  was 
enriched  by  two  composers  named  Cavalli  and  Cesti.  It  was 
indeed  in  connection  with  the  opera  that  our  modern  style 
of  melody  developed  itself.  Before'  the  invention  of  this 
new  form  of  art  music  had  consisted  almost  exclusively  of 
skillful  combinations  of  distinct  themes  in  intricate  contra- 
puntal arrangements,  with  little  regard  to  harmony  and  no 
thouglit  of  a  single  ruling  melody.  The  opera,  by  stimu- 
lating solo-singing  and  by  reviving  a  la.ste  for  the  beauties 
of  popular  melody,  supplied  the  necessary  incentive  for  the 
elaboration  of  sweet-sounding  and  finished  melodic  themes. 
In  the  following  (the  seventeenth)  century  A.  Scarlatti 
clearly  marked  off  the  aria  from  tlu'  recitative,  and  gave  it 
the  tri|>le  division  wliich  it  retained  for  nearly  a  century. 
The  later  Italian  operas — namely,  the  works  of  Piccini.  Pae- 
siello.  and  Cimnrosa — do  not  display  any  great  change  of  style. 
In  the  works  of  Verdi,  however,  covering  as  they  do  a  period 
of  many  years,  we  find  a  marvelous  jirogress  and  develop- 
ment. (See  Verdi.)  Later,  a  young  composer  named  Pietro 
Mascagni  attracted  the  attention  of  the  world  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  young  Italy,  plainly  showing  the  influence  of 
Wagner.  His  first  great  success  was  with  the  one-act  ojiera 
(^arallerin  liiisticaiia  (Rustic  Chivalry.  1890). 

In  France  the  earliest  operas,  those  of  Lulli  (end  of  tlio 
seventeenth  century)  and  of  Rameau  (beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century)  were  little  more  than  imitations  of  the 
Italian  style.  The  basis  of  French  opera  was  laid  by  (iluck 
(177:i-87)."who  set  himself  to  rectify  the  evils  of  the  existing 
Italian  opera  by  confining  the  exercises  of  the  vocal  art 


308 


OPHIDIA 


OPHTHALMIA 


within  due  limits,  and  by  bringing  into  greater  prominence 
the  dramatic  character  of  opera.  He  shortened  the  aria- 
form,  expunged  the  numerous  bravura  passages  with  which 
it  was  iaden,  and  reduced  the  number  of  airs  in  the  opera 
by  elevating  the  recitative  to  a  higher  rank,  rendering  it 
richer  in  a  musical  aspect  and  more  impressive  dramatically. 
Gluek  also  greatly  improved  the  quality  of  the  operatic 
chorus,  making  it  a  more  conspicuous  element  of  the  opera, 
and  added  to  the  instrumental  part,  seeking  to  bring  it  into 
closer  unity  with  the  dramatic  subject.  The  French  classic 
opera  ("grand  oi)era")  after  Gluck  scarcely  fulfills  the  ex- 
pectations raised  by  such  an  admirable  foundation  ;  but  it 
must  be  admitted  that  the  French  school  has  always  been 
faithful  to  the  teaching  of  Gluck  in  seeking  to  do  justice  to 
the  dramatic  claims  of  opera.  The  French  recitative  is 
characterized  by  great  energy  and  freedom  of  movement, 
and  admirably  adapted  to  dramatic  effect.  Among  those 
composers  who  have  written  solely  or  mainly  for  the  French 
stage  are  Mchul,  Cherubini,  Spontini,  Meyerbeer,  Rossini, 
Gounod,  and  Thomas.  Perhaps,  however,  it  is  in  the  lighter 
style  of  opera  that  the  French  have  excelled.  The  early 
vaudeville,  which  is  the  forerunner  of  the  opera  bouffe,  was 
light,  graceful,  and  piquant.  Rousseau's  Le  devin  de  Village 
is  a  good  example  of  this  genre.  The  first  composer  of  tlie 
opera  eomique,  strictly  so  called,  was  A.  F.  Boieldieu.  Other 
writers  of  this  lighter  style  of  French  opera  are  Ilei-old, 
Halevy,  Auber,  Adam,  and  Offenbach.  The  modern  French 
opera  composers,  Massenet,  Saint-Saens,  Bizet,  etc.,  are  really 
to  be  classified  with  the  modern  German  school,  so  far  as 
the  harmonic  treatment  of  their  various  works  is  concerned, 
and  also  their  modes  of  orchestration. 

In  Germany,  until  the  rise  of  Wagner,  the  opera  was 
marked  by  less  of  national  originality  than  in  France.  Keiser 
did  little  more  than  carry  out  Italian  traditions,  and  Mozart 
was  the  first  great  opera-writer  in  Germany.  He  united 
Italian  sweetness  of  melody  with  German  richness  and  depth 
of  harmony,  and  his  operatic  music,  as  pure  music,  has 
never  been  erpialed.  Passing  by  Beethoven's  Fidelia,  we 
find  that  the  German  ojiera  after  Mozart  sank  for  a  wliile  to 
a  low  ebb.  The  one  worthy  attempt  to  raise  its  character 
came  from  the  romanticists — namely,  Spohr,  Weber,  and 
Marschner — who  sought  to  give  a  national  tone  to  German 
opera  by  taking  half-legendary  subjects  from  early  German 
history.  To  Weber  especially  will  remain  the  glory  of  hav- 
ing first  founded  a  distinct  German  operatic  style.  Wagner 
is  distinctively  the  successor  of  Weber  in  m<u'e  than  one 
sense.     See  Wagner,  Wiluelm  Rr-hakd. 

Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Opiiid'ia :  an  order  of  reptiles  containing  the  serpents, 
characterized  by  the  large  number  of  vertebrie,  numerous 
ribs,  and  absence  of  sternum.  Fore  limbs  are  never  present, 
but  in  a  few  species  the  hind  legs  are  present  as  mere  rudi- 
ments.    See  Serpents. 

Opilidi'idic  [Mod.  Tjat.,  nanu^d  from  Ophidium,  the  typ- 
ical genus,  from  Gr.  txpiSiov.  dimin.  of  uipis,  serpent] :  a  family 
of  teleocephalous  fishes  belonging  to  the  sub-order  Acan- 
thiijitiri,  and  distinguishable  from  all  others  by  a  peculiar 
modification  and  position  of  the  ventral  fins.  The  body  is 
more  or  less  elongated,  almost  eel-shaped,  with  the  tail  long, 
the  scales  small  and  partly  imbedded,  the  head  moderate, 
the  teeth  small,  mostly  villiform,  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins 
low,  united  with  the  caudal,  without  spiny  rays;  ventral 
fins  inserted  at  the  chin,  having  each  the  form  of  a  liifid 
filament.  The  species  are  mostly  small  in  size,  and  several 
occur  in  deep  water.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Ophiocephal'ld*  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Ophince'pha- 
lux.  the  typical  genus;  Gr.  i<pis.  serpent  +  KetpoKii.  head]:  a 
family  of  teleocephalous  fishes  of  the  sub-order  Acaiithnptcvi, 
distinguished  by  a  peculiar  union  of  characters.  The  body 
is  elongated  and  anteriorly  subcylindrical ;  the  scales  of 
moderate  size:  the  lateral  line  with  an  abrupt  curve;  the 
head  depressed,  oval  al)ove,  anil  covered  with  shield-like 
scales,  the  general  appearance  being  that  of  a  mullet  :  dor- 
sal and  anal  fiiLs  long,  and  without  spines;  caudal  mund, 
separated  from  the  dorsal  and  anal:  ventrnls  thdracic  (and 
composed  of  one  simple  liut  partlv  articulated  and  five 
branched  rays)  or  absent.  The  skeleton  has  numerous  (fifty- 
two  to  sixty-one)  verteljra- ;  the  caudals  are  provided  with 
ribs,  the  abdominal  cavity  being  continued  to  below  the 
caudal  portion ;  four  gills  are  developed,  but  no  pseudo- 
branchia';  a  cavity  accessory  to  the  gill-cavity  is  developed, 
in  which  water  is  retained,  but  no  super-brancliial  organ  is 
present ;  pyloric  appendages  may  be  either  present  (two  in 


number)  or  absent.  The  family  is  composed  of  fresh-water 
fishes  peculiar  to  Southern  and  Southeastern  Asia.  Above 
thirty  species  are  known.  The  peculiar  accessory  gill-cavity 
contains  a  supply  of  water,  which  serves  to  keep  moist  the 
gills  of  the  fish  for  a  long  time  after  being  taken  out  of 
water.  The  species  are  therefore  well  adapted  to  withstand 
prolonged  deprivation  from  that  element." 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 
O'phir  [cf.  Sanskr.  Ahhlra.  name  of  a  people  anciently 
found  on  the  lower  Indus] :  the  name  (in  Gen.  x.  29)  of  the 
eleventh  of  the  thirteen  sons  of  Joktan,  all  of  whom  appear 
to  have  settled  in  Arabia  :  also  the  name  of  a  place  or  region 
famous  in  the  commercial  history  of  the  Hebrews,  from 
which,  or  perhaps  only  by  way  of  which,  came  gold,  almug- 
wdod,  and  precious  stones  (1  Kings  x.  11).  The  voyage 
thither  and  back,  or  perhaps  the  voyage  which  only  "took 
Ophir  in  its  way,  required  three  years  (1  Kings  x.  32). 
Ophir  can  hardly  have  been  a  general  name  for  remote 
southern  countries,  nor  can  it  have  been  any  such  far-off 
place  as  Peru,  but  should  be  looked  for  either  in  Africa 
(Bruce.  Rotjertson.  Petermann),  or  in  India  (Vitringa,  Re- 
land.  Rittor.  Ewald).  or.  more  probably,  in  Arabia  (JMichaelis, 
Niebuhr.  Forster,  Knobel,  Kalisch).  See  A.  Soetbeer,  Das 
Goldland  Ofir  (Berlin,  1880).     Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Ophites,  o'fits  [from  Gr.  i(pis,  serpent],  or  Serpent-wor- 
shipers: a  .sect  of  Gnostics  who  joined  the  worship  of  the 
serpent  to  the  general  characti'i'istics  of  the  faith  and  prac- 
tice of  other  Gnostics.  They  honored  the  serjient  because 
he  tempted  Eve  to  eat  of  the  forbidden  fruit — an  act  which 
they  believed  to  be  highly  advantageous  to  the  Iranian  race. 
They  kissed  the  serpent  and  fed  it  with  the  Eucharistic 
bread  ;  but  others  rejected  Christianity,  and  honored  Cain, 
Judas  Iscariot,  and  other  wicked  personages.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  .sect  was  of  Jewish  origin,  but  the  sharp 
antithesis  which  they  set  between  Judaism  and  Christianity, 
and  the  copious  element  they  evidently  had  drawn  froin 
Greek  philosophy,  seem  to  indicate  a  pagan  origin.  Their 
speculations  have  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  mythologies 
of  Babylon  (the  seven-headed  serpent)  and  Persia. 

Ophitic  Structure :  See  Diabase. 

Opliiuroi'dea  [Gr.  u<pi.s,  snake  -i-  ovpi,  tail  +  suff.  -aid, 
like] :  a  class  of  Ecuiinodermata  (q.  c),  embracing  those 
forms  popularly  known  as  "  brittle  stars  "  or  "  serpent  stars." 
The  Ophiurans  differ  from  the  other  starfishes  (Asteroidea), 
among  other  features,  in  having  a  well-marked  central  disk 
from  which  radiate  the  long  and  nearly  cylindrical  arms. 
These  latter  are  flexible,  and  are  far  more  rapidly  moved 
than  are  those  of  the  true  starfishes.  In  the  true  serpent 
stars  (Ophiunp)  they  are  simple,  but  in  the  "basket  fishes" 
(Euryala?)  they  are  branclied  many  times,  so  that  when  in- 
curled  the  whole  animal  quite  closely  simulates  a  shallow 
basket.  Less  conspicuous  but  equally  important  differences 
are  the  total  absence  of  a  vent  and  the  inclusion  of  the  am- 
bulacral  plates  on  the  inside  of  the  arms,  the  small  tube  feet 
projecting  upon  the  sides.  The  Ophiurans  are  all  marine, 
and  live  creeping  about  among  the  "roots "of  the  seaweeds, 
etc.  A  few  bring  forth  living  young,  but  most  species  lay 
eggs,  and  the  young  when  hatched  bear  not  the  slightest  re- 
semblance to  the  adults.  These  young,  known  as  plutei,  at 
first  swim  freely,  but  later  they  become  quiescent,  and  un- 
dergo a  metamorphosis  which  results  in  the  assumption  of 
the  adult  form.  See  for  the  species  Lyman,  Ophiiiridce  and 
AMropIn/lidm  (Camliridge,  1864):  for  development,  Aposto- 
lides.  Arc/lives  de  Zuoloyie  E.rpi'rimentale,  x.  (1882). 

J.  S.  KiNGSLEY. 

0]>htharniia  [Mod.  Lat.  =  Lat.  =  Gr.  o<t>ea\iAa,  deriv.  of 
6ipdaKii6s.  eye] :  a  term  wliicli  should  be  restricted  to  inflam- 
mations of  the  conjunctiva — i.  e.  the  membrane  lining  the 
eyelids  and  covering  the  exjiosed  surface  of  the  eyeball.  It 
is  synonymous  with  conjunctivitis,  and  is  divided  into  sim- 
ple or  ciitarr/iril,  purulent,  membrannns,  phlyctenular,  and 
(fra  n  it  In  r  ophth  aim  in. 

Cafarrhal  oplithalmia  (catarrhal  or  muco-purulent  con- 
junctivitis) is  the  mildest  tnrm  cif  inflammation  of  the  con- 
junctiva. It  may  be  caused  liy  over-use  of  the  eyes,  by  the 
contact  of  irritating  substances,  by  riding  in  the  wind,  and 
by  "  catching  cold,"  or  it  may  be  associated  with  certain  dis- 
eases, as  nasal  catarrh,  bronchitis,  typhoid  fever,  rheuma- 
tism, and  especially  measles  and  scarlet  fever.  The  symjv 
toms  are  inability  to  use  the  eyes,  a  feeling  of  a  foreign  body 
in  the  eye,  and  the  development  of  a  secretion,  at  first  mu- 
cous and  afterward  muco-purulent,  which  gums  the  eyelids 


OI'HTHAT.MIA 


OPHTHALMOSCOPE 


309 


together.  The  eyeballs  look  very  red,  ami  upon  everting 
the  eyelids  their' liiiiiij;  membrane  is  found  to  be  still  more 
reddened,  and  to  have  a  somewhat  velvety  appearance. 
I'siially  there  is  nut  much  dread  of  li^hl.  This  alfeelion 
does  not  imperil  the  eyesifiht  if  properly  treated.  The  dis- 
ease is  < mionest  in  warm  and  changealile  weather,  and,  it 

the  seeret  ion  is  free,  is  markedly  eontagious.  Some  of  the 
speeial  varieties  of  it  are  distinctly  epidemic;  one,  often 
(iccurring  in  the  spring  and  fall,  should  be  known  as  epi- 
deniie  eonjunetival  ealarrh,  but  is  vulgarly  called  "  pink  eye." 
MiUl  cases  of  catarrhal  ophthalmia  should  be  treated  liy  re- 
moving the  cause,  washing  the  eyelids  and  eyes  rrcqucntly 
with  soap  and  water,  and  keeping  the  discdiarge  cleaned  away 
with  some  mild  collyrium  ;  an  excellent  one  is  a  solution  of 
common  table  salt  in  the  proportion  of  a  teaspoonful  to  the 
pint.  Boracie  acid  and  borax  are  much  used  for  the  same 
purpose.  In  the  severe  types  very  decideil  treatment  may 
be  necessary,  especially  the  application  of  strong  astrin- 
gents like  nitrate  of  silver. 

Purulent  fi/ih/fiii/mia  is  a  very  dangerous  disease.  It  is 
customary  to  describe  it  uniler  two  forms,  as  it  occurs  in  the 
new-born,  iipltthnbiiia  wunatorum,  and  in  adults,  yoiiur- 
rluettl  ophthalmia.  The  ophthalmia  of  new-born  infants 
generally  begins  about  the  third  day  after  birth,  at  first  as 
a  simple  conjunctivitis,  but  rapidly  develops  into  a  violent 
inflammation,  characterized  by  the  free  secreti<m  of  thick 
pus,  which  is  exceedingly  eontagious,  swelling  of  the  con- 
junctiva, ami  great  pressure  upon  the  blood-vessels  supplying 
nutrition  to  the  cornea,  which  often  becomes  ulcerated,  caus- 
ing permanent  loss  of  sight.  An  inflammation  of  this  kind 
is  due  to  contagion  occurring  either  during  tlie  birth  or  im- 
mediately after  it.  The  active  principle  of  this  contagion 
is  a  micro-organism  which  was  origimdly  discovered  by 
Ncisser,  and  is  called  the  f/onococcux  of  >feisser.  When  a 
similar  inflammation  occurs  in  adults  it  is  also  due  to  con- 
tagion carried  to  (he  eye  by  soiled  fingers  wliich  have  been 
in  cimtact  with  a  discharge  in  which  these  micro-organisms 
exist.  In  infants  generally  both  eyes  are  affected  ;  in  adults 
usually  the  right  eye,  although  the  left  very  often  also  be- 
comes involved,  (inly  the  most  vigorous  and  active  treat- 
ment will  save  such  eyes  tfrora  destruction.  This  consists, 
in  brief,  of  iced  compresses,  freqiient  irrigation  of  the  in- 
flamed eye  with  a  mild  antiseptic  fluid,  at  the  proper  time 
|iainting  the  swollen  conjunctiva  with  nitrate  of  silver  solu- 
licni,  and  of  the  use  of  atropine  and  eserine  to  combat  the 
corneal  involvement.  Not  a  moment's  delay  should  take 
place  in  turning  over  eases  of  this  kind  to  the  hands  of  a 
competent  physician,  tiecause  eyesight  may  most  rapidly  be 
destroyed.  Prnphi/lactic  measures  should  be  exercised  im- 
mediately after  the  birth  of  the  child.  The  chief  method  is 
the  one  known  as  Crede's  method,  which  consists  in  careful 
cleansing  of  the  eye  innnediately  after  birth,  and  dropping 
into  it  a  3-per-cent.  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  This  should 
never  be  omitted  if  there  is  the  least  suspicion  of  contagion, 
and  in  large  institutions  should  be  adopted  as  the  routine 
practice.   It  has  been  the  means  of  saving  thousands  of  eyes. 

Jlembranotis  ophthalmia  is  a  violent  inflammation  of  the 
conjunctiva,  in  which  a  false  membrane  forms  upon  its  sur- 
face. It  is  most  often  seen  in  connection  with  diphtheria, 
and  is  almost  sure  to  mar  the  sight  of  the  eye.  Very  active 
treatment  of  the  character  already  described  is  necessary, 
except  that  nitrate  of  silver  is  not  so  efficacious  as  in  other 
cases. 

Phlyctenular  ophthalmia  is  im  inflatnmation  of  the  con- 
junctiva which  is  characterized  by  great  dreail  of  light,  and, 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  symptoms  of  conjunctivitis,  the 
foruuition  of  minute  blisters,  or  pimples,  wiiich  scatter  them- 
selves over  the  conjunctiva,  or  are  arranged  around  the 
margin  of  the  cornea.  It  generally  occurs  in  scrofulous 
children,  and  is  often  seen  in  connection  with  measles.  It 
is  brought  about  by  errors  of  diet,  and  in  a  great  majority 
of  cases  is  associateil  with  disease  of  the  nose — for  example, 
catarrh.  In  addition  to  mild  antiseptic  eye-lotions,  and 
occasionally  atropine,  constitutional  measures  should  be 
adopted,  especially  thi'  use  of  iron,  arsenic,  and  cod-liv(!r  oil. 
It  is  a  troulilrsiime  affect  ion,  and  often  relapses,  and  as  the 
little  pimples  break  down  and  form  ulcers,  they  leave  scars 
on  the  cornea  which  disturb  the  visual  acuity. 

(franular  ophthalmia.    .See  Gkani;i,ar  Lids. 

The  occurrence  of  catarrhal,  purulent,  or  granular  oph- 
thalmia in  a  school,  reformatory,  or  other  public  institution, 
among  children  or  adults,  is  often  due  to  ignorance  or  care- 
lessness on  till'  part  of  the  attendants,  and  shoidd  be  sub- 
jected to  rigid  inquiry  and  the  evil  corrected.     Many  scores 


of  children  contract  eye  diseases,  which  ultimately  result  in 
hofieless  blindness,  in  the  schools  and  reformatories  of  large 
cities.  Over-crowding  and  insullicient  provisions  for  iso- 
lating initial  cases  arc  mainly  to  be  blamed  for  this  result. 

G.  E.  UK  SCHWEINITZ. 

Oplitlialnioro^y  [from  (ir.  o(pea\fi.6s.  eye  +  \6yos.  dis- 
course, reason! :  the  science  of  the  eyi',  inclu<liug  its  anatomy, 
functions,  disea.ses,  and  treatment.  See  EvK,  Ol'liTliALMlA, 
Oi'innAL.Moscoi'E,  etc. 

Oplltlial'lllOSfope  [Or.  o(()9aA^<($,  eye  -f-  aKomTv.  view,  ob- 
serve]: an  instrument  lor  examining  the  interior  of  the 
eye;  invented  by  Heinrich  Helmholtz,  Professor  of  Physics 
in  the  UniviM'sity  of  Kiinigsberg  in  1851.  The  di.scovery  of 
the  prini'iples  upon  which  this  invention  was  based  was  the 
result  of  close  observation,  careful  experiment,  and  nnithe- 
matical  oalculalion.  "Its  origin,"  says  Zander  (The  Oph- 
thalmoscope, 18G4),  "may  be  traced  to  successive  endeavors 
to  solve  two  problems — the  first  being  why  the  eyes  of  men 
and  animals  sometimes  shim;  with  a  reddish  luster;  and  the 
second,  why  the  interior  of  an  eye  more  usually  appears 
dark."  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  portion  of  light  passing 
into  the  eye,  which  is  reflected  from  its  inner  surface,  is  so 
reflected  that  it  emerges  in  the  same  direction,  ordinarily 
no  illumination  from  the  bottom  of  the  eye  is  visible,  and  con- 
sequent ly  no  image  is  seen,  nelmholfz  employed  an  instru- 
ment, consisting  of  three  pieces  of  )ilane  glass,  from  which 
the  refh'ction  was  made  at  an  aiigfe  of  .56°,  set  in  a  frame 
and  ojien  behind,  where  the  observer  |ilaced  his  eye.  Ruete, 
in  1852,  used  a  mirror  with  a  hole  in  the  center  of  it,  atul  a 
convex  glass  to  obtain  an  aih-ial  image.  An  important 
modification  was  made  by  a  mechanician  named  liekoss, 
who  adjusted  to  it  what  is  called  the  Rekoss  disk.  The 
latest  improvements  have  consisted  principally  in  modifica- 
tions of  this  disk,  and  in  adding  to  the  number  of  lenses  it 
originally  contained. 

Description  of  the  Instrument. — The  ophthalmosco]ie,  in 
its  simplest  form,  consists  of  a  small  circular  mirror  with  a 
central  perforation.  Liebreich's  instrument  is  a  concave 
mirror  of  8  inches  focal  length,  with  a  central  perforation 
about  a  line  in  diameter,  mounted  on  a  handle  about  6 
inches  long.  If  we  place  back  of  this  mirror  a  Rekoss  disk, 
its  margin  set  with  numerous  convex  and  concave  lenses  of 
suitable  focal  lengths,  and  so  uuide  to  revolve  that  each  of 
these  lenses  may  be  readily  brought  oppo-site  to  the  central 
hole  in  the  mirror,  we  have  an  o)jhthalmoscope  of  the  most 
approved  pattern.  Among  the  most  useful  patterns  of  the 
instnnnent.  now  ordinarily  used  and  sometimes  called  "  re- 
fraction i.>phthalmoscopes,"  the  one  constructed  by  Loring 
is  the  most  serviceable. 

Uses. — In  examining  the  eye  with  the  ophthalmoscope, 
the  interior  of  the  organ  is  ilUnninated  by  reflecting  through 
the  pupil,  by  means  of  the  ophthalmoscojjic  mirror,  the  rays 
from  a  strong  light  placed  a  little  behind  and  to  one  side  of 
the  patient's  head,  in  such  a  position  that  the  light  falls 
upon  his  temple,  but  not  upon  the  eye.  If  the  observer  thus 
illuminates  the  eye,  resting  the  rim  of  the  ophthalmoscope 
against  his  brow  and  looking  through  the  hole  in  its  center, 
tiie  pupil  of  the  illuminated  eyi'  will  appear  red.  This  is 
the  reddish  reflex  from  the  bottom  of  the  eye.  Let  the  ob- 
server now  approach  to  within  an  inch,  or  les,s,  of  the  eye  he 
is  examining,  keeping  the  red  reflex  in  view,  and  (there  be- 
ing no  error  of  refraction  or  exercise  of  accommodation  in 
eitiier  the  observed  or  the  observing  eye)  he  will  distinctly 
see  a  snuiU  portion  of  the  fundus  under  an  enlargement  of 
some  fifteen  diameters.  This  is  called  the  direct  method, 
and  the  image  seen  is  called  the  virtual  erect  or  upright 
image.  If  the  observer  places  his  eye  at  a  distance  of  12  or 
15  inches  from  the  observed  eye,  and,  having  obtained  the 
red  reflex,  interposes  a  2-inch  double  convex  lens  at  a 
little  less  than  its  focal  distance  from  the  eye,  he  will  .see  a 
much  larger  portion  of  the  fundus  than  by  the  method 
already  described,  but  much  less  magnified,  the  eidargement 
being  only  about  four  diameters.  This  is  called  the  indirect 
method,  and  the  inuige  seen  is  the  real,  inverted,  aerial 
image.  By  these  methods  we  may  examine  the  crystalline 
lens,  the  vitreous  humor,  the  optic  nerve,  tlie  retina,  and 
the  choroid,  and  any  deviation  from  a  condition  of  health 
may  be  readily  detected.  The  optical  condition  of  an  eye 
may  also  be  determined  by  means  of  the  ophthalmoscope, 
independently  of  the  statements  of  the  patient.  This  is  of 
great  wlvantagc  in  examining  the  eyes  of  young  children, 
as  well  as  eyes  that  are  partiaily  or  totally  blind.  In  exam- 
ining the  interior  of  the  eye  for  the  causes  of  impairment 


310 


OPIE 


OPIUM 


of  vision,  we  frequently  find  appearances  which  lead  to  the 
detection  of  grave  diseases  of  other  important  structures,  as, 
for  instance,  the  kidneys,  heart,  blood,  brain,  and  spinal  cord. 
Anomalies  of  refraction  are  also  frequently  discovered  by 
means  of  the  ophthalmoscope  which  would  otherwise  remain 
undetected,  and  by  a  suitable  combination  of  spherical  and 
cylindrical  glasses  good  sight  is  restored. 

Much  light  may  be  thrown  by  the  ophthalmoscope  upon 
the  diagnosis  of  cases  of  tumor  of  the  brain  and  of  inflam- 
matory changes  at  the  bijse  of  the  brain  ;  but  many  of  the 
statements  of  those  who  profess  to  solve  questions  of  insan- 
ity by  the  use  of  the  ophthalmoscope,  as  a  method  of  ascer- 
taining the  vascular  condition  of  the  brain,  are  entirely 
destitute  of  scientific  basis.  Oplithalmoscopic  examination 
finds  its  greatest  field  of  usefulness,  independently  of  purely 
ocular  affections,  in  the  study  of  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system,  but  is  important  in  many  general  diseases  as  a  diag- 
nostic agent.  See  'I'he  OjihthubHoscope  (by  Zander),  already 
quoted.  Revised  by  G.  E.  de  Schweinitz. 

O'pie,  John:  painter;  b.  at  St.  Agnes,  near  Truro,  Eng- 
land, in  May,  1761  ;  gave  proofs  of  artistic  talent  in  child- 
hood which  attracted  the  attention  of  Dr.  Wolcott,  of  Truro 
("  Peter  Pindar '"),  by  whom  he  was  taken  to  London  ;  ac- 
quired fame  by  his  skill  in  portraiture ;  received  from  the 
leading  members  of  the  nobility  more  commissions  than  he 
could  execute ;  devoted  himself  successfully  to  severe  study 
to  correct  the  defects  of  his  earlier  style  of  painting,  which 
were  now  sufficiently  obvious:  produced  several  admired 
historical  pictures;  became  Professor  of  Painting  at  the 
Royal  Academy  1!,06,  and  began  a  series  of  lectures  Jlar., 
1807,  but  died  in  London  before  completing  the  first  course, 
Apr.  9, 1807.  Four  Lectures  were  published,  with  a  memoir 
by  his  widow,  in  1809.  His  best-known  pictures  are  the 
Murder  of  David  Rlzzio  and  his  own  portrait  in  the  Dul- 
wich  Gallery,  but  other  historical  pictures  are  known  by  the 
engravings  in  Boydell's  Shakspeare.  Besides  his  lectures, 
he  published  a  Life  of  Reynolds  and  a  letter  on  The  Culti- 
vation of  the  Fine  Arts  in  England. — His  second  wife, 
Amelia  Alderson  Opie.  whom  he  married  in  1798  (b.  at 
Norwich,  Nov.  13,  1769),  acquired  a  great  reputation  by  her 
delineations  of  English  home-life  in  a  series  of  novels ;  joined 
the  Society  of  Friends  after  she  became  a  widow.  D.  at  Nor- 
wich, Dec.  3,  1853.  Revised  by  Russell  Sturois. 

Opi.sthobrancliia'ta  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  iinaBfv,  behind 
+  ppiyx'a,  gills] :  an  order  of  molluscs  in  which  the  gills, 
when  present,  are  behind  the  heart.     See  Gasteropoda. 

Opisthoc'omi  [Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Opistho'comns, 
the  typical  genus,  frcjm  Gr.  oiricrdSKoixos,  wearing  the  hair 
long  behind,  in  allusion  to  the  flaring  crest] :  an  order  ot 
birds  containing  but  a  single  family.  Opisf/iocomidie,  repre- 
sented by  a  single  species,  the  anomalous  Hoaetzin  (Opistho- 
comus  cristatus.  (See  Hoactzin.)  The  skull  resembles  that 
of  gallinaceous  birds,  especially  in  the  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  the  maxillo-palatines.  The  sternum  is  much  cut 
away  in  front ;  the  furcnla  ankyloses  with  the  manubrium 
below,  and  with  the  coraeoids  above.  There  is  an  enormous, 
muscular  crop,  divided  by  a  partial  constriction.  The  tiird 
has  affinities  with  the  pigeons  and  Gallince,  and  in  some 
points  approaches  the  plantain-eaters,  3Iusophagidce.  The 
order  corresponds  to  Huxley's  Heteroynorphce.       F.  A.  L. 

Opistho'mi  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  imaBm,  behind  -i-  S>iu>s, 
shoulder] :  an  order  of  fishes  of  the  sub-class  of  teleosts, 
distinguished  by  the  separation  of  the  shoulder-girdle  or 
scapular  arch  from  the  head,  and  its  consequent  posterior 
position,  whence  the  name.  The  skull  has  its  several  bones 
develo)ied  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  the  ordinary  spiny- 
rayed  fishes;  the  supraoccipital  projects  forward  between 
the  parietals ;  the  jaws  are  normally  developed,  the  maxil- 
lary arch  being  bounded  above  by  tlie  premaxillary,  and  at 
the  sides  by  the  supramaxillary  bones;  a  distinct  symplectic 
bone  exists:  the  branchial  apparatus  is  complete,  the  su- 
perior branchihyal  ami  pharyngeal  bones  ossified,  four  su- 
perior pharyngeals,  three  bas'al  branchihyals,  and  a  pair  of 
inferior  pharyngeals  being  developed;  the  scapular  arch  is 
entirely  dissevered  from  the  connection  exemplified  in  nu)st 
fishes,  and  (in  some  ca.ses  at  least)  is  connected  with  the 
anterior  vertebrae;  the  nufsocoracoid  is  absent;  no  inter- 
clavicles  are  developed;  the  ventral  fins  either  abdominal 
(the  pubic  bones  being  far  removeil  from  the  scapular  arch) 
or  wanting.  The  order  is  represented  by  two  families,  il/n.s- 
faainihelid(P  and  iVolacantliiilie.  It  is  not  certain,  however, 
that  these  two  fanulics  are  closely  related,  or  even  that  they 
belong  to  the  same  order.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 


Opitz,  Martin  :  poet ;  b.  at  Bunzlau,  Silesia,  Deo.  33, 
1597;  studied  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and  Heidelberg,  but 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war  went  to  Holland, 
and  thence  to  Denmark.  In  1621  he  returned  to  Silesia 
and  lived  in  various  positions  as  teacher,  pirvate  secretary, 
diplomatic  agent,  and  historiographer  at  the  courts  of  sev- 
eral influential  princes;  was  knighted  by  the  Emperor  Fer- 
dinand in  1638,  and  died  of  the  plague  at  Dantzic,  Aug. 
30,  1639.  Though  mediocre  as  a  poet  he  marks  an  impor- 
tant epoch  in  the  history  of  German  literature,  and  for  more 
than  a  century  he  was  called  the  "  father  of  German  poetry." 
This  great  influence  on  the  literature  of  Germany  he  "at- 
tained chiefly  by  his  theoretical  and  critical  writings,  of 
which  his  Aristarchus  sive  de  contemptu  Linguie  Teutu^iicm 
(1617)  and  liis  Buch  von  der  deutschen  Poeterey  (1624)  are 
the  most  important.  The  rules  he  laid  down  in  the  latter 
book  concerning  the  proper  use  of  the  language  of  poetry, 
and  especially  concerning  the  metrical  system,  practically 
guided  the  development  of  modern  German  poetry  up  to 
the  classical  period.  The  highly  developed  metrical  art  of 
the  thirteenth  century  having  degenerated  in  the  course  of 
time,  Opitz's  discovery  that  accentuation  and  not  quantity 
constituted  the  essential  feature  of  German  verse-structure 
was  all  the  more  important.  He  had  a  high  conception  of 
the  [wet's  vocation,  the  final  aim  of  which  appeared  to  him 
in  the  attainment  of  fame  and  immortality,  and  for  more 
than  a  century  his  ideal  of  the  poet  inspired  his  followers 
and  admirers.  The  head  of  the  so-called  first  Silesian 
scliool  of  poets,  he  fought  for  the  honor  and  purity  of  Ger- 
man language  and  literature  as  a  true  patriot  in  tlie  midst 
of  the  devastation  wrought  by  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  and 
by  iiointing  to  the  ancients  as  the  greatest  literary  models 
he  inaugurated  that  epoch  in  German  literature  which  cul- 
minated in  the  classic  era  of  the  eighteenth  centurv.  See 
K.  Weinhold,  Martin  Opitz  von  Boherfdd  (1863) ;"  Palm, 
Beitrage  zur  Gesch.  der  d.  Literatnr  des  16  iind  17  Jahr- 
hnnderts  (1877);  Borinski,  Die  Poetik  der  Renaissance 
(1886) ;  Witkowski,  Aristarchus  und  Buch  v.  d.  d.  Poeterey 
(1888);  W.  Scherer,  Kleine  Schriffen.  ii.,  375;  K.  Burdach, 
in  Forschungen  zur  deutschen  Philolugie  (1894). 

«  Julius  Goebel. 

Opium  [=  Lat.  from  Gr.  ottio;'.  poppy-juice,  dimin.  otiirSs, 
juice,  sap] :  a  concrete  juice  obtaiin-d  from  the  unripe  cap- 
sules of  the  Jjoppy  (Papaver  somniferuni).  Opium  has  been 
known  as  a  drug  from  a  remote  period,  distinct  aecoimts  of 
its  collection  as  a  branch  of  industry  in  Asia  Minor  being 
found  in  the  writings  of  Dioscorides,  about  the  year  77  B.  c. 
From  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  the 
use  of  opium  was  carried  East  through  Asia,  probably  by 
the  Arabians.  Though  the  poppy  is  lutturalized  as  a  gar- 
den flower  in  Europe  and  America,  yet  opium  is  produced 
as  an  article  of  commerce  only  in  India,  Persia.  Egypt,  and 
Asia  Elinor.  It  is  obtained  by  making  a  shallow  liorizontal 
incision  in  the  unripe  poppy-head  a  few  days  after  the  fall 
of  the  petals.  This  is  done  in  the  afternoon,  and  the  milky 
juice  that  oozes  from  the  cuts  is  scraped  off  next  morning 
and  made  into  lumps  of  varying  size,  ranging  in  weight 
from  an  ounce  to  several  pounds.  Good  Turkey  opium  is  a 
hard,  tenacious  .solid  of  compact  texture  and  a  reddish- 
brown  or  fawn  color.  It  has  a  strong,  peculiar  odor  and  a 
rather  bitter,  somewhat  acrid,  taste.  Its  medicinal  virtues 
reside  in  certain  alkaloids,  of  which  morphine  is  the  most 
important,  as  it  occurs  in  greatest  quantity  and  most  per- 
fectly represents  the  properties  of  the  crude  drug.  This 
alkaloid  was  discovered  by  Sertiirner,  an  apothecary  in 
Hanover,  in  1816.  It  exists  in  opium  combined  with  a  pecul- 
iar acid  called  meconic,  and  in  good  Turkey  opium  is  found 
in  the  proportion  of  from  12  to  15  per  cent.  Pure  mor- 
Ijhine  exists  in  small,  colorless,  shining  crystals,  inodorous, 
but  of  a  bitter  taste.  It  is  almost  wholly  insoluble  in 
water,  but  its  salts  are  readily  soluble,  and  hence  are  used 
in  medicine  in  preference  to  the  pure  alkaloid.  The  acetate, 
sal)>hate,  and  hydrochlorate  are  officinal  in  the  United  iStates 
Phiirmacopa'ia.  The  other  alkaloids  of  opium  known  to  af- 
fect the  human  system  are  codeine,  narceine,narcotine,  and 
papaverine,  but  twelve  besides  these  have  been  obtained  from 
the  drug,  although  they  seem  to  be  only  chemical  and  phys- 
iological curiosities.  Thebaine.  for  instance,  produces  in 
the  lower  animals  violent  tetanic  convulsions,  and  crypto- 
pine  wild  delirium  with  dilated  pupils.  Besides  these  six- 
teen alkaloids,  a  neutral  principle,  tneconine  or  opianyl,  and 
pectiiu^  albumen,  mucilage,  sugar,  and  wax  are  all  constit- 
uents of  opium. 


OIMUM 


OPORTO 


311 


Tlie  effects  of  opium  upon  the  animal  system  are  as  com- 
plex as  the  composition  of  the  drug.  In  general  its  intlu- 
ence  falls  upon  the  nervous  system,  the  symptoms  being  all 
functional  nerve-disturhanees,  anil  these  prove  by  their  pe- 
culiar cliaracler  that,  in  kind,  the  opium  influence  is  a  con- 
joint irritation  and  paralysis.  The  resultant  clinical  elfect 
varies  in  different  parts  of  the  nervous  system,  and  also  is 
modified  by  circumstances  of  dose,  individual  idiosyncrasy, 
temperament,  habit,  etc.  The  symptoms  produced  by  opium 
under  ordinary  circumstances  are  as  follows  :  With  a  small 
dose  there  is  experienced  relief  from  any  feelings  of  dis- 
comfort that  may  lie  present  at  the  time  of  taking.  In  the 
Asiatic,  physical  fatigue,  mental  exhaustion  or  distress, 
small  pains  and  aches,  hunger,  etc.,  all  tend  to  disappear, 
leaving  a  feeling  of  general  comfort,  calm,  and  peace;  but 
this  frecpiently  is  not  seen  in  the  European,  who  often  ex- 
perience.s  from  tlie  first  the  secondary  symptoms,  which  are 
some  little  tendency  to  loss  of  ajijietite,  coated  tongue,  slight 
headache,  and  constipation.  With  larger  ([uantities  the 
feeling  of  relief  from  discomfort  is  speedily  succeeded  by 
the  characteristic  feature  of  opium  narcosis — namely,  a  con- 
scious intellectual  dullness,  accompanied  by  a  drowsiness, 
which  upon  every  opportunity  casts  the  subject  into  a  state 
of  unconsciousness  analogous  to  ordinary  sleep  in  very 
many  respects,  but  differing  from  it  in  certain  others. 
When  thus  affected  the  perceptive  cerebral  centers  are 
blunted,  and  a  pre-existing  severe  pain  will  not  be  so  acute- 
ly felt.  After  a  number  of  hours  the  patient  awakes  to  a 
feeling  of  general  misery,  with  disordered  stomach,  dry 
coated  tongue,  headache,  and  eonstijiated  bowels.  Indeed, 
under  the  opium  influence  all  the  natural  secretions,  save 
that  of  the  skin,  tend  to  diminish.  As  a  result  of  idiosyn- 
crasy, many  persons  of  very  "nervous"  temperament,  in- 
stead of  experiencing  the  ordinary  effects,  are  thrown  by 
opium  into  a  state  of  morbid  wakefulness  with  excessive 
agitation,  their  minds  being  filled  with  horrible  imagin- 
ings; so  great  is  the  distress  experienced  that  persons  thus 
affected  will  endure  almost  any  pain  rather  than  seek  relief 
from  opium.  Others,  of  highly  imaginative  temperament, 
like  the  Orientals,  pass  into  a  beatific  state  of  mind,  with 
pleasing  fancies  and  visions  of  delicious  and  gorgeous  im- 
agery, as  so  graphically  described  by  De  Quincey;  but  with 
Europeans  or  Americans  these  tempting  effects  are  rarely 
produced,  simple  progressive  stupefaction  being  the  whole 
expression  of  the  cerebral  influenceof  the  drug.  Still  others, 
especially  children,  manifest  a  strong  convulsive  tendency 
which  may  even  culminate  in  severe  general  convulsions. 
with  tetanic  rigidity  of  the  whole  body.  In  some  of  the 
lower  animals,  iis  in  frogs,  tetanus  is  the  normal  expression 
of  the  opium  influence,  because  the  effect  on  the  spinal  cord 
is  stimulant  and  the  spinal  cord  of  the  frog  dominates  his 
brain,  whereas  the  reverse  holds  true  in  man.  Intoleralile 
itching  of  the  whole  skin,  vomiting,  syncope,  are  other  ab- 
normal effects  of  opium  occurring  in  certain  individual.s. 
The  influenceof  bodily  state  and  habit  upon  the  effects  of  the 
drug  is  astonishing.  In  severe  pain,  in  the  prostration  from 
great  loss  of  blood,  and  other  morbid  states,  the  relation 
l)etween  dose  and  effect  changes  so  that  quantities  fatal  in 
health  may  produce  no  more  than  a  mild  influence.  Pre- 
cisely the  same  result  follows  the  habitual  taking  of  opium, 
and  confirmed  opium-eaters  often  take  in  a  day  CTiough  to 
kill  ten  or  twenty  ordinary  persons.  Of  the  alkaluids,  the 
effects  of  morphine  differ  only  in  minor  points  from  those 
of  crude  opium,  and  those  of  narceine  and  codeine  also  con- 
form to  the  same  general  type.  Narcotine  causes  many  of 
the  di.sagreeable  after-effects  of  opium-taking. 

Large  doses  of  opium  or  morpliine  may  be  fatal,  though 
many  circumstances  conspire  to  make  the  effects  exceed- 
ingly uncertain,  such  as  vomiting  or  non-absorption  of  the 
whole  quantity  taken.  Enormous  draughts  of  ofiiates,  ad- 
ministered with  deadly  intent,  are  therefore  often  recovered 
from;  generally  4  grains  of  opium  or  their  equivalent 
are  reckoned  as  a  dangerous  qmmtity,  and  .'i  grains  have 
killed.  The  salts  of  morphine  are  estimated  as  four  times 
more  powerful  than  the  same  quantity  of  opium.  The 
prominent  symptoms  of  ojiium-poisoning  are  deep  coma, 
with  Hushed  or  pale  and  ghastly  face,  contracted  pupils, 
slow,  stertorous  breathing,  and  slow,  full  pulse.  Death  oc- 
curs from  stoppage  of  breathing  through  'paralysis  of  the 
respiratory  center  in  tlie  medulla  oblongata.  The  treat- 
ment, after  evacuation  of  the  [loi.son  left  in  the  stomach 
through  emetics  or  the  stomach-pump,  is  especially  directed 
toward  keeping  up  the  breathing.  The  patient  is  aroused 
by  any  means,  however  rough,  such  as  the  cold  douche, 


forced  walking,  shouting  at  the  patient,  and  beating  him 
with  whijis.  if  he  can  swallow,  hot  black  coffee  is  given 
freely.  If  in  spite  of  all  means  he  sinks  into  coma  aiul  res- 
piration begins  to  fail,  artificial  breathing  and  hyiiodermic 
injections  of  strychnine  (a  powerful  excitant  of  resjiiration) 
are  cautiously  employed.  No  case  should  be  given  up  till 
actual  death. 

In  India,  besides  its  use  as  a  mere  luxury,  the  drug  is 
much  employed  in  non-narcotic  doses  simply  to  sustain  the 
strength  in  lieu  of  food  and  sleep  during  hard  iihysical 
work.  As  to  its  value  or  otherwise  in  this  respect  there  has 
been  much  discussion  and  difference  of  opinion,  and  the 
Indian  Government  in  ISiKJ  appointed  a  commission  to  in- 
quire into  the  matter.  In  China  opium  is  consumed  to  an 
enormous  extent  by  all  classes,  the  mode  of  taking  it  being 
to  smoke  an  aqueous  extract  in  a  peculiarly  formed  pipe. 
Opium-smoking  began  in  China  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  an<i,  in  spite  of  all  the  Goverinnent's 
efforts  to  prevent  it,  rapidly  spread  tiU  it  may  now  be  called 
a  national  practice.  China  thus  consumes  nine-tenths  of 
all  the  opium  exporteil  from  India,  besides  a  considerable 
quantity  fmm  .Asia  Minor,  and  tlie  whole  of  that  [inxluced 
within  her  own  dominions.  In  medicine  opium  and  mor- 
phine fulfill  a  variety  of  purposes,  some  of  which  could 
hardly  be  divined  from  the  effects  of  the  drug  on  the  healthy 
system.  These  may  be  summarized  as  the  supjiort  of  life, 
and  invigoration  and  maintenance  of  the  heart's  action  in 
circumstances  of  great  prostration  and  where  ordinary  food 
can  not  be  digested  ;  the  cure  or  relief  of  ]iaiii.  sjiasm,  and 
general  nervous  irritability;  the  induction  of  sleep  ;  repres- 
sion of  excessive  secretion,  as  in  diarrhoea;  and  curative 
influence  of  an  unknown  character  in  certain  inflammatory 
diseases.  In  the  fulfillment  of  most  of  these  indications 
the  induction  of  the  physiological  narcotic  effects  of  opium 
is  both  unnecessary  and  harmful.  The  pharmaceutical  prep- 
arations of  opium  are  very  numerous :  the  two  most  familiar 
are  landanum.  a  simple  tincture  of  opium,  of  which  18  min- 
ims (about  25  drops)  is  the  equivalent  of  a  grain  of  opium  ; 
and  partyuric,  a  camphorated  tincture,  compounded  of  opi- 
um, camphor,  benzoic  acid,  oil  of  anise,  honey,  and  dilute 
alcohol.  Half  a  fluid  ounce  of  this  tincture  represents  very 
nearly  a  grain  of  opium.  The  salts  of  morphine  are  also 
very  largely  used,  and  their  administration  in  solution  by 
hypodermic  injectiim  has  in  certain  circumstances  advan- 
tages over  opiates  given  by  the  mouth. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Hake. 

Opobalsamura  :  See  Mecca  Balsam. 

Opodel'dof  [cf.  Gr.  Im6s,  juice,  sap]:  the  common  name 
of  the  "  camphorated  soa|i  liniment"  of  the  United  States 
Pharmacopoeia  of  ISoO.  It  is  conipouniled  of  common  soap, 
camphor,  oil  of  rosemary,  oil  of  origanum,  and  alcohol.  When 
cold  it  has  the  consistence  of  a  soft  ointment.  It  is  essenti- 
ally the  same  as  the  "soap  liniment  "  of  the  present  Phnr- 
maropeeia,  and  may  be  used  as  an  anodyne  and  gentle  rube- 
facient application  in  sprains,  bruises,  etc. 

OpO|)'anax  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  oirovdva^  ;  oirds,  juice,  sap  -f  Trdya(, 
a  kind  of  plant  (cf.  iravairfis.  all-healing)j :  the  inspissated 
juice  of  the  Paxtiiiaca  npopunax.  a  ]jlant  closely  resembling 
the  common  jiarsnip.  It  is  a  fetid  gum  resin,  resembling 
assafietida  in  its  powei"s,  but  much  feebler.  It  ha.s  a  very 
limited  use  in  medicine.     The  best  conies  from  the  Levant. 

Opor'to  :  city  of  Portugal;  capital  of  the  province  of 
Minlio :  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Douro.  3  miles  from 
its  mouth;  174  miles  N.  by  E.  by  rail  from  Lisbon  (see  map 
of  Spain  and  Portugal,  ref.  14-A).  Entrance  into  the 
Douro  is  diflicult  on  account  of  a  shifting  .sandbank  in  its 
mouth,  and  the  river  is  subject  to  extraordinary  and  dan- 
gerous freshets,  but  at  Oporto  it  forms  an  excellent  harbor, 
lined  with  elegant  ipiays  and  crossed  by  many  beautiful 
bridges.  Oporto  is  one  of  the  most  picturpsque  cities  in  the 
world,  built  on  a  steep  acclivity,  n  hich  it  climbs  through 
terraces  covered  with  strikingly  colored  houses.  Some  of 
the  streets  are  narrow,  crooked,  dirty,  and  so  steep  tliat  no 
carriage  can  pass  through  them,  but  others  are  broail,  airy, 
clean,  and  lined  with  magnificent  houses.  Among  the 
buildings  the  cathedral,  the  Gothic  Church  of  t'edofeita 
(originally  founded  in  n")!)),  the  bishop's  palace,  and  the 
Hospital  of  St.  Anthony  are  most  noticeable.  Oporto  pos- 
sesses a  luilvtechnic  academv. a  medical  school,  two  picture- 
galleries,  aiid  a  library  with  :2(K).()I»0  volumes  and  9.400  JISS. 
There  are  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver  ware,  gla,ss.  pottery, 
leather,  linen,  woolen,  silk,  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  tanning, 
brewing,    distilling,   cork-cutting,   and    sugar-refining  arc 


312 


OPOSSUM 


OPTICS 


carried  on ;  but  Oporto  derives  its  chief  importance  from 
its  commerce.  It  is  tiie  center  of  trade  for  a  large  part  of 
Portugal.  The  annual  value  of  its  imports  amounts  to 
about  ily.OOO.OUO.  and  that  of  its  exports  to  over  $17,000,- 
000.  Its  trade  is  chiefly  with  England  and  Brazil,  and  the 
principal  article  of  exportation  is  wine,  the  so-called  port 
wine,  red  and  white,  of  which  by  far  the  largest  and  best 
portion  is  exported  to  Great  Britain.     Pop.  (1878)  105,838. 

Opossnm  (Amer.  Ind.  name):  any  animal  of  the  family 
Didelp/iidic,  a  group  of  marsupial  mammals  peculiar   to 

America.  The  must  fa- 
miliar species  is  the  com- 
mon or  Virginia  opossum, 
Didelphtjs  rirginiana.  It 
has  a  pointed  head,  wide 
gape,  many  sharp  teeth,  a 
rough  tongue,  large  and 
naked  ears,  small  eyes,  a 
long,  tapering,  flexible,  and 
prehensile  tail,  and  its  toes 
are  armed  with  sharp, 
strong,  and  curved  claws. 
It  has  a  well-developed 
pouch,  anil  is  about  the 
size  of  a  large  cat,  but  its 
shape  is  low  and  squat ;  it 
is  of  a  grayish-white  color ; 
the  face,  near  the  snout,  is 
pure  white,  and  the  ears 
are  black.  It  is  mostly 
nocturnal  and  arboreal  in 
its  habits,  and  feeds  on  in- 
sects, eggs,  small  birds, 
and  fruits.  It  sometimes 
destroys  poultry.  It  is 
much  hunted  for  food  and 
for  its  skin,  and  shows 
much  dexterity  in  escap- 
ing by  creeping  away  in 
the  grass.  It  has  a  re- 
markable habit  of  feigning 
death  when  captured,  hence 
the  proverbial  expression 
■'  playing  'possum,"  and 
bites  severely  when  defend- 
_  ing  itself.     It  is  slow  in  its 

^  '  movements,  and  often  sus- 

pends itself  from  the  brancli  of  a  tree  by  its  tail.  It  is  very 
prolific,  producing  from  six  to  fifteen  at  a  birth,  which,  as 
soon  as  born,  are  put  by  the  mother  into  her  pouch,  where 
they  remain  attached  to  the  nipple  until  they  are  able  to 
move  about.  In  winter,  if  the  climate  is  cold,  the  opossum 
becomes  sluggish,  but  not  torpid  like  the  marmot.  There 
are  numerous  South  American  species,  some  of  them  with 
no  pouch.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Op'pein  :  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Silesia:  on 
the  Oder ;  51  miles  S.  E.  of  Breslau  (see  map  of  German  Em- 
pire, ref.  o-I).  It  has  some  manufactures  of  linen,  leather, 
pottery,  and  tiles,  and  an  important  trade  in  timber  and  cat- 
tle. Oppeln  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Dukes  of 
Silesia,  whose  castle  stands  on  an  island  in  the  Oder.  Pop. 
(1890)  19,206. 

Oppenlieim,  Hermann-,  M.  D.  :  physician  and  author ;  b. 
at  Warburg,  Westphalia,  Prussia,  Jan.  1,  1858 ;  educated 
at  Gottingen.  Bonn,  and  Berlin ;  was  head  physician  and 
temporary  director  of  the  Neue  Klinik  der  Charite  in  Ber- 
lin 1883-!»1.  Among  his  published  works  are  numerous 
contributions  to  the  Archiv fur Pxychiatrie  (from  1885  on); 
Beifrdge  zur  Palhulngie  der  nntUiphn  Neuritis  und  Alcn- 
holldkmung  (Zeilgckrifl  fur  Klinische  Median,  1886); 
Die  traumatischPti  Ne.urosen  (1889;  2d  ed.  1892);  Zur 
Kenntniss  der  xijphilitisr.hen  Erkrankiinge.n  des  centra/en 
Nenviisijutems  (Berlin,  1890).  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Op'pert,  .TuLEs:  Orientalist;  b.  July  9,  1825,  at  Ham- 
burg, of  Jewish  parentage  ;  studied  first  law  at  Heidelberg, 
then  Oriental  languages  at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  where  in  1847 
he  published  Dan  LautayMfin  des  Alt persiscTien  \  was  ap- 
pointed I'rofessor  in  Gernum  at  the  lyceum  of  Laval  in 
1848,  and  at  that  (jf  Rlieims  in  1850;  accompanied  the 
scientific  expedition  to  Mesopotamia,  sent  out  in  1851  by  the 
French  Government,  and  was  appointed  Professor  in  Sans- 
krit at  the  schools  of  the  national  library  in  1857,  and  1874 
Professor  of  Assyriology  in  the  College  de  France.     In  1881 


he  was  elected  member  of  the  Academie  des  Inscriptions. 
His  principal  works  are  Les  Inscriptions  des  Acheinenides 
(1852);  L' Expedition  scientifique  de  France  en  Ilesopota- 
mie  (1859-64) ;  Grande  Inscription  dii  Palais  de  Khorsabad 
(1863) ;  Elements  de  la^grammaire  assyrienne  (1860;  2d  ed. 
1868);  Rapports  de  I'Egypte  et  del'Assyrie  (1868);  Doctt- 
ments  juridiques  de  la  C/ialdee  {1S75) :  Le  peuple  et  la  laiigue 
des  Ji/frfe-<  (1879) :  La  chronologic  de  la  Genese  (1879) ;  L'am- 
bre  jaune  chez  les  Assyriens  (1880);  Etudes  sumeriennes 
(1881).  Revised  by  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Oppia'lins  (Gr.  '0Tnriav6s) :  poet ;  b.  at  Anazarbus,  in  Cili- 
cia;  flourished  under  Jlarcus  Aurelius,  and  composed  a  di- 
dactic poem  on  fishing. 'a\ieutiko,  in  five  books.  1  he  versifi- 
cation is  smooth,  the  style  ornate.  Another  poem  on  hunting 
(KvvT]y€TiKa)  was  long  ascribed  to  this  Oppianus,  but  the  style 
is  dry  and  the  versification  halting,  and  it  is  generally  be- 
lieved to  be  the  production  of  a  later  poet  of  the  same  name. 
The  works  of  Oppianus  have  been  edited  by  J.  G.  Schneider 
(Leipzig,  1813)  and  F.  S.  Lehrs  (Paris,  1846).  B.  L.  G. 

Op'pins.  Gaius  :  an  intimate  friend  of  Julius  Ca>sar,  who 
intrusted  to  him  and  Ballius  the  management  of  affairs 
while  he  was  .absent  in  Spain.  He  was  the  author  of  lives 
of  Cfesar,  Cassius,  Scipio  Af  ricanus  the  elder,  which  are  only 
known  to  us  through  citations.  The  Belluni  Alexandriuum 
has  also  been  attributed  to  him.  and  by  Niebuhr  the  Bellum 
Africanum,  a  view  now  abandoned.  M.  W. 

Oppolzer,  Theodor,  von :  astronomer  ;  b.  at  Prague, 
Austria,  Oct.  26,  1841 ;  d.  Dec.  26,  1886.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  geodetic  measurements,  but  is  best  known  as  the 
author  of  a  great  work  in  two  volumes  entitled  Bahnbe- 
stimmung  der  Planeten  und  Cometen  (1870-80).  It  is  the 
standard  work  of  the  nineteenth  century  on  theoretical  as- 
tronomy. Of  more  popular  interest  is  his  Canon  der  Fins- 
ternisse,  published  by  the  Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
1887,  and  conf.aining  tables  of  all  total  and  annular  eclipses 
of  the  sun  visible  in  the  northern  hemisphere  from  1200  b.  c. 
to  A.  D.  2160,  with  charts  showing  the  path  of  the  shadow  or 
annulus  for  each  eclipse.  S.  Newcomb. 

Optatia'mis.  Publilius  Optatianus  Porkyrius  or  Por- 
PHYRius  :  a  Latin  poet  of  the  fourth  century,  perhaps  of 
African  birth,  who,  while  in  exile  about  the  year  325,  ad- 
dressed a  panegyric  to  the  Emperor  Constantine,  by  which 
he  secured  his  recall.  The  collection  is  prefaced  by  a  letter 
of  the  emperor  to  the  author  and  the  author's  reply.  The 
poems,  twenty-eight  in  number,  while  prosodically  not  very 
faulty,  show  a  great  decline  in  taste,  and  are  chiefly  remark- 
able for  their  artificiality,  including  acrostics,  telestiehs, 
hexameter-squares  (with  as  many  verses  as  there  are  letters 
in  each  verse),  and  other  whimsical  forms.  They  have  been 
edited  by  L.  Mueller  (Leipzig,  1877).  M.  Wareen. 

Optative  Mood  :  See  Syntax. 

Optics  [from  Gr.  ra  owriKa.  neut.  plur.  of  onTiK6s,  optic, 
pertaining  to  sight.  Cf.  o>(/is,  sight,  and  Hirwira,  I  have  seen] : 
the  science  which  treats  of  the  phenomena  of  light.  The 
subject  is  usually  treated  from  two  points  of  view.  1.  The 
laws  and  properties  of  light,  as  ascertained  by  observation, 
may,  by  applying  the  principles  of  pure  geometry,  be  em- 
ployed to  explain  the  phenomena.  2.  A  definite  theory  hav- 
ing" been  adopted  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  luminifer- 
ous  medium,  the  phenomena  may  be  expounded  as  the 
necessary  consequences  of  their  assumed  physical  cause. 
The  pre.sent  article  -will  be  confined  to  a  brief  history  of  op- 
tical discovery. 

A  notion  was  for  a  very  long  time  prevalent  among  the 
ancients  that  vision  is  effected  by  means  of  rays  proceeding 
from  the  eye  to  the  object.  This  idea  is  not  found  in  Aris- 
totle, but  it  was  introduced  into  the  school  of  Plato,  and 
continued  to  be  received  for  many  centuries.  The  elemen- 
tary phenomena  of  reflection  and  refraction  suggest  a  nat- 
ural division  of  the  science  of  optics  into  two  principal 
branches ;  and  this  distinction  is  made  by  the  earliest  sys- 
tematic writer  on  the  subject  whose  works  have  descended 
to  us.  This  was  Euclid,  supposed  to  have  been  the  geo- 
metrician of  that  name,  who  lived  about  300  years  before  our 
era.  The  general  laws  which  govern  the  reflection  of  light, 
being  comparatively  easy  of  detection,  were  stated  by  him 
with  tolerable  correctness;  but  what  he  has  written  on  re- 
fraction is  of  little  value.  Ptolemy,  the  a.stronomer  of  Alex- 
andria, who  was  born  about  the  year  70  of  our  era,  at- 
tempted to  discover  the  law  of  refraction  by  experiment. 
His  apparatus  was  ingenious,  and  was  not  different  in  prin- 
ciple from  that  which  has  been  employed  by  Silbermann, 


I 


OPTICS 


OPT  I  MATES 


313 


Soleil,  and  others,  in  our  own  time,  for  the  same  purpose. 
He  mea-surcd  the  aiiKles  of  refraction  corresponding  to 
various  aiiffli'S  of  incidence,  between  0"  and  90  ,  for  botli 
water  and  jjlass.  and  left  his  measurements  recorded  in  his 
System  of  Uptics.  We  may  judge  of  the  degree  of  accuracy 
attained  by  nim  by  comparing  llie  indices  of  refraction  de- 
ducible  from  his  determinations  with  those  of  the  same 
boflies  fixed  with  severe  exactness  by  modern  observers. 
The  ascertained  index  of  refraction  for  water  is  l-;i3382. 
If  we  make  a  computatioti  of  its  value  fri>m  the  mciusured 
angles  of  Ptolemy,  we  find  a  mean  of  1-30147;  but  if  we 
take  his  mejisurements  at  the  incidence  of  50  ,  wliere  the 
relative  variations  of  the  angles  of  incidence  an<l  refraction 
are  most  marked  and  most  easily  measured,  we  obtain 
1-33555,  which  is  exceedingly  near  the  truth.  As  an  astron- 
omer, Ptolemy  noticed  tlie  effect  of  atmospheric  refraction 
u[)on  the  a|iparent  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies ;  and  he 
recognized  the  fact,  which  others  after  him  disputed,  that 
the  disphicement  is  always  in  a  vertical  plane,  and  also  that 
it  attains  its  maximum  in  the  horizon  and  is  zero  in  the  zen- 
ith. Al)0ut  the  Vjeginning  of  the  seventeenth  ceidury  Gal- 
ileo, Jansen,  and  Metius  invented  the  telescope  independ- 
ently, and  Galileo  by  its  means  made  important  astro- 
nomical discoveries.  .Shortly  afterward  Kei)li'r  explained 
how  to  find  the  focal  lengths  of  lenses,  and  gave  the  true 
theory  of  the  tclesco|)e ;  he  also  made  experiments  on  the 
nature  of  colors,  and  showed  that  the  images  formed  on  the 
retina  of  the  eye  are  inverted. 

It  was  impossilile,  liowever,  that  optical  science  should 
make  any  imjiortant  progress  so  long  as  the  law  which  de- 
termines the  (lath  of  a  ray  in  passing  from  one  medium  to 
another  remained  unknown.  Willebrord  Snellius,  Profes- 
sor of  Mathematics  at  Leyden.  who  died  in  16-26,  left  behind 
him  manuscripts,  among  which  was  contained  a  statement 
of  the  law  in  question.  It  was  first  published  by  Descartes, 
eleven  years  after  the  death  of  Snellius.  It  is  therefore  fre- 
quently referred  to  as  the  law  of  Descartes.    See  Kekractiox. 

The  next  impoi-tant  step  in  the  progress  of  optical  dis- 
covery, after  the  detection  of  the  general  law  of  refraction, 
was  made  by  Xewton,  who  in  167-2  communicated  to  the 
Royal  Society  the  experimental  researches  hj  which  he  es- 
tablisheil  tlie  compound  nature  of  light  and  the  unequal 
refrangibilily  of  its  component  rays.  This  phenomenon  of 
the  separation  of  the  component  colors  of  light  by  refraction 
has  been  called  Dispersion  {q.  i\). 

The  dispersion  of  light  by  refraction  furnishes  an  easy 
explanation  of  the  interesting  natural  phenomenon  of  the 
rainbow.  This  beautiful  meteor  had  before  Xewton's  time 
been  the  subject  of  many  unsatisfactory  speculations ;  and 
though  De  Dominis.  as  early  as  1611,  had  conceived  a  true 
theory  of  the  manner  of  formation  of  the  inner  bow,  he  had 
not  been  able  to  account  for  its  colors.  Xewton's  discovery 
furnished  the  necessary  supplement  to  the  theory.  See 
Rainbow. 

In  1665  there  was  published  at  Bologna  a  posthumous 
work  by  Francis  Maria  Grimaldi,  an  Italian  Jesuit,  in  which 
were  for  tlie  first  time  described  certain  phenomena  now 
familiar  under  tlie  name  of  Diffraction  (q.  v.).  They  were 
carefully  studied  by  Xewton  and  others,  and  have  occupied 
a  prominent  place  in  all  the  discussions  which  have  since 
arisen  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  light. 

In  1669  the  attention  of  the  scientific  world  was  called  to 
a  case  of  new  and  extraordinary  refraction  observed  to  take 
place  in  crystals  of  carbonate  of  calcium — a  species  of  re- 
fraction which,  from  the  circumstance  of  its  dividing  an 
incident  beam  into  two  beams  entirely  distinct,  or  of  pre- 
senting two  images  of  any  object  seen  through  the  crystal, 
has  been  callecl  double  refraction.  (See  Refraction, 
Double).  The  first  publication  on  this  subject  was  made 
by  Erasmus  Hartholinus,  a  physician  of  Copenhagen,  who 
gave  to  the  mineral  the  name  of  Iceland  spar,  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  his  specimens  had  been  obtained  from  that 
island.  The  phenomenon  was  more  fully  explained  by  Huy- 
gens,  who  also  originated  the  undulatory  theory  of  Light 
(q.  v.).  Soon  after  his  announcement  of  the  compound  na- 
ture of  light.  Sir  Isajic  Xewton  made  ])ublic  the  results  of 
his  investigations  in  regard  to  the  colors  exhibited  by  thin 
plates  of  transparent  substances.  (See  TiiiN  Plates,  Col- 
ors OK.)  These  investigations,  together  with  many  improve- 
ments of  the  telescope,  and  his  corpuscular  theory  of  the 
pro[)agation  of  light  completed  Xewton's  contributions  to 
the  science. 

The  next  important  step  in  the  progress  of  optical  science 
was  the  discovery  of  the  progressive  propagation  of  light 


and  the  determination  of  its  velocity.  Domiinc  Cassini  sug- 
gested that  certain  irregularities  in  the  observations  of  the 
first  satellite  of  Jupiter  could  be  accounted  for  by  supposing 
that  light  took  an  appreciable  time  to  travel  from  .Jupiter 
to  the  earth.  He  seems,  however,  to  have  abandoned  the 
idea,  but  Kiiraer  followed  it  up  with  perseverance  and  con- 
clusively established  its  truth.     See  Light. 

The  next  discovery  of  importance  was  made  near  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  by  Dr.  W'ollaston  in  his  ob- 
servations upon  the  prismatic  spectrum.  He  discovered 
that  by  employing  a  pencil  of  light  very  narrow  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  plane  of  refraction,  t)ut  broad  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  f)rism,  several  well-defined  dark  straight  lines 
could  be  distinguished  crossing  the  spectrum  at  right  angles, 
and  maintaining  invariably  the  same  positions  relatively  to 
the  colors.     See  Spectrum. 

In  the  year  1808  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  pro- 
posed the  problem  of  the  double  refraction  of  light  as  the 
subject  of  a  prize  to  be  awarded  two  years  thereafter.  The 
successful  competitor  for  this  prize  was  Mains.  To  him  is 
also  due  the  polarization  of  light  by  reflection. 

In  the  year  1811  Arago  communicated  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Paris  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  beau- 
tiful discoveries  which  has  ever  been  made  in  the  history  of 
optics.  Upon  examining  thin  plates  of  certain  tran.sjiarent 
crystals,  such  as  mica,  selenite,  or  quartz,  by  means  of  trans- 
mitted polarized  light,  he  found  that  when  the  light  was  re- 
ceived upon  the  eye  through  a  prism  formed  of  Iceland  spar 
the  richest  conceivable  colors  made  their  appearance,  which 
were  complementary  to  each  other  in  the  two  images,  and 
which  varied  in  intensity  with  the  azimuth  of  the  laminae  or 
of  the  prism.  (See  Polarization  of  Light.)  When  a  bi-re- 
fringent  prism  was  employed  as  an  analyzer,  the  two  images 
seen  were  constantly  complementary  in  color,  and  as  the 
analyzer  was  turned  they  ascended  in  tint,  in  the  order  of 
Xewton's  scale,  from  red  to  violet.  Biot  in  subsequent  ex- 
periments discovered  that  in  some  crystals  the  ascent  of 
the  tints  in  the  scale  is  produced  by  a  right-hand  rotation 
(the  ordinary  direction  of  a  screw),  and  in  others  by  a  left- 
hand  rotation.  These  classes  of  crystals  have  been  distin- 
guished by  the  names  right-handed  and  left-handed  ci-ystals, 
or  dextro'gyre  and  hevogyre.  The  peculiar  kind  of  polariza- 
tion produced  by  quartz  has  on  this  account  been  called 
rolntory  polarization. 

In  the  year  1815  Biot  discovered  that  many  liquids  pos- 
sess the  power  of  rotatory  polarization — a  discovery  which 
was  independently  made  by  Seebeck.  Arago  early  made  the 
discovery  that  the  light  which  comes  to  us  from  the  atmos- 
phere is  polarized.  Brewster  also  made  investigations  con- 
cerning the  double  refraction  of  crystals.  He  discovered 
that  the  great  majority  of  non-isotropie  substances  are 
doubly  refracting,  and  are  in  general  biaxial — that  is,  have 
two  axes.  (See  Crystallography  and  Mineralogy.)  The 
determination  of  the  undulations  in  such  bodies,  or  the  form 
of  their  "  wave  surface  "  was.  approximately  at  least,  effected 
bv  Fresnel,  one  of  the  letter's  most  brilliant  discoveries.  It 
led  to  Sir  William  Hamilton's  prediction  of  the  two  species 
of  conical  refraction,  which  was  experimentally  verified  by 
Lloyd  and  others,  viz. :  in  one  case  a  single  ray  passing 
through  a  plate  of  a  biaxial  crystal  comes  out,  as  a  hollow 
cone ;  in  the  other  case  a  single  ray  which  falls  upon  the 
plate  is  transformed  into  a  cone  inside  tlie  crystal,  and 
comes  out  as  a  hollow  cylinder.  Fresnel  also  discovered 
that  glass  and  other  simply  refracting  bodies  are  rendered 
doubly  refracting  when  in  a  state  of  strain  ;  and  Clerk  Max- 
well showed  that  shearing  stress  applied  to  viscous  liquids 
renders  them  temporarily  doubly  refracting. 

For  an  account  of  the  present  state  of  the  science,  see 
Preston's  Theory  of  Light  (1890) :  also  Taifs  Light,  Glaze- 
brook's  Physical  Ojilics  (1883),  and  Basset's  Physical  Optics 
(1892).  Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Optima'tes  and  Popula'res  [optimates  is  Lat.,  deriv.  of 
optimus,  best;  populares  is  Lat.,  deriv.  ot  po'piiliis,  peo- 
ple]: political  parties  at  Rome  in  the  last  century  of  the 
republic.  The  optimates,  "  adherents  of  the  best  men,"  con- 
sisted for  the  most  part  of  patrician  and  senatorial  families. 
The  guiding  principle  of  this  party  was  a  conservative 
clinging  to  the  senatorial  government,  which  had  miuie 
Rome  great.  The  opposition  of  the  democratic  party,  the 
popiilare.f.  was  first  seriously  felt  in  the  time  of  the  Gracchi 
{q.  v.),  and  after  a  century  of  struggle  the  power  of  the  op- 
timates was  finally  broken  by  the  first  triumvirate  (60  n.  c). 

G.  L.  Hendrickson. 


314 


OPTIMISM 


ORANGE 


Optimism  [from  Lat.  op'timus.  best]  :  the  doctrine  that 
the  world  is  the  best  possible,  or  that  evil  is  only  relative 
and  contingent,  being  incident  to  the  evolution  of  good — 
that  good  is  substantial,  evil  only  temporary.  It  is  the 
philosophical  counterpart  to  the  religious  doctrine  of  an 
overruling  Providence  that  educes  good  out  of  evil.  The 
divine  purpose  in  creation  is  held  to  be  the  bringing  of  good 
into  existence  where  notliing  existed  before,  and  the  rejjlac- 
ing  of  the  imperfect  by  the  more  perfect;  in  general,  it  is 
to  change  chaos  to  a  cosmos,  and  make  it  reflect  the  attri- 
butes of  God.  Creation,  evolution,  or  cliange  of  any  sort,  in- 
volves contrast  and  the  manifestation  of  two  princi])les. 
Hence  the  passive  principle  (chaos),  which  is  eliminated  Ijy 
the  activity  of  the  good,  is  manifested  or  made  apparent  by 
the  same  activity  that  annuls  it.  Without  the  activity  of 
creation  the  passive  or  negative  principle  (chaos  or  mere 
potentiality)  would  remain  a  pure  zero,  and  be  neither  good 
nor  evil.  In  all  the  stages  of  the  realization  of  good,  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest,  there  is  contrast,  and  hence  the 
phenomenon  of  evil ;  but  evil  or  the  relatively  im])erfect  ex- 
ists only  as  the  battle-field  upon  which  it  receives  defeat 
from  the  victorious  higher  good.  Tliis  is  the  view  sub  specie 
mternitatis,  as  Spinoza  called  it.  Of  course,  any  partial 
view,  taking  its  point  of  observation  from  some  one  imjier- 
fect  being,  would  see  in  tlie  destruction  of  that  being  the 
triumph  of  evil  rather  tlian  of  good,  and  evil  might  seem 
predominant  in  the  world.  The  optimistic  theory  is  con- 
sistent only  with  theism,  perhaps  only  with  Christian  the- 
ism. It  finds  place  in  the  theory  that  God  creates  the 
world  from  nothing  (chaos  or  pure  space)  and  makes  it  in 
some  sort  his  manifestation  or  self-revelation.  Opposed  to 
this  is  the  emanation-theory  characteristic  of  Oriental  think- 
ing, in  which  the  Absolute  is  an  abstract  unity  devoid  of 
attributes,  impersonal,  and  above  multiplicity,  and  all  creat- 
ing is  removal  from  unity  toward  multiplicity,  and  hence 
evil ;  it  is  a  lapse  from  the  Absolute,  and  finite  existence  is 
therefore  altogether  a  mistake,  or  perhaps  even  a  punish- 
ment for  sin  in  a  former  state.  This  is  called  "  pessimism." 
The  return  of  all  finite  to  the  infinite  through  absorption  or 
annihilation  is  regarded  as  the  desirable  end :  Nature  is 
not  a  conflict  of  good  and  evil,  but  altogether  evil.  Still, 
even  in  this  theory,  the  good  is  the  only  true  being ;  for  all 
creation  is  held  to  be  maya  or  illusion  of  the  senses  and  in- 
tellect. The  religion  of  the  emanation-theory  lays  chief 
stress  on  ascetic  renunciation  with  a  view  to  reabsorption 
into  the  Absolute.  Even  destruction  of  consciousness  and 
individuality  is  regarded  as  blessedness.  "  The  conclusive, 
incontrovertible,  one  only  knowledge,  is  that  neither  I  am, 
nor  is  aught  mine,  nor  do  I  exist,"  says  the  Snnkhya  Karika. 
In  contrast  with  this,  European  thought  quite  generally  em- 
braces optimism.  Prom  the  doctrine  of  Plato,  that  God  is 
the  absolute  good,  and  "  the  Good  possesses  not  envy,  and  on 
this  account  has  made  the  world  most  similar  to  itself,"  down 
to  the  doctrine  of  Ilegel,  that  all  nature  and  history  are  the 
celebration  of  God's  personality,  optimism  accompanies  the 
doctrine  which  makes  man  a  free,  progressive,  immortal 
spirit  transcending  nature,  and  nature  to  be  the  theater 
best  fitted  for  his  development.  The  Christian  philosophers 
have  variously  expanded  this  doctrine.  St.  Augustine  ex- 
plains that  evil  is  only  contingent,  or  incident  to  finitude  in 
its  different  degrees  of  imperfection,  and  that  it  exists  only 
as  an  adjunct  of  the  good  ;  "as  a  painting  with  dark  colors 
is  beautiful  when  seen  as  a  whole,  so  the  sum  of  things 
when  seen  with  one  glance  is  good."  St.  Ansclm  adopted 
the  same  view,  and  asserted  that  the  fall  of  man  rendered 
him  capable  of  attaining  higher  good.  We  should  say  that 
the  fall  renders  possible  tlie  development  of  free  individu- 
ality, hence  makes  possible  independent  reflection  of  the 
divine.  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  likewise  :  "The  infinite  nuini- 
foldness  in  the  objects  of  nature  is  requisite  in  order  to  dis- 
play God's  infinite  perfection  ;  evil  is  only  the  privation  of 
perfect  actuality  incident  to  the  mere  participation  in  the 
divine."  Malebranche  says  that  God  has  used  everywhere 
tlie  simplest  means  to  realize  his  purposes,  and  accordingly 
has  admitted  the  fewest  evils  possible  into  the  world.  Leib- 
nitz, who  is  the  best-known  defender  of  optimism,  distin- 
fiiisli(!il  three  kinds  of  evil  :  (a)  metaphysical,  owing  to  the 
niteness  of  things:  tliis  is  unavoidalile ;  (h)  physical  evil 
or  pain,  which  is  conditional  good,  being  a  monitor  to  warn 
us  against  error  ;  (r)  moral  evil  or  wickedness,  for  which 
man  alone  is  responsible,  being  incident  to  freedom,  which 
is  his  highest  gift.  "God,  therefore,  out  of  the  infinite 
number  of  possil)le  worlds  which  he  saw,  chose  the  one 
which  is  actually  the  best."  William  T.  Harris. 


Opzoomer,  op'zo-mer.  Cornelis  Willem  :  philosopher  and 
jurist;  b.  at  Rotterdam,  Holland,  Sept.  30,  1831;  studied 
jurisprudence  at  Leyden.  and  attracted,  even  while  a  young 
student,  much  attention  by  his  Letter  to  Da  Costa  and  Ex- 
amination of  the  Annals  of  Dittcli  Tlieology ,  in  which  he 
attacked  the  so-called  orthodox  dogma;  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy  at  the  University  of  Utrecht  in  1846, 
and  acted  as  a  leader  in  all  movements  of  reform  and  [irog- 
ress  in  politics,  religion,  and  science.  His  principal  works 
are  Wetenscliap  en  Wijsliegeerte  (1857) ;  Het  Wezen  der 
Kennis  (1863 ;  2d  ed.  1867) ;  De  Godsdienst  (1864). 

Oracle  [via  0.  Pr.  from  Lat.  ora'culum,  oracle,  deriv.  of 
o/((  (■(',  pray] :  a  term  applied  to  answers  given  by  the  an- 
cient Egyptian  and  Greek  deities  when  solemnly  consulted 
by  their  votaries,  and  also  to  the  places  where  they  spoke. 
Oracles  spoke  in  different  ways — m  some  cases  through  a 
human  being,  wlio  uttered  words  of  inspiration  (e.  g.  at  the 
oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delplii);  in  others  by  signs,  which  the 
priests  watciied  and  interpreted  (e.  g.  at  the  oracle  of  Zeus 
at  Dodona) ;  then  by  dreams,  as  in  the  temples  of  Asclepius; 
and  lastly  by  calling  up  the  shades  of  the  dead,  as  when 
Odysseus  consulted  the  shade  of  Teiresias  {Od.,  xi.).  The 
ancients  consulted  oracles  on  all  important  affairs,  whether 
public  or  ju-ivate.  If.  as  often  happened,  an  enterprise  failed 
even  though  the  gods  had  seemed  to  favor  it,  the  oracles  still 
lost  no  credit,  for  their  answers  were  so  ambiguous  that  it 
was  no  easy  matter  to  interpret  them  clearly. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

O'ran  :  department  of  Algeria  ;  bounded  N.  by  the  Medi- 
terranean. Vj.  by  the  department  of  Algiers,  S.  by  the  des- 
ert, and  W.  by  Morocco.  Area,  44.616  sq.  miles.  Large 
tracts  of  this  province  are  cultivated  with  the  utmost  care, 
and  wheat,  maize,  cotton,  and  wine  are  grown  with  great 
success.  The  climate  is  hot,  but  healthful.  Pop.  (1891) 
943,066.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Oraii  :  seaport  of  Algeria;  capital  of  the  department  of 
Oran  ;  on  the  Slediterranean  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  1-C). 
It  is  strongly  fortified.  The  streets  of  the  European  dis- 
trict are  broad  and  airy,  the  lunises  sjiacious  and  elegant, 
and  the  promenades  beautiful.  Its  harbor  is  naturally  poor, 
but  has  been  greatly  improved,  and  large  quantities  of 
French  cotton  goods,  hardware,  wine,  and  wheat  are  here 
exchanged  for  gold-dust,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  gums,  etc. 
Pop.  (1891)  67,681.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Orange  [=  Fr.,  from  Arab,  naranj.  orange] :  the  fruit  of 
many  varieties  of  the  genus  Citrus.  The  botany  of  the  genus 
is  much  confused,  but  it  is  now  held  that  the  oranges  of  the 
U.  S.  represent  but  two  species,  tlie  common  tyjie.  Citrus 
aurantiiim,  and  the  mandarin  or  kid-glove  type,  C.  nobilis. 
The  bitter  or  Seville  orange  is  a  form  of  C.  aurantium. 
Cifnis  is  a  genus  formerly  placed  in  the  fannly  Aurantiacece, 
but  now  included  in  Uiitacea'.  It  embraces  trees  and  shrubs, 
all  exotic,  and  unable  to  endure  the  climate  of  the  Northern 
States.  In  the  extreme  southern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  the  orange 
is  productive.  The  foliage  is  fragrant,  and  the  flowers  are 
pure-white,  odorous,  and  beautiful.  Wherever  known 
throughout  the  world  they  are  regarded  as  the  appropriate 
ornaments  of  a  bride.  These  flowers  have  from  twenty  to 
sixty  or  more  stamens,  sometimes  in  sets,  and  have  one  style. 
There  are  from  four  to  eight,  usually  five,  petals.  The  fila- 
ments of  the  stamens  are  more  or  less  united,  and  the  ovary 
many-celled,  with  a  prominent  disk  at  the  base.  'J'he  fruit 
is  a  juicy  and  luscious  berry  witli  a  leathery  rind.  This 
rind  contains  little  cysts  or  cells  filled  with  a  fragrant  and 
volatile  oil  wliich  is  easily  inflammable.  Tlie  branches  of 
the  trees  are  spiny  and  the  leaves  in  reality  compound ;  that 
is,  they  consist  of  a  single  leaflet,  as  is  shown  by  the  articu- 
lation between  the  blarle  and  the  petiole.  This  is  also  shown 
by  the  trifoliolate  leaf  of  the  related  Citrus  trifoliata  (prop- 
erly j.-Egle  sepiaria). 

The  original  of  the  orange  came  from  the  East  Indies  or 
from  China.  The  orange  has  now  spread  over  all  the 
warmer  regions  of  tlie  earth.  It  has  an  astonishing  pro- 
ductiveness. The  trees  we  meet  with  in  conservatories 
usually  bear  a  bitter,  unpalatable  fruit,  and  are  chiefly 
grown  for  ornament.  Oranges  are  evergreen,  and  bear  si- 
multaneously fruit  and  blossoms.  The  leaves  are  fragrant 
and  have  a  limited  use  in  medicine  in  cases  of  hysteria, 
where  tlicy  are  lunployed  instead  of  tea.  Oil  of  neroli  is  pre- 
pared from  orange-flowers,  and  is  the  basis  of  the  popular 
perfume  known  as  can  de  cologne.  The  fruit  contains  cit- 
ric acid,  but  not  in  so  large  proportion  as  the  lemon.  The 
rind  enters  into  various  articles  of  confectionery,  and  is  used 


OKANUE 


ORANG   UTAX 


315 


for  flavoring.  The  numerous  seeds  often  contain  more  than 
one  embryo.  Sicily.  Malta.  Spain,  the  Azores,  Portuf^al,  and 
Cuba  have  funiislicd  most  of  the  oran},'es  of  commerce,  but 
Florida  and  Calirnruia  are  now  strong  comi)etitors  with 
these  countrie.s,  and  the  markets  of  the  Ka.slern  I'.  S.  are 
ehielly  supplied  with  the  Florida  produ(-t.  The  Florida  crop 
of  18!»:i-y4  was  estimated  at  4,000.000  bo.\es. 

Consult  Wiekson"s  California  Fruits,  Manville's  Orange 
Culture,  Moore's  Oranr/e  Culture,  and  the  volumes  of  Hailey's 
Annals  of  JIurticulture.  Revised  by  L.  11.  Hailey. 

Oranjre  :  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Vaucluse  ; 
on  the  Ic-ft  bank  of  the  Aigue;  \x  miles  N.  of  Avignon  (see 
nuip  of  France,  ref.  S-H).  It  is  old,  ill-built,  and  dirty,  but 
it  has  several  well-preserved  an<l  iuteresting  reuiains  from 
the  Koman  time  (a  triumphal  arch  and  a  theater),  some 
manufactures  of  liiu-n  and  eotton  fabrics,  and  a  large  trade 
in  honey,  wine,  spirits,  essences,  oil,  truflles,  saffron,  aud 
nuidder.  Poj).  (1. si)  1)  6.804.  The  Arausio  of  the  Ronums, 
it  became  after  Ca'sar  an  important  Roman  colony.  It  was 
an  independent  countship  from  the  eleventh  eeutury  until 
1530,  when  it  fell  by  marriage  to  Rene  of  Nassau  Dilleii- 
burg,  stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands,  who,  being  childless, 
chose  as  his  successor  his  cousin  William,  father  of  William 
the  Silent,  As  William  111.,  King  of  (ireat  Britain,  who 
was  Prince  of  Orange,  died  cinldless,  there  began  a  contro- 
versy as  to  the  successi<m  between  Frederick  I.  of  I'russia,  of 
the  older  branch  of  the  house  of  Nassau,  and  the  head  of 
the  younger  branch.  At  the  Peace  of  Ctrecbt  iu  1713  the 
King  of  Prussia  nuide  over  Orange  to  Louis  XIV.,  still  call- 
ing himself,  however.  Prince  of  Orange  ;  but  the  title  was 
also  assuuied,and  has  been  retained  since, by  the  stadl holders 
and  Kings  of  the  Netherlands,  who  belong  to  the  younger 
Nassau  line. 

Orange :  city  (first  settled  as  a  |>art  of  Newark  about  1666. 
created  a  townshi])  in  1806,  divided  by  separation  of  East 
Orange  and  Fainnount  1862-63.  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1870) ;  Essex  co.,  N.  .1.  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  Jeisey, 
ref.  3-E);  on  the  Del.,  Lack,  and  W.  and  the  Erie  railways; 
4  uiiles  N.  W.  of  Newark,  113  nules  W.  of  New  York  city.  It 
is  picturesquely  located  on  rolling  ground  at  the  foot  of  the 
first  range  of  the  Watcliung  Mountain,  nearly  200  feet  above 
tide-water.  It  is  the  smallest  in  area  of  all  the  Oranges,  but 
the  largest  in  population,  and  ranks  fourth  among  the  hat- 
nuimifiicturing  cities  of  the  I'.  S.  Its  proxinuly  to  New 
York  city  and  its  suburban  attractious  have  made  it  a  favorite 
place  of  residence  for  many  met  mpolitan  business  men.  The 
city  is  connected  with  Newark,  Hloomtield,  East  Orange,  and 
Sout  h  Orange  by  electriir  and  other  street-railways ;  is  lighted 
by  electricity,  and  owns  a  water-wcjrks  system  with  a  reser- 
voir between  the  First  and  Second  .Mountains,  com]ileted  in 
1884,  and  a  .sewerage  system,  completed  in  1SI)4.  There  are 
6  public-school  liuildings.  including  a  high  school,  a  manual- 
training  school,  public-school  property  valued  at  civer  SJ165,- 
000,  .several  high-grade  private  schools,  j)ublic  library,  2  na- 
tional banks  with  condiined  capital  of  ^2.5(1,000.  2  savings- 
banks  with  aggregate  deposits  of  .'!;l,7r)0,0()0.  and  a  monthly 
and  .5  weekly  periodicals.  Among  the  notatile  buildings  are 
several  churches  and  new  school  buildings,  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building,  music  hall  containing  the  rooms  of  tlie  New  Eng- 
land Society,  Memorial  Hospital  with  training-school  for 
nurses.  House  of  the  (lood  Shepherd,  orphan  asylum.  Ma- 
sonic Temple  containing  the  post-otlice.  Women's  Christian 
Temperance  Union  building,  also  the  meeting  place  (d' the 
Woman's  Club,  and  the  Orange  Natioiud  Bank.  Among 
prominent  local  organizations  are  the  Bureau  of  As.sociated 
Charities,  the  Orange  Improvement  Society,  the  Essex 
Comity  Club,  anil  the  Orange  -Merulelssohn  Uinon.  Llewel- 
lyn Park,  extending  from  the  base  to  the  summit  of  the 
First  Mountain,  comprising  7.")0  acres,  and  containing  many 
fine  residences ;  Eagle  Rock,  650  feet  above  tide-water,  in 
We.st  Orange,  from  which  New  York  city  and  harbor  nuiy 
be  seen  ;  and  Hemlock  Falls,  the  wildest  momilain  part  of 
South  Orange,  are  among  the  attractions  of  the  city  aiul  its 
immediate  vicinity.  Tlie  locality  is  noted  for  the  cxcel- 
lem^e  of  its  roads.  Pop.  (1880)  V-i'.^m ;  (1890)  18.844  ;  (18!)5) 
22,792.  EurroR  oi"  " Chro.vui.i:." 

Orange:  city;  capital  of  Orange  co.,  Tex.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Texas,  nd'.  5-K);  on  the  Sabine  river,  at  the 
hea<l  of  navigation,  ami  on  the  S.  Pacific  Railroad;  103 
ndles  E.  of  Houston.  It  is  in  a  rice,  cotton,  orange,  sugar, 
and  stock-raising  regicm,  and  cimtains  lumber  and  shingle 
ndlls,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  Sf50.000,  aiul  two 
weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  not  in  census ;  (1890)3,173. 


Orange,  or  (iariep  :  the  largest  river  in  South  Africa,  S. 
of  20  S.  lat.  It  is  about  1,150  miles  long,  riseson  the  western 
slope  of  Mont  aux  Sources  in  the  Drakeidiergs  (29°  S.  lat.). 
runs  through  Basutoland.  in  a  narrow  valley  and  with  swift 
current  and  many  water-falls,  and  receives  in  the  upper 
two-tifths  of  its  course  all  its  important  tributaries,  the 
Calcdon  and  Vaal  being  most  important.  Then  flowing 
W.  through  a  wide  semi-arid  region  the  river  loses  much  of 
its  Volume  through  evaporation,  and  in  its  lower  course  it 
is  often  furdablc.  It  is  about  a  nule  and  a  half  wide  at  its 
mouth  in  the  rainy  season,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  rivers 
in  the  world,  having  no  imi)ortance  for  navigation.  The 
river  and  its  two  largest  triljutaries  all  have  Isirth  on  the 
slopes  of  the  same  mountain.  C.  C.  Adams. 

Orangeburg:  city;  ia|)ital  of  Orangeburg  co.,  S.  C.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  South  Carolina,  ref.  6-E) ;  on  the  North 
Edisto  river,  and  the  South  Carolina  aiui  (ieorgia  Railroad; 
.51  ndles  S.  of  Cohnnbia.  80  ndles  N.  W.  of  Charleston.  It 
is  in  an  agricultural  region  ;  is  an  important  market  for  cot- 
ton, rice,  turpentine,  and  lund)er:  has  a  variety  of  maiuifae- 
tories;  ami  contains  Claflin  I'idversity  (non-sectarian,  found- 
ed on  the  national  laud  grant,  and  chartered  in  1872),  the 
State  Agricultural  Cidlege,  two  State  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  .i;l36.0:!2,  a  private  bank,  and  two  weeklv  newspa- 
pers.    Pop.  (1S80)  2,140;  (1890)  2,964. 

Orange  City:  town  (founded  in  1870);  cajiital  of  Sioux 
CO..  la.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  2-C);  on  the  Chi. 
and  N.  \V.  Railway;  42  miles  N.  of  Sioux  City.  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  anil  hog-raising  region,  is  the  seat  of  the  Nortli- 
western  Classical  Academy  (Reformed,  chartered  in  1882), 
and  has  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  .f  75,000,  two  private 
banks,  and  three  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  320 ;  (1890) 
1,246 ;  (189.5)  1.480. 

Orange  Free  State:  independent  Boer  republic  in  South- 
east Africa,  with'the  South  xVfriean  Republic  on  the  N.  and 
separated  from  the  Indian  Ocean  by  Natal,  Basutoland.  aiul 
Cape  Colony.  It  was  founded  bv  Boers  who  withdrew  from 
Cape  Colony  in  1836.  Area,  48,326  sq.  nnles.  Pop.  (1890) 
77.716  white  and  120,787  black.  The  uniiulating  and 
healthful  plains  are  well  adapted  for  stock-rsiisiug.  which  is 
the  leading  industry.  The  couidry  is  thiidy  populated,  but 
the  new  railways  (1894)  are  stimulating  European  immigra- 
tion. The  capital,  Bloemfontein,  has  about  5,000  inhabit- 
ants. C.  C.  Adams. 

Orangemen  :  members  of  a  political  association  whose 
oHicial  name  is  The  Loyal  Orange  Institution,  formed,  in 
opposition  to  the  Ronum  Catholic  association  of  the  Kibbon- 
men.  for  the  purpose  of  defending  the  Protestant  religion  in 
Irelaiui,  maintaining  the  legislative  union  between  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  and  the  Protestant  succes.sion  to  the 
throne.  The  term  Orangemen,  which  came  into  use  after 
the  Revolution  of  1688,  meant  originally  the  supporters  of 
William  III.,  Prince  of  Orange,  against  the  deposed  Stmirts 
and  their  Kouuan  Catholic  adherents;  but  the  association 
was  not  fornu'd  till  179.5.  when  the  first  Orange  lodge  was 
founded  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  The  .society  grew  rapidly, 
and  the  hostility  between  its  mend)ers  and  Ronum  Catholics 
soon  gave  rise  to  bloody  conflicts,  which  it  required  consider- 
able military  force  to  supjire.ss.  At  last,  in  1836,  the  associ- 
ation was  dissolved,  but  in  1845  it  was  revived  as  a  secret 
society.  In  1829  the  institution  was  transferred  to  British 
America  with  great  success,  but  there,  too,  as  well  as  in  New 
York,  its  processions  have  sometimes  occasioned  riots. 

Orange  Oil :  an  essential  oil  w  hich  is  extracted  by  pres- 
sure or  distillation  with  water  from  orange-peel.  This  dis- 
tilled oil  consists  almost  wholly  of  a  cilrene  boiling  at  175  - 
176°  wdiich  is  identical  with  the  hydrocarbon  obtained  from 
bergamot,  caraway,  and  some  other  oils.  The  flowers  of 
the  orange  yield,  on  distillation  with  water,  a  fragrant  oil, 
called  Oil  of  neroli.  It  consists  of  two  oils,  one  readily 
soluble  in  water,  the  other  sparingly  .soluble.  Alcohol  of  90 
per  cent,  .separates  a  solid  neroli-camphor. 

Orange.  Prince  of:  See  William  ok  Nassal*. 

Orange  Sanils  :  See  Lakavktte  Fokmatiox. 

O'rang  T'tan.  or  (vulgarly)  Orang'-outang'  [from  ]\Ia- 
layan  ornng  Titan,  nuiii  of  the  woods;  orang,  man  -|-  iilan, 
wood,  forest] :  a  large  anthropoid  ape  {iSimia  .<:ali/nis)  in- 
habiting many  of  the  low  districts  of  Borneo,  and  more  rarely 
found  in  the  eiuitcrn  portion  of  Sumatra.  In  bulk  the  adult 
male  orang  comes  next  to  the  gorilla,  but  owing  to  the  short- 
ness of  the  legs  the  animal  rarely  attains  a  height  of  4  ft.  6 
in.,  the  maximum  size  recorded  being  4  ft.  8  in.    The  arms 


316 


ORAOX 


ORBIGNY 


are  very  long,  the  digits  of  the  hands  and  feet  mucli 
curved,  the  thumb  very  small.  In  the  old  males  the  face, 
which  is  black,  or  nearly  so.  is  almost  round,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  cheek  callosities.  The  collar-bones  are  so  long 
that  the  shoulders  are  nearly  on  a  level  witli  the  ears.  The 
canines  are  large  and  the  jaws  powerful,  but,  although  tlie 


Female  oranii:  utan. 


males  fight  with  one  another,  the  orang  is  a  timid  animal 
and  harmless  unless  brought  to  bay.  The  females,  wliieh 
are  much  smaller  than  the  males,  have  no  facial  callosities. 
The  orang  is  sparsely  clad  in  coarse  red  hair,  which  is  sub- 
ject to  considerable  variation  in  tint.  It  is  strictly  arboreal, 
never  descending  to  the  ground  unless  compelled  to  do  so, 
for  it  walks  poorly,  owing  to  the  curvature  of  the  toes  and 
the  oblique  manner  in  which  the  foot  is  set  on  the  leg.  The 
orang  prefers  low-lying  or  swampy  forests,  feeds  on  fruits 
and  vegetables,  and  Ijuilds  a  rude  nest  in  which  to  sleep. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 
Oraon :  See  Dravidian  Languages. 

Orato'rio  [=  Ital.  <  Late  Lat.  orato'rium,  chapel,  neut. 
of  oratoriiis,  pertaining  to  praying ;  cf.  ora're.  speak,  pray] : 
an  elevated  f(irm  of  musical  composition  in  wliieh  voices  and 
instruments  combine  to  represent  scenes,  passages,  or  themes 
from  biblical  or  sacred  history,  the  text  consisting  of  verses 
from  the  Scriptures  arranged  with  a  view  to  moral  and 
spiritual  effect ;  the  music  comprising  chorus,  recitative, 
aria,  quartette,  trio,  solo — in  short,  all  the  recognized  com- 
binations of  harmony  and  melody,  with  organ  and  orches- 
tral accompaniment,  as  in  opera.  It  differs  from  opera 
principally  in  being  sacred  instead  of  secular,  and  in  being 
unsuited  to  stage  or  scenic  representation.  When  it  becomes 
operatic  in  the  sense  of  scenic  and  passionate,  as  in  the  case  of 
Rossini's  Moses  in  Egijpt,  it  ceases  to  be  oratorio.  The  move- 
ment is  subjective,  the  development  ideal,  the  characteriza- 
tion intellectual,  the  spirit  epical.  The  oratorio  was  never 
intended  to  do  service  in  the  offices  of  worship,  was  never 
written  in  the  direct  interest  of  Sabbath  or  cathedral  ob- 
servances. It  was,  in  fact,  an  effort  to  associate  the  charm 
of  musical  composition  with  the  solemnity  of  sacred  themes. 
Hence,  in  large  measure,  its  popularity  in  England  with  the 
"  evangelical "  Protestants,  who  are  forbidden  by  their 
religious  feeling  to  attend  operatic  and  theatrical  enter- 
tainments, and  with  a  similar  class  in  the  U.  S.  In  Paris  it 
has,  in  fact,  no  abiding-place,  nor  is  it  held  in  favor  in  Italv, 
where  it  originated.  In  (iermany,  also,  oratorio  is  seldom 
heard,  except  at  occasional  festivals  wiiere  many  voices  can 
be  grouped  together.  The  germs  of  oratorio  existed  in  the 
Middle  Ages  in  the  shape  of  mysteries  and  moralities— 
scenes  from  Scripture  rudely  dramatized,  with  some  primi- 
tive sort  of  music,  the  design  being  to  entertain  the  coarse 
and  vacant-miniled  peasantry  and  entice  them  from  idle- 
ness and  vicious  pleasure.  The  steps  of  development  in 
(conception  and  form  can  not  be  traced.  In  the  midiUe  of 
the  sixteenth  century  St.  Philip  Xeri.  a  man  of  deep  humor 
and  genuine  .symjiatiiy  with  the  people,  attemiited  to  mingle 
instruction  and  entertainment  by  engaging  the  music  direc- 
tor of  St.  Peter's  church  to  aid  him  in  his  popular  interpre- 


tations of  sacred  story.     The  musician  introduced  songs  in 

passages  of  dialogue  and  soliloquy.  That  the  attempt  was 
successful  appears  from  the  fact  that  it  was  nuide  in  other 
places  and  with  more  art.  In  the  year  1600  one  of  these 
musical  dramas  was  exhibited  on  a  stage  erected  in  the 
Church  Sta.  Maria  in  Valicella.  It  was  called  Soul  and 
Body,  was  composed  by  Eniilio  dei  Cavalieri,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  the  first  systematic  production  of  oratorio,  with 
chorus,  recitative,  and  song.  To  these  the  dance  was  added. 
Fiom  this  point  to  the  time  of  Handel  the  history  of 
or  itorio  is  uncertain.  In  the  seventeenth  century  Giacomo 
(  irisbuni  composed  Jephthah  and  the  Judgment  of  Solomon ; 
in  the  litter  part  of  the  same  century  Francis  Federici  com- 
posLd  two  pieces,  Santa  Cristina  and  Santa  Catarina  di 
Siena  which  were  called  oratorios.  Among  composers  of 
oiatoiio  may  be  mentioned  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  Alessandro 
Sti  idelU  (John  the  Baptist),  Giacomo  Perti  (Abraham), 
Beni  (ktto  MarccUo  (Judith),  Heinrich  Schiitz  (Resurrection 
md  Seien  Words),  all  of  about  the  .same  period  (1(545-1710) 
Among  (U'atorios  the  Passion  3Iusic  according  to  St.  Mat- 
theu  composed  by  John  Sebastian  Bach,  must  be  regarded 
as  the  gieatest,  most  monumental  work  of  its  kind.  Ec;uai- 
Iv  nnbued  with  the  religious  spirit  of  its  day  as  in  ca.se  of 
H  iiidcl  s  Messiah,  its  technical  value  is  far  greate:  From 
till  st  mdpoint  of  popularity,  using  the  word  in  its  best  and 
liioiiltst  sense,  the  3Iessiah  seems  to  enjoy  a  ]ierennial  life 
wlRii\er  the  English  tongue  is  .spoken.  Both  by  the  num- 
ber and  caliber  of  his  works,  and  by  their  enduring  influ- 
ente  down  to  this  day,  Handel  may  well  be  considered  the 
gii  it  mister  of  oratorio.  His  best-known  works  were  Saul 
(1740)  Messiah  (114^  ;  Samson,  Judas  Jfacciilieus  (1747); 
Jc/ihthah  (17.51).  All  have  English  words.  Tlie  greatest, 
Messiah,  is  considered  the  ma.sterpiece  of  its  kind.  The 
Creation,  by  llaydn  (1798),  ranks  next  to  it  in  popular 
repute.  They  have  but  one  peer,  Mendelssohn,  whose  St. 
Paul  (1836)  and  Elijah  (1846)  are  brilliant  and  beautiful 
examples  of  the  capacity  of  this  species  of  composition. 
With  lovers  of  music  Elijah  is  greeted  with  more  enthusi- 
asm than  even  the  Messiah,  its  spirit  being  more  modern, 
its  musical  form  more  flexible,  its  conceptions  more  intel- 
lectual. While  the  tone  is  purely  and  throughout  religious, 
the  ideas,  less  confined  to  dogma,  are  addressed  to  the 
imagination  ratlierthan  to  the  heart — to  the  aesthetic  rather 
than  to  the  '■  spiritual  "  sense.     Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Oratory,  Congregation  of  the :  a  monastic  order  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  founded  in  1560  by  St.  Philip 
Neri ;  established  in  Prance  in  1611.  Its  first  rnle  was  oral, 
but  was  afterward  written  out,  and  received  pajial  approval 
in  1613.  The  fathers  are  mostly  devoted  to  the  spread  of 
learning;  they  assume  no  vows  but  those  of  the  .secular 
priesthood.  One  of  the  most  eminent  of  their  number  in 
modern  times  was  Dr.,  afterward  Cardinal,  J.  II.  Newman. 
Baronius,  Bosio,  BeruUe,  Malebranche,  Galhmdi,  and  Mas- 
sillon  are  among  those  who  belonged  to  the  order  in  times 
past.  The  French  Oratory,  called  the  Oratory  of  Jesus,  was 
always  a  distinct  thougli  kindred  organization.  It  is  now 
nearly  extinct.  Revised  by  J.  J.  Keane. 

Orbego'so,  Luis  Jose  :  politician ;  b.  near  Iluamaohueo, 
Peru,  Aug.  85,  1795.  He  was  a  rich  proprietor,  took  an  ac- 
tive part  in  politics,  and  on  Dec.  20,  1833,  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  Peru  by  the  constitutional  convention  which  was 
then  sitting.  Strictly  speaking,  the  convention  luid  no  right 
to  elect  a  jiresident,  but  Orbegoso  was  popular,  and  for  a 
year  his  rule  was  generally  accepted.  In  Jan.,  1834,  Ga- 
marra  declared  against  him,  proclaiming  Bermudez  as  su- 
preme chief.  The  civil  war  which  followed  was  ended  in, 
April  by  mutual  agreement,  but  new  rebellions,  headed  by 
Gamarra,  Salaverry,  and  others,  broke  out  early  in  1835,  and 
t)rbegoso,  after  repeated  defeats,  accejited  the  intervention 
of  President  Santa  Cruz  of  Bolivia.  The  result  was  the  in- 
vasion of  Peru  by  Santa  Cruz,  who  formed  the  Peru-Boliv- 
ian confederation  in  1836  (see  Santa  Cruz),  Orbegoso  being 
nominated  president  of  North  Peru,  one  of  the  confederated 
states.  In  1837  he  was  defeated  by  Gamarra  and  tlie  Chil- 
ians. After  passing  several  years  in  exile,  he  was  allowed  to 
return  to  Truxillo,  where  he  died  in  1847.  H.  H.  S. 

Orhigny,  or'be"en'yee'.  Alcide  Dessalines,  d" :  zoologist 
and  ethnologist;  b.  at  ('oueron,  Loire-Inferienre,  France, 
Sejit.  6,  1803.  Prom  1836  to  1833  he  exfilored  .Southern 
Brazil,  the  Platine  States,  Patagonia,  Bolivia,  and  Peru. 
The  results  of  this  journey  were  published  at  the  expense  of 
the  French  Government,  with  the  general  title  Voyage  dans 
V Amirique  Meridionale  (1834-47) ;  the  work  includes,  be- 


ORBILlL".s   PLIMLLUS 


ORCHIDS 


sides  the  narrative,  several  volumes  on  zoology,  and  I'llom- 

me  Amincdin  (3  vols.),  an  impurtiint  treatise  on  South  Aiiu^r- 
ican  elliniilii!,'y.  D'Orbijjiiy  also  puhlisht'd  viiricius  niDiuj- 
graphs  on  Ki)raiiiiliilVra,  etc.;  lie  euiitributed  tlie  vuluines 
on  Foraniinifera,  Mollusea.  and  birds  to  Kanion  de  la  Sagra"s 
Ifislitria  de  Cuba,  and  collaborated  with  his  brother.  Charles 
Dcssaline.s  d'Orbigny,  in  the  Dictionnaire  d'/ii.sfuire  natu- 
relle.  His  most  important  work  was  the  Paltont(iliM/ie.  frait- 
t;aixe  (14  vols..  lH4{l-r)-l ;  unfinished).  From  IHoS  he  was 
Professor  of  Pahcontnlngy  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory at  Paris.     I),  near  Paris,  June  uU,  1857.  H.  H.  S. 

Orbil'ius  Pnpirins,  Lucius :  a  grammarian  and  teacher 
at  Home  in  Hurace's  boyhood:  b.  at  lieneventum.  He 
served  at  first,  as  stateil  by  Suetonius,  who  meiitinns  luui 
in  his  list  of  distinguished  grammarians,  as  an  attendant  on 
the  magistrates  of  his  native  place,.then  in  the  army  in 
Macedonia.  In  his  fiftieth  year  he  removed  to  Rdrae,  in 
the  consulship  of  Cicero,  where  he  taught  school  for  many 
years,  and  had  among  his  pupils  the  poets  Domitius  Marsus 
and  Horace,  who  recalls  in  his  /,'yi/'.s//<',s-  the  .severity  of  his 
master.  His  teaching  brought  him  more  fame  than  profit, 
for  he  died  poor  at  the  age  of  nearly  a  hundred.  His  fel- 
low townsmen  erected  a  marble  statue  to  his  honor  in  Bcne- 
ventiim.  .Suetonius  cites  a  work  of  his  with  the  title  Pvria- 
lo(/os,  but  this  name  is  evidentiv  corrupt.  See  Teuffel,  Lat. 
Lit.,  §  300;  Est  re,  Prosopogr.  Uorat,  p.  437. 

Revised  by  M.  Wareex. 

Orbit  [from  Lat.  nrhita.  wheel-track,  course,  circuit,  de- 
riv.  of  or  Aj'.'S,  circle,  wheel] :  the  path  in  which  a  heavenly 
body  moves.  When  there  are  but  two  bodies  the  revolution 
occurs  in  consequence  of  their  mutual  gravitation,  combined 
with  the  original  relative  motion  of  the  bodies.  The  orbit 
is  then  described  in  accordance  with  Keppler's  law.s,  which, 
when  modified  in  accordance  with  modern  mechanics,  arc 
as  follows : 

1.  Kach  body  describes  an  ellipse  in  space,  having  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity  of  the  two  bodies  as  i\w.  center  of  motion,  in 
one  of  its  foci.  If  the  motion  of  the  lesser  body  is  referred 
to  tlie  greater,  taken  as  a  point  at  rest,  as  is  usual  in  astrono- 
my, the  lesser  still  describes  an  ellipse  having  the  greater  in 
one  of  its  foci. 

3.  The  velocity  of  each  body  in  its  orbit  varies  in  such  a 
way  (hat  the  radius  vector,  or  line  drawn  from  one  body  to  the 
otiier,  sweeps  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times.  The  velocity 
is  therefore  greater  the  nearer  the  two  bodiiis  come  together. 

3.  The  cube  of  tlie  semimajor  axis  of  the  elliiise,  divided 
liy  the  .square  of  the  time  of  revohilion,  is  proportional  to 
the  combined  ma.s,ses  of  the  two  boilies. 

Tln:se  laws  of  Kepler  were  sliown  by  Sir  Isaac  Xewton  to 
result  directly  fn>m  the  theory  (jf  gravitation.  From  them 
it  follows  that,  in  cu'der  to  determine  and  define  the  motion 
of  a  body  around  an  attracting  center,  such  as  a  planet 
arouml  the  sun,  certain  quantities,  called  elements,  are  nec- 
essary. In  the  case  of  an  elliptic  orbit  these  elements  are  as 
follows,  the  symbol  which  follows  each  Vjeing  the  letter  com- 
moidy  used  to  represent  the  elements: 

1.  The  mean  tlistance,  or  half  the  major  axis  of  the  elli[)se 
in  which  the  planet  moves  arouiul  the  sun.  It  is  equal  to 
half  the  sum  of  the  greatest  and  least  distances  of  the  planet. 
Syndjol  a. 

3.  The  eccentricity  of  the  ellipse,  symbol  e.  Instead  of  e 
an  angle  ip  is  often  used,  of  which  e  is  the  sine. 

'i.  The  longitude  of  the  as(!endlng  node,  or  the  angle 
which  the  vernal  ecpiinox  makes  with  the  line  in  which  the 
plane  of  the  orbit  inter.sects  the  plaiu!  of  the  eclijitic.  Svm- 
bol  n. 

4.  The  inclination  ot  the  plane  of  the  orbit  to  that  of  the 
ecliptic.     Symbol  i. 

5.  The  longitude  of  the  perihelion,  by  which  is  commoidy 
meant  the  longittide  of  the  node,  plus  the  angular  distance 
from  the  node  to  the  perihelion  as  seen  from  the  sun.  Sym- 
bol ir. 

fi.  The  mean  longitude  of  the  planet  at  some  given  epoch. 
l>y  mean  longitude  is  here  meant  the  longituile  of  a  ficti- 
tious or  imagineil  planet  which  moves  around  the  sun  with 
uniform  velocity,  in  the  same  time  as  the  actual  planet,  and 
in  such  a  way  that,  in  a  general  average,  it  is  as  nmch  be- 
hind the  actual  (ilanet  as  in  advance  of  it.     Symbol  Ij. 

7.  The  mean  daily  motion,  or  the  ilaily  angidar  motion  of 
a  planet  which  woulil  revolve  around  the  sun  in  the  same 
time  as  the  actual  planet.  When  the  masses  of  the  two 
bodies  are  known  this  element  can  be  determined  from  the 
mean  distance.     Symbol  fi  or  n. 


Various  combinations  of  these  elements  are  sometimes  in- 
troduced, among  them  the  distance  from  the  node  to  the 
perihelicju,   symbol   w,  and  the  mean   anomaly,  symbol  M. 
The  relations  of  these  quantities  to  the  other  elements  are  : 
(I)  =  w  —  n 
M  =  L  -  IT 

If  but  a  single  planet  moved  around  the  sun  its  motion 
would  take  place  in  strict  accordance  with  Ke|)ler"s  laws, 
and  the  elements  of  the  orbit,  as  above  described,  would  re- 
nunn  invariable  ;  but,  owing  to  the  attraction  of  the  other 
planets,  each  |ilanet  deviates  from  such  an  elliptic  orbit. 
Moreover,  this  elliptic  or  mean  orbit  is  slowly  changing  from 
century  to  century.  These  changes  are  called  secular  varia- 
tions, and  the  problem  of  their  comjiutation  is  one  of  the 
most  I'emarUable  of  modern  astronomy.  Their  laws  can  not 
be  derived  from  all  the  observations  hitherto  made  on  the 
))lanets;  but  from  mathematical  investigation,  founded  on 
the  theory  of  gravitation,  the  changes  in  the  orbits  can  be 
computed  for  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  past  and  to 
come.  S.  Nkw(o.mb. 

Orcagna,  or-kaan'ya"ii.  A.ndrea  (also  called  Aiulrea  di 
Clone,  after  his  father) :  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect:  b. 
at  Florence  about  l:n(i.  He  learned  .sculpture  as  a  child 
from  Andrea  I'isano.  After  a  few  years  he  studied  [mint- 
ing, which  he  preferred,  with  the  (iaildis.  ami  architecture 
by  studying  the  works  of  (;i(]tto  and  .\rnolfodi  Las.so.  The 
principal  chapel  in  Sta.  Maria  Novella  was  painted  by  Andrea 
and  his  brother  Bernardo.  Aiulrea  executed  ^4  Last  Judg- 
ment and  Clirixfand  tlie  Virgin  enthnined  in  Heaven.  From 
1358  to  1360  he  was  chief  architect  of  the  cathedral  at  Or- 
vieto.  His  architectural  skill  is  shown  in  the  Loggia  dei 
Lanzi  and  in  the  tabernacle  of  Or  .San  Jlichele,  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  age  for  its  richness  of  ornamentation.  It 
was  completed  in  156!).  Few  of  his  paintings  remain.  One, 
a  retable  painted  for  the  Church  of  St.  Pietro  Maggiore,  in 
Florence,  is  now  in  the  National  Gallery  in  Londim.  Orca- 
gna was  also  a  poet.     D.  about  1376.  W.  J.  .Stillman. 

Or'cein  (lichen-red,  Flerhtenroth):  CtHtNOs,  the  chief 
ingredient  of  the  red  and  purple  dyestuffs  known  under  the 
name  of  Archil  (</.  v.).  It  is  foriruMl  by  the  action  (jf  am- 
monia and  oxygen  on  orcin,  CvHjOj,  and  consists  of  two 
.substances,  one  having  the  composition  C14II13NO4,  the  other 
CiiHnJ^aOa.  When  ammonia  is  added  to  a  solution  of  orcin, 
and  the  whole  is  exposed  to  the  air,  the  liquid  assumes  a 
dark-red  or  purple  tint  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen.  On 
acidulating  with  acetic  acid,  a  dark-red  precipitate  of  orcein 
is  obtained.  Orcein  is  slightlV  .soluble  in  water  aiul  freely 
soluble  in  ammonia  and  fixed  alkalies,  with  a  pur|]lc  or 
violet  color ;  it  is  very  soluble  in  alcohol. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Orchardsoii.  William  Qtiller  :  genre  and  portrait 
painter;  b.  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  18.35.  Studied  in 
the  Trustees"  .\cadeniy.  Ediidiurgh  ;  jiaiided  portraits  in 
Edinburgh  until  1863,  when  he  went  to  London  ;  was  elected 
Royal  Academician  1878  and  a  D.  C.  L.  of  Oxford  in  1800; 
was  awarded  third-class  medals  at  the  Paris  Expositions  of 
1867  and  1878;  fir.st-class  at  Paris  Exijosition  of  188i).  His 
works  are  distinguished  by  fine  qiuility  of  color  and  have  a 
marked  personality.     Stiulio  in  Loiulon.  W.  A.  C. 

Orchostra.  Sr'kes-tni  [from  Lat,  orchestra  =  Gr.  opx^Jo'Tpo, 
the  space  in  a  theater  bel ween  (he  .stage  and  the  audience, 
liter,,  dancing-place,  deriv,  of  opx^^iriai.  dance] :  the  place  or 
structure  occupied  by  performers  on  instruments  in  a  theater, 
music-hall,  or  other  building  fitted  for  concerts,  oratorios, 
etc.  In  oratorios,  cantatas,  and  other  pieces  with  vocal  parts 
a  portion  of  the  orchestra  is  also  allotted  to  the  choir.  The 
term  "  orchestia."  in  modern  u.se.  often  means  tlu' body  of 
instrumental  performers  themselves,  especially  as  distin- 
guished from  the  choir  or  vocal  department,  in  the  execu- 
tion of  siu'h  works  as  are  for  voices  and  instruments. 

Orchids,  or  Orollida'OPiP  [Mod,  \ai{.  Orcliidaceo',  from 
Or'chi.^,  the  ty])ieal  g<'iius  =  Lat,  or rliis  =  Gr.  upx's,  orchid, 
testicle,  so  called  from  the  shajie  of  its  tubers]:  a  fannly  of 
perennial  endogenous  herbs,  found  all  over  the  world  except 
in  very  cold  and  very  dry  climates.  In  the  cooler  regions 
they  are  terrestrial,  while  in  hot  countries  they  are  often  air- 
plants,  growing  upon  stones  and  trees,  but  e[)iphytic  rather 
than  parasitic.  They  have  irregular  and  often  extremely 
beautiful,  but  sometimes  very  grotesque,  flowers,  perfect, 
with  a  hexamerous  adiuite  perianth,  a  one-celled  ovary,  nu- 
merous ovules,  and  three  parietal  placenta".  The  stamens 
are  one,  two,  or  three  ;  the  [lollen  generally  coheres  in  ma.s.ses. 


318 


OECHIL 


ORDEAL 


Fertilization  is  almost  always  effected  by  the  aid  of  insects. 
Many  of  the  species  have  flowers  singularly  resembling  in- 
sects in  form.  Many  have  very  fragrant  blossoms.  This 
vast  order  affords  a  few  iisetuf  plants,  among  which  are 
vanilla,  faham,  salep.  also  several  medicinal  products.  Flor- 
ists successfully  cultivate  many  superb  tropical  epiphytes  of 
this  order.  Tlie  U.  S.  has  comparatively  few  species  of  or- 
chids, although  some,  lilce  the  lady-slippers,  are  curious  and 
beautiful.  See  Cattleya,  Cypripediu.m.  Epidendrum.  Holy 
Ghost  Flower,  etc.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Orchil :  See  Archil. 

Orchoiu'euiis  (in  Gr.  'Opxofifvis) :  an  old  city  of  Greece, 
situated  in  Boeotia,  at  the  entrance  of  the  river  Cephissus 
into  the  Lalce  C'opais :  the  capital  of  the  prehistoric  empire 
of  the  Minya?.  It  is  reported  by  Homer  to  have  sent  thirty 
ships  to  the"  siege  of  Troy,  and  to  have  contained  riches  which 
might  be  compared  to  those  of  Thebes  in  Egypt.  In  the  Per- 
sian wars  it  abandoned  the  national  cause,  and  in  the  wars 
between  tlie  various  Greek  races  it  always  sided  with  the 
aristocratic  party  ;  but  in  86T  B.  c.  it  was  taken  and  destroyed 
by  the  Thebans.  The  buildings  were  burnt,  the  men  put  to 
the  sword,  the  women  and  children  sold  as  slaves.  Rebuilt 
by  the  Phocians,  it  was  again  destroyed  by  the  Thebans  in 
346,  and  although  Philip  of  Macedon  once  more  rebuilt  it, 
it  never  again  acquired  any  importance.  The  site  was  ex- 
cavated by  Schliemann  in  1880,  1881,  and  1886.  See  his 
Orchomenos,  but  better  Schuchhardt,  Schliemann's  Excava- 
tions (London,  1891),  pp.  299-303.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Or'cill :  a  compound  belonging  to  the  class  of  Phenols 
(q.  v.),  being  closely  related  to  ordinary  phenol  or  Carbolic 
Acid  (q.  v.).  It  is  derived  from  Toluene  {q.  i:)  by  the  sub- 
stitution of  two  hydroxyl  groups  for  two  hydrogen  atoms  : 

(CH, 
C.Ih.CHi,        CeHs-  OH 

(oh 

Toluene.  Orcin. 

It  is  obtained  from  certain  lichens  which  yield  Archil 
(q.  v.),  though  in  most  of  these  it  is  not  contained  ready 
formed.  It  is  produced  by  transformations  of  other  con- 
stituents of  the  lichens,  especially  erythrin,  CsoH^jOio ;  le- 
canoric  acid,  Ci8Hi407 ;  evernic  acid,  dsHuO? ;  and  orsel- 
linic  acid,  C'eHsO,.  It  can  be  made  artificially  by  a  number 
of  methods,  and  is  so  prepared  on  the  large  scale.  Ammonia 
converts  it  into  Orcein  (q.  v.).  Ira  Remsen. 

Ord,  Edward  Otho  Cresap:  soldier;  b.  in  Cumberland, 
Md.,  Oct.  19,  1818  ;  graduated  from  the  U.  S.  Jlilitary  Acad- 
emy, and  was  appointed  second  lieutenant  of  artillery  July, 
1839 ;  served  in  Florida  and  on  frontier  duty,  and  at  the 
outbreak  of  war  in  1861  was  stationed  in  California.  Ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  he  fought  the  battle 
of  Dranesville  Dec.  20,  1861 ;  and  as  major-general  of  volun- 
teers commanded  the  left  wing  of  Gen.  Grant's  army  in 
Mississippi  Aug.-Sept.,  1862,  participating  in  the  battle  of 
luka,  Sept.  19-20,  and  while  in  command  at  the  action  on 
the  Hatchie,  Oct.  5,  1862,  was  severely  wounded.  He  com- 
manded the  Thirteenth  Army-corps  during  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Vicksburg  and  capture  of  Jackson:  the  Eighth 
Corps  and  middle  department  July  11-21,  1864;  and  the 
Eighteenth  Corps  before  Richmond,  July  21-Sept.  29,  when 
again  wounded  in  the  assault  and  capture  of  Fort  Harrison. 
On  Jan.  18,  1865,  he  relieved  Gen.  Butler  in  command  of  the 
department  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  and  of  the  Army 
of  the  James,  with  wliich  army  he  remained  throughout  the 
siege  of  Petersburg  and  subsequent  pursuit  of  the  Confeder- 
ate army  of  Northern  Virginia,  ending  in  the  surrender  at 
Appomattox  Court-house.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  had 
received  brevets  from  lieutenant-colonel  to  major-general, 
U.  S.  army,  had  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  of 
artillery,  but  continued  to  hold  his  volunteer  rank  of  m.ajor- 
general,  and  commanded  various  districts  and  departments 
until  S(ipt.,  1866,  when  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  serv- 
ice, having,  however,  been  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
(July,  186(5)  in  the  regular  army.  He  wa.s  in  command  of 
various  military  departments  1866-80;  and  on  Dec.  6,  1880, 
was  by  special  act  of  Congress  placed  on  the  retired  list 
with  rank  of  major-general  Jan.  28,  1881.  D.  in  Havana, 
Cuba,  July  22,  1883.  Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Ordaz,  or  Ordiis,  Dieoo,  de  ;  soldiiT  and  explorer;  b.  in 
Spain  about  1480.  He  was  with  Ojeda  at  Daricn  (1.509),  with 
Velasquez  in  Cuba  (151 1),  and  with  Cortes  in  the  conquest  of 
Mexico  1519-21.  I;aler  he  dlilaineil  a  gnuit  of  the  country 
now  embraced  in  Guiana  and  Eastern  \'enezuela,  and  iii 


1531-32  he  made  the  first  exploration  of  the  Orinoco,  ascend- 
ing, it  woukl  appear,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Meta.  During  this 
journey  one  of  his  officers,  Martinez,  wandered  far  inland, 
and  claimed  to  have  seen  a  magnificent  city  whose  king  was 
gilded  with  gold-dust ;  this  account  or  invention  was  the 
origin  of  the  myth  of  El  Dorado.  On  his  return  to  the  coast 
charges  were  made  against  Ordaz,  and  he  was  arrested  and 
sent  to  Santo  Domingo ;  tliere  he  was  released,  and  started 
for  Spain,  but  died  at  sea  1533.  H.  H.  Smith. 

Ordeal  [O.  Eng.  orddl,  ordd'I.  judgment  :  Germ,  urtheil, 
judgment.  The  original  meaning  is  something  dealt  out; 
cf.  Goth.  MS-,  out,  and  Eng.  deal'l :  a  form  of  trial  of  guilt  or 
innocence,  consisting  in  an  appeal  to  the  immediate  judg- 
ment or  intervention  of  God  by  subjecting  a  person  to  a  cer- 
tain test  in  the  belief  that  if  he  be  innocent  God  will  so 
shape  the  result  as  to  I'ndicate  it. 

Evidence  of  the  existence  in  one  form  or  another  of  the 
trial  by  ordeal  is  found  in  the  earliest  records  of  all  the 
races  of  mankind:  and  the  institution  formed  a  prominent 
part  of  the  jurisprudence  of  the  Christianized  barbarian 
races  of  mediaeval  Europe,  from  which  the  nations  of  mod- 
ern Europe  are  descended,  being  the  survival  of  customs 
which  obtained  among  them  when  pagans.  Its  legal  exist- 
ence has  survived  in  some  countries  into  the  nineteenth, 
century,  as  in  England,  where  trial  by  Battel  {q.  «>.)  was 
only  finally  abolished  in  the  year  1819  (59  George  III.,  c.  46). 
There  are  traces  of  the  institution  in  the  literature  of  all  the 
civilized  nations  of  antiquity,  as  among  the  Greeks  in  Sopho- 
cles's  Antigo7ie  (ver.  264-267),  and  among  the  Jews  in  the 
Bilde  (Num.  v.  11-31 ;  Joshua  vii.  16-18 ;  1  Samuel  xiv.  41-42). 

The  tests  which  have  been  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of 
trial  by  ordeal  are  very  numerous,  such  as  fire,  wager  of 
battle,  boiling  water,  the  drinking  of  poisoned  water,  etc., 
the  last  mentioned  being  a  very  general  practice  among  sav- 
age races. 

Trial  by  wager  of  battle  was  a  very  common  form  among 
the  Germanic  nations,  and  was  resorted  to  in  both  criminal 
and  civil  cases.  The  accused  challenged  the  accuser,  and 
they  fought,  either  in  person  or  later  by  champions,  in  the 
presence  of  judges,  the  victor  being  deemed  innocent  or  just 
in  his  cause.  (See  Battel.)  The  trial  by  battle  continued 
in  practice  until  the  seventeenth  century,  and  survives  to- 
day in  the  modern  duel.     See  Duel. 

Trial  by  fire  was  one  of  the  forms  of  ordeal  most  thor- 
oughly established  in  mediaeval  Europe,  and  was  sanctioned 
by  the  Christian  clergy,  and  administered  under  their  su- 
perintendence. At  first  it  was  u.sed  only  on  very  solemn  oc- 
casions, but  later  became  quite  common  as  a  more  aristo- 
cratic mode  of  trial  than  that  by  water,  which  later  came  to 
be  considered  plebeian.  It  h.ad  various  forms,  such  as  the 
putting  on  of  a  red-hot  iron  glove,  walking  barefooted  and 
blindfolded  over  red-hot  plowshares,  and  passing  through 
a  fire  with  nothing  but  a  thin  shirt  for  a  covering;  but  the 
most  common  method  was  for  the  accused  to  carry  a  piece  of 
red-hot  iron  in  his  hand  for  a  given  distance.  If  unhurt,  he 
was  declared  innocent :  if  burned,  guilty.  Oases  in  which 
persons  were  injured  or  killed  by  this  ordeal  were  very  rare,, 
for  the  trial  was  seldom  granted,  except  when  the  accused 
by  some  means  could  be  given  a  victory.  It  was  granted  to 
nolile  ladies  as  a  means  of  proving  their  chastity,  and  tra- 
dition records  a  number  of  instances  in  which  the  ordeal 
was  successfully  submitted  to.  In  1498  Savonarola  appealed 
to  the  trial  by  fire,  but  at  the  last  moment  the  ordeal  was 
given  up,  his  enemies  alleging  that  he  refused  to  submit  to 
it.  Another  form  of  trial  by  fire  or  heat  was  that  in  which 
the  accused  thrust  his  hand,  or  hand  and  arm,  into  a  vessel 
filled  with  boiling  water  to  take  up  some  small  object  placed 
in  the  water.  Sometimes  boiling  oil  was  used  instead  of 
water.  If  the  accused  escaped  unin.iured,  he  was  deemed 
innocent;  if  burned,  guilty;  but  in  some  cases  it  was  the 
custom  to  bind  and  seal  up  the  arm  for  three  days,  when  it 
was  examined,  and  innocence  or  guilt  determined  by  the  re- 
sult. This  ordeal  survived  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  fif- 
teenth century. 

In  the  cold  water  ordeal  the  accused  was  thrown,  with  the 
arms  and  legs  tied,  into  a  pond  or  river,  and  was  adjudged 
guilty  if  he  floated,  innocent  if  he  sank.  If  he  was  drowned 
before  he  was  removed  by  the  rope  which  was  attached  to- 
his  body,  the  innocent  dead  person  became  a  saint.  After 
this  form  of  ordeal  ceased  to  be  in  general  use,  it  was  much 
useil  in  cases  of  women  accused  of  witchcraft,  and  these 
witch  ordeals  did  not  disappear  until  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 


ORDER 


ORDERS  OF  ARCUITECTURE 


319 


The  ordeal  of  bi-KiU  or  cheese  consisted  in  K'ving  the  ac- 
cused a  bit  of  bread  or  clu'cse  over  wliicli  prayers  and  ad- 
jurations liad  been  performed,  and  if  the  ueeuse<l  were  alile 
to  swallow  it,  lie  was  adjudjied  innocent :  if  not,  jiuilly.  A 
sjiecial  form  of  this  was  the  ordeal  of  the  Eucharist,  used 
mostly  amonj;  the  clergy,  which  consisteil  in  taking  the  holy 
sacrament  under  solemn  imprecations  of  the  vengeance  of 
God  if  it  were  taken  to  cover  a  lie.  Il  was  believed  that  the 
guilty  could  not  swallow  the  morsel  without  being  clioked  : 
and  it  is  possible  that  the  consciousness  of  guilt  might  pro- 
duce involuntary  inability  to  swallow. 

The  ordeal  of  the  cross  was  one  of  simple  endurance  bc- 
twei'U  the  accuseil  and  the  accuser,  the  test  being  which 
could  uphold  his  arms  the  longer  before  the  cross.  This 
orileal  biianie  obsolete  at  an  early  day. 

The  ordeal  of  the  bier  was  biised  upon  the  superstition 
that  the  body  of  a  murdered  person  would  bleed  or  move 
upon  the  approach  or  touch  of  the  murderer.  This  ordeal 
survived  until  a  comparatively  late  date  as  a  superstition, 
although  it  early  lost  its  authority  as  an  ordeal. 

Trial  by  lot  was  an  early  form  of  ordeid  which  was  chiefly 
used  as  a  means  of  discovering  a  thief  or  a  nmrderer.  Its 
insulTieiency  for  this  purpo.se  was  soon  understood,  however, 
but  it  cont  iuues  as  a  superstitious  means  of  decision  in  doubt- 
ful circumstances. 

In  the  early  periods  many  of  the  forms  of  ordeal  were 
sanctioned  by  tlie  councils  of  tlie  Church,  aiul  administered 
by  ecclesiastics;  yet  from  the  si.xth  century  down  they  were 
generally  cotuleuined  by  the  popes,  but  with  little  effect  on 
tlie  clergy,  who  continued  to  sanction  and  administer  them. 
The  papal  authority,  however,  and  the  revival  of  the  Roman 
law  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  and  the  general 
growth  of  intelligence  among  the  people,  finally  resulted  in 
the  overthrow  of  the  institution  of  trial  by  ordeal.  See 
Henry  ('.  Lea's  Sicperstition  and  Force  (id  ed.  Philadel- 
phia, 1870).  P.  Sturues  Ali.k.n. 

Order  [from  Lat.  or'do.  or'dinis,  row,  series,  order] :  a 
name  used  by  zoologists  and  botanists  for  combinations  of 
animals  and  plants.  In  zoology  it  is  now  always  used  for  a 
group  comprising  one  or  more  families  and  intervening  be- 
tween the  Family  (q.  v.)  and  the  class.  In  botany  the  term 
has  generally  been  used  much  as  family  is  used  in  zoology — 
that  is,  to  denote  a  group  above  the  rank  of  a  genus;  but 
in  the  botanical  articles  in  this  cyclopa'dia  the  usage  agrees 
with  that  in  zoology.  F.  A.  L. 

Orders :  f)riginally.  organized  bodies  of  men  vowed  to 
monastic  rule  as  well  as  military  life,  especially  for  war 
against  the  Saracens  and  Jloors ;  secondly,  select  bodies  of 
knights  and  nobles  having  a  peculiar  title  conferred  upon 
I'ach  of  (hem,  and  a  badge  of  some  sort  to  testify  to  it; 
thirdly,  modern  organizations,  sometimes  supposed  to  be 
confined  to  men  (or  in  rare  cases  to  women)  who  have 
shown  especial  courage  or  merit,  and  more  often  consisting 
partly  of  these  and  partly  of  men  occupying  high  oflicial 
positions;  also  the  decorations  or  badges  inilicaiing  mem- 
bership in  such  organizations.  I'erhaps  IJOO  orders  have  ex- 
isted in  I'luropi!  since  the  tenth  century,  and  there  are  imi- 
tations of  these  estalilished  liv  Oriental  sovereigns. 

1.  3Ic<li(vml  Fii/hliiii/  <)ril'rrs.—'\'\w  Order  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem  is  thought  to  have  been  founded  in  the  eleventh 
century,  and  was  certainly  organized  as  a  great  military 
and  reiigious  body  about  1120.  When  the  Christians  were 
tinally  expelled  from  Palestine  this  order  settled  at  Rhodes, 
and  afterward  at  JIalta.  and  they  were  called  Knights  of 
Rhodes  and  Knights  of  Malta  accordingly.  They  are  often 
called  h'iiii//i/s  i/os/tilallers.  because  llu'irlirst  organization 
wa.s  conuceted  with  a  hospital  in  .lerusalem.  The  order 
still  exists,  and  a  grand-master  was  elected  in  1870,  but  it  is 
now  honoritrij.  The  Templars,  or  Knights  of  the  Temple, 
were  a  similar  order,  eijually  famous  and  powerful,  but  the 
order  was  cntindy  destroyed  and  the  leaders  put  to  death 
with  torture  during  the  pontificate  of  Clement  V.  and  largely 
by  the  elVorls  of  King  Philip  the  Fair  of  l^'raiiee.  The  ricii 
possessions  of  the  order,  which  could  easily  be  confiscated, 
probably  had  mui-h  Id  do  with  this  act  of  aiitli(U-ity,  which 
may  be  compared  with  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries 
under  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  The  Teutonic  Order  was 
anotlu'r  body  of  religious  knights;  this  still  exists  in  a  much 
niodilied  condition. 

•J.  Ilonoriirt/  Orders  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  of  the  Re- 
mtissinirc. — The  Order  of  the  Garter  was  founded  by  Ed- 
ward III.  of  England  after  his  vi<'torics  in  Franci'  and 
against  the  Scots,'  and  dates  from  1341).     It  has  existed  ever 


since.  The  number  of  Knights  of  the  Garter  is  limited  to 
twenty-five  besides  the  sovereign  as  its  patron.  As  it  is 
very  small  in  numbers,  and  limited  to  nobles  of  very  high 
rank  and  to  members  of  foreign  royal  houses,  it  is  one  of 
the  two  or  three  most  envied  and  admired  orders  of  Eu- 
rope. The  Order  of  the  Ele])hant  of  Denmark  is  another 
such  ;  it  dates  from  the  fifteenth  century  and  consists  of 
thirty  members,  each  of  whom  must  be  already  a  member 
of  the  Order  of  the  Danebrog.  The  most  famous  of  all 
these  orders  is  that  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  founded  by  the 
Duke  of  Hurgundy,  Philippe  le  Hon,  in  142!l.  It  was  estab- 
lished with  great  spleinhjr,  and  even  mcjre  magnificently 
treated  by  Philippe's  successor,  Charles  le  Temeraire.  After 
his  death  and  the  ruin  of  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  as  an  in- 
de))endent  state,  the  order  was  claimed  at  once  by"  Spain  and 
by  the  house  of  Austria,  and  to  this  day  there  arc  two  branches 
of  it.  No  person  but  a  Catholic  of  very  high  Ijirth  and  dig- 
nity can  become  amemljcr.  The  Order  of  the  Thistle,  founded 
by  .lames  II.  of  England  and  Vlll.  of  Scotland,  consists  of 
sixteen  knights  only.  The  Teutonic  Onler.  named  above, 
is  now  an  Austrian  aristocratic  and  limited  bodv  having 
strong  Catholic  tendencies.  The  Black  Eagle  of"  Prussia, 
though  not  founded  until  1701,  ought  to  be  named  here  as 
being  purely  aristocratic  and  limited  to  tliirtv  persons  be- 
sides foreign  princes.  Thi!se  five  orders,  together  with  a 
Prussian  branch  of  the  great  Order  of  St,  John  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  two  orders  for  women,  one  of  Prussia  and  one  of 
Bavaria,  are  the  only  ones  which  the  Altnanach  de  (lotha 
mentions  in  connection  with  the  names  of  princes  and  prin- 
cesses who  belong  to  them.  This  serves  to  show  the  pecul- 
iar importance  ascribed  to  these  eight  among  all  the  other 
orders  of  Europe,  an  importance  depending  entirely  upon 
their  honors  being  shared  by  so  few  persons. 

3.  Modern  Orders. — Of  these  much  the  most  celebrated  is 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  founded  by  the  First  Consul  Bona- 
parte. It  was  maintained  by  the  Restoration,  but  with 
Henry  IV.  substituted  for  Napoleon  on  the  badges,  and 
other  .similar  changes,  all  of  which  were  done  away  with 
when  the  second  republic  brought  Louis  Napoleon  to  the 
front.  Under  the  Second  Empire  it  consisted  of  80  Knights 
Grand  Cross,  200  grand  oflicers,  1,000  commanders,  4.000 
officers,  and  any  number  of  knights,  the  chief  of  the  .state 
being  the  grand-master.  The  present  organization  is  nearly 
the  same.  The  rank  of  knight  iclievalier)  is  given  theoretic- 
ally for  merit  in  military  or  civil  life,  and  for  merit  only, 
but  some  men  receive  the  honor  as  a  necessary  consequence 
of  some  public  office  which  they  have  discharged,  apart 
from  special  merit,  and  of  course  there  are  sometimes  com- 
plaints and  charges  of  favoritism.  The  knights  receive  a 
very  small  annual  stipend,  the  members  of  higher  gra<ie  a 
little  more,  but  the  pay  even  of  the  Grand  Croix  is  only  3,000 
francs  a  year.  All  liave.  however,  certain  privileges  much 
esteemed  in  France.  Although  there  are  perhaps  30,000 
men  entitled  to  wear  the  red  ribbon  or  rosette,  it  is  a  most 
honorable  and  enviable  distinction.  The  English  Order  of 
the  Bath  is  somewhat  similar,  though  much  more  rarely 
given  ;  it  consists  of  75  Knights  Grand  Cross,  who  may  put 
G.  C.  H.  after  their  names,  200  or  300  knights  commaiufers 
(K.  C.  B.).  and  about  700  "Companions  of  the  Bath"  (C.  B.). 
The  Order  of  the  Star  of  India,  and  that  of  St.  Wichael 
and  St.  George  are  British  orders  provided  for  distinction 
in  the  colonial  service  and  in  India.  Every  nation  of  Eu- 
rope has  such  distinctions  for  military  merit  in  the  first 
place,  and  then  for  success  as  artist,  author,  engineer, or  the 
like. 

4.  Badges  and  Visible  Distinctions. — All  the  orders  have 
their  "crosses  "or  "jewels,"  and  their  ribbons  of  special  colors; 
and  for  the  liighcr  grades  plaques  or  stars,  which  are  worn  on 
the  breast.  The  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  is  a  five- 
pointed  fiat  jewel  of  gold  and  enamel,  worn  at  the  button- 
hoU\  or  hanging  from  a  ribbon  at  the  neck  according  to 
grade,  but  it  is  worn  only  by  soldiers  or  navy  men  in  uni- 
form, or  by  citizens  when  in  evening  dress.  Citizens  in  their 
ordinary  dress  wear  a  small  bow  of  ribbon  of  a  peculiar  red 
in  the  buttonhole  for  the  grade  of  chevalier,  and  a  ro.sette 
of  the  same  silk  for  tlii:_liiglier  grades ;  abroad  ribbon  is 
worn  over  the  shoulder  by  the  (frand  Croix.  A  silver  star 
is  borne  on  the  right  breast  by  the  grand  officers  and  on  the 
left  breast  by  the  drands  Croix.  Similar  laws  govern  the 
decorations  of  all  the  honorary  orders.   Kusseli.  Stukois. 

Orders  in  Coiiiieil :  See  Privy  Council. 

Orders  of  Arelliteetnre:  While  the  word  order  may  be 
used  in  architecture  to  mean  any  systematic  combination  of 


320 


ORDERS  OP  ARCHITECTURE 


supporting  and  supported  members,  it  is  customarily  under-  1  ing  to  the  order,  as  shown  in  the  diagrams.     The  architrave 
stood,  in  the  absence  of  qualifying  context,  to  refer  to  the  |  is  moulded  in  two  or  three  liorizontal  bauds,  and  crowned 


^k■^,A.l-^A^^^■^  ' 


K'^^K^'^   J^^'J^'J^J^lT^T^ 


1   11  ■^A,M,,mm(M. 


r^^iR-njiJuui 


aa.  Dentils 

bb.  Volutes 

c.  Scotia 


Tuscan  order. 


Doric  order. 


Ionic  order. 


combination  of  a  column  or  a  pilaster  with  an  entablature 
consisting  of  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice,  according  to  an 
established  system  or  canon  of  design.  The  five  orders 
commonly  referred  to  in  architectural  treatises,  and  known 
respectively  as  the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and 
Composite,  formed  the  basis  of  Roman  decorative  architec- 
ture, and  were  copied  by  the  architects  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  their  successors  in  Italy 
and  elsewhere.  At  first  the  imitation  was  free  and  more  or 
less  fanciful.  As  the  result  of  minuter  study  and  compari- 
son, their  proportions  and  details  were  systematically  formu- 
lated by  various  architects,  who  sought  to  establish,  in  spite 
of  endless  variations  of  detail,  a  canon  of  proportions  for 
each  order.  Among  these  various  efforts  the  Treatise  on 
the  Orders,  by  Giacomo  Barozzi  da  Vignola  (1507-73),  has 
found  the  widest  acceptance,  and  has  survived  down  to  our 
own  day  as  the  best  text-book  on  the  subject. 

The  Egyptians  had  no  orders  in  the  accepted  sense  of  the 
term;  they  employed  an  unvarying  type  of  entablature  over 
a  great  variety  of  columns  of  diverse  proportions.  The 
Greeks  employed  mainly  two  orders.  The  Doric  was  at  first 
the  only  one  known  to  them,  but  the  Ionic  was  in  the  early 
fifth  century  imported,  so  to  speak,  from  Asia  Minor,  and 
made  use  of  in  buildings  calling  for  more  elegant  and  slen- 
der forms  than  those  of  the  sturdier  Doric  order.  (See  Archi- 
tecture.) In  the  fourth  century  a  variant  of  the  Ionic  was 
devised,  with  a  much  enriched  capital,  and  called  Corinthian, 
though  hardly  forming  a  distinct  order,  except  as  to  its 
capital. 

These  orders,  as  used  by  the  Greeks,  varied  widely  both 
in  proportions  and  details.  The  practical  and  systematic 
Romans,  having  conquered  the  Greeks  and  adopteii  the 
forms  of  their  architecture,  modified  them  radically  in  the 
direction  of  greater  uniformity  and  of  increased  splendor  of 
detail,  perfecting  and  enriching  all  parts  of  the  Corinthian, 
and  retaining  in  addition  their  own  uncouth  Etruscan  or 
Tuscan  cuiumn  and  entablature  as  a  fourth  order.  They 
also  adiled  a  fifth,  the  Composite,  a  sort  of  hybrid  combina- 
tion of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian.     See  Composite  Order. 

An  order  is  composed  of  the  column,  having  a  base  (except 
in  the  Greek  Doric),  sliafl.  and  capital;  and  the  entalilatiire, 
resting  upon  the  columns  and  comprising  an  nrchilrare, 
frieze,  and  cornice..  The  base  consists  of  circular  mould- 
ings (tori  and  scotiiF).  resting  on  a  square  plinth.  The  shaft, 
flaring  into  a  cincture  at  the  bottom  and  an  astragal  at  the 
top,  has  a  slight  taper,  called  entiisi.i,  for  the  upper  two- 
thirds  of  its  length.  It  may  be  smooth  or  fluted;  the  edges 
of  the  flutings  are  called  arrises.  The  ca))ital  is  composed 
of  various  parts  (necking,  echinus,  volutes,  abacus),  accocd- 


fe 


'^■'  -^  '-^ 


qjLIUlJlMLJUU 

r-rrr-w   m  iii  m  ,i.   ii'i   m   li'.  11.  S,  ^ 


aa,  Mudilllons 
bb.  Volutes 


^  <■'  ^'^  •''-^  -'••"•'-  ^'  ■••^^^^ 


by  a  t(snia  or  upper  moulding.  The  frieze  has  no  special 
characteristic  in  any  order  except  the  Doric,  where  it  is 
decorated  with  repeated  vertical-grooved  members  called 
f>''ij^yphs,  alternating  with  square  spaces  called  metopes. 
The  cornice  always 
has  a  bed  -  mould 
(which  may  com- 
prise a  group  of 
mouldings).  an 

overhanging  shelf- 
like corona,  and  a 
crowning  mould- 
ing, the  cijmatium. 
In  the  Doric  there 
are  also  mutules. 
the  under  surfaces 
of  which  are  orna- 
mented with  guttm 
resembling  trenail- 
heads;  in  the  Ionic 
there  are  dentils  in 
the  bed-mouldings ; 
antl  the  Corinthian 
and  Composite  cor- 
nices have  in  addi- 
tion under  the  co- 
rona more  or  less 
rich  brackets  or 
niodillions.  When 
arches  are  used  in 
conjunction  with 
columns  or  pila.s- 
ters,  the  arch 
springs  from  an  im- 
post which  serves 
as  cap  to  the  pier, 
and  is  adorned  with 
an  archivolt  (some- 
what like  a  curved 
architrave)  and  key- 
stone. The  column 
is  sometimes  elevated  on  a  pedestal 
and  cap. 

Vignola's  system  involves  an  elaborate  kind  of  measure- 
ment of  the  relative  proportions  of  all  the  orders  by  means 
of  modules,  each  module  being  divided  into  twelve  or  eigh- 
teen parts  according  to  the  order;  Init  it  is  equally  useful 
and  more  simple  to  express  all  measurements  in  terms  of 
the  lower  diameter  of  the  shaft  (D  ami  fractions  of  D). 


£ 


T 


c_ 


Corinthian  order. 

[iniposotl  of  base,  die^ 


ORDERS,   RELIGIOUS 


ORDINARY 


321 


The  same  orders,  as  given  by  Palladio,  Scaramozzi,  and  Sir 
William  Chambei-s,  vary  slightly  from  Vijcnola's  in  minor 
details,  but  not  in  I'SsiMitials.  It  may  be  staled  that  in  all 
rases  the  base  is  *  D  in  height,  as  also  the  capital  in  the 
first  three  orders;  that  the  shaft  diminishes  in  each  order 
exactly  ^  D  in  its  upper  as  compared  with  its  lower  diameter ; 
that  the  entablature  always  measures  in  height  precisely 
one-quarter  the  total  height  of  the  column,  or  one-lifth  the 
height  of  the  whole  order;  and  that  the  cornice  always 


^TAENIA 


One-half  of  an  arcaded  order,  showing  names  of  principal  parts. 

measures  }  D  more  than  the  architrave.  Taking  the  col- 
umns of  the  Doric.  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  in  that  order,  each 
is  seen  to  exceed  the  one  preceding  it  in  the  diagram  by  one 
diameter  in  height. 

This  formal  canon  of  proportions,  though  generally  ac- 
cepted as  the  most  perfect  standard,  was  never  strictly 
adhered  to  even  by  V'ignola  himself  and  his  contemporaries. 
The  apparent  uniformity  of  the  antique  Roman  orders  was 
approximate,  not  alisolule,  and  the  value  of  Vignola's  for- 
mulation of  an  exact  canon  is  disciplinary  and  suggestive, 
rather  than  authoritative  and  binding.  For  further  details, 
consult  the  editions  of  Vignola"s  treatise  published  in  Paris, 
New  York,  and  Boston.  See  Akchitecti-rk,  Coi.um.n,  JIob- 
ULE,  Renaissance  Akchitectube,  and  the  brief  articles  on 
the  several  orders;  also  Treatise  on  Civil  Arr/iifertitrp,  by 
Sir  William  t'hand)ers  (London).  A.  I).  F.  Hamlin. 

Orders,  Koligioiis:  See  Monachism. 

Ordinance  of  I7S7  :  The  confederation  of  the  V.  S.  was 

delayed  and  put  in  jeopardy  more  by  a  dispute  as  to  what 
should  be  the  fate  of  the  unoccupied  lands  at  the  West  than 
by  anything  else.  The  large  States,  which  by  their  charters 
extended  to  the  ".South  Sea,"  claimed  to  have  the  entire 
disposal  of  and  jurisdiction  over  the  territory  within  their 
boundaries  as  described  in  charters  proceeiliiig  from  the 
irown  of  iMigland.  Some  of  the  States  not  thus  richly  pro- 
vided with  misetlled  lands,  as  Maryland  and  New  Jersey, 
claimed  that  the  States  which  were  ))roprietors  of  them 
ought  to  yield  them  up  as  common  property  for  the  benefit 
of  all,  since  the  efforts  of  all  the  States  ha<l  secured  the  ac- 
KMowledgment  of  inilependence  from  (ireat  Hrilain.  In 
1780  New  York  gave  authority  to  its  delegates  in  I'ongress 
to  fix  a  limit  for  its  western  boundaries,  and  to  cede  a  part 
of  its  lands  for  such  States  as  should  become  members  of 
305 


the  Confederation.  It  was  not  until  the  next  year  that 
Maryland,  last  of  all  the  States,  joined  the  new  lea"ue. 
Soon  afterward  the  .Stale  of  Virginia  gave  up  her  lands 
N.  W.  of  the  Ohio  for  the  general  beiietit ;  but  it  was  not  un- 
til nsi  that  an  ordinance  for  the  temporary  government  of 
the  Northwest  Territory,  which  emanated  from  a  committee 
of  which  Jefferson  was  chairman,  was  pa.ssed  bv  the  Con- 
gress of  the  Confederation.  Jefferson's  act  provided  for  the 
formation  on  this  soil  of  Stales  which  might  be  organized 
whenever  there  should  be  '.JO.OUO  iiilialiitaiils  on  the  terri- 
tory to  be  formed  into  a  State,  and  whicli  might  be  admit- 
ted into  the  Confederation  on  certain  terms  whenever  their 
inhabitants  should  be  equal  in  number  to  those  of  the  small- 
est of  the  original  thirteen  States.  It  also  contained  this 
provision  in  its  original  form  as  presented  to  Congress; 
•'  that  after  the  year  1800  there  should  be  neither  slavery 
nor  involuntary  servitude  in  any  of  the  said  States,  other- 
wise than  for  the  punishment  of  crimes,  etc."  This  anti> 
slavery  clause  was  lost,  and  the  ordinance  without  it  was 
passed  Apr.  23,  1784,  but  no  settlements  were  made  within 
the  territory  in  question  for  some  years.  ^ 

Two  other  attempts  at  legislating  for  the  Northwestern 
Territory  were  made  in  178.^  and  i78(),  and  the  committee 
appointed  in  the  latter  year  to  consider  this  subject  made  a 
report  which  was  ordered  to  a  third  reading  in  1787.  Very 
fortunately  the  bill  reported  was  laid  asiile,  and  a  new  com- 
mittee, appointed  July  9  of  the  same  year,  reported  two 
days  later  the  ordinance  of  1787.  which  became  a  law  in  two 
days  after  it  was  submitted  to  Congress.  It  related  to  the 
whole  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  inchuU'd  what  after- 
ward constituted  the  States  of  Oliio,  Indiana.  Illinois.  Michi- 
gan, and  Wisconsin.  This  ordinance,  besides  defining  the 
rights  of  the  citizen,  contained  provisions  of  great  impor- 
tance. The  fourth  article  prohibited  slavery  and  involun- 
tary servitude  except  in  punishment  of  crimes.  Another 
article  provided  that  the  navigable  waters  leading  into  the 
Mississippi  and  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  carrying-places  be- 
tween the  same,  should  be  common  highways,  free  to  the 
citizens  of  the  L'.  S.  The  importance  of  this  ordinance  in 
shaping  the  destinies  of  the  U.  S.  is  beyond  calculation.  It 
can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  if  slavery,  even  a  small  per- 
centage of  it,  had  been  able  to  creep  into  the  territorv  where 
the  great  free  .States  of  the  West,  E.  of  the  Mississippi  and 
N.  of  the  Ohio  now  lie,  the  U.  S.  would  have  become  a 
slave  republic.  Another  declaration  of  gi-eat  importance 
was  that  in  regard  to  education,  in  whicli  it  was  declared 
that  ■'  religion  and  morality  being  necessary  to  the  welfare 
of  the  State,  therefore  schools  and  the  means  of  education 
shall  for  ever  be  encouraged."  (Jn  the  basis  of  this  declara- 
tion the  Constitutional  Conventions,  as  well  as  the  Legisla- 
tures of  the  several  States  formed  of  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory, have  felt  bound  to  make  liberal  provisions  for  all 
grades  of  educations.  It  has  been  generally  supposed  that 
Nathan  Dane,  of  Massachusetts,  then  in  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation  and  a  member  of  the  committee  which 
reported  the  ordinance,  was  its  jirincipal  author  :  but  it  has 
been  shown  by  Dr.  W.  F.  Poole  and  others,  from  docu- 
ments wliich  had  not  been  used  before,  that  the  authorship 
of  it  belongs  mainly  to  the  Hev.  Manasseh  Cutler,  who  ap- 
peared in  New  York,  where  the  last  Congress  of  the  Con- 
federation was  then  sitting,  and  who  was  ready  to  j)urchase 
1,.500,000  acres  in  Ohio  for  a  company  comiiosed  of  ollicers 
in  the  then  recent  war  living  in  Eastern  Massachusetts,  and 
4,000,000  acres  for  other  parties  in  case  the  ordinance  should 
be  adopted.  The  history  of  Cutler's  connection  with  the 
ordinance  may  be  found  in  7'/ie.  Korlli  American  lieview 
for  Apr.,  1876,  and  in  W.  P.  Cutler's  Life,  Journals,  and 
Correnpondi'nrf'  of  MnnaKseh  Cutler  (1888). 

T.D.  WooLSEV.    Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Onliiianees:  See  By-laws. 

Ordinary  [from  Lat.  ordina'rius,  orderly,  regidar.  deriv. 
of  or'do,  order]:  In  the  later  Roman  empire  the  oflicial  who 
heard  and  decided  in  first  instance  the  more  important  civil 
and  criminal  cases  (the  president  of  the  i)rovince)  was  com- 
monly described  as  the  ordinary  judge  {index  ordinariiis). 
In  the  medi.i^val  Church  judicial  i)owers  were  vested,  in 
first  instance,  in  the  bishop  of  each  diocese  :  and  the  eeclesi- 
astical  law,  which  was  largely  based  upon  the  Roman, 
transferred  to  the  bishop,  as  a  judicial  officer,  the  Roman 
title  of  judge  (n-ilinary.  The  judicial  powers  of  the  l)ishop, 
however,  were  commonly  delegated  to  and  exercised  by  a 
deputy  or  surrogate  {siiliror/alus). 
I      The  jurisdiction  claimed  and  exercised  by  the  mcdifcval 


322 


ORDINATE 


ORDNANCE 


Church  extended  over  marriage  and  family  law  in  general, 
and  over  oases  of  testamentary  and  interstate  succession,  as 
far  at  least  as  the  personal  estate  was  concerned.  In  mod- 
ern states  this  entire  jurisdiction  has  been  transferred  to 
the  civil  courts,  but  in  England,  even  after  the  Reforma- 
tion, it  was  exercised  by  special  tribunals  (ecclesiastical 
courts),  and  in  the  U.  S.  probate  business  at  least  is  still 
regularly  assigned  to  special  judicial  officers,  who  in  many 
of  the  States  retain  the  designation  of  "  ordinary  '"  or  "  sur- 
rogate." MuNROE  Smith. 

Ordinate  [from  Lat.  ordina'tus,  perf.  partic.  of  ordina're, 
appoint,  order,  arrange,  deriv.  of  or  do,  or'dinis,  series,  or- 
der] :  iu  co-ordinate  geometry,  one  of  the  elements  of  refer- 
ence used  to  determine  the  position  of  a  point  with  resjiect 
to  the  co-ordinate  axis.  It  is  the  distance  of  the  point  from 
the  axis  of  abscissas,  measured  on  a  line  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  ordinates.  Every  function  of  a  single  variable  may  be 
regarded  as  the  ordinate  of  a  point  of  a  curve  of  which  the 
variable  is  the  corresponding  abscissa.  This  curve  is  called 
the  curve  of  the  function. 

Ordination  [from  Lat.  orduia'tio,  appointment,  order- 
ing, deriv.  of  ordina're,  appoint,  order,  ordain]:  the  cere- 
mony by  which  ministers  of  the  Christian  Church  are  dedi- 
cated to  their  office.  It  is  performed  in  a  somewhat  diflferent 
manner,  and  somewhat  different  ideas  are  attached  to  it,  in 
the  different  Christian  Churches,  but  the  ceremony  itself 
and  its  principal  feature,  the  imposition  of  hands,  are  as 
old  as  the  Church,  and  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament 
(Acts  vi.  1-7;  xiii.  1-4;  xiv.  2:3;  1  Tim.  iv.  14;  2  Tim.  i.  6). 
In  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches  ordination  is  considered 
a  sacrament:  th.at  is,  a  special  divine  gift,  a  new  spirit,  a 
fitness  for  the  office,  is  believed  to  be  conferred  by  the  cere- 
mony upon  tlie  candidate,  and  he  is  thus,  at  once  and  for 
ever,  set  apart  from  the  laity  and  entered  among  the  clergy, 
ordo.  In  order  to  be  valid  ordination  must  be  performed 
by  a  bishop  of  the  Church,  and  if  once  duly  performed  it 
can  never  be  forfeited  or  made  invalid  by  any  act  of  the  or- 
dained in  his  after  life,  and  it  is  not  repeated  when  the  can- 
didate ascends  from  one  rank  in  the  Church  to  anotlier. 
An  ordination  is  not  lawful,  however,  because  it  is  valid ; 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  enacted  very  strict  and 
very  minute  laws  concerning  this  point.  A  candidate  can 
be  lawfully  ordained  only  by  his  own  bishop — that  is,  the 
bishop  to  whom  he  belongs  by  birth,  by  domicile,  by  bene- 
fice, or  by  connection  of  personal  service — and  any  irregu- 
larities render  both  the  ordaining  bishop  and  the  ordained 
candidate  liable  to  heavy  ecclesiastical  penalties.  In  the 
Protestant  or  Evangelical  Churches  ordination  is  not  con- 
sidered as  sacramental  or  indelible,  though  it  has  been 
questioned  in  the  Church  of  England  whether  a  bishop 
could  be  lawfully  deprived  of  his  orders  as  bishop.  The 
Church  of  England  has  generally  retained  the  regulations 
of  the  ancient  canon  law,  according  to  which  no  one  could 
be  ordained  who  was  not  provided  with  some  appointment 
in  the  Church  capable  of  maintaining  him,  or  who  was  dis- 
qualified by  bodily  intirnnty,  immorality,  etc.,  nor  could  the 
ordination  take  place  until  after  an  examination  of  the  fit- 
ness of  the  candidate.  The  ordinal,  as  drawn  up  under 
Edward  VI.,  then  modified  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and 
finally  fixed  by  the  convocation  of  1661,  also  resembles  the 
ancient  service,  though  it  is  simpler,  and  lays  a  particular 
stress  on  the  examination.  A  clergyman  may  be  suspended 
or  deprived  of  his  ecclesiastical  benefices  by  his  bishop 
without  forfeiting  his  ordination.  He  is  deprived  of  his 
status  of  priest  or  deacon  only  when  he  is  deposed  or  de- 
graded on  account  of  his  being  convicted  of  treason,  mur- 
der, or  felony.  In  the  Presbyterian  Church  when  a  minister 
is  deposed  he  forfeits  not  only  his  office  but  his  clerical 
status.  Those  who  accept  the  idea  of  a  universal  priest- 
hood of  believers  view  the  ministry  as  a  calling  rather  than 
an  office,  and  consider  ordination  simply  as  a  solemn  cere- 
mony, conferring  no  special  gift  and  establishing  no  special 
status,  but  beautiful  by  itself  on  account  of  its  pious  remem- 
brance of  the  time  of  "the  apostles. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Ordnance  [an  old  form  of  ordinance,  ordaining,  arrange- 
ment, decree,  preparation,  provision,  from  Lat.  ordina're, 
appoint] :  guns,  howitzers,  an<i  mortars.  The  term  ordnance 
is  synonymous  with  artillrrtj,  but  less  comprehensive  in  its 
meaning.  It  signifies  cannon,  and  these  simply  as  mate- 
rial and  nothing  more.  Its  application  as  a  military  term 
had  its  origin  from  an  nrdinance  promulgated  in  the  reign 
of  ilenry  VIH.  of  England,  regulating  the  caliber,  figure. 


and  dimensions  of  cannon.  Under  this  a  board — which 
subsequently  took  the  name  of  the  ordinance  or  ordnance 
board — was  established,  charged  with  the  care  of  crown  for- 
tifications and  their  armaments.  Prior  to  this,  artillery,  as 
well  as  arms  of  all  kinds,  had  been  fashioned  according  to 
the  fancy  of  each  manufacturer,  and  the  object  and  effect  of 
the  ordinance  was  to  establish  uniformity.  Arms  made  in 
conformity  to  the  specifications  of  tlie  board  were  termed 
ordinance  or  ordnance,  in  contradistinction  to  those  of  ir- 
regular pattern  ;  and  from  this  sprang  the  custom  of  desig- 
nating all  artillery  as  ordnance.  In  addition  to  cannon, 
strictly  speaking,  the  U.  S.,  following  the  English  custom, 
has  extended  the  term  ordnance  to  include  all  firearms  of 
every  description,  whether  cannon  or  small-arms.  The  term 
ordnance  stores  comprehends  every  description  of  ammuni- 
tion, all  carriages  used  for  artillery  purposes  and  their  equip- 
ments, and  all  other  apparatus  and  machines  required  for 
the  service  and  manoeiivers  of  artillery,  together  with  the 
materials  for  their  construction,  preservation,  and  repair; 
also  all  side-arms  and  accoutrements  for  artillery,  cavalry, 
and  infantry,  together  with  utensils  and  stores  for  labora- 
tories. For  the  various  steps  of  development  leading  up  to 
modern  ordnance,  see  Artillery. 

Since  1860  the  entire  system  of  gun-construction  through- 
out the  world  has  been  revolutionized.  The  chief,  if  not 
the  primary,  impulse  to  this  was  imparted  by  the  battle  be- 
tween the  V.  S.  ironclad  Monitor  and  the  Confederate  iron- 
clad Jlerrimac  in  Mar.,  1862.  Up  to  this  period  the  art  of 
constructing  armor-clad  vessels  had  not  progressed  beyond 
the  experimental  stage,  and  the  battle  referred  to  was  the 
first  [iractical  test  of  armor  versus  guns.  The  maritime 
nations  of  Europe,  taking  alarm  at  this  successful  applica- 
tion of  the  armor  principle,  at  once  began  remodeling  their 
navies,  and  clad  their  vessels  with  a  thickness  of  plating 
before  unknown.  To  meet  these  new  conditions  guns  were 
devised  capable  of  piercing  the  heaviest  armor  then  in  ex- 
istence. Then  more  powerful  armor  of  steel  was  adopted, 
and  still  more  powerful  guns  constructed.  The  contest  yet 
continues.  In  its  progress  it  has  evoked  much  scientific 
study  and  mechanical  ingenuity,  leading  through  various 
stages  to  the  present  system  of  "  built-up  "  guns.  Pieces  of 
this  nature  are  constructed  of  an  inner  tube,  forming  the 
bore,  and  certain  bands  and  hoops  surrounding  and  strength- 
ening it.  This  method  of  construction  admits  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  initial  tension,  a  chief  factor  in  the  strength  of 
modern  artillery.  This  principle  is  based  upon  the  phe- 
nomena of  elasticity,  and  in  gun-construction  is  utilized  by 
shrinking  successive  layers  of  metal  one  over  the  other,  each 
being  given  an  initial  strain  to  assist  it  in  supporting  the 
layer  underneath.  (See  under Ciu>'NERY,  Inferior  £allisfics.) 
The  cost  of  guns  constructed  on  the  built-up  principle  is 
enormously  great  as  compared  with  cast-iron  pieces  of  equiv- 
alent calibers. 

In  1883  the  U.  S.  Government  sent  to  Europe  a  mixed 
commission  of  army  and  navy  officers  to  examine  and  re- 
port upon  the  most  advanced  methods  there  in  use.  Special 
inquiry  was  made  as  to  the  systems  [lursued  by  the  leading 
European  nations  for  supplying  themselves  with  artillery. 
The  board  found  the  system  in  vogue  in  France  (since  the 
Franco-German  war)  the  most  promising  of  good  results, 
and  accordingly  recommended  it.  In  this  system  the  Gov- 
ernment depends  upon  the  private  industries  of  the  country 
for  foundry-work — i.  e.  for  the  rough  forgings  of  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  guns ;  but  for  assembling  and  finishing 
work  the  Government  has  its  own  factories. 

Acting  upon  these  recommendations,  the  Government 
established  two  gun-factories — that  for  the  army  at  the 
Watervliet  arsenal.  West  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  that  for  the  navy 
at  the  Washington  navy-yard.  The  board,  in  its  recom- 
mendations, emphasized  the  necessity  of  proper  encourage- 
ment to  the  private  steel-manufacturers  of  the  U.  S.  by  such 
liberal  appropriations  for  gun-forgings  as  would  induce 
them  to  expand  their  plants  and  means  of  production. 
Liberal  appropriations  of  money  by  Congress  soon  followed, 
and  under  this  stimulus  several  steel-foundries  expanded 
their  plants  to  a  capacity  equal  to  any  requirements.  Chief 
among  these  works  is  that  at  Midvale,  Pa.,  and  that  at 
Bethlehem,  Pa.,  both  of  which  are  capable  of  fabricating 
forgings  for  guns  up  to  and  even  beyond  12  Inches  caliber. 

Description  of  Ihavi/  Ordnance. — All  guns,  howitzers,  and 
mortars  of  the  built-up  system  consist  essentially  of  a  tulic, 
surrouuiling  bands,  and  the  breech  mechanism.  They  differ 
but  little  except  in  dimensions  of  parts  and  the  number  of 
bands.     For  a  general  description  of  the  U.  S.  system  the 


ORDNAXCE 


323 


8-inch  rifle  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  type.  This  piece  (see 
Fig.  1)  is  composed  of  a  tube,  a  jacket.  8  C,  3  D,  and  7  A 
hoops,  a  breech-block  receiver,  ami  tlie  various  parts  of 
tlio  Dreech  mechanism.     The  lube  is  2GG  inclies  (22  ft.  2  in.) 


Fig.  1. — 8-inch  breech-loading  rifle. 

lona:,  and  has  an  exterior  diameter  of  15  inches  at  the  breech 
and  ll'S  inches  at  the  muzzle.  This  tapering  is  by  nine 
shallow  steps  or  shoulders  against  which  the  jacket  and  cer- 
tain of  the  hoops  abut.  The  jacket  is  an  elongated  hoop 
embracing  the  rear  part  of  the  tube  for  a  distance  of  96'6 
inches,  and  extending  beyond  the  rear  of  the  tube  r2-5 
inches.  The  front  end  of  the  jacket  rests  about  19  inches 
in  front  of  the  axis  of  the  trunnions;  from  this  point  to  the 
muzzle  the  tube  is  enveloped  and  strengthened  by  eight 
hoops,  technically  known  as  C-hoops.  These  have  varying 
widths,  the  average  being  212  inches;  the  rear  one — that 
-  next  the  jacket — has  an  exterior  diameter  of  18'2.5  inches, 
while  that  at  the  muzzle  has  but  1-t  inches,  this  being  the 
diameter  of  the  finished  piece  at  lliis  i)arl. 

The  jacket  and  C-hoops  constitute  the  first  layer  over  the 
tube.  Then  comes  the  layer  of  D-lioops,  three  in  number, 
having  an  average  width  of  22-5  inches.  The  rear  D-hoop 
overlaps  an  offset  on  the  front  end  of  the  jacket ;  the  other 
two  break  joints  with  the  underlying  C-hoops.  The  rear  D- 
hoo[i — partly  covered  by  the  front  .V-hoofi — has  an  exterior 
diameter  of  24'.5  inches;  from  here  forward  the  D-hoops 
have  a  uniform  taper  to  a  diameter  of  17'6  inches,  when  the 
end  of  the  front  one  is  rounded  off,  forming  the  first  projec- 
tion, or  offset,  on  the  finished  piece. 

Next  come  the  A-hoops,  seven  in  n\imber,  covering  the 
entire  length  of  the  jacket  and  part  of  the  rear  D-hoop. 
They  have  varying  widths,  the  total  being  112T.5  inches. 
The  second  from  the  front  constitutes  the  trunnion  band ; 
the  one  in  front  of  it  tapers  and  is  rounded  in  front,  form- 
ing the  second  offset  or  shoulder  on  the  exterior  of  the 
finished  piece.  The  exterior  of  those  in  rear  of  the  trunnion 
hoop  have  no  taper. 

The  10  and  12  inch  guns  have  another  layer  of  hoops 
covering  the  A-hoops  from  the  breech  to  the  front  of  the 
trunnions ;  the  last,  or  front  one,  is  the  trunnion  band,  and 


Fio.  2.— 12-inch  hreech-Ioading  rifle. 

being  rounded  off  in  front  forms  a  shoulder  on  the  exterior 
of  the  piece.  Fig.  2  represents  a  12-inch  rillo  ready  for 
loading. 


The  exterior  of  the  muzzle  of  the  tube  is  made  slightly 
conical,  with  the  base  of  the  cone  to  the  front ;  the  interior 
of  the  front  C-hoop  being  also  conical — but  in  the  opposite 
direction — prevents,  when  the  latter  is  shrunk  on,  all  possi- 
bility of  slipping  forward.  The  jacket  sustaining  the  breech 
mechanism  is  prevented  from  slipping  to  the  rear  by  a  pro- 
jection on  its  front  end  engaging  a  shoulder  on  the  tube. 
The  entire  system — tube,  jacket,  and  hoops — is  thus  united 
into  one  compact  body. 

The  rifling  occupies  200'76  inches  of  the  bore,  the  remain- 
ing 60-74  inches  being  taken  up  by  the  seat  for  the  shot,  the- 
powder-chamber,  and  the  seat  for  the  gas-check.  The  shot- 
seat  and  the  powder-chamber  are  connected  by  a  sloping- 
surface,  10  inches  in  length,  to  give  facility  in  shoving  thfr 
shot  home  to  its  seat.  The  rear  ends  of  the' lands  are  sloped 
for  the  same  purpose.  The  powder-chamber  of  modern: 
guns  is  made  larger  than  the  bore,  in  order  that  the  enor- 
mous charges  now  used  may  not  take  up  so  much  of  the 
length  of  the  bore.  This  increase  of  diameter  possesses  also 
other  advantages  of  a  ballistic  nature.  (.See  Gu.n.nery.)  The 
powder-c-hamber  of  the  8-inch  rifle  has  a  capacity  of  3,609 
cubic  inches,  or  of  180  lb.  of  powder. 

The  gas-check  seat,  2-5  inches  long,  is  a  slightly  tapering 
enlargement  of  the  rear  end  of  the  powder-chamber,  and  is 
intended  for  the  reception  of  the  gas-check,  hereafter  de- 
scribed. The  shot  when  in  position  for  firing  rests  directly 
between  the  trunnions;  its  base,  with  the  copper  rings  to 
take  the  grooves,  rests  in  the  shot-chamber. 

The  breech  mechanism,  although  originally  invented  in 
the  U.  S.,  is  a  modification  of  what  is  known  as  the  French 
system.  The  principal  parts  are  the  receiving-ring,  the 
breech-block,  the  obturator,  the  console  or  loading-trav,  and 
the  breech-plate.  The  extension  of  the  jacket  beyond  the 
rear  end  of  the  tube  forms  a  recess  for  the  reception  of  an 
inner  hoop  called  the  receiving-ring,  which  has  the  same 
thickness,  viz.,  2-75  inches,  as  the  end  of  the  tube  against 
which  it  abuts.  A  screw-thread  is  cut  on  its  exterior, 
which  works  in  a  thread  on  the  interior  of  the  jacket,  the 
ring  is  then  set  home  by  [lowerful  leverage,  the  junction 
between  the  ring  and  end  of  the  tube  being  hermetically 
sealed  by  a  thin  ring  of  copper.  The  interior  of  the  receiv- 
ing-ring contains  slotted  screw-threads  into  which  similarly 
slotted  threads  on  the  breech-block  engage.  There  are  three 
of  these  slots,  each  occupying  one-sixth  of  the  circumference 
of  the  interior  of  the  receiving-ring,  and  running  longitudi- 
nally. The  breech-block  is  turned  on  its  axis  to  engage  or 
disengage  the  slotted  screw-threads  by  means  of  a  pinion 
and  circular  rack,  for  which  recesses  are  cut  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  breech-plate.  When  disengaged,  the  slots  of  the 
receiver  being  opposite  the  threaded  portions  of  the  breech- 
block and  vice  versa,  the  breech-block  may  be  moved  back 
and  forth  with  freedom  ;  when  engaged,  the  bore  is  closed 
ready  for  firing  the  same  as  though  the  threads  were  con- 
tinuous. 

The  obturator  consists  of  a  steel  head  of  mushroom 
shape,  of  the  diameter  of  the  [lowder-cliamber,  the  rear 
part  of  which  it  occupies;  this  head  is  attached  to  a  spin- 
dle which  works  with  freedom  through  the  axis  of  the 
breech-block,  to  the  rear  end  of  which  it  is  secured  by  a 
screw  and  nut.  In  rear  of  the  mushroom  head  are  two  an- 
nular cups  of  elastic  steel  surrounding  the  spindle.  These 
cups  inclose  between  them  a  canvas  pail  containing  a  mix- 
ture of  tallow  and  asbestos.  The  spindle  is  fitted  to  allow 
a  certain  amount  of  longitudinal  motion  within  the  block, 
so  that  when  the  piece  is  fired  the  gas  pressure  on  the  mush- 
room head  forces  it  back  upon  the  annular  cups,  compressing 
the  canvas  pad  until  it  swells  out  against  the  walls  of  the 
bore,  thus  making  a  tight  packing,  effectually  preventing 
the  escape  of  gas  to  the  rear.  After  the  explosion  a  spring 
at  the  rear  end  of  the  spindle  forces  it  forward  to  its  former 
[)osition.  thus  releasing  the  cups  and  packing  from  pressure, 
and  allowing  the  bi-ecch-block  to  be  withdrawn  without 
ditliculty.  One  packing-pad  will  stand  many  rounds,  and 
when  no  longer  serviceable  is  readily  replaced  by  a  fresh 
one.  The  vent  is  bored  longitudinally  through  tlie  spindle 
and  mushroom  head.  .\n  automatic'safety-cover  keeps  it 
closed  except  when  the  breech-block  is  in  position  ready  for 
firing. 

The  console,  or  tray,  is  an  irregularly  shaped  bronze  cast- 
ing attached  to  a  hinge  fastened  to  the  breech  of  the  piece, 
and  is  intended  to  receive  the  breech-block  when  withdrawn 
from  the  bore  and  swing  it  around  on  a  hinge  to  one  side. 
As  the  breech-block  is  heavy,  it  is  moved  back  and  forth  on 
the  tray  by  means  of  a  translating  roller,  on  which  is  cut  u 


3-i-i 


ORDNANCE 


screw-thread,  of  considerable  pitch,  into  which  engages  a 
stud  on  the  bottom  of  the  block.  On  the  under  side  of  the 
tray  is  a  latch  securing  it  to  the  breech  of  th?  piece,  when 
the  block  is  being  withdrawn  from  or  inserted  into  the 
bore. 

The  breech-plate  is  a  4'5-inch  thick  steel  disk  attached  by 
screw-bolts  to  the  breech  of  the  piece,  covering  and  protect- 
ing the  breech  mechanism,  and  giving  support  to  some  of 
its  parts.  An  opening  is  cut  in  the  central  portion  of  the 
plate,  through  which  the  breech-block  enters  to  close  the 
bore. 

To  operate  the  breecli  mechanism,  suppose  the  breech 
closed  as  t  liough  ready  for  firing ;  to  open  it,  turn  the 
rotating  crank  in  the  direction  marked  "open":  this  ro- 
tates the  breech-block  to  the  (jroper  position  to  be  with- 
drawn. While  the  block  is  making  this  one-sixth  of  a  re%'o- 
lution  it  is  moved  slightly  to  the  rear  by  the  action  of  the 
screw-threads,  and  this  loosens  the  gas-cheek  from  its  seat. 
As  soon  as  the  motion  begins  the  vent-cover  slides  into  posi- 
tion, thus  preventing  the  insertion  of  a  primer  until  the 
block  is  again  in  position  for  firing.  The  translating  stud 
of  the  block  at  the  same  time  enters  the  thread  of  the  trans- 
lating roller,  the  crank  of  which  is  now  turned  to  the  left, 
causing  the  breech-block  to  slide  back  upon  the  tray.  When 
the  block  is  withilrawn  to  the  proper  point  the  tray-latch  is 
disengaged  automatically  from  its  catch,  allowing  the  tray 
and  block  to  be  swung  around  Ijy  hand  to  the  right,  imtil 
the  securing  latch  catclies  and  holds  it  in  that  position.  The 
piece  is  now  ready  for  loa<liug. 

The  operation  of  closing  the  breech  is  almost  the  reverse 
of  the  foregoing. 

Forging. — All  of  the  parts  of  a  gun,  forged  and  fash- 
ioned in  the  rough,  are  furnished  by  the  steel  contractor. 
The  metal  is  steel  of  a  low  percentage  of  carbon,  commonly 
called  low  steel.  This  is  melted  and  brought  to  a  proper 
physical  and  chemical  condition  in  an  open-hearth  furnace 
— the  Siemens  furnace.  (See  Furnace.)  From  the  furnace 
the  liquid  metal  is  drawn  off  into  cylindrical  moulds  of 
great  strength  and  peculiar  construction.  These  are  placed 
under  a  powerful  hydraulic  press,  which  expels  all  gas  from 
the  fluid  mass  and  compresses  it  into  a  dense  ingot.  Some 
of  the  ingots  thus  treated  weigh  upward  of  40  tons.  After 
cooling  the  ingot  is  transferred  from  the  mould  to  the  lathe, 
where  it  is  bored  and  cut  to  jjroper  lengths  for  the  parts  to 
be  forged  from  it. 

To  forge  one  of  these  sections  to  a  required  figure  it  is 
placed  in  a  furnace  heated  by  coal-gas — all  the  heating  is 
done  by  gas — where  it  is  brought  to  a  glowing  heat,  and 
then  transferred  to  the  hydraulic  forging-press,  where  it  is 
fiishioned  into  the  desired  shape,  the  soft  metal  being 
moulded  into  shape  as  putty  is  moulded  in  the  fingers.  Ow- 
ing to  the  great  weight  of  the  ingots  and  forgings,  the  most 
powerful  cranes  and  other  machinery,  set  in  motion  by  com- 
pressed air,  are  employed  for  handling  them.  Metallic  tem- 
pletes  are  used  by  the  workmen  in  fashioning  the  forgings 
as  the  pressing  progresses. 

The  forgings  are  now  rough-bored,  turned,  and  machined 
to  the  required  dimensions,  which  is  just  sufficient  to  admit 
of  proper  tooling  in  the  assembling  and  finishing  process  at 
the  gun-factory.  After  this  the  parts  are  oil-tempered  and 
then  annealed.  These  two  processes  impart  to  the  metal 
toughness  with  the  required  degree  of  hardness.  In  oil- 
tempering  the  tubes  and  jackets  are  heated  vertically  and 
as  eveidy  as  possible;  they  are  then  immersed  in  rapeseed 
oil,  in  the  direction  of  their  axes,  in  such  manner  that  a 
current  of  the  fluid  flows  through  the  bore.  This  operation 
must  always  be  performed  on  the  whole  of  each  piece  at  one 
time. 

For  annealing,  which  removes  any  strains  that  may  have 
been  produced  in  tempering,  the  tubes  and  jackets  are  heated 
as  evenly  as  possible;  this  operation  also  is  performed  on 
the  whole  piece  at  one  time.  The  degree  of  heat,  which  is 
generally  that  producing  a  salmon  color,  is  maintained  uni- 
iformly  for  several  days. 

After  the  temiiering  and  annealing  treatment,  should  a 
part  be  found  to  have  warped  or  bent  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
require  straightening,  it  is  returned  to  the  forging  furnace 
and  press  and  tem])('re<l  and  annealed  again.  All  the  hoops 
and  the  forgings  for  the  various  parts  of  the  breecli  mechan- 
ism are  treated  in  like  manner. 

The  forgings,  stamjied  an<l  numbered,  are  delivered  to  the 
Government  on  board  of  cars  at  the  foundry,  wlieiice  they 
are  transported  to  the  (loverumeiit  gnu-factory.  The  pres- 
ent co.sL  of  a  set  of  forgings  [or  an  8-inch  gun'is  f  10,938,  or 


37^  cents  per  pound.  For  the  10-inch  gun  the  cost  is  $24,- 
865,  or  80:J-  cents  per  pound.  For  the  12-inch  gun  it  is 
$42,218,  or  30+  cents  per  pound. 

During  all  of  the  foregoing  operations  each  process  is 
subject  to  the  inspection  of  expert  officers  of  the  ordnance 
department,  who  are  stationed  at  the  foundries  for  that 
purpose,  and  for  this  it  is  stipulated  in  the  contracts  that 
they  and  tlicir  employees  shall  be  allowed  free  access  at  all 
times  to  every  part  of  the  manufacturers'  works;  but  the 
details  of  operations  carried  on  are  considered  confidential 
so  far  as  the  manufacturers  may  desire.  Each  establish- 
ment has  its  own  chemist,  laboratory,  and  testing-machine. 
The  latter  is  compared  with  and  adjusted  to  the  Government 
machine  at  Watertown  arsenal,  thus  assuring  uniformity  of 
results  among  all  establishments  supplying  forgings.  The 
test  specimens  have  a  stem  length  of  3  inches,  with  a  di- 
ameter of  0'564  inch,  and  the  specifications  are  very  precise 
as  to  their  number  and  the  part  of  the  forging  from  which 
taken.  They  must  show  an  elastic  limit  of  not  less  than  42,- 
000  11).  ]ier  square  inch  for  tubes  and  46.000  lb.  for  jackets, 
and  a  tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  78,000  lb.  for  tubes 
and  86,000  for  jackets.  A  tabulated  record  is  kept  of  all 
these  tests,  so  that  the  Government  has  a  complete  history 
of  the  fabrication  of  each  piece  and  the  strength  and  com- 
position of  each  fiber  of  its  body. 

Assembling  the  Piece. — The  first  operation  in  assembling 
the  forgings  received  from  the  founder  is  to  place  the  tube 
in  a  lathe,  where  it  is  bored  and  reamed  to  within  about  a 
tenth  of  an  inch  of  the  exact  diameter  of  bore ;  at  the  same 
time  the  exterior  is  turned  to  the  proper  dimensions  for  the 
hoops.  It  is  then  faced  at  the  rear  end,  from  which  all 
measurements  are  made.  The  powder-chamber  is  next 
bored  and  reamed,  as  also  the  conical  junction  between  the 
chamber  and  bore. 

The  jacket  is  then  bored  and  reamed  to  fit  the  shoulder 
left  on  that  part  of  the  tube  over  which  it  is  to  fit.  The  in- 
terior diameter  of  the  jacket  is  about  0'02  inch  less  than  the 
exterior  diameter  of  the  tube.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  an  initial  strain  on  the  jacket  after  it  has  been 
shrunk  to  the  tube.  The  shrinkage  allowance  for  each  part 
is  taken  from  tables  carefully  prepared  from  a  long  course 
of  experiments,  conducted  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  most  suitable  strains. 

The  next  operation  is  to  shrink  the  jacket  on  the  tube. 
The  assemljling-pit,  about  30  feet  deep  and  8  feet  in  diam- 
eter, is  so  arranged  as  to  receive  and  sustain  the  lube  in  a 
vertical  position.  The  tube  is  adjusted  muzzle  upward  in 
the  pit;  the  jacket  is  brought  to  the  proper  temperature 
(about  600'  F.)  in  the  furnace,  swung  over  the  tube  by  means 
of  a  crane,  and  then  let  down  over  the  tube  a  short  distance, 
after  which  the  tube  is  pulled  up  through  it,  by  means  of 
the  crane,  until  the  shoulders  come  together.  A  water- 
collar  ami  water-rings  are  then  adjusted  to  perform  the 
function  of  jetting  water  upon  the  precise  parts  to  be  first 
cooled.  The  whole  is  then  allowed  to  cool,  after  which  the 
now  united  tube  and  jacket  are  removed  from  the  pit  to  rest 
in  a  horizontal  position.  The  first  C-hoop  is  now  heated  for 
expansion,  slipped  over  the  tube,  and  tightly  cl-imped  up 
against  the  jacket  by  means  of  a  powerful  clamping  device, 
when  it  is  allowed  to  cool.  After  this  the  piece  is  returned 
to  the  lathe,  and  the  shrinkage  surface  of  the  tube  turned 
for  the  next;  two  C-hoops,  which  are  now  slirunk  on,  follow- 
ing which  the  piece  is  again  returned  to  the  lathe,  and  the 
shrinkage  surface  of  the  tube  is  prepared  for  the  remaining 
C-hoops,  and  also  that  portion  of  the  jacket  and  of  the  C- 
hoops  to  be  covered  by  the  D-hoops,  all  of  which  are  now 
shrunk  on  in  succession.  The  exterior  of  the  jacket  is  next 
turned  and  the  A-hoops  shrunk  into  position.  While  the 
exterior  is  being  turned  and  finished,  the  bore  (now  dimin- 
ished by  the  heavy  pressure  brought  upon  the  tube  by  the 
shrinkage  of  jacket  and  hoops)  is  reamed  out  to  the  precise 
caliber  of  8  inches.  At  the  same  time  the  powder-chamber, 
the  seat  for  the  shot  and  for  the  gas-check,  are  bored  to  the 
proper  dimensions,  the  whole  interior  being  given  a  well- 
polished  surface.  The  threads  for  the  breech-block  receiver 
are  now  cut,  and  the  latter  is  screwed  home  against  the  thin 
copper  ring  fitting  between  the  receiver  and  the  rear  end  of 
the  tube,  and  intended  to  prevent  all  escape  of  gas  in  this 
direction.  The  next  operation  is  to  slot  the  receiver  and 
cut  the  threads  for  the  breech-block.  The  piece  is  now 
rifled.  For  the  number  and  dimensions  of  grooves  and 
lands,  see  table  at  end  of  article.  The  twist  of  the  rifling 
is  increasing,  being  one  turn  in  50  calibers  at  the  breech,  and 
25  calibers  at  16  inches  from  the  muzzle,  from  which  point 


ORDXA^X"E 


325 


it  is  iinifoi-m.  Tlie  various  parts  of  tlie  brcecli  mechanism 
are  now  tiltud  on.  and  the  gun  is  complete. 

The  Appropiiation  Act  passed  by  tlie  U.  S.  Congress  in 
1890,  supplemented  liy  that  of  the  foUowinff  year,  directed 
the  purchase  of  100  completed  f^uns,  viz..  '2^)  S-iiich.  oO  10- 
inch,  and  i't  12-iiich.  the  total  exiienditiire  for  whicli  shall 
not  exceed  .'i;4.250.000.  The  Icn^lli  of  time  required  for  the 
production  of  these  guns,  including;  the  time  reipiired  for 
the  erection  of  a  gun-factory  plant,  is  estimated  to  be  about 
ten  years. 

Mortars,  as  well  as  guns,  are  now  constructed  on  the 
built-up  principle,  and  are  also  breech-loading.  A  mortar 
thus  constructed  is.  in  geiiei'al  features,  but  a  gun  of  the 
same  caliber  shortened.  A  morlar  of  the  12-iuch  type  is 
made  up  of  an  interior  tube,  a  jacket,  and  one  layer  of 
hoops.  The  breech  mechanism  is  the  same  as  for  guns. 
For  weight,  dimensions,  etc.,  see  table  at  end  of  article. 

Carriages. — The  great  weight  and  ])Ower  of  the  new  guns 
require  proportional  strength  and  mechanical  appliances  in 
the  carnage.  A  tliorougldy  equipped  carriage  for  a  mod- 
ern piece  is  a  macliine  almost  as  c<implicated  in  construc- 
tion as  a  locomotive.  Owing  tci  Ihe  very  great  accuracy  of 
modern  lire  and  the  rapidity  of  discharge  of  machine-guns, 
it  becomes  an  essential  condition  that  the  pieces  and  their 
carriages,  as  well  as  the  cannoneers,  should  be  protecterl. 
The  teiuiency  is  (luu-efore  to  resort  to  armor-shields  and  to 
disappearing  carriages.  In  the  latter  case  the  gun  is  ex- 
posed to  the  fire  of  the  enemy  only  for  a  brief  period — at 
the  time  when  it  is  lioisted  above  the  parapet  to  its  firing 
position.  After  discharge  the  piece  disai>pears  behind  tlie 
parapet,  where  it  is  again  loaded  in  security.  One  form  of 
such  an  arrangement  is  a  gun-lift,  by  means  of  which  gun 
and  carriage  are  hoisted  and  lowered  on  a  iilatforin  by 
means  of  hydraulic  [lower.  The  most  general  form,  how- 
ever, is  some  application  of  the  counterpoise  principle. 
Still  another  fnrm,  and  one  promising  good  results,  is  a 
pneumatic  disappe.-iriiig  carriage. 

Another  difficult  problem  is  a  suitable  carriage  for  the 
modern  high-power,  breech-loading  mortar,  the  conditions 
for  which  embrace  enoi'inous  strength  to  resist  the  great 
strain  of  vertical  fire,  together  with  the  freedom  and  pre- 
cision of  motion  demanded  by  this  class  of  artillery.  A 
mortar  mounted  on  one  form  of  such  carriages — the  hydro- 
pneumatic  carriage — is  illustrated  by  Fig.  3. 


Field  Ordnance. — A  new  type  of  field-gun  has  been  in- 
troduced by  the  U.  S.  (iovernment.  In  this  piece  there  are 
no  hoops  proper.  The  trunnion  band  and  jacket  are  forged 
in  one  piece.     The  breech-block,  being  comimratively  light. 


dispenses  with  the  tray,  and  is  supported  by  a  ring  hinged 
to  the  breech  of  the  piece,  which  swings  readily  to  one  side. 
For  dimensions,  etc.,  of  this  piece,  see  table  at  end  of  arti- 
cle. The  carriage  and  caisson  for  this  piece  are  of  steel  so 
far  a,«  practicable  :  the  only  parts  of  wooil  being  Ihe  felloes, 
spokes,  pole,  and  the  ammunition-chests.  A  swinging  bar 
takes  the  place  of  the  old-fashioned  pole-yoke,  'i'be  rigid 
splinter-bar  of  the  old  carriages  is  replaced  by  a  movable 
double-tree,  similar  to  that  of  ordinary  carriages.  The  am- 
munition-chests, dispensing  with  trays,  are  much  lower  than 
formerly.  Kach  one  carries  42  rounds,  making  108  |ier  gun. 
For  each  battery  of  si.x  pieces  three  extra  caissons  are  al- 
lowed, making  in  all  83  chests  carrying  an  aggregate  of 
!.:iH()  rounds.  'J'he  battery-wagon  and  forge  of  t hi' old  sys- 
tem have  been  united  into  one  carriage,  resembling  in  ap- 
jjearance  a  caisson. 

The  U.  S.  system  of  field  artilh-ry  embraces  a  iVG-iiich 
breech-loading  mortar — a  short  light  piece  (Fig.  4)  intend- 


FiG.  4.— Breech-loading  mortar  for  field  use. 

ed  for  vertical  fire,  chiefly  against  the  personnel  of  an 
enemy  protected  by  field  intrenchments  or  inequalities  of 
the  ground  against  the  direct  fire  of  field-gun.s.  It  takes  the 
place  of  the  old  Coeliorn.  but  is  much  more  powerful,  accu- 
rate, and  far-reaching.  The  body  of  the  ]iiece  is  inaile  of  a 
single  ingot  of  forged  steel,  having  the  trunnions  forgi'd 
solid  with  the  piece.  The  breech  mechanism  is  similar  to 
that  of  field-guns.  The  carriage  is  of  bronze,  east  chiefly  in 
one  piece,  and  when  in  position  for  firing  rests  directly  on 
the  ground  ;  in  transportation  it,  with  the  piece,  is  carried  on 
a  wagon  especially  devised  for  it — three  on  one  wagon. 

A  5-inch  gun  has  been  devised  for  light  siege  or  heavy 
field  service.  In  general  construction  it  is  similar  to  the 
3'2-inch  field-piece.  For  dimensions,  etc..  see  table  at  end 
of  arti<de.  The  carriage  supporting  the  piece  is  of  steel, 
to  be  attached  to  a  limber  for  traveling.  The  most  notice- 
able feature  about  the  carriage  is  the  great  height  of  the 
trunnions  (72  inches)  as  coni|iared  with  ordinary  field-car- 
riages. This  is  to  admit  of  high  elevation  in  firing.  In  the 
ordinary  ficdd-carriage  the  lowness  of  the  trunnions  is  notice- 
able. Owing  to  the  heavy  charges  used  the  recoil  is  exces- 
sive ;  to  check  this  an  hydraulic  bufl'er.  consisting  of  a  cylin- 
der and  piston,  is  attached  to  tlie  carriage  and  to  a  pintle 
firmly  secured  to  the  front  of  the  iilatform  on  whicli  the 
carriage  stands.  The  piston-rod  is  attached  to  the  under 
side  of  the  stock,  and  the  front  end  of  the  cylinder  to  the 
pintle. 

The  7-inch  siege-howitzer,  the  dimensions  of  which  are 
given  in  the  table  at  the  end  of  this  article,  has  about  the 
same  construction  as  the  siege-gun  just  mentioned,  except 
that  it  is  very  much  shorter;  the  carriage  for  it  is  almost 
iili'iitical. 

.\  ;i-iiich  Ilotchkiss  rapid-firing  gun  has  been  adopted  as 
a  mountain-piece,  to  take  the  |ilace  of  the  small  bronze 
mountain-howitzer  of  the  old  artillerv. 

Pneumatic  f)i/namite  Gun. — Mudi  ingenuity  has  been 
exjiended  to  devise  some  means  of  safely  firing  shells  loailcd 
with  high  explosives  from  ordinary  ]io\vdcr-using  guns. 
Although  some  experiments  in  this  direction  have  been  suc- 
cessful to  a  limited  degree,  the  problem,  as  a  whole,  is  as 
yet  quite  unsolveil. 

About  1H8.T  a  pneumatic  gun  capable  of  throwing  heavy 
charges  of  high  explosives  was  produced  in  the  V .  S.  This 
machine,  often  called  the  Zalinski  gun.  c(msists  essentially 
of  a  long  steel  tube,  made  as  light  as  admissible,  an  air- 
reservoir,  and  a  system  of  valves  and  other  mochuulsra  at 


326 


ORDNANCE 


ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT 


the  breech  for  the  control  of  compressed  air.  the  propelling 
force  of  the  projectile.  The  piece  is  provided  with  trun- 
nions, supporting  it  on  a  carriage,  one  form  of  which  re- 
sembles in  general  appearance  the  top  carriage  of  an  ordi- 
nary barbette  gun.     (See  Fig.  5). 


limited  to  about  5,000  yards.  The  piece  is  fired  at  a  high 
elevation,  giving  the  trajectory  the  character  of  that  of  the 
ordinary  mortar  shell. 

The  success  attending  the  firing  of  an  8-inch  piece  of  this 
cliaracter  induced  Congress  to  authorize  the  procurement  of 


w^-»J<%> 


Fig.  5. — 1  ueuuiaLiL  djiianiitt;  guu. 


The  tube  is  siipjiortcd  unilerneath  by  a  cantilever  steel 
truss,  extending  forward  almost  to  the  muzzle.  The  piece, 
as  its  name  implies,  is  simply  an  air-gun.  The  air-compres- 
sor is  a  complicated  system  of  cylinders,  pistons,  chambers, 
coolers,  pipes,  and  valves.  This  apparatus  is  disposed  of 
under  and  within  the  carriage,  and  is  operated  by  a  steam- 
engine,  which  may  be  at  any  convenient  distance  from  the 
piece.  The  working  capacity  of  the  apparatus  admits  of 
about  ten  shots  per  hour,  and  the  valve  arrangements  are  so 
nicely  adjusted  as  to  ailmit  the  required  amount  of  air  with 
as  much  precision  as  gunpowder  is  weighed  for  ordinary 
guns.  The  projectile  is  simply  a  vessel  to  convey  the  explo- 
sive agent  against  or  near  the  object  to  be  destroyed,  and  con- 
sists of  an  elongated  metallic  cylinder  to  which  is  attached 
an  ogivial  head  containing  the  fuse  mechanism.  To  the 
rear  end  of  the  cylinder  is  attached  some  form  of  oblique 
flanges,  which,  acting  against  the  air,  gives  rotation  to  the 
projectile  during  its  flight.  Such  a  projectile  is  seen  at  a 
in  Fig.  5.  Dynamite  and  nitrogelatin  are  the  usual  explosives. 
As  it  is  all-important  that  the  explosion  should  taice  place 
with  certainty,  and  at  the  proper  moment,  the  fuses  are  an 
important  feature  of  the  projectile,  each  of  which  is  usually 
provided  with  three — one  to  act  by  impact  against  the  ob- 
ject, one  to  act  by  immersion  when  the  water  is  struck,  and 
the  other  to  act  in  case  of  failure  of  the  other  two.  The  im- 
pact fuse  is  similar  to  the  ordinary  percussion  fuse,  but  the 
other  two  act  by  means  of  a  comjilicated  electrical  device. 


ten  others,  nine  of  which  are  of  15-inch  caliber.  Three  of 
these  are  to  be  mounted  at  San  Francisco,  and  the  remain- 
der are  to  be  mounted  at  important  harbors  on  the  Atlantic 
coast. 

Wire-u'otincl  Guns. — In  the  IT.  S.  considerable  success  has 
attended  efforts  to  produce  guns  by  this  process.  Pieces  of 
this  nature  consist  essentially  of  a  steel  tube  for  the  bore, 
and  of  a  series  of  layers  of  wire  coiled  around  it.  During 
the  winding  process  a  strong  tension  is  given  the  wire,  de- 
creasing gradually  from  the  interior  to  the  exterior.  The 
wire — which  is  tinned — has  a  rectangular  cross-section.  A 
jacket  sustaining  the  trunnions  covers  the  rear  part  of  the 
piece,  as  likewise  the  breech  mechanism.  When  the  wire- 
winding  process  is  complete,  the  piece  is  subjected  to  a  low 
furnace-heat,  to  efllect  a  soldering  together  of  tlie  wire 
strands  through  the  agency  of  thin  sheets  of  soldering  foil 
inserted  between  the  layers  of  wire  during  the  winding 
process. 

It  is  claimed  that  serviceable  guns  can  be  constructed  by 
this  method  with  but  moderate  plant  as  compared  with 
built-up  pieces — a  feature  of  great  importance  to  a  nation 
of  defensive  unreadiness. 

The  following  table  shows  the  principal  dimensions, 
weights,  etc.,  of  the  system  of  rifled  and  breech-loading 
field,  siege,  and  seacoast  artillery,  adopted  for  the  U.  S. 
land  service,  and  now  constructed  at  the  Watervliet  gun- 
factory  : 


DIMENSIONS,  WEIGHTS,   ETC. 


Weight,  pounds 

Total  length,  feet 

Length  of  bore,  calibers 

Twisr  of  rirting,  calibers 

Niiinl)er  of  grooves 

\Vi<lth  of  grooves,  inches 

Depth  of  grooves,  inches 

Width  of  lands,  inches   

Length  of  powder-chamber,  inches 

Diameter  of  powder-chamber,  inches 

Length  of  axis  of  trunnions,  inches 

Diameter  of  nmzzle,  inches   

Diameter  of  breech,  inches 

Number  of  hoops. 

Weight  of  forgings,  pounds 

Weight  of  tub.-  f.irging,  [Kiunds 

W^eight  cjf  jacket  forging,  pounds 

Weight  of  projcrtile,  pounds 

Weight  of  poH-il.T,  pounds 

Length  of  proj'-.-til.-,  calibers 

Initial  velocity,  foot  seconds 

Muzzle  energy,  total,  foot-tons 

Bluzzle  energy  per  ton  of  gun.  foot-tons 

.Muzzle  en.-rgy  per  pound  of  powder 

rcnftrati..ii  in  Crcus..!  sl.-d  at  mnzzle,  inches.. 
A|>iin).\iiiiale  range  at  liii"  el.-vntion,  in  yards... 

Appro.Mitnate  cost  of  piece,  in  dollars 

Approximate  cost  per  charge,  in  dollars 


FIELD  ARTILLERY. 

SIEGE  ARTILLERY. 

SEACOAST 

1RTIIJ.ERY 

3*2  inch 
Btetil  breech- 

3"6-inch 
!t«d  brcech- 

3-6-incIi 

steel  brtech- 

loadin^ 

mortar. 

5- inch 
stet'l  breecli- 

7-mch 
steel  breech- 

Sincl 
steel  breech- 

lO-incb 
steel  breech- 

13-iDch 
steel  breech- 

12-inch 
steel  breech- 

loadiag  ride. 

lusdiDg  Fille. 

loading  rifle. 

hoivHier. 

ioading  rifle. 

loading  rifle. 

loading  rifle. 

mortar. 

829 

1.2:M 

2.50 

3,660 

3,710 

32,311 

67.200 

115,046 

29,120 

7-5 

r-5 

2  0 

12-1 

80 

23-2 

30-6 

36-6 

11-7 

26 

22-7 

5-25 

23-5 

12-4 

32 

34 

34 

10- 

30 

35 

30 

35 

35 

50  1  25 

50  1  25 

50  1  25 

30 

24 

24 

24 

32 

40 

48 

60 

72 

72 

0  3 

0  3 

0  3 

0-35 

0-399 

0-373 

0-373 

0-373 

0-378 

0  05 

005 

0  1)5 

0-06 

0  06 

0-06 

006 

0  1)6 

0-07 

0119 

1-71 

rri 

0141 

0160 

0  150 

0  1.50 

0  1.50 

0-150 

10 

14 

3-9 

19-7 

10-64 

41-25 

53-25 

62  5 

20-0 

3-8 

3-9 

3-8 

57 

7-2 

9-5 

11-8 

14-2 

12-5 

14-9 

15-5 

14-5 

21-6 

26 

44-5 

55-5 

66-8 

56 

51 

CO 

5-4 

.8  00 

10-00 

14-0 

16-8 

21-0 

21  0 

9-25 

9-8 

7-8 

15  00 

16-70 

30 

88-5 

46-25 

38 

2 

1 

0 

3 

3 

14 

18 

30 

6 

1,7:« 

347 

40,091 

82.002 

1.38.7.32 

64t 

aw 

302 

2,421 

2,169 

9,612 

18,808 

32,31*3 

7,666 

776 

812 

2,031 

1,22:3 

9,082 

16.870 

29,1.50 

9,632 

1305 

18  86 

]8'86 

42 

91 

300 

575 

1,000 

800 

3-75 

4-63 

roo 

12-5 

9-75 

1.30 

256 

440 

100 

3 

3-25 

3  25 

3 

3 

3-5 

3-5 

3-5 

35 

1,700 

l.-^M 

li.10 

1,829 

1.085 

1,935 

1.940 

1,940 

1,150 

270 

3:» 

59 

997 

857 

7,787 

15.001 

26,089 

7.334 

731 

610 

525 

612 

519 

.546 

61K1 

508 

564 

72 

72 


59 

80 

88 

60 

16-5 

11,000 

15,600 

17-00 

.59 

20-5 

13.650 

34,.500 

131-00 

60 

25 

14.700 

52,300 

217-00 

73 

The  ordinary  projectile  for  the  15-inch  gnn  has  a  totjil 
length  of  about  10  feet,  exclusive  of  the  directing  aiijiaratus 
attached  to  its  rear  cinl.  Its  weiglit  when  lotiiletl  with  500 
lb.  i)f  nitro.gelalin  is  .•ippnixinialcly  1,000  lb.  The  muzzle- 
velocity  is  only  about  500  feet  per  second,  and  the  range  is 


John  C.  Tidball, 
Ordnance  Department:  that  branch  of  the  U.  S.  army 
which  supplies  arms,  ammunition,  ami  equipments  to  the 
military  force  of  the  nation.     In  instituting  this  as  a  sepa- 
rate branch  the  U.  S.  has  followed  the  traditions  of  Great 


ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT 


ORDNANCE  SURVEY 


327 


Britain.  Tlie  European  continental  states  do  not  have  such 
distinct  organizations  for  the  supply  of  ordnance  and  ord- 
nance niulcrial.  'I'hi'sc  iliilii.'s  devolve  u[)on  the  arlillerv, 
and  are  performed  liy  ollicers  detailed  therel'roMi.  Attached 
to  its  department  of  war,  each  government  has  a  bureau  of 
artillery,  which  regulates  all  matters  connected  with  na- 
ti(mal  armament.  In  (iermany  the  fabrication  of  arms  is 
directed  by  otlicers  detailed  from  the  fool-regiments  of  ar- 
tillery; the  labor  is  performed  liy  civilian  employees.  Be- 
sidcsdoveniment  estal)lishmenls,  there  are  private  armories 
.supplying  small-arms  to  the  Government  the  manufacture 
of  which  is  su]>erintended  liy  officei-s  of  infantry. 

In  the  V.  S.  the  department  was  created  a  distinct  branch 
of  the  military  estalilishment  in  1812,  a  short  period  before 
the  witbreak  of  the  war  with  Great  Britain.  I'rior  to  this 
ordnance  and  ordnance  stores  had  been  obtained  from  pri- 
vate establishments,  and  were  received  and  inspected  by  civil 
or  military  agents  without  regard  to  any  strict  system. 

The  duties  of  the  ordnance  department  were  specifically 
set  forth  in  the  law  creating  it  to  be  the  inspection  and  prov- 
ing of  all  pieces  of  ordnance,  caiuion-balls,  shells,  and  shot 
procured  for  the  army,  and  to  direct  the  construction  of  all 
carriages  and  every  apparatus  of  ordnaiu'e  for  garrison  aiul 
field  service,  and  all  ammunition-wagons,  ]H)ntoons.  and 
traveling  forges,  ami  also  the  direction  of  the  laboratories, 
the  inspection  and  j)roving  the  public  powder,  and  tiie  pre- 
paring of  all  kinds  of  ammuniticm  for  garrison  and  lield 
service.  In  1815,  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  (ireat  Britain, 
the  department  was  reorganized  and  its  duties  and  powers 
enlarged.  The  otlicers,  with  a  colonel  at  the  head,  were 
given  direct  military  rank,  and  it  wsis  made  the  duty  of  the 
chief  to  make  estimates,  and,  under  the  Secretary  of  War, 
to  make  contracts  and  purchases  for  procuring  the  necessary 
supplies  of  arms,  equipments,  ordnance,  and  ordnance  stores. 
The  national  armories  were  place<l  under  control  of  the  de- 
partment, and  authority  was  given  to  estaldish  depots  of 
arms,  ammunition,  and  ordnance  in  such  parts  of  the  U.  S. 
as  might  be  deemed  necessary.  These  are  substantially  the 
duties  of  the  ordnance  depart nuMit  at  tlie  present  time,  ex- 
cept that  all  that  relates  to  pontoons  has  been  transferred  to 
the  Engineer  Corps  of  the  army.  In  the  following  year  an 
act  was  passed  assigning  ordnance  olliccrs  to  their  duties 
with  the  stall  of  the  army,  in  the  sjime  manner  as  for  the 
Corps  of  Enginei^rs.  Ever  since  then  they  have  continued  to 
belong  to  the  staff. 

By  the  act  of  Congress  of  1821,  reducing  the  military 
peace  establishment,  the  ordnance  department,  as  an  inde- 
pendent bureau,  was  abolished.  It  was  merged  into  the 
artillery,  ami  the  President  was  authorized  to  select  from 
the  regiments  of  artillery  such  officers  as  might  be  neces- 
sary to  perform  ordnance  duties.  One  sui>ernumerary  cap- 
tain was  provided  for  each  of  the  four  rcginieutsof  artillery 
to  perform  ordnance  duty.  In  1833  the  department  was 
reorgatiize<l  and  placed  on  an  independent  footing  by  an 
act  of  Congress  winch  provided  for  one  colonel,  one  lieuten- 
ant-colonel, two  majors,  ten  captains,  and  as  nnmy  enlisted 
men,  not  exceeding  250,  as  the  public  service  might  require. 

From  time  to  time,  but  especially  during  the  civil  war, 
the  department  has  been  enlarged  until  now  it  consists  of 
1  brigadier-general,  chief  of  ordnance,  3  colonels,  4  lieuten- 
ant-colonels, 10  majors,  24  captains,  12  first  lieutenants,  4 
ordnance  storekeepers,  and  .543  enlisted  men  of  various 
grades,  from  sergeants  to  privates.  The  enlisted  men  serve 
in  detachments  as  guards  at  the  various  ar.senals  aiul  depots. 
All  operations  of  construction  and  repair  at  these  establish- 
ments are  performed  by  the  hired  labor  of  civilians. 

Since  1ST4  all  otlicers  entering  the  ordnance  have  come 
from  the  line  of  the  army,  entering  as  first  lieutenants  at 
the  foot  of  the  list,  and  by  competitive  examimition.  Pre- 
vious to  this  vacancies  at  the  foot  of  the  list  were  filled  by 
appointments  direct  from  the  military  a<-ademy,  the  ord- 
mince  having  second  grade,  the  engineers  the  first. 

In  supplying  the  fighting  material  of  war  the  ordnance 
department  has  recourse  to  both  maiuifacturing  and  pur- 
chasing Ijy  contract.  The  chief  establisluncnts  for  the 
former  are  the  national  armory  at  Springfield,  .Mass.,  for 
the  nniinifactiire  of  suudl-arms  of  all  kinds ;  tlu^  Walervliet 
arsenal  at  West  Troy,  N.  Y.,  at  which  is  the  gun-factory  re- 
ferreil  to  in  the  article  on  Ordn'ance  ;  the  Watertown  arsenal, 
lu'ar  Boston,  !\lass.,  at  which  gun-carriages  are  constructed; 
the  Frankf(M'd  arsenal,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  for  the  numufac- 
ture  of  snniU-arm  ammunition  ;  and  Rock  Island  arsenal, 
Illinois,  at  which  are  manufactured  saddlery  and  other 
horse  eqnipinent.s,  targets  and  accessories  for  rille-ranges, 


knapsacks,  haversacks,  and  canteens,  together  with  other 
stores  required  for  current  use. 

In  addition  to  the  fourteen  arsenals,  nui.st  of  which  are 
mere  depositories  of  obsolete  materi(il,  the  ordnance  de- 
partment has  charge  of  the  jiowder  depot  near  Dover,  N.  J., 
and  the  one  near  .St.  Louis,  Mo. 

The  Fortification  Act  of  1888,  resuming  measures  for  the 
national  defenses,  established  a  board  of  ordnance  and  for- 
tifications, consisting  of  the  commanding  general  of  the 
army,  an  ofiicer  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  an  ofiicer  of  ord- 
nance, anil  an  ollicer  of  artillery,  and  by  subsequent  legisla- 
tion a  civilian.  This  board  is  emi)Owercd  to  provide  suita- 
ble regulations  for  the  inspection  of  guns  and  materials  at 
all  stages  of  manufacture  to  the  extent  necessary  to  protect 
fully  the  interests  of  the  U.  S.,  and  generally  to  provide 
such  regulations  concerinng  matters  within  its  scope  as 
shall  be  necessary  to  carry  out  to  the  best  advantage  all  du- 
ties committed  to  its  charge.  It  will  be  observed  that  this 
board  is  constituted  to  subserve  the  best  interests  of  the 
Government — the  engineer  to  plan  and  construct  fortifica- 
tions, the  ordnance  to  plan  and  construct  cannon,  and  the 
artillery  to  use  the  latter  and  defend  the  works.  The  board 
meets  once  a  month,  and.  besides  directing  how  apjiropria- 
tions  shall  be  carried  out,  passes  upon  inventions  aiul  im- 
provenu'iits  proposed  for  guns,  mortars,  ammuuilion,  im- 
plements, and  other  kimlred  matters.  Liljeral  allotnu'iits  are 
made  for  inventions  that  bid  fair  to  be  useful.  All  con- 
tracts and  expenditure  of  money  are  made,  as  before,  by  the 
ordnance  department,  the  officers  of  which  conduct  the 
work  and  nuxke  all  tests  and  experiments  under  general  in- 
structions from  the  board, 

A  permanent  board  of  ordnance  officers  has  existed  since 
1882,  and  carries  out  the  details  of  the  operations  prescribed 
by  the  ordnance  aiul  fortification  board.  Tests  and  experi- 
ments are  made  at  the  proving-ground  at  Sandy  Hook,  \..I. 

Beginning  with  the  year  1882,  the  department  has  jiub- 
lished  from  time  to  time  a  series  of  papers  bearing  the  title 
yotes  on  the  Construction  of  Ordnance,  containing  the  re- 
sults of  its  own  investigations  and  experiments  in  the  de- 
velopment of  heavy  guns,  carriages,  powders,  etc. ;  also 
such  translations  of  papers  published  in  Europe  as  are  con- 
sidered im])in'tant  in  tiicir  ijearing  on  the  manufacture  or 
treatment  of  steel  or  the  construction  of  cannon,  carriages, 
etc.    See  Oednance.  John  C.  Tidball. 

Ordnance  Survey :  the  name  given  to  the  aggregate  of 
persons  cmijloved  by  the  British  Government,  or  the  opera- 
tions undertaken  by  them,  for  the  surveying  and  prejiara- 
tion  of  maps  of  the  British  islands;  so  called  from  having 
been  originally  under  the  control  of  tlie  board  of  ordnance. 
It  may  be  said  to  have  had  its  beginning  in  the  ojierations 
conducted  by  Gen.  Roy  in  1784  for  the  determination  of 
the  difference  of  longitude  of  the  observatories  of  Green- 
wich and  Paris,  though  it  was  only  in  1791  tliat  the  systein- 
atic  survey  of  the  country  with  the  view  of  producing  a 
military  map  of  the  wliole  kingdom  on  the  scale  of  an  inch 
to  a  mile  (^,1^])  ^vas  liegun.  The  first  sheet  of  this  map 
was  published  .Ian.  1,  1801.  and  in  1824  tlie  work  was  so  far 
advanced  as  to  include  tin-  whole  of  the  south  of  England, 
with  part  of  Wales  and  a  small  part  of  .Scotland,  when  it 
was  in  a  great  measure  suspended  in  order  that  the  survey 
of  Ireland  on  the  scale  of  G  inches  to  a  mile  might  be  pro- 
ceeded with.  In  1840.  this  survey  of  Ireland  being  com- 
|)leted.  and  tlie  military  map  of  England  finished  up  to  the 
southern  bouiuiaries  of  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire,  the  Gov- 
ernment <leci<lcd  on  adopting  the  scale  of  G  inches  to  a  mile 
for  the  survey  of  the  remaining  counties  of  England  and 
the  whole  of  Scotland.  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  and  six 
of  the  southern  counties  of  Scotland  were  accordingly  sur- 
veyed on  the  6-inch  scale.  In  18.55  the  scale  was  again 
changed,  and  that  of  T-j^nj  (25-344  inches  to  a  mile)  ordered 
for  the  cultivated  districts  of  the  four  northern  counties  of 
England  ami  of  the  whole  of  Scotland.  The  uncultivated 
districts  were  at  the  same  lime  to  be  drawn  on  the  scale  of 
6  inches  to  a  mile  (-nriBn).  an<i  llie  7.<',rnlh  plan  to  be  re- 
duced to  the  6-inch  scale,  so  as  to  make  the  plans  of  every 
county  perfect  on  that  scale.  In  1862  the  four  northern 
counties  were  finished,  and  in  1863  the  extension  of  the  large 
scale  to  those  portions  of  the  country  which  had  been  pre- 
viously surveyed  on  the  scale  of  an  inch  only  was  ordered. 
In  18i)3  the  slate  of  the  survev  was  as  follows : 

1.  Scale  lin,  or  10-56  feet  to  a  mile,  and  tbSt^.  c  •'>  f^'*"*  ^'^' 
a  mile.  On  one  or  other  of  these  two  scale-s  every  town  of 
the  United  Kingdom  which  has  a  population  of  4.000  in' 


328 


ORDOVICIAN  FORMATION 


ORE  DEPOSITS 


habitants  or  upward  has  been  surveyed.     Most  of  the  plans 
are  on  the  j-Ju  scale. 

2.  Scale  -j-Zinr.  or  2.5-344  inches  to  a  mile.  This  is  the 
scale  for  the  agricultural  or  cuUivated  districts.  The  whole 
of  the  cultivated  area  of  Great  Britain  was  completed  in 
1893,  except  parts  of  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  and  of  six 
counties  of  Scotland,  whicli  were  originally  surveyed,  as 
stated  above,  on  the  6-inch  scale  ;  it  was  expected  that  these 
would  be  completed  about  18'JG.  The  survey  of  Ireland  on 
this  scale  was  oidy  begun. 

3.  Scale  TffsijiT-  or  6  inches  to  a  mile.  The  plans  of  the 
whole  of  the  United  Kingdom  have  been  published  on  this 
scale.  Those  of  Ireland  were  completed  in  1840,  those  of 
Great  Britain  in  1890.  Most  of  the  latter  have  been  pro- 
duced by  reduction  from  the  ir^Vu  scale. 

4.  Scale  -BTirTT-  or  1  inch  to  a  mile.  Maps  of  England  and 
Wales,  most  of  them  drawn  from  a  special  survey  on  a  scale 
of  2  inches  to  a  mile,  were  completed  on  the  .scale  of  1  inch 
to  a  mile  about  1868.  In  1872  it  was  decided  to  make  a 
"  new  series  "  map  on  this  scale,  based  on  the  large-scale 
surveys.  In  18!)3  this  was  still  in  progress,  both  in  outline 
and  with  hills:  the  outline  edition  was  to  be  completed 
about  1896,  the  "hills"  edition  about  1900.  The  1-inch 
map  of  Scotland,  reduced  frojn  the  large-scale  plans,  was 
completed  in  outline  in  1886,  and  that  of  Ireland  reduced 
from  the  6-inch  plans  was  completed  in  outline  in  1861. 

The  ;,-J;j  and  y^jts  plans  are  either  zineographed,  or,  more 
recently,  photozincographed.  The  1-inch  maps  are  en- 
graved on  copper.  The  6-inch  plans  were  also  up  to  about 
1880  engraved  on  copper,  but  this  method  was  then  found 
to  be  too  slow  to  keep  up  with  the  progress  of  the  survey, 
and  they  are  now  photozincographed  by  direct  reduction 
from  the  ywjts  plans.  The  relation  between  the  maps  on 
these  two  scales  is  that  a  6-inch  plan  contains  4  x  4=  16 
similar  rectangles,  and  each  of  these  rectangles  corresponds 
to  a  plan  on  the  ^,Vo'  scale.  The  plans  on  the  yj^  or  town 
scale  are  formed  by  dividing  a  ^ott  plan  into  5  x  .5  =  2.5 
similar  rectangles,  and  each  of  the  latter  forms  a  plan  on 
the  shs  scale. 

The  principal  triangulation  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
consists  of  some  350  stations,  the  triangle  sides  being  in 
some  cases  upward  of  100  miles  in  length.  The  angles  were 
measured  with  theodolites  of  36,  24,  and  18  inches  diameter. 
The  latitudes  of  33  stations  were  determined  by  observa- 
tion, and  the  direction  of  the  meridian  observed  in  60 
stations.  The  triangulation  was  reduced  by  the  method  of 
least  squares.  Six  base-lines  were  measured  in  the  course 
of  the  work,  but  the  final  results  are  made  to  depend  on  the 
two  lines — one  in  the  north  of  Ireland  (8  miles  long)  and 
the  other  in  the  south  of  England  (7  miles  long)— which 
were  measured  with  Colby's  "  compensation-bars." 

Special  surveys  have  been  and  are  made  from  time  to 
time  for  the  War  Department  and  other  services,  not  only  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  but,  for  instance,  in  Canada  and  in 
Gibraltar,  and  trained  parties  from  the  Ordnance  Survey 
have  been  em])loyed  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  Brit- 
ish Columbia  and  elsewhere,  as  well  as  on  the  delimitation 
of  various  colonial  boundaries.  The  Ordnance  Survey  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture.  The  es.sen- 
tial  feature  of  the  organization  is  the  combination  of  mili- 
tary and  civil  elements.  There  are  employed  on  the  survey 
24  officers  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  including  1  director,  4 
field  officers,  18  captains,  and  a  quartermaster.  There  are 
four  companies  of  Royal  Engineers,  which,  including  non- 
commissioned officers,  number  361  men.  and  are  about  to  be 
increased  to  4.54  men.  The  number  of  civil  assistants  and 
laborers  is  about  2,000.  At  Snuthainjiton  there  are  from  60 
to  70  non-commissioned  officers  and  men  of  the  Royal  Engi- 
neers, with  9  officers  and  about  700  civil  assistant's  and  la- 
borers. In  this  staff  are  included  about  70  engravers  on 
copper,  130  zincographic  tracers  and  printers,  50  colorists, 
170  draughtsmen  and  examiners  of  plans,  6  trigonometrical 
computers,  from  20  to  30  artificers,  including  2  opticians, 
and  about  40  photographers  and  engravers  on  glass  nega- 
tives. The  sum  voted  annuallv  bv  Parliament  for  the  prose- 
cution of  the  survey  varies;  iri  1K93  it  was  €218.000. 

A.  R.  Clarke.     Revised  by  John  Far^lharson. 

Ordovician  Period  :  See  Silurian  Period. 

Ore  [C».  Eng.  ar.  brass  :  Goth,  nis  <  Teuton,  ais  :  Eat.  aes, 
ae'ri.%  bronze  (for  older  *aieK-) :  .Sanskr.  ai/as,  metal,  bronze] : 
a  metal  chemically  combined,  or  in  a  native  state,  mechan- 
ically mixed  with  other  substances,  which  render  treatment 
necessary  to  separate  it.     In  a  strictly  technical  sense,  onlv 


those  substances  are  ores  which  contain  the  metal  in  suffi- 
cient quantity  and  of  sufficient  purity  to  make  the  treat- 
ment profitable.  Arsenopyrite,  a  combination  of  arsenic, 
sulphur,  and  iron,  contains  34'4  per  cent,  of  iron,  but  is 
not  an  ore  of  iron,  because  the  metal  made  from  it  is  not 
of  sufficient  commercial  value  to  pay  the  expenses  of  treat- 
ing it.  Thomas  Egleston. 

Ore  Deposits  :  any  natural  occurrences  of  metalliferous 
minerals  from  which  one  or  more  of  the  heavy  metals  can 
be  profitably  extracted.  The  ore  may  be  a  single  native 
metal,  or  a  chemical  or  mechanical  mixture  of  metals,  or  a 
single  mineral  consisting  of  a  metallic  oxide  or  a  metallic 
salt,  or  it  may  be  a  mechanical  mixture  of  several  of  these 
minerals.  Generally,  the  ore  is  associated  more  or  less  inti- 
mately with  other  minerals,  which  are  called  the  gangue. 
The  ore  and  the  gangue  together  form  the  deposit. 

Texture. — Metalliferous  deposits  sometimes  consist  solely 
of  one  ore,  as  in  some  occurrences  of  magnetite,  haematite, 
spatliic  iron  ore,  galena,  more  often  of  two  or  more  ores, 
with  one  or  more  minerals  forming  the  gangue.  The  dif- 
ferent ores  may  be  intimately  associated  with  each  other 
and  with  the  minerals  forming  the  gangue,  or  they  may 
exist  separately  and  with  a  greater  or  less  regularity  of  dis- 
tribution. The  more  common  varieties  of  texture,  chiefly 
as  given  by  von  Cotta,  are — 

Compact,  when  the  texture  is  so  fine  that  the  separate  par- 
ticles are  not  visible  to  the  naked  eye:  compact  haematite. 

Granular,  when  the  particles  are  visibly  in  the  form  of 
grains :  fine-grained,  medium-grained,  coarse-grained,  are 
terms  used  to  indicate  the  size  of  the  individual  particles; 
granular  magnetite,  granular  pyrites,  etc. 

Micaceous  or  finely  laminated,  when  the  particles  are  in 
thin  laminiB  or  scales:  micaceous  specular  iron  ore. 

Disseminated,  when  the  ore  is  distributed  through  the 
gangue  in  grains  or  lamina^. 

Porphyritic,  when  the  ore  is  distributed  as  integral  crys- 
tals through  the  gangue. 

Banded  or  combed,  when  the  constituents — ores  or  gangue 
or  both — are  arranged  in  parallel  layers.  Tliis  variety,  which 
is  very  common  in   certain 

o.j,i,„Ci  di ,  a  \.c„..A. 


kinds  of  deposits,  is  of  sig- 
nal interest  from  both  sci- 
entific and  economic  stand- 
points. Deposits  having  this 
structure  were  formed  in 
cavities,  fissures,  caves,ehiin- 
neys,  and  the  layers  indicate 
gradual  growth  under  more  W^ 
or  less  varying  conditions 
The  oldest  members  or  lay- 
ers («  reformed  on  the  oppo- 
site walls  (Fig.  1).  then  b  h 
cc,  till  finally  the  two  young 
est  members,  d  d,  filled  the 
narrowed  space.  Frequently 
two  contemporaneous  layers, 
which  may  alone  fill  the  vein 
or  may  form  the  two  youngest  members,  consist  of  crystals 
set  perpendicularly  to  the  walls  of  the  vein,  and  with  their 
terminal  faces  bristling  toward  each  other  from  opposite 
sites  or  interlacing  (d  d  in 
the  sketch).  This  symmet- 
rical repetition  is  sometimes 
interfered  with  by  the  inter- 
position of  other  layers  when 
the  vein  has  reopened  and 
formed  a  new  vein  between 
the  walls  of  an  older  one. 
Fig.  2  represents  three  dis- 
tinct veins,  A  B  C,  between 
the  same  walls. 

Concent ric-lmvded,  Coear- 
denerze,  or  Ringerze.  when 
the  bands  are  arranged  sym- 
metrically around  a  nucl  us, 
which  is  often  a  fragment, 
as  in  Fig.  3. 

Brecciated. — The  deposits 
very  often  contain  fragments 
of  the  inclosing  rock  or 
"  country,"  or,  also,  jiieces  of  still  older  ore-formations. 
When  these  are  very  numerous  the  texture  is  brecciated. 
Sometimes  these  fragments  form  nuclei,  around  which  the 


ORE   DEPOSITS 


329 


Fio.  3.— Concentric  vein  strucliire. 
Adalbert  vein.  Przibrani 
<<rriinini  :  a,  greenstdne  ;  /», 
brown  blende  ;  c,  galena ;  d, 
siderite  ;  e,  drnsj'  cavities. 


minerals  of  tlie  ore  and  gangue  have  crptallized,  forming 
a  massive  or  banded  or  drusy  cement.  \  ery  often,  especial- 
ly in  veins,  the  liiglily  al- 
tered fragments  of  the  wall- 
rock  form  nearly  the  entire 
filling,  in  whioh  the  miner- 
als of  the  ore  and  gangne 
are  distributed  in  thin 
threads  and  seams.  (See 
Fig.  4.)  The  texture  is  then 
generally  earthy-granular  or 
llaky  and  lenticular. 

JJnis)/.  \vl;en  the  deposit 
contains  many  cavities  lined 
with  crystals. 

The  boundaries  of  a  de- 
posit are  called  walls;  when 
these  are  well  defined,  the 
plane  between  the  deposit 
and  the  wall-rock  is  called  the  selvage  {Salbanil};  this  is 
sometimes  very  smooth  and  highly  polished  {Slichenside). 

Succeiisio7i  of  Minerals. — 
<j,,  -^  ^iSasSS^^'  ''''^   formation  of  any  de- 

|l    V^  ^^^^^^^     posit  was  due  to  slowly  act- 

sv'       '  ^^^^^m     ing  causes  working  during 

long  periods  of  time,  and 
often  under  more  or  less 
varying  conditions.  The 
progress  of  growth  is  often 
marked  by  the  banded 
structure  when  present,  the 
varying  conditions  by  the 
alternating  constitution  of 
the  bands,  and  the  relative 
ages  of  the  constituents  by 
their  relative  |)ositions  in 
the  separate  bands  or  by  the 
superposition  of  one  upon 
another,  forming  what  is 
called  a  paragenetie  series, 
as  in  Fig.  5.  Frequently 
the  constituents  of  one  of 
the  minerals  have  been  re- 
moved in  part  or  wholly, 
and  other  substances  have  taken  their  place,  forming  a  new 
mineral,  which,  however,  retains  the  external  crystalline 
form  of  its  predecessor ;  this  process,  called  pseudomor- 
phism, has  sometimes  gone  so  far  that  a  new  series  of  min- 
erals has  taken  the 


Fio.  4. — G,  wall-rock  ;  Ar,  clefts  ;  g, 
wall-rock  in  the  lode  ;  e.  ore. 


■       tY  Bleiiclt. 


^  Fliior-sj'ar. 

't  Blende. 
/^  Heavv  spar. 

«•//>/ ''""  !'>"'«"• 
5^^  Heavy  a[)ar. 
"^^  Iron  pyriU:!. 
~  FIuor.apar. 


place  of  the  older 
deposit.  Limonite, 
pseudomorphous  af- 
ter spatliic  iron  ore, 
is  one  of  the  more 
frequent  instances 
of  deposits  changed 
as  regards  mineral 
composition. 

Oroupinfi  of  Min- 
erals.— Certain  me- 
talliferous sub- 
stances have  a  tend- 
ency to  occur  to- 
gether, cither  chem- 
ically combined  or 
associated  as  sepa- 
rate minerals  :  for 
instance,  ores  of 
lead  and  zinc,  of 
copper  and  iron,  of 
cobalt  and  nickel, 
of  iron  and  manga- 
nese, of  tin  and  wol- 
fram. A  similar 
tendency  to  associa- 
tion exists  with  re- 
gard to  certain  gangue  minerals,  among  them,selvcs  and 
with  certain  ore  groups. 

(Vassijirafion. — Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to 
arrive  at  a  classi  Heat  ion  of  ore  deposits  which  would  at  the 
same  time  meet  strictly  scientific  requirements  and  serve  a 
useful  technical  purpose.  A.  WeriuT,  von  f'otta.  and  later, 
in  the  V.  S.,  .1.  I).  Whitney,  l{.  I'uiiipelly.  H.  \V.  UaynHMid. 
J.  S.  Newberry,  and  W.  O.  Crosby,  and  in  Europe,  von  tirod- 


Fio.  5. 


-I'arogenetlc  series  (von  Weinsen- 

bitch). 


O 

2jm 


FiG.  G.— C.  country  rock  ; 
(>,  outcrop;  G.  gossan; 
II.  horse  ;  H  W.  hang- 
ing wall ;  F  W,  foot- 
wall  ;  S  S,  selvage. 


Fig.; 


deck,  J.  A.  Phillips,  de  Launay,  and  F.  Posepny  brought 

forward  suggestions.    The  last-named  proposes  two  principal 

group.s — tleposits  contemporaneous  with  the  country   rock 

(idiogenoiis)  and  those  subse(|uently  formed  in  it  (xenoge- 

nous).     lie  adils  a  third  class,  in  harmony  with  the  older 

systems,  which  includes  deposits  of 

debris,    calling    it     hystemgenous. 

With  reference  to  the  country  rock 

he   distinguishes  between  deposits 

caused   by  filling  spaces  of  discis- 

si<m  (fissures,   etc.),    by   filling    of 

spaces    of    ilissolution    in    solulile 

rocks,  and  metamorphic  deposits  in 

soluble  rocks. 

The  ore  deposits  in  spaces  of  dis- 
cission include  those  generally 
known  as  "  fissure  veins."  The 
country  rock  has  been  torn  asuiuler, 
the  movement  often  being  com- 
plex. Veins  so  formed  often  send 
out  minor  cracks,  usually  at  an 
acute  angle,  into  the  wall  -  rock, 
which  are  called  feeders  or  branches.  Very  often  the  vein 
incloses  large  masses  of  the  wall-rock  or  "country."  which 
are  called  "  luu-se.s."  (Fig.  6.)  The  extension  of  a  vein 
horizontally  is  called  its  strike,  direction,  course,  or  bearing, 
and  is  expressed  in  points  of  the  compass  as  N.  E.  by  X.,  or 
in  degrees  of  the  (|uadrant.  as  N.  8;J  4.5  E.  The  vertical 
angle  which  it  makes  with  the  horizon  is  called  the  dip; 
thus  the  dip  varies  from  0'  in  a  horizontal  vein  to  90°  in  a 
vertical  one.  The  thickness  of  veins  varies  from  a  mere 
crack  to  hundreds  of  feet.  Veins  often  divide  into  several 
smaller  ones,  which  keep  proximately  the  original  strike; 
they  are  then  said  to  split  up.  (Fig.  7.) 
In  districts  which  contain  ore-bearing 
veins  there  are  almost  always  a  nuiuber 
of  them,  and  they  are  then  often  grouped 
in  a  zone  of  nearly  parallel  veins,  which 
sometimes  run  together  or  are  united  by 
headers.  Some  districts  have  several  zones,  each  roughly 
parallel  to  a  different  direction,  and  the  different  zones  are 
then  generally  of  different  ages  and  more  or  less  different  in 
character.  It  is  a  common  occurrence  to  find  that  a  vein 
has  l>een  subjected  to  an  upward  or  downward  movement  of 
the  country  on  one  of  its  sides,  leaving  the  opposite  walls 
in  different  relative  positions  to  those  existing  before  the 
movement.  This  motion  has  had  more  or  less  crushing, 
especially  of  the  projecting  portions  of  the  wall,  for  a  result, 
and  has  often  left  highly  polished  wall-surfaces.  Where 
the  fissure  lay  in  a  warjied  plane,  the  tendency  of  a  move- 
ment was  tn  produce  a  vein  of  irregular  thickness  by  bring- 
ing the  alternating  convex  portions  of  tlie  two  walls  into 
opposition.  An  important  result  of  this  is  the  permanent 
enlargement  of  the  fissure  as  a  whole.  (Fig.  8.)  The  evi- 
dence of  movement  having  taken  place 
found  in  the  relative  displacement  of 
the  opposite  sides.  This  is  marked  by 
interru|)tion  of  the  continuation  of  in- 
dividual strata  if  the  country  rock  is 
stratified  (Fig.  8),  or,  if  the  vein  inter- 
sects dikes  or  other  veins  wliieli  are 
older,  by  the  displacement  of  these. 

The  second  group,  that  of  deposits 
which  are  fillings  of  spaces  of  dissolu- 
tion, includes,  according  to  Posepny, 
the  majority  of  iIk;  deposits  in  lime- 
stone. Conspicuous  among  them  are 
those  of  Eeadville  and  of  Eureka,  Nev. 
An  ideal  .section  of  the  latter,  after  J.  S. 
Curtis,  is  shown  in  Fig.  i),  in  which  a 
re|)resents  the  quartzite.  h  crushed  lime- 
stone, c  limestone,  d  shale,  /  stratified 
limestone,  r  y  the  ore  body,  and  w  the 
Kichmond  shaft.  Posepny  includes  in 
this  group  also  the  lead  ami  zinc  deposits  of  Missouri  and 
Wisconsin. 

Among  the  "  metasomatic "  deposits  which  made  room 
for  themselves  by  the  expulsion  of  an  earlier  mineral.  Posep- 
ny includes  the  copper  shales  of  Mansteld.  the  lead-carry- 
ing sandstones  of  Mechernich.  (iermanv.  the  silver  deposits 
of  Silver  Heef.  Utah,  and  the  copper  deposits  of  Arizona. 

Through  the  <lislncntion  of  the  strata,  or  the  country 
rock,  hy  faiills.  and  tlirouirh  the  intrusion  of  eruptive  rocks, 
great  complexities  are  often  brought  about.     As  an  exam- 


in  a  iriven  vein  is 


Fig.  8. 


330 


ORE  DEPOSITS 


pie,  Fig.  10  shows  a  vertical  east  and  west  section,  after  A. 
A.  Blow,  through  the  JIcKean  shaft,  Iron  Hill,  Leadville, 
W  P  being  white  porpliyry,  B  L  blue  limestone,  G  P  gray 
porphyry,  W  L  white  limestone,  L  Q  lower  quartzite,  and 


Fig.  9. 

G  granite,  the  ore  deposit  being  indicated  by  heavy  black. 
Elaborate  rules  have  been  worked  out  to  aid  the  miner  in 
the  search  for  the  displaced  ore  body,  which  it  would  lead 
too  far  to  follow  up. 

The  contents  of  a  vein  are  the  ore  and  the  gangue.  Some 
veins  have  a  very  simple  character  as  regards  the  filling, 
containing  one  ore.  or  this  and  one  kind  of  gangue.  Others, 
again,  are  exceedingly  complex,  containing  in  the  same 
part  of  the  vein  or  in  different  parts  a  great  variety  of  me- 
tallic compounds,  associated  with  numerous  gangue  miner- 
als. Veins  are  generally  filled  compactly  witli  their  con- 
tents, though  druses  sometimes  exist.  As  has  been  already 
mentioned,  the  constituents — ore  and  gangue  minerals — are 
often  distributed  in  symmetrical  layers  parallel  to  the 
walls  ;  they  are  often  also  heterogeneously  mixed.  The  dis- 
tribution of  ore  and  gangue  minerals  is  generally  more  or 


Fig.  10. 

less  irregular  within  the  same  vein.  Sometimes  the  ore  is 
concentrated  at  different  points  into  bodies  called  bonanzas, 
nests,  chimneys,  pockets,  masses,  etc.,  while  the  rest  of  tiie 
vein  is  barren  or  contains  only  disseminated  ores  of  the 
same  kind  or  of  different  kinds  to  that  of  the  bonanzas. 
This  inequality  of  distribution  is  sometimes  traceable  to  a 
cause.  Thus  in  some  veins  changes  in  the  char.acter  of  the 
wall-rock  are  accompanied  by  change  in  the  character  of 
the  vein-filling — changes  which  may  in  one  phice  be  due  to 
certain  portions  of  the  country  rock  contributing  metallic 
solutions,  in  another  place  to  parts  of  the  country  contribut- 
ing a  reagent  capable  of  precipitating  metals  from  solutions 
in  the  vein.  Again,  in  veins  of  varying  thickness,  if  the 
ore  is  one  of  the  younger  members,  the  older  filling  of  the 
narrower  parts  by  poor  or  barren  material  would  leave 
room  only  in  the  wide  parts  for  the  richer  member.  The 
intersection  of  veins  is  often  at^companied  by  enrichment. 
Besides  changes  due  to  local  influences,  there  is  observed  in 
some  districts  a  differen<-e  of  character  in  depth.  Thus  the 
veins  of  Oruro  in  Bolivia,  which  were  rich  in  silver  in  their 
upper  levels,  contained   ores   barren   of  silver    in    depth. 


Veins  containing  both  tin  and  copper  have  often  the  tin 
ores  above  and  copper  ores  below.  Sometimes  a  dike  of 
eruptive  rock  has  been  altered  to  a  considerable  depth  in 
such  manner  as  to  roughly  simulate  a  fissure-vein. 

Surface-deposits,  or,  as  Posepny  calls  them,  "  hysteroge- 
nous  "  deposits,  have  formed  the  source  of  enormous  quanti- 
ties of  gold,  platinum,  and  tin  ore.  When,  by  disintegra- 
tion and  erosion  or  by  being  dissolved,  a  rock-mass  contain- 
ing ore  deposits  of  any  form  is  removed,  and  the  removing 
cause  is  not  competent  to  carry  away  the  ore,  this  remains 
in  a  more  concentrated  form  and  is  a  residuary  deposit. 
The  often  important  masses  of  magnetic  iron  sand  which 
are  concentrated  by  the  wave-action  on  beaches  from  the 
disintegrated  debris  of  rock-masses  are  of  tliis  form.  Iron 
Mountain,  in  Missouri,  was  wholly  mantled  to  a  depth  of 
from  2  to  20  feet  with  a  loose  mass  consisting  entirely  of 
fragments  of  iron  ore  of  all  sizes.  These  representatives  of 
the  broken-up  reticulated  veins  are  all  that  remain  of  a 
large  amount  of  porphyry,  which  has  disappeared,  leaving 
only  the  insoluble  iron  ore. 

Stream-deposits  consist  of  loosely  aggregated  material  in 
modern  or  ancient  water-courses.  They  are  generally  the 
lowest  member  of  a  river-deposit,  and  owe  their  existence  to 
the  specific  gravity  and  insolubility  of  the  metals  or  ores. 
The  annexed  sketch  (Fig.  11)  from  Whitney  (Otological  Sur- 


W^'-::'-'' 


Fig.  11.— Table  Mountain  :    ?,  lava  :  s.  sandstone  ; 
channels  ;  a,  slate. 


c  c,  auriferous 


vey  of  Cah'foniin)  represents  an  auriferous  stream-deposit 
formed  in  a  valley  which,  after  Ijcing  filled  with  a  lava 
stream,  became  a  mountain-crest  by  the  erosion  of  the  softer 
hills  on  either  side. 

In  many  localities  iron  ore  is  deposited  in  marshes  and  on 
the  bottoms  of  lakes.  The  ore  is  a  variety  of  limonite  called 
bog  ore,  and  owes  its  origin  to  the  action  of  decaying  organic 
matter  on  ferric  oxide,  producing  soluble  ferrous  carbonate, 
which,  on  entering  the  agrated  waters  of  a  lake,  is  oxidized 
and  sinks.  Such  a  deposit  is  worked  in  a  lake  near  Radnor 
Forges,  Canada. 

Concerning  the  genesis  of  ore-deposits,  renewed  interest 
has  been  aroused  through  the  researches  made  by  Fridolin 
Sandberger,  of  WUrzburg.  who  advanced  what  is  known  as 
the  lateral  secretion  theory.  He  found  by  painstaking  chem- 
ical analyses  that  the  mica,  olivine,  augite,  and  hornblende 
of  country  rock  contain  minute  quantities  of  the  useful 
metals,  and  claimed  that  the  filling  of  ore  deposits  is  derived 
through  chemical  solution  from  the  surrounding  country 
rock.  Other  economic  geologists,  notably  Posepny,  liold  that 
the  chief  agency  for  the  accumulation  of  useful  minerals  is 
the  underground  circulation  of  water.  He  makes  a  sharp 
distinction  between  what  he  calls  vadose,  or  shallow  under- 
ground circulation,  and  deep  underground  circulation,  rely- 
ing upon  the  solvent  power  of  water,  with  increasing  tem- 
perature and  pressure. 

Hflnfive  Values  of  Deposits. — Fissure-veins,  as  a  rule,  are 
more  trustworthy,  because  of  the  continuity  of  the  fissures 
and  the  consequent  facility  offered  the  miner  for  under- 
ground prospecting.  Tlie  same  may  be  said  of  certain  beds, 
while  the  other  forms  are  of  the  most  uncertain  character; 
any  given  one  may  be  an  isolated  occurrence  or  one  of 
many,  but  from  their  nature  they  rarely  offer  clews  by  which 
the  miner  can  work  from  one  to  another.  The  most  pro- 
ductive mines  of  iron  ore  are  beds  and  irregular  masses. 
The  most  productive  co]iper  mine  is  at  present  the  Calumet 
and  Hecla  on  Lake  Superior,  which  is  abed  of  conglomerate 
impregnated  with  native  copper.  The  largest  production 
of  lead  has  probably  been  from  the  quickly  exhausted  but 
innumerable  deposits  in  limestones  and  dolomites.  The 
greater  proportion  of  tin  and  native  gold  is  derived  from 
surface  deposits.  On  the  other  liand,  a  great  part  of  the 
silver  of  the  world  is  wrought  from  true  fissure-veins ;  and, 
if  we  except  deposits  of  iron  aiul  some  isolated  deposits  of 
other  metals,  the  instances  of  permanent  ore-mining  indus- 
tries are  found  to  be  established  on  fissure-veins. 

LiTERATiRE. — General :  Von  Cotta.  Treatise  on  Ore  De- 
posits (1869),  transl.  by  Fred,  Prime  from  Cotta's  Erzlager- 


9>c 


3         OD 


OREGON 


331 


stdllen  Lehre ;  Joh.  Grimm,  Die  LagerstStten  der  nutzbaren 
Mineralien  (VTaaae.  18611) :  von  Cottaanti  II.  JliiUer,  Oang- 
studien  ;  J.  D.  Wliitney,  Mi-talUc  Wealth.  Spi-cial  for  V.  S. ; 
Miniiiy  Induxtnj,  vol.  iii.  of  the  Onul.  ISurv.  uf  tlie  JfUth  Par- 
allel, fur  the  I'omstiick  Lotte  inul  many  Deposits  in  JS'evada, 
I'tah,  and  Colorado :  H.  W.  Kayinoiul,  Mineral  liesources 
West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  Friilolin  Saiiilberger,  I  'nter- 
SHchuiif/en  fiber  Erzijdnge  (Wicsbaili'U,  18S5) :  A.  von  tirod- 
deck,  i)ie  Lehre  von  den  Layerstatten  der  Erze  (Lcipzitf, 
187U):  J.  A.  I'liillips,  Ore  Deposits  (1884):  Kemp.  Ore  De- 
posits of  the  i'nited  States  (New  York,  1892);  Fr.  Posepny, 
The  Genesis  of  Ore  Defmsits  ( Transactions  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  vol.  xxiii.) :  John  A.  Church, 
The  Comsiock  Lode  :  its  Formation  and  History  (Sew  York, 
1879).  Numerous  descriptions  of  American  and  foreign  de- 
posits are  published  in  tlie  Transactions  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  (New  York,  vols.  i.  to  x.xiii.), 
the  publications  of  the  U.  S.  Geolofiical  Survey,  and  of  the 
Geological  Surveys  of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Ohio, 
Michigan,  Missouri,  Wisconsin,  and  Jlinnesota. 

R.  PuMPELLY.     Revised  by  C.  Kirchhokf. 

Oregon:  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America  (Western 
group) ;  the  twentieth  State  admitted  to  the  Union ;  capital, 
Salem. 

Location  and  Area. — It  lies  between  lat.  43°  and  46°  18' 
N.  and  Ion.  116°  33'  and  124°  25'  W. ;   is  bounded  X.  by 

Washington,  E.  by 
Idaho,  S.  by  Cali- 
fornia, and  W.  by 
the  Pacific  Ocean ; 
length  K.  to  W. 
about  3G0  miles, 
breadth  N.  to  S.  290 
miles  ;  coast  -  line 
about  300  miles ; 
area,  96,030  sq. 
miles,  of  which 
1,470  .are  water. 

Physical  Feat- 
ures.— Three  ranges 
of  mountains  di- 
vide the  State  from 
N.  to  S.,  the  Coast 
Range,  from  10  to 
„    ,    ,  30  miles   from  the 

Seal  of  Oregon.  ^^p^.j.   the  Cascade 

from  110  to  150  miles  inland;  and  the  Blue 
,  near  the  eastern  boundary.  The  Cascades  and 
Coast  Range  are  united  by  four  lateral  ranges — the  Calla- 
pooia,  Umpqua,  Rogue  River,  and  Siskiyou  Mountains. 
The  Coast  Range  has  an  extreme  altitude  of  4,000  feet, 
and  is  covered  to  its  summit  with  dense  forests.  The 
Casca<!e  Mountains  are  a  continuation  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada .Mountains :  the  extreme  height  is  7,000  feet,  with  a 
number  of  peaks  rising  from  2,000  to  5,000  feet  liigher.  The 
most  noted  of  these  are  Mt.  Hood,  11, .500  feet:  Mi'Loughlin 
or  Pitt,  11,000;  JelTerson,  10,500;  and  Three  Sisters,  9,.500. 
The  Cascades  arc  densely  timbered  to  the  snow  line.  The 
Blue  Mountains  liave  an  extreme  height  of  about  3,000  feet, 
with  no  high  peaks,  and  are  well  covered  with  timber,  es- 
pecially at  the  north  end  of  the  range.  Toward  the,S. 
the  mountains  recede  and  shoot  off  in  lateral  spm-s  W.  to 
the  interior  table-land.  Along  the  river  co\irses  and  be- 
tween tlie  various  mountain  ranges  and  spurs  are  numerous 
fertile  valleys.  The  largest  is  the  Willamette,  lying  between 
the  Coast  Range  and  Cascade  Jlountains  and  the  Columbia 
river  and  the  Callapooia  spur.  It  is  1.50  miles  long  and  from 
HO  to  70  wiile,  is  extremely  fertile,  and  contains  tlie  densest 
population  of  the  State.  S.  of  it,  between  the  lateral  ranges, 
are  the  Umpqua  and  Rogue  Niver  valleys.  The  region  E. of 
the  C'as(«de  .Mountains,  emliraciiig  two-thirds  of  the  State's 
area,  is  known  as  Eastern  (Iregon.  That  portion  of  it  be- 
tween the  Casitade  and  Mine  Mountains  is  in  the  main  a 
high  table-land,  with  little  rainfall,  and  is  sparsely  popu- 
lated. There  are  fertile  valleys  along  the  water-courses an<l 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  numerous  lakes  in  the  southern  part, 
the  largest  being  Harney  and  Goose  Lakes,  while  at  the  north- 
ern extremity,  near  the  base  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  the  land 
is  rolling  and  extremely  fertile.  In  the  Blue  Mountainsand 
between  it  and  Snake  river,  the  eastern  boundary,  are  nu- 
merous fertile  valleys,  the  largest  being  Graiwl  Ronde  and 
Wallowa  on  the  N.,  Powder  and  Burnt  rivers  in  the  middle, 
and  Mallieur  and  Owvhee  on  the  S.     The  mountains  are 


Mountains, 
Mountains 


well  covered  with  soil,  especially  the  Coast  Range,  and  large 
areas  are  being  brought  under  cultivation  by  removal  of  the 
timber. 

Tlie  rivers  flowing  into  the  ocean  are  the  Nehalem,  Nes- 
tucca,  Yaquina,  Alsea,  Siuslaw,  Umjnjua,  Coquille,  Rogue, 
and  Chetco;  those  flowing  into  the  Columbia  are  the  Lewis 
and  Clarke,  Young's,  Clatskanie,  Willamette,  Sandy,  Hood, 
Deschutes,  John  Day,  and  Umalilla;  and  those  flowing  into 
Snake  river,  itself  a  branch  of  the  Columbia,  are  Grand 
Ronde,  Powder,  Burnt.  Malheur,  and  Owyhee.  The  chief 
tributaries  of  the  Willamette  are  the  Clackamas,  Tualatin, 
Yamliill,  .Santiam,  Molalla,  Luckiamute,  Mary,  Long  Tom, 
the  river  itself  dividing  into  the  Mackenzie  and  Middle  and 
Coast  Forks.  The  large  lakes  are  all  in  the  southern  por- 
tion of  the  central  division,  some  of  them  being  saline.  1  hey 
are  the  Klamath,  up])er  and  lower.  Goose,  Warner,  Salt, 
Christmas.  Aliert,  Summer,  Silver,  Harney,  and  Malheur. 
Crater  Lake  lies  in  the  Cascades,  8,000  feet  above  sea-level, 
in  the  crater  of  a  huge  extinct  volcano  10  miles  in  circum- 
ference and  surrounded  by  blulTs  2,000  feet  high.  It  is  the 
deepest  fresh  water  in  America.  The  chief  harbor  is  the 
Columbia  river,  improved  by  the  U.  S.  Government  so  that 
its  entrance  has  28  feet  at  extreme  low  tide.  Minor  harbors 
are  Tillamook  Bay,  Yatjuina  Bay,  Alsea  river,  Siuslaw  river, 
Coos  Bay.  Coquille  river.  Rogue  river,  and  Port  Orford.  The 
principal  cajies  and  headlaiiilsare  Point  .Adams,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia,  Tillamook  Head,  Cape  Foulweather,  Cape 
Lookout,  Cape  Perpetua,  Ca]ie  Blanco,  and  Umpqua  Head. 
The  coast-line  is  very  abrupt  and  rocky,  and  but  slightly  in- 
dented. 

The  fauna  embraces  the  huge  grizzly,  black,  and  cinnamon 
bcar.s,  cougar,  mountain  lion  or  panther,  catamount,  wild- 
cat, polecat,  raccoon.  ]iorcuiiine,  beaver,  otter,  musk-rat.  sev- 
eral varieties  of  wood  and  ground  si|uirrel.s,  silver  and  red 
foxes,  martens,  hares  or  "  jack  rabbits,"  rabbits,  deer,  elk, 
antelope,  mountain-sheep,  and  mountain-goat.  Seals  and 
sea-lions  enter  the  Columbia,  and  the  latter  have  rookeries 
off  the  coast.  Salmon  enter  all  the  streams  in  great  quanti- 
ties, and  millions  are  cauglit  annually.  The  chinook,  or 
quinnat.  is  the  leading  variety.  Sturgeon  are  caught  in 
great  numbers  in  tlie  Columliia  and  Willamette.  The 
streams  teem  with  salmon-lrout  and  mountain-trout.  In  the 
spring  swarms  of  smelt  and  herring  enter  the  rivers.  Many 
less  valuable  fi.sli,  including  transj)lanted  carp,  are  found  in 
the  rivers  and  lakes.  Transplanted  shad  are  becoming 
plentiful.  Oysters  of  a  small  but  finely  llavored  variety  are 
found  in  Y'aquina  Bay,  and  crabs  and  lolislcrs  along  the 
coast.  The  birds  include  the  golden  and  baldheaded  eagle, 
several  varieties  of  hawks,  cormorant,  sea-gull,  pelican,  alba- 
tross, vulture,  buzzard,  j)igeon,  mountain-quail,  grouse,  im- 
ported Chinese  pheasants  of  five  varieties,  American  and 
trumpeter  swans,  brant,  Canada  goose,  many  varieties  of 
ducks,  including  canvasback,  the  robin,  field-lark,  skylark, 
jay,  woodpecker,  yellowhammer,  blackbird,  grosbeak,  bull- 
finch, greenfinch,  chaffinch,  nightingale,  goldfinch,  song- 
thrush,  starling,  and  several  other  varieties  of  song-birds. 

Mineral  Productions. — Oregon  has  a  great  variety  of  min- 
erals. Gold,  both  placer  and  (piartz,  is  mined  in  Jackson, 
Josephine,  Douglas,  Linn,  Grant,  Baker,  and  Union  Counties. 
Placer-mining  began  in  Jackson  and  Josephine  Counties  in 
1851,  and  in  15aker  and  (irant  Counties  in  1861-63.  Hydrau- 
lic mining  is  carried  on  extensively  in  both  Southern  and 
extreme  Eastern  (Oregon.  The  most  recent  quartz  discov- 
eries are  in  the  Cascade  Mountains  near  the  Santiam  river, 
and  in  the  Pine  Creek  Mountains,  between  the  Blue  Jloun- 
tains  and  Snake  river.  Gold  is  found  also  in  the  sands  of 
the  ocean  beach  at  various  places.  *>ilver  ore  is  found  al- 
most coextensive  with  the  gohl.  tliough  predominating  in 
Eastern  Oregon  ;  copper  and  lead  occur  freqiicntly  with  the 
silver;  and  cinnabar  is  found  and  worked  in  Josephine  Coun- 
ty. Douglas  County  has  the  most  extensive  deposit  of  nickel 
ore  yet  discovered  in  America.  Iron  ore  of  a  superior  qual- 
ity is  mined  near  Portland,  yielding  upward  of  50  per  cent, 
of  magnet  ic  iron.  It  is  reduced  at  a  blast  furnace  at  Oswego. 
Unworked  deposits  of  iron  ore  exist  in  other  counties.  Coal 
is  found  in  various  places  in  Western  Oregon,  and  is  exten- 
sively mined  on  Coos  Bay.  Outcroppings  have  also  been  dis- 
covered on  the  western  slope  of  the  Blue  Mountains.  Other 
minerals  are  chalcedony,  agate,  carnelian,  and  jasper.  Salt 
is  extracted  for  local  use  in  Jackson  and  Douglas  Counties. 

Soil  and  Productions. — The  soil  of  Oregon  is  volcanic  in 
origin  and  the  valleys  are  alluvial.  It  is  extremely  fertile. 
The  entire  region  W.  of  the  Cascades  and  the  northern  por- 
tion E.  of  them  have  ample  rainfall  for  crops.     Large  areas 


332 


OREGOIT 


of  the  central  and  southeastern  portion  of  the  State  depend 
largely  upon  irrigation  in  farming.  The  chief  product  is 
wheat",  tliat  of  the  Willamette  valley  commanding  the  high- 
est market  price.  Millions  of  fruit-trees  have  been  set  out. 
The  Oregon  prunes  are  acknowledged  to  be  the  largest  and 
finest  in  tlie  world.  \'ineyards  produce  abundantly.  The 
wool-growing  industry  is  very  large. 

Tlie  following  summary  from  the  U.  S.  census  reports  of 
1880  and  1890  shows  the  extent  of  farming  operations  in  the 
State : 


FARMS,  ETC. 


1890. 


Total  number  of  farms. 

Total  acreage  of  farms 

Value  of  farms,  with  buildings  and 
fences 


16,217 
4,214,712 

SS6,908,575 


$115,819,200 


*  Increase. 


The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  value 
of  the  principal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  1893  : 


Corn 

Wheat.:. 

Oats 

Rye 

Barley 

Potatoes. 
Hay 


Totals. 


Acreage. 


13,132 

618,622 

232,455 

7.191 

37,360 

16,772 

605.946 


1,529,478 


Yield. 


324,.360bush. 

10,790,885    •■ 

6,624,908    " 

75.506    " 

975,096    " 

2,130,044    " 

1,139,178  tons 


S19,212,2»4 


Climate. — Each  of  the  three  natural  divisions  of  the 
State  has  a  climate  peculiar  to  itself,  and  throughout  the 
State  the  seasons  are  distinguished  as  the  wet  and  dry.  The 
dry  season  usually  extends  from  May  1  to  Oct.  15,  and  dur- 
ing the  wet  season  about  75  per  cent,  of  the  precipitation 
occurs.  In  Eastern  Oregon  the  temperature  ranges  from 
90'  in  summer  to  10'  in  winter,  with  an  occasional  summer 
rise  to  100'  and  a  winter  fall  to  0'.  The  summer  is  drier 
and  the  winter  colder  than  in  Western  Oregon.  The  rain- 
fall of  the  year  averages  about  20  inclies.  In  Western  Ore- 
gon the  average  spring  temperature  is  52',  summer  67°,  au- 
tumn 53',  and  winter  39'.  The  rainfall  averages  44  inches 
in  the  Willamette  valley,  and  is  sufficient  to  prevent  drought 
in  tlie  other  valleys.  In  Southern  Oregon  the  mean  average 
temperature  of  July  is  68°,  of  .January  45',  and  the  tempera- 
ture seldom  exceeds  95'  in  summer  and  16'  in  winter.  The 
average  rainfall  is  32  inches. 

Divisions. — -For  administrative  purposes  the  State  is  di- 
vided into  thirty-two  counties,  as  follows  : 

COUNTIES   AND   COUNTV-TOWNS,  WITH   POPULATION. 


CODSTIES. 

*E«f. 

Pop. 

13S0. 

Pop. 

1390. 

COnNTY-TOW.VS. 

Pop. 

1S90. 

Baker.          

3-1 
3-B 
2-C 
1-B 

4,616 
6,403 
9,260 
7,222 
2,042 
4,834 

'  i',ao8 

9.596 
■  i'.SOS 

'  aisi 

2,4,S5 

*'im 

9,411 

i-imk 

14,576 

25.203 
6,601 

■■■976 
9,607 
6,650 

11,120 
7.082 
7,945 

6,764 
8.650 

15,2:33 

10,016 
6.191 
8,874 
3,244 
1,709 

11,864 
3,600 
5,080 
2,559 

11,455 
4,878 
2.444 
2.604 

1.5,198 

16,265 
2.601 

22,9:)4 
4.205 

54,884 
7,8.58 
1,792 
2,932 

13.381 

12.044 
3.661 
9,183 

11,972 

10,692 

Baker  City 

Corvallis 

Oregon  City 

2  604 

Benton 

Clackamas 

1,527 

3,062 

6,184 

220 

Columbia  

IB 

6-A 

St.  Helen. . 

Empire  City 

2.52 

4-E 

7  A 

6-B 

2-F 

3-G 

5-H 

7-C 

--B 

7-D 

6-F 

4-C 

3-B 

8-C 

6-1 

2-C 

2-G 

2-C 

2-B 

1-F 

2-B 

2-H 

2-1 

1-J 

2-E 

2-B 

2-B 

Curry 

Douglas 

Gold  Beach 

Roseburg 

i',472 

Gilliam  t 

Grant                 .... 

Canyon  City 

Harney  . . 

304 

Harney  t. 

240 

Jackson  

Josephine 

Klamath  t 

Jacksonville 

Granfs  Pass 

Klamath  Falls 

Lakeview 

Eugene  

Toledo   

743 
1,432 

Lake 

Lincoln  t . . . . 

Linn 

3,079 

Malheur  t 

Vale 

131 

Marion 

Salem 

Morrow  + 

Multnomah 

Polk 

Portland 

46,.385 

Moro 

Tillamook 

Tillamook 

Umatilla 

2..506 

Union 

604 

Wallowat 

Enterprise 

The  Dalles 

Hillsboro 

McMlnnville 

^2 

Wasco 

Washington 

Yamhill 

i;368 

Totals 

174  768 

313,767 

•  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  Oregon, 
t  Formed  since  1880.  }  Formed  since  1890. 


Principal  Cities  and  Towns,  with  Population  for  1890. — 
Portland.  46.385:  East  Portland,  10,532:  Astoria,  6.184; 
Albina,  5,129 :  Albanv.  3.079  :  Oregon  City,  3,062 ;  Baker, 
2.604  ;  Lagraude,  2,583  :  Pendleton,  2,506  :  Ashland,  1,784  ; 
Corvallis,  1,527  :  Roseburg,  1,472  :  Marshfield  City,  1,461 ; 
Grant's  Pass,  1,432  ;  and  McJIinnville,  1,368. 

Population  and  Races.— In  1860,  52.465;  1870.  00.923; 
1880,  174,768;  1890,  313,767  (native,  256.450;  foreign,  57,- 
317;  male.  181.840;  female.  131.927;  white,  301,758;  col- 
ored. 12.009.  including  1,186  persons  of  African  descent, 
9,540  Chinese,  25  Japanese,  and  1,258  civilized  Indians). 

Industries  and  Business  Interests. — The  census  returns 
of  1890  showed  that  1,523  manufaetui-ing  establishments 
reported.  These  had  a  combined  capital  of  ^32,122,051, 
employed  18,798  persons,  paid  $11,535,229  for  wages  and 
$21,793,578  for  materials,  and  had  products  valued  at  |41,- 
432,174.  The  State  is  exceptionally  favored  in  the  pro- 
vision of  water-power  for  manufacturing  purposes,  there 
being  hardly  a  section  in  which  it  does  not  exist  in  almost 
unlimited  amounts.  The  census  reports  on  tlie  fisheries  of 
the  State  showed  :  Capital  invested,  $2,396,632  :  ])ersons  em- 
ployed, 4.682 :  vessels  and  boats  employed.  1.558 :  value  of 
apparatus  used.  $437,943  ;  and  value  of  products,  $1,033,574. 
Tlie  salmon-canning  industry  had  34  canneries,  employed 
1.584  persons,  and  had  an  output  of  21.390.648  lb.  of  canning 
valued  at  $889,772.  and  320,822  cases  of  prepared  canned 
salmon  valued  at  $1,901,617. 

Commerce. — Besides  a  large  internal  traffic,  the  State  has 
a  considerable  direct  foreign  trade  through  the  ports  of 
Oregon  and  Willamette.  In  the  calendar  year  1892  the  im- 
ports of  merchandise  amounted  in  value  to  $1,416,813  and 
the  exports  to  $6,941,278,  and  in  1893  the  imports  were 
$1,105,870  and  the  exports  $4,754,497. 

Finance. — The  constitution  prohibits  the  State  from  be- 
coming interested  in  the  stock  of  any  corporation,  and  the 
Legislature  from  loaning  the  credit  of  the  State  or  creating 
a  debt  which  singly  or  in  the  aggregate  with  previous  debts 
shall  exceed  $50,000,  excepting  in  case  of  war,  to  repel  in- 
vasion, or  to  suppress  in.surrection.  Counties,  towns,  and 
other  municipal  corporations  are  under  similar  prohibition, 
excepting  that  the  maximum  of  county  indebtedness  is 
fixed  at  $5,000,  with  the  above  exceptions.  As  a  result  of 
these  restrictions  Oregon  in  1894  had  practically  no  public 
debt.  There  were  outstanding  obligations  aggregating  less 
than  $2,000.  for  which  the  State  had" called  frequently.  The 
assessed  valuation  in  1893  as  equalized  by  the  State  board 
was  $168,088,905,  and  the  amount  to  be  raised  by  taxation 
in  1894  was  $722,782. 

Banking. — Owing  to  the  panic  in  1893  sixteen  banks  sus- 
pended in  the  first  eight  months.  In  December  there  were 
38  national  banks  with  ca|iital  of  $3,595.0(10.  surplus  and 
profits  $2,224,691,  and  individual  deposits  $6,278,152.  The 
State  banks  on  June  30  numbered  12.  with  capital  of  .$553,- 
800,  surplus  and  profits  $50,305,  and  deposits  $429,726. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. — On  Jan.  1,  1894,  there  were 
775  post-oflfices.  of  wliich  23  were  presidential  (1  first-class, 
4  second-class.  18  third-class)  and  752  fourth-class,  with  175 
money-order  offices.  2  money-order  stations,  and  23  postal- 
note  offices.  Of  newspapers  and  periodicals  there  were 
18  daily.  4  semi-weekly,  141  weekly,  1  semi-monthly,  and  21 
monthly  publications — total,  185. 

Means  of  Communication. — The  transportation  system 
consists  of  railways  and  navigable  rivers.  Steamers  ply  on 
the  Columbia  and  Willamette  and  for  short  distances  on 
some  of  their  tril)utaries.  Xavigation  on  the  Columbia  is 
broken  at  the  Cascades,  140  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  again 
at  The  Dalles.  50  miles  farther.  Around  the  Cascades  the 
State  has  built  a  portage  railway,  and  the  U.  S.  Government 
has  nearly  completed  a  canal  and  locks  there,  upon  which  it 
has  been  working  since  1876  and  has  expended  about  $2,000.- 
000.  No  plan  for  overcoming  the  ol)structions  at  The  Dalles 
has  yet  been  adopted.  The  Willamette  is  obstructed  at 
Oregon  City  by  falls  41  feet  high,  around  which  a  canal  and 
locks  have  been  constructed  l>y  the  State.  The  railway  system 
consists  of  the  lines  of  the  Southern  Pacific  from  Portland 
S.  to  California,  there  being  four  distinct  lines  running  up 
the  Willamette  valley :  the  Oregon  Railway  and  Navigation 
Company's  line,  leased  by  the  Union  Pacific,  running  up 
the  Columbia  from  Portland  to  the  boundary-lines  of 
Washington  and  Idaho;  the  Northern  Pacific,  running 
down  the  Willamette  and  Columbia  from  Portland  39  miles 
and  crossing  into  Washington,  and  a  leased  line  of  the  same 
road  from  the  Wjishington  boundary  S.  to  Pendleton  ;  the 
Oregon  Pacific,  running  E.  from  Yaquina  Bay  to  the  Gas- 


OREGOX 


OREGON'   CITY 


333 


cade  Mountains:  and  a  railway  under  construction  from  Coos 
Bay  to  Uoseburg.  The  mileage  of  the  railways  in  the  State 
in  ly94  was  as  follows:  Southern  Pacific,  (J98'87 ;  Oregon 
Railway  and  Navigation,  o'Si-ii:i;  Xorthcni  Pacific,  38-83; 
Oregon  Pacific,  141'36:  Astoria  and  South  Coast,  15'78 ; 
Rogue  River  V'allev,  5-50 ;  and  Independence  and  Mon- 
mouth, 2-50— total,  1,48104. 

Churches. — The  census  of  1890  gave  the  following  statis- 
ti(rs  of  the  religious  bodies  having  a  membership  of  800  and 
upward  in  the  State  : 


DEXOMINATIONS. 


Roman  Catholic 

Mfthodist  Kpiscopal 

Baptist 

I'isfiples  of  Christ 

I'rt'sl).  in  the  L'.  S.  of  America 

CoiiKre^ational 

>I»-ihoflist  Episcopal  South 

Prott'stant  Episcopal 

I'[iite<l  RrHthrcii.  Old  Cooslitution 
Kvaiitji'Iii.-al  Association. . .. 
Cmnbt^rland  Presbyterian.. 
Unitarian 


Oi^ub»- 
tioot. 

Cborchci 
■ad  halli. 

MemlKn. 

93 

95 

30,231 

203 

201 

9,4:16 

108 

108 

5,.S06 

74 

42 

4,067 

73 

70 

8,935 

35 

.38 

2,037 

70 

62 

1,9.36 

31 

26 

1,849 

49 

46 

1,203 

25 

24 

1.199 

23 

21 

897 

5 

5 

890 

Value  of 
chorch 
pro|iert;. 


$290,090 

614.1125 

SI7,:i25 

76,700 

416,.t00 

160.200 

.iO,S.TO 

361.930 

24.700 

6:i.900 

22,200 

K39,500 


Schools. — The  number  of  children  of  school  age  in  the 
State  Aug.  1.  1894,  was  123,786;  the  number  enrolled  in  the 
public  schools,  81,632.  The  number  of  teachers  employed  in 
1893  was  3,694;  number  of  schoolhouse.s,  1,701;  value  of 
school  property,  $2,494,233.  The  Slate  payments  from  the 
interest  on  the  irreducible  school  fund  aggregated  §162,066 
in  1892.  Normal  schools  were  maintained  by  the  State  at 
Ashland,  Drain,  Monmouth,  The  Dalle.*,  and  We.ston.  There 
were  .seventeen  endowed  academies  and  private  secondary 
schools.  The  institutions  for  higher  education  comprised 
Blue  Mountain  University,  at  La  Grande  (non-sectarian, 
opened  1876);  Christian  College,  at  Jlonmouth  (Christian, 
chartered  186.5) ;  Corvallis  College,  at  Corvallis  (Methodist 
Episcopal  South,  opened  186.5);  McMinnville  College,  at 
Mc.Minnville  (Baptist,  chartered  18.59)  ;  University  of  Ore- 
gon, at  P^igene  City  (non-sectarian,  chartered  1872);  Pacific 
University,  at  Forest  Grove  (Congregational,  opened  1848); 
Philomath  College,  at  Philomath  (United  Brethren,  char- 
tered 1865);  Willamette  University,  at  .Salem  (Methodist 
Episcopal,  opened  1844) ;  and  Portland  University,  at  Port- 
laixl.  The  State  Agricultural  College  is  a  part  of  Corvallis 
College. 

Libraries. — According  to  a  U.  S.  Government  report  on 
public  libraries  of  1.000  volumes  and  upward  each  in  1891, 
Oregon  had  17  libraries,  containing  68,544  bound  volumes 
and  18,519  pamphlets.  The  libraries  were  classified  as  fol- 
lows :  General,  3  :  school,  5  ;  college,  5  ;  college  society,  2  ; 
scientific,  1  ;  and  Masonic,  1. 

Charitnhli>,  Reformatory,  and  Penal  Institutions. — These 
include  the  Oregon  School  for  Deaf  Mutes,  Oregon  Institute 
tor  the  Blind,  Oregon  State  Prison,  Oregon  State  Reform 
School,  Oregon  .State  Insane  Asylum,  county  and  city  jails, 
and  county  almshouses.  According  to  a  provision  of  the 
State  constitution  all  public  institutions  provided  for  bv 
the  Legislature  must  be  at  the  seat  of  government.  In  1893 
the  Legislature  provided  for  the  establishment  of  a  State 
.■soldier's  Home  and  for  a  branch  asylum  for  the  insane  in 
Eastern  Oregon. 

Political  Organization. — Oregon  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  in  18.59,  and  its  constitution,  adoi)ted  in  1857,  re- 
mains unchanged.  State  officers  are  elected  for  terms  of 
four  years  and  county  officers  for  two,  the  election  occurring 
in  .lune.  The  Legislature  consists  of  thirty  senators,  hold- 
ing office  for  four  years,  one-half  elected  every  two  years, 
and  si.xty  representatives,  holding  office  two  years.  They 
draw  pay  only  for  forty  days  for  each  biennial  session. 
Suffrage  is  enjoyed  by  every  citizen  or  person  who  has  de- 
clared his  intention  to  become  such,  who  has  resided  in  the 
State  six  months.  The  secretary  of  State  acts  as  auditor. 
All  State  institutions  are  governed  by  boards  of  three  State 
officers,  selected  from  the  Governor,  secretary,  treasurer,  and 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  except  the  deaf  and 
dumb  school,  agricultural  society.  State  university,  normal 
schools  and  soldier's  home,  which  have  sjjccial  boards  of 
trustees  or  regent.s.  The  penitentiary,  insane  a.sylum,  blind 
school,  anil  reform  school  have  superintendents  appointed 
by  the  .State  boards. 

History. — The  first  recorded  exploring  voyages  along  the 
coast  of  Oregon  were  those  of  the  Spaniard  Ferrelo,  in  1543 ; 


Sir  Francis  Drake,  the  English  freebooter,  in  1578;  the 
probably  mythical  De  Fuca,  in  1.592;  Aguilar,  the  Spaniard, 
in  1603 ;  the  certainly  mythical  Fonte,  in  1640 ;  the  Spaniard 
Perez,  in  1774;  the  Spaniard  lleceta,  in  177.5,  when  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  was  first  observed ;  Capt.  Cook,  an 
Englishman,  in  1777;  and  numerous  other  .Spanish,  English, 
and  American  explorers  and  traders  in  the  ensuing  fifteen 
years.  Yet  none  set  foot  on  land  or  knew  much  about  even 
the  coast-line,  until  Capt.  Robert  Gray,  a  trader  from  Boston, 
in  the  ship  Columbia,  entered  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia 
May  11,  1792,  and  laid  the  IVmndation  of  the  American  title 
to  Oregon.  The  U.  S.  purchased  Louisiana  in  1803,  and 
acquired  all  the  French  title  \V.  of  the  Missouri  river,  anil 
in  1819  secured  the  entire  St)anish  title  N.  of  lat.  42°  by  the 
Florida  purcha.se.  In  1804-05  Lewis  and  Clarke  explored 
the  country  from  St.  Louis  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia 
for  the  U.  .S.  Government.  Kathan  Winshiji.  from  New  Eng- 
land, entered  the  Columbia  in  the  Albatross  May  10, 1810.  and 
built  a  trading-post  at  Oak  Point,  40  miles  inland,  the  first 
settlement  in  Oregon,  but  abandoned  it  in  a  few  weeks.  As- 
toria was  founded  by  the  Pacific  Fur  Comjiany  .Mar.  22, 181 1, 
and  named  after  .John  Jacob  Astor,  president  of  the  com- 
pany. It  was  captured  by  the  British  and  named  Fort  George 
Dec.  12.  1813.  and  was  restored  to  U.  S.  jurisdiction  in  Oct., 
1818.  In  1818  the  U.  .S.  and  Great  Britain  made  a  treatv  of 
joint  occupation  of  Oregon,  which  was  terminated  in  1846 
by  a  treaty  confirming  the  title  of  the  U.  S.  The  Hudson 
Bay  Company  was  in  practical  possession  after  1813  until 
enough  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  arrived  to  create  a  provisional 
government  in  1843.  A  Methodist  mission  was  founded  by 
Jason  Lee  in  1834,  and  a  Presbyterian  mission  by  Dr.  Marcus 
Whitman  in  1836.  The  first  large  immigration"  was  in  1843, 
overland  from  the  Jlississippi  valley.  Oregon  was  made  a 
Territory  Aug.  12,  1848,  and  the  "territorial  government 
superseded  the  provisional  government  Mar.  3,  1849,  Gen. 
Joseph  Lane  being  the  first  territorial  Governor,  the  pro- 
visional Governor  having  been  George  Abernethy.  A  State 
constitution  was  framed  in  1857,  and  the  .State  admitted  to 
the  Union  Feb.  14,  18.59.  There  were  Indian  wai-s  in  1849. 
1851. 1852,  18.53-56,  1866-67. 1872-73. 1877.  and  1878.  There 
are  now  but  few  Indians  in  the  State,  and  these  are  peace- 
fully settled  on  reservations. 


GOVERXORS   OF   OREGON. 
Pro\'isional. 

George  Abernethy 1845-49 


Addison  C.  Gibbs 1862-65 

George  L.  Woods 1866-69 

Lafayette  (Jrover 1870-77 

S.  F.  ChadwiL-k 1878 

William  W.  Thayer lR79-«2 

Zenas  F.  Moody 1883-S6 

Sylvester  Pennoyer 1887-95 

William  P.  Lord 1895- 


Territorial. 

Joseph  Lane 1849-.50 

John  P.  Gaines 1850-52 

Joseph  Lane 185.3 

George  L.  Curry 1853 

John  W.  Davis 1853-54 

George  L.  Curry 1851-59 

State. 
John  Wliiteaker 1859-62 

AvTiioRiTiES. — Irving,  Astoria  ;  Greenhow,  Oregon  and 
California  (1845);  Thornton,  Oregon  and  California  in 
Jti.'/S;  Johnson,  California  and  Oregon  (1851);  Bulfinch, 
Oregon  and  Eldorado  (1866);  Ludlow.  Heart  of  the  Conti- 
nent (1870) ;  Victor,  All  over  Oregon  and  Washington  (1872) ; 
NordliofT,  Northern  California.  Oregon,  and  the  Sandwich 
Zilands  (1874):  Bancroft,  Orfjron  (2  vols..  1886-89) ;  Trans- 
actions  of  the  Oregon  Pioneer  Society  (1872-94). 

H.  W.  Scott. 

Oregon:  city:  capital  of  Ogle  co..  III.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Illinois,  ref.  2-E) :  on  the  Ruck  river,  and  the  Chi., 
Burl,  and  Quincy  Railroad  ;  100  miles  W.  of  Chicago.  It  is 
a  summer  resort,  is  principally  engaged  in  agriculture  and 
manufacturing,  and  lias  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $.50.- 
000.  a  private  bank,  and  three  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,088;  (1890)  1,566. 

Oregon  City:  city;  capital  of  Clackamas  co.,  Ore.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Oregon,  ref.  3-C);  on  the  Willamette 
river  and  the  S.  Pacific  Railroad;  12  miles  S.  of  Portland, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  steamboats  and  by  an  electric 
railway.  The  city  is  the  center  of  a  rich  agricultural  re- 
gion, with  a  prolific  fruit  country  tributary  to  it.  The 
river  here  falls  40  feet,  affording  unlimited  water-power, 
and  boats  pass  from  one  level  to  the  other  by  means  of  locks 
constructed  in  1874.  Among  the  large  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments are  woolen,  flour,  paper,  pulp,  and  sawmills, 
sash  and  door  factories,  and  ice-works.  There  are  the  U.  S. 
land-ollice  for  the  northern  district  of  Oregon,  a  State  bank, 


334 


OREGON  RIVER 


ORPA 


with  capital  of  |100.000,  a  private  bank,  and  three  weeklv 
news|iapers.  Po]).  (1880)  1,263;  (1890)  3.063;  (1894)  by 
school  census,  5,685.  Editor  of  "  Enterprise." 

Oregron  River:  See  Columbia. 

O'Reilly.  John  Boyle:  journalist  and  poet;  b.  at  Dowth 
Castle,  County  Meath,  Ireland,  June  28,  1844.  At  the  age 
of  eighteen  he  went  to  England  and  enlisted  in  the  British 
array,  where  he  acted  as  a  secret  agent  of  the  Fenian  So- 
ciety. He  was  convicted  of  high  treason  in  1866.  and  sent 
to  Australia  under  a  twenty  years'  sentence,  but  escaped 
after  a  year's  imprisonment,  and  went  to  the  U.  S.  in  1869. 
In  1870  he  became  editor  of  the  Boston  Pilot,  with  which 
he  was  connected  till  his  death.  D.  at  Hull.  Mass.,  Aug.  10, 
1890.  His  pul>lished  writings  include  S(iii(/s  of  the  Soiit/itrn 
Seas  (1873) ;  Soiu/s.  Legends,  and  Ballads  (1878) ;  Jfoon- 
di/ne  (1879);  Statiies  in  t'/ie  Block  (1881);  In  Bohemia  (1886); 
/Stories  and  Sketches  (1888).  H.  A.  Beers. 

Orel':  government  of  Russia,  between  lat.  51°  50'  and 
54'  X..  and  Ion.  33°  and  39'  E.  Area,  18.042  sq.  miles.  The 
surface  is  mostly  level.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  well  watered 
by  tlie  Desna,  an  affluent  of  the  Dnio|ier.  the  Oka.  an  afflu- 
ent of  the  Volga,  and  the  Sosna,  an  affluent  of  the  Don,  all 
of  which  are  navigable.  The  climate  is  mild.  Agriculture  is 
the  chief  industry.  Large  quantities  of  wheat  are  exported, 
in  grain  and  flour,  to  Riga  and  St.  Petersburg.  About  one- 
third  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  forests.  Hemp  is  exten- 
sively cultivated,  and  oil  of  hempseed,  sailcloth,  rope,  and 
yarn  are  manufactured.  Some  iron  mines  are  worked  and 
many  horses  and  cattle  are  reared.     Pop.  (1893),  2,140.130. 

Orel:  town  of  Russia;  capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name ;  on  the  Oka;  222  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Moscow  (see 
map  of  Russia,  ref.  8-D).  It  is  mostly  built  of  wood,  and 
was  almost  destroyed  by  fire  in  1848  and  again  in  1858.  It 
has  many  educational  institutions,  breweries,  distilleries, 
ropewalks,  tallow-houses,  and  other  manufactories,  and  an 
important  trade  in  grain  with  .St.  Petersburg  and  Riga.  It 
formerlv  formed  a  stronghold  against  Tartar  invasions. 
Pop.  (1890)  79,135. 

O'Rell,  Max  :  See  Blouet,  Paul. 

Orellana.  5-n<l-yaa'na';i.  Francisco,  de :  first  explorer  of 
the  Amazon;  b.  at  Truxillo.  Spain,  about  1490.  He  was 
intimate  from  boyhood  with  the  Pizarros,  and  joined  them 
in  Peru  about  1535 ;  in  1537  he  founded  Guayaquil.  Later 
he  was  the  lieutenant  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro  (q.  v.)  in  his  ex- 
pedition to  the  "  Land  of  Cinnamon,"  about  the  head-waters 
of  the  Coca  and  Napo.  The  expedition  left  Quito  (accord- 
ing to  lately  discovered  documents)  in  Feb.  or  Mar.,  1541, 
and  crossed  the  Andes  to  the  Coca;  here  a  small  vessel  was 
built  to  descend  the  river,  while  the  army  followed  along 
the  shore  to  the  junction  of  the  Napo.  "Thence  Orellana 
and  fifty  men  were  sent  ahead  in  the  boat,  with  orders  to 
bring  back  provisions  from  the  villages  farther  down. 
Floating  on  the  swift  current  they  reached  the  junction  of 
tlie  Napo  with  the  Amazon  in  a  few  days,  but  Orellana 
could  find  no  provisions  and,  unable  or  unwilling  to  return, 
he  resolved  to  go  on  down  the  Amazon.  This  scheme  was 
carried  out  after  a  new  and  better  vessel  had  been  built. 
In  the  course  of  their  voyage  the  Spaniards  had  many  skir- 
mishes with  the  Indians.  Tliey  heard  of  a  tribe  of  female 
warriors,  or  Amazons,  and  claimed  to  liave  fought  with 
them  near  the  mouth  of  the  Troudjetas.  Probably  the  story 
of  these  women  was  an  aboriginal  myth  or  wonder-tale, 
traces  of  which  are  still  found  in  South  America.  The  ac- 
count of  the  Amazon  tribe  was  readily  believed  in  Europe, 
however,  and  eventually  gave  its  name  to  the  river,  tlrel- 
lana  reached  the  sea  after  a  voyage  of  eight  months,  made 
his  way  to  tlie  Spanish  settlements  of  Venezuela,  and  thence 
went  on  to  S|iain.  In  1.544  he  received  a  grant  to  conquer 
ami  govern  the  regions  he  had  passed  through.  He  sailed 
for  tlie  .\mazon  in  1545  (or  in  1549,  according  to  Acuna) 
with  .500  men  :  but  many  soldiers  perished  during  the  voy- 
age ;  the  enterprise  was  abandoned  after  they  had  ascended 
the  river  for  a  short  distance,  and  Orellana  died  soon  after, 
probalily  on  tlie  island  of  Margarita.    Herbert  U.  SJiiTn. 

Orel'li,  Jouann  Kaspar:  classical  scliolar;  b.  at  Zurich, 
Switzerland,  Fell.  13,  1787;  studied  theology,  but  especially 
ancient  and  modern  languages  and  literatiire,  and  was  ap- 
pointeil  professor  eloijiieiiliir  in  1819,  and  Professor  of 
Classical  Pliilology  in  the  newly  founded  University  of 
Zuricli  in  1833.  Autlior  of  a  celelii-ated  edition  of  Cicero  in 
8  vols.,  including  the  Schn/in  and  an  (Inomnslicon  Tulli- 
annm  Qi  vols.,  ad  ed.  by  Halm  and  Baiter,  1861);  a  justly 


esteemed  commentary  of  Horace  (4th  ed.  1892.  with  Lexi- 
con Iloratianinn).  and  of  Tacitus  (new  edition  by  various 
scholars.  1879-94).  His  Inscriptionuin  Latinarum  Selecta- 
rum  CoUectio  (3  vols..  1856 ;  2d  ed.  by  W.  Henzen,  with 
copious  indexes)  is  still  a  valuable  aid  for  the  study  of  Ro- 
man history,  antiquities,  and  language.  See  Adert,  Essai 
sur  la  fie  et  les  travaux  de  J.  Cf.  Orelli  (Geneva,  1849) ; 
Bursian,  Gesch.  der  class.  Philol.  m  Deutschland,  pp.  850- 
857.    I),  at  Zurich,  Jan.  6,  1849.    Revised  by  A.  Gudeman. 

O'reiilmrir :  government  of  European  Russia ;  bounded 
N.  and  N.  W.  by  Perm.  Ufa,  and  Samara.  Area,  73,816  sq. 
miles.  The  central  part  of  the  government  is  moun- 
tainous, covered  with  branches  of  the  Ural  Mountains 
which  are  very  rich  in  iron,  copper,  and  gold;  the  crown 
mines  yield  over  1,000  lb.  of  gold  annually,  and  the 
private  double  as  much.  On  both  sides  of  the  mountains 
are  extensive  steppes,  in  many  places  barren  and  dotted 
with  salt  lakes,  but  in  others  presenting  good  pasture- 
grounds,  where  immense  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and 
camels  are  i-eared.  Besides  the  breeding  of  cattle,  in  which 
the  Ural  Cossacks  are  engaged,  and  mining,  fishing  and 
preparation  of  caviare  form  an  important  branch  of  industry. 
Pop.  (1890)  1,372,800. 

Orenburg :  town  of  European  Russia,  cajiital  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Orenburg;  on  the  Ural;  727  miles  E.  S.  E.  by 
rail  from  Moscow  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  8-H).  It  was 
founded  as  a  frontier  fortress  in  1743.  but  is  now  of  impor- 
tance for  its  trade  only.  Tea  from  China,  shawls  and  silks 
from  Persia,  skins,  tallow,  and  cattle  from  the  Khirgheez 
and  Cossacks,  and  metals  from  the  Ural  Mountains  are 
brought  here  and  exchanged.     Pop.  (1891)  62,534. 

Oren'se :  town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of  Orense  ; 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Minho,  which  is  crossed  here  by  a  mag- 
nificent bridge,  1.400  feet  long,  145  feet  high,  built  in  1230, 
spanning  the  river  with  seven  arches  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref. 
13-B).  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  the  city  is  built  are 
the  famous  hot  suljihur  springs.  Las  Burgas.  The  town  is 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric  and  is  celebrated  for  its  chocolate, 
hams,  and  wine.     Pop.  (1887)  14,168. 

Oreodon'tidiB  [Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Ore'odon,  the 
typical  genus;  Gr.  opos,  Spcos,  mountain -I- 68oiis,  oSiyros, 
tooth]:  a  family  of  extinct  mammals  belonging  to  the  or- 
der Ungulates  and  sub-order  Arfiodacfi/les,  intermediate 
between  the  typical  ruminants  and  hogs. 

Ores'tes  (in  Gr.  'Opearrris) :  in  Grecian  mythology,  a  son  of 
Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra;  avenged  the  murder  of  his 
fatlier  by  killing  his  mother  and  her  )iaramiiur.  ^Egisthus, 
but  was  immediately  attacked  by  the  Erinyes,  who  drove 
him  mad.  pursuing  him  from  place  to  place.  He  sought 
refuge  with  Apollo  in  Delphi,  but  the  manner  in  which  the 
Erinyes  were  finally  appeased  is  variously  related  by  the 
Attic  tragedians,  who  frequently  treated  this  myth  and  de- 
veloped it  differently.  According  to  one  version,  Orestes 
went  to  Athens,  where  the  court  of  the  Areopagus  declared 
him  innocent  through  the  influence  of  Athene.  According 
to  another,  Apollo  sent  him  to  Tauri,  whence  he  succeeded, 
by  the  aid  of  his  sister,  Iphigeni.i.  who  was  a  priestess  there, 
in  carrying  away  the  image  of  Artemis.  Of  the  ti'agedies 
which  treated  the  myth,  the  trilogy  Orestea  by  JEscliylus, 
Electra  by  Sophocles,  and  Electro,  Orestes,  and  Iphigenia 
in  Tauris  by  Euripides,  are  extant. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Orens :  See  Histi.ea. 

Orfa.  Orfali.  or  Urfali  (Gr.  Edessa;  Arab.  Roiihn):  city 
in  Asiatic  Turkey ;  in  the  vil.aj-et  of  Aleppo ;  lat.  37°  8'  N. ; 
about  40  miles  E.  of  the  Euphrates  (see  map  of  Turkej',  ref. 
6-H).  Impi'obable  tradition  makes  Nimrod  its  founder. 
The  Jews  identify  it  with  Ur  of  the  Chaldees ;  this  was 
apparently  the  opinion  of  St.  Stephen,  who  located  Ur  in 
Mesopotamia  (Acts  vii.  2).  The  Arabs  also  associate  it  with 
Abraham,  calling  their  chief  sanctuary  in  the  city  the 
Mosque  of  Abraham,  while  the  jiond  containing  the  sacred 
fish  is  the  Pool  of  Abraham.  As  Edessa  (q.  v.),  it  was  im- 
portant in  the  crusades.  The  town,  surrouniled  by  a  wall, 
is  jiartly  built  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  1.650  feet  high,  over- 
looking an  extensive  plain.  Its  gardens  are  large  and  luxu- 
riant and  its  narrow  streets  unusually  clean.  The  river 
Kara  Kuzu,  spanned  by  three  bridges,  flows  through  it. 
As  the  central  station  on  the  great  route  between  Aleppo 
and  Diarbekir.  its  transit  trade  is  extensive.  Pop.  about 
30,000,  nearly  a  quarter  of  whom  are  Christians  and  Jews. 

E.  a.  Grosvenor. 


ORFORD 


ORGAN 


335 


Orford,  EjIels  of:  See  Walpole. 
Orl'ord.  Cape :  See  Cape  Blanco. 

Orsraii  [* '.  Eng.  organ,  from  Lat.  or'ganum  =  Gr.  ipyca/ov, 
itnpliineiit,  tooirorgun  of  the  body,  a  musical  instrument; 
cf.  (pyof,  work,  Eng.  work]:  a  musical  instrument  in  which 
sounils  are  produced  by  the  pjussage  of  wind  through 
pipes.  Its  capabilities  are  due  to  three  principal  properties. 
First  of  all.  it  includes  a  large  number  ot  distinct  pipes, 
each  of  which  is,  in  a  sense,  an  indefiendent  instrument. 
Seeoiul,  it  contains  |)eculiar  arrangements,  of  which  the 
chief  is  the  keyboard  (clavier),  by  which  numbers  of  the.se 
pipes  very  remote  from  one  another  may  be  simultaneously 
operated  on.  Third,  it  substitutes  for  the  natural  i>roduc- 
tion  of  the  moving  force  (namely,  air-currents)  by  the  hu- 
man lungs  an  artificial  production  of  the  same  by  means  of 
a  lii-llows,  which  sulistilut  ion  not  only  relieves  the  i)erformer 
of  the  most  fatiguing  part  of  his  work,  but  also  increases  in 
a  vast  measure  the  power  of  the  instrument.  By  means  of 
this  large  bellow.s.  of  a  structure  similar  to  that  which  is 
seen  in  an  accordion,  and  worke<l  by  a  lever-handle,  water 
motor,  or  electric  motor,  air  is  forced  into  a  closed  chest  or 
reservoir,  where  it  can  be  stored  up  in  a  compressed  state. 
In  the  moilern  bellows,  the  horizontal  as  distinguished  from 
the  old-fashioned  diagonal,  there  are  two  divisions — a  feeder 
and  a  temporary  air-chest.  The  air  is  unable  to  return  by 
the  way  it  came,  and  can  only  find  vent  abovi'  through  its 
upper  floor,  called  the  .sounding-board.  This  sounding- 
board  separates  the  air-chest  from  the  organ-pipes,  which 
are  arranged  above  it.  The  air  is  admitted  to  the  pipes  by 
the  action  of  certain  slides  and  valves  which  are  set  in  mo- 
tion by  drawing  out  the  registers  and  by  pressing  down  the 
keys  or  pedals.  The  drawing  out  of  a  slide  partly  opens 
up  to  the  air  a  whole  set  of  pipes  of  one  peculiar  quality  or 
tone,  so  that  when  any  of  the  keys  is  pressed  ilown  the  air 
finds  its  way  into  the  appropriate  pipe  of  this  particular 
series.  Of  course,  when  more  than  one  stop  is  drawn  out 
the  air  is  admitted  simultaneously  into  several  distinct 
groujis  of  pipes.  The  larger  organs  consist  of  three  or  more 
distinct  partial  organs,  each  of  which  has  its  peculiar  key- 
board, and  a  separate  air-chest  and  sounding-board  for  its 
pipes. 

The  sound  of  an  organ  is  produced  by  the  vibrations  of 
the  column  of  air  within  the  pipe.  The  compressed  air  of 
the  air-chest,  as  soon  as  obstacles  are  removed  by  the  action 
of  the  stop  and  of  the  key,  rushes  upward  into  the  pipe,  and 
so  produces  the  tone.  The  shape  of  a  metal  organ-pipe  is 
yery  much  the  same  as  that  of  a  common  tin  whistle.  The 
stem  or  "  body  "  of  the  [ii|ie  is  cylindrical.  The  lower  part 
or  ■'  foot  "  is  an  inverted  cone  with  its  apex  cut  off.  At  the 
juncture  of  the  body  and  the  foot  there  is  an  opening  in 
the  side  of  the  pipe  called  its  "mouth."  There  is  also  a 
horizontal  plate  termed  the  "languid"  or  "language," 
which  partially  diviiles  the  foot  from  the  body,  and  leaves 
a  narrow  egress  for  the  air  coming  from  below  close  to  the 
mouth  of  the  pipe.  The  wooden  pipes  are  of  a  slightly  dif- 
ferent structure,  Ijeing  commonly  square  instead  of  round, 
but  their  mode  of  action  is  not  materially  dilTerent.  When 
the  air  rushes  up  into  the  pipe  it  is  driven  against  the  ujiper 
edge  or  "lip"  of  the  mouth-hole.  Breaking  against  the 
sharpened  edge,  it  produces  a  peculiar  hissing  or  rushing 
noise,  which  is  all  we  hear  when  the  pipe  does  not  "  speak." 
The  agitation  thus  set  up  at  the  mouth  communicates  itself 
to  the  column  of  air  within  the  body  of  the  pipe,  which  is 
thus  made  to  vibrate  witli  a  rapidity  determined  by  its 
length.  The  shorter  the  ])ipe  the  more  rapid  the  series  of 
vibrations,  and  the  higher  consequently  the  pitch  of  the 
note  produced.  Organ-pipes  are  of  a  great  many  varieties, 
according  to  the  material  used  and  the  shape  of  their  sev- 
eral parts.  Metal  pipes  are  made  of  tin,  "  metal  "  (a  mix- 
ture of  tin  and  lea<l),  zinc,  etc.,  while  wooden  pipes  are  gen- 
erally constructed  of  cedar,  deal,  or  pine.  The  shape  of 
liipes  also  varies  considerably.  Thus  among  metal  pipes 
we  have  the  forms  of  cylinder,  cone,  and  inverted  cone, 
while  among  wooden  pipes  we  have  the  forms  of  fpiadrilat- 
eral,  trilateral,  cylinder,  pyramid,  and  inverted  pyramid. 
Eurlher.  there  is  a  distinction  between  pipes  which  are 
open  and  those  whii-h  are  stopp<'d  or  plugged  at  their  upper 
e.xtremity.  An  open  pif)e  produces  a  tone  with  a  wave  of 
air  twice  as  long  as  the  body  of  the  pipe,  and  a  stopped  pipe 
produces  a  tone  with  a  wave  four  times  the  length  of  its 
body.  Thus  a  stopped  pipe  is  always  an  octave  deeper  than 
an  open  pipe  of  the  same  length. 

The  peculiar  quality  of  sound  belonging  to  an  organ-stop 


is  due  to  the  structure  of  the  pipes  belonging  to  the  stop. 
According  to  the  researches  of  Prof.  Ilelmholtz,  the  timbre 
of  a  musical  instrument  is  determined  solely  by  the  number 
and  strength  of  the  upper  partial  tones  which  enter  into 
the  tones  of  the  instrument.  Thus  he  found  that  wide- 
stopped  organ-pipes  have  scarcely  any  upper  partial  tones 
at  all,  and  that  all  stopped  pipes  are  wanting  in  the  even 
members  of  the  series  of  upper  tones.  Hence  stopped  pipes 
give  a  soft  hollow  sound,  wliile  open  pipes  produce  a  sliarp 
brilliant  style  of  tone.  The  number  of  partial  tones,  and 
-SO  the  timbre  of  a  pipe,  vary  with  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
pipe,  and  also  with  the  material  of  which  it  is  made.  Cer- 
tain stops  called  "  reeds  "  owe  their  peculiar  character  to 
the  addition  of  a  vibrating  tongue,  like  those  of  a  harmo- 
nium, to  the  pipe.  This  tongue  is  a  thin,  oblong  brass  plate 
fitted  into  the  aperture  of  a  cylindrical  tube  called  a  reed. 
'J"he  tongue  in  its  oscillations  allenuitely  opens  and  closes 
the  aperture  of  the  tube  through  which  the  air  seeks  to 
pass.  The  consequence  is  that  the  stream  of  air  is  separated 
into  a  series  of  individual  pulses.  The  sound  of  a  reed  pipe 
is  the  result  of  these  interru[)ted  pulses  of  air,  together 
with  the  vibrations  of  the  metal  tongue  itself.  Other  stops 
having  a  peculiar  quality  of  tone  are  in  reality  compound 
stops;  that  is.  they  bring  into  simultaneous  action  a  iilural- 
ity  of  pipes  of  different  pitch.  The  twelfth,  fifteenth,  scs- 
quialtera,  and  mixture  are  among  the  best-known  compound 
stops.  The  notes  of  these  combined  pipes  have  the  same 
relation  to  one  another  as  the  partial  tones  of  a  single  mu- 
sical tone.  Thus  it  is  usual  to  connect  the  upper  octave 
with  the  prime  tone,  and  after  that  the  twelfth.  Some  of 
these  compounds  give  as  many  as  the  first  six  partial  tones. 
The  number  and  strength  of  the  combining  tones  in  the 
note  of  one  of  these  compound  stops  give  to  it  a  peculiarly 
bright,  and  in  some  cases  a  dazzling  and  overpowering 
character. 

The  names  of  the  several  organ-stops  point  partly  to  the 
quality  of  the  sound  produced,  partly  to  the  range  or  com- 
pass of  the  pipes  belonging  to  it,  and  to  other  circumstances. 
Thus  the  trumpet  and  the  oljoe,  which  are  both  reed-stops, 
are  so  named  from  the  resemblance  of  their  tones  to  those 
of  these  instruments.  The  diapason-stops  again  are  so 
called  because  their  pipes  extend  through  the  whole  com- 
pass of  the  organ.  The  stop  "  principal,"  which  is  an  oc- 
tave higher  than  the  open  diapason,  is  so  named  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  the  first  stop  tuned,  and  the  standard,  there- 
fore, for  the  pitch  of  the  remaining  stops. 

Many  mechanical  aids  to  registration  have  been  furnished, 
whereby  the  organist  may  radically  change  his  stop-combi- 
nations to  a  degree  never  before  attainable  by  simply  touch- 
ing a  knob  or  pedal.  The  application  of  electricity  is  also 
beginning  to  do  away  with  much  cumbersome  machinery 
connecting  key  with  pipe.  The  principle  of  the  swell  is  be- 
ing largely  developed  and  applied  to  extensive  portions  of 
the  organ  formerly  lacking  in  this  respect — this  to  the  great 
gain  of  the  instrument  from  the  standpoint  of  expressioti. 

History. — The  history  of  the  organ  forms  an  important 
branch  of  the  history  ot  music  as  a  whole.  We  are  able  to 
trace  back  the  pedigree  of  this  instrument  to  an  humble 
ancestrv :  the  pipes  of  Pan  and  the  bagpipe.  It  is  difficult 
to  fix  the  date  of  the  first  organs  referred  to  in  ancient 
writers,  owing  to  the  ambiguity  of  the  word  on/nn  (ipyayov), 
which  was  properly  fitted  to  denote  any  musical  instrument. 
The  organ,  properly  so  called,  originated  among  the  Greeks 
of  Alexandria  in  tlie  second  century  n.  c.  The  first  species 
of  organ  of  which  we  have  a  description  is  the  water-organ, 
uSpouAoj  (literally,  water-flute).  It  is  described  by  Vitruvius 
and  Athenseus  as  sweet,  though  not  powerful.  This  instru- 
ment was  designed  for  domestic  amusement.  On  a  Roman 
monument  we  have  a  bas-relief  representation  of  a  domestic 
organ.  It  contains  sixteen  pipes,  and  the  performer,  a  lady, 
f)Iays  with  both  hands  on  ttie  keyboard.  It  is  placed  on  a 
table,  and  looks  easily  portable. 

The  organ  is  .said  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Church 
by  PopeVitalian  in  the  seventh  century,  but  its  employment 
in  church  services  probably  dates  from  a  much  earlier  pe- 
riod. Organs  were  certainly  used  in  churches  very  cora- 
moftly  in  the  time  of  the  Carlovingians.  We  read  of  organs 
being  sent  to  King  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  as  presents  by 
the  Byzantine  emperors.  The  first  of  these  is  described  as  a 
wonilerful  structure  of  the  form  of  a  tree,  in  the  branches  of 
which  were  birds  of  various  species,  each  bird  giving  forth 
the  note  peculiar  to  its  species.  At  a  much  later  period  than 
this  we  find  the  structure  of  the  organ  to  be  exceedingly 
rude.     The  keys  were  often  from  4  to  6  inches  broad,  and 


336 


ORGAN 


ORGAN- POINT 


were  struck  with  the  closed  fist  or  in  some  cases  with  the  el- 
bow, so  that  only  two  tones  could  be  produced  simultaneous- 
ly. The  compass  was  sometimes  as  great  as  twenty-one 
notes,  the  series  being  that  of  our  diatonic  scale  (the  white 
notes  of  a  piano).  In  addition  to  tlaese  more  common  in- 
struments, we  read  of  gigantic  organs,  such  as  that  built  tor 
Winchester  in  the  year  951,  which  is  said  to  have  contained 
400  pipes  and  26  bellows,  requiring  70  strong  men,  and  to 
have  been  played  by  two  performers  or  four  fists.  From  tlie 
twelfth  century  on  "we  read  of  a  light  portable  organ  named 
"  portative,"  w'hieli  was  distinguished  from  tlie  fixed  organ 
or  •'  positive."  The  performer,  who  carries  the  instrument 
by  means  of  a  belt,  plays  with  one  hand,  and  manages  the 
bellows  witli  the  other.  Italian  painters  of  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  were  fond  of  representing  the  instru- 
ment in  the  hands  of  saints  and  angels.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  the  structure  of  the  organ  underwent  certain  im- 
provements. A  step  had  lieen  taken  before  this  toward  en- 
abling the  organist  to  produce  a  larger  number  of  simulta- 
neous tones.  By  the  invention  of  mixture  or  compound  stops 
— wliich  seem  to  have  been  arrived  at  at  a  very  early  date — 
two  or  three  notes  could  be  soundeil  by  means  of  one  key. 
the  combinations  being  selected  according  to  the  strange 
ideas  respecting  sequence  of  accords  prevalent  at  this  age 
(as  illustrated  in  the  Organon  or  mode  of  harmony  of  IIuc- 
bald  and  his  successors).  In  the  fourteenth  century  this 
capability  of  uttering  simultaneous  tones  was  much  furtlier 
increased  by  the  reduction  of  the  size  of  the  keys,  so  as  to 
make  tliem  workable  by  means  of  the  fingers.  This  change 
also  involved  a  large  extension  of  the  compass  of  the  key- 
board. We  read  of  organs  of  this  perioil  having  three  oc- 
taves, including  semitone  intervals. 

The  period  of  the  supremacy  of  the  polyphonic  music  of 
the  Netherlands  (1450-1550)  was  marked  by  considerable  im- 
provements botli  in  the  structure  and  in  the  art  of  perform- 
ance of  the  organ.  The  development  of  the  contrapuntal  or 
fugue  style  of  music,  which  was  diffused  from  the  Netliei'- 
lands  through  Germany,  Italy,  England,  etc.,  gave  a  great 
impetus  to  the  art  of  organ-playing.  There  are  still  pre- 
served volumes  of  organ  compositions  used  by  the  German 
performers  of  this  time,  from  which  we  see  that  organ  pieces 
were  now  growing  into  independent  productions.  In  Ger- 
many the  art  of  organ-playing  was  diligently  cultivated  by 
a  series  of  musicians,  of  whom  the  family  of  the  Bachs  were 
among  the  most  distinguished.  Thus  were  laid  tlie  founda- 
tions of  the  art  which  Sebastian  Bach  was  afterward  to  carry 
to  so  high  a  degree  of  perfection.  In  Italy,  during  the  six- 
teenth century  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth, 
organ  compositions  very  ornamental  in  design  and  contain- 
ing the  germs  of  our  modern  harmony  became  common.  The 
seventeenth  century,  too,  was  marked  by  great  progress  in 
organ-building  and  in  organ-playing.  Germany  and  Hol- 
land trained  builders  of  great  eminence,  whose  works  may 
be  found  in  other  countries  besides,  including  England. 
Some  of  the  finest  old  organs  of  England,  including  those  of 
Westminster  Abbey,  the  Temple  church,  and  Durham  Cathe- 
dral, were  erecteil  by  a  Gernum  named  .Schmidt.  The  style 
of  organ  composition  was  greatly  elevated  in  that  century 
by  the  addition  of  harmony  in  the  modern  sense,  of  which 
Palestrina  had  laid  the  foundations  in  Italy. 

Prom  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  organ 
has  undergone  a  vast  though  gradual  improvement  of  struc- 
ture, which  has  served  to  increase  its  scope  and  variety 
by  lessening  the  mechanical  difficulties  of  performance. 
In  this  way  it  became  possible  to  execute  such  rich  and 
elaborate  works  as  later  composers  have  produced.  The 
principal  mechanical  additions  to  the  instrument  have  been 
directed  to  a  more  varied  combination  of  pipes  by  com- 
pound stops,  to  a  diminution  of  the  labor  of  the  manual 
performance  by  means  of  arrangements  which  facilitate  the 
drawing  of  stops  and  the  depression  of  keys.  Among  the 
methods  used  to  lessen  this  last  ingredient  in  the  labor  of 
the  organist  are  pneumatic  action  which  is  commonly  adopt- 
ed in  the  best  modern  organs. 

Among  the  largest  European  organs  still  to  be  seen,  the 
following  may  be  mentioned :  The  Weingarten  organ  (66 
stops  and  G.liiiO  pipes),  the  Haarlem  organ  (60  stops),  the  or- 
gan of  the  Church  of  the  Cavalieri  di  San  Stefano  at  Pisa 
(over  lt)()  stops),  that  of  the  Church  of  S.  Alessandro  in  Co- 
lonna  (100  stops,  circa),  the  Crystal  Palace  organ.  London  (65 
stops),  and  the  transept  organ  of  St.  Paul's,  London  (60  stops). 
In  Paris,  the  organs  of  St.  Eustache.  St.  Sulpice,  the  Ma<lc- 
leine.  the  Trocadcro,  etc.  In  the  U.  S.  there  are  now  a  num- 
ber of  large  and  fine  organs  well  worthy  of  comparison  with 


anything  of  European  construction.     The  concert-organ  in 
the  Chicago  Auditorium  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  the  following  works  on  the  struc- 
ture and  history  of  the  organ  :  The.  Organ,  its  History  and 
Construction,  by  Edward  .J.  Hopkins,  with  a  new  history  of 
the  organ  by  Edward  F.  Rimbault  (London).  This  is  by  far 
the  most  complete  treatise  on  the  subject.  The  nature  of  the 
sounds  of  organ-pipes  is  elucidated  by  Prof.  Helmholtz  in  his 
great  work  on  Tlie  Sensation  of  Tones  (Die  Tonempfind- 
ungen).  translated  by  A.  J.  Ellis  (London).  Many  curious 
chapters  in  the  history  of  the  organ  and  of  organists  may 
be  foinid  in  the  histories  of  music  of  Dr.  Burney  and  Sir 
John  Hawkins,  and  of  the  German  historian  Kiesewetter, 
Forkel,  and  especially  A.  W.  Ambros. 

Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Organic  Chemistry:  a  term  that  came  into  use  formerly 
to  express  that  branch  of  chemistry  which  dealt  with  the 
substances  that  occur  in  living  things.  A  distinction  was 
then  made  between  these  constituents  of  animate  things  and 
the  mineral  substances,  the  constituents  of  the  inanimate 
portions  of  the  earth.  That  branch  of  chemistry  which  had 
to  do  with  the  latter  was  called  inorganic  chemistry.  As 
investigation  advanced  it  was  found  that  there  is  no  essen- 
tial dill'erence  between  the  compounds  treated  of  in  the  two 
branches.  They  are  all  chemical  compounds;  and  many  of 
the  substances  found  in  plants  and  animals  can  be  made 
artificially  in  the  laboratory  without  the  intervention  of  the 
life-process.  (See  Chemistry.)  That  which  chiefly  charac- 
terizes organic  compounds  is  the  fact  that  they  all  contain 
carbon,  and  tlierefore  the  term  chemistry  of  the  compounds 
of  carbon  has  been  generally  adopted  in  place  of  organic 
chemistry.  This  name  is  not  strictly  correct,  for  the  reason 
that  the  carbonates,  such  as  limestone,  marble,  dolomite, 
etc.,  would  be  included,  and  it  is  not  usual  to  treat  of  them 
under  the  head  of  compounds  of  carbon.  Another  name 
that  has  been  proposed  is  chemistry  of  the  hydrocarlions 
and  their  derivatives.  This  is  based  upon  the  conception 
that  the  great  majority  of  so-called  organic  compounds  are 
either  hydrocarbons  or  are  derived  from  these  hydrocarbons. 
The  truth  is,  the  separate  treatment  of  the  compounds  of 
carbon  is  merely  a  matter  of  convenience.  The  large  num- 
ber of  these  compounds  and  their  great  variety  make  special 
treatment  necessary.  It  would,  perhaps,  be  best  to  include 
all  compounds  of  carbon,  no  matter  what  their  origin,  and 
keep  the  name  chemistry  of  the  compounds  of  carbon.  In 
the  same  way  there  is  a  chemistry  of  silicon  and  of  oxygen, 
and  of  every  other  element,  but  thus  far  there  has  been  no 
occasion  for  making  other  subdivisions  of  the  subject  of 
chemistry.  Ira  Remsen. 

Organic  Radicals:  See  Radicals. 

Organism  :  See  Biology. 

Organ  Mountains  (Port.  Serra  dos  Orgiios) :  a  group  of 
mountains  facing  the  northern  end  of  the  bay  of  Rio  de 
.Janeiro,  Brazil.  They  are  the  culminating  portion  of  the 
Serra  do  War,  attaining  an  altitude  of  7,322  feet.  In  clear 
weather  they  are  plainly  visible  from  the  city  of  Rio  de 
.laneiro.  and  their  grandeur  and  singularity  are  noted  by 
every  traveler.  One  of  the  numerous  sharp  pinnacles  is 
called  the  Dedo  de  Deos  (finger  of  God) ;  it  resembles  a 
gigantic  finger,  pointing  upwanl.  Petropolis,  Theresopolis, 
and  other  favorite  summer  resorts  are  in  or  near  these  moun- 
tains, and  are  easily  accessible  for  tourists.  H.  H.  S. 

Org'an  of  Bo,janils :  a  name  formerly  aii|ilied.  from  its 
discoverer,  to  the  excretory  organ  of  ^lolluscs  and  Tunicates. 
These  organs  are  now  known  to  be  homologous  with  those 
of  most  other  animals,  and  the  term  Nephridium  (q.  v.) 
should  be  used  for  them. 

Organ  of  Corti:  See  Histology  (Organs  of  Special 
Sense). 

Organ-point  [cf.  Fr.  point  d'orgue'] :  in  music,  a  series  of 
harmonious  combinations  having  for  its  bass  one  long,  sus- 
tained, and  unvarying  note.  As  the  organ  is  the  only  in- 
strument on  which  these  passages  can  be  performed  with 
full  effect,  the  origin  of  the  name  and  of  its  substitute, 
"  pedal "  or  "  pedale,"  is  readily  explained.  This  holding 
or  pedal  note  is  usually  either  the  dominant  or  the  key- 
note of  the  piece,  and  the  upper  parts  consist  partly  of 
harmonies  related  to  the  bass,  and  partly  of  accidental  or 
passing  chords,  serving  as  links  in  the  general  course  of  the 
harmony.  Organ-points  are  of  great  variety  in  structure 
and  duration,  occupying  sometimes  as  many  as  twelve  or 
sixteen  bars,  and  seldom  less  tlian  three.     They  generally 


OKUANf.M 


ORIGEN 


337 


tcrmiiiiite  with  tho  pcrfei^t  or  iinperfeft  cadence,  or  with 
a  chord  of  the  seventh  and  a  panse,  and  may  be  classified 
as  follows:  (1)  Those  consisting  of  a  train  of  sini|>le  chords, 
cliierty  derived  from  the  bass;  (2)  those  formed  of  plain 
harmonies  with  suspensions;  (Ji)  those  which  consist  of  a 
nnmber  of  deceptive  or  interrnpted  cadences;  (4)  those 
formed  of  sequences  variously  elaborated;  and  (o)  those  of 
a  nn>re  abstruse  character,  in  which  harmonies  of  a  foreign, 
and  even  discordant,  nature  are  introduced.  An  or{;an- 
point  is  sometimes  double,  the  former  part  havinj;  the  dom- 
inant for  its  bass,  and  the  latter  part  the  tonic  or  keynote. 
Instances  are  occasionally  found  of  inrertfil  orsjan-points, 
or  those  in  which  tlie  holdinjc-note  is  not  in  the  bass,  but  in 
one  or  more  of  the  upper  parts. 

Or^uiium  :  See  Novum  Organuji. 

Orjjetorix:  a  Helvetian  of  noble  birth,  who  instigated 
the  migration  of  the  llelvetii,  described  by  Ca'sar  in  the  first 
book  of  his  Gallic  War. 

Oriaiii,  o-ree-aa'm'e,  Hakxaha  :  a.stronomer,  count,  and 
senator  of  Italy  ;  b.  at  Gan^gnano,  n<'ar  Milan,  .July  17, 17.52. 
IJis  teacher  in  mathematics  was  Ijagrange,  to  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  astronomer,  and  he  contiinu'il  the  Kffemeridi  An- 
tronomirhe,  which  had  been  begun  by  liis  great  master.  He 
prepared  a  map  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  the  observa- 
tory of  Milan  is  largely  indebted  to  him.  Oriani  was  a  man 
of  very  noble  character,  was  honcu'ed  with  various  decora- 
tions and  the  inembersliip  of  many  learned  societies,  and 
was  especially  noticed  by  Napoleon.  His  principal  publica- 
tions are  Letff.ra  ail  iin  Ainico  Axfronamo.  etc. ;  Li-tiere  As- 
tronomirhe,  etc.;  Ris/jostn  alle  JVute  che  V Abate  Frisi  fece, 
etc.;  Obliqiiitd  dell'  Ectittiea  dedotta  dalle  Osservaziotie 
solstiziali,  etc. ;  DiManza  iliillo  Zenito  del  Sole  e  delle  Stelle 
fisse  presso  it  Meridianu;  liifrazione  ossereata.  etc.;  Ele- 
menli  di  Trigonometria  Sferoidica.  D.  in  Milan,  Nov.  13, 
1832.  Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Oriba'siiis  (in  Gr.  'Opti^ao-ios)  of  Pergramns:  ]iliysician 
to  tlulian  the  Apostate,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  fatal 
expedition  against  the  Persians  (363).  lie  was  banished  by 
the  succes.s()rs  of  Julian,  but  afterward  recalled  with  honor, 
and  lived  to  the  end  of  the  century.  Of  his  medical  ency- 
elopa'ilia  (in  seventy  books),  'larpiKii/  crmayii>ywv  i^ioixTiKOtni.- 
fli/3Ao!,  (H)nsiderable  portions  remain.  His  twn  abriilgments 
have  been  published  only  in  Latin  translations.  'I'liere  is 
an  edition  by  Boussenniker  and  Daremberg,  with  a  French 
translation  (6  vols.,  Paris,  18.51-76). 

Revised  by  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Oribe,  o-rec'brt,  Manuel:  soldier  and  politician;  b.  in 
Uruguay  about  1802.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  gauchns,  at- 
tained high  military  rank  under  Frulos  Rivera,  was  his 
Minister  of  War  and  ^larine  1833-3.5,  and  succeeded  him  as 
jiresident  .Miir.  1,  183.5.  About  this  time  the  i)arties  called 
Colorado  and  Blanco  were  formed,  Oribe  being  chief  of  the 
latter,  while  Rivera  led  the  former.  Kivera  and  the  Colo- 
rados  revolted  in  1837,  and,  though  at  first  unsuccessful, 
eventually  defeated  Oribe  and  forced  him  to  leave  Monte- 
video (Oct.  2.5, 1838)  four  months  before  the  end  of  his  term. 
Oribe  took  refuge  with  the  dictator  Rosas,  at  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  soon  after  agreed  to  sup|)ort  a  scheme  for  reducing 
Uruguay  to  his  rule.  Rosas  furnished  him  with  troops  ancl 
arms;  he  invaded  Uruguay  ami  besieged  Jlontevideo  inter- 
mittently from  1842  to  1S51,  holding  a  large  part  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  country.  This  is  known  as  tiie  nine  years' 
siege.  For  a  time  France  sup])orted  the  legal  or  Monte- 
videan  government,  and  in  18,51  Brazil  and  Entre  Rios 
interfered  in  its  favor.  Oribe  finally  capilidated  Oct.  10, 
1851,  anil  Rosas  was  defeated  and  deposed  soon  after.  In 
Sept.,  1S.55,  Oribe  led  the  revolt  which  drove  Flores  from 
Montevideo,  but  he  was  prevented  from  seizing  the  pre.si- 
<lency  by  the  interference  of  foreign  powers.  I),  at  Monte- 
video, Nov.,  1857.  HisRHERT  H.  Smith. 

O'riel  Window;   called  also  IJow  (or  Bay)  Window 

[oriel  is  from  O.  Fr.  oriol,  gallery,  corridor  <  Late  Lat. 
ori'olum,  portico,  hall ;  cf.  Lat.  atire  olux.  golden,  gilded] :  a 
window  which  projects  from  the  side  of  the  house,  has  three 
glazed  sides,  and  is  often  divided  by  nnillions.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  picturesque  features  in  the  domestic  architecture 
of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  ag(!  of  Flizabelh.  .Some  writers 
discriminate  between  the  oriel  window,  carried  on  corbels 
anil  projecling  from  an  upper  story,  and  the  bay  window 
<"  resting  on  the  ground.  Revised  by  Kusski.Ij  Sturois. 

Orion'to  :  a  province  of  Ecuador,  embracing  ,all  the  terri- 
tory E.  of  the  Andes.     As  claimed  by  Ecuador,  it  has  an 
306 


extent  of  96,000  sq.  miles  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  this  is  also 
claimed  by  Colombia  an<l  Peru,  and  the  southern  portion, 
along  the  upper  Annizon,  is  actually  held  by  the  latter. 
The  province  includes  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Andes,  and 
vast,  forest -covered  plains  bordering  the  Napo  and  other 
branches  of  the  Amazon;  the  only  roads  are  almost  im- 
passable nnde-t  racks  and  footpaths,  and  the  inhabilant.s, 
nearly  all  Indians,  do  not  exceed  80.000.  The  streams  are 
said  to  be  rich  in  gold,  ami  a  little  is  obtained  by  primitive 
methods.    Capital,  Archiilima.  II.  II.  S. 

Orieu'tius:  a  Christian  Latin  poet  from  Gaul,  of  the 
fifth  century;  jicrhaps  to  be  identified  with  the  Bishop  of 
Auch,  who  about  the  year  43!)  acted  as  andiassador  ot  Theo- 
doric  1.  to  the  Roman  generals  Ai-tius  and  Litorius.  His 
poem,  in  two  books,  containing  1,036  elegiacs,  is  entitled 
Commonitorium ,  an  earnest  admonition  to  the  Christian  to 
avoid  besetting  sins,  which  are  enumerated.  Of  twenty-four 
prayers  oidy  two.  in  Senarii,  are  preserved.  The  authen- 
ticity of  other  poems  attributed  to  Orientius  is  doubtful. 
There  is  an  edition  by  Robinson  Ellis  (Vienna,  1888).  See 
Manitius,  (ie.scliiclife  der  Christlich-Lateinischen  Poesie 
(pp.  192-201).  M.  Warren. 

Or'ifliimnie  [=  Fr.  <  O.  Fr.  oriflamhe  <  Late  Lat.  auri- 
Jfaiiima;  »«;•»;».  gold  4  .^"rn'mrr,  flame] :  the  ancient  bat- 
tle-standard of  France,  once  a  banner  lielonging  to  the 
abbey  of  St.  Denis.  After  1124,  when  it  was  adopted  as  a 
royal  standard  by  Louis  VI.,  it  was  often  borne  in  battle, 
but  .seems  never  to  have  been  employed  after  the  battle  of 
Agincourt  in  1415.  The  accounts  of  its  form  and  color  dif- 
fer considerably,  but  it  was  of  flame-eolored  silk  beautifully 
adorned. 

Or'igen.surnamed  Adamantios,  from  his  untiring  energy : 
one  of  the  most  learned  and  sjii'ited  of  the  Christian  Fathers ; 
b.  at  Alexandria  in  185  A.  D. ;  was  early  initialed  both  in 
Christianity  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  and  in  Greek  wisdom 
by  his  lather,  Leonides,  who  was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric. 
During  the  persecutions  which  took  ])lace  in  the  reign  of 
Severus,  Leonides  suffered  mailyrdom,  and  the  son  under- 
took to  maintain  the  family  by  opening  a  school,  in  which 
at  first  he  simply  taught  the  Greek  langiuige  and  literature, 
but  soon  also  began  to  expound  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
with  great  success.  Bisliop  Demetrius  appointed  him  mas- 
ter of  the  famous  catechetical  school  ot  Alexandria,  and  in 
order  to  maintain  hiinsclf  in  this  position  he  sold  liis  lilirary 
and  subjected  himself  to  the  severest  asceticism,  at  the  same 
time  i)ursuing  his  mental  development  with  unflagging  vig- 
or. He  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  Greek  philosophy, 
and  became  a  pu]iil  of  xVmmonius  Saccas,  and  during  a  visit 
to  Rome  he  acquired  a  mastery  of  the  Hebrew  language. 
Flis  school,  which  he  still  continued,  prospered  in  spite  of 
occasional  disturbances  by  the  pagans,  and  his  fanie  in- 
creased. In  228  he  was  called  to  Greece  to  disjuite  some 
heresy  which  had  lately  arisen  there.  On  his  way  he  visited 
Palestine,  was  everywhere  received  with  great  attention  and 
invited  to  preach,  and  at  Ca'sarea  he  was  ordained  a  presby- 
ter. This  ordination  Bishop  Demetrius  of  Alexandria  re- 
fused to  recognize  as  valid,  partly  because  it  was  not  given 
by  himself  as  Origen's  proper  diocesan  bishop,  an<l  perhaps 
partly  because  he  knew  that  Origen.  misunderstanding  the 
p.'issage  in  Matt.  xix.  12,  lia<l  nuitilatcd  himself.  Two  synods 
held  in  Alexandria  supjiorted  the  l)ishop;  and  as  the  broad 
and  liberal  views  which  Origen  held  on  numy  points,  and  the 
critical  examination  and  allegorical  explanation  to  which  he 
subjected  the  Scriptnri's,  haii  made  him  many  enemies,  the 
second  synod  even  condemned  several  of  his  ideas  as  hereti- 
cal, and  excommunicated  him  (231).  In  the  West,  where 
his  writings  were  very  little  known,  the  case  attracted  no 
attention.  i)ut  the  bishops  of  the  East — ot  Palestine.  Plueni- 
cia,  Achaia.  and  Arabia — declared  for  him,  and  he  found 
refuge  in  Ca'sarea,  where  he  reopened  his  school  with  still 
greater  success.  During  the  per.secutions  under  JIaximinus 
he  fled  to  Cappadocia.  where  he  lived  for  two  years.  Under 
(iordianus  he  returned  and  continued  his  beneficial  activity, 
Imt  the  sufferings  an<l  torture  to  which  he  was  subjected 
during  the  Decian  ]iersecution  broke  his  strength,  and  he 
dieil  at  Tyre  in  2-54.  Origen  is  considered  unsound  in  his 
eschatology,  an<i  his  teaching  of  rest  oral  ionism.  even  of 
demons,  is  the  chief  count  against  him,  but  he  ranks  with 
the  best  of  the  Fathers  and  the  holies!  men  of  the  Churclu 
Of  his  many  writings  (6.(M)0.  it  is  said)  onlv  a  few  have  come 
down  to  us!  Of  his  I)e  /'ri)iciiiii.-<  (Of  the  Principles)  there 
exists  only  a  free  anc]  even  interpolaled  translation  into 
Latin  by  Rufinus,  edited  by  E.  R.  Re<lepenning  (lA'ipzig, 


338 


ORIGINAL  BURGHER  SYNOD 


ORIGINAL  SIN 


1836)  and  by  K.  F.  Schnitzer  (Stuttgart,  1836).  Of  his  Hex- 
APLA  (q.  v.),  an  edition  of  the  Old  Testament  in  six  parallel 
columns  in  Hebrew,  Hebrew  text  in  Greek  letters,  and  in 
the  four  versions  by  Aquila,  Symmachus,  the  Scptuagint, 
and  Theodotion,  and  in  parts  other  versions  in  parallel  eol- 
uras,  we  have  only  fragments,  edited  bv  B.  de  Montfaucon 
(2  vols,  fol.,  Paris,  1713),  but  best  by  F.  Field  (Oxford,  1875). 
The  beautiful  treatise  on  martyrdom  and  the  celebrated 
eight  books  against  Celsus,  which  are  an  apology  for  Chris- 
tianity, are  entire.  His  works  were  among  the  earliest 
printed ;  his  homilies  appeared  in  1475,  and  editions  of  his 
complete  works  appeared  at  Paris  (3  vols,  fol.,  1512-19,  and 
another  in  1522-30) ;  later  and  better  editions  in  Basel,  ed- 
ited bv  Erasmus  (2  vols,  fol.,  1545) :  in  Paris  (1572-74,  2  vols, 
fol.);  "by  C.  and  V.  de  la  Rue  (4  vols,  fol.,  Paris,  1733-59; 
also  in  Migne's series,  vols,  xi.-.xvii.) ;  by  C.  H.  E.  Lommatzsch 
(25  vols.,  IJerlin,  1831—48) ;  and  an  English  translation  of  his 
treatises  On  the  Principles  and  Against  Celsus,  with  a  few 
other  writings,  in  Clark's  Ante-Nicene  Christian  Library. 
See  E.  R.  Redepenning,  Origeyies,  eine  Darsfellung  seines 
Lebens  und  seiner  Lehre  (Bonn,  1841-46). 

Revised  by  Samuel  Macaulev  Jackson. 

Original  Bnr^her  Synod:  a  Scottish  Presbyterian 
body.    See  Presbyterian  Church. 

Original  Sin  (Lat.  pecca'tum  origina'le) :  in  theology, 
that  act  or  state  of  sin  from  which  all  other  sins  originate. 
It  is  distinguished  into  original  sin  imputed — e.  g.  the  guilt 
of  Adam's  apostasy  charged  to  his  descendants  (see  Ijiputa- 
TION) — and  original  sin  inherent — that  innate  subjective 
moral  corruption  which  is  inherited  by  all  men  at  birth,  and 
which  is  the  immanent  cause  of  all  actual  transgression. 
The  term  is  taken  in  the  latter  sense  in  this  article,  the  pee- 
catum  habituate  as  disthignislmd  from  the  peccatum  actuate. 
It  is  proposed  to  state  in  historical  order  the  principal  opin- 
ions which  have  been  entertained,  first,  as  to  its  nature  and 
extent,  and,  second,  as  to  the  manner  of  its  propagation. 

I.  Its  Nature  and  Extent. — (A)  Opinions  prevalent  before 
the  Controversies  of  Augustine  with  Pelagius. — There  pre- 
vailed no  definite  and  generally  accepted  views  as  to  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  moral  ruin  wrought  in  human  na- 
ture in  consequence  of  Adam's  sin.  All  agreed  in  the  fact 
of  a  sinful  taint,  and  of  the  need  of  redemption.  The  East- 
ern portion  of  the  Church  generally,  and  more  particularly 
the  Ale.xandrian  school  founded  by  Origen,  in  extreme  reac- 
tion alike  from  Gnostic  and  from  Neo-Platonic  dualism, 
emphasized  the  self-determining  power  of  the  human  will 
and  man's  responsibility,  and  consequently  his  ability  to  co- 
operate with  any  divine  assistance  vouchsafed  for  his  recov- 
ery. On  the  other  hand,  the  Latin  Fathers,  especially  Ter- 
tuUian,  Hilary,  and  Ambrose,  the  immediate  teacher  of 
Augustine,  emphasized  hereditary  sin  and  guilt,  and  the 
absolute  dependence  of  the  soul  upon  grace. 

(B)  Tlie  Opinions  entertained  by  tlie  several  Parties  to 
the  Antliropological  Controversies  of  the  Fiftli  Century. — 
(1)  Pelagius  and  his  party  held  that  Adam's  sin  injured  only 
himself;  that  men  are  now  born  in  the  same  moral  state  in 
which  they  were  created ;  that  liberum  arbitrium,  the  power 
to  choose  indifferently  good  or  evil,  is  essential  to  moral  re- 
sponsibility in  every  stage  of  action,  and  an  inalienable  pre- 
rogative of  human  nature.  Hence  man  is  morally  well.  (2) 
The  Semi-Pelagians  held  that  human  nature  is  seriously 
injured  by  Adam's  sin,  and  that  hereditary  corruption  is  a 
fault  or  disease,  rather  than  a  sin  properly  so  called,  since  it 
involves  no  guilt  (either  reatus  pcence  or  culpce)  previous  to 
actual  transgression.  Jlan  can  choose  and  attempt  the 
good,  but  through  weakness  is  unable  to  effect  it.  Hence 
they  denied  gratia  preveniens,  predisposing  grace,  but  ad- 
mitted the  necessity  of  gratia  co-operans,  which  is  rendered 
efficient  by  the  spontaneous  co-operation  of  the  human  will. 
(3)  Augustine  taught  that  the  apostasy  of  Adam,  in  whom 
all  men  sinned,  is  the  common  guilt  of  all  his  natural  de- 
scendants, who,  while  retaining  freedom  in  the  sense  of  ra- 
tional spontaneity,  come  into  being  spiritually  dead,  unable 
either  to  begin  or  to  effect  any  really  good  act  before  God — 
free  only  to  sin,  and  dependent  for  salvation  upon  unmer- 
ited, sovereign,  omnipotent  grace.  Before  regeneration  the 
soul  can  only  resist  grace;  afterward,  by  the  assistance  of 
grace,  it  may  co-operate  with  grace.  Hence  the  necessity  of 
gratia  preveniens,  disposing  grace,  gratia  operans,  regener- 
ating grace,  and  gratia  co-operans,  grace  assisting  the  re- 
generated Ko  every  holy  act.  See  G.  F.  Wiggers,  Ilist.  of 
Augusfiniatiism  and  Petngianism,  ])art  i.  and  part  ii.  For 
the  history  of  the  condemnation  of  Pelagianism  and  the 


adoption  of  Augustinianism  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Churchy 
see  Arminius  and  Calvinism. 

(C)  The  Tridentine  doctrine,  or  the  later  Catholic  doc- 
trine formulated  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (1545-63).  It  is 
admitted  that  human  natiu'e  bears  the  guilt  of  Adam's  sin, 
is  morally  corrupted,  and  without  grace  helpless.  It  dis- 
tinguishes, however,  between  the  dona  naturuUa,  the  soul 
with  its  constitutional  faculties,  and  the  dona  supernatu- 
ralia,  the  superadded  gift  of  supernatural  righteousness. 
In  the  original  creation  all  Adam's  faculties,  physical,  in- 
tellectual, and  moral,  were  in  perfect  eciuilibrium,  the  lower 
held  in  due  subordination  to  the  higher.  To  confirm  this 
equilibrium,  God  added  the  gift  of  original  righteousness. 
This  sujipleraentary  gift  Adam  lost  for  himself  and  his  de- 
scendants, and  this  loss  (1)  involves  guilt;  (2)  leaves  the 
natural  powers  in  a  state  of  instable  equilibrium,  so  that  the 
free  will  certainly  falls  into  actual  transgression  as  soon  as 
moral  agency  begins.  Yet  man  may  seek  tlie  grace  offered 
in  baptism,  which  effects  justification  ex  opere  operato  in  all 
non-resistants  {non  po7ientibus  obicem).  "  Original  sin  "  in 
the  Roman  Church  consists,  therefore,  in  the  loss  of  "  orig- 
inal righteousness,"  which  nevertheless  involves  "  obliquity 
of  will  from  God  ";  and  yet  free  will  must  co-operate  with 
grace.  See  Counc.  of  TrerU,  sess.  6,1,3,5,7;  Bellarmine, 
Amiss.,  gr.  i v.  3  and  v.  17. 

(D)  All  the  original  Protestant  CJturches,  Lutheran  and 
Reformed,  agree,  as  to  "original  sin,"  that  it  includes  (1) 
moral  corruption  of  the  whole  man  as  well  as  the  loss  of 
•'original  righteousness."  (2)  This  implies  no  physical 
change  in  the  substance  of  the  soul,  but  a  depraved  moral 
habit.  (3)  All  the  faculties,  intellectual  as  well  as  emotional 
or  volitional,  as  far  as  they  relate  to  moral  objects,  are  de- 
praved. (4)  This  depravity,  although  admitting  many  civil 
virtues,  is  called  total,  because  (1st)  the  whole  man  is  in- 
volved :  (2d)  the  breach  with  God  is  complete,  and,  without 
supernatural  aid,  irremediable;  (3d)  the  tendency  is  ulti- 
mately to  all  sin.  (.5)  This  condition  involves  guilt  (both  of 
blame  and  punishment).  Some  say,  because  all  sin  is  inher- 
ently blameworthy ;  others  say,  because  it  originated  in 
Adam's  abuse  of  free  will,  for  which  we  are  all  responsible. 
(6)  Man  is  morally  impotent  to  change  his  own  general  dis- 
position to  evil.  Hence  he  can  not  co-operate  with  grace 
before  regeneration,  but  afterward  by  the  continued  opera- 
tion of  grace  the  free  will  acts  graciously.  See  Form  of 
Concord  (Hase).  pp.  639,  640,  645,  663,  681 :  Gal.  Conf.,  art. 
ii. ;  Heidel.  Cat.,  ques.  7-10 ;  West.  Conf.  Faith,  ehs.  vi.,  ix. ; 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  art.  9. 

(E)  The  Arminian  doctrine,  as  held  by  the  Dutch  Re- 
monstrants, regarded  "  original  sin "  rather  as  a  faiilt  or 
defect  of  nature  than  a  sin.  As  held  by  the  Wesleyans,  it 
admits  that  man's  nature  is  corrupted,  indisposed,  and  dis- 
abled from  all  spiritual  good  ;  but  both  parties  differ  from 
the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches  in  holding  (1)  that  it 
involves  no  guilt,  since  it  is  not  brought  upon  us  by  our  own 
agency  ;  and  (2)  that  every  soul  retains  power  to  co-operate 
with  the  grace  with  which  God  for  Christ's  sake  endows 
every  soul.  Conf.  Remonstr.,  pp.  84  and  162,  and  Dr.  D.  D. 
Whedon  in  Bib.  Sacr.,  Apr..  1862. 

(F)  The  Socinian  and  Rationalistic  doctrine  is  nearly 
the  same  with  that  of  Pelagius,  above  stated.  There  is  no- 
innate  corruption.  Sin  is  propagated  by  example.  Man 
always  retains  plenary  power  to  do  all  God  requires  of  him. 
There  is  no  grace  beyond  providential  advantages  and  objec- 
tive instruction.     Racov.  Cat.,  pji.  294  and  ques.  428-430. 

II.  The  3Iode  of  its  Propagation. — (1)  Origen  taught  the 
doctrine  of  the  pre-existence  of  human  souls,  and  their  per- 
sonal sin  and  S(>?/-corruption  in  a  previous  state  of  proba- 
tion. This  view,  which  denies  the  propagation  of  inherent 
corruption  from  Adam  altogether,  was  revived  by  Dr.  Ed- 
ward Beecher  in  his  Conflict  of  Ages  (1853).  (2)  TertuUian 
taught  the  doctrine  that  souls  as  well  as  bodies  are  derived 
by  generation  from  parents,  and  that  sin,  like  every  essen- 
tial quality  and  many  acquired  accidents  of  nature,  is  prop- 
agated ex  traduce.  Augustine  hesitated  to  decide  between 
this  origin  of  souls  and  their  immediate  creation.  Slany  of 
the  Greeks  were  creationists,  and  many  of  the  Latins  tradu- 
cianists.  Since  the  Reformation  most  of  the  Lutherans 
have  been  traducianists,  and  most  of  the  Reformed  creation- 
ists. (3)  Jerome  held  that  each  soul  was  immediately  created 
by  God.  Creationists  account  for  inherent  moral  corrup- 
tion either  (a)  per  corpus — that  is,  from  the  union  of  the  soul  ^ 
with  a  body  in  which  sin  is  propagated  by  generation  (Lampe 
(Utrecht,  1683-1729),  vol.  i.,  p.  572)— or  (A)  per  culpam 
— from  the  judicial  withholding  from  the  new-created  soul 


ORIUUELA 


ORISSA 


339 


of  the  life-supporting  influence  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  the 
piinisliinent  of  Adain"s  first  sin.  Seo  Dr.  K.  Ridgeley  (Loa- 
ilon,  1067-1734);  Turroliiie  (L.  ix.,  ques.  12). 

Revised  by  K.  H.  Poster. 

Orihncla,  o-rei-wil'Iau:  town  of  Spain:  in  the  province  of 
Alicante:  on  the  Sc^ura ;  86  miles  S.  W.  of  tlio  city  of 
Alicante,  in  the  niiildle  of  a  mosl  fertile  plain  (see  map  of 
Spain,  ref.  18-11).  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  college,  and  nianu- 
l';ictiires  of  hats,  linen  and  silk  fabrics,  and  paper,  and  many 
Hour  and  oil  mills.     Pop.  (1887)  24,364. 

Oril'Iia:  post-village  of  Simcoe  Co.,  Ontario,  Canada;  on 
Lake  Coiiehiching,  and  on  the  (irand  Trunk  Railway;  90 
miles  from  Toronto  (see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  JS-D).  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  provincial  lusyluin  tor  lunatics.  The  town  is  con- 
nected by  steamboat  with  Lake  Simcoe  and  the  Miiskoka 
country.  It  has  a  good  trade,  important  rnainifactures,  and 
two  monthly  and  three  weekly  papers.     Pop.  (1891)  4,752. 

Oriuo'co:  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  South  America; 
lying  entirely  in  Venezuela,  but  with  branches  in  Colombia. 
In  the  article  Amkiikw,  South  (</.  c),  it  was  shown  that 
three  great  river-depressions  extend  from  the  Atlantic  far 
into  the  interior  of  the  continent,  becoming  confluent  to- 
ward the  W.  The  Orinoco  depression  is  the  northernmost 
and  smallest  of  the  three :  separat  ing  the  highlands  of  Guiana 
from  the  Venezuelan  coast  mouiilaiiis,  it  runs  into  the  Ama- 
zonian depression  southwestward,  thus  leaving  Guiana  like 
.in  island,  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  South  America  by  com- 
paratively low  lands.  (See  Guian".\.)  The  southwestern  jiart 
of  the  Orinoco  depression  is  about  1,000  feet  higher  than 
the  eastern  part,  forming  an  interior  basin  largely  covered 
with  forest,  and  quite  dilTerent  in  character  from  the  broad 
open  plains  near  the  Athmtic.  On  leaving  this  upper  basin 
the  river  flows  down  in  a  series  of  rapids,  which  occupy  a 
comparatively  small  space,  and  separate  the  navigable  up- 
per part  from  the  wide  lower  channels.  The  Orinoco  rises 
on  the  southeastern  side  of  the  highlands  of  Venezuelan  Gui- 
ana, and  follows  tlieir  edges  around  in  a  broad  curve  north- 
wanl,  finally  turning  E.,  still  near  the  edges  of  the  high- 
lands, until  it  reaches  the  .\tlantic.  Hence  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  is  generally  high,  or  the  lowLands  on  that  side  are 
of  small  extent,  and  the  tributaries  are  navigable  for  com- 
paratively short  distances;  the  great  plains  and  the  most 
important  navigable  branches  are  on  the  left  side.  Xear 
and  above  the  rapids  there  are  isolated  hills  or  mountains 
in  the  upper  basin,  on  the  left  side  of  the  river.  We  know 
almost  nothing  of  the  vast  tract  to  the  S.  W.,  about  the  Meta 
and  Guaviare  branches;  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  the 
upper  basin  in  this  direction  is  broacily  continuous  with  the 
Amazonian  depression.  That  the  two  river-basins  are  con- 
fluent, at  least  for  a  small  space,  is  .shown  by  their  actual 
water  connection  through  the  Cassicpiiare  and  Rio  Negro; 
but  this  connection  is  920  feet  above  sea-level.  The  sources 
of  the  Orinoco  (discovered  by  Chatfanjon  in  Dec,  1886)  are 
in  the  Sierra  de  Parinia,  close  to  the  frontier  of  Brazil.  De- 
scending rapiiUy  to  the  W.  N.  W.  the  river  enters  the  upper 
ba-sin,  where  it  becomes  navigable  for  small  vessels.  In  this 
region  is  the  remarkable  and  unique  channel  which  connects 
it  with  the  Rio  Negro  and  Amazon.  The  Orinoco  bifur- 
cates; about  one-sixth  of  its  w.ater  takes  the  left-hand 
channel,  which  is  here  about  50  yards  wide,  and  after  a  course 
of  190  miles  enters  the  upper  Rio  Negro.  Below  the  Cas- 
siquiare  the  Orinoco  receives  the  Ventuario  on  the  right  and 
the  Guaviare  on  the  left.  It  then  turns  N.,  and  enters  the 
region  of  the  raufliilci  or  rapids.  The  most  important  of 
these  iire  the  Raudales  de  Maypures.  4  miles  long,  and  the 
Kaudales  de  Aturcs.  6  miles  long.  The  river,  straitened  by 
opposing  hills,  rushes  foaming  through  lunnerous small  chan- 
nels between  rocky  islets,  forming  a  scene  of  almost  unsur- 
passed grandeur.  Tlie  Indians  drag  their  canoes  through 
these  rapids  with  great  difiicidty  and  danger,  but  they  arc 
impassible  for  large  vessels.  From  the  Raud.alcs  de  Atures 
downward  the  river  is  freely  navitrable.  though  its  shifting 
sandbanks  and  bewildering  ehainiels  require  an  experienced 
pilot.  It  receives  the  Meta  and  .\|>ure.  its  two  most  inii)or- 
tant  tributaries,  from  the  W..  then  turns  directly  E.,  flowing 
between  the  highlands  of  (tuiana  and  the  broad  open  plains 
of  the  IjL.wos  (q.  v.).  The  river  here  is  so  near  sea-level  that 
its  waters  rise  and  fall  regularly  with  the  tide  as  far  up  as 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  270  miles  from  the  mouth.  On  approach- 
ing the  sea  it  forms  an  immense  swampy  and  forest-covered 
delta,  dividing  into  more  than  fifty  chaiuiels,  which  spread 
out  over  IHO  miles  of  coast.  The  islanils  are  haimted  by 
fevers,  and  swarm  with  nu)squitoes.     The  few  Indian  in- 


habitants often  build  their  houses  on  platforms  to  escape  the 
river  floods.  Only  one  of  the  channels  is  used  by  large  ves- 
sels. The  whole  length  of  the  Orinoco  is  about  1,550  miles; 
it  is  navigable  for  870  miles  to  the  rai>i<ls,  and  above  them 
to  within  150  miles  of  its  source.  It  receives  eight  large 
tributaries  an<i  an  immense  lumdjer  of  smaller  ones;  the 
Meta  and  .Vpure  are  navigable  to  the  base  of  the  Andes. 
The  area  drained  by  it  is  roughly  estimated  at  nearly  400.000 
sq.  miles  of  very  thinly  inhabited  C(mntry.  Steamcre  from 
Trinidad  ascend  the  main  river  regularly,  and  some  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  open  up  the  tributaries.  Diego 
de  Ordaz  luivigated  the  (Irinoco  to  the  junction  of  the 
Apure  in  15:31-82,  and  subsequently  the  region  was  trav- 
ersed by  many  adventurers  in  search  of  El  Dorado,  llum- 
bolilt  (180t))  was  the  first  to  describe  the  Cassiquiare  chan- 
nel, though  it  had  long  been  known  to  missionaries.  The 
latest  and  best  survey  is  that  of  Chaffanjon  (1885-87).  See 
Humboldt's  Travels;  Miclielenay  Rojas,  i'.!7;/ocafio»j  Oficial 
(1867);  Scliomburgk,  lit'i.ii-n  in  duiana  und  am  Orinoko 
(1841);  Chaffanjon,  IMcuuverle  des  sources  de  VOrenoque 
(in  Comples  rendiis  de  la  Sociele  de  Gt'ographic  de  Paris, 
Dec,  1887).  IlEKnicBT  H.  Smith. 

O'rlolc  [from  O.  Fr.  orinl  >  Fr.  loriot  (for  Vuriol,  the 
oriole)  <  Lai.  aureolas,  <limin.  of  au'reus,  golden,  deriv.  of 
au'rum,  gold] :  a  name  properly  Vielonging  to  bright-colored 
Old  World  birds  of  the  genus  Oriolus  and  the  family  Orio- 
lidif ;  but  in  the  U.  S.  the  luime  is  given  to  birds  of  the 
family  Icterldce.  The  name  was  probably  transferred  to 
these  birds  of  the  New  World  on  account  of  their  color, 
which  is  usually  black  and  yellow,  like  that  of  the  true 
orioles.  (See  Baltimoril  Oriole.)  The  only  Euro|)eau 
oriole  is  the  0.  galbnla.  ov  golden  oriole.  Its  name  it  de- 
rives from  its  color,  which  in  the  adult  male  is  bright  yellow 
over  the  whole  of  the  head,  neck,  and  body,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  wings,  the  two  central  tail-feathers,  and  the  ba- 
sal portions  of  the  remaining  feathers,  which  are  jetty  black', 
the  two  colors  contrasting  finely  with  each  other.  Across 
the  eye  runs  a  dark  stripe,  and  the  eyes  themselves  are 
reddish.  The  bird  has  a  very  peculiar  note,  loud,  flute- 
like, and  so  singularly  articulate  that  the  Italian  peasantry 
believe  it  speaks  their  language.  Its  nest  is  a  very  elegant- 
ly formed  and  well-eonstrueted  edifice  of  a  shallow  cup-like 
shape,  and  is  usually  placed  in  a  horizontal  fork  of  a  con- 
venient branch.  The  materials  of  whicli  it  is  made  are 
mostly  delicate  grass-stems  so  firmly  interwoven  w'ilh  wool 
that  the  whole  structure  is  strong  and  warm.  The  eggs 
are  generally  four  or  five  in  number,  and  their  color  is 
purplish  white,  sparely  marked  with  blotches  of  a  deep-red 
and  ashen  gray.  Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  insects ;  and, 
as  the  bird  is  rather  a  voracious  creature,  it  is  very  service- 
able in  clearing  away  caterpillars  and  other  fruit-devouring 
insects.  It  is  an  exceedingly  shy  and  timorous  bird,  and, 
as  it  always  takes  the  trouble  to  set  sentries  on  guard,  it 
can  not  Vje  approached  without  the  greatest  patience  and 
wariness  on  the  part  of  the  sportsman  or  the  obseiwer.  It 
is  quite  common  in  Italy,  and  it  is  also  found  in  the  other 
countries  of  Southern  Kurojie.  It  is  gregarious  in  its  habits, 
generally  associating  in  little  flocks  and  fre(pienting  lofty 
trees  and  orchards,  where  it  finds  plenty  of  food. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Ori'on  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  'Cifiav,  Orion,  falded  to  have  been  a 
hunter  transferred  to  tin;  sky):  one  of  the  constellations. 
It  is  mentioned  (Job  ix.  9;  xxxviii.  81)  by  the  Hebrew  word 
cesil,  which  signifies  a  "fool,''  and  also  an  "  impious,  god- 
less man,"  called  by  the  Arabs  "  the  giant."  The  giant  of 
ancient  astronomy  was  Nimrod,  who  was  fabled  to  have 
been  bound  to  the  sky  for  his  impiety.  The  Greek  my- 
thology in  various  ways  rejiresent  iiim  as  a  giant  who  was 
slain  bv  Diana,  who  in  remorse  placed  him  among  the  stars. 
The  constell.ation  is  rej)resented  by  the  figure  of  a  man  with 
a  sword  by  his  side.  Though  a  southern  constellation  with 
regard  to  the  ecliptic,  the  plane  of  the  eijuator  passes  thnnigh 
its  middle.  Its  contains  seven  conspicuous  stars ;  the  three 
forming  the  belt  arc  also  called  "Jacob's  stalT"  and  the 
"  yard  wand."  One  of  the  most  remarkable  nebuhe  of  the 
heavens  is  situated  in  the  sword-handle  of  Orion. 

Orissii  [Sanskr.  Odra.  northern] ;  formerly  the  northern 
part  of  the  old  province  of  Kalinga,  now  the  southeast  por- 
tion of  the  province  of  Bengal.  India.  Its  coast  region  is  an 
extremely  fertile,  alluvial  delta  formed  by  the  numerous 
branches'  of  the  Mahiinadi,  Bnihmani.  and  Baitarani  rivers. 
Behind  this  densely  populiili-d  coast  region  is  the  hill  coun- 
try, rather  sparsely  peopled  and  comprising  two-thirds  of 


340 


ORIZABA 


ORLEANS 


the  total  area  of  the  district,  which  is  24,140  sq.  miles. 
Rice  is  the  chief  product,  agriculture  is  almost  the  only  pur- 
suit, and  nearly  all  the  inliubitants  are  Hindus.  Pop.  (1891) 
3,865,020.         ■  C.  C.  Adams. 

Orizaba,  o-ree-thaa'baa  (called  Citlaltepetl,  or  Mountain 
of  the  Star,  by  the  Aztecs) :  a  mountain  of  Mexico,  on  the 
confines  of  the  states  of  Vera  Cruz  and  Puebla,  near  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  plateau.  The  summit  is  covered  with 
snow,  and  the  ascent  is  difficult  and  dangerous.  According 
to  the  careful  measurements  (partly  by  triangulation)  made 
by  Scovell  and  Bunsen  in  1891-93,  the  highest  point  is  18.814 
feet  above  sea-level :  it  is  therefore  the  highest  mountain  in 
Mexico,  and  possibly  the  highest  in  North  America.  Oriza- 
ba is  a  quiescent  volcano.  In  clear  weather  it  is  visible  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  near  Vera  Cruz,  presenting  a  magnifi- 
cent sight.  The  railway  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico  passes 
by  its  base.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Orizaba  [corrupted  from  the  Xahuatl  Ahanializapan, 
liter.,  pleasant  waters] :  a  town  of  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz, 
Mexico;  on  the  railway  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  capital;  IT 
miles  S.  E.  of  the  mountain  to  which  it  has  given  its  name 
(see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  7-1).  It  is  beautifully  situated  in 
a  broad  valley,  4,035  feet  above  sea-level ;  its  delightful  cli- 
mate and  magnificent  scenery  make  it  a  favorite  i-esort  both 
for  Mexicans  and  for  foreigners.  Jlaize,  tobacco,  and  su- 
gar-cane are  extensively  cultivated  in  the  vicinity,  and  the 
town  has  several  cotton-mills  and  other  manufactories,  the 
motive-power  being  derived  from  the  Rio  Blanco.  Orizaba 
was  an  ancient  Indian  town.  It  was  the  headquarters  of 
the  French  in  1863.     Pop.  (1894)  about  25,000. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Orkhan,  Ghazi,  the  Victorious  :  first  Ottom,in  sultan 
(1326-60) :  b.  1290 ;  captured  Broussa  (1326)  shortly  before 
his  father's  death,  and  as  his  elder  brother  Alaeddin  refused 
the  throne,  he  succeeded  to  it.  The  brothers  were  devoted- 
ly attached  to  each  other,  and  Alaeddin,  who  was  a  states- 
man and  scholar,  aided  him  as  his  grand  vizier.  Orkhan 
was  an  able  soldier,  and  captured  Nice,  Nicomedia,  and  Per- 
gamus,  and  by  these  and  other  conquests  more  than  trebled 
his  states,  which  Alaeddin  organized.  By  the  conquest  of 
Tzympe  and  Gallipoli  (1357)  the  Ottomans  gained  their 
first  foothold  in  Europe.  Orkhan  married  (1347)  Theodora, 
daughter  of  John  VI.  Cantacuzenos,  Byzantine  emperor,  Viut 
did  not  force  her  to  adopt  his  creed.  He  died  (1.360)  of  grief 
at  the  death  of  his  brother  and  his  son  Suleitman. 

E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Ork'ney  Islands :  a  group  of  sixty-seven  islands,  of  which 
twenty-nine  are  inhabited,  lying  off  the  northern  coast  of  the 
mainland  of  Scotland,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  the 
Pentland  Firth.  They  comprise  an  area  of  375  sq.  miles, 
with  a  population  in  1891  of  30,453.  The  largest  is  Pomona 
or  the  Mainland  ;  the  most  remarkable  among  the  others  are 
South  Ronaldshay,  Hoy,  Flotta,  Bousay,  and  Sanda.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Hoy,  which  is  rocky  and  mountainous, 
its  western  coast  reaching  a  height  of  1,600  feet,  the  Orkney 
islands  are  low,  presenting  an  irregular  coast-line — in  some 
places  rocky,  in  others  sandy.  The  climate  is  mild,  consid- 
ering the  northern  latitude,  frosts  are  very  rare,  but  the 
summers  are  often  chilly,  and  always  moist.  The  soil  is  re- 
markably fertile.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are  bar- 
ley, oats,  potatoes,  and  turnips,  and  sheep  and  cattle  are 
extensively  reared.  Fishing,  hunting  for  wild  birds  and 
eggs,  rearing  of  poultry,  and  distilling  are  important  occu- 
pations. There  is  regular  steam  communication  between 
Kirkwall,  the  chief  town,  and  Wick,  Aberdeen,  and  Leith, 
and  between  Stromness  (the  next  most  important  town)  and 
Thurso  on  the  mainland,  and  a  small  steamer  connects  Kirk- 
wall with  the  North  isles.  Communication  with  the  other 
islands  is  by  "  packet."  The  tides  rush  with  great  rapidity 
through  the  numerous  sounds  and  channels  formed  by  the 
islands,  and  navigation  is  dangerous.  In  1889  the  Orkney 
islands  were  separated  from  the  Shetlands  and  erected  into 
a  .separate  county.  Orkney  and  Shetland  together  send  one 
member  to  Parliament.  The  Orkney  islands  are  mentioned 
by  tlic  ancient  geographers  Pliny  and  Ptolemy,  and  by  other 
classical  writers,  under  the  name  Orcades,  whence  the  mod- 
ern ad  jci-l  ive  "  Orcadian.''  Little,  however,  is  known  of  the 
inhabitants  till  the  dawn  of  the  Middle  Ages.  They  were 
probably  of  the  .same  stock  as  (he  British  Celts.  The  islands, 
together  with  the  Hcbri<les,  were  conquered  by  the  Norwe- 
gians in  876,  and  forumlly  annexed  to  the  Norwegian  crown 
in  1098.  In  1397  they  were  united  to  Denmark,  and  in  1468 
the  Danish  king.  Christian  I.,  gave  them  to  the  Scottish 


king,  James  III.,  who  married  his  daughter,  as  a  security 
for  her  dowry.  The  dowry  was  never  paid,  and  in  1590  the 
islands  were  formally  turned  over  to  Scotland.  During  their 
long  connection,  however,  with  Norway  and  Denmark  all 
traces  of  the  primitive  Celtic  population  disappeared,  and 
the  present  inhabitants  are  of  pure  Norwegian  stuck. 

Revised  by  R.  Lilley. 

Orlando :  city ;  capital  of  Orange  co.,  Fla.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Florida,  ref.  .5-J);  on  the  Fla.  Cent,  and  Penin- 
sular and  the  Savannah,  Fla.  and  West,  railways;  90  miles 
S.  of  Palatka.  It  is  in  the  heart  of  the  orange,  pineapple, 
and  grape  region  ;  has  6  churches,  street-railways,  gas  and 
water-works,  large  foundry  and  machine-works,  2  State 
banks,  and  a  daily  and  3  weeklv  newspapers;  and  is  a  noted 
winter  resort.     Pop.  (1890)  2,859;  (1895)  2,993. 

Editor  of  "  Reporter." 

Orl^anais,  or'la'aa'na' :  an  ancient  province  of  France ; 
situated  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  country,  bounded  by  the 
provinces  of  tie  de  France,  Champagne,  Burgundy,  Berry, 
Touraine,  Maine,  Pei'che,  and  Normandy.  It  consisted  of 
Orleanais  proper,  with  the  capital  of  Orleans;  Beauce,  com- 
prising Pays  Chartrain,  Dunois,  and  Vendomois,  with  the 
capital  of  Chartres;  Blaisois,  with  the  capital  of  Blois;  and 
Gatinais-Orleanais,  with  the  capital  of  Montargis.  Its  terri- 
tory constitutes  the  three  departments  of  Loire-et-Cher, 
Eure-et-Loire,  and  Loiret,  and  parts  of  Indre,  Indre-et- 
Loire,  Nievre,  and  Yonne. 

Or'leans :  city  of  France ;  capital  of  the  department  of 
Loiret ;  75  miles  by  rail  S.  S.  W.  of  Paris,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Loire,  which  is  crossed  here  by  a  magnificent  bridge 
of  nine  arches  (see  map  of  Finance,  ref.  4-E).  It  has  many 
fine  promenades,  handsome  public  squares,  and  elegant 
buildings,  among  which  the  cathedral  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  Gothic  edifices  of  France ;  but  generally  the 
town  is  ill-built.  Its  educational  institutions,  especially  its 
medical  schools,  and  its  museums  are  excellent,  and  its 
sugar-refineries  and  manufactories  of  vinegar  and  woolen 
fabrics  are  very  extensive.  The  University  of  Orleans, 
founded  in  1312,  was  suppressed  in  1789.  The  city  contains 
three  beautiful  statues  of  Joan  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans, 
and  its  museums  have  numerous  antiquities  and  monuments 
relating  to  her.  During  the  Franco-German  war  Orleans 
was  the  center  of  the  preparations  made  by  the  government 
of  defense  for  the  [lurpose  of  raising  the  siege  of  Paris,  and 
for  some  time  in  1870  the  city  was  occupied  by  the  Ger- 
mans, though  without  suffering  anv  harm.  Pop.  (1891) 
68,705. 

Orleans,  Duchy  op  :  an  old  division  of  France,  consisting 
of  Orleanais  proper,  with  the  capit.al,  Orleans.  It  formed 
a  countship  under  the  Carlovingian  and  Capet ian  dynasties, 
but  w<ns  erected  into  a  duchy  in  1344  by  Philip  VI.  of  the 
house  of  Valois,  and  given  to  his  son  as  an  ajipanage.  Sub- 
sequently it  was  held  in  the  same  way  by  different  younger 
branches  of  the  reigning  families  of  ^'alois  and  Bourbon. 
Thus  Louis,  the  second  son  of  Charles  V.  of  Valois,  and  for 
a  time  lieutenant-general  of  France  during  the  insanity  of 
his  brother  the  king,  Charles  VII.,  received  the  duchy  of 
Orleans  in  1393  as  a  fief,  and  after  his  death,  in  1407,  his 
son  Charles  held  it  to  1465;  but  when,  in  1498,  his  grand- 
son, Louis,  ascended  the  throne  of  Fr.ance  as  Louis  XII.,  it 
returned  to  the  French  crown.  In  1636  it  was  bestowed 
on  Jean  Baptiste  Gaston,  brother  of  Louis  XIII.,  the  young- 
est son  of  Henry  IV.  of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  famous  in 
history  for  the  unflagging  steadfastness  with  which  he 
formed  one  conspiracy  after  the  other  against  Richelieu, 
and  the  cynical  treachery  with  which  he  every  time  sacri- 
ficed his  accomplices ;  he  died  in  1660,  leaving  no  male  heirs. 
The  most  remarkal-)le  of  the  several  families  which  have 
held  the  title  and  possessions  of  the  duchy  is  that  descend- 
ing from  the  younger  brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  Philip,  a  son 
of  Louis  XIII.",  b.  in  1640.  married  in  1661  to  Henrietta  of 
England,  and  after  her  death,  in  1671.  to  Charlotte  Eliza- 
beth of  Bavaria;  d.  in  1701.  This  branch  of  the  family,  by 
virtue  of  its  descent  from  Louis  XIII.,  played  a  very  promi- 
nent part  in  subsequent  French  history.  In  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht  (1713)  the  Duke  of  Orleans  waived  all  rights  to  the 
throne  of  Spain,  and  the  Duke  of  Anjou  (Philip  V.)  all  he- 
reditary rights  to  the  French  succession.  These  provisions 
determined  the  rights  of  the  Count  de  Chanibord  and  the 
Count  of  Paris  inthe  nineteenth  century.  During  the  ad- 
ministration of  Richelieu  as  well  as  during  the  reigns  of 
Louis  XIV.  anil  Louis  XV.  the  family  occupied  a  position  of 
special  jirominence.  Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 


ORLEANS 


ORMOND 


341 


Orleans,  Prince  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of:  eldest  son  of 
the  Count  of  Paris:  b.  Feb.  6.  186!).  On  attainiuf;  his  ma- 
jority (Feb.  6,  1H!)0)  he  entered  Paris,  and  expressed  liis  de- 
sire as  a  Frenchman  Id  perform  liis  military  service;  was 
arrested  in  accordance  witli  the  Kxpulsion  Act  of  IH.Sti, 
wliich  forbids  the  soil  of  France  to  tlie  direct  heirs,  lie 
was  liberated  after  a  few  months'  imprisonment. 

Orleans,  Loris  Philii'fk  .Ioskimi,  Duico  of.  better  known 
as  I'liiMi'PK  fitiAi.iTE:  revululionist  ;  li.  at  St.-C'loud,  Apr. 
i:i,  17(7;  married  in  176!)  Ailelaide  of  Hourbon-Penthievre, 
who  brought  him  immense  wealth  :  entered  with  zeal  into 
the  revolutionary  ajiitation,  and  became  on  account  of  his 
rank  and  influence  the  center  of  the  opposition  to  the  court. 
He  renounced  his  rank  and  titles,  assuming  the  name  of 
Citizen  Egalite,  and  aspired  to  be  tlie  leader  of  the  repul>- 
lican  nu)vement,  Imt  lacked  tlu^  ability  and  force  of  charac- 
ter to  command  respect.  Influenced  by  fear  he  voted  for 
the  death  of  the  king,  but  neither  this  nor  his  subserviency 
as  the  tool  of  the  Jacobins  saved  him  from  the  suspicion  of 
complicity  with  his  kinsmen,  and  he  was  tried  and  guillo- 
tined on  Xov.  6,  17!)3. 

Orleans,  Philipi'K,  Duke  of:  regent  of  France  during 
'  the  minority  of  Louis  XV.;  b.  Aug.  4,  1674;  distinguished 
himself  as  a  sohlier.  especially  wiiile  in  command  of  the 
Krench  army  in  Spain,  wlu>re  in  1707  and  170(She  conducted 
brilliant  and  successful  campaigns ;  became  sole  regent  on 
the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  showed  himself  in  some  re- 
spects an  able  ruler.  The  Stuarts  left  France,  and  an  alli- 
ance was  formed  with  (ireat  Britain.  On  the  other  hand, 
his  Government  countenanced  the  financial  folly  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi scheme.  In  his  private  life  he  was  grossly  licen- 
tious, and  his  excesses  hastened  his  death,  which  occurred 
Dec.  2,  V-i:i. 

Orleans,  Maid  of:  See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Orley,  Bernard,  van:  painter;  b.  in  Brussels  in  1490. 
Having  studied  art  with  his  father  and  cousin,  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Kaiihael,  who  employed 
him  in  his  great  compositions.  After  Raphael's  death  lie 
returned  to  Brussels,  where  Cliarles  V.  commissioned  liim  to 
paint  several  pictures  of  hunting  scenes.  He  tnade  car- 
toons for  tapestries  for  the  palaces  of  the  emperor  and  of 
the  princes  of  the  house  of  Austria  and  of  the  Duchess  of 
Parma.  He  painted  a  fiiu>.  picture  of  the  Last  Jiiilymenf 
for  the  chapel  of  the  Almoners  in  Antwerp,  and  a  Sf.  Lulce 
painting  the  Virgin  for  the  society  of  painters  of  Mech- 
lin. He  also  made  designs  for  the  tapestries  of  the  Castle 
of  Breda  for  William  of  Nassau.     D.  in  1560.        W.  J.  S. 

Or'loff:  name  of  a  Russian  family,  prominent  since  the 
seventeenth  century,  remarkable  rather  for  courage  and 
physical  characteristics  than  for  intellectual  and  moral 
qualities.  (1)  Ivan  :  one  of  the  rebellious  strelitzi,  par- 
doned on  the  scaffold  (1689)  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  was 
pleased  by  his  undaunted  bearing.  He  assumed  the  name 
Orloff. — (3)  Orloff,  Greoorv:  soldier;  son  of  (1),  father 
of  five  .sons  and  one  daughter,  the  latter  commonly  re- 
vered as  St.  Catherine. — (;})  Ori.off,  Ivan  :  author;  son  of 
(2);  b.  1733;  d.  1791. — (4)  Ori.off,  Greoorv;  general;  son 
of  (2);  b.  1734;  chief  of  the  conspirators  who  deposed  Peter 
III.  (July  9,  1762)  and  made  Catherine  II.  sole  ruler.  In 
consequence,  he  and  his  four  brothers  were  made  counts. 
By  him  Catherine  had  a  son.  Count  Bobrinski.  His  brutal- 
ity and  arrogance  finally  alienated  the  empress:  he  was 
banished,  then  recalled,  and  on  account  of  his  courage  dur- 
ing the  pest  at  Moscow,  partially  restored  to  favur.  Fail- 
ing in  a  diplomatic  mission  and  again  disgraced,  he  be- 
came insane  and  died  (1783)  at  .'Moscow. — (.'))  Orloff 
TciiESH.MENsKi,  -Vlexis:  general;  son  of  (2):  b.  1736;  d. 
1H08;  a  man  of  gigantic  stature  but  little  intellect.  Joining 
his  brother's  conspiracy,  he  is  said  to  have  strangled  Peter 
III.  with  his  own  hands.  He  comnnmded  the  Hu.ssian 
scpiadron  which  won  the  great  navid  battle  of  Tcheshme 
(1770),  whence  he  received  the  title  of  Tc/w.-ilimcnxk-i.  That 
victory  was  due,  however,  to  his  Hrilish  oilicers,  Klpliin- 
stone,  Gregg,  and  Dugdale.  The  Princess  Tarakiinolf, 
daughter  of  the  dead  Kmpn'ss  Klizabeth,  was  then  residing 
in  Italy,  and  caused  anxiety  lo  Catherine  II.  Professing 
himself  the  lover  of  the  nrincess,  he  won  her  hand,  enticed 
her  on  board  his  fleet,  anil  carried  her  to  Russia,  where  she 
wa.s  put  to  death.  He  was  banished  souii  after  the  ac<'ession 
of  the  Emperor  Paul. — (6)  Orloff.  Vladimir:  scientist: 
son  of  (2);  president  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  St.  Pe- 
tersburg.— (7)  Okloff,  (iRKooRY  Vlaiiimir:  author;  son  of 


(6);  b.  1777;  d.  1826;  wrote  numerous  works  on  history  and 
art. — (8)  Orloff.  Feodor  :  general ;  son  of  (2) ;  b.  1741  ;  d. 
1796;  notable  only  through  his  four  illegitimate  sons,  from 
whom  the  present  members  of  the  family  descend. — (9) 
Orloff,  Alexis:  general;  son  of  (8);  b.  i786;  d.  1861; 
saved  the  life  of  Kmperor  Nicholas  in  182.5;  skillfully  nego- 
tiated Treaty  of  Adrianople  (1829),  and  Treaty  of  llounkiar 
Iskelessi  (1833),  but  was  afterward  generally  unsuccessful  in 
the  many  high  oflices  he  held  ;  represented  Russia  at  the 
( 'ongre.ss  of  Paris  (1856),  and  was  made  a  prince. — (ID)  (  )rloff, 
Nicolas:  diplomat;  son  of  (9);  b.  1827;  d.  1885;  Russian 
ambassador  to  I'aris  in  1872;  wrote  on  campaign  of  1806  in 
Prussia. — The  Okloff-Dexissoff  family,  unconnected  with 
the  iier.sons  above  mentioned,  are  prominent  on  the  Don, 
and  nave  hereditary  right  to  furnish  the  hetman  of  the  Cos- 
sacks. E.  A.  Grosvexor. 

Oriiiazd.  or  Orninzd  [I'ers.  <  0.  Pprs.  auramazdO : 
Avest.  u/iura  ntazdHh  ;  cf.  .Sanskr.  asurd,  spirit,  divinity, 
(later)  demon,  and  mff/Aos-,  wisdom] :  the  supreme  god  in 
Zoroastrianism,  or  the  religion  of  ancient  Persia.  The  mean- 
nig  of  the  name  Alinra  Mazddh  in  Avestan  (r/.  v.)  is  the 
Lord  \Vis<lom,  and  he  is  the  omniscient,  omnipresent  source 
of  all  that  is  good  in  the  world ;  his  opponent,  Ahriman 
(Avest.  Anra  Jlniyii/ii,  the  Enemy  Spirit),  affords  a  parallel 
to  Satan.  Zoroastrian  dualism  recognizes  the  two  principles 
of  Ormazd  and  Ahriman  as  primeval  and  coeval,  but  not 
coeternal  :  Ormazd  in  the  end  shall  triumph  and  destroy 
Ahriman.  A  later  Persian  sect,  the  Zervanists,  regarded 
botli  these  principles  as  sprung  from  /Cdrriin  Akdranu 
(Time  Eternal) ;  one  Iranian  sect,  called  (iayomarthians, 
conceived  Ahriman  to  be  an  evil  spirit  sprung  from  Ormazd. 
The  exalted  and  spiritual  conception  of  Ahura  Mazda  with 
his  ministering  angels  that  is  found  in  the  Zoroastrian  scrip- 
tures is  the  nearest  approach  to  Jehovah  that  can  be  found 
in  ancient  religions.     See  Zoroaster. 

A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Ormiston,  William,  D. D.,  LL. D.  :  clergyman;  b.  at 
Symington,  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  Apr.  21,  1821;  removed 
to  Canada  in  1834  ;  was  educated  at  Victoria  College,  Co- 
bourg,  (,)ntario,  afterward  Victoria  University.  Toronto, 
where  he  completed  his  theological  course,  w-as  classical  tu- 
tor four  years  and  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  one 
year  ;  was  pastor  at  Newtonville,  Ontario,  1849-53  ;  superin- 
tendent of  the  township  schools  1849-63 ;  mathematical 
master  and  lecturer  in  science  in  the  Normal  School,  To- 
ronto. 1853-57 ;  examiner  at  Toronto  University  1854-57; 
pastor  of  the  Central  Presbyterian  church,  Hamilton.  On- 
tario, 1857-70;  of  the  Collegiate  Reformed  church.  New 
York,  1870-88;  stated  supply  at  Pasadena,  Cal.,  1889-90; 
since  1890  has  been  an  evangelist  in  Southern  Califor- 
nia. Dr.  Ormiston  has  written  copiously  for  periodicals ; 
prepared  series  of  text-books;  edited  with  notes  The  Acts 
of  thf.  Apustles  (New  York,  1883):  was  the  author  of  A71 
E.rpoKiti'in  on  a  Port  nf  the  Epistle  of  James  in  Tlie  Homi- 
tetieal  Muntldij ;  and  long  prepared  the  Sunday-school  les- 
sons for  Tlii'  Snndaij-sehoot  Times.  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Orinoln,  or  Mosaic  (Jold  \<irmolu  is  from  Fr,  or  moulu, 
liter.,  ground  or  milled  gold;  or,  gold  (<  hut.  au'rum) 
+  moiitii,  peri,  partic.  of  motidre,  mill,  grind  (<  Lat.  mo- 
lere)]  :  an  alloy  of  zinc  and  copper,  containing  from  25  to  75 
parts  of  zinc  in  100  of  the  alloy,  ai'oiisiderable  proportion  of 
the  zinc  being  volatil-.zed,  unless  the  lowest  possible  tem- 
perature be  employed  in  fusing  the  metals.  The  fused  mass 
is  kept  until  it  takes  on  a  white  color,  when  it  is  cast  at 
once,  for  if  remelled  it  becomes  a  comparatively  worthless 
kind  of  brass.  It  is  largely  employed  in  making  house- 
hold ornaments,  which  are  colored  by  pickling  in  (lilute  oil 
of  vitriol  and  then  washed  and  varnished.  In  France  the 
name  is  ajiplied  to  gold-leaf  prepared  for  gilding  surfaces 
such  as  briinze  or  brass. 

Orniond.  .Iames  Butler,  First  Duke  of  :  soldier  and  states- 
man ;  b.  in  London,  England.  Oct.  19.  1610;  educated  by 
.Vrchbishop  Abbot  as  a  ward  nf  the  king;  succeeded  to  the 
earldom  of  Orniond  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather  1632; 
was  comint'-nder  of  (he  royal  troops  in  Ireland  as  lieutenant- 
general  during  the  insurrection  of  1641  ;  was  created  mar- 
quis 1642;  was  forced  to  make  a  disadvantageous  armistice 
with  the  rebels  1643;  became  lord-lientemint  l(i44:  resigned 
his  office  to  the  Parliamentary  commissioners,  and  retired 
to  France  1647;  proclaimed  Charles  II.  in  Ireland,  and 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  capture  Dublin  1649;  was 
driven  from  Ireland  by  Cromwell  Dec,  16.50;  was  created 
duke  bv  Charles  II.  16(50;  was  Vieerov  of  Ireland  1661-69; 


342 


ORMUS 


ORNITHOLOGY 


chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford  1669:  narrowly  es- 
caped assassination  by  Col.  Blood  1670 ;  again  Viceroy  of 
Ireland  1677-85;  was  made  a  duke  in  the  English  peerage 
1683.     D.  at  Kingston  Hall.  Dorsetshire,  July  21,  1688. 

Ormus :  an  island,  12  miles  in  circumference,  in  the 
Strait  of  Ormus,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Persian  Gulf ;  now  im- 
portant only  for  its  salt-works.  At  its  northeastern  extremity 
a  miserable" village  of  a  hundred  huts  occupies  the  site  of  the 
once  splendid  eitv.  Tins  was  captured  by  Albuquerque 
(1507),  who  made"  it  the  entrepot  of  European-Indian  com- 
merce, but  was  utterlv  destroyed  (1622)  by  8hah  Abbas  and 
the  British  East  India  Company.  It  is  held  by  the  Imam 
of  JIuscat,  who  pays  tribute  for  it  to  Pei-sia.  E.  A.  G. 

Ormiizd :  See  Ormazd. 

Orne,  orn :  department  of  France :  part  of  the  old  prov- 
ince of  Normandy :  area.  2,354  sq.  miles.  It  is  traversed  by 
a  range  of  wooded  hills  rising  1,370  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
rich  in  iron,  copper,  niarlde,  and  granite.  To  the  N.  and  S. 
of  these  hills  large  pasture-grounds  extend,  where  numerous 
cattle  and  horses  are  reared.  Hemp  is  extensively  cultivated, 
and  there  are  large  apple  and  pear  orchards.  About  22,- 
000,000  gal.  of  cider  are  made  annually.  Manufactures,  es- 
pecially of  metal-ware,  are  carried  on.  Pop,  (1891)  354,387. 
Capital,  Aleni;.on. 

Ornitholog'y  [from  Gr.  Spvis,  Spvi^os,  bird  +  \iyos.  dis- 
course]:  tliat  branch  of  zoology  which  treats  of  birds  and 
the  literature  respecting  them.  Although  it  includes  all 
that  relates  to  birds,  their  external  appearance,  pterylosis, 
anatomy,  and  habits,  it  is  very  largely  concerned  with  their 
cla.ssification,  or  their  division  into  groups,  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  these  groups  with  respect  to  each  other.  In  fact,  a 
history  of  the  attempts  at  the  classification  of  birds  is  prac- 
tically a  history  of  the  progress  of  ornithological  science,  and 
it  is  the  purpose  of  this  article  to  note  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant systems  which  have  been  brought  forward  and  the 
characters  on  which  they  were  based. 

We  look  in  vain  in  the  ancient  authors  for  any  clear 
idea  of  the  relations  of  the  various  groups  of  this  class; 
birds  are  chiefly  considered  (e.  g.  by  Aristotle)  with  rela- 
tion to  their  food  and  the  means  by  which  they  obtain  it, 
or  (e.  g.  by  Belon  and  Aldrovandi)  with  respect  to  their 
adaptation  for  progression  and  their  habitat.  Willoughby,* 
and  his  commentator  Ray.f  first  gave  a  reasonable  arrange- 
ment of  the  constituents  of  the  class  dividing  it,  primarily, 
into  land  and  water  birds ;  the  former  were  then  differen- 
tiated into  those  organized  as  birds  of  prey  and  those 
adapted  for  a  less  carnivorous  or  for  a  frugivorous  diet ; 
the  latter  were  divided  into  waders  and  swimmers. 

LinnieusJ  is  celebrated  as  a  systematist,  and  is  looked 
up  to  as  the  father,  to  a  great  extent,  of  the  modern 
methods;  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  his  system  sliould 
be  alluded  to.  In  the  final  edition  of  the  Sysfetna  Katiirce 
(ed.  12,  1766)  he  divided  the  class  into  six  orders — viz.: 
(1)  Ar.cipitres.  in  which  the  lull  is  hooked  and  decurved ; 
the  upper  mandible  projecting  beyond  the  lower,  and  on 
each  side  dilated  or  armed  with  teeth ;  and  the  feet  pro- 
vided with  acute  arched  claws.  (2)  Piece,  in  which  the  bill 
is  cultriforra  and  with  the  dorsal  outline  convex,  and  the 
feet  short  and  quite  strong.  (3)  An.iefe.'^,  in  which  the  bill 
is  smooth,  covered  with  an  epidermis,  and  enlarged  at  the 
tip;  the  feet  webbed,  and  with  the  tibia;  compressed  and 
short.  (4)  Orallw,  in  which  the  bill  is  snbcylindrical,  the 
feet  elongated  and  ada))ted  for  wading,  and  the  femora 
partially  naked.  (5)  GaUince.  whose  species  have  the  bill 
convex,  the  upper  mandible  arched  above  the  lower,  and 
the  nostrils  overai-chcd  by  a  cartilaginous  membrane,  the 
feet  adapted  for  walking,  and  the  toes  rough  beneath;  and 
(6)  Passere-H,  iti  which  the  bill  is  conical  and  pointed,  and 
the  feet  slender,  with  the  toes  separated  and  adapted  for 
hopping.  It  will  be  thus  seen  that  these  groups  were 
based  entirely  on  the  consideration  of  the  structure  of  the 
bill  and  feet,  the  other  characters  enumerated  by  Linn^pus. 
but  not  here  reproduceil,  relating  to  the  body,  food,  and 
nesting  habits,  being  quite  subsidiary;  but  this  classifica- 
tion was  generally  accepted,  and  the  views  involved  therein 
prevailed  with  naturalists  geiuTally  until  very  recent  times. 
CuvierS  in  1797  slightly  modified  "the  classification  of  Lin- 
naeus in  its  details,  but  the  orders  were  essentially  the  same 

•  OrnifhologicB  lihri  tres  (London,  1676)— a  posthumous  work  ed- 
ited by  Ray. 

t  Si/nop.tift  Mfthodica  Avium  et  Piscium  (London,  1713). 

X  St/stfma  yattirte. 

§  Tableau  elementaire  de  I'Histoire  naturelle  des  Animaujc  (Paris, 
1797). 


as  those  of  his  predecessor.  Lacepede  in  1799  divided  the 
birds  into  two  classes — difl^erentiated  because  in  the  one  case 
the  leg  is  furnished  with  feathers,  and  in  the  other  destitute 
of  them.  Fourteen  orders  were  recognized.  Meyer  and 
Wolff*  in  1810  primarily  divided  the  birds  into  terrestrial 
and  aquatic  species :  (a)  the  former  into  the  orders  (1)  Ac- 
cipitns ;  (2)  Coraces ;  (3)  Piece ;  (4)  Oscines,  or  singing 
birds;  (5)  Cfielidoiies,  including  the  swallows,  swifts,  and 
goatsuckers;  (6)  Columbce.  or  the  pigeons;  and  (7)  Gal- 
liner  ;  (b)  the  latter  into  the  orders  (8)  Gralhe,  or  waders, 
and  (9)  Xid(inte/<,  or  swimming  birds. 

Illiger,  f  who  attempted  to  reform  the  classification  as 
well  as  nomenclature  of  the  manunals  and  birds,  present- 
ed an  arrangement  of  the  latter  in  which  he  grouped  the 
various  genera  of  birds  into  41  families  combined  under  7 
orders.  The  orders  were  distinguished,  as  by  his  predeces- 
sors, chiefly  on  account  of  the  feet ;  the  families  by  various 
characters,  but  more  especially  by  the  form  of  the  bill  and 
minor  details  of  structure  of  the  feet  and  wings.  As  the 
families  were  lor  the  first  time  systematically  introduced 
into  this  work,  a  synopsis  of  the  system  is  worthy  of  repro- 
duction : 

Order  I.  Scansores,  with  families — 1,  Psittaeini  (par- 
rots) ;  2,  Serrati  (toucans,  plantain-eaters,  etc.) ;  3,  Am- 
phiboli  (cuckoos,  etc.) ;  4,  Sagittilingues  (woodpeckers) ;  5, 
Syndactyli  (jacaraars). 

Ordkr  II.  Ambulatores,  with  families — 6.  Angulirostres 
(kinfffishers.  bee-eaters) ;  7,  Suspensi  (humming-birds) ;  8, 
Tenuirostres  (sunbirds,  hoopoes,  etc.) ;  9.  Pygarrhichi  (creep- 
ers, Dendrocolaptes) ;  10,  Gregarii  (orioles,  starlings,  etc.) ; 
11,  Canori  (song-birds);  12,  Passerini  (sparrows);  13,  Denti- 
rostres  (motmots,  hornbills) ;  14,  Coraces  (Corvidie,  birds  of 
paradise,  grakles,  etc.);  15,  Sericati  (Ampelis,  Procnias) ;  16, 
Hiantes  (swallows,  swifts,  goatsuckers). 

Order  III.  Raptatores,  with  families — 17,  Nocturni 
(owls);  18,  Accipitrini  (Falconidae) ;  19,  Vulturini  (vul- 
tures). 

Order  IV.  Rasores,  with  families — 20,  Gallinacei  (fowls, 
etc.) :  21,  Epollicati  (Ort.ygis,  Syrrhaptes) ;  22,  Columbini 
(pigeons) ;  23,  Crypturi  (tinamous) ;  24,  Inepti  (dodos). 

Order  V.  Cursores,  with  families — 25,  Proceri  (ostriches) ; 
26,  Campestres  (bustards) ;  27,  Littorales  (shore-birds). 

Order  VI.  Grallatores.  with  families — 28.  Vaginati  (Chi- 
onis) ;  29,  Alectorides  (mixture);  30.  Herodii  (cranes,  etc.) ; 
31,  Palcati  (Tantalidoe) ;  32,  Limicol*  (Scolopacidae,  etc.) ; 
33,  Macrodactyli  (jacanas,  rails) ;  34,  Lobipedes  (lobe-footed 
birds) ;  35,  Ilygrobata;  (incongruous  mixture). 

Order  VII.  Natatores.  with  families — 36,  Longipennes 
(Laridae) ;  37,  Tubinares  (Procellariidae ;  38,  Lamellosoden- 
tati  (Anatida-) ;  39,  Steganopodes  (swimmers  with  four  an-' 
terior  toes) ;  40,  Pygopodes  (swimmers  with  legs  far  back) ; 
41,  Impennes  (penguins). 

In  1812  a  German  zoologist,  Blasius  Merrem.  %  proposed 
a  new  arrangement,  which  was  destined  to  be  ignored  by 
his  contemporaries,  but,  in  its  primary  features  at  least, 
after  being  almost  dormant  for  half  a  century,  to  be  re- 
vived and  quite  generally  accepted.  Instead  of  differen- 
tiating the  class  into  orders  distinguished  by  differences 
of  bill,  wings,  and  feet,  he  took  the  sternum  as  the  es.sen- 
tial  feature,  and  divided  the  class  primarily  into  two 
groups — (1)  Aves  eeirinafee,  in  which  the  sternum  was 
produced  at  the  median  line  and  provided  with  a  keel ; 
and  (2)  Aves  reitUce,  in  which  the  sternum  was  flat  toward 
the  middle  and  entirely  destitute  of  a  keel.  The  former 
(1)  included  all  the  ordinary  birds,  which  were  further  dif- 
ferentiated into  aerial  birds  (Aves  aerere).  including  the 
Raptores,  Pici,  and  Passeres;  terrestrial  birds  (Aves  ier- 
restriee),  embracing  the  gallinaceous  forms ;  watei'-birds 
(Ares  agueitiecp),  represented  by  the  swimming  types;  and 
marsh-birds  (^cf.?  peilnstres).  corresponding  with  the  wad- 
ers of  other  authors.  The  latter  division  (2)  was  limited  to 
the  ostriches,  nandus.  cassowaries,  emus,  and  kiwis.  The 
only  really  important  modification  introduced  into  the 
classification  was  the  distinction  of  the  two  primary 
groups. 

X.  A.  Vigors  in  1823  read  a  memoir  before  the  Linnean 
Society   of   London  S    on   the   classification   of    the  class, 

*  Taschenbuch  tier  deuischen  Vogelkunde  (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
18101. 

+  Caroli  lUigeri  Prndromus  St/stematis  Mammaliuiii  et  Al'inm 
(Berlin,  18111. 

t  Tentamen  Si/ntemntis  yaturatis  Al'ium  (in  Abhaudt.  K.  Pr. 
Akad    Wiaaen.ich'..  18121. 

t;  ( ibservntiuns  nn  the  NnturnI  Ajffinitieft  thnt  coimect  the  Drderx 
niul  Fiitiiih'es  nf  Birds,  in  Trans.  Linn.  tioc.  London  (vol.  xiv.,  pp. 
.■W.V.IIT.  1825). 


ORNITHOLOGY 


343 


which  deserves  special  niLMition,  less  because  of  any  im- 
provements in  classification  than  because  in  it  was  for  the 
first  time  given  a  uniform  nomenclalure  of  families  ending 
ill  -idee.  Vigors  applied  the  fanciful  quinarian  system  in- 
troduced by  MacLcay  to  the  arrangement  of  the  birds,  and 
divided  the  class  into  five  orders — two  (Ruptori'H  and  7/1- 
xeasorex),  "endowed  witli  feet  formed  for  grasping,"  and 
three  (/r^rt.wrf.s,  (rnillaturex. and  Nalatores),  "endowed  with 
feet  incapable  of  grasping."  These  were  subdivided  into 
families,  and  in  one  case  (Passeres)  into  five  tribes.  The 
leading  groups  are  as  follows: 

Order  1.  Raptores,  with  the  families — (1)  Vulturida%  (2) 
Falconida",  (;S)  Strigida»,  (4)  unknown,  and  (5)  Gypoge- 
ranida". 

Order  II.  Insessores,  with  5  tribes  (1-2  of  normal  group; 
3-")  of  aljcrrant  group)  and  2.1  families — viz. : 

(1)  Dentirostres,  with  the  families  of  normal  group  Lania- 
da\  Jlerulithc;  of  aberrant  group  Sylviada;,  Piprida",  AIus- 
cicapida'. 

(2)  Conirostres,  with  the  families  of  normal  group  Stur- 
nidiB,  Corvidai ;  of  aberrant  group  liuceridiB,  Loxiad;e, 
Fringillida;. 

(3)  Scansores,  with  the  families  of  normal  group  Psitta- 
cidas,  Picidic;  of  aberrant  group  Certhiuda>,  CuculidiP,  Rham- 
phastida>. 

(4)  Tenuirostres,  with  the  families  of  normal  group  C'in- 
nyrida;,  Trochilidie ;  of  aberrant  group  Promeropidaj  i  Meli- 
phagida;  ?  Nectariniada^  i 

(5)  Fissirostres,  with  the  families  of  normal  group  Hirun- 
dinida?,  Caprimulgidie ;  of  "  typical  group  "  TodidiE,  Halcyo- 
ni(la>,  and  Sleropida?. 

Order  111.  Ra.sores,  with  the  families  of  normal  group 
Phasianida>,  Tetraonida>;  of  aberrant  group  Struthionida>, 
Cracida',  Columbida;. 

Order  IV.  Grallatores,  with  families  of  normal  group 
Ardeidaj,  Sc(>lopacida> ;  of  aberrant  group  Rallida',  Chara- 
driada;,  Gruidie. 

Order  V.  Natatores,  with  families  of  normal  group  Colym- 
bids,  Alcad;e;  of  aberrant  group  PelecanidiP,  Laridae,  Ana- 
tidie. 

Vigors  thus  groups  the  families  into  normal  and  aberrant, 
in  pursuance  of  the  views  of  M.  S.  MacLeay ;  for  it  is,  says 
he,  "  certainly  a  more  scientific  mode  of  exhibiting  the  series 
of  affinities"  (op.  cit.  p.  426);  but  he  preferred  "to  view  it 
with  more  perfect  or  typical  form  in  the  center,"  "  and  with 
its  less  perfect  forms  on  each  side."  In  this  way  the  last  of 
the  "scientific"  mode  became  always  the  first  of  the  "con- 
venient" mode,  the  sequence  being  otherwise  the  same,  save 
ihat  it  was  unbroken  in  the  latter.  The  arrangement,  it  will 
be  seen,  practically  starts  with  the  assumption  that  all  the 
types,  down  to  families  at  least,  were  known,  and  conse- 
quently no  provision  or  room  was  made  for  the  extinct  types 
that  were  to  be  afterward  discovered.  In  other  respects,' too, 
whatever  may  be  the  "  philosophical  "  value  of  the  scheme, 
it  is  a  most  inapt  expression  of  the  morphological  facts  of 
avine  structure,  the  only  true  basis  for  scientific  classifica- 
tion. 

In  1826  Sundevall,*  an  eminent  Swedish  naturalist,  intro- 
duced an  entirely  new  idea  in  his  proposed  arrangement  of 
the  class  and  introduced  a  physiological  consideration.  Re- 
calling that  some  species  wlien  hatched  were  almost  feather- 
less,  blind,  and  incapable  of  taking  care  of  themselves, 
while  others  were  covered  with  down  or  feathers,  fully  en- 
dowed with  sight,  and  able  to  run  about  at  once,  he  pro- 
posed to  consider  these  characteristics  as  of  primary  impor- 
tance in  the  determination  of  the  relations  of  species,  and 
therefore  divided  the  cla.ss  into  two  legions:  (1)  Allricex.  in- 
cluding those  whose  young  were  callow  and  incapable  of 
taking  care  of  themselves:  and  (2)  Pracoreit,  comprising 
those  competent  of  caring  for  themselves. 

This  division  into  Alfricaa  and  Prircocex,  based  on  the 
physiology  of  the  newly  hatched  young,  was  quickly  adopted 
by  several  authors.  Bonaparte  especially,  in  one  of  his  nu- 
merous new  classifications  (that  published  in  18.");i  f),  adopted 
the  divisions  in  question,  and  ranked  the  several  orders  of 
birds  in  i)arallel  columns  under  the  heads  Altrices  and 
Pnpciinx.  considering  that  the  orders  of  the  one  group  or 
sub-class  were,  to  a  certain  extent,  represented  by  those  of 
the  other.  Inasmuch  as  this  is  the  most  perfected  form  of 
the  arrangement,  and  will  give  a  very  good  idea  of  the  rela- 

•  Omithnloqiskt   ,'!i/stem    af  C.  J.  Sundevall  (in  A".    Vetenska/t 
Academifnn  Hanritingar  fur  ar  laSS,  1836). 
t  Comptes  Ri^iidua. 


tions  of  altricism  and  pra>eocism  to  structure,  the  classifica- 
tion is  reproduced  in  the  following : 


AVES. 


Altrices. 
1,  Psittaci. 


PiL£coces. 


.  Ainericani ;  2,  Orbis  auliqui. 
'J,  Accipitres. 
3,  Passeres. 


1,  Oscines  ;  2,  Volucres. 


1,  Zj-godactyli ;  2.  .^nisodactyli. 
4,  Coiuniba-. 

1,  luepli. 

2,  Gyrautes. 


5,  Herodiones. 


7,  Struthiones. 

8.  Oalliua;. 


1,  Passeripedes  :  3.  Grallipedes. 
9.  Grallaj. 


6,  GaviEB. 


1,  Cursores  ;  2.  Alectorides. 
10.  Anseres. 


1,  Totipalmi ;  2,  Longi- 
pennes. 


1,  Lamellirostres  :  2.  Urinatores  ; 
3,  Ptilopteri. 

The  bearing  of  the  pterylosis,  or  arrangement  of  the 
feathers,  on  classification,  was  recognized  by  Christian  Lud- 
wig  Nitzseh  in  1833,  all  hough  the  results  of  his  labors  were 
not  published  until  1840,  or  three  years  after  his  death. 
Xitzsch  showed  that  very  few  birds  are  evenly  clad  with 
feathers,  and  that  in  most  birds  the  feathers  are  grouped  in 
certain  well-defined  tracts,  interspersed  with  bare  spaces,  or 
apteria,  these  tracts  and  apteria  being  arranged  dilTerently 
in  diffei'ent  groups  of  birds.  Nitzseh.too,  was  the  predeces- 
sor of  Garroii  in  the  study  of  the  carotid  artery  and  its  rela- 
tion to  classification,  for  he  published  a  paper  on  the  subject 
as  early  as  1829,  and  he  was  one  of  the  hrst  to  see  the  value 
of  the  character  of  the  vocal  apparatus,  or  syrinx,  among 
passerine  birds. 

As  early  as  1838  Maegillivray  recognized  that  there  were 
essential  differences  Vjctween  the  vocal  organs  of  those  birds 
to  which  the  terms  elamatores  and  oscines  were  given  later 
on,  but  it  was  Johannes  Jlliller  who.  in  1845-47.  described 
at  length  the  structure  of  the  sjTinx  and  arrangement  of 
the  tracheal  muscles,  and  founded  the  groups  Oscine.'i  and 
Ti-acheopJiones.  Prof.  Newton  says  of  Miiller  that  his  work 
"forms  the  groundwork  of  all  the  later  or  recent  researches 
in  the  comparative  anatomy  and  consequent  arrangement  of 
the  Passere.f." 

In  1867*  Prof.  Thomas  Henry  Huxley,  in  a  course  of  lec- 
tures afterward  printed  in  the  Proceedings  ot  the  Zoological 
Society,  made  known  a  new  system  of  classification  of  birds, 
which  excited  great  interest,  and  has  had  a  very  decided  in- 
fluence on  the  recent  progress  of  ornithology,  as  much  by  the 
spirit  infused  into  the  mode  of  investigation  as  by  the  inno- 
vations that  were  proposed.  The  author,  like  Jlerrem  and 
Blanchard,  recognized  as  the  primary  divisions  of  the  class 
the  Carinat(e  and  Ratif(P,  and  these,  like  Blanchard,  he  dig- 
nified as  the  only  existing  orders,  degrading  the  subordinate 
groups,  equivalent  in  rank  at  least  to  many  of  those  which 
had  been  called  orders  by  others,  to  inferior  rank.  Four  sec- 
ondarv  groups  were  distinguished  among  the  Carinatce,  more 
especiallv  by  the  condition  of  the  vomer  and  its  relation  to 
the  neighboring  bones.  Tertiary  groups  were  combinations 
of  families  or  peculiar  isolated  families,  characterized  by 
osteological  an(l  other  characters  of  moment.  This  classi- 
fication had  the  merit  of  being  the  first  ex])ression,  in  a  rig- 
orous systematic  form,  of  combinations  of  anatomical  facts, 
and  first  gave  due  weight  to  aggregates  of  osteological  and 
other  anatomical  features  characteristic  of  the  several  groups 
of  birds.  The  fiillowing  synopsis,  modified  from  Prof.  Hux- 
ley's Manual  of  the  Aualn'my  of  Vertehrated  Animals,  is  an 
exhibit  of  the  chief  features  of  this  classification  : 

I.  Order  S.mri'R-?:.  The  metacarpals  not  ankylosed  to- 
gether.    The  tail  longer  than  the  body. 

1,  Archipojiterygida'  (extinct). 

II.  Order  Ratit.t..  '  The  metacarpals  ankylosed  together. 
The  tail  considerably  shorter  than  the  body.  The  sternum 
devoid  of  a  keel. 

a.  The  wing  with  a  rudimentary,  or  verv  short,  humerus, 
and  with  not  more  than  one  ungual  i)halanx. 

2,  Apterygida'  (the  kiwis). 

3,  Dinornithida'  (the  moas). 

4,  Casuarida;  (the  cassowaries). 

•  On  the  Classification  of  Birds  ;  and  on  the  Tarnnomic  Value  of 
the  .\lodijications  of  certain  of  the  Cranial  Bones  ohservable  in  that 
Class  (.in  Pruc.  Zooi.  Soc.  London  for  188T,  pp.  415-172). 


314 


ORNITHOLOGY 


b.  The  wing  with  a  long  humerus  and  with  two  ungual 
phalanges. 

5,  RhcidiE  (the  nandus). 

6,  StruthionidiP  (the  ostriches). 

III.  Order  C'ari.vat.e.  The  metacarpals  ankylosed  to- 
gether. The  tail  considenilily  shorter  than  the  body.  The 
sternum  provided  with  a  keel. 

a.  The  vomer  broad  beliind,  and  interposing  between  the 
pterygoids,  the  palatines,  and  the  basisphenoidal  ros- 
trum. 

[I.  Sub-order]  DROM.T:oGjiATtt.E. 

7,  Tinamomorpha>  (the  tinamous). 

b.  The  vomer  narrow  behind  :  the  pterygoids  and  palatines 
articulating  largely  with  the  basisphenoidal  rostrum. 

a.  The  maxilio-palatines  free. 
i.  The  vomer  pointed  in  front. 
[II.  Sub-order]  Schizognath.e. 

8,  Charadrioraorphii'  (plovers,  etc.). 

9,  Cecomorpho'  (gulls,  petrels,  divers,  and  auks). 

10,  Spheniseomorphie  (penguins). 

11,  GeranomorphiE  (cranes). 

12,  Turnieimorphie  (hemipods). 

13,  Alectoromorphaj  (fowls). 

14,  PteroelomorphtB  (sand-grouse). 

15,  PeristeromorphtB  (pigeons). 

16,  Heteromorpha;  (hoazin). 

ii.   The  vomer  truncated  in  front. 
[III.  Sub-order]  jEgithoonath.s. 

17,  CoracomorpluB  (passerines). 

18,  Cypselomorpha;  (humming-birds,  swifts,  and  goat- 

suckers). 

19,  CeleomorphiE  (woodpeckers). 

p.  The  maxilio-palatines  united. 

[IV.  Sub-order]  Desmogxath.e. 

20,  ^tomorphiP  (birds  of  prey). 

21,  Psittacomorphie  (parrots). 

23,  CoccygomorphiE  (colies,  plantain-eaters,  cuckoos, 
barbets,  toucans,  capitonidic,  galbulida",  king- 
fishers, hornbills,  hoopoes,  bee-eaters,  motmots, 
coraciidiB,  and  trogons). 

23,  Cheiiomorphai  (anatidiB,  palamedeida?). 

24,  Amphimorph;c  (flamingoes). 

25,  Pelargomorphaj  (storks,  ardeidfe,  plataleidie,  etc.). 

26,  Dysporomorphffi    (cormorants,     peUcans,    tropic- 

birds,  darters). 
In  1873  and  1874  A.  II.  Garrod*  based  a  classification  of 
birds  upon  the  consideration  of  the  muscles  of  the  thigh.  He 
also  made  known  those  differences  in  the  characters  of  the 
narial  openings  and  nasal  bones  to  which  he  applied  the 
terms  holorhinal  and  schizorhinal,  and  showed  the  impor- 
tance of  certain  peculiarities  in  the  arrangement  of  the  deep 
plantar  tendons.  He  also  extended  the  researches  on  the 
trachea  and  tracheal  muscles  on  the  lines  laid  down  by 
Miiller.  In  his  classification  as  based  on  the  muscles  of  the 
thigh,  the  more  important  characters  from  a  taxonomic  point 
of  view  were  considered  to  be  the  feraoro-caudal  muscle,  the 
accessory  femoro-caudal,  the  semitendinosus,  and  the  acces- 
sory semitendinosus :  but  most  important  of  all  is  the  am- 
biens  muscle  ;  this  arises  from  the  tip  of  the  short  anteriorly 
directed  spine,  which  is  situated  just  above  the  anterior  bor- 
der of  the  acetabulum,  and  runs  along  the  inner  side  of  the 
thigh  to  the  inner  side  of  the  knee,  where  it  is  covered  by 
the  sartorius,  which  is  above  it  in  the  former  part  of  its 
course.  Its  thin  tendon  then  crosses  the  knee,  running  in 
the  substance  of  the  fascial  extensor  tendon,  just  in  front  of 
the  patella,  to  the  outer  side,  where  it  joins  the  fibers  of  the 
origin  of  the  flexor  perforatus  digitorum.  The  presence  or 
absence  of  this  muscle  determined  Garrod  to  differentiate 
the  class  into  two  sub-classes.  Those  forms  in  which  it  is 
present  were  designated  Ilomologonata .  or  typical  kneed ; 
while  those  in  which  it  is  absent  were  combined  as  Anoma- 
logona ftp,  or  abnormally  kneed.  "There  are,"  said  Garrod. 
"peculiarities  in  the  arrangement  of  the  CiPca  of  the  intes- 
tine and  of  the  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  oil-gland  which  are 
correlatablo  with  this  presence  or  absence  of  the  ambiens 
muscle."  The  secondary  and  tertiarv  groups  of  these  sub- 
classes were  distinguishe'd  by  the  combinations  of  the  mus- 
cles alreaily  alluded  to.  and  the  presence  or  absence  of  ciBca 
to  the  intestine,  the  development  of  a  tufted  or  nude  oil- 
gland,  and  the  cnmbinations  in  which  those  characters  oc- 
cur; and  furtlier.  in  llie  liomnlogonatous  birds,  by  the  de- 
velopment of  eillier  a  left  or  right  carotid,  or  of  both. 

•  On  Cfrfain  Afimcles  of  liirilx  itnri  their  Value  in  Classification, 
part  ii.  (in  Pruc.  Zoul.  Sue.  Umdun,  1S74,  pp.  111-183). 


The  chief  and  apparently  only  merit  of  this  arrangement 
is  the  generalized  information  respecting  the  muscles  in 
question  therein  conveyed.  The  exceptions  suggest  the  in- 
adequacy of  the  combinations  in  question  to  serve  as  the 
expressions  of  the  natural  affinities  of  the  various  forms. 
Combined  with  other  int'ormation.  it  will  be  of  use  in  the 
construction  of  a  more  perfect  system. 

Other  important  characters  used  in  classification  are  the 
number  of  the  primaries,  the  arrangement  of  the  wing  cov- 
erts, the  convolutions  of  the  intestine  and  general  character 
of  the  alimentary  canal,  the  arrangement  of  the  muscles  of 
the  upper  arm,  and  resemblances  or  differences  between  the 
plumage  of  the  young  and  adult.  The  importance  of  this 
last  point  seems  to  have  been  first  recognized  by  Seebohm. 

Numerous  classifications  of  birds  have  been  brought  for- 
ward since  1880,  but  these  have  of  necessity  been  based  on 
the  better  use  of  known  facts  rather  than  founded  on  new 
discoveries.  Among  the  most  important  are  the  systems  of 
Dr.  Leonhard  Stejneger,  Dr.  Max  Fiirbringer,  Dr.  R.  Bow- 
dler  Sharpe,  Henry  Seebohm,  and  Dr.  II.  Gadow.  The  first 
two  are  noteworthy  for  the  fact  that  the  primary  divisions 
Mafitm  and  Carinatcg  are  discarded,  a  step  which  seems  a 
decided  advance  in  classification,  as  the  characters  ascribed 
to  the  Ratitce  are  very  largely  those  due  to  a  loss  of  the 
power  of  flight,  and  are  not  based  on  morphological  facts. 
Dr.  Stejneger  employs  Dr.  Gill's  convenient  terms  super- 
order  and  super-family  to  express  degrees  of  group  division. 
His  system  is  based  mainly  on  anatomical  characters,  al- 
though external  characters  are  used  as  well.  Omitting  the 
families,  Dr.  Stejneger's  scheme  is  as  follows  : 
Sub-class  I.  Saurur^. 

Order  I.  Ornithopappi.     (Archceopleryx.) 
Sub-class  II.  Odontotorm.b. 

Order  I.  Pteropappi.     (Ichthyornis,  etc.) 
Sub-class  III.  Odontolc.b. 

Order  1.  I)roma>opappi.     (Hesperornts.) 
Sub-class  IV.  EuRHiPiDUR.E. 

Super-order  I.  Droma'Ognathie. 
Order  I.  Struthiones. 
Super-family  I.  StruthioidesB. 
"  II.  Rheoidese. 

III.  C'asuaroideiB. 

IV.  DinornithoideiE. 
Order  II.  .^Epyornithes. 

Order  III.  Apteryges. 
Order  IV.  Orypturi. 
Super-order  II.  Im|iennes. 

Order  V.  Ptilopteri. 
Super-order  III.  Euornithes. 

Order  \^I.  Cecomorphie.  ' 

Super-family  I.  ColymboidciP. 

"  II.  Heliornithoidea?. 

"  III.  Alcoidea?. 

"  IV.  Laroidea». 

V.  ProcellaroidefP. 
Order  VII.  Gralla". 

Super-family  VI.  ChionoideiB. 

"  VII.  Scolopacoideae. 

"  VIII.  Eurypygoideae. 

"  IX.  Cariamoideas. 

"  X.  Gruioideie. 

Order  VITI.  Chenomorpha^. 
Super-family  XI.  Anhimoideie.* 
"  XII.  Anatoideic. 

"  XIII.  Phoenicopteroideae. 

Order  IX.  Herodii. 

Super-family  XIV.  Ibidoidesp. 
"  XV.  Ardeoidea\ 

Order  X.  Steganopodes. 
Super-family  XVI.  Pelecanoidea\ 
"  XVII.  Fregatoidea\ 

XVIII.  Phaetontoidea'. 
Order  XI.  Opisthocomi. 
Order  XII.  (iallina-. 

Sub-order  I.  Gallina"  Alecteropodes. 
II.  Gallinjp  Peristeropodes. 
Order  XIII.  Pterocletes. 
Order  XIV.  OolumbiE. 
Order  XV.  Accipitres. 
Order  .\VI.   Psittaci. 
Order  XVII.  Picariae. 

Super- family,  Cuculoidea>. 

*  Equivalent  to  Palamedea^  of  other  autliors. 


ORNITHOLOGY 


345 


Supt-T-faiuily,  ( 'oracoide;i\ 
Colididea-. 
"  AlceilinoiileiE. 

■•  Upu|K)idca;. 

Picoidca) 
TrogoiioideiB. 
>Iitri)podoidea>. 
Order  XVII I.  Pjusseres. 
Super-family,  Menuroidea". 

Eurylaimoidca'. 
"  Tyraniioidi'a'. 

Forraicaniidea". 
Passe  roidea>. 

Dr.  FtiHiringer's  system  is  fouiidod  on  anatomical  charac- 
ters, and  lie  employs  the  term  Gkns  in  much  the  sense  that 
Dr.  Stejneger  uses"  super-family,  while  his  sub-orders  have 
about  the  same  value  as  Dr.  Stejneger's  orders.  The  ar- 
rangement is  as  follows : 

Sub-dassis  I.  Saurur.e. 
Order  Archnrnithcs. 
Sub-order  Arclia^opterygiformes. 
Gens  Archieopteryges. 

Sub-claSSis  II.    ORNITHURiE. 

Order  Strulhiornithes. 

Sub-order  St  ruthioniformes. 
(lens  Struthiones. 
Order  Khcdriiithes. 
Sub-order  Kheiformes. 
(tens  Rhese. 
Order  Ilippalectryornithes. 
Sub-order  Casuariiforracs. 
(tens  Casuarii. 
Intermediate  sub-order  ^Epyornithiforracs. 

(ieiis  J'Ipyornithcs. 
Intermediate  sub-order  Palamcdeiformes. 
Gens  PalainedeiB. 
Order  Pelargonithes. 
Sub-order  Anseriforines. 
Gens  Gastornithes. 
"      Anscres. 
Sub-order  Pod  i  c  i  pitif ormes. 
Gens  Enaliornilhes. 
Hesperornithes. 
"      Colymbo-Podicipites. 
Sub-order  Ciconiiformes. 
Gens  Phoenicopteri. 
"      Pclargo-IIero<iii. 
"      Accipitres. 
"      Stcgnanopodes. 
Intermediate  sub-order  Procellariformes, 

(iens  Procellaria'. 
Intermediate  sub-order  A  ptenodytif ormes. 

Gens  Aptenodytes. 
Intermediate  sub-order  Iclithyornithiformes. 
Gens  Ichthyornitlies. 
Order  Charadriornithes. 
Sub-oriler  Charadriiformes. 
Gens  Ijaro-Limioola>. 
"      Parra\ 
"      Otidides. 
Intermediate  sub-onlcr  Grniformcs. 
(Jens  Eury[)yga'. 
"     Grues. 
Intcnne<liate  sub-order  Kalliformes. 
Gens  Fulicaria". 
llcmipodii. 
Or<ler  .Meetororuilhe.s. 

Sub-order  Apterygitormes. 

Gens  .\pteryges. 
Sub-order  Cryptiiri  formes. 

(lens  Crypt  uri. 
Sub-order  Galiiformes. 
Gens  Galli. 
"     Opisthoco. 
Intermediate  sub-order  f'olumbiformes. 
(Tens  Pterocletcs. 
"      Columba'. 
Intermediate  sub  order  Psittaciformes. 
Gens  Psittaci. 
Order  Coracornithes. 
Sub-order  Coccygiformes. 
Gens  Coccyges. 
Intermediate  gens  GalbulsB. 


Sub-order  Pico-Passeriformes. 
Gens  Pico-Passeres. 
■•     Makrochires. 
••     Colli. 
Intermediate  gens  Trogones. 
Sub-order  Ilalcyoniformes. 
Gens  Halcyones. 
"     Bucerotes. 
"     Meropes. 
Intermediate  gens  Todi. 
Sub-order  Coraciiformes. 
Gens  Coracia>. 
"     Caiirimulgi. 
"     Striges. 
Realizing  Ihe  fact  that  no  correct  idea  of  the  relationships 
of  animals  can  be  given  by  arranging  them  in  a  continuous 
line.  Dr.  Kiirbringer  has  carefully  elaborated  the  idea  of  a 
genealogical  tree     He  gives  views  of  this  ideal   tree  from 
two  sides,  an<l  also  gives  cross-sections  whii'h  illustrate  very 
clearly  his  ideas  regarding  the  litie  of  descrut  and  affinities 
of  various  grou]>s.     While  the  Pa.ttieres  do  not  stand  first  in 
Dr.  Pilrbringer's  tables,  they  form  the  topmost  twig  of  his 
genealogical  tree. 

In  reviewing  the  various  classifications  of  birds,  the  t  wo 
facts  which  stand  out  most  prominently  are  the  gradual 
abandonment  of  external  for  anatomical  characters,  and  the 
advancement  of  the  perching  birds  from  a  subordinate  to 
the  leading  position.  The  earlier  systems  are  based  wholly 
on  external,  the  more  recent  almost  as  entirely  on  internal 
characters,  and  while  the  idea  held  by  Linna'us,  that  the 
Accipitres,  or  birds  of  prey,  stood  at  the  head  of  the  class 
A ves,  prevailed  for  a  long  time,  it  is  now  generally  agreed 
that  the  Oscines,  or  singing  birds,  stand  first,  and  among 
these  the  place  of  honor  is  variously  assigned  to  the  thrushes, 
crows,  or  sparrows.  Incidentally  it  may  be  said  that  while 
the  old  plan  in  tabulating  groups  was  to  begin  at  the  top 
anil  work  downward,  the  modern  method  is  to  begin  at  the 
bottom  and  go  upward,  and  that  Lillejeborg,  in  the  year 
lH6(i,  was  almost  the  first  to  publish  a  system  arranged  in 
this  manner. 

From  what  has  been  said  in  this  article,  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  classification  of  birds  is  an  extremely  difficult  prob- 
lem, and,  furthermore,  that  it  is  one  whose  satisfactory 
solution  is  still  far  from  reached.  It  is,  however,  very  evi- 
dent that  it  is  the  resultant  of  many  characters,  rather  than 
the  use  of  any  one  or  two,  no  matter  how  salient  these  may 
be,  which  must  be  relied  upon  for  determining  relation- 
ships and  differences,  and  it  will  require  the  patient  accu- 
mulation of  detailed  information  on  many  points  to  set  mat- 
ters straight. 

BiBLiOdRAi'MV. — The  best  general  works  are  Sfati(iar<} 
jS'^aliiraJ  J/i.i/ory.  vol.  Birds  {Boston,  1884);  *  Riverside 
Natural  IIixtor;/.vo\.  Birds  (Boston,  1888);  *  article  Birds, 
Enctfclupipdia  Britannica  (9th  ed.) ;  *A  Dictionary  of 
Birds,  by  Alfreil  Newton  (London.  1808-94).  Anatomical 
works  are  Owen's  Anatoiiiy  and  P/ii/.sioliigi/  of  Vertelirates 
(London,  1866-68);  Huxley's -Ixk^w.v  (if  Vertehrated  Ani- 
mals  (London,  18T1  :  New 'York.  1878) ;  '*  .Mnrp/iologie  und 
Systeinatik  di-r  Vugel.  by  Kiirbringer  (.\msterdam.  1888). 
On  classification,  see  Tli'e  Genera  of  Birds,  bv  G.  R.  Gray 
(London,  1844-49);  *  Hand  List  of  Birds,  by  d.  R.  Gray 
(London.  1869-71);  *  article  Birds.  JiHcyclajja-dia  Britan- 
nica (9th  ed.) ;  *  A  Review  of  Recent  Attempts  to  Classify 
Birds,  by  R.  B.  Sharpe  (Budapest.  1891).  ()n  the  distribu- 
tion of  species,  see  The  (iioijrdjihical  Distribution  of  Aut- 
mals.  by  Wallace  (London,  1876);  The  (leographical  and 
Oeoloi/ira!  Disfriliution  of  Animals. hy  Heilprin  (N'cw  York, 
1887);  and  for  descriptions  of  species  *  British  Museum 
Catalogue  of  Birds. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  important  or  more  ac- 
cessible publications  relating  to  the  birds  of  certain  regions : 
1.  EurojJC. — A  History  of  the  Birds  of  Europe,  by  H.  E. 
Dresser  and  R.  B.  Shai-pe  (London.  1871-81) ;  ,4  History  of 
British  Birds,  bv  W.  Yarrell  (4th  ed..  revised  and  enlarged, 
bv  Howard  Saunders.  London,  1884-85).  2.  Asia.— TTie 
Birds  of  Asia,  bv  John  Gould,  compleleil  bv  R.  B.  Sliarpe 
(Londoii,  lH.")0-84);  Ttie  Birds  of  India,  by  T.  C.  Jerdon 
(Calcutta,  1877);  Birds  of  Palestine,  by  Canon  Tristram; 
Les  Oiseaux  de  la  Chine,  bv  David  and  Oustalet  (Paris, 
1877);  The  Fauna  of  British  India,  including  Ceylon  and 
Burma,  by  F,ugene  W.  Oatcs  (London.  1889);  7'he  Birds  of 
(he  Japanese  Empire,  by  Seebohm  (London,  1890).  3.  Af- 
•  Titles  preceded  by  an  asterisk  contain  many  Viibliograpiiico!  ref- 


346 


ORNITHORHYNCHID^ 


OROZCO   Y   BERRA 


rica.— 77te  Birds  of  South  Africa,  by  E.  L.  Layard  (edited 
by  R.  B.  Sharpe,  London.  1875-84) ;  Die  Vogel  Ost  Afrikas, 
by  Finsch  and  Hartlaub  (Leipzig  and  Heidelberg,  1870); 
Ornithologie  d' Angola,  by  du  Boeage  (I-isbon.  1877):  Shel- 
ley's Handbook  to  the  Birds  of  Egypt  (London,  1872).  4. 
Australasia. — {joxCuXs  Handbook  to  the  Birds  of  Australia 
(London,  1865) ;  Buller's  History  of  the  Birds  of  Xew  Zea- 
land (London,  1887-88),  and  Manual  of  the  Birds  of  Sew 
Zealand  (WeWingtoa.  'Sew  Zealand,  1882);  Ornithologia 
delta  Papuasia  e  delle  Molluche,  by  Salvadori  (Turin. 
18g0_81).  5.  South  America. — Syslematische  Uebersicht 
der  Th  iere  Brasiliens,  by  C.  H.  Burmeister  (Berlin,  ly55- 
56);  Ornithologie  du  Perou,  by  Ladislaus  Taoauowski 
(Rennes,  1884^86)  ;  Argentine  'Ornithology,  by  Hudson 
(London,  1888-89).  6.  North  Xmerica..— The'  Birds  of 
America,  by  Audubon  (Xew  York,  1828-30);  The  Birds  of 
North  America,  by  Baird,  Cassin,  and  Lawrence  (Philadel- 
phia, 1860 :  reprin't  with  additions  from  Pacific  R.  R.  Re- 
port. Salem,  1870) ;  A  History  of  North  American  Birds, 
by  Baird,  Brewer,  and  Ridgeway  (Boston,  1874-84);  Bio- 
logia  Centrali  Americana,  by  SalVin  and  Godman  (London, 
1879-87) ;  Ridgeway's  Manual  of  North  American  Birds 
(Philailelphia,  1887)":  Coues's  Key  to  North  American  Birds 
(4th  ed.  Boston,  1892). 

A  very  complete  bibliography  of  literature  relating  to 
American  ornithology  up  to  1879  is  given  by  Dr.  Coues  in 
Birds  of  the  Colorado  Valley  (Washington,  1878),  and  Bull, 
v.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  vol.  v.,  Nos.  2  and  4  (Washington,  1879- 
80).  For  large  and  not  generally  accessible  monographs, 
consult  librarv  catalogues  under  D.  G.  Elliott.  John  Gould. 
C.  H.  T.  and"  G.  F.  L.  Marshall,  Alfred  Malherbe.  R.  B. 
Sharpe.  Theodore  Gill. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Ornithorhyn'fhidie  [Jlod  Lat.,  named  from  Ornitho- 
rhyn'chus.  the  typical  genus;  vpyis.  ipviBos,  h'uil  +  pvyxos. 
snout,  beak] :  one  of  the  two  families  representing  the  order 
Monotremata  and  sub-class  Ornithodelphia.  and  including 
the  Duckbill  (q.  v.)  or  "  water-mole  "  of  Australia.  The 
general  form  of  the  body  is  somewhat  beaver-like ;  the  cov- 
ering is  a  dense  and  soft  fur ;  the  jaws  are  produced  into  a 
depressed  bill-like  snout  resembling  somewhat  (but  only 
superficially)  the  bill  of  a  duck  :  the  nostrils  are  above  and 
near  the  end  of  the  bill ;  no  external  eai-s  are  develo]:jed  ; 
there  are  eight  horny  teeth — i.  e.  each  Jaw  is  provided  on 
each  side  behind  with  a  broad  and  nearly  oval  tooth  with  a 
flattened  crown  adapted  for  grinding,  and  toward  the  front 
it  has  a  long  and  narrow  one  ;  the  tongue  is  short,  and  cov- 
ered, to  some  extent,  with  horny  papilUe  ;  the  legs  are  short ; 
the  feet  well  adapted  for  swimming,  and  each  provided  with 
five  toes  ;  the  anterior  ones  have  a  web  extending  consider- 
ably beyond  the  toes,  and  the  claws  are  depressed  ;  the  pos- 
terior feet  have  webs  only  between  the  toes,  and  the  claws 
are  curved  ;  in  the  male  a  spur  is  developed  on  the  hinder 
surface  of  each  hind  leg,  which  has  no  representative  in  the 
female  ;  the  tail  is  rather  short,  depressed,  and  quite  broad. 
These  are  the  characters  which  at  once  superficially  distin- 
guish the  Ornithorhynchido'  from  the  Tachyglossida;  but 
in  addition  to  these  are  numerous  anatomical  characters. 
The  family  is  peculiar  to  Australia,  and  is  represented  by 
but  a  single  genus  containing  but  one  certainly  known 
species,  which,  however,  exhibits  differences  which  h.ave 
caused  a  distinction,  by  some  authors,  of  two  species.  The 
species  was  first  made  known  in  1799  by  Shaw,  under  the 
name  of  Platypus  anatinus.  and  in  the  following  year  by 
Blumenbach  under  that  of  Ornithorhynchus  paradoxus: 
the  name  Platypus  having  been  previously  used  in  ornithol- 
ogy, that  of  Ornithorhynchus  has  been  almost  universally  re- 
tained. The  specimen  which  first  served  for  description 
was  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  madc-\ip  specimen  composed 
of  the  bill  of  some  unknown  duck-like  bird  and  the  body  of 
a  mammal.  The  fact  that  the  animal  is  ovipanms  was  not 
established  until  1884. 

Ornithorhynchus:  See  ORNiTHORHrscHiD.*:  and  DrcK- 
nii.L. 

O'ro:  a  southwestern  province  of  Ecuador  ;  on  the  Gulf 
of  Guayaiiuil,  adjoining  Peru  ;  area.  2.340  sq.  miles.  It  lies 
entirely  in  the  lowlands  adjoining  the  coast,  and  the  climate 
is  hot  and  in  parts  unhealthful.  Cacao-raising  is  the  prin- 
cipal industry.  The  ca])ital  and  largest  town  is  Machala. 
on  the  river  Santa  Rosa,  near  its  in<mth.  Pop.  of  Oro  (1885) 
estimated,  32,600.  H.  H.  S. 

Or'odiis  [Mod.  Ijat.  ;  Gr.  ipos.  mountain  +  oSoiJj.  tooth]: 
a  genus  of  cestraciont   sharks   of   which  the  remains  are 


found  in  the  Carboniferous  rocks.  The  teeth  have  their 
crowns  set  with  a  series  of  blunt  but  frequently  highly 
ornamented  cones.  The  spines  called  Ctenacanthus  prob- 
ably belonged  to  the  same  fish.  Some  of  the  species  of 
Orodus  must  have  been  of  immense  size,  as  the  teeth,  of 
which  the  number  was  large,  are  occasionally  found  4  to  5 
inches  broad  and  very  massive. 

Orono :  town  (settled  in  1774,  incorporated  in  1806) ; 
Penobscot  co..  Me.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Maine,  ref. 
6-E) ;  on  the  Penobscot  river,  and  the  Maine  Cent.  Railroad  ; 
8  miles  N.  of  Bangor.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Maine  State 
College  (q.  i:).  and  has  paper,  pulp,  and  lumber  mills,  iron- 
foundries,  machine-shops,  a  savings-bank,  and  a  monthly 
college  paper.     Pop.  (1890)  2,790  ;  (1894)  3.120. 

Editor  of  "  Cadet." 

Oron'tes  (in  Gr.  'Opivrris  and  'Op6vTais) :  1.  A  Persian  gen- 
eral, put  to  death  by  Cyrus  for  treason  (.\en..  Anabasis,  i.,  6). 
2.  A  Persian  general,  satrap  of  Armenia  and  son-in-law  of 
Artaxerxes  II.  Mnemon.  His  immediate  family  reigned  as 
satraps  of  Armenia  and  kings  of  Commagene  from  the  times 
of  Darius  Hystaspis  to  those  of  Trajan,  or  for  about  seven 
centuries.  See  Humann  and  Puchstein,  Reiseyi  in  Klein- 
Asien  und  Nord-Syrien  (Berlin.  1890,  pp.  283-286).  and 
American  Journal  of  Archeology  (1890,  p.  534).  J.  R.  S.  S. 

Orontes  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  'Op6>m\{\,  or  Nahr-el-Asi  (the 
rebellious  river) :  the  princijial  river  of  Syria,  240  miles 
long,  but  not  navigable.  It  rises  in  the  Anti-Lebanon,  pro- 
ceeds northerly  200  miles,  then  turning  abruptly  S.  W. 
flows  close  to  Antioch  (.\ntakia)  through  a  jiicturesque 
country,  and  enters  the  Mediterranean  29  miles  S.  of  Iscan- 
deroon.  It  was  originally  called  Typhon  from  a  mythical 
dragon  who  was  said  to  have  traced  its  course  with  liis  tail, 
but  received  its  later  name  from  Orontes.  who  built  a  bridge 
over  it.  The  neighboring  country  was  often  called  by  the 
same  name.  Not  far  from  its  source  is  a  peculiar  square 
monument  terminating  in  a  pyramid  about  65  feet  high. 
Grotesque  hunting  scenes  are  carved  in  relief  on  the  four 
sides.  This  monument  is  connected  with  the  garden  or 
hunting-park  mentioned  by  Strabo  as  being  near  the  source. 

E.  a.  Grosvenor. 

Orooiuiah  :  See  Urumia. 

Oro'sius,  Pavlus  :  historian  ;  b.  in  Spain,  probably  at 
Tarragona,  toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  a.  d.  ;  took 
ordere,  and  engaged  with  zeal  in  the  controversies  of  his 
time.  Having  by  direction  of  his  bishop  visited  Africa  to 
confer  with  St.  Augustine,  he  was  sent  by  the  latter  to  Pal- 
estine, where  Pelagius  was  spreading  his  heresies.  In  Beth- 
lehem he  made  the  friendship  of  Jerome.  At  a  synod  held 
at  Jerusalem  he  opposed  Pelagius.  and  in  so  doing  provoked 
the  hostility  of  John,  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem.  Orosius 
wrote  in  justification  of  himself  in  415  a  work  entitled 
Ltber  Apologeticus  (contra  Pelagium)  de  Arbitrii  Liheriate. 
He  returned  to  Africa,  and  pnjbably  to  Spain,  and  after  his 
return  composed,  at  the  request  of  his  friend  Augustine,  or 
completed,  liis  Histories  {adversus  Paganos),  a  history  of  the 
world,  in  seven  books,  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to 
A.  D.  417.  designed  to  meet  the  assertions  of  pagan  writers 
that  the  calamities  of  Rome,  especially  the  cajiture  of  the 
city  (a.  D.,  410).  were  chargeable  to  Christianity  fm-  liaving 
abolished  the  worshiji  of  the  old  heathen  gods.  The  date  of 
Orosius's  death  is  not  known.  The  best  edition  is  by  C. 
Zangemeister  (Vienna,  1882  :  ed.  minor.  Leipzig,  1889).  King 
Alfred  translated  the  history  of  Orosius  into  Anglo-Saxon, 
which  has  been  edited  with  an  English  translation  by  Dr. 
Bosworth  (London.  1856).  and  by  H.  Sweet  (1883)  with  the 
Latin  text.  Another  work  of  Orosius.  entitled  Commoni- 
torium  ad  Augustinum  de  Priscillianistis  et  de  Origenis 
errore,  is  printed  in  Schepss's  edition  of  Priscillian  (Vienna, 
1889).  See  Teuflfel's  Hist.  Bom.  Lit..  S;  455:  Morner,  De 
Orosii  Vita  eiusque  Historiarum  Libris  Septem  (Berlin, 
1844).  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Oroz'co  y  Ber'ra.  ^Lvxuel  :  author  and  publicist ;  b.  at 
Jlexico  city,  June  8.  1816.  He  studied  topographical  en- 
gineering and  subsequently  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1847.  In  1852  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  na- 
ticmal  archives  ;  he  was  twice  secretary  of  public  works  un- 
der the  liberal  governments  :  and  in  1863  he  became  associ- 
ate judge  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Having  accepted  office  un- 
der Maximilian,  he  was  imprisoned  on  the  return  of  Juarez 
in  1867,  but  was  soon  pardoned.  His  works  on  Mexican  his- 
tory and  ethnology  are  widely  and  favorably  known :  they 
include   Geograf'ia  de  las  lenguas  y  carta  etnogrdfica  de 


ORPHEUS 


ORSAY 


347 


Mexico  (1864) ;  Ilistoria  de  Mexico  (1880-81),  etc.  He  edit- 
ed the  Mexican  suppleinciit  of  llic  Diccioiinrio  universal 
de  historia  y  geografia.     D.  at  Mexico.  .Iiiii.  27,  ihV'l. 

Hkrhkkt  li.  Smith. 
Or'phciis.  »r  fvus,  or  or'fee-us  (in  Gr.  'Opipds) :  a  iiiytliical 
singer  of  Thnice",  son  of  Oeagrus  by  tlie  muse  Calliope,  and 
husband  i>f  tlie  nynipli  KfRVDicE  Cq.  v.).  The  cliarni  of  his 
song  and  lyre-playing  was  so  great  that  even  wild  animals, 
trees,  and  rocks  followed  him.  When  Knrydice  died  of  a 
snake's  bite  he  descended  lo  Hades  to  bring  her  back,  and 
moved  even  Persephone  to  grant  his  request,  conditionally. 
He  was  a  mcndier  of  the  .\rgoiiautic  expedition,  and  wrought 
various  wonders  in  behalf  of  his  comrades.  He  was  torn  to 
pieces  bv  Thracian  bacchantes,  either  because  he  was  op- 

{)osed  to  their  orgies  or  because,  after  the  <leath  of  Knrydice, 
le  hated  all  women.  His  dismcmliered  boily  was  buried  by 
the  Muses  of  Pieria  on  Mt.  Olympus,  but  his  head  and  lyre 
floated  acro.ss  the  sea  to  .Methymna  in  Jjesbos.  the  ishind  of 
song.  Aristotle  (Cicero,  l)f  niifurii  ilfoniiii,  i.,  ;iS)  denied  the 
very  existence  of  Or|)hcus,  but  ancient  critics  had  early  dis- 
puted the  genuineness  of  the  poems  ascribed  to  Orpheus. 
The  poems  that  have  been  preserved  to  us  under  his  name 
are 'ApyoxouTiKa  ( 1  ,:!n4  hexameters),  being  a  glorification  of 
the  deeds  of  Orpheus  on  the  Argo;  AiSimi  (768  verses),  in 
which  the  nnigical  powers  of  certain  |>rccious  stones  are  de- 
scribed ;  eighty-eight  llyinns  in  honor  of  various  gods.  These 
poems  were  written  by  members  of  the  Orphic  Brother- 
hood (q.  I'.),  which  was  powerful  even  in  the  time  of  Pisis- 
tratus  and  continued  to  exist  for  some  time  after  the  Chris- 
tian era.  A  inimber  of  other  poems  belonging  to  dilferent 
periods,  such  as  the  ®toyovia.  '\tpo\  xSyot,  Kara^aais  is ''AtSou, 
etc.  (for  a  list  of  them,  see  Christ,  Griei-liischu  Litteratur- 
geschichte.  pp.  6.~)8-65!t),  were  a.scribed  to  Orpheus,  but  some 
of  them,  for  varying  reasons,  must  be  assignerl  even  to  the 
second  ceiiturv  after  Christ.  See  Hermann,  Orpliirri  (Leip- 
zig. 180.")):  Tvfwhitt.  /.(7/i/m  (Lomion.  1781);  .Vljcl.  Orphica 
(1885);  Abel,V;r/)/ifi\Li7/(iVr((Herlin,1881):  Buresch,  hlnms 
(Leipzig,  18!)0);  Xtohcc-k,  Ayldophamus  (\ii'i^)\  Schuster,  i;<' 
veteris  Orp/iirm  theogoniie  indole  (Leipzig,  1869) ;  Kern,  De 
Orphei  Epimeiiidis  I'hererijdis  theogoniis  (Berlin,  1888). 
For  a  discussion  of  Orpheus  in  works  of  art.  see  the  article 
Orpheuit  in  liaumeister's  DFnkiiiahr.nnd  for  a  discussion  of 
the  Orphic  cult,  see  (irup|ie.  Die  Orii'c/ii.irlirn  Ciille  nnd 
Mythei)  (Leipzig,  1887,  i..  613-674.         ,1.  R.  S.  Sterrictt. 

Orphic  Brotherhood  (in  Gr.  of  'OpipiKol):  in  ancient 
Greece,  a  society  of  ascetic  persons  who  devoted  themselves 
to  a  mystical  worship  of  the  Thracian  Bacchus  (Dionysus- 
Zagreus)  and  the  elaboration  of  a  system  of  theology,  under 
the  professed  guidance  of  the  sjiirit  of  Orpheus  (y.  v.).  They 
dressed  in  white,  ate  no  aninnd  food,  avoideii  all  excesses, 
and  professed  to  aim  at  purity  of  life,  an  exalted  religious 
experience,  ami  an  immortal  existence  after  death.  See 
Oruppe.  Die  (Irierhinchen  Cnlte  loid  Jli/flieii  (Leipzig,  1887, 
i.,  612-674).  where  the  literature  on  the  subject  will  be  found 
cited.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Orpinirnt,  or  Killgr's  VcHow  [nrpiment  is  via  O.  Fr. 
from  Laf.  auripigmen'lum,  liter.,  pigment  of  gold;  au'ri, 
genit.  of  au'rtim,  gold  -I-  pigmentum,  coloring,  pigment, 
deriv.  ot piti'gere,  draw,  paint,  color]:  a  sulphide  of  arsi'iiic 
of  the  composition  AsjSs.  It  nniy  be  prepared  artificially  by 
precipitating  a  solution  of  arseidc  with  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen gas,  and  by  fusing  togi'ther  eiiual  parts  of  white  arseni- 
ous  acid  and  s)ilphur.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that, 
when  entirely /'vc  /rom  arsenioiis  arid,  orpiment  is  not  \m- 
sonous  when  swallowed,  owing  to  its  insolubility  even  in  acids. 
As,  however,  it  is  easily  soluble  in  alkalies,  it  is  a  dangerous 
material,  ami  should  be  l)ainshed  fmrn  connnon  use  as  a 
pigment  by  those  unfamiliar  with  its  initure.  It  was  for- 
merly emphiyed,  in  adudxture  with  lime,  as  a  depilatory, 
and  in  another  dangero\is  way  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in 
fireworks.  Revi.sed  by  Ib.v  Remsex. 

Orr,  .J.VMEs,  D.  I). :  clergyman  and  prof(?ssor  :  b.  at  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  .Vpr.  11,  1844;  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Glasgow;  minister  at  Hast  Bank  Ututed  Presby- 
terian chunih  of  Hawick  187;i-i)t  ;  first  lei^tnreron  the  Kerr 
foundation.  United  Presbyterian  Hall,  Kdinburgh,  lsi)l  ; 
delegate  to  the  Pan-Presliyterian  Council  at  Toronto  18!t2  ; 
since  1801  has  been  Professor  of  Chnndi  History  in  the 
United  Presliyterian  CnUege  of  Kdinburgh.  He  has  written 
numerous  arliclrs  for  periodicals,  such  us  Assi/rioii  and 
Hebrew  Chro/ioli/gi/  in  The  I'resbglerian  Review  (1888),  and 
the  homiletical  sections  in  the  volumes  of  the  Pulpit  Com- 
mentary on   Exodus,  Deuteronomy,  2   Kings,  and   llosea. 


He  has  published  the  Kerr  Lectures  for  1891 ;  The  Christian 
View  of  (rod  and  the  World  as  Centering  in  the  Incarna- 
tion (Edinliurgh,  1893);  and  with  Principal  Rainy  and  Prof. 
Dods,  The  tSiijjernatural  in  Christianity  (Ediid)urgh,  1894). 

C.  K.  Uoyt. 
Orr.  .James  Lawrence  :  jurist  and  Congressnum  ;  b.  at 
Craytonville.  S.  C.  May,  12,  1822  ;  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virgniia  1842;  was  a<linitted  lo  the  bar  and  prac- 
ticed in  .\iiderson,  S.  C. ;  member  of  the  Legislature  1844- 
4.J  ;  member  of  Congress  1848-09,  and  S|ieaker  of  the  Thir- 
ty-liflh  Congress;  in  1860  was  one  of  the  convention  that 
inaugurated  se<'essi(ni,  and  was  a  State  commissioner  to 
Washington  to  treat  with  the  U.  S.  Government  for  parti- 
tion of  proijcrty  in  South  Carolina  ;  Confederate  State  Sena- 
tor 1862-6.J.  He  was  provisional  Governor  of  .South  Caro- 
lina 1865-6!) :  was  appointed  judge  of  the  circuit  court  of 
South  Carolina  1870,  and  in  187;!  U.  S.  minister  to  Russia. 
D.  in  St.  Petersburg,  Jlay  5,  1873. 

Or'rery  [named  in  honor  of  the  Earl  of  Orrery] :  a  ma- 
chine constructed  to  exhibit  the  motions  of  the  ])lane1s 
round  the  sini,  or  of  satellites  round  their  primary.  Plan- 
etary machines  (that  is.  nuichines  exhibiting  the  motions 
of  the  planets)  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  idea 
that  the  earth  was  the  center  of  motion  were  very  early  in 
use.  Such  w-ere  the  Chinese  spheres,  said  to  liave  been 
made  some  2,000  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  later 
the  spheres  of  Archimedes  and  Posidonius.  It  is  thought 
that  the  earliest  nmchine  representing  the  Ptolemaic  system 
was  that  of  Chroinatus.  This  system  contiinied  to  be  repre- 
senteil  in  all  planetary  machines  uiUil  abciut  fifty  years  after 
the  death  of  Copernicus,  when  the  last  of  the  kind  of  any 
note  was  erected  in  the  library  of  the  Pantheon  at  Paris  by 
Orone  Finnee.  Machines  intended  to  represent  tlie  Coper- 
nican  system  were  invented  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  by  Huyghens  and  Romer,  Iluyghens  .intro- 
ducing a  method  of  calculating  the  wheclwork  with  pre- 
cision. Then  Riinicr  inveiitid  a  planetarium,  and  also  a 
satellite-machine.  The  orrery  made  by  Rowley  in  1715  at 
the  expense  of  Charles  Boyle,  Earl  of  Orrery,  was  a  com- 
bination of  the  planetarium  of  the  sixteenth  century  with 
other  machines  which  showed  the  motions  of  the  earth, 
moon,  and  planetary  satellites. 

Pei'haps  the  most  perfect  of  orreries  were  two  invented 
and  constructed  by  David  Rittenhouse.  LL.  I).,  one  of 
which  is  in  possession  of  the  College  of  Xew  .Jersey.  The 
date  on  the  face  of  the  instrument  is  1768.  It  is  fitted  for 
exhibiting  continually  the  motions  of  the  moon,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  earth  and  other  principal  planets  to  Saturn 
inclusive,  then  the  outermost  known.  It  is  furnished  with 
dial-plate  arrangements  for  the  current  month  and  the 
day  of  the  month,  as  well  as  the  passing  year,  and  the  suc- 
cessive jiositions,  at  the  dates  thus  recorded,  of  the  bodii'S 
already  s|iecifted,  and  the  years  of  cycles  ;  the  whole  kept  in 
motion  by  a  clockwork  attachment.  The  orbits  of  the  moon 
ami  of  till'  planets  are  all  elliptical,  and  the  surnninding 
graduated  circular  ring,  representing  (lie  arrangement  of 
the  twelve  signs,  has  a  rackwork  and  a  screw  of  slow  motion 
attached,  by  which  even  the  iireeession  of  the  equinoxes  is 
allowed  for. 

Though  it  is  impossible  to  construct  a  machine  which 
will  represent  the  motions  of  planets  and  satellites  accu- 
rately, an  orrery  is  useful  in  giving  a  general  notion  of  the 
way  in  which  they  take  place.    Revised  by  R.  A.  Robert.s. 

Orris  Root:  .See  Iris. 

Orrvillo:  village;  Wayne  co..  O.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Ohiii,  nf.  :!-(!):  <ni  the  Cli've.,  Akron  and  Col.,  the  Perm., 
the  Pitts,  and  W.,  and  the  Wheeling  and  Lake  Erie  rail- 
wavs ;  14  miles  W.  X.  W.  of  .Alassillon,  54  mill's  S.  of  Cleve- 
land. It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising  region,  is 
an  important  shipping-point,  and  has  a  private  bank  and  a 
weekly  newspaper.     Pop.  (1880)  1,441  ;  (1890)  l,7ti5. 

Or'say.  .Vli-red  Giillaume  Gabriel.  Count  d' :  society 
leader ;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Sept.  4,  1801  ;  .served  in  the 
French  army  ;  married  in  1827  a  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Blessington  liy  his  first  wife  ;  was  .separated  from  her  1829; 
lived  thenceforth  chiefly  in  London,  when'  he  was  regarded 
as  a  model  of  elegance  and  courtliness;  was  the  most  con- 
spicuous member  of  the  social  circle  at  Gore  House  ;  was  for 
many  years  a  constant  companion  of  Lady  Blessington  ;  was 
distinguished  for  Ids  hiuulsonie  person,  fascinating  powers  of 
conversation,  and  artistic  skill  ;  liecame  director  of  fine  arts 
at  Paris  under  Louis  Napoleon.     U.  in  Paris,  Aug.  4,  18,52. 


348 


ORSINI 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


Orsi'ni ;  a  wealthy  Roman  family  of  princely  rank ;  be- 
longed to  the  party  of  the  Guelphs,  and  became  very  con- 
spicuous in  the  history  of  Rome  during  the  Middle  Ages  by 
its  perpetual  feuds  with  the  family  of  the  Colonnas,  which 
belonged  to  the  Ghibelline  party.  It  spread  very  widely, 
acquired  immense  possessions,  and  its  power  culminated  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  one  of  its 
members  became  pope  under  the  name  of  Nicholas  III. 
(1277-81).  Another  member  of  the  family  became  pope 
under  the  name  of  Benedict  XIII.  (1724-30).  The  family- 
seat  is  still  at  Rome,  where  the  Orsini  palace  stands  on  the 
spot  where  formerly  stood  the  theater  of  Marcellus. 

Orsini.  Felice:  conspirator:  b.  in  1819  at  Meldola,  in 
the  province  of  Forli,  Italy,  at  that  time  a  part  of  the  papal 
states;  joined  Mazzini's  Young  Italy  Society  in  1838:  was 
imprisoned  and  condemned  to  the  galleys  for  life,  but  re- 
stored to  liberty  in  1846  by  the  amnesty  of  Pius  IX. :  acted 
as  a  deputy  tor  Bologna  in  the  constituent  assembly  at 
Rome  in  1849,  and  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  republic  was 
an  agitator  in  Genoa  and  Modena:  fled  in  1853  to  England, 
but  reappeared  in  1854  in  Italy,  agitating  in  Parma,  Milan, 
Trieste ;  was  captured  at  Vienna  and  put  in  the  fortress  of 
Mantua,  but  escaped  to  England  in  1856.  He  repaired  in 
1857  to  Paris,  having  formed  a  conspiracy  with  three  others, 
Pieri,  Rudio,  and  Gomez,  for  the  assassination  of  Napoleon 
III.,  on  whom  vengeance  was  to  be  taken  for  his  desertion 
of  the  princi|)les  of  the  Carbonari,  into  whose  organization 
Napoleon  had  been  admitted  in  1831.  On  Jan.  14,  1858, 
Orsini,  with  his  accomplices,  threw  three  explosive  bombs 
under  the  carriage  of  the  emperor  in  the  Rue  Lepelletier, 
killing  eight  persons  and  wounding  over  a  hundred.  He 
was  tried  and  sentenced  to  the  guillotine.  While  in  prison 
he  wrote  two  letters  to  the  emperor  calling  upon  him  to  free 
Italy  from  her  oppressors.  These,  which  were  pulilisheil  in 
the  French  papers,  served  to  direct  popular  attention  to  Ital- 
ian affairs,  and  Napoleon's  policy  in  1859  was  along  the  lines 
advised  by  Orsini.  The  latter  was  guillotined  Mar.  13,  1858. 
His  autobiography  was  translated  into  English  by  G.  Car- 
bonel  (Edinburgh,  1857). 

Orsova,  or'sho-vaa  :  Hungarian  frontier  town  on  the 
Danube  ;  consisting  of  Alt  (Old)  Orsova  and  Xeu  (Xew)  Or- 
sova ;  the  latter,  a  strongly  fortified  island  which  com- 
mands the  Roumanian  and  Servian  frontier,  was  ceded  by 
Turkey  in  1878  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  9-J). 
Equidistant  between  the  Iron  Gates,  it  is  the  center  of  the 
grandest  Danubian  scenery.     Pop.  (1891)  3,381.     E.  A.  G. 

Orte'llus,  Auraham:  geograplier;  1).  at  Antwerp,  Apr. 
4,  1527.  He  was  wealthy,  traveleil  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  and  had  a  wide  acquaintance  with  the 
geographers  of  his  time.  In  1570  he  published  his  Thea- 
trum  orbis  terrarum,  a  collection  of  maps  with  short  de- 
scriptions of  the  various  countries  in  Latin.  This  was  long 
a  standard  geographical  authority  in  Europe,  and  there  are 
various  editions  in  Latin,  French,  and  German.  Several 
of  the  maps  are  of  great  interest  for  the  early  cartography 
of  America.  Ortelius  published  other  geographical  works, 
and  he  amassed  a  museum  of  coins,  antiquities,  etc.  He 
was  appointed  royal  geographer  by  Philip  II.  in  1575.  D. 
at  Antwerp,  Jan.,  1.598.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Ortll,  JoHAN.VES,  M.  D. :  pathologist ;  b.  at  Wallmerod, 
Nassau,  Germany,  Jan.  14,  1847 :  studied  medicine  at  1  he 
Universities  of  Bonn,  under  Rindfleisch,  and  Berlin,  under 
Virchow,  graduating  JI.  D.  from  the  former  in  1870 :  in 
1878  was  elected  Professor  of  Pathology  and  Pathological 
Anatomy  in  the  University  of  Guttingen.  His  most  impor- 
tant works  are  Compendium  der  paf/iologisch-anatomischen 
Diii(iiiiistik  (Berlin,  1876 :  5th  cd.  1893) :  Cursus  der  nor- 
iiKili  II  /Iistulof/ie  (1878  :  otli  ed.  1888);  Lehrhiirh  der  speciel- 
Idii  /Mithuloffi.'irhen  AnatoDiie  (1887).        S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Orthacaii'thus  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  opeis.  straight,  erect + 
Sjcai/So,  spine] :  a  name  given  to  certain  defensive  spines  of 
sharks  found  in  the  eoal-me.asures.  They  are  slender  and 
acute,  but  not  always  straight,  though  the  name  indicates 
this,  and  are  ornamented  with  two  rows  of  sharp,  depressed 
hooks  on  the  posterior  face.  They  probably  belong  to  the 
shark  of  which  tlie  teeth  have  been' named  Diplodus. 

Ortlia^oris'oidac  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Orthagoris'cus, 
the  typical  genus,  from  (Jr.  opeayopicKos.  sucking  pig]:  a 
family  of  plectognath  fishes,  liistinguished  from  all  other 
fislies  by  the  peculiar  truncation  of  the  posterior  region  of 
the  body.  Tlie  Icirm  varies,  being  eitlier  oblong  or  higher 
than  long,  but  in  all  ends  abruptly  behind,  and  is  entirely 


destitute  of  anything  like  a  tail  or  caudal  peduncle;  the  ab- 
domen is  never  distensible  by  air,  as  in  the  swell-fishes ;  the 
skin  is  rough  or  covered  with  hexagonal  plates ;  the  head 
externally  inseparable  from  the  body,  and  with  all  the  bones 
covered  by  the  integument:  mouth  terminal,  small;  the 
jaws,  both  upper  and  lower,  developed  into  cutting  ridges, 
and  each  destitute  of  a  median  suture  ;  branchial  apertures 
very  small,  slits  in  front  of  the  pectoral  fins;  dorsal  and 
anal  fins  far  back,  opposite  each  other,  and  developed  alike, 
higher  than  long,  and  united  with  the  caudal  fin  when  pres- 
ent; pectorals  well  developed:  ventrals  entirely  wanting. 
The  skeleton  is  peculiar  for  the  small  number  of  caudal 
vertebra!,  there  being  less  than  twenty,  and  in  the  adult  of 
Mida  there  are  ten  abdominal  and  about  eight  caudal ;  no 
pelvic  bones  are  developed  ;  the  air-bladder  is  absent ;  many 
other  peculiarities  are  observable  in  the  anatomy.  The 
family  is  represented  by  two  genera:  Mola  and  Orthagoris- 
cus.  The  species  attain  a  large  size,  Mola  sometimes  weigh- 
ing as  much  as  800  lb.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Or'thida!  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Or'this,  the  typical 
genus,  from  Gr.  ope6s.  straight] :  a  family  of  extinct  brach- 
iopods  abundantly  represented  in  Paheozoic  rocks.  An  elab- 
orate analysis  and  description  of  the  various  genera  of  this 
group  of  fossils  is  contained  in  the  eighth  volume  of  the 
Pahcontology  of  New  York  State. 

Orthocerat'id*  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  OrtJio'ceras,  the 
typical  genus ;  Gr.  opfliJj.  straight  +  Kipas,  Keparos.  horn] :  a 
family  name  under  which  are  combined  a  varying  number 
of  genera  belonging  to  the  class  of  Cephalopods,  order  of 
Tetrabranchiates,  and  sub-order  JVautiloidea.  All  have  a 
shell  furnished  with  numerous  chambers,  which  extend 
across  the  axis  of  the  shell ;  the  septal  margins  are  simple 
and  the  funnel-like  throat  more  or  less  sub-central  and  di- 
rected backward ;  they  differ,  however,  in  other  resjiects. 
In  the  typical  forms  (Orthoceras.  etc.)  the  shell  is  straight 
and  the  aperture  simple  :  to  this,  by  some  authors,  the  fami- 
ly is  restricted ;  others  {Cyrtoceras)  have  the  shell  curved, 
but  the  aperture  simple;  others,  again  (OompJioceras),  have 
the  shell  straight,  but  a  heterogeneous  aperture ;  others 
still  (Phragmoceras)  have  the  shell  curved,  and  the  aper- 
ture is  heterogeneous.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  lived 
from  the  Lower  Silurian  up  to  the  Liassic  epoch.  They 
sometimes  attained  a  large  size.  A  species  of  Endoceras, 
15  feet  long,  has  been  described  from  the  Trenton  lime- 
stone. Revised  by  H.  S.  Williams. 

Orthoepy :  See  Pronunciation. 

Orthogiiathons:  See  Face. 

Ortliog'rapliy  [via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  orthogra'phia  =  Gr. 
op8oypa<pta.  correct  wriling,  deriv.  of  op96ypaipos,  writing  cor- 
rect iy ;  bpS6s,  straight,  correct  -I-  ypiipdv.  write] :  the  art  of 
conventionally  correct  spelling,  or  of  writing  words  accord- 
ing to  a  conventional  standard  of  usage.  The  necessity  for 
such  an  art  commonly  arises  only  in  languages  whicli  have 
developed  a  standard  literary  type,  compromising  or  re- 
pressing dialectal  diversities  of  the  same  period,  and  to  some 
extent  also  absorbing  historical  varieties  of  successive  pe- 
riods. When  a  language  is  first  reduced  to  writing  its  spell- 
ing is  approximately  phonetic,  at  least  so  far  as  the  available 
alphabet  will  jiermit.  In  the  early  Greek  inscriptions,  for 
example,  each  of  a  score  or  more  of  local  comnumities  speak- 
ing diverse  dialects  nas  recorded  its  language  in  a  rude  pho- 
netic spelling.  They  simply  used  the  alphabetic  symbols  in 
their  received  value,  maliing  with  them  as  well  as  they 
might  a  record  of  words  as  they  sounded  when  spoken.  In 
the  fourth  century  B.  c.  the  Bceotians  adopted  from  Athens 
the  Ionic  alphabet,  but  not  an  orthography,  for  they  simply 
proceeded  to  apply  the  symbols  in  the  value  they  h.ad  at 
Athens  to  the  respelling  of  their  spoken  language.  Only 
four  or  five  of  the  Greek  dialects  became  the  receptacles  of 
literary  records.  These  began  therewith  to  show  some  tend- 
ency toward  the  establishment  of  a  standard  form  of  spell- 
ing, but  not  until  the  Attic  dialect  in  the  form  of  the  liuine 
began  to  assert  its  pre-eminence  as  a  universal  Greek  litei'- 
ary  medium  did  a  sense  for  a  standard  Greek  orthography 
manifest  itself.  This  standard,  which,  following  the  manu- 
scripts, we  now  use  for  all  the  monuments  of  Attic  Greek 
literature,  and  which  has  even  extended  itself  in  large  meas- 
ure to  the  Modern  Greek,  represents  essentially  the  pronun- 
ciation of  the  fourth  century  B.  0. 

The  experience  of  Greece  illustrates  the  general  principle. 
The  necessity  f(jr  an  orthography  is  dictated  (1)  by  the  ex- 
istence of  dialects  within  the  domain  covered  by  a  litera- 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


UinilUl'.EDK'   SUKGKRY 


349 


tiire,  and  (2)  by  tlic  accumulation  of  books  wliich  give  an 
historical  continuity  to  a  literature  even  over  periods  in 
which  till'  spoken  lan,i,'uap'  lias  sutlVrcil  change. 

Tiie  Knglish  orthograjihy  presents  the  most  extreme  illus- 
tration of  divorcement  of  the  written  from  the  spoken  form 
of  language.  The  spelling  forms  no  certain  guide  to  the 
sound  of  a  word.  The  word  and  not  the  letter  is  the  unit. 
The  appeal  is  to  the  eye.  nut  the  ear.  In  acipiiring  the 
written  language,  one  must  practically  learn  each  word  by 
itself.  Mow  inconsistently  the  alphahelic  syudiols  are  used 
may  be  judged  from  a  few  illustrations.  The  voiceless  lin- 
gual sibilant  .s  is  variously  denoted  l)y  xh  in  ghine,  si  in  pen- 
sion, s  iu  siii/ar,  sensual,  ss  in  i.ssite,  sci  in  conscious,  li  in 
nation,  ci  in  social,  ce  in  oc^an,  eh  in  charade,  chivalri/,  ma- 
chine. The  comljination  si  denotes  the  voiced  sibilant  z  in 
vision,  occasion,  etc.,  as  does  also  .s  in  usual,  pleasure,  etc. 
The  voiced  dental  sibilant  z  is  denoted  by  z  in  zeal,  zz  in 
buzz,  s  in  easy,  lands,  ss  in  scis.sors,  .ic  in  discern,  c  in  sacri- 
fice (verb),  X  in  Xerxes.  The  voiceless  guttural  explosive  A' 
is  variously  denoted  by  A-  in  book,  ck  in  ilucHj^c  in  music,  cc 
in  accuse,  ch  in  chord,  q  in  queen,  qu  in  liquor.  The  high- 
front  vowel  I  (ii)  is  represented  by  e  in  me,  ee  in  see,  ea  in 
sea,  ie  in  piece,  ei  in  conceit,  ey  in  key.  eo  in  people,  ay  in 
quay,  i  in  marine,  if  in  ('wsar.  The  combination  oiigh  ile- 
notes  of  in  cough,  trough,  ou  in  though,  dough,  uf  iu  enough, 
ojt  in  plough.  Words  of  like  sound  are  often  widely  apart 
in  spelling:  as  cite,  site,  sight;  draft,  draught;  bored, 
board;  air,  heir;  base,  Imss.  Words  of  different  sound  are 
sometimes  spelled  alike;  as  r«H/ (pres.),  read  (yri't.) ;  abuse 
(noun),  abuse  (verb.) :  close  (adjec),  close  (verb) ;  record 
(noun),  record  (verb),  etc. 

Prior  to  the  sixteenth  century  the  spelling  of  English, 
though  not  self-consistent,  owing  in  general  to  the  diversity 
in  the  sources  of  the  language,  ami  especially  to  the  per- 
verting influence  of  Frcnc-li  methods  of  spelling,  wiis  still 
quasi-phonetic  ;  i.  e.  though  it  did  not  always  represent  the 
same  sound  by  the  same  symbol,  it  undertook  to  represent 
the  spoken  word.  The  a|)pearance,  however,  in  this  (six- 
teenth) century  of  an  abundant  literature,  coincident  with 
the  development  of  printing,  tended  to  fix  the  spelling  and 
remove  it  from  subservience  to  sound.  Since  this  time  Eng- 
lish spelling  has  remaincil  in  its  essential  features  un- 
changed, though  the  pronunciation  has  meantime,  especially 
in  the  vowel  system,  suffered  radical  change.  Our  present 
orthography  may  therefore  be  roughly  said  to  represent  nine- 
teenth century  words  by  means  of  symbols  which,  though 
by  no  means  used  with  the  simplicity  or  self-consistency  of 
pnonetii'  spelling,  really  stand  for  sixteenth  century  sounds. 
At  that  time  the  vowel-symbols  were  tised  essentially  in 
their  "continental"  values.  We  now  write  the  phonetic 
word  naym  {name.)  with  a,  because  it  was  pronounced  naani 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  write  mile  wMlh  /,  because  it 
was  then  pronounced  meet.  We  write  the  word  see,  on 
the  one  hand,  as  .sea,  commemorating  its  former  pronun- 
ciation witli  the  oyen  ay-sound  (in<li(^ated  phonetically  aso"), 
and  on  the  other  as  .see.  as  a  record  of  the  older  close  ay- 
.sound  (indicated  phonetically  as  <").  The  two  words  were 
distinct  iii  Sliakspeare's  time. 

In  the  hitter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  appeared  the 
first  treatises  on  orthography:  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  De  recta 
et  emendata  lingua'  angliat:  scri/itione  dialogus  (I'aris, 
1.568);  .lohn  Hart,  An  Orthographic,  conteyning  the  due 
order  and  reaton  howe  to  write  or  printe  thimage  of  mannes 
voice,  most  like,  to  the  life  or  nature  (Ijondon,' !.')(>!)) ;  Will- 
iam Hullokars,  Booke  at  larqe  tor  the  Amendment  of  Or- 
thographie  (1580):  Richard  Alulcasler,  The  First  Part  of 
the  Elementarie  which  entreateth  chifelie  of  the  right  writ- 
ing of  the  English  lung  {London,  l.~)Si). 

The  influence  of  printing  tended  to  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  an  orlhograpliical  uniformity  which  was  practically 
established  in  its  present  existing  form  by  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  appearance  of  dictionaries 
(Bailey's,  1731;  Johnson's,  IT."))  and  the  use  of  spelling- 
hooks  in  the  schools  further  developed  this  sense  for  uniform- 
ity into  the  present  extraordinary  orthogniphical  prudery, 
which  often  treats  false  spelling  as  a  nuirk  of  vulgarity,  if 
not  of  mental  inferiority.  The  fidlowing  examples  of  di- 
verse spellings  current  between  1600  aiul  1800  nuiy  serve  to 
illustrate  how  late  an  achievement  onr  present  orthodoxy 
is:  arithmetic,  arithmetike,  arithmetique,  arithmatick, 
arithmnticke,  arilhmetick;  beauty,  be.awtye,  bewtie,  bewtye, 
beaut  ie,  beuly ;  engineer,  engenier,  i  ngen  ier,  engen  ir.  ingeneer, 
inginier,  ingineer;  bailiff,  bailliff,  buillfte.' haliffe,  balyfe, 
balyve,  baylyff,  bailiefe,  baylife,  bayliffe,  bailive,  bayllive. 


bayliff;  curb,  courbe,  kurbe,  kerbe,  kirb,  kerb.  There  still 
reuuiins  a  slight  residue  of  wonls  for  which  an  authorita- 
tive spelling  has  not  been  estalilished  ;  thus  nr.|al)ly  iu  the 
case  of  loan-words  from  languages  nut  using  the  Ronuin  al- 
phalx't,  as  Brahmin,  Brahman;  attar,  ottar;  baksheesh, 
hakhshi.sh  ;  also  in  the  case  of  dialectal  words  which  have 
but  recently  appeared  in  literature,  as  bletherskate,  blather- 
skite ;  and  in  certain  derivatives,  as  abridg(e)meni,judg(e)- 
meiit,  blam{e)able,  civilize  (-/••'('),  inflection  (-xion),  uorshvp- 
[p)er,  travelyl)er,  mileage  (milage),  mor(e)able,  sal(e)alile, 
wool(l)en.  ein.;  also  individual  cases  like  ambassador  (em-), 
briar  (brier),  brazier  (brasier),  offence  (offense),  dispatch 
(de.s-),  inquire  (en-),  centre  (-er),  theatre  (-er),  etc.  See  list  in 
Webster's  Jnternatiunal  Dictionary,  pp.  xciii.  S..  and  the 
rules  for  spelling,  pp,  xc.  IT. 

English  spelling  is  lu'ither  phonetic  nor  etymological,  but 
merely  conventional.  Attempts  to  reform  it  in  the  inter- 
est of  etymology,  and  especially  in  conformity  to  Greek 
and  Latin  etyma,  have  been  frequent  since  the  revival  of 
learning,  but  they  have  helped  little  and  hindered  much. 
Thus  the  addition  of  a  i  in  debt  and  doubt  (JI.  Eng.  dette, 
doute)  serves  to  suggest  Lat.  debita  and  dubilare.  but  is  per- 
fectly gratuitous  and  unhistorical,  for  both  words  came  into 
English  without  cither  the  sound  or  the  letter.  In  a  case 
like  fault  for  faule  or  arctic  for  artic  (0.  Fr.  artique),  the 
introduction  of  the  letter  in  spelling  has  resulted  in  per- 
verting the  pronunciation.  C)ften  the  etymology  suggested 
by  the  revised  spelling  is  entirely  false.  Thus  the  g  in  sov- 
ereign (older  soverayne,  JI.  Eng.  soverain,  representing  a 
Latin  .si/jotrn'H!*.?)  fahsely  suggests  rei^H  ;  as  the  scot  scis- 
sors (JI.  Eng.  s»'.TO»re«)  does  Lat.  scissus,  cut.  The  s  of  isl- 
and (JI.  Eng.  Hand)  is  a  deception,  as  island  and  isle  are 
nut  related  etymolugically  :  so  the  n  of  guest,  which  is  a 
Teutonic,  not  a  French  word,  the  tv  of  whole  (earlier  hole), 
whoop  (JI.  Eng.  houpen),  which  is  not  etymological,  and  the 
gh  of  delight  (JI.  Eng.  delit),  which  imitates  cases  like 
night,  right,  where  gh  has  etymological  value.  The  ue  of 
tongue  (older  lung ;  cf.  Germ,  znnge)  sadly  disfigures  a  genu- 
ine English  word  in  a  possible  deference  to  langue,  and  the 
plain  Eng.  7'ime  (0.  Eng.  rim)  is  even  ludicrous  masquerad- 
ing in  Greek  toggery  as  rhyme.  Much  of  this  pseudo-ety- 
molugical  si>elling  is  merely  a  decorative  rococo. 

Various  attempts  have  also  been  made  to  reform  the  spell- 
ing upon  a  purely  phonetic  basis.  See  F.  A.  JIarch,  The 
Spelling  Reform,  Circular  of  Information  of  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education  (1880),  No.  7 ;  Skeat.  Principles  of  English 
Etymology,  i.,  ch.  xvii.  While  radical  changes  in  our  pres- 
ent system  are  scarcely  to  be  expected,  especially  such 
changes  as  involve  a  restoration  of  the  "continental  "  val- 
ues of  the  vowel-signs,  or  in  other  ways  involve  a  violent 
break  with  the  older  recorded  form  of  the  language,  it  is 
not  unlikely  that  a  consideration  for  the  spoken  form  of 
words  will  gradually  tend  to  the  simplification  of  our  spell- 
ing and  the  elimination  of  some  of  its  gros.ser  inconsisten- 
cies. Bexj.  Ide  Wheeler. 
Orthometrie  Systems:  See  Crystallograpuv. 
OrtlioimMlic  Surgery  [orthopwdic  is  from  Gr.  ope6i, 
straight  +  irais.  TaiSds.  child]:  that  branch  of  general  sur- 
gery which  relates  to  the  prevention  and  treatment,  both  by 
surgical  and  mechanical  measures,  of  the  various  deformi- 
ties and  malformations  uf  the  human  body,  particularly 
such  deformities  as  pertain  to  the  osseous  and  muscular 
structures.  In  some  countries  deformities  and  nudforina- 
tions  of  the  soft  parts,  as  harelip,  cleft  i)alate,  hypospadias, 
etc.,  are  classified  under  this  heading ;  but  in  the  U.  S.  these 
are  ordinarily  grouped  under  plastic  surgery. 

There  is  no  sharply  drawn  line  between  general  and  or- 
tho])a"dic  surgery;  nor  is  the  division  between  urlhopa-clic 
and  nervous  diseases  with  paralysis  a  distinct  one,  since 
there  is  an  overlap|)inir  in  both  directions.  The  term  or- 
thopraxy (from  Gr.  op66t.  straight  -(-  Trpitratw.  to  do,  act),  is 
also  occasionally  emjiloyed.  By  the  term  deformity  is  meant 
any  marked  deviation  from  the  normal  symmetrical  pro- 
portions of  the  human  frame.  The  following  classifications 
are  generally  recognized : 

)  ^lalforniations. 

f  I)istortu>ns, 

j  From  trauinatism. 
"      paralysis. 

j      "      iiirtaiiunatory  conditions. 

I      "      rieket.s. 

"      joint  diseases. 

[     "      other  iHseasos. 

IIi|)l)0crates  in  his  book  on  Articulations  discusses  both 
the  nature  and  the  character  of  the  treatment  of  clubfoot. 


Defohuities. 


Congenital. 


.\cquircd. 


350 


ORTHOPEDIC  SURGERY 


ORTHOPTERA 


spinal  curvature,  and  other  diseases  now  included  under 
orthopitdie  surgery.  His  practical  ideas  were  not  equaled 
by  other  surgeons  for  centuries  afterward.  He  describes 
accurately  a  very  effective  apparatus  for  straightening  club- 
foot, which  was  not  improved  upon  from  tliat  time  (B.  c. 
500)  until  tlie  sixteenth  century,  when  Ambrose  Pare  pub- 
lished a  work  in  which  he  recapitulated  Hippocrates's  teach- 
ings and  ideas,  and  added  many  suggestions  of  his  own. 
Pare's  method  of  treating  hunchback,  or  disease  of  the 
spine,  was  to  have  the  patient  lie  on  a  bed  while  two  strong 
persons  pulled  in  opposite  directions,  the  surgeon  meanwhile 
moulding  and  forcing  the  bones  into  position  by  a  wooden 
bar.  About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  Andry 
published  a  book  with  the  specific  title  Orthojxedic  Surgery, 
in  wliieli  he  described  a  large  number  of  mechanical  ap- 
pliances which,  though  rude,  were  efficient  and  ingenious. 
Scarpa,  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  devised  a 
shoe  for  clubfoot  which  has  since  been  designated  by  his 
name.  About  this  time  the  treatment  of  lateral  curvature 
by  suspension  and  splints  received  further  impetus.  To 
Delpech,  of  Jlontpellier,  was  largely  due  the  great  advance 
in  this  branch,  yet  none  of  Delpech's  countrymen  was  wise 
enough  to  see  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  his  work. 
It  remained  for  Stromeyer,  of  Hanover,  in  1834,  to  introduce 
the  practice  of  subcutaneous  tenotomy,  although  this  oper- 
ation had  been  foreshadowed  by  Minoius  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  Tenotomy  proved  to  be  almost  revolutionary,  and 
the  subcutaneous  division  of  tendons  soon  became  a  recog- 
nized procedure.  Orthopaedic  surgery  has  since  then  steadily 
advanced.  The  tenth  international  congress  at  Berlin  in 
1890  was  the  first  to  give  a  special  section  to  this  subject, 
and  the  U.  S.  of  America  contains  tlie  only  distinct  national 
association  of  orthopi-edic  surgeons. 

Rickets,  a  disease  essentially  due  to  filth,  close  confine- 
ment, and  poor  air,  and  hence  commonly  found  in  crowded 
cities,  is  one  of  the  most  common  causes  of  deformities. 
Knock-knee,  bow-legs,  curve  of  the  arms,  and  sometimes 
lateral  curvature  of  the  spine,  etc.,  are  notalile  instances. 
The  treatment  consists  in  supplying  good  air.  good  food. 
and  proper  hygienic  surroundings,  with  the  internal  admin- 
istration of  tonics,  lime-salts,  cod-liver  oil,  etc.  Tlie  weight 
of  the  body  should  not  be  put  upon  the  bones  during  their 
soft  stage  unless  the  limbs  are  properly  suppcjrteil  by  aji- 
paratus.  After  hardening  occurs  straightening  is  more  dif- 
ficult, but  it  may  be  accomplished,  first,  by  the  use  of  me- 
chanical appliances ;  secondly,  by  division  of  the  bone,  or  os- 
teotomy ;  and,  thirdly,  by  fracture  of  the  bone,  or  osteoclasis. 

Lateral  curvature  of  the  spine  is  a  very  common  cause  of 
deformity.  It  occurs  with  the  greatest  frequency  in  young 
girls  about  tlie  age  of  puberty,  especially  if  in  poor  health. 
Among  the  numerous  causes  are  faulty  positions  in  sitting 
or  standing,  dilference  in  the  length  of  the  limbs,  unequal 
weight  bearing  apon  the  shoulders,  feeble  muscular  develop- 
ment, etc.  As  the  deformity  advances  not  only  are  the 
spinous  processes  twisted  laterally,  but  rotation  of  the  ver- 
tebral bodies  also  takes  place,  with  consequent  projection  of 
the  ribs  and  shoulder-blade  on  one  side,  and  flattening  of  the 
chest  on  the  opposite  side.  The  condition  is  due  to  feeble 
muscular  development,  and  indicates  disproportionate  power 
of  the  two  sides  of  the  body  ;  hence  gymnastics  and  general 
attention  to  the  healtli  are  of  primary  importance,  and  if 
these  are  properly  employed  the  use  of  apparatus  is  seldom 
necessary.  When  used  it  should  be  of  the  lightest  kind. 
Strong  supports  are  only  necessary  when  the  deformity  is 
rapidly  increasing.  Spinal  curvature  should  be  distinctly 
separated  from  caries  of  the  spine;  the  latter  is  an  entirely 
different  process — an  osteitis — that  involves  tlie  vertebral 
bodies;  while  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine  is  dependent 
not  upon  disease  of  the  vertebrae,  but  upon  unequal  muscu- 
lar development.  . 

Clubfoot,  or  talipes,  is  a  deformity  of  the  foot  usually 
occurring  congenitally  ;  but  it  may  be  found  as  an  acquired 
condition,  following  the  various  paralyses  of  infancy.  When 
one  set  of  muscdes  becomes  stronger  than  its  opposing 
group,  deviation  occurs.  When  the  anterior  part  of  the 
foot  turns  inward,  the  variety  known  as  talipes  varus  is 
prcMluced.  Wlien  the  anterior  part  of  the  foot  drops,  with 
elevation  of  the  heel,  the  condition  known  as  equinus  re- 
sults, so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  position  of  the 
bones  of  the  foot  in  the  horse.  When  the  toes  turn  out- 
wardly, the  deformity  is  known  as  vn/gun;  when  upward, 
with  elongatiijn  of  the  heel,  it  is  calcaneus ;  other  varieties 
are  known  as  canis,  /ilnn/aris.  etc.,  when  the  instep  is  high- 
ly elevated.     In  congenital  eases  the  bones  are  sometimes 


distorted  at  birth,  and  the  distortion  rapidly  increases  as 
soon  as  the  weight  of  the  body  is  placed  ujion  them.  In 
congenital  cases  the  treatment  should  begin  at  birth  with 
systematic  measures  designed  to  straighten  the  foot  and 
mould  it  into  proper  pcjsitinn  by  manipulation  and  forcible 
stretching  of  the  contracted  tissues. 

Some  form  of  mechanical  appliance  should  also  be  em- 
ployed at  once  in  order  to  bring  the  bones  of  the  foot  into 
the  proper  shape,  particularly  during  the  rajiid  growth  of 
the  first  weeks  of  life.  Various  forms  of  apparatus  are  use- 
ful, and  operative  measures  are  required  whenever  (he  child 
begins  to  walk,  provided  the  foot  has  not  been  already 
straightened  by  the  previous  use  of  apparatus.  In  older 
cases  removal  of  the  bones,  or  tarsectomy,  is  sometimes 
necessary,  when  other  operative  measures,  such  as  tenotomy, 
fasciotomy,  etc.,  have  failed. 

Hammer-toe  is  a  condition  of  flexion  in  which  the  liga^ 
ments  of  one  or  more  toes  are  contracted.  It  can  be  relieved 
by  apparatus  or  by  division  of  the  fascial  bands  and  tendons. 

Dupuytrenjicontraction  of  the  fingers  is  due  to  shorten- 
ing of  the  fascia,  and  is  usually  found  in  rheumatic  patients. 
It  can  be  relieved  by  multiple  and  subcutaneous  divisions  of 
the  shortened  tissues.     The  tendons  are  rarely  involved. 

Joint  diseases  are  among  the  most  common  causes  of  de- 
formity. They  are  usually  inflammatory  in  character,  and 
in  the  majority  of  cases  are  tuberculous  in  their  origin. 
The  inflammation  is  usually  awakened  by  some  slight  in- 
jury, but  is  largely  dependent  upon  a  tubercular  predispo- 
sition in  the  individual.  The  course  of  the  osteitis  is  ordi- 
narily slow  and  tends  to  destruction  first  of  the  bones  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  joint,  the  process  then  extending 
to  the  articulation.  Absolute  rest  in  the  recumbent  pos- 
ture is  the  first  indication,  to  be  followed  by  thorough  me- 
chanical fixation  of  the  joint  involved.  Ambulatory  ap- 
paratus, with  axillary  or  perineal  crutches,  is  permissible 
after  the  acute  or  painful  stage  has  passed.  Extension,  both 
in  bed  and  after  the  upright  position  has  been  assumed,  is 
beneficial.  Operative  measures  are  usually  necessary  after 
suppuration  has  occurred.  Hip,  knee,  and  ankle  joint  dis- 
ease are  the  most  common  varieties,  the  articulations  of  the 
upper  extremities  being  but  seldom  affected. 

De  Forest  Wili^ard. 

Orthopiioea :  See  Dyspncea. 

Orthoptera  [from  Gr.  op06s,  straight  +  TrTepdf,  wing] :  an 
order  of  insects  (see  Entomology),  characterized  by  having 
the  jaws  fitted  for  biting,  an  incomplete  metamorphosis,  and 
four  wings,  the  anterior  or  outer  pair  narrow  and  coriaceous 
and  serving  as  wing  covers,  the  posterior  pair  membranous, 
broad,  and  folded  like  a  fan  when  at  rest.  Examjiles  are 
familiar  to  all  in  the  grasshoppers,  locusts,  walking-sticks, 
cockroaches,  and  the  like.  A  few  (the  mantis  insects)  are 
beneficial  to  man,  but  with  these  exceptions  all  are  injurious 
from  the  fact  that  they  feed  on  vegetation,  and  some  forms, 
coming  in  vast  swarms,  are  the  most  terrible  scourges  of  the 
agriculturist.  In  all  the  jaws  are  strong.  The  head  bears, 
besides  the  large  compound  eyes,  three  pairs  of  ocelli.  The 
three  joints  of  the  thorax  are  distinct,  and  the  abdomen  in 
the  female  is  frequently  provided  with  an  enormous  oviposi- 
tor. The  eggs  are  laid  either  in  plants  or  in  the  ground,  and 
the  young  when  hatched  resemble  the  parent,  except  in  the 
absence  of  wings.  With  successive  casting  of  the  skin  the 
adult  condition  is  gradually  attained.  There  are  many 
forms  in  which  wings  are  lacking  even  in  the  adult.  Among 
the  interesting  features  are  the  presence  of  sound-iiroducing 
structures.  These  occur  only  in  the  males  of  certain  forms, 
and  consist  of  rasping  organs  upon  the  wings,  or  wings  and 
legs.  Corresponding  to  these,  organs  usually  interpreted  as 
ears  occur,  in  the  grasshoppers  on  the  basal  joint  of  the 
abdomen,  in  the  crickets  upon  the  tibial  joint  of  the  first 
pair  of  legs. 

Six  families  are  recognized.  The  Blattidw,  or  cock- 
roaches, are  among  the  oldest  of  insects,  numerous  fossils 
occurring  in  the  Carboniferous.  In  these  the  legs  are  all 
fitted  for  walking,  the  body  is  flattened,  and  no  sound-pro- 
ducing apparatus  occurs.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  pod-like 
case,  which  the  female  carries  about  with  her.  The  best- 
known  example  is  the  imported  "Croton  bug"  (/?/rt/teg'er- 
manica),  which  forms  a  pest  in  most  parts  of  the  U.  S.  Per- 
sian insect-powder  is  the  best  means  of  ridding  a  house  of 
them.  The  mantis  insects  {Mantidce)  are  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical. Prom  the  strange  attitudes  they  take  tfiey  are  known 
as  rear-horses,  praying-mantes,  camel-crickets,  and  the  like. 
They  feed  upon  other  insects,  for  which  they  lie  in  wait.    In 


ORTOLAN 


OSAGE  ORANGE 


351 


Locust  just  hatched,  enlarged. 


tho  walking-sticks  and  leaf  insects  (Phasmida)  are  some  of 
the  strangest  examples  of  mimicry.  In  the  V.  S.  the  forms 
are  long  and  wingless,  and  n'scmliic  closely  a  dried  twig,  hut 
in  the  tropics  occur  winged  forms  in  which  the  whole  body  is 
.strikingly  leaf-like,  sometimes  bright  green,  sometimes  of  the 

color  of  a  dried  leaf.  The 
two  families  Acritlidip  and 
Locuttlarue  exhibit  a  strange 
confusion  of  scientilic  and 
[lojiuhir  names,  for  the  Acrid- 
ians  are  locusts  and  the  Lo- 
custarians  are  grasshoppers. 
In  both  the  hind  legs  are 
large  and  stout,  serving  as 
organs  for  leaping:  sound- 
producing  organs  are  i)res- 
ent.  The  Acridido'  have 
short  antonnir  and  shoH  ovipositors.  Among  the  mcpst 
prominent  forms  is  the  Rocky  Mountain  locust  iJhdtiiio/ilus 
sprelu.s)  which  in  1872-75  created  much  destruction  in  the 
region  W.  of  the  Missouri  river.  In  the  Locustariip  the  an- 
tennae are  long  and  thread-like,  while  the  ovipositor  is  enor- 
mous. The  katvdids,  named  from  their  note,  are  the  best- 
known  forms.  '  The  last  family  is  that  of  the  crickets 
{Gii/lUdw).  Tlie  mides  make  a  chirping  sound  by  rubbing 
together  the  anterior  wings.  With  these  are  to  be  grouped 
the  large  mol(!-crickets  wliich  live  subterranean  lives,  feeding 
upon  the  roots  of  the  grass,  etc.  In  these  the  anterior  legs 
are  fashioned  into  digging  organs. 

See  Reports  of  IT.  S.  Entomological  Commission  (1878-83); 
Thomas,  Synopsis  nf  AcrUUdce,  V.  S.  Geological  Survey 
(vol.  v.,  1872) ;  Avers,  Emhryi)l(i(jy  nf  (Ecnnlluis;  Memairs 
Boston  Society  Natural  History  (iii.,  1884):  and_  numerous 
papers  by  Scudder,  Hruner,  and  Walker.     J.  S.  KiNCiSLicy. 

Or'tolan  [  =  Fr.  from  Ital.  ortolano.  ortolan,  liter.,  gar- 
dener <  Lat.  horUila'nus.  gardener,  deriv.  of  hor'tulus. 
dimin.  of  hiir  lus.  garden] :  any  one  of  several  species  of 
song-birds.  In  Kurope  the  name  was  primarily  employed 
for  the  garden-bunting,  Emberiza  )i(>rtulana,  common  on 
the  continent  of  Euroi)e  and  in  the  Levant.  It  is  a  hand- 
some little  bird  without  song,  and  is  chiefly  noteworthy  for 
its  extensive  use  as  food.  Immense  numbers  are  captured 
in  nets  and  are  pL-iccd  in  dark  rooms,  where  they  are  gorged 
witli  millet  and  other  grain  mixed  with  spices,  wntil  they 
undergo  a  kind  of  fatty  degeneration.  In  fact  when  killed 
the  ortolan  is  a  mere  lump  of  fat,  of  a  flavor  highly  prized  by 
gourmands.  It  is  some  6  inches  in  total  length,  and  at- 
tains a  weight  of  nearly  'A  oz.  In  some  parts  of  the  U.  S.  the 
name  is  applied  to  the  Bodolink  (q.  i\).  and  to  the  Sora  rail 
(Purzana  Carolina).  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Or'ton,  Edward,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. :  geologist :  b.  at  Deposit, 
N.  Y.,Mar.  9,  1829:  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in  1848; 
studied  science  at  Lawrence  School;  was  Professor  of  Natu- 
ral Sciences,  New  York  State  NormiU  School,  18o6-.59,  and 
at  Antioch  College  18(jG-7;i :  was  president  of  Antioch  Col- 
lege 1872-7;i :  president  State  University  of  Oliio  1873-81  ; 
Professor  of  Geology,  State  University  of  Ohio,  from  187;i ; 
Assistant  Geologist,  Geological  .Survey  of  Ohio,  1869-8;i ; 
State  geologist  of  Ohio  from  1883;  vice-president  (geolog- 
ical section)  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  1885.  In  geology  Prof.  Orion  has  given  chief  at- 
tention to  ec(momic  problems,  especially  prolilems  coinu'cled 
with  the  distribution  of  petroleum,  natural  gas,  and  coal. 
His  principal  writings  are  contained  in  the  ollicial  rejxirts 
cf  the  Ohio  Geological  Survey  from  1809  to  1890.  He  has 
al.so  contributed  papers  on  the  geology  of  petroleum,  gas, 
and  asphalt  to  the  Kentucky  Geological  Reports,  1891,  to  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  for  1887,  to 
the  Bulletin  of  the  Geological  Society  of  America,  and  to 
various  journals.  G.  K.  Gilbkrt. 

Orton,  James:  naturalist  and  traveler:  b.  at  Seneca 
Falls,  N.  v.,  Apr.  21,  1830.  He  gradu.-ited  at  Williams  Col- 
lego  1855,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Semin.'iiy  18.58; 
traveled  in  Europe  anil  Asia  Minor;  became  a  Congrega- 
tional minister  1860;  was  appointed  instructor  in  Natural 
Science  in  Rochester  University  isdli ;  was  at  the  head  of 
the  Williams  College  expedition  which  crossed  the  .\mles  of 
Kcuador  and  descende<i  the  Napo  and  Amazon  18(i7-(i8 ; 
became  Professor  of  Natural  Histdry  in  Vassar  College 
1869;  and  in  1873  made  another  journey  to  South  Amer- 
ica, ascending  the  Amazon  and  visiting  Peru.  He  j)ublished 
The  Andes  and  the  Amazon  (1870;  enlarged  edition  187t>) ; 
Underground    Treasures :    how  and   where   to  find   them 


(1872)  ;  The  Liberal  Education  of  Women  (1873) ;  Compara- 
tive Zoology  (1875).  In  1877  he  attempted  to  explore  the 
river  Beni,  from  Bolivia,  but  was  forced  to  return  after  be- 
ing deserteil  by  his  Indian  canocmen,  and  died  on  Lake 
Titicaca,  Sept.  25,  1877.  Revised  by  Herbert  H.  Smith. 
Ortygla ;  See  Delos. 

Oru'ro :  a  western  department  of  Bolivia,  S.  of  La  Paz 
and  bordering  on  Chili ;  area,  21,333  scj.  miles ;  iiofnilation 
(1888)  1 1 1,372.  It  lies  in  the  southern  part  of  the  great  in- 
closed plateau  called  the  Titicaca  basin,  and  includes  Lake 
Aullagas  and  part  of  the  Desaguadero  river  ;  hardly  any  [lor- 
tion  of  the  surface  is  below  12,000  feet,  and  the  Andes  on  the 
W.  and  the  Cordillera  Real  on  the  E.  rise  far  above  the  limits 
of  perpetual  snow.  Jluch  of  the  land  is  arid,  with  ex- 
tensive marshes  and  .-ialty  plain.s,  and  it  is  so  cold  that  few 
crops  will  grow.  The  department  is  rich  in  silver,  copper, 
and  tin,  and  mining  is  the  only  important  industry.  A  large 
I)roportion  of  the  rural  population  is  of  Indian  blood.  Oruro, 
the  capital,  is  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Desaguadero  river, 
118  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  La  Paz  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref. 
6-C).  It  was  founded  in  1590,  was  an  im|iortant  mining 
town,  and  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century 
is  said  to  have  had  over  75,000  inhabitants:  but  later  the 
mines  were  abandoned,  and  the  place  was  nearly  depo)m- 
lated.  It  has  lately  become  important  again,  owing  to  the 
railway  which  connects  it  with  the  port  of  Antofagasla  in 
Chili.  Valuable  tin  mines  are  worked  in  the  vicinity,  and 
tin,  copper,  and  silver  are  largely  ex|iorted.  In  1801  Oruro 
was  temporarily  the  capital  of  Bolivia.  Pop.  (1894)  about 
9,000.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Orvie'to  (anc.  Orbitum,  TJrhs  Vet^is) :  city ;  in  the  province 
of  Perugia,  Italy ;  78  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Rome  (see  map  of 
Italy,  ret.  5-D)."  It  crowns  an  abrupt  volcanic  hill  near  the 
conMuence  of  the  Chiana  and  the  Paglia.  about  8  miles  from 
Lake  Bolsena.  The  Pozzo  di  San  Patrizio  (a  circular  well 
with  250  steps,  excavated  by  Clement  VII.  in  1527  after  the 
famous  sack  of  Rome)  is  worthy  of  notice ;  but  the  great 
boast  of  Orvieto  is  its  beautiful  cathedral,  founded  in  1290 
in  honor  of  the  famous  miracle  of  Bolsena.  (See  (Charles  E. 
Norton's  Notes  of  Travel  and  Study  in  Italy.)  Orvieto  is 
of  Etruscan  origin,  was  not  conspicuous  under  the  Romans, 
but  on  the  breaking  up  of  the  empire  declared  itself  in- 
dependent, and  being  Guelph  in  its  policy  was  l<mg  a  safe 
refuge  for  fugitive  popes.  It  manufactures  white  wine,  and 
has  considerable  trade  in  silk,  grain,  and  cattle.  Pop.  7,304. 
Orzeszkowa,  or'zesh-kova,  Eliza:  novelist;  b.  at  Mil- 
kowszczyzna,  Poland,  the  hereditary  estate  of  an  uncle,  in 
1842;  was  educated  at  War.-iaw ;  married  when  hardly  six- 
teen. Her  first  published  work,  a  prose  idyl,  Ohrazek  z  lat 
gUidowych  (A  Sketch  of  the  Lean  Years),  appeared  in  1866  in 
the  Tifyodnik  Tlii,strowany.  Her  novels,  the  first  of  which, 
W  Kl'atce  (In  Prison),  was  published  in  1867,  include  Na 
dtiie  sumienia  (At  the  Bottom  of  Conscience,  1871) :  Pod- 
zina  Broch wiczi/w  (18'!6);  and  Bene  J\'ati  (IS'M).  She  has 
also  written  a  number  of  essays  on  literary  and  social  mat- 
ters. In  her  stories  woman  is  generally  represented  as  a 
victim  of  social  injustice  and  a  slave  to  her  lord,  the  man, 
and  the  author  ajipears  as  a  champion  of  woman's  rights. 
Her  collected  works  appeared  in  1885.  J.  J.  Kral. 

Osage:  city;  capital  of  Mitchell  co.,  la.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Iowa,  ref.  2-H);  on  the  lied  Cedar  river,  and  the 
111.  Cent,  and  the  Winoiui  and  S.  W.  Railways;  17  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  Charles  City.  It  is  the  seat  of  Cedar  Valley 
Seminary  (Baptist,  opened  in  1863),  is  the  trade  center  of  a 
large  agrii'ultural  region,  has  a  number  of  maiuifactories, 
and  contains  2  national  banks  with  comliin<Ml  capital  of 
.$100,000.  a  private  bank,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)  2.012;  (IH'JO)  1.913;  (1895)  2,509. 

Osage  City:  city  (founded  in  1869)  v  Osage  co.,  Kan.  (for 
location,  seeiuap  of  Kansas,  ref.  6-1) ;  on  the  Atch.,  Top. 
and  S.  Fe  and  the  Mo.  Pac.  railways;  35  miles  S.  W.  of 
Topcka.  It  is  in  the  great  Kansas  coal  basin  and  is  princi- 
pally engaged  in  coal-mining  and  flag-stone  quarrying.  The 
cityand  vicinity  have  extensive  beds  of  pure  yellow  ocher, 
fro'in  which  an  "excellent  rpialily  of  brick  is  manufactured. 
There  are  12  churches,  a  national  bank,  a  State  bank,  and  2 
weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  2,098;  (1890)  3,469;  (1895) 
4,273.  EnrioR  ok  "  Free  Press." 

Osage  Iniliaiis:  See  Sioiax  Ixdians. 
Osage  Orange,  or  Bois  d'.Vrc:  a  North  American  tree, 
Madura  auranliaca,  of  the  family  Urticaceiv,  native  to  tho 
Arkansas  region.     It  has  a  handsome,  tough,  and  durable 


352 


OSAGE  RIVER 


OSCULATRIX 


yellow  wood,  which  has  been  proposed  as  a  substitute  for 
fustic.  The  fruit  is  large,  yellow,  and  somewhat  like  an 
orange,  whence  the  name.  It  is  not  edible.  The  principal 
use  of  the  tree  is  as  a  hedge-plant. 

Osage  River  :  a  stream  which  rises  in  Kansas,  where  it  is 
often  called  Marais  des  C'ygnes  (q.  v.).  It  traverses  Mis- 
souri, and  falls  into  the  Missouri  river  10  miles  below  Jeffer- 
son City.     Its  lower  course  is  navigable. 

Osaka  (liter.,  hill  of  the  large  estuary) :  an  important  sea- 
port, the  second  city  of  Japan  in  population  and  general  im- 
portance, and  in  early  times  its  capital ;  situated  on  the  bay 
of  the  same  name  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Yodogawa,  which 
carries  off  the  overflow  of  Lake  Biwa  (see  map  of  Japan, 
ref.  6-C).  For  purposes  of  foreign  trade  Osaka  is  united 
with  Hiogo,  one  hour  distant  by  rail.  Until  the  fifteenth 
century  it  bore  the  name  of  Naniwa;  it  dates  its  modern 
greatness  from  the  time  of  Hidetoshi  (q.  v.),  who  resolved 
to  make  it  the  seat  of  his  government,  and  founded  the  mag- 
nificent castle,  still  used  as  barracks.  The  interior  palace, 
possibly  in  its  time  the  handsomest  building  in  the  empire, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1868;  the  gateways  of  the  castle, 
with  the  huge  stones  of  which  they  are  constructed,  attest 
the  grand  scale  on  which  the  whole  structure  was  planned. 
The  city,  the  streets  of  which  are  narrow,  is  the  commercial 
center  of  the  empire,  and  the  great  rice  emporium.  The 
most  important  Government  building  is  the  mint,  opened  in 
1871  for  the  coining  of  bullion.  Originally  officered  by 
Englishmen  from  the  Hongkong  mint,  it  has  turned  out  a 
coinage  of  the  finest  quality.  Close  to  Osaka  is  Sakai,  where 
are  made  the  cotton  rugs  which  are  largely  exported.  The 
trade  in  straw-matting  has  also  its  center  in  this  neighbor- 
hood. On  an  island  in  the  Yodogawa  is  situated  the  small 
foreign  settlement,  now  deserted  by  traders  and  left  entirely 
to  missionaries.  Osaka  and  its  environs  form  one  of  the 
three  citv  prefectures  or  fn,  the  other  two  being  Tokio  and 
Kioto.    Population  of  the  city,  483,600;  of  the  fu.  1,216,670. 

J.  jr.  Diso.v. 

Osar :  See  Drift. 

Osanatomie :  city;  Miami  co.,  Kan.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Kansas,  ref.  6-K) ;  on  the  Mo.  Pacific  Railway ;  8 
miles  S.  W.  of  Paola,  the  county  seat.  It  is  in  an  agricul- 
tural region,  and  contains  the  Kansas  State  Insane  Asylum. 
2  State  banks  with  combined  capital  of  .f  37,740,  ami  3  weekly 
newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  681 ;  (1890)  2,663 ;  (18!t5)  2,613. 

Osborn,  Sherard  :  admiral ;  b.  in  Jladras,  India,  Apr.  25. 
1832;  entered  the  British  navy  1837;  served  in  one  of  the 
expeditions  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  in  the  Crimean 
war.  and  in  the  seas  of  China  and  Japan  ;  accepted  from  the 
Chinese  Government  the  command  of  a  squadron  for  the 
suppression  of  piracy  1863;  returned  to  England  1864  to 
take  command  of  the  turreted  monitor  Royal  Sovereign : 
was  for  several  years  manager  at  Bombay  of  the  Great 
Indian  Peninsular  Railway  ;  became  rear  admiral  1873,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  commission  for  fitting  out  the  Arctic 
ex])cdition  of  1875.  Author  of  Stray  Leaves  from  an  Arctic 
JoiiDial  (1852) ;  A  Cruise  in  Japanese  Waters  {185d) ;  The 
Past  and  Future  of  British  Relations  in  China  (1860) ;  and 
other  works.    D.  in  England,  May  6,  1875. 

Oscan ;  See  Italic  Languages. 

Oscar  I. :  King  of  Xorway  and  Sweden  ;  b.  in  Paris, 
France,  July  4, 17!)0  ;  the  only" child  of  Bernadotte,  who,  on 
Aug.  21,  1810,  was  elected  heir  to  the  throne  of  Sweden.  On 
June  19,  1823,  O.war  married  Josephine,  a  daughter  of  Eu- 
gene Beauharnais,  formerly  Viceroy  of  Italy.  lie  ascended 
the  throne  Mar.  8, 1844,  and  died 'July  8,  1859.  He  was  a 
successful  composer  of  music;  in  1840  he  published  a  work 
on  prisons  and  the  punishment  of  crime.  His  eldest  son, 
Charles  XV.,  succeeded  him  on  the  throne.  R.  B.  A. 

Oscar  II..  Fredrik,  of  the  house  of  Bernadotte  :  King 
of  Norway  and  Sweden;  poet  and  writer;  b.  Jan.  21.  1839, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  death  of  his  brother,  Charles 
XV.,  Sept.  18,  1872.  His  literary  and  artistic  talents  are  of 
a  very  high  order.  In  1858  he  gained  the  second  prize  of 
the  Swedish  Academy  for  a  collection  of  poems.  f>  Sven- 
ska  Flottans  Minnen  (3d  ed.  1862) ;  since  that  time  he  has 
published  miscellaneous  writings  under  the  title  Xytt  och 
Oammalt  af  0  *  *  *  *  (5  small  volumes,  1859-72) ;  Nagra 
bidrag  till  Sveriges  krigshistnria  dren  nil,  171,',  och  1713 
(1859-65);  translations  of  Herder's  Cf'rf,  Goethe's  Torquato 
Tasso.  and  others.  His  complete  writings  (Samlade  Skrif- 
ter)  have  appeared  in  four  volumes  (1875-91).  King  Oscar 
is  a  very  felicitous  speaker,  and  most  of  his  addresses  and 


speeches  on  different  occasions  in  the  Swedish,  Norwegian, 
and  other  languages  have  been  published  in  the  periodical 
press.  His  speeches  in  the  Musical  Academy  {Tal  i  Musi- 
katiska  Akademieyi)  were  published  in  1885,  with  notes  by 
Fr.  Cronhamn.  A  fifth  volume  of  his  complete  writings, 
containing  all  his  speeches  made  since  his  acession  to  the 
throne,  appeared  in  1894.  P.  Groth. 

Osceola :  city  (founded  in  1850) ;  capital  of  Clarke  co., 
la.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Iowa,  ref.  7-G)  ;  on  the  Chi., 
Burl,  and  Quincy  and  the  Des  M.  and  Kan.  City  railways ; 
50  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Des  Moines.  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
and  stock-raising  region ;  contains  7  churches,  3  public- 
school  buildings,  new  court-house,  a  sanitarium,  2  State 
banks,  a  private  bank,  electric-light  plant,  and  2  weekly 
newspapers;  and  has  marble-works,  agricultural-implement 
works,  and  railway  machine-shops.  Pop.  (1880)  1.769  ;  (1890) 
2,120 ;  (1895)  2,176.  .Editor  of  "  Sentinel." 

Osceola:  a  Seminole  chief,  son  of  William  Powell,  an 
Englishman,  by  an  Indian  mother,  born  about  1804,  near 
the  river  Chattahoochee.  Osceola  was  early  distinguished 
for  ability,  courage,  and  hatred  of  the  whites;  attained 
great  influence  among  the  Seminoles,  and  strongly  opposed 
the  cession  of  the  tribal  lands  in  Florida.  In  1835  his  wife, 
the  daughter  of  a  fugitive  slave,  was  stolen  as  a  slave,  and 
Osceola,  demanding  her  release  of  Col.  Thompson,  U.  S. 
agent  at  Fort  King,  used  language  which  the  latter  resented, 
and  the  chief  was  put  in  irons.  Six  months  later  Thompson 
was  murdered  ;  the  battle  on  the  Withlaeoochie,  the  massacre 
of  Dade,  the  assaults  on  Forts  Micanopy  and  Drane,  and 
other  spirited  actions  followed,  in  which  the  Indians  more 
than  held  their  own  against  very  great  odds ;  but  during  a 
conference  with  Gen.  Jessup,  under  a  flag  of  truce,  Osceola 
was  treacherously  seized  (Oct.  33,  1837),  and  imprisoned  at 
Fort  Moultrie,  S.'C,  where  he  died  Jan.  30,  1838. 

Os'cines  :  a  term  applied  by  Johannes  JIuller  to  a  group 
of  Passeres  containing  those  with  a  highly  developed  sing- 
ing apparatus,  having  five  or  six  pairs  of  tracheal  muscles 
attached  to  the  ends  of  the  upper  bronchial  half  rings — an 
arrangement  termed  acromyodian.  The  name  was  used  by 
Merrem,  but  not  in  the  same  manner  as  it  was  by  MUUer, 
and  not  with  his  exactness  of  definition.  The  group,  or 
sub-order,  contains  over  nine-tenths  of  the  passerine  birds, 
and  is  contrasted  with  the  Clamatores  (g.  v.)  or  Mesomyodian 
birds.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Osco'da:  village;  Iosco  co.,  Mich,  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Michigan,  ref.  5-J) ;  on  Lake  Huron,  at  the  mouth  of 
Au  Sable  river,  and  the  An  Sable  and  N.  W.  and  the  De- 
troit. Bay  City  and  Alpena  railways;  100  miles  N.  E.  of 
Bay  City,  200  miles  N.  of  Detroit.  It  is  in  an  agricultural, 
lumber,  and  salt-manufacturing  region ;  has  a  large  trade 
in  lumber;  and  contains  three  churches,  public  and  Roman 
Catholic  schools,  a  savings-bank,  and  a  weekly  newspaper. 
Pop.  (1880)  1.951;  (1890)  3.593;  (1894)  2,078. 

Editor  of  "  Saturday  Night." 

Osciila'trix  and  Oscillatory  Circle  [oscvlafrix  is  Mod. 
Lat.,  liter.,  femin.  of  *oscu1n  tor,  a  kisser,  deriv.  of  os- 
culiiiu,  a  kiss,  liter.,  dimin.  of  os,  mouth] ;  an  osculatrix  is 
a  curve  of  a  given  kind  which,  at  an  assigned  point  of  an- 
other curve,  has  the  closest  possible  contact  with  the  latter. 
If  two  plane  curves  have  two  consecutive  points  in  common, 
the  straight  line  passing  through  these  points  is  tangent  to 
both  curves  at  the  first  point,  and  the  two  curves  are  said  to 
have  a  contact  of  the  first  order.  In  general,  if  two  plane 
curves  have  n  +  1  consecutive  points  in  common,  they  will 
have  n  consecutive  rectilinear  tangents  in  common,  and  the 
two  curves  are  then  said  to  have  a  contact  of  the  nth  order. 
If  two  curves  have  a  contact  of  the  «th  order,  they  must 
have  n  +  1  consecutive  ordinates  in  common,  counting  from 
the  first  point,  and  consequently  they  must  have  «  succes- 
sive differential  coefficients  of  their  ordinates  at  that  point 
equal  to  each  other.  Conversely,  if  two  curves  have  a  com- 
mon point,  and  if  n  successive  dilTerential  coefficients  of 
their  ordinates  at  that  point  are  equal,  they  will  have  a  con- 
tact of  the  ?ith  order. 

It  is  a  property  of  osculatrices  that  no  osculatrix  whose 
contact  is  of  an  odd  order  can  cut  the  curve  to  which  it  is 
osculatory  at  the  point  of  osculation,  and  that  every  oscula- 
trix whose  cimtact  is  of  an  even  order  must  cut  the  curve  to 
which  it  is  osculatory  at  the  point  of  osculation. 

The  osculatory  circle  is  a  circle  that,  at  a  given  point  of  a 
curve,  has  the  closest  possible  contact  with  the  curve.  Thus 
it  passes  through  three  consecutive  points  of  the  curve,  as  a 


OSGOOD 


OSKALOOSA 


353 


circle  is  determined  by  the  three  conditions;  consequently 
the  first  and  second  diirerential  coeflU-icnls  of  the  ordinates 
of  the  curve  and  circle  are  ecjual  at  the  point  of  contact. 
The  radius  of  the  circle  is  called  the  radius  of  curvature, 
and  its  reciprocal  nuiy  be  coiisi<lcnMi  as  a  nu'asure  of  the 
curvature  of  the  curve.  The  center  of  the  circle  is  <'alled 
the  center  of  curvature;  and  the  locus  of  this  point  is  the 
evolute  of  the  curve.  (See  Evoi.ute.)  It  is  to  be  remarked 
that  we  can  not  assign  to  a  circle  a  hi;;her  order  of  contact 
than  the  second,  but  it  may  hapjien  that  it  has  a  higher  or- 
der of  contact  at  particular  points.  This  is  the  case  at  those 
points  where  three  consecutive  normals  (see  IS'okmal)  pass 
through  a  point,  as,  for  instance,  at  the  vertices  of  the  conic 
sections.  Revised  by  R.  A.  Kouebts. 

O.s^ood.  Samtel  :  solilicr  and  official ;  b.  at  Andover, 
Mass..  Feb.  14.  17-lS;  graduated  at  Harvard  17T0;  studied 
divinity,  liut  became  a  merchant  ;  was  much  in  public  life; 
attained  the  rank  of  colonel  and  assistant  commissary  in  the 
Revolutionary  army;  served  in  the  Massachusetts  Legisla- 
ture ;  w!is  in  Congress  17S0-84 ;  was  first  commissioner  of  the 
U.S.  Treasury  178.5-89;  Postmaster-General  1789-'J1  ;  be- 
came Speaker  of  the  New  York  House  of  Assembly  ;  super- 
visor in  New  York  1801-03:  naval  officer  of  the  port  of  New 
York  1803-13.  He  wrote  various  works,  chielly  on  religious 
questions.     D.  in  New  York,  Aug.  13,  1813. 

Osgood,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  IjL.  D.  :  clergyman  and  num  of 
letters;  b.  in  Chai-lestown,  Mass.,  Aug.  30,  1812  ;  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  1833,  and  at  Cambridge  Theological 
School  1835;  was  pastor  in  Nashua,  N.  H.,  1837,  in  Provi- 
dence 1841,  and  in  New  York  1849 ;  in  1870  left  Unitarianism 
for  the  Episcopal  Church,  but  assunu'd  no  pastoral  charge. 
His  numerous  writings  include  Studies  in  Christian  Biog- 
raphy (18.il);  The  Ilearth-slone  (18,54);  Clod  vith  Men 
(1854);  Milestones  in  our  Life  Journei/  (1855);  Student 
Life  (1860);  he  translated  from  the  German  de  Wette's 
Human  Life  (1842)  and  Olshausen's  History  of  the  Passion 
(1839).  He  edited  The  Western  3Iessenger  two  years  and 
The  Christian  Inquirer  four;  was  for  many  years  home 
corresponding  secretarv  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society. 
D.  in  New  York,  Apr.  14,  1880. 

O'Shaughnessy,  (i-shaw'ne-se"e,  Aethtr  William  Edhar  : 
poet;  b.  1846;  d.  1881.  In  1864  he  entered  the  British 
Museum.  In  1873  he  married  Eleanor,  sister  of  Philip 
liourke  Marston.  He  belonged  to  the  neo-romantic  group 
of  poets,  followers  of  Morris  and  Swinburne  and  of  the 
French  romantic  school;  published  An  Epic  of  Women 
(1870);  Lays  of  France  (1871),  a  free  ])arai>hrase  of  the  lais 
of  Marie  de  France ;  Music  and  Moonlight  (1874) ;  and 
Songs  of  a  Worker  (1881).  H.  A.  B. 

Osh'uwa  :  town  aiul  warehousing  port  of  Whitby  town- 
ship, Ontario  County,  Ontario,  Canada;  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
railway,  33  miles  X.  E.  of  Toronto  and  near  Lake  Ontario  (see 
map  of  Ontario,  ref.  4-E).  It  has  extensive  manufactures 
of  superior  flour,  of  furniture,  farm  implements,  machinery, 
steam-engines,  printing-presses,  etc.,  and  two  weekly  news- 
papers.    Pop.  (1891)  4,066. 

Oi^lieba :  Sec  Fans. 

Osh'kosh :  city ;  capital  of  Winnebago  co..  Wis.  (for  lo- 
cation, see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  5-E);  on  Lake  Winne- 
bago at  the  mouth  of  Fo.x  river,  and  on  the  Chi.  and  N.  W., 
the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.,  Mil.,  L.  S.  and  W.,  and  the  Wis. 
Cent,  railways;  35  miles  N.  W.  of  Milwaukee,  49  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  Green  Bay.  It  is  in  a  lumber  region ;  has  an 
excellent  location  for  communication  with  distant  points 
by  water;  and  is  the  third  city  in  the  State  in  population, 
wealth,  and  commercial  importance.  The  census  returns 
of  1890  showed  that  433  manufacturing  establishments 
(representing  71  industries)  reporteil.  These  combiiu'd  had 
a  capital  of  $6,531,213,  employed  5,397  persons,  paid  $2,017,- 
267  for  wages  and  $4,663,510'  for  materials,  and  hail  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $8,619,319.  The  princi|)al  mainifactures  were 
eonnecteil  with  the  lumber  and  sash  and  door  industry,  and 
comprised  15  establishments,  which  had  a  combini'd  capital 
of  $3,3.54,598,  used  matrrials  valued  a1  $2,700,816.  iuid  had 
produc'ts  valued  at  $4,208,400.  Other  important  iiulustries, 
in  the  order  of  capital  investment,  were  tiie  manufacture  of 
furnilure,  $556,464;  carriages  and  wagons,  $378,702;  foun- 
dry and  machine-shop  products,  $313,960;  malt  liquors, 
$151,838;  flour  and  grist  mill  products.  $116,655;  tobacco, 
$107,771  ;  printing  and  publishing.  $97,951  ;  and  slaughter- 
ing and  meat-packing,  $38,300.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  a 
.Slate  normal  school  and' of  the  Northern  Wisconsin  Insane 
307 


Asylum  ;  contains  a  IT.  S.  Government  building,  2  libraries 
(State  Normal  School  an<i  Public)  with  over  7,000  volumes, 
large  city-hall  building,  10  public-school  buildings,  public- 
school  property  valued  at  over  $233,000,  gas  and  electric- 
light  works,  ami  Holly  water-works;  and  has  3  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $500,000,  3  State  banks 
with  capital  of  $350,000,  and  2  daily,  7  weekly,  and  2 
monthlv  periodicals.  The  assessed  valuation  in  1894  was 
$8,580,497,  and  the  bondeil  debt  on  Feb.  15, 1894,  was  $236  - 
800.     Pop.  (1880)  15,748  ;  (1890)  22,836  ;  (189,5)  26,947. 

Editor  of  "  Northwester.n." 

Osian'dcr  (or  Hospinann,  his  true  name),  Andreas 
[Osiander  is  a  Grecized  form  of  Hosemann:  cf.  Gr.  iurfip, 
avSpis.  man,  and  Germ,  mann,  man] :  theologian  ;  b.  at  Gun- 
zenhausen,  near  Nuremberg,  Dec.  19, 1498;  studied  theology 
at  Ingoldstadl  and  Wittenberg;  became  preacher  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1520,  and  being  an  ardent  adherent  of  Luther  he 
laboretl  with  great  energy  for  the  Reformation.  In  1548, 
however,  he  was  deprived  of  his  oflice,  as  he  would  not  sub- 
scribe to  the  Augsburg  Interim,  but  he  was  shortly  after 
(1549)  made  ]ireacher  aiul  Professor  in  Theology  at  Ivonigs- 
berg.  Here  he  entered  into  a  hot  controvei'sy  concerning 
justification.  He  held  very  peculiar  views  on  that  j)oint. 
Fundamentally  he  agreed  with  Luther  and  was  as  antago- 
nistic to  Calvinism  as  to  Romanism,  but  he  was  a  mystic, and 
maintained  the  righteousness  of  Christ  is  not  iini)iiled  to  us 
but  infused  into  us.  His  views  may  be  best  learned  from 
his  two  pan]()hlets  An  filius  del  fuerit  incarnandus,  etc. 
(1550).  and  Von  dem  einigen  Mittler,  Jesu  Christo,  etc. 
(1551).  He  (lied  siuidenly  in  Kiinigsberg,  Oct.  17,  1552. 
His  prinei]ial  works  were  Harmon ia  Erangelica  (1537):  I>e 
Lege  el  Entnyelio  (1,549);  and  De  Justificatione  (1,550). 
See  his  Ltfe.  by  W.  Moller  (Elberleld.  1870).  See  also  the 
article  German  Theology.      ,  Revised  by  S.  M.  .Iacksox. 

Osi'ris  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  'Oo-ipii,  Egypt.  Ausar  Asiri,  Hesiri] : 
the  Egyptian  god  of  the  dead  and  ruler  of  the  nether  re- 
gions. He  is  conceived  as  the  son  of  Nut,  brother  and  hus- 
liand  of  Isis;  brother  also  of  Nephthys  and  Set-Typhon. 
The  story  of  Osiris  is  told  at  length  by  Plutarch  (Isis  and 
Osiris),  and  is  the  only  Egyptian  myth  of  which  we  have 
the  outlines  in  any  degree  of  comipleteness.  The  native 
texts  are  full  of  allusions  to  this  as  to  a  mullitude  of  other 
myths,  but  they  are  fragmentary  in  character  and  extent. 
Osiris  apjiears  first  as  a  divine  ruler  of  Egypt,  elevating  the 
mode  of  life,  improving  the  condition  of  the  land,  dividing 
it  and  organizing  its  administration.  After  a  happy  and 
prosperous  reign  he  was  murdered  by  his  brother  Set.  He 
afterward  rose  again  in  the  region  of  the  departed  and  be- 
came the  ruler  of  the  dead,  in  which  character  he  hence- 
forth appears.  His  di^ath  was  avenged  by  Horns,  son  of 
Isis,  who  succeeded  in  overcoming  Set.  According  to  the 
myth,  Set  had  divided  the  body  of  Osiris  into  fourteen 
parts.  Thirteen  of  these  were  found  by  Isis,  who  erected  a 
temple  to  Osiris  over  each.  The  [place  which  was  specially 
sacred  to  him  was  Abydos,  where  his  heart  was  believed  to 
be  buried.  Before  him,  as  god  of  the  dead,  the  judgment 
scene  occurs,  with  its  weighing  of  the  soul  of  the  individual 
over  against  the  symbol  of  truth.  (.See  Ritual  of  the  Dead.) 
Like  Osiris,  every  man  must  die.  be  judged,  and  rise  again 
in  order  to  partake  in  the  future  happiness  that  awaited  the 
pious  Egy[)tian.  The  dead  themselves  were  called  by  his 
name.  He  was  the  special  hero  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead, 
and  the  prayers  of  funeral  steles  were  addressed  to  him. 
The  belief  in  him  and  in  the  immortality  which  he  symbol- 
ized was  the  deepest  in  Egyptian  religious  thought. 

Charles  R.  Gillf.tt. 

Oskaloosa:  city:  capital  of  Mahaskaco..  Ia.  (forlocaticm, 
see  map  of  luwa.  ref.  6-1):  on  the  divide  betwei'ii  the  Des 
Moines  and  the  South  .Skunk  rivers,  and  the  Burlington 
Route,  the  la.  Cent.,  and  the  Chi.,  Rock  Is.  and  Pac.  rail- 
ways; 24  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Ottumwa,  63  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
Des  Moines.  It  is  in  a  coal,  agricultural,  and  stock-raising 
region,  which  also  has  valual)le  deposits  of  iron  ore  and  fire- 
clay. It  is  the  seat  of  Oskaloosa  College  (Christian,  char- 
tered in  18.55),  and  of  IVnii  College  (Friend.s.  chartered  in 
1873) ;  has  gas  aiul  electri(t  light  plants,  water-works,  street- 
railways,  4  libraries  (public,  high  school,  and  Oskaloosa  and 
Penn  Colleges)  containing  over  11,000  vohnnes;  a  national 
bank,  2  Stale  t)anks,  a  private  bank,  and  a  daily.  5  weekly, 
and  3  monthly  periodicals:  and  manufactures  flour,  woolen 
goods,  iron  and  brass  goods,  paving-brick,  and  furnaces, 
and  packs  pork.  Pop.  (}880)  4,598;  (1890)  6.558;  (1895) 
8,551.  Editor  ok  "Hkkai.d." 


354 


OSLER 


OSSIAN 


Osier,  William,  M.  D..  F.  R.  C.  P. :  clinician ;  b.  at  Te- 
cumsetli,  Ontario,  Canada,  July  12,  1849;  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Toronto :  studied  medicine  at  McGill  Uni- 
versity, Montreal,  and  in  Loudon,  Berlin,  and  Vienna:  was 
Professor  of  the  Institutes  of  Medicine,  McGill  University. 
1874-8-1:  Professor  of  Clinical  Medicine,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  1884-89 :  became  professor  in  Johns  Hopliins 
University,  and  physician-in-chief  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital, 
Baltimore,  in  1889;  was  Galstonian  lecturer  at  the  Koyal 
College  of  Physicians,  London,  in  1885,  and  Cartwright  lec- 
turer at  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York, 
in  1886.  He  is  tlie  author  of  Clinical  Notes  on  Smallpox 
(Montreal,  1877);  Ilisfohgy  Kates  for  Students  (1881) ;  The 
Cerebral  Palsies  of  Children  (London  and  Philadelphia, 
1889) :  The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine  (New  York, 
1892) ;  and  edited  Montreal  General  Hospital  Reports  (1878). 

S.  T.  AkmstkojjO. 

Osmaii :  See  Othman. 

Osinaii  Pasha:  soldier;  b.  at  Tokat,  Asia  Minor.  1832; 
was  educated  at  the  military  schools  of  Constantinople ; 
fought  in  the  Crimean  war,  the  Cretan  cami)aign,  and  the 
Serbo-Turkish  war ;  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo-Turkish 
war  was  commander  of  the  Fifth  Army-corps.  Defeated  at 
Scalevitze,  he  intrenched  himself  at  Plevna,  which  he  held 
from  Aug.  31  to  Dec.  10,  1877,  when  he  surrendered  with 
43,000  men.  Since  the  conclusion  of  peace  he  has  been  sev- 
eral times  Minister  of  War,  and  is  now  (1894)  grand  marshal 
of  the  palace.  In  personal  appearance,  character,  and  mode 
of  warfare,  he  is  a  typical  Ottoman  soldier,  fanatical,  frugal, 
brave,  and  when  behind  earthworks  almost  invincible. 

E.  A.  Orosvenoe. 

Os'mazome  [from  Gr.oo-^l;.  smell  -t-  fa/icJs,  broth] :  a  name 
given  by  Thenard  to  that  portion  of  meat  extract  which  is 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  contajns  those  constituents  of  the 
flesh  which  determine  its  taste  and  smell. 

Os'iuium  [from  Gr.  oa-fi'h,  smell,  odor,  deriv.  of  iifety, 
smell] :  an  element  of  matter,  one  of  the  "  platinum  metals  " ; 
that  is,  found  in  association  in  nature  with  platinum.  Its 
only  ore  is  a  native  compound  with  another  metal  of  the 
same  natural  group.  Iridium  (q.  v.).  forming  the  mineral 
metallic  alloy  called  iridosinine  or  osrairidium,  which  is  ex- 
ceedingly hard,  and  therefore  used  for  tipping  gold  pens. 
This  native  alloy  contains  also  Ruthenium  (g.  v.).  The 
methods  of  procuring  metallic  osmium  and  its  compounds 
from  the  ore  are  complex  and  difficult.  At  the  most  in- 
tense heats  it  volatilizes  without  fusion.  In  fine  division  it 
is  very  combustible,  burning  to  osmio  acid.  Osmium  is  be- 
lieved to  be,  in  some  of  its  combinations,  the  most  poisonous 
also  of  known  substances.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

OsmundacesB:  See  Fernworts. 

Os'nabrilek  :  town  :  in  the  province  of  Hanover,  Prussia  ; 
on  the  Hase ;  70  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Hanover  (see  map  of  Ger- 
man Empire,  ref.  3-D).  It  contains  a  large  cathedral,  built 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  a  town-hall,  in  wliich  the  Treaty 
of  Westphalia  was  signed  in  1648,  and  numerous  manufac- 
tories of  steel  and  iron,  tobacco,  chicory,  soap,  paper-hang- 
ings, leather,  and  linen  and  woolen  fabrics.  It  dates  from 
772;  suffered  much  during  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  but  re- 
covered in  the  eighteenth  centurv,  owing  to  the  develop- 
ment of  its  linen  industry.     Pop.  (1890)  39,929. 

Oso'rio,  Manoel  Luiz:  soldier;  h.  near  Pelotas.  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil,  May  10,  1808.  He  early  entered  the 
army;  first  attained  distinction  in  the  civil"  war  in  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  1839-45;  was  prominent  in  the  campaign  in 
Uruguay  and  against  Rosas  1851-52:  and  on  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Paraguayan  war  was  made  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Brazilian  forces  in  operation  Mar.  1,  1865.  He  was 
superseded  by  Caxias  July  15,  1866,  but  continued  to  serve 
until  Dec,  1869,  when  he  was  severelv  wounded.  As  a 
cavalry  leader  he  was  unsurpassed  :  the  "soldiers  called  him 
O  legendario,  or  The  Fabulous,  on  account  of  his  bravery. 
He  became  lieutenant-general  in  June,  1867. and  wascreate'd 
successively  baron,  viscount,  and  Marquis  of  Ilerval.  After 
the  war  he  took  an  active  part  in  politics;  was  senator  from 
Jan.  11,  1877,  and  Minister  of  War  from  Jan.  5,  1878.  'D. 
at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Oct.  4,  1879.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Osorkon:  the  name  of  three  Egyptian  kings;  the  sec- 
ond and  fourth  of  the  twenty-secmid  (Bubastite)  dynasty, 
and  the  second  of  the  twenty-third  (Tanite)  dynasty.  Of 
Osorkon  I.  and  II.  little  of  importance  is  known,  except 
that  the  former  apparently  founili-d  a  city  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Fayum  near  the  site  of  the  modern  Illahun.     It  has 


also  been  conjectured,  on  the  ground  of  chronology,  that  he 
was  the  Zaneus  of  Josephus  (Antiq.  Jud.,  viii.,  12,  1-2)  and 
the  Zerah  of  2  Chron.  xiv.  9-13  ;  but  this  is  very  doubtful. 
The  third  Osorkon  is  named  among  the  twenty  kings  of 
Egypt  at  the  time  of  Pianchi  the  Ethiopian  conqueror,  as 
King  of  Bubastis  in  the  Delta.  The  divided  condition  of 
the  land  made  it  an  easy  prey  to  the  power  of  the  growing 
Ethiopian  kingdom  whose  capital  was  at  Napata  (q.  v.). 

Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Osorno,  Marquis  of  :  See  O'Higgins,  Ambrosio. 

Ospi'na  Rodriguez.  Mariano:  politician;  b.  at  Guasca, 
New  Granada,  1803.  He  was  a  lawyer,  early  took  part  in 
politics,  and  joined  the  party  which  opposed  Bolivar  in  1830. 
Subsequently  he  was  a  leader  of  the  conservative  party; 
was  a  member  of  congress.  Secretary  of  the  Interior  1841, 
and  governor  of  Bogota.  From  1857  to  1861  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Grenadine  Confederation.  A  revolt  which  broke 
out  in  1859  was  partially  suppressed,  but  was  successful 
soon  after  Ospina's  term  came  to  an  end,  and  resulted  in  a 
change  of  constitution.  Ospina  was  imprisoned  for  a  short 
time,  and  subsequently  exiled  until  1872.  D.  at  Medellin, 
1885.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Osprey :  See  Fish-hawk. 

Os'sein  [from  Lat.  os,  ossis,  bone] :  the  modification  of 
Gelatin  (q.  v.)  that  occurs  in  bones,  forming  substantially 
the  whole  of  the  organic  part  of  the  bone,  apart  from  the 
tricalcic  phosjjhate.  which  makes  up  the  mass  of  the  earthy 
part.  Ossein  may  be  isolated  in  its  natural  state  by  dissolv- 
ing out  the  earthy  part  of  the  bone  with  muriatic  acid  and 
long  and  repeated  washing  with  cold  water.  It  then  forms, 
before  drying,  a  soft  elastic  mass,  which  is  insoluble  in  cold 
water,  but  quickly  dissolves  in  boiling  water  to  a  solution 
of  ordinary  gelatin.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Osse'tisll :  an  Iranian  language ;  the  speech  of  the  Cau- 
casus folk  Ossetians.  The  Ossetians  are  the  most  northwest- 
ern people  of  the  Iranians,  and  they  are  somewhat  separated 
by  other  tribes  from  the  main  body  of  the  race,  but  their 
speech  is  none  the  less  Iranic.  Three  dialects  of  the  lan- 
guage may  be  recognized  :  First,  the  northeastern  or  eastern, 
called  Tagaurian :  second,  the  northwestern  or  western, 
termed  Digorian  (but  styled  Ironian  by  the  Ossetians  them- 
selves) ;  third,  the  southern  or  Tualian.  In  its  inflectional 
system  the  Ossetish  shows  ten  cases,  including  a  so-called 
sociative  and  elative,  in  the  declension;  the  verb  conjuga- 
tion and  the  syntax  show  a  comparative  fullness  in  accord- 
ance. A  striking  phonetic  feature  of  the  speech  is  the  ab- 
sence of  h.  a  letter  otherwise  common  in  Iranian  tongues. 
Ossetish  can  make  but  slight  literary  claims. 

The  names  of  the  principal  authorities  on  this  language 
are  Sjogren,  G.  von  Rosen,  W.  Miller,  Fr.  Miiller,  Lcrch, 
Tsorajew,  Salemann,  B.  Joseph,  Stackelberg.  and  Hiibsch- 
mann.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Ossian  (Oisin  or  Ossin)  :  bard  and  hero  of  Irish  legend, 
son  of  Fingal  (Finn  or  Find),  father  of  Oscar.  The  legend 
puts  these  heroes  in  the  latter  halt  of  the  third  century,  and 
in  the  earliest  poems  and  tales  they  have  the  air  of  historical 
characters.  References  to  them  in  the  oldest  sources  are 
scanty.  Between  the  twelfth  and  fifteenth  centuries  they 
were  the  center  of  a  vigorous  growth  of  stories  that  devel- 
oped in  the  east  of  Ireland,  and  are  known  as  the  cycle  of 
Leinster,  or  the  Ossianic  cycle.  This  cycle  long  kept  its 
vitality,  developing  new  branches  as  late  as  the  eighteenth 
century.  It  was  carried  across  to  the  Scotch  Highlands, 
and  first  came  to  general  notice  through  the  Gaelic  forms 
of  the  tradition.  James  MacPherson,  a  young  Highland 
schoolmaster,  had  collected  from  oral  tradition  a  few  frag- 
ments of  (iaelic  ]HH'try,  and  brought  them  to  the  notice  of 
the  Rev.  John  Home,  who  showed  them  to  Dr.  Hugh  Blair, 
then  a  power  in  the  world  of  Scotch  letters.  Blair  urged 
MacPherson  to  publish  his  English  versions  of  them,  and 
these  accordingly  appeared  in  1760,  in  a  small  volume,  en- 
titled, Frngmenls  of  Ancient  Poetry,  collected  in  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland,  and  translated  from  the  Gaelic  or  Erse, 
with  a  preface  by  Dr.  Blair.  The  volume  |)rovoked  con- 
siderable enthusiasm  among  Scotch  literary  men  and  anti- 
quarians, who  subscribed  money  in  aid  of  further  search 
for  similar  remains.  MacPherson  undertook  the  task,  and 
traveled  extensively  through  the  remoter  Highlands,  and 
upon  his  return  published  in  London  two  additional  vol- 
umes: Fingal.  an  Ancient  Epic  Poem,  in  si.r  books,  with 
other  lesser  poems  (1762);  Tentora.  an  Epic  Poem,  in  eight 
books,  with  other  poem*- (1763).     All  were  then  collected  in 


OSSOLI 


OSTEOLOGY 


355 


a  single  volume  as  The  Poems  of  Ossian  (1765).  Immedi- 
ately u|Km  tiK'ir  a|)[)farance  a  fierce  controversy  arose.  Ur. 
Johnson  iloclanil  that  no  ancient  poetry  could  be  discovered 
amoii'T  tlie  llifjhlanders :  that  Nlacl'herson  had  had  no 
originals  and  was  tricking  the  puhlic :  and  that  his  poems 
were  worthless  bombast.  \V.  Shaw's  Inquiry  iiilu  the  Aii- 
ihenticity  of  the  Poems  of  Onsiiin  (London.  ITHl)  and  Mal- 
colm Lalnij's  y^otes  and  Illustrations  to  Ossian  (Edinburgh, 
180.1)  were  important  works  in  support  of  that  contention. 
On  the  other  hand.  Dr.  151air  and  others  collected  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  poetry  in  the  Highlands  and  its  collec- 
tion by  MacPherson,  and  pointed  out  beauties  in  the  poems 
equal  to  those  of  Homer.  In  180.5  the  Highland  Society  of 
Edinburgh  published  a  report  of  its  elaborate  inquiry  into 
the  question  of  the  e.\istence  of  ancient  (iaelic  originals. 
The  report  found  that  a  great  legen<l  of  Finn  and  Ossian 
and  popular  poetry  concerning  them  had  existed;  that  frag- 
ments were  collected  having  in  the  main  the  same  substance 
as  the  poems  published  by  .Macl'hcrson.  but  none  which 
were  exact  origuuils  ;  and  that  .MacPherson  had  edited  his 
materials  freely,  and  a<lded  of  liis  own  invention.  Those 
who  attacked  the  authenticity  of  the  poems  had  challenged 
jMmiPherson  to  pulilish  the  Gaelic  nninu.s('ripts,  and  £1.000 
had  been  subscribed  among  his  Scotch  supporters  for  that 
purpose.  MacPherson  died  (17'JO)  without  puldi.shing  them, 
but  left  among  his  papers  materials  which  were  published 
in  1807.  This  Gaelic  text  seems  to  be  a  curious  mosaic  of 
old  and  new  material.s,  made  by  one  unproficient  in  the 
Gaelic  language;  it  was  contended  that  MacPherson  had 
made  his  (iaelic  text  by  translating  his  poems  from  the 
Knglish,  and  the  dispute  continued.  It  has  not  yet  been 
entirely  aliandoned,  though  the  advances  in  Celtic  scholar- 
ship and  the  ]>ublication  of  authentic  remains  of  old  Gaelic 
tradition  (cf.  notably  .1.  P.  Campbell.  Popular  Tales  of  the 
West  Ilightands.  oralli/ collected,  iritli  a  Translation,  4  vols., 
Edinburgh.  1800-63;  'The  Dean  of  Lismore's  Boo^-,  edited 
by  T.  MacLauchlan,  London,  1862)  have  confirmed  the 
general  conclusions  of  the  Highland  Society's  report  of  1805, 
and  made  it  clear  that  MacPherson  had  originals  to  work 
upon,  found  in  the  living  oral  tradition;  that  these  originals 
were  very  old,  or  made  up  of  very  old  materials,  developed 
and  elaborated  in  the  popular  imagination,  and  were  not 
indeed  poems  of  O.ssian,  but  Ossianic  poems;  that  Mac- 
Pherson used  his  materials  with  great  freedom,  and  mixed 
with  the  heroes  of  the  Ossianic  cycle  those  of  the  cycle  of 
Ulster;  and  that  the  style,  tone  and  manner  of  MacPher- 
son's  versions  are  very  different  from  the  older  forms  of  the 
traditions,  and  are  the  work  of  the  translator  himself. 

Wholly  asiile  from  the  question  of  authenticity,  Mac- 
Pherson's  pul)lications  produced  an  impression  upon  literary 
Europe  that  was  phenomenal  in  its  breadth  and  intensity 
for  nearly  twr)  generations.  Xumei'ous  translations  of  Mac- 
Pherson's  volumes,  or  parts  of  them,  appeared  in  Germany, 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  other  countries.  In  Italy  Cesa- 
rotti  wrote  a  considerable  essay,  ranking  ( )ssian  with  Homer. 
Goethe,  Schiller,  Herder,  Schubert,  Chateaubriand,  Byron, 
and  Coleridge  all  |)a.s.sed  under  the  spell.  Xapoleon  carried 
Ossian  about  with  him  incased  in  a  costly  box.  Lamartine 
owns  him  as  among  the  most  powerful  formative  influences 
of  his  youth.  Traces  of  the  general  enthusiasm  are  uinversal 
in  the  works  of  the  years  about  1800.  At  that  time  a 
Parisian  publisher,  planning  to  issue  the  masterpieces  of 
the  world's  literature,  made  Ossian  the  first  and  Homer  the 
second  of  the  series.  Now  the  poems  of  Ossian  have  passed 
almost  completely  out  of  notice.  The  ecstatic,  declamatory 
style,  the  indistinct  actors  and  nebulous  landscajie,  saturated 
with  a  vague  and  monotonous  melancholy,  have  ceased  to 
be  pleasing.  They  have  been  reprinted  in  almost  innumer- 
alile  editions.  For  the  Ossianic  cycle  in  Celtic  literature,  cf. 
d'.Vrbois  de  .lubainville,  Cours  de  litliralure  celtique,  vols, 
i..  il..  and  v.  (Paris,  1884-93).  A.  K.  Caxfield. 

Os'soli.  S.tii.vn  Margaret  Fi'LLER.  Marchioness:  author; 
b.  in  ('aml>i-idgep,.rl.  Mass.,  May  2-i,  1810  :  daughter  of  Hon. 
Timothy  Fuller,  a  representative  in  Congress  1817-25;  was 
in  early  childhood  a  proficient  in  the  classical  languages  and 
modern  literature,  but  noted  for  eccentricities  and  the  vio- 
lence of  her  passions ;  taught  langmiges  in  Boston  to  private 
classes,  and  in  Bronson  Alcotfs  school  after  the  death  of 
her  father  in  1S;!5;  was  a  conspicuous  figure  in  the  literary 
set  comprising  also  Emerson,  Hawtlioriu'.  and  Channing, 
and  became  widi'ly  known  for  brilliant  iiowers  of  conversa- 
tion;  became  principal  of  a  .school  at  Providence.  K.  I.,  in 
1837;  was  in  1840  editor  of  The  Dial,  a  quarterly  magazine: 


published  in  1839  a  translation  of  Eckermann's  Conversa- 
tions with  Goethe,  and  in  1841  the  Letters  of  Gunderode 
and  liettina  ;  made  in  1843  a  journey  to  Lake  Superior,  and 
wrote  vl  Summer  on  the  Lakes;  removed  to  New  York  in 
Dec.  1844;  became  a  writer  for  the  Tribune,  to  which  she 
contributed  most  of  the  Papers  on  Art  and  Literature  is- 
sued in  a  volume  in  1846;  expanded  an  early  essay  in  The 
Dial  into  a  volume  entitled  Woman  in  the  Nineteenth  Gen- 
/«?■(/ (1845;  new  ed.  1855);  went  to  Europe  early  in  1840; 
married  in  Kome  in  Uee.,  1847,  a  nobleman,  Giovanni  An- 
gelo  Ossoli :  was  a  witness  of  the  Koman  revolution  of  1848, 
and  of  the  siege  of  Kome  by  the  French  in  1849,  at  which 
time  she  was  appointed  by  Mazzini  directress  of  one  of  the 
hospitals;  embarked  at  Leghorn  for  the  U.  S.  in  the  shij) 
Elizabeth  Jlay  17,  18.50,  accompanied  by  her  husband  and 
infant  son,  and  with  them  perished  by  shipwreck  at  Fire 
island,  near  New  York,  .Inly  19,  1850.  An  unpublished  his- 
tory of  the  Roman  revolution  was  lost  with  her.  A  monu- 
ment to  her  memory  is  in  .Mt.  .\uburn  cemetery.  Her  col- 
lected newsjiapercorrespondence.cdileil  by  hiT  lirother,  Kev. 
Arthur  B.  Fuller,  was  published  in  1S56. 'under  the  title  At 
Home  and  Abroad.  See  the  memoirs  by  Emerson.  Charming, 
and  James  Freeman  Clarke  (2  vols.. '1852),  by  Julia  Ward 
Howe  (Boston,  1883),  and  by  Thomas  W.  Higgi'nson  (Boston. 
1884).  A  new  edition  of  her  comi)lete  works  appeared  at 
Boston  in  1874.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Ostade.  os  taVde,  Adrian,  van  :  painter  and  etcher  ;  b.  at 
Lubeck  in  1610.  He  studied  under  Franz  Hals,  and  soon 
became  famous  as  a  genre-painter.  His  jiictures  were  in 
great  demand  in  his  own  time,  and  are  to  be  seen  in  Flan- 
ders, Germany,  France,  and  England.  He  worked  in  Haar- 
lem, in  Lubeck,  and  in  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  in  1685. 
A  series  of  fifty-four  of  his  etched  plates  have  been  pub- 
lished. His  brother  Isaac,  who  was  his  pupil,  acquired  the 
manner  of  his  brother  so  thoroughly  that  his  pictures  are 
often  mistaken  for  those  of  Adrian.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Osteiid' :  town ;  in  the  province  of  West  Flanders.  Bel- 
gium ;  on  the  German  Ocean.  77  miles  by  rail  W.  N.  W. 
of  Brussels  (see  map  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ref.  9-,\).  It 
has  a  good  harbor,  is  fortified  and  neatly  built,  and  com- 
municates daily  by  steamers  with  London  and  Dover.  Be- 
sides manufactures  of  linen,  sail-cloth,  and  ropes,  it  carries 
on  important  fisheries  of  oysters,  cod.  and  herrings  and  an 
active  traffic  in  the  transport  of  butter,  raljbits.  etc.  In  the 
summer  season  it  is  the  resort  of  20,000  visitors  from  all 
parts  of  Europe.  There  is  a  haml.some  kursaal.  and  a  sea- 
wall 3  miles  long  and  35  vards  broad  forms  a  favorite  prome- 
nade.    Pop.  (1891)  24,688. 

Osteoblasts  and  Osteoclasts:  See  Histology  (Bone). 

Osteoglos'sidse  [Mod.  l.at.,  named  from  Osteoglos'sum. 
the  typical  genus;  Gr.  oo-TtW.  bone -(- 7Aa><r<ra,  tongue]:  a 
family  of  fresh-water  fishes  of  t  he  sub-order  Jsospondi/li.  char- 
acterized by  the  peculiar  form  and  Ijoiiv  head.  The  body  is 
more  or  less  elongated,  ccjinpressed,  and  covered  with  large 
hard  scales  composed  of  mo.saic-like  pieces  :  the  lateral  line 
high,  little  incurved  from  the  back,  and  with  widened  mu- 
cous ducts:  the  head  obhmg,  with  the  integument  very 
thin,  and  cheeks  protected,  with  large  suborbital  and  [lost- 
orbital  plates:  mouth  with  a  lateral  cleft ;  its  upper  margin 
formed  by  the  intermaxillaries  at  the  middle  and  the  supra- 
maxillaries  at  the  sides;  teeth  acute,  on  the  jaws  as  well  as 
|)alate  ;  gill  a|iertures  large  ;  branchiostegal  rays  numerous 
(8-16);  dorsal  and  anal  posterior  elongated,  the  anal  origi- 
nating farther  forward  than  the  dorsal  ;  caudal  separately 
develojied  ;  pectorals  inserted  low  down  on  each  side  of  the 
throat  ;  ventrals  perfect,  not  very  far  from  the  head.  The 
skeleton  has  numerous  vertebra'  (00-80).  The  family  is 
noted  for  the  peculiar  distribution  of  its  species.  It  is 
divisible  into  two  sub-families  (1)  Osteoglossinte.  in  which 
the  abdomen  is  trenchant,  having  two  genera.  Osteoglossum, 
represented  in  South  America,  and  Scleropaijes.  with  one 
species  in  several  of  the  Philippine  islands,  and  another  in 
Queensland.  Australia:  and  (2)  Heterotina,  also  with  two 
genera :  Iletrotis,  peculiar  to  West  Africa  and  the  Nile, 
and  Arapaima.  confined  to  South  America.  One  species 
(Arapaima  i/igas)  reaches  a  gigantic  size,  sometimes  exceed- 
ing 15  feet  in  length  and  weighing  upward  of  400  lb.  It 
is  taken  sometimes  with  a  hook  baited  with  small  fishes, 
and  sometimes  with  a  harpoon.  In  Brazil  it  sells  for  a 
high  price.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Osteol'ogy  [Gr.  hariov,  bone  -I-  Kiyot.  discourse,  reason]: 
the  science  of  the  skeleton   of  vertebrated   animals.     This 


356 


OSTEOLOGY 


ws 


skeleton  is  composed  of  bone,  or  its  cartilaginous  or  mem- 
branous basis,  the  intimate  structures  of  whicli  are  pointed 
out  in  the  article  Histology  (q.  v.).  The  skeleton  consists 
either  of  a  cartilaginous  or  membranous  continuum,  or  of 
cartilaginous  or  osseous  segments  arranged  in  continuous 
succession,  so  as  to  form  two  tulies,  one  superior  and  one  in- 
ferior, attached  liy  a  solid  axis 
between  them,  the  wliole  fur- 
nished with  various  append- 
ages. Each  axial  segment  is 
in  turn  composed  of  sub-seg- 
ments, each  of  whicli  arises 
from  a  separate  (sometimes 
more  than  one)  center  of  ossi- 
fication in  the  primal  cartilage 
or  membrane.  Each  primary 
segment  of  the  skeleton  is  called 
a  vertebra,  and  each  vertebra 
is  composed  of  the  same  ele- 
mentary segments,  some  of 
which  may  be  omitted,  subdi- 
vided, etc.,  and  also  greatly 
modified  in  their  form  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  viscera 
they  inclose.  The  superior 
arches  or  tubes  protect  the 
nervous  axis  of  the  animal, 
while  the  inferior  surround  the 
nutritive  organs,  or  the  digestive,  circulatory,  respiratory,  and 
reproductive  systems.  The  elementary  segments  and  their 
modifications  are  exhibited  in  the  accompanying  sections 
from  the  cranial,  thoracic,  and  caudal  regions  respectively, 
in  order  to  display  the  excessive  developments  of  the  neural 
or  upper  arch  (Fig.  1),  the  hcpnutl  or  lower  arch  (Fig.  2),  and 
of  the  centrum  (Fig.  tj),  by  reduction  of  the  arches.     The 

ns 


c, 


Fig.  1.— Cranial   segment 

centrum  ;  up,  neurapophy 
sis  ;  ji.f,  neural  spine  ;  ep, 
epapopiiysis  ;  pp.  pleura- 
pophysis  :  hp,  hiemapoph- 
ysis  ;  hs,  hienial  spine. 


a"s 


Fio.  2. — Thoracic  segment  from  a  crocodile.  Letters  as  in  Fig.  1 ; 
zp,  zygapophysis  ;  dp.  diapophysis  ;  pa.  parapophysis  ;  hij.  hy- 
papophysis  ;  ap.  appendage. 

elements  are  named  as  follows  :  ns.  neural  spine  :  zp,  zyga- 
pophysis  ;  dp,  diapophysis  ;  pp.  pleurapophysis  ;  hp,  lia'ma- 
pophysis ;  hs,  hipmal  spine.  In  addition  I o  these,  there  are 
other  processes  less  universally  present — namely,  on  the  mid- 
dle line  of  the  centrum  above,  ep,  epapophysis  (Fig.  1),  on  the 
middle  line  below,  hij,  hypapophysis  (Fig.  2).  and  on  the  side 
of  the  centrum  below  the  dia- 
pophysis, pa,  parapophysis  (Fig. 
2,  represented  by  capitular  ar- 
ticidation  for  rib).  In  the  tho- 
racic vertebra  the  segments 
cori'espond  to  the  following  spe- 
cial names  of  the  bones :  neural 
spine,  .ipinoiis  prucess  ;  zyga- 
pophysis,  arfindar  process ;  dia- 
pnjihysi.s,  transverse  process  ; 
neurapophysis.  snperi'or  arrh  ; 
pleurajiophysis,  rH/;  hicmapoph- 
ysis.  thoracic  rib  or  cartilage; 
ha'inal  spine,  sternal  segment ; 
centrum,  body. 

There  are  many  peculiarities 
in  the  segments  which  conipo.se 
tlie  skidl  of  the  Vertebrata,  on  whicfi  account  the  name  of 
vertebra?  has  been  denied  them.  Since  they  also  present 
some  likenesses  to  the  vertelu'a>  of  the  body  in  their  growth- 
history  as  well  as  com]insition,  they  may  be  regarded  as  rep- 
resenting a  special  class  of  vertchrie. '  The  limbs  of  Ver- 
tebrata also  have  received  a  variety  of  inteqiretalions. 
These,  when  fully  represented  by  a  front  pair  aud  a  hinder 


Fig.  3.— Caudal  st'gment  from 
dugoug.     Letters  as  befort\ 


pair,  are  attached  to  corresponding  arches,  which  depend 
from  the  vertebral  axis,  and  are  therefore  ha^nal.  The  pel- 
vic arch,  which  bears  the  hinder  limbs,  is  attached  to  the 
sacral  vertebne,  and  includes  one  superior  (ilitim)  and  two 
inferior  elements  (viz.,  ischium  and  pubis).  I'hai  which  sup- 
ports the  fore  limbs,  or  the  scapular  arch,  is  not  attached 
to  an  axial  body  in  any  class  excepting  that  of  the  fishes, 
and  then  it  is  to"  the  occipital  or  posterior  segment  of  the 
skull  and  by  dermal  bones  only.  It  also  includes  one  supe- 
rior element  (scapula)  and  two  inferior  (epicoracoid  and 
coracoid).  The  limbs  are  lateral  appendages  of  these  arches, 
like  the  uncinate  processes  of  the  ribs  (Fig.  2,  ap),  opercula 
of  the  suspensor  of  the  lower  jaw  in  fishes,  etc. 

Development  of  the  Skeleton. — The  spinal  column  will 
first  claim  attention.  The  germinal  layer  of  the  yolk  of 
the  egg,  or  blastoderm,  is  early  marked  by  a  linear  impres- 
sion, the  "  primitive  groove."  The  blastoderm  is  divided 
into  three  layers,  of  which  the  lower  ultimately  forms  the 
interior  lining  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  the  upper  forms 
the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  axis  and  the  epidermis  of  the 
body.  It  is  the  upward  longitudinal  folding  of  tlie  upper 
and  middle  layers  (ectoderm  and  mesoderm)  on  each  side 


Fig.  4.— Longitudinal  section  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  vertebral 
column  of  Hepttinchus  itrom  KoUiker)  :  a.  fibrocartilaginous 
part  of  sheath  of  chorda  doisalis  ;  b.  gelatinous  chorda  ;  e,  os- 
seous double  cone  perforated  for  the  contracted  chorda  ;  c',  sec- 
tion of  a  vertebra  to  one  side  of  the  perforati^jn  ;  //.  the  external 
lateral  osseous  plates  of  the  vertebra* ;  e,  the  cartilage  filling  the 
interspace  of  a  double  cone. 

into  the  "  dorsal  laminiP  "  that  forms  the  " iirimitive  groove." 
The  lamina;  grow  toward  each  other  and  unite  along  the 
median  line,  forming  the  neural  canal.  The  two  layers  are 
at  the  same  time  folded  downward  as  parallel  folds,  or  ven- 
tral lamina'.  The  middle  layer  divides,  the  inner  laminae, 
with  the  entoderm,  forming  the  alimentary  canal,  while  the 
outer,  with  the  mesoderm,  form  the  outer  walls  of  the  ab- 
dominal cavity,  or  the  somatopleure.  In  the  meantime 
there  appears  in  the  layers  below  the  primitive  groove  a  cy- 
lindrical body  of  large  cells  filled  with  transparent  proto- 
plasm or  sarcode,  around  which  are  differentiated  from  two  to 
four  layers,  forming  a  sheath.  This  cylinder  is  the  chorda 
dorsali's,  which  extends  forward  to  within  a  short  distance 
of  the  end  of  the  primitive  groove.     The  portion  of  the 


Fig.  .5.— Head  of  a  fnetal  lamb,  dissected  so  as  to  show  Meckel's  car- 
tilage, M  (from  Huxlev) :  m.  the  malleus  ;  i.  the  incus  :  Tu.  the 
tympanic  ;  H.  the  hvoid  ;  .S.;.  the  squamosal  :  Pf.  the  pterygoid; 
J)/,  the  palatine  :  L,  the  lachrymal  :  ;u?i.r,  premaxillary  ;  A',  nasal 
sac  :  Eu,  Eustachian  tube. 

groove  above  it  is  enlarged,  and  then  bent  downward  in 
front  of  the  chorda.  There  is  a  constriction  in  the  last- 
named  portion  of  the  now  inclosed  groove,  or  neural  canal, 
so  that  three  vesicles  are  formed,  which  are  the  concavities 
of  the  three  axial  segments  of  the  future  brain.  The  walls 
of  this  neural  canal  are  continuous  from  the  one  end  of  the 
animal  to  llie  other.  In  the  bodily  portion  of  the  axis,  that 
part  of  the  blastoderm  which  surrounds  the  chorda  dorsalis 


OSTEOLOGY 


357 


early  presents  the  appearance  of  siib-quadrate  segments  or 
bodies,  which,  extendinj;,  gradually  inclose  the  chorda  as 
rings.  At  the  same  time  eorrespoiiiling  segments  appear 
in  the  dorsal  lamime.  These  are  the  bases  of  the  future 
vertebne,  representing  eenlruni  and  neura[)ophysis.  The 
dia[)Ophvsis  and  riljs  appear  in  the  form  of  cartilage  in  the 
sonnitopleure.  The  elements  are  completed  by  the  ile[)osil 
of  phosphate  of  lime  round  the  nutritive  vessels,  or  the 
process  of  ossification;  and  they  may  remain  distinct  from 
each  other  or  become  co-ossilicd.  according  to  the  tyjie  of 
vertebrate.  The  nuinner  of  ossification  of  the  body  of  the 
vertel)ra  varies  as  follows: 

I.  Spimil  column  represented  by  tlii'  membranous  sheath 
of  the  chorda  dorsalis:  class  Ltpiocurdii  (lancelet). 

II.  Spinal  column  represented  by  the  memliranous  sheath 
of  the  chorda,  and  cartilaginous  neurapophyses  and  pleura- 
pophyses ;  class  Miir.si/wbrunchii  (lamprey)  and  the  Chon- 
(irw.f/fii'  (sturgeon,  etc.). 

III.  C'olunni  represented  by  imperfect  ossifications  of  the 
sheath  of  the  chorda  alone,  with  similar  neurapophyses  and 
|ileurapophyses:  certain  sharks;  e.g.  Hexanchiis  and  the 
merospondylous  Telenatnmi. 

IV.  Modies  of  column  ossifications  of  the  chorda,  together 
with  the  investing  sheath:  class  iV/ac/iii,  most  sharks  and 
rays. 

v.  Centra  of  vertebra"  composed  of  ossifications  of  the  ex- 
ternal or  blastodermic  investment  of  the  chorda :  classes 
Tfleuslumi,  bony  fishes,  Batrachiii,  Kept  ilia,  Aves,  and 
Maminaliit. 

The  ossification  of  the  bodies,  begiiniing  in  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  sheath,  first  coiuiiletes  a  ring,  which  then  grows 
inward,  coustric'ling  the  chorda.  The  latter  may  be  nearly 
or  quite  divided  by  the  osseous  body,  and  portions  of  it  and 
tlie  sheath  remain  between  the  biconcave  centra  as  doubly 
conical  or  glol)ular  bodies,  as  in  the  osseous  fishes  and  many 
salamanders. 

When  cartilage  appears  round  the  chorda  dorsalis,  in 
what  becomes  the  base  of  the  skull,  it  is  unsegmented.    It  is 

plate-like,  and  sends 
a  bar  on  each  side 
round  that  part  of 
the  brain  cavity  (hy- 
pophysis) which  is 
decurveil  in  front  of 
the  end  of  the  chor- 
da. The  bars  (trabec- 
uhe)  reunite  in  front 
of  it,  forming  an- 
other snuiUer  plate. 
The  borders  of  the 
plates  then  curve  up- 
ward, forming  the 
sides  of  the  primor- 
dial cartilaginous 
frequently,  however, 
or  a   fontanclle.     In 


-Cranhim  of  Iqunna  iuberculata, 
from  behind. 


skull,  and.  meeting  above,  close  it  in 
leaving  a  vacuity  in  the  middle  line 

the  cranial  as  in  the  spinal  parts  of  the  axis,  cartilaginous 
rods  appear  in  the  inferior  folds  of  the  blastoderm  or  sonia- 
topleure,  forming  the  visceral  arches,  the  upper  pieces  of 
which  becoitu'  the  ribs.  Two  of  these  appear  beneath  the 
posterior  part  of  the  skull,  which  become  the  hi/oid  arrli. 
and  the  mandibular  arch  or  lower  jaw ;  a  third  (the  palatop- 
terygoi<l  arch)  appears  as  nearly  horizontal,  extending  from 
the  base  of  the  second  to  near  the  end  of  the  cartilaginous 
skull  in  front.  When  ossification  sets  in,  the  segmentation 
of  the  skidl  appears.  This,  however,  takes  place  under  two 
forms:  the  ossific  deposit  nniy  be  nnide  in  the  cartilage  or 
in  the  meud)rane  investing  that  cartilage,  forming  the  mem- 
brane bones  of  anatomists.  It  appears  that  the  membrane 
l)one  represents  a  [U'imary  condition,  and  one  that  prevailed 
among  the  early  \  ertelirata.  while  tlie  penetration  <!f  ossifi- 
cation to  the  cartilage  was  the  mode  of  origin  of  the  first 
cartilage  bones.  Hence,  though  corresponding  ones  of  the 
cranial  bones  may  have  different  origins  to-day,  their  corre- 
spondence is  not  thereby  destroyed.  The  base  of  the  brain- 
case  ossifies  into  three  t)ones,  the  posterior  the  baxioccipitiil, 
the  next  the  baxixp/iemiid.  the  anterior  the  prespltenoid. 
The  sides  of  the  case  ossify  three  [jlate-like  bones,  which  cor- 
respond to  anil  rest  on  tiicse;  namely,  the  exticcipitul,\\u', 
alispheHiiid.  and  the  orhitasphetund.  Closing  the  cranial 
cavity  above  are  the  three  corresponding  bones,  the  s«;>rf(oc- 
cipilal,  parietal,  imtX  franlal.  Thus  three  distinct  cranial 
segments  are  presented,  the  occinital,  the  parietal,  and  the 
frontal.     A  section  of  the  parietal  arch  is  seen  at  Fig.  1  (ns. 


parietal ;  np,  alisphenoid  ;  c,  basisphenoid).  Of  these  ele- 
ments the  parietal  and  frontal  bones  are  membrane  bones, 
the  remainder  cartilage  bones.     An  extended  membrane 


Fio.  7.— Cranium  of  Iguana  tuberculala,  profile. 

bone,  the  paraxphenoid,  takes  the  place  more  or  less  com- 
pletely of  the  cartilage  bones,  forming  the  axis  or  base  of 
the  brain-t^ase  in  the  fishes  and  batrachians.  In  front  of 
it  is  another  membrane  bone,  which  is  alwavs  present,  the 
vomer,  which  forms  the  axis  of  that  i)art  of  the  skull  which 
lies  in  front  of  the  brain-case.  This  consists,  fir.st,  of  the 
ethmoid  bone,  which  is  a  flattened  cylinder  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  upturned  borders  of  the  primitive  cartilaginous 
basal  plate  of  that  |)art  of  the  skull.  After  unitingat  the 
top,  they  turn  downward  in  the  middle  line,  forming  a 
vertical  septum.  Laminie  project  into  the  cavities  so 
formed,  from  the  outer  wall,  on  which  the  branches  of  the 
olf.actory  nerve  are  spread  ;  these  are  the  iurhinal  bones. 
Above  or  on  the  ethmoid  two  membrane  bones  are  devel- 
oped, the  nasals;  at  their  sides  l)ehind  and  in  front  of 
the  orbit,  two  other  membrane  bones  nuay  be  present — viz., 
the  pryfdiifal  (the  upper)  and  the  laclirynial  (the  lower). 
We  have  then  a  fourth  or  ethmoid  segment.  It  remains  to 
consider  another  series  of  liones  situated  between  the  parietal 
and  occipital  segments.  These  do  not  extend  to  the  middle 
line  of  the  superior  or  neural  arch,  but  arc  developed  in  the 
cartilage  in  which  the  semicircular  canals  of  the  labyrinth  of 
the  auditory  organs  are  imbedded.  The  upper  lateral  bone, 
which  is  usually  only  present  in  fishes,  is  the  pierotic.  Be- 
low this  is  i\\e  petrous  bone,  which  is  separated  po.steriorly 
from  the  exoccipital  in  some  fishes  by  the  inlercalary.  This 
lione  is  wanting  in  higher  Vertebrata.  In  the  Kliipidop- 
terygian  and  Crossopterygian  fishes,  in  Stegocephalous  Ba- 
trachia,  and  in  Cotylosaurian  Replilia  the  temporal  fossa 
in  which  the  temporal  nuiscle  is  inclosed  is  covered  by  a 
roof  which  consists  of  some  or  all  of  the  following  bones: 
Immediately  posterior  to  the  orbit.  al)ove,  the  postfron- 
tal :  below,  the  postorbital.  Posterior  to  these,  aljove.  the 
snpramastoid ;  below,  the  supratemporal.  Below  these,  in 
front,  the  jugal ;  behind,  and  joining  the  quadrate,  the  zygo- 
matic. Between  the  supramastoid,  supraoccipital,  and  ex- 
occipital,  the  tidjulars.  In  higher  Vertebrata  this  roof  is 
perforated  by  large  foramina,  so  that  bars  or  arches  only 
remain.  These  may  be  either  of  three,  or  any  two  of  them 
together.  These  are,  according  to  their  posterior  attach- 
nnnits,  the  supramastoid,  the  supratemporal,  or  the  zygo- 
matic arches. 

If  we  turn  to  the  inferior  or  luemal  arches,  we  find  three 
almost  constantly  anil  .several  others  occasionally  present. 
The  former  are.  beginin'ng  at  the  front  of  the  skull,  the 
maxillary,  the  pterygopalatine,  the  nuiudibular,  and  the 
hyoid  arches;  the  latter  are  the  branchial  arches,  most  of 
which  are  present  only  in  fishes  and  .some  batrachians. 
The  maxillary  rods  of  opposite  sides  do  not  meet  on  the 
middle  line,  but  the  a[)ex  of  the  ethmoid  arch  is  produced 
and  its  meinl)rane  ossifies  on  each  side,  forming  the  pre- 
nuixillary  bones,  which  in  all  vertebrates  occupy  the  space 
between  the  mnxillarie.s.  The  latter  result  from  the  ossifi- 
cation of  the  mendirane  covering  the  cartilage  of  the  first 
visceral  rods.  Their  inner  margins  sometimes  grow  to- 
gether, forming  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  removing  the 
posterior  opening  or  the  nostrils  to  the  back  part  of  it.  The 
mandibular  arch  in  its  cartilaginous  state  is  known  as 
Meckel's  cartilage.  The  part  next  the  skull  becomes  sepa- 
rated frorii  the  rest,  and  is  the  support  of  the  palatoptery- 
goid  cartilage.  The  renuiining  portion  may  be  wanting,  as 
in  the  lampreys  (Marsipiihraiictii),  or  may  remain  as  a  mov- 
able articulated  lower  jaw.  If  these  portions  remain  mostly 
cartilaginous,  we  have  the  pernument  condition  .seen  in  the 
sharks  and  rays.  In  bony  lislies  three  ossifications  ajipearin 
it,  namely  (beginning  next  the  skull),  the  metaptenjgoid, 
the   inferior  quadrate,  and  the  articular.   In  the  membrane 


358 


OSTEOLOGY 


surrounding  the  cartilage  the  angular  and  coronoid  bones 
appear  in  some;  round  the  remainder  of  it  the  dentary  is 
developed  in  all  Vertebrata  above  Marsipobranchii.  In  rep- 
tiles and  birds  the  metapterygoid  and  the  interior  quadrate 
are  represented  by  a  single  bone,  the  quadrate,  which  is  the 
true  support  of  the  under  jaw.  In  mammals  the  articular 
disappears,  while  the  quadrate  is  drawn  into  the  ear-chamber 


di-       AnSyPrO/>  ^ro 

Fig.  8.— Skull  of  pike  (E^ox).  from  Huxley;  Pmx,  premaxiUary  : 
.l/.r,  maxillary  ;  PI,  palatine  ;  Prf,  prefrontal  ;  SOr.  supraorbital; 
HM.  hyomandibnlar  :  -1//.  metapterygoid  ;  Op,  operculum  ;  Stip, 
suboperculum  :  70;).  interoperculum  ;  PrOp,  preoperculum  ;  Brg, 
branchiostegal  rays  ;  sy,  syinpleotic  ;  Qu,  quadrate  ;  An,  angu- 
lar ;  Ar,  articular  ;  D,  dentary. 

as  the  malleus  or  hammer,  leaving  the  dentary  to  articulate 
directly  with  the  skull.  The  hyoid  arch  also  develops  sev- 
eral osseous  segments.  In  fishes  these  are  called  (beginning 
at  the  cranium)  the  hyomandihular,  the  stylohi/al,  ceratohynl, 
and  as  the  middle  piece  below,  the  hasihyal.  The  first 
named  is  a  large  bone,  and  sup))orts  in  part  the  articulation 
of  the  lower  jaw  through  the  intervention  of  the  inferior 
quadrate.  The  stylnhyal  segment  is  united  by  suture  with 
the  ceratohyal  in  fishes  ;  in  reptiles  and  mammals  it  is  carti- 
laginous or  ligamentous,  and  the  portion  next  the  skull  in 
the  latter  when  ossified  is  called  the  styloid  process. 

It  remains  to  notice  some  membrane  bones  which  protect 
the  sides  of  the  cranium,  and  the  muscles  attached  to  them. 
The  maxillary  carries  on  its  posterior  end  a  more  or  less  fiat 
rod,  the  malar  bone,  which  protects  the  orbit  below  in  mam- 
mals and  many  reptiles.  On  its  posterior  end  it  is  joined  to 
another  piece,  the  zygomatic.  In  mammals  this  piece  is 
fused  to  a  plate  on  the  side  of  the  temple  (the  squnmosal),  and 
unites  with  the  petrosal  bone  to  form  the  temporal.  In  rep- 
tiles, where  the  quadrate  carries  the  articulation  of  the 
lower  jaw  away  from  the  skull,  the  zygomatic  accompanies 
them  and  stands  above  the  end  of  the  ijuadrate,  supported 
on  the  projecting  roil  formed  of  the  paroccipital,  exoccip- 
ital,  etc..  which  is  now  known  as  the  suspensoriiiin.  In 
Batrachia  .salientia  the  supratemporal  lies  over  the  length 
of  the  quadrate,  and  in  fishes  occupies  a  similar  positionon 
the  outer  face  of  the  inferior  qiuidrate  and  hyomandibnlar, 
and  is  known  as  the  preoperculum.  In  fishes  other  mem- 
brane bones  are  added;  namely,  the  operculum  and  subo- 
perculum behind  it,  and  the  interoperculum  below  it.  An- 
other bone  is  formed  in  some  reptiles  which  develops  in  the 
cartilage  between  the  position  of  the  intercalary  in  fishes 
and  the  exoccipital,  viz.,  the  paroccipital.  In  tortoises  and 
pythonomorphs  it  forms  part  of  the  suspensorium,  and  is 
very  much  elongated  in  serpents.  In  lizards  it  sends  a 
process  upward  with  the  supramastoid,  which  forms,  with  a 
descending  projection  of  the  posterior  angle  of  the  parietal, 
the  parieto-quadrate  arch.  The  zygomatic  arch  is  the  only 
one  found  among  the  mammals.  The  ethmoid  segment 
surrounds  the  olfactory  lobes  of  the  brain  ;  the  frontal  is  in 
front  of  the  optic  foramen ;  the  parietal  passes  before  the 
foramen  of  exit  of  the  trigeminus  (fifth)  nerve.  The  otic 
bones  extend  posteriorly  to  the  vagal  (tenth)  foramen,  and 
the  occipital  to  the  foramen  magnum. 

In  the  fishes  no  bones  are  expressly  related  to  the  function 
of  hearing.  In  the  Batrachia  and  forms  above  them  a  por- 
tion of  the  otic  capsule  is  separated  as  a  lid.  and  is  known 
as  the  stapct.  In  the  tailless  Batrachia  (Salientia)  a  short 
bone  originates  at  its  anterior  border  (the  interstapedial) 
anci  extends  forward.  To  its  distal  end  is  appended  a  carti- 
laginous rod  (the  mesostapedial),  and  this  is  followed  hv  a 
cartilaginous  disk,  the  cpistapcdial,  over  which  is  stretched 
the  integument  forming  the  tympanum  or  ear-drum.  In 
reptiles  the  interstapedial  and  mesostapedial  are  repre- 
sented by  a  single  bony  rod,  which  is  confluent  with  the 
stapes,  the  whole  being  termed  the  columella  auris.  In 
Mammalia  the  stapes  is  distinct,  the  interstapedial  is  repre- 
sented by  a  small  bone,  the  orbii;idare,  and  the  mesosta- 
pedial by  the  incus  or  anvil.  The  epi.stapedial  has  disap- 
peared, and  in  its  place  the  proximal  end  of  the  Meckel's 


cartilage  is  ossified  as  the  malleus,  which  impinges  on  the 
tympanic  membrane. 

Special  Osteology. — There  are  very  numerous  peculiarities 
characteristic  of  natural  divisions  of  the  Vertebrata  to 
which  only  brief  allusion  can  be  made  here.  The  vertebral 
bodies  consist  originally  of  three  elements,  two  superior, 
each  su]jporting  a  ncurapophysis,  and  one  below,  or  an  in- 
tercentrum.  All  unite  to  form  the  body  in  fishes  generally, 
but  both  form  complete  bodies  in  the  tail  of  the  Amia,  etc. 
In  Batrachia  the  body  consists  chiefly  of  intercentrum, 
while  in  the  remaining  Vertebrata  the  intercentrum  is  grad- 
ually extinguished,  remaining  principally  in  the  caudal  re- 
gion as  the  basis  of  the  chevron-bones.  The  centrum  may 
be  concave  at  both  ends  (atnphiccelous),  as  in  selachians, 
fishes,  and  Ichthyosauri,  and  many  tailed  batrachians  ; 
with  ball-and-socket  joint,  the  concavity  being  in  the  front 
of  the  body  (procoelous),  as  in  most  tailless  Batrachia  and 
a  majority  of  reptiles ;  with  the  cup  behind  {opisthocce- 
lotis),  in  the  bony  garfishes,  some  salamanders  and  frogs, 
a  few  Reptilia.  and  in  the  neck  of  many  ungulate  mam- 
mals. Finally,  the  centra  are  plane  at  both  ends  in  Mam- 
malia in  general,  and  numerous  reptiles,  especially  the  ex- 
tinct types  Khynchocephalia,  Sauropterygia.  Dinosauria, 
and  some  Crocodilia,  where  the  ends  are  sometimes  some- 
what excavated.  In  Mammalia,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in 
other  Vertebrata,  the  vertebra*  are  distinguished  into  cer- 
vical, dorsal,  lumbar,  sacral,  and  caudal.  The  first  are  gen- 
erally seven  in  number,  and  are  readily  distinguished  by 
the  perforation  of  their  transverse  processes  (^diapoph- 
ysis  -I-  parapophysis)  for  the  conduct  of  the  vertebral  ar- 
tery. The  dorsals  are  distinguished  as  furnishing  the  points 
of  attachment  for  the  ribs.  These  vary  in  structure  as  fol- 
lows :  I.  A  single  rib-basis ;  a,  exclusively  on  the  vertebral 
centrum  :  fishes,  batrachians,  and  some  reptiles,  viz.,  tor- 
toises, lizards,  Pythonomorpha,  and  serpents ;  aa,  partially 
standing  on  the  neural  arch  :  Sauropterygia.  II.  Two  sep- 
arate points  of  rib  attachment;  a.  on  the  centrum  only: 
Reptilia,  Ichthyopterygia ;  oo.  the  lower  (capitular)  articu- 
lation on  the  centrum,  the  up]ier  (tubercular)  on  the  diapoph- 
ysis,  which  springs  from  the  neural  arch :  reptiles  (Croco- 
dilia. Dinosauria.  most  Theromora,  Pterosauria),  birds  and 
mammals.  The  lumbar  vertebra;  succeed  the  dorsals,  and 
are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  rib  articulations ;  but 
the  ribs  exteml  to  the  sacrum  in  some  Crocodilia  (Belodon), 
Dinosauria,  Theromora,  and  birds.  The  sacral  vertebrie  are 
usually  co-ossified  into  a  single  mass,  the  sacrum,  with  very 
massive  diapophyses  for  sutural  attachment  to  the  iliac  bones 
or  pelvis.  They  are  numerous  in  the  birds,  less  so  in  the 
Dinosauria  (Agathaumas  has  eight),  four  to  six  among  mam- 
mals with  well-developed  hind  limbs.  There  are  three  or 
two  in  reptiles  with  hind  limbs,  while  in  any  of  the  orders 
where  these  members  are  small  or  rudimentai  a  single  verte- 
bra serves  the  same  purpose.  The  caudal  vertebra;  are  dis- 
tinguished among  Vertebrata  below  the  mammals  by  the 
presence  of  the  chevron-bones  (see  Fig.  3,  pp,  }q>)  on  the  in- 
ferior surface.  They  are  present  in  Cetacea  (whales),  Eden- 
tata, some  Insectivora,  etc.,  among  Jlammalia. 

The  ribs  present  a  general  similarity  except  in  their  prox- 
imal attachments,  as  already  pointed  out.  They  articulate 
in  the  thorax  with  the  median  bones  of  the  breast  or  ster- 
num in  all  above  the  fishes,  and  usually  remain  separate  for 
the  remainder  of  their  length.  An  exception,  however,  oc- 
curs in  the  tortoises,  where  they  are  so  widened  as  to  unite 
by  their  borders  into  a  more  or  less  complete  shield,  which 
protects  the  entire  visceral  cavity,  and  into  which,  in  many 
species,  the  head,  tail,  and  limbs  may  be  withdrawn.  In 
birds  and  some  crocodiles  ami  Khynchocephalia  there  are 
recurved  processes  on  the  ribs  pointing  backward,  the  "  un- 
cinate processes."  The  thoracic  ribs  are  united  by  segments 
on  the  middle  line  below,  which,  taken  together,  constitute 
the  sternum.  The  ha-mal  clement  of  the  ribs  is  wanting  in 
fishes,  serpents,  Ichthyopterygia,  Sauropterygia,  and  tor- 
toises; the  stermim  is  absent  in  the  same  groups,  so  far  as 
known.  The  first  appearance  of  the  sternum  is  in  the  Ba- 
trachia, where  a  cartilaginous  plate  behind  the  shoulder- 
girdle  represents  it  in  the  tailed  and  many  of  the  tailless 
forms.  In  many  of  the  latter  it  becomes  an  osseous  segment, 
and  in  some  extinct  Stcgneephali  is  a  bony,  shield-like  body. 
In  Ijacertilia  and  Pterosauria  it  is  a  broad  plate  behind  the 
coracoid  bones.  In  Dinosauria  it  is  small  and  often  di- 
vided. In  birds  it  is  of  similar  form  in  the  most  reptile-like 
forms,  as  the  apteryx,  ostriches,  etc.,  but  is  peculiar  in  the 
possession  of  a  produced  process  on  each  side  in  front  (cos- 
tal process).     This  is  frequently  ossified  from  a  separate  cen- 


OSTEOLOGY 


359 


ter  (protosteon),  while  the  main  shield  origiimlcs  from  a  cen- 
ter on  each  side,  the  pleurosleon,  and  sometimes  from  two 
others  behind  tliese,  the  metostea.  In  most  existing  birds 
besides  the  ostriches  there  is  a  middle  center  of  ossification, 
the  lophosteon,  which  when  ossified  is  a  prominent  keel  ex- 
lending  along  the  length  of  the  sternum.  The  metostea  are 
freiiuently  pnHlnced  iis  separate  lateral  rods,  and  in  nearly 
hU  birds  the  hiniler  margin  of  the  sternum  is  variously  in- 
(•ised.  In  Crocodilia  the  sternum  exists  as  a  small  shield  in 
front,  and  a  prolongation  from  it  Imekward  on  the  median 
line.  This  brings  us  to  the  form  seen  in  the  Mumnialia, 
where  it  defends  the  middle  line  of  the  thorax  as  a  series  of 
segments  which  may  number  from  two  (Echidna)  to  thir- 
teen (two-toed  sloth).  In  the  whales  it  is  represented  by  an 
oval  or  cruciform  l}one,  and  its  posterior  segment  in  other 
mammals  is  a  spatulate  cartilage  or  bone  known  as  the 
xiphisternum. 

There  are  various  dermal  ossifications  found  posterior  to  the 
sternum  and  ha'uuvpophj'ses  in  ditferent  Vertebrata.  These 
consist,  in  many  Stegocephali,  of  osseous  rods  arranged  en 
chevron,  with  the  angle  anteriorly  directed.  .Similar  pieces, 
with  the  addition  of  lateral  ones,  exi.st  in  ichthyopterygian, 
sauropterygian,  crocodilian,  and  rhynchoccphalian  rejitiles. 
In  tortoises  these  extend  below  I  lie  shouliler-ginlle  in  front 
and  the  pelvic  arch  belund,  ami  unite  together  into  the 
solid  inferior  plate  or  plastron.  This  is  connected  with  the 
ribs  by  a  series  of  membrane  bones,  the  marginalsj  which 
also  extend  all  round  the  free  margin  of  tlie  upper  shell  or 
carapace.  The  ilermal  pieces  of  the  plastron  are  the  two 
clavicles,  the  interclavicle  between  them,  the  two  hyoster- 
nals,  the  two  hyposternals,  and  the  two  postabdominals. 

The  scapular  arch  in  vertebrates  is  composed  of  both 
cartilage  and  membrane  bones.  Like  the  pelvic  arch,  it 
appears  as  a  cartilaginous  rod  iti  the  somatopleure  of  the 
foetus,  often  extending  in  its  fold  to  near  the  point  of  con- 


Tra.  9. — Amia  calva. 


6,  (ientary  :  7,  angular  ;  8,  interoperculum  :  9,  branchinstegal  rays. 


tact  above  the  vertebral  on  the  median  line.  Tf  develop- 
ment proceeds,  the  upper  part  of  this  cartilage  lie<'ornes  seg- 
mented olf,  forming  the  scapula,  while  the  lower  portion 
becomes  bifurcated  into  the  <'oracoid  and  epiconicoid  bone.s. 
in  mauHuals,  fishes,  and  some  others,  a  memlirane  bone  is 
<leveloped  in  front  of  the  epicoracoid,  the  clavicle.  From 
the  junction  of  the  three,  the  cartilaginous  basis  of  the  fore 
limb  appears.  Above  the  scapula  another  segment  is  usually 
present,  t  he  su|irascapula. 

The  fishes  differ  from  otlii'r  vertebrates  in  having  another 
memlirane  bune,  the  posttemporal.  connecting  the  epi- 
clavii-le  with  the  cranium  at  the  tabular  lione.  This  is  want- 
ing in  sharks,  where  the  arch  is  cartilaginous  and  without 
laininiform  membrane  bones.  In  many  fishes  there  are 
membrane  bones  which  extend  in  a  bar  backward  and  down- 
ward from  tlie  clavicle  :  namely,  the  first,  second,  and  third 
postclavicles.  There  may  al.so  be  a  cartilage  bone  behind 
the  coracoid,  the  postcoracoid.  The  following  .scheme  will 
express  the  leading  clinracters  of  the  classes  and  orders  in 
the  struelnre  of  the  scapular  arch  : 

A.  Arch  suspended  to  cranium  by  posttemporal. 

L  Scapula,  coracoid ;  epiclavicle  and  clavicle,  and  some- 
times interclavicle.  present  :   I'lKces. 

A.\.  Arch  not  suspended  to  the  cranium  ;  no  laminiform 
dermal  bones. 

L  Arch  cartilaginous:  Selcichii. 

3.  Coracoid  and  scapula  osseous;  suprascapula  and  epi- 
coracoid cartilaginous:   linlrarhia  urndela. 

'i.  Coracoid  and  scapula,  suprascapula  and  clavicle  o.sse- 
ous;  epicoracoid  cartilaginous:   liiitruchid  atiiira. 

AAA.  Arch  not  suspended;  laminiform  dermal  bones 
present  (except  Chama-leo). 

L  Scapula  and  coracoid  only  ossified;  no  clavicle  or  in- 
terclavicle :  Ijucertilia  rhiptiMjloasa. 


2.  Literclavicle  only  ossified  membrane  bone  :  Crocodilia. 

y.  Clavicle  and  single  interclavicle  of  membrane,  and 
sca]iula.  procoracoid  and  coracoiil  of  cartilage,  all  osseous. 

o.  Clavicle  and  interclavicle  united  with  plastron:  7'estu- 
dinata. 

a  a.  Clavicle  and  interclavicle  free ;  epicoracoid  cartilagi- 
nous: Ichthyopterygia,  Lacertilia. 

aoo.  Clavicle  and  interclavicle  united  with  a  short  pro- 
coracoiil,  forming  furcula;  e|)icoracoid  not  osseous;  supra- 
scapula co-ossified  with  .scapula:  Aves. 

aaaa.  Clavicle  and  interclavicle  distinct;  epicoracoid 
large,  osseous ;  procoracoid  wanting :  jilamtnalia  proto- 
tlieria. 

AA.V.V.  Arch  not  suspended  ;  lioth  membrane  and  car- 
tilage bones  ;  coracoid  rudimental  or  wanting. 

a.  Clavicle  united  with  mcsoscapula  and  procoracoid  into 
one  bar  ;  epicoracoid  and  suprascapula  rudimental  or  want- 
ing :  Mammalia  eiit/ieria. 

T/ie  Limh.1. — The  cartilage  forming  the  limb-bones  appears 
early  in  a  fold  of  the  outer  skin,  and  in  the  Vertebrata  above 
the  fishes  is  soon  divided  liy  transverse  interruptions  into 
three  segments.  In  the  Lepidosirenichc  this  cartilage  may 
be  broken  up  into  many  successive  joints.  In  Ceratodus  a 
branch  segment  is  given  oft  at  the  end  of  each  of  these 
primary  joints,  but  in  sharks  and  fishes  most  of  the  seg- 
ments diverge  from  one  side  only.  The  ba.sal  and  the  first 
and  second  of  the  one  side  are  especially  enlarged  in  the 
sharks,  forming  l\m7nt'fapterygium,mesopterygi  urn. tuu\prop- 
terygium,  from  which  numerous  cartilaginous  radii  arise, 
forming  a  triangular  fin.  The  extreniital  parts  of  the  fins 
are  dermal,  and  embrace  the  ends  of  the  cartilaginous  rods. 
In  true  fishes  the  propterygiura  and  mesopterygium  are  want- 
ing, and  the  radii  of  the  first  cross-row,  either  cartilaginous 
or  osseous,  reach  the  scapular  arch.  The  upper  radial  unites 
with  the  metapterygium  to  form  the  first  ray  of  the  fin.  often 
a  strong  spine;  the  remainder 
usually  number  four,  but  may  be. 
more  numerous  in  the  lower 
groups.  They  are  subtiuadrate 
in  the  higher  fishes,  but  much 
elongate  in  the  Pediculati,  where 
the  number  is  reduced  to  three 
and  two. 

In  Vertebrata.  from  the  Ba- 
trachia  up,  the  limbs,  both  fore 
and  hind,  are  early  divided  into 
three  principal  segment.s.  In  the 
anterior,  the  first  presents  a  sin- 
gle bone,  the  humerus;  the  sec- 
ond, two  parallel  bones,  the  ulna 
and  radius;  and  third  the  foot.  This  consists  of  two  trans- 
verse rows  of  small  bones,  the  carpals,  and  from  three  to 
five  rows  of  longer  bones,  the  phalanges,  arranged  in 
typically  five  ray-like  lines  or  digits,  the  basal  segments 
of  which  are  called  the  metacarpals.  Typically,  there  are 
three  bones  in  the  fir.st  transverse  row  of  carpals  and  five 
in  the  second,  with  a  median  bone  inclosed  between  the 
rows,  a  condition  seen  in  various  batrachians  and  n^ptiles. 
In  higher  classes  these  bones  are  variously  combined  or 
omitted.  The  lione  next  the  radius  is  the  scajihoid,  the 
next  the  lunar,  the  next  the  cuneiform  ;  in  the  second  row 
the  first  is  the  trajiezium.  the  second  liaiiczoides.  third  mag- 
num.while  in  many  forms  the  fourth  and  fifth  are  combined 
and  called  the  unciform,  and  the  ci'Utralc  is  united  with  the 
scajihoid.  In  Ichthyo|ilerygia  the  bones  of  the  fore  anil 
hind  limb  beyond  the  humerus  and  femur  are  of  similar 
shape,  but.  though  uiidistinguishable  as  to  form,  are  proxi- 
mally  of  the  usual  position  and  number.  In  birds  there  are 
never  more  than  three  digits  of  the  fore  foot,  in  the  Apteryx 
and  Casuarliis  only  one.  These  answer  to  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  of  tlieoriliiuiry  foot.  The  metacarpals  arc  co-ossi- 
fied in  i\\\  birds  excepting  the  extinct  Ar<ha'opteryx.  In 
iMammalia  of  the  order  CetacKi  the  ulna  and  radius  are  im- 
movalily  fixed  in  a  single  plane  with  the  carpus  and  manus, 
and  not  flexibly  articulated  with  the  humerus,  thus  resem- 
bling the  aipiatic  reptiles  (Sjuiropt(^rygia).  In  higher  orders 
the  radius  |iossesses  greater  or  less  power  of  rotation,on  the 
ulna,  which  is  especially  developed  in  apes  and  man.  In 
prolioscidians  the  proximal  end  of  the  radius  is  moved  out- 
ward above  the  ulna,  so  as  to  cross  it  obliijuely.  In  I'eris- 
sodactyla  (odd-toed)  and  Artiodactyla  the  ulnar  attachment 
to  the  carpus  is  more  and  more  reduced,  until  the  radius, 
apjiroiiriating  the  larger  [lart,  extends  almo.st  entirely  in 
front  of  the  ulna.     The  latter  becomes  in  the  horse  and 


9,  postfrontal ;  3,  posttemporal ;  4.  maxillary  ;  5,  hyoiil 


360 


OSTEOLOGY 


ruminants  very  slender  and  co-ossified  with  the  radius.  In 
the  carpus  a  bone  develops  below  the  tendon  of  one  of  the 
flexors  of  the  foot,  which  articulates  with  the  cuneiform, 
called  the  pisiform.  In  five-toed  orders  thecarpals  are  usu- 
ally distinct,  excepting  in  the  Carnivora,  where  the  sca- 
phoid and  lunar  are  generally  co-ossified.  In  the  Artiodac- 
tyla  the  number  of  toes  is  regularly  reduced  from  four  to 


Fio.  iO.—Salamandra  mactdoaa,  L.;  6,  exoccipital ;  c',  parietal ;  c, 
frontal ;  e.  pterygoid  ;  /,  premaxillary  ;  g,  uasal :  h,  prefrontal ; 
k,  maxillary  ;  I,  prootic  ;  m,  squamosal ;  o,  quadrate. 

two,  and  the  number  of  carpals  is  reduced  correspondingly 
in  the  second  row,  those  of  the  first  being  narrowed.  In  the 
most  specialized  Kuminantia  the  trapezium  is  wanting,  and 
the  trapezoidcs  and  magnum  are  confluent.  The  outer 
digits  become  smaller  and  disappear,  while  the  two  middle 
metacarpals,  representing  the  third  and  fourth.  co-o.ssify  into 
the  single  "cannon-bone."  In  the  living  tvpcs  the  third 
metacarpal  supports  the  wliole  width  of  the  trapezoides  and 
magnum,  while  in  the  extinct  family  of  the  Anuplntheriiche 
it  articulated  with  tlie  niaginirii  only.  The  last  phalange  in 
Carnivora,  Insec'tivora,  bats,  rodents,  etc.,  is  compressed,  and 
with  its  complete  horny  sheath  forms  a  claw  :  in  ungulates 
it  is  broad,  the  posterior  faces  becoming  inferior  when  in 


use ;  the  horny  covering  partly  incloses  it  behind,  and  forms 
a  hoof.  In  apes  and  men  the  last  phalange  is  flat,  and  sup- 
ports a  flat  horny  nail. 

The  pelvic  arch  is  composed  of  the  single  superior  ele- 
ment, the  ilium,  and  the  two  inferior  ones  ai-ranged  as  limbs 
of  a  fork,  the  anterior,  the  pubis,  the  posterior,  the  ischium. 
The  ilium  corresponds  with  the  scapula,  the  pubis  with  the 
epicoracoid,  and  the  ischium  with  the  coraeoid.  The  ilium 
generally  presents  a  crest  forward,  from  which  a  strong  liga- 
ment descends  to  the  end  of  the  pubis,  which  represents  the 
clavicle.  It  is  the  Poupart's  ligament  of  human  anatomv. 
Fishes,  however,  do  not  jjossess  a  pelvis,  with  two  exceptions, 
those  of  the  Lepidosirenidai  and  of  the  Holocephali.    In  the 


Fig.  11.—BaJ(eniceps  rex.  Gould  :  a,  hyoid  arch  ;  b.  atlas  from  be- 
hind ;  c,  atlas,  profile  ;  (/,  ninth  cervical  vertelira  from  below  ; 
e,  same  from  above  ;  /,  middle  dorsal  vertebra  from  above  ;  g, 
posterior  view  of  tibio-tarsal  joint;  h.  anterior  view  of  the  same  ; 
i,  distal  end  of  tarso-metatarsus,  front  view  ;  j,  same  from  be- 
hind. 

former  there  is  a  single  median  diamond-shaped  cartilage, 
to  which  the  limbs  are  attachedj  whose  homology  is  unknown. 
In  the  latter  there  is  a  flat  curved  cartilage  extending  for- 
ward from  the  basis  of  each  fin  on  each  side,  which  occupies 
the  position  of  the  pubis.  Another  and  serrate  cartilage  is 
attached  to  its  anterior  margin  in  the  male,  which  projects 
into  an  open  pouch,  from  which  it  can  be  protruded.  A 
cartilaginous  rod  succeeds  the  pubic  bone  as  the  basal  ele- 
ment of  the  posterior  limb.  In  the  Dipnoi  this  is  followed 
by  others,  forming  the  segmented  ray  representing  the  ven- 
tral fin.  In  C'eratodus  each  segment  is  furnished  with  a 
short  divergent  sub-segment  on  each  side;  but  in  the  sharks 
and  rays  the  sub-segments  or  radii  are  all  on  one  side.     In 


OSTEOLOGY 


361 


these  animals  the  axis  is  much  shortened,  so  that  the  radii 
are  packed  closely  together  on  the  basal  pieee  or  inetapte- 
rygium  ;  the  first  radius  also  is  enlarged,  forming  an  oppo- 
site border  of  the  fin.  In  the  rays  the  latter  is  much  en- 
larged, and  suppc-rfs  radii  indistinguishable  from  the  others. 
In  I'olypterus  the  basal  element  is  deprived  of  rays,  except 

I. 


Fio.  12. — Lepidosiren  paradoxa  {I, 

at  its  extremity,  and  they,  as  in  the  sharks,  support  the  derm- 
al fin-rays  proper.  In  sturgeons  the  radial  bones  are  jires- 
ent  in  the  ventral  fins  oidy.  but  in  Lepidosteus  and  Amia 
one  or  two  very  small  rudiments  remain,  and  the  dermal 
fin-rays  are  attached  immediately  to  the  femur,  as  is  the 
ca.se  with  all  the  true  fishes.  In  sharks  the  axis  is  developed 
into  some  peculiar  and  complex  organs,  the  claspers,  which 
function  as  intromittent  reproductive  organs. 

The  three  jielvic  elements  are  remarkably  constant  in  all 
the  land  vertebrates,  the  most  marked  variations  being  seen 
in  the  linfrarhia  aivira  anil  the  Dinosauria  and  Aves.  In 
the  former  the  ilia  are  much  elongate  and  extende<l  back- 
ward to  the  acetabula.  round  which  the  isehia  and  ]mbes 
are  compacted  in  a  solid  mass.  In  Dinosauria  Gotnopoda 
the  isehia  are  sleiuler  and  \mite  into  a  den.se  osseous  rod, 
which  .served  as  a  support  when  in  a  sitting  position  (e.  g. 
Megadactylus).  In  the  Dinosauria  Orthopoda  the  pubes  are 
turned  backward  beneath  the  isehia.  are  slender,  and  not 
united  distally.  They  are  similar  in  |)osition  in  the  birds, 
but  are  united  distally  in  the  ostriches.  The  isehia  in  birds 
are  slender  and  not  distally  united,  but  often  eo-ossified  with 
the  ilia.  The  ilium  is  directed  backward  and  upward  in 
reptiles,  both  backward  and  forward  in  birds  and  Dinosauria. 
and  forward  in  Mammalia.  In  the  earliest  Batrachia  and 
lieplilia  (of  the  Paheozoic  realm)  it  is  directed  upward.  The 
acetabulum  is  perforated  and  not  completed  at  the  fundus 
in  Dinosauria  and  the  birds.  In  Croc- 
odilia  the  pubes  are  not  united  on  the 
middle  line  below,  but  are  directed  for- 
ward. In  the  marsupial  mannnals  the 
pubes  support  a  pair  of  bones  directed 
outward  and  forward,  the  marsupial 
bones,  which  are  ossifications  of  the 
producecl  symphysial  cartilage.  In 
JIammalia  the  pidje.s  and  isehia  arc  in 
contact  on  the  middle  line  below,  and 
are  sometinu'S  extended  posteriorly, 
joining  the  peduncles  of  the  ilia  (Amer- 
ican Edentata,  Notoryctes). 

The  hinder  limbs  are  wanting  in  Lcp- 
tocardii,  Dermopteri,  and  several  orders 
of  true  osseous  fishes  collectively  called 
Apodes  or  eels.  In  most  other  fishes 
they  occui)y  the  usual  position  on  the 
abdomen,  but  in  the  Physoclysti  they 
are  placed  beneath  the  |)ectoral  limbs, 
or  nearly  so,  the  pubic  bones  being 
ni-if..rm;  J.  fourth;  more  or  less  united  and  suspended  from 
A.Uunl;  ,,  second  ,he  symphysis  of  the  eoracoids.  In 
Pleetognuthi  they  form  a  simple  rod. 
which  is  generally  deprived  of  fins.  In  Batrachia  the  hind 
limbs  are  constituted  like  the  fore  limt)s.  atid  therefore  em- 
brace one  bone  in  the  first  segnuMit.  femur;  two  in  the  sec- 
ond,/rtia  «.m\  jUnda;  three  in  i\w  i\i\ri\,  tibiah'.mediale. 
and  fibii/nre;  five  in  the  fourth,  from  which  are  continued 
the  five  metatarsals  and  series  of  phalanges.  These  corre- 
spond with  the  elements  of  (he  fore  leg  as  follows:  femur 
to  humerus;  tibia  to  radius  in  front,  and  fibula  to  ulna  be- 


pelvis  ;  IV.,  pectoral  arch. 


Fio.  1.3.  —  Posterior 
footiif  Rhtintreros: 
a,  culcancurn  ;  ft, 
a.*ttragaliis;  r.  cu- 
lioifi  ;  d.  navicu- 
lar :  e.  mesociinei- 
forin  ;    /,  ectocu' 


hind.  These  relations  are  maintained  so  long  as  the  limbs 
extend  horizontally  without  twist,  either  in  paddles,  as  in 
Ichthyopterygia,  or  terrestrial  animals,  as  sahinumders.  In 
most  vertebrates  the  first  bones  are  twisted  in  opposite  di- 
rections, that  is,  toward  each  other,  the  knee  pointing  for- 
ward, the  elbow  backward,  which  causes  an  a]jpan^nt  rever- 
sal of  the  homologies 
of  the  two  bones  of 
the  second  segment. 
In  the  hin<l  foot  of 
the  higher  Verte- 
brata,  especially  the 
mammals,  the  libiale 
and  intermedium 
form  the  single  as- 
tragalus, while  the 
fibulare  is  produced 
backward,  forming 
the  heel-bone  or  cal- 
caneum.  The  cen- 
trale  becomes  the 
navicular,  while  the 
fourth  and  fifth  of 
the  second  row  unite 
to  form  the  cuboid. 
In  the  reptiles  these 
bones  are  less  distinctly  constituted,  and  various  modes  of 
combination  present  themselves.  In  the  Dinosauria  the  as- 
tragalus and  calcaneum  areoften  co-ossified,  and  may  be  unit- 
ed, by  suture  or  co-ossification,  with  the  tibia.  In  the  birds 
the  latter  case  always  prevails,  and  the  fibu- 
la, being  much  reduced,  does  not  generally  ex- 
tendtothearticulation.  In  reptiles  and  birds, 
then,  the  ankle-joint  is  between  the  two  rows 
of  tarsals,  while  in  Jlaminalia  it  is  between 
the  tibia  and  astragalus.  The  number  of 
toes  is  usually  four  and  five  in  the  Batrachia 
and  reptiles:  among  birds  it  is  usually  four, 
the  inner  being  turned  backward  and  re- 
duced in  size,  and  sometimes  wanting.  The 
metat.arsals  of  the  three  remaining  toes  are 
co-ossified  with  each  other  and  with  the  sec- 
ond row  of  tarsal  bones.  In  Mammalia  the 
normal  number  of  digits  is  five,  but  is  often 
reduced  to  four.  Among  ungulates  the  hip- 
popotamus disphays  four:  the  lateral  ones  ^. 
ai'e  reduced  in  the  hog  and  the  Tragulus, 
till  in  the  Poehrothtrivm  they  are  reduced 
to  rudiments,  tWQ  only  remaining.  These 
are  united  into  a  solid  "  cannon-bone  "  in 
the  Booidea,  which  supports  two  distinct 
toes.  In  the  rhinoceros  there  are  but  three 
toes,  of  which  the  central  is  the  largest :  the 
laterals  are  successively  reduced  in  the  horse 
series,  composed  of  such  genera  as  Anc/ii- 
theriiim  and  I'rothipjms.  In  ruminants  the 
navicular  and  cuboid  bones  are  united,  and  HP  (E) 
often  the  second  and  third  of  the  second  row  ^_  „ ,, 
or  cuneiforms  with  each  other  and  the  na-  Wtl'l\ 
viculo-cuboid. 

It  remains  to  notice  the  peripheral  ossifi- 
cations of  fishes  and  a  few  appendages  of  1^,  t1 
other  Vertebrala.  In  the  archetypal  fin  each 
neural  spine  and  each  lucmal  liehind  the  ab- 
dominal cavity  supports  an  additional  bone 
called  an  interneural.  and  the  latter  another 
bone,  the  basilar.  This  is  the  ca.se  in  a  largo 
portion  of  the  unpaired  fins  of  the  sharks 
and  the  Difinoi.  These  ba-silar  bones  sup- 
port the  fin-rays,  which  are  developed  in  the  te'>'.) 
dermal  fold  that  represents  the  fins  in  the 
early  stages.  The  vertebrje  in  the  Dipnoi 
and  a  number  of  other  fishes  gradually  di- 
minish in  size  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  forming  p,,,  j^  _2),p/o. 
a  type  called  the  protocercal.  In  other  fish-  ;)iii,  lii'nd  toot 
es  till'  ha'mal  spines  of  the  last  vertebne  are  (from  Kowalev- 
largelv  developed,  forming  the  i)rincipal  n'^Z' ; ?''i o "'at' 
p;irt  ol  (lie  basis  of  the  caudal  tin.  In  these  tragalus  ;  ime 
the  vertebral  axis  turns  upward  to  the  end,  t'.  navicular; 
forming  the  type  called  helerocercal,  which  eet'ocune'iform '' 
is  seen  in  sharks,  sturgeons,  and  some  bonv 
fishes.  In  the  majority  of  osseous  fishes  the  terminal  ver- 
tebra>  are  wanting,  an<l  the  greatly  expantled  ha'mal  spines 
extend  round  its  end,  forming  a'  fan.     This  is  the  horao- 


W 


n' 


n 


I3i 


362 


OSTHOPP 


OSTRICH 


cereal  tail.  In  tlie  dorsal  and  anal  fins  of  the  Teleostomi 
the  basilar  bones  are  usually  wanting,  but  in  some  cases 
rudimentary ;  they  are  long  in  the  anal  fin  of  Amia.  In 
Polypterus  "certain  median  fin  rays  are  very  elongate,  and 
each  supports  a  number  of  cartilaginous  rays,  the  posterior 
from  the  end.  but  the  more  anterior  from  the  posterior  siile, 
forming  the  horizontal  dorsal  pinnules  of  that  genus.  In 
higher  fishes  the  interneurals.  which  support  the  dorsal,  and 
the  intcrhivmals,  that  support  the  anal  fin,  are  more  numer- 
ous than  the  vertebra'  they  are  opposite  to.  In  many  fishes 
there  are  interneurals  between  the  cranium  and  dorsal  fin 
which  support  no  fin. 

Horn  cores  are  developed  on  the  crania  of  various  spe- 
cies of  Mammalia,  especially  the  Eobasiliidm  among  Am- 
blypoda.  Me/nodus  among  Perissodactyla,  and  the  Booidea 
among  Artiodactyla.  They  are  permanent  except  in  the 
Cervidm  among  ruminants,  where  they  grow  and  are  shed 
annually,  leaving  a  basal  portion,  the  burr,  attached  to  the 
frontal  bones.  They  are  often  of  large  size,  and  grow  with 
incredible  rapidity. 

See  t'ojie.  (hi  Odeology  of  Fishes,  Batrachia,  and  Bep- 
tilia,  especial/i/  LacertUia ;  Cuvier,  Osseme.ns  Fossiles ; 
Flower,  Osteology  of  Mammalia;  Gegenbaur,  On  Limba 
and  the  Shoulder  and  Pelvic  Girdles;  Huxley,  Elements 
of  Comparative  Anatomy,  and  Anatomy  of  Vertebrated  Ani- 
mals; KoUiker,  The  Development  of  the  Vertebral  Column  ; 
Owen.  Anatomy  of  Vertebrate  Animals;  Homologies  of  the 
Vertebrate  Skeleton;  Pavker.  Anatomy  of  the  Shoulder  Gir- 
dle ;  Development  of  the  Skull  in  the  Ostrich  Tribe,  the  Fig, 
Frog,  Eel,  and  Salmon;  Vrolik,  On  the  Ossification  and 
Bones  of  the  Skull  of  the  Teleostei.  E.  D.  Cope. 

Ostlioff.  Hermann  :  comparative  philologist ;  b.  at  Bill- 
merich,  near  Unna,  in  Westphalia,  Apr.  18,  1847;  educated 
at  the  gymnasium  in  Unna  and  at  the  Universities  of  Bonn, 
Tiibingen,  and  Berlin  ;  teacher  at  the  gymnasium  in  Cassel 
1871-74,  privat  docent  in  Leipzig  1875-77:  Professor  of 
Comparative  Philology  in  the  University  of  Heidelberg  since 
1877.  His  chief  works  are  Forschungen  im  Gehiete  der  in- 
doge.rm.  nominaleyi  StammMldung  (3  vols.,  1875-76) ;  Das 
Verbum  in  der  2fuminalcomposition  (1878);  Morphologische 
Untersuchungen  (in  collaboration  with  Karl  Brugmann,  5 
vols.,  1878-90);  Zur  Oeschichte  des  Perfects  im  Indoger- 
manisehen  (\filii) ;  also  many  important  articles  in  various 
scientific  journals.  He  was  one  of  the  leading  spirits  of  the 
neo-graminarian  movement,  and  has  contributed  as  much  as 
any  one  to  the  estal)lishment  of  the  new  theories  of  the  Indo- 
European  vocalism.  His  writings  are  aggressive  and  inde- 
pendent, often  controversial,  and  they  are  always  rich  in 
suggestion  and  strictly  scientific  in  method. 

Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Os'tia :  an  old  Roman  town ;  on  the  left  side  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Tiber;  about  14  miles  S.  W.  of  Rome.  Ancient  writ- 
ers agree  in  stating  that  it  was  founded  by  Ancus  Martius 
as  a  maritime  station  for  his  cai>ital,  but  it  was  not  until 
the  wars  with  Carthage  that  it  became  important  as  a  port 
for  the  introduction  of  foreign  grain.  From  that  tnne  it 
grew  rapidly,  and  was  soon  the  principal  commercial  and 
naval  station  of  the  Romans.  The  harbor,  however,  was 
never  a  really  good  one,  and  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  it  was 
already  so  shoaled  up  by  deposits  from  the  Tiber  as  to  ne- 
cessitate the  construction  of  an  artificial  basin  about  3  miles 
to  the  N.  This  was  called  Portus  Augusti,  afterward  Por- 
tus  Trajani ;  Init  the  new  town  which  grew  up  around  it 
(Portus  or  Portus  l^rbis)  never  equaled  the  old  one  in  size 
and  opulencH'.  Ostia  began  to  decline  with  the  declining 
empire,  and  early  in  the  ninth  century  was  a  heap  of  ruins. 
Gregory  IV.  then  tried  to  rebuild  it,  but  without  success; 
and  later  popes  have  made  similar  fruitless  attempts.  Pine 
statues  and  other  works  of  art  are  often  disinterred  here, 
and  excavations,  which  have  been  systematically  carried  on 
since  1855,  have  disclosed  extensive  warehouses  and  other 
commercial  and  iniljlic  structures,  whose  foundations  and 
lower  stories  renuiin  to  witness  to  the  former  greatness  of 
this  ancient  city.  Ostia  was  an  episcopal  see  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fil'tli  century,  and  the  title  bishop  of  O.stia  and  Vel- 
letri  is  now  given  (mly  to  the  dean  of  the  Sacred  College, 
resident  in  Home. 

Os't racism  [from  (ir.  a(TTpaKttTij.6s,  ostracism,  dcriv.  of 
oiTTpoKffeij/,  banish  by  vote,  ostracize,  deriv.  of  ucrpaKOf.  sliell, 
lile  (usi'd  in  voting)]:  a  form  of  temporary  banishTnent 
which  once  prevailed  in  ancient  Athens  and  .some  other 
(ireek  cities  (Argos,  Megara.  ]\Iiletus).  'l"he  Athenian  senate 
and  eccle.sia  having  decided  that  ostracism  was  neces.sary  in 


the  case  of  any  citizen,  the  ten  tribes  voted  upon  the  ques- 
tion in  the  agora.  Each  voter  in  favor  of  the  ostracism 
presented  a  tablet  or  shard  of  burnt  clay,  on  which  was  writ- 
ten the  name  of  the  person  to  be  banished.  If  there  were 
6,000  votes  for  it,  the  person  ostracized  was  obliged  to  leave 
the  state  within  ten  days  and  not  return  for  ten  years  unless 
recalled.  Ostracism  was  not  a  penalty  for  crime,  but  was 
emploved  against  persons  supposed  to  possess  dangerous 
power!  The  exile  retained  his  property  and  social  [losition. 
In  Syracuse  the  olive-leaf  was  used  instead  of  the  clay  tablet, 
and  the  act  of  exile  was  called  petalism. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  .Sterrett. 

Ostrac'oda  [from  Gr.  iaTpoKov.  shell  +  elSos,  form]:  an  or- 
der of  Crustacea,  sub-class  Entomostraca  (q.  v.),  embracing 
a  few  small  aquatic  forms,  some  living  in  the  sea,  others  in 
fresh  water.  The  most  striking  features  in  their  structu  re  are 
the  presence  of  seven  pairs  of  appendages,  a  short  unjointed 
abdomen,  the  whole  inclosed  in  a  horny  or  even  calcareous 
bivalve  shell.  These  forms  feed  upon  decaying  animal  mat- 
ter and  are  abundant  in  stagnant  water.  Fossil  forms  occur 
in  all  formations  since  the  PahTozoic.  For  an  illustration, 
see  article  Cypris.  The  two  principal  genera  are  ( 'ypris  and 
Cypridina,  the  former  of  which  has  the  power  of  reproduc- 
ing parthenogenetically.  See  Brady,  Transactions  of  Lin- 
nean  Society  of  London  (xxvi.),  and  papers  by  t^laus  and 
Sars.     Little  has  been  done  with  the  American  species. 

J.  S.  KiNGSLEY. 

Ostre'idae  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Ostre'a,  the  tyjiical  genus, 
from  Lat.  os'trea,  from  Gr.  6aTpeov,  oyster] :  the  family  of 
Lamellibraneh  molluscs  which  includes  the  Oysters  (g.  r). 
Among  the  characters  separating  it  from  the  Lamelli- 
BRANCHiATA  {q.  V.)  are  the  following :  The  mantle  lobes  are 
not  united  to  each  other,  no  siphon  is  formed,  thei-e  is  but  a 
single  adductor  muscle  for  closing  the  shell,  while  the  foot 
has  disapi)eared.  The  shell  is  irregular  in  shape,  the  two 
valves  being  more  or  less  unequal,  and  the  hinge  is  without 
projections  or  teeth.  Only  one  living  genus,  Ostrea,  is  rec- 
ognized, wliile  this  and  two  others  {Gryphwa  and  E.rogyra) 
exist  as  fossils.  The  pearl  oysters  belong  to  a  ditl'erent 
family.  J.  S.  Kinoslev. 

Ostrich  [from  0.  Pr.  ostruche  >  Fr.  autruche  :  Span,  aves- 
truz  :  <  Lat.  a'lns  stru'thio  ;  a  vis,  bird  -t-  stru'thio  =  Gr. 
(TTpovSiav,  ostrich,  deriv.  of  arpoueSs,  sparrow,  bird] :  the  larg- 
est of  living  birds,  belonging  to  the  family  StruthiontdcB 
and  order  SIruthiones,  distinguished  bv  its  great  size  and 
by  having  only  two  toes  on  each  foot.  Its  scientific  name  is 
Struthio  camelus.  The  adult  male  ostrich  stands  nearly  8 
feet  high  and  weighs  ujiward  of  200  lb.  The  head  is  flat- 
tened, eyes  large,  neck  and  thighs  practically  bare,  the  wings 
small  and  useless.  The  plumage,  including  the  wing  and 
tail  feathers,  which  furnish  the  large  plumes  of  commerce,  is 
loose  and  wavy.  The  males  are  glossy  black  with  white 
wings  and  tail,  the  females  and  young  are  dirty  grav :  the 


African  ostrich  [Struthio  camelus). 

chicks  are  striped.  The  ostrich  inhabits  the  sandy  plains  of 
Africa  from  the  Barbary  States  to  Cape  Colony.  b\it  in 
many  iilaces  has  been  exterminated,  or  nearly  so,  for  its 
feathers.  In  former  days  it  was  found  over  a  considerable 
portion  of  Southwestern  Asia,  but  is  now  practically  re- 
stricted to  (^'iitral  Arabia.  The  ostrich,  is  sonu'times  found 
in  small  troops,  but  more  often,  especially  during  the  breed- 


OSTKOU 


OSWEGO 


363 


ing  season,  a  luale  and  from  three  to  five  females  will  be 
found  together.  The  feniiiles  lay  their  eggs  to  the  number  of 
about  thirty  in  one  tiest,  a  shallow  pit  scooped  in  the  sand, 
and  during'the  day  they  are  mostly  left  to  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  At  night  the  male  sits  on  the  eggs  and  they  are  rarely 
left  unguardeil  in  the  daytime.  A  number  of  loo.se  eggs  are 
always  found  in  the  vieinity  of  the  nest,  it  is  said  tor  the 
nourishment  of  the  newly  hatched  voung.     The  food  of  the 


American  ostrich  [Rhea  americana). 


ostrich  consists  of  grass,  roots,  and  seeds,  but  lizards,  insects, 
and  other  animal  food  arc  also  eaten.  The  ostrich  trusts  to 
flight  for  protection,  but  can  intlict  a  dangerous  blow  with 
its  foot.  Two  or  three  species  of  o.st riches  have  been  de- 
scribed, but  it  is  not  yet  clear  whether  these  are  good  species 
or  only  geographical  races.  The  egg  of  the  northern  bird  is 
rough  ;  that  of  the  southern  smooth. 

Ostrich-farming  is  extensively  carried  on  in  South  Africa, 
and  to  a  far  less  extent  in  Xorthern  .\frica.  South  America, 
and  .Southern  California.  London  is  the  chief  market  for 
ostrich  feathers,  and  the  annual  sales  amount  to  from  r,'0,()(JO 
to  IT.i.OOO  lb.  The  prices  vary  greatly;  from  ^200  per  lb. 
for  the  best  white  plumes  to  $7  f<->r  the  young  feathers.  The 
name  ostrich  is  frequently  applied  to  the  South  American 
rhea.     See  RiiKiD.E.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Ostrog' :  town;  in  the  government  of  Volhynia,  Euro- 
pean Russia;  176  miles  W.  of  Kietf  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref. 
S-C).  Here  the  first  .Slavonic  Bible  was  printed.  Ostrog  has 
a  military  school,  a  school  for  teachers,  five  churches,  and  a 
trade  in  woul,  wood,  leather,  wheat,  and  flour.  Pop.  about 
16.!)()(),  mostly  .lews. 

Ostrogoths:  See  Goths. 

Ostroleii'kii  (in  Polish,  OMrnleJca) :  town  ;  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Lomza.  Russian  Poland:  on  the  Xarew.  An  en- 
counter took  place  here  Kel).  l(i,  1807,  between  the  French 
under  Savary  and  the  Russians  under  Essen,  in  which  the 
former  were  victorious.  The  place  became  still  more  famous 
by  the  battle  which  was  fought  here  May  2(i.  1831.  between 
the  Poles  under  Skrzynecki  and  the  Russians  under  Die- 
bitsch.  After  a  long  and  bloody  contest  the  Poles  were 
forced  to  retreat,  but  the  Russians  were  unable  to  follow 
them  on  account  of  their  own  losses.      Pop.  .5,120. 

Ostrov'skii.  Ali:ksaxi>ii  Nikolakvich:  dramatist;  b.  in 
M0.SC0W,  Russia,  Mar.  :!0.  18-24:  d.  .June  2,  1886.  Having 
begun  to  write  while  still  a  schoolboy,  he  first  became  known 
to  the  public  by  a  couple  of  scenes  which  appeared  in  Mos- 
cow newspapers  in  1847.  Two  years  later  he  estalilished 
his  reputation  with  Svu'i  Liuili  .loc/tfemshi  (We  Get  on  with 
Our  Own  Kind),  one  of  his  best  comedies.  His  pieces  fol- 
lowed each  other  in  rapid  .succession.  After  1862,  while 
still  continuing  with  his  comedies,  he  also  composed  dra- 
matic chronicles  in  verse,  which,  however,  do  not  rise  to 
the  height  of  real  historical  tragedy,  and  achieved  only 
moderate  success.  Perhaps  the  best  known  of  them  are 
Dmilril  SaniDZi'anets  iVasilil  >S7i)n'.'i/.-/7  (1867)  and  Va.silifia 
yfeUntlevna  (1868).  Ostrovskii  is  very  noi)ular  in  Russia. 
He  chose  as  the  fiehl  of  his  descriptions  the  life  and  ways  of 
the  middle  cl.'isses  in  Moscow,  a  part  of  society  hardly  above 
the  peasants  in  intelligence,  with  customs  and  iileas  si  ill 
those  of  the  Middle  Ages,  almost  uiuifFected  by  Western 
European  thought  and  culture.  Among  the  best  of  his  plays 
are  liednala  Sevesta  (The  Poor  Bride,  1852);  Bedmixt  tie 


Porok  (Poverty  is  not  a  Fault,  1833) ;  Dokhodnoe  Mesto  (A 
Profitable  Place,  1857);  Oroza  (The  Storm,  185'J) ;  and 
Ooriac/tee  .SVn//.w  (A  Warm  Heart,  1861t).  He  also  was  the 
author  of  many  excellent  single  scenes  and  of  several  trans; 
lations,  especially  a  remarkable  one  of  T/u:  Taminy  of  the 
S/irew.  His  complete  ww'ks  were  published  at  St.  Peters- 
burg (1887,  10  vols.).  Three  of  his  plays  have  Ixmmi  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Durand  Greville.       A.  C.  Cooliuhe. 

Ostrow'skl:  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family  of  Polish 
nobility,  originally  descending  from  the  palatinate  of  Ijub- 
lin.  Among  its  most  remarkable  members  was  Tomasz 
Adam  Rawuz.  Count  Ostrowski,  b.  at  Ostrow.  Dec.  21.  1739. 
He  took  a  very  active  part  in  the  eslablishment  of  the  con- 
-stitution  of  May  3,  1791,  and  was  appointed  Minister  of 
Finance,  but  re-signed  when  the  king  shortly  after  joined 
the  confederacy  of  Targowicza,  and  lived  after  the  third 
division  of  Poland  (1795)  in  retirement  on  his  estates  in  the 
Ukraine.  t)n  the  establishment  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw- 
he  was  made  grand  marshal  of  the  diet  in  1809.  and  presi- 
dent of  the  senate  Dec.  6,  1811.  The  Emperor  Alexander  I. 
also  showed  great  confidence  in  him.  and  the  Poles  received 
their  new  constitution  of  1815  from  his  hands.  D.  Feb.  5, 
1817. — His  son,  Antoni  .Ioanxks,  Count  Ostrowski,  b.  at 
Warsaw.  May  27,  1782,  studied  at  the  University  of  Leipzig; 
entered  in  1806  the  French  body-guard ;  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  provisional  government  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw ; 
followed  Napoleon  to  Dresden  in  1813,  and  fought  in  the 
battle  of  Leipzig;  entered  the  Polish  senate  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  and  opposed  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
Grand  Duke  Constantine;  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the 
Polish  revolution  of  1830,  fighting  at  hist  in  the  ranks  on 
the  walls  of  Warsaw,  and  wrote  the  manifesto  which  the 
last  remnant  of  the  Polish  army  issued  (Oct.  4,  1831)  to  the 
kings  and  nations  of  Europe  after  crossing  the  Prussian 
frontier  and  laying  down  their  arms.  He  afterward  lived 
in  France,  and  published  Le  l'a)i,^lavisine  inoscofite  (1842). 
D.  in  Paris  in  1847. 

Osil'na :  an  old,  suljstantially  but  irregularly  built  town, 
in  the  jn-ovince  of  Seville.  Sjiain :  48  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  the 
city  of  Seville ;  on  a  hill  in  a  very  fertile  plain  rich  in  wine, 
almonds,  figs,  and  olives  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  19-D).  The 
castle  of  the  Duke  of  Osuna  is  a  large  and  magnificent 
building.  There  are  manufactures  of  silk,  linen,  and  leather. 
Pop.  (1887)  19,376. 

Osiina,  Pedro  Tkllez  Girox,  Duke  of:  statesman;  b.  at 
Valladolid,  Siiain.  in  1579 ;  spent  his  childhood  at  Naples, 
where  his  grandfather  was  viceroy;  was  educated  at  .Sala- 
manca, ami  assumed  the  title  of  Duke  of  Osuna  on  his  mar- 
riage with  a  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Alcala.  He  was  at 
first  unpopular  at  the  courts  both  of  Philip  II.  ami  Philip 
III.,  and  was  twice  exiled,  but  having  gained  military  dis- 
tinction in  Flanders,  where  the  twelve  years'  truce  of  1609 
was  advised  by  him,  he  was  restored  to  favor  at  the  Spanish 
court.  He  became  Viceroy  of  Sicily  1611,  but  was  trans- 
ferred to  Naples  1616.  In  the  latter  office  he  won  great 
poijularity  by  his  defense  of  the  people  against  the  oppres- 
sions of  the  nobility  and  clergy.  He  was  sulisequently  sus- 
pected of  conspiring  with  foreign  jirinces  to  make  himself 
independent  in  Southern  Italy;  was  recalled  1620,  and  sub- 
jected to  a  long  and  secret  trial  for  high  treason.  Though 
not  convicted,  he  was  retained  a  prisoner  in  the  Castle  of 
Alineidas.  where  he  died  in  1624,  either  by  suicide  or  poi- 
soneil  by  his  wife. 

Oswald,  Saixt:  King  of  Northumbria;  b.  about  604;  son 
of  Ethelfrid,  who  was  killed  in  617  by  Redwald,  King  of 
Hast  Anglia;  resided  sonu>  years  thereafter  an  exile  in 
Scotland  (or  Ireland),  where  he  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity: caiTie  to  the  throne  634:  made  war  upon  Cadwalla. 
King  of  Wales,  whom  he  killed  in  battle:  introduced  Chris- 
tianity into  Wales  ;  nnirried  Cynebnrg.  daughter  of  the  West 
Saxon"  king  Cynegil.  on  ccmdition  of  her  embracing  Chris- 
tianity, and  was  Idlled  at  .Maserfield  Aug.  5,  642,  by  the 
heathen  king  Penda  of  Mercia.  The  events  of  his  life  as 
given  by  Pede  and  Alcuin  are  overgrown  with  miraculous 
legends,  which  were  long  popular,  especially  in  Germany. 
He  was  canonized  by  the  Roman  Church. 

OswPffo:  city;  capital  of  Labette  co.,  Kan.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  8-J) :  on  the  Neosho  river,  and  the 
JIo.,  Kan.  and  Tex.  and  the  St.  L.  and  S.  Fe  railways;  13 
miles  S.  by  E.  of  Parsons.  It  derives  good  power  froin  the 
river  for  manufacluring.  and  has  several  mills,  a  national 
bank  with  capital  of  $60,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of 


B6i 


OSWEGO 


OTHMAN   I. 


$50,000.  a  private  bank,  and  three  weekly  newspapers.    Pop. 
(1880)  2,351 ;  (18U0)  2,574 ;  (1895)  2,145.  ' 

Oswego :  city ;  capital  of  Oswego  co.,  N.  Y. :  on  Lake 
Ontario,  at  the  tnoutli  of  the  Oswego  river:  at  the  northern 
terminus  of  the  Oswego  Canal;  on  the  Del.,  Lack,  and 
West.,  the  X.  Y.,  Ont.  and  West.,  and  the  Rome,  Water- 
town  and  Ogdensburg  railways:  85  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Syra- 
cuse, and  328  miles  N.  W.  of  New  York  city  (for  location, 
see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  3-G).  It  is  beautifully  laid  out 
on  three  large,  low  hills,  thus  having  unsurpassed  natural 
drainage.  The  streets  have  a  uniform  width  of  100  feet 
and  cross  at  right  angles ;  the  building  blocks  are  400  feet 
long  by  200  feet  wide ;  the  paving  is  stone.  The  city  has 
five  large  public  parks,  delightfidly  shaded,  with  an  average 
area  of  5  acres.  It  has  fine  national.  State,  municipal,  and 
other  baildings,  including  the  U.  S.  custom-house,  which 
contains  the  pcjst-office  and  the  U.  S.  court-room,  a  spacious 
city-hall.  State  armory,  handsome  new  county-jail,  one  of 
the  most  commodious  court  houses  in  the  State,  a  U.  S.  life- 
saving  station  supplied  with  modern  apparatus,  and  a  new- 
opera-house  which  cost  !j  100,000.  Fort  Ontario,  on  the  east 
side  of  the  river,  commanding  the  entrance  to  the  liarbor,  is 
a  easemated  structure,  with  moat  and  bastions,  and  is  gar- 
risoned by  a  company  of  U.  S.  infantry.  It  is  one  of  the 
three  fortifications  that  originally  defended  the  city  while 
a  British  possession.  There  are  20  churches,  classified  as 
follows :  Methodist  Episcopal,  3 :  Protestant  Episcopal, 
Presbyterian,  Baptist,  and  Lutheran,  2  each :  Roman  Cath- 
olic, 5 ;  Congregational,  Evangelical,  Universalist,  and  Af- 
rican Methodist  Episcopal,  1  each.  Oswego  is  noted  for 
her  educational  facilities,  having  a  State  Normal  and  Train- 
ing School,  five  large  brick  public  schools,  and  many  smaller 
ones,  all  graded,  besides  several  parochial  and  private 
schools  and  business  colleges.  The  number  of  pupils  en- 
rolled in  the  public  schools  in  1893-94  was  3.425:  in  the 
parochial  schools,  1,274.  The  city  contains  a  public  library 
(founded  by  Gerrit  Smith  in  1855)  with  over  20.000  vol- 
umes, and  a  city-school  and  a  normal-school  library.  It  has 
a  hospital  and  asylums  for  homeless  old  ladies  ami  orphans. 
In  1893  the  total'receipts  of  the  city  were  $318,404.77.  and 
expenditures  $281,721.24,  and  the  assessed  valuations  were, 
real  estate,  $8,708,305 :  personal,  $793.860— total,  $9,502,165. 
There  are  2  national  banks,  with  a  total  capital  of  $300,000, 
and  2  savings-banks  with  total  deposits  of  about  $1,750,- 
000,  besides  several  aid  and  loan  associations.  The  city  has 
abundant  water-power,  supplied  by  the  Oswego  river,  which 
divides  it  E.  and  W.  and  forms  the  outlet  of  a  beautiful 
group  of  eleven  lakes  in  Central  New  York.  It  has  many 
manufacturing  concerns,  several  of  which  are  the  largest  of 
their  kind  in  the  U.  S.,  such  as  starch-works,  underclothing- 
factory,  boiler-works,  the  Standard  Oil  Company's  box-shops, 
malt-house,  shade-cloth  works,  and  a  match-factory.  Other 
large  local  industries  are  a  book-bindery,  silver-plating 
works,  car-building  and  repair  shops,  sash  and  blind  fac- 
tory, and  extensive  lumber-yards.  Here  are  located  the 
famous  Deep  Rock  Mineral  Springs.  The  p.aid  fire  depart- 
ment is  one  of  the  best  equipped  and  most  efficient  in  the 
State.  Oswego  is  one  of  the  chief  ports  of  entry  in  the 
U.  .S.  A  vast  outer  harbor  is  formed  by  a  breakwater,  with 
parapet,  over  a  mile  long,  and  contains  the  D.,  L.  and  W. 
Railroad  Company's  immense  coal-trestles.  The  old  or  in- 
ner harbor  is  formed  by  two  piers  at  the  river's  mouth, 
and  contains  another  large  coal-trestle.  These  harboi-s 
protect  several  miles  of  wharfage  and  accommodate  the 
largest  vessels.  Coal  is  the  main  article  of  export,  and 
538,751  net  tons  were  shipped  during  the  year  ending  June 
30.  1893.  There  were  received  during  the' same  period  45- 
034  net  tons  of  grain  ami  170,000,000  feet  of  lumber.  The 
total  revenue  collected  for  the  year  was  $284,058.60.  A 
steamer  runs  three  times  a  week  from  the  citv  to  the  Thou- 
sand Islands  during  the  pleasure  season.  Oswego  has  va- 
rious outing  clubs  and  a  yachting  club  with  a  fine  fleet, 
anil  is  a  noted  fishing  resort.  There  are  2  daily  and  2  week- 
ly new.spapers.  The  city  is  one  of  the  oldest  settlements 
in  the  State,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1848.  It 
was  the  last  point  to  be  surrendered  bv  Great  Britain  to 
the  U.  S.  Government.  Pop.  (1880)  21.116:  (1890)  21  842- 
(1894)  estimated.  25.000. 

.■V.  M.  Hall,  editor  of  "  Palladium." 

Otahpito.  o-tti^i-he't-  tp :  See  TAnixi. 

Ota'go  [from  Maori  Otakou.  red  earth]  :  the  most  southern 
provincial  district  of  the  .'^lirldle  island  of  New  Zealand. 
Area,  25,487  sq.  miles.     The  first  settlement  was  made  here 


in  1847.  and  in  1851  the  number  of  settlers  had  increased  to 

1,740:  but  in  1861  gold  was  discovered  in  several  districts, 
and  in  two  years  the  population  swelled  to  48,907,  of  whom 
only  500  were  natives.  The  gold-fields  now  comprise  an 
area  of  2,500,000  acres,  and  in  other  directions  the  province 
has  made  great  progress ;  it  is  being  extensively  cultivated, 
and  its  natural  riches  are  rapidly  developing.  Pop.  (1891) 
153,097.     Capital.  Dunedin. 

Otari'ldie  [Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Ota'ria.  the  typical 
genus,  from  Gr.  urap6s.  large-eared,  deriv.  of  oSs,  ur6s.  ear] : 
a  family  of  mammals  of  the  order  Pinnipedia,  containing 
the  sea-lions  and  fur-seals.  The  form  is  more  like  that  of 
ordinary  quadrupeds  than  in  any  other  members  of  the 
order:  the  fore  limbs  are  flippers,  the  hind  limbs  flexible 
forward  ;  the  head  is  bear-like  :  small  linear  ears  are  devel- 

oped  :  the  34  or  36  teeth  are  present  (JI.  = — i.  C.  |,  I.  |  x  2), 

and  the  incisors  of  the  upper  jaw  are  notched  ;  the  anterior 
limbs  are  about  as  large  as  the  posterior :  their  digits  de- 
crease in  a  curved  line  and  are  destitute  of  claws:  the  pos- 
terior feet  have  all  their  digits  nearly  coterminal,  and  are 
furnished  with  long  flaps  extending  beyond  the  tips ;  the 
three  middle  toes  are  alone  provided  with  claws.  The 
family  has  been  variously  subdivided,  but  by  naturalists  in 
the  U.  S.  is  regarded  as  being  represented  by  five  genera, 
viz.:  (1)  Zaiophus,  (2)  Eumetopias,  (3)  Otaria,  (4)  Arcto- 
cephalus,  and  (5)  Callotariu.  The  first  is  represented  on 
the  coast  of  California  as  well  as  Japan  and  Australia ;  the 
second  is  restricted  to  the  North  Pacific,  E.  stelleri  descend- 
ing, however,  as  far  as  California:  the  third  and  fourth 
behmg  to  the  southern  seas;  and  the  fifth  to  the  North  Pa- 
cific. The  first  three  are  "  hair-seals  "  and  the  last  two  "  fur- 
seals."  Arctocephalus  is  hunted  for  its  fur  at  widely  dis- 
tant places :  Callotaria.  however,  is  only  sought  for  to  any 
extent  on  the  Pribyloff  islands,  Alaska,  and  Commander 
islands,  Kamchatka.  Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Otfrled :  poet :  a  Frank  by  birth  ;  studied  at  Fulda  under 
Hrabanus  Maurus  (822-847).  and  also  under  Salomon  I., 
Bishop  of  Constance  (839-871);  went  to  St.-Gall,  and  was 
afterward  monk  in  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Weissen- 
burg,  Alsace.  Here  he  wrote,  with  the  avowed  purpose  of 
displacing  the  worldly  songs  of  the  people,  his  famous  Evan- 
geUenbuch,  a  paraphrase  in  verse  of  the  Gospels.  The  first 
part  of  his  poem  he  sent  to  Hartmuat  and  Werinbraeht, 
monks  of  St.-Gall,  another  part  to  Bishop  Salomon,  and  the 
complete  work  he  finally  dedicated  about  865  to  King  Louis, 
the  German,  and  to  Archbishop  Liutbert  of  Mentz.  In  an 
extremely  interesting  letter,  written  in  Latin  to  Liutbert, 
he  speaks  of  the  aim  of  his  poem  and  of  the  difiSculties  he 
encountered  with  the  German  language  while  composing  it. 
The  poetical  merit  of  Otfried's  work  is  very  small.  As  one 
of  the  most  extensive  documents  of  the  Old  High  German 
period,  which,  moreover,  was  composed  in  rhymes,  Otfried's 
Evangelienbvch  is,  however,  of  tlie  greatest  value  for  the 
study  of  the  German  language  and  of  German  metrics.  For 
the  didactic  parts  of  his  poem,  which  are  very  frequent, 
Otfried  used  the  works  of  Hrabanus,  Beda.  and  Alcuin.  See 
the  editions  of  Otfried  by  J.  Kelle,  P.  Piper,  and  0.  Erd- 
mann  ;  K.  Lachmann,  KI.  Schrifien,  i.,  449.      J.  Goebel. 

Othmaii  or  Osman  I.,  Ghazi,  the  Victorious :  founder  of 
the  empire  and  people,  called  from  his  name  Ottoman  or 
Osmanli;  b.  in  1259.  After  a  romantic  and  adventurous 
youth,  he  succeeded  his  father,  Ertogrul  Shah,  a  Turkish 
chieftain,  as  principal  commander  of  Alaeddin  III.,  Seldjuk 
Sultan  of  Ronm  (1288).  The  Seldjuk  empire  falling  to 
pieces  (1299),  Othman  at  Kara  Ilissar  was  proclaimed  Padi- 
shahi  ali  Osman.  Emperor  of  the  Ottomans  (1300).  His 
kingdom  comprised  parts  of  Bithynia  and  Phrygia.  Though 
his  name  was  mentioned  in  the  Friday  prayer  (one  of  the 
two  distinctive  attributes  of  sovereignty  among  the  Mussul- 
mans), he  did  not  coin  money  or  assume  the  title  of  sultan. 
His  life  was  passed  in  petty  but  advantageous  wars  with  the 
Byzantine  empire,  and  in  the  organization  of  his  conquests. 
Broussa  was  captured  (1326)  just  before  his  death.  He  was 
brave,  patient,  sagacious,  generous  and  frugal,  and  possessed 
the  peculi,ar  virtues  and  talents  essential  to  the  founders  of 
empires. — Othman  II. :  Ottoman  sultan  (1617-'22) :  b.  in  1604 ; 
succeeded  Mustapha  I.  Though  he  was  a  warlike  and  intel- 
ligent prince,  his  reign  was  unfortunate,  being  convulsed 
by  frequent  rebellions  of  the  janissaries  and  by  a  disastrous 
war  with  Poland.  At  the  unsuccessful  siege  of  Choczim 
50,000  Ottomans  perished.  Imprudently  threatening  to 
suppress  the  janissaries,  he  was  dethroned  by  them,  and 


OTHMAN 


OTOMIS 


365 


strangled  in  the  Seven  Towers  by  the  hands  of  the  <;nind 
vizier,  tlie  first  Ottoman  sultan  [)ut  to  death  by  his  subjects. 
— Otiiman  III.:  Uttonmn  sultan  (17.54-57) ;  b.  in  1700;  suc- 
ceeded .Mulinjoud  I.  He  was  effeminate  ami  soured  by  his 
long  seclusion  in  the  seraglio,  but  his  reign  was  uneventful. 

E.  A.  (JBOSVEXOR. 

Otllinan  or  0.silinn-ll)ii-.\fl'an  :  third  caliph  of  the  Mus- 
sulmans; b.  about  .574;  an  curly  convert  to  Islam,  a  relative 
and  secretary  of  tlio  prophet  Mohammed,  whose  dau^'hlers 
Rubiya  and  Uin-Sul-suni  he  married.  On  t  he  assfissiual  ion 
of  Omar  (644)  he  wjis  chosen  cali|)h,  mainly  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Koreish.  During  his  caliphate  the  first 
authentic  copy  of  the  Koran  was  compiled  (602),  Armenia 
anil  Asia  Minor  were  partially  subdued  (646),  and  Cyprus, 
Crete,  Rhodes,  and  Cos  conquered  by  the  first  naval  expe- 
dition ever  sent  out  by  the  Arabs  (64!));  but  liis  reign  was 
distracted  by  inimerous  insurrections,  wliich  he  could  not 
put  down.  lie  was  a  feeble  and  incapable  ruler,  indulgent 
and  despotic  by  turns,  and  often  unjust.  When  he  ordered 
Mohammed,  the  son  of  Abnbekir,  to  be  put  to  death,  the 
latter  marched  upon  Medina  without  opposition,  and  stabbed 
the  calijih  on  the  pulpit  steps  (6r).5).        E.  A.  Grosvexor. 

Otilo :  King  of  Greece;  second  son  of  Louis  I.,  King  of 
Bavaria:  b.  at  Munich,  July  1.  1815.  Nominally  chosen 
king  by  the  Greeks  (May  7,  18:J2)  he  was  really  appointed 
by  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia,  with  scant  regard  to 
(ireek  aspirations.  He  married  the  beautiful  Princess 
Amelia  of  Orenburg,  Sept.  22,  1836.  Surrounding  himself 
with  Bavarians,  insisting  on  German  as  the  ollicial  language, 
despotic  and  reactionary  in  policy,  he  was  soon  detested  by 
his  subjects.  The  peaceful  revolution  of  Sept.  14,  1848, 
forced  the  king  to  dismiss  the  foreigners  and  to  grant  a 
constitution,  promulgaleil  M;ir.,  1844.  Its  provisions  he 
soon  sought  to  evade  or  nullify,  lie  gained  a  temporary 
poi)ularity  cluring  the  Crimean  war  by  wishing  to  attack 
the  Ottoman  empire,  but  the  Anglo-French  fleet  occupied 
the  Pira'us  and  prevented  ai^tion.  The  popular  hatred  of 
his  government  soon  returned,  and  showed  itself  in  several 
attempts  at  insurrection,  wliich  were,  however,  easily  crushed. 
The  national  outburst  of  Oct.  21,  1802,  was  successful.  Boul- 
garis.  Canaris  ami  KoutTos  formed  a  provisional  govern- 
nu'iit,  and  pronounc-cd  the  depositiim  of  the  king,  who  re- 
turned to  Bavaria,  and  died  in  obseuritv  at  Bamberg,  July 
26,  1867.  In  Otho's  behalf  it  may  be  said  that  British, 
French,  and  Russian  intrigues  at  Athens  complicated  and 
increased  his  ditliculties,  and  that  the  newly  enfranchised 
Greeks  were  impatient  of  control.  E.  A.  Grosvexor. 

OtIlO,  Marcus  .Salvits:  Roman  emperor  from  Jan.  to 
Apr.,  69  A.  D.  As  a  youtig  nuui  he  was  conspicuous  as  a 
companion  of  Nero,  an<i  a  sharer  in  his  revels:  but  the 
emperor's  passion  for  the  wife  of  (It ho,  Poppa'a  .Saliina,  was 
the  <tause  of  alii'uation,  and  lirudly  of  practical  exile,  Otho 
being  sent  to  take  charge  of  the  remote  jjrovince  of  Lusi- 
tania  (Portugal).  Here,  on  the  revolt  of  the  provinces 
against  Nero,  Otho  joined  the  forces  of  Galba.  hoping  to  be 
adopted  by  him,  and  thus  designated  as  his  successor. 
When,  however,  Galba  adopti'd  L.  Calpurnius  Piso,  Otho  by 
a  daring  stroke  won  over  the  pra'toriaii  guard,  already 
somewhat  disaffected,  and  was  saluted  by  tliem  as  emperor. 
Galba  and  Piso  were  I  hereupon  murdered  by  the  guard, 
and  on  the  same  day  the  senate  clothed  Otho  with  the  im- 
perial dignities.  .Soon  after  his  succession  news  was  brought 
that  Vitellius,  commander  of  the  legions  on  the  lower  Rhine, 
had  been  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  army,  and  that  his 
forces  were  advancing  on  Rome  to  make  good  his  claim. 
Otho  with  great  promptness  collected  his  forces,  and  mc^f 
the  advance  of  tlie  enemy  in  the  region  of  the  Po.  Here 
for  a  time  his  operations  were  successful,  but,  a  portion  of 
his  army  suffering  defeat  near  Cremona,  he  lost  heart,  and 
put  an  end  to  his  life.  His  brief  reign  gave  ]>romise  of  a 
liberal  and  vigorous  administration. 

Georce  L.  Hexhricksox. 
O'tlioes  (Fgypt.  Tfta):  the  name  given  by  Manetho  to 
the  first  king  of  the  sixth  Egyptian  dynasty.  According  to 
Manetho  (Afriearnis)  Othoes-Teta  ruleil  thirty  years.  He 
was  the  first  king  to  assume  the  royal  title,  which  was  ever 
aftorwanl  customary.  "Son  of  Ra."  Particularly  note- 
worthy is  the  fact  that  his  pyramid  at  Sa(|(|.-irah.  oiiened  in 
1881,  was  one  of  those  containing  funereal  texts,  which  have 
beiui  published  by  Maspero  {Hecueil  de  irnrnux  ri'latifn  d 
la  philologip,  el  d  Vnreh^ohigip  n/i/pfienttff;  fit  ftssi/n'fi)tnfis, 
vol.  v.).  The  name  7VW  also  belonged  to  the  second  king 
of  the  first  dynasty,  reported  to  have  been  a  writer  on  medi- 


cine and  anatomy,  and  later  to  Hie  sixth  king  of  the  third 
dynasty,  who  is  called  Tosertasis  by  Manetho. 

Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Ollio  (>f  Frt'ising:  historian;  b.  about  1114;  a  grandson 
of  Henry  I\'.,  and  the  uncle  of  Friedrich  I.;  was  educated 
for  the  Church,  studied  in  Paris,  entered  the  Cistercian 
monastery  of  Morimund  in  1130,  and  wa.s  in  1137  apjjointed 
Bishop  of"  Freising.  1).  Sept.  21,  1158.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  various  theological  and  Jiolilical  inovenients  of 
his  age,  but  he  is  principally  known  as  a  historian.  Between 
1143  and  1I4G  he  wrote  a  work  (Ve  dmihiis  cirilnlil/us),  an 
imitation  of  the  work  of  Orosius,  and,  like  that,  based  on 
Augustine.  Kspecially  the  last  book  of  the  work  is  of  great 
intere.st.  His  (rtsla  Frederic!,  a  work  of  still  greater  inter- 
est, he  left  unfinished.  His  works  have  been  edited  by  Wil- 
man  (Hanover,  1884)  and  in  Mon.  Hist.  Germ. 

Otid'idaB  [Mod.  Lat..  from  Otis,  name  of  a  genus,  from 
l.at.  o7(.s  =  (jr.  oiWs,  a  kind  of  bustard  with  long  ear-feath- 
ers, deriv.  of  o5«,  in6s,  ear] :  a  family  of  birils  containing 
t  he  bustards,  a  group  confined  to  t  he  \  )ld  World.  There  are 
aliout  twenty-five  species,  two  of  whicli  occur  in  Europe,  one 
in  Australia,  and  tlie  others  in  India  and  Africa.  See  Bus- 
tard. F.  A.  L. 

Otis,  Pessexdex  Nott,  A.  M.,  ;M.  D.  :  surgeon  ;  b.  at  Ball- 
ston  Spa,  N.  Y.,  May  6,  1825 ;  graduated  at  the  New  York 
Medical  College  1852;  was  resident  assistant  physician  at 
Blackwell's  Island  Hospital  1852-.53 ;  surgeon  to  the  V.  S.  M. 
Steainshiji  Comjiany  1853-60 ;  surgeon  of  the  New  York  police 
department  1861 ;  lecturer  on  genito-urinary  diseases  at  the 
New  York  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  1862-7 1 ;  super- 
intending surgeon  to  Pacific  Mail  .Stcanishiii  Company  1869- 
73;  president  of  New  York  lioard  of  police  surgeons  1870- 
72;  surgeon  to  the  Strangers' Hospital  and  president  of  its 
medical  boanl  1871-73;  Clinical  Professor  at  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  1871  ;  advisory  phy.sician  to  the 
Artists'  Fund  Society,  and  member  of  the  medical  board  of 
the  New  York  Charity  Hospital  1873.  He  wrote  Land- 
scape Perspective  ami  Animal  Drairinej  (1849),  History  of 
tlie  Panama  Pailroud  and  the  Pactjic  ilail  S.  S.  Co.  (1861), 
and  numerous  monographs  on  urethral  and  syphilitic  dis- 
eases, and  invented  a  number  of  surgical  instrument.s. 

Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Otis,  George  Alexaxder,  M.  D.  :  surgeon  ;  b.  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Nov.  12,  18:30 :  graduated  at  Princeton  1849,  and  at 
the  medical  de|iartmcnt  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
1851  :  studied  surgery  two  years  in  London  and  Paris;  es- 
tablished The  Virginia  Medical  Journal.\ST)'i;  entered  the 
L^.  S.  army  in  1861  as  surgeon;  was  assigned  to  duty  July, 
1864,  in  the  office  of  the  surgeon-general  at  Washington; 
|)ublishcd  nionogra]ihs  on  Amputation  of  the  Hip  Joint 
(1867)  and  E.reisit>ns  of  the  Head  of  the  Femur  for  In- 
jury (1869);  prepared  in  1871  a  Report  of  Surgical  Cajies 
treated  in  the  Army  of  the  United  Slates  from  1SG7  to 
11-171,  forming  a  quarto  volume ;  and  in  1872  edited  the  sur- 
gical volume  of  the  first  ])art  of  the  Medical  and  Surgical 
History  of  the  War.  lie  was  curator  of  the  Army  Medical 
Museum  at  Washington.  I),  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  23, 
1881. 

Otis.  James:  political  leader;  b.  in  West  Barnstable, 
Mass.,  Feb.  5,  1725;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  1743; 
studied  law  with  Jeremiah  Gridley,  and  liegan  jiractice  at 
Plymouth  1746;  removed  to  Boston  17.50;  published  in 
17(50  Rudiments  of  lialin  Prosody  ;  in  1761,  when  a<Ivocate- 
general  of  the  admiralty,  refused  to  argue  in  favor  of  the 
writs  of  assistance,  and  resigned  his  otTice  to  plead  the 
people's  cause;  in  1762  was  elected  to  the  .Slate  legislature, 
and  in  1765.  on  his  motion,  the  Stamp  Act  congress  met  in 
New  York,  to  which  lie  was  a  delegate.  His  speeches  and 
pamphlets  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  patriotic  party  in 
Alassachuselts;  in  1769  he  denounced  in  print  the  commis- 
sioners of  customs,  and  on  Sept.  9,  meeting  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners in  a  coffee-house,  he  was  attacked,  and  received  a  cut 
on  his  head  which  Ii'd  to  derangement  ;  took  part,  however, 
in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill:  retired  to  Aiidover.  where  he 
was  killid  by  lightning  ;\Iay  23,  1783.  His  published  works 
include  Vindication  of  the  Conduct  of  the  House  uf  Repre- 
sentritives  (17()2);  Rights  of  the  British  Colnjiies  asserted 
(1765);  and  Consideration  on  liehnlf  of  the  Colonists  (ll&Ti). 

Otoinis.  or  Otiiomis;  a  tribe  of  Indians  inhabiting  the 
mountain  regions  of  the  states  of  Queretaro.  Hidalgo,  and 
Guanajuato,  with  scattered  ban<ls  in  several  other  states  of 
.Mexico.     They  have  been  established  in  their  present  seats 


366 


OTRANTO 


OTTAWA 


from  time  immemorial,  ami  occupied  the  valley  of  Mexico 
before  the  Tcjltecs  and  Aztecs.  At  present  they  maintain 
no  tribal  organization,  are  Mexican  citizens,  and  usually 
speak  Spanish  in  addition  to  their  own  language,  whicli  is 
one  of  the  harshest  and  most  guttural  of  all  Indian  dialects. 
It  consists  in  a  great  measure  of  words  of  one  or  two  sylla- 
bles only,  whence  it  has  erroneously  been  supposed  to  be- 
long to  a  different  linguistic  family  from  the  neighboring 
tribes,  and  unsuccessful  efforts  have  been  made  to  connect 
it  with  tlie  Chinese.  Several  catechisms  and  devotional 
works  have  been  printed  in  Otomi.  the  best -known  grannnar 
being  that  of  Xeve  y  Molifia  (Mexico,  1767). 

Otranto.  Dukk  of  :  See  Fouche. 

Otraiito,  Terra  dl :  See  Lecce. 

OtsegfO  Lake  :  a  body  of  water  in  Otsego  eo.,  N.  Y. ;  7i 
miles  long.  1|  broad.  1,193  feet  above  tide ;  the  source  of  the 
main  fork  of  the  .Susquehanna  river.  Its  waters  are  clear  and 
abound  in  fish,     t'ooperstown  stands  at  its  outlet. 

Otsu :  a  town  and  garrison-station  of  Japan ;  at  tlic 
southern  end  of  Lake  Biwa ;  about  7  miles  from  Kioto ; 
the  seat  of  government  of  the  Shiga  prefecture  (see  map  of 
Japan,  ref.  7-C).  In  a  monastery  on  the  hill  is  a  famous 
bell,  said  to  have  been  stolen  by  Benkei,  the  Japanese  Her- 
cules, in  the  twelfth  century.  On  the  western  border  of  the 
lake,  about  'S  miles  off,  is  the  famous  pine-tree  of  Karasaki, 
of  extraordinary  age  and  size.  J.  M.  I). 

Ottawa :  city ;  capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and 
of  Carleton  County,  Province  of  Ontario;  at  the  junction  of 
the  Ottawa,  the  Rideau,  and  the  Gatineau  rivers :  on  the  Ri- 
deau  Canal,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific,  the  Canada  Atlantic, 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa,  the  Ottawa  and  Gatineau 
Valley,  the  Pontiac  and  Pacific  Junction,  and  several  branch 
railways;  05  miles  X.  E.  of  Kingston.  120  miles  W.  of 
Montreal,  450  miles  N.  by  W.  of  New  York  city  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  2-H).  It  is  on  the  smith  bank 
of  the  Ottawa  river,  from  which  it  rises  by  a  succession  of 
bluffs  to  Parliaineut  Hill,  100  feet  above  tide-water,  on 
which  the  principal  tiovernment  buildings  have  been  erected, 
and  is  bisected  liy  the  Rideau  Canal.  The  scenery  at  every 
turn  is  very  lieautiful,  comprising  a  grand  display  of  archi- 
tectural skill,  river,  mountain,  and  forest  attractions,  and 
two  picturesque  waterfalls.  Chamliere.  on  the  W.  of  the 
city,  and  Rideau,  about  a  mile  E.  of  the  center  of  the  city. 
The  city  is  laid  out  in  wide  and  regular  streets,  which  are 
ornamented  with  shade  trees  and  drinking  fountains,  and  is 
lighted  with  gas  ai^d  electricity.  It  has  an  improved  drain- 
age system,  and  a  water-works  plant  completed  in  1874  at  a 
cost  of  over  |1,000.000.  wliich  brings  water  from  an  intake, 
some  3,000  feet  above  Chandiere  Falls,  to  the  city  by  direct 
pumping,  rendering  a  reservoir  unnecessary.  There  are  a 
number  of  pulilic  parks  aiul  squares,  including  Parliament 
Hill  and  Major's  Hill,  both  under  control  of  the  Federal 
Government;  Lansdowne  Park,  on  the  Rideau  Canal ;  Car- 
tier  .Square,  containing  a  brick  drill-hall,  used  as  a  parade- 
ground  by  the  local  militia  and  as  an  athletic  field  by  va- 
rious societies ;  and  Rockcliffe  Park,  a  short  distance  N.  E. 
of  the  city,  which  has  become  a  pojiular  place  of  recrea- 
tion and  a  hot-weather  resort.  The  city  is  connected  with 
the  various  suburban  towns  and  resorts  by  electric  street- 
railway. 

The  most  notable  of  the  public  buildings  are  those  built 
on  three  sides  of  a  (|uadrangle  on  Parliament  Hill.  They 
comprise  the  Parliament  building,  the  Eastern  Doijart- 
mental  building,  the  Western  Departmental  building,  and 
the  Langevin  block,  the  latter  on  Wellington  Street,  lu^arly 
facing  the  Parliament  building.  They  are  separate  liuild- 
ings,  almost  pure  Gothic  in  architecture,  and  with  walks 
and  drives  occupy  an  area  of  30  acres.  The  main  building, 
used  by  the  .Senate  and  House  of  Commons,  has  a  tower  over 
220  feet  high,  and  the  library  building,  in  the  rear  of  the 
main  structure,  is  octagonal  in  shape,  with  a  circular  inte- 
rior 2(10  feet  in  diameter.  The  Langevin  block  was  erected 
in  1883  at  a  cost  of  .$787,000,  and  the  total  cost  of  the  Gov- 
ernment buildings  up  to  1802  was  about  |5,000.000.  Other 
Federal  buildings  are  those  occupied  liy  the  Supreme  and 
Exchequer  Courts,  the  geological  anil  natural  history  sur- 
vey, and  the  national  art  gallerv  and  fishery  exhibit,  and 
the  earlier  Sc|uarf  rlrill-hall.  About  a  mile  and  a  half  from 
the  Parliami'iit  building  is  Kiileau  Hall,  in  a  domain  of  78 
acres,  th(!  ollicial  (jliici'  of  residence  of  the  governors-geiu'ral 
of  the  Dominion.  The  public  buildings  of  the  municipal- 
ity include  the  city-hall,   wliich  cost  |t)0,000;   the  court- 


house and  jail,  the  normal  and  model  schools,  the  Univer- 
sity of  Ottawa,  the  Collegiate  Institute,  the  post-otfiee  and 
custom-house.  Orphans'  Home,  Home  for  the  Aged.  Carle- 
ton  Protestant  Hospital,  General  Hospital,  Lady  Stanley 
I  nsl  itute  for  training  nurses,  Home  for  Convalescents,  and  the 
Rideau  and  Athletic  clubs. 

Ottawa  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  bishopric  and  of  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  archbishopric,  and  has  thirty-five  churches, 
representing  almost  every  Christian  denomination.  At  the 
head  of  the  educational  institutions  is  the  University  of  Ot- 
tawa, which  was  founded  as  a  college  in  1848,  made  a  uni- 
versity in  1866,  and  raised  by  the  pope  to  the  rank  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  university  in  1889.  There  are  also  a  model 
and  normal  school,  a  collegiate  institute,  the  Coligny  Young 
Ladies'  College,  a  number  of  nunneries  and  convents,  the 
Harmon  School,  and  a  number  of  pulilic  and  private  institu- 
tions. There  are  ten  chartered  banks,  or  branches  of  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  paid-up  capital  of  |38,745,960,  and  a  re- 
serve of  ifU, 362.033. 

Abundant  water-power  for  manufacturing  purposes  is 
furnished  by  the  Ottawa  river,  which  is  augmented  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  city  by  the  Rideau,  the  Gatineau,  the  Du 
Lievres,  the  Black,  the  Bonnechere,  the  Rouge,  and  the 
Mattawa  rivers.  The  industrial  establishments  comprise 
paper-mills,  railway  car  and  repair  shops,  indurated  ware, 
woodenware,  match,  carriage,  stove,  and  furniture  factories, 
foundries,  planing  and  flour  mills,  and  granite-works.  The 
Ottawa  valley  contains  a  large  and  seemingly  inexhaustible 
supply  of  timber,  and  its  development  has  made  the  city 
one  of  the  largest  lumber-markets  in  the  world.  Tlie  first 
sawmill  at  Chandiere  Falls  was  erected  in  1853,  and  in  that 
year  was  cut  the  first  lumber  exported  from  this  district  to 
the  U.  .S.  The  sawed  lumber  trade  has  since  increased  tO' 
such  an  extent  that  the  capacity  of  the  mills  within  the 
city  limits  alone  is  about  200,000,000  feet  per  season.  In 
18!)2  the  customs  receipts  aggregated  |1367,629,  the  imports 
$3,741,201,  and  the  ex|H.rts  *l,y42,051 ;  and  in  1893  the  civic 
assessments  were  $18,616,985.  The  pajiers  and  periodicals 
in  1894  comprised  4  daily,  3  semi-weekly,  3  weekly,  1  semi- 
monthly, and  4  monthly  publications. 

Ottawa  was  founded  in  1826,  when  the  construction  of 
the  Rideau  Canal  was  begun  under  Lieut.-t-ol.  By,  of  the 
Royal  Engineers,  and  was  known  as  Bytown  till  1854,  when 
it  received  a  city  charter  under  its  present  name.  In  1858 
it  was  selected  to  be  the  permanent  seat  of  government  of 
united  Canada,  and  in  1867  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
Dominion.  Pop.  (1881)  31,307;  (1891)  44,154:  (1893)  esti- 
mated with  Hull,  on  the  opposite  or  Quebec  side  of  the  river, 
61,265,  of  which  a  large  proportion  is  French  and  Roman 
Catholic.  McLeod  Stewart. 

Ottawa :  city  (settled  in  1830,  incorporated  as  a  village  in 
1838  and  as  a  city  in  1853);  capital  of  La  Salle  eo..  111.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  3-E) :  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Illinois  and  Fox  rivers:  on  the  Illinois  and  Michigan 
Canal,  and  the  Burlington  Route,  and  the  Chi.,  Rock  Is.  and 
Pac.  railways:  83  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Chicago,  98  miles  E.  of 
Rock  Island.  It  is  in  a  region  abounding  in  coal,  brick  and 
pottery  clay,  and  cement  and  glass-sand,  has  exceptional 
transportation  facilities,  and  ships  large  quantities  of  grain, 
produce,  and  general  merchandise.  The  city  occupies  a 
beautiful  site,  and  is  tastefully  laid  out,  having  several  pub- 
lic jiarks,  one  of  which.  South  Park,  contains  a  noted  medic- 
inal spring.  There  are  gas  and  electric  lights,  electric  street- 
railway,  sewerage  system  completed  in  1892,  water-works 
supplied  by  over  150  artesian  wells  and  by  suburban  springs, 
12  churches,  7  public-school  buildings,  including  a  high 
school,  public-school  property  valued  at  $100,000,  St.  Fran- 
cis Xavier's  Academy,  a  driving-park  association,  2  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $200,000.  a  private  bank,  5 
libraries  (High  School,  Illinois  Law,  Odd  Fellows',  Reddicks 
Public,  and  Young  Ladies'  Temperance  Union)  containing 
aliout  20,000  volumes,  and  3  daily  and  8  weekly  newspapers. 
The  manufactures  include  window-glass,  gla.ss  bottles,  lamp- 
chimneys,  pottery,  drain-tile,  sewer-pipe,  fire-brick,  tile-roof- 
ing, organs,  cigars,  carriages  and  wagons,  agricultural  im- 
plements, flour,  saddlery  and  harness,  pumps,  and  lumber. 
Pop.  (1880)  7,834  ;  (1890)  9,985. 

Ottawa:  city:  capital  of  Franklin  co..  Kan.  (for  location, 
see  nia|i  of  Kansas,  ref.  6-J):  on  the  Marais  des  Cygnes 
river,  and  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  Santa  Pc  and  the  Mo.  Pac. 
railwavs;  27  miles  S.  of  Lawrence, 5:!  miles  S.  W.  of  Kansas 
City,  M(i.  It  is  the  seat  of  Oltawa  University  (Baptist, 
chartered  in  1860),  and  has  2  national  banks,  a  private  bank. 


OTTAWA 


OTTUMWA 


367 


2  libraries  (public  ami  university)  containing  over  5.500 
volumes,  a  new  court-house  that  cost  ^50.000,  and  a  daily, 
4  weekly,  and  3  monthly  periodiciils.  Ottawa  has  railway 
repair  and  machine  shops.  Hour-mills,  castor-oil  and  linseed- 
oil  mills,  sorfjhiwn.  sugar,  and  sirup  factories,  grain  elevators, 
foundry.and  soap  and  furniture  factories.  Pop.  (1880)4,033; 
(IHUO)  6,348;  (1895)  7,0.59.  Editor  of  "  Kei'UBLICIN." 

Ottawa:  village;  capital  of  Putnam  co..  ().  (for  location. 
see  map  of  Ohio.  ref.  li-D) ;  on  the  ('in..  Ham.  and  Day.  and 
tlic  Fiudlay.  Ft.  Wayne  and  West,  railways;  .50  miles  S.  W. 
of  Toledo.  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  lumljeriug.  and  stock- 
raising  region. and  has  several  flour  and  saw  mills,  a  private 
bank,  and  t hree  weeklv  newspapers.  Pop.  (1.SS0)  l,3U:l ;  (18'J0) 
1717. 

Ottawa  Indians:  See  ALooxyinN  I.ndians. 

Ottawa  Kiver  :  in  Canada  ;  is  the  boundary  between  the 
provinci's  of  Ontario  and  tjuebee  (except  in  the  very  lowest 
parts  of  its  course).  It  rises  on  the  divide  between  the  basin 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Hudson  15ay,  and  flows  S.  K.  and 
K.,  comnuniicating  with  the  St.  Lawrence  at  the  west  end  of 
Montreal  island.  It  sends  olT  the  Kiviere  <les  Prairies,  be- 
tween Jlonlreal  island  ami  the  Isle  Jesus,  N.  of  wfiich  the 
Ottawa  Hows,  liually  joining  the  St.  Lawrence  .below  the 
island  of  Montreal.  It  has  numerous  rapids,  some  of  which 
are  flooded  out  by  dams  and  others  surmounted  by  canals. 
It  is  a  noble  .stream  and  has  a  heavy  trade  in  lumber.  Its 
cataracts  afford  very  great  an<l  well-utilized  water-power. 
It  is  navigated  by  steamboats  and  canal-boats.  It  is  con- 
nected with  Lake  Ontario  by  the  Rideau  Canal.  Its  valley 
contains  nnich  fertile  land  and  is  rapidly  filling  with  set- 
tlers.    Length.  7!)1  miles. 

Ot'tendorfpr.  Oswald  :  journalist ;  b.  at  Zwittau.  Mora- 
via, F'eb.  30,  IS36;  studied  law  at  Prague  and  Vienna;  set- 
tled in  New  York  1850 ;  became  an  editor  of  the  Xeif  Yorker 
Staal-t-Zeitiiiif/.  and  subsequently  its  manager  and  jiroprie- 
tor.  Under  his  auspices  it  beeauu-  one  of  the  leading  Ger- 
inan-.\merican  papers  and  a  prominent  advocate  of  the  in- 
terests of  the  Democratic  party.  As  president  of  the  Ger- 
man Keform  Association  Mr.  Ottendorfer  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  exposure  of  dishonesty  in  the  city  government 
in  1871.  at  which  time  his  paper  assumed  an  indepen<icnt  at- 
titude in  politics;  was  alderman  1873-74,  and  was  an  inde- 
pendent caiKlidate  for  mayor  1874.  lie  built  and  endowed 
an  educational  institution  in  his  native  town,  founded  a 
homo  for  aged  and  indigent  men  on  Long  Island,  and  estab- 
lished the  Ottendorfer  free  library  in  Xew  York  city. 

Otter:  a  long-bodied,  short-legged  animal,  with  a  small, 
flatfish  head.  hing.  stoul.  rounded  or  slightly  flattened  tail. 
Otters  are  carnivorous  mammals,  belonging  to  the  family 
MustelUlii'  and  sub-family  Lutrlnti'.  Most  species  have 
sharp  nails  and  wt'bbed  feet,  but  those  of  the  genus  Aony.r. 
found  in  Africa,  Java,  and  Sumatra,  have  the  weljs  small  and 
the  nails  short  or  even  lacking  on  some  toes.  The  general 
color  of  the  long  outer  coat  of  hair  is  a  rich  brown;  the 
under  fur,  which  in  northern  species  is  thick  and  valu- 
able, is  much  lighter.  Oilers  are  a(iuatic  in  their  habits, 
dwell  in  burrows  by  the  water,  and  feed  on  fish.  They  are 
fond  of  sliding  ilown-hill  on  the  snow  or  mud  banks.  The 
common  Kuropean  otter  (/y»/c«  i'»/_(7«?v'.s),  which  is  found 
throughout  a  great  part  of  Europe  and  Asia,  attains  a  length 
of  3  ft.  G  in.  and  a  weight  of  18  to  34  lb.     The  Xorth  Amer- 


American  otter  {Littra  cniiadensis). 

ic.an  species  {Lutra  canadensis),  which  occurs  in  favorable 
localities  from  Florida  to  ('ana<laand  from  JIaine  to  Alas- 
ka, is  sometimes  4  ft.  (i  in.  long.     Various  species  of  otters 


inhabit  South  America,  Africa,  Asia,  and  Japan,  but  the 
coat  of  the  tropical  sjiecies  is  short  and  commercially  of  lit- 
tle or  no  value.  In  India  and  China  otters  are  trained  for 
fishing.  The  sea-otter  (Enhydris  lutris).  the  sole  memlwr 
of  the  sub-family  Knhydrinw,  is  a  marine  species,  found 
from  California  northward  through  the  Aleutian  island  to 
Kamchatka  and  the  Kurile  islands.  It  is  a  bulky  animal, 
di.stinguislied  by  its  short  head,  large  flattened  hind  feet, 
an<l  short  tail.  It  attains  a  length  of  4  feet,  feeds  on  crabs, 
shellfish  anil  sea-urchins.  an<i  is  strictly  aijuatic,  being  often 
f(mnd  iu  the  open  sea,  sleeping  and  rearing  its  young  in  the 
water.  The  fur  of  this  animal, 'which  is  very  thick,  soft, 
and  dark-colored,  is  extremely  valuable,  good  skins  bringing 
lf!400  to  $600.  Owing  to  this  value  the  animal  is  much 
hunted,  has  become  very  scarce  and  is,  at  least  on  the  Amer- 
ican coast,  threatened  with  extermination.     F.  \.  LfcAs. 

Ot'fcrheiii,  I'hilii-  Wii.mam  :  founder  and  bishop  of  the 
United  Hrethren  in  Christ  ;  b.  at  Dillenburg.  Germany.  June 
4.  1736;  entered  the  Keformed  ministry  in  1749;  went  in 
1753  to  North  .\merica  as  a  missionary ;  labored  especially  in 
Pennsylvania  and  Maryland:  founded  his  new  church  near 
Frederick.  Md..  1800;  was  chosen  bishop;  toiled  with  great 
earnest ni'ss  and  success.  I),  at  Baltimore,  Nov.  17.  1813. 
He  was  a  man  of  learning  and  piety.  See  United  Brethrkx 
IN  Christ,  and  his  Life,  by  A.  W.  Drury  (Dayton.  O.,  1884). 

Otterbcin  Uiiiversitv  :  the  oldest  institution  of  learning 
under  the  charge  of  the  t'nited  Brethren  in  Christ ;  at  Wes- 
terville,  0. ;  13  miles  N.  of  Columbus.  It  was  founded  in 
1847.  and  chartered  with  university  privileges.  There  are 
three  buildings  at  present:  the  main  college  building.  170 
feet  by  109.  two  and  four  stories  high ;  Saum  Hall,  a  ladies' 
dormitory ;  and  the  Conservatory  of  JIusie.  Its  new  Chris- 
tian Association  building  is  the  lirst  of  its  kind  in  the  State. 
The  endowment  is  IJOO.OOO.  There  are  four  strong  literary 
societies  with  elegantly  furnished  halls.  The  library  con- 
tains about  6.000  volumes.  There  are  two  courses,  the 
cla.ssical  and  philosophical,  with  three  years  of  preparatory 
instruction.  The  faculty  consists  of  eleven  regular  professors 
and  four  instructors.  The  institution  has  300  students  and 
some  400  alumni.  In  addition  to  the  preparatory  and  the 
regular  college  class,  there  are  post-graduate,  normal,  art, 
and  music  departuK'nts.  The  president.  Thomas  J.  Sanders, 
A.  M.,  Ph.  D..  was  inaugurated  June.  1S93.     T.  J.  Sa.nuers. 

Otter  Creek  :  a  stream  which  rises  near  the  south  border 
of  Rutland  co.,  Vt. ;  flows  through  Rutland  and  Addison 
Counties,  and  reaches  Lake  Champlain  at  the  town  of  Fer- 
risburg.  It  is  90  miles  long,  aflforils  good  water-power, 
and  is  navigable  8  miles  to  Vergennes. 

Otto.  WiLHELM  Llitpold:  King  of  Bavaria;  b.  Apr.  37. 
1848;  succeeded  to  the  throne  June  13,  1886,  on  the  death 
of  his  brother,  Ludwig  II. ;  but  as  he  was  mentally  incapaci- 
tated for  governing,  the  rule  continued  in  the  hands  of 
Prince  Luitpold.  who  had  been  appointed  regent  three  days 
previously. 

Ot'toear  II.:  King  of  Bohemia  from  1353  to  1278;  b. 
about  1330,  a  son  of  Wenceslas  I.:  revolted  against  his 
father,  tint  was  defeated,  and  im|>risoned  for  some  time. 
He  acquired  .Xustria  and  Styria  by  marriage;  made  a  cru- 
sade, after  succeeding  to  the  throneof  Bohemiaon  the  death 
of  his  father,  against  the  heathen  Prussians;  conquered 
their  country  and  foun<leil  Kouigsberg;  defeated  the  Hun- 
garians on  the  March feld  in  1360,  and  took  possession  of 
parts  of  Hungary  ;  inherited  Carniola  and  Carinthia  in  1369, 
and  ruled  with  vigor  and  intelligence  his  vast  cinj.ire.  which 
stretched  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Adriatic,  and  from  the  Inn, 
Bavaria,  to  the  Raab,  Hungary.  In  1273  he  opposed  the 
election  of  Rudol])!!  of  Hapsburg  as  Kmperor  of  Germany, 
and  refused  to  acknowledge  him  ;  the  consequence  was  a 
war.  in  which  Ottocar  was  defeated  and  compelled  to  cede 
.\ustria,  Styria.  Carniola.  and  Carinthia.  Once  more  he 
tried  his  fortune  against  Rudolph,  but  was  again  defeated, 
and  fell  in  the  battle  of  Jedenspeng.  .\ug.  36,  1378.  In  his 
internal  government  he  strove  to  break  the  power  of  the 
feudal  lonls  and  encouraged  indu.stry  and  commerce. 

Ottoman  Empire:  See  Turkey. 

Otto  of  Rose.s:  See  Attar  of  Roses. 

Ottninwa:  city  ;  capital  of  Wapello  co..  la.  (for  location. 
sec  uuL|i  nf  Iowa.  ref.  7-1) ;  on  the  Des  Moines  river,  and  the 
Burlington  Route,  the  Chi.,  Ft.  Mad.  and  Des  M.,  the  Chi., 
.Mil.  an<l  St.  P..  the  Chi..  Rock  Is.  and  Pac.  the  la.  Cent, 
and  the  Wabash  railways;  75  ndles  N.  W.  of  Burlington. 
It  is  in  the  center  of  liie  Iowa  coal-fields,  derives  abundant 


368 


OTUMBA 


OUSELEY 


water-power  from  the  river,  and  from  the  extent  and  vari- 
ety of  its  manufactures  has  become  known  as  "  the  Lowell 
of  Iowa."  The  surface  rises  in  terraces  from  the  river  to 
the  summit  of  the  blutf,  and  all  the  railways  enter  the  city 
along  the  river-front.  The  city  contains  a  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment post-office  building,  court-house  that  cost  $150,000.  8 
public-school  buildings,  public-school  property  valued  at 
over  $173,000,  high  school  library,  city  library,  3  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  .$430,000,  2  savings  and  1 
State  bank  with  capital  of  .$250,000,  and  5  daily  and  8 
weekly  periodicals,  an  opera-house — one  of  the  finest  in  the 
State — a  union  railway  .station,  several  large  wholesale 
houses,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  that  cost  $40,000,  and  a  $50,- 
000  Episcopal  church  in  course  of  erection.  There  are  gas 
and  electric  light  plants,  water-works,  electric  street-railway, 
a  steam-heating  plant  for  residences  and  business  buildings, 
and  foundries,  pork-packing  establishments,  starch-mill,  oil- 
mill,  iron-works,  rutller- works,  bridge-works,  fine  office-furni- 
ture, and  other  factories.  The  city  has  a  large  trade,  espe- 
cially iu  coal.     Pop.  (1880)  9.004  :"  (1890)  14,001 ;  (1895)  16,- 

761.  R.  H.  JMOORE,  KDITOR  OF  "  DEMOCRAT." 

Otum'ba :  a  town  of  the  republic  and  state  of  Mexico;  35 
miles  X.  E.  of  Mexico  city;  on  the  railway  to  Vera  Cruz  (see 
map  of  Mexico,  ref.  6-H).  It  was  the  ancient  Indian  puebJo 
of  Otompan ;  Cortes,  after  his  retreat  from  Mexico,  defeated 
theAztecforeeshere July8,1530.    Pop. about 500.    H.H.S. 

Otway,  Thomas:  dramatist;  b.  at  Trotton,  Sussex,  Eng- 
land, Mar.  3,  1651 ;  was  educated  at  Winchester  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford ;  became  an  unsuccessful  actor ;  served  for 
a  time  as  cornet  in  the  Low  Countries;  and  then  returned 
to  London  and  wrote  for  the  stage.  His  most  successful 
plays  vieve  Don  Carlos  (1670);  The  Orphan  (1680);  Caius 
JIarius  (1680);  The  Soldiers  Fortune  (1681);  The  Atheists 
(1684);  and  especially  Venice  Preserved  (1682),  one  of  the 
best  historical  tragedies.     D.  in  London,  Apr.  14,  1685. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Bkers. 

Oiide,  or  Ondh.  owd ;  a  province  of  British  India,  form- 
ing with  the  Northwest  Provinces  one  of  the  tliirteen  local 
government  and  administrative  divisions ;  bounded  S.  by  the 
Ganges  and  N.  by  Nepal.  It  consists  of  a  large  jilain  watered 
by  the  Goggra,  Gumti,  Sye,  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Ganses. 
Area,  34,217  sq.  miles;  "pop.  (1891)  12,650,831.  mostly  Hindus. 
The  soil  is  extremely  fertile  and  well  cultivated ;  all  the  choic- 
est products  of  India  grow  in  abundance.  The  inhabitants 
are  very  warlike;  they  serve  in  all  Indian  armies, and  formed 
the  famous  Sepoy  regiments  in  1857.     Capital,  Lucknow. 

Oiidenarde:  See  Audenarde. 

Oiidinot,  oo'deeno',  Charles  Nicolas,  Duke  of  Reggio: 
marshal  of  France;  b.  at  Bar-le-Duc,  in  the  department  of 
Meuse,  France,  Apr.  26,  1767;  was  commander  of  a  battal- 
ion in  1792,  brigadier-general  in  1794,  general  of  division  in 
1799,  and  distinguished  himself  especially  in  the  battle  of 
Priedland  and  at  Wagrani,  when  he  was  made  a  marshal 
and  created  duke.  His  greatest  feat  was  his  mana-uver  in 
order  to  protect  the  crossing  of  the  Beresina  in  1813.  In 
the  battle  of  Leipzig  he  was  wounded,  but  recovered  soon, 
and  remained  faithful  to  Napoleon  to  the  very  last.  Dur- 
ing the  Hundred  Days  he  stayed  on  his  estates.  After  the 
Restoration  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France  and  commander 
of  the  national  guard.  In  1823  he  led  the  First  Corps  dur- 
ing the  invasion  of  Spain.  D.  in  Paris,  Sept.  13,  1847.— His 
son,_^ Nicolas  Charles  Victor:  b.  Nov.  3,  1791;  general  in 
1835 ;  commanded  in  1849  the  expedition  against  the  Roman 
republic,  and  compelled  the  city  of  Rome  to  unconditional 
surrender  .July  2.  He  protested  in  the  chamber  of  peers 
against  the  coup  d'etat,  and  was  imprisoned,  but  shortly 
after  was  restored  to  liberty.     D.  July  7,  1863. 

Ouida:  See  De  la  Rame. 

Oulmet,  Joseph  Alderic,  LL.  B.,  Q.  C.  :  statesman  :  b.  at 
St.  Ro.se,  P.  Q.,  May  20,  1848;  graduated  LL.  B.  at  Victoria 
College  in  1869,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1870.  lie 
commanded  a  battalion  during  the  Northwest  rebellion  eani- 
paign  in  1885,  and  is  chairman  of  the  council  of  the  Do- 
minion Rifle  Association.  He  has  been  a  member  of  the 
i  arliament  of  Canada  since  1873 ;  was  Speaker  of  the  House 
1887-91  ;  and  May  20.  1M91,  was  api)ointed  a  member  of  the 
Cjucen  s  Privy  Council  for  Canada.  N.  M. 

Oillachan,   Eiilachon    (native    (Amer.-Ind.)   name!   or 

Candle-flsh:  a  fish  <.f  the  s It   family  (Arqenfinidip),v^- 

sembling  the  smelt  and  the  capeliii.  It's  scientific  name  is 
Thaleichthys  pnrifirnx.  In  the  .spring  the  oul.u-han  enters 
in  great  shoals  the  harbors  and  fiords  of  British  Columbia 


and  Washington  to  spawn.  The  Indians  take  the  fish  in 
immense  quantities  for  food  and  oil.  The  fish  consist  al- 
most entirely  of  fat.  A  fish  with  a  strip  of  bark  drawn 
through  it  serves  as  a  candle.  The  oil  of  the  oulachan  has 
been  proposed  as  a  substitute  for  cod-liver  oil.  but  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures  it  is  white  and  solid  like  butter.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  delicately  flavored  and  delicious  of  all  food- 
fishes.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Ouless,  oo-less',  Walter  William  :  portrait-painter ;  b. 
at  St.  Heliers,  Jersey,  Sept.  21,  1848;  became  a  Royal  Acad- 
emician 1881 ;  was  awarded  a  second-class  medal  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1878 ;  third-class  medal  1889.  He  is  one  of 
the  most  noted  British  portrait-painters.    Studio  in  London. 

W.  A.  C. 

Ounce  [from  Lat.  un'cin.  a  twelfth,  especially  of  a  pound 
or  foot  (whence  0.  Eiig.  ynce  >  Eng.  inch)] :  in'troy  weight, 
one-twelfth  of  a  pound,  or  480  grains ;  in  avoirdupois  weight, 
one-sixteenth  of  a  pound,  or  437i  grains  troy.  In  the  U.  S. 
the  apothecaries'  ounce  is  the  troy  ounce ;  in  Great  Britain 
it  is  now  the  avoirdupois.  In  the  U.  S.  the  fluid  ounce  is 
one-twelfth  of  a  wine-pint,  in  Great  Britain  the  twelfth  of 
an  imperial  pint. 

Ounce  [from  F"-  once  :  Span.  07iza  :  Ital.  lonza  (the  I  may 
have  been  dropped  in  Fr.  and  Span,  from  confusion  with 
fem.  def.  artic.  la,  V)  <  Lat.  lynx  —  Gr.  Kvv^,  whence  Eng. 
lynx'] :  a  large  cat  {Felis  nncia)  of  Northern  India  and 
Tibet,  resembling  the  leopard,  but  lower,  rougher,  paler, 
and  with  a  longer  and  more  hairy  tail,  a  thicker  fur,  and 
more  irregular  spots.  In  parts  of  South  America  the  jaguar 
is  called  the  ounce.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Ouray :  town  (founded  in  1876  and  named  after  a  chief 
of  the  Ute  Indians);  capital  of  Ouray  co..  Col.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Colorado,  ref.  5-B);  on  the  Uncompahgre  river, 
at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Hayden,  and  on  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande  Railroad  ;  15  miles  N.  of  Silverton.  400  miles  S.  W. 
of  Denver.  It  is  in  a  region  of  grand  scenery,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  7,300  feet  above  sea-level ;  is  the  natural  outlet  for 
the  extensive  gold  and  silver  products  of  the  region,  and 
is  widely  known  as  a  resort  for  invalids  because  of  its  hot 
springs.  It  contains  four  churches,  a  national  bank,  a  pri- 
vate bank,  a  miners'  hospital,  and  a  weekly  ncwspajier.  The 
entire  expenses  of  the  town  are  paid  from  high-license  saloon 
fees.     Pop.  (1880)  864;  (1890)  2,534. 

Editor  of  "Silverite-Plaindealer." 

Ouro  Preto,  o'ro-pra'to.  formerly  Villa  Rica :  a  city ; 
capital  of  the  state  of  Jlinas  Geracs,  Brazil ;  about  160 
miles  N.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway;  3,400  feet  above  the  sea  (see  map  of  South  Amer- 
ica, ref.  6-G).  It  is  irregularly  built  on  hilly  ground,  but 
many  of  the  more  modern  houses  are  well  constructed  and 
handsome.  There  is  a  thriving  trade  with  the  coast,  iirinci- 
pally  in  agricultural  products,  cheese,  etc.  The  climate  is 
very  variable  and  at  times  insalubrious;  rains  and  heavy 
fogs  are  frequent  through  the  year.  Tlie  place  was  ffirmer- 
ly  celebrated  for  its  rich  gold  mines,  and  the  hills  are  honey- 
combed with  old  works,  most  of  which  have  been  abandoned. 
Pop.  (1892)  about  20,000.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Ouse.  ooz:  a  river  of  England  ;  flows  into  the  Trent  and 
forms  the  estuary  of  the  Humber.  Its  entire  length  is  60 
miles;  it  is  navigable  from  York,  45  miles  from  its  junction 
with  the  Trent. 

Ousel :  See  Ouzel. 

Ouseley,  ooz'le"e.  Sir  Frederick  Arthur  Gore:  musi- 
cian ;  son  of  Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  ambassador  to  Persia ;  b. 
in  London,  England,  Aug.  12,  1835 ;  graduated  at  Oxford 
1846;  was  curate  of  a  London  church  1849-51 ;  became  pre- 
centor of  Hereford  Cathedral  1855,  and  incumbent  of  St. 
Michael's,  Tenbury,  Worcestershire,  1856;  distinguished  for 
his  attainments  in  music  as  a  science ;  took  an  active  part 
in  establishing  St.  Michael's  College,  Tenbury,  of  which  in- 
stitution he  was  warden  ;  became  Professor  of  Music  in  t)x- 
ford  University  1855;  author  of  several  esteemed  anthems, 
a  Treatise  on  TTarmony  (1869),  a  Treatise  on  Counterpoint 
and  Fugue  (1869),  and  A  Treatise  on  Musical  Form  and 
Composition  in  General.  yi\\\v\\  are  considered  valuable  con- 
tributions to  musical  literature,  ami  editor  of  several  collec- 
tions of  ancient  and  modern  cathedral  music:  Cathedral 
Services  (1853),  Anqlican  Psalter  Chants  (1872.  iu  conjunc- 
tion with  Dr  Monk),  etc.     D.  in  Oxford,  Apr.  6,  1889. 

Ouseley.  Sir  William,  LL.  D. ;  Orientalist ;  b.  in  Mon- 
mouthshire, Wales,  in  1771 ;    became   cornet  of  dragoons 


OUSELEY 


OUZEL 


369 


el 


1788;  left  the  army  1794;  engaged  in  the  study  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Ley<len  ;  published  I'erxinii  Minceflaniex  (1795), 
Oriental  Collections  (3  vols.,  1797),  numen>us  other  works  on 
similar  subjects,  and  translations  from  Oriental  writers; 
was  secretary  to  his  brother.  Sir  (tore  Ouseley,  in  liis  embassy 
to  Persia  1810-12 ;  published  Travels  in  'Persia  (3  vols., 
1819-2:!);  bnraght  to  England  valuable  collections  of  Ori- 
ental litvrature.  L).  in  England  in  1843. — His  brother.  Sir 
(ioRE  OfSELEY  (1).  about  1768;  d.  1844),  long  a  prominent 
member  of  the  diplouiatic  corps,  was  a  distinguished  t)rien- 
tal  scholar  and  collector  of  manuscrii)ts;  author  of  a  po.st- 
humous  work,  Bioyraptiical  Xotices  of  Persian  I'oets  (1846). 
(Miseley,  Sir  Wii.i.iam  (iork,  K.  C.  H.,  D.C.  L.  :  diplomat; 
ilcsl  son  of  Sir  William;  b.  in  London,  England,  .July  26, 
1797;  entered  the  diplomatic  service  at  an  early  age  ;  was 
connected  with  the  Mritish  legation  at  Washington  in  1835, 
when  he  married  a  daughter  of  Gov.  Cornelius  P.  Van  Ness, 
of  Vermont;  filled  dillicultand  responsilfle  diplomatic  posts 
in  Hio  de  Janeiro,  Buenos  .\yres,  Jloutevideo,  and  Asuncion 
during  the  wars  originated  by  the  dictator  Kosas  1832-.j1  ; 
WHS  emi/loycd  on  special  missions  in  Central  America  and 
in  the  L  .  S".  1857-58;  was  autlior  of  Remarks  on  the  Sliifis- 
/irs  and  Political  Institutions  of  t/ie  L'niteil  States  (ls:i2) ; 
Sutes  on  t/ie  Slare  Trade  (1850);  Vieifs  in  South  America, 
I  from  Original  Drairings  (Iti'ri);  and  many  miscellaneous, 
'  political,  and  geographical  writings.  O.  in  London,  Mar,  6, 
1«66. 
Outagamie  or  Fox  Indians;  See  Algonquiam  Indians. 

Outlaw  and  Outlawry  [outlaw  is  0.  Eng.  fitlaga,  out- 
law; ut.  out  +  lagii,  law] :  in  English  law,  an  outlaw  is  one 
who  has  been  placed  out  of  the  protection  of  the  law  on  ac- 
count of  willfully  avoiding  the  execution  of  legal  process; 
and  outlawry  is  the  act  or  process  by  which  he  is  deprived 
of  the  |)rotection  of  the  law.  Outlawry  has  existed  in  Eng- 
land from  ancient  times,  both  in  civil  anil  in  criminal  pro- 
ceedings, being  first  used,  however,  in  criinimil  actions,  no 
one  being  subject  to  be  outlawed  except  for  felony  until 
some  time  after  the  Xorman  conquest.  It  was  extended 
from  cases  of  felony  to  misdemeanors  and  to  civil  cases,  and 
is  still  applicable  in  criminal  proceedings  of  every  kind. 
In  civil  cases,  originally,  a  person  could  be  outlawed  only  in 
actions  of  trespass  vi  et  armis.  in  which  alone  the  defendant 
was  then  liable  to  arrest,  but  subsequently  outlawry  in  civil 
cases  was  extended  by  statute  to  other  actions,  and  it  was 
used  either  to  enforce  the  appearance  in  court  of  a  person 
against  whom  a  suit  had  been  instituted  or  to  enforce  the 
payment  of  a  judgment. 

The  process  of  outlawry  in  civil  cases  was  early  a  means 
of  oppression,  and  acts  were  pa.ssed  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
and  later  to  prevent  secret  outlawries  and  to  facilitate  the 
reversal  of  outlawries ;  and  the  process  was  finally  abolished 
l)y  the  Connnon  Law  Procedure  Act  of  1852,  and  by  the 
Civil  Procedure  Acts  Repeal  Act  of  1879.  In  criminal  pro- 
ceedings it  is  now  but  little  used,  but  its  existence  is  recog- 
nized by  .33  and  34  Vict.,  c.  23,  which  act  abolishes  forfeiture 
for  f(dony,  but  expressly  jirovides  that  nothing  th(n-ein  shall 
affect  the  law  of  forfeiture  conse(|uent  on  otitlawry.  In 
some  of  the  U.  S.  it  has  l)eon  retained  as  applical)le  in  cer- 
tain criminal  cases,  as  in  prosecutions  for  treason  ;  but  it  is 
.so  seldom  resorteil  to  that  it  may  be  said  to  be  wholly  dis- 
used.    Outlawry  in  civil  cases  has  never  existed  in  the  U.  S. 

The  mode  of  procedure  in  criminal  and  civil  cases  is  prac- 
tically the  same.  If  summary  process  was  issued  against 
the  defendant  and  failed  to  cause  him  to  appear,  and  if  the 
sheriff  was  unable  to  find  the  defendant  and  apprehend 
him  upon  the  regular  writs  of  arrest,  a  special  writ  was  is- 
sued requiring  proclamation  to  be  maile  in  five  county 
I  courts  successively  thai  the  defendant  should  surrender  him- 
self; and  if  the  defendant  then  failed  to  appear,  he  was 
di'clared  an  outlaw.  If  afterward  he  publicly  apjieared  he 
might  be  arrested  and  committed  until  the  outlawry  were 
reversed.  A  reversal  in  civil  actions,  where  outlawry  was 
resorted  to  to  compel  the  defendant  to  appear,  could  readily 
lie  obtained  upon  any  plausible  cause,  however  slii,'lit.  since 
the  only  object  of  the  outlawry  was  to  compel  the  appear- 
ance ;  but  in  outlawry  to  enforce  a  judgment  a  reversal  could 
be  hail  only  upon  satisfaction  of  tlic  judgment. 

Effert  of  Ontlawrg. — The  maxim  apjilieable  to  outlaws  is, 
"  Let  them  be  answerable  to  all.  and  none  to  them."  They 
are  therefore  liable  upon  all  causes  of  action  existing  against 
Ihem,  l)Ut  can  not  maintain  actions  for  redress  of  injuries  to 
I  hern,  nor  are  they  deemed  to  have  any  legal  rights  enforce- 
able by  a  suit  at  law.  Ancientlv  an  outlawed  felon  was  said 
308 


to  have  a  wolf's  head  (caput  lupinum),  so  that  any  one  might 
kill  hii[i  as  he  would  a  wolf.  A  different  rule,  however,  was 
early  established,  and  the  life  of  the  outlaw  could  be  law- 
fully taken  oidy  by  a  sheriff  with  a  warrant. 

Outlawry  in  ca^es  of  treason  or  felimy  is  deemed  equiva- 
lent to  convii'tion  and  attainder  for  the  offen.se  charged,  and 
is  attended  by  the  same  penalties  of  forfeiture  which  for- 
merly attached  to  such  convictions;  viz.,  in  case  of  treason, 
a  forfeiture  of  all  his  property,  both  real  and  personal;  and 
in  felony,  a  forfeiture  of  goods  and  chattels  and  of  the 
profits  of  his  freeliold  estates  in  land  during  his  life.  (See 
EoRFEiTURK.)  In  civil  cases  and  in  cases  of  misdemeanor 
outlawry  eidailed  the  forfeiture  of  goods  and  chattels  innne- 
diately  and  absolutely  to  the  crown,  and  of  chattels  real  and 
proiits  of  real  estate  upon  inqinsition  during  the  life  of  the 
outlaw.  The  plaintiff  was  permitted  by  the  crown  to  collect 
his  debt  from  the  forfeited  property  of  the  outlaw.  For 
further  details,  see  Archbold's  Criminal  Pleadings ;  Daniel's 
Chancer//  Practice ;  Legge's  The  Law  of  Outlawry  (London, 
1779) ;  Blackstone's  Commentaries.       F.  Sturues  Allen. 

Outraui.  oo  tram.  Sir  James,  G.  C.  B.  ;  soldier;  b.  in  Der- 
byshire, England,  Jan.  29,  IH03;  educated  at  Marischal  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen;  entered  tlie  military  service  of  the  East 
India  Company  1819:  distinguished  himself  in  campaigns 
in  Khandesh  and  against  the  wild  Bhil  tribes,  from  whom, 
after  the  peace,  he  formed  an  irregular  military  corps;  pur- 
sued a  similar  policy  respecting  some  rebel  chiefs  in  Guje- 
rat ;  was  aide-de-camp  of  Sir  John  Keane  in  the  Afghan  war ; 
took  part  in  the  capture  of  the  Beluchi  strongholil  of  Kelat, 
and,  disguisi'd  as  a  native  devotee,  rode  through  the  Bolan 
Pass,  then  held  by  the  enemy,  and  conveyed  the  news  to 
Kurrachee;  appointed  political  agent  in  Lower  Sind,  with 
the  brevet  rank  of  major,  and  subsequently  commissioner  at 
Hyderabad  ;  opposed  Sir  Charles  Napier's  aggressive  policy, 
but  had  to  defend  the  residency  from  attack  by  the  popu- 
lace ;  Ijecame  resident  at  Satara  1845,  at  Baroda  1847,  and 
at  Lncknow  1854;  was  commander-in-chief  of  tlie  British 
foi-ccs  in  the  Persian  war  of  1856-57  ;  arrived  in  India  in  the 
midst  of  the  .Sejioy  rebellion  ;  relieved  Havelock  at  Cawnpur 
Se]it.  15,  then  waived  the  command  in  favor  of  Havelock, 
whom  he  accompanied  to  the  relief  of  Lucknow  Sept.  25  in 
his  capacity  of  chief  commissioner  of  Oude;  defended  the 
residency  and  held  the  Alumbagh  (Lucknow)  during  the 
subsequent  siege  by  the  rebels  ;  aided  Sir  Colin  Campbell  in 
the  final  recapture  of  Lucknow  Mar..  1858;  was  knighted 
and  made  lieutenant-general  1858;  received  the  thanks  of 
Parliament  1860 ;  became  a  member  of  the  supreme  council 
of  India;  retired  in  broken  health  1861.  D.  in  Paris,  Mar. 
11, 1863.  lie  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  statues 
of  him  have  been  erected  in  London  and  Calcutta.  See  his 
Life,  by  Sir  F.  J.  Goldsmid  (2  vols.,  London,  1880). 

Ouvarovite:  See  Garnet. 

Oiivrard.  oovraar,  Gabriel  Julien:  financier;  b.  near 
Clisson.  France,  Oct.  11, 1770 ;  became  a  merchant  at  Nantes, 
and.  having  secured  in  1797  a  contract  from  the  Govern- 
ment for  su])plying  tlie  navy  with  provisions,  made  a  profit 
estimated  at  Ifi.OOO.OOO  francs.  He  then  established  a  large 
baidiing-house  in  Paris,  secured  other  Government  con- 
tracts, "and  undertook  to  discount  the  subsidy  due  from 
Spain  and  amounts  due  from  the  receivers-general,  thereby 
obtaining  control  of  a  large  part  of  the  national  finances. 
The  scope  of  his  financial  operations  contimuilly  widened. 
He  entered  into  contracts  for  supplying  the  Spanish  army 
and  mivy.  and  advanced  money  for  the  needs  of  the  imperial 
court,  biit  Naiioleon,  becoming  distrustful  of  the  company, 
forced  it  to  give  u])  its  assets  in  1806.  and  afterward  caused 
the  arrest  and  imprisoiunent  of  Ouvrard.  who  was  confined, 
first  at  Vincennes  and  later  at  Ste.-Pelagie,  till  1813.  After 
the  Kestoration  he  gained  favor  with  the  Bouillon  govern- 
ment, which  adopted  a  financial  system  proposed  by  him, 
but  falling  again  under  suspicion  of  fraudulent  conduct  in 
connection  with  contracts  for  supplying  the  French  army 
for  the  Sjianish  exjiedition  of  1S2:!,  he  was  imprisoned  for 
five  years.  He  afterward  lived  in  London,  where  he  died  in 
Oct.."  1846.  Sec  the  Memoires  written  by  himself  (Paris, 
1826). 

Ouzel,  or  Ousel,  ooz'l  [M.  Eng.  osel  <  0.  Eng.  osU  ;  0.  H. 
Germ,  amsala  >  Germ,  amsel,  blackliird ;  cf.  Lat.  me'rula 
(for  *mesula),  blackbird,  whence  Eng.  merl'\ ;  a  name  applied 
in  England  to  several  birds.  Thus  the  "ousel-cock"  of 
Sliakspeare  was  the  European  blackbird  (M'erula  merula); 
the  ring-ouzel  of  the  present  day  is  a  very  similar  bird,  the 
Merula  torquata.     More  freiiuently  the  name  is  applied  to 


370 


OVAL 


OVARIES 


the  water-ouzel  or  dipper.  (See  Dippers.)  Still  other  birds 
receive  this  iiaiiie.  among  them  the  brook-ouzel  (Rallus 
aquatims),  but  nearly  all  are  thrushes,  or  their  allies. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Oval  [from  Fr.  ovale,  esrg-shaped,  from  Lat.  ovum,  egg] : 
a  curve  bearing  a  resemblance  to  the  section  of  an  egg  by  a 
plane  through  its  axis — as  for  instance,  an  ellipse.  A  semi- 
oval  formed  by  arcs  of  circles  of  different  radii  and  tangent 
to  each  other  is  sometimes  used  by  engineers  in  the  construc- 
tion of  arches.  Such  curves  are  often  called  basket-handled 
curves  or  basket-handled  arches.  The  Carterian  oval  is  a 
plane  curve  of  the  fourth  order,  first  studied  by  Descartes, 
from  whom  it  derives  its  name.  The  scientific  interest  at- 
tached to  it  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  surface  generated 
by  revolving  it  about  its  axis  is  a  surface  of  accurate  con- 
vergence (that  is,  a  surface  which  must  divide  two  media  of 
different  refracting  power,  in  order  that  rays  of  light  com- 
ing from  one  point  may  deviate  so  as  to  pass  accurately 
through  another  point). 

Ovam'po,  or  Ovaiiibo:  a  Bantu  people  in  the  northern 
part  of  German  Southwest  Africa,  living, along  the  left  bank 
of  the  Cunene  river  and  some  distance  S.  Ten  divisions  or 
tribes  of  this  people  have  been  described  by  explorers,  and 
they  are  supposed  to  number  about  100,000.  Except  near 
the  coast  the  soil  is  fertile,  but  water  is  not  abundant.  The 
people  are' warlike,  industrious,  ingenious,  and  unusually 
honest.  They  regard  stock-raising  as  of  secondary  impor- 
tance, thougli  they  have  many  cattle.  They  raise  great  quan- 
tities of  native  grain.  For  agricultural  purposes  their  land 
is  the  best  in  German  Southwest  Africa,  but  (1894)  is  unde- 
veloped, owing  to  the  sandy  coast  strip  and  lack  of  trans- 
portation facilities.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Ovail'do,  Nicolas,  de :  administrator;  b.  at  Valladolid, 
Spain,  aliout  1460.  He  was  a  distinguished  knight  of  the 
Order  of  Alcantara,  and  held  high  positions  in  the  Spanish 
court.  In  1501  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Espaiiola,  with 
jurisdiction  over  all  the  Spanish  discoveries  in  the  New 
World,  except  those  wliicli  had  been  granted  to  Pinzon  and 
Ojeda.  ■  lie  left  San  Lucas  Feb.  13,  1.503,  with  the  largest 
fleet  which  had  yet  been  fitted  out  for  the  West  Indies,  con- 
sisting of  thirty  ships  with  '^j.^iOO  colonists ;  arrived  at  Santo 
Domingo  on  Apr.  15,  and  governed  until  .July,  15011.  During 
this  period  the  colony  was  financially  prosjierous,  Init  the 
greater  part  of  the  Indian  population  was  destroyed  through 
the  svstera  of  enforced  labor.  He  refused  to  let  Columbus 
land  'in  July,  1502.    D.  in  Madrid,  about  1518.       II.  H.  S. 

Ovaries  [Lat.  ovarium,  deriv.  of  ovum,  egg] :  the  organs 
in  any  animal  which  produce  the  female  reproductive  bodies 
— ova  or  eggs.  These  organs  have  very  different  conditions 
in  different  groups,  but  a  few  general  statements  may  be 
made.  The  ovary  is  one  of  the  two  sexual  organs,  or  gonads, 
the  ether  being  the  male  organ,  or  testis,  which  produces 
the  male  generative  element,  or  spermatozoa.  While  in 
most  animals  these  two  occur  in  different  individuals — i.  e. 
the  sexes  are  separate,  they  may  occur  together  in  the  same 
individual,  and  in  exceptional  cases  the  same  organ  may 
be  ovary  in  one  region,  testis  in  another;  or,  again,  it  may 
act  a  while  as  testis  and  later  produce  eggs.  These  facts, 
with  many  others,  show  that  ovaries  and  testes  are  homolo- 
gous structures,  no  instance  being  known  which  would  not 
fall  in  such  a  category. 

In  the  Hydrozoa  the  gonads  are  ectodermal,  in  the  Scy- 
phozoa  entodermal;  in  all  other  animals  they  arise  from 
the  un'ddle  layer  (mesoderm ;  .see  Embryology),  and,  where 
a  body-cavity  (ccelom)  is  present,  as  specializations  of  its 
walls.  In  the  lower  forms  the  ovaries  may  be  numerous, 
but  in  the  higher  animals  there  are  usually  two — right  and 
left — ^but  these  may  fuse  to  form  an  unpaired  organ.  In 
the  vertebrates  the  number  two  holds,  and  the  organs  are 
placed  on  either  side  of  the  backbone. 

The  ovaries  in  adult  women  are  situated  on  either  side  of 
the  uterus,  in  the  ilia<;  fossie ;  they  are  included  in  separate 
processes  from  the  two  pelvic  iluplicatures  of  the  peri- 
toneum, which  are  called  the  broad  ligaments.  Each  ovary 
is  also  attached  by  a  round  fibrous  cord,  the  ovarian  liga- 
ment, to  the  side  of  the  uterus,  and  by  a  lesser  fibrous  cord 
to  the  fringed  edge  of  the  Fallopian  oviduct.  These  three 
ligaments  support  and  retain  the  ovary  in  its  proper  posi- 
tion. The  ovary  is  an  oblong,  ovoid,  flattened  body,  of 
whitish  color  and  uneven  surface.  It  is  one-third  to  half 
an  inch  thick,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide,  1  to  1^  inches 
long,  and  weighs  from  1  to  2  drachms.  (Fur  general  descrip- 
tion of  the  minute  structure  of  the  ovaries  and  of  the  devel- 


opment of  the  ova,  see  Histology,  Oeniial  Organs.)  The 
physiological  function  of  the  ovary  is  the  formation  of  ova, 
their  maturation,  and  their  final  discharge  at  periodic  men- 
strual epochs.    The  distended  follicle  at  the  time  of  rupture 


Fig.  1.— Relation  of  uterus.  Fallopian  tubes,  and  ovaries. 

may  equal  in  size  one-third  of  the  ovary,  and  many  scars 
exist  where  former  ruptures  have  taken  place.  When  the 
ovule  escapes  from  the  Graafian  follicle  it  is  carried  by  a 
gentle  current  of  fluid  on  the  peritoneal  surface  of  the  broad 
ligament  and  tubo-ovarian  ligament  to  the  interior  of  the 
tube  by  which  it  is  conveyed  to  the  uterine  cavity.  The 
current  setting  toward  the  abdominal  ostium  of  the  tube  is 
the  result  of  the  action  of  the  ciliated  epithelium  within  the 
tube  and  on  its  fimbria.  It  is  unknown  where  the  ovule  is 
impregnated,  although  the  majority  hold  that  impregna- 
tion is  in  the  tube ;  but  intra-uterine  impregnation  is  at 
least  possible.  Should  impregnation  not  occur,  the  ovum 
disintegrates  or  passes  off  with  the  menstrual  discharge. 
The  activity  of  the  ovary  develops  at  puberty — usually  the 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth  year — and  ceases  with  the  climacteric — 
forty-fifth  to  fifty-second  year.  The  remarkable  functional 
activity  of  the  ovary,  including  periodic  congestions,  rup- 
tures, and  cicatrization,  renders  it  peculiarly  liable  to  dis- 
ease. >feuralgia,  congestion,  and  inflammation  of  the  ovary 
are  frequent  diseases  in  women — often  temporary  and  slight, 
at  times  chronic,  depressing  strength  and  health,  and  caus- 
ing hysteria  and  dementia.  Solid  tumors,  fibrous  and  can- 
cerous, affect  the  ovary  less  often  than  the  uterus.  Ovarian 
dropsy  originates  in  the  drop- 
sical distension  of  one  or  more 
Graafian  follicles  by  albumi- 
noid serum.  This  may  arise 
when  the  follicles  are  too  deep- 
ly situated  to  rupture  and  dis- 
charge the  contained  ovum, 
or  prevented  by  thickening  of 
the  surface  from  previous  in- 
flammation ;  it  may  also  be- 
gin by  accumulation  in  the 
cavity  of  the  corpus  luteum, 
A  cyst  may  be  unilocular,  hav- 
ing but  one  cavity  and  arising  originally  from  one  follicle ; 
or  multilocular,  having  several  compartments.  In  the  lat- 
ter case  the  mode  of  formation  is  yet  in  dispute,  but  it  is 
something  more  than  the  simple  distension  of  the  Graafian 
follicles  with  fluid.  A  proliferation  of  connective-tissue  ele- 
ments with  cystic  degeneration,  a  proliferation  of  the  egg 
cords  in  the  primordial  ovary,  and  a  pathological  develop- 
ment of  the  epithelial  cells  have  been  regarded  as  the  cause. 
The  ovarian  cyst  may  contain  many  quarts  of  transparent,, 
albuminoid  serum. 

Ovariotomy,  the- surgical  operation  of  evacuating  ovarian 
dropsy  and  eradicating  the  cyst,  was  first  performed  in 
America  by  Dr.  Ephraim  McDowell,  of  Kentucky:  this  first 
case  resulted  in  recovery.  Dr.  McDowell  operated  thirteen 
times — eight  successfully.  It  is  now  accepted  and  exten- 
sively performed  in  all  countries.  The  improvement  of 
technique  in  abdominal  surgery  has  now  made  this  one  of 
the  simplest  and  most  successful  operations  in  gynaecology,, 
unless  there  should  be  complicating  factors,  like  universal 
adhesions  or  suppuration  of  the  sac.  A  complete  list  of 
ovarian  tumors  is  as  follows ;  Carcinoma,  sarcoma,  papil- 
loma, filiroma,  cysto-carcinoma,  cysto-sarcoma,  cysto-fibro- 
ma,  cysto-papilloma,  dermoid,  myxo-adenoma  (ovarian  cysts, 
monooystic  and  polycystic),  hydro|is  folliculorum  (disten- 
sion of  the  Graafian' follicles  with  fluid).  Dermoid  cysts  of 
the  ovaries  are  the  most  peculiar  tumors  of  the  body.  They 
are  the  result  of  implantation  of  epidermal  structures  upon 
the  mass  of  cells  from  which  the  ovary  develops  during  em- 
bryonal existence.  As  a  consequence,  structures  like  teeth, 
hair,  sebaceous  matter,  ciuite  foreign  to  the  ovary  itself,  are 
discovered  in  the  tumors.  These  cysts  are  prone  to  degen- 
erative and  infiammatory  action,  especially  after  childbirth. 
Aside  from  this  complication,  however,  they  are  no  more 
difficult  to  deal  with  than  the  commoner  varieties  of  ovarian 
cvsts.     One  of  the  most  serious  diseases  of  the  ovaries  is  in- 


.  "J  iJraafian  vesiele  about 
to  rupture  :  scars  of  former 
rupture. 


OVARIOTOMY 


OVID 


371 


fectious  inflammation  ami  suppuration,  following  usually 
childbirth  or  gonorrha'a,  and  commonly  associated  with 
pyosalpinx  and  pelvic  peritonitis.  A  timely  abdominal  sec- 
tion will  usually  save  the  patient,  but  the  pus  from  an  ova- 
rian abscess  is  peculiarly  virulent,  and  dilluse  septic  peri- 
tonitis is  always  to  be  dreaded.      Kevised  by  B.  C.  Hirst. 

Ovarlot'oinj- :  See  Ovaries. 

Ovary  (of  a  flower) :  See  Flower. 

Ovenhlrd.  or  Guldeu-crowiH'tl  Thrush:  aNorth  Amer- 
ican bird  {Seiiirii.i  uurocapillu.-!)  of  the  family  3Iiiioliltiiia\ 
It  is  called  ovenbird  from  the  sluipe  of  its  nest,  which  is 
built  upon  the  ground  and  roofed  over  with  a  dome-shapeil 
coverinij.  It  is  a  shy,  retiring  bird,  of  an  olive-brown  color, 
6  inches  long,  and  is  ofti'u  seen  running  along  the  ground. 
The  name  ovenbird  is  also  given  to  certain  .South  Amer- 
ican birds  of  the  genera  i^HTHnriK.'s  and  C'fHc/of/es,  belong- 
ing to  the  family  Fdniariidcp.  Tliey  are  remarkably  bold 
little  birds,  and  build  a  dome-sliaped  nest  which  is  divided 
by  a  partition  into  two  rooms,  the  innermost  of  which  con- 
tains the  eggs.  Kevised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Overbeck,  Frederick  :  painter ;  b.  at  Lubeck,  Germany, 
July  ;{,  1789;  studied  painting  in  Vienna  from  1806  to  1809  ; 
settled  in  1810  at  Rome :  embraced  Roman  Catholicism  in 
1814 ;  was  an  apostle  of  the  sentimental  religious  school  in 
art;  held  beauty  subordinate  to  piety;  attempted  to  revive 
the  devotional  art  of  a  former  ascetic  period,  and  founded  a 
school  whicli  was  numerously  attended  and  celebrated  in  its 
day.  Ilis  works  expressed  deep  religious  feeling,  but  are 
thin  and  artificial.  Discarding  as  heresy  the  ideas  of  the 
moderns,  he  earned  the  title  Nazarene,  which  was  bestowed 
on  the  men  of  his  school.  He  chose  sacred  subjects :  Tlie 
Entrance  of  Christ  into  Jerusalem  (Lubeck);  Christ  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives  (Hamburg);  The  Entombment  (Lubeck): 
and  The  Triumph  of  Religion  (Frankiovt).  These  are  his 
best  pieces.  The  great  frescoes  on  the  Monte  Pincio  and  in 
the  Villa  Massimi  were  e.vet-uted  liy  Overbeck  in  conjunction 
with  others.     D.  in  Rome,  Xov.  12,  1869. 

Overbeck.  JonAXXEs  .Vdoi.pii:  archa-ologist ;  b.  at  Ant- 
werp, Belgium,  Mar.  27,  1826;  studied  in  Bonn;  privat  do- 
cent  1850 :  was  called  to  Leipzig  as  professor  of  archaeol- 
ogy and  director  of  the  archaeological  collections.  His  best- 
known  works,  alike  distinguished  for  their  learning  and  their 
style,  are  Kunstarchaologische  Vorlesungen  (1853);  I'om- 
peii  (Hh  ed.  1884);  Die  antiken  Schriftquellen  zur  Ge- 
schichte  der  liildenden  Kiinste  bei  den  Griechen  (1868); 
Griechische  Kunstmylhologie  (5  parts,  1871-87) ;  and  Ge- 
schichle  der  griechischen  Plastik  (2  vols..  4th  ed.  1892),  his 
masterpiece.  Alfred  Gudemax. 

Overbeck  de  Mei.jer,  Gillis,  van,  M.  D. :  surgeon  and 
hygienist ;  b.  at  Rdtlerilam,  Hr)lland,  in  1831;  studied  in 
the  military  metUcal  school  in  Utrecht  1847-51 ;  was  a  sur- 
geon in  the  Dutch  navy  1851-66;  graduated  .M.  D.  from  the 
University  of  Leyden  in  1865;  was  sanitary  inspector  of  the 
[jrovinces  of  Gelderland  and  Utrecht  1866-77;  in  1877  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  State  Medicine  in  the 
I  'niversitv  of  Utrecht.  His  most  important  work  is  Scheeps- 
gezondh/iddeer  (Tiel,  1861).  S.  T.  A. 

Overberg,  Berxuard  :  ecclesiastic  and  author;  b.  at 
Ilockel,  in  tlie  ju-ineipality  of  Osnabrilck,  Hanover,  May  1, 
1754 ;  was  educated  in  the  Franciscan  gymnasium  at  Rheine- 
on-the-Ems;  studied  theology  at  MUnster;  wjis  ordained  a 
priest  in  1780,  and  was  in  1783  appointed  teacher  in  the 
episcopal  seminary.  In  1789  he  took  up  his  residence  in 
the  house  of  the  Princess  Galitzin  as  her  confessor,  anil  he 
exercised  a  great  influence  not  only  on  her.  but  also  on  her 
children  and  on  her  whole  circle.  In  1809  he  was  made 
director  of  the  episcopal  .seminary — a  position  which  gave 
him  control  over  all  educational  affairs  of  the  diocese.  D. 
at  .Miinster.  Xov.  9,  1826.  He  published  Christkatholisches 
IFnndbuch  (1804;  7th  ed.  1854);  h'alechixmus  der  chri.it- 
katholischen  Lehre  {imi;  24th  ed.  1M31);  Haussegen  {\H07). 
etc.  ilis  Life  was  written  by  C.  F.  Krabbe  (Miinster.  1831  ; 
F,ng.  trans.,  Derbv,  1843).  See  Josef  Gallaud,  Amnlie  von 
(latit-ln  (Cologne,  1880).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Overbury,  Sir  Thomas:  statesman  and  author;  b.  at 
Ilmington,  Wiirwiokshire,  England,  in  1581  ;  educated  at 
(Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  graduated  1598;  traveled  cm 
the  Continent ;  became  a  resident  of  Edinburgh  1601,  where 
he  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Robert  Carr.  afterward  Vis- 
count Rochester  and  Earl  of  .Sonu'rset ;  was  knighted  1608; 
traveled  on  the  Continent  I60;i:  wrote  Observations  upon 
the  State  of  the  Seventeen  United  I'roviyices ;  incurred  the 


enmity  of  his  former  friend.  Lord  Rochester,  and  of  the 
Countess  of  Essex,  by  his  opposition  to  their  criminal  in- 
trigues; refused  a  foreign  mission  offered  him  as  a  means  ol 
removing  him  from  the  kingdom,  and  was  thereupon  thrown 
into  the  Tower,  where  he  was  cruelly  treated, and  died  Sept. 
15,  1613.  In  1619  Lord  Rochester,  then  Earl  of  Somerset, 
and  his  countess  were  convicted  of  having  poisoned  Over- 
bury.  His  popular  volume  of  Characters  was  published 
postluMuously  in  1614.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Overreaching:  .See  Farriery. 

Overskon,  Thomas:  dramatist;  b.  in  Copenhagen.  Den- 
mark. Oct.  11.  1798.  He  was  first  apprenticed  to  a  joiner, 
but  in  1818  took  to  the  stage  and  played  minor  parts.  His 
first  comedy.  7<S'J'6  (1826),  was  a  failure,  but  three  dramas, 
publishedjuKmymOnsly  (1828),  were  successfully  perfortned. 
O!t]w!it:0sfrrgadeog  Vestergade,  in  the  style  of  .Sheridan, 
is  his  best  work.  Of  his  other  comedies  Caprieiosa  still 
keeps  its  place  in  the  repertory  of  the  Royal  Theater;  but 
Overskou's  most  important  contribution  to  literature  is  Den 
danske  Skueplads  i  dens  Historie  fra  dens  Begyndelse  til 
vor  Tid  (llistorv  of  the  Danish  Theater,  7  vols.,  Copenhagen, 
1854-76).     D.  Nov.  7,  1873.  I).  K.  Dodge. 

Overt  Act:  an  open  act  from  which  criminal  intent  is 
inferred. 

Overture  [from  O.  Fr.  overture  ( >  Fr.  ouverture),  an 
opening,  dcriv.  of  ovrir,  open] :  the  name  given  to  the  in- 
troductory movement,  symjihony,  or  elaborates  [U'elude  oc- 
curring in  oratorios,  operas,  cantatas,  and  similar  composi- 
tions. The  overture,  though  complete  in  itself,  is  generally 
so  framed  as  to  bring  the  mind  of  the  hearer  into  a  cor- 
respondence of  tone  and  sympathy  with  the  leading  traits 
of  the  work  to  which  it  is  prefixed.  To  effect  this  it  is 
sometimes  sufficient  to  exhibit  in  the  overture  the  prevail- 
ing sentiment  or  coloring  of  the  earlier  movements  (at 
least)  of  the  work  it  announces.  In  other  eases  the  com- 
poser ingeniously  weaves  into  the  overture  some  of  the 
leailing  ideas  of  the  work  itself  by  brief  anticipations  of 
its  melodies,  or  anything  striking  in  its  modulations,  har- 
monies, or  rhythmical  forms,  thereby  predisposing  the 
mind  of  the  hearer  to  enjoy  the  recurrence  of  those  points 
in  the  after-part  of  the  performance.  The  introduction 
of  the  overture  as  a  distinct  and  highly  wrought  species 
of  composition  is  ascribed  to  Scarlatti,  a  Neapolitan  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  before  whose  time 
its  place  was  occupied  by  meager  preludes  or  prefatory 
symphonies,  of  little  account  beyond  that  of  an  ordinary 
opening  strain.  Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

O'verneg,  Adolf :  explorer;  b.  at  Hamburg,  Germany, 
July  24,  1822;  studied  natural  science,  especially  geology,  at 
Bonn  and  Berlin;  joined  Barthand  Richardson  on  their  ex- 
plorations of  Central  Africa  in  1850.  D.  n<'ar  Lake  Tchad, 
Sept,  27,  1852.  His  observations,  among  which  was  the  dis- 
covery that  the  Desert  of  Sahara  is  an  elevated  plate.iu,and 
not,  as  had  hitherto  been  suppo-sed,  a  depressed  plain,  were 
communicated  in  Monatsberichte  der  Gesellsc.liaft  fiir  Erd- 
kunde  (Berlin,  vols.  viii.  and  ix.).  and  Petermann's  Zeit- 
schrift  fur  allgemeine  Erdkunde  (Gotha,  vol.  i.). 

O'veryssel:  a  province  of  the  Netherland.s,  lying  be- 
tween tlie  Zuyder  Zee  in  the  W.,  and  Hanover  an'd  West- 
phalia in  the  6. ;  area,  1,291  sq.  miles.  The  province  is  in- 
tersected by  numerous  canals;  the  soil  is  mostly  light,  in 
many  places  sandy  and  covered  with  heath,  in  others  afford- 
ing good  pasture-grounds.  Rye,  barley,  oats,  hemp.  i)Ota- 
toes,  and  buckwheat  are  raised.  Cattle-rearing,  digging  of 
turf,  and  linen  manufactures  are  extensively  carried  on. 
Pop.  (1893)  302,508.  Chief  cities,  Zwolle,  Deventer,  and 
Kampen. 

Ovibos:  Sec  Musk-ox. 

Ovid,  or  (full  Latin  name)  Pnblius  Ovidius  Naso  :  poet ; 
b.  Mar.  20,  43  B.  o.,  at  Siilmo,  in  the  country  of  the  IVligni, 
about  90  miles  from  Rome,  of  a  rich  eiiuesfriau  family;  re- 
ceived an  elegant  education  in  the  schools  of  the  rhetori- 
cians :  traveled  afterward  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor, and  Sicily, 
and  livi'd  then  for  many  years  in  Rome,  idle,  frivolous,  but 
brilliant  ;  was  intimately  connected  with  .Macer  and  Pro- 
pertius;  acquainted  with  Horace,  moving  with  freedom  and 
ease  in  the  court  circles  ;  admired  by  all  for  his  wit  and  his 
verses,  anil  enjoying,  as  it  seems,  to  the  very  dregs,  all  that 
could  be  enjoyed  at  Rome,  until,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
vear  8  a.  d..  Augustus  suddenly  banished  him  to  Tomi.  The 
rea-son  is  not  known  with  certainty.  Augustus  was  doubt- 
less offended  by  the  obscenity  and  immoral  tendency  of  the 


372 


OVIDUCTS 


OVULE 


Ars  Amatoria.  but  the  book  had  been  in  free  eircuhition  for 
ten  years  before  this  time,  and  tliis  can  not  liave  been  more 
than  a  pretext.  It  is  more  probable  tliat  the  direct  cause  was 
some  participation  as  a  confidant  in  the  intrigue  of  Silanus 
and  Julia,  the  granddaughter  of  Augustus,  who  suffered 
banishment  in  the  same  year  with  Ovid.  At  Tomi,  a  small 
Getic  town  on  the  frontier  of  the  empire,  at  the  delta  of  the 
Danube,  the  fastidious  favorite  of  the  metropolis  found  life 
intolerable,  and  month  after  month  .sent  the  most  humble 
supplications  to  Augustus,  but  the  emperor  was  immovable, 
and  the  poet  died  in  exile  in  18  A.  d.  His  works  comprise 
Ileroides.  twenty-one  letters  from  heroines  to  their  lovers,  of 
which  fourteen  "are  regarded  as  genuine:  Amores,  love-ele- 
gies, in  three  books  ;  Ars  Amatnria,  in  three  books ;  Rtme- 
dia  Amoris;  Metamorphoses,  in  fifteen  books :  Fasti,  an 
unfinished  poetical  commentary  on  tlie  Roman  calendar,  in 
six  books;  Trislia,  five  books;  Epistoke.  ex  Fo/ifo.  four 
books;  Ibis,  a  bitter  invective  directed  against  an  unknown 
person  ;  Halieiitica,  a  fragmentary  didactic  poem  on  fishes. 
The  tragedy  Medea  is  lost.  The  most  remarkable  editions 
of  his  collected  'vorks  ai-e  the  editio  princeps  (Kome,  14T1), 
that  by  Heinsius  (Leyden,  1639),  and  that  by  Burmann 
(Amsterdam,  1737);  recent  text  editions  by  Riese  (Leipzig, 
1871-74),  and  Merkel  and  Ehwald  (Leipzig,  1888) ;  separate 
editions,  especially  of  the  Metamorphoses,  are  very  numer- 
ous. Among  the'transl:itions,  likewise  very  numerous  in  all 
modern  languages,  is  one  of  the  Metamorphoses  by  Dryden, 
Addison,  Congreve,  and  others,  edited  by  Garth.  Of  all 
Latin  poets  Ovid  stands  nearest  to  modern  civilization, 
partly  on  account  of  his  fresh  and  vivid  sense  of  the  beau- 
ties of  nature — a  point  in  which  the  Latin  literature  is  gen- 
erally deficient — partly  because  his  subject  is  love.  His 
representations  of  this  feeling  are  often  sensuous,  but  they 
are  graceful  and  strikingly  true.  He  also  excels  other  Latin 
poets  in  the  elegance  of  his  form,  especially  in  the  character 
and  rhythm  of  his  verses.  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Oviducts:  See  Fallopian  Tubes. 

Ovie'do:  town  of  .Spain;  capital  of  the  province  of  Ovie- 
do,  formerly  called  Asturias  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  12-D). 
It  is  finely  laid  out,  with  a  largo  and  elegant  public  square 
in  the  center,  from  which  the  four  main  streets  lead  in  oppo- 
site directions.  It  has  a  beautiful  cathedral  dating  from  the 
eighth  century,  which  contains  the  remains  of  fourteen  early 
kings  and  queens  of  Asturias  ;  a  splendid  aqueduct,  which 
provides  eleven  fountains  with  abundance  of  good  water;  a 
university  (founded  in  1574)  with  a  large  public  library ; 
and  manufactures  of  arms,  hats,  linen,  and  leather.  In  the 
vicinitv  are  hot  springs,  which  are  much  used  for  bathing. 
Pop.  (1887)42.716. 

Oviedo. or  Oviedo y  Tald^s,  o-vc~e-ado-ee-va"al-das', Gon- 
ZALO  Fernandez,  de :  historian ;  b.  in  Madrid,  Spain,  in 
1478.  He  was  long  attached  to  the  .Spanish  court,  wit- 
nessed the  first  return  of  t'olumbus  1493,  and  was  intimate 
with  most  of  the  prominent  explorers  of  the  New  World. 
In  1.514-17  he  was  with  Pedrarias  at  Darien  as  a  treasury 
officer ;  subsequently  he  was  governor  of  Cartagena,  and 
alcaide  of  the  fort  at  Santo  Domingo,  and  he  crossed  the 
Atlantic  several  times.  Appointed  royal  historiographer  he 
devoted  himself  especially  to  the  history  of  America,  for 
which  his  experience  especially  fitted  him.  His  principal 
work  is  nittnria  rialnral  y  general  de  las  Indins,  in  fifty 
books.  Of  these  nineteen  were  published  at  Seville,  1535,  and 
the  twentieth  at  Valladolid  soon  after.  There  were  numer- 
ous editions  and  translations  of  these  twenty  books,  but  the 
first  complete  edition  was  published  by  the  Madrid  Acad- 
emy 1851-5.5.  The  Historia  was  the  first  general  account 
of  the  discoveries  in  America,  and  it  has  remained  a  stand- 
ard authority.  Oviedo  also  wrote  chronicles  of  the  reigns 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  and  Charles  V.,  but  these,  with 
his  other  writings,  have  never  been  published.  A  history 
of  Nicaragua,  translated  into  French  from  his  manuscript, 
was  jirinted  in  the  Ternaux-Compans  collection.  D.  at  Val- 
ladolid, 1.557.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Ovip'iiiMnis  Animals  [oviparous  is  from  Lat.  ori'parus; 
o'viim,  egg  + /;«>erp,  l)ring  forth]:  those  animals  which 
bring  forth  eggs.  The  term  is  largely  one  of  convenience, 
not  of  strict  scientific  value,  for  all  animals  reproduce  by 
eggs,  the  ditTerence  consisting  in  the  stage  of  dc;velopment 
in  which  separation  from  the  mother  is  effected.  Strictly 
speaking,  then,  oviparous  animals  are  those  in  which  the 
egg  (see  Oviui)  leaves  the  maternal  body  before  it  has  pro- 
ceeded far  in  development.  In  some  cases,  as  in  many 
sharks  and  snakes,  an  intermediate  condition  exists.     Here 


the  egg,  inclosed  in  protective  membranes,  is  retained  inside 
of  the  mother  until  the  young  is  fully  formed,  without,  how- 
ever, any  intimate  (placental)  connection  existing  between 
parent  and  offspring.  For  these  forms  the  term  ovovivip- 
arous  is  used.  In  the  contrasted  or  viviparous  forms  the 
egg  is  small,  and  the  young  receives  nourishment  through- 
out its  whole  fcetal  life  from  the  mother.  All  mammals,  ex- 
cept the  Monotremata  (which  are  oviparous),  are  viviparous. 

J.  S.  KiNdSLEY. 

Ovisacs :  See  Graaflan  Vesicles. 
Ovoca :  See  Avoca. 

O'viile  [from  Mediicv.  Lat.  o'ci^/MJH.dimin.  of  Lat.  o'l-um, 
egg] :  in  botany,  a  young  seed,  especially  before  fertiliza- 
tion. The  ovule  is  morphologically  a  surface  outgrowth, 
and  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  trichome  structure,  homologous 
with  hairs,  scales,  prickles,  etc.  In  its  earliest  stages  it  is  a 
few-celled  mass  of  cells,  ])roJecting  above  the  surface,  and 
having  a  hemispherical  or  conical,  and  later  a  cylindrical, 
form,  which  may  remain  straight  or  become  somewhat 
curved  upon  itself.  As  it  grows  a  ridge  arises  upon  it  en- 
circling it  like  a  collar,  and  this  by  extension  finally  be- 
comes a  coat  which  incloses  it.  In  many  plants  a  second 
coat  forms  below  (outside  of)  the  first  (Fig.  1). 

When  an  ovule  has  completed  the  growth  of  its  one  or 
two  coats  we  may  then  distinguish  the  stalk  (funiculus), 
the  integument,  and  the  ovule  body  (nucellus).  At  the 
summit  of  the  ovule  the  integument  does  not  quite  close, 
leaving  a  minute  opening  {microjii/le). 


Fig.  1. — a  b  c,  development  of  ovule  of  evening  primrose  :  d,  straight 
(orthotropous)  ovule  ;  e,  inverted  tanatropous)  ovule  ;  d  e,  with 
large  nucellus,  and  two  coats  ;  /,  with  small  nucellus  and  one 
thick  coat. 

In  the  lower  Jlonocotyledons  and  Dicotyledons  the  nu- 
cellus is  relatively  large,  but  in  the  higher  orders  of  both 
sub-classes  (Orehidales  and  most  Gamopetahe)  it  is  relatively 
very  small,  consisting  of  an  axial  row  surrounded  by  a  single 
layer  of  cells.  The  o\iiles  of  all,  or  nearly  all,  Monocoty- 
leclons  have  two  coats,  as  is  the  rule  with  the  choripetalous 
Dicotyledons,  while  in  the  Oamopctala?  there  is  usually 
but  one  coat. 

Early  in  the  growth  of  the  nucellus  an  axial  cell  enlarges 
(at  this  stage  known  as  the  archesporium)  and  undergoes 
division,  usu.ally  into  three  to  four,  or  rarely  into  many 
cells.  One  of  tliese  daughter-cells,  commonly  the  lower- 
most, enlarges  at  the  expense  of  the  others,  and  becomes  the 
"  embrvo-sac."  In  Gymnosperms  the  nucleus  divides  re- 
peatedly, and  the  daughter-nuclei  become  the  nuclei  of  cells 
which  .are  massed  together  in  a  rounded  or  egg-shaped  pro- 
thallium.  In  the  latter  flask-shaped  archegones  are  devel- 
oped, each  of  which  contains  a  single  germ-cell  (oosphere  or 
egg-cell). 

In  Angiosperms  the  development  of  the  embryo  sac  is 
somewhat  different  (Fig.  2,  a  to  0-  The  primitive  nucleus 
divides,  each  daughter-cell  moving  to  opposite  ends  of  the 
cell.  Here  each  divides  again,  and  afterward  each  couple 
divides  once  more,  thus  giving  rise  to  four  nuclei  at  each 
end.  Now  a  nucle\is  from  each  tetrad  moves  to  the  center 
of  the  cell,  where  tliey  unite  into  a  single  nucleus,  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  embryo  sac.  The  nuclei  at;  the  liase  of  the  sac 
become  invested  with  protoplasm  and  soon  form  a  mass  of 
cells,  the  endosperm.  In  the  meantime  the  upper  nuclei  also 
have  become  surrounded  by  protoplasm,  and  two  of  these 
cells  are  elongated  and  enlarged  ;  these  are  the  synergidoe. 


OVUM 


OWEN 


373 


The  third  nucleus  usually  lies  a  little  deeper,  and  with  its 
protoplasm  constitutes  the  germ-eoll  (oosphere  or  ogg-coll). 


/       d         1- 


Fio. 


!.  — Development  of  the  embryo-sac  of  A&ter  and  Solidat/o  (after 
JIaftiu). 


Aflor  the  germ-ooU  is  fertilizeil  (by  union  with  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  pollen-tube)  it  clothes  itself  with  a  wall  of  cellu- 
lose, thus  constituting  the  first  cell  of  the  new  plant.  The 
subsequent  development  of  the  embryo  belongs  to  Embry- 
ology (q.  v.).    See  also  Flower.  Charles  E.  Bessey'. 

Ovum  [=  Lat.,  egg] :  tlie  female  reproductive  body  in  all 
animals.  In  its  siniph^st  condition  it  is  merely  a  cell  of  the 
Ijody  speci.iHzed  for  the  purpose  of  tlie  reproduction  of  the 
species,  and  distingiiishabU'  from  the  other  cells  chiefly  from 
its  larger  size.  In  most  forms,  however,  it  has  additional 
features  of  a  luitritive  or  protective  nature.  Thus  to  the 
protoplasm  of  the  cell  there  may  lie  tiddcd  food-yo/k  which 
is  to  nourish  the  germ,  and  which  is  frequently  so  abundant 
!is  to  render  the  egg  very  large.  This  food-yolk  may  Ije 
variously  arranged,  a}id  according  to  its  distribution  the 
sulisequent  development  of  the  egg  (see  Embryolody)  is 
modified.  In  some  cases  (e.  g.  the  fresh-water  Hydra)  pro- 
tective envelopes  are  absent.  In  others  they  occur,  and  may 
be  grouped  in  two  categories,  primary  and  secondary.  To 
the  first  belong  the  viteUine  memhrnne,  usually  a  thin  but 
firm  envelope  covering  the  egg  and  secreted  cither  by  (lie 
egg  or  by  the  tissue  in  which  lb<'  egg  was  formed.  This 
envelope  frequently  has  an  opening  (micropi/le)  for  the  en- 
trance of  food,  and  later  for  tlie  entrance  of  tlie  impreg- 
nating spermalozoc'in.  In  some  cases,  too,  the  vitelline  mem- 
brane is  perforated  by  fine  tut)ules,  in  whicli  case  it  is  called 
a  zona  mdut/it.  The  secondary  envelopes  are  formed  by 
the  ducts  wliich  convey  the  egg  from  the  phice  of  its  origin 
(ovary)  to  the  exterior.  Of  these  tlie  most  prominent  are 
the  sliell  of  the  eggs  of  birds  and  reptih'S,  and  homologous 
structures  in  otiier  forms.  TIk^  egg  as  it  leaves  the  ovary  is 
not  ready  for  development ;  it  has  first  to  undergo  processes 
of  maturation  and  Impregnation  (see  Emrrvolouy'),  al- 
though in  exceptional  cases  (see  I'AilTiiENotiENEsis)  the  egg 
may  develop  without  the  latter  pnx'ess.  The  common  hen's 
egg  contains  not  only  the  essential  cell  with  nucleus  and 

firotoplasm,  but  yolk,  meml>rane,  while,  and  shell.  In  the 
len's  egg,  sis  laid,  development  has  proceeded  some  dis- 
tance, its  products  being  found  in  the  light  spot  invarialily 
uppermost  on  the  yolk.  See  IIisidLo<:v  (Omeratire,  Or- 
gatiK).  J.  S.  KixosLEY. 

On'atoiiiia  :  city  ;  capital  of  Steeh^  co.,  Jlinn.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  mn|i  of  .Minnesota,  ref.  11-F):  on  tlie  Straight 
river,  and  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  and  the  Chi..  Jlil.  and  St.  P. 
railways;  71  miles  S.  of  Minneapolis,  00  miles  W.  of  Wi- 
nona. It  is  the  seat  of  I'illsbury  Academy  (Baptist,  char- 
tered in  1877),  which  in  lS9-t  had  six  buildings  that  cost 
over  iti:fOO,()00,  and  of  the  State  School  for  Dependent  Chil- 
dren. There  are  10  churches.  2  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  ^14l).tKI0.  electric  light,  water,  and  sewerage 
plants,  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  The  city  is  a  trade  cen- 
ter for  a  large  section,  and  has  :!  flour-mills  and  manufac- 
tories of  churns,  seeders,  fanning-udlls,  soap,  carriages  and 


wagons,  and  patent  medicines.     Pop.  (1880)  3,101 ;  (1890) 
3,84!) ;  (1895)  4,891.  Ewtor  or  "  Jour.nal." 

Owego  :  village :  cajjital  of  I'ioga  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location, 
se<'  map  of  New  York,  ref.  6-E) :  on  the  Susquehanna  river, 
and  the  Del.,  Lack,  and  W.,  the  Erie,  an<l  the  Lehigh  Val- 
ley railways  ;  237  miles  W.  of  Xevv  York  city.  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  region,  has  a  large  lumlier-lradc,  and  is  a  pop- 
ular summer  resort.  It  contains  a  jiublic  library  (founded 
in  I.S(IS)  with  over  5,000  vohnues,  3  national  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  !{;2r)0.000,  and  a  daily  and  3  weekly 
papers,  and  has  flour,  planing,  anil  woohii  mills,  foundries, 
and  machine-shops,  wagon-works,  and  other  numufactories. 
Po]!.  (1880)  5,525  ;  (1890)  5,141.         Editor  of  "  Kecord." 

Owt'li,  David  Dale,  M.  D.  :  geologist ;  son  of  Robert 
Owen,  the  socialist;  b.  at  New  Lanark,  Scotland,  June  24, 
1807;  was  educated  at  Hot'wyl,  Switzerland :  went  to  the 
U.  S.  with  his  father  in  1823  "to  assist  him  in  his  social  ex- 
periment at  New  Harmony  ;  subsequently  studied  geology 
and  other  natural  sciences.  In  1837  he  made  a  geolog- 
ical reconnoissance  of  the  State  of  Indiana;  subsequently 
made  an  examination  of  the  mineral  lands  of  Iowa,  and  in 
1848  W'as  employed  by  the  (iovernment  to  take  charge  of  a 
geological  survey  of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota.  The 
results  of  this  survey  were  published  in  a  quarto  volume  by 
Congress  in  1852.  Prom  1852  to  1857  he  was  employed  in  a 
geological  survey  of  Kentucky,  the  residts  of  which  were 
published  in  four  volumes.  In  1857  he  was  appointed  State 
geologist  of  Arkansas,  and  the  report  of  his  survey  was  sub- 
sequentlv  published  in  one  volume.  D.  at  New  Harmony, 
Ind.,  Nov.  13,  1860. 

Owen.  John,  D.  D.  :  theologian  :  b.  at  Stadham,  Oxford- 
shire, England,  in  1616;  was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  1628-37  ;  was  an  early  advocate  of  the  parliamentary 
cause,  and  an  adversary  of  Laud's  measures ;  received  the 
living  of  Fordliam,  Essex,  1042,  whicli  he  exchanged  for  a 
Presbyterian  pastorate  at  Coggeshall,  near  by,  1640,  where  he 
introduced  independent  church  government.  In  1649  he  be- 
came private  ch.aplain  to  Oliver  Cromwell ;  in  1651  dean  of 
Christ  Cliurch,  Oxford ;  was  vice-chancellor  of  the  univer- 
sity 1052-57;  was  deprived  of  his  deanery  1060,  and  retired 
to  Stadham  ;  declined  a  call  to  Boston,  Mass.,  1063,  and  an 
invitation  to  become  president  of  Harvard  College  in  1670; 
removed  to  London  in  1673 ;  thence,  after  his  second  mar- 
riage, 1077,  to  his  wife's  estate  at  Ealing,  Middlesex,  where 
he  dieil  Aug.  24,  1683.  He  was  a  man  of  great  piety,  learn- 
ing, and  magnanimity,  the  author  of  more  than  eighty  theo- 
logical works,  doctrinal,  practical,  and  |iolemical.  His  Ex- 
position of  the  Epistle  to  tlie  Ilehi-eirn  (1068-84)  is  his  chief 
work.  Though  a  zealous  opponent  of  Arminianism,  Presby- 
terianism.  Episcopacy,  and  papacy,  all  parties  held  him  in 
high  esteem.  His  works,  in  W.  11.  Goold's  edition  (Edin- 
burgh. 1850-55).  occupy  24  vols.  8vo  :  reprinted  in  Philadel- 
phia (17  vols.,  1805-09).  See  his  Life  bv  W.  Orme  (Londcm, 
1820).  Revised  by  S.  M.  .Jackson. 

Owen,  John"  Jasox,  D.  D..  LL.  D.  :  teacher  and  author; 
b.  at  Colebrook.  Conn.,  Aug.  13,  1803 ;  graduated  at  Middle- 
bury  College.  Vt..  in  1829.  and  at  the  Theological  Seminary, 
.Vndover,  Mass.,  in  1831;  ententd  the  Presbyterian  ministry 
in  1832:  became  in  1830  president  of  Cornelius  Institute, 
New  York:  Professor  of  Latin  and  (ireek  in  the  New  York 
Free  .Acadciuy  1848,  and  its  vice-principid  in  1853:  vice- 
])resident  of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  1800 :  pre- 
pared editions,  with  notes,  of  Xenophon's  ^«reia,s-i«  (1843); 
Homer's  Odyxxeij  (1844);  of  the  Cijropa'dia  (1840):  of  Thu- 
cydides  (1848):  of  the  Jliad  (1851);  the  text  of  the  Acts  of 
tile  Apostles,  with  notes  (1850);  a  Greek  reader  (1852);  a 
Cnmmetitnr)/  o>i  tlie  (Tospeln  (3  vols.,  1857,  seg.).  D.  in  New 
York  city,  Apr.  18,  1809. 

Owen.  Sir  Richard.  K.  C.  B..  F.  R.  S..  LL.  D.,  I).  C.  L.,  etc. : 
coiiiparative  anatomist  and  pahconlologist :  b.  at  Lancaster, 
Kngland,  .Inly  "20.  1804  :  served  for  a  time  in  the  navy  :  stud- 
ied medicine  al  Ediidiurgh  and  St.  HaiMlii'lomew's.  London  ; 
succeeded  Sir  Charles  Hell  as  llunterian  professor  in  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  1830  ;  became  superintendent 
of  the  natural  history  de[)artmeiit  of  the  British  JIuseuui  in 
18.55,  and  retired  in  1884.  He  was  Fullerian  professor  in 
till!  Royal  Institution,  a  member  of  many  learned  societies, 
and  the  recipient  of  imiiiy  honors.  Owen  succeeded  Cuvier 
as  the  leading  vertebrate  pahconlologist  of  the  world.  His 
most  inqiortant  general  works  are  Lecliires  on  the  Conipar- 
nlire  Annlnm)/  and  J'hiixiotoiiy  of  Invertebrate  Animals 
(1843) ;  Lectures  on  the  Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiol- 


374 


OWEN 


OWL 


ogi)  of  Vertebrate  Animals  (1846) ;  Odontography  (1840-45) ; 
On  the  Archetypes  and  Homologies  of  the  Vertebrate  System 
(1848) ;  On  the  Nature  of  Limbs  (1849) ;  Palmontology  (1861). 
He  was  also  a  voluminous  contributor  to  the  memoirs  of 
scientific  societies.  D.  at  Riclimond  Park,  Surrey,  Dec.  18, 
1892.  Revised  by  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Owen,  Robert  :  social  reformer :  b.  at  Newtown,  Mont- 
gomeryshire, North  Wales,  Mar.  14,  1771  ;  the  son  of  poor 
parents,  was  forced  to  earn  his  own  living  while  still  a  boy, 
but  was  verv  successful  in  business,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
became  a  partner  in  a  cotton-mill.  He  induced  his  firm  to 
buy  the  cotton-mills  of  New  Lanark,  Scotland,  where  he 
put  into  effect  a  co-operative  scheme  for  the  benefit  of  his 
employees.  It  worked  well  at  first,  and  New  Lanark  be- 
came famous  for  the  prosperity  of  its  inhabitants.  He  then 
directed  liis  attention  to  social  questions  on  a  broader  scale, 
publishing  in  1813  New  Views  of  Society,  or  Essays  upon 
the  Formation,  of  the  Human  Character,  and  subsequently 
Book  of  tlie  New  Moral  World,  in  which  he  advocated  doc- 
trines of  liiiman  equality  and  the  abolition  of  class  distinc- 
tions. Having  won  a  large  fortune  in  his  business,  he  was 
able  to  give  these  works  and  various  tracts  embodying  his 
views  a  wide  circulation.  The  Duke  of  Kent  became  his 
patron,  and  his  followers  were  nuuierous.  His  religious 
views  exposed  him  to  much  obloquy  and  a  bitter  opinisi- 
tion,  and  after  the  death  of  his  patron  he  went  to  the  U.  8. 
in  1833  and  founiled  at  his  own  expense  a  communist  so- 
ciety at  New  Harmony,  Ind.  The  scheme  proving  a  failure, 
he  returned  to  England,  where  he  tried  several  siinihir  ex- 
periments with  the  same  result.  He  also  failed  in  an  at- 
tempt to  establish  a  "  labor  exchange"  in  London.  In  1838, 
by  invitation  of  the  Government  of  Mexico,  he  went  to  that 
country  in  the  hope  of  carrying  out  his  socialistic  schemes, 
but  was  disappointed.  In  spite  of  his  failures  he  was  uni- 
versally esteemed  for  his  integrity  and  benevolence.  His 
later  years  were  siient  in  efforts  to  promote  a  religion  of 
reason  and  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  working-classes, 
and  in  his  old  age  he  became  a  believer  in  Spiritualism.  D. 
at  Newtown,  Nov.  19,  1858.  His  followers  bore  the  name  of 
Owenites,  and  were  among  the  founders  of  the  English  Chart- 
ist movement.  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Owen,  Robert  Dale,  LL.  D.  :  author ;  eldest  son  of  Rob- 
ert Owen:  b.  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Nov.  7.  1801  ;  educated 
at  Fellenberg-'s  College,  near  Berne,  Switzerland ;  removed 
to  the  U.  S.  with  his  father  in  1823,  and  assisted  him  in  his 
efforts  to  found  the  colony  of  New  Harmony,  Ind.  On  the 
failure  of  that  experiment  he  visited  Prance  and  England, 
but  returned  to  tlie  U.  S.  in  1827  and  became  a  citizen ;  he 
settled  in  New  Harmony,  Ind.,  where  for  tliree  successive 
years  (1833-38)  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislature. 
'From  1843  to  1847  he  represented  the  first  district  of  Indi- 
ana in  Congress,  acting  with  the  Democratic  party ;  took  an 
active  part  in  the  settlement  of  the  northwestern  boundary 
question  ;  introduced  the  bill  organizing  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, and  served  for  a  time  as  one  of  the  regents.  It  was 
through  ills  efforts  that  Indiana  conferred  independent  prop- 
erty rights  npon  women.  He  was  minister  to  Naples  1855- 
58.  During  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S.  he  was  an  earnest  ad- 
vocate of  the  policy  of  emancipating  the  slaves,  and  liis  let- 
ters on  that  subject  to  the  President  and  the  members  of 
the  cabinet  were  widely  read.  His  chief  works  are  Outlines 
of  the  System  of  Education  at  New  Lanark  (Glasgow,  1824) ; 
Moral  Physiology  (New  York,  1831) ;  Discussion  ivith  Ori- 
gen  Baclielor  on  th.fi  Personality  of  Ood  and  the  Authen- 
ticity of  the  Bible  (New  York,  1833) :  Pocahontas,  an  his- 
torical drama  (New  York,  1H37);  Hints  on  Public  Archi- 
Irrliire.  illustrated  (New  York,  1849):  Footfalls  on  the 
Hoinidary  of  Another  World  (Philadelphia.'  1860):  The 
Wrong  of  Slarery  and  the  Right  of  Freedom  (Philadelpliia, 
1864):  Beyond  the  Breakers,'ii  novel  (Pliiladelphia,  1870); 
The  Debatable  fjiintl  between  this  World  and  the  Next  (New 
York,  1873) ;  Treading  my  Way,  an  autobiography  (New 
York.  1874).  Mr.  Owen  received  tlie  degree  of  LL.  D.  from 
tlie  University  of  Indiana  in  1872.  I),  at  LakeGeorge,  N.  Y., 
.June  34,  1877'. 

Owpns,  .ToTiN'  EnwAun:  comedian:  1).  in  Liverpool.  Eng- 
land. M;iy  4,  1834:  was  taken  by  his  father  to  the  V.  S.  in 
1.S34.  lie  was  I'ducaled  in  I'liiladelphia.  and  for  some  time 
employeil  there  in  business.  On  Aug.  20.  1846,  he  made  his 
debut  in  the  Masonic  Hall.  Philadelphia,  and  immediately 
gained  the  interest  and  sympathy  of  the  public  by  a  peculiar 
l)leniling  of  liuini>r  and  pathos.  In  1840  he  was  manager  of 
the  Halliniiire  museum,  in  1854  of  the  Charles  Street  tlieater 


of  Baltimore,  in  1859  of  the  Varieties  theater  of  New  Orleans. 
In  1853  he  made  his  first  tour  in  England.  His  two  great- 
est creations  were  probably  6'o/o«  Shingle  (first  played  at 
the  opening  of  the  Adelphi  theater  in  London,  1865)  and 
John  Unit  (first  played  in  New  York  in  1869).  In  1882  he 
accepted  an  engagement  with  the  New  York  Madison  Square 
Company,  and  [ilayed  in  Esmeralda  in  many  of  the  larger 
cities  of  the  L.  S.  '  His  declining  health  during  his  last  few 
years  caused  him  to  retire  from  the  stage.  D.  near  Towson, 
Md.,  Dec.  6,  1886.  Revised  by  B.  B.  Yallentine. 

Owensboro :  city;  capital  of  Daviess  co.,  Ky.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Kentucky,  ref.  3-E) ;  on  the  Ohio  river,  and 
the  Louisv.  and  Nashv.  and  the  Loiiisv.,  St.  L.  and  Tex. 
railways;  40  miles  S.  E.  of  Evansville,  Ind.,  1.50  miles  S.  W. 
of  Louisville.  It  is  in  the  center  of  the  Kentucky  and  Ind- 
iana coal-fields,  and  in  an  agricultural,  toliacco,  timber, 
building-stone,  and  brick-clay  region  ;  has  an  elevateil  site, 
and  is  connected  with  several  important  places  on  the  river 
by  a  line  of  packets.  The  city  contains  18  cluirches,  a  high 
school,  and  4  ward  schools,  public-school  property  valued  at 
$85,000,  a  female  college,  a  public-scliool  library  (founded 
in  1886),  a  U.  S.  Government  building  that  cost  |50,000,  3 
national  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $185,000,  6  State 
banks  (t'apilal  of  5  reported  $592,500),  an  incorporated  bank 
with  capital  of  $100,000,  and  3  daily  and  6  weekly  news- 
[lapers.  The  tobacco  industry  has  23  factories  and  stem- 
meries,  in  which  2,000  persons  are  employed  and  18,000,000 
II).  of  toliacco  handled  annually,  and  the  whisky  industry 
lias  in  the  city  and  its  vicinity  14  distilleries,  operated  on  a 
cajiital  of  $1,500,000,  and  vielding  sourmash  whisky  to  the 
value  of  $5,500,000  annually.  There  are  4  planing  and  3 
flour  mills,  steam-shingle  mill,  3  foundries  and  machine- 
shops,  several  brickyards,  and  ice,  sewer-pipe,  furniture,  and 
cigar  factories.    Pop.  (1880)  6,331 ;  (1890)  9,837. 

Editor  of  "  Inquirer." 

Owen  Sound  :  port  of  entry  and  capital  of  Grey  co.,  On- 
tario, Canada ;  at  the  head  of  Owen  Sound  (a  part  of  Lake 
Huron) ;  45  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Collingwood  (see  map  of  On- 
tario, ref.  3-C).  It  has  a  good  water-power,  several  lumber- 
mills,  foundries,  etc.  There  is  a  good  trade  in  lumber  and 
grain.     Pop.  (1891)  7,497. 

Owens  River;  a  stream  which  rises  in  Southeastern  Cali- 
fornia, S.  of  Mono  Lake;  flows  .southward  through  a  desert 
valley  bordered  by  lofty  and  exceedingly  ruggeil  mountains 
for  a  distance  of  about  100  miles,  and  empties  into  Owens 
Lake.  Like  most  desert  streams,  it  varies  greatly  in  volume 
with  the  seasons,  and  many  of  its  branches  are  dry  during 
the  summer.  Owens 
Ijake,  in  the  western 
part  of  Inyo  co.,  Cal., 
is  18  miles  long  and 
10  miles  wide.  It  is 
without  outlet,  and  is 
highly  charged  with 
saline  matter. 

I.  C.  Russell. 

Owl  [0.  Eng.  »/.  : 
0.  II.  Germ,  uwila 
Germ,  eulei] :  a  genei-- 
al  name  for  the  bir^l- 
of  prey  of  the  onl'-i 
Striges,  most  of  whii  li 
are  nocturnal  in  tluir 
habits,  although  a 
few,  like  the  snowy 
and  hawk  owls,  hunt 
by  day.  They  appear 
strongly  l)uilt  (but 
this  is  largely  due  to 
their  long  feathers), 
have  large  heads  and 
large  eyes,  directed 
forward  and  sur- 
rounded l>y  a  circle 
of  radiating  feathers. 
The  plumage  is  soft, 
flight  noiseless,  and 
sense  of  hearing  acute. 
There  are  some  300 
species  of  owls  dis- 
tributed    throughout 

the  world.     They  range  in   size  from   the  great  eagle  owl 
(Ihtbo  nta.rim\(s)  oi  Flnrope  and   Asia,  over  3  feet  long,  to 


OWL-PARROT 


OXENDEX 


375 


the  little  gnome-owls  (Glaucidium)  of  South  America,  some 
of  wliiuli  are  less  limn  6  inches  in  length.  Owls  breed  in 
old  buildings,  holes  in  rocks,  and  most  of  all  in  hollow  trees. 
The  smooth,  white  eggs  are  from  two  to  four  in  miniher. 
A  few  exceptional  species  eat  fish,  but  birds,  and  especially 
small  rodents,  form  the  chief  food  of  owls.  They  are  of 
more  service  to  the  farmer  than  any  other  bird. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 


larrot  {SIringops 


OH'l-parnil,  or  haKapo  :  a  i)i'cnuar  \r.\vrox.  {>,tring 
haliroiitilns)  rcstrictcil  to  the  forests  of  Xew  Zealand, 
called  from  its  owl-like  appearance  and  noclurnal  habits. 
It  is  a  little  over  2  feet  in  Iciiglh,  heavily  built,  of  a  sap- 
green  color  mottled  with  brown  and  yellow.  The  bird  is 
flightless,  for  while  tlie  wings  are  of  moderate  size  there  is 
no  keel  to  the  sternum,  and  the  breast  muscles  are  small 
and  overlaid  with  fat.  The  kakapo  climbs  low  trees,  but 
passes  most  of  its  time  on  the  ground,  feeds  largely  on 
mosses,  and  lives  in  holes  or  fissures  in  the  rocks.  Since 
the  introduction  of  dogs  it  has  diminished  in  numbers. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Owncr.slii|»:  See  Property. 

Owosso:  city;  Shiawassee  co.,  Mich,  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Michigan,  ref.  T-J) ;  on  the  Shiawassee  river,  and 
the  Detroit,  Gr.  Haven  and  Mil.,  the  Mich.  Cent.,  and  the 
Toledo,  Ann  Arb.  and  X.  Mich,  railways ;  '3.5  miles  N.  E.  of 
Lansing,  78  miles  X.  W.  of  Detroit.  It  <lerives  power  for 
manufacturing  from  the  river:  is  connected  with  Corunna. 
the  cMuiity-scat.  by  a  street-railway:  and  contains  gas  and 
electric  light  plants,  water-works,  grailcd  public  schools,  2 
libraries  (Ladies'  ami  V.  M.  C.  A.),  an  incorporated  bank 
with  capital  of  .slOD.IjOO,  a  private  bank,  a  daily  and  5  week- 
ly newspapers,  and  sash,  docjr,  and  blind,  furniture,  casket, 
tool,  cart,  and  other  factories.  Pop.  (1880)  2,501 ;  (1890) 
0,r)ti4 ;  (1894)  8,372.  Editor  of  '•  Reporter." 

Ox  :  See  Cattle  and  MusK-ox. 

Oxalates :  See  Oxalic  Acid. 

Oxulir  Acid  [oraUc  is  deriv.  of  O.mtis,  name  of  a  botan- 
ical geinis  in  which  the  acid  occurs] :  an  acid  consisting  of 
carbon,  hy<lrogen,  and  oxygen  combined  in  certain  propor- 
tions. .Salt  of  sorrel,  which  is  an  acid  potassium  oxalate, 
has  for  a  (leriod  unknown  lieen  procured  in  Germany  from 
certain  species  of  oxalis  and  rumex.  Savary  fii'st  obtained 
oxalic  acid  from  it  in  1773  by  sublimation.  Soheele  after- 
ward obtained  it  from  the  same  source  by  precipitation  as 
oxalate  of  lead  and  subsecjuent  decomposition  of  this.  This 
latter  chemist  also  first  proved  that  the  acid  previously 
known  as  prepared  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  sugar  is 
oxalic  acid.  liesides  the  plants  above  mentioned  there  are 
sea-shore  plants,  Sdlxola  and  Salicornia,  which  contain  it 
as  sodium  oxalate.  It  is  found  as  insoluble  calcium  oxalate 
in  a  great  number  and  variety  of  plants,  and  in  certain 
morbid  conditions  this  latter  salt  is  formed  largely  in  the 
animal  l)ody,  passing  off  by  the  urine,  and  forming  what  is 
called  the  "mulberry  <vdculus"  in  the  bladder. 

All  the  oxalic  acid  of  commerce  is  prepared  by  artificial 
processes,  of  which  two  are  in  common  use:  1.  By  the  ac- 
tion of  nitric  acid  on  sugar,  starch,  or  molasses.  3.'  By  fus- 
ing a  hydrate  of  an  alkali  with  starch  or  cellulose.  Sawdust 
is  generally  useil.  Potassium  hydrate  gives  more  than  so- 
dium, and  two  of  potassium  to  one  of  sodium  hydrate  gives 
still  more.  In  tlie  latter  case,  when  the  product  is  treated 
with  a  strong  solution  of  sodium  carbonate,  ])otassium  car- 
bonate dissolves  and  sodium  oxalate.  Ijy  virtue  of  its  low 
solubility,  remains  l)eliind.  Krom  this  oxalic  acid  is  readily 
prepared.  When  renuired  pure  for  chemical  pur|)oses  it  is 
sublimed.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  this  case  not  to  in- 
hale the  vapor,  which  is  highly  dangerous.  The  commercial 
crystallized  acid  has  the  composition  CjMjO,  +  2H2O.  When 
heated,  it  first  loses  water  and  Ijecomes  C2lli<>4.  Hy  further 
heating  this  breaks  down,  yielding  water,  carbon  nionoxide, 
Co,  and  carlinn  dioxide,  C'Oj.  It  dissolves  in  aljont  nine 
parts  of  cold  and  one  part  of  boiling  water.  When  to  its 
solution  or  that  of  an  oxalate  a  lime-solution  is  added,  there 
is  thrown  down  calcium  o.\alate,  an  exceedingly  insoluble 
substance,  and  for  lime  in  solution  it  is  the  most  delicate 
test.  Except  in  very  weak  solutions,  it  is  an  exceedingly 
dangerous,  fatal,  and  rapid  poison,  and  its  universal  sjde  in 
shops  and  common  use  in  households  are  greatly  to  be  rep- 
rehended. It  has  been  known  to  produce  death  in  ten  min- 
utes, preceded  by  horrible  agonies.  It  is  used  in  the  ai-ts 
for  cli'aning  leather,  for  ilischarging  colors  in  calico-print- 
ing, and  in  scouring  metals.     For  the  latter  purpose,  clean- 


ing brass  and  copper,  it  is  now  much  used  in  households,  as 
well  as  for  removing  ink-stains  from  fabrics.  The  greatest 
care  should  be  exercised  that  it  be  not  mistaken  for  Epsom 
salt,  which  it  almost  exactly  resembles  in  appearance. 

Oxalates. — These  are  compounds  formed  by  the  action  of 
oxalic  acid  on  bases.  "Salt  of  sorrel"  is  a  mixture  of  the 
acid  potassium  salt,  KIK'3()4.  and  another  acid  potassium 
salt  of  the  formula  KlLCa'^.C^ll-jOj  +  2H3O. — Calcium  ox- 
alate, CaCaO,  +  Ilj(),  is  very  dilficultly  soluble  in  water,  and 
is  used  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  calcium.  Calcium  ox- 
alate is  found  in  nature  in  the  tissues  and  cells  of  plants. — 
An  oxalate  of  iron  occurs  in  the  mineral  humboldtine,  in 
brown  coal.  Revised  by  Ika  Re.msen, 

Ox'alls  [Mod.  Lai.,  from  Lat.  &.ralis  =  Gr.  o|o\is,  a  kind 
of  sorrel,  deriv.  of  ojiis,  sharp,  pungent]  :  a  genus  of  dicoty- 
ledonous plants,  commonly  known  as  wood-sorrel,  and  be- 
longing to  the  Geranii  M  Family  {q.  i:).  The  sejials  and 
petals  are  five  each,  the  stamens  arc  ten,  in  two  alternating 
whorls,  and  the  pistil  is  comjiosed  of  five  united  carpels. 
The  leaves  are  compound,  usiuilly  palmately  three-foliate, 
.sometimes  four-foliate,  or  even  pinnately  many-foliate. 
The  species  (203)  an^  mostly  natives  of  the  sub-liopical 
regions  X.  and  S.  of  the  eijuator.  A  few  are  natives  of 
Europe  (two  or  three)  and  Is orth  America  (fourteen  or  fif- 
teen) ;  among  the  latter  are  the  common  wood-sorrel  (0. 
acetosel/a),  violet  wood-sorrel  {().  violaeea),  yellow  wood-sor- 
rel {0.  curtiinilata,  var.  strkia).  Jlany  s|)ecies  are  culti- 
vated in  greenhouses  for  their  fine  foliage  and  pretty  (low- 
ers. Among  these  are  0.  bowiei.  0.  cernua.  O.  Iiir'la,  and 
0.  variahilis  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  0.  crenata,  0. 
ro.seo,and  O.  vatchn'enms  from  South  America;  and  the  cu- 
rious 0.  tetraphylla  from  Mexico.        Ciiari.es  E.  Bessey. 

Oxalu'ria  [Mod.  Lat.;  oxal-ic  +  Gx.  ovpon,  urine]:  a 
morbid  condition  of  the  general  system  which  favors  the 
excessive  excretion  of  oxalic  acid  by  the  kidneys.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  oxalic  acid  diathesis.  Theories  of  the  nature 
of  this  disorder  have  varied  widely  in  the  past,  but  it  is  now 
jiretty  generally  conceded  that  oxaluria  is  merely  a  symp- 
tom of  disordered  metabolism — that  is,  the  oxalic  acid  in 
the  urine  results  from  improper  transformation  of  food  or 
tissue  elements  in  the  processes  of  nutrition.  This  faulty 
metabolism  is  very  closely  allied  to  that  which  causes  ni- 
crease  of  uric  acid  in  the  blood  and  urine,  and  which  con- 
stitutes the  disease  gout.  Indeed  oxaluria  in  a  majority  of 
instances  is  probably  an  expression  of  aberrant  gout.'  It 
may,  however,  occur  in  a  variety  of  affections,  such  as  neu- 
rasthenia, anaemia,  phthisis,  and  others,  not  at  all  similar  to 
gout.  The  mere  presence  of  the  oxalate  of  lime  in  the  urine, 
even  in  large  quantities,  must  not  be  taken  as  suflicieut  to 
establish  the  diagnosis;  for  after  a  diet  including  rhubarb, 
cranberries,  and  other  vegetables,  oxalates  are  quite  natu- 
rally present  in  the  urine.  The  constant  excretion  of  large 
quantities  of  oxalic  acid  in  the  urine  is,  however,  highly 
significant.  In  such  eases  a  characteristic  train  of  symj)- 
toms  is  usually  noted,  such  as  emaciation,  nervousness,  pain- 
ful susceptibility  to  external  impressions,  and  hypochon- 
driasis. The  jiatients  are  incapable  of  exerting  themselves 
in  the  least  without  suffering  from  fatigue;  they  are  irri- 
table and  easily  excited.  A  prominent  symptom  is  a  severe 
and  constant  jiain  or  sense  of  weight  across  the  loins.  It 
will  be  noted  that  these  symptoms  are  largely  of  a  dyspe|)tic 
type.  In  tyi)ical  eases  of  oxaluria  of  gouty  origin  we  rarely 
fail  to  find  these  symptoms,  and  especially  the  nervous  and 
melancholic  tendency,  but  oxaluria  may  exist  and  go  on  to 
the  formation  of  concretions  of  oxalate  of  lime  in  the  kid- 
ney without  any  symptoms  at  all.  Oxalate  of  lime  occurs 
in  the  urine  in  the  form  of  miimte  octohedral  or  dumb-bell- 
sh.nped  crystals,  varying  in  size  from  a  ten-thousandth  to  a 
thousandth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  formation  of  ox- 
alic acid  in  the  blood  is  occasioned  by  the  malassimilation  of 
certain  articles  of  diet,  but  in  exactly  what  numner  has  not 
yet  been  determined  by  physiologists.  Sugar  and  all  saccha- 
rine or  starchy  matters  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 
becaiise,  as  in  lith.-emia,  the  readily  oxidizable  sugars  and 
starches  consume  all  available  oxygen  and  interfere  with 
albuminous  traiisformal  ion.  .\tli'Mtion  should  be  paid  to 
the  general  health,  and  particularly  to  the  digestive  organs. 
As  medicines,  the  mineral  acids,  given  either  alone  or  com- 
bined with  tonics,  are  the  favorite  remedii's. 

Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

(Kbird  :  See  DuxLix. 

Ox'pildeil,  AsBTOX,  D.  D. :  bishop ;  b.  at  Broome  Parke, 
near  Canterbury,  England,  in  1808;  educated  at  University 


376 


OXENPORD 


OXFORDSHIRE 


College,  London ;  was  rector  of  Pluckly-with-Pevington, 
Kent,  1848-69;  became  honorary  canon  of  Canterbury  Cathe- 
dral 1864,  and  Bisliop  of  Montreal,  primate,  and  nietropolilau 
of  Canada  186!) ;  resigned  his  bishopric  in  Apr.,  1878,  feeling 
himself  no  longer  equal  to  the  fatigues  of  his  diocese,  but 
was  instituted  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Stephen,  near  Canter- 
bury, in  May,  1879.  He  has  published  Decision ;  Prayers 
for  Private  Use;  Sermons  on  the  Christian  Life;  God's 
Message  to  the  Poor;  A  Plain  History  of  the  Christian 
Church;  The  Pathway  of  Safety;  Baptism  simply  Ex- 
plained; The  Lord's  Supper  sitnply  Explained;  Lectures 
on  the  Gospel;  The  Pastoral  Office;  Percent  Prayer;  The 
Barham  Tracts,  etc.  Ilis  writings  have  had  a  very  large 
circulation  both  in  Great  Hritain  and  in  the  U.  S. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Oxenford,  .John  :  play wriglit  and  translator ;  b.  at  Cam- 
berwell,  London.  Enghmd,  in  1812;  was  called  to  the  bar 
1833 ;  was  many  years  tlieatrical  critic  for  the  London 
Times ;  wrote  several  dramas  and  songs,  and  translated  a 
number  of  German  poems  and  prose  works.  Among  his 
works  for  the  stage  are  My  Fellow-clerk  (1835) ;  J'wice 
Killed  (183.5);  A  Day  Well  Spent  (1886);  Porter's  Knot 
(1869),  etc.  Among  his  translations  are  Autobiography  by 
Goethe;  Conversations  of  Eckermann  with  Goethe;  and 
Kuno  Fischer's  Essay  on  Lord  Bacon  and  his  Philosophy. 
D.  in  London,  Feb.  22,  1877.         Revised  by  H.  A.  Beeks. 

Oxenliam,  Henry  Nutcombe  :  theologian ;  b.  at  Harrow, 
Middlesex,  England,  Nov.  15,  1839 ;  was  educated  in  tlie 
school  of  his  native  town  and  in  Baliol  College,  Oxford  ; 
studied  theology  ;  became  curate  of  Downinghall,  Bucks,  in 
1854,  of  St.  Bartliolomcw's,  Cripplegate,  London,  in  1856  ; 
joined  the  Roman  Catliolic  Church  in  1857,  and  was  for  a 
time  a  member  of  the  London  Oratory,  afterward  succes- 
sively professor  of  St.  Edmund's  t'ollege,  Ware,  and  master 
at  the  Oratory  school,  Biriningliara.  D.  JIar.  33,  1888. 
Among  his  works  were  Poems  (1854  ;  3d  ed.  1871) ;  Church 
Part ies  {18o'7} ;  Catholic  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement  (IHd'y; 
3d  revised  and  enlarged  ed.  1881) :  Letter  to  Father  Lark- 
hart  on  Dr.  Pusey's  Eirenicon  (1866;  2d  ed.  1871);  Cath- 
olic Eschatologii  and  Universalism :  an  Essay  on  the  Doctrine 
of  Future  Rrt'ributiiin  (1876 ;  3d  ed.  1878) ;  Eirenicon  of 
the  Eighteenth  (.'entury,  with  introduction,  notes,  and  ap- 
pendices (1879) ;  Short  Studies,  Ethical  and  Religious  (1888) ; 
besides  translations  of  various  works  by  Dollinger.  llefele, 
and  others.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Oxeustjerna,  ox'en-slier-na"a.  Axel,  Count ;  statesman  ; 
b.  at  Piino.  Upland,  Sweden,  June  16,  1583;  studied  theol- 
ogy and  jurisprudence  at  Rostock,  Jena,  and  Wittenberg, 
and  was  employed,  after  liis  return  to  Sweden  in  1602,  by 
Charles  IX.  in  several  important  diplomatic  negotiations, 
which  he  carried  througli  with  great  sagacity  and  dignity. 
On  the  accession  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1611  he  was  made 
chancellor  of  Sweden,  and  as  such  he  negotiated  the  Peace 
of  Knarod  with  Denmark  in  1613  and  of  Stolbowa  with 
Russia  in  1617.  and  the  armistice  with  Poland  in  1629,  and 
accompanied  Gustavus  Adolphus  during  his  campaigns  in 
Germany,  taking  charge  of  all  diplomatic  affairs.  After  the 
fall  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Liitzen  in  1632  he  was  empow- 
ered by  the  Swedish  representatives  to  continue  the  war. 
and  at  the  congress  of  Heilbronn  in   1633   the  Protestant 

grinces  chose  him  head  of  the  league  against  the  emperor. 
[e  concluded  an  alliance  with  Holland  and  France,  and 
returned  in  1636  to  Sweden  as  chief  of  the  government  dur- 
ing the  minority  of  Gustavus  Adolphus's  daughter  Chris- 
tina. When  she  became  of  age  in  1644  his  influence  de- 
creased, and  when  she  abdicated  he  retired  altogether  into 
private  life.  He  died  in  Stockholm,  Aug.  28,  1654.  The 
second  part  of  Historia  Belli  Sueco-Germanici,  of  which 
Chemnitz  wrote  the  first  part,  is  generally  ascribed  to  Ox- 
enstjerna,  who  was  an  accomplished  scholar. 

Revised  by  R.  B.  Amdersox. 
Oxford  :  an  old  and  famous  citv  of  England,  the  capital 
of  Oxfrjrdshire.  It  is  situated  52  miles  W.  N.  W.  (63  by 
rail)  cjf  London,  on  the  Thames  (here  called  the  Isis),  near 
its  junction  with  the  Cherwell,  amimg  rich  and  beautiful 
surroundings,  and  contains  a  great  number  of  splendid  edi- 
fices (see  map  of  England,  ref.  ll-I).  Its  trade  and  manu- 
factures are  comparatively  insignificant;  it  is  as  a  seat  of 
learning  it  has  ac(|uireil  its  fame,  its  university  being  the 
oldest  and  most  celelirated  institution  of  the  kind  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  (See  (Oxford  U.niversity.)  It  is  also  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric,  and  it  returns  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment.    Pop.  (1891)45,741. 


Oxford  :  city  (laid  out  in  1836,  burned  down  during  the 
war  of  1861-65) ;  capital  of  Lafayette  co..  Miss,  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Mississippi,  ref.  4-G) ;  on  the  Illinois  Central  Rail- 
road ;  73  miles  S.  E.  of  Memphis,  Tenn.,  157  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Jackson.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  of  Mississippi 
(q.  v.),  of  Union  Female  College  (Cumberland  Presbyterian, 
chartered  in  1854).  and  of  Warren  Female  Institute  (Bap- 
tist, opened  in  1866) ;  and  contains  5  large  brick  church 
buildings  for  white  people  and  3  frame  ones  for  colored, 
graded  school  building  that  cost  $15,000,  U.  S.  Government 
building,  2  State  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $110,000, 
and  2  weekly  newspapers.  The  iiulustrial  works  include  a 
cotton  mill  and  gin,  cotton-compress,  jilaning-mill,  and  a 
canning-factory.  Pop.  (1880)  1,534;  (1890)  1,546;  (1894)  in- 
cluding suburbs,  2,000.  Editor  of  "Weekly  Eagle." 

Oxford ;  town ;  capital  of  Granville  co.,  N.  C.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Nortli  Carolina,  ref.  2-G);  on  the  Southern 
Railway;  46  miles  X.  of  Raleigh.  It  is  in  a  grain  and  to- 
bacco growing  region,  has  several  large  tobacco  warehouses 
and  manufactories,  and  contains  an  orphan  asylum,  a  pri- 
vate bank,  and  two  weeklv  periodicals.  Poj].  (1880)  1,349 ; 
(1890)  2,907. 

Oxford  :  village ;  Butler  co..  0.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Ohio,  ref.  6-B);  on  the  Cin.,  Hamilton  and  Dayton  Rail- 
road; 39  miles  X.  W.  of  Cincinnati.  It  is  the  seat  of  Miami 
University  (g.  v.),  of  Oxford  College,  and  of  Western  Fe- 
male Seminary,  and  has  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
$50,000,  and  2  daily  papers  and  2  monthly  periodicals.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,743;  (1890)  1,922.  Editor  of  "  News." 

Oxford  ;  borough  :  Chester  co..  Pa.  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-1) ;  on  the  Lancaster,  Ox.  and  South, 
and  the  Phila.,  Wil.  and  Balto.  railways;  28  miles  W.  of 
Wilmington,  Del.,  about  midway  between  Philadelphia  and 
Baltimore.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region;  contains  8 
churches,  3  schools,  public  library,  water-works  supplied 
from  artesian  wells,  electric  lights,  2  national  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  $200,000,  a  jirivate  bank,  and  a  weekly 
newspaper;  and  has  a  flour-mill  and  candy  and  carriage 
factories.  It  is  the  seat  of  Oxford  Academy  (Presbyterian), 
and  Lincoln  University  (Presbvterian)  for  colored  students 
is  3i  miles  N.  E.  of  the  borough.  Pop.  (1880)  1,503;  (1890) 
1,711 ;  (1894)  estimated,  2,500.  Editor  op  "  Press." 

Oxford.  Robert  Harley,  Earl  of  :  statesman  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, England,  Dec.  5,  1661 ;  raised  a  cavalry  I'egiment  for 
the  service  of  tlie  Prince  of  Orange  1688 ;  entered  Parlia- 
ment 1690  as  an  extreme  Whig,  but  gradually  changed  his 
political  views  until  they  reached  the  opposite  extreme  of 
Toryism  ;  was  chosen  speaker  Feb.,  1701 ;  re-elected  in  the 
two  succeeding  Parliaments;  was  made  chief  Secretary  of 
State  1704,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Miss  Abigail 
Hill  (afterward  Lady  Masham)  with  Queen  Anne  ;  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  Aug.,  1710  ;  was  stabbed  at  the 
council  board  by  the  Marquis  of  Guiscard,  a  Frenchman, 
Mar.  13,  1711,  to  which  event  he  owed  a  new  lease  of  public 
and  royal  favor  ;  was  created  Earl  of  Oxford  and  Mortimer 
May  24,  and  Lord  High  Treasurer  Jlay  29  of  the  same  year; 
etijoyed  from  this  time  very  great  power,  having  completely 
supplanted  Marlborough  in  the  queen's  favor,  and  consoli- 
dated his  own  popularity  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  Apr., 
1713,  but  was  in  turn  sujiplanted  by  Bolingbroke  and  dis- 
missed July  27,  1714.  Regarde<l  with  distrn.st  by  George 
I.,  he  was  impeached  of  high  treason  by  Parliament  Aug., 
1715  ;  committed  to  the  Tower;  acquitted  June,  1717;  lived 
thenceforth  in  retirement ;  accumulated  immense  collec- 
tions of  books  and  maiuiscripts  (see  Harleian  Collection), 
and  w,<is  author  of  some  pamphlets  of  little  merit.  D.  in 
London,  May  31,  1724. 

Oxford  Jloveineut :  See  Tractariaxism. 

Oxfordshire:  an  inland  county  of  England,  bordering 
S.  on  the  Thames,  and  on  the  other  sides  on  Bucks,  Glouces- 
tershire, Warwickshire,  and  Northamptonshire.  Area,  755 
sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  mostly  level,  but  undulating  in  the 
southern  part,  where  a  branch  of  the  Chiltern  Hills  rises  to 
a  height  of  nearly  700  feet.  The  county  is  watered  by  sev- 
eral streams,  including  the  Windrush,  Evenlode,  Cherwell, 
and  Thame,  which  are  affluents  of  the  Thames.  The  soil  is 
a  mixture  of  gravel  and  loam,  and  very  fertile.  Agriculture 
and  dairy-farming  are  in  an  advanced  state.  Wheat,  barley, 
turnips,  butter,  and  cheese  are  produced  in  large  quantities. 
Ironstone  is  worked  near  Banbury,  while  blankets  are  manu- 
factureil  at  Witnev,  and  paper  at  Henley  and  Shiplake. 
Pop.  (1891)  185,938."    Principal  town,  Oxford. 


OXFORD   UNIVERSITY 


OXIDES 


377 


Oxford  riiivprsity :  an  institution  of  learning  at  Oxford, 
Englmul.  Tlic  first  fairly  authenticated  notice  of  Oxford  as 
a  seat  of  leaniinfr  dates  from  tlie  time  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor. The  first  charter  was  granted  to  the  university  liy 
John;  in  1201,  according  to  Anthony  Wood,  the  university 
numbered  within  its  walls  3.000  students.  Later  on,  in  the 
time  of  Henry  III.,  Wood  states  that  there  were  30,000  stu- 
dents at  Oxford  ;  "  but  among  these  a  company  of  varlets, 
who  pretendeil  to  be  scholars,  shuffled  themselves  in.  and 
did  act  much  villainy  by  thieving,  whoring,  (luarrelling, 
etc."  The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  L  niversities 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  is  the  existence  of  a  number  of 
separate  corporal  ions  or  colleges.  There  have  been  colleges 
at  many  universities,  but  nowhere  have  they  ever  reached 
anything  like  the  same  influence  and  im|iorlanee  as  at  Ox- 
ford and  Camt)ridge.  The  origin  of  the  colleges  was  due  to 
benevolent  persons  who  desired  to  reli(ive  a  certain  number 
of  poor  scholars  from  some  of  the  hardships  of  their  life  at 
the  meiliicvul  universities,  and  in  order  to  do  this  provided 
a  building  in  which  such  scholars  could  live  a  common  life, 
and  also  an  en<lowment  for  their  maintenance.  From  Heni-y 
III.'s  time  date  the  foundations  of  three  colleges — Univer- 
sity (1349).  erected  on  the  site  of  a  mucl)M;arlier  foundation  : 
Kaliol  (1363),  yU'rUm  (1270).  In  the  time  of  Richard  II. 
many  members  of  the  univei-sity  warmly  espoused  the  doc- 
trines of  Wycklitf,  and  in  the  persecutions  tli;U  followed  on 
this  avowal  many  of  the  colleges  were  thinned,  some,  in- 
deed, being  quite  deserted  for  a  short  time.  The  univer- 
sity found  a  generous  patron  in  Ricliard  III.,  who,  among 
other  bounties,  granted  the  privilege  to  the  university  of 
importing  or  exporting  books  at  will.  During  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.  royal  commissioners  were  appointed,  with  full 
powers  to  examine  the  affairs  of  the  university.  In  conse- 
quence, the  form  of  government  in  tlu^  university  was  com- 
pletely altered  :  Init  in  the.  next  reign  the  old  order  of  things 
was  re-established,  (jueen  Elizabeth's  reign  is  remarkable 
in  the  history  of  Oxford  University  for  the  foundation  by 
Sir  Thomas  Rodley  of  tlie  Bodleian  Library,  and  for  the 
passing  of  the  act  which  confirmed  the  university  as  a  cor- 
porate body ;  also  .lesus  College  was  established  in  this 
reign.  Shortly  after  the  succession  of  James  I.  the  two 
universities  had  the  privilege  granted  of  sending  each  two 
members  to  Parliament.  During  the  troublous  times  of 
Charles  I.  the  university  sided  throughout  with  the  king, 
and  suffered  severely  in  consequence.  In  16.i0  Cromwell 
was  elected  chancellor  of  the  university,  when  several  of  the 
more  obnoxious  among  the  royalists  %ere  removed,  to  be  re- 
instated at  the  Restoration.  Under  the  tyranny  of  James 
II.  the  univctrsity  came  violently  into  collision  with  the 
crown :  on  the  refusal  of  .Magdalen  College  to  receive  a 
president  force<l  upon  it  by  the  king  all  the  members  of 
that  college,  with  the  exception  of  two.  were  expelled.  How- 
ever, at  the  approach  of  William  of  Orange  they  were  rein- 
stated by  the  tyrant.  From  this  period  the  university  has 
proceeded  on  an  even  course. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  colleges,  with  statistics  for  1893  : 


1437 
1263 

\m) 

].53i 
l.'ilfi 
i:il4 
1H74 
1571 
1K09 
U-.T 
14:)B 

isro 

1.386 
WX 
1624 
1340 
l.'V.V) 
l.^'>4 
184') 
1613 
1714 


126!t 

isi'i 


All  .Souls 

Baliol 

Bra.senose 

Clirist  Church 

Corpus 

K-^eter 

Hertford 

Jesus 

Kelile 

Linc<^ln 

Magdalen 

Merton 

New  College 

Oriel 

Peint)rofce 

Queen's 

St.  .Tohn's 

Trinity 

University 

Wadlmm 

Worcester 

Halls. 

St.  F.tlinund 

St.  Mury 

Mareon's 

Turrell's 

Griniile's 

Non-coU.  students 

Totals 


Income  from 

Under- 

Meniben  of 

Members  on 

gnuluRtei. 

the  books. 

£15.367 

7 

91 

Ill 

5.623 

237 

406 

8:12 

8.«27 

128 

336 

568 

32.172 

2»7 

751 

1,350 

13,075 

85 

212 

348 

5,173 

isa 

.523 

825 

76 

175 

312 

10,746 

95 

112 

298 

206 

178 

611 

4.303 

89 

179 

.363 

»».888 

178 

274 

649 

14.616 

140 

255 

513 

15,800 

218 

309 

784 

5.621 

99 

23;j 

402 

8.963 

76 

180 

308 

11.663 

119 

295 

5.39 

11,910 

118 

.132 

.598 

5.145 

172 

.300 

608 

6,686 

120 

299 

.560 

4.1.55 

89 

2:M 

415 

2,283 

95 

212 

426 

39 

87 

101 

50 

40 

116 

27 

1 

32 

8 

1 

13 

3 

4 

246 

92 

473 

3,187 

6.087 

12.165 

The  highest  oflBcer  in  the  university  is  the  chancellor; 
the  election  is  determined  by  the  members  in  convocation, 
and  the  oflice  is  held  for  life.  For  the  last  200  years  it  has 
been  the  custom  to  elect  some  distinguished  nobleman  who 
has  been  educated  at  Oxford;  the  Marcpiis  of  Salisbury  is 
the  present  chancellor.  There  is  no  stipend  attacheil  to  this 
office.  The  chancellor's  deputy,  the  vice-chancellor,  is  nomi- 
nated by  the  chancellor  from  among  the  heads  of  colleges; 
the  oflice  is  held  for  four  years,  aiul  is  endowed  with  a  sal- 
ary of  t'tiOO  a  year.  To  assist  the  chancellor  and  vice-chan- 
cellor two  other  officers  are  appointed — the  high  steward 
and  deputy  steward.  The  appointments  are  at  the  disposal 
of  the  chancellor,  subject  to  the  approval  of  convocation. 
The  business  of  the  university  is  transact eil  in  two  se|>arate 
asseml)lics — the  house  of  congregation  and  the  house  of  con- 
vocation. In  the  former  the  business  is  confined  to  grant- 
ing ordinary  <legrecs  and  confirming  the  nomination  of  ex- 
aminers luaile  by  the  vice-chancellor  and  the  proctors.  All 
other  business  is  conducted  in  the  house  of  convocation.  To 
facilitate  the  ordinary  legislation  of  the  university  there 
meets  every  week  during  term  time  the  hebdomadal  council, 
composed  of  the  heads  of  colleges  and  others.  Not  the  least 
important  among  the  university  officers  are  the  proctors. 
The  business  of  these  gentlemen  is  to  guard  against  any 
breach  of  discipline  on  the  part  of  members  of  the  univer- 
sity. The  proctors  are  two  in  uunibcr,  and  are  a.ssisted  by 
four  pro-proctors.  Both  proctors  and  pro-proctors  must 
have  attained  the  standing  of  master  of  arts,  the  former  for 
at  least  four  years  previous  to  election. 

Before  entering  the  university  a  preliminary  examination, 
the  matriculation,  must  be  undergone,  varying  in  difficulty 
according  to  the  status  of  the  college.  Shortly  after  enter- 
ing the  student  is  confronted  by  responsions,  the  first  public 
examination:  for  this  a  slight  knowledge  of  classics  and 
mathematics  is  required.  In  order  to  get  a  degree  the  stu- 
dent must  have  resided  at  least  twelve  continuous  terms  at 
the  university,  and  must  have  passed  the  necessary  examina- 
tions. The  study  of  ancient  literature,  history,  and  philos- 
ophy— literie  Immaniores — is  the  study  most  largely  encour- 
aged at  Oxford  :  the  degree  is  usually  acquired  in  the'  classical 
schools.  There  are  also  schools  in  modern  history,  civil  law, 
and  theology,  in  which  the  examinations  are  usually  attend- 
ed by  men  who  have  passed  through  the  classical  schools. 
For  those  who  go  to  study  mathematics,  natural  science, 
etc.,  there  are  also  schools  in  those  subjects.  Attached  to 
each  college  are  fellowships  and  scholarships,  awarded  in 
most  cases  by  open  competition.  Until  lately  fellowships 
were  nearly  all  clerical,  but  now,  to  a  great  extent,  restric- 
tions have  been  removed,  and  the  fellowships  are  thrown 
open  to  the  whole  university  as  they  become  vacant.  In 
most  cfiUegcs  the  fellowships  are  held  for  life,  so  long  as 
the  holder  remains  unmarried  ;  but  a  sensible  change  is 
now  largely  adopted  by  making  the  fellowships  tenable  for 
ten  years,  whether  the  holders  choose  to  marry  or  not. 
Scholarships  are  awarded  after  competition  to  undergradu- 
ates who  have  not  exceeded  a  certain  number  of  terms  from 
matriculation,  and  to  young  men  entering  the  university; 
there  is  in  most  colleges  a  limit  of  age.  The  value  of  the 
scholarships  is  about  i.'80  or  i'lOO  a  year,  tenable  for  five 
years.  Instruction  is  conducted  mainly  by  the  college  tutors ; 
lectures  are  also  delivered  Ijy  the  university  professors.  The 
university  year  is  divided  into  four  terms — Michaelmas, 
Hilary.  Easier,  and  Trinity.  The  intervals  between  terms 
are  short,  with  the  exception  of  the  long  vacation,  which 
lasts  from  the  first  or  second  week  in  June  to  Oct.  10.  Ox- 
ford ami  /if)-  Colhije.i.  Iiy  (loldwin  Smith  (New  York,  1894), 
is  a  delightful  skelcli  of  the  university.  See  also  Historical 
Reg ister  of  the  Vn  i i -e rsity  of  O.rfo rd  ( 1 888 ). 

Revised  by  C.  H.  Thl'RBER, 

Ox-gall  :  the  bile  of  the  domestic  ox  {fd  hovinitvi).  It  is 
used  in  the  arts  in  .scouring  wool,  since  into  its  complicated 
composition  there  enters  abundance  of  soda,  which  gives  it 
a  soapy  (piality.  When  properly  refine<l  from  its  coagulable 
and  coloring  matters  it  is  used  by  artists  in  mixing  colors, 
which  it  often  improves  in  tint,  while  it  fixes  them  and 
makes  them  flow  better.  It  is  also  used  in  some  kinds  of 
artists'  varnish  and  in  cleansing  ivory  tablets  for  artist.s'  ii.se. 
In  medicine  it  is  sometimes  given  when  a  <leficicncy  of  bile  is 
suspected  to  exist,  to  aid  digestion  of  fats  in  the  small  bowel ; 
in  encinata  it  is  believed  to  dissolve  scybalous  ma-sses,  and 
as  an  external  application  some  practitioners  consider  it 
powerfully  discutient.  Revised  by  II.  A.  Hare. 

Oxides :  See  OxvoE.v. 


378 


OXLEY 


OXYGEN 


Oxley,  James  JIacdonald,  LL.  B.  :  author;  b.  in  Hali- 
fax. Xova  Scotia,  Oct.  22.  1855;  educated  at  Dalhousie, 
Halifax,  and  Harvard  Universities;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  practiced  from  1877  till  1883.  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed legal  adviser  to  the  Marine  Department.  Ottawa. 
He  resigned  this  office  in  1891.  and  engaged  in  the  life-insur- 
ance business  in  Ottawa,  and  in  lf<lJ2  in  Montreal.  Many 
of  his  books  have  been  republished  in  England.  Among 
his  published  works  are  J\'or«  Scotia  Decisions  (3  vols.. 
Halifax  1880-83):  Young's  Admiralty  Decision  (Toronto. 
1882)-  Bert  Lloyd's  Soyliood  (Philadelphia.  1889);  Vp 
among  the  Ice  Floes  (1890) ;  The  Chore-hoy  of  Camp  Kip- 
»eM>a»  (1891) :  Donald  Grant's  Development  (1892):  Fergus 
MacTavish  (1892) :  The  Good  Sliip  Gryphon  (1893):  Archie 
of  Athabaska  (Boston.  1893).  Neil  Macdonald. 

Oxlip :  See  Primrose. 

Oxpecker ;  See  Beef-eater. 

Oxiis.  Amoo',  or  Aiiiii.  also  called  Aiuoo  Darya  (anc. 
Oxus :  Arab.  Gihon) :  a  river  of  Western  Asia,  which  rises 
on  the  Belur  T agh,  nearly  15,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea ;  receives  many  affluents  from  the  mountains  of  Turkes- 
tan and  the  Hindu  Kush.  flows  through  Turkestan,  and  falls 
into  the  Aral  Sea.  The  length  of  its  course  is  1.610  miles. 
According  to  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  in  July,  1873, 
between  Russia  and  Khiva,  this  river  became  the  perma- 
nent boundary-line  between  Khiva  and  Bokhara. 

Oxychlo'rides.  sometimes  called  Basic  Chlorides:  a 
class  of  compounds  sometimes  formed  by  the  direct  action 
of  an  oxide  of  a  metal  upon  the  chloride  of  the  same  metal. 
as  in  the  eases  of  lime,  magnesia,  zinc,  etc.  In  the  latter 
two  cases  important  cements  are  founded  upon  the  forma- 
tion of  such  oxyehlorides.  Other  classes  of  oxyehlorides 
are  formed  by  the  partial  decomposing  action  of  water  upon 
the  chlorides' of  some  metals,  acting  by  removing  a  portion 
of  the  acid,  as  in  the  cases  of  antimony  and  bismuth.  There 
are  some  native  mineral  oxyehlorides.  as  atacamite  and  tal- 
lingite,  oxyehlorides  of  copper,  and  matlockite  and  mendi- 
pite.  oxyehlorides  of  lead.  Other  elements  besides  the  met- 
als forni  oxyehlorides.  such  as  silicon,  carbon,  sulphur,  sel- 
enium, nitrogen,  phosphorus.  Oxyehloride  of  phosphorus, 
POCla,  is  a  compound  of  considerable  interest. 

Oxyg'en  [Gr,  o^is.  sharp,  acid  +  -gen  of  Gr.  yfmav,  and 
Lat.  genera  re,  produce] :  the  most  abundant  of  all  the  ele- 
ments existing  in  the  earth. 

Name. — Tiie  word  oxygen  was  applied  by  Lavoisier  to 
represent  the  generalization  which  he  had  arrived  at.  and 
which  in  his  day  was  almost  universally  accepted,  that  oxy- 
gen was  the  sole  "  acidifying  principle."'  Since  then  it  has 
become  more  and  more  apparent  that  the  class  of  substances 
called  •■  acids  "  does  not  owe  its  characteristics  to  the  pres- 
ence of  oxygen,  and  that  hydrogen  is  far  better  entitled  to 
the  designation  of  the  "acidifying  principle."  if  there  be 
any  such  thing.  Thus  the  term'  oxygen  must  be  recognized 
as  "one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  unfortunate  cases  we 
have  of  a  name  founded  upon  a  fragmentary  and  entirely 
incorrect  generalization.  In  the  German  language,  like- 
wise, oxygen  is  Sauerstoff  (acid  stuff  or  material),  a^ain  per- 
petuating Lavoisier's  view.  Condorcet  called  it  "  vital  air." 
Scheele  called  it  Feuerlnft,  fiery  or  fire-supporting  air. 

History. — Priestley,  Aug.  1. 1774.  first  discovered  and  pre- 
pared in  a  pure  state  the  life  and  fire-sustaining  gaseous 
principle  of  air,  which  he  called  "  dephlogisticated  air."  as 
he  was,  even  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  an  adherent  of  the 
phlogistic  theory  of  Stahl.  He  prepared  pure  oxygen  by 
heating  red  oxide  of  mercury,  which  is  dissociated  by  heat 
into  metallic  mercury  and  oxygen  gas,  Priestley,  who, 
from  his  many  important  discoveries  and  inventions  rela- 
tive to  different  gases  and  the  manipulation  of  gaseous 
bodies,  is  known  as  the  "  father  of  pneumatic  chemistry," 
knew  well  how  to  collect,  preserve,  and  experiment  upon 
the  new  gas.  lie  thus  easily  proved  its  identity  with  the 
active  element  of  the  air.  To  commemorate  this  great  event 
in  scientific  history  the  chemists  of  the  U.  S.  assembled 
Aug.  1.  1874.  100  years  later,  at  the  grave  of  Priestley,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Susciuehanna.  at  Northumberland,  Pa.,  to 
celebrate  the  "centennial  of  chemistry."  One  year  later 
than  Priestley,  in  1775.  the  great  Swedish  chemist  Scheele 
made  independently  the  same  discovery.  Lavoisier  may  be 
justly  regarded  as  the  discoverer  or  propounder  of  the  true 
theory  of  fire,  oxidation,  and  combustion,  as  consisting  in 
combination  with  oxygen  of  the  air,  Grotthuss,  and  espe- 
cially II.  Davy,  investigated  flame,  and  advanced  some  steps 
in  a  theorv  thereof. 


Occurrence  in  Nature. — Oxygen  is  in  an  enormous  degree 
the  most  abundant,  as  it  is  in  many  respects  the  most  im- 
portant, of  the  elements  of  matter,  upon  our  earth  at  least. 
The  only  other  element  that  can  compare  with  it  in  abun- 
dance is  silicon,  the  special  element  of  mineral  silicates. 
Even  in  these  oxygen  preponderates  largely.  The  follow- 
ing figures  show  the  proportions  of  oxygen  and  silicon  in 
some  of  the  commonest  of  the  minerals  that  make  up  nearly 
the  whole  mass  of  the  known  earth : 


Quartz 

Feldspar  torthoclase) . 

Mica  t  Qiuscovite)  

Pj-roxene 

Amphibole 

Limestone 


Oxygen  per  100. 

SiUeon  per  100. 

540 

46  0 

46-75 

29-6 

48-27 

21-0 

44-6 

25-3 

468 

2r-6 

48-0-earbon. 

12-0 

Oxygen  constitutes  nearly  half  the  total  weight  of  known 
matter,  and  silicon  not  far  from  one-third.  Of  water,  the 
liquid  part  of  the  earth,  oxygen  forms  eight-ninths.  Of 
living  matter,  vegetable  and  animal,  oxygen  also  forms  by 
far  the  largest  element,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  water  is 
so  predominant  a  constituent  of  these.  Apart,  however, 
from  the  water  existing  as  such  in  living  beings,  much  oxy- 
gen is  contained  in  their  solid  or  "  plastic "  constituents 
when  perfectly  di-y.  Thus  celluose  and  starch  both  contain 
49-38  per  cent,  of  oxygen,  albumen  23-5.  and  gelatin  27-5. 
Of  normal  atmospheric  air  oxygen  constitutes  from  20-8  to 
20-9  per  cent,  by  volume,  and  by  weight  about  23  per  cent. 

Preparation. — Of  accomplishing  this  there  are  many 
methods  besides  that  of  Priestley  above  referred  to.  Per- 
oxides of  manganese  and  barium  both  evolve  oxygen  when 
strongly  heated.  Peroxide  of  barium  will  take  the  oxygen 
up  again  at  a  lower  temperature  from  a  current  of  moist 
air.  and  the  alternation  of  these  two  operations  upon  this 
peroxide,  or.  which  is  the  same  thing,  upon  anhydrous 
baryta,  constitutes  Boussingault's  method  of  making  oxy- 
gen". The  method  of  Tessie  du  Motay,  by  which  oxygen 
has  been  manufactured  for  illuminating  purposes,  consists 
in  the  exposure  alternately  of  a  salt  of  manganic  acid  to  a 
current  of  air  and  to  one  of  steam.  Sulphuric  acid  wUI 
evolve  oxygen  from  a  number  of  substances  when  heated 
therewith,'  such  as  bichromate  of  potash,  permanganate  of 
potash,  peroxide  of  manganese,  peroxide  of  lead,  etc.  It 
may  also  be  obtained  by  electrolysis  of  water.  Deville  and 
Debray  proposed  two  new  methods,  both  of  which  furnish 
it  at  first  in  admixture  with  sulphurous  oxide  gas.  one  be- 
ing to  pass  sulphuric  acid  in  vapor  over  heated  platinum, 
the  other  to  heat  white  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  to  a  high 
temperature.  The  method  in  most  general  use,  both  in 
chemical  laboratories  and  in  the  manufacture  of  oxygen  for 
commerce,  is  to  heat  potassium  chlorate  to  fusion.  The 
evolution  of  the  oxygen  is  greatly  facilitated  and  hastened 
by  pulverization  of  this  substance  and  mixture  with  small 
proportions  of  peroxide  of  manganese. 

Chemical  Properties. — Oxygen  is  a  colorless  and  inodor- 
ous gas  which  has  been  liquefied  by  Cailletet  in  Paris,  by 
Pictet  at  Geneva,  and  by  Dewar  in  London,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  great  pressure  and  cold.  It  is  magnetic — more 
so  than  any  other  gaseous  substance.  Its  density,  air  being 
unity,  is  1-10561.  Bunsen  found  that  ice-cold  water  can 
hold  in  .solution  4-111  per  cent,  of  its  volume  of  oxvgen,  and 
water  at  20=  C.  (=68=  F.)  only  2-838  per  cent.  When  pure, 
it  manifests  the  most  energetic  affinities.  A  combustible 
body,  as  a  charred  splinter  of  wood,  a  candle,  or  the  like,  if 
having  liut  a  spark  of  fire  adherent,  instantly  kindles  into 
flame  wlien  immersed  in  oxygen.  In  this  way  it  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  all  other  gases  except  laughing-gas.  which 
has  the  same  power.  Oxygen  will  itself  burn  with  flame  in 
an  atmosphere  of  a  combustible  gas  like  hydrogen.  Even 
gaseous  ammonia  may  be  substituted  for  the  hydrogen  in 
this  experiment.  When  it  burns  with  hydrogen,  two  vol- 
umes of  the  latter  combine  with  one  volume  of  oxygen,  and 
the  three  volumes  condense  to  two  volumes  of  steam.  The 
product  of  the  union  of  oxygen  with  another  element  is 
called  an  oxide.  Thus  when' lead  is  heated  in  contact  with 
the  air  it  combines  with  oxygen,  forming  lead  oxide,  PhO; 
charcoal,  or  carbon,  burns,  forming  carbon  dioxide.  CO,; 
phosphorus  burns,  forming  phosphorus  pentoxide.  PjOs. 

Uses  of  Oxygen. — Outside  of  the  applications  of  oxygen 
as  *  purely  scientific  and  analytical  agent  in  the  chemical 
laboratory,  its  practical  uses  have  not  yet  been  developed  to 
any  great  extent,  in  consequence  of  the  large  expense  of 
obtaining  it  free  from  nitrogen.     Dr.  Hare's  applications  of 


OXYGENATED   WATER 


OYSTER 


379 


it  for  producing  intense  heat  for  fusing  metals,  and  intense 
light  by  the  invention  properly  called  Harp's  lime-light,  re- 
main yet  the  most  important  uses.  In  France  some  hun- 
dreds of  pounds  of  platiniridiuni  have  been  melted  at  once 
by  Hare's  method. 

Ozone. — This  is  a  modification  of  oxygen  which,  up  to 
this  time,  stands  almost  if  not  altogether  alone  in  some  re- 
spects. AUolropic  modifications  of  solid  and  lifpiid  suT)- 
stances  are  exceedingly  common,  but  those  of  gaseous  bodies 
are  little  known,  ozone  being  the  only  one  that  has  been  at 
all  studied.  As  in  the  ca.se  of  all  allotropic  changes,  when 
oxygen  passes  to  the  form  of  ozone  there  is  found  to  be  a 
change  of  volume.  Ozont'  is  formed  when  oxygen  is  sub- 
mitted to  various  agents  and  o|)erations.  The  electric  s()ark 
and  the  slow  oxidation  of  phosphorus  are  two  of  the  most 
familiar.  The  oxygen  formed  by  electrolysis  contains  it; 
also  that  evolved  from  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  aiul  per- 
manganate of  potash.  It  is  always  readily  iletectable,  wlien 
masking  odors  arc  absent,  by  its  very  singular  and  charac- 
teristic odor,  which,  once  perceived,  is  always  recognizable 
again.  Revised  by  Ira  Resisex. 

Medicixal  Uses  of  Oxyges. — Oxygen  is  locally  irritating 
to  raw  surfaces,  exciting  inflammation  if  too  long  applied. 
Inhaled  in  health  with  proper  precautions  to  remove  ear- 
Vwnic  acid  and  other  products  of  expiration  from  the  in- 
spired gas.  it  is  perfectly  respirable,  and  does  not  produce 
much  substantial  change  in  the  rale  of  performance  of  the 
functions.  This  circumstance  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact, 
proved  by  experiment,  that  in  healtli  the  blood  can  take  up 
as  much  oxygen  from  ordinary  atmospheric  air  as  when 
supplied  with  the  pure  gas — in  other  words,  as  much  as  it  is 
capable  of  absorbing — the  only  difference  in  the  two  cases 
being  that  where  oxygen  alone  is  breathed,  the  highest  point 
of  saturation  is  reached  more  speedily  than  where  air  is  em- 
ployed. When  from  any  cause  there  is  defective  respira- 
tion, and  the  system  sulfers  in  consequence  from  imperfect 
oxygenation  of  the  blood,  the  inhaling  of  pure  or  slightly 
diluted  oxygen,  by  enabling  something  like  the  normal 
quantity  of  the  gas  to  be  presented  to  the  blood  at  each  in- 
spiration, affords  prompt  and  decided  relief,  and  is,  of 
course,  pri)  faiifo,  of  great  benefit.  Hence  in  such  affec- 
tions as  astlima.  pulmonary  emphysema,  crouji.  diphtheria, 
dyspncra  from  heart  disease,  etc..  inhalations  of  oxygen  are 
often  exceedingly  useful.  In  other  diseases,  generally  those 
of  mal-nutrition,  such  as  consumption  of  the  lungs,  anajmia, 
severe  dyspepsia,  indolent  ulcers,  etc.,  experience  has  shown 
that  in  some  cases  much  benefit  has  followed  inhalations  of 
oxygen.  Where  ulceration  or  active  inflammation  is  pres- 
ent, the  use  of  the  gas  requires  care,  lest  its  irritant  effects 
do  harm.  Oxygen  for  medicinal  use  must  be  ]>erfectly 
pure,  and  is  best  prepared  by  decomposition  of  potassium 
chlorate.  It  is  inhaled  from  a  bag  coiuiected  with  the 
mouth  by  a  tube  provided  with  a  proper  mouthpiece  to 
keep  the  expired  air  from  mixing  with  the  gas ;  and  the 
nostrils  being  left  free,  enough  air  is  at  the  same  time  in- 
spired to  dilute  the  oxygen  somewhat.  Inhalations  morn- 
ing and  evening  of  from  1  to  4  gal.  generally  suffice  in 
chronic  atTections,  liut  in  acute  disease  tlie  amount  must  be 
determined  by  the  necessities  of  the  case.  For  medicinal 
use,  cylinders  holding  from  100  to  200  gal.  of  gas  com- 
pressed into  a  moderate  compass  are  exceedingly  conveni- 
ent (US  [H>rtable  reservoirs  from  which  to  sup])ly  the  inhaling 
apparatus.     See  Hydrogen'  Peroxide  for  local  uses. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Oxygenated  Water :  See  Hydrogen  Peroxide. 

Oxyhieiiiflgloliin :  a  combination  of  hajinoglobin,  the 
coloring-mat ler  of  the  blood,  with  oxygen.  This  compound 
rea<lily  renders  up  its  oxygen  to  the  ti.ssues  when  reduced 
haMuoglobin  results,  which  in  turn  becomes  oxyh:cmoglobin 
after  the  blood  is  ai'rated  in  the  lungs.  Tlie  bright-red 
color  of  arterial  blood  is  due  to  this  compound,  while  the 
darker  color  of  venous  blood  is  due  to  reduced  haMnoglobin. 

W.  P. 

Oxyhy'drogen  Blowpipe:  an  apiiaratus  invented  in 
IHOl  by  Dr.  Uoliiirt  Iliin>.  of  Philadelphia,  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  a  very  high  temperature  by  burning  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  together.  It  is  now  extensively  used  for  melt- 
ing i)latinum  and  for  producing  the  calcium  liglit.  by  render- 
ing a  piece  of  lime  intensely  hot.  (See  LiME-Lioirr.)  The 
best  form  is  a  jet  consisting  of  a  tube  for  the  delivery  of 
oxygen,  with  a  larger  tube  anmnd  it,  the  hydrogen  being 
delivered  through  the  annular  space. 


O'yer  [from  Anglo-Fr.,  from  0.  Pr.  olr  >  Fr.  milr  <  Lat. 
audi  re.  hear] :  in  law,  a  hearing  by  the  common-law  rules 
of  pleading.  A  party  to  an  action  who  alleged  in  his  plead- 
ing any  deed  upon  which  he  based  his  claim  or  his  justifica- 
tion in  defense  was  required  to  make  profert  of  such  deed 
(that  is,  jiroduce  it  in  court),  and  thereupon  the  other  party 
was  entitled  to  deimuid  oyer  of  the  deed,  or  to  hear  it  read, 
in  order  that  he  might  have  an  opportunity  to  learn  its  con- 
tents or  a.scertain  its  genuineness,  and  thus  be  able  to  pre- 
pare his  answer  or  defense.  Anciently,  when  the  pleadings 
were  oral,  profert  consisted  in  actually  bringing  thi;  deed 
into  court,  and  upon  a  demand  of  oyer  it  was  read  aloud  by 
the  party  introducing  it ;  but  when  pleading  was  conducted 
by  written  instruments,  profert  was  made  by  a  merely  for- 
mal allegation  that  the  deed  was  brought  into  court,  and  a 
demand  of  oyer  was  made  in  writing  upon  the  party  alleg- 
ing the  deed,  who  was  then  bound  to  deliver  it  iiito  the 
other's  hands  for  inspection,  and,  if  required,  to  leave  with 
him  a  copy.  Oyer  was  deniandable  only  of  deeds  or  instru- 
ments under  seal,  and  of  letters  testamentary  or  letters  of 
administration,  and  not  of  private  writings  having  no  seal. 
The  practice  of  demanding  oyer  has  been  superseded  in 
England  and  generally  in  the  U.  S.  by  more  convenient 
methods,  prescribed  by  statutes,  as  discovery  under  oath  by 
one  party  upon  an  order  obtained  by  the  other,  or  the  inspec- 
tion of  papers  upon  an  order  or  ihie  notice.  See  Pleadixo, 
Abridged  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Oyer  and  Terminer  [from  Anglo-Fr.  oyer  (from  0.  Fr. 
olr).  hear,  and  terminer,  limit,  determine] :  in  England,  a 
phrase  forming  part  of  the  desigiuition  of  certain  higher 
criminal  courts  of  original  jurisdiction,  and  of  the  Commis- 
sion (q.  V.)  by  which  they  are  directed  to  be  held.  General 
commissions  of  oyer  and  terminer  are  issued  to  the  justices 
of  Assize  (q.  v.)  and  other  special  persons  (generally  at  the 
same  time  with  the  commission  of  Jail  Delivery,  q.  v.) 
directing  them  to  hear  and  determine  all  treasons,  felonies, 
and  misdemeanors  arising  within  their  jurisdiction.  This 
commission  differs  from  the  commission  of  jail  delivery 
principally  in  the  circumstance  that  the  justices  of  oyer  and 
terminer  can  proceed  only  upon  an  indictment  taken  before 
themselves,  whereas  justices  of  jail  delivery  must  try  all 
found  in  the  prison  they  are  to  deliver.  A  special  conunis- 
sion  of  oyer  and  terminer  is  issued  when  there  is  a  sudden 
insurrection,  or  riot,  or  public  outrage  which  demands 
sjjeedy  redress,  to  hasten  the  administration  of  justice  and 
assist  the  regular  courts.  The  courts  of  oyer  and  terminer 
are  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  their  constitution  has  been 
hardly  altered  at  all  since  the  time  of  Edward  III.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  phrase  oyer  and  terminer  is  sometimes  used  in 
designating  criminal  courts,  liut  the  jurisdiction  and  organ- 
ization is  generally  pre.scribed  by  statute.  In  the  State  of 
Xew  York  the  court  of  oyer  and  terminer  is  the  highest 
court  of  original  jurisdiction.  F.  S.  Allen. 

Oyo,  or  Awyaw:  the  capital  of  Central  Yoruba,  in  Wi-st 
Africa.  X.  of  the  Slave  Coast.  It  is  the  center  of  one  of  the 
most  important  native  agricultural  regions  in  Africa.  The 
people  are  fully  clothed  in  well-dyed  native  cloths,  and  live 
in  adobes  houses  built  around  court-vards.  Pop.  (18111)  esti- 
nuited,  (iO.OOO.     See  Yoruba. 

Oyster  [from  O.  Fr.  oistre>  Fr.  hulfre  <os'frea,  os'ire- 
um  =  Gr.  iarpcov,  oyster] :  the  English  name  common  to  the 
species  of  the  family  (htreiflw  and  genus  Ostrea.  All  the 
species  of  the  genus  are  ranch  alike,  and  agree  in  the  follow- 
ing charactei's  :  The  animal  has  the  numtle  nuirgin  double 
and  finely  fringed  :  the  gills  are  nearly  equal ;  the  lips 
plain  :  the  jialpi  triangular  and  attached  ;  the  shell  is  ir- 
regular and  rough;  the  left  valve  adherent  and  convex; 
the  right  free  and  flat  or  concave;  the  hinge  toothless. 
The  genus  is  almost  cosmopolitan  in  range,  but  is  not  repre- 
sented in  the  polar  seas.  About  seventy  recent  species  have 
been  recognized  by  various  authors,  but  the  true  species  are 
probably  eonsiderably  les,s.  The  most  notable  are  the  oy.s- 
ters  of  Kurnpe  ((htrea  ediilix)  and  the  Kaslern  U.  S.  {Oslrea 
rirgininna).  The  former  is  a  comiiaratively  small  species, 
found  generally  in  the  European  seas,  and  has  a  coppery 
flavor;  the  latter  is  the  common  large  American  species; 
it  has  none  of  the  coppery  taste  characteristic  of  the  Euro- 
pean specie.*.  The  Eurojjean  species  is  hermaphroditic,  the 
.Vmerican  di(Ccious.  Both  s|iecies  are  subject  to  consider- 
able variation  in  form,  and  the  American  has  by  some  au- 
thors been  differentiated  into  two — a  northern  rouiulish 
form  (Ostrea  borealia),  and  a  southern  longish  one  (Ostrea 
virginica).  Revised  by  J.  S.  Kixgsley. 


380 


OYSTER-CATCHER 


OZONE 


Oyster-catcher  :  a  name  applied  to  tlie  wading  birds  of 
the  genus  Ilivinatnpus,  because  tliey  feed  on  small  oysters 
and  other  molluscs.  There  are  six  or  eight  widely  scattered 
species,  all  readily  recognized  by  their  stout,  brightly  col- 
ored, compressed  bills,  and  striking  black  and  white  plum- 
age, whence  the  English  name  of  sea-pie.  The  American 
oyster-catcher  {Htematopiis  pal/iafus)  is  about  18  inches 
long ;  the  head  and  neck  are  glossy  black ;  back,  wings,  and 
outer  part  of  tail  blackish  brown  ;  under  parts,  base  of  tail, 
and  a  conspicuous  wing  patch  white.  The  European  bird 
(H.  osfrihyus),  which  isa  straggler  to  Greenland,  is  slightly 
smaller,  and  is  darker.  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Oyster-culture  and  Oyster-fisheries:  the  method  of 
raising  oysters  for  market  and  the  means  employed  for  tak- 
ing them.  The  shell-heaps  of  Europe  and  North  America 
testify  to  the  antiquity  of  oyster-fisheries.  At  an  early  date 
the  Romans  imported  oysters  from  Britain,  while  the  oyster 
industry  is  still  an  important  branch  of  the  fisheries  of  vari- 
ous nations,  notably  of  the  U.  S.,  Great  Britain,  and  France, 
in  the  order  given.  Oysters  are  found  at  various  depths, 
largely  depending  on  the  temperature  of  the  water,  but  in 
the  tr.  S.  the  majority  are  taken  in  water  from  15  to  30  feet 
deep,  although  dredges  are  used  down  to  15  fathoms.  The 
French  and  British  dredge  ordinarily  down  to  30  fathoms. 
In  shallow  water  oysters  are  taken  with  "tongs,"  imple- 
ments like  a  pair  of  huge,  long-handled  rakes,  so  hinged  to- 
gether as  to  open  and  shut  like  a  pair  of  scissors.  In  deeper 
water  dredges  are  used,  these  being  essentially  coarse-meshed 
nets  of  hea\'y  twine  or  iron  chainwork,  secured  to  a  rectangu- 
lar iron  frame,  which  scrapes  over  the  bottom.  The  frame 
is  about  twice  as  wide  as  high,  being  usually  3  or  4  feet 
across,  and  the  long  sides  are  sharpened,  or  more  usually 
furnished  with  large  projecting  teeth.  The  drcilge  is  at- 
tached by  a  long  rope  to  a  small  winch  worked  l.iy  one  or 
two  men,  and  the  larger  vessels  carry  two  dredges.  Tunging 
is  prosecuted  from  small  boats,  dredging  from  larger  vessels, 
these  ranging  from  5  to  50  tons  burden,  and  while  some  ex- 
ceed this  size,  the  majority  are  under  30  tons.  Oysters  are 
taken  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  during  the  warm  months, 
roughly  speaking  from  May  to  September,  the  oysters  are 
spawning  and  are  protected  by  law  on  public  beds.  The 
number  of  oysters  consumed  is  enormous,  so  much  so  that, 
in  most  cases,  the  natural  supply  can  by  no  means  keep  pace 
with  the  demand,  and,  as  Mr.  Stevenson  puts  it  in  a  recent 
report  on  the  oyster  industry  of  Maryland,  "  in  every  region 
of  the  world  where  the  oyster  industry  has  assumed  any  com- 
mercial importance,  it  has  passed,  or  is  apparently  passing, 
through  the  following  four  stages :  First,  the  natural  reefs 
in  their  primitive  condition,  furnishing  the  entire  supply  of 
oysters ;  second,  those  reefs  somewhat  depleted,  producing 
small  oysters,  many  of  which  are  transplanted  to  private 
grounds,  and  under  individual  jirotection  permitted  to  ma- 
ture; third,  the  public  beds  so  far  depleted  that  the  supply 
available  is  very  irregular  anil  uncertain,  and  consists  almost 
entirely  of  small  oysters,  which  are  transplanted  to  private 
areas :  fourth,  the  entire  dependence  of  the  industry  on  areas 
f)f  ground  under  individual  ownership  or  protection. 

'•  In  Europe  the  greater  number  of  the  oyster-producing 
localities  are  in  the  condition  of  the  fourth  stage.  In  the 
r.  S.  .  .  .  the  industry  still  depends  largely  on  the  public 
reefs  ;  but  were  it  not  for  the  supply  of  seed  oysters  obtained 
from  more  southern  waters,  all  those  States  1*J.  of  Connecti- 
cut would  be  practically  in  the  condition  of  the  fourth 
stage.  Connecticut,  New  York.  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware 
.  .  .  are  ra])idly  passing  from  the  third  to  the  fourth  con- 
dition. The  oyster  industry  of  Chesapeake  Bay  is  in  the 
second  stiige,  but  the  history  of  the  fishery  in  other  States 
and  countries  excites  grave  fears  as  to  its  long  continuance 
in  this  condition."'  Oyster-culture  proper,  that  is  the  rais- 
ing of  oysters  from  the  spawn  or  spat  produced  upon  the 
spot,  is  most  extensively  and  successfully  practiced  in 
France.  The  sjiawn  is  collected  u|ion  wooden  hurdles  or 
tiles,  from  which  the  young  oysters  are  removed  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  beds  to  grow.  In  the  V.  S.  considerable  atten- 
tion has  been  [laid  to  the  extension  or  preservation  of  pri- 
vate oyster-beds  by  throwing  over  quantities  of  oyster  or 
.scallop  shells  on  whiidi  the  spat  can  collect,  but  so  far  it  has 
been  found  most  profitable  to  transplant  young  or  small 
oysters  from  the  public  grounds  to  i>rivate  beds.  Tliis 
practice  may  be  said  to  have  been  initiated  in  Europe  by 


Sergius  Orata,  who  "bedded"  oysters  at  Baia^  95  b.  c. 
The  .Japanese  are  successful  ostreaculturists,  and  the  art  has 
been  practiced  by  the  Chinese  for  1800  years. 

The  following  table  from  The  Oyster  Industry  of  Mary- 
land (1894)  shows  the  oyster  product  of  the  world: 


U.  S 

Great  Britain  - 

France 

Holland 

Italy 

Canada 

Germany 

Miscellaneous. 


Totals. 


Busheli. 


29,796..S8r 

2.760,000 

2,000,000 

70,000 

13,000 
400,000 


Value. 


81(>,6.S8,805 

6.200,000 

5.000,000 

444.000 

200,(HX) 

ISJ.MG 

7.5,000 

600.000 


35.256,967        $29,341,651 


In  the  U.  S.  Maryland  leads  with  11,632,117  bush.,  having 
a  value  of  |5,866,120.  Connecticut  leads  in  oyster-bedding, 
while  California  is  remarkable  for  her  rapid  development 
of  the  oyster  industry,  her  product  being  worth  $698,257. 
The  secondary  products  of  oyster-fisheries,  in  the  shape  of 
.shells,  have  a  considerable  value.  'Formerly  oysters,  raw  or 
burned  into  lime,  were  extensively  used  for  manure  along 
the  eastern  seaboard  of  the  U.  S.,  and  the  poorer  qualities  are 
still  so  employed  in  some  parts  of  the  Southern  States.  The 
refuse  shells  from  the  large  canneries  are  burned  into  lime 
for  use  in  making  gas,  or  are  used  as  a  flux  in  the  manu- 
facture of  certain  kinds  of  iron.  For  information  concern- 
ing the  oyster-fishery,  see  the  Quarto  Fishery  Reports ;  the 
special  bulletin  of  the  tenth  census  of  the  U.  S.  on  the 
Oyster  Industry,  by  Ernest  Ingersoll :  the  bulletins  of  the 
U.  S.  Fish  Commission ;  Oysters  and  All  About  Them,  by 
John  R.  Philpots  (London,  1890).  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Oyster-plant :  See  Salsify. 

Oza>'na  [  JIoil.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  ozce'na  =  Gr.  S(atva,  a  fetid 
polypus  in  the  nose,  deriv.  of  S^etv.  smell]:  a  disease  of  the 
nose,  characterized  by  a  discharge  of  fetid  muco-purulent 
matter  from  the  nostril.  Any  case  of  chronic  catarrh  of  the 
nose  may  become  oza?na  if  the  condition  of  the  patient  is 
depressed.  It  may  depend  upon  caries,  and  may  be  a  symp- 
tom of  cancer,  syphilis,  glanders,  or  scurvy.  It  often  follows 
scarlatina,  or  even  a  severe  cold.  General  tonic  treatment, 
good  food,  and  weak  local  disinfectants  are  indicated  in  .sim- 
ple oza'ua;  but  if  there  be  caries,  or  any  .specific  disease  of 
which  it  is  a  symptom,  such  disease  will  require  athention. 

Ozark  Mountains  :  a  series  of  steep  and  heavily  timbered 
ridges  of  Southern  Missouri,  extending  into  Arkansas  and 
the  Indian  Territory.  They  are  nowhere  of  great  elevation. 
They  are  believed  to  possess  great  mineral  wealth. 

O'zerov,  Vladislav  ALEKSANDito'ncH :  poet ;  b.  in  the 
government  of  Tver.  Russia.  Sept.  29.  1770.  He  was  well 
educated,  and  after  a  career  of  some  years  in  the  army  he 
entered  the  civil  service.  His  first  literary  ventures  met  with 
scant  success,  but  in  1804  his  tragedy  (Edipus  at  Alliens, 
though  little  more  than  a  translation  from  the  French 
writer  Ducis,  at  once  achieved  great  popularity.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  his  Fingal  (taken  from  Ossian)  was  e(|ually  fiir- 
tunate,  and  in  1807  he  won  his  greatest  trium]ih  with  his 
Diinitri'i  Donskol  (name  of  an  early  prince  of  JIoscow.  who 
defeated  the  Tatars),  a  patriotic  piece  first  put  on  the  stage 
a  few  days  before  the  battle  of  Eylau  and  full  of  allusions 
to  the  struggle  then  going  on  between  Russia  and  France. 
His  last  play,  Polyxena  (1809),  if  not  up  to  its  predecessors, 
was  nevertheless  favorably  received  by  the  pviblic.  D.  Nov., 
1816.  Ozerov  is  commonly  regarded  as  the  last  Russian 
dramatist  of  the  classical  school,  but  he  belongs  to  the  ro- 
mantic in  the  choice  of  some  of  his  subjects  and  in  the 
.sentimentality  of  his  works.  His  style  is  stately,  his  verse 
smooth  and  melodious,  and  his  feeling  usually  genuine  and 
well  expressed  (8th  edition  of  complete  works.  1856).  His 
Finyal  has  been  translated  into  French  verse  (by  Dalmas, 
St.  Petersburg,  1818)  and  prose.  A.  C.  Coolidge. 

Ozokerite  [from  Gr.  uffii-,  smell  4-  xijpiis,  wax] :  a  brown- 
ish-yellow, wax-like  .substance  found  in  liituminous  sand- 
stones. Tlie  largest  deposits  are  in  Moldavia  and  in  Utah. 
In  combination  with  India-rubber,  asbestos,  etc.,  it  is  used 
to  insulate  electrical  conductors. 

Ozone :  See  Oxygen. 


I  lie  sixteenth  letter  of  the  Englisli  alplm- 
lii-t. 

Form. — Tlie  form  P  is  t liat  of  t lie  Honian 
iilpliubct  lierivod  from  tlif  early  (irouk  P, 
n,  or  ill  its  square-cornered  form  p.  Tlie 
Semitic  form  of  the  letter  was  H-  Its 
orij;iiial  shape  was  an  ellipse,  and  hence 
its  Semitic  name. 
■  Semit  ic  name  of  the  letter  was  pe.  i.  c.  mouth, 
which  became  in  Greek  irci.  later  irr.  The  Latin  phonetic 
name /«>  piussed  through  the  French  pe  into  English  nape, 
now  pronounced  as  rhvminjr  with  tree. 

Sound. — It  is  a  voiceless  labial  explosive,  formed  by  brealc- 
ing  a  closure  at  the  lips  with  voiceless  breath,  as  in  pnf,  or 
by  effectinga  check  through  closing  I  he  lips,  iis  in  ii/i.  Some- 
times there  is  in  the  latter  case  an  additional  after-pnff 
caused  by  agjiin  breaking  the  closure  :  thus  after  .s,  as  in  axp. 
where  the  after-puff  constitutes  the  only  characterization  of 
the  sound.  Hefore  n.  ,s.  f.  the  p  is  silent,  as  in  pneumatic.'!, 
psalm,  rereipt,  Ptolenn/.  also  in  cupboard,  mxplierry,  and  afte'r 
m  finally  or  before  t.  as  iu  Jump,  tempt,  it  has  tlu'  elfect  of 
giving  a  sharp  and  delinite  conclusion  to  the  nasal. 

Source. — The  sound  /;  represents  in  Teutonic  words  a  Teu- 
tonic p  <  Indo-Eur.  i,  which  was,  liowever.  of  rare  occur- 
rence, and  initially  did  not  exist.  Hence  no  genuine  Teu- 
tonic word  in  English  begins  with  p.  Example  of  non-ini- 
tial p :  .'ileep  <  0.  ]*Ing.  >iUT'piin  :  Germ.  scliJafeu  ;  cf.  0.  Biilg. 
slabu,  weak  :  Lat.  I  aha  re,  totter.  The  sound  is  secondarily 
develoiied  in,  e.  g.,  emptij  <  (>.  Eng.  iemtig,  Humptuii  <  (i. 
Hu'^.  /fi'iDiluii.  Otherwise /)  occurs  in  loan-words.  («)  from 
Latin  through  <).  Kng..  as  pound  <  0.  Eng. /;»;;(/.  \Mt.pondo; 
(h)  from  Jjatin  through  0.  Fr..  as  people  from  O.  Fr.  puejile 
<  Lat.  po pidus :  (c)  from  Lat.  through  some  other  Komanic 
language,  as  piazza.  Ital.  <  Lat.  platea  (Gr.  irAareia) :  (<?) 
from  Latin  or  Greek  direct,  as  pa-itor.  patho.i;  (e)  from  vari- 
ous other  s(mrce.s.  as  plaid  (Celtic),  punch  (Hindi). 

Si/mholi.im. — P.  =;  phosphorus  (in  chemistry) ;  Publius  (in 
Latin);  pondere.  by  weight:  P.  C.  =  l'ittres  Coniicripti 
(Latin);  P.  'SI.  —  po.'il  meridiem,  afternoon;  postmaster; 
Pontifex  Maxinuis  (Ijatin) ;  Pb  =  plumbum,  lead  (in  chem- 
istry).   See  Abbrkvi.\tio.ns.  Be.vj.  Hie  Wheeler. 

Pacil.  paa'kjfa  [Port  iig..  from  the  native  name];  one  of  the 
largest  of  rodent  maiiinials  {Ca;logen yn  pacii).  a  native  of 
South  anil  Central  America.  It  is  i  feet  long  and  generally 
dark  brown  with  streaks  and  patches  of  white.  The  zygo- 
matic arch  is  prodigiously  developed,  so  that  the  cheek 
pouches  are  protected  by  a  bony  case.    Its  tail  is  very  small. 


Ttie  brown  paca. 

It  is  destructive  to  sugar-cane  and  other  growing  <  rojis.  bur- 
rows in  the  earth,  and  is  remarkably  cleanly  in  its  liabit.s.  It 
is  clumsy  in  build,  tint  very  active.  When  wild  it  bites 
fiercely  if  hard  pressed.  In  captivity  it  is  harmless  and 
somewhat  stupid.  It  is  valued  as  food,  but  is  usually  very 
fat  and  oily.  Its  fur  is  worthless,  but  its  thick  skin  makes 
a  good  leaf  her. 

Pacn.  Wir.LiAM  :  jurist  and  Governor  of  Marvland  ;  b.  at 
Wye  Hall,  Harford  co.,  Md.,  Oct.  31,  1740;  graduated  at 


Philadelphia  College  17.18;  studied  law  in  the  :\[iddle  Tem- 
ple, Loudon,  and  became  a  lawyer  at  Annaiiolis,  lid. ;  was 
a  li'ading  patriot  in  1774;  was  in  Congress  1774-79,  and 
again  1780;  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  was 
in  the  State  Senate  1777-79;  chief  ju.stice  of  Maryland  1778- 
80;  chief  justice  of  Hie  State  court  of  appeals  for  admiraltv 
and  prize  cases  1780-«;J;  Governor  of  Marvland  1782,  1780"; 
was  in  the  convention  of  1788  which  ratiti"ed  the  U.  .S.  Con- 
stitution ;  was  a  U.  S.  district  judge  1789-ilU.    D.  in  1799. 

Paci'hio'iiiaii  Bodies  |  Mod.  Lat.  ir/oH  </«/(p,  Paecfiioni, 
Pacchionian  glands,  named  in  honor  of  their  discoverer, 
Antonio  Pacchioni  (1G0.5-1720)J:  agroup  of  numerous  small 
whitish  bodies  found,  in  man.  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
dura  mater,  and  also  within  the  superior  longitudinal  sinus 
and  on  portions  of  the  pia  matcr.'whence  indeed  they  are 
originally  developed,  making  their  wav  outward  into  the 
dura  mater  and  producing,  by  pressure  and  alisorption.  little 
depressions  in  the  inner  surface  of  the  skull.  They  are  verv 
rarely  found  in  subjects  under  three  years  of  age.  and  are 
sometimes  absent  in  adults.  They  are  not  glands,  but  fibro- 
cellular  nodules.     Their  use  is  not  known. 

Pace  and  Pacing;  See  Gaits. 

Pachil'ca:  capital  of  the  state  of  Hidalgo,  Mexico;  on  a 
branch  of  the  railway  from  Mexico  to  Vera  Cruz  ;  55  miles 
X.  N.  E.  of  Mexico  city  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  7-H).  It 
lies  in  a  valley  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  chain  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  valley  of  Mexico,  and  8.150  feet  above  the 
sea.  Pachuca  is  noted  for  its  silver  mines,  which  are  among 
the  most  important  in  the  republic.  It  is  said  that  they 
were  worked  by  the  Aztecs  before  the  conquest.  The  Span- 
iards early  took  possession  of  them,  and  it  was  here  that  the 
amalgamation  or  patio  process  was  discovered  by  Bartolo- 
mco  Medina  in  1557.  In  1893  there  were  14  reduction-mills, 
and  from  70.000  to  90.000  tons  of  ore  are  reduced  annuallv. 
Pop.  (1892)  32,815.  Herbert  II.  Smith.  " 

Pachyderm'ata  [Mod.  Lat.;  Gr.  iraxvs.  thick  +  Se'p^a. 
Sf'p/ioTos.  skin] :  a  name  applied  by  Cuvier  to  an  order  con- 
taining the  horses,  tapirs,  pigs,  elephants,  and  related  forms, 
including  all  non-ruminating  ungulates.  The  sea-cows,  and 
even  the  walrus,  have  been  placed  in  this  '•  order  "  by  some 
writers,  but  the  members  of  this  heterogeneous  group  are 
now  distributed  in  other  orders.  F.  A.  L. 

Pacificator.  The  :  .See  Ferry,  P.iiL. 

Pacific  Ocean  :  that  part  of  the  aqueous  envelope  of  the 
earth  which  separates  America  from  Asia  and  the  East 
Indies.  It  is  the  most  extensive  and  the  deepest  of  the 
oceans.  On  the  S.  it  merges  with  the  southern  ocean,  the 
parallel  of  40  being  usually  taken  as  an  arbit  rary  limit.  On 
the  N.  and  K.  it  is  separated  from  Asia  and  the  Indian 
Ocean  by  a  chain  of  seas  more  or  less  inclosed  by  i.slands  and 
peninsnias.  These — the  Bering,  Okhotsk,  .Japan.  Yellow, 
China,  Sulu,  Celebes,  Banda,  Java,  and  A  rafura  Sea-s — are  all 
regarded  a.s  its  dependencies.  The  ocean  proper  has  an  area 
of  .50.000.000  s(|.  miles,  or  three-eighths  of  the  water-surface 
of  theglolie;  with  its  dependencies,  55,500.000.  or  two-fifths. 
Its  mean  de]ith  is  2,475  fathoms,  and  it  contains  about  three- 
sevenths  of  the  water  of  the  glolie.  Counting  also  the  de- 
pendencies, the  mean  depth  is  2.285  fathoms,  and  the  ratio 
of  volume  five-elevenths.  The  mean  depth  is  also  the  gen- 
eral depth,  three-fourths  of  the  bottom  Iving  between  the 
planes  of  2.000  ami  3.000  fathoms. 

ConHyuration  of  tlie  Bed. — The  most  extensive  iilateau 
lies  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  ocean,  and  is  of  an  ex- 
tremely irregular  character.  From  the  island  of  New 
Guinea  it  extends  E.  iiy  .S.  to  the  Friendly  islands,  including 
also  the  Fiji,  Samoaii,'  Ellice,  and  .Salomon  islands,  and  the 
New  Hebrides.  A  southward  arm  extends  to  New  Zealand  ; 
another  southward  arm,  bearing  New  Caledonia. extends  to 
Queensland,  and  a  branch  from  this  joins  New  Zealand.  The 
area  thus  indicated  rises  above  the  2.000-fathom  line,  and 
considerable  parts  of  it  approach  within  1.000  fathoms  of 
the  surfaire.  while  a  great  number  of  peaks  reach  the  air. 
The  Caroline  islands  occujiy  another  plateau,  from  which 
narrow   branches  extend  southward  to   Xew   Ireland  and 

(381) 


382 


PACINIAN  CORPUSCLES 


PADDOCK 


northwestward,  via  the  Ladrone  islands,  to  Japan.  Other 
plateaus  of  some  extent  are  occupied  by  the  Marshall  and 
Low  groups,  and  a  narrow  ridge,  1,600  miles  in  length,  ex- 
tends W.  N.  W.  from  the  Sandwich  islands,  sending  a  few 
peaks  to  the  surface.  An  extensive  but  imperfectly  surveyed 
plateau  lies  ofE  the  coast  of  Chili. 

There  is  a  liroad  deep  between  New  Zealand  and  Chatham 
island  on  the  \V.  and  the  Isle  of  Maria  Theresa  on  the  E.  A 
more  extensive  deep  of  irregular  outline  follows  the  coast  of 
the  Kurile  and  Japanese  islands  and  extends  E.  in  lat.  25°  N. 
Its  deepest  portion  lies  close  to  the  line  of  islands,  and  in- 
cludes soundings  of  about  5,000  fathoms.  The  vast  bed  of 
the  Pacific  has  been  surveyed  with  care  in  only  a  few  districts, 
but  in  those  it  has  been  found  to  be  very  irregular  in  detail, 
abounding  in  mountains  and  valleys.  It  is  believed  that  the 
peaks  whose  summits  are  known  as  islands  and  shoals  con- 
stitute hut  a  small  part  of  the  Pacific  mountain  system. 

Circulation. — The  parts  of  the  ocean  lying  N.  and  S.  of  the 
equator  are  called  respectively  the  North  Pacific  and  the 
South  Pacific,  and  though  the  assumed  dividing  line  is  ar- 
bitrary, it  coincides  approximately  with  a  natural  division 
related  to  the  system  of  currents.  Each  part  has  its  own 
great  eddy,  set  in  motion  by  the  planetary  winds,  and  the 
reverse  current  which  separates  these  lies  but  a  few  degrees 
N.  of  the  equator.  In  the  North  Pacific  a  great  current  runs 
westward  in  the  tropics,  another  great  current  eastward  in 
the  temperate  zone,  and  the  circuit  is  completed  by  a  south- 
ward current  along  the  California  coast  and  a  northward 
current  along  the  coasts  of  the  Philippine  and  Japanese 
islands.  The  heat-bearing  northward  current  is  known 
along  the  coast  of  Japan  as  the  Kuro  Siwa,  and  is  the  coun- 
terpart of  that  portion  of  the  North  Atlantic  circulation 
called  the  Gulf  Stream.  N.  E.  of  the  principal  eddy  is  a 
secondary  eddy  occupying  the  Gulf  of  Alaska.  It  follows 
the  Alaskan  coast  from  Charlotte  island  northward,  west- 
ward, and  southwestward  to  the  vicinity  of  Unalaska,  where 
it  turns  to  the  S.  and  E.  A  monsoon  current,  following  the 
coast  of  Central  America  and  Southern  Mexico,  runs  to  tlie 
northwestward  in  summer  and  is  reversed  in  winter.  The 
great  eddy  of  the  South  Pacific  flows  westward  near  the 
equator  aiid  eastward  in  middle  temperate  latitudes,  where 
it  joins  with  the  cireumpolar  eddy  of  the  southern  ocean  and 
follows  the  South  American  coast  northward  to  Cape  Blan- 
co. The  return  southward  current  is  divided  by  the  islands 
into  many  streams,  and  a  distinct  eddy  is  recognized  between 
Australia  and  New  Zealand.  This  is  not  a  reverse  eddy,  like 
that  of  the  Alaskan  Gulf,  but  turns  from  right  to  left  like 
the  great  eddy  with  which  it  is  associated,  following  the  New 
Zealand  coast  northward  and  the  Australian  southward. 

Islands. — The  Pacific  is  distinguished  by  the  abundance  of 
islands,  pelagic  and  continental.  The  pelagic,  which  are  of 
great  number,  are  of  small  extent,  and  are  the  summits  of 
conical  volcanic  mountains  built  by  submarine  eruption 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Msmy  of  those  lying  within  the 
tropics  are  capped  or  surrounded  by  coral  reefs.  The  con- 
tinental islands,  containing  not  only  volcanic  but  sedimen- 
tary rocks,  are  for  the  most  part  of  greater  extent  and  are 
grouped  about  the  western  margin. 

See  also  Ocean,  Deep-sea  ExPLORATtON,  and  the  names 
of  the  various  islands  and  archipelagoes,     G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Pacinian  Corpuscles  [named  from  Filippo  Pacini,  an 
Italian  anatomist;  b.  May  25,  1812;  d.  July  9,  KS83] :  pecul- 
iar structures  found  as  peripheral  nerve  terminations.  Tliey 
are  met  with  in  the  subcutaneous  layer  on  the  palms  of  the 
hands  and  soles  of  the  feet ;  on  the  sympathetic  nerve  plex- 
uses ;  behind  the  peritoneum  near  the  pancreas  ;  and  some- 
times in  the  mesentery.  Their  shape  in  man  is  oval  or  like 
an  egg ;  tlie  diameter  is  from  one-twentieth  to  one-sixth  of 
an  inch.  The  structure  seems  to  consist  of  several  concen- 
tric Layers  of  connective  tissue  surrounding  the  terminal  ex- 
tremity of  a  nerve-fiber.  Tlie  corpuscle  seems  to  be  one  of 
the  modes  of  termination  of  the  nerves  of  general  sensibility. 
See  lIisToi.ooY  (Peripheral  Terminations  of  tlie  Nerve.s). 

Pacinotti,  pira-chc'c-not'tee,  Antonio:  electrician;  b.  at 
Pi.sa,  Italy,  in  1841.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  inter- 
esting investigations  in  electricity,  but  is  chiefly  known 
through  his  invention  (1H(;())  of  a  dynamo-electric  machine 
having  a  ring  arnuilure  with  closed  coils,  identical  in  princi- 
file  with  that  subsequently  used  by  Gramme  in  his  well- 
known  dynamos.  E.  L.  N. 

Packanl.  .Vlphei's  Sprinc,  M.D.,  Ph.D.:  entomologist; 
b.  at  I'.ruTiswick,  Me..  Fel>.  V.l.  183!);  grachiated  at  Bowdoin 
College   18(J1  ;  studied  natural  history  under  Agassiz,  de- 


voting himself  particularly  to  entomology ;  graduated  In 
medicine  at  the  Maine  Medical  College  1864 ;  made  several 
scientific  expeditions;  was  for  several  years  lecturer  on  en- 
tomology at  Bowdoin  College,  a  curator  of  the  Peabody 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Salem,  Mass.,  and  one  of  the  editors 
of  The  American  Naturalist;  in  1878  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Geology  and  Zoology  in  Brown  University,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I. ;  for  several  years  was  a  member  of  the  U.  S. 
Entomological  C'ommission,  His  writings  have  been  very 
numerous,  the  principal  ones  being  Observations  on  the  Gla- 
cial Phenomena  of  Labrador  and  IJaine.  with  a  View  of 
the  Recent  Invertebrate  Fauna  of  Labrador  (1867) ;  A  Guide 
to  the  Study  of  Insects  (1869) ;  Our  Common  Insects  (1873) ; 
Half  Hours  with  Insects  (1875);  Life  Histories  (1876);  Zo- 
ology (1879) ;  Entomology  for  Beginners  (1888),  and  many 
more  technical  papers,  chiefly  on  insects  and  Limulus. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Paclsfong: :  the  name  in  common  commercial  use  for  Pak- 
tong,  or  German  silver.     See  Paktong. 

Pacto'lus  (in  Gr.  naKTaK6s,  now  Sarabat) :  a  small 
stream,  barely  10  feet  wide  and  a  foot  deep,  of  Lydia  in 
Asia  Minor,  which  flows  from  Mt.  Tmolus  into  the  Hermus. 
It  was  formerly  famous  for  the  gold  contained  in  its  mud, 
and  was  the  mythical  source  of  the  wealth  of  Croesus;  but 
for  many  centuries  no  gold  has  been  obtained  here.  See 
Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Phrygia.  Lydia,  Ca- 
ria.  and  Lycia  (London,  1892  ;  pp.  247-2.53).      J.  R.  S.  S. 

Pacu'vius,  Marcus  :  dramatist ;  b.  at  Brundisiura,  Italy, 
about  220  B.  c. ;  nephew  of  the  poet  Ennius  ;  lived  in  Rome  ; 
became  celebrated  as  a  painter  as  well  as  a  writer ;  retired 
when  an  old  man  to  Tarentum,  where  he  died  about  132  B.  c. 
Pacuvius  wrote  saturce  after  the  manner  of  Ennius,  and  at 
least  one  historical  drama  {prcelexfa),  with  the  title  Paulus, 
but  his  fame  rested  chiefly  upon  his  tragedies,  in  which  he 
followed  Greek  models  (Sophocles  and  Euripides).  The 
fragments  of  twelve  tragedies  which  have  come  down  to  us 
are  found  in  Ribbeck's  Tragicorum  Lalinorum  Fragmenta 
(Leipzig,  2d  ed.  1871).  See  also  L.  Miiller,  De  Pacuvii 
Fabulis  (Hevlm,  1889).  M.  Warren. 

Padang' :  a  division  of  the  Dutch  dominions  on  the  west 
coast  of  Sumatra,  consisting  of  the  districts  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Padang,  and  containing  the  city  of  Padang,  occu- 
pied by  the  Dutch  since  the  seventeenth  century.  The  ter- 
ritory comprises  some  of  the  loveliest  regions  found  any- 
where in  the  tropical  zone.  Only  the  low  and  marshy 
coast-land  is  oppressively  hot  and  unhealthful ;  the  slopes 
of  the  high,  volcanic  mountains  have  a  most  agreeable  cli- 
mate and  a  very  fertile  soil.  The  products  are  coffee,  pep- 
per, indigo,  and  caoutchouc,  and  gold,  iron,  copper,  and 
quicksilver.  Coffee  is  extensively  cultivated,  especially  in 
Upper  Padang.  Pop.  of  the  district  about  1.000,000.  The 
city,  which  is  the  residence  of  the  governor,  contains  a 
Malay  population  living  in  bamboo  huts  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river,  and  a  population  of  Europeans  and  Chinese  living 
in  houses  of  stone  on  the  more  elevated  right  bank.  The 
place  is  the  most  prosperous  on  the  west  coast  and  has  a 
large  trade.     Pop.  25,000.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Paddle-flsll :  ]iopular  name  of  a  fish  of  the  Mississippi 
basin  ;  remarkable  for  liaving  the  nose  prolonged  into  a  thin, 
flat,  bony,  paddle-shaped  appendage,  sometimes  about  as 
long  as  the  body.  Its  scientific  name  is  Polyodon  spathula. 
It  has  no  scales,  has  a  tough  but  shark-like  flesh,  and  uses  its 
snout  for  the  purpose  of  digging  in  the  mud  in  search  of 
food,  which  consists  of  small  organisms.  It  is  also  called 
spoonbill  and  duckbill  catfish.    Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Paddocli,  BEN.JAMIN  Henry,  S.  T.  D.  :  bishop  ;  b.  at  Nor- 
wich, Conn..  Feb.  28,  1828;  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Hartford,  1848;  was  assistant  teacher  in  the  Episcopal 
Academy,  Cheshire,  Conn.,  1848-49 ;  graduated  at  the  Gen- 
eral Theological  Seminary  1853;  was  made  deacon  1852, 
and  became  assistant  minister  in  the  Church  of  the  Epiph- 
any, New  York ;  ordained  [iriest  1853,  and  became  rector  of 
St.  Luke's,  Portland,  Me.,  but  resigned  on  account  of  ill- 
health,  and  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Norwich, 
Conn. ;  became  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Detroit,  Mich.,  1860 ; 
declined  the  missionary  bishopric  of  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton Territory  1868;  took  charge  of  Grace  Church,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  1869;  elected  bishop  of  Massachusetts,  and  conse- 
crated in  Brooklyn,  Sept.  17,  1873.  D.  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Mar.  9,  1891.  Ai'iiong  his  published  writings  are  Ten  Years 
in  the  Eiiiscopair  (1883)  and  Ttie  First  Century  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  Massacliusetts  (1885). 


PADERBORN 


PAEZ 


383 


I'a'derborn :  town ;  in  the  province  of  Westphalia,  Prus- 
sia ;  50  luik-s  8.  \V.  of  Hanover  (see  map  of  (icrniaii  Kinpire, 
ref,  3-K).  It  has  a  cathfilral  built  at  diircri'Ut  dales,  from 
the  eleventli  to  the  thirtwnth  (--I'Mtury,  iindc-r  wliicli  tlie 
sources  of  tlie  Pailer  burst  fortli,  many  Kootl  educational 
institutions,  breweries,  distilleries,  and  manufactures  of  to- 
bacco, oil-cloth,  hats,  and  paper.     Pop.  (IHUO)  17,!)86. 

Padorewski,  paa-du-recskee,  Ionace  .Ia.n:  pianist;  b. 
at  I'oJolia,  Poland  (Russia),  Nov.  G.  1860;  began  to  play 
the  piano  when  three  years  old;  received  instruction  from 
local  teacliers;  in  1872  went  to  Warsaw,  and  latc^r  to  Ucr- 
lin,  contiiuiinfj  his  studies  in  both  cities.  When  eiirhteen 
years  of  age  he  was  nominated  professor  in  the  Warsaw 
Conservatory;  in  1884  abandoned  teaching,  and  took  a 
course  of  three  vears'  study  at  Vieniui  uiuler  Leschetitzky, 
and  made  his  (leOut  !is  a  professional  pianist  in  1887  in 
Vienna.  Since  then  he  has  given  many  concerts,  every- 
where awakening  tlie  greatest  enthusiasm.  Beginning  in 
1891  he  has  made  several  concert  tours  in  tlie  U.  S.  which 
have  added  to  his  fame  and  very  materially  to  his  wealth. 

D.  E.  Herve?. 
Pndilla,  paii-deelyaii,  Juax,  de :  Spanish  revolutionist ; 
b.  about  1484 :  joined  in  the  revolt  of  the  Castilian  towns 
against  the  Flemish  officials  of  Charles  V.  in  1520,  and  soon 
became  the  leader  of  the  movement.  The  rebellion  was  at 
first  partially  successful.  The  insurgents  deposed  the  re- 
gent. Cardinal  Adrian,  of  Utrecht,  placed  the  queen-mother 
at  the  head  of  the  ttovernment,  and  demanded  of  Charles  V. 
a  reform  of  the  constitution  in  the  interests  of  the  people  ; 
but  the  nobility,  alienated  by  the  democratic  spirit  of  these 
measures,  o|iposed  Padilla,  and  succeeded  in  supplanting 
him  in  the  command  by  a  noble  of  inferior  ability.  The 
insurgents  after  several  reverses  recalled  Padilla,  but,  though 
he  gained  some  advantages,  the  policy  of  the  revolutionary 
junta  in  granting  an  armistice  permitted  his  ill-disciplined 
forces  to  melt  away.  The  royalists  forced  a  battle  at  Villa- 
lar  Apr.  2;i.  1521.  defeated  the  rebels,  and  captured  Padilla. 
who  was  executed  on  the  following  day. — His  widow,  Maria 
Pacheco,  held  out  against  the  rovalists  till  the  spring  of 
1522,  when  she  fled  to  Portugal,     f).  there  in  1531. 

Pad'iia  (Ital.  I'adova,  Lat.  Pata'vium):  a  city  of  North 
Italy ;  2:S  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Venice  ;  on  two  branches  of  the 
Bacchiglione,  just  above  their  confluence  with  the  Brenta 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-D).  The  city  is  a  triangular  inclo- 
sure.  surrounded  by  a  wall  SJ  miles  in  length,  the  base  of 
the  triangle  being  toward  the  W.  Its  streets  are  not  gen- 
erally attractive;  the  houses  are  high,  and  built  upon  ar- 
cades; but  some  of  the  S(|uares  and  public  buildings  are 
very  fine.  The  muiiiciiial  palace  is  a  rhomboidal  structure, 
built  on  arches  and  surrounded  by  Ivggie,  and  containing  a 
highly  ornamented  hall,  the  .Sala  della  Kagione,  wluch  has 
given  its  name  to  tlu'  whole  building,  and  is  said  to  be  the 
largest  vaulted  room  in  Europe.  The  university  originated 
in  the  I'arly  part  of  the  ihirlceiith  century,  but  the  present 
buildings  date  from  the  cli>se  of  the  fifteenth.  There  were 
(18111)  G:5  teachers  and  1.31G  students.  Thi'  university  li- 
brary, with  1.58,500  volumes  and  2.500  .MSS..  is  in  the  Palazzo 
del  Capitanio.  The  Church  of  St.  Antony  (1232-1307),  of 
mixed  architecture,  is  surmounted  by  seven  cupolas,  the 
center  one  of  which  is  oviu-  the  chapel  containing  the  bones 
of  .St.  Antony.  I'adua  is  a  town  of  great  antiquity.  .Vt 
the  begiiiiiiiig  of  the  Christian  era  it  was  the  largest  and 
most  prosperous  town  of  Northern  Italy.  It  was  plundered 
by  .Vlaric  and  Attila.  and  only  partially  recovereil  under 
Charlemagni%  and  sulTered  varying  fortunes  until  in  1405 
it  was  coni[uercd  by  Venice,  in  whose  possessiim  it  remained 
tnitil  it  was  given  in  1797  to  .■\ustria,  which  held  it,  except 
from  1805-14,  until  180C,  when  it  was  united  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italv.  There  is  vet  very  little  commercial  or  in- 
dustrial activity  in  the  city.     Pop.  (1892)  79.500. 

I'adiU'all:  city  (laid  out  in  1827,  incorporated  in  185(3); 
capital  of  McCracken  co..  Ky.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Kentucky,  ref.  4-C) ;  at  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  ami  the 
Tennessee  rivers;  on  the  Chesapeake,  Ohio  and  S.  VV'.,  the 
Paducah,  Tenn.  and  Ala.,  and  the  .St.  Louis.  k\\.  and  Terre 
Haute  railways:  48  miles  N.  E.  of  Cairo.  140  miles  S.  W'. 
of  Kvansville.  It  is  in  a  coal,  iron,  agricultural,  and  liar<l- 
wood  region,  an<l  is  principally  engaged  in  niaiiiifacturing, 
agricultural,  and  river  trade.  There  are  lines  of  daily  jiackets 
up  and  down  the  Ohio  river,  semi-weekly  packets  on  the 
Ohio  and  the  Cumberland  rivers,  and  tri-weekly  packets  on 
the  Tennessee  river.  The  city  has  gas  and  electric  light 
plants,   a  fine  system  of  water-works,   electric  street-rail- 


way, paid  fire  department.  3  public  parks.  6  hotels,  2  hospi- 
tals, and  IT.  S.  Government  building.  It  is  the  second  pri- 
mary tobacco-market  in  thecountry.  having  several  tobacco- 
factories  and  5  acres  of  tobacco-warehouses.  Other  indus- 
trial establishments  are  a  ship-yard  where  steamboats  and 
barges  are  built,  marine  railways,  ship-timber  mill,  and 
wheel-factory.  There  are  12  churches  for  white  (leople,  and 
7  for  colored.  7  publie-sc-hool  buildings,  public-scliool  prop- 
erty valued  at  over  !j;92.000.  3  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  .^5.50.0011,  2  State  banks  with  capital  of 
$2<J0,000,  and  2  dailv  and  4  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1800) 
8,036  ;  (1890)  13,076';  (1892)  estimated,  18.0(10. 

EiJiToR  OK  "  News." 
Pad  lis:  See  Po. 

Pa'aii  [Lat.  ■=  dr.  ttoiov.  a  hymn  to  .\]iollo  as  helper; 
later  to  other  gods  :  iraiiv  is  the  Doric  form,  iroiwv  the  At- 
tic]:  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  a  hymn  of  thanksgiving 
and  joy,  such  as  was  sung  esiiecially  before  and  after  battles. 
The  piean  was  originally  addressed  to  the  Pythian  Apollo, 
afterward  to  other  gods  and  even  to  men.  Tlie  word  is  now 
used  to  signify  a  loud  and  joyous  song. 

Pa'dogen'esis  [:\Iod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  irou,  iraiUs.  child  + 
yfvecns.  production]:  that  acceleration  in  the  life-history  of 
certain  animals  (as,  for  instance,  the  Mexican  axolotl  and 
certain  flies — CecidomijicUe)  in  which  the  larv;p  are  capable 
of  reproduction.  In  the  latter  forms  the  larva;  produce 
other  larvip,  which  fetd  upon  the  parent,  and  eventually 
escape  from  the  body  by  its  complete  destruction.    J.  S.  K. 

Pa'Oiiine:  See  Kusoi.ii-  Acid. 

Pffis'tiilii  (in  Gr.  noo-ciSwcfa.  mod.  Ital.  Pesfo) :  an  ancient 
town  of  Southern  Italy,  on  the  tJuif  of  .Salerno,  about  40 
miles  S.  E.  of  Najiles  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  7-K).  It  was 
originally  a  Greek  colony  from  Sybaris,  called  Posidonia  :  it 
was  afterward  taken  by  the  Lueanians,  who  named  it  P(ts- 
fum,  then  by  the  Romans,  and  it  was  finally  burned  by  the 
Saracens  in  the  ninth  century.  The  ruined  walls  form  a 
pentagon  3  miles  in  circumference,  the  north  and  east  sides 
being  best  preserved ;  one  of  the  eastern  gates  still  exists, 
and  an  old  street  of  tombs  is  traceable  beyond  the  ruins  of 
another.  Three  very  ancient  Doric  temples  remain  in  a 
good  state  of  preservation.  The  largest,  that  of  Neptune,  is 
pure  in  style,  is  196  feet  in  length  and  79  feet  in  width, 
with  a  peristyle  of  36  fluted  columns  (28  feet  in  height,  li 
feet  in  diameter),  supporting  an  architrave  without  mould- 
ing, and  frieze  with  the  usual  triglyphs;  the  pediments  at 
the  two  ends  are  surrounded  by  a  cornice,  and  are  of  similar 
architecture.  The  cella  is  of  the  same  form  as  the  exterior, 
has  two  rows  of  eight  columns  each,  and  these  are  surmount- 
ed by  smaller  ones  to  support  the  roofs  of  the  aisles,  the  cella 
itself  having  been  hyp;ethral  or  uncovered.  The  temple  of 
Ceres  (some  say  of  Vesta)  has  thirteen  columns  on  its  flanks 
and  an  open  vestibule  within  the  peristyle.  Between  these 
two  temples  are  the  ruins  of.  prolialily,  a  Roman  theater  and 
amphitheater.  The  so-called  basilica.  S.  of  the  temple  of 
Ne]itune,  is  remarkable  for  having  nine  columns  on  its 
front,  with  a  row  of  eighteen  runuiiig  down  the  center  of 
the  cella. 

Paez.  paa'«th,  Jose  Axtonio  :  general ;  b.  in  the  province 
of  Barillas,  Venezuela.  June  13,  1790.  He  joined  the  pa- 
triots in  1810;  quickly  attained  prominence  as  a  li'ader  of 
the //ffrecro  cavalry :  was  made  general  of  division  in  1819; 
took  a  leailing  part  in  tlu^  victory  of  Caraboljo  1821 ;  and 
ca]iturcd  Puerto  Cabello.  the  last  .Spanish  port  in  Venezue- 
la, in  182;!.  l<"rom  1823  to  1826  he  was  military  command- 
ant of  Caracas;  having  been  superseded,  he  led  a  relicllion, 
but  was  pardoned  by  Bolivar,  and  given  the  military  and 
civil  command  of  Venezuela,  with  tlie  title  of  Jefe  superior 
(1827).  In  1829  he  headed  the  revolul ionary  movement 
which  resulteil  (1830)  in  the  final  dissolution  of  the  old  re- 
public of  Colomliia  and  the  complete  independence  of  Vene- 
zuela, Under  the  centralist  constitution,  which  was  then 
adopti'd.  he  was  president  of  Venezuela  JIar.  18,  1831,  to 
Feb.  9.  18:i5.  .Vfler  commanding  the  army  for  four  years, 
and  ])uttiiig  down  two  rebellions,  he  was  again  president 
Feb.  1,  1839,  to  Jan.  28,  1843.  In  Jan.,  1848,  he  declared 
against  Jlonagas,  but  after  more  than  a  year  of  civil  war  ho 
was  defeated,  imprisoned  for  ten  months,  and  finally  ban- 
ished for  several  vears.  In  1860  he  was  minister  to  the 
U.  S.  On  the  ilepiisition  of  Gual  (.\ug.  29,  1860)  Paez  was 
proclaimed  dict.ator  by  the  army.  He  held  the  post  during 
nearly  tliree  years  of  almost  constant  civil  war.  and  was 
finally  defeated  by  the  federalists  under  Falcon  and  Guzman 


384 


PAGANINI 


PAHLAVl 


I 


Blanco,  May,  1863.  Most  of  the  remainder  of  his  life  was 
passed  in  New  York,  where  he  died  May  7,  1873.  He  pub- 
lished his  Autobiography  in  1867.        Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pagraiiiui,  paVga'a-nee'ne'e,  NicoLO  :  violinist ;  b.  at  Genoa, 
Italy,  Feb.  18, 1784 ;  son  of  a  commission  broker ;  gave,  when 
nine  years  of  age,  his  first  public  concert  as  a  violin-player  in 
his  native  city,  and  jiroduced  an  extraordinary  enthusiasm 
by  his  performance  of  La  Carmagnole  and  the  variations 
upon  this  air.  From  1805  to  1808  he  was  first  violinist  to  the 
Princess  Eliza  of  Lucca,  a  sister  of  Napoleon.  Afterward  he 
led  for  many  years  a  most  adventurous  life,  sometimes  play- 
ing for  bread  in  a  market-place  and  sometimes  refusing  to 
lay  though  a  fortune  was  offered  him.     From  1828  to  1833 

e  made  a  concert  tour  from  Vienna  through  Germany,  to 
Paris  and  London,  astonisliing  every  one  by  his  extraordinary 
playing.  Wealthy,  but  with  broken  health,  he  returned  in 
1834  to  Parma,  where  he  bought  the  Villa  Gagona.  D.  at 
Nice,  May  37,  1840.  His  compositions,  of  which  the  Canii- 
val  of  Venice  is  one  of  the  most  famous,  include  a  sonata. 
Napoleon,  composed  for  one  string.  None  has  great  musical 
worth,  but  for  the  violinist  they  are  of  great  interest.  His 
most  successful  imitator  was  his  pupil  Savori. 

Paganism  [from  Ijate  "L&i.  jiaganis  mus,  deriv.  oi  paga- 
nus,  pagan,  liter.,  villager,  peasant  (as  the  old  religion  lin- 
gered longest  in  the  villages),  deriv.  of  jsa'^»s,  district,  the 
country] :  a  name  for  heathenism,  now  used  as  a  general 
term  including  all  polytheistic  religions  in  opposition  to 
Christianity,  .Judaism,  and  Mohammedanism;  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  it  also  included  Mohammedanism.  In  Germany 
it  is  also  applied  to  tendencies  within  Christianity  itself 
which  are  deemed  polytheistic  in  their  nature,  sucli  as  the 
worship  of  the  Virgin  and  the  saints  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Page,  David  Perkins  :  educator ;  b.  at  Epping,  N.  H.. 
July  4,  1810;  for  his  education  spent  two  terms  iu  Hampton 
Academy,  and  then  taught  school,  receiving,  in  1845,  the 
prineipalship  of  the  newly  established  Albany  Normal 
School,  where  he  served  till  his  death  Jan.  1,  1848.  He 
possessed  in  a  rare  degree  the  qualities  of  a  great  teacher. 
His  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  (1847)  has  had  a 
prodigious  influence.  C.  H.  T. 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson:  author;  b.  at  Oakland,  Hanover 
CO.,  Va.,  Apr.  33, 1853.  His  great-grandfatlier  on  his  mother's 
side  was  Thomas  Nelson  ((/.  v.) ;  on  his  paternal  side  his 
great-grandfather  was  Col.  .lohn  Page,  one  of  the  foremost 
patriots  of  the  Revolution,  member  of  committee  of  safety, 
and  Governor  of  Virginia  1801-03.  Thomas  Nelson  Page  was 
educated  at  Washington  and  Lee  University  and  the  LTni- 
versity  of  Virginia  for  the  law  ;  still  practices  in  Richmond, 
Va. ;  is  author  of  In  Ole  Virginia,  or  3Iarse  Chan  and  Other 
Stories  (1887);  Tifo  Little  Confederates  (1889);  Befo'  de 
War,  dialect  poems  published  with  A.  C.  Gordon  (1890) ; 
On  Newfound  River  (1891) ;  Elsket  and  Other  Stories  (1891) ; 
Among  the  Camps  (1891);  Tlie  Old  South,  essavs  social  and 
political  (1893);  Pastime  Stories  (1894).     C.  H.'Thurber. 

Page,  William:  painter;  b.  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  23, 
1811.  He  studied  with  Herring,  the  portrait-painter,  and 
with  S.  F.  B.  Morse ;  painted  jiortraits  in  Albany  and  New 
York  with  eminent  success;  executed  a  few  compositions, 
a  Holy  Family,  The  Infancy  of  Henri  IV.,  and  others; 
resided  in  Rome  and  Florence  several  years;  returned  to 
New  York  in  1860,  and  resided  there.  Page  was  known  as 
an  experimenter  in  color,  and  painted  many  extraordinary 
pictures  to  illustrate  his  ideas — a  Flight  info  Egypt,  3Ioses 
and  Aaron  on  IJoreb.  His  Venus  became  famous;  it  was 
an  attempt  lo  embody  what  the  artist  thought  the  practice 
of  Titian.  Page  was  president  of  the  National  Academy, 
an(l  wrote  and  lectured  on  art.  He  was  a  man  of  enthusi- 
astic temperamc^nt  and  daring  genius,  poetic,  and  eloquent. 
D.  at  Tottonville,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  1,  1885. 

Pages:  See  Garnier-PaoJis. 

Pag'et,  Sir  James,  F.  R.  S.,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  :  surgeon  ;  b. 
at  Yarmouth.  EuglaiHl,  .Fan.  11,1814;  studied  in  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's llcis|pilnl,  Lniidiiii;  in  1836  became  a  member 
and  in  1843  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons;  be- 
came assistant  surgeon,  surgeon,  and  consulting  surgeon  to 
St.  Bartholomew's;  sergeant-surgeon  to  the  Queen  ;  surgeon 
to  the  Priiici'  of  Wales;  vice-chancellor  of  the  LTniversity  of 
London;  was  made  a  baronet  in  1871;  is  president  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons.  In  his  earliest  surgical  studies 
he  paid  grejil,  attention  to  tiatlmlogy,  and  through  his  efforts 
its  importance  was  recognized  tliroughout  English-speaking 


countries,  and  for  years  his  Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology, 
a  work  that  has  passed  through  many  editions,  has  been  a 
text-book  in  the  medical  colleges  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
U.  S.  In  1857  he  delivered  the  Croonian  lectures,  his  topic 
being  the  cause  of  the  rhythmic  motion  of  the  heart.  In 
1877  he  delivered  the  Hunterian  oration.  In  1882  he  de- 
livered the  Bradshawe  lectures,  on  some  rare  and  new  dis- 
eases.    In  1887  he  delivered  the  Morton  lecture  on  cancer. 

S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Paget,  Violet  :  author ;  b.  in  England,  1857.  She  has 
resided  for  many  years  in  Italy,  and  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Vernon  Lee  has  published  many  brilliant  and  suggestive 
studies  of  art,  literature,  and  general  aesthetics.  Among  her 
books  are  Studies  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  in  Italy  (18S0) ; 
Belcaro  (1883);  Ottilie  (1883):  Eiiphorion  (1884);  3Iiss 
Brown,  a  novel  (1884);  Baldwin  (1886);  and  Juvenilia 
(1887).  H.  A.  B. 

Pago'da  [from  Portug.  jBa^oc^a,  from  Pers.  (and  Hind.) 
but-kadah;  but,  idol  -I-  kadah,  house;  cf. Chinese  peh-kuh-t'a, 
pagoda,  liter.,  white  bone  tower]  :  a  name  ap])lied  to  a  great 
variety  of  tower-like,  many-storied  buildings  in  the  East 
Indies,  China,  Japan,  etc.,  used  originally  to  contain  relics 
and  other  objects  of  veneration  or  worship. 

Pahlavi,  jie-lf-vec',  or  PelilevI :  the  mediaeval  Persian  of 
Sasj^anian  times  (a.  d.  226-651);  in  a  broader  sense,  Persian 
from  the  period  of  the  Acha>menidic  to  the  rise  of  the  modern 
language  after  the  Mohammedan  conquest.  By  its  ety- 
mology the  term  Pahlarl  means  Parthian  (Old.  Pers.  Inscr. 
Parthavit,  whence  Pahlav  and  Pahlav'i,  relating  to  the  Par- 
thiaus).  In  medieval  Oriental  literature  the  appellation 
Pahlavi,  owing  to  the  greatness  of  the  Parthian  sway,  is 
sometimes  extended  to  denote  anything  ancient  Persian. 
The  restricted  usage,  however,  limiting  the  application  of 
the  name  to  the  language  and  writings  of  the  Sassanian 
Zoroastrians  down  to  the  ninth  century  is  the  more  correct, 
and  is  in  modern  times  the  general  one. 

1.  Pahlavi  Language. — The  Pahlavi  is  preserved  in  the 
form  of  inscriptions  and  in  an  extensive  written  literature. 
The  language,  though  it  is  Persian,  presents  a  strange  non- 
Iranian  appearance ;  there  is  a  curious  admixture  of  Semitic 
(Aramaic)  words  and  Iranian  elements.  The  fundamental 
words,  those  of  commonest  usage,  are  Semitic,  and  Semitic 
words  also  stand  beside  Iranian  equivalents ;  but  they  are 
often  treated  in  a  way  that  is  quite  un-Semitic,  or,  again, 
they  assume  an  Iranian  look  by  receiving  Iranian  endings. 
This  Semitic  preponderance,  however,  is  superficial  rather 
than  real.  Pahlavi,  when  written,  is  indeed  largely  Semitic, 
but  when  read  it  becomes  Iranian.  We  have  the  authority 
of  Aminianus  Marcellinus  (xix.,  2,  11),  and  more  explicitly 
of  the  Arab  writer,  Ibn  Mokaffa',  for  the  fact  that,  although 
Semitic  words  were  written,  the  Persians  in  reading  Pah- 
lavi regularly  substituted  Iranian  equivalents  for  Semitic 
vocables,  and  the  speech  when  sounded  became  all  Iranian. 
For  example,  in  Pahlavi  bisrd  (Aramaic),  meat,  was  written, 
but  gost  (Persian)  was  pronounced ;  again,  lahmd,  bread, 
may  have  been  written,  but  nan  (Persian)  was  read ;  al- 
though the  Semitic  malkan  malka  was  inscribed  on  the 
monuments,  the  Persians  called  their  "king  of  kings  ",s7((5/i«ra 
sliCih  in  true  Iranian  style.  The  phenomenon  is  thus  to  be 
explained:  The  Persians  of  Parthian  times  adopted  a  Semit- 
ic al]ihabet,  but,  beside  using  its  characters  for  writing  their 
own  words,  they  went  a  step  further  and  adopted  for  con- 
venience a  certain  number  of  written  Semitic  words  to  stand 
for  their  Iranian  equivalents,  which  were  regularly  read  as 
if  Iranian — much  as  on  a  small  scale  in  English  the  Ijatin 
i.  e.,  e.  g.,  viz.,  d;  etc.,  £  (libra)  are  read  by  us  as  "  that  is." 
"for  example,"  "namely,"  "and,"  "and  so  forth."  "  pound," 
being  foreign  to  the  eye  when  written,  but  becoming  native 
to  the  ear  when  read.  In  Pahlavi  there  were  some  400  of 
these  Semitic  logograms,  beside  about  100  obsolete  forms 
of  actual  old  Iranian  words  for  which  the  ordinary  current 
Persian  words  were  substituted  in  reading.  This  disguised 
and  obsolete  element  in  Pahlavi  is  known  as  the  Iluzvdrish 
[jortion  of  tne  language.  In  strict  reality,  therefore,  the  IIuz- 
vdrish,  or  Uzvdrish  (misreading  for  Aiizvdrishii),  is  a  form 
of  writing  rather  th.an  a  form  of  speech.  Ktymologically 
the  term  Auzrdrixhn  has  been  explained  by  Haug  and  West 
as  "antiquity,  decrepitude,"  or  perhaps  "olisolete,''  although 
Darmesteter  suggests  the  explanation  "perversion,  altera- 
tion, di.sguise,"  as  applicable  to  the  peculiarity  of  writing. 

It  often  hiqipens  that  the  disguised  Pahlavi  is  transliter- 
ated into  Avestan  ov  Modern  Persian  characters,  and  the 
Semitic  element  is  eliminated  by  substitution  and  ambiguity 


PA  II  LAV  I 


PAiy   AXD   I'LEASURE 


385 


disappears;  siioh  a  text  is  calloil  Pazand  (Avpsta  paiti- 
laiilli),  re-explunation.  a  term  wliieh  is  applied  also  to 
the  purely  orifjiiial  jiart  of  the  I'alilavl  texts  themselves 
which  do  not  re(piire  Iniusposiiii;.  This  desiirnation  was 
also  originally  applied  lo  the  "  re-cxplanatioii  "  of  the  I'ah- 
lavi  version  of  the  Avesta,  whieh  itself  was  an  explanation, 
interpretation,  or  commentary.  (See  Avesta.)  The  appel- 
lation I'ars'i  is  also  sometimes  given  to  this  transcribed 
Piizand. 

The  two  forms  above  mentioned  in  whieh  the  Pahlavl 
laniiiiaffe  is  preserved  are(l)  inscriptions  and  coins.  (2)  man- 
usci-i|ils.  The  earliest  rock-inscriplion.  liclonLrincr  to  the 
first  .Sassanian  monarch,  Artakhshir  Papakan  (A.  v.  22(i-240), 
is  a  trilingual  record.  beiiiK  engraved  in  (ireek  and  in  the 
characters  of  the  so-called  Chahheo-Pahlavi  and  Sassaiiian 
Pahlavl.  The  early  inscriptions  are  of  great  service  in  help- 
ing towanl  the  solution  of  the  problems  which  Pahhivi  ]irc- 
sents — problems  arising  not  so  much  from  the  grammatical 
and  syntactical  structure  of  the  language  as  from  the  de- 
fective alphabet  and  the  peculiar  manner  of  writing  the 
speech.  The  book-PahlavT  aljihabet  h.as  only  fourteen  let- 
ters to  discharge  the  duty  of  a  complete  alphaliet ;  owing  to 
this  paucity  a  single  sign  has  to  assume  a  n\nnber  of  ollices; 
the  separate  signs,  moreover,  are  further  obscured  by  being 
combined  into  ligatures  whose  elements  are  exceedingly 
diflicult  to  deciplier.  The  single  symbol  *70  for  exam- 
ple, nuiy  denote  .s.  i/l,  ynd.  nag.  //(ij.  </'i.  dail.  ihiij.  daj,  g~\.  gad, 
i/''.i-j'>-j"ihj"g-.)('j-  The  dilliculty  of  determining  the  pre- 
cise reading  of  an  obscure  grou[)  of  letters  may  therefore  be 
imagined,  but  with  regard  to  the  meaning  there  is  generally 
not  a  great  deal  of  diflieulty;  old  glossaries,  moreover,  have 
been  preserved  which  give  useful  assistance  on  the  subject. 
It  may  be  added  that  PahlavT  is  au  analytic  language,  and 
its  declensional  and  intiectional  system  is  much  reduced, 
which  renders  the  grammar  and  the  syntax  simple. 

2.  I'ltlilain  Lileraluri'. — Omitting  the  rock-records  of  Ar- 
takhshir Papakan  (a.  n.  220-240)  and  his  successors  above 
referred  to,  as  well  as  some  early  impressions  on  coins,  the 
extent  of  Pahlavl  literature  may  be  estimated  to  be  about 
tlic  .same  as  that  of  the  Old  Testament.  In  point  of  time 
the  literature  nuiy  be  placed  between  the  years  A.  D.  226  and 
A.  D.  881.  Nearly  a  hundred  works  have  been  preserved; 
these  are  in  part  translations  of  older  Avesta  texts,  or  thev 
arc  works  written  on  religious  subjects,  though  some  of  theiii 
deal  with  legendary  or  miscellanecais  topics.  The  princi|ial 
literary  monuments  of  the  language  are:  (a)  the  Pahlavl 
version  of  the  Avesta  (see  Avesta)  ;  (6)  Bundahisli,  a  sort  of 
Iranian  Genesis  and  Revelation  :  (p)  Dliikdrd.  on  matters  of 
religion  ;  (d)  Dfidts/dn-l  Dimlc.  religious  discussions ;  (e) 
Ma'iniig-i  K/iirnd.  spirit  of  wisdom,  doctrinal  teaching; 
and  (/)  Ardd-'i  \"ii-nf  iid/iia/i,  an  Iranian  apocalypse  ;  as  well 
as  other  works  chiefly  religious  in  character.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  Pahlavi  texts  have  been  translated  bv  West, 
the  most  eminent  authority  on  Pahlavi;  translations" of  sep- 
arate works  have  also  been  contributed  by  other  scholars. 
Pahhivi  literature  is  indispensable  for  tlie"study  of  Zoroas- 
trianism,  and  is  important  in  connection  with"  theological 
and  philosophical  studies  in  general. 

HlliLiooRAl'llv. — id)  (Irnmmars.  Fsxai/.i,  Studies. — S]iie- 
gel's  (irdmiiKitik  der  J'lir.Hi.i/imrlii'  (Leipzig,  ISol),  (iritm- 
matik  der  Ihizvarexch  Siinirhe  (Vientia,  1S.")()),  and  Die  tra- 
difionelle  Llleraturder  I'arsen  (Vieinui,  IStJO);  Ilaug,  Esmy 
on  the  Pahlai'i  Language  prefixed  to  Pahlavi- Pazand  Glos- 
sary ( Hoinbay,  1870) ;  Darmesteter.  Le  l^ehlefi  el  le  Par.si  (in 
Etudes  Iraniennex.  i.,  14-43,  Paris,  1888) ;  Salemann,  Me- 
langes Asiatiques  (in  St.  Petersburg  Academy.  1887);  West, 
Extent.  Language,  and  Age  of  J'alilan  Lileratui-e  (in  Sitz- 
ber.  d.  b.  Al;..  pp.  3!)9,  seq.,  Munich,  1SH8);  and  as  a  conven- 
ient manual,  (".  de  Ilarlez.  Manuel  da  Fehlevi  (Paris.  1880). 
^  (A)  Dictionaries.— Ihms..  West,  and  Iloshangji.  .4;i  Old 
Zand-I'alilar'i  /'ahlarl-I'dzand  (llassary  (Hombav.  1807- 
70):  .lamaspji  iMinocheherji, /Vt/i/oci  Dictionary  ("liombav 
and  lic.ndon,  1877-82). 

((•)  Te.rts  and  Translations. — Spiegel,  j'l  iT«^a  saynnit  der 
Hnzvdresclt-reber.^elzung  (Leipzig.  1851-58):  Geiger,  l)ie 
Pehlevi  version  des  Ersten  Capitel  des  Vand'uldd  (Krlangen, 
1877):  Westergaard,  liundehesh  (extus  (1851):  Justi,  Der 
Bundehe-th  (Leipzig,  1868);  West,  jVoi'jn/o-i  A'/ion/ (Stutt- 
gart and  London,  1871);  Andreas,  Main)/o-i-K>iard  fe.rt 
'Kiel,  1882);  Fr.  Miiller,  Beitruge  zur  Erkld'rung  des  Mhimq 
C/irat  {Sifzher.  Wien.  Ak.,  1892);  llaug.  West,  and  Ilosli- 
angji,  Arda  y-irfif.  with  Glossary  (Bombay  and  London, 
1872-74):  Harthi-lcmy,  Arda  Virdf  tradui't  (Paris,  1MS7). 
Horn  ami  Sleindortf,  HaimaniUische  iSiegdsteine  (Herlin, 
309 


1801) ;  Peshotan  Behramjee  Sanjana,  The  Dinkart,  text  and 
translation  (Bombay,  from  1874) ;  West,  I'ahlavi  Texts  Tram- 
lated  (in  Sacred  Books  of  East,  Oxford.  1880,  etc.) 

A.  V,  Williams  Jackson. 
I'lili-Uto  Indians:  See  Shoshonea.n  Indians. 
Pailleroii,  pali  y^-roiV,  ftDouARn  Jules  Henri:  poet  and 
dramatist  ;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Sept.  17,  1834.  He  began  life 
as  a  notary's  clerk,  but  in  1860  appeared  as  an  author  with 
a  volume  of  satiric  vcr.se,  Les Parasites,  and  a  one-act  com- 
eily,  Le  Parasite.  He  continued  to  write  successfully  for 
the  theater,  at  lirst  in  verse,  producing  among  other  jjieees 
Le  Mur  mitoyen  (1861);  Le  Dernier  Quartier  (1863);  Le 
Monde  oh  I'on  s'anjuse  (1868);  Les  Faux  Menages  (1869); 
llilene  (1872) ;  L'Age  ingrat  (1879).  His  greatest  success 
was  made  by  Le  monde  oio  Von  .<i'e7innie  (1881).  He  has 
since  written  ic  JVarcotique  (1882)  and  La  Souris  (1887). 
He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1882.  A.  G.  C. 

Pain  :  a  peculiar  sensation  of  discomfort  or  suffering 
cau.setl  by  disturbances  of  the  sensory  nerves  or  nerve-cells, 
which  cause  a  condition  of  over-ex"citement.  Anv  of  our 
sen.sations  nuiy  become  painful  if  the  stimulus  is  sullicient- 
ly  strong  and  pnJonged— thus  the  skin  touched  lightly 
alTords  normal  tactile  .sensations,  but  if  the  pre.s.sure  i"s 
severe  the  impressions  become  painful;  moderate  light  does 
not  prove  of  discomfort  to  the  normal  eve,  but  if  intense 
the  pain  may  be  severe.  Pain  may  be  cau.s"ed  by  mechanical, 
thermal,  chemical,  electrical  or  other  means,  but  it  is  <:en- 
erally  due  to  injuriesand  various  disonlers  of  nutrition'aiid 
inflammation.  There  are  many  varieties — it  niav  be  sharp, 
shooting  and  lancinating,  as  in'neuralgias  ;  sharp  and  inter- 
mittent, as  in  colic ;  sharp,  .severe  and  <-onstant,  as  in  peri- 
tonitis ;  dull  and  gnawing,  as  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels ; 
dull  and  sickening,  as  in  certain  disorders  of  the  ovaries  and 
testicles  ;  throbbing,  as  in  toothache  and  suiipurations  :  burn- 
ing, as  in  inflammations:  pressing,  constricting  or  boring, 
as  in  various  forms  of  headaches ;  dragging,  as  in  womb 
troubles. 

Pain  is  seldom  constant  in  its  degree,  being  generally  sub- 
ject to  intermissions  or  periodic  exacerbations.  It  also 
varies  greatly  in  its  intensity  and  quality,  depending  upon 
the  degree  of  irritation  and"  the  specialnervc  that  is  ex- 
cited. Some  nerves  are  iniiniti'ly  more  sensitive  than  othei-s, 
so  that  the  same  degree  of  iri'itation  aiijilieil  to  two  different 
nerves  may  cause  severe  pain  on  the  ojie  hand  and  but  an 
insignificant  effect  on  the  other.  Pain  experienced  in  dif- 
ferent parts  may  be  of  the  same  intensity,  yet  one  is  bonie 
much  easier  than  another  owing  to  the  dilference  in  its  qual- 
ity. The  exquisitene.ss  of  the  pain  when  the  nerves  of  the 
teeth  or  ear  are  atTected  is  not  equaled  by  that  produced  in 
any  other  jiart  of  the  body.  Pain  issaid  to  be  referred  by  the 
mind  to  the  particular  part  of  the  body  which  is  irritated,  but 
this  is  not  strictly  true — thus  in  case  of  severe  toothache  the 
irritation  may  be  confined  to  the  root  of  a  tooth,  yet  sensa- 
tions of  pain  may  be  referred  to  the  whole  .side  of  the  face,  in- 
deed even  to  both  sides.  Irritation  of  a  .sensory  nerve  at 
any  |iart  gives  rise  to  .sensations  of  |)ain  which  are  referred 
to  the  peripheral  distribution  of  the  nerve:  thus  it  is  that 
peojile  who  have  suirere<l  the  lo.ss  of  arms  or  legs  often  ex- 
perience pain  just  as  though  the  sensations  were  actually 
coming  from  the  jiarts  that  have  long  since  been  amputated 
— in  such  cases  the  cut  ends  of  the  nei'ves  in  the  stump  are 
excited,  and  the  sensations  thus  produced  are  referred  by 
the  mind  to  the  parts  formerly  supplied  by  their  fillers. 

It  is  im]iorlant  to  observe  that  the  presence  of  pain 
invariably  indicates  an  abnormal  condition,  and  that  it  is 
one  of  the  most  frequent  and  j.olent  means  of  nature  to 
warn  us  of  disonlered  states.  I'ain  is  relieved  by  various 
methods,  the  first  and  most  important  being  the  removal  of 
the  cause.  The  use  of  the  hot-salt  bag  is  often  ellicient  in 
relieving  toothache,  pain  in  the  bowels,  etc. ;  cold  is  similarly 
but  less  successfully  resorted  to.  The  use  of  drugs,  such  as 
opium,  mor|>hine,  aiuesthetics.  narcotics,  etc..  is  dangerous, 
except  in  the  hands  of  a  physician.  E.  T,  Rkiciiert, 

Pain  and  Pleasure:  certain  conditions  of  con.scious- 
ness  whieh  <lepend  upon  physical  and  mental  events.  Xo 
adeipiate  definitions  can  be  given  ;  ]iain  and  pleasure  must 
be  felt.  Yet  the  physical  and  mental  conditions  which  give 
so-called  hedonic  tone  to  consciousness  may  be  pointed  out. 
1.  Too  much  stimulation  is  a  cause  of  pain.  This  is 
true,  in  the  first  place,  of  high  intensities  m  stimulation. 
The  actual  experience  of  .such  painful  intensities  in  the 
eases  of  special  sen.sation  leads  us  to  look  for  it  in  all  forms 
of  sensibility.     A  blinding  light  is   painful:  a  loud  noise 


386 


PAIN   AND   PLEASURE 


very  close  to  the  ear,  rapid  friction  of  the  skin,  great  pres- 
sure upon  the  muscles,  etc..  all  give  rise  to  painful  feeling. 
It  is  true  also  that  very  strong  tastes  and  decided  odors 
are  disagreeable  or  soon  become  so;  but  the  case  of  these 
sensations  seems  to  differ  in  some  respect  from  that  of  the 
senses  which  report  acute  pain,  properly  so  called.  Sensa- 
tions of  temperature,  again,  either  heat  or  cold,  give  ns 
positive  pain  when  the  degree  of  either  stimulus  is  very 
intense.  It  is  jiossible  that  the  apparent  difference  between 
taste  and  smell  and  the  other  sensations,  in  this  respect, 
may  be  due  to  tlu'  fact  that  in  them  the  end  organ  seems  to 
have  a  chemical  function,  while  the  other  end  organs  are 
largely  mechanical:  but  it  is  enough  here  to  point  out  the 
fact  that  some  tastes  and  odors  seem  to  be  always  pleasur- 
able!, and  others  always  unpleasant.  The  same  cause  of  pain 
is  also  seen  when  tlie  stimulation  is  of  long  durafiun,  and 
when  it  is  widely  exlended  on  the  skin,  etc.  A  number  of 
pin-points  drawn  over  the  skin  give  pain,  when  one  of  them 
would  not, 

3.  Inflammation  is  painful,  both  when  local  in  the  mus- 
cles and  skin,  etc.,  and  also  when  the  nervous  system  is  in  a 
state  of  high  excitability, 

3,  Summation  of  stimuli  as  a  cause  of  pain.  By  sum- 
mation is  meant  the  adding  up  of  processes  on  the  nervous 
centers  so  that  a  greater  result  is  worked  in  consciousness. 
Several  electric  sparks  become  painful  to  the  eye  by  stim- 
ulation when  one  is  not. 

4.  Appetites  or  impulses  when  denied  give  rise  to  pains  of 
want.  Such  pains  are  usually  periodical,  and  indicate  a 
lack  injurious  to  the  organism. 

Besides  the  above,  several  more  special  conditions  bring 
about  a  painful  reaction.  Exposure  to  air  is  a  cause  of  pain 
to  tissue  normally  protected  by  the  skin;  disuse,  or  too  slight 
stimulation,  occasions  pain  in  the  more  complex  of  the 
special  senses,  as  sight ;  lack  of  accommodation  of  the  or- 
gan to  its  stimulus  has  sometimes  disagreeable  tone,  which 
is  exaggerated  when  the  stimulation  is  intense.  The  tone 
of  the  organic  feelings  seems  to  arise  from  any  obstruction 
of  the  organic  functions,  such  as  laceration,  cramp,  reple- 
tion, etc.  Intermittency  of  stimulation  is  also  a  frequent 
cause  of  pain,  jiroliably  from  the  failure  of  the  organ  to 
accomu]odate  to  the  broken  stimulus. 

Empirical  Facts  concerning  Pain. — There  are,  in  addi- 
tion, certain  facts  brought  out  by  physiologists  which  throw 
light  upon  pleasure  and  pain.  First  may  be  mentioned  the 
intermittence  of  pain,  the  greater  or  less  intensity  of  painful 
feelings  at  successive  moments,  the  stimulus  remaining 
constant.  It  is  plainly  seen  in  electrical  stimulation — a 
clear  rhythm,  or  rise  and  fall,  of  the  painful  tone.  A  head- 
ache usually  proceeds  by  throbs,  a  toothache  by  jumps,  and 
a  felon  on  the  finger  changes  its  feeling  from  a  tiuU  ache  to 
a  paroxysm  of  overpowering  severity.  That  it  is  due  to 
nervous  causes,  and  indicates  the  ebb  and  flow  of  central 
processes,  is  claimed  from  such  phenomena  as  intermittent 
fever;  but  in  some  cases  it  evidently  depends  upon  the 
rhythm  of  the  vascular  system,  the  distension  and  reaction 
of  the  blood-vessels.  Another  kind  of  intermittence  is 
brought  about  by  the  coming  and  going  of  the  attention. 
The  effect  of  the  attention  in  increasing  the  intcnsitv  of  af- 
fective states  is  familiar ;  hence  we  would  expect  that  the 
concentration  and  withdrawal  of  the  attention  would  have 
a  marked  influence  upon  the  rise  and  fall  of  pain.  Further, 
we  know  that  the  attention,  even  when  concentrated  as 
steadily  as  possible,  is  rhythmical.  Another  fact  of  painful 
feeling  is  what  is  called  its  irradiation  or  diffusion.  The 
locality  of  a  painful  stimulus  is  less  circumscribed  as  the 
stimulation  becomes  intense.  Besides  the  intensity,  or 
quantity,  this  feeling  becomes  massive  or  spread  out.  It  is 
probably  due  to  a  real  spreading  of  the  cause  of  the  painful 
feeling  over  a  greater  area,  both  on  the  peripherv  and  in  the 
central  seat. 

Again,  we  may  note  a  delay  in  the  conscious  awareness  of 
pain  compared  with  the  appearance  of  the  sensation  with 
which  it  seems  to  be  connected.  Even  when  the  stimulation 
is  a  very  strong  one.  the  sensation  is  clear  in  consciousness 
before  any  pain  is  felt,  A  blow,  for  example,  is  felt  as  eon- 
tact  or  pressure  a  fraction  of  a  second  before  we  begin  to 
suffer  from  it;  a  liurn  is  particularly  long  in  reporting  it- 
self as  pain.  This  delay  may  be  nieasured  bv  comparing 
the  reaction  lime  of  a  painful  stimulus— say  "the  decided 
prick  of  a  pin— with  that  of  a  simple  contac"t  sensation  at 
the  same  point  on  the  skin.  It  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  full  force  of  the  pain-stimulus  is  not  reported  at 
ence,  but  that  the  organ  accommodates  itself  to  it  bv  a 


series  of  partial  transmissions.  These  transmissions  are 
summated  at  the  center,  and  the  result  is  a  sufficiently  in- 
tense central  stimulus  to  occasion  a  painful  reaction. 

Further,  the  duration,  or  lasting  quality,  of  a  painful 
state  of  sensibility  is  remarkable.  Pains  do  not  pass  away, 
as  painless  sensations  do,  when  the  stimulation  ceases.  The 
recovery  of  the  organism  is  very  slow.  What  is  called  an 
after-image  of  some  sensations  seems  here  to  be  more  truly 
an  after-/«c<.  It  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  in- 
tenser  degree  of  stimulation  necessary  to  pain  gives  more 
decided  and  lasting  character  to  the  nervous  change  it 
works  than  feeble  stimuli  do.  This  is  supported  by  the 
observation  that  pains  are  more  distinctly  and  easily  reviv- 
able  than  other  affective  experiences.  A  painful  experience 
seems  to  hover  constantly  around  us,  and  thrust  its  unwel- 
come presence  into  our  gayest  hours.  When  we  remember 
that  a  revived  image  occupies  the  seat  of  the  original  ex- 
perience, we  only  have  to  assume  a  more  lasting  effect  to 
liave  resulted  from  a  painful  sensaticm.  to  account  for  its 
more  easy  reproduction.  Finally,  pain  lowers  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  painful  region. 

Analgesia,  or  insensibility  to  pain,  under  conditions  usu- 
ally painful,  may  be  brought  about  by  various  agencies. 
Cold  of  very  great  intensity  has  this  effect,  pain  becoming 
very  acute  and  then  subsiding  altogether,  as  the  tempera- 
ture is  lowered.  The  withdrawal  of  blood  from  an  organ 
makes  it  insensible  to  pain.  Lowered  sensitiveness  to  pain, 
however,  is  likely  to  be  preceded  by  exalted  sensitiveness,  as 
in  the  evident  cjise  of  cold.  Apparent  absence  of  pain  is 
exjierienced  when  the  intensity  of  a  painful  stimulus  is  sud- 
denly lowered,  even  though  the  second  intensity  would  be 
painful  under  other  circumstances. 

Fain  as  Feeling  and  as  Tone. — The  conditions  of  pain 
now  pointed  out  are  conditions  in  the  operation  of  the  vari- 
ous modes  of  sensibility,  general  or  special;  that  is,  we  have 
been  observing  pain  as  hedonic  tone.  The  important  ques- 
tion arises:  Is  pain  always  thus  dependent  on  a  definite 
form  of  sensibility,  or  is  it  itself,  as  a  form  of  sensibility, 
ever  found  independent  of  its  presence  as  tone  i  There  are 
some  facts  which  woidd  indicate  that  pain  has  a  functional 
independence,  whatever  we  may  say  as  to  its  anatomical  in- 
dependence—  i,  e.  whether  there  are  special  nerve-fibers 
which  conduct  pain,  a  point  on  which  experimental  results 
are  conflicting.  For  instance,  pain  may  be  destroyed  with- 
out impairing  any  of  the  other  sensibilities,  as  in  analgesia 
brought  on  by  chloroform ;  and  in  general,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  ana-sthetics,  pain  and  memory  disappear  first  and 
together.  On  the  other  hand,  other  sensations  may  be  de- 
stroyed, while  the  painful  quality  of  their  stimuli  remains. 
Thus,  under  pressure,  sensations  of  touch,  temperature,  and 
muscular  movement  may  be  destroyed  while  pain  remains. 
So,  also,  under  loss  of  blood  in  a  member,  sensations  of 
touch  disappear  before  pain,  and  both  before  temperature, 
electric  feelings,  etc. 

Conditions  of  Pleasure. — It  is  not  so  easy  to  point  out 
the  physical  conditions  of  pleasure :  but  in  general  we  find 
them  opposed  to  those  already  indicated  as  carrying  painful 
tone.  1.  Moderate  stim  ulation  is  pleasurable.  This  is  read- 
ily seen  in  the  exercise  of  the  special  sense  functions ;  the  eye 
is  pleased  with  mild  colors,  and  the  ear  with  pure  tones. 
Gentle  touch,  quiet  muscular  reaction,  moderate  tastes  are 
usually  agreeable ;  and  it  is  true  of  moderate  durations 
and  areas  of  stimulation,  as  well  as  of  moderate  intensities. 

There  are  striking  exceptions,  however,  to  this  rule,  A 
great  many  sensations  are  always  painful;  when  not  giving 
a  painful  reaction,  the  organs  involved  do  not  affect  con- 
sciousness at  all.  So  the  organic  feelings.  Certain  tastes 
and  odors,  also,  are  always  disagreeable.  Further,  the  con- 
dition of  neutrality  seems  very  nearly  reached  in  the  normal 
exercise  of  some  of  the  sense  functions,  as,  for  example, 
sight  and  hearing. 

2.  Pleasure  arises  from  the  adjustment  of  an  organ  to 
its  stimulus.  JIuscular  sensations  are  pleasurable  within 
the  range  of  easy  effort.  Stimuli  of  longer  duration,  which 
give  time  for  the  full  adjustment  of  the  organ,  pass  from 
the  painful  to  the  pleasurable.  Feelings  for  which  we  are 
ready  by  anticipation  are  enjoyable.  Yet  this  is  also  subject 
to  the  qualification  that  jierfect  adjustment  seems  in  many 
cases  (eye  and  ear)  to  have  no  feeling  accompaniments  what- 
ever, either  of  pleasure  or  pain. 

3.  Activity  is  enjoyable.  liy  this  is  meant  function  within 
the  limits  set  by  the  two  conditions  already  mentioned.  If 
activity  is  pleasurable,  it  is  the  moderate  activity  of  a  well- 
adjusted  organ.    Yet  there  seems  to  be  more  massive  organic 


PAIN   AND   PLEASURE 


387 


eiiiiditidiis  nf  uctivity  which  are  pleasurable,  even  when  such 
a  KeiuTiil  fiinclidii  involves  some  jiartioular  pain.  The  foot- 
Ijall  player  enjoys  liis  sport,  ev«i  thoii};h  he  is  never  free 
from  lli'e  pain  of  bruises  or  serateh<^s.  hi  such  eases,  tlic 
vifjor  anil  enerfiy  of  the  larf^r  or<raJis  brouf^ht  into  play 
seem  to  overpower  the  protests  of  the  smaller,  ami  sileuee 
their  eomiilalMls.  A  paiu  whieh  woulil  make  une  wrelebed 
if  sutTereil  in  passive  silence  is  foryotlen  alt<ij,'el  her  ill  the 
pleasure  of  (lili{;ent  employment.  This  larger  aetivily,  how- 
ever, whieh  brink's  pleasure,  must  itself  eonforin  to  the  con- 
itilions  of  moderation  and  juljuslmeni.  Moreover,  these 
pleasures  of  activity,  such  as  pleasures  of  the  chase,  of 
sports,  of  <;eneral  vigor,  are  more  positive  apparently  than 
anv  other  jihysical  pleasures.  'J'he  claim  already  noticed, 
that  in  the  absence  of  pain  raanystiites  are  not  really  pleas- 
urable, but  merely  neutral  as  regards  tone,  does  not  seem 
to  be  well  taken  in  this  ease.  A  condition  of  fresh  muscu- 
lar vigor  seems  to  intrude  itself  into  consciousness  of  its 
own  force,  anil  we  become  aware  of  pleasant  occupation  with 
no  evident  reference  lo  the  eorres|«>niliiig  state  of  pain. 
Jndeed,  the  op|iosite  pleasures  whieli  result  frcnn  a  cessation 
of  muscular  pain — the  so-called  plea-siires  of  rest — are  some- 
thing ((uile  dislinel  from  these  pleasures  of  activity.  Un- 
■der  tills  head,  also,  as  including  any  function,  and  not 
simply  muscular  activity,  the  pleasures  arising  from  the 
gralification  of  the  organic  appetites  and  instincts  appear 
to  fall.  They  are  functions  of  periodical  exercise,  and  their 
normal  working  involves  periodical  si  imulal  ion.  They  seem 
to  involve  pleasure  over  and  above  the  prompting  of  painful 
appetite,  though  this  again  is  in  dispute.  Vet  it  could 
hardly  be  said  that  all  the  pleasures  of  the  table  are  due  to 
the  cessation  of  the  pangs  of  hunger. 

Helalivitfi  of  Pleasure  and  Pain. — The  fact  referred  to 
above,  that  many  physical  pleasures  are  only  relief  from 
prece<iiiig  states  of  pain,  finds  place  with  other  similar  phe- 
nomena, under  the  law  of  relativity.  First,  we  may  say  that 
the  existence  of  either  state  may  under  certain  circumstances 
arise  from  the  cessation  of  the  other.  Cases  of  seeming 
pleasure,  which  is  explained  as  absence  of  pain,  have  already 
been  mentioned.  Similarly,  the  cessation  of  an  active  pleas- 
ure may  give  us  temporary  pain  and  be  the  only  cause  of  it. 
An  element  of 'higher  emotion,  however,  generally  enters  in 
this  case.  .Vgain,  the  intensity  of  pain  or  pleasure  depends 
largely  upon  its  contrast  with  a  preceding  state.  After  an 
unusual  triji  to  tln^  ccmntry,  the  painful  toil  of  city  life  is 
all  the  harder  to  bear;  so.  after  feasting  the  eyes  upon  a 
dish  of  luscious  fruit,  the  beggar's  plate  of  herbs  is  all  the 
more  unpalatable.  So,  also,  the  associations  involved  often 
convert  pleasure  into  pain,  and  the  contrary.  A  little  clever 
deceit  will  make  us  enjoy  a  dish  wliich  before  we  found 
unpleasant. 

Resulting  Concept ian  of  Bodihj  Pleasure  and  Pain. — 
Prom  the  foregoing  brief  description  of  the  coiulitions  under 
which  sensuous  tone  arises,  we  may  put  all  such  feelings 
under  two  larger  physical  categories.  A  careful  examina- 
tion of  these  cimditions  will  show  that  all  pleasures  and 
jiains  involve  either  a  state  of  change  in  the  organic  tissue, 
in  the  way  of  integration  or  dinintegralion.  or  a  change  in 
the  relation  of  the  organism  to  its  environment,  in  the  way 
of  adjit-stnient  or  miiiadjuxlment.  These  two  aspects  of  the 
case  may  be  considered  separately.  This  brings  us  to  the 
conclusion,  when  we  reflect  upon  tirganic  development,  that 
in  the  life-process  we  have  the  rai.son  d'etre  of  pleasure  and 
pain;  but  by  life-process  we  must  be  careful  to  include 
life-development  as  well  as  sini])le  life.  The  simple  present 
life  of  an  organism  as  constant  function  is  more  (han  cov- 
ered by  the  facts  as  we  have  observed  them;  pleasure  and 
pain  have  a  prospective  future  reference  as  well — reference 
to  a  fuller  (Icveliiiiment  and  potential  growth.  Accordingly, 
Imdily  pleasure  may  be  defined  as  t/ie  c««.sc('oh.s  effect  of  tliat 
wliicli  makea  for  ttie  continuance  of  the  bodily  life  or  (V.s 
advancement ;  and  pain,  the  conscious  effect  of  that  which 
makes  for  the  decline  of  the  bodili/  life  o'r^'ts  limitation. 

Intellectual  Pleasures  atid  Pains. — The  further  question 
concerning  the  higher  pleasures  of  our  ideal  life  of  thought 
and  emotion  is  equally  important.  Certain  conditions  of 
this  higher  l,one  may  be  mentioned  also. 

1.  iSome  degree  of  ideal  change.  As  physical  pain  arises 
from  [ihysical  function,  so  higher  pain  comes  with  apper- 
ception considered  as  mental  function  ;  and  in  general,  the 
degree  of  function,  measured  in  terms  of  the  emotional  ex- 
citement to  which  it  gives  rise,  indicates  also  the  degree  of 
pleasure  or  pain.  Ideal  change,  the  rearrangement  of  ele- 
ments in  the  apperceptive  content  of  consciousness,  is  ac- 


cordingly the  general  condition  of  particular  ideal  tone. 
We  may,  accordingly,  at  once  make  use  of  the  conception 
of  bodily  tone  already  arrived  at,  substituting  for  the  phys- 
ical the  apperceptive  function,  and  for  the  adjustment  of 
end  organs  that  of  attention;  and  expect  to  find  an  ade- 
quate conception  of  ideal  pleasure  and  pain.  Accordingly, 
we  reach  a  second  condition. 

2.  The  degree,  duration,  and  relative  adjustment  of  atten- 
tion: determining  rdc^al  tone  as  pleasure  or  as  pain.  Ex- 
cessive concentration  of  the  attention  is  painful;  yet  the 
pain  is  directly  merged  in  the  pain  involved  in  the  "adjust- 
ment of  the  bodily  organ.  Prolonged  attention  becomes 
painful  by  the  law  of  fatigue.  On  the  other  hand,  moderate 
concentration  and  duration  of  attention  are  pleasurable. 
The  conditions  which  involve  distraction,  or  drawing  apart, 
or  doing  violence  to  the  attention. are  iiainful ;  those  giving 
feelings  of  ease,  flow,  variety,  measured  concentration,  etc., 
are  jileasurable.  It  is  probable  that  the  most  pleasurable 
acljustment  is  that  of  finest  and  most  exact  discrimination. 
Ward  formulates  this  and  the  pn'ceding  condition  as  fol- 
lows :  there  is  pleasure  "  in  proportion  as  the  maximum  of 
attention  is  effectively  exercised." 

The  determinations  already  reached  have  evident  appli- 
cation to  those  states  of  feeling  which  arise  around  acts  of 
the  attention  regardless  of  the  nature  of  the  object  to  which 
the  attention  is  directed.  There  are  other  emotional  slates, 
however,  which  are  pronounced  in  their  contribution  to  the 
tone  of  consciousness.  The  great  expressive  emotions  (fear, 
love,  anger),  the  sympathetic,  the  ethical,  and  a-sthetic  are 
all  at  times  controlling  agents  of  pleasure  or  pain.  The 
question  at  once  arises  :  Is  it  possible  to  bring  them  under 
the  formulas  already  enunciated  f  This  question  awaits  an 
answer  from  the  con.sideration  of  the  genetic  conditions  un- 
der which  objects  come  to  be  pleasure  or  pain  giving, 

1.  Objects  of  perception  and  mrmonj  excite  pleasure  or 
pain  only  o.s  they  have  or  have  had  some  relation  to  our 
physical  well  or  ill  being.  Perckption  {q.  v.)  is  a  summing 
up  of  sensations  in  the  form  of  synthesis.  Now  an  object 
perceived  gives  us  certain  sensations  only ;  but  it  suggests 
others  which  belong  to  the  synthesis,  anil  we  are  thus' able 
to  anticipate  them.  The  sight  of  falling  rain  prophesies  to 
me  the  unpleasantness  of  being  wet ;  the  sight  of  a  lion,  the 
pain  of  being  eaten.  The  tone  of  perception,  therefore,  as 
far  as  it  refers  to  the  object,  is  intrinsically  the  prophecy  of 
the  tone  of  the  sensations  it  includes  and  suggests.  To  illus- 
trate :  A  child  first  sees  a  fire  (yellow  light  sensation),  grasps 
it  (touch  sensation),  feels  pain  (sensuous  tone,  due  t odam- 
age  to  the  life-process).  Again  he  sees  the  fire  (perceiition, 
carrying  in  it  touch  and  pain  memories)  and  has  fear, 
which  is  of  painful  tone.  The  point  advanced  is  that  this 
latter  tone,  of  fear,  also  has  reference  to  the  life-process.  It 
is  nature's  way  of  utilizing  simpler  pain  experiences,  just  as 
jierception  is  her  way  of  utilizing  sensational  exjierienees. 
This  covers  the  whole  field  of  emotions  which  accompany 
reproduction — memory,  passive  imagination,  illusions,  etc. 
The  emotions  which  such  representations  excite  have  quali- 
tative coloring  (expectations,  dread,  etc.),  but  their  tone  is 
again  due,  as  the  tone  of  perception  is.  to  the  anticipation 
of  advantage  or  damage  from  the  pictured  object. 

2.  The  tone  of  the  emotions  whtch  accompany  conception 
and  thought  has  reference  both  (1)  to  physical  and  (2)  to  in- 
lelleefual  well  or  ill  being.  The  referi'iice  of  conception 
and  thought  to  physical  pleasure  and  )>ain  is  clear  in  some 
ca-ses.  >iy  conception  of  the  work  of  dentists,  for  example, 
has  a  painful  tone  whieh  is  as  clearly  a  warning  of  phys- 
ical damage  as  the  perception  of  my  particular  dentist  i.s. 
So,  also,  the  science  of  dentistry,  the  logical  framework  of 
tlie  art,  considered  merely  as  a  branch  of  instruction,  can 
not  be  rid  of  its  physical  suggestiveness.  The  medical  stu- 
dent grows  faint  when  he  hears  his  first  lecture  on  blood- 
letting. Consequently,  a  positive  jiart  of  the  tone  of  higher 
irsthetic,  ethical,  and  logical  emotion  illustrates  the  law  of 
physical  well-being.  In  the  ca.se  of  aesthetic  emotion,  the 
element  contributed  by  a.ssociafion  is  largely  of  this  sensa- 
tional character.  Apart  from  the  beauty  of  "the  purely  sen- 
suous in  music,  its  associations  are  lai'gely  sensuous.  A 
face  often  becomes  handsome  from  association  at  the  table, 
the  theater,  on  (he  pruincnadc,  and  the  pleasure  we  take  in 
it  is  a  reverberation  of  these  associated  |ileasures  of  sense. 

We  may  ask:  Does  this  reference  to  physical  well-being 
exhaust  the  range  of  ideal  pleasure  an<l  paiii?  Further  con- 
sideration convinces  us  that  it  does  not.  There  are  emotions 
whose  tone  seems  to  violate  the  law  of  physical  well-being. 
We  would  expect,  indeed,  if  consciousness  is  a  synthetic 


388 


PAINE 


thing,  and  if  its  synthesis  becomes  explicit  in  what  we  call 
apperception  or  thought,  that  such  a  new  thing  in  nature 
would  have  its  own  principle  of  development  :  and  we 
would  expect,  further,  that  its  development  would  be  a 
matter  of  conscious  adaptation  to  its  conditions  of  thinking 
and  willing.  The  most  natural  view  of  ideal  pleasure  and 
pain  therefore  is  to  consider  it  an  index  of  healthy  or  un- 
liealthy  mental  function.  As  physical  pleasures,  at  first 
ministering  blindly  to  the  welfare  of  the  organism,  grow  to 
attach  to  objects  in  relation  to  the  organism,  so  ideal  pleas- 
vires,  while  attaching  still  to  attention  as  a  function,  yet 
come  to  attach  to  its  objects  as  well.  On  this  view,  the  tone 
of  nniny  emotions  reflects  the  state  of  the  mental  functions 
primarily.  This  view  is  supported  by  abundant  evidence. 
The  pleasures  of  intellectual  pursuit  lead  their  devotees  to 
neglect  the  body  and  even  to  continue  this  course  in  the  face 
of  acute  physical  pain.  ..Esthetic  delight  is  so  independent 
of  selfish  motives  that  admiration  is  often  called  out  by  what 
is  destructive  and  terrifying.  Ethical  emotion,  with  the 
happiness  it  always  brings,  may  triumph  over  physical  im- 
pulse, when  they  come  into  conflict.  Consequently,  we 
may  hold  that  there  is  an  element  of  hedonic  coloring  aris- 
ing witli  the  changes  which  occur  in  the  content  of  con- 
sciousness: and  we  are  led  to  define  intellectual  pleasure  as 
the  conscious  effect  of  that  which  makes  tor  the  continuance 
of  the  apperceptive  life  or  its  advancement ;  and  pain,  the 
conscious  effect  of  that  which  makes  for  the  decline  of  the 
apperceptive  life  or  its  limitation.  Summing  up  all  that 
has  been  said  of  pleasure  and  pain,  both  bodily  and  ideal, 
we  may  conclude  that  plcnsure-  and  pain  are  the  affective 
coloring,  respectively,  which  consciousness  takes  on  in  con- 
ditions of  present  or  prospective  well  or  ill  being. 

Complexity  of  Hedonic  States. — It  is  now  clear  that  the 
hedonic  coloring  of  consciousness,  at  any  time,  is  not  a 
simple  thing.  Pleasure  or  pain  is  reported  from  the  body 
and  from  the  mind,  from  many  organs  of  the  body  at  once, 
and  from  many  mental  factors  at  once.  Ho]ie  and  fear 
may  be  struggling  within,  the  will  may  be  painfully  para- 
lyzed, attention  distracted,  and  with  it  all  a  beating  sun 
may  annoy,  an  aching  tooth  distress,  and  all  go  to  make  up 
a  complex  condition  of  tone.  So  mental  and  physical  con- 
ditions may  combine  to  produce  pleasure:  and  all  possible 
combinations  may,  and  do,  arise  in  kaleidoscopic  order. 
The  elements,  however,  of  this  complex  effect  may  be  gen- 
erally distinguished  in  consciousness.  They  do  not  coalesce 
except  in  their  general  tendency  to  produce  emotional  ex- 
citement, which  has  its  own  tone.  If  the  two  hands  be  held 
under  two  streams  of  water,  very  hut  and  pleasantly  cool, 
respectively,  the  two  hedonic  effects  may  be  clearly  distin- 
guished from  each  other.  So  the  pain  of  suspense  arises 
from  the  excitement  of  alternating  hope  and  dread,  and 
persists  apart  from  the  pleasure  and  pain  of  those  emotions 
themselves  as  they  struggle  in  consciousness. 

Bibliography. — See  the  general  works  (by  James.  Wundt. 
Sully,  Ladd,  Hoffding.  Baldwin)  given  under  Psychology; 
also  Lehmann,  Die  Ilauptgesetze  des  Men.'ichlichen  Gefuhls- 
lebens  (1893)  ;  Marshall,  Pleasure.  Pain,  and  JEs'thetics 
(Xew  York  and  London,  189-1) ;  James,  Psychological  He- 
view  (Sept.,  1894,  The  Physical  Ba.'<is  of  Emotion);  Bald- 
win, ibid  (Nov.,  1894,  The  Origin  of  Emotion),  and  Mental 
Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Race  (New  York  and 
London,  1895) ;  Dumont,  Theorie  de  la  Sensibilite. 

3.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Paine,  Elijah  :  legal  writer  :  b.  at  Williamstown,  Vt., 
.\pr.  10.  1796:  a  son  of  Judge  Elijah  Paine:  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1814:  studied  law  at  Litchfield.  Conn. :  assisted 
in  preparing  Whcaton's  Reports :  was  a  judge  of  the  New 
York  superior  court  1850-."):^;  author  of  Paine's  Reports 
(IT.  S.  circuit  court,  second  circuit,  1810-40 :  1st  vol.  pub. 
1827,  2d  vol.  1856),  and  a  joint  author  of  Paine  and  Duer's 
Practice  in  Civil  Actions  and  Proceedings  in  the  State  of 
New  York  (2  vols.,  1830).     D.  in  New  York.  Oct.  6,  1853. 

Paine,  John  Knowles  :  composer  and  professor  of  mu- 
sic;  1).  at  I'ortland,  Me..  Jan.  9,1839;  after  studving  at 
home  and  ac<iuiring  consiilerable  skill  as  an  organist,  in 
18.58  he  went  to  Berlin  for  three  vears,  stndving  under 
llauiit,  Wieprecht,  and  Teschner.  "in  1861  lie  returned 
home  and  gave  a  number  of  concerts.  In  1862  he  was  ap- 
])ointed  instructor  of  music  in  Harvard  College,  and  in  1876 
made  full  professor.  His  compositions  are  numerous  and 
important.  They  inchide  a  grand  mass  in  D,  an  oratorio, 
St.  Peter;  The  Song  of  I'romise,  a  cimUita  for  the  Cincin- 
nati festival;   (Edipus  Tyrannus,  for  male  voices,  for  the 


Harvard  students"  performance  of  the  play:  Centennial 
Hymn,  words  by  Whittier  (1876);  Columbian  JIarch  and 
Chorus,  for  tlie  opening  of  the  Chicago  World's  Fair  Exhibi- 
tion, Oct.  21. 1892  :  several  cantatas,  three  symphonies,  sym- 
pJionic  jioems,  and  other  orchestral  pieces,  songs,  motets, 
piano  solos,  chamber  music,  and  other's.       D.  E.  Hervey'. 

Paine.  Maktyx.  M.  D..  LL.  D.  :  physician;  son  of  Judge 
Elijah  Paine  (1757-1842) :  b.  at  Williamstown.  Vt..  July  8, 
1794:  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1813;  studied  medicine  un- 
der Dr.  John  Warren,  of  Boston,  Jlass.,  and  took  his  medical 
degree  there  1816:  jiracticed  his  profession  at  Montreal 
1816-22  :  removed  to  New  York  city,  where  he  became  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  medical  profession :  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  L'niversity  Medical  College  1841,  in  which  he 
subsequently  held  important  professorships.  Author  of  The 
Cholera  Asphyxia  of  Xew  York  (1832);  Medical  and  Phys- 
iological Commentaries  (3  vols..  1840-44) ;  treatises  on  J/a- 
teria  Medica  (1842,  1848) :  a  very  valuable  standard  treatise 
on  the  Institutes  of  Medicine  (1847) :  The  Soul  and  Instinct 
(1849).  and  other  works.     D.  in  New  York.  Nov.  10,  1877, 

Paine.  Robert.  D.  D.  :  bishop:  b.  in  Person  co..  N.  C, 
Nov.  12. 1799:  while  in  childhood  removed  to  Tennessee;  in 
1818  joined  the  Tennessee  conference  of  the  M.  E.  Church, 
and  did  pastoral  work  till  1830 ;  became  president  of  La 
Grange  College,  Alabama,  till  1846,  when  he  became  bishop; 
was  a  member  of  every  general  conference  from  1824  to 
1846 :  chairman  of  the  committee  of  nine  which  reported 
the  plan  of  separation  on  the  basis  of  which  the  M.  E. 
Church  was  divided  :  was  a  [irominent  member  of  the  Louis- 
ville convention  in  1845.  He  had  great  pulpit  ability  and 
great  executive  ability.  His  Life  and  Times  of  Bishop  Mc- 
Kendree  (2  vols..  1859)  is  highlv  esteemed.  B.  at  Aberdeen, 
Miss..  Oct.  20. 1882.  '       Revised  by  A.  Osborx. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat  :  jurist  :  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar. 
11. 1731 :  graduated  at  Harvard  College  1749  :  studied  theol- 
ogy and  acted  as  chaplain  in  the  Northern  army  ;  subsequent- 
ly studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1759,  settling  at 
Taunton:  in  1770  was  prosecuting  otliccr  (in  the  attorney- 
general's  aljsence)  of  Preston  and  his  men  for  the  massacre 
at  Boston;  elected  to  the  legislature  1773:  delegate  to  Con- 
tinental Congress  1774-78.  meanwhile  filling  various  im- 
portant positions  in  Massachusetts ;  was  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  attorney-general  of 
Massachusetts  1780-90,  and  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Massachusetts  1790-1804,  when  he  resigned.  With  others 
he  founded  the  American  Academv  of  Massachusetts  (1780). 
D.  at  Boston.  May  11.  1814. 

Paine.  Thomas;  radical  and  deistical  writer;  b.  at  Thet- 
ford.  England,  Jan.  29.  1737;  son  of  a  Quaker  stay-maker; 
received  an  indifferent  education  at  the  Thetford  grammar 
school,  btit  acquired  a  considerable  range  of  knowledge  by 
private  study  while  working  at  his  trade  as  a  stay-maker  at 
London.  Dover,  and  Sandwich  ;  served  a  short  time  on  board 
a  privateer  1756  :  married  in  1759  the  daughter  of  an  excise- 
man, but  was  left  a  widower  the  next  year:  obtained  a  post 
in  the  revenue  service  1762,  was  discharged  for  irregular  con- 
duct 176.5,  but  restored  the  next  year;  had  to  wait  for  a 
vacancy  and  meanwhile  taught  school  and  preached  ;  was  ex- 
ciseman at  Lewes  1768  :  married  the  daughter  of  a  deceased 
tobacconist  there  1771,  who.se  business  he  continued;  culti- 
vated literature ;  acquired  so  clear  and  forcible  a  style  as  to 
be  chosen  by  the  excisemen  as  their  representative  in  ad- 
vocating their  interests,  in  which  capacity  he  published  a 
pamphlet.  The  Case  of  the  Officers  of  the  Exci.fr  (1772),  which 
probably  led  to  liis  introduction  to  Dr.  Franklin,  and  to  his 
dismissal  from  the  service  a  second  time  on  a  trumped-up 
charge  1774  :  sejia rated  from  his  wife  the  same  year  for  an  un- 
known cause.  Influenced  by  the  advice  of  Franklin,  he  pro- 
ceeiled  to  America:  arrived  at  Philadelphia  Nov.,  1764;  ob- 
tained immediate  employment  as  editor  of  the  Pennsylvatiia 
Magazine;  published  in  Bradford's  Penn.vjlvania  Journal 
in  ^lar.,  1775,  an  ^ticle  entitled  African  Slavery  in  Amer- 
ica, which  probably  hastened  the  formation  of  the  first 
American  anti-slavery  society  (Apr.  14.  1775);  published, 
Jan.  10.  1776.  his  celebrated  and  widely  circulated  ]iamphlet 
Common  Sense  (120.000  copies  were  sold  in  the  first  three 
months),  which  struck  the  keynote  of  the  situation  by  ad- 
vocating independence  and  a  rejniblican  government  ;  pub- 
lished in  the  Pennsylvania  Journal  of  Dec.  19.  1776,  the 
first  number  of  The  Crisis,  which  appeared  at  irregular  in- 
tervals all  during  the  war.  and  had  great  influence  in  main- 
taining the  si)irit  of  the  army  and  the  people  ;  was  chosen  in 
1777  secretary  to  the  committee  of  foreign  affairs,  from  which 


PAINE 


PAINT 


3S9 


post  lie  was  dismissed  and  censured  by  Congress  in  1779  for 
revoalinj;  diplomatic  secrets  in  a  controversy  with  Silas 
Dcaiic  ;  was  suoii  aftorward  eloctud  clerk  to  the  General  As- 
sembly of  Pennsylvania  :  rendered  good  service  in  17K0  in 
promoting  a  subscription  for  relieving  the  distress  of  the 
army :  re(«iveil  that  year  a  degree  from  the  University  of 
Peniisylvania  ;  went  to  France  with  Col.  Laurens,  whom  he 
aided  in  negoliating  a  loan  1781  :  received  from  Congress  a 
grant  of  *:i.000  (KSo).  from  the  Stale  of  New  York  an  estate 
at  New  Uoclu-lle.  and  from  P<  iinsylvatiia  foOO  as  rewards 
for  his  services;  went  again  to  France  1787:  set  up  the  fol- 
lowing vear  at  Rollierham,  Yorkshire,  the  model  of  the  iron 
bridge  which  he  had  invented  some  years  previously:  pub- 
lished in  Lon<ion  in  1791-92,  in  reply  to  Hurke,  his  I{ii;/ilx 
of  Mini,  a  vindication  of  the  French  Kevolution,  wiiicli 
gave  liini  immense  |)opnlarity  in  France  and  led  to  a  liestow- 
al  of  citizen>hip  and  his  ejection  to  the  French  National 
Convention  as  ileputy  for  Calais  1792  :  took  his  seat  in  that 
body  :  usually  acted  with  the  (iirondists:  heroically  opposed 
the  "execution  of  the  king,  advocating  his  banishment  to 
America:  was  imprisoned  by  the  faction  of  Robespierre  in 
the  Luxembourg,  from  Dec.  28,  179:{.  to  Nov.  4,  1794.  Im- 
mediately prior  to  his  arrest  he  wrote  part  of  his  Aiik  of 
Rcii-iDH.  and  during  his  imprisonment  finished  it  and  pub- 
lished it  after  his  release  (1795);  narrowly  escaped  the  guil- 
lotine; again  took  his  seal  in  the  Convention;  resided  near- 
ly two  years  in  the  family  of  .James  Monroe.  I  hen  iniuisl<M- 
to  France;  wrote  several  political  letters  and  pamphlets  of 
minor  importance:  returned  to  the  L'.  S.  in  1802,  nniking 
the  voyage  in  a  U.  S.  sloop  of  war;  was  cordially  received  at 
Washington,  Philadel]>hia,  and  New  York,  and  by  Jefferson 
ill  Monticello.  but  insulted  by  the  Federalistsat  Trenton  and 
elsewliere ;  and  deprecated  by  the  religious  public  on  account 
of  his  deism,  he  passed  his  cdosing  years  in  comparative  ob- 
scurity al  New  York  and  on  his  estate  at  New  Kochelle.  1). 
at  New  York.  June  8,  1805*.  lie  was  buried  on  his  estate  at 
New  Hoclielle,  where  a  monument  was  erected  by  his  ad- 
mirers in  1839,  though  his  remains  were  carried  to  Kngland 
in  1819  by  William  Cobbetl.  Biographies  of  Paine  have 
been  written  by  Chalmers.  Cobbett,  Cheatham,  Hickman, 
Sherwin.  and  (i.  Vale,  but  these  are  all  of  little  value,  and 
arc  superseded  by  that  by  Aloncure  1).  Conway  (2  vols..  New 
Vcjrk,  1S!)2).  who  has  al.so  brought  out  the  only  complete  and 
authoritative  edition  of  his  writings  (4  vols..  New  York, 
1894-9.5).  '     Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackso.v. 

PiliiiP,  WiM.iAM  II.:  civil  engineer;  b.  in  Chester,  X.  II., 
May  17,  1828;  was  engaged  in  surveying  in  the  western 
part  of  the  V.  S.  until  1861,  when  he  entered  the  Fourth 
VVisconsin  Regiment  and  served  through  the  civil  war  with 
distinction,  being  appointed  captain  of  engineers.  He  was 
connecteil  with  the  Brooklyn  susjiension  liridge  as  engineer 
in  charge,  anil  as  consulling  engineer  from  its  inauguration 
unlil  188!).  Later  he  was  engaged  in  construction  of  cable- 
railways.      I).  Dec.  :il.  1890. 

Pailiesville :  village;  capital  of  Lake  co.,  O.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  l-I);  on  the  Grand  river,  and  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Mich.  S.,  the  X.  Y..  Chi.  and  St.  L.,  and  the 
Pitts,  and  West,  railways:  'i  miles  S.  of  Lake  Kric>.  29  miles 
F.  N.  H.  of  Cleveland.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  fruit- 
growing region,  and  contains  several  foundries  and  machine- 
shops,  flour-mill,  tanneries,  factories,  Lake  Krie  Fenuile 
Seminary  (non-seclarian.  chartered  in  18.")0).  2  libraries,  a 
national  bank  with  capital  of  :jS200,000,  and  2  dailv  and  8 
weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  3,841  ;  (1890)  4,7ri.->.' 

Paint  [from  Fr.  peinf.  deriv.  of  peiiirlri'  <  Lat.  piii'f/i'ri'. 
decorate,  paint]:  a  name  which  is  generally  limited  lo  mix- 
tures of  insohible  colors  or  pigments  with  certain  materials 
which  prepare  them  for  application  to  surfaces  of  wood, 
iron,  stonc',  plaster,  canvas,  etc.,  by  the  aid  of  a  brush.  When 
the  colors  are  soluble  the  pre|iaration  is  more  pro[ierly  a 
stain  or  a  dye.  Paints  are  used  nol  only  for  purposes  of 
decoration,  l>ul  to  protect  surfaces  from  moisture  and  ilecay, 
which  they  accomplish  by  closing  Ihc  piu'cs  and  excluding 
the  agents  of  destriu.'lion.  All  paints  consist  essentially  of 
two  parts:  (l)lli(^  pigment;  (2)  the  vehicle.  Tlii-  pigiiifiilK 
are  very  varied  in  character;  the  whites  are  generally  white 
lead,  more  or  less  adulterated  with  barytes.  oxide  of  zinc, 
prepared  chalk,  etc.:  the  yellows  are  ochers,  chromate  of 
lead,  etc.;  the  reds  are  red  oxide  of  lead,  ochers,  oxides  of 
iron,  red  oxide  of  copper,  vermilion,  dichromale  of  h-ad,  car- 
mine, carmine,  nuidiler,  and  other  lakes,  etc.;  the  blues  are 
Prussian  blue,  nil ramarine,  smalt,  Thenard's  blue,  verditer, 
etc. ;  the  greens  are  verdigris,  Paris  green,  verditer,  borate 


of  copper,  chromate  of  copper,  oxide  of  chromium,  cobalt 
green,  and  green  lakes,  the  most  common  being,  however, 
a  mixtuii' of  chrome  yellow  anil  Prussian  lilue;  the  browns 
are  umlier,  bole,  terra  di  Sicnua,  bi.stre,  sepia,  etc. ;  the  blacks 
arc  lamplilack,  bone-black,  anthracite,  graphite,  etc.  (Sec 
Lakks.)  7'Af  ivhicles  determine  the  characlerof  the  paint: 
we  have  oil-paints  and  water-colors. 

Oil-jxiinln. — The  most  common  vehicle  is  linseed  oil, 
which  is  especially  valuable  on  account  of  I  he  property  it 
possesses  of  oxidizing  to  a  resinons  body,  which  holds  "the 
paint  in  a  firm  water-proof  varnish.  By  boiling  this  oil  with 
litharge  and  sulphate  of  zinc  it  acquires  the  properly  of 
drying  very  rapidly,  though  the  color  is  darkened  by  the 
operation.  For  some  purposes  other  oils,  as  nut  and  poppy 
oils,  are  substituted  for  linseed  oil;  the  latter,  being  color- 
less, is  preferred  for  very  delicate  colors,  but  it  dries  very 
slowly.  In  the  preparation  of  oil-paints  the  pigment  is 
mixed  with  a  small  quanllly  of  raw  linseed  oil  and  ground 
in  a  mill  to  niaki'  Ihe  mixture  homogeneous.  This  is  put  up 
in  convenient,  packages  for  tlie  painter,  who  mixes  it  for  u.se 
with  a  further  quantity  of  raw  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  and 
colors  it  to  any  desired  shade  with  colored  pigments,  which 
are  also  furnished  ground  in  oil.  As  pigment  and  oil  alone 
would  be  too  thick,  a  third  class  of  agents  is  employed  in 
preparing  paints,  the  tliinnirx.  These  are  either  spirits  (oil) 
of  turpentine  or  benzine — both  of  which  mix  freely  with  the 
oil-iiaint  and  thin  it  to  any  desired  degree.  As  it  is  desir- 
able that  the  paint,  after  it  has  been  applied  to  a  surface, 
should  dry  speedily  before  it  is  contaminated  by  dust  or 
rubbed  off  by  acciilent.  it  is  necessary  to  do  something  more 
than  boil  the  linseed  oil ;  a  fourth  class  of  substances  is  used, 
the  diii-ra  or  .siccalin:i.  Driers  are  sugar  (acetate)  of  lead, 
sulphate  of  zinc,  verdigris,  binoxide  of  manganese,  red  lead, 
japan ner's  gold  size,  etc.  By  far  the  most  powerful  sicca- 
tive is  the  borate  of  manganese,  one  one-lhousandlh  being 
sufficient  to  hasten  greatly  the  drying  of  linseed  oil.  This 
agent  is  supplied  to  the  painter  ground  in  oil  in  a  conveni- 
ent form  for  mixing  with  Ihe  paint.  It  is  always  necessary 
to  mix  the  above-mentioned  nuilerials,  iiigmeiit,  oil,  thinner, 
and  drier,  just  before  the  paint  is  to  be  used,  as.  if  the  mix- 
ture is  allowed  to  stand  for  any  length  of  time,  the  pigment 
settles  to  the  liottom.  the  thinner  evaporates,  and  the  oil  ab- 
sorlis  oxygen,  becomes  thick  and  ropy,  and  a  hard  skin 
forms  over  it,  which  can  not  be  dissolved  again.  To  meet 
this  difficulty  a  new  system  of  mixing  paint  has  been  intro- 
duced, by  which  paints  of  any  color  can  be  made  and  mixed 
on  a  large  scale  at  the  factory,  ami  juit  up  in  convenient 
packages  which  are  always  ready  for  use.  Any  portion 
which  may  be  left  over  after  painting  any  work  can  be  re- 
turned lo  Ihe  jmckage  for  future  use.  The  principle  in- 
volved in  Ihc  |ireparation  of  these  ready-mixed  paints  is  the 
formation  of  an  emulsion  which  holds  the  pigment  in  su.s- 
pension  and  prevents  its  sell  ling. 

Wii/i'r-m/orx. — For  many  ])urposcs  paints  are  prepared 
with  the  aid  of  water  as  a  vehicle,  glue  or  gum  being  added 
to  make  the  pigments  adhere  after  the  evajioration  of  the 
water.  Such  paints  can  only  be  used  for  interior  work, 
walls,  and  ceilings,  for  I'oloring  pictures,  maps,  etc.  They 
must  be  mixed  as  they  are  nsed.asa  solution  of  glue  or  gum 
would  mould  or  putrefy  and  dry  up  if  kept  for  any  lime. 
The  most  common  paint  of  this  kind  is  called  "  kalsomine," 
and  is  a  mixlure  of  jiiepared  chalk  with  a  solution  of  glue, 
to  which  ultramarine  is  added  to  neutralize  a  faint  yellow 
tint  for  while,  and  ochers.  elc.  for  other  colors.  The  solid 
cakes  of  water-coliu-  are  made  by  mixing  the  pigments  with 
gum  and  water  to  a  thick  paste.  ))ressing  in  moulds,  and 
drying  in  warm  air.  Ry  rubbing  them  in  water  or  applying 
a  wel  lirush  lo  them  the  color  is  liquefied  for  use.  Silicate 
of  sodium,  soluble  glass,  has  been  suggesled  as  a  vehicle  for 
pigments,  and  as  specially  adapted  for  application  to  walls 
and  ceilings,  as  it  produces  a  very  hard  and  durable  surface. 
Somelinies  Ihe  silicate  of  sodium  paint  is  ajiplied  to  the  ceil- 
ing, and  a  Ihin  solution  of  the  clear  silicate  is  afterward 
sprayed  over  Ihe  entire  surface.  Xaphlhas  and  tars,  both 
coal  and  wood,  are  used  as  vehicles  for  cheap  paints  or  for 
paints  for  special  purposes,  as  for  protecting  iron,  ships"  bot- 
toms, etc.  Poisonous  pigments  are  also  used  to  prevent  the 
adhesion  of  barnacles  and  other  marine  animals  and  sea- 
weeds to  ships*  bottoms,  specially  copper  compounds,  the  red 
oxide,  elc.  .Vrtisis"  colors  are  composed  of  very  carefully 
prepared  pigments  ground  in  a  small  quantity  of  very  fine 
oil.  and  put  u|i  in  metallic  tubes. 

1,11111  immx  paint  is  made  by  mixing  with  tlie  ordinary 
articles  some  phosphorescent  powder  which  emits  light  in 


390 


PAINTER'S  CREAM 


PAINTING 


the  dark.  Powders  useful  for  this  purpose  are  (1)  Canton's 
phosphorus,  made  by  calcining  a  mixture  of  oyster-shells 
and  sulphur;  (2)  Osann's  phosphorus,  made  by  calcining 
oyster-shells  and  sulphide  of  antimony.  The  subject  of 
phosphorescent  powders  is  fully  iliscussed  in  Gnielin's  Hand- 
book of  Chemistry  (vol.  i.,  p.  193).  C.  F.  Chandler. 

Painter's  Cream  :  a  mixture  of  mastic,  lead  acetate,  nut 
oil,  and  water,  applied  by  artists  to  unfinished  oil-paintings 
to  prevent  drying  during  the  interruptions  of  the  work.  It 
is  applied  with  a  brush  and  washed  off  with  water. 

Paliitiug: :  the  laying  of  paint  upon  a  surface  ;  especial- 
ly of  paint  in  the  strict  sense — i.  e.  insoluble  color  mixed 
with  some  liquid  or  semi-liquid  medium.  It  follows  from 
this  that  painting  is  generally  considered  to  be  covering 
with  thick  and  upaque  pigment,  and  that  the  putting  on  of 
thin  and  nearly  lii|uid  color  is  called  staining,  because  it  is 
assumed  to  soak  into  the  surface,  or  simply  coloring.  A 
painting  means  generally  a  work  of  fine  art  in  color,  and  a 
painted  work  in  light  and  shade  only  is  spoken  of  as  a 
'■  painting  in  monochrome,"  or  as  an  "oil  raonochvome,"  or 
the  like.  P.^stel  (q.  i:)  is  included  in  the  general  art  of 
painting,  but  a  single  work  is  called  simply  a  pastel  rather 
than  a  painting  in  pastel.  For  painting  as  a  trade  and  as 
a  preservative  of  wood,  iron,  etc.,  see  Paint;  for  decorative 
painting  and  the  painting  of  ancient  sculpture  and  archi- 
tecture, see  POLYCHROMY. 

The  fine  art  of  painting  includes  Drawing  (q.  v.).  Painter 
artists  must  necessarily  draw  a  great  deal,  both  in  the  pro- 
duction of  paintings  and  in  study,  and  most  of  them  draw 
in  many  different  ways,  some  of  their  drawing  passing  im- 
perceptibly into  painting,  or  forming  an  inseparable  part  of  it. 
Fresco  (q.  v.)  is  painting  done  on  damp  plaster,  the  colors 
being  mixed  with  powdered  lime  and  water.  In  this  case  the 
drawing  has  been  done  previously  upon  sheets  of  paper,  the 
figures,  etc.,  being  of  the  full  size  of  the  intended  painting 
and  somewhat  elaborately  finished,  and  then  transferred  to 
the  plaster,  as  explained  under  F'resco.  Painting  on  plaster 
or  stucco  whicli  has  grown  hard  is  unlike  fresco  in  this, 
that  the  artist  can  draw  directly  on  the  plaster,  as  with 
charcoal  or  black  chalk.  The  plaster  is  usually  sprinkled 
with  water,  that  the  color  may  not  dry  too  rapidly ;  then 
the  color  is  applied  either  as  Encaustic  Painting  (q.  v.)  or 
distemper  or  tempera,  which  is  merely  painting  with  colors 
mixed  with  some  glutinous  and  adhesive  matter,  such  as  white 
and  yolk  of  egg,  i.  e.  together,  yolk  of  egg  alone,  either  of 
these  with  vinegar  or  some  liquid  glue.  Distemper  colors  are 
diluted  with  water,  however,  and  the  modern  calcimine  or 
kalsomine  process  (see  Paint)  is  only  a  variety  of  this.  An- 
cient paintings  on  walls,  from  the  time  of  the  early  Egyp- 
tian tombs  to  the  sixteenth  century,  were  generally  upon 
plaster  or  stucco  of  some  kind,  and  these  paintings,  when 
not  done  in  fresco,  are  generally  found  protected  by  some 
varnish  or  glaze  which  enters  more  or  less  into  the  sub- 
stance of  the  work.  It  is  therefore  very  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain just  how  ancient  paintings  were  executed,  and  great 
differences  of  opinion  exist  as  to  this.  During  the  later 
Middle  Ages  and  the  early  Renaissance  movable  pictures 
were  painted  on  wood,  generally  in  distemper.  Frequently 
the  frame  was  an  elaborate  semi-architectural  composition 
of  gilded  wood,  and  this  and  the  panel  upon  which  the 
picture  was  painted  were  made  together  as  one  piece  of 
joiner's  work.  Altar-pieces  and  the  like  were  often  made 
up  of  many  separate  paintings  united  by  a  common  system 
of  frames  of  rich  design. 

Oil-painting  came  into  use  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Its 
power  of  giving  dciith  of  color  and  richness  of  effect  quickly 
made  it  popular.  It  was  not  much  used,  however,  upon  plas- 
ter surraees.  Perhaps  this  was  because  oil-painting  on  plas- 
ter grows  dark  very  ra]iidly,  or  perhaps  it  was  because  plaster 
is  not  nearly  .'^o  agreeable  a  surface  to  work  on  as  the  pre- 
pared canvas.  At  all  events  the  greater  part  of  the  large- 
s<'ale  painting  of  European  peoples  has  been  done  in  oil- 
painting  upon  canvas,  and  less  commonly  upon  panel  or 
speciallv  prepared  millboard,  since  its  general  adoption  about 
1520.  kven  t  b(!  largest  pictures  of  the  Venetian  school,  such 
as  the  I'aradisi'  and  the  Crucifixiun  by  Tintoretto,  the  Pres- 
entation of  the  Virgin  bv  Titian,  and  the  Supper  at  Em- 
mans  and  Christ  in  the  Souse  of  Simon,  by  Paul  Veronese, 
are  |)aiiited  on  canvas.  Modern  decorative  painters  too,  in 
large  paintings  intemled  expressly  for  special  walls  which  it 
is  desired  to  adorn  permanently,  have  used  canvas,  as  in  the 
great  works  of  I'uvis  de  Chavannes  in  tlie  Pantheon  in  Pari.s. 
Indeed,  most  modern  attempts  to  paint  on  plaster  in  fresco 


or  other  recently  invented  processes,  such  as  icater-glass  and 
spirit-fresco,  have  failed  to  give  the  good  results  expected, 
and  artists  have  generally  returned  to  oil-painting  on  can- 
vas. This  canvas  may  be  glued  fast  to  the  wall  or  may  be 
stretched  on  wooden  frames  with  an  air-space  behind  it. 

"[\\e  fine  art  of  painting  is  the  most  elaborate  and  com- 
plex of  all  the  arts  that  appeal  to  the  eye.  It  is  therefore 
the  most  difficult  to  undei-stand  and  appreciate.  At  the 
same  time,  as  painting  much  more  than  sculpture  deals 
with  scenes,  incidents,  historical  events,  the  illustration  of 
poems  and  fiction,  landscape,  and  the  representation  of 
common  oljjects  of  all  sorts,  so  it  is  painting  that  persons 
not  specially  instructed  in  art  are  the  most  apt  to  care  for. 
The  result  is  that  there  is  no  fine  art  in  which  the  aim  of 
the  artist  in  producing  and  the  feeling  of  the  public  in  ad- 
miring are  so  widely  separated.  It  is  very  often  true  that 
the  painter  was  hardly  conscious  as  he  worked  on  his  pic- 
ture of  that  which  most  of  the  admirers  in  the  exhibition 
most  admire  and  enjoy.  In  a  picture  of  military  subject, 
for  instance,  the  incident,  as  of  rescuing  a  banner,  fighting 
for  a  field-piece,  or  the  like,  is  what  attracts  most  persons, 
and  it  is  looked  at  and  judged  by  the  greater  number  of 
visitors  to  the  gallery  somewhat  as  a  dramatic  performance 
is  judged,  or  the  poetical  narrative  of  an  event.  The  paint- 
er may  indeed  have  taken  some  care  to  arrange  his  figures 
so  as  to  tell  the  story  intelligibly,  or  even  to  tell  it  with  vig- 
or and  spirit;  but  this  will  not  have  been  his  greatest  care. 
His  interest  is  not  in  the  incident,  but  in  the  harmony  of 
colors,  in  the  light  and  shade,  in  the  general  composition  of 
graceful  lines  and  of  harmonious  masses.  In  other  words, 
to  llie  painter  the  parallelogram  within  his  frame  is  a  sur- 
face wliieh  he  has  filled  with  a  beautiful  design,  while  to 
most  of  the  spectators  it  is  a  piece  of  story-telling.  Painter 
and  spectator  find,  indeed,  one  seeming  point  of  agreement, 
namely,  in  the  truth  to  nature  of  the  artist's  work.  But 
this  is  rather  seeming  than  real,  for  the  truth  to  nature 
which  the  artist  cares  about  is  really  iiuippreciable  to  most 
of  his  public.  The  painter  has  at  some  time  noted  the 
beauty  of  sunlight  on  certain  textures  and  certain  colors, 
and  thinks  he  has  there  the  possibility  of  a  new  artistic  ef- 
fect. This,  when  he  tries  to  put  it  into  his  military  picture, 
will  be  unsuspected  by  nine-tenths  of  those  who  look  at  the 
picture,  though  it  may  be  the  most  important  part  of  it  to 
its  author.  'The  truth  to  nature  which  he  thinks  his  picture 
contains,  and  of  which  he  is  pnmd,  is  generally  of  this  sort, 
and  it  is  not  even  suspected  by  the  majority  of  the  specta- 
tors. This  has  always  been  the  case.  The  comments  by 
ancient  writers  upon  the  pictures  of  their  times  show  an  in- 
terest in  the  incidents  related  and  the  personages  portrayed, 
and  express  admiration  for  supposed  skill  in  copying'na- 
ture,  but  no  appreciation  of  any  more  artistic  aim  in  the 
artist.  Those  pictures  have  perished,  but  the  sculptures 
of  antiquity  remain  to  show  us  by  a  sure  analogy  that  the 
artists  400  years  B.  c.  worked  in  as  purely  artistical  a  way 
as  those  of  1500  or  of  1890  a.  d.  That  is  to  say,  they  cared 
for  nature  chiefly  because  of  its  suggestions  to  them  as  ar- 
tists; and  they  cared  for  incident,  for  tradition,  for  the 
great  Tale  of  Troy  or  that  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes, 
for  the  Niobe  tragedy  or  the  fight  with  the  Centaurs,  chiefly 
as  affording  scope  and  room  for  their  own  artistic  concep- 
tions. It  has  been  thought  surprising  that  the  great  paint- 
ers of  the  Italian  Renaissance  and  the  sixteenth  century 
were  as  ready  to  paint  JIadonnas  as  Venuses  and  Venuses 
as  Madonnas.  The  reason  for  this  is  merely  that  Venus 
and  the  Madonna  alike  were  to  the  painter  types  of  femi- 
nine grace,  and  figures  upon  which  he  could  use  his  skill  as 
draughtsman  and  as  colorist.  To  a  painter  the  great  thing 
must  always  be  to  paint  ;  to  paint  as  well  as  possible  and  to 
produce  as  beautiful  pictures  as  possible  ;  little  does  he  care 
in  comparison  for  the  story  which  he  is  ordered  to  tell,  or 
the  conventional  type  which  he  is  bade  reproduce.  And  it 
is  not  until  the  student  of  pictures  seizes  this  truth  and  be- 
gins to  approach  good  pictures  somewhat  in  the  spirit  in 
which  they  have  been  conceived  and  carried  out.  that  much 
enjoyment  from  the  study  of  painting  is  possible.  This  is 
true  of  the  other  branches  of  fine  art.  It  is  true  indeed  of 
the  finer  handicrafts  that  a  technical  and  esoteric  standard 
of  excellence  exists  for  the  workman,  almost  unsuspected 
by  the  spectator.  It  is  especially  true  of  artistic  painting 
because,  as  has  been  said  above,  this  is  the  most  elaborate 
and  complex  of  the  fine  art.s.  One  can  more  easily  seize 
the  sculptor's  secret,  or  some  part  of  it.  than  the  manifold 
thing,  made  up  of  reminiscences  and  dreams,  of  light  and 
dark,  of  color  intermingled  with  light  and  dark  and  putting 


PAINTING 


391 


on  their  seiiiblancc,  of  pure  form  expressible  only  by  means 
of  light  and  dark  and  hardly  expressible  at  the  same  time 
with  uoliir.  and  of  expression  of  face  and  gestnre  and  the  in- 
<lividuality  of  ])ersons.  Landscape  thought  is  in  some  ways 
more  uns'eizable  even  than  ligiire-painting:  probably  no 
such  thing  as  adequate  written  criticism  on  landscape-paint- 
ing exists  or  can  exist :  but  tlic  student  who  tries  to  liml  in 
the  picture  wliat  the  painter  tried  to  jjut  there  may  have  an 
immense  delight  in  tracing  it,  ami  may  go  far  toward  get- 
ting a  full  share  of  the  artist's  delight  in  his  work.  'I'hus 
it  often  appears  in  a  lanilscapc-painting  that  the  expression 
of  important  natural  truth  is  mingletl  with  artistic  merit 
so  as  to  be  indistinguishable  from  it.  The  rocky  frame  of  a 
hill  is  traceable  under  its  clothing  of  forest  or  of  heather 
and  bog:  this  has  been  seen  and  felt  by  the  artist,  perhaps 
half  unconsciously,  and  it  reappears  in  his  picture. 

The  ]iaiiiting  of  aMlii|uiIy  which  is  known  to  us  is  almost 
wholly  decorative.  The  iin|iiu'tant  works  of  the  celebrated 
Greek  painters  have  perished,  and  no  certain  idea  of  them 
•can  be  formed.  It  can  not  be  loo  much  insiste<l  on  that  the 
statements  concerning  them  which  we  have  in  the  works  of 
ancient  writers  are  of  no  critical  value  whatever.  The  wall 
<leeorationsof  I'ompeiianJ  of  a  few  newly  discovered  ancient 
houses  in  Kome  help  us  only  to  form  an  idea  of  the  classical 
style  of  composition.  Painting  in  lln'  time  of  the  decline  of 
the  Koinan  empire  and  of  the  ISyzantine  empire  is  chietiy 
known  to  ns  in  li.t.fMiNATKi)  .Maxusikii'TS  (q.  v.).  In  the 
Mi(hlle  -Vges  p.ainling  on  walls  of  churches,  etc.,  was  nniinly 
decorative  in  character.  In  the  fifteenth  century  in  Italy 
there  was  a  great  increase  in  the  power  of  execution  among 
a  small  boily  of  |)ainlers  in  Siena,  Florence,  and  other 
towns  ;  the  names  most  important  to  us  are  those  of  Dnccio 
»li  Hunniuscgua  (about  I'^JtiO-iy:!*))  and  (iuido  of  Siena,  his 
contemporary  ('imal)ue  (laiO-KidlJ),  and  Giotto  (1366-I3:!6). 
Of  these.  Giotto  is  the  one  who  cann^  the  nearest  to  the  skill 
and  facility  of  later  times,  and  who  established  many  of  the 
types  of  legend  and  of  the  Bible  story  a.s  told  in  painting. 
His  most  powerful  an<I  original  follower  was  Andrea  di  Clone, 
■called  Orcagmi,  whose  important  work  is  of  the  middle  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  Florence  at  that  time  came  to 
possess  the  most  important  .school  of  painting.  Of  the 
Florentines,  Masaccio  (1403-2i^)  seems  to  have  made  the 
most  surprising  advance  in  naturalistic  power,  both  in 
drawing  and  in  conception  and  composition  ;  but  the  work 
of  JIasolino  da  Panicale,  perhaps  his  teacher,  is  hard  to 
distinguish  from  his,  Jleantijne  the  purely  ecclesiastical 
4inil  (lecorative  stvle  was  maintained  bv  Fra  Angelico  da 
Fies.ile  (UiST-U.).")).  Ghirlandajo  (144'!MI4)  Filippo  and 
l''ilippino  Lippi  (14r2-()!)  and  145T-lol)4).  able  men  and  de- 
lighlful  artists,  are,  in  the  sense  of  mere  trained  skill  and 
executive  power,  .somewhere  between  the  two  standards, 
'I'lieir  work  seems  far  more  realistic  and  vigorous  than  Fra 
.Vngelieo's,  and  yet  archaic  beside  Wasaccio's.  .Sandro 
Botticelli  (1474-1.')1,'))  occupies  a  place  apart,  and  is  one  of 
the  original  designiTs  of  any  period,  Luca  Signorelli  (1441- 
I'l'j:!)  painted  chicdly  at  Orvicto  and  at  Cortona  and  near 
Sieiui :  important  and  well-preserved  frescoes  exist  in  the 
Urvieto  cathedral,  Andrea  del  .Sarto  (14«7-tr);jl)  seems  to 
■close  the  list  of  the  great  men  of  the  Florentine  school,  ex- 
<-ept  that  the  long  life  and  the  immense  achievements  of 
Michelangelo  (14T.")-1.")64)  prolong  the  celebrity  of  Florence 
in  other  cities  and  under  very  diifercnt  influences.  Michel- 
jingelo  spent  oidy  a  part  of  his  life  in  [lainting,  but  his 
achievements  in  fresco  put  him  among  the  few  greatest 
masters, 

I'erugino  (1446-1533)  and  his  successor,  Raphael  (148H- 
l-j'iO),  made  the  L'mbrian  school  famous:  but  Raphael  in 
•early  life  removed  to  Rome,  and  what  is  called  the  Roman 
.school  consists  mainly  of  him  and  his  pupils.  JIantegna 
(1431-1,106)  was  a  |>owerful  anil  original  artist,  and  yelliis 
work  shows  the  innueiliate  influence  of  classic  relief  sculp- 
ture and  also  of  \'cuclian  painting.  He  stands  almost  alone 
as  the  great  painter  of  his  time  in  I'adua  and  Manlmi. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  (UoS-l.")!!)).  coiuiug  from  the  north  and 
soon  returning  there,  is  coinieeted  witii  both  the  Florentine 
and  the  Milanese  schools,  of  which  latter  .seiiool  he  is  the 
great  master. 

Meantime  the  Venetian  school  look  shape  in  the  hands 
of  the  two  Bellini  ((iiovanni.  143H-1.510.  and  Gentile,  1421- 
1507).  lis  purely  artistic  value  is  of  the  very  highest :  color 
was  its  especial  ]ioint  of  superiorilv:  and  in  llie  hands  of 
Giorgicnu'  (al)ont  1477-1511).  Titian  (1477-1576),  Tintoretto 
(15l2-!)4),  anil  Paolo  Veronese  (1528-88),  it  attained  a 
splendor  never  reached  by  any  other  school.     Oidy  indi- 


vidual painters  here  anil  there,  such  as  Velasquez  and 
Michelangelo,  can  be  ranked  with  the  great  Venetians, 
Tiepido  (16!);i-1770)  was  the  latest  master  of  the  Venetian 
school,  and  the  last  of  those  Italians  who  kept  the  ancient 
traditions.  The  Bologne.se  school  nm.st  be  mentioned,  be- 
cause of  the  great  admiration  which  less  critical  ages  than 
the  present  have  felt  for  its  mannered  and  artificial  work. 
Ludovico  Caracci  (1.5.5.5-161(1).  .-Vnuibale  Caracci  (1,560-1609), 
and  Domeniehino  (1.581-1641),  are  the  most  famous  names 
of  this  the  so-called  eclectic  school.  Correggio  (1404-1534) 
is  hard  to  cla.ss  with  any  Italian  school. 

Si>anish  painting  is  of  far  less  importance  in  the  history 
of  art  :  its  greatest  names  are  those  of  Francisco  Zurbaran 
(1.598-1662),  Velasipiez  (1.599-1660),  one  of  the  halt-dozen 
giants  of  art,  and  Jlurillo  (1613-82), 

German  painting  has  hail  a  curiously  uneven  historv — 
some  great  men,  such  as  Albert  Diirer  (i471-b528)  and  llol- 
liein  (1497-1543),  and  long  lapses  of  time  during  which  little 
was  achieved. 

Dutch  and  Flemish  painting  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
al^ter  Ihat  of  Italy.  .lohn  Van  Eyck  (1370-abont  1440)  and 
his  brother  Hubert  (l:i6()-1426)  afe  wonderful  painters,  ex- 
celling the  Italians  of  their  time  in  many  respects.  ^Memling 
(about  1430-95),  Roger  Van  der  Weyden  (1400-64),  and 
yuentin  Mat.sys  (1450-1529)  are  .strictly  media-val  painlcrs, 
but  their  great  ability  dislinguishes  them  from  oilier  artists 
of  the  pre-Renaissani^e  style.  It  nuisl  not  be  forgollcn  that 
the  art  movement  of  the  "Renaissance  was  much  later  in  the 
north  than  in  Italy,  Rubens  (1577- 1640)  and  Vandyke  (1599- 
1641)  are  of  the  next  succeeding  epoch,  and  close  the  history 
of  Flemish  art,  properly  so  called.  Then  the  Dutchmen 
took  up  landscape  art  as  their  special  studv,  and  Cuyp 
(1605-91),  llol>benui  (1638-1709),  and  Ruysdael  (1630-82), 
founded  that  great  landscape  school  which  is  the  peculiar 
glory  of  modern  art.  Two  men  of  singular  genius  devoted 
themselves  to  portraiture  and  the  human  figure,  Frans 
Hals  (1.584-1666)  and  Rembrandt  (1607-69),  In  executive 
power  I'ach  of  tliem  belongs  to  the  small  list  of  unsurpass- 
able masters, 

French  painting  was  late  in  its  development  out  of  medi- 
a-val decoration,  and  was  not  of  supreme  importance,  even 
in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries:  but  Nicholas 
Poussin  (1.594-1665),  flaude  Lorrain  (1600-82),  and  Watteau 
(1684-1721)  are  of  high  rank  as  arli.sts,  and  a  good  school  of 
portraiture  existed  under  Louis  XV,  and  Louis  XVI, 

English  painting  is  also  recent  in  its  development.  Its 
greatest  names  are  Revnolds  (1723-92),  Gainsborough  (1727- 
88),  and  Hogarth  (1697-1764), 

Painting  in  the  nineteenth  century  is  curiously  affected 
by  the  freedom  of  intercourse  among  different  mitions,  and 
also  by  the  thronging  of  large  nundiers  of  persons  into  the 
professional  life  of  the  painter.  The  aggregate  amount  of 
talent,  and  even  of  uinnistakable  genius,  to  be  found  in 
modern  painting  is  enormously  great,  but  it  makes  less  im- 
pre.ssion  Ujion  the  public,  because  of  the  great  size  of  mod- 
ern connnnnities  and  the  large  comparalive  innuber  of  per- 
sons interesled  in  art.  The  French  school,  centered  in 
Paris,  is  much  the  most  important  of  modern  times.  .-Vmong 
those  who  have  been  some  time  dead,  Ingres  (1780-1867)  is 
the  greatest  master.  With  him  may  be  named  (iericault 
(179i-1824),  Delacroix  (1799-1863),"  Rousseau  (1812-67), 
Couture  (1815-79),  Corot  (179(>-187.5),and  .1.  P.  Millet  (1814- 
75).  In  Great  Britain  the  fir.st  half  of  the  nineleenlh  cen- 
tury saw  a  great  school  of  landscape  art,  of  which  .1.  .M.  W. 
Turner  ( 177^5-1851)  was  nnich  the  greatest  master,  but  Con- 
stal>le(  1776-1837)  the  one  most  widely  known  during  his  life, 
on  the  Continent  as  well  as  in  (ireat  Britain.  The  imich- 
discussed  pre-Raphaelite  school  produced  one  great  ami 
original  artist.  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  (1828-.82).  Many 
painters  have  been  popular  and  admired  because  of  their 
large  and  showy  pictures  of  patriotic  and  oilier  historical 
subjecls,  such  as  Paul  Delaroclie  (1797-1856)  in  I"' ranee, 
.Maclise  (1806-70)  in  jvngland,  Cornelius  (1783-1867)  and 
Wilhelm  von  Kaulbach  (180,5-74)  in  Gernuiny, 

A  general  history  of  |)ainting  in  ancient  times  and  down 
to  the  clo.se  of  the  Renaissance  has  been  written  in  German 
by  Alfred  Woltmann  and  Karl  Woerman, and  (ranslaled.with 
some  changes,  by  Sidney  Colvin,  Kugler's  JJUIor;/  uf  Art 
and  Mrs.  Ileaton's  Concise  Uistori/  of  I'liintiiir/  are  much 
used.  The  French  Bililio//if'f/iie  (h  V Eiinrignemeut  di-a  Beaux 
Arta  contains  volumes  on  French,  Italian,  Dutch,  and  other 
.schools,  and  these  volumes  are  being  ])ublished  in  English 
translation.  A  very  large  and  elaborate  work  is  Charles 
Blanc"s  llUtoire  des  Peintrts  de   Toutets  les  Kcn/es,  com- 


392 


PAISLEY 


PALAEOGRAPHY 


pleted  in  1876.  lirvan's  Diclionary  of  Pa  inters  and  En- 
gravers (nvw  ed.  188(3)  is  good,  and  Seubert's  Ki'ms/ler  Lexi- 
con easy  to  use  for  persons  witli  even  a  slight  knowledge  of 
German.  Tlie  fullest  biograpliieal  dictionary  is  Nagler's 
AUgenieines  Kunst-Lexicon.  but  it  is  out  of  print  and  neeils 
revision,  and  a  revised  edition  wliicli  has  been  uudertalcen 
has  not  been  carried  very  far.  For  the  pictures  of  Chris- 
tian religious  subjects,  Jlrs.  Jameson's  Sacred  and  Legen- 
dari/  Art,  Leqends  of  tlie  Madonna,  and  Legends  of  the 
Monastic  Orders  shoidd  be  studied;  also  Lady  Eastlake"s 
continuation  of  Mrs.  Jameson's  History  of  our  Lord;  also 
Lord  Lindsay's  Cliristian  Art.  For  Italian  painting,  the 
different  Ijooks  by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  and  by  ^lorelli 
should  be  studied.  For  other  schools,  Crowe  and  Cavalca- 
selle, £arli/  Flemish  Painters;  Stirling-Maxwell,  Annals 
of  the  Artists  of  Spain  :  Redgrave,  Dictionary  of  Artists 
of  the  English  'School,  and  A  Century  of  Painters  of  the 
English  School.  All  of  the  works  of  Ernest  Chesnau  are 
valuable  for  criticism,  and  those  of  Hamerton  for  their  fa- 
miliar and  popular  treatment  of  the  art  of  painting. 

Russell  Sturgis. 

Paisley  :  town  :  in  tlie  county  of  Renfrew,  Scotland  ;  on 
the  White  Cart,  8  miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Clyde 
(see  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  13-F).  It  consists  of  an  old  town 
situated  on  the  western  bank  of  tlie  river,  and  a  new  town 
on  the  opposite  bank,  paved  and  well  built.  The  alibey 
(originally  founded  in  1303)  is  historically  interesting,  and 
among  the  modern  buildings  are  the  town-hall  (1879-83)  in 
the  Italian  style,  the  county  buildings  (18!J1)  with  a  fine 
council-hall,  and  the  Coats  free  library  and  museum  (1871) 
with  an  observatory  and  picture-gallery.  The  Coats  Me- 
morial Baptist  church  (1891)  is  said  to  be  the  finest  ecclesi- 
astical structure  erected  in  Scotland  since  the  Reformation. 
0£  its  manufactures  cotton  thread  occupies  the  first  place, 
the  two  principal  firms  employing  between  them  10.000 
hands.  There  are  also  works  for  dyeing,  bleaching,  distill- 
ing, and  brewing,  an<l  the  manufacture  of  woolen  shawls, 
printed-cottons,  handkerchiefs,  carpets,  soap,  and  starch : 
and  there  are  ship-building  yards  on  the  Cart,  which  has 
lieen  deepened  to  18  feet  since  1890.  Paisley  returns  one 
member  to  Parliament.     Poii.  (1891)  64,379. 

R.  A.  Roberts. 

Piliiito  Iiulinns  :  See  Shoshonean  Indians. 

Paixhans,  Fr.  pron.  pnkauih',  Henri  Joseph:  soldier; 
b.  at  Jlctz,  Jan.  33,  1783 ;  was  educated  in  the  Polytechnic 
School  at  Paris ;  entered  the  army ;  served  in  Napoleon's 
campaigns,  but  left  active  service  after  the  Restoration  ; 
was  employed  in  the  war  ministry  and  on  the  committee  on 
the  artillery.  In  1834  experiments  were  made  at  Brest,  at 
Col.  Paixhans's  suggestion,  upon  cannon  for  horizontal  shell- 
firing.  The  idea  was  taken  up  by  the  British  admiralty, 
and  the  Paixhans  guns  were  the  result.  He  published  Con- 
siderations siir  VArtillerie  (1815) :  Xoiirelle  Force  maritime 
(1822) ;  and  Force  et  Faiblesse  de  la  France  (1830).  D.  near 
Met/,.  Aug.  19,  1854. 

Paixhans  (wiiiis:  See  Artillery  and  Columbiad. 

Pak'eiiliam.  Sir  Edward  Michael,  G.  C.  B.  :  soldier;  a 
brother  of  the  Earl  of  Longford  ;  b.  in  Ireland  in  1779  : 
entered  the  light  dragoons  in  early  life,  and  served  with 
brilliant  re])utalion  under  Wellington  (whose  quartermas- 
ter-general he  became),  and  also  in  the  West  Indies.  In 
1813  became  major-general ;  in  1814  commanded  the  expe- 
dition against  New  Orleans ;  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  New 
Orleans  Jan.  8,  1815,  an  action  in  which  he  displayed  great 
gallantry. 

Paktong ;  the  correct  name  of  the  Chinese  alloy  resem- 
bling German  silver  in  appearance,  which  is  commercially 
known  as  packfong.  fang  being  an  original  error  for  the 
Chinese  toiig,  or  lung,  copper.  The  name  means  "  white 
copper,"  and  is  pronounced  peh-tung  in  the  mandarin  dia- 
lect. Paktong  is  composed  of  arsenic  and  copper  fused  at  a 
low  temperature,  two  parts  of  arsenic  to  five  of 'copper.  It 
was  once  extensively  exported  to  Europe  and  employed  in 
making  philosophical  instruments  and  a  great  variety  of 
other  goods.  It  can  not  be  fused,  for  the  copper  alone  will 
remain  after  nieltini:.  Of  late  the  (du'aper  nickel  alloys 
have  driven  this  substance  out  of  the  European  market,  bin 
it  is  still  extensively  employed  by  the  Chinese.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  Chinese  often  manufactured  paktong  directly 
from  arsenical  cojiper  ores.     See  Nickel. 

Palncio,  pa'ii-laa'si'e-«,  Raimi'Ndo  Andueza  :  politician  ; 
li.  in  Venezuela  about  1840.     He  took  an  active  part  in  poli- 


tics ;  was  Jlinister  of  State  under  Rojas  Paul  1888-90,  and 
at  the  close  of  his  term  was  elected  president,  assuming  office 
Mar.  19,  1890.  In  1893  the  elections  were  postponed  ;  a  re- 
bellion, headed  by  Gen.  Crespo,  broke  out ;  Palacio's  forces 
were  defeated  near  Caracas,  and  he  was  forced  to  resign  and 
leave  the  country  (June.  1893),  U.  II.  S. 

Paladillic,  i>a"'a'laa'deer,  Emile  :  composer;  b.  at  Mont- 
pellier,  Ilerault,  France,  June  3.  1844;  entered  the  Paris 
Conservatory  when  nine  years  of  age ;  won  first  prize  in 
1857  and  Prix  de  Rome  in  1860.  He  has  since  won  consid- 
erable fame  as  a  composer  of  operas,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  his  grand  opera  Patrie.  text  from  Sardou's  drama, 
lu-uduced  at  the  Opera,  Paris,  Dec.  20,  1886.  He  has  also 
composed  a  symphony,  masses,  and  much  music  for  vocal 
and  instrumental  solos.  D.  E.  H. 

Pala''m(iii.  Quixtus  Remsiius  :  a  Roman  grammarian  of 
the  first  century  A.  D.,  from  Vioenza,  whose  Ars  was  largely 
aiipropriated  by  later  grammarians.  See  K.  Marschall, 
De  Peinmii  Pai(pmonis  libris  grammaficis  (Leipzig,  1887). 

PalaMtg'raiihy  [Gr.  naXai6s.  ancient  -t-  ypacpTi.  a  writing, 
deriv.  of  yptitpeiv,  write]  :  the  science  of  ancient  handwriting. 
Pahi'ography  has  to  do  with  manuscripts,  as  epigraphy  with 
inscriptions  ;  it  teaches  how  to  decipher  them  and  to  judge 
of  the  time  and  jilaee  of  their  writing.  It  includes  in  its 
scope  all  handwritings,  alphabetic  and  non-alphabetic,  Ori- 
ental and  Occidental :  but  its  chief  concern  has  been  with 
manuscripts  written  in  the  Greek  or  in  the  Latin  alphabet. 

or  the  t  wo.  Latin  paheography  is  the  older.  For  some  time 
after  the  invention  of  printing,  as  both  compositor  and  scholar 
were  familiar  with  the  media'val  script,  no  need  of  paheo- 
graphic  study  was  felt ;  but.  as  the  the  ohl  contractions  disap- 
peared from  printed  books  and  the  new  Italian  hand  crowded 
out  the  crabbed  monastic  writing,  the  manuscripts  grew  nnin- 
telligil>le.  At  the  same  time  the  exposure  of  such  forgeries  as 
the  Constantinian  Donation  and  the  Pseudo-Isidorian  decre- 
tals threw  doubt  on  the  genuineness  of  all  ancient  docu- 
ments. In  their  eagerness  to  save  the  true  at  the  cost  of 
the  false  Catholic  scholars  went  almost  further  than  Prot- 
estants in  their  skepticism,  and  in  1675  the  learned  Jesuit 
Papebroch,  editor  of  the  Bollandist  Ada  Sanctorum,  made 
a  sweeping  assault  on  all  charters  claiming  early  Frankish 
origin.  These  charters  were  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of 
the"  one  ancient  monastic  order  of  the  West,  the  Benedic- 
tines, and  the  ablest  of  its  scholars,  Mabillon,  came  to  the 
rescue  of  the  questioned  documents  by  the  publication  in 
1681  of  his  De  re  diplomatica.  It  created  at  one  stroke  a 
new  science.  With  the  sure  hand  of  a  master  he  laid  down 
the  criteria  and  rules  for  the  determination  of  the  age  of 
]MSS.,  illustrating  and  proving  from  the  ample  materials  at 
his  hand.  Even  his  Jesuit  opponent  was  convinced,  and 
Mabillon's  book  remains  the  foremost  in  the  literature  of  its 
subject.  The  voluminous  Kouivau  traite  de  diplomatique 
of  ids  fellow  Benedictines  Toustain  and  Tassin,  a  half-cen- 
tury later  (1750-65),  only  expands  and  illustrates  the  work 
of  Mabillon.  Thus  far  the  new  science  aimed  at  both  the 
decipherment  of  handwriting  and  the  determination  of  the 
genuineness  and  worth  of  documents;  but,  when  with  the 
French  Revolution  the  legal  value  of  old  charters  was  swept 
away,  they  no  longer  interested  any  but  historians,  while 
the  other  "manuscript  treasures  oi  convent  and  castle,  scat- 
tered now  to  the  libraries  of  Europe,  became  the  heritage  of 
all  scholars.  Paheography,  the  science  of  handwriting,  sepa- 
rated itself  from  diplomatics,  the  science  of  documents; 
and  while  archivists  are  now  trained  in  the  latter  by  two  or 
three  national  schools,  like  the  ficole  Nationale  des  Chartes 
at  I'aris  and  that  founded  by  Sickel  at  Vienna,  the  former 
has  fouiul  a  place  in  the  curricula  of  most  institutions  for 
the  higher  learning.  Facsimiles,  multiplying  with  the  grow- 
ing ease  and  cheapness  of  pictorial  reproduction,  make  the 
studv  |iossible  and  fruitful  anywhere. 

Tlie  oldest  liatin  MSS.  extant  belong  to  the  first  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era.  They  show  already  in  use  two  clearly 
marked  hands — a  formal  book-hand  in  majuscule(cai>ital)  let- 
ters closely  resembling  those  of  the  inscriptions,  and  a  cursive 
(running)  hand  clearly  derived  from  the  other,  but  differing 
nearly  lis  much  as  the  small  letters  from  the  cajiitals  of  the 
modern  alphabet.  The  whole  story  of  paheography  is  the 
storv  of  the  reciprocal  influence  of  the.se  two  hands — the 
majuscule  growing  more  careless  under  the  influence  of  the 
cursive,  ami  the  cursive  more  legible  under  the  influence  (jf 
the  nuijuscule.  Thus  from  the  book-hand  were  developed  in 
times  still  Uonian  the  easier  uncials,  characterized  especially 
by  the  roundetl  forms  of  a,  d.  e,  h,  m,  and  soon  of  g.  q.  t.  u,  all 


PAL/EOLOGUS 


PALAXQUIN 


393 


taking  on  nearly  their  present  minuscule  shape.  From  a 
mixture  of  uncial  and  cursive  f;re\v,  in  the  Gennanizeil  lands 
of  the  Conliuciil.  a  group  of  national  hands— Fi'ankish, 
Lombard.  Visij,'ulliic — while  the  Irish  monks  and  their  Eng- 
lish disciples  mctamor|)liosed  the  uncial  after  their  own 
fashion,  Ijut  in  much  the  same  direction.  .Meanwhile  the 
Roman  cursive  itself,  stiffened  into  a  charter-hand,  h'l'l 
given  hirtli  to  the  grotesijuely  illegilile  script  of  the  early 
Prankish  diplomas.  From  the  end  of  the  eiglnli  century, 
howeviT.  all  ihesc.  one  by  one,  gave  way  to  the  lieautiful 
minuscule  which  had  come  into  use  at  Rome,  then  the  book- 
mart  of  the  West,  or.  under  the  fostering  cire  of  Charles  the 
Great  and  of  .Vlcuin.  had  been  evolved  from  the  l-'ranki.sh 
half-uncial  in  the  convent  schools  of  Xeustria  and  .\ustrasia. 
Capitals  were  now  banished  to  head-lines  and  initials,  the 
script  of  letters  and  of  charters  became  by  degrees  once 
more  identical  with  that  of  books,  and  the  Carnliiic  hand 
wa.s  from  the  tenth  century  universal  in  Latin  Christendom. 
After  the  twelfth  century  it  fell  iiule<'d  into  that  angularity 
which  still  survives  in  German  book-type,  as  for  long  in 
Old  Knglisli  bl.ack  letter ;  but  happily  the'ltalian  sclujlars  and 
printers  of  tlie  Renaissance  took  as  a  model  the  purer  Caro- 
line forms  of  the  old  MSS.  wlience  they  drew  the  classical 
texts  which  were  tlieir  delight.  The  chief  dilliculty  of  the 
later  uu'ilia'val  JIS8.  lies  in  the  ever-multiplying  al)brevia- 
tioHs  which  had  made  writing  almost  a  system  of  shorthand. 
and  whieh  even  survived  for  a  linu-  the  invention  of  printing. 

The  rise  of  Greek  paja-ograpliy  followed  close  upon  that 
of  Latin.  In  1708  the  Beneclicline  Jlontfaucon  |)ublished 
his  Palie<itjraphin  irnei-it,  which,  even  longer  than  Mahillon's 
great  work,  renuiined  the  sole  and  sufficient  authority  in  its 
field.  ( Inly  in  our  own  day  has  it  lieen  found  necessary  to 
revise  his  work  in  the  light  of  ampler  material,  especially  for 
the  earlier  periods.  SiiU'C  Jloulfaucon's  time  I  lie  lield  of 
study  has  been  pushed  centuries  back  by  the  discovery  of 
Greek  papyri  at  Herciilaneum  and  in  Egypt.  Though  we 
are  perhaps  but  at  the  beginning  of  w'hat  w'e  may  hope  from 
the  latter  source,  we  have  already  enough  for  a  survey  of 
the  growth  of  Greek  handwriting  from  the  third  century 
B.  ('.  The  development  is  strikingly  [)arallel  to  that  of 
Latin.  From  the  first  we  have  side  by  side  two  hanils:  the 
book-hand  of  literature  ami  the  running  hand  of  ordinary 
use.  In  Greek,  too,  the  angular  capitals,  in  the  early  cen- 
turies of  our  era.  took  on  the  rounded  forms  which  bear  the 
name  (borrowed  from  their  Latin  counter|)arts)  of  uncials. 
This  remained  the  usual  book-hanil  till  in  the  ninth  century 
there  was  shajied  from  the  cursive  a  minuscule  whieh  thence- 
forward became  the  literary  hand.  Greek  paheography  has 
drawn  a  peculiar  interest  from  its  bearing  on  the  transmis- 
sion of  the  Christian  Scriptures. 

For  the  study  of  the  non-alphalietie  handwritings  the 
best  book  is  W'uttke's  Die  Kutxlvhiiiig  de.r  Scln-ift  \  for  the 
history  of  the  alphabet,  Taylor's  TIte  Alphalmt  and  Kirch- 
hoff"s  Sludieii  zur  Geschichte  dcs  grie.cliisehen  Alphdhfts  \ 
for  t  he  general  history  of  handwriting.  Astle's  old  but  excel- 
lent Origin  and  J^rogrean  of  W'riliiig.  llvnuphr<'y's  Origin 
find  Progrefus  of  thu  Art  of  Wriliiig.  Herg<'r"s  riixfoire  de 
I'Kiriture  da)vi  VAnliquitf.  For  Greek  and  Lalin  paheog- 
raphy we  have  at  last  an  excellent  manual  in  Knglish : 
Thompson's  Ifandhook  of  Greek  and  Latin  Palieography. 
Of  other  mo{lern  introductions  to  paheography,  the  best  for 
Greek  are  the  (iernum  onesof  Wallcnbach.  (xardlhausen,  and 
IJlass;  for  Lalin.  the  unwieldy  W'ailly,  and  the  later  text- 
books of  \Vattenl)acli.  Prou.  and  Paoli.  while  the  convenient 
little  nianualsiif  Chassaul  and  Li'ist  have  still  a  use.  These 
must  be  supplemented  of  course  by  collections  of  facsimiles. 
The  most  comprehensive  are  .still  the  Paleiigriipliie  niiirer- 
«('//(■  of  Silvest re,  and  the  vast  series  of  the  Paheographical 
Society  :  but  ample  for  the  stutlenl's  use  are  the  Scltriftlafeln 
of  AvndlAUi-  Allium  piili'ogriiji/iiijiip  of  the  French  National 
Library,  or  the  liecueil  de  fdc-simili'.s  of  the  ficole  Xalionale 
des  Charles.  The  best  dii-tiouary  of  abbreviations  is  si  ill  the 
old  Lexicon  diplomiiticiim  of  Walther,  but  the  little  tnw.  of 
Chassant  and  that  appended  to  Prou's  Manuel  serve  an  ex- 
cellent purpose,  and  .Martin's  Record  Interpreter  is  of  value 
for  English  documents.    See  Manuscripts.    G.  L.  Hiuk. 

Piilii'ol'ogiis :  the  name  of  a  Byzantine  family  which 
gjivi-  rulers  l(]  the  HvZANTlXK  K.MIMRK  (i/.  r.)  from  I2(>1  to 
\A'i'A.  ll  pnidueeil  many  alile  uii'ii.  One  branch  held  the 
principalily  uf  Monlfi-rrat.  Norlliern  Italy  (l:!0.")-l.'i:i:i) ;  an- 
olher  ruled  inlhc  I'eloponru'sus  ( i:W0-U«2).  .Siphia.  only 
child  (if  Tlioniiis.  chief  of  l\u;  lal  ter  braiu-h.  uuirried  (1472) 
Ivan  III.  the  Great,  Grand  Duke  of  Russia,  who  in  eonse- 


qiienec  a,ssunied  the  double-headed  Byzantine  eagle  of  Con- 
stantinople as  the  Russian  arms.  Theodore  Paheologus,  the 
last  descendant  of  the  I'ala-ologi.  died  Jan.  21.  1G.")G,  and  is 
buried  in  the  Church  of  Landulph,  Cornwall.  SccCoxstan- 
ti.m:  .\1II.  E.  a.  Grosvexor. 

PahiMintoIogy:  same  as  Paleontology  (</.  r.). 

PalH'pliatiis  (in  Gi-.  UaXaiipaTos) :  Greek  mythographer  of 
uncertain  period.  The  language  seems  to  point  to  a  time 
not  earlier  than  the  second  century  B.  c.  To  this  Pahephalus, 
for  there  were  several  of  the  name,  is  usiudly  ascribed  a 
treatise  Hep!  airlaTwv  [iirropiSii>].  On  Incredible  Tales,  which 
was  once  a  favorite  school-book.  In  the  extant  compilation 
fifty  of  the  Greek  legends  are  exjdained  historically  and  al- 
legorically.  much  afier  the  fashion  of  El-hemeris  (<).  r.).  and 
on  the  general  subject.  The  treatise  has  been  edited  by 
Fischer  (Leipzig,  1789),  and  by  Westermann  in  his  Mytliog- 
rap/ii  (rrwci  (Brunswick,  1843).  See  Grote's  History  of 
Greece  (vol.  i.,  p.  4;)  foil.,  Am.  ed.)  and  Wipprecht.  Ques- 
tiones  I'alii'phateiv  (1892).  B.  L.  (iiLDEKSLEEVE. 

Palnilinihan  Indians,  also  called  Palaiks  ami  Pit 
River  Indians  [from  the  Klamath  wcjrd ///^/Avi/.  signify- 
ing mounlaineers,  uplamlers]:  a  family  of  North  .\merican 
Indians,  luiving  as  tlicir  habitat  the  territory  drained  by 
Pit  river  and  ils  tributaries  from  (toosc  Lake  to  Ihc  mouth 
of  Sijuaw  creek,  in  Modoc.  Lassen.  Shasla.  and  Siskiyou 
Counties.  Northern  California.  The  foUowing  trit>al  "di- 
visions are  recognized:  Achoniawi,  Atuamih,  Chumawa, 
Eslakewach,  Hantewa,  llumawhi.  Ilmawi.  I'akamalli  (?). 

The  physical  appearance  of  the  tribes  of  Pit  river  varies 
greatly.  The  Humawhi  and  Estakewach  have  lieen  de- 
scribed as  "most  miserable.  sr|ualid.  peaked-faced,  mendi- 
cant, and  nu'udacious  wrclchcs."  the  result  chielly  of  the 
inroads  of  the  Modok  and  Midialuk  (who  carried  into  bond- 
age tlieir  comeliest  maidens  and  bravest  youths  whenever 
opjiorl unity  offered)  and  partly  of  warfare  in  former  years 
with  white  settlers.  The  Atuamih  were  much  superior  in 
physique.  The  women  of  all  the  tribes  are  degraded  and 
their  positions  are  servile.  Jlarriage  is  by  purchase,  and 
polygamy  ])revails.  All  these  tribes  were  very  indifferent 
liiniters.  They  formerly  trapped  game  in  pitfalls  covered 
with  brush,  grass,  and  earth.  These  pits  were  particularly 
numerous  along  the  river,  hence  Pit  river,  after  which  the 
tribes  were  also  named.  Crenuition  is  generally  practiced  in 
cases  where  the  person  died  of  an  unknown  disease  :  all  others 
are  burie<l  in  a  sitting  posture.  The  Ilmawi.  however,  never 
burn  their  dead.  Very  few  of  the  Palaihnihan  Indians  sur- 
vive. Some  of  them  were  removed  to  tlie  Round  Valley 
reservation.  California,  and  these,  with  some  natives  from 
Potter  Valley,  numbered  thirl y-four  in  1889.  See  Indians 
OP  North  America;  also  Stephen  Powers.  Tribes  of  Cali- 
fornia (Cont.  iV.  A.  Ethnology,  iii.),  267-374  (Washington, 
i877).  F.  W.  lloDSE. 

Pnlnik  Indians:  See  Palaiuxiiiax  IxniAxs. 

Palaincde'ida;  [Jlod.  Lat..  n;nncd  from  J'alame'dea,  the 
flrsl  ilescribed  genus,  from  Gr.  UaXafiiiSris.  >i  Troj;in  hero]:  a 
family  of  birds  most  closely  relaled  to  the  ducks  {Annlidie), 
but  resembling  also  tlie  rails  (Hall idle),  and  remarkable  for 
their  large  feet.  In  general  aspect  they  resemble  the  rails 
more  tluin  the  ducks.  The  neck  is  comparatively  short;  the 
head  small  and  decorated  with  a  slender  horn-Iikc  append- 
age, from  2  to  3  inches  long,  rising  from  the  forehead;  bill 
siioii,  compressed  ;  the  wings  are  large  and  armed  at  the 
shoulder  with  two  strong  spui-s;  the  tail  rather  small;  legs 
enlarged,  covered  with  numerous  oblong  and  somewhat 
hexagonal  scales,  which  extend  on  the  tibia'  as  well  as  tarsi, 
and  with  larger  olilong  scales  in  transverse  rows  on  the  up- 
per surface  of  the  toes:  the  toes  long,  the  anteriorconnected 
bv  slight  scaly  webs.  In  the  osteology  the  species  essentially 
resemble  the  ilucks.  and  have  been  combined  with  them  by 
Iluxlev  under  the  name  Chenomorphie  as  typical  desmogna- 
thous  i)irds.  The  family  is  composed  of  but  two  genera:  (1) 
Paliunedea,  Linn.,  with  one  specie.s,  P.  cormita.  and  (2) 
Chaunri.  Illig.,  with  two  species.  All  are  inhabitants  of 
South  .\merica.  and  frequent  marshy  grounds  and  borders 
of  lakes  and  rivers.  They  generally  associate  together  in 
pairs,  but  sometimes  in  Iroojis  of  many  individuals.  Their 
gait  when  undisturbed  is  slow,  their  liighl  easy  and  rapid; 
Ihey  soar  to  great  heights;  they  rest  in  high  trees,  and  in 
the.se  they  make  their  nests,  wlierein  the  fiMiiah-  wnerally 
lays  two  eggs.  F.  .\.  Lucas. 

Piilan(|nin'  [via  Fr.  and  Poring,  from  .Javanese /<«/«n.'7^'i, 
viii  I'rakril.  from  .Sanskr.  paryanka,  bed,  coiieh,  liter.,  a  sit- 


394: 


PALAPRAT 


PALATINE 


ting  with  bent  legs  on  the  haras ;  pari,  around  +  anka,  hook, 
bend,  groin] :  a  portable  litter  for  conveying  travelers.  Pal- 
anquins are  employed  extensively  in  India,  China,  and  other 
Asiatic  countries.  The  Japanese  norimono  and  kugo  are 
but  forms  of  the  palanquin.  The  Indian  palanquin  has  a 
water-proof  cover,  with  \'enetian  shutters  at  the  sides.  The 
traveler  is  carried  in  a  recumbent  posture.  The  palanquin 
is  borne  by  four  men,  who  are  relieved  at  regular  intervals 
by  others,  (juite  a  train  of  attenilants  accompany  tlie  pal- 
anquin on  foot,  and  the  bearers  while  on  duty  keep  up  a 
monotonous  chant.  The  journey  is  often  continued  for 
long  distances  by  day  and  night. 

Palaprat,  pa'a'la'a'praa'.  Jean,  Seigneur  de  Bigot :  drama- 
tist ;  b.  at  Toulouse,  France,  in  1650.  In  1675  he  was  capitu- 
lary of  his  city;  he  afterward  traveled,  lived  for  a  time  in 
Kome,  and  again  in  France  as  secretary  of  the  Duke  of  Ven- 
dome.  I).  Oct.  14,  1T21.  He  is  known  chiefly  as  the  asso- 
ciate of  David  August  de  Brueys  (1640-1738)  in  the  [irodue- 
tion  of  comedies.  Their  best-known  work  is  the  adaptation 
of  the  old  farce  L'Avocat  Patelin  ;  of  their  original  works, 
Le  Sot  toujoiirs  sot.  Les  Quiproquo,  L' Important,  Le  Muet, 
Le  Grniuleiir,  tlie  last  is  called  the  best  comedy  between  Mo- 
liere  and  Regnard.  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Palatal  Bones :  a  pair  of  bones  in  the  vertebrate  .skull, 
which  develop  from  the  anterior  part  of  the  cartilage  of  the 
upper  half  of  the  anterior  visceral  arch  ("  palato-pterygo- 
quadrate  arcade  ").  In  the  sharks  (in  which,  however,  no 
bone  exists)  the  corresponding  cartilage  serves  to  bear  teeth, 
and  in  the  lower  bony  vertebrates  (fishes  and  Batrachia)  the 
bones  may  be  teeth-bearing.  In  the  higher  forms,  however, 
these  teeth  are  lost,  and  the  bones  here  merely  form  part  of 
the  skeleton  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  In  man  and  other 
mammals  they  are  irregular  in  shape,  and  form  part  of  the 
floor  of  the  nasal  cavity  and  wall  of  the  orbit  as  well. 

J.  S.  KiNGSLEY. 

Palatalization,  or  Palatization  (Germ,  mouinierung, 
palntdlixierung) :  the  modification  of  a  sound  toward  a  pala- 
tal articulation.  The  term  is  specially  applied  in  historical 
grammar  to  the  palatal  modification  either  of  guttural  or 
of  dental  consonants  under  the  influence  of  e-  or  i-sounds. 
Thus  in  Indo-Iranian  the  Indo-Europ.  velar  gutturals  q,  g. 
qh  became  palatalized  before  the  vowels  e,  i,  so  as  to  be- 
come, e.  g.,  in  Sanskrit  c,  j,  jti,  instead  of  Ic,  g,  gh ;  cf.  Lat. 
quod  :  quid  : :  Sanskr.  kas,  who  f  :  cid.  The  Indo-Europ.  per- 
fect of  root  qer-,  "  make,"  is  qeqora  >  Sanskr.  ciikdra  ;  of 
root  qem,  "  come,"  is  qeqoma  >  Sanskr.  Jagcima.  Very  simi- 
lar is  the  treatment  in  the  Romanic  languages  of  Lat.  c 
i=k)  in  cfi  and  ci  in  distinction  from  that  in  ca,  co,  cii ;  thus 
contrast  on  the  one  hand  Lat.  centum  >  Ital.  cento  (pron. 
tnento) :  Fr.  cent  (pron.  sot),  and  on  the  other  Lat.  causa  > 
Ital.  cosa  (pron.  koza)  :  Pr.  chose,  or  Lat.  cnrsas  >  Ital. 
rorso  :  Fr.  cours.  The  palatalization  of  a  dental  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  change  of  ni  (ny)  to  ;1  in  the  Romanic 
languages,  as  Lat.  seniorem  >  Ital.  signor  :  Sjian.  sefior. 
Entirely  similar  are  such  changes  as  Gr.  pian'-o  >  piailo  > 
(palva.  Changes  such  as  ti  to  ts  or  ts,  di  to  dz  or  dz,  which 
occur  in  various  languages  and  play  often  an  important 
part  in  the  development  of  their  phonology,  are  commonly 
classed  as  palatalizations,  because  the  direction  of  the 
change  is  palatal.  Cf.  Eng.  ort-yard  >  orchard,  pronounced 
ortsard;  Gr.  takio  >  -riaau:  Lat.  diurniis  >  lisX.  giorno 
(pronounced  tZiorrao) :  Pr.  jour;  Eng.  *verdiure>  verdure 
(pronounced  vaidzur) ;  Gr.  *dieus  >  ZeiJt. 

Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Palatals :  the  sounds  formed  between  the  body  of  the 
tongue  and  the  hard  palate.  They  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  velars  or  gutturals  proper,  which  are  formed  be- 
tween the  back  of  the  tongue  and  the  soft  palate.  (See 
Gutturals.)  Palatal  explosives  are  k  (as  in  kiss,  not  as  in 
col.)  and  g  (as  in  get,  not  as  in  got).  Palatal  spirants  are  ch 
or  X  (as  in  (ierm.  ich),  and  j,  the  voiced  variety  of  the  same 
(as  ill  Jlod.  Gr.  Alfyii/a,  or  in  Germ.  lege,  folge,  regnen).  The 
palatal  semi-vowel  _;/  (/),  in  Eng.  yet,  young,  onion,  use  (iuz), 
approaches  near  to  the  character  of  a  voiced  palatal  spirant, 
and  is  more  accurately  classifled  as  such.  The  palatal  vowels 
are  the  various  forms  of  e  (as  in  ten,  bat.  bait)  and  of  i  (as 
it,  bit,  beet).     See  Piioxetics.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Palatp  [from  Jy.W.  palatum,  roof  of  the  mouth,  palate]: 
the  arch  or  roof  of  the  mouth.  It  is  made  up  of  two  parts, 
called  the  hard  palate  and  soft  palate,  or  return  pendulum 
palali.  The  hard  palati',  which  is  situatcil  anteriorly,  is 
bounded  in  front  and  at  the  sides  by  the  gums  and  alveolar 


arches,  being  continuous  behind  with  the  soft  palate.  It 
consists  of  a  bony  structure,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two 
palate-bones  and  the  palatal  portion  of  the  superior  maxil- 
lary bone.  These  palate-bones  are  wedged  in  between  the 
superior  maxillary  and  pterygoid  process  of  the  sphenoid. 
In  form  each  palate-bone  resembles  the  letter  L,  and  is  di- 
vided into  a  superior  or  vertical  plate  and  an  inferior  or 
horizontal  plate.  The  inferior  surface  of  the  horizontal  plate 
forms  the  back  part  of  the  hard  palate.-  The  anterior  border 
of  each  palate-bone  articulates  with  the  palate  process  of  the 
superior  maxillary  bone.  The  bony  structure  of  the  hard 
palate  is  covered  by  periosteum,  to  which  the  mucous  mem- 
brane is  firmly  attached.  A  linear  ridge  or  raphe  extends 
along  the  middle  line,  terminating  anteriorly  in  a  small 
papilla.  The  mucous  membrane  in  front  of  and  upon  either 
side  of  the  raphe  is  pale,  thick,  and  corrugated  ;  behind,  it 
is  smooth  and  deeper  in  color.  A  number  of  small  glands 
are  situated  in  the  mucous  membrane,  the  surface  of  which 
is  covered  with  squamous  epithelium.  The  soft  palate  is 
composed  of  muscular  fibers  covered  by  mucous  membrane 
with  gland  structures  embedded  in  its  substance.  From  the 
middle  of  its  lower  border  hangs  a  conical-shaped  process, 
the  uvula,  and  upon  either  side  of  the  uvula,  arching  down- 
ward and  outward  from  its  base,  are  the  pillars  of  the  soft 
palate.  The  mucous  membrane  is  thin,  covered  Ijy  squamous 
epithelium  on  both  surfaces,  except  near  the  orifice  of  the 
Eustachian  tube,  where  it  is  columnar  and  ciliated.  The 
muscles  of  the  soft  palate  are  five  in  number  on  either  side, 
viz.,  the  levator  palati,  tensor  [lalati.  palato-glossus,  palato- 
pharyngeus,  and  azygos  uvul-v.  Upi>n  either  side  of  the 
fauces,  between  the  anterior  and  posterior  pillars  of  the  soft 
palate,  are  two  glandular  organs,  the  tonsils.  During  the  first 
part  of  deglutition  the  food  is  carried  back  by  the  tongue, 
pressing  against  the  hard  palate ;  at  the  same  time  the  base 
of  the  tongue  is  retracted  and  the  larynx  raised  with  the 
pharynx,  and  carried  forward  under  it.  Then  the  epiglot- 
tis closes  the  entrance  to  the  larynx,  and  over  this  the  food 
glides,  the  palato-glossi  muscles  contracting  at  the  same 
time  that  the  levator  and  tensor  palate,  with  the  palato- 
pharyngei,  prevent  the  jrassage  of  the  food  into  the  upper 
part  of  the  pharynx  or  posterior  nares.  Thus  the  palate 
serves  an  important  pai't  in  the  act  of  swallowing  or  deglu- 
tition. When  its  muscles  are  paralyzed,  as  occurs  not  infre- 
quently after  diphtheria,  the  posterior  nares  are  not  closed 
during  deglutition,  and  food,  especially  liquids,  regurgitates 
at  the  mouth.  Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Palat'inate,  Tlie  (in  Germ.  Pfalz) :  formerly  a  political 
division  and  independent  state  of  Germany,  consisted  of 
two  separate  territories,  respectively  called  the  Upper  Pa- 
latinate, now  forming  the  northern  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Bavaria,  and  the  Lower  Palatinate,  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  Rhine,  and  now  forming  the  southern  part  of  Khenish 
Prussia,  the  northern  part  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden, 
and  the  province  of  Bavaria,  called  Rhenish  Bavaria.  From 
the  eleventh  century  these  two  territories  belonged  together 
and  formed  an  hereditary  monarchy,  their  ruler  being  one 
of  the  electors  of  the  German  empire;  but  in  1648,  by  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia,  they  were  separated,  the  Upper  Pa- 
latinate falling  to  Bavaria  while  the  Lower  Palatinate 
continued  a  possession  of  the  original  dynasty.  In  1777 
the  male  line  of  Bavaria  having  liccome  extinct,  the  two 
Palatinates  were  reunited,  but  at  the  Peace  of  Luneville, 
in  1801,  the  Lower  Palatinate  ceased  to  exist  as  an  in- 
dependent state,  its  territory  being  divided  between  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  Baden,  France,  Leiningen-Dachsburg,  and  Nas- 
sau, and  the  only  alteration  which  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
made  in  this  arrangement  consisted  in  transferring  to  Ger- 
many that  part  of  the  Palatinate  which  France  h-ul  occu- 
pied," Bavaria  receiving  the  larger  part  and  Hessc-Darm- 
stailt  and  Prussia  obtaining  the  rest.  Many  of  its  people 
emigrated  to  Pennsylvania. 

Palatine  [from  Media^v.  Lat.  palatinus,  palatine,  orig. 
one  having  an  office  in  a  palace,  spec,  use  of  Lat. palati'ims, 
belonging  to  a  palacaor  to  tlie  Palatine  Hill,  deriv.  of  Pala- 
tium.the  Palatine  Hill,  the  imperial  residence,  situated  on 
the  Palatine  Hill]:  a  term  originally  applied  to  persons 
holiling  office  in  a  royal  palace,  later  to  certain  high  ad- 
ministrative or  .judicial  officers.  Under  the  JMerovingians 
the  counts  palatine  were  attached  to  the  court  and  palace 
of  the  sovereign,  and  aided  him  in  his  judicial  duties,  but 
from  the  time  of  Charlemagne  this  title  was  given  to  pow- 
erful feudal  lords  who  were  jilaced  in  charge  of  remote  or 
turbulent  provinces,  where   they   niaiiil.-uned   a   court  and 


PALATINE   HILL 


PALEONTOLOGY 


395 


palace  in  the  sovereign's  name.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
counties  puhitiiie.  In  Eiisliniil  the  chief  counties  palatine 
were  Chester,  Durham,  and  Lancaster;  the  last  to  lose  the 
distinction  was  Lancaster  (1S7;J).  King  John  divided  Ire- 
land into  twelve  counties  palatine.  Scotland  had  anciently 
a  county  palatine  of  Stratliearn. 

Palatine  Hill  (.Monx  PahitinuK):  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant lit  the  seven  hills  of  ancient  Rome.  It  was  the  site 
of  Jiuma  Quail  rain,  the  original  city.  It  is  S.  of  the  Capi- 
tolini!  Hill  and  .S.  W.  of  the  Korum.  It  was  the  ollicial 
al)o<leof  the  emperors,  and  in  niedia-val  times  of  the  highest 
dignitaries,  but  has  since  then  fallen  into  decay.  Extensive 
excavations  are  being  made,  bringing  to  light  many  valu- 
able remains  of  the  imperial  i)eriod. 

Palatka:  city;  capital  of  Putnam  co.,  Fla.  (for  location. 
see  map  of  Florida,  ref.  3-.J) ;  on  the  St.  John's  river,  and 
the  Fla.  S.,  the  tia.  S.  and  Fla.,  the  Jackson..  St.  Aug.  ami 
Indian  River,  and  the  Jackson.,  Tampa  and  Key  West  rail- 
ways; 30  miles  S.  \V.  of  St.  .\ugustinc,  61)  miles  S.  of  .Jack- 
sonville. It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  luis  a  daily  steam- 
boat line  to  Jacksonville,  and  ships  large  quantities  of  cot- 
ton, sugar,  oranges,  pnieapples,  vegetables,  and  other  prod- 
ucts. It  contains  several  hotels,  a  national  bank  with  capital 
of  §.50.000,  a  savings  and  trust  company  with  capital  of 
f;20,000.  and  a  dailv  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880) 
l.tilG ;  (1890)  3.030  ;'  (1895)  2,828. 

Palazzo  del  Campido^lio  :  .See  Campidoglio,  Palazzo 

DEL. 

Paleario,  .\oxio :  b.  at  Vcroli.  in  the  Papal  States,  l.iOO : 
studied  in  Rome  1.52Ct-27:  settled  at  .Siena  as  teacher  in 
1.130;  and  became  cme  of  the  most  prominent  humanists  of 
his  age.  His  De  iinmortulitiitK  nnimarum  (a  large  didactic 
poem  published  in  1.536)  is  his  princii)al  work,  but  in  1.542 
he  published  Dillii  pienezza.  .siifKciema  e satisfacfioiii'.  ilella 
piixxiiine  (ti  ( 'lirislo,  anil  immediately  he  was  summoned  be- 
fore the  Incpiisition.  He  defended  himself,  however,  so 
brilliantly  that  he  was  acquitted,  and  after  that  time  he  be- 
came very  cautious.  He  declined  an  advantageous  profes- 
sorship in  Lucca  because  the  Roman  curia  was  too  powerful 
in  that  i)la<-e.  His  Actio  in  /idiitifines  Romnnos  et  eorum 
Assi-clas  he  kept  carefully  concealed  (it  was  not  published 
until  1606.  at  Lei|)zig).  In  1.5.55  he  removed  to  Milan.  He 
was  a  second  time  accusi'd  of  heresy  and  summoned  be- 
fore the  In<iuisition,  and,  having  been  sent  to  Rome,  was 
condemned  to  death  Oct.  1.5.  1.569,  and  burned  at  the  stake 
Julv  3.  1.570. 

Paleflfs:  .See  Lake-dwellings. 

Pale.  Irish  :  See  Exglish  Pale. 

Paleinhang' :  a  Dutch  residency  on  the  east  coast  of  Su- 
matra. Area,  61,911  sq.  miles.  Pop.  637..500,  including 
Malays,  Chinese,  Hindus,  Arabs. and  Europeans.  Thecoast- 
land  is  low,  marshy,  overgrown  with  jungle,  and  extremely 
hot,  but  it  is  not  unhealthful,  except  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  the  swamps.  The  interior  is  higher,  and  cov- 
■ered  with  rice-fields  and  plantations  of  sugar,  cotton,  |)ep- 
per,  and  tobacco,  and  with  immense  forests  of  gum  and 
<'oeoaimt  trees.  Coal  and  oil-springs  are  found,  and  gold 
dust,  iron  ore,  suljihur,  and  arsenic.  The  capital  is  Palem- 
bang,  where  tin-  Dutch  governor  resides.  It  is  the  largest 
town  and  the  chief  trade  center  in  Sunuitra,  and  is  built 
on  both  sides  of  the  Moesi,  a  broad  and  deep  river,  which 
admits  the  largest  vessels  and  forms  a  fine  harbor.  The 
city  has  about  .50,000  inhaliilanls,  and  carries  on  a  very  ac- 
tive trade  both  with  the  interior  and  with  Java,  China,  and 
Siam.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Palencia,  ])aa-len'the"e-aa  (anc.  Pallanlia)  :  a  province  of 
Spain,  consisting  of  i)arls  of  Old  Castile;  area,  3,126 sq.  miles. 
I'up.  (1887)  188.954.  With  exception  of  the  northern  jiart, 
which  is  mountainous,  the  province  is  an  extensive  table-land, 
cold  and  treeless,  but  fertile,  well  cultivated,  and  rich  in  salt, 
cop]ier,  sallpeli'r,  chalk,  and  coal.  Wheat,  wine,  vegetables, 
and  fruit  are  proihiced.  The  ciipital.  Palencia,  has  a  Gothic 
cathedral  U321-1.504).     Pop.  15,028. 

Palencia,   Diego   Ferxandez,  de ;   See  Fekxandez   de 

PaLE.N(  lA. 

Palenque  :  See  Central  American  ANTiijriTiKS. 

Paleontology:  the  science  which  treats  of  the  ancient 
life  of  the  gliibe.  The  name  is  of  French  origin,  though, 
indirectly,  from  the  (Jreek,  jroAoids,  ancient,  ukto.  being,  and 
AcSyoj,  discourse  ;  and  in  its  broadest  sense  covere  the  fields 
of  j)aJeozoology  and  palenbolany. 


As  a  branch  of  science  distinct  from  zoology  and  botany, 
paleontology  owes  its  origin  to  the  recognition  of  fossils  as 
the  remains  of  extinct  organisms.  Cuvier  is  generally  cred- 
ited willi  the  honor  of  having  first  clearly  announced  the 
scientific  opinion  that  organisms  specifically  distinct  from 
the  present  inhabitants  have  lived  upon  the  earth.  This  was 
done  in  1796,  in  a  paper  on  'J'/te  Living  and  Fossil  Species 
of  Elephants.  kvlA  before  the  French  Institute  of  Sciences 
and  Arts,  and  was  founded  upon  the  study  of  the  bones  of 
the  Siberian  mammoth  and  of  the  Elephas  nmericanus, 
which  were  shown  to  be  specifically  different  from  those  of 
the  living  .\siatic  elephant. 

At  first  the  result  of  the  study  of  fossil  organisms  was  to 
add  new  species  to  the  known  genera  of  modern  zoology 
and  botany;  but  it  was  not  long  before  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  arrange  in  the  classification  for  distinct  fossil  genera, 
and.  as  the  science  has  developed,  new  families  and  orders 
have  been  defined,  entirely  distinct  from  any  living  groups, 
for  the  reception  of  the  organisms  whose  fossil  remains 
have  been  found  in  the  rocks.  Paleontology  has  not  only 
enlarged  the  number  of  s]iecies  and  genera,  etc.,  of  animals 
and  plants,  but  it  has  enlarged  the  conception  of  organi.sms. 
So  long  as  the.se  were  sup])osed  to  be  only  such  organisms  as 
now  live,  the  classifications  had  to  deal  with  only  the  dif- 
ferences marking  the  present  inhabitants  of  tlie  globe, 
and  the  organic  species  was  conceivable  as  a  group  of  indi- 
viduals having  a  common  parentage.  When,  however,  the 
idea  of  extinct  forms,  unlike  anything  now  living,  was  intro- 
duced into  science,  the  question  naturally  arose,  how  did 
these  different  kinds  of  organisms  arise?  and  what  relation 
do  they  bear  to  those  now  living:?  Paleontology  primarily 
considers  organisms  as  having  a  historj'.  while  zoology  and 
botany  are  primarily  concerned  with  the  structure  and 
classification  of  organisms ;  thus  the  former  science  finds  its 
legitimate  field  of  investigation  to  be  the  liistor)/  of  orijan- 
isms.  The  records  of  this  history  are  found  chiefly  in  the 
rocks  in  the  form  of  fossils,  which  are  either  the  remains  of 
the  hard  structures  elaborated  during  the  growth  of  the  ani- 
mal or  plant,  or  tracks  left  on.  or  in  the  sands  or  muds  during 
its  life  ;  but  they  include  as  well  the  skeletons  or  hard  parts  of 
recent  animals  to  be  examined  after  its  death,  or  even  while 
still  living.  The  study  of  the  history  involves  also  the  com- 
parison of  ancient  witli  more  recent  types,  and  the  examina- 
tion of  the  more  minute  and  perishable  structures  of  living 
organisms,  in  order  to  explain  the  function  or  import  of  the 
hard  jiarts  alone  preserved  in  the  rocks. 

The  mere  description  of  the  fossil  remains  of  organisms 
and  their  systematic  classification  is.  properly  speaking,  a 
part  of  zoology  and  botany,  technically  described  as  pideo- 
zoology  and  paleobotany,  while  paleontology  proper  is  wiiler 
in  its  "scope,  and  is  that  branch  of  biology  treating  of  the 
histoiy  of  organisms,  both  vegetable  and  animal.  As  bot- 
any and  zoology  treat  of  the  characters  expressed  in  the  life 
of  the  individuals,  so  paleontology  treats  of  the  life  of  the 
races,  the  former  discussing  the  modification  of  the  organs 
and  tissues  as  adapted  to  the  various  lil'e-functions  of  the 
individual,  the  latter  the  modification  of  the  individual  as  a 
part  of  a  faima  or  a  flora  in  adaptation  to  its  environment, 
or  as  reliited  to  its  ancestors  or  successors  in  the  evolution 
of  the  race.  Paleontology  is  therefore  based  upon  the  sci- 
ences of  zoology  and  botany  on  the  one  hand,  the  nomen- 
clature and  systematic  classifications  of  which  are  essential 
to  the  clear  understanding  of  the  historical  relations  of  the 
organisms,  and  upon  straligraphical  geology  on  the  other 
hand,  in  which  the  records  are  preserved,  and  by  which  the 
time-relations  of  the  fossils  are  determined. 

The  materials  studied  ami  described  by  the  paleontolo- 
gist are  of  two  kimls,  fossils  and  stratified  rocks. 

Fossils  are  the  buried  traces  of  organisms  that  have  once 
lived,  buried  and  preserved  by  natural  means:  the  stratified 
rocks  are  the,  generally,  hardened  layers  or  beds  of  sedi- 
ments into  which  the  original  organic  remains  fell  and  were 
buried,  an<l  in  which  they  have  been  preserved.  A  fossil 
mav  be  an  impression,  footprint,  or  trail  of  the  tail,  or 
worm-boring  made  upon  the  sediments  before  they  were 
hardened  by  the  living  animal  itself:  or  it  may  be  a  bone, 
a  tooth,  or  shell,  or  some  other  hard  part  of  the  animal  or 
plant  covered  and  preserved  in  its  original  condition;  or  it 
mav  be  the  jietrified  remains  of  some  nuu-e  perishable  parts, 
which  by  infill  ration,  or  chemical  alteration  or  replacement, 
have  become  miiuTalized.  or  by  pressure,  heat,  or  other 
means  have  become  metamorphosed  into  some  stable  chem- 
ical coinpoui\<l.  In  somi'  eases  fossils  are  the  hollow  cavities 
from  which  the  mineral  part  of  the  fossil  has  been  removed 


396 


PALEOKTOLOGY 


by  solution,  and  in  other  cases  such  cavities  have  been  filled 
by  mud  or  sand,  or  by  mineral  substances  brought  in  by 
waters  in  solution  and  deposited  in  the  cavities  by  crystal- 
lization. In  all  these  various  methods  of  fossilization  the 
essential  part  of  the  fossil  is  not  the  material,  either  chemical 
or  mineral,  of  which  it  is  composeil,  Ijut  the  form  it  hokls;  and 
there  may  l)e  clear  evidences  that  this,  too.  has  been  changed 
by  the  distortion  of  the  rocks  on  which  the  record  is  made. 
Still  it  matters  not  of  what  the  fossil  is  made ;  from  the 
form  it  assumes  is  interpreted  the  character  of  the  organ- 
ism which  made  it.  In  this  particular  paleontology  is  but 
the  science  of  ancient  organisms — paleozoology  or  paleo- 
botany. Fossils  reveal  the  form,  in  almost  every  case,  of 
only  the  hard  [larts  of  the  organism,  such  as  internal  or  ex- 
ternal skeleton,  organs  of  defense  or  offense,  as  scales,  scutes, 
spines,  and  teeth,  or  crusts  or  deposits  formed  for  protection 
and  shelter,  as  shells,  coi-als,  etc.  Animals  composed  en- 
tirely of  soft  tissues  would  therefore  leave  little  or  no  record 
of  their  existence,  and  even  of  the  others  the  preserved  re- 
mains which  ifl'e  subject  to  study  must  be  a  very  small  pro- 
portion of  the  actual  inhabitants  of  the  earth. 

When  we  consider  also  the  mode  of  fossilization,  the  im- 
perfection of  the  record  becomes  still  more  apparent. 

Death  comes  to  most  animals  and  to  some  plants,  not  V)y 
the  natural  living  out  of  the  functions  of  the  body,  but  by 
violent  means,  the  killing  by  more  powerful  animals.  In 
the  process  of  taking  the  life  ami  using  the  organism  for 
food,  not  only  the  soft  tissues  but  in  many  cases  the  skele- 
tal parts  are  crushed  and  partially  destroyed.  Second,  in 
the  formation  of  sediments  for  deposition  there  is  always 
more  or  less  attrition,  due  to  the  grinding  together  of  the 
pebbles  and  sand  as  they  are  tossed  by  the  waves  or  borne 
along  by  the  currents  of  rivers  or  seas ;  and  thirdly,  the  or- 
ganic tissues  are  unstable  chemical  compounds,  and  there- 
fore, so  long  as  they  are  left  within  reach  of  the  oxygen  of 
the  air,  they  are  liable  to  decom]insition. 

For  these  various  reasons,  although  the  substance  of  the 
hard  parts  may  be  preserved,  it  must  be  assumed  that  in  the 
rocks  the  forms  of  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  or- 
ganisms that  have  lived  can  be  recorded,  ami  that  those 
which  are  preserved  are  in  great  part  of  animals  which  de- 
veloped durable  hard  parts,  such  as  shells,  skeletons,  and 
corals;  and  of  these,  finally,  the  fossils  must  represent  main- 
ly inhabitants  of  the  ocean,  at  tlie  borders  of  which  the  great 
proportion  of  the  sedimentary  rocks  were  formed,  or  the  in- 
habitants of  fresh-water  lakes  and  surrounding  land,  for  the 
lakes  produce  deposits  similar  to  those  at  the  edges  of  the 
continents. 

Paleontology  is  therefore  limited  to  certain  groui^s  i)f  or- 
ganisms. Not  all  of  them  have  left  their  history,  and  for  some 
groups,  such  as  the  Mollusca,  Corals,  t'rinoids,  and  Crustacea, 
the  history  is  preserved  with  a  considerable  degree  of  full- 
ness, compared  with  our  kmivvli'dge  of  the  living  f<u'ms. 

Imperfections  in  the  stratigraphical  series  of  rocks  is  an- 
other source  of  dilBcuIty  in  r(>ading  from  fossils  the  full  his- 
tory of  organisms.  Strata  have  been  formed  mainly  within 
100  miles  of  the  edges  of  continents  or  in  shallow  mediter- 
ranean seas.  The  surface  of  continents  in  relation  to  the 
mean  tide  level  of  the  oceans  has  been,  geologically  speak- 
ing, constantly  changing;  in  one  region  sinking,  at  another 
emerging  fi-om  the  sea.  The  result  to  the  strata  has  been 
that  they  were  not  formed  continuously  in  (me  place,  but 
the  locality  of  the  maximum  accunndation  of  sediments  has 
been  constantly  shifting.  Hence  any  section  now  made 
through  the  strata  is  of  limited  extent,  and  exposes  only  a 
small  part  of  the  geological  formations.  The  accumulation 
of  evidence  therefore  rerpiircs  the  comparison  of  sections 
made  through  the  strata  of  separate  regions.  The  fact  that 
at  the  present  time  the  faunas  of  the  seas  at  separate  regions 
along  the  same  coast  differ  in  species,  and  at  difl:'ereut  depths 
out  from  the  same  point  show  marked  differences  in  species, 
makes  it  evident  that  mere  difference  of  species  of  fossils 
can  not  be  taken  as  a  certain  criteri(m  of  distinct  epoch  for 
the  strata  containing  them  ;  but  in  nniking  up  the  geolog- 
ical scries  of  strata  ilifferent  sections  must  lie  combined  on 
the  basis  of  correlations  of  the  strata  liv  the  contained  fos- 
sils. In  a  general  way  by  this  means  the  strala  of  one  coun- 
try can  be  correlated  with  those  of  another,  the  .strata  con- 
taining like  species  being  classified  as  belonging  to  the  same 
system  or  formation,  however  widely  separated  geograph- 
ically. The  fart  of  geographical  distribution  of  living  si>e- 
cies  leads  to  the  presumption  that  the  finding  cjf  ideniically 
the  same  species  at  widely  separaled  points  on  the  earth  may 
indicate,  not  contemporaneousness,  but  succession  in  lime 


sufficient  to  allow  of  the  migration  of  the  species  from  one 
region  to  the  other. 

The  theory  of  the  evolution  of  species,  from  earlier  species 
morphologically  differing  from  them,  has  led  to  the  hypoth- 
esis that  tnider  dift'ering  conditions  the  evolution  of  a  race 
may  progress  more  or  less  rapidly,  so  that  on  one  side  of  the 
globe,  for  instance,  species  may  apjiear  earlier  than  in  an- 
other region  on  the  opposite  side,  though  both  were  evolved 
from  a  common  stock.  Some  paleontologists  therefore  pre- 
fer to  interpret  the  evidence  of  likeness  of  fossils  in  strata  of 
widely  separate  regions  as  indicating  "homotaxial  "  rather 
than  ••  contemporaneous  "  position  of  the  strata.  Undoubt- 
edly the  correlation  of  strata  can  not  be  made  with  minute 
accuracy  wiien  they  are  widely  separated  geographically,  but 
so  great  is  the  parallelism  in  the  general  progress  of  life  for 
all  the  known  world  that  even  in  the  present  state  of  sci- 
ence the  grander  divisions  of  the  geological  series  can  be 
correlated  by  the  fossils  from  whatever  part  of  the  globe 
they  come. 

The  geological  time-scale  is  composed  of  a  series  of  strati- 
fied rocks  making  up  the  outer  crust  of  the  earth.  The 
separate  sheets  or  strata  were  originally  laid  down  under 
water,  the  greater  portion  of  them  luider  marine  water,  as 
sediments  washed  by  water  from  the  land.  They  constitute, 
therefore,  a  succession  of  layers  one  upon  the  other,  the  lower 
being  the  older  and  their  relative  stratigraphical  position 
expressing  relative  order  of  formation. 

The  strata  are  composed  of  various  kinds  of  material, 
bi'oken  fragments  of  rocks,  as  sand,  mud,  pelibles ;  or  of 
shells  or  corals,  as  limestones ;  or  of  plant  stems  or  tissues, 
as  coal ;  or  of  volcanic  ash,  tufa,  or  schalstein  ;  or  they  may 
be  of  chemical  origin,  in  whole  or  in  part,  as  are  some  cal- 
careous, siliceous,  and  ferruginous  beds ;  but  in  order  to 
constitute  geological  time-records  they  must  have  been  ac- 
cumulated successively,  one  layer  upon  another,  indicating 
by  their  superposition  their  chronological  succession. 

Subsequent  disturbance  of  these  strata  has  resulted  at 
some  places  all  along  the  way  in  folding,  upturning,  and 
breaking  them  ;  in  pushing  those  already  formed  above  the 
surface  of  the  water,  thus  stopping  the  process  of  their 
formation  and  subjecting  them  to  erosion  and  partial  or 
total  destruction.  In  other  places  the  formation  may  be 
continuous.  By  similar  distm'bances  the  strata  which  have 
been  above  the  surface  may  be  depressed,  and  upon  their  un- 
even edges  again  receive  deposits  of  newer  strata. 

The  breaks  thus  formed  in  the  series  of  strala  represent 
intervals  in  the  time-scale  that  must  needs  be  filled  out  by 
strata  in  which  there  was  no  break  ftir  the  particular  period 
of  time  so  represented. 

Examination  of  the  edges  of  the  strata  now  a!io\c  water 
and  making  the  land  of  the  continents  has  enabled  the  ge- 
ologist to  make  out  a  continuous  series  of  strata  of  a  maxi- 
mum of  not  less  than  100,000  feet  in  thickness. 

In  a  general  sense  the  tlnckness  of  the  strata  represents 
duration  of  time,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  estimated  rate  of 
the  formation  of  the  strata  the  total  length  of  time  repre- 
sented liv  this  geological  time-scale  is  believed  to  be  at  least 
.50,000,000  years. 

Fossils  are  found  indiedded  in  these  strata  from  the  base 
to  the  top.  Hence  the  fossils  of  the  strata  in  a  particular 
part  of  the  series  are  interpreted  to  be  the  remains  of  or- 
ganisms winch  lived  during  tlie  period  of  time  correspond- 
ing to  their  position  in  the  geological  time-scale. 

Sysfems. — The  stratigraplncal  series  of  rocks  has  been 
divided  into  ten  divisions  of  greater  or  less  thickness  called 
systems,  the  relative  order  of  which  is  establislied  with  cer- 
tainty. Their  names  and  order  from  above  downward  are 
as  follows : 

Time  ratios,  after  Dana. 


1 
1 

u 
1 


10,  Quaternary  and  Recent.  ( 

11.  Tertiary.  (" 

8.  Cretaceous. 

7.  .TiH'assic. 

G.  Triassic. 

Ti.  Carlioniferous.  2 

4.  Devonian.  3 

.3.  Silurian.  He 

2.  Ordovieian.  6  [51 

Potsdam  1 

I.  Canihrian.  [5] 


Cenozoic  time 


Mesozoic  time. 


■  Paleozoic  time. 


Below  the  Cambriaii  are  rocks  which  originally  may  have 
been  formed  in  the  same  manner,  but,  .so  far  as  at  present 
known,  contain  no  recognizable  ti'aces  of  o7'ganism.s. 

The  |)eriod  of  time  repi-e.sentcd  by  the  several  systems  is 
not  known  in  terms  of  hiimiin  or  solar  chronology,  but  some 
approximation  to  the  time-ratio  expresseil  is  determinable 


PALEONTOLOGY 


397 


by  a  comparison  of  the  thickness  ami  kimls  of  rocks  com- 
posing each. 

Ill  ilia  Jlimual  of  Geolnrji/  Dana  has  estimated  the  time- 
ratios  for  tlie  several  systems  to  be  approximately  that  of  the 
figures  opposite  them  in  the  above  table,  but  the  lower  two 
may  probably  now  bo  expressed  more  accurately  l)y  5  and  5 
as  expressed  in  l)rackets.  (Jrouping  tlie  systems,  as  is  com- 
monly done,  into  three  great  groups  marked  conspicuously 
by  the  dominant  characteristics  of  the  life  of  the  time,  there 
are  formed  (U  the  Puleuznii;  five  times  as  hmg  as  the  (2) 
Mesozitir,  anil  lifteen  times  as  long  as  the(;i)  Ct^noiuic. 

In  Ibis  grouping  i>f  the  systems  expression  is  given  to  one 
of  the  fundamental  facts  observed  in  the  geological  history 
of  the  globe,  viz.,  the  progressive  change  witli  the  passage  of 
time  in  the  total  life  of  the  globe.  In  the  I'enozoic,  or  more 
recently  formeil  rocks,  are  fomid  species  the  same  as  those 
now  living,  and  only  lliis  part  of  tlie  geological  .series  holds 
fossils  which  gencrically  are  nuiinly  of  recent  types. 

In  the  Mesozoic  time  the  life  holds  an  intermediate  char- 
acter, mingling  ani-ient  with  modern  generic  types.  In 
Paleozoic  time  the  organisms  represented  are  almost  entirely 
of  extinct  genera.  Tliis  may  be  illustrated  by  the  range  of 
the  gasteropods  (coiled,  sholl-liearing  moUusks.  like  the  snail 
on  land  and  the  whelk  in  the  seal.  Of  the  .5!)  known  fami- 
lies, reported  in  Zittel's  I'aleiintoluiiy  (ISKj),  oidy  17  families 
are  known  to  have  bad  I'ah'ozoic  representatives.  Taking  as 
a  further  example  one  of  these  fandlies.  the  Trorliidie ,  out 
of  75  genera  enumerated  only  a  single  genus  of  the  Paleozoic 
is  represented  by  living  species:  23  Paleozoic  genera  are 
now  extinct,  and  20  of  these  became  extinct  at  the  close  of 
the  Paleozoic.  Of  the  -il  t^enozoic  genera  aljout  two-thirds 
began  in  the  Mesozoic.  The  above  is  a  selected  example 
of  the  general  princi[)les — (1)  that  the  organisms  of  Paleo- 
zt)ic  time  were  of  ancient  and  now  extinct  types  in  a  very 
large  majority  of  cases;  (2)  that  the  life  of  tlie  Mesozoic  is 
specifically  almost  completely  extinct,  and  a  majority  of  its 
genera  were  different  from  the  prevailing  forms  now  living: 
and  (:i)  the  further  back  we  go  tlic  greater  is  the  contrast  be- 
tween forms  then  living  and  the  present  life  of  the  globe. 

If  we  select  the  ilominant  life  reported  from  each  of  the 
successive  geological  systems,  w'e  find  another  law  expressed, 
viz.,  that  there  has  been  a  continuous  advance  in  the  rank 
of  the  dominant  life  for  each  geological  age.  If  we  divide 
geological  time  on  the  basis  of  dominant  life  on  the  globe 
as  indicated  by  the  fossils  ()resei'ved  in  the  rocks,  we  have, 
first,  the  age  of  Invertebrates,  which  continued  from  the 
Cambrian  practically  to  the  base  of  the  Devonian,  for  al- 
though fish,  the  lower  division  of  the  Vertebrates,  lived  in 
the  Silurian  jieriod,  and,  as  Walcott  has  shown,  in  the  Or- 
dovician  (as  fossils  from  Trenton  rocks  in  Colorado  have 
shown),  the  fishes  were  not  in  size,  .strength,  or  numbers 
the  rulers  of  the  sea-s  till  about  the  Devonian  age.  The 
second  age  is  the  age  of  Fishes,  as  recorded  in  the  Devonian 
system  of  rocks;  the  third  age  is  the  age  of  Amj)hibians  of 
tlie  Carboniferous  system ;  the  fourth,  or  age  of  Reptiles,  in- 
cluded the  whole  of  Mesozoic  time,  in  which  gigantic  reptiles 
were  the  rulers  of  land  and  air.  as  well  as  of  the  seas,  if  we 
may  judge  from  their  size,  sirenglh.  and  armor,  both  offen- 
sive and  defensive.  Mammals,  of  weak  and  low  types  (mar- 
supials), appeared  in  the  -Mesozoic.  but  true  nnvmnials  became 
dominant  with  the  opening  of  Cenozoie  time. 

This  series  of  facts  is  illustrated  in  the  following  figure 
from  Dana's  Manual,  which  shows  the  kinds  of  animals  and 
plants  which  began  and  were  dominant  in  each  age ; 


Agv  of  MaD,  or  QuaU-r-  > 
nary.  ( 

Age    of  M&mmaU,  or  / 
Tertiary. 

Affe  of  HvptilcEi,  or  St-c- 
ooJary. 


Carboniferous  Age. 


Agu    of    FlAhea,  or  Di- 
vouiau. 


Ai;o    of    In\cTtvbraWs,^ 
or  Silurian.  \ 


Art-hiran  Titne. 


It  is  for  zoology  and  botany  to  classify  and  determine  the 
genetic  relationship   of  the   various   known   animals  and 


plants,  and  that  part  of  paleontology  which  deals  with  the 

description  and  naming  of  fossils  alone  is  unsatisfactory, 
unless  it  is  ba.sed  upon  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  struc- 
ture and  systematic  classification  of  living  organisms. 

The  study  of  living  forms,  however,  does  not  reveal  their 
history,  and  in  order  to  fully  understand  the  relations  of 
living  forms  to  each  other  tho.se  which  have  gone  before 
them  in  geological  time  must  be  known;  this  is  the  partic- 
ular province  of  j)aleontology. 

Embryology  reveals  the  variovis  steps  and  stages  through 
which  the  individual  passes  in  attaining  the  adult  form 
from  the  primitive  ovum;  and  these  stejis  of  development 
have  been  found  very  helpful  in  suggesting  genetic  relation- 
ships not  recognized  in  adult  forms,  and  thus  their  studv 
has  served  to  perfect  the  systematic  classification.  Paleon- 
tology, as  the  science  of  the  history  of  organisms  and  of  the 
races  of  organisms,  throws  independent  light  on  their  sys- 
tematic cla.ssificatioii  by  revealing  the  actual  order  of  suc- 
cession of  adult  forms.  While  it  may  be  reasonably  as- 
sumed that  the  embryonic  stages  of  development  oi'  the 
ancestors  of  any  living  organism  corresjjonded  to  its  own 
embryological  development,  it  is  not,  a  priori,  necessary 
that  the  adult  forms  of  the  ancestors  should  have  takei'i 
on  characters  expressed  in  the  endiryonic  stages  of  their 
progeny  now  living.  The  science  of  paleontology,  while 
neciliug  light  from  every  possible  source  in  order  to  inter- 
pret its  very  limited  and  imperfect  facts,  has  in  itself  the 
evidence  of  the  true  succession  of  organic  forms  in  past 
geologic  time,  which  is  its  chief  function  to  elaborate  and 
explain. 

In  attempting  to  exhibit  the  more  conspicuous  facts  of 
paleontology  a  few  words  regarding  the  methods  of  classi- 
fication may  be  appropriate. 

Organisms  are  distinguished,  primarily,  from  inorganic 
things  by  performing  vital  activities  or  functions,  and, 
secondarily,  by  the  organic  structure  or  tissues  which  have 
been  seen  associated  with  or  performing  such  functions. 
Dead  organisms,  or  parts  of  dead  organisms,  are  known  to 
be  such  by  their  morphological  likeness  to  parts  or  wholes 
of  living  organisms.  Organisms  are  classified  as  of  two 
kingdoms,  vegetable  and  animal.  When  two  or  more  indi- 
vidual organisms  are  compared,  as,  for  instance,  a  dog  and  a 
hen,  they  are  found  to  possess  points  of  likeness  and  points 
of  difference.  By  their  like  characters  they  are  classified 
together,  by  their  differences  they  are  separated  into  differ- 
ent groups.  The  dog  and  hen  both  breathe,  have  blood, 
bones,  and  limbs,  and  they  are  both  classed  as  Vertebrates. 
The  one  has  hair,  four  feet,  walks  and  nurses  its  young,  and 
is  called  a  mammal ;  the  other  has  feathers,  wings,  and  lays 
eggs,  and  is  called  a  bird.  To  distinguish  the  subdivision 
of  the  birds  other  different  birds  must  be  compared  with 
this  one.  and  so  subdivisions  of  various  rank  are  estab- 
lished in  classifying  organisms,  and  names  are  given  to  the 
several  divisions  indicative  of  their  rank.  The  chief  of 
these  are,  first,  the  two  kingdoms  of  animals  and  plants. 
In  each  of  these  there  are  sub-kingdoms,  as  branches  or 
types;  in  each  branch  are  different  classes.  The  .subdivi- 
sions of  classes  are  orders,  under  them  are  families;  the 
families  are  subdivided  into  genera;  each  genus  inchules 
one  or  more  species,  and  species  are  made  up  of  individ- 
uals. These  various  groupings  are  artificial,  and  receive 
technical  scientific  names,  as  in  the  illustration:  Canis  is 
the  generic  name  of  the  dog;  familiaris  its  specific  name. 
The  wolf  belongs  to  the  same  genus,  but  it  is  a  different 
species — CaiuK  lupn.'i.  The  dogs  (Caiiix)  and  the  foxes 
(  Viilpes)  are  gencrically  different,  but  both  belong  in  the 
family  Canidit.  The  Canidw  and  the  Felido'  (cats,  lions, 
etc.),  two  distinct  families,  are  both  Carnivoru,  which  is 
an  order. 

The  order  Carnivnra  and  the  order  Cheiroptera  (bats) 
are  in  the  (dass  Mammalia,  and  the  birds  and  reptiles  ami 
mammals  are  several  classes  of  the  branch  Verlehrata. 

It  is  evident  therefore  that  any  individual  dog  is  not 
merely  a  species,  but  that  it  exhibits  in  its  stru<-ture  and 
funi'tions  all  the  characteristics— 1,  of  an  organism;  2,  of 
an  animal ;  3,  of  a  vertebrate ;  4,  of  a  mammal ;  5,  of  a 
Carnivora ;  6,  of  a  Canidce;  7,  of  a  Canis;  and  8,  of  the 
species  Canis  familiaris. 

Each  organism  thus  po.sse.sses  numerous  characters  which 
are  relatively  of  greatly  varying  degrees  of  importance 
from  the  point  of  view  of  affinity  with  other  organisms. 
The  particular  color  of  its  hair  is  less  important  than  the 
number  and  shape  of  its  teeth,  and  this,  again,  is  of  less  im- 
portance than  the  number  of  its  legs;  or,  in  general,  we 


398 


PALEONTOIiOGY 


may  say  that  cacli  of  llic  m(ir|phrilfij;ic«l  cliaracters  of  an 
aniiiuil  <ir  jilaiit  holds  a  pari  ii'uhir  rank  of  iinpnrtance  in  its 
total  orf;a,iiiiiatioii.  In  onliiiary  jji'iu'ratioii  it  is  obs('rv(!(l 
that  the  olTspriiij;  always  reseiiihU'  their  parents  in  all  the 
(•haraet<'rs  ahove  named — Ihal  is,  they  ar(^  always  of  the 
same  speeies.  They  nuiy  ililTer  slightly  iti  lesser  characters, 
anil  are  then  called  varii'lies. 

When  we  study  the  history  of  organisms,  it  is  found  that' 
the  same  species  existed  relatively  a  short  period  of  time. 
As  Lyell  observed,  the  [jercenlafje  of  recent  species  in  the 
Post-J'liocene  licds  of  KiiKland  is  !)!)  to  11)0,  in  the  I'lioceiie 
from  70  to  !)0.  in  the  Miocene  from  20  to  ;^0.  and  in  the 
Kocene,  or  oldest  Tertiary,  only  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  tlie 
species  found  are  of  recent  sjiecies;  hut  it  is  also  observed 
that  the  jjetiera  have  a  longer  {jeolofjical  ratifje  than  the 
species.  While  the  species  change,  the  ilitTerences  are  not 
sufficient,  generally,  in  the  case  of  marine  aninnils  to  cause 
the  genera  to  be  limited  to  a  single  geological  system,  and 
some  gctnera  Inive  lived  through  nearly  all  g(!ological  lime. 

Thus  an  aiudysis  of  t  he  facts  of  paleontology  shows  that 
the  higher  the  rank  of  the  taxonomic  subdivision  the  longer 
has  been  its  geological  existence. 

In  the  case  of  plants  our  facts  are  too  imperfect  for  final 
conclusions,  but  traces  of  Cryptogams  run  back  to  the 
lowest  geological  systems,  and  llie  prescnci!  of  thick  beds  of 
graphite  may  iinlicate  the  (existence  of  plant-life  in  the  pre- 
Cambrian  crystalline  rocks.  I'lianiogums,  so  far  as  the 
records  reveal,  were  certainly  not  conspi(MH)us  befon^  the 
opening  of  the  Mesozoic  (.See  1'i.ants,  Kossii,.)  In  i\n: 
case  of  animals,  six  of  t  he  nine  generally  recogni/eil  bi-anches 
have  been  found  distinctly  repres(>nted  in  the  Lower  Cam- 
brian. Vertelmites  have  been  found  in  the  ne.xt  system,  the 
Ordovieian.  Il  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  main  divisions 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  and  jirobably  of  the  plants  also,  date 
back  to  the  time  of  the  Very  earliest  recorils  at  present 
known;  and  whatever  may  have  brought  aliout  thi'ditfi'r- 
entialionsof  form,  the  scheme  of  cla>sjticMtion  liased  upon 
recent  forms  isappliealjle  in  its  grander  features  to  all  known 
traces  of  life  on  tint  glolie. 

The  classification  and  the  ktHJwn  range  of  each  branch 
arc  given  in  the  fcjllowlng  table,  in  which  the  vertical 
spaces  indicate  the  geological  .systems  in  their  relative  order 
from  below  upwanl,  from  li-ft  to  right,  and  the  heavy  hori- 
zontal lines  express  ihe  r.'inge  of  each  of  the  branches  of 
the  animal  and  vegetalili'  kingiloins  namrd  in  Ihe  list  on 
tlie  left : 


PaleuZiic 

Mesozoic 

;tnozoic| 

.2 

-a 
E 

O 

M 

o 
O 

rt 
W 

o 

3 

o 
O 

3 

o 
o 

CO 

>* 

=  a 

3* 

ANIMAL  KINGOOM 

1  I'rolozoa 

2  CoelL-nterata 

3  EclilnodLTinata 
•1  Vcrnios 

r>  Artliropoda 
C  MoUuscolda 
7  M()liu»L-H 
B  Tuiilcuttt 
9  Vertebrutu. 

VEGETABLE  KINGDOM 
Crllulur  I'lants 

$■(  3\  Eiiulsttlncu! 
>      5  t.  LycoiJOUUicu) 

^_ 

^_ 

■" 

V 

V 

■f_ 

■ 

!>. 

■(• 

_, 

M 
I 

s; f  CycaUaeeuj 

1  i  LConlfcrtc 

«  fe  y  SluiiocotjicUouB 
£\  DlcotyiuJuus 

__ 

^ 

.... 



1 

From  the  above  tatile  it  is  evident  that  no  laws  of  history 
are  expressible  in  terms  of  the  branches  (alone)  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom.  It  is  not  improbable  that  ea(th  of  the 
branches  may  have!  had  representatives  in  the  time  of  the 
Cambrian  system,  and  has  ci^ntinued  ever  since. 


In  regard  to  plants  the  same  may  be  said,  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  the  higher  forms  of  land  vegetation  did  not 
appear  till  the  close  of  the  Paleozoic  or  the  beginning  of 
the  Mesozoic.  A  glance  at  the  diagram  of  range  of  plants 
shows  very  distinctly  the  relative  succession  of  appearance 
of  the  three  great  groups — (1)  vascular  Cryptogiims,  (2) 
(Jymnospenns,  (:i)  .\iigios|ierms — to  coincide  exactly  with 
the  general  rank  of  complexity  and  elaboration  of  organiza- 
tion exhibited  in  each  ;  the  lowest  types  were  evidently  first 
to  be  conspicuous,  and  the  highest  flowering  jilants  were  of 
relatively  modern  origin.  Although  nearly  10.000  species 
of  extinct  plants  have  been  described,  the  results  from  the 
stuily  of  fossil  [ilants  are  too  meager  to  permit  of  profitable 
discussion  of  them  in  the  present  article.  The  above  table 
expresses  the  general  facts.  The  ferns,  e(|uisetums,  and 
lycopods  constituted  the  bulk  of  the  luxuriant  flora  of  the 
Carboniferous  age.  The  cyeads  and  pines  were  as  conspic- 
uous in  the  Mesozoic,  and  the  Cretaceous  and  Kocene  floras 
were  the  first  to  be  conspicuously  constituted  of  angiosperms. 
See  Plants,  Fossil. 

A  more  minute  analysis  of  the  history  of  animals  will 
reveal  some  facts  illustrating  the  grander  laws  of  paleon- 
tology. 

J'r'ntmoa. — The  Protozoa  are  for  the  most  part  minute,  and 
even  microscopic  in  size.  Functionally  they  have  no  per- 
manently specialized  organs,  but  in  many  eases  .secrete 
calcareous  or  siliceous  sludls  of  particular  form,  or  of  par- 
ticular mode  of  aggregation,  furnishing  means  for  their 
nior|iho!ogical  classification.  Of  the  three  classes  ((iregari- 
nid.a,  Kliizopoda.  and  Infusoria)  into  which  tint  recent  Pro- 
tozoa are  divisible,  umloubted  remains  of  only  Khizfipoda 
are  found  fossil.  The  Khizopoda  include  the  orders  Fnra- 
minifera,  Radiolarin.  and  Ih'liiizoa.  The  fossil  sj.ecies  are 
chiefly  the  Foraminifera,  of  which  some  are  of  consider- 
able size,  i.  e.  not  microscopic,  the  Fusulina  of  the  Carbonif- 
erous reaching  a  length  of  half  an  inch;  Xummulitcs,  a 
thin  discoid  or  coin-shaped  fossil,  from  half  an  inch  to  an 
inch  in  diameter,  which  was  extremely  abundant  in  the 
Middle  Kocene,  forming  great  deposits,  now  the  nummulitio 
linu'stone,  reaching  a  thickness  of  several  thousand  feet  in 
Southern  Kunipe  and  Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 

Kiglity  genera  of  Fiirainiiii fern  an  ernimerated  inZittel's 
list  of  1H80;  of  these  only  one  is  described  from  lower  than 
('arl)oniferous  strata,  aiul  only  twelve  genera  are  Paleozoii-, 
tifty-i'ight  are  Mesozoic,  and  a  large  majority  of  the  latter 
geni'i-a  are  known  among  living  forms.  This  expansion  in 
the  hislcjrical  ap[iearance  of  the  genera  is  probalily  due  rath- 
er to  lack  of  record  than  to  real  first  appearance  of  the  great- 
er part  of  the  Foraminifara  in  the  latter  half  of  geological 
time.  The  minute  size  and  the  ease  of  destruci  ion  or  oblit- 
eration of  form  accounts  for  the  absence  of  these  simplest 
of  anim.'ils  from  the  early  geological  formations.  This  .state- 
ment is  supported  by  the  fact  that  of  the  six  families  into 
which  the  fossil  Foraminifera  are  classifieil,  all  but  one  of 
them  is  represented  among  the  twelve  known  genera  of  tlie 
Paleozoic,  showing  an  expansion  of  all  but,  generics  charac- 
ters almost  as  great  in  the  Paleozoic  as  now,  and  Carpenter 
concluded,  from  his  study  of  the  order,  that  there  was  no 
evidence  of  any  fundamental  modilication  or  advance  of 
the  foraminif'erous  type  from  the  Paleozoic  period  to  the 
present  time. 

Ccetentc.rnta. — The  Cadenterates  may  be  divided  for  our 
purpose  into  four  classes,  viz.:  1,  Sponges;  2,  Anth<izoa 
(polyps  or  corals);  3,  llydrozoa  (including  jellytish);  and  4, 
Cti'iiophora. 

Of  these  we  may  know  of  fossil  remains  of  sponges,  in  the 
form  of  siliceous  ami  calcareous  spicules  or  composite  masses 
of  structure;  of  the  Anllujzoa  liy  the  calcareous  corals  they 
(h'posit  ;  but  the  latter  two  classes,  because  tliey  develop 
no  solid  test  or  skeletal  parts,  must  be  regarded  as  licyond 
the  possibility  of  making  a  record  except  of  very  doubtful 
value.  However,  undoubted  traces  of  medusa  (jelljfish)  are 
found  in  Cambrian  rocks. 

I<^ossil  sponges  have  been  detected  in  the  lowest,  the  Cam- 
brian, and  in  each  of  the  successive  geological  systems.  Al- 
though in  the  case  of  sponges  the  evidence  must  be  very  in- 
complete, their  gieat  antiipiity  is  shown  iiy  the  fact  that  of 
the  seven  orders  into  which  the  known  sponges  are  classified 
by  Zittel,  six  of  them  are  already  known  from  the  Carbon- 
iferous system,  viz. :  the  Ceraospongiir,  the  Miimuiiiii'llidip, 
\  he  Ti'traclinclUdiF,  the  Lith ixtidiv,  the  IIeX(ic/hii-llid(r,  and 
the  (Utlcixpniijiiw. 

The  .\ntliozoa  are  better  represented  than  any  of  the  ani- 
mals heretofore  mentioned,  and  in  the  fossil  corals  which 


PALEONTOLOGY 


399 


Ihey  (constructed  during  life  wo  have  the  record  of  the  ovo- 
luli'on  of  tlie  type  in  sunioieiit  eliibonition  to  pive  a  some- 
what ilelinite  'idea  of  the  nature  of  the  changes  that  have 
taken  place. 

Opposile  each  family  in  the  following  table  is  given  the 
number  of  genera  of  the  various  fan\ilies  of  Anthozoa  re- 
corded (at  the  time  of  the  publication  of  Zitlel's  Ilandbuch) 
for  each  geological  system  : 


(i*n«n  of  lh«  vkrlout  ^mlltcs  of  Ab- 
tho»om  (coral. t  ftrranicMl  according  to 
thair  t(roli^o«l  rang*. 

1 

1 
1 

1 

7 
»8 

8 

.. 

i 

1 

i 

6 

'a 
so 

1 

4 
27 

5 

'i 

4 

1 

5 
11 

17 

2 

'a 
11 

B8 

a 

6 
3 

u 

i 

i 
i 

4 

'a 

9 
76 

4 
1 
15 

111 

5 
r 

•• 
11 
1 

7 

15 

62 

2 

4 

1 

22 

126 

Is 

Zoantlieria. 
Telraeoralla : 

Fain.  I.  InexpIetA 

•'      'Z.  Kxpleta 

Ilfxaccriillu  : 

P'ttiii.    I.  VoritkifP 

'Z.  Mftilrrporidfle... 

3.  Fiuilloporidffi  .. 

"       ■!.  KupsainminldeB 

r>.  Fiiii^itift* 

**        tj.  Aslni'idH' 

7.  Stvlopliuridas... 

8.  Ufuliiiidte 

"        ti.  l)a'*inida' 

"      10.  TurbiuoUdffi . .-. . 

7 

T 

12 

22 

52 

2 

6 

27 

lai 

The  following  table  expresses  this 
facts  recorded  by  Zittel : 


law  based  upon  the 


From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  of  the  two  great  divi- 
sions r)f  the  older  (viz.,  Tetracoralla  and  Ilexacoralla).  the 
lirst  division  is  characteristic  of  the  I'ah'ozoie,  and  tlic  lul- 
ler.  allliough  it  is  represented  bv  a  few  genera  in  the  I'alco- 
znic,  is  lis  dominantly  characteristic  of  the  later  half  of  geo- 
logical lime. 

The  imperfection  of  record  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
general  law  here  illustrated.  There  were  the  Tetracoralla 
with  two  well-characterized  families,  which  were  abundant 
in  genera  (which  means  that  there  was  evolved  wide  difler- 
ence  in  structure  and  form),  and  expressed  by  a  great  many 
species  and  al>uudaMce  of  individuals  in  the  Paleozoic,  and 
this  whole  group  then  became  extinct  (or  nearly  so,  for 
there  are  numerous  living  forms  which  have  been  recently 
studied  and  are  shown  to  be  closely  allic^d  to  these  ancient 
types). 

Again,  the  Ilexacoralla  represented  by  a  few  forms  in  the 
Paleozoic  rapidly  expanded  in  variety  of  form,  number  of 
genera, and  necessarily  in  abundaiueof  species  and  individ- 
uals, and,  as  we  may  infer,  took  the  place  in  the  oceans  of 
the  (extinct  forms  that  were  evidently  so  abundant  in  earlier 
lime. 

To  use  an  illustration,  the  genus  Zaphrenlis,  one  of  the 
expleta  corals,  is  as  characteristically  an  ancient  genus  as 
FiDif/ia,  one  of  the  Fungida,  is  characteristically  a  modern 
geniis. 

An  important  geological  group  of  the  Ccelenterata  is  the 
(Jraptolitcs.  They  developed  delicate  stem-liUc  town  of  cells 
in  which  the  Jiolyp  lived,  and  they  are  characteristic  of  the 
lower  half  of  the  Paleozoic. 

Krliinodermnla. — The  third  branch,  the  Echinoderinata, 
are  classified  by  the  zoologist  as  follows:  viz.,  Crinoidea  (or 
sea-lilies),  Asteroidea  (starfish),  Kchinoidea  (sea-urchin),  and 
llolotluirians  (sea-slugs,  trepaiigs,  or  .sea-cucumbers.  F.ach 
of  the  first  three  develop  hard  calcareous  or  chilinous  shell, 
or  gramdcs,  or  spines,  which  are  easily  preserved  after  death, 
and  hence  of  them  a  fair  record  is  known.  The  Holothuri- 
ans.  secreting  oidy  a  leathery  kind  of  external  coating,  and 
fragile  calcareous  sjiicular  in  the  iniu-r  coatings,  are  unsat- 
isfactory as  palcontological  objects  of  study. 

The  palcontological  history  of  the  several  types  of  Echino- 
derms  may  be  expressed  mathematically  l)y  noting  the 
number  of  ditTerent  generic  forms  of  each  order  known  in 
each  of  ihi'  successive  geological  systems. 

.\s  the  conditions  of  preservation  of  the  remains  nniy  be 
supposed  to  be  comparatively  alike  in  the  .several  systems,  al- 
though the  records  are  very  imiierfect  and  the  specimens 
rare,  divergence  of  structural  development  as  indicated  by 
diltereiit  genera  may  be  safely  interpreted  as  a  measure  of 
domimince,  vigor  of  generation,  iiiid  aliundaiiciMd'  the  forms 
expressed  in  fossil  eonditimi.  While  it  is  reasnuable  to  sup- 
pose that  the  tables  will  be  greatly  modified  by  future  dis- 
coveries as  to  the  actual  number  of  species  and  genera,  these 
discoveries  will  not  be  likely  materially  to  change  the  gen- 
eral relations  of  the  grand  divisions  ot  organisms  to  palcon- 
tological history. 


Dlflprvnliillon  of  tho  K*nfltm  of 
Kcbtnmlrmu,  ex|)r»uc4l  in  tb« 
Duii.tivr  of  (tenprn  itf  rmiib  clu* 
Riid  uriltir  lor  tlio  Tftrioua  ( 
lotfkal  lyileina. 


Kchinodenimta 

Crinoi<U'a 

Tes.selala 

.-Vrtieiilaia 

CnstftUl 

Cvstnidea 

Blusloiitea 

Echinoideu 

I'alechinoidea 

Kueeliinoidea 

Asteroidea 


PALEOZOIC. 


27 


13 


12 


^  i 


MKMtlZOIC. 


45 


2UIC. 


■^    i 


83 


100 
11 


Analysis  of  the  table  shows  the  general  laws  of  evolution 
of  tho  Echinoderms  to  lie  as  follows: 

The  t'rinoiils  are  distinctly  an  ancient  type,  represented 
abundantly  anil  in  great  variety  ot  generic  forms  in  the 
Paleozoic,  and  becoming  almost  extinct  at  its  close.  In  the 
Mesozoic;  (the  .lurassic  showing  the  earliest  dominniice  of 
the  genera)  a  new  snbordinal  group  springs  into  prominence, 
the  -Vrticulata,  and  they  continue  on  to  the  present  time, 
when  they  are  chiefly  of  deep-sea  habitat.  The  Tesselata 
and  the  .Vrticulata  are  closely  related,  but  possess  distinct 
and  permanent  characteristics. 

The  Cysloids  were  of  an  irregular  form  and  ap|iarently  of 
lower  rnnk  of  organization  than  the  t'rinoids,  and  had  none 
or  but  imperfci'lly  developed  arms.  .\s  will  be  seen  from 
the  figures  they  arc  part  icularly  an  ancient  type — the  earliest 
to  appear  in  tlie  t'ambrian,  had  their  climax  in  the  Lower 
Silurian  or  Ordovician,  and  became  extinct  at  the  close  of 
the  Paleozoic.  Exception  to  this  statement  may  be  made 
on  account  of  the  recent  discovery  of  forms  classed  with  tho 
('ystoids  in  the  deep  seas. 

Extinct  is  used  to  express  lack  of  evidence  of  the  continu- 
ance of  the  rai'c.  Spccii-s,  genera,  and  orders  may  still  con- 
tinue to  live  in  the  dcptlisof  the  (iccan  where  the  conditions 
of  life  have  remained  remarkably  uniform  for  geological 
ages,  and  only  the  deep-sea  dredge  can  reveal  the  facts  to  ns. 
Some  remarkable  finds  have  alreadv  been  made,  and  it 
would  not  surprise  paleontologists  to  hear  of  the  discovery 
of  luanv  supposed  extinct  ancient  tvpes  of  life  in  the  sea 
dciiths." 

The  Plastoids  are  a  group  of  beautiful,  symmetrical,  bud- 
sha|ied  Crinoids,  of  the  Inter  Paleozoic;  they  too  had  their 
beginning  and  dominance  and  finally  became  extinct. 

The  I'ichinoids,  or  sea-urchins,  are  as  characteristic  of 
later  geological  time  as  the  Crinoids  and  Cystids  are  of  early 
time.  The  Palechinoids  are  represented  in  the  later  Paleo- 
zoic by  a  few  charaeteristi<ally  inferior  types  of  Kchinoid 
structure.  This  is  seen  in'  the  irregular  number  and  tho 
niultiplicatioii  of  the  rows  of  plates  making  up  the  aiiibii- 
lacral  and  interambulaeral  series.  The  true  Ecliinoids(/.'M- 
echinoidca)  in  both  orders  (Kegulares  and  Irregiilares)  be- 
gan their  evolution  in  the  Triassie,  rapidly  expanded  in  tho 
.Jura.ssic  and  Cretaceous,  and  the  largest  number  of  recorded 
genera  was  not  reached  till  Tertiary  and  recent  times.  Tho 
climax  of  evolution,  as  expressed  by  greatest  diversity  and 
nuiiibcr  of  generic  forms  and  abundance  of  specific  and  in- 
dividual forms,  was  attained  for  this  class  certainly  not  till , 
the  Tertiary  time. 

VrriiK's. — The  fourth  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the 
worms,  has  left  traces  in  the  earliest  sedimentary  forma- 
tions in  the  form  of  borings  or  tracks.  From  the  morpho- 
logical structure  of  worms  and  its  relation  to  that  of 
other  branches,  it  is  all<igether  |irobable  that  worms  were 
among  the  very  earliest  of  animals  to  appear.  On  account 
of  the  failure  to  develop  hard  parts,  except  of  the  nature  of 
minute  jaws  or  teeth  (Annelida),  the  history  of  worms  can 
not  be  written. 

Arl/iropndn. — Tho  Arthropoda,  producing  ehitinous shells 
or  external  skeletons,  left  valiialile  records  of  their  history 
for  the  [laleonlologists,  and  from  the  study  of  the  fossils 
we  learn  that  this  liranch  was  proliably  the  first  to  domi- 
nate auiong  the  inhidiitiinis  of  the  seas. 

Ill  the  following  table  the  geological  range  of  the  several 
(U-ders  of  Cru.stacea  (the  first  class  of  .\rlliopoda)  is  given; 
and  o|)posite  Trilobila'  the  number  of  genera  known  in  each 
system  is  given  in  the  column  corresponding  to  the  Cam- 
brian (C),  the  Ordovician  (0),  the  Silurian  (S),  the  Devonian 


400 


PALEONTOLOGY 


(D),  and  tlif  Ciu'bunifcroiis  (Curb.).  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
Trilobites  were  not  only  an  ancient  race,  but  that  we  al- 
ready have  knowledge  of  their  remarkable  expansion  into 
separate  genera — 42  in  the  Cainljrian,  76  in  the  Lower  Silu- 
rian, or  Ordovieian  time.  Here,  too,  there  were  species  of 
large  size  ;  several  have  been  seen  which  attain  2  feet,  or 
nearly  that,  in  length.  The  Trilobites  furnish  the  most 
abundant  and  characteristic  fossils  of  the  Cambrian  sys- 
tem, and  evidently  were  the  highest  and  the  dominant  or- 
ganisms of  their  lime. 


KANGE  OF 

Paleozoic 

Mesozoic 

Cenozoic 

CKL'tiTACKA. 

C 

0 

s 

D 

:arL 

'T 

J 

K 

Tert 

Rec 

ARTHROPODA 

< 

Ul 

O 
Hi 

cc 

Clrripedia 

Copepoda 

Ostracoda 

Phyllopoda 

Trilobilio 

Xipbosura 

GlKaiitostraca 

Phyllocarida 

Isupoda 

Ampldpoda 

Stoniatopoda 

Cumacea 

Schi2opoda 

Decapod a 

__ 

^^m 

^^ 

_ 

_ 





!:> 

7(i 

;>■> 

211 

4 

_ 

_ 

1 



^^_ 

_ 



^ 

1 

^^^ 

^ 

^^ 

_ 

— 

? 

^_ 



^^^ 

^^^ 

1 

The  Ostracoda,  the  Gigantostraca  (the  Eurypterns,  the  Pte- 
rygotus,  etc.),  and  the  Phyllocarida  are  ancient  types.  The 
Decapoda  (including  modern  crabs  and  lobsters)  is  liistor- 
ically  a  later  type,  Jipginniug  at  the  close  of  tlie  Paleozoic, 
rapidly  expanding  in  the  Mesozoic,  and  including  many 
of  the  dominant  representatives  of  Crustacea  of  the  present 
time. 

The  other  classes  of  Arthropoda  are  the  Myriapoda 
(thousand-legged  worms),  the  Arachnoidea  (spiders,  scor- 
pions, etc.),  and  the  insects.  The  following  table,  after 
Seudder.  expresses  the  fundamental  facts  regarding  their 
paleontological  history  so  far  as  known  : 


GEOLOGICAI-  KANGE 

Of  THE  TRACK KATA 

ARTHKOI-ODA. 

(AtTEKSCL'DDEK) 

(CLA6S :  EXTINCT  ORDERS.  ) 

Crt 

O 
O 

Q 

o 
-a 

o 
o 

NAMES 

OF  EXISTING 

ORDERS 

> 

< 

UJ 

O 
O 

!• 

O 
< 

q: 

< 

2 

UJ 

Protosyuguatha 
Archlpolypoda 

Antbraconmrtl 
Palaeodlctyopteia 

Chilupoda 
Diplopoda 
Pauropoda 

Acari 

Chelognathl 

Opiliontrs 

Pedipaipi 

Scorploues 

Arauea; 

Ortlioptcra 

N'euruptcra 

Hemiptcra 

Colcoptcra 

Diptera 

Lepidoptcra 

riymeiinptera 

-- 

■    ) 

V 



1 

It  will  he  observed  that  the  Scorpiones  are  of  very 
early  origin.  The  modern  types  of  insects,  spiders  and 
Myriapods,  arc  of  more  recent  origin,  although  represented 
by  ancient  and  nujre  or  less  synthetic  types  in  the  Paleo- 
zoic. 

The  oldest  known  insect  is  PaJeohlattina  douvillei  Brong- 
niart  of  the  Middle  Silurian.  Although  insects  are  so  little 
ai)t  to  l)e  presi'rved  in  the  rocks,  there  are  already  described 
2,600  fossil  species. 


JI()/liiscoi(la. — This  liranch  of  the  animal  kingdom  has 
furnished  the  most  detailed  evidence  of  paleontological 
history  with  which  the  paleontologist  is  familiar. 

The  branch  includes  the  two  classes  Polyzoa  (Bryozoa) 
and  Braehiopods.  The  Polyzoa  individually  are  minute  ani- 
mals, but  construct  chitinous  or  calcareous,  moss-like  colo- 
nies of  cells,  which  are  preserved  abundantly  in  sonic  of  the 
ancient  rocks,  and  representatives  still  live  in  the  seas. 
The  Bracliiopods  form  bivalve  shells,  calcareous  and  chiti- 
nous, which  have  resisted  remarkably  the  destructive  agencies 
of  time,  and  are  among  the  most  frequently  apjiearing  fos- 
sils in  the  rocks  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  geological 
periods.     See  Molluscoidea. 

In  his  description  of  the  Bryozoa  of  Illinois,  Ulrich  enu- 
merates 138  genera  classified  under  26  families,  all  Paleozoic 
forms.  Although  individually  minute  the  expansion  of  the 
races  into  modified  form  and  the  abundance  of  individuals 
characterized  the  Low'er  Silurian  (Ordovician),  and  the  Poly- 
zoa (Bryozoa)  wei-e  abundant  in  the  Mesozoic  and  are  still 
represented  by  a  large  number  of  species  and  genera  in 
modern  times. 

The  importance  of  the  Braehiopods,  in  the  interpretation 
of  the  age  of  Paleozoic  formations,  particidarly  demands 
fuller  discussion  than  can  be  given  here.  In  the  j)resent 
state  of  our  knowledge  the  grouping  of  the  genera  into 
families  is  not  satisfactory,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Trilobites, 
but  in  order  to  tabulate  and  express  the  more  prominent 
facts  in  the  evolution,  the  families,  as  classified  by  Davidson, 
will  be  tabulated  in  the  following  table  and  their  range  given, 
without  attempting  to  group  them  according  to  relationship, 
further  than  to  designate  the  two  ordinal  groups  of  hinged 
(Clistenterata)  and  unhinged  (Tretenterata)  forms : 


litOLuGlCAL  RANGE 

OK    THE    FAMILIES    OF 

BItACHIOroDA. 

(AFTEU  I'AVIDSON  ) 

Paleozoic 

Mesozoic 

Ceiiozoic 

C 

0 

s 

D 

Cb, 

T 

J 

K 

fertlRec 

TRETENTERATA 
Liugulidie 

Obolidsa 

DiscluidcB 

Craniidse 

Sipliouotretldfe 
TriniereUidte 
CLISTENTERATA 
Orthisidie 
Strophonieuid.u 
Produetidie 
Porambouitldie 
Rhynchonelliuidae 
Spiriferacea  (Waafc-eu) 
Thccldeldai 
Terebr.ntulacra 

__^ 





_ 





__ 

_ 

2_ 

1 

This  method  of  illustration,  to  be  clear.  rer|uires  the  follow- 
ing expl.anation  :  In  the  cases  of  the  LinguIidaN  Discinidse, 
and  Khynchonellida",  represented  by  living  forms,  the  Lin- 
gulida'  are  represented  in  the  earlier  Paleozoic  by  several 
genera  which  are  confined  to  that  part  of  the  scale,  and  the 
]iersistcnt  form  is  the  single  genus  Lingula.  The  jiersistent 
forms  in  the  other  two  families  named  are  single  genera  in 
each;  i.  e.  Discina  and  Rhynehonella;  much  the  same  fact 
is  true  of  the  Craniida^  Hence  it  may  be  said  of  the  Tre- 
tenterata that  they  are  dominantly  ancient  types,  confined 
mainly  to  the  lower  half  of  the  Paleozoic,  and  are  perpetu- 
ated by  three  genera  which  continued  to  be  represented  by 
species  till  the  present  time. 

Of  the  Clistenterata,  the  Orthis,  Strophomena,  and  Spi- 
rifer  families  are  almost  entirely  Paleozoic,  a  few  rare  spe- 
cies ajipearing  in  the  Jlesozoic. 

Productus  is  characteristically  of  Devonian  and  Carbon- 
iferous age,  culminating  in  the  Carboniferous.  Some  allied 
genera  are  known  in  the  Silurian  and  in  the  earlier  Meso- 
zoic, 

Terehratulid.T,  a  large  and  prominent  group  of  genera, 
runs  back  with  several  genera  into  the  Paleozoic,  but  its 
great  expansion  in  genera  and  species  is  in  the  Mesozoic 
and  later  times.  These  are  the  most  important  groups  of 
Braehiopods. 

An  analysis  of  the  range  of  the  smaller  groups  of  forms, 
as  given  in  the  case  of  the  Spiriferacea  by  Waagcn,  will  il- 
lustrate admiralily  the  very  intimate  relationship  existing 


PALEONTOLOGY 


401 


between  tlic  morphological  differences,  as  expressed  in  the 
classilicalion,  and  the  geological  lime  in  which  the  dilVerent 
lorms  lived. 


UKtH.DGlCAL  HA.Ntii; 

Paleozoic 

Mcsozoic 

Cenozoic 

fArrLH  WAAliKN.) 

C 

0 

s 

D 

Carl 

T 

J 

K 

h' 

Rec, 

Atrypliue 
KoulufkluluiL; 

^^ 

_ 

_ 

^ 

^, 

ATHYRID/E 

Merlstclliiuc 
[  AthjTlii.i; 

_ 





Rctzlluu; 

DayliuL- 

TTiwlTlKo. 



^ 

„ 

^^ 

SPIRIFERID/E 
[    Suessilujc 
Dfltliyiiuje 
Martliillino 





^^ 

i 

1 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  likeness  of  mor])ho- 
logical  orijanizatioii,  which  is  the  basis  of  biolojjical  il.'issi- 
ficatioii,  is  co-ordinate  with  sameness  of  lime  in  tlic  geolog- 
ical history  of  the  races.  Wlii're  a  genus  has  a  clearly 
marked  beginning  and  ending,  thi'  dilTcront  species  of  the 
genus  ai'e  more  or  less  aliuuilantly  and  continuously  rep- 
resented during  the  period.  Different  species  which  are 
similar  to  each  other,  enougli  so  to  l)e  ranked  in  the  sanie 
geinis,  rarely  are  found  in  more  than  two  or  three  adjoin- 
ing systems,  and  as  a  rule  the  more  closely  animals  arc  like 
each  other  the  nearer  together  in  geological  time  did  they 
live,  and  in  series  of  related  forms  the  more  extreme  diver- 
gence is  found  between  the  earliest  and  the  latest  ri'jire- 
sentatives  of  the  race. 

Mimde  comparison  of  the  variations  and  sjiccilic  dilTer- 
cnces  observed  in  a  series  of  forms  of  the  same  genus  occur- 
ring in  successive  strata  leaves  little  or  no  doubt  of  the 
existence  of  continuous  races  the  successive  meudicrs  of 
which  were  genetically  related,  and,  as  races,  with  {]\<\  pas- 
sage of  time  they  suH'ered  gradual  mollification  in  a  few  or 
many  of  their  characters,  leading  to  the  conviction  that 
species  which  appear  to  breed  (dose  for  a  given  epoidi  of 
time  have  descende<l  from  ancestors  from  which  they  differ 
morphologically  enough  to  be  ranked  in  different  species  or 
genera,  or  in  some  cases  even  in  groups  of  higher  taxonomic 
rank. 

The  slight  differences  observed  in  successive  representa- 
tives of  the  same  race  of  organisms  are  called  miifiitiuns, 
and  the  differences  expressed  Ijy  the  same  species  living  at 
the  same  time,  but  geographically  .separated,  or  existing 
under  differing  conditions  of  environment,  are  called  varie- 
ties. 

In  many  cases,  where  the  facts  are  sufficiently  numerous 
to  illustrate  the  point,  it  is  observed  that  in  a  race  of  organ- 
isms great  variability  or  plasticity  of  Corm  is  (diaracteristic 
of  the  earlier  stage  of  the  history,  while  mutations  are  slow 
and  gradual  and  in  lines  already  marked  out  by  the  varia- 
bility of  the  early  types. 

Mollusca. — The  MoUusca  are  grouped  into  four  classes: 
Larn(dlil>ran(dnala,  Clasteropoda,  I'teropoda,  and  f'ephalop- 
oda.  In  each  class  calcareous  shells  of  some  kind  are 
developed  for  most  of  the  orders.  In  the  LaiTielliliranchs, 
a  bivalve  shell  like  that  of  the  clam  ;  in  (J.MsteroiKjda,  a  shell 
as  in  the  snail.  In  the  Pteropods  a  frail  hyaline  sh(dl  is 
developed  bv  many  of  the  ri'Cent  forms;  in  the  Cephalo- 
pods,  slndls  like  the  pearly  Nautilu.s,  or  internal  sludls  like 
the  cuttle-bone.  These  are  types  of  the  numerous  kinds 
of  sh(dl  produced.  These  hard  parts  are  readily  preserved 
when  buried  in  the  mud,  and  therefore  they  are  prom- 
inently represented  among  fossil  remains.  In  many  cases 
tlic'ir  external  form  or  contour  (wliic-h,  as  in  the  Laiiu'l- 
libranehs,  is  all  that  is  generally  preserved)  furnishes 
small  evidence  of  the  more  important  structural  differ- 
ences distinguishing  species,  genera,  or  categories  of  higher 
rank.  Hence  it  is  difficult  to  determine  for  the  Pah^o- 
zoic  forms  the  finer  points  of  their  paleoutologieal  his- 
tory. 

310 


F.acli  of  the  classes  is  of  early  origin,  beginning  at  least 
as  early  a.s  the  Ordovician,  as  will  Ijc  seen  in  the  following 
table. 


OKOI.IH.U  Al,  H.V.NOK 

OF    THE    CHIKF    TYl'KS 

OF  MOLLUSCA. 

Paleozoic 

Mesozoic 

CenozoicI 

C 

0 

s 

D 

Cr. 

T 

J 

K 

Ty. 

Rec, 

t.anielUbraiu-lilata 
Gastropoda 

Prowjbrniicliiata 
IlcteroiJodu 
I'lilinonutn 
rtcroijoita 
Ceplialopoda 

TL'trubranclitata 
N"aiUlllil:B 
Aniiiioultidic 
I  Goulatltes    ^ 
\  Curatltcs       > 
(  Aininoattcs  ) 
DlUranchlata 
Decapoda 
Octopoda 







. 

, 

1 





L_ 



^^ 











1 





_ 

V 

? 

_— 

^^ 

The  evidence  is  clear  that  for  Lamelliliranclis  and  Ga.s- 
teropods  the  greater  generic  expansion  was  as  late  as  Mcso- 
zoic, anil  proiiably  did  not  reach  its  maximum  till  the  Ter- 
tiary, as  illustrated  liy  the  fact  that  the  greatest  iuind)(!r  of 
recorded  genera  for  any  particular  time,  previous  to  re- 
cent, was  in  the  Tertiary.  This  fact  may,  of  course,  be 
due  in  part  to  the  better  knowledge  we  have  of  Tertiary 
shells,  but  in  general  the  earlier  forms  that  are  found  belong 
to  fewer  genera  and  families  in  both  of  the  great  classes 
mentioned. 

The  Pteropods  were  more  prominent,  both  in  numbers  of 
generic  types  and  in  species  and  inilividiiids.  in  the  lower 
systems  of  the  Paleozoic.  Pour  genera  with  fifteen  species 
and  two  varieties  have  been  described  from  the  LowerCam- 
brian  of  North  America  (Walcott),  whiidi  is  nearly  10  per 
cent,  of  th(^  total  known  American  fauna  of  that  formation, 
including  the  Trilobiles. 

The  Cephalopods  had  their  chief  exiiansion.  for  the  Nau- 
tiloid  types,  in  tlie  Paleozoic,  inchidiiig  the  straight,  cham- 
bered Oi-tlioceras,  the  (loniphoceras,  the  Gyroeeras,  (,'ysto- 
ceras,  etc..  and  tlie  earlier  representatives  of  the  genus  Nau- 
tilus which  has  persisted  to  the  present  time  in  the  case  of 
the  i)early  Nautdus.  The  Ammonite  fyjie.  represented  l)y  a 
targe  nund)erof  Goniafites  in  the  Devonian  and  Carbonifer- 
ous, found  their  great  exiiansion  and  abundance  of  species 
and  genera  in  the  Mcsozoic,  and  their  shells  constitute  one 
of  the  most  important  iiiid  elianicf eristic  nuirksof  the  Juras- 
sic anil  Cretaceous,  after  which  they  appear  to  have  become 
suddenly  extinct.  The  Diliranchiate  order,  represented  by 
the  modern  octopus  and  squid,  were  of  still  later  origin,  and 
no  traces  of  them  have  been  seen  lower  than  the  Trias. 
The  order  of  apjiearance  in  the  case  of  the  various  tyiies  of 
Cephalopods  is  clearly  t  hat  of  the  order  of  rank  of  elaboration 
and  of  organic  structure.  The  well-known  series  of  genera 
of  Cephalopods — i.e.  Nautilus,  Goniatites,  Ceratites,  .Vuuno- 
nites — expresses  the  law  of  progressive  evolution  in  its  sim- 
plest form,  in  the  elaboration  of  the  edges  of  the  chambers  as 
seen  in  the  suture  lines  of  the  shells. 

The  physical  relation  borne  by  the  successive  forms  of 
suture  lines  in  this  case  is  such  that  it  would  be  physically 
impossible  for  the  Annnonites'  septum  and  suture  to  bo 
formed  by  development  without  passing  through  stages  rep- 
resented by  those  of  the  Nautilus,  (ioniatites,  and  Ceratites 
successively,  thus  furinshing  ahnost  mathematical  ])roof  of 
the  genetic  relationship  of  the  later  to  the  earlier  types. 
See  Mollusca. 

Timicata. — The  few  known  forms  referred  to  this  branch  of 
the  animal  kingdom  develop  no  structures  sulliciently  du- 
rable to  lead  to  the  expectation  that  their  fossil  remains 
could  be  discovered,  except  under  the  most  favoi'able  cir- 
cumstances. Tlii'V  may  have  lived  in  the  earliest  times,  Init 
at  present  undoubted  traces  of  them  arc  not  known  in  the 
rocks.     .See  Tunicata. 

Vertehrata. — The  paleontology  of  the  Vertebrates  is  dis- 
eu.ssed  in  other  articles  of  this  cvclopa-dia,  a?id  here  only 
the  grander  facts  will  be  referred  to.  See  Verteubates, 
Fossil. 


402 


PALEONTOLOGY 


PALERMO 


In  the   first  table   tlie  geolofiiciil   range   of   the  several 
classes  is  given. 


GEOLOGICAL  KAXGE 

OF  THE  CLASSES  OF 

VERTEBRATES. 

Paleozoic 

Mesozoic 

Cenozoic 

C 

0 

s 

D 

Car 

T 

J 

K 

Ty. 

Rec 

Leptocardii 

Cyclostomi 

Pisces 

Amphibia 

Sauropsida  (Huxley ) 

Mammalia 

^_ 

^^ 

_ 

_ 



^ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Of  the  lower  and  rarer  forms  of  Vertebrates,  the  Leptocar- 
dii and  the  Cyelostoiiii,  only  recent  examples  are  known. 
The  chief  classes  of  Vertebrates  made  their  first  appearance, 
so  far  as  known,  and  became  dominant  in  the  order  of  their 
zoological  rank. 

The  fishes  were  the  first  to  appear,  in  the  types  of  Ganoids 
and  heavily  mailed  Placoderms,  and  the  ancient  types  of 
Cephalaspis  and  Pteraspis,  and  early  types  of  Shark. 

The  earliest  known  remains  of  fish  are  from  the  Trenton 
rocks  of  Colorado.  In  the  Devonian  fish  remains  are  abun- 
dant, and  of  the  types  above  mentioned. 

In  the  Carboniferous  Amphibian  remains  appear,  not  those 
of  the  more  modern  Batrachian  type  of  the  toads  and  tailed 
salamanders,  but  of  a  separate  order,  Stegocephala ;  and  the 
species  were  often  of  large  size,  and  in  some  cases  protected 
by  scales  or  plates  over  part  of  the  body. 

The  modern  type  of  Amphibia  are  not  known  earlier  than 
the  Cretaceous. 

The  modern  type  of  fish,  the  Teleosts,  did  not  appear  till 
the  middle  of  the  Mesozoic,  and  their  chief  expansion  is  in 
the  Tertiary.  Of  the  45  recorded  families  of  Teleostei,  only 
16  are  reported  from  below  the  Tertiary,  and  only  3 — the 
Soplojileuridm  and  the  ClupeidiE — below  the  Cretaceous. 
Species  of  these  two  families  appear  in  the  Triassic. 

The  reptiles  and  birds  (paleontological  evidences  requiring 
their  association  in  one  great  class — the  Sauropsida)  formed 
their  great  expansion  in  the  Mesozoic,  which  on  that  ac- 
count has  been  called  by  Agassiz  the  age  of  Reptiles.  A  few 
true  reptiles  were  seen  in  the  Carboniferous,  and  though  a 
few  traces  of  true  birds  have  appeared  in  Cretaceous  rocks, 
the  birds  and  the  mammals  were  very  insignificant  among 
the  faunas  previous  to  the  Tertiary. 

In  the  following  table  the  range  of  the  grander  divi- 
sions of  the  reptiles  and  birds  is  given  : 


GEOLOGICAL  RANGE 

OF  THE  ORDERS  OF 

REPTILES  AND  BIRDS. 

Paleozoic 

Mesozoic 

Cenozoic| 

c  |o 

s 

D 

Car. 

T 

J 

K 

Ty. 

Rec. 

CD 

UJ 

_l 
Ul 

a. 

Ichthyosauria 

Sauropterygla 

Testudinaia  (Turtles) 

Theromorpha 

Rhynchocephalia 

Lepldosauria 

Lacertilia  (Lizards) 
Pythonomorpha 
Ophidia  (Serpents) 

CroeodiUa 

Dluosauria 

Pterosaurta 

1 











__ 

^ 

^^^ 





^^^ 

1 

jy  fsaurura© 
g-  Ratitae 

^^ 



_ 

^^^ 

■ 

From  the  table  it  appears  that  the  gigantic  sea-lizards 
(Ichthyosauria,  Siiuropterygia)  called  Enaliosauria,  and  the 
sea-serpents,  which  were  cciually  gigantic,  of  TO  feet  or  more 
in  length  (the  Pythonomorpha)',  the  peculiar  type  of  Thero- 
morpha, the  gigantic  ami  tnily  marvelous  land  reptiles,  the 
Dinosauria,  2.5  to  30  feet  long,  and  exceeding  in  bulk  the 
elephants  and  rhinoceros  of  the  present  time,  and  the  fly- 
ing reptiles,  with  long  teeth  and  bat-like  wings — Ptero- 
sauria — were  tlie  dominant  races  of  Jlesozoic  time,  but 
have  all  become  extinct.  'I'he  modern  reptiles  are  the  tur- 
tles, the  serpents,  the  rare  liatteria,  and  the  lizards,  all  of 


size  inferior  to  the  mammals,  and  the  Crocodilians  which 
preserve  somewhat  of  the  importance  of  the  ancient  rep- 
tilian type. 

The  'Saururoe,  tailed,  feathered,  toothed,  and  winged  ani- 
mals, combine  the  characters  of  birds  and  reptiles,  and  have 
not  been  discovered  later  than  the  Jurassic.  The  Hesperor- 
nis  of  the  Cretaceous,  however,  is  a  true  bird  (Ratitte)  with 
teeth  in  its  beak,  thus  showing  the  intimate  genetic  relation- 
ship between  these  two  great  divisions  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, the  reptiles  and  birds,  suggesting  to  Huxley  their  in- 
clusion in  a  single  class,  the  Sauropsida. 

The  study  of  the  fossil  mammals  reveals  some  of  the  most 
interesting  facts  of  paleontology.    See  Vertebrates,  Fossil. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  small  representatives  of  the 
marsupials  (Mierolestes,  Dromatherium.  and  other  related 
forms  from  the  Triassic  and  Jurassic),  which  are  interpreted 
by  JIarsh  as  probably  insectivorous,  and  allied  with  what 
are  now  marsupials,  the  mammals  did  not  appear  lower 
than  the  Eocene — the  base  of  the  Tertiary. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  fact  exhibited  in  the 
paleontological  history  of  organisms — i.  e.  that  the  evolution 
of  the  highest,  now  by  all  means  the  dominant  and  most 
important  class  of  the  organisms  on  the  globe,  was  evolved 
in  all  of  its  most  characteristic  differences  of  structure  and 
organization  since  the  beginning  of  the  Eocene.  The  length 
of  the  life  history  of  not  only  all  the  species  but  the  genera, 
families,  and  orders  of  mammals  is  little  longer  (perhaps 
twice  as  long  at  the  greatest)  than  the  average  length  of 
life  of  the  majority  of  the  species  of  Invertebrates  now  liv- 
ing in  the  ocean. 

The  above  review  of  the  chief  facts  of  paleontology  will 
suffice  to  point  out  the  nature  of  the  problems  which  this 
comparatively  new  science  reveals.  To  paleontology  we 
must  look  for  the  demonstration  of  the  laws  of  organic  evo- 
lution. Henry  S.  Williams. 

Paleozoic  Era  [Gr.  vaKaids.  ancient  +  (ifov.  animal] :  one 
of  the  greater  divisions  of  geologic  time.  It  is  preceded  by 
the  Proterozoic  era  and  followed  by  the  Mesozoic  and  Ceno- 
zoic. and  it  includes  the  Cambrian,  Silurian,  Devonian,  and 
Carboniferous  periods.    See  Paleontology. 

Paleozoic  System  :  See  Paleontology. 

Paler'iiio  [Ital.  <  Lat.  Panor'miis,  the  ancient  name  = 
Gr.  Hamp/ias.  liter.,  always  fit  for  landing  ;  ttSs.  vm.  all  + 
oppios.  harbor]:  citv  of  Sicily;  situated  on  the  north  coast; 
in  lat.  38°  6'  44"  N.,  Ion.  13"  20'  E.  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
9-E).  It  lies  on  a  bay  formed  by  a  deep  and  spacious  inland 
sweep  of  the  sea,  between  Cape  Zafferano  on  the  E.  and 
Monte  Pellegrino  on  the  W.  This  b.ay  has  received  the 
name  of  the  Conca  d'Oro,  the  Golden  Shell,  a  name  also  ap- 
plied to  the  city  and  to  the  plain  which  extends  from  the 
sea  to  the  mountains  in  the  rear — a  region  favored  in  its 
climate,  soil,  and  landscape  beauty.  The  city  walls,  4-J  miles 
in  circumference,  form  a  square,  the  tour  angles  correspond- 
ing very  nearly  to  the  four  cardinal  points  of  the  compass, 
and  the  town  is  entered  by  sixteen  gates.  The  harbor  lies 
to  the  N.  of  the  town,  and  is  sheltered  by  a  huge  mole.  The 
Oreto,  which,  with  its  many  small  tributaries,  waters  the  ad- 
joining plain,  flows  into  the  sea  near  the  east  angle.  Two 
fine  streets,  the  Macqueda  or  Strada  Xuova,  and  the  Vittorio 
Emannele,  formerly  Toledo,  intei-sect  each  other  at  right 
angles  near  the  center  of  the  city,  thus  dividing  it  into  four 
sections.  Among  the  public  squares  are  the  Villena  or 
Vigliena,  decorated  with  fountains  and  statues  in  the  Re- 
naissance style,  and  the  public  garden  on  the  left  of  the 
Porta  Felice,  abounding  in  almost  tropic  vegetation.  The 
favorite  promenade  is  the  Marina,  running  along  the  shore 
on  the  line  of  the  old  fortifications. 

JS'ottibh  Buildings. — Palermo  is  an  archbishopric,  and  has 
about  300  churches  and  chapels.  The  cathedral,  built  in  the 
twelfth  century  by  an  Englishman,  Archbishop  Walter,  con- 
tains curious  media'val  monuments.  San  Domenico  is  the 
largest  church  in  the  city,  and  will  hold  12,000  persons  ;  the 
Olivella  is  the  most  gorgeous  church.  Tlie  royal  palace  is 
in  ]iart  the  work  of  the  Arabs,  for  whom  it  served  as  a 
fortified  castle,  but  it  was  transformed  by  the  Xormans. 
The  chapel  and  the  Sala  di  Ruggiero  are  "richly  incrusted 
with  old  mosaics.  Of  other  buildings  there  is  the  uni- 
vcrsitv  (founded  in  1447)  with  (1891)  05  teachers  and  1,253 
students,  the  town  library  with  141.000  volumes  and  2,640 
MSS..  and  the  national  Ulirary  with  110,000  volumes  and 
12.000  M.SS.  Some  of  the  private  edifices  are  remarkable 
for  their  anti(|uity,  otliers  for  their  architecture.  The  en- 
virons of  Palermo  abound  in  objects  of  interest — the  great 


jG 


PALES 


PALESTINK 


403 


oathedrai  of  Monreale  (see  Monreale)  ;  the  Castello  della 
Zisa;  UicCastellodellaC'uba:  iind  Monte  I'ellefirino, in  which 
is  the  frrotto  of  Santa  Rosalia,  the  patroness  of  the  city. 

Tnide  and  Imluslry. — These  are  active,  thougli  not  grow- 
ing. There  are  manufactures  of  gloves,  essences,  and  ma- 
chinery. The  nunilier  of  vessels  aiinmilly  entering  the 
port  is  aVjout  3.500.  with  a  tonnaj;e  of  l.".iOO.OOO;  exports — 
fruits,  wines,  silks,  gloves,  etc. — in  1»!MJ  were  valued  at  :*(>.- 
38:1,044,  of  which  the  U.  S.  took  more  than  one-half:  the 
imi>orts  were  valued  at  (l«i»0)  $4.01!t.(J04.  There  is  also  a 
coasting  trade ;  imports  over  ^15.000,000,  exports  about  $5,- 
000.000.     Pop.  (1H1I2)  273.000. 

Ifis/un/. — Palertno  is  probably  of  I'hienician  origin,  and 
is  first  known  in  liislory  as  a  Carthaginian  depeiuU'iicy. 
During  the  Punic  wars  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Uomans 
and  became  a  gnat  naval  station.  In  the  fifth  century  a.  u. 
it  was  IjikiMi  by  tlie  Vandals,  and  was  ceded  by  them  to  the 
Goth.s,  who  were  driven  out  by  Belisarius.  In  830  it  was 
con(|Ucred  by  the  Saracens,  who  made  it  the  capital  of  their 
Sicilian  doiuinii ms.  In  1071  the  Normans.  un<icr  Count 
Roger.  liHjk  Palermo,  and  it  coutiiuied  the  capital  of  the 
Sicilian  kingdom  through  the  Norman  and  Swabian  dynas- 
ties. Charhw  of  Aiijou  removed  his  court  to  Naples  (126'J). 
since  which  time  Palermo  has  never  been  a  permanent  royal 
residence.  (For  further  historical  details,  see  Sicily  and 
Sicilian'  \'espek.s.)  From  1820  the  revolutionary  failures  of 
Naples  were  re|K'ated  in  Palermo  until  the  landing  of  (iari- 
baldi  at  .Marsala  (1860)  caused  an  uprising  here,  which  put  to 
flight  30,000  Bourbon  troops,  backed  by  a  strong  fleet :  and 
by  an  enthusiastic  p/ebiscite  the  city  became  a  part  of  the 
new  kingdom  of  Italy.  Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Pa'les :  in  Roman  mythology,  a  divinity  of  ilocks  and 
shepherds,  corresponding  in  some  resiiects  to  the  Greek 
Pan.  This  divinity  was  probably  of  early  origin,  but  is 
seldom  mentioned,  and  played  in  historical  times  only  a  sub- 
ordinate part  in  the  religion  of  the  Romans.  It  was  con- 
ceived of  sometimes  as  male  and  sometimes  as  female,  al- 
though the  rites  of  the  festival  Palilia  considered  Pales  only 
as  female.  This  festival  was  celebrated  on  Apr.  21.  and  was 
con.sidered  the  birthday  of  Rome.  In  this  festival  Pales 
was  invoked  to  grant  [irotection  and  increase  to  flocks  and 
herds.  The  name  Pales  is  thought  to  be  connected  with 
Palatium.  Revised  by  G.  L.  Hexdrickson. 

PaPostine  [from  Lat.  Palmsfi' iia  =  Gr.  noAaio-Ti'iT).  by 
analogy  of  ndxai,  anciently,  ancient  from  Ileli.  P'lixhclli, 
Philistia.  liter..  Land  of  Wandering,  and  P'lishth'nn,  Philis- 
tines, derivs.  of  petesh.  wander]:  a  name  designating  origi- 
nally only  the  country  of  the  Philistines,  but  in  the  later 
Greek  and  Roman  period  applied,  as  we  now  apply  it,  to  the 
whole  country  of  the  Israelites  on  both  sides  of  the  .Jordan. 
J<isephus  uses  the  name  in  both  of  these  senses.  The  ohlest 
name  was  the  Land  of  Canaan,  or  sometimes  simply  Canaan, 
lowland,  by  which  was  meant,  however,  only  the  country  \V. 
of  the  Jordan,  which  is  all  that  was  promised  to  Abraham. 
Other  Scripture  nami's  are  Juihea.  the  Land  of  Israel,  the 
Land  of  Promise,  and  the  Holy  Land.  The  last  name  has 
for  several  centuries  been  more  current  than  any  other. 

Boundaries  and  Exlinl. — The  boundaries  of  Palestine 
cannot  be  determined  exactly.  Apjiroximately,  (hey  were 
as  follows:  On  the  W.  the  Mediterranean;  on  the  N.  a  line 
beginning  near  the  I'romonfdriiim  Album,  S.  of  Tyre,  in  lat. 
83'  10',  trending  northward  till,  near  the  southern  base  of 
Herinon,  it  strikes  lat.  33°  l(i',  and  then  runs  .straight  on  to 
the  desert;  on  the  K.  the  Araliian  desert;  aii<l  (m  the  S.  the 
parallel  of  lat.  31'.  a  little  .S.  of  IJeersheba  (31°  15),  curving 
to  take  in  Ka<lesh.  Within  these  bounilaries,  as  recently 
determined,  tliere  are,  on  the  west  side  of  the  .Ionian,  about 
H.tJOO  square  miles,  and  on  the  east  side,  including  ancient 
-Moab,  S.  of  the  .Vrnon.  more  than  5,000,  perhaps  nearly 
6,000,  si(uare  miles.  The  length  of  this  territory  is  about 
150  miles;  its  average  breadth  W.  of  the  .lordan  more  than 
40,  and  E.  of  the  .Ionian  about  40  miles. 

Phi/xiral  Fen/ urea. — The  country  is  made  up  of  four  long 
parallel  slriiisof  territory,  lowland  and  highland  alternating. 
-Vlong  thi>  .Mediterranean  coast  is  a  strip  of  lowland,  in  the 
northern  or  Pha'iiician  sectioned'  it. about  20  miles  longand 
from  4  to  (i  broad  ;  in  the  miildle.  Sharon  section  of  it.  S.  of 
Carmel,  more  than  30  miles  long  and  about  10  miles  broad: 
and  in  its  southern,  Philistine  section,  40  miles  long  and 
from  10  to  20  liroad.  This  strip  of  lowlanil  is  interrupted  by 
the  ridge  of  Carim-I,  which  branches  otT  from  the  mountains 
of  Samaria,  runs  northwestward  for  18  miles,  rises  at 
one  point  to  the  height  of  1,810  feel,  and  thrusts  out  into  the 


sea  a  promontory  556  feet  high.  On  all  this  coast  there  ia 
not  one  good  harbor.  Next  comes  the  highland  strip,  some 
25  or  30  miles  broad,  which  si)rings  from  the  roots  of  Leba- 
non, swells  into  the  hills  of  Galilee,  is  interrupted  by  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  as  the  lowland  strip  is  interru|)ted  by 
the  ridge  of  Carmel,  swells  again  into  the  hills  of  .Samaria,, 
reaches  its  greatest  average  height  in  .huhea,  and  then  sinks- 
away  into  the  desert  S.  of  Beersheba.  Tliis  broad,  high 
central  strip  of  West  .lordanic  territory  has  been  compared 
to  a  ship's  longboat  turned  upside  down.  Among  its  high- 
est points  in  Galilee  are  Safed  (perhaps  the  "citv  set  on  a 
hill "  of  Matt.  V.  14),  2,749  feet  above  the  sea,  and  Jebel  Jer- 
iniik,  near  by,  nearly  4,000  feet  above  the  sea.  In  Samaria 
the  highest  points  are  Ebal,  3,077.  and  Geri/.im.  2.849.  feet 
above  the  sea.  In  Juda>a  the  highest  point  of  Jerusalem  is 
2,593,  Mount  of  Olives  2.693,  Hebron  3,040,  and  Beersheba 
788,  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Jordan  valley,  at  some  points 
quite  narrow  and  at  others  from  5  to  10  or  12  miles  broad,  is 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  The  Jordan  itself,  in  going 
from  its  Ilasbeiya  source  to  the  Dead  Sea  (115  <ir  120  miles), 
plunges  down  a  descent  of  more  than  2.300  feet,  from  1.080 
feet  above  to  1,292  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Jlediterranean. 
The  fourth  parallel  strip,  E.  of  the  Jordan,  is  (most  of  it) 
high  table-land,  some  of  it  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  sinking 
away  eastward  into  the  Arabian  desert.  As  seen  from  the 
west  side  of  the  Jordan  it  looks  like  a  purple  wall. 

Lakes,  Eivers,  and  Springs.— Ot  thi;  four  lakes  of  Pales- 
tine, the  northernmost  is  Phiala,  5  miles  E.  of  Hanias,  nearly 
round,  about  a  mile  in  diameter,  and  of  unknown  dejitli, 
occupying  apparently  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano.  It 
is  some  3.300  feet  above  the  sea.  is  not,  as  was  ancieiitlv  sup- 
posed, one  of  the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  has  neither  inlet  nor 
outlet,  and  abounds  in  frogs  and  leeches.  Merom  (now 
Iluleh),  10  miles  S.  of  Banias,  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive 
papyrus  marsh.  7  feet  above  the  sea.  is  a  triangular  lake, 
with  its  apex  pointing  southward,  about  5  miles  long,  nearly 
4  miles  across  its  base,  and  15  feet  deep.  Ten  miles  farther 
down  is  Gennesaret,  12^-  miles  in  length,  6J  miles  in  its 
greatest  breadth  (at  Magdala).  165  feet  diH'p.  and  682'5  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  I)eail  .Sea,  which 
is  situated  at  a  distance  of  some  65  miles  farther  .S.,  is  40 
miles  long,  nearly  10  miles  broad,  more  than  1.300  feet  below 
(he  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  1.292  feet  deep.  No 
fish  live  in  it.  Of  rivers,  the  most  important  is  the  Jordan, 
which  has  two  tributaries  emptying  into  it  from  the  E.  (the 
Yarmuk  and  the  Zerka).  and  two  from  the  W.  (the  Jalud 
and  the  FSrah).  Many  of  the  so-called  rivers  of  Palestine 
are  merely  winter  torrents,  which  run  dry  in  summer.  Of 
the  eight  permanent  rivers  emptying  into  the  Jlediterranean 
Sea.  the  most  important  are  the  Beliis  (now  Xahr  Sa'tnan, 
near  Acre),  celebrated  for  the  accidental  discovery  of  the 
art  of  making  glass ;  the  Kishon,  '•  that  ancient  river  "  (now 
yaltr  el-Mukatta,  river  of  slaughter),  which  drains  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon;  the  Zerka.  just  N.  of  Ca'sarea;  and  the 
Aujeh  (not  mentioned  in  Scripture),  a  few  miles  N.  of  Jaffa, 
which  drains  the  mountains  of  .Samaria,  and  i.s.  next  to  the 
Jordan,  the  longest  permanent  river  in  Palestine.  Three 
permanent  streams  empty  into  the  Dead  Sea  from  the  E. 
These  are  the  Zerka  Jla'in  (not  mentioned  in  Scripture), 
near  which  are  the  four  hot  springs  of  Callirrhoe  :  the  Anion 
(now  Mojib),  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Jloabites  an<l  the 
southern  boundary  of  (he  Israelites,  about  half-way  down 
the  sea;  and  the  Zered  (now pZ-J/i.*;/), at  thesoutheast corner 
of  the  sea.  The  springs  of  Palestine  constitute  one  of  it-s 
most  characteristic  features.  First  in  im|)ortance  are  the 
three  sources  of  the  Jordan.  Of  these,  that  at  Ilasbeiya  (not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible)  contributes  one-seventh,  that  at 
Cicsarea  Philippi  (now  Banian)  two-sevenths,  and  that  at 
Dan  (now  Tell  el-Kadi/)  four-sevenths,  of  the  whole  volume 
of  the  river.  As  an  indication  of  the  very  great  multitude 
of  springs  in  Palestine.  Robinson  enumerates  thirty  in  a 
circuit  of  8  or  10  miles  around  Jerusalem. 

Cfeology. — The  backbone  of  the  country,  on  both  sides  of 
the  Jordan,  is  hard  Jura  limestone,  full  of  grottoes  and  cav- 
erns, with  sandstone,  ba.salt,  and  other  volcanic  rocks  also 
on  both  sides  of  the  river,  but  these  last  more  especially  on 
the  east  side.  There  are  many  signs  of  violent  volcanic 
action  in  the  past, and  earlhquakes  are  still  occasionally  felt, 
the  most  severe  in  modern  times  being  that  which  occurred 
in  1837.  which  partially  destroyed  both  Safed  and  Tiberias. 

Climate  and  liainfall. — The  climate,  on  the  wliole.  is 
mihi,  inclining,  however,  toward  the  extreme  of  heat  rather 
than  towanl  the  extreme  of  cold.  There  are  only  two  sea- 
sons, summer  and  winter — the  former,  from  April  to  Novein- 


404 


PALESTINE 


ber,  rainless  or  nearly  so;  the  latter,  from  November  to 
April,  raiuv;  but  between  the  mitiaie  of  December  and  the 
middle  of  February  there  is  generally  a  kind  of  intermission, 
separating  "  the  former  and  the  latter  rain."  The  rainfall 
at  Jerusalem  varies  from  13  to  43  inches,  both  extremes  be- 
ing exceptional ;  35  inches  are  consiilered  necessary  to  in- 
sure good  crops,  and  if  less  than  18  inches  fall  the  harvest 
is  poor  and  suffering  ensues.  During  the  rainy  season  of 
1893-!J:J  the  rainfall  was  88-4  inches.  The  average  rainfall 
appears  to  be  less  than  35  inches,  while  on  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board of  the  U.  S.  it  is  45,  and  in  California,  whose  climate  is 
mnch  like  that  of  Palestine,  it  is  only  30.  Along  the  Medi- 
terranean lowlands,  and  still  more  in  the  Jordan  valley,  the 
heat  of  summer  is  always  great,  and  sometimes  exceedingly 
oppre.ssive,  but  not  so  on  the  higher  levels,  except  during 
sirocco  weather.  At  Jerusalem,  from  June,  1S51.  to  Jan.. 
1855,  according  to  Dr.  Barclay's  register,  the  mean  tempera- 
ture was  66-5".  the  highest  temperature  93°,  and  the  lowest, 
on  one  occasion  just  before  sunrise,  38°.  In  some  years  the 
mean  is  H'i  and  the  highest  86°.  Observations  made  by 
Dr.  Chaplin,  for  the  eight  years  preceding  1873,  show  a 
mean  temperature  of  63-8".  In  May,  and  also  in  Septem- 
ber, the  temperature  sometimes  rises  to  100  ;  on  June  34, 
1869,  it  reached  103-5°,  and  on  Aug.  38  and  30,  1881,  it 
remained  for  some  hours  at  113',  Mt.  Hermou,  nearly 
10,000  feet  high,  and  looking  down  upon  the  whole  of  Pales- 
tine, is  never  entirely  clear  of  snow,  though  late  in  autumn 
only  slender  threads  of  it  are  left,  as  the  Arabs  say,  "like 
the' straggling  silver  locks  on  an  old  man's  head."  During 
the  winter  ice  seldom  forms,  and  the  ground  is  seldom,  if 
ever,  frozen  in  any  part  of  the  country.  With  abundant 
rains,  which  may  generally  be  counted  upon,  Palestine  was 
once  very  fertile,  and  might  be  so  again ;  but  in  order  to 
this,  trees  must  be  planted,  cisterns  built  and  kept  in  repair, 
and  the  hills  terraced,  as  of  old.  The  products  of  the  soil 
still  range  from  peas,  beans,  wheat,  and  barley  to  grapes,  figs, 
olives,  apricots,  lemons,  oranges,  and  dates. 

Butttny. — The  botany  of  Palestine,  unlike  that  of  Egypt, 
is  riciily  varied.  Upward  of  3,000  species  have  been  i-e- 
porled,  chiefly  by  the  labors  and  observations  of  Dr.  George 
B.  Post,  of  Beyrout.  For  mile  on  mile,  in  the  proper  season, 
the  ground  is'fairly  covered  with  flowers  of  all  the  colors  of 
the  rainbow.  Everywhere  one  sees  the  scarlet  anemone, 
which  is  thought  by  some  to  be  our  Lord"s  "  lily  of  the  field." 
The  ranunculus  and  the  pheasant's  eye  (Adonis  palestina) 
are  also  very  brilliant.  The  narcissus,  the  crocus,  and  the 
mallow  are  all  candidates  for  the  honor  of  being  considered 
"  the  rose  of  Sharon."  Of  shrubs,  the  most  abundant  and 
most  beautiful  is  the  oleander.  The  whole  country  was  once 
well  timbered,  and  still  there  are  groves,  and  even  forests, 
of  pine  and  oak  beyond  the  Jordan.  On  the  west  side  of 
the  river,  from  Beersheba  all  the  way  up  to  Lebanon,  there 
are  very  few  trees,  except  on  Tabor  and  Carmel.  Since  the 
time  of"  the  crusades  the  pine  forest  then  standing  between 
Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem  has  wholly  disappeared.  Repeated 
wars  and  conquests,  and  dreary  centuries  of  bad  government, 
have  gradually  reduced  the  country  to  its  present  naked, 
burnt,  and  desolate  appearance.  The  tree  now  most  common 
is  the  oak,  of  which  Dr.  Post  enumerates  eight  different  spe- 
cies, till!  most  abundant  being  the  prickly  evergreen  oak 
(QHerciispseudo-cnrcifera).  The  "  oaks  of  Mamre  "  were  not 
oaks,  but  terebinths,  the  most  famous  specimen  of  which  is 
the  so-called  Abraham's  Oak,  near  Hebron,  23  feet  in  cir- 
cumference. 

Animids  and  Birds. — The  wild  animals  of  the  country 
are  much  the  same  asjn  ancient  times,  except  that  the  lion 
has  disajipeared  and  the  leopard  is  practically  extinct.  There 
are  wolves,  jackals,  hyaenas,  wild  boars,  gazelles,  the  ibex  or 
wild  goat  of  the  Bible,  the  lynx,  otters,  badgers,  the  coney, 
hares,  ichneumons,  hedgehogs,  wild  cats,  chetahs.  Bears  are 
occasionally  seen  on  Mt.  Ilerraon.  Of  domesticated  animals. 
the  horse  is  less  used  than  the  ass,  the  mule,  and  the  camel. 
The  bulTalo.  introduced  probably  by  the  Persians,  has  in 
some  sections  taken  the  pbice  of  the  ox,  and  the  neat  cattle 
of  the  count i-y  in  general  are  neither  so  numerous  nor  so 
well  careil  for  as  in  ancient  times.  Sheep  and  goats  are 
aliundant,  but  swine  are  scarcely  ever  seen.  The  dogs  are 
nearly  all  of  one  lirred  (the  shepherd),  and  are  outcasts  and 
scavengers,  making  night  hideous,  as  the  jackals  do,  by  their 
howling.  Of  the  360  species  of  liirds  which  have  been  ob- 
served may  be  mentioned,  as  most  common,  eagles,  vultures, 
hawks,  owls,  storks,  pelicans,  ravens,  doves,  pigeons,  par- 
tridges, quails,  sparrows,  and  nightingales.  Fish  still  abound, 
as  of  old,  in  tlie  Lake  of  tialilee,  but  the  natives  employ 


rude  methods  in  taking  them :  forty-three  species  of  fresh- 
water fishes  have  been  recorded  from  Palestine,  and  of  this 
number  thirty  belong  exclusively  to  the  Jordan  system  and 
its  lakes.  The  "  great  flsh  "  of  Jonah  i.  17,  which  swallowed 
the  truant  prophet,  was  not  a  '•  whale,"  as  the  k^tus  of  Matt, 
xii.  40  is  unwarrantably  rendered  in  our  version,  but  may 
have  been  a  specimen  of  the  great  white  shark  (Cams  car- 
charias),  still  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  sometimes 
35  or  30  feet  long.  There  are  many  species  of  reptiles,  up- 
ward of  thirty  species  of  snakes,  and  upward  of  forty  spe- 
cies of  lizards  having  been  found.  The  crocodile  still  occurs 
occasionally  in  the  marshes  of  the  Zerka.  Frogs  (three  spe- 
cies) are  abundant,  and  two  species  of  toads  are  known. 

History. — The  original,  prehistoric  occu))ants  of  Palestine 
appear  to  have  been  a  Semitic  population,  including  the 
lieiihaim,  Zuzim,  Emini,  and  Horim,  E.  of  the  Jordan,  and 
the  Anakim  and  Avim,  \V.  of  the  river;  but  the  immediate 
predecessors  of  the  Hebrews  were  descended  from  Canaan, 
the  fourth  son  of  Ham.  The  date  of  their  migration  can 
not  be  determined.  In  the  original  grant  to  Abraham  (Gen. 
XV.  19-21)  ten  tribes  are  named,  two  of  which  (the  Kenites 
and  the  Kenizzites)  were  probably  S.  of  Palestine,  toward 
Egypt,  one  of  them  (the  Kadmonites)  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Jordan,  and  the  remaining  seven  (the  Hittites,  Girgashites, 
Amorites,  Canaanites,  Perizzites,  Ilivites,  and  Jebusites)  on 
the  west  side.  In  the  time  of  Moses  and  Joshua  the  Am- 
mon-Moab  people  were  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  but  had 
Ijeen  crowded  far  south  by  the  Amorites,  who  held  the  whole 
territory  from  Mt.  Hermou  to  the  Anion.  Keuben,  Gad, 
and  llalf-Manasseh  took  tliis  territory  E.  of  the  Jordan. 
Tlic  remaining  nine  and  a  half  tribes  crossed  over  and  occu- 
pied the  west  side.  The  Hebrew  commonwealth  reached 
the  summit  of  its  prosperity  and  power  under  David  and 
Solomon.  Visible  decay  began  (about  975  b.  c.)  with  the 
secession  of  the  ten  tribes.  Assyria  crushed  the  northern 
kingdom  of  Israel  about  730  n.  c,  and  Babylon  crushed  the 
southern  kingdom  of  Judah  about  587  B.  c.  Since  then 
Palestine  has  been  under  foreign  domination,  with  hardly 
more  than  the  shadow  of  independence  at  any  time.  Per- 
sians. Greeks,  and  Romans  succeeded  one  another  in  the 
mastery.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  under  the  Romans,  there 
were  four  provinces^Galilee.  Samaria,  and  Juda»a,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  river,  and  Pera'a  on  the  east  side.  Since 
637,  wlien  Palestine  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  it  has, 
witli  little  interruption,  been  under  Mohammedan  power. 
The  Seljukian  Turks  seized  the  country  in  1073.  and  by 
their  barbarous  treatment  of  Christian  pilgrims  provoked 
the  crusades.  The  Latin  kingdom,  with  its  nine  successive 
sovereigns,  established  in  1099,  held  Jerusalem  till  1187,  and 
stayed  in  Acre  till  1391.  In  1517  the  Ottomans  came  in, 
and  made  the  country  a  part  of  the  Turkish  empire.  It 
was  snatched  from  the  sultan  by  Mohammed  All  in  1832, 
but  Europe  intervened,  and  in  1841  it  was  given  back  again. 

Population. — As  no  census  is  ever  taken,  the  population 
of  Palestine  can  not  be  exactly  determined,  but  is  su|iposed 
to  be  well  on  toward  400,000,  which  is  less  than  a  tenth  of 
what  it  probably  was  in  the  time  of  Solomon.  Of  this  number 
the  Jews  form  a  considerable  portion,  the  most  recent  and  re- 
liable estimates  placing  them  at  43,000.  In  round  numbers 
37,000  of  these  are  in  Jerusalem,  1,300  in  Hebron,  6,000  in 
Safed,  3,000  in  Tiberias,  the  rest  being  divided  between 
Jaffa,  Ramleh,  Acre,  Haifa,  Nablus,  and  a  few  colonies. 
Attempts  to  colonize  Palestine  with  Jews  have  not  been 
very  successful.  The  little  remnant  of  the  Samaritans  at 
Nablus  numbers  only  about  150.  The  bulk  of  the  inhab- 
itants are  a  mixed  race,  descendants  of  tlie  ancient  Syrians 
and  their  Arab  conquerors. 

Pitgrimages  and  E.rploratiiDis. — Pilgrimages  to  the  Holy 
Land  began  with  Helena,  tlie  mother  of  Constantine,  in 
326,  and  have  continued  ever  since.  What  was  tlien  known 
of  the  country  may  be  found  in  the  Onomasticon  of  Euse- 
bius  and  Jerome.  During  the  Jliddle  Ages  the  principal 
topographers  of  Palestine  wej-e  ignorant,  superstitious,  and 
careless  monks,  whose  identifications  of  sacred  places  were 
largely  of  the  legendary  and  childish  sort.  It  is  only  within 
a  comparatively  recent  period  that  the  true  critical  nu'thod 
has  been  pursued.  Seetzen  was  there  from  1805  to  1807 ; 
Burckhardt  in  1810:  Irby  and  Mangles  in  1817-18;  but 
no  one  man  has  ever  done  so  much  for  the  geograjihy  of 
the  Holy  Land  as  Dr.  Edward  Robinson.  He  was  tlie  first  to 
adopt  and  adhere  persistently  to  the  rule  of  looking  for 
ancient  Hebrew  names  under  the  disgui.se  of  modern  Arabic 
names.  Next  in  rank  with  resjiect  to  the  amount  and  quality 
of  service  rendered  is  Dr.  William  M.  Thomson,  of  Beyrout, 


PALESTINE 


PALESTRIXA 


405 


a  native  of  the  U.  S..  for  more  than  forty  years  a  missionary 
in  Syria  and  the  Holy  liaiid.  wliose  book  appeared  in  1858. 
In  1'h48  llie  lower  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea  were  for  the  first 
time  thorougldv  explored  and  surveyed  Ijv  Lieut.  Lyneli,  of 
the  U.  S.  navy."  In  IH-")!!  Johann  (iotlfri.'d  Welzsteui.  Prus- 
sian consul  at  Daniaseus,  explored  the  northern  section  of 
the  country  K.  of  the  .Jordan.  In  IStiG  the  marsh  and  lake 
of  Iluleh  and  the  upper  Jordan  were  explored  liy  John  Mac- 
Gregor,  of  Scotland,  and  in  the  same  year  the  Lake  of 
Galilee  was  accurately  surveyed  by  Capt.  Wilson,  of  the 
Royal  Enj^ineers.  This  last  piece  of  work  was  done  under 
the'direetion  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund,  a  society 
organized  in  LSGri  for  the  jjurpose  of  making  an  exhaustive 
exploration  and  an  exact  survey  of  the  Holy  Land.  From 
1867  to  1870  ('apt.  Warren,  under  the  ilireetion  of  the  same 
society,  was  making  excavations  in  and  around  Jerusalem. 
In  18t()  the  American  Palestine  Exploration  Society  was  or- 
ganized to  work  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1871  the  triangulation  of  Western  Palestine  was 
begun  by  t'afrt.  Stewart,  whose  health  soon  broke  down,  and 
was  completed  in  1877  by  Lieut.  Con<ler  and  Lieut.  Kitchener. 
Of  622  biblical  sites  in  Western  Palestine  they  claim  to  have 
identified  172  out  of  the  total  of  434  which  are  now  consid- 
ered to  hare  been  identified  with  tolerable  certainty.  Their 
large  map  in  twenty-six  sheets,  on  the  scale  of  an  inch  to  the 
mile,  was  published  in  1880.  Seven  ipiarto  volumes  accom- 
pany it — three  of  memoirs,  one  of  name-lists,  one  of  special 
papers,  one  on  the  Jerusalem  work,  and  oue  on  the  flora  and 
fauna  of  Palestine.  The  reduced  map  (on  the  scale  of  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  to  a  mile)  is  in  tour  forms — the  Old  Testa- 
ment ancient,  the  Xew  Testament  ancient,  the  modern,  and 
the  water-basins.  In  1873  the  American  society  sent  out  its 
first  expedition,  under  connnand  of  Lieut.  Edgar  Z.  Steever, 
of  the  U.  S.  army,  detailed  for  that  service  by  the  Secretary 
of  War.  A  base-line  was  measured  in  the  desert  E.  of  the 
Jordan,  over  against  Jericho ;  the  work  was  carried  on 
through  the  hottest  months  of  the  summer  and  more  than 
500  sc).  miles  were  triangulated.  Prof.  John  A.  Paine,  ar- 
ehieologist  and  botanist  of  the  expedition,  discovered  several 
new  species  of  plants,  and  examined  with  great  care  Mt. 
Nebo  and  the  adjacent  region.  In  1875  a  second  expedition 
was  sent  out  under  command  of  Col.  James  C.  Lane,  who 
remained  in  the  country  but  a  short  time,  and  the  work 
was  put  in  cliarge  of  the  archieologist.  Dr.  Selah  Jlerrill, 
who  made  several  important  expeditions  to  every  part  of 
that  interesting  country.  A  reconnoissanee  survey  of  the 
whole  Trans-.Jordanie  region  was  made  (the  survey  work 
being  done  chiefly  by  Rudolph  Meyer),  important  sites, 
such  as  Ramoth-Gileai],  Succoth,  and  others,  were  identi- 
fied, and  in  all  about  230  names  appeared  for  the  first  time 
in  Meyer's  map  (not  published).  Dr.  MerriU  reckons  about 
240  biblical  names  E.  of  the  Jordan,  besides  fourteen  men- 
tioned in  the  Maccabees.  Xearly  100  of  these  he  thinks  have 
been  identifietl.  At  this  point  the  work  of  triangulation 
was  surrendered  to  the  English  society,  which  entered  the 
field  in  1881,  surveyed  about  500  s(i.  miles,  and  was  then 
compelled  bv  the  disturbed  condition  of  the  country  to 
with<lraw.  The  Anu'rican  societ  v  published  four  StatftnMUs 
(1871,  1873,  1875,  1877),  and  holds  in  reserve  Dr.  Merrill's 
Notes  upon  the  Meyer  map.  Dr.  Jlerrill's  finding  of  a  sec- 
tion of  the  "second  wall '' outside  of  which  our  Lord  was 
crucified  was  one  of  the  most  important  discoveries  of  recent 
years.  This  was  in  1885.  Other  discoveries  are  the  finding 
of  the  church  built  by  Eudocia  (a.  d.  400)  on  the  site  of  the 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen,  and  near  it  the  tomb  in  which  she 
was  buried  ;  the  finding  in  the  year  1801  of  the  "  monument 
of  Herod,"  mentioned  by  Josephus(ir((;-s,  v.,  12,  2):  and  the 
unearthing  by  F.  J.  Bliss  in  the  ruins  of  Lachish  of  a  cunei- 
form tablet  belonging  to  1400  n.  c.,  when  prehistoric  Pales- 
tine was  subject  to  Egyjit. 

The  event,  however,  wliich  has  attracted  most  attention 
was  the  completion  of  the  Jaffa  and  Jerusalem  railway,  the 
first  to  be  opened  in  cither  Palestine  or  Syria.  After  two 
years'  labor  by  a  French  com|iany  the  railway  was  opened 
for  traffic  on  Se]it.  26.  18!)2,  and  since  then  trains  have  run 
regularlv  between  these  two  ancient  cities.  The  road  is  54 
miles  lorig.  and  cost  not  far  from  ^2.000,0(X). 

LiTtiRATUKE. — The  literature  of  the  subject  is  of  immense 
extent.  Tobler,  in  his  Bibliuthfcii  (reuyrfipliica  Ptile-ttiiiif 
(1867),  enumerates  more  than  1.000  writers  on  this  one  topic. 
To  mention  only  a  few  of  the  most  important  :  The  Otto- 
masticoii  of  Eusebius  (c.  330).  translated  into  Latin,  with 
additions,  by  Jerome  (388).  edited  by  Larsow  and  Part  hey 
(Herlin.  1862);  Dencn'j/lidiirii  Terrw  iSdiuhe,  hy  writers  of 


the  eighth,  ninth,  twelfth,  and  fifteenth  centuries, edited  by 
Tobler  (Leipzig,  1874) ;  Early  Travels  in  PuleHiine.  editci 
by  Wright  (London.  1848):  tlic  Ilistorica  T/ieologica,  et 
Moralis  Terrtt  Sancke  Elucidatio  of  Quaresmius(Antweri), 
1639),  valuable  for  the  traditions;  Maundrcll's  Journey 
from  Aleppo  lo  Jerusalem  at  Faster,  76'.'/;^  (Oxford.  1703); 
Reland's  Palestina  Illustrata  (I'treeht,  1714),  a  classic'; 
Uassehpiist's  Voyages  and  'Travels  in  the  Levant  in  the 
Years  irJ,!!,',^,  '51,  '5.?,  edited  by  Linna'us  (London,  1766), 
valuable  for  the  natural  history ;  Hurckhardt's  Travels  in 
Syria  and  the  Holy  Land  (London,  1822) ;  Travels  in 
Egypt  and  Xuhia.  Syria  and  Asia  3Iinor.  during  the  Tears 
lgJ7  and  WAS',  by  Irby  and  Mangles,  [irinted  biit  not  pub- 
lisheil  (London, "  1822) ;  Robinson's  Hihlical  Researches 
(3  vols.,  Boston,  London,  and  Berlin,  1841) ;  Later  Researches 
(1850)  and  Physical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land  (i)ub- 
lished  posthumously,  1865) ;  Williams's  Holy  City  (1845  ;  2d 
ed.  1849),  defending  the  traditional  sites;  Lynch's  Expedi- 
tion to  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan  (1849) ;  Stanley's 
Sinai  and  Palestine  (1857),  highly  graphic ;  Barclay's  City 
of  the  Great  King  (18.58),  valuable  for  the  meteoVology  ; 
Thomson's  Tlie  Land  and  the  Book  (IHoO :  2d  ed.  3  vols., 
1880-85) ;  Tobler's  Bethlehem  (1849),  Jerusalem  (1854).  and 
Sazareth  (1868);  JlacGregor's  The  Hob  Hoy  on  the  Jordan 
(1870);  Tristram's  Land  of  Israel  (1865;  new  ed.  1876), 
Natural  History  of  the  Bible  (1867),  and  Xn»(Z  of  Moab 
(1873) ;  Nutt's  Samaritan  Targum  and  History  (1874) ; 
liittei-'s  Geogra2)hy  of  Palest  ine,,tran>i]i\ted  by  Gage  (4  vols., 
1866) ;  Porter's  Damascus  (1855),  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan 
(1865).  Handbook  of  Syria  and  Palestine  (revised "ed.  1875) ; 
the  new  edition  of  the  Handbook  for  Syria  and  /Palestine 
(1892),  by  Haskett  Smith,  is  very  unsatisfactory  and  faulty 
in  many  respects;  Palmer's  The  Desert  of  theE'xodus(\STi); 
Conder's  Tent  Work  in  Palestine  (1878);  Merrill's  i,'fl«/  of 
the  Jordan  (1881 ;  new  ed.  1883)  and  Galilee  In  the  Time  of 
Christ  (imi);  Ihwaon.  Egypt  and  Syria  (\HSii)  and  Jlod- 
ern  Science  in  Bible  Lands  (1888) ;  also  see  the  many  pub- 
lications of  the  Palestine  Fund.  The  Gennan  Palestine  So- 
ciety has  published  a  journal  since  1878.  The  best  maps 
are  those  of  van  de  Telde  (1866),  of  Kiepert  (1875),  and  of 
the  English  Exploration  Fund  (1880-83).  The  best  atlases 
are  those  of  Jlenke  (1808)  and  of  Clark  (1868).  For  further 
information  see  special  articles,  such  as  Esdraelox,  Hamatu, 
JiiRusALEM,  Jews,  and  Jordan. 

Revised  by  Selah  Merrill. 

Palestine:  city;  capital  of  Anderson  co.,  Tex.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Texas,  rcf.  3-J) ;  on  the  Intel-national  and 
Great  Northern  Railroad:  10  miles  E.  of  Trinity  river.  It 
is  in  an  agricultural,  fruit-growing,  iron  ore,  and  timber 
region  ;  contains  the  headquarters  of  the  railway  company, 
3  banks,  and  a  semi- weekly  and  2  weekly  newspapers ;  and 
has  water  and  electric-light  svstems,  and  numerous  manu- 
factories. Pop.  (1880)  2.997  ;  (1H90)  5,838  ;  (1894)  estimated, 
8,.500.  Editor  of  "  Se.mi-weeklv  Times." 

Palestrilia.  pa'a-Ies-tree'na'a  (anc. Pra-neste):  town;  in  the 
province  of  Rome,  Italy  ;  situated  on  a  spur  of  the  Apennines, 
about  1.600  feet  above  the  sea;  18  miles  N.  K.  of  Albano, 
22  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Rome  (see  map  of  Italy,  rcf.  6-E).  It 
covers  only  a  portion  of  old  Pra>neste,  whose  strong  citadel 
crowned  the  height  now  occupied  by  the  media'val  castle 
San  Pietro.  The  Church  of  .Santa  Rosalia  is  richly  adorned 
with  marbles  and  alabaster.  The  Palazzo  liarberini,  oceujiy- 
ing  a  part  of  the  site  of  the  vast  old  Temple  of  FTfrtune,  was 
erected  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  with  the  garden  contains 
many  statues,  bas-reliefs,  mosaics,  and  inscriptions,  etc..  from 
the  ancient  city.  Pra'neste  was  a  memln'rof  the  Latin  League 
until  in  409  B.  c.  it  joined  Rome;  it  took  part,  however,  in 
the  Latin  war  against  Rome.  In  82  B.  c.  Sulla  inflicted  upon 
it  the  most  cruel  punishment  for  harboring  the  younger 
Mariu.s.  by  putting  to  death  more  than  12,000 of  its  citizens; 
but  the  town  recovered  itself,  and  under  the  emperors  it  was 
a  favorite  resort  of  the  Roman  aristoc-racy.  t)n  the  fall  of 
the  Western  empire  it  l)ecame  a  part  of  the  papal  domin- 
ions; but  the  Colonna  family  afterward  claimed  it  as  their 
fief,  and  held  it  for  more  than  two  centuries.  In  1297 
Boniface  VIII.  utterly  destroyed  the  town,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  cathedral.  From  this  time  the  Colonna  never 
ceased  to  struggle  with  the  popes  for  its  possession  until 
1030.  when  it  passed  by  sale  to  the  Barbcrini.  The  modern 
town  is  in  itself  of  no  interest  except  as  the  scat  of  one  of 
the  six  suburban  bishoprics.     Pop.  5.855. 

Palestrinn,  Giovanni  Pier  Luioi.  da:  compo.ser;  b.  in 
Italy  about  1528;  w<nt  to  Ri.me  about  1540  to  study  music 


406 


PALEY 


PALI  LANGUAGE 


■with  Goudirael.  a  Flemish  composer,  then  celebrated.  Pa- 
lestrina  published  his  first  works  dive  masses  dedicated  to 
Pope  Julius  III.)  in  1554.  This  led  to  his  appointment  to 
the  pontifical  chapel,  and  for  a  number  of  years  he  filled 
the  part  of  chapelinaster  or  conductor  at  the  Lateran  and 
also  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore.  The  church  music  of  that 
day  had  become  degraded  to  an  extent  difficult  for  us  now 
to  understand.  Secular  and  profane  melodies,  often  of  an 
utterly  ribald  nature,  had  been  introduced  into  the  service 
of  the  JIass.  the  actual  improper  text  being  frequently  and 
unblushinsly  sung  by  many  of  the  singers,  excepting  a  rela- 
tively small  number 'standing  in  front  who  sung  the  sacred 
text.  So  scandalous  became  this  condition  of  things  that 
the  Council  of  Trent  passed  a  unanimous  resolution  in  favor 
of  reform,  which  resolution  nearly  amounted  to  a  decree  si- 
lencing all  music  in  the  churches.  In  this  juncture  Pius 
IV.  appointed  a  commission  of  eight  cardinals  (1563)  to  carry 
out  the  wislics  of  the  council.  This  led  to  Palestriua's  being 
engaged  to  write  a  mass  which  should  serve  as  a  model  of 
what  religious  music  should  be,  both  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  council's  strictures  and  also  illustrating  the  best  science 
of  the  dav.  Instead  of  one  he  wrote  three,  the  first  two 
winning  ample  praise,  the  third  creating  unbounded  enthu- 
siasm. The  delighted  pope  (Pius  IV.)  deolare<l — "  some 
such  music  it  must  have  been  that  St.  John  heard  sung  by 
the  heavenly  hosts  in  the  vision  of  the  Xew  Jerusalem." 
From  this  time  Palestriua's  position  was  fixed  and  his  name 
renowned.  During  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  both  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  his  works  continued  remarkable. 
D.  in  Rome,  Feb.  2.  1594.  His  published  compositions  con- 
sist of  thirteen  books  of  masses,  six  books  of  motets,  one  book 
of  lamentations,  one  of  hymns,  one  of  litanies,  one  of  sacred 
madrigals,  three  of  secular  madrigals,  and  a  Stahat  Mater. 
In  Pafcstrina  the  ancient  musical  system  found  its  highest 
development,  thus  leading  the  world  up  to  the  logical  ne- 
cessity of  a  new  revelation — viz.,  a  new  doctrine  of  tonality 
and  tiie  birth  of  harmony  in  our  modern  sense.  D.  B. 

Paley,  Frederick  Apthorp:  grandson  of  Wiili.-un  Paley ; 
classical  scliolar;  b.  at  Easingvvold,  near  York,  England,  in 
1816 ;  graduated  at  Cambridge  1838 ;  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  in  1840;  Professor  of  Classical  Literature  at  Keu- 
sington  18T4.  D.  at  Bournemouth,  Dec.  11,  1888.  Edited 
^Eschylus,  Euripides,  Hesiod,  Ilomcr,  and  other  classic  au- 
thors; translated  ^Eschylus  (1864)  and  Pindar  (1875)  into 
English.  Author  of  a  Manual  of  Gothic  Mouldings  (1845) 
and  a  Manual  of  Gothic  Architecture  (1846). 

Revised  by  A.  Gudeman. 

Paley,  William,  D.  D.  :  theologian  :  b.  at  Peterborough, 
Englanil,  in  July,  1743;  graduateil  at  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge (1763),  where  he  became  fellow  (1766),  a  tutor  and 
lecturer  upon  moral  philosophy  and  divinity  (1768) ;  took 
orders  in  the  Church  of  England  ;  rector  of  JIusgrove  1775 ; 
vicar  of  Dalston  1776;  prebendary  of  Carlisle  1780;  arch- 
deacon of  Carlisle  1783 ;  and  chancellor  1785 ;  prebendary 
of  St.  Paul's,  London,  1703  :  sub-dean  of  Lincoln  and  rector 
of  Bishop  Wearmouth  1795.  Published  Principles  of  Moral 
and  Political  Philosophy  (London,  1785);  Hone  Puulince 
(1790);  View  of  the  Evidence  of  Christianity  (1794);  and 
Natural  Theology  (1802).  These  works  have  been  repeated- 
ly edited  and  republished,  but  are  now  superseded.  Their 
merit  w'as  their  simple  style  and  lucid  illustrations;  their  de- 
fects, their  lack  of  spirituality  and  their  utilitarian  morals. 
D.  at  Bishop  Wearmouth.  Jlay  25, 1805.  See  his  Life,  by  W. 
Meadley,  1809,  and  in  his  complete  works  1819;  n.  e.  1834; 
principal  works  1877.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Palt'rcy,  Joii.n  Gorham,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  ;  author :  b.  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  May  2,  1796;  was  educated  at  Phillips  F^xeter 
Academy  and  Harvard  College  1815  :  studied  theology  ;  suc- 
ceeded Edward  Everett  as  niinisterof  Brattle  Square  church 
in  Boston  1818;  .succeeded  Andrews  Norton  as  Professor  of 
Sacred  Literature  in  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School  1831 ; 
retired  in  1839.  From  1842-^3  he  was  memlier  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  and  1844-47  was  secretary  of  State  in 
Massachusetts.  In  1847  he  represented  the  anti-.slavery 
Whigs  in  Congress;  was  a  leading  Republican,  one  of  the 
creators  of  the  Republican  party,  a  prominent  writer  and 
speaker  on  the  anti-slavery  side,  an  able  ally  of  Sumner 
and  Adams;  lost  his  seat  in  Congress  after  a  fiercely  con- 
tested struggle  against  tin?  "compromise"  Wliigs:  ran  for 
Governor  of  Massachusetts,  but  was  defeated,  in  1H51 ;  was 
postmaster  of  Boston  1861-67.  and  tlien  retired  from  public 
life  and  devoted  himself  to  literature.  Dr.  Palfrey  was  a 
diligent  author.     His  books  are  EviiUncea  of  (.'hristianity 


(Boston,  2  vols.,  1843):  Jewish  Scriptures  and  Antiquities 
(4  vols.,  1838-52) ;  History  of  Kew  England  (Boston,  4  vols., 
1858-75):  7'he  Stare  Power  (1  vol.,  1847),  etc.  He  was  edi- 
tor of  ?7ie  North  American  Review  from  1835  to  1842,  and 
in  1851  was  one  of  the  editors  of  The  Commonwealth  News- 
paper.    I),  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Apr.  26,  1881. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Palgrave,  William  Gifford:  traveler  and  author;  son 
of  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  :  b.  at  Westminster,  England,  Jan.  24, 
1826.  He  graduated  with  honors  at  Oxford  1846;  was  an 
officer  of  the  native  infantry  in  Bombay  1847-53;  subse- 
quently studied  theology  at  the  Jesuit  Seminary  at  Laval, 
France ;  entered  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood,  and  was 
employed  as  a  missionary  in  Southern  India,  Palestine,  and 
Syria.  In  1862,  commissioned  by  Napoleon  III.,  he  made  a 
daring  journey  through  the  Wahabite  kingdoms  of  Central 
Arabia,  disguised  as  a  physician.  His  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  Araljic  language  and  customs  enabled  him  to  carry 
out  this  exploration  in  safety.  In  1864  he  severed  his  con- 
nection with  the  Jesuit  order,  and  in  1865  he  was  sent  to 
Abvssinia  by  the  British  Government  to  negotiate  with  King 
Theodore  for  the  release  of  English  prisoners.  Thereafter 
he  held  various  British  consular  positions,  and  from  1884 
was  minister  to  LTruguay.  His  publications  include  Central 
and  Eastern  Arabia  (2  vols.,  1865) ;  Essays  on  Eastern  Ques- 
tions (1872);  Dutch  Guiana  (1876);  and  Alkamah's  Cave,  a 
Story  of  Nejd  (1875).  D.  at  Montevideo,  LTruguay,  Oct.  1, 
1888.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Palikao,  pa'a'le'e'kaa  o,  Corsix-MoxxAUBAS,  Count  de: 
soldier  and  statesman;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  June  24,  1796; 
served  in  Spain,  and  for  twenty  years  in  Africa ;  rose  to  be 
general  1851.  In  the  expedition  to  China  (1860)  he  com- 
manded the  French  troops,  gaining  the  victory  of  Pa-li-k'iao 
(or  Eight-mile  Bridge),  carried  the  forts  of  Taku,  and  march- 
ing to  Peking  enforced  the  conditions  of  peace  submitted  by 
the  allied  powers.  He  received  for  these  services  the  cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor ;  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  senator  with 
the  title  of  count.  In  Aug..  1870,  he  succeeded  M.  OUivier 
as  premier  of  the  French  ministry,  and  acted  as  Minister  of 
War.  He  published  in  1871  an  account  of  the  events  of  his 
ministry.     D.  in  Paris,  Jan.  8,  1878. 

PiiH  (paa'le'e)  Laii^iiagre :  the  language  in  which  the 
Buddhist  scriptures  are  written.  The  word  Pali  means 
text,  as  distinguished  from  commentary,  and  is  used  by 
Buddhists  as  the  current  name  for  Magadhi,  the  dialect  of 
JIagadha,  in  which  they  think  their  sacred  books  are  written. 
IMagadha  was  the  name  of  the  district  round  Patna  on  the 
Ganges  at  the  time  when  those  scriptures  were  composed — 
from  about  500-250  B.  c.  Some  modern  scholars  think  that 
the  Buddhists  are  mistaken  in  identifying  Pali  with  Magadhi. 
Ernst  Kuhn  would  rather  identify  it  with  the  dialect  of 
Ujjen  (Beilrage  zur  Pali  Grammatik,  p.  7),  and  Eduard 
Mliller  (/-V(?i  fW-ojHjHf/;-,  p.  iii.)  with  that  of  Kalinga.  Which- 
ever view  should  turn  out  to  lie  correct,  Piili  is  one  of  the 
Prakrit  dialects  into  which  the  old  spoken  Sanskrit,  the 
Sanskrit  of  the  Vedas.  was  gradually  broken  down  during 
the  centuries  from  1000-600  b.  c.  while  the  Sanskrit-speak- 
ing Aryan  tribes  were  gradually  forcing  their  way  from  the 
Punjaiib  down  into  the  Ganges  valley.  It  is  the  only  one  of 
those  spoken  dialects  of  which  we  have  full  and  such  early 
records,  and  it  bears  about  the  same  relation  to  Vcdic  San- 
skrit that  Italian  does  to  Latin. 

We  have  records  of  other  Prakrit  dialects  from  about  the 
sixth  century  A.  d.,  and  the  Jaina  Priikrit,  in  which  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Jains  were  composed  still  later,  is  closely 
allied  to  it  :  but  the  inscriptions  of  Asoka,  the  celebrated 
King  of  Magadha,  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.C., 
come  the  nearest  to  Pali  of  all  the  existing  linguistic  docu- 
ments of  ancient  India. 

Down  to  the  fifth  century  A.  D.  the  texts  were  handed 
down  in  Ceylon  in  Piili,  and  the  commentaries  in  Sinhalese, 
the  local  dialect  of  Ceylon.  During  that  century  the  com- 
mentaries also  were  translated  into  Pali,  and  now  exist  only 
in  that  language.  The  Piili  of  these  early  commentators 
differs  from  that  of  the  texts  in  the  same  way  as  the  Lat- 
in of  Augustine  differs  from  the  Latin  of  Vergil  and  Ci- 
cero. 

From  the  twelfth  century  A.  D.  onward  there  have  been  a 
numlier  of  works  composed  from  time  to  time  in  Ceylon, 
Buruia,  and  Siam  in  a  Pilli  which  differs  from  the  two  pre- 
vious stages  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  Latin  of  the 
mediieval  theologians  and  chroniclers  differs  from  the  I^atin 
of  Augustine  and  of  Cicero.     In  this  third  and  last  stage  of 


PALI   LAXGUAGE 


PALI   LITERATURE 


407 


Pali  a  large  niirabcr  of  wonls  are  introduced  which  are 
merely  retranslations  of  Sanskrit,  Burmese.  Siamese,  or 
Sinhalese  expressions ;  and  the  iiiiomatic  phraseology  of  the 
sentences  is  not  seldom  a  reproduction  of  the  idiom  in  which 
the  author  was  accustomed  to  speak  in  everyday  life. 

Of  these  three  stages  the  pure  Pali,  or  language  of  the 
texts,  though  considerably  older  in  time  than  the  majority 
of  the  books  written  in  so-called  classical  Sanskrit,  is  con- 
siderably younger  in  form.  The  changes  shown  in  it  a-s 
compared  with  Sanskrit  are  allied  to  the  changes  which 
have  produced  the  modern  languages  of  Western  Europe 
out  of  Latin,  and  may  be  summarized  as  follows  : 

1.  Every  word  has  to  end  either  in  a  vowel  or  in  a  vowel 
followed  by  a  nasalization  (pronounced  probably  like  the 
English  ny  in  sing). 

2.  The  groups  of  consonants  which  are  so  characteristic 
of  .Sanskrit  are  softened  down  by  assimilation,  elision,  or 
cra.sis,  or  are  avoided  by  the  insertion  of  vowels. 

;!.  The  vowels  ri,  r'l.  It,  and  It  have  completely  disap- 
peared, the  diphthongs  (ti  and  an  are  replaced  by  the  vowels 
e  and  o ;  and  the  three  different  sorts  of  s"s  are  all  repre- 
sented by  the  simpU^  dental  s. 

4.  The  rules  of  Sandhi — that  is,  of  the  union  of  adjacent 
words — are  much  simplified,  so  that  the  words  retain  very 
much  of  their  previous  form,  and  Sandhi  becomes  in  Pali 
very  little  more  than  a  set  of  rules  for  the  elision  of  vowels 
in  a  simple,  natural  way.  ^ 

5.  The  rules  for  the  declension  of  nouns  and  the  conjuga- 
tion of  verbs  are  much  simplified,  not  only  by  the  action  of 
the  foregoing  principles,  but  also  by  the  loss  of  the  dual 
number,  and  by  other  and  similar  alterations. 

In  consequence  of  these  new  guiding  factors  Pali,  like 
Italian,  has  become  a  language  at  once  flowing,  melodious, 
and  sonorous;  and  an  examination  of  its  grammar  and 
vocabulary  reveals  all  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  a 
vigorous,  spoken,  and  growing  vernacular,  as  distinguished 
from  the  formal  hardness  of  a  dead  language.  There  are. 
as  in  Sanskrit,  a  few  imported  words,  such  as  cJidtl  and 
chumhiita,  a<iopted  from  Dravidian  or  other  native  sources. 
With  these  few  exceptions  the  whole  of  the  word-forms 
in  Pali  are  derive<l  directly,  like  the  classical  Sanskrit,  from 
the  older  Sanskrit  as  spoken  by  the  Aryan  conquerors  of 
India,  before  it  became  a  dead  language.  In  about  a  score 
of  instances  Pali  has  preserved  word-forms  peculiar  to  the 
ancient  Vedic  and  lost  in  the  classical  Sanskrit,  and  it  has 
preserved  the  Vedic  palatal  /.  In  a  few  cases  it  has  even 
distinct  traces  of  the  still  older  language  of  which  Sanskrit 
and  all  other  Aryan  languages  are  the  common  children. 
A  few  instances  will  make  its  relation  to  Sanskrit  more 
clear. 

In  giving  these  instances  it  should  bo  borne  in  mind  that 
the  Pali  books  are  preserved,  in  the  three  countries  where 
it  is  still  studied  and  used,  in  the  local  alphabets — all  of 
them,  like  the  various  alphabets  in  which  Sanskrit  is  writ- 
ten, being  derived  from  the  old  Pali  aljihabet  of  the  inscrip- 
tions, now  fallen  out  of  use.  In  transliterating  Pali  words 
into  English  the  vowels  have  the  sound  of  Italian  vowels ; 
double  consonants  (as  in  Italian)  are  pronounced  double ; 
and  the  consonants  have  their  English  sounds.  The  g  is 
always  hard,  as  in  gate,  the  il  is  pronounced  as  ny,  and  in 
is  ng,  as  in  sing. 

About  two-fifths  of  the  words  in  Pali  are  identical  with 
their  Sanskrit  ecpiivalents,  these  latter  being  so  little  com- 
plicated in  structure  that  they  conform  to  the  principles  of 
Piili  sim])licity.  Such  words  as  naga,  snake,  elephant ; 
gocharn.  realm;  dha,  he  said;  and  ayaw,  this,  are  exam- 
ples of  this  sort  of  word. 

There  is  another  class,  comprising  two-fifths  of  the  Piili 
language,  in  which  the  change  is  so  slight  as  to  be  easily 
recognizable.  Thus  mukia,  free,  becomes  multa  :  klfsa.  sin, 
becomes  kilesa;  sihdmt,  place,  becomes  flidna;  ambd. 
mother,  becomes  ammd  ;  agni,  fire,  becomes aggi  ;  aitpamga, 
metaphor,  becomes  opamma. 

The  third  class,  which  looms  largest  in  the  works  on  Piili 
philology,  but  is  really  very  small  in  comiiarison  with  tlie 
other  two,  contains  those  words  in  which  ttie  change  is  not 
so  eviilent — mitnkkha.  foreigner,  for  mhccha.  in  Sanskrit  ; 
iipricikd,  ant.  for  u/jddikd  ;  ilasina.  clear,  for  jgautsna  : 
samptirankfi.  friend,  for  satnpariyanka  ;  guddiihana,  small 
space,  for (iadruglina;  vuila,  sown,  for  up/a;  janlaggha,  for 
yantragrilin,  bathroom.  Some  words,  certainly  identical, 
are  still  more  unlike  in  appearance  even  than  these,  ami  the 
reasons  which  have  brought  about  changes  so  considerable 
are  not  as  yet  fully  worked  out.     This  unsolved  department 


of  Pali,  or  rather  of  Indian  linguistics  (for  it  deals  with  the 
whole  history  of  speech  in  India),  is  full  of  interest  to  the 
trained  philologist. 

BinLKMiKAi'HV. — Childer's  Dictionary  of  the  T'dli  Lan- 
guage (London,  1875 ;  out  of  print) ;  Eduard  MUUer,  Pali 
(frammar  (London,  1884) ;  Ernst  Kuhn,  Jii-ifrdge  zur  Pali 
Urammatik  (Berlin,  1870);  Vincent  Fausbi'lll.  Suttu  Kipdta, 
vol.  ii.  (Pali  Text  Society,  1893,  a  root  dictionary  to  the 
work  so  called);  Richard  Morris,  Sote-f  and  Queries  on 
Pali  P/iiMogy  (in  the  Journals  of  the  Piili  Text  Society, 
1884-9:i) ;  Emile  Senart,  Kaccdyana's  Pali  Grammar  (Pali 
text  with  translation  and  notes,  Paris,  1871);  V.  Trenckner, 
Pali  Miscellany  (London,  1879).        T.  W.  Rhys  Davids. 

Piili  Literature :  a  literature  consisting  of  the  Buddhist 
sacred  texts,  and  of  other  works  by  Buddhist  authors — 
histories,  poems,  legends,  commentaries,  books  on  ethics, 
and  controversial  volumes  on  the  rules  of  the  Buddhist 
order.  Its  extent  is  constantly  being  increased,  for  the 
Pali  language  has  become  the  'lingua  franca  of  the  Bud- 
dhists in  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  Siam,  and  is  still  used  by  au- 
thors who  wish  to  be  read  not  only  in  their  native  land,  but 
by  the  Buddhists  in  all  these  countries. 

The  Pali  books  containing  the  sacred  texts  are  divided 
into  three  collections  called  the  Pilakas  or  Baskets— that  is 
to  say,  the  vessels  in  which  the  truth  is  handed  on  from 
teacher  to  scholar.  The  most  important  of  these  for  the  right 
understanding  of  the  ethical  and  philosophical  standpoint 
of  Gotama  himself  and  of  the  early  Buddhists  is  a  collec- 
tion of  dialogues  in  which  usually  the  Buddha  himself,  but 
occasionally  also  one  of  his  principal  disciples,  is  represented 
as  setting  forth  to  an  outsider  or  a  disciple  some  fundamental 
point  of  his  theory  of  life.  These  dialogues  are  arranged  in 
two  books  containing  respectively  the  longcrand  the  shorter 
dialogues  (called  in  Pali  the  D'lgha  and  the  Majjhima 
Nikdyas).  They  occupy  in  the  history  of  Indian  thought  a 
position  equivalent  to"that  occupied  in  the  history  of  Greek 
thought  by  the  Dialogues  of  Plato.  As  compared  with  these, 
while  by  no  means  without  a  peculiar  eloquence  of  their 
own,  they  are  deficient  in  the  graces  of  style ;  but  the 
thought  is  more  original,  especially  as  being  free  from  the 
ancient  soul-theory.  They  are  also  much  more  systema- 
tized and  worked  out,  and  less  charged  with  logomachies. 
The  two  collections  were  evidently  put  together  at  the  same 
time — probably  in  the  fifth  century  B.  c. — and  by  the  same 
hands;  they  form,  in  reality,  but  one  book. 

Next  in  historical  importance  to  these  Dialogues  of  the 
Buddha  are  the  rules  of  the  Buddhist  order  of  mendicants. 
The  whole  of  this  body  of  canon  law  (in  Pali  the  Vinaya) 
was  edited  in  Pali,  by  Prof.  Oldenberg,  of  Kiel,  in  1879-83 
(5  vols.),  and  an  English  translation  by  him  and  by  the  pres- 
ent writer  of  the  most  important  parts  of  it  has"  appeared 
under  the  title  of  Vinaya  Texts  in  three  volumes  of  the 
Sacred  Bocks  of  the  East  (Oxford,  1881-85). 

In  the  Dialogues  the  essential  points  of  what  we  call 
Buddhism  are  all  discussed  ;  but  each  single  dialogue  deals 
for  the  most  part  with  some  particular  point  only,  and  allied 
points  occur,  perhaps,  in  other  dialogues  widely  separated 
in  the  collection.  The  student  has  often  to  piece  these 
various  dialogues  together  before  he  can  arrive  at  a  full  un- 
derstanding of  a  particular  question.  This  task  was  already 
done  in  a  rather  loose  way  by  the  early  Buddhists.  They 
brought  together  in  one  collection,  called  the  Samyutt'a 
JS^ikdya,  the  various  utterances  ascribed  to  the  Buiidha, 
grouped  according  to  jiarticular  subjects  or  particular  per- 
sons addressed.  Then  again  it  is  a  distinctive  character- 
istic of  the  Buddhist  nuxle  of  thought  that  they  arranged 
their  ideas  in  groups  consisting  of  one.  two,  three,  four,  and 
so  on  up  to  twenty  or  thirty  detailed  particulars.  There  is 
a  collection,  made  by  the  early  Buddhists  and  included  in 
the  Pitakas  (called  the  Angultara  ]\'ikdya),  which  takes  each 
of  these  groups  in  order— Book  1.  dealing  with  the  ones. 
Book  II.  with  the  pairs.  Book  III.  with  the  triplets,  and  so 
on.  Whether  these  two  great  collections  add  anything  to 
the  n\aterials  contained  in  the  Dialogues  of  (rotama,  or 
whether  (as  is  at  present  generally  supposed)  they  are  only 
a  rearrangement  of  the  same  matter,  they  are  of  the  utmost 
value  to  the  student. 

A  fifth  oillection  (the  Khuddaka  Xikdya)  consWXs  of  a 
number  of  shorter  books  of  various  dates  and  of  various  con- 
tents. They  are:  1.  The  Khuddaka  Pdtha.  selected  short 
poems  of  great  beauty.  2.  The  Dha mma-pada.  a  selection 
of  423  verses,  most  of  them  extracted  from  the  earlier  books 
of   the   Pitakas.     3.  The  Uddna,  eighty  short    lyrics   pur- 


408 


PALI   LITERATURE 


PALIMPSEST 


porting  to  be  uttered  by  Gotama  under  circumstances  of 
strong  emotion  which  are  explained  in  short  prose  introduc- 
tions. Many  of  them  are  of  great  beauty  and  subtlety.  4. 
The  Iti  Vut'taka.  110  short  lyrics  of  a  similar  character.  A 
good  many  of  the  lyrics  in  both  these  tracts  have  been  al- 
ready traced  elsewhere  in  the  Pitakas.  5.  The  Sutta  Xi- 
pata.  a  very  valuable  collection  of  some  of  the  most  ancient 
lyrics  produced  by  the  early  Buddhists.  6  and  7.  Vimana 
and  Peta  Vatthu,  short  poems  on  celestial  mansions  and  on 
disembodied  spirits.  8  and  9.  The  Thera  and  TherX  GathCi, 
poems  by  the  members  of  the  order,  men  and  women  re- 
spectively. Many  of  the  verses  in  both  collections  are  to  be 
found  in  other  parts  of  the  Pitakas.  10.  The  JatoA-a  stories, 
the  most  ancient,  the  most  complete,  and  the  most  valuable 
collection  of  folk-lore  extant ;  edited  by  Prof.  Fausbiill,  of 
Copenhagen  (first  5  vols.,  London,  1877-91).  A  translation 
was  undertaken  by  the  writer  (1st  vol.,  Buddhist  Birth 
Stories,  London,  1881),  but  is  being  continued  by  a  syndicate 
of  English  scholars  under  the  editorship  of  Prof.  Cowell  (1st 
vol.,  by  Robert  Chalmers.  Cambridge,  1894).  11.  Xiddesa. 
a  work  ascribed  to  Sariputta,  one  of  the  personal  disciples  of 
Gotama,  and  containing  accounts  of  the  principal  leaders, 
whether  men  or  women,  in  the  Buddhist  refoi-mation.  12. 
Batisambhidd.  a  longish  treatise  on  the  various  mental 
powers  resulting  from  the  Buddhist  system  of  self-culture. 
13.  The  Apaddna.  stories  about  Buddhist  saints.  14.  Bud- 
dha Vansa,  short  lines  in  verse,  altogether  1,068  stanzas,  of 
the  twenty-five  Buddhas.  15.  The  Cariyd  Pitaka,  short 
poetical  versions  of  334  of  the  Jataka  stories. 

All  of  the  al)ove  fifteen  books  deal  in  one  way  or  another 
■with  the  life  of  ethical  and  intellectual  self-culture  which 
was  the  summum  honum  of  the  early  Buddhists.  This  was 
necessarily  based  on  a  view  of  psychology,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  contributions  of  the  Buddhists  to  human 
thought,  which  is  constantly  referred  to  and  frequently  dis- 
cussed in  scattered  passages  of  these  books.  These  passages 
have  been  collected  and  systematized  in  a  series  of  works 
which  form  the  third  and  last  of  the  three  great  divisions  of 
the  Pitakas — the  division  called  Abhidhamma.  This  word 
has  been  usually  rendered  by  the  misleading  translation 
"  metaphysics,"  but,  as  the  soul  theory  of  life  is  ignored  by 
the  Buddhists,  they  had  of  course  nothing  corresponding  to 
what  we  understand  by  metaphysics.  Looking  at  the  con- 
tents of  the  Abhidhamma,  the  best  translation  of  the  word 
is  psychology.  There  are  seven  books  dealing  with  this 
subject,  which  is  as  full  of  ditficulty  and  obscurity  as  of  in- 
terest and  value.     These  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  Dhamma  Saytgani  (Concatenation  of  Qualities), 
which  treats  of  the  way  in  which  a  particular  state  of  mind 
involves  or  connotes  the  coexistence  of  other  states.  It 
consists  for  the  most  part  of  long  lists  with  constant  repeti- 
tion, and  it  is  difficult  to  find  the  clue  which  binds  these 
lists  together.  It  [presupposes  in  the  reader  (or  rather  in 
the  user,  for  it  was  never  intended  to  be  read)  a  knowledge 
of  the  general  system  of  Buddhist  psychology — very  little 
understood  at  present  in  the  West.  2.'  Vibhanga,  of' which 
the  contents  are  unknown.  3.  The  Kathd  Vatthu. &  discus- 
sion, by  an  author  of  the  time  of  Asoka.  of  219  points  then 
at  issue  between  different  schools  of  Buddhists.  The  writer 
has  published  a  full  analysis  of  this  treatise,  so  very  valu- 
able for  historical  purposes,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  for  1892.  4.  The  Puggala  Pannatti.  a  short 
tract  on  different  sorts  of  individuals  from  the  ethical  point 
of  view.  5.  The  Dhdtu  Kathd,  a  shorter  work  than,  but 
similar  in  character  to.  the  Dhamma  Sangani.  6  and  7. 
Yamaha  and  Patthdnn,  The  Pairs  and  The  Book  of  Ori- 
gins, of  which  the  contents  are  unknown. 

Most  of  tlie  above  works  have  been  edited  for  the  Pilli 
Text  Society  of  London,  and  some  translations  have  ap- 
peared either  for  that  society  or  in  the  Sacred  Books  of  the 
East.  Of  works  outside  the  Pitakas,  the  society  has  pub- 
lished a  Pali  treatise  called  the  (faiidha  Vansa  (Account  of 
the  Books),  giving  a  very  short  account  of  all  the  Pali  books 
written  down  to  the  fifteenth  centurv.  Of  these  there  are 
accessible  to  Western  students  at  present  onlv  the  JIahd 
Vansa,  a  history  of  Coyluii ;  the  D'lpa  Vanaa.  another  historv 
of  Ceylon  :  the  Milinda,  published  by  Dr.  Trenckner  (Lon- 
don, 1880) :  and  a  number  of  smaller  works,  mostly  poetrv, 
i.ssued  from  time  to  time  in  \\\i  Journal  ni  the  Pali  Text  So- 
ciety. The  Milinda,  in  many  respects  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting of  Eastern  works  known  to  the  West,  is  a  series  of 
controversial  conversations  between  Menander.  tlie  (jrcek 
King  of  Baktria.  and  Naga  sena,  a  memlior  of  the  Buddhist 
order.     It  has  been  translated  in  full,  with  introductions,  by 


the  present  writer  for  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East  (Oxford, 
1890  and  1894).  Mention  should  also  be  made  here  of  the 
very  complete  analysis,  published  in  the  Pali  Text  Society's 
Journal  for  1893,  of  the  Visuddhi  Magga  (Path  of  Purity), 
a  systematic  handbook  of  Buddhism  drawn  up  by  the  distin- 
guished scholar  Buddhaghosa  in  the  fifth  century  a.  d.  See 
Pali  Language.  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids. 

Pal'luipsest  [from  hat. pal impses' turn  =  Gr.  Tra\lfi\f/ritrTov, 
liter.,  neutr.  of  7roAiVi|o)(rToj.  scraped  or  rubbed  out  again; 
jroAii'.  again  +  'fiaeiv.  ij/rjy.  rub.  rub  away] :  a  term  used  either 
absolutely,  or  as  an  adjective  with  the  word  manuscript,  to 
indicate  an  ancient  writing  of  which  the  origin.al  ink  has 
been  washed  or  scraped  away  to  enable  a  scribe  to  use  the 
material  again.  Both  the  Greeks  and  the  Latins  were  fa- 
miliar willi  the  process.  Thus  the  phrases  aa-nep  Traxliix^-qara 
and  Siairep  ^i^xiov  jroXi/iiJ/Tjo-Tov  occur  in  Plutarch,  and  both 
Catullus  and  Cicero  speak  ot  palimpsesta.  Ulpian  calls  this 
second-hand  writing  material  charta  deleticia.  It  was  prob- 
ably used  for  little  else  than  memoranda  and  rough  drafts, 
and  it  is  likely  tliat  only  writings  of  an  ephemeral  and  trivial 
nature  were  allowed  to  pass  under  the  scraping-knife  of  the 
vellum-seller;  but.  with  the  decline  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  dwindling  of  the  supply  of  papyrus, 
parchment  or  vellum — always  dear,  and  by  no  means  uni- 
versally plentiful — soon  became  enhanced  in  value ;  and 
the  large  styles  of  uncial  and  capital  writing  then  in  vogue 
assisted  this  dearness  by  i-eason  of  the  large  amount  of  writ- 
ing surface  required.  Hence  naturally,  in  the  last  centuries 
of  Rome  and  in  tlie  early  Middle  Ages,  the  use  of  the  pal- 
impsest was  considerably  extended.  A  Greek  synod  of  691 
found  it  necessary  to  forbid  the  destruction  in  this  way  of 
copies  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Church  Fathers ;  and  when, 
in  the  West,  the  condensed  and  legible  minuscule  which  we 
still  use  took  the  place  of  the  cumbrous  uncial  and  national 
scripts,  the  temptation  must  have  been  great  to  mutilate  the 
old  quartos  witli  their  growingly  unfamiliar  characters,  their 
lavish  pages,  and  their  easily  erasable  ink.  Nearly  all  our 
valuable  Latin  palimpsests  come  from  this  period  between 
the  seventh  century  and  the  ninth.  PaL-eographers  no  longer 
credit,  however,  the  charge  that  the  monkish  scribes  indulged 
in  wholesale  destruction  of  earlier  books.  As  Tischendorf 
has  pointed  out.  no  complete  work  has  yet  been  found  in  a 
palimpsest,  and  it  is  improbable  that  any  but  worn  or  dam- 
aged books  were  often  sacrificed. 

Time  brings  back  to  the  erased  ink  something  of  its  color, 
and  at  length  the  manuscripts  which  had  been  subjected  to 
the  ]irocess  of  obliteration  fell  under  the  notice  of  modern 
scholars.  At  first  the  im[icrfect  knowledge  of  a  means  of 
restoring  the  faded  inks  rendered  the  results  unsatisfactory; 
but  in  the  eighteenth  century  Knittel,  a  German  theologian, 
carefully  went  through  the  palimpsests  at  Wolfenbiittel.  and 
was  so  fortunate  as  to  identify  fragments  of  the  t-tothic 
Bible.  P.  .J.  Bruns  discovered  several  palimpsests  at  Rome 
in  the  library  ceded  by  Christina  of  Sweden  to  the  A'atican, 
among  them  Cicero's  juro  Roscio,  over  which  had  bean  written 
a  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures.  Niebuhr  discovered  in 
the  same  manuscript  another  oration  of  Cicero,  that  pro  M. 
Fonteio,  and  was  aide  to  recover  the  Institutes  of  Gains 
almost  entire  from  a  palimpsest  at  Verona.  Angelo  Mai 
made  himself  celebrated  in  deciphering  texts  of  palimpsests, 
discovering  Cicero's  de  Bepublica  under  Augustine's  com- 
mentary on  the  Psalms  and  the  Letters  of  Fronto  under  the 
acts  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  Many  curious  morsels 
of  antiquity  have  since  been  thus  patiently  rescued  from 
oblivion,  among  them  some  of  the  most  ancient  matmscripts 
of  the  Christian  Scriptures.  Double  palimjisests  —  those 
whose  writing  has  twice  been  erased — are  foun<l.  In  the 
restoration  of  the  earlier  writing  various  chemical  reagents 
have  been  used — an  infusion  of  nutgalls,  Gioberti's  tincture, 
the  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia ;  but,  unfortunately,  all 
with  great  risk  to  the  manuscript.  So  high  an  authority 
as  Wattcnbach  declares  that  "  more  precious  manuscripts, 
in  jiroportion  to  the  existing  supply,  have  been  destroyed 
ijy  the  learned  experiments  of  our  own  time  than  by  the 
much-abused  i>ld  monks."'  One  great  pahvographer  (Sickel) 
points  out  how  much  may  be  gained  by  simply  laying  the 
maimscrijit  in  clear  water,  from  which  it  takes  no  harm  if 
it  be  afterward  thoroughly  dried. 

The  leading  monograph  on  jialimpsests  is  Mone's  De  libris 
palimpsestis  (Carlsruhe,  18.5.5),  but  the  best  discussion  of  the 
subject  is  that  of  Wattenbacii.  in  his  Schriftu-esen  im  Ilit- 
telalter.  For  other  authorities  see  Manuscript  and  Pal.*;- 
oGRAPiiv.       W.  D.  BiRcu.     Revised  by  George  L.  Burr. 


PALINURUS 


PALLADIUM 


409 


Paliiui'riis  (now  Capo  Palimiro):  a  promontory  on  the 
coast  of  IjUfiinia,  in  tlie  Tyrrhenian  Soa,  between  V'clia  ami 
BuxentUMi.  It  received  its  name  fnmi  I'aliniirus.  the  pilot 
ot  ^Eiieas,  wlio,  aeeonlini;  to  tradition,  was  buried  liore. 
Some  remains  of  old  buildings  still  bear  the  name  of  the 
tomb  of  I'alinurus.  The  plar-e  was  twice  the  scene  of  great 
disasters,  two  large  Koman  fleets  being  wrecked  on  the  rocky 
shores,  one  in  253  B.  c,  the  other  in  36  H.  c. 

Palisades :  See  Fortikkatio.v. 

Palisades :  a  line  ot  cliffs  bordering  the  lower  portion  of 
the  Hndson,  opposite  New  York  city.  They  have  a  length 
of  about  20  miles,  and  a  general  height  of  300  feet.  They 
are  formed  by  the  outcrop  of  an  inclined  sheet  ot  trap-rock 
(diabase)  which  dips  w^estward  and  was  intruded  in  a  molten 
condition  between  layers  of  sandstone  and  shale  belonging 
to  the  Newark  system,  a  division  of  the  Jura-Trias.  The 
same  tra|)-sliect  forms  Bergen  Ilill  to  the  S.  and  the  Ilook 
Mountains  to  the  N.  of  the  Palisades,  and  has  been  left  in 
relief  owing  to  the  removal  by  erosion  of  the  softer  beds  in- 
closing it.  The  trap  is  columnar,  and  at  the  Palisades 
breaks  off  so  as  to  form  vertical  cliffs.  The  cutting  away 
ot  the  base  ot  the  cliffs  by  the  Hudson  is  now  progressing 
but  slowlv  owing  to  the  protection  afforded  by  tains  slopes. 
See  al.M)  Watcuuno  JIou.ntai.ns.  Iskael  C  Kussell. 

Palissot  de  Moiiteiioy,  paale'esode-moii'te-nwaa', 
Charles:  author;  b.  at  Xancy,  France,  Jan.  8,  1730.     A 

precocious  student,  he  entered  the  congregation  of  the  Ora- 
tory, but  soon  left  the  order  and  tried  literature.  After 
some  unsuccessful  tragedies  and  ciimedies  he  found  notoriety 
by  bitter  attacks  on  the  philosophers.  Le  Cerde.  (comedy, 
1755)  satirized  Rousseau,  and  Pf fifes  leffres  cnntre  des grands 
philositp/ies  (1756)  Diderot.  His  best-known  work  is  the 
comedy  Lcs  Pfiilosoplies  (1760),  written  with  the  same  pur- 

Sose.    His  CEuvres  were  published  in  6  volumes  (Paris.  1(^09). 
I.  June  15,  1814.  A.  G.  Caxfield. 

Palissy  (Pr.  pron.  pa'a'le'e'see),  Bernard  :  potter  and 
author ;  b.  at  Capelle  Biron,  in  the  department  of  Lot-et- 
Garonne,  France,  about  lolO ;  was  apprenticed  to  a  potter, 
and  afterward,  on  account  of  his  knowledge  of  geometry, 
engaged  for  some  time  as  a  land-surveyor,  but  pursued  also 
the  arts  of  pottery,  enameling,  glass-painting,  etc.  He 
married  about  1538  and  settled  at  Salutes,  but  in  1564  re- 
moved to  Paris.  He  was  a  Protestant,  and  although  ex- 
empted from  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  by  special 
order  frfira  the  queen,  in  whose  service  he  stood,  he  was 
twice  imprisoned  as  a  heretic — in  1557,  when  he  was  lilier- 
ated  by  the  intercession  of  the  constable  of  Montmorency, 
and  in  1588,  when  he  was  thrown  into  the  Bastile  and  kept 
there  to  his  death  in  1589.  The  most  remarkable  of  his 
glass-paintings  is  a  representation  of  the  3Ii/fh  i)f  Psi/rhe. 
after  Rafaello.  Of  his  pottery,  vases,  ewers,  jugs,  salvers, 
etc.,  generally  small  in  size  but  highly  finished,  collections 
are  formed  in  several  of  the  Paris  museums ;  and  these  arti- 
cles are  much  valued  on  account  of  the  unique  character  of 
tlieir  design.  His  best-known  pieces  are  those  decorated 
with  lizards,  snakes,  etc..  in  high  relief,  probably  moulded 
from  the  actual  creatures,  and  colored  in  close  imitation  of 
nature.  Xime  of  his  work  can  be  compared  for  beauty  with 
the  finest  Italian  pottery.  His  writings,  containing  many 
new  and  true  observations  on  the  formation  of  springs,  on 
tlie  fertilizing  power  of  marl,  on  the  best  means  of  p\n'ifying 
water,  etc.,  and  on  the  true  origin  and  nature  of  fossil  re- 
mains, were  published  in  1777  by  Faujas  de  Saint-Fond  and 
Gobet,  and  in  1844  by  A.  Cap.  As  an  artist  Palissy  was 
well  a|)preciated  during  his  lifetime,  but  it  was  not  until 
the  time  of  Buffon  and  Reaumur  that  the  truth  of  Palissy's 
scientific  views  was  understood  and  recognized.  Tlie  slight- 
ing remarks  of  Voltaire  are  sim|ily  the  result  of  ignorance. 
Palissy's  writings,  jaiblished  1557-80,  were  edited  by  JL 
France  and  republished  at  Paris  in  1880.  His  Life  was 
written  by  H.  Morlev  (2  vols.,  London,  1852),  and  in  French 
by  J.  Salles  (Ximes,"l855),  Audiat  (1868),  and  Berty  (1886). 
See  Delange,  MuniKjraphie  de  I'leurre  de  B.  Palinsij  (1862). 

Palladio,  jia'al-laa'ch^'-S,  Andrea  :  architect :  b.  at  V'icen- 
za,  Italy,  in  1518.  Little  is  known  of  his  family  or  of  his 
early  years.  A  wealthy  patron  of  Vicenza  enableil  the  youth 
to  travel  over  Italy  and  ni  France  whi^rever  Roman  remains 
existed.  Vilruvius  and  Leon  Battisla.  Alberti  were  the  au- 
thors he  studied,  and  it  would  seem  that  (iiovanni  Fontana. 
the  architei't  of  the  castle  of  I'cline,  was  for  a  time  his  mas- 
ter. In  1541  he  modernized  the  palace  of  Trissino  at  Cricoli. 
He  com])eted  in  1540  with  Giovanni  Fontami,  and  again  in 


1549  with  Oiulio  Romano,  for  the  renovation  of  the  Sala 
delta  Ragione  (Palace  of  Reason)  at  Vicenza,  an  ancient 
monumcnl  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  won  the  competition, 
after  winch  he  went  to  Rome,  where  lie  made  the  facade  of 
the  palace  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  His  genius  was 
henceforth  recognized,  and  his  great  learning  and  culture 
attracted  the  friendsliip  and  consideration  of  all  the  great 
men  of  his  day.  He  settled  at  Vicenza,  which,  together  witli 
the  neighboring  country,  is  full  ot  palaces  and  moinnnents 
designed  liy  liim.  In  1556  he  began  the  restoration  of  the 
Palace  of  Reason  in  his  native  city,  a  labor  which  lasted  all 
his  life.  About  the  year  1560  Sansovino,  being  then  eighty, 
recommended  the  Venetian  republic  to  accept  Palladio  as 
his  successor.  His  first  work  in  Venice  was  the  monastery 
Delia  Carita.  Other  important  works  here  included  the 
churches  of  San  Giorgio  Maggiore  and  II  Santissimo  Re- 
ilemptore,  the  fai;ade  of  San  Francesco  delia  Vigna,  and 
some  palaces. 

When  Henry  III.  of  France  passed  through  Venice,  the 
republic,  wishing  to  astonish  him  by  the  splendor  of  the 
city,  commissioned  Palladio  to  decorate  it.  War  prevented 
him  from  carrying  out  his  engagement  to  renovate  the  ca- 
thedral at  Brescia,  which  he  had  intended  to  transform  into 
a  masterpiece  of  his  art.  He  commentated  on  and  illus- 
trated with  drawings  Polybius,  and  also  the  Commentaries 
of  Caesar,  in  a  manner  w'liich  showed  careful  study  ot  the 
military  tactics  ot  the  ancii-nt  Romans.  His  knowledge  of 
hydraulics  was  also  consideraljle.  At  Bassano  he  built  a 
wooden  bridge,  in  which  he  combined  solidity  with  elegance 
of  design,  and  this  resisted  the  inundations  of  the  river 
Brenta  till  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  its 
restoration  by  Ferracina  spoiled  its  original  beauty.  Pal- 
ladio took  part  in  the  competition  of  the  greatest  archi- 
tects of  his  time  for  the  design  of  a  stone  bridge  to  replace 
the  wooden  Rialto  bridge  at  Venice,  and  his  project  was 
preferred  to  all,  although  Antonio  da  Ponte"s  was  finally 
chosen  as  more  within  the  means  the  republic  had  to  dispose 
of.  He  planned  the  royal  park  in  Piedmont  for  Duke  Em- 
manuel Philibert  of  Savoy,  to  whom  he  dedicated  his  Treatise 
on  Arc/iitecture,  published  in  Venice  in  1570,  which  has  since 
been  reprinted  and  translated  in  all  languages.  Palladio 
died  at  Vicenza  in  1580.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

PaHadium :  a  silver-white  to  steel-gray  metal  of  the 
platinum  group,  discovered  by  Wollaston  in  1803  in  the 
mixture  of  platinum  metals  (polyxene)  from  South  America. 
It  has  nearly  the  hardness  of  platinum,  but  is  less  ductile; 
specific  gravity,  11'3  to  11'8  ;  when  hammered,  12.  It  does 
not  fuse  in  ordinary  furnaces,  lint  melts  in  the  oxyhydrogen 
flame  and  volatilizes.  It  can  be  welded  like  iron  or  plat- 
inum. It  does  not  oxidize  readily,  but  dissolves  in  hot  ni- 
tric acid  and  in  aqua  regia,  and  may  be  combined  with  sul- 
phur by  heat  and  can  be  alloyed  with  various  metals,  par- 
ticularly platinum,  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  Four  parts  of 
copper  and  one  of  palladium  form  a  white  ductile  alloy,  so, 
also,  with  gold.  The  oro  piidre  or  impure  gold  from  Por- 
pez.  South  America,  contains  9-85  per  cent,  of  palladium 
and  4'17  per  cent,  of  silver.  Similarly  the  oro  preto  (black 
gold)  from  Minas  Geraes.  Brazil,  contains  from  7'7  to  ll'l 
per  cent,  of  palladium,  according  to  assays  made  at  the  Rio 
de  Janeiro  mint.  Six  parts  of  gold  and  one  of  palladium 
formed  the  alloy  used  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Wollaston 
for  the  graduated  part  of  the  mural  (drcle  at  Greenwich  (Ob- 
servatory. Being  very  white  and  inalterable  in  the  air.  and 
not  tarnishing  like  silver  in  sulphurous  gases,  it  has  l)cen 
much  used  for  such  purposes.  Some  of  its  alloys  have  been 
used  for  the  )ioints  of  pencils,  lancets,  and  as  a  substitute 
for  gold  in  dental  work.  Palladium  has  the  property  of  oc- 
cluding hydrogen  to  an  extraoi'dinary  degree.  This  was 
discovered  by  Graham,  and  he  regarded  hydrogenized  palla- 
(lium  as  a  true  alloy  containing  tlic  hydrogen  in  the  form 
ot  the  metal  hydrogenium,  the  comiiound  corresponding  to 
the  fornuUa  I'dJU.  This  ]irop<'rly  of  the  metal  was  well 
illustrated  at  Paris  in  187S  by  a  disk  of  pallailium  100  mm. 
in  diameter  and  2  nnn.  thi<'k,  in  which  nearly  1,000  times 
its  bulk  of  hydrogen  had  been  occluded.  By  the  absorjition 
of  the  gas  its  diameter  was  increased  to  102'5  mm.  and  its 
thickness  lo  2'2  nnn.  It  increased  in  weight,  and  became 
concave. 

Brazil  ajipears  to  be  the  chief  source  of  this  metal :  it  not 
only  occurs  in  alloy  with  gold,  as  above  shown,  but  sepa- 
ratelv  in  mixture  with  gold  and  jilatinum  in  alluvial  sands. 
A  sn'iall  (imuitity  occurs  at  Port  Orford.  on  the  coast  of 
California,  with  "platinum  and  iridium.     It  is  reported  to 


410 


PALLADIUM 


PALM 


have  been  found  upon  the  south  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Batum,  in  auriferous  sands,  and  is  associated 
■with  platinum  in  the  Ural  Mountains.   William  P.  Blake. 

Palladiuiil  [  =  Lat.  =  (ir.  UaWiSiov.  statue  of  Pallas, 
liter.,  dimin.  of  naWas,  naWdSos.  Pallas] :  a  wooden  image 
iiiamv)  of  Pallas  let  fall  from  lieaven  by  Zeus  in  answer  to 
the  prayer  of  Ilus,  in  token  of  his  approval  of  the  founding  of 
Ilium.  '  There  are  other  storiesof  its  origin.  It  was  3  cubits 
high,  with  legs  stiff  and  closely  pressed  together,  an  uplifted 
spear  in  the  right  hand,  ani.1  a  distaff  and  spindle  or  a  spear 
in  the  left  hand.  The  image  represented  the  protecting 
goddess,  who  would  not  allow  the  city  to  be  taken  as  long 
as  the  image  remained  inside  its  walls.  Odysseus  and 
Diomedes  crept  into  Troy  by  night  and  stole  it.  According 
to  one  story,  Demophoon  captured  it  from  Diomedes  as  he 
was  landing  in  Atlieaand  placed  it  on  the  Athenian  Acrop- 
olis, but  according  to  another  story  Diomedes  brought  it 
to  Argos.  According  to  still  another  story,  the  Trojans, 
fearing  that  it  might  be  stolen,  made  an  imitation  Pal- 
ladium, which  was  the  one  stolen  by  Odysseus  and  Dio- 
medes, and  concealed  the  genuine  one,  wliieh  was  carried 
by  ^neas  to  Italy,  and  for  centuries  was  preserved  in  the 
temple  of  Vesta  in  Rome,  until  Heliogabalus  placed  it  in 
in  his  temple  of  the  Sun.  The  theft  of  the  Palladium  by 
Odysseus  and  Diomedes  was  a  favorite  motive  with  the  an- 
cient artists.  See  the  article  Palladium  in  Baumeister's 
Denkmaler.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Palla'diiis:  the  name  of  several  distinguished  men.  (1) 
RuTiLius  Taurus  ^Emilianus.  a  Roman  author,  probably 
from  the  fourth  century ;  wrote  a  work  on  agriculture,  De 
re  Rustica,  in  fourteen  books,  which  was  much  used  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  Edited  by  J.  G.  Schneider  in  his  ficn'p- 
tores  Rci  Rusticm  Veteres  Latini  (Leipzig,  1795);  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Thomas  Owen  (London,  1803).  Book 
xiv.,  a  poem  in  elegiacs  on  grafting  (De  Incitione)  has  been 
separately  edited  by  J.  C.  Schmidt  (Milnnerstadt,  1877),  and 
book  i.,  by  tlie  same  editor  {Wurzburg,  1876). — (3)  A  Ohris- 
tian  Father;  b.  in  Galatia  in  367  a.  d.  ;  Bishop  of  Helenop- 
olis  in  Bithynia  in  400,  and  of  Aspona  in  Galatia  in  420;  d. 
in  430.  He  wrote  the  Hisforia  Lausiaca,  a  collection  of 
biographies  of  hermits,  dedicated  to  Lausus,  governor  of 
Cappadocia,  published  by  Meursius  (Leyden,  1616)  and  by 
Eronto  Ducieus  in  his  Auctarium  (Paris,  1624). — (3)  A  Greek 
author  on  medicine;  lived  probably  in  Alexandria  in  the 
seventh  century,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  the  works  of 
Hippocrates,  and  a  book  on  fevers,  edited  by  Bernard  (Ley- 
den, 174.1).  M.  Warren. 

PaUah  [from  the  native  (South  African)  name] :  the 
^pyceros  melampus,  a  fine  dark-red  antelope  of  South 
Africa  (called  in  Dutch  roode  bok,  red  antelope).  It  has  a 
white  belly,  a  black  mark  upon  the  croup,  and  black  tufts 
on  the  back  part  of  each  foot.  It  has  long,  handsome  horns, 
somewhat  lyrate  and  ringed.  Its  flesh  is  good,  though  dry. 
It  is  very  swift,  but  when  surprised  has  the  habit  of  trying 
to  steal  away  undiscovered.  It  is  found  in  considerable 
herds  in  bushy  places. 

Pal'las  (in  Gr.  ii  riaWas  ami  S  niwas) :  1.  A  daughter  of 
Triton  and  a  youthful  comjianion  of  Athene.  Once  when 
they  were  engaged  in  warlike  sport  they  became  angry,  and 
Zeus,  seeing  that  Pallas  was  about  to  strike  Athene,  inter- 
posed his  iPgis,  and  Pallas  fell  at  the  feet  of  Athene,  who 
made  an  image  in  her  honor  and  placed  upon  its  breast  the 
death-dealing  a?gis.  This  statue  was  the  Palladium  cast 
down  from  heaven  by  Zeus  in  answer  to  the  prayer  of  Ilus 
for  a  sign  of  heaven's  approval.  2.  A  Titan.  3.  Father  of 
Selene.  4.  A  giant.  5.  The  grandfather  of  Evander.  after 
whom  the  city  built  by  Evander  on  the  Palatine  Hill  was 
named.  6.  Son  of  Pandion,  of  Athens.  7.  Freedman  of 
Antonia,  mother  of  ('laudius;  he  played  a  prominent  rule 
under  Claudius,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Nero  for  the  sake 
of  his  money.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pnllns,  Peter  Simon:  traveler  and  naturalist;  b.  in  Ber- 
lin, (iermany,  Sept.  22,  1741 ;  studied  medicine  and  natural 
science;  visited  Kngland  and  Holland;  i)ul>lislied  in  1766 
his  Elenchus  Zoi>phi/U>rum  and  Misci'llaneii  Zoolmjica,  still 
of  value  ;  was  invited  by  Catherine  II.  in  1768  to  Russia  as 
Professor  of  Natural  Scien<-e  at  the  Academy  of  St.  Peters- 
burg; made  from  1768  to  1774  a  journey  of  exploration 
through  Southern  Siljcria  to  the  frontier  of  China;  resided 
for  many  years  in  the  Crimea,  where  the  empress  gave  him 
extensive  estates,  and  i)arlorjk  with  great  activity  in  all 
scientific  undertakings  in  Russia,  but  returned  at  last  to 


Berlin,  where  he  died  Sept.  8,  1811.  Those  of  his  numerous 
works  best  known  and  still  of  interest  are  Travels  through 
the  Southern  Provinces  of  the  Russian  Empire  (Leipzig, 
1799-1801 ;  Eng.  trans.  1812);  Flora  Rossica  (3  vols.,  1784- 
88,  not  completed);  and  Sammlungen  historischer  Nach- 
richten  fiber  die  mongoHschen  Volkerschaften  (2  vols.,  St. 
Petersburg,  1776-1802). 

Pallas  Athene  (in  Gr.  TiaWas  'A^f-n.  'AS/Tii/aiti.  'aStito)  : 
See  Athena. 

Pallayicino,  Sforza,  Cardinal:  theologian  and  scholar; 
b.  in  Rome,  Italy,  Nov.  28,  1607.  After  studying  juris))ru- 
dence  there  he  turned  to  theology,  receiving  his  baccalaure- 
ate in  163g.  In  1630  he  determined  to  become  an  ecclesias- 
tic, and  was  at  once  given  important  charges  by  Pope  Urban 
VIII.  In  1637  he  became  a  Jesuit,  and  for  the  rest  of  his 
life  he  was  one  of  the  most  important  memliers  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus,  having  in  charge  particidarly  the  direction  of 
its  educational  policy  and  work.  In  1659  he  was  made 
cardinal  by  Alexander  VIL,  who  had  long  been  his  intimate 
friend.  He  is  chiefly  famous  for  his  theological  works,  of 
which  the  most  important  is  his  Istoria  del  Concilio  di 
Trenio,  etc.  (Rome,  1656-57),  written  to  combat  the  similar 
history  by  the  Venetian  Paolo  Sarpi.  In  the  preparation 
of  this  he  had  access  to  documents  closed  to  all  others ;  but 
the  violence  of  his  partisanship  prevented  him  from  giving 
scientific  exactness  to  his  treatment.  To  the  same  field  be- 
long (besides  his  Latin  treatises,  VindicaUones  Soc.  Jesus, 
Assertionum  theologicarum  libri,  etc.)  his  Arte  delta  per- 
fezione  cristiana  (Rome,  1665)  and  his  admirable  Delia 
vita  di  Alessandro  VII.  libri  cinque  (Prato,  1839-40).  Be- 
sides being  a  theologian,  Pallavicino  was  a  scholar  and  poet. 
He  belonged  to  the  Roman  academy  called  Gli  Umoristi, 
and  later  to  the  Florentine  della  Crusca.  He  wrote  a  trage- 
dy, Ermenegildo  (1644);  Del  Bene  (dialogues,  1644);  Con- 
siderazioni  sopra  I'arte  dello  stile  del  dialogo  (1646) ;  Av- 
vertimenti  grammaticali  a  chi  scrive  in  ituliuno  (1661) ;  and 
a  sacred  poem.  Fasti  sacri,  of  which  only  fragments  are 
preserved.  D.  in  Rome,  June  5,  1667.  For  his  life  and 
works,  see  Oj)ere  edite  ed  inedite  di  Sforza  Pallavicino  (5 
vols.,  Rome,  1844-48).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Palliser,  Sir  William,  C.  B.  :  soldier  and  inventor ;  b.  in 
Dublin,  Ireland,  June  18,  1830:  was  educated  at  Rugby, 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  Trinity  Hall.  Camljridge,  and  Sand- 
hurst College;  became  ensign  in  the  Rifle  Brigade  1855, 
and  joined  the  Eighteenth  Hussars  in  1858;  became  captain 
1859,  major,  unattached,  1864,  and  retired  from  the  service 
in  1871.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  Palliser  projectiles,  de- 
signed for  piercing  armor-plated  ships ;  he  also  invented 
an  improved  method  of  rifling  iron  wrought  cannon  for  use 
both  in  ships  and  on  fortifications,  and  of  converting  smooth- 
bore cast-iron  ordnance  into  rifled  guns.  He  was  knighted 
by  Queen  Victoria  Jan.  21,  1873.     D.  Feb.  4,  1882. 

Pal'linm  [=Lat.,  liter.,  cloak,  mantle,  pall]:  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  a  band  of  white  lamb's  wool,  em- 
broidered with  purple  crosses,  worn  upon  the  neck  by  the 
pope  and  all  ecclesiastics  of  archiepiscopal  rank,  including 
metropolitans  and  patriarchs.  It  was  once  made  of  linen, 
endiroidered  with  purple,  and  was  worn  by  all  bishops. 
The  pallium  has  two  pendants,  one  hanging  down  the  back 
and  one  down  the  breast  of  the  wearer.  It  is  the  chief 
badge  of  the  archbishop's  authority,  is  granted  by  the  pope 
in  ])erson,  and  is  worn  only  upon  very  solenni  occasions. 
The  pope,  however,  wears  it  continually.  It  is  always  buried 
with  the  wearer,  and  can  never  be  transferred  to  another 
person. 

Palm :  See  Palm  Family,  Palm  Oil,  and  Palm  Wine. 

Palm,  JoiiAXN  Philipp  :  bookseller:  b.  at  .Sehorndorf, 
Bavaria,  in  1768;  succeeded  his  father-in-law,  Stein,  as  pub- 
lisher in  Nuremberg,  where,  in  1806,  his  firm  issued  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  Deutschland  in  seiner  tiefen  Erniedrigung 
(Germany  in  her  Deep  Humiliation),  which  censured  Na- 
poleon and  condemned  the  occupation  of  Bavaria  by  the 
French  troops.  The  book  fell  intu  the  hands  of  the  French 
oflicials  and  the  matter  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  Napoleon, 
who,  it  is  said,  gave  orders  for  the  arrest,  conviction,  and 
speedy  execution  of  the  offender,  that  his  death  might  serve 
as  a  warning  to  others.  Palm  was  seized,  hurried  before  an 
extraordinary  military  commission  at  Braunau,  and.  though 
he  professed  ignorance  of  the  contents  of  the  ]]amphlet,  was 
condemned  to  death  Aug.  25.  1806.  He  was  shot  at  Brau- 
nau on  the  following  day.  Like  the  execution  of  the  Due 
d'Enghien,  this  act  caused  general  indignation  throughout 


PALMA 


PALMER 


411 


Europe,  ami  in  Germany  the  hatred  of  Napoleon  was  inten- 
sified. Some  writers  have  tried  to  lay  the  bhime  of  this 
judicial  murder  upon  JIarsluU  Herthi<'r  instead  of  Xaiioleoti. 
A  bronze  statue  of  Palm  was  erected  at  Braunau  in  1766. 
See  Schultheiss,  Johann  P/iilipp  Palm  (Xuremberg.  1S6U). 

Pal'liia:  town  of  Spain;  capital  of  tlie  province  of  Ba- 
leares,  on  the  soutliwesterii  coast  of  tlie  island  of  Majorca 
(see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  16-L).  It  is  surrounded  witli  walls 
and  fortified  with  thirteen  bastions,  and  hjis  a  fine  harbor 
with  a  mole  500  yards  loii!^,  and  lined  on  both  sides  witli 
dockyards,  in  wliich  ship-building  is  carried  on.  The  city  is 
well  iiuilt.  and  contains  many  eletjant  l)uildiiigs,  botli  private 
and  public,  among  which  the  MU)st  remarkable  are  the  cathe- 
dral (12:i'2-1601)  in  the  Gothic  style,  the  Church  of  St.  Fran- 
cis, ci>ntaining  tlie  tomb  of  Iiii,i',((;.  i'.),the  exchange,  dating 
from  the  fifteenth  century,  and  the  governor's  palace.  It 
has  numy  good  educational  institutions  and  manufactures 
of  silks  and  woolens,  jewelry,  soap,  brandy,  and  glass.  Pop. 
(1887)  60,.514. 

Palina :  one  of  the  Caxary  Islands  {(/.  v.).  Area.  ;380  sq. 
miles,  with  3it,623  inhabitant.s.  It  contains  the  interesting, 
now  extinct,  volcanoes  Caldera  and  Barranco,  often  referred 
to  as  exceptionally  well-preserved  types  of  volcanic  forms. 
The  island  pro<luces  good  timber,  and  has  two  fine  towns,  St. 
Cruz  and  Los  Llanos. 

Palliia,  .Tacopo,  called  II  Vecchio  (the  elder),  or  Palma 
VEcrnio:  painter;  b.  at  Serina,  near  IJergamo,  about  1480; 
d.  in  Venice  in  1528.  He  went  to  Venice  while  still  very 
young  and  followed  Giorgione's  method  of  coloring.  His 
altar  picture  at  San  Cassiano  is  one  of  his  early  works, 
and  one  of  his  finest  is  Santa  Barbara  at  Santa  Jlaria  For- 
mosa. He  soon  received  orders  for  altar  pieces  for  the 
churches  in  Venice,  the  surrounding  country,  and  for  Seri- 
nalta.  His  picture  of  The  Epiphany,  now  in  the  Brera  at 
Milan,  shows  that  he  had  originality.  He  painted  in  com- 
petition with  Gian  Bellini  and  Mansueti  in  the  school  of 
J5t.  Mark  the  story  of  the  ship  bringing  St.  Mark's  body  to 
Venice  in  a  terrible  storm.  Vasari  bestows  the  highest  praise 
on  this  work,  as  also  on  a  ])ortrait  of  himself  which  Palma 
painted  for  him.  The  Venetian  academy  possesses  a  fine 
A/iiiumplinn  by  this  master.  The  Louvre  has  four  pictures 
by  liim.  and  the  museum  of  Brussels  one.  W.  J.  S. 

Paliiia,  Jaoopo,  called  II  Giovane  (the  younger),  or  Pal- 
ma GiovAN'E  :  |iainter ;  date  of  birth  unknown.  He  was  a 
nephew  of  Palma  Veeehio.  Ilis  father  was  his  first  in- 
structor in  painting,  but  he  imitated  Titian,  and  before  he 
was  fifteen  years  of  age  he  became  the  protege  of  the  Duke 
of  Urbino,  who  first  took  him  to  his  capital  and  then  sent 
him  to  Rome  to  study.  He  returned  to  Venice  in  1570, 
where  liis  work  did  not  seem  much  in  request  until  Vitto- 
ria,  the  architect  and  favorite  sculptor  of  the  republic,  gave 
him  commissions  which  enabled  him  to  compete  with  Tin- 
toretto and  Veronese.  He  painted  a  La.tt  Judi/nicnt  in  the 
Sala  dello  Scrutinio,  and  a  picture  representing  the  pope 
permitting  Otho  to  be  reconciled  to  his  father  in  the  Sala 
del  Maggior  Consiglio,  both  in  the  ducal  palace ;  also 
Alexis  and  the  crusaders  assaulting  Constantinople,  besides 
the  naval  fight  on  the  Po,  and  the  taking  of  Cremona,  which 
is  perhaps  his  masterpiece.  After  the  death  of  Tintoretto 
and  Veronese  he  contented  himself  with  producing  mere 
sketches.  He  painted  innumerable  altar-pieces  for  Venice, 
and  examples  of  his  art  are  to  be  found  at  Cremona,  Pcsaro, 
Urbino,  and  Bologna.     D.  at  Venice  in  1628.         W.  J.  S. 

Palma,  RicARno:  author;  b.  at  Lima,  Peru,  Feb.  7, 
18:!:!.  In  his  younger  days  he  was  engaged  in  a  revolt,  and 
in  1S61)  was  exiled  to  Chili  for  a  short  time.  After  his  re- 
turn he  was  secretary  to  Pi-esident  Malta,  senator,  and  final- 
ly assistant  in  the  National  Library  until  it  was  sacked  by 
the  Chilians  in  1881.  In  1884  he  undertook  its  restoration. 
About  8,000  books,  a  mere  fragment  of  the  original  collec- 
tion, were  recovered,  and  these  were  sujiplemented  by  gifts, 
principally  from  foreign  govcrniiienls.  The  library  was  re- 
opened under  his  directorship  ,Iuly  28,  1884.  Seilor  Palma 
is  called  the  Xestor  of  Peruvian  literature.  He  has  pub- 
lished several  romances,  sketches  of  country  life,  two  vol- 
umes of  poems,  and  a  historical  work,  Aiiates  de  la  In- 
quiaicibn  de  Lima  (1863),  but  he  is  best  known  for  his  vol- 
umes on  the  historical  traditions  and  h'gends  of  Peru  which 
have  appeared  since  1870.  Heriiert  II,  Smith. 

Palma  di  Moiitcchiaro:  city  of  Italy;  in  the  jirovince 
of  Girgenti,  .Sicily;  14  miles  S.  E.  of  tli<'  city  of  (iirgenti 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  lU-F).     Though  at  some  distance  in- 


land it  has  a  port  with  a  considerable  coasting  trade.  Soda, 
sulphur,  wine,  and  dried  fruits  are  exported.     Pop.  11,702. 

Pal  mas.  Cape  ;  See  Cape  Palmas. 

Palmblad,  paalm  bhiat,  Wilhelm  FREnRin  ;  writer;  b. 
in  Liljestad,  Sweden,  1788,  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  founded 
with  Atterhom  {q.  v.)  the  phos])horistie  society  Aurorafor- 
bundet,  and  both  as  critic  and  creative  writer  he  contributed 
largely  to  the  advancement  of  the  new  literary  movement. 
In  this  his  success  was  the  greater  because  of  the  compara- 
tive conservatism  of  his  views.  During  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  was  a  professor  at  the  University  of  Upsala.  His 
earliest  serious  efforts  consisted  of  a  number  of  tales,  Amala, 
Holmen  i  sju/i  Ikill  (The  Island  in  Lake  Dall),  and  others  of 
considerable  merit ;  but  his  two  novels — Familjeii  Falkens- 
vnrd  and  Arimra  Kitiiigxmark — are  decidedly  inferior,  as 
arc  also  his  translations  of  ^Eschylus  and  Sophocles.  His 
I)rincipal  work,  and  the  best  on  that  subject  in  the  .Swedish 
language,  is  Handhok  i  fijsiaka  och  poUiiska,  aldre  och 
nyare  geografiPM  (Manual  of  Physical  and  Political  Geogra- 
phy, Ancient;  and  Modern,  5  vols.),  which,  however,  was  not 
completed.     D.  at  Upsala,  1852.  D.  K.  Dodge. 

Palm-crab ;  See  Crab. 

Palmer:  town;  Hampden  Co.,  Jlass. ;  on  the  Chieopee, 
Swift,  and  Ware  rivers,  and  the  Boston  and  Albany  and  the 
Cent.  Vt.  railways;  15  miles  E.  of  Springfield,  39  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Worcester  (for  location,  see  map  of  Massachu- 
setts, ref.  3-E).  It  comjjrises  several  villages,  and  is  noted 
for  its  manufactures,  which  include  carpets,  woolen  dress- 
goods,  cotton  goods,  wire,  wire  nails,  and  foundry  and  ma- 
chine-shop products.  There  are  two  libraries  (Y.  M.  C.  A. 
and  State  Primary  School),  a  high  school,  a  national  bank 
with  capital  of  $100,000;  a  savings-bank  with  deposits  of 
nearlv  §1,000.000,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880) 
5,.5()4':  (18!)0)  6,520  ;  (1895)  6,8.58. 

ralmer ;  in  mediaeval  times,  a  ]jilgrim  returned  or  re- 
turning from  the  Holy  Sepulcher,  so  called  from  the  fact 
that  he  bore  branches  of  palm  gathered  near  .lericho,  which 
were  placed  upon  the  church  altar  after  the  palmer's  return. 
The  palmer  also  employed  the  consecrated  scrip  (a  leathern 
wallet)  and  staff ;  and  it  was  further  customary  for  him  to 
visit  the  holy  places  of  other  lands  during  his  return.  Thus 
after  his  visit  to  the  shrine  of  St.  .James  the  Less  at  Compo- 
stella,  he  wore  the  scallop-shell  (Pecten  Jacobceus),  the  cog- 
nizance of  the  great  apostle. 

Palmer.  Bexjajiix  Morgan,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  clergyman  ; 
b.  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Jan.  25,  1818 ;  was  educated  at  the 
L'niversity  of  Georgia  and  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Co- 
lumbia. S'  C. ;  was  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  church. 
Savannah,  Ga.,  1841-43  ;  of  the  First  Presbyterian  church, 
Columbia,  S.  C.,  1843-56  ;  and  since  1856  of  'the  First  Pres- 
byterian church,  New  Orleans,  La,  Dr.  Palmer  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Church  History  and  Polity  in  the  Theological  Sem- 
inary, Columbia,  S.  C,  18.53-56 :  moderator  of  the  first  south- 
ern assembly,  Augusta,  Ga.,  1861  ;  and  has  been  commis- 
sioner to  ten  general  assi.'mblics.  Since  1847  he  has  been 
one  of  the  editors  of  TVie  Southern  Presbyterian  Bevieu;  of 
which  he  was  a  founder.  He  is  the  author  of  The  Life  and 
Letters  of  J.  H.  Thornire/!,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  (Richmond,'l875) ; 
Sermons  Ci  vols..  New  Orleans,  1875-76) ;  The  Family  in  its 
Ciril  and  Chinrhly  Asjjects  ('!>!i'\\'  York,  IHld);  Formation 
of  Character  {1889) ;  The  broken  iconic  (1890) ;  and  Theol- 
ogy of  Prayer  (Richmond,  1894).  C.  K.  IIoyt. 

Palmer.  Edward  Henry:  Orientalist;  b.  at  Cambridge, 
England,  Aug.  7.  1840 :  graduated  at  the  university  of  that 
citv  1867  ;  was  a  member  of  the  Sinai  surveying  exnedi- 
tioii  of  1868-()9,  and  the  survey  of  Moah  in  behalf  of  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Society  1869-70;  acquired  a  practical 
knowledge  of  (Oriental  languages,  and  became  Professor  of 
Arabic  at  Cambridge  1871.  Author  of  The  ifegeb,  or  South 
Country  of  Scripture  (1871) ;  The  Desert  of  the  Exodus 
(1871);'  .ti-niic  Grammar  (1874);  of  several  translations 
from  and  into  the  Pei-sian  language,  of  a  Persian-English 
and  Enqlisli-Persian  Dictionan/  (1876-83);  and  of  the 
Quran  (1880);  Song  of  the  Reed  (1876);  Poems  of  Behd 
ed  Din  Zoheir  (1876-77).  In  1882,  during  the  British  mili- 
tary operations  in  Egvpt,  he  was  commissioned  to  dissuade 
the'  Bedouins  E.  of  the  Red  Sea  from  allying  themselves 
with  Arabi  Pasha,  but  while  on  a  journey  froin  Suez  was 
murdered,  with  his  two  lompanions.  bv  Bedouins  Aug.  11. 
See  the  l.ife  by  Waller  Besaut  (1883). 

Palmer.  Erastls  Dow;  sculptor;  b.  at  Pomney.  N.  Y., 
Apr.  2,  1817  ;  was  for  some  years  a  carpenter  at  Utica;  be- 


412 


PALMER 


PALM  FAMILY 


gan  in  1846  to  cut  cameos  ;  achieved  great  success ;  removed 
to  Albany  ;  began  a  new  career  as  a  sculptor  1852 ;  has  pro- 
duced above  100  works  in  marble,  including  several  por- 
trait-busts of  eminent  men  :  has  executed  various  groups, 
including  one  representing  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  in- 
tended for  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 

Palmer.  .John  McCauley  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Eagle  Creek, 
Kv..  Sept.  13,  1817 ;  removed  to  Illinois  1831  ;  settled  at 
Cariinville :  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1839 ;  took  an  active 
part  in  politics;  State  Senator  1853-55;  was  prominent  in 
the  organization  of  the  Republican  party  1856  ;  delegate  to 
the  peace  convention  at  Washington,  I).  C,  Feb.,  1861  ;  ap- 
pointed colonel  Fourteenth  Illinois  Volunteers  in  May  ;  ac- 
companied Gen.  Fremont  in  his  expedition  to  Springfield, 
Mo. ;  appointed  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  1861  ;  par- 
ticipated in  baUlesof  New  Madrid,  Island  No.  10,  Corinth, 
and  Murfreesburo ;  and  was  made  major-general  of  volun- 
teers Nov.  39,  1863 :  was  in  commantl  of  the  Fourteenth 
Corps  Oct.,  1863,  to  Aug.,  1864 ;  Wiis  in  Sherman's  Atlanta 
campaign  and  subsequently  in  command  of  department  of 
Kentucky;  was  mustered  out  Sept.,  1866;  Governor  of  Illi- 
nois 1869-73  ;  U.  S.  Senator  1891. 

Revised  by  James  Meecur. 

Palmer,  John  Williamson,  M.  D.  :  author  ;  b.  at  Balti- 
more. JId.,  Apr.  4,  1835 ;  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Maryland  1847 ;  studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia  ;  was  city 
physician  of  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  in  1849 ;  went  in  1853  to 
China ;  served  1852-53  as  surgeon  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's war-steamer  Phlegethon  in  the  Burmese  campaign  ; 
was  active  on  the  Confederate  side  during  the  civil  war  in 
the  U.  S. ;  became  afterward  an  editor  in  Baltimore,  re- 
moving to  New  York  city  in  1870.  Autlior  of  The  (julden 
Dagnn  (1853);  The  Queen's  Jleaii.  a  successful  comedy 
(1858);  The  New  and  the  Old  (1859);  and  After  his 
Kind,  a  novel  (1886) ;  has  translated  Michelet's  L'At^ur 
and  other  works  from  tlie  French ;  compiled  Folk-songs 
(1860)  and  several  other  volumes  of  selected  poetry ;  is 
widely  known  for  his  admirable  papers  on  East  Indian  life. 
His  poem,  Stonewall  Jackson's  Way,  was  a  jiopular  Confed- 
erate ballad  during  the  civil  war. — His  wife,  Henrietta 
(Lee)  Palmer,  b.  at  Baltimore  in  1834  and  married  in  1855, 
is  the  author  of  2'he  Heroines  of  Shakspea re  (1858) ;  The 
Strafford  Gallery;  Home  Life  in  the  Bible;  of  transla- 
tions from  the  French,  etc.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Palmer,  Ray,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  hvmn-writer ;  b.  at 
Little  Compton,  R.  I.;  Nov.  13,  1808;  graduated  at  Yale 
.  College  1830 ;  studied  theology  at  New  Haven ;  was  pastor 
of  Congregational  churches  at  Bath,  Me.,  1835-50,  and  at 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  1850-66 ;  and  secretary  of  the  American 
Congregational  Union  at  New  York  1866-78.  He  was  au- 
thor of  numy  literary  contributions  to  reviews,  some  doc- 
trinal works,  and  several  volumes  of  religious  poems,  among 
which  is  the  favorite  hymn,  Jly  Faith  looks  up  to  Thee.  A 
collection  of  his  poetical  works  was  issued  in  1875.  I),  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  JIar.  39,  1887. 

Palmer,  Roundell,  Earl  of  Selborne,  D.  C.  L. :  b.  at 
Mixbury.  Oxfordshire,  England,  Nov.  27,  1813;  was  edu- 
cated at  Rugby  and  Winchester  schools,  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  graduated  with  high  honors  1834,  obtain- 
ing a  fellowship  at  JNIagdalen  College  and  the  Eldon  law 
scholarship ;  was  called  to  the  bar  1837 ;  entered  Parlia- 
ment 1847;  became  queen's  counsel  1849;  knighted  and  ap- 
pointed solicitor-general  1861 ;  was  attorney-general  1863- 
66;  was  counsel  of  the  British  Government  before  the  Ge- 
nevajt'ourt  of  arbitration  on  the  Alabama  claims  1871 ;  be- 
came Lord  Chancellor  with  the  title  of  Baron  Selborne  of 
Selljorne,  Hampshire,  Oct.,  1873,  retiring  from  that  olfice 
Feb.,  1874  ;  became  Lord  Chancellor  again  in  1880,  and  Earl 
of  Selborne  in  1883.  He  was  author  of  The  Book  of  Pr<tise, 
from  the  Best  English  I/ymn-writers  (1863),  and  was  well 
known  from  his  ailvoeacy  of  tlie  establisliinent  of  a  law  uni- 
versity in  L.JiHliiii.     I),  a't  Petersfleld,  England,  May  4, 1895. 

Palmerston,  Henry  John  Temple,  Viscount,  and  Baron 
Temple:  statesman;  b.  at  Broadlands,  IIam]ishire,  Eng- 
land, Oct.  20,  1784;  a  scm  of  an  Irish  peer  of  tlic  family  of 
Sir  William  Temple ;  succeeded  in  1803  to  the  title ;  was 
educated  at  Harrow  and  St.  John's  ("ollege,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graihiatcd  in  1803:  diM/liiicd  the  election  to  the 
House  of  Lords  as  a  rcprescntiilive  peer  for  Ireland  ;  entered 
Parliament  for  Blelehingley  1H06:  represented  Newport  in 
Parliament  1807-11, and  Canibridgc-  University  181 1-31. and 
after  that  represented  Blelehingley,  South  Hants,  and  Tiver- 


ton ;  became  a  Junior  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  1807  ;  was  Secre- 
tary of  War  1809-38,  under  five  administ  rations,  having  aban- 
doned high  Tory  principles  for  moderate  Ijiberalism ;  was 
Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  1830-34,  1835-41,  and 
1846-52.  attaining  great  distinction  as  a  diplomatist.  He 
appears  to  have  sympathized  with  Napoleon's  conp  d'etat  of 
1851,  and  his  avowal  of  his  views  resulted  in  his  withdrawal 
from  the  cabinet.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  for  Home  Af- 
fairs 1852-55.  and  again  sided  with  Napoleon  on  the  out- 
br.eak  of  the  Crimean  war.  favoring  an  alliance  with  France 
against  Russia.  When  the  war  spirit  in  Great  Britain 
flagged,  he  resigned  from  the  cabinet,  but  returned  to  office 
upon  receiving  pledges  of  a  warlike  policy.  He  was  Premier 
and  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  1855-58  and  1859-65.  His 
premiership  is  distinguished  by  the  warlike  spirit  shown  by 
the  Government  in  dealing  with  foreign  affairs.  He  saw  the 
Crimean  war  to  a  close,  refused  to  mediate  between  France 
and  Austria  in  the  Italian  war,  standing  firmly  for  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  latter  power  from  Italy,  and  on  the  eve  of  the 
Danish  war,  in  conjunction  with  Napoleon  III.,  he  warned 
Prussia  and  Austria  against  any  interference  with  the  inde- 
pendence of  Denmark;  but  when  Naiioleon  drew  back  he 
looked  about  for  allies  with  whom  to  defend  Danish  rights, 
but,  finding  none,  left  Denmark  to  her  fate.  In  1861  he  was 
appointed  lord  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  and  in  1863  was 
elected  rector  cf  Glasgow  University.  D.  at  Broekett  Hall, 
Hertfordshire,  Oct.  18, 1865,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.     See  his  Life,  by  Lord  Dalling  (1870,  incomplete). 

Palmet'to  [from  Span,  pnlmito,  diinin.  of  palma.  palm, 
palm-tree]  :  properly,  a  small  palm-tree  of  Southern  Europe 
(Chama'rops  IvmnU.is) ;  also  any  one  of  certain  other  small 
palms.  Of  these  the  U.  S.  has  the  following  :  (1)  Sabal  pal- 
metto, the  cabbage  palmetto,  found  as  far  N.  as  the  Cape 
Fear  river,  in  sandy  soil  near  the  coast.  Its  timber  is  use- 
ful in  constructing  piers,  since  it  is  durable  and  not  subject 
to  the  attack  of  the  teredo.  The  tree  sometimes  reaches  the 
height  of  50  feet.  The  leaves  are  largely  used  in  making 
hats,  and  the  "  cabbage,"  or  crown  of  young  leaves,  is  very 
palatable  when  boiled.  The  root  is  highly  astringent.  (2) 
Serenoa  serrulata,  the  saw-palmetto,  has  a  creeping  stem 
from  5  to  8  or  more  ft.  6  in.  in  diameter,  with  thick  clusters 
of  fan-shaped  leaves,  the  abode  of  many  rattlesnakes.  (3) 
Sabal  adansonii,  the  dwarf  palmetto,  is  stemless  and  has 
leaves  2  or  3  feet  high.  It  covers  dense  patches  of  ground 
in  low  coast  regions.  (4)  Rhapidophyllnm  hystrix,  the 
blue  palmetto,  is  a  low  palm  with  long-stemmed  fan-like 
leaves,  in  the  axils  of  which  are  sharp  needle-like  thorns. 
The  roots  of  the  palmettos  are  in  some  soils  so  numerous 
and  strong  as  to  make  the  plowing  of  land  very  difficult  and 
expensive.  Much  of  the  palmetto-leaf  of  commerce  is  de- 
rived from  the  Palmyra  palm.     Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Palm  Family  \palm  is  from  Lat.  palma,  possibly  so 
named  from  the  resemblance  of  the  leaf  to  the  palm  of  the 
hand,  or  possibly 
a  corruption  of  the 
Oriental  name ;  cf . 
Heb.  tamar  (Eng. 
tamarind)] :  the 
Palmacece,  a  large 
group  of  monoco- 
tyledonous  trees 
or  tree-like  plants, 
numbering  1,100 
or  more  species, 
nearly  all  natives 
of  tropical  cli- 
mates. Their  flow- 
ers are  small,  with 


/ 

-Flowers  of  various  palms. 


Fig.  1. 

three  sepals  and  three  petals,  usually  six  stamens,  and  a  com- 
pound three-celled  pistil  (Pig.  l)'or  three  simiile  pistils. 
Each  cell  of  the  ovary  contains  a  single  erect,  ascending,  or 
even  pendulous  inverted  ovule,  but  in  fruiting,  as  a  rule, 
but  one  seed  is  developed.  The  embryo  is  small,  conical  or 
cylindrical,  and  lies  imbedded  in  a  large  endosperm. 
"  The  steins  of  palms  are  mostly  unbranched,  cylindrical,  or 
nearly  so,  and  are  covered  with  the  decaying  bases  of  the 
leave-s.  The  crown  of  leaves  always  clothes  the  summit  of 
the  stem,  and  rises  with  its  elongation,  new  leaves  form- 
ing above,  while  the  older  ones  die  away  below.  The  leaves 
are  simple  or  palmately  or  pinualely  compound,  and  are 
often  many  feet  long  and  broad.     (Fig.  3.) 

Palms  vary  greatly  in  size,  some   scarcely  rising  above 
the  ground,  while  others  are  100  feet  or  more  in  height.     In 


I'AI.M    FAMILY 


PALMITIC   ACID 


413 


their  growth  they  first  attain  very  nearly  their  full  diam- 
eter, and  then  shoot  up  their  cylindrical  stems,  which  sub- 
sequently increase  in  size  little  or  not  at  all.  Some  species, 
especially  of  the  genus  Calumus  and  its  allies,  are  long, 
slender,  prickly,  climbing  shrubs,  often  attaining  a  length 
of  300  feet  or  more. 

It  would  be  impossible  in  a  short  article  to  enumerate  the 
many  uses  which  palms  serve  for  the  world  at  large,  and  es- 
pecially for  the  inliabitants  of  tropical  regions.     The  grasses 


Fia.  2.— Inflorescences  of  palms. 

possibly  excepted,  no  other  family  of  plants  excels  the  palms 
in  economic  importance  in  relation  to  mankind.  Food, 
clothing,  shelter,  furniture,  utensils,  tools,  weapons,  orna- 
ments, iiu;dicines,  and  intoxicating  drinks  arc  sometimes 
all  sujjplied  by  one  or  more  species. 

The  family  has  been  separated  into  five  sub-families  by 
Pr.  Oscar  Drude,  as  follows: 

Sub-family  I.  Coryphinm  (Fig.  1,  a  b  c;  Fig.  .3,  a  h  c), 
with  inllorescence  diffusely  branched  ;  flowers  with  three  free 


Flo.  3.— Forms  of  palm  leaves!. 

carpels:  fruit,  a  berry;  leaves,  pinnate  in /"/((pniV.  palmate 
in  all  others.  Important  momber.s  of  this  sub-family  are 
the  following  :  The  date-jmlm  {Phcenix  ditctylifcrd)  of 
Western  Asia,  Northern  ,\tfica.  aiul  Southern  Kurope,  bears 
large  bunches  of  the  well-known  fruits.  The  talipot-palm 
{Corypha  umhracutifera)  of  Ceylon  and  Jlalaliar  is  remark- 
able for  its  gigantic  leaves,  the  circular  blades  of  which  are 


sometimes  13  feet  in  diameter.  (Fig.  3,  b.)  The  palmetto 
(Sabal  palmetto)  is  a  short-stemmed  species  common  in  the 
Southern  U.  S.  The  wax-palm  (Capernica  ccrifera)  of  Bra- 
zil is  notable  for  the  waxy  coating  on  its  young  leaves, 
which  is  collected  for  making  candles.  (Fig.  3,  a.)  Nine 
other  species  in  this  sub-family  are  natives  of  the  U.  S. 

Sul)-fainily  II.  BorasniiKe  (Vig.  2,  h).  with  inflorescence  of 
simple  or  little  branched,  thickened  axes ;  flowers  with  three 
united  carpels  :  fruit,  a  drupe  ;  leaves,  palmate.  The  Doum 
palm  (Hjipliiviii'  tliel)iiiea)  of  the  upper  Nile  region  is  re- 
nutrkable  for  its  branching  habit.  Its  large  fruits  have  the 
flavor  of  gingerbread,  whence  the  name  gingerbroid-palm 
which  is  often  applied  to  it.  (Fig.  3,  6.)  The  Palmyra 
palm  (Borasxiis  flabellifonnis)  of  tropical  Africa  and  Asia 
is  a  stately  tree  2b  to  100  feet  in  height,  yielding  "  Palmyra 
wood."  Wine,  toddy,  and  sugar  are  made  from  its  juice. 
The  double  cocoanut  (Lndoiea  ser/iellarum)  of  the  Sey- 
chelles islands  is  100  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  li  to  2  feet  in 
diameter.  The  large  fruits  weigh  30  to  40  lb.  each,  and  grow 
in  bunches  of  nine  or  ten.     They  take  ten  years  to  ripen. 

Sub-family  1 1 1.  LepulocaryincB  (Fig.  3,  d  e).  with  branched 
infhu'escence  :  flowers  with  three  united  carpels ;  fruit,  cov- 
ered with  scales  :  leaves,  palmate  or  pinnate,  generally 
spiny.  The  sngo-palms  (Metroxyfon  rumphii  and  J/,  ^cpue) 
of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago  yield  sago,  which  is  obtained 
by  splitting  their  trunks  and"  extractin'g  the  .soft  pithy  cen- 
tral portions,  whose  cells  are  filled  with  starch.  The  rat- 
tan palms  (Calamus  rotang,  C.  rudentum,  C.  royleaniis,  C. 
scipionnm.  etc.)  of  India  are  much  used  for  making  walking- 
sticks,  mattings,  chairs,  etc. 

Sub-family  IV.  Ceroxylina;  (FigA,  d  e  f:  Fig.  2,  c;  Fig. 
3, /s').  with  simple  or  branched  inflorescence;  flowers  with 
three  united  carpels  ;  fruit,  a  smooth  berry  or  drupe  ;  leaves, 
pinnate. 

The  toddy  palm  (Caryota  urens)  of  India  attains  a  height 
of  50  to  60  feet,  and  furnishes  great  qiumtities  of  toddy. 
(Fig.  2,  a.)  The  Goiuuti  iialm  (Arenga  saccharifern)  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  yields  fiber,  toddy,  sugar,  sago,  casks, 
utensils,  etc.    (Fig.  3,  /.)    .See  Gomuti  Palm. 

The  Piassaba  palm  (Attalea  funifera)  of  Brazil  yields 
"Coquilla  nuts,"  and  a  valuable  fiber  much  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  cordage,  mats,  brooms,  etc.  The  cocoanut- 
palm  (Cocos  nucifera),  a  native  of  the  tropical  parts  of  the 
Old  World,  now  cultivated  in  all  hot  countries,  yields  the 
well-known  coeoanuts  of  commerce.     See  Cocoanut. 

Two  genera  of  this  sub-family,  Pseudophixnix  and  Oreo- 
doxa,  are  represented  in  the  Southern  and  Southwestern 
LT.  S.  The  species  of  Chamcedorea  of  South  America  are 
slender  stemmed  climbers,  and  are  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  rude  suspension  bridges.     (Fig.  1,  d  e  /.) 

Sub-family  V.  Phytetephantincf,  vrith  spicate  or  capitate 
inflorescence ;  flowers  with  three  or  four  united  or  free  car- 
pels; leaves,  pinnate. 

The  ivory-nut  palms  (Phytelephas  macrocarpa  and  P.  ini- 
crocarpn)  produce  very  hard  imts,  whose  endosjierm  resem- 
bles ivor)',  for  which  it  is  used  as  a  substitute. 

Literature. — Popular  Hiafory  of  Palms  a?id  their  Allies, 
by  Berthold  Seeman  (London,  ISoG) ;  The  Illustrated  Dic- 
tionary of  Gardening,  4  vols.,  by  George  Nicholson  (Lon- 
don, 1885-89);  Bentham  and  Hooker's  Genera  Plantarum 
(vol.  iii.,  London,  1883) ;  Engler  and  Prantl's  Die  Xalur- 
lichen  pyiamenfamilien  (vol.  ii.);  Palmw.  by  Oscar  Drude 
(Leipzig,  1887).  Charles  E.  Besset, 

Paliuira.  pa'd-meeniji ;  a  town  of  the  department  of 
Cauca.  Colombia;  7  miles  E.  of  the  river  Cauca  and  86 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Pojmyan ;  on  a  plain  called  the  Llanos  de 
JIalagana,  about  3,200  feet  aViovc  the  sea  (see  map  of  South 
America,  ref.  2-B).  Until  1860  it  was  a  small  village  ;  since 
then  it  has  become  the  most  im|K>rtant  jilace  in  the  depart- 
ment, after  Poi)ayan,  and  the  center  of  a  rich  agricultural 
and  grazing  district.  It  is  especially  noted  for  its  excellent 
tobacco.  The  climate  is  somewhat  insalubrious.  Pop.  (1892) 
about  10,000.  Herbert  II.  Smitu. 

Palmistry :  See  CnEiRoMA.Ncv. 

Palmitic  Acid:  a  fatty  acid  universally  distributed  in 
the  fats  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  It  is  a  color- 
less solid,  lighter  than  water,  crystallizes  in  small  shining 
scales,  and  is  without  odor;  insoluble  in  water,  but  freely 
so  in  hot  alcohol  and  ether.  Combined  with  glycerin,  it  oc- 
ctirs  abun<lanlly  in  palm  oil,  the  fat  of  certain  palms,  in 
Chiiu'se  tallow,  in  .lapanese  wax.  and  the  wax  of  Myrica 
rerifera.  In  the  animal  kingdom  it  is  found  in  butter,  in 
beeswax,  in  spermaceti,  in  human  fat,  etc.     It  is  easily  pre- 


Hi 


PALM  OIL 


PALPITATION  OP  TUB   HEART 


pared  from  palm  oil  bv  saponification  with  caustic  potash, 
decomposing  the  soap  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  recrystalliz- 
ing  the  fatty  acid  several  times  from  hot  alcohol  till  it  gives 
a  steady  melting-poiut. 

The  solutions  of  palmitic  acid  are  acid,  and  if  concen- 
trated solidify  on  cooling,  or  if  dilute  yield  tufts  of  slender 
needles  with  an  acid  reaction.  This  acid  may  be  distilled 
unchanged,  and,  geutly  heated,  evaporates  without  residue 
from  an  open  dish.  It  burns  like  other  fats  with  a  light 
smoky  flame.  It  forms  with  the  alkali  metals  acid-salts 
analogous  to  the  acid-acetates,  and  it  forms  normal  or  neu- 
tral salts  with  other  metals  according  to  their  equivalence. 
The  potassium  and  sodium  palmitates  are  soluble  in  water 
and  alcohol ;  the  rest  are  insoluble. 

Palmitic  acid  is  made  commercially  for  candle-making  by 
fusing  oleic  acid  with  a  large  excess  of  caustic  potash.  The 
products  formed  are  potassium  palmitate,  potassium  acetate, 
and  hydrogen.  The  potassium  palmitate  is  washed,  decom- 
posed with  sulphuric  acid,  the  acid  thus  obtained  washed 
and  distilled. 

Palmitins  or  glyceryl  palmitates  are  ethers  known  as 
mono-,  di-,  and  tri-palmitin,  all  crystalline  fats  which  are 
artificially  formed,  of  which  the  last  is  natural  palmitiu 
from  palm  oil  and  other  fats.        Revised  by  \kx  Remsex. 

Palm  Oil :  the  thick  oil  obtained  from  the  fleshy  peri- 
carps of  the  fridt  of  Elais  guineensis  and  melanocucca,  a 
palm-tree  of  Africa,  and  to  some  extent  from  other  palms. 
It  is  extensively  imported  and  made  into  soap,  candles,  and 
glycerin,  and  used  for  lubricating  purposes.  It  is  bleached 
and  then  pressed,  aud  thus  the  palmitine  is  extracted  for 
candle-making,  while  the  elaine  is  used  for  lubricating,  etc. 
The  fresh  oil  is  of  a  deep  orange  red.  and  has  a  pleasant 
smell  as  of  violets.  It  may  be  used  like  butter.  The  oil 
palm  is  now  naturalized  in  .South  America. 

Palm  Sunday:  the  Sunday  before  Easter,  celebrated  in 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  aud  Lutheran  Churches  in 
commemoration  of  the  triumphal  entry  of  the  Lord  into 
Jerusalem  (John  xii.),  on  which  occiision  the  multitude  cast 
branches  of  trees  before  him.  These  branches  are  repre- 
sented by  sprays  of  palm,  or,  in  countries  where  the  palm 
does  not  grow,  by  those  of  other  trees,  as  of  the  yew,  willow, 
box.  and  fir.  These  branches  are  blessed  by  a  priest  and 
distributed  to  the  congregation,  who  wear  them  for  the  rest 
of  the  day.  The  custom  prevails,  at  least  locally,  of  gather- 
ing and  preserving  the  "palms,"  which  are  afterward 
burned,  the  ashes  serving  for  use  upon  Ash  Wednesday,  the 
ashes  of  consecrated  wood  and  of  the  old  altar  linen  being 
also  employed.  It  was  another  ancient  custom  that  palm- 
ers returning  from  the  Holy  Land  should  bring  with  them 
leaves  of  the  palm  for  service  on  Palm  Sunday. 

Palm-tree :  See  Palm  Family. 

Palm  Wine,  or  Toddy:  an  alcoholic  beverage  prepared 
from  the  saccharine  sap  of  various  species  of  palm.  It 
yields  by  distillation  a  stronger  drink  called  arrack.  Palm 
wine  is  much  used  in  India  and  other  parts  of  Asia ;  it  is 
made  in  Chili,  and  is  almost  the  only  fermented  liquor  made 
in  Africa.     See  Johnston's  Chemistry  of  Common  Life. 

Palmy'ra  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  the  city  of  Palmyra. 
in  Syria] :  one  of  the  noblest  of  the  palm-trees,  the  Boras- 
aus  flabdliformis  of  India  an<l  Ceylon,  Its  fruit  is  a  valu- 
able food,  its  timber  is  excellent,  and  it  furnishes  thatch, 
cordage,  material  for  hats,  fans,  umbrellas:  its  leaves  are 
used  for  writing  tablets;  sugar  and  arrack  it  produces  abun- 
dantly. The  young  shoots  are  boiled  and  eaten,  tlie  seeds 
are  edible,  and  the  fruit  yields  a  useful  oil.  This  most  use- 
ful tree  is  from  20  to  100  feet  high  and  very  beautiful,  and 
its  leaves  are  generally  about  4  feet  long,  with  stalks  of  about 
the  same  length.  Each  leaf  has  from  seventy  to  eighty  rays, 
and  the  stalks  are  spiny  at  t  he  edges.  The  fruit  is  som'ewliat 
triangidiir,  about  the  size  of  a  child's  head.  It  has  a  thick, 
fibro\is.  and  ratlier  succulent  yellowish-brown  or  glossy- 
black  rind,  cimtaining  three  seeds,  each  as  large  as  a  goose- 
egg,  which  are  jelly-like  and  very  palatal)le  when  voung. 
As  the  palmyra  is  of  slow  growth,  the  wood  near  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  stem  in  old  trees  is  very  hard,  black, 
heavy,  dural)le,  susceptible  of  a  high  polish,  easily  divided 
in  a  longitudinal  direction,  but  very  diflieult  to  cut  across. 
Palmyra-wood  is  the  commercial  name  of  this  and  of  various 
other  palms.  In  the  north  of  Ceylon  multitudes  of  people 
almost  entirely  depend  on  this  tree  for  the  supply  of  most  of 
their  wants,  and  in  the  palmyra  regions  of  Southern  Dek- 
kan  vast  numbers  of  the  irduibitants  subsist  chiefly  on  the 


fruit  of  this  palm.  The  deleb-palm.  so  important  to  the  in- 
habitants of  Central  Africa,  is  believed  to  be  nearly  allied 
to  the  palmyra-palm.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Palmyra  :  an  ancient  city  of  Upper  Syria,  situated  in  an 
oasis.  150  miles  X.  E.  of  Damascus :  was  founded  or  enlarged 
by  Solomon  (2  Chron.  viii.  4),  and  formed  at  that  time  a 
bulwark  against  the  Bedouin  hordes  of  the  desert.  It  is 
called  in  Scripture  Tadmor  (a  name  which  in  the  Authorized 
Version  appears  in  Kings  ix.  18,  where  the  Hebrew  text  and 
the  Revised  Version  read  Tamar),  of  which  Palmyra,  i.  e. 
the  city  of  palms,  is  the  Greek  and  Latin  equivalent.  Un- 
der the  wars  between  the  Romans  and  the  Parthians  it  ac- 
quired great  importance,  developed  a  vast  commercial  activ- 
ity, and  became  a  splendid  city.  In  the  second  century  A.  D. 
it  was  the  commercial  metropolis  of  Northern  Arabia.  In  the 
third  century  of  our  era.  Odienathus,  a  native  of  Palmyra, 
estalilished  an  independent  Palmyrene  kingdom,  which  was 
furtlier  extended,  comprising  the  whole  of  Syria,  and  parts  of 
Mesopotamia,  and  brought  to  great  jirosperity  by  his  widow, 
Queen  Zenobia  ;  but  when  the  queen  refused  to  acknowledge 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  emperor,  Aurelian  defeated  her 
army,  dissolved  her  empire,  and  captured  her  capital  in  272. 
A  revolt,  during  which  the  Roman  garrison  was  slain,  oc- 
casioned its  destruction  shortly  after,  and  it  never  recov- 
ered, though  in  527  Justinian  rebuilt  its  fortifications  and 
endeavored  to  restore  it.  In  6:33  it  was  devastated  by  the 
Saracens,  and  again  in  744.  In  1400  Tamerlane  completely 
destroyed  it,  and  at  present  it  is  only  a  vast  field  of  ruins. 
A  small  village,  Thadmor,  inhabited  by  a  few  Syrian  shep- 
herds, is  situated  close  by.  The  ruins,  among  which  some 
tombs  with  inscriptions  in  the  old  Palmyrene  language  and 
characters,  and  a  temple  of  Baal,  are  very  remarkable,  were 
first  visited  by  English  merchants  in  1691,  and  explored  by 
Robert  Wood  and  Dawkins  in  1751,  who  published  their 
researches  (London,  1753).  See  Saint-JIart,  Histoire  de  Pal- 
myre  (Paris,  1823);  Vogile,  Syrie  Centrale  (Paris,  1869); 
J.  Seiff,  Reisen  in  der  asiatischen  TUrkei  (Leipzig,  1875); 
also  W.  Wright,  An  Account  of  Palmyra  and  Zenobia  (Lon- 
don, 1894).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Palmyra:  city;  capital  of  Marion  co..  Mo.;  on  the  Chi., 
Burl,  and  Quincy  Railroad ;  15  miles  N.  W.  of  Hannibal.  15 
miles  S.  W.  of  t^uincy  (for  location,  see  map  of  Missouri,  ref, 
2-H).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  contains  water- 
works, electric  lights,  several  manufactories,  a  national  bank 
with  capital  of  '|60,000.  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  ^50,- 
000,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  The  educational  institu- 
tions include  the  Centenary  High  School  (Jlethodist  Epis- 
copal South,  opened  in  1884),  St.  Paul's  College  (Protestant 
Episcopal,  opened  as  the  Ingleside  Female  College  in  1848), 
and  St.  Joseph's  Collese  (Roman  Catholic,  opened  in  1879). 
Pop.  (1880)  2,479  ;  (1890)  2,515. 

Palmyra :  village :  W.ayne  co.,  N.  T. ;  on  the  Erie  Canal, 
and  the  N.  T.  Cent,  and  Hud.  Riv.  and  the  W.  Shore  rail- 
ways :  ISi  miles  W.  of  Lyons,  23  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Rochester 
(for  location,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  4^E).  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  region,  lias  important  manufactures,  and  con- 
tains the  Palmyra  Classical  L^nion  School,  a  national  bank 
with  capital  of  §1,000.000,  a  private  bank,  and  3  weekly  and 
3  monthly  periodicals.     Pop.  (1880)  2,308 ;  (1890)  2,131, 

Palo  Alto:  town;  Santa  Clara  co.,  Cal.  (for  location  of 
county,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  8-C):  on  the  Coast  Divi- 
sion of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad:  16  miles  N.  W.  of 
San  Jose,  the  county-seat,  34  miles  S.  by  E.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  comprises  a  tract  of  over  8.400  acres,  containing 
the  costly' mansion  built  by  Leland  Stanford  and  an  ex- 
tensive arboretum  filled  with  a  great  variety  of  shrubs  and 
trees,  and  is  one  of  the  three  estates  which  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Stanford  deeded  to  the  trustees  of  the  Leland  Stanford 
Junior  LTxiversity  (q.  r.)  for  university  purposes.  The 
beauty  and  healthfulness  of  this  estate  caused  it  to  be 
chosen  as  the  site  for  the  university  buildings.  It  has  a 
State  bank  with  capital  of  f  20,000,  and  a  weekly  newspaper. 
Pop.  (1894)  estimated.  1,500. 

Palpitation  of  the  Heart  [palpitation  is  from  Lat.paZ- 
pita  lio.  deriv.  of  palpita  re.  throb,  beat,  intensive  oipalpa're. 
feel,  stroke,  whence  Eng.  palpable] :  the  forcible  pulsations  of 
the  heart  which  ni.ake  themselves  felt  or  produce  unpleasant 
sensations.  Palpitation  may  be  due  to  organic  disease  of 
the  heart,  but  in  jierhaps  a  majority  of  all  cases  the  heart 
itself  will  be  found  normal  and  the  cause  of  the  palpitation 
will  be  discovered  elsewhere.  The  most  direct  and  immedi- 
ate extraneous  cause  of  purely  functional  or  non-organic 


PALPUS 


PAMPAS 


415 


palpitation  is  pressure  upon  the  heart  by  some  pleural  ef- 
lusiuu,  some  turaor-inass.  or  a  flatulent  and  distcndeil  stom- 
ach. Diseases  of  the  stoniaeh,  however,  ael  in  a  double 
way,  not  only  by  the  pressure  in  eases  of  flatulence,  but  also 
through  the'  nervous  system  by  retle.'c  action.  The  latter 
cause  also  applies  to  diseases  of  the  ovaries  or  uterus  and 
other  organs.  Keflex  excitability  is  furthered  by  causes  in- 
creasing the  general  nervous  instability  of  the  patient. 
Among  these  is  the  overuse  of  stiuudants,  such  as  lea,  cof- 
fee, tobacco,  ami  alcohol.  Ana-mic  and  hysterical  or  other- 
wise neurotic  subjects  are  for  a  similar  reason  prone  to 
palpitations:  and  in  exophthiilmic  goiter,  a  form  of  nerv- 
ous disease,  cardiac  palpitation  is  the  most  important  symp- 
tom. Finally,  there  are  the  cases  of  palpitation  due  to  dis- 
eases of  the  lieart  itself — such  as  hyi)ertrophy,  vahular  dis- 
ease, fatly  heart,  etc.     See  Heart  "Diskase. 

Palpitation  is  a  [laroxysmal  aircetion,  attacks  coming  on 
with  greater  or  less  frei|uency,  lasting  a  short  time  or  per- 
haps a  day  anil  then  suljsiding.  The  pulse  is  generally 
rapid,  froni  100  to  loO  per  minute;  but  there  are  persons 
with  all  the  subjective  sensations  of  extreme  palpitation  in 
whom  the  pidse-rate  is  actually  less  than  normal.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  cases  in  which  the  most  excessive 
rapidity,  as  nnich  as  800  per  miiuite,  may  occasion  no  sub- 
jective "sensations,  or  very  little.  These  cases  arc  designated 
taehycardia.  Constant  or  frciiuently  repeated  palpitation 
leads  to  hypertrophy  of  the  heart  from  over-exercise,  as  in 
exophthidmie  goiter,  athletes,  etc. 

The  treatment  of  palpitation  varies  with  the  cause.  In 
nervous  cases  or  in  palpitation  from  fright,  excitement,  anil 
the  like,  sedatives,  such  as  bromide  of  potassium,  valerian, 
or  camphor  are  called  for.  When  the  heart  is  weakened  by 
organic  disease  and  palpitates  from  inefficient  [lowrr  of 
the  individual  contractions,  digitalis  and  other  stimulants 
are  needed.  Finally,  local  treatment  directed  to  the  stom- 
ach, ovaries,  or  uterus,  or  constitutional  remedies  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  blood,  or  the  simple  correction  of  diet- 
etic errors  may  sulBce  to  control  long-standing  tendency 
to  palpitation.  William  Pepper, 

Palpus  (pi.  Palpi):  See  Extomologv. 

Palsy:  another  term  for  Paralysis  (q.  v.). 

Paludan-JIiiller,  palx'loo-daan-mii'ler,  Caspar  Peter, 
Ph.D.:  historian:  b.  in  Kjerteminde,  Denmark,  1805;  stud- 
ied theology,  but  became  a  teacher;  in  1S40  rector  of  a 
Latin  school;  in  1873  Professor  of  History  at  the  Universi- 
ty of  Copenhagen.  His  principal  works  are  Ornrens  Feide 
(The  Counts'  Feud,  2  vols.,  18.'5:j-.5-t)  and  De  furste  Konger 
af  den  Oldenhorgske  slcegt  (The  Eai'liest  Kings  of  the  Olden- 
borg  Line,  1874).     D.  in  1882.  D.  K.  D, 

Paliulaii-.Miillcr,  FREnsRiK:  poet;  b.  at  Kjerteminde, 
in  the  ishuid  of  Kiineii,  Denmark,  Feb,  7, 1809;  studied  law, 
but  never  pra<:ticed ;  visited  Germany,  Holland,  France, 
Switzerland,  an<l  Italy  1838-40.  His  principal  work.  Adam 
Homo  (:J  vols..  1841-48),  is  a  novel  written  in  verse,  in  the 
strophe  of  IJyroirs  Don  ■luan.  In  its  contents  the  book  is 
national  and  original;  in  its  form  it  is  an  imitation  of 
IJyron,  It  is  a  satire  upon  the  spirit  of  worldliness  and 
compromise  of  our  time  as  represented  in  the  person  of  the 
hero.  Among  his  other  novels  and  tales,  Dandserindtin 
(1833)  is  the  best  known.  Of  his  dramas  some  treat  mytho- 
logical subjects.  Amor  og  Pnyche,  Dryadens  Bryllup,  etc.; 
others  romantic,  Alf  oy  Rose,  Priiids  og  Page,  etc. ;  and 
others  biblical.  Adam  og  Em.  Prominent  among  his  works 
are  Kalaniix,  un  Indian  tragedy  (1861).  and  Ailoiiix.  a  ro- 
mance in  verse  (1874).  D.  Dee.  27,  187t>.  His  Poetis/ce 
Skrifter  were  published  at  Copenhagen  (8  vols.,  1878-79). 

Revised  by  I).  K.  Dodge. 

Paliidico'luB  [Lat.  pi.  of  paludicola,  a  mareh-dweller ; 

palnn.  mnivh  +  colere,  inhabit]:  an  order,  or  sub-order,  of 
birds  containing  the  cranes,  rails,  and  their  allies;  synony- 
mous with  Ale<tokii)Es  (c/,  v.). 

Paliidisni  :  See  JIias.ma. 

Pamir  IMnlcots  :  the  Iranian  dialects  spoken  in  the  cen- 
tral .\siatic  table-land,  the  plateau  of  Pamir.  Jlost  impor- 
tant of  these  is  the  .Munji  or  .Munjiini,  spoken  in  the  region  of 
Jlungau,  near  Kafiristan  ;  this  tongue  presents  interesting 
resemblances  to  the  ancient  language  of  the  Avesta  (f/.  v.). 
Other  dialects  are  the  Saugliclii,  IshlaXshaini,  Waklu,  Shigh- 
ni,  and  the  VaghnobI,  or  speech  of  the  (ialchas  near  the 
source  of  the  Zarafshaii.  (See  Iranian  LANiifAOEs  and  Lit- 
erature.) Consult  Tomaschek,  Centralufiiatisclie  Sludien. 
vol,  ii,,  Die  Pamir-Dialekte  (Vienna,  1880),  and  W,  Geiger, 


Die Pamir-Oebiete  in  Penck's  Geographisclie  Ahhandlungen, 
vol,  ii.,  1  (Vienna,  1887).  A.  V.  Williams  .Jackson. 

Pamirs:  the  geographical  designation  of  the  elevated 
region  in  Central  Asia  between  hit.  36'  and  39  N.  and  Ion. 
70  to  76  E.  Politically  it  is  divided  between  Chinese  and 
Russian  Turkestan,  Bokhara,  Afglianistan,  and  a  number 
of  petty  states  and  independent  tribes  N.  of  the  Punjaub. 
It  extends  from  the  Trans- .\lai  Mountains  (m  the  N.  to  the 
Hindu  Kush  on  the  S.,  and  from  the  plains  of  Kashgar  to 
the  uppi'r  trilmtaries  of  the  Oxus.  It  is  a  complex  of  moun- 
tains, valleys,  and  limiteil  plains,  all  at  elevations  above 
12,000  feet,  and  the  mountains  sometimes  reaching  20,000 
and  25,000  feet.  It  is  divided  into  several  individual  iso- 
lated i)lains,  as,  from  S.  to  N.,  the  Little  Pamir,  the  Great 
Pamir,  Pamir  Alichur,  Pamir  Rang-Kul,  Pamir  Sariz, 
Pamir  Khartosh.  The  Pamir  region  is  sometimes  referred 
to  as  the  "  Roof  of  the  World."  It  is  traditionally  the  birth- 
place of  the  Aryan  race,  and  some  of  the  names  of  places 
still  in  use  there  present  curious  similarity  to  corresponding 
ones  found  in  Genesis.  The  Anglo-Russian  rectification  of 
the  Afghan  boundary  omitted  the  consideration  of  the 
Pamirs,  as  the  region  was  little  known  and  considered  im- 
passable. This  omission  attracted  Russian  and  then  British 
attention  to  it  very  strongly,  and  its  resulting  strategic  im- 
portance has  led  to  many  explorations  from  Ijoth  N.  and  S. 
since  1870.  See  Jlorgan,  V'/it  I'ditiir,  Scot.  (reog.JIcig.,vm., 
1892,  and  Immanuel,  i>/e  Pam irfnigc,  Pe/ermunns  Mitteil- 
ungen,  xxxviii.,  1892 — each  article  with  a  map.    M.  W,  H. 

Pamlico  (or  Painplico)  Mound :  the  largest  of  the 
sounds  of  North  Carolina  ;  fenced  by  long  low  islands  from 
the  open  sea,  with  which  it  communicates  by  Ocracoke, 
Hatteras,  Loggerhead,  New,  and  other  iidets.-  It  is  about; 
20  feet  in  average  depth,  with  great  areas  of  shoal  water. 
It  communicates  with  Albemarle  Sound  on  the  N.  Its  shores 
are  low  and  often  marshy.  The  fisheries  are  important.  The 
Neuse  and  Pamlico  are  its  largest  tributaries. 

Pampa,  La :  an  ill-defined  territory  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  W.  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  N.  of  the  river  Colo- 
rado :  variously  estimated  to  contain  from  58,000  to  91,342 
sq,  miles.  It  lies  partly  in  the  region  of  the  ])ampas,  but 
there  are  also  extensive  tracts  of  woodland  and  hills  of  con- 
siderable size,  especially  toward  the  N, ;  in  the  open  lands 
are  numerous  lagoons,  often  surrounded  by  medanos,  or 
shifting  sand-dunes.  Since  1879,  when  the  hostile  Indian 
tribes  were  exterminated  or  driven  beyond  the  Rio  Negro, 
the  land  has  been  rapidly  taken  up  by  colonists.  Sheep 
and  cattle  breeding  are  almost  the  sole  industries.  Pop. 
(1893)  about  50,000.  Acha,  or  General  Acha,  the  capital, 
has  about  2,500  inhabitants.  Herbert  II.  Smith. 

Pam'pas  [plur.  of  pampa,  probably  Peruv.  hamba,  a 
plain] :  in  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  South  America, 
any  large  open  plains  or  rolling  lands;  hence  the  word  is 
synonymous,  or  nearly  so,  with  the  terms  llanos,  savannas, 
prairies,  etc,  used  in  other  parts  of  America.  In  a  special 
geographical  sense,  the  vast  grassy  plains  which  occupy  a 
portion  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  Roughly  defined,  they 
comprise  an  area  of  over  300,000  sq.  miles,  between  the 
Parana  and  the  Atlantic  on  the  E.,  the  hills  of  Cordoba, 
San  Luis,  and  Los  Andes  on  the  W.,  the  Rio  Salado  on 
the  N.,  and  the  Rio  Negro  on  the  S.  The  Gran  Chaco 
and  the  eastern  part  of  Patagonia  are  plains  continuous 
with  the  pampas,  but  tlu'y  are  sufTicieutly  distinguished 
by  their  vegetation  and  geological  structure.  To  the  eye 
the  pampas  are  perfectly  level;  there  is,  however,  a  gentle 
slope  southeastwar<l,  from  1,300  feet  above  sea-level,  near 
Cordoba,  to  50  or  60  feet  by  the  Atlantic,  S.  of  the  Rio  do 
la  Plata,  Slight  depressions'  are  occupied  by  shallow  lakes 
and  swamps ;  nuiiiy  streams  are  lost  in  these,  and  others 
have  excavated  deep  ravines  or  barrnncas ;  the  western 
side  of  the  Parana  presents  a  long  line  of  clay  cliffs,  the 
cut  edges  of  the  plains.  The  soil  is  somewhat  hupregnated 
with  salt;  there  are  extensive  salines,  and  in  the  northern 
and  western  districts  many  of  <(he  lakes  and  even  the 
streams  are  brackish.  The  vegetation  consists  entirely  of 
grasses  and  herbs,  more  luxuriant  and  perennially  green  in 
the  depressions;  in  other  parts  they  dry  up  in  July  and 
August,  leaving  the  ground  bare.  The  soil  in  the  depres- 
sions is  often  well  suited  for  agriculture,  and  good  crops  of 
grain  and  vegetables  are  raised;  but  the  pampas  are  above 
all  adapt eil  for  grazing,  and  they  are  famous  for  the  immense 
herds  of  cattle  and  Hocks  of"  sheep  which  are  pastured 
on  them.  The  half-wild  gaiiclios.  or  lierdsmen  of  mi.xod 
race,  who  were  formerly  the  only  inhabitants,  are  gradually 


il6 


PAMPAS   DEL   SACRAMENTO 


PANAMA 


giving  place  to  European  inimignints,  who  have  introduced 
better  methods  of  pUmting  and  lierding.  The  clays  com- 
posing the  pampas  are  of  late  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  age, 
and  contain  the  bones  of  many  species  of  extinct  mammalia, 
including  the  3Iegatheriuin.  SceUdotheriiim,  and  31ijludon. 
See  Plain  and  Argentine  Republic. 

Authorities. — Darwin's  Voyage  of  a  JSlaturaJist ;  Napp, 
The  Argentine  Repitblic  (1876) ;  Ramon  Lista,  Explontcion 
de  la  Famjia  (188.i).  Herbert  U.  Smith. 

Pampas  del  Sacrainen'to  :  an  extensive  tract  of  more 
or  less  open  land  in  Northern  Peru,  between  the  rivers 
Huallaga  and  Ucayali,  similar  in  character  to  the  Brazilian 
plateau.  They  were  discovered  by  Simon  Zara,  a  Jesuit 
missionary,  iii  1T8'2,  and  until  1T67  supported  important 
missions,  but  are  now  nearly  deserted.  The  area  is  at  least 
20.000  sq.  miles.  H.  H.  S. 

Pampas  Grass :  the  Gjjnerium  urgentenm,  a  reed-like 
grass  from  the  temperate  regions  of  South  America,  much 
cultivated  for  ornament.  The  i-ecurved  slender  leaves  are 
clustered  thickly  at  the  ground.  From  the  middle  of  the 
tuft  the  flowering  stems  rise  6  to  13  feet  high,  and  bear  an 
ample  silvery  panicle.  The  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers 
are  borne  by  different  plants;  the  flower-clusters  of  tlie 
female  plant  are  distinguished  by  their  larger  size  and 
greater  spread ;  it  is  therefore  the  most  ornamental. 

Pam'philus :  martyr ;  b.  at  Berytus  in  Phoenicia  about 
240  A.  D. ;  embraced  Christianity  ;  became  a  friend  and  as- 
sociate of  Eusebius  ;  founded  a  library  at  Cssarea  in  Pales- 
tine, which  he  bequeathed  to  the  Christian  church  there, 
and  suffered  martyrdom  in  309.  He  wrote  an  apology  for 
Origen,  of  which  only  the  Latin  translation  by  Rufinus  of 
the  first  book  has  come  down  to  us. 

Pamphyl'ia  (in  Gr.  na,u</>uA.ia) :  an  ancient  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  extending  along  the  Mediterranean  from  Cilicia 
on  the  E.  to  Lycia  on  the  \V.  With  the  exception  of  the 
plain  of  Perge-Aspendus,  it  is  mountainous,  being  covereil 
with  ramifications  of  the  Taurus  Mountains,  whicli  formed 
its  northern  boundary.  The  inhabitants  were  a  mixed  race, 
composed  of  Greek  colonists  and  aboriginal  tribes,  and  their 
language  and  institutions  exhibited  a  similar  mixed  charac- 
ter, half  Greek  and  half  barbarian.  The  country  belonged 
to  the  Persian  empire,  and  after  its  fall  to  the  Macedonians. 
When  Alexander  died  it  fell  to  Syria,  and  became  subse- 
quently a  Roman  pro%ince.  Its  chief  cities  were  Olbia, 
Attalia,  Perge,  Aspendus,  Sylleum,  and  Gibyi-a.  Its  chief 
rivers  were  the  Cestrus  and  the  Eurymedon.  See  the  monu- 
mental work  of  Niemann  and  Petersen,  Stcldte  Pamphyliens 
und  Pisidiens  (Vienna,  1890),  vol.  i..  Pamphi/lien ;  Ram- 
say, Historical  Geography  of  Asia  Minor  (London,  1890,  p. 
415  £E.).  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pamplo'na,  or  Fampeliina  (anc.  Powpeiojjolis) :  capital 
of  the  province  of  Navarre,  Spain  ;  situated  on  the  Arga,  a 
tributary  of  the  Ebro  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  12-H).  It  is 
fortified  and  defended  with  a  strong  citadel  (modeled  on 
that  of  Antwerp),  and  has  a  Gothic  cathedral  (1397),  a  nat- 
ural history  collection,  a  bull-ring  (accommodating  8,000 
spectators),  a  magnificent  aqueduct  on  ninety-seven  arches, 
manufactures  of  silk,  leather,  pottery,  and  a  trade  in  wine. 
Originally  a  town  of  the  Vascones,  it  was  rebuilt  by  Pom- 
pey,  from  whom  it  derived  its  name.  It  was  the  capital  of 
Navarre  after  907.  In  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  greatly 
strengthened  by  Charles  III.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  iii 
1808  and  held  until  1813,  when  it  was  freed  by  Wellington. 
In  1873-76  it  was  a  point  of  attack  by  the  Carlists,  but  never 
taken.     Pop.  (1887),  26,663. 

Pamplona :  a  town  of  the  department  of  Santander, 
Colomljia ;  84  miles  N.  E.  of  Socorro  ;  in  a  mountain  valley, 
7,000  feet  above  the  sea  (see  nuip  of  South  America,  ret. 
3-C).  It  was  fcMMided  by  Pedro  de  Ursua  in  1.549.  and  soon 
after  rich  gold  mines  were  discovered  in  the  vicinitv  ;  these 
are  now  abandoned,  and  tlie  town  has  lost  much  of  its 
ancient  importance.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  and  con- 
tains many  old  convents,'  etc.  The  climate  is  healtliful, 
but  the  frequent  thick  mists  make  it  disagreeable.  Pop. 
about  9,000.  JJ.  H.  S. 

Pamiin'key  Rivor :  a  stream  formed  in  Virginia  bv  the 
confluence  of  the  Nortli  and  South  Anna  rivers.  It  flows 
S.  E.  and  at  West  Point  joins  tlie  Mattaponv  tu  form  tlie 
York  river.  Navigation  by  vessels  of  considerabU'  draught 
once  extended  to  Hanover  Court-house,  more  than  00  miles, 
but  the  river  is  now  shallow  and  full  of  sand-bars,  and  navi- 
gable only  some  12  miles  to  White  House. 


Pan  (in  Gr.  no;/) :  a  son  of  Hermes  by  a  daughter  of 
Dryops  (or  of  Zeus  by  Callisto).  He  was  a  genuine  Greek 
god,  and  was  originally  a  light-god  (iJiobv),  though  in  poetry 
and  art  he  was  the  patron  of  flocks  and  pasturage  (waw  = 
pasco).  The  Greek  conception  of  Pan  is  given  beautifully 
in  Horn.  Hymn.,  xix.  (cf.  Theocritus,  i.,  16  if.).  Pan  had 
goafs  legs,  horns,  beard,  tail,  ears,  and  face ;  he  was  so  ugly 
that  his  mother  was  terrified  when  she  first  saw  him.  He  was 
the  inventor  of  the  syrinx  and  of  pastoral  music;  had  a 
loud  voice  by  which  he  frightened  the  wayfarer  and  even 
put  armies  to  flight,  wherefore  such  sudden  flight  is  called 
panic  {irai/iKhs  ip6Pos).  He  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
Satyrs,  Sileni,  or  Roman  Fauns.  For  Pan  in  art,  see  the 
article  Pan  in-Baumeister's  Denkmdler. 

J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pana :  citv ;  Christian  co..  111.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Illinois,  ref."7-E);  on  the  Bait,  and  Ohio  S.  West.,  the 
Cleve.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.,  and  the  111.  Cent,  railways;  35 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  Decatur,  43  miles  S.  E.  of  Springfleld.  It 
is  in  a  coal-mining  region,  and  has  eonsideral)le  trade,  a  na- 
tional liank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  a  private  bank,  and  a 
dailv  and  two  weeklv  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  3,009  ;  (1890) 
5,077. 

Panaetlns  (in  Gr.  Umainos) :  Stoic  jiliilosopher  of  the 
second  century  B.  c. ;  friend  of  La'lius  and  Scipio  Af ricanus ; 
author  of  a  lost  work  On,  Duty  (irep!  toD  Ko^KonTot),  which 
forms  the  basis  of  Cicero's  De  officiis.  See  H.  N.  Fowler, 
Pancetii  fragmenfa  (1885).  B.  L.  G. 

Panama' :  a  department  of  Colombia,  including  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  to  the  confines  of  Costa  Rica  ;  area,  32,- 
380  sq.  miles.  About  half  the  territory,  principally  in  the 
middle  and  western  parts,  is  settled  ;  the  remainder  is 
peopled  only  by  a  few  roving  Indians.  The  grazing  in- 
dustry has  attained  some  importance  in  the  western  dis- 
tricts ;  agriculture  is  evei-ywhere  backward,  and  the  manu- 
factures are  insignificant.  Gold  is  mined  in  small  quanti- 
ties, and  coal  and  other  minerals  are  reported.  The  forests 
are  rich  in  cabinet  woods.  The  pearl-fisheries  of  tlie  Pacific 
coast  have  existed  since  the  conquest,  and  are  still  impor- 
tant. Panama  was  the  first  region  in  continental  America 
settled  by  Europeans  (see  Darien),  and  since  1535  it  has 
had  a  special  importance  owing  to  tlie  trade  across  the 
isthmus.  In  1698-1700  an  unsuccessful  attempt  was  made 
to  plant  a  Scotch  colony  on  San  Bias  Bay.  The  isthmus 
was  incorporated  with  the  vicerovaltv  of  New  Granada  in 
1718.  It  was  independent  from  1857'to  1860.  Pop.  (1885) 
315,000.    See  Panama,  Isthmus  of.  H.  H.  S. 

Panama :  capital  and  largest  city  of  the  department  of 
the  same  name  ;  on  the  soutliern  or  Pacific  side  of  the  isth- 
mus, at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Panama  ;  terminus  of  the 
Panama  Railway,  which  connects  it  with  Aspinwall  (see 
map  of  Central  America,  ref.  9-N).  It  is  the  oldest  city  of 
European  origin  in  continental  America,  having  been  found- 
ed by  Pedro  Arias  Davila  in  1519.  The  old  city,  6  miles 
S.  E.  of  the  present  one,  was  burned  by  the  buccaneer 
Henry  Morgan  in  1670.  and  is  now  marked  only  by  ruins. 
Panama  was  long  the  most  important  port  on  the  Pacific 
side  of  Spanish  America ;  the  trade  of  Peru,  Chili,  Central 
America,  and  a  portion  of  that  of  the  East  Indies,  centered 
here  :  and  there  was  a  regular  commerce  with  Spain  through 
the  Caribbean  ports  of  Nombre  de  Dios  and  Portobello. 
With  the  development  of  the  route  around  Cape  Horn,  and 
the  transference  of  much  of  the  Peruvian  trade  to  the  land 
route  through  New  Granada,  Panama  declined  in  impor- 
tance. The  completion  of  the  isthmian  railway  in  1855  gave 
it  a  new  impetus ;  but  it  has  suffered  greatly  from  revolu- 
tions and  from  destructive  fires.  The  modern  city  is  built 
on  a  rocky  peninsula.  There  is  no  proper  harbor  for  large 
vessels ;  the  anchorage,  11  miles  from  the  city,  is  partly 
protected  by  reefs  and  islands,  but  during  the  prevalence  of 
north  winds  it  is  inconvenient  and  sometimes  dangerous. 
Owing  to  the  force  of  the  tides,  which  rise  from  12  to  22 
feet,  landings  can  be  effected  with  safety  only  at  certain 
hours;  small  steamers  and  lighters  are  used  to  ti-ansfer  pas- 
sengers and  freight.  The  port  is  free,  and  besides  the  com- 
merce in  transit  there  is  a  considerable  trade  with  Central 
America  and  the  Pacific  ports  of  Colombia.  Among  the 
interesting  old  buildings  are  the  cathedral  (one  of  the 
largest  in  America),  convents,  the  palace  of  the  Audicncia, 
and  the  ancient  walls  and  fortifications,  which  were  of  great 
si rength.  The  climate  is  warm  and  damp,  but  more  health- 
ful than  that  of  other  parts  of  the  istlimus.  Poji.  (1893) 
about  35,000.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 


PANAMA,   ISTHMUS  OF 


PANCREAS 


417 


Panama.  Isthmus  of:  a  neck  of  land  connecting  North 
America  with  Soutli  America,  and  separating  the  Carib- 
l>ean  Sea  from  the  Pacilic  Ocean.  Broadly  speaking,  tlie 
isthmal  portion  of  tlie  ccpiitinent  includes  all  of  Central 
America  and  Southern  Mexico ;  but  the  name  is  generally 
restricted  to  the  narrow  portion  extending  from  the  Hay  of 
Chiricjui  to  the  river  Atrato.  lying  entirely  in  Colombia  and 
including  the  department  of  Panama,  with  a  small  portion 
of  Cauca.  It  extends  from  W.  to  K..  forming  a  double 
curve.  The  length  is  nearly  470  miles,  and  the  average 
wiilth  is  nearly  70  miles.  The  bays  of  Panama  and  San 
Miguel  on  the"  S.,  and  of  Chiriijui  and  Uraba  on  the  N., 
form  three  minor  constrictions  which  bear  distinctive  names. 
Beginning  at  the  W.,  the  Isthmus  of  Chiriqui,  opposite  the 
bay  of  that  name,  has  a  minimum  width  of  about  4.5  miles. 
Bevond  this  the  neck  is  broadened  to  US  miles  by  the 
Az'uero  Peninsula  on  the  S.  The  Bay  of  Panama  reduces 
it  to  31  miles  opposite  the  Bay  of  San  Bias,  or  about  3.5 
miles  between  Paiuima  and  Aspinwall ;  this  is  known  as  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  proper,  or  of  San  Bias.  The  Isthmus 
of  Darien  (a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  neck)  is 
nroperlv  the  portion  between  the  Gulfs  of  Uraba  and  San 
Miguel," :!.5  miles  in  minimum  width.  An  irregular  moun- 
tain chain,  the  Cordillera  de  Baudo,  runs  the  whole  length 
of  the  isthmus,  generally  near  the  northern  coast ;  westward 
it  has  volcanic  peaks  said  to  be  over  7.000  feet  high  ;  but 
eastward  it  subsides  to  a  range  of  hills,  with  passes  less 
than  400  feet  above  sea-level.  Humboldt's  theory  that  this 
range  formed  a  contimialion  of  the  Andes  has  not  been 
contirmed  by  later  explorations.  It  is  separated  from  the 
Andes  by  the  valley  of  the  river  Atrato,  which  forms  the 
true  limit  of  the  South  American  continent ;  the  head  of 
the  Atrato  is  separated  from  the  Pacific  only  by  low  hills, 
and  the  region  between  the  river  and  the  ocean  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  part  of  the  isthmus.  The  coasts  of  the  isthmus 
are  generally  low,  swampy,  hot,  and  often  very  insalubrious ; 
there  are  numerous  fringing  islets  and  larger  outlying  islaixls, 
especially  on  the  Pacific  side.  Many  small  rivers  descend  to 
both  coasts.  On  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Cordillera  there 
are  considerable  tracts  of  natural  grassland  :  all  the  rest  of 
the  surface,  where  uncleared,  is  covered  with  matted  forest. 
Uains  are  very  abundant  during  nine  months  of  the  year, 
with  frequent  violent  thunder-storms.  The  dry  months  are 
February,  March,  and  April ;  from  August  to  October  the 
heat  is  very  great,  except  in  the  mountains.  Balboa,  who 
first  established  the  existence  of  the  isthmus  in  151H,  crossed 
it  in  the  part  known  as  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  The  diffi- 
culties of  this  route,  and  of  that  opposite  the  Bay  of  Chiri- 
qui, early  led  to  their  abandonment  in  favor  of  the  easier 
road  from  Panama,  by  the  valley  of  the  river  Chagres. 
This  has  continueil  to  be  the  ordinary  route  across  the 
isthmus,  and  it  attained  a  new  importance  during  the  early 
rush  for  the  California  gold-fields.  Here  the  Panama  Rail- 
way (opened  in  18.55)  crosses  by  a  pass  only  363  feet  above 
tide-water ;  and  it  was  the  route  chosen  for  the  Panama 
ship-canal.     See  Ship-uanals.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Panama  Ship-caiial  :  See  Ship-canals. 

Pan-American  Congress:  a  conference  of  representa- 
tives of  the  U.  S.  and  tln>  republics  of  Mexico,  Central  and 
South  America,  Haiti,  San  Domingo,  and  the  empire  of 
Brazil,  helil  at  Washington  for  the  purpose  of  discussing 
and  recommending  mejisures  to  regulate  and  improve  the 
international  relations,  business  intercouree,  and  means  of 
direct  communication  between  these  cotintries.  It  was  sum- 
moned in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  an  act  of  the 
U.  S.  Congress  of  May  24.  IHSS,  und  met  at  Washington 
Oct.  2,  1889,  but  in  consequence  of  the  invitation  of  the 
U.  S.  Government  to  the  delegates  of  the  congress  to  visit 
different  parts  of  the  U.  S.  before  entering  upon  their  labors, 
it  adjourned  to  Nov.  18,  1889,  when  it  began  its  regular  sit- 
tings. The  idea  of  such  a  congress  was  not  new.  Henry 
Clay's  scheme  for  a  Panama  cungress  comprised  several 
features  of  the  later  plan,  but  was  never  curried  out.  To 
James  G.  Blaine  more  thim  to  any  one  else  was  due  the  as- 
sembling of  such  a  body.  Among  the  subjects  discussed  by 
the  congress,  without  definite  results,  were  the  establish- 
ment of  an  international  bank,  the  protection  of  copyrights 
and  patent  rights,  the  granting  of  subsidies  to  steamship 
companies,  and  the  adoption  of  an  extradition  treaty. 
Amimg  the  measures  which  the  congress  voted  to  recom- 
mend to  the  various  governments  for  adoption  were  a  uni- 
form system  of  weights  and  measures,  a  uniform  commercial 
coinage,  and  a  common  method  of  legalizing  documents. 
311 


Another  important  recommendation  of  the  congress  was 
that  reciprocity  treaties  be  adopted  between  the  represented 
states.     It  adjourned  Apr.  19,  1890. 

Panard,  pa'a  naar',  Charles  Fraxi^ois  :  song-writer;  b. 
at  Courville,  near  Chartres,  France,  Nov.  4,  1094;  went  early 
to  Paris,  where  he  became  a  Government  clerk.  Pos.sessed 
of  a  great  facility  in  rhyming,  he  composed  more  than  eight 
hundred  songs  and  vaudevilles.  These  were  mainly  impro- 
vised, written  only  on  odd  scraps  of  paper  if  written  at  all, 
and  sung  at  a  tavern  for  the  <lelight  of  his  companions. 
Tliey  are  gay.  light,  and  seldom  coarse  pictures  of  the  man- 
ners of  the  time  in  a  vein  of  good-humored  satire,  and  are 
masterpieces  of  their  kind.  Only  part  of  them  were  collect- 
ed in  T/iedIre  et  CEuvres  diverscx  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1764)  and 
(Etivrex  c/ioisies  de  Panard,  published  by  A.  Gouile  {3  vols., 
Paris,  1803).     D.  June  13,  1765.  "  A.  G.  Cakfield. 

Fanas,  Photixos,  M.  D.  :  ophthalmologist ;  b.  in  Ceph- 
alonia,  one  of  the  Ionian  islands,  Jan.  30,  1832  ;  graduated 
M.  D.  at  the  School  of  JIe<licine  in  Paris  in  1860;  settled 
in  Paris  and  was  naturalized  as  a  citizen  ;  in  1863  was  made 
an  associate  professor  and  surgeon  to  the  Central  Bureau  ; 
was  appointed  ophthalmic  surgeon  to  the  Bicetre  Hospital 
in  1864.  to  the  Lourcine  and  the  Midi  hospitals  in  1865, 
to  the  St.  Anloine  and  St.  Louis  hospitals  in  1868,  to  the 
Lariboisiere  Hospital  in  1872,  and  to  the  Hotel  Dieu  in  1879 ; 
in  1879  he  was  appointed  professor  of  ophthalmology.  He 
has  published  many  papers  on  subjects  connected  with  his 
specialty  in  medical  journals,  and  he  is  the  author  of  a 
number  of  works,  among  the  most  important  of  which  are  : 
Lerons  siir  le  sirabisiiif.  Its  parali/situ  oriilaires.  etc.  (Paris, 
(1873) ;  LeQons  sur  les  keratites,  etc.  (1876) ;  Lefons  sur  les 
affections  de  I'appareil  lacrymal,  etc.  (1877) ;  Legons  sur  les 
retinites  (1878).  S.  T.  Armstro.vo. 

Panchatantra  [Sanskr..  having  five  books  or  sections] : 
an  ancient  Sanskrit  collection  of  fables  and  tales,  of  ethico- 
didactic  purpose.  The  form  of  the  teaching  bears  much  re- 
semblance to  that  of  the  Buddhists,  as  exemplified  in  the 
Jataka.  The  substance  of  the  work  is  neither  specifically 
Brahmanic  nor  Buddhistic,  but  rather,  in  general.  Indie. 
The  date  of  the  extant  form  of  the  work  is  uncertain.  The 
Panchatantra,  or  perhaps  rather  the  earlier  but  now  lost 
original  thereof,  has  had  a  most  remarkable  history,  and 
been  transmitted  through  translations  and  translations  of 
translations,  sometimes  under  the  name  of  the  Fables  of 
Pitpay,  to  almost  all  the  peoples  of  Europe.  The  first 
known  translation  was  the  one  into  Pahlavi,  about  550  a.  d. 
Among  the  most  notable  are  the  Syriac  version,  Kalilag 
and  Damnag  (570  a.  d.),  text  and  translation  by  Bickell 
(Leipzig,  1876);  the  Ar.abic.  edited  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy 
(Paris,  1816);  Duke  Eberhard's  Buch  der  Beisjnele.  of  mar- 
velous popularity  between  1483  and  1592 ;  and  Doni's  La 
moral  Jilosophia  {Yemce,  1.552):  of  special  interest  as  the 
immediate  source  of  the  first  English  version,  that  by  Sir 
Thomas  North  (London,  1370).  The  last  has  been  rei)rinted 
by  Joseph  Jacobs  (London,  1888),  under  the  title  The  Fables 
oJf'Bidijai,v,'Hh  an  introiluction.  Text  edition  by  Kielhorn 
and  Buhler  (Bombay,  1885.  1891).  Translations  into  Ger- 
man by  Benfey,  with  famous  introduction  (Leipzig,  1859), 
and  by  Fritze"  (Leipzig,  1884);  into  French  by  Lancereau 
(Paris,  1871).  For  an  account  of  the  history  of  the  work, 
see  Lanman,  Sanskrit  Meatier,  pp.  311-316.  or  Jacobs's  in- 
troduction. C.  R.  Lanman. 

Paneoast,  Joseph,  M.  D.  :  surgeon  ;  b.  in  Burlington  co., 
N.  J.,  Nov.  23,  1805 ;  took  his  medical  degree  at  the  L^ni- 
versity  of  Pennsylvania  in  1828 ;  became,  in  1831,  an  in- 
structor in  anatomy  and  surgery ;  surgeon  to  the  Philadel- 
phia Hospital  18:38-45;  Professor  of  Surgery  1838,  and  of 
Anatomy  1861-74,  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Phila- 
delphia." He  invented  a  number  of  new  surgical  operations; 
])ublished  Operatice  Siiryery,  Fsxays  and  Lectures,  and 
other  works;  edited  various  rei>rints  and  translations  of 
Euroiiean  works,  and  was  author  of  many  professional  pa- 
pers; and  member  of  various  learned  societies.  D.  in  Phila- 
delphia. Mar.  7.  1882.  Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Pancreas,  or  Sweethread  [pancreas  is  from  Gr.  wiyKpeas, 
sweetbread  :  iraj.  vdii,  all  -I-  Kptas.  flesh] :  a  gland  which  in 
the  human  being  is  found  liehind  the  stomach,  extend- 
ing across  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  weighs  from  2  to  6 
oz.,  though  it  seldom  exceeds  5.  A  small  posterior  part 
(lesser  pancreas)  is  sometimes  detached.  The  right  extrem- 
ity is  callcil  the  head,  the  left  the  tail,  and  the  rest  the 
body.     In  the  octopus,  a  mollusc,  the  pancreas  is  a  long. 


418 


PANCREATIN 


PANORPATA 


convoluteil,  single  Ciccuin.  In  other  mollusks  it  is  either 
absent  or  rudimentary.  Some  insects  have  analogous  or- 
gans. (Siebold.)  The  pancreas  of  the  cod  is  a  cluster  of 
OKcal  follicles  ;  in  the  higher  cartilaginous  fishes  a  number 
of  such  clusters  are  bound  together  into  a  glandular  mass, 
with  several  distinct  excretory  ducts.  In  the  higher  verte- 
brates there  is  sometimes  but  one  duct  (the  canal  of  Wir- 
sung),  but  there  are  very  often  two  even  in  man.  In  the 
human  subject  the  larger  canal  usually  unites  with  the 
common  eholedie  duct.  The  minute  structure  and  gen- 
eral aspect  of  the  pancreas  resemble  those  of  the  salivary 
glands.  The  secretirm  of  the  gland  (called  the  pancreatic 
juice)  is  normallv  alkaline,  viscid,  and  coagulable  by  heat. 
It  is  secreted  iii  abundance  only  during  digestion.  Its 
specific  gravity,  according  to  Bernard  (who  derived  his 
specimens  generallv  from  the  dog  by  artificial  fistuUe),  is 
1-040.  It  contains"  the  principle  Pancreatin  (q.  v.),  with 
other  organic  matters,  and  from  6  to  10  parts  in  1,000  of 
ash.  It  is  probable  that  it  does  not  normally  acidify  the 
fats  of  the  food,  although  it  does  so  in  the  test-tube. 

Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 
Pancreatin  :  an  extract  derived  from  the  pancreas.  It 
should  contain  the  four  pancreatic  ferments  :  trypsin,  whicli 
digests  proteids ;  steapsin,  which  splits  up  and  emulsifies 
fat ;  amylo[isin,  which  converts  starch  into  sugar ;  and  a 
milk-curdling  ferment.  It  is  by  far  the  most  important 
and  most  useful  of  the  digestive  ferments,  either  when  ad- 
ministered by  the  physician  or  wlien  acting  in  the  secretion 
of  the  pancreas  of  the  individual,  and  is  used  for  the  purpose 
of  peptonizing  foods.     See  Peptonized  Food.       H.  A.  H. 

Panda :  See  Ailurus. 

Pandects :  See  Roman  Law. 

Pando'ra  [=  Ijat.=  Gr.  TlavStipa.  liter.,  all-gifted;  irSs,  all 
+  Supoi',  gift] :  in  the  old  Greek  legend,  the  first  woman  on 
earth,  sent  by  Zeus  to  mankind  in  vengeance  for  Prome- 
theus's  theft  of  the  heavenly  fire.  Aphrodite  gave  her 
beauty,  Hermes  cunning,  and  each  of  the  gods  bestowed  on 
her  some  fatal  gift  for  the  punishment  of  mankind  (Hesiod, 
Works  and  Days,  43-104).  Again,  it  is  said  that  the  gods 
gave  her  a  box  full  of  blessings  for  mankind,  but,  proiniited 
by  curiosity,  she  opened  the  box,  and  all  the  blessings  flew 
away  except  hope.  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Paneas :  See  Cbsarea  Philippi. 

Pangenesis  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  tra^.  irav.  all  -i-  yeuea-is,  produc- 
tion] :  a  theory  of  reproduction  propounded  by  Darwin  in 
his  Animals  and  Plants  tinder  Domestication,  and  best 
given  in  his  own  words:  "It  is  universally  admitted  that 
the  cells  or  units  of  the  body  increase  by  self-division  or 
proliferation,  retaining  the  same  nature,  and  that  they 
ultimately  become  converted  into  the  various  tissues  and 
substances  of  the  body.  But  besides  this  means  of  increase 
I  assume  that  the  units  throw  off  mmute  granules  which 
are  dispersed  throughout  the  whole  system  ;  that  these, 
when  supplied  with  proper  nutriment,  multiply  by  self-divi- 
sion, and  are  ultimately  developed  into  units  like  those  from 
which  they  were  originally  derived.  These  granules  may 
be  called  gemmules.  They  are  collected  from  all  parts  of 
the  system  to  constitute  the  sexual  elements,  and  their  de- 
velopment in  the  next  generation  forms  a  new  being ;  but 
they  are  likewise  capable  of  transmission  in  a  dormant  state 
to  future  generations,  and  may  then  be  developed.  Their 
development  depends  on  their  union  with  other  partially  de- 
veloped or  nascent  cells  which  precede  them  in  the  regular 
course  of  growth.  .  .  .  Gemmules  are  supposed  to  be  thrown 
off  by  every  unit,  not  only  during  the  adult  state,  but  dur- 
ing each  stage  of  development  of  every  organism  ;  but  not 
necessarily  during  the  continued  existence  of  the  same  unit. 
Lastly  I  assume  that  the  gemmules  in  their  dormant  state 
have  a  mutual  affinity  for  each  other,  leading  to  their  ag- 
gregation into  buds  or  into  the  sexual  elements.  Hence  it 
is  not  the  reproductive  organs  or  buds  which  generate  new 
organisms,  but  the  units  of  which  each  individual  is  com- 
posed." F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pan'goHn  [from  Malay  pnngulang] :  a  common  name 
synonymous  with  J[ani.s,  for  any  member  of  the  Wanidid.-e 
(q.  v.). 

Panicalc,  pa1i-n("e-kaa'la,  Masolino,  da:  painter;  b.  at 
Valdesa,  Italy,  in  VAIX.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Lorenzo  Ghi- 
berti,  and  in  early  youth  was  an  excellent  goldsmith  and 
engraver.  At  nineteen  he  gave  himself  up  to  painting  and 
studied  under  Stamina  for  a  while,  then  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  painted  a  room  for  the  Orsini  family.     On  his  re- 


turn to  Florence  he  painted  at  the  Carmine  a  figure  of  St. 
Peter  beside  the  Ch.apel  of  the  Crucifix.  This  work  was  so 
much  praised  that  the  Brancacci  chapel  was  intrusted  to 
him  to  adorn  with  subjects  from  the  life  of  St.  Peter.  He 
is  reported  to  have  died  in  Hungary  in  1415. 

Panic,  Commercial :  See  Commercial  Crises. 

Paniui :  the  greatest  of  Sanskrit  grammarians.  His  date 
is  uncertain,  but  is  probably  to  be  set  several  centuries  be- 
fore Christ.  He  is  believed  to  have  been  born  in  the  ex- 
treme N.  W.  of  India,  at  (J"alatura,  near  Attock  on  the  In- 
dus. He  had  doubtless  many  predecessors,  but  his  own 
work  attained  an  authority  which  made  it  powerful  in 
sha|)ing  the  language  of  the  later  Sanskrit  literature.  It  is 
composed  in  a  style  of  enigmatical  brevity,  and  its  point  of 
view  is  wholly  different  from  ours.  The  principal  Occi- 
dental work  upon  Panini  is  by  Bohtlingk  (2  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1886-87),  with  text,  translation,  explanations,  indices,  etc. 

C.  R.  Lanman. 

Paniz'zi,  Sir  Antonio,  K.  C.  B.  :  librarian ;  b.  at  Bresoello, 
in  the  duchy  of  Modena,  Sept.  16,  1797;  took  his  university 
degree  at  I'arma  in  1818:  was  implicated  in  the  revolution- 
ary plot  of  1821  and  obliged  to  flee ;  after  spending  some 
years  on  the  Continent  and  in  England  was  offered  the  pro- 
fessorship of  Italian  in  University  College,  London  ;  in  1831 
became  an  assistant  in  the  British  Museum  ;  in  1837  was 
appointed  keeper  of  printed  books,  and  in  18.56  succeeded 
Sir  Henry  Ellis  as  principal  librarian.  He  reorganized  the 
library,  planned  the  catalogue,  and  designed  the  new  library 
building.  His  most  important  literary  works  are  critical 
editions  of  Orlando  Innamorato  and  Orlando  Furioso  (Lon- 
don, 1830-34)  and  Sonetti  e  Canzoni  (London,  1835).  D.  in 
London,  Apr.  8,  1879. 

Panjab :  See  Punjaub. 

Panmixia :  See  Evolution. 

Panno'nia:  province  of  the  Roman  empire;  lying  be- 
tween the  Danube  and  the  Alps  ;  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the 
Danube,  which  separated  it  from  Germania  and  Dacia,  S. 
by  the  Save,  which  separated  it  from  Illyria,  and  W.  by  the 
mountains  of  Noricum.  It  was  conquered  and  made  a 
Roman  province  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  100  years 
later  was  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Pannonia.  Fre- 
quent rebellions  compelled  the  Romans  to  build  a  large 
number  of  fortresses  in  the  country,  of  which  Vindobona, 
the  present  Vienna,  was  the  most  remarkable,  and  to  keep 
large  garrisons  in  the  cities.  During  the  decline  of  the 
Roman  empire,  Pannonia  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Huns, 
and  from  them  it  passed  successively  to  the  Ostrogoths, 
Longobards,  and  Slavs,  till,  in  the  ninth  century,  the  Mag- 
yars settled  on  it  and  kept  it. 

Pannus :  See  Granular  Lids. 

Panopolis (Egypt.  Khemmis:  now  Ekhmim,  or  Akhmim) : 
one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Egypt;  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Nile  (26°  36'  N.  lat.).  It  contained  one  of  the  principal 
sanctuaries  for  the  priapian  worship  of  Min  (whom  the 
Greeks  identified  with  Pan).  The  local  ruins  are  disap- 
pointing and  are  falling  into  rapid  decay.  A  necropolis, 
discovered  by  Maspero  in  1884,  furnished  many  mummies 
and  other  antiquities,  some  of  them  going  back  to  the  sixth 
dynasty.  It  is  now  a  thriving  town  containing  10,000  in- 
habitants. Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Panormita'nus :  the  common  surn.ame  of  the  great 
canonist  Nicholas  de  Tudesehis  ;  b.  at  Catania,  in  Sicily,  in 
1386  ;  entered  the  Benedictine  order  in  1400 ;  studied  canon 
law  at  Bologna,  and  afterward  taught  it  with  eminent  suc- 
cess at  Siena,  Parma,  and  Bologna.  In  1425  he  was  made 
auditor  of  the  Rota  and  referendarius  aposfolicus  by  Mar- 
tin v.,  who  also  gave  him  the  abbey  of  Maviacum,  in  the 
diocese  of  Messina.  In  1427,  however,  he  entered  the  serv- 
ice of  King  Alfonso  of  Sicily,  whom  he  represented  at  the 
Council  of  Basel.  In  1440  he  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Felix 
V.  D.  at  Palermo  in  1445.  His  commentaries  on  the  de- 
cretals of  Gregory  X.  and  on  the  Clementines,  as  well  as  his 
QiKPntiones,  Cunsilia,  and  other  treatises  on  canon  law,  were 
considered  authoritative  by  his  contemporaries  and  nearest 
successors,  and  were  quoted  as  such  even  by  Mclanchthon. 
They  appeared  in  a  collected  edition  at  Venice  (9  vols., 
1617).  See  Schulte's  Oeschichte  der  Quellen  des  cunonischen 
Rechts  (2  vols.,  1877). 

Panormns :  See  Palermo. 

Pan()ri>a'ta  (Panorpa.  a  generic  name)  :  an  order  of 
insects  frecjueiitly  called  Mecaptera  (see  Entomology),  in 


PAX-I'KESBYTERIAN   COrNClI. 


PANTOGRAPH 


419. 


whii-h  there  is  a  complete  metamorphosis,  jaws  fitted  for 
biting  jihiced  at  tlie  end  of  a  beak-lil<e  prolonjiation  of  the 
liead,  an<l  two  similar  membranous  wiiifjs  witli  few  cross 
veins.  These  forms  were  formerly  included  in  the  Xeurop- 
tera,  but  their  larva-  are  more  like  those  of  the  Lepidoptera, 
beini,'  caterpillar-like,  the  abdomen  beinj;  furnished  with 
eifjlit  pairs  of  lleshy  legs.  The  scorpion-tiies  (Panorpa)  are 
tlic  most  aliundant" members  of  the  order.  They  derive  the 
common  name  from  the  fact  that  the  end  of  the  abdomen  of 
the  male  bears  some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  scorpion, 
but  in  reality  it  is  furnished  not  with  a  sting,  but  with  a 
pair  of  clasjiing  organs.  Jioreus  contains  the  snowflies, 
brown  or  blackish  forms  found  on  the  snow  in  the  entire 
winter.  All  of  the  Panorpata,  so  far  as  known,  are  carniv- 
orous. J-  S.  KiNGSLKV. 

Pan- Presbyterian  Council :  See  Presbyterian  Cuurcu 
and  Alliance  ok  tue  Kefoemed  Churches. 

Pansy :  See  Violet. 

Pantellaria,  piln-tel-laa-reeaa :  a  small  island  between 
Africa  and  Sicily,  in  the  Strait  of  Sicily;  included  in  the 
Italian  province  of  Trapani.  Area,  58  sq.  miles.  The  soil 
is  volcanic  and  well  suited  to  the  vine,  the  caper-plant,  and 
to  cotton,  all  of  which  are  cultivated.  The  mineral  springs 
have  some  reputation.  The  principal  town,  of  the  same 
name,  is  on  the  northwest  coast.  The  island,  anciently 
called  Cosyra.  was  used  by  Roman  emperors  as  a  place  of 
banishment  for  offenders.     Pop.  8,000. 

Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Pan'theism  :  a  word  first  used  by  Toland  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century  to  designate  absolute  mon- 
ism;  the  identification  of  the  totality  of  being  with  God. 
See  the  article  God. 

Pan'tlieon,  or  Panthe'on,  Tlie  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  Trii/0iiov 
(sc.  Up6v,  temple),  temple  dedicated  to  all  the  gods,  liter., 
neut.  of  Triv9iiot,  of  or  belonging  to  all  the  gods,  iras,  all  -4- 
9(6s,  god]  :  the  most  perfectly  preserved  and  one  of  the 
most  admired  structures  of  ancient  Rome ;  situated  in  the 
Campus  Martius  (Piazza  della  Kotonda),  and  now  used  as  a 
Christian  church,  St.  Maria  Rotonda.  The  building  proper 
consists  of  a  cylinder  142+  feet  in  interior  diameter,  sur- 
mounted by  a  hemispherical  dome  of  same  height  above  the 
floor.  The"  walls  of  the  structure  are  of  concrete  faced  with 
brick,  and  are  about  20  feet  thick.  In  these  there  are  alter- 
nating semicircular  and  square  niches,  seven  in  number,  in 
addition  to  the  opening  for  the  door.  The  recess  opposite 
the  door  contained  originally  a  statue  of  Cajsar,  flanked  on 
either  hand  by  statues  of  Mars  and  Venus.  The  remaining 
niches  contained  statues  of  gods,  but  their  names  have  not 
been  preserved.  The  building  is  lighted  by  a  single  open- 
ing in  the  center  of  the  dome  nearly  30  feet  in  diameter. 
Before  the  entrance  opening  there  is  a  pronaos  or  portico 
52  feet  deep  and  114  feet  in  width,  which  is  faced  by  eight 
columns  bearing  an  architrave  with  the  inscription,  J/. 
Agrippa  L.  f.  cos.  lerliiim  fecit  (constructed  by  Marcus 
Agrippa,  son  of  Lucius,  in  his  third  consulship,  i.  e.  27  n.  c). 
Anotner  inscription  in  the  building  attests  that  it  was  re- 
stored by  Severiis  and  Caracalla  in  203  A.  u.  It  was  trans- 
formed into  a  Christian  church  in  607  a.  d. 

There  is  no  building  at  Rome  which  presents  so  many 
perplexing  and  ballling  problems  of  an  historical  as  well  as 
an  architectural  character,  and  it  has  appropriately  been 
called  the  Sphinx  of  the  Campus  Martius.  Even  the  pur- 
pos(^  for  which  it  was  originally  intended  has  been  a  mat- 
ter of  dispute,  many  archa'ologists  contending  that  it  was 
originally  designed  for  a  warm  bath  (rtiliihiritnii)  in  eon- 
ni^ction  with  the  adjacent  baths  of  Agrippa,  and  that  its 
use  as  a  temple  was  an  afterthought,  occasioning  the  addi- 
tion of  th('  pronaos.  This  was  argued  partly  from  the  form 
of  the  main  structure  and  partly  from  the  fact  that  the 
pronaos  does  not  either  in  design  or  execution  fit  the  edifice 
ijehind  it.  Later  discoveries,  however,  have  thrown  much 
light  on  these  problems.  That  the  whole  edifice  dated  from 
the  Augustan  period,  in  accordance  with  the  evidence  of  the 
inscription  on  the  architrave,  was  almost  universally  be- 
lieved up  to  the  winter  of  1891-92,  when  some  necessary  re- 
pairs of  the  dome  gave  an  opportunity  for  more  thorough 
investigation  than  had  been  possible  since  the  restoration 
of  1747.  At  this  time  a  French  architect,  Chedanne.  found 
that  all  of  the  bricks,  made  visible  by  the  repairs  in  prog- 
ress, bore  the  stamp  of  brick-makers  from  the  time  of  Ha- 
drian. Other  porlions  of  the  huilding  were  then  examined, 
and  it  was  established  beyond  question  that  the  whole  struc- 


ture, with  perhaps  the  exception  of  the  pronaos,  dates  from 
the  reign  of  Hadrian  and  probably  from  the  years  120-124 
A.  D.  Further  investigation  in  the  floor  revealed  two  pave- 
ments below  the  present  surface,  the  lower  one  doubtless  be- 
ing the  floor  of  the  original  Pantheon  of  Agrippa,  the  inter- 
mediate one  belonging  probably  to  the  restoration  of  Do- 
initian.  Excavations  beneath  the  floor  of  the  portico  re- 
vealed at  a  level  corresponding  to  the  lower  floor  within 
the  edifice  foundations  for  a  larger  portico,  with  places  for 
ten  instead  of  eight  columns.  These  facts  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  present  portico  belonged  originally  to  a 
building  of  different  character  (perhaps  rectangular,  as  l.an- 
ciani  suggests),  and.  having  escaped  the  destruction  which 
befell  the  original  Pantheon  of  Agrippa,  was  removed  from 
its  site  and  with  some  alterations,  placed  back  upon  the 
present  level  by  Hadrian. 

Literature. — \i.\MXKia.m.,New  Fads  concerning  the  Pan- 
theon (in  Atlantic  Montlily.  June,  1893);  E.  Guillaume,  Le 
Pantlieon  d'Ayrippa  (in  Heme,  des  l)eii:r  Mondes.  Aug., 
1892) ;  A.  Miehaelis,  Bas  Pantheon  (Preussische  .fahrbiiclier, 
1893),  pp.  208-224  ;  and  especially  C'h.  lliilsen's  review  of 
the  investigations  in  vol.  viii.  (189.3),  fasc.  4,  [ip.  305-318,  of 
the  Mittheilungen  des  k.  deutschen  Archdologischen  Inati- 
tuts.  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Panther  [from  0.  Pr.  panlhere  <  Lat.  panthe'ra,  from 
Gr.  irdi/flTip] :  a  name  originally  applied  to  the  Old  World 
leopard  (Felis  pardus;  L.),  but  in  the  U.  S.  used  for  the 
puma  (Felis  concolor). 

Pantograph  [Gn  ttSs,  iroi'Tfrs.  all,  every  +  ypa(pfty,  write] : 
an  instrument  used  in  copying  maps  and  other  drawings, 
either  on  the  same  or  on  some  other  scale. 

The  principle  of  the  panto- 
graph may  be  illustrated  by 
the  engraving,  which  shows 
the  essential  parts  of  the  in- 
strument in  common  use.  It 
consists  essentially  of  four 
brass  bars  with  hinge- joints  at 
B  F  D  and  E,  forming  a  rhom- 
bus B  F  D  E  in  every  position. 
The  sides  B  P  and"  B  E  are 
extended  so  that  F  C  and  E  K 
shall  each  be  equal  to  one 
side  of  the  rhombus.  The 
parts  E  K  and  E  D  are  grad- 
uated and  numbered  so  that  a  line  A  G  through  two  corre- 
sponding divisions  shall  ahvavs  pass  through  C.  This  requires 
the  graduation  to  be  such  that  E  A  :  E  (i  : :  B  A  :  B  C.  The 
whole  apparatus  is  suiiported  by  delicately  formed  castors. 
Three  boxes,  each  fitted  to  hold  either  a  pencil  or  a  metallic 
tracing-point,  are  fitted  to  the  beams,  the  one  at  C  being 
fixed,  and  those  at  A  and  G  capable  of  sliding  along  the 
beams,  so  that  they  may  be  set  at  corresponding  points  of 
the  bars  E  K  and  E  D.  From  the  description  already  given, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  three  points  A  G  and  C  will  always 
remain  in  the  same  straight  line,  and  that  we  shall  ahvavs 
have  A  G  :  A  C  :  G  C  : :  A  E  :  A  B  :  E  B  ;  hence  if  either  "of 
these  points  is  taken  as  a  center  of  motion,  the  other  two 
will  trace  out  similar  figures,  whose  homologous  lines  bear 
to  each  other  a  fixed  ratio. 

To  use  the  instrument,  the  boxes  A  and  G  are  clamped  to 
the  bars,  so  that  A  G  and  GC  shall  have  the  proper  ratio, 
both  being  at  corresponding  points  of  the  graduated  scales. 
A  metallic  tracing-point  is  then  clamped  in  the  box  C,  which 
is  taken  as  the  center  of  motion;  a  second  tracing-point  is 
clamped  in  the  box  corresponding  to  the  drawing  to  be 
copied  ;  and  a  pencil  is  clampeil  in  the  remaining  box;  the 
tracing-points  and  the  pencil  are  all  arranged  so  as  to  press 
with  proper  firmness  against  the  plane  of  the  paper.  When 
thus  adjusted,  the  movable  tracing-point  is  carried  along 
the  lines  to  be  copied,  and  the  pencil  traces  out  a  similar 
figure.  If  the  movable  tracing-point  is  at  G,  the  copy  is 
larger  than  the  original:  if  at  A,  the  copy  is  smaller  than 
the  original.  If  G  is  taken  as  the  center  of  motion,  the 
movable  tracing-point  and  the  pencil  being  at  A  and  C,  the 
copy  will  be  reversed.  In  this  manner  the  engraver  is  en- 
abled to  transfer  the  outlines  of  a  drawing  to  the  surface  of 
the  block  or  plate  to  be  engraved,  ami  either  enlarge  or  di- 
minish it  in  any  given  ratio.  If  the  box  A  is  at  K  and  the 
box  G  at  I),  the  copy  will  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  original, 
but  reversed.  By  copying  the  reversed  drawing  with  the 
same  relation  of  parts,  a  result  will  be  obtained  equal  in  all 
respects  to  the  original. 


420 


PANTOMIME 


PAPAL   STATES 


The  pantograph  just  explained  was  invented  in  1603  by 
Christopher  Selieiner,  and  was  described  by  him  in  a  pam- 
phlet published  in  1623.  A  more  perfect  instrument  for  ac- 
complishing the  same  object  was  invented  by  Prof.  Wallace, 
of  Edinburgh ;  but  as  enlargements  and  reductions  can  now 
be  made  with  more  exactness  and  ease  by  photography,  there 
is  not  so  much  use  for  the  pantograph  as  formerly. 

Pan'tomime  [via  Fr.  and  Lat.  from  Gr.  Travritu/xoi.  pan- 
tomimic actor,  liter.,  all-imitating ;  irSs.  ttui/tSs.  all  +  ixifiuaBai, 
imitate,  mimic] :  the  art  of  representing  thought,  sentiment, 
will,  and  action  by  mimicry  only,  by  attitude,  gesture,  and 
movement.  It  is  a  Roman  invention  (though  the  name  is 
Greek),  and  originated  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  The  Ro- 
mans, who  had  more  practical  aeuteness  than  imagination, 
had  also  more  sense  for  virtuosity  than  for  art.  They  seized 
on  each  single  element  of  the  representation  and  enjoyed  it 
separately,  the  declamation  through  an  elocutionist,  the 
mimical  "expression  through  a  pantomimist,  the  dance  as  a 
ballet,  and  the  music  as  a  concert.  Of  the  old  Roman  afel- 
laiue,  a  sort  of  improvised  comedy  performed  at  the  festivals 
of  the  nobles  by  their  own  sons  and  for  the  sake  of  amuse- 
ment only,  the  mimical  imitation  of  what  was  awkward  and 
ridiculous  and  the  display  of  bodily  adroitness  and  skill 
formed  the  principal  part.  In  the  last  years  of  the  republic 
these  ateUan(B  received  an  artistic  form  through  the  mimes 
of  Decimus  Laberius  and  Publius  Syrus.  The  mime  was  an 
imitation  of  everyday  life,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  mod- 
ern comedy ;  but  although  the  speech  was  written  down  and 
often  elaborated  with  the  greatest  care,  the  acting  or  the 
mimical  representation  was  still  considered  a  most  essential 
element.  In  general,  mimical  expression  and  imitation  were 
highly  appreciated  by  the  Romans.  Cicero  and  Roscius  vied 
with  each  other  as  to  who  could  express  a  certain  state  of 
mind  best,  the  one  with  his  eloquence,  the  other  with  his 
mimicry ;  and  under  Augustus  the  pantomime  became  the 
reigning  fashion.  Pylades  and  Hylas  were  celebrated  pan- 
tomimists  in  the  tragical  line,  Bathyllus  in  the  comical ;  and 
of  the  rivalry  between  the  first  two,  who  danced  Agumemnon 
and  CEdipus,  Maerobius  tells  some  very  amusing  stories. 
Not  only  in  public  life,  however,  in  the  theater,  but  also  in 
private  "life,  at  the  dinner-party,  the  pantomime  played  a 
very  conspicuous  part  during  the  time  of  the  first  Roman 
emperors.  The  social  position  of  the  jiantomimist  was  nev- 
ertheless very  low.  Hylas  was  flogged  publicly,  at  the  prie- 
tor's  request,  on  account  of  some  blunder  he  had  made  on 
the  stage.  Augustus  forbade  such  interference  of  the  prae- 
tor with  the  actors,  but  under  Tiberius  it  became  a  law  that 
a  senator  who  visited  the  dwelling  of  a  pantomimist  or  was 
«cen  in  his  company  in  the  streets  should  lose  his  senator- 
ship.  The  reason  for  thus  throwing  contempt  on  a  class  of 
artists  who  happened  to  be  very  fashionable  was  not  the  old 
Roman  prejudice  against  actors  and  acting,  but  the  charac- 
ter of  the  art  itself.  The  obscenity  and  indecency  which 
these  pantomimes  displayed  exceeded  all  description;  that 
the  female  pantomimist  often  danced  entirely  naked  on  the 
stage  was  not  the  worst  feature.  At  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire  this,  like  all  the  other  arts,  decayed  and  lost  its 
former  prestige.  It  did  not  perish,  however;  and  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that  during  the  whole  mediaeval  period 
pantomimists  continued  to  exist,  though  mingled  with  the 
motley  crowd  of  singers,  jesters,  acrobats,  and  other  popular 
entertainers  so  vehemently  denounced  by  the  Church  writers. 
Later  they  were  now  and  then  employed  at  the  performance 
of  the  mysteries,  and  later  still,  by  associating  themselves 
with  the  commeclia  delT  arte,  their  representations  assumed 
the  form  under  which  we  now  know  them.  They  borrowed 
the  masks  Harlequin,  Perrot,  Columbine,  and  Pantalone 
from  the  cominedia  del?'  arte,  formed  a  loose  plot,  mostly  of 
comical  elements,  and  filled  out  the  scheme  in  a  manner 
half  acrobatic,  half  ballet.  In  that  form,  however,  they 
have  continued  to  exercise  a  great  charm  over  the  mind. 
In  all  capitals  of  Europe,  and  at  certain  seasons  in  all  the 
larger  towns,  there  are  found  tlieaters  which  are  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  repre.sentation  of  pantomimes.  See  E.  Munk, 
De  fnbulis  Atellanis  (Breslau,  1840) ;  A.  d'Ancona,  Origini 
del  Teatro  in  Italia  (2d  ed.  2  vols.,  1893) ;  E.  du  Weril.  Les 
Origines  latines  du  Theatre  jnoderne  (184S) :  E.  du  Jleril, 
I/i.s/oire  de  la  Comedie  (186'1^60) ;  Maurice  Sand,  Masques 
et  liouffons ;  Magnin,  Uistoire  des  Marinnnettex. 

Revised  by  A.  R.  JIarsh. 

Panwe :  Sec  Faxs. 

Paiiyas'sis,  or  Pany'asis  (in  Gr.  Uaviaaaii),  ok  Hai.icar- 
NASsus :   Greek  poet  ot  the  fifth  i-entury  ii.  c. ;   has  been 


called  the  regenerator  of  the  epos.  A  kinsman  ot  Herodo- 
tus {q.  v.),  and,  like  him,  involved  in  a  struggle  for  freedom, 
he  was  put  to  death  by  Lygdamis,  the  tyrant  of  Halicar- 
nassus,  about  the  time  that  Herodotus  withdrew  from  his 
native  city.    See  Krausse,  De  Panyasside  (1891).     B.  L.  G. 

Faola  :  city;  capital  of  Miami  co.,  Kan. ;  on  Peoria  creek, 
and  the  Kan.  City,  Ft.  Scott  and  Mem.,  the  Mo.,  Kan.  and 
Tex.,  and  the  Mo.  Pac.  railways ;  22  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Ottawa, 
34  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Lawrence  (for  location,  see  map  of  Kan- 
sas, rcf.  6-K).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  oil,  coal,  lime,  and 
natural-gas  region,  and  contains  3  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $200,000, 2  libraries  (Normal  School,  founded 
1879.  and  Free  Citv,  founded  1880)  containing  nearly  10.000 
volumes,  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  2,312 ;  (1890) 
2,943;  (1895)3,009. 

Paoll,  Pasquale  :  revolutionist;  b.  near  Moro.saglia.  Cor- 
sica, in  1726 ;  was  educated  at  Naples,  where  his  father  had 
taken  refuge,  after  being  exiled  from  the  island  in  1739  for 
participation  in  the  revolt  against  Genoa;  returned  to  Cor- 
sica in  1755;  became  the  leader  of  the  party  which  strove 
to  expel  the  Genoese;  defeated  their  army  and  even  their 
fleet  in  several  engagements,  and  deprived  them  of  nearly 
all  their  strongholds  in  the  island,  at  the  same  time  intro- 
ducing important  reforms,  improving  the  laws,  and  bring- 
ing the  agriculture,  commerce,  and  industry  of  the  country 
to  a  flourishing  state  by  his  wise  and  energetic  administra- 
tion. His  success  was  almost  complete,  and  excited  great 
sympathy  in  Europe;  but  in  1768  the  Genoese  sold  their 
clainjs  on  Corsica  to  France,  and  in  1769  Paoli  was  driven 
from  the  island  by  a  French  army  of  22,000  men.  He  fled 
to  England,  where  he  was  held  in  general  esteem,  and  re- 
ceived from  the  Government  a  large  pension.  After  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  in  France  he  was  appointed 
chief  both  of  the  civil  and  military  administration  in  Corsica ; 
but  the  anarchical  state  of  the  Government  soon  occasioned 
collisions.  He  again  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  revo- 
lution; but  despairing  of  winning  independence  without 
foreign  aid,  he  appealed  to  Great  Britain,  and  proclaimed 
George  III.  King  of  Corsica,  V)ut  he  was  not  appointed  vice- 
roy, as  he  had  expected,  and  he  again  went  to  England, 
where  he  died,  near  London,  Feb.  5,  1807.  See  Boswell, 
Account  of  Corsica  (Glasgow,  1768).  and  Biographies  by 
Arrighi  (Paris,  1843),  Klose  (Brunswick,  1853),  and  Bartoli 
(Ajaccio,  1867). 

Paolo,  Fra;  See  Sarpi,  Pietro. 

Paolo  Veronese :  See  Yeroxese,  Paolo. 

Papacy ;  See  Papal  States  and  Pope. 

Papal  States,  or  States  of  the  Church  [papal  is  from 
Lat.  papa,  papa,  bishop,  (later)  pope] :  that  portion  of 
Central  Italy  which,  before  the  unification  of  the  kingdom, 
was  under  the  temporal  government  of  the  holy  see.  They 
extended,  though  with  a  very  irregular  shape,  from  the 
Adriatic  to  the  Mediterranean ;  bounded  S.  by  Naples,  and 
on  the  W.  and  N.  by  Tuscany,  Modena,  and  the  Austrian 
possessions,  and  comprised  an  area  of  about  16,000  sq. 
miles,  with  3,124.668  inhabitants,  had  Rome  for  their  capi- 
tal, and  yielded  (in  1859)  a  revenue  of  14,453,325  scudi.  The 
pope  possessed  temporal  authority  over  a  part  of  this  region 
from  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great,  who  is  said  to  have 
endowed  the  episcopal  see  of  Rome  with  large  landed  pos- 
sessions. The  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  holy  see  gave  to  it 
an  impressiveness  and  dignity  that  facilitated  the  extension 
of  its  temporal  power.  In  the  centuries  after  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire,  when  the  barbarians  pushed  forward  to 
Rome  and  the  Byzantine  emperors  showed  themselves  un- 
able to  defend  their  possessions  in  Italy,  the  so-called  ex- 
archate, it  was  quite  natural  that  the  people  of  Rome  should 
look  on  the  pope  not  only  as  their  head,  but  as  their  leader. 
The  strongest  of  the  barbarous  triljes,  the  Franks,  had  be- 
come orthodox  Christians,  and  their  kings  supported  the 
popes  against  their  enemies.  Charles  Martel  was  about  to 
enter  Italy  and  defend  the  Roman  see  against  the  Lom- 
bards when  he  died,  but  his  son,  Pepin  le  Bref,  fulfilled  his 
promise.  He  defeated  Aistolf,  the  king  of  the  Lombards, 
and  compelled  him  to  yield  up  to  the  pope,  Stephen  III., 
the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  comprising,  besides  the  so-called 
Pentapolis  or  the  five  cities  of  Rimini,  Pesaro,  Pano,  Sini- 
gaglia,  and  Ancona,  seventeen  other  cities,  mostly  situated 
on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  and  thus  the  foundation  of  the 
papal  states  was  laid.  Pepin's  son,  Charlemagne,  confirmed 
and  enlarged  the  donation,  but  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies much  of  the  papal  territory  was  lost,  and  in  the  first 


PAPAVEHACE^ 


PAPER 


421 


half  of  the  eleventh  eentury  the  temporal  jurisdiction  of 
the  pope  was  not  recognized  beyond  Rome  and  its  imme- 
diate vicinity.  In  1053  the  pope  obtained  the  city  of  IJene- 
vento,  and  in  1114  the  Countess  Matilda  of  Tuscany  left  all 
her  fiefs,  consisting  of  Parma.  Modena,  Mantua,  and  Tus- 
cany, to  the  pojie.  who  secured  the  possession  of  them, 
though  only  after  a  long  strife  with  the  tierman  enijierors. 
The  chief  difficulty  attending  the  establishment  of  the  tem- 
poral sovereignty  of  the  pope  lay  in  the  vague  and  unde- 
fined relation  in  which  he  stood  to  the  German  emiieror. 
Pope  Leo  III.  had  crowned  Charlemagne  emperor  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  emperor  had  given  Leo  111.  the  cxari-hate 
of  Ravenna,  Rom(^  and  other  Italian  possessions.  The  title 
of  Roman  emperor  was  inherited  by  the  German  successors 
of  Charlemagne,  and  they  evidently  meant  to  transform  the 
title  into  a  real  authority.  Hence  the  severe  struggles  be- 
tween Gregory  VI 1.  and  llenrv  IV.  and  between  Innocent 
III.,  Henry  VI..  an<l  Otho  iv!.  and  it  was  not  until  1278 
that  Pope  Xicholiis  III.  succeeded  in  compelling  the  Ger- 
man emperor,  Rudolf  I.  of  Hapsburg,  to  acknowledge  him 
as  a  free  sovereign,  thereby  establishing  the  papal  states  as 
an  independent  empire.  The  Great  Schism  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  popes  to  .\vignon  brought  confusion  and  mis- 
government  to  the  papal  domains  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. The  strife  between  the  Guelphs  and  the  Gliibellines 
kept  Rome  in  constant  turmoil,  and  in  i;i47  the  popular 
leader  Rienzi  became  the  chief  magistrate  of  a  short-lived 
republic.  The  pontificates  of  Alexander  VI.  (14i)3-1503) 
and  of  his  successor,  the  warlike  Julius  II.  (1.50;^-13),  were 
marked  by  the  consolidation  and  extension  of  the  papal  ter- 
ritory. It  underwent  some  changes  during  the  wars  of  Xa^ 
Eoleon,  being  at  one  time  entirely  incorporated  with  France, 
ut  in  1814  it  was  restored  to  the  pope  with  nearly  its  former 
boundaries.  The  administration,  however,  of  the  papal  gov- 
ernment, especially  during  the  reign  of  Gregory  XVI.,  caused 
a  great  fermentiition  in  the  population.  Revolutions  broke 
out  in  18;il  at  Bologna  and  other  places,  and  Gregory  XVI. 
depended  entirely  on  Austrian  troops  for  the  maintenance 
of  his  sovereignty.  Pius  IX.  made  some  attempts  at  re- 
form, but  failed.  In  1848  the  revolution  broke  out  in  Rome, 
and  the  pope  fled  in  disguise  to  Gaeta.  He  was  restored  by 
French  soldiei's,  who  held  the  city  of  Rome  from  1849  to 
1870.  In  the  meanwhile,  after  the  Italian  war  of  1859,  the 
legations  voted  for  annexation  to  Sardinia,  and  the  troops 
of  Victor  Emmanuel  entered  Umbria  an<l  the  Jlarches  and 
defeated  the  papal  forces  at  Castelfidardo.  Rome  and  the 
patrimony  of  St.  Peter  were  all  that  was  left  to  the  pope. 
The  French  garrison  evacuated  the  city  Aug.  2,  1870,  and 
on  Sept.  20  King  Victor  Emmanuel  took  possession  of  Rome, 
declaring  it  the  capital  of  Italy,  and  thereby  abolishing  the 
temporal  power  of  the  pope,  who  was  nevertheless  guaran- 
tee<i  the  possession  of  the  Vatican  and  Lateran  palaces,  and 
continued  to  enjoy  the  honors  and  immunities  of  a  sover- 
eign. See  Rome.  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colbv. 
Papavpracese:  See  Poppy  Family. 

Papaw'  [from  S\mn. pajiai/a  (whence  Mod.  Lat.),  from  the 
native  We.st  Indian  name]:  (1)  the  fruit  of  a  small  tropical 
American  tree  {(J/irica  papaya)  of  the  family  Pa-ixijlu- 
raceo'.  This  fruit  is  eaten,  but  is  not  very  palatable.  It 
has  an  acrid  quality,  and  when  boiled  with  meats  renders 
them  tender.  The  juice,  at  least  before  the  fruit  is  ripe, 
contains  a  remarkable  albuminous  substance  resembling  or 
identical  with  fibrin,  is  anthelmintic,  and  has  detergent 
j)OWers.  The  root  has  an  offensive  odor.  (2)  In  the  U.  S. 
the  name  i)apaw,  or  pawpaw,  is  given  to  Asimhia  Iriloha, 
parvijiora,  grandiflijra,  and  pygmcea,  handsome  shrubs,  or 
the  first  a  small  tree,  of  the  family  Aiionacew.  The  pulpy 
fruit  of  the  first  mentioned  is  edible,  but  is  not  generally  es- 
teemed. Revised  by  h.  II.  Bailey. 

Papayotin :  a  substance  derived  from  a  plant  called 
Carica  papaya,  the  juice  of  which  possesses  proteolytic 
jiower,  or,  in  other  words,  is  capable  of  transforming  pro- 
teids  into  peptones.  It  is  supposed  to  dilfer  from  pepsin 
not  only  in  its  vegetable  origin,  but  also  because  it  acts  in 
the  presence  of  cither  an  alkali  or  acid.  Other  derivatives 
of  the  juice  of  Carica  papaya  have  been  introduced  into 
medicine  by  various  firms,  the  chief  of  which  are  papain 
and  papoid,  which  it  is  claimed  possess  certain  advantages 
not  present  in  other  prci)arations.  II.  A.  Hark. 

Pajier  [from  <).  Fr.  papier  <  Lat.  papy'nis  =  (Jr.  iraitwpoj, 
papyrus,  paper  made  of  papyru.s] :  a  substance  made  in  the 
form  of  sheets  or  leaves,  in  varying  thicknesses,  ami  em- 
ployed for  writing  or  printing  upon  ;  also  for  wrapping  pur- 


poses, and  in  the  manufacture  of  various  articles  of  common 
use  or  of  industrial  and  scientific  application. 

liitte.. — Vegelalile  fiber  is  the  ba.se  and  chief  component  of 
the  article  of  commerce  known  as  jiaper.  This  is  used  in 
various  forms  and  with  dillerent  intermixtures,  animal  as 
well  as  mineral  fibers  being  at  times  incorporated  into  its 
substance,  with  loading  or  filling  material  and  coloring- 
matter.  In  its  pure  state  vegetable  fiber  is  known  as  cellu- 
lose. II  is  white,  transhuent,  slightly  heavier  than  water, 
without  tiiste  or  odor,  and  is  insoluble  in  all  simple  solvents ; 
its  chemical  formula  is  CjlIjoOs.  All  vegetable  growths 
contain  cellulose,  some  being  specially  valuable,  and  hold- 
ing high  rank  as  paper-making  material,  while  others  are  of 
inferior  importance.  Generally,  paper-making  material  is  a 
by-product,  derived  from  the  waste  or  refuse  of  other  manu- 
factures— as  rags,  old  bagging,  old  rope,  waste  paper,  etc.— 
supplemented  by  other  good  fibers  obtained  so  plentifully 
and  cheaply  as  to  warrant  their  conversion  into  paper  pulp. 

Leadiiuj  Fi/jfrx. — The  fibers  chiefly  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper  are  those  of  cotton,  bast  (as  linen,  jute,  and 
hemp),  those  derived  from  whole  stems  or  leaves  and  asso- 
ciated with  various  vessels  and  cells  not  properly  fibers  (as 
straw,  esparto,  sorghum,  and  bamboo),  and  lastly  those  de- 
rived from  wood. 

History. — It  seems  strange  that  nations  known  to  have 
been  adept  in  arts  and  sciences  centuries  in  advance  of  the 
Christian  era  should  have  failed  to  produce  an  article  at 
once  so  important  and  of  so  great  simplicity  of  manufacture 
as  is  paper.  Even  the  Maoris  of  Ne\v  Zealand  roughly  pro- 
duced it  prior  to  contact  with  European  civilization  by 
chewing  and  macerating  the  leaves  of  certain  plants  and 
spreading  the  pulp  so  obtained  on  a  flat  ston<^  to  dry  in 
the  sun.  Paper  derives  its  name  from  an  afjuatic  plant, 
the  papyrus  (Cypertis  papyrus),  which  gi-ew  in  Egyjit.  The 
material  obtained  from  this  plant  wa*  the  first  product,  so 
far  as  known  to  us  (excejjt  the  wasp's  nest),  resembling  that 
which  we  call  paper.  (See  Papyrus.)  The  manufacture 
originated  with  the  Egyptians  at  least  2,000  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  the  use  of  papyrus  extended  into 
Greece  and  Italy.  The  Egyptian  reed  held  undisputed  com- 
mand of  llic  iiiarket  foi-  laiinb i-ds  of  years:  in   Europe  till 


Fio.  1.  — I!iustt;iiii  n  .'f  a  pai>er-uiill  of  the  sisteeuth  century,  from 
Jost  AlnliKairs  /'.mo/j/i'u  umniuin  Ubt'ralium  mechatticarum  ft 
Si'deiitariaruHt  Artium  Genera  coutinens,  etc.  (Fraukfort.  15G4). 

the  twelfth-century  attempts  were  made  to  supersede  it, 
notably  by  the  use  of  parchment,  but  success  in  this  direc- 
tion was  not  attained  until  the  introiiuction  of  paper  made 
from  cotton  fiber.  The  Chinese  are  credited  with  the  dis- 
covery of  the  art  of  paper-making  by  the  use  of  fibers  re- 
duced to  a  pul|)  in  water.  Their  raw  materials  were  the 
inner  bark  of  the  mulberry-tree,  bamboo,  rice-straw,  rags, 
etc.  A  Chinese  nuindarin  is  said  to  have  invented  a  proc- 
ess of  making  paper  from  the  bark  of  trees  condjined  with 
the  fibers  of  silk  and  hemp.     This  was  in  the  year  95  A.  i). 


422 


PAPER 


Two  hundred  years  later  the  Romans  made  strong  brown 
paper  from  the  bark  of  trees,  and  300  years  afterward  the 
same  material  continued  in  use.  About  the  year  610  tlie 
bark  of  the  paper-mulberry  was  employed  as  a  paper-mak- 
ing material  in  Korea.  The  Aztecs  also  made  a  paper,  re- 
sembling papyrus,  from  the  fibers  of  the  maguey  (Agave 
americana)  plant ;  but  it  is  not  known  that  any  data  exist 
to  establish  the  date  of  its  earliest  use  or  invention. 

The  Chinese  communicated  their  discovery  to  the  Hin-dus, 
Persians,  and  Arabs,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  or 
early  in  the  seventh  century  the  Arabians  established  fac- 
tories, one  of  which  is  reported  to  have  been  in  existence  at 
Mecca.  Another  paper-mill  is  said  to  have  been  in  opera- 
tion at  about  the  same  time  at  Samarcand,  in  Turkestan. 
At  these  localities  paper  was  made  from  cotton,  reputedly 
the  raw  fiber.  The  art  was  carried  to  Spain,  where  the 
Jloors,  besides  linen,  hemp,  and  cotton,  used  rags  as  paper- 
making  material.  From  Spain  the  business  extended  to 
other  European  countries.  The  earliest  Italian  paper-mill 
is  said  to  have  been  started  in  12.50 ;  the  first  in  Germany, 
1390;  in  France,  1340;  in  Switzerland,  1350;  in  Austria, 
1356;  in  Belgium,  1-405;  in  England,  1498,  or  a  few  years 
earlier ;  in  America  (at  Roxborough,  now  in  Philadelphia) 
in  1690;  and  in  Russia  in  1712.  Holland  probably  began 
paper-making  in  the  fourteenth  century,  although  a  much 
later  date  has  been  given.  The  growth  of  the  industry  was 
much  increased  by  the  discovery  of  printing  in  1450. 

Hand-made  Paper. — The  Chinese  method  of  manufactur- 
ing paper  embodies  the  principle  on  which  all  paper  is  made. 
Improvements  in  processes  and  appliances  have  all  been  in 
the  direction  of  the  more  ready  manipulation  of  paper-mak- 
ing material  and  increase  in  the  production  of  the  finished 
article.  The  cost  of  manufacture  iu  China,  even  without  the 
facilities  affordeil  the  paper-makers  of  Europe  and  America, 
is  less  than  in  Occidental  countries,  cheaper  labor  and  ma- 
terial operating  to  this  end.  Chinese  paper-makers  use  a 
variety  of  fibers,  including  those  from  hemp,  rags,  linen  and 
cotton,  cane,  the  paper-mulberry,  and  the  bamboo.  With 
all  of  these  the  first  operation  is  to  make  the  stock  tender, 
that  is,  to  bring  it  into  a  condition  in  which  it  may  be  read- 
ily reduced  to  pulp.  This  is  done  by  retting,  without  allow- 
ing it  to  go  too  far  in  decomposition.  The  stalks  of  bamboo, 
for  example,  are  soaked  in  running  water,  or  in  water  which 
is  frequently  changed,  for  100  days  or  more,  until  the  outer 
covering  of  the  fiber  is  sufficiently  softened.  The  material  is 
then  beaten  with  mallets  until  the  fibers  are  separated  from 
the  bark  or  outer  covering,  after  which  they  are  cooked  in  a 
vat  to  which  slaked  lime  has  been  added,  a  continuous  opera- 
tion taking  about  eight  days.  The  fibers  are  next  washed 
in  clean  water  and  again  boiled  in  water  made  alkaline  with 
wood  ashes,  after  which  they  are  subjected  to  another  liath 
of  water  and  ashes  until  they  begin  to  decompose ;  they  are 
then  taken  out,  rewashed,  and  reduced  to  the  degree  of  fine- 
ness required  in  mortars  operated  when  possible  by  water- 
power.  The  pulp  thus  prepared  is  mixed  in  a  vat  with  water 
to  the  necessary  degree  of  diluteness,  after  which  the  work 
of  the  person  who  makes  the  sheet  of  paper  begins.  This 
workman  has  a  mould  or  sieve  made  with  a  bamboo  frame 
to  which  a  fine  network  of  threads  of  silk  or  other  material 
is  attached  ;  he  dips  his  mould  into  the  dilute  pulp,  and,  tak- 
ing it  out  with  a  motion  which  serves  to  interlace  the  fibers, 
turns  the  thin  film  thus  formed  upon  a  flat,  wooden  surface. 
The  sheets  are  laid  one  upon  the  other  until  a  pile  is  made; 
a  plank  is  then  placed  upon  the  heap,  and  pressure  is  ap- 
plied until  the  water  has  been  sufliciently  pressed  out  of  the 
sheets,  which  are  then  removed  to  an  oven  to  be  dried.  Hand- 
made paper  is  manufactured  in  Europe*  on  almost  the  same 
lines,  after  the  pulp  has  been  prepared  by  machinery.  The 
mould  is  covered  on  one  side  with  fine  wire-cloth,  and  has  a 
movable  frame,  called  the  deckle,  both  forming  a  shallow 
tray.  The  vatman  takes  a  mould  and  lays  it  upon  the  deckle  ; 
he  then  dips  the  mould  into  the  pulp,  which  is  kept  uni- 
formly mixed  with  the  water  in  the  vat  by  means  of  an  agi- 
tator, and  lifts  up  as  much  of  the  pulp  as  will  form  a  sheet 
of  paper ;  to  this  he  gives  a  shake  from  him  and  back  again, 
ami  then  from  right  to  left  and  back  again  ;  this  done,  he 
transfers  the  mould  to  his  assistant,  who  is  known  as  the 
eoucher,  at  the  same  time  removing  the  deckle,  which  he 
connects  to  another  inoidd  and  proceeds  as  before.  The 
eoucher  turns  the  mould  upside  down  on  a  piece  of  woolen 
felt,  and  places  another  piece  of  felt  on  the  sheet  of  paper 
thus  deposited.     The  felts  and   sheets  of  paper  are  alter- 

•  There  is  only  one  papt- r-mill  in  the  U.  S.  where  hand-made  pa- 
pers are  produced.    There  are  many  vat-mills  iu  Eurr>i)e. 


nated  until  a  pile  is  formed,  which  is  then  submitted  to 
great  pressure.  When  this  pressure  is  taken  off  the  felts 
and  sheets  of  paper  are  drawn  out  and  laid  in  separate  piles. 
The  paper  is  afterward  ptit  into  another  press  to  remove  the 
felt  marks  and  to  get  rid  of  more  moisture  ;  it  is  next  hung 
up,  sheet  by  sheet,  to  dry,  after  which  it  is  sized  with  gelatin. 
The  paper  is  again  pressed,  dried,  sorted,  counted,  packed, 
and  in  this  finished  condition  goes  to  market. 

Western  Jlethods  of  Preparing  the  Pulp. — The  process 
of  making  the  sheet  of  paper  by  hand  has  been  described, 
but  not  the  preliminary  processes  for  reducing  the  raw  ma- 
terial to  pulp,  as  practiced  in  Europe  and  America.  Dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth the  rags  used  in  paper-making  were  sold  unsorted 
to  the  paper-maker.  They  were  therefore  carefully  picked 
over  when  they  reached  the  mill,  and  graded,  chiefly  accord- 
ing to  color.  This  work  is  now  done  to  a  certain  extent  by 
the  packers  or  rag-gatherers.  The  rags  were  then  cut  into 
small  pieces,  soaked  in  water,  and  piled  in  vaults  to  fer- 
ment or  rot.  After  the  necessary  stage  of  tendering  or  de- 
composition had  been  reached  they  were  washed,  and  the 
next  process  consisted  in  reducing  them  to  pulp.  In  the 
early  days  of  paper-making  this  was  done  in  mortars,  or 
cylinders  provided  with  stamps  moved  by  water-power. 
Wooden  troughs  in  which  stamps  operated  were  also  used. 
About  1750  a  machine  was  invented  which  in  time  super- 
seded these  rude  appliances  in  Europe  and  America.  This 
was  brought  out  in  Holland,  and  is  known  as  the  Hollander 
or  beating-engine.  The  preliminary  treatment  of  the  rags 
has  also  changed,  the  retting  process  being  done  away  with. 
When  the  rags  reach  the  mill  they  are  unpacked  from  the 
bale  and  sorted  by  hand,  women  being  employed  for  the 
purpose.  The  first  handling  is  for  the  purpose  of  removing 
all  extraneous  substances,  and  it  includes  the  threshing, 
dusting,  sorting  and  cutting,  opening  seams,  removing  but- 
tons, pieces  of  metal.  India-rubber,  and  other  foreign  ma- 
terials. They  are  then  cut  into  small  pieces  by  machinery, 
or,  for  special  grades  of  paper,  by  hand,  at  long  tables,  to 
which  scythe-blades  are  fixed  at  intervals.  After  a  final 
dusting  the  rags  are  put  into  large,  cylindrical  boilers,  called 
rotaries,  which  are  set  horizontally.  These  boilers  are  pro- 
vided with  manholes,  and  steam-pipes  p.ass  through  their 
trunnions  to  their  interiors.  A  rotary  is  packed  with  rags, 
and  milk  of  lime  and  water  are  added,  after  which  the  man- 
holes are  closed.  The  boiler  is  then  slowly  rotated,  steam 
being  admitted  under  pressure.  Other  kinds  of  boiling  ap- 
paratus are  sometimes  used,  such  as  kiers,  into  which  the 
rags  are  run  on  small  cars  or  trucks,  which  are  withdrawn 
when  the  operation  is  completed,  thus  dispensing  with  the 
emptying  necessary  where  rotary  boilers  are  employed.  This 
cooking  thoroughly  softens  the  grease  or  any  dirt  remain- 
ing in  the  rags,  and  the  latter  are  in  a  condition  which  ren- 
ders tliem  more  readily  susceptible  to  treatment  in  the  wash- 
ing and  beating  engines.  After  draining,  the  cooked  rags 
are  taken  to  the  engine-room,  and  are  there  washed  by  a 
stream  of  water  through  the  washing-engine  until  the  wa- 
ter runs  clear.  The  washing-engine  consists  of  an  oblong 
tub  or  trough  made  of  wood  or  iron,  rounded  at  the  ends. 
It  is  made  in  various  sizes,  to  accommodate  from  100  to 
1,500  lb.  of  rags.  In  the  center  of  the  tub  there  is  a  parti- 
tion, the  "  midfeather,"  with  a  passageway  at  each  end  for 
the  circulation  of  the  water  and  rags  through  the  engine. 
On  one  side  of  the  "  midfeather,"  occupying  the  space  be- 
tween it  and  the  wall  of  the  tub,  is  a  cylinder  or  roll  set 
with  a  series  of  steel  knives,  and  beneath  this  roll  is  a  bed- 
plate, also  furnished  with  steel  knives  and  set  in  the  floor 
of  the  trough,  which  at  this  point  rises  with  an  inclination 
to  and  surrounding  the  roll  at  a  short  distance  therefrom, 
anil  then  drops  in  an  inclined  plane  known  as  the  "back- 
fall "  to  the  level  of  the  tub  bottom.  On  the  other  side  of 
the  "  midfeather"  the  floor  of  the  tub  is  flat  and  level  with 
the  ends,  and  on  this  side  is  located  the  washing  apparatus, 
which  consists  of  one  or  two  cylinders,  whose  framework  is 
covered  with  wire-gauze.  The  roll  and  the  washing-cylin- 
ders are  mounted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  raised  or  low- 
ered at  both  ends.  When  the  washing  is  going  on  the  wash- 
ing-cylinder is  partially  submerged  in  the  contents  of  the 
(aigine,  the  water  which  passes  through  its  gauze  covering 
being  discharged  through  an  opening  in  the  journal  which 
rotates  it.  During  the  process  of  washing  the  stock  or  ma- 
terial is  also  treated  in  such  a  way  by  the  knives  on  the 
engine-roll  that  the  fibers  are  separated  and  drawn  out  so 
as  to  be  long  and  flexible. 

In  some  mills  the  stock  is  bleacheil  in  an  engine  inter- 


papp:r 


423 


mediate  between  the  washing-engine  and  the  beating-en- 
gine; in  others  the  bleaching  is  done  in  the  washing-en- 
gine. It  is  effected  by  adding  to  tlie  ■' half-stuff "  in  the 
engine  a  solution  of  blcacliing-powder  (chloride  of  lime), 
which  oxidizes  the  fibers,  its  a<-tion  being  accelerated  by 
the  addition  of  a  little  sulphuric  acid.  Having  reached  this 
point  the  engine  is  emptied  by  the  withdrawal  of  a  plug  or 
valve,  which  lets  the  "  lialf-.stuff  "  down  through  a  pipe  into 
large  vats  known  as  "drainers,"  and  provided  with  stone 
flooring,  in  which  there  are  minute  perforations.  Here  the 
material  remains  until  it  is  sulliciently  acted  upon  by  the 
bleaching  agent,  after  which  it  is  conveyed  to  the  beating- 
engine. 

The  next  operation  is  that  of  beating,  in  which  process 
the  '•  half-stuff  "  is  reduced  to  that  stage  of  fineness  requisite 
to  convert  it  into  paper.  The  beating-engine  is  of  the  same 
type  and  form  as  the  washing-engine,  but  it  is  i)rovided 
with  sharper  knives  and  the  roll  is  set  down  closer  to  the 
bed-plate.  The  cylinder-wa-sher  is  employed  for  a  short 
time  to  wash  out  the  bleaching  solution,  and  to  eliminate 
entirely  the  action  of  the  chlorine  a  solution  of  hyposul- 
phite of  soda  or  "antichlor"  is  added  as  a  neutralizing 
agent.  When  this  operation  is  completed,  the  beating  is 
continued  until  the  fibers  are  reduced  to  the  proper  length. 
The  fibers  during  this  process  are  in  such  condition  that  the 
cutting  action  docs  not  impair  their  strength.  Next  follows 
the  sizing  if  engine-sized  papers  arc  to  be  made;  also  the 


provided  with  knives  on  its  exterior  surface.  The  half-stuff 
IS  feil  into  this  engine  through  a  box  located  at  its  smaller 
end,  and,  power  being  applied  to  the  shaft  carrying  the  plug, 


Fig.  2.— BeatiiiK-engine. 

"'  loading."'  The  material  used  for  loading  or  filling  purposes 
not  only  adds  to  the  weight,  but  further  serves  the  useful 
purpose  of  filling  the  pores  and  giving  a  finer  surface  to  the 
paper  when  it  is  finished.  The  ordinary  filling  is  china 
clay,  but  other  substances  in  a  state  of  fine  subdivision  are 
also  employed.  Among  these  are  sulphate  of  lime  and  talc. 
Engine-sizing  consists  in  adding  to  the  pulp  a  resin  soap 
made  by  boiling  powdered  resin  with  soda-ash,  or  crystals 
of  soda,  the  alkali  having  been  previously  dissolved  in  water. 
If  not  thus  sized  the  paper  is  treated  with  animal  size  as 
described  below,  or  it  may  be  both  engine-sized  and  animal- 
sized.  The  coloring  material  is  also  applied  in  the  beating- 
engine,  or  in  making  white  papers  the  pulp  is  given  an  ad- 
dition of  ultramarine  or  other  necessary  color,  mixed  in 
water  and  strained.  This  "brings  up"  the  tone  of  the 
paper  and  destroys  the  yellow  tint  which  the  paper  would 
otherwise  have. 

At  this  stage  the  pulp  is  emptied  from  the  beating-engine 
into  the  stuff-chests,  which  are  large  cylindrical  vats,  pro- 
vided with  agitators,  in  which  more  water  is  added  to  the 
pulp  until  it  is  well  mixed  and  dilute  enough  to  be  tran.s- 
ferred  by  means  of  a  stuff-pump  to  a  regulating-box,  the 
function  of  which  is  to  provide  a  regular  supply  of  pulp  to 
the  machine;  thence  the  pulp  is  carried  to  the  screen,  or 
strainer,  an  apparatus  covered  with  smooth  brass  or  bronze 
plates,  having  their  faces  cut  into  a  number  of  long  and 
narrow  slits  which  widen  on  the  under  side  to  admit  of  the 
easier  flow  of  the  pulp.  This  strainer  has  a  jogging  motion, 
and  while  the  pulp  flows  through  the  plates  all  knots  and 
lumps  are  arrested.  On  leaving  the  strainer  the  pulp  pa.s.ses 
into  a  vat  in  which  there  is  an  agitator  to  keep  it  well 
mixed  in  suspension  with  the  water. 

There  are  numerous  modifications  of  the  beating-engine, 
designed  with  a  view  to  economy  of  space,  the  more  rapid 
and  even  treatment  of  the  material,  etc. 

The  greatest  departure  from  the  original  form  of  the  Hol- 
lander or  beating-engine  is  in  that  class  of  machines  known 
as  refiners,  of  which  the  .Ionian  is  the  original  type.  This 
machine  has  no  tub.  It  consists  of  a  conical  casing  closed 
at  both  ends  and  having  its  interior  surface  provided  with 
knives;  inside  of  this  casing  there  is  fitted  a  plug  or  cone 


Fig.  3.— Refining-engine. 

the  material  is  drawn  by  the  centrifugal  operation  of  the 
machines  from  the  small  to  the  large  end,  where  it  is  dis- 
charged through  outlets,  having  undergone  the  action  of 
the  knives  in  its  passage.  The  Marshall  refining-engine  is 
of  the  .same  character,  except  that  at  the  large  end  of  the 
casing  there  is  a  disk  fitted  with  steel  knives,  which  also 
operate  upon  the  half-stuff  and  reduce  it  to  the  finished 
state  necessary  before  running  it  to  the  machine  stuff-chests. 
The  refining-engine  saves  about  one-third  of  the  time  usual- 
ly consumed  in  beating  the  stock  in  the  Hollander,  from 
which  it  takes  the  material  before  it  is  thoroughly  reduced; 
it  "  brushes  out  "  the  fiber,  making  it  "  mellow." 

The  Fuurdrinier  Macltine. — We  now  come  to  the  paper- 
making  machine,  of  which  there  are  several  types.  In  1799 
Louis  Robert  invented  a  machine  which  successfully  made 
paper  in  a  continuous  web.  He  put  it  in  operation  at  the 
paper-mill  of  Francjois  Didot,  in  France,  and  secured  a  pat- 
ent for  it.  In  1801  John  Gamble,  an  Englishnjan,  who 
accomjianied  Leger  Uidot  from  Paris  with  Koberfs  inven- 
tion, obtained  the  first  patent  in  England  for  that  machine. 
.Several  improvements  were  patented  both  in  England  and 
France  in  the  succeeding  year,  but  it  was  not  until  1803 
that  Bryan  Donkin,  who  had  been  intrusted  by  I)idot  and 
Gamble' with  the  construction  of  such  a  machine,  succeeded 
in  building  one  on  the  plan  suggested  by  Robert,  and  in 
1804  the  second  machine  made  by  him  was  set  up  at  Two 
Waters,  England,  and  ran  successfully.  In  this  year  Henry 
and  Sealy  Fourdrinier,  stationers  and  paper-manufacturers 
in  London,  bought  the  English  patents  for  the  machine,  and 
after  making  various  improvements  so  perfected  it  that  it 
has  since  been  called  the  Fourdrinier  machine.  In  180.5 
this  machine  was  capalile  of  doing  the  work  of  six  vats  in 
one  day,  and  the  gain  in  time  and  labor,  at  that  time  so  con- 
siderable, has  been  largely  exceeded  since.  So  many  im- 
provements have  been  added  that  the  Fourdrinier  machine 
of  to-day  is  as  a  giant  to  its  original  model,  not  only  as  to 
size,  but'also  as  to  its  speed  and  capacity.  The  first  Four- 
drinier machine  in  the  U.  S.  was  set  up  in  1827. 

The  proces.ses  of  paper-making  have  been  described  up  to 
the  point  where  the  Fourdrinier  machine  is  brought  into  ac- 
tion. From  the  vat  into  whiirh  the  pulp  discharges  after  it 
has  passed  the  screens  or  strainers  it  flows  down  over  an 
apron  to  the  endless  wire-cloth  of  the  machine.  This  wire- 
cloth  is  generally  from  32  to  40  feet  long,  its  width  being 
variable  and  based  upon  the  greatest  width  of  the  sheet  of 
paper  which  it  is  intended  to  make.  The  widest  machine 
yet  constructed  is  136  inches  in  breadth  of  wire.  The  wire- 
cloth  is  made  of  fine  brass  wire  woven  siiecially  for  the 
purpose,  the  meshes  varying  from  sixty  threads  upward  to 
the  inch.  The  ends  of"  the  cloth  aresewn  together  with 
very  fine  wire.  It  is  necessary  that  the  wire-cloth  shall 
preserve  a  uniformly  even  surface,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is 
supported  on  a  series  of  brass  rolls  of  small  diameter,  known 
as  tube-rolls,  placed  near  together,  but  not  so  closely  as  to  be 
in  contact.  By  this  means  uniformity  in  the  layer  of  the 
])ulp  on  the  wire  is  gained,  if  the  stuff  in  the  vat  is  main- 
tained of  even  consistency.  These  tube-rolls  are  supported 
in  an  iron  frame  to  which  a  violent  lateral  motion  is  given 
by  a  device  known  as  the  "shake."  This  is  done  to  cause 
the  fibers  as  they  enter  upon  the  wire  to  interlace  in  varioiis 
directions,  and  thus  form  a  sheet  which  shall  be  nearly,  if 


424 


PAPER 


not  quite,  as  strong  in  one  direction  of  its  texture  as  an- 
other. The  water  drains  from  the  pulp  through  the  wire- 
cloth,  and  is  received  in  a  shallow  box  or  trough  called  the 
"  save-all,"  as  it  also  catches  fine  particles  of  pulp  which  escape 


surfaces  by  means  of  a  felt,  whereby  it  is  made  perfectly 
dry.  Having  passed  the  driers,  the  web  is  passed  between 
a  series  of  polished  rolls,  or  "  calenders,"  mounted  one  above 
the  other  in  a  frame,  to  form  a  "  stack,"  their  purpose  being 


Fig.  4. — Modern  Fourdrinier  paper-making  machine. 


through  the  wire.  The  frame  in  addition  to  the  tube-rolls 
Chrries  a  " brea.st-roll,"  a  "guide-roll,"  on  which  there  is  a 
self-acting  guide,  and  several  other  rolls.  On  top  of  the 
frame  at  the  point  where  the  pulp  flows  on  the  machine, 
and  extending  lengthwise  of  it  for  about  two-thirds  of  the 
length  of  the  wire,  there  is  a  "deckle-frame  "  supporting  two 
endless  rubber  straps,  each  about  1^  inches  thick,  and  running 
over  pulleys,  one  on  each  side  of  the  machine.  These 
"deckle-straps"  rest  upon  the  wire-cloth  and  prevent  the 
pulp  from  spreading  or  flowing  over  its  edges,  and  thus 
regulate  the  width  of  the  paper.  By  the  time  the  pulp  has 
passed  the  deckles  the  sheet  is  formed,  although  yet  in  a 
very  moist  and  weak  condition.  Next  and  near  to  the  deckles 
is  located  the  "  dandy-roll."  a  cylindrical  framework  of 
brass  covered  witli  fine  wire-cloth,  which  presses  on  the 
surface  of  the  wet  layer  of  pulp,  and  aids  in  expressing  the 
moisture :  it  also  performs  the  function  of  impressing  what 
is  known  as  the  '•  water-mark  "  upon  the  paper.  This  im- 
pression is  given  by  means  of  designs  made  from  wire  and 
soldered  to  the  exterior  wire  covering  of  the  roll,  which  thins 
the  sheet  at  every  point  where  it  touches  or  indents  it.  If 
the  paper  is  not  intended  to  receive  any  special  design. 
but  is  to  be  alike  on  both  sides,  no  device  is  fixed  to  the  ex- 
terior of  the  dandy-roll,  and  the  impressions  made  by  the 
latter  upon  the  moist  pulp  are  the  same  as  those  received 
from  the  machine  wire  on  its  under  surface.  In  this  case 
the  paper  produced  is  known  as  "  wove."  "  Laid  "  paper  is 
that  which  has  parallel  lines  watermarked  at  equidistant 
intervals,  the  marking  being  done  by  a  series  of  wires  en- 
circling the  exterior  of  the  dandy-roll.  For  the  purpose  of 
extracting  a  further  amount  of  moisture  from  the  pulp- 
layer  before  it  leaves  the  wire,  there  are  two  or  more  suction- 
boxes  having  open  or  perforated  tops.  A  suction-pump  at- 
tached to  these  suction-boxes  creates  a  partial  vacuum  in 
them,  and  tlic  pressure  of  the  air  upon  the  pulp  assists  in 
withdrawing  more  of  the  water  therefrom.  At  this  stage 
the  paper  has  acquired  sufficient  consistency  to  pa.ss  without 
breaking  to  the  couch-rolls,  two  in  number,  the  lower  one 
carrying  the  wire-cloth  and  giving  it  motion.  Both  couch- 
rolls  are  "jacketed"  with  woolen  felt.  From  the  couch- 
rolls  the  web  is  conveyed  on  an  endless  woolen  felt  known 
as  the  "  wet  felt "  between  the  two  "  first-press  rolls."  The 
paper  is  then  carried  to  the  "  second-press, '  where  it  is  trans- 
ferred to  another  endless  felt,  which  in  turn  conveys  it  further 
on  its  way  to  the  "  driers."  Having  come  so  far  the  paper  Is 
in  pretty  good  condition,  having  gained  in  strength  by  rea- 
son of  t  lie  loss  of  the  greater  part  of  its  moisture. '  The 
"  driers  "  are  metal  cylinders  of  large  diameter  heated  by 
steam.  These  drying-cylinders  vary  in  number  on  different 
machines,  and  are  ranged  one  after  the  other,  or  In  two 
tiers,  one  row  aliovc  t  he  ot  her,  A  passageway  between  the  sec- 
ond-press and  the  driers  permits  the  machine-tender  or  his  as- 
sistant to  pa.ss  from  one  side  of  the  machine  to  the  other.  The 
paper  Is  carried  from  one  drying-cylinder  to  another,  and  so 
on  through  the  whole  series,and  Is  pressed  against  t  heir  heated 


to  give  the  paper  a  smooth  surface.  Leaving  the  calenders 
the  web  is  wound  on  reels,  and  thence  it  goes  to  the  cutter, 
where  it  is  divided  into  sheets.  Where  the  paper  is  in- 
tended for  use  on  a  web  printing-press,  it  is  always  supplied 
in  rolls.  Should  it  be  desired  to  give  the  paper  a  higher 
finish  than  it  has  so  far  received,  it  is  taken  to  the  finishing- 
room,  where  it  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  super-calenders 
having  rolls  made  from  disks  of  paper  or  cotton-batting, 
mounted  on  steel  shafts,  and  so  solidly  compressed  by  hy- 
draulic pressure  that  they  can  be  turned  otf  truly  cylin- 
drical in  a  lathe.  These  rolls  alternate  with  chilled-iron 
rolls  in  a  frame.  Another  method  of  surfacing  is  to  pass 
the  sheets  of  paper  between  highly  polished  metal  plates, 
through  two  heavy  rolls  which  give  a  powerful  pressure. 
So  treated  the  paper  is  said  to  be  "  plated,"  and  tlie  appara- 
tus is  known  as  a  "plating-machine."  This  mode  of  finish- 
ing or  smoothing  the  otherwise  rough  surface  of  paper  su- 
perseded that  of  pressing  between  two  heated  metal  plates. 

The  paper-making  machine  is  driven  by  power  derived 
from  a  water-wheel  or  steam-engine  carried  through  inter- 
mediate shafting  and  gearing,  and  generally  directly  con- 
nected. The  latest  form  of  communicating  nuition  is 
through  an  improved  driving-train  of  coned  pulleys,  sub- 
divided to  run  the  several  parts  of  the  machine  at  variable 
and  graded  speeds, 

Siziiiff. — The  method  of  sizing  in  the  engine  has  been 
outlined.  The  sizing  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  removing 
the  porous  and  absorbent  character  of  the  paper,  so  that  it 
can  be  written  on.  Further  sizing  is  given  on  the  machine, 
a  weak  sohitiim  of  gelatin  or  animal  size  being  placed  in  a 
shallow  box  through  which  the  paper  passes  midway  of  the 
driers,  going  thence  between  two  "squeeze-rolls."  which 
remove  the  superfluous  size:  this  is  known  as  "tub-sizing" 
as  well  as  "  machine-sizing."  Animal-sized  paper  is  some- 
times dried  by  passing  it  over  a  series  of  wire  cylinders  ex- 
posed to  the  action  ot  currents  of  air.  At  other  times  it  is 
dried,  after  being  cut  into  sheets,  by  hanging  it  in  a  loft  or 
drying-room,  where  an  evenly  wanii  temperature  is  main- 
tained, and  thus  treated  it  Is  said  to  be  "  loft-dried."  The 
best  grades  of  writing-papers  are  thus  manipulated. 

The  CijlinJer  Machine. — An  English  paper-maker  named 
Dickinson  is  credited  with  the  invention  of  the  cylinder  pa- 
per-making machine  in  18011.  This  machine  is  of  an  en- 
tirely different  type  from  the  Fourdrinier  in  that  part  on 
which  the  web  of  paper  Is  formed.  It  consists  of  a  large 
and  square  vat.  in  which  is  mounted  a  framework  of  brass 
covered  with  coai'se  wire-clotli.  over  wliich  an  outer  cover- 
ing of  fine  wire  is  smoothly  fitted.  This  is  known  as  the 
making  cylinder;  it  is  of  large  diameter,  and  fits  closely  by 
means  of  interposed  packing  to  the  sides  of  the  vat  in 
which  it  rotates.  The  latter  is  kept  supplied  with  pulp  in 
the  required  state  of  dilution  by  an  even  flow,  which  main- 
tains a  uniform  level  of  the  fluid.  As  the  cylinder  rotates 
it  takes  up  on  its  surface  a  tliln  film  of  pulp,  which,  as  it 
encounters  atmospheric  prc-^sure,  is  drained  ot  some  of  Its 


PAPER 


425 


water  through  the  wire  (•overiiif;  of  the  mould,  the  water 
passing  out  througli  the  end  of  the  eylinder  and  tlirough 
the  side  of  the  vat.  At  the  top  of  the  val.  and  coMnceted 
therewith,  is  a  framework  carrying  a  couch-roll,  which  rests 
upon  the  face  of  the  making  cylinder,  and  rotates  with  the 


JIarper's  improved  Fourdritiier  is  a  combination  of  the 
Fourdriuier  and  cylinder  machines.  It  has  the  wire-cloth 
and  allachments  of  the  Founirinier  until  it  reaches  the 
couchers,  the  lower  roll  of  which  is  an  open  forming  cylin- 
der, on  which  the  Fourdrinier  wire  is  substituted  for  the 


Fig.  5. — Single  cylinder  paper-machine. 


latter.  An  endless  felt  runs  over  the  surface  of  the  couch- 
roll,  and  passes  to  and  between  the  first  press-rolls,  which 
are  located  in  a  stand  next  to  the  vat.  As  the  thin  film  of 
jiulp  form.<  on  the  cylinder-mould  it  is  brought  up  and  in 
contact  with  the  felt  passing  over  the  couch-roll.  ami.  being 
taken  up  by  the  felt,  is  carried  continuously  onward  to  the 
first-press,  where  it  loses  a  further  proportion  of  moisture, 
thence  to  the  second-press,  as  on  the  Fourdrinier  luachine, 
and  then  to  the  driers  and  oaleiidors.  There  is  less  waste 
of  pulp  on  the  cylinder  machine,  but  as  there  is  no  "shake" 
to  give  lateral  motion  to  the  fibers,  the  latter  lie  mostly  in 
the  line  of  travel  of  the  web,  the  paper  thus  made  being 
weaker  across  the  grain  than  lengthwise.  A  doulile  or  triple 
cylinder  machine  consists  in  the  combination  of  two  or  three 
vats  and  making  cylinders,  such  a  combination  .sometinies 
including  twelve  vats  and  cylinders.  In  such  machines  as 
many  webs  of  paper  as  there  are  cylinder-moulds  are  formed 
and  brought  in  contact  prior  to  going  through  the  press- 
rolls,  where  they  are  pressed  together.  Thus  it  is  possible 
to  make  sheets  of  varying  degrees  of  thickness.  The  inner 
layers  may  be  made  of  cheaper  stock,  while  the  exterior 
surfaces  may  be  of  a  better  grade  of  material  and  colored 
as  fancy  may  direct. 

WKt-machine. — This  is  the  first  part  of  a  single  cylinder 
machine,  having  first-press  rolls,  and  is  arranged  to  wind 
the  sheet  of  paper  in  continuous  layers  upon  the  upper 
press-roll  until  the  desired  tliiekiiess  of  material  has  accu- 
mulated upon  the  roll.  When  this  has  been  attained  an 
alartu-bell  rings,  and  the  attendant  then  operates  a  hand- 
lever  which  moves  a  knife  down  and  on  to  the  roll,  by  this 
means  cutting  open  the  paper  cylinder  formed  on  the  roll 


Fio.  f'r. — Stan  I.ird  wet-niaeliine. 

and  releasing  the  sheet.  For  some  classes  of  work  the  up- 
per pro.ss-roll  is  grooved  along  its  length,  so  that  the  attend- 
ant l)y  inserting  a  knife  in  the  groove  can  cut  the  paper,  or 
"  l>oard"  as  it  is  then  called,  dispensing  with  the  lever  knife 
arrangement.  The  wet-raachine  is  usecl  for  making  binders' 
board,  wood-pulp  board,  leather-board,  etc.,  and  sometimes 
for  straw-board. 


fixed  wire-cloth.  The  upper  couch-roll  rests  on  levers,  and 
the  wet  felt  passes  thence  upward  and  above  the  wire  of 
the  machine  inversely  to  the  direction  of  the  formation  of 
the  web  of  paper  and  then  to  the  press-rolls. 

In  mould-machines  the  pulp  is  deposited  on  an  endless  se- 
ries of  square  moulds  similar  to  those  used  for  making  hand- 
made paper,  but  operating  continuously  after  the  fashion 
of  the  Fourdrinier  machine,  depositing  the  sheets  on  felts  or 
carriers.     These  machines  have  found  some  use  in  Europe. 

Wood  and  Esparto  as  Paper-making  3laterials. — Esparto 
grass  (see  Esparto),  otherwise  known  as  alfa  and  Spanish 
grass,  is  used  to  a  great  extent  in  Europe.  Wlien  it  is  re- 
ceived at  the  paper-mill  it  is  picked  over  by  hand  on  a 
special  apparatus  having  a  traveling-apron,  on  either  side 
of  which  the  sorters  are  stationed.  Roots,  weeds,  etc.,  are 
removed,  and  the  grass  is  then  shaken  and  dusted.  It  is 
then  packed  uncut  in  boilers,  although  in  some  mills  open 
tubs  are  used.  In  general,  the  cooking  is  done  under  pres- 
sure in  vertical  boilers,  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  (10°)  in 
water  being  used.  This  deprives  the  esparto  of  its  silica 
and  other  incrustations.  The  fiber  after  bleaching  is  white, 
soft,  and  of  excellent  quality.  A  similar  boiling  process  is 
employed  for  the  production  of  pulp  from  ordinary  straw. 
The  alkali  in  the  residuum  is  recovered  by  evaporation,  in 
special  apparatus,  to  the  extent  of  about  8(j  per  cent. 

Wood-pulp. — One  of  the  most  important  paper-making 
materials  is  derived  from  wood.  There  is  a  distinction  be- 
tween wood-pulp  and  wood-fiber.  The  first  is  obtained  by 
mechanical  means  and  the  second  by  chemical  treatment. 
Wood-pull)  is  produced  by  grinding.  The  apparatus  for 
this  purpose  consists  of  a  rotating  grindstone  inclosed  in  an 
iron  casing  provided  with  openings  covered  by  pockets  con- 
taining blocks  of  wood,  which  are  kept  in  bearing  against 
the  ))eriphi'ry  of  the  .stone  by  means  of  pistons  controlled 
by  hydraulic  pressure.  The  wood  is  first  prepared  by  being 
deprived  of  its  bark  and  knots,  after  which  it  is  cut  into 
convenient  lengths,  and  then  placed  in  the  pockets  of  the 
grinder.  Power  being  applied,  the  stone  is  rotated,  tearing 
off  the  fiber  of  the  wood.  Water  is  introduced  into  the 
grinder  during  this  operation,  and  the  particles  of  wood  are 
carried  against  a  wire  screen,  which  admits  of  the  passage 
of  the  finer  fibers,  but  retains  the  coarser  for  further  treat- 
ment. When  the  wood  has  been  thus  reduced  it  may  be 
shipped  with  a  certain  percentage  of  moisture  to  the  paper- 
mill,  where  it  undergoes  the  ordinary  lieating  treatment,  or 
it  may  be  run  off  in  sheets  or  made  into  wood-pulp  board. 
This  apparatus  was  invented  by  Henry  Voelter.  a  German, 
in  1860,  and  is  largely  use<l  in  Europe  and  in  Xorlh  America. 
Wood-pulp  has  been  the  great  cheapening  agent  in  what  are 
known  as  print-papers.  While  paper  can  be  made  entirely 
from  wood-] ml  p.  or  mechanical  pulp,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
the  fiber  is  too  weak  to  make  a  sheet  of  paper  of  sufficient 
strength  for  most  of  the  ordinary  purposes  of  daily  use, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  mixed  in  varying  proportions  with 


426 


PAPER 


other  material,  wood-  (chemical)  fiber  being  the  chief  ad- 
mixture. 

Wood-fiber. — This  is  commonly  known  as  chemical  fiber. 
It  is  produced  by  two  methods— the  alkali  and  the  acid 
processes.  The  alkali  or  soda  process  was  invented  in  Eng- 
land by  Charles  Wiitt,  who  was  aided  by  Hugh  Burgess  in 
bringing  it  into  operation.  Tliis  was  in  1853,  and  since 
1854,  when  Burgess  constructed  works  in  the  V.  S.,  it  has 
maintained  its  position  a.s  a  leading  process  for  the  manu- 
facture of  paper-pulp  from  wood.  The  incrustating  mat- 
ter of  wood  is  easily  operated  upon  by  dilute  alkali,  the 
power  of  which  is  increased  at  a  higher  and  increasing  tem- 
perature. The  alkali  has  a  solvent  and  saponifying  effect, 
and  the  acid  products  which  result  from  the  resolution  of 
the  wood  are  brought  into  the  liquor  as  salts  of  soda.  Pop- 
lar is  the  wood  generally  employed  in  the  soda  process,  al- 
though other  woods  can  be  and  are  utilized,  including  pine, 
spruce,  and  hemlock.  The  wood  is  denuded  of  its  bark  and 
out  into  chips,  which,  after  being  dusted,  are  put  into  boil- 
ers commonly  known  as  digesters.  These  are  about  22  feet 
long  by  7  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  heated  by  coils  supplied 
with  steam  through  the  journals  and  rotating  with  the  boil- 
er. Sometimes  "  globe "  or  spherical  boilers  are  used ;  at 
other  times  upright  digestere  are  employed.  The  chipped 
wood  having  been  packed  in  the  digester,  a  solution  of  caus- 
tic soda  is  added  to  it,  the  strength  of  the  liquor  being  from 
■8°  to  15°  Baume.  A  steam-pressare  of  about  90  to  100  lb. 
from  eight  to  ten  hours  is  requisite  to  cook  the  wood.  The 
resultant  fiber,  when  washed  and  bleached,  is  almost  en- 
tirely pure  cellidose,  soft  and  of  a  fair  degree  of  strength. 
The  alkali  employed  in  the  solution  is  afterward  recovered 
by  evaporation,  the  apparatus  producing  the  best  results,  it 
is  believed,  being  that  known  as  a  multiple  effect,  originally 
invented  for  the  evaporation  of  saccharine  liquor  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  The  sulphate  process  is  a 
modification  of  the  soda  process,  and  was  invented  by  Dalil 


tliick,  after  which  it  is  packed  in  the  digester.  The  sulphite 
liquor  is  then  run  in  quickly,  the  digester  is  closed,  and 
steam-pressure  is  gradually  turned  on.  The  strength  of  the 
li(pior  is  generally  about  10'  T.,  carrying  about  3-J  per  cent, 
of  sulphurous  acid.  The  corrosive  action  of  the  bisulphite 
liquor  is  such  that  it  is  necessary  to  line  the  digesters  with 
acid-resisting  coatings.  Lead  has  been  used  for  this  pur- 
pose to  some  extent,  but  is  giving  place  to  linings  of  enam- 
eled or  glazed  bricks  set  in  cement  with  a  leaden  backing, 
or  to  cement  linings,  and  again  to  coatings  of  sulphite  of 
lime  deposited  by  varying  methods  upon  the  interior  of  the 
steel  shell  of  the  digester.  The  woods  ehiefiy  utilized  are 
spruce  and  Swedish  fir  and  pine.  The  cooking  takes  from 
sixteen  hours  with  high  pressure  to  seventy-two  hours  at 
lower  pressures.  When  the  "cook"  is  complete  the  wood 
is  washed  in  the  digester  and  is  then  emptied  out,  or  if  the 
digester  has  been  blown  off  into  a  drainer  it  is  washed  there, 
afterward  going  through  the  processes  of  washing,  bleach- 
ing, and  beating  in  the  engines  prior  to  conversion  into  pa- 
per. Unbleached  sulphite  fiber  is  of  a  light-brown  color  with 
a  pinkish  tinge,  sometimes  harsh  and  translucent,  or  again 
soft  and  nearly  white,  its  variable  quality  Ijeing  due  to  the 
treatment  which  the  wood  has  undergone.  When  the  fiber  is 
well  cooked  and  bleached  it  is  soft,  strong,  and  of  pure  color. 

Classifications  of  Paper. 
Paper  is  classified  under  various  heads  in  different  coun- 
tries, and  its  subdivisions  are  known  by  varying  names. 
Its  chief  divisions  are  printmgs,  writings,  wrajjpings,  and 
boards.  These  include  nearly  all  of  the  grades,  there  being 
some  special  products  which  do  not  come  distinctly  under 
these  heads.  Each  class  has  numerous  subdivisions.  The 
different  named  sizes  of  papers  are  given  in  the  subjoined 
table.  The  figures  denote  inches,  and  it  will  be  observed 
that  a  name  sometimes  stands  tor  several  sizes.  These  dif- 
ferences are  due  to  various  classifications  of  paper. 


NAMED   SIZES   OF  PAPER. 


NAME. 

Antiquarian 

Atlas  

Billet  note 

Broad  twelves 

Cap 

Check  folio 

Colombier 

Commercial  letter 
Commercial  note 

Copy 

Crown 

Demy 

Double  demy 

Double  cap 

Double  crown 

Double  elephant . . 


c 

.  S. 

31 

x53 

2R 

xas 

i 

26 

xM 

B 

X  K 

2!) 

x41 

131 

X  16H  1 

13 

xl7 

( 

ITi 

x24 

'M 

x;« 

f 

24 

x:m 

11 

xl7 

8 

xlO 

15 

Xl9 

14i 

xl8i 

IS 

y.iHI 

1« 

x21 

l(i 

x24 

1« 

x42 

21 

x32 

17 

x2« 

171 

x28 

27 

x40 

31   x53 
26ix34 


23}x34J 


161x20 
16ix21 

15Jx20 
17}x22J 


20  x30 
123  x48 

■1261x40 


Double  foolscap. . . 
Double  imperial. . . 

Double  medium  . . . 

Double  post 

Double  pot 

Double  royal 

Double  super-royal 

Elephant 

Extra  packet  post. 
Extra  size  folio.. . . 

Flat  cap 

Folio  post 

Foolscap 

Foolscap  and  half. 
Foolscap  and  third 

Imperial 

Large  post 

Legal  foolscap 


x46 
x46 
x26 


(18  x46  1 
^33  x26  y 
{•H  x38 


x40 
x42 
x28 
xl9 
x34 
xl7 
x2a 


121x10 

23x31' 
's'  x24' 


I  161x261 
117  x27 

22  x-iOi 


19  x301 
15  x25 


(131x1611 
1  14  X 18}  1 
I3Jx24t 
13Jx22 
81   x26 
161x20} 


NAME. 

Letter 

Medium 

Medium  and  half 
Medium  post . . . 
Octavo  note. ... 

Packet  note 

Packet  po.st 

Pinched  post 

Post 

Pot 

Royal 

Small  flat  cap . . . 

Super-royal 

Web 


10  xl6 
f  161x20}! 

I  17  x22    I 

118  x23    I- 

19  x24 

120  x24  J 

24  x30 

7x9 
9  xlU 
111x18 


;i8  x221) 


19 

x34  y 

20 

x2o 

13 

xl6 

19 

x27  l 

20 

x20    1 

20 

x48    f 

22 

x28  J 

Varied 

widths. 

171x221 
181x23 


18  x221 


141x181 

151x19 

121x15 

19  x24 

20  x25 


19Jx27 

I9JX271 
21    x27 


in  1888.     In  this  the  carbonate  of  soda  is  substituted  to  a 
large  degree  by  the  sulphate  of  soda. 

The  acid  or  bisulphite  process  has  taken  a  leading  po.si- 
tion  in  the  manufacture  of  wood-fiber.  It  was  invented  by 
Benjamin  C.  Tilghman.  a  native  of  the  U.  S.,  in  1867,  but 
was  not  developed  fully  by  him  because  of  the  difficulty  at 
that  time  of  securing  the  necessary  apparatus.  This  inven- 
tion is  the  foundation  on  which  the  acid  fiber  industry  has 
been  built  up  to  lai'ge  proportions.  The  process  consists  in 
boiling  the  previously  prepared  wood  in  a  solution  of  bi- 
sulphite of  hme.  This  solution  is  ordinarily  made  by  burn- 
ing sulphur  or  iron  pyrites  in  a  furnace,  and  combining  the 
sulphurous  acid  thus  obtained  with  water  containing  lime. 
Other  bisulphites,  such  as  bisulphite  of  magnesium  or  sodi- 
um, may  be  used,  notably  the  former,  which  is  employed  in 
the  Ekinan  process.  This  invention  was  taken  up  by  Fry 
and  Ekman  in  Sweden,  and  by  Mitscherlich.  Kellner,  anil 
others  in  (Jermany  and  elsewhere,  but  not  until  the  appa- 
ratus for  putting  it  info  successful  operation  had  been  in- 
vented in  Europe  was  it  lirought  into  action  in  the  U.  S. 
The  wood  is  first  prepared  with  great  care,  the  bark  and 
knots  being  removed,  and  also  all  decayed  and  stained 
pieces ;  it  is  then  cut  into  chips  or  into  disk's  about  li  inches 


Folded  Paper. — Although  sheets  of  paper  vary  in  size, 
when  folded  to  make  up  in  book-form  they  have  other  desig- 
nations, according  to  the  number  of  leaves  into  which  a 
sheet  is  subdivided.  Thus  a  sheet  of  paper  when  folded  is 
described  as  follows : 


Folio, 


folded  once 


2  leaves  =   4  pages,     folio. 


Quarto, 

'      t^vice 

=    4       ■ 

=   8      " 

4to 

Octavo, 

'       four     times 

=    8       • 

=  16      " 

8vo 

Duodecimo,                  ' 

SLX 

=  18      • 

=  21      " 

12mo 

Sexto-decirao, 

'      eight 

=  10      • 

=  32      '■ 

16mo 

Octo-decimo, 

nine 

-  IS      • 

=  36       ■• 

18mo 

Quarto-vigesimo,         ' 

'      twelve    " 

=  24       ■ 

=  48      " 

24mo 

Secundo-trigesimo,     ' 

sixteen   " 

=  32       • 

=  w    ■■ 

32mo 

Special  Kinds  of  Paper. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  paper  which  call  for  special  de- 
scription. Some  of  these  are  used  in  the  form  in  which 
they  come  from  the  mill,  while  others  are  subjected  to  treat- 
ment in  various  ways  at  the  hands  of  manufacturers,  broad- 
ly known  as  converters,  who  prepare  the  product  for  special 
uses.  The  following  are  of  the  first  class,  except  that  coated 
paper,  safety-paper,  and  tracing-paper  are  also  sometimes 
produced  by  converters.  A.<ibestos-paper  is  not  one  of  the 
regular  makes  of  paper,  but  is  a  special  produ(^t  consisting 


PAPER 


427 


jprincipally  of  asbestos-fiber,  with  whiili  ii  certain  proportion 
of  piiper-jj'ulp  is  incorporatej.  It  is  uscii  for  roofing  purposes 
and  for  coverins;  stcain-pipes  to  prevent  radiation  of  heat. 
lilotting-pupir  is  a  liiliulous  product,  unsized,  and  used  for 
absorbing  ink  ami  fluiils.  ('i(/(irtlfi'-/jii/ji'r  \^  a  tliin  tissue 
from  wliieh  all  <'lieMiieals  have  been  removed  or  Ui'utralized. 
It  is  used  with  tobacco  for  inakins;  cipirettcs.  The  best  is 
said  to  be  made  from  straw,  and  it  has  been  asserted  that 
the  finest  rpudily  is  pnxluced  from  the  worn-out  straw  san- 
dals of  the  Basfpie  peasantry  in  Spain.  There  is  a  variety 
of  cijiaretle-paper  called  i  ice-paper,  but  this  is  not  the  true 
product  bearing  tliat  name. 

Coitltd paper  is  a  print  paper  to  which  a  coating  of  wliite 
material,  sometimes  china  clay,  or  yypsum,  sulphate  of 
barytes,  etc.,  is  applii'd.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  books  or  for 
fine  prints  from  wood-cuts  and  process  blocks.  The  coating 
is  applie<l  by  machine  brushes,  after  which  the  paper  is 
dried  in  the  web,  an<l  receives  its  final  finish.  White  coated 
paper  has  a  smooth,  finely  finished  surface,  enough  only  of 
the  coaling  material  being  applied  to  fill  up  tlie  |>ores  of  the 
paper  and  get  the  degree  of  finish  desired.  In  this  respect 
it  does  not  come  under  the  same  classification  as  mirfare- 
coated  papers,  so  called  because  a  heavier  coating  is  applied 
to  their  surfaces,  various  colors  and  shades  of  color,  to  which 
a  glazed  ordull  finish  is  given,  being  used  ;  enameled  papers 
come  under  this  class.  Coated  book-paper  for  printing  upon 
wit  h  fine  woo<l-cuts  or  half-tone  plates  was  first  adopted  in  the 
U.  .S.,  where  the  system  of  printing  with  hard  packing  on 
the  cylinder  of  the  printing-press  prevails,  and  its  use  has 
established  a  distinct  advance  in  the  art  of  the  printer. 

Copyinti-paper  is  a  thin  tissue  made  specially  for  taking 
copies  of  letters,  bills  of  lading,  etc.  Detail-paper  is  a  spe- 
cial grade  of  heavy  Manilla-jiaper  for  the  use  of  artists  and 
draftsmen,  its  surface  being  such  a^  to  submit  to  erasures 
without  destroying  the  texture  of  the  paper.  Enameled 
paper  is  a  glazeil  paper  to  the  surface  of  which  a  metallic 
pigment  has  been  applied  and  polished.  Filler-paper  is  un- 
sized, thick,  and  spongy,  and  is  enijiloyed  for  filtering  solu- 
tions in  pharmaceutical  or  laboratory  practice.  The  best 
is  made  in  Sweden. 

India-paper  is  used  for  taking  those  imjiressions  from 
fine  engravings  on  steel  or  copper  known  as  India-proofs. 
It  has  also  been  utilized  for  proofs  of  the  finest  wood-cuts 
and  photo-mechanical  plates.  It  is  of  ditTerent  i|ualities, 
and  is  made  from  tlie  inner  fiber  of  the  bamboo,  which,  after 
separation  from  its  outer  covering  and  incrustating  sub- 
stances, is  well  beaten,  the  pulp  being  then  spread  on  a  pol- 
ished flat  surface,  which  gives  it  a  smooth  finish,  the  upper 
or  reverse  side  of  the  sheet  being  rough.  It  is  of  thin,  soft 
texture,  taking  a  mark  upon  the  slightest  pressure,  and 
when  ])roperly  dampened  showing  the  finest  line.  Cotton- 
fiber  is  .sometimes  used  as  an  admixtnre  in  the  manufacture 
of  this  paper.  0.rfiird  Tiidia-pajier  is  a  specialty  of  the 
Clarendon  Press  at  Oxford,  England,  and  is  the  thinnest  of 
opaque  papers,  so  thin  indeed  that  five  original  octavo  vol- 
umes of  the  Bible,  containing  2,688  pages,  have  been  printed 
on  it  and  included  in  the  space  of  one  volume.  Ieiiri/-paper 
is  Bristol-board  coated  with  animal  size,  with  an  admixture 
of  while  pigment,  and  then  polished. 

■Japan-paper. — The  (iovernment  of  Japan  has  a  paper- 
mill  at  Opi,  where  a  dozen  different  kinds  of  pa|)er,  includ- 
ing the  silkiest  tissue-paper,  thick  pjirchnient  (lajier,  Bristol- 
board,  and  the  paper  much  prized  by  artists,  etchers,  and 
plate-printers,  are  made.  The  last,  generally  known  as  Japan- 
paper,  is  made  from  the  fiber  of  the  ])aper-mulberry,  wliich 
IS  also  employed  in  other  manufactures  of  this  mill.  It  is 
proiluce<i  in  varying  thicknesses,  sometimes  (juite  thin,  and 
is  of  strong  texture  and  a  creamy  color.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  the  paper-mulberry  cultivated  in  Ja|)an  ex- 
pressly for  i)aper-making  purposes,  the  best  being  that 
known  as  Ts'kuri-kake ;  but  this  is  scarce  and  expensive. 
In  making  this  paper  the  mulberry  stalks  are  steamed, 
.strip[ied,  washed,  and  then  boiled  in  water  nuide  alkaline 
with  the  ashes  of  buckwheat  husks.  After  this  treatment 
the  fiber  is  again  waslied,  and  then  a  paste  or  size  made 
from  lororo-rool  or  from  rice  is  .'iddeil.  Then  follows  the 
pounding  or  beating  of  the  fibers,  the  dilution  of  the  stuff 
m  a  tub  or  vat,  and  the  ordinary  process  of  manufacture  by 
hand  or  on  the  nuvchine. 

Localized  Fiber-paper. — This  is  a  specialty  adopted  by 
the  U.  S.  Ciovernment  for  use  in  its  Treasury  notes  and 
other  certificates  of  indebtedness.  It  is  a  bank-note  ]iaper 
containing  fillers  of  colored  silk,  which  are  added  to  the 
pulp  as  it  is  made  into  paper.     JIanifuld-paper  is  a  thin 


tissue  used  for  writing  upon  with  a  stylus,  which  produces 
a  number  of  copies  upon  as  many  sheets  between  which 
strips  of  carbon-paper  are  interposed.  It  is  known  in  news- 
paper offices  as  "  flimsy."  JVepaul-pirper.  the  bark  of  the 
Daphne  papyracea'.  is  after  treatment  converted  into  a 
strong  unsized  paper  bearing  this  name.  It  is  made  in  sizes 
many  yards  square. 

Parrhment  -  paper  is  made  by  passing  unsized  paper 
through  a  batn  of  dilute  suliihuric  acid.  When  dried  it 
has  a  translucent,  semi-transparent  character,  the  paper 
gaining  greatly  in  strength  and  resembling  parchment. 
The  paper  is  washed  in  water  an<l  then  in  dilute  ammonia 
after  undergoing  the  action  of  the  acid  bath,  (ilycerin  is 
.sonu^times  c<mibined  with  the  acid.  Chloride  of  zinc  is 
also  employed  for  parchmentizing  papc^r.  A  tough  paper 
made  in  the  ordinary  way  at  paper-mills  is  called  parch- 
ment-|)aper,  but  is  not  like  the  true  parchment-paper  or 
vegetable  parchment. 

Rice-paper  is  not  paper  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word. 
True  rice-paper  is  made  from  the  pith  of  a  tree  indigenous 
to  Asia,  and  known  as  Fatsia  papyrifera.  This  grows  to  a 
height  of  20  feet,  and  the  pith  is  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  into 
lamina;  snow  white  in  color.  The  sheets  are  sometimes  95 
by  140  inches  in  size,  and  are  subjected  to  pressure  to  make 
them  smooth.  Rice-paper  is  made  into  artificial  flowers, 
and  is  also  used  for  taking  impressions  of  fine  engravings. 
Another  variety  of  this  paper  is  made  from  the  [lith  of  the 
Aralia  papyrifera.  The  pith  of  the  Echynnme  aspera  is 
also  employed  for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  that  from  the 
Hydrangea  pa7iiculata  and  the  Hibiscus  manihot.  There 
is  another  so-called  rice-paj)er  made  by  the  ordinary  proc- 
esses of  paper-making,  but  it  is  of  different  material,  and  so 
made  the  name  is  a  misnomer. 

Safety-paper,  sometimes  known  as  protective  paper,  is 
chemically  or  mechanically  prepared  so  that  tampering 
with  any  printing  or  writing  upon  it  may  be  detected.  The 
chemicals  may  be  applied  to  the  surface  or  incorporated  in 
the  pulp,  so  that  erasures  or  the  action  of  acids  or  alkalies 
will  change  or  discolor  the  paper.  Water-marks  of  a  special 
design  are  sometimes  employed,  as  in  the  Bank  of  England 
notes,  or  silk  threads  are  embodied  in  the  fiber. 

Silver  tissue  is  a  fine  thin  paper  used  for  wrapping  sil- 
verware. It  is  carefully  prepared  by  the  elimination  of  all 
chemicals  likely  to  tarnish  or  discolor  the  bright  surface  of 
the  ware,  and  also  averts  to  a  great  extent  the  oxidizing  in- 
fluence of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  sometimes  known  as  grass- 
bleached  tissue.  Sponge-paper  is  made  from  paper-pulp 
containing  pieces  of  sponge  in  a  state  of  fine  subdivision; 
used  in  surgery.  Toned  paper  or  tinted  paper  is  tinted  or 
has  its  whiteness  subdued  or  modified  by  a  very  slight  ad- 
dition of  color  to  the  pulp. 

Tracing-paper  is  thin  paper  which  has  been  treated  with 
oil  or  a  thin  solution  of  resin  to  make  it  tiansparent.  It 
is  used  by  artists  and  draughtsmen,  and  is  nuide  in  various 
sizes  and  in  rolls.  Some  kinds  of  tracing-papei-s  are  thin 
tissues  without  any  treatment  w'ith  oil,  etc.  A  variety  of 
this  paper  is  known  as  pounce-paper. 

The  following  papers'are  of  the  class  known  as  converted 
papers : 

Carbolic  acid  paper  is  a  paper  treated  with  carbolic  acid 
in  combination  with  stearin  and  paraffin.  Carbon-paper  is 
a  thin  tissue,  satiu'ated  with  a  pigment  carried  in  oil,  and 
capable  of  imparting  color  to  sheets  of  paper  with  which  it 
may  be  brought  in  contact.  It  is  used  in  connection  with 
maiiifold-paper.  Emery-paper  is  a  tough  i>aper  to  which  a 
coating  of  glue  is  applied,  powdered  emery  being  t  hen  dusted 
on  the  glni  inous  surface.  It  is  used  for  rubbing  down  rough 
surfaces  of  metal,  etc.  Glass-paper  is  an  abrading  agent, 
made  by  coating  paper  with  glue  and  applying  finely  grouiul 
glass  to  the  surface  thus  prepared.  It  is  employed  for  rub- 
bing down  the  rough  surfaces  of  wood  and  metal.  Cold-  (or 
gill-)  paper  is  a  paper  on  which  a  film  or  coating  of  gold-leaf, 
or  metal  simulating  gold,  is  applied,  and  retained  by  means 
of  size.  It  comes  plain  and  embossed  in  fancy  patterns. 
Lace-paper. — A  soft  paper  with  perforations  and  open-work 
patterns  simulating  lace.  It  is  made  by  rubbing  off  the  ele- 
vated sections  of  paper  which  has  been  embossed  in  various 
designs.  The  latest  method  of  manufacture  is  by  nuichines 
provided  with  special  cutting  dies.  Shelf-paper,  so  called  be- 
cause it  is  used  for  covering  and  giving  a  decoration  to  (he 
edges  of  .shelving,  comes  under  this  head.  Lithographic 
transfer-paper  is  prepared  liy  coating  paper  with  starch  ]iasle, 
and  IS  useil  for  transfi'rririg  designs  from  one  lithogra[ihic 
stone  to  another.     Chinese  (India-proof)  paper  is  employed 


428 


PAPER-HANGINGS 


PAPILIONACE^ 


for  this  purpose;  also  Saxe-paper  and  good  book  or  writing 
paper.  Marbled  Paper.— A  paper  ornamented  in  various  de- 
signs in  colors  representing  the  striations  of  marble.  It  is 
prepared  bv  depositing  the  paper  upon  a  surface  of  a  thick 
solution  of  gum  contained  in  a  trough  on  which  various 
mineral  pigments  in  dilution  are  thrown  or  sprinkled,  the 
disposition  of  the  marbling  being  regulated  by  the  use  of 
tools  which  make  varied  patterns.  The  colors  adhere  to  the 
surface  of  the  paper,  which  when  taken  up  and  dried  is  pol- 
ished by  burnishing.  JIoth-paper.—A  Manilla-paper  im- 
pregnated with  carbolic  acid,  tar,  or  other  strong  and  mal- 
odorous solutions,  and  used  for  enwrapping  furs  and  woolens, 
or  for  placing  in  closets,  chests,  etc..  to  prevent  the  incur- 
sions of  moths.  Music-paper  is  niled  with  lines  of  the  mu- 
sical staff.  Oiled  paper  is  a  thin  paper  saturated  with  an 
oil  and  then  dried.  It  is  used  for  tracing  purposes.  Oiled 
board  is  a  thicker  paper  of  the  same  character  employed  to 
interpose  between  leaves  of  paper  in  books  used  for  copying 
letters  or  other  written  documents.  Pasteboards  are  thick 
sheets  made  by  pasting  a  number  of  sheets  of  coarse  and 
common  wrapping-papers  together,  and  finished  by  glazing 
between  friction  calenders.  Pasted  Bristols  are  a  variety  of 
Bristol-boards  made  by  pasting  a  number  of  sheets  of  un- 
ruled writing-paper  together,  after  which  a  finished  sur- 
face is  given  by  passing  the  sheets  through  super-calenders 
or  plating-machines.  These  are  thus  distinguished  from 
mill  Bristols,  which  are  made  of  required  thicknesses  on  the 
machine.  The  very  best  grades  of  stock  are  presumably 
used  in  making  pasted  Bristols.  Photographic  paper  is  coat- 
ed or  impregnated  with  various  chemical  constituents  sensi- 
tive to  light.  It  occurs  under  many  different  names.  Sand- 
paper is  made  by  coating  paper  with  glue  and  applying  fine 
sand,  which  is  dusted  over  tlie  surface.  It  is  used  in  smooth- 
ing wooden  and  metal  surfaces.  Satin-paper  has  a  fine 
glossy  surface  imjiarted  by  means  of  a  satining  machine,  in 
which  a  brush  operates  in  contact  with  the  face  of  the  web 
of  paper.  Silver-papers  are  sheets  to  which  bilver  or  white 
metal-leaf  is  attached  by  means  of  size.  It  is  made  plain 
and  in  embossed  patterns.  Test-paper  is  prepared  by  dip- 
ping paper  into  a  solution  or  decoction  sensitive  to  different 
reagents  and  then  drying  it.  When  used  it  is  for  the  pur- 
po.se  of  determining  the  presence  of  a  substance  in  solution 
capable  of  changing  the  color  of  the  paper.  Litmus-paper. 
which  is  most  commonly  used,  is  made  in  two  different  col- 
ors— blue  which  changes  to  red  in  the  presence  of  an  acid, 
and  red  to  blue  in  contact  with  an  alkali.  Other  kinds  of 
test-paper  are  Brazil-wood  paper,  buckthorn-paper,  cherry- 
juice  paper,  dahlia-paper,  indigo-paper,  iodine-paper,  lead- 
paper,  rose-paper,  starch-paper,  and  turmeric-paper.  Touch- 
paper  is  a  paper  saturated  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
potash  and  dried. 

Velvet-paper  and  wall-papers  are  described  under  Paper- 

HANOINGS. 

Statistics. — The  annual  production  of  paper  can  only  be 
a  matter  of  rough  estimate.  The  returns  from  the  milis  in 
the  U.  S.  afford  the  nearest  approximate  for  Judging  of  ca- 
pacity. Data  gathered  for  Lockwood's  Directory  of  the  Pa- 
per, Stationery,  and  Allied  Trades  for  lSiH-9.5  show  that 
there  were  1,281  pajier  ami  pulp  mills  in  the  U.  S.  at  that 
date.  The  total  daily  producing  capacity  of  the  mills  thus 
reported  is  given  at  20.980.180  lb.  The  increase  since  1881 
(thirteen  years)  is  almost  295  per  cent.    James  A.  CoLViN. 

Paper-hangings,  or  Wall-papers :  ornamental  papers 
intended  to  lie  pasted  on  the  walls  or  ceilings  of  apart- 
ments. Paper-hangings  are  reported  to  have  been  made  in 
Spain  and  Holland  before  1.555,  but  their  manufacture  has 
only  in  more  recent  tiii\es  become  a  leading  industry.  The 
choicest  wall-papers  are  made  of  good  material,  but  for  the 
low  grade  large  quantities  of  woolen,  hempen,  and  jute  waste 
are  employed.  The  paper  was  formerly  all  printed  by  hand, 
either  by  the  process  of  block-printing  or  stencil.  Cylinder- 
printing  is  now  used,  identical  in  principle  with  the  processes 
employed  in  (-'ALiro-pKixTixo  (</.  v.) :  but  choice  styles  are  still 
hand-printed.  1  he  blocks  being  either  engraved  wholly  in 
wood  or  partly  made  U]>  with  metal  for  the  thinner  lines. 
Some  striped  papers  are  cohired  by  a  simple  process  which 
can  not  be  called  printing,  the  colors  being  imparted 
through  apertures,  underneath  which  the  paper  is  rapidly 
drawn.  Flock-printing  is  done  by  printing  the  pattern  in 
with  varnish  and  then  sprinkling  on  colored  flocks,  in  pow- 
der, the  flocks  being  the  shearings  of  woolen  cloth.  Such 
[lapers  are  generally  called  velvet-pajier.  Satin-papers  are 
finished  with  powdered  steatite  and  polished. 


Paper-mnlberry :  See  Pibek. 

Paper-naiitilus :  See  Argonaut. 

Paphlago'nia  :  in  ancient  times  a  district  of  Asia  Minor, 
extending  along  the  .southern  shore  of  the  Euxine  Sea,  from 
Pontus  to  Bithynia,  and  bounded  S.  by  Galatia.  It  was  in- 
habited by  wild  and  warlike  tribes  belonging  to  the  Semitic 
race,  and  it  was  celebrated  for  the  excellent;  horses  it  pro- 
duced. Originally  it  formed  an  independent  state,  but  it 
was  conquered  by  Croesus,  and  subseciuently  incorporated  in 
the  Persian  empire.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  it  be- 
came independent  once  more,  but  was  conquered  by  Mith- 
ridates.  and  after  his  fall  it  was  made  a  part  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Galatia. 

Pa'phos :  the  name  of  two  ancient  cities  of  the  island  of 
Cyprus.  One  of  them,  the  present  Kukla,  was  often  called 
Palaipaphos  {Old  Paphos),  and  was  famous  for  its  temple 
of  Aphrodite,  who  was  said  to  have  been  born  here  from 
the  foam  of  the  waves.  The  other,  the  present  Baffa,  was 
called  Neopaphos  (New  Paphos),  and  was  the  place  where 
St.  Paul  preached  to  the  proconsul  Sergius. 

Pa'plas  :  a  Christian  Father  of  the  second  century.  Bish- 
op of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  according  to  Irena?us  a  disciple 
of  John  the  apostle,  and  a  companion  of  Polycarp.  He  suf- 
fered martyrdom  at  Pergamus  during  the  ]iersecutions  of 
Marcus  Aurelius  about  163.  Of  his  h.oyia>v  Kvpumwy  'E^riyr)ais 
only  eleven  fragments  have  come  down  to  tis.  It  was  a  col- 
lection of  sayings  of  the  Lord,  the  apostles,  and  the  disci- 
ples, with  explanatory  notes  derived  from  oral  tradition. 
The  work  existed  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century,  and  it  is 
not  necessarv  to  give  up  all  hope  of  its  recovery.  See  Re- 
liquia;  Sacra-  of  Routh  (Oxford.  1814;  2d  ed."l846);  the 
Apostolic  Fathers  of  Bishop  Lightfoot  (edited  by  Harmer, 
London  and  New  York,  1893),  pp.  515-525,  and  the  trans- 
lation, pp.  527-535.  Trans,  also  in  Ante-Nicene  Fathers 
(New  York),  i.,  151-155.     He  was  a  very  strong  millenarian. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Papier-liiacli^'  [=  Fr.,  liter.,  chewed  or  macerated  paper] : 
a  manufactured  material  composed  chiefly  of  paper-pulp  or 
of  paper  in  sheets,  combined  with  various  adhesive  sub- 
stances, coloring-matters,  etc.;  usually  pressed  to  the  desired 
form  in  suitable  moulds.  This  material,  although  compara- 
tively modern  anunig  civilized  nation.s,  is  nevertheless  of 
great  antiquity  in  China,  where  doubtless  it  originated.  In 
Kashmir  the  manufacture  has  long  been  established,  and 
under  the  name  of  kar-i-kalamdani ,  or  pen-tray  work,  the 
production  of  boxes,  trays,  and  cases  of  papier-mache  is  a 
prominent  industry.  Paper-pulp  was  combined  with  gums 
and  china  clay  by  Martin,  a  German  snuff-box  maker,  who 
is  said  to  have  learned  the  art  in  France  about  1740.  There 
are  three  processes  by  which  the  bodies  of  papier-mache 
articles  are  manufactured — the  first  consists  in  mixing  paper- 
pulp  with  gum,  resin,  paste,  or  glue,  and  then  placing  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  the  mixture  in  a  mould  and  subjecting 
it  to  heavy  pressure ;  in  the  second  process  heavy  sheets  of 
softened  mill-board  made  from  pulp  are  pressed  to  the  de- 
sired shape  in  moulds  ;  the  third  process  (invented  by  Henry 
Clay,  of  Birmingham,  in  1772)  employs  spongy  paper  (similar 
to  thin  blotting-paper),  layers  of  which  are  glued  or  pasted 
together  and  pressed  into  moulds.  This  process  is  considered 
the  best,  as  from  the  uniformity  of  its  substance  it  produces 
the  strongest  work;  but  tlie  other  methods  are  cheaper,  and 
are  still  used  for  many  small  articles. 

When  the  bodies  of  the  articles  are  removed  from  the 
moulds,  they  are  dried,  filed,  smoothed,  varnished,  ornament- 
ed, and  polished.  Soon  after  the  invention  of  llmry  Clay's 
process  the  manufacture  of  papier-mache  in  liiriiiingliam 
rapidly  increased,  and  in  1780  embraced  a  large  variety  of 
articles,  such  as  tallies,  chaii's,  cabinets,  tea-trays,  cad(lies, 
jianels  for  doors  and  ceilings,  coaches,  sedan-chairs,  snuff- 
boxes, etc. 

Pearl-shell  inlaying  was  patented  by  George  Santer  in 
1825.  There  is  also  a  process  of  transferring  colorcil  designs 
from  tracing-paper,  which  wasp.atented  in  England  in  1856. 
These  methocts  of  decoration  have  been  used  in  a  most  ex- 
travagant and  inartistic  manner,  and  have  contributed  in 
no  small  degree  to  cause  a  decline  in  the  po|iular  apprecia- 
tion of  manufactures  of  papier-mache,  which  is  a  very  suit- 
able material  for  a  large  variety  of  decorative  and  construc- 
tive uses,  being  a  light,  tough,  strong,  durable  .'sulistance, 
possessed  of  some  elasticity,  little  liable  to  warp  or  fracture, 
and  unaffected  by  damp.  W.  F.  DiiRFBE. 

Papiliona'eea* ;  See  Leguminos.1;. 


I'Al'lX 


parA 


429 


Pap'ln,  Denis:  physicist  and  inventor;  b.  at  Blois, 
Fiance,  Aug.  22.  1647;  stmlied  medicine  at  Paris  and  jirac- 
ticed  for  some  time  as  a  physician,  but  lU'Voted  liiiuself  suli- 
seciuently  tu  tlie  study  of  pliysiirs  and  matliemalics  under 
lluyghens;  visiteil  England,  and  received  in  lOHT  a  profes- 
sorship in  matliematics  at  .Marhurg  in  the  present  Prussian 
province  of  Hesse,  wliere  lie  died  about  1712.  His  writings 
are  numerous,  but  are  scattered  in  Acta  Erudilorum,  Jii- 
ciieil  di!  diverse.^  /Vrfe-s,  I'liilosophicnl  7'ra)ixactiokv,  etc.; 
they  contain  many  valuable  discoveries,  most  of  which, 
however,  were  not  fully  recognized  during  his  lifetime.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  the  so-called  Papin's  digester.  (See  l)l- 
GESTEK,  P.\Pi.N''s.)  It  also  a[)i)ears  that  in  1707  he  tried  on 
the  river  Fulda  a  vessel  propelled  by  padiUes  operated  by  a 
steam-engine.  He  improved  the  pneumatic  machine  in- 
vented by  Otto  von  Guericke.  and  was  active  in  the  contro- 
versy with  Leibnitz  concerning  the  so-called  "dead"  and 
"  living"  forces. 

PapiiiPiiu,  pa"a'pee'no,  Louis  Joseph:  political  leader;  b. 
at  Montreal,  Oct.,  1789 ;  studied  at  the  Seminary  of  Quebec, 
and  became  an  advocate  :  in  isoil  entered  the  Canadian  Par- 
liament, and  in  ISl.i,  and  again  in  1!^27,  was  Speaker  of  the 
lower  house  ;  but  Lord  Dalhousie,  who  had  tried  in  vain  to 
conciliate  him  with  the  conservative  party,  in  the  latter 
year  adjourned  the  Parliament  to  prevent  Pajiineau  from 
acting  as  Speaker.  He  was  after  that  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  Lower  Canadian  radicals,  or  French  ])arty,  and 
after  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  of  1837  {which  he 
did  not  approve)  was  accused  of  high  treason  and  escaped 
to  the  U.  S..  and  thence  in  18*,)  wi'iit  to  France.  In  1847 
he  returned  to  t^anada,  and  though  .sent  to  Parliament  and 
highly  popular  with  the  French  element,  he  never  again  as- 
sumed ieadershi]).     1).  at  Montebello,  Ijuebec,  .Sept.  23, 1871. 

Pnpinia'niis,  ^-Emilius  :  a  Roman  jurist,  probably  from 
Syria,  who  ludd  high  and  inlhientia!  positions  under  the 
reign  of  Septimius  Severus,  and  was  i>rad'ectus  pra'torio 
205-212,  but  was  put  to  death  in  212  by  Caracalla.  His 
works — 37  books  of  QiKrxfinni/s,  10  of  liesponsci,  2  of  Deji- 
nitiones,  et<\ — were  considered  thi'  highest  authority  in  Ro- 
man jurisprudence,  and  several  of  the  most  eminent  Roman 
jurists,  as,  for  instance,  Ulpian  and  Paulus,  were  his  disci- 
ples. The  Ditjests  contain  .iWo  e.xtracts  from  his  works,  but 
generally  they  are  very  short.  See  also  Huschke.  Jurispru- 
dent i<e  antejufitinianeip,  pp.  436-449  (Leipzig,  18H6). 

Revised  by  M.  W.hrren. 

Pap'piis  (in  Or.  riaTnros)  OF  Alexa.ndri.^  :  a  inatheniati- 
<'ian  who  flourished  in  the  second  half  of  either  the  third  or 
fourth  century  A.  u.  His  most  important  work  was  the 
Ma^Tj/iaTixal  Swaywyaf  (Mathenuitical  Collections),  contain- 
ing besides  his  own  work  eX[ilanations  of  earlier  mathema- 
ticians, with  extracts  and  his  own  criticisms  on  them,  in 
eight  books,  of  which  the  last  six  and  part  of  the  second 
have  been  preserved.  These  are  of  value  in  the  history  of 
mathematics.  A  Latin  translation  appeared  in  1588,  and 
portions  of  the  Greek  text  have  been  ]p\iblished  several 
times.  A  complete  edition  is  by  Friedrich  llultsch  (3  vols., 
Berlin,  1875-78). 

Papua  :  See  New  GtriNKA. 

Papy'rus  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  -ndirv/m!]:  a  large  reed,  various 
parts  of  which  were  em|)loyed  by  the  Egyptians  in  the  con- 
struction of  boats,  mats,  baskets,  and  ot  her  woven  fabrics,  but 
partii'ularly  in  the  preparation  of  writing-paper.  It  is  known 
as  Cupirua  papyrus  { //api/rux  anlitptiirum).  and  is  extinct 
in  Egypt,  being  found  only  in  remote  parts  of  Abyssinia, 
It  is  also  said  to  occur  in  Western  Asia.  There  is  some 
doubt  whether  it  was  native  to  Egypt,  but  the  representa- 
tions on  the  monnments,  showing  rank  pajiyriis-grown 
swamps  where  water-fowl  abounded,  indicate  an  absence  of 
regular  culture.  In  the  liieroglyiiliic  writing  the  papyrus 
plant  is  employed  as  the  symbol  of  Lower  F.g.vp'.  'I'he 
stalks  were  triangular,  from  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  and 
12  to  15  feet  high.  The  roots  were  used  for  fuel,  and  a 
part  of  the  inside  of  tlie  .stalk  was  edible.  For  paper-mak- 
ing a  piece  of  the  stalk  of  a  length  corresponding  to  the 
width  of  paper  recpiired  was  cut  off,  the  rind  was  removed, 
and  the  inner  portion  was  unrolled  with  a  needle  or  a  shar]i 
knife.  Upim  this  sheet  another  was  placed  transversely,  and 
the  two  were  joined  by  the  juice  of  the  plant  or  by  il  tliin 
gum,  the  union  lieing  enforced  by  lii'avy  pressure.  The 
sheets  were  smoothed  and  afterward  bleached  by  exposure 
to  the  sun.  The  color  varied  from  a  gray  or  yellow  to  a 
rich  brown.    The  sheets  varied  from  6  to  17  inches  in  width, 


and  any  required  length  was  obtained  by  fastening  a  num- 
ber of  sheets  together  end  to  end.  Tlie  usual  width  was 
about  8  inches.  The  I'a/iijni.t  liarris  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum is  the  longest  known,  being  135  feet,  and  a  fairly  full 
co]iy  of  the  liiriAL  of  the  Dead  {ij.  v.)  recniired  a  roll  15 
inches  wide  and  from  80  lo  90  feet  long.  The  better  quali- 
ties had  only  two  layers  of  fibers:  three  layers  indicate  in- 
ferior grades.  Specimens  have  been  preserved  which  date 
from  the  Middle  Kingdom,  and  the  use  of  papyrus  con- 
tinued till  the  twelfth  century  ill  Eurojie.  For  a  long  time 
it  was  an  article  of  Egyptian  ex[iort.  and  in  great  demand. 
Probably  it  was  never  chea])  even  in  Egypt,  if  we  may  judge 
by  the  fact  that  it  was  often  u.sed  a  second  time,  the  fir.st 
writing  having  been  removed  by  washing.  In  later  limes 
there  were  various  grades  which  were  known  as  cliarta 
regia,  Augu.sta,  hieratica,  Livia,  Saitica,  etc.  Fanniana  was 
the  name  given  to  a  papyrus  retreated  and  improved  at 
Rome.  With  regard  to  writing  on  papvrus.  its  methods  and 
subjects,  see  Eovptiax  Lasguaue  ax'd  Liter.\tiire.  See 
also  Taylor,  Trnnsnuxsion  of  Ancient  Hnolis;  Rirt,  Das 
antike  Bucltwcucn:  and  Budge,  The  Miimmt/.  See  also 
Sedge  Family.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Parfi  :  a  state  of  Brazil,  occupying  the  lower  porticm  of 
the  Amazon  valley;  bounded  X.  bv  British,  Dutch,  and 
French  Guiana,  N,"E.  by  the  Atlant/io,  E.  by  Maranhao,  S. 
by  Goyaz  and  Matto  Grosso,  and  W.  by  Amazonas.  Area 
(allowing  the  Brazilian  claims  for  disputed  boundaries  on 
the  side  of  (hiiana),  about  714,000  sq.  miles.  Pop.  (esti- 
mated, 1892)  4!l.'),417.  The  Guiana  t.able-lands,  in  the  north- 
ern part,  have  an  elevation  of  some  2,700  feet,  and  outlving 
portions  near  the  Amazon  are  nearly  1,000  feet  high;"  the 
Brazilian  plateau,  2.500  feet  high  on  the  confines  of  Matto 
Gros.so.  falls  gradually  to  about  300  feet  near  the  Amazon. 
Between  these  the  plains  of  the  Amazonian  depression  are 
in  some  places  not  more  than  30  miles  wide,  but  broaden 
out  westward  into  the  state  of  Amazonas  and  eastward 
toward  the  Atlantic  ;  the  flood-lands  of  the  river  have  an 
average  width  of  about  25  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the 
Xingi'i,  and  below  it  they  are  much  wider.  The  Amazon 
itself,  with  its  numerous  side  channels,  forms  an  unrivaled 
system  of  interior  communication.  This  is  supplemented 
by  the  Para  and  Tocantins,  with  a  network  of  channels  con- 
necting them  with  the  Amazon.  The  whole  state  seems 
covered  with  forest;  but,  hidden  from  the  river  by  lines  of 
trees,  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  grass  on  the  flood-iilain.s, 
and  especially  on  the  great  island  of  Marajo  ;  large  ;ireas  on 
the  plateaus,  with  some  near  the  river,  have  only  the  low, 
scrubby  growth  of  the  Brazilian  ccimpos.  Though'  the  state 
is  directly  under  the  equator,  the  climate,  tempered  by  the 
trade  winds,  is  nowhere  excessively  warm  ;  its  equability 
and  general  healthfulness  make  it  "especially  beneficial  for 
invalids.  IMalarial  fevers  are  confined  to  portions  of  the 
swampy  lowlands  and  to  the  branches  of  the  Amazon  ;  yel- 
low fever  is  rarely  cpiilemic ;  the  African  disease  called 
beri-beri  is  sometimes  prevalent  on  the  flood-lands.  From 
the  first  the  settlement  of  Pani  proceeded  along  the  lines  of 
the  rivers,  and  it  has  never  gone  much  beyond  them  ;  with 
only  one  short  railway  and  hardly  any  common  roads,  com- 
munication is  almost  entirely  by  .steamboats  or  canoes.  A 
few  Indians  wander  wild  in  the  interior,  but  the  greater 
part  are  civilized  or  submissive  lo  the  whites,  forming  the 
mass  of  the  country  population.  The  most  important  in- 
dustries are  the  extraction  of  forest  products,  especially  rub- 
ber; sugar-cane  (used  mainly  for  making  rum),  cacao  or 
chocolate  beans,  tobacco,  and  manioc  are  the  priiici|>al  agri- 
cultural iirodiicts ;  and  on  the  open  lands  tlie  grazing  in- 
dustry has  attained  some  importance.  The  iirincipal  ex- 
ports, in  the  order  of  their  value,  are  rubber,  cacao,  hides, 
and  Brazil-mils  :  mueh  of  the  trade  is  with  the  U.  .S.  The 
revenue  is  derived  mainly  from  a  tax  on  rubber,  and  the 
slate  has  nearly  always  a  surplus.  The  Portuguese  settled 
Para  in  Kill!,  driving  out  Dutch  and  French  traders.  After 
Brazil  became  independent  this  region  was  ravaged  by  a  re- 
bellion of  the  lower  classes,  183.5-37,  Amazonas  was  sepa- 
rated from  Para  in  18.52.  See  II.  H.  Smith,  Brazil  (1879) ; 
the  Traveh  of  II.  W.  Bates.  A.  R.  Wallace,  and  William  H. 
Edwards  ;  The  State  of  Fard  :  Xotes  for  the  Exposition  of 
Chicat/o  (ISiVi).  '  Herbert  II.  Smith. 

Parfi.  officially  Jielcm  :  capital  and  principal  city  of  the 
stale  of  Pani;  (m  a  low  point  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
(iiiaimi  in  the  Pani;  85  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  latter 
in  the  .Vtlantic  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  3-F).  It  's 
regularly  laid  out  with  wide  streets,  which,  except  in  the 


430 


PARABLE 


business  portion,  are  julorned  with  mangrove  and  other 
trees.  The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the 
custom-house  (formerly  a  Jesuit  convent),  and  the  Govern- 
ment theater  ;  the  president's  and  bishop's  palaces  and  the 
house  of  the  legislature  are  plain  buildings.  The  finest  resi- 
dences are  in  the  quarter  called  Nazare,  formerly  a  suburb  ; 
many  of  them  are  surrounded  by  extensive  gardens,  which 
are  often  allowed  to  run  partly  to  waste,  presenting  an  ex- 
ceedingly picturesque  appearance.  The  chapel  of  Nazare  is  a 
noted  resort,  and  the  yearly  festival  held  here  attracts  thou- 
sands of  visitors.  Tropical  forest,  swampy  in  many  places, 
comes  close  to  the  city,  and  the  suburban  streets  require 
constant  care  to  keep  them  from  the  encroachments  of  vege- 
tation. Parii  has  a  marine  arsenal,  a  botanical  garden,  a 
small  museum,  library,  theological  seminary,  and  good  pub- 
lic and  private  schools.  It  is  the  commercial  metropolis  of 
the  Amazon  valley  ;  its  exports  of  rubber  far  exceed  those 
of  any  other  port  in  the  world,  averaging  (including  that  in 
transit)  over  8,000,000  lb.  annually.  Owing  to  strong  tides 
and  shallows  near  the  city  the  harbor  facilities  are  poor; 
light-draught  river-steamers  dischai'ge  directly  at  wharves, 
but  large  vessels  are  obliged  to  anchor  some  miles  below. 
Pop.  (1893)  estimated  with  suburbs,  65,000.    H.  H.  Smith. 

Parable  [from  0.  Pr.  parable,  parabole  >  Pr.  parabnle  < 
Lat.  para'bula  =  Gr.  napaffox-fi,  a  placing  beside,  comparison, 
parable,  liter.,  a  throwing  alongside ;  irapi,  beside  +  $a,\Xeti>. 
throw] :  a  short  fictitious  narrative  intended  to  illustrate 
some  point  in  moral  or  religious  teaching.  Parables  abound 
alike  in  the  teaching  of  Christ  and  in  the  Jewish  Talmudi- 
cal  writings;  but  the  parables  of  Christ  (not  used  by  him  in 
the  beginning  of  his  ministry,  but  only  after  he  had  en- 
countered opposition)  immensely  surpass  all  others. 

Parab'ola  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  jrapajSoA.^,  parabola,  liter., 
a  throwing  alongside,  so  called  from  its  direction  as  com- 
pared to  a  side  or  element  of  the  cone.  See  Parable]  :  a 
plane  curve  of  the  second  degree,  with  a  single  branch  ex- 
tending to  infinity.  In  modern  geometry  it  is  defined  as  a 
curve  of  the  second  degree,  touching  the  line  at  infinity. 
(See  Geometry.)  This  curve  is  the  section  of  a  right  cone 
by  a  plane  parallel  to  one  of  its  tangent  planes,  from  which 
point  of  view  it  was  originally  considered. 

It  is  a  property  of  the  parabola  that  every  part  of  the 
curve  is  equally  distant  from  a  fixed  point  and  from  a  given 
straight  line.  The  fixed  point  is  called  the  focus,  the  given 
line  is  the  directrix,  and  a  straight  line  through  the  focus 
perpendicular  to  the  directrix  is  the  priticipal  axis.  At 
every  point  of  the  curve  the  line  from  the  focus  and  a  par- 
allel to  the  axis  make  equal  angles  with  the  tangent — that 
is,  the  two  first  lines  are  reflections  of  each  other  with  re- 
gard to  the  surface  formed  by  the  revolution  of  the  curve 
round  its  axis.  (See  Paraboloid.)  Any  line  parallel  to  the 
principal  axis  is  called  a  diameter,  and  every  diameter  bi- 
sects all  the  chords  of  the  curve  that  are  parallel  to  the  tan- 
gent at  the  point  where  it  meets. the  curve.  The  principal 
axis  is  therefore  a  line  of  right  symmetry,  and  every  other 
diameter  is  a  line  of  oblique  symmetry.  The  breadth  of  the 
curve  through  the  focus  is  called  the  parameter  of  the 
curve  ;  it  is  also  called  the  parameter  of  the  principal  axis. 
The  parameter  of  any  diameter,  including  the  parameter  of 
the  principal  axis,  is  equal  to  four  times  the  distance  from 
the  focus  to  the  vertex  of  that  diameter.  If  we  neglect  the 
resistance  of  tlie  air  and  consider  gravity  as  acting  in  paral- 
lel lines,  the  path  of  a  projectile  is  a  parabola  with  its  axis 
vertical  and  its  vertex  at  the  highest  point  of  the  path. 
The  equation  of  the  parabola  in  Cartesian  co-ordinates  is 
y'  =  px,  where  p  is  the  parameter,  and  it  has  this  form  if 
the  curve  be  referred  to  any  diameter  and  the  tangent  at 
the  point  where  it  meets  the  curve.  The  curves  included  in 
the  form  j/»  =  px'",  where  m  and  ?i  are  positive  integer  num- 
bers, have  been  called  parabolas.  Thus  the  curve  y=px^ 
is  called  the  cubical  parabola  and  j/'  =px^  the  semi-cubical 
parabola.  The  curve  y  —  a  +  bx  +  ex"  +dx^  +  etc.  -I-  fx'  has 
also  been  called  a  parabola  of  the  nth  degree. 

Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Parab'oloid  [Or.  Tropo^ox^,  parabola  -I-  suffix  -aid,  hav- 
ing the  form  of]  :  a  surface  of  the  second  order  whose  plane 
sections  parallel  to  a  certain  right  line  are  parabolas.  In 
modern  geonu'try  it  is  defined  as  a  surface  of  the  second  de- 
gree, touching  the  plane  at  infinity.  There  are  two  principal 
kinds,  the  elliptic  and  the  hyperbolic.  In  both  paraboloids 
all  sections  parallel  to  the  straight  line  called  the  axis  are 
parabolas,  while  in  the  elliptic  paraboloid  all  other  sections 
are  ellipses.     If  the  sections  of  the  latter  perpendicular  to 


PARACHUTE 

the  axis  are  circles,  the  surface  is  generated  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  a  parabola  about  its  axis.  This  surface  is  such  that 
parallel  rays  of  light  falling  upon  it  in  the  direction  of  the 
axis  are  accurately  reflected  to  a  fixed  point  called  the  focus. 
(See  Parabola.)  It  is  also  the  form  of  the  free  boundary  of 
a  fluid  rotating  under  the  action  of  gravity.  (See  Hydro- 
statics, Surface  of  Liquids.)  Hyperbolic  paraboloids  are 
ruled  surfaces  admitting  of  two  modes  of  generation.  All 
sections  except  by  tangent  planes  and  those  mentioned  above 
are  hyperbolas.  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Paracatfi  :  a  town  in  the  western  part  of  the  state  of 
]Minas  Geraes,  Brazil ;  close  to  the  boundary  of  Goyaz  ;  near 
a  river  of  the  same  name,  a  western  affluent  of  the  Sao 
Francisco.  It  was  formerly  noted  for  its  rich  gold  wash- 
ings, which  are  now  nearly  abandoned  ;  it  is  the  center  of  a 
rich  grazing  district,  and  has  a  thriving  trade  with  Goyaz 
and  Bahia.  Cofl'ee  and  sugar-cane  are  grown  on  a  consid- 
erable scale  in  the  vicinity.     Pop.  10,000.  H.  H.  S. 

Paracel'sus :  physician  and  author;  the  assumed  name 
of  Philippus  Aureolus  Theophrastus  Bombastus  von  Hoh- 
enheim  ;  b.  at  Einsiedeln,  Switzerland,  in  1493 ;  the  son  of 
a  physician.  He  read  the  works  of  the  alchemists  and  ma- 
gicians, and  traveled  on  foot  far  and  wide  collecting  infor- 
mation regarding  the  healing  art  from  barbers,  blacksmiths, 
and  wise  women;  spent  much  time  in  the  mines  of  the 
Tyrol ;  took  the  degree  of  doctor  in  medicine  ;  served  for  a 
time  as  a  military  surgeon  in  Denmark,  the  Low  Countries, 
and  Italy,  and  then  resumed  his  wanderings,  fficolarapa- 
dius  procured  him  a  professorship  of  medicine  and  surgery 
at  Basel  (1526),  but  he  was  soon  compelled  to  leave  the  place 
(1537)  by  the  Galenic  physicians,  for  he  openly  Ijurned  Ga- 
len's books  and  denounced  the  Arabian  masters,  then  so  gen- 
erally studied.  Erasmus  was  one  of  his  patients.  If  we 
may  believe  his  adversaries,  Paracelsus  was  almost  always 
drunk,  and  was  guilty  of  gross  irregularities;  certain  it  is 
that  he  had  to  resume  his  wandering  life,  and  that  after 
many  strange  vicissitudes  he  was  thrown  from  a  window 
and  killed  by  the  servants  of  a  physician  at  Salzburg,  Sept. 
33,  1541.  He  left  six  professional  treatises,  besides  a  large 
number  of  works  which  bear  his  name,  some  of  which  were 
written  by  his  enemies  to  injure  his  reputation,  and  others 
by  fanatical  admirers.  His  lectures  also  were  delivered  with 
great  rapidity,  and  published  by  his  hearers  in  a  very  im- 
perfect state.  Paracelsus,  though  he  displayed  many  traits 
of  the  charlatan,  lived  a  useful  life.  The  profession  of  medi- 
cine at  his  time  needed  reformation  quite  as  much  as  the 
Church  did.  He  destroyed  the  humoral  pathology,  broke 
the  tyranny  of  Galen  and  his  Arabian  followers,  and  intro- 
duced many  new  and  valuable  remedies.  His  empiricism 
was  based  upon  the  principles  of  careful  observation  now 
universally  recognized.  He  paid  great  attention  to  diet, 
condemned  the  use  of  strong  evacuants  and  the  abuse  of 
mercury,  avoided  the  excessive  mixing  of  drugs,  and  strove 
to  reduce  the  overdosing  then  so  prevalent.  He  is  called  an 
alchemist,  although  he  condemned  the  search  for  the  trans- 
mutation of  gold,  and  an  astrologist,  although  he  opposed 
the  study  of  astrology.  A  curious  work  regarding  spirits  is 
ascribed  to  him,  and  the  strange  jargon  regarding  sylphs, 
pygmies,  undines,  gnomes,  salamanders,  and  other  "ele- 
mental spirits "'  is  commonly  thought  to  have  been  invented 
by  him ;  so  that  believers  in  the  existence  of  such  beings 
are  called  Paracelsists ;  but  it  is  probable  that  he  never 
wrote  the  work  {Liber  de  Nymphis,  etc.,  Basel,  1590),  for  he 
elsewhere  ridicules  all  such  ideas.  He  taught  a  singular 
theosophy — a  kind  of  pantheistic  system  in  which  the  Cab- 
balah  was  combined  with  natural  science  founded  on  expe- 
rience and  experiment,  but  the  distinction  he  made  between 
faith  and  reason  as  two  different  organs  of  perception,  each 
with  its  own  field  of  activity,  resembles  modern  attempts 
of  the  same  tendency.  See  Tlie  Hermetic  and  Alchemical 
Writings  of  Paracelsus  (3  vols.,  London,  1894). 

Parachute  [  =  Fr.  (by  analogy  of  Lat.  para're,  get  ready, 
ward  off,  or  of  words  beginning  with  prefix  para-) ;  parer, 
prepare,  ward  off  +  chute,  fall] :  a  machine  first  successfully 
employed  by  Blanchard  at  Strassburg  in  1787,  and  designed 
to  enable  aeronauts  to  descend  safely  to  the  ground  from  a 
balloon.  It  is  shaped  like  an  umbrella,  and  is  taken  np  in  a 
collapsed  or  closed  form.  The  car  is  first  attached  beneath 
the  parachute,  and  the  balloon  above  the  whole ;  a  rope 
passing  through  the  hollow  stem  of  the  parachute  attaches 
the  balloon  to  the  car  ;  this  rope  is  cut  at  the  proper  time, 
the  car  falls  rapiilly,  and  the  parachute  is  expanded  by  the 
action   of  the  air.     The   car's  downward  motion   is  thus 


PARADISE 


PARAGUAY 


431 


checked,  ami  it  descends  slowly  toward  the  earth.  In  prac- 
tice, the  parachute  is  not  to  be  depended  npon.  It  is  liable 
to  oscillations,  which  frequently  prove  fatal  to  the  ai^ronaut. 

Paradise  [from  C).  Fr.  pciradix  <  Lat.  paradi'sus  =  Gr. 
■napaSeiffos,  from  Zend  pairidaeza,  inclosurc  ;  pain',  around 
+  i//i,  tlirow  up,  pile  up]  :  a  park  or  pleasure-ground  ;  es- 
pecially the  Hebrew  Kde.v  (q.  v.).  The  IJible  uses  the  term 
in  a  double  sense — first,  for  the  garden  of  Eden,  and  next 
for  the  aliode  of  the  blessed  in  heaven  (Luke  xxiii.  4:i).  It 
is  remarkable,  however,  that  in  the  discourses  of  Christ, 
public  or  private,  the  word  occurs  only  this  one  time,  in 
the  words  which  Christ  spoke  to  the  penitent  robber.  Meta- 
[ihorically.  it  is  <iften  used  synonymously  with  heaven,  de- 
nolinj;  tiie  future  bliss  which  awaits  the  righteous.  See 
Heavk.v. 

Paradiso'itisp  [Mod.  Lat.  See  Paradise]:  a  family  of 
birds  containing  the  Kirdsop  Paradise  ((/.  y.),  distinguished 
by  their  curious  plumage,  and  closely  related  to  the  Corri- 
da: The  bill  is  moderately  elongated,  strong,  slightly  de- 
curved  ;  the  base  of  the  bill,  as  well  as  nostrils,  is  covered 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  short  feathers  ;  the  wings  are 
long'and  rounded  ;  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  plumage  are 
developed  feathers  of  various  forms  and  styles,  diverging 
from  the  shoulders,  sides,  and  caudal  region  ;  the  feet  are 
robust ;  the  toes  with  long  curved  claws.  The  species  are 
confined  to  the  islands  of  New  Guinea  and  its  vicinity. 
Something  like  forty-five  species  are  known,  most  of  which 
are  descril)ed  and  figured  in  Elliot's  ilunograph  of  the  I'a- 
radiseidte.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Paradise  of  the  West :  See  SukhavatI. 

Parado\'ure  [from  Mod.  Lat.  name  Prtrorfo.rH>»s  ;  Gr. 
irapaSo^os.  incredible  +  ovpi,  tail] :  any  inemher  of  the  genus 
I'aradojurus  of  the  family  Viverrid^  (q.  v.). 

Para'stliesla  :  See  Formication. 

Paraffin,  or  Parafflne  [Lat.  pa'rum,  little,  too  little  -l- 
affi  ni-t.  akin]  :  a  beautiful  white  waxy  solid  which  occurs 
native  in  the  mineral  wax  ozokerite,  found  in  Galicia,  Utah, 
and  elsewhere,  and  in  some  kinds  of  petroleum,  and  also 
found  in  coal  and  shale  oil,  and  the  products  of  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  many  other  organic  bodies,  as  oil,  fats, 
wax,  wood,  peat,  albertite.  grahamite,  etc.  It  was  discovered 
by  Reichenbach  in  18;i0  in  wood-tar. 

Preparation. — (1)  Paraffin  is  obtained  from  ozokerite  by 
distillation,  cooling,  and  pressing  the  product,  and  purifying 
it  by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  soda,  wash- 
ing and  pressing.  It  is  also  purified  by  repeatedly  melting 
it  with  petroleum  naphtha  and  subjecting  it  to  pressure. 
(3)  By  similar  means  it  is  prepared  from  the  heavier  por- 
tions of  coal  oil  and  petroleum,  which  solidify  on  cooling, 
owing  to  the  crystallization  of  the  paraffin. 

Composition. — Paraffin  is  generally  a  mixture  of  two  or 
more  members  of  t  he  jjaraffin  series  of  hydrocarbons,  CjiIIsa, 
CasIUi,  CaoIIjo.  C30II611.  etc.  C'nllso  contains  carbon  85'26 
and  hydrogen  14-74;  CsoHea  contains  carbon  85!31  and  hy- 
drogen 14'6!). 

Properties. — A  translucent  crystalline  solid,  while  in  mass- 
es, odorless  and  tasteless,  resembling  spernuiceli.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  about  0'870  ;  it  melts  at  from  lltJ  to  14!)  P.,  and 
forms  a  colorless  oil  which  solidifies  into  a  crystalline  mass. 
It  boils  at  about  fiOO'  F..  and  nuiy  be  distilled  with  but  lit- 
tle decomposition,  especially  if  the  distillation  is  aided  by  a 
current  of  superheated  steam.  That  obtained  from  ozoker- 
ite has  the  highest  melting-point,  and  is  consequently  pre- 
ferred for  the  manufacture  of  candles.  It  is  insolulilc  in 
water,  but  dissolves  in  2'85  parts  of  boiling  alcohol,  separat- 
ing almost  completely  on  cooling,  in  crystals.  It  is  more 
soluble  in  ether,  oils,  and  naphthas.  Acids,  alkalies,  and 
chlorine  have  little  eflfect  upon  it ;  whence  its  name,  liy 
the  loiig-continu<'d  action  of  nitro-sulphuric  acid  it  is  con- 
verted into  paratlinic  arid.  Heated  with  sulphur,  it  yields 
impure  sulpburclled  hydrogen. 

llse-t. — Paraffin  has  numerous  important  applications  in 
the  arts.  Beautiful  candles  are  made  from  it.  but  when  the 
more  fusible  varieties  are  employed,  the  candles  are  liable 
to  droop  and  lose  their  form.  The  crystalline.structure  also 
interferes  with  the  manufacture  of  candles,  but  this  is  met 
by  the  use  of  small  percentages  of  wax,  etc.,  and  by  chilling 
the  moulds,  after  the  melted  paraffin  is  poured  into  them, 
by  placing  them  in  cold  water.  It  is  extensively  used  for 
waterproofing  fabrics,  cloth,  and  leather  for  shoes,  even 
dress  silks,  which  are  thus  protected  from  stains.  It  is  used 
for  protecting  from  rust  or  decay,  and  putrefaction,  meat, 


fruit,  timber,  metaks.  cartridges,  pills,  etc.:  for  making  tight 
the  stop[)crs  of  acid  bottles;  as  a  substitute  for  sulphur  in 
the  manufacture  of  matches  ;  for  oil-baths  of  constant  tem- 
perature ;  for  refining  alcohol  and  spirits,  by  passing  the 
vapor  during  distillation  through  melted  paraffin,  which 
abstracts  the  fusel  oil;  considerable  quantities  are  used  for 
chewing-gum.  Uncrystallized  or  amorphous  paraffin  is  in 
very  common  use  in  the  well-known  vaseline  or  petroleum 
ointment.     See  Bitumen,  Hydrocahuoxs,  and  Petroleum. 

Revised  by  S.  F.  Peckham. 

Paraguay,  par'aa-gwl  (Sp.  RepiMira  del  Paraguay) :  the 
smallest  of  tlie  South  American  republics,  except,  Uruguay ; 
between  Bolivia  on  the  N.,  Brazil  on  the  N.  and  F.,  and  the 
Argentine  Republic  on  the  S.  E.,  S.,  and  W.  Area,  accord- 
ing to  official  figures.  97,707  sq.  miles  ;  but  this  is  only  ap- 
proximate, as  the  boundary  with  Bolivia  is  unsettled. 

Topography. — The  river  Paraguay  divides  the  country 
into  two  well-marked  sections.  The  portion  W.  of  the 
Paraguay  is  a  low  plain,  a  wilderness  of  swamps,  forest,  and 
grass-lands.  This  region,  the  Paraguayan  Chaco,  is  de- 
scribed in  the  article  (iran  (^iiaco  (q.  1'.).  The  remaining 
and  larger  portion  (about  62,000  sq.  miles)  is  sometimes  dis- 
tinguished as  Paraguay  proper.  It  occupies  a  peninsula 
formed  by  the  rivers  Paraguay  and  upper  Paraiui,  which 
unite  at  the  southwestern  extremity  ;  the  northern  bound- 
ary is  the  river  Apa,  a  branch  of  the  Paraguay,  and  the 
northeastern  is  formed  by  lines  of  hills,  the  continuation  of 
a  line  of  heights  which  begins  about  7o  miles  E.  S.  E.  of 
Asuncion,  and  extends  X.  N.  E.  across  the  country.  The 
heights,  improperly  called  sierras  and  Cordilleras,  appear 
to  be  nothing  more  than  the  eastern  and  southern  edges  of 
an  extension  of  the  Brazilian  plateau,  which  occupies  all 
the  northern  and  central  parts  of  Paraguay ;  but  this  pla- 
teau is  so  cut  up  by  river  valleys  and  varied  with  hills  that 
it  has  lost  the  character  of  a  table-land.  The  maximum  ele- 
vation is  probably  less  than  2,,500  feet.  The  steep  edges 
are,  at  the  highest  part,  close  to  the  divide  between  the 
affluents  of  the  Paraguay  and  Parana.  On  the  western  side 
the  country  falls  irregularly  but  gradually  to  the  rolling 
lands  and "  plains  bordering  the  Paraguay.  The  hills  of 
Southern  Paraguay  and  the  upper  Parana  valley  are  spurs 
and  t>utlying  portions  of  the  same  plateau.  The  southwest- 
ern corner  of  the  country  is  nearly  all  occupied  by  an  ex- 
tensive swampy  plain,  with  several  shallow  lakes  :  and  there 
are  smaller  swamps  farther  N.,  along  the  course  of  the 
Paraguay.  A  large  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  upper 
Parana  "and  the  central  hills  arc  covered  with  forest ; 
toward  the  Paraguay  this  gives  place  to  open  lands  suitable 
for  grazing.  The  rivers  Paraguay  and  Parana  (qq.  v.)  are 
natural  highways  of  great  importance.  The  Jejuy  and 
Tibicuary,  affluents  of  the  Paraguay,  are  both  navigable, 
and  promise  to  be  of  great  commercial  value.  The  other 
Paraguayan  branches  of  the  two  rivers  are  numerous,  but 
generally  short  and  navigable  for  only  a  few  miles. 

Climate. — Though  two-thirds  of  the  republic  is  in  the 
south  temperate  zone,  the  climate  is  tropical ;  but  the  tem- 
perature varies  considerably,  according  to  the  prevalence  of 
S.  or  N.  E.  winds.  The  mean  for  the  year  is  about  73° 
F.  ;  in  December  and  January  the  thermometer  occa- 
sionally rises  above  100°  at  Asuncion,  and  from  May  to 
August  light  frosts  are  sometimes  felt  wlieu  the  S.  wind 
blows.  There  is  no  well-marked  dry  season;  showers  are 
more  abundant  in  the  warm  months,  "from  October  to  April. 
In  November  and  December  and  in  June  there  are  frequent 
tempests,  with  torrential  rains.  The  whole  of  Paraguay  is 
healthful,  even  in  the  swampy  districts  of  the  southwest; 
malarial  fevers  are  not  common,  and  destructive  epidemics 
are  rare.  The  common  diseases  arise  mainly  from  poor  and 
insufiicient  food  ;  lung  troubles  are  almost  unknown. 
Goitre  and  elephantiasis  are  endemic  in  a  few  districts. 

Fauna.  Flora,  etc. — The  animals  and  plants  resemble 
those  of  Brazil,  but  there  is  an  intermixture  of  the  tem- 
perate forms  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  Jaguars,  tapirs, 
deer,  wild  hogs,  etc.,  are  abundant  in  the  wilder  districts, 
and  the  Paraguay,  especially,  swarms  with  alligators.  The 
river-fisheries  are  very  productive.  The  forests  are  rich  in 
almost  untouched  cabinet  woods  and  various  drugs.  The 
most  valuable  forest  product  is  mate  or  Paraguay  tea. 
The  soil,  especially  in  the  forest  district.s,  is  very  fertile. 
Paraguay  is  poor  in  minerals ;  iron,  which  is  abmidant,  is 
little  utilized,  owing  to  the  lack  of  coal ;  copper  is  re|)orted, 
and  limestone  and  some  varieties  of  marble  are  quarried  on 
a  small  scale. 


432 


PARAGUAY 


PARAGUAY   RIVER 


Population. — Nearly  all  tlie  civilized  population  is 
found  in  the  southern  part  in  a  strip  along  the  east  side 
of  the  Paraguay.  The  first  Spanish  conquerors  formed  nu- 
merous unions  with  the  native  Guarany  women,  and  their 
offspring  became  the  ruling  class  of  the  country.  This 
half-and-half  stock  has  been  perpetuated  by  intermar- 
riages ;  it  is  still  the  most  influential,  and  by  courtesy  is 
called  white.  The  great  mass  of  the  population  contains 
far  more  Indian,  and  some  Negro,  blood ;  almost  the  only 
pure  whites  are  a  few  thousand  foreigners.  A  corruption 
of  the  Guarany  tongue  is  still  the  common  language,  though 
Spanish  is  also  spoken  in  the  larger  places.  The  very  im- 
perfect census  returns  of  1886  gave  a  population  of  339,774, 
evidently  much  below  the  truth.  The  civilized  or  semi- 
civilized  population  may  be  estimated  (1894)  at  about  450,000. 
The  wild  Indians,  nearly  all  in  the  Chaco,  probably  do  not 
exceed  40,000.  Before  the  liloody  war  of  1864-70  the  popu- 
lation was  larger.  This  war  was  especially  destructive  to 
the  males,  and  the  excess  of  women  over  men  is  even  now 
verv  noticeable,  especially  in  the  cities.  Education  and  re- 
finement are  confined  to  a  small  class ;  the  mass  of  the 
population  is  densely  ignorant  and  very  poor. 

Industries. — The  only  important  industries  are  agricul- 
ture, grazing,  mate-gathering,  and  timber-cutting.  The 
common  crops  are  mandioca,  maize,  beans,  sugar-cane, 
oranges,  and  tobacco.  The  small  Paraguayan  cigars  are 
greatly  esteemed  in  the  Platine  states.  The  republic  has 
(1894)  about  1,000,000  head  of  cattle,  principally  on  large 
estancias  in  the  western  and  northern  districts.  There  are 
few  good  roads,  and  the  only  railway  runs  from  Asuncion 
142  miles  E.  and  S.  E.  to  Villa  Rica  and  Caazapa.  Ocean 
steamers  ascend  regularly  to  Asuncion  and  beyond,  and 
there  is  telegraphic  communication  with  Europe.  Owing 
to  its  poverty  and  its  inland  position,  Paragiuay  is  ill  able 
to  compete  in  trade  witli  other  South  American  countries. 
The  exports,  generally  amounting  in  value  to  less  than 
3,000,000  pesos  annually,  are  mainly  to  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic ;  the  principal  items,  in  the  order  of  their  importance, 
are  mate,  tobacco  and  cigars,  timber,  hides,  and  oranges. 

Government. — The  government  is  a  centralized  republic  ; 
the  president  is  elected  for  four  years,  and  congress  con- 
sists of  two  houses.  The  recognized  and  common  religion 
is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  all  sects  are  tolerated.  Educa- 
tion is  nominally  compulsory ;  in  1893  there  were  about 
400  Government  or  subsidized  schools,  and  there  is  a  na- 
tional college  at  Asuncion.  The  army  and  navy  are  insig- 
nificant. Owing  to  bad  faith  little  benefit  was  derived 
from  foreign  loans  made  soon  after  the  war  of  1864-70  :  and 
though  obligations  have  been  partly  met  by  the  sale  of 
public  lands,  there  have  been  recurring  deficits  and  even  de- 
fault of  interest  on  the  foreign  debt.  A  large  amount  of 
inconvertible  paper  currency  has  been  issued.  Aside  from 
this  the  internal  debt  is  small ;  the  entire  foreign  debt,  on 
Jan.  1,  1893,  was  26,523,713  pesos.  The  basis  of  value  is  the 
silver  peso  or  dollar,  nominally  worth  about  96  cents  U.  S. 
currency,  but  commercially  much  less.  The  metric  system 
is  legalized,  but  the  old  Spanish  weights  and  measures  are 
still  in  general  use. 

History. — Sebastian  Cabot,  seeking  a  more  direct  route 
to  Peru,  explored  the  lower  Paraguay  in  1537.  After  Pedro 
de  Mendoza  founded  the  first  colony  of  Buenos  Ayres,  he 
sent  an  expedition  up  the  Paraguay  under  Ayolas,  who 
founded  Asuncion  about  Sept.,  1536 ;  Buenos  Ayres  was 
abandoned  soon  after,  and  Asuncion  became  the  capital  of 
Paraguay,  a  name  whicli  then  included  th.e  whole  Platine 
region ;  this  was  soon  after  attached  to  the  viceroyalty  of 
Peru.  The  Guarany  Indians,  who  inhabited  the  country 
E.  of  the  Paraguay,  were  at  first  very  friendly,  and  though 
they  sub.sequently  rebelled,  they  were  easily  subdued.  The 
more  warlike  Indians  of  the  Chaco  resisted  the  whites  from 
the  first,  and  there  were  constant  struggles  with  them  until 
the  tribes  were  exterminated  or  driven  into  the  interior. 
In  1620  Buenos  Ayres  was  separated  from  Paraguay,  both 
remaining  provinces  of  Peru  until  1776,  when  Paraguay 
was  attached  to  the  new  viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres  or  La 
Plata.  The  Jesuit  order  had  little  power  in  Paraguay  until 
1611,  when  it  was  practically  given  control  of  the  whole 
Indian  and  rural  popnialion.  Among  the  Guaranies  the 
missionaries  formed  numerous  and  rich  establishments, 
princiiially  in  tlic  valley  of  the  upper  Parana  and  in  Mi- 
slones  (now  in  Argentina).  Each  mission  was  a  huge,  well- 
ordered  farm  ;  all  work  was  under  the  absolute  control  of 
the  Jesuit  director,  and  all  produce,  after  providing  for  the 
needs  of  the  workmen,  was  sold  for  the  benefit  of  the  mis- 


sion or  the  order.  This  system  saved  the  Indians  from 
want  and  from  Sjianish  slavery,  and  gave  them  the  rudi- 
ments of  religious  instruction  :  but  it  left  them  childish  and 
fit  tools  for  the  political  tyrants  of  later  times.  The  Jesuits 
had  many  disputes  with  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties at  Asuncion  ;  several  times  they  were  temporarily  ex- 
pelled, and  at  others  they  had  entire  control  of  the  Govern- 
ment. After  1685  the  missions  suffered  severely  from  the 
incursions  of  Portuguese  slave-hunters  from  Sao  Paulo. 
The  order  was  expelled  in  1767,  the  missions  fell  into  decay, 
and  only  the  ruins  of  their  fine  churches  and  buildings  re- 
main in  the  forest.  Paraguay,  following  Buenos  Ayres, 
declared  its  independence  in  1811 ;  but  it  fell  almost  iiiime- 
diately  under  the  dictatorship  of  Praneia,  and  took  no 
further  part  in  the  struggle  for  South  American  independ- 
ence. Francia  was  succeeded,  after  a  short  interval,  by 
Carlos  Antonio  Lopez  (1841),  who  bequeathed  the  govern- 
ment (1862)  to  his  son,  Francisco  Solano  Lopez.  All  these 
dictators  or  presidents  continued  the  policy  of  isolation 
which  had  been  introduced  by  the  .Jesuits.  Foreigners  were 
seldom  allowed  to  enter  the  country  or  Paraguayans  to 
leave  it,  and  ignorance  and  low  morals  were  deliberately 
fostered.  Under  cover  of  this  isolation  nearly  all  industries 
and  commerce  were  drawn  into  the  hands  of  the  chief  of 
.state,  who  practically  managed  the  country  as  his  own 
property.  Though  the  country  made  hardly  any  material 
or  intelieetual  progress,  it  was  free  from  debt  and  generally 
at  peace.  The  mad  ambition  of  the  younger  Lojiez  plunged 
it  into  a  war  with  Brazil,  tlie  Argentine  Republic,  and 
Uruguay,  which  lasted  from  1864  to  1870.  (For  events  of 
this  war  see  Lopez.  Francisco  Solano.)  It  ended  with  the 
death  of  Lopez,  but  left  the  whole  country  ruined,  and  its 
pojiulation  reduced  to  little  over  one-third.  IMisiones,  part 
of  the  Chaco,  and  a  considerable  territory  on  the  N.,  were 
given  up  to  Argentina  and  Brazil.  The  jiresent  constitution 
was  adopted  soon  after  the  war,  and  since  then  the  republic 
has  enjoyed  internal  and  external  peace,  but  its  recovery 
is  necessarily  slow.  The  tide  of  immigration  is  slowly  in- 
creasing. In  1894  an  unpopular  president  was  deposed  by 
a  bloodless  revolution — the  first  since  the  war.  A  bound- 
ary dispute  with  the  Argentine  Republic,  involving  part  of 
the  Chaco.  was  referred  to  the  arbitration  of  the  President 
of  the  U.  S.,  and  in  1878  was  decided  in  favor  of  Paraguay. 
See  Demersey.  Histoire  physique,  economiqiie,  et  politique 
(lit  Paraguay  (3  vols.,  1860-64) ;  du  Graty,  La  republique 
du  Paraguay  (1865) ;  Washburn,  History  of  Paraguay  (2 
vols.,  1871) ;  Bourgade  la  Dardye,  Paraguay  (Eng.  trans,  by 
Ravenstein,  with  map,  1892).  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Paraguay  RiTer:  a  river  of  South  America  ;  rises  near 
the  center  of  the  continent,  on  the  Brazilian  jilateau  of 
Matto  Grosso  ;  flows  S.  through  Brazil,  between  Bi-azil  and 
Bolivia,  through  Paraguay  and  between  Paraguay  and  the 
Argentine  Republic,  and  finally  joins  the  upper  Parana  to 
form  the  lower  Paransi  near  lat.  37°  13  S.  The  Paraguay 
rises  in  a  group  of  little  ponds,  the  Sete  Lagoas,  on  a  low 
part  of  the  Brazilian  plateau,  1,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
.Swelled  by  numerous  affluents  it  is  already  a  large  stream 
at  Villa  Maria :  30  miles  below  and  only  400  feet  above  the 
sea  it  enters  the  great  depression  of  the  Paraguay  and  Pa- 
rana. This  is  a  continuous  low  plain  occupying  all  of 
Southwestern  JIatto  Grosso,  Eastern  Bolivia,  Western  Para- 
guay, and  a  large  tract  in  the  Argentine  Republic  W.  of  the 
two  rivers.  By  its  vegetation  and  its  relations  to  the  river 
it  is  divided  into  three  regions — the  Charaes  marshes,  the 
(iran  Chaco,  and  the  pampas.  The  two  latter  are  described 
in  separate  articles.  The  Charaes  marshes,  calleil  the  Pan- 
tanaes  by  Brazilian.s,  form  the  northern  end  of  the  plain,  a 
tract  about  400  miles  long  from  N.  to  S.,  and  at  least  150 
miles  wide  in  parts.  The  Brazilian  plateau  falls  to  it 
sharply,  often  precipitously,  on  the  N.  and  E.  On  the  W. 
there  are  hills  bordering  the  Paraguay,  but  through  lireaks 
in  these  the  marshes  extend  far  into  Bolivia.  On  this  side 
the  great  depression  is  separated  fi'om  the  head-waters  of 
the  Sladeira  only  by  a  low  ridge.  The  Charaes  mai-shes  are 
a  confused  labyrinth  of  channels,  islands,  marshes,  and  lakes, 
through  whit;h  only  an  experienced  pilot  can  follow  the 
Paraguay  and  its  branches.  Jlost  of  the  land  is  open,  but 
narrow  strips  of  forest  generally  follow  the  channels.  The 
only  inhabitants  are  a  few  Guato  Indians :  the  few  Brazil- 
ian settlements  are  on  the  highlands  bordering  the  west 
shore  of  the  river.  The  Paraguay  in  this  region  rises  every 
year,  sometimes  40  feet,  overflowing  the  plain  and  liarely 
leaving  a  few  acres  dry  here  and  there.     It  is  remarkable 


I'AUACL'AY   TEA 


PARALLELOPIPED 


433 


that  the  highest  waters  are  toward  the  end  of  the  dry  sea- 
son (July  and  August)  and  the  lowest  during  tlie  rainy  sea- 
son. The  reason  is  that  it  takes  several  months  for  the 
rains  wliicli  have  fallen  on  the  plateau  to  spread  themselves 
over  this  vast  basin,  and  several  more  mouths  are  required 
to  drain  them  off.  Near  the  southern  end  of  tlie  C'haraes 
spurs  gf  the  plateau  and  isolated  hills  border  the  river.  The 
Fecho  dos  Morros  (hit.  21'  26  40"  S.)  is  a  narrow  pass  where 
the  river  runs  between  two  of  these  hills.  Below  this  the 
river  Imgs  the  highlands  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  great 
plain  and  cuts  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  plain  itself,  which 
IS  thus  l)eyond  reach  of  the  overflow.  In  the  Chaeo.  how- 
ever, large  tracts  are  swampy  or  are  flooded  by  the  rains. 
The  Paraguay  is  over  1,800  feet  wide  at  Asuncion,  and  about 
-  three-quarter's  of  a  mile  at  its  confluence  with  the  Parana. 
The  longest  affluents  are  the  Pilcomayo  and  Bermejo,  which 
join  it  from  tlie  W.  in  the  Cliaco  region,  but  they  are  tortu- 
ous and  only  navigable  for  short  distances.  Nearly  all  the 
other  branches  are  on  the  eastern  side.  The  most  important 
navigable  ones  are  the  Siio  Loureni;o  (with  its  branch,  the 
Cuyabii),  the  .Jaipiary,  and  Jliranda  in  IJra/.il,  and  the  Jejuy 
and  Tebicuary  in  Paraguay.  The  main  river  is  open  to  free 
navigation ;  it  is  the  only  commercial  outlet  of  Paraguay 
and  Matto  Grosso.  Steamers  drawing  9  feet  ascend  to  t!o- 
rumba,  Hiazil,  at  all  seasons,  and  smaller  ones  to  Villa  Ma- 
ria and  by  the  branches  to  Cuyaba  and  Jliranda.  Tlie  Para- 
guay wasdiscovered  by  Cabot  (1.526),  and  explored  nearly  to 
its  source  by  Irala  and  others  before  1.5.50.  See  Page,  La 
Plata,  the  Argentine  Confederation  and  Paraguay  (18.59); 
Fonseca,  Viagem  ao  redor  do  Brazil  (1880).  H.  H.  S. 

Parasriiay  Tea :  See  Mate. 

Parahyba.  pali-raa-eeba'a  :  one  of  the  smallest  states  of 
Brazil;  on  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  coast,  between 
Ilio  Grande  do  Xorte  on  the  X.  and  Pernambuco  on  the 
S.  Area,  28,8-19  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1894)  estimated,  559,271. 
The  coast  lands  for  30 or 40  miles  inland  are  low;  the  coun- 
try then  rises  abruptly  to  the  Brazilian  plateau.  As  in 
Cearii,  the  dry  season  (April  to  October)  is  strongly  marked, 
the  vegetation  drying  up  except  in  favored  places ;  occa- 
sionally there  are  severe  droughts,  lasting  several  years.  The 
only  river  of  importance  is  the  Parahyba  do  Norte,  and  its 
nioutli  forms  the  only  harbor.  The  principal  occupations 
are  grazing  and  agriculture ;  the  exports  are  hides,  sugar, 
cotton,  tobacco,  and  rubber.  Parahyba,  the  capital  and 
largest  town,  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Parahyba  do 
Norte,  11  miles  above  its  mouth;  pop.  about  15,000  (see 
map  of  .South  .\nierica.  ref.  4-II).  It  is  one  of  the  oldest 
towns  in  Brazil,  dal  ing  from  1579 ;  among  the  ancient  build- 
ings are  tlie  cathedral  and  the  college  of  the  Jesuits;  the 
modern  Government  buildings  are  unpretentious.  Only 
light-draught  vessels  can  ascend  to  this  point,  larger  ones 
anchor  at  Cabadello,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  a  thriving 
little  town  which  is  rapidly  superseding  Parahyba  as  a  com- 
mercial center.  Herbert  II.  .Smith. 

Parahyba,  or  Parahyba  do  Siil :  a  river  of  Southeastern 
Brazil ;  rises  in  Siio  Paulo,  flows  eastward  between  Slinas 
Geraes  and  Rio  <le  Janeiro,  nearly  parallel  to  the  coast,  and 
enters  the  Atlantic  near  hit.  21' 38'  .S.  Lengtli  (with  its 
principal  head,  the  I'arahytinga),  6.58  miles.  The  valley  of 
the  Parahyba,  which  sejfarates  the  Serra  do  Mar  from  the 
Serra  da  Slantiqiicira,  is  populous,  and  is  one  of  the  richest 
coffee  regions  in  Brazil,  \esselsof  light  draught  ascend  to 
Sao  Fidelis,  54  miles,  and  an  upper  section  of  193  miles  is 
also  navigable  for  small  steamers.  II.  II.  S. 

Paral'dchydc  :  a  clear,  colorless  liquid,  having  a  peculiar 
ethereal  od<ir  and  a  warm  followed  by  a  cold  taste.  It  is  pre- 
pared liy  treating  ordinary  aldehyde  at  a  moderate  tempera- 
ture with  small  quantities  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  is  puri- 
fied by  repealed  freezing  and  rectifying.  It  is  employed  in 
medicine  as  a  hypnotic,  but  has  tlie  disadvantagi'  that  it  is 
apt  to  disturb  the  stoma<'h  and  that  the  dose  is  bulky. 

Parali'pid'hUp  [  Moil.  Lat.,  named  from  Paralepis,  the 
typical  genus  ;  (ir.  irapct.  beside,  near  +  Keitis.  AeirBos.  scale] : 
a  remarkable  family  of  fishes  of  the  open  .seas,  allied  to  the 
Scopelida:  The  form  is  elongate  and  |iike-like;  the  body 
covered  with  deciduous  scales;  the  head  pointed;  opercular 
apparatus  with  the  suboperculum  much  reduced  ;  the  upper 
jaw  with  its  margin  formed  by  the  intermaxillaries,  behind 
which,  and  closely  adherent  to  it,  are  the  supramaxillaries; 
teetli  on  the  jaws  as  well  as  palate;  branchial  apertures  en- 
larged; dorsal  fill  short,  far  behind,  and  still  farthi'r  behind 
an  adipose  tin  ;  anal  elongated ;  caudal  emarginate ;  jiei'- 
812 


torals  well  developed ;  ventrals  small,  inserted  below  or  in 
front  of  the  dorsal  fin.  The  species  are  few  and  confined  to 
northern  waters,  some  occurring  at  considerable  depth,  others 
chiefly  in  the  Arctic.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Parallax  [from  Gr.  irapo\Ao|is,  alternation,  cliange  in  di- 
rection between  two  lines  foriiiing  an  angle,  parallax  ;  deriv. 
of  TrapoAAaTfffii',  change  alongside  of,  go  aside,  deviate ;  vapi, 
beside  +  oAA.offffcii',  change] ;  in  the  most  general  sense  of 
the  word,  the  ditfereiice  in  the  directions  of  an  object  as 
seen  from  twodiilerent  points.  It  is  evident  that  if  two  ob- 
servers, A  and  B,  look  at  the  same  object,  the  direction  in 
which  they  see  it  will  be  different  according  to  their  dis- 
tance apart  and  the  character  of  the  triangle  which  they 
form  with  it.  The  term  is  mostly  used  in  astronomy, and  is 
applied  ill  a  variety  of  ways,  according  to  circumstances. 

In  its  common  acceptation  the  word  is  used  to  mean  the 
difference  between  the  direction  of  a  body  from  the  center 
of  the  earth  and  from  any  point  on  its  surface.  Let  us,  for 
illustration,  take  the  case  of  the  moon.  From  no  two  points 
on  the  earth's  surface  will  the  moon  appear  in  absolutely  the 
same  direction.  Hence  in  the  astronomical  eiihciiieris  the 
direction  of  the  moon  at  any  moment  is  given  as  it  would 
be  were  it  seen  from  tlie  centerof  the  earth ;  in  other  words, 
the  right  ascension  and  direction  of  the  moon  are  those  cor- 
responding to  a  line  drawn  from  the  center  of  the  earth  to 
the  centerof  the  moon.  Actual  observations  of  the  moon, 
however,  are  made  from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Hence 
the  difference  between  the  direction  as  seen  from  the  center 
and  from  the  surface  must  be  computed.  If  the  position  of 
the  moon  is  given  by  right  ascension  and  declination  the 
difference  in  question  is  called  ■paritUax  in  right  ascension 
and  in  declination,  respectively.  If  the  altitude  of  the 
moon  above  the  horizon  is  in  question,  the  difference  be- 
tween the  altitudes  as  seen  from  the  earth's  center  and  from 
the  position  occupied  by  the  observer  is  v&Wed  parallax  in 
altitude.  The  same  appellations  are  used  in  the  case  of  a 
planet  or  any  other  body  of  the  solar  system. 

As  a  standard  of  parallax  astronomers  take  the  difference 
between  the  direction  of  a  body  as  it  would  appear  in  the 
horizon  to  an  observer  at  the  equator  and  as  it  is  seen  from 
the  center  of  the  earth.  This  difference  is  called  the  equa- 
torial horizontal  parallax.  It  is  ciiual  to  the  angle  sub- 
tended by  the  earth's  equatorial  radius  as  seen  from  the 
object  itself,  and  is  therefore  an  index  to  the  distance  of  the 
latter.  Actually  it  is  calculated  by  the  aid  of  the  known 
distance  of  the  body. 

The  fixed  stars  are  so  distant  that  they  appear  in  abso- 
lutely the  same  direction  from  every  point  of  the  earth. 
They  have  therefore  no  parallax  in  the  preceding  sense ; 
but  the  refined  measurements  of  recent  times  have  shown 
that  there  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  direction  of  a  few  of 
the  nearest  stars  as  seen  from  one  part  of  the  earth's  orbit 
and  from  the  opposite  part.  This  gives  rise  to  a  new  paral- 
lax, called  annual,  which  is  defined  as  the  difference  be- 
tween the  direction  of  a  star  seen  from  the  sun  and  seen 
from  the  earth.  This  difference  does  not  in  any  case 
amount  to  a  single  second  of  arc.  Since  the  parallax  of  a  body 
depends  on  its  distance,  the  determination  of  the  distance  oi 
the  sun,  the  moon,  or  a  planet  is  the  same  as  that  of  deter- 
mining its  equatorial  horizontal  parallax.  For  the  deter- 
mination of  llie  parallax  or  distance  of  the  sun.  see  Solar 
Parallax.  S.  Xkwcomu. 

Parallel'Ogram  [from  Gr.  TrapoAAijAiiT'pa.u^oi' ;  Trapa\\ri\os, 
parallel  +  7pa(|)6ii/,  write,  draw] :  a  quadrilateral  whose  oppo- 
site sides,  taken  two  and  two,  are  parallel.  If  one  angle  of 
a  parallelogram  is  a  right  angle,  all  the  other  angles  are 
right  angles,  and  the  figure  is  a  rectangle.  If  two  adjacent 
sides  are  equal,  the  other  sides  are  also  eipial,  and  the  figure 
is  a  rhombus.  The  diagonals  of  a  parallelogram  mutually 
bi.sect  each  other ;  conversely,  if  the  diagonals  of  a  ((uadri- 
lateral  bisect  each  other,  the  figure  is  a  parallelogram.  If 
the  diagonals  of  a  parallelogram  are  equal,  the  figure  is  a 
rectangle  ;  if  they  are  perpendicular  to  each  other,  the  figure 
is  a  rhombus;  if  they  are  equal  and  perpendicular,  the 
figure  is  a  square.  The  area  of  a  parallelogram  is  equal  to 
the  proiinct  of  its  base  and  altitude. 

Parallelogram  of  Forces:  See  Composition-  of  Forces. 

Parallclopi'ped  [from  Gr.  TopaXKriKeiriireSoi'.  liter.,  neut. 
of  7ropaAAT)\€ir(7r€!os,  having  parallel  sides  or  surfaces;  irapoA- 
XtjAos,  parallel  -f  iiriTrfBov.  a  plane  (liter.,  neut.  of  i-ni-jrfdos.  on 
the  ground,  level;  M,  on  +  irfSoi'.  ground]:  a  polyhedron 
liounded  by  six  parallelograms.  If  the  faces  are  rectangles, 
the  volume  is  a  rectangular  parallelopipcil :  if  tlie  faces  are 


434 


PARALLELS  OF   LATITUDE 


PARANA 


squares,  tlie  volume  is  a  cube.  In  any  parallelepiped  oppo- 
site faces  are  equal  to  each  other,  as  are  also  diagonally  op- 
posite polyhedral  angles.  A  plane  through  two  diagonally 
opposite  edges  divides  the  volume  into  equivalent  triangular 
prisms.  The  volume  of  any  paraUelopiped  is  equal  to  the 
product  of  its  altitude  and  the  area  of  its  base. 

Parallels  of  Latitude  [parallel  is  from  Gr.  irapaWriKos. 
parallel,  liter.,  alongside  of  each  other ;  irapd.  beside  -i-  oAAjj- 
A.aii',  (of)  one  another] :  on  the  terrestrial  sphere  circles 
drawn  around  the  earth  on  planes  parallel  to  the  equator. 
Through  the  center  of  each  circle  passes  the  earth's  axis. 
The  equator  itself  is  the  only  one  of  these  parallels  which 
is  a  great  circle.  The  others  are  smaller  circles,  whose 
limits  are  the  great  circle  (the  equator)  on  the  one  hand, 
and  zero  (at  the  poles)  on  the  other.  The  tropics  and  polar 
circles  are  important  parallels.     See  Earth. 

Paralysis  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  irapaKvcris,  palsy,  deriv.  of  wapa- 
\iety,  disable  on  (one)  side ;  irapd,  beside  -i-  \vfii'.  loosen,  dis- 
solve, destroy] :  loss  of  voluntary  or  reflex  motion,  generally 
through  failure  of  nervous  excitation.  A  partial  loss  of 
motion  is  termed  paresis.  A  knowledge  of  the  causes  of 
paralysis  is  easily  gained.  There  are  on  the  surface  of  the 
brain  certain  areas  known  as  motor  centers,  in  which  all 
impulses  to  voluntary  motion  originate.  Prom  these  centers 
nerve-fibers  travel  downward,  converging  at  the  base  of  the 
brain  to  enter  the  spinal  column.  In  the  latter  are  second- 
ary motor  cells  or  centers  which  produce  motion  only  after 
receiving  impulses  from  the  brain,  through  the  fibers  indi- 
cated. From  the  secondary  spinal-cells  originate  ner%-e-fibers 
which  constitute  the  nerves  of  the  body,  and  which  carry  the 
impulse  to  the  muscles."  Paralysis  may  be  due  to  disease  or 
some  destructive  change  anywhere  along  this  tract,  from 
the  cells  of  the  surface  of  the  brain  down  to  the  terminal 
nerve-fiber  as  it  enters  the  muscle.  If  the  disease  is  in  the 
brain,  we  speak  of  cerebral  paralysis,  as  in  apoplexies ;  if  in 
the  spinal  cord,  of  spinal  jiaralysis,  as  in  essential  palsy  of 
infants;  if  in  the  nerves,  of  peripheral  palsy,  as  in  paralysis 
from  pressure  of  a  crutch  on  the  recurrent  spiral  nerve  of 
the  arm.  It  is  conceivable  and  possible  also  to  have  paraly- 
sis due  to  disease  of  the  muscle  without  affection  of  any  part 
of  the  nervous  system,  but  such  cases  are  exceedingly  rare. 
Idiopathic  muscular  atrophy  is  an  example  of  this  form  of 
paralysis. 

Any  part  of  the  body  containing  muscle  fibers,  either 
striped  or  unstriped,  may  be  paralyzed.  Thus  we  have  par- 
alysis of  the  heart,  of  the  arteries  (vaso-motor  paralysis),  of 
the  intestines,  of  the  limbs,  the  face,  the  eyeballs,  the  pupil, 
etc.  In  the  study  of  paralysis  it  is  customary  to  divide  the 
cases  into  groups  according  to  the  parts  of  the  body  affected. 
Hemiplegia  (q.  i:.)  is  the  name  used  to  designate  paralysis  of 
one  lateral  half  of  the  body.  It  is  generally  due  to  a  cere- 
bral lesion,  and  nearly  always  follows  after  cerebral  hiemor- 
rhage  or  Apoplksy  {q.  v.).  Sometimes  the  face  is  paralyzed 
on  one  side,  while  the  arm  and  leg  of  the  opposite  side'  are 
affected.  This  "  crossed  palsy  "  is  due  to  disease  in  the  pons 
Varolii.  Paraplegia  (q.  v.)  is  paralysis  of  the  lower  half  of 
the  body,  affecting  both  legs  and  perhai)S  part  of  the  trunk. 
It  is  due  to  disease  of  the  spinal  cord,  or  more  rarely  of  the 
nerves  of  the  legs.  It  is  practically,  though  not  theoretically, 
impossible  to  have  paraplegia  of  cerebral  causation.  Mono- 
plegia is  the  paralysis  of  a  single  member,  as  one  arm  or 
leg.  It  is  due  to  disease  of  the  peripheral  nerves,  or  to  affec- 
tion of  the  motor  center  on  the  surface  of  the  brain.  In  the 
lower  part  of  the  brain  and  in  the  spinal  cord  a  diseased  area 
is  more  apt  to  involve  fibers  of  many  muscles. 

Multiple  paralysis  is  the  term  by  which  are  designated 
groups  of  {jalsies  of  irregular  distribution.  Glossoplegia 
(paralysis  of  the  tongue),  cycloplegia  (paralysis  of  the  pu- 
pil), laryngeal  palsy,  etc.,  are  instances  of  local  jjarali/sis, 
in  which  only  a  certain  muscle  or  group  of  muscles  is  af- 
fected. Sec  Facial  Paralysis,  and  for  General  Parah/sis 
see  Insanity.  William  Pepper. 

Paralysis  A§ritans,  or  Shaking  Palsy :  a  disease  of  ad- 
vanced age,  characterized  by  weakness,  tremor,  and  rigidity 
of  the  muscles.  Men  are  more  often  affected  than  women, 
and  worries  and  mental  strain  are  important  causes.  Some- 
times the  shaking  (jf  fear  has  liccn  followed  directly  by  this 
disease.  There  is  a  fine  and  continuous  tremor  of  tlie  hands, 
feet,  and  less  commonly  of  the  head,  which,  however,  ceases 
during  sleep.  The  muscles  are  apt  to  be  rigid,  and  a  pecul- 
iar mask-like  immobility  of  the  facial  expression  is  a  marked 
characteristic.  The  weakness  of  the  muscles  is  rarely 
marked,  liut  is  a  constant   symptom.     There  is  a  peculiar 


staggering  gait  in  which,  as  one  author  remarks,  the  patient 
seems  to  be  running  after  his  center  of  gravity.  The  dis- 
ease is  incurable.  William  Pepper. 

Paramaribo :  capital  and  principal  town  and  port  of 
Dutch  Guiana ;  on  flat  land  by  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Suri- 
nam river,  which  is  navigable  beyond  this  point ;  19  miles 
above  its  mouth  (see  map  of  South  America  ref.  2-B).  It 
presents  a  very  fresh  and  pleasing  appearance,  owing  to  its 
wide  streets,  shaded  with  orange  and  tamarind  trees,  and 
the  gardens  around  most  of  tlie  houses.  Nearly  all  the 
l.Hiildings.  and  even  the  governor's  mansion,  are  of  wood. 
There  are  many  Protestant  and  Catholic  churches,  hospitals, 
barracks,  etc.  The  climate  is  warm,  and  the  place  has  a 
reputation  for  unhealthfulness,  but  it  is  improving  in  this 
respect.  The  principal  export  is  sugar.  Paramaribo  dates 
from  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  it  was  twice  bom- 
barded by  the  French,  and  has  repeatedly  been  almost  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  the  last  time  in  1823.     Pop.  (1890)  28,831. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Paraiuat'ta :  town  of  New  South  Wales,  Australia;  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  near  its  entrance  into  Port  Jackson, 
on  which  Sydney  is  situated  (see  map  of  Australia,  ref.  7-1). 
It  is  a  well-built  and  growing  town.     Pop.  (1891)  11,680. 

Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Param'eter  [Gr.  irapi,  beside  -l-  /nfTpav.  measure] :  in  math- 
ematics, a  term  generally  expressing  a  quantity,  by  whose 
variation  systems  of  equations  or  curves,  etc.,  are  repre- 
sented. Thus  if  the  shape  and  magnitude  of  a  curve  be 
considered,  but  not  its  position,  the  radius  is  the  sole  param- 
eter of  a  circle,  and  the  major  and  minor  axes  of  an  ellipse 
are  its  two  parameters.  The  coefficients  in  the  equation,  or 
equations,  of  a  curve  may  be  considered  as  parameters  de- 
termining its  shape,  magnitude,  and  position  in  a  plane  or 
in  space,  as  the  latter  differ  from  those  of  another  curye  of 
the  same  species.  In  particular  if  a  conic  section  be  written 
in  rectangular  co-ordinates 

y''  =p.r  ±  m.r^ 
(which  represents  a  parabola  if  /«  =  o),  the  quantity  p  is 
called  the  parameter.  (See  Parabola.)  Further,  a  param- 
eter is  also  used  to  denote  a  variable,  in  terms  of  which 
the  co-ordinates  of  a  point  on  a  curve  can  be  expressed.  If 
the  co-ordinates  involve  the  parameter  rationally,  that  is, 
without  square  roots  or  other  radicals,  the  entire  curve  can 
be  described  by  continuous  motion  of  a  point,  and  is  said  to 
be  unicursal.  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Paramitas  [Sanskr.] :  in  Buddhism,  "  transcendent  vir- 
tues," the  practice  of  which  leads  to  Nirvana,  or  "  the  other 
shore."  These  are  six  in  number,  but  other  four  are  some- 
times added.  They  are  (1)  charity,  or  generosity  in  giving 
to  all  who  ask  ;  (2)  moral  conduct ;  (3)  patience  ;  (4)  energy 
or  fortitude ;  (.5)  fixed  contemplation,  or  meditation  (see 
Dhvana)  ;  and  (6)  wisdom.  The  four  added  virtues  are  vari- 
ously given.  Those  usually  enumerated  are  (a)  truth ;  (b) 
steadfastness  of  resolution,  or  fixedness  of  purpose ;  (<■) 
good-will,  or  kindness ;  and  (</)  imperturbability,  or  apathy. 

R.  Lilley. 

Parana,  pali-rali-naa' ;  a  southern  state  of  Brazil,  bounded 
N.  by  Siio  Paulo,  K.  by  the  Atlantic,  S.  by  Santa  Catharina, 
and  W.  by  the  river  Parana,  which  separates  it  from  Para- 
guay and  Matto  Grosso.  Area,  8.5,438  sq.  miles  ;  pop.  (1894) 
estimated,  223,942.  A  strip  of  low  and  often  swampy  land 
along  the  coast  is  succeeded,  20  miles  inland,  by  the  Bra- 
zilian coast  range,  which  here  rises  in  parts  to  more  than 
5,000  feet,  but  with  passes  belo%y  3.200  feet ;  the  mountains 
and  coast  strip  are  covered  with  forest,  the  most  abundant 
trees  above  3,000  feet  being  Araucaria  pines.  W.  of  the 
coast  range  is  the  open  table-land  of  Curitiba.  3,000  feet 
above  the  sea;  farther  inland  this  falls,  by  a  succession  of 
terraces,  toward  the  Parana ;  the  western  jiart  of  the  state 
is  an  almost  unknown  forest,  with  intervals  of  open  land, 
and  is  inhabited  only  by  roving  Indians.  All  the  important 
rivers  flow  to  the  Paranti ;  the  principal  ones  are  the  Para- 
napancma  on  the  northern  frontier,  the  Ivaliv,  the  Piquiry, 
the  Taquary,  and  the  Iguassu  on  the  southern  boundary ; 
none  of  these  is  freely  navigable.  Nearly  all  the  population 
is  gathered  on  the  high  plateau,  where  there  are  consider- 
able colonies  of  German  and  Italian  immigrants.  Parand 
is  one  of  the  poorest  and  most  backward  of  the  Brazilian 
states,  though  it  has  abundance  of  fertile  land,  especially  in 
the  western  part.  Agriculture,  grazing  on  the  open  lands, 
anil  the  collection  of  mate  are  the  only  important  indus- 
tries; almost  the  sole  export  is  mate.    The  capital,  Curitiba. 


PARANA 


PARASITES 


435 


is  connected  with  the  principal  port,  Paranagua,  by  railway. 
Parana  was  separated  from  Sao  Paulo  in  1853.  See  Bi};g- 
Wither,  Pioneering  in  South  Brazil  (1878).  II.  H.  S. 

Parand  (origiimlly  Jidjada  dH  Parana):  capital  and 
largest  town  of  tlie  province  of  Entre  Kios,  Argentine  Re- 
public; on  a  blutf  overlookinj;  the  riglit  bank  of  the  river 
Parana,  nearly  (ii)posite  the  inoutli  of  the  Salado  (see  map 
of  South  America,  ref.  8-E).  It  is  the  center  of  a  rich 
grazinj;  region,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  thriving  colonies  of 
Germans,  Swiss,  and  Italians;  steamers  ascending  the  river 
touch  regularly  at  this  port,  wliich  is  connected  by  railway 
with  Concepcion,  on  the  L'ruguav.  Parana  was  founded  in 
1730.  From  18.")2  to  1861  it  wjus  tlie  capital  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic.     Pop.  (1892)  about  20,000.  H.  II.  S. 

Paraud:  one  of  the  largest  rivers  in  South  America; 
draining,  with  the  Paraguay,  nearly  all  the  space  between 
the  Brazilian  coast  range  and  the  Andes,  from  about  lat.  16° 
to  lat.  'ATi'  S.  It  rises  in  Brazil,  flows  at  first  S.  \\'.,  then  S. 
and  W.  along  the  borders  of  Paraguay,  separating  that  conn- 
try  from  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Republic;  and  finally, 
after  being  joined  by  the  Paraguav,  keeps  a  southwanl 
course  through  the  Argentine  to  the  llio  de  la  Plata  and  the 
Atlantic.  Tlic  upper  Parana,  or  the  portion  above  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Paraguay,  is  essentially  a  highland  river.  Its 
two  main  heads  are  the  Parnahyba,  .500  miles  long,  rising  in 
the  Pyreneos  Moinitains  of  Goyaz,  and  the  Grande,  6.50  miles 
long,  rising  in  the  Brazilian  coast  range  of  MInas  Geraes; 
both  are  obstructeil  by  rapids  and  falls.  They  meet  at  the 
angles  of  the  states  of  >Iinas  Geraes,  Sao  Paulo,  JIatto 
Grosso,  and  Goyaz,  near  lat.  19°  S.  The  united  flood,  now 
called  the  Parana,  separates  Sao  Paulo  and  Parana  from 
Matto  Grosso.  Shortly  below  the  junction  is  the  little-known 
cataract  of  I'rubii-ponga.  Below  this  the  river  flows  over 
the  table-land  without  serious  obstruction  for  600  miles.  At 
the  foot  of  this  navigable  part  it  is  broken  by  a  large  island, 
and  forms  a  lake-like  expanse.  Suddenly  the  whole  flood  is 
poured  into  more  than  twenty  narrow  clefts,  spreading  over 
an  arc  2  miles  wide,  and  converging  in  a  basin  70  feet  be- 
low. In  each  chasm  the  water  leaps  over  a  fall,  and  then 
rushes  down  a  slope  with  immense  velocity.  This  is  the 
celebrated  but  seldom  visited  cataract  of  Guayra,  or  the  Sete 
Qnedas,  where  the  Parana  begins  to  foi-ra  the  frontier  of 
Paraguay  (lat.  24  2'  5!)  S.).  Below  it  the  river  ruslies  for 
400  miles  through  a  deep  valley,  often  between  clitt's,  and 
with  a  constant  succession  of  rocky  shadows  and  rapids. 
The  last  obstruction  is  the  rapid  of  Apipe,  150  miles  from 
the  junction  of  the  Paraguay,  and  marking  the  limit  of 
navigation  on  the  lower  river.  The  valley  of  the  upper 
Parana,  above  A])ipe,  has  few  civilized  inhabitants,  and 
from  the  Guayra  fall  down  it  is  occupied  by  an  extensive 
forest.  In  direct  contrast  the  lower  Parana  is  a  river  of  the 
plains — like  the  Paraguay.  It  is,  indeed,  properly  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  PakauuaV  {q.  c),  pursuing  the  sanie  south- 
erly course ;  but  in  length  and  volume  of  water  the  Para- 
guay is  the  lesser  of  the  confluents.  Tlie  lower  Parana  has 
cut  rather  deeply  into  the  pampas,  which  appear  as  clay 
clilTs  on  the  west  side.  In  i)arts  it  is  over  2  miles  wide,  anil 
by  its  sea-like  reaches  resembles  the  Amazon.  It  is  entirely 
navigable  for  large  vessels.  The  most  ditricult  navigation 
is  near  the  mouth  in  the  Plata,  where  for  over  2(K)  miles  a 
multitude  of  low  islands  forms  a  delta.  The  deepest  chan- 
nels in  this  region  give  over  15  feet  when  the  river  is  lowest. 
The  Rio  de  la  Plata  is  proj)erly  the  estuary  of  the  Parana, 
though  also  receiving  the  L  ruguay,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  a  branch.  The  length  of  tlie  lower  Parana  is  850  miles, 
or,  with  the  Plata,  1,0S0  miles.  From  the  mouth  of  the 
Plata  to  the  head  of  the  Rio  {irande,  which  may  be  regard- 
ed as  the  source  of  the  Parana,  the  distance  by  the  rivers  is 
about  2,!),50  miles.  Aside  from  the  Paraguay  with  its  nu- 
merous branches,  the  princi[)al  aflluent  of  the"  lower  ParanA 
is  the  Salado,  on  the  western  side,  and  it  is  not  navigable. 
The  chief  branches  of  the  upper  Parana  are  on  the  eastern 
side,  in  Brazil  (.Sao  Paulo  and  Parana).  The  most  important 
are  the  Pardo,  Tiete,  Agoapehy,  Paranapanema,  Piquiry, 
and  Iguassu.  These  riiie  on  the  well-peopled  western  shjpe 
of  the  coast  range,  and  they  are  navigable  for  greater  or 
less  distances  in  their  upper  courses,  but  are  obstructed  bv 
falls  and  rapids  as  they  apjjroach  the  Parana.  Those  whicli 
join  it  in  the  great  gorge  below  the  Guayra  fall  often  have 
cataracts  at  or  near  their  mouths.  One  of  these,  on  the 
Iguassu  (or  Yguazu),  6  nules  above  its  mouth,  is  easily  ac- 
cessible, and  hence  has  often  been  visiteil  by  travelers.  'The 
river,  divided  into  several  channels,  falls  over  a  horseshoe- 


I  shaped  precipice  nearly  200  feet  high,  forming  a  scene  said 
to  rival  Niagara,  llERnERT  H.  Smith. 

Paranag'iid,  paa-raa-nila-gwaa'  (sometimeswrittenPar?i(i- 

fnd) :  principal  seaport  of  the  state  of  Parana,  Brazil ;  on 
'aranagua  Bay ;  terminus  of  a  railway  wliich  crosses  the 
mountains  to  t'uritiba  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  7-F). 
Pop.  about  7.000.  The  harbor  is  large  and  good,  but  there 
is  little  commercial  activity.  The  principal  export  is  mate. 
There  are  few  good  buildings,  the  streets  arc  badly  paved, 
and  the  climate  is  hot  and  often  unhealthful.        H.  11.  S. 

Paranaliyha:  .See  PARXAnvBA. 

Paranaphthalcne:  See  Anthracene. 

Paranhns,  Jose  Maria  da  Silva:  See  Silva  Paraxhos. 

Parapet :  See  Fortification, 

Paraple'gia  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  irap<nrAT|7/o.  hemiplegia, 
dcriv.  of  TrapanKriaadv.  to  strike  be.side  or  at  the  side;  irapi, 
beside  -^  irKriaanv.  strike] :  loss  of  motor  power  in  both  legs. 
It  is  alniosi  always  due  to  injury  or  disea.se  of  the  spinal 
cord  or  its  membranes,  though  it  sometimes  happens  that  a 
neuritis  involves  the  nerves  of  the  legs  alone.  The  onset  is 
sudden  when  caused  by  wounds,  ha-morrhage  into  the  sub- 
stance of  tlie  cord,  or  fracture  or  dislocation  of  the  spinal 
column,  rajiid  when  caused  by  myelitis  or  meningitis,  and 
slow  when  due  to  jiressure  from  a  tumor  or  from  Pott's  dis- 
ease. Paralysis  of  the  bladder  and  rectum  are  generally 
present.  The  character  of  the  palsy  varies  with  the  level  of 
the  lesion  in  the  cord.  If  it  involve  the  whole  transverse 
area  of  the  cord  there  is  complete  loss  of  sensation  below. 
If  it  be  in  the  lumbar  region,  there  is  absence  of  the  reflexes 
and  wasting  of  the  muscles.  If  higher  up,  there  is  rigidity, 
no  wa.sting,  and  the  reflexes  are  increased.  The  term  "is 
sometimes  used,  but  improperly,  to  include  eases  in  which 
the  arms  as  well  as  the  legs  are  palsied.  See  Paralysis. 
William  Peppek  and  C.  W.  Burr. 

Pari  River:  a  large  inlet  in  the  coast  of  Brazil,  state  of 
Para,  S.  E.  of  the  island  of  Marajo,  generally  regarded  as 
the  southern  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  Physically,  it  is  the 
estuary  of  the  river  Tocantins,  but  through  a  network  of 
channels  S.  and  W.  of  JIarajo  it  receives  a  volume  of  Ama- 
zonian water  exceeding  that  of  the  Tocantins  itself.  These 
channels  are  navigable  for  large  vessels,  and  owing  to  the 
strong  currents  and  unsheltered  banks  of  the  true  mouths 
of  the  Amazon,  the  Pani  h;is  always  formed  the  natural 
outlet  of  that  river.  The  Para,  up  to  the  junction  of  the 
Amazonian  channels,  is  120  miles  long,  10  miles  wide  above 
and  over  30  miles  at  the  mouth.  The  effect  of  the  tides  is 
felt  in  strong  currents,  but  no  salt  water  enters  it. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Par'asaii^  [from  Gr.  vapauTayyris,  from  0.  Pers. ;  cf.  Pers. 
farsaiio]:  a  Persian  measure  of  distance.  Herodotus  (ii.,  6, 
etc.),  Xenophon(-l?(ni.  ii..  2,  §  6),  Suidas,  and  Hesychius  are 
all  agreed  in  estimating  the  parasang  at  30  stadia,  or  about 
3f  miles.  Afterward  the  measure  seems  to  liave  varied ; 
for  in  a  Byzantine  writer,  Agathias  (about  530  a.  d.),  we 
find  the  parasang  reckoned  at  21  stadia.  Strabo  (xi.,  p.  518) 
states  that  it  was  variously  reckoned  at  30,  40,  and  even 
60,  stadia.  According  to  Pliny  (Xal.  Hixt..  vi.,  30),  the  Per- 
sians themselves  were  divided  as  to  its  length.  The  parasang 
is  still  in  use  among  tlie  Persians.  Modern  travelers  concur 
with  Herodotus  and  Xenophon  in  fixing  its  length  variously 
at  from  3^  to  4  miles. 

Paraselenas :  See  Halo. 

Farasita :  a  sub-order  of  insects  which  includes  the  Lice 
{q.  c).     See  also  Extojiolooy. 

Parasites  [from  Gr.  Trapixmos,  liter.,  eating  beside  or  at 
another's  table;  iiapi.  )}eside  -t-  anuv,  to  take  food,  deriv. 
of  o-iVos,  food] ;  originally,  per.sons  who  flattered  the  rich  and 
were  fed  at  their  tables;  in  zoology,  animals  that  live  in  or 
on  other  animals.  In  its  broad  sense  parasitism  includes  all 
cases  where  one  organism  depends  u|)on  another  for  its 
food  ;  but,  as  more  usually  employed,  it  is  limited  to  those 
still  numerous  cases  where  there  is  a  more  or  less  intimate 
connection  between  the  gainer  in  the  process,  the  pnrn.siVe, 
and  the  form  lived  upon,  the  hoxt.  Even  with  these  limits 
there  are  different  degrees  of  parasitism  to  be  recognized, 
whidi  may  be  grouped  under  the  heads  commensalism,  sym- 
biosis, and  parasitism  proper.  In  commensalism  there  is  an 
association  of  forms  wlierein,  so  to  speak,  one  profits  from 
the  crumbs  which  fall  from  the  other's  table.  Thus  in  the 
mouth  of  the  menhaden  there  fre(|uently  occurs  a  crusta- 
cean "messmate"  which  holds  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth  by 


436 


PARASITES,   HUMAN 


PARASITES,   VEGETABLE 


its  sharp  legs,  and  there  selects  its  food  from  the  objects 
eaten  by  the  fish.  In  symbiosis  there  is  a  reciprocity  which 
does  not  exist  in  eomniensalism.  Each  profits  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  by  the  other's  presence.  Tlius  we  have  certain 
hermit-crabs  which  constantly  bear  sea-anemones  about  u])ou 
the  shell  which  they  inhabit";  the  anemone  profits  from  the 
particles  of  fooil  dro'pped  by  the  crab,  while  the  crab  receives 

Erotection  from  its  enemies,  many  of  which  do  not  care  to 
rave  the  nettle-cells  of  the  anemone.  Slightly  different  is 
the  case  of  the  "  yellow  cells"  of  the  KadioUiria.  Here  we 
have  an  association  of  animal  and  plant,  the  former  profit- 
ing by  the  oxygen  given  off  by  the  latter,  while  the  plant  in 
turn  iises  the  "carbon  dioxide  produced  by  the  animal.  In 
parasitism  proper  the  parasite  lives  directly  upon  tlie  sub- 
stance of  the  host.  The  union  between  them  may  be  only 
temporary,  as  in  the  c;ise  of  the  leeches,  which  attach  them- 
selves to  other  animals  only  while  sucking  blood;  or  it  may 
be  permanent,  as  in  the  great  majority  of  parasitic  worms. 
In  the  latter  there  may  be  external  or  internal  parasitism; 
but  in  all  cases  there  is  such  an  adjustment  of  one  to  the 
other  that  while  the  host  is  weakened  by  the  drain,  it  but 
rarely,  and  then  slowly,  succumbs.  Its  preservation  is  neces- 
sary "to  the  perpetuation  of  the  parasitic  species. 

In  one  way  or  another  all  groups  of  the  animal  kingdom 
present  instances  of  parasites.  Passing  by  the  tapeworms, 
trichina,  etc.,  we  may  here  instance  a  few  of  the  more  inter- 
esting cases.  Among  the  vertelirates  the  fishes  alone  afford 
cases  of  parasitism,  and  prominent  here  are  the  lampreys 
and  hagfishes,  the  former  living  upon  the  slime  excreted 
from  the  bodies  of  other  fishes,  the  latter  actually  burrow- 
ing their  way  into  the  body-cavity  of  the  cod.  Among  the 
molluscs  parasites  are  rare.  Most  striking  is  the  case  of 
Entoconcha.  the  young  of  which  is  a  true  gasteropod,  wliile 
the  adult,  an  elongate  worm-like  body  without  a  trace  of 
molluscan  features,  lives  in  the  intestine  of  certain  holo- 
thurians  (Sytuipta).  In  the  Crustacea  parasites  occur 
among  thelsopoda,  the  barnacles,  and  especially  among  the 
Copepoda.  and  in  the  latter  group  almost  every  grade  can 
be  found  to  illustrate  that  law  of  nature  that  the  more  per- 
fect and  more  prolonged  the  parasitism,  the  more  complete 
the  resulting  degradation.  Thus  in  the  Lerneans  almost 
every  crustacean  feature  has  disappeared  :  all  that  remains 
may  be  summed  up  as  means  of  fixation  and  absorption, 
combined  with  enormous  organs  for  the  reproduction  of  the 
species.  True  parasitism  is  rare  among  the  C'oelrtiterates, 
but  here  must  be  instanced  the  hydroid  H;idricMhys,  de- 
scribed by  Pewkes  as  parasitic  upon  certain  fishes. 

LiTEKATURE. — Cobbold,  Eiitozoa  (London,  1864) ;  P.  J. 
van  Beneden.  Animal  Parasites  and  Messmates  (New  York, 
1876) ;  Leuckart,  Die  Menschlichen  Parasiten  (Leipzig, 
1863-68).  J.  S.  KiNGSLEY. 

Parasites,  Human :  Man  is  liable  to  invasion  of  a  con- 
siderable variety  of  parasitic  organisms,  both  animal  and 
vegetable.  The  latter,  by  far  the  more  important  and  nu- 
merous, belong  to  the  families  of  bacteria.  Upon  them  are 
dependent  many  of  the  infectious  diseases,  such  as  tubercu- 
losis, typhoid  fever,  and  diphtheria.  (See  Bacteriology.) 
The  animal  parasites  are  much  less  varied  and  frequent, 
but  are  still  quite  numerous.  Some  forms  live  upon  the  ex- 
terior parts  of  the  body,  and  are  known  as  Ectozoa  ;  others 
within  the  cavities  or  tissues,  and  are  called  Entozoa. 

Ectozoa. — These  include  representatives  of  the  Insecta, 
such  as  lice,  fleas,  chiggers,  etc. ;  and  of  the  Arachnoidea, 
such  as  the  mites  found  in  acne  pimples,  or  the  itch-mite.  A 
very  important  class  of  lower  organisms  belonging  to  the  Pro- 
tozoa have  recently  been  discovered  in  certain  skin  diseases, 
such  as  nioUuscum  eontagiosum  and  Paget "s  disease  of  the 
nipple.  Tlu'se  belong  to  the  genus  Coccidium.  They  invade 
the  epithelial  cells  of  the  skin  and  lead  to  their  destruction. 
A  similar  organism  is  claimed  as  the  cause  of  cancer.  The 
evidence  is  not  yet  conclusive,  but  is  very  suggestive. 

Entozoa.— \mong  the  internal  paras'ites  are  species  of 
various  families  of  Protozoa,  Arachnoidea.  and  Vermes.  Of 
the  Protozoa,  to  which  of  late  attention  has  Ijeen  specially 
directed,  the  important  forms  are  the  Amwim  coli,  which 
occupies  the  intestinal  canal  and  causes  certain  forms  of 
dysentery  ;  the  plasmoii i n ni.  malarite.  an  organism  which 
thrives  in  the  blood  in  malarial  fever  and  is  doubtless  the 
cause  of  this  disease.  The  cocnidia  occur  in  the  intestines 
and  liver  as  well  as  in  the  skin.  Other  Protozoa  of  the  in- 
testinal canal,  such  as  Tricliomonas  a,ni\  Ceiromonas.  Mifia-i- 
lorna  entcricum  and  J'aranteciiim  coli,  are  relatively  unim- 
portant. 


Of  the  Arachnoids  but  one  occurs,  and  that  rarely — the 
Pentastoma  Itenioides.  This  organism  occupies  the  nasal 
cavities  and  frontal  sinuses  of  various  animals,  and  occa- 
sionally of  man.  Its  larvip,  Pentastoma  denticulaium,  are 
found  in  the  liver  or  spleen,  less  frequently  in  other  organs, 
of  man  ami  various  animals. 

By  far  the  most  important  group  of  animal  parasites  of 
man  are  the  worms,  of  which  the  cestodes  or  tapeworms, 
the  trematodes  or  fiukeworms,  and  the  nematodes  or  round- 
worms are  the  subdivisions  met  with.  The  commonest  of 
the  tapeworms  in  America  is  the  Tceiiia  saginaia,  the  beef 
tapeworm,  but  occasionally  Twnia  solium  (pig),  and  Tcenia 
eUiptica  (cat  and  dog),  and  Bothriocephalus  latus  (fish)  are 
met  with.  The  last  named  is  very  common  in  parts  of 
Switzerland,  Norway,  ami  other  countries.  Man  is  the  oc- 
casional host  of  the  adult  Tcenia  echinoccous,  a  dog  tape- 
worm ;  but  very  frequently  the  larva;  of  this  form  occur  in 
man,  producing  the  so-called  hydatid  cysts  of  the  liver  and 
other  parts.  This  disease  is  common  in  Iceland  and  Aus- 
tralia. Rarer  tapeworms  of  man  are  Tcenia  nona.  T.  flavo- 
ptin-ctafn,  T.  madagascariensis,  T.  negre.  T.  tarella,  T.  alge- 
riana.  T.  of  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  also  Bothriocephalus  cor- 
datiis  and  cri.'italus. 

The  trematodes  or  flukeworms  are  comparatively  unim- 
portant, being  much  less  frequent.  There  is  a  number  of 
the  genus  Disfoma.  including  D.  hepaticum.  the  liver  fluke, 
D.  hcematohivm,  the  blood  fluke,  and  the  less  frequent  D. 
lanceolatiim,  I).  conjuncUmi,  I),  rathonisi.  D.  heterophyes, 
D.  spathidatum.  An  interesting  form  is  D.  pulmonale,  the 
lung  fluke  of  .Japan,  Korea,  and  other  Eastern  countries. 
3Ionostoma  lentis  and  Amphistoma  hominis  are  rare  forms. 

The  nematodes  include  some  of  the  most  frequent  and 
important  forms,  such  as  the  common  roundworm,  Ascaris 
lumbricoides,  the  seatworm  or  pinworm,  Oxyaris  vennicu- 
laris,  and  the  destructive  Trichina  spiralis,  derived  from 
improperly  cooked  meat  of  the  hog.  Relatively  unimpor- 
tant forms  are  Ascaris  mysta.r,  Anchylostoma  duodenale 
(tlie  organism  so  prevalent  among  the  workers  at  St.  Goth- 
ard's  tunnel).  Stritngylus  longeraginatus,  Enstrongylus  gi- 
gas,  Rhabdotiema  inte.stinalis,  Trichocephcdus  dispar  (the 
whipworm),  Filaria  bancroftii,  medinensis.  and  loa.  Echi- 
norhynchus  hominis  is  the  only  representative  of  the  Acan- 
thocephali. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  number  of  animal  jiarasites  is 
large,  and  that  the  variety  of  forms  is  very  great  ;  moreover, 
very  frequently  several  forms  are  found  coexisting,  and  a 
patient  may  suffer  invasion  by  a  number  of  the  same  or  dif- 
ferent forms  in  succession.  Habits  of  uncleanliness  are  the 
greatest  cause  of  internal  and  external  parasites.  The  larvip 
are  carried  to  the  mouth  or  exterior  of  the  body  by  unclean 
hands,  clothing,  and  the  like.  Tapeworms  are  conveyed  to 
man  in  the  larval  form  in  "  measled  "  flesh  of  the  beef,  hog, 
or  fish,  or  more  directly  by  the  eggs  being  taken  in  water  or 
food.  The  prevention  of  parasites  therefore  re[|uires  care- 
ful attention  to  habits  of  cleanliness  and  to  the  proper  prep- 
aration of  food.  William  Pepper. 

Parasites,  Vegetable  :  plants  which  live  u\w\\  other 
living  organisms,  and  obtain  their  food  wholly  or  in  part 
from  their  living  tissues.  They  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  Saprophytes  (q.  v.),  which  obtain  their  food  from 
dead  tissues. 

As  in  animals,  so  in  plants,  we  must  regard  all  para- 
sites as  having  been  derived  from  non-parasitic  forms. 
In  many  cases  this  derivation  is  quite  obvious :  thus  the 
dodders  (species  of  Cuscuta)  are  clearly  modified  members 
of  the  morning-glory  family  {(.'onmlvulacece).  the  Indian 
pipe  (Mcmotropa)  is  essentially  a  modified  heath  (Ericaeece), 
the  downy  mildews  (Peronosporacecf)  are  structurally  .so 
nearly  like  the  green  felts  (Vaucheriacew)  that  they  have 
been  long  associated  with  them,  etc.  In  other  cases  their 
derivation  is  not  so  obvious,  as  in  the  black  fungi,  rusts, 
and  smuts. 

It  is  a  well-known  law  that  parasitism  is  always  followed 
by  structural  degradation,  especially  of  the  vegetative  or- 
gans, an<l  where  the  parasitism  is  excessive,  all  parts  of 
the  organism  suffer  degradation.  Thus  parasitic  flowering 
plants  are  usually  leafless,  or  nearly  so,  as  in  ('ii.icula  and 
JInnolropn.  ami  the  degradation  has  been  carried  sn  far  in 
P.afflesia  and  its  relatives,  and  in  Balanophorcicifr.  that  the 
ovules  and  seeds  are  reduced  tt)  a  state  of  great  simplicity. 
Where  the  parasitism  is  partial,  as  in  the  .Mistletoe,  the 
leaves  are  still  well  developed,  both  struct nndly  and  func- 
liimally,  l)ul  with  an  increased  dependence  of  the  parasite 


PARCJi: 


PARDON 


437 


upon  its  host  the  leaves  are  ehlorophyll-less  and  bract-like, 
as  in  Arceuthobiiim.a  rc4ative  of  tlie  mistletoe. 

The  principal  faiiiilic!;  in  wliiili  [lanisiti'S  occur  in  the 
vegetable  kinj^cloMi  are  (listrilmleil  as  follows :  In  the  Pro- 
tophytes,  the  bacteria  :  in  the  I'hycophytes,  the  black 
moulds,  fly-fungi,  water-moulds,  downy  mildews,  etc. ;  in 
the  Uarpophytus,  many  families  (twenty  or  more)  of  the 
fiHifii ;  in  the  Anthophytes.  the  orchids  (a  few  genera), 
vine-rapes  (Cytiiuifed-),  mistletoes  (Lorantlidcew),  Balano- 
phorads,  Indian  pipes  (Moiwlrupetf).  murning-glories  (the 
dodders,  of  the  genus  Cuxcuta),  and  broom-rapes  (Oro- 
banchacetp).  Few,  if  any,  of  the  mossworts  and  fernworts 
are  true  parasites,  and  none  of  the  Gymiiosperms.  It  is  im- 
possible to  give  the  total  number  of  parasites  in  the  vegeta- 
ble kingdom,  but  from  r2,()()0  to  I.'>,()00  lower  plants  (Pro- 
tophytes,  Phycophyles,  and  C'arpophytes),  and  about  1,000 
Anthophytes  are  true  parasites.  T  o  these  should  be  added 
also  many  species  which  are  partially  parasitic.  See  I)e- 
OENf:BATioN  and  Veqetablb  Kinouom. 

Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Parasols:  See  Umbrellas. 

ParcoB :  See  Fates. 

Parchments  [M.  Eng.  parchemin.  from  0.  Fr.  parcamin, 
parchemin  :  lliiL  pergamena  :  iii)an. per(/nmi?io  <  Vulg.  Lat. 
*pergami  num  for  pergame  num.  deriv.  of  Pergamum,  a  city 
in  Alysia  where  parchment  is  said  to  have  been  first  nsed] : 
the  well-cleansed  and  carefully  dried  skins  of  hares,  rabbits, 
calves,  asses,  or  sheep.  Common  parchment  is  prepared 
from  sheepskins,  but  vellum,  a  far  finer  variety,  is  made 
from  the  skins  of  young  calves,  goats,  or  still-born  lambs. 
Sheepskins  are  often  split  and  made  to  yield  two  sheets  of 
parchment.  The  skins  are  soaked  in  water,  and  then  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  milk  of  lime.  The  wool  or  hair  is 
then  removed,  the  skins  are  washed,  planed  with  a  sharp 
knife  to  remove  superfluous  parts,  and  then  stretched  on 
frames  singly  and  dried  in  the  air.  For  bookbinders"  use 
the  dried  parchment  is  planed  to  impart  a  rough  surface, 
capable  of  being  dyed  or  written  upon.  The  dried  parch- 
ment is  finally  dusted  over  with  chalk  and  rubbed  with 
pumice-stone.  Drum-heads  are  made  from  calves'  skins, 
heads  of  kettle-drums  from  asses'  skins,  sieves  for  gunpowder- 
mills  from  hogs'  skins.  Parchment  was  known  long  before 
tlie  invention  of  paper.  It  is  made  at  Bentheim  and  Schut- 
torf  in  Hanover,  at  Aug.sburg,  Nuremberg,  Breslau,  and 
Dantzic,  and  in  Holland,  England,  and  France. 

Revised  by  luA  Remskn. 

Pardessns,  paar'dflsii',  .Jean  Marie  :  jurist :  b.  at  Blois, 
France,  Aug.  11, 1772  ;  studied  jurisprudence ;  became  mayor 
of  Bloisin  180,5:  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  1807; 
Professor  of  .Mercantile  Law  at  Paris  in  1810;  mendjcr  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  1815-16  and  1824-27,  but  retired 
from  public  life  after  the  Revolution  of  18:30.  D.  on  his  es- 
tates near  Blois,  Jlay  26,  IS."):?.  By  his  numerous  works,  of 
which  the  most  prominent  are  Traife  den  Serriiudej<(\Hl)G). 
Traiti  du  Contrat  el  des  Lettrea  dp  Change  (1809),  Kh'menta 
de  Jurixpriidciiee,  com niprr tale  (ISll),  Cuurs  de  Driiit  runi- 
mereial  {l8\4-\\i),  (.'ollecfioii  des  Lois  maritiines  anti'rieuren 
au  IX'  siecle  (6  vols.,  1828-4.')),  Us  et  Coutumes  de  la  Mcr 
(1847),  a  Collection  des  Ordonnances  des  Rois  de  France, 
with  an  introductory  essay  on  the  organization  of  the  French 
courts,  etc.,  he  exercised  a  great  influence  on  French  juris- 
prudence. 

Par'do,  Manuel  :  statesman  ;  b.  at  Lima,  Peru,  Aug.  13, 
18:i4.  He  came  of  a  wealthy  family,  was  exhicated  \n  Chili 
and  Europe,  and  was  established  as  a  banker  in  Lima,  be- 
sides conilucting  several  large  plantations  ancl  holding  vari- 
ous public  positions.  Fn.im  .Vug.  2,  1872,  to  -Aug.  2,  187(), 
he  was  president  of  Peru.  He  was  the  first  civilian  ever 
elected  to  this  ollice,  and  was  one  of  the  best  and  most  popu- 
lar presidents  that  Peru  ever  had.  Subsequently  he  was 
presiilent  of  the  senate.  He  was  assassinated  by  an  obscure 
person,  who  attacked  him  in  fnmt  of  the  senate-house  at 
Lima,  Nov.  16,  1878.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Panlo  Baziin,  Emilia  :  novelist  and  critic ;  b.  at  Corun- 
na,  Galicia,  Spain,  in  18.")2.  In  1868  she  was  married  to 
Sefior  tjuirogariche,  a  proprietor  in  lier  native  province. 
Lator,  however,  she  lived  maiidy  in  Madrid,  though  her 
imagination  still  preferred  (ialieian  themes.  As  a  novelist 
she  is  distinguished  by  great  truth  of  local  coloring,  and  by 
tlie  kind  of  realism  in  depicting  life  and  action  of  whicii 
Mr.  llowells  is  the  chief  representative  in  the  V.  S.  Among 
her  novels  may  be  mentioned  Los  Pazos  de  Ulloa  and  its 


continuation,  La  madre  naturalezax  La  piedra  angular ; 
La  tribuna ;  the  novelettes  Insolaciun  and  Morriita ;  Pascual 
Lopez,  autobiografla  de  un  estudianle  de  medicina;  the 
collection  of  tales,  Cuentos  de  Marintda ;  El  Cisne  de  Vila- 
morta\  Una  Cristiana  and  its  sequel,  I^a  Prueba.  Ascritie 
she  has  written  Estudio  critico  de  las  obras  del  I'.  Feijbo 
(1876);  tian  Francisco  de  Asis;  Sigh  XIIL  (2d  cd.  1886); 
La  lievolucibn  y  la  Noi<ela  en  iJusiu  (1887) ;  Iju  Cuestibn 
palpitante  (realism  r,v.  romanticism,  4th  ed.  18!tl).  In  J/t 
Romerla  (1888)  and  De  mi  Tierra  (1888)  we  liave  imiires- 
sions,  recollections,  and  reflections  of  a  more  serious  kind 
coiniected  with  her  Galician  home.  This  also  is  the  char- 
acter of  her  studies  in  folk-lore — Folk-lore  galhgo — Mis- 
celdnea  (1884).  In  18iM  she  began  to  issue  a  periodical,  de- 
voted to  theatrical  criticism,  written  wholly  by  her  own 
jien — Aiiffo  Teatro  cr'ttico.  Cn  the  whole,  she  is  the  most 
important  woman  of  letters  now  writing  in  Spain.  Her 
Obras  Completas  in  a  new  edition  began  to  appear  in  Ma- 
drid in  1891  (9  vols.,  1891-93).  A.  R.  Marsu. 

Pardon  [from  O.  Fr.  pardon,  deriv.  of  pardonner,  con- 
cede, indulge,  pardon;  par-  (<  Lat.  /)er-),  thoroughly -t- 
donner,  give] :  an  act  of  grace  by  which  an  offender  is  re- 
leased from  the  consequences  of  his  offense,  so  far  as  such 
release  is  practicable  and  within  the  control  of  the  pardon- 
ing power.  In  monarchies  it  is  a  prerogative  of  the  king, 
who  is  deemed  the  source  of  justice.  It  is  [iroperly  employed 
to  correct  some  injustice  for  which  the  ordinary  judicial  ma- 
chinery does  not  provide,  or  to  make  allowances  for  exce])- 
tional  circumstances,  or  from  considerations  of  iiublic  jiolicy. 

Power  to  Pardon. — A  serviceable  Parliament  once  declared 
that  the  King  of  Great  Britain  hath  the  whole  and  sole 
power  of  pardon,  "  united  and  knit  to  the  imperial  crown  of 
this  realm."  (27  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  24.)  The  royal  prerogative, 
however,  even  in  the  matter  of  pardons,  has  been  greatly 
curtailed  since  the  age  of  the  Tudors.  A  pardon  can  not 
be  pleaded  to  an  Impeachment  (g.  v.).  The  committing  any 
person  to  prison  out  of  the  realm  is  unpardonable  by  the 
crown.  (.31  Car.  II.,  c.  2.)  Nor  can  the  British  sovereign 
by  pardon  inflict  an  injury  on  an  innocent  person,  "as  in 
the  case  of  a  nuisance  yet  unredressed,  or  of  a  breach  of 
certain  statutes  after  an  informer  has  become  entitled  to  a 
reward  payable  out  of  the  penalty."  The  pardon  can  operate 
only  to  relieve  the  offender  from  his  liability  to  the  crown. 
It  can  not  affect  the  private  rights  of  individuals.  At  pres- 
ent the  sovereign  exercises  this  prerogative  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Home  Secretary.  It  is  rarely  employed, 
save  in  cases  of  serious  miscarriage  of  justice,  which  can  not 
be  remedied  otherwise ;  or  in  the  cases  of  political  offenders 
who  engaged  in  riots,  unlawful  assemblies,  or  other  like 
[iroceedings  for  the  purpose  of  influencing  the  action  of 
Parliament  or  public  officials. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  pardoning  power  is  the  subject  of  consti- 
tutional provision.  It  is  generally  vested  in  the  executive. 
The  Federal  Constitution  authorizes  the  President '"  to  grant 
reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the  U.  S.,  exi-ept 
in  cases  of  impeachment."  (Art.  ii.,  g  2.)  It  is  to  be  noticed 
that  "offenses  against  the  U.  S."  can  be  pardoned  only  by 
the  President.  Offenses  against  the  several  States  are  par- 
donable by  the  injured  State  alone.  Again,  the  private  con- 
sequences of  a  wrong  are  not  subject  to  the  pardoning  power 
of  the  President.  Within  the  constitutiomil  domain,  how- 
ever, the  President's  prerogative  of  pardon  is  unlimited; 
"it  conveys  the  idea  of  the  power  exercised  by  the  English 
crown,  or  by  its  representatives  in  t  \\i.'  colonies"  ;  it  "  extends 
to  every  offense  known  to  the  law,  and  is  not  subject  to  leg- 
islative control."  (A'.r  parte  Wells,  18  Howard  .■!07 ;  ex  parte 
Garland,  4  Wallace  3;!3.)  It  may  be  exerci-sed  before  con- 
viction, or  even  before  indictment;  and  there  is  judicial 
authority  for  the  doctrine  that  it  extenils  to  persons  com- 
mitted for  contempt  of  court.  (Re  MuUee,  7  Blatchford  23.) 
This  view  has  been  severely  criticised.  See  45  Albany  Law 
Journal.  1,  and  authorities  cited. 

Forms  of  Pardon. —  In  (ireat  Britain  a  warrant  of  pardon 
must  be  certified  liy  the  great  seal  aflixed  by  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor, or.  in  cases  of  felony,  by  the  sovereign's  sign-manual 
countersigned  by  a  princijial  Secretary  of  State.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  usual  "form  is  a  writing  sigiu'd  by  the  executive, 
with  the  great  seal  attaclu'd.  Where  this  form  is  employed, 
delivery  anil  acceptance  are  necessary  to  its  validity.  A 
|iardon  nuiy  be  limited  to  a  specified  in<lividual  and  a  par- 
ticular criMu\  or  it  maybe  framed  to  include  a  number  of 
named  iiulividuals,  or  even  a  class  of  persons  designated 
otherwise  than  by  name.     It  may  be  granted  by  a  general 


438 


PAKE 


PARENT  AND   CHILD 


proclamation,  and  take  effect  from  the  time  it  is  signed.  It 
may  be  absolute,  or  it  may  be  given  upon  a  condition  prece- 
dent or  subsequent.  It  'may  also  take  the  form  of  a  com- 
mutation of  punishment,  though  it  can  not  substitute  a 
punishment  of  a  different  nature. 

Its  Effect.— An  absolute  pardon  releases  the  offender  from 
all  disabilities  imposed  by  public  law,  and  restores  him  to 
all  his  civil  rights,  in  the'  absence  of  a  statute  to  the  con- 
trary—e.  g.  2  X.  Y.  R.  S.  139,  §  7.  It  gives  hira  a  new  credit 
and' capacity.  It  does  not  make  amends  for  the  past,  nor 
afford  relief  for  what  has  been  suffered  by  imprisonment, 
forced  labor,  or  otherwise.  (Knote  vs.  U.  S.,  95  U.  S.  149, 
153.)  It  restores  a  convicted  criminars  competency  as  a 
witness,  even  though  it  recites  that  it  was  granted  because 
his  testimony  was  desired  by  the  Government  {Boyd  vs. 
['.  S..  143  U.  S.  4.50);  but  the  conviction  may  be  used  to 
affect  his  credit.  If  the  pardon  is  granted  upon  a  condition 
precedent,  the  condition  nuist  be  performed  before  the  par- 
don takes  effect.  If  the  condition  is  subsequent,  its  breach 
operates  to  annul  tlie  pardon,  and  to  transform  its  effect 
into  a  reprieve  or  stay  of  execution.  In  such  a  case  the 
prisoner  can  not  be  arrested  and  remanded  to  his  original 
punishment  upon  the  mere  order  of  the  executive,  unless 
the  pardon  contains  an  express  provision,  or  a  statute  gives 
clear  authority  therefor;  but  he  is  entitled  to  a  hearing  be- 
fore a  competent  court,  though  not  to  a  jury  trial,  upon  the 
question  whether  he  has  broken  the  condition,  (i'/a/c  ex 
rel.  O'Connor  vs.  Wolfer,  53  Minn.  135.)  A  pardon  induced 
by  deception  is  void.  An  executive  pardon  must  be  brought 
to  the  attention  of  the  court  by  appropriate  procedure, 
generally  by  a  special  plea ;  but  courts  are  bound  to  take 
judicial  notice  of  a  paraon  by  act  of  Parliament. 

Fraxcis  M.  Burdick. 

Par6.  paa'ra',  Ambroise:  surgeon  and  author;  b.  at 
Bourg-Hersent,  near  Laval,  Maine,  France,  1517;  became 
an  apprentice  to  a  barber-surgeon  in  Paris ;  also  studied  sur- 
gerv;  joined  the  society  of  St.  Come,  and  171  1536  entered 
the"  array  in  Italy  as  a  surgeon.  His  introduction  of  the 
ligature  for  bleeding  arteries  after  amputation  was  the 
foundation  of  modern  surgery,  and  he  wrote  a  work  on  gini- 
shot  wounds  which  is  still  of  value.  His  great  invention 
dates  from  1536.  When  the  supply  of  oil  failed  the  army 
in  Piedmont  (for  up  to  that  time  hot  oil  was  used  to  stanch 
bleeding),  he  wa-s  obliged  to  tie  arteries  with  a  thread,  and 
found  that  cases  where  the  ligature  was  employed  did  much 
better  than  the  others.  From  1552  to  1590  he  was  surgeon 
to  four  French  kings.  He  was  a  devout  Huguenot  (although 
Malgaigne  denies  it),  but  his  reputation  for  surgical  skill 
saved  him  at  the  massacre  of  .St.  Bartholomew  and  at  other 
critical  junctures.  His  professional  works  are  very  much 
in  advance  of  his  times,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  was  only 
a  barber-surgeon,  and  as  such  unrecognized  by  the  surgical 
facultv.  His  principal  work  was  Cing  Livres  de  Chinirgie 
(1562).'  D.  in  Paris,  Dec.  22.  1590.  See  the  Life  by  Paul- 
mier  (Paris.  1884),  and  the  article  Surgery. 

Paregoric  [from  Lat.  parego' ricus  =  Gr.  irafnyopiKSs.  de- 
riv.  of  irapiiyopos,  soothing,  consoling ;  irapd,  beside  +  ayopfitiy, 
speak,  harangue,  deriv.  of  ayopd,  assembly]:  a  well-known 
anodyne  compound  (tindura  opii  camphorata),  made  by  tak- 
ing 4  grammes  of  powdered  opium,  benzoic  acid,  and  cam- 
phor, and  adding  4  cc.  of  oil  of  anise,  40  ee.  of  glycerine, 
and  enough  diluted  alcohol  to  make  1,000  cc.  The  prepara- 
tion is  completed  by  shaking,  maceration,  and  filtration.  It 
is  a  mild  anodyne  and  antispasmodic. 

Pareira  Itrava  [Portug. ;  pareira,  from  the  Brazilian 
name  +  brava.  brave,  i.  e.  of  full  strength] :  the  dried  woody 
root  of  some  South  American  climbing  plants  of  the  family 
Menisperinarea;.  It  is  a  Ionic  and  diuretic  drug,  used  es- 
pecially in  chronic  inHammations  of  the  bladder  and  the 
urinary  passages.  The  plant  in  question  was  long  supposed 
to  be  the  Cissampeloi  pareira,  but  Hanbury  ascertained 
that  it  is  Chondodendron  tomentosum  of  Ruiz  and  Pavon, 
Cocculus  chondoJe.ndron,  D.  C. 

Pareiicliyma:  Sec  Histologv,  Vegetable  {Soft  Tissue). 

Parent  and  Child:  English  common  law  secures  to  the 
parent  the  riglit  to  the  custody  and  discipline  of  his  minor 
children,  and  to  their  services. 

Cu-ftodij  rind  Discipline.— Th\i<  right  is  accorded  to  the 
parent  that  he  nuiy  pr()[)erly  train  his  offspring,  and  give 
them  a  proper  e(iu('ati(m  in  learning,  morals,  and  religion. 
It  is  subject  to  tlie  state's  supervision.  A  serious  abuse  of 
it  by  the  parent,  or  by  one  to  wliom  he  has  (li:legated  it — for 


example,  a  school-teacher — is  treated  as  a  Crime  {q.  v.),  and 
will  also  sustain  an  action  in  Tort  {q.  v.)  against  the  offend- 
ing delegate.  It  has  been  held,  however,  that  public  policy 
forbids  the  maintenance  of  a  tort  action  by  the  child  against 
the  parent  in  such  case  {Hewlett  vs.  Kagsdall,  68  Miss. 
703);  but  its  abuse  may  work  a  forfeiture  of  the  parental 
right.  In  Wellesley  vs.  Duke  of  Beaufurt.  2  Russell's  Re- 
ports, the  father  insisted  "  that  a  man  and  his  children 
ought  to  go  to  the  devil  in  their  own  way  if  he  please  ; "  but 
Lord  Eldon  decided  that  the  law  recognized  no  such  right. 
It  is  well  settled  that  if  a  father  is  guilty  of  gross  ill-treat- 
ment or  cruelty  toward  his  infant  children,  or  if  he  habitu- 
ally indulges  in  drunkenness,  or  blasphemy,  or  gross  de- 
bauchery, or  if  his  domestic  associations  tend  to  the  cor- 
ruption of  his  children,  or  if  his  acts  are  in  any  manner 
seriously  injurious  to  their  morals  or  interests,  a  court  of 
chancery  will  deprive  him  of  their  custody  and  discipline, 
and  ajipoint  a  suitable  person  as  their  guardian,  to  care  for 
them  and  superintend  their  education.  This  practice  is 
based  ujion  the  doctrine  that  jiarents  have  no  right  of  prop- 
erty in  their  offspring;  that  their  parental  rights  are  ac- 
corded to  enable  them  to  perform  their  parental  duties,  and 
that  such  rights  are  held  in  trust  to  be  forfeited  to  the  state 
by  their  abuse.  However,  courts  will  interfere  between 
parents  and  children  with  great  caution,  and  only  in  cases 
where  the  parent's  wrongdoing  and  the  child's  danger  are 
clearly  established.  In  many  of  the  U.  S.  societies  for  the 
prevention  of  cruelty  to  children  have  been  incorporated, 
with  authority  to  institute  various  proceedings  on  behalf  of 
minors  whose  parents,  guardians,  or  custodians  treat  them 
unlawfully.     See  ch.  122  N.  Y.  Session  Laws,  1876. 

Services. — The  parent  has  a  legal  right  to  the  services  of 
his  minor  children  while  within  his  custody,  and  to  any 
wages  which  they  may  earn  in  the  service  of  others.  He 
may  waive  this  right  by  emancipating  or  freeing  the  child 
from  parental  subjection ;  or,  in  some  States,  by  his  failure 
to  notify  the  employer,  pursuant  to  statutory  requirement, 
that  the  wages  must  be  paid  to  him  and  not  to  the  child. 
According  to  the  prevailing  view,  the  legal  marriage  of  a 
nunor  emancipates  him  or  her  from  parental  control.  {Com- 
monwealth vs.  Graham,  157  Mass.  73.)  An  unlawful  injury 
to  the  child,  which  invades  any  parental  right,  will  subject 
the  wrongdoers  to  an  action  by  the  parent  as  well  as  to  one 
by  the  child.  Hence  where  a  child  had  recovered  $2,800 
for  personal  injuries,  the  parent  was  allowed  to  recover 
against  the  same  defendant  for  loss  of  service  and  for  reason- 
able expenses  in  the  care  and  cure  of  the  injured  child. 
Horgan  vs.  Pacific  Mills,  158  Mass.  402. 

Parental  Duties. — It  is  generally  declared  that  these  are 
maintenance,  protection,  and  education,  though  to  what  ex- 
tent the  common  law  obliges  parents  to  perform  them  is  a 
matter  of  much  diversity  of  opinion.  The  weight  of  judicial 
authority  in  England  favors  the  doctrine  that  the  parent  is 
under  no  common-law  duty  to  support  his  child ;  that  his 
legal  duty  in  this  regard  is  the  creature  of  statute.  Accord- 
ing to  this  view,  if  a  parent  refuses  to  provide  for  his  child 
the  latter  can  not  pledge  the  former's  credit  for  necessaries, 
nor  can  he  maintain  any  legal  proceeding  against  the  parent. 
His  '■  only  resource,  in  the  absence  of  anything  to  show  a 
contract  on  the  parent's  part,  is  to  apply  to  the  ])arish," 
which  may  take  the  proper  steps  to  enforce  the  jjarent's  statu- 
tory duty.  The  same  view  prevails  in  some  of  the  U.  S. 
{Kelleii  vs.  Davis,  49  N.  H.  187.)  Other  State  courts  have 
held  that  "  the  duty  of  the  parent  to  maintain  his  offspring 
until  they  attain  the  age  of  maturity  is  a  perfect  common- 
law  duty."  {Porter  vs.  Powell,  79  la.  151.)  In  these  juris- 
dictions, persons  who  supply  minor  children  with  necessaries 
(see  Infant)  which  the  parent  refuses  or  neglects  to  provide 
can  recover  their  value  from  the  parent  on  a  quasi-contract. 
Where  a  child  possesses  an  estate  in  his  own  right,  a  court 
of  equity  will  authorize  the  father,  in  a  proper  case,  and  the 
mother  in  almost  every  case,  to  use  the  income,  or  even  the 
principal,  of  such  estate  for  the  infant's  suitable  maintenance 
and  education.  A  parent  may  lawfully  resort  to  force  in 
repelling  an  attack  upon  his  child,  as  he  may  in  rejielling  an 
Assault  (q.  v.)  upon  himself.  If  he  incurs  a  great  risk  in 
attempting  to  save  his  child  from  injury,  he  is  not  charge- 
able with  Negligence  {q.  v.),  and  he  may  uphold  his  children 
in  their  lawsuits  without  being  guilty  of  ,'\1aintenance  {q.  v.). 
Although  the  parental  right  of  protection  is  unequivocal, 
the  law  docs  not  compel  its  exercise.  The  parental  duty  of 
educating  children,  which  was  very  imperfect  at  common 
law,  has  been  regulated  to  some  extent  by  recent  statutes 
both   in   Britain   and  in  the  U.  S.     (See  Education.)     A 


PAREPA-ROSA 


PARINI 


439 


parent's  duty  to  support  his  children  does  not  survive  him, 
but  he  is  free,  in  the  absence  of  a  statute  on  the  subject,  to 
disinherit  them.  Tlie  parental  liahilily  upon  the  contracts 
and  the  torts  of  his  children  is  governed  by  the  law  of  JIas- 
TEB  AND  Servant  {q.  v.).  A  husband  does  not  assume  the 
legal  relation  of  parent  to  his  wife's  children  by  a  former 
marriajce.  While  they  remain  in  his  family  he  has  the  right 
to  control  them,  and  the  law  presumes,  in  the  al)sence  of 
any  contract  on  the  subject,  that  he  supports  them  and  they 
render  services  to  him  without  charge. 

Under  modern  legislation,  thougti  not  at  comiiion  law, 
the  legal  relation  of  parent  and  child  may  be  instituted  by 
AuoiTios  (q.  !'.).  While  the  adopted  person  becomes  the 
legal  child  of  the  adopter,  he  retains  the  right  of  inheriting 
from  his  natural  parents,  unless  the  statute  expressly  ^de- 
prives him  of  such  right.     Wayiier  vs.  Varmer,  .50  Iowa  5:!2. 

Filial  Rights  and  Dutifx. — .\lost  of  these  have  been  set 
forth  in  presenting  the  duties  and  rights  of  parents.  At 
common  law  the  child  was  not  legally  bound  to  maintain 
his  parents,  but  modern  legislation  has  subjected  him  to  an 
enforceable  duty  in  this  respect. 

For  the  rules  of  law  relating  to  illegitimate  cliildren.  see 
Bastard. 

Literature.  —  Schouler's  Domestic  Relations:  Black- 
stone's  Commentaries,  bk.  i.,  ch.  xvi. :  Kent's  Commentaries, 
lect.  29;  Church's  Habeas  Corpus;  Story's  Equity  Juris- 
prudence. Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Paropa-Rosa :  See  Rosa. 

Par't'Sis :  loss  of  power  less  marked  than  that  to  which 
the  term  paralysis  is  applied.  The  causes  and  the  mani- 
festations of  paresis  are  similar  to  those  of  Paralysis  {q.  v.), 
differing  only  in  degree. 

Paresis,  General :  See  Insanity  (General  Paralysis). 

Parga:  town;  in  the  vilayet  of  Yanina,  European  Tur- 
key; surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sea  and  defended  on 
the  fourth  by  an  almost  impregnable  citadel  (see  map  of 
Turkey,  ref.  .T-B).  From  1401  to  1797  it  was  a  prosperous 
commercial  republic  under  the  protection  of  Venice.  From 
1797  to  1814  it  was  nominally  subject  to  the  Ottomans,  who 
gave  it  to  AH  Paslia  of  Yanina.  The  inhabitants,  about 
5,000  Christian  Allianians,  refused  to  submit,  and  by  des- 
perate exertions  maintained  their  independence,  being  aided 
after  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  (1807)  by  the  French.  On  the  fall 
of  Napoleon  the  Pargiotes  solicited  and  obtained  the  pro- 
tection of  (ireat  Britain,  which  placed  a  British  garrison  in 
the  city;  but  in  1819  the  British  Government  quietly  de- 
livered Parga  to  Ali  Pasha,  whereupon  the  Pargiotes  dug 
up  the  bones  of  their  ancestors,  burnt  them,  abandoned 
their  city,  and  went  into  exile.  See  Mustoxides's  Expose 
des  fails  qui  precedirenl  et  suivirent  la  cession  de  Parga 
(Paris,  1819).  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Parhelia:  See  Hai.o. 

I'aria.  paa  ri'e-a"ii.  Gulf  of:  a  small  iidand  sea  (10.5  miles 
long  from  E.  to  \V. ;  40  miles  wide)  between  the  lowlands 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  the  island  of  Trinidad,  and  the 
peninsula  of  Paria,  a  rocky  extension  of  the  Venezuelan 
coast  range.  It  communicates  with  the  Caribbean  Sea  by 
the  Boca  del  Drago,  or  Dragon's  Mouth  (l)ctween  Trinidad 
and  the  peninsula),  and  with  the  Atlantic  on  the  S.  E.  by 
the  Boca  de  la  Sierpe.  or  .Serpent's  .Mouth.  Columbus,  who 
discovered  and  named  these  straits  in  1498,  had  great  dilli- 
culty  in  passing  through  them  owing  to  their  strong  cur- 
rents.    Here  he  first  saw  the  continent. 

Herbert  II.  S.mitu. 

Pa'riall  [from  Tamil  jmraii/an.  a  man  of  low  caste 
performing  the  lowest  menial  services,  liter.,  a  drummer 
(the  pariahs  being  hereditary  drum-beaters),  deriv.  of  parai, 
a  large  drum  used  at  certain  festivals]:  one  of  the  lowest 
class  in  India,  which  docs  not  belong  to  any  of  the  four 
castes.  The  pariahs  have  woolly  hair  and  thick  lips,  and 
are  found  especially  in  the  south  of  India:  they  are  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  aboriginal  race  conquered  by  the 
Sudras.  In  the  Madras  Presidency  they  nundjer  more  than 
4,000.000.  They  are  very  degraded,  are  not  allowed  to  ap- 
proach within  many  feet  of  any  Hindu,  and  have  to  some 
extent  adopted  a  system  of  caste  among  themselves.  Chan- 
dalas  and  outcasts  sink  to  the  rank  of  pariahs.  Successful 
efforts  are  being  made  by  missionaries  and  others  to  elevate 
the  character  and  intellect  of  these  wretched  beings.  See 
Caste. 

Paridlfi  [Mod.  Lnt..  from  Lat.  piirus,  a  titmouse  (the  typ- 
ical genus)  +  idau  family  tcrminaticm] :  a  family  of  small 


thick-set  birds,  containing  the  titmice,  characterized  by  soft, 
h)ose  plumage;  short,  stout,  rather  conical  bill;  strong  feet, 
with  a  jiad  beneath  the  hind  toe;  ten  primaries,  fii-st  short 
or  sjiurious.  The  titmice  are  nearly  all  confined  to  the 
nortlicrn  hemisphere,  and  occur  in  temperate  or  cold  regions 
of  both  worlds.    See  Titmouse.  F.  A.  L. 

Pari'etal  Bones  [parietal  is  from  Lat.  paries,  wall,  par- 
tition] :  in  vertebrates,  the  two  bones  which  close  in  the 
skull  above.  They  are  never  preformed  in  cartilage,  but 
arise  from  the  ossification  of  membranes,  ossification  in  each 
proceeding  from  a  single  center. 

Parietal  Eye:  a  vestigial  organ  peculiar  to  vertebrates. 
In  the  brain  of  all  vertebrates  there  has  long  been  known  a 
structure  of  unknown  functions,  called  the  pineal  gland. 
It  arises  from  the  roof  of  the  brain,  between  the  cerebrum 
and  mid-brain,  and  in  the  human  being,  where  it  is  a  struc- 
ture about  the  size  of  a  pea,  it  is  completely  covered  by  the 
cerelirum  as  it  folds  back  over  the  cerebellum.  In  the  lower 
vertebrates,  where  the  cerelirum  is  less  developed,  it  is  ex- 
posed upon  cutting  into  the  cranial  cavity.  One  of  the 
most  brilliant  discoveries  of  recent  years"  was  Spencer's 
demonstration  that  this  problematical  organ  was  a  vestigial 
eye,  and  that  in  certain  lizards  it  reached  nearly  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  head,  retaining  in  its  most  complete  development 
lens,  retina,  pigment,  and  traces  of  a  nerve.  In  these  forms 
its  presence  can  be  recognized  from  the  exterior  in  a  small 
spot  between  the  parietal  bones,  whence  the  name.  Since 
Spencer's  paper  numerous  investigators  have  studied  the 
structure,  and  they  recognize  in  it  a  com|)ound  organ,  the 
anterior  part  of  which  alone  develops  the  eye,  while  the  pos- 
terior (for  which  the  name  epiphysis  is  retained)  is  more 
lymphoid  in  nature.  It  would,  however,  appear  probable 
from  the  recent  investigations  of  Klinckomstrow  and  Locy 
(1894)  that  the  parietal  eye  is  paired  in  origin,  and  that  the 
epiphysis  may  be  a  second  eye.  behinil  the  first,  which  has 
become  more  degenerated  than  its  fellow.  So  far  as  is 
known  this  eye  is  no  longer  functional,  but  in  some  of  the 
fossil  vertebrates  a  cavity  exists  in  the  skull  in  the  right 
position  and  of  proper  size  to  accommodate  a  third  eye  with 
its  appropriate  muscles.  One  of  the  most  interesting  fea- 
tures connected  with  the  parietal  eye  is  that  it  is  built  upon 
the  invertebrate  type :  that  is,  the  retinal  layer  is  not  in- 
verted as  it  is  in  the  functional  vertebrate  eye.  See  Spencer, 
Quarterly  Journal  Jlicros.  Science  (xviii.,  1887);  Leydig, 
Senckenberg.  Abhandl.  (1889);  Ritter,  Bulletin  Mus.  Com- 
parative Zoology  (xx.,  1891).  J.  .S.  Kingsley. 

Parima.  Sp.  pron.  pa'ii-ree'ma'a,  Serra,  or  Sierra  de :  a 
line  of  highlands  forming  the  divide  between  the  head- 
waters of  the  Orinoco  on  the  W.  and  the  Rio  Branco,  a  sec- 
ondary affluent  of  the  Amazon,  on  the  E. ;  marking  part  of 
the  boundary  between  Venezuela  and  Brazil.  According  to 
Codazzi,  some  points  are  over  7.000  feet  high.  On  the  side 
of  the  Orinoco  the  general  trend  ajijiears  to  be  from  X.  W. 
to  S.  E.  The  name  is  often  extended  to  all  the  central 
highlands  of  Guiana  (q.  v.).  Originally  it  was  given  to  a 
mythical  lake  of  large  size  supposed  to  exist  in  this  region 
and  connected  with  the  story  of  El  Dorado.  H.  H.  S. 

Parini,  Giuseppe:  poet;  b.  at  Bosisio  (Brianza).  Mav  23, 
1729;  d.  at  Milan,  Aug.  15.  1799.  Of  humble  fandly,  he 
made  his  way  by  pure  ability  into  the  best  society  of  Milan, 
and  thus  acquired  the  knowledge  of  its  manners  necessary 
for  his  satiric  purposes.  His  actual  career  was  that  of  a 
teacher,  though  lie  was  also  a  priest;  and  from  177;i  to  his 
death  he  was  Professor  of  Belles-lettres  in  the  Academy  of 
the  Brera  at  Milan.  He  was  a  member  of  several  of  the  lit- 
erary academies  so  popular  in  Italy  in  his  time,  notably  of 
the  Trasformati  of  Milan  and  of  the  Milanese  oifshoot  of 
the  Roman  Arcadia.  His  life  was  not  an  eventful  one, 
though  at  its  end  he  endured  some  unhappiness  through  un- 
fortunate mingling  in  public  affairs,  and  consequent  retire- 
ment into  something  like  actual  poverty.  His  fame  as  a 
Eoet  chiefly  rests  on  his  satiric  poem,  11  (Homo,  begun  by 
im  in  1700.  This  appeared  in  four  parts — U  Mattino 
(1763),  Jl  Me-zogiorno  (1765),  11  Vespro  and  La  Kotte  (the 
last  incomplete,  both  published  after  Parini's  death  in  the 
Rcina  edition  of  his  Works.  6  vol.s.,  .Milan,  1801).  The  work 
is  an  ironic  description  of  the  daily  occupations  of  the 
Jlilanese  aristocracy,  its  effeminate  and  too  often  corrupt 
customs,  its  idleness,  its  vanity.  Pretty  episodes  are  inter- 
woven, and  at  times  the  author  finds  opportunity  for  noble 
and  sincere  protests  against  .social  injustices.  Besides  this 
poem  we  have  from  Parini's  pen  a  number  of  odes  (1st  ed. 
Milan,  1791)  and  several  occasional  poems.     In  these  the 


440 


PARIS 


neo-classicism  of  the  Arcadia  is  everywhere  to  be  seen — 
modified,  however,  by  a  certain  intentional  roughness,  which 
is  the  poet's  protest  against  the  too  soft  and  delicvite  manner 
of  his  contemporaries.  A  good  edition  of  //  Oiorno  is  that 
by  A.  Borgognoni  (Verona,  1892) :  of  the  Odi.  that  of  F.  Sal- 
veraglio  (bologna,  1882).  See  also  A.  Giannini,  La  vita  e  le 
opere  di  O.  Parini  (Salerno,  1891) ;  G.  Carducci,  Storia  del 
(fiorno  di  O.  Parini  (Bologna,  1892);  C.  Cantxi,  Vabbate 
Parini  e  la  Lombardia  nel  aecolo  passato  (Milan,  1854). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Paris  [  <  Late  Lat.  Pari'sii  (Lat.  Lnte'tia  Parisio'rum. 
Lutetia  of  the  Pari'sii,  a  people  of  Celtic  Gaul,  bordering 
on  the  Senones] :  the  capital  of  France ;  on  both  sides  of 
the  Seine,  110  miles  by  rail  from  the  river's  mouth;  in  lat. 
48°  50'  N.  and  Ion.  2°  20'  E.  of  Greenwich  (see  map  of 
France,  ref.  3-F).  It  has  a  mean  elevation  of  120  feet,  and 
lies  in  a  basin  between  lines  of  heights,  which  reach  404  feet 
on  the  north  side  and  190  feet  on  the  south  side.  The  Seine 
enters  Paris  on  the  west  and  leaves  it  on  the  southeast  side, 
forming  in  its  passage  the  islands  of  St.-Louis  and  La  Cite. 
The  granitic  substratum  is  covered  by  Jurassic,  Cretaceous, 
and  Tertiary  formations,  and  at  several  points  a  light-col- 
ored limestone  is  quarried,  which  has  been  used  in  con- 
structing most  of  the  buildings  of  the  city. 

Area  and  Population. — The  present  boundary  coincides 
with  a  line  of  ramparts.  22^  miles  in  length  ;  it  includes  an 
area  of  78  sq.  km.  (a  little  over  30  sq.  miles),  of  which  one- 
fifth  is  occupied  by  the  streets,  458  acres  by  squares  and 
gardens,  and  6424  acres  by  the  river  and  canals.  In  1891 
the  population  was  2.447,957.  Barely  a  third  were  born  in 
Paris,  and  of  the  remainder  more  tlian  11  per  cent,  were 
foreigners.  At  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  [)opu- 
lation  was  300,000;  in  1675,  under  Louis  XIV.,  540,000 ;  in 
1789,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution.  600,000 ;  in  1851,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Second  Empire,  about  1,000,000;  ten 
years  later,  1.. 500,000,  an  increase  chiefly  due  to  the  extension 
of  the  boundary;  in  1871,  on  the  advent  of  the  Third  Re- 
public, nearly  2,000,000.  The  increase  is  now  at  the  rate 
of  about  25,000  a  year.  The  population  is  denser  than  in 
any  other  great  European  citv.  Marriages  average  annually 
26.500 ;  births.  75,000 ;  deaths,  70,000. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  fairly  uniform,  but  liable  to 
changes  at  all  seasons,  and  on  the  whole  is  healthful  and 
agreeable.  The  average  temperature  is  51°  F.  The  highest 
temperature  recorded  in  the  nineteenth  century  was  in  July. 
1881,  when  it  was  over  100° ;  the  lowest  was  in  Dec,  1879, 
when  it  sank  to  about  —7°.  From  1804  to  1876  the  average 
temperature  for  each  season  was  as  follows:  winter,  39°; 
spring,  51" ;  summer,  64° ;  autumn.  53°.  January  is  the 
coldest  and  July  the  warmest  month.  The  Seine  seldom 
freezes;  generally  there  is  .skating  for  a  few  days  only  each 
year,  and  the  snowfall  is  slight.  The  average  height  of  the 
barometer  is  29'55  inches.  During  an  average  year  there 
are  about  143  rainy  days,  divided  about  equally  among  the 
fonr  seasons. 

Fortifications. — Paris  is  entirely  surrounded  by  a  fortified 
wall,  which,  with  the  first  line  of  detached  forts,  was  con- 
structed iietween  1840  and  1860.  Tliis  first  line  of  fcn-ts, 
eighteen  in  number,  is  situated  at  a  distance  of  about  1,600 
yards  from  the  city  walls.  The  second  line  of  forts,  built 
since  the  war  of  1870-71,  is  several  miles  distant  from  the 
city  and  consists  of  eighteen  forts,  placed  on  the  various 
heights  which  surround  Paris.  The  capital  is  now  believed 
to  be  impregnable  from  a  military  point  of  view. 

Streets. — The  streets  of  no  city  in  the  world  are  so  fas- 
cinating as  those  of  Paris.  They  are  well  paved  with  stone, 
wood,  or  asphalt,  or  are  macadamized  ;  they  are  well  lighted 
with  electricity  or  gas,  many  of  the  lamp-posts  being  in 
bronze,  and  some  of  them  being  real  objects  of  art.  The 
sidewalks,  though  rather  narrow  in  the  small  and  old  streets, 
are  extremely  wide  in  the  boulevards  and  many  of  the 
avenues,  and  are  in  all  eases  smooth  and  neat.  The  streets 
are  cleaned  daily,  and  sprinkled  frequently,  while  the 
gutters  are  washed  out  with  running  water  once  or  twice 
every  twenty-four  hours.  Trees,  shrubs,  and  flower-beds 
abound.  Comfortable  tjenches  are  scattered  along  all  the 
boulevards  and  avenues.  Paper-stands,  fruit-stands,  etc., 
are  generally  neat,  and  all  are  constructed  on  the  same 
models.  A  system  of  pneumatic  tube  telegraphy  supple- 
ments the  postal  .service.  The  means  of  conveyance  are 
chiefly  by  cabs,  omnibuses,  and  horse-cars,  and  an  under- 
ground railway  is  being  constructed.  There  are  also  steam- 
boats plying  up  the  river  to  Charenton  and  down  to  Suresnes ; 


and  a  circular  railway,  the  Chemin  de  Fer  de  Ceinture,  runs 
round  the  city  just  within  the  walls.  The  names  of  the 
streets  are  at  all  the  street-corners,  and  the  numbers  on  the 
houses  are  large  and  conspicuous.  The  dwellings  and  pub- 
lic edifices,  almost  always  built  of  limestone,  are  well  con- 
structed, and  for  the  most  part  are  of  about  the  same  height 
and  same  style  of  architecture.  On  their  fronts,  in  scores 
of  cases,  are  tablets  bearing  historic  inscriptions,  informing 
the  public  that  on  this  or  that  site  or  in  this  or  that  house 
some  famous  man  lived  or  died,  or  some  great  event  hap- 
pened. No  two  streets  bear  the  same  name.  Slost  of  the 
names  are  given  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  famous  men 
or  women  of  all  ages  an<l  nations,  or  to  recall  celebrated  his- 
torical and  political  events.  Among  the  citizens  of  the 
U.  S.  who  are  thus  remembered  are  Washington,  Lincoln, 
Franklin,  and  Pulton. 

Prom  the  Madeleine  to  the  Bastille  the  line  of  boulevards, 
3  miles  in  length,  forms  the  busiest  and  most  fashionable 
thoroughfare  in  the  world.  The  thoroughfare  of  the  boule- 
vards of  .Sebastopol  and  Strasbourg  stretches  N.  and  S.  be- 
tween the  Gare  de  I'Est  and  the  Seine,  and  then  by  the 
Boulevard  du  Palais  and  Boulevard  St.-Michel  reaches  the 
observatory,  the  total  length  being  2i  miles.  The  Rue 
Royale,  the  Malesherbes  and  Haussmann  boulevards,  and 
the  Avenue  de  I'Opera  are  among  the  finest  quarters  of  the 
town.  The  Rue  de  la  Paix,  Rue  Auber,  and  Hue  4  Septem- 
bre  are  remarkable  for  their  shops.  The  Place  de  I'Etoile  is 
the  centei'  of  twelve  avenues  issuing  from  it  like  the  spokes 
of  a  wheel.  On  the  south  side  the  main  thoroughfare  is  the 
Boulevard  St.-Germain. 

Bridges. — The  Seine  is  of  the  proper  width  to  favor  the 
construction  of  graceful  bridges,  which  are  among  the  most 
attractive  ornaments  of  the  city.  The  oldest  are  Notre 
Dame,  occupying  the  site  of  a  Roman  bridge;  the  Pont 
Marie,  constructed  between  1614  and  1628;  the  Pont  d'Aus- 
terlitz.  begun  under  the  first  Napoleon,  rebuilt  during  the 
Second  Empire,  and  enlarged  during  the  Third  Republic. 
The  names  of  the  principal  officers  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Austerlitz  are  in.scribed  on  the  ornamental  portion  of  this 
structure.  The  present  Pont  au  Double,  which  dates  from 
1880,  supplanted  a  bridge  of  the  seventeenth  century,  where 
a  toll  of  a  double,  an  old  piece  of  money  worth  the  sixth 
of  a  sou,  was  collected.  The  Pont  St.-Jlichel,  rebuilt  several 
times  since  the  fourteenth  century,  is  one  of  the  widest  and 
most  frequented.  The  famous  Pont  Neuf  is  now  the  oldest 
of  the  Paris  bridges.  It  Wiis  begun  in  1578  under  Henry 
III.  and  finished  under  Henry  IV.,  whose  statue  adorns  it. 
Mansart  was  the  architect  of  the  Pont  Royal,  which  was 
constructed  between  1685  and  1689.  The  Pont  de  Solferino 
commemorates  the  chief  French  victories  during  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1859.  The  Pont  d'lena  dates  from  the  closing 
years  of  the  First  Empire.  The  bridge  and  viaduct  of 
Auteuil,  one  of  the  finest  of  the  kind  in  existence,  was  built 
in  1866.     It  serves  for  railway,  vehicle,  and  foot  traffic. 

Parks  and  Gardens. — The  public  garden  of  the  Tuileries 
covers  about  70  acres,  and  was  laid  out  in  1665  by  Le 
Notre,  the  landscape-gardener  of  Ijouis  XIV. ;  but  the  origi- 
nal plan  has  been  much  altered.  The  garden  contains 
many  fine,  large  trees  and  numerous  pieces  of  sculpture  by 
famous  French  artists.  The  Luxembourg  Garden  is  a  little 
smaller  than  the  Tuileries.  The  hothouses,  sixteen  in  num- 
ber, contain  more  than  25,000  plants.  Besides  other  statuary 
there  is  a  scries  of  portraits  of  famous  French  women, 
erected  during  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  (1830—48).  The 
Palais  Royal  garden,  in  the  form  of  a  large  parallelogram, 
is  much  smaller  than  the  two  gardens  already  mentioned. 
It  is  surrounded  on  all  four  sides  by  buildings  and  an  ar- 
cade, where  are  many  fine  jewelry-shops. 

The  Jardin  des  Plantes.  which  is  a  little  larger  than  the 
Tuileries,  was  designed  by  Guy  la  Brosse,  Louis  XIII.'s 
physician,  and  was  first  opened  to  the  public  in  16.50.  At 
that  time  it  contained  only  medicinal  herbs.  To-day  the 
botanical  school  has  a  reserve  of  nearly  5  acres  filled  with 
some  13.000  kinds  of  plants.  Most  foreign  trees  and  shrubs 
which  can  live  out  of  doors  in  the  climate  of  Paris  arc  found 
here,  and  are  labeled.  There  are  nearly  2.000  varieties  of 
fruit-trees  and  many  hothouses.  A  zoological  collection 
forms  a  part  of  the  garden.  The  Monceau  Park  was  laid 
out  in  1778  by  the  father  of  Louis  Philippe,  but  did  not  be- 
come public  property  till  the  Seconil  Empire.  It  contains 
several  bits  of  historical  ruins,  notalile  modern  statues,  and 
is  surrounded  by  some  of  the  most  fashionable  streets  and 
magnificent  private  residences  of  Paris.  The  Trocadero 
Park  dates  from  the  Exhibition  of  1878.     After  the  foun- 


'e- 


Q 


PARIS 


441 


tain  and  palace  the  most  interesting  object  is  the  aquarium. 

The  Uuttfs-Chaumont  Park  is  in  t  lie  oxtrpmp  northeast  part 
of  I'arison  Uw  Ki-lleville  liill.  Till  the  eiiil  of  thr  Second 
Kiiipire  what  is  now  a  boautiful  park  of  ovi-r  !>'>  acres  was  a 
waste  ()uarry-{;r<niiul.  A  fine  view  of  Paris  may  lie  liad 
from  the  heights  of  tliis  park.  The  Montsouris  Park  (nearly 
40  acres)  is  on  the  southern  outskirts  of  the  city,  and  con- 
tains the  meteorological  observatory. 

The  Champ  de  -Mars,  which  used  to  be  a  sandy  field  for 
military  manceuvering,  is  now  laid  out  as  a  public  garden. 
It  is  surrouniled  l)y  the  principal  buildings  of  the  Kxhibitiou 
of  18S!),  and  in  the  center  is  the  Eifkkl  Towkr  {q.  v.).  At 
the  southeast  end  is  the  military  school.  The  Champs 
filys<''es  is  the  most  frequented  garden  of  Paris. 

Outside  of  the  walls  are  the  two  great  parks,  the  Bois  de 
Boulogne  and  the  Bois  de  Vincennes.  The  first,  of  about 
2,000  acres,  contains  two  large  lakes,  many  beautiful  drives 
and  walks,  and  a  race-course  — ijongchaiTqis — where  the 
(irand  Prix  is  run  for  and  where  the  granil  annual  military 
review  takes  place.  A  rashional)le  skating-rink  is  opened 
here  in  winter.  The  aristocratic  drive  is  the  Allee  des  Aca- 
cias. The  Garden  of  Acclimatation,  situated  here,  em- 
braces (he  finest  zoological  collection  in  Paris.  The  Bois  de 
Vincennes  contains  over  2,075  acres.  In  the  center  is  a 
large  field  for  military  mameuvers  and  also  a  race-course. 

Public  Moiiumi'nlK. — The  streets,  squares,  and  parks  con- 
tain many  groups  of  statuary  by  noted  sculptors,  and  nu- 
merous momnnents.  The  most  remarkable  monument  is 
I  he  Arc  de  Trioniphe  in  the  Place  de  I'Ktoile,  begun  by 
Napoleon  I.  and  completed  by  Louis  I'hilippe.  It  is  about 
160  feet  in  height.  Another  triumphal  arch  stands  in  the 
Place  du  Carrousel,  and  commemorates  the  campaign  of 
I80G.  In  the  Place  Vendoine  is  a  shaft  143  feet  in  height, 
with  l)!is-reliefs  commemorating  Napoleon's  campaigns  in 
1S0.5.  The  Column  of  Julij.  a  bronze  pillar  154  feet  in 
height,  stands  in  the  Place  de  la  B,Hslille.  and  is  dedicated 
to  the  citizens  who  fell  in  the  Revolution  of  1830.  In  the 
center  of  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  on  the  spot  where  stood 
the  guillotine  used  during  the  Kevolution,  is  the  obelisk  of 
Lux(n-,  75  feet  in  height.  (See  Ohemsk.)  It  was  removed 
from  Egypt  in  1833,  and  in  lK:i6  w:is  set  up  where  it  now 
stands.  A  colossal  lion  in  the  Place  Denfert  syndjolizes  the 
defense  of  Paris  in  1871.  A  reduction  of  Bartholdi's  Liber- 
ty Enlightening  the  World,  a  gift  of  citizens  of  the  U.  S.. 
stands  on  one  of  the  islands  in  the  Seine.  Among  those  to 
whose  memory  statues  have  been  erected  are  Charlemagne, 
Joan  of  Arc,  Louis  XIV.,  Napoleon,  Danton,  Gambetta, 
Dante,  Shakspeare,  Beranger,  Voltaire,  and  Dumas.  The 
Medici  fountain  in  the  Luxembourg  garden,  the  two  foun- 
tains in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  copies  of  those  at  St. 
Peter's,  Rome ;  the  fountain  in  the  Place  Louvois,  the  Foun- 
tain of  Victory  in  the  Place  du  Chatelet,  the  Cuvier  foun- 
tain near  the  .Jardin  des  Plantes,  the  fountain  at  the  north 
end  of  the  Boulevard  St.-Michel,  the  fountain  at  the  north 
end  of  the  Avenue  de  I'Obscrvatoire,  that  in  the  Place  de 
Notre  Dame,  that  by  Bouchardon  in  the  Rue  de  Grenelle,  and 
the  colossal  fountain  in  the  Champ  <le  Mars,  are  a  few  of  the 
works  of  art  of  this  kind  that  adorn  the  city.  The  great 
Trocadcro  fountain  may  be  termed  a  cascade. 

Palaces. — Paris  is  rich  in  splendid  [lalaces.  The  origin 
of  the  Louvre  is  almost  coeval  with  the  French  monarchy, 
although  the  name  first  appears  about  the  yc^ar  1204,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus,  who  entirely  rebuilt  it. 
The  Louvre  was  then  an  exceedingly  strong  fortress.  Cath- 
eriiu!  de  Jledicis  was  the  first  royal  personage  to  take  up  a 
resideiuu?  in  the  Louvre.  Here  in  1610  Henry  IV.  was  laiil 
out  in  state  after  his  assassination.  When  l;o'uis  XIII.  dii'il 
the  Louvre  was  abandoned  as  a  royal  resilience,  till  occu- 
l)ied  by  the  widow  of  Charles  I.  Louis  XIV.  held  a  lit-de- 
Ju.itice  there,  ami  during  the  same  reign  Moliere's  troop 
of  actors  played  in  one  part  of  the  palace.  On  the  outbreaK 
of  the  Ilevolution  of  1789  the  Louvre  was  in  a  semi-aban- 
doned state  ;  but  the  Convention  ma<le  a  cojnplete  change 
in  its  management  by  converting  it  into  a  graml  picture 
gallery  and  museum. 

The  Tuii.KRii-.s  {(/.  v.),  on  the  right  bank  of  the  .Seine,  was 
begun  in  b564,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  historic  events. 
The  whole  central  portion  and  a  part  of  the  wing  along  the 
Rue  de  Rivoli  were  burned  by  the  Communists  in  1871. 
This  wing  wius  rebuilt  during  1875-7(>,  while,  a  few  years 
later,  th(^  ruins  of  the  historic  central  part  were  leveled  to 
the  ground  and  a  garden  laid  out  on  the  site. 

The  Klysee  Palace  was  built  in  1718.  .\mong  its  early 
occupants    were    Mine,    de    Pompadour   and,   later,   Murat. 


Napoleon  retired  thither  after  his  defeat  at  Waterloo,  and 
there  signed  his  abdication.  It  was  Louis  Napoleon's  oiTi- 
cial  residence  when  he  was  president  of  ( he  Second  Itepublic, 
and  there  he  prepared  th(^  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.^2,  1851.  Since 
the  establishment  of  the  Third  Republic  the  filysee  has  been 
the  residence  of  the  president. 

On  the  site  of  the  Palais  Royal  once  stood  the  hotels  of 
Mercieur  and  Rambouillet.  celebrated  in  literary  history. 
Cardinal  Richelieu  bought  these  two  hotels,  tore  them  down, 
and  constructed  on  the  ground  a  palace  which  was  com- 
pleted in  1634.  Here  he  died  eight  years  later.  In  1643 
Anne  of  Austria  took  possession  of  the  palace  with  her 
two  sons,  one  of  whom  afterward  came  to  the  throne  as 
Louis  .XIV.  It  was  Philippe  ]<;galite,  father  of  King  Louis 
Philippe,  who  surrounded  the  garden  with  the  shops  which 
still  stand,  and  whose  rentage  enal)le(l  him  to  keep  up  his 
expensive  establishment.  It  was  in  the  garden  of  the  Palais 
Royal  that  Camille  Desmoulins  gave  the  first  popular  im- 
pulse to  the  Revolution.  Between  1873  and  1876  it  was 
reconstructed  and  restored,  having  been  partially  burned 
iluring  the  Commune,  and  is  now  occupied  by  state  bodies. 

The  Luxembourg  Palace  is  an  ancient  royal  residence, 
built  by  Marie  de  Medicis  in  the  beginning  "of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Among  other  famous  personages  who  have 
lived  there  are  Mile,  de  Mont[)ensier,  Louis  XIV.,  and  Louis 
XVIII.  The  Revolution  converted  the  palace  into  a  priscm, 
and  lu're  were  confined  the  future  Empress  .Josephine,  Dan- 
ton,  Camille  Desmoulins,  Thomas  Paine,  and  others.  To- 
ward the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  became  the  seat 
of  executive  or  legislative  bodies,  and  has  contiimed  to  be 
used  for  this  purpose  down  to  the  present  day,  the  Senate 
now  occupying  it.  Here  in  1815  Ney,  in  1880  the  ministers 
of  Charles  X.,  and  in  1840  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  after  his 
landing  at  Boulogne,  were  imprisoned  and  tried  ;  and  here, 
during  the  repuldic  of  1848.  Louis  Blanc  established  a  sort 
of  otricial  labor  bureau.  The  interior  of  the  palace  is  rich 
and  spacious,  and  contains  many  objects  of  historic  and  ar- 
tistic value.  A  large  public  garden  is  connected  with  the 
palace,  and  a  gallery  of  modern  pictures  and  sculptures  is 
established  in  an  annex.  The  historic  Petit  Luxembourg, 
a  wing  of  the  larger  palace,  is  now  the  official  residence  of 
the  president  of  the  Senate. 

The  Palais  Bourbon  was  built  in  1722,  but  has  been  much 
enlarged  since  that  time.  Here  sat  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  and  here,  under  different  names,  the  Chandler  of 
Dejnitics  has  met,  with  slight  interruiitions,  since  the  Res- 
toration down  to  tihe  present  day.  In  this  hall  the  greatest 
parliamentary  orators  of  France  h.ave  been  heard,  and  here 
occurred  several  of  the  most  famous  scenes  in  the  political 
history  of  France  during  the  nineteenth  century.  The  pal- 
ace occupied  by  the  ]iresident  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
iscoimected  with  the  Palais  Bourbon.  Here  Gambetta  (mce 
resided. 

The  palace  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  was  built  in  1786  for 
the  Prince  of  .Salm  :  but  during  the  Revolution  it  was  put 
up  at  lottery  and  won  by  a  baker.  In  1803  the  offices  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  were  estalilished  here.  The  edifice 
was  burned  by  the  Commune,  tiut  was  restored. 

The  Palace  of  the  Institute  is  due  to  Cardinal  JIazarin, 
and  was  finished  in  1662.  It  was  at  first  used  as  the  College 
of  the  Four  Nations.  During  the  early  days  of  the  Revo- 
lution it  became  a  jail,  and  later  the  meeting  |)Iace  of  the 
Committee  of  Public  Safety.  The  First  Enqiire  established 
the  Institute  of  France  in  this  edifice,  and  there  it  has  since 
remained.  The  famous  French  Academy,  which  forms  a 
part  of  the  Institute,  meets  here. 

Muxeums  and  Picture  (ialleriex. — Paris  is  remarkably 
rich  in  museums  and  picture  galleries,  there  being  nearly 
fifty  in  all.  The  most  important  is  that  of  the  Louvre, 
whose  origin  was  a  private  collection  of  pictures  which  be- 
longed to  Francis  I.  Louis  XIV.,  Louis  XV.,  and  Louis 
XVI.  increased  the  collection,  and  on  the  eve  of  the  Revolu- 
tion the  Louvre  Gallery  was  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
Additions  were  made  during  the  Revolution,  and  during 
the  wars  which  followed  Napoleon  sent  to  Paris  the  most 
famous  works  of  art  of  all  Europe,  many  of  which  became 
the  permanent  property  of  the  Louvre.  Its  most  noted 
piece  of  ancient  sculpture  is  the  Venus  of  Milo,  discovered 
in  1820,  and  bought  by  the  French  Government.  Since  1870 
valuable  gifts  and  the  results  of  artistic  and  scientific  ex- 
peditions under  Government  authority  have  considerably 
increased  the  value  and  extent  of  the  collecti<ms. 

Among  the  other  imporlant  museums  and  galleries  are 
the  Carnavalet,  specially  devoted  to  tlie  history  of  Paris  and 


442 


PARIS 


the  Revolution;  the  Cluny,  media?val  art,  containing  over 
10,000  objects ;  the  natural  history  collections  in  the  Jardin 
des  Plantes,  one  of  the  largest  of  'its  kind  in  the  world  ;  the 
Luxembourg,  a  gallery  of  living  painters  and  sculptors;  the 
Artillery  Museum  in  the  llofel  des  Invalidos,  embracing 
some  4,000  specimens  of  military  weapons  of  all  kinds  and 
of  all  countries  and  ages;  the  Trooadero,  comparative  sculp- 
ture, architecture,  and  ethnology;  the  Guimet,  devoted  to 
the  religions  of  the  far  East ;  the  Galliera,  a  miscellaneous 
art  collection  housed  in  a  magnificent  stone  structure  which 
was  ten  years  (1878-88)  in  building;  the  mint,  containing  a 
large  collection  of  coins  and  other  curiosities;  the  National 
Archives,  a  great  mass  of  original  documents,  some  of  which 
may  be  seen  by  the  general  public,  autographs,  the  keys  of 
the  Bastille,  etc. ;  the  Dupuytren,  at  the  School  of  Medi- 
cine, a  valuable  collection  bearing  on  pathological  anatomy, 
formed  in  1835;  the  art  collection  at  the  School  of  Fine 
Arts:  and  the  scientific  collections  at  the  School  of  Mines. 

Libraries. — There  are  many  great  book  collections  in 
Paris.  The  National  Library,  the  largest  in  the  world,  con- 
tains some  3.000,000  volumes.  It  was  begun  by  Cliarles  V. 
(1364-80),  and  went  on  increasing  steadily,  but  it  was  the 
suppression  of  the  convents  and  the  confiscation  of  their 
libraries,  during  the  Revolution,  that  placed  it,  with  one 
bound,  at  the  head  of  the  list.  Besides  its  books  the  library 
contains  some  300,000  maps  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
over  90,000  volumes  of  manuscripts,  ancient  and  modern, 
many  volumes  of  rare  autographs,  more  than  200,000  coins 
and  medals,  and  14,500  volumes  and  4,000  portfolios  of  en- 
gravings. 

The  Ste.-Genevieve  Library,  near  the  Pantheon,  is  of  ec- 
clesiastical origin,  and  contains  some  196,000  volumes,  4,000 
manuscripts,  ami  25,000  engravings.  Its  books  are  mostly 
of  an  encyclopivdic  nature.  Nearly  150.000  persons  enter 
this  library  every  year.  The  Mazarin  Library,  at  the  Insti- 
tute, begun  by  Cardinal  Mazarin,  has  250,000  volumes,  6.000 
manuscripts,  and  1,700  incunabula,  anil  is  one  of  the  leading 
libraries  in  France  in  bibliographical  rarities.  It  is,  further- 
more, a  museum,  containing  many  scientific  curiosities  and 
objects  of  art.  The  Arsenal  Library  has  200,000  volumes 
and  8,000  manuscripts,  and  is  notable  for  its  works  of  the 
early  minor  French  poets  and  for  documents  relating  to  the 
theater.  The  Library  of  the  Opera,  kept  in  the  Opera- 
house,  is  devoted  principally  to  the  history  of  the  theater 
and  music.  It  contains  15,000  bound  volumes  and  pam- 
phlets, 60,000  engravings,  and  the  original  drawings  for  the 
costumes  of  200  operas  or  ballets. 

Theaters. — The  drama  being  one  of  the  chief  .sources  of 
amusement  in  Paris,  there  are  many  theaters.  Pour  of  them 
— the  Opera,  Tlieatre  Franyais,  Opera  Comique,  and  Odcon 
— receive  state  aid.  The  Opera  is  one  of  the  finest  theatri- 
cal edifices  in  the  world.  It  cost  some  30.000,000  francs, 
covers  an  area  of  about  11,000  sq.  yards,  and  can  seat  2,156 
spectators.  It  took  over  ten  years  to  build  the  edifice,  which 
was  first  thrown  open  to  the  public  in  1875.  The  architect 
was  Charles  Garnier.  The  grand  staintase  and  the  fotjer  are 
the  most  admired  portions  of  the  structure.  The  annual 
subvention  is  800,000  francs. 

The  leading  theater  of  Prance  and  of  the  world  is  the 
Theatre  Frani;ais,  or  Comedie  Fran(;aise.  It  has  a  large 
and  talented  stock  company,  which  enjoys  many  privileges. 
The  present  edifice  was  built  in  1782,  and  contains,  besides  a 
large  auditorium  and  handsome  foyer,  numerous  busts  and 
portraits  in  oil  of  celebrated  dramatists  and  actors,  and  other 
interesting  histrionic  objects ;  also  a  curious  collection  of 
autographs  and  objects  associated  with  famous  actors.  The 
Theatre  Fram;ais  was  created  in  16S0,  and  receives  an  an- 
nual sul)vention'of  240,000  francs.  Among  its  most  famous 
actors  have  been  Talma,  Mars,  Rachel,  Coquelin,  and  Sarah 
IJernhardt. 

Tlie  Opera  Comique  was  burned  in  1887,  but  a  new  build- 
ing is  being  erected.  The  Odeon,  opened  in  1782,  was 
burncul  in  1799,  rebuilt  in  1808,  and  again  burned  in  1818. 
but  immediately  rebuilt.  It  contains  one  of  the  best  audi- 
toriums in  Paris,  and  enjoys  a  subvention  of  100,000  francs. 

Among  the  nmi-subventioned  theaters  are  the  Gymnase, 
founded  in  1820,  which  owed  its  early  prosperity  to  Scribe, 
whose  pieces  were  first  brought  out  on  its  stage;  the  Palais 
Royal,  whose  troupe  has  contained  many  celebrated  actors  ; 
the  Porte  St.-Martin;  the  ('bateau  d'fcau,  which  has  the 
largest  auditorium  of  all  Paris  theaters;  the  Vaudeville,  Va- 
rietes,  Renaissance,  Gaite,  Chalelet,  Nouveautes,  etc.  Several 
circuses,  concerts,  cafes-chantants,  etc.,  complete  the  list  of 
places  of  amusement. 


Restaurants  and  Cafes. — In  no  other  city  is  restaurant 
and  cafe  life  so  highly  developed  as  in  Paris.  At  the  Cafe 
Americain  congregate  literary  men  and  painters ;  bankers 
and  brokers  predominate  at  the  Cafe  Riche  ;  at  the  Cafe  du 
Ilelder  are  found  army  and  navy  officers  and  St.-Cyr  cadets ; 
rich  foreigners  frequent  the  Cafe  de  la  Pais ;  the  Cafe  de 
Madrid  is  the  headquarters  of  journalists  ;  actors  are  numer- 
ous at  the  Cafe  de  Suede  and  the  Cafe  des  Varietes ;  the 
Cafe  Vachette,  in  the  Quartier  Latin,  is  patronized  by  stu- 
dents ;  the  Cafe  de  la  Regence  is  the  meeting-place  of  Scan- 
dinavians and  chess-players.  The  principal  Wontmartre 
quarter  cafes  were  the  Rochefoucauld  and  the  Nouvelle 
Athenes,  but  the  famous  cafe  of  the  Chat  Noir  has  eclipsed 
them  and  lias  become  one  of  the  curiosities  of  ^Paris.  There 
are  fashionable  restaurants  in  the  Champs  Elysees,  where 
one  may  dine  and  watch  at  the  same  time  the  performances 
of  the  cafes-chatitaiits.  In  the  Bois  de  Boulogne  are  some 
cafes  and  I'estaurants.  the  Cascade  restaurant  being  very 
popular  in  summer,  when  it  is  used  as  a  resting-place  after 
an  evening  drive. 

Educational  Institutions. — The  Pantheon  may  be  con- 
sidered the  center  of  the  Quartier  Latin,  the  stuilents'  part 
of  Paris.  Here,  within  five  minutes'  walk  of  one  another,  are 
the  Sorbonne,  tlie  heart  of  the  University  (q.  v.);  the  College 
de  France,  which  might  be  called  the  Post-graduate  Uni- 
versity ;  the  special  schools  of  law,  medicine,  mines,  phar- 
macy, fine  arts.  Oriental  languages,  etc.,  the  historic  Ecole 
Polytechnique,  the  ^ficole  Norraale  Su])crieure,  etc.  In  the 
faculties  are  over  325  professors,  and  more  than  100  lec- 
tures are  delivered  every  day.  The  thousands  of  students 
in  attendance  come  from  almost  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  ; 
there  are  over  5,000  at  the  medical  school  alone. 

Churches. — There  are  seventy  parish  churches,  of  which 
Notre  Dame,  the  metropolitan  cathedral,  is  the  largest  and 
most  famous.  Its  corner-stone  was  laid  in  1163  by  Pope  Alex- 
ander III.,  then  a  refugee  in  Prance,  but  the  edifice  was  not 
completed  till  nearly  a  century  later.  In  1845  a  thorough 
restoration  of  the  church  was  begun.  Notre  Dame  is  one 
of  the  finest  specimens  in  France  of  the  ogival  style  of 
architecture.  The  interior  is  132  yards  long,  53  wide,  and 
37  high,  and  contains  thirty-seven  chapels.  There  are  three 
grand  rose  windows,  whose  stained  glass  dates  from  the  thir- 
teenth centurv.  The  large  bell  in  the  south  tower  was  cast 
in  1686,  and  w'eighs  about  30,000  lb.  The  Sainte  Chapelle 
is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  structure  in  Paris.  It  was 
built  by  St.  Louis  to  house  the  supposed  crown  of  thorns 
and  a  portion  of  the  true  cross.  It  was  finished  in  1247, 
and  restored  at  the  end  of  Louis  Philippe's  reign.  The 
Chapelle  Expiatoire,  on  the  Boulevard  Haussmann,  was 
built  by  order  of  Louis  XVIII.  (1814-24),  and  finished  in  1826. 
It  is  consecrated  to  the  memory  of  his  brother  and  sister-in- 
law,  Ijouis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette,  who  were  buried  on 
this  spot,  and  to  the  memory  of  the  victims  of  the  Revo- 
lution. The  first  church  bearing  the  name  St.  fitienne-du- 
]\Iont  dates  from  the  thirteenth  century,  but  was  recon- 
structed in  1517  under  Francis  I.  The  jube,  or  rood-loft, 
the  work  of  the  sculptor  Biard,  senior,  was  made  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  is  considered  a 
masterpiece.  The  stained-glass  windows  of  this  church  are 
also  notable,  representing  the  work  of  the  best  artists  from 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
centuries. 

St.-Germain-des-Pres  is  a  remnant  of  the  ancient  abbey 
of  that  name.  It  was  begun  in  1001,  but  was  not  completed 
till  the  twelfth  century.  Near  by  was  the  prison  of  the 
abbey,  which  was  the  scene  of  much  bloodshed  during  the 
Reign  of  Terror.     It  disajipeared  in  1860. 

There  was  a  church  on  the  site  of  St.-Germain-l'Auxer- 
rois  as  early  as  560.  Some  portions  of  the  present  edifice 
date  from  the  twelfth  century.  A  cloister  once  surrounded 
the  church,  and  was  in  the  days  of  Charlemagne  the  seat  of 
a  famous  school.  On  Aug.  24.  1572,  its  bell  rang  out  the 
signal  for  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

The  JIadeleine  was  begun  by  Louis  XV.,  but  was  not 
opened  till  1842.  Na])oleon  I.  'intended  it  to  be  a  Greek 
temple,  dedicated  to  the  soldiers  of  the  Grand  Army.  It  is 
now  one  of  the  most  richly  ornamented  and  fashionable 
churches  of  Paris.  The  cor'ner-stone  of  St.-Roch  was  laid 
by  Louis  XIV.  in  1653.  On  the  top  of  the  flight  of  steps 
le'ading  up  to  the  doors  of  this  church,  Bonaparte  placed 
the  cannon  which  checked  the  uprising  against  the  Con- 
vention Oct.  5,  1795.  Corneille,  the  dramatist,  is  buried 
here.  The  Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  on  the  heights  of 
Montmartre  is  a  large  and  conspicuous  basilica  in  Byzantine 


PARIS 


443 


style,  whose  construction  was  dccri'cd  in  1874  by  llie  Na- 
tional Assembly.    A  fine  view  of  Piiris  can  lie  oliliiined  here. 

St.-Sulpice  wa.s  besun  in  1646.  During  the  Convention  it 
was  known  as  the  Temple  of  Victory.  Val-de-tiracc  was 
raiscil  l>y  Anne  of  .\ustria  as  a  thank-ollcrini,'  to  God  for 
the  birth  of  the  future  Louis  XIV.  'I'lie  cuiiola.  which  is 
considered  to  be  the  best  imitation  in  France  of  the  cupola 
of  St.  Peter's,  Uoine,  is  decorated  with  a  large  composition 
by  Pierre  Miginird — llhiire  des  Bienheureux — containing 
over  200  figures.  Henrietta,  ipieen  of  Charles  I.  of  Hng- 
lunil,  and  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  is  Ijuried  here. 

Among  the  other  churches  may  be  mentioned  .S|.-\'incent 
de  Paul,  with  its  frieze  over  170'  yards  long  and  3  high,  by 
Hippolyte  Flandrin  ;  Ste.-Elisabelh,  Hue  du  Temple,  whose 
cornerston(^  wiis  laid  in  1638  by  Marie  de  Medicis:  St.-Eus- 
tache  (15;!'.2-U)4'2),  where  Colbert  is  buried  ;  Notre  Dame  de 
Ijorette,  in  imitation  of  a  Roman  basilica;  Notre  Dame  des 
\'ictoires,  remarkable  for- the  large  number  of  ex-mtos 
which  cover  tlie  interior  walls;  and  the  Chapel  of  tlie  Sor- 
bonnc,  now  the  center  of  the  i.mmense  iiarallclogram  of  new 
university  buildings,  and  noted  for  its  tomb  of  Richelieu. 
Of  the  forty-live  or  more  Protestant  churches  the  t)ratoire 
is  the  most  conspicuous. 

Cemeteriex. — Paris  has  nineteen  cemeteries,  thirteen  of 
which  are  inside  the  walls.  Of  the  latter,  only  three  are  of 
historic  interest:  Pcre  Lachaise,  Jlontmartre.  and  Jlont- 
parnasse.  The  largest  and  most  notable  is  the  first  named. 
It  covers  about  100  acres,  and  here  are  the  toudis,  among 
those  of  other  celebrities,  of  Arago,  Thiers.  Haidiel,  Cuvier, 
Hcranger,  .Moliere,  Ingres,  and  Balzac.  It  is  also  provided 
with  a  crematory,  the  first  and  only  one  established  in  Paris. 
In  the  Montmartre  Cemetery  are  buried  Delaroche,  Gautier. 
Oomte  and  the  heart  of  Marshal  Lannes,  whose  body  is  in 
the  Pantheon.  At  Montparnasse  are  the  graves  of  Henri 
Martin,  Rude,  Le  Verrier,  Malte-Brun,  and  Sainte-Beuve. 
Ija  Fayette  is  buried  in  the  little  cemetery  of  Piepus,  near 
the  eastern  extremity  of  Paris,  and  in  the  Passy  Cemetery 
is  the  conspicuous  tomb  of  Marie  Bashkirtseft. 

Reviews  and  Journals. — The  oldest  of  the  reviews  ]3ul)- 
lished  in  Paris  is  the  Revue  Brilanniijue.  founded  in  IS'J.5  ; 
the  most  important,  which  has  a  worldwide  reputation,  is 
the  Revue  de  a  Deux  Mondes^iowwAvA  in  1S20  ;  and  among 
the  others  may  be  mentioned  Mme.  Adam's  Niiuvelle  llevue, 
the  Revue  Hisliirique,  Ribot's  Revue  Philomphique.  Revue 
Bleue,  which  enjoyed  considerable  popularity  during  the 
life  of  its  founder,  Eugene  Yung,  the  recently  established 
Revue  de  I'ari-f,  and  Richefs  Revue  Scientijique.  Among 
the  illustrated  and  artistic  journals  are  L' Illuslrd/ian, 
founded  in  lS-l'-i,t\u)  Journal  Amusaul.ihe  Jnurnal  Ilbislre. 
the  Miiijasin  Pitloresque,  founded  in  183^,  the  Monde  Illus- 
Ire,  the  Cut  vers  Jllu.iire,  La  Vie  Parisienne,  L'Art,  one  of 
the  high  art  ])ublieations,  the  Gazette  des  Beaux-Arts,  and 
the  Revue  des  Beaux-Arts.  Among  the  daily  papers  of  note 
are  Fir/aro,  Le  Temps,  the  leading  evening  newspaper ;  the 
Republique  Franfaise,  founded  by  Gambetta  ;  the  venerable 
Journal  desDebats;  the  R((ppel ,  which  used  to  be  Victor 
Hugo's  organ;  the  Univers  and  Monde,  the  two  Roman 
( 'atholic  organs  ;  t  lie  Petit  Journal,  a  one-sou  morning  paper 
with  over  1,000,000  readers,  the  largest  circulation  in  France  ; 
the  (I'liulois,  which  circulates  largely  inlhetashionabU"  world  ; 
and  the  Journal  Ojjiciel,  the  official  organ  of  the  Govern- 
incnt. 

Hospitals. — The  oldest  of  the  Paris  hospitals  is  the  Ilotel- 
Dieu,  founded  about  060  and  rebuilt  betwi'cn  18(iS  ,and  1ST8. 
It  contains  nearly  600  beils.  La  Charile,  founded  in  1602 
by  Marie  de  Mei'lieis,  is  the  chief  lying-in  hospital.  The 
Lariboisiere  takes  its  name  fn.m  the  Comtesse  de  Lariboisi- 
cre,  who  ieft  nearly  3,000,000  francs  to  tlie  Paris  poor.  The 
hospital  c(nitains  ODO  beds.  The  Necker  is  named  from  the 
mother  of  Mme.  de  StaiH,  who  used  to  found  it  a  sum  given 
her  for  charitable  purposes  by  Louis  XVI.  La  Pitie  was 
built  by  Louis  Xlll..  and  has  729  beds.  St.-.\ntoine  is 
another  of  the  early  hospitals.  It  is  surrounded  by  large 
gardens  and  has  1)47  beds.  St.-Louis  dates  from  1607,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  ami  is  given  ii])  to  patients  suf- 
fering from  skin  diseases.  The  Midi  is  confined  to  the 
venereal  diseases  of  men  and  the  jjonrcine  to  tliose  of 
women.  The  Maternite  occupies  the  old  abbey  of  Port- 
Royal,  which  was  used  as  a  iirison  during  the  Revolution. 
There  is  attatdiiMl  to  it  a  sciiool  of  midwifery  for  female 
pupil; 
d'Ass 

sick  children  in  the    Hue  de  Sevres   contains  over  (i.'iO  Ijcds. 
The  Trousseau,  founded  in  1660,  is  also  devoted  to  children. 


lupils.     The   hospital   of  the   accouclienirnt  clinic,  80    line 
.s.sas,  possesses  a  fine  obstetric  museum.     The  hi>spital  for 


Pri.<:ons. — The  Depot  is  a  temporary  lock-up  at  the  pre- 
fecture of  police,  wKere  prisoners  are  first  sent  when  ar- 
rested. Mazas  is  filled  chiefly  with  prisoners  awaiting  trial. 
The  Conciergerie  is  the  mo.st  famous,  politically  and  his- 
torically. There  Marie  Antoinette  passed  the  last  days  of 
her  life',  and  w.hs  succeeded  by  Danton,  Jlnie.  Roland,  Ca- 
mille  Desmoulins,  Robespierre,"otc.  In  Sept..  17il2.  288  pris- 
oners were  murdered  there.  Georges  Cadoudal,  during  the 
First  Empire,  and  Prince  Napoleon  and  the  Duk(>  of  Or- 
leans during  the  Third  Republic,  were  confined  there.  The 
Roquette  can  accommodate  nearly  4.50  convicts.  Those 
condemned  to  suffer  capital  punishment  are  held  here.  In 
the  street  in  front  of  the  central  door  is  the  snot  where  the 
guillotine  is  put  up.  Ste.-Pelagie  is  the  lock-up  of  jour- 
nalists and  writers  who  violate  the  press  laws.  Beranger, 
Lamennais,  Proudhon,  and  a  host  of  other  French  literary 
celebrities  have  been  confined  there.  La  Sante  is  another 
of  the  large  prisons.  St.-Lazare  receives  only  women;  dur- 
ing the  Convention  it  was  used  as  a  jiolilical  prison. 

tTovernment  and  Administration. — The  city  is  divided 
into  twenty  arrondissements,  each  of  which  is  subdivided 
into  four  quarters.  Each  of  the  latter  elects,  by  universal 
suffrage,  a  member  of  the  munici|ial  council.  The  function- 
aries of  the  arrondissement  are  a  mayor  and  three  deputies, 
nominated  by  the  prefect,  or  governor,  (jf  t  he  department  of 
the  Seine,  who  act  as  registrars  and  take  charge  of  the  poor 
relief,  and  a  justice  of  the  peace  nominated  by  the  Govern- 
ment. The  municipal  council  discusses  and  votes  upon  the 
budget  of  the  city.  The  prefect  of  the  Seine  and  the  prefect 
of  ])olice.  both  government  officials,  represent  the  executive 
central  authority  as  op|iosed  to  the  municipal  council.  The 
prefectui-e  of  the  Seine  comprises  a  departmental  service  and 
a  municipal  service,  the  latter  much  the  more  important. 
Elections,  taxes,  the  municipal  debt,  city  schools,  public 
lands,  markets,  cemeteries,  etc.,  are  under  the  control  of  the 
prefecture  of  the  Seine.  The  prefecture  of  police  includes 
the  whole  department  of  the  Seine  and  part  of  Seine-et- 
Oise.  It  consists  of  three  sections,  the  political  police,  the 
police  of  public  safety,  and  the  administrative  police;  but 
the  two  former  are  rather  national  than  municipal. 

Markets. — Wholesale  trade  in  foodstulfs  is  carried  on  in 
the  central  markets— Les  Ilallcs.  These  comiiriso  ten  pavil- 
ions of  glass  and  iron,  each  about  half  an  acre  in  size,  and 
separated  from  each  other  by  covered  streets.  Butcher's 
meat  is  also  sold  in  the  market  attached  to  the  La  Villette 
abattoir.  The  Cheiuin  de  Fer  de  ('einture  brings  the  cattle- 
trucks  into  this  market,  which,  with  the  abattoirs,  extends 
over  an  area  of  111  acres.  The  places  of  sale  are  capable  of 
holding  4.600  horned  cattle,  4,000  calves.  22,000  sheep,  and 
7,000  pigs.  Close  to  Les  Halles  is  the  corn-market ;  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  grain  arriving  in  Paris  does  not  pass 
through  this  building;  it  is  either  stored  at  the  stations  or 
taken  directly  to  the  warehouses  or  the  bakers.  There  are 
three  great  rnarkets  for  wine  and  spirits  at  Bercy,  Quai  St.- 
Beruard  and  Pont  de  Flandre.  There  are  also  important 
markets  for  skins  and  hides,  horses,  charcoal,  etc.  The 
curious  Marehe  du  Temple,  rebuilt  in  1864,  is  devoted  to 
the  sale  of  second-hand  articles  of  all  kinds. 

W'ater-suppli/  and  /);auiO(/e.— Paris  derives  its  water- 
supply  chieflv'from  (1)  the  S'eine,  who.se  water  is  pumped 
up  and  stored  in  reservoirs  at  the  highest  jioints  in  Passy, 
Montmartre,  Charonne,  and  Gent  illy.  (2)  The  Marne,  a 
loop  of  which,  closed  bv  a  canal  at  St.-Maur,  snpiilics  sev- 
eral districts  by  means  of  the  head  of  water  and  theaiiplica- 
tion  of  steam-pressure.  (3)  The  (turcci  Canal,  also  used  as  a 
waterway,  \vhi<-h  comes  from  the  department  of  Aisne  and 
terminates  at  the  La  Villette  basin.  (4)  The  Dhuis  and  the 
Valine,  two  streams  of  La  Champagne.  The  former  is  di- 
verted near  Chateau-Thierry  and  coiivcye<l  by  an  aqueduct 
81  miles  long  to  the  Meniimontant  reservoirs.  The  aque- 
duct from  the  Vanue  ends  in  reservoirs  at  Montrouge.  (•')) 
The  Anre,  a  tributary  of  the  Fure.  The  water  is  diverted 
near  the  junction  with  the  Vignc  and  brought  by  an  aciue- 
duct  63  miles  long,  by  turns  under  and  above  the  ground, 
to  the  Montretout  reservoirs  at  St.-Clond  (opened  Mar.  3t), 
1893).  The  last  is  calculated  to  have  raised  tlie  daily  water 
supplv  from  1.50.000  to  270.000  cubic  meters,  so  that  Seine 
water"  is  no  longer  used  for  drinking  jnirposes. 

The  drainage  on  both  sides  of  the  river  is  collected  in  a 
great  sewer  terminating  in  the  Seine  at  Clichy.  The  two 
main  sewers  on  both  sides  are  connecti-d  by  a  siphon_which 
passes  under  the  Seine  by  a  tunnel  near  the  Pont  de  I'Alnia. 
A  departmental  sewer  receiving  the  drainage  of  the  higher 
districts  on  the  north  side  ends  at  St.-Denis.     The  sowers  in 


Ui 


PARIS 


general  are  also  used  as  passages  for  water-pipes,  gas-pipes, 
telegraph  wires  and  pneumatic  tubes.  (See  Pneumatic 
Transmission.)  The  largest  class  have  a  height  of  17+  feet 
at  the  keystone  and  a  wiilth  of  17  feet  at  the  spring  of  the 
arch. 

Financial  Imfifiitioiis.— After  the  Bank  of  France  (see 
Bank)  the  chief  financial  establishments  are  the  Caisse  des 
Depots  et  des  Consignations,  which  receives  voluntary  de- 
posits and  those  obligatory  in  cases  fixed  by  law ;  the  Cre- 
dit Foncier  de  France,  which  makes  advances  on  real 
estate ;  and  the  Comptoir  National  d'Escorapte.  There  are 
also  numerous  private  joint-stock  banks.  The  Bourse  is 
open  from  noon  to  3  p.  m.  for  dealings  in  stocks  and  shares, 
and  from  3  P.  Ji.  to  6  P.  M.  for  commercial  transactions. 
The  former  are  effected  by  means  of  agents  de  change, 
named  by  ministerial  decree  and  possessing  nominally  the 
exclusive  right  to  act  as  brokers ;  but  a  large  business  is 
done  by  the  unauthorized  brokers  called  coitlissiers. 

Manufactures  and  Commerce.— In  proportion  to  its  popu- 
lation Paris  can  not  be  regarded  as  pre-eminently  a  manu- 
facturing or  commercial  city.  It  contains  a  great  nuinlier 
of  officials,  on  account  of  the"highly  centralized  government 
of  Prance.  It  is  a  great  financial  center  ;  and  as  it  offers  a 
variety  of  attractions  appealing  to  the  appetites,  the  senses, 
the  {esthetic  feeling,  and  the  intellect,  it  is  the  residence 
of  wealthy  men  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  as  well  as  of 
numerous  authors,  artists,  and  scientific  men.  The  chief 
industries  are  the  production  of  articles  not  depending 
upon  the  cost  of  material,  but  upon  the  skill  and  taste  of 
intelligent  workmen,  such  as  bronzes.  Jewelry,  decorative 
furniture,  and  articles  de  Paris.  The  publishing  business 
of  France  has  been  almost  monopolized  by  Paris,  and  has 
reached  a  very  high  state  of  development,  especially  in  the 
production  of  engravings  and  illustrated  books.  The  larger 
manufacturing  establishments  include  engineering  works, 
chieily  in  connection  with  the  railways,  foundries,  and  sugar- 
refineries.  Among  Government  works  are  two  tobacco-fac- 
tories, the  national  printing  establishment,  the  mint,  and  the 
Gobelins  tapestry-factory  and  dye-works.  Next  come  the 
chemical-factories,  printing-offices,  cabinet-makers'  work- 
shops, tailoring  establishments,  and  hat-factories.  Several 
plans  have  been  discussed  with  the  object  of  making  Paris 
a  seaport  in  the  modern  sense,  and  it  has  at  length  been  de- 
cided to  open  up  the  port  by  the  canalization  of  the  Seine. 
In  1891  the  plans  were  completed,  the  final  estimates  being : 
lengthof  canal,  112  miles:  depth, 20J  feet;  cost,  .|27.000,000. 
The  goods  arriving  by  the  Seine  are  chiefly  building  ma- 
terials, timber,  grain,  coal,  coke,  charcoal,  and  wines ;  build- 
ing materials  and  flour  are  brought  by  the  Canal  de  I'Ourcq, 
and  coal  and  coke  from  the  north  of  France,  Belgium,  and 
England  by  the  Cansd  St.-Denis.  By  the  Seine,  Paris  dis- 
patches manure,  pyrites,  and  refined  sugars.  To  the  traffic 
of  the  river  should' be  added  that  of  the  canals,  especially  of 
La  V^illette.  on  the  Canals  St.-Denis  and  Ourcq,  which  is  the 
third  port  in  France,  measured  by  its  traffic. 

History. — The  generally  accepted  opinion  is  that  the  city 
was  primitively  one  of  those  many  fishing  villages  which 
the  early  Gauls  established  on  the  islets  scattered  along  the 
course  of  the  Seine,  for  the  heart  of^the  city  is  even  to-day 
known  as  the  lie  de  la  Cite  and  the  lie  St.-Louis.  The  first 
historic  mention  of  Paris  and  its  inhabitants  occurs  in  the 
year  52  B.  c,  when  Csesar  says  in  his  Commentaries,  book 
vii. :  "Labienus  leaves  for  Lutetia  with  four  legions.  This 
is  the  fortress  of  the  Parisii,  situated  on  an  island  in  the  river 
Seine."  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  Lutetia,  Lutece  in 
French,  had  become  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  was  called  Paris, 
from  the  name  of  the  little  nation  whose  capital  it  was.  The 
Roman  emperor  ('onstantius  Chlorus  is  said  to  have  fixed  his 
residence  there  (2'.l'2-:!0()),  and  Julian  was  there  proclaimed 
emperor  by  his  solilicrs  (3i;0).  In  506  Paris  became  the  resi- 
dence of  Cilovis.  and  later  Charlemagne  sometimes  visited  it, 
though  in  his  time  it  ceased  to  be  the  capital.  The  growing 
town  suffered  from  the  devastations  of  the  Normans.  In 
885-886  30,000  of  them  encamped  in  front  of  the  lie  de  la 
Cite,  which  was  besieged,  but  in  vain,  during  thirteen  months. 
"  By  this  heroic  siege,"  says  the  French  historian  Henri  Mar- 
tin, "  Paris  took  the  first  step  toward  its  grand  destiny ;  thence- 
forth it  was  the  lu^ad  and  heart  of  France."  In  987  Hugh 
(,'apet,  the  first  of  the  dynasty,  made  Paris  the  capital  of  his 
kingdom,  and  his  successors  resided  there.  During  the  reign 
of  Philip  Augustus  (1180-1223)  the  city's  growth  was  great. 
The  streets  were  then  first  paved  with  stone,  the  two  wooden 
bridges  which  connected  the  lie  de  la  Cite  with  the  main- 
land were  rebuilt  in  stone,  three  colleges  were  founded,  and 


soon  20,000  students  flocked  to  the  city  from  all  parts  of 
France  and  foreign  countries.  This  was  the  foundation  of 
the  university,  which  did  much  to  increase  the  population 
and  importance  of  the  city.  Under  Louis  IX.  (1215-70) 
was  founded  a  theological  college,  which  became  the  cele- 
brated Sorbonne.  Philip  the  Fair  added  greatly  to  the  im- 
portance of  the  city  by  making  it  the  seat  of  the  highest 
court  in  the  kingdom — the  Parlement.  which  he  organized 
in  the  opening  years  of  the  fourteenth  century.  During 
the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  (1560-74)  religious  and  civil  wars 
checked  the  development  of  the  city,  and  Henry  III.  in  the 
closing  years  of  his  reign  found  himself  excluded  from  his 
own  capital,  which  fell  completely  under  the  control  of  the 
League.  Both  he  and  his  successor,  Henry  IV..  were  obliged 
to  lay  siege  to  it,  the  second  siege  lasting  four  years,  and 
bringing  terrible  sufferings  upon  the  inhabitants  (1590-94). 
During  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  the  city  sustained  another 
siege,  and  suffered  from  frequent  riots  in  the  streets.  (See 
Fronde.)  During  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715)  the 
streets  began  to  be  lighted  at  night  with  lanterns  contain- 
ing candles,  but  only  when  there  was  no  moon.  Colbert 
was  put  in  charge  of  public  works,  and  he  effected  great 
improvements.  He  was  ably  seconded  by  Perrault  and 
Mansart,  the  architects,  and  by  the  great  sculptors  and 
painters  of  the  age.  The  centralizing  policy  ol  Louis 
XIV.  and  his  opposition  to  the  residence  of  the  nobility  on 
their  estates  drew  to  Paris  the  most  brilliant  and  distin- 
guished men  of  France.  From  his  time  the  history  of  the 
city  becomes  in  a  sense  the  history  of  France,  ami  for  an 
account  of  the  principal  events  see  that  title.  Paris  suf- 
fered severely  from  the  excesses  of  the  Revolution,  whose 
worst  crimes  were  committed  within  its  limits.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  Revolutions  of  1830  and  1848,  and  it  suffered 
from  siege  in  the  Franco-German  War  (q.  v.)  and  from  the 
violence  of  the  Commune.  See  Commune  op  Paris  and 
France,  History  of. 

Bibliography. — Among  the  vast  number  of  works  on 
Paris  only  a  few  of  the  modern  ones  can  be  mentioned. 
See  Baedeker's  and  Murray's  guides ;  Dickens's  Dictionary 
of  Paris  :  the  official  Annuaire  Statistique;  Ouide  de  Paris 
par  les  principaux  ecrivains  et  artistes  de  la  France  (1867— 
68) ;  A.  Joanne,  Paris  illustre  (1881) ;  Philip  G-  Hamerton, 
Paris  in  Old  and  Present  Times  (1884) ;  Histoire  Generate 
de  la  I'ille  de  Paris,  published  by  the  municipality  since 
1866  ;  Lacomb,  Bihliographie  de  Paris  (1886). 

Theodore  Stanton. 

Paris  :  a  port  of  entry  of  Brant  co.,  Ontario,  Canada ;  on 
the  Grand  river ;  at  the  junction  of  two  branches  of  the 
Grand  Trunk  Railway;  61  miles  S.  W.  of  Toronto  (see  map 
of  Ontario,  ref.  5-D).  It  has  valuable  beds  of  gypsum,  great 
water-power,  many  mills,  foundries,  knitting-works,  and 
other  industries,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1891)' 
3,094. 

Paris :  city ;  capital  of  Edgar  co..  111.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Illinois,  ref.  7-G) ;  on  the  Cleve..  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St. 
L.  and  the  Vandalia  line  railways;  170  miles  S.  of  Chicago, 
200  miles  E.  of  St.  Louis.  It  is  the  center  of  a  rich  agri- 
cultural region,  and  is  an  important  grain,  produce,  and 
stock  market.  There  are  2  national  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  $208,000,  a  private  bank,  a  new  court-house,  and 
a  monthly,  3  dailv,  and  4  weekly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1880) 
4,373 ;  (1890)  4,99(5.  Editor  of  "  Beacon." 

Paris :  city  ;  capital  of  Bourbon  co.,  Ky.  ;  on  Stoner 
creek,  and  the  Louisv.  and  Nashv.  and  the  Ky.  Midland 
railways  ;  19  miles  N.  E.  of  Lexington,  80  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Covington  (for  location,  see  map  of  Kentucky,  ref.  3-1).  It 
is  the  principal  place  of  manufacture  of  Bourbon  whisky, 
has  large  live-stock  and  tobacco  interests,  and  contains  five 
State  banks  with  combined  capital  of  |800,000,  several  clas- 
sical and  female  institutes,  and  a  serai-weekly  and  a  weekly 
newspaper.     Pop.  (1880)  3,204  ;  (1890)  4,218. 

Paris:  city  (founded  in  1823);  capital  of  Henry  co., 
Tenn.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Tennessee,  ref.  6-C) ;  on  the 
Louisv.  and  Nashv.  and  the  Paducah,  Tenn.  and  Ala.  rail- 
ways; 110  miles  W.  of  Nashville,  130  miles  N.  E.  of  Mem- 
phis. It  is  in  a  wheat  and  tobacco  growing  region,  and 
contains  5  churches,  high  school,  university  training-school, 
public  school  for  colored  youth,  2  cotton-factories,  2  grist- 
mills, a  roller-mill,  2  tobacco-factories,  a  pottery,  a  barrel- 
factory,  headquarters  of  the  Henry  County  Fair  and  Trot- 
ting-horse  Association,  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,767;  (1890)  1,917;  (1894)  estimated,  3,000. 

Editor  of  "  Post-Intelligencee." 


PARIS 


PARK 


445 


Paris :  city ;  cfipital  of  Lamar  co.,  Tex.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Texas,  ref.  2-J) ;  on  the  Gulf,  Col.  and  S.  Ke,  the 

St.  [i.  ami  Sail  Fran.,  and  the  Tex.  and  Pac.  railways;  15 
miles  .S.  uf  the  Ked  river,  64  miles  E.  of  Sherman.  It  is  in 
a  wheat  and  cotton  growing  region  and  is  the  trade  center 
of  a  large  territory.  There  are  15  churches,  3  puljlic-.school 
buildings,  pulilic-sehool  property  valued  at  over  §65.000, 
the  North  Texas  University,  4  liaiiks,  cottonseed-oil  mill, 
eanning-factorv,  and  2  dailv  and  2  weeklv  newspapers. 
Pop.  (1880)  3,980 ;  (1890)  8,2.54.  Editor  OF  •'  News." 

Par'is,  or  .\Iexander  (in  (Jr.  nipis,  'AAeJaj-Spoy ) :  a  son  of 
Priam,  the  King  of  Troy,  and  lleculia.  lie  carrird  nlT  Helen, 
tlie  wife  of  Jlenelaus,  King  of  Sparta,  thereby  liriiiging  on 
the  war  between  the  Greeks  and  Trojans.  15y  Homer  he  is 
described  as  shrewd,  but  cowardly  ;  in  art  he  is  represented 
as  a  youthful  and  handsome  num.  though  somewhat  effemi- 
nate in  a[)pearance.  Being  wounded  iluring  the  siege  by  a 
poisoned  arrow,  he  died  before  the  capture  of  the  city.  For 
Paris  in  art,  see  the  article  Piirit!  uiid  I 'a  r  hurl  he  II  in  Bau- 
meistcr's  Ben/cmtiler ;  Uverbeck, />(«  Bildwerke  zum  The- 
bischen  und  Troischen  Ueldenkreis  (Stuttgart,  1857),  pp. 
206-263.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Paris,  Alexis  Pai-li\:  French  author;  b.  at  Avenay, 
Mariie,  France,  Mar.  25.  1800;  studied  at  the  li/cee  at  Reims 
and  afterwani  in  Paris,  where  he  began  the  study  of  law,  but 
soon  devoted  himself  to  literature  and  history,  and  became 
distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  media'val  French  litera- 
ture. He  became  connected  with  the  great  library,  now  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  in  1828,  and  was  attached  to  the  de- 
partment of  manuscripts  in  it.  In  1887  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles- Lettres. 
lie  was  Professor  of  the  French  Language  and  Literature  at 
the  College  de  France  from  1853  to  1872,  when  he  retired 
with  the  title  of  honorary  professor,  leaving  at  the  same 
time  his  position  at  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale.  His  writ- 
ings deal  mostly  with  the  mediaeval  literature  of  France, 
including  text  editions,  modernizations,  and  studies,  but 
are  not  limited  to  that  field.  Among  them  are  Apologie 
de  I'ecole  romnnfiyue  (1836) ;  a  translation  of  Byron's  Don 
Juan  (1827) ;  Jji  romans  de  Berte  aus  grans  pies  (1832) ;  Li 
romans  de  Oarin  le  Loherain,  1833  (the  same  en  notiveau 
langage,  etc.,  1862) ;  Le  romancero  frnnfais  (1833) ;  Les 
grandes  chroniques  de  France  (6  vols.,  1836-38);  De  la  con- 
giieste  de  Constantinohle  par  Joffrni  de  Villehardi>uin  et 
llenri  de  Valenciennes  (1838) ;  Les  manuscrits  franQais 
de  la  bibliotheque  du  roi  (7  vols.,  183(i-48);  La  chanson 
d'Antioche  (1848) ;  Les  aventures  de  JIaitre  lienart,  etc. 
(1861);  Les  romans  de  la /Fable  Ronde  mis  en  nouveau  Ian- 
gage  (5  vols.,  1868-77) ;  Etude,  sur  Frani;ois  I.,  etc.  (2  vols., 
1885) ;  further  a  large  part  of  the  contents  of  vols,  xx.- 
xxiii.,  xxv.-xxviii.  of  the  Tfistoire  litli'raire  de  la  France, 
notably  the  articles  on  the  Chansons  de  geste  in  vols,  xxii., 
XXV.,  xxvi.     D.  in  Paris,  Feb.  13, 1881.         E.  S.  Sheldon. 

Paris,  Gasto.n  Brixo  Pai'LIX:  philologist;  b.  at  Ave- 
nay, France,  Aug.  9,  1839.  Graduating  at  the  College  Rol- 
lin,  he  studied  Romance  philology  at  Gcittingen  and  Bonn. 
Returning  to  Paris,  he, became  in  1865  instructor  in  Ro- 
mance languages  in  the  Ecole  Pratique  des  Ilautes  fttudes, 
and  in  1866  and  1869  lectured  at  the  College  de  France  in 
place  of  his  father,  Paiilin  Paris  (1800-81),  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  1872.  He  was  an  untiring  contributor  to  the  early 
history  of  French  language  and  literature,  and  the  flour- 
ishing young  school  of  Romance  philologists  in  France  is 
largely  due  to  his  influence  and  composed  of  his  pupils. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Revue  Critique  (1865) 
and  of  the  Romania  (1872).  which  he  continues  to  direct, 
and  in  which  many  of  his  studies  have  appeared.  Among 
Wis  more  considerable  works  are:  Ftnde  sur  le  role  de  I'ar- 
Cent  latin  dans  la  langue  franfaise  (1862);  Ilistoire  poe- 
tique  de  Charlemagne  (1866) ;  Ijes  conies  orientaux  dans  la 
lillerature  franfaise  du  moi/en  age  (1875);  La  vie  de  saint 
Alexis  (1872) ;  La  Poesie  du  moi/en  age  (1883) ;  La  Lillera- 
ture franfaise  du  moi/en  age  (1888).  A.  G.  Ca.nfield. 

Paris,  paaris,  .Iohx  Avrtox.  M.  1).,  D.  C.  L. :  therapeu- 
tist;  b.  at  Cambridge,  England,  .\ug.  7,  1785;  graduated  in 
medicine  at  Cambridge  Universitv  1808;  resided  some  time 
in  London,  and  several  years  at  Penzance,  Cornwall,  where 
he  founded  the  Royal  Geological  .Society  of  Cornwall ;  re- 
turned to  London  1817;  lectured  on  materia  meilira  and 
the  philosophy  of  medicine  at  the  Royal  College  of  Phy- 
sicians, of  which  body  he  was  president  from  1854  until 
his  death  ;  invented  the  tamping-bar,  an  imi)lement  coated 
with  copper  for  the  protection  of  miners  from  the  perils 


caused  by  the  sparks  emitted  from  iron  bars ;  published, 
among  other  works,  a  Memoir  of  Sir  II.  Davy  (1810);  Pbar- 
macologia.  or  the  History  of  Medical  Substances  (1819) ;  A 
Treatise  on  Diet  (1S2(>);  Philosophy  in  S/jort  made  Science 
in  Earnest  (3  vols.,  1827) ;  Elements  of  Medical  Chemistry 
(1833) ;  and  Medical  Jurisprudence  (3  vols.,  1823),  iu  which 
he  was  aided  by  .1.  S.  M.  p'onblanque.  D.  Dec.  24,  1856. 
Revised  by  S.  T.  Akmstrono. 

Paris,  paa  ree',  Loiis  Piiii.ii'i'E  Alhert  d'Okleaxs,  Comte 
de ;  claimant  to  the  French  throne ;  .son  of  the  Due  d'Urleans 
and  grandson  of  King  Louis  Philip)ie;  b.  in  Paris.  Aug.  24, 
1838;  appeared  with  liis  mother  in  the  French  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  the  Revolution  of  1848,  but  his  claims  to  the 
throne  were  not  recognized,  and  he  was  taken  to  England 
and  lived  at  Claremont,  where  he  received  his  education. 
After  traveling  in  Greece,  EgTpt,  and  the  Ea.^t,  the  prince 
and  his  brother,  the  Due  de  Chartres,  accompanied  their 
uncle,  the  Prince  de  .loinville.  to  the  U.  S.,  Aug..  1861,  and 
offering  their  services  to  the  Federal  Government,  were  at- 
tached to  the  personal  staff  of  (ien.  JMeClellan  with  rank  of 
captain,  l>ut  free  at  any  moment  to  relincpiisli  the  service 
and  return  to  Europe.  They  remained  with  the  army  for 
several  months,  serving  with  bravery  and  efficiency,  espe- 
cially in  the  battle  of  (Jaines's  Mill.  In  1864  the  count 
married  his  cousin,  the  Princess  Isabella,  eldest  daughter  of 
the  Due  de  Montpensier.  In  1871  he  was  admitted  as  a 
member  of  the  National  Assembly,  and  in  the  following 
year  that  body  voted  the  restitution  of  the  property  of  his 
family.  In  1873  he  acknowledged  the  Comte  de  Chambord  as 
the  head  of  the  royal  house  of  France,  but  after  the  latter's 
death  in  1883  the  Comte  de  Paris  united  in  his  person  the 
claims  of  both  branches  of  the  Bourbons,  and  was  accepted 
by  most  of  the  legitimists  as  the  successor  of  Chambord. 
He  was  again  forced  to  leave  France  in  1886.  in  consequence 
of  the  Expulsion  Act,  which  forbade  the  heirs  of  former 
reigning  families  to  live  in  France.  After  this  he  lived  in 
England,  and  in  spite  of  occasional  manifestoes  calling  upon 
his  compatriots  to  restore  the  monarchy  he  did  not  receive 
a  large  share  of  public  notice  till  1890,  when  the  escapade  of 
his  son,  the  Due  d'Orleans,  who  tried  to  enlist  in  the  French 
army  in  violation  of  the  law  of  exile,  caused  considerable 
excitement  among  the  royalists,  and  revived  for  a  time  the 
popular  interest  in  their  cause.  D.  in  Stowe  House,  Buck- 
inghamshire, England,  Sept.  8,  1894.  The  Comte  de  Paris 
won  some  fame  as  a  writer,  especially  by  his  Histoire  de  la 
guerre  civile  en  Amerique  (1874^-89).  He  also  wrote  Situa- 
tions des  ouvriers  en  Angleterre,  and  various  articles  ia 
periodicals. 

Paris,  Matthew  of  :  See  Matthew  of  Paris. 

Paris,  Declaration  of:  See  Declaratio.n  of  Paris. 

Paris  Green :  See  Schweixfurth  Green  and  Insecticides. 

Paris,  Plaster-of- ;  See  Gypsum. 

Paris  Yellow:  See  Chromium. 

Park  :  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term,  a  considerable  ex- 
tent of  ground  laid  out  and  maintained  as  a  public  pleasure- 
ground.  In  the  course  of  its  development  first  conies  the 
glade  and  meadow  with  woods  and  waters  where  the  hunter 
seeks  his  game.  Inclosed  by  wall  or  fence  this  becomes  the 
chace,  and  is  still  mainly  devoted  to  the  preservation  of 
game.  Finally  the  desire  for  open-air  pleasures  felt  by  the 
home-dweller  asserts  itself,  and  walks  and  resting-places  are 
made  for  the  quiet  enjoyment  of  outdoor  features.  In  this 
way  at  last  came  the  gentleman's  country-plaee  of  to-day. 
Notwithstanding  this  increasing  desire  for  the  peaceful  en- 
joyment of  woods  and  waters,  paths  and  resting-places, 
there  still  remained  the  green  or  common.  This  continued 
to  exist,  but  beside  it  grew  up  the  [lark  modeled  on  the  gen- 
tleman's country-place,  and  comprising  certain  other  fea- 
tures, such  as  roads  and  open  spaces,  required  for  public 
use. 

History. — The  Egyptians  doubtless  had  parks  earlier  than 
the  earliest  records  on  their  monuments.  Their  parks  were 
formal,  rectangular,  little  more  than  promenades  full  of 
architectural  features,  colonnades,  and  sculptured  objects  of 
diverse  form  .and  significance.  Parks  to  them  meant  little 
more  than  a  cluster  of  gardens.  In  the  mountainous  regions 
of  -Vssyria  glimpses  of  the  modern  idea  of  a  park  began  to 
appear.  Idealized  conceptions  of  the  mountain  idea  have 
been  ascribed  to  the  "hanging  gardens  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar." and  the  paradises  of  the  .\s.syrian  Semiramis  and  the 
later  Persians  with  wild  animals  and  birds,  trees  and  flow- 
ers, approached  still  nearer  the  park  of  modern  Europe. 


446 


PARK 


The  Greeks  derived  much  of  their  science  and  art  from 
Egypt,  and  their  landscape  architecture  apparently  came  in 
large  part  from  the  same  source.  There  is  little  evidence 
that  they  comprehended  the  true  park  idea  in  design.  The 
Boraans,  however,  developed  a  great  love  for  parks,  and 
Rome  became  in  the  time  of  the  C'ssars  one  great  pleasure- 
ground.  Laneiani  says  that  there  were  at  this  time  eight 
campi  or  commons  for  foot-races  and  thirty  parks  or  gar- 
dens belonging  to  the  city.  The  largest  common  was  the 
Campus  JIartius,  a  vast  level  space  with  buildings,  play- 
grounds, and  water-works  on  an  extraordinary  scale,  sur- 
rounded by  miles  of  sumptuous  colonnaded  porticoes  inclos- 
ing beautiful  gardens.  The  Golden  House  of  Nero  included 
miles  of  gardens  in  the  very  heart  of  Rome.  In  every  di- 
rection the  architectural  masses  were  broken  and  enframed 
by  the  green  of  gardens  and  parks,  while  the  water  was  used 
in  canals,  fountain-basins,  and  cascades  to  an  extent  un- 
known before  or  since. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  little  attention  was  paid  to  gar- 
dening as  an  art.  (See  Landscape-gardening.)  In  the 
days  of  the  Renaissance,  however,  the  taste  for  public  works 
of  "this  sort  gradually  increaseil,  and  in  France  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  the  great  parks  and  gardens  by  Le 
Notre  and  others  appeared,  and  the  kings  of  Spain,  Ger- 
many, and  Poland  sought  to  signalize  their  i-eigns  in  the 
same  manner.  Paris  and  two  or  three  other  great  cities  re- 
mained for  a  long  time  the  only  seats  of  these  public  en- 
terprises. 

In  the  nineteenth  century,  as  a  consequence  of  the  re- 
vival among  poets  and  painters  of  a  love  for  natural  effects, 
public  parks  have  sprung  up  all  over  Europe  and  North 
America. 

Different  Sttfles  of  Park-making. — The  different  styles  of 
park-making  have  been  divided  into  the  regular,  mixed,  and 
irregular  or  natural.  The  division  is  arbitrary,  and  in  some 
of  the  finest  public  parks  the  different  styles  mingle.  Tliere 
is  a  quality  about  the  formal  style  that  suits  it  to  the  imme- 
diate surroundings  of  great  pul)lic  buildings  like  those  of 
Paris  or  Rome.  The  mixed  style  enables  the  designer  to 
preserve  valuable  formal  features,  such  as  ruins,  straight 
promenades,  and  regularly  laid-out  flower-gardens.  This 
system  has  been  adopted  in  many  of  the  parks  of  Europe. 
The  natural  style  lends  itself  better  to  all  the  requirements 
of  a  public  park  than  any  other.  The  essentials  of  a  public 
park,  whether  regular  or  irregular  and  natural,  are  public 
ways  laid  out  in  conjunction  with  greensward  and  planted 
with  shade  trees.  Climate,  topography,  and  surroundings 
must  determine  which  style  is  to  be  used,  and  if  both  styles 
are  employed  the  one  should  be  isolated  from  the  other  and 
one  predominant  character  given  to  the  entire  park.  A 
ruin,  a  formal  old-fashioned  flower-garden,  a  system  of  gay 
parterres  and  regular  walks,  may  all  be  retained,  but  they 
must  be  masked  and  isolated  by  trees  and  shrubbery. 

The  keynote  of  the  composition  of  natural  park  landscape 
is  peace  and  restf ulness,  the  pastoral  idea.  Meadows,  hedge- 
rows, shaded  lanes  are  the  types  for  the  study  of  the  park- 
maker.  There  should  be  as  much  open  meadow,  with  bor- 
dering shrub  and  tree  plantation,  as  possible,  and  the  rugged 
effects  of  rock  and  hillside  should  be  toned  down  to  the 
semblance  of  somewhat  cultivated  or  not  unkempt  moun- 
tain scenery.  All  violent  contrasts  of  form  and  coloring 
are  to  be  carefully  avoided  in  the  composition  of  the  gen- 
eral mass  of  natural  park  lamiscape  as  well  as  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  smallest  details. 

The  Selection  of  Park  Lands. — A  level  site  or  a  slightly 
undulating  one  is  preferable  to  one  that  is  hilly  or  rocky, 
and  great  variety  of  effect  may  be  secured  on  the  level  site 
by  means  of  planting  and  other  landscape-gardening  de- 
vices?. Among  hills,  ravines,  and  rocks,  drainage  and  roads 
are  difficult  to  design  and  construct,  and  the  open  lawn  ef- 
fect characteristic  of  the  true  park  idea  may  be  almost  im- 
possible of  attainment.  An  excellent  selection  of  park 
lands  has  been  made  in  the  Prince's  Street  Gardens  site  in 
Edinburgh.  Here  a  steen  hillside  slopes  down  from  the 
castle  to  a  valley  that  borders  on  Prince's  Street.  It  is  not 
a  large  territory,  but  gains  greatly  in  its  appearance  of  size 
from  the  hollowing  contour  lines  of  its  valley  and  the  pic- 
turesque and  artistic  disposition  of  its  shrubbery  and  trees. 
Wherever  rough  land  is  selected  for  a  park  its  peculiar  fea- 
tures should  bo  intensified  ratlier  than  obliterated. 

The  Making  of  a  Park. — In  the  jireparation  of  the  plan 
fif  a  park  various  landscai)e  pictures  must  be  secured  by  the 
arrangement  of  plantations  and  other  devices,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  necessary  convenience  of  the  public  must  be 


considered.  There  must  be  also  unity  of  idea  governing  the 
entire  design.  In  the  execution  of  the  plan  a  landscape 
architect,  a  constructing  engineer,  and  a  sxiperintendent  of 
labor  are  needed  to  carry  it  out  on  the  ground.  The  land- 
scape architect  or  park-maker  should  control  the  execution 
of  the  plan,  and  decide  whether  the  lines  are  laid  out  cor- 
rectly and  what  changes  should  be  made.  No  map  can  be 
worked  out  so  precisely  on  paper  as  to  prevent  the  necessity 
of  frequent  changes  that  have  been  indicated  by  the  experi- 
ence of  actual  execution. 

Drainage,  grades,  road  and  building  construction,  and  all 
engineering  problems  sliould  be  under  the  control  of  the 
engineer  of  construction,  but  on  the  superintendent  of  labor, 
more  than  on  any  one  else,  depends  the  successful  execution 
of  the  architect's  plans.  The  offices  of  landscape  architect 
and  constructing  engineer  can  be  hardly  held  successfully 
by  the  same  person,  for  the  reason  that  the  engineer  is 
trained  to  use  mathematical  straight  lines  or  segments  of  a 
circle,  while  the  landscape  architect,  except  in  strictly  formal 
designs,  never  uses  them  :  but  one  person  may  serve  well  as 
both  landscape  architect  and  superintendent.  It  is  also 
important  that  the  landscape  architect  should  continue  to 
control  the  execution  of  the  design  until,  after  years,  it  has 
reached  its  full  development. 

iraZA's. — Primarily,  parks  should  be  laid  out  with  special 
reference  to  the  needs  of  the  pedestrian  who  seeks  open  air, 
skies,  stretches  of  greensward,  and  shady  trees.  The  walks 
should  never  run  parallel  with  anytliing,  or  be  of  uniform 
width,  unless  the  entire  design  is  strictly  formal.  They 
should  run  above  or  below  the  road  or  lawn  they  border, 
and  should  widen  or  narrow  as  the  designer  sees  fit.  In  no 
case  should  they  ruri  nearer  the  road  than  10  feet,  that  space 
being  needed  for  trees  and  groups  of  shrubs.  They  should 
be  constructed  with  broken-stone  foumlation  and  covered 
with  asphalt  or  cement  for  comfort,  and  with  gravel  if  the 
most  harmonious  effect  be  desired. 

Roads. — Roads  should  be  laid  out  with  a  view  of  reach- 
ing the  landscapes  and  other  attractive  features  of  the  park. 
The  masses  of  the  park,  the  open  meadows,  and  large  groves 
should  be  determined  by  the  course  of  the  roads.  Some- 
times, as  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  the  arrangement  of  a 
road  that  comes  in  at  a  corner  and  bends  off  diagonally  in- 
creases the  apparent  size  of  the  park  greatly,  or,  in  the  case 
of  the  English  Garden  at  Rerlin,  a  nai-row  park  will  have 
its  roads  forced  close  togetlier  to  the  diminution  of  the  ap- 
parent size  of  the  park.  This  has  been  overcome  in  the 
English  Garden  by  skillfully  devised  masking  plantations. 
Park  roads  should  be  laid  out  on  long  and  easy  curves  for 
the  safety  of  the  driving  public  and  to  avoid  abruptness, 
and  should  be  built  45  to  50  feet  wide.  A  greater  width 
tends  to  dwarf  the  lawns  and  diminish  the  appearance  of 
breadth  throughout  the  park.  All  roads  should  have  a 
foundation  of  a  foot  or  more  of  broken  stone  and  a  surface 
of  gravel  or  fine  broken  stone,  and  should  be  bordered  with 
low  graded  edgings  of  turf. 

Lawns. — A  bit  of  greensward  is  the  most  essential  and 
characteristic  feature  of  a  park.  The  pictorial  element  of 
park-making  is  found  to  a  large  extent  in  the  greensward  or 
meadow.  Trees  and  shrubs  frame  and  develop  the  lawn, 
and  thus  serve  a  purpose  more  important  than  the  exhibition 
of  their  own  attractions.  The  comparatively  level  line  of 
the  meadow  inspires  a  sense  of  serenity,  and  produces  far- 
reaching  sky  effects.  No  path  should  traverse  the  main 
parts  of  a  meadow,  or  tree  or  shrub  mar  the  restfulness  of 
its  surface.  There  should  be  a  recognition  of  the  original 
topography  of  the  region,  a  smoothing  out  and  blending  of 
minor  inequalities  which  will  leave  a  play  of  long  lines  of 
slightly  undulating  surface. 

Treatment  of  Water. — The  employment  of  the  level  line 
in  park-making  may  be  much  extended  by  designing  various 
water  effects,  and  this  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems 
of  park-making.  An  abundant  supply  of  pure  water  shoidd 
be  always  at  hand.  Natural  positions  where  watercourses 
or  pools  already  exist  are  preferred  to  purely  artificial  ones. 
Every  landscape  feature  in  park-making  should  be  suggest- 
ed by  actual  conditions  of  the  original  surface.  The  cliarm 
of  water  lies  chiefly  in  its  broad,  level,  glass-like  reflecting 
surface,  and  in  the  play  of  ripples,  but  of  almost  equal  im- 
portance is  the  picturesque  treatment  of  the  shore  by  means 
of  small  promontories,  Ijays,  creeks,  inlets,  and  islets.  By 
this  means  the  whole  extent  of  the  water  is  not  seen  at  once, 
and  the  sense  of  size  and  distance  is  greatly  increased. 
Rustic  liuildings.  rocks,  or  some  fine  tree  or  bush  may  also 
be  so  arranged  as  to  be  reflected  in  the  water,  and  seats 


PARK 


447 


?■ 


may  be  placed  that  will  command  the  best  views.  The 
most  attractive  reflections  are  those  of  water-plants,  lilies, 
lotuses,  flags,  and  rushes,  (trass  should  be  eiieuuragod  to 
grow  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  e.\cept  where  an  actual 
beach  has  been  constructed.  Drooping  trees  and  shrubs 
should  also  be  permitted  to  dip  their  branches  in  the  water. 

Employinent  of  Rocks  in  Parks. — A  desire  for  natural 
effects  in  park-making  leads  to  the  employment  of  groups 
of  rocks  at  certain  points,  but  they  shouUl  be  used  only 
where  neighboring  rocks  (-rente  a  reason  for  their  prcsfnce. 
They  should  peep  out  of  the  earth  on  .some  curved  surface 
or  nnmnd  and  along  the  borders  of  walks  and  steps  and 
pools  and  streams  of  water.  They  should  have  rounded  or 
weather-beaten  surfaces,  and  should  be  so  buried  as  to  give 
no  adecpiate  conception  of  their  size.  Kocks  should  not  be 
Lilanted  irregularly  in  a  mass,  to  support  a  bank  of  earth. 
The  bank  should  be.  if  possible,  so  graded  as  to  support  it- 
self, and  a  regular  dry  wall  of  stone  should  be  constructed 
if  this  is  not  possible. 

Park  Plantations. — Shade  trees  are  the  most  important 
park  plantations.  Along  all  drives  and  walks  shade  trees 
should  be  set  at  intervals  of  50  or  60  feet.  The  masking 
plantations  of  the  park,  the  framework  that  with  the 
greensward  produces  the  vistas  and  laudscaiie  pictures, 
should  be  made  up  of  a  series  of  groups  of  trees  and  shrubs. 
There  should  be  groves  of  trees  and  entire  groups  of  low 
shrubs,  but  both  trees  and  shrubs  should  Ije  skirted  by  a 
border  of  drooping  bushes.  Outlying  specimens  of  both 
trees  and  shrubs  may  stand  on  the  flanks  of  the  main  shrub 
group.  The  sky-line  of  these  groups  should  be  waving  with 
emphatic  points,  and  the  outlines  of  the  base  should  be 
varied  into  bays  and  points  of  foliage.  Groups  and  single 
specimens  of  trees  and  shrubs  planted  near  them  should  be 
disposed  around  the  lawns  and  down  the  hillsides  and  along 
the  water-courses,  so  as  to  secure  the  greatest  possible  ap- 
parent length  of  vista  aiul  breadth  of  greensward,  and  at  the 
same  time  most  surprising,  varied,  and  mysterious  effects. 

Plantations  of  trees  and  shrubs  should  mask  all  roads 
and  paths  as  far  as  the  opening  of  vistas  and  broad  stretches 
of  greensward  will  permit.  It  is  important  especially  that 
they  should  mask  («mpletely  the  junction  of  different  roads 
and  paths.  The  sense  of  variety,  surprise,  and  mystery, 
and  the  rural  effect  are  thereby  greatly  increased. 

Trees  and  shrubs  may  be  used  effectively  at  the  top  of 
steep  hills,  where  the  presence  of  such  trees  as  the  Lombardy 
poplar  and  the  birch  tend  to  intensify  the  suggestion  of 
mountain  scenery.  A  few  of  the  trees  valuable  for  shade 
and  mixed  groups  are  the  American  elm,  the  sugar,  Norway, 
and  scarlet  maple,  the  linden,  the  tulip,  poplar,  the  honey 
locu.st,  the  horse-chestnut,  the  birch  and  the  beech,  and  the 
white-oak  and  pin-oak.  Vigorous  hardy  shrubs  iire  Spi- 
TCfa  o/mlifolia.  privet,  snowball,  viburnum,  mock-orange, 
bush  honeysuckle  (Lonicera  fragrant issinia),  golden  bell 
(Forsijtliia).  weigela,  red-twigged  dogwood  (('ornus  sangui- 
nea).  Rhodutijpus  kerriuides,  Japan  quince  (('ijdonia  japo- 
nica),  Spir(ea  thunbergii,  atid  BerOfris  thunbergii.  The 
best  coniferous  evergreen  trees  are  the  white  pine  (Pinus 
strolius),  blue  Colonido  spruce  {Abies  pungens),  .Mugho  |)iiie 
(Pinus  niiighiis),  hemlock  (Abies  canadrnsis),  atlas  cedar 
(Ctdrus  atlantica).  N'orilman  fir  {Abies  nordimanniana), 
Japan  yew  (Tax us  ciiA;/)i(/a/(().  and  Japanese  cypress  (/ie^JHO- 
spora  obtusa). 

(jood  broad-leaved  evergreens  are  the  American  laurel 
(Kalmia  latifolia),  the  rhododendron,  the  Ja))anese  azalea 
(Azalea  amoina).  and  the  tree-box  {Biixiis  arbore.scens). 
Overcrowding  these  trees  and  shrubs  should  be  carefully 
avoided.  The  large-growing  trees,  such  a-s  the  elm  or 
maple,  should  all  be  planted  .50  feet  apart,  and  the  smaller 
2.5  feet.  I>arge  shrubs,  such  as  privet,  should  be  10  feet 
apart,  and  snndler  ones,  as  the  .Japan  quince.  6  to  8  feet : 
even  the  smallest  should  be  allowed  from  3  to  4  feet. 

Along  the  burdcrs  of  many  shrub  grou[)sand  rocky  places 
should  be  planted  hardy  herbaceous  plants,  i.  e.  perennials, 
or  wild  flowers,  such  as  larkspui-s,  daisies,  phloxes,  asters, 
sedums,  irises.  These  perennials  should  stray  out  over  the 
turf  in  irregular  belts,  and  should  constitute  au  intermediate 
gradation  between  the  lower-sized  shrid)s  and  the  grass. 

Bedding-plants,  cannas,  coleuses,  geraniums,  etc.,  should 
be  planted  as  a  framework  around  buildings  and  other  ar- 
chitectural structures  in  the  park,  and  nowhere  else.  Their 
treatment  must  be  somewhat  formal  and  should  be  consid- 
ered !is  an  ornamentation  of  the  building  and  not  an  inte- 
gral part  of  the  park  itself:  but  since  the  outer  portions  of 
these  beds  must  connect  with  the  grass  and  make  a  part  of 


the  lawn,  the  same  principles  of  design  should  apply  to  them 
as  to  the  tree  and  shrub  group. 

Generally  high  plants  should  be  in  the  middle  or  at  the 
back,  and  low  plants  in  front  or  on  the  bordei-s,  but  this 
rule  should  be  frequently  broken  in  the  interest  of  true  art 
by  thrusting  high  plants  directly  over  the  border-line,  and 
in  the  case  of  single  specimens  by  setting  them  outside  near 
points  of  the  bed  in  the  greensward. 

The  outline  of  the  border,  like  that  of  .shrub  groups, 
should  be  wavering,  running  in  and  out  in  promontories 
and  smooth  slopes  and  bays,  and  the  curves  should  never  be 
segments  of  a  circle.  Form  combinalii>ns  of  the  most  ar- 
ti.stic  design  can  be  thus  contrived,  and  the  blending  and 
the  contrast  of  both  form  and  color  made  more  subtle  and 
brilliant  than  any  carpet  bed  plants  where  the  contrasts  of 
color  are  nearly  always  strong  and  not  artistic  and  the  form 
flat  and  ill  proportioned. 

Plants  suitable  for  bedding  are  musas.  cannas,  achalyphas, 
geraniums,  begonias,  coleuses,  alternant heras.  salvias,  bou- 
vardia.s.  castor-oil  plants,  .solanums,  and  achyranthus  and 
periwinkles.  Gnmps  of  lilies.  lotu.ses,  and  other  water  plants 
should  be  treated  in  the  same  artistic  way. 

Climbing  vines  should  be  used  over  rocks,  banks,  walls, 
bridges,  and  buildings,  Wherever  they  appear  they  add  to 
the  variety  and  picturesqueness  of  the  lan(lscaj)e. '  Useful 
vines  are  the  honeysuckle,  Virginia  ci'eejier.  Japan  ivy  {Am- 
pelopsis  tricuspidata),  clematis,  Dutchman's  pipe  (Aris- 
tohiclt  ia  sipho),  wistaria,  trumpet  creeper,  climbing  rose,  and 
akebia. 

Archileetural  Structures. — All  architectural  structures  in 
a  park  should  be  of  simple,  unobtrusive  design  and  thor- 
oughly masked  by  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines.  No  statues 
should  be  allo%ved  in  a  rural  park,  except  at  the  entrances  and 
adjoining  buildings.  Stone  hi-idges  should  be  rough-faced 
and  rustic  in  character,  with  as  small  amount  of  wall  effect 
as  possible.  Bridges  over  walks  and  roads  for  the  safety  of 
the  public  should  not  be  multiplied  to  the  detriment  of  the 
general  rural  effect  of  the  park.  All  entrances  to  bridges 
should  be  masked  by  planting.  Stone  steps  should  be  made 
of  rough-faced  blue  or  neutral-tinted  stone,  and  the  borders 
protected  by  narrow  strips  or  curbs  of  the  same  material. 
The  earth  all  about  the  steps  should  be  mounded  up  until 
from  most  directions  only  slight  glimpses  of  the  stonework 
can  be  obtained. 

On  the  higher  parts  a  few  single  rocks  may  be  buried  with 
good  effect,  provided  there  are  other  rocks  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. Stone  walls  suit  the  outer  boundaries  of  parks  better 
than  any  other  fence.  They  should  be  made  of  neutral- 
tinted,  gray,  or  brown  stone. 

Arbors,  summer-houses,  and  seats  may  be  built  successful- 
ly of  knotty  and  crooked  gnarled  wood.  All  bark  should 
be  peeled  off,  and  the  most  durable  kinds  of  material  em- 
ployed, such  as  locust,  red  cedar,  and  sassafras. 

Rights  of  the  Public  in  I'arks. — JIuch  confusion  often 
arises  as  to  the  rights  of  the  [)ublic  in  parks,  and  great  injury 
comes  in  this  way  from  peojile  who  wish  to  secure  fair- 
grounds, grounds  formilitary  parades,  speeding-tracks,  and 
for  shows  of  all  kinds.  Parks  are  for  the  use  of  the  public, 
and  occupation  of  ground  by  one  set  of  people  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  others  is  an  infringement  of  personal  rights.  Games 
of  all  kinds  may  be  played  on  the  lawns,  provided  every 
one  who  desires  is  allowed  to  take  part  in  them.  An  excep- 
tion is  made  in  the  case  of  children,  who,  it  is  conceded, 
should  have  their  ball-ground,  swings,  nu'rry -go-round,  and 
arbor.  Music  .should  be  isolated  in  some  spot  arranged  for 
the  purpose,  where  the  crowds  will  not  mar  the  restful 
effect  of  the  remainder  of  the  park. 

City  Squares  and  Places. — t'ity  squares  are  hardly  recog- 
nized as  parks  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term.  They  must 
be  somewhat  more  formal  in  effect  on  account  of  the  prox- 
imity of  city  buildings,  but  the  principles  cm  which  they  are 
constructed  should  be  the  same  as  those  of  the  largest 
parks.  The?  bouiularies  should  be  planted  with  a  series  of 
masking  trees  and  shrubs,  and  as  much  open  lawn  secured 
as  the  general  design  will  permit.  Architectural  structures, 
■Statues,  and  fountain-ba.sins  find  an  appropriate  home  in 
the  small  stimires  of  the  city.  Around  these  structures 
brilliant  beds  of  cannas,  geraniums,  and  begonias  may  be 
arranged  in  an  effective  manner.  Children's  playgrounds 
nuiy  be  also  devised  after  the  manner  of  some  Paris  parks, 
by  nnikiug  a  special  widening  of  the  walk  in  one  of  the 
angles  of  the  territory,  and  there  planting  one  ormore  shade 
trees. 

Noted  Parks. — Among  the  best-known  parks  of  the  pres- 


448 


PARK 


PARKER 


ent  day  are  Hyde  Park  (with  Kensington  Gardens),  598 
acres,  Regent's  Park,  473  acres,  Victoria  Park,  300,  Battersea 
Park,  250  acres,  all  in  London:  Princes  Street  Gardens, 
Edinburgh:  Pha^nix  Park,  nearly  2,000  acres.  Dublin  :  Cen- 
tral Park,  863  acres.  New  York:"  Prospect  Park,  515  acres, 
Brooklyn ;  Thier  Garten,  200  acres,  Berlin ;  the  Bois  de  la 
Cambre,  134  acres,  Brussels  :  the  Ganien  La  Flora,  Cologne ; 
the  English  Garden.  500  acres,  Jlunich;  the  Prater  Gar- 
dens, 1,500  acres,  Vienna ;  Paulovsk  Park,  near  St.  Peters- 
burg; the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  2,000  acres,  and  Bois  de  Vin- 
cennes,  2,075  acres,  Paris.  Samuel  PARS0>fS,  Jr. 

Park,  Edwards  Amasa,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  theologian ;  b.  at 
Providence.  R.  L,  Dee.  2i),  1808;  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity 1826  and  at  Andover  Seminary  1831 ;  became  in 
1831  Congregational  pastor  at  Braintree,  Mass. ;  was  1835- 
36  Professor  of  Moral  and  Intellectual  Philosophy  in  Am- 
herst College  ;  held  the  Bartlet  professorship  of  Sacred  Rhet- 
oric in  Andover  Theological  Seminary  1836^7.  and  in  the 
latter  year  became  Abbot  Professor  of  Sacred  Theology  in 
the  same  institution,  resigning  in  1881.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  and  translators  of  Selections  from  Oerman  Litera- 
ture (1839).  In  1869-70  he  traveled  extensively  in  Europe 
and  the  East;  was  one  of  the  founders  and  (1844-88)  one  of 
the  principal  editors  of  the  Bihliollt^ca  Sacra :  author  of 
Lives  of  Hopkins  (1852),  Emmons  (1861),  I^.  B.  Edwards 
(1853),  and  W.  B.  Homer  (1849),  prefixed  respectively  to 
editions  of  their  writings:  a  Life  of  S.  H.  Taylor;  edition 
of  Discourses  and  Treatises  on  the  Atonetnenf' (ISod);  Dis- 
courses on  some  Tlieological  Doctrines  as  related  to  the  Re- 
ligious Character  (1885);  author  of  numerous  publislied 
discourses,  sermons,  essays,  etc. ;  a  preacher  and  theological 
teacher  of  great  ability.  Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

Park,  MuNGo:  traveler;  b.  at  Fowlshiels,  Scotland,  Sept. 
10,  1771;  studied  surgery  at  Edinburgh,  and  was  1792-93 
assistant  surgeon  in  India.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Afri- 
can Association,  London,  he  was  the  pioneer  in  the  modern 
exploration  of  Africa.  He  journeyed  up  the  Gandjia  (1795), 
suffering  extreme  hardshms,  and  being  a  prisoner  for  some 
time  in  the  hands  of  a  Moorish  king.  Escaping  on  July  1, 
1796,  he  reached  the  upper  Niger,  the  great  object  of'his 
search,  at  Segu,  and  followed  the  river  toward  Timbuctoo 
as  far  as  Silla,  where  he  was  compelled  to  turn  back.  After 
seven  months'  illness  and  great  hardships  he  reached  tlie 
mouth  of  the  Gambia,  having  been  nineteen  months  in  the 
interior.  This  journey  was  described  in  his  book  Travels  in 
the  hiterior  of  Africa.  The  British  Government  sent  him 
(1805)  to  descend  the  Niger  from  the  upper  river,  and  trace 
its  entire  course.  Most  of  his  party  died  of  fever,  and  before 
the  Niger  was  reached  only  five  white  men  were  left  out  of 
forty-four.  The  party  set  sail  down  the  river,  at  first  in  two 
canoes,  but  soon  built  a  little  schooner,  with  which  they  de- 
scended the  Niger  some  1,500  miles,  wlien  they  were  treach- 
erously attacked  by  a  large  party  of  natives,  and  Park  and 
all  his  company  perished  in  the  attempt  to  escape  by  swim- 
ming. The  journals  ho  sent  home  and  information  collected 
by  Clapperton  and  Lander  have'given  all  the  facts  that  are 
known  of  his  last  expedition.        RevLsed  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Park,  RoswELL,  M.  D. :  surgeon ;  b.  at  Pomfret,  Conn., 
May  4,  1853 ;  educated  at  Racine  College  and  Chicago  Med- 
ical College;  demonstrator  and  Adjunct  Professor  of  Anat- 
omy, Chicago  Medical  College,  1877-83 ;  lecturer  on  surgery 
Rush  Medical  College,  1882-83 ;  Professor  of  Surgery,  Med- 
ical Department,  University  of  Buffalo,  since  1883 ;  author 
of  The  Mutter  Lectures  on  Surgical  Pathology  (1893);  of 
numerous  encyclopaulia  articles  and  surgical  monographs; 
arid  one  of  the  joint  authors  of  An  American  Te.rf-lmok  of 
Surgery  (\m2).  He  was  editor  of  the  Chicago  M'eekly  Med- 
ical Review;  then  of  Tlie  Medical  Press  of  Western  A^ew 
Yoric;  and  associate  editor  of  the  Annals  of  Surgery. 

Park  €lty:  city;  Summit  Co.,  Utah;  on  the  Union  Pac. 
and  the  Utah  Cent,  railways;  30  miles  E.  of  Salt  Lake  City 
the  lerritorial  capital  (for  location,  see  map  of  Utah.  ref.4-M"). 
It  IS  III  a  mining  region,  and  contains  a  valuable  silver  mine 
samplmg-works,  several  (|iiartz-mills,  sawmills,   a  national 

,1  Jil'^,";'!.o'''';l''l"''  *5<'."l'».  '""1  a  weekly  newsi^aper.     Pop. 
(1880)1,543;  (1890)  3,580;  (1S95)  4,491.  "  ' 

Parke,  John  Grihb:  soldier;  b.  near  Coatesville,  Pa., 
r  r'i  ,'ol~';  K™''"'-^ted  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
July  1,  1849,  when  he  was  appointed  brevet  second  lieuten- 
ant, topographical  engin.H-rs  (first  lieutenant  July  1856  • 
capt^ain  Sept  9,  1861),  being  engaged  in  various  surveys  in 
the  Western  States,  as  secretary  of  the  lighthouse  board. 


and  ror  many  years  as  chief  astronomer  and  surveyor  in 
locating  the  northwestern  boundary  of  the  U.  S.  Appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  Nov.,  1861,  he  accompanied 
Buruside  to  North  Carolina,  and  commanded  at  the  capture 
of  p'ort  Macon;  jiromoted  to  be  major-general  Aug.,  1862,  he 
served  as  chief  of  staff  of  the  Ninth  Corps  in  the  battles  of 
South  Mountain  and  Antietam,  and  on  Gen.  Burnside's  suc- 
ceeding to  the  commanil  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was 
retained  by  the  latter  as  his  chief  of  staff,  participating  in 
the  battle  of  Fredericksburg ;  was  in  command  of  the  Ninth 
Corps  during  its  march  to  Vicksburg,  and  for  a  time  of  the 
left  wing  of  Gen.  Sherman's  army;  in  command  of  a  divi- 
sion of  the  Ninth  Corps  on  Gen.  Burnside's  reassuming  com- 
mand, and  engaged  in  Tennessee  in  siege  of  Knoxville,  etc. ; 
and  in  Richmond  campaign  of  1864,  again  attaining  com- 
mand of  the  Ninth  Corps  before  Petersbui'g  (Aug.,  1864), 
whicli  he  retained  till  the  end  of  the  war.  lie  received  the 
brevets  of  cok)nel  for  gallantry  at  Jackson,  of  brigadier- 
general  at  Knoxville,  and  major-general  at  Fort  Streetman, 
Virginia.  Mustered  out  of  volunteer  service  July,  1866,  he 
resumed  the  duties  of  his  corps.  In  1864  he  becaiiie  a  major 
of  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  lieutenant-colonel  in  1879,  and 
colonel  in  1884.  During  these  years  he  was  engaged  upon 
boundary  surveys,  imjirovements  of  rivers  and  harbors,  and 
works  of  fortification.  From  1868  to  1887  he  was  senior 
assistant  in  the  office  of  the  cliief  of  engineers,  frequently 
acting  as  chief.  He  became  superintendent  of  U.  S.  Military 
Academy  July  1,  1887,  and  was  retired  from  active  service 
at  his  own  request  July  3,  1889. 

Revised  by  James  Mbrcur. 
Parker,  Amasa  Junius,  LL.  D.  (of  Hobart  College)  :  b.  at 
Sharon,  Conn..  June  3,  1807;  removed  in  1816  to  Greenville, 
N.  v.,  and  graduated  from  Union  College  in  1835.  He 
held  many  positions  of  public  and  private  trust  during  his 
life;  was  a  member  of  the  Legislature  in  1833;  chosen  a 
regent  of  the  university  in  1835 ;  in  Congress  1837-39 ;  vice- 
chancellor  and  circuit  judge  1844-47;  and  (under  the  new 
Constitution)  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  1847-55.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Albany  Lr.w  School,  and  for 
twenty  years  one  of  its  professors.  His  chief  literary  work 
was  the  publication  of  reports  of  criminal  cases  (6  vols., 
1855-69),  work  in  the  preparation  of  the  revised  statutes  of 

1859,  and  editorial  work  upon  the  third  edition  of  Reeve's 
Law  of  Baron  and  Femme.    D.  at  Albany,  May  13,  1890. 

F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Parker,  Edwin  Pond,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  ;  b.  at  Castine, 

Me.,  Jan.  13,  1836;  graduated  at  Bowd'oin  College  1856,  and 

at  Bangor  Theological  Seminary;  has  been  pastor  of  the 

South   Congregational   church   in    Hartford,   Conn.,   since 

1860.  Dr.  Parker  is  the  author  of  Book  of  Praise ;  Sun- 
day-school So7igs ;  Christian  Hymnal ;  Memorial  of  Horace 
Bushnell;  The  Ministry  of  Natural  Beauti/.  He  has  com- 
posed many  hymn-tunes  and  several  hvnins,  which  have 
found  acceptance.  It  was  at  his  ordination  that  the  ques- 
tion of  continued  probation  after  death  first  came  into  inib- 
lic  discussion  in  the  Congregational  churches  of  New  Eiig- 

llinl-  G.  P.  FlSHER. 

Parker,  Foxiiall  Alexander:  commodore;  b.  in  New 
York  city,  Aug.  5,  1831;  was  appointed  a  midshipman  in 
the  navy  Mar.  11,  1837:  graduated  from  the  Naval  School 
at  Philadelphia  June  3.  1843;  was  commissioned  lieutenant 
Sept.  21,  185(1 :  served  at  the  Washington  navy-yard  as  ex- 
ecutive oflficer  1861-63  ;  appointed  commander  jiily  16. 1862 ; 
commanded  the  steam  gunboat  Mahaska  (1N62-63')  in  active" 
service  off  Wilmington  and  Yorktown ;  commanded  the 
Wabash  off  Charleston  June  to  Sept.,  1863 ;  commanded  the 
Potomac  flotilla  frcjin  Dec,  1863,  until  the  close  of  the  civil 
war;  was  promoted  to  a  captaincy  July,  1866;  was  chief  of 
staff  to  the  North  Atlantic  fleet  1872:'  appointed  chief  sig- 
nal-oiricer  of  the  navy  July  1, 1873.  Published  Fleet  Tactics 
under  Steam  mid  Squadron  Tactics  under  Steam  (1863); 
The  Naval  Howitzer  Ajloat  (1865);  and  The  Naval  How- 
itzer Ashore  (1866) ;  all  of  which  are  text-books  at  the  Naval 
Academy;  also  Elia,  or  Spain  Fiftij  Years  Ago  (translated 
from  the  Spanish,  1866).  He  was  oiie  of  the  founders  of  the 
Naval  Institute  at  Annapolis.  In  Dec,  1874.  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  staff  of  the  united  fleets  under  comnuuid  of 
Kear-Admiral  Case  which  were  assembled  for  instruction  in 
tactics  in  tlie  Florirla  waters:  commanded  iiaA-y-yard,  Bos- 
ton, 1877:  siiperintendeiil  Naval  Acadeuiv,  Aniiapolis,  Md., 
from  1878  till  his  death,  June  10,  1879. 

Parker.  Horatio  William  :  composer  and  organist;  b.  at 
Auburndale,  Mass.,  Sept.  15,  1863;  studied  in  Boston  and 


PARKER 


4i9 


Jluniili.  His  first  important  composition  was  the  cantata 
King  Trojan  (1885),  produced  in  Munich.  He  has  also  com- 
posed The  Koboldn.  a  short  cantata,  and  Ilora  i\'ot'i'.s.sim«,  a 
sacred  cantata  (1892)  for  the  Clmrcli  Choral  Association  of 
New  York,  besides  much  otlier  nmsic,  sacred  and  secuhir. 
From  1885  to  1893  he  was  Professor  of  Music  at  the  Catlie- 
dral  School  of  St.  Paul,  Garden  City,  L.  I.,  and  organist  of 
Holy  Trinity  church.  New  York;  tlien  became  ort;anist  of 
Trinity  church.  Boston;  was  elected  Professor  of  the  Theory 
of  Music  at  Yale  Univci-sity  in  1894.  D.  K.  Ukrvky. 

Parker,  Joel,  LIj.  I). :  lawyer;  b.  at  Monmouth,  N.  .1., 
Nov.  24,  1816:  graduated  at '  Princeton  College  in  1839; 
stuilied  law  and  was  iulinitted  to  the  bar  in  1842;  was  elect- 
ed to  the  State  Legislature  in  1847 ;  subsecjuently  was  county 
attorney.  Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he  was 
niiulc  major-general  of  volunteers,  aiul  in  18G2  was  elected 
Governor  of  New  Jersey  for  three  years,  and  again  elected 
in  1871.  He  was  an  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  New  Jersey.     D.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan.  2,  1888. 

Parker,  Joseph,  I).  D. :  preacher  and  author:  b.  in  Hex- 
ham, Kngland,  Apr.  9.  1830;  educated  privately  and  at 
University  College,  London;  settled  at  Banbury  in  18.53; 
was  pastor  of  Cavendish  Chapel  (Congregational),  Manches- 
ter, 18.58-69:  of  Poultry  Chapel,  Loiidon,  1869-93;  and  is 
now  (1894)  in  charge  of  City  Temple,  High  Holborn  :  visited 
the  U.S.  in  1888,  and  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from 
Chicago  University.  Author  of  h'cce  Dern  (1868);  The  Peo- 
ple's Bible  (vol.  i.,  1885) ;  and  other  works,  most  of  which 
have  been  reprinted  in  the  U.  S.    Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

Parker,  Matthew,  D.  D.  :  archbishop ;  b.  at  Norwich, 
England,  Aug.  6,  1504;  educated  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Cambridge;  took  priests'  orders  1527,  the  same  year  became 
M.  A.  and  fellow  of  his  college;  chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn 
1.5.'>3:  dean  of  Stoke  Clare  College,  Suffolk.  1.535;  chaplain 
to  Henry  VIIL  1.537;  prebendary  of  Ely  1.541;  master  of 
Corpus  Christi  College  1.544;  dean  of  Lincoln  1.552;  was 
deprived  by  Queen  Mary  1553  for  having  married ;  a|)- 
pointed  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1559  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Nicholas  Bacon  and  Cecil,  for  Queen  Elizabeth 
w!is  at  that  time  violently  opposed  to  the  marriage  of  the 
clergy.  The  Bishops'  Bible  was  printed  at  his  expense. 
Later  he  became  an  enemy  of  conventicles  and  of  the  non- 
conforming spirit.  He  published  Anglo-Saxon  and  other 
early  English  chronicles,  ami  collected  a  valuable  library, 
whi<'h  he  bequeathed  to  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge. 
I).  May  17,  1575.  The  Parker  Society,  named  in  his  honor, 
blisiied  from  1841  to  1855  a  series  of  fifty-five  volumes  of 
'English  ecclesiastical  writings  of  the  Elizabethan  age. 

Parker,  Peter,  M.  D.  :  missionary  and  diplomat :  b.  at 
Framingham,  Mass.,  June  18,  1804;  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege 1831 ;  studied  theology  and  medicine  at  New  Haven  ; 
went  to  Canton,  China,  as  a  missionary  1834 ;  established  a 
hospital;  had  great  success  both  in  surgery  and  medicine, 
and  trained  many  Chinese  students;  returned  to  the  U.S. 
1840-42;  became  interpreter  and  secretary  of  legation  to 
the  American  mission  in  China  1845,  retaining  charge  of 
the  hospital ;  again  visited  the  U.  S.  1855,  but  went  to  China 
the  same  year  as  commissioner  with  ]iower  to  revise  the 
treaty:  finally  returned  to  America  in  1857,  after  which  he 
resided  at  Washington,  U.  C-. ;  was  a  regent  of  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  filled  other  honorable  scientific  posts.  I), 
at  Washington,  Jan.  10,  1888. 

Parker,  Samuel.  I).  1). :  bislmp :  b.  at  Portsmouth.  N.  H., 
Aug.  28,  1744;  gradmited  at  Harvard  1764:  was  an  instruc- 
tor for  nine  years;  ordained  to  the  Anglican  ministry  1774 
by  the  Bishop  of  London;  until  1779  a.ssi.stant  minister,  and 
then  rector,  of  Trinity  church,  Boston;  coiifiu'med  the 
I'rayer-book  services  to  the  changed  condition  of  civil  affairs 
directly  on  the  receijit  in  Boston  of  news  of  the  signing 
of  the  Declaration  .if  Imlependence ;  was  an  active  promoter 
of  a  union  between  Bishop  Seabury  and  the  New  England 
churches,  and  Bishojis  White  and  Provoost  and  the  churches 
of  the  Middle  and  Southern  States,  which  in  1789  united 
the  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.S.;  in  1804  consecrated 
bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  for  the  diocese 
of  ^lassachusetts.     I),  at  Boston.  Dec.  6,  1804. 

Parker,  Theodore;  theological  leader;  b.  at  Lexington, 
Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1810;  was  a  graiulson  of  ('apt.  John  Parker, 
who  commanded  the  company  of  miinitemen  lired  on  by 
British  troops  at  Lexington  Apr.  19.  1775;  .studied  Latin, 
■Greek,  and  mental  philosophy  while  working  on  the  farm  or 
in  the  tool-shop ;  taught  school  at  the  age  of  seventei'n ; 
3i;i 


i:: 


studied  at  Lexington  Academy;  entered  Harvard  College 
1830,  but  did  not  pursue  the  regular  course,  being  obliged 
to  carry  on  his  studies  at  home  and  teach  private  classes 
at  Boston  and  AVatertown  ;  became  proficient  in  manv  lan- 
guages; entered  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School  1834,  gradu- 
ating 1836;  was  settled  at  West  Roxbury  as  pastor  of  the 
.Second  (Unitarian)  church  June,  1837;  soon  arrived  at  re- 
ligious views  widely  differing  from  those  of  conservative 
Unitarians,  and  became  the  leader  of  a  school  of  theology 
which  rejected  as  unhistorical  many  ]iorlions  of  the  canon- 
ical Scriptures,  renounced  all  belief  in  the  supernatural,  and 
exerci.sed  gre.at  freedom  in  the  (U  Ihiilion  of  the  Christianity 
which  he  continued  to  profess;  laid  down  the  principles  of 
his  new  transcendental  system  in  a  series  of  five  lectures 
delivered  at  Boston  in  the  autumn  of  1841,  published  under 
the  title  .4  IJinrourse  of  Malters  Pertaining  to  Religion 
(1842);  followed  in  the  autumn  of  1842  by  a  series  of  six 
Sermons  for  the  Times;  wrote  articles  in  The  Dial;  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  Critical  and  Jliseellaneoiis  Writings 
(1843).  and  a  translation  of  De  Wett(rs  Introduction  to  the 
Old  Testament  (2  vols.,  1843):  spent  nearly  two  years  (1843- 
44)  traveling  in  Europe ;  returned  to  Boston  in  the  autumn 
of  1844.  when  a  controversy  grew  warm  within  the  Unitari- 
an denomination,  arising  from  the  act  of  several  pastors  of 
churches  at  Bo.ston,  who  admitted  him  to  their  pulpits. 
As  the  result.  Mr.  Parker  established  an  organization  at 
Boston  known  as  the  Twenty-eighth  Congregational  Soci- 
ety (1846),  which  worshiped  at  the  I\lelo(loon,  and  subse- 
quently for  many  years  at  the  Music  Hall,  where  his  audi- 
ences were  large  and  his  teachings  embraced  a  wide  scope 
of  subjects;  founded  and  edited  for  three  years  the  Massa- 
chusetts Quarterly;  was  earnestly  opposed  to  the  Mexican 
war.  to  slavery,  and  intemperance ;  was  indicted  in  the  U.  S. 
court  (June.  1854)  for  resistance  to  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law 
in  the  case  of  Anthony  Burns,  the  offense  being  an  address 
at  Faneuil  Hall,  but  was  never  brought  to  trial:  Jan., 
1859,  he  was  prostrated  by  an  attack  of  bleeding  at  the 
lungs;  visited  the  West  Indies,  where  he  wrote  a  small 
work  entitled  Theodore  Parker's  Experience  as  a  Jliuister; 
procei'ded  thence  to  Europe ;  resided  successively  in  Switz- 
erland and  at  Rome  1.860.  olitaining  no  relief.  He  died  at 
Florence,  Italy,  Jlay  10,  1860,  and  was  buried  in  the  Protes- 
tant cemetery  outside  the  walls.  He  bequeathed  13,000 
volumes  to  the  Boston  Public  Library.  His  complete  works 
were  edited  bv  Frances  Power  Coi)be  (12  vols..  London, 
1863-65)  and  by  H.  B.  Puller  (10  vols.,  Boston.  1870) ;  his 
Life  and  Correspondence  was  pulilished  by  Rev.  John  Weiss 
(2  vols..  New  York,  1864) :  and  his  J.ife  by  Rev.  0.  B.  Froth- 
ingham  (New  York,  1874).  A  French  compendium,  entitled 
Theodore  Parker,  sa  Vie  et  ses  (Eurres  (1865).  was  prepared 
by  Rev.  Albert  Reville.  This  has  been  translated  (London, 
1865).  .See  M'est  Roxbury  Sermons  (1892),  with  an  introduc- 
tion tiy  Rev.  S.  J.  Barrows  and  a  biographical  sketch  by 
FrankB.  Sanborn.  Revised  by  J.  W.  Cuadwick. 

Parker.  AVillard.  M.  D..  LL.  D.  :  surgeon  :  b.  at  Lynde- 
borough,  Hillsborough  Co.,  N.  II.,  Sept.  2.  1800:  gi-aduated 
at  Harvard  1826  ;  studied  medicine  and  surgery  under  Prof. 
John  C.  Warren  ;  became  Professor  of  Anatomy  in  llie  Ver- 
mont Medical  College,  and  also  in  that  of  Berkshire  1830; 
Professor  of  Surgery  in  the  latter  inslitution  1833,  and  at 
Cincinnati  1836;  spent  sonu^  time  in  the  hospitals  of  Paris 
and  London;  was  for  thirty  years  (1839-69)  Professor  of 
Sui-gery  in  the  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, after  which  he  exchanged  into  the  chair  of  Clinical 
Surgery,  which  he  held  for  many  years.  In  1854  he  first  de- 
scribed' and  rejiorted  cases  of  what  is  now  known  as  ma- 
lignant pustule.  Dr.  Parker  became  president  of  the  New 
York  State  Inebriate  Asylum  at  Binghamtoii  in  1865;  was 
the  first  to  call  attention  to  the  phenomena  of  concussion 
of  the  nerves  as  distinguished  from  that  of  the  nerve-cen- 
tei's.  formerly  erroneously  considered  identical  with  a  state 
<if  inflammation,  and  made  several  important  discoveries  in 
practical  surgery,  including  the  oiieratiou  of  cystotomy  for 
the  relief  of  chronic  cystitis,  and  that  for  the  cure  of  nh- 
scess  of  the  appendix  vermiformis.  D.  in  New  York  city, 
Apr.  25,  1884. 

Parker,  William  Kitchen,  F.  R.  S..  F.  Z.  S.,  F.  L.  S.; 
anatomist;  b.  at  Dogsthorpe,  near  Peterborough,  England, 
June  23.  1823;  d.  July  3,  1890.  He  was  educated  at  CMuir- 
ing  Cross  and  King's  College  Hospitals,  and  from  1873  to 
1883  was  Hunterian  professor  at  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons, London.  His  attention  was  early  given  to  the  Fora- 
minifera,  concerning  which  he  published  about  thirty-six 


450 


PARKERSBUEG 


PARLIAMENT 


papers,  mostly  in  conjunction  with  Prof.  T.  Rupert  Jones 
and  Dr.  H.  B.  Brady.  He  subsequently  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  vertebrate  sk-eleton,  and  particularly  to  the 
development  and  morphology  of  the  skull,  and  on  these  sub- 
jects published  about  sixty  papers,  many  of  them  mono- 
graphic in  their  character.  He  was  a  skilled  dissecter,  an 
accurate  observer,  and  a  good  draughtsman.  Among  Dr. 
Parker's  principal  papers  are  those  On  the  Osteology  and 
St/stetnatic.  Position  of  Bahrniceps  (1860);  Palamedea 
(1863) ;  GaUinaceous  Birds  and  ?'/«!t;«o«s  (1862-66) ;  pub- 
lished in  the  Transactions  of  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London  a  Mnnograpli  on  the  Structure  and  Development  of 
the  Shoulder  (Itrdle  and  Sternum  in  the  Vertebrata  (1868); 
The  SIcull  of  BatraelUa  (1878):  Sturgeon  (W^Z);  Edentata 
(1886) ;  and'  Insectivora  (1886),  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Parkersburg' :  city ;  capital  of  Wood  co.,  W.  Va.  (for 
location,  see  niai)  of  West  Virginia,  ref.  6-E) ;  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Ohio  and  the  Little  Kanawha  rivers ;  on  the 
Bait,  and  0.,  the  Bait,  and  0.  S.  W.,  and  the  Ohio  River  rail- 
ways ;  96  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Wheeling.  It  is  in  a  rich  oil 
and  natural-gas  region  ;  contains  13  churches,  6  public- 
school  buildings,  high  school,  a  seminary,  the  Academy  of 
the  Visitation,  U.  S.  Government  building,  4  national  banks 
with  combined  capital  of  |636,000,  and  a  monthly,  3  daily, 
and  3  weekly  periodicals ;  and  has  the  shops  of  the  Ohio 
River  Railroad,  5  oil-refineries,  5  machine-shops,  3  iron- 
foundries,  3  boiler-shops,  lumber-mills,  furniture-factory, 
and  acid-works.  The  city  has  a  water-system  with  sufficient 
pressure  to  render  fire-engines  unnecessary.  The  Ohio  river 
is  here  crossed  by  a  railway  bridge  over  1^  miles  long,  ex- 
cluding approaches,  which  cost  over  $1,000,000.  Pop.  (1880) 
6,583;  (1890)  8,408.  The  suburbs,  really  part  of  tlie  city, 
have  a  population  of  about  4.000. 

Proprietors  op  "  State  Journal." 

Parkes,  Sir  Harry  Smith  :  diplomati.st :  b.  near  Walsall, 
Staffordshire,  England,  Feb.  38.  1838.  Left  an  orphan  in 
1833  he  became  a  charge  of  his  kinsman.  Rev.  Charles  Gutz- 
laff,  Chinese  missionary  and  scholar.  He  was  a  student-in- 
terpreter on  the  staff  of  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  in  the  China 
war  of  1843,  served  in  various  grades  of  the  British  consular 
service  in  the  far  East,  and  was  commissioner  when  the 
British  troops  occupied  Canton.  Captured  treacherously 
by  the  Chinese  in  1860  when  under  a  flag  of  truce,  he  was 
thrown  into  a  dungeon  and  tortured.  His  indomitable  res- 
olution carried  him  safely  through  this  cruel  experience, 
and  finally  he  was  released,  most  of  his  companions  having 
meanwhile  perished.  Prom  1865  to  1883  he  occupied  the 
post  of  minister  at  the  Japanese  court,  and  was  much 
dreaded  by  that  nation,  whose  history  he  helped  to  mould, 
his  sympathies  being  entirely  with  the  imperialists.  Sir 
Harry  was  a  diplomatist  of  the  Palmerston  school,  and  very 
popular  with  his  fellow  countrymen  ;  he  enjoys  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  the  "  only  foreigner  whom  the  Japanese  could 
not  twist  round  their  little  finger."  He  was  transferred  to 
Peking  in  1883;  d.  there.  Mar.  33,  1885.  See  his  Life,  by 
Stanley  Lane-Poole  (1894).  J.  M.  Dixon. 

Parkesburg :  borough ;  Chester  eo..  Pa.  (for  location, 
.see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-1) ;  on  the  Penn.  Railroad  ; 
45  miles  W.  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region, 
and  contains  5  churches,  6  public  schools,  an  academy,  roll- 
ing-mill, steam  flour  and  planing  mills,  and  a  weekly  and 
a  monthly  periodical.     Pop.  (1880)  817  ;  (1890)  1,514. 

PjDitor  op  "Chester  County  Times." 

Parkhiirst,  Charles  Henry,  D.  D.  :  clergyman;  b.  at 
Framingham,  Mass.,  Apr.  17.  1843;  graduated  at  Amherst 
1866  ;  studied  theology  at  Hallo  (1869-70)  and  Leipzig  (1873- 
73),  in  (Jermany,  having  meanwhile  taught  (1870-71)  in  Wil- 
liston  Seminary,  Easthampton,  Mass. ;  was  settled  over  the 
Congregational"  church  in  Lenox,  Mass.,  1874-80;  in  1880  be- 
came pastor  of  the  M.adison  Square  Presbyterian  church  in 
New  York  city.  In  1891  he  became  president  of  the  Society 
for  the  Prevention  of  Oime,  and  soon  after  made  the  asser- 
tion that  as  the  result  of  his  own  investigations  he  coidd 
prove  that  the  New  York  police  were  the  accomplices  of  the 
criminal  classes,  and  that  the  corruption  permeated  the  de- 
partment of  public  justice.  Tliis  led  to  an  investigation  by 
a  committee  of  the  State  Legislaturi^  a  reorganization  of  the 
police  department,  and  many  reforms.  He  has  published 
FormH  of  the  Latin  Verli  Iltustrittcil  liy  the  Sansk-.rit  (Bos- 
ton, 1870),  and  volumes  of  sermons  under  I  he  titles  The  Blind 
Man's  Creed  CSav/  York,  1883);  The  Pattern  in  the  Mount 
(1885);  and  Three  Gates  on  a  Side  (1891). 


Parkinson,  John,  known  by  the  fantastic  name  of  Para- 
(li'sus  in  So'Ie  (Park-in-sunj:  botanist;  b.  in  London  in 
1567  ;  was  apothecary  to  James  I.  and  botanicus  regius  pri- 
marius  to  Charles  I.  Author  of  Paradisus  Terrestris  (1()39- 
56)  and  Tlieatrum  Botanicum  (1640).  He  is  one  of  the  best 
of  the  old  herbalists,  and  is  commemorated  by  Plumier's 
genus  Parkitisonia,  order  Leguminosce.  The  year  of  his 
death  is  not  known. 

Parkinson-Fortescue,  Chichester  Samuel  :  statesman  ; 
b.  in  1833;  graduated  B.  A.  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  Uni- 
versity, in  1844;  was  elected  a  Liberal  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  the  county  of  Louth  in  1847;  was  a  Lord  of  the 
Treasury  1854-55 ;  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colo- 
nies 1857-58  and  1859-65;  was  made  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland  Nov.  20.  1865,  and  again  in  Dec,  1868,  having  been 
sworn  a  privy  councilor  in  1864.  In  Dec,  1868,  he  was  a 
member  of  Gladstone's  cabinet,  and  Jan.,  1871,  president  of 
the  Board  of  Trade.  He  was  created  Baron  C'arlingtord 
1874:  Lord  Privy  Seal  in  Gladstone's  cabinet  1881-85  ;  Lord 
President  of  the  Council  1883-85. 

Parkman,  Francis  :  historian ;  b.  at  Boston,  Mass..  Sept. 
16,  1833;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1844,  and  from 
the  Dane  Law  School  in  1846;  and  in  May,  1846,  set  out  on 
a  tour  in  the  far  West.  The  fruit  of  his  travels  was  The 
Oregon  Trail,  which  ajipeared  in  IVie  Knickerbocker  Maga- 
zine in  1847,  and  was  republished  in  book  form  in  1849.  His 
first  histoi'ical  work,  T/ie  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,  appeared 
in  1851.  This  was  followed  by  Vassall  Morton,  a  novel 
(1856),  published  at  a  time  when  the  author  was  suffering 
from  a  severe  chronic  disease,  which  jjostponed  further  lit- 
erary work  for  several  years.  His  principal  work  is  France 
and  England  in  North  America,  consisting  of  the  follow- 
ing parts:  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World  (1865); 
The  Jesuits  of  North  America  in  the  Seventeenth  Century 
(1867) :  La  Salle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great  West  (1869) ; 
The  Old  Regime  in  Canada  (1874) ;  Count  Frontenac  and 
New  France  under  Louis  XIV.  (1877);  Montcalm  and 
Wolfe  (1884) ;  and  A  Half  Century  of  Conflict  (1892).  The 
whole  work  is  one  of  immense  research,  perfect  candor,  and 
very  rare  ability.     D.  at  Boston,  Nov.  8,  1893. 

Revised  by  P.  M .  Colby. 

Parley,  Peter  :  See  Goodrich,  Samuel  Griswold. 

Parliament  [(with  spelling  adapted  to  Mediajv.  Lat.) 
from  0.  Fr.  parlement.  liter.,  a  speaking,  deriv.  of  parler, 
speak] :  a  deliberative  assembly  or  legislative  body.  The 
term  is  chiefly  restricted  to  the  legislatures  of  Great  Britain, 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  New  South  Wales,  and  other  Brit- 
ish self-governing  colonies.  The  constitution  of  the  colonial 
governments  is  treated  in  the  articles  on  the  various  colo- 
nies ;  only  the  British  Parliament  is  discussed  here.  The 
origin  of  parliamentary  government  in  England,  like  that 
of  many  other  British  institutions,  is  involved  in  much  ob- 
scurity. There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  that  alike  in 
Saxon  and  Norman  times  the  English  people  had  always 
some  share  in  making  the  laws  whereby  they  were  governed. 
The  Witenagemote  (or  assembly  of  the  wise)  of  the  Saxon 
period,  and  the  Parliament  (or  free-speaking  council),  which 
is  traceable  both  in  etymology  and  function  to  Norman  in- 
fluence, were  at  once  the  outgrowth  and  the  guardians  of 
popular  rights  and  liberties.  It  is  true  that  the  earlier 
councils  and  assemblies  have  left  no  record  of  their  pro- 
ceedings, and  probably  they  met  at  irregular  intervals,  being 
in  some  measure  dependent  on  the  caprice  or  necessities  of 
the  monarch.  The  taxes  and  crown  levies  could  only  be 
raised  through  the  sanction  of  the  people  themselves  ;  and  it 
is  one  of  the  oldest  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  imperishable 
traditions  of  British  government  that  there  ought  to  be  no 
taxation  without  representation.  Successive  sovereigns  after 
the  Conquest  (1066)  had  encroached  upon  popular  prerogative, 
until,  in  the  reign  of  King  John,  the  evil  culminated  in  practi- 
cal absolutism  on  the  part  of  the  crown.  The  result  was  a 
violent  recoil  and  a  resolute  demand  for  the  restoration  of 
baronial  and  popular  rights,  which  led  to  the  signing  of  the 
Great  Charter  (Magna  Charta,  q.  v.)  on  the  field  of  Runny- 
mcde  (1215).  The  Great  Charter  contained  no  new  idea 
touching  rights  and  liberties,  every  one  of  its  clauses  em- 
bodying an  English  tradition.  In  truth,  it  was  only  a  re- 
vival of  the  English  constitution;  and  the  provision  for 
calling  a  parliament  whenever  money  was  wanted  was  one 
of  the  first  principles  of  ancient  English  politics.  Little  is 
known  of  the  manner  in  wiiich  the  pledges  of  the  sovereign 
were  kept  for  half  a  century  after  the  signing  of  Magna 
Charta,  but  writs  are  still  extant  which  were  issued  in  the 


PARLIAMENT 


451 


rfign  of  Ilfiiry  III.  (1265)  summoning  the  knights,  citizens, 
and  burgesses  to  ninct  in  I'arliiiment.  Tlie  government  was 
even  more  denioeralie  during  the  Middle  Ages  tlian  it  suLj- 
sequently  became,  for  llie  nobles  and  commons  met  in  the 
same  cliamber.  debating  and  voting  promiscuously.  His- 
torians have  failed  to  discover  the  date  at  which  llie  legisla- 
ture was  separated  into  two  chambers,  but  the  present 
arrangement  was  in  force  during  the  fifteenth  century.  Nu- 
merous changes,  sometimes  violent  and  at  other  times  mild 
and  gradual,  have  been  made  in  the  machinery  of  British 
parliamentary  government,  but  certain  great  principles  have 
survived  all  these;  transmutations.  Parliament  can  best  be 
considered  under  three  heads:  (I.)  its  constituents,  (II.)  its 
powers,  and  (III.)  its  forms. 

I.  Of  what  does  Parliament  consist? — The  imnerial  Par- 
liament consists  of  the  monarch,  the  hjrds,  and  the  com- 
mons. The  three  estates  of  the  realm  are  the  lords  spiritual, 
the  lords  temporal,  and  the  commons.  The  sovereign  is  the 
executivt!  authority,  and  is  charged  with  tin'  duty  of  enforc- 
ing the  will  of  Pai-liament ;  but  in  the  matter  of  legislation 
the  sovereign  is  no  more  than  a  constituent  part  of  Parlia- 
ment, acting  in  conjunction  w'ith  the  three  estates  of  the 
realm.  In  ordinary  times  there  can  be  no  meeting  of  Par- 
liament unless  the  monarch  is  present  at  the  opening  of  it, 
either  in  person  or  by  commissioners.  We  say  "  in  ordi- 
nary times,"  for  there  have  been  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
The  t'onventiim  Parliament  which  restored  Charles  II. 
could  not,  in  the  nature  of  tilings,  satisfy  the  above  condi- 
tion, but  proceeded  to  do  a  supreme  parliamentary  act  with- 
out any  summons  or  sanction  from  the  sovereign.  Though 
Charles  held  himself  to  bo  king  de  jure  before  Parliament 
restored  him,  still  he  was  sagacious  enough  not  to  insist 
upon  his  sovereign  rights,  which  at  the  time  a  majority  of 
the  English  iH'o|)le  would  have  questioned.  The  self-con- 
stituted Parliament  sat  several  months  after  the  Ke.stora- 
tion,  and  enacted  laws  which  are  still  recognized  as  binding 
by  English  tribunals.  Lest,  however,  the  authority  of  this 
as.seinbly  should  be  questioned  by  the  judges,  an  act  was 
passed  after  the  return  of  Charles,  and  signed  by  that  mon- 
arch, confirming  all  that  it  had  done.  Such  a  precaution 
was  generally  held  by  lawyers  to  be  superfluous,  as  the  con- 
vention acted  ex  necessitate  rei.  Another  departure  from 
the  rule  laid  down  above  occurred  in  1688,  when  the  two 
houses  of  Parliament  met  on  the  summons  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange  and  proceetled  to  dispose  of  the  crown  itself ;  but 
the  events  of  that  period  constitute,  by  universal  consent,  a 
revolution.  At  the  same  time  it  is  worthy  of  observation 
that  even  in  disposing  of  the  crown  and  kingdom  by  revolu- 
tionary force  the  English  people  have  always  kept  as  close 
to  constitutional  tradition  as  circumstances  would  permit. 

The  House  of  Lords  in  1894  was  constituted  as  follows  : 

I  Lords  Spiritual. 

Archbishops  (Canterbury  and  York) 2 

English  bishops 24 

Lords  Temporal. 

Peers  of  the  blood  royal 6 

Dukes '. 23 

Mar<iuises 22 

Earls 120 

Viscounts 26 

Barons 310 

Scotch  representa'tive  peers 16 

Irish  representative  peers 28 

Total 576 

Pour  Irish  prelates  sat  in  the  House  of  Lords  until  1869, 
when,  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  for  disestablishing 
the  Irish  Church,  they  became  disqualified  to  sit.  The  last 
consecrated  of  the  twenty-five  diocesan  English  prelates,  pro- 
vided he  holds  one  of  the  inferior  sees,  has  no  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  tin;  saiiU!  disability  applies  to  sutTragan  and 
coadjutor  bishops.  A  bishoji  is  not  a  peer,  but  is  only  a 
lord  of  Parliament  in  virtue  of  holding  an  imaginary  barony 
under  the  t^ueen.  In  latter  days  there  has  been  a  steady 
diminution  in  the  number  of  nnirquises,  earls,  and  vi.s- 
counts,  but  more  than  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  barons.  The  creation  of  [)eerages  is  vested  unre- 
servedly in  the  crown,  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  House 
of  Lorils  consented  to  the  passing  of  the  Heform  Pill  in 
18:52  because  the  king  had  given  his  consent  to  the  creation 
of  as  nuiny  new  peers  as  would  have  served  to  o\itvote  the 
opponents'  of  the   bill.     All  peerages  are   hereditary,   the 


House  of  Lords  having  decided  that  a  life-peer  can  not,  as 
one  of  their  number,  discharge  any  legislative  ftinctions. 
The  question  was  raised  in  1858,  when  the  Queen  conferred 
on  Sir  James  Parke  a  peerage  "  for  and  during  the  term  of 
liis  natural  life,"  under  the  title  of  Baron  Wensleydale. 
Acting  on  the  report  of  a  committee,  the  House  of  Lords 
decided  that  it  was  not  competent  for  him  to  take  his  seat 
in  Parliaraent  with  such  a  patent  of  nobility.  The  Scottish 
representative  i)eers  are  elected  for  one  Parliament,  the  elec- 
tors being  those  Scottish  peers  whose  titles  are  older  than  the 
union  of  England  and  Scotland.  The  Irish  representative 
peers  sit  for  life,  and  are  elected  by  the  whole  body  of  Irish 
peers,  no  matter  from  what  period  their  titles  date.  The 
Queen  can  create  only  one  Irish  peerage  for  every  three 
which  become  extinct.'  As  there  is  a  feeling  that  an  Irish 
peer  who  is  not  a  lord  of  Parliament  is  a  ijolitical  anomaly, 
the  House  of  Lords  has  requested  her  Majesty  to  forego  her 
right  to  issue  patents  of  nobility  of  this  clas.s,  and  the  Queen 
has  signified  her  willingness  to  hold  in  abeyance  that  part 
of  her  prerogative.  Provision  was  made  in  1876  and  modi- 
fied in  1887  for  four  Lords  of  Appeal  to  be  appointed  for 
life  on  account  of  their  eminent  judicial  attainments,  and 
to  sit  in  judicial  cases  appealed  to  the  House  of  Lords. 

The  House  of  Commons  has  varied  much  in  number  of 
members.  Under  Edward  I.  there  were  two  representatives 
for  each  of  37  counties  and  166  boroughs,  and  under  the 
Stuarts  the  house  numbered  usually  about  500  members. 
The  Reform  Acts  of  1832  and  1867-68  made  extensive 
changes  in  the  constituencies,  the  latter  giving  England  and 
Wales  493  members,  Scotland  60.  and  Ireland  103.  By  the 
Reform  Act  of  1884  and  the  Redistribution  of  Seats  Act  of 
1885  the  total  number  was  raised  to  670,  as  follows  : 

England  and  Wales. 

Members  for  counties 2.53 

"    boroughs 237 

"  "    universities 5 — 495 

Scotland. 

Members  for  counties 39 

"  "   boroughs 31 

"  "    universities 2 —  72 

Ireland. 

Members  for  counties 85 

"          "    boroughs 16 

"          "    universities 2 — 103 

United  Kingdom.     Total 670 

Certain  persons  are  disqualified  to  become  members  of  Par- 
liament. Minors,  lunatics,  outlaws,  and  aliens  are  excluded  ; 
so  also  are  the  common-law  judges,  the  clergy  of  the  Estab- 
lished churches  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  Roman 
Catholic  priests  :  likewise  pensioners  under  the  crown  dur- 
ing pleasure  or  for  a  term  of  yi;ars,  contractors  with  Govern- 
ment, members  of  the  India  Council,  and  peers  of  Parlia- 
ment. By  the  act  of  1858  property  qualification  was  abol- 
ished. Prior  to  that  date  an  est'ato  of  .t'600  a  year  was 
requisite  in  England  and  Ireland  to  qualify  for  a  county, 
and  £300  a  year  for  a  borough,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
eldest  sons  of  peers  and  bishops.  In  Scotland  and  for  the 
universities  no  property  qualification  was  ever  necessary.  A 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons  can  not  resign  his  seat ; 
but  if  he  accept  any  office  of  profit  under  the  crown,  his  seat 
is  vacated  ipso  facto.  When  a  member  wishes  to  be  relieved 
from  parliamentary  duties,  he  accepts  the  stewardship  of 
the  CiiiLTERN  Hundreds  {g.  r.),  or  some  one  of  certain  other 
similar  sinecures.  Being,  however,  a  place  of  profit,  it  fur- 
nishes a  convenient  back-door  for  wearied  members  to  make 
their  escape  into  the  retirement  of  private  life.  Members 
of  the  House  of  Commons  are  now  elected  by  secret  ballot 
in  all  the  constituencies  of  the  United  Kingdom,  with  the 
exception  of  the  universities.  No  religious  test  whatsoever 
is  imposed  upon  members,  the  only  oatli  taken  by  them 
being  the  oath  of  allegiance.  Previous  to  1858,  Jews  were 
incapacitated  to  sit  on  account  of  the  oath  including  the 
words  "on  the  true  faith  of  a  Christian." 

II.  The  Powers  of  Parliament.— The  House  of  Lords  has 
two  functions,  the  legislative  and  the  judicial.  In  legisla- 
tion it  acts  in  concert  with  the  Queen  and  the  Commons,  the 
assent  of  all  three  being  necessary  to  give  validity  to  a  bill, 
wliieh  then  becomes  an  act  of  Parliament.  Practically,  the 
law  lords  alone  sit  in  a  judicial  capacity,  though  every  peer 
lias  a  legal  right  to  take  part  in  trying  appeals.     The  cnmi- 


452 


PARLIAMEXT 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW 


nal  cases  which  come  before  the  House  of  Lords  are  those 
in  wliic-h  a  person  is  impeached  by  the  Commons,  or  those 
in  which  a  true  bill  has  been  found  by  a  grand  jury  against 
a  peer  of  the  realm.  Peers  can  no  longer  rote  by  proxy  in 
any  case.  Every  peer,  when  dissatisfied  with  a  decision  of 
the  House,  has  a  right,  with  leave,  to  enter  a  protest  on  the 
journals.  When  sitting  in  his  judicial  capacity,  he  gives 
judgment  on  his  honor  and  not  on  his  oath;  but  when 
summoned  as  a  witness  in  any  cause,  he  must  be  sworn. 
All  bills  affecting  the  rights  and  privileges  of  peers  must 
originate  with  the  House  of  Lords,  and  they  may  not  be 
amended,  but  may  be  rejected  by  the  Commons.  The 
House  of  Commons  is  vested  with  the  right  of  imposing 
taxes  and  voting  money  for  tlie  public  service.  Until  1867 
the  Commons  decided  for  themselves  all  questions  touching 
the  election  of  members,  but  since  that  date  election  peti- 
tions are  tried  by  the  common-law  judges.  Both  branches 
of  the  legislature  have  certain  privileges  and  powers  for 
the  protection  of  their  own  dignity,  independence,  and 
honor.  At  the  beginning  of  every  Parliament  the  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons  claims  for  the  members,  in  pres- 
ence of  the  Queen  or  lier  commissioners,  freedom  of  speech 
and  that  the  best  construction  shall  be  placed  on  all  their 
words.  To  publish  the  debates  of  the  House  is  a  breach  of 
privilege,  but  this  rule  has  long  been  disregarded,  though 
peccant  publishers  may  still  be  summoned  to  the  bar  of  the 
House  to  answer  for  their  contumacy.  Strangers  are  admit- 
ted to  the  House,  but  are  not  "  seen  "  by  the  Speaker.  For 
a  long  time,  whenever  a  member  called  the  Speaker's  atten- 
tion to  the  presence  of  strangers  he  immediately  ordered 
the  sergeant-at-arms  to  clear  the  House.  During  one  ses- 
sion of  Parliament  strangers  were  thus  "  espied  "  in  the  gal- 
lery, the  Prince  of  Wales  being  one  of  the  number.  The 
Speaker's  attention  being  called  to  the  fact,  he  had  no  alter- 
native but  to  eject  all,  including  the  heir  to  the  throne.  The 
incident  led  to  a  modification  in  the  rules  of  procedure, 
and  the  law  now  is,  when  strangers  are  "seen."  a  vote  is 
taken  at  once,  without  debate,  whether  they  shall  be  or- 
dered to  withdraw  or  not.  Ladies  are  not  admitted  within 
the  House,  but  a  clumsy  evasion  of  this  rule  is  effected  by 
permitting  them  to  sit  in  a  gallery  behind  a  grating,  whence 
they  can  see  and  hear  without  being  seen  themselves.  These 
regulations,  however,  are  of  small  account  when  compared 
with  the  vast  prerogatives  which  Parliament  claims  as  a 
legislature  and  as  the  grand  inquest  of  the  nation.  It 
makes  and  unmakes  laws,  and  is,  in  fact,  superior  to  all  hu- 
man law ;  for  in  the  constitution  of  the  United  Kingdom 
despotic  power  lies  in  Parliament,  there  being  no  remedy 
for  that  which  Parliament  does  wrong  except  in  the  same 
or  another  Parliament,  summoned  by  the  crown  and  elected 
by  the  people.  Any  grievance  which  defies  the  ordinary 
remedies  of  law  can  be  redressed  by  Parliament.  It  can 
determine  the  succession  to  the  throne,  and  has  done  it. 
It  can  alter  the  established  religion  of  the  country,  and  can 
abolish  an  established  Church  altogether,  as  it  has  done  in  the 
case  of  Ireland.  It  can  amend  its  own  constitution,  and 
can  say  how  long  a  Parliament  shall  last.  At  present  mem- 
bers are  elected  for  seven  years,  but  there  was  a  time  when 
each  Parliament  lasted  oidy  three  years.  It  was  a  saying  of 
Cecil  that  "  England  could  only  be  ruined  by  a  Parliament." 
That  ruin  could  be  brought  about  if  it  violated  the  funda- 
mental maxims  of  its  own  constitution.  One  of  these  is 
that  the  people,  whom  it  professes  to  represent,  can  be  taxed 
only  with  their  own  consent.  By  attempting  to  defy  this 
maxim  in  the  case  of  the  American  colonies  in  the  reign  of 
George  HI.  a  rupture  of  the  empire  was  brought  about,  and 
English  colonies  bec^ame  independent  commonwealths. 

111.  7'lif.  Forms  of  Parliament. — Parliament  assembles 
on  the  summons  of  the  sovereign  ;  and  although  the  law 
provides  that  not  more  than  an  interval  of  three  years 
shall  elapse  from  the  dissolution  of  one  Parliament  to  the 
assembling  of  the  next,  the  practice  of  voting  money  for  the 
public  service  annually  has  rendered  this  statute  superflu- 
ous, as  the  Government  could  not  be  carried  on  without  an 
annual  meeting  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Should  the 
sovereign  ilie  between  tlie  dissolution  of  a  Parliament  and 
the  i-ssuing  of  writs  tor  u  new  election,  the  old  Parliament 
revives,  and  may  continue  to  sit  for  a  period  not  exceeding 
six  months.  At  the  beginning  of  each  session  the  Queen 
states  her  reasons  for  convening  the  Lords  and  Commons, 
and  gives  an  outline  of  the  legislation  contemplated  by  her 
ministers.  This  statement  is  known  as  "  the  speech  "from 
the  throne,"  and  is  either  delivered  personally  or  by  com- 
missioners.    Adjournment  is  decided  by  each  House  for  it- 


self, but  prorogation  and  dissolution  are  the  sole  acts  of  the 
sovereign.  Prior  to  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary  the 
sovereign  determined  the  duration  of  a  Parliament.  By  the 
triennial  act  (William  and  Mary)  the  duration  was  limited 
to  three  years,  and  by  the  septennial  act  (George  I.),  still  in 
force,  a  Parliament  expires  at  the  end  of  seven  years.  The 
sovereign,  however,  usually  puts  an  end  to  it  by  dissolution, 
and  does  not  allow  it  to  expire  by  efflux  of  time.  When 
the  estimates  are  laid  before  the  House  of  Commons,  a 
member  may  move  and  carry  the  reduction  of  a  vote  but  no 
additional  grant  of  public  money  can  be  made  without  a 
recommendation  from  the  Queen.  A  member  of  either 
House  can  not  be  questioned  outside  of  Parliament  for  any- 
tliing  he  has  said  in  his  place ;  but  if  he  afterward  publish 
his  speech,  he  is  liable  to  an  action  for  libelous  imputa- 
tions, and  is  not  protected  by  the  privilege  of  his  position 
as  a  member  of  Parliament.  The  persons  of  members  are 
free  from  arrest  in  civil  causes,  but  they  may  be  adjudged 
bankrupts,  and  their  goods  are  liable  to  distress  on  legal 
process,  like  those  of  private  citizens.  Every  bill  before  it 
becomes  an  act  must  be  read  three  times  in  each  House,  and 
also  be  reviewed  clause  by  clause  in  a  committee  of  the 
whole  House  or  by  a  select  committee.  When  a  bill  has 
passed  both  Houses,  the  sovereign's  assent  is  given,  usually 
by  commission,  the  Commons  being  summoned  to  the  bar  of 
the  House  of  Lords,  with  the  Speaker  at  their  head,  to  hear 
the  announcement  of  the  Queen's  will.  In  the  case  of  a 
public  bill,  the  clerk  of  the  Parliament  reads  its  title  and 
pronounces  these  words :  "  La  reigne  le  vaiif."  When  it  is 
a  private  bill,  the  words  are,  "  Soit  fait  comme  il  est  desire." 
There  are  numerous  forms  and  details  touching  the  election 
of  Speaker,  mode  of  addressing  the  House,  putting  the  ques- 
tion in  the  two  Houses  respectively,  divisions,  presenting  of 
petitions,  right  of  putting  questions  to  cabinet  ministers, 
conferences  of  the  two  Houses,  powers  of  committees,  and 
various  other  mattei-s  of  procedure,  of  which  the  reader  will 
find  ample  information  in  the  works  enumerated  below. 
The  power  of  the  House  of  Commons  has  steadily  increased 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  and  in  any  serious  conflict 
between  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament  the  Lords  invariably 
deem  it  prudent  to  give  way.  The  House  of  Lords  fre- 
quently rejects  bills  which  have  passed  the  Commons,  such 
as  the  burial  bills,  the  nuirriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sis- 
ter liill,  and  the  Home  Rule  Bill  of  1893,  but  in  no  case 
does  tlie  uppei- chamber  reject  a  measure  which  has  obtained 
the  unmistakable  approval  of  the  nation  at  a  general  elec- 
tion. The  will  of  the  people  is  paramount,  in  the  long  run, 
in  all  the  departments  of  British  legislation,  and  the  friends 
of  freedom  desire  that  it  should  remain  so  for  the  future. 
The  House  of  Lords  acts  as  a  conservative  element  of  great 
power  to  prevent  precipitate  or  imperfectly  considered  ac- 
tion :  but.  if  the  opinion  of  the  people  is  clearly  expressed, 
that  opinion  at  once  is  decisive. 

Literature. — The  following  works  are  recommended  to 
the  reader  as  books  of  reference:  Rules,  Orders,  and  Forms 
of  Proceeding  of  the  House  of  Commons  relating  to  Public 
Business  {,1874) ;  History  of  the  House  o/ Cohohoms.  by  W. 
C.  Townsend  (3  vols.) ;  How  We  are  Governed,  by  A.  Fon- 
blanque;  Constitutional  History  of  England,  by  Henry 
Hallam ;  A  Treatise  upon  the  Lau\  PriviU-ges.  Proceedings, 
and  Usage  of  Parliament,  by  Sir  Thomas  Erskine  May ; 
Essay  on  the  Practice  of  the  British  Government,  by  G.  F. 
Leckie  ;  Essay  on  British  Government,  by  Francis  Jeffrey ; 
History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  by  Sharon  Turner ;  The  Eng- 
lish Constitution,  by  J.  L.  de  Lolme.  William  Stubbs,  and 
Thomas  Erskine  May.  Of  recent  authorities  the  most  im- 
portant are  Creasy,  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English  Con- 
stitution ;  Bagehot,  English  Constitution  :  Todd,  Parlia- 
mentary Government  in  England;  Taswell-Langmead,  Eng- 
lish Constitutional  History;  Hearn,  Government  of  Eng- 
land ;  Cox,  Institutions  of  the  English  Government ;  Ewald, 
TTie  Crown  and  its  Advisers;  Palgi'ave,  The  House  of  Com- 
mons; and  Gneist's  English  Parliament. 

Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

ParliaiiiPiitary  Law:  the  law  governing  the  proceed- 
ings of  deliberative  assemblies.  Among  English-speaking 
people  it  is  derived  from  the  practice  of  the  English  Parlia- 
ment, which  gradually  solved  the  problem  of  how  to  con- 
duct its  proceedings  so  as  to  obtain  the  deliberate  sense  of 
the  assembly  with  the  least  restraint  and  inconvenience  to 
individual  members — the  object  of  all  )iarliamentary  rules. 
In  the  V.  S.  the  old  English  parliameMtary  law  lias  been 
gradually  modified  in  practice,  so  as  to  be  better  adapted  to 


rAKlJAMEXTARV    LAW 


453 


the  people.  New  motions  have  been  introduced  and  others 
so  cnanj,'ed  as  to  preserve  only  their  old  name;  lliiis  to  re- 
consider is  purely  a  new  motion  designed  to  c;ountera<-t  par- 
tially the  evil  incident  to  hasty  aelioii ;  while  the  previous 
question  has  so  completely  changed  that  in  the  U.  S.  it  is 
demanded  by  those  who  intend  to  vote  for  it,  while  in  Great 
Uritain  it  is  demanded  by  those  who  vote  against  it.  As  a 
result  of  this  growth  of  parliamentary  law  there  is  a  certain 
amountof  confusion,  the  growth  being  more  rapid  in  certain 
sections  than  in  others.  Thus  in  certain  parts  of  the  U.  S. 
many  still  hold  to  the  ruling  that  ordering  the  previous 
question  cuts  off  pending  amendments  and  brings  the  as- 
sembly to  an  immediate  vote  on  the  pending  resolution. 
This  was  once  sound  parliamentary  hiw,  but  has  h)ng  ceased 
to  be,  the  previous  (|uestion  in  the  U.  S.  being  now  nu-rely  a 
motion  to  stop  debate  and  proceed  to  vote  on  the  pending 
question,  even  though  it  be  an  amendment.  The  practice 
is  not  the  same  even  in  the  two  houses  of  Congress,  mot  ions 
being  allowed  in  one  that  are  prohibited  in  the  other,  and 
the  order  of  precedence  of  other  motions  being  different .  To 
avoid  confusion,  every  deliberative  assembly  should  adcjpt 
some  published  work  as  its  authority  on  all  points  of  jiarlia- 
mentary  law  not  covered  by  its  own  special  rules.  It  will 
generally  be  found  best  to  supplement  the  adojited  authority 
by  some  rules  adapted  to  meet  the  special  wants  of  each 
separate  organization.  A  large  (lolitical  convention,  a  small 
debating  society,  and  a  city  council  would  need  different 
rules  to  sui)plement  the  ordinary  parliamentary  law.  If 
the  U.  S.  House  of  Heprcsentatives  had  continued  to  be  es- 
sentially a  deliberative  assembly,  like  the  English  House  of 
Commons,  with  its  presiding  officer  alistaining  from  parti- 
sanship, so  as  to  retain  the  chair  notwithstanding  tlie  change 
in  the  party  in  power,  then  the  practice  of  Congress  would 
determine  the  parliamentary  law  of  the  republic  in  all  mat- 
ters common  to  all  deliberative  bodies;  but  the  lower  house 
of  Congress  has  almost  cesised  to  be  a  deliberative  assembly, 
placing  in  the  diair  the  leader  of  the  majority,  and  allowing 
him  to  appoint  some  sixty  committees  to  whom  are  referred, 
without  reading,  the  bills  that  are  presented.  Practically, 
legislation  is  done  by  committees,  Congress,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, merely  formally  adopting,  without  any  real  delib- 
eration, what  the  committees  recommend.  As  a  general 
rule,  however,  parliamentary  law  in  the  U.  S.  is  based  upon 
the  rules  and  practice  of  Congress,  except  where  they  are 
evidently  not  adapted  to  a  Ao«a_/;(/e  deliberative  assembly, 
when  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  old  common  parliament- 
ary law  and  the  best  jiractice  of  the  numerous  deliberative 
assemblies  throughout  the  country.  A  careful  examination 
of  the  following  outline  of  parliamentary  law  as  practiced 
in  the  U.  S.  will  show  that  such  law  is  not  arbitrary,  but  is 
based  upon  well-defined  principles,  from  which  it  varies  only 
for  good  reasons. 

Officers. — The  necessary  officers  of  a  deliberative  assend)ly 
are  a  presiding  officer  or  chairman  (variously  called  presi- 
dent, speaker,  moderator,  etc.),  and  a  recording  officer,  usu- 
ally known  a.s  secretary  or  clerk.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  chair- 
man to  call  the  assembly  to  order ;  preside  over  the  meetings ; 
state  every  question  coming  properly  before  the  assembly 
previous  to  recognizing  a  member  to  speak  or  make  another 
motion ;  put  to  vote  tlie  questions  before  the  assembly  in 
their  proper  order ;  announce  the  business  before  the  assem- 
bly in  its  order;  enforce  the  rules;  preserve  order  and  de- 
corum in  the  nu'eting;  and  decide  all  (piestions  of  order  and 
practice,  subject  to  an  ai)pea!  liy  any  two  mendiers.  The 
chairman  should  rarely  participate  in  the  debate,  as  it 
diminishes  the  conlidence  of  the  assembly  in  his  impartial- 
ity. He  can  vote  whenever  his  vote  would  affect  the  result 
and  whenever  tlie  vote  is  by  ballot.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
secretary  to  keep  a  record  of  the  proceedings  of  the  assem- 
V)ly,  the  extent  of  whicOi  record  depends  ujion  circumstances, 
but  it  should  always  include  every  resolution  adopted,  and 
the  nanu's  of  every  member  of  every  committee  appointed. 
The  official  records  and  other  documents  of  the  assendily 
are  in  the  custody  of  the  secretary,  but  they  are  open  to  in- 
si>ection  by  members,  and  the  chairman  nuiy  even  direct 
certain  ones  to  be  turned  over  to  a  committee  that  needs 
them.  The  record  of  the  proceedings,  which  is  also  known 
as  the  minutes  of  the  meeting,  should  always  be  signed  by 
the  secwtary,  or,  in  his  al)scnce,  by  the  .secretary  cro  fern. 

The  liesolutiim  or  Motion. — IJusiness  is  usually  lirought 
before  the  assembly  originally  in  the  form  of  a  resolution 
which  is  offered  by  a  member,  who  moves  its  adopt  itm,  or 
that  it  be  agreeil  to.  The  question  on  its  adoption  is  called 
the  main  or  priruipal  question.    A  resolution  should  always 


begin  with  the  words  "Resolved,  That."  When  it  is  de- 
sired to  give  a  reason  for  the  resolution  this  rea.son  should 
be  placed  in  a  paragraph  jireceding  the  resolution,  called 
the  preamble,  which  should  begin  with  "  Whereas"  and  end 
with '-therefore."  or  "therefore,  be  it."  The  preamble,  as 
well  as  the  resolution  proper,  is  included  in  the  term  reso- 
lution. Where  a  resolution  can  not  be  well  expressed  in  one 
sentence,  each  sentence  should  be  placed  in  a  separate  para- 
graph Ywgmnin^-' Resolved,  That, '  or  the  paragrai)lis  after 
the  first  may  begin  thus:  "1.  That,"  "  2.  That."  In  order 
to  offer  a  resolution  it  is  necessarv  for  the  member  to  rise 
in  his  place  and  address  the  presiding  officer  by  liis  proper 
title,  preceded  by  Mr.,  if  a  man.  and  ftladanu-,  Jlrs.,  or  Miss, 
if  a  woman.  Tlie  chairman  then  recognizes  him,  prefer- 
ably by  announcing  his  name,  but  commonly  by  merely 
bowing'  to  him  ;  in  h^gislative  bodies  a  member  is  recognized 
or  referred  to  as  the  member  from  such  and  such  a  dis- 
trict. No  member  is  entitled  to  make  a  motion  or  speak 
until  recognized.  It  iseuslomary  to  require  important  mo- 
tions to  be  seconded  in  order  to  prevent  wasting  the  time 
of  the  assembly  on  questions  favored  by  only  oiiit  member. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  obtain  the  floor  for  this  purpose,  but 
any  member  in  his  seat  can  say,  "  I  second  the  motion." 
In  Congress  such  seconds  are  not  required.  The  chair  now 
clearly  states  the  question  before  the  assembly,  after  which 
he  recognizes  the  mover  of  the  motion  as  having  the  floor, 
if  he  claims  it,  and  otherwise  the  member  who  first  rises  and 
addresses  the  chair. 

Precedence. — During  the  consideration  of  a  (picstion  it  is 
not  in  order  to  introduce  any  other  principal  question,  but 
it  is  allowable  to  nuike  other  motions  that  will  aid  in  dispos- 
ing of  the  main  question,  or  that  arise  incidentally  <luring 
the  proceedings,  or  that  relate  to  the  enforcement  of  the 
rules,  or  to  the  privileges  of  the  assembly  or  its  members, 
or  to  closing  the  meeting,  or  to  the  time  of  the  next  meet- 
ing. The  most  common  of  these  have  the  following  order 
of  precedence,  any  one  being  in  order  (except  to  amend) 
when  one  of  lower  rank  is  pending,  and  every  one  being 
out  of  order  when  one  of  higher  rank  is  pending :  To  fix  the 
time  to  which  to  adjourn,  adjourn,  orders  of  the  day.  lay 
on  the  table,  previous  question,  postpone  to  a  certain  time, 
commit  or  refer,  amend,  and  postpone  indefinitely.  Ques- 
tions incidental  to  those  before  the  assembly  take  precedence 
and  must  be  decided  first. 

Debate. — Every  motion  is  debatable,  except  such  as  from 
their  nature  or  privilege  can  not  be  debated  without  injury  to 
the  business  before  the  assembly.  Debate  can  not  be  allowed 
on  highly  privileged  motions,  as  to  adjourn,  or  they  could  be 
used  to  prevent  the  assembly  from  transacting  any  busi- 
ness. A  motion  to  close  debate  must  necessarily  be  unde- 
batable.  or  its  very  object  could  be  defeated.  'I'he  follow- 
ing motions  can  not  be  debated  :  Fix  the  time  to  which  to 
adjourn  ;  adjourn  ;  for  the  orders  of  the  day  and  questions 
relating  to  priority  of  business ;  appeal  when  previous  ques- 
tion is  pending  or  when  relating  to  indecorum  or  to  trans- 
gression of  rules  of  speaking  or  to  priorit  y  of  business ;  ob- 
jection to  consideration  of  question;  lay  on  the  table  or 
take  from  the  table  ;  previous  question,  and  all  motions  ex- 
tending, limiting,  or  closing  deljatc  or  allowing  one  to  c(m- 
tinue  speaking  after  being  guilty  of  indecorum  in  deliate; 
reconsider  an"  undeliatable  question;  question  relating  to 
suspending  the  rules,  withdrawing  a  motion,  or  reading 
papers.  Debate  must  be  confined  to  the  one  question  before 
the  assembly  at  the  time,  other  questions  being  discussed 
only  so  far  as  they  have  a  bearing  on  the  ipiestion  immedi- 
ately before  the  assembly,  except  that  when  the  decision  of 
the  pending  questicm  finally  disposes  of  the  main  question, 
then  the  latter  is  open  to  deliate  also.  Thus  the  motion  to 
postpone  indefinitely,  having  the  effect  of  rejecting  the 
question,  if  carried,  oiicns  to  debate  the  merits  of  the  ques- 
tion it  is  proposed  to  [lostpone;  but  the  motion  to  postpone 
to  a  certain  time,  if  carried,  does  not  finally  dispose  of  the 
miestion,  and  therefore  debate  is  limited  to  the  propriety  of 
the  postponement.  The  common  parliamentary  law.  and 
the  rules  of  Congress  till  (|uile  recently,  made  one  excep- 
tion to  this  principle,  by  making  the  motion  to  refer  to  a 
committee  open  the  main  ipiestion  to  debate,  evidently  on 
the  ground  that  the  discussion  would  aid  the  committee  in 
understanding  the  views  of  the  assembly.  Under  the 
House  rules,  however,  it  is  rare  that  there  is  a  motion  or 
vote  on  referring  anything  to  a  committee,  the  reference 
being  made  by  the  chair  without  a  vole  as  provided  for  by 
the  rules,  or  as  requested  by  the  member  introducing  it ;  if 
a  motion  to  refer  is  made  it  is  now  very  properly  undebat- 


454 


PARLIAMENTARY   LAW 


able.  The  comiiion  parliamentary  law  rule  is  better  adapted 
to  ordinary  deliberative  assemblies,  for,  if  the  motion  to 
refer  were  undebatable,  it  would  enable  a  bare  majority  im- 
mediately to  suppress  a  question  without  debate  by  moving 
to  refer  "it  to  an  unfriendly  committee.  A  motion  to  re- 
consider a  debatable  question  or  to  rescind  a  vote  opens  for 
discussion  the  merits  of  the  main  question. 

Debate  can  be  closed  or  its  limits  diminished  or  increased 
by  a  two-thirds  vote.  The  motions  for  tUese  purposes  are 
as  follows:  (o)  The  previous  question,  which  cuts  off  debate 
and  brings  the  assembly  at  once  to  a  vote  on  the  pending 
question,  which,  in  case  of  the  motions  to  commit  or  to 
amend,  includes  the  question  to  be  committed  or  amended, 
unless  it  is  demanded  simply  on  the  motion  to  commit,  or 
on  the  amendment,  or  on  an  amendment  to  the  amendment; 
(ft)  a  motion  limiting  deljate  as  to  the  number  and  length  of 
speeches,  or  specifying  the  time  at  whicli  debate  upon  the 
question  shall  close ;  (<•)  a  motion  extending  these  limits 
in  general  or  for  a  single  speaker.  Any  of  these  motions 
may  be  applied  to  a  single  amendment,  and,  after  it  is  voted 
on,"  the  main  question  is  still  open  for  amendment  and 
debate. 

Amendments. — The  assembly  can  modify  the  main  ques- 
tion by  adopting  amendments,  or  it  may  be  referred  to  a 
committee  who  can  report  amendments  for  adoption  by  the 
assembly.  An  amendment  may  be  by  adding  or  inserting,  by 
striking  out,  by  striking  out  and  inserting,  by  substituting, 
or  by  dividing  the  question.  An  amendment  may  itself  be 
amended,  but  not  so  as  to  alter  its  form,  nor  can  any  par- 
liamentary motion  be  amended  so  as  to  become  a  motion  of 
another  form.  Thus  a  motion  to  strike  out  can  not  be 
amended  so  as  to  become  a  motion  to  strike  out  and  insert, 
nor  can  to  postpone  to  a  certain  time  be  amended  so  as  to 
become  a  motion  to  postpone  indefinitely.  An  amendment 
of  an  amendment  can  not  be  amended.  While  an  amend- 
ment is  pending  it  is  not  in  order  to  make  another  motion 
to  ameud  the  resolution,  but  after  one  amendment  is  dis- 
posed of  another  can  be  offered  and  so  on  without  limit.  In 
legislative  bodies  it  is  found  best  in  addition  to  an  amend- 
ment of  the  second  order  to  permit  an  amendment  in  the 
nature  of  a  substitute  and  one  amendment  to  the  latter,  all 
to  be  pending  at  the  same  time.  While  this  is  useful  in 
legislative  and  analogous  bodies,  it  would  merely  produce 
confusion  in  ordinary  deliberative  assemblies.  The  follow- 
ing motions  can  not  be  amended  :  Adjourn  (when  unquali- 
fied), for  the  orders  of  the  day,  all  incidental  questions, 
lay  on  the  table,  the  previous  question,  an  amendment  of 
an  amendment,  postpone  indefinitely,  and  reconsider. 

PostpoHing  and  Suppressing  Questions. — Action  upon  a 
question  may  be  deferred  by  postponing  it  to  a  certain 
time  :  or,  if  it  is  intended  to  reserve  the  power  to  take  it  up 
at  any  time,  it  should  be  laid  on  the  table ;  or,  if  it  is  de- 
sired to  set  apart  a  particular  time  when  it  shall  have  spe- 
cial right  of  way,  it  should  be  made  a  special  order  for  a 
certain  time,  whicli  motion  requires  a  two-thirds  vote  for  its 
adoption.  The  assembly  may  suppress  the  question  as  fol- 
lows :  (a)  When  first  introduced,  before  debate  or  action 
thereon,  any  member  may,  even  while  the  mover  has  the 
floor,  object  to  the  introduction  of  the  question,  and  if  the 
objection  is  sustained  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  the  question  is 
dismissed  for  that  .session,  thus  enabling  the  assembly  to 
avoid  having  its  time  taken  up  with  irrelevant  or  profitless 
questions.  (6)  After  tlie  question  has  been  debated,  the 
proper  way  to  suppress  the  question  is  to  vote  it  down  or  post- 
pone it  indefinitely,  which  has  the  same  effect,  except  that 
if  it  fails  the  original  question  is  not  adopted  as  it  would 
have  been  had  the  vote  been  taken  on  adopting  tlie  main 
question.  Since  to  postpone  indefinitely  opens  the  main 
question  to  debate,  when  this  motion  is  made  with  a  view  to 
suppressing  the  question  immediately,  it  is  necessary  also  to 
demand  the  previous  question,  just  as  it  is  when  it  is  desired 
to  bring  tlie  assemVily  to  an  immediate  vote  on  the  main 
question.  (<•)  While  tlie  fundamental  principles  of  parlia- 
mentary law  require  a  two-thirds  vote  to  suppress  the  ques- 
tion without  free  debate,  yet  in  most  cases  it  can  be  prac- 
.  tically  accomplished  by  a  majority  vote  on  the  motion  to  lay 
the  question  on  the  taiile.  In  tlie  U.  S.  Congress,  where  the 
calendar  is  so  full  and  party  lines  strictly  drawn,  the  most 
common  metliod  of  killing  a  question  is  to  lay  it  on  the 
table.  In  voluntary  organizations,  where  mutual  good  feel- 
ing and  co-operation  are  desired,  questions  should  not  be 
suppressed  without  di-bate  unless  by  a  two-thirds  vote,  as 
described  above,  and  the  motion  to  lay  on  the  table  should 
be  confined  to  its  stric't  parliamentary  use  of  laying  iiside  a 


question  to  be  taken  up  at  a  more  convenient  time.  Where 
it  is  desired  to  kill  simply  an  amendment,  it  will  not  do  to 
lay  it  on  the  table,  as  this  carries  with  it  the  resolution  also. 

Reconsideration. — To  protect  the  assembly  from  liaving 
questions  reintroduced  repeatedly  at  the  same  session,  and 
yet  to  give  reasonable  freedom  for  correcting  errors  due  to 
hasty  action,  parliamentary  law  in  the  U.  S.  provides  that 
no  principal  question  (resolution  or  report)  or  amendment 
that  lias  been  once  acted  upon  shall  be  again  taken  up  at 
that  session  except  by  a  motion  to  reconsider  or  rescind  ; 
but  the  motion  to  adjourn  can  be  renewed  if  there  has  been 
progress  in  debate  or  any  business  transacted,  and,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  privileged,  incidental,  or  subsidiary  motions  (ex- 
cepting to  suspend  the  rules  for  the  same  purpose,  and  for 
the  orders  of  the  day  while  the  same  principal  question  is 
pending)  can  be  renewed  if  a  motion  has  been  made  tliat 
alters  the  state  of  affairs.  On  the  day  a  vote  is  taken,  or  on 
the  next  day  if  a  meeting  is  held  then,  a  member  who  voted 
on  the  prevailing  side  can  move  to  reconsider  the  vote,  and 
this  motion  can  be  made  when  any  other  question  is  be- 
fore the  assembly,  or  even  when  another  member  has  the 
floor;  but  in  such  case  it  is  only  entered  on  tlie  record  to  be 
called  up  afterward,  as  it  can  not  interrupt  }iendiiig  busi- 
ness. After  the  motion  has  been  made  all  action  under  the 
resolution  is  suspended  until  the  reconsideration  is  disposed 
of.  If  the  mover  does  not  call  up  the  motion  within  the 
time  allowed  for  making  it,  then  any  one  can  call  it  up  and 
have  a  vote  taken.  If  the  motion  to  reconsider  is  carried 
the  question  is  in  the  same  condition  as  immediately  before 
the  vote  was  taken,  and  therefore  must  l>e  disposed  of  in  the 
same  way.  Where  the  assembly  regrets  action  that  it  has 
taken  and  it  is  too  late  to  reconsider  the  vote,  the  proper  way 
is  to  rescind  the  objectionable  vote,  which  a  majority  can  do. 

Adoption  of  Motions. — A  majority  of  the  votes  cast  when 
a  quorum  is  present  is  all  that  is  necessary,  in  the  absence 
of  a  special  rule  to  the  contrary,  for  the  adoption  of  any 
motion  (except  those  stated  below)  that  does  not  suspend  or 
change  any  rule  or  custom  of  deliberative  bodies  or  of  the 
assembly.  A  quorum,  or  the  number  that  must  be  present 
in  order  that  business  maybe  transacted,  is  a  majority  of  all 
the  members  of  the  organization  where  there  is  no  number 
specified  by  rule,  which  should  always  be  done.  It  is  some- 
times less  than  1  per  cent,  of  the  members,  as  in  the  Brit- 
ish House  of  Lords,  where  it  is  3  out  of  about  450  mem- 
bers. The  following  motions  come  under  the  above  ex- 
ception, and  require  a  two-thirds  vote  for  their  adoption  : 
To  amend  or  suspend  the  rules  ;  to  make  a  special  order  or 
take  up  a  question  out  of  its  proper  order  :  to  object  to  the 
consideration  of  a  question  ;  to  close  or  limit  or  extend  the 
limits  of  debate  ;  and  the  previous  question.  The  right  to 
introduce  questions  germane  to  the  objects  of  the  assembly, 
and  discuss  them  before  their  final  disposition,  is  inherent 
to  the  fundamental  idea  of  a  deliberative  assembly  :  but  these 
rights,  like  that  of  having  the  rules  enforced,  must  yield  to 
the  convenience  of  an  overwhelming  majority.  A  two- 
thirds  vote  can  not.  however,  suspend  any  article  of  the 
constitution  or  by-laws  (unless  they  provide  for  such  sus- 
pension of  a  specified  by-law),  nor  can  it  suspend  any  right 
or  privilege  given  to  less  than  one-third  of  the  members 
present,  as  otherwise  the  privilege  would  be  of  little  value. 

Committees. — If  an  assemblage  is  large,  or  even  when 
small,  if  it  has  much  business  to  transact,  its  work  can 
be  greatly  expedited  by  having  all  questions  fir.st  considered 
by  committees,  which  may  be  standing  (appointed  for  a 
term,  as  a  year  or  session),  or  select  (one  for  a  special  pur- 
pose), or  committee  of  the  whole  (i.  e.  the  whole  assembly). 
The  first  member  named  on  a  standing  or  select  committee, 
and  in  his  absence  the  next,  should  act  as  chairman,  unless 
the  committee  elect  some  one  else,  which  it  can  do,  if  the 
chairman  has  not  been  appointed  by  the  assembly.  If  the 
committee  is  one  for  action,  it  should  be  small  and  contain 
only  friends  of  the  object  for  which  it  was  appointed  :  if  for 
deliberation  or  investigation,  it  should  be  larger,  and  all 
sides  should  be  fairly  represented.  In  committee  the  chair- 
man usually  takes  the  most  active  part,  members  do  not  rise 
to  speak,  motions  are  not  seconded,  and  in  small  committees 
they  arc  not  always  made,  but  they  should  be  voted  upon ; 
the  chairman  usually  votes.  A  paper  referred  to  a  commit- 
tee must  be  returned  to  the  assembly  intact,  its"  amend- 
ments being  written  on  another  sheet.  In  such  case  the 
only  report  of  the  committee  is  a  verbal  one  that  the  com- 
mittee has  instructed  the  members  to  submit  certain  amend- 
ments and  move  their  adoption.  The  member  who  submits 
a  written  rejiort  from  a  committee  should  always  move  its 


I 'A  It  MA 


PARNAIIYHA 


455 


adoption.  If  the  report  is  adopted,  or  nceepted,  or  agreed 
to,  the  opinions  and  doings  of  the  committee  become  the 
opinions  and  doings  of  the  iisseml)ly.  If  the  committee 
wishes  action  talcen,  it  shouUl  close  its  report  witli  recum- 
niending  tlie  adoption  of  certain  resohitions,  which  slioidd 
either  accompany  or  form  a  |)art  of  the  report.  In  the  hitter 
case  the  adopticm  of  the  re|)ort  carries  thi'  resohition  witli  it  ; 
in  the  former,  instead  of  a  motion  to  adopt  tlie  report,  one 
is  made  to  adopt  the  resolutions,  and  no  furtlier  action  is 
taken  on  the  report.  The  committee  is  discharged  without 
any  formal  vote  when  it  has  completed  its  work.  When 
the  assembly  desires  to  consider  a  question  with  all  the 
freedom  of  a  committee,  it  resolves  itself  into  a  committee 
of  the  whole,  to  consider  the  particular  question.  The  chair- 
man calls  some  mend)er  to  the  chair,  takes  his  place  as  a 
member  of  the  committee,  and  the  a.sseud)ly  proceeds  to  dis- 
cuss and  amend  the  resolution  or  matter  before  it.  Every 
member  can  speak  as  many  times  !is  he  can  obtain  the  Ihjor. 
No  motions  are  in  onler  except  to  amend  and  to  adopt,  and 
to  rise  and  report,  which  is  used  instead  of  to  adjourn. 
When  the  committee  has  ri.sen  and  the  presiding  officer  has 
resumed  the  chair,  the  chairman  of  the  committee  reports  to 
the  assembly  as  instructed  by  the  committee.  The  assembly 
then  acts  upon  this  report  as  in  the  case  of  the  report  of 
any  other  committee.  Heney  M.  Robert. 

Par'ma :  town,  in  the  province  of  Purma,  Italy;  on  the 
river  Parma;  about  12  miles  S.  of  the  Po  and  79  miles 
S.  K.  Iiy  rail  of  Milan  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-C').  The 
town  is  circular  in  form,  is  surrouniled  by  ramparts  and 
bastions,  and  has  a  citadel  built  in  lo!)!.  The  Via  Emilia 
crosses  it  from  E.  to  W.  The  streets  are  broad  and  in 
good  condition,  the  squares  large,  and  there  is  a  public 
promenade  near  the  citadel  on  the  south  side  of  the  town, 
and  a  j)ublie  park  in  the  northwest  angle.  Among  the 
j)ublic  buildings  is  the  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption  (Ro- 
man Byzantine,  begim  in  1060  and  consecrated  by  Paschal 
II.,  1106),  which  contains,  amcmg  other  superior  works  of 
art,  many  frescoes  by  Correggio,  but  much  restored :  the 
baptistery  (begun  in  1196),  a  fine  specimen  of  Lombard 
architecture;  the  Church  of  S.  fiiovanni  Evangelista,  with 
frescoes  by  Correggio ;  the  Madonna  delta  Steccata,  a  church 
of  the  Renaissance,  containing  sepulchral  monuments  of  tlie 
Farnese  and  Hourbon  rulers  of  Parma  and  a  celebrated  pic- 
ture by  Mazzuoli.  The  municipal  museum,  the  academy 
of  line  arts,  the  school  of  design,  and  the  Farnese  theater 
are  in  the  great  building  known  as  the  Pilotta,  which  was 
intended  to  form  a  part  of  a  colossal  ducal  palace  never 
completed.  The  national  theater  was  erected  by  Maria  Lou- 
isa; the  communal  palace  is  a  fine  but  unfinished  structure. 
There  is  also  a  university  founded  in  1.521,  with  (1891)  41 
teachers  and  276  students,  and  a  royal  public  library  with 
213,99.5  volumes  and  4,500  MS.S.  Parma,  however,  owes  its 
chief  attraction  to  the  masterpieces  of  Correggio  in  the 
academy  of  fine  arts,  and  to  his  well-preserved  frescoes  in 
the  Camera  di  San  Paolo.  There  are  manufactures  of  pi- 
anos, silk,  linen  and  cotton  stuffs,  leather,  glass,  crystal, 
earthenware,  and  cast-iron  wares ;  and  there  is  a  consider- 
able trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  dairy  produce.  The  cheese 
called  Parmesan  is,  however,  now  better  made  elsewhere. 
Parma,  though  lying  in  the  old  Ktruscan  territory,  does  not 
appear  in  history  until  the  time  of  the  Roman  republic. 
Being  nearly  destroyed  by  Mark  Aidony,  it  was  partially 
rebuilt  by  the  first  Cipsars,  who  gave  it  successively  tlie 
names  of  Julia  and  Aiigunta.  After  snfTering  cruelly  from 
the  barbarians,  it  was  again  restored  and  rewalled  by  Tlieo- 
doric.  Narses  took  it  and  gave  it  the  name  of  f'hri/sopolis, 
or  the  Golden  City.  Charlemagne  niaile  a  bishop  (it  has 
been  an  episcopal  see  from  very  early  Christian  times)  its 
temporal  lord,  with  the  title  of  count."  .\fter  the  death  of 
Frederick  Barbarossa  (1190)  Parma  declared  itself  a  reimb- 
lic;  but  in  ViKi  it  became  the  jirey  of  feudal  lords.  At  last 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  [lopes,  who  retained  possession 
of  it  (exce[)t  during  a  short  occupation  by  the  French)  until 
1545,  when  Paul  III.  included  it  in  the  duchy  which  he 
conferred  on  his  son  Pier-Luigi  Farnese.  (See  Far.vksk.) 
The  government  of  the  P'arnese  dukes  was  generally  popular 
with  the  middle  and  lower  classes.  Imt  was  not  acceptable 
to  the  nobility,  who  conspired  fretpiently  against  them.  In 
1701,  the  direct  Farnese  line  being  extinct,  the  duchy  passed 
to  the  royal  family  of  Spain.  In  1802  the  ■"''rench  took  pos- 
session of  it,  anil  in  1814  it  wa.s  conferred  (S|iain  protesting) 
as  a  sovereign  duchy  on  the  ex-empress  Maria  Louisa.  In 
1817  this  arrangement  was  confirmed,  with  the  stipulation. 


however,  that  the  succession  should  fall  on  the  Duke  of 
Lucca,  the  rightful  heir  in  the  Spanish  line.  The  duke 
was  supported  in  a  reactionary  policy  by  Austria,  and  in  1848 
he  WHS  compelled  to  fly  from  his  dominions.  In  1849  he  was 
siH^ceeded  by  his  son  Charles  III.,  who  was  assassinated  in 
1854  :  and  finally  in  1860  the  territory  was  annexed  to  the 
new  kingdom  of  Italv.  Pop.  (1892)  5I,,500.  The  province 
has  an  area  of  1,250  sq.  miles.     Pop.  (1892)  272,040. 

Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 
Parma,  Dukes  of  :  Sec  Farnese. 

Parma,  Diichy  of:  one  of  the  political  divisions  of  Italy 
previous  to  the  formation  of  the  Italian  kingdom  in  1860, 
embracing  the  present  provinces  of  Parma  and  Piacenza. 

Parmen'ides  (in  Gr.  TlapiifiiiSris) :  .son  of  Pyrrhes;  the 
most  notable  of  the  philosophers  of  the  Eleatic  School;  b, 
at  Elea,  a  Phoea^an  colony  situated  in  Lucania,  about  the 
year  519  n.  c.  (cf.  Grote,  Hist,  of  Greece,  chap.  Ixvii.).  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  pupil  of  Xenophanes,  founder  of  the 
Eleatic  School  (Aristotle,  Metaph.,  i.,  5),  and  to  have  to  a 
considerable  extent  adopted  the  mode  of  living  of  the 
Pythagoreans,  with  two  of  whom,  Ameinias  and  Diocha^tes, 
he  was  very  intimate.  lie  took  an  active  part  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  his  native  city  and  drew  up  a  code  of  laws,  to 
which  the  Eleans  annually  swore  to  conform.  He  dissemi- 
nated his  philosophy  both  by  teaching  ami  writing.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  attained  a  ripe  ol<i  age,  and,  if  we  may  believe 
Plato  (Parmetiides,  137  B.),  to  have  become  personally  ac- 
quainted with  Socrates. 

Writinffs. — The  only  work  of  Parmenides  known  to  the 
ancients  was  that  bearing  the  general  and  oft-imitated  title 
On  Nature  (Ilfpl  ^iaiws),  written,  according  to  the  custom 
of  the  time,  in  dactylic  hexameters.  It  was  divided  into 
three  parts;  1,  An  introduction,  describing  in  highly  figura- 
tive language  the  manner  in  which  the  philosopher  reached 
the  citadel  of  truth;  2,  a  treatise  On  Truth  (to  irphi 
'AKriBilrii'} ;  and  3,  a  treatise  On  Opinion  (ra  irpiis  A6(,av). 
The  doctrines  put  in  the  mouth  of  Parmenides  in  the  Pla- 
tonic dialogue  bearing  his  name  are  mostly  the  property 
of  Plato,  or  of  whoever  was  its  author.  The  known  extant 
fragments  of  Parmenides  are  comprised  in  something  less 
than  160  hexameters.  They  are  collected  mainly  from  the 
writings  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Sextus 
Empiricus,  Plotinus,  and  Simplicius.  There  are  editions 
of  them  by  Brandis  (1813),  Karsten  (1835).  Mullach  (1845  ; 
reprinted  in  the  Didot  Fragmenta  P/iilosopJioru)n  Grceco- 
riim,  Paris,  1860).  and  by  Stein  in  Symliola  Philologorum 
Bonnensium  (1864-67),  pp.  763-806.  The  best  are  those 
of  Karsten  and  Stein.  There  is  a  translation  into  English 
hexameters  of  all  the  extant  fragments,  in  the  Journal  of 
Speculative  Philosophy,  vol.  vi.  For  bibliography,  see 
Ueberweg,  History  of  Philosophy  (Eng.  trans.),  vol.  i..  p.  50. 
Philosophy. — Parmenides  was,  with  the  exception  per- 
haps of  Heraclitus,  the  greatest  of  the  pre-.Socratie  thinkers. 
The  kernel  of  his  thought  is  the  notion  of  pure  Being,  which 
he  identifies  with  pure  Thinking,  and  labors  to  define  by 
every  means  .afforded  by  the  undeveloped  philosophic  dic- 
tion of  his  day.  Pure  Being,  the  common  basis  of  finite 
existence  and  finite  Thought,  alone  is.  Non-15eiiig  and  all 
the  array  of  finite  thoughts  and  things  which  its  assump- 
tion entails  are  delusions,  unavoidable  jierhaps  for  the  un- 
cultured mind,  but  transparent  enough  to  the  true  thinker. 
Being  is 

.  .  .  Birthless  and  deathless. 
Whole  and  only-beeotten.  and  moveless  and  ever-enduring  : 
Never  it  was  or  shall  be  :  but  thk  all  simultaneously  now  is. 
One  continuous  one. 

The  philosophy  of  Parmenides  largely  affected  all  subse- 
quent thought,  and  even  so  powerful  a  thinker  as  Aristotle 
could  not  shake  off  his  cosmological  ideas.  Nowhere  else  ' 
have  the  rational  and  the  sensuous  been  more  clearly  op- 
posed. This  is  so  true  that  some  writers,  notably  Gladisch 
(Die  Eleaten  und  die  Inder),  have  endeavored  to  connect 
it  with  the  Hindu  philosophy.  Cf.  Aristotle.  J/e/opA.,  .\.5; 
Plotinus,  Knneads,  v.,  1,8;  Buroni,  Dell'  Kssere  e  did  Conos- 
cere;  Studii  su  Parmenide,  Platone  e  Jiosmini;  Ilegel, 
Oesch.  der  Philos.,  vol.  i. ;  Zeller,  Philos.  der  Oriechen.  vol. 
i. ;  and  I'eberweg  and  Schweglcr.  Tiio.m.^s  Davidson. 

Parmigiaiiiiio  and  Parmigiaiio  ;  See  JIazzioli. 

Parnahylta,  jiaar-na'a-ee  baa  (also  written  Parnahiha, 
Prtrndilia.  or  Pnranahyba)  ;  the  name  of  two  considerable 
rivei-s  in  Brazil :  (1)  t)ne  of  the  head  streams  of  the  Paran.*. 
((/.  v.),  separating  Minas  Geraes  from  Goyaz.  (2)  A  river  of 
Northern  Brazil,  separating  the  states  of  I'iauhy  and  Ma- 


456 


PARNASSIENS 


PARR 


ranhao;  flowing  N.  E.  ami  entering  the  Atlantic  near  lat. 
3°  15'  S. :  length  about  850  miles  (according  to  Ponipeu, 
1,000  miles).  Its  basin  of  135.000  sq.  miles  embraces  tlie 
whole  of  Piauhy,  in  wliich  it  has  many  affluents,  and  about 
20,000  sq.  miles  in  Maranlulo.  It  has  few  rapids,  and  dur- 
ing the  annual  floods  canoes  can  ascend  nearly  to  the  heail 
ofthe  main  river  and  tributaries;  small  steamers  ascend 
regularly  to  Sao  Pedro  de  Alcantara,  about  half  way  to  the 
head,  and  most  of  the  commerce  of  Piauhy  is  by  this  route. 
Vessels  drawing  lU  feet  ascend  to  the  town  of  Parnahyba, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river ;  it  is  the  commercial  center  of 
Piauhy.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Parnassiens:  name  given  to  a  group  of  French  poets  of 
the  Second  Empire,  from  the  name  of  the  volume,  Parnassc 
conlemporain,  in  which  their  first  poems  were  collected  in 
1866.  Their  common  qualities  are  a  great  and  almost  ex- 
clusive cultivation  of  the  metrical  form  and  the  rejection 
of  emotion  in  favor  of  plastic  or  pictorial  suljjects  as  poetic 
material.  A.  G.  C. 

Pai'iias'siis  (in  Gr.  Tlapi'a(T<ris) :  a  mountain  of  Greece  in 
the  district  of  Phocis,  risiiig  8,068  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  Its  tliree  peal<s  are  covered  with  snow  for  the 
greatest  part  of  the  year ;  its  sides  are  covered  with  beauti- 
ful forests  and  abound  in  crags  and  caverns.  In  ancient 
times  it  was  consecrated  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses.  Delphi, 
with  its  famous  oracle  and  the  Castalian  fountain,  was  situ- 
ated on  its  southwestern  slope.  The  Corycian  cavern,  the 
abode  of  Pan  and  the  Muses,  was  on  its  western  slope,  and 
on  its  highest  top  were  celebrated  the  wild  orgies  of  Diony- 
sus. Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Par'nell :  See  Coxgleton,  Lord. 

Parnell,  Charles  Stewart;  Irish  party  leader;  b.  at 
Avondale,  County  Wicklow,  Ireland,  in  1846;  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  entered  Parliament  in  1875  as  a  member 
for  Meath.  In  1877  he  brought  in  the  Irish  Church  Act 
Amendment  Bill,  the  object  of  which  was  to  facilitate  the 
purchase  of  their  holdings  by  the  tenantry  of  the  disestab- 
lished Irish  Church;  but  the  bill  was  thrown  out  by  150  to 
110  votes.  He  then  became  the  leader  of  the  ob.structionists 
in  Parliament,  and  in  1879  he  founded  the  Irish  National 
Land  League,  wliose  purposes  were,  first,  to  bring  about  a 
reduction  of  rack-rents;  and,  secondly,  to  facilitate  tlie  ob- 
taining of  the  ownersliip  of  the  soil  by  the  occupiers.  Prom 
this  time  liis  fortunes  are  identified  with  tlie  history  of  the 
Home  Rule  party,  and  for  an  account  of  the  principal  events 
of  his  political  career  see  the  articles  Home  Rule  and  Land 
League.  In  the  same  year  he  visited  the  U.  S.  and  lectured 
in  all  the  large  cities  in  order  to  raise  funds  for  the  new  or- 
ganization. In  1880  he  was  returned  for  three  constituen- 
cies, Meath,  Mayo,  and  Cork  city,  and  chose  to  sit  for  tlie 
last,  but  in  the  same  year  informations  were  laid  against 
him  by  the  Irish  attorney-general.  Tlie  trial  resulted  in  a 
disagreement  of  the  jury,  but,  the  Land  League  having  been 
declared  by  the  Government  an  illegal  association,  he  was 
arrested  and  conveyed  to  Kilmainham  jail.  He  was  soon 
released,  however,  and  in  the  session  of  1883  he  took  a  very 
active  part  in  procuring  the  passage  of  the  Arrears  Act  and 
the  Tramways  and  Laborers  Acts.  The  Land  League  was 
revived  under  the  name  of  the  National  League,  with  Mr. 
Parnell  at  its  head.  He  led  the  Irish  parliamentary  party 
in  1884-85,  and  afterward  supported  Gladstone's  proposed 
Home  Rule.  He  was  often  charged  by  his  enemies  with 
favoring  and  even  abetting  acts  of  violence  on  the  part  of 
the  Irish  tenantry,  and  in  1887  these  charges  took  definite 
shape  in  a  series  (jf  articles  published  by  The  Times,  accus- 
ing him  of  comyilicity  in  crime  and  supporting  the  charge 
by  the  publication  of  certain  letters  purporting  to  have 
been  writtciii  by  him.  These  Parnell  declared  to  be  forger- 
ies, and  he  was  sustained  in  this  statement  by  the  finding  of 
the  so-called  Parnell  commission,  appointed  to  investigate 
the  matter.  Parnell  then  brought  suit  for  libel  against  T>ie 
Times,  and  was  awarded  £5.000  damages.  With  this  vic- 
tory he  reached  the  height  of  his  influence,  but  in  1800  he 
was  nained  co-respondent  in  the  divorce  suit  of  his  friend, 
Capt.  O'Shea,  and  proved  in  court  to  have  been  guiltv  of 
adultery  with  O'Shea's  wife.  Gladstone  declared  him  "un- 
fit for  the  leadership  of  the  Irish  party,  and  he  was  ad- 
vised to  withdraw.  He  refused,  and  the  "result  was  a  breach 
in  the  party,  tlie  majority  clioosing.liistin  McCarthy  as  their 
chief,  the  others,  known  as  the  Parriellltes,  adhering  to  their 
old  leader.  The  latter  niiide  several  bilter  speeches  against 
the  Lilierals,  and  threw  himself  into  the  contest  with  the 
McCarthyiles  in  the  North  Kilkenny  election,  but  the  hos- 


tility of  the  priesthood  was  added  to  the  other  opposing  in- 
fluences, and  the  Parnellites  were  defeated  Dec.  22,  1890. 
In  the  following  June  he  married  Mrs.  0"Shea.  He  contin- 
ued to  attend  public  meetings  in  Ireland,  but  his  candidates 
were  repeatedly  defeated  in  the  elections.  At  length  his 
strength  beganto  fail  under  these  reverses  and  the  constant 
attacks  of  his  political  opponents,  and  his  death,  which  oc- 
curred at  Brighton  Oct.  6,  1891,  was  doubtless  hastened  by 
his  misfortunes.  P.  M.  Colby. 

Parnell,  Thomas:  poet;  b.  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1679; 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin ;  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  pjnglaud  1700;  became  archdeacon  of  Clogher 
1705,  prebendary  in  the  cathedral  of  Dublin  1713,  and  vicar 
of  Finglass  1716;  resided  chiefly  in  England;  assisted  Pope 
in  his  translation  of  Homer,  and  wrote  the  Life  of  Homer 
prefixed  to  the  Iliad.  D.  at  Chester,  July,  1717.  Pope 
pul]lished  in  1722  a  volume  of  posthumous  poems  attributed 
to  Parnell,  the  best  of  which  was  the  Hermit.  See  the  Life, 
bv  Goldsmith,  in  the  Globe  edition  of  Goldsmith's  works 
(1881).  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Parol,  or  Parole  [from  Fr.  parole,  word,  promise  :  Ital. 
parola  :  0.  Span,  paratila  :  Portug.  palavra  (cf.  Eug.  pala- 
ver) <  Lat.  parabola,  parable,  word  =  Gr.  vapa^oKi],  com- 
parison] :  literally,  a  word,  word  of  mouth ;  in  law,  a  term 
used  generally  to  designate  oral  evidence  as  distinguished 
from  written  evidence  (see  Evidence),  but  also  to  desig- 
nate any  contract  or  agreement,  either  oral  or  in  writing, 
which  is  not  under  seal.  Pleadings  formerly  when  given 
viva  voce,  orally,  in  court  were  frequently  termed  the  parol. 

Paroi»ani'isHS,  or  the  Paropainisan  Mountains:  in 
ancient  geography,  a  name  of  somewhat  uncertain  significa- 
tion, sometimes  limited  to  the  range  whicli  forms  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Cabul,  sometimes  extended  to  the  whole 
group  connecting  the  Caucasus  with  the  Himalaya,  but  gen- 
erally corresponding  to  the  modern  Hindu-Kush. 

Paroquet :  See  Parrakeet. 

Paros :  island  in  the  JEgean  Sea,  belonging  to  Greece ; 
one  of  the  Cyclades.  It  is  a  flattened  mountain,  about  36 
miles  in  circumference  and  toward  the  center  2,450  feet  in 
height.  Well  cultivated  and  naturally  fertile,  it  suffers 
from  .scarcity  of  water.  Some  of  its  little  harbors  are  deep 
and  well  sheltered.  It  exports  honey  and  wax,  but  its  most 
precious  jiroduct  by  far  is  the  Parian  marble,  famous  from 
all  antiquity  for  purity  and  whiteness.  The  Arundel  or 
Oxford  marbles,  which  give  the  Greek  chronology  from  Ce- 
crops  to  .\lexander,  were  discovered  here  in  1627.  Pop. 
(1890)  3,048.  E.  a.  Grosvenor. 

Parot'id  Gland  [jiarotid  is  from  Gr.  irapi.  beside  -i-  oSs, 
wt6s.  ear] :  the  largest  of  the  salivary  glands,  in  man  as  well 
as  in  many  other  animals.  In  the  human  subject  the  pa- 
rotid glands  lie  on  the  sides  of  the  face,  below  and  forward 
of  the  ear.  Each  gland  weighs  about  1  oz.,  and  discharges 
its  secretion  by  a  duct  24  inches  long,  called  the  duct  of 
Steno,  which  opens  on  the  inside  of  the  cheek,  opposite  the 
second  molar  tooth  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  parotid  secre- 
tion in  man  is  less  viscid  than  the  saliva  of  the  other  glands, 
and  differs  somewhat  in  its  composition,  but  its  functional 
uses  are  essentially  similar.  The  most  important  diseased 
condition  of  the  parotid  is  Mumps  (q.  v.). 

Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Parqnet,  Jacques  Diel  du  :  See  Diel  du  Parquet. 

Parr:  the  young  of  the  salmon  and  trout,  after  it  has 
passed  the  fry  "stage  and  before  it  has  reached  that  of  smolt. 
These  stages  appear  to  be  of  indefinite  duration,  varying 
according  to  the  food-supply  and  other  condition^.  It  was 
once  thought  that  the  parr  (called  also  samlet,  pisit,  or 
brandling)  was  a  distinct  species  of  fish.  All  the  salmon 
and  trout  pass  through  a  parr  stage,  during  which  the  body 
is  marked  by  dark  cross-bands.    Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Parr,  Catharine  :  See  Citharine  Parr. 

Parr.  Samuel,  LL.  D.  :  clergyman  and  author;  b.  at  Har- 
row-on-the-IIill,  England,  Jan.  15,  1747:  studied  two  years 
at  the  University  of  Cambridge  1765-67;  was  assistant  mas- 
ter of  Harrow  School  1767-72;  kept  a  private  school  at 
Stanmore  1773-76;  became  head  master  of  Colchester 
School  1776.  of  Norwich  School  1778;  took  orders  in  the 
Church  of  England;  became  curate  of  Hylhe  177S.  rector 
of  Asterbv  17S0,  and  perpetual  curate  of  lialtoii,  Warwick- 
shire, 1780.  rector  of  Wadenhoe  1790,  and  of  Grafl'nam  1802, 
and  head  clia|ilain  to  Queen  Caroline  1820 ;  prebendary  of 
St.   Paul's,   London.     Cambridge  gave  him  an   LL.  D.  in 


PARR 


PARRY 


457 


1781.  He  resided  from  1786  at  Ilatton,  engaged  in  literary 
pursuits  and  the  classical  training  of  pupils:  was  a  brilliant 
but  overbearing  and  quarrelsome  talker,  an  aixK'nt  Whig 
partisan^  possessed  an  extensive  knowledge  of  Latin  litera- 
ture, was  regarded  by  many  of  his  contemporaries  as  an 
intellectual  prodigy,  and  came  near  receiving  the  bishopric 
of  (iloucester.  Posterity  wonders  at  his  contemporary  fame, 
as  he  has  left  nothing  to  justify  it.  1).  at  Ilatton,  Mar.  6, 
ISi.").    See  l)e  Quineey's  essay.    Revised  by  S.  Al.  .J  ackso.v. 

Parr.  TnoMAs,  commonly  known  as  Old  I'arr:  said  to 
have  been  born  in  the  year  1483,  at  Winnington,  Shropshire; 
was  taken  to  London  by  the  Karl  of  Arundel,  Sept..  168.5, 
and  introduced  at  court  as  being  152  years  old.  A  metrical 
narrative  of  his  career  was  published  at  the  sauu-  time  by 
John  Taylor,  "the  water  poet,"  under  the  title  Tlie.  Olde, 
Olde,  Very  Okie  Mun.  in  which  Parr  was  represented  as 
having  been  born  during  the  reign  of  Edward  IV'.  and  as 
having  lived  through  the  reigns  of  ten  sovereigns.  1).  in 
London,  Xov.  14.  UW.").  An  autopsy  was  made  by  Dr.  Har- 
vey, and  he  was  buried  in  Westminster  Aliliey,  where  a 
moiuiment  commemorates  his  alleged  longevity.  Thorns, 
in  his  Human  Longffitij  (1873),  tries  to  show  that  Parr  was 
not  more  than  101  or  102  years  old  when  he  died.  See 
LONGKVITV. 

Parrakect.  or  Parorinct  [from  Vr.  pcrroquel.  a  parrot]  : 
a  popular  name  fi>r  iiumennis  small  parrots  with  rather 
long,  wedge-shaped  tails.  While  the  word  has  no  exact 
scientific  meaning,  it  is  simply  vised  to  distinguish  tliose 
birds  with  wedge-shaped  tails  from  the  parrot,  macaw,  lory, 
and  Cockatoo  ((/.  v.),  which,  as  a  rule,  arc  names  applied  to 
larger  birds,  usually  with  square  tails.  The  ground-parra- 
keet  (Pezoporus  fnrmosux)  and  grass-parrakeet  (Me/upsitla- 
eus  undulatux)  of  Australia  are  familiar  examples,  and  the 
species  of  the  genera  Piihroniis,  I'lcilycerciis,  and  2\'ymj>hi- 
cus  are  typical  parrakect s.  F.  A.  Lccas. 

Parrlia'siiis  (in  Gr.  llappdurios) :  a  Greek  painter;  b.  in 
Ephesus;  a  contera[iorary  and  rival  of  Zeuxis.  He  flour- 
ished 401)-;iH0  n.  c.  While  Zeuxis  deceived  the  birds  by  his 
painted  grapes,  Parrhasius  deceived  Zeuxis  himself  by  his 
painting  of  a  c'urtaiu.  See  Kchcv,  Histury  uf  Ancient  Art 
(New  York,  1887,  p.  373,  ff.).  J.  R.  S.  S. 

Par'ridiB  [Mod.  l^at.,  named  from  Par'ra,  the  typical 
genus,  from  Lal./ifirra,  barn-owl] :  a  family  of  birds  (also 
called  Jactinidiv)  containing  the  jacanas  (see  Jacana),  dis- 
tinguished by  long  legs  and  enormous  toes.  In  form  they 
resemble  rails  and  coots ;  the  bill  is  elongated,  rather  slender ; 
the  nostrils  longitudinally  oval,  near  the  middle  of  the  bill, 
and  in  long  grooves  ;  the  wings  large  and  pointed  ;  the  legs 
long  and  provided  with  transverse  scales,  which  extend  on 
the  tibia'  as  well  as  tarsi ;  claws  very  long,  nearly  straight,  or 
even  somewhat  curved  upwaril.  The  family  is  represented 
by  a  small  number  of  tropical  birds  of  doubtful  atfinities, 
some  authors  placing  them  near  the  plovers,  and  others  with 
the  liallidm.  .Species  of  Farra  are  found  in  South  America, 
Africa,  Asia,  and  Australia:  the  single  rejiresentative  of 
Uydrop/tasianus  in  India.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Parris,  Samuel  :  clergyman ;  b.  in  Limdon,  England, 
le.'iS:  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in  youth;  studied  at 
Harvard,  but  did  not  graduate  ;  was  for  a  time  a  merchant 
at  Host  on;  became  minister  of  a  church  in  that  part  of  Salem 
now  called  Danvers  KiSI);  obtaim-d  notoriety  through  the 
great  delusioti  called  Salem  witchcraft,  which  originated 
in  his  family,  his  daughter  and  niece  having  accused  an  Ind- 
ian slave  from  the  West  Indies  of  bewitching  tlunn.  He 
wa.s  active  in  prosecuting  those  wdio  were  a[)[)rehended,  and 
after  the  delusion  was  over  his  church  l)rought  charges 
against  him.  He  acknowledged  his  error,  but  in  16!)6  was 
dismissed  and  left  the  plac'C.  .SuliseqiU'utly  he  preached  in 
Stow,  Concord,  and  other  towns.  1).  at  .Sudburv,  Mass., 
Feb,  27,  1720. 

Parrot;  a  common  name  for  any  member  of  the  order 
Psiltaci ;  in  a  restricted  jiopular  sense  it  is  applied  to  the 
moderate-sized  species  with  s(iuare  tails,  such  as  the  gray 
African  parrot  {I'sitlacus  er  it  It  rams)  and  the  Mexican  yef- 
low-hcaded  parrot  (Amazuna  levaillanti).  The  large  species, 
with  long,  pointetl  tails  are  termed  macaws,  the  smaller 
parrnheels  or  lorifs.  the  large,  cresleil,  scpuirc-tailed  species 
are  known  as  cockatoos.  Parrot^  are  ri'adily  distinguished 
by  their  stout,  hooked  bills,  which  are  hinged  upim  the 
cranium  ;  by  their  short  legs  and  rough  feet,  and  by  hav- 
ing the  outer  toe  turned  backward.  They  range  in  size 
from  the  great  macaws   to   the   little  JStasiterna,  scarcely 


larger  tlian  a  sparrow.  There  are  more  than  350  species, 
found  most  abundantly  in  the  tropics,  but  also,  as  in  Aus- 
tralia and  Xew  Zi'aland.  o(-curriug  in  the  temperate  zone. 
One  small  species  (Ci/cniuranip/ius  erytlirolis)  inhabits  Mac- 
(|uaries  island  in  50  S.  lat.  America  has  the  most  species, 
1.50;  Australia  is  richest  in  peculiar  genera  ;  no  parrots  are 
found  in  Europe,  and  they  are  not  common  in  Africa  or 
Asia.  Many  species  are  very  gaudily  colored,  bright  green 
being  a  connnon  hue.  while  red,  blue,  and  yellow  are  frequent. 
The  most  delicately  colnreil  forms  are  among  the  lories  of 
the  Australian  region.  Their  food  consists  largely  of  fruit, 
but  they  also  eat  nuts,  seeds,  and  buds,  while  a  lew  eat  in- 
sects ami  occasionally  flesh.  They  breed  in  hollow  trees, 
holes  in  rocks,  and  deserted  buildings.  The  eggs  are  smooth, 
white,  and  rounded,  most  commonly  two  in  mnnljer.  Xot- 
withstanding  the  fact  that  their  voice  is  naturally  loud  and 
harsh,  many  can  be  taught  to  articulate  words.  The  well- 
known  .Vfrican  gray  aii<i  Mexican  "yellow  head  "'  are  among 
the  best  talkers.  A  single  si)ecies."  the  Carolina  ]>arrakeet 
{< '(iiiunix  canjlinfnKin).  occurs  within  tlie  limits  of  the  U.  S., 
and  this  is  threatened  with  extermination.  It  is  about  12 
or  13  inches  long,  half  of  this  being  due  to  the  long  tail ; 
the  prevailing  color  is  green;  the  head  is  yellow  and  the 
cheeks  are  red.  The  technical  characters  are  given  under 
PsiTTAci.  See  also  Cockatoo,  Macaw,  PARRAKEiiT,  and 
OwL-PAKROT,  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Parrot-flsll :  a  name  apjilicd  to  many  fishes  of  the  fami- 
lies Labrida-  and  Scarid.e  {q.  i:). 

Parrott,  Rouert  Parker;  inventor;  b.  at  Lee,  N.  H., 
Oct.  5,  1804;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  .Military  Academy 
1824:  entered  the  army  as  .second  lieuteiuint  of  artillery, 
remaining,  however,  at  the  academy  as  assistant  professor 
until  1829;  was  transferred  to  the 'ordnance  corps  in  1830, 
in  which  year  he  resigned  and  became  superintendent  of  the 
West  Point  iron  and  cannon  foundry.  Cold  Spring,  X.  Y. ; 
was  judge  of  court  of  connnon  pleas,  Putnam  County,  1843- 
47;  and  was  the  inventor  of  the  system  of  rifled  guns  bear- 
ing his  name,  and  of  their  projectiles.  (See  Artillery.) 
D.  at  Cold  Spring,  \.  Y.,  Dec.  24,  1877. 

Revised  by  James  Mercub. 

Parry  :  See  Fe.ncino. 

Parry,  Charles  Christopher.  M.  D. :  botanist;  b.  at  Ad- 
mington,  Worcestershire.  England,  Aug.  28,  1823  ;  removed 
to  the  U.  S.  in  1832;  graduated  at  Lfnion  College,  and  in 
1846  removed  to  Davenport,  la.,  where  he  practiced  medi- 
cine for  several  years,  ami  studied  the  flora  of  the  adjacent 
region.  He  was  botanist  to  David  Dale  Owen's  geological 
survey  of  the  Northwest  (1848),  botanist  to  the  Jlexican 
boundary  survey  (1849-.52).  botanist  to  the  Pacific  Railroad 
.survev  of  the  35th  parallel  (1867).  botanist  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  (1869-71).  In  1861,  1862,  1S64,  and  again  in 
1872  and  1873  he  collected  extensively  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  later  in  Utah,  Texas,  and  California.  Among 
his  publications  are  Botaiiical  Ohservaliims  in  Weslfrn  M'y- 
oniing,  etc.  (1874);  Botanical  Obxerratiiniti  in  Southern 
Vtali  (1.S75) ;  Berixion  of  tlie  United  Slates  Pacific  Coast 
Species  of  Arctoslaphi/tos  (1883);  Rerision  of  tlie  Genus 
Cliorizanthe  (1884) ;  Ttte  yortli.  American  (ienus  Ceanothus 
(1888).     I),  at  Davenport,  la.,  Feb.  20,  1890. 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Parry.  Charles  Hubert  Hastixos;  composer;  b.  in 
England,  Feb.  27,  1H48 ;  graduated  at  Oxford  1870;  re- 
ceived Mus.  Bae.  degree  from  Oxford  1867,  and  Mus.  Doc. 
from  Caiubriilge  in  1883  an<l  from  Oxford  in  1884.  He  has 
composed  largely  for  orchestral  instruments,  both  solo  and 
concerted  :  also  Judith,  Job,  and  A'ing  Saul  oratorios ; 
music  to  77(1'  liirds  of  Aristophanes.  Prometheus  Unbound 
of  Shelley.  De  Profiindis  for  a  twelve-part  chorus.  Ode  on 
St.  Cecilia's  Day.  Plest  Pitir  of  Sirens.  Funeral  Ode,  Tlie 
Clories  of  our  Blood  and  State,  LWllec/ro,  The  Lotus-eaters, 
and  other  odes  an<l  cantatas.  JIuch  of  his  music  was  com- 
posed for  the  various  English  musical  festivals.     I).  E.  11. 

Parry.  Sir  William  Edward;  Arctic  explorer;  b.  at 
Rath.  England,  Dec.  19,  1790:  entered  the  navy  1803;  was 
engagc<i  in  the  naval  servic(^  on  the  Americ'an  coast  during 
the  war  of  1812:  was  a  member  of  Sir  John  l{os.s"s  Arct ic 
expedition  ISIS;  ccaumanded  another  expedition  1819-20, 
with  which  he  (lenetrated  farther  W.  within  the  .Arctic  Cir- 
cle than  any  previous  explorer,  thereby  gaining  a  reward  of 
t'5,000  ofTered  by  Parliament ;  made  other  expeditions  1821- 
23,  and  in  1827  set  out  in  boats  that  could  be  fitted  to 
sledges  from  North  Spitzbergen  and  attained  the  highest 


458 


PARRY  SOUND 


PARSON 


north  (83°  45'  N.  lat.)  ever  reached  until  Markliam  (1876) 
boat  it.  He  was  knighted  1839;  became  rear-admiral  1853; 
governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital  1853 ;  and  died  at  Ems,  Ger- 
many, July  8,  1855.  He  wrote  several  volumes,  the  most 
important  being  his  Journal  of  a  Second  Voyage  for  the 
Discovery  of  the  Northwest  Passage  (1834),  and  Narrative 
of  the  Attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole  in  Boats  (1838). 

Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Parry  Sound :  cliief  town  of  the  provisional  district  of 
Parry  Sounil,  Ontario,  Canada ;  at  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Parry  Sound,  an  inlet  of  Georgian  Bay;  70  miles  N.  E.  of 
CoUingwood,  and  the  western  terminus  of  the  Canada  At- 
lantic Railway  (for  location,  see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  3-D). 
Pop.  (1891)  1,983. 

Parsees,  or  Parsls  (plur.  of  Par'see,  or  Po;-s(  =  Hind, 
and  Pers.  parsl,  Persian,  fire-worshiper ;  ef.  Eng.  Persian] : 
the  name  generally  employed  to  designate  the  modern  fol- 
lowers of  Zoroaster.  The  Parsis  form  a  small  community, 
now  living  chiefly  in  Bombay,  or  still  scattei-ed  here  and 
there  in  Persia,  their  original  home.  They  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  early  Persian  race,  and  their  name  is  derived 
from  the  province  of  Pars,  or  Fars,  broadly  employed  for 
Persia  in  general.  With  the  Arab  invasion  and  conquest  of 
Persia,  and  Caliph  Oraar"s  victory  over  Yazdegard  in  the 
battle  of  Nahavand  (a.  d.  641),  the  Sassanian  monarchy  fell, 
and  the  power  of  Zoroastrianism  that  had  swayed  Iran  for 
centuries  was  erusiied  before  the  faitli  of  Islam.  Most  of 
the  Zoroastrians  accepted  the  creed  of  Mohammed ;  only  a 
small  number  clung  to  the  national  religion,  and  these  were 
subjected  to  severe  persecution.  The  Mohammedans  called 
them  Ouebres,  infidels,  and  allowed  them  to  settle  only  in 
the  poorest  districts  of  the  country  around  Yezd  and  Kir- 
man.  A  goodly  number,  in  order  to  avoid  persecution, 
sought  refuge  in  exile,  and  emigrated  to  the  west  coast  of 
India,  settling  among  other  places  at  Navsari,  Sm-at,  Ahme- 
dabad,  and  especially  in  Bombay.  Those  who  remained  in 
Persia  suffered  much  oppression  at  the  hands  of  the  fanat- 
ical Mohammedans ;  they  sank  into  poverty  and  decreased 
in  numbers.  They  number  only  7,000  or  8,000,  but  they  are 
much  respected  on  account  of  their  honesty.  Those,  on  the 
contrary,  who  went  to  Imlia  ])rospered  much,  though  at  one 
time  they,  too,  were  exposed  to  persecution  by  tlie  Moham- 
medans. They  number  about  90,000 ;  among  them  are  some 
of  the  wealthiest  merchants  of  Bombay. 

In  consequence  of  their  emigration  from  Persia  and  their 
contact  with  the  Hindus,  certain  of  the  ideas  and  observ- 
ances of  the  Parsis  in  India  underwent  some  changes  which 
gave  rise  to  schismatic  tendencies  and  to  religious  factions 
among  themselves :  but  with  the  establishment  of  reform 
associations  the  Indian  Parsis  have  remained  in  close  touch 
with  their  persecuted  Persian  brethren,  and  do  all  that  is 
possible  to  alleviate  their  oppressed  condition.  Among  the 
numerous  striking  religious  practices  for  which  the  Parsi 
faith  is  peculiar  is  the  strange  custom  of  exposing  the  dead 
to  be  devoured  by  vultures  on  the  "towers  of  silence."  The 
Parsis,  it  may  be  added,  strenuously  object  to  the  mislead- 
ing designation  "  fire-worship,"  which  is  sometimes  given 
their  religion.  In  their  daily  life  they  have  an  acknowl- 
edged reputation  for  uprightness,  high-mindeilness,  and 
morality,  for  benevolence  and  generosity,  and  furthermore 
for  exceedingly  keen  business  instincts.  They  form  in  gen- 
eral a  community  which,  though  small,  is  highly  respected, 
and  which  is  especially  well  disposed  to  European  civiliza- 
tion. See  AvESTA  and  Zoroaster,  and  consult  Dosabhai 
Frainji  Karaka's  liisfori/  of  the  Parsis  (2  vols.,  London, 
1884).  '  Revised  by  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Parsley  [M.  Eng.  perseley,  persil.  from  0.  Fr.  persil : 
Span,  periyil  <  Lat.  pctroseli  num  =  Or.  iriT potriKwov,  rock- 
parsley  ;  TreVpa,  rock  +  aiKimv,  parsley  (whence  Eng.  celery)] : 
Petroselinum  sa/tuHm,  a  biennial  umbelliferous  herb  culti- 
vated in  gardens.  There  are  several  varieties.  The  leaves 
of  most  are  used  in  garnishing  meats.  Others  are  some- 
times cultivated  for  the  rich  white  I'oot,  which  resembles 
the  parsnip.  The  root  of  common  parsley  has  medicinal 
qualities.  Revised  by'L.  H.  Bailey. 

Parsnip,  formerly  often  written  Pastnip  [M.  Flng.  pars- 
nepe,  via  O.  Fr.  from  Jjat.  pasfina'ca,  parsniji,  deriv.  of 
pasti'num,  a  kind  of  dibble.  The  Eng.  form  has  perhaps 
been  influenced  by  turnip]:  an  umlxdliferous  plant  (Pasli- 
naca  saliva),  usually  biennial,  fimnd  wilil  in  S(mlhern  and 
C(uitral  Europe,  in  England,  and  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Russian  Asia.  There  is  a  coiisideral)le  difl'erence  between 
the  wild  and  the  cultivated  jiarsnip,  the  root  of  the  latter 


being  larger,  without  branches,  softer,  and  more  fleshy.  It 
succeeds  best  in  light  rich  soil.  The  Guernsey  parsnip  has 
a  root  4  feet  long;  the  Dutch,  oidy  from  30  to  30  inches. 
To  many  this  root  is  a  great  relish ;  the  Romans  cultivated 
it  carefully  and  appreciated  it  much.  To  others,  however, 
it  is  distasteful  on  account  of  its  sweetness.  As  fodder, 
though  not  much  used,  it  possesses  value  for  some  kinds  of 
stock.  The  wild  parsnip  has  an  acrid  taste,  and  sometimes 
malignant  consequences  when  eaten ;  the  cultivated  assumes 
the  same  acrid  taste  when  it  begins  to  grow  in  spring. 
There  are  only  three  or  four  important  named  varieties  in 
cultivation  in  the  U.  S.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Parson,  or  Rector  and  Vicar :  in  English  ecclesiastical 
law,  strictly,  a  parish  priest  of  the  established  church  in 
England,  who,  in  addition  to  liis  spiritual  functions,  has 
the  legal  ownership  and  possession  of  all  the  temporal  rights 
belonging  to  the  parochial  church.  He  is  called  parson  (a 
variant  form  of  person,  Lat.  persona)  because  by  his  person 
the  church  is  represented,  and  he  is  in  himself  a  corporation 
sole,  in  order  to  protect  the  rights  of  the  church,  which  he 
personates  by  a  perpetual  succession.  The  word  parson,  at 
first  used  only  in  the  sense  above  noted,  gradually  came  to 
signify  any  incumbent  of  a  benefice  who  officiated  in  place 
of  the  parson  (as  noted  below),  and  is  now  popularly  used  to 
signify  any  clergyman  or  person  authorized  by  ecclesiastical 
authority  to  preach.  In  the  technical  sense,  instead  of  the 
term  parson,  the  word  rector  (that  is  the  person  who  has  the 
direction  of  the  affairs  of  the  church)  is  now  more  common- 
ly used. 

The  parson  or  rector,  as  distinguished  from  other  parish 
priests,  is  a  kind  of  life-tenant,  having  a  freehold  ownership 
of  the  church,  the  parsonage,  the  glebe,  the  tithes,  and  all 
the  parochial  dues;  and  he  may  commit  certain  kinds  of 
waste,  and  must  repair  and  insure  the  property.  In  the 
early  history  of  the  English  Church  these  temporalities 
were  sometimes  perpetually  annexed  to,  and  held  liy,  some 
spiritual  corporation,  in  which  case  they  were  said  to  be 
appropriated.  The  corporation  then  became  the  parson  of 
the  parochial  church,  and  was  bovmd  to  provide  for  the  per- 
formance of  the  ecclesiastical  services  of  the  church.  Later 
on  these  church  temporalities  were  in  some  cases  granted 
to  laymen  (lay  parsons),  in  which  cases  they  are  (according 
to  some  authorities)  properly  said  to  be  impropriated.  This 
distinction  bet  ween  impropriate  and  appropriate  is  probably 
without  basis,  t)ie  words  having  prol  lably  been  originally  used, 
as  often  now,  interchangeably.  Probably,  however,  in  the 
case  of  appropriated  benefices,  the  parson  ap])ropriate,  orap- 
propriator,  was  required  to  depute  or  apijoint  some  one  to 
perform  the  ecclesiastical  duties  of  the  church.  This  deputy 
was  called  the  vicar  (i.  e.  agent  or  deputy),  and  originally 
was  little  more  than  the  stipendary  curate  of  the  present 
day.  His  stijiend  was  entirely  in  the  discretion  of  the  ap- 
propriator,  and  he  was  removable  at  pleasure.  By  statute, 
however  (4  Henry  IV.,  c.  13),  it  was  required  that  a  secular 
ecclesiastic  should  be  appointed  ;  that  he  should  be  canon- 
ically  instituted  and  inducted ;  that  his  office  should  be  per- 
petual; and  that  he  should  be  sufficiently  endowed.  His 
endowment  now  consists  generally  of  the  small  tithes,  and  of 
a  portion  of  the  glebe,  or  the  land  belonging  to  the  parson- 
age. The  principal  distinction  between  a  rector  and  a  vicar 
now  is  that  the  rector  has  the  sole  right  to  all  ecclesiastical 
dues  within  his  parish.  Where  the  incumbencies  were  not 
endowed  under  the  statute  above  mentioned  they  were 
called  perpetual  curacies,  and  the  incumbent  appointed  to 
perform  the  ecclesiastical  duties  a  perpetual  curate.  Since 
1868  (by  virtue  of  31  and  33  Vict.,  c.  117)  the  incundx'ut  of 
the  church  of  every  parish,  or  parish  for  ecclesiastical  pur- 
poses, not  being  a  rectory,  who  is  autliorized  to  imblish 
banns  and  to  solemnize  marriages,  church  ings,  and  liajitism 
in  such  church,  and  receive  the  fees  for  his  own  use,  is  for 
the  purpose  of  style  and  designation,  but  not  for  any  other 
purpose,  deemed  and  styled  a  vicar,  and  his  benefice  a 
vicarage. 

In  order  that  a  person  may  become  a  parson  or  a  vicar  he 
must  be  in  holy  orders  (that  is,  a  consecrated  priest  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  rights  of  the  established  church.),  be  pre- 
sented to  the  living  by  its  patron,  be  instituted  into  the 
spiritual  cure  by  the  bishop,  and  be  inducted  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  church  and  other  temporalities  of  the  parish. 
His  principal  duties  are  to  care  for  the  church  pi-operty, 
answer  the  questions  of  the  bishoji,  perform  divine  services, 
administer  the  sacraments,  solemnize  marriage,  churchings, 
and  baptism,  and  otliciate  at  burials  of  the  dead.     He  has 


PARSON-BIRD 


PARTHENOGENESIS 


459 


complete  control  over  the  organist,  the  cliuir,  ami  the  bell- 
ringer,  lie  is  ros|)onsil)le  for  all  that  his  curate  or  that 
other  clergymen  may  do  in  his  church  with  his  sanction  or 
jierraission.  For  furthiT  information,  see  I'hilliniore's  Eccle- 
siastical Law:  ('ri]pp's  Law  of  the  Clergi/;  Wliitohcail's 
Church  Law;  T.  Kustace  Smith's  Summarii  of  the  Law  and 
Practice  of  the  Eccle-iiastical  Courts.     V.  STntoES  Allen. 

Parson-bird  :  a  characteristic  bird  of  New  Zealand  {Pron- 
thc.iiKidera  nova-zelandica).  Its  glossy  black  coat  and  a  tuft 
(if  white  feathers  on  either  side  of  the  throat  suggest  the 
garb  of  a  clergyman. 

Parsons:  city:  Labette  co.,  Kan.  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Kansas,  ref.  8-tI):  on  the  Kan.  City,  Ft.  Scott  and  Mem. 
and  the  Mo.,  Kan.  and  Tex.  railways:  ;i2  miles  N.  E.  of  In- 
dependence, 4S  miles  S.  S.  \V.  of  Fort  Scott.  It  is  an  agri- 
cullural  and  manufacturing  center,  contains  the  general 
ofTices  of  the  railway  companies,  railway  car-works  and  ma- 
chine-shops, a  foundry,  and  furniture  and  other  factories, 
and  lias  a  Matiunal  haidi  with  capital  of  )j!.5U,000,  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  foO.OOO,  a  public  library  (founded  1880), 
and  'i  dailv  and  .")  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)4,1!)!); 
(18i)0)  6,73G:  (181)r>)  7,573."  Editor  ov  "Sun." 

Parsons,  or  Persons,  Robert:  ecclesiastic:  b.  at  Nether 
Stowey.  Somersetshire,  England.  June  24.  lo4G:  educated 
at  St.  "Mary's  Hall  and  at  Baliol  College.  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  loG8.  and  becanu!  dean;  left  Oxford  in  1574,  in 
consequence  of  his  conversion  to  Roman  Catholicism;  re- 
sided for  a  time  in  the  Netherlands;  studied  medicine  and 
law  at  the  University  of  Padua;  entercil  the  Society  of 
.Jesuits  at  Rome  July,  1575;  studied  divinity  in  the  Jesuits' 
College  at  Rome  ;  took  orders  as  a  priest ;  was  sent  by  Pope 
(Iregory  Xlll.  to  England,  along  with  Edmund  Campion 
and  other  Jesuits,  July,  1580,  to  attempt  the  conversion  of 
that  kingdom  to  Roman  Catholicism:  traveled  in  disguise 
among  his  coreligionists :  became  the  object  of  energetic 
measures  on  the  part  of  the  English  Government ;  escaped 
to  the  Continent  1581 ;  opened  a  seminary  for  English  youth 
at  Eu  in  Nurniandy  1.584;  became  rector  of  the  English 
college  at  Rome  and  provincial  of  the  English  missions; 
communicated  with  James  VI.  of  Scotland  in  behalf  of  his 
mother,  Mary,  yueen  of  .Scots,  then  awaiting  execution,  and 
visited  in  her  behalf  the  courts  of  France,  Spain,  and  Portu- 
gal: founiled  seminaries  fur  English  Roman  Catholics  at 
Valladulid,  San  Lucar,  Seville,  and  Lisbon,  and  at  St.-Omer, 
France,  1593 ;  became  a  second  time  rector  of  the  English 
College  at  Rome  (15!)8-1610),  and  resisted  all  attempts  to 
make  him  a  cardinal  after  the  death  of  Cardinal  Allen.  D. 
at  Rome,  Apr.  18,  1010.  He  was  the  author  of  several  trea- 
tises in  favur  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  which 
a])peared  in  Lomlon  under  assumed  names,  among  which 
were  A  Brief  Discourse  (1584) ;  The  Christian  Directory 
(1583-i)l):  A  Conference  about  the  Next  Succession  to  the 
Crown  of  England  (1594) ;  and  A  Treatise  of  the  Three  Con- 
versions of  England  (160;5-04).  For  issuing  the  first  and 
the  third  of  these  works  the  printers  were  hanged  and  quar- 
t<'red.  and  it  wa.s  made  high  ti'eason  to  own  a  co]iy  of  the 
latter  book,  which  advocated  the  claims  of  lln'  Infanta  of 
Spain  to  the  Knglish  throne.  Gibbon  attributed  his  youth- 
ful conversion  to  Roman  Catholicism  to  the  writings  of 
Parsons,  who  was  a  man  of  brilliant  talents  and  a  vigorous 
writer,  industrious,  pruilent,  and  zealous.  He  possessed 
much  influence  at  the  cOurt  of  Spain,  anil  was  more  dreaded 
by  the  English  court  than  any  other  ecclesia-stic.  See  Dodd's 
Church  Ilisliinj  of  England  and  Foley's  Records  of  the  Eng- 
lish Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

Revised  by  J.  J.  Keank. 

Parsons.  S.\Mi'Et,  IIoLnEx:  soldier  and  jurist;  b.  at 
Lynu',  CoiMi..  May  14.  1737;  graduated  at  Harvard  1750; 
studied  law  at  Lynu'  in  the  ollice  of  his  uncle,  (iov.  .Matthew 
Griswold;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1759;  was  representative 
in  the  Legislature  many  years  in  succession  from  1762;  be- 
came king's  attorney  1774,  wlien  he  removed  to  New  Lon- 
don ;  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  committee  of  corre- 
spondence 1775.  in  which  year  he  took  command  of  the  Sixth 
('oniuK'tieut  Regiment  at  the  siege  of  Hoslon  ;  took  jiart  in 
the  battle  of  Long  Island;  was  chosen  by  Congress  briga- 
dier-general Aug.  9.  1771);  succeeded  Putnam  in  command 
of  the  Connecticut  line  1779;  became  major-general  Oct.  23, 
1780;  practiced  law  at  >nddleto\vn  after  the  peace;  was 
commissioner  to  treat  with  the  Miami  Indians  1785;  mem- 
ber of  the  Connecticut  convention  for  the  ratification  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  Jan.,  1788;  was  appointed  by 
Washington  first  judge  of  the   Northwest   Territory;    was 


commissioner  of  Connecticut  to  purchase  from  the  Wyan- 
dot Indians  the  tract  in  Northeastern  Ohio  known  as  the 
Connecticut  or  Western  Reserve  1789;  settled  near  the 
f)hio  river;  published  a  paper  on  the  antiquities  of  the 
Western  States  in  the  Tran.-iactions  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy (vol.  ii.) ;  was  drowned  in  the  rajiids  of  the  Big  Beaver 
river,  Ohio,  Nov.  17,  1789. 

Parsons,  Theopuill'S,  LL.  D.  ;  jurist ;  son  of  Rev.  Moses 
Parsons;  b.  at  Bytield,  ^Mass.,  Feb.  24,  1750;  graduated  at 
Harvard  17G9;  ta'ught  school  at  Falmouth,  Mass.  (now  Port- 
land, Me.);  was  admitted  to  the  bar  there  1774;  returned 
to  Bytield  in  consequence  of  the  destruction  of  Falmouth 
by  a  British  squadron  in  Oct.,  1775.  and  began  legal  prac- 
tice at  Newburyport  in  1777.  He  was  a  member  (if  the  pa- 
triotic as.sociation  called  the  "  Essex  Junto,"  and  author  of 
the  fanujus  pamphlet  known  as  the  Esse.r  Eesutt  (1778), 
which  contributed  largely  to  till'  defeat  of  the  State  consti- 
tution then  proposed  by  the  Legislat\n-e,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  prevailing 'New  England  conservative  school  of 
constitutional  doctrine;  was  a  member  of  the  convention 
held  in  1779  which  frame(l  a  new  constitution,  and  of  the 
convention  of  1788  for  the  ratification  of  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution. Although  not  active  in  jiublic  affairs,  he  was 
several  times  elected  to  the  State  Legislature.  He  remove(i 
to  Boston  in  1800,  and  became  in  180G  chief  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Judicial  Court,  which  po.st  he  held  until  his  death, 
in  Boston,  Oct.  30,  1813.  His  decisions,  which  fill  vols.  ii. 
to  X.  of  the  Massachusetts  Eeports,  have  given  him  a  vast 
legal  reputation.  He  was  a  man  of  a  remarkable  memory, 
a  versatile  mind,  an  exact  student,  and  exhibited  a  univer- 
sal readiness  in  his  practice  of  law.  See  llemoir  of  Chief 
Justice  Tlieophilus  Parson.%  by  his  son,  Theopliilus  Par.soiis 
(Boston,  1859).  Revised  by  P.  Sturues  Aleen. 

Parsons,  Theophilus,  LL.  D. :  jurist ;  son  of  the  eminent 
jurist  of  the  same  name;  b.  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  May  17, 
1797;  graduated  at  Harvard  1815;  studied  law  in  the  office 
of  Judge  William  Prescott;  visited  Europe;  practiced  some 
years  at  the  bar  at  Taunton,  and  afterward  at  Boston  ;  was 
a  frequent  contributor  to  The  North  American  Review  and 
other  magazines  and  periodicals  ;  foinided  the  United  States 
Literary  Gazette;  published  three  volumes  of  Essays  in 
support  of  the  doctrines  of  the  .Swedenborgian  or  New  Jeru- 
salem Church;  became  in  1847  Dane  Professor  of  Law  at 
Harvard  Law  School ;  was  author  of  some  fifteen  volumes 
of  legal  treatises  on  the  laws  of  contracts,  mercantile  busi- 
ness, shipping  and  admiralty,  notes  and  bills  of  exchange, 
marine  insurance  ;  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Contracts  (18,53; 
5th  cd.  1864);  Elements  of  Mercantile' Law  (1856);  The 
Laws  of  Business  (1857);  Treatise  on  Maritime  Law  (1859); 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  J'roniissory  Notes  and  Bills  of  Ex- 
change (18G0) ;  Laws  of  Purtnersliip  (18G7);  'Treatise  on 
Marine  Insurance  (1875)  ;  The  Political.  Personal,  and 
Property  Rights  of  a  Citizen  of  the  United  States  (1875), 
etc.  He  also  wrote  &  Memoir  of  Chief  Justice  Theophilus 
Parsons  (1859);  several  theological  works:  Essai/s  (1845); 
Deus  Jfomo  (1867);  The  Infinite  and  the  Finite  (1872); 
Outlines  of  the  Religion  and  Philosophy  of  Swedenborg, 
and  other  religious  works.  I),  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Jan.  26, 
1882.  Revised  by  F.  Sturues  Allen. 

Partan'na:  town  of  Italy;  in  the  province  of  Trapani, 
Sicily;  on  a  induulain-slope  1.250  feet  above  sea-level;  19 
miles  S.  E.  of  Trapani  (sec  map  of  Italy,  ref.  i)-E).  It  com- 
mands a  fine  view  of  the  iMeditcrnniean  and  of  the  beautiful 
plain  between  Cape  Lilibeo  and  the  pnnnontory  of  Sciacca. 
The  Chiesa  Madre  contains  some  noticeable  works  of  art. 
This  town  was  originally  a  Greek  colony,  ami  terra-cotta 
vases  of  tireek  workmanship  are  fre(|Uently  disinterred  in 
the  vicinity.  The  Saracens  erected  three  castles  here,  the 
ruins  of  which  still  exist.  In  the  revolution  of  18G0  Par- 
tanna  furnished  important  assistance  to  Garibaldi.  Pop. 
13,144. 

Parlhc'nins:  Greek  elegiac  poet  of  Nicica  in  Bithynia; 
went  to  lionie  about  72  n.  c.  and  taught  Vergil  Greek  at 
Naples.  His  poems,  two  of  which  were  imitated  in  the  ex- 
tant Ijalin  poems  Moretum  and  Ciris.  have  perished,  and 
the  only  |iroduction  of  his  thai  has  survived  is  a  collection 
of  doleful  love  stories  (irepl  IpaTiKav  TroArifidTiiii').  a  practii^al 
nuuiual  of  1  hemes  for  elegies  prepared  for  the  benefit  of  Cor- 
lu'llus  Gallus.  the  Roman  poet.  Ed.  by  Westermann  in  his 
Mudo7p(i(f)oi  (1843).  "  B.  Ij.  G. 

Piirlhcnogen'esis  [Gr.  irapBfms.  virgin  +  yivean.  produc- 
tionj:  that  type  of  reproduction  where  unfi  rlilized  eggs  d(>- 


460 


PARTHENOX 


PARTNERSHIP 


velop  into  adults.  It  occurs  in  various  groups  of  invertebrates, 
especially  in  land  and  fresh-water  forms  which  are  exposed  to 
seasonalchanges.  Instances  are  most  numerous  among  tlie 
Rotifers,  the  lower  Crustacea,  and  insects.  In  some  Crusta- 
cea it  is  almost  the  rule,  and  in  the  Phyllopod  Apiis  males 
are  so  rare  that  for  many  years  they  were  not  known  to 
exist.  Parthenogenesis  may  occur  occasionally  in  forms 
like  butterflies  and  silkworius,  when  sexual  reproduction  is 
the  rule,  or  it  may  occur  as  a  normal  condition  in  the  pro- 
duction of  one  sex.  as  among  tlie  honey-bees,  where  the 
drones  are  developed  from  non-fertilized  eggs,  the  workers 
and  queens  being  developed  from  impregnated  ova.  In 
some  of  the  lower  Crustacea  (Olracodes,  Cladocera)  parthe- 
nogenetic  and  normal  generations  alternate  according  to  the 
season.  In  these  tlie  two  types  of  eggs  differ  considerably 
in  appearance.  Among  the  plant-lice  (Aphides)  partheno- 
genetic  reproduction  prevails  during  the  wanner  months, 
the  females  producing  eggs  which  develop,  without  fertili- 
zation, inside  the  mother,  the  young  l)eiug  born  alive.  In 
the  autumn  true  males  and  females  appear,  and  fertilized 
eggs  are  laid  which  carry  the  s))ecies  through  the  winter 
months.  Here  the  normal  females  differ  from  the  partheno- 
genetic  ones,  since  the  latter  possess  wings  and  lack  those 
organs  necessary  for  copulation.  A  last  type  to  be  men- 
tioned are  certain  pisdogenetic  flies,  in  which  not  the  adult 
but  the  larva  or  pupa  produces  parthenogenetic  eggs. 

An  explanation  of  parthenogenesis  which  shall  fulfill  .all 
conditions  is  yet  to  be  given.  The  latest  and  most  nearly 
satisfactory  is  that  of  Weismann.  Normal  eggs  in  their 
maturation  throw  off  two  polar  globules  (see  E.mbrvology). 
but  apparently,  in  at  least  some  instances,  parthenogenetic 
eggs  throw  off  but  one.  The  second  globule  is  hence  as- 
sumed to  be  equivalent  in  some  respects  to  the  male  element 
(spermatozoon),  and  since  it  is  retained  in  the  egg,  no  addi- 
tion of  outside  material  is  necessary.  The  whole  subject  is, 
however,  obscure.  The  reader  is  referred  to  von  Siebold, 
Parthejioyenesis  (London,  1857),  and  Weismann,  Essays  on 
Heredity.  J.  S.  Kingsley. 

Par'thenon  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  Tlape^vdv.  deriv.  of  irapeivos.  a 
virgin,  an  especial  epithet  of  Athene] :  a  temple  of  Athena 
Parthenos  at  Athens.  It  was  built  by  Pericles  about  43S 
B.  c.  The  architects  were  Ictinus  and  Callicrates,  and  a 
part  of  the  sculptured  decorations  are  thought  to  have  been 
from  the  hand  of  Phidias.  It  stands  upon  the  Acropolis. 
It  is  of  the  Doric  order,  built  of  Pentelic  marble,  is  328  feet 
long  and  101  feet  wide.  It  is  generally  believed  that  it  was 
painted  within  and  without.  There  were  46  columns  in  its 
peristyle,  8  at  each  end  and  17  on  each  side,  reckoning  the 
corner  columns  twice.  It  stood  almost  entire  until  1687, 
when,  during  a  siege  by  the  Venetians,  a  large  part  of  the 
central  portion  was  destroyed  by  the  explosion  of  some  gun- 
powder stored  in  it  by  the  Turks.  It  is  regarded  as  the  fin- 
est production  of  Greek  architecture.  The  statues  from  the 
pediments,  so  far  as  preserved,  many  of  the  metopes,  and  a 
large  part  of  the  frieze  on  the  outer  wall  of  the  cella  were 
taken  by  Lord  Elgin,  and  are  among  tlie  chief  treasures  of 
the  British  Museum.     See  Architecture  and  Athens. 

Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Par'thia:  an  ancient  territory  of  Western  Asia;  situ- 
ated S.  E.  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  corresponding  nearly  to  the 
modern  Persian  province  of  Khorassan;  It  was  wholly 
mountainous  and  inhabited  hy  a  rough,  wild,  and  warlike 
people  of  Scythian  descent,  famous  for  their  horsemanship 
and  skill  with  the  bow.  Agriculture  and  trade  they  de- 
spised ;  war  was  their  only  occupation.  They  belongeil  suc- 
cessively to  the  Assyrian,  Persian,  Macedonian,  and  Syrian 
empires,  but  in  250  B.  c.  they  established  an  independent 
kingdom  under  Arsaees,  whose  dynasty,  the  Arsacida^  ruled 
till  226  A.  !).  and  formed  a  vast  empire,  extending  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Indus.  The  Romans  attacked  theru  sev- 
eral times,  but  without  success;  but  Arlabanus  IV.  was 
killed  in  226  a.  n.  in  a  rebellion,  and  the  dynasty  of  the  Ar- 
saciihe  was  followed  by  that  of  the  Sassiiniihc,  a  Persian 
family.  The  Persian  influence  now  became  the  ruling  one 
In  Asia  till  the  Mohammedan  concpiest,  651  A.  D. 

Participle  [through  the  Fr.  par/icipe  from  Lat.  jmrfi- 
ci'/Hiim,  a  deriv.  of  pur  ticeps,  sharing,  participating;  pars, 
[lart  -I-  capere.  take.  The  Lat.  word  is  merely  a  translation 
of  the  (ir.  /ifTox-h,  deriv.  of  ^cTe'xeii',  to  share;  fisTii,  among 
-h  €X".  have  I :  an  adji^tive  verbal;  an  adjective  formation, 
closely  attac'hed  to  the  verb,  and  sharing  with  it  meaning, 
the  government  of  cases,  and  tense.  In  the  parent  Indo- 
fjuropean  the  boundary-line  between  participles  and  adjec- 


tives was  less  clearly  fixed  than  it  appears  in  the  separate 
languages.  The  participle  had  not  become  an  established 
[jart  of  the  mechanism  of  the  parent  speech.  Indo-Euro- 
pean adjective  suffixes  have  therefore  been  employed  to 
form  participles  in  these  languages;  thits  -to-,  -no-  {-ono-), 
-io-,  -teijo-,  -lo-,  -ent-,  -meno-.  Of  these  the  English  uses 
three :  (1)  -to-,  which  forms  the  past  passive  participle  of 
the  regular  or  weak  verbs,  as  in  tamed  :  Genu,  ge-zdhmt : 
Goth,  ga-tamida-  <  Indo-Europ.  domsto-s  >  Sanskr.  dami- 
ta-  :  Lat.  domitus.  Three  forms  of  the  suffix  appear,  as  in 
blessed,  hived,  blest.  (2)  -ono-.  which  forms  the  past  passive 
Iiarticiples  of  the  irregular  or  strong  verbs,  as  in  given : 
Germ,  gegeben  :  Goth,  gibans;  cf.  Germ,  ge-worden,  Goth. 
waurYans.  Sanskr.  vavrtdnd-s.  The  prefix  ga-  (ge-,  gi-) 
which  commonly  attached  itself  as  a  characteristic  of  past 
participles  in  Teutonic  survives  in  English  only  in  traces 
in  a  few  archaizing  words,  like  yclept.  In  German  the  com- 
pound verbs  with  inseparable  prefix  omit  the  ge,  as  erfun- 
den,  verschwunden.  Relics  of  old  participles  with  omitted 
ge-  are  also  found  in  konnen,  lassen,  etc.,  e.  g.  in  hat  singen 
honnen,  hat  kommen  lassen.  (3)  -ent-(-nf),  which  forms  the 
present  active  participles,  like  loving,  singing.  This  ending 
(M.  Eng.  singinge)  succeeded  to  0.  Eng.  -ende  in  late  Mid- 
dle English,  and  soon  caused  confusion  with  the  substan- 
tives in  -ing  (0.  Eng.  -ung.  -ing),  like  learning  (0.  Eng.  leorn- 
ung).  The  original  ending  appears  in  bearing  :  Germ,  ge- 
barend  :  Goth.bairands;  Sanskr.  bhdrant-  :  Gr.(p4paiv(-oi/T-)  : 
Lat.  ferens.  The  present  participle  in  English  may  be  used 
passively,  as  in  The  house  was  building,  but  the  necessity  of 
avoiding  the  ambiguity  involved  in  cases  like  The  boy  teas 
tvhippitig,  for  being  whipped,  is  bringing  into  standard  use 
the  substitute  is  being  built.  Ben'j.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Partinico.  piiar-tee'nee-ko,  or  Partenico :  town ;  in  the 
province  of  Palermo,  Sicily;  about  17  miles  W.  of  the  city 
of  Palermo  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  9-E).  It  is  situated  in  a 
wide  valley,  and  is  surrounded  by  calcareous  mountains  ris- 
ing in  the  form  of  isolated  pyramids.  The  vine  and  the  olive 
thrive  in  this  region,  and  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  occu- 
])ied  with  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  wine  and  oil.  Pop. 
21.000. 

Partition  :  See  Joint  Ownership. 

Partnersliip  [deriv.  of  partner  (by  anal,  of  jiarl)  for  par- 
cener, from  0.  Fr. parsonnier,  liter.,  portioner,  deriv.  oi  par- 
son, portion  <  hat.  part  it  io,  division]:  "the  relation  which 
subsists  between  persons  carrying  on  a  business  in  common 
with  a  view  of  profit."  (British  Partnership  Act,  1890,  §  1.) 
The  English  law  of  partnership  is  modern — the  product  main- 
ly of  the  nineteenth  century.  Blackstone  barely  refers  to  it. 
The  earliest  treatise  on  the  subject  wa*:  published  in  1794  by 
W.  Watson,  who  asserts  that  "  the  true  use  of  partnership 
was  discovered "  during  Elizabeth's  reign.  In  the  early 
English  digests  partnership  cases  are  presented  under  the 
titles  Merchants  or  Lex  Mercatoria;  and  very  naturally, 
as  the  decisions  are  rested  on  the  customs  of  merchants. 
(Jeffreys  vs.  Small,  1  Vernon  217,  a.  d.  1683.)  Although  our 
law  of  partnership  had  its  origin  in  mercantile  customs,  its 
develo|:iment  has  been  seriously  affected  by  common-law 
rules,  which  have  been  applied  in  some  instances  by  the 
courts  with  unfortunate  results. 

Nature  of  Partnership. — The  mercantile  conception  of  a 
partnership  is  that  of  an  entity  distinct  from  the  partners. 
This  view  has  been  championed  by  distinguished  judges  in 
England  and  the  U.  S.  Chief  Justice  Hornblower,  in  Curtis 
vs.  Ilollingshead  (2  Green,  N.  J.  Law,  at  p.  410),  declares, 
"A  partnershij)  is  considered  in  law  as  an  artificial  person, 
or  being,  distinct  from  the  individuals  composing  it."  Mas- 
ter of  the  Rolls  Jessell.  in  I'ooley  vs.  Driver  (5  Chancery 
Division,  at  p.  476).  asserts :  "  Everybody  knows  that  partner- 
ship is  a  sort  of  agency,  but  a  very  peculiar  one.  You  can 
not  grasp  the  notion  of  agency,  properly  speaking,  unless 
you  grasp  tlie  notion  of  the  existence  of  the  firm  as  a  separate 
entity  from  the  existence  of  the  partners."  Similar  liut  more 
guarded  statements  of  the  same  doctrine  are  found  in  Bank 
of  Buffalo  vs.  Thompson  (121  N.  Y.  280)  and  in  Meehan  vs. 
Valentine  (145  U.  S.  611).  On  the  other  hand,  the  mercan- 
tile view  has  been  expressly,  almost  contemptuously,  repudi- 
ated by  other  judges.  In  Hallowell  vs.  Blackstone  Bank 
(1.54  Mass.  359)  .Justice  Holmes  says  ;  "  Cory  on  accounts  and 
Lindley  on  partnership  have  made  it  popular  to  refer  to  a 
mercantile  distinction  l)etween  the  firm  and  its  members; 
but  we  have  no  doubt  that  our  merchants  are  perfectly  aware 
that  claims  against  their  firms  .are  claims  against  them." 
Lord  Justice   Kay   (//t  re   Beauchamp   Brothers   (1894),  1 


PARTXEKSIIIP 


461 


(Queen's  Bench,  at  p.  7),  referring  to  counsel's  argument  that 
a  partnership  is  an  entity,  asserts,  "It  is  no  such  thing,  and 
the  rules  do  not  nieim  anything  of  the  kind."  Hud  the 
courts  acce[)led  and  consistently  enforced  (he  mercantile 
conception  of  a  partnership,  this  braneli  of  tlie  law  would 
have  been  much  simplified  and  improved.  While  they  have 
not  adopted  it,  they  have  established  certain  doctrines,  as 
will  appear  from  our  subsequent  discussion,  which  fully  rec- 
ognize its  soundness.  The  Partnership  Act  of  1800  declares, 
'  "  In  Scotland  a  firm  is  a  legal  [)erson  distinct  from  the  [lart- 
ners  of  whom  it  is  composed." 

At  common  law  any  number  of  persons  may  unite  in 
a  partnership.  This  is  sometimes  modified  liy  statute,  as 
by  the  t'omiianies  Act,  1863  (io  and  36  Vict.,  c.  89),  wliich 
limits  the  memliers  of  a  banking  partner.«hip  to  ten,  and 
those  of  a  partnership  for  any  other  purpose  to  twenty  per- 
sons. In  the  absence  of  prohibitory  legislation,  a  partner- 
shij)  may  diviiie  its  capital  into  transferal)le  shares  (see 
Joint-stock  Company),  and  thus  enable  any  of  its  members 
to  dispose  of  their  interests  to  strangers  without  dissolving 
the  firm.  The  shares  in  mining  partnershijis  are  thus  trans- 
ferable, by  mercantile  custom.  In  the  normal  partnership, 
however,  delectus  personarum  is  a  fundamental  rule ;  each 
partner  has  the  right  to  choose  his  associates,  and  no  one 
can  become  a  mentber  of  the  firm  without  the  consent  of 
every  member.  This  relation  is  presumed  to  be  founded  on 
personal  confidence  between  the  partner.s,  for  the  incapacity 
or  dishonesty  of  any  one  may  inflict  irreparable  injury  upon 
Ids  a.ssociates. 

How  Created. — A  true  partnership  originates  in  an  agree- 
ment of  the  partners.  It  follows  that  the  mendiersof  a  firm 
must  iKissess  contractual  caiiacity  (see  Alien',  t'oxTR.vcT. 
(%)Ri'ORATio.N,  I.NFA.NTs,  and  Makriku  Womex),  and  that  if 
the  partnership  be  illegal  it  has  no  legally  enforceable  rights 
against  tliird  persons,  nor  have  its  members  any  against  each 
other.  Persons  may  enter  into  an  association  by  agreement 
without  becoming  partners.  Their  association,  to  be  a  part- 
nership, must  be  organized  to  carry  on  a  business  with  a  view 
of  profit.  Hence  a  social  chib,  or  a  cliaritable  organization,  or 
a  political  committee,  or  an  association  formeifto  open  and 
grade  a  street,  or  to  resist  the  claims  of  a  particular  paten- 
tee or  to  build  a  meeting-house  wliich  is  to  be  the  property 
of  the  associates  in  the  proportion  of  their  payments,  or  to 
buy  and  divide  lands,  or  to  cultivate  a  farm  on  shares,  or  to 
engage  in  the  production  of  articles  which  are  to  be  divided 
among  the  associates,  is  not  a  partnership.  In  neither  of 
these  cases  is  a  business  carried  on  in  common  with  a  view 
of  profit.  It  must  be  admilled  lliat  the  term  business  is 
somewhat  vague,  and  that  judicial  definitions  of  it  are  not 
harmonious.  The  tendency  of  modern  decisions,  however, 
is  fairly  expressed  in  the  Partnership  Act,  which  defines 
the  expression  as  including  "every  trade,  occupation,  or  pro- 
fession." 

Wliile  an  agreement  between  persons  is  necessary  to  in- 
stitute the  relation  of  partnershi]),  such  agreement  need  not 
declare  expressly  their  intention  to  become  partners.  On 
tlie  other  hand,  it  may  call  them  i)artners  without  creating 
a  partnership.  (Lii-hii/sfon  vs.  hijiu-h.  4  .lohnson's  Chan- 
cery, at  pp.  503-593.)  Whether  tliis  relationship  has  been  in- 
stituted is  in  each  case  a  question  of  intention,  to  be  deter- 
mined as  a  fact  from  all  the  language  and  acts  of  the  parties. 
It  is  not  essential  that  they  should  plan  actually  to  become 
partners.  They  may  have  been  ignorant  of  the  law,  and  un- 
conscious of  the  legal  results  of  tlieir  conduct ;  or  they  may 
have  tried  to  evade  the  law  by  giving  to  the  tran.saction  the 
appearance  of  a  loan  of  money,  or  the  n.se  of  property  or 
personal  services,  on  the  part  of  one  or  more  of  the  associ- 
ates to  his  fellows,  while  securing  to  such  one  or  more  all  of 
the  advantages  of  a  partnership :  yet  if  they  have  carried  on 
intentionally  a  business  in  common  with  a  view  of  profit. 
they  are  partners.  While  the  business  must  be  carried  on 
in  common,  it  is  not  necessary  that  each  partner  engage  in 
the  managenu'ut.  It  is  enough  that  it  be  carried  on  in  his 
behalf  as  a  common  proprietor.  Nor  is  it  essential  that  each 
partner  shoidd  share  in  the  losses  of  the  business.  One  or 
more  may  be  guaranteed  against  loss  by  his  copartners. 

That  the  intention  of  the  contracting  associates  to  carry 
on  a  business  in  common  with  a  view  of  profit  is  the  true 
test  of  a  partnership,  hius  not  always  been  ret^ognized  by  the 
courts.  In  England,  until  the  (iecision  of  the  House  of 
liiirils  in  ( 'o.T  vs.  IIiel;iii(tn  (8  House  of  Lords  Cases  368,  A.  D. 
1860),  it  was  generally  understood  that  participation  in  the 
profits,  or  at  least  in  the  net  profits  of  a  l)usiness,  constituted 
one  a  partner.     "  He  who  takes  a  moiety  of  all  profits,"  it 


was  said,  "shall  by  operation  of  law  be  made  liable  to  losses, 
if  losses  arise,  upon  the  principle  that  l)y  taking  a  part  of 
the  ]irofits  he  takes  from  the  creditors  a  part  of  the  fund 
which  is  the  proper  security  to  them  for  the  jiavment  of 
their  debts."  (Waugti  vs.  Carver,  2  U.  Blackstone'38.5,  a. D. 
1793.)  Various  exceptions  were  established  from  time  to 
time,  and  in  Cvx  vs.  liickman  the  House  of  Lords  declared 
that  this  doctrine  was  not  a  part  of  the  law  of  England  : 
that  "  the  real  ground  of  the  liability  "  of  a  |iartner  "  is  that 
the  trade  has  been  carried  on  by  persons  on  his  behalf"; 
that  in  determining  whether  it  so  has  been  carrie<l  on,  partici- 
pation in  the  profits  is  an  important  but  not  a  decisive  fact; 
that  the  question  is  to  be  answered  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  the  contract  between  the  parties.  The  principles 
of  this  decision  have  been  followed  by  the  English  courts 
in  subsequent  cases,  and  are  now  a  part  of  the  statute  law  of 
Hritain.  Cox  vs.  Hiclcman  had  been  anticijiated  by  several 
State  decisions  (e.  g.  Loomis  vs.  Marslintl,  13  Conn.  69.  and 
Polk  vs.  Buchanan.  5  Sneed  (Tenn.)  721).  and  its  doctrine 
is  enforced  by  most  of  the  courts  in  the  U.  S.  Even  the 
New  York  court  of  appeals,  while  professing  still  the  form 
of  the  older  English  doctrine,  has  discarded  its  substance. 
In  a  recent  decision,  after  restating  the  old  rule  and  the 
grounds  upon  which  it  was  based,  the  court  said  :  "  Excep- 
tions to  the  nile  are,  however,  found  in  casi'S  where  a  share 
in  profits  is  contracted  to  be  paid  as  a  measure  of  comiiensa- 
tion  to  employees,  for  services  rendered  in  the  business,  or 
for  the  use  of  moneys  loaned  in  aid  of  the  enterprise  ;  but 
where  the  agreement  extends  beyond  tlii.s,  and  provides  for 
a  proprietary  interest  in  the  profits  as  a  compensation  for 
moneys  advanced  and  time  and  services  bestowed  as  a  prin- 
cipal in  its  prosecution,  we  think  that  the  rule  still  requires 
such  iiartv  to  be  held  as  a  partner."  Hackett  vs.  Stanley. 
lloN:y."635. 

The  partnership  contract  sometimes  provides  that  the  in- 
terest of  a  partner  in  case  of  his  death  shall  remain  in  the 
business  until  a  certain  date.  Such  a  provision  does  not 
give  to  the  executor  a  right  to  enter  the  firm,  nor  does  it 
sul)ject  him  to  the  liabilities  of  a  partner.  Where  the  con- 
tract provides  that  the  executor  shall  be  admitted  to  the 
firm,  it  does  not  compel  him  to  enter  the  partnership;  but 
if  he  does,  he  becouu'S  personally  liable  for  the  firm  debts, 
and  is  entitled  to  indemnity  to  the  extent  of  the  share  of  the 
estate  embarked  bv  the  will  in  the  business,  and  no  further. 
Wild  vs.  Davenport,  48  N.  J.  Law  129. 

Qiiani-partner.^hip. — There  is  .some  judicial  authority  and 
an  abundance  of  judicial  dicta  for  the  jiroposition  that  a 
partnership  may  exist  as  to  tliird  persons,  where  there  is 
none  fietween  the  parlies,  but  it  ha.s  been  rejected  by  the 
great  majority  of  courts  as  indefensible.  Its  unsoundness 
was  never  exposed  more  clearly  than  by  Baron  Bramwell  in 
Bullen  vs.  Sharp  (Law  Reports,  1  Common  Pleas  86) : 
"  Partnership  means  a  certain  relation  between  two  parties. 
How,  then,  can  it  lie  correct  to  say  that  A  and  B  are  not  in 
partnership  as  between  themselves;  they  have  not  held  them- 
selves out  as  being  so,  and  yet  a  third  person  has  a  right 
to  say  they  are  so  as  relates  to  him  i  That  must  mean 
infer  .le  ;  for  partnership  is  a  relation  inter  .le.  and  the  words 
can  not  be  used  except  to  signify  that  relation.  A  is  not 
the  agent  of  B;  B  has  never  held  him  out  as  such;  yet  C  is 
entitled,  as  between  himself  and  B.  to  say  that  A  is  the  agent 
of  B !  Why  is  he  so  entitled  if  the  fact  is  not  so,  and  IJ  has 
not  so  represented  i  "  According  to  the  prevailing  view, 
then,  there  is  no  true  partnership  as  to  third  persons  wliere 
there  is  none  between  the  parties;  but  the  parties,  liy  hold- 
ing themselves  out  to  third  persons  as  partners, may  suliject 
themselves  to  a  partnership  liability  to  such  persons.  This 
holding  out  may  be  by  express  statement  or  by  conduct. 
One  who  asserts  that  he  is  a  member  of  a  firm,  or  who 
knowingly  sulTers  himself  to  be  represented  jus  a  member,  is 
liable  as  a  partner  to  those  %vho  give  credit  to  the  firm  on 
tlie  strength  of  such  assertion  or  representation.  It  is  often 
said  that  one  who  holds  himself  out  to  the  world  as  a  part- 
ner is  liable  as  such  to  every  one  who  deals  with  the  firm, 
whether  the  holding  out  was  known  to  the  third  person  or 
not;  and  there  is  some  judicial  authority  for  this  doctrine 
based  upon  considerations  of  pulilic  policv.  {Poilloii  vs. 
Secor,  61  N.  Y.  456;  Bartlett  vs.  Jiai/mond.  139  Mass.  275. 
277.)  The  better  view,  however,  is  that  the  liability  of  a 
"  holding  out "  or  quasi-partner  rests  upon  the  principle  of 
estoppel,  which  is  that  cme  who  has  induced  another  to  be- 
lieve in  anil  act  upon  the  existence  of  a  particular  stale  of 
facts  can  not  be  heard,  as  against  that  other,  to  deny  the 
trutfi  of  those  facts.     Thompson  vs.  Bank,  111  U.  S.  530. 


462 


PARTNERSHIP 


Title  to  Partnership  Property. — In  dealing  with  this 
branch  of  the  subject  the  courts  have  been  forced  to  ac- 
cept, to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the  mercantile  idea  of  a  part- 
nersliip.  Personalty  may  be  transferred  to  or  by  the  firm 
in  the  firm  name,  and  title  thereto  is  in  the  firm  and  not  in 
its  members  as  individuals.  A  chattel  mortgage  on  firm 
property  by  one  partner  to  secure  his  separate  debt,  or  the 
levy  of  an  execution  thereon,  issued  on  a  separate  judgment, 
does  not  subject  it  to  a  lien  as  against  the  firm  or  its  credi- 
tors. All  that  is  encumbered  in  either  case  is  the  debtor 
pai-tner's  share.  Tliis  is  not  the  interest  of  a  tenant  in  com- 
mon, for  the  transferer  of  a  partner's  share  gets  no  title  to 
an  undivided  share  of  any  chattel ;  he  obtains  only  a  chose 
in  action,  a  right  to  an  account,  and  to  any  surplus  of  pro- 
ceeds wiiich  may  belong  to  the  debtor  partner  on  account  of 
the  property  mortgaged  or  levied  on,  after  the  payment  of 
firm  debts  and  the  adjustment  of  the  equities  between  the 
partners.  It  is  not  the  interest  of  a  joint  tenant,  for  the 
full  legal  and  equitable  title  does  not  survive  as  between 
partners. 

The  tendency  of  modern  decisions  is  to  treat  firm  real 
estate  as  partnership  stock  or  personalty,  so  far  as  the  rules 
of  conveyancing  and  of  the  recording  acts  will  permit.  In 
Britain  this  doctrine  has  been  carried  to  its  logical  conclu- 
sion. Tlie  Partnership  Act  provides:  "  Where  land  or  any 
heritable  interest  tlierein  has  become  partnership  property, 
it  shall,  unless  the  contrary  intention  appears,  be  treated  as 
between  the  partners  (including  the  representatives  of  a  de- 
ceased partner),  and  also  as  between  the  heirs  of  a  deceased 
partner  and  his  executors  or  administrators,  as  personal 
or  movable  and  not  real  or  lieritable  estate  "  (§  22).  Sir 
Frederick  Pollock  has  expressed  the  belief  that  this  rule  was 
well  settled  before  the  statute,  and  may  safely  be  accepted 
in  other  common-law  jurisdictions.  However,  the  doctrine 
which  prevails  in  most  of  the  U.  S.  does  not  sustain  fully 
his  view.  It  treats  partnership  realty  as  converted  into  per- 
sonalty only  for  the  purposes  of  paying  partnership  liabili- 
ties. The  surplus  retains  all  the  incidents  of  real  estate. 
For  example,  a  deceased  partner's  share  passes  to  the  heir 
and  not  the  personal  representative,  and  is  subject  to  dower. 

The  deed  of  real  estate  to  a  firm  should  contain  the  indi- 
vidual names  of  the  partners  and  the  firm  name.  If  the 
firm  name  is  employed  as  that  of  the  grantee,  the  effect  of 
the  deed  will  vary  with  the  jurisdiction.  In  some  States  it 
wiU  operate  not  as  a  conveyance,  but  as  a  contract  to  con- 
vey. In  others  it  will  pass  the  legal  title  to  any  of  the  part- 
ners whose  names  appear  in  the  firm  appellation,  but  if  this 
does  not  contain  tlie  name  of  a  member,  the  deed  will  be 
inoperative,  and  the  grantor  will  retain  the  legal  title  in 
trust  for  the  firm.  In  still  others  it  will  pass  the  legal  title 
to  the  persons  composing  the  firm  at  the  time  of  the  trans- 
fer. Wherever  firm  real  estate  stands  in  the  name  of  a 
partner,  the  equitable  title  is  in  the  firm,  and  he  may  be 
compelled  to  deal  with  it  as  firm  property.  While  he  holds 
the  legal  title  a  purchaser  for  value  from  him  without  no- 
tice of  the  partnership's  rights  may  get  good  title.  In  case 
he  disposes  of  the  property  to  such  a  purchaser,  and  rein- 
vests the  proceeds  in  other  lands,  these  become  firm  property. 

A  Partner's  Powers. — P^ach  partner  is  a  general  agent  of 
the  firm,  and  therefore  has  full  authority  to  do  any  act 
which  is  necessary  to  the  transaction  of  the  firm's  business 
in  the  way  in  which  it  is  usually  carried  on.  Whether  an 
act  in  question  is  within  the  scope  of  the  partner's  apparent 
authority  is  "  to  be  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  business 
and  by  the  practice  of  persons  engaged  in  it."  The  author- 
ity of  partners  in  a  trading  firm  is  much  more  extensive 
than  that  of  non-trading  partners.  In  case  of  the  latter — 
such  as  lawyers,  farmers,  mine  or  quarry  owners,  hotel- 
keepers,  theater-managers — a  partner  has  apparent  author- 
ity to  sell  any  of  the  personal  chattels  of  the  firm,  or  to 
purchase  for  it  any  chattels  ordinarily  used  in  its  business, 
or  to  receive  payment  and  give  receipts  and  releases  of 
debts,  or  to  engage  servants  for  the  business.  A  member  of 
a  trading  firm  has  apparent  authority  to  do  any  of  these 
acts,  and  also  to  bind  his  firm  by  negotiable  paper,  by  bor- 
rowing money  on  tlie  firm's  credit,  and  by  pledging  its 
property  as  security  therefor.  He  has  not  apjiarent  author- 
ity to  bind  his  firm  by  a  sealed  instrument,  for  the  firm  has 
no  seal ;  nur  to  make;  a  general  assignment  of  firm  property 
for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  since  this  necessarily  puts  an 
end  to  the  firm's  business  ;  nor  sulimit  a  firm  claiin  to  arbi- 
tration ;  nor  to  make  the  firm  a  surety  for  third  persons, 
unless  the  usage  of  the  firm  or  of  others  engaged  in  the  like 
business  warrants  such  an  act ;  nor  to  change  in  any  ma- 


terial respect  the  business  of  the  partnership.  The  ordinary 
authority  of  a  member  in  either  a  trading  or  non-trading 
firm  may  be  limited  by  an  agreement  of  the  partners,  which 
is  communicated  to  those  dealing  with  the  firm.  As  a  part- 
ner is  the  general  agent  of  the  firm,  his  admissions  and  dec- 
larations relating  to  the  alfairs  of  the  partnership  and  in 
the  ordinary  course  of  its  lousiness  are  its  admissions  and 
declarations.  His  representations  as  to  the  existence  of  a 
firm,  or  as  to  his  authority  to  bind  it,  are  clearly  not  within 
this  rule.  Whether  a  partner's  authority  to  bind  the  firm 
by  admissions  and  declarations  concerning  partnership  tran- 
sactions continues  after  dissolution,  is  a  question  upon 
which  the  courts  differ.  One  line  of  decisions,  following  a 
leading  English  case  (Wood  vs.  Braddick,  1  Taunton  104, 
A.  D.  1808),  holds  that  it  does,  while  the  opposite  doctrine  is 
maintained  by  decisions  as  numerous  and  respectable  which 
follow  a  leading  New  York  case.  (IlacUey  vs.  Patrick,  3 
Johnson  536,  A.  D.  1808.)  The  former  seems  to  be  the 
sounder  view.  The  courts  have  also  disagreed  as  to  the 
power  of  a  partner  to  waive  the  statute  of  limitations  after 
dissolution ;  but  the  weight  of  argument  and  authority  is 
against  his  possession  of  it.  "  Notice  to  any  partner,  who 
habitually  acts  in  the  partnership  business,  of  any  matter 
relating  to  partnership  affairs,  operates  as  notice  to  the  firm, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  fraud  on  the  firm  committed  by  or 
with  the  consent  of  that  partner."     Partnership  Act,  §  16. 

LiahiJity  of  Partners. — The  members  of  a  firm  are  joint- 
ly liable  for  all  its  contract  obligations.  Such  has  been 
always  the  prevailing  doctrine  in  the  U.  S.,  except  as  modi- 
fied by  statute ;  but  in  England,  until  the  decision  of  Ken- 
dall vs.  Hamilton  (4  Appeal  Cases  504,  A.  D.  1879),  it  was 
understood  that  the  liability  was  joint  and  several  in  equity. 
Several  liability  is  still  the  rule  in  Scotland  (Partnership 
Act,  §  9),  and  in  the  U.  S.,  as  well  as  in  Britain,  the  estate  of 
a  deceased  partner  is  severally  liable  for  partnership  obliga- 
tions. In  most  of  the  U.  S.,  however,  a  firm  creditor  is  not 
allowed  to  proceed  against  the  estate  of  a  deceased  partner, 
unless  the  firm  and  the  surviving  partner  are  insolvent. 
The  liability  of  partners  for  the  torts  of  one  or  more  within 
the  scope  of  a  partner's  apparent  authority  is  joint  and 
several. 

Although,  as  a  rule,  the  liability  of  partners  is  joint,  a 
judgment  in  an  action  against  all  is  enforceable  at  law 
against  the  property  of  the  firm  or  against  that  of  any  mem- 
ber at  the  creditor's  option,  as  the  entire  fortune  of  each 
partner  is  liable  for  firm  debts. 

Duties  of  Partners. — Because  of  the  power  which  the  law 
gives  to  each  partner,  it  reqinres  him  to  exercise  it  with  the 
utmost  good  faith.  He  is  bound  to  render  true  accounts 
and  full  information  of  all  partnership  affairs.  If,  without 
his  partners'  consent,  he  derives  any  benefit  from  any  firm 
transaction,  or  from  any  use  by  him  of  the  property,  name, 
or  business  connection  of  the  partnership,  this  belongs  to 
the  firm ;  and  he  is  not  allowed,  without  his  partners'  con- 
sent, to  carry  on  any  competing  business.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  minority  of  a  firm  to  acquiesce  in  the  decision  of  the 
majority  where  differences  arise  as  to  ordinary  matters  con- 
nected with  the  partnership  business,  but  not  in  a  decision 
which  works  any  change  in  the  nature  of  the  business,  or  in 
the  membership  of  the  firm.  Each  member  is  bound  to 
devote  his  time  and  energies  to  the  affairs  of  the  firm  with- 
out special  remuneration.  Of  course  these  duties  may  be, 
and  often  are,  varied  by  the  agreement  of  the  parties. 

Dis.solution  and  its  Consequences. — A  partnership  may  be 
dissolved  by  the  agreement  of  the  parties,  by  the  operation 
of  law,  or  by  the  decree  of  a  court.  The  dissolution  may 
be  expressly  provided  for  in  the  partnership  contract,  or  the 
agreement  of  the  parties  may  be  inferred  from  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case.  If  the  partnership  is  for  a  single  ad- 
venture, it  terminates  with  tlie  close  of  that  adventure.  If 
it  is  organized  to  carry  on  a  business  for  an  undefined  time, 
it  is  a  partnership  at  will,  terminable  by  notice  from  either 
partner.  Where  it  is  entered  into  for  a  fixed  term,  the 
better  doctrine  seems  to  be  that  it  can  not  be  dissolved  by 
the  mere  act  of  one  single  partner,  although  there  is  con- 
siderable authority  in  the  U.  S.  for  the  view  that  it  can. 
(See  Solomon  vs.  jvirlcwood,  55  IMich.  256.)  The  happening 
of  any  event  which  makes  the  business  of  a  firm  unlawful, 
or  the  partnership  relation  between  its  members  unlawful, 
works  its  dissolution  by  the  operation  of  law,  as  does  the 
death  or  tlie  bankruptcy  of  any  partner  in  the  absence  of  an 
agreement  to  the  contrary.  A  court  may  decree  the  disso- 
luticm  of  a  firm  because  of  the  insanity  or  permanent  inca- 
pacity of  a  partner,  or  because  a  member  other  than  the  one 


PARTNERSHIP 


PARTOX 


463 


suing  has  been  guilty  of  serious  misconduct,  or  because  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  show  that  a  decree  of  dissolution 
will  be  just  and  eiiuitable. 

Unless  the  dissolutinn  is  produced  by  operation  of  law,  it 
is  important  tliat  notice  thereof  be  given,  or  the  retiring 
partners  may  be  made  liable  for  the  debts  of  the  new  busi- 
ness. Actual  notice  must  be  given  to  those  who  have  dealt 
with  the  old  firm,  but  no  particular  form  is  required,  while 
notice  by  publication  in  a  newspaper  of  general  circulation 
in  the  vicinity  is  sufficient  as  to  all  others.  It  is  the  legal 
duty  of  all  members  to  concur  in  such  notification. 

After  a  firm  is  dissolved,  the  authority  of  each  partner, 
unless  bankrupt,  and  his  partnership  rights  and  obligations 
continue  for  the  purposes  of  winding  up  the  firm's  affairs 
only.  All  executory  contracts  of  the  i)artnersliip  are  to  be  per- 
formed ;  its  assets,  including  the  good  will  of  the  business, 
are  to  be  converted  into  cash  and  to  be  applied  first  to  the 
payment  of  firm  creilitors,  next  to  tlii^  payment  of  advances, 
if  any,  by  the  respective  partners,  then  to  the  payment  of 
the  capital  furnished  by  each  partner,  and  the  residue  is  to 
be  divided  among  the  partners  in  the  proportion  in  which 
profits  are  divisible.  In  the  absence  of  an  agreement  on  the 
subject,  profits  are  divisible  equally  between  the  partners, 
and  not  in  proportion  to  their  contributions  of  capital. 
The  los.ses  of  a  partnership  business  are  payable  first  out  of 
the  profits,  next  out  of  capital,  and   then  by  the  various 

fiartners  in  the  proportion  in  which  profits  are  divisible, 
n  case  any  of  the  partners  are  wholly  insolvent,  the  losses 
are  to  be  borne  ratably  by  the  others. 

The  position  of  a  surviving  partner  has  been  rendered 
anomalous  by  the  failure  of  tlie  courts  to  accept  the  entity 
idea  of  a  partnership.  He  holds  the  legal  title  to  the  firm 
personalty.  If  sued  on  a  separate  debt,  he  can  set  off  a 
firm  claim  ;  and  if  lie  sues  on  a  firm  credit  his  separate  in- 
debtedness may  set  off  against  it.  He  can  make  a  general 
assignment  of  firm  property  for  the  benefit  of  firm  creditors 
with  preferences.  Yet  he  has  not  a  joint  tenant's  benefit  of 
survivorship.  He  is  bound  to  a  partner's  good  faith  in  dis- 
posing of  the  firm  property  and  in  distributing  it  to  firm 
creditors  and  to  the  re|)resentatives  of  deceased  mem- 
bers. In  Britain,  however,  this  duty  does  not  amount  to  a 
trust,  and  a  deceased  partner's  representative  has  not  the 
rights  of  a  cestui  que  trust  in  the  firm  property ;  his  claim 
is  only  "  a  debt  accruing  at  the  date  of  the  death  "  ;  "  there 
is  nothing  fiduciary  between  the  surviving  partner  and  the 
dead  partner's  representative,  except  that  they  may  respec- 
tively sue  each  other  in  equity."  (Partnership  Act,  §43; 
Knox  vs.  Gi/e,  Law  Reports,  5  House  of  Lords  656.)  The 
prevailing  view  in  the  U.  S.  is  somewhat  different.  It  is 
fairly  indicated  in  Preston  vs.  Filch  (187  X.  Y.,  at  pp.  56- 
58),  where  it  is  saiil  that  "  the  property  (jf  a  late  firm  comes 
to  the  surviving  partner  imjiressed  with  a  certain  kind  of  a 
trust,  founded  upon  his  duty  to  dispose  of  or  realize  upon 
such  assets,  and  therefrom  to  pay  the  debts  of  the  late  firm, 
and  to  pay  over  the  share  of  any  balance  to  the  estate  of  the 
deceased  partner."'  The  exact  nature  of  this  trust  and  the 
respective  legal  rights  of  the  survivor  and  of  the  deceased 
partner's  estate  remain  quite  indefinite  ;  and  it  is  impossible 
to  deduce  from  the  decisions,  even  within  a  single  juris- 
diction, a  body  of  consistent  rules  upon  this  topic. 

We  have  seen  that  a  firm  creditor  may  enforce  at  law  his 

udgment  against  the  firm  property  or  that  of  any  partner. 

II  case  of  the  death  of  a  partner,  or  of  the  insolvency  or 
bankruptcy  of  a  firm  or  any  of  its  inember.s,  and  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  partnership  and  individual  estates,  a 
diiTerent  rule  obtains,  except  in  a  few  jurisdictions  (e.  g. 
Connecticut,  Louisiana,  South  Carolina,  Vermont,  Virginia), 
and  firm  property  is  applied  first  to  firm  delits,  while  the 
separate  projierty  of  each  partner  is  applied  first  to  his  indi- 
vidual debts,  any  surplus  from  either  estate  being  carried  to 
the  other.  This  rule  was  adopted  in  early  bankruptcy  cases 
as  "a  sort  of  rough  code  of  justice,"  and  has  been  adhered 
to  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  although  at  variance  with  the 
mercantile  system  of  settling  accounts,  and  open  to  severe 
criticism.  A  joint  and  several  obligation  of  the  partners, 
incurred  in  the  firm  business,  or  an  obligation  upon  which 
the  firm  and  its  members,  or  any  of  them,  are  successively 
liable,  as  a  note  made  by  the  firm  and  indorsed  by  the  part- 
ners individually,  is  entitled  to  share  in  each  estate  until 
paid  in  full.  .\s  a  rule,  the  firm  can  not  prove  against  the 
estate  of  one  of  its  partners  in  competition  with  his  separate 
creditors,  nor  can  a  partner  prove  against  the  firm  estate 
or  the  estate  of  any  copartner  in  competition  with  firm 
creditors.     An  exception  is  made  in  case  the  property  of  the 


i' 


firm  has  been  fraudulently  converted  by  a  partner,  or  that 
of  a  partner  has  been  so  converted  by  the  firm  without  con- 
sent or  subsequent  ratification,  and  in  Britain  in  the  case  of 
debts  accruing  between  liistinct  trades  carried  on  respec- 
tively by  the  firm  and  by  a  partner. 

Limited  Partnership. — New  Y'ork,  first  among  comraon- 
law  States,  adopted  this  institution  in  1822,  borrowing  many 
of  its  features  from  the  suciete  en  co)HmandHe  of  the  French 
law.  Later  in  the  same  year  Connecticut  introduced  it  into 
her  legal  system,  and  these  two  statutes  have  formed  the 
models  for  legislation  upon  this  subject  by  most  of  the  U.  S 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  it  into 
Britain,  but  without  success.  Limited  partnership  statutes. 
it  is  judicially  declared,  have  two  main  objects  :  (1)  To  en- 
able capitalists,  without  incurring  the  risks  of  general  part- 
ners, to  invest  money,  and  thus  promote  trade,  and  to  help 
those  who  have  not  sufficient  wealth  to  carry  on  business 
ventures  for  which  they  have  the  requisite-  integrity  and 
capacity;  (2)  to  protect  those  dealing  with  the  firm.  The 
leading  characteristics  of  this  system  are  :  (1)  The  publication 
of  the  names  of  the  general  and  those  of  the  special  part- 
ners, of  the  amount  of  capital,  of  the  nature  and  location  of 
the  business,  and  of  the  date  of  its  comraenccnicnt  and  ter- 
mination ;  (2)  the  actual  contribution  of  the  avowed  capi- 
tal :  (8)  the  protection  of  this  partnership  fund  from  secret 
and  improper  diminution  for  the  benefit  of  the  special  part- 
ner or  favored  creditors.  A  limited  partnership  must  con- 
tain one  or  more  general  partners,  who  have  the  authority 
and  are  subject  to  the  liabilities  of  common-law  partners; 
while  the  special  partners  are  prohibited  from  taking  part 
in  the  active  management  of  the  business,  and  are  not 
liable  for  its  obligations  beyond  the  amount  of  their  capital. 
Such  a  partnership  can  be  organized  only  by  complying 
strictly  with  all  the  substantial  requirements  of  the  statute. 
An  honest  intention  to  comply  with  its  terms  will  not  suf- 
fice, and  a  firm  which  has  failed  to  conform  to  the  statutory 
provisions  is  a  general  partnership  with  all  its  common-law 
liabilities.  Although  this  institution  was  borrowed  from  the 
civil  law,  the  courts  have  resorted  rarely  to  civil-law  authori- 
ties when  dealing  with  questions  relating  to  it,  but  have  ap- 
plied to  them,  so  far  as  possible,  the  common-law  rules.  At 
first  they  were  disposed  to  give  to  limited  partnership  statutes 
a  very  strict  construction  in  favor  of  firm  creditors,  but  at 
present  they  look  upon  this  legislation  "  as  serving  a  pur- 
pose consistent  with  the  public  welfare,  and  entitled  to  a 
reasonable  construction  for  the  protection  of  special  part- 
ners as  well  as  for  that  of  others.''  (Fifth  Avenue  Bank  vs. 
Colgate,  120  New  York  381.)  For  the  special  rules  govern- 
ing the  formation  of  limited  partnerships,  their  renewal,  the 
conduct  of  their  business,  and  their  dissolution,  the  statutes 
of  each  jurisdiction  should  be  consulted. 

Standard  treatises  on  the  subject  of  this  article  are  those 
of  Bates  and  of  Troubat  on  Limited  Partnership;  of  Bates, 
Lindley,  Parsons,  and  Story  on  Parhiership.  A  valuable 
collection  of  cases  on  partnership  has  been  published  by 
Prof.  Ames.  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Parton,  James:  author:  1>.  at  Canterbury.  England, 
Feb.  9,  1822;  was  taken  to  New  York  when  live  years  of 
age ;  educated  in  an  academy  at  White  Plains,  where  ho 
became  a  teacher  at  the  age  of  nineteen ;  sulxsequently 
taught  school  in  Philadelphia  and  New  Y'ork  ;  was  for  some 
years  assistant  editor  of  The  Home  Journal ;  was  a  prolific 
and  successful  author,  chiefiy  in  the  field  of  biography,  and 
a  popular  lect  urer  upon  literary,  social,  and  political  topics ; 
in  1856  married  the  well-known  story-writer  "  Fanny  Fern  " ; 
resided  in  New  York  until  Mar.,  1875,  when  \u;  became  a 
resilient  of  Newburyporl,  Mass.  Among  his  works  are  Bi- 
ographies of  Horace  Greeley  (1855;  new  ed.  1868),  Aaron 
liurr  (1857;  new  ed.  2  vols., 1864),  Andrew  Jackson  (3  vols., 
1860),  Benjamin  Franklin  (3  vols.,  1864) ;  Thonnis  Jefferson 
(1874),  ami  Voltaire  (1881);  Humorous  Poetry  of  the  Eng- 
lish Language  (1857);  People's  Book  of  Biography  (1868); 
Smoking  and  Drinking  {\H<iS);  Famous  Americans  of  Re- 
cent Times  (IH'O);  Topics  of  the  7'ime  Wtl):  Triumphs  of 
Enterprise  (1871) ;  Words  of  Washington  (187'2);  Carica- 
ture m  all  Times  ayid  Xrt?iV/.s  (New  Y'ork,  1877) ;  Captains 
of  Lidust)-y  (1884;  2d  series  18!)1).  D.  at  Newburyport, 
(')ct.  17.  18!)1.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Parton,  Sarah  Pavson  {Willis):  story-writer;  wife  of 
James  Parton  and  sister  of  Nathaniel  P.  Willis;  b.  at  Port- 
land, Me..  July  7.  1811;  married  Charles  H.  Kldredge,  of 
Boston,  a  bank  cashier,  on  whose  death  she  resorted  to  litera- 
ture as  a  means  of  subsistence ;  obtained  great  success  by  her 


464 


PART-OWNERSHIP 


PASADENA 


short  humorous  essays  entitled  Fern  Leaves  from  Fanny's 
Portfolio  (3  vols.,  185:^-54) :  Lillh  Ferns  for  Fanny's  Little 
Friends  (1853);  wrote  regularly  for  many  years  for  The 
New  York  Ledger  \  issued  several  volumes  of  collected  arti- 
cles, and  was  author  of  two  novels,  Rutli  Hall  and  i?«.sf 
Clark.  D.  in  New  York,  Oct.  10.  1872.  See  Fanny  Fern  : 
a  Memorial  Volume,  containing  her  Select  Writings  and  a 
Memoir,  by  James  Parton  (18T3).    Revised  by  II.  A.  Beers. 

Part-owiiersliil) :  a  species  of  title  to  personal  property 
which  is  employed  mainly  in  the  case  of  Shipping  {q.  v.).  It 
is  distinguished  from  joint  tenancy  by  the  absence  of  sur- 
vivorship, from  tenancy  in  common  by  the  absence  of  the 
right  to  force  a  severance  of  the  various  owners'  interests, 
and  from  partnership  title  by  the  fact  that  each  person  in- 
terested owns  an  undivided  share  of  a  chattel  instead  of  a 
share  in  the  business.  Part-owners  do  not  constitute  a  busi- 
ness entity,  and  are  not,  like  jiartners,  agents  by  reason  of 
their  business  relations.  In  order  to  subject  his  associates 
to  any  obligation,  or  their  interests  in  the  common  prop- 
erty to  any  lien,  a  part  owner  must  obtain  fi\>m  them  the 
authority  therefor  in  fact ;  he  possesses  none  by  operation 
of  law.  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Partridg:e  [JI.  'Eng.  partriche,  from  O.Fr.  pert r is,  per- 
drix  :  Ital.  perdice.  pernice  :  Span.  Portug.  perdiz  <  Lat. 
per'dix  =  Gr.  wepSi^,  connected,  either  as  a  derivative  or  an 
assimilation  (folk-etym.),  with  irepSo^oi] :  a  name  applied  to 
various  medium-sized  game  Ijirds  of  the  grouse  family 
{Tetraonid(e).  In  England  the  partridge  is  Perdix  cinerea, 
a,  bird  about  a  foot  long,  of  a  delicate  mottled  gray.     The 


Tlie  common  partridge  of  Europe. 

red-legged  partridge  (Caccahis  rubra)  of  Europe  is  slightly 
larger  and  more  handsome.  In  the  northern  i)arts  of  the 
U.  S.  the  name  is  given  to  the  ruffed  grouse  (Bonasa  urn- 
bellus),  while  in  the  southern  this  bird  is  known  as  the  pheas- 
ant and  the  term  partridge  bestowed  upon  the  quail,  or  bob- 
white  {Colinus  virgi)ii<inus).  Finally,  sjiortsnien  in  Aus- 
tralia have  dubbed  the  true  (juail  (Turiiix)  partridge,  and  in 
South  America  given  the  name  to  some  of  the  larger  tina- 
mous,  birds  of  a  totally  different  grou|i.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Partridge,  Alden,  A.  1\1.:  soldier:  b.  in  Norwich,  Vt., 
about  1785;  graduated  at  the  U.S.  Military  Academy  Oct. 
30,  1806,  when  he  was  appointed  first  lieutenant  of  engi- 
neers; captain  1810:  was  retained  at  the  academv  as  Assist- 
ant Professor  of  Mathematics  until  Apr.,  1813.  when  he  was 
appointed  Professor,  and  in  Sept.,  1813.  Professor  of  Engi- 
neering: commanded  at  West  Point  Jan.,  1815,  Nov.,  1816. 
and  Jan.  to  .July,  1817;  resigned  Apr.,  1818,  aiul  in  1819 
was  appointed  principal  of  the  surveying  party  to  determine 
the  northwest  l)oundary  of  the  U.  S.  In  1820' he  founded  a 
military  school  at  Norwich,  Vt..  subsequently  incorporated 
ill  the  Norwich  University,  of  winch  he  was  appointed  presi- 
dent. He  also  established  military  schools  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, Connecticut,  Delaware.  Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia. 
and  delivered  lectures  on  military  niatters  throughout  the 
U.S.  He  was  appointed  surveyor-general  of  Vermont  1822. 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Vermont  Legislature  1833-34  and 
1839.     I),  at  Norwich,  Vt.,  Jan.  17,  18.54. 

Itevised  by  James  Mercur. 


Partridgeberry,  or  Clieckerberry  :  the  common  name 
of  a  trailing  evergreen  herb,  Mitchella  repens,  belonging  to 
the  Madder  Fa.mily  (q.v.);  found  in  the  U.  S.,  Canada, 
Mexico,  and  some  parts  of  South  America.  It  bears  a  red 
fruit,  about  the  size  of  a  whortleberry,  which  remains  on 
the  stem  all  winter.  The  wintergreen  (Gaultheria  procum- 
bens  of  the  Heath  family)  is  sometimes,  but  incorrectly, 
called  partridgeberry  or  checkerberry. 

Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Partridge-wood :  a  name  applied  in  commerce  and  the 
arts  to  several  handsome  tropical  woods  used  for  veneering 
and  for  making  small  ornamental  wares.  It  is  more  gener- 
ally given  to  the  wood  of  Andira  inermis,  a  leguminous  tree 
of  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  This  wood  is  hard, 
and  in  Brazil  is  used  in  ship-building. 

Party  Wall :  as  commonly  understood,  a  wall  which 
stands  on  the  line  between  two  adjoining  lots  of  land  be- 
longing to  different  ownere,  and  in  which  both  proprietors 
have  common  rights  and  a  common  use.  Provided  such 
connnon  rights  exist,  it  is  not,  however,  essential  that  the 
wall  stand  on  the  line  between  the  adjoining  lots  in  order 
to  have  the  character  of  a  party  wall.  It  may  have  that 
character  though  it  stands  wholly  on  the  land  of  one  pro- 
prietor (see  Metropolitan  Building  Act,  18  and  19  Vict.,  ch. 
122),  and  under  some  circumstances  even  where  the  wall 
does  not  abut  on  the  line.  {Rogers  vs.  Sinsheimer,  50  N,  Y. 
646.)  In  the  common  case,  where  the  wall  rests  on  both 
lots,  the  adjoining  proprietors  are,  by  the  English  common 
law,  regarded  as  tenants  in  common  of  the  wall,  and  prob- 
ably, for  the  time  being  at  least,  of  the  land  on  which  it 
stands;  and  the  rights  and  obligations  of  the  parties  are 
such  as  pertain  to  that  relation.  (See  Joint  Ownership.) 
In  the  \J.  S.,  however,  each  of  the  adjoining  owners  retains 
the  fee  of  the  portion  of  the  wall  which  rests  ujion  his  own 
soil  and  has  an  easement  of  user  and  support  in  the  portion 
resting  on  the  soil  of  his  neighbor.  From  these  principles 
are  derived  a  number  of  special  rules  in  respect  to  the  use 
and  maintenance  of  the  wall,  its  repair,  additions  to  its 
heiglit,  its  rebuilding  when  necessary,  etc.,  which  differ  in 
some  important  particulars  from  those  which  regulate  the 
relations  of  the  parties  under  the  English  doctrine.  In  Eng- 
land (so  far  at  least  as  the  London  metropolitan  district  is 
concerned)  and  in  several  of  the  U.  S.  the  mutual  rights  and 
obligations  of  the  parties  are  carefully  regulated  by  statute. 
The  special  rules  above  referred  to  will  be  found  set  forth 
at  length  in  Washburne  on  Easements  and  Servitudes  and 
in  the  American  and  English  Encycloptrdia  of  Latv,  title 
Party  Willis.  George  W.  Kirchwey. 

Piirvali'*[—  Sanskr.  Piirvatl,  liter.,  femin.  of  pdrrata,  be- 
Iniiging  to  or  coining  from  a  mountain;  so  called  because 
originally  a  personification  of  the  mountain  streaiu  Durgd, 
flowing  from  (i.  e.  born  of)  the  mountain  Himavant]:  a  fe- 
male divinity  of  the  ancient  Hindu  pantheon,  the  consort 
of  Siva.     See  Hinduism. 

Parvin,  Theophilus,  A.  M.,  i\I.  IX,  LL.  D. :  obstetrician  ; 
b.  in  Buenos  Ayres,  Argentine  Republic.  Jan. 9, 1829  ;  received 
his  literary  education  at  Lafayette  College  and  at  the  .State 
University  of  Indiana,  where  he  graduated  in  1847:  gradu- 
ated M.  I),  from  the  University  of  Penn.sylvania  in  1853 ; 
the  following  year  began  to  practice  medicine  in  Indianap- 
olis: was  Professor  of  Obstetrics  in  the  Jledieal  College  of 
Ohio,  in  the  medical  department  of  the  University  of  Louis- 
ville, in  the  Medical  College  of  Indiana,  and  in  the  Jeffer- 
son Medical  College,  Philadelphia,  where  he  now  holds  that 
chair.  He  has  been  president  of  the  Indiana  State  Medical 
Society,  of  the  Association  of  American  Me<lical  Journalists, 
of  the  American  Academy  of  Medicine,  of  the  American 
Medical  Association,  and  of  the  American  Gyna-ctcilogical 
Society.  His  ]irincipal  work  is  The  Science  and  Art  of  Ob- 
stetrics (Philailelphia,  1886).  He  also  edited  Winckel  on 
Diseases  of  Women.  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Pasadena:  city;  Los  Angeles  co.,  Cal.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  California,  ref.  12-F);  on  the  Los  Angeles  Ter- 
minal and  the  Southern  Pac.  railways;  9  miles  N.  E.  of 
Los  Angeles.  It  is  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Madre  Moun- 
tains, at  an  elevation  of  850  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  in 
the  beautiful  San  Gabriel  valley,  noted  for  its  orange  and 
lemon  groves  and  the  cultivation  of  smaller  fruit.  The  city 
is  largely  a  residential  place,  and  its  unsurpiissed  climate 
and  attractive  scenery  have  given  it  wide  repute  as  a  win- 
ter resort.  There  are  9  grammar  schools,  a  high  school,  the 
Throop  Polytechnic  Institute,  the  only  institution   of  its 


PASCAGOL'LA    KIVEH 


PASKEVITCII 


4G5 


kiiiii  II"  tlu^  I'acitic  coast,  2  private  [irepanitiiry  schools,  sev- 
eral kiiiderfjarteiis  and  other  private  seliools,  a  pul)li<'  lilira- 
ry,  2  national  liaiiks  with  conitiined  capital  of  $2(I(I,(H)(I,  a 
State  bank  with  capital  of  ^oO.OOO,  and  a  daily  and  2  weekly 
newspapers.  The  Mount  Lowe  Railway  ascen<ls  the  Sierra 
Madre  Mountains  here.  Pop.  (1S80)  IWl  ;  (18!K))  4.882; 
(1894)  estimated,  U),()()0.  Editor  of  "  Evknixo  Star," 

PascasTOU'la  Kiver:  a  stream  formed  in  (ireene  CO., 
Miss.,  hy  I  lie  union  of  t'hickasawha  ami  Leaf  rivers.  It 
flows  S.  into  l';uscaf;oula  Bay,  a  beautiful  arm  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Sound.  The  river  sometimes  floods  its  valh^y  at 
high  water.  It  is  navij;ated  by  small  steamboats.  Much 
timber  is  cut  in  its  pine  forests  for  the  New  Orleans  market, 

Pascal',  Hi-.iisE :  nuvthematician  and  moralist ;  b,  at 
Clermont-Ferrand,  Auvergne,  France,  June  1!),  IG2;i.  lie 
was  a  precocious  child,  and  in  1631  his  father  removed  to 
Paris  the  better  to  caro  for  his  education.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  he  rediscovered  by  himself,  elementary  geometry, 
which  he  had  not  been  allowed  to  study;  at  seventeen  his 
treatise  on  Conir  Sirliiiiifi  made  him  celebrated:  at  nineteen 
he  made  a  calculating-machine  to  aid  his  father,  who  had 
removed  to  Koucn  to  take  an  office  in  the  treasury  depart- 
ment. These  mathematical  studies  he  followed  up  with 
valuable  investigations  in  physics,  on  the  weight  of  tlu^ 
atmospheric  When  little  over  twenty  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  the  .lan.senist  writers  of  Port-Royal,  and  gave 
himself  up  to  fervent  piety;  but  the  severity  of  his  study 
had  undermined  his  health;  his  physician  forbade  him  all 
work,  and  recommended  the  diversions  of  society.  For  a 
time  these  diversions,  in  a  group  of  rather  gay  epicureans, 
absorbed  him;  but  the  entrance  of  his  sister  into  Port 
Koyal,  his  narrow  escape  from  death  in  an  accident  at  the 
bridge  of  Neuilly,  and  other  events,  brought  him  back  to 
his  former  religious  fervor,  and  he  retired  to  Port-Royal. 
Though  he  retiirned  from  time  to  time  to  mathematic-al 
studies,  developing  the  calculus  of  probaliilities,  and  giving 
a  solution  of  the  jirobleni  of  the  cycloid  (Traitc  gi'iu'ral  lie 
la  Roulette,,  lti.")S)),  his  main  interest  was  henceforth  fLxed  on 
questions  of  morals,  philosophy,  and  religion.  He  spent  his 
last  years,  broken  in  health  and  wracked  with  pain,  in  the 
practice  of  a  severe  asceticism.  D.  Aug.  19,  1662.  His  two 
great  works  are  the  Lettrex  prnvinciales  and  the  Pensees. 
The  former  was  written  in  defense  of  his  friend,  Antoine 
Arnauld,  who,  involved  in  the  Janscnist  controver.sy,  was 
the  central  object  of  the  Jesuits'  attack  on  Port-Royal. 
The  first  four  letters  are  limited  to  a  defense  of  Arnauld  on 
the  points  at  issue;  but  the  remaining  fourteen  are  a  vigor- 
ous and  eloipient  attack  upon  the  moral  and  religious  prin- 
ciples and j)ract  ices  of  the  .Jesuits.  The  Lettres  pron'itriiiles 
were  inteilded  to  carry  the  cause  before  the  bar  of  pidilic 
opinion,  and  I  he  ipuilities  of  style,  grace  and  clear  precision, 
incisive  wit,  delicate  and  biting  irony,  intense  earnestness, 
rising  to  indignant  elmpience,  caught'the  popular  attention. 
In  them  French  prose  revealed  a  new  power,  and  they  are 
of  the  first  importance  in  the  development  of  French  prose 
style.  In  their  first  separate  and  fugitive  appearance  (16.56- 
57),  and  in  the  collected  edition  prepared  by  Nicole,  they 
had  an  immense  circulation,  and  they  have  been  reprinted 
in  a  vast  numlier  and  variety  of  editions.  The  other  great 
work  of  Pascal,  the  I'ensrex,  consists  of  the  fragmentary 
materials  of  a  projecteil  ApidDfiie  ile  la  relipion  ciitliiilique, 
which  his  health  did  not  allow  him  to  finish;  they  are 
"thoughts,"  single  reflections  or  ai>horisms,  often  of  re- 
markable depth,  of  a  soul  that  felt  keenly  the  intellectual 
ditliculties,  and  at  the  same  time  the  imperious  need  of  a 
firm  religious  faith.  The  minor  works  of  Pascal  comjirise 
a  Disronr.t  siir  le.i  pd.txuinx  tie  V amour,  L' Expn't  f/eoinelrii/ue, 
L'Art  de  persuader,  three  Dineour.i  sur  la  miiditiou  dex 
yrand.%  f'n'i-re  pour  de.mander  le  bim  usage  den  maladies, 
and  a  few  letters.  An  excellent  edition,  with  a  Life  and 
notes,  is  that  of  K.  Ilavet  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1882).  Cf.  Sainte- 
Ueuve,  Port-Riit/al,  liv.  iii.  The  best  English  translation  of 
Pa-seal's  Thoii(//(t.i  is  by  C.  Kegan  Paul  (London,  1885); 
latest  translation  of  the  Provincial  Letters  188!). 

A.  G,  Canfield. 

Pas'chal  I. ;  liope;  b.  at  Kome  ;  became  abbot  of  St.  Stc- 
phamis;  succeeded  Stephen  IV.  in  817;  crowned  Lothaire 
as  emperor  82:i.  H.  Feb.  10,  824.— Pasiiiai.  II.  (/i'«)uV'ro), 
b.  at  HIeda,  Italy,  alioul  !05() ;  was  a  Cluniac  monk  ;  became 
a  cardinal-priest,  and  in  lO'.IO  succeeded  Urban  II.  ;  was  in- 
volvcil  in  life-long  contests  with  the  Henrys  (IV.  and  V.)  of 
Germany  concerning  investitures.  Henry  V.  kept  the  pope 
in  prison  for  some  time.  Similar  troubles  with  llcnrv  I.  of 
314 


England  were  settled  by  com|iromise,  by  which  Henry  kept 
the  substance  of  his  former  rights,  but  made  unimportant 
concessions  to  the  pope,  and  like  concessions  were  made  by 
the  King  of  France.     D.  Jan.  21,  1118. 

Paschal  I. :  antipope  ;  a  Roman  archdeacon  ;  elected 
pope  by  a  faction  of  the  Roman  people  and  supported  by 
the  exarch  of  Ravenna  in  687  A.  D.  Theodorns  II.,  anti- 
pope,  was  chosen  by  another  faction,  but  Sergius  I.  was  de- 
clared the  true  successor  of  Conon,  the  deceased  poiie. 
Paschal  was  ini])risoned  as  a  simonial  and  j>ronounccu  a 
magician.  D.  in  604. — Paschal  III.,  antiiiojie  ((luido  di 
C'rema);  b.  in  Lombardy ;  became  in  1155  a  cardinal-dea- 
con, and  in  1164  was  declared  pope  by  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
whose  partisan  he  was,  D.  at  Rome,  Sept.  20,  1168. 
Pasco  :  See  Cekko  DE  Pasco. 

Pas-de-Calais,  paa'de-kalila' :  department  of  France, 
formed  out  of  the  provinces  of  Artois  and  Picardy  ;  border- 
ing N.  and  W.  on  the  Strait  of  Dover  and  the  English 
Channel;  area,  2,551  sq.  miles.  A  range  of  low  hills,  rich 
in  coal,  iron  ore,  marble,  and  slate,  traverses  the  dcpart- 
nu'nt,  ending  in  Cape  Gris-Nez,  and  forming  for  a  distance 
of  several  miles  along  the  coast  a  row  of  cliffs  similar  to 
those  on  the  opposite  English  coast.  On  both  sides  of  this 
range  of  hills  the  ground  is  low,  with  a  very  fertile  soil, 
except  along  the  coast,  which  generally  is  marshy  or  sandy. 
Its  agriculture  and  manufactures  arc  in  a  very  advanced 
state.  Wheat,  liemp.  and  fruits  arc  largely  cultivated; 
iron-foundries,  glas"s-works,  tanneries,  mills,  and  beetroot- 
sugar  factories  are  in  operation,  and  im|)ortant  fisheries 
along  the  coast  are  carried  on,  especial  I  v  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Boulogne.     Pop.  (1891)  874,364. 

Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 
Pa'sha.  Pa'cha,  or  Ba'shaw  |from  Turk.  Ijaxli,  head,  or 
from  Persian  pa.  foot  +  .slidli.  king,  the  foot  of  the  king): 
an  honorary  Turkish  title;  originally  given  to  princes  of  the 
blood,  and  afterward  to  persons  honored  with  high  official 
functions.  The  title  is  now,  as  a  mark  of  favor,  sometimes 
conferred  on  persons  holding  no  ollice.  Pashas  are  of  three 
classes,  the  symbol  of  their  rank  being  formerly  .one,  two,  or 
three  horsetails,  which  were  carried  before  them  on  state  oc- 
casions. A  district  or  province  governed  liy  a  [lasha  is  called 
a  pashalik.  The  male  members  of  the  reigning  house,  with 
the  excejition  of  the  sultan,  are  called  effendi.  E.  A.  G, 
Paslit :  See  Bubastis. 

Pasilii,  pa1i-see'ne"e,  Alberto:  genre-painter;  b.  at  Bus- 
set  o,  near  Parma,  Italy,  in  1820;  pupil  of  Eugenio  Ciceri, 
E.  Isabey,  and  Theodore  Rousseau ;  was  awarded  third-class 
medal,  Paris  Salon,  1859  ;  second-class  1808  ;  medal  of  honor, 
Paris  Exposition,  1878;  ofticer  liCgion  of  Honor  1878.  His 
subjects  are  chiefly  scenes  in  Turkey  and  other  Oriental 
countries,  and  his  pictures  are  notable  for  .skillful  painting 
and  rich  effects  of  color.  His  Entrance  to  a  Mosque  is  in  the 
Wolfe  collection.  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York.  His 
studio  is  in  Paris,  but  he  spends  much  of  his  time  in  the 
East.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Pasiph'ae  (in  ( ■  r.  TlacKpiri) :  in  Grecian  myt  liology,  a  daugh- 
ter  of  Ilclius,  wife  of  ^liuos.  King  of  Crete.  ]\linos,  when 
seeking  to  become  king,  thought  to  strengthen  his  claim  on 
the  throne  liy  the  as.sertion  that  the  gmls  would  grant  what- 
ever request  he  might  make.  In  proof  thereof  he  prayed  to 
Poseidon  to  send  him  a  bull  from  the  depths  of  the  sea  for 
the  alleged  purpose  of  .sacrificing  him  to  Poseidon.  Posei- 
don sent  the  tiull,  and  the  astonished  Cretans  made  Minos 
king,  but  Minos  kept  the  miracnions  bull,  and  in  his  stead 
otTered  in  sacrifice  to  Poseidon  a  less  magniliccnl  animal 
from  his  own  herd.  Enraged  at  the  perfidy  of  ^linos,  Po- 
seidon made  the  bull  insane  and  caused  t^neen  Pasiphai!  to 
fall  desperately  in  love  with  him.  With  the  help  of  Da-da- 
1ns  Pasiphae  succeeded  in  holding  intercourse  with  the  bull, 
and  the  result  of  this  union  was  the  Minotaur  ((/.  i:). 

J.  R.  S.  Stkrrf.tt. 

Pas'kevitcll,  Ivan  Fedorovitch  :  field-marshal ;  Count 
of  Erivan,  Prince  of  War.saw  ;  b.  at  Poltava,  Russia,  May  19, 
1782;  was  educated  as  a  page  at  the  court  of  Paul  I.  at  St. 
Petersburg;  entered  the  army  in  1800;  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  cjimpais^ns  against  Napoleon,  and  was  made  a 
general  in  1814;  conducted  in  1826  the  expedition  against 
Persia,  and  took  Erivan  ;  commanded  in  1829  a  Russian 
army  in  .\sia  against  the  Turks,  and  captured  Erzeroum ; 
suppressed  in  1881  the  revolution  in  Poland,  compelled 
Wai'saw  to  capitulate,  and  was  appointed  viceroy.  As  such 
he  governed  with  severity,  but  with  justice;  the  principles 


46G 


PASO   DEL   NORTE 


PASSAVANT 


he  held  were  detested  by  the  Poles,  but  not  the  man.  In 
1849  he  led  the  Russian"  armies  into  Hungary  and  quelled 
the  revolution,  and  in  1854  he  commanded  the  Russian  army 
on  the  Danube  against  the  Turks.  This  time,  however,  he 
met  with  nothing  but  defeat  and  repulses.  He  resigned 
and  retired  to  Warsaw.     D.  at  Warsaw,  Feb.  1,  1856. 

Paso  del  Xorte :  See  El  Paso,  Texas. 

Paso  del  Xorte.  now  called  Ciuilad  Juarez  :  See  Juarez. 

Paspatis.  Alexander  George,  JI.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  philologist 
and  historian :  b.  in  the  island  of  Scio  in  the  JEgean  Sea, 
1814.  Seized  during  tlie  massacre  of  1822,  he  was  sold  as 
a  slave  at  Smyrna.  Set  free  by  his  purchaser,  he  was  taken 
by  a  philanthropist  to  the  U.  S.,  and  graduated  at  Am- 
herst College  in  1831,  He  studied  medicine  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Paris  and  Pisa  (1834-39);  practiced  his  profession 
at  Constantinople  (1840-78) ;  then  removing  to  Athens  was 
professor  in  the  university  and  president  of  the  leading 
Athenian  literary  and  philanthropic  societies.  D.  Dec.  24, 
1891.  Well  versed  in  sixteen  languages,  he  published  prin- 
cipally in  English,  French,  and  Greek.  His  chief  pulilica- 
tious  are  "tw6iii'rifia  wepl  roO  TpaiKiKov  No<roKOiielou  twv  'EtttA 
riupymv  (1802) :  Ktudes  sur  hx  Trliiiif/liiaiu'ii  ou  Buhemiens 
de  I'Empire  Of/uman  CiS^O):  Bufai/Ti^/o!  McAeVoi  (1877) :  The 
English  Vei-sinii  of  the  lien'xed  Xeio  I'estamenf  (\SS2) :  To 
Bu^avTiva  'Afa/n-wpo  Kal  ra  trepi^  kvrwv  'ISpv^ara  (1885)  :  Xiawij' 
r\w(radpiov  ( 1888) ;  no\iopKia  Kal  "AAoicns  rf^s  Koji'(rravTifOvw6K€a)S 
imb  Tuiv  ToiipKojc  (1890).  He  left  untinished.  thougli  almost 
complete. Tb  rKmaadpioi'  Tcij/  'EWriviKuv  Aia\€KTa>i'  and  'H  Kotiik- 
TqaiSTqs  n^KoTTnoi/ijaou.  hj.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Pasque  Flower  [i.  e.  Easter  flower.  See  Passover]  :  a 
name  given  to  a  ranunculaceous  herb  of  Europe  and  Asia 
(Anemoni'  pulMiliUa).  and  also  to  some  other  species  of 
Pulsatilla.  They  are  spring-blooming  plants,  with  poi- 
sonous and  medicinal  qualities.  See  the  article  Axem- 
oxe. 

PaSf|iiiiiade:  an  anonymous  attack,  of  a  witty  or  sarcas- 
tic character.  The  name  is  derived  from  a  certain  mutilated 
marble  statue,  or  group,  in  Rome,  placed  at  tlie  corner  of 
the  Palazzo  Braschi  (the  present  ministry  of  the  interior), 
upon  which  ever  since  the  fifteenth  century  it  has  been  the 
custom  to  paste  such  attacks.  This  torso,  which  really  rep- 
resents Jlenelaus  with  the  body  of  Patroelus,  looking  for. 
succor  in  the  midst  of  the  battle,  is  popularly  called  Pas- 
quiiio,  as  it  is  said,  from  a  certain  cobbler  (or  tailor,  accord- 
ing to  Castelvetro)  of  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  An- 
tonio Pasquino  by  name,  at  whose  shop,  close  by  the  present 
situation  of  the  fragment,  idlers  used  to  gather  and  make 
jests  on  piissers-by  and  on  the  events  of  the  time.  It  was 
the  custom  to  frame  the  so-called  pasquinate,  or  pasqui- 
nades, in  the  form  of  questions  or  answers  directed  to  another 
famous  statue,  called  Marforio,  situated  in  the  \'ia  di  Jlar- 
forio,  opposite  the  Mamertine  prison.  This  latter  statue,  a 
colossal  river-god,  proliably  the  Rhine  or  Danube,  is  now 
placed  in  the  middle  c^f  the  court  (cortile)  on  the  ground 
floor  of  the  Capitoliue  JIuseum.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Passaglia,  paas-siiiil'yaa.  Carlo:  theologian:  b.  near 
Lucca,  Italy,  Mar.  2,  1812 ;  was  educated  in  Rome,  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy in  the  Sapienza  in  Rome.  lie  was  considered  one  of 
the  most  learned  theologians  of  Italy,  and  was  very  popular 
on  account  of  the  enthusiasm  with  which  he  embraced  tlie 
liberal  policy  of  Pius  IX. ;  but  in  1861  he  had  to  flee  in  dis- 
guise from  Rome,  having  published  his  Pro  causa  Ifalica 
ad  epi.icopos  Jfalianos.  in  which  he  declared  that  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  pope  was  unnecessary,  and  exhorted  Pius 
IX.  to  sacrifice  his  secular  power  for  the  unity  of  Italy.  He 
was  immediately  appointed  Professor  of  Jloral  Philosophy 
at  the  University  of  Turin,  and  continued  his  polemics 
against  the  pope  in  a  series  of  brilliantly  written  pamphlets. 
In  1863  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Italian  parliament, 
and  openly  reproached  the  Government  for  cowardice  on 
.iccount  of  the  continued  occupation  of  Rome  by  the  French. 
Among  his  works  are  a  treatise  on  eternal  punishment  and 
a  criticism  of  Kenan's  Vie  de  Jesus.  D.  in  Turin,  Mar.  14, 
1887. 

Passaic:  city  (formerly  known  as  Acquackanonk);  Pas- 
saic CO.,  N.  J. ;  on  the  Passaic  river,  and  the  Erie,  the  Del., 
Lack,  and  W.,  and  Susquehanna  railways ;  5  miles  S.  E.  of 
Paterson,  the  county-.seat,  12  miles  X.  \V.  of  New  York  city 
(for  location,  see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref,  2-E)  It  has  gas 
and  electric  light  planis,  3  electric  street-railways,  system  of 
water-works  supplied  from  above  the  Passaic  falls,  4  miles 


distant,  24  churches,  6  public-school  buildings,  public-school 
propei'ty  valued  at  over  |120,000,  free  public  library,  a  na- 
tional bank  with  capital  of  |100,000,  3  incorporated  banks, 
and  2  daily  and  5  weekly  newspapers.  The  industrial  estab- 
lishments include  dye  and  print  works,  rubber-works,  2 
woolen-factories,  worsted-mill,  satinet-mill.  2  bleacheries,  2 
planing-mills,  2  brick-yards,  extensive  vineyards,  large 
winery,  and  chemical-works.  The  city  has  a  picturesque 
and  healtliful  location,  and  contains  the  residences  of  many 
New  York  business  men.  Pop,  (1880)  6.532;  (1890)  13,028; 
(1895)  17,894,  Editor  of  •'  Xews." 

Passaic  River:  a  stream  which  rises  in  Morris  eo.,  N,  J., 
and  after  a  tortuous  course  of  100  miles  flows  into  Xewark 
Bay,  3  miles  from  Newark.  It  is  navigable  for  13  miles. 
At  Paterson  it  has  a  remarkable  fall  of  72  feet,  affording  a 
very  valuable  water-power. 

Passaiiiaqnod'dy  Bay:  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  dcean, 
forming  part  of  tlie  boundary  between  Maine  and  New 
Brunswick.  It  abounds  in  good  and  deep  harbors  and  in 
fine  views.  Picturesque  islands  are  numerous  and  the  fish- 
eries are  important.  Its  tides  average  25  feet  in  rise.  It 
receives  the  noble  estuary  of  the  St.  Croix. 

Passan,  paa'sow :  town  of  Bavaria;  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Hz,  Inn,  and  Danube :  72  miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Ratisbon 
(see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  6-G).  It  consi,sts  of  three 
different  parts,  built  on  the  wooded  hills  between  the  rivers 
and  defended  by  two  fortresses  and  eight  detached  forts. 
It  has  several  fine  buildings,  breweries,  distilleries,  manu- 
factures of  tobacco,  leather,  porcelain,  metal-ware  and  mir- 
rors, and  a  considerable  trade  in  iron,  timber,  wheat,  and 
Passau  crucibles.  The  town  grew  up  round  an  ancient 
Roman  camp,  and  in  739  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
founded  by  St.  Boniface.  By  the  treaty  signed  here  in  1553 
by  Cliarles  V.  and  the  allied  Protestant  princes  religious 
libeity  was  conferred  on  the  Protestants  of  Germany.  The 
cathedral  and  a  great  part  of  the  town  were  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1662.  It  was  annexed  to  Bavaria  in  1805.  Pop.  (189()) 
16,633.  Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Passavant',  Johann  David  :  art  critic  ;  b.  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  (Termany,  Sept.  18,  1787;  studied  the  art  of 
]iainting  in  Paris  and  Rome,  but  devoted  himself  subse- 
quently to  the  theoretical  and  critical  treatment  of  the  art, 
and  became  inspector  of  the  Stiidel  Jluseum  in  his  native 
city,  where  he  died  Aug.  12,  1861.  He  wrote  Rafael  von, 
Urhino  und  sein  Vater  frj'oi'nwrei' <Sn«^o  (3  vols.,  1839-58); 
Jjie  chri.stliche  Kutisf  in  Sjian ie7i  (1S53)-  Le  Peinlre-Ora- 
veur  (6  vols.,  1860-64). 

Passavaiit,  William  Alfred.  D.  D.  :  philanthropist ;  b. 
of  Huguenot  ancestry  at  Zelienople.  Butler  co.,'Pa.,  Oct. 
9,  1821  :  graduated  at  Jefferson  College,  Canonsburg,  1840, 
and  at  Lutheran  Theological  Seminary,  Gettysburg,  1842; 
was  pastor  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  1842-44.  and  at  Pittsburg, 
Pa..  1844-55.  After  1855  his  life  was  devoted  to  the  service 
t>f  various  benevolent  institutions,  founded  by  his  instru- 
mentality. He  founded  successively  hospitals  in  Pittsburg 
(1849),  Milwaukee  (1864).  Chicago,  and  Jacksonville.  Ill,, 
and  orphanages  at  Zelienople  and  Rochester,  Pa.,  and  Mt. 
Vernon,  X^.  Y.,  besides  being  closely  identified  with  the  be- 
ginning of  the  orphanages  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  and  Boston, 
Mass,  With  a  layman,  A.  Louis  Thiel,  he  founded  in  1870 
Thiel  College,  Greenville,  Pa.  In  1891  he  estalilished  the 
Ijutheran  Theological  Seminary  in  Chicago.  For  these  in- 
stitutions it  is  estimated  that  he  secured  during  his  lifetime 
over  ^1.000,000.  He  was  the  fiist  to  introduce  the  order  of 
deaconesses  into  the  U.  S.  He  was  eilitor  of  T/ie  Jlission- 
arij,  Pittsburg,  from  1845  until,  in  1861,  it  was  united  with 
The  Lutheran,  Philadelphia,  of  which  he  was  for  many 
years  coeditor.  In  1880  he  founded  at  Pittsburg  The 
Wor/cmnn,  which  was  still  in  his  care  at  his  death  June  3, 
1894.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Pittsburg  Synod,  and 
the  great  organizer  of  the  missionary  work  in  the  Ameri- 
canized portion  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Emigrant  House  and  Mission  in  New 
York,  and  of  the  General  Council  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
in  America.  He  had  superior  gifts  as  a  preacher,  but  they 
were  subordinated  to  his  special  calling  as  an  organizer  of 
Church  work.  il.  E.  Jacobs. 

Passavaiit.  ^VILLIAM  Alfred,  Jr. :  clergyman :  b.  at 
Pittsl>urg,  Pa.,  Jan.  23.  1857;  educated  at  Western  Univer- 
sity, Pittsliurg,  Muhlenberg  College  and  Theological  Semi- 
nary. Philadelphia  :  entered  the  ministry  1879  ;  was  pastorat 
Baden,  Pa.,  and  Pittsburg  (East  End).   Editor  of  The  Work- 


PASS  CHRISTIAN 


PASSOVEU 


467 


man,  with  his  father,  1881-86.  In  1887  he  became  sole  edi- 
tor of  T/ie  Wurkman,  and  in  1889  suiUM-intendent  of  Eng- 
lish Home  Missions  of  the  General  Council.  Upon  his 
father's  death,  in  1894,  he  succeeded  hini  jus  director  of 
benevolent  institutions  and  editor,  II.  E.  .l.tcoBS. 

Pass  Cliristiaii :  town:  Harrison  co.,  Jliss.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  .Mississippi,  rcf.  9-11);  on  Mississippi  Sound,  and 
the  Louisv,  and  Na.sliv.  Kailroad;  58  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  New 
Orleans,  83  miles  W.  .S.  W.  of  Mobile.  It  is  the  largest 
health  resort  on  the  Gulf  cojist,  and  has  a  water  frontage  of 
6  miles,  along  which  is  a  broad  shell-paved  avenue  lying  un- 
der the  shade  of  magnificent  live-oaks  and  lofty  magnolias. 
Projecting  into  the  sound  are  numerous  fishing  and  prom- 
enade piers,  dotted  with  picturesque  i)agodas.  The  average 
winter  temperature  is  GO  F.,  and  the  prevailing  winter 
breezes  are  from  the  .southward  across  the  (iulf  cjf  ]\Ie.\ico. 
The  town  has  four  large  hotels  an<l  many  boarding-houses 
and  tasteful  cottages,  and  is  in  an  agricultural  and  stock- 
raising  region.     l{esi<ient  pop.  (1880)  1,410;  (189(1)  1,705. 

I'assRHifpr-pigcon  :  a  wild  jiigeon  {liclopisti^/i  miyrato- 
riu.t)  of  Central  and  Ea.stern  North  America,  deriving  its 
name  from  its  lung  migrations  in  search  of  food.  The  body 
is  about  S  inches  in  length,  and  the  tail  is  the  same  length. 
The  bird  is  slaty  Idue  above,  shaded  with  olive  gray  on  the 
back  and  wings,  pale-purplish  chestnut  l>elow,  changing 
into  white  on  the  belly,  iridescent  on  the  sides  of  the  neck. 
It  builds  a  flimsy  nest  in  trees  and  bushes,  and  lays  one 
white  egg,  sometimes  two.  The  passenger-iiigeon  feeds  on 
various  seeds,  but  is  specially  fond  of  acorns,  beech-nuts, 
and  rice.  It  is  gregarious  and  formerly  occurred  in  va.st 
flocks,  sometimes  numbering  millions.  Owing  to  continued 
persecution  on  its  breeding-grounds,  where  thousands  were 
taken  in  nets,  these  enormous  flocks  are  no  longer  found, 
and  in  the  greater  part  of  its  natural  habitat  the  bird  has 
been  practically  exterminated.  F.  A.  Ll'cas. 

I'asserat.  paas'raa',  Jean:  Latinist  and  poet;  b,  at 
Troyes,  France,  in  15o4.  lie  led  a  rather  unsettled  life 
till  15(59,  when  he  went  to  Paris  and  found  a  protector  in 
Henri  ile  Mesme,  He  succeeded  Ramus  at  the  College  de 
Prance,  where  he  attracted  many  puiiils.  He  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  t'atullus,  TibuUus,  and  Propcrtius,  composed 
epigrams  in  Latin  and  French,  and  poems  distinguished  by 
alert  grace,  gay  wit,  ami  fxprit  gaiihjis,  and  was  one  of  the 
chief  authors  of  the  Hatire  Jliinippiie,  a  satire  on  the  Eigne. 
I).  Sept.  12,  1602.  His  works  were  edited  bv  P.  Hlanchemain 
(Paris,  1881).  A.  (j.  CankiivLD. 

Pas'sercs  [  Mocl.  Lat.  (phir.),  from.  Lat.  piissfr.ii  tyjiical 
perching  bird):  name  applied  to  a  group  of  birds  contjiin- 
ing  the  typical  song-binls.  or  perching  bird.s,  variously  con- 
sidered as  an  order,  sulj-order,  or  even  as  of  lower  value. 
Besides  other  technical  characters,  they  have  an  a'gitliog- 
nathus  palate,  the  deep  plantar  tendons  free,  manubrium 
Y-shaped,  and  tarsus  with  four  to  six  lendinal  perforations. 
There  are.  except  in  one  geiuis,  four  tr)es,  on  the  same  level, 
and  the  fourth  is  never  turned  backward.  The  group  in- 
cludes .something  like  5,000  species,  and  is  the  eipiivalent  of 
Huxley's  Conicintun-phie ;  it  comprises  the  Clanuitores  and 
OsciNES  (q.  v.).  aiul  corresponds  pretty  nearly  to  the  Inses- 
sores  of  other  authors.  F.  A.  LtTCAS. 

Passion-flower:  a  name  in  its  wi<Iest  sense  applicable- 
to  nearly  all  the  species  of  I'uxsifliirii,  the  principal  genus 
and  type  of  the  family  I'tisxijhirnfeiv,  mostly  climbing 
plants  of  tropical  .\mericii,  and  a  few  other  ornamental 
species  in  common  cidtivation,  Tiie  nanu'  is  diTived  from 
the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  various  parts  of  the  flower 
to  the  means  of  our  Lord's  passion  and  death;  llu^  nails,  the 
crown  of  thorns,  the  five  wounds,  and  even  the  hammer  and 
the  cross  itself,  having  been  i<lentified  in  the  blossom.  There 
are  nearly  150  species  of  true  passion-flower.  Some  of 
these  bear  e<lil)le  fruits  (calleil  i/rati(iililla) ;  many  have 
active  medicinal  powers,  and  numy  others  are  cultivated  in 
greenhouses  for  their  lieauliful  flowers.  Of  these' the  best- 
known  is  the  I'assilliirn  civruli-n,  a.  native  of  Brazil.  The 
U.  S.  has  about  ten  native  species,  of  which  P.  innirnii/a  is 
showy,  and  the  best  known.  Its  fruit,  called  May-pop,  is 
eaten  in  the  Southern  Stales,       Revised  by  L.  II,  Bailey. 

Passion-flower  Family  :  the  Passitloracetp,  a  small 
group  (250  species)  of  dicotyledonous  trees,  shrubs,  and 
herl)s,  natives  for  the  most  j)art  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
regions,  especially  of  the  New  World.  The  flowers,  which 
are  usually  showy,  have  a  superior  compound  ovary,  thrce- 
lobed  style,  live  stamens,  five  petals,  and  five  sepals,  the 


perianth  segments  often  being  united  (gamosepalous  or 
gamopetalous),  JIany  sf)ecies  of  the  principal  genus.  Pas- 
sijlora,  are  climbers,  and  are  grown  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. Their  beautiful  flowers  have  a  renuirkable  structure ; 
the  shallow  caly.x-tube  bears  the  petals  and  a  "  crown  "'  con- 
sisting of  several  concentric  series  of  colored  filaments,  sur- 
rounding a  columnar  extension  of  the  receptacle  on  which 
are  borne  first  the  stamens,  and  still  higher  the  ovary  with 
its  three  spreading  styles.  Cuahi-es  E.  Bessey. 

Passionists,  Congregration  of  the:  a  religious  congrega- 
tion in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  fouiuled  at  Ovado,  Pied- 
mont, in  1720  by  Paul  of  the  Cro.ss  (1094-177.5).  It  was  c(m- 
firmed  by  Benedict  XIV.  in  1741  and  1746.  and  by  Pius  \'I.  in 
1775.  A  congregation  of  women  was  added"  before  the 
founder's  death.  The  Passionists  are  numerous  in  the  U.S. 
and  Euro|ie.  They  jiractice  many  austerities,  and  devote 
themselves  to  local  missions  and  "the  work  of  i>reaching. 
The  mother-house  is  on  the  Celian  Hill  in  Rome.  See  Jlta- 
tory  of  licligious  Orders,  by  Rev.  CI  W.  Currier  (1894).  p. 
■Ifi'S-  Revised  by  J.  J.  Keane. 

Passion-plays:  See  Miracle-plays  and  Ober  Ammergau. 

Passion-tide :  a  name  given  to  the  last  two  weeks  of 
Ticnt,  the  first  week  of  which  is  Passion  Week  and  the  last 
Holy  Week  (7.  v.);  but  poi)Hlarly,  Holy  Week  is  called 
Passion  Week  also. 

Passive  State  (or  Passivity)  of  Metals:  terms  applied 
by  chemists  to  certain  phenomena  having  a  very  wide  range, 
and  as  yet  very  inade(|uately  investigated,  which  do  not  all 
seem  likely  to  be  referred  ultimately  to  the  same  cause.  It 
is  found  that  a  nnniber  of  the  metals  which  are  acted  on 
and  dissolved  with  energy  by  certain  acids  and  other  chem- 
ical solvents  may  under  special  circumstances  become  what 
is  called  "  passive,"  the  action  of  the  acid  or  other  agent  being 
totally  suspended,  and  the  metal  remaining  immersed  there- 
in often  with  a  clean,  brilliant  metallic  surface,  and  having 
lost  entirely  the  power  to  decompose  the  liquid.  Strong 
nitric  acid  is  the  solvent  that  has  been  best  investigated  in 
this  relation,  though  many  other  agents  behave  similarly. 
Keir  first  observed  the  phenomenon  in  the  case  of  iron 
immersed  in  strong  nitric  acid  and  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver,  and  Scluinbein,  Faraday,  and  Ilerschel  have  been 
among  its  most  distinguished  investigators.  Iron  is  made 
passive  toward  nitric  acid  of  density  =  1-2  to  1-35  by  a 
number  of  different  methods.  A  wire  heated  at  one  end 
till  entilmed  with  black  ferroso-ferric  oxide  becomes  pas- 
sive. n(}t  only  where  heated,  but  for  a  certain  distance  be- 
yond, showing  that  it  is  not  the  film  which  merely  pro- 
tects mechanically.  If  first  dipped  in  fuming  nitric  acid 
or  in  a  mixture  of  weaker  acid  with  oil  of  vitriol,  it  be- 
comes passive  toward  the  weaker  aei<i  itself.  Contact  of 
an  iron  wire  which  is  being  powerfully  acted  on  with 
another  wire  in  the  passive  state,  or  with  a  platinum  or 
gold  wire,  will  often  instantly  transform  the  first  wire  to 
the  passive  condition.  An  iron  wire  which  is  made  the 
positive  [Kile  of  a  voltaic  circuit,  the  negative  pole  being 
platinum,  becomes  passive,  and  remains  so  when  the  cur- 
rent ceases.  All  the  phenomena  of  passivity  are  usually 
referred  to  voltaic  action,  but  it  is  as  yet  doulitful  whether 
they  are  all  of  this  nature:  and  it  must  be  stated  that  little 
or  no  progress  has  yet  been  made  toward  a  clear  understand- 
ing of  their  causes.  Revised  by  Ira  Ricmsen. 

Passover  [transl.  of  Wch.  pfKach,  passover,  Easter  (liter,, 
a  jiassing  over,  deriv.  of  pasneli,  jiass  over),  whence  Gr. 
Trdax",  whence  hat.  pas'c?ia,  whence  O.  Eng.  pascha  >  Eng. 
/msc/i  :  cf.  pnKclinl]:  the  first  and  the  greatest  of  the  three 
annual  festivals  of  the  .Jews:  instituted  by  Moses  in  com- 
memoration of  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  Egy|)- 
tiaii  bondage,  and  celebrated  from  the  15th  to  the  21st  day 
of  Nisan,  both  inclusive,  thus  falling  between  our  March  and 
April,  at  the  time  of  the  first  full  moon  in  the  s])ring.  The 
first  and  the  last  day  of  the  festival  were  kept  holy  and  ob- 
served by  abstaining  from  all  work,  by  prayers,  hymns, 
thanksgivings,  and  other  ceremonies,  and  during  the  whole 
period  the  bread  was  eaten  without  leaven,  whence  the 
name  of  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread.  On  the  evening  of 
the  14th  the  Passover  Iamb  was  killed  by  the  head  of  the 
family.  The  animal  should  be  one  year  old.  male,  without 
blemish,  and  it  should  be  roasted  entire,  with  uid)roken 
bones,  and  consumed  entirely  in  one  meal.  The  blooil  was 
sprinkled  on  the  doorsill  in  commemoration  of  the  night 
preceding  the  exodus  from  Egyjit,  when  the  angel  went 
through  the  country  and  slew  all  tlie  first-born,  but  pa,ssed 


468 


PASSOW 


PASTORAL   POETRY 


over  the  houses  of  the  Israelites.  The  fat  pieces  were  burned 
on  the  altar  as  a  sacrifice,  and  the  family,  clad  in  traveling 
garb,  gathered  to  partake  of  the  roasted  Iamb,  with  prayers 
and  hymns.  On  account  of  some  uncertainty  with  respect 
to  the  fixing  of  the  new  moon  by  the  Sanhedrin  at  Jerusa- 
lem, the  Jews  who  lived  in  foreign  countries  in  "  exile  "  were 
ordered  to  celebrate  all  their  festivals  on  two  successive 
days — a  law  which  is  still  in  force  among  the  orthodox.  At 
present,  however,  the  Passover  feast  has  generally  simply 
the  character  of  a  hallowed  family  feast  among  the  Jew.s: 
but  as  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ  coincided  with 
the  celebration  of  the  Passover,  many  of  the  symbols,  com- 
memorations, and  ceremonies  of  this  Jewish  festival  passed 
into  the  Christian  Easter  feast,  receiving  a  broader  and 
more  ideal  signification.  For  an  interesting  account  of  the 
Samaritan  Passover,  still  observed  on  Mt.  Gerizim.  see  John 
Mills's  Three  Months'  Residence  at  JVablus  (1864).  For 
modern  Jewish  practice,  see  Edersheim.  Home  and  Syna- 
gogue of  the  Modern  Jew,  and  Bodenschatz,  Kirctiliclie  Ver- 
fassung  der  Juden.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Pas'sow,  Franz  Ludwig  Karl  Friedrr-h:  philologist; 
b.  at  Ludwigslust,  Germany,  Sept.  30, 1T86 ;  was  educated  at 
Gotha  and  Leipzig ;  became  in  1807  Greek  professor  at  Wei- 
mar; was  1810-14  director  of  the  Conradinum  at  Jenkau 
near  Dantzic ;  became  in  1815  Professor  of  Ancient  Lit- 
erature in  the  University  of  Breslau ;  in  1829  became  also 
director  of  the  academic  museum  of  art.  D.  at  Breslau. 
Mar.  11,  1833.  He  published  texts  and  translations  of  Per- 
iiH/s(1809);  jWhs(B!<s(1810):  Longns  (1811);  author  of  Turn- 
ziel  (Breslau,  1818) ;  an  admirable  Greek-German  lexicon 
(Leipzig,  1819-24 ;  4th  ed.  1831) ;  (frnndzuge  dirgriechischen 
vnd  rumisclien  Literatur  n?id Kunfsgenclur/ifeil'n'rlin,  1816: 
2d  ed.  1829);  and  Opuscula  Academica  (edited  by  Bach. 
Leipzig,  1835).  See  Wachler,  Passows  Leben  und  Brtefe 
(Breslau,  1839), 

Pas'ta,  GruDiTTA  Nigri  :  opera-singer;  b.  at  Saronno,  near 
I\[ilan,  Italy,  Apr.  9.  1798,  of  Jewish  parentage  ;  received  her 
musical  education  in  the  Conservatory  of  Milan ;  made  her 
debut  as  a  singer  in  1815  on  the  minor  stages  of  Leghorn 
and  Parma;  sang  in  1816  in  Paris  and  London  without  pro- 
ducing any  great  impression  ;  returned  to  Italy  and  appeared 
with  better  success  in  Venice  and  Milan  in  1819.  Her  great 
career  began  at  Verona  during  the  congress  of  1822.  In  the 
following  years  she  sang  with  great  success  in  Paris  and  Lon- 
don, and  subseipiently  in  Naples,  where  Pacini  wrote  his 
Niobe  for  her,  and  in  Milan,  where  Bellini  composed  his 
Norma  and  La  Sonnambula  for  her.  Her  last  engagement 
was  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1840.  I),  at  her  villa  on  Lake 
Corao,  Apr.  1,  1865.  Revised  by  B.  B.  Vallentine. 

Pas'tel  [=  Fr.  from  Ital.  pastello,  liter.,  a  small  loaf, 
pastry,  dhmn.  ot  pasto,  food  <  Lat.prt»-  fu.s.  deriv.  oi  pas'  cere, 
pastum,  feed] :  a  colored  crayon  made  of  pipeclay  or  other 
ojiaque  material  mixed  with  gum-water  and  some  pigment. 
Pastel  pictures  are  executed  on  roughened  paper  and  jiarch- 
ment,  and  the  color  is  generally  worked  on  with  the  finger. 
This  kind  of  picture  has  to  be  [irotected  by  glass,  as  every 
touch  mars  the  surface. 

Pasteur',  Louis,  D.Sc:  chemist  and  biologist ;  b.  at  Dole, 
department  of  Jura,  France,  Dec.  27, 1822  ;  studied  physical 
sciences,  especially  chemistry,  graduating  D.  Sc.  from  the 
ficole  Normale  in  1847.  and  was  appointed  professor  in  1848 
at  Dijon,  in  1849  at  .Strassburg,  in  1854  at  Lille,  in  1857  at 
Paris,  where  he  was  director  of  the  Ecole  Xormale;  in,1863 
Professor  of  Geology,  Physics,  and  Chemistry  at  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux-Arts,  and  in  1867  Professor  of  Chemistry  at  the 
Sorbonne.  Besides  a  number  of  essays  in  Annates  de 
Cliimie,  he  wrote  Nouvel  Exempte  de  Fernientatinn  (1863) ; 
Etudes  sur  te  Vin  (1866);  Etudes  sur  te  Vinaigre  (1868); 
Etudes  sur  la  Maladie  des  Vers  de  Soie  (1870) ;  Les  Microbes 
(1878).  Several  of  his  chemical  works  received  prizes,  and 
in  1874  the  French  Government  gave  him  a  pension,  in- 
creasing it  the  following  year,  in  consideration  of  his  serv- 
ices to  science  and  industry.  In  1884  he  laid  before  the 
Institute  a  method  of  curing  or  preventing  Hydrophobia 
(?.  r.)  by  inoculating  with  the  poisonous  virus  in  an  attenu- 
ated form,  an<l  the  coiniiii.ssion  of  investigation  declared  the 
methoil  edicacious.  (See  Louis  Pasteiir :  his  Life  and 
Labors.  1885.)  'I"he  Pasteur  Institute,  at  Paris,  was  formally 
opened  Nov.  14,  1888,  in  the  ]iresence  of  President  Carnot 
and  other  distinguished  persons.  Pasteur  was  a  member  of 
many  foreign  and  domestic  scientific  societies,  and  had  been 
decorated  by  mo.st  of  the  European  governments.  1).  Sept. 
28,  1895.  Revised  by  S.  T.  Ar.mstronu. 


Pasteurized  Milk  ;  See  Milk. 

Pas'to :  a  town  in  the  southern  part  of  the  department 
of  Cauca,  Colombia ;  on  a  high  plateau  at  the  foot  of  the 
volcano  of  Pasto ;  about  50  miles  from  the  boundary  of 
Ecuador;  8,650  feet  above  sea-level  (see  map  of  .South  Amer- 
ica, ref.  3-B).  Pop.  about  10,000.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest 
towns  of  the  republic  (founded  1539),  is  beautifully  situated, 
has  a  healthful  and  cool  climate,  and  is  the  center  of  a 
wheat-growing  and  grazing  district ;  there  is  an  active  trade 
with  Ecuador.  Pasto  is  a  bishop's  see.  It  was  an  impor- 
tant Spanish  stronghold  during  the  war  for  independence. 
In  1834  it  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  The  volcano  of 
Pasto,  or  La  Galera,  is  the  "culminating  point  (13,990  feet)  of 
the  "  knot "  whence  the  three  Cordilleras  of  the  Colombian 
Andes  diverge.     It  is  frequently  in  eruption.         H.  H.  S. 

Pastor  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  pastor,  herdsman,  shepherd, 
deriv.  of  pas  cere,  pastum,  feed,  pasture];  a  genus  of  star- 


The  rose-colored  pastor. 


lings,  having  representatives  in  Europe  and  the  Old  World 
tropical  regions.  They  are  extremely  useful  as  destroyers  of 
insects,  but  sometimes  are  destructive  to  small  fruits.  P. 
roseus.  the  rose-colored  pastor  of  Europe,  is  a  handsome 
bird,  a  good  singer,  and  a  favorite  cage-bird. 

Pastoral  Poetry:  poetry  which  affects  the  matter  or 
manner  of  rustic  life,  not  for  the  purposes  of  accurate,  even 
though  sjTiipathetic,  description,  but  as  a  purely  artistic  de- 
vice for  conveying  the  interests  and  emotions  of  the  poet 
himself,  and  of  the  .society,  not  rural,  in  which  he  lives.  The 
pastoral  forms  are  many — idyls,  eclogues,  plays,  or  romances, 
in  which  the  leading  roles  are  given  to  she])herds,  shepherd- 
esses, or  other  country  folk,  all  bearing  this  generic  name. 
Contradictory  though  it  appear  at  first  sight,  the  pastoral 
has  historically  been  one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  artificial 
of  all  literary  varieties,  and  has  generally  been  ]u-oduced 
only  in  societies  that  had  reached  an  advanced  stage  of  re- 
finement. This  by  no  means  implies,  however,  as  lias  some- 
times been  said,  that  it  is  the  natural  expression  of  luxuri- 
ous and  corrupt  manners  and  morals,  or  that  it  always  in- 
dicates in  both  poet  and  audience  the  lassitude  and  the  dis- 
enchantment with  real  life  which  mark  culture  over-ripe 
and  turning  to  decay. 

The  beginning  of  the  pastoral,  as  we  know  it,  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Idgls  of  Theocritus  [q.  r.).  who  seems  indeed 
to  have  been  himself  the  literary  inventor  of  it.  Not  that 
he  had  not.  probalily,  much  upon  which  to  base  the  new 
form.  There  is  a  tradition  from  his  own  time  that  bucolic 
songs  in  dialogue  had  a  religious  origin,  and  were  connected 
either  with  the  cult  of  Artemis  (cf.  the  ancient  note  wepi  t^s 
evpta-eas  Twy  PovKoKiKwv  given  in  the  editions  of  the  poet)  or 
with  the  sorrows  of  I)a]ihnis  (cf.  .i^<]lian.  Tar.  Hist.,  x.,  18). 
That  there  is  some  truth  in  this  is  made  more  probable  by 
the  fact  that  the  famous  Indian  pastoral-drama  tlie  Gita- 
govinda  of  Jayadcva  deals  with  a  religious  theme — the 
love  of  Krishna,  in  guise  of  a  shepherd,  for  the  fair  shep- 
herdess Radha.  None  the  less,  Theocritus  has  the  honor  of 
having  first  seen  the  literary  possibilities  of  the  genre,  and, 
aliove  all.  of  having  used  pastoral  dialogue  as  a  veil  for 
his  own  sentiments  and  those  of  other  real  persons  in  the 
refined  society  in  which  he  lived.  This  was  the  one  original 
invention  of  the  Alexandrian  period  of  Greek  literature,  and 
it  deservedly  proved  an  immense  success. 

The  Greek  followers  of  Theocritus  are  not  many  nor  very 


PASTORAL   POETRY 


469 


important.  Tlie  best  known  are  Bion  and  Mosehvis,  poets 
of  the  sami'  sfhdul :  and  LoNCfs  {q.  v.),  wlicisc  dale  is  iinccT- 
tain,  but  wiinsr  I)itp/t/iis  (tnd  ililo",  a  prcsc  r<iinanci',  rcprf- 
sents  a  stage  uf  ili-Vflopiiient  of  the  pastural  nMimvcd  by 
centuries  from  its  origin.  Far  more  important  for  literary 
history  is  the  fact  that  tlie  pastoral  was  taken  up  by  Kiuuau 
writer?,  and  thus  acclimated  in  Western  Kurope.  Vergil 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  write  Latin  idyls  (eclngw,  as 
he  called  them),  and  he  remains  the  chief  pastoral  poet  of 
Rome.  Tlie  pastoral  idea,  howevi'r,  already  lii'gan  to  tran- 
scend the  narrow  limits  of  the  iilyl  proper,  and  to  ap|iear  in 
various  guises.  Horace,  Catnlhis,  and  Tibulhis  all  show  the 
influence  of  it  :  and  toward  the  end  of  the  empire,  as  in 
Ausonius  and  Claudian,  it  is  a  permanent  motive  in  poetry. 
Even  in  the  Latin  poetry  of  tlie  Middle  Ages  it  is  to  be 
found,  as  in  the  work  of  Alcuin  and  other  writers  of  Charle- 
magne's court. 

In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  a  new  and  appar- 
ently indep<Mident  stream  added  itself  to  the  (Mirrent  of  the 
classic  |iastond  tradition.  This  was  the  period  wlien  the 
courtly  and  chivalric  poetry,  both  lyri<5  and  narrative,  of 
the  .Middle  .\ges  fully  eflloresced ;  and  among  the  numerous 
poetic  forms  then  invented  and  widely  u.sed  appears  the 
jiastoral  lyric,  called  in  French  iiaslourtlie,  in  ProvetH.-al 
paslareld'or  }i(i.it(irfla.  Similar  forms  are  to  be  found  in 
almost  all  the  Romance  literatures  of  the  time,  and  it  is 
very  dilUcult  to  say  whether  they  reproduce  with  some 
exactness  veritable  |)opuIar  songs,  or  are  really,  as  they 
seem  to  be,  comiiletely  artificial  in  character.  At  any  rate, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  their  wide  popularity. 

It  was  in  Italy  that  the  fusion  was  to  come  between  these 
pastorals  and  the  older  cl.assical  ones,  and  it  was  in  Italy, 
also,  that  the  great  extension  of  the  pastoral  to  rnmaiices 
and  dramas,  as  well  as  idyls,  was  to  take  place.  The  first 
notable  examples  of  imitation  of  the  classic  idyl  by  Itali.uis 
are  the  frloyce  that  have  come  down  to  us,  jinrporting  to 
have  piLssed  between  Dante  and  a  certain  (tiovanni  del  \'ir- 
gilio,  teacher  of  grammar  at  Bologna.  Whether  the  attribu- 
tion be  jusi  or  not.  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  date  from 
the  first  ((uarter  of  the  fourteenth  century.  As  was  to  be 
expected,  the  humanistic  revival  of  classical  studies  that 
begins  with  I'elrareh  greatly  helped  the  sjiread  of  the  ec- 
logue. The  twelve  poems  of  Petrarch's  own  Cdrmeii.  Iiii- 
colicum  are  the  beginning  of  a  long  series  of  imitations, 
many  of  them  remarkably  beautiful,  of  the  pastoral  man- 
ner of  Vergil.  In  Boccaccio,  the  friend  and  coadjutor  of 
Petrarch  in  humanism,  but  in  whom  the  mediaeval  poet  and 
story-teller  was  much  stronger,  we  have  the  beginning  of 
the  amplification  of  the  pastoral,  of  which  mention  has  been 
made.  Xaturally.  he  tried  his  hand,  thcjugh  with  poor  suc- 
cess, at  the  Latin  eclogue  (in  his  Bucolicon) ;  but  in  his  Ital- 
ian pastorals,  both  in  prose  and  in  verse,  we  have  an  impor- 
tant addition  to  the  imaginative  forms  of  Kuropean  litera- 
ture. These  pastorals  are  all  of  them  directly  or  iiulireclly 
connected  with  Boccwcio's  life  at  Naples  and  his  love  for 
Maria,  natural  daughter-  of  King  Robert  ("  Fiammetta  "). 
The  circumstances  of  this  passion  made  it  all  the  more  nat- 
ural for  tlii^  poet  to  veil  his  account  of  it  in  pastoral  allegory, 
as  he  does  in  his  prose  Fiammcttii  and  yinftde  d'Aineto  (the 
latter  interspersed  with  songs),  and  his  N infale  fiesolano  in 
ollnva  rimn. 

The  example  of  Boccaccio  proved  fruitful.  .As  tlie  Re- 
naissance ailvanccd,  as  the  knowledge  of  first  the  Latin 
then  the  (ireek  classics  extended  itself,  Italian  poets  aiul 
romancers  inclined  more  and  more  to  strive  for  an  idi^al 
beauty  remote,  from  the  uglinesses  of  real  life,  such  as  could 
be  found  only  in  the  idyllic  world  of  Theocritus,  Vergil, 
and  Longus.  There  is  no  stranger  or  more  interesting 
phenomenon  in  the  history  of  human  culture  than  this 
growth  in  thefifteentli  and  sixteenth  centuries  of  the  dream 
of  a  primitive  and  unspoileil  time,  an  .Vrcailia — a  golden, 
Saturnian  age,  as  X'ergil  had  called  it.  Imaginations  turned 
eagerly  to  those  classics  that  were  tlii>ught  to  have  depicted 
such  a  world  ;  and  it  is  deeply  significant  that  of  all  the 
Greek  poets,  TheoiTitns  should  have  been  the  first  to  be 
printed  (14X1).  It  will  be  impo.ssible  here  to  mention  even 
a  tithe  of  the  works,  whether  in  Latin  or  Italian,  that  belong 
to  this  tendency.  We  can  dwell  in  pa.ssing  only  on  those 
that  mark  the  perfection  of  the  chief  pastoral  forms.  Of 
these,  two  in  i>artieular.  tlie  romance  and  the  drama,  had  a 
remarkable  vogue  l)olh  in  and  out  of  Italy. 

The  pure  pastoral  romance  may  be  said  to  have  reached 
its  final  stage  in  the  Arcadia  of  the  Neapolitan  Sanna/aro 
(1453-1530).     Written  in  alternate  prose  and  verse,  this  work 


contains  within  itself  all  the  elements  that  had  been  tending 
to  unite  themselves  in  one  artistic  whole.  Kverywhere  in 
it  ap|iear  reminiscences  of  the  classics,  everywhere  idyllic 
ilreams.  The  influence  of  Boccaccio  is  strong,  love  of  na- 
ture and  of  the  rustic  life  of  tlie  fair  country  about  Naples 
gives  romantic  charm,  and  finally  the  poet  has  known  how 
to  make  tlic  whole  alive  with  a  certain  veiled,  but  none  the 
less  certainly  personal,  feeling.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the 
Arcadia  swiftly  made  its  way  throughout  Europe,  and 
initiated  a  new  style  in  all  the  chief  literatures. 

The  rise  of  the  piustoral  drama  was  somewhat  later  than 
that  of  the  romance.  Apparently  its  origin  is  to  be  sought 
in  the  amcebanc  recitation  of  Latin  and  Italian  eclogues  of 
which  we  hear  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  Italian  drama, 
as  a  whole,  however,  did  not  till  this  time  free  itself  from 
its  religious  associations ;  an<l  it  is  interesting  to  find  that 
the  first  wholly  secular  play,  Politian's  Orfcu  (recited  at 
Mantua  in  July,  1471),  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  pas- 
toral. Through  the  sixteenth  century  we  can  follow  the 
series  of  dramatic  eclogues  and  pastoral  dramas  until  at  the 
end  we  have  those  ultimate  specimens  of  the  genre — Tasso's 
Aminla  (written  in  1573)  ami  Guariiii's  Puntar  Fido  (1st  ed. 
1590). 

During  the  sixteenth  century  all  Europe  was  feeling  the 
influence  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
to  find  that  the  pastoral  in  all  its  forms  was  speedily  imitated 
in  every  cultivated  literature.  We  see  this  first  perhaps  in 
the  Spanish  Peninsula,  where  very  early  in  the  century  we 
find  .Inan  de  la  Encina  and  his  school  writing  pastoral  plays, 
eglogas  as  they  call  them.  A  little  later  the  Portuguese 
Ohristovam  Falcao  and  Bernardim  Ribeiro  give  great  popu- 
larity both  to  the  eclogue  proper  and  to  the  pastoral  ro- 
mance;  and  soon  their  count rynuiii  Moiitemayor.  though  he 
wrote  in  Spanish,  produced  in  his  Diana  Knaiiiorada  a 
pastoral  tale  that  s|jecdily  became  known  all  over  the  t'on- 
tineut.  From  this  on  the  literature  of  the  Spanish  Siglo  de 
Oro  is  filled  with  the  Arcadian  ideal  and  its  pastoral  ex- 
pression. 

In  France  much  the  same  thing  happened,  though  not  so 
early  or  so  completely  as  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  Perhaps 
the  more  purely  French  allegorism  of  the  Middle  Ages — that 
of  the  Soman  de  la  Hone,  for  example — which  had  by  no 
means  died  out  even  in  Jlarot's  time,  prevented  somewhat 
the  acceptance  of  the  pastoral  allegory.  Still  the  I'Iciade 
began  to  devote  itself  somewhat  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
latter,  and  in  the  Bergeries  of  Remi  Belleau  (1505-72)  we 
have  direct  imitation  of  Sannazaro's  Arcadia.  Amyot's 
translation  of  the  Daphnis  and  Cliloi'  of  Longus  (1559)  also 
did  much  to  diffuse  a  taste  for  the  pastoral  romance.  The 
results  of  these  influences  appear  later  in  the  great  series  of 
romances,  half  pastoral,  half  chivalrous,  initiated  by  the 
Astree  of  Honore  d'L'rfe  (1567-16".J5).  They  apjiear  also 
still  later  in  the  well-known  masquerading  of  the  regency 
and  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.,  and  in  the  paintings  of  Wat- 
teau. 

England,  even  more  completely  than  France,  made  wel- 
come the  jiastoral  motive.  During  the  sixteenth  century, 
as  is  well  known,  both  Kalian  and  Spanish  books  were 
eagerly  read  in  England;  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  in  his  .Ir- 
cnrf/rt," shows  familiarity  not  only  with  Sannazaro,  but  also 
with  Moiitemayor  and"  Ribeiro,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
French.  So  deeply  was  the  fancy  of  the  English  toiichi'd 
by  the  Arcadian  ideal  that  it  bccume  a  iiermanent  element 
in  the  work  of  almost  all  the  great  Elizabethans.  We  can 
mention  only  by  way  of  illusfralion  S\\v\\^vr's  She/dierd's 
Calendar,  Sliakspeare's  As  Yuu  Like  J/,  [''leteher's  Faith- 
ful S/ie/dierdess,  and  the  Jlaxques  of  Ben  Jonson  and  his 
group.  Milton  still  felt  deejily  the  charm  of  the  imstoral 
form,  as  his  Comas  and  Lycidas  show.  It  had  not  wholly 
evaporated  in  the  early  eighteenth  century,  as  is  proved  by 
Shenstone's  Paxtoral  Ballads :  and  even  .Mian  Ramsay's 
(jeiitle  Shepherd  (17'-35),  which  initiates  the  true  F.nglish 
description  of  nature  and  rural  life  as  they  really  arc,  is  not 
without  reminiscences  of  an  earlier  pastoral  time  when 
poets  dreamed  of  rustic  loves  and  joys  rather  than  impiired 
into  them. 

And  now  finally  we  must  speak  briefly  of  the  diffusion  of 
the  pastoral  in  Germany.  Here  it  was  from  France,  rather 
than  ilirectly  from  Italy,  that  the  form  made  its  aiipearanec. 
The  Ilrrcijnia  of  tlpitz.  iniblished  in  16'22.  is  mentioned  as 
the  first  veritable  example;  and  this  was  inspired  by  d'l'rfe 
and  by  that  insignificant  work,  Jjcs  Bergeries.  of  Racan. 
Throughout  the  seventeenth  and  early  eighteenth  centuries 
the  German   pastoral  fhairished   woiidronsly,  though  with 


470 


PATAGONIA 


PATENTS 


the  charm  mostly  lost  and  the  allegory  terrilily  exaggerated. 
Not  till  1754  did  what  may  be  called  a  classical  work  ap- 
pear— Gessner's  Daphnis.  followed  two  years  later  by  his 
laraous  Idi/llen.  The  fame  of  these  echoed  even  beyond  the 
limits  of  Germany,  and  within  those  limits  they  had  many 
imitators.  Two  great  examples  of  the  form  must  further  be 
mentioned,  though  in  both  the  invading  realism  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  makes  itself  harmfully  felt.  These  are  the 
Luise  of  Johann  Heinrich  Voss.  published  in  1795.  and  the 
better-known  poem  which  it  inspired,  Goethe's  Hermann 
und  Dorotliea,  published  in  1797. 

The  nineteenth  century  has  not  tolerated  the  pastoral. 
Here  and  there  a  poet  has  given  something  of  idyllic  charm 
to  his  description  of  country  scenes ;  here  and  there  a  nov- 
elist in  revolt  against  convention  has  sought  relief  in  an  im- 
possible rustic  world  (e.  g.  George  Sand  in  La  Hare  au 
Diahle  and  other  novels) ;  but  the  day  of  the  old  gracious 
pastoral  dream  is  for  the  mass  of  writers  and  of  men  past. 

There  exists  as  yet  no  general  work  on  the  history  of  the 
pastoral.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Patag'o'iiia  [from  Span,  patagun,  a  large  foot,  in  allusion 
to  gigantic  footprints  said  to  have  been  found  by  the  first 
discoverers] :  a  name  originally  applied  to  all  the  southern 
part  of  South  America,  with  a  vague  limit  northward,  about 
lat.  38°,  or  39°  S.  :  it  is  still  used  for  convenience,  but  is 
generally  restricted  to  the  portion  E.  of  the  Andes  and  S.  of 
the  Rio  Negro,  forming  the  Argentine  territories  of  Neu- 
QUEN.  Rio  Neoro,  Chubut,  and  Santa  Cruz  (qq.  v.),  with  a 
small  strip  at  the  southern  end  belonging  to  Chili.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  surface  of  this  region  consists  of  pla- 
teaus which  form  a  series  of  terraces  from  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Andes  to  the  sea ;  much  of  the  soil  is  arid,  composed 
of  sand,  shingle,  or  bowlders,  and  impregnated  with  salts; 
but  portions  are  suitable  for  grazing,  and  some  of  the  valleys 
of  the  Andes  and  near  the  coast  are  well  adapted  for  wheat- 
growing.  The  climate  is  dry,  and  during  the  summer 
months  (Noveml)er  to  April)  warm,  but  subject  to  violent 
winds  :  the  winters,  especially  in  the  southern  part,  are  cold 
and  are  ushered  in  by  storms.  Settlements  are  rapidly 
springing  up  near  the  coast;  the  interior  is  inhabited  only 
by  wandering  Indians,  now  greatly  reduced  in  number. 
These  Indians  are  of  several  tribes,  classed  together  as  Pata- 
gonians,  but  called  Tehuelches  or  Southern  People  by  the 
Araucanians;  they  are  unusually  tall  (many  of  the  men  being 
over  6  feet  in  height),  but  the  descriptions  of  giants  given 
by  old  explorers  were  probably  exaggerated.  They  number 
about  30.000,  and  most  of  them  are  now  more  or  less  friendly 
to  the  whites.  Patagonia,  as  originally  defined  (including 
the  narrow  strip  W.  of  the  Andes),  was  practically  aban- 
doned to  the  Indians  until  about  1860.  It  was  nominally 
attached  to  the  viceroyalty  of  La  Plata  or  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  the  whole  of  it  was  claimed,  after  the  revolution,  by  the 
Argentine  Confederation.  The  Chilian  settlements,  as  they 
were  extended  southward,  encroached  on  tlie  western  slope, 
and  gave  rise  to  many  disputes.  In  1881  all  the  strip  W.  of 
the  summits  of  the  Andes,  together  with  the  borders  of  the 
strait  of  Magellan,  was  definitely  given  up  to  Chili ;  it  now 
constitutes  the  province  of  Llanquihue  and  the  territory  of 
Magallanes ;  area,  83,113  sq.  miles,  and  an  estimated  popu- 
lation of  about  85,000.  The  other  portion,  which  is  now  in- 
corporated into  Argentina,  and  is  divided  into  five  territories, 
has  an  area  of  268,000  sq.  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
100,000.  See  Darwin's  Vutjagf  of  a  yaturalid;  Lady  Flor- 
ence Dixie,  Across  Patagonia'  (1880) ;  Pontana,  Exploracion 
en  la  Patagonia  Austral  (in  Boletitt  del  Instituto  geogrdfico 
Argentino,  1886),  and  many  recent  pajiers  in  the  same  bul- 
letins; also,  Hudson,  Idle  Days  in  Patagonia  (1898). 

Herbert  II.  Smith. 

Pataps'eo  River:  a  stream  wliich  rises  in  Carroll  eo., 
Md. ;  flows  80  miles  S.  and  S.  E.,  and  enters  Chesapeake  Bay 
by  a  fine  estuary,  on  which  stands  Baltimore.  In  its  upper 
course  it  is  very  rapi<l,  all'ording  much  water-power.  Its 
estuary  admits  first-class  ships. 

Patcliogiip,  pa-chog':  village  (incorporated  in  1893);  Suf 
folk  CO.,  N.  Y.  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  8-0); 
on  the  Long  Island  Railroad;  53  miles  E.  of  New  York  city; 
near  IJlue  Point,  on  Great  South  Bay.  It  is  the  chief  harbor 
for  the  fishing  and  oyster  boats  of  "the  bay,  has  a  beautiful 
lake  at  each  extremity,  and  is  one  of  the  most  popular  places 
of  resort  on  \\u:  Long  Island  coast.  There  are  several  hotels 
and  boarding-houses,  good  dock  facilities,  a  union  free  school, 
5  chui'che.s,  a  State  bank  with  cai)ital  of  |7r),000.  and  2  weekly 
newspapers.    The  industries  comprise  (isliing  and  oystering. 


and  the  manufacture  of  lace,  paper,  and  lirass  goods.  Pop. 
(1894)  estimated,  4,500.  John  M.  Prick. 

Patchoii'H,  or  Patchouly  [=  Er.,  from  East  Indian 
name] :  an  odoriferous  labiate"  plant  (Pogostemon  patcliouli) 
of  Southern  Asia.  It  is  extensively  used  in  perfumery  and 
against  the  ravages  of  clothes-moths.  India  ink  and  India 
shawls  derive  their  peculiar  odor  from  this  |)lant.  The 
Orientals  use  it  for  stuffing  mattresses  and  io  ward  off  con- 
tagion and  vermin.  They  also  mix  it  with  tobacco  for  smok- 
ing. It  grows  to  a  height  of  2  or  3  feet,  bears  spikes  of 
densely  whorled  small  flowers,  and  ovate  leaves  2  or  3 
inches  long. 

PatePla,  or  Knee-pan  [patella  =  Lat.  kneepan,  liter.,  a 
small  pan.  dimin.  o{  pa'fena,  pan,  dish,  deriv.  of  pate' re,  lie 
or  spread  open]  :  a  probably  sesamoid  bone  found  in  the  ten- 
don of  the  quadriceps  extensor  muscle  of  the  thigh,  just  an- 
terior to  the  knee-joint.  It  develops  from  one  or  two  centers. 
It  does  not  begin  to  form  until  the  child  is  from  three  to  six 
years  of  age. 

Patents  [deriv.  of  patent  in  letters  patent,  i.  e.  letters 
open  to  the  perusal  of  all,  from  hat.  pa' tens,  pres.  partie.  of 
pate're,  lie  open] :  letters  issued  by  a  government  granting 
to  inventors  the  exclusive  use  of  their  inventions  for  defi- 
nite periods. 

I.  Their  History. — The  practice  of  thus  inciting  inven- 
tors to  improvements  in  arts  and  industries  is  of  remote 
origin.  So  far  as  concerns  modern  jurisprudence,  however, 
it  was  first  adopted  by  the  English,  and  the  common  law 
gave  to  the  king  the  power  of  granting  such  privileges ;  but 
this  power  was  abused,  and  patents  were  granted  not  only 
to  projectors  who  deserved  them,  but  to  favorites  and  venal 
speculators,  who  thus  obtained  monopolies  of  the  traffic  in 
many  of  the  necessaries  of  life  and  not  a  few  of  its  conven- 
iences, the  right  to  which  had  existed  in  tlie  public  from 
time  immemorial.  The  term  patent  was  thus  early  applied 
indiscriminately  to  the  rightful  privileges  by  which  inven- 
tors were  rewarded  for  creating  new  and  valuable  improve- 
ments which  had  never  belonged  to  the  people,  becau.se  they 
had  never  before  existed,  and  to  the  wrongful  monopolies, 
like  those  for  the  sale  of  salt,  currants,  vinegar,  potash,  pil- 
chards, and  many  other  articles,  the  right  to  traffic  in  which 
had  always  and  undeniably  belonged  to  the  public.  It  was 
the  latter  class  of  patents,  the  wrongful  monopolies,  that 
constituted  the  inciting  cause  of  the  Great  Revolution.  And 
the  same  enactment,  the  famous  Statute  of  Monopolies,  that 
swept  away  the  arljitrary  and  unconstitutional  power  of 
the  British  kings  excepted  from  its  operation  the  patents 
granted  to  inventors.  As  this  statute  did  not  establish,  but 
confirmed,  the  practice  of  thus  encouraging  improvements  in 
the  useful  arts,  such  practice  may  be  traced  unbroken  from  the 
complex  systems  of  statute  jurisprudence  and  ecjuity  prac- 
tice of  fifty-eight  nationalities,  states,  and  colonies  to-day 
back  to  the  time  when  Edward  III.  issued  the  first  recorded 
patent  to  "  two  friars  and  two  aldermen  "  for  an  alleged  dis- 
covery of  the  philosopher's  stone  ;  but  the  separation  of  pat- 
ents for  new  inventions,  rightfully  granted  to  those  who 
added  to  the  wealth  of  their  country  by  increasing  its  in- 
dustrial resources,  from  the  wrongful  monoiiolies  that 
crushed  the  people  was  a  matter  of  slow  growth.  It  may 
be  said  to  have  taken  first  positive  and  decided  form  in  a 
hot  debate  in  Parliament  on  Nov.  20,  ICOl,  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  and  it  ended  only  with  the  dethronement  of  the 
Stuarts;  but  the  Statute  of  Monopolies  in  1633(31  .Tames 
I.),  although  it  did  not  end  the  struggle,  defined  and  made 
clear  the  principles  of  the  common  law.  For  by  this  last 
"  t  he  crown,  as  the  patron  of  science  and  art  and  guardian 
of  the  eouimon  weal,  had  power  to  grant  many  privileges," 
even  "  although,  prima  facie,  as  it  was  said,  they  appear  to 
be  against  the  common  right ;  the  consideration  was  the 
invention  of  a  new  manufacture  or  the  introduction  of  a 
new  traiie ;  the  grant  could  only  be  by  charter  or  letters 
patent,  and  the  term  of  privilege  was  to  be  reasonable." 
(See  Coryton  on  Patents,  p.  37.)  The  earliest  form  of  these 
privileges  was  th.at  of  "conducting  exclusively  new  trades, 
or  dealing  in  objects  of  commerce  hitherto  unknoirn.  as  a 
reieartl  and  encouragement  to  parties  introducing  them." 
The  common-law  granting  of  patents  Jias,  it  may  be  re- 
marked, an  a|it  illustration  in  the  Scottish  practice,  for  in 
Scotland,  U])  to  1852,  patents  were  issued  to  inventors  in 
the  total  alisence  of  a  statute  on  the  subject. 

The  earlier  patents  were  based  upcm  the  condition  that 
the  invention  be  worked  within  the  realm,  this  working  be- 
ing the  consideration  paid  by  the  patentee  for  the  protec- 


PATENTS 


471 


tion  afforded.  In. some  cases  a  tax  or  a  portion  of  the 
profits  was  paid  to  the  crown — the  former  still  a  feature  of 
the  British  jialiMit  hiws,  from  which  it  lias  passed  to  those 
of  France  and  licljtium  ;  but  the  secret  of  tlie  invent iim 
was  not  reijuired  to  he  reveak^d  until  alter  the  expiration  of 
the  patent.  From  this  it  resulted  that  the  inventor  fre- 
quently su<-ceeded  in  keepinjr  his  invention  from  the  pulilii; 
even  after  the  expiration  of  the  term,  and  hence  the  nuikiny 
kyiown  of  the  invention  liecanu'.  sulisccjuently,  an  essential 
part  of  the  consideration  for  whii'h  the  jiatent  was  issued. 
To  this  end  it  was  at  a  very  early  date  required  as  a  i)re- 
liminary  to  the  issue  of  a  patent  that  the  nivcntor  should 
place  on  record  a  descriptiim  of  his  invention  so  "  full,  clear, 
and  exact  "  that  any  one  skilled  in  the  art  could  jiroceed  to 
put  it  in  practice,  and  so  definite  in  its  statements  as  clearly  to 
distinguish  lietween  what  is  new  and  what  is  old.  The  de- 
velopment of  the  patent  l_aw  has  been  coincident  with  that 
flevelopmenl  of  the  industries  which  has  been  due  for  the 
most  part  to  the  law  itself.  The  earliest  triumphs  of  mod- 
ern invention.  Watt's  steam-engine,  .Vrkwrighfs  spinning- 
machinery.  Corfs  puddling  process,  Dudley  iron  manufac- 
ture, furnished  in  the  litigation  of  the  patents  thereon  the 
established  precedents  upon  which  the  decisions  of  courts 
in  patent  cases  all  over  the  world  are  based.  Previons  to 
1853  the  J5ritish  patent  law  related  only  to  England.  Scot- 
land, as  previously  remarked,  granted  patents  under  the 
common  law :  Ireland  had  a  separate  patent  law  so  costly 
and  imperfect  that  many  British  inventors  hist  their  inven- 
tions in  the  latter  island  before  they  could  patent  them 
there.  In  18.52  this  was  remedied  by  the  law  still  in  force, 
which  embraces  in  one  patent  "  Kugland.  Scotland,  Ireland, 
the  principality  of  Wales,  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  Berwick- 
upon-Twecil."  The  British  patent  law  li.-is  from  the  begin- 
ning placcil  the  introducer  of  a  ni'w  improvement  on  the 
same  footing  as  an  original  inventor.  It  requires  no  pre- 
liminary examination  to  determine  the  question  of  novelty, 
and  declares  a  patent  invalid  if  the  invention  has  been  pre- 
viously publicly  known  in  the  realm.  Prior  to  the  Patents, 
Designs,  and  Trade-marks  Act  of  1883  the  initial  expense  of 
obtaining  a  British  patent  was  onerous,  but  this  has  been 
practically  reduced  to  one-third  of  the  former  expense  by 
the  act  just  mentioned.  Renewal  fees,  payable  before  the 
expiration  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  term  of  the  ]iateut.  and 
annually  thereafter,  are  required  to  keep  the  patent  alive. 
In  lieu  of  these  the  renewal  fees  may  be  paid  in  two  lump 
sums,  one  before  the  end  of  the  fourth  and  the  other  befoi-e 
the  end  of  the  eighth  year  of  the  term,  at  the  option  of  the 
patentee. 

The  patent  system  of  Great  Britain  was  the  parent  stem 
from  which  all  others  have  sprung.  In  1641  the  general 
court  of  ^lassachusetts  granted  a  ten  years'  patent  to  Sam- 
uel Winslow  for  a  jirocess  of  making  salt.  In  1672  the 
printed  statutes  of  t'onnecticut  provided  that  "  there  .shall 
be  no  monopolies  granted  among  us  but  of  such  new  in- 
ventions as  shall  be  judged  profitable  and  for  the  benefit  of 
the  country,  and  for  such  time  as  the  general  court  shall 
judge  meet."  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  were  pioneers 
in  transplantitig  the  British  system,  although  similar  exam- 
ples are  found  in  the  other  colonies  (or  States)  up  to  the 
time  when  the  first  U.  8.  patent  law,  the  act  of  IT'JO,  came 
into  force. 

The  statute  of  1790  provided  for  the  granting  of  letters 
patent  on  "any  useful  art,  manuracturc,  engine,  machine, 
or  device,  or  any  imiirovement  therein,  not  Ijid'ore  known  or 
used."  The  petition  for  the  grant  was  to  the  Secretary  of 
State,  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  the  Attorney-General. 
The  patent  was  issued  on  the  approval  of  these  ofiicials  or 
any  two  of  thetn.  The  description  of  the  invention  was 
certified  by  the  Attorney-General,  and  the  Piesident  caused 
the  great  seal  of  the  U.  S.  to  be  affixed  on  the  issue  of  the 
l)atent.  The  term  of  the  patent  was  for  '•  any  term  not  ex- 
ceeding fourteen  years"  in  the  discretion  of  the  aforenamed 
members  of  the  cabinet.  Although  discretionary  power 
was  vested  in  these  last,  no  preliminary  examination  to  de- 
termine actual  patentaljility  was,  in  ju'act ice,  instituted  by 
the  act.  Provision  was  duly  made  for  punishing  infringei-s. 
the  English  idea  of  patentable  novelty  substantially  adopted, 
and  a  si'hedule  of  Government  fees,  that,  exclusive  of  10 
cents  per  100  words  for  copying  specification  on  filing  same, 
amounted  to  :f3.70.  A  patent  could  be  issued '•  to  any  per- 
son." no  ilistinction  between  citizens  and  foreigners  being 
made.  In  17!K!  a  new  .statute  was  passed,  repealing  that  of 
17110,  although  retaining  much  of  its  substance.  This  act 
of  171)3  restricted  the  grant  of  patents  to  citizens  of  the 


U.  S. ;  provided  that  the  petition  shoidd  be  to  the  Secretary 
of  .State  ;  that  owners  of  patents  from  any  State  should  be 
incapable  of  holding  a  patent  from  the  U.  S.  except  on  con- 
dition of  relinquishing  the  State  patent;  that  interfering 
applications  should  be  liecided  by  arbitrators ;  that  patents 
obtained  "  surreptitiously  or  upon  false  suggestion  could 
be  declared  void  on  motion  made  and  proof  produced  before 
the  U.  S.  district  court  of  the  district  wherein  the  patentee 
resided,  if  made  within  three  years  from  the  date  of  the 
patent.  l>iit  not  afterw:inl  ;  and  provided  further  that  the 
(bivernment  fee  paid  by  applicant  for  a  iiatent  be  §,'!(). 
This  act  of  17!(8  also  provided  that  inlringers  shoiilii  pay  at 
least  triple  damages  to  the  patentee.  In  1794  a  supplement 
permitted  parties  to  suits  set  aside,  suspended,  or  abated  by 
the  act  of  1793  to  revive  them.  During  the  following  forty 
years  various  amendments  were  made  to  the  ]iatent  laws, 
and  in  1.S33  all  previous  statutes  on  this  subject  were  re- 
pealed. The  act  of  1833,  while  retaining  many  feat'ires  of 
the  old  law,  introduced  many  changes.  It  attached  to  the 
deiiartinent  of  state  "an  ofiice  to  be  denominated  the  Patent 
OlUce.  the  chief  oflicer  of  which  shall  be  called  the  com- 
missioner of  patents."  This  law  was  the  first  to  institute 
the  system  of  iirelimiiiary  examinations  to  determine  the 
patentability  of  inventions  before  issue  of  patents  thereon, 
and  from  the  single  examiner  appointed  under  it  has  come 
the  immense  stalTof  examiners  ami  the  comiilicateil  system 
of  examinations,  appeals,  etc..  that  now  obtains,  and  which, 
while  undoubtedly  productive  of  much  good,  has  just  as  un- 
doubtedly been  the  means  of  robbing  many  a  poor  inventor 
of  the  rights  that  belonged  to  him  in  justice,  cipiity,  and 
law.  This  statute  provided  a  board  of  appeal,  to  which  ap- 
peal could  be  had  from  adverse  decisions  of  the  examiner 
and  commissioner.  .Miens  resident  in  the  V .  .S.  for  one 
year,  and  who  had  made  deidaration  of  intention  to  become 
citizens,  were  allowed  to  take  out  patents  for  the  same  fees 
as  citizens;  but  for  a  subject  of  the  King  of  Great  Britain, 
the  fee  was  ^.'iOO,  and  for  all  other  foreigners  .|300.  'J'his 
law  provided  also  for  the  filing  of  caveats  on  partiallv  per- 
fected inventions,  confirmed  the  right  of  reissue,  fixed  the 
standard  of  damages  in  infringement  cases  at  the  actual 
damages,  except  where  exemplary  damages  were  held  by 
the  court  to  be  warranteil.  and  in  such  cases  limited  the 
award  to  three  times  the  actual  damage  ;  and  placed  the 
power  of  extending  patents  for  an  additional  term  of  seven 
years  after  the  expiration  of  the  original  fourteen  in  the 
hands  of  a  board  composed  of  the  commissioner  of  patents, 
the  Secretary  of  State,  and  solicitor  of  the  treasury.  From 
1836  to  1873  the  patent  laws  were  fre(|uently  amended.  In 
the  latter  year  they  were  codified  in  title  60,  chapter  i.,  of 
the  U.  S.  Revised  Statutes,  in  which  form,  with  a  lew  amend- 
ments, they  still  remain.  Some  of  the  important  ]irovisioiis 
of  this  statute  are  the  extension  of  the  term  of  patents  from 
fourteen  to  seventeen  years;  the  abrogation  of  extensions 
of  patents  granted  since  Mar.  2,  1861,  by  the  commissioner; 
the  conqiulsory  attendance  of  witnesses  in  patent  cases; 
the  establishment  of  a  board  of  examiners-in-chief,  inter- 
mediate between  the  examiners  and  the  commissioner,  to 
hear  appeals  from  the  decisions  of  the  former:  the  re]ieal 
of  the  provision  permitting  withdrawal  of  two-thirds  of  the 
fee  in  case  of  rejection,  and  the  sweeping  away  of  all  dis- 
tinctions between  citizens  and  foreigners  in  the  granting  of 
patents.  It  cau-sed  a  decided  advance  in  the  utility  of  the 
patent  office  by  jiroviding  for  the  jirinting  of  all  patents  as 
fast  as  issued.  Brief  abstracts,  together  with  decisions  of 
the  courts  in  patent  cases,  decisions  of  the  commissioner, 
etc.,  are  published  weekly  in  tlii'  official  gazette. 

11.  Tlie  Lriir  reUiliuji  tit  Pateiilx. — Patent  laws  are  laws 
which  prescribe  under  what  formalities  and  conditions  pat- 
ents may  be  granted,  and  provide  for  enforcing  the  protec- 
tion which  the  patent  grants.  A  patent  to  a  fir.st  inventor 
is  not,  as  is  often  erroneously  supposed,  a  grant  of  right  to 
the  iiiivntinn.  It  is  merely  a  grant  of  right  to  pratection 
in  the  exclusive  use  of  the  invention.  \n  inventor  has  a 
right  to  use  his  invention  without  a  ]iatent.  The  grant  of 
jirotection  to  an  inventor  in  the  exclusive  u.-^c  of  his  inven- 
tion for  a  limited  time  is  so  well  founded  in  justice  and 
public  policy  that,  although  not  of  remote  origin,  it  has 
been  adopted  by  all  civilized  nations.  In  many  dependen- 
cies, having  no  patent  laws  of  their  own,  inventions  receivg 
tlie  protection  of  the  patent  laws  of  the  inother-couiitrie:i 
Thus,  for  instance,  a  jiatent  granted  in  Spidn  protects  the 
invention  in  Cuba  and  the  Philippines,  and  in  nearly  all  of 
them  the  jirotection  is  granted  to  the  first  inviiitor.  In 
Great  Britain  it  is  granted  to  the  first  introducer  of  the 


472 


PATENTS 


invention,  whether  he  be  the  inventor  or  an  importer  of  the 
invention.  In  most  countries  this  jirotection  is  granted  on 
condition  of  a  forfeiture  of  the  right  unless  the  invention 
be  put  into  use  by  the  patentee  within  a  specified  time.  The 
length  of  time  for  which  the  protection  is  granted  in  differ- 
ent countries  varies  from  throe  to  twenty-one  years,  but  is 
generally  limited  to  the  shortest  term  during  which  protec- 
tion, if  any,  has  been  previously  granted  for  the  same  in- 
vention in  any  other  country.  The  authority  for  the  patent 
laws  in  the  U.  S.  is  the  clause  in  the  Constitution  which  de- 
clares that  Congress  sliall  have  power  "to  promote  the  prog- 
ress of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing  for  limited  times 
to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respec- 
tive writings  and  discoveries."  In  consequence  of  this  dele- 
gation of  power  by  the  several  States,  legislation  on  the 
subject  of  patents  for  new  inventions  belongs  especially  to 
Congress,  and  by  such  legislation  jurisdiction  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  patent  laws  belongs  to  the  Federal  courts. 

For  what  Subjeet^-matter  Patents  may  be  Oranted. — The 
act  now  in  force  provides  "th.at  any  person  who  has  invent- 
ed or  discovered  any  new  and  useful  art,  machine,  manu- 
facture, or  composition  of  matter,  or  any  new  and  useful 
improvement  thereof  not  known  or  used  by  others  in  this 
country,  and  not  patented  or  described  in  any  printed  pub- 
lication in  this  or  any  foreign  country  before  his  invention 
or  discovery  thereof,  and  not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  for 
more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  application,  unless  the 
same  is  proved  to  have  been  abandoned,  may,  upon  jiay- 
ment  of  the  duty  re(piired  by  law  and  other  due  proceed- 
ings had,  obtain  a  patent  therefor."  It  will  be  noticed 
that,  by  the  language  of  the  Constitution,  t!ongress  was 
given  power  to  secure  to  inventors  the  exclusive  light  to 
their  "discoveries,"  while  tlie  statute  purports  to  secure 
what  has  been  "invented  or  discovered."  As  the  statute 
puts  '•  invented  or  discovered  "  in  the  alternative,  thereby 
indicating  that  Congress  understood  those  terms  to  refer  to 
different  things  or  to  things  of  different  origin,  it  appears 
as  if  Congress  had  exceeded  its  authority  in  providing  pro- 
tection for  inventions  as  well  as  tor  discoveries.  Notwith- 
standing this  disjunctive  use  in  the  statute  of  the  terms 
"invented"  or  "discovered,"  the  courts  have  held  that, 
with  reference  to  patentable  subjects-matter,  discovery  is 
synonymous  with  invention,  and  such,  from  previous  ad- 
judications which  had  taken  place  in  England,  was  well 
understood  to  be  the  import  of  those  terms  at  the  time  of 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.,  and  the  verbal 
discrepancy  has  been  disregarded  to  effectuate  the  known 
intent  of  the  organic  law.  It  will  be  noticed  that  only  four 
classes  of  patentable  subjects-matter  are  mentioned  in  the 
U.  S.  statute  ;  but  these  are  sufficient  to  comprehend  pat- 
entable improvements  of  any  kind.  In  the  English  law 
only  one  was  mentioned,  being  "manufacture,"  but  the 
courts  of  England  by  construction  give  that  one  term  suffi- 
cient scope  to  embrace  all  kinds  of  patentable  subjects-mat- 
ter. As  used  in  the  statute,  the  term  "  machine  "  includes 
all  kinds  of  mechanism,  whether  machines  proper  or  appa- 
ratus which  have  a  mode  of  operation  in  working  out  or 
producing  a  result.  The  terra  "manufacture,"  according 
to  the  patent  laws  of  the  U.  S.,  includes  all  kinds  of  useful 
articles  which  are  made,  except  machines  and  compositions 
of  matter,  such,  for  example,  as  fabrics,  tools,  implements, 
wearing  apparel,  household  furniture,  etc.  The  designa- 
tion "composition  of  matter"  includes  all  kinds  of  mixture 
or  compounds  of  substanci^s.  such  as  medicines,  articles  of 
food  _and  drink,  perfumeries,  paints,  dyes,  etc.  The  term 
"art"  comprehends  all  methods  and  processes  which  may 
consist  of  modes  of  procedure  with  or  without  new  ingre- 
dients or  materials.  It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  to 
which  of  the  four  classes  of  subjects-matter  mentioned  in 
the  statute  an  invention  belongs,  and  it  frequently  hapjiens 
that  an  inventor  is  entitled  t'o  separate  patents  for  three 
kinds  of  subject-matter,  idl  having  reference  to  the  same 
production :  for  the  article  itself,  the  method  of  producing 
it,  and  the  machinery  used  therein. 

To  whom  Patents  'may  be  Oranted.— Patents  are  granted 
to  original  an<l  first  inventors.  This  is  subject  to  the  quali- 
fication, that  a  foreign  inventor  who  has  liot  made  his  in- 
yention  known  in  the  V.  S.  will  not  be  permitted  to  step 
into  the  place  of  an  inventor  who.  in  the  U.  S..  has  bona  fide 
made  the  invention.  Patents  may  be  applied  for  and'ob- 
tained  by  the  executors  and  administrators  of  inventors. 
An  inventor  may  assign  his  invention  and  may  have  a 
patent  issue  to  the  assignee.  An  invention  by  joint  in- 
ventors must  be  patented  to  bol  h. 


What  constitutes  Patentable  Inventions. — The  mere  con- 
ception of  an  idea  is  not  patentable.  An  invention  to  be 
patentable  must  be  capable  of  use  without  the  atldition  of 
further  invention  or  the  necessity  of  further  experiment 
apart  from  the  exercise  of  mere  workshop  skill.  It  must  be 
so  matured  that  the  means  of  producing  the  result  can  be 
accurately  and  fully  set  forth.  When  the  invention  con- 
sists of  a  process  or  of  a  composition  of  matter,  it  is  not  nec- 
essary, in  order  to  entitle  its  author  to  a  patent,  that  he 
should  understand  the  rationale  of  the  chemical  changes 
involved.  He  has  brought  such  an  invention  to  a  patent- 
able condition  when  he  has  ascertained  what  articles  are  to 
be  used  and  how  they  are  to  be  used  to  produce  the  desired 
result.  Some  inventions  are  new  in  kind,  while  others  are 
only  new  as  improvements  on  something  which  in  kind  had 
prior  existence.  The  former  are  patentable  much  more 
broadly  than  the  latter.  When  an  invention  consists  of  do- 
ing by  a  machine  what  had  previously  been  done  by  hand 
only,  or  had  never  been  done  at  all,  it  is  new  in  kind".  The 
first  sewing-machine  and  the  first  recording  telegraph  are 
instances  of  inventions  which  were  new  in  kind.  To  give 
an  invention  patentable  novelty  it  is  immaterial  whether  it 
was  the  result  of  much  or  little  research  or  labor.  An  in- 
vention or  discovery  made  by  accident  is  none  the  less  pat- 
entable. New  combinations  of  either  new  or  old  elements 
are  patentable,  but  a  combination  of  old  elements,  to  be 
patentable,  must  produce  some  new  result  due  to  the  co- 
operative or  reciprocal  action  of  the  combined  parts.  The 
mere  addition  of  one  old  device  to  another,  each  producing 
its  own  result  in  such  manner  that  their  combination  pro- 
duces those  same  two  results  and  no  other,  is  not  patentable, 
and  is  not  invention,  this  being  commonly  designated  as  an 
aggregation  merely,  and  owing  its  origin  to  workshop  skill 
or  judgment  as  distinguished  from  the  exercise  of  the  in- 
ventive faculty.  Any  part  in  a  machine  which  does  not 
participate  in  the  mode  of  operation  of  the  machine  is  re- 
garded as  a  dead  part.  Nearly  all  patents  on  machinery 
are  for  combinations  of  parts  some  or  all  of  which  are  old". 
W^hen  a  single  part  or  any  combination  of  parts  less  than 
the  conibinalion  of  the  whcde  is  new.  then  such  part  or  such 
sub-combination  of  parts  is  patentable,  as  well  as  the  entire 
combination,  and  they  can  be  patented  by  separate  claims 
in  one  patent  or  by  a  plurality  of  patents.  Although  an  in- 
vention, to  be  patentable,  must,  with  the  exception  men- 
tioned, be  new  and  useful,  it  does  not  follow  that  all  new 
and  useful  productions  are  patentable.  There  are  many 
things  which,  though  both  new  and  useful,  are  not  patent- 
able. Any  change  which  was  so  obvious  as  to  exclude  the 
possibility  of  the  exercise  of  the  inventive  faculties  being 
necessary  to  produce  it  is  not  the  subject  of  a  patent.  Any 
improvement  which  is  merely  the  result  of  mechanical  skill 
or  superior  workmanship  is  not  patentable.  A  new  discov- 
ery of  a  law  of  nature  or  of  an  abstract  principle  is  not  pat- 
entable. A  discovery  consisting  of  the  adoption  of  a  known 
equivalent  of  what  was  already  in  use  is  not  patentable ; 
such,  for  illustration,  as  the  removal  from  a  machine  of  one 
of  the  elements  which  it  has  in  combination  with  other  ele- 
ments, and  the  substitution  in  its  place  of  another  known 
element  possessing  only  the  same  function  and  performing 
only  the  same  office  in  the  combination  as  did  the  part  for 
which  it  was  substituted.  In  a  process  or  composition  of 
matter  the  substitution  of  one  known  chemical  agent  for 
another  having  only  the  same  function  is  not  patentable. 
Combinations  in  mechanism  consisting  of  a  mere  assemblage 
of  iilil  jiarts.  each  part  possessing  only  the  same  function 
and  pertorming  only  the  same  office  in  the  combination  as 
it  did  out  of  it,  and  none  of  the  parts  co-operating  with  the 
others  to  produce  any  new  or  imiiroved  result,  are  not  pat- 
entable combinations,  but  in  judgment  of  law  are  mere  ag- 
gregations of  old  elements.  A  new  use  of  an  old  thing, 
called  a  double  use,  is  not  patentable  :  that  is  to  say,  if  a 
machine  or  an  instrument  be  known  and  used  for  one  pur- 
pose;, a  discovery  that  it  can  be  used  to  advantage  for  an- 
other purpose,  accompanied  by  an  actual  application  of  it 
unchanged  to  such  new  purpose,  is  not  patentable,  but  in 
such  cases  a  very  slight  adaptation  of  it  for  the  new  use  will 
render  it  patentable.  This  exclusion  of  a  new  use  of  an  old 
thing  from  patentability  is  for  the  reason  that  when  .an  in- 
vention is  made,  its  author,  having  created  it,  is  entitled  to 
all  its  attributes,  whether  discovered  by  him  or  by  any  one 
else  subsequently  to  his  invention:  and  when  that  right 
passes  from  him  to  the  public,  it  becomes  vested  with  the 
same  right.  Anything  which  is  injurious  to  public  health. 
to  good  morals,  or  public  policy  is  not  patentable. 


PATENTS 


473 


Utility. — Although  the  statute  requires  the  invention  to 

be  useful,  yet  no  piirtirular  degree  of  utility  is  necessary  to 
reniier  an  invoiilioii  ]ialc'ntal>le.  It  need  not  be  more  useful 
tliun  what  was  previcjusly  known  for  the  same  puriiose.  The 
re(|uiremeuts  of  the  law  are  answered  so  far  as  utility  is 
eouccmed  if  the  invention  be  not  absolutely  frivolous  or 
injurious  to  the  public. 

How  an  Iiiivulur  may  Lose  his  Right  to  a  Patent. — An 
inventor  who  has  aeipiired  a  riirht  to  a  patent  may  lose  it  in 
two  ways:  1.  By  neKle<'liMi,' to  apply  for  a  paleul  for  more 
than  two  years  after  the  iuvenliou  has  been  put  into  puljlie 
use  or  on  "sale.  The  "  public  use  "  mentioned  in  tlu'  statute 
is  not  limite<l  to  a  eontinuous  public  use  for  more  than  two 
years,  but  comprehends  also  a  single  instance  of  such  use 
more  than  two  years  before  the  a|)plication  for  a  patent. 
Public  use  has  been  ju<iichdly  detined  to  be  a  use  in  ]iul)lic. 
The  loss  of  an  inventor's  right  to  a  patent  l)y  neglccling  to 
apply  for  it  for  more  than  two  years  after  the  invention  has 
been  either  used  in  public  or  put  on  sale  is  in  the  nature  of 
a  forfeiture  of  his  right,  and  does  not  depend  upon  his  in- 
tention. Nor  is  the  lapse  prevented  l>\  ignorance  on  his 
part  of  such  public  use.  The  contrary  was  held  for  many 
years,  but  a  recent  decision  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  has 
reversed  tlie  former  practice.  A  patent  expires  with  the 
expiration  of  the  term  of  a  foreign  patent  previously  ob- 
tained on  the  same  invention,  but  ni>t  with  the  lapse  of  the 
fornter  patent  from  non-i)ayment  of  the  taxes  or  the  non- 
working  of  the  invention  required  by  the  patent  hiws  of  va- 
rious countries.  2.  An  inventor  may  so  deal  with  his  in- 
vention as  to  create  an  atmndonment  or  dedication  of  it  to 
the  public  at  any  time.  This  he  may  do  either  by  express 
declaration  or  by  his  silence  while  with  his  knowledge  its 
use  is  generally  adopted  by  otiiers.  Such  a  surrender  of  an 
inventor's  right  is  a  uuitterof  intention  on  his  p;trt,  but  in- 
tention may  be  Inferred  from  existing  facts.  Delay  alone 
to  apply  for  a  patent,  no  matter  for  how  long,  will  not  con- 
stitute abandonment,  but  unreasonal)le  delay,  associated 
with  the  fact  of  the  same  invention  being  originated  by  an- 
other and  patented  or  put  into  general  use  by  him,  will  con- 
stitute abandonment.  FTence  if  a  person  unreasonably 
lu'glect  to  apply  for  a  patent  after  com|)leting  his  invention. 
he  does  so  at  the  peril  of  losing  his  right.  The  issue  of  a 
patent  is  no  guaranty  to  its  owner  of  the  right  which  it 
purports  to  secure.  ,V  patent  is  only  pri/iid  facie  evidence 
of  such  right.  It  gives  to  its  owner  a  right  of  action  against 
infringers  of  the  patent,  and  authorizes  him  to  contest  his 
right  to  the  thing  patented.  Proof  against  a  patent  at  any 
time  during  its  term,  in  a  suit  brought  for  an  infringement, 
that  the  patentee  was  not  the  first  inventor  of  the  thing 
pati'Uled,  or  that  its  subject-matter  was  not  patentable,  or 
that  the  inventor  lost  his  right  by  forfeiture  or  abandon- 
ment, or  any  other  fact  against  the  validity  of  the  patent, 
will  invalidate  the  patent.  When  an  invention  has  been 
previously  patented  in  a  foreign  country,  the  U.  S.  patent 
will  expire  with  the  terra  of  the  foreign  patent,  or,  if  there  be 
more  than  one,  with  that  having  the  shortest  term.  If  an 
inventor  disclaims  a  part  of  his  invention  in  his  original 
application,  he  will  be  pre<'luded  from  claiming  it  afterward. 
If  an  inventor  has  neglected  to  claim  the  whole  of  his  in- 
vention he  imist  lile  his  application  for  reissue  with  due 
diligence — ordinarily,  williin  two  years — or  he  loses  the 
right  to  receive  a  chiim  commensurate  with  the  actual  in- 
vention, there  t)eing.  howev<>r,  some  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
Certain  irregularities  in  the  proceedings  incident  to  obtain- 
ing a  paleul  may  restrict  the  scope  of  the  grant  or  even 
invalidate  the  grant. 

Ihir  Pati'ii/x  arc  Obtained. — Patents  arc  obtained  by  ap- 
plications in  the  form  of  petitions  to  the  commissioner  of 
patents,  accompanied  by  a  description,  including  drawings. 
Alodels  may  be  demamled  by  the  Patent  OlTice,  but  for 
several  years  past  have  not  often  Vjcen  required.  When  the 
invention  is  of  a  composition  of  matter,  specimens  nuiy  in 
like  numner  be  recpiired  by  the  commissioiu'r.  The  com- 
missioiuM-  of  patents  is  the  head  of  the  I'alent  <  Iflice.  and  has 
a  corps  of  assistants  called  examiners,  among  whom  the  dif- 
ferent patentable  subjects-matter  are  divided,  and  whose 
duty  it  is  to  examine  applications  to  ascerlain  whether  the 
papers  are  in  jirojier  form  and  whether  the  invention  de- 
scribed therein  is,  so  far  as  they  can  ascertain,  new  and  useful. 
On  the  commissioner  receiving  an  application  for  a  patent, 
he  refers  it  to  the  proper  primary  exauuiUT  for  hisexafnina- 
tioii  into  the  slate  of  the  art  to  which  the  invention  apper- 
tains, and  for  his  report  of  the  result  of  his  examination  to 
the  commissioner.     If  no  reason  is  found  against  granting 


the  patent,  it  is  allowed  and  issueil.  If  any  cause  is  found 
by  the  examiner  against  the  grant,  it  in  such  case  is  reported 
to  the  applicant :  and  if  he  can  by  explanation  or  argument 
remove  the  olijection,  the  patent  will  still  be  issued,  other- 
wise it  will  be  refused  by  the  primary  examiner.  From  the 
decision  of  the  primary  examiner  an  aiipeal  lies  to  a  board 
of  three  examiners,  designated  examiners-in-ehief.  From  a 
decision  of  the  board  of  examiners-in-chief  an  appeal  lies  to 
the  commissioner  of  patents,  and  from  his  decision  an  ap- 
peal lies  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 
vVhen  an  application  is  made  for  a  patent  which  in  the 
opinion  of  the  commissioner  would  interfere  with  any  pend- 
ing application  or  with  any  existing  patent,  notice  is  given 
to  the  parties  interested,  and  an  ojiportunity  granted  to  them 
to  show  by  evidence  which  was  prim'  in  (late  of  invention ; 
and  the  patent  will  be  issued  to  the  cme  proved  to  be  the  first. 
The  business  in  the  Patent  OtTice  has  become  so  extensive 
that  there  has  grown  up  a  class  of  persons  known  as  patent 
agents  or  solicitors  of  patents,  who  conduct  Patent  Office 
business  in  behalf  of  inventors,  and,  being  located  in  dilfer- 
ent  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  are  always  accessible  to  inventors. 
The  term  for  which  patents  for  inventions  issue  in  the  U.  S. 
is  seventeen  years.  If  an  inventor,  after  conceiving  the  out- 
lines of  his  invention,  desires  further  time  to  mature  the 
same,  and  in  the  meantime  to  guard  against  any  other  patent 
being  granted  f(ir  the  invention,  he  may  do  so  by  filing  in 
tiio  patent  ollice  a  caveat,  setting  forth  the  design  and  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  of  his  invention  and  praying  pro- 
tection of  his  right  until  he  shall  have  matured  his  inven- 
tion. Such  caveat  will  be  preserved  in  secrecy  by  the 
coniniissioner  of  patents,  and  the  effect  of  it  will  be  to  en- 
title the  caveator  for  one  year  to  notice  from  the  commis- 
sioner of  any  application  which  may  be  made  for  a  patent 
which  would  in  any  way  interfere  with  his  right.  After  re- 
ceiving such  notice,  if  any  be  given,  the  caveator  will  be  al- 
lowed three  months  in  which  to  file  a  complete  ajiplication. 
Designs. — New  designs  are  also  patentable,  such  as  a  de- 
sign for  a  manufacture,  bust,  statue,  alto-relievo,  or  bas-re- 
lief; designs  for  printed  fabrics:  ornaments,  iiatterns, 
prints,  or  pictures  to  be  place<l  on  or  worked  into  any  arti- 
cle of  manufacture  :  also  new  .shapes. 

Ainemlment  of  Patnits. — .\  patent  may  be  amended  by 
being  surrendered  to  the  commissioner  and  the  grant  of  an 
amended  one,  called  a  reissue,  in  its  stead,  or  by  filing  with 
the  commissioner  a  disclaimer  of  so  much  of  the  thing  pat- 
ented as  the  patentee  was  not  the  first  inventor  of.  To 
amend  by  a  reissue,  the  original  |)atent  and  an  amended 
specification  must  be  delivered  to  the  commissioner,  asking 
an  acceptance  of  the  surrender  and  a  grant  of  a  reissue  in 
conformity  with  the  amended  specification.  A  patent  may 
by  a  reissue  be  amended  in  either  its  descriptive  parts  or  its 
ciaiins  so  as  to  conform  to  what  the  patentee  was  the  first  in- 
ventor of;  but  no  new  matter  can  be  introduced  into  the  re- 
is.sue,  nor,  in  ease  of  a  macliine  jiatent,  can  the  model 
deposited  on  the  original  application  or  the  drawings  at- 
tached to  the  patent  be  amended  excejit  each  by  the  other; 
but  when  there  is  neither  model  nor  drawing,  amendments 
mav  be  made  upon  proof  salisfaclory  to  the  commissioner 
that  such  new  matter  or  amcnilmeiit  was  a  |>art  of  the  origi- 
nal invention  and  was  omitted  from  the  original  specifica- 
tion by  inadvertence,  accident,  or  mi.stake.  Tiuh-r  late  deci- 
sions, however,  this  provision  is  little  more  than  nugatory. 
.\  reissue  in  which  t  lu'  claims  are  ex(ianded  should  be  applied 
for  with  diligence,  and  not  delayed  long  after  the  i.ssuc  of 
the  original  pal<Mit. 

Repeal  of  Palen/s. — There  is  no  statutory  provision  for  the 
repeal  of  imtents;  but  where  patents  interfere  by  each  claim- 
ing the  same  invention,  any  one  interested  in  either  patent 
may  institute  a  suit  in  efpiity  against  the  owners  of  the  other 
patent,  in  which  case  the  court  has  power  to  declare  either 
patent  invalid  in  whole  or  in  part.  It  is  also  understood 
that  the  ,\ttorncy-(ieneral  of  the  L'.S.  has  a  right  of  acliim 
to  invalidate  a  patent  where  there  was  fraud  in  the  issuing 
of  it. 

Sale  and  Transfer  of  Patents. — A  patentee  may  sell  his 
entire  patent  or  any  undivided  part  of  it  for  the  whole  or 
any  specified  part  of  the  U.  S.  The  conveyance  of  such  an 
inlVresl.  (o  be  valid,  must  be  in  writing,  and  is  called  an  as- 
signment. Such  an  assignment  will  be  void  as  against  any 
sulisecpient  |)urchaser  or  mortgagee  fora  valuable  considera- 
tion without  notice  that  such  assignment  had  been  made, 
iiuh'ss  it  lie  recorded  in  the  Patent  Ollice  within  three 
months  from  its  date.  Parties  having  an  undivided  interest 
in  a  patent  are  not  therel)y  constituted  partners,  but  are 


474 


PATENTS 


PATERNO 


tenants  in  common  ;  and  any  of  such  parties  may  grant  li- 
censes to  othei's  to  use  the  invention  in  nialving,  using,  and 
vending  the  patented  article,  and  receive  and  retain  the  con- 
sideration for  the  same  without  liability  to  their  co-owners. 
Licenses  under  patents  need  not  be  in  writing.  They  may 
be  oral  or  implied.  A  license  to  a  party  to  use  the  invention 
is  not  divisible  or  assignable  unless  expressly  made  so  by  its 
terms.  A  license,  although  in  writing,  need  not  be  recorded. 
An  invention  not  patented  is  assignable,  but  an  invention  is 
not  salable  or  assignable  before  it  is  made,  because  a  thing 
not  in  esse  is  not  the  subject  of  sale.  An  agreement,  how- 
ever, to  assign  an  invention  when  made  will  be  operative 
upon  it  as  soon  as  it  shall  be  made. 

Remedies  for  tJie  Protection  of  Patent  Pig/its. — The  law 
protects  patentees  against  false  representations  of  others.  It 
provides  that  any  person  wlio,  without  authority  from  the 
patentee,  shall  in'  any  manner  mark  upon  anything  uuide, 
used,  or  sold  by  him,  for  which  he  has  not  obtained  a  patent, 
the  name,  or  any  imitation  of  the  name,  of  any  person  who 
has  obtained  a  patent  therefor,  or  who  shall  in  any  manner 
work  upon  or  atlix  to  any  such  patented  article  the  word 
"patent"  or  '■  patented"  or  the  words  "letters  patent,"  or 
any  word  of  like  import,  with  the  intent  to  imitate  or  coun- 
terfeit the  mark  or  device  of  the  patentee,  or  who  shall  in 
any  manner  mark  upon  or  affix  to  any  unpatented  article 
the  word  "patent"  or  any  wm'd  imp(.)rtiiig  tliat  the  same  is 
patented,  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the  public,  shall  be 
liable  for  every  such  offense  to  a  penalty  of  .flOO.  In  case 
of  an  infringement  of  a  patent,  the  law  gives  its  owner  right 
to  remuneration  for  past  infringement  and  to  have  further  in- 
fringement prevented.  He  has  a  right  to  an  action  at  law 
for  a  trial  by  jury,  in  which  his  recovery  will  be  the  actual 
damages  he  has  sustained  from  the  infringement.  He  also 
has  a  right  to  sue  in  equity,  in  which  he  can  recover  not 
only  damages,  but,  in  addition  thereto,  according  to  the 
statute,  the  profits  realized  by  the  defendant  from  the  in- 
fringement, and  obtain  an  injunction  restraining  further  in- 
fringement ;  and  where  no  serious  doubt  is  raised  respecting 
the  validity  of  the  patent  or  on  the  question  of  infringement, 
he  may,  on  short  notice,  have  a  preliminary  injunction  re- 
straining the  infringement  during  the  pendency  of  the  suit. 
In  suits  for  infringement  all  of  the  owners  of  undiviiled  in- 
terests in  the  patent  for  the  territory  in  which  the  infringe- 
ment has  been  committed  must  be  joined  as  coplaintiffs  or 
cocoraplainants.  Where  there  has  been  a  joint  infringe- 
ment, the  infringers  are  jointly  and  severally  liable  for  the 
infringement.  Ignorance  on  the  part  of  an  infringer  of  the 
existence  of  a  patent  at  the  time  of  infringement  is  imma- 
terial, so  far  as  his  liability  for  the  infringement  is  con- 
cerned. To  entitle  a  patentee  to  recover  for  an  infringement 
of  his  patent,  he  is  not  required  to  show  that  the  infringer 
knew  of  the  existence  of  the  patent.  Still,  neither  the  pat- 
entee nor  his  assigns  are  allowed  to  recover  damages  for  in- 
fringement, unless  it  appear  that  they  marked  the  patented 
articles  made  or  sold  by  them  "  patented,"  together  with  date 
of  patent,  or  that  the  defendant  was  pei-sonally  notified  of  the 
infringement  and  continued  to  infringe  after  such  notice. 

Relation  of  a  Putentee  to  the  Government, — The  relation 
between  the  public  ami  the  inventor  is  that  of  contracting 
parties.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  forming  this  relation  the 
public  neither  promises  nor  imparts  anything  to  the  inven- 
tor except  legal  protection  to  his  property,  while  it  receives 
a  valuable  addition  to  its  jiroductive  resources.  From  this 
relation  of  the  inventor  to  the  public,  it  will  be  realized 
how  .strong  is  his  claim  to  a  full  and  efficient  protection  to 
his  right,  because  (1)  he  has  purchased  the  protection  to 
his  property  in  the  invention  for  a  special  and  valuable 
consideration ;  (3)  he  receives  no  greater  protection  than 
is  furnished  to  others  for  other  property  without  a  special 
purcluLse  :  and  (S)  the  protection  is  imly  for  a  limited 
time,  wliile  for  tangible  property  the  protection  is  without 
limitalion  of  time;  but  notwithstanding  this  manifestly 
superior  claim  of  patentees  to  full  protection  for  their 
property  in  patented  inventions,  thi-ir  title  to  such  prop- 
erty is  tniated  with  com])arative  indilTerence,  and  trespass 
upon  it  by  others  is  not  held  in  the  same  disrepute  as  is 
trespass  upon  other  kinds  of  property.  Patents  have  been, 
and  to  a  considerable  extent  still  are,  regarded  as  monop- 
olies, creating  umlue  restriction  upon  the  rights  of  the  pub- 
lic and  appropriating  to  individuals  what  belongs  e(|ually 
toall.  One  cause  of  this  false  imiiression  is  a  mistake  as 
to  what  a  patent  grants,  and  an  assumption  that  by  it  the 
government  grants  to  a  patentee  an  exclusive  right  to  some- 
thing of  which  the  public   was   previously  in  possession ; 


while  another  is  found  in  the  fact  that  patents  for  new  in- 
ventions had  their  rise,  and  for  a  considerable  time  their 
progress,  in  England  in  the  society  of  other  grants,  which 
did  confer  upon  individuals  privileges  which  belonged  of 
right  to  the  public,  and  which  were  therefore  odious  monop- 
olies, and  which  in  the  course  of  time  became  so  obnoxious 
to  the  [leople  as  to  be  entirely  abolished.  From  the  fact 
that  [patents  for  new  inventions  were  introduced  in  the  form 
of  and  contemporaneously  with  oppressive  monopolies  which 
took  rights  from  tlie  public  and  gave  them  to  individuals, 
they  caught  and  have  retained  some  of  the  odium,  and  even 
the  name,  of  monopolies.  The  distinction  between  a  monop- 
oly and  a  meritorious  patent  was  drawn  in  the  Statute  of 
Jlonopolies,  wliich  declared  "that  all  monopolies,  and  all 
commissions,  grants,  licenses,  charters,  and  letters  patent 
heretofore  made  or  granted,  or  hereafter  to  be  made  or 
granted,  to  any  person  or  persons,  bodies  politic  or  corporate 
whatsoever,  of  or  for  the  sole  buying,  selling,  making,  work- 
ing, or  using  of  anything  within  this  realm,  .  .  .  are  alto- 
gether contrary  to  the  laws  of  this  realm,  and  so  are  and 
shall  be  utterly  void  and  of  none  effect,  and  in  nowise  to  be 
put  in  use  or  execution,"  and  qualified  this  declaration  by 
the  proviso  following,  viz. :  "  That  any  declaration  before 
mentioned  shall  not  extend  to  any  letters  patent  and  grants 
of  privilege  for  the  term  of  fourteen  years  or  under  hereafter 
to  be  made  of  the  sole  working  or  making  of  any  manner  of 
new  mdnufactiires  viiihiw  this  realm  to  the  true  and  first 
inventor  and  inventors  of  such  manufactures."  From  the 
causes  above  stated  the  courts  of  England,  for  many  years 
after  the  introduction  of  jiatents,  treated  them  witli  disfa- 
vor, and  whenever  they  became  the  subject  of  litigation 
struggled  to  invalidate  them.  Patents  for  new  inventions, 
however,  are  not  monopolies,  have  none  of  their  proiierties, 
and  were  never  considered  as  such  by  the  common  law  or 
intended  to  be  so  regarded  by  the  Statute  of  Jlonopolies. 
The  common-law  definition  of  a  monopoly  is  given  liy  Lord 
Coke  in  the  following  words :  "  A  monopoly  is  an  institution 
or  an  allowance  by  the  king,  by  his  grant,  commission,  or 
otherwise,  to  any  person  or  persons,  bodies  politic  or  corpo- 
rate, of  or  for  the  sole  buying,  selling,  making,  working,  or 
using  of  anything  trtierebi/  any  person  or  persons  are  sought 
to  be  restrained  of  any  freedom  or  liliertij  which  they  had 
before  or  hindered  in  their  lanftil  trade."  Justice  and  con- 
sistency require  that  the  property  of  an  inventor,  the  crea- 
tion of  his  own  mind,  should  be  exonerated  from  any  idea 
of  his  being  the  grantee  of  an  odious  monopoly.  Patents 
should  be  regarded  in  their  true  light  of  rewards  dictated 
by  sound  public  policy  to  meritorious  men  who  contribute 
by  their  creations  to  the  welfare  of  the  country  and  of  the 
world.  Revised  by  Francis  W.  Burdk  k. 

Pater.  Walter  Horatio  :  author;  b.  in  London,  Aug.  4, 
1839.  He  proceeded  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  gradu- 
ated in  1863,  and  was  elected  to  an  open  fellowship  at  Bra.se- 
nose  College.  He  was  a  subtle  critic  of  art  and  literature, 
and  master  of  a  verv  graceful  prose  stvle.  His  works  are 
The  Rennissance  (1877;  3d  ed.  1888);"  Mariiis  the  Epi- 
curean (1885);  Iniaqinary  Portraits  (1887);  and  Apprecia- 
tions (1889;  3d  ed."  1890)',  besides  manv  articles  in  the  prin- 
cipal reviews.     I),  in  Oxford,  July  30.  1894.  H.  A.  B. 

Patpr'eiiliis.  Gaius  Velleius  :  historian:  b.  about  19 
B.  c. ;  entered  early  the  Roman  army,  and  served  from  1  to 
13  A.  D.  un<ler  Tiberius  in  Germania.  Pannunia.  and  Dal- 
matia.  The  year  of  his  death  is  unknown,  but  his  IJisfori<e 
Roniancf  ad  J/.  Vinicium  Cos.  Libri  JI.  reached  to  30  A.  u. 
The  first  manuscript  of  this  book,  and  the  only  one  thai  has 
come  down  to  us,  was  discovered  by  Beatus  Khenanus  at 
Murbach  in  Alsace,  and  printed  at  Biisel  in  1.^30.  The  best 
editions  are  that  by  Orelli  (Leipzig.  183.5).  that  by  Kritz  (3d 
ed.  Leipzig,  184t)),  and  the  text  by  Haase  t3d  ed.  with  emen- 
dations by  JMonimsen.  1803)  and  by  Halm  (Leipzig.  1876). 
The  beginning  is  wanting,  and  there  is  also  a  portion  lost 
after  the  eighth  chapter  of  the  first  book. 

Revised  by  ]\I.  Warren. 

Pator'llO  :  t<iwn  of  Italy;  in  the  province  of  Catania.  Sic- 
ily ;  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  western  slope  of  Etna, 
about  9  miles  from  the  city  of  Catania,  on  one  of  the  routes 
to  the  summit  of  the  volcano  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  10-G). 
Remains  of  ancient  aqueducts  and  the  ruins  of  an  old  bridge 
over  the  Simeto  may  be  seen  here,  and  other  traces  of  the  Ro- 
man'jieriod.  There  is  an  old  Norman  castle,  occupying  an 
elevated  position.  Paterno  has  been  supposed  to  occu|)y  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Ilybla  Major.  The  vicinity  is  fertile  in 
grapes,  olives,  hemp.  etc.     Pop.  15,330. 


PATER  NOSTER 


PATHOLOGY,  VEGETABLE 


475 


Pa'ter  Nos'ter  [Lat.,  Our  Father,  tlie  opening  words  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer] :  the  name  given  by  Roman  Catholics  to 
Ilie  Lord's  Prayer.  In  tlie  ancient  Church  it  was  regarded 
as  so  Siiered  that  its  formula  was  kept  a  secret  from  the  un- 
initiated. (See  Akiwni  1)iscii*li.na.)  In  later  limes  this 
l)rayer  was  repeated  by  the  vulgar  as  a  charm.  The  closing 
words.  ■■  For  thine  is  the  king<!om,"  etc.,  are  not  present  in 
all  the  versions,  and  some  Christians  do  not  use  them. 

I'atcrson :  city  (founded  in  1791.  incorporated  in  1850, 
knnwn  as  the  "  Lyons  of  America");  capital  of  Passaic  co., 
N.  .1.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Xew  Jersey,  ref.  2-E) :  on  the 
Passaic  river,  the  .^blrris  Canal,  and  the  Erie,  the  Del., 
Lack,  and  West.,  and  the  X.  Y..  .Susquehanna  and  West, 
railways;  l.jj  miles  N.  W.  ipf  Xcw  York  city.  It  is  built 
partly  on  a  broad  plain  and  partly  on  the  slopes  of  ranges 
of  hiils  that  inclose  it  on  three  sides,  Garret  Jlountain,  about 
500  feet  high,  overlooking  it  on  the  S.  W.  The  river,  which 
affords  exceptional  power  for  manufacturing,  runs  through 
the  city,  and  Pa.ssaic  Falls,  72  feet  high,  are  within  its  limits. 
The  city  is  lighted  by  electricity,  and  has  household  and 
mill  electric  light  and  power.  Founded  tnr  a  great  manu- 
facturing place,  the  city  has  had  a  steady  growth  in  indus- 
trial activity.  The  census  returns  of  1890  showed  that  .597 
manufacturing  establishments  (representing  73  industries) 
reported.  These  had  a  comliined  capital  of  !|'27,387,421, 
employed  24,135  persons,  paid  $!1.,523,558  for  wages  and 
$22,300,133  for  materials.  an<l  had  products  valued  at  .f41,- 
.S!I8,231.  The  jirincipal  industry  was  the  manufacture  of 
silk  and  silk  goods,  which  had  90  eslablishnunts  and  §14.- 
333,491  capital,  employed  11,.596  persons,  jiaid  1*5,021,768 
for  wages  and  $12,726,370  for  materials,  and  had  products 
valued  at  $22,0.58,624.  Then  followed  founilry  and  machine- 
shop  proiluels,  which  had  29  establishments  and  $2,769,321 
cai>ital,  cmploved  3,051  persons,  and  had  products  valued 
at  $4,048,592;'  malt  li(piors,  6  establishments,  $1,805,889 
capital,  and  products  valued  at   $1,292,247;  iron  an<l  steel, 

5  estal)lisliments.  $1..535.335  ca|>ital.  and  products  valued  at 
$1,813,813;  dyeing  ami  tinishing  textiles,  22  establish- 
ments, $1,433,206  capital,  and  products  valued  at  $2,2.52,- 
316;  and  jute  and  jute  goods,  3  establishments,  $1,309,- 
148  cajiital.  ami  products  valued  at  $575,980.  The  foun- 
dry and  machine-shop  products  and  iron  and  steel  maini- 
factures  included  locomotives,  metal  bridges,  steam  fire- 
engines,  cotton  machinery,  heavy  castings  and  brass  and 
plumbers"  goods.  Patei'son  contains  64  churches.  18  public 
schools,  several  [U'ivate  schools  of  liigh  grade,  2  hospitals,  2 
orphan  asylums,  free  eye  and  ear  infirmary.  Old  Ladies' 
llonu',  Cliildren's  Day  Nursery,  free  public  lil)rary,  electric 
street-railways,  3  national  banks,  combined  capital  .$850,000, 
savings-bank,  capital  $100,000.  private  bank,  and  6  dailv, 

6  weeklv,  and  4  nn.nthlv  periodicals.  Pop.  (1880)  51.031; 
(1890)  78,347;  (1895)  97,344.  Editor  of  '■  Press." 

Paterson,  William  :  merchant;  b.  at  Skipmyre,  Dum- 
friesshire, .Scotland,  in  1665;  was  persecuted  as  a  Covenanter 
by  Charles  II.;  settled  at  London  as  a  merchant  ;  visited 
the  West  Indies,  where  he  obtained  much  information  about 
the  localities  of  the  .Spanish  .'Main  from  tUi^  buccaneers;  is- 
sued proposals  for  the  establishment  of  the  Hank  of  Eng- 
land, of  which,  upon  its  establishment  in  1694.  he  was  one 
of  the  directors.  Paterson  made  unsuccessful  efforts  in 
Knglaud  in  the  same  year  to  organize  a  scheme  of  coloniza- 
tion in  Darien;  obtained  from  the  Scottish  Parliament  in 
1695  an  act  of  incorporation;  obtained  large  subscriptions, 
and  proceeded  to  Darien  with  aconsideraiile  number  of  emi- 
grants; was  unsuccessful  on  account  of  cpuirrels,  fever, 
famine,  and  the  opposition  of  the  Dutch,  Spanish,  and  Eng- 
lish (Jovernments;  returned  to  Scotland  1700;  was  an  advo- 
cate of  the  union  of  Scotland  with  England  ;  entered  Par- 
liament 1708;  obtained  soirie  compensation  for  his  losses 
aljout  1715;  wrote  several  treatises  on  economical  subjects. 
1).  at  Westminster.  .Ian.  22.  1719.  .See  Biognipliifs  by  Ban- 
nister (1858)  and  Pagan  (INlio).  and  the  iro)7.s  of  Paterson 
(edited  by  Bannister.  3  vols.,  18.59). 

Palliologry  [(ir.  iraeos.  suffering,  disease  +  \iyos.  discourse, 
reason];  that  branch  <jf  medical  science  which  treats  of  dis- 
ease. It  includes  the  study  of  the  pathological  alterations 
of  the  bo<iy.  their  causes,  and  their  effects.  Generally  the 
subject  is<livi<lcd  into  a'tiology,  which  treats  of  the  causes 
of  disease;  pathological  anatomy,  which  treats  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  structural  alterations;  and  general  pathology, 
which  treats  of  the  laws  under  which  pathological  altera- 
tions are  produced,  and  the  effect  which  they  have  on  the 
function  and  structure  of  the  other  parts  of  the  body. 


Under  disease  we  mean  a  definite  alteration  in  some  part 
of  the  body  which  produces  a  definite  series  of  functional 
disturbances  which  we  call  symptoms.  By  the  study  of 
these  symptoms  we  are  able  to  recognize  the  situation  of  al- 
teration and  its  character.  The  structural  alterations  of  the 
body  are  divide<I  into  tho.se  which  are  congenital,  and  due  to 
imperfections  in  the  development  and  growth  of  the  organ- 
ism, and  those  which  are  the  result  of  disease.  All  amitom- 
ieal  changes  in  the  body  not  due  to  defects  of  development 
are  the  result  of  influences  not  inherent  in  the  body,  but 
acting  on  it  from  without. 

We  nuiy  regard  life  as  ihie  to  the  sum  of  external  influ- 
ences acting  on  the  body.  The  character  of  these  influences 
must  be  such  that  under  them  all  the  orgaiLS  of  the  body  act 
in  a  normal  or  physiological  manner.  When  an  ordinary 
external  influence  is  increased  to  a  great  degree  it  may  be- 
come a  cause  of  disea.se.  Disease  is.  Iiowever,  most  general- 
ly produce<i  by  the  action  of  influences  different  from  those 
ordinarily  acting.  When  an  organ  is  diseased  it  nuiy  be  that 
injurious  substances  are  biiiught  to  the  organ  by  tiie  circu- 
lation, or  it  nuiy  be  that  the  blood  while  of  a  normal  (luality 
may  vary  from  the  nonnal  fjuantity.or  the  part  may  become 
affected  from  direct  injury  or  from  its  proximity  to  another 
disea-sed  organ.  These  structm-al  alterations  of  jiart  have  an 
effect  not  only  in  impairing  their  functions,  but  the  impaired 
function  of  oiu'  organ,  if  it  be  an  important  one.  has  an 
etfect  on  the  function  and  structure  of  the  other  organs. 

The  infectious  diseases  are  due  to  the  action  of  micro- 
scopic living  organisms  which  find  suitable  conditions  for 
their  development  in  the  animal  body,  and  as  a  result  of 
their  growth  produce  various  alterations.  Experimental 
pathohigy  forms  an  important  branch  of  pathology,  and  to 
its  development  a  great  deal  of  recent  progress  nwide  in  the 
increase  of  our  knowledge  of  disease  is  due.  In  this  lesions 
are  produced  in  lower  animals,  or  they  are  given  various  dis- 
eases by  inoculating  them  with  the  organisms  causing  the 
disease.  In  such  experiments  there  is  the  advantage  that 
the  effect  of  the  lesions  on  the  functions  of  tlie  parts  can  be 
studied  more  closely,  and  by  killing  the  aninuils  at  various 
stages  of  the  disease  its  gratiual  course  can  lie  traced  out. 

W.  T.  CoUXCILMAK. 

Pathology,  Vegetable  :  a  department  of  botany  which 
deals  with  the  diseased  conditions  of  jilants.  It  is  coexten- 
sive with  physiology,  which  deals  with  plants  and  their 
organs  in  their  normal,  active  state.  The  subject  is  thus  too 
large  to  be  treated  in  any  but  a  summary  way  in  this  arti- 
cle, which  professes  to  give  no  more  than  a  mere  outline. 

Scientifically  speaking,  "disease  is  a  condition  in  which 
the  functions  of  the  organism  are  improperly  discharged  " 
( 117(77/).  While  this  general  statement  applies  cipially  to 
plants  and  animals,  it  must  not  be  assumeil  that  there  is  a 
com]ilete  identity  between  their  pathological  conditions.  In 
a  plant  nearly  all  cells  are  short-lived,  and  in  the  growth  of 
an  organ  or  member  death  follows  close  after  the  advancing 
ma.ss  of  living,  active  cells.  In  a  long-lived  tree  it  is  its 
norma!  coiulition  that  i)erhaps  more  than  99  |)er  cent,  of  its 
nuiss  is  dead  tissue.  Again,  in  such  a  tree  we  observe  the 
periodic  death  and  sejiai-alion  of  great  masses  of  tissue  in 
the  fall  of  the  leaves  and  (lowers,  and  the  ripening  atul  fall 
of  fruits.  These  exam|)!es  will  suffice  to  show  why  a  refer- 
ence to  many  languishing  or  dying  cells  is  excluded  from 
this  discussion,  which  is  confined  to  that  part  of  the  subject 
which  deals  with  what  nuiy  be  called  the  abniu'mal  patholo- 
gy of  cells,  tissues,  and  organs. 

1.  I'nfai'oralile  Iliihitat. — For  ordinary  laiul-plants  this 
includes  not  only  such  mattei's  as  altitude  above  .sea-level, 
forest  or  plain  conditions,  etc.,  but  even  more,  the  particular 
conditions  of  the  soil.  In  a  hard  soil,  even  if  it  is  fertile, 
many  ]dants  starve  because  their  roots  can  not  penetrate  it. 
The  same  thing  takes  place  in  a  barren  soil,  although  it  may 
be  soft  and  easily  penetrated.  In  a  soil  which  is  too  dry  the 
plant  starves  not  only  for  want  of  water  (its  mo.st  important 
food),  but  also  for  want  of  the  solutions  of  nitrogenous  and 
other  solid  food-matters.  On  the  other  hand,  most  land- 
])lants  soon  languish  if  their  roots  are  long  in  a  soil  which  is 
filled  with  water.  Here  it  appears  that  many  of  the  roots 
die,  and  the  jdant  starves  in  the  niid.st  of  plenty.  Sachs  has 
shown  that  ordinary  soil-roots  die  in  completely  wet  soil,  on 
account  of  the  exclusion  of  air.  In  addition  to  this,  in  field- 
culture  a  wet  soil  is  always  i-oldi'r  than  one  which  is  moist  ; 
thus  the  absorption  of  nutritive  solutions  by  the  roots  may 
be  so  checked  lus  to  result  in  starvation. 

Occasionally  the  soil  contains  injurious  or  poisonous  sub- 


470 


PATHOLOGY,  VEGETABLE 


PATMOS 


stances.  Some  salts,  as  those  of  potash,  and  soda  are  some- 
times so  abundant  as  to  destroy  nearly  all  vegetation.  Tlie 
presence  of  mineral  oils  or  of  some  gases  in  the  soil  quickly 
kills  the  roots  of  all  plants.  Here  again,  as  in  the  preceding 
cases,  it  appears  that  the  plant  is  in  fact  starved  by  the  cut- 
ting off  of  the  supply  of  water  and  other  food. 

2.  Unfavorable  Atmospheric  Conditions. — When  the  air 
is  very  dry  the  loss  of  water  by  the  plant  is  excessive,  and 
when  this  exceeds  the  water-supply  the  cells  lose  their  turgid- 
ity,  become  enfeebled  and  almost  inactive.  Such  cells  nuiy 
regain,  to  a  great  extent,  their  normal  activity  when  the  hu- 
midity of  the  air  is  increased. 

Many  gases  in  the  air  act  as  poisons  to  the  cells  with 
which  they  come  in  contact.  The  gases  from  Imrning  coal, 
especially  from  that  which  contains  sulphur,  and  those 
which  escape  from  chemical-factories  are  often  very  destruc- 
tive to  vegetation.  "  Hydrochloric  acid  gas,  nitric  acid  in 
vapor,  and  chlorine  are  also  very  destructive  to  vegetation, 
even  when  in. such  minute  amounts  as  to  be  unnoticed  on 
account  of  their  odor  "  (Goodale). 

Too  intense  or  too  feeble  light  is  injurious  to  plants. 
Pringsheim  has  shown  that  in  very  intense  white  light  the 
chlorophyll  granules  lose  their  color,  and  the  cell  is  soon 
killed.  In  deficient  light,  as  when  plants  are  more  or  less 
shaded,  they  lose  their  color  and  become  slender  and  weak. 
To  a  large  extent  this  loss  ot  strength  is  doulitless  due  to 
lack  of  nutrition  through  the  inability  of  the  chloroplasts  to 
assimilate  carbon. 

When  subjected  to  a  temperature  which  is  too  high  the 
plant  wilts,  and  by  the  rapid  loss  of  water  by  evaporation 
the  leaves  and  yoimger  stems  become  dry,  as  if  scorched.  In 
a  low  temperature  (but  not  freezing)  the  activities  of  the 
cells  are  mostly  suspended,  and  if  this  is  prolonged  the 
plant  suffers  from  a  loss  of  nutrition.  When  actual  freez- 
ing takes  place  death  usually  follows  on  account  of  the 
withdrawal  of  the  water  from  the  protoplasm.  A  quick  al- 
ternation from  heat  to  cold  appears  to  be  more  harinfid  than 
when  the  change  is  a  gradual  one.  The  so-called  sun-scald 
upon  the  trunks  of  apple-trees  appears  to  be  the  result  of  the 
heating  of  the  tissues  of  the  inner  bark  and  younger  wood 
by  the  afternoon  sun  on  bright  winter  days  followed  quickly 
by  a  low  temperature.  The  cells  are  made  active  by  the  heat, 
and  when  the  temperature  suddenly  falls  they  are  killed. 

3.  Mechanical  Injuries. — Here  may  be  mentioned  the 
wounds,  as  liy  the  breaking  or  removal  of  branches,  the  in- 
juries from  hail  and  lightning,  and  the  twisting  and  rup- 
turing of  the  tissues  of  the  stems  and  leaves  by  violent 
winds,  in  all  of  which  many  cells  are  at  once  destroyed,  ex- 
posing others,  which  in  tm'u  are  usually  injured  also  by 
drying,  decay,  or  the  attacks  of  harmful  organisms  (bac- 
teria, fungi,  or  insects).  Even  when  the  wound  has  become 
covered  by  the  growth  of  living  tissue  over  it,  the  dead  tis- 
sues of  the  original  wpund  are  frequently  the  origin  of  a 
more  or  less  rapidly  spreading  decay,  usually  hastened  by 
the  presence  of  fungous  filaments. 

Most  of  the  injuries  produced  by  insects  and  other  small 
animals  are  mechanical.  The  roots,  stems,  leaves,  flowers, 
and  fruits  are  often  badly  wounded  by  biting  insects  (Cole- 
optera,  Orthoptera,  and  the  larvae  of  Lepidoptera  and 
Hymenoptera).  Here  the  injury  to  the  plant  is  twofold  ;  it 
suifers  from  the  wounds  as  such,  and  also  from  lack  of  lui- 
trition.  The  sucking  insects  (Heniipteni),  by  withdrawing 
water  and  other  food-niiitters,  to  this  extent  decrease  the 
nutrition  of  the  plant.  In  addition,  in  some  cases  the  in- 
sect injects  a  poisonous  or  irritating  fluid,  which  eitlii'r  kills 
the  tissues  or  causes  abnormal  gmwllis,  the  latter  resulting 
in  the  formation  of  galls  of  various  kinds. 

4.  Parasili.'im. — One  of  the  most  fruitful  sources  of  dis- 
eas(Ml  conditions  is  the  presence  of  parasitic  vegetable  organ- 
isms in  the  tissues.  In  a  few  cases  these  are  phanerogams, 
as  in  the  dodder  and  mistletoe,  but  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber are  fungi  and  bacteria.  The  diseases  produced  by  fungi 
and  bacteria  manifest  llieraselves  in  many  ways,  and  are 
known  as  anlhracnose,  blights,  gumraosis,  mildews,  rot, 
rusts,  scab,  snmts.«  spots,  etc.  In  some  of  these  there  is  a 
slow  invasion  of  the  tissues  of  the  host  by  the  parasite,  with 
little  apparent  harm  to  the  former,  whi'le  again  there  may 
be  very  great  changes  in  the  tissues,  resulting  in  the  atrophy 
of  organs,  or  much  more  commonly  in  their  hypertrophy. 
Ill  some  again  the  tissues  tend  to  dry  and  slirivid  up,  while 
in  others  they  are  turned  into  foul,  decaying  masses.  The 
presence  in  root-cells  of  the  cabbage  anil  turnip  of  those  low 
organisms  of  doublfid  allinity,  the  Mi/ceto2ua,  gives  rise  to 
the  distorted  growths  known  as  "club-root." 


5.  Teratogeny. — Doubtless  we  must  regard  the  monstrous 
growths  so  frequently  found  in  plants  as  involving  patho- 
logical conditions  of  the  tissues  of  the  parts  concerned.  We 
know  little  as  to  the  cause  of  these  malformations,  and  may 
here  do  no  more  than  indicate  in  a  very  general  way  their 
kinds,  as  described  by  Masters,  as  follows :  (1)  Abnormal 
union  of  parts;  (2)  abnormal  separation  of  parts;  (3)  ab- 
normal positions  of  parts;  (4)  arrest  of  development  (stasis- 
morphy);  (5)  over-development  (pleiomorphy) ;  (6)  perverted 
development  (metaraorphy) ;  (7)  irregular  development  (he- 
teromorphy);  (8)  multiplication  of  parts;  (9)  suppression 
of  parts  ;  (10)  overgrowth  (hypertrophy) ;  (11)  undergrowth 
(atrophy). 

See  further  the  articles  Blight,  Mildews,  Rot,  Rusts, 
Scab,  and  Smuts. 

Literature. — B.  Frank,  Die  Pflanzenkranklieiten  (1879) ; 
G.  L.  Goodale,  Pliysioloyical  Botany  (1^X5);  Kmst  Hallier, 
Phyt()palholoyie{lS(i8) ;  M.T.  Masters,  Vegetable  Teratology 
(1869);  Paul  Sorauer,  Handhuch  der  Pftamenkrankheiten 
(1886) ;  H.  M.  Ward,  Diseases  of  Plants. 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Patliros  [Egypt.  Pa-la-res.  the  South  Land  ;  Septuagint, 
Tla^ovpns] :  tile  Hebrew  name  of  Upper  Egypt  as  distin- 
guisheil  from  the  Delta  region,  which  was  usually  known  as 
Mizralm  (Isa.  xi.  11 ;  .Jer.  xliv.  1,  15;  Ezek.  xxix.  14). 

Pat'kiil.  .loiiANN  Reinhold,  von  :  soldier  and  diplomat; 
b.  about  1660  of  a  wealthy  and  influential  family  of  Livonian 
nobility  ;  received  a  military  education,  and  served  as  a  cap- 
tain in  the  army,  but  became  famous  afterward  as  a  diploma- 
tist, or  rather  as  an  intriguer.  Livonia  was  at  that  time  a 
possession  of  the  Swedish  crown :  and  in  the  controversies 
between  the  Livonian  nobility  and  the  Swedish  king  Patkul 
played  a  conspicuous  part.  Accused  of  rebellion,  he  was  sum- 
moned to  Stockhf)lm,  but  on  his  arrival  there  he  soon  dis- 
covered that  the  judgment  was  sure  to  go  against  him.  He 
escaped  to  Courland,  but  was  sentenced  to  death,  and  his 
estates  were  confiscated.  For  some  time  he  lived  in  Switzer- 
land and  France,  occupied  in  scientific  studies,  but  in  1698 
he  entered  the  service  of  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony  and  Po- 
land, and  the  formidable  alliance  which  was  formed  shortly 
after  against  Charles  XII.  by  Augustus  II.,  Peter  the  Great, 
and  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  was  principally  Patkul's 
work.  It  seems,  however,  as  if  he  could  serve  no  friend 
and  no  purpose  with  full  faith.  In  1705  Augustus  II.  ar- 
rested him  and  put  him  in  the  dungeons  of  Sonnenstein  ; 
and  when  Charles  XII.  made  Patkul's  surrender  one  of  the 
conditions  of  peace,  August  us  II.  consented.  On  leaving 
Saxony  the  Swedes  carried  him  away  with  them,  and  Oct.  10, 
1707,  he  was  broken  on  the  wheel  and  beheaded  in  the  con- 
vent ot  Kazimierz  near  Posen. 

Patmore,  Coventry  Kearsey  Dighton:  poet;  b.  at 
Woodford,  Essex,  England,  July  23,  1823;  son  of  Peter 
George  Patmore,  a  man  of  letters.  He  was  assistant  libra- 
rian in  the  British  Museum  1846-68 ;  author  of  Poems  (1844) ; 
Tamerton  Church  Tower  (1853);  The  Angel  in  the  House 
(4  parts.  1854^62),  and  other  works;  edited  the  Autobiog- 
raphy of  Barry  t^rnwall.  A  collective  edition  of  his  poems 
was  issued  in  1886.     D.  Nov.  26,  1896.  H.  A.  B. 

Patnios,  or  Patiiios  [Gr.  nirnos.  Median'.  Palmo'sa] :  an 
island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea;  one  of  the  Sporades.  all  of  which 
belong  to  Turkey;  29  miles  W.  from  Asia  Minor,  and  18 
miles  S.  of  the  western  extremity  of  Samos.  Steamships 
pass  near  it  when  going  from  Constantinople  to  Egypt  or 
Syria.  It  is  a  jagged,  irregular  mass  of  rock.  9  miles  long 
and  5  miles  broad,  composed  of  two  unequal  parts  which 
are  united  by  a  narrow  isthmus,  on  the  east  side  of  which  is 
an  excellent  harbor.  Barren  and  dreaiy,  it  was  a  dreaded 
place  of  banishment  under  the  Romans.  St.  John  was  con- 
fined here  under  Domitiaii,  and  released  on  the  tyrant's 
death  (96).  According  to  (ireek  tradition  he  wrote  his  Gos- 
pel in  the  little  village  of  Katavafsis,  which  no  longer  exists, 
and  the  Apocalypse  in  the  south  part  of  the  island  in  a 
grotto  now  included  in  the  tiny  chajiel  of  St.  Anne,  half 
way  up  the  hill  overlooking  the  town.  This  hill  is  crowned  by 
the  forest-like  monastery  of  St.  John  the  Theologian,  erected 
in  1088,  and  now  occupied  by  about  forty  monks.  In  the 
liljrary  are  239  manuscripts.  The  archives  contain  valuable 
ecclesiastical  documents.  The  air  is  remarkably  healthful, 
and  pest  and  cholera  are  unknown.  The  inhabitants,  num- 
bering about  4,000,  are  industrious  Greeks  who  gain  a 
scanty  subsistence  by  fishing,  navigation,  weaving  a  coarse 
kind  of  cloth,  and  working  in  Asia  Minor  or  on  the  larger 
islands.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 


i'AT.N'A 


I'ATKICK 


477 


Pat'na:  city  ;  in  the  province  of  Bengal,  British  India; 
on  liie  right  bank  of  tlio  Ganges,  285  miles  N.  W.  of  Cal- 
cutta (see  map  iif  X.  huliii.  rcf.  G-11).  It  extends  with  its 
suburbs  along  the  river  l't>r  a  distance  of  7^  miles.  It  is  in- 
ditterently  built,  liandsuiiic  briek  buildings  alternating  with 
mud  huts  covere<l  with  tiles  (ir  thatched;  but  it  has  some 
manufactures  of  shawls,  table-clnths,  laccjiu'red  ware,  and, 
being  situated  on  the  East  India  Railway,  it  has  become  the 
center  of  the  opium-trade.  It  is  the  chief  seat  of  Moham- 
medanism in  India.     Pop.  (1891)  105,192. 

Patoii,  John  (tiHsoN'.  I).  I). :  missionary;  b.  on  the  farm 
of  Braeheail,  parish  of  Kirkmahoe,  near  Dumfries,  Scot- 
land, May  24,  1824;  during  his  educatinnal  course  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow  and  the  Iteformed  I'resbyterian 
Divinity  Hall,  he  was  missionary  in  Glasgow;  was  mis- 
sionary in  Tanna.  Xew  IIel)rides,  from  1858  till  1862.  when 
he  was  driven  away;  traveled  in  the  interests  of  the  New 
Hebrides  mission,  in  Australia  1862-6:!,  in  Great  Britain 
1863-64,  in  the  Australian  colonies  1865,  in  (xrcat  Britain 
and  North  America  1892-94;  and  since  1865  has  been  mis- 
sionary in  Aniwa,  New  Hebrides.  Dr.  Baton  was  modera- 
tor of  tlie  Synod  of  the  Keformed  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Scotland  1863  ;  ilelegate  to  the  Pan-Presbyterian  Council 
in  Belfast  1884,  an<l  at  Toronto  1892.  An  account  of  his 
life  has  appeared  in  two  forms — an  autobiography  edited  by 
his  brother,  John  (1.  Paton,  Missiuitari/  to  the  Sew  Ihbriih'S 
(2  vols.,  London  and  New  York,  1889-90:  new  eil.  Chicago, 
1  vol.,  1S92),  and  The  Stori/  of  John  G.  Pafon  Told  for 
Young  Folks  (New  Vork,  1892).  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Patou,  Sir  Joseph  Noel  :  historical  painter;  b.  at  Dun- 
fermline. Scotland.  Dec.  13,  1821.  He  was  a  designer  for  a 
manufactory  of  damask  fal)rics,  and  went  to  London  at  the 
age  of  twenty,  where  he  entered  the  schools  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  In  1H47  his  pictures  entitled  Christ  Bearing  the 
dross  and  2'he  liecnnciliatinn  of  Oberon  and  Tititnia  won 
for  him  a  i)rize  of  ,t'3l)()  at  the  Westmin.ster  Hall  competi- 
tion. The  latter  work  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  fidin- 
burgh.  He  was  electeil  a  member  of  the  Royal  Scottish 
.\cademy  in  1850.  and  in  1867  was  knighteil.  He  is  a  sculp- 
tor of  ability  and  a  writer  on  arclueological  subjects.  Stu- 
dio in  Edinburgh.  William  A.  Cokkin. 

Patras :  fortified  town  of  Greece,  in  the  Morea,  on  the 
(iulf  of  Patras;  capital  of  the  nome  of  Achaia  and  Elis  : 
has  a  large  though  (irecarious  harbor ;  is  connected  by  rail 
with  Athens  (see  map  of  Greece,  ref.  16-J).  Its  customs  re- 
ceipts are  larger  than  those  of  any  other  town  in  Southern 
(ireece.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric ;  and  is 
well  built  and  prosperous.  It  exports  oranges,  lemons,  and 
currants,  which  are  extensively  cultivated  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  (18911)33.529.  B.  A.  G. 

Patriarcll  [(ir.  iruTpiipxTis,  fatlier  or  chief  of  a  race,  fam- 
ily, or  country,  patriari-h  ;  narpii,  fatherhood,  paternal  line- 
age, clan  +  fipx"".  rule]  :  a  title.  In  the  (-Md  Testament  it 
was  ajiplicd  to  heads  of  families  till  the  time  of  the  twelve 
sons  of  .lacob,  who  were  the  last  patriarchs.  In  Jewish 
post-Christian  history  the  Jewish  pontiff,  whose  authority 
centered  at  Tiberias  and  extended  over  all  the  Jews  \V.  of 
the  Eui)lirates  from  about  175  to  415,  was  called  Patriarch 
of  the  Jews.  In  ecclesiastical  history,  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury the  Bishops  of  Rome,  Antioch,  ami  Alexandria  assumed 
the  title,  as  representative  of  the  Christians  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa  respectively.  To  them  were  added  the  ))alri- 
archs  of  Constantinople  and  Jerusalem.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  reckoned  twelve  patriarchs  attached  to  her  com- 
munion; namely,  of  Constantinople,  Jerusalem,  Antioch, 
Venice,  West  Indies,  Lisbon,  Antioch  (of  the  Melchites),  An- 
tioch (of  the  JIaronites),  Antioch  (of  the  .Syrians),  of  the 
Catholic  Armenians  in  Cilicia,  and  the  Chaldeans  or  Nes- 
torians  of  Babylon  ;  and  also  the  Bish(jps  of  A(juileia  and 
Bourges.  The  Eastern  Orthodox  or  Greek  Church  reckoned 
five:  of  Constantinople,  Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch.  and  Je- 
rusalem. Considering  the  patriarchate  of  Rome  as  vacant 
through  heresy,  she  established  the  patriarchate  of  Russia 
in  1437,  which  was  suppressed  in  1700  by  Peter  the  Great. 
N'arious  other  ancient  Christian  coninuinities,  as  specially 
the  Armenians,  retain  the  same  oflice  and  title.  Patriarchal 
functions  are  mainly  of  precedence  and  supervisory. 

K.  A.  tiKOSVENOR. 

Patriarchies:  See  Etunoloov ;  also  Inuians  of  North 

America. 

Patrician  [from  Lat.  pntricius,  pertaining  to  the  nobil- 
ity, of  senatorial  rank,  deriv.  of  pa  t res,  nobles,  senators, 


liter.,  fathers] :  a  name  given  to  the  members  of  the  Roman 
genles,  constituting  the  original  pojmlus  liomanus.  The 
Roman  historians  supposed  that  originally  the  patricii  were 
the  sons  of  the  senators  or  patrcs.  So  Livy  :  ••  Patres  certe 
ab  honore,  jiatriciique  |)rogenies  eorum  ap]iellati"  (Liv.  I. 
8).  Doubtless  the  true  explanation  of  the  word  jiatrician  is 
that  offered  by  Jlommsen  ;  he  says  :  "  Whoever  was  begot- 
ten in  an  illegal  marriage  or  out  of  marriage  was  excluded 
from  the  membership  of  the  community.  On  this  account 
the  Roman  burgesses  assumed  the  names  of  the  '  father's 
children' (;w?n'f If).  i'"i-''U'uch  as  they  alone  in  the  eye  of 
the  law  had  a  father."  (Hist,  of  Rome,  ch.  v.,  vol.  i..  p.  69, 
Eng.  trans.)  It  is  certain  that  the  patricians  were  the  orig- 
inal burgesses  of  Rome ;  in  the  earliest  times  there  was  no 
plebeian  class  inside  the  state.  The  patricians  were  divided 
into  certain  clans,  (/c«/cf  as  they  were  called:  the  gentes 
were  divided  into  families,  and  all  these  families  were  con- 
nected together  by  certain  religious  rites  called  snera  genti- 
licia.  Attached  to  each  household  were  the  slaves  and  the 
clients,  the  latter  incduding  foreign  refugees  and  emanci- 
pated slaves.  Sometimes  a  patrician  would  marry  a  client's 
daughter,  in  which  case  the  children  resulting'  from  the 
marriage  would  take  rank  neither  with  the  patricians  nor 
the  clients;  they  would  have  no  political  rights,  but  would 
be  independent.  There  were  many  ways  in  wliich  a  state 
of  independency  might  be  attained  by  the  clients;  as,  for 
instance,  wlieii  a  patron  died  and  left  no  heir.  Thus  tliere 
soon  arose  in  Rome  a  third  class,  the  plebeians.  To  the 
class  so  formed  were  added  many  citizens  among  the  con- 
quered tribes  round  about  Rome;  after  the  conquest  of 
Alba  many  of  their  citizens  were  brought  to  Rome,  only  a 
few  being  received  as  burgesse.s  while  the  majority  joined 
the  plebeians.  The  civil  history  of  Rome  for  more  than 
four  centuries  after  the  foundation  of  the  city  jiresents  a 
constant  struggle  between  the  two  orders  of  jjatricians  and 
plebeians.  At  the  beginning  of  the  struggle  the  whole 
political,  judicial,  and  hierarchical  power  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  patricians;  at  the  end  of  it  a  perfect  equalization  had 
taken  place.  The  first  great  advantage  gained  by  the  ple- 
beians was  the  establishment  of  magistrates  of  their  own, 
tribunes  of  the  plebs  (495  n.  r.),  for  the  sole  object  of  the 
protection  of  plebeians.  During  the  next  half  century  from 
that  date  ra|)id  advances  were  made ;  intermarriage  be- 
tween the  two  orders  was  sanctioned;  tlie  consulship  was 
for  a  while  discontinued  and  the  office  of  military  tribune 
established,  to  which  plebeians  were  made  eligible ;  and  a 
way  into  the  senate  was  prepared  for  the  plebeians  by  throw- 
ing open  the  qua^storship.  The  patricians,  however,  at  this 
date  still  retained  some  of  the  highest  offices:  they  alone 
were  eligible  for  the  augurships  and  the  pontificate.  Fur- 
ther, two  new  offices  were  created — offices  of  the  highest 
power — the  censorship  and  the  i)iwtorship  of  the  city.  By 
the  coining  of  the  Gauls  (390  n.  c.)  t^ie  work  of  equalization 
was  thrown  back  somewhat,  but  only  for  a  time.  By  the 
Licinian  rogati(ms  the  consulship  was  restored,  and  it  was 
definitely  arranged  that  one  of  the  two  consuls  should  be  a 
plebeian.  In  B.  c.  336  a  plebeian  was  raised  to  the  dictator- 
shi)i ;  in  351  the  censorship  was  thrown  open:  the  pra'tor- 
ship  followed  soon  after;  and  at  length,  in  300  H.  <■.,  the 
plebeians  were  elected  to  the  highest  sacred  offices,  the  ]ion- 
tificale  and  the  augurships.  Some  offices  of  no  i)olitical 
significance  continued  to  be  reserved  to  jiatricians,  but  in' 
general  from  this  time  forward  the  title  of  patrician  carried 
with  it  no  advantages  apart  from  the  respect  which  was 
considered  due  to  high  birth  and  the  memory  of  noble  an- 
cestry. After  the  transference  Ijy  Constantine  of  the  seat 
of  imperial  authority  to  Byzantium  the  term  palriciiis  was 
made  a  personal  title,  indicating  a  rank  a  grade  lower  than 
that  of  consul.  Revised  by  G.  L.  Hexdrickson. 

Patrick.  Saixt  (Lat.  form  Piitririiis) :  Hie  apostle  and  pa- 
tron saint  of  Ireland.  His  baptismal  name  was  Snrcat 
(brave  in  battle).  His  name  as  a  ca|itive  was  Coihraighe; 
latter  he  was  called  Magonus,  or  Imigonus.  or  .Maun;  on 
his  ordination  he  took  the  name  I^itricius.  His  birtlijilace 
is  not  certainly  known,  and  his  dates  are  all  disjnited.  The 
dates  in  tiiis  article  are  probalily  only  approximations.  He 
says  of  himsidf.  in  his  Confession,  that  he  was  born  at 
"  Bannavein  Tabernia'."  which  may  probably  be  iilenlified 
with  Kirkpatrick.  near  Glasgow,  in  .Scotland.  He  was  liorn 
about  372;  was  a  captive  and  tlie  slave  of  the  King  of  Dal- 
aradia  in  Ireland  from  388  to  ;i95;  went  to  Gaul,  and  was 
there  ordaiiu'd  priest  and  bislioj);  went  to  Ireland  as  a  mis- 
sionary in  432,  and  died   at   Saul,  near  Strangford  Lough, 


478 


PATRIPASSIANS 


PATRONS  OP  HUSBANDRY 


County  Down,  Ulster,  where  many  years  before  he  had 
foun<led  his  first  ehurcli,  on  Mar.  17,  465,  the  day  now 
sacreil  to  his  memory.  Ireland  was  then  occupied  by  a 
great  number  of  petty  tribes,  most  of  whicli  were  evan- 
gelized by  Patrick.  So  well  was  the  work  accomplished 
that  Ireland  was  known  in  subsequent  centuries  as  the  "  isl- 
and of  the  saints."  The  method  employed  was  that  of 
dealing  cautiously  and  gently  with  the  old  paganism  of  the 
people.  The  chieftains  were  first  won  over,  and  then 
through  thera  their  clans.  Of  Patrick  himself  much  that 
has  been  related  is  fabulous ;  but  his  autobiographical  Cun- 
fession  and  his  Epistle  to  Coroticus,  both  of  which  are  un- 
questionably genuine,  reveal  a  devout,  simple-minded,  un- 
lettered man,  and  a  most  discreet  and  energetic  missionary. 
It  is  a  very  curious  fact  that  in  these  writings  of  his  we 
find  no  mention  of  the  pope,  and  no  trace  of  purgatory,  au- 
ricular confession,  transulistantiation,  or  worship  of  the  Vir- 
gin ;  whib  salvation  by  faith  and  all  the  related  doctrines 
are  clearly  taught.  See  W.  D.  Killen's  Ecflesinstical  His- 
tory of  Ireland  (3  vols.,  London,  1875) ;  Wliitley  Stokes's 
The  Tripartite  Life  of  St.  Patrick,  with  other  Documetits 
relatiiifi  to  that  Saint  (1887) ;  Eng.  trans,  of  all  his  writings, 
by  C.  H.  II.  Wright  (1880).         Revised  by  S.  M.  .Jackso.n. 

Patripas'siaiis,  or  Moiiarchians  [Patripasnians  is  from 
Lat.  pater,  jja'trLs,  father  +  pa'ti,  pas'sus.  suffer ;  3Jon- 
archiaiis  is  from  Gr.  fiims,  single  -I-  apx^,  first  place,  begin- 
ning, principle] :  Antitrinitarians  of  the  ancient  Christian 
Church,  who  either  taught,  or  were  charged  with  teaching, 
either  expressly  or  by  implication,  that  God  the  Father  was 
incarnated  and  suffered  in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ.  They 
denied  the  doctrine  of  Three  Persons  in  the  Godhead,  teach- 
ing only  three  manifestations  of  the  One  Person.  For 
themselves,  they  claimed  that  they  were  emphasizing  both 
the  unity  of  God  and  the  divinity  of  Christ.  Of  those  who 
held  to  the  heresy  in  its  Ijolder  form,  the  most  eminent  were 
Praxeas  of  Asia  Elinor,  who  was  in  Rome  between  190-200 
A.  D.,  Noetus,  who  was  excommunicated  at  Smyrna  shortly 
after  200,  and  the  two  popes  Zephyrinus  (202-218)  and  Cal- 
listus  (218-223).  A  much  finer  type  of  the  heresy  was  devel- 
oped by  Beryllus  of  Bostra,  recovered  to  orthodoxy  by  Ori- 
gen  in  244,  and  by  Sabellius  of  Ptolemais  in  Egypt,  250- 
260  A.  D.,  whose  system  has  frequently  reappeared,  especially 
in  (A-cidental  Christendom.     See  Christology. 

Patroclus  (in  Gr.  ndrpoKKo!) :  the  friend  of  Achilles :  a  son 
of  llcnoetius  of  Opus,  a  brother  of  Peleus,  the  father  of 
Achilles.  Of  his  participation  in  the  Trojan  war,  his  death 
by  the  hand  of  Hector,  and  the  frightfid  revenge  wliieh 
Achilles  took,  the  Iliad  contains  a  grand  picture  in  its  songs 
xvi.-xxiii. 

Patronage  [from  Lat.  patro'nus,  protector,  patron,  deriv. 
oi  pater,  father]:  in  general,  the  right  of  making  appoint- 
ments to  vacant  benefiues,  but  it  is  commonly  limited  to  the 
right  of  presenting  candidates  to  vacant  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices. So  long  as  the  Christian  Church  was  chiefly  mission- 
ary there  could,  of  course,  be  no  question  of  patronage.  In 
tlie  district  or  diocese  wliich  was  placed  under  his  superin- 
tendeneo  the  bishop  fixed  his  residence  at  the  religious  house, 
where  he  lived  together  with  a  number  of  priests,  as  many 
as  were  sufficient  for  the  religious  instruction  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  diocese,  and  the  whole  establishment  was  main- 
tained at  the  expense  of  the  episcopal  treasury.  In  course 
of  time  the  bishop  at  the  cathedral  church  would  establish 
and  endow  branch  churches  in  his  diocese  and  nominate  a 
priest  among  the  episco/ji  clems,  who  enjoyed  the  revenues 
of  the  parish  endowment.  Soon,  however,  when  Christian- 
ity became  the  generally  accepted  religion,  the  bishop  be- 
came unable  to  provide  his  whole  diocese  with  churches  or 
the  churches  with  revenues.  Private  persons  of  wealth  and 
piety  tlien  took  the  duty  upon  themselves.  The  count,  the 
baron,  the  lord  of  the  castle,  built  on  his  domain  a  church 
and  endowed  it  with  land  or  other  property  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  buihling  and  the  priest.  He  now  became  the 
patron  of  this  cluirch  ;  and  he  enjoyed  the  right  of  nomi- 
nating a  person  in  holy  orders  to  be 'the  officiating  minister. 
So  far  the  development  was  natural  and  sound.  The  third 
Lateran  Council  of  1 179.  and  also  the  fourth  of  1215,  decreed 
that  presentation  by  the  patron,  or  induction,  as  it  was  called, 
was  by  itself  not  sufficient  to  confer  any  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fice, as  it  referred  only  to  the  temporalities  of  the  office;  in- 
stitution or  investnicnt.  with  its  .spiritualities,  was  further- 
more necessary;  and  as  this  could  only  be  given  by  the 
Church,  the  bisho|),  or  the  pope,  the  patron's  riglit  of  ap- 
pointment was  thereby  actually  annulled.    In  the  thirteenth 


century  the  pope  claimed  for  himself  the  patronage  of  all 
benefices  whose  incumbents  died  at  the  court  of  Rome  ;  and 
as  the  number  of  ecclesiastics  of  all  ranks  and  from  all 
countries  wiio  visited  Rome  was  very  great,  this  claim  was 
of  considerable  importance.  The  pope  also  gave  dispensa- 
tions for  non-residence  and  for  holding  several  benefices  at 
the  same  time,  and  even  assumed  the  right  of  giving  away 
bishoprics,  abbacies,  and  other  ecclesiastical  benefices  before 
they  were  vacant — a  measure  which  roused  general  indigna- 
tion, so  much  the  more  as  it  was  well  knov.'n  that  he  sold 
them.  In  England,  under  Edwaixl  I.,  an  act  of  Parliament 
made  every  one  subject  to  heavy  jienalties  who  should  ven- 
ture to  enforce  the  authority  of  such  papal  provisions  in 
England.  France  also  made  vigorous  and  successful  pro- 
test. (See  Gallican  Church.)  With  the  Reformation  the 
patronage  generally  returned  to  the  original  possessor, 
the  founder  of  the  church.  In  England  it  is  treated  ex- 
actly like  any  other  piece  of  property  ;  it  may  be  connected 
with  the  manor,  and  is  then  calleil  appendant  advowson, 
and  it  may  have  been  separated  from  it  and  belong  to  a 
]ierson,  in  which  case  it  is  called  advowson  in  gross.  In 
Scotland  it  was  twice  canceled  and  twice  re-established ; 
it  still  exists  there,  but  in  a  somewhat  restricted  form.  In 
Denmark  it  was  .ibolished  by  the  constitution  of  1848.  In 
the  Episcopal  Church  in  the  U.  S.  the  right  of  appointing 
to  vacant  ecclesiastical  positions,  such  as  rectorships  or  the 
position  of  an  assistant  minister,  rests  with  the  vestry  as  repre- 
senting the  congregation.  Sometimes  the  bishop  has  a  co- 
ordinate power  with  the  vestry,  or  the  right  to  choose  one 
from  two  or  more  nominations.  Rarely,  if  the  clergyman  is 
not  liable  to  episcopal  censure,  can  the  bishop  veto  the  ap- 
pointment of  one  of  his  vestries.  In  unorganized  congrega- 
tions or  missions  the  bishop  usually  nominates  the  incum- 
bent. Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Patronage  (in  politics) :  See  Civil  .Service. 

Patrons  of  Husbandry:  a  secret  order  having  for  its 
object  the  mutual  protection  and  advancement  of  the  inter- 
ests of  the  agricultural  classes. 

At  the  close  of  the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S.  the  agricultural 
interests  in  the  Southern  States  were  greatly  depressed;  the 
poverty  of  the  farmers,  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  efficient 
labor,  the  imperfect  and  ruinous  methods  of  cultivation,  and 
the  absence  of  mixed  husbandry  were  sufficient  causes  for 
this  depression.  In  order  to  seek  relief,  President  Jolmson 
appointed  0.  H.  Kelly,  of  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  as 
agent  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the  South,  to 
collect  statistical  information  for  publication  with  a  view  to 
encouraging  immigration  to  the  South.  Wliile  on  this  mis- 
sion he  conceived  the  idea  of  an  association  that  would  not 
only  improve  the  condition  of  agriculturists  in  all  parts  of 
the  U.  S.,  but  would  also  bind  them  into  one  great  brother- 
hood. He  communicated  his  conclusions  to  several  em- 
ployees of  the  Government  at  Washington,  who  received 
Kelly's  plan  of  organization  with  favor,  and  held  a  confer- 
ence with  him  on  Nov.  15,  1867,  when  "  Patrons  of  Hus- 
bandry "  was  adopted  as  the  name  of  the  order  and  the 
"  grange  "  as  the  name  of  its  constituent  bodies  and  place  of 
meeting.  On  Dec.  4  of  the  same  year  another  meeting  was 
held,  officers  were  elected  and  the  National  grange  formally 
organized.  The  early  growth  of  the  order  was  slow,  and 
many  obstacles  seemed  almost  insurmountable  for  the  time 
being.  In  Jan.,  1871,  not  more  than  eighty-eight  subordi- 
nate granges  and  three  State  granges  were  in  existence,  but 
during  that  year  the  number  of  granges  was  more  than 
doubled  and  for  many  years  each  succeeding  year  brought 
many  new  granges  and  greatly  increased  membership.  In 
1892  nearly  every  State  and  Territory  containeil  granges,  and 
many  were  reported  in  Canada. 

Iti  States  where  granges  are  most  numerous  they  have 
been  a  potent  factor  in  improving  the  condition  of  the 
farmer  and  his  family.  The  saving  in  money  by  combhiing 
orders  and  purchasing  for  cash,  encouraging  the  practice  of 
selling  direct  to  the  consumer  and  buying  from  the  manu- 
facturer, the  combining  of  granges  in  one  or  more  counties 
to  form  mutual  fire  relief  associations — all  have  aided  in  im- 
proving the  financial  condition  of  the  members  of  this  or- 
der; yet  even  greater  benefits  have  been  derived  from  the 
discussion  and  practice  of  improved  methods  of  agriculture, 
the  establishment  of  grange  libraries  and  reading-circles, 
and  the  great  prominence  given  to  educational  work. 

Comparatively  early  in  the  history  of  the  order  the 
granges  in  several  of  the  Western  States  undertook  the  con- 
trol of  the  railways,  elevators,  and  other  commercial  enter- 


PATRONYMIC 


PATTERSON 


479 


prises,  with  intlifTcrent  success  for  the  time  being :  afterward 
they  succeoileil  in  bringing  about  more  favorable  legislation 
fur  the  agrioiillurist.  The  founders  inaile  it  a  Jiart  of  the 
fundamental  law  that  the  order  should  not  meddle  with  po- 
lilieal  ((ueslions.  Agriculturists  of  all  political  parties  and 
of  none  are  e((ually  welcome  in  the  order,  but  they  must  not 
liring  into  it  discussion  of  partisan  politics  or  party  measures 
under  ju'iialty  of  expulsion. 

Though  the  National  grange  was  formed  first  the  sul)- 
(jn/iiKitr  i/riiiiye  is  really  the  uiut  of  organisation,  and  must 
consist  of  fifteen  members,  of  whom  not  less  than  four  must 
be  women.  A  complete  grange  must  have  thirteen  olTicers, 
viz.:  Master,  overseer,  lecturer,  steward,  assistant  steward, 
chaplain,  treasurer,  secretary,  and  gate-keeper  may  be  all 
men  :  Ceres,  Pomona,  I'Tora,  and  lady  assistant  steward  must 
be  all  wconen.  These  each  have  their  appropriate  insignia 
*  of  (iHice  and  their  well-deliucd  duties.  There  is  also  an  ex- 
ecutive committee  of  three  persons,  and  often  an  organist 
and  librarian.  Subonlinate  granges  confer  four  degrees, 
and  all  business  meetings  are  held  in  the  last  or  fourth  de- 
gree. The  meetings  of  subordinate  granges  are  hehl  moidh- 
ly  or  oftencr,  and  may  determine  upon  such  measures  as 
shall  promote  the  interests  of  the  grange  and  its  members. 
PomoHK  i/mnr/es  are  county  or  district  organizations  com- 
posed of  masters  and  past  masters  of  subordinate  granges 
and  their  wives,  who  are  mendjers  with  other  fourth  degree 
members  in  gooil  standing,  who  are  recommended  by  sub- 
ordinate granges  in  the  county  for  the  fifth  degree.  The 
Pomona  grange  is  essentially  a  fifth  degree  grange,  although 
its  business,  aside  from  degree  work,  is  dfme  in  the  fourth  de- 
gree. Stale  granges  are  composed  of  masters  of  subordinate 
granges  and  their  wives,  wdio  are  members  of  subordinate 
granges.  It  i.s,  however,  provided  that  when  th(^se  become 
so  numerous  ns  to  render  the  body  too  large,  delegates  shall 
be  selected  to  represent  the  whole  body  upon  such  a  basis  as 
the  grange  shall  decide.  The  sixth  degree  l)elongs  to  the 
Static  grange,  though  it  may  confer  the  fifth  degree  at  pleas- 
ure. The  .V«//(;;io/;/m«^e  is  the  highest  in  autluu-ity.and  the 
laws  enacted  by  the  State.  Pomona,  and  subordinate  granges 
must  not  conflict  in  any  way  with  those  enacted  by  this 
body.  The  National  grange  confers  the  sixth  and  seventh 
degrees.  The  .State  aiul  S'ational  granges  meet  annually. 
The  otlicers  of  the  State  and  National  granges  are  the  same 
as  those!  of  the  subordinate  grange.  The  officers  of  the  sub- 
ordinate granges  are  elected  for  one  year,  those  of  the  State 
and  National  granges  for  two  years.    (iiioRUK  C.  Watson. 

Patronymic  [from  Gr.  Trarpuvvii.iK6s.  like  the  father's  (sc. 
uvoua.  name) ;  irar^p.  father  -f  uvo/xa,  name] :  a  projier  name 
formeil  upon  the  basis  of  a  father's  or  ancestor's  name,  and 
indicating  descent.  Family  names  like  Johnson.  William- 
son. Peterson,  were  originally  i)atronyndcs  attached  to  the 
Christian  name  of  an  individual  for  the  sake  of  nuu-e  pre- 
cise- distinction.  The  (dement  Jfac-  in  Irish  names  like 
.MacCarlhy  signifies  "son  of"  (0.  Ir.  mare,  boy),  and  is  cog- 
nate with  Gotli.  magus,  boy,  from  which  Goth.  iiiai/aYs, 
girl  :  Germ,  magd  :  Kng.  maid;  similarly  the  Aramaic  Bar- 
in  names  like  iJarabbas.  Tiartimeus.  /inrtholomeus.  Very 
commoidy  a  mere  sufiix  serves  the  purpose,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Greek  -ides,  us  I'eleides.  son  of  Feleiis,  Pliilippides.  son 
(d'  l'hilippi)s\  oT'ton,  as  Kron'ion,  son  of  Kniiios,  In  Teutonic 
tlie  sutlix -(H^ns  or -!(h//«s  is  used  similarly;  thus  ().  Eng. 
Brehling,  son  of  Ilre^el;  also  in  tribid  names.  O.  Eng. 
Wgljingas  :  M.  II.  Germ.  Wiilfinge.  It  survives  in  modern 
English  faiinly  names  and  phu'c-names  like  Manning,  Bill- 
ings, Reading,  W'alsing/iam,  Buckingham  ;  cf.  (icrm.  names 
Cfiittinyen.  ThissulTix  represents  an  Indo-Europ.  -c»ii(as',  or 
-n\o8\  cf.  Gr.  -oKos  in "Iitttokus  C  "IirTrui').  B.  I.  W. 

Patroons :  those  Dutch  settlers  in  the  colony  of  New 
Netherlanil  (afterward  New  York),  who  on  certain  condi- 
tions lus  to  colonizing  enjoyed  manorial  rights  over  their 
lands.  To  obtain  the  privileges  of  a  patroon  it  was  neces- 
sary to  (ilant  a  colony  of  fifty  persons  over  fifteen  years  of 
age  on  laiuls  selected  for  the  purpose,  and  within  four  years 
after  notice  was  given  of  intent  to  coloidze.  The  rights  of 
these  proprietors,  as  enuim^rated  in  the  ch.artcr  of  162!)  '"to 
all  su(di  as  shall  plant  coloides  in  New  Netherland,"  were  of 
a  semi-feudal  miture.  and  the  colonies  were  governed  by  the 
same  laws  as  the  feudal  manors  of  the  United  Provinces. 
Accused  of  enc'roachment  on  the  rights  of  the  West  India 
Company,  the  patroons  were  involved  in  continual  (puirrels 
with  the  directors,  aiul  were  nuire  zealous  in  undertaking 
trade  ventures  for  their  own  profit  than  in  bringing  in  new 
colonists.     The  feudal  tenures  of  these  nuinorial  lords  were 


maintained  after  the  Revolution,  and  although  laws  were 
passed  m  1779  and  1785  abolishing  them,  the  proprietors 
contrive<l  a  form  of  deed  by  which  the  tenant  bound  him- 
self to  perform  services  and  |iay  rents  aiul  dues  in  the  same 
manner  as  before  the  old  system  was  abolished.  From  1839 
to  1847  there  was  considerable  opposition  to  these  burden.s, 
ami  associations  of  so-called  Anti-rkxtkrs  (q.  v.)  were  organ- 
ized to  redress  the  grievances  of  tenants.        F.  M.  Colby. 

Fatten,  Simon  Nelson,  A.M..  Ph.D.:  economist:  b.  at 
Sandwich,  ill..  May  1,  1853;  educated  at  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity, Evauston,  III.,  and  at  the  University  of  Halle,  Ger- 
many, where  he  received  the  degive  of  Ph.  1).  in  1878.  He 
was  elected  Professor  of  Political  Economy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  1888.  He  is  author  of  The  Stability  of 
Prices  (\mS);  The  Cunsumption  of  Wealth  (1889):  The 
Economic  Basis  of  Protection  (1890) :  I'rinciples  of  Rational 
Taxation  (\HiW);  The  Educatiunal  Value  of  Political  Econ- 
omy (1891) ;  The  Theory  of  Dynamic  Economics  (1892) ;  and 
many  valualile  papers  on  economic  topics  to  the  Annals  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  7'he 
I'oliticiil  Science  Quarterly,  The  Journal  of  Economics, 
Conrad's  ■Jahrbiicher,  and  other  periodicals.  C.  H.  T. 

Patterson,  Carlile  Pollock  :  superinteiulent  of  civil 
survey:  son  of  Daniel  Tod  Patterson;  b.  at  .Shicldsboro, 
Bay  of  St.  Louis.  Miss.,  Aug.  24.  1816 ;  appointed  midship- 
luan  .Sept.,  1830:  joined  the  frigate  Brandywine  in  October, 
and  served  in  the  Mediterranean  squadron  ;  in  Feb.,  1836, 
returned  to  the  U.S.  in  the  line-ot'-battle  ship  Delaware, 
carrying  his  father's  flag  as  commodore:  was  jiassed  mid- 
shipnum  .lune,  1836:  graduated  from  (ieorgetown  College, 
Ky..  as  civil  engineer  early  in  1838;  joined  the  U.  S.  Coast 
Survey,  and  served  until  1841;  as  second  lieutenant  of  the 
U.  S.  brig  Boxer  cruised  in  the  West  Indies  until  .Ian.,  1844; 
again  in  Coast  Survey  in  1845.  and  conducted  a  hydro- 
graphic  p.arty  in  the  Gulf  of  Jlexico;  took  coinnuind  of 
Pacific  mail  steamship  Oregon  in  .Ian..  18.50;  resigned  as 
lieutenant  in  the  navy  Sept.,  18.53,  and  remained  on  the 
Pacific  coast  until  Mar.,  1861.  In  May,  1861.  he  became 
hydrographic  inspector  U.  S.  Coast  .Survey,  and  so  contiiuied 
until  Feb.  17,  1874,  when  he  was  appointed  superintendent 
of  that  work.  D.  Aug.  15,  1881.  See  Coast  and  Geoiietic 
Survey. 

Patterson.  Daniel  Tod  :  naval  officer ;  b.  on  Long  Isl- 
and. N.  v..  Jlar.  6.  1786;  appointed  midshipman  in  the 
navy  in  1800;  attached  to  the  frigate  Philadelphia  when 
that  vessel  ran  on  a  reef  near  Tripoli  in  Oct.,  180;i.  aiul, 
being  defenseless,  surrendered  to  a  flotilla  of  Tripolitan 
gunboats.  Patterson  remained  a  prisoner  until  peace  was 
concluded  in  1805;  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  in 
1807,  and  to  that  of  master-commandant  in  1813.  In  1814 
he  commanded  naval  forces  at  New  Orleans,  and  for  able 
co-operation  with  Gen.  Jackson  in  <lefending  that  city  re- 
ceived the  thanks  of  Congress.  He  commanded  the  flotilla 
wdiich  captured  and  destroyed  the  forts  and  other  defenses 
of  Lafitte.  the  pirate,  on  the  island  of  Barataria:  was  ap- 
pointed captain  in  Feb.,  1815;  commanded  the  frigate  Con- 
stitution l.S26-28in  the  Mediterranean  ;  served  as  navy  com- 
missioner 1828-32  ;  commaiuled  the  Jb'diterranean  squadron 
1832-36;  and  from  1836  was  commandant  at  the  navy-yard, 
W.'ishington,  where  he  died  in  1839. 

Patterson,  John:  b.  at  New  Britain.  Conn.,  1744;  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  1762;  became  a  lawyer;  removed  to 
Ijenox,  Mass.,  1774;  was  a  member  of  the  first  and  second 
jirovincial  congresses  of  Massachusetts  1774-75;  raised  a 
Berkshire  regiment  of  minute-men  and  started  for  Cam- 
bridge within  eighteen  hours  of  receiving  the  news  of  the 
battle  of  Lexington  ;  took  part  in  the  disastrous  expedition 
against  Canada  and  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton; 
was  appointed  brigadier-general  Feb.  21,  1777:  rendered 
important  services  at  the  battle  of  Stillwater:  was  present 
at  Biirgoyne's  surrender  and  at  tlie  battle  of  Monmouth; 
remained  in  service  throughout  tlu'  war ;  was  engaged  in 
the  suppression  of  Shays's  reliellion  1786:  settled  soon  after- 
ward at  Lisle.  Broom'e  co..  N.  V. ;  became  a  county  judge, 
member  of  the  State  Legislature,  of  the  constitutional  con- 
vention of  1801.  and  of  t'ongress  1803-05.  I),  at  Lisle.  July 
19.  ISOH. 

Patterson.  Houert:  military  officer:  b.  in  Tyrone  Coun- 
tv.  Iriland.  .Ian.  12.  1792:  at  an  early  age  came  to  the  U.S.. 
and  subse(|uentlv  became  a  very  successful  merchant  of 
Philadtdphia.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Mexico  he 
was  appointed  a  major-general  of  volunteers  in  the  service 


480 


PATTERSON 


PAUL 


of  the  U.  S..  and  commanded  a  division  under  Gen.  Scott, 
taking  part  in  the  battle  of  Cerro  Gordo.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  civil  war  in  1861  he  was  mustered  into  the  service  of 
the  U.  S.  as  major-general  of  Pennsylvania  troops  assembled 
under  the.  President's  first  call  on  the  States  (Apr.  1.5,  1861) 
for  75,000  men  for  three  months.  Commanding  the  force 
on  the  Potomac  in  the  neighborhood  of  Harper's  Ferry,  op- 
posed to  the  Confederate  force  under  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston, 
he  was  charged  with  neutralizing  that  force  and  preventing 
its  junction  with  Beauregard  at  Manassas  Junction:  but 
Johnston  succeeded  in  efEecting  a  junction,  his  advance 
reaching  Manassas  on  the  20th,  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  en- 
suing the  next  day.  (See  Bull  Run.)  On  the  expiration 
of  his  commission  (July  27,  1861)  Gen.  Patterson  was  mus- 
tered out  of  service.  He  from  that  time  resided  in  the  city 
of  his  adoption,  Philadelphia,  one  of  her  most  honored  anil 
influential  citizens,  and  one  of  the  largest  mill-owners  in 
the  U.  S.     D.  Aug.  7,  1881. 

Patterson.  Robert  Wilson,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  minister ;  b. 
near  Mary ville,  Tenn.,  Jan.  21,  1814;  was  educated  at  Illi- 
nois College  and  Lane  Seminary:  was  tutor  in  Illinois  Col- 
lege 1839-40 :  supplied  several  churches  1840-42 ;  was  pastor 
of  the  Second  Presbyterian  church.  Chicago,  from  its  organ- 
ization, 1842-74 ;  Professor  of  Evidences  and  Ethics  in 
McCormick  Seminary  1873-81 ;  president  of  Lake  Forest 
University  187(5-78;  and  lecturer  in  Lane  Seminary  1880- 
83.  Dr.  Patterson  was  7noderator  of  the  General  Assembly 
(New  School)  at  Wilmnigton,  Del.,  in  1859.  D.  in  Evanston, 
111.,  Feb.  28,  1894.  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Pattesoii,  John  Coleridge,  D.  D.  :  missionary;  b.  in 
London,  England,  Apr.  1,  1827;  educated  at  Merton  and 
Baliol  Colleges,  Oxford ;  became  a  fellow  of  Merton  1852 ; 
curate  of  Alfington,  Devonshire,  1853;  went  in  1855  with 
Bishop  Selwyn  to  New  Zealand :  labored  as  a  missionary 
until  1861,  when  he  was  made  Bishop  of  the  Melanesian 
islands  ;  spent  the  remainder  of  his  lite  visiting  the  islands 
under  his  episcopal  charge,  and  endeavoring  to  suppress  the 
kidnaping  of  the  natives  to  be  carried  to  (ijueensland ;  was 
killed  on  the  island  of  Nukapu  by  tlie  Melanesians,  Sept.  20, 
1871.  His  Life,  has  been  written  by  Miss  C.  M.  Yonge  (2 
vols.,  London,  1874)  and  by  Francis  Awdry,  The  Story  of  a 
Fellow-soldier  (1875). 

Patti,  Adelixa  Maria  Ci.orixda  :  singer  :  b.  in  Madrid, 
Spain,  Feb.  19,  1843.  Her  father,  Salvatore  Patti.  was  a  Si- 
cilian, her  mother  a  Roman,  and  both  were  o|)eratie  singers. 
In  1844  her  parents  removed  to  the  U.  S..  and  lived  humbly 
in  New  York.  At  the  age  of  four  the  child  displayed  won- 
derful talent.  She  received  instructitm  on  the  piano  from 
her  sister  Carlotta.  who  later  became  a  singer  of  high  repu- 
tation, and  in  vocalization  from  her  step-brother  Barili,  and 
her  brother-in-law,  ^Maurice  Strakosch.  When  about  nine 
years  of  age  Adelina  appeared  at  a  concert  in  New  York, 
and  achieved  a  rcmarkalile  success.  In  a  series  of  concerts 
given  in  connection  with  Maurice  Strakosch  and  Ole  Bull, 
the  infantile  prima  donna's  share  of  the  profits  amounted  to 
110,000.  On  Nov.  24,  1859,  she  made  her  debut  in  opera  at 
the  Academy  of  Music,  New  York,  appearing  as  Lucia. 
She.  made  professional  visits  to  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and 
other  cities,  and  went  to  Europe  in  1861  under  the  manage- 
ment of  Maurice  Strakosch.  The  London  managers  would 
not  give  her  an  opportunity  to  sing,  and  she  was  on  the 
point  of  returning  to  the  U.  S.,  when  manager  Gye,  of  Covent 
Garden  theater,  promised  to  allow  her  to  sing  three  times, 
for  which  she  was  to  receive  no  pay  wliatever.  Slie  appeared 
May  14, 1861,  as  Amina,  in  La  Sonnambula.  and  her  triumph 
was  instantaneous.  .Since  that  time  she  has  sung  in  all  the 
capitals  and  the  principal  cities  of  France,  Germany,  Italy, 
Spain,  Russia,  Mexico,  and  South  America.  In  1868"she  was 
married  to  the  Marquis  de  Caux  in  London,  but  was  divorced 
from  him  in  1878.  She  married,  in  Wales,  Signor  Xicolini. 
an  opera-singer,  June  9,  1886.  She  has  a  magiiificent  coun- 
try-seat at  Craig-y-Xos.  Wales.  Her  repertory  is  chiefly 
confined  to  the  Italian  school.  No  singer  in  the"  nineteenth 
century  is  to  be  compareil  with  her.       B.  B.  Vallentixe. 

Pattison,  Mark  :  scholar  ;  b.  at  Hornby.  Yorkshire.  Eng- 
land, 1813;  was  educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  was 
elected  a  fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  in  that  university,  in 
1S40.  In  1861  he  became  rector  of  liis  college.  He  pub- 
lished Tendencies  of  lielii/ioiis  Thought  in  Lnqlnnd  from 
Ifj.SS  to  I7'>n  (1860);  Report  on  Ehmentnri/  hfdueatimi  in 
Protestant  German;/  (18(i0;  2d  cd.  1H71);'  Suggest  ions  on 
Academical  Organization,with  Special  Reference  to  Oxford 
(1868);   Pope's  Essay  on  Man,  with  notes  (1869;  6th  ed. 


1879);  and  Pope's  Satires  and  Epistles,  with  notes  (1872; 
2d  ed.  1874).  He  also  wrote  a  biograjihy  of  Slilton.  and  a 
celebrated  Life  of  Casaubon  (2d  ed.  1892),  and  published 
annotated  editions  of  Milton's  sonnets,  etc.  1).  at  Harro- 
gate, July  30, 1884.  A  volume  of  his  3femoirs  was  published 
in  1885;  of  collected  Sermons  in  1885;  and  of  Essays  in 
1889.     E'er  a  sketch  of  his  wife,  see  Dilke,  Lady  Emilia. 

Revised  by  A.  Gudeman. 

Patton.  Francis  Landey.  D.  D.,  liL.  D. ;  clergyman  ;  b. 
at  Warwick,  Bermuda,  West  Indies,  Jan.  22,  1843;  educated 
at  University  College,  Toronto.  Canada;  studied  theology  at 
Knox  College,  Toronto,  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary, graduating  at  the  latter  institution  in  1865;  was  or- 
dained by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York,  and  was  pastor  of 
Presbvterian  churches  in  Eighty-fourth  Street.  New  York, 
1865-67.  Nyack  1867-71,  and  Chicago  1874-81,  and  from 
1871  to  1881  was  Professor  of  Didactic  and  Polemical  The- 
ology in  the  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary  at  Chicago. 
In  1873-76  he  edited  The  Inferior  at  Chicago;  became  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Relations  of  Philosophy  and  Science  to  Religion 
in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  1881 ;  and  in  1888  presi- 
dent of  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  He  was  moderator  of 
the  Presbyterian  General  Assembly  in  1878. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Patnxent  Kiver:  a  stream  which  rises  18  miles  E.  of 
Frederick,  JMd. :  flows  S.  S.  E.  and  S.,  and  falls  at  last  into 
C'hesapeake  Bay  by  a  wide  and  deep  estuary.  Its  valley  is 
very  narrow,  and  the  river  is  for  many  miles  a  navigable 
tidal  stream,  abounding  in  oyster-beds  of  great  value. 

Patwln  Indians:  See  Copehan  Indians. 

Patz'cuaro  :  a  city  near  the  central  part  of  the  state  of 
Michoacan,  Mexico;  beautifully  situated  on  the  plateau,  by 
a  lake  of  the  same  name ;  7,185  feet  above  the  sea ;  pop. 
(1893)  about  10,000  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  7-G).  It  is  said 
to  have  been  a  very  ancient  capital  of  the  Tarascan  Indians. 
The  lake  is  about  30  miles  in  circumference,  and  contains 
several  forest -covered  islands.  Patzcuaro  is  connected  with 
Jlorelia  and  Mexico  by  rail,  and,  being  the  center  of  a  rich 
agricultural  region,  is  rapidly  growing.  JIuch  of  the  beau- 
tiful feather-work  sold  in  Mexico  is  made  here.     11.  H.  S. 

Pau.  \)6  :  chief  town  of  the  department  of  Basses-Pyrenees, 
France ;  picturesquely  situated  on  the  Gave  du  Pau,  at  a 
height  of  over  600  feet  above  the  sea  ;  143  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Bordeaux  (see  ma])  of  France,  ref.  9-D).  It  has  fine  prome- 
nades, commanding  magnificent  views  of  the  Pyrenees.  It 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Beam  and  Basse- 
Xavarre,  which  was  united  to  France  in  1620.  It  has  a  re- 
markable old  castle,  built  by  Gaston  de  Foix  in  1363,  in 
which  Henry  IV.  was  born,  several  good  educational  institu- 
tions, linen,  steel,  leather,  and  chocolate  manufactures,  and 
an  active  trade  in  wine,  hams,  fruits,  and  flour;  but  the 
inhabitants  chiefly  depend  upon  their  4,000  winter  visitors, 
of  whom  many  come  from  England.     Pop.  (1891)  32,111. 

Paul,  Saint  ;  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  ;  b.  in  Tarsus,  in 
Cilicia,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  probably  about  1  a.  d.  His 
name  at  first  is  Saul,  but  from  Acts  xiii.  9  Paul,  without  ex- 
planation of  the  change.  He  was  a  Benjamite  and  a  Phari- 
see. He  was  also  a  free-born  Roman  citizen  ;  his  father  must 
therefore  have  been  enfranchised.  As  was  the  practice  among 
the  Jews,  even  those  of  independent  condition,  the  lad  was 
taught  a  trade.  Hair-cloth  for  tents  was  one  of  the  chief 
products  of  Cilicia,  and  the  trade  of  tent-making  was  the 
one  which  this  boy  learned. 

Education. — Doubtless  he  received  such  education  as 
could  be  furnished  in  the  synagogue  schools  of  Tarsus;  he 
was  sent  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  the  great 
Gamaliel,  grandson  of  Hillel,  and  one  of  the  seven  great 
Jewish  Ralibans.  Saul  must  have  been  studying  in  Jerusa- 
lem while  Jesus  was  in  seclusion  at  Nazareth ;  but  it  is  un- 
likely that  Jesus  and  Paul  ever  met.  It  is  probable  that 
after  completing  his  study  of  the  law  with  Gamaliel  he  re- 
turned to  Tarsus,  and  was  dwelling  there  during  the  term 
of  Christ's  public  ministry. 

Return  to  Jerusalem. — After  the  death  of  Chri.st  we  find 
Paul  again  in  Jerusalem.  The  sect  of  the  Nazarenes  is  grow- 
ing rapidly,  and  Jewish  conservatism  is  alarmed.  One  of 
the  younger  leaders  of  this  sect,  a  deacon  named  Stephen, 
undertakes  an  active  propagandism,  and  in  the  synagogues 
of  •'  the  Libertines  and  of  the  Cyrenians  and  of  the  Alexan- 
drians and  of  them  of  Cilicia  and  of  Asia  "  (Acts  vi.  9)  there 
is  hot  controversy  between  this  zealous  advocate  of  what 
the  Jews  called  "  The  Wav  "  and  the  orthodox  Jews. 


PA  LI, 


481 


The  Martyrdom  of  Stephen. — Wlien,  shortly  after,  Slephen 
was  arrested  and  dragged  before  tlie  Sanheilriii  on  a  cliarge 
of  blasphemy,  Saul  was  undoubtedly  pn'si'iit.  for  when 
Stephen  was  condemned  to  death  by  stoning  Saul  aeeom- 
panieil  the  mob  of  executioners  to  the  ]ilace  outside  the 
gate  where  the  deed  was  done,  and  the  witnesses  who  hurled 
the  missiles  laid  down  their  garments  at  his  feel.  The  nar- 
rative in  the  Acts  was  written  by  one  of  Paul's  traveling 
companions,  and  it  is  altogether  probable  that  the  report  of 
the  execution  was  gleaned  from  the  apostle's  own  lips. 
That  •■  Saul  was  consenting  unto  his  death  "  is  not  an  accu- 
sation but  a  confession,  and  the  serene  and  triumphant 
faith  of  the  first  martyr  nuule  an  impression  on  his  mind 
which  was  never  effaced.  It  Inis  been  supposed  that 
either  before  or  soon  after  the  death  of  Stephen  Saul  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Saidiedrin ;  the  principal  evi- 
dence of  this  is  his  statement  that  he  was  not  only  active  in 
the  persecution  of  tlie  Christians,  but  that  when  they  were 
condemned  to  deatli  he  gave  his  vote  against  them  (.\cts 
xxvi.  10).  Tliis  is  the  literal  meaning  of  the  Greek,  but  it 
may  be  used  metaphorically.  If  I'aul  was  a  member  of  the 
Sanhedrin  he  must  have  been  married  and  the  father  of  a 
family,  and  the  absence  of  all  allusions  to  such  relatii)ns.  in 
those  passages  where  a  man  of  his  mental  habit  would  have 
been  sure  to  refer  to  them,  makes  it  seem  highly  improbable 
that  he  could  have  had  a  family. 

Whatever  may  have  been  his  official  position,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  he  became  about  this  tinu'  the  leader  of  the  per- 
secution which  was  raging  against  the  Christians.  Not  only 
in  Jerusalem  and  its  environs  did  he  harry  them  to  prison 
and  to  death,  but  by  some  strange  ccmfusion  of  jurisdicticm 
or  connivance  of  officials  he  received  from  the  chief  priests 
authority  to  proceed  to  Damascus,  the  capital  of  another 
province,  five  or  six  days'  journey  distant,  that  he  might 
stamp  out  the  heresy  in  that  region. 

It  was  on  this  journey  that  the  remarkable  event  took 
place  which  changed  the  whole  current  of  this  impetuous 
life.  Most  truly  has  Dr.  Ilarnack  said  that  this  event  "  has 
proved  to  be  of  transcendent  importance  for  the  religious 
history  of  mankind." 

This  man  had  been,  as  he  testifies,  a  most  conscientious 
observer  and  a  most  strenuous  upholder  of  the  .Jewish  law, 
but  a  hard,  literal  conformity  to  a  merely  external  standard 
brought  him  no  satisf.ac^tion,  and  his  restless  spirit  sought 
in  a  still  more  intense  devotion  the  peace  which  had  always 
eluded  him.  The  hmely  journey  to  Damascus  gave  him  time 
for  meditation:  doubtless  the  gentle  and  tolerant  words  of 
his  old  master  (larualiel  came  Ijack  to  him  with  power,  and 
in  the  midst  of  these  mental  overturnings  a  vision  of  the 
Nazarene  appeared  to  him  in  the  sky,  and  a  voice  in  the 
Hebrew  tongue  cried:  "Saul.  Saul,  why  persecutest  thou 
mel"  Paul's  own  belief  was  that  .Jesus  appeared  to  him. 
The  one  thing  certain  is  that  from  this  hour  he  ceased  to 
be  a  persecutor  of  the  Nazarenes  and  became,  in  due  time, 
their  foremost  leader.  At  Damascus  he  was  received  and 
befrieialed  by  those  whom  ho  had  come  to  destroy. 

■■  Many  days"  passed,  not  less  than  three  years,  it  wciuld 
seem,  before  Paul  ventured  to  return  to  .Jerusalem.  Part 
of  this  time  was  spent,  as  he  tells  us,  in  seclusicni  in  .Arabia. 
He  felt  that  repo.se  ami  meditation  were  needed  that  he 
might  comprehend  the  nature  of  his  vocation,  and  under- 
stand the  relation  between  the  old  faith  and  the  new. 
When,  at  last,  he  went  back  to  the  scene  of  his  Pharisaic 
exploits,  although  the  distrust  of  the  disciples  was  over- 
come, the  enmity  of  his  former  coreligionists  was  inflamed, 
and  he  was  forced  to  flee  to  his  home  in  Tarsus.  Here  he 
tarried,  we  know  nut  how  long,  jierhaps  preaching  Christ 
in  the  synagogues  of  Cilicia.  After  a  while  a  remarkable 
interest  in  the  story  of  the  Gospel  was  awakened  in  An- 
tioch,  and  Barnabas,  who  had  been  commissioned  to  take 
the  superintendency  at  that  place  and  who  had  great  con- 
fidence in  Paul,  sought  him  out  at  Tarsus  and  entered 
into  active  association  with  him  in  this  work.  Here  for 
more  than  a  year  these  two  wmught  side  by  side  in  the 
great  Syrian  capital,  and  here  it  was  that  the  clisciples,  who 
became  a  great  nndtitude,  were  first  called  Christians. 

Missinnar'i  •fourneiis. — Fnmi  Antioch  Uarnabas  and  Saul 
set  forth  upon  the  first  of  those  missionary  journeys  which 
were  to  occupy  the  remainder  of  his  active  life.  These 
journeys  took  him  by  sea  many  times  across  the  Eastern 
Mediterranean  and  the  ^Kgcan,  and  by  land  through  Syria 
and  the  whole  of  Western  Asia  and  Southern  Europe:  in 
nearly  everv  prominent  city  of  Asia  Minor  atid  of  Greece 
he  preached  tlie  Gospel  and  established  churches ;  his  acliv- 
315 


ity  during  these  missionary  years  must  have  been  prodig- 
iiius.  In  the  first  of  these  journeys  he  was  accom[)anied  by 
Harnabas  and  Mark,  later  by  .Silas  and  Timothy  and  Luke, 
the  writer  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  His  practice  on  en- 
tering any  city  was  to  put  himself  first  in  communication 
with  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews,  and  to  impart  to  them  his 
message ;  if  they  would  not  receive  it  he  turned  to  the  Gen- 
tiles. His  success  in  gathering  converts  and  establishing 
churches,  when  measured  by  the  standards  of  modern  mis- 
sionaries, was  certainly  phenomenal.  In  Ephesus,  in  Thes- 
salonica,  in  Athens,  in  Corinth  he  heralded  the  Gospel,  some- 
times to  groups  gathered  in  the  market-places,  sometimes 
to  assemblies  of  philosophci's,  sometimes  in  little  companies 
assembled  in  some  hospitable  home. 

Arrent  in  ■Terusalem. — On  his  return  from  his  third  mis- 
sionary journey  he  was  arrested  in  Jerusalem  on  the  charge 
of  profaning  the  temjile.  and  was  only  saved  by  Homan  of- 
ficers from  destruction  by  the  mob.  After  a  tedious  im- 
])risonment  he  appealed  to  the  emperor's  court,  and  so  at 
last  was  forwarded  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  where  for  (wo 
years  he  awaited  trial,  dwelling  in  his  own  hired  house,  "  re- 
(reiving  all  that  went  in  unto  him,  preacliing  the  kingdom 
of  God,  and  teaching  the  things  concerning  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  with  all  boldness,  none  forbidding  him  "  (Acts  xxviii. 
31).  This  is  the  end  of  all  historical  record  concerning  the 
apostle.  There  are  many  conjectures  and  traditions  re- 
specting his  future  career,  and  inferences  from  some  of 
his  epistles  make  it  probable  that  his  first  trial  resulted  in 
an  acquittal:  tradition  says  that  he  then  set  forth  upon  an- 
other missionary  journey,  which  was  interrupted  by  his 
arrest  and  his  second  imprisonment  at  Rome,  where  he 
finally  suffered  martyrdom.  All  these  rest  upon  very  uncer- 
tain foundations. 

The  trustworthy  records  of  Paul's  life  are  found  only  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  in  his  epistles.  (See  Paulixe 
Epistle.s,  The.)  Of  the  latter,  thirteen  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  ascribed  to  him.  not  counting  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews;  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  bulk  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment literature  is  supposed  to  have  come  from  his  pen.  The 
authorship  of  some  of  those  epistles  is,  however,  in  dis[)ute. 
From  the  letters  whose  genuineness  is  unquestioned  we  may 
have  the  substance  of  his  doctrine.  Paul  was  the  philoso- 
pher of  the  apostolic  group;  it  is  to  him  that  we  chiefly 
owe  the  reasoned  statement  of  the  principles  of  Christianity. 

Doctrine. — Paul's  doctrine  is.  moreover,  largely  the  prod- 
uct of  his  own  experience;  what  he  teaches  he  has  verified. 
He  knows  that  neither  perfection  nor  peace  can  be  won  by 
"  the  deeds  of  the  law  "  :  that  neither  in  obedience  to  an  ex- 
ternal rule  nor  to  the  ethical  imperative  is  the  way  of  life 
revealed.  The  effort  after  self-perfection  only  cm])hasizes 
the  self:  whon  our  thought  is  fixed  upon  our  own  perform- 
ance, we  miss,  through  our  self-consciousness,  the  beanty  of 
holiness.  By  the  deeds  of  the  law  shall  no  flesh  be  justified. 
It  is  only  when  the  soul  goes  out  of  itself  in  unselfish  devo- 
tion to  some  worthy  object  that  it  finds  life.  When  the 
man  who  has  been  struggling  aftc^r  perfection  by  obedience 
to  the  law  learns  that  the  struggle  is  hopeless,  and  surren- 
ders himself  to  Him  who  in  his  own  persim  reveals  the  law 
of  the  spirit  of  life,  he  passes  from  bondage  to  liberty,  from 
death  to  life.  Thus  Christ  is  the  end  of  the  law  for  right- 
eousness to  every  one  who  bolieveth  ;  the  perfection  that  wo 
miss  by  aiming  at  it,  we  win  by  an  unselfish  trust  in  Him 
who  is  the  revelation  in  human  form  of  the  divine  perfec- 
tion. It  is  impossible  hero  to  present,  even  in  outline,  the 
various  analogies  under  which  Paul  seeks  to  express  these 
sublime  truths.  His  glowing  mctapliors  have  often  boon 
hardened  into  dogmas,  but  it  h.'is  lieen  impossible  to  sup- 
press the  life  that  pulsates  through  all  his  writing's;  after 
the  Christ,  in  whom  and  for  whom  he  lived,  ho  is  the  one 
incomparable  teacher  of  Christendom. 

yiie  Fir.sl  Reformer. — He  is  also  the  first  of  the  Christian 
reformei-s ;  but  for  him  the  apostolic  church  would  have 
been  only  a  modified  type  of  Judaism.  The  other  apostles 
were  strongly  inclined  to  insist  that  no  man  could  become 
a  Christian  without  first  becoming  a  Jew.  It  was  Paul  who 
demolished  this  barrier  and  opened  the  door  of  the  Chris- 
tian fellowship  to  the  Gentile  world.  No  more  daring  in- 
novation was  ever  attempted.  Tlie  victory  which  was  won 
for  Christian  lilierty  in  the  council  of  Jerusalem,  under  the 
leadership  of  Paul,  was  one  of  the  most  illustrious  and  be- 
nificent  in  Christian  history.  Fnnn  this  time  his  commis- 
sion as  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  was  umiuestioned.  and 
the  truth  "that  the  Gentiles  are  follow  heirs  and  fellow 
members  of  the  bodv  of  Christ  and  fellow  partakers  of  the 


482 


PAUL 


PAULICIANS 


promise  in  Christ  Jesus  through  the  Gospel "  was  once  for 
all  established  as  the  Christian  doctrine. 

Literature.— Of  boolvs  devoted  to  the  life  of  Paul,  a  few 
of  the  most  accessible  are  Conybeare  and  Uowson's  The 
Life  and  Epistles  of  SI.  Paul :  Farrar's  The  Life  and  Work 
of  St.  Paul:  Lewiii's  The  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul: 
and  Stalker's  Tlie  Life  of  St.  Paul.  Of  books  in  foreign 
languages,  some  of  the  more  important  are  Neander's  His- 
tory of  the  Planting  and  Training  of  tlie  Christian  Church ; 
Baur's  Paul  the  Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ;  and  Renan's  The 
Apostles  and  St.  Paul.  Washinbton  Gladden. 

Paul,  Saint  Vi.ncent,  de :  b.  at  Pouy,  Gascony,  Apr.  24, 
1577,  in  huml)le  circumstances;  received  his  first  instruc- 
tion from  tlie  Franciscan  friars  at  Acqs;  studied  afterward 
at  Toulouse ;  took  lioly  orders  in  1600,  and  was  captured  in 
1605  bv  pirates  on  a  voyage  from  Marseilles  to  Narbonne, 
and  carried  as  a  slave  to  Tunis.  In  1607  he  succeeded 
in  making  his  escape;  visited  Rome  and  then  Paris;  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  the  ex-queen  Margaret  of  V'alois, 
and  in  1622  chaplain  to  the  galleys  at  Marseilles;  repaired 
in  1627  to  Paris,  where  he  developed  an  extraordinary  ac- 
tivity in  the  establishment  and  management  of  charitable 
institutions,  hospitals,  asylums,  etc.,  and  in  the  foLindaticm 
of  religious  fraternities,  the  Lazarists,  the  Sisters  of  Cliar- 
ity ;  was  a  member  of  the  "  council  of  conscience,"  by  which 
all  ecclesiastical  preferments  were  distributed.  D.  at  St. 
Lazare,  Sept.  27,  1660.  He  was  a  man  not  only  of  great  re- 
ligious and  philanthropic  zeal,  but  also  of  wonderful  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature,  great  practical  tact,  and  unflagging 
energy.  His  order  of  the  Priests  of  the  Mission,  confirmed 
by  Parliament  in  1631  and  settled  in  the  house  of  St.  Laza- 
rus in  1632,  was  not  immediately  successful,  but  became 
eventually  an  institution  of  great  importance.  He  was  be- 
atifleil  by  Benedict  XIIL  in  1729,  and  canonized  by  Clem- 
ent XII.  in  1737.  His  Maxims  and  Coan.^els  for  Every 
Day  in  the  Year  appeared  in  English  translation  (London, 
18y4).  There  are  numerous  Lives  of  the  saint,  e.  g.  in  French 
by  A.  Loth  (Paris,  1879)  and  Jean  Morel  (1884):  in  English 
by  C.  A.  Jones  (London.  1873). 

Paul :  the  name  of  several  popes.  Paul  I.,  a  Roman, 
succeeded  his  brother,  Stephen  III.,  in  757,  and  died  at 
Rome,  June  28,  767.  He  was  an  able  prelate,  and  strength- 
ened the  papal  authority  in  spite  of  its  numerous  enemies. — 
Paul  II.  (Pietro  Barbo).  b.  at  Venice,  Feb.  26, 1418  ;  became 
a  cardinal  in  1440 ;  was  chosen  in  1464  to  succeed  Pius  II. 
He  is  especially  noted  for  his  hostility  to  the  spirit  of  the 
Renaissance  and  his  persecution  of  the  humanists.  He 
preached  a  crusade  against  George  Podiebrad,  King  of  Bo- 
hemia, who  favored  the  Hussites.  D.  at  Rome,  July  28, 
1471. — Paul  III.  (Alessandro  Farnese),  b.  at  Canino,  Feb. 
29,  1468  ;  succeeded  Clement  VII.  as  pope  in  1534.  He  pur- 
sued with  address  and  vigor  his  two  chief  aims  in  life,  the 
aggrandizement  of  the  Farnese  family  and  the  suppression 
of  heresy.  Among  the  jjrominent  events  of  his  important 
pontificate  were  the  publication  of  a  brief  condemning 
slavery  in  1537,  the  excommunication  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
pjUgland  1538,  the  approval  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  1540, 
and  the  convocation  of  the  Council  of  Trent  1545.  D.  at 
Rome,  Nov.  10, 1549. — Paul  IV.  (Giovanni  Pietro  Carajfa). 
b.  at  Capriglio,  June  28, 1476  ;  became  Archbishop  of  Chieti 
1507;  was  nuncio  to  London,  and  later  had  a  high  public 
office  at  Madrid ;  became  Archbishop  of  Brindisi  1518 : 
founded  the  Theatines  1524;  became  cardinal  1536;  suc- 
ceeded Marccllus  II.  as  pope  1.5.55 ;  joined  France  in  the  war 
for  the  conquest  of  Naples  from  Spain  1555-57 ;  strove  fur 
the  elevation  of  his  family,  and  his  impolitic  course  regard- 
ing England  and  Cxermany  strengthened  the  Protestant 
cause.  He  was  bitterly  hated  by  the  common  people  of 
Rome  on  account  of  his  austere  rule.  D.  at  Rome,  Aug.  18, 
1559. — Paul  V.  (Com (7/o  Borghese);  b.  at  Rome,  Sept.  17, 
1552;  became  legate  to  Spain  and  cardinal  1596;  succeeded 
Leo  XI.  as  pope  1605.  This  pontificate  was  marked  by  the 
interdict  laid  upon  Venice,  the  close  of  the  Molinist  con- 
troversy, the  establisliment  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory  and  the  orders  of  tlie  Ursulines  and  the  Visitation, 
and  by  great  activity  in  tlie  work  of  missions  in  heathen 
regions.     D.  at  Rome,  Jan.  28.  1621. 

Paul :  Czar  of  Uussia:  b.  at  St.  Petei-sburg,  Oct.  2,  17.54; 
was  tlie  .son  of  Peter  III.  and  Catherine  II. ;  succeeded  to 
the  throne  on  Catherine's  ileal li  in  1796.  He  immediately 
set  about  to  reverse  her  policy  in  everv  particular.  His 
reign  began  well.  Kosciusko  and  the  other  Polisli  jirisoners 
were  liberated  and  treated  with  generosity.     In  1799-1800 


his  troops  served  in  Italy  and  Switzerland  against  France ; 
but  in  1800  he  changed  sides,  embraced  the  cause  of  Napo- 
leon, and  challenged  to  personal  combat  any  prince  who  re- 
fused to  join  him  in  a  league  against  Great  Britain.  Mean- 
while the  puerilities  and  tyrannies  of  his  rule  begot  a  strong 
l>opular  discontent,  and  he  was  murdered  in  his  bed-cham- 
ber by  his  nobles.  Mar.  24,  1801.  Paul  had  some  generous 
qualities.  His  own  family  he  treated  with  a  kindness  be- 
fore almost  unknown  in  the  Russian  imperial  house.  He 
intended,  it  is  said,  to  give  Poland  her  freedom  and  auton- 
omy;  but  his  feeble  intellect,  his  scanty  education,  and  an 
absurd  and  almost  insane  self-conceit  led  him  into  many 
acts  of  tyranny. 

Paul,  powl,  Hermann,  Ph.D.;  philologist;  b.  at  Salbke, 
Magdeburg,  Prussia,  Aug.  7,  1846 ;  studied  in  Berlin  and 
Leipzig;  lectured  in  the  University  of  Leipzig  1872-74  ;  be- 
came professor  at  Freiburg.  Baden,  in  1874.  He  has  pub- 
lished :  Ueber  die  ursjirungliche  Anordnung  von  Freidanks 
Bescheidenheit  (1870) ;  Zur  Kritik  und  Erklarung  von  Oott- 
frieds  Tristan  {\872);  Oabpseinemittelhochdeutsche  Schrift- 
sprache  ?  (1872);  Zur  Nihelungenf rage  (1877);  Vntersnch- 
ungen  iiber  den germanischen  I'ora7('.s-n!!(s(1879) ;  Principien 
der  Sprachgeschichfe  (1880);  Ilittelhochdeutsclie  Orammatik 
(1881);  an  edition  of  Gregorius.  bv  Hartmann  von  der  Aue 
(1873) ;  Altdeutsche  Te.rtbibliothek  (1882,  sqq.) ;  Beitrage 
zur  (Ifeschichle  der  deutschen  Sprache  und  Literatur  (1874— 
91);  Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie  (1889,  sqq.). 

Ben.i.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Paulding,  James  Kirke  ;  author  ;  b.  in  Pleasant  Valley, 
Dutchess  CO.,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  22,  1779.  He  received  a  scanty 
training  in  school,  and  in  early  life  removed  to  New  York, 
where  his  sister  had  married  William,  an  elder  brother  of 
Washington  Irving,  with  whom  he  became  associated  in  the 
authorship  of  Salmagundi  (1807),  but  the  second  series  of 
Salmagundi  (1819)  was  by  Paulding  alone;  became  in  1814 
secretary  of  the  board  of  navy  commissioners ;  was  navy 
agent  at  New  York  city  from  1825  to  1838,  and  was  Secre- 
tary of  the  U.  S.  Navy  1838-41 ;  was  a  facile  essayist  and 
humorist,  and  author  of  numerous  works,  among  which  were 
novels,  political  pamphlets,  poems,  etc.  The  best  of  his  writ- 
ings are  Tlie  Dutchman's  Fireside  (1831),  a  novel,  and  a 
Life  of  Washington  (1835).  D.  at  Hyde  Park,  N.  Y.,  Apr. 
6,  I860'.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Paulding.  John  :  h.  in  New  York,  1758  ;  served  through 
the  Revolutionary  war,  being  three  times  taken  prisoner ; 
was  one  of  the  captors  of  Maj.  Andre,  for  which  service  he 
received  from  Congress  a  silver  medal,  inscribed  on  one 
side  "  Fidelity  "  and  on  the  other  "  Vincit  Amor  Patriae," 
and  was  granted  an  annuity  of  |200.  D.  at  Staatsburg, 
N.  Y..  Feb.  18.  1818.  A  monument  to  his  memory  was 
erected  at  Peekskill  over  his  remains  in  1827  by  the  corpo- 
ration of  the  city  of  New  York,  and  his  name  has  been  given 
to  one  of  the  northwest  counties  of  Ohio,  his  companions. 
Van  Wart  and  Williams,  having  been  similarly  honored. 

Panli,  pow  lee,  Georg  Reinhold;  b.  in  Berlin,  Germany, 
May  25,  1823  ;  studied  [ihilology  and  history  at  Berlin  and 
Boiin  ;  lived  in  Great  Britain  from  1847  to  1855,  and  was  ap- 
pointed Profes.sor  in  History  at  Rostock  in  1857,  at  Tii- 
bingen  in  1859,  at  Marburg  in  1867,  and  at  Grittingeu  in  1870. 
Besides  several  minor  essays  on  various  subjects,  and  some 
larger  works  relating  to  the  history  of  England,  he  wrote 
Kijiiig  Alfred  und  seine  Stellung  in  der  Geschiehte  Eng- 
lands  (BerUn,  1851;  Eng.  trans.' bv  Thomas  Wrisht,  Lon- 
don, 1852)  and  Bilder  aus  Alt-Euytand  (Gotha,  1860  ;  Eng. 
trans,  by  E.  C.  Otte,  London,  1861).  The  sharp  criticism  to 
which  he  subjected  the  policy  of  the  government  of  Wur- 
teniberg  in  a  review  in  the  Preussische  Jahrbucher  (1866) 
occasioned  his  removal  from  Tubingen  to  Marburg.  D. 
June  3,  1882. 

Paull'fian.s;  a  dualistic  sect  of  the  Eastern  Church, 

which  originated  in  Armenia  in  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enth centurv,  in  the  village  of  Maiianalis.  near  Samosata, 
where  lived  Constantine  Silvanus,  its  founder,  and  preached 
in  that  hicality  from  657  till  684,  when  he  was  stoned  for 
heresy.  Our  knowledge  of  the  sect  comes  from  their  ene- 
mies,"and  is  defective  as  well  as  vitiated  by  prejudice  ;  but 
it  seems  to  be  proved  that  they  were  dualists;  held  that  the 
soul  proceedeil  from  God  but  the  body  from  tlie  evil  one  ; 
denied  the  perpetual  virginity  of  Mary,  and  opposed  Mari- 
olatry,  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement,' and  the  Church  view 
of  tlie  sacraments.  Their  founder  had  put  an  inordinate 
value  uiion  the  Pauline  epistles,  and  so  did  his  followers. 


PAULINE   CONGREGATION 


I'AfLINE  EPISTLES,  THE 


4S3 


They  also  had  in  their  canon  the  four  Gospels,  the  Acts,  the 
Epistles  of  James,  John,  ami  Jmle;  but  they  rejected  the 
Kfiislles  of  Peter,  because  he  had  opposed  Paul,  the  Reve- 
lation, and  all  the  Old  Testament.  I'hey  were  zealous  for 
the  Scriptures,  and  held  in  honor  those  among  them  who 
were  their  coi)yists  and  circulated  these  copies.  They  had 
no  sacerdotal  caste,  but  pastors  and  teachers,  and  were 
devout  Bible  students.  After  their  founder  their  great  man 
was  Sergius,  murdered  for  his  faith's  .sake  (835).  After  it 
had  spread  quietly  in  Armenia  for  about  two  centuries, 
though  now  and  then  persecuted  by  the  Hyzantine  emper- 
ors, the  Km|)ress  Theodora  (842-857)  undertook  to  suppress 
the  sect.  More  than  100,000  are  said  to  have  been  put  to 
the  sword,  and  the  rest  were  exiled.  .Some  fled  to  the  Sara- 
cens, others  to  the  Bulgarians,  and  in  Bulgaria  remnants  of 
the  sect  were  found  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  Paulician  ideas  were  introduced  into 
Europe  by  those  who  returned  with  the  crusaders,  and  such 
sects  as  the  Cathari  and  Bogomiles  hail  Paulician  elements. 
Samukl  Macaulky  Jai'KSOX. 

Pnuline  Congregation  :  See  Piarists. 

Pauline  Epistle.*,  The:  letters  written  to  churches  and 
individuals  by  the  apostle  Paul. 

1.  i^'iiinber.  Order,  and  Date. — It  is  the  common  opinion 
that  thirteen  of  these  epistles  have  bi'eii  preserved  to  us. 
From  about  the  fifth  century  to  the  Reformation  era  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  also  reckone<l  as  a  Paulino 
epistle,  making  fourteen.  This  opinion  arose  in  the  Eastern 
Church,  and  at  length  became  prevalent  chiefly  thiviugh  the 
great  influence  of  Jerome  and  .\ugustine.  In  the  early  cen- 
turies of  the  Christian  era  the  epistle  was  not  held  to  be 
Pauline  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Latin  or  Western  Church. 
Clement  of  Rome  quotes  it,  but  does  not  refer  it  to  Paul. 
Neither  Irena'us  nor  Hippolytus  quotes  it  as  Paul's,  and  Ter- 
tullian  asci-ibes  it  to  lianuibas.  Two  considerations — one 
negative,  the  otiier  iH>sitive— seem  decisive  against  the  Paul- 
ine autliorship  of  Hebrews.  («)  The  epistle  does  not  pur- 
port— as  do  all  other  alleged  Paulines — to  have  been  written 
by  Paul,  (b)  The  language,  style,  and  modes  of  thought 
are  characteristically  different  from  Paul's. 

The  common  view  resix'cting  the  order  and  approximate 
dates  of  the  epistles  may  be  shown  by  the  following  group- 
ing, which  is  not  oidy  chronological  but  according  to  their 
subject-matter:  I.  The  earlier  or  missionary  epistles,  land 
2  Thessalonians,  written  at  Corinth  during  a.  d.  .52  or  53. 

II.  T/ie  f/reat  doctrinal  epistles:  Galatians,  written  at  Eph- 
esus  within  the  period  54-57;  1  Corinthians,  written  at 
Ephesus  in  57  or  o8  ;  2  Corinthians,  written  in  Macedonia 
in  57  or  58 ;  Romans,  written  at  Corinth,  a.  d.  58  or  59. 

III.  Ttie  epistles  of  the  imprisonment :  Colossiiins,  Phile- 
mon, Ephesians,  Philippians,  commonly  believed  to  have 
been  written  during  the  apostle's  Roman  imprisonment 
during  the  years  62-63.  IV.  TIte  Pastoral  Epistles  :  1 
Timothy  and  Titus,  written  in  Macedonia,  and  2  Timothy, 
written  during  a  second  Roman  imprisoinnent.  shortly  be- 
fore the  ajiostle's  martyrdom.  The  date  of  this  group  is 
supposed  to  be  67  or  68. 

Several  points  in  this  grouping  have  been  called  in  ques- 
tion by  coiupetent  scholars  who  accept  the  Paidine  author- 
ship of  all  thirteen  letters.  By  some  (as  Bleek,  Davidson, 
Conybeare  and  Ilowson,  and  Lightfoot)  Galatians  is  placecl 
third,  instead  of  first,  in  the  second  group.  On  this  view 
it  was  written  in  Corinth,  probably  during  57  or  58.  Bishop 
Liglitfoot  gives  as  reasons  foi;  this  view  :  (a)  Galatians  most 
closely  resembles  2  Corinthians  in  its  personal  and  apolo- 
getic elements  an<l  Romans  in  its  doctrinal  nutthod  and 
content,  and  thus  naturally  falls  between  them,  (h)  The 
develfrpment  of  .Fudaizing  opposition  to  Paul  best  accords 
with  tills  order,  (r)  This  order  corresponds  to  the  develop- 
ment of  doctrine.  (See  Lightfoot's  introduction  in  his 
Commentary  on  Oalatians,  pp.  36-56.)  While  these  argu- 
ments are  not  very  cogent,  they  are  perhaps  as  much  so  as 
that  for  the  earlier  dale,  which  is  based  upon  the  rather 
indefinite  expression  in  (ial.  i.  6,  "  I  marvel  that  ye  arc  so 
quiclcly  removing  from  him  that  called  you,"  etc. 

Many  distinguished  German  scholars  held  that  the  first 
three  epistles  of  the  third  group  were  written  during  Paul's 
imprisonment  at  Ca-sarea  (Acts  xxiii.  23,  xxvi.  32).  The 
ingenious  arguments  by  which  this  theory  is  supported  may 
be  found  in  full  in  Meyer's  Commenlary'on  Ephesiiins.  In- 
troduction, §  2.  This  view  has  found  little  favor  with  Eng- 
lish scholars. 

Bishop  Lightfoot  maintained  that   Philippians  was  the 


earliest  of  the  epistles  of  the  imprisonment  on  the  follow- 
ing grounds :  (a)  Philippians  stands  a|iart  from  the  other 
three  in  spirit  and  matter.  (A)  It  reflects  the  slate  of  Paul's 
mind  which  is  illustrated  in  Romans  and  in  1  and  2  Co- 
rinthians, (c)  Colossians  an<l  Ephesians  are  more  nearly 
related  to  the  pastoral  epistles  than  is  Philip[)ians  (see 
Lightfoot's  dissertation.  Order  of  the  Epistles  of  the  Cap- 
tirity.  in  his  (Jommentary  on  Philippians,  pp.  30-4U) :  but 
the  progress  of  the  Gospel  at  Rome,  which  had  penetrated 
even  the  emperor's  household  (iv.  22),  the  Philippians' 
knowledge  of  Paul  at  Rome,  the  sending  of  Epaphioditus, 
his  labors,  sickness,  etc.,  would  point  to  a  later  time  of  writ- 
ing, as  would  also  the  fact  that  Paul  was  more  confident  of 
release  (ii.  24)  than  when  Colossians  and  Ephesians  were 
written,  and  so  was,  presumably,  lu-arer  to  it. 

Incidental  allusions  to  lost  epistles  of  Paul  are  found  in 
1  Cor.  v.  9.  and  Col.  iv.  16.  These  passages,  according  to 
their  most  natural  interpretation,  show  that  Paul  wrote  a 
letter  to  the  Corinthians  (antedating  our  1  Corinthians),  and 
that  at  the  time  when  he  wrote  to  Philemon  and  to  the 
church  at  Colossa;  he  also  wrote  an  epistle  to  the  neighbor- 
ing church  at  Laodieea.  Some  discern  in  passages  like  2 
Cor.  ii.  4  and  vii.  8,  9,  allusions  to  a  letter  to  the  Corinthians 
intermediate  between  1  and  2  Corinthians.  General  allu- 
sions to  the  frequency  with  which  Paul  wrote  private  letters, 
only  one  of  which — that  to  Philemon^is  extant,  are  found 
in  i  Cor.  xvi.  3,  2  Cor.  x.  10.  and  2  Thess.  iii.  17. 

2.  Occasion  and  Aim. — /  Thessalonians. — The  narrative 
of  the  founding  of  the  Church  at  Thessalonica  is  found  in 
Acts  xvii.  1-9.  Some  Jews,  many  women  of  noble  birth, 
and  many  proselyte  Greeks,  accepted  the  Gospel,  but  Jewish 
opposition  at  length  drove  the  apostle  aiul  his  assistants 
from  the  city.  Paul  was  eager  to  revisit  his  converts,  and 
had  twice  purposed  to  do  so,  but  had  licen  hindered  (ii.  18). 
When  he  could  no  longer  restrain  his  anxiety  to  hear  from 
them,  he  sent  Timothy  (from  Athens,  where  they  were  at 
that  time;  cf.  Acts  xvii.  15)  to  encourage  them  and  learn 
their  state.  Meanwhile  Paul  went  on  to  Corinth.  There 
Timothy  joined  him  and  brought  his  report  concerning  the 
Church.  This  report  was  the  occasion  of  the  e])istle. 
Though  faults  and  errors  were  to  be  corrected,  their  prog- 
ress and  patient  endurance  of  persecution  gave  Paul  great 
joy.  The  keynote  of  the  letter  is  "  Now  we  live,  if  ye  stand 
fiist  in  the  Lord  "  (iii.  8). 

A?  Tliessalonians. — In  1  Thessalonians  Paul  had  encour- 
aged his  converts  to  endure  their  trials  with  patience  Ijy  ex- 
pressing the  hope  of  the  Lord's  speedy  return  (iv.  16,  v.  2). 
This  expectation — fostered  chiefly  by  a  letter  falsely  pur- 
porting to  have  been  written  by  Paul.  ii.  2— became  the  oc- 
casion of  developing  a  fanatical  sjiint  among  the  Thessa- 
lonians. So  near  did  they  think  the  //aroiisia  to  be  that 
they  abandoned  their  occupations  (ii.  1-12,  ii.  15,  iii.  10- 
12).  Paul  wrote  the  epistle  to  ri'buke  this  spirit,  to  urge 
theiu  to  resume  their  employment,  and  to  divert  their  at- 
tention to  certain  events  which  should  precede  the  parousia 
(see  ii.  1-12). 

Galatians. — The  occasion  of  this  epistle  is  found  in  the 
presence  in  the  Galatian  community  of  Jewish-Christian 
teachers  who  insisted  that  Gentiles  who  became  Christians 
must  also  become  Jews,  that  is,  be  circumcised  and  keep  the 
Old  Testament  law  as  such.  It  is  generally  thought  that 
these  Judaizers  had  come  from  Palestine  (so  Meyer) :  others 
(as  Nean<ler)  suppose  that  they  were  partly  from  Judoa  and 
partly  native  to  Galatia.  and  still  others  (as  Weiss)  maintain 
that  they  were  connected  with  Jewish-Christian  congrega- 
tions which  had  been  gatherxl  in  (ialatia  previous  to  Raid's 
founding  the  Gentile-Christian  churches  in  the  province.  No 
data  exist  for  settling  this  question.  Whoever  these  per- 
sons were,  it  is  certain  that  they  did  not  comprehend  the 
newness  and  completeness  of  Christianity;  it  was  to  them 
but  an  appendix  or  supplement  to  the  Old  Testament  sys- 
tem. Paul  was  the  champion  of  the  opposite  view.  For 
him  Christianity  was  complete  in  itself  and  those  who  ac- 
cepted it  were  not  under  the  law.  His  opponents'  position 
was  contrary  to  the  decision  of  the  apostolic  conference 
held  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv..  Gal.  ii.)  at  which  the  mo-^t  con- 
servative primitive  apostles,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  had  ap- 
proved his  teaching  and  disclaimed  any  desire  to  supple- 
ment or  change  it. 

/  Corinthians. — From  v.  9  it  appears  that  Paul  had 
written  to  the  Corinthians  an  earlier  letter  than  1  Corinthi- 
ans. There  are  hints  in  v.  10,  vii.  1,  viii.  1.  xii.  1,  xvi.  1,  and 
xvi.  12  of  a  letter  from  them  to  the  apostle  in  return.  The 
inquiries  contained  in  this  letter,  and  the  condition  of  the 


484 


PAULINE   EPISTLES,   THE 


Corinthian  cluirch  which  they  revealed,  were  the  occasion 
of  the  epistle.  An  additional  occasion  lay  in  the  report 
which  Paul  had  received  concei-ning  divisions  among  them 
from  the  slaves  of  a  certain  Corinthian  woman,  Chloe  (i.  11). 
These  party  rivalries  seemed  to  the  apostle  more  impoi-tant 
than  the  inquii'ics  contained  in  the  letter  of  the  Corinthians, 
for  he  takes  up  that  subject  first  and  devotes  to  it  a  large 
share  of  the  epistle. 

S  Corinthians. — It  is  impossible  to  determine  with  cer- 
tainty the  events  which  intervened  between  the  two  Corin- 
thian epistles.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  opposition  to 
Paul  had  increased  in  the  Church.  The  Jewish-Christian 
portion — probably  the  Christ-party,  especially — had  accused 
him  of  fickleness,  double-dealing,  ami  cowardice,  and  had 
cast  suspicion  upon  his  character  and  apostleship.  The  aim 
of  the  epistle  was  to  refute  these  calumnies,  and  to  vindi- 
cate himself  as  a  man  and  as  an  apostle.  In  chapters,  i.-viii. 
Paul  addresses  himself  more  to  the  faithful  nuijority,  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  epistle  turns  more  directly  to  the 
hostile  Judaizers — the  "  false  "  or  "  exceeding  apostles "' — the 
extremists  who  had  come  to  Corinth  with  letters  of  recom- 
mendation from  Palestine. 

Romans. — The  occasion  of  this  epistle  is  not  clear,  and 
many  theories  respecting  it  have  been  advanced.  Baur  re- 
garded it  as  a  polemic  against  Jewish  Christianity  ;  Schweg- 
ler  as  a  defense  of  PauFs  doctrine  ;  Weizsacker  as  intendcil 
to  fortify  Christians  against  attacks  upon  their  faith  in  the 
future  ;  Weiss  as  an  attempt  to  draw  up  a  statement  of  his 
doctrine  of  salvation,  defending  it  on  all  sides  against  ob- 
jections. Some  combination  of  these  views  seems  necessary. 
There  are  largo  polemic  and  apologetic  elements  in  the 
epistle,  and  the  protection  of  his  converts  against  attacks 
upon  their  faith  by  Judaizers  and  the  commendation  of  his 
doctrine  to  the  favorable  consideration  of  Jewish  Christians 
may  have  been  subordinate  motives  in  writing.  We  may 
state  his  main  object  thus :  To  present  a  fuller  exposition 
and  defense  than  he  hatl  yet  made  of  his  "  gospel  "  in  con- 
trast to  Judaizing  teaching  and  in  its  application  to  the 
Christian  life.  The  growing  importance  of  the  Roman 
Church,  by  reason  of  its  size  and  position,  would  furnish  a 
sutHcient  reason  why  he  should  address  the  letter  to  them, 
although  he  had  not  founded  the  Church  and  had  never 
even  visited  it. 

Colossians. — This  epistle  was  written  to  combat  the  errors 
which  certain  false  teachers  were  introducing  into  the 
churches  of  tlie  Lycus  valley.  The  heresy  ai:)pears  to  have 
been  a  sort  of  Jewish  eclecticism  which  combined  some  of 
the  tenets  of  the  Essenes  with  Gnostic  speculations.  Its 
leading  characteristics  were  :  (a)  Asceticism,  a  self-imposed 
subjection  to  ordinances  and  severity  to  the  body  (ii.  16-23). 
(J)  Notions  akin  to  the  Gnostic  doctrine  of  a»ons :  theories 
of  intermediate  agents  (angels)  between  God  and  the  world 
(ii. !(.  10,  18).  ((■)  An  over-emphasis  of  an  alleged  knowledge 
on  the  part  of  its  adherents  (ii.  8-10,  18 ;  cf.  i.  9,  15,  16,  26, 
ii.  2,  10,  19).  The  tendency  of  this  speculation  was  to  de- 
grade Christ  to  the  rank  of  a  creature,  and  to  substitute 
ascetic  rigors  for  trust  in  divine  grace.  In  opposition  to 
these  false  views  Paul  insists  on  the  headship  of  t!hrist  over 
the  world  and  its  powers,  and  upon  the  sole  sufficiency  for 
salvation  of  his  person  and  work. 

Philemon. — This  is  a  private  letter  written  at  the  same 
time  as  Colossians,  and  addressed  to  a  Colossian  Christian 
and  friend  of  the  apostle  (Philemon).  It  is  written  to  com- 
mend Onesimus,  a  slave  of  Philemon,  who  had  stolen  from 
his  master  and  gone  to  Rome.  There  he  met  Paul  and  be- 
came a  Christian.  Paul  sends  him  back  to  his  master  with 
a  cordial  commendation  of  his  changed  character.  He  re- 
minds Philemon  that  he  owes  his  own  conversion  to  him- 
self, and  entreats  liim  to  receive  his  former  servant  as  a 
Christian  brother. 

Ephesians. — No  definite  occasion  for  this  ejiistle  can  be 
confidoiitly  assigned.  By  many  critics  it  is  regarded  as  an 
encyclical  letter  designed  for  a  group  of  churches ;  by 
others  it  is  believed  to  be  the  epistle  to  the  Laodicean 
Cluirch  alluded  to  in  Col.  iv.  6.  The  omission  of  the  phrase 
"in  Kphcsus  "  (i.  1)  in  tlie  best  MSS.  strongly  favor  the  first 
view,  although  it  is  not  easy  to  explain  satisfactorily  the  re- 
nmining  words  on  the  supposition  of  this  omission.  Per- 
liaps  a  blank  space  was  originally  left  in  order  that  the 
name  of  the  particular  place  where  the  letter  was  read 
might  be  inserted.  The  ejiistle  resembles  Colossians  most 
nearly  in  scope  aiul  contents.  Certain  differences  may,  how- 
ever, be  noted  :  (a)  Ei)hi'sians  treats  more  of  redemption  in 
general  (soteriology) ;  Colossians  of  the  Redeemer  personally 


(Christology).  (b)  Ephesians  aims  at  edification  and  educa- 
tion ;  Colossians  at  the  refutation  of  heresy,  (t)  Ephesians 
treats  more  of  the  relation  of  Christ  to  the  Church  ;  Co- 
lossians of  his  relation  to  the  universe,  (d)  In  Ephesians 
the  pre-eminence  of  Christ  is  made  to  depend  more  upon 
the  divine  will ;  in  Colossians  more  upon  his  metaphysical 
nature. 

Pliilippians. — When  Paul  was  a  Roman  prisoner  the 
Philippian  Church,  to  which  he  was  especially  attached, 
sent  one  of  their  number,  Epaphroditus,  to  supply  his 
wants.  This  epistle  is  a  letter  of  thanks  for  the  gift,  but  it 
goes  beyond  its  primary  purpose  and  gives  information  con- 
cerning himself,  adding  warnings  and  advices  for  their 
Ijcnefit.  It  is  the  warmest  and  most  affectionate  of  all 
Paul's  letters. 

The  Pastorals. — These  letters  are  addressed  to  the  trusted 
helpers  of  the  apostle,  Timothy  and  Titus,  to  encourage  and 
aid  them  in  their  work  in  Ephesus  and  Crete  respectively. 
In  them  he  has  no  occasion  to  deal  with  definitions  or  de- 
fenses of  the  Gospel.  He  urges  the  evangelists  to  adhere  to 
"  sound  doctrine  "  and  to  avoid  certain  current  speculations 
as  unprofitable.  These  tendencies  are  characterized  as  a 
"  different  doctrine"  (1  Tim.  i.  3)  from  his  own,  and  as  deal- 
ing with  Jewish  fables,  endless  genealogies,  and  strivings 
about  the  law  (Tit.  3,  9,  1  Tim.  i.  4).  We  can  not  identify 
these  speculations  with  the  tenets  of  any  particular  sect. 

3.  Criticism.— F.  C.  Baur  (1792-1860),  the  foinider  of  the 
Ttibingen  school,  admitted  but  four  epistles  (Galatians,  1 
and  3  Corinthians,  and  Romans)  as  genuine.  The  others 
were  rejected  on  grounds  of  internal  evidence.  The  great 
di>ctrinal  letters  were  made  the  standard  of  genuineness, 
and  variations  from  these  in  style  and  contents  were  re- 
garded as  evidence  of  spuriousness.  Since  Baur's  time,  how- 
ever, the  tendency  among  the  adherents  of  his  school  has 
been  toward  the  admission  of  some  of  the  discredited  epis- 
tles as  genuine.  Iloltzmann,  Pfleiderer,  and  S.  Davidson, 
for  example,  concede  the  genuineness  of  1  Thessalonians  and 
Philippians,  and  admit  Pauline  elements  in  2  Thessalonians 
and  Colossians.  The  pastoral  epistles  are  most  widely  re- 
jected on  the  following  grounds :  (a)  There  is  no  place  for 
them  in  Paul's  known  life,  (b)  The  errors  combated  in 
them  belong  to  the  post-apostolic  age.  (c)  The  church  or- 
ganization which  they  reflect  is  more  higlily  developed 
than  that  found  in  the  apostolic  age.  It  is  answered :  (a) 
The  Acts  breaks  off  abruptly  ;  Paul  expected  to  be  released 
from  his  imprisonment  (Phil.  ii.  24),  and  early  tradition  rep- 
resents this  to  have  been  the  fact.  A  place  may  thus  be 
found  for  those  letters  in  the  apostle's  last  years,  (b)  The 
errors  of  the  pastorals  show  no  close  affinity  to  the  Gnosti- 
cism of  tlie  second  century,  (f)  The  only  church  officers  in 
the  pastorals  are  presbyter-bishops  and  deacons  (as  in  Philip- 
pians). 

In  recent  years  a  school  has  arisen  which  rejects  even  the 
four  "  undisputed  "  epistles.  The  chief  representative  of  this 
type  of  criticism  is  Rudolf  Steck,  a  Swiss  professor.  His 
theory  of  the  history  of  the  apostolic  age  is  the  opposite  of 
that  ]iropo\inded  by  the  Ttibingen  school.  He  maintains 
that  the  sharp  opposition  between  the  principles  of  faith 
and  works,  or  grace  and  merit,  which  the  doctrinal  letters 
reflect,  would  develop  only  slowly  and  late,  and  therefore 
the  writings  in  which  this  conflict  of  principles  is  presented 
must  fall  within  the  post-apostolic  age.  He  j)laces  these 
writings  in  the  second  century.  In  opposition  to  this  theory 
both  the  critical  and  the  conservative  schools  agree  in  main- 
taining that  the  sharpest  conflict  of  opposing  principles  is 
experienced  in  the  early  stages  of  a  controversy,  and  that 
the  development  is  toward  adjustment  and  reconciliation. 
The  extra-canonical  literature  of  the  second  century  shows 
no  such  contrast  of  Pauline  and  Judaizing  Christianity  as 
is  illustrated  in  Galatians  and  Romans.  Steck's  theory  re- 
verses the  common  order  of  history,  and  is  contrary  to  aU 
the  evidence  which  bears  u]ion  the  progress  of  the  contro- 
versies between  the  Gentile-Christian  and  the  Jewish-Chris- 
tian branches  of  the  Church. 

Literature. — Only  a  select  bibliography  of  recent  litera- 
ture can  here  be  given.  The  works  referred  to  are,  in  most 
instances,  such  as  treat  of  the  literary  and  historical  ques- 
tions connected  with  Paul's  epistles  rather  than  of  his  life 
in  general  or  of  his  theology.  P.  C.  Baur's  I'aiiltis,  u.  s.  tv. 
(Stuttgart,  1845;  2d  ed.  Leipzig,  1866-67),  marks  an  epoch 
in  the  criticism  of  the  Pauline  epistles.  More  recent  Ger- 
man treatises  are  largely  taken  up  with  the  problems  so 
boldly  raised  and  discussed  in  this  work.  Many  recent 
critics  still  follow  Baur's  method,  and  in  part  adopt  his 


PAU  LINUS 


PAUIA'S  DIACONUS 


485 


ar^ments,  while  modifying  more  or  less  his  premises  and 
coiichisions.  S.  Davidson's  Introduction  to  the  JS'ew  Testa- 
ment (SvoU.,  lH4S-r>l:  :id  ed.  -J  vols..  London.  18!)4)  is  con- 
servative in  the  first  edition  ;  the  seeond  and  tliird  repro- 
dnce  largely  the  Tul)ingen  criticism.  E.  Keuss's  Geschichte 
d.  Ileiligen  Sehrifte.n  d.  Neuen  Testament  (Halle,  1843  :  6th 
ed.  1887;  Eng.  trans.  Edinbnrgh.  1  vol.,  1SS4:  Itaston,2  vols., 
1884)  is  a  critical  summary  and  history  of  o]iiiiion  with  am- 
ple references  to  the  literature.  P.  J.  Gloag's  Inlrodiietion 
to  tlie  Pauline  Epiitles  (Kdinburjjh,  1874)  is  a  conservative 
sunnnary  and  review  of  opinions.  In  11.  A.  W.  Meyer's 
Commentanj  on  the  A'um'  Te>:tament  (various  editions;  Am. 
ed.  New  York,  1884-86)  the  introductions  to  the  epistles  are 
elaborate  and  conservative  treatises.  Those  on  the  pastorals 
are  written  by  Meyer's  continuator,  Huther,  who  nudntains 
their  genuineness,  as  Meyer  did  not.  Meyer  held  to  the 
genuineness  of  all  the  other  epistles.  J.  B.  Ligbtfool's  inlro- 
ducticms  and  dissertations  in  his  Commentaries  an  (fahttians 
(8th  ed.  London,  1884),  Philippians  (8th  ed.  188.5),  and  Co- 
lossians  and  Philemon  (9th  ed.  1890),  are  of  the  highest 
value.  The  dissertations  are  published  sei^arately  in  a  volume 
entitled  Dissertations  on  the  Apostolic  Age  (London,  1892). 
A.  Sabatier,  in  L'Apotre  Paul  (Paris,  1881  :  Eng.  trans. 
New  York,  1891),  gives  a  vivacious  treatment  of  Paul's  let- 
ters in  their  historical  setting,  unfavorable  to  the  pastorals. 
The  English  translation  contains  an  essay  per  contra  by  the 
translator,  (>.  G.  Findlay.  Das  L'rchristenthum,  u.  s.  w. 
(Berlin,  1887,)  and  Der  Paulinismus  (Leipzig,  1873  :  2d  ed. 
1890),  by  0.  Pfleiderer,  discuss  the  Pauline  literature  in  the 
spirit  and  method  of  Baur,  with  important  mf>difications, 
however,  in  detail.  11.  J.  lloltzmann's  Einleitung  in  das 
Neue  Testament  (Freiburg,  1885  :  2d  ed.  1886)  is  a  history  and 
summary  of  opinions  from  thi^  standpoint  of  the  "  critical  " 
school.  B.  W'eiss's  Lehrbnch  </.  Einleituntj  in  d.  2\'eue  Testa- 
ment (Berlin,  1886;  2d  ed.  1889  ;  Eng.  trans.  2  vols.,  Edin- 
burg,  1888,  and  New  York,  1889),  critical  but  conservative,  is 
the  best  manual  at  present  available  in  English.  An  Intro- 
duction to  the  New  Testament,  by  M.  Dods  (New  Y'ork, 
1888).  is  a  brief  presentation  of  the  main  results  of  criticism. 
F.  Godet's  Studies  in  the  (Pauline)  Epistles  (London.  1889) 
are  popular  essays,  conservative  in  tone.  The  Epistles  of 
Paul  the  Aposlle'.hy  G.G.  Findlay  (London.  1892),  and  .1.  K. 
Luraby's  Popular  Introduction  to  the  yew  Testament  (Lon- 
<lon,  1883)  are  both  excellent  manuals  for  popular  use.  In 
vols.  ii.  and  iii.  of  the  Iland-Commentar  zum  Seuen  Testa- 
ment (4  vols.,  Freiburg,  1891)  are  found  elaborate  introduc- 
tions (by  Schmiedel,  Lipsius,  and  von  Soden)  on  the  Pauline 
letters.  They  are  written  from  the  critical  point  of  view, 
inid  account  is  taken  of  the  latest  discussions.  F.  Godet's 
Introduction  au  3\  T..  vol.  i.,  Les  P.piires  de  S.  Paul 
(Paris.  1893),  contains  a  history  of  the  criticism  of  the  Paul- 
ine epistles  from  the  first  century  to  the  present  time.  The 
slaiKlard  treatise  of  the  modern  radical  criticism  is  Der  Ga- 
laterbrief  nach  seiner  Echtheit  untersucht  (Berlin,  1888),  by 
P.  Steck.  The  opinions  of  Steck  are  shared  more  or  less 
fidly  by  certain  I)utch  theologians,  as  Loman,  van  Manen, 
van  Loon,  and  Vollcr.  For  a  review  and  critique  of  these 
views,  see  Lipsius,  Hnnd-Commentar,  Einleituny  zit  Gal., 
pp.  8,  9;  Ptlciilerer,  Der  Paulinismus  (2d  ed.),  pp.  34-38; 
A.  C.  Zenos  in  the  Presbyterian  Review  (Jan.,  1891);  and 
Knowling,  The  Witness  of  the  Epistles,  ch.  iii.  (London  and 
New  York,  1892).  George  B.  Stevens. 

I'aiili'iiHS,  JIeropuis  Pontius  Anicius;  a  Latin  writer 
from  Gaul;  b.  in  Burdigala  (Bordeau.x)  in  353;  pupil  of 
Ausoinus.  and  thri>ugh  his  influence  maile  consul  suffectus 
before  379.  In  389  he  was  converted  to  Christianity,  and  in 
409  made  Bishop  of  Nola  in  Campania,  whicli  ollici'  he  held 
until  his  death  in  431.  Hence  he  is  connnonly  called  Pau- 
liims  Nolanus.  His  extant  works  consist  of  some  fifty  let- 
ters and  thirty-six  poems  in  various  meters,  which  show 
considerable  culture  and  jioetif  feeling,  with  reminiscences 
of  Horace,  Vergil,  Lucan,  and  .luvencus.  The  best  account 
of  his  Christian  poetry  is  given  by  Manitius,  Geschichte  der 
Christlich-lat.  Fiiesie,  pp.  261-297.  See  Migne,  Patrol., 
vol.  Ixi.  A  critical  edition  is  promised  by  Ilartcl  for  the 
Vienna  Corpus  Script.  Eccles.  lat.  M.  Warren. 

Panlist  Fathers,  or  The  Coiigrregation  of  St.  Paul 
the  Apostle  :  a  missionary  society  of  priests  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  founded  iu  1858  by  Kev.  I.saac  Thomas 
Ilccker,  and  approved  by  Pone  Pius  L\.  Thev  are  chiefiy 
men  who  have  abandoned  Protestantism,  l^he  mother- 
house  is  in  New  York. 

I'aiillinia  sorbilis;  See  Gl-arana. 


Paulo  AITonso  Cataract :  See  .SXo  Francisco  River. 

Paulown'ia  iniperia'lis;  scientific  name  of  a  fine  tree 
of  the  !iuni]y  Scrophulariacete,  a  native  of  .Japan,  It  has 
something  the  habit  of  a  catalpa,  the  leaves  being  large  and 
heart-shaped,  the  branches  being  crooked  and  nearly  hori- 
zontal ;  the  flowers  are  in  large  dusters  of  a  pale-violet 
color,  and  precede  the  leaves.  The  tree  rarely  exceeds  40 
feet  in  height,  and  its  trunk  is  usually  less  than  a  foot  in  di- 
anu^ter.  In  the  U.  S.  it  is  hardy  as  far  N.  as  New  York. 
The  luxuriant  growth  and  great  heavy  leaves  make  it  a  de- 
sirable tree  for  many  effects  in  landscape-gardening. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailev. 

Paulsen,  powl  sen,  Friedrk  n.  Ph.  D. :  professor  of  phi- 
losophy and  pedagogy;  I),  in  Langenborn,  Sehleswig,  .July 
16,  1846;  educated  in  the  common  schools  of  his  native 
town,  llie  gymnasium  in  Altona,  and  the  Univei'silies  of  Kr- 
langen  and  Berlin;  ])rivat  docent  1875-78,  extraordinary 
professor  1878-93,  and  Professor  of  Philoso|)hv  since  the 
autumn  of  1893  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  Inphilo.sophy 
Paulsen  is  classed  with  the  new-school  Kantians.  His  pub- 
lished works  and  numerous  magazine  articles  give  him  a 
foremost  rank  among  German  philosophers,  but  no  less  im- 
portant are  his  contril)\itions  to  the  history  of  pedagogv. 
In  respect  to  secondary  and  higher  education  he  is  a  recog- 
nized authority.  His  principal  works  are :  Ver.s'uch  einer 
E_Htwiclielungsge,fch ichle  der  Kantischen  Erkenninisstheo- 
rie  (1875);  Geschichte  des  yelehrien  Unterrichts  auf  den 
deiitschen  Schulen  vnd  I'niversituten,  vom  Au.igang  des 
Jlitlelalters  his  auf  die  Gec/enwart  (1885);  Si/slem  der 
Ethik(WSi>:  3d  ed.'l894);  Einleitung  in  die  Philosophte 
(1892;  3d  ed.  1894);  Wesen  und  Geschichte  der  deiitschen 
Universitf'iten  (in  the  work  edited  by  Lexis,  Die  deut.schen 
Universituten,  1893).  J.  E.  RfssELL. 

PaulllS,  pow  loos,  Heinrich  Ebebhard  Gottloi)  ;  theolo- 
gian ;  b.  at  Leonberg,  near  Stuttgart,  Wurtemberg.  Sept. 
1,  1761 ;  studied  Oriental  languages  and  theology  at  Tiibin- 
gen,  Gottingen,  London,  and  Paris,  and  was  appointed  Ordi- 
nary Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  in  1789  at  .Jena,  in  1803 
at  Wijrzburg,  director  of  the  department  of  public  worship 
and  education  in  1808  at  Bamberg,  in  1809  at  Nuremberg, 
iu  1811  at  Ansbach,  but  moved  in  the  same  year  as  Professor 
of  Exegesis  and  Ecclesiastical  History  to  Heidelberg,  where 
he  died  Aug.  10,  1851.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prominent 
representatives  of  the  rationalistic  theology  in  its  hi-stori- 
co-critical  |)hase.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  Claris 
fiber  die  Psalmen  (Jena,  1791,  Ili-idelberg,  1815);  Claris 
fiber  Jesaias  (\li}H);  Koinmenfar  fiber  da^  Neue  Testament 
(but  it  onlv  goes  to  John  xi.  ;  Lilbeck,  4  vols.;  1800-04 ;  2d 
ed.  1804-Ob);  Leben  Jesn  (2  vols.,  1828);  Exegetisches- 
ITandbiich  uher  die  drei  erslen  Evangelien  (3  vols.,  Heidel- 
berg, 1830-33;  2ded.  1841-42).  He  edited  Schelling's  Vor- 
Jesungen  fiber  die  Offenbarung {\%AZ),  which  implicated  him 
in  a  lawsuit.  He  wrote  a  partial  autobiography,  Skizzen 
cms  meiyier  Bildung.i-  und  Leben.'<ge.ichichte  (Heidelberg, 
1839),  and  left  materials  for  a  full  biography,  which  were 
utilized  by  Prof.  Reichlin-Meldegg  under  the  title  //.  E.  G. 
Paiilus  und  seine  Zeit{i  vols.,  Stuttgart.  1853). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Pau'lns,  Julius;  a  celebrated  Roman  jurist,  contempo- 
rary with  L'l[)ian,  who  held  under  Alexander  Severus  in  223 
the  office  of  pra'fectvis  pra-torio.  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer,  and  more  than  2,000  excerpts  from  his  works  are 
contained  in  the  digests.  His  most  important  work.  Ad 
edictiim,  embraced  eiglity  books.  An  abridgment  of  his 
Sententiarum  ad  filium  lihri  V.,  is  extant.  Sec  Iluschke 
Jurispnidentio!  Anteiustinianm  qiue  supersunt,  pp.  450-561 
(Leipzig,  1886).  M.  W. 

Paulas.  Ijucius  iEjnuus,  sumamed  Macedonious:  sol- 
dier; b.  at  Rome  about  2.30  n.c. ;  a  s<m  of  the  consid  of  the 
same  name,  who  fell  at  Canna-  216;  was  praMor  in  191; 
commanded  afterward  as  pro-consul  in  the  province  of 
Further  Spain,  where  he  put  down  a  formidable  insurrec- 
tion and  defeated  the  Lusitanians;  was  consul  She  first  time 
in  181.  and  a  second  time  in  168;  censor  in  164.  D.  in  160. 
During  liis  second  consulship  he  finished  the  third  Macedo- 
nian war  by  his  brilliant  victory  over  Perseus  at  I'ydna. 
The  Romans  did  not  at  once  appropriate  the  territory  of 
their  vani|uished  enemy,  but  divided  the  Macedonian  empire 
into  f(mr  districts  with  oligarchical  governments  under  the 
protection  of  Rome.  Revise<l  by  G.  Ij.  Hexdrickson. 

Pau'Ius  Diac'onus.  or  Levi'ta  :  historian  ;  b.  at  Cividale, 
in  Friuli.  about   725;  educated  at  the   Lombard   court  at 


486 


PAULUS  ^GINETA 


PAUPERISM 


Pavia;  he  was  ordained  deacon  not  later  than  763;  at  the 
instigation  of  Adelperga,  wife  of  the  Duke  of  Benevento, 
he  composed  about  "TOliis  IlistoriaRomana,  a  continuation 
of  the  Breviaritim  of  Eutropius.  (See  edition  by  Droysen, 
Berlin,  1879.)  He  entered  the  monastery  of  Jlonte  Casino, 
whence  he  addressed  a  poem  to  Charlemagne  in  781,  set- 
ting forth  in  a  touching  manner  the  sufferings  of  his  family 
in  consequence  of  Charlemagne's  confiscation  of  their  es- 
tates as  a  punishment  for  his  brother's  rebellion.  Charle- 
magne was  so  much  interested  in  tlie  poet  that  he  sum- 
moned him  to  his  court.  There  Paulus  hved  till  787,  and 
tiiere  he  collected  his  Uomiliarius,  which  was  often  re- 
printed in  the  tiftcenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  and  trans- 
lated into  German  and  .Spanish,  and  wrote  his  Gesta  Epis- 
coporum  Mettensiiim.  printed  in  Pertz's  Monumenta  Germa- 
nicB  Hisforica.  vol.  ii.  (Hanover,  1837);  made  an  abridg- 
ment of  Festus's  De  Significafione  Verborum  (see  Festus)  ; 
returned  to  Jlonte  Cassino  in  787.  D.  there  about  797.  His 
last  and  most  important  work  was  his  Ilisforni  Laiigohar- 
dorum  Libri  VI.,  which  ends  at  744,  containing  many  valu- 
able traditions.  The  best  edition  is  by  G.  Waltz  (Han- 
over, 1878)  in  the  Monumenta  Germanice  Uistorica.  See 
Felix  Dahn,  Diis  Paulus  Diaconus  Leben  unci  Schriften 
(Leipzig,  187G).  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Paulus  j'Egiiieta:  Greek  physician  and  author;  b.  in 
^giua  at  an  unknown  date,  but  Abulfaragius  places  him  in 
the  seventh  century  A.  u.,  which  is  probably  correct.  His 
De  Re  3Iedica  Libri  Septem  had  great  influence  among 
European  and  Arabian  physicians  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
several  Latin  and  Arabic  versions  were  made.  Of  the  Greek 
text  the  edition  of  1528  (Venice)  and  1.538  (Basel)  are  com- 
plete. The  Sydenham  Society  published  (London,  1847)  an 
improved  edition  of  Francis  Adams's  complete  translation, 
with  abundant  notes,  in  three  volumes  8vo.  Several  other 
works  of  Paulus  are  mentioned  by  old  writers.  See  Sur- 
gery. Revised  by  J.  K.  S.  Sterrett. 

Paul  Veronese :  See  Veronese. 

Pauneefote,  Sir  Julian:  British  jurist  and  statesman; 
b.  at  Munich,  Germany,  Sept.  13,  1828;  educated  at  Paris, 
Geneva,  and  Marlborough  College  ;  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Inner  Temple  1852  ;  attorney-general  of  Hongkong  1865 ; 
chief  justice  of  Supreme  Court  in  Hongkong  1869;  knight- 
ed 1874;  Assistant  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colo- 
nies 1874 ;  Assistant  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 
Affairs  1876  ;  became  permanent  Under-Secretary  of  State 
for  B'oreign  Affairs  1882 ;  British  minister  at  Washington 
1888.  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Pauperism  [from  Lat,  pauper,  poor  (>0.  Fr.  paure, 
whence  Eng.  poor)] :  in  a  general  sense,  the  settled  condi- 
tion of  large  masses  of  people,  who  are  more  or  less  depend- 
ent on  the  alms  of  the  community  for  their  support.  In 
earlier  ages  slavery,  which  was  almost  universal,  rendered 
public  assistance  for  paupers  almost  unnecessary,  because 
the  master  was  expected  to  provide  for  his  aged  and  invalid 
slaves,  as  well  as  to  assume  the  cost  of  rearing  the  young, 
which,  in  some  modern  communities,  imposes  the  greater 
part  of  the  public  burden  for  the  poor ;  but  wlierever  slavery 
began  to  be  abolished  by  individual  emancipation,  or  by 
the  result  of  war,  or  by  other  causes,  pauperism,  in  the  mod- 
ern sense,  began  to  take  its  place  ;  and  this  process  went  on 
for  centuries,  from  the  earliest  period  of  authentic  Grecian 
history,  until  the  present  age,  when  the  most  general  eman- 
cipations have  taken  place.  Again,  the  reduction  of  large 
masses  of  the  free  population  to  a  state  of  dependence,  by 
the  extension  of  landed  estates  and  the  effect  of  long-con- 
tinued warfare,  es)jecially  under  the  Roman  rule,  gave  occa- 
sion for  the  greatest  development  of  public  charity  which 
the  world  has  seen,  during  the  later  years  of  the  Roman 
republic  and  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  empire.  When 
the  rural  inhabitants  of  Italy  lost  the  land  which  they  had 
cultivated,  because  great  laniUords  absorbed  the  small /jcip- 
dia  of  their  neighbors,  they  at  once  became  dependent  for 
support  either  on  the  rich,  as  clients,  or  on  the  public.  It 
was  to  sup])ly  the  needs  of  this  class  that  the  leges  fruinen- 
turiw  (corn-laws)  were  passed,  at  first  cheaiiening  the  price 
of  grain,  and  afterward  providing  for  its  distribution  from 
the  [lublic  granaries  among  the  free-born  poor  of  Rome 
and  the  provinces.  Tliese  corn-laws  were  in  fact  poor-laws, 
and  they  laid  the  foundation  of  a  pauper  system  of  great 
extent,  and  very  demondizing  in  its  influence,  which  pre- 
vailed fmni  the  time  of  Sulla  through  the  flourishing  period 
of  the  empire.  It  is  said  that  in  the  reign  of  the  Antonines 
500,000  persons  received  this  donation  from  the  public — a 


proportion'  to  the  whole  estimated  population  much  larger 
than  lias  usually  prevailed  under  the  pauper  systems  of 
Great  Britain,  France,  or  the  U.  S. 

The  pagan  times  give  many  examples  of  charity,  and  after 
Christianity  began  to  influence  the  world  the  better  adher- 
ents of  the  old  religion  exalted  charity,  both  public  and  pri- 
vate, in  emulation  of  the  Christian  practice.  Cicero  {De 
Legibus,  xiv.)  had  proclaimed  philanthropy  as  the  basis 
of  justice,  and  the  Emperor  Julian,  following  Cicero,  re- 
garded charity  as  the  most  sacred  of  duties.  Similar  senti- 
ments were  expressed  by  Plato,  Xenophon,  Seneca,  and 
other  ancient  writers,  whose  works  prove  that  the  distribu- 
tion of  alms  and  the  relief  of  the  infirm  and  invalid  were 
virtues  well  recognized  by  the  followers  of  the  older  re- 
ligions, but  it  was  left  for  Christianity  to  make  them  its 
basis  and  rule.  The  introduction  of  Christianity  may  have 
checked  in  some  degree  the  growth  of  pauperism  in  its 
Roman  form,  but  the  establishment  of  monasteries  and  re- 
ligious houses,  and  even  of  churches,  increased  the  number 
of  persons  who  lived  by  begging  ;  and  vagrancy  and  men- 
dicity were  everywhere  common  when  the  legislation  of 
Western  Europe  first  began  to  take  notice  of  the  growing 
evil.  The  first  poor-laws  of  England  and  France  were  de- 
crees or  statutes  against  vagrancy  and  mendicancy;  and 
when  at  the  Reformation  many  monasteries  were  broken  up, 
and  the  administration  of  the  church  funds  in  the  parishes 
was  changed,  a  gi'cat  number  of  paupers  who  had  been  re- 
lieved by  the  clergy  or  their  servants  were  thrown  upon  the 
civil  authorities  for  support,  restraint,  or  relief.  Economical 
changes  going  on  at  the  same  time  in  the  century  from  1520 
to  1620  caused  the  number  of  poor  people  in  England  to  in- 
crease greatly.  Hence  the  increasing  frecjuency  of  poor-law 
legislation  in  England  from  1540  to  1601,  when  the  famous 
statute  (43  Elizabeth)  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  jjauper 
system  both  in  England  and  tlie  V.  S.  was  enacted.  An  at- 
tempt had  been  made  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Richard  II. 
to  repress  vagrancy  by  severe  statutes,  and  a  law  of  Henry 
VII.  sent  beggars  not  able  to  work  back  to  the  parish  of 
their  last  residence.  The  able-bodied  beggar  had  been 
treated  as  a  criminal  much  earlier,  and  in  1531  the  law  re- 
quired him  to  be  whipped  and  sent  back  to  his  birthplace. 
A  few  years  later  the  local  oflicers  of  each  parish  were  re- 
quired to  support  poor  and  vagrant  persons,  at  the  same 
time  compelling  them  to  labor ;  while  almsgiving  on  the 
street  or  at  the  house-door  was  forbidden,  on  pain  of  forfeit- 
ing ten  times  the  amount  given.  A  "sturdy  beggar"  was 
to  be  whipped  for  the  first  offense,  for  the  second  his  right 
ear  was  to  be  cropped,  and  for  the  third  he  was  to  be  sent 
to  jail,  and  if  convicted,  to  suffer  death,  but  legislation 
grew  gradually  milder  against  this  evil  from  the  experience 
gained  that  severe  penalties  did  not  diminish  it.  Ivicenses 
were  now  permitted  for  beggars  on  condition  that  they 
begged  only  in  their  own  parish  and  for  food  alone,  and  in 
the  manner  directed  by  the  churchwardens  and  overseers. 
In  the  time  of  Charles  II.  the  more  modern  condition  of  set- 
tled pauperism  had  begun  to  take  the  place  of  mendicant 
vagrancy.  The  poor-law  of  Elizabeth  did  indeed  succeed 
in  diminishing  mendicancy,  but  it  again  appeared  in  alarm- 
ing proportions. 

Legislation  in  Fi'ance  was  quite  as  severe  as  in  England 
against  vagrancy,  and  the  result  was  much  the  same.  \\'hen 
the  cruel  French  laws,  enacted  before  1550,  failed  to  check 
vagrancy  and  begging,  the  authorities,  gradually  discover- 
ing how  useless  such  legislation  was,  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury made  trial  of  more  humane  methods  of  repression.  In 
1627  the  law  i-equired  beggars  to  be  forced  into  the  service 
of  commercial  companies  or  into  the  French  naval  service, 
and  to  embark  for  the  Indies.  At  the  same  time  there  were 
ordered  to  be  founded  in  the  different  provinces  "  hospital 
workshops"  or  workhouses,  which  were  the  beginnings  of 
the  French  system  of  "depots  of  mendicity."  Again,  in 
1688,  an  ordinance  was  passed  expelling  every  pau|)er  and 
beggar  from  Paris,  under  penalty  of  being  sent  to  the  gal- 
leys. Xothing.  however,  seemed  to  check  mendicity  in 
France,  ami  in  1698  it  was  calculated  that  one-tenth  of  the 
whole  population  of  the  country  was  reduced  to  beggary. 
In  the  eighteenth  century,  although  the  progress  of  nuinu- 
facturing,  industry,  and  commerce  checked  the  evil,  yet  in 
1790  a  decree  was  passed  ordering  the  opening  of  workshops 
for  able-liodied  beggars.  The  poor  who  were  impotent  or 
sickly  were  to  be  sent  to  tlie  hospitals,  and  strangers  to  the 
kingdom  were  to  be  expelled.  Another  law  organized  work- 
houses and  almshouses  for  ordinary  beggars,  while  those 
were  sentenced  to  transportation  who  persisted  in  begging 


PAUPERISM 


487 


after  their  punishment,  or  who  committed  other  offenses. 
Under  the  Fii-st  Empire  the  princijih!  seems  to  have  l)een 
recognized  that  before  puuishin;:;  mendicity  as  an  oll'ense 
work  must  be  offered.  A  decree  of  1808  ordered  that  a 
workhouse  or  "depot  of  mendicity"  be  establislied  in  every 
department.  In  four  yeare  eighty  of  tliese  were  fouiuled. 
Many  complaints  against  tliem,  liowever,  arose  on  account 
of  their  hirge  expenditures  and  tlieir  industrial  competition 
with  non-pauper  hiborcrs.  It  was  hojied  liuit  tlu-se  estab- 
lishments woidd  nearly  support  themselves  by  the  labor  of 
the  inmates,  but  this  proved  illusory,  aiul  they  gradually 
became  refuges  of  incurables.  Under  the  Restoration  they 
were  nearly  all  suppressed,  and  at  present  there  are  very 
few  "depots  of  mendicity  "  in  France.  Several  worksho] is 
were  substituted  for  the  "depots,"  and  some  provinces 
founded  houses  of  refuge  for  beggars,  but  none  of  these  suc- 
ceeded. Thus  during  five  centuries  every  species  of  peii- 
ulty  and  punishment  has  been  tried  in  vain  in  France  to 
suppress  mendicity.  Humane  legislation  lias  beei\  equally 
a  failure,  and  the  sum  of  experience  in  that  country  is  that 
all  legal  means  fail  to  reach  this  great  evil. 

J'uor-liiic.'i  and  Faitperism  in  France. — The  English  poor- 
law  of  (^ueen  Elizabeth  has  never  been  formally  introduced 
in  France,  but  pauperism  has  long  existed  there,  and  has 
been  met  by  a  system  of  public  relief,  somewhat  different 
from  the  I'higlish  "  workhouse  test."  An  eminent  French 
economist,  Emil  Levasseur,  in  his  great  work  on  Pupidatiun 
(finished  in  1892),  has  much  to  say  of  public  charity  in 
France.  Malthus,  in  1818,  declared  that  the  division  of 
landed  property  whi(Oi  took  ]}lace  in  France  at  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  was  further  promoted  by  the  laws  of  inheritance 
then  adopted,  would  turn  France  into  a  rabbit-warren  of 
paupers.  Instead  of  verifying  this  prediction,  Levasseur 
sliows  that  pauperism  is  proportiomitcly  much  less  under 
the  third  republic  than  under  the  first.  The  statistics  cited 
by  him  are  confessedly  imperfect,  but  they  establish  this 
fact  beyond  donl)t.  Since  1850  France  has  had  a  much 
smaller  percentage  of  |)aupers  in  its  population  than  Eng- 
lanil,  liut  more  than  Germany,  with  the  exception  of  Prus- 
sia, in  which  pauperism  seems  to  have  been  greater  before 
the  FraruH)-(ierman  war  than  in  France.  After  an  exauu- 
nation  of  the  statistics  of  pauperism,  Levasseur  concludes : 
"It  can  not  be  argued  that  pauperism  has  increased  in  Paris 
during  the  last  hundred  years;  the  contrary  is  true.  The 
growth  of  population,  the  increasing  emigration  from  coun- 
try to  city,  the  attractive  force  of  a  great  city  on  the  pauper 
chiss,  have  not.  as  some  writers  conjectured,  resulted  in  the 
aggravation  of  pauiierism."  lie  calls  attention,  however,  to 
what  has  been  miticed  in  all  other  cities  and  countries  since 
17U1,  adding:  "What  has  increased  is  the  cost  of  relieving 
the  poor.  In  1804  the  revenue  accruing  to  hospitals,  in- 
firmaries, c:harity  biu'eaus,  and  the  support  of  foundlings 
was  less  than  8.500,000  francs  in  Paris  :  bid.  in  1887  the  i)ub- 
lic  charities  of  the  city  expended  52,058,000  francs.  The 
increase  of  weallh  has  allowed  Paris  to  furnish  more  ellica- 
cious  relief,  to  take  care  of  the  sick  poor  in  their  homes,  to 
procure  for  them  greater  comforts  in  the  hospitals,  to  estab- 
lish sanitary  measures  which  have  decreased  the  death-rate, 
to  watch  with  more  solicitude  over  the  education  of  neg- 
lected children,  to  ameliorate  the  management  of  infirma- 
ries, and  to  give  an  easier  existence  to  old  people  an<! 
chronic  invalids."  An  earlier  French  writer,  liaron,  who 
in  1882  published  an  elaborate  work  on  French  jiauper- 
ism  {Le  Pan  pen  time,  ses  fanxefi  ef  sex  Rcnu'ilcs),  lays  great 
stress  on  imliicing  tln^  workingmen  to  practice  life-insur- 
ance, deposit  in  savings-banks,  and  in  other  ways  raise 
themselves  above  the  common  level  of  poverty,  from  which 
he  says  it  is  but  a  step,  in  illness,  ohl  age,  or  vice,  to  the 
gulf  of  pauperism.  Since  then,  in  France,  as  well  as  in 
(ireat  Britain,  an  agitation  has  begun  in  favor  of  giving  to 
old  people  pensions  drawn  from  a  fund  provideil  either  by 
taxatinn  i>r  vuluntary  contribution,  anil  adnunistered  by 
the  (iovcrinnent.  The  cost  of  public  charity  has  iucrefiseil, 
especially  in  France,  where  the  poor-law  expenditure  of 
cities  greatly  exceeds  that  of  rural  districts  in  France. 
Concerning  the  latter  Levasseur  says:  "Wealth  in  general 
is  less  in  the  country  than  in  the  cities  and  large  towns, 
but,  in  return,  poverty  also  is  less  felt  there,  and  jiauperism, 
strictly  speaking,  rarely  occurs  in  small  country  di.-l rids. 
Public  relief  is  also  much  less  aliumlant  in  such  ]ilaces; 
only  aliout  a  thiril  of  the  communes  in  France  with  less 
than  5011  ]H'ople  keep  up  a  charity  bureau,  while  this  form 
of  relief  exists  in  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  communes 
which  have  1,000  people  or  more." 


France  practically  has  a  poor-law,  and  recognizes  the 
duty  of  pul)lic  aid,  although  it  has  never  been  carried  so 
far,  nor  with  such  injurious  results,  as  the  poor-law  system 
of  England.  In  fact,  the  French  system  closely  resembles 
in  many  particulars  that  which  has  grown  up  naturally  and 
almost  uiuversally  in  the  U.  S.  The  first  steji  in  this  sy.stem 
is  the  creation  of  a  local  board,  called  in  France  a  charity 
bureau  (bureau  de  bienfaisance)  and  in  the  U.  .S.  a  board  of 
overseers,  guardians,  supervisors,  <'tc.,  according  to  the  u.suge 
in  dilTerent  parts  of  the  country,  'i'liese  boards,  both  in 
France  and  the  U.  S.,  first  distribute  "  family  aid  "  (seciiurs  d, 
domicile),  whicli  is  what  the  English  lather  absurdly  have 
termed  "outdoor  relief."  They  mean  relief  given  outside  the 
workhouse  door — it  having  lieen  a  theory  at  one  time  in  Eng- 
land that  all  the  public  poor,  with  a  few  exceptions,  could  be 
thrust  into  workhuuses,  tmt  experience,  in  the  British  islands 
as  well  as  in  France,  has  shown  that  this  t  henry  is  initoundeil. 
Extending  his  observation  from  I'aris  to  France  as  a  whole, 
Levasseur  says  that  incresuse  of  wealth  has  not  aggravated 
pauperism  in  that  country,  although  the  cost  of  relieving  the 
poor  is  so  much  greater  than  formerly.  This  is  true  in 
Great  Britain,  in  the  U.  S.,  and  in  all  civilized  countries. 
Thus  in  (ireat  Britain,  where  the  cost  in  1847  was  only 
about  §;!IUIO0,000.  it  is  now  (1804)  considerably  above  .*40,- 
000,000,  although  the  number  of  paupers  is  actually  less 
than  in  1847.  Mr.  Gosehen,  when  president  of  what  is  now 
the  Local  Government  Board,  sai<l  in  1870:  "It  can  not  be 
denied  that  the  more  humane  views  which  have  prevailed 
during  the  last  few  years  as  to  the  treatment  of  the  sick 
poor  have  added  most  nuiteriidly  to  the  (loor-law  expendi- 
tures. Workhouses,  designed  originally  mainly  as  a  test  for 
the  able-bodied,  have,  especially  in  the  large  towns,  been  of 
necessity  gradually  transferred  into  inlii'maries  for  the  sick  ; 
and  the  higlier  standard  for  hos]iital  accommodations  has 
had  a  material  effect  upon  the  expenditures."  The  process 
here  mentioned  has  been  going  on  more  rapidly  in  Great 
Britain,  in  France,  in  Germany,  and  in  the  U.  S.  since  1870 
than  before  ;  but  previous  to  188li  it  had  shown  itself  abun- 
dant Iv  in  France.  In  1800  France  expended  less  than  05,- 
0011.01)0  francs  in  jiublic  charity;  in  1833  170,000,(M10  ;  and 
since  the  latter  date  the  cost  of  public  charities  has  greatly 
increased.  It  is  impossible  to  obtain  in  France  such  accu- 
rate returns  of  the  poor  as  in  England,  w'here  the  paupers  are 
counted  twice  a  year ;  but  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  number  of  paupers  is  now  less,  in  proportion  to  the 
whole  population,  than  it  was  in  1887.  Tliis  is  also  true  in 
England  and  Wales,  where  there  has  been  a  noticeable  de- 
crea.se  both  in  indoor  and  outdoor  relief  since  1870,  and 
still  more  since  1845.  when  pauperism  was  about  at  its  maxi- 
mum. In  1870  the  uumlier  rejiorted  in  a  given  day  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  both  indoor  and  outdoor,  was  l,047.()('i2.  but 
four  years  later  it  w,as  only  784.000,  and  in  1804,  although 
the  whole  pojHilation  had  increase<l  to  30.000,000.  the  |iau- 
pers  enumerated  on  a  given  day  were  less  than  840.000.  The 
U.  S.  census  of  1800,  though  far  from  accurate,  indicates 
the  same  diminution  of  pauperism  when  compared  with 
the  whoh-  population  of  the  re]mblic. 

Indoor  and  Outdoor  Belief. — This  decrease  of  the  public 
poor  in  England  and  Wales  is  due  in  part  to  the  cutting  off 
of  "outdoor  relief."  ]\lauy  British  authorities  attribute  the 
pauperism  now  existing  in  the  I'nited  Kingdom  to  the  out- 
door relief  granted  there  still,  and  some  holil  that  if  out- 
door relief  were  entirely  cut  off  there  woidd  bi>  a  marviOous 
diminution  of  pauperism.  This  is  a  theoretical  view  which 
facts  do  not  wholly  sustain.  The  system  followed  in  the 
U.  S.  is  to  mingle  outdoor  and  indoor  relief,  since  both  are 
needful  and  their  conjoint  use  is  more  judicious  than  the 
absolute  exclusion  of  cither.  It  often  haiipens  that  a  little 
relief  given  in  a  small  community  will  keeji  a  family  from 
absolute  dependence,  while  residence  in  an  almshouse  de- 
grades and  pauperizes,  (lutiloor  relief  in  large  communi- 
ties bv  ]iulplie  authorities  is,  however,  dangerous,  because  it 
is  especially  liable  to  misuse  through  want  of  vigilance  or  as 
a  means  of  bribery  or  corruption.  The  principles  which 
should  govern  almsgiving  may  be  summed  up  in  the  words 
of  Malthus:  "It  is  in  the  highest  degree  imiiorlant  to  the 
general  happiness  of  the  poor  that  no  man  shi>uld  look  to 
charily  as  a  fund  on  which  he  may  confidently  depend." 
The  ajijilication  of  this  re(|uires  that  outdoor  relief  sliould 
in  no  case  be  given  to  able-bodied  men:  thai  in  cities  it 
should  be  left  as  far  as  possible  to  organized  private  charity, 
lest  the  poor  fall  into  the  habit  of  believing  in  a  right  to 
relief  at  the  hands  of  the  public  authorities:  and  that  where 
given  it  should  be  bestowed  in  such  a  manner  and  under 


488 


PAUPERISM 


PAUSANIAS 


such  conditions  as  would  tend  to  prevent  future  pauperism. 
The  "  workhouse  test,"  however,  to  which  JIalthus  was 
firmly  attached,  will  not  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  case  in 
Britain  or  anywhere  else.  Tlie  old-fashioned  workhouse 
has  been  expanded  since  Malthus  wrote,  so  that  its  door, 
originally  but  one,  has  become  the  manifold  doors  of  infirm- 
ary, hospital,  school  for  paupers,  asylums  for  the  blind,  for 
the  idiot,  and  for  the  insane,  schools  for  the  deaf,  etc,  "  In- 
door relief  "  now  includes,  or  should  include,  support  by  the 
public  in  all  establishments  for  the  poor  and  suffering ; 
while  "outdoor  relief"  means  "household  aid"  to  those 
persons — much  the  larger  nuraljer — who  do  not  need  the  re- 
straint or  the  special  care  of  a  public  establishment,  whether 
asylum,  hospital,  poorhouse,  or  by  whatever  other  name. 
One  reason  why  family  aid  has  been  carried,  especially  in 
cities,  so  far  as  to  prove  an  abuse,  was  the  desire  to  prevent 
the  breaking-up  of  families,  the  corruption  of  the  young, 
and  the  unspeakable  distress  of  the  old  and  virtuous  by 
throwing  them  into  forced  association  with  the  dregs  of 
mankind  in  a  so-called  charitable  establishment.  This 
same  desire  counts  for  much  in  the  present  movement  to 
pension  the  aged  poor,  which  Charles  Booth  and  other  Eng- 
lish writers  strongly  support,  and  which  has  already  pro- 
duced a  pension-law,  guarded  by  many  restrictions,  for 
the  aged  poor  of  Denmark.  If  experience  can  teach  any- 
thing it  is  that  both  indoor  relief  and  family  aid  (outdoor 
relief)  properly  practiced  are  indispensable  in  any  com- 
plete system  of  public  charity.  Where  to  draw  the  line 
in  individual  cases  is  a  matter  only  to  be  determined  by 
the  wise  discretion  of  the  poor-law  officers.  Indoor  relief 
will  generally  be  found  more  costly  in  proportion  to  tlie 
number  relieved  than  family  aid  :  and  it  will  also,  in  gen- 
eral, apply  to  a  much  smaller  number  of  cases,  but  so  far  as 
it  can  be  rationally  and  humanely  used  it  should  be  made 
to  cover  as  many  cases  as  possible.  Family  aid,  on  the 
other  hand,  should  be  restricted  as  much  as  possible,  except 
for  classes  of  the  poor  to  whom  indoor  relief  is  (presently  or 
prospectively)  likely  to  be  injurious.  The  public  generally 
prefer,  for  reasons  of  sentiment  and  oftentimes  of  good 
sense,  the  use  of  "  family  aid  "  rather  than  the  separation  of 
households  and  the  sequestration  of  persons  in  great  estab- 
lishments where  individuality  is  lost  in  the  mass. 

Pauperism  in  the  United  States. — The  national  census 
chiefly  takes  account  of  the  indoor  poor  of  the  U.  S.,  but  by 
no  means  includes  them  all  in  its  tabulations,  while  it 
omits  almost  entirely  the  much  more  numerous  class  of  the 
outdoor  poor.  The  census  of  1890  exhibits  as  the  aggregate 
of  paupers ^in  almshouses  in  the  whole  republic  73,045  ;  and 
this  is  probably  less  than  10,000  short  of  the  actual  number 
at  any  one  time  in  1890,  which  may  be  estimated  at  80,000. 
The  outdoor  poor,  which  the  census  sets  down  as  only  25,- 
000,  were  in  fact,  upon  careful  estimates  based  on  State  re- 
turns, not  less  than  250,000  at  any  one  date — that  is,  the 
average  number.  If  we  add  to  the  almshouse  poor  the 
number  of  the  insane  poor  suiiported  by  the  public  in  hos- 
pitals, asylums,  etc.,  which  may  be  estimated  at  30,000,  and 
other  classes  of  the  indoor  poor  who  are  supported  in  estab- 
lishments other  than  poorhouses  and  asylums  for  the  insane, 
we  shall  probably  find  the  whole  number  of  the  indoor  poor 
of  the  U.  S.  rising  toward  150,000,  Assuming  these  esti- 
mates to  be  approxinuitely  correct,  we  should  then  have 
400.000  as  tlie  constant  or  average  number  of  paupers  in  a 
population  of  a  little  less  than  63,000,000.  At  this  rate  the 
number  of  English  paupers  at  any  given  date  should  be  less 
than  200,000,  for  the  population  of  England  and  Wales  is 
less  than  half  that  of  the  U.  S.  The  actual  number  of  the 
English  paupei-s  in  1894  exceeded  800.000.  so  that,  viewed  in 
this  proportion  alone,  pauperism  is  more  than  three  times 
as  common  in  England  as  in  the  U.  S.  There  is,  however, 
another  consideration  affecting  this  problem.  How  many 
paupers  iti  the  course  of  a  year  are  represented  bv  the  single 
pauper  who  appears  in  the  aggregate  average  nuiiiber  i  Mr. 
Charles  Booth,  the  most  accurate  calculator  on  this  element 
of  the  question,  finds  that  in  England  the  total  of  pauper- 
ism during  the  year  is  to  the  average  number  as  two  and  a 
half  is  to  one.  In  the  U.  S.  this  proportion  is  no  doubt 
smaller. 

Settlement  Laws  and  Poor-law  Si/stems.— la  the  fiftv 
States  and  Territories  of  the  U.  S.  the  poor-laws,  including 
laws  for  t  he  "  settlement  "  or  definite  fixing  of  the  pauper  in 
a  giv(!n  locality,  vary  so  nuieh  t  hat  no  general  statetneut  can 
well  be  made.  A  poor-law  may  be  said  to  exist  almost  cverv- 
where  in  the  U.  S. — that  is.' the  localities  are  everywhere 
expected  to  support  their  own   poor  by  taxation  ;  but  the 


preva;lence  of  the  county  system  in  many  States,  of  the  town- 
ship system  in  others,  and  of  a  combination  of  township, 
county,  and  State  systems  in  some  localities,  makes  it  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  say  what  usages  prevail  in  the  republic 
as  a  whole.  In  the  older  Atlantic  States  the  law  of  pauper 
settlement  is  derived  from  the  English  statutes  of  Charles 
II.  and  earlier  reigns  ;  yet  the  American  laws  all  differ  ma- 
terially from  the  English  statutes,  and  were  never  precisely 
the  same,  even  in  the  provincial  period.  The  period  requi- 
site for  gaining  a  paujier  settlement  varies  from  one  year  to 
ten,  or  even  more  under  some  circumstances;  but  mere  resi- 
dence does  not  always  confer  this  right  without  the  pay- 
ment of  taxes  or  some  other  qualification.  JIarriage  with 
a  person  who  has  a  pauper  settlement  generally  carries  set- 
tlement with  it  for  the  wife  and  children  ;  legitimate  chil- 
dren follow  the  settlement  of  the  father,  if  any,  otherwise  of 
the  mother;  illegitiumte  children  follow  the" settlement  of 
the  mother  ;  and  this  provision  applies  to  women  who  have 
married  a  husband  insufficiently  divorced  from  a  former 
wife.  The  complications  which  may  arise  from  the  article 
of  marriage  alone  are  numerous,  and"  the  whole  body  of  set- 
tlement laws  has  given  room  for  infinite  litigation  between 
towns,  counties,  and  States;  but  an  incidental  advantage, 
springing  even  from  obscure  and  complex  i)auper  laws,  has 
appeared  in  New  England,  and  particularly  in  Massachu- 
setts, where  these  laws  have  less  simplicity,  perhaps,  than 
anywhere  else.  Their  very  complexity  requires  the  official 
who  acts  under  them  to  investigate  every  ease  of  poverty 
brought  to  his  notice,  and  in  this  way  the  condition  of  fami- 
lies, the  existence  of  kindred,  the  nature  of  maladies,  and 
all  the  numerous  circumstances  needing  to  be  investigated 
are  brought  under  examination.  The  formation  in  nearly 
a  hundred  cities  of  the  U.  S.,  since  1870,  of  charity  organi- 
zation societies  (see  Charity  Organization),  has  also  pro- 
moted these  inquiries  into  the  state  of  the  poor — guard- 
ing against  much  imposture,  and  bringing  those  truly  in 
need  under  the  eye  of  public  or  private  charity.  An  im- 
portant question  arising  under  the  immigration  laws  of  the 
U.  S.  concerns  "  interstate  migration,"  a  subject  which 
was  brought  before  the  national  conference  of  charities  in 
Denver,  June  28,  1892.  This  national  body,  after  hearing 
a  report  on  the  question,  passed  a  resolution  to  memorialize 
Congress  for  the  regulation  by  national  authority  of  the 
migration  of  poor,  vagrant,  insane,  diseased,  and  criminal 
persons  from  one  State  to  another.  Such  an  exercise  of  the 
Federal  authoi-ity,  it  was  thought,  would  lead  to  a  more 
systematic  code  of  laws  and  a  more  uniform  administratioBf 
of  public  charity  throughout  the  U.  S.  and  would  inciden- 
tally promote  the  collection  of  more  exact  statistics  of  pau- 
perism. F.  B.  Sanborn. 

Paiirop'ida ;  name  applied  to  a  group  of  Myriapoda 
(q.  v.),  containing  a  few  minute  species,  formerly  placed  be- 
tween the  Chilopods  and  Chilognaths,  but  shown  by  the  re- 
searches of  Schmidt  (Zoologischer  Anzeiger,  1894)  to  be  de- 
generate members  of  the  Chilognathous  group.  The  genera 
Pauropus  and  Eurypauropus  occur  in  the  U.  S. 

Pansa'nias  (in  Gr.  nauaavias):  the  Periegete  or  "con- 
ductor." of  JIagnesia  in  Asia  Minor,  who  wrote  toward  the 
close  of  the  second  century  a.  d.  a  Guide  to  Greece  {nepi-fiyTiorts 
rijs  'EWdSos)  in  ten  books.  In  this  work,  which  is  beyond 
price  for  archaeology  and  mythology,  especial  attention  is 
paid  to  monmnents  of  art,  in  which  the  writers  of  the  tireek 
Renaissance  took  great  interest.  The  preference  shown  for 
temples  and  votive  offerings  is  also  explicable  from  the  tend- 
encies of  the  century.  Pausanias  doubtless  compiled  his 
manual  from  earlier  guides,  among  whom  Polemon  {q.  v.), 
150  B.  c,  is  conspicuous  ;  but  this  does  not  exclude  personal 
vision  any  more  than  the  free  use  of  an  old  Murray  or  Baede- 
ker would  do  to-day,  and  the  absence  of  allusion  to  the  great 
monuments  of  the  period  in  which  the  compiler  lived  is  of  a 
piece  with  the  antiipiarian  unreality  of  the  age.  The  work 
has  been  edited  by  Siebelis(5  vols..  Leipzig,  1822);  Schubart 
and  Walz  (Leipzig,  1838 ;  English  translation  by  Thomas 
Taylor,  3  vols.,  London,  1793-94);  and  by  Shilletoin  Bc;hn's 
Library  (2  vols.,  1880).  See  also  Kalkmimn.  Pausanias  der 
Perieget  (Berlin,  1886),  and  Gurlitt,  Pausanias  (Gratz,  1890). 

B.  L.  GiLDEKSLEEVE. 

Pausanias :  a  son  of  Cleorabrotus  and  regent  of  Sparta 
during  the  minority  of  his  cousin,  Plistarchus,  the  son  of 
Leonidas  ;  commanded  the  confederate  Greeks  at  Platiese 
479  B.  c.  and  acliieved  several  brilliant  victories  during 
the  following  years;  but,  elated  by  these  successes  and  led 
astray  by  an  exorbitant  ambition  and  vanity,  he  entered 


PAUW 


PAVEMEXTS 


489 


into  treasonous  nogotiations  with  the  Persians.  He  de- 
sired to  bring  tlie  whole  of  Greece  under  his  sway,  and  he 
hoped  to  realize  this  plan  by  the  aid  of  Xerxes,  which  he 
proposed  to  buy  by  placing  liis  future  kingdom  under  Per- 
sian authority.  Meanwhile  he  assumed  Persian  dres.^  sur- 
rounded himself  with  a  budy-guurd  of  Persian  and  Egyptian 
ti<)op.s,  and  introduced  Persian  ceremony  and  Oriental  lux- 
ury in  his  liousehold.  The  Athenians  denounced  him  and 
tlie  .Spartans  suspected  him.  Twice  he  was  recalled  from 
tlie  army  and  arraigned  before  the  ephors,  but  no  proofs 
could  be  presi'nted  and  he  was  acquitted.  He  continued 
the  negotiations  with  Xerxes. and  even  began  to  formacon- 
spiracy  with  the  llelnts.  At  last  a  letter  from  him  to  Xer- 
xes was  delivered  over  to  the  ephors  by  the  slave  intrusted 
to  carry  it  to  t he  Persian  camp,  and  when  he  learned  that 
his  treason  was  discovered  and  his  plan  frustrated,  he  took 
refuge  in  the  temple  of  Athene  C'halcicecus,  where  the  people 
shut  up  the  entrance  by  a  pile  of  stones,  to  which  his  own 
mother  carried  the  first,  and  he  died  of  hunger  about  4()8 
B.  c. — His  grand.son  Pausa.nias  was  King  of  ,S|iarta  from  444 
to  3i)4,  when  he  lied  the  country  to  escape  condemnation  to 
death  for  treason.  He  died  in  Tegca  in  38.5  ii.  c.  The  mur- 
derer of  Philip.  King  of  Macedonia,  was  still  another  person 
of  the  same  name.  Revised  by  J.  11.  S.  Sterrett. 

Panw.  pijw,  CoKXELis,  or  Corxelr'S,  de  :  author ;  b.  at 
Amsterdam,  ITS).  He  was  educated  at  Gottingen;  entered 
the  Franciscan  order;  became  canon  of  Xanten.  near  Cleves, 
and  for  a  time  represented  the  Bishop  of  Liege,  at  Berlin  ; 
but  most  of  his  life  was  spent  in  literary  labors.  Like  his 
celebrated  nephew,  Anacharsis  C'lootz,  lie  was  very  eccen- 
tric, and  he  was  insane  before  his  death.  I)e  Pauw's  writ- 
ings were  intended  to  explode  the  sentimental  theories  then 
in  vogue  respecting  the  American  Indians  and  the  Orient- 
als ;  they  show  much  research,  and  their  spirit  of  criticism 
was  valuable,  though  unduly  vifilent,  resulting  in  hot  con- 
troversies. The  principal  ones  are  lifchercln'S  Philuso- 
phiqiies  siir  leK  Americauin  (Berlin,  1768-69  ;  translated 
into  English),  and  similar  works  on  the  Egyptians  and  Chi- 
nese (l'i"i'4),  and  on  the  Greeks  (1788) ;  collected  edition  1795. 
D.  at  Xanten,  July  7,  1799.  Herbert  II.  Smith. 

Pavpineilts :  coverings  of  wood,  stone,  brick,  or  asphalt, 
laid  firmly  on  a  street  in  order  to  give  a  smooth  and  con- 
venient surface  for  travel.  The  coverings  of  gravel  and 
broken  stone  used  for  macadam  roads  in  country  and  subur- 
ban districts,  and  also  in  small  towns,  are  described  under 
RoAiis,  while  this  article  deals  with  the  pavements  for  streets 
in  larger  towns  and  cities;  such  road  surfaces, although  well 
adapted  to  park  drives,  become  so  covered  with  mud  and  dust 
under  the  wear  of  heavy  traffic,  and  require  such  a  heavy 
expense  for  maintenance  and  renewal,  that  they  can  not  be 
used,  in  the  thickly  settled  parts  of  cities.  A  street  pave- 
ment should  be  durable,  be  readily  cleaned  and  kept  in  re- 
pair, give  a  secure  foothold  for  animals  and  easy  traction, 
not  become  sli[)pery  from  use,  and  be  as  noiseless  as  ]3ossible. 
It  should  also  be  of  such  material  an<i  construction  that  the 
original  cost  plus  the  expense  of  maintenance  may  be  a 
minimum. 

Foundation. — A  good  foundation  is  essential  for  the  sta- 
bility of  a  street  pavement.  The  most  common  foundation  is 
sand  or  gravel,  laid  in  a  thickness  of  from  I!  to  6  inches  upon 
a  sub-grade  surface,  which  is  made  nearly  parallel  to  that  of 
the  pavement  itself.  Coblilestones  set  firmly  in  sand  or 
gravel,  rubblestones  set  on  edge  in  contact,  an<l  ruliblestones 
set  on  edge  but  not  in  contact  with  the  voids  filled  with  con- 
crete, are  also  used.  The  best  foundation  is  one  of  hydraulic 
concrete,  6  or  8  inches  in  thickness,  but  this  is  the  most  ex- 
pensive, its  cost  being  about  $1..50  per  square  yard  of  surface. 
The  surface  of  an  old  road  sometimes  makes  a  good  founda- 
tion for  a  new  pavement;  for  instance,  in  Brooklyn,  X.  Y.. 
asphalt  pavements  have  been  laid  on  top  of  old  cobble  pave- 
ments, atid  in  New  York  an  asphalt  pavement  was  laid  in 
1892  on  the  old  macadam  surface  of  the  Boulevanl. 

Woodfn  Pavemenlfi. — The  cheapest  wooden  pavement  is 
made  of  round  blocks  sawed  from  small  trees  in  lengths  of 
6  inches,  the  diameters  of  the  blocks  ranging  from  2  to  12 
inches.  The  earth  is  first  excavated  to  the  curve  of  the 
finished  pavement  and  2  or  'A  inches  of  sand  laid ;  on  this 
boards  are  placed  which  are  covered  with  hot  coal-tar.  The 
blocks  are  then  set  on  end  in  contact,  the  interstices  filled 
with  sand,  the  surface  coated  with  hot  tar.  and  covered  with 
a  thin  layer  of  saiui.  The  cost  of  such  a  pavement  is  about 
^1.2.5  per  square  yard,  and  for  a  year  or  two  it  gives  good 
satisfiiction,  being  smooth,  clean,  and  noiseless;  it  then  be- 


gins to  wear  in  ruts,  and  also  to  decay  rapidly,  so  that  re- 
newal is  necessary  in  a  few  years.  The  best  wooden  pave- 
ment is  composed  of  rectangular  blocks,  3  to  4  inches  in 
width,  6  to  14  inches  in  length,  and  6  inches  deep,  which  are 
laid  in  courses  across  the  street  witli  an  open  joint  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  wide  between  the  courses.  This  is  also 
laid  on  a  foundation  of  sand  covereil  with  boards,  and  the 
open  joints  are  filled  with  coal-tar  and  gravel.  The  wooden 
blocks  should  be  creosoted  to  prevent  decay.  There  are 
many  patented  details  of  construction  in  wooden  jiave- 
nients,  tnit  experience  indicates  that  none  of  them  secures 
durability  and  economy.  The  rapid  wear  and  ticcay  ne- 
cessitates a  heavy  expense  for  renewals;  the  odor  arising 
from  the  noxious  liquids,  held  in  absorption  by  the  wood  or 
retained  in  the  joints  between  the  lilocks,  is  sometimes  of- 
fensive ;  and  the  dust  result  ing  from  wear  and  decay  is  often 
found  to  be  injurious  to  health. 

Stone  I'livements. — The  layer  of  cobblestones  formerly  in 
common  use  scarcely  deserved  the  name  of  pavement ;  it  was 
noisy,  rough,  liard  to  clean,  and  unpleasant  for  traffic,  and 
it  can  now  be  said  to  be  almost  entirely  abandoned.  The 
best  stone  [)avements  are  ma<le  of  rectatigular  blocks  set  in 
contact  in  rows  running  across  the  street,  and  resting  on  a 
foundatiiin  of  concrete.  The  Belgian  pavement  is  formed  of 
blocks  nearly  cubical  in  shape,  the  edge  of  the  cube  being 
from  5  to  7  inches  long ;  trap-rock  is  generally  employed  on 
account  of  its  toughness.  The  Guidet  pavement,  which  may 
be  seen  on  Broadway,  in  New  York,  is  forme<l  of  granite 
blocks  from  4  to  5  inches  wide,  10  to  1.5  inches  long,  and  8 
to  10  inches  in  vertical  depth.  The  blocks  are  set  in  close 
contact  on  the  foundation,  over  which  a  layer  of  .sand  is  laid, 
and  are  then  rammed  with  heavy  wooden  rammers.  The 
joints  are  filled  with  sand,  or  sometimes  with  asphalt.  This 
pavement  costs  on  a  sand  foundation  from  .$4  to  $!5  per 
square  yard.  Stone  pavements  are  durable,  and  when  well 
made  require  little  repair.  They  are  oijen  to  the  objection 
that  they  collect  and  retain  the  surface  liquids  between  the 
joints,  and  in  addition  are  noisy.  Where  the  traffic  is  very 
heavy,  however,  stone  seems  to  be  the  most  advantageous 
material  for  a  street  pavement. 

Brick  Pavements. — The  brick  used  for  this  purpose  are 
hard  liurned.  usually  without  being  vitrified,  and  should  be 
of  uniform  hardness  and  low  porosity.  A  foundation  of  sand 
or  gravel  is  first  made  and  compacted  by  rolling,  and  upon 
this  a  course  of  brick  is  laid  upon  the  flat  side.  A  layer  of 
sand  an  inch  thick  is  next  spread,  and  on  this  the  top  course 
of  hardest  and  toughest  bricks  is  laid,  the  bricks  being  set 
on  edge  with  their  longest  dimension  running  across  the 
street.  This  is  covered  with  sand  and  well  rolled  until  the 
[lavement  is  brought  to  the  assigned  form  of  surface.  An- 
other method  of  construction  is  to  omit  the  lower  layer  of 
bricks,  using  tarred  boards  instead,  and  sometimes  the  top 
layer  has  its  courses  laid  diagonally  across  the  streets.  The 
first  successful  brick  pavements  were  those  built  in  Illinois 
and  Ohio  between  187.5  and  1880,  and  they  are  now  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  western  parts  of  the  I'.  S.  With  a  good 
quality  of  brick  and  a  tralBe  not  heavy  good  results  have 
been  obtained,  the  pavement  being  clean,  not  noisy,  durable, 
and  the  trai'tion  being  easy.  With  brittle  or  soft  bricks, 
however,  cracking  and  wearing  into  ruts  occurs.  The  cost 
of  brick  pavements  has  generally  been  between  Sl.,50and 
$2.50  per  srpiare  yard  on  a  sand  foundation,  and  the  con- 
struction of  them  is  constantly  increasing  in  large  towns  and 
smaller  cities  where  the  traffic  is  not  severe. 

Axphall  Pavements. — The  bituminous  limestone  or  as- 
phalt rock  of  Switzerland,  when  heated,  crundiles  into  a 
sandy  powder,  which,  when  spread  on  a  good  foundation  in 
a  sheet  2  or  3  inches  thick  and  compacted  by  ramming  with 
heated  pestles,  makes  an  excellent  road  covering.  The  bitu- 
men from  Trinidad  mixed  with  heated  sand  nuikes  a  com- 
pound closely  resembling  that  derived  from  the  natural  as- 
|ihalt  rock.  It  is  also  used  in  the  form  of  rectangular 
blocks  or  bricks,  which  are  made  under  heavy  [iressure. 
Such  pavements  when  well  made  are  very  durable,  the  wear 
compacting  the  material  instead  of  grinding  it  away.  They 
arc  dustless,  noiseless,  smooth,  and  easy  of  traction,  and  do 
not  absorb  or  retain  noxious  liquids.  It  does  not  become 
slippery  from  continual  wear,  although  in  wet  weather  it 
sometimes  fails  to  give  sufficient  foothold  to  horses.  It  is 
adapted  to  all  streets  except  those  having  steep  grades  and 
those  crowded  with  traffic,  and  its  use  has  become  very  ex- 
tensive in  the  U.  S.,  particularlv  for  residence  street.s.  The 
cost  has  usually  ranged  between  $2.50  and  $4  per  square 
yard  on  a  concrete  foundation. 


490 


PAVIA 


PAWNBROKING 


The  comparative  merits  of  tlie  different  kinds  of  pave- 
ments would  be  differently  estimated,  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  traffic.  For  a  very  heavy  traffic  nothing  but 
stone  blocks  will  prove  satisfactory,  while  for  lighter  traffic 
brick  or  asphalt  may  be  preferred.  Stone  is  the  most  du- 
rable and  wood  the  least,  while  asphalt  and  brick  lie  between 
the  two.  Wood  is  the  cheapest  in  first  cost,  brick  next,  fol- 
lowed by  asphalt,  while  stone  is  the  dearest.  Regarding 
maintenance  and  repairs  probably  asphalt  stands  first,  stone 
second,  and  wood  last.  In  the  important  matter  of  cleanli- 
ness and  hvgienic  considerations  asphalt  stands  first,  brick 
second,  and  stone  third,  while  wood  is  liable  to  many  grave 
objections. 

Statistics.— In  a  paper  read  in  1893  before  the  Commer- 
cial Club  of  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Robert  Gillham  collected 
statistics  of  street-paving  from  fifty-one  principal  cities  of  the 
U.  S.  Stone  pavements  are  divided  into  two  classes — (1) 
dressed  stone  blocks  of  regular  dimensions,  and  (2)  cobble- 
stone, rubblestone,  or  undressed  irregular  blocks.  The  num- 
ber of  miles  of  each  kind  of  pavement  for  different  groups 
of  States  is  given  in  the  following  table  : 


STATES. 

stone. 

StOOB. 

Brick. 

Wood. 

As- 
phalt. 

177 
879 

163 
38 
31 

20 
1,079 

31 

"2 

56 
25 

480 

85 
170 

1 

5 

Middle  and  Central  Stat.-s,  ii  cities. . 
Southern  and  Suuthweslern  States, 
9  cities                                     ... 

323 

60 

29 

Pacific  States,  5  cities 

4 

Totals,  .^1  cities 

1,288 

1,132 

88 

736 

421 

New  York  had  3'21  miles  of  stone  pavement  of  class  (1) 
and  only  3  miles  of  class  (3),  16  miles  of  asphalt,  less  than  1 
mile  of  wood,  and  none  of  brick.  Philadelphia  had  130  and 
491  miles  of  the  two  kinds  of  stone  pavement,  30  miles  of 
brick,  43  of  asphalt,  and  none  of  wood.  Chicago  had  33 
miles  of  stone,  410  of  wood,  9  of  asphalt,  and  less  than  1 
mile  of  brick.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  use  of  brick  for  street- 
paving  is  as  yet  limited  in  comparison  with  other  materials. 
More  than  half  of  all  the  wood  pavement  in  the  U.  S.  is  in 
Chicago.  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  takes  the  lead  in  regard  to  asphalt, 
having  135  miles,  or  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  total, 
while  Washington,  D.  C,  stands  next  with  60  mile.s. 

Planks,  slag  bricks,  and  gravel  concrete  are  used  to  a  very 
limiteil  extent  for  street  pavements.  Granolithic  paving  is 
a  kind  of  artificial  stone,  composed  largely  of  hydraulic  ce- 
ment, which  is  made  in  place ;  the  use  of  this,  however,  is 
mostly  confined  to  sidewalks  and  court-yards.  See  Gill- 
more"s  Roads,  Streets,  and  Pavements  (1876) ;  Love's  Pave- 
ments and  Roads  (1889) ;  and  Byrne's  Highway  Construction 
(1893).  Mansfield  Merriman. 

Pavia.  pifa-veeali  (anc.  Ticimim;  med.  Papia):  city  of 
Northern  Italy  ;  on  the  left  bank  of  t  he  Ticino,  3  miles  above 
its  junction  with  the  Po  ;  31  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Milan,  with 
which  it  is  also  connected  by  a  canal  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
3-C).  Pavia  is  still  for  the  most  part  surrounded  by  walls, 
which  form  a  circuit  of  3^  miles.  It  was  formerly  called  the 
city  of  the  hundred  towers.  It  is  connected  with' the  suburlj 
of  Ticino  by  a  brick-built  covered  bridge  which  dates  from 
the  fourteenth  century.  The  churches  of  Pavia  are  of  great 
historic  and  architectural  interest ;  among  them  are"  San 
Michele  Maggiore,  of  the  sixth  or  seventh  century,  per- 
haps the  finest  specimen  of  Lombard  architecture  existing; 
the  cathedral  of  ,San  Stefano  (founded  in  1488),  containing 
the  monument  (fourteenth  century)  to  St.  Augustine  anil 
the  remains  of  Boethius,  which  were  brought  thither  from 
the  ruined  church  San  Pietro  in  Ciel  d'Oro.  Of  the  old 
castle,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Lombard  royal  palace, 
little  of  interest  is  left  exce|)t  the  half-ruined  gateway. 
The  University  of  Pavia,  the  alma  mater  of  many  illustrious 
men,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  l)y  Charlemagne,  though 
not  formally  constituted  until  1361.  In  1891  there  were 
1,095  students  and  56  teachers  :  attached  to  it  are  two  col- 
leges and  a  library  with  185,000  volumes.  The  Museo 
Malespina  contains  some  good  pictures  and  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  engravings.  Near  Pavia  is  the  picturesque  old 
church  Beato  Lantranco;  l)ut  the  great  attract i(m  of  the 
neighborhood  is  the  magnificent  Certosa  di  Pavia  ((/.  i'.). 
Pavia  is  of  very  ancient,  probably  Ligurian,  origin.  It  was 
of  some  importance  under  the  Romans,  and  had  a  Christian 
church  in  336.  In  573  it  became  the  Lombard  cafiital.  and 
for  300  years  was  a  rich  and  great  city.  In  1534  Francis  1. 
of  Prance  suffered  a  terrible  defeat  under  the  walls  of  Pavia, 


and  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  troops  of  Charles  V.  Three 
years  later  the  town  was  barl)arously  sacked  by  the  French, 
but  it  soon  afterward  fell  into  the  hands  of  Austria.  Bona- 
|iarte  having  taken  Pavia  (1796),  at  the  prayers  of  the  citi- 
zens limited  his  soldiers  to  a  sack  of  three  hours,  so  that  the 
town*was  not  totally  destroyed.  By  the  Peace  of  1814  it  re- 
turned to  Austria,  and  after  the  battle  of  Solferino  became  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italv.  Pavia  has  some  trade  in  rice, 
hemp,  silk,  wines,  etc.     Pop.  (1893)  37,000. 

Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Pavlov',  Nikolai  Filippovich  :  writer ;  b.  in  Moscow, 
Russia,  in  1803 ;  d.  Mar.  39,  1865.  He  was  brought  up  for 
the  stage,  but  abandoned  it  two  years  after  his  debut,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature,  although  in  order  to  acquire  a 
better  education  he  had  first  to  prepare  for  the  University 
of  Moscow,  and  go  through  the  courses  there.  He  also 
was  obliged  to  support  himself  by  serving  for  some  years  as 
a  government  ollicial.  Some  of  the  poems  which  he  pub- 
lished in  the  newspapers  were  of  merit,  Vint  he  was  more 
successful  with  his  tales  and  essays,  especially  his  t^our  Let- 
ters to  Gogol  (1847) :  Vopros  o  Evreakh  (The  Hebrew  Ques- 
tion, 1858) :  3Ir.  C/iernyshevskil  and  his  Time  (1861).  Prom 
1860  to  1863  he  was  editor  of  the  paper  JVashe  Vrenua  (Our 
Time)  which  was  a  failure.  A.  C.  Cooliuge. 

Pawcatiifk'  River:  a  stream  formed  in  Washington 
CO.,  R.  1.,  by  the  union  of  the  Charles  and  Wood  rivers.  It 
is  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  several  miles,  and  forms 
the  southern  portion  of  the  eastern  boundary  of  Connecticut. 

Pawn  :  See  Betel. 

Pawiibrokilig  [from  0.  Fr.  pan,  pledge,  assurance,  iden- 
tical in  form  with  jxin.  cloth,  skirt  ( <  Lat. panniis),  but  con- 
nected in  meaning  v/ith paner,  rob;  (jerm. pf and  is  proba- 
bly a  loan-word  from  0.  ¥i: pan]:  the  loaning  of  money 
upon  the  security  of  goods  or  chattels  jiledged  by  the  bor- 
rower with  the  lender  as  security  for  the  repayment  of  it. 
The  word  pawn  is  often  applied  in  a  broad  sense  to  goods 
or  chattels  pledged  as  security  for  the  performance  of  a  con- 
tract, or  the  fulfillment  of  an  obligation,  or  to  the  contract 
by  which  it  is  so  pledged.  The  contract  of  pawn  or  pledge 
is  a  species  of  Bailment  (g.  v.),  and  differs  from  a  hypothe- 
cation in  that  the  latter  does  not  require  the  actual  deliv- 
ery of  the  property,  and  from  a  chattel  mortgage  in  that  the 
mortgagee  acquires  the  legal  ownership.  A  pawnee  has  a 
larger  right  than  a  lienor,  who  does  not  have  the  right  to 
sell  on  failure  of  payment. 

The  history  of  the  practice  of  pawnbroking  is  lost  in  antiq- 
uity. The  earliest  records,  however,  of  all  civilized  nations 
show  that  the  practice  existed  among  them,  and  that  it  was 
early  regulated  by  laws  which  uniformly  aimed  to  suppress 
extortion  by  the  lender  and  to  protect  the  btu'rower  by 
strict  regulations.  Thus  there  is  frequent  mention  in  the 
Bible  of  laws  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  forbidding  lenders 
to  keep  or  receive  as  .security  chattels  the  want  of  which 
exposes  the  borrower  to  great  hardships  or  privations,  as 
where  it  is  forbidden  to  keep  a  man's  coat  over  night  or  to 
take  "  nether  or  U])per  mill-stone  to  pledge,"  etc.  See 
Exod.  xxii.  36,  37;  Deut.  xxiv.  6,  11,  13,  13,  17. 

Among  the  Chinese  pawnbrokers  are  very  numerous,  and 
are  kept  under  strict  regulations,  and  any  one  acting  with- 
out a  license  is  severely  punished.  Pledges  are  usually  re- 
deemable for  three  years,  and  3  per  cent,  per  month  is  the 
highest  rate  of  legal  interest ;  and  in  the  winter  the  monthly 
interest  on  pledges  of  wearing  ajiparel  may  not  exceed  3 
per  cent.  These  regulations  have  been  enforced  among  the 
Chinese  for  at  least  1,500  years.  Interesting  facts  with  re- 
gard to  the  practice  are  also  found  in  the  early  records  of 
the  Hindus  and  Arabs  and  other  nations  of  the  East. 

In  modern  times  among  European  nations  the  first  pro- 
fessional pawnbrokers  were  probalily  the  Jews.  The  op- 
pression and  the  hardships  caused  by  the  practice  of  the 
pawnbrokers  early  led  to  the  passage  of  laws  by  which 
pawnbroking  was  exclusively  intrusted  to  public  institu- 
tions of  a  quasi-benevolent  nature,  now  called  monts-de- 
piete.  The  first  of  these  was  estalilished  at  Padua,  and 
from  there  the  institutions  were  introduced  into  many 
states  in  Europe,  and  some  of  them  still  exist,  as  at  Paris, 
JIadrid,  Brussels,  Antwerp,  ete.  They  were  originally  in- 
tended to  be  supplied  with  funds  by  contribution,  and  to 
loan  upon  with  little  or  no  interest;  but  this  was  founil  im- 
practicable. Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  them 
into  Great  Britain,  but  they  have  met  with  no  success;  and 
several  schemes  that  were  started  resulted  in  great  loss  of 
capital  and  the  ruin  of  many  interested.     The  mont-de-pieti 


PAWNEE  CITY 


PAYMENT 


491 


at  Paris  mar  be  describcil  as  giving  a  general  idea  of  them 
all.  It  was  opened  in  1777,  destroyed  by  the  Revolution, 
opened  again  in  1797.  and  obtained  a  monopoly  of  pawn- 
broking  in  Paris  in  1804,  sinee  whieh  time  it  tuis'  continued 
with  some  minor  changes.  There  is  a  central  oflice  and  a 
number  of  commissioner  who  receive  pledges  in  the  various 
arrondissements.  The.se  commissioners  make  provisional 
loans  on  goods  and  then  forward  them  to  the  central  ollice, 
where  they  are  appraised  by  tlu^  valuers  of  the  mimt-de- 
piite,  the  practice  being  to  advance  four-fifths  on  the  value 
of  gold  and  silver  goods  and  two-thirds  on  tliat  of  other 
non-perishable  goods.  Since  the  »i(/nt-de-/tiete  has  a  mo- 
nopoly, the  advances  made  are  less  liberal  than  where  there 
is  competition,  so  that  tlie  local  commissioners  make  ad- 
vances over  tlie  amount  and  recoup  this  by  taking  2  per 
cent,  of  each  pledge,  1  per  cent,  on  redemption,  and  inter- 
est on  the  excess  of  advance.  These  charges  have  to  be 
added  to  the  9  iier  cent,  interest  and  i  per  cent,  for  valua- 
tion made  by  the  central  oOice.  The  trading  capital  of  the 
mont-de-pitte  is  obtained  by  the  issue  of  promissory  notes 
at  2i  per  cent,  for  money  deposited,  by  cash  reserves,  and 
by  profit  on  the  redemption  an<i  sale  of  [iledges. 

In  England,  as  elsewhere  in  Kurope,  the  first  professional 
pawnbrokers  were  probably  Jews,  who,  at  aiul  after  the 
time  of  the  Conquest,  for  mon;  than  two  centuries  charged 
from  4.5  to  6.1  per  cent,  per  annum.  This  led  to  restrictive 
legislation,  and  in  1270  they  were  forbidden  to  take  interest 
on  pain  of  death,  and  in  12!)()  were  expelled  from  the  king- 
dom. Pawnbroking  then  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Lom- 
bards, who  throve  upon  it.  although  interest  was  unlawful 
until  IfUli,  when  it  was  fixed  at  lli  per  cent.     See  ITsfRV. 

The  taking  of  goods  and  chattels  as  .security  for  the  re- 
demption of  money  lent  thereon  was  first  regulated  by 
statute  in  Enghuid"  in  17.)7  (25  George  III.,  c.  48,  sec.  6). 
The  provisions  of  this  act  were  amended  and  re-enacted  in 
several  temporary  statutes  which  were  superseded  by  the 
Pawnbrokers'  Act  of  1800  (39  and  40  George  III.,  c.  99). 
This  act  was  also  subsecpiently  amended  l>y  various  acts, 
but  nevertheless  grew  unpo])\dar,  until  in  1871  a  committee 
was  appointeil  by  the  House  of  Commons  to  investigate  the 
matter  of  pawnbroking.  In  1872,  on  their  recommendation, 
a  general  act  was  pjissed  regulating  the  business  and  n-peal- 
ing  all  previous  laws.  Tliis  act  (35  and  36  Vict.,  c.  93)  applies 
without  ijualifieation  to  every  loan  of  a  pawnbroker  of  not 
more  than  40,s.,  and  lo  loans  of  from  40.5.  to  £10,  unless 
the  parties  by  special  contract,  in  statutory  form,  agree  to 
excluile  tlie  operation  of  the  act  as  to  profit  and  certain 
other  particulars.  Books  of  account  of  all  transactions 
must  be  kept  in  a  prescribed  manner,  and  a  pawn-ticket 
briefly  stating  the  contract  must  be  given  with  each  pledge. 
The  lawful  profit  is  now  a  halfpenny  per  fl(n-in,  or  'i-^.^  per 
cent.,  per  month,  on  loans  up  to  40s-.,  and  a  lialfpenny  |ier 
half-crown,  or  Ij  per  cent.,  on  loans  from  40,s.  to  £10.  The 
act  also  contains  numerous  other  provisions,  as  for  the  lia- 
bility in  case  of  fin^  for  the  prevention  of  the  making  of 
unlawful  pawns,  etc. 

The  system  of  pawnbroking  as  it  exists  in  the  U.  S.  is 
borrowed  directly  from  that  which  prevails  in  England, 
and  the  subject  is  generally  regulated  by  statutes  or  legal 
ordinances,  the  general  effect  of  which  is  to  restrict  the  in- 
terest whicli  may  be  charged,  and  in  other  ways  provide  for 
the  protection  of  the  borrower,  as  by  restricting  the  hours 
of  business,  reipiiring  tickets  to  be  given  for  each  pledge, 
etc.,  essentially  as  in  Great  Britain.  See  Jones  on  liail- 
ments;  Tyler  on  rauri/,  Pairns.  and  Loans  (Albany,  1873); 
Turner's  Contract  of  Pawn  (London,  1883). 

F.  STfROEs  Allen. 

Pawnee  City:  village  (founded  in  18.56);  capital  of 
Pawnee  eo..  Neb.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Nebraska,  ref. 
11-H);  on  the  Burlington  Route  and  the  Chi..  Rock  Is.  and 
Pac.  railways;  75  miles  S.  of  Ijincoln.  It  is  in  an  agricul- 
tural and  stock-raising  region,  and  lias  6  churches,  college, 
graded  liigh  school,  2  national  banks  witli  combined  capital 
of  *1 10.000,  a  State  bank  with  cajiital  of  .^llo.OOO,  and  2 
weekly  news|)apers.  Pop.  (1880)  7{i3 ;  (ISIIO)  1,.550:  (1S94) 
estimated,  2,500.  Kditoh  ok  "  Press." 

Pawnee  Indians:  See  Caddoax  Indians. 

PawfiU'Iiet:  city;  Providence  co.,  R.  I.;  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  tlie  Pawtucket  river;  on  the  N.  Y.  and  New 
England  and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  Hart,  railways;  4  miles 
N.  of  Providence.  39  miles  .S.  S.  \V.  of  IJoston  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Rhode  Island,  ref.  7-N).  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  the  cotton-manufacturing  industry  in  the  U.  S.,  which 


was  initiated  in  1790  by  .Sami'El  Slater  (g.  v.).  The  river 
here  has  a  fall  of  aliout  50  feet,  furnisliing  abundant  power 
for  manufacl  uring,  and  is  siianneil  by  several  bridges  of  iron 
and  slime.  The  city  presents  a  picturesque  appearance,  and 
has  a  public  park,  a  svsteiu  of  water-works  introduced  in 
1878  at  a  cost  of  $1,333^000  and  enlarged  in  1887  at  a  cost  of 
$150,000,  several  lines  of  street-railway,  sewerage  and  elec- 
tric-light plants,  a  public  library  (founded  in  1876)  contain- 
ing over  11.000  volumes,  public-school  property  valued  at 
over  $37.5,000,  3  national  banks  with  combined  caiiital  of 
$800,000,  3  siivings-baiiks  with  deposits  aggregating  over 
$3,000,000,  and  a  monthly,  3  daily,  and  2  weekly  periodicals. 
It  receives  annually  large  quantities  of  coal,  lumber,  lath 
and  shingles,  brick,  cement,  lime,  stone,  and  cotton.  In 
1893  the  assessed  valuations  were,  real  projiertv,  $24,155,- 
698;  personal,  $5,206,8.52— total,  $29,362,550;  and  tlie  net 
debt  was  $2,828,852,  which  included  a  water  debt  of  $1,635,- 
,590.  Since  Samuel  Slater's  initial  work  Pawtucket  has  been 
noted  for  the  extent  and  variety  of  its  manufactures.  The 
census  returns  of  1890  showed  tliat  347  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments (representing  70  industries)  reported,  l^iese 
had  a  combined  capital  of  $14,208,632.  emploved  7.693  per- 
sons, paid  $3,433,.56:)  for  wages  and  $8,658,281"  for  materials, 
and  had  products  valued  at  $14,:349,.59.5.  The  principal  in- 
dustry was  tlie  manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  which  had  14 
establishments,  combined  capital  of  $6,819,504.  and  i)roducts 
valued  at  $3,526,300.  There  were  7  hosiery  and  knit-goods 
mills,  yielding  a  product  valued  at  $745,712,  and  6  textile 
dyeing  and  finishing  factories,  yielding  a  product  valued  at 
$308,919.  Other  important  industries  were  the  manufacture 
of  foundry  and  maeliine-sho])  products,  which  had  12  estab- 
lishments^  $991,604  capital,  and  $1,055,852  receipts  for  prod- 
ucts; and  slaughtering  and  meat-packing,  S  establishments, 
$547,100  capital,  and  $2,895,191  receipts  for  products.  Paw- 
tucket was  settled  about  1655,  was  included  in  Bristol  eo., 
Mass.,  till  1861,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1886. 
Pop.  (1880)  19,030  ;  (1890)  27,6;:i3  ;  (1895)  32,573. 

Paxton  :  city  (founded  in  1858) ;  capital  of  Ford  co..  111. 
(for  locatiim,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  .5-F) ;  on  the  111.  Cent, 
and  the  Lake  Erie  and  West,  railways;  49  miles  E.  of 
Bloomington.  103  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Chicago.  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  region;  contains  8  churclies,  Rice  Collegiate 
Institute  (founded  in  1878),  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
$50,000,  and  2  weekly  newspapers ;  and  has  water-works, 
electric-light  plant,  flour-mills,  and  various  manufactories. 
Pop.  (1880)  1,725  ;  (1890)  2,187.         Editor  of  •'  Record." 

Paxton,  Sir  Joseph:  architect  and  horticulturist  ;  b.  at 
Millon-Bryant.  Bedfordshire,  England,  Aug.  3.  180;i.  of 
humble  parentage  ;  educated  in  the  free  school  at  Woburn  ; 
obtained  employment  at  Chiswick  as  a  gardener  in  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  where  he  disjilaycd  such 
remarkaljle  talent  for  landscape-gardening  that  thi'  duke 
made  him  manager  of  his  Derbyshire  estates  and  commis- 
sioned him  to  remodel  the  grounds  at  ('hatsworth.  Under 
Ills  care  that  mansion  soon  became  the  most  renowned 
country-seat  in  Great  Britain,  tlie  great  conservatory  espe- 
cially being  regarded  as  a  wonderful  triumph  of  art.  This 
building  became  the  germ  of  tlie  idea  whicli  culminated  in 
the  plans  for  the  Crystal  Palace,  the  vast  edifice  of  iron 
and  glass  erected  from  bis  designs  for  the  great  I'nivcisal 
Exposition  of  1851.  For  tliis  service  he  was  knighted  and 
received  honors  from  several  European  sovereigns.  He  re- 
moved the  buildings  to  Sydenham  ;  erected  a  magnificent 
mansion  for  Baron  James  Rothschild;  entered  Parliament 
1854;  and  jiublished  several  works  on  botany,  horticulture, 
and  floriculture.     D.  at  Sydenham,  June  8,  1865. 

PaynuMit  [from  0.  Fr.  pai/ement.  deriv.  of  payer,  pay  < 
Lat.yjofff  rf.  pacify,  satisfy,  deriv.  of  pujr.  pads,  peace]:  a 
mode  of  discharging  an  obligation  by  the  delivery  and  ac- 
ceptance of  money,  or  of  something  substituted  for  money 
by  agreement  of  the  parties.  The  original  obligation  may 
impose  the  liability  lo  make  payment.  In  such  a  ca-se  pay- 
ment discharges  it  by  iierformance.  In  other  cases  payment 
is  made  not  in  performance  of  the  original  obligation  of  the 
payer,  but  of  one  which  the  parties  have  sulistituted  there- 
for— for  example,  one  who  is  bound  to  transfer  jiroperty  or 
render  services  may  prefer  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  in  lieu 
of  performance.  If  the  other  as.sents  to  this,  tlie  original 
obligation  is  dischargeil  by  the  substitution  of  the  new 
agreement,  and  the  latter  is  discharged  by  payment.  A 
debtor  often  gives  to  his  creditor  a  negotiable  instrument 
inslead  of  money.  If  the  instrument  is  a  genuine  bill  of  a 
bank  which  has  not  failed,  it  will  operate  as  money.     A 


492 


PAYN 


PEA 


forged  bank  bill,  or,  in  most  jurisdictions,  the  bill  of  a  bank 
whicli  has  suspended  payment,  is  treated  as  a  nullity,  and 
its  delivery  and  acceptance  are  not  payment.  If  the  bill, 
note,  or  check  of  the  debtor  or  of  a  third  person  be  received 
by  the  creditor  instead  of  money,  it  will  have  the  effect  of 
an  absolute  payment,  provided"  the  parties  actually  agree 
that  such  shall  "be  its  effect.  In  the  absence  of  an  actual 
agreement,  however,  the  general  rule  is  that  it  will  operate 
as  conditional  payment  only.  If  the  condition  is  broken 
by  the  non-payment  of  the  paper  at  maturity,  the  obligation  is 
not  discharged,  but  the  creditor  is  remitted  to  all  his  origi- 
nal rights.  See  Appropriation  of  Patme.nts  and  Nego- 
tiable Instruments.  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Payn.  James  ;  novelist ;  b.  at  Cheltenham,  England,  in 
1830.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
graduated  in  1854;  in  1858  became  editor  of  Chambers's 
Joiinia!,  and  in  1883  of  The  Cornhill  Magazine.  His  pub- 
lished books,  chiefly  novels,  are  more  than  100  in  number, 
and  include  Sichard  Arbour  (1861) ;  Lights  and  Sliadows 
of  London  Life  (186T) ;  Won,  not  Wooed  (1871);  ^\llat  he 
Cost  her  (1877);  Under  one  Roof  (1879);  and  The  Eaves- 
dropper (1888).  H.  A.  Beers. 

Payne,  Charles  Henry.  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  minister  and  edu- 
cator :  b.  at  Taunton,  Mass.,  Oct.  24. 1830.  He  was  educated 
at  East  Greenwich  Academy,  Rhode  Island,  Wesleyan 
University,  Middletown,  Conn.,  and  at  the  School  of  The- 
ology of  Boston  University.  He  joined  the  Providence 
Conference  in  1857 ;  was  pastor  1857-76,  serving  several  of 
the  leading  churches  in  Brooklyn,  Philadelphia,  and  Cin- 
cinnati :  president  of  Oliio  Wesleyan  University  1876-88  ; 
elected  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education 
1888,  and  re-elected  in  1892.  He  preiiared  a  ])Ian  of  federa- 
tion of  Methodist  institutions  of  learning  which,  with  some 
modiflcations,  was  adojited  by  the  General  Conference  of 
1892.  He  has  published  Tlie  Social  Glass  and  Christian 
Obligation  (1868) ;  Shall  our  American  Sabbath  be  a  Holi- 
day or  a  Holy  Day  ?  (1872) ;  Daniel,  the  Uncompromising 
Young  Man  (1873) ;  and  Guides  and  Guards  i?i  Character- 
building  (1884).  A.  OsBORN. 

Payne.  John  :  poet :  b.  in  London,  1842.  He  is  a  solici- 
tor, and  is  known  especially  as  a  translator  and  a  poet  of 
the  neo-romantic  school,  like  JIarzials  and  O'Shaughnessy, 
greatly  influenced  by  Baudelaire  and  the  French  romanti- 
cists; author  of  The  Masque  of  Shadows  (IS'iO) ;  Intaglios 
(1871);  Songs  of  Life  and  Death  (1872);  Lautrec  (1878); 
New  Poems  (1880) ;  Francois  Villon  :  a  Biographical  Study 
(1881);  and  of  the  following  translations:  The  Poems  uf 
Francois  ViUon  (1881);  Tlie  Book  of  the  Tliousand  JS'igh'ts 
and  One  Night  (the  first  complete  English  version  1882-84, 
9  vols.);  Tales  from  the  Arabic  (1885);  and  The  Decameron 
of  Boccaccio  (l'886).  H.  A.  Beers. 

Payne,  John  Howard:  dramatist  and  actor;  b.  in  New 
York,  June  9,  1792;  began  to  edit  a  weekly  paper.  The 
Tliespian  Mirror,  when  thirteen  years  of  age ;  two  j'ears 
later  published  twenty-five  numbers  of  a  periodical  called 
The  Pastime ;  made  a  successful  debut  as  an  actor  at  the 
Park  theater.  New  York,  Feb.  26,  1809.  in  the  character  of 
Norval;  a])iieared  on  the  stage  at  Boston  and  other  cities, 
also  in  London  1812-13.  where  he  produced  many  new 
dramas,  chiefly  imitated  from  the  Frencli,  for  one  of  which, 
called  Clari,  or  the  Maid  of  Milan,  he  wrote  the  song 
Home,  Sweet  Home ;  published  a  volume  of  juvenile  poems. 
Lisping  of  the  Muse  (1815);  successfully  produced  his 
tragedy  Brutus  at  Drury  Lane  1818;  was  a"  friend  and  cor- 
respondent of  Coleridge  and  Charles  Lamb  :  edited  in  Lon- 
don a  dramatic  paper  called  The  Opera-t/lass  1826-27;  re- 
turned to  the  U.  S.  1832 ;  was  U.  S.  consul  at  Tunis.  Africa, 
1841-45;  again  appointed  1851.  D.  there  Apr.  10.  1852. 
Among  his  best  writings  were  the  plays  Virginius  and 
Charles  the  Second.  His  remains  were  removed  from  Tunis, 
Africa,  to  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1883.  A  volume  of  his 
collected  works,  with  a  memoir,  was  published  in  1875.  See 
Brainard's  John  Howard  Payne,  a  biographical  sketch  with 
narrative  of  removal  of  his  remains  to  the  U.  S. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Payne,  William  IIarolii.  A.  M..  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. :  educa- 
tor; b.  at  Farmington,  N.  Y.,  May  12,  1836;  educated  in 
common  schools  in  New  York  and  at  Macedon  Academy  ; 
superintendent  of  jiublie  schools  in  Three  Rivers,  Niles, 
Ypsilanti,  and  A<lrian,  Mich.,  1858-79;  Professor  of  Science 
and  Art  of  Teaching,  University  of  Michigan,  1879-88; 
became  chancellor  Uni\-ersily  of"  Nashville  and  president 


Peabody  Normal  College,  1888 ;  author  of  School  Supervision 
(Cincinnati,  1875);  Outlines  of  Educational  Doctrine 
(Adrian,  1880) ;  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education 
(New  Y'ork,  1887) ;  translated  and  edited  Compayre's  His- 
tory of  Pedagogy  (Boston,  1884) ;  Compayre's  Lectures  on 
Teachitig  (IS88);  Compayre's  Elements  of  Psychology  (1890); 
Sousseau's  Entile  (1892).  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Faysandli.  pi-sa'an-doo'  :  a  town  of  Western  Uruguay, 
the  third  in  size  in  the  republic  ;  on  the  river  Uruguay ;  214 
miles  N.  W.  of  Montevideo ;  pop.  about  14,000  (see  map  of 
South  America,  ref.  8-E).  It  is  the  center  of  a  rich  grazing 
region  and  has  a  large  trade,  by  the  river,  in  cattle  and 
hides ;  above  it,  at  Guaviyu,  is  an  extensive  meat-packing 
establishment.  During  the  war  of  1864-65  between  Brazil 
and  Uruguay,  Paysandii  was  taken  by  the  Brazilians,  Jan. 
2,  1865,  after  an  engagement  of  fifty-two  hours.  It  is  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  Paysandii,  which  has  an  area 
of  5,116  sq.  miles,  and  a  population  (1887)  of  28,417. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Payson,  Edward,  I).  I). :  clergyman ;  b.  at  Rindge, 
N.  H.,  July  25,  1783;  was  a  son  of  Rev.  Dr.  Seth  Payson 
(1758-1820) ;  graduated  in  1803  at  Harvard ;  was  three 
years  teacher  of  an  academy  at  Portland.  Jlc..  where  he  was 
in  1807  ordained  to  the  Congregational  ministry  and  was  col- 
league pastor  with  a  Mr.  Kellogg  until  1811.  when  he  became 
sole  pastor.  Here  he  remained  till  his  death,  Oct.  22,  1827. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  zeal  and  of  saintly  devotion.  It  is  a 
curious  misconception  which  generally  prevails  that  he  was 
a  '•  hell-fire  preacher."  He  was  teniierness  itself,  and  the 
hold  he  had  upon  the  esteem  of  New  England  is  shown  by 
the  number  of  children  to  whom  his  name  was  given  in 
baptism.  He  was  a  faithful,  considerate  pastor,  a  zeal- 
ous and  impassioned  preacher.  He  was  at  times  melan- 
cholic, probably  because  dyspeptic,  and  morbid,  but  ordi- 
narily he  was  a  most  agreeable  companion.  His  sermons, 
etc.  (3  vols.,  Portland,  Me.,  1846 ;  new  ed.  Philadelphia, 
1859),  have  been  published,  together  with  a  Life,  by  Asa 
Cummings.  D.  D. — His  uncle,  Phillips  Payson,  D.  D.  (1736- 
1801).  for  many  years  Congregational  minister  of  Chelsea, 
Mass.,  was  one  of  the  most  scholarly  and  influential  divines 
of  tlie  Revolutionary  period.     Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Pazaud  :  a  form  of  language.     See  under  Pahlavi. 

Paz  Soldan,  paath  sol-daan',  Mariano  Felipe:  geog- 
rapher, historian,  and  publicist ;  b.  at  Arequipa,  Peru,  Aug., 
1821.  He  graduated  in  law  at  Arequipa  1847 ;  took  up  his 
residence  in  Lima,  held  judicial  positions,  and  was  secretary 
of  the  Peruvian  legation  in  Colombia;  in  1853  he  studied 
prison  systems  in  the  U.  S.,  making  an  elaborate  report. 
He  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  under  Castilla,  and  of 
Justice  under  Balta;  was  long  director  of  public  works, 
and  introduced  important  reforms  in  the  Peruvian  prisons. 
During  the  Chilian  occupation  of  Peru  he  lived  in  exile  at 
Buenos  Ayres.  His  geographical  and  historical  works  are 
numerous,  and  are  standard  authorities.  They  include 
Atlas  geogrdfco  del  Peru  (1861);  Historia  del  Peril  inde- 
pendiente  (1866);  Diccionario  geografico  estadistico  del 
Peru  (1877) ;  Diccionario  de  la  RepiMica  Argentina  (1884) ; 
and  Historia  de  la.  Guerra  del  Pacitico  (1884).  D.  at  Lima, 
Dec.  31,  1886.— His  brother,  Mateo  Paz  Soldan  (b.  1814; 
d.  about  1872),  published  several  mathematical  works  and  a 
Geografia  del  Peru  (1861).  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pea  [recently  formed  as  sing,  to  pease  (regarded  as  a 
plur.)  <  JI.  Eng.  pr.-.-p,  fi'iim  0.  Fr.  pels  (>  Mod.  Fr.  pais)  < 
Lat.  pisuni  =  Gr.  viaov ;  the  word  appears  also  by  direct 
borrowing  from  Lat.  in  0.  Eng.  as  pise] :  a  plant  of  the 
family  Leguminosip,  much  prized  in  temperate  countries 
for  its  seeds.  The  pea  is  known  to  botanists  as  Pisum 
satirum.  It  is  native  to  Asia.  The  field  pea,  P.  arren.fc, 
thought  by  de  CandoUe  to  be  a  native  of  Italy,  is  probably 
not  specifically  distinct.  This  latter  is  much  grown  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  and  in  Canada  as  a  forage 
plant.  The  garden  peas  fall  into  two  general  categories, 
the  common  or  shelling  sorts  and  the  sugar  or  edible- 
po<ided  varieties.  The  shelling  peas  are  those  which  are 
commonly  grown  in  the  U.  S.,  the  edible  product  being 
the  seeds  alone,  which  are  shelled  from  the  pod.  In  the 
U.  S.  these  seeds  are  generally  eaten  when  fresh  and  green, 
but  dry  peas  are  much  used  in  parts  of  Europe.  The 
edil)le-i:iodded  peas  are  those  which  possess  a  soft  pod 
which  does  not  burst  open  when  the  .seeds  are  ripe.  The 
pod,  with  the  inclosed  seeds,  is  eaten  in  the  green  state, 
mucli  as  "  string  "  beans  are  used.     Like  the  common  peas. 


PEABODY 


493 


the  varieties  are  either  dwarf  or  climbing.     The  common  or 

sholliiiK  peas  may  he  a<;ain  divided  into  smooth-seeded  and 
wrinkiiMl-^L'uilfd  vaficlii'S,  thi'  latter  being  considered  of  the 
better  ([iiality.  Ivich  of  tliese  classes  is  again  divided  into 
dwarf  and  cliinl)ing  varieties.  The  peas  now  sold  by  the 
seedsmen  of  the  U.  S.  nundier  about  130  varieties,  of  which 
the  Kxtra  Early,  or  Philadelphia,  strain  includes  the  greater 
number  of  forms,  strains,  i>r  sub-varieties.  In  the  census 
year  lSi)0  there  were  .5t!,l(i3  aci-es  devoted  to  peas  upon  the 
iargiM-  truck-farms  of  the  U.  ,S.,  and  the  aggregate  of  the 
plantations  in  smaller  market  gardens  and  home  gardens 
must  have  been  half  as  much  more.  In  that  year,  7,!IT1 
acres  were  used  in  growing  peas  for  seed.  The  pea  industry 
has  incresLsed  rapiilly  because  of  the  demand  for  the  cautied 
(iroduct.  The  plant  thrives  best  in  the  Northern  States  and 
in  the  cooler  months.  It  will  endure  light  frost,  and  the 
seeds  are  therefore  generally  sown  for  the  main  crops  just  as 
soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked  in  spring.  The  half-dwarf 
varieties  are  generally  preferred  for  Held  culture,  as  they  do 
not  need  poles  (u-  brush  upon  which  to  clindi,  and  they  are 
more  productive  than  the  very  early  and  very  dwarf  vari- 
eties. The  cow-pea,  now  much  grown  in  the  Southern 
States  for  forage,  is  Vigna  (or  IJa/ic/ios)  sinensis.  It  is 
native  to  China  aiul  Japan,  The  black  pea,  gray  pea,  and 
others  are  varieties  of  it,  L,  II.  Bailey. 

Pi'abotly  :  city  ;  Marion  eo.,  Kan.  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Kansas,  ref.  G-Il);  on  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S,  Fe  and  the 
Chi.,  Rock  Is.  and  Pac.  railways  ;  :',V>  miles  X.  of  Wichita, 
118  miles  S.  W.  of  Topeka.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region: 
contains  6  churches,  pidjlic  librarv,  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  $50,000,  a  State  bank  vvith  capital  of  .f 50,000, 
several  flour-mills,  creamery,  windmill-factory,  and  2  weekly 
newspapers  ;  and  has  a  large  business  in  exporting  cattle, 
hogs,  poultrv,  e?gs,  wheat,  flour,  butter,  etc.  Pop,  (1880) 
1,087;  (1800)  1,474:  (1805)  1,361,     Editor  of  "Gazette," 

Peabody:  town  (formerly  South  Danvers):  Esses  co.. 
Mass,  (for  location,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref,  l-I):  on 
the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad:  2  miles  W,  of  .Salem,  of 
which  it  was  once  a  part.  It  contains  9  churches,  i)  public- 
school  buildings,  public-school  property  valued  at  over  $140,- 
000,  Peabody  Institute  (founded  by  George  Peabody  in  18.52), 
2  libraries  (Peabody  Institute  and  the  Eben  Dale  Sutton 
Reference,  founded  in  18G7),  2  national  banks  with  combined 
capital  of  $400,000,  a  savings-bank,  and  2  weekly  newspapers. 
The  |)rincipal  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  plain  and  mo- 
rocco leather.  The  town  was  named  after  George  Pealiodv, 
who  was  born  there.  Pop.  (1880)  0.028 :  (18!)0)  10.158  :  ( 18i)i5) 
10,507.  Editor  of  "  Kepokter." 

Peabody,  Andrew  Preston,  D.  D.,  LL,  D,  :  clergyman 
and  author;  b,  at  Beverly,  .Mass.,  Mar,  19,  1811  ;  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1826  ;  was  three  years  a  teacher:  studied  di- 
vinity at  Cambridge,  Mass, ;  was  tutor  at  Harvard  CoUi^ge 
1832-33;  was  minister  of  the  South  parish  (Unitarian), 
Portsmouth,  X.  H.,  18:i:M)0.  and  was  Plunimer  Professor  of 
Christian  .Morals  and  preacher  to  Harvard  University  1860- 
81  ;  edited  T/ik  A'oc/A  Amrrican  lierieir  1852-61,  and  was 
long  a  leading  contributor  to  the  religious  periodical  press. 
Author  of  Lectures  on  Christian  Doctrine  (1844) ;  Sermons 
of  Consolation  (\H-17) ;  Conversation  (1856);  C/iristianiti/  the 
Religion  of  Nature  (1864):  Sermons  for  Children  (1866); 
a  book  of  European  travel  (1868);  Christianity  and  Science 
(1874),  besides  many  published  sermons,  translations  from 
classic  authors,  reviews,  personal  reminiscences,  etc.  One 
of  the  most  conservative  of  his  sect,  he  was  equally  admired 
and  loved  by  all  parties.  D.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Mai-.  10,  1893. 
Revised  by  J,  \V,  Chadwrk, 

Peabody,  Elizaretii  Palmer  :  educator  :  b,  at  Billerica, 
Mass.,  May  16, 1804  ;  spent  her  chihlhood  in  Salem  ;  became 
a  teacher  at  Boston  1822;  wrote  articles,  chiefly  on  educa- 
tional topics,  for  The  Journal  of  Education,  The  Christian 
Examiner,  The  Dial,  and  The  Democratic  Review;  tran.s- 
lated  de  Gerando's  Moral  Self-Education ;  edited  ^-Es- 
thelic  Papers  ( IM4!I),  Crimes  of  the  House  of  A  ustria  again.it 
Mankind  (18.50) ;  published  R.  O.  Hazard's  Essay  on  Lan- 
guage, and  Other  Papers  (1857),  Records  of  a  School,  Fir.'it 
Steps  to  Iliston/  (1833).  Chronological  History  of  the 
United  States  (i856).  Letters  to  A'indergnrtners  ('1886), 
Last  Evening  with  Allston,  and  Other  Papers  (1887),  and 
other  works  ;  and  with  her  sister,  Mrs.  Mary  (Peabody)  Mann, 
published  Moral  Culture  of  Infancy  and  V'/ic  Kindergarten 
C/'h(V/p  (1863).  Her  si)ecial  service  was  in  the  [iromotiou  of 
the  kindergarten  in  the  U.  S.  D.  at  Jamaica  Plain.  Mass., 
Jan,  3,  1894,  Revised  by  C,  II,  Tuukuer, 


Peabody,  Francis  Greenwood,  A,  JI.,  B,  D„  and  D.  D., 

Harvard  I  nivcrsity,  and  I).  D.,  Yale  :  clergyman  and  theo- 
logical professor  :  b,  in  Boston,  ^lass.,  Dec.  4,  1847  :  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1869,  and  from  Harvard  Divinity 
School  in  1872;  shortly  became  pastor  of  the  first  parish 
church  in  Candiridge,  Mass.,  and  after  a  brief  ministry,  re- 
markable fiu'  its  high  character  and  success,  resigned  on 
account  of  ill-health  ;  has  been  for  some  years  overseer  and 
in-eacher  of  Harvard  University,  Parkman  Profes.sor  of 
Theology,  and  Plummer  Professor  of  Christian  IMorals,  To 
connect  the  study  of  sociology  with  the  study  of  ethics  and 
religion  has  been  his  most  characteristic  aim.  Both  as  a 
writer  aiul  speaker  he  is  attractive  and  persuasive  to  a  high 
degree.  He  is  a  frequent  and  valued  writer  for  the  reviews 
and  magazines.  John  W.  Ciiauwick. 

Peabody,  George,  D,  C,  L. :  philanthro|)i.st ;  b.  at  South 
Danvers.  Mass.,  Feb.  18,  1795,  of  poor  parents;  received  a 
scanty  education ;  was  a  clerk  in  stores  at  Thetford,  Vt,, 
Xewburyporl,  .Alass.,  and  at  Georgetown,  D.  C.  where  he 
became  partner  with  ElishaRiggs  in  the  dry-goods  business 
1814;  removed  to  Baltimore  IS15:  soon  afterward  o]>ened 
branch  houses  at  Xew  York  and  Philadelphia;  made  sev- 
eral voyages  to  Europe  (m  commercial  business;  became 
head  of  the  firm  1829;  removed  to  London,  England,  18^7; 
withdrew  from  the  house  of  Peabody,  liiggs  &  Co,,  and  es- 
tablished a  banking-house  1843:  accumulated  a  large  for- 
tune; aided  .Mr.  Grinnell  in  fitting  out  Dr.  Kane's  Arctic 
expedition  1S52  :  founded  in  the  .same  year  the  Peabody 
Institute  in  his  native  town,  the  endowment  of  which  he 
snbs<'(iuently  increased  to  $200,000;  visited  the  U.  S.  in 
1857;  gave  $300,000  for  the  establishment  at  Baltimore  of 
an  in.stitute  of  science,  literature,  and  the  fine  arts  ;  in  1862 
gave  $2,500,000  as  a  fund  for  building  lodging-houses  for 
the  poor  in  London  ;  gave  in  1866,  during  another  visit  to 
the  U,  S.,  $1.50,000  to  establish  at  HarvSrd  College  a  mu- 
seum and  professorship  of  American  archaeology  ami  eth- 
nology, an  equal  sum  for  a  deiiartment  of  physical  science 
at  Yale  College,  and  created  a  Southern  edncaticmal  fund 
of  $2.100,000,''subsequently  increased  to  $3,500,000,  besides 
devoting  $200,000  to  various  objects  of  public  utility.  In 
1867  he  gave  $140,000  to  trustees  who  established  the  Pea- 
body Academy  of  Science  at  Salem,  Mass.  In  recognition 
of  his  munificence.  Queen  Victoria  offered  him  a  liaronetcy, 
which  he  declined,  and  gave  him  her  pea-trait  ;  the  corpora- 
tion of  London  conferred  on  him  the  freedom  of  the  city, 
and  the  citizens  ordered  a  statue  by  VV,  \V.  Story,  which 
was  unveiled  in  the  Royal  Exchange  July  23,  1869,  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  during  Mr.  Peabody's  absence  on  a" final 
visit  to  the  U.  S,  On  this  occasion  he  raised  the  endow- 
ment of  the  institute  at  Baltimore  to  $1,000,000  ;  gave 
$60,000  to  Washington  College,  Virginia,  §50,000  for  a 
Peabody  Institute  at  North  Danvers,  $30,000  to  Phillips 
Academy,  Andfjver,  $25,000  to  Kenyon  College,  Ohio,  and 
.$20,000  to  the  Maryland  Historical  Society,  besides  making 
large  gifts  to  various  charities.  In  the  previous  year  he 
had  endowed  an  art  school  at  Rome.  D,  in  London,  Nov. 
4,  1869,  less  than  a  month  after  returning  from  the  U.  S. 
His  remains,  after  funeral  honors  in  Westminster  Abbey 
(Nov.  12),  were  taken  to  the  U,  S.  in  a  British  vessel  of 
war  and  buried  in  his  native  town,  now  called  Peabody. 
Several  other  bequests  to  objects  of  public  utility  were  made 
by  his  will,  in  which  his  remaining  fortune,  about  $5,000,- 
000,  was  left  to  his  relatives.  See  the  Life,  by  Phebe  A. 
Hanaford  (Boston.  1882),  and  Cochrane's  Beneficent  and 
Useful  Lives  (1890), 

Peabody,  Gen,  Nathaniel:  soldier;  b,  at  Topsfield, 
Mass.,  JIar.  1,  1741  ;  settled  at  Plaistow,  N.  IT.,  a.s  a  physi- 
cian 1761;  became  lieutenant-colonel  of  militia;  was  one 
of  the  captors  of  Fort  William  and  JIary  at  Newcastle, 
Dec.  1774;  was  an  active  and  inlluential  member  of  the 
legislature,  of  .several  conventions,  and  of  the  committee  of 
.safely  during  the  Revolutionary  war;  became  adjutant- 
general  of  the  State  militia  1777:  delegate  to  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  1779-80;  filled  nearly  every  State  office 
during  a  long  course  of  public  service,  including  those  of 
Speaker  of  the  House  1793  and  major-general  1793-98,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  New  Hampshire  Medical 
Society  1790,     D.  at  Exeter,  N,  H„  June  27,  1823, 

Peabody,  Oliver  William  Boirne  :  biographer  and  re- 
viewer ;  b."  at  Exeter.  N.  IL,  July  9,  1799:  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  1S16  ;  practiced' law  at  Exeter  1819-30; 
editcil  The  Hockingham  (iazette  and  Exeter  News- Letter ; 
removed  to  Boston  1830 ;  aided  his  brother-in-law,  Alexander 


494 


PEABODY 


PEACH 


H.  Everett ,  in  editing  The  North  American  Revieiv  ;  was  for 
several  vears  an  editor  of  The  Daily  Advertiser;  was  Pro- 
fessor of  English  Literature  at  Jefferson  College,  Louisiana, 
1842-43  ;  wrote  the  Lires  of  Gens.  Putnam  and  Sullivan  in 
Sparks's  American  Biogrophi/ ;  published  an  edition  of 
Shakspeare,  with  a  Life  and  'notes  (7  vols.,  1844) ;  became 
pastor  of  the  Unitarian  church  at  Burlington,  Vt.,  in  Aug., 
1845.     D.  at  Burlington,  July  5,  1848. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Peabody,  William  Bourne  Oliver,  D.  D.  :  clergyman 
and  scientist;  twin-brother  of  O.  W.  B.  Peabody ;  b.  at 
Exeter,  N.  H.,  July  9,  1799  :  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
1816;  was  assistant  instructor  at  Exeter  Academy  1817; 
studied  theology  at  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School  under  Dr. 
Henry  Ware  ;  was  licensed  as  a  preacher  i819,  and  ordained 
in  Oct.,  1820,  pastor  of  the  L^nitarian  church  at  Springfield, 
Mass..  where  he  remained  through  life.  Dr.  Peabody  was  a 
man  of  extensive  knowledge,  of  gentle  nature,  and  winning 
manners.  He  wrote  much  on  various  branches  of  natural 
history;  was  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  Massachusetts 
zoological  survey,  for  which  he  prepared  a  Report  on,  the 
Birds  of  the  Commonwealth  (1839);  wrote  the  Lives  of 
Alexander  Wilson,  Cotton  Mather,  David  Brainerd,  and 
James  Oglethorpe  in  Sparks"s  American  Biography ;  was 
well  versed  in  landscape-gardening,  and  was  an  able  lecturer 
upon  scientific  topics.  D.  at  Springfield,  May  28, 1847.  His 
sermons,  with  a  prefatory  memoir  by  his  brother,  were  pub- 
lisheil  in  1849,  and  his  Literary  Remains  in  1850. 

Revised  by  J.  W.  Chadwick. 

Peace  [M.  Eng.  pees,  from  0.  Fr.  pais,  pes  ( >  Jlod.  Pr. 
pai.r)  :  Ital.  pace  :  Proven?,  patz  :  Span,  paz  <  Lat.  pax, 
pads,  peace] :  a  suspension  of  war  and  a  return  to  a  state 
of  intercourse  such  as  existed  before  war,  and  to  amnesty. 
or  the  oblivion,  the  waiving,  of  all  future  claims  on  accoiuit 
of  those  particular  acts  of  injury  for  which  a  war  was  ini- 
tiated. For  the  existence  of  peace  a  treaty  is  necessary,  tm- 
less,  indeed,  complete  conquest  and  absorption  of  an  entire 
country  has  taken  place,  when  there  would  be  no  one  to 
negotiate  with.  Such  a  treaty,  if  there  be  a  number  of  bel- 
ligerents, may  be  made  by  all  the  parties  on  one  side  with 
all  on  the  other ;  or  each  on  one  side  may  make  a  treaty 
with  every  other.  The  great  treaties,  such  as  the  Treaty  of 
Westphalia  and  the  final  act  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  are 
complicated  documents ;  the  first  combining  in  two  sepa- 
rate treaties — one  between  France  and  the  German  powers, 
and  the  other  between  Sweden  and  the  same  powers — the 
results  of  negotiations  in  two  separate  places ;  while  the 
other  contains  the  results  of  a  great  number  of  special 
treaties  with  powers  not  properly  parties  to  the  congress,  or 
of  such  powers  with  one  another,  as  well  as  of  treaties  be- 
tween the  parties  to  the  congress  themselves.  If  any  ques- 
tion of  ownership  is  left  unsettled  by  the  treaty  of  peace, 
the  rule  of  uti  possidetis  applies,  i.  e.  property  of  every 
kind  remains  legally  in  the  hands  of  that  state  which  at  the 
close  of  hostilities  actually  was  master  of  it.  The  etfeets  of 
a  treaty  of  peace,  in  particular  the  cessation  of  all  war  op- 
erations, begin  at  once  upon  its  signature,  even  if  ratifica- 
tion still  remains  necessary,  unless  the  contrary  is  specified. 

Revised  by  T.  S.  Woolsey. 

Peace  is  also  good  order  among  the  members  of  a  state. 
Blackstone  declares  that  "the  common  law  hath  ever  had  a 
special  care  and  regard  for  the  conservation  of  the  peace; 
for  peace  is  the  very  end  and  foundation  of  civil  society." 
The  primitive  state,  however,  makes  little  pretense  to  the 
maintenance  of  public  jjcace.  On  the  other  hand,  private 
war  between  its  members  is  not  only  tolerated  but  legally 
sanctioned.  In  English  legal  history  the  first  attempts  by 
the  state  to  keep  the  peace  appear  to  have  been  confined  to 
the  citizen's  homestead.  "  Every  man  was  entitled  to  peace 
in  his  own  house.  The  brawler  or  trespasser  in  another's 
homestead  broke  the  owner's  peace,  ancl  owed  him  special 
am<'U(ls."  The  grade  of  the  offense  varied  with  the  owner's 
rank.  Breaking  the  peace  of  an  earl,  or  of  a  church,  was  a 
serious  matter,  while  the  peace  of  the  king's  house  was  Ijro- 
ken  at  the  risk  of  the  wrongdoer's  life.  The  domain  of  the 
king's  peace  was  extended  as  his  power  increased.  Under 
the  later  Saxon  kings  it  covered  the  four  great  roads  of  the 
realm  and  all  wjiterways  on  which  provisions  were  carried. 
It  was  also  given  by  the  king's  hand  as  a  special  privilege  to 
imlividuals,  and  was  to  be  enforced  througliout  the  king- 
dom during  certain  periods,  such  as  Christmas,  Easter,  and 
Whitsuntide  week.s.  After  tlie  Xorman  conquest  the  king's 
peace  soon  became  synonymous  with  the  peace  of  the  king- 


dom. It  was  proclaimed  at  his  accession  as  extending  to  all 
his  loyal  subjects,  and  after  the  adoption  of  the  fiction  that 
the  king  never  dies,  in  legal  c(ratemplation  it  was  never  sus- 
pended. Royal  officers  were  appointed  to  maintain  it,  no- 
tably the  justices  of  the  peace,  and  forms  of  legal  jirocedure 
were  devised  for  its  more  effective  enforcement.  One  who 
had  reasonable  fear  of  harm  to  his  person  or  property  was 
allowed  a  writ  de  securitate  pads,  by  which  the  person 
threatening  could  be  ra.'ide  to  give  security  to  the  complain- 
ant to  keep  "our  strict  peace  according  to  the  custom  of 
England.''  With  the  institution  of  this  writ  the  king's 
peace  became  a  well-defined  common-law  right  of  every  law- 
abiding  citizen.  Thereafter  breaches  of  the  peace  included 
not  only  public  assaults  and  riots,  but  all  unlawful  acts 
which  tended  directly  to  produce  public  disorder,  such  as 
challenges  to  fight  and  the  publication  of  libels.  Modern 
statutes  carefully  define  criminal  breaches  of  the  peace  and 
regulate  their  punishments.     See  Bill  of  Peace. 

Francis  M.  Birdick. 
Peace,  Breach  of:  See  Peace. 

Peace  River:  a  river  of  British  America,  which  rises  in 
the  Coast  Range  Mountains  N.  of  British  Columbia,  and 
flows  X.  E.  through  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  near  Atha- 
basca Lake,  more  than  600  miles,  where  it  turns  N.,  and 
under  name  of  Slave  river  enters  Great  Slave  Lake.  It  is 
navigable  for  most  of  its  extent,  and  passes  through  a  fer- 
tile valley. 

Peach  [from  0.  Fv.pesche  >  Yr.  pfche  <  Late  Lat.  per- 
sica  (whence  Gi^rm.  jifrsich,  peach),  for  Lat.  persicum  (sc. 
ma'liim.  apple),  Persian  apple,  peach,  the  peach  having  once 
been  supposed  to  have  come  from  Persia] :  one  of  the  most 
delicious  of  all  fruits  of  temperate  climates,  a  member  of 
the  rose  family,  and  closely  allied  to  the  apricot  and  plum. 
3Iost  botanists  now  agree  in  referring  the  peach  to  the  genus 
Prunus,  which  includes  the  plum,  and  its  botanical  name  is 
then  Prunus  persica.  There  are  some  writers,  however,  who 
prefer  to  retain  the  old  genus  Persica,  and  who  call  the 
peach  Persica  rtdgaris.  It  is  now  considered  that  the  peach 
is  native  to  China,  although  it  is  not  known  to  have  been 
found  truly  wild.  The  opinion  of  Knight,  cited  by  Darwin 
and  others,  that  the  peach  is  derived  from  the  almond  is  not 
generally  accepted.  The  species  is  a  small  tree,  usually 
under  25  feet  in  height  at  maturity,  with  a  brittle  wood,  and 
narrow,  willow-like,  lanceolate  leaves.  The  tree  is  usually 
short-lived,  rarely  living  beyond  fifty  years,  and  under  the 
strain  of  high  cultivation  and  heavy  production  it  usually 
perishes  or  becomes  unprofitable  before  the  twentieth  year. 
Tlie  flowers  are  sessile  and  borne  singly  upon  the  branches 
of  the  previous  year's  growth,  and  appear  in  early  spring  in 
advance  of  the  leaves.  They  have  a  five-parted  calyx,  five 
pink  or  blush  petals,  about  twenty  stamens  borne  upon  the 
throat  of  the  calyx,  and  a  single  superior  ovary  containing 
a  pair  of  ovules.  When  ripe  the  ovary  becomes  a  fleshy 
drupe  with  a  hard  rough  pit  or  stone,  which,  by  suppression 
of  one  ovule,  generally  contains  but  a  single  seed,  and  a  soft 
fuzzy  skin.  A  type  of  peach  has  arisen,  however,  with  a  per- 
fectly smooth  plum-like  skin,  and  this  is  known  as  the  Necta- 
rine (g.  v.).  The  peaches  pi'oper,  exclusive  of  the  nectarines, 
fall  into  two  general  classes,  the  clingstones,  or  pavies,  and 
the  freestones,  these  terms  referring  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  flesh  joins  the  pit.  These  classes  grade  into  each  other, 
especially  in  the  early  peaches  of  the  Hale  Early  type,  which 
are  pronounced  clingstones  in  oVdinary  or  dry  seasons,  but 
which  may  become  nearly  free  in  moist  seasons.  The  cling- 
stones are  now  little  prized  in  the  Eastern  .States  because 
they  are  ditficult  to  prepare  for  culinary  uses,  l)ut  they  com- 
prise the  chief  California  peaclies  which  are  now  shipped  to 
the  eastern  markets.  Each  of  these  classes  may  be  again 
divided  into  white-fleshed  and  yellow-fieshod  peaches,  of 
which  the  former  are,  in  general,  of  the  better  quality,  but 
the  latter  are  much  more  popular  in  the  market,  and  are 
therefore  mostly  grown  in  the  U.  S.  There  are  also  various 
red-fleshed  or  blood  peaches,  but  they  are  little  grown.  The 
flat  ])eaches,  sometimes  considered  a  ilistinct  species  [Priintts 
platycarpa),  are  really  only  modifications  or  varieties  of  the 
common  peach.  They  are  sometimes  flattened  to  little  more 
than  the  width  of  the  stone.  The  Peen-to  is  the  chief  rep- 
resentative of  this  class  in  the  U.  S. 

The  peach  thrives  in  those  warm  or  mid-temperate  climtitcs 
which  abound  in  warm  days  and  bright  suns.  It  is  scarcely 
grown  in  England  in  the  open  air  because  of  the  cool  and 
humid  climate.  'J'here  is  no  country  in  which  the  peach  is 
cultivated  so  commonly  and  with  such  great  success  as  in 


PEACH 


PEACOCK 


495 


the  U.  S.  Its  range  is  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Southern 
New  Enfclauil  and  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario,  in  both  New 
York  and  Canada,  and  I^ake  Mieliigan.  and  npoii  tin'  Pacific 
coast  it  again  finds  cun;;cnial  climate  over  a  wide  extent  of 
territory.  In  the  Nortliern  States  the  peach  thrives  only  in 
favored'  Idealities,  as  in  Southern  Connecticut,  along  the 
western  end  of  Lake  Ontario  and  about  the  lakes  of  Cen- 
tral Now  York,  along  Lake  Erie,  and  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  Lake  Jlichigan.  In  the  north  only  those  areas  within 
the  inthience  of  bodies  of  water  are  safe  for  peaches,  be- 
cause they  there  escape  the  late  spring  frosts  which  <lestroy 
the  fruit-buds.  Large  areas  in  Southern  Illinois,  in  Mis- 
souri, and  other  of  the  Mississippi  and  plains  States  are  de- 
voted to  peach-culture.  While  the  peach  grows  ui>on  a 
variety  of  soils,  it  thrives  best  in  a  loose  sand.  Some  of  the 
best  peach  regions  are  those  with  even  poor  and  leachy 
sandy  soil.  The  trees  are  set  from  16  to  20  feet  apart  in 
the  orchard,  and  they  should  be  given  clean  cultivation,  and 
annual  crops  slxiuld  not  be  grown  among  tliem  after  the 
third  year.  The  trees  may  be  expected  to  bear  a  crop  the 
third  year  from  planting.  Peach-trees  are  always  sold  and 
planted  when  a  year  old  or  less,  from  the  bud.  That  is,  the 
seed  is  planted  in  the  spring,  and  the  resulting  seedlings  are 
budded  the  following  .Vugust  or  September.  These  buds 
grow  the  next  spring  (see  (iRAFTixo),  or  a  year  from  the  time 
the  seeds  were  planted,  and  the  trees  are  ready  for  sale  the 
following  fall,  by  which  time  the  tree  has  grown  from  4  to 
7  feet  tall.  In  the  southern  parts  of  the  I'.  S.  this  process 
is  sometimes  hastened  by  "June  budding,"  which  consists 
in  budding  the  stocks  the  June  or  July  following  the  sowing 
of  the  seeds.  The  l)uds  grow  at  once,  and  in  the  fall  of  the 
same  year  the  trees  are  ready  for  sale.  The  varieties  of 
peaches  are  very  many.  The  Jlelocoton  tribe  is  still  the 
most  popidar  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  The  Ked- 
eheek  Melocoton  was  a  famous  peach  of  American  origin, 
which  is  now  scarcely,  if  at  all,  known  in  its  original  form. 
It  was  a  firm,  yellow-fleshed  peach,  with  a  red-splashed  cheek 
and  a  prominent  tip-like  projection  upon  the  apex.  It  is 
now  represented  by  the  Early  and  Late  Crawford  and  many 
others  of  the  same  type  ;  ancl  the  Elberta.  which  is  now  the 
leading  peach  of  the  Soutliern  and  Middle  States,  is  un- 
doubtedly an  oli'shoot  of  the  same  type.  The  Hale  Early 
type,  represented  in  many  varieties,  is  still  prominent.  This 
c'la.ss  is  characterized  by  rather  small  or  medium-sized  fruits. 
with  white  flesh  of  indifferent  quality  and  clinging  more  or 
less  tenaciously  to  the  stone.  These  are  chiefly  valuable  for 
their  earliness  and  productiveness.  The  best  account  of 
them  is  Stoll's  Amerik-auische  Friihp/irxic/ie  (Klosterneu- 
burg,  near  Vieinia,  1889).  Other  important  varieties  are 
Mountain  Hose,  Old  Mixon,  Hill's  Chili,  Stunij),  Smoek, 
Sal  way,  Stevens's  Rareripe,  Chinese  Cling,  Honey,  the  two 
last  being  chiefly  grown  in  the  Southern  States.  The  lead- 
ing peach  slii|)j>ed  from  California  is  the  Lemon  Cling  or 
similar  varieties. 

There  are  many  serious  diseases  and  insect  enemies  of 
the  peach.  The  chief  of  these  is  the  yellows,  a  disease  of  un- 
known origin,  which  always  terminates  fatally.  It  is  char- 
acterized Ijy  a  red-spoltecl  and  usually  prenuiturely  ripi'U- 
ing  fruit,  the  putting  forth  of  short  stiff-leaved  shoots  from 
the  tips  or  upper  buils  of  growing  twigs,  the  pushing  out  of 
slender  and  generally  bunched  growths  from  the  larger 
limbs  or  trunk,  and  finally  by  the  general  sickening  and  deaf  h 
of  the  tree.  It  is  now  known  that  this  disea.se  is  not  due 
to  any  peculiarities  of  soil  or  climate,  nor  to  injuries,  in- 
sects, or  parasitic  fungi.  It  is  communicable  from  tree  to 
tree,  although  its  method  of  spread  is  unknown.  An  af- 
fected tree  lives  from  three  to  six  years.  There  are  laws 
for  the  suppression  of  the  disease  in  many  peach-growing 
States.  Rosette  is  a  somewhat  similar  but  more  virulent 
disease  occurring  in  Georgia  and  Kansas. 

Fungous  diseases  of  the  peach  are  several,  of  which  the 
most  destructive  is  the  twig-blight  and  fruit-rot,  conditions 
caused  by  a  fungus.  Monilia  fnictigena.  Spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  (see  FrXGiriDE)  in  spring  before  the 
flowers  appear  is  considered  to  be  the  best  pi'cventive.  The 
curcnlio  is   the  best  known  of  the  insect  enemies  of  the 

fieach.  This  beetle  lays  its  eggs  in  the  young  fruit,  and  the 
arva>  are  the  '•  worms  "  of  the  stone  fruits.  The  Iieetlcs  are 
usually  caught  upon  sheets  or  in  a  large  canvas-covered 
hopper  by  jarring  the  trees  in  the  morning  before  the  in- 
sects begin  to  fly.  Some  success  has  been  attaitu-d  in 
spraying  cherries  with  Paris  green  (see  IxsiiCTicinK)  to  de- 
stroy the  curculio,  but  the  foliage  of  the  peach  is  so  tender 
that  such  treatment  often  injures  it,  and  it  is  also  doubtful 


if  the  practice  is  generally  efficient.  Borers  are  very  trouble- 
some in  the  trunks  of  peach-trees,  especially  near  the  base. 
These  should  be  dug  out  in  spring  and  fall.  The  stunted 
and  yellow  condition  of  trees  injiired  by  borers  is  often  mis- 
taken for  the  yellows.  For  fuller  information  on  peaches  in 
America,  see  the  fruit  manuals;  also  the  special  works  of 
Fulton,  Rutter,  and  Willcox.  L.  II.  Baii.ey. 

Peacli-enrl :  a  fungous  disease  of  peach  leaves  and 
twigs,  in  which  they  becoiue  somewhat  swollen  an<l  much 
curled  and  deformed.  It  is  causetl  by  a 
minute  parasitic  fungus,  Exuascus  de- 
foniians  (family  Gymnomtcacece),  which 
penetrates  the  tissues  of  the  leaf  and 
limUly  produces  spore-sacs  upon  the 
surface.  In  the  latter  eight  or  more 
spores  are  produced.  Scribner  recom- 
mends the  early  removal  and  destruc- 
tion of  all  the  diseased  leaves  and  shoots, 
and  suggests  spraying  the  trees  in  early 
spring  with  a  yO  to  40  per  cent,  solutioii 
of  iron  suljihate.  C.  E.  BEssf:y. 

Pc'uch-yellows :  a  contagious  <lisease 
of  peach-trees  characterized  by  the  ycl- 
lowish-grccu  foliage,  dwarf  shoots,  and  prematurely  ripened, 
often  reddish-stained  fruits.  A  year  or  two  aftei'  the  first 
attack  the  trees  die  outright.  or"langnish  for  several  yeare, 
gradually  dying  from  the  extremities  downward.  It  is"  com- 
mon in  most  peach-growing  districts  in  the  eastern  parts 
of  the  U.  S.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  certaiidy 
known,  but  is  thought  by  sonu;  investigatoi-s  to  be  due  to 
the  presence  of  bacteria.  It  is  readily  propagated  by  inocu- 
lation. No  cure  is  known;  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  re- 
move and  burn  the  affected  trees.        Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Ppacock  [pea-  <  0.  Eng.  pPa.  pmva.  peacock,  from  Lat. 
pd  CO.  peacock,  a  loan-word,  like  Gr.  raSis.  from  Semit. ;  cf. 
Arab,  tdunis] :  any  bird  of  the  genus  Pavo  and  family  Pha- 
sianida'.  The  several  species  are  remarkable  for  the  long 
and  showy  tail-coverts  <if  the  male.  Tliree  species  are  now 
recognized:  1,  Tlie  common  peacock  {Pavo  cristatus)\  2, 
the  black-shouldered  peacock  {Piiro  nif/ripciiyiix);  and,  3,  the 
Jason  peacock  (Paro  »)iilir!is\.  The  common  peacock  is  a 
native  of  Southern  and  Southeastern  Asia,  but  is  now  natu- 
ralized in  many  parts  of  (he  world.  Its  flesh  was  formerly 
employed  for  food ;  but,  except  when  young,  it  is  scarcely 
palatable.     The  white  peacock  is  an  albino  of  the  ordinary 


Spore-sacs  of  peach- 
curl.  Higlily  niag- 
iiiru'd. 


Tibet  peacock  {Polt/pleclron  tibetanum). 

species.  The  name  peacock  is  also  .sometimes  applied  to 
the  species  of  the  allied  genera,  Pulyplectroii  anil  Cro/tsoj)- 
tUnn.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Poacoek.  Thomas  Love  :  ant  hor :  b.  at  Weymouth,  Eng- 
land. Oct.  18,  1785;  entered  the  civil  service  of  the  East 
India  Company  1818:  was  employed  in  the  London  office 
of  that  corporation  until  bSoG;  was  a  friend  of  Landj  and 
Shelley,  and  wrote  a  memoir  of  the  latter.  He  was  author 
of  several  volumes  of  poems  and  romances  which  met  with 
favor  at  their  first  appearance,  were  forgotten  for  many 
yeans,  and  obtained  a  reiuMvcd  popularity  on  their  republi- 
cation in  187.5  l)y  Lord  Houghton,  accompanied  by  a  bio- 
grai)hical  sketch.  Among  his  novels  are  Ifi-rnUuiiff  Uall 
(181."));  Xiqhtmnre  Ahhry  (1818);  The  Mix  fori  idips  of  El- 
pliiu  (182!)):  and  Gryll  Gronqe  (1860).  His  principal  poems 
are  Ptilmt/rn  (1806):  T/ie  Genius  of  the  Thnme.i  (1810-12); 
and  lihododaphne  (1818).     I),  in  London.  Jan.  2:!.  1866. 

Revised  bv  II.  A.  Beers. 


496 


PEACOCK-PHEASANT 


PEARCE 


Peacock-pheasant:  any  pheasant  of  the  genus  Poly- 
phctron ;  so  called  from  the  fact  that  the  plumage,  and  es- 
pecially the  tail-feathers,  of  the  males  are  adorned  with 
large  eye-like  spots,  suggesting  tliose  of  the  peacock.  The 
generic  name  is  given  on  account  of  the  two  or  more  spurs 
which  arm  the  tarsus  of  the  males.  F.  A,  L, 

Peale,  Charles  Willson  :  painter  and  inventor ;  b.  at 
Chestertown,  Md.,  Apr.  16,  1741 ;  was  successively  a  sad- 
dler, silversmith,  watchmaker,  and  carver;  studied  painting 
under  Copley  at  Boston  and  at  the  Royal  Academy,  Lon- 
don, under  JBenjamin  West;  painted  the  first  portrait  of 
Washington  as  a  Virginia  colonel  1772;  commanded  a  com- 
pany at"  the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Germantown;  was  a 
member  of  the  Pennsylvania  convention  of  1777;  painted 
the  portraits  of  the  most  prominent  officers  of  the  Revolu- 
tion ;  was  a  leading  promoter  of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts :  opened  tlie  first  American  museum ;  was  the 
first  American  manufacturer  of  enamel  teeth ;  invented  a 
great  variety  of  machines,  and  published  a  number  of  sci- 
entific essays.     D.  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  22,  1827. 

Revised  by  Russell  Sti-rgis. 

Peale,  Rembr.\xdt  :  artist:  son  of  Charles  W.  Peale  ;  b. 
in  Bucks  CO.,  Pa.,  Feb,  22,  1778;  received  an  artistic  train- 
ing from  his  father ;  painted  a  portrait  of  Washington 
Sept.,  1795 ;  studied  under  West  at  London  1801-04  ;  spent 
several  years  at  Paris;  returned  to  Philadelphia  1809; 
achieved  eminence  as  a  portrait-painter;  executed  the  well- 
known  pictures  T/ie  Roman  Dauyhfer  and  The  Court  of 
Death  (the  latter  was  profitably  exhiljited  in  the  chief  cities 
of  the  U.  S.  for  a  number  of  years) ;  lectured  on  the  por- 
traits of  Washington,  and  published  a  Biography  of 
Charles  IF.  Peale,  Notes  on  Italy  (1831),  Portfolio  of  an 
Artist  (1839),  and  other  works  on  art.  D.  in  Philadelphia, 
Oct.  3,  1860.  Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Peanut :  See  Goober. 

Pear  [0.  Eng.  peru.  from  Lat,  pi' rum,  pear;  cf.  pi'rus. 
pear-tree,  probably  akin  to  Gr.  Sttios,  pear-tree] :  a  fruit  of 
the  rose  family,  widely  cultivated  in  temperate  climates. 
The  common  pear  is  Pyriis  communis,  and  is  native  to 
Europe.  In  recent  years  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  pears, 
belonging  to  the  species  Pi/n(s  sinensis,  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  \J,  S.  in  several  varieties.  This  species  is 
distinguished  from  P.  communis  by  a  more  vigorous  growth, 
larger  and  darker-colored  leaves  which  are  very  sharply  ser- 
rate, and  especially  by  the  long-stemmed  apple-like  fruits, 
which  generally  have  a  distinct  depression  about  the  stem. 
The  fruits  of  this  Oriental  species  are  very  much  inferior  to 
the  common  pears,  being  very  hard  and  gritty,  and  lacking 
in  agreeable  flavor.  The  tree  makes  a  good  stock  upon  which 
to  bud  or  graft  other  pears,  however,  and  the  hybrids  with  P. 
communis,  like  the  Kieffer,  Le  Conte,  and  Garber,  combine 
the  vigor  of  the  Chinese  type  with  some  of  the  edible  quali- 
ties of  the  common  type.  Pyrus  nivalis,  the  perry  or  snow- 
pear  of  Europe,  is  not  grown  in  the  U.  S.  Tlie  Russian 
pears  recently  introduced  into  the  U.  S.  are  simply  very 
hardy  and  usually  somewhat  inferior  types  of  the  common 
P.  communis.  Dwarf  pears  are  produced  by  grafting  the 
common  pears  upon  the  quince-root.  While  all  varieties  of 
pears  can  be  made  to  grow  upon  the  quince,  there  are  com- 
paratively few  which  are  considered  to  be  profitable  when 
so  grown.  Dwarf  pear-trees  are  esteemed  because  they  bear 
when  young,  and  are  usually  very  productive,  and  the' small 
size  of  the  t;ree  renders  the  labor  of  picking  and  pruning 
easy.  Pears  can  also  be  dwarfed  by  grafting  them  upon  the 
thorn-trees  (various  species  of  Cratagus),  but  experience  in 
this  direction  is  so  limited  that  the  pi'actice  can  not  be 
recommended. 

Pears  are  successfully  grown  over  a  wide  territory  in 
North  America.  In  the"  southern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  deriva- 
tives of  the  Oriental  stock,  particularly  the  Le  Conte,  are 
now  chiefiy  grown  for  commerce.  Much"  of  the  Pacific  slope 
is  admiralily  adapted  to  pear-culture,  and  in  that  region 
the  fruit  attains  a  much  greater  size  than  it  can  be  made 
to  acquire  in  the  older  States.  Of  the  Eastern  States  it  is 
generally  considered  that  New  England  and  New  York 
are  best  adapted  to  pears.  The  best  pear  lands  are  those 
which  contain  a  liberal  amount  of  clay.  Standard  pears— 
those  grown  u]>i)n  pear-roots,  in  distinction  from  dwarfs 
—are  commonly  [ilantod  from  20  to  30  feet  apart  each 
way,  and  they  are  trained  and  pruned  in  essentiallv  the 
same  manner  as  apple-trees.  The  varieties  of  pear's  are 
very  various  in  habit  of  growth,  however,  and  the  nu'tliods 
of  pruning  should  be  carefully  adapted  to  the  particular 


variety  in  hand.  Dwarf  pears  are  set  about  13  to  15  feet  apart, 
although  the  distance  should  be  adjusted  to  the  method  of 
trimming.  If  the  trees  are  kept  in  a  narrow  form  and 
allowed  to  grow  rather  high  they  may  be  set  as  close  as  10 
feet,  but  if  they  are  trimmed  in  the  flat-topped  fashion  a 
rod  apart  each  way  is  not  too  great.  It  is  essential  to  suc- 
cess in  the  culture  of  dwarf  pears  that  the  trees  be  kept 
low.  The  tops  should  never  rise  above  10  or  12  feet.  This 
is  accomplished  by  shortening  in  the  annual  growth  a  third 
or  half  its  length  every  winter.  Trees  kept  to  this  stature 
do  not  become  top-heavy  and  break  ofl!  at  the  union  with 
the  quince,  and  they  do  not  make  greater  demands  than  the 
quince-root  can  meet.  It  is  also  important  that  the  point 
of  union  between  the  pear  and  quince  should  be  placed  from 
3  to  6  inches  in  the  ground,  in  order  to  prevent  the  break- 
ing apart  of  the  two,  and  to  protect  the  quince-stock  from 
borers.  If  attention  is  given  to  these  essentials  dwarf  pear- 
trees,  contrary  to  the  general  notion,  will  continue  to  thrive 
and  bear  for  more  than  half  a  century.  The  pear,  whether 
upon  the  roots  of  pear  or  quince,  is  budded  in  the  nursery 
during  the  summer  season.  Nurserymen  in  the  U.  S.  com- 
monly import  pear-stocks  or  seedlings  from  France,  because 
seeds  are  more  easily  obtained  there,  the  labor  required  in 
growing  them  can  be  procured  more  cheaply,  and  the  leaf- 
blight,  which  is  a  serious  disease  in  the  U.  S.,  is  not  present. 
These  stocks  are  commonly  imported  when  a  year  old — that 
is,  in  the  fall  succeeding  the  sowing  of  the  seeds.  The.se  are 
set  in  nursery  rows,  and  are  budded  the  following  summer, 
when  the  stocks  are  in  their  second  year.  These  buds  start 
the  fuUowing  spring  in  the  North,  and  when  they  have 
grown  two  or  three  years  the  trees  are  ready  for  sale.  "  Dwarf 
pears  are  propagated  in  much  the  same  manner.  About 
3,000  varieties  of  pears  are  described,  but  the  number  in 
general  cultivation  in  the  U.  S.  will  not  greatly  exceed  fifty. 
The  most  popular  of  all  pears  in  North  America  is  tlie 
Bartlett.  which  originated  in  England  about  1770,  and  which 
is  there  known  as  Williams's  Bonchretien,  from  one  Will- 
iams, a  nurseryman  of  Turnham  Green,  who  obtained  it 
from  Wheeler,  who  raised  it.  This  is  nearly  always  grown 
as  a  standard.  Other  leading  sorts  are  Howell,  Sheldon, 
Flemish  Beauty,  Anjou,  Clairgeau,  Lawrence,  Summer  Do- 
yenne. Seckel,  Louise  Bonne.  Kieffer  is  also  gaining  rapidlv 
in  favor,  because  of  its  vigor  and  productiveness,  althougli 
the  fruit  is  low  in  qualitv.  Le  Conte,  of  the  same  type,  is 
the  most  popidar  pear  of  the  southern  parts  of  the"  V.  S. 
For  dwarfs,  Duchesse  d'Angouleme  is  the  most  popular, 
although  several  other  varieties  thrive  upon  the  quince. 
Pears  improve  in  ciuality  if  picked  before  full  maturity — 
but  when  fully  grown — and  are  ripened  in  a  dry,  cool  room. 
The  most  serious  disease  of  pears  is  the  pear-blight,  or 
fire-l)light.  This  is  a  germ  disease,  the  microbes  residing 
in  the  wood,  usually  of  the  smaller  limbs,  and  breaking 
down  the  starch  contents  of  the  ccll.s.  The  germs  probably 
enter  the  tree  through  the  growing  or  expanding  tips,  as 
the  apex  of  a  shoot  or  the  flowers.  They  do  not  enter 
through  the  roots.  The  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  a  uni- 
form browning  and  finally  blackening  of  the  leaves  and 
young  shoots,  and  the  death  of  the  bark  along  the  branches 
where  the  injury  has  proceeded.  The  only  treatment  is  to 
cut  off  the  affected  parts  and  burn  them.  Pear-blight  is 
peculiar  to  North  America.  This  disease  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  pear-leaf  blight,  which  causes  the  leaves 
to  become  spotted  and  to  fall,  and  which,  when  it  attacks 
the  fruit,  makes  the  pears  crack.  This  leaf-blight  is  caused 
by  a  parasitic  fungus  {Entomosporium  maculatuni),  and  it 
can  be  readily  overcome  by  the  use  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 
(See  Fungicide.)  The  fungus  which  renders  pears  scabby  is 
practically  the  same  as  that  which  produces  the  similar  con- 
dition upon  the  apple,  and  the  treatment  is  the  spray  of  Bor- 
deaux mixture.  Among  insects,  the  codlin-moth  is  probably 
best  known.  Its  larva  is  the  "worm"  of  apples  and  pears. 
This  insect  is  combated  by  sprays  of  arsenites.  (See  Insec- 
ticide.) There  are  also  various  boi-ers  in  pear-trees,  which 
should  be  dug  out  as  sonn  as  discovered.  There  arc  otlier 
insects  which  occasionally  do  great  damage  in  certain  locali- 
ties or  in  particular  years.  For  further  information,  the 
reader  should  consult  the  fruit  manuals  ;  also  Field's  Pear- 
culture  ;  Quinn's  Pear-culture  for  Profit ;  Parry's  Forty 
Years'  Experience  in  Pear-groiring;  and  Waite's  Pollina- 
tion of  Pear  Flowers  (Bull,  5,  Div.  Vegetable  Pathology, 
Dept.  Agr.,  Washington).  "    L.  H.  Bailey. 

Pearce,  Charles  Spracjue  :  figure  and  portrait  painter; 
b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  13,  1851 ;  pupil  of  Bonnat  in  Paris ; 


PEA  RIDGE 


PEASANTS'  WAR 


497 


member  Society  of  American  Artists  1886;  received  honor- 
able mention,  Paris  Salon,  18S1 ;  third-class  medal,  Paris 
Salon,  IHKJ;  Temple  gold  medal,  Pennsylvania  Academy, 
Philadelphia,  1885;  medal  of  honor,  ('ihent  Kxhiliilinn, 
1886;  second-class  medal.  Munich  Kxhibition,  1888;  mem- 
ber of  the  international  jury  of  awards,  Paris  Exposition, 
188!t;  Krand  diploma.  Berlin"  Kxhiliilion,  18!)1.  His  works 
are  notable  for  tine  drawinj;  and  cleverness  of  exeiMition. 
Ills  Fanlaisie  is  in  the  Temple  collection,  Penn.sylvania 
Academy,  Philadelphia,  and  [lictiires  by  him  are  in  the  Art 
Institute,  Chicago,  Boston  Art  t'lid),  and  the  Massachusetts 
Charitable  Mechanics  As.sociation,  Boston.  Studio  at  Au- 
vers-sur-Uise,  France.  William  A.  Cokfi.n. 

Pea  Ridgre:  a  range  of  hills  in  Benton  co.,  Ark.,  near 
the  northwest  corner  of  the  Slate,  noted  fur  the  important 
battle  fought  tlu're  .Mar.  6-8.  ISOi.  bi'tween  the  I'Micin  forces 
under  Gen.  Curtis  and  the  Confederates  under  Lien.  Van 
Dorn,  resulting  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter. 

Pearlasll :  a  term  often  applied  to  the  commercial  potassi- 
um bicarbonate.  Pearlash,  however,  is  properly  ihe  same  sub- 
stance as  commercial  potash,  which  has  merely  been  sub- 
jected to  a  somewhat  more  careful  [ireparation.  The  black 
salt.s,  or  crude  black  ])otash  obtained  by  the  boiling  down 
of  lye  from  wood-ashes,  instead  of  being  simply  fused,  is 
stirred  for  some  time  with  an  iron  rod  upon  the  hearth  of  a 
furnace  in  which  a  flame  is  nuide  to  play  over  the  mass. 
The  carbonaceous  impurities  are  thus  Imrned  out.  and  the 
mass  becomes  of  a  more  or  less  bluish-white  color.      See 

PoTASSilM. 

Pear-leaf  Blight :  See  Blight. 

Pearl-flsheries :  the  Inisiness  or  jiractiee  of  taking  shell- 
fish which  produce  pearls,  es]>eeially  the  pearl  oyster,  Mcir- 
garitijiliora  margari/ifera.  Lam.,  a  species  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  tropical  seas,  and  subject  to  consider- 
able local  variation,  some  authorities  recognizing  three 
species  instead  of  oiu'.  While  originally  prosecuted  for  the 
pearls  alone,  pearl-fisheries  are  now  carried  on  equally  for 
the  sake  of  the  pearl  oyster  shells,  from  12,000  to  lo.OOO 
tons  of  these  being  aniuially  employed  for  the  manufacture 
of  various  articles.  The  earliest  recorded  fisheries  were 
those  carried  on  in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  on  the  coast  of 
Ceylon.  Later  the  Bed  Sea  furnished  pearls  for  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  after  the  discovery  of  America  large  numbers 
were  taken  from  the  tiulf  of  Panama  and  along  the  north- 
ern coast  of  South  America.  At  present  the  most  impor- 
tant fisheries  are  in  the  Persian  (iulf.  the  Gulf  of  Manaar — 
between  Ceylon  and  the  mainland — the  Gulf  of  California, 
the  Sulu  Archipelago,  and  on  the  tropical  coasts  of  Austra- 
lia. The  txulf  of  JIanaar  has  always  been  a  famous  ground. 
and  as  early  as  l:!:iO  8.000  boats  were  engaged  there.  The 
extensive  Australian  fisheries  are  carried  on  princi]>ally  for 
the  sake  of  the  shells,  and  have  their  headquarters  at  Thurs- 
day island,  in  Torres  Straits,  where  the  best  shells  are  found. 
Before  the  discovery  of  the  Australian  groimds  the  ])rice  of 
tlic  best  pearl  shell  had  reached  ijCi.OOO  ]ier  ton,  but  their 
immense  yield  has  reduced  the  price  to  $900  per  ton  for  the 
best,  the  value  ranging  from  that  down  to  $'iOO.  For  a 
long  time  the  only  means  of  obtaining  jiearls  was  the  primi- 
tive one  of  divers  working  from  open  boats  without  other 
o(|uipment  than  a  stone  to  aid  them  in  tlieir  descent,  and 
this  method  is  still  pursued.  Tliese  divers  stayed  under 
from  fifty  to  eighty  seconds,  gathering  such  shells  as  were 
at  hand,  and  placing  them  in  a  basket  to  be  inilled  up  by 
men  in  the  boat  aljove.  A  boat  carried  usually  ten  divers, 
who  worked  in  pairs,  the  one  above  pulling  up  the  sink- 
stone  when  his  partner  was  at  the  bottom,  and  later  on  pidl- 
ing  him  up  also.  At  jirescnt  the  Diving-drkss  {«.  /•.)  is  ex- 
tensively employed,  and  by  its  aid  the  oysters  can  be  taken 
in  water  120  feet  deep,  although  the  majority  are  gathered 
in  water  from  40  to  .50  feet  deep.  This  apnaratus  neces- 
sitates the  use  of  somewhat  larger  boats  tlian  wi>re  eni- 
]iloyed  in  the  old  style  of  fishery,  and  on  the  Australian 
coast  the  favorite  boat  is  a  lugger  of  about  10  tons  bunlen. 
Dredging  is  also  employed  to  gather  shells  in  Australia. 
The  use  of  the  diving-dress  temiiorarily  incrca.'^es  the  yield 
of  pearl  shells,  but  <lepletes  the  beils  rapidly,  and  consider- 
able attention  is  being  given  to  the  problems  of  regulating 
the  fisheries  and  cultivating  the  pearl  oyster.  In  Ceylon 
tliere  has  long  been  a  close  time,  and  the  hours  during 
which  fishing  may  be  carried  on  are  also  fixed  by  law.  In- 
formation eoneeriung  the  pearl-fisheries  and  statistics  of 
their  products  are  meager  ami  not  very  reliable.  The  an- 
nual yield  of  the  Gidf  of  California  is  said  to  be  aVniut 
316 


$350,000,  that  of  the  Persian  Gulf  not  far  from  |2,000,000. 
In  1887  ;50,i)47.905  shells,  value  not  given,  were  taken  in 
Ceylon,  and  the  product  of  the  shell-fishery  of  (Queensland 
averages  t6y,000. 

Some  gathering  of  unios  for  pearls  has  been  done  in  the 
U.  S.,  ]jrinci|ially  in  Ohio,  and  tliere  have  been  fisheries  for 
these  shells  of  some  extent  in  Scotland.  The  industry  is 
systematically  carried  on  in  parts  of  Europe,  notalily  in  Ger- 
many, and  to  a  very  much  greater  extent  in  China,  where  con- 
siderable attention  is  also  given  to  the  production  of  what 
may  be  termed  sacred  shells.  This  is  done  by  introducing 
small  figures  of  Buddha,  or  other  divinity,  stamped  from  tin 
or  cop|icr,  between  the  shell  and  mantle.  The  mussel  is  then 
returned  to  the  water,  and  in  the  course  of  from  six  months 
to  two  years  retaken,  when  the  figures  are  found  coated 
with  pearl  uniform  with  the  lining  of  the  shell.     F.  A.  L. 

Pearl  River:  a  river  formed  by  .several  head-streams 
which  unite  in  Leake  co.,  Miss.  It  flows  in  a  general  S. 
course  for  250  miles  into  the  Mississippi,  and  is  for  some 
distance  the  eastern  liouudary  of  Louisiana.  Its  navigation 
is  impeded  by  snags  and  sand-bars. 

Pearls:  secretions  of  the  "mantle"  or  lining  membrane 
of  various  kinds  of  shellfish,  consisting,  like  the  shell  itself, 
of  carbonate  of  lime  united  with  animal  matter.  They  are 
of  the  same  color  as  the  interior  of  the  shell  in  which  they 
are  found — white,  black,  pink,  etc.,  but  generally  "  pearly," 
or  nacreous,  as  it  is  termed,  i.  e.  with  a  play  of  <lelicate 
tints.  The  quality  of  a  pearl  is  ti^rmed  its  orient.  They  are 
often  attached  to  the  inside  of  the  shell,  or  are  irregular  or 
distorted  in  form,  and  have  then  but  little  value,  only  those 
of  finely  rounded  shape  or  pear-shaped  being  employed  in 
fine  jewelry.  The  pearls  of  commerce  come  chiefly  from  a 
large  shellfish  known  as  the  pearl-oyster  (Meleagrina),  and 
are  procured  mainly  in  the  Persian  tiiilf  and  on  the  west 
coast  of  Mexico.  The  shells  themselves  yield  "mother-of- 
[learl."  Along  the  California  coast  the  brilliant  pearly  green 
alxilone.  shells  (naliotis)  are  gathered  in  like  manner  for 
inlaid  work  and  ornaments,  and  in  them  are  found  green 
pearls.  Pink  pearls,  not  nacreous,  are  obtained  from  the 
large  pink  conehs  (Strombus)  of  the  West  Indies.  The  river- 
shells,  or  "fresh-water  mussels"  (Utiios),  yield  pearls  also, 
and  they  abound  in  the  rivers  of  the  U.  S.  Some  of  these 
have  rich  tints,  and  fine  pink,  cherry-colored,  coppery,  and 
other  "fancy"  pearls  have  been  found  in  the  rivers  of  Ohio 
and  other  States.  George  F.  Ku.nz. 

Pearl  Wliite :  See  Bismuth. 

Pearson.  John,  D.  D.  ;  theologian  ;  b.  at  Great  Snoring, 
England,  Feb.  28,  1613;  educated  at  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, \yhere  he  became  fellow  1635;  was  afterward  divin- 
ity professor  and  master  of  Trinity  College  (1662),  and  be- 
came in  1672  Bishop  of  Chester.  1).  at  Chester.  July  16, 
1086.  Author  of  An  E.rposition  of  the  Creed  (105'J).  "  His 
Minor  Theological  Works  were  imblished  in  1844. 

Peary,  Robert  E.  ;  Arctic  explorer;  b.  at  Cre.sson  Springs, 
Pa..  May  6, 1856;  educated  at  Bowdoin  College;  entered  the 
civil  engineer  corps  of  the  U.  S.  navy  1S81.  In  1886.  with 
one  companion,  he  penetrated  the  Greenland  ice-cap  for  100 
miles  in  lat.  69'  30'  N.;  went,  with  six  companions,  to  Wc- 
Cormick  Bay.  X.  W.  Greenland,  1891,  to  study  the  Eskimos; 
in  1892,  in  a  brilliant  sledge  journey  of  1.300  miles,  discov- 
ered Independence  Bay  on  the  N.  E.  eoa.sl  (lat.  81  37'  X.); 
partly  outlined  Peary  Channel,  supposed  to  be  the  northern 
limitof  Greenland,  which  he  jiroved  to  be  an  island  ;  reached 
Independence  Bay  again  in  1895  (after  defeat  liy  ])rolonged 
storms  in  1894).  but  was  unabh-.  on  account  of  failing  sup- 
plies, etc..  to  explore  the  archipelago  to  the  X.  of  Greenland. 
In  1896  he  continued  his  work  along  the  X.  \V.  coast,  and 
added  greatly  to  his  collections  illustrating  the  geology,  eth- 
nology, and  natural  history  of  N.  Greenland. 

Peasants"  War:  the  revolutionary  rising  of  the  jieasants 
of  Southern  and  Central  Germany  in  1525.  The  Reforma- 
tion was  the  immediate  occasion  of  this  movement,  but  not 
its  real  cause.  Similar  risings  on  a  smaller  scale  were  of 
frequent  occurrence  previously  to  the  Reformation  every- 
where in  Germany,  and  the  real  cause  of  all  these  risings 
was  the  miserable  social  condition  of  the  peasants.  They 
were  serfs  ;  that  is  to  say,  they  belonged  to  the  soil  on  which 
they  were  born,  and  through  that  to  the  lord  who  owned  the 
soil".  The  latter  often  appropriated  for  his  own  use  the  com- 
mon pasture-grounds  of  the  village,  forbade  his  tenants  to 
fish  in  the  streams  and  hunt  in  the  woods,  and  increased 
the  ground-rent,  the  tithe,  and  the  socage  service  to  an  op- 


498 


PEASLEE 


PECK 


pressive  degree.  While  these  were  the  causes  of  the  revolt 
the  Reformation,  with  its  sudden  enkindling  of  religious 
fanaticism  in  crude  and  ignorant  minds,  supplied  the  occa- 
sion. In  spite  of  the  warnings,  and  even  denunciations  of 
Luther  and  Jlelanchthon,  several  of  the  Reformers,  such  as 
Karlstadt,  and  many  of  their  adherents  among  the  nobility, 
aimed  at  once  at  a  social  and  religious  Reformation  of  the 
most  radical  nature.  In  1.524  a  general  fermentation_spread 
among  the  German  peasantry;  and  when,  Jan.  1,  152.5,  the 
convent  of  Kempt  en  was  captured  and  plundered  by  a 
swarm  of  revolting  peasants,  this  event  became  the  signal 
for  a  general  rising  of  the  peasantry  from  the  Alps  to  the 
Hartz  and  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Bohemian  frontier.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few  cases  (as  Thomas  Miinzer  and  Gotz 
von  Berlichingen)  the  peasants  had  no  leaders  and  no  or- 
ganization. Thev  gathered  together  in  multitudes  of  from 
8,000  to  30,000.  Castles  were  burned,  monasteries  destroyed, 
cities  plundered,  and  the  most  atrocious  cruelties  com- 
mitted. As  soon,  however,  as  they  fell  in  with  regular 
armies — in  the  S.  under  Truchsess  von  Waldburg,  in  the  N. 
under  Philip  of  Hesse — they  were  routed  or  massacred  in 
spite  of  their  fierce  resistance;  and  the  revenge  which  the 
ruling  classes  took  upon  them  was  as  cruel  and  as  barbar- 
ous as  their  own  behavior.  Though  the  war  lasted  only  a 
few  months,  it  resulted  in  an  enormous  loss  of  life  and 
property.  The  social  position  of  the  peasantry  remained 
tlie  same,  or  became  even  worse.  See  Oeehsle,  Beitriige  ziir 
Geschiclife  des  cleiilschen  Baiicrnlriegs  (1829);  Wachsmuth, 
Der  deutsche  Bauernkrieg  (1834);  Bensen,  Geschichte  des 
Bauernkriegs  in  Ostfranken  (1840);  Zimmermann.  Allye- 
meine  Geschichte  des  grossen  Bauernkriegs  (\84l-4S):  Cor- 
nelius, Sludien  zur  Geschichte  des  Bauernkriegs  (1862); 
Schreiber,  Der  deutsche  Bauernkrieg  (1864). 

Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Peaslee,  Edmdnd  Randolph,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  gynaecolo- 
gist ;  b.  at  Newton,  N.  H.,  Jan.  22, 1814 ;  graduated  at  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1836,  and  in  medicine  at  Yale  in  1840 ; 
was  appointed  lecturer  at  Dartmouth  in  anatomy  and  phys- 
iology in  1841,  and  was  professor  of  the  same  1842-70;  at 
Bowdoin  College  was  lecturer  on  anatomy  and  surgery  in 
1843,  and  professor  1845-57,  when  he  gave  up  anatomy,  and 
remained  Professor  of  Surgery  till  1860 ;  was  Professor  of 
Physiology  and  General  Pathology  in  1851  in  New  York 
Medical  College,  and  Professor  of  Obstetrics  1858-60;  was 
Professor  of  Gynsecology  at  Dartmouth  in  1872,  at  the  Belle- 
vue  Hospital  Medical  College  in  New  York  in  1874.  In  1858 
he  took  up  his  residence  in  New  York.  The  degree  of 
LLi.  D.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  his  alma  mater  in  1859. 
He  had  been  president  of  the  New  Hampshire  State  Medical 
Society  and  of  several  other  medical  associations,  and  was 
an  honorary  member  of  gynaecological  or  obstetrical  socie- 
ties in  Boston,  Berlin,  Philadelphia,  and  Louisville.  He 
publisheil  Unman  JJistologi/  (1857) ;  Orarian  Tumors  and 
Uvariijtomy  (1872) ;  besides  numerous  articles  in  the  medical 
journals.     D.  in  New  York,  Jan.  21.  1878. 

Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Peat :  See  Fuel. 

Peat-mosses :  See  Mossworts. 

Pea-weevil,  or  Pea-bll^:  a  small  dark  beetle  {Brttchxis 
pisi),  well  known  for  its  ravages  among  dried  peas.  It  may 
be  destroyed  by  scalding  the  peas  before  planting.  The  in- 
sect lays  her  egg  in  the  llower,  and  the  grub  passes  into  the 
pea  while  it  is  still  growing. 

Pebble  [0.  Eng.  papol-stdn,  liter,  (in  torm),  pebble-stone, 
probably  a  loan-word  from  Latin  papula,  pimple]  :  a  small 
water-worn  stone  of  any  variety.  Scotch  pebble  is  simply 
agate.  Brazilian  pebble  is  a  very  transparent  rock-crystal 
sometimes  used  by  spectacle-makers  as  a  material  for  their 
lenses.  It  is.  however,  much  inferior  to  good  glass.  Most 
of  the  so-called  pebble-spectacles  are  of  common  glass. 

Pecan'  (Fr.  pecane):  a  tree,  the  Can/a  olivcfformis  (also 
known  as  Ilicoria  peran),  a  species  of  hickory  growing  on 
river-banks  from  Indiana  to  Texas.  The  pecan  is  well 
known  for  its  fine,  delicious  nuts,  also  called  pecans,  which 
constitute  a  considenible  article  of  commerce.  The  tree  is 
tall,  slender,  and  has  a  hard  timber.  In  the  States  border- 
ing on  the  (Julf  of  Mexico  it,  is  (ilanted  in  orchards  for  its 
nuts,  and  a  score  or  more  of  named  varieties  are  grown. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Pec'cary  [from  native  S.  Amer.  name;  cf.  Fr.  pecari. 
Span,  pecar]:  anyone  of  certain  swine-like,  artiodactylate 
ungulates,  composing  the  family  Dicotylidie.    The  peccaries 


are  of  two  species,  both  American.  The  collared  peccary 
{Dicotyles  tajacu)  ranges  from  Arkansas  southwestward 
through  Mexico  and  over  a  great  part  of  South  America. 
It  is  3  feet  long  and  sometimes  weighs  60  lb.  It  is  of  a  dark- 
gray  color,  and  has  a  gland  upon  the  loins  which  secretes  a 
fetid  substance,  it  is  gregarious,  and  is  a  dangerous  animal 
to  attack,  as  the  herd  often  assails  the  offending  huntsman 
most  vigorously  and  persistently  with  their  strong  tusks. 
The  white-lipped  peccary  (Dicotyles  labiatus)  is  a  larger 
South  American  species.  Both  kinds  are  very  destructive 
to  growing  crops,  both  are  swine-like  in  habits  and  appear- 
ance.    Their  flesh  is  somewhat  like  pork,  but  not  so  good. 

Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Peechio.  pek  ki-o,  Giuseppe,  Count  :  publicist  ;  b.  at 
Milan,  Italy.  Nov.  1.5,  1785;  d.  at  Brighton,  England,  June 
4,  1835.  After  taking  his  degree  in  law  at  Pavia  he  re- 
turned to  Milan,  anil  in  1810  was  given  an  important  ad- 
ministrative post.  In  1814  the  overthrow  of  the  old  politi- 
cal conditions  led  to  his  retirement  into  private  life.  In 
1819,  however,  he  was  elected  to  the  jirovincial  assembly  ; 
but  he  became  implicated  in  the  revolutionary  movement, 
and  the  unhappy  insurrection  of  Mar.,  1821,  caused  him  to 
flee  to  Switzerland.  Thence  he  went  to  Spain,  where  he 
wrote  down  his  impressions  in  his  Sei  mesi  in  Ispagna  nel 
1S21  (Madrid,  1821).  Having  made  the  acquaintance  of 
the  English  Dr.  Bowring,  he  went  with  him  to  Portugal, 
writing  there  his  Tre  mesi  in  Portogallo  (Lisbon,  1822). 
Thence  he  went  to  England  and  became  a  teacher  of  Italian 
in  Nottingh.am.  In  1825  he  and  Count  Gamba  were  in- 
trusted by  the  friends  of  Greece  with  the  delivery  of  £60,- 
000  that  had  been  raised  to  help  the  cause  of  Greek  inde- 
pendence. This  mission  resulted  in  his  book,  Relazione 
degli  avvenimenti  delta  Grecia  nella  primavera  del  1S25 
(1826).  Returning  to  England.  Pecchio  became  Professor 
of  Modern  Languages  at  Jlanchester  (1826) ;  but  in  1828  he 
married  a  wealthy  laily  and  went  to  Brighton  to  live.  Be- 
sides the  works  already  mentioned,  we  have  from  him : 
Sagqio  storico  sulV  Annninistrazione  fiiuniziera  dell'  Ex- 
Regno  d'ltalia  del  1S02  at  ISU  (1820  ;  2d  ed.  1826) ;  L'an- 
no  1S.2G  delV  Inghilterra  (1827);  Sturia  delV  Economia 
Pubblica  in  Italia  (1829) ;  Vita  di  Ugo  Foscolo  (1830) ;  Os- 
servazioni  seini-serie  di  un  Esule  suit'  Inghilterra  (1831); 
Storia  critica  delta  Poesia  Inglese  (unfinished,  4  vols.,  1833- 
35).    See  Ugoni,  Vita  e  Scritti  di  G.  Pecchio  (Paris.  1836). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Peclit :  See  Bubastis. 

Peck,  George,  I).  D.  :  clergyman  and  author;  b.  in  Mid- 
dlefield,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  8,  1797;  traveled  and  preached  exten- 
sivelv :  was  princii)al  of  Cneida  Conference  Seminary  18.35- 
39,  then  editor  of  The  Methodist  Quarterly  Review  (1840) 
and  of  The  Christian  Advocate  (1848);  wrote  Wyoming,  its 
History,  etc.  .{ISoS);  Universalism  Examined;  History  of 
the  Apostles  and  Evangelists;  Scripture  Doctrine  of  Chris- 
tian Perfection  ;  Rule  of  Eaith  ;  History  of  Methodism 
within  the  Bounds  of  Old  Genesee  Conference;  and  Life 
and  Tiynes  of  George  Peck  (1874).  D.  at  Seranton.  Pa.,  May 
1,  1876.  Revised  by  A.  Osborn. 

Peck,  Jesse  Truesdell,  D.  D.  :  bishop;  b.  at  ^Middle- 
field,  N.  Y..  Aug.  4,  1811  ;  joined  the  Oneida  Conference  in 
1832;  became  principal  of  the  Methodist  seminary  at  Gou- 
verneur,  N.  Y.,  in  1837,  and  of  Troy  Conference  Academy  at 
West  Poultney,  Yt.,  in  1841 ;  in  1848  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  but  after  four  years' 
service  returned  to  the  pastorate.  He  occupied  Foundry 
pulpit  in  Washington,  D.  C,  1852-.54,  and  was  secretary  and 
editor  of  the  tract  society  of  his  Church  1854-56.  He  sub- 
sequently served  several  years  in  pulpits  in  New  York  city 
and  California,  Peekskill.  Alliany.  and  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
where  he  was  active  in  foun<ling  the  Syracuse  University. 
In  1872  he  was  elected  bishop.  He  was  author  of  The  Cen- 
tral Idea  of  Chrisfianifu  (New  York,  1855);  The  True 
Woman  (1857) :  What  must  I  do  to  he  Saved  ?  (18.58) ;  and 
The  Ilistort/  of  the  Great  Republic  (1868).  D.  at  Svracuse, 
N.  Y..  JIay"l7,  1883.  Revised  by  A.  Osborn. 

Peck,  John  jMason,  D.  D.  :  preacher ;  b.  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  Oct.  31,  1789;  became  a  licen.sed  Baptist  preacher  in 
Greene  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1811 ;  was  ordained  in  1813;  removed 
in  1817  to  St.  Louis ;  was  for  forty  years  a  successful  pio- 
neer preacher  of  Illinois  and  Missouri ;  organized  in  1826  the 
first  church  of  his  denomination  in  St.  Louis ;  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  ShurtlefE  College.  Upper  Alton,  111.,  and  of 
the  theological  school  at  Covington.  Ky. ;  received  in  1852 
the  degree  of  D.  D.   from   Harvard   College.      Author  of 


PECK 


PEDAGOGICS 


499 


Guides  for  Emigrantx  (1831  ami  lH:i6):  OaztiUeTofltti- 
now  (18:k):  Life  of  Bonne,  in  Spurkss  colled  ion;  Father 
Clark:  the  Pioneer  'Preacher  (1855).  D.  at  Rock  Spring,  111., 
Mar.  15.  1S5S. 

Peck,  Tk.uv,  \.  M. :  classical  scholar ;  I),  at  Hristol,  Conn., 
May  i4,  1«:18;  f^raduatcd  at  Yale  ISIil,  and  Herlin  Univer- 
sity; Professor  of  Latin,  t'nrnell  University.  ISTl-SO;  Ijc- 
cai'ne  Professor  of  Latin  in  Yale  Collef;e  1880;  editor,  with 
Prof.  C.  L.  Smith,  of  Harvard,  of  a  College  .Series  of  Latin 
Authors;  author  of  various  philological  and  critical  papers. 
especially  in  the  line  of  restoring  to  Latin  its  ancient  pro- 
nunciation ;  president  American  Philological  A.ssociation 
188.5-«6. 

Peck,  WiM.i.kM  Guy,  LL. D.,  Ph.D.:  soldier  and  mathe- 
matician; b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Oct.  16,  1820;  graduated 
at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  in  1844;  was  oronioted  to  the 
U.  S.  Corps  of  Topographical  Engineers,  and  served  on  the 
survev  of  Portsmouth  liarlior,  in  Western  explorations  un- 
der l-^remont,  and  at  the  Military  Academy  as  Assistant 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  till  the  breaking  out  of  the  war 
with  Mexico.  He  was  then  assigned  to  duty  with  the  Army 
of  the  West  under  Gen.  Kearny,  and  served  in  that  capacity 
till  the  end  of  the  war,  when  he  was  detailed  for  duty  as 
assistant  instructor  in  mathematics  at  the  Military  x\cad- 
emy.  After  eight  years  of  service  at  West  I'oint  he  resigned 
his'commission  in  Oct.,  185.5.  and  was  for  two  years  Profes- 
sor of  Physics  and  Civil  Engineering  in  the  University  of 
Michigan.'  In  1857  he  was  called  to  Columbia  College,  Xew 
York,  in  which  institution  he  thereafter  served  as  Professor 
of  Mathematics,  Mechanics,  and  Astronomy.  lie  was  en- 
gaged with  Prof.  Charles  Davies  in  compiling  a  dictionary 
and  encydopa'dia  of  mathematics;  he  was  the  author  of  a 
treatise  on  mechanics,  and  the  American  editor  of  Ganofs 
po[)ular  Phy.fics,  besides  which  he  wrote  and  published  a 
complete  course  of  mathematical  text-bt)oks.  1).  at  Green- 
wich, Conn.,  Feb.  7,  1892.         Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Peeos :  See  TaSoan  I.vdiaxs. 

Pet'os  River:  a  stream  of  Xew  Mexico  and  Texas;  rises 
in  San  .Miguel  co.,  X.  M.,  and  flows  in  a  general  S.  S.  E. 
course,  falling  into  the  Rio  Grande  del  Xorte  after  a  course 
of  800  miles.  It  flows  through  a  broken  country,  and  in 
summer  is  dry  the  greater  part  of  its  length. 

Pecquet,  pdkiT',  .Teax:  anatomist;  b.  at  Dieppe,  France, 
about  1620;  studied  medicine,  and  especially  anatomy,  at 
Montpellier;  discovered  and  demonstrated  the  course  of 
the  lacteal  vessels  in  the  body ;  wrote  Experimenta  Xova 
Anatomira  (1651);  De  Circulafione  Sanguinis  et  Cfii/li 
Motu  and  De  Thoracis  Lacfeix  (1651).  Pecquefs  discovery, 
which  soon  proved  to  be  of  the  greatest  |>ra(:tical  impor- 
tance, and  has  exercised  a  great  influenci'  on  the  develop- 
ment of  physiology,  immediately  found  many  ardent  ad- 
herents, but  also  many  vehement  opponents.     D.  in  1674. 

Pectase :  a  substance  of  the  class  of  ferments  found  in 
association  with  PtxTOSE  (q.  v.)  in  the  tissues  of  fruits  and 
vegetables.  The  special  function  of  pectase  is  to  transform 
the  pectose  of  unripe  fruits,  in  the  process  of  ri|iening,  to 
Pectin  (q.  v.).  Pectase  is  producible  from  the  fresh  juice  of 
a  plant — the  carrot,  for  example — by  precipitating  with  al- 
cohol. This  converts  it  into  an  insoluble  modification,  with- 
out, however,  depriving  it  of  its  peculiar  fermentive  action 
upon  pectosic  substances.  It  has  not  been  obtained  in  a 
crystalline  form,  being  doubtless  a  colloid  substance,  like 
diastase,  synapta.se,  and  ferments  generally. 

Revised  by  Iba  Rkmskn. 

Pectic  Acid:  an  insoluble  gelatinous  substance  produced 
by  the  action  of  alkaline  solutions  upon  the  Pectin  (q.  v.)  of 
ripe  fruits  and  vegetables.  Frcmy  calculates  its  conmosilion 
as  CibIUjOis,  but  this  is  not  regarded  as  settled.  The  pec- 
tates  of  the  alkalies  are  soluble,  but  all  other  bases  form 
elly-like  in.soluble  nuLsses,  almost  impos,sible  to  wash  pure, 
'eclie  acid,  pectosic  acid,  anil  pectin  are  the  principal  i-on- 
stituents  which  give  the  gelatinous  character  to  preserved 
fruits,  fruit  and  vegetable  jellies,  etc. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsex. 

Pectin,  or  Plant-jelly  [per/in  is  from  Gr.  itjiktiJi,  cur- 
dled, congealed,  deriv.  of  Tnryiyai.  make  fast  or  stifT]:  a 
substance  existing  naturally  in  ripe  fruits  and  vegetable 
juices  generally,  being  a  jiroduct,  during  the  ripening,  of 
the  peculiar  ferment  called  Pectase  (</.  i'.)  on  the  Pectose 
(q.  >:)  of  \niripe  vegetables  and  fruits.  It  was  obtained  by 
liraconnot.  its  discoverer,  by  jirecipitating  ripe-apple  juice 
with  alcohol,  after  boiling  to  coagulate  the  albumen,  and 


i' 


filtering.  Fremy  improved  upon  this  by  first  precipitating 
lime  with  oxalic  acid.  Pure  pectin  is  white,  amorphous, 
and  soluble  in  water.  The  composition  of  pectin  is  some- 
what uncertain.  Fremy  computes  the  formula  Curij.O,,,, 
but  others  have  obtained  figures  differing  a  little  from  his. 

Revised  by  Ira  Reusen. 

Pectlnibranchia :  See  Monotocabdia  and  Gasteropoda. 

Pectoril'oquy  [Lat.  pec' t us,  pectoris,  breast  +  loqui, 
speak] :  in  auscultation  of  the  chest,  a  preternatural  dis- 
tinctness in  the  sound  of  the  patient's  speech,  as  propagated 
to  the  auscultator's  ear  through  the  air-])assages  and  pul- 
monary tissues.  Pectoriloquy  is  either  cavernous  or  am- 
phoric, according  to  the  quality  or  timbre  of  its  sound.  It 
does  not  always,  however,  indicate  a  cavity  in  the  lung,  as 
was  once  sup|)osed.  It  may  arise  from  the  solidification  of 
a  portion  of  the  lung. 

Pectose  [deriv.  of  pectin'\ :  a  highly  important  proximate 
principle  of  vegetable  bodies,  from  which  proceed  all  the 
gelatinous  constituents  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  It  exists 
largely  in  imripe  fruits  and  roots,  being,  like  cellulose,  one  of 
the  "plastic"  constituents,  and  giving,  for  instance,  the  hard- 
ness to  green  fruits.  It  is,  however,  a  substance  not  only 
wholly  insoluble,  like  cellulose,  but,  unlike  the  latter,  ex- 
tremely perishable  or  easily  alterable.  Therefore  we  have 
found  no  way  of  isolating  and  purifying  it,  so  as  to  deter- 
mine its  composition.  It  is  surmised  to  be  a  carbohydrate, 
like  cellulose — that  is.  containing  its  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
in  the  proportions  that  form  water.  It  exists  in  all  piirts  of 
vegetable  bodies,  and  is  always  accompanied  by  a  peculiar 
ferment  substance  called  Pectase  {q.  v.).  which  has  the  power 
to  transform  it.  during  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  or  matura- 
tion of  the  plant,  into  the  plant-jelly  or  Pectin  (q.  v.).  This 
substance  and  its  derivatives  are  of  great  interest,  and  de- 
mand much  further  investigation — an  investigation  sur- 
rounded, however,  with  great  difficulties,  from  the  non-crys- 
talline or  colloid  nature  of  these  comi)ouiids. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Pectosic  Acid:  an  intermediate  product  of  the  action  of 
the  ferment  pectase  upon  Pectose  (q.  v.).  Like  [lectin,  the 
principal  product,  it  is  highly  gelatinous  in  its  character, 
forming  a  frequent  constituent  of  artificial  fruit-jellies.  Its 
composition  is  yet  uncertain. 

Peculiar,  or  Peculiars :  the  name  given  to  a  church  or 
churches  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese  in  which  the  peculiar  is  .situate<l:  (1)  as  being  sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  of  some  other  bishop,  or  (2)  entirely 
exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction.  Chapels  royal  were  ex- 
empt from  episcopal  jurisdiction.  liattle  Abbey.  Bocking, 
Guernsey.  .Jersey,  and  Stamford  are  peculiars,  and  are  en- 
titled to  their  respective  deans.  Westminster  Abbey  and  St. 
George's  chapel,  Windsor,  are  royal  peculiars.        \\".  S.  P. 

Pedagogics  [from  Gr.  iroi5o7Ci>7<is.  a  slave  who  acted  as  at- 
tendant and  protector  of  a  child,  and  instructed  him  in  be- 
havior and  good  manners;  he  attended  him  especially  when 
he  went  to  the  school  or  pala>stra.  In  Rome  later  the  title 
was  applied  to  the  Greek  slave  who  while  acting  as  an  at- 
tendant also  taught  the  child  Greek.  Hence  the  transfer  of 
signification]:  the  science  of  education:  a  l)ody  of  educa- 
tional doctrine  jiertaining  to  the  mental  and  moral  training 
of  the  young.  Being  a  derived  science,  however,  and  de- 
pending mo.stly  upon  psychology  for  guidance  as  to  ends 
and  means,  it  is  developed  in  various  ways  according  to  the 
psychological  standpoint  of  the  author.  Some  writers  make 
much  of  what  may  bo  called  the  a  priori,  or  ralioiud.  plia.se 
of  psychology,  deducing  maxims  for  instruction  and  moral 
training  from  the  original  constitution  of  mind.  Rosen- 
kranz.  in  his  Philosopliy  of  Education,  is  perhaps  the  best 
exponent  of  this  method  "of  treatment,  lie  deduces  the 
laws  or  principles  of  education  from  a  formal  consideration 
of  man  as  a  self-realizing  being  in  a  process  o£  development. 
The  nature,  form,  and  limits  of  education  are  all  discussed 
from  this  standpoint,  as  are  the  siieeial  phases  of  physical, 
intellectual,  and  moral  education.  The  subject-matter  of 
the  studies  is  a.ssuined.  but  not  discussed  in  detail.  Dr. 
Harris.  U.  S.  commissioner  of  eilucation,  points  out  the 
fact  that  there  are  five  windows  of  the  soul  to  be  opened  by 
these  studies.  In  the  elementary  school  arithmetic  and 
physics  ojien  the  soul  to  a  quantitative  knowledge  of  inor- 
ganic nature;  geography  and  natural  history  to  organic 
nature.  Historv  gives  the  mind  an  insight  into  the  will  of 
man  as  it  has  manifested  itself  in  institutions:  literature, 
drawing,  and  the  like  cultivate  the  a.'stlietic  or  emotional 


500 


PEDAGOGICS 


sides  of  the  soul;  while  grammar  helps  the  mind  to  look 
within  at  its  own  processes,  since  in  grammatical  study  the 
distinctions  of  thought  are  objectively  examined.  Thus 
three  windows  reveal  what  is  within,  viz.,  intellect,  sensi- 
bilities, and  will,  while  two  reveal  what  is  without,  viz.,  or- 
ganic and  inorganic  nature. 

Another  class  of  educational  writers  ignore  largely  the 
necessary  and  original  laws  of  mind,  as  seen  in  rational  psy- 
chology, adopting  as  their  standpoint  the  a  posteriori  or 
concrete  phase  of  mental  life.  They  inquire,  not  what  is 
the  original  equipment  of  the  mind,  but  how  does  it  grow  f 
with  what  contents  is  it  and  ought  it  to  be  filled  ?  In  this 
view  all  the  facts  revealed  by  rational  psychology  and  the 
self-realization  of  the  mind  are  assumed  but  scarcely  men- 
tioned, attention  being  focused  upon  the  concrete  studies. 
their  choice,  sifting,  sequence  of  topics,  and  co-ordination  ; 
also  their  treatment  as  to  methods  of  presentation.  Every- 
thing is  examined  from  the  empirical,  or  experience,  side  of 
psychology.  There  is  little  interest  in  the  abstract  terms 
arising  from  the  refinement  of  psychological  distinction, 
but  a  great  deal  of  interest  in  the  contents  of  children's 
minds,"thcir  natural  interests  and  dispositions,  their  capaci- 
ties in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge ;  in  short,  in  the  growth 
of  their  minds.  Education,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
rational  psychology,  deals  more  with  static  relations  of  fac- 
ulty and  knowledge,  whereas  the  same  subject,  seen  from 
the" standpoint  of  empirical  psychology,  concerns  itself  mostly 
with  knowledge  processes,  hence  is  chiefly  dynamic  in  its 
tendencies.  Apperception,  or  mental  assimilation,  furnishes 
in  this  case  the  key  to  matter  and  methods  for  all  depart- 
ments of  education. 

A  third  standpoint  from  which  to  investigate  educational 
questions  is  child-study  upon  a  physiological  basis.  The 
senses  are  the  medium  through  which  the  child  gains  his 
experience  of  the  outer  world,  and  the  physical  side  in  gen- 
ei'al  is  a  constant  factor  in  mind-growth.  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that  a  large  number  of  important  topics  in  education 
have  a  physiological  aspect.  The  tonic  and  quantitative 
relations  between  external  stimuli  and  the  corresponding 
response  of  the  mind  in  sensations  are  carefully  investigated 
by  hundreds  of  experiments  in  the  domain  of  touch,  taste, 
smell,  hearing,  and  vision.  The  contents  of  children's 
minds  are  determined,  as  are  also  their  fancies,  falsehoods, 
tastes,  ideas  of  justice,  powers  of  grajAic  representation, 
conceptions  of  religion,  and  the  like.  Their  capacities  for 
apperception,  association,  memory  are  investigated  by  ex- 
perimentation. Likewise,  on  the  other  hand,  the  conditions 
of  health  and  disease  for  the  various  senses  and  the  nervous 
system,  as  well  as  for  digestion,  circulation,  and  respiration, 
are  carefully  studied,  and  deductions  made  as  to  light,  tem- 
perature, ventilation,  size  of.  type  for  books,  bodily  position, 
etc.  It  is  chiefly  from  these  three  standpoints — rational 
psvchology,  the  psychology  of  experience,  and  child-study 
upon  a  physiological  basis — that  the  specific  problems  of 
education  are  examined.  To  some  of  the  most  important  of 
these  we  may  now  turn  our  attention. 

1.  W/iaf  shall  Constitute  the  Subject-matter  of  Educa- 
tion f — This  (juestion  is  answered  by  each  age  and  race  ac- 
cording to  the  varying  standard  of  civilization.  The  Per- 
sian taught  his  son  to  ride  the  horse,  shoot  with  the  bow, 
and  tell  the  truth.  The  Greek  taught  his  son  literature  and 
gymnastics;  the  Roman  boy  had  to  learn  the  tables  of  the 
law  and  how  to  swim.  Education  for  gentlemen  and  for  the 
professions  may  be  quite  different  from  the  curriculum  de- 
signed for  the  masses.  Till  late  in  the  nineteenth  century 
higher  education  was  confined  mostly  to  classic  languages 
and  mathematics.  Herbert  Spencer,  however,  in  his  Educa- 
tion, asks  earnestly  what  knowledge  is  of  most  worth,  and 
finds  the  answer  in  science.  For  the  most  part.  American 
schools  teach  the  studies  that  have  become  traditional,  read- 
ing, writing,  spelling,  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  and 
history,  together  with  such  branches  as  social  or  professional 
pressure  may  force  upon  them,  such  as  scientific  temperance 
and  bookkeeping  or  stenography.  Dr.  Harris,  as  shown 
above,  has  so\ight  to  demonstrate  that  the  standard  studies 
now  found  in  the  common-school  curriculum  have  a  right 
to  their  jilace,  because  of  their  value  in  opening  up  the 
window-s  of  the  soul.  It  is  only  in  recent  times  that  any 
serious  attempt  has  been  made  to  determine  upon  rational 
grounds  what  subjects  shall  be  selected  and  upon  what  prin- 
ciple the  .sequence  of  their  various  parts  sliall  proceed.  Con- 
cerning the  latter  topic  Prof,  /.iller,  of  Leipzig,  pointed  out 
the  fact  that  there  are  two  general  methods  of  sequence  for 
the  parts  of  a  study,  one  being  the  concentric  method  and 


tlie  other  the  historical  method,  or  progress  according  to 
culture-epochs.  By  the  concentric  method  he  means  the 
selection  of  a  few  central  facts  of  a  subject,  which  are  to  be 
learned  in  the  early  grades,  and  then  expanded  like  a  series 
of  concentric  rings  each  succeeding  year.  Thus  in  Bible 
history  a  few  facts  about  the  life  of  Christ  would  be  first 
taught,  and  this  knowledge  widened  year  by  year  by  the  ad- 
dition of  new  facts.  The  other  or  historical  method  as- 
sumes that  the  child's  mind  in  its  development  goes  through 
in  miniature  substantially  the  same  culture-epochs  that  the 
race  passed  through  in  its  progress  to  the  present  stage  of 
civilization,  and  that,  consequently,  if  we  would  adjust  the 
matter  of  our  instruction  mo.st  perfectly  to  the  child's  im- 
derstanding  and  spontaneous  interests,  we  must  let  him  pass 
through  ideally  the  stages  that  the  world  passed  through 
really.  For  all  subjects,  therefore,  having  a  human  ele- 
ment, like  Bible  history,  profane  history,  literature,  art,  lan- 
guages, we  must  arrange  our  topics  according  to  the  im- 
portant culture-epochs.  The  latter  are  sufficiently  indicated 
by  the  great  authors  who  have  treated  them.  "  Periods  which 
no  master  has  described,  whose  spirit  no  poet  breathes,  are 
of  little  value  for  education  "  (Herbart).  Ziller  claims  that 
the  concentric  method  sacrifices  the  interest  of  the  pupils 
to  a  considerable  degree,  and  that  it  produces  educational 
waste,  in  that  the  same  things  have  to  be  learned  over  again 
year  after  year  in  new  combinations,  whereas  the  historical 
inethod  according  to  culture-epochs  promotes  natural  inter- 
est through  the  freshness  of  material  and  its  ideal  adapta- 
tion to  the  growing  mind  of  the  chUd.  Furthermore,  he 
would  avoid  tediousness  by  presenting  these  topics  as  treated 
by  masters,  just  as  Greek  boys  were  inspired  by  the  writings 
of  Homer.  As  for  non-culture  subjects,  like  the  sciences,  it 
may  be  pointed  out  that  here  we  find  two  principles  of  ad- 
vance, the  first  being  that  of  the  logical  development  of 
subjects  as  completed  sciences,  for  instance,  the  order  of 
evolution  in  biology  from  monera  to  man,  and  the  psycho- 
logical development  as  determined  by  the  ability  and  knowl- 
edge of  the  child  at  any  given  stage.  The  latter  order  is 
the  true  one  for  the  school,  because  knowledge  exists  for  the 
child,  not  the  child  for  knowledge. 

2.  How  shall  Studies  be  Articulated  or  Co-ordinated  ? — 
This  question  is  supplementary  to  that  of  sequence  of  topics 
in  the  various  subjects,  for  before  studies  can  be  intimately 
associated  there  must  be  some  definite  order  of  sequence  es- 
tablished. This  query,  like  the  other,  is  a  new  one  in  Amer- 
ican education.  In  the  past  it  has  hardly  been  raised,  ex- 
cept perhaps  in  connection  with  the  specific  training  of  the 
■'  faculties."  It  has  been  assumed,  for  example,  that  "  mem- 
ory studies "  precede  "  reason  studies,"  but  these  faculties 
were  not  regarded  as  having  any  very  intimate  relations,  so 
that  the  problem  of  the  co-ordination  of  studies  could  hardly 
arise  under  these  conditions.  Each  study  developed  its  own 
independent  line  of  ideas.  Even  history  and  geography, 
reading  and  spelling,  were  often  taught  as  quite  distinct  and 
separate  subjects,  while  efforts  to  find  natural  and  easy  asso- 
ciations between  geography  and  science  or  history  and  lit- 
erature were  unheard  of.  Active  interest,  however,  now 
exists  for  this  phase  of  education,  it  being  held  that  such  as- 
sociations as  lead  the  studies  to  re-enforce  one  another  en- 
hance the  pupil's  interest  in  his  work.  )>romote  his  iinder- 
standing,  and  develop  his  volitional  power.  The  numerous 
plans  for  the  co-ordination  of  studies  may  be  reduced  to 
three  types,  as  follows:  (1)  The  subordination  of  most 
branches  to  a  few  important  ones.  Ziller  says  that  since  the 
dominating  ends  of  education  are  the  moral  ones  we  should 
select  the  culture  studies,  literature  and  history  (profane  and 
biblical),  as  the  core  of  concentration  around  which  the  other 
studies  should  cluster  like  iron  filings  to  a  magnet.  Others 
say  (hat  real  knowledge  as  contained  in  the  sciences  is  more 
im'portant,  and  that  these  should  be  the  centra!  subjects  for 
correlation.  (2)  The  acceptance  of  universal  scientific  law, 
or  philosophical  unity  of  knowledge,  as  the  guide  to  the  con- 
centration of  studies.  {Talks  on  Pedagogics.  Col.  I.  W. 
Parker.)  According  to  this  plan  the  central,  or  knowledge, 
subjects  are  mineralogy,  geology,  geography,  astronomy, 
meteorology,  biology,  zoology,  anthropology,  ethnology,  and 
history.  Out  of  tlic'se  real  studies  all  formal  ones,  like  read- 
ing, writing,  drawing,  painting,  modeling,  number-work, 
and  the  like,  are  to  grow.  The  central  subjects  being  log- 
ically connected,  and  formal  studies  growing  out  of  the  con- 
crete ones,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  basis  for  weaving 
all  series  of  ideas  arising  from  the  various  tiranches  into  a 
connected  whole.  As  may  be  seen,  the  emphasis  falls  upon 
the    science    studies,    yet    civilization    developed    without 


PEDAGOGICS 


PEDOMETER 


501 


\l 


science;  it  is.  moreover,  open  to  question  whether  the  log- 
ical philosophical  unity  of  the  separate  sciences  is  one  that 
the  teacher  can  see,  or  seeing  teach.  (iJ)  The  co-ordination 
of  equal  or  indcpcnclent  branches  throufrh  their  natural  re- 
lations. This  piiiM  grants  to  every  irnpcirliiMt  group  of  sub- 
jects its  own  principle  of  development.  Thus  culture  sub- 
jects may  follow  the  historical  sequence  where  that  seems 
advantageous  without  subordinating  natural  history  to  a 
principle  of  sequence  not  its  own.  Natural  science,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  free  to  develop  according  to  its  own  laws, 
without  dragging  literature  and  history  out  of  their  natural 
chaiHiels.  Dr.  Frick  (sec  Jler/xirf  and  the  /It-r/iiir/iioix) 
presents  a  skeleton  programme  for  a  classical  school  with  pu- 
)ils  ranging  from  ten  to  nineteen  or  twenty  years  of  age. 
n  this  programme  the  historical  interest  is  the  backbone  of 
the  whole  body  of  higher  education,  but  not  history  as 
taught  by  the  "culture-epochs.  This  principle  of  Ziller  is 
here  modified  on  the  ground  that  the  environment  of  the 
pupil  furnishes  as  good  a  bridge  to  his  underslauding  and 
interest  as  the  culture-epochs  can  furnish.  Consequently, 
interest  in  national  history  conies  first,  and  that  in  aiu'ient 
history  secf>nd.  This  is  in  accordance  with  the  declaration  of 
William  II..  that  he  wanted  from  the  schools  young  Ger- 
mans, not  young  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  reading-mat- 
ter in  the  mother-tongne  is  depended  upon  to  preserve  the 
unity  of  the  course  through  the  studies  toiu-hing  the  home 
environment  of  the  child.  There  is  the  literature  of  culture 
and  history  (biography),  and  that  of  nature  and  occupation. 
Judicious  selection  will  bind  the  studies  together  through 
close  associations.  In  a  similar  manner  these  unions  may 
be  strengthened  through  art  and  music,  which  nuiy  empha- 
size now  the  natural,  now  the  human  elements.  Geography 
touches  three  great  realms,  history,  science,  and  economic 
occupation.  It  is  the  seat  of  history,  the  condition  of  ani- 
mal and  plant  life,  and  in  commercial  geography  the  revela- 
tion of  the  modern  commercial  worlil.  Frick  agrees  with 
ZiUer  and  Herbart  that  only  the  important  epochs  of  his- 
tory should  be  studied.  There  are  enough  such  to  occupy 
the' attention  of  children  without  wasting  their  time  on  non- 
essentials. Co-ordinatiim  is  still  further  promoted  by  pre- 
serving within  each  impoi-tant  subject  or  group  of  subjects 
a  unity  of  treatment.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  whole  of  nat- 
ural science  is  to  be  taught  with  its  manifold  relations  clearly 
in  view,  a  technical  isolation  of  the  various  topics,  like  bot- 
any, zoology,  geology,  etc.,  being  avoided.  Furthermore. 
the  search  for  and  selection  of  organic  bodies  of  knowledge 
pertaining  to  individuals,  to  commufiities,  ami  states  are  to 
be  constant :  so,  too,  emphasis  must  be  laid  upon  middle  or 
turning  points  in  the  events  pertaining  to  individuals  or 
communities,  to  whole  historical  epochs,  or  to  the  develop- 
ment of  important  idea.s. 

3.  JIow  shrill  Suhjecls  be  Taught? — It  may  be  well  at  the 
outset  to  make  a  distinction  between  that  phase  of  method 
which  can  ignore  the  subjective  or  psychological  clement 
and  proceed  upon  strictly  logical  lines  to  the  e.\positi(m  of 
knowledge,  and  that  phiuse,  mostly  belonging  to  elementary 
education,  which  must  take  full  account  of  limitations  in 
knowledge,  aptitude,  and  interest.  The  first  method  is  seen 
in  its  perfection  in  the  university,  the  latter  in  the  primary 
school.  Were  the  second  phase  of  method  not  a  real  and 
necessary  one  the  normal  school  would  hardly  have  an  ex- 
cuse for  existence.  This  is  the  department  of  method  brought 
to  view  most  clearly  by  eiujiirical  psychology  and  physiologi- 
cal child  study.  Ilere  again  we  must  distinguish  between 
special  and  general  methods — between  devices  for  individual 
subjects  or  topics  and  the  laws  for  all  sound  methods.  The 
science  of  education  can  hardly  busy  itself  with  devices  whose 
name  is  Iegi<m,  but  nuist  content  itself  with  an  exposition  of 
fundamental  principles.  With  the  appercepti(m  of  the  child 
in  view  (see  Lange's  Apperception)  v.e  may  distingiiish  three 
grand  phases  in  every  sound  method  :  (1)  That  of  the  assimi- 
lation of  individual  facts:  (2)  that  of  inductive  approach  to 
generaliz.ition,  or  rules  and  principles;  and  (3)  the  practical 
aii[)lication  of  these  principles,  or  the  return  from  general 
principles  to  individual  facts.  This  exposition  gives  rise  to 
what  the  Ilerbartians  call  the  Furmal  Steps  of  Instruction. 
(.See  McMurry.  (reneral  Method,  or  De  Garmo,  Essentials 
of  Method.)  The  levm  formal  as  here  used  signifies  unii'er- 
sal,  since  these  steps  must  be  recognized  more  or  less  clearly 
in  all  devices. 

4.  JIijw  shall  Moral  Training  be  Effected  f — Some  educa- 
tore  regard  religious  instruction  as  essential  to  this  end  ; 
others  try  to  engraft  an  ethical  system  more  or  less  olijecti- 
fied  upon  the  minds  of  the  pupils,  while  Herbart  advances 


the  thought  that  through  the  school  studies  themselves,  pro- 
vided they  are  well  selected,  well  articulated,  and  well 
taught,  we"  may  reveal  to  the  child  the  moral  order  of  the 
world,  both  as  "it  will  appeal  to  him  as  an  individual  and  as 
a  member  of  a  social,  family,  civil,  or  business  group.  This 
thought  is  one  of  the  most  fruitful  of  modern  pedagogics, 
and  well  worthy  the  closest  attention  of  every  teacher.  (See 
Herbart  and  the  Herbartians.) 

The  following-named  works  in  English  are  of  importance 
to  the  student  of  pedagogics:  hange.  Apperception  (Bos- 
ton); Parker,  Theory  of  Concentration  Oicvi  YarV.);  Rosen- 
kranz.  Philosophy  of  Education  (New  York) ;  Hain.  Educa- 
tion as  a  Science  (New  York);  Rein,  Outlines  of  Pedagogics 
(Syracuse,  N.  Y.);  Herbart,  Science  of  Education  (Boston); 
De  Garmo,  Es.vntials  of  Method  (Boston);  De  Garmo,  Her- 
bart and  the  Uerliartiiius  (New  York);  Vfer,  Introduction 
to  the  Pedagogy  of  Herbart  (Boston):  Rosmini,  Method  in 
Education  (Bo'ston) ;  Spencer,  Education  (New  York) ;  Mc- 
Murry, General  Method  (Bloomington,  111.);  Preyer,  The 
Deveiopment  of  the  Intellect  and  The  Senses  and  the  Will 
(New  York):  Pickard,  School  Superi-ision  (New  York); 
Froebel,  The  Education  of  Men  (New  York) ;  Radestock, 
Habit  and  Education  (Boston).  Charles  De  Garmo. 

Pcdee  River :  See  Great  Pedee  River. 
Pederseu,  Kristiern  :  writer ;  1>.  in  Svendborg.  Denmark, 
about  1480 ;  studied  in  Paris  ;  returned  (1517)  and  settled  in 
Lund ;  became  Christian  II.'s  secretary,  and  followed  him  into 
exile  (1526).  After  the  king's  imprisonment  he  received  per- 
mission (1532)  to  settle  in  Malmo.  where  he  established  a 
printing-office.  Some  time  after  this  he  joined  the  Lutheran 
Church.  He  is  the  first  Danish  prose-writer  of  prominence, 
and  well  deserves  the  title  of  father  of  Danish  literature. 
His  style  is  pure  and  direct,  and  all  his  writings  are  filled 
with  a"  true  national  spirit.  His  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  (1529)  and  of  the  Psalms  (1531)  is  superior  to  any 
then  produced.  His  publication  of  Saxo  (1514)  undoubtedly 
saved  that  work  from  destruction,  as  no  MS.  has  been  pre- 
served. His  works,  historical  and  religious,  have  been  ed- 
ited bv  C.  J.  Brandt  and  .1.  F.  Fengcr  (5  vols.,  Copenhagen, 
1850-06).     D.  Jan.  16,  1554.  D.  K.  Dodge. 

Pedianus :  See  Asconius  Pedianus. 
Pediciila'ti  [Mod.  Lat.,  plur.  of  pediculattis.  pedicled, 
deriv.  of  pedi'culn.%  stem,  pedicle,  from  Lat.  pedi'culus, 
dimin.  oi  pes, pedis,  foot]:  an  order  of  fishes  whose  repre- 
sentatives are  distinguished  by  their  gi-otesque  forms.  The 
skull  is  constructed  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
typical  fishes :  the  epiotics  united  behind  the  supraoccipital ; 
the  intermaxillary  and  supramaxillary  bones  well  developed 
and  distinct ;  the"  first  vertebra  is  united  to  the  cranium  by 
sui  ure  :  the  scapular  arch  is,  as  in  ordinary  fishes,  composed 
of  a  great  external  bone  (proscapula)  and  two  internal  bones 
(hvpercoracoid  and  hypocoracoid),  but  coalescent  with  the 
proscapula;  with  thes"e  are  articulated  the  actinosts,  which 
are  remarkable  for  their  length ;  between  the  proscajiula 
and  the  skull  intervenes  a  post-temporal,  which  is  not  bifur- 
cate, but  connects  by  a  squamous  suture  with  the  skull ;  the 
branchial  aperture  is  thrown  backward  in  or  near  the  axilla 
of  the  pectoral  fin;  the  ventral  fins  are  more  or  less  jugular; 
the  dorsal  fin  is  divided  into  a  spinous  and  a  soft  portion; 
the  latter  is  normal ;  the  former  modified,  and  in  some  of 
the  representatives  of  the  order  represented  by  a  filament  in 
or  near  the  nasal  region.  The  order  thus  distinguished  is 
composed  of  several  families — viz.,  Maltheidie,  or  the  bat- 
fishes;  Lophiidie,  or  the  anglers:  Ceratiida;;  and  Anten- 
nariiihe.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pediment :  See  Gable. 

Pedipal'pi  [Mod.  Lat..  from  Lat.  pes.pedi.i.  foot  +  Mod. 
Lat.  palpu.%  tactile  organ,  from  Lat.  patpare.  to  feel]:  an 
order  of  Arachnida  embracing  a  few  tropical  forms  for 
which  the  common  names  of  whip-scorpions  and  scorpiim- 
spiders  have  been  proposed.  As  these  terms  imiily,  they 
present  general  resemblances  to  both  scorpions  anil  spiders. 
Thus  they  have  the  second  pair  of  appendages  strong  and 
sometimes  furnished  with  pincers,  the  abdomen  is  jilainly 
jointed,  and  in  Thelyphoniis  is  terminated  with  a  many- 
jointed  whip-like  tail.  In  all  the  first  iiair  of  true  legs  ter- 
minates with  a  many-jointed  whip-like  portion.  About 
thirty  species  are  known.  Comparatively  little  is  known  of 
their"  habits,  but  thev  have  the  reputation  of  being  very 
poisonous;  but  a  single  species  of  Thelyphonus  has  been 
reported  from  the  U.  S.  J.  S.  Kinoslev. 

Pedometer :  See  Odometer. 


502 


PEDRARIAS 


PEEL 


Pedra'rias :  the  name  commonly  given  by  historians  to 
Pedro  Arias  Diivila  or  de  Avila:  soldier  and  governor;  b. 
in  Spain  about  1442.  He  was  of  good  family,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  conquest  of  Granada  and  in  Africa. 
In  1513  he  was  nominated  governor  of  Castilla  del  <.)ro.  on 
the  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  including  the  colony  of 
Darien,  where  Balboa  had  come  into  power.  (See  Balboa  and 
Darien.)  Pedrarias  sailed  from  San  Lucar  Apr.  12, 1514,  with 
a  large  fleet  and  1,500  men.  On  his  arrival  at  Darien  (June 
30),  Balboa  readily  acknowledged  his  authority,  but  Pedra- 
rias, a  man  of  suspicious  and  violent  character,  imprisoned 
him  on  various  charges.  Subsequently,  through  the  inter- 
position of  the  bishop,  the  rivals  were  reconciled.  Pedra- 
rias promised  Balboa  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  lent  his 
aid  for  the  exploration  of  the  South  Sea;  but  on  reports 
(probably  false)  of  Balboa's  treachery,  he  seized  and  exe- 
cuted him  (1517).  In  1519  he  founded  a  new  capital  at 
Panama.  Under  his  rule  Spanish  power  was  rapidly  ex- 
tended on  the  isthmus.  He  did  all  he  could  to  prevent  the 
exploration  of  Nicaragua  by  Gil  Gonzalez  Ddvila  (1522),  and 
endeavored  to  foi-estall  him  by  sending  Cordoba  to  colonize 
that  country.  Cordoba  rebelled,  and  Pedrarias  captured 
and  beheaded  him  (1526).  In  consequence  of  numerous 
complaints  Pedrarias  was  superseded  in  1526,  but  he  was 
made  governor  of  Nicaragua,  where  he  died  at  Lenn,  Mar. 
6,  1531.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pedro  I.  (DoM  Antonio  Pedro  de  Alcantara  Bourbon)  : 
first  Emi.ieror  of  Brazil ;  b.  near  Lisbon,  Portugal,  Oct.  12, 
1798.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Dom  Joao,  afterward  John 
V^I.  of  Portugal ;  was  taken  with  the  royal  family  to  Brazil 
(1807),  received  a  somewhat  limited  education  there,  and  in 
1818  was  married  to  the  Archduchess  Leopoldina  of  Austria. 
His  father  was  crowned  King  of  Portugal  at  Rio  de  Janeiro 
in  1816,  but  returned  to  Lisbon  in  1821,  leaving  Dom  Pedro 
as  regent.  The  prince  was  now  heir  to  the  throne,  his  elder 
brother  having  died.  At  this  time  the  movement  for  the 
separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal  assumed  active  form, 
and  the  prince  regent  favored  it  more  or  less  openly.  He 
at  length  sent  a  refusal  to  the  peremptory  order  of  his 
father  to  return  to  Portugal,  and  on  Sept.  7,  1822,  he  defi- 
nitely declared  for  independence.  He  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror in  October,  and  crowned  Dec.  1.  The  Portuguese 
authorities  made  little  active  resistance,  except  in  the  north- 
ern provinces,  where  they  were  soon  driven  out.  At  first 
the  emperor  was  enthusiastically  sujiported ;  but  in  1823  he 
assumed  a  reactionary  policy,  dismissed  and  banished  the 
liberal  Andrada  ministry,  and  forcibly  dissolved  the  con- 
stituent assembly.  In  Mar.,  1824,  he  promulgated  the  con- 
stitution (prepared  by  a  council  of  state)  which  was  in  force 
during  the  empire.  The  empress  died  in  1826,  and  in  1829 
he  man'ied  Princess  Amelia  of  Leuchtenberg.  Uruguay, 
which  had  been  attached  to  Brazil,  became  independent, 
after  a  rebellion  of  several  years,  in  1828.  The  opposition 
to  the  emperor  increased  when,  in  1826,  he  fell  heir  to  the 
Portuguese  throne.  In  the  impossibility  of  reuniting  the 
two  countries  he  transferred  his  claim  to  Portugal  to  his 
daughter,  Donha  Maria  da  Gloria,  but  the  distrust  con- 
tinued, and  at  length  broke  out  in  popular  tumults.  To 
prevent  bloodshed,  the  emperor  abdicated  in  favor  of  his 
son  on  Apr.  7,  1831,  and  soon  after  sailed  for  England.  On 
his  arrival  there  he  at  once  assumed  the  leadership  of  a 
movement  for  the  restoration  of  his  daughter,  who  had  been 
deprived  of  the  Portuguese  throne  by  the  usurpation  of 
Dom  Miguel.  The  latter  was  deposed  after  a  civil  war,  and 
Donha  Maria  was  crowned.  Dom  Pedro  died  two  days 
after,  in  Lisbon,  Sept.  24,  1834.  Herbert  H.  S.mith. 

Pedro  II.  (DoM  Pedro  de  Alcantara)  :  son  of  Pedro  I. 
and  Emperor  of  Brazil ;  b.  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Dec.  2,  1825. 
As  he  was  a  child  when  liis  father  abdicated  in  his  favor, 
Brazil  was  governed  by  regents  until  July  23.  1840,  when 
his  majority  was  proclaimed  at  the  request  of  the  parlia- 
ment. He  was  crowne<l  July  18,  1841,  and  in  1843  married 
Thereza  Cliristina,  sister  of  the  King  of  the  Sicilies.  From 
the  first  he  [irovcd  himself  an  intelligent,  liberal,  and  hu- 
mane ruler,  and  during  his  reign  Brazil  made  great  ad- 
vances in  civilization  and  material  prosperity  ;  he  was  the 
honored  protector  of  science,  the  arts,  and  "literature,  for 
which  he  had  marked  tastes,  and  he  was  universally  re- 
spected at  home  and  jiliroad.  On  the  other  hand,  important 
qiiestions  were  somcfimos  neglected  for  minufiic,  and  he 
showed,  perhaps,  a  want  of  strength  in  great  crises.  He 
was  strongly  atlarhed  lo  const ilulional  fonns.and  governed 
entirely  through  his  ministers.     Rebellions  in  Sao  Paulo 


and  Minas  Geraes,  1842,  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  1843-45,  and 
in  Pernambueo,  1849,  were  suppressed.  In  1864-65  Brazil 
successfully  supported  the  revolutionist  Flores  against  the 
Government  of  Uruguay,  which  had  refused  satisfaction  for 
injuries  done  to  Brazilian  subjects.  Lopez,  president  of 
Paraguay,  made  war  on  Brazil,  ostensibly  on  account  of  the 
Uruguayan  question,  Dec,  1864 ;  this  led"  to  the  Triple  Alli- 
ance between  Brazil,  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  Uruguay, 
May  1,  1865,  and  a  bloody  war  of  five  years.  (See  Lopez, 
Francisco  Solano.)  The  emperor  took  a  personal  part  in 
the  first  campaign.  Traveling  as  a  private  gentleman,  he 
visited  Europe  1871-72,  attended  the  Centennial  Exposition 
in  the  U.  S.  1876.  going  thence  to  Europe  and  the  East,  and 
in  1886-89  again  went  to  Europe.  By  a  law  passed  in  Sept., 
1871,  children  born  of  slave  parents  were  freed  under  certain 
conditions,  and  an  emancipation  fund  was  established.  Sub- 
sequently the  abolition  movement  became  a  popidar  ujirising, 
and  culminated  in  the  law  of  May  13,  1888,  by  wliich  all 
slaves  were  freed.  The  emperor  personally  favored  emanci- 
pation, and  early  freed  the  crown  slaves,  but  he  did  not  lead 
the  movement  nor  greatly  influence  it ;  and  it  excited  unfav- 
orable comments  that  the  laws  of  1871  and  1888  were  passed 
during  his  absence.  Republican  principles  had  been  slowly 
but  steadily  gaining  ground,  and  were  fostered  by  the  per- 
fect freedom  of  the  press ;  in  1885  republican  deputies  were 
first  elected  to  parliament.  The  Princess  Isabel  was  heir 
to  the  throne,  and  during  her  father's  trips  aliroad  had 
acted  as  regent ;  the  republicans  opposed  her  for  alleged 
subserviency  to  the  Church,  and  because  she  was  married  to 
a  foreign  ijrince,  the  Count  d'Eu.  It  was  generally  sup- 
jiosed  that  a  decided  republican  movement  would  be  de- 
ferred until  the  emperor's  death ;  but  it  was  precipitated 
by  discontented  army  officers,  who  excited  a  mutiny  of  the 
troo]is  at  Kio  de  Janeiro,  and  proclaimed  a  revolution  Nov. 
15,  1889.  The  emperor  abdicated  without  resistance,  and 
was  at  once  sent  with  his  family  to  Portugal;  there  the 
em|]ress  died  from  the  effect  of  the  excitement  and  shock, 
Dec.  28,  1889.  The  ex-emperor  declined  a  pension  which 
was  offered  to  him  by  Brazil.     D.  in  Pari.s,  Dec.  5,  1891. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pee'blesshire :  an  inland  county  of  Scotland ;  on  both 
sides  of  the  Tweed  (hence  sometimes  called  Tweeddale); 
consists  mostly  of  low,  well-wooded  mountains.  Area,  354 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  (1891)  14,750.  Rearing  of  sheep  and  cattle 
is  the  chief  occupation ;  coal  is  mined,  and  manufactures  of 
woolens  are  carried  on.  The  only  royal  burgh  in  the  shire 
is  Peebles,  on  a  peninsula  at  the  confluence  of  the  Eddies- 
ton  with  the  Tweed,  22  miles  S.  of  Edinburgh,  and  the  seat 
of  a  county  administration  (see  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  12-H). 
It  is  the  birthplace  of  William  Chambers,  who  in  1859  made 
a  gift  to  the  town  of  a  spacious  suite  of  buildings  for  edu- 
cational purposes,  the  Chambers  Institution.  Pop.  of  town 
(1891)  4,704.  The  counties  of  Peebles  and  Selkirk  send  one 
member  to  Parliament. 

Peekskill :  village ;  Westchester  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  New  York.  ref.  8-J);  on  the  Hudson  river,  and 
the  N.  Y.  Cent,  and  Hudson  River  Railroad ;  43  miles  N.  of 
New  York  city.  It  contains  12  churches,  2  union  public 
schools,  St.  Gabriel's  boarding-school  for  young  ladies  (Prot- 
estant Episcopal),  St.  Joseph's  Home  and  Franciscan  Con- 
vent (Roman  Catholic),  a  military  academy,  a  House  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  (Roman  Catholic),  a  free  public  library, 
several  high-grade  boarding-schools,  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  .f  100,000,  a  savings-bank,  and  4  weekly  news- 
papers. There  are  water-works,  electric-light  and  sewerage 
systems,  and  important  manufactories,  including  iron-foun- 
dries, stove-works,  cigar-factories,  steam  flour-mill,  blank- 
book  and  book-binding  establishment,  and  shirt-factories. 
The  village  has  much  scenic  and  historic  interest.  Pop. 
(1880)  6,893  ;  (1890)  9,676. 

W.  J.  Charlton,  board  of  trade. 

Peel,  Arthur  Wellesley,  D.  C.  L.  :  statesman;  b.  in 
1829 ;  youngest  son  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  (1788-1850) ;  educated 
at  Eton  and  Baliol  College,  Oxford ;  was  secretary  to  the 
Poor  Law  Board  1868-71 ;  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Trade 
1871-73;  and  secretary  to  the  Treasury  1873-74.  He  was 
first  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1884,  and 
since  then  he  has  been  re-elected  three  times.  Retired  Apr. 
7,  1895.  He  was  nu'mber  for  Warwick  1865-85,  and  since 
for  Warwick  and  Leamington. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert;  statesman;  b.  near  Bury,  Lancashire, 
Fell.  5.  1788;  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  where  he  passed  B.  A.  as  double  first-class,  the  first 


PEEL 


PEH-LA 


503 


who  ever  had  the  distinction.  In  1809  he  entered  Parlia- 
ment for  C'ashel ;  was  made  Under-Secretary  for  the  Colonies 
1811,  and  was  (l«li-18)  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  where 
his  Tory  principles  led  to  the  most  severe  criticisms  from 
the  opposition.  Ill' cstulilislicd  the  Irish  constalnilary.  Peel 
represented  Oxfunl  Univei-sity  in  Parliament  1S18-22-,  in- 
troduced and  carried  (181!))  a'bill  to  return  to  specie  cur- 
rency;  was  Home  Secretary  1822-27.  1828-30:  introduced 
and  carried  important  reforms  in  the  administration  of 
criminal  law;  remodeled  the  London  police;  moved  the 
bill  for  Catholic  emancipation  (182!)),  and  tlius  Inokc  with 
the  Tory  leaders.  Previously  Peel's  name,  with  no  special 
justice,  had  been  associated  with  the  leadership  in  the  oppo- 
sition to  this  cause,  doubtless  because  lie  had  held  an  im- 
portant post  in  Ireland  as  a  Tory.  The  University  of  Oxford 
rejected  him  in  the  new  election ;  he  re-entered  l^irliament 
for  Westbury,  and  a^ain  represented  Tamworth  1832-50; 
was  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer 1834-35,  and  afterward  headed  the  Conservative 
opposition,  having  resisted  the  parliamentary  reform  of 
1831-32  with  all  his  power:  was  again  Premier  1S41-46. 
during  wliicli  time  his  position  drifted  slowly  from  tlial  of 
a  protectionist  and  strict  Cimservative  to  that  of  a  free- 
trader, and  he  at  la.sl  supported  the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws. 
He  afterward  acted  generally  with  the  Whigs.  D.  in  Lon- 
don, July  2,  1850,  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  his  horse. 
Peel  was  a  iiuin  of  thorough  patriotism  and  high  moral 
principle.  Ilis  hereditary  conservatism,  although  strength- 
ened by  a  dislike  of  too  hasty  dianges,  was  ever  held  subject 
to  feelings  of  justice  ami  hunumity.  He  refused  the  Garter 
and  the  peerage,  and  was  universally  respected  for  honesty, 
truthfulness,  and  ability.  See  Sir  Robert  Peel,  by  Guizot 
(Paris,  1S59).  and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  by  Henry  Lord  Dalling 
and  Bulwer  (London,  1874);  and  monographs  by  P.  C. 
Montague  (1888),  Justin  McCarthy  (1891),  and  J.  R.  Thurs- 
field  (1891). 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  G.  C.  B.  :  b.  in  London,  May  4,  1822 ; 
wiis  educated  at  Harrow  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  was 
1811  16  an  titloclte  at  Madrid :  was  secretary  of  legation 
1846,  and  charge  d'affaires  at  Berne  1846-50;  a  lord  of  the 
admiralty  1855-57;  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  1861-65  ;  was 
a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament  for  Tamworth  1850-80 ; 
was  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council  1861  ;  was  ma<le  G.  C.  B. 
1868;  married  in  1856  the  eighth  daughter  of  the  Marquis 
of  Tweeddale.     I),  at  Brighton,  May  8,  1895. 

Peele,  George:  dramatist:  b.  in  Devonshire,  England, 
about  1553 ;  graduated  at  Broadgate"s  Hall  (now  Pembroke 
College),  Oxford,  1579;  settled  at  London  as  a  theatrical 
writer;  was  an  associate  of  Nash,  Marlowe,  and  Greene, and 
author  of  half  a  dozen  plays,  the  best  of  which  is  Band  and 
Jiethaabe.  They  were  republished  by  Dyce,  together  with 
his  poems  and  miscellaneous  writings  (3  vols..  1828-39).  D. 
about  1598.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Poepiil :  See  Bo-tree. 

Peerlkainn.  Peter  Hofm.ax-:  classical  scholar;  b.  in 
Groningen,  Holland,  in  1786:  professor  at  Leyden  in  1822; 
retired  in  1S49.  I),  in  llilverzum,  near  Utrecht,  Mar.  29, 
1865.  Peerlkamp  may  be  called  the  father  of  a  wanton 
method  of  textual  criticism  which  rejects  as  spurious  or 
emends  whatever  seems  not  to  conform  to  a  ])reconccivcd 
standard  of  poetic  perfection  and  propriety.  This  perni- 
ciously subjective  princi[ile  was  rigorously  applied  by  Peerl- 
kamp particularly  to  the  Oden  of  Horace,  of  which  scarcely 
one  remained  intact.  The  ingenuity  of  his  aiuilysis,  his 
fervor  of  conviction,  and  the  brdliancy  of  his  Latin  style 
secured  him  many  followers:  but  at  the  present  time  this 
athetizing  mania  possesses  at  l)est  but  a  pathological  inter- 
est. Among  his  writings  may  be  mentioned  :  Horace.  Ode.i, 
Satires,  A rs  Poetica;  Tacitus,  Agricoln;  Vergil,  Jl'^neid: 
Xcnophon  of  PIphesus:  and  his  own  De  vita,  dnctrittu  et 
facilitate  yederlamlorum  qui  canninn  compoituerunt  (2d 
ed.  1838).  Alfred  Gi:demax. 

Peers  [Fr.  pair,  from  the  Latin /)nr.  equal]:  noblemen 
having  a  special  dignity  or  privilege.  The  meaning  of  the 
term  has  varied  widely  at  dilTerent  times.  Thus  in  Eng- 
land the  earlier  usage,  as  in  the  phrase  of  Magna  Charta, 
"judgment  of  his  peers"  (judicium  parium),  gives  it  mere- 
ly the  general  meaning  of  equals,  while  at  present  it  is  used 
in  a  special  sense  to  denote  the  members  of  the  nobility  and 
those  prelates  of  the  Church  of  England  who  are  entitled  to 
a  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  members  of  the  noliility 
entitled  to  be  called  peers  include  dukes,  marquises,  earls, 


viscounts,  and  barons.  In  France  Louis  XVIII.  created  in 
1814  a  house  of  peers,  but  this  peerage  comprised  only  a 
very  limited  number  of  the  wlmle  class  of  the  noliility.  The 
attempt  to  make  it  hereditary  failed,  and  in  1S48  the' Cham- 
ber of  Peers  cea-sed  to  exist. 

Peet,  Stei'HexDenisox,  A.  JI.,  Ph.D.:  anthropologist;  b. 
at  Euclid,  O.,  Dec.  2,  1830.  In  1837  the  family  removed  to 
Green  Hay,  Wis.,  which  was  a  center  of  trade  for  various  Ind- 
ian tribes.  Young  Peet  entered  Beloit  College,  and  while 
a  student  had  his  curiosity  awakened  with  respect  to  the 
mound-builders,  whose  mounds  were  numerous  in  Beloit  and 
its  vicinity.  He  studied  theohigy  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
and  at  Andover,  Mass.,  where  he  grailuated  in  1851.  and  re- 
turned to  Wisconsin,  where  he  was  a  missionary  for  several 
years.  Subsequently  he  took  charge  of  iiyjiortant  churches 
at  Racine,  Wis.,  and  Ashtabula,  O.  From  1878  to  1888  he 
edited  The  American  Antiquarian,  and  he  was  largely  in- 
strumental in  organizing  the  Ohio  Archa'ological  Society 
and  the  .\merican  Anthropological  Association.  In  1878 he 
returned  to  Wisconsin,  and  held  the  pastorate  at  Clinton  for 
eight  years  thereafter.  His  principal  works  are  The  Anhta- 
bula  7>j.s«.s/ti- (Chicago,  187!)):  Ilititory  of  Ashtabula  County, 
Ohio  (Cleveland,  1879);  Ancient  Architecture  in  America 
(Chicago,  1884);  Picture  Writing  (1885);  History  of  Early 
Missions  in  Wisconsin  (Madison,  1886) ;  Primiiire  Symbol- 
ism (Chicago,  1887) ;  The  Effigy  Mounds  of  ^Yisconsin 
(1888). 
Peewit :  See  Lapwing. 

Peg'asns  (in  Gr.  niiyiuros) :  in  Grecian  mythology,  a 
winged  horse,  who,  together  with  Chrysaor,  was  begotten  by 
Poseidon  and  the  Gorgo  Jledusa  at  the  sources  of  Oceanus, 
wheiu'p  his  name  Pegasus  (from  mjT^.  fountain).  He  sprang 
from  the  headless  trunk  of  Medusa  after  she  had  been  slain 
by  Perseus.  He  first  touched  the  earth  on  the  Acropolis  of 
Corinth,  where  Bellerophon  caught  him  while  he  was  drink- 
ing from  the  fountain  Pircne.  Jlounted  on  his  back  Bel- 
lerophon performed  many  hazardous  deeds  (see  Chim.era), 
but  when  he  attempted  to  fly  to  heaven  he  fell  off  and  be- 
came lame  and  blind.  Pegasus  flew  to  heaven,  where  he 
thenceforward  dwelt  in  the  palace  of  Zeus.  When  Mt.  Heli- 
con, under  the  influence  of  the  songs  of  the  Pluses,  was  soar- 
ing to  heaven,  its  progress  was  stayed  by  a  stamp  of  the  hoof 
of  Pegasus.  On  the  smitten  spot  the  spring  Hippocrene 
(the  fountain  of  the  steed)  burst  forth,  and  hence  he  was 
called  the  horse  of  the  Muses.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pegmatite  [from  Gr.  inj-yfia,  anything  fastened  together] : 
a  name  originally  suggested  by  Haiiy  for  coarse-grained 
granitic  rocks  in  which  the  quartz  and  feldspar  are  inter- 
grown,  each  having  a  continuous  crystallograi)hic  stnicture 
over  considerable  areas.  The  rocks  have  gradually  come  to 
be  called  graphic  granites  (Germ.  Schriflgi-anit).  although 
their  characteristic  stnicture,  whether  microscopic  or  mac- 
roscopic, is  still  called  pegmatitic.  The  petrographical 
term  pegmatite  now  includes  all  very  coarse  granites  and 
granitic  vein-stones.    See  Granite.    '     G.  H.  Williams. 

Pegu  :  a  name  of  geographical  and  historical  interest  as- 
sociate<l  with  the  northwestern  part  fif  the  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula,  adjoining  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  especially 
about  the  Gulf  of  Marlaban.  It  has  sometimes  been  a  sepa- 
rate kingdom,  sometimes  a  dependency  of  Burma,  and  the 
territory  covered  has  extended  as  far  K.  as  Ava.  sometimes 
as  far  S.  as  the  Peninsula  of  Kra.  It  is  now  a  British  gov- 
ernmental division  of  Burma,  occupying  the  lower  valleys 
of  the  Irawadi  and  Salwen  rivers  from  Tenasserini  to  South- 
ern Arrakan.  The  town  of  Pegu,  formi'rly  a  capital  and 
important  city,  is  now  a  small  town  and  a  railway  station, 
45  miles  N.  E.  of  Rangoon,  on  the  Pegu  river,  an  aflluent 
of  the  Hlainy  (see  map  of  S.  India,  n-f.  3-L). 

JIark  W.  Harrington. 

Pell-eliele,  or  Pecllili :  an  old  name  for  the  province  of 
China  now  known  as  CniiiLi  (y.  v.);  also  the  shallow  gulf 
which  lies  between  Chihli  and  the  Yellow  Sea. 

Peh-ln,  or  Pela  [Chinese ;  literally,  white  wax]  :  a  kind  of 
wax  prepared  by  the  Chinese  from  the  secretions  which  an 
insect  of  the  cochineal  family  (Coccus  sinensis)  deposits  on 
the  twigs  of  a  species  of  ash  (Fraa'inus  chinensis),  called  by 
the  Chinese  lah-shoo,  or  wax-tree.  The  insect  resembles  a 
louse,  and  is  said  to  be  taken  indoors  to  be  cared  for  during 
the  winter,  and  put  back  on  the  trees  in  s|)ring.  The  pecul- 
iar secretion  which  it  voids  about  the  end  of  summer  is 
collected  and  melted  by  the  natives,  and  forms  a  hard,  white, 
translucent  body,  like  spermaceti,  which  melts  at  a  temper- 


504 


PEHLAVI   LANGUAGE 


PEKING 


ature  of  180°  to  186°  P.,  and  is  largely  used  for  candle-mak- 
ing. It  is  extensively  produced  in  Sze-ohuen  and  in  the 
northern  provinces.  R.  Lilley. 

Pehlavi  Language :  See  Pahlavi. 

Pei-ho,  pi'liij,  or  piihu  (literally,  white  river):  the  most 
important  river  of  China  N.  of  the  Yellow  River.  It  rises 
near  the  Great  Wall.  t\<  iws  in  a  southeastern  direction  through 
the  province  of  L'liilili,  and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Pechiliat 
Taku.  Its  course  is  very  tortuous,  especially  below  Tien- 
tsin, which  is  SO  miles  by  water  from  its  mouth,  but  only  .35 
by  land.  It  is  navigable  for  more  than  three-fourths  of  its 
course,  but  at  its  mouth  there  is  a  bar  of  stiff,  tenacious  clay, 
which  makes  the  entrance  very  difficult. 

Peine  Forte  et  Dure  [Fr.  and  0.  Fr..  hard  and  severe 
penalty],  called  also  Pressing  to  Death :  formerly,  in  Eng- 
land, the  punishment  of  those  who  refused  to"  plead  or 
stood  mute  upon  their  arraignment  for  felony.  The  victim 
was  stretched  naked  upon  his  back  and  had  '•  iron  laid  upon 
him  as  much  as  he  could  bear  and  more,"'  and  he  was  so  kept 
and  fed  on  bread  and  stagnant  water  on  alternate  days 
(bread  one  day  aiul  water  the  next)  until  he  yielded  or  died. 
The  object  in  submitting  to  death  by  this  penalty  was  not 
infrequently  to  avoid  the  forfeiture  of  lands  consequent 
upon  conviction  for  a  felony.  This  punishment  came  into 
use  about  14(10.  and  is  said  to  have  been  last  eraploved  in 
1741.  It  was  virtually  abolished  by  12  Geo.  III.,  e.  20,'which 
made  standing  mute  in  case  of  felony  equivalent  to  a  con- 
viction. In  1827  (7  and  8  Geo.  IV.,  c.  28,  g  2)  it  was  enacted 
that  a  plea  of  "  not  guilty  "  should  be  thenentered.  In  1692. 
at  Salem,  Mass.,  Giles  C'ory,  a  supposed  witch,  stood  mute 
upon  his  trial,  and  was  pressed  to  death.  This  is  believed 
to  be  the  only  instance  of  the  infliction  of  this  penalty  in 
America.  See  Stephen's  History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of 
England,  and  Pike's  Histonj  of  Crime  in  England. 

Revised  by  F.  Stukges  Allen. 

Pe'ipus:  a  large  lake  in  Northwestern  Russia,  87  miles 
long,  .30  miles  broad.  It  communicates  with  the  Gulf  of 
Finland  through  the  Xarova.  It  is  deep,  easy  to  navigate, 
and  rich  in  tish,  which  are  sent  to  the  market  of  St.  Pe1:ers- 
burg.  Its  shores  are  low,  marshy,  or  sandy,  and  in  many 
places  covered  with  forests.  It  occupies  an  area  of  almut 
1,500  sq.  miles,  and  consists  of  two  lakes  connected  with 
each  other  by  a  narrow  strait.  The  southern  lake  is  some- 
times called  Lake  Pskow,  after  the  city  of  Pskow,  situated 
at  its  southeastern  extremity. 

Pelrce,  Benjamin.  LL.  D.,  P.  R.  S.  :  mathematician  and 
astronomer;  b.  at  Salcni,  >Iass.,  Apr.  4,  1809;  a  son  of  Ben- 
jamin Peirce  (1778-1881).  librarian  of  Harvard  University. 
The  son  was  a  pupil  of  Nathaniel  Bowditch.  and  read  the 
proof-sheets  of  the  translation  of  Laplace's  Mpcanique  celeste 
while  yet  a  mere  youth;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1829; 
taught  1829-31  at  Ifouiul  Hill.  Northampton,  Mass. ;  became 
mathematical  tutor  in  Harvard  College  1831;  Profe.ssor  of 
Mathematics,  etc.,  1833-42 ;  Professor  of  Astronomy,  etc., 
1842-67,  and  aided  the  construction  and  equipment  of  the 
observatory;  superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  1867- 
74;  became  in  1849  consulting  astronomer  to  the  Epheineris 
and  Nautical  Almanac;  was  a  member  of  the  leading 
American  and  foreign  scientific  societies;  author  of  a  series 
of  mathematical  text-books  1835-70,  and  of  many  scientific 
papers;  prepared  a  volume  of  lunar  tables  in  1852  tor  the 
use  of  the  American  Nautical  Almanac;  published  in  1857 
his  work  Sij-item  of  Ancdi/tical  Mechanics.  His  Linear  As- 
sociatice  Algebra  was  reprinted  in  i\\e  American  Journal  of 
Mathematics  in  1882.  His  work  in  pure  and  in  applied 
mathematics  is  noteworthy  tor  its  novel,  original,  and  re- 
markably direct  and  satisfactory  methods.  D.  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  Oct.  6,  1880.        Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Peirce,  Bradford  Kinney,  T).  D.  ;  author  and  journalist ; 
b.  at  Royaltou,  Vt.,  Feb.  3,  1819;  graduated  at  Weslevan 
Universit  y  1N41 ;  entered  the  New  England  Conference  1842 ; 
was  editor  of  The  Sunday-school  Messenger  and  the  Sunday- 
school  Teacher;  was  a  State  Senator  for  Norfolk  County 
18.'J5-56;  obtained  the  establishment  of  the  State  Industrial 
School  for  Girls  at  Laucaster.of  which  he  became  superintend- 
ent; was  chaplain  of  the  House  of  Refuge,  Randall's  island, 
N.  \.,  1HG3-72.  after  which  lie  returned  to  Boston,  and  was 
editor  of  Zion's  Herald  1872-HS.  Author  of  Sundav-school 
question-books,  a  Biljle  Scholar's  Manual,  The  Eminent 
Dead,  Notes  ore  the  Acts.  The  Word  of  God  Opened  (1868); 
A  Half  Century  with  Jurenile  Deliiic/uents  (1869);  Trials 
of  an  Inrentor,  being  an  account  of  the  career  of  Charles 


Goodyear,  and  Avdubon's  Adventures  (1890).     D.  at  New- 
ton, Mass.,  Apr.  19,  1889.  Revised  by  A.  Usborn. 

Peirce,  Cyrus:  educator;  principal  of  the  first  normal 
school  in  the  U.  S. ;  b.  at  Waltham,  Mass.,  Aug.  15,  1790; 
graduated  at  Harvard  1810;  studied  theology:  pastor  of 
Congregational  church  at  North  Reading  1819-27;  turned 
from  conviction  to  the  work  of  teaching,  and  opened  a  school 
at  North  Andover;  removed  in  1831  to  Nantucket,  where 
his  great  achievement  was  the  grading  of  the  public  schools. 
In  June,  1839,  he  was  engaged  by  Horace  Mann  as  principal 
of  the  Normal  School  at  Lexington,  Mass.,  which  had  been 
established  by  the  Massachusetts  board  of  education  Dec. 
28,  1838.  At  the  end  of  three  years  Mr.  Peirce's  health 
failed.  He  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  Samuel  J. 
May,  who  in  turn  resigned  in  1844  to  make  way  for  the  re- 
appointment, Sept.  1,  1844,  of  Mr.  Peirce,  the  school  having 
meantime  been  moved  to  West  Newton.  Ill-health  again 
led  to  his  resignation  in  1849.  D.  Apr.  5,  1860,  at  West 
Newton,  Mass.  To  him  more  than  to  any  one  else  is  due 
the  successful  establishment  of  normal  schools.  See  Bar- 
nard, American  Teachers  and  Educators  (New  York,  1861); 
Gordy,  liise  and  Orowth  of  the  Normal  School  Idea  in  the 
United  States  (Washington,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
1891).  c.  H.  Thurber. 

Peixoto.  pw-sho'tS,  Floriano:  soldier  and  politician;  b, 
in  the  province  of  Alagoas,  Brazil,  Apr.  30,  1842.  He  was 
one  of  the  generals  who  supported  Fonseca  in  the  deposition 
of  the  emperor  Nov.  15,  1889;  was  elected  vice-president  of 
the  republic  1890;  and  by  the  resignation  of  Fonseca,  Nov. 
23,  1891,  became  president  for  the  remainder  of  the  term,  or 
until  Nov.  15,  1894.  In  1893  he  vetoed  a  bill  which  was  in- 
tended to  prevent  his  re-election  ;  this,  and  the  general  op- 
position to  a  military  president,  caused  much  ill-feeling.  A 
rebellion  in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  gained  ground,  and  a  portion 
of  the  navy  supported  it,  but  was  soon  reduced  to  obedience. 
A  more  formidable  revolt,  involving  the  whole  naval  force, 
broke  out  in  the  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sept.,  1893 ;  the 
navy  held  the  bay  for  many  months  and  repeatedly  bom- 
barded Rio  de  Janeiro,  besides  taking  Santa  Catharina  and 
other  places  on  the  coast.  In  this  crisis  President  Peixoto 
showed  much  firmness ;  ships  were  ordered  from  Europe 
and  North  America,  and  on  their  arrival  (Mar..  1894)  the 
rebellion  collapsed.  Meanwhile  the  elections  had  resulted 
in  the  return  of  a  civilian,  Prudente  Moraes,  for  the  suc- 
ceeding term.     Marshal  Peixoto  died  June  29,  1895. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Peixoto,  IfiNAcio  Jos]6  DE  Alvarenga  :  poet ;  b.  in  Rio 
de  Janeiro  aliout  Dec,  1748.  He  graduated  in  canon  law 
in  Lisbon,  and  was  appointed  a  judge  in  Jlinas  Geraes, 
Brazil ;  there  he  was  involved  in  the  alleged  revolutionary 
movement  called  the  conspiracy  of  Tiradentes,  was  arrested 
in  1789,  and  in  1792  was  condemned  to  death;  the  sentence 
was  commuted  to  penal  servitude  at  Angola,  where  he  died 
Jan.  1,  1793.  His  odes  and  sonnets  are  esteemed  among  the 
finest  in  the  Portuguese  language.  H.  H.  S. 

Peliin' :  a  form  of  the  name  Peking,  derived  from  Pekin, 
the  French  spelling  of  the  Chinese  name. 

Pekin  :  city;  capital  of  Tazewell  co..  111. (for  location, see 
map  of  Illinois,  ref.  5-D) ;  on  the  Illinois  river,  and  the 
Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  Fe,  the  Chi..  Peoria  and  St.  Li,  the  Cleve., 
Ciu.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.,  the  Peo.  and  Pekin  Union,  and  the 
Peo.,  Di'catur  and  Evansville  railways;  10  miles  S.  of  Peo- 
ria, 56  miles  N.  of  Springfield.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and 
coal-mining  region,  has  large  shipping  interests  by  rail  and 
water,  and  is  an  important  grain-market.  The  city  has  a 
water  fi-ont  of  over  3  miles,  2  national  banks,  with  combined 
ca])itai  of  $200,000.  a  private  bank,  and  numerous  industrial 
works,  including  4  distilleries,  3  foundries  and  machine- 
shops.  2  grain  elevators,  2  brick  and  tile  works,  oi-";an-fac- 
tory,  2  malt-houses,  a  roller-mill,  marble-works,  3  lumber- 
yards, planing-mill,  and  header,  wagon,  plow,  barrel,  and 
soila-water  factories.  There  are  13  churches,  4  public  and 
several  private  schools,  public  librarv,  and  2  daily,  4  weekly, 
and  3  monthly  periodicals.  Pop.  (1880)  5,993  ;  (1800)  6.347. 
Editor  of  "  Evening  Post." 

Pe'ljinij'.  sometimes  (but  less  correctly)  Peliin,  locally 
Peiching (literally.  Northern  Capital):  the  capital  of  China, 
and  chief  city  of  the  department  of  Shiin-t'irn-foo,  in  the 
province  of  Cliih-li  (but  not  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Viceroy  of  Chih-li) :  in  the  basin  of  the  Pei-ho  river,  but  about 
12  miles  from  that  stream  and  100  from  Taku,  at  its  mouth 
(see  map  of  China,  ref.  3-J).    The  latitude  of  the  Russian  oi>- 


PEKIXG 


PELAGIANISM 


505 


gervatory,  near  the  nort  lieast  corner  of  tlieeit y.  is  39°  56'  48"  N., 
its  longitude  1 16  28  iiH  E.  On  the  eastern  wall  of  the  North- 
ern or  Manchu  city  is  the  ancient  observatory,  sometimes 
considered  the  origin  for  Chinese  longitudes.  It  is  2'  17' 
S.  and  13"  E.  of  the  Russian  observatory.  The  altitu<le  of 
the  latter  is  121  feet  above  sea-level.  The  length  of  the  city 
from  N.  to  S.  is  'yi  miles,  and  its  average  breadth  a  little 
over  4  miles.  The  area  within  the  walls  is  24'5  sq.  miles, 
but  much  of  this  is  (u'l-upied  by  i)ublic  buihlings,  parks, 
ruins,  and,  in  the  .Southern  city,  open  fields.  The  suburbs 
are  small  and  unimportant.  The  population  is  not  given 
by  census,  and  has  been  variously  estimated.  The  old  es- 
timates were  very  high,  and  were  either  greatly  exaggerated 
or  the  city  has  decreased — perhaps  both.  Conservative  esti- 
mates bv  foreign  residents  now  put  the  population  at  only 
oOO.OOO.' 

The  city  consists  of  three  distinct  parts  or  cities,  each 
with  its  own  walls — viz.,  the  Northern,  Manchu,  or  Tartar 
city,  within  this  the  Imperial  city,  and  adjacent  to  it  the 
Southern  or  Chinese  city.  The  first,  though  called  the  Tar- 
tar city,  is  now  largely  occupied  by  Chinese;  the  second 
contains  the  palaces,  and  public  ofticcs,  and  temples.  The 
Southern  city  to  a  great  extent  consists  of  open  fields,  or  is 
occupieil  by  ruins. 

The  Tartar  city  is  a  regular  rectangle  (except  that  its 
northeast  angle  is  somewhat  depressed),  al)out  4  miles  N. 
and  S.  and  3  miles  E.  and  W.  The  wall  is  30  feet  high,  25 
feet  thick  at  the  Imse,  12  feet  across  at  the  top,  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  parapet.  It  is  made  of  earth,  faced  with 
large  brick  laiil  in  lime  and  clay,  or,  near  the  gates,  with 
stone.  Square  buttresses,  surmounted  by  towers,  occur  at 
frequent  intervals,  and  there  is  always  one  on  each  side  of 
each  gate.  There  are  nine  gates,  two  for  each  side,  except 
into  the  Chinese  city  to  the  S..  where  there  are  three.  The 
gates  are  surmounted  by  small  forts.  This  great  structure 
was  practically  impregnable  to  native  modes  of  warfare,  but 
offers  no  serious  resistance  to  modern  artillery.  The  whole 
is  surrounded  by  a  ditch,  fed  by  the  waters  of  the  Tmig-hwei 
creek,  a  branch  of  the  Pei-ho;  but  it  is  neglected,  and  is 
partly  tilled  up.  and  ol'tm  dry.  The  Tartar  city  is  the  finer 
of  the  two  (Tartar  and  Chinese),  has  more  and  handsomer 
dwellings,  is  better  cared  for,  and  is  the  part  in  which  for- 
eigners live.  It  is  crossed  from  side  to  side  by  several  very 
broad  streets,  along  which  the  shops  are  arranged.  From 
these  branch  out  innumerable  alleys,  along  which  are  the 
dwellings.  These  are  always  surrounded  Ijy  high  walls  and 
entered  through  closed  gates,  so  that  there  is  on  the  street 
little  sign  of  the  wealth  or  comfort  to  be  found  within.  An 
old  and  imperfect  system  of  sewerage  has  been  allowed  to 
go  to  decay.  There  are  no  public  water-works,  and  the 
streets  are  not  lighted  at  night.  Sanitary  arrangements,  or 
others  devoted  to  public  comfort,  are  jiractically  unknown. 
The  city  is  on  an  alkaline  plain,  over  which  rain  falls  oidy 
two  months  in  the  year,  and  the  clinuitc  is  fairly  healthful. 

The  inner  or  Imperial  city  is  guarded  by  a  wall  almost  as 
high  and  elaborate  as  that  of  the  Tartar  city.  It  is  about 
2  miles  long  by  1  broad;  is  entered  by  three  gates,  one  each 
on  the  E.  and  \V'.,  and  one  on  the  S.  The  gates  are  care- 
fuUv  guarded,  and  no  one  is  admitteil  except  those  having 
business  within.  The  temples  and  palaces  within  are  roofed 
with  yellow  tiles,  and  this  city  is  consequently  sometimes 
called  the  Yellow  city.  It  contains  considerable  parks,  and 
at  its  northern  end  is  a  high  artificial  hill  surrounded  by  its 
own  wall — an  imperial  [)Ieasure-ground.  Inside  the  "V-llow 
city,  and  occupying  [n'rluips  a  (piarter  of  its  space,  is  again 
an  inclosure  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  containing  the  im- 
perial residence.  It  is  tiled  with  red,  and  is  called  the  Red 
or  Proliibited  city. 

The  Southern  or  Chinese  city  abuts  on  the  Tartar  city  on 
the  S.  It  was  originally  a  suburl>.  but  "as  later  surrouniled 
by  a  wall,  which  is  lower  than  that  about  the  Tartar  city. 
H  has  ten  gates,  three  of  them  in  common  with  the  Tartar 
city.  It  is  of  a  rectangular  shape,  about  (i  miles  E.  and  \V. 
and  2^  N.  and  S.  It  contains  the  Tenqile  of  Heaven  and 
that  of  Agriculture,  representing  the  early  and  patriarchal 
religion  of  the  empire.  The  emi)eror.  representing  his  peo- 
ple, worships  h(>re  with  much  ceremonial  once  every  vear. 

Outside  Peking,  and  but  a  short  distance  E.  and  U'..  are 
the  temples  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  and  on  the  N.  that  of  the 
Earth.  About  8  miles  N.  \V.  is  a  very  fine  imperial  park, 
called  Yuen-ining-yueti,  containing  about  12  sq.  miles  and 
having  many  pleasure-houses;  put  in  ruins  by  the  allies  in 
1860.  In  the  environs  of  the  city  are  many  temples,  con- 
vents, and  tombs,  generally  in  ruins. 


Peking  is  thoroughly  policed,  and  is  very  safe  under  or- 
dinary circumstances.  Its  industries  are  small  and  unim- 
portant. The  country  immediately  around  it  is  relatively 
infertile,  aii<l  its  provisions  come  from  some  distance.  The 
chief  trade-route  is  by  the  Pei-ho  to  Tungehow,  12  miles 
distant,  thence  by  cart  or  j)orter  to  the  city.  Prom  the 
S.  and  \V.  carriage  is  largely  by  camels. 

A  city  has  occupied  from  time  immemorial  the  present 
site  of  Peking,  or  one  near  by.  The  Chinese  believe  that  it 
is  the  city  A7.  known  1,000  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  from  time  to  time  a  royal  or  departmental  capital  until 
the  fourth  century  a.  d.  From  that  time  the  name  was  fre- 
quently changed.  In  1264-67  A.  u.  it  was  rebuilt  about  3  li 
N.  E.  of  its  previous  site,  and  the  Mongol  emperors  used  it 
as  a  capital.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  tliirteenth  century  it 
was  well  known  to  Marco  i'olo,  who  called  it  Cambaluc 
(improperly  written  CdmbaJu).  It  continued  an  imperial 
residence  until  the  full  of  the  Mongols  (1368).  The  new 
(Ming)  dynasty  first  took  up  their  residence  at  Nanking  (i.  e. 
South  Capital),  but  the  second  emperor  of  that  dynasty  re- 
turned to  the  northern  capital,  which  was  now  called  Peking. 
It  was  restored  and  reduced  in  size  in  1409.  an<l  the  part 
then  constructed  is  tlie  present  Tartar  city.  The  walls  were 
completed  in  1437,  and  the  .Southern  city  inclosed  in  1544. 
There  has  been  little  change  since  then,  in  1860  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Anglo-French  array.       M.  W.  Harrington. 

Pela'giaiiisili :  a  system  of  anthropological  doctrine  which 
takes  its  name  from  Pelagius,  but  owes  its  shape  rather  to 
bolder  if  not  abler  men.  Pelagius  is  spoken  of  by  several 
of  his  contemporaries  as  a  Briton,  which  is  likely  enough, 
in  s|iite  of  his  familiarity  with  Greek  authors;  but  that  his 
British  name  was  Morgan  (sea-born),  rendered  into  the  Latin 
Pehtgiiix.  is  without  sufficient  ancient  warrant.  He  wa.s 
also  called  a  monk,  but  perhaps  this  indicates  only  ascetic 
habits.  At  any  rate,  he  was  only  a  layman.  He  was  born 
about  370 ;  went  to  Rome  about  400.  Shocked  by  the  de- 
generacy in  morals  there  he  set  about  their  correction,  and 
won  good  repute  among  his  contemporaries  by  his  intelli- 
gent zeal.  In  409,  to  avoid  Alaric's  siege  of  Rome,  he  escaped 
with  his  convert  and  pupil,  Ca>lestius.  to  Northern  Africa, 
and  had  gone  from  there  to  Palestine  before  the  meeting  of 
the  Council  of  Carthage  in  411  (some  say  412),  which  con- 
demned Cielestius.  In  Palestine  two  councils  (at  Jerusalem 
and  at  Diospolis,  the  ancient  Lydda,  in  415)  declared  him 
orthodox.  He  is  not  heard  of  after  418,  but  there  is  a  tradi- 
tion that  he  was  seventy  years  of  age  when  he  died  in  some 
obscure  town  of  Palestine.  In  the  controversy  to  which  his 
peculiar  views  gave  rise  he  may  not  have  acted  quite  frankly, 
but  otherwise  he  appears  to  have  been  a  very  good  man,  of 
more  than  common  moral  strictness  and  purity,  if  not  a 
man  of  any  great  spiritual  depth  or  intellectual  gras]).  The 
impulse  to  his  alleged  heresy  was  a  practical  one.  He  had 
been  scandalized  by  hearing  Christians  plead  human  in- 
firmity as  an  excuse  for  shortcomings  in  the  n-ligious  life. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  greatly  roused  by  hearing  a  bishop 
repeat  the  well-known  prayer  of  Augustine,  Da  (jiuhI  Jtibes, 
et  juhe  qiirid  r/.s  (Give  what  Thou  commandest,  and  com- 
mand what  Thou  wilt).  His  convert,  Ca>lestius,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  been  more  of  a  Pelagian  than  Pelagius  him- 
self, had  been  an  advocate  in  Rome,  and  was,  |ierliaps,  an 
Irishman  by  birth.  He  was  younger  and  more  iiiqiulsive 
than  Pelagius.  It  was  his  application  f(U- ordination  as  a 
jiresbyter  at  Carthage  (in  411  or  412)  which  led  to  the  coun- 
cil already  referred  to.  His  application  was  denied,  on  the 
ground  of  these  seven  heretical  opinions:  (1)  Adam  would 
have  died  if  he  had  not  sinned  ;  (2)  Adam's  sin  iniure<l  him- 
.self  only,  not  the  race  ;  (3)  children  are  born  as  pure  as  Adam 
was  liefore  he  fell;  (4)  men  neither  die  because  Adam  fell, 
nor  rise  again  in  consequence  of  Christ's  resurrection;  (5) 
nnbaptized.  as  well  as  baptized,  infants  are  saved;  (6)  the 
law.  as  Weil  as  the  gospel,  leads  to  heaven  ;  (7)  even  before 
Christ's  advent  there  were  sinless  men.  The  answer  of 
Ca'lestins,  that  these  were  matters  merely  of  siieculation, 
availed  him  nothing:  he  was  excluded  from  the  fellowship 
of  the  Church.  He  then  went  to  Ephesus  for  ordination,' 
and  was  a  presbyter  there  from  412  to  417,  when  he  returned 
to  Koine,  and  for  a  time  had  the  Bishop  Sozimus  (417-418) 
on  his  side,  but  fled  from  Home  in  41 S,  Sozimus  having 
turned  against  him;  was  banished  from  Constantinople  in 
429;  appears  in  Rome  again  in  430;  and  is  not  heard  of 
after  431.  when  he  was  condemned  by  the  tccumenical  Coun- 
cil of  Ephesus.  .Meanwhile,  a  still  younger  man,  of  still 
greater  boldness,  Julian,  Bishop  of  Eclanuni,  in  Italy,  comes 


506 


PELAGIUS 


PELICAN 


upon  the  stage.  Deposed  in  418.  with  eighteen  other  bish- 
ops, for  sympathy  with  the  opinions  of  CVlcstius.  he  literally 
carried  the  war  into  Africa,  assailing  the  Carthaginian  an- 
thropology with  all  his  might.  Augustine  had  already  en- 
tered the  lists  on  the  other  side.  Julian  went  to  Constanti- 
nople in  418,  spent  some  years  with  Theodore  of  Jlopsuestia, 
was  in  Constantinople  again  in  428,  sought  restoration  to 
the  Church  in  439,  but  was  refused,  and  died  a  schoolmaster 
in  Sicily  at  some  time  between  440  and  4.53.  Pelagianism, 
which  was  understood  to  be  a  denial  both  of  original  sin 
and  of  supernatural  grace,  was  everywhere  condemned. 
Serai-Pelagianisni,  100  years  later,  shared  the  same  fate. 
Bv  a  curious  blunder  the  principal  writings  of  Pelagius 
were  attributed  to  Jerome,  and  are  found  among  his  print- 
ed works  (ed.  Vallarsius,  vol.  xi.).  See  The  Aiifi-Felnyiaii 
Writings  of  Augustine,  in  English  (\ew  York.  1S87).  with 
historical  introduction  by  Prof.  B.  B.  Warfield ;  Jemme's 
Dialogue  against  the  Pelagians,  in  Eng.  trans,  by  W.  H. 
Fremantle  in  St.  Jerome :  Letters  and  Select  Works  (New 
York,  1893).  See  G.  F.  Wiggers,  Versuch  einer  pragmat- 
ischeri  Darstellung  des  Augustiiiismus  und  Felagianismns 
(1831-33),  vol.  i.  on  Pelagianism.  translated  by  Prof.  Emer- 
son of  Andover  (1840) ;  J.  L.  Jacobi.  Die  Lehre  des  Pelagius 
<1842) :  A.  Dorner,  Augu.-itiiius  (1873) :  \V.  G.  T.  Shedd.  Jlis- 
tory  of  Christian  Doctrine  (1863);  P.  Worter,  Der  Pelag- 
ianismns  (1866 ;  2d  ed.  1874).  See  Axthropology  ;  also  see 
Calvinism  and  Regexer.wion.  Revised  by  S.  JI.  Jackson. 

I'ela'gins:  See  Pelaoiaxism. 

Pelagius  I.:  pope;  of  Roman  birth;  archdeacon  and 
legate  to  Constantinople  under  Vigilius,  his  immediate  pred- 
ecessor, and,  like  him,  a  mere  creature  of  the  Byzantine 
emperor,  Justinian.  He  was  with  Vigilius  when  he  died  at 
Syracuse  on  his  way  home  from  Constantinople  (where  he 
had  been  since  547),  June  7.  aoo.  and  at  once  assumed  the 
pontificate,  as  he  had  previously  been  authorized  to  do  by 
Justinian.  He  was  suspected  of  having  hastened  the  death 
of  Vigilius,  and  after  his  consecration  at  Rome,  by  two  bish- 
ops and  a  presbyter,  he  thought  it  necessary  solemnly  and 
publicly  to  deny  the  charge.  He  had  a  troubled  pontificate, 
owing  to  the  refusal  of  many  of  his  bishops  to  accept  the 
decrees  of  the  fifth  oecumenical  council,  convened  by  Justin- 
ian in  Constantinople  553,  upon  the  Monophysite  controversy, 
which  sanctioned  the  formula,  "  God  was  crucified,"  or  "  One 
of  the  Trinity  has  suffered."  D.  in  Rome,  Mar.  3,  560.  His 
literary  remains  are  in  Migne,  Poi".  Xo/..  Ixix. — Pelagius  II., 
also  of  Roman  birth,  the  immediate  predecessor  of  Gregory 
the  Great  in  the  papal  chair,  and  the  first  independently 
elected  pontiff  after  the  Byzantine  conquest  of  Rome  in  536. 
He  was  consecrated  Nov.  27.  578;  and,  in  consequence  of  a 
plague  which  followed  an  inundation  of  the  Tiber,  died 
about  the  middle  of  January,  and  was, buried  Feb.  8,  590. 
His  literary  remains  are  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lot..  Ixxii. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Pelargonic  Acid  [from  Mod.  Lat.  Pelargonium,  a  genus 
of  geraniums  in  which  this  acid  is  found] :  a  member  of  the 
fatty  acid  series,  of  the  composition  CbHisOj.  It  oceure 
naturally  in  the  volatile  oil  of  rose-geranium,  Pelargonium 
roseum,  whence  its  name,  and  is  obtainable  artificially  by 
several  methods,  one  being  the  oxidation  of  essential  oil  of 
Ruta  graveolens,  or  rue.  It  is  a  colorless  liquid,  oily,  and 
freezing  by  cold  to  a  fatty  mass,  which  melts  at  12-5  C. ; 
odor  like  that  of  butyric  acid ;  boils  at  253°-254° ;  slightly 
soluble  in  water  and  very  soluble  in  alcohol.  By  keeping 
it  becomes  yellow.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Pelargonie  Ether;  the  ethyl  ether  of  pelargonic  acid. 
It  is  a  colorless  oil,  boiling  at  216  -219'  C.  Quinces  owe 
their  characteristic  odor  to  the  presence  of  this  substance. 
It  can  be  made  by  treating  pelargonic  acid  with  alcohol. 

Pelargonium;  See  Geranium. 

Pelas'giaiis  :  a  jieojile  uniformly  spoken  of  by  all  ancient 
Greek  authors  as  the  oldest  inhabitants  of  Greece.  The  de- 
tailed information  which  has  come  down  to  us  about  them 
is  vague  and  contradictory.  Some  authors,  Homer  and 
Herodotus,  describe  them  as  an  extensive  race,  the  parent- 
stock  from  which  sprung  the  Hellenes,  occupying  not  only 
tireece  proper,  but  Asia  Minor  to  the  E.,  Macl-donia,  Thni- 
cia,  and  Illyria  to  the  X.,  and  Italy  to  the  W.  Others, 
Thucydides  and  Strabo,  consider  theni  only  one  of  the  many 
kindred  tribes  which  iidiabited  Greece,  like  the  Leleges  and 
Dolopes.  Of  the  Pelasgian  language  nothing  has  been  [ire- 
served.  Certain  names,  such  as  Larissa  and  Argos,  are  con- 
sidered as  pertaining  to  it.     A  Greek  tradition  designated 


the  Albanian  dialect  as  directly  descended  from  it.  Herod- 
otus speaks  of  it  as  barbarous,  but  whether  that  means 
foreign  or  corrupted  is  not  evident.  Of  architectural  monu- 
ments found  in  Greece,  certain  constructions  of  an  enormous 
massiveness  and  strength  are  ascriljed  to  them.  They  con- 
sist of  huge  blocks  of  stone  placed  one  above  the  other,  and 
held  together  by  their  own  weight,  without  any  mortar;  on 
account  of  their  size  these  structures  are  called  Cyclopean. 
Of  the  history  of  the  Pelasgians  not  one  fact  has  as  yet  been 
ascertained,  even  that  of  the  transition  from  the  Pelasgian 
to  the  Hellenic  period.  Some  modern  Egyptologists,  how- 
ever, have  described  them  as  a  seafaring  people  in  frequent 
communication  with  Egypt.  Of  the  stocks  settled  in  Italy, 
the  Japygians  and  Etruscans  are  generally  considered  as 
branches  of  the  Pelasgian  race,  but  the  hypothesis  is  at  once 
hazardous  and  barren.  Revised  by  J.  E.  S.  Sterkett. 

Pelecan'idw  [.Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Peleca'nus,  the  typ- 
ical genus,  from  htit. peleca'nus  ^Gi.ireAf Kayos,  woodpecker, 
also  pelican,  liter.,  hewer,  deriv.  of  TreXcKuf.  liew,  deriv.  of 
wfKeKvs,  ax] :  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order  Steganopodes, 
whose  species  are  familiarly  known  as  pelicans.  They  are 
of  large  size ;  have  a  rather  long  flexible  neck,  moderate 
head,  a  long,  nearly  straight,  and  rather  broad  bill,  whose 
culmen  is  rounded  at  the  base,  and  at  the  end  iiroduced  into 
a  strong  hook;  the  lower  mandible  is  broader  than  the  up- 
per, and  provided  with  a  naked  membrane,  which  extends 
backward  on  the  throat  and  is  capable  of  great  extension ; 
nostrils  lacking ;  wings  long  and  pointed ;  tarsi  short  and 
robust ;  toes  four,  connected  together  by  a  membrane,  the 
three  anterior  largest,  tlie  fourth  interno-posterior  and 
smallest.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pelecyp'oda  (]Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  ireAcmj,  hatchet  +  irois, 
iroSfis,  foot] ;  a  tei'in  used  by  a  few  writers  for  the  group  of 
molluscs,  better  called  Lamellibranchiata  ((j.  v.),  in  allusion 
to  the  compressed  "foot." 

Pe'lens  (in  Gr.  TlTiKeis):  in  Grecian  mythology,  son  of 
-.Eacus,  brother  of  Telamon  and  father  of  Achilles  by  Thetis, 
a  daughter  of  Nereus.  and  therefore  immortal.  He  was 
King  of  Phthia  in  Thessaly;  took  part  in  the  Calydonian 
boar-hunt  and  the  Argonautic  expedition.  At  his  marriage 
to  Thetis  in  the  cave  of  the  centaur  Chiron  the  gods  ap- 
peared and  brought  goodly  gifts,  only  Eris  threw  among 
the  assembled  guests  the  golden  apple  inscribed,  "  To  the 
Fairest."  a  circumstance  which  gave  rise  to  the  Trojan  war, 
in  which  the  issue  of  this  marriage  (Achilles)  was  to  be  the 
leading  figure.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pelew'  Islands :  a  group  of  twenty-six  little  islands  W. 
of  the  Carolines  in  the  Pacific:  also  called  the  Western 
Carolines.  They  belong  to  Spain,  and  are  hilly  and  sur- 
rounded by  coral  reefs.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  produces 
breadfruits,  bananas,  sugar-cane,  and  oranges.  Pop.  about 
10,000.  of  the  Malay  race.  See  Semper,  Die  Patau  Inseln 
(Leipzig,  1873).  C.  C.  A. 

Pelican  [0.  Eng.  pellican,  from  ^led.  Lat.  pelecantis,  a 
pelican] :  any  one  of  several  water-birds  of  the  family  Pele- 
canidiv.  having  all  four  toes  connected  by  a  web,  and  dis- 
tinguishable at  a  glance  by  their  extremely  long  bill,  be- 
neath which  is  a  large  skinny  pouch.  The  tail  is  short,  and 
consists  of  numerous  (twenty  or  more)  feathers  ;  the  wings 
very  long  ;  the  l)ones  are  all  permeated  by  air,  and  numer- 
ous air-sacs  are  present  about  the  body.  Pelicans  are  gre- 
garious, and  dwell  both  on  the 
seacoast  and  by  inland  waters  in 
temperate  as  well  as  tropical  coun- 
tries. They  nest  on  the  ground 
or  on  low  trees  and  bushes,  and 
lay  from  one  to  three  eggs,  like 
chalk  in  appearance.  There  are 
ten  or  a  dozen  species.  The  pouch 
is  used  for  catching  fish,  on  which 
these  birds  feed.  They  either 
plunge  down  upon  the  fish,  like 
the  brown  pelican,  or  drive  them 
into  shallow  water  and  scoop  them 
uji.  It  has  been  denied  that  the 
pelican  carries  fish  to  its  young  in 
its  pouch,  but  it  certaiidy  does 
this  occasionally.  The  common 
pelican  of  Euroi}e  (Pelecanus  onocrolalus)  has  black  prima- 
ries, the  rest  of  the  body  being  white  suffused  with  a  rosy  or 
salmon  tint ;  the  young  are  grayish.  This  bird  reaches  a 
length  of  5  feet,  with  a  spread  of  wing  of  nearly  9.     The 


White  pelicnn   /' 

Ch:,.-, 


rl,:irhynr 


PELIDES 


PBLOPIDAS 


507 


white  pelican  of  North  America  (P.  trachyrhynchus),  a  hm\ 
of  the  size  of  the  eoiiiiiKiii  pelican,  is  remarkable  frcim  tlie 
fact  tha'  <liiring  the  lireciling  season  a  horny  ridge  or  ex- 
crescence is  ilevelopcil  oil  llie  upper  inandilile.  This  bird  is 
found  on  the  tiiUf  coast  and  extends  inland  to  (ireat  Salt 
Lake.  Tlie  lirown  pelican  of  Nurtii  Anieiica  (/'. /«.sc».s)  ex- 
tends alonj;  the  coast  of  the  U.  S.  from  Carolina  to  Texas,  and 
a  similar  species  (P.  califnrnicus)  occurs  on  tlie  Pacific  coast. 
These  birds  are  striped  willi  black  and  white,  while  the  neck 
of  the  male  is  of  a  rich  reddish  lirown.  F.  A.  LicAS. 

Pplidfs :  See  Aciiii.t.Ks. 

Pc'lioii  (in  Or.  rh  IlyjAiov  ipos) :  the  ancient  name  of  the 
modern  I'lessidi.  a  mountain  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Thes- 
saly.  in  the  province  of  Magnesia.  On  the  summit  of  its 
highest  peak  stood  the  temple  of  .Jupiter  Acta'us.  and  near 
tliis  was  tlie  cave  of  t'liiron.  It  is  still  celelirated  for  its 
magniticeiil  forests  of  oak.  chestnut,  elm,  and  pine,  and  the 
<teep  impression  which  the  ancients  received  of  its  lofty 
peaks  found  a  fit  ex|)ression  in  the  myth  of  the  giant  sons 
of  Aloeus,  who  in  tlieir  wars  against  the  gods  placed  Ossa 
on  the  top  of  Olymjins  and  Pelion  npon  Ossa  ;  or,  as  Vergil 
relates,  piled  Ossa  on  Pelion  and  rolled  Olympus  npon  Ossa. 
.See  Jlezieres,  ,Sur  le  Pi'linn  ft  /V/s'.sa  (Paris,  lHo3) ;  Tozer, 
A'('.scr(rc/((',«  in  the  Highlands  uf  Turkey  {London,  1869,  vol, 
ii..  pp.  9y-l;i'J).  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

P^'lissier.  pn'lee'si-a'.  .Teax  .lAcyrES  Amable  :  Duke  of 
Mahikotf.  marshal  of  France  ;  b.  at  Maromme,  near  Rouen, 
Nov.  0,  17!l-t :  was  educated  at  Brussels,  afterward  at  the 
mil  11  ary  schools  of  La  Fleche  and  St.-C'yr ;  entered  the  ar- 
tllleiT  as  sub-lieutenant  in  1814;  served  in  Spain  in  1823,  in 
tin'  Morea  in  1838,  and  in  Algeria  in  1830.  Commanding  in 
1S4.")  a  corps  as  colonel,  he  entered  the  territory  of  the  Ouled 
Kialis.  defeated  them,  and  shut  them  up  in  a  cave.  As 
they  refused  to  surrender,  and  even  tired  at  his  messengers, 
he  applied  burning  fagots  to  tlie  month  of  the  cave,  and 
alioul  600  Aralis  were  suffocated.  This  atrocity  excited 
general  indignation,  and  he  was  saved  only  by  the  declara- 
tion of  Marshal  Bugeau<l,  commander-in-chief  in  Algeria, 
that  he  had  simply  obeyed  a  positive  order.  In  18.55  he  was 
made  coinmander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  the  Crimea,  and 
tcKik  the  Malaki>ff.  lb-  was  governor-general  of  Algeria 
from  bSOO  lo  his  death  .May  22.  1864. 

PePla  (in  (ir.  n«'AAa) :  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Mace- 
donian empire  and  the  birthplace  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
Jt  was  a  large  and  magnificent  city  in  the  days  of  Philip 
and  .Vlexander,  but  lost  its  importance  under  the  Romans, 
and  disappeared  altogether  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Some 
few  remains  of  it  are  still  traceable  near  Pel.  It  is  said  to 
have  had  over  80,000  inhal)itants.  See  Tozer,  Researches  in 
the  Ilightttnds  of  Turkey  (London,  1869,  i..  p.  1.53) ;  Ilenzey 
and  Uaumet,  Mission  arctteolucjique  de  Macedoine  (Paris, 
ISTC)).  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pella :  city ;  Clarion  co.,  la.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Iowa,  ref.  6-II):  on  the  Chi.,  liock  Is.  and  Pac.  Railway; 
47  miles  K.  S.  E.  of  l>es  Moines,  the  State  capital.  It  is  in 
an  agricultural  and  stock-raising  region,  is  the  seat  of  the 
Central  Fniversityof  Iowa  (Baptist),  and  has  stone  quarries, 
vineyards,  lime-kilns.  Hour-mills,  grain  elevators,  and  other 
industrial  works,  and  a  nionlhlv  and  lliree  weekly  period- 
icals.    Pop.  (1880)  2,430 ;  (1890)  2,408  ;  (1895)  2,6U6! 

Pella'gra  [Ital.,  deriv.   of  pelle,  skin;  cf.  Gr.  &ypa.  a 

catching]  :  a  form  of  nervous  disease  with  a  peculiar  skin 
eruption.  It  occurs  in  Italy,  especially  in  Lombardy.  in 
Spain,  and  in  other  |iarts  of  Europe,  and  sometimes  becomes 
extremely  prevalent.  The  symptoms  refer  to  the  stomach, 
the  nervous  system,  and  the  skin.  The  disease  is  apt  to  be 
chronic,  growing  in  severity  with  succeeding  years.  It  is 
likely  that  poverty,  hunger,  overwork,  and  filth  combined 
are  the  causes  alike  of  the  scaly  eruption  and  of  the  other 
attendant  evils.  Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Pelletior.  pelti-ii.  Charles  .\LpnoN-sE  Pantaleon. 
C.  M.  G. :  Senator;  b.  at  Riviere  Ouelle.  Province  of  t^)uebec, 
Canada,  Jan.  22.  ls:!7;  graduated  B.  C.  L.  at  Laval  L'ni- 
versily  In  1858,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  ISOO.  lie 
represented  Kamouraska  in  the  Dominion  Parliament  1867- 
77;  was  Jlinister  of  Agriculture  1877-78;  president  of  the 
Canailian  commission  for  the  Paris  Universal  Exhibition  of 
1878:  for  his  services  was  made  (1878)  a  Companion  of  the 
<  Irder  of  St,  Jlichael  and  St.  George  ;  and  was  called  to  the 
Senate  in  1877.  lie  was  thrice  elected  president  of  the 
Socirte  di'  St..b'an  Bapliste.  and  commandi'il  a  battalion 
during  the  Fenian  raid  of  1806.  Neil  Macdonalu. 


Pellico,  Silvio  ;  poet  and  writer;  b.  at  Saluzzo,  province 
of  Coni,  Italy,  .June  24,  1789.  He  studied  at  Turin,  and  then 
spent  four  years  at  Lyons,  chiefly  studying  French  literature. 
In  1810,  his  family  having  removed  to  Milan,  he  became 
Professcn-  of  French  in  the  Milanese  Collegio  degli  Orfani 
Alilitari.  Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  .Monti  and 
Foscolo  (whose  V(trmi  de'  Sepolcri  had  deeply  stirred  him), 
and  was  soon  in  the  midst  of  the  best  spirits  of  the  city. 
During  this  period  he  wrote  the  first  of  his  tragedies,  Lao- 
dicea  and  Prunresca  da  liimini,  the  latter  of  which,  acted 
in  1819,  was  a  great  success.  In  1819,  with  a  group  of  friemis, 
among  tluni  .^lanzoni  and  Berchet,  he  estalilished  a  period- 
ical, II  Cvnri/inture,  intended  to  represent  the  new  romantic 
and  jiatriotie  tendencies  they  all  felt  so  strongly.  The  Aus- 
trian administration  looked  with  great  disfavor  upon  this; 
and  Pellico  had  difficulties  also  about  his  new  tragedy,  Jiu- 
feniid  di  JlessiiKi  {IH'iO).  In  this  same  year  the  periodical 
had  to  be  abandoned,  and  not  long  after  Pellico.  with  .several 
others,  was  arrested.  He  was  confined  first  at  Milan,  then  at 
Venice,  but  in  1822,  on  a  false  charge  of  Carbonarism,  he  was 
condemned  to  death.  The  sentence  was  commuted  by  the 
emperor  to  fifteen  years  of  confinement  at  the  Spielberg  in  , 
INIoravia.  At  last,  in  1830,  stirred  by  the  .Tuly  revolution  in 
Paris,  the  Austrian  Government  released  him,  broken  in 
health  and  impaired  in  mind.  He  went  at  once  to  Turin, 
and  ].>assed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement  as  sec- 
retary and  lilirarian  to  the  Marchioness  Barolo.  His  trage- 
dies, lyiniii  d'Asti  and  Ester  d'Eiigaddi.  had  been  the  fruit 
of  his  confinement  in  Venice,  while  at  the  Spielberg  he  com- 
posed Leoniero  da  Dertona.  On  his  release  he  prepared  the 
book  chiefly  associated  with  his  name,  Le  inie  Prigioni : 
Jfemorie,  etc.  (Turin,  1832),  which  first  revealed  to  Europe 
the  iniquities  of  the  Austrian  rule  in  Italy,  and  powerfully 
aided  the  movement  for  Italian  independence.  The  book 
was  speedily  translated  into  all  the  cultivated  European 
languages,  as  was  also  the  little  treatise  Pei  Doveri  degli 
I'omini,  discorso  ad  un  giovane  (1834).  Besides  the  trage- 
dies mentioned  above,  he  composed  three  others — Timimaso 
Moro,  Erudiade,  and  Gismonda  da  llendrisio — as  well  as  a 
number  of  briefer  dramatic  pieces.  (See  his  Rappresen- 
tdzioni  dramatiche  iiiedite.  edited  by  G.  Lanza,  Turin, 
1886.)  His  master  in  the  drama  was  Alfieri.  but  there  is 
little  strength  and  too  much  sentimentality  in  his  style. 
D.  at  Turin.  Feb.  1,  1854.  There  is  no  good  comi^lete  edi- 
tion of  Pellico's  works.  The  chief  are  in  the  so-called  Oj/ere 
Complete  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1834-48 ;  3  vols.,  Paris,  1836-37  ; 
1  vol.,  Milan,  1857).  Other  editions  of  importance  are  his 
Opere  (2  vols.,  Padua,  1831)  and  Ojiere  inedite  (2  vols.,  Turin, 
1837).  His  Epistolario  has  been  edited  by  G.  Stefani  (Flor- 
ence. 1856).  See  P.  Giuria,  Silvio  Pellico  e  il  suo  tempo 
(1854) ;  and  JVel  Cenlenario  delta  ynscita  di  Silrio  Pellico. 
Sua  vita,  memorie,  e  componimenti  inediti  (Turin,  1889). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Pcl'litory  [M.  Eng.  paritorie,  from  0.  F.  paritoire  < 
Lat.  jiarieta  ria,  pellitory.  deriv.  of  parieta  rius.  belonging 
to  walls,  deriv.  oi  pa  ries.  parie'fis,  wall] :  common  name  of 
an  urticaceous  herl).  (1)  The  Parietaria  officincdis,  or  wall 
pellitory  of  the  Old  World,  resembling  outwardly  tlie  com- 
mon nettle.  It  is  used  as  a  diuretic  in  domestic  practice. 
Parietaria  pennsylvanica  is  its  North  American  represent- 
ative. (2)  i\[ore  commonly  this  name  is  given  to  Anacy- 
clus  pyrethrum.  a  composite  plant  the  root  of  which  is 
brouglit  from  the  Levant.  It  is  much  u.sed  by  dentists  to 
relieve  toothache  and  benumb  the  nerves  of  the  teeth,  and 
is  a  valuable  and  powerful  sialagoguc  and  local  stimulant  in 
tic  douloureux  and  facial  paralysis ;  is  often  incorrectly 
called  Spanish  pellitory. 

Pclop'idas  (in  Gr.  Xl^XmiSas)  :  a  man  of  great  wealth  and 
an  intiinatr  friend  of  Epaminondas  ;  b.  at  Thebes;  was  ex- 
jielled  in  382  n.  c.  from  his  native  city  by  an  oligarchic 
party  supported  by  S|)arta.  but  returned  in  379  B.  c,  .slew 
the  Spartan  leader  with  his  own  hand,  established  a  thor- 
oughly democratic  government,  and  broke  the  Spartan  in- 
fluence not  only  in  Thebes,  but  in  (ireece.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  371  n.  c,  and  on  a  diplo- 
matic mission  to  .Susa  he  bafileil  the  Sjiartan  and  Athenian 
intrigues  at  the  Persian  court,  and  Thebes  was  acknowl- 
edged a.s  the  first  city  of  Greece.  Sent  in  368  B.  c.  as  am- 
ba.ssador  to  .Vlexander  of  Pliera-.  he  was  seized  and  impris- 
oned by  the  tyrant,  but  rescued  by  Epaminonda-s.  In  the 
year  364  n.  r."  he  defeated  Alexaiiiler  at  Cynoseepliahc  in 
'rhessaly,  but  was  killed  while  ]iiirsuing  the  cnemv. 

Revised  b/J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 


508 


PELOPIUM 


PEMPHIGUS 


Pelopinm :  See  Columbium. 

Peloponiie'snS  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  nf\oir6i'yr}<xos :  neXoiros,  nf 
Pelops  +  i/TJcros,  island]:  the  ancient  name  I'oi'  the  southern 
division  of  Greece,  the  peninsula,  which  now  generally  is 
called  the  Morea  {q.  v.).  It  was  divided  into  six  districts  or 
states — namely,  Achaia,  in  the  N.,  along  the  Corinthian 
Gulf;  Argolis,  in  the  E.,  between  the  Saronic  Gulf  and  the 
Gulf  of  Argolis ;  Laconia,  in  the  S.  E.,  between  the  Gulfs  of 
Argolis,  L.aeonia,  or  Colocythia,  and  Messenia  or  Koron  ; 
Mcsseuia,  in  the  S.  W.,  on  the  Gulf  of  Messenia ;  Elis,  in  the 
W. ;  and  Arcadia  in  the  middle.  See  the  articles  on  (treece 
and  its  divisions ;  Curtius,  Peloponnesos  (Gotha,  1851-52) ; 
Clark,  Peloponnesus  (London,  1858) ;  Beule,  Etudes  snr  le 
Peloponese  (Paris,  1875) ;  Gell,  Itinerary  of  the  Morea 
(1837)  and  his  Jnumeij  in  the  Morea  (1823) :  Leake.  Travels 
in  the  Morea  (London,  1880)  and  his  Peloponnesiaca  (Lon- 
don, 1846) ;  Blouet.  Expedition  de  Moree  (Paris,  1831-38) ; 
Ross,  i?e ('sere  im  Peloponnes  (Berlin,  1841):  Wyse,  E.rcur- 
sion  in  the  Peloponnesus  (London,  1865) :  Bursian,  Geo- 
graphie  von  Orieehenland  (Leipzig,  1872,  vol.  ii.,  1-343).  For 
the  Peloponnesian  wars,  see  Greece,  History  of  Axciemt. 
Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pe'lops  (in  Gr.  ni\o^) :  in  Grecian  mythology,  the  son  of 
Tantalus  (King  of  Phrygia),  brother  of  Niobe  and  the  father 
of  Atreus  and  Thyestes ;  married  Hippodamia,  a  daughter 
of  King  ffinomaus  of  Elis  ;  became  king  after  the  death  of 
his  father-in-law ;  renewed  the  Olympian  games,  and  gave 
his  name  to  the  southern  division  of  Greece  by  sending  a 
colony  thither.  Many  and  very  different  myths  are  con- 
nected with  his  name.  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pelo'tas :  a  town  in  the  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
Brazil ;  on  the  river  Sao  Gon<;alo,  which  connects  the  Lagoa 
dos  Patos  with  the  Lagoa  Miri  (see  map  of  South  America, 
ref.  8-F).  It  is  built  on  flat  ground,  with  wide,  regular 
streets,  and  is  one  of  the  richest  and  handsomest  cities  of 
Southern  Brazil ;  railways  connect  it  with  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul  and  with  the  interior  of  the  state,  and  vessels  which 
can  pass  the  Rio  Grande  bar  ascend  easily  to  this  place. 
Pelotas  is  the  principal  cattle-market  of  the  state  and  the 
center  of  the  meat-drying  industry,  whence  most  of  the 
states  are  supplied  with  jerked  beef.  The  exports,  besides 
jerked  and  salt  beef,  are  hides,  tallow,  horns,  etc.  Pop. 
(1894)  about  25,000.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pels,  AxDRiEs  :  Dutch  poet  and  critic.  Almost  nothing 
is  known  of  his  life  except  that  he  lived  at  Amsterdam  as  a 
jurisconsult  during  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. He  is,  however,  historically  a  rather  important  figure 
in  Dutch  literature.  The  first  production  from  his  \ien  of 
which  we  know  is  his  tragedy  Didoos  dood  (1668).  Soon 
after  this  he  became  the  central  figure  of  that  group  of  men 
■who  undertook  to  regulate  and  discipline  tlie  Dutch  lan- 
guage and  the  forms  of  Dutch  poetry.  The  group  took  for 
its  motto  the  words  ^V(7  volentibus  arduuin.  and  is  com- 
monly known  by  this  name.  Its  inspiration  came  from 
France,  and  it  dreamed  of  a  work  like  that  of  the  recently 
established  Academic  Fran(,'aise.  The  manifesto  of  the 
movement  was  written  by  Pels, and  entitled  Iloratius  Diclit- 
kunst  op  onze  iijden  en  zeden  gepast  (1677) :  and  this  was 
followed  by  a  second  treatise  with  a  similar  purpose,  Gebruik 
en  mishruik  des  tooneels  (1681).  The  effect  of  the  movement 
on  Dutch  letters  was  very  unhappy.  The  would-be  legis- 
lators had  no  real  inspiration,  and  conceived  of  reform  as  a 
purely  mechanical  and  exterior  business.  Hence  their  own 
works  are  now  almost  unreadable,  as  may  be  seen  in  Pels's 
Minneliederen  en  Mengelzangen  (1684).         A.  R.  Marsh. 

Pelll'sium  [=Lat.  =  Gr.  UriXoiaiov.  Egypt,  am;  proba- 
bly identical  with  Ha-uar.  Avaris  or  Abaris":  Heh.  Sin\.  an 
Egyptian  fortified  city  and  outpost  near  the  Mediterranean, 
on  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile,  at  the  northeast  corner 
of  the  Delta  region,  on  one  of  the  main  lines  of  travel  to 
the  East.  lis  history  can  not  be  traced  except  in  the  geo- 
graphical lists  on  temple  walls,  since  the  present  remains 
are  very  few  and  much  weatherbeatcn.  Avaris  was  the 
final  stronghol<l  of  the  llvksos.  from  which  they  were  driven 
by  Ahmes  I.  (See  Eiivrr.)  It  was  also  the  scene  of  the 
overthrow  of  the  native  dynasty  under  Psammetichus  III. 
by  Cambyses.  At  present  the  s"ite  is  nearly  level  with  the 
surrounding  marsh,  the  lowering  of  the  mounds  being  due 
in  part  to  (leuudation,  but  mainly  to  the  gradual  sinking  of 
the  northern  portion  of  the  isthmus.  See  Petrie,  Tanis 
(part  ii.,  p.  100  f.) ;  Diimichen  and  Mever,  Gesch.  des  alien 
Aegijptens;  Lipsius,  Letters  from  Egypt  (p.  429  ff.) ;  Meyer; 


Gesch.  des  Altertums;  Araelineau,  Geographie  de  VEgyple 
(p.  317  f.).  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Pelvis  [=  Lat.  pelvis,  basin,  laver]  :  the  lowest  of  the 
three  great  divisions  of  the  trunk,  or,  more  properly,  the 
bony  ring  or  framework,  connecting  the  column  of  the  spine 
witli  the  lower  extremities,  and  transferring  the  weight  of 
the  former  to  the  latter.  It  consists  of  four  bones.  The 
front  and  sides  are  formed  by  the  two  ossa  innominaia, 
large  irregular  bones  which  have  received  their  name  from 
their  not  resembling  any  other  body  in  form  ;  behind,  the 
circle  is  completed  by  the  sacrum  and  coccyx.  The  pelvis 
varies  somewhat  in  the  male  and  female  skeleton,  and  also 
in  the  skeletons  of  different  races.     See  Osteology. 

Pembertoii.  .John  Clifford  :  soldier  ;  b.  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa..  Aug.  10,  1814 :  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Acad- 
emy, and  became  second  lieutenant  of  artillery  July,  1837 ; 
served  in  Florida  against  the  Seminoles :  in  the  war  with 
Mexico  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Worth,  gaining  the  brevets  of 
captain  and  major  for  Monterey  and  Moiino  del  Rey ;  in 
Florida  hostilities  against  the  Seminole  Indians,  and  in  gar- 
rison principally  in  the  Southern  States  until  Apr.  29,  1861, 
when  he  resigned,  being  at  the  time  a  captain  of  artillery. 
Joining  the  Southern  cause,  he  was  appointed  a  colonel  of 
cavalry,  and  attached  to  the  staff  of  Gen.  Joseph  Johnston  ; 
rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  and  in  1863  com- 
manded in  Jlississippi,  where  he  was  defeated.  May  16,  at 
Champion  Hills  and  Big  Black  (May  17) :  falling  back  on 
Vicksburg,  he  defended  it  against  assault,  but  being  be- 
sieged was  compelled  to  surrender  the  city  and  garrison 
July  4,  1863.  (See  Vicksburg,  Sieoe  of.)  He  subsequently 
served  as  inspector  of  artillery ;  after  the  war  farmed  at 
Warrenton,  Va.,  but  in  1876  removed  to  Philadelphia.  D. 
at  Penllyn,  near  Philadelphia,  July  13.  1881. 

Revised  by  Jajies  Mercur. 

Pembroke  :  town  :  in  Pembrokeshire.  South  Wales  ;  on 
an  inlet  of  Milford  Haven;  9  miles  W.  of  Tenby  (see 
map  of  England,  ref.  12-C').  At  Pembroke  Dock  or  Pater, 
2i  miles  N.  W,  of  Pembi-oke,  is  a  fortified  dock-yard  and 
arsenal.     Pop.  of  Pembroke  proper  (1891)  14,978. 

Pembroke :  town :  capital  of  Renfrew  co.,  Ontario, 
Canada;  on  AUumette  Lake,  a  part  of  Ottawa  river;  100 
miles  above  Ottawa  (see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  1-G).  It  is  a 
great  center  of  the  lumber  business.  Water-power  is  fur- 
nished by  the  falls  of  Muskrat  river.  Beside  the  county 
buildings,  Pembroke  has  several  branch  banks  and  mills. 
There  are  two  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1890)  4,401. 

Pembrokeshire :  county  of  Wales :  bounded  N.  and  W. 
by  the  Irish  Sea  and  S.  by  the  Bristol  Channel.  Area,  617 
sq.  miles.  The  coast  is  rugged,  but  inland  the  surface  is 
undulating,  valleys  alternating  with  hills,  which  reach  a 
height  of  1,754  feet  in  Cwm-Crwyn  in  the  Precelly  range. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Teifi.  the  two  branches  of  the 
Cleddan,  and  the  Xevern.  Mines  of  anthracite  coal  and 
lead  are  worked.  In  the  southern  part  the  soil  is  fer- 
tile, and  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes  are  raised  ;  while  in  the 
more  northerly  regions  more  attention  is  given  to  cattle- 
rearing  and  dairy-farming.  Over  more  than  half  its  area 
English  is  spoken,  though  it  is  the  farthest  Welsh  county 
from  England.  Peml)rokcshire  returns  one  member  to  Par- 
liament.    Pop.  (1891)  89,133. 

Pem'mieaii  [the  Cree  Indian  name]:  a  kind  of  concen- 
trated food,  originally  made  by  the  >>orth  American  Ind- 
ians by  drying  and  powdering  the  lean  meat  of  the  buffalo 
or  deer,  mixing  it  with  service-berries,  stirring  all  into  boil- 
ing fat,  and  tiuiking  it  into  cakes.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  a  very  different  form  of  meat-biscuit  used  by  Arctic  voy- 
agers. 

Pemphi'glis  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  irfVifif,  veti(piyos.  bub- 
ble] :  a  skin  disease  in  which  successive  crops  of  watery  or 
turbid  blisters  appear  ujion  the  patient.  Two  varieties  are 
descriV)ed :  P.  vulgaris,  which  may  be  acute  or  chronic,  and 
P.  foliaceus,  which  is  always  chronic.  In  the  former  the 
blebs  are  well  distended,  at  first  with  clear  serum,  later 
with  pus;  in  the  latter,  the  vesicles  are  large,  only  partly 
filled,  and  purulent  from  the  first.  Moreover,  they  rupture 
early  and  leave  a  rough,  red  surface.  Pemphigus  often 
comes  on  suddenly,  with  chills  and  fever  and  great  consti- 
tutional depression.  It  may  be  epidemic  in  certain  locali- 
ties, especially  the  form  occurring  in  the  new-born,  P.  neo- 
niitoruiu.  The  acute  form  lasts  from  two  to  six  weeks,  and 
may  occasion  severe  constitutional  symptoms,  with  the  local 
heat  or  itching  common  to  all  forms.     The  chronic  form 


PEN 


509 


lasts  from  six  months  to  a  year  or  more,  consisting,  as  a 
nile,  of  several  distinct  attacks,  separated  by  an  interval. 
The  treatment  consists  in  the  internal  administration  of 
arsenic  and  of  remedies  to  restore  the  general  systemic  tone, 
such  as  strychnia,  (juinine,  and  iron.  Local  treatment  with 
ilusting-powdei's  or  alkaline  sedative  lotions  gives  great  re- 
lief, and  in  very  severe  ca.ses  patients  have  been  kept  in 
warm  baths  continuously  for  months.     William  Pepper. 

Pen  [via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  pen'na,  feather] :  an  instrument 
for  writing.  Among  the  earliest  references  to  pens  are 
those  found  in  Judges  v.  14,  Psalms  xlv.  1,  Isaiah  viii.  1, 
chiefly  referring,  no  doubt,  to  the  iron  stylus  which  cut  out 
characters  in  the  tablets  of  limestone  or  soapst(me.  These 
may  have  been  maiie  of  other  metals,  and  were  in  some  in- 
stances pointed  with  diamonds,  as  referred  to  in  Jeremiah 
xvii.  1.  Another  reference  is  made  in  .leremiah  viii.  y,  and 
if  taken  in  connection  with  the  mention  of  a  penknife — 
xxxvi.  'i'ii — it  would  seem  to  imply  that  a  reed  was  in  use  at 
that  period.  Later,  tablets  were  made  of  the  plastic  clays 
of  Central  Asia,  which,  after  receiving  inscriptions,  were 
dried  in  the  sun  or  baked  in  ovens.  The  xfijle  used  in 
I'lTsia.  Greece,  and  Syria  was  sharp  at  one  end  for  writing 
;ind  flattened  at  the  other  for  the  purpose  of  making  era- 
.sures  on  the  tablets,  which  were  covered  with  wax,  and  were 
made  of  metal,  bune.  or  ivory. 

In  the  Third  Eiiistle  of  John,  13th  verse,  written  about 

A.  I).  85,  mention  is  made  of  "ink  and  ])en,"'  probably  al- 
luding to  the  custom  of  writing  upon  skins  or  otiier  flexible 
material.  Although  the  first  reference  in  tlie  Bible  was 
made  about  B.  c.  1296,  Mariette  discovered  an  inscription 
ill  one  of  the  crypts  of  the  Temple  of  Denderah  in  L^pper 
Kgypt  which  says  that  the  great  fundamental  ordinance  of 
Denderah  was  found  written  upon  goat-skin  in  the  inside 
I  if  a  brick  wall  during  the  reign  of  King  Pepi  (about  B.  c. 
;!ti.")0),  and  In  the  same  crypt  was  another  inscription  stat- 
ing that  the  restoration  of  the  great  fundamental  ordinance 
of  Denderah  was  made  in  accordance  with  what  was  found 
irrillen  in  ancient  writing  of  the  time  of  King  Khufu  (about 

B.  c.  37Gf;). 

At  Bubastis,  in  Lower  Egypt,  Naville  discovered  on  the 
walls  of  the  Hall  of  Festival,  among  the  processional  sub- 
jects, the  sacred  scribe  with  pen  and  jxilette.  and  in  the 
tombs  of  Gizeh,  which  are  contemporaneous  witli  the  p}Ta- 
mids,  the  reed  pen  and  inkstand,  and  scribes  employed  in 
writing,  appear  among  the  scul])tures.  In  the  supposed 
tomb  of  Aristotle,  in  Greece,  a  metal  pen  about  2  inches 
long  was  found,  cut  and  slit  like  a  quill  pen,  and  a  bronze 
one  of  undouljted  Roman  origin,  made  from  sheet-metal 
bent  and  forgeil  on  a  mandril,  and  with  its  point  neatly  cut 
and  slit  like  a  (piill  pen.  was  excavated  in  a  field  at  Pre- 
Saint-Didier  at  a  depth  of  10  feet. 

After  the  stylus,  pens  were  dcrabtless  made  in  tubular 
forms  from  sheet-metal  of  a  required  length  for  holding  in 
the  hand,  the  point  being  formed  by  filing  away  a  portion 
of  the  tube  or  barrel ;  later,  holders  of  many  materials  were 
introduced,  and  the  metal  part  was  of  only  suflicient  length 
to  give  a  flexibility  to  the  point  and  to  slip  over  the  holder 
about  li  inches.  Metallic  pens  resend)ling  modern  patterns 
were  generally  supposed  to  have  been  unknown  before  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  that  theory  was 
exploded  when  in  excavating  at  Pompeii  a  pear  or  almond 
shaped  one  was  found  with  a  sort  of  ring  at  the  stem,  now 
preserved  in  the  Museum  at  Xaples,  that  certainly  must  be 
older  than  A.  D.  79,  when  the  city  was  buried  by  the  eruption 
of  Vesuvius. 

Dr.  Martin  Lister,  in  1698,  in  his  Jnnritey  tn  Paris,  de- 
scribes an  ancient  writing  implement  of  thick  silver  wound 
uji  like  a  screw,  with  both  ends  pointing  one  way  and  at  a 
distance  so  that  a  man  might  easily  ])Ut  his  forefinger  be- 
twixt the  two  points,  one  of  which  was  sharp  to  write  on 
wax  tal)lets,  the  other  shaped  like  the  up|jer  beak  of  a  cock ; 
tlie  point  was  divided  like  that  of  our  steel  pi'iis. 
I  Quilt  I'rns.  p/r.— In  the  far  East,  and   [lerhaps  in  Egypt, 

the  eamel's-hair  pencil  was  substituted  for  metal  impli>- 
nients,  and  characters  were  painted  on  the  bark  of  trees 
and  skins  of  animals,  very  much  as  tlie  Chinese  draw  them 
on  paper,  but  the  (piills  of  geese  and  crows  were  discovered 
to  be  more  useful  than  either  the  reed  or  brush,  and  were  in- 
troduced, it  is  thought,  about  A.  D.  .5(5.  For  centuries  the 
quill  was  the  favorite  instrument  of  the  rapid  writer,  and 
continued  to  be  so  until  the  steel  pen  su])erseded  it.  (Quills 
were  most  successfully  prepared  in  Russia  and  Ilnllaud  liy 
clarifying  them  in  hot  sand  and  by  dipping  them  in  boiling 


alum-water  or  diluted  nitric  acid.  Many  writers  made  their 
own  pens  from  the.se  prepared  quills,  luit  the  art  was  an  ac- 
(piired  one  after  much  instruction  and  practice.  Every 
teacher  was  expected  to  be  p-oficient  in  this  iiart  of  his  pro- 
fession. Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  they  were  made 
for  sale,  and  boxes  of  them,  also  nllw  for  fastening  upon 
holders,  were  vended  by  all  stationers. 

Notwithstanding  the  impression  that  the  quill  pen  pro- 
duces only  coarse  writing,  as  beautiful  specimens  of  pen- 
manship have  been  produced  by  it  as  by  any  other  instru- 
ment In  use,  not  exce|iting  the  engraver's  tool.  The  de- 
maud  for  something  more  durable  than  quills  led  to  a  va- 
riety of  experiments  with  horn,  tortoise-shell,  glass,  steel, 
silver,  and  gold,  resulling  in  the  almost  exclusive  use  of 
steel.  The  glass  pen  was  more  of  a  stylus  than  a  pen,  it 
being  merely  a  ground  stick.  The  horn  and  shell  ones  soft- 
ened under  the  action  of  the  ink  and  were  no  Improvement 
on  the  quill,  though  they  were  pointed  with  diamonds  and 
rubies.  Silver  pens,  because  of  their  elasticity  and  ductility, 
were  thought  to  be  a  success,  but  their  suscejitlbility  to  wear 
at  the  point  and  a  failure  to  temper  them  proi)erly  caused 
them  to  be  finally  abandoned. 

Steel  Pens. — The  invention  of  making  steel  pens  from 
sheet-metal  has  so  many  claimants  that  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
cide to  whom  belongs  the  honor.  The  first  manufacturer  of 
steel  pens  is  unknown.  Arnoux.  a  French  mechanic,  maile 
metallic  pens  with  side  slits  in  IToO.  A  New  York  city  jew- 
eler, working  in  Baltimore  in  1800,  made  for  his  own  use  a 
steel  pen  with  three  slits.  The  Shakers,  in  1819.  made  sil- 
ver [jens  with  one  slit.  Joseph  Gillott,  Sir  Josiah  Mason, 
John  Mitchell,  and  James  Perry,  all  Englishmen,  began  to 
manufacture  by  machinery  about  the  same  time.  Patents 
were  granteil  to  Perry  in  1830  and  to  Gillott  in  1831.  and 
the  evidence  of  Perry's  precedence  seems  to  be  cumulative. 

The  manufacture  of  steel  pens  is  a  delicate  and  laborious 
process.  The  raw  material  is  produced  in  sheets  6  feet  long, 
17  inches  in  length,  23  wire-gauge  tliickness,  which  is  cut 
into  strips  of  convenient  width  and  placed  in  air-tight  iron 
boxes  which  are  put  in  a  muffle,  where  they  remain  until 
they  gradually  attain  a  dull-red  heat,  when  the  muffle  is  al- 
lowed to  cool  gradually.  To  rid  the  strips  of  an  excrescence 
they  are  immersed  in  a  vat  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid  to 
loosen  the  scales,  and  then  tumbled  in  a  revolving  barrel 
with  pebbles  and  water.  The  steel  is  then  rolled  until  re- 
duced to  the  required  gauge  with  such  exactness  that  a  va- 
riation of  the  one-thousandth  part  of  an  Inch  Is  not  per- 
mitted. These  strips  are  now  [lunched  into  blanks  of  the 
same  shape  of  the  patterns  of  the  i)cns  desired,  two-thirds 
of  the  material  being  used,  one-third  being  scrap.  Marking 
the  blanks  singly,  with  the  name  and  iminber.  by  a  stamp  is 
the  next  process,  and  so  dexterously  are  they  handled  that 
one  girl  can  stamp  250  gro.ss  in  a  day.  To  obtain  elasticity 
and  to  devise  a  method  which  shall  cause  the  ink  to  attach 
itself  to  the  smooth  surface,  the  blanks  are  pierced  by  a 
delicate  punch  in  a  fly-press. 

Before  the  blanks  are  shaped  the  dust  and  grease  are  re- 
moved by  tumbling  again;  then  to  anneal  or  soften  the 
metal  the  blanks  are  heated  in  a  muffler  once  more  to  a  dull 
red.  and  when  cool  moulded  by  a  die  into  form,  and  then 
hardened  by  heating  them  to  a  bright-red  heat  in  round 
pans,  after  which  they  are  put  into  jierforated  buckets  to 
be  plunged  Into  vats  of  oil,  which  drains  from  the  buckets 
as  they  are  raised.  The  oil  is  renuived  by  r!ij)id  revolving 
in  perforated,  centrifugal  cylinders,  but  as  the  pens  are  still 
greasy  and  as  brittle  as  glass,  tliey  are  cleansed  in  a  bath  of 
boiling  soda-water  anil  temjiered  by  being  rolled  in  cylin- 
ders over  a  charcoal  fire.  Another  liath  in  a  pickle  of  di- 
luted sidphuric  acid  frees  them  from  any  extraneous  sub- 
stance, and  another  tumble  for  from  five  to  eight  hours  in 
a  revolving  barrel  with  ground  iron,  followed  by  a  tumble 
in  a  barrel  of  dry  sawdust,  gives  them  a  bright  silver  color 
and  points  nicely  rounded.  They  are  then  ground  on 
leather  buffs,  dressed  with  emery,  and  made  ready  for  slit- 
ting with  a  tool  having  the  delicacy  of  the  cutting  edge  of 
a  razor.  After  slitting  they  are  tumbled  again  with  pow- 
dered iron  for  six  hours  to  smooth  the  inside  edges  of  the 
slit,  then  polished  in  sawdust  and,  after  being  colored,  are 
varnished  to  prevent  rust.  First  quality  pens  undergo  a 
rigid  examiimtion.  one  at  a  tinu',  by  expert  girls,  who  reject 
every  pen  that  shows  an  imperfection:  afterward  the  pens 
are  counted  and  Ixixed.  generally  in  one  gro.ss  packages. 

Pens  are  manufactured  chiefly  in  Birmingham.  England, 
thirteen  firms,  employing  4.600  persons,  using  about  .56,000 
lb.  of  steel  per  week,  producing  a  weekly  average  of  250,(X)0 


510 


PENALTY 


PENANCE 


gross.  There  are  four  or  five  manufacturers  in  France  and 
Germany,  and  but  six  recognized  manufacturers  in  tlie 
tf.  S.,  situated  in  New  Jersey.  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
and  Connecticut,  and  employing  about  400  people.  Tlie 
average  weekly  production  is  about  20,000  gross.  Tlie 
many  names  given  by  the  venders  of  steel  pens  to  the  ma- 
terial from  winch  they  are  made  are  but  fancy  names  and 
do  not  indicate  the  quality  of  metal.  The  demand  for  steel 
pens  is  almost  confincil  to  Europe  and  America.  The  great 
Asiatic  nations  still  write  with  pens  made  from  reeds  or 
with  camel's-hair  pencils. 

The  first  gross  of  pens  sold  in  England  in  1830  brought  at 
wholesale  about  seven  guineas  or  |36  in  U.  S.  money.  In  1825 
thev  were  sold  at  31  cents,  and  in  recent  years  pens  as  good 
as  those  sold  in  1820  were  disposed  of  at  10  cents  per  gross. 

Gold  Fens. — Although  the  U.  S.  has  failed  to  compote  suc- 
cessfully with  Great  Britain  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  pens 
as  to  quality  of  metal  and  workmanship,  the  reverse  may 
be  said  of  gold  ones.  In  this  manufacture,  requiring  a 
higher  degree  of  skill,  the  U.  S.  has  for  some  years  been 
foremost,  and  the  product  is  now  sold  largely  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  and  Germany.  The  first  attempt  at  making 
gold  pens  was  made  in  England  about  1825.  The  metal, 
though  alloyed,  is  too  soft  to  make  a  durable  point,  there- 
fore it  became  necessary  to  protect  the  points  with  dia- 
monds or  rubies ;  but  John  Isaac  Hawkins,  a  citizen  of  the 
U.  S.  residing  in  England,  was  led  by  accident  to  use  the 
native  alloy  of  iridium  and  osmium,  one  of  the  hardest  and 
most  refractory  of  all  metallic  alloys.  Hawkins's  rights 
were  purchased  by  a  clergyman,  who  in  1835  induced  a 
watchmaker  in  Detroit  to  engage  in  the  manufacture  of 
gold  pens.  These  were  first  made  by  hand,  and  were  very 
poor  substitutes  for  the  quill.  In  1840  he  removed  to  New 
York  and  enlarged  his  business.  One  of  the  men  in  his 
employ,  John  Rendell,  invented  a  number  of  machines  for 
the  making  and  tempering  of  the  pens,  giving  them  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  quill  and  the  permanency  of  the  metal.  About 
1850  it  was  discovered  that  by  bedding  the  iridium  points 
in  the  gold  instead  of  soldering  them  the  corrosive  influ- 
ence of  the  ink  on  the  two  metals,  the  solder  and  the  gold, 
was  avoided  and  a  firmer  hold  on  the  pen  was  given  to  the 
points.  The  elasticity  was  increased  and  the  temper  regu- 
lated by  a  series  of  rolls  and  other  processes.  The  cost  of 
gold  pens  makes  it  absolutely  necessary  that  every  one  should 
be  perfect  and  durable,  therefore  only  experts  are  allowed 
to  inspect  and  test  them  before  they  are  offered  for  sale. 
The  rejection  of  at  least  four  in  a  dozen  is  a  result  of  this 
severe  scrutiny  and  test.  About  150  persons  are  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  gold  pens  in  the  U.  S.  by  fourteen 
makers;  the  annual  product  has  a  value  of  about  $500,000. 

Foimtain  or  St ijlographic  Pens. — These  pens  have  a  res- 
ervoir handle,  carrying  a  supply  of  ink  of  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  last  several  days  or,  if  constantly  used,  for  several 
hours'  continuous  writing.  A  removalile  cap  is  usually  pro- 
vided to  cover  the  point,  so  that  the  instrument  may  be 
carried  about  like  an  ordinary  lead-pi^ncil.  In  1860  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  produce  fountain  pens,  but  not  until 
1879  were  they  constructed  to  operate  successfully.  The 
early  attempts  at  making  reservoir  pens  were  generally  con- 
fined to  contrivances  embraced  in  the  use  of  internal  tubes, 
ducts,  valves,  or  springs  operated  upon  by  the  action  of  the 
nibs,  which  forced  the  ink  from  a  feeding-pipe  upon  the 
pen,  assisted  by  air  admitted  at  the  top  of  the  holder,  to 
take  the  place  of  the  exhausted  ink.  This  mechanism  was 
very  erratic  in  its  work,  the  ink  flowing  either  too  slow  or 
too  fast.  The  best  results  were  obtained  by  providing  a 
tubular  holder  tightly  closed  at  its  upper  end.  while  at  the 
lower  enil  is  inserted,  usually,  an  ordinary  nib  pen  nuide  of 
gold,  with  an  ink-feeder  lying  adjacent  to  the  pen  to  attract 
the  ink  from  the  reservoir.  Air  is  admitted  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  reservoir,  whereby  a  constant  automatic  feeding  is 
secured  by  capillary  act ii)n  between  the  feed-plate  and  the 
pen.  As  the  ink  is  withdrawn  air  enters  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  column  and  ascends  in  globules  through  the  column 
of  ink  to  fill  the  space  made  vacant  by  the  use  of  the  ink. 
There  are  many  patents  I'm-  fountain  pens,  which  were  in- 
vented in  the  U.  S.,  but  the  principle  involved  seems  to  be 
the  retention  of  the  ink  by  atmospheric  pressure  and  the 
furnishing  of  a  supply  ready  for  use  for  hours  of  continu- 
ous'writing  without  the  necessity  of  dipping  constantly  into 
an  ink-welh  Tiikodore  E.  Smith. 

Penalty  [from  Fr.  phmlite.  punishment,  from  Lat  posna- 
lis,  pertaining  to  punishment,  dcriv.  of  pwna,  punishment. 


loan-word  from  Gr.  Toii'17,  fine,  and  represented  by  Fr.peinSy 
Eng.  pain] :  the  imposition  of  the  payment  of  a  sum  of 
money  or  of  some  personal  suffering.  It  may  be  imposed 
by  the  law,  as  in  criminal  or  punitive  cases,  or  by  contract. 
The  eighth  amendment  of  the  U.  S.  Constitution  forbids  the 
imposition  of  excessive  fines  or  pecuniary  penalties  and 
the  infliction  of  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  by  the  Fed- 
eral Government.  In  the  absence  of  constitutional  restraint 
the  infliction  of  penalties  and  the  disposition  of  the  pro- 
ceeds are  matters  of  legislative  discretion.  A  statutory 
penalty  must  be  clearly  imposed ;  it  will  not  be  implied. 
The  legislative  imposition  of  a  penalty  on  a  specific  act  or 
omission  is  treated  generally  as  ei|uivalent  to  its  prohibition. 
It  may  appear,  however,  from  the  entire  statute  that  the 
legislature  intended  not  to  render  the  act  or  omission  abso- 
lutely illegal,  but  to  punish  the  offending  party.  De  Mers 
vs.  rkmiels.  39  Northwestern  Reporter  98  :  39  Minn.  158. 

A  party  may  subject  himself  to  a  penalty  by  contract,  as 
in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  bond  or  of  an  agreement  not  to  en- 
gage in  a  particular  business  or  profession.  At  common  law 
the  penal  sum  named  insuehacontract  was  recoverable  incase 
the  contract  was  broken,  but  equity  intervened  early  and  re- 
duced the  recovery  to  the  actual  damages  caused  by  the  breach. 
This  beneficent  policy  received  the  approval  of  Parliament  in 
1697  (8  and  9  William  III.,  c.  11,  §  8),  and  soon  became  the 
prevailing  rule  in  common-law  courts.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, the  parties  to  a  contract  are  allowed  to  stipulate  the 
amount  to  be  paid  by  either  U|jon  his  breach  of  its  pro- 
visions as  liquidated  damages.  If  such  a  stipulation  is  made 
because  of  the  uncertainty  of  the  damages,  it  will  be  sus- 
tained ;  but  if  it  is  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the 
performance  of  the  contract  by  the  threat  of  a  punishment 
for  its  breach,  it  will  be  treated  as  a  penalty,  and  the  injured 
party  will  be  allowed  to  recover  such  damages  only  as  he 
can  prove  the  breach  has  caused  him.  The  language  of  the 
contract  is  not  treated  by  the  courts  as  conclusive  of  the  in- 
tention of  the  parties.  They  may  declare  the  sum  stipu- 
lated for  to  be  liquidated  damages,  while  the  court,  looking 
at  all  of  the  contract  provisions,  will  declare  it  a  penalty. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  may  refer  to  the  sum  as  a  penalty, 
while  the  entire  transaction  discloses  that  they  intended  to 
agree  upon  and  abide  by  it  as  their  rating  of  damages  in- 
stead of  leaving  them  to  be  assessed  or  guessed  at  by  a  jury 
or  a  court.  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Penance  [from  0.  Fr.  penance  <  Lat.  poeniten'Ha,  re- 
pentance (whence  Eng.  penitence),  deriv.  of  pae'nitet,  makes 
repent] :  in  general,  the  atonement  for  sin.  Roman  Catho- 
lic theology  treats  penance  both  as  a  virtue  and  as  a  sacra- 
ment. The  virtue  of  penance  includes  sorrow  for  sin, 
amendment,  and  the  performance  of  expiatory  works.  The 
sacrament  of  iienance  is  that  in  which  the  forgiveness  of 
sins  committed  after  baptism  is  granted,  by  the  absolution 
of  a  duly  authorized  priest,  to  those  who  repent,  confess, 
and  perform  satisfaction.  This  sacrament  was  instituted 
by  our  Savionr  in  the  words.  "  Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
whose  sins  ye  shall  forgive  they  are  forgiven  them,  and  whose 
sins  ye  shall  retain  they  are  retained  "  (John  xx.  22).  The 
power  thus  conferred  is  double  ;  the  priest,  acting  as  God's 
minister,  may  grant  absolution  or  withhold  it.  Also  it  is  a 
judicial  power  ;  the  jiriest  must  know  what  the  sins  are  be- 
fore he  can  remit  them  or  retain  them.  Hence  the  neces- 
sity of  confession.  The  mere  fact,  however,  of  declaring 
one's  sins  does  not  procure  their  pai'don.  The  chief  condi- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  penitent  is  sincere  contrition.  If 
this  be  wanting,  the  absolution  is  null,  and  the  confession, 
instead  of  removing  guilt,  adds  to  it  the  crime  of  sacrilege. 
Nor  does  the  iienitcnt's  obligation,  when  he  is  properly  dis- 
)iosed,  end  with  tlie  priest's  absolution.  For  though  this 
releases  him  from  sin  and,  in  case  of  grievous  offenses,  from 
their  eternal  punishment,  it  does  not  always  cancel  the  tem- 
poral reparation  required  by  divine  justice.  This  satisfac- 
tion, as  it  is  termed,  the  priest  imposes  in  the  form  of 
prayer,  almsdeed,  fasting,  or  other  good  works  to  be  done 
by  the  penitent.  In  no  case  docs  the  sacrament  of  penance 
imply  a  "  permission  to  commit  sin." 

This  is  the  teaching  not  only  of  the  Latin  Church,  but 
also  of  the  Eastern  Churches,  of  those  even  which  at  an 
early  period  severed  their  connection  with  Rome.  The 
sacramental  character  of  penanc(!  was  acknowledged  more- 
over by  those  sectarians  who  held  peculiar  views  regarding 
the  power  of  forgiving  sins;  Though  the  Novatians  and 
iMoiilanists  excepted  certain  grievous  sins  from  this  power, 
few  of  them  denied  it  absolutely.     The  Donatists  claimed 


PENANO 


PENDLETON 


511 


that  it  could  be  exercised  only  by  worthy  ministers;  the 
Waldonses,  that  it  behinfred  to  the  laity  as  well  as  to  the 
|irioslliiio(l ;  llii-;s  and  W'ycliire,  that  its  ctlicai'V  ili'|ii>nili'd 
ii|ion  the  WDi-tliini'ss  of  tliose  wlio  oxcrcisi'il  il.  and  that  jior- 
fcc't  contrition  rendered  the  sacrament  unnecessary.  The 
Keformei-s  spoke,  it  is  true,  of  an  absoliitio  ;  but  iis  they  con- 
sidereil  this  a  mere  declaration  of  forgiveness,  and  forgive- 
ness itself  a  revival  of  baptisnuil  j;ract^ — n-i/rrxmia  (id  ha/itis- 
miiiii — they  virtually  rejected  the  sacrament  of  ]ienance. 

The  pniftire  of  the  ('hurch  in  aiiininisti'rini;  the  sacra- 
ment and  in  dealing  witli  penitents  has  varied  from  time  to 
time.  During  the  first  four  centuries  auricular  confession 
was  often  followed  by  a  pulilic  confession  when  it  was 
thought  that  this  would  be  edifying.  As,  however,  the  op- 
posite effect  was  sometimes  produced,  the  public  confession 
was  abandoned  toward  the  nuddle  of  the  fifth  century. 
Similar  vi<'issitudes  appear  in  the  history  of  the  jji'iiifciifidl 
dincipline  or  process  by  which  the  sinner  after  due  repara- 
tion was  reconciled  to  the  Church.  The  otrenses  for  which 
public  penance  was  enjoined — peccala  capilalia — were  adul- 
tery, idolatry,  and  murder.  The  penalty  was  excommunica- 
tion, and  this  in  the  latter  half  of  the  second  century  was 
perpetual.  Later  on  it  was  limited  to  a  period  longer  or 
shorter  acconling  to  the  nature  of  the  ofTense.  Li  the  East 
the  penitents  were  divided  into  four  class.  The  Tlpoaic\alop- 
Tfs.flenfes.  or  weepers,  remained  outside  the  church  iluriiig 
divine  si-rvice  and  implored  tbe  prayers  of  the  faithful. 
The  'AKpod/jLcmi,  iiiiilienfi-s,  or  hearers,  entered  the  church 
bul  remained  behind  the  catechumens,  and  like  them  left 
whiTi  the  more  s<deran  part  of  the  service  began.  The 
'TTToirfiTToi'TEs,  Kiib-ifrrifi.  were  dismissed  after  the  bishop"s 
bli'ssing,  which  they  received  kneeling  or  prostrate.  The 
2u(rTai/T£s,  ro/i.s/.s'/c/i/V.s',  were  present  during  the  whole  serv- 
ice, but  dill  not  commuincate.  This  classification  was  not 
in  vogue  in  the  West,  where  penitents  were  treated  in  the 
same  way  as  catechumens,  but  were  obliged  to  wear  a  pecul- 
iar dress,  to  abstain  from  all  luxuries,  and  to  practice  vari- 
ous austerities.  Tbe  nature  of  the  penance  and  its  duration 
were  deciiUxl  by  the  bishop,  who  also  presided  at  the  public 
reconciliation. 

In  the  East  this  discipline  disappeared  along  with  public 
confession  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  century.  Tlie  Western 
Church  relaxed  its  discipline  gradually  from  the  seventh 
century  until  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth.  As  a  substitute 
for  public  peinmce  fasts,  almsdeeds,  and  pilgrimages  were 
enjoined.  The  crusades,  especially,  served  to  relax  the  peni- 
tential rigor.  In  the  sixteenth  century  efforts  were  made 
to  restore  the  ancient  practice,  but  these  had  neither  a  wide- 
spread nor  a  lasting  success.  At  the  present  day,  though 
excommunication  is  the  penalty  for  certain  crimes,  the  per- 
formancre  of  public  penance  is  rare. 

Literati' KK. — liingham'sChrislianAufiquifies.hk.xvn.f. 
(Oxford,  \H')~>) ;  Pelliecia,  Dn  Christianm  Eccknim  P<ili- 
tia  (Cologn(^  18"-2!l)  ;  Probst,  Sakramen/e  und  Sakrame.Hfa- 
lien  (Tiiliingen,  1872).  J.  J.  Kka.si-:. 

Penang' :  an  islaml  in  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  forming  a 
part  of  the  Straits  Settlements,  a  crown  colony  of  tireat 
liritain.  Area,  107  sq.  miles.  The  ground  is  high  and 
mountainous,  but  the  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  eminently  well 
ailapted  to  the  cultivation  of  pepper,  cloves,  nutmegs,  and 
other  spices,  which  are  largely  exported.  Sugar,  coffee, 
indigo,  and  cotton  are  also  raised,  and  tin  is  one  of  the  chief 
exports.  Province  Wellesley,  a  narrow,  very  fertile  coast 
strip  on  the  maiidand  opposite  the  island  is  a  part  of  Penang 
Settlement.  The  chief  town  is  George  Town,  with  a  good 
harlior  anil  considerable  trade.     Revised  by  C  C.  Adams. 

Pena'tcs  [=  Lat. ;  cf.  pa'nns,  store,  closet,  pe'iiitust,  in- 
wardly, prepos.  »p«e.?,  with]:  in  Roman  mythology,  the  gods 
of  the  household,  originally  the  guardians  of  the  storeroom, 
i.e.  those  who  care  for  the  daily  l)read  of  the  family.  They 
were  gods  of  the  hearth,  and  were  worshipeil  by  ofTerings 
of  food  and  drink  at  the  daily  meals  in  a  manner  similar  to 
the  worship  of  the  Laiies  (t/.  v.).  The  di'signation  Penates 
is  often  used  in  a  loose  way,  and  nmy  include,  as  Servius 
says,  all  gods  who  are  worshiped  in  the  home.  Their  luime 
was  to  the  Ronutn  synonymous  with  home;  they  were  the 
gods  of  his  fathers  and  of  his  race,  and,  in  short,  formed  the 
[loint  about  which  religious  conoeptions  concerning  the 
family  centered.  The  community,  as  being  but  an  extension 
of  the  family,  had  also  its  I'lMiates.  associated  with  the  cult 
of  Vesta,  liy  whose  priests,  the  Vestal  virgins,  they  were 
worshiped  in  nuich  the  same  manner  as  the  Penates  of  the 
household.  G.  L.  IIendrickson. 


Pencil  [from  O.  Pr.  pincel  >  Pr.  pinceau,  painter's  pen- 
cil, brush  (with  ('  on  analogy  of  pingere,  paint)  <  Lat.  peni- 
ril  Ills,  collateral  form  of  prui  ciiliix,  brush,  painter's  brush, 
liter.,  dimin.  of  pe  nis,  tail]  :  an  instrument  for  painting, 
drawing,  or  writing.  The  oldest  pictures  were  no  doubt 
produced  simply  by  lumps  of  colored  earth  or  chalk  cut  in 
forms  convenient  for  h<ilding  in  the  hand ;  but  in  the 
fourth  centin'v  ii.  c.  Greek  artists  began  to  use  wet  colors, 
which  were  laid  on  with  fine  hair  brushes.  For  such  brushes 
or  pencils  the  hairs  of  camels,  badgers,  sables,  minks,  kolin- 
skis,  fitche.s,  goats,  and  the  bristles  of  hogs  are  used.  They 
are  tied  up  in  bundles  terminating  in  a  perfectly  smooth 
cone,  well  pointed,  and  either  drawn  through  goose-quills  or 
fastened  in  metallic  holders  provided  with  wooden  handles. 
The  manufacture  of  such  a  pencil,  especially  of  the  finest 
kinds  used  by  artists,  requires  great  skill  and  care. 

Ancient  writers  mention  the  use  of  lead  for  ruling  on 
pa|)yrus,  as  well  as  documents  ruled  with  graphite,  and 
probably  fragments  of  different  colored  minerals  were  used 
previous  to  all  historic  mention.  Even  as  late  as  the  nine- 
teenth century  pencils  made  of  soft  lead  hammered  into  con- 
venient forms  were  useil  and  known  as  "  plumiTiets."  Now 
graphite,  sometimes  called  phnnbago  or  blacklead.  mixed 
with  a  soft  gritless  clay,  has  .superseded  all  other  materials. 

Graphite  is  one  of  the  three  ]>rineipal  forms  of  carbon,  and 
is  obtained  in  innumerable  localities.  (See  Graphite.)  In 
the  sixteenth  century  a  mine  of  very  pure  graphite  was  dis- 
covered in  Cumberland,  England,  and  became  famous  as 
the  Borrowdale  mine.  The  graphite  was  so  soft  and  pure 
that  it  was  readily  sawed  into  thin  strips  which  were  glued 
into  slabs  of  wood,  properly  grooved,  and  then  sawed  into 
pencils.  After  the  exhaustion  of  the  Borrowdale  mine  pow- 
dered graphite  mixed  with  clay  was  used.  This  method  was 
the  invention  of  the  Comte  de  Paris.  The  mixture  of 
graphite  and  clay  while  in  the  soft  state  was  placed  in 
grooved  wood,  and,  after  hardening,  a  thin  veneer  of  wood 
was  glued  on  and  the  slabs  sawed  into  pencil  form. 

The  present  practice  is  briefly  as  follows :  Powdered 
graphite  freed  from  all  grit  and  im])urities  is  mixed  with 
clay,  the  quantity  of  clay  dei)endiiig  upon  the  degree  of 
hardness  required.  The  harder  leads  can  be  made  in 
smaller  diameter  than  the  soft  leads.  The  mass,  made  thor- 
oughly liomogeneous,  is  then  spun  through  dies  by  pressure, 
and  the  leads  cut  into  lengths  desired.  Afterward  the  leads 
are  baked  to  make  them  strong,  and  then  placed  in  grooved 
cedar  slabs.  The  slabs  are  formed  by  machinery  into  pen- 
cils and  finished  into  various  styles.  Red,  blue,  and  other 
colored  leads  are  made  of  colored  pigments  and  wax.  They 
can  not  be  subjected  to  the  toughening  procc^ss  of  baking  on 
account  of  the  nature  of  the  materials,  but  in  other  respects 
the  method  of  manufacture  is  the  same. 

Lead-i)encils  are  manufactured  in  France, Bavaria,  Austria, 
and  the  U.  S.  The  wood  used  is  obtained  chiefly  from  the 
forests  of  Bohemia  and  Florida.  George  E.  Long. 

Pendentive :  a  piece  of  masonry  which  supports  a  cupola 
or  dome,  and  rests  in  its  turn  on  arches  below.  Each  pen- 
dentive  is  somewhat  triangular  in  shape,  for  it  is  bounded 
on  each  side  liy  the  curving  extrados  of  an  arch,  and  at 
top  by  the  lowest  ring  of  the  cupola.  Pendentives  may  be 
cither  parts  of  a  larger  cupola  which  is  penetrated  by  the 
great  arches,  or  may  be  composed  of  small  arches  built 
across  from  one  great  arch  to  another,  or  of  a  system  of  cor- 
bels. R.  S. 

Pendleton  :  city  (laid  out  in  18G9,  named  after  George 
II.  Pendleton);  capital  of  Umatilla  co..  Ore.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Oregon,  ref.  l-II) :  on  the  Umatilla  river,  and 
the  Union  I'ac.  and  the  Wash,  and  Col.  River  railways ;  231 
miles  E.  of  Portland.  The  limits  of  the  city  were  enlarged 
in  1884  under  a  special  act  of  Congress  by  the  addition  of 
640  acres  of  the  Umatilla  Indian  reservation.  The  city  is 
on  both  sides  of  the  river,  which  is  here  spanned  by  three 
bridges  and  affords  good  power  for  manufacturing.  A 
levee  nearly  2  miles  long  has  been  constructed  on  the  south 
bank  of  tlie  river  at  a  cost  of  $40,000.  Pendleton  has  a 
court-house,  built  in  18S9  at  a  cost  of  $00,000.  a  graded 
public-school  building  Imilt  in  1886  at  a  cost  of  $20,000,  St. 
.Joseph's  Academy  (Koman  Catholic).  Pendleton  .\cademy,  7 
churches.  2  national  banks,  a  savings-bank,  4  hotels,  electric- 
light  plant,  flour-mills,  machine-shops,  and  other  manufac- 
tories, and  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880) 
730 ;  (1890)  2,50(>.  Editor  oi.'  "  East  Orego.ma.n." 

Pendleton,  Edmund:  statesman;  b.  in  Caroline  co.,  Va., 
Sept.  9,  1721 ;  became  a  lawyer  when  twenty-one  years  old; 


512 


PENDLETON 


PENGUIN 


was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Virginia  Legislature,  and  often 
its  Speaker ;  as  a  conservative  he  was  the  political  antago- 
nist of  Patrick  Henry ;  was  in  the  first  Continental  Con- 
gress 1774-75  ;  drew  up  the  resolutions  by  which  Virginia 
instructed  her  delegates  to  propose  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
aendence;  though  maimed  for  life  by  an  accident  in  1777, 
.le  continued  to  take  an  important  part  in  pulilie  affairs, 
and  afterward  presided  over  the  courts  of  chancery  and  of 


h 


appeals,  and  over  the  convention  of  1788,  by  which  Vir 
ginia  indorsed  the  U.  S.  Constitution.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  debater.     I),  at  Richmond,  Va.,  Oct.  23,  1803. 

Pendleton,  William  Kimbrough,  LL.  D.  :  educator ;  b. 
in  Louisa  co.,  Va.,  Sept.  8,  1817;  educated  in  the  University 
of  Virginia,  where  he  graduated  from  the  law  school  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1841  he  married  a  daughter  of 
Alesauder  Campbell,  and.  moving  to  Bethany,  tixik  part  in 
the  founding  of  Bethany  College,  in  which  institution  he 
was  professor  until  Mr.  Campbell's  death,  when  he  succeeded 
him  as  president.  He  was  a  member  of  the  West  Virginia 
constitutional  convention,  and  was  four  years  State  superin- 
tendent of  public  schools.  J.  H.  Garrison. 

Pendleton.  William  Nelson  :  soldier ;  b.  in  Richmond, 
Va.,  Dec.  26.  1809 ;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1830 ;  pro- 
moted brevet  second  lieutenant  of  artillery,  served  a  year 
in  the  Augusta  arsenal  and  as  Assistant  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics at  West  Point  1831-32.  Resigned  Oct.  31,  1833,  and 
became  Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Bristol  College,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  subsequently  at  Delaware  College,  Delaware, 
llaving  been  ordained  a  minister  in  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  1837,  he  became  rector  of  the  Episcopal  diocesan  school 
of  Virginia,  in  Alexandria,  in  1839.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  he  returned  to  his  former  military  occupation,  and  was 
chief  of  artillery  in  the  army  of  Northern  Virginia.  He 
was  with  Gen.  Lee's  command  when  the  latter  surrendered 
in  186.5.  After  the  war  he  was  made  rector  of  Grace  Me- 
morial Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  Lexington,  Va.,  where 
he  died  Jan.  17,  1883.  He  was  author  of  Science  a  Witness 
for  t/ie  Bible  (Lomlon,  1860).    Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Pendiiliira  [Jlod.  Lat.,  liter.,  neut.  of  Lat.  pen'duhis, 
hanging,  swinging,  deriv.  of  pendere,  hang] :  a  suspended 
bodv  oscillating  under  the  action  of  gravity.  In  order  to 
investigate  the  laws  of  its  motions  we  abstract  from  its  ma- 
terial qualities,  and  consider  a  heavy  point  suspended  by  a 
right  line  without  weight  from  a  fixed  point,  about  which 
it  is  free  to  move.  This  is  called  a  simple  pendulum  ;  by  an 
oscillation  is  meant  its  motion  from  one  extreme  of  the  arc 
to  the  other  extreme  on  the  ojjposite  side  of  the  vertical. 
When  the  arc  of  vibration  is  small,  tlie  following  relation  is 
found  to  obtain  between  the  length  I  of  the  pendulum  and 

the  time  t  of  one  vibration,  viz.,  P  = —I,  g   denoting   the 

force  of  gravity,  or  the  sqnaresof  the  times  are  proportionnl 
to  the  lengths.  Hence  a  pendulum  making  one  oscillation 
in  two  seconds  must  have  four  times  the  length  of  one  that 
oscillates  once  in  one  second  of  time.  By  g  is  meant  the 
velocity  acquired  in  one  second  by  a  heavy  particle  falling 
from  rest  by  the  action  of  the  earth's  gravity,  the  space 
fallen  through  being  =  {g.  Hence  wc  see  also  by  putting 
<  =  1  in  thealjove  equation,  that  g  =  irl,  or  that  the  veloc- 
ity acquired  in  one  second  is  ir' x  the  length  of  a  simple 
seconds  pendulum.  That  length  liaving  been  found  to  be, 
at  New  York,  89-10  inches,  it  follows  that  g  =  32-16  feet  at 
that  place.  This  is  the  most  accurate  way  of  measuring  the 
force  of  gravity  at  any  place. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  time  of  vibration  is  independent 
of  the  length  of  the  arc,  so  long  as  the  arc  is  very  small — an 
important  property  in  the  application  of  the  pendulum  to 
the  regulation  of  time-keepers  which  was  first  made  use  of 
for  that  purpose  by  lluyghens.  (See  Clocks.)  When  a  sim- 
ple pendulum,  being  at  the  extremity  of  its  are  of  vibration, 
receives  an  impulse  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  its  vibra- 
tion, the  heavy  point  will  describe  a  curved  path  about  the 
vertical,  and  it  is  then  called  a  conical  pendulum.  Its  path 
will  be  circular,  with  a  certain  impulse;  a  greater  or  less 
impuUe  will  cause  it  to  describe  elliptic  arcs.  This  prop- 
erty is  made  use  of  in  regulators  for  steam-engines  and 
otiier  machinery. 

When  instead  of  a  simple  pendulum  we  have  a  material 
or  cnmpniind  pendulum — consisting,  for  instance,  of  a  rod 
with  a  disk  or  ball  attached  to  its  lower  extremity — the 
same  laws  can  lie  applied  by  conceiving  tlie  wliole  mass  of 
the  peiiduhim  unitnl  in  one  point,  called  the  renter  vfo.'icil- 
latiun,  whose  distance  from  the  line  of  suspension  is  equal 


to  the  length  of  a  simple  pendulum  vibrating  in  the  same 
time  as  the  given  compound  pendulum.  When  the  line  of 
suspension  has  a  considerable  length,  and  bears  a  very  small 
proportion  to  the  suspended  mass,  the  center  of  oscillation 
is  very  near  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  latter. 

When  we  desire  to  ascertain  the  absolute  length  of  a  sec- 
onds pendulum,  it  becomes  necessary  to  measure  the  dis- 
tance between  its  point  of  suspension  and  its  center  of 
oscillation.  Accurate  experiments  to  this  end  were  first 
made  in  1790  at  Paris  by  Borda,  who  employed  a  spherical 
platinum  ball  suspended  by  fine  wire  12  feet  in  length,  and 
found,  after  applying  all  due  corrections.  3  feet  8-5593  lines 
(old  French  measure).  The  method  devised  by  Huyghens 
and  first  employed  by  Kater  is,  however,  that  which  affords 
the  simplest  means  of  ascertaining  the  length  of  an  equiv- 
alent simple  pendulum.  It  consists  in  using  a  ret'ersible 
pendulum  ;  that  is,  a  rod  with  opposite  knife-edges  near 
either  end,  and  so  weighted  with  two  unequal  weights  that 
the  time  of  vibration  is  the  same  whichever  of  the  two 
knife-edges  the  pendulum  is  suspended  from.  In  such 
case  each  knife-edge  is  in  the  center  of  oscillation  of  the 
other,  and  the  time  of  vibration  is  therefore  the  same  as 
that  of  a  simple  pendulum  whose  length  is  equal  to  the 
distance  between  the  two.  When  the  times  of  vibration 
are  not  exactly,  but  very  nearly,  equal,  the  requisite  reduc- 
tion can  be  deduced  from  the  relative  distances  of  the  two 
knife-edges  from  the  center  of  gravity.  By  having  the  two 
weights  of  equal  size,  one  of  them  being  hollow  and  placed 
at  equal  distances  from  tlie  nearest  knife-edge,  the  resist- 
ances and  other  varialile  circumstances  affect  the  vibra- 
tions alike  in  both  positions  of  the  pendulum.  Such  is  the 
form  of  the  reversible  pendulum  used  by  Plantainour  in 
Switzerland,  which  has  also  been  adopted  by  the  European 
Geodesic  Association.  The  times  of  oscillation  are  observed 
by  means  of  a  telescope,  and  are  compared  by  the  electro- 
chronographic  method  with  a  standard  clock  regulated  by 
astronomical  observations.  The  knife-edges  rest  on  agate 
planes  supported  by  a  firm  frame,  and  aliout  3,000  consecu- 
tive oscillations  are  observed  in  each  of  the  four  positions  in 
which  the  pendulum  can  be  suspended.  From  the  com- 
bination of  a  great  number  of  observations  at  various  lati- 
tudes, Helmert  found  that,  at  a  place  in  latitude  S,  the 
length  of  a  seconds  pendulum  in  meters  is  0-990918  (1  + 
0-00531  sin-B).  Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Penel'ope  [in  Or.  n;)ye\iiir7)] :  in  the  Greek  legend,  the 
daughter  of  Icarius,  the  wifi-  of  Odysseus  (Ulysses),  and  the 
mother  of  Telemachus.  When  Odysseus  was  in  Sparta  as 
one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen,  he  fell  in  love  with  Penelope, 
Helen's  first  cousin.  In  return  for  Odysseus's  advice  with 
regard  to  the  suitors  of  Helen,  Tyndareos  agreed  to  prevail 
upon  his  brother  Icarius  to  give  Penelope  in  marriage  to 
Odysseus.  While  Odysseus  was  absent  at  Troy  Penelope 
was  beset  by  numerous  and  eager  suitors,  whom  she  put  off 
by  declaring  that  she  must  first  finish  weaving  the  shroud 
of  Laertes.  Accordingly,  she  wove  by  day  and  unwove  by 
night,  and  thus  prolonged  the  work.  Detected  in  her  noble 
deceit,  she  was  hard  pressed  by  the  villains,  but  was  relieved 
by  her  husband's  timely  return  after  an  absence  of  twenty 
years.  '        Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Peiielop'idie  [Jlod.  Lat.,  named  from  Penelope,  the  tj^- 
ical  genus,  from  Gr.  ni}ve\6TrTi,  wife  of  Odysseus]  :  a  family 
of  gallinaceous  birds  (nUo  called  Cracidce)  including  the 
curassows  and  guans  of  South  America.  The  bill  is  mod- 
erate ;  the  wings  moderate  and  round ;  tail  elongated  and 
broad ;  tarsi  robust,  with  the  toes  three  before,  connected 
together  by  a  basal  web,  and  a  long  hinder  one  on  the  same 
plane  as  the  front  ones.  The  sternum  has  its  lateral  ele- 
ments {Jletostea)  united  by  a  broad  margin  with  the  central 
jiart  (Lophosteon).  the  single  notch  being  half  as  long  as  the 
sternum  itself.  The  species  arc  "strictly  confined  to  the 
forests  of  the  New  World,  and  extend  from  the  Rio  Grande 
of  Texas  on  the  N.  to  the  wooded  region  of  Paraguay  on 
the  S.  They  do  not  occur  in  the  Antilles,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  and  on  the  western  side  of 
the  Andes  do  not  pass  southward  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaipiil." 
See  also  CuRASSow  and  GuAN.       Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Peneplain:  See  Physioorapiiy. 

Penguin  (said  to  be  a  corruption  of  pinwing]  ;  a  name 
originally  aiiplied  to  the  great  auk  (Alca  impennis)  fi-(im  the 
fact  that  it  was  as  fiightless  as  if  pinwinged  or  pinioned, 
i.  e.  had  its  wings  locked  over  its  back.  At  an  early  date 
the  name  was  transferred  to  the  flightless  birds  of  the 
southern  seas,  and  is  now  used  as  a  jiopular  name  for  any 


PENIKESB   ISLAND 


PENNSYLVANIA 


513 


member  o!  the  family  Sphenincida!.  a  group  of  liinls  i)eculiftr 
to  the  sciulluTii  lieiiuspliero,  incapulili-  of  flif,'lit,  and  haviiif; 
the  wings  moililieJ  us  swinimiiig  padilles.     Tlie   body  and 

winics  are  evonly  euv- 
crod  with  short,  scale- 
like featliers,  the  feet 
are  stout  and  but  lit- 
tle used  in  swimniinf;;. 
These  birds  sit  ereet, 
resliii;;  on  their  tarsi, 
and  in  this  attitude 
walk,  or  rather  wad- 
dle, althoufih  whrn 
hurried  they  frequent- 
ly lie  flat  and  scram- 
ble with  feet  and 
wings.  They  are  won- 
derful swiniruer.s,  and 
some  sp"cii'S  progre.ss 
at  times  by  a  .series  of 
leaps  mueh  like  those 
of  a  porpoise.  There 
are  about  a  dozen  s|)e- 
eies,  ranging  in  .size 
from  the  grmt  king 
pi'nguin  (Aptenodyti'S 
fortituri),  which  is 
over  8  feet  in  length, 
to  the  little  Euilyp- 
lila  minor,  which  is 
about  half  that 
length. 

Penguins    feed   on 
fishes,   shellfish,    and 
small        crustaceans. 
Thev  dwell    in   com- 
'  niunities.  and  the  fe- 

males, according  to  the  species,  lay  one  or  two  wdute  eggs  in 
a  burrow,  or  in  a  slight  depri'ssion  of  the  ground.  Most  of 
tliem  inhabit  the  colch'r  regions  of  the  southern  hemisphere, 
and  species  have  been  found  in  the  .\nti.rctic  seas  as  far  S. 
as  vessels  have  penetrated.  Tlie  Falkland  islands  appear  to 
be  their  center  of  distribution,  half  the  known  species  oc- 
curring there. 

The  upper  part  of  the  plumage  in  nearly  all  species  is 
dark  l)luish,  or  bluish  gray,  lower  parts  white.  The  king 
penguin  hiis  a  l)aiid  of  yellow  under  the  neck,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  ttie  genus  Kii(ii/pli:t  are  decorated  with  a  tuft  of 
(lowing  yellow  feathers  on  either  side  of  the  head. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 
Penlkese  Island  :  See  Kmzabeth  Islands. 
Peninsular  War :  See  Spain  (History),  and  WELLiNnroN, 
Aktuik  Wei.lksi.kv,  Duke  of, 
IVMitcntiaries:  .See  Pri.son.s. 

I'lMiM.  W'li.MAM  :  fuunder  and  first  legislator  of  the  State 
of  I'ennsylvania  :  b.  in  Lomlon.  Oct.  14,  1()44.  He  was  a 
son  of  .\iluiiral  .Sir  William  I'enn.  and  received  a  very  care- 
ful education,  lie  studied  at  Christ  Church,  O.xford,  but 
having  met  here  svith  Thi>nuis  l,oe,  he  was  converted  to 
Cjuakerism,  anil  shortly  after  expelled  from  the  university. 
His  father  .sent  him  on  travels  in  Holland  and  France,  and 
on  his  return  in  Kitili  he  was  ordered  to  manage  the  estates  of 
the  family  in  tln'  county  of  Cork.  Ireland.  He  fuHilled  this 
task  with  great  success,  but  in  Cork  he  uu't  for  the  second 
time  wilh  Thonuis  Loe.  He  was  imprisoned  for  attemling  a 
Quaker  uu'eting.  .nnd  althuiigli  he  was  very  soon  liberated 
he  had  to  leave  Irehiiid.  On  his  return  to  London  he  began 
to  preach  ami  work  in  cliderenl  ways  for  the  societ.v  to  which 
he  belonged,  and  after  the  publication  of  The  Sandy  Foun- 
dation Shaken  (in  1068)  he  was  thi'own  into  t  he  Tower.  Here 
he  wrote  No  Vroxx,  no  Crown,  and  Innocmcy  trith  her  Open 
Face,  but  liy  the  interference  of  the  Duke  of  York  he  soon 
obtained  las  freedom.  The  good  relations  between  father 
and  .son  were  several  times  disturbed  on  account  of  the 
religious  views  of  the  latter,  but  after  every  rupture  a  rec- 
onciliation soon  folli>wed;  and  when  the  admiral  died  (in 
KiTD)  he  left  his  estates  and  all  his  property  to  his  son. 
I'l-un  continued  to  preach  and  work  for  what  he  considered 
lo  1)0  thehighe.st  trnth.and  in  lUTl  he  was  oiU'C  n\ore  thrown 
into  prison.  As  he  would  not  lake  an  oath  at  liis  trial,  he 
was  sent  to  Newgate  forsi.\  months, and  while  here  he  wrote 
the  celebrated  deferse  for  tnleralion,  Tlie  (Ireat  Cause  of 
Ijiherly  of  (Conscience.  Having  been  liberated,  he  made  a 
■317 


tour  to  Holland  and  Germany,  ami  on  his  return  in  1672  he 
married  (iulielma  Maria  Springett.  From  his  falherhehad 
inherited  a  claim  on  the  (iovernment  for  tlG.OUO.  In  set- 
tleinentof  thisclaim  the  (iovcrnment  granted  him  large  ter- 
ritories in  Nortli  .Auu^rica,  the  present  .State  of  I'ennsylvania, 
with  right  to  found  a  colony  or  society  with  such  laws  and 
institutions  as  e.xpres.sed  his  views  and  principles.  In  1683 
he  went  over  to  America.  A  great  numbiM'  of  settlers,  not 
only  Quakers,  but  members  of  all  denominalions,  Knglish- 
men,  Sweiles,  and  Germans,  gathered  togetlier:  a  charter  of 
liberties  was  issued,  and  a  democratic  government  insti- 
tuted; the  city  of  Pliiladi'lphia  was  planneil,  and  tlie  colony 
soon  came  into  a  most  nourishing eouilit ion.  I'eiui  returned 
to  England  toward  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  in- 
tent on  bettering  the  social  position  of  the  Quakers  in  that 
kingdom,  in  which  jilan  he  partly  succeeded.  During  the 
reign  of  .lames  II.  his  (-onnection  with  the  court  became 
very  intimate — .so  much  so  that  he  was  suspected  of  being 
implicated  in  certain  disgraceful  measures  of  the  king. 
After  the  overthrow  of  .lames  he  was  twice  accused  of  en- 
tertaining treasonable  communications  with  the  exiled  king, 
and  an  order  of  council  (Mar.  14,  16i)2)  deprived  him  of  his 
title  to  the  Pennsylvania  government.  After  a  nio.st  search- 
ing trial  he  was  fully  ac(iuilte<l  in  1()!)3,  and  another  order 
of  council  restored  his  title  to  him  in  1(304.  .\fter  the  death 
in  1693  of  his  first  wife,  he  married  (in  16'.t.5)  Hannah  Cal- 
lowhill,  and  went  in  1609,  for  the  second  time,  to  Pennsyl- 
vania (Philadelphia),  where  he  stayed  till  ITOl.  His  return 
to  England  was  chiefly  caused  by  the  deranged  state  of  his 
affairs  there.  The  mismanagement  and  villainy  of  his  a.gent 
had  brought  him  to  the  verge  of  bankruiitcy.  He  was  even 
thrown  into  the  Fleet  for  some  time  in  1708.  These  vexa- 
tions aft'ected  his  health ;  in  1712  he  was  struck  with  apo- 
plexy, and  although  he  recovered,  his  mental  faculties  were 
greatly  impaired  after  that  time.  D.  at  Kuscombe  in  Hcrk- 
shire,  ,Iuly  80,  1718.  His  contemporaries,  even  such  as  were 
not  his  friends,  testify  to  the  correctness  and  justice  of  his 
character,  and  although  he  was  savagely  attacked  by  Jlacau- 
lay  in  the  History  of  England — the  charges  being  modified, 
but  not  withdrawn  in  later  editions — Penn's  vindication  at 
the  hands  of  Paget  (I'aradn.res  and  Puzzles,  Edinburgh, 
1874)  and  \V.  E.  Forster  (Ji'eply  to  Marautay,  reprinted  in 
Philadelphia.  18.~)0)  has  beiMi  recognized  as  comi)letely  suc- 
cessful. For  Penn"s  own  life,  see  biographies  by  S.  M.  Jan- 
ney  (Philadelphia,  often  reprinted)  and  .1.  Stoughton  (Lon- 
don, 1882).  A  less  ambitious  but  entertaining  work  is  JIaria 
Webb's  Tlie  Penns  and  Peningtons  (London,  1867).  F^'or 
Penn's  part  in  the  founding  of  Pennsylvania,  see  Winsor's 
Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  iii.,  469  ff. 
Penn  was  a  voluminous  writer  ;  for  a  list  of  his  works,  see 
.loscph  Smith,  Desrriptire  Catalogue  of  Friends'  Books 
(2  vols.,  London,  1867).  Revised  by'F.  B.  Gum.mere, 

Pennacook  Indians:  See  ALGoxguiAJN  Indians. 

Pennant :  .See  Flag. 

Pennant,  Thomas,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  .S.  :  zoologist  and  ar- 
cha'ologisl  ;  b.  at  Downing.  Flintshire,  Wales,  .lime  14, 
1726;  studied  at  Queen's  and  Oriel  Colleges,  O.xford,  but 
did  not  take  a  degree;  produced  a  large  number  of  folio 
and  c(uarto  volumes  containing  his  travels  in  various  ])ar1s  of 
the  British  islands,  which  jtossess  few  graces  of  style  and  lit- 
tle scientiHc  accuracy,  but  liave  pivserv<'d  from  oblivion  some 
valuable  facts.  I),  at  Downing.  Dec.  Hi.  1708.  Among  the 
more  important  of  his  works  are  Pritixh  Zoology  (4  vols., 
1765-77):  History  of  Quadrupeds  (2  vols..  1771);  Tours  in 
Scotland  (:!  vols..  1771-7."));  7o«/-.s  in  Wales  (2  vols.  1778- 
81  ;  new  ed.  3  vols.,  1883) :  A  relic  Zoology  (3  vols.,  1784-87) ; 
Antii/uannn  and  Historical  Account  of  London  (1700),  of 
which  many  editions  have  been  published,  and  his  amusing 
autobiography.  The  Literary  Life  of  the  Late  Thomas  Pen- 
nant, Fxi/.,  written  by  himself  (I'liKi). 

Pennsylvania:  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  North  America 
(North  .Atlantic  group);  the  second  of  the  original  thirteen 
States  that  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution;  pojiularly 
known  as  the  Keystone  Stale. 

Location  and  Area. — It  lies  between  lat.  39"  43'  and  42" 
1.5'  N.,  and  Ion.  74  43'  36"  and  80  31'  36'  W. ;  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Lake  Erie  and  the  State  of  New  York,  on  the 
E.  by  Chauiampia  and  Delaware  cos.,  N.  Y..  and  the  Dela- 
ware" river,  on  the  S.  bv  Delaware,  ^laryland,  anil  ^Yest 
Virginia,  on  the  W.  bv  West  Virginia.  Ohio,  and  Lake  Erie ; 
extreme  length  from  E.  to  W..  302-34  miles ;  extreme  breadth 
from  N.  to  S.,  17.")-6  miles;  area,  4.1,21.')  scp  miles  (28,037.600 
acres),  of  which  230  s^.  miles  are  water  surface  ;  capital, 


ill 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Harrisburg.  Acponling  to  the  census  of  1S90  the  State 
ranked  first  in  mineral  production  and  second  in  population 
and  value  of  manufactures. 

Pht/sical  Features. — The  surface  falls  into  three  divi- 
sions— viz.:  (!)  The  southeastern  section  or  district  extend- 
ing from  Delaware  river  to  the  Blue  or  Kittatinny  Moun- 
tains; near  the  river  a  narrow  plain  of  level  land,  but  a  few 
miles  inland  a  rolling  or  undulating  tract  with  gently 
rounded  hills.  This  region,  while  containing  much  min- 
eral wealth,  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  growth  of  cereals. 
(3)  The  mountain  district  adjoining  this,  which  crosses  the 
State  in  a  belt  varying  in  width  from  75  to  160  miles,  and 
trending  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  All  the  mountain  chains 
which  go  to  make  up  the  Appalachian  system  are  here  in 
their  full  breadth,  though  not  attaining  a  great  altitude. 
The  mountains  of  the  Appalachian  system  in  the  State, 
aside  from  their  general  division  in  two  great  ranges,  the 
Blue  or  Kittatinny  and  the  Alleghany  range,  are  subdivided 
into  a  liost  of  minor  chains,  intersected  by  numerous  val- 
leys, broad  and  fertile,  with  the  precipitous  cast  face  of  the 
Alleghany  range  overhanging  them.  (3)  The  western  table- 
land, which  occupies  about  half  the  area  of  the  State,  is  a 
broad,  rolling  plateau,  with  occasional  ranges  of  hills,  but 
sloping  N.  and  W.  toward  New  York,  Lake  Erie,  and  Ohio 
river.  It  extends  from  the  summits  of  the  Alleghanies  W. 
to  the  northwestern  and  western  boundaries  of  the  State. 
The  northwestern  portion  has  several  isolated  summits.  It 
is  the  region  of  pine  and  hemlock  lands,  and  furnishes  vast 
amounts  of  lumber  to  Eastern  markets. 

Rivers. — There  are  six  distinct  water-basins,  which,  witli 
their  tributaries,  drain  the  entire  State — viz.,  the  Delaware 
and  its  affluents,  the  Susquehanna  and  its  trilnitaries,  the 
Genesee,  the  Potomac.  Lake  Erie,  and  the  Ohio  with  its 
large  and  numerous  affluents.  The  Ohio  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  two  largo  rivers,  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela, 


The  following  summary  from  the  census  reports  of  1880 
and  1890  shows  the  extent  of  farm  operations  in  the  State: 


FARMS,  ETC. 

1880. 

1890. 

Per  cent* 

21.3,54a 
19,791,»4I 

8975,689,410 

211,557 
18,36-1,370 

§922,240,233 

09 

Total  a'  reage  of  farms 

'    7  2 

Total    value    of    farms,    including 
buildings  and  fences  

S-5 

*  Decrease. 


The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  yield,  and  value 
of  the  principal  crops  in  the  calendar  year  1893 : 


CROPS. 

Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rj-e 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Tobacco 

Potatoes 

Hay 

Totals 


Acreage. 


1,273, 

1,310, 

1,141. 

316. 

18, 

218. 

27 

198! 

3.085. 


418 
,822 
,8:« 
,147 
529 
,.580 
,715 
,922 
,850 


r,591,815 


Yield 


31,198.741  bush. 
1S,.351,.508      " 
30.601,098     •' 

4.647.361      " 
352,051      " 

3,081.978  •' 
27.715,000  lb. 
15,118,072  bush. 

3,178,426  tons 


Value. 


815. 

11. 

10. 
2 

1, 
3 
9. 
45, 


,287,383 
,928,480 
,710,.384 
,648,996 

176,026 
,818,367 
.741.625 
.W0,843 

•69,334 


8101,151,338 


Seal  of  Pennsylvania. 

at  Pittsburg.  Both  have  numerous  tributaries.  The  Mo- 
nongahela receives  the  Youghiogheny  and  several  smaller 
streams.  Aside  from  Lake  Erie  there  are  no  lakes  of  im- 
portance. There  are  several  islands  in  the  Delaware,  and 
two  or  three  in  Lake  Erie,  belonging  to  Pennsylvania. 

Soil  anil  Prod  net  tints. — The  soil  of  the  valleys  and  plains 
is  generally  fertile,  and  some  of  it  very  rich,  yielding  large 
crops  for  a  succession  of  years.  There  is  a  large  area  in  for- 
ests. The  trees  include  several  species  of  |)ine,  hemlock, 
spruce,  fir,  and  cedar,  as  well  as  some  other  coniferous  trees ; 
six  or  seven  species  of  oak  and  four  of  hickory,  the  black 
walnut  and  butternut,  three  or  four  species  of  maple,  the 
chestnut,  chinquaiiin.  beech,  buckeye,  linden,  tulip-tree,  dog- 
wood, hornbeam,  birch,  ash,  willow,  elm,  aspen,  sycamore, 
American  poplar,  mulberry,  persimmon,  gum,  sassafras,  lo- 
cust, wild  cherry,  papaw,  catalpa,  magnolia,  crab-apple,  etc. 
The  flora  is  varied.  The  number  of  wild  animals  is  quite 
large — bears,  panthers,  wildcats,  lynxes,  wolves,  otters,  the 
red  and  the  gray  fox,  the  raccoon,  marten,  mink,  weasel, 
skunk,  opossum,  musk-rat,  porcupine,  woodchuck  or  ground- 
hog, anil  occasionally  the  beaver:  the  flying,  red.  striped, 
and  gray  sipiirrcl.  the  hare  or  rabbit,  and  among  the  larger 
game  the  Virginian  deer,  and  rarely  the  elk.  Birds  are 
nuuicmu.s — of  prey,  the  bald  and  the  golden  eagle,  the  tur- 
key-buzzard, fish  and  other  varieties  of  hawk,  owls,  the 
whippocjrwill,  the  night-hawk,  the  swallow,  etc. ;  these  and 
the  reptiles  are  the  same  as  those  of  New  York  and  New 
.lorsev. 


On  Jan.  1.  1894.  the  farm  animals  comprised  659.484 
horses,  value  .$42,053,101:  36.313  mules,  value  |2,989,014 ; 
938.382  milch  cows,  value  !8;23.9T5.660 :  737.919  oxen  and 
other  cattle,  value  .f  15,965,972;  1,473,494  sheep,  value  $4,- 
.5:W.700;  and  1,033.517  swine,  value  $9,077,483— total  head, 
4.879.309;  total  value.  $98,591,930. 

Jlinerals. — Gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  and  sulphur  in  a  na- 
tive state  have  been  discovered  in  Pennsylvania,  but  none 
cif  them  in  quantities  to  make  their  working  profitable. 
Iron  does  not  exist  in  a  native  state,  but  the  iron  ores  em- 
brace every  known  ore  and  many 
not  found  elsewhere.  The  most 
valuable  mineral,  economically,  is 
coal,  bituminous  and  anthracite. 
Of  bituminous,  the  production  in 
1893  was  44.070.724  short  tons, 
valued  at  $35,260,674.  Of  the  total 
product,  33,322,328  tons  were  loaded 
lit  tlie  mines  for  shipment,  1,934,429 
Inns  were  sold  in  local  trade  and 
used  by  employees,  426.132  tons  were 
used  at  the  mines  for  steam  and 
hi'at,  and  8,387,845  tons  were  made 
into  coke.  The  production  of  an- 
thracite was  53,967,543  short  tons, 
valued  at  $85,687,078,  of  which  48,- 
266,174  tons  were  loaded  at  the 
mines  for  shipment,  1,203.655  tons 
were  sold  in  local  trade  and  used  by 
employees,  and  4,498,714  tons  were 
used  at  the  mines  for  steam  and  heat. 
The  total  [iroductinn  of  both  kinds  was  98.038,267  short 
tons,  valued  at  $120,947,752.  Crude  petroleum  showed  a 
marked  falling  off  in  production  in  1893,  viz.:  Production 
in  1892,  27.149,034  barrels  (42  Winchester  gallons  each), 
valued  at  $15,302,968;  production  in  1893,19,283,123  bar- 
rels, valueil  at  $12,563,893.  In  the  production  of  iron  ores 
the  State  ranked  fourth  in  1893  with  57.633  long  tons  of  red 
hematite.  158.376  tons  of  brown  hematite,  480.164  tons  of 
magnetite,  and  1.812  tons  of  carbonate — total  product,  697,- 
985" long  tons,  valued  at  $1,374,313.  In  1883  natural  gas  be- 
gan to  be  used  extensively  for  fuel,  and  the  value  of  the 
amount  so  consumed  reached  its  highest  point  in  1888  ($19,- 
282.375).  The  value  of  the  consumption  has  since  steadily 
decreased,  being  in  1893  only  $6,488,000.  The  consumption 
in  Pennsylvania  alone  in  1888  exceeded  the  entire  consump- 
tion in  the  U.  .•>.  in  1893.  Quarrying  was  much  restricted 
bv  the  labor  and  financial  troubles  in  1893.  The  produc- 
tions were:  Granite,  $206,493  ($550,000  in  1892);  slate, 
$1,472,275  ($2,330,000  in  1892);  marble,  $27,000  ($50,000  in 
1892) ;  sandstone,  $622,552  ;  and  limestone.  $1,553,336.  The 
salt  product  in  1893  was  280,343  barrels  (280  lb.  each>.  value 
$136,436;  metallic  paint,  8,300  short  tons,  value  $143,875. 
There  are  numerous  mineral  springs,  some  of  them  of  great 
medicinal  value.  Of  the  minerals  possessing  only  scientific 
value  the  number  is  very  great,  embracing  almost  every 
mineral  of  note  in  the  largest  catalogues. 

Climate. — There  are  considerable  differences  in  the  cli- 
mate of  different  portions  of  the  State.     The  mean  annual 


b 


PENNSYLVANIA 


515 


temperature,  which  is  ^)'i'  in  the  soulheasttTii  (•(miilies,  de- 
creases to  48°  in  the  central  counties  and  44  in  the  north 
and  northwest.  The  amount  of  rainfall  is  usually  greatest 
in  the  southeast  and  decreases  north  and  west. 

Divisions. —  For  administrative  purposes  Pennsylvania  is 
divided  into  sixty-seven  counties,  as  follows: 

COUNTIES   AXD   COUXTY-TOWNS,   WITH   POPLLATIO.\. 


Adams 

Allegheny  — 
Armstrong  . . . 

Beaver 

BeilfDrd 

Berks 

Blair 

Bra<lford 

Bucks  

Butl.T 

Cambria 

Cameron 

Carbon  

Centre 

Cllester 

Clarion 

Clearfleld 

t'liiiton 

Columbia 

Crawford 

C-umberland. . 

Dauphin 

Delaware 

Elk 

Erie 

Fayette 

Forest 

Franklin 

Fulton 

(ireene 

Huntingdon . . 

Iniliaua 

Jefferson   

Juniata 

Lackawanna  . 

Lancaster 

Lawrence 

Ijcbanon 

Lehif^h 

Luzerne  

Lycomiug 

McKean 

Mercer 

Mitflin 

Monroe 

Montfjomery. 

Mont'Hir 

Northampton 
Northumner- 

laud 

Perry 

Philadelphia... 

Pike 

Potter 

S<-huylkill 

Snytlcr 

Somerset 

Sullivan 

Sus<iuehauna.. 

Tioga 

Union 

Venango 

Warren 

Wa-shington .. . 

Wayne 

Westmoreland. 

Wyoming 

York 


Totals . . 


6-F 
5-B 
4-B 
4-A 
6-D 
5-1 
5-D 
8-0 
b-J 
4-D 
5-D 
3-D 
4-1 
4-E 
6-1 
3-C 
4-D 
3-E 
4-H 

a-A 

6-F 

5-G 

6-J 

8-D 

1-A 

6-B 

3-C 

6-E 

6-E 

&-A 

5-E 

5-C 

3-C 

5-F 

3-1 

6-H 

4-A 

5-H 

o-I 

3-H 

3-F 

3-D 

3-A 

5-E 

4-1 

6-1 

4-G 

4-J 

4-G 
.VF 
6-J 
3-J 
2-E 
5-H 
4-F 
6-C 
3-G 
a-H 

a-F 

4-F 
.3-B 

a-c 

5-A 

a-j 

5-B 

a-H 

O-G 


Fop. 
1880. 


33.455 

355.869 
47.641 
.39,605 
34,939 

133,597 
52,740 
58..')41 
68,656 
53.5.36 
46,811 
5,l.'i9 
31.933 
37,933 
83,481 
40,338 
43,408 
26,378 
32,409 
68,607 
45.977 
76,148 
56.101 
13,800 
74,688 
58,843 
4,.385 
49.855 
10.149 
28,273 
a3.954 
40.527 
27,935 
18,237 
89.369 

1.39,447 
33.313 
38,476 
65,969 

133,065 
57,486 
43,565 
.56.161 
19,577 
20,175 
96,494 
1.5,468 
70,312 


Pop. 

1890. 


...   4,382,891     5,258,014 


33,486 
551,9.59 
48.747 
50.077 
38,(>« 
137.337 
70,8116 
59.2:13 
70,615 

55.:«s 

66,375 
7.2:W 
38.624 
43.269 
8i).:i77 
36.802 
69.5li5 
28.685 
36.K:)3 
65,;K4 
47.271 
96.977 
74,683 
22,3:J9 
86.074 
80.006 
8.483 
51.433 
10,137 
28.935 
35.751 
42.173 
44.005 
16.635 

143,088 

149.095 
37.517 
48,131 
76.631 

201.203 
70.379 
46.863 
55,744 
19.996 
30,111 

123.390 
15.645 
&4,320 

74,698 

26,2T6 

1,046.904 

■  9.413 
23.778 

1.54. 1« 
17.1i51 
37,817 
11.630 
40.II'.I3 
.53,313 
17,820 
46.640 
37..585 
71.1,55 
31,010 

1I2.SI'.I 
l.i.S'.ll 
9i),4«l 


COnNTV-TOWNS, 


Gettysburg 

Pittsburg 

Kittanning 

Beaver 

Bedford 

Reading 

HoUidaysburg . . 

Towancia 

Doylestown 

Butler 

Ebensburg 

Emporiuui,- 

Mauch  Chunk.,, 

Bcllefonte 

Westchester 

Clarion 

Clearfield 

Lock  Haven  

Bloomsburg 

Meadville 

Carlisle 

Harrisburg 

Media 

Ridgway 

Erie 

L^niontown 

Tionesta 

Chanibersburg., 
McConnellsburg 

Wa.vnesburg 

Huntingdon 

Indiana 

Brookville 

MitHintown 

.Scrauton 

Lancaster 

New  Castle 

Lebanon 

Alleutown 

Wilkesbarre 

Williamsport. . ,, 

Smethport 

Mercer 

Lewistown 

Stroudsburg 

Norristown 

Danville 

Eastou 


Pop. 
18»0. 


Sunbury  

New  Bloomfield, 
Philadelphia. .', , 

Milford 

Coudersport 

Pottsville 

Middleburg 

Somerset 

Laporte 

Jlontrose 

Wellsboro 

Lewisburg 

Franklin 

Warren 

Washington 

Honesdale 

i  Jreeiisburg, , , , 
Tuukhannock, , 
York 


3,221 
238.617 
3.095 
1.553 
3.343 

58,661 
3,975 
4,169 
3,519 
8,7:)4 
1.302 
2,147 
4,101 
3,946 
8,028 
3,164 
3,348 
7,3.58 
4,635 
9..520 
7.620 

39,:J83 
2,7:J6 
1,903 

40,6:M 

6,a59 

677 

7,8KJ 

594 

2,101 

5,729 

1,963 

2,478 

877 

75.215 

;K,on 

11,600 
14.664 
25.328 
37.718 
27,132 
1,1.50 

2,i:» 

3,273 
2,419 

19,791 
7.998 

14,481 

5.9,30 

737 

1,046,964 

793 

l„5:w 

14,117 

420 

1,713 

375 

1,7,35 

2,961 

3,348 

6,331 

4,333 

7,063 

8,816 

4,303 

1,2.53 

20,793 


•  Reference  for  location  of  counties,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania. 

Principal  Cities  and  7'oirns.  with  Pnpiitation  in  1S90. 
—  I'hiladidpliia.  l,04fi.!»(>4  ;  I'itlshuri;,  *i.'<,(>17:  AUcfrhenv. 
10.").'JS7:  Scranlon,  T-'J,'21.');  Ucadini;.  .5S.()(>1  :  Krie,  40.6^4; 
Harrisburg,  :«).:«.5  :  Wilkesbarre,  :iT,71H;  Lancaster,  3'>.011 : 
Altoona,  ;!0,:i:i7;  Williamsport,  27.l:i2:  Alleutown,  2.V228: 
.Johnstown.  21.80.") :  York.  20.7!»;i :  McKccsport,  211,741; 
Chester.  20.221! :  Norristown.  19.701  :  Shenandoah.  1.").044: 
Lebanon,  14.li(>4:  F.a.ston,  14,4H1  :  Shamokin.  14.40:!;  Potts- 
ville. 14.117:  I'otisiown.  18.2^.5;  lla/U'lon,  11,872;  New 
Caslle.  11,000;  and   Mahanov  Citv,  1 1,28(1, 

Ptipulaliiin  (iiiil  /^(in-.v,— i80(),'2,!>06,21.5:  1S70,  ;?..")21,9.")1  ; 
18S(),  4,282,891;  1S90,  5,2.58,014  (nalive.  4,412,294:  foreijjn, 
84.5.720;  males,  2,()t>0.:3:il  ;  females.  2..">9 1 .68;i ;  wliite.  .5.148,- 
2.57;  colored,  109,7.57,  of  whom  107,.596  were  persons  of  .\f- 
rican  descent,  l,14ti  Chinese,  32  Japanese,  and  983  civilized 
Indians). 

luditstries  ^nid   liusiyiess  Interests. — In  1800  the  census 


returns  showed  that  39,33G  manufacturing  establishments 
reported.  These  had  a  combined  capital  of  $990,999,375 ; 
investment  in  plant.s.  $50,5.400,180.  including  value  of  ma- 
chinery, tools,  and  implements,  $258,427,613;  persons  em- 
ployed". 620,484 :  paiil  for  wages  $40,788,7)13.  for  materials 
used  $773..530.105.  for  miscellaneous  expenses  $74.8:33,863 ; 
and  had  products  valued  at  $1,331,523,101.  Tlie  principal 
industry  reported  was  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel, 
which  hiid  417  establishment.s,  emploveil  103.976  jicrsons, 
paid  $57,435,000  for  wages  and  .$180,803,312  for  materials, 
and  haii  proilucts  valued  at  $295,3.58,622.  Other  leading  in- 
dustries, with  the  value  of  their  products,  were:  JIachinery, 
$67,587,025;  sugar  and  molasses,  $46,.599,7.54 ;  lundicr  and 
its  prodiicls,  $46,171,522;  clothing,  $42,552,794;  Hour  and 
grist  mill  products,  .$39,478,076:  leather,  $39,011,518;  car- 
pets, $22,886,416;  and  cotton  goods,  $18,431,773.  No  cen- 
sus report  was  issued  on  the  ship-lniilding  industry.  In 
1893  the  iron  and  steel  industry  had  199  furnaces,  of  which 
109  were  anthracite,  76  bitumiiKuis.  and  14  charcoal  ;  221 
rolling-mills;  90  steel-works,  of  which  20  were  Bessemer,  3 
Clapp-Griffiths,  1  Robert-Uessemer,  42  open  hearth,  and  25 
crucible  ;  25  tin-plate  works  ;  10  forges  and  bloomeries;  1,392 
cut-nail  machines;  and  9  wire-nail  works.  The  production 
of  pig-iron  aggregated  .3.643.023  long  tons;  Bessemer-steel 
ingots,  3,136,330  tons;  Bessemer-steel  rails,  639,431  tons. 
There  were  103  coking  establishments,  which  had  25.744 
ovens,  burned  9,386.703  short  tons  of  coal,  valued  at  $5,738,- 
798,  and  produced  6,229,051  short  tons  of  coke,  valued  at 
$9,468,036. 

Finiince. — The  revenue  of  the  State  is  mostly  derived 
from  special  taxes  on  corporations,  including  bank  stock, 
foreign  insurance  companies,  cor|)oration  stock,  gross  re- 
ceipts, incomes,  commutiition  of  tonnage,  licenses,  etc.,  and 
in  1893  aggregated  $13,253,727.  The  total  public  debt  Dec. 
1, 1893,  was  $8,288.061 ;  sinking  funds,  $5.883,06.5— net  debt, 
.$3,404,996.  The  assessed  vahuttions  were,  real  estate.  $2,- 
351.190.037;  personal,  $607.585,757— total,  $2.9.5.s,775.794. 
Real  estate  is  not  taxed  by  the  State,  but  is  reserved  for 
taxation  by  the  counties  for  county  purposes. 

Banking. — In  Dec,  1893,  there  were  399  national  banks, 
with  capital  of  $73,695,490.  individual  deposits  $215,389,- 
338.  and  surplus  and  profits  $48,348,038;  80  State  banks, 
witli  capital  of  $8.461,.559,  individual  deposits  $38,841..538, 
antl  surplus  .ind  profits  $5,8.59,793:  16  savings-banks,  with 
total  depositors  352.980,  aggregate  deposits  $(;6,025,S21.  and 
surplus  and  profits  .'<s.;i4(i,.593:  and  68  investment,  loan,  and 
trust  companies,  with  aggregate  authorized  cajiital  of  over 
$35,800.000 — showing  a  total  banking  capital  of  nearly 
$118,000,000.  and  deposits  of  over  $320,000,000. 

Buitdin;/  and  Loan  Associations. — Tlie  numerous  build- 
ing and  loan  associations  have  been  an  agency  of  immense 
value  in  enabling  the  people  to  provide  tliemselves  with 
homes.  In  June,  1894,  the  Static  bureau  of  statistics  pre- 
.sented  the  following  estimates  for  1,339  such  a.ssoc-iations: 
Assets.  $103,943,364':  cash  income,  one  year,  $44,433,686.57; 
matured  shares  and  withdrawals,  one  year,  .$13,933,970.56; 
average  assets  per  association,  $83,893.14;  total  expenses, 
one  year,  $381,636.78;  salaries,  one  year.  $328,636.78;  total 
member.ship,  272,580 ;  total  borrowers,  81.658;  and  total 
shares,  1.651,814. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. — On  Jan.  1.  1894.  there  were 
4,939  post-offices  in  the  State,  of  whicli  248  were  presidential 
(10  first-class,  58  second-class,  180  third-chiss)  aiul  4.691 
fourth-class,  with  1.485  money-order  offices,  52  money-order 
stations,  antl  18  postal-note  offices.  Tliere  were  1.408  news- 
papers and  periodicals,  of  which  183  were  daily.  3  tri-weekly, 
31  semi-weekly.  935  weekly.  8  bi-weekly.  33  semi-monthly, 
216  monthly.  8  bi-monthly,  and  21  quart i-rly  i.iiblication.s. 

Mkuis  of  Communication. — On  June  30.  1892,  there  were 
in  operatiim  9,023'87  miles  of  direct  railway,  with  a  total  of 
16.177'31  miles  of  track.  The  five  companies  (operating 
wholly  or  partly  within  the  State)  that  showed  the  greatest 
earninsrs  from  freight  ti'affic  were  the  I'ennsvivania,. $47,619.- 
2SO,40:  Philadelphia  and  Reading,  $36,792,121.20;  X.'W 
York.  Lake  Erie  and  Western.  $34.8»5.983,9(>:  Lake  Shore 
and  Michigan  Southern.  $14.884.871.53 ;  and  the  Pittsburg, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis.  $10,950.876.38 — making 
a  total  of  $135,14;i,133.47.  The  five  companies  showing  the 
greatest  pa.ssenger  earnings  were  the  Pennsylvania.  .$19,636.- 
075.77;  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  .$7,421,844.48; 
Philadelphia  and  Reading.  $5,866,711.24;  New  York.  Lake 
Erie  and  Western.  $6,530,134.27;  and  Phila<lelphia.  Wil- 
mington and  Baltimore,  $4,.591.661,68.  There  are  in  the 
State  9  canal  and  navigation  companies,  with  a  capital  of 


516 


PENNSYLVANIA 


158,114,358,  and  a  funded  and  floating  debt  of  |39,851,005.56. 
The  cost  of  canals  and  fixtun-s  was  $30,125,578.31 ;  gross 
receipts  of  the  year,  §3,803.y5:j.83 :  expenses,  $607,416. 

The  number  "of  street-railway  companies  reporting  in  1892 
was  231,  with  a  capital  of  $45,463,263,  and  a  funded  and 
floating  debt  of  $33,091,385.  The  cost  of  roads  and  equip- 
ment was  $41,636,011;  mileage  of  road,  819,015;  cars  in 
use,  3,050,  horses  and  mules,  10,878  ;  cars  propelled  by  elec- 
tricity, 660,  by  cable,  334 :  passengers  carried,  360.655,324 ; 
total  receipts,  $14,629,704;  expenses,  $8,188,745;  and  value 
of  real  estate,  $2,849,578.  The  number  of  telegraph  and 
telephone  companies  was  23,  with  a  capital  of  $99,578,653, 
and  a  funded  and  floating  debt  of  $19,327,469.  The  cost  of 
lines  and  equipments  was  $4,930,327;  length  of  lines  in 
Pennsylvania,  13,.538-87  miles;  receipts  in  Pennsylvania, 
$1,355,914;  expenses  in  Pennsylvania.  $434,143. 

Churehes, — The  census  of  1890  gave  the  following  statis- 
tics of  the  religious  bodies  having  a  memberehip  of  5,000 
and  upward  in  the  State: 


DENOMINATIONS. 


Roman  Catholic 

Methoilist  Episcopal 

Presb.  in  tlie  U.  S.  of  America.. . 

Lutheran,  General  Council 

Reformed  in  the  U.  S 

Baptists,  Reg:ular 

Lutheran,  General  Synod 

Protestant  Episcopal 

Evangelical  Association 

United  Presb.  of  N.  A 

United  Brethren  in  Christ 

Dunkard.  Conservative 

Disciples  of  Christ 

African  Methodist  Episcopal 

Methodist  Protestant 

Jlennonite 

Friends,  Hicksite 

Congregational 

Church  of  God 

African  Meth.  Epis.,  Zion 

Lutheran  Synod.  Conference 

Cumberland  Presb 

Jews.  Reformed   

Lutheran.  Joint  Sy  n.  of  Ohio,  etc. 
German  Evan.  Synod  of  N.  A. . . 


Or^aDiza- 

Churches 

tioas. 

SDd  halls. 

654 

660 

551.577 

2,043 

2,041 

223.886 

939 

1,101 

161.386 

B!6 

515 

124.163 

754 

624 

132.944 

634 

690 

83,123 

596 

562 

78,938 

369 

446 

54,720 

662 

660 

42.379 

281 

290 

39,304 

526 

530 

33,951 

101 

251 

14.194 

125 

116 

12.007 

87 

117 

11.613 

172 

169 

10.081 

114 

113 

10.077 

65 

74 

10.001 

108 

108 

9.818 

162 

156 

9,344 

62 

62 

8.6S9 

26 

26 

6,5.59 

62 

50 

6.210 

18 

18 

5„582 

32 

32 

5,553 

13 

12 

5,893 

Value  of 
church 
property. 


i  10.068.770 

13,642,104 

15.491.680 

4,993,355 

5,121.338 

5,984,322 

3,672,6.50 

10.854,131 

1„590,605 

3,553,4.50 

1.0S6.135 

3.t4.(W8 

533,147 

605,000 

641,575 

231,100 

546,700 

672,588 

375.185 

256.150 

284.915 

2.57,500 

552,500 

206.100 

132,150 


Schooh. — The  public-school  system  is  under  the  direction 
of  a  State  superintendent  appointed  by  the  Governor  for  four 
years,  and  a  county  superintendent,  elected  by  the  school 
directors  for  three  years.  The  wliole  numlier  of  schools 
(1802-93)  was  24,013;  superintendents  (ccmnty,  city,  and 
borough).  128 :  male  teachers,  8,345 ;  female  teachers,  17,718 ; 
and  pupils,  994,407.  The  total  expenditures  were  $16,410,- 
976 ;  local  tax  levied  (outside  of  Philadelphia).  $7,866,101 ; 
State  appropriation,  $5,000,000;  estimated  value  of  school 
property,  $42,679,504.  There  were  14  normal  schools,  main- 
tained partly  by  the  State  and  partly  by  fees,  to  which,  since 
their  organization,  the  State  has  appropriated  an  aggregate 
of  $1,892,000.  Text-books  in  all  public  schools  are  free. 
There  are  34  colleges  and  universities,  including  6  business 
colleges,  with  750  instructors  and  professors,  antl  10,257  stu- 
dents, 1,559  of  whom  were  in  Girard  College  and  866  in 
business  colleges.  There  were  also  from  40  to  50  seminaries, 
academies,  institutes,  and  other  secondary  schools.  Theo- 
logical seminaries  were  maintained  by  the  Moravians,  Lu- 
therans, Unitarians,  Presbyterians,  and  other  denominations. 
The  various  medical  schools  in  Philadelphia  had  nearly  250 
instructors  and  professors  and  about  2,500  students.  The 
State  was  a  pioneer  in  providing  soldiers'  orphans'  schools, 
and  three  such  schools  are  still  maintained. 

Libraries. — According  to  a  U.  S.  Government  report  in 
1891  on  public  libraries  of  1,000  V(jlumes  and  upward  each 
Pennsylvania  had  351  libraries,  which  contained  2,318,456 
bound  vnluincs  and  387,511  pamphlets. 

C/i(iritiible,  lii'.formatory,  and  Penal  Insfi/iifinns. — The 
State  supports  a  great  number  of  charitable  institutions,  in- 
cludini;  five  liosjiitals  for  the  insane,  a  newly  erected  spe- 
cial hospital  for  the  chronic  insane,  jind  institutions  for  the 
blind,  fcjr  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  for  the  feeble-minded. 
There  are  two  penitentiaries,  the  Eastern  and  the  Western, 
two  reform  schools  for  wayward  youth,  and  an  industrial 
rcforinatory  for  persons  convicted  of  first  offenses.  An  effort 
is  made  in  all  the  penal  and  reform.-itory  institutions  to  pro- 
vide educational  and  industrial  training. 

Polilical  Organiza/ion. — The  Legislature  is  called  a  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  and  consists  of  a  Senate  of  50  members, 


chosen  for  four  years  (one-half  every  two  years),  and  a 
House  of  Representatives  of  about  300  members  (in  1895, 
304),  chosen  for  two  years.  The  membership  of  both  is 
based  on  population,  and  the  State  is  divided  into  districts 
after  each  U.  .S.  census.  Senators  must  be  twenty-four 
years  of  age  and  representatives  twenty-one  years ;  both 
must  have  been  citizens  of  the  State  four  years  and  of  their 
districts  one  year  next  before  election,  and  must  reside  in 
their  districts  during  term  of  service.  All  laws  must  be 
passed  by  bill,  and  no  bill  save  the  appropriation  bill  can 
contain  more  than  one  subject,  which  must  be  clearly  ex- 
pressed in  its  title.  The  purpose  of  a  bill  can  not  be 
changed  during  its  passage.  Each  bill  must  be  referred  to 
a  committee,  be  reported  therefrom,  and  printed  for  the  use 
of  the  memtiers  before  it  can  be  considered.  It  mnst  be 
read  at  lengtli  on  three  different  tlays  in  each  house,  and  on 
its  final  passage  must  receive  the  affirmative  votes  of  a  ma- 
jority of  all  the  members  elected  to  each  house.  Amend- 
ments made  by  either  house  must  be  concurred  in  by  a 
majority  of  all  the  members  of  the  other,  and  reports  of 
conference  committees  must  be  adopted  by  a  majority  of 
the  members  of  each  house.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue 
must  originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  but  the 
Senate  may  amend  such  bills.  All  bills  and  resolutions 
passed  must  be  signed  by  the  presiding  officer  of  each  house, 
in  its  presence,  after  the  titles  have  been  publicly  read,  and 
the  fact  of  signing  must  be  publicly  entered  on  the  journals. 
The  chief  executive  is  the  Governor,  elected  for  four  years ; 
salary,  $10,000  per  annum.  Besides  exercising  the  usual  ad- 
ministrative powers  he  may  veto  any  bill  (or,  in  an  appropri- 
ation bill,  any  separate  item),  which  to  become  operative 
must  be  re-enacted  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
of  each  house.  He  appoints  (with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate)  a  secretary  of  the  commonwealth,  attorney-gen- 
eral, and  adjutant-general,  to  serve  at  his  pleasure ;  a  su- 
perintendent of  public  instruction  for  four  years,  a  commis- 
sioner of  insurance  for  three  years,  a  superintendent  of  public 
printing  for  four  years,  and  a  State  librarian  for  three  years. 
Other  administrative  officers  are  elected — viz. :  a  State  treas- 
urer for  two  years,  auditor-general  for  three  years,  and  sec- 
retary of  internal  affairs  for  three  years.  The  treasurer  and 
auditor-general  can  not  serve  two  successive  terms.  A  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor is  elected  at  the  same  time  and  for  the  same 
term  as  the  Governor.  He  presides  over  the  Senate,  has  a 
vote  only  in  case  of  a  tie,  and  succeeds  to  a  vacancy  in  the 
office  of  Governor,  in  which  event  the  president  pro  tem.  of 
the  Senate  becomes  Lieutenant-Governor.  The  judicial  power 
is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  courts  of  common  pleas,  oyer 
and  terminer,  general  jail  delivery,  quarter  sessions  of  the 
peace,  orphans'  courts,  magistrates'  courts,  and  such  others 
as  the  Legislature  may  establish,  and  in  aldermen  and  jus- 
tices of  the  peace.  Tlie  Supreme  Court  is  the  highest  court 
of  both  original  and  appellate  jurisdiction.  It  consists  of 
seven  judges,  elected  for  twenty-one  years,  and  ineligible  to 
reelection,  the  oldest  in  commission  sitting  as  chief  justice; 
salary,  $8,000  per  annum.  Tlie  State  is  divided  into  judi- 
cial districts,  varying  in  number  according  to  population, 
for  the  courts  of  common  pleas.  Each  county  containing 
40.000  or  more  inhabitants  forms  a  separate  district;  those 
containing  less  are  combined.  Districts  are  fixed  by  the 
Legislature  within  limits  prescribed  by  the  constitution. 
The  judges  are  elected  for  a  term  of  ten  years.  Special  pro- 
visions exist  for  the  two  most  populous  counties,  Allegheny 
and  Philadelphia. 

The  right  to  vote  at  all  elections  is  possessed  by  every 
male  citizen,  twenty-one  years  of  age,  who  has  been  a  citizen 
of  the  U.  S.  at  least  one  luonth.  has  resided  in  the  State  one 
year  (six  months  if.  having  previously  Ijeen  a  qualified  elector, 
or  native-born  citizen  of  the  State,  he  shall  have  removed 
therefrom  and  returned),  immediately  preceding  the  elec- 
tion ;  has  resiiled  in  the  election  district  where  he  shall  offer 
to  vote  at  le.ast  two  months  immediately  preceding  the  elec- 
tion ;  and,  if  twenty-two  years  of  age  or  upwartl.  has  paid 
within  two  years  a  State  or  county  tax.  wliich  shall  have 
been  assessed  at  least  two  months  and  paid  at  least  one 
month  before  the  election.  Women  twenty-one  years  of 
age  and  over  are  eligible  to  every  office  of  control  or  man- 
agement under  the  school  laws  of  the  State.  General  elec- 
tions are  held  on  the  Tuesday  next  following  tlie  first  Mon- 
d.iy  in  November.  All  regular  municipal  elections  (for 
city,  ward,  borough,  and  township  officers)  are  held  annu- 
ally on  the  third  Tuesilay  in  February. 

ffi.-itori/. — The  first  settlement  within  the  bounds  of  Penn- 
sylvania w,as  at  Tiuii'um  i.sland  by  Swedish  colonists,  under 


PENNSYLVANIA 


517 


John  Printz's  iiiliiiinistratioii.  In  Kioothc  Dutch  from  New 
Anisterdtim  niarclu'il  upon  these  Swedish  settlements  unci 
took  formal  possession  of  the  country.  In  IfifiOa  Dutch  set- 
tlement was  planted  at  the  Jlinisinks,  the  settlors  beinj;  col- 
onists from  New  Amsterdam.  When  the  Knglisli  captured 
New  Amsterdam,  in  l(if)4,  the  colony  on  the  Delaware  fol- 
lowed its  fortune-s,  and  renuiined  under  the  government  of 
New  York  (except  for  a  part  of  1073-74,  when  the  Dutch  re- 
captured it)  until  Mar.  4,  IGSl,  when  Charles  II.  granted  to 
William  Penn  the  "tract  of  land  in  America  lying  N.  of 
Jlaryhiml.  on  the  K.  bounded  with  Delaware  river,  on  the 
\V.  limited  as  .Maryhiml.  and  northward  to  e.\tend  as  far  as 
plantablc."  Penn  landed  at  New  (_'a.stle  (now  in  Delaware) 
t)ct.  37  (o. s.),  1683.  During  1683  he  organized  his  newgov- 
ernment  and  provided  places  for  the  many  immigrants 
(mostly  Friends)  who  began  to  flock  thither.  He  returned 
to  Kngliind  in  1684  for  the  settlement  of  the  boundary  be- 
tween Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  In  161)9  he  again  vis- 
ited his  provim-e,  remaining  till  17(11.  and  gave  the  colonists 
a  new  constitution  and  Philadelphia  a  charter.  From  this 
time  to  1720  emigration  to  Pennsylvania  constantly  in- 
erea-sed.  Penn  died  in  1718,  and  his  heirs  succeeded  him  as 
proprietaries.  The  war  between  France  and  Great  Britain 
Ml  1744  led  to  apprehensions  of  trouble  with  the  Indians, 
whom  tlie  French  were  stimnlating  to  hostility  against  the 
English  colonists.  Great  etiorts  were  made  to  retain  the 
friendship  of  the  Indians,  but  all  in  vain.  The  Shawanese 
were  the  first  to  break  faith  with  the  colonists.  The  French, 
having  secured  them  as  allies,  constantly  increased  their  ag- 
gressions. The  boundary  between  Pennsylvania  and  Mary- 
land was  run  in  1766-67  by  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah 
Dixon.  In  1768,  by  a  treaty  with  the  Six  Nations,  a  large 
tract  of  land,  called  the  New  Purchase,  embracing  most  of 
the  counties  of  Northern  and  Northwestern  Pennsylvania, 
was  conveyed  to  the  proprietaries,  and  at  once  induced  an 
enlarged  immigration.  Pennsylvania  took  an  active  part  in 
the  movement  for  independence.  (See  Philadelfiha.)  The 
nnissacre  of  the  Wyoming  settlers  by  British  soldiers,  Tories, 
and  Indians  occurred  in  July,  1778,  and  w-as  summarily 
avengi'il  by  the  Mcintosh  and  the  Sullivan  expeditions.  In 
1778  the  royal  charter  was  annulled,  and  the  Penns  were  al- 
lowed t'130,000  for  their  unsettled  lands  in  the  State.  Penn- 
sylvania furnished  more  than  her  full  quota  of  troops  for 
tile  Revolutionary  war.  Slavery  was  abolished  in  1780. 
The  "  Whisky  Insurrection  "  in  the  western  counties  oc- 
curred in  17H4;  it  occasioned  great  excitement,  but  was  put 
down  without  bloodshed.  A  less  considerable  insurrection 
■was  attempted  four  years  later,  but  was  promptly  suppressed. 
In  179!)  the  State  capital  was  removed  to  Lancaster,  and  in 
1813  to  Harrisburg.  After  the  war  of  1813  the  State  was 
largely  engaged  in  colossal  enterprises  of  internal  improve- 
ment— canals  and  railways — which  for  some  years  embar- 
rassed her  finances.  In  1859  the  petroleum  discoveries  were 
maile.  The  State  was  three  times  invaded  by  the  Confeder- 
ates— first  on  Oct.  10, 1863,  when  Charabersburg  was  captured 
and  military  stores  burned  ;  second,  by  Gen.  Lee,  when  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg  was  fought  on  her  territory  ;  third,  in 
July,  1864,  when  Chambcrsburg  was  burned.  The  State  fur- 
nished nearly  400,000  soldiers  for  the  civil  war  (1861-6.5). 

The  constitution  of  1776  was  framed  on  the  advice  of  the 
Continental  Congress.  A  convention,  called  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  a  conference  of  county  cominitlecs  (ignoring 
the  Assembly  of  the  province  then  in  session),  drew  up  a  con- 
stitution and  provided  for  setting  it  in  operation.  It  was 
not  submitted  to  vote  of  the  people.  It  provided  for  a  sin- 
gle legislative  assembly  and  a  plural  executive  (president 
and  council).  It  also  provided  for  a  council  of  censors,  two 
from  each  county,  to  meet  every  seven  years,  with  authority 
to  investigate  breaches  of  the  constitution  and  recommend 
changes  in  it;  and  it  contained  the  germ  of  the  modern 
referendum  by  reijuiring  all  public'  bills  to  be  printed  for 
the  consideration  of  the  [leople  before  their  final  pas.sage, 
which,  except  on  occasions  of  pulilic  emergency,  was  to  be 
deferred  till  a  succeeding  session.  On  Sept.  1.5,  1789,  the 
Assembly  provided  for  a  convention  to  amend  the  consti- 
tution. The  convention  met  Nov.  24,  completed  its  work 
Feb.  30,  1790,  voted  that  the  new  constitution  be  published, 
adjourned  till  Aug.  9,  and  on  Sept.  2  adojited  it  with  some 
modifications.  It  was  not  submitted  to  the  popular  vote. 
By  this  constitution  the  numlier  of  representatives  was  to 
bo  not  less  than  60  nor  more  than  100.  distributed  among 
the  counties  in  proportiim  to  taxable  inhabitants.  A  sen- 
ate was  created  to  consist  of  not  mori!  than  one-third  nor 
less  than  one-fourth  the  number  of  the  lower  house.     The 


executive  power  was  vested  in  a  Governor,  to  be  elected  for 
a  term  of  turee  years.  Judges  were  lo  be  appointed  to  serve 
during  good  behavior  (seven  years  having  been  the  pre- 
vious term),  and  to  receive  a  fixed  comiiensation.  This  con- 
stitution introduced  a  highly  important  changes  of  tiie  old 
English  law  of  libel,  by  providing  that  "  in  prosecutions  for 
the  publication  of  papers  investigating  the  oflicial  conduct 
of  oilicers  or  men  in  a  public  capacity,  or  where  the  matter 
[lublished  is  proper  for  public  information,  the  truth  thereof 
may  [might]  be  given  in  evidence."  In  1837  ami  1838  an- 
otlier  convention  was  held  which  reduced  the  patronage  of 
the  Governor,  gave  the  election  of  all  county  otiicers  to  the 
people,  and  limited  the  term  of  judges  to  fifteen,  ten,  and 
five  years.  Amendments  to  this  constitution  were  proposed 
by  the  Legislature  and  adopted  by  the  people — one  in  1850, 
four  in  1857,  three  in  1864,  and  one  in  1872.  In  1873  and 
1873  another  convention  framed  the  present  constitution, 
which  introduced  many  important  changes,  and  was  ratified 
Dec.  16,  1873.  Under  this  constitution  a  Governor  can  not 
be  elected  his  own  successor. 


GOVERNORS   OF  PENNSYLVANIA 
COLONIAL. 

Under  the  Swedes. 

Peter  Minuit 1638 

Pett^r  Hollandaer 1641 

Jolin  Priiitz 164.'! 

Julin  Pappegnya 1653 

Johan  C.  Rysingli ia54 


Under  the  Dutch. 

Jolin  Paul  Jacquet 1655 

Colony  divided  into  city  and 

company 1657-62 

Jacob  Alricks  (city) 16.57 

Alex.  d'Hinoyossa  (city) 1659 

(ioeran  Van  Dytce  (company)  1657 
Wm.  Beekman  (company). ..  1658 

Colony  united 1662 

Wm.  Beekman 

Alexander  d'Hinoyossa  . 
Captured  by  the  English 


Under  the  English. 
Col.  Richard  Nicolls  (gov.)  . 
Robert  Carr  (deput.v  gov.). . 
Col.  Francis  Lovelace 


ItiOa 
1663 
1664 


1664 
1664 
1667 


Under  the  Dutch. 


John  Evans  tgov.) 1704 

Charles  Gookin  llieut.-gov.)  .  1709 
Sir  Wm.  Keith  (lieut.-gov. )..  1717 
Patrick  Gordon  (lieut.-gov.).  1736 

Council  (J.  Logan,  pres.  i 1736 

Geo.  Thomas  (lieut.gov.i n:iS 

Council  (.\.  Palmer,  jires.t...  1747 
Jas.  Hamilloii  ilieut.  gov.l. . .  1748 
Robt.  Hunter  Morrisilt-gov.)  17.54 
William  Ivnny  (lleut.-gov.)..  1756 
Jas.  Hamilton  (lieut.-gov.)...  1759 

John  Penn  (gov.) ]763 

Council  (J.  Hamilton,  pres.).  1771 

Richard  Penn  (gov.) 1771 

John  Penn  (lieut.-gov.)  1776 

In  the  Revolution. 
Com.  of  Safety  (B.  Franklin, 
chairman).  Sept.,  1776-Mar.,  1777 

Pres.  of  Supreme  Ex.  Council. 

Thos.  Wharton,  Jr Mar.  5,  1777 

George    Bryan    (v. -p.),    act- 
ing    May  33,  1778 

Joseph  Reed Dec.  22,  I7T8 

William  Moore Nov.  15,  1781 

John  Dickinson Nov.  7,  1782 

Ben].  Franklin Oct.  18.  1785 

Thomas  MilHin Nov.  6,  1788 

STATE. 

Thomas  Mifflin 1790 

Thomas  JKKean 1799 

SimiMi  Snv.liT 1808 

W'illiani  Finiilay 1817 

Joseph  Heister 1820 

John  Andrew  Shulze 1823 

George  Wolf 1829 

Joseph  Ritner 1835 

David  R.  Porter 1.S39 

Francis  R.  Shunk 1845 

Wm.  F.  John.ston 1848 

William  Bigler 1852 

James  Pollock 1855 

William  F.  Packer 1858 

Andrew  6.  Curtin 1861 

John  W.  Geary 1867 

John  F.  Hartranft 1873 

John  F.  Hartranft 1876 

Henrv  M.  Hovt, 1879 

Robert  E.  Pattison 1883-87 

James  .\.  Beaver 1887-91 

Robert  E.  Pattison 1891-95 

Daniel  H.  Hastings, 1895- 


Anthony  Colve  (gov.) 1673 

Peter  Alricks  (deputy  gov.)..  1673 

Under  the  English. 
Sir  Edmund  Andros 1674 

The  Proprietary  Govemtnent. 

Wm.  Markham  (dep.  gov.) . .   1681 

Wm.  Penn  (proprietary ) 1682 

The  Council  (Thos.  Lloyd, 
president) 1684 

Commissioners  appointed  by 
Penn 1688 

John  Blackwell  (dep.  gov. )..  1688 

The  Council  (Thos.  Lloyd, 
president) 1690 

Thos.  Lloyd  Id.  g,  of  prov.)..  1691 

Wm.  Markliam  uleputy  gov- 
ernor lower  counties) 1691 

U7ider  the  Crown. 
Benj.  Fletcher.  Governor  of 

New  York  (governor) 1693 

Wm.  Markham  (lieut.-gov.).  1093 

Proprietary  Government. 

Wm.  Markham  (gov.) 1695 

Wm.  Penn  (proprietary) 1699 

Andrew  Haioilttin  igov.)....  1701 
Council  (K.  Sliippen,  pres.)..  1703 

Aithorities. — Carpenter.  T/of/ori/  of  rennsylvania  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1869);  '^i\\'^m\.  Annals  iif  Philadelphia  and  Penn- 
sylvania (}i  voXa..  Philadelphia,  1876) ;  Stoughton,  William 
t'enn  (London,  1882):  Egle,  Ilixlnnj  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Pemi.ijilvania  (Pbila..  1883);  Chapman.  ITistiiry  of  H'l/o- 
m!"«_9(Wilkesbarre.  1830):  Stone,  I'mtniand  Hislori/ of  Wi/o- 
ming  (Albany,  1864) ;  Brackenridge,  Ili-ttory  of  the  West- 
ern Jnmtrreciion  (Pittsburg,  1859);  Day.  /{I'.ttorical  Cnllec- 
tions  of  Pemuylvania  (V\n\m\c\\^\\m,  1843);  Gordon,  J/i.stori/ 
of  Pinnsi/lrania  (Philadelphia,  1829);  Graydon,  Memoirs 
(illarrisl)nrg,  1811);  Jones,  Ilislor;/  of  the  Juniata  Valley 
(Philadelphia.  1856) ;  Mombcrt,  IHstory  of  Lancaster  County 
(Lancaster,  1869);  Allinson  and  Penrose,  Philadelphia ; 
Pennsylvania  Archives  and  Colonial  Pecords  and  Pennsyl- 
I'ania  at  (iettyshiiry,  published  by  the  State  ;  McMasterand 
Stone,   Pennsylvania  and  the  Federal  Constitution  (His- 


518 


PENNSYLVANIA  COLLEGE 


PENRITH 


torical  Society,  1888) ;  The  Prnnsi/lvania  Magazine  of  His- 
tory and  Biography,  18  vols. ;  and  numerous  county  and 
local  histories.  George  W.  Atherton. 

Peiiiisylvaiiia  Collegre :  an  institution  at  Gettysburg, 
Pa. ;  founded  in  lSo:i,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Lutheran 
Church.  In  1834  tlie  State  of  Pennsylvania  appropriated 
$18,000  to  the  institution,  and.  for  a  number  of  years,  an- 
nually $1,000.  By  an  act  of  the  Legislature  in  18.50  one- 
third  of  the  value  of  the  funds  of  Franklin  College  of  Lanc- 
aster, Pa.,  was  transferred  to  Pennsylvania  College,  to 
establish  in  it  a  professorship  known  as  the  ■'  Franklin  pro- 
fessorship." A  preparatory  department  lias  been  from  the 
first  connected  with  the  institution.  The  control  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  board  of  thirty-six  trustees,  six  of  whom  are 
nominated  by  the  alumni  association,  but  all  of  whom  are 
elected  bv  the  boarii  itself  as  vacancies  occur.  The  presi- 
dent (1894)  is  Rev.  Harvey  W.  JIcKnight,  elected  in  1884. 
There  are  professorships  of  the  German  langu.age  and  lit- 
erature, of  the  English  language  and  literature,  of  the 
natural  sciences,  of  hygiene  and  physical  culture,  and  of 
the  English  Bible.  The  institution  possesses  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus,  a  laboratory  for  practical 
chemistry,  a  cabinet  of  mineralogy,  and  an  astronomical 
observatory.  Its  libraries  and  those  of  its  literary  societies 
contain  over  21,000  volumes.  Since  1888  a  large  recitation 
and  library  hall  has  been  erected  at  a  cost  of  §91,000,  also 
Bena  Chapel,  and  Pennsylvania  and  Linnjean  halls  and  the 
chemical  laboratory  have  been  remodeled  and  improved  at 
a  cost  of  about  $40,000.  The  number  of  students  was  240  in 
1893-94.  H.  W.  JIcKnight. 

Pennsylvania  Dutch  (more  correctly  Pennsylmnia  Ger- 
man): a  South-German  dialect,  due  to  the  fusion  of  forms 
existing  on  the  upjier  Rhine  in  Rhenish  Bavaria,  Baden, 
Darmstadt,  Wiirtemberg,  German  Switzerland,  and  Alsace, 
and  taking  up  in  the  U.  S,  (chiefly  in  Pennsylvania)  an  Eng- 
lish element,  as  English  itself  took  up  native  words  like 
hickory,  or  French  forms  like  prairie,  bayou,  and  ville.  The 
characteristics  of  the  dialect  may  be  learned  from  the  ex- 
cellent poems  in  it  by  the  late  H.  Harbaugh,  D.  D.  (18T0), 
and  in  Haldeman's  Pi-nnmjlvania  Dutch  (1872).  It  is  a  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  it  is  a  corrupt  dialect  of  German,  or  in 
any  way  akin  to  such  broken  English  as  Leland  in  his  Hans 
Breitmann's  Ballads attriljutes  to  European  German.  Care- 
less speakers  of  English  unconsciously  corrupt  their  language 
with  (jermanic  idioms,  as  in  the  use  of  "  dumb  "  for  dull  or 
stupid,  and  "red  beet"  for  beet,  translating  die  rothe  RUhe, 
because  in  German  a  "  white  "  beet  (weisse  Riibe)  is  a  turnip. 

Pennsylvania,  University  of:  an  institution  which 
originated  as  a  charity  school  in  1740;  was  founded  as  an 
academy  in  1749  ;  incorporated  as  a  college  in  175.5  ;  erected 
into  a  university,  the  first  in  the  U.  S..  in  1779.  The  medical 
department,  the  oldest  in  America,  was  foinided  in  1765, 
and  the  law  department  in  1789.  In  1872  the  institution 
was  removed  to  its  present  site  in  West  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
where  it  has  above  52  acres.  The  twelve  departments  of 
the  university  occupy  twenty-three  buildings.  The  college 
embraces  the  courses  in  arts  and  science  ;  the  Towne  Scien- 
tific School,  including  the  courses  in  civil,  mechanical,  and 
electrical  engineering,  chemistry,  etc.  ;  the  School  of  Archi- 
tecture; the  School  of  Biology;  the  School  of  American 
History :  and  the  Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Econo- 
my. These  are  all  four-year  courses,  with  the  exception  of 
the  two-year  courses  in  history.  In  the  science  courses  the 
degree  of  B.  S.  is  given  after  four  years,  and  the  teelniical 
degree  after  prescribed  post-graduate  work.  The  college 
offers  altogether  450  courses.  The  department  of  medicine 
had  a  three  years'  course  up  to  the  fall  of  1893,  after  v.'hich 
it  is  four  years.  Closely  connected  with  it  are  the  Univer- 
sity Hospital,  with  accommodations  for  over  200  patients; 
the  auxiliary  department  of  medicine,  which  makes  pro- 
vision for  advanced  study  in  medical  science;  and  the  re- 
cently endowed  Wistar  Institute  of  Anatomy  and  Biology, 
The  Dental  School  lia.s  a  three  years"  course,  and  is  thor- 
oughly equipped,  the  students  using,  with  the  medical  stu- 
dents, the  largest  chemical  Instruction  laboratory  building 
in  the  world.  The  veterinary  department  occuiiies  four 
buildings  erected  for  its  use,  two  of  these  being  devoted 
to  the  Veterinary  Hospital.  The  course  of  instruction  lasts 
three  years.  The  department  of  law  has  a  course  of  three 
years,  with  additional  post-graduate  instruction  where  de- 
sired. The  method  of  instruction  Is  jiarfly  by  lectures  and 
partly  by  moot -courts.  The  department  of  hygiene,  opened 
in  1892,  is  situated  in  a  large  buikling,  with  ami)le  facilities 


for  the  study  of  practical  hygiene  and  bacteriology,  and  for 
special  research.  The  university's  courses  leading  to  the 
post-graduate  degrees  of  iM.  A.,  M.  S.,  and  Ph.  I),  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  department  of  philosophy.  Allied 
with  this  is  the  graduate  department  for  women,  which 
makes  free  provision  for  a  certain  number  of  advanced  stu- 
dents. The  university  museums  are  very  large,  and  the  uni- 
versity libraries  number  together  over  120.000  bound  vol- 
umes, and  more  than  that  number  of  unbound  volumes  and 
pamphlets.  In  1894  there  were  87  j^rofessors,  179  other 
teachers,  and  2.180  students.  William  Pepper. 

Penny  [M.  Y.ns:.  peni  <  O.'Eng.  penig.  pening.  periding. 
For  ending,  cf.  sh  illing  and  farth  ing.  Etymology  obscure]  : 
an  English  coin,  first  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  King  of 
Wessex,  about  695  a.  d.  It  was  at  first  of  silver,  and  at  one 
time  weighed  22J  grains  troy,  but  its  value  and  weight  slow- 
ly declined.  The  first  copper  pence  were  introduced  in 
1797.  At  present  the  British  penny  is  of  bronze.  It  is  the 
twelfth  part  of  a  shilling,  and  is  designated  by  the  letter  d, 
the  initial  of  the  Lat.  denarius.  The  name  is  sometimes 
also  applied  to  the  L',  S.  cent. 

Penn  Tan  :  village  :  capitsil  of  Yates  co.,  N.  Y.  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  5-E) ;  at  the  foot  of  Keuka 
Lake  ;  on  the  Fall  Brook  and  the  North.  Cent,  railways ;  43 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Elmira,  53  miles  S.  E.  of  Rochester.  It 
is  the  distributing  center  of  the  largest  grape-growing  re- 
gion E.  of  California,  being  surrounded  by  16,000  acres  of 
vineyard.  It  has  dally  steamboat  connection  with  Ham- 
mondsport,  at  the  head  of  the  lake,  and  derives  good  power 
for  manufacturing  from  the  lake.  There  are  2  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  $100,000,  a  State  bank  with 
capital  of  $50,000,  an  acadeniv.  and  a  nionthlv  and  3  weekly 
newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  3,47o;  (1890)  4,254." 

Editor  of  "  Chronicle." 

Pennyroyal  [(l.iy  attraction  to  penny)  <  0.  'Eng:.  puliall 
royal,  transl.  of  hat.  pulfgiiim  regium  ;  /jw.'f '(//«»;,  fleabaiie, 
pennyroyal  (deriv.  of  pulex.  flea),  whence  Eng.  puliall  + 
regium.  royal] :  a  fragrant  labiate  herb  of  the  Old  World 
(Mentha pulegium)  growing  wild  or  cultivated  in  gardens, 
and  used  in  Europe  in  domestic  medicine  as  a  stimulant 
and  carminative.  It  is  a  perennial  herb,  very  common  in 
Southern  Europe,  and  still  hardy  in  the  northern  part  of 
Germany.  Its  odor  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of  other 
mints,  having  in  its  sweetness  something  sour  which  at  first 
is  found  very  refreshing,  but  soon  becomes  nauseous.  In 
the  U.  S.  the  name  is  given  to  Eedeoma  pulegioides  (low 
pennyroyal)  and  Mentha  canade.7i.^is  (high  pennyroyal),  both 
having  very  nearly  the  odor  of  the  English  pennyroyal. 
They  are  found  all  over  the  V.  S.,  from  Mexico  to  Canada, 
mostly  in  barren  and  arid  places.  They  are  valuable  as 
deobstruents,  carminatives,  and  diaphoretics. 

Pennyweight :  See  Weights  and  JIeasures. 

Penobscot  Bay  :  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  penetrat- 
ing the  coast  of  ]Maine  for  30  miles,  having  Waldo  and 
Knox  Counties  on  the  W.  and  Hancock  County  on  the  E. 
Its  deep  waters  abound  in  islands  and  good  harbors  ;  prin- 
cipal tributary,  Penobscot  river. 

Penobscot  Indians  :  See  Algonquian  Indians. 

Penobscot  River:  the  longest  and  largest  river  of 
^Slaine,  and  the  most  Important  navigable  stream  In  the 
New  England  States,  It  rises  in  Somerset  County,  near  the 
Canada  line,  flows  E.  into  Chesuncook  Lake,  thence  S.  E.  to 
its  union  with  the  Mattawamkeag,  having  12  miles  above 
united  in  the  town  of  Jledway  with  the  Schools  or  east 
branch  of  the  Penobscot.  Afterward  Its  course  is  S.  by  W. 
to  Penobscot  Bay;  its  total  length  is  300  miles.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  large  ships  to  Bangor,  60  miles,  where  the  tide  rises 

17  feet.  Above  this  point  small  steamers  run  for  many 
miles.  Its  upper  waters  afford  valuable  motive-power,  and 
great  numbers  of  logs  are  floated  from  the  forests  of  North- 
ern Elaine  to  Bangor,  and  then  sawed  for  lumber.  The 
valley  of  the  Penobscot  has  an  area  of  8.200  sq.  miles.  The 
mean  outflow  of  water  is  given  as  146.2.50  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  but  this  enormous  motive-jwwer  is  only  in  small 
part  utilized. 

Penoloery  :  See  Prison  Discipline. 

Penritll  :  town  ;  In  the  county  of  Cumberland.  England  ; 

18  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Carlisle  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  4-F). 
It  Is  well  built,  anil  has  a  ruined  castle  in  which  Richard  III. 
is  said  to  have  lived  before  he  came  to  the  throne.  There 
are  tanneries,  breweries,  and  sawmills.     Pop.  (1891)  8,981. 


PENSACOLA 


PENZANCE 


519 


Pensacola  :  city,  port  of  entry,  ami  capital  of  Escam- 
bia CO.,  Flu.  ([or  location,  see  map  of  Kl()i'i<la,  rof.  2-H);  on 
I'ciisacola  Bay,  and  tlie  Louisv.  and  Nu.sliv.  ami  the  Pensa- 
cola and  IVrdido  railways;  6  miles  N.  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexi- 
co, 48  miles  E.  of  iMoliile.  It  has  an  excellent  landlocked 
liarbor  with  from  2:3  to  20  feet  of  water  on  the  bar:  was  a 
jilace  of  nnicli  importance  diirinfi  the  S|)anish  ami  Knjjlish 
government  of  Florida :  and  is  the  site  of  a  L'.  S.  navy-yard, 
of  Forts  .M(d{ae  and  Pickens,  and  of  the  ruins  of  the  old 
Spanish  fortresses  of  Sail  Miguel  and  San  IJernardo.  1'he 
city  has  gas,  electriolight,  water  and  street-railway  plants, 
and  contains  11  public-school  buildings,  pul>lic-scliool  prop- 
erty valued  at  over  $;}6,T00,  U.  S.  Government  Ijuilding 
(cost  |2.J0,00U),  opera-house  (cost  .tTo.OOtt),  c-ourt-house  (cost 
$4.").000),  Stale  armory,  several  public  jiark.s,  2  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  .n;200,00(),  and  a  daily  and  a 
weekly  newspaper.  It  has  a  large  foreign  and  domestic 
trade  in  lumlier,  timber,  shingles,  fresh  fish,  and  coal.  The 
climate  is  generally  healthful,  the  sanitary  and  quarantme 
regulations  of  the  port  being  of  a  character  to  preclude  the 
po.ssibility  of  further  introductions  of  yellow  fever,  which  in 
nearly  every  inslanec  was  brought  by  vessels  from  infected 
ports!  In  is'.):i  the  city  hail  an  assessed  valuation  of  §2.- 
3l):!,-t00,  and  a  net  ilebt  of  ^2:!),754.  Pop.  (ISMD)  (),84o  ; 
(181)0)  11,700;  (ISlto)  14,084.  Euiroii  of  "  News." 

Pensacola  Bay:  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  Jlesico:  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Florida,  extending  inland  N.  E.  about 
ii!)  miles,  alfordiug  a  deep,  capacious,  anil  commoilious  har- 
bor. It  is  divided  into  Escambia  liay  on  the  W.  and  the 
Bay  of  Santa  JIaria  de  Galvez  on  the  E.,  and  receive*  Es- 
cambia, Black  Water,  and  Yellow  Water  rivers.  The  en- 
trance is  a  mile  wide  between  Santa  Kosa  island,  on  the  E. 
ilefended  by  Fort  Pickens,  and  the  entrance  point  of  tlie 
mainland  on  the  W.,  on  which  stands  Fort  JfcKae.  Less 
than  2  miles  N.  of  the  latter  stands  the  olil  Spanisli  fort  of 
San  Carlos  de  Barrancas,  and  in  its  immediate  vicinity  a 
naval  hospital,  extensive  barracks,  an<l  a  lighthmisc,  while  a 
short  distance  N.  E.  is  the  navy-yard,  which  was  surren- 
dered to  the  Florida  militia  Jan.  12,  1861,  not  long  before 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war,  but  recovered  by  the  Federal 
forces,  after  sharp  engagements,  early  in  18G2. 

Pensions  [from  Lat.  pen' sin,  payment,  deriv.  of  pen  dere, 
pen-vim,  weigh,  weigh  out,  pay]  :  allowances  of  money,  gen- 
erally in  fixed  amounts  and  annual  payments,  made  by  the 
government  to  certain  individuals  or  to  their  families  and 
representatives,  in  consideration  of  some  public  services 
performed  or  supposed  to  have  been  performed  by  them. 
In  Great  Britain,  besides  large  sums  devoted  to  pensioning 
army  and  navy  men,  pensions  are  conferred  upon  the  judges 
of  the  higher  courts  and  upon  many  other  civil  officers  who 
have  performed  their  duties  for  a  specified  number  of  years 
and  then  resigned  their  active  functions.  They  arc  also 
frefpiently  granted  to  distinguished  and  meritorious  authors, 
artists,  scientific  men,  inventors,  and  the  like,  or  to  their 
widows  or  families,  for  the  purpose  of  rewarding  personal 
merit  and  of  encouraging  literature,  art.  and  science.  The 
policy  of  the  U.  S.  Government  has  confined  the  bestowment 
of  pensions  to  the  officers  and  privates  who  have  served  in 
the  army  or  navy  during  the  wars  in  which  the  republic  has 
been  engaginl,  or  who  have  been  wounded  or  otherwise  dis- 
abled while  in  active  service,  and  to  their  widows,  children, 
and  other  dependent  relatives.  The  provisions  of  the  exist- 
ing laws  relating  to  pensions  in  the  I'.  S.  are  contained  in 
the  lieviscd  Statutes  of  the  U.  S.  (g§  4(502-^1791.  and  later). 

Pentaeriuns  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  irtW*,  five  +  xpimv, 
lily]:  a  genus  of  Crinoids  (.see  CitiNoiuKA)  containing  nine 
living  and  many  fossil  species,  most  abundant  in  the  .Jurassic. 
The  living  species  are  irdiabitants  of  the  deeper  portions  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans. 

Penlam'eter  [from  Gr.  irevrtCjufTpos,  of  five  measures; 
vftn-f,  live  -I-  ^LfTpou,  measure] :  properly,  a  verse  of  five  feet, 
but  the  mime  is  usually  given  to  the  syncopated  dactylic 
hexameter  of  Greek  and  I^atin  elegiac  poetry.  (See  Elegiac 
Distich.)  It  consists  of  two  cola  (like  the  masculine  first 
colon  of  a  hexameter)  with  invariable  ca'sura  between,  the 
entire  feet  of  the  second  colon  always  being  pure  ilactyls : 

^,oo  I  ^.^  I  >-- II  ^  -  -  I -^ -"-J  ^  X 
aura;        atfatSeirj      yauav        4iTiffrp4ip€Tai. 
Panditur  ad  nullns  ianua  nigra  preces. 
Never  is  death's  dark  door  oijcned  at  humtin  appeal. 
The  third  foot  is  oft(!n  to  be  read  with  a  pause  instead 
of  prolongation  of  the  syllable. 


The  name  originated  from  the  absurd  assumption  that 

the  verse  was  —  cs3  I  ~xO  I l^w— |^v_^— ,  though  the 

correct  reading  is  explicitly  tauglit  by  ancient  authors. 

Milton  W.  IU.mpiireys. 

Pentatciieh  [from  Lat.  pentateucliux  =  Gr.  Tren-iTfuxos ; 
viim,  live  +  TeCxos,  implement,  book,  deriv.  of  Ttvxttv,  pre- 
iiare]:  the  collective  name  of  the  first  five  bonks  of  the  Old 
Testament — (ienesis.  Exodus,  Leviticus.  Numbers,  and  Deu- 
teroncmiy.  It  originated  from  the  Greek  translators  and 
Fathers;  trie  .lews  themselves  called  this  division  of  their 
sacred  book  Torali,  the  Law.  These  and  the  book  of  .Joshua 
form  the  Hexateuch  (q.  v.  for  authenticity,  etc.).  See  also 
the  artiide  Bihle. 

Pentathion'ie  .\citl :  an  acid  of  the  composition  IljSsOe, 
prepared  liy  the  action  of  hydrogen  sulphide.  IIjS.  on  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphur  dioxide,  SOj,  in  water.  It  is  unstable,  and 
very  little  is  known  about  it. 

Penteeost  [from  Lat.  pentem.i  le  ■=  (\r.  irevTriKorrTii.  the 
fiftieth  (sc.  viifpa,  day),  deriv.  of  irecTijKoz'To.  fifty] :  one  of  the 
three  principal  festivals  of  the  .lews,  celebrated  on  the  fif- 
tieth (hiy  after  the  Kith  Nisan.  the  second  day  of  the  Pass- 
over (Lev.  xxiii.  lo,  Ki),  whence  the  name.  It  was  origi- 
nally called  the  "  Feast  of  Weeks"  (took  place  at  the  begin- 
ning of  hardest-time,  hence  also  its  other  name,  "  Feast  of 
Harvest  "),  was  characterized  by  t  he  offering,  as  "  first  fruits," 
of  two  loaves  of  leavciK'd  bread  made  from  new  grain,  and 
•wa-s  a  period  of  liberality  to  the  poor.  In  modern  times  the 
Jewish  festival  of  tlie  Pentecost  lasts  two  days,  and  the  an- 
niversary of  the  giving  of  the  Law  on  Sinai  has  been  com- 
bined with  the  earlier  festival.  In  the  Christian  churches 
the  word  Pentecost  has  a  different  meaning,  derived  from 
the  occurrences  related  in  Acts  ii. — viz.,  the  descent  of  the 
Holy  S|)irit  ujion  the  infant  Church  ten  days  after  the  As- 
eens"ion,  the  gift  of  tongues,  and  the  conversion  of  3.000  jier- 
sons.  In  the  English  Church.  Pentecost  is  known  as  W  hit- 
snnday  or  Whitsuntide,  from  the  white  garments  formerly 
worn  by  candidates  for  baptism. 

Revised  liy  S.  IM.  Jackson. 

Pentecost,  George  Frederick,  D.  I). :  clergyman  and 
author;  b.  at  Albion,  111.,  Sept.  23,  1843;  learned  the  trade 
of  a  printer,  then  studied  law.  He  became  a  member  of 
Georgetown  College.  Kentucky,  which  he  left  in  1862  to 
serve  in  the  Union  army.  He  was  the  pastor  successively  of 
five  Baptist  churches,  but  from  1881  to  1890  he  was  pastor 
of  a  Congregational  church  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  For  many 
years  he  has  been  engaged  in  evangelistic  work  in  the  I'.  S., 
in  India,  ami  in  Great  Britain.  He  has  written  Bible 
Sfiiiliea  for  ISSO  (1888):  T/ie  Gospel  of  Luke  (1889):  and 
several  religious  books,  besides  tracts.  In  1885  he  became 
the  editor  of  Words  and  Weapons  for  Christian  Workers. 

G.  P.  Fisher. 

Penlland  Firth  :  a  channel  connecting  the  Atlantic  with 
the  tierman  Oi'can.  and  separating  the  Orkney  islands  from 
Scotland ;  is  17  miles  long,  from  6  to  8  miles  broad,  and  an- 
nually passed  through  by  about  4,000  vessels,  though  it  is 
very  difficult  to  navigate. 

Pennni'bra :  See  Eclipse. 

Pen'za:  government  of  European  Russia;  lying  .around 
the  rivers  Moksha  and  Soora  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  8-F). 
Area,  14.997  sq.  miles.  The  ground  is  mostly  level  and  some- 
what elevated,  and  the  soil  fertile.  Wheat,  flax,  hemp,  to- 
bacco, hops,  and  beetroots  are  raised;  forests  of  oak-trees 
cover  nearly  one-third  of  the  country.  Besides  agriculture, 
the  principal  branch  of  industry,  manufactures  of  linen 
stuffs,  spirits,  glass,  and  beet  root-sugar  are  carried  on.  Pop. 
(18!K))  1..")96,.500.  The  capital,  Penza,  on  the  Soora.  has  a 
cathedral,  a  large  park,  and  manufactures  of  paper,  soap, 
spirits,  beetroot-sugar,  etc.     Pop.  (1890)  47,701. 

Penzance':  town:  in  the  ccninty  of  Cornwall,  England  ; 
at  the  head  of  Mount's  I?ay ;  80  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Plymouth 
and  the  terminus  of  the  (jreat  Western  Railway  (sec  map  of 
England,  ref.  15-B).  It  has  an  esplanatle  cimimanding  pic- 
turesque land  and  sea  views,  a  harbor,  foi'ming  a  tidal  liasin 
of  21  acres,  with  docks  and  two  piers.  The  chief  buildings, 
principally  constructed  of  granite,  include  the  puldic  rooms 
in  the  Italian  Renaissance  stvle  and  the  markel-house  in 
the  Grecian  style.  'I'he  churches  of  St.  M;iry  and  Si.  Paul 
are  built  of  cut  granite  in  the  I'crpendicular  and  thirteenth 
century  styles,  respectively.  The  most  important  industries 
are  the  mackerel  and  pilchard  fisheries  and  market  garden- 
ing. The  mild  climate  and  the  beauty  of  the  surronndings 
attract  a  great  number  of  visitoi-s.     Pop.  (1891)  12,448. 


520 


fEONY 


PEOPLE'S  PARTY 


Pe'ony  [from  0.  Fr.  pione  >  Pr.  pivoine  <  \js.t.  pmo'nia 
=  Gr.  trauDvia,  deriv.  of  Tlaiav.  Umiv.  the  god  of  healing.  See 
Pjean]  :  any  herb  or  shrub  of  the  genus  Pteonia,  family 
Banunculctcem.  The  U.  S.  has  but  one  native  species,  P. 
brownii,  of  the  Paeifie  States  and  British  America.  It  has 
small  purple  flowers.  The  various  Old  World  species  are 
cultivated  as  ornamental  plants.  The  flowers  are  generally 
shovey.  Of  the  many  artificial  varieties  some  are  fragrant. 
All  have  a  poisonous  principle,  and  some  species  were  once 
employed  in  medicine,  but  none  are  much  used  at  present. 
The  seeds  and  roots  of  some  species  are  used  as  food  by  wild 
tribes  in  Asia  and  America.  The  finest  varieties  in  garden- 
culture  belong  to  P.  officinalis,  albi folia,  teiLuiffora,  para- 
doxa,  etc.  The  tree-peony  of  Japan  (P.  muuian)  affords 
some  very  fine  varieties.  Revised  by  L.  II.  Bajley. 

People's  Party :  a  political  party  in  the  U.  S.  whose 
leading  principle  is  opposition  to  the  control  exerted  by 
wealth.  Tlie  idea  prevails,  especially  in  the  West  and 
South,  that  the  laws  are  largely  framed  and  executed  in  a 
manner  to  give  undue  advantage  to  those  who  are  unscru- 
pulous in  the  use  of  money,  and  that  this  is  the  prime  rea- 
son for  the  great  inequality  in  the  distribution  of  property. 
According  to  the  estimate  of  special  census  agent  0.  K. 
Holmes,  9  per  cent,  of  the  people  own  71  per  cent,  of  the 
national  wealth,  while  Thomas  G.  Shearman  has  estimated 
that  less  than  50,000  peo[)le  own  half. 

Principles  and  Arguments. — The  great  increase  in  the  pro- 
portion of  business  done  by  corporations,  with  the  resulting 
concentration  of  cajjital  into  the  hands  of  a  few  managers  anil 
the  temptation  to  use  it  to  protect  or  procure  valuable  fran- 
chises or  trade  ailvantages,  together  with  the  preservation  of 
monopolies  and  the  expense  of  securing  elections  (which  ap- 
pears to  be  from  17,000  to  f  13,000  for  a  Congressman,  the  sal- 
ary of  whose  term  is  only  .f  10,000),  have  introduced  an  era  of 
official  venality  unparalleled  since  the  days  of  Walpole.  To 
such  an  extent  do  rich  men  find  their  way  into  the  Senate 
that  the  average  income  of  a  Senator  is  estimated  to  be  above 
that  of  a  British  peer,  stated  by  London  Truth  at  $135,000  per 
annum.  This  condition  excites  attention  in  Europe  and 
leads  to  comments  like  that  of  Leroy  Beanlicn,  that  money 
seems  to  be  the  legitimate  sovereign  of  democracies. 

Of  the  laws  and  lack  of  laws  through  whicli  the  rich  are 
aggrandized,  the  chief  attention  of  the  Populists  has  been 
given  to  those  creating  or  permitting  (1)  unequal  taxation  ; 
(2)  trusts  and  monopolies ;  (3)  the  single  gold  standard,  ex- 
cluding silver. 

The  burden  of  local  taxation  caused  by  the  escape  or  un- 
just exemption  of  notes,  stocks,  and  bonds — the  peculiar 
property  of  the  wealthy — is  rapidly  increasing.  Though 
personal  jiroperty  increases  much  faster  than  real,  its  assess- 
ment relatively  declines.  This  is  roughly  seen  in  the  cen- 
sus data,  which  show  an  increase  from  1870  to  1890  in  the 
real  estate  taxed  from  9,914  millions  of  dollars  to  18.933, 
while  the  increase  for  the  same  time  in  personalty  was  from 
4,264  millions  to  5.718.  The  comptroller  of  the  State  of 
Nevv  York,  in  his  report  for  1890,  gave  his  official  opinion 
that  in  that  State  more  than  2,500  millions  of  personal  prop- 
erty unjustly  escaped  taxation.  In  JIassaehusetts  it  is  the 
opinion  of  men  versed  in  the  subject  that  the  people  are  de- 
frauded of  more  than  $15,000,000  a  year  in  taxes,  a  sum 
which  at  legal  interest  compounded  for  a  generation  would 
equal  the  whole  valuation  by  the  assessors.  The  taxes  shirked 
by  the  wealthy  fall  over  largely  on  the  farmers,  whose  prop- 
erty is  visible  and  can  not  escape,  and,  through  rents,  on  to 
the  working  classes.  The  Populist  calls  for  equal  taxation 
of  property,  sometimes  for  doomage  laws,  and  always  for  an 
income-tax. 

As  to  monopolies,  the  substance  of  the  Populist  doctrine 
is  that  as  the  Government  recognizes  its  duty  to  i)rotect  the 
citizen  against  the  man  who  by  superior  jihysical  strength 
wrongjfully  seizes  his  pocketboo'k,  it  is  equally  bound  to  pro- 
tect him  against  the  man  who  bv  superior  financial  strength 
or  s[)ecial  jirivilege  does  the  saine.  Therefore  it  calls  for 
adequate  control  of  s\ich,  and,  where  necessary  for  this 
purpose,  for  Government  ownership  and  operation  of  monop- 
olistic i)roperties.  As  this  is  the  first  step  in  the  plan  of 
Edward  Bellamy,  the  Nationalists  are  generally  Populists. 

The  leading  question,  however,  has  been  that  of  honest 
money,  whose  proper  function  is  to  buy  alwavs  the  same 
average  amount  of  comuiddilies.  When  A  buvs  of  B  1,000 
bush,  of  wheat  for  iJl.OOO,  payable  in  five  years  with  in- 
terest, the  money  should  give  ($,  when  the  debt  is  paid,  not 
the  same  amount  of  wheat,  for  that  may  have  fallen  or 


risen,  but  the  same  average  amount  of  all  exchangeable 
commodities  which  it  would  buy  when  the  debt  was  made. 
It  need  not  give  the  same  amount  of  labor,  for  that  may 
have  risen  or  fallen,  and  B  has  no  more  right  to  claim  that 
than  he  has  to  claim  the  same  wheat,  though  given  by  him 
in  time  of  jilenty  and  paid  in  time  of  famine.  Neither  can 
he  justly  claim  more  commodities  if  improved  modes  of 
production  nuiy  have  cheapened  them.  He  gave  to  A  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  commodities  or  capital  for  a  rent  called  in- 
terest, and  he  has  no  better  claim  to  be  made  whole  for 
such  a  depreciation  than  he  would  have  had  he  rented  a 
house,  to  be  made  whole  for  a  reduction  in  its  value  caused 
by  the  introduction  during  the  tenancy  of  some  improved 
mode  of  building.  He  would  have  suffered  that  loss  had  he 
kept  his  house  or  capital  himself.  All  economists  agree 
that  there  has  been  since  1873  a  great  increase  in  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  gold.  If  the  foregoing  reasoning  is  cor- 
rect, debtors  have  thereby  been  defrauded.  Most  economists 
agree  that  this  is  due  to  the  demonetization  of  silver  in  1873, 
and  the  smallness  of  the  annual  increment  of  gold  since 
going  into  the  money  volume  compared  with  the  increase  of 
demand ;  but  the  cause  is  immaterial.  The  extent  of  this 
appreciation  of  gold  since  1873  is  shown  by  various  price- 
tables  which  substantially  agree.  Those  of  Augustus  Sauer- 
beck show  a  decline  in  prices  of  38"3  per  cent,  up  to  Nov.  1, 
1892,  and  the  financial  depression  of  1893  probably  increased 
this  to  44  or  45,  which  represents  an  increase  in  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  money  of  about  80  per  cent. 

A  conception  of  the  hardship  to  debtors  may  be  had  by  a 
rough  estimate.  The  debts  of  the  world  are  supposed  to 
reach  150  billions  of  dollars.  Suppose  the  volume  since 
1873  to  have  been  100  billions,  and  the  average  increase  in 
the  purchasing  power  of  money  has  been  30  per  cent.,  the 
unjust  exaction  from  delitors  will  reach  30  billions  in  com- 
modities, while  the  whole  assessed  value  of  the  prcjperty,  real 
and  personal,  of  the  U.  S.  in  1890  was  only  24  billions."  De- 
clining prices  also  involve  business  stagnation.  The  Popu- 
lists generally,  restless  at  the  great  increase  in  the  burden 
of  their  debts,  propose  fresh  issues  of  paper  and  the  free 
coinage  of  silver.  Those  in  Massachusetts  have  proposed 
multiple  standard  money,  involving  the  demonetization  of 
gold  and  silver,  and  the  substitution  of  a  volume  of  irredeem- 
able legal-tender  treasury  notes,  issued  only  by  the  Govern- 
ment, and  receivable  for  all  its  dtes,  the  volume  to  be  ex- 
panded or  contracted  according  as  it  shall  be  found  that  the 
dollar  will  buy  more  or  less  in  a  given  market  than  a  prede- 
termined average  amount  of  a  large  number  of  commodities 
(say  100)  selected  as  best  representing  all  commodities.  Tlie 
purchasing  power  of  the  dollar  would  thus  always  be  kept 
uniform. 

llie  Farmers'  Alliance. — The  farmers,  pinched  by  such 
conditions  as  rendered  it  very  hard  to  pay  their  debts,  bled 
by  railroads  and  middlemen  who  sold  them  goods  and  made 
advances  on  their  crops,  began  to  organize  societies  for  mu- 
tual advantage,  education,  and  defense.  The  chief  of  these 
has  been  the  Farmers'  Alliance.  Its  effective  beginning 
was  in  a  small  body  organized  at  Poolville,  Tex.,  July  28, 
1879.  The  order,  having  extended  into  a  few  counties, 
formed,  and  obtained  a  charter  for.  a  State  alliance  in 
Texas,  Oct.  6,  1880.  By  1882  120  sub-alliances  had  been 
organized.  This  order  was  consolidated  with  another  of 
like  purpose,  the  Farmers'  Union  of  Louisiana.  A  national 
organization,  the  National  Farmers'  Alliance  and  Co-oper- 
ative Union  of  America,  was  established  at  Waco,  Tex.,  in 
Jan.,  1887.  The  Agricultural  Wheel,  another  like  order,  was 
also  joined,  subject  to  ratification  of  the  subordinate  bodies, 
and  a  constitution  was  adopted  at  a  meeting  of  both  orders 
at  Meridian,  Miss.,  Dec.  5,  1888.  The  Agricultural  Wheel 
originated  Feb.  15,  1882,  at  a  meeting  held  in  a  log  cabin 
near  Des  Arc,  Ark.  It  was  chartered  in  Aug.,  1882,  organ- 
ized a  State  Wheel  Apr.  7,  1883,  and  a  National  Wheel  in 
1886.  In  1888  it  reached  1,947  subordinate  bodies,  and  had 
75.000  members  in  Arkansas  alone.  The  name  given  the 
consolidated  order  at  Meridian  was  The  Farmers'  and  La- 
borers" Union  of  America.  The  union  was  after  ratification 
proclaimed  as  of  Oct.  1,  1889.  The  order  contained  fully 
1,000.000  members,  and  extended  into  eighteen  States  and 
Territories.  The  next  national  meeting  was  held  at  St. 
Louis,  Dec.  3,  1889.  The  constitution  was  amended,  and  the 
name  National  Farmers'  Alliance  and  Industrial  Union 
ado|ited.  Those  orders  had  been  largely  educational  and 
social,  and  did  not  admit  colored  per.sons.  They  had  estab- 
lished co-operative  stores  and  united  in  various  ways  to  pro- 
mote agricultural  interests.   They  were  strictly  non-partisan, 


PEOPLE'S   PARTY 


PEPIN   LE   BREF 


521 


but  were  free  to  formulate  political  deinaiuls,  and  active 
within  the  old  party  organizations.  Great  interest  had  he- 
gun  to  be  felt  in  all  the  kindred  organizations  representing 
the  industrial  masses  to  agree  upon  common  political  princi- 
ples and  unite  to  secure  Just  legislation.  Accordingly,  llie 
National  Farmers'  Alliance  of  the  Northwest  and  the  Na- 
tional Colored  Farmers'  Alliance  met  also  at  St.  Louis  at 
the  same  time.  The  Knights  of  Laljor  sent  also  their  presi- 
dent, with  otlier  oHicers.  Demands  were  formulated  with 
the  express  coni'urrence  of  liie  latter,  which  were  a(U>pted, 
witli  those  of  later  conventions,  with  some  modifications  by 
the  People's  Party  in  their  national  cimvention  at  Omaha  in 
1892.  The  next  annual  meeting  of  the  National  Farmers' 
Alliance  and  Industrial  Union  was  held  at  Ocala,  Fla.,  Dec. 
2,  ISiJO.  Aildilional  demands  were  made,  and  it  was  voted 
"that  a  free  ballot  and  a  fair  count  will  be  insisted  upon 
and  had  for  colored  and  white  alike  by  every  true  Alliance 
man  in  America." 

The  Formatinn  of  the  Feo/i/e'x  I'drfy.—Bw  this  time,  fail- 
ure to  secure  favorable  results  through  the  old  i)artics  being 
apparent,  a  strong  pressure  existed  for  separate  political 
action.  The  Alliance  and  its  sympathizers  had  made  in 
18!)0  energetic  contests  in  many  sections  in  the  South,  mainly 
through  the  primaries,  but  ii'i  the  Northwest  at  the  polls. 
The  residts  were  greatest  in  (ieorgia  and  Kansas.  In  the 
latter  Stale  a  Ixepublican  plurality  of  80,000  was  cut  down 
to  8,000,  the  Legislature  was  carried  csecuring  a  U.  S. 
Senator),  and  five  Congressmen  out  of  seven  elected.  The 
chairuuui  of  the  executive  committee  at  Oeala,  stating  that 
a  third  party  was  opposed  in  the  South  but  favored  in 
the  West  and"  Northwest,  suggested  a  meeting  of  "  delegates 
from  all  the  organizations  of  producers"  to  decide  the  ques- 
tion. A  committee  was  chosen  to  carry  this  into  etiect,  and 
the  St.  Louis  conference  of  Feb.  22,  '1892,  was  the  result. 
Another  conference,  to  provide  for  a  national  ticket  in  1893, 
if  the  St.  Louis  conference  should  fail  to  do  so,  was  arranged 
for  bv  individual  delegates  at  Ocala,  and  held  at  Cincinnati 
on  May  19,  1891.  At  St.  Louis  the  third-party  men  gained 
control.  The  opponents  were  mainly  from  the  South,  and 
some  of  the  leaders  bolted  afterward.  A  vote  was  passed 
requesting  Alliance  Congressmen  to  stay  out  of  old-party 
caucuses.  An  address  was  adopted  denouncing  the  old 
parties  and  declaring  that  a  party  representing  the  prin- 
ciples then  agreed  was  necessary.  Action  which  might  be 
held  to  contravene  the  organic  law  of  the  order  was  taken 
by  the  ilelegatcs  as  individuals  remaining  in  their  seats 
after  adjournment. 

The  natioinil  convention  of  the  People's  Party  provided 
for  by  these  conferences  was  held  at  Omaha,  July  4,  1892, 
with  1,347  regularly  elected  delegates.  A  platform  was 
adopted,  of  which  the  demands  may  be  thus  epitomized  : 

A  national  legal-tender  currency,  safe,  sound,  and  flexible, 
issued  by  the  (iovernment  oidy  without  the  use  of  banks, 
direct  distribution  to  the  people  at  a  tax  not  to  exceed  2 
per  cent,  per  annum,  to  be  provided  as  set  forth  in  the  Al- 
liance sub-treasury  plan  or  a  better  system,  and  by  pay- 
ments in  discharge  of  obligations  for  public  improvements. 
Free  coinage  of  silver  and  gnld  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1.  In- 
crease of  the  circulating  uu'dium  to  f  .50  per  capita.  A  gradu- 
ated income-tax.  Limitation  of  State  and  national  revenues 
to  the  neces.sary  expenses  of  government  economically  and 
honestly  admiinstered.  Government  ownership  and  opera- 
tion of  railroails,  telegraphs,  ami  telephones.  That  land 
and  natural  sources  of  wealth  should  not  be  monopolized 
for  speculation,  and  alien  ownership  of  lanil  should  be  jiro- 
hibite<l.  That  lainl  owned  by  railroads  aiul  corporations  in 
excess  of  needs  and  laud  of  aliens  should  be  reclaimed  by 
the  (iovernment  and  held  for  settlers. 

Kesohitioiis  were  adopted  for  a  free  ballot  and  a  fair 
count,  to  be  secured  by  the  uiqierverted  Australian  secret- 
ballot  system.  For  the  application  of  th(^  revenue  of  the 
graduated  income  tax  to  relii've  the  taxes  on  domestic  indus- 
tries; for  fair  and  liberal  pensions;  for  further  ri'striction 
of  undesirable  immigralion;  for  enforcement  of  the  eight- 
hour  law  on  (ioverunuMit  work,  with  penalties;  against  the 
Pinkertons;  for  the  initiative  and  referendum;  for  linuting 
the  offices  of  President  and  Vice-President  to  one  term  ;  and 
against  subsidies  and  jirivate  corjiorations. 

On  this  platform  .lames  B.  Weaver,  of  Iowa,  was  nomi- 
nated fen-  President,  and  .lames  (t.  Field,  of  Virginia,  for 
Vice-President.  The  vote  fur  WiMver  reached  1.041.028. 
He  carried  the  States  of  Culorado,  Idaho,  Kansas,  Nevada, 
and  North  Dakota,  receiving  twenty-two  electoral  votes. 
Five  U.  S.  Senators  and  eleven  Representatives  were  elected. 


At  the  meeting  at  Mempliis,  Nov.  9,  1892,  a  new  subordi- 
nate organization  was  formed  in  aid  of  the  People's  Party. 
It  was  called  the  Industrial  Legion  and  was  indorsed  by  the 
national  executive  committee.  In  1894  1,000  subordinate 
legions  were  in  existence.  Hlnry  Winn. 

l'(M)ria:  city  (settled  in  1779);  capital  of  Peoria  eo.,  111. 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  4-D) ;  on  the  Illinois 
river,  and  eleven  main  lines  of  railway;  45  mill's  W.  N.  W. 
of  Bloomingtcm,  IfiO  miles  S.  W.  of  Chicago.  It  is  at  the 
foot  of  an  expansion  of  the  river  known  as  Peoria  Lake,  has 
a  water  frontage  of  about  4  miles,  and  covers  an  elevated 
plateau  extending  back  three-quarters  of  a  mile  to  a  bluff 
rising  120  feet  above  tide-water.  On  the  bluff  are  many  fine 
residences,  and  from  it  may  be  luid  many  attractive  views  of 
the  river  valley  and  the  adjacent  country.  An  elaborate 
system  of  parks  and  driveways  has  been  established.  There 
are  35  miles  of  paved  streets.  The  city  is  in  a  corn  and  coal 
region,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  spirits,  and  is  the 
eighth  grain-nuirket  in  the  C.  S.  It  has  an  extensive  com- 
merce by  rail  and  water  with  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  other 
large  centers.  There  are  1(5  public-school  buildings,  public- 
school  property  valued  at  over  $500,000,  court-house  (cost 
fSOCOOO),  U.  S.  Government  building  (cost  .f 250,000),  cathe- 
dral (cost  1235,000),  high-school  building  (cost  $75,000),  new 
system  of  water-works,  3  libraries  (High  School,  Law.  and 
Public)  containing  over  55,000  volumes,  6  natimuil  banks 
with  combined  capital  of  |1,250,000,  4  State  banks  with 
capital  of  .f  700.000,  5  savings-banks.  2  private  banks,  6 
electric  street-railways,  gas  and  electric  light  plants,  and  a 
monthly,  6  daily,  and  11  weekly  periodicals.  The  census 
returns  of  1890  showed  that  .554  manufacturing  establish- 
ments (representing  90  industries)  reported.  These  combined 
had  a  capital  of  $15,072,567,  employed  7.696  persons,  paid 
$4,327,637  for  wages  and  $9,979,907  for  materials,  and  had 
products  valued  at  $55,504,523.  The  princi]3al  industries 
reported  were,  in  the  order  of  capital  investment,  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements,  7  establishments  and 
$967,366  capital ;  malt  liquors,  4  establishments  and  $874,- 
496  capital ;  cooperage,  8  establishments  and  $388,200  capi- 
tal ;  fouialry  and  machine-shop  products,  14  establishments 
ami  $372,073  capital ;  printing  and  publishing,  19  estab- 
lishments and  $359,530  capital;  planing-mill  products,  5 
establishments  and  .$343,132  capital;  and  flour  and  grist 
mill  products,  8  establishments  and  $280,100  capital.  There 
are  14  distilleries,  5  grain  elevators  with  a  total  capacity  of 
2,400,000  bush.,  3  large  glucose-factories,  using  30.(100  bush, 
of  corn  per  day,  an  extensive  chemical  laboratory,  flour- 
mills,  straw-board  mill,  rolling  mill,  white  lead  works,  stock- 
yards, and  several  meat-packing  houses.  The  city  expendi- 
tures during  1893  were  $338,785 ;  bank  clearings,  $82,836,- 
982:  grain  receipts,  33,670,870  bush.:  and  internal  revenue 
collection,  $13,389,736.  In  1894  the  city  had  an  assessed 
valuation  of  $8,869,644,  and  a  net  debt  of  $614,500.  Pop. 
(1880)  29,259 ;  (1890)  41,024.  Editor  of  "Journal." 

P(>oria  Indians :  See  Algonquian  Indians. 

Pepe,  GuGLiELMO:  revolutionist;  b.  at  Squillace, Italy,  in 
1783 ;  served  in  the  army  of  the  Parthenopean  republic, 
fought  on  the  side  of  the  French  in  Spain,  and  afterward 
under  Murat.  By  the  year  1815  he  had  risen  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general.  Sympathizing  with  the  aspiralitms  of 
the  liberal  party  in  Naples  he  joined  the  Carbonari,  and  in 
1820  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  military  revolt.  This 
was  at  first  successful ;  Pepe  entered  Naples  in  trivnnph.  and 
the  king  was  forced  to  accept  the  constitution,  but  Austrian 
interveiition,  under  the  sanction  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  soon 
restored  the  Bourbon  tyranny.  Pepe  was  defeated  at  Rieti 
Mar.  7, 1821,  and  fled  to  London,  later  to  Paris.  Having 
returned  in  1848,  he  commamled  the  Neapolitan  ccmtingent 
against  the  Austrians,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  bril- 
liant defense  of  Venice.  He  afterward  lived  in  Turin,  where 
he  died  Aug.  9,  1855.  His  princi|ial  works  are  Relation  des 
fh'hiementx  Politiqiies  et  Militoirex  qui  mil  cu  lieu  a  yaptes 
en  ls::o  et  ISJl  (Paris,  1822;  Italian  and  French);  Ili.stoire 
(hs  Revolutions  et  Uuerres  d'ltalie  en  1S47-40  (Paris,  1850). 

Popin,  Lake:  an  expansion  of  the  Mississippi  river;  27 
miles  long  and  from  3  to  3  miles  wide,  having  Pierce  and 
Pepin  cost,  WMs.,  on  the  N.  E.,  and  Goodhue  and  Wabashaw 
COS.,  Minn.,  on  the  S.  W.  It  is  surrounded  by  rocky  rain- 
parts  of  picturesque  and  inspiring  appearance.  The  lake  is 
not  very  deep. 


fir 


Pepin  (or  Pippin)  le  Bref  [Fr.,  Pepin  the  Short] :  the 
St  Carlovingiaii  king  of  the   Franks;  b.  in  714;  son  of 


522 


PEPIN   OF   HERISTAL 


PEPTONIZED  FOOD 


Charles  Martel  and  father  of  Charlemagne ;  became  in  741 
major-domus  of  Neustria  and  Burgundy  inider  Childeric 
III.,  one  of  the  rois  faineants,  and  in  747  succeeded  liis 
brother  Carloman  as  major-douuis  of  Australia  and  the 
Rhine  country,  including  Tliuringia  and  Suabia.  In  749  he 
defeated  the  Ijavariiins,  and  in  753  was  crowned  King  of  the 
Pranks  by  St.  Boniface  by  authority  of  Pope  Zachary;  con- 
quered Septimania  from  the  Saracens  752-760:  was  again 
crowned  by  Pope  Stephen  III.  754;  broke  the  jiower  of  the 
Lombards  in  Italy  754-756.  and  gave  the  exarcliate  of  Ra- 
venna and  the  Pentapolis  to  the  holy  see,  the  origin  of  the 
temporal  power  of  the  popes;  overcame  the  Saxons  757; 
took  Narbonne  from  the  Saracens  759 ;  waged  a  stubborn 
war  with  Guaifar.  Duke  of  Aquitania,  760-768,  and  in  the 
latter  year  procured  the  assassination  of  his  valorous  enemv. 
D.  Sept.  18  or  24,  768.     See  Fraxks,  The. 

Pepin  of  Hf  ristiil :  founder  of  the  Carlovingian  line  of 
Frankisli  kings;  a  grandson  of  Pepin  von  Landen,  mayor 
of  the  jialace  in  Austrasia;  became  Duke  of  the  Austrasian 
Franks  680,  and  in  687,  by  the  battle  of  Testry,  conquered 
Burginidy  and  Xeustria.  and  afterward  subdued  the  Frisians 
and  ravaged  Suabia.  D.  Dec.  16,  714  a.  d.  lie  never  as- 
sumed the  royal  title,  but  exercised  sovereign  power  in  the 
name  of  four  successive  Merovingian  fainiant  kings. 
Charles  Jiartel  was  his  natural  son. 

Pepper  [M.  Yav^.  peper  <  0.  FjUg.  pipor,  from  hat.  piper- 
from  Gr.  Triirepi.  Tre'irepi ;  cf.  Sanskr.  pippala,  a  kind  of  pep- 
per, Pers.  y^»///«/.  ]iepper] :  a  name  applied  to  the  pungent 
fruits  of  certain  plants  and  to  tlie  condiment  prepared  there- 
from. Black  pepper  is  the  product  of  a  climlnng  shrub  be- 
longing to  the  family  Piperace.t:  (q.  v.),  with  a  smooth, 
woody  stem  from  12  to  20  feet  long,  with  leathery,  ovate, 
cordate  leaves,  and,  opposite  to  each  leaf,  a  S(jlitary  spike 
witli  hermaphrodite  flowers,  and  fruits  of  the  size  of  a  pea 
and  bright  red  when  ripe.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  but  now  extensively  cultivated  in  most  tropical  coun- 
tries. It  was  known  to  the  Romans,  and  highly  appreciated 
during  the  Jliddle  Ages,  when  a  pound  of  pepper  was  con- 
sidered a  royal  present.  It  is  now  one  of  tlie  most  common 
spices.  The  white  pepper  of  commerce  is  the  same  product 
with  the  outer  covering  removed.  Red  pepper  is  the  product 
of  a  species  of  Capsicum,  a  genus  of  the  Nightshade  family 
especially  C.  anniinm  and  C.  frufescens,  natives  of  South 
America,  but  now  widely  dispersed  in  warm  countries.  F'rom 
these  the  Chili  and  Cayenne  peppers  are  made.  The  com- 
mercial ]iroduct  is  prepared  tiy  grinding  the  dried  ripe  fruits, 
adding  flour  to  the  powder,  and  baking  tlie  whole  into  cakes. 
These  cakes  are  then  ground  into  commercial  pepper.  In 
temperate  climates  many  varieties  of  red  peppers  are  grown 
for  home  use  and  as  an  ingredient  of  mixed  pickles.  These 
kitclien-garden  peppers,  while  immensely  variable,  are  no 
doubt  all  offspring  of  Capsicum  annuum.  Over  thirty  varie- 
ties are  now  in  cultivation  in  the  U.  S.  The  most  pungent 
of  these  are  the  so-called  Cayenne  and  Chili  varieties,  which 
bear  very  long  and  slender  finger-like  fruits.  The  mild 
varieties,  or  so-called  "  sweet  pepjiers,"  are  fruits  of  great 
size  and  are  somewhat  hollow  and  furrowed.  The  Bull 
Nose,  Sweet  Mountain,  and  Grossum  are  connnon  sorts  of 
this  type.  Red  peppers  need  a  warm,  quick  soil  and  a  for- 
ward exposure.  As  they  continue  to  bear  until  cut  off  by 
frost,  tlie  largest  product  is  olrtained  when  the  jilants  are 
started  umler  glass.  Jamaica  pepper  is  the  [u-oduct  of  a 
species  of  Eugenia  of  the  family  J/yrfacete,  and  various  other 
species  of  Piper,  as  P.  longum,  P.  officinarum,  P.  methys- 
ticum,  and  P.  belle,  yield  pepper  or  pepper-like  products. 
Both  pepper  and  capsicum  are  useful  gastric  stimulants  and 
carminatives.  Cubebs,  used  in  medicine,  are  the  product  of 
P.  cubeba  (Cubeba  officinalis).  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Pepper,  William,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  eleventh  provost  of  the 
University  of  Pennsvlvania;  specialist  in  medicine:  b.  in 
Philadelphia,  .\ug.  21,  1843;  son  of  Dr.  William  Pejiper 
(Professor  of  Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1860-64);  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  1S62  :  from  the  medical  department  1864;  lec- 
lurer  on  morbid  anatomy  1868-70,  (m  clinical  medicine 
1870-76;  Professor  of  Clinical  Medicine  1876-87;  Professor 
of  Theory  and  I'ractice  of  Medicine,  succeeding  Dr.  .Stille, 
1.S,S7;  unanimously  elected  provost  of  the  university  1881 ; 
resigned  in  1M94.  During  liis  administratidu  the  material 
eiiuipment  of  the  institution  increased  in  value  nut  less  than 
$2,500,000,  ami  the  Wharton  Sc'IkioI  of  Finance  and  Kcono- 
my,  the  depart  nnuit  of  veterinary  medicine,  the  School  of 
Philosophy,  the  School  of  Biology,  the  School  of  American 


History,  the  department  of  archaeology  and  paheontology, 
and  the  department  of  hygiene  were  added.  He  attended 
to  his  professional  practice  while  organizing  and  moulding 
the  university.  He  was  medical  director  of  the  Centennial 
Exposition  1876,  and  for  his  services  received  from  the  King 
of  Sweden  the  decoration  of  Knight  Commander  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Olaf.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  Association  of 
American  Physicians  1891,  and  of  the  first  Pan-American 
Medical  Congress  in  Washington  (1893).  He  founded  The 
Medical  Timea,  and  was  its  editor  1870-71.  His  principal 
literary  work  has  been  the  editing  of  the  System  of  Medi- 
cine, by  American  authors  (1885-86).  Among  his  contribu- 
tions to  journals  or  the  transactions  of  societies  are  Trephin- 
ing in  Cerebral  Disease  (1871);  Lucal  Treatment  of  Pulmo- 
nary Cavities  (1874);  Catarrhal  Irritation  (1881);  Report 
on  the  Mineral  Springs  of  America  (1881) ;  Epilepsy  (1883) ; 
Phthisis  in  Pennsylvania  (1886).  Other  publications  of  less 
technical  character  are  Siinitarii  lielations  of  Hospitals 
(1875):  Higher  Medical  Eilucation :  Tlie  True  Interest  of 
the  Public  and  the  Profession  (1877) ;  Report  of  the  Medical 
Department  of  the  Centennial  Exposition  (1877).  He  is  as- 
sociate editor  in  charge  of  the  department  of  medicine,  sur- 
gery, and  collateral  sciences,  Johnson's  Universal  Cyclo- 
pie'dia.  C.  H.  Thurbeb. 

Pepi»erell,  Sir  William  ;  b.  at  Kittery  Point,  Me.,  June 
27. 1696,  of  Welsh  descent;  the  son  of  a  tisherman ;  became 
a  merchant  and  a  distinguished  Indian  fighter;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Massachusetts  council  1727-59  ;  became  chief  jus- 
tice of  the  common  pleas  court  1730;  captured  Louisburg 
1745 ;  was  made  a  baronet  1746  ;  a  colonel  of  the  British  army 
1749;  major-general  1755  ;  lieutenant-general  1759  ;  was  act- 
ing Governor  of  Massachusetts  1756-58.  D.  at  Kittery,  Me., 
July  6. 1759. — William  Pepperell  Spariiawk,  his  grandson, 
took  his  name,  title,  and  his  great  estates  in  1774,  but  lost 
everything  in  consequence  of  his  Tory  principles  in  1778. 
D.  in  London.  Dec.  17,  1816. 

Pepper  Family:  the  Piperace.e  ((/.  v.). 

Pepperidge :  See  Black-gim. 

Peppermint :  a  well-known  labiate  herb,  the  3tentha 
piperita,  a  native  of  the  Old  World,  but  completely  natu- 
ralized in  the  New.  This  plant  and  its  essential  oil  are  ex- 
tensively used  in  confectionery,  and  in  medicine  as  a  car- 
minative and  to  conceal  the  flavor  of  nauseous  drugs.  Pep- 
permint is  extensively  cultivated  in  Kalamazoo,  St.  Joseph, 
and  Wayne  cos.,  Mich.,  and  in  Wayne  co.,  N.  Y. 

Pepsin  [from  Gr.  ire'if/is.  cooking,  digesting,  deriv.  of 
iria<T€iv,  cook]  :  an  active  ferment  of  the  gastric  juice,  se- 
creted by  the  cells  lining  the  "  peptic  "  glands,  and  may  be 
precipitated  by  alcohol  or  lead  acetate.  It  has  never  yet 
been  perfectly  isolated,  but  is  known  to  be  one  of  the  albu- 
minoids or  nitrogenous  organic  substances.  Pepsin  possesses 
the  power  of  converting  proteids  into  peptones  in  the  pres- 
ence of  an  acid  and  heat.  It  does  not  digest  starches.  Sub- 
stances called  pepsin,  usually  containing  some  of  the  active 
principle,  are  often  prescribed  in  dyspepsia  for  the  relief  of 
the  irritated  stomach.  Recently  so  pure  a  pepsin  has  been 
isolated  that  it  will  digest  25.000  times  its  own  weight  of 
albuiueii.  Pepsin  is  usually  derived  from  the  .stomach  of  the 
pig.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Peptonized  Food:  food  prepared,  through  the  action  of 
pancreatin  upon  proteid  substances,  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
planting natural  digestion  in  persons  whose  digestive  ap- 
]iaratus  is  too  feeble  to  carry  out  its  function  properly.  This 
process  of  pejitonization  (see  Fermentation)  has  become  an 
exceedingly  important  one  in  dietetics,  and  is  constantly  re- 
sorted to.  The  method  of  peptonizing  milk  is  as  follows: 
From  5  to  20  grains  of  ])ancreatin  and  .5  grains  of  bicarbo- 
nate of  sodium  are  added  to  a  pint  of  milk  at  a  temjierature 
of  100\  .and  the  process  of  peptonization  is  iiermitted  to  go 
on  for  varying  lengths  of  time,  according  to  the  degree  of 
digestion  which  is  desired  :  5.  10,  or  20  minutes  is  the  period 
generally  allowed.  After  this  time,  if  the  digestive  process 
is  not  stopped,  the  formation  of  a  large  amount  of  peptone 
gives  such  a  bitter  taste  to  the  milk  that  most  patients  re- 
fuse to  take  it.  Most  of  the  jiancreatin  used  for  peptonizing 
foods  is  put  up  by  manufacturing  chemists  in  small  glass 
tubes  containing  the  jjrojier  quantities  and  ingredients  for 
one  [jroeess,  or  in  compressed  tablets  containing  the  same 
quantity. 

Peijtonized  lieef  is  made  in  the  same  way  by  taking  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  finely  minced  lean  beef,  adding  to  it 
a  pint  of  warm  water,  mixing  it  in  a  saucepan,  and  then 


PEl'YS 


PERCEPTION 


523 


keopinK  the  mixture  at  the  temperature  of  the  body,  or  a 

lit  til!  aljiive,  for  a  few  minutes.  In  tlie  ease  of  bolli  the  milk 
and  the  btef  tile  process  of  peptonizing  may  bo  sloppe(l  in 
one  or  two  nays,  either  by  bringing  the  liquid  to  the  boiling- 
point,  whieh  ileslroys  the  ferment,  or  by  plaeing  it  upon  iee, 
where  it  will  rapidly  cool.  If  it  is  desirable  to  .slop  the  proc- 
ess absolutely,  it  is  safer  to  bring  the  liquid  to  the  boiling- 
point  than  to  cool  it.  II.  A.  Hare. 

I'epys,  pep  i.s.  or  peps.  Saml'EL:  diarist :  b.  Feb.  23.  1033  ; 
tlu>  >oiI  of  a  London  tailor;  was  educated  at  Huntingdon, 
ami  at  Magdalene  Oollege,  Cambridge;  became  a  Kound- 
head,  but  lunieil  Koyalist  under  Monk  ;  held  various  posi- 
tions in  the  navy  and  was  secretary  to  the  admiralty  under 
.James  II.  He  was  imprisoned  10T!)-yo  for  alleged  com- 
plicity in  the  popish  plot ;  president  of  the  Hoyal  Society 
l(JS-l-tl(i,  and  was  in  16'.I0  imprisoned  for  a  time  iis  a  .Jacob- 
ite. 1).  in  London,  Jlay  26,  1703.  Pepys's  Diary,  kept  in 
shorthand  (1600-()!l),  has  been  often  imperfectly  reprinted 
since  1825.  when  Lonl  Braybrooke's  incomplete  edition  ap- 
peared. Bohn's  edition,  by  II.  B.  Wheatley  (8  vols.),  gives 
the  complete  annotated  text  as  rendered  from  tlie  MS.  by 
liev.  Mynors  Bright,  with  the  exception  of  some  details  of 
his  ami  wife's  ailnu'iils,  and  some  coarse  expressions  and 
stories,  all  such  omissions  being  indicated  by  dots.  This 
work  is  instructive  and  entertaining,  giving  us  a  valuable 
insight  into  the  everyday  life  of  the  times  of  the  later  Stu- 
arts. His  Memoirs  of  the  Roijul  Navy  (1690),  Portugal  His- 
tory (1677),  and  other  writings,  are  of  some  value.  He  was 
an  industrious  collector  of  ballads,  prints,  ma|)S.  and  music, 
a  dalibler  in  the  various  sciences  and  the  fine  arts,  and 
founder  of  the  Pepysian  Library  at  Magdalene  College,  Cam- 
bridge. See  H.  B.  Wheatley,  Samuel  Ftpys  and  the  World 
lie  lired  in  (London,  1880).  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Peqiiod  or  P('((iiot  Indians:  See  Aluo.vqltiax  Indians. 

Pe'ra  [from  (ir.  Tre'pac.  beyond]:  a  suburb  of  Constanti- 
nople. The  term  has  been  applied  since  the  sixth  century 
to  the  f(jrmerly  waste  plateau  X.  of  the  Golden  Horn 
and  beyond  (xalata.  This  region  began  to  be  inhabited  after 
the  Ottoman  Conquest  (1453),  and  has  become  the  diplomatic 
quarter  of  the  metropolis  and  the  chief  residence  of  the  for- 
eign (,'hristians.  In  the  great  fire  of  1870  more  than  1.000  per- 
sons lost  their  lives,  and  over  6.000  houses  were  consumed, 
but  the  suburb  has  been  entirely  rebuilt.  E.  A.  G. 

Peraj'a  f  =  Lat.  =  Gr.  irepam  (sc.  777,  land,  or  x'^po,  region), 
liter.,  the  farther  country,  the  cnuntry  lieyond,  fem.  of 
irepoios,  lying  farther,  beyond,  deriv.  of  wepav,  beyond]:  any 
one  of  several  districts  lying  beyond  a  river,  strait,  or  sea, 
but  used  especially  of  that  part  of  Trans-.Iordanic  Palestine 
which  extended  from  Pella  on  the  N.  to  Maeha>rus  on  the 
S.,  and  from  Philadelphia  on  the  E.  to  the  .Jordan  on  the  W. 
These  were  its  boundaries  as  given  by  Josephns  in  his  De 
Hello  Jiiilnieo.  lii..  3.  3.  It  is  there  described  as  generally 
wild  and  ruggeil,  though  well  watered  by  streams  and  foun- 
tains, and  in  some  parts  of  it  very  fertile.  The  name  has 
also  been  applie<l  to  the  whole  of  Palestine  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan. Per;pa  constituted  one  of  the  four  provinces  into 
which  Herod,  and  later  the  Romans,  divided  Palestine. 

Per  Capita:  See  Descent. 

Perci'ption  [from  Lat.  percep'tio,  deriv.  of  perci'pere, 
perrep  turn,  seize,  perceive,  liter.,  take  or  get  completely ; 
per-,  through,  thoroughly  -)-  capere,  take] :  the  act  of  ob- 
taining knowledge  of  external  objects  through  or  by  means 
of  the  organs  of  sense,  or  of  internal  states  and  conditions 
by  means  of  consciousness  or  intuition.  It  also  signifies  the 
ri'sult  of  such  act.  Application  has  been  made  of  this  term 
to  signify  cogiution  or  thinking  in  general,  including  all 
the  theoretical  powers — sensation,  representation,  inference, 
and  Intuition.  In  this  sense  perception  and  volition  would 
itii-lude  all  the  powers  of  the  mind.  It  is  limited  by  many 
writers  to  external  perception  by  means  of  the  senses,  and 
the  higher  activities  of  reason  and  reflection  are  regarded 
as  mollified  sensation.  The  presc'uce  of  inference  or  judg- 
ment in  each  act  of  sense-perception  has  been  pointed  out 
by  Keiil,  Kant,  Fichte,  Hegel,  Plato,  and  others.  Erasmus 
Darwin  made  volition  an  essential  element  of  higher  i)er- 
ception — the  association  of  iileas.  In  so  far  as  attention 
underlies  perception,  the  modifying  influence  of  the  will  is 
obvious. 

Jlistorieal. — The  doctrine  of  the  intervention  of  images 
arising  from  eftluxes  from  sense-objects  has  played  a  great 
role  in  the  history  of  philosophy.  J"2mpedocles(.5()0  fi.  c.)  first 
advanced  this  theory,  explaining  sense-perception  through 


effluxes  and  pores,  interpenetration  and  mixture  of  elements 
arising  through  the  same;  effluxes  of  fire  and  water  to  and 
from  the  eyes  constituting  sight;  of  air  into  the  ears,  pro- 
ducing sound ;  smell  and  taste  being  similarly  caused.  Cog- 
nition of  the  elements  of  things  was  held  to  be  by  means  of 
corresponding  elements  in  ourselves.  Aiuixagoras  (500  B.  c.) 
noted  the  principle  of  contrast  in  ])erception,  ami  held  that 
like  is  not  known  by  like,  but  by  uidike,  thus  repuiliating 
the  principle  of  identity  as  set  up  by  Empedocles,  and  ex- 
plaining pereeiition  through  difference.  The  atomists  Leu- 
cippus  and  Democritus  (460  B.  c.)  taught  the  doctrine  of 
ellluxes  modified  to  suit  their  doctrine  of  atoms.  Atoms 
impinge  on  our  senses  and  produce  images.  These  thinkers 
also  distinguished  between  obscure  perception  (aKoria) — i.  e. 
through  the  organs  of  sense — and  clear  perception  (yvnala), 
through  investigation.  The  doctrine  of  effluxes  appears 
again  with  Epicurus  (341-270  B.C.):  sense-percejitions  are 
mental  inuiges  coming  from  the  surfaces  of  things  by  efflux. 
Plato  (427-347)  pointed  out  the  existence  of  inference  in  all 
sense-perception,  and  showed  it  to  be  necessary  to  reconcile 
the  contradictory  predicates  which  inhere  in  sense-objects 
by  reason  of  their  relativity.  He  found  a  higher  form  of 
perception  in  the  cognition  of  ideas,  which  constitute  the 
true  in  and  for  itself;  sense-perception  deals  with  the 
changing  and  variable.  Aristotle  (384-322  B.  c.)  held  that 
sense-perception  (alta-ejia-ij)  is  the  result  of  qualities  which 
exist  potentially  in  the  objects  perceived,  and  actually  in 
the  perceiving  subject.  The  seeing  of  colors,  for  example, 
depends  on  the  activity  of  the  medium  of  vision  (air  or 
water).  In  the  active  reason  {novs  noiriTiK6s),  which  is  the 
highest  phase  of  the  soul,  will  and  perception  are  one;  it  is 
creative  and  cognitive  in  one.  The  Peripatetic  Strato  (288 
B.  c.)  made  this  higher  perception  to  be  only  a  modification 
of  the  lower,  and  in  this  direction  the  Stoics  tended,  their 
prevalent  doctrine  being  that  sense-jjerception  is  the  origin 
and  criterion  of  all  perception.  St.  Augustine.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  and  Meister  Eckhart  held  the  doctrine  of  effluxes 
and  images  whieh  were  taken  up  into  the  soul  through  the 
senses;  but  with  Aristotle,  they  distinguished  from  this  the 
higher  perception  through  the  active  reason,  which  gives  us 
knowledge  of  divine  truth.  Descartes  (1596-1650)  laid  great 
stress  on  the  distinction  between  clear  and  obscure  per- 
ceptions, making  the  former  cognizant  of  eternal  truths 
existing  only  in  the  mind,  and  the  latter  cognizant  of  ex- 
ternal things  and  their  affections.  He  separated  soul  from 
body  so  sharply  that  he  was  forced  to  explain  their  connec- 
tion (in  volition  and  sense-perception)  by  divine  interfer- 
ence. Geulincx  tried  to  explain  the  same  by  the  doctrine 
of  occasionalism,  holding  that  through  God's  power  our 
psychical  activity  is  transmuted  into  corporeal,  and  the 
latter  into  the  former.  Malebranche  unfolded  this  into  the 
mystical  doctrine  that  we  perceive  all  things  by  participa- 
tion in  God's  perception.  Spinoza,  however,  abandoned  the 
Cartesian  dualism  altogether  for  the  doctrine  of  the  unity 
of  sulistance.  which  makes  perception  explicable.  Leibnitz 
denied  the  theory  of  effluxes  as  a  mere  mechanical  exjilana- 
tion,  ami  set  forth  the  more  spiritual  one  of  monads  as  per- 
ceiving-substances which  reflect  or  represent  within  them- 
selves, each,  the  entire  universe.  Obscure  or  insensible 
perceptions  are  those  which  are  unaccompanied  with  con- 
sciousness or  memory.  The  myriad  of  perceptions  to  which 
we  do  not  direct  our  attention  are  of  this  order.  The  whole 
universe  is  latent,  as  it  were,  in  each  monad,  exi.sting  in  this 
form  of  insensible  perception,  which  needs  only  to  be  aroused 
to  consciousness  to  become  actual  knowledge.  Thus  even 
the  lowest  state  of  the  monad — that  simply  of  heavy  matter 
— contains  in  its  weight  an  obscure  representation  of  the 
universe  of  matter,  for  the  weight  of  each  body  depends 
upon  the  mass  of  all  other  bodies  in  space.  Thus  the  entire 
history  of  each  being  and  of  all  beings  is  contained  in  a 
dormant  state  in  each  being;  and  it  is  the  activity  of  the 
soul  which  brings  them  to  consciousness  in  (he  various 
grades  of  jierception.  The  aggregate  of  these  obscure  or  in- 
sensible perceptions  makes  up  the  instinct  of  animals,  ami 
the  disposition.  im[iulses.  and  emotions  of  man.  Herbart 
(1776-1841)  and  Beneke  (1798-1854)  have  pursued  this 
thought  of  Leibnitz,  and  have  made  many  valuable  dis- 
coveries in  jisychology.  The  mutual  arrest  of  opposing 
ideas  in  consciousness,  and  the  power  which  one  idea  lias  of 
intensifying  or  obscuring  and  rendering  latent  another,  as 
well  as  of  combining,  when  Latent,  with  other  latent  ideas 
and  reappearing  in  consciousness  in  a  new  guise — the  inves- 
tigation of  these  phases  of  jierception  forms  one  of  the  most 
interesting  chaptei-s  in  modern  psychology'.     Kant  (1732- 


524 


PERCEPTION 


1804)  made  time  and  space  the  a  priori  forms  of  sense-per- 
ception, and  denied  the  objective  validity  of  higher  percep- 
tion, liuiiting  it  to  subjective  forms.  Keid  (1710-96)  taught 
that  mind  is  active  in  sense-perception,  every  act  being  an 
act  of  judgment  or  inference.  Common  sense  or  higher 
perception  cognizes  necessary  trutlis  of  inherence,  causa- 
tion, and  design — truths  whicli  Kant  had  pronounced  merely 
subjective.  Sir  William  Hamilton  agrees  on  the  one  hand 
with  Reid  in  repudiating  the  intervention  of  images  and 
material  cifluxes,  but  holds  with  Kant  that  we  do  not  cog- 
nize things  in  themselves,  thus  rejecting  Reid's  common- 
sense  theory.  William  T.  Harris. 

Current  Theories  of  Perception. — Leaving  the  general 
problems  of  the  theory  of  knowledge  to  metaphysics,  cur- 
rent psychological  theories  have  to  do  only  with  the  process 
of  perception,  considered  as  an  operation  of  mind  in  attain- 
ing knowledge  of  the  external  world.  That  is,  we  have  to 
answer  the  simple  question,  "  How  do  we  arrive  at  the 
knowledge  of  individual  objects  localized  in  space  and 
time?"  In  view  of  the  terms  of  this  question  and  of  the 
analysis  which  follows,  we  may  define  perception  in  a  gen- 
eral way  as  the  process  of  the  construction  of  our  represen- 
tation of  the  external  ivortd. 

A  little  reflection  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  our  percep- 
tion of  the  external  world  is  a  matter  of  mental  construc- 
tion. All  advance  into  the  region  of  mind  must  be  through 
mental  states.  The  characteristic  of  mind  is  consciousness, 
and  nothing  can  enter  the  domain  of  mind  except  through 
the  mediation  of  consciousness.  This  is  seen  in  the  fact  that 
our  images  play  in  consciousness  in  such  a  way  as  sometimes 
to  deceive  us  in  regard  to  the  external  world.  (See  Illusion.) 
Many  pathological  facts  show  this.  When  the  eye  is  de- 
ranged the  mind  is  deceived  in  regard  to  colors  and  distances. 
When  we  have  a  cold  our  taste  is  impaired.  When  the 
hand  is  amputated,  irritation  of  the  nerve  ends  is  still  local- 
ized in  the  hand.  This  amounts  to  saying  that  the  mental 
picture,  which  in  every  case  is  necessary  to  tiie  perception  of 
the  object,  is  impaired  or  dissipated.  The  nervous  system 
also  intervenes  between  the  mind  and  the  world,  and  the 
proper  activity  of  mind  in  representation  dejjends  upon  the 
normal  functioning  of  this  system.  This  fact,  that  the 
mind  deals  with  its  images  primarily  and  with  external 
realities  only  through  these  images,  is  best  seen  when  we 
consider  that  all  mental  states  are  modifications  of  con- 
sciousness itself,  and  that  the  perception  of  the  external 
world,  however  real  that  world  be,  with  its  conditions  of 
space  and  time,  is  possible  only  by  some  process  of  mind 
whereby  these  conditions  can  be  mentally  reconstructed 
and  the  data  of  experience  cast  in  the  forms  of  this  recon- 
struction. 

The  construction  of  the  representation  of  the  external 
world  is  generally  analyzed  into  three  stages,  which  we  may 
call  Discriminat ion.  Localization,  and  Sense-intuition. 

Discrimination. — The  beginning  of  all  life  experience  is 
probably  a  state  of  general  undifferentiated  feeling.  There 
are,  at  this  beginning  of  sensation,  no  distinct  forms  for  the 
different  senses,  no  notion  of  externality,  no  perception 
either  of  one's  own  body  or  of  things.  It  is  easy  to  imagine 
one's  self  in  that  condition.  All  physical  feeling  is  then 
vague,  like  the  internal  sensations  which  we  can  not  localize 
or  trace  to  their  causes.  It  is  probable  that  the  muscular 
sense,  with  touch,  constitutes  almost  the  whole  of  this  ex- 
perience. The  earliest  transition  from  this  state  of  general 
sensation  is  also  probably  due  to  touch  and  the  muscular 
sense,  tlirough  differences  of  intensity  in  feelings  of  resist- 
ance, and  through  the  sense  of  locality  in  the  body.  The 
special  organs  of  the  other  senses  are  more  complex  and 
must  be  adapted  to  their  function  of  reporting  impressions 
from  without.  Yet  no  step  toward  a  real  differentiation  of 
sensations  can  take  place  till  a  reaction  of  consciousness  is 
possible  in  the  shape  of  attention.  Definite  sensations  as 
such  are  not  distinguished  without  attention.  At  first  this 
attention  is  called  "primary"  or  reflex;  but  by  it  the  un- 
orilered  and  chaolic  mass  of  sensation,  which  is  thrown 
upon  the  helpless  individual,  is  divided  and  distinguished. 
As  this  differentiation  proceeds,  each  sense  becomes  a  dis- 
tinct source  of  experience,  somewhat  in  the  following  order 
of  development :  muscular  sense,  touch,  temperature,  light, 
sound,  taste,  smell,  color.  The  mere  fact  of  differentiation, 
however,  can  give  ns  no  sense  of  difference  between  our 
own  body  atid  a  foreign  body.  This  distinction  can  arise 
only  after  we  begin  to  localize  our  states  ;  and  even  then 
all  these  states  are  located  first  in  the  bodily  organs. 

Localization. — By  this  is  meant  the  mental  reference  of 


sensations  to  a  locality  in  space.  "  Things,"  as  we  perceive 
them,  are  always  in  space.  Whence  does  the  perception  of 
space  arise,  and  to  what  factor  in  the  perceiving  process  is 
it  due  ?  This  is  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the  idea  of  space, 
one  of  the  jjroblems  most  discussed  in  general  philosophy, 
and  one  to  which  contemporary  psychology  is  fully  alive. 

In  the  perception  of  space  relations  by  the  muscular 
sense,  touch,  and  sight,  the  senses  through  which  it  is  accom- 
plished, two  classes  of  data  seem  to  be  involved.  These  data 
are  of  a  physical  kind,  and  serve  as  basis  for  a  mental  reac- 
tion.    They  are  muscular  movements  and  local  signs. 

JLiscular  Movement. — In  the  discussions  of  muscular 
sense,  sensations  of  "  effort  "  are  usually  distinguished  from 
sensations  of'  resistance."  Both  of  these  seem  necessary  to 
the  finished  feeling  of  nioveu)ent,  though  feelings  of  resist- 
ance play  a  predominating  role.  We  learn  from  patho- 
logical cases  that  if  the  feeling  of  resistance  be  destroyed,  a 
limb  may  be  moved  voluntarily,  but  there  may  be  no 
knowledge  of  the  actual  movement,  and,  consequently,  no 
indication  of  space  position ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
movement  of  a  limb  mechanically  is  felt  as  movement  when 
there  is  no  voluntary  motor  discharge.  Hence,  whether  we 
hold  that  space  is  a  succession  of  resistances,  or  that  space 
is  an  original  element  in  the  muscular  experience,  we  still 
find  the  element  of  muscular  resistance  in  our  first  sensa- 
tions of  locality.  The  same  influence  of  movement  is  found 
in  the  appreciation  of  space  relations  by  the  eye. 

The  muscular  movements  of  the  eye  are  of  extreme  deli- 
cacy and  variety.  There  is  for  every  point  of  the  retina  a 
fixed  amount  and  direction  of  movement  necessary  to  bring 
the  center  of  clearest  vision  to  that  point ;  and  when  such 
a  point,  right,  left,  above,  below,  is  excited  there  is  at  once  a 
tendency  to  revolve  the  ball  of  the  eye  in  such  a  way  as  to 
bring  the  line  of  vision  through  this  point.  This  represents 
a  given  degree  of  central  nervous  discharge  to  bring  about 
the  muscular  strain.  Since  movement  of  the  eyes  precedes 
vision,  there  are  no  means  whereby  such  movement  can  be 
ruled  out ;  and  further,  the  influence  it  exerts  in  localiza- 
tion is  seen  in  the  fact  that  if  one  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye 
be  destroyed,  so  that  no  movement  follows  its  stimulation, 
objects  are  localized  as  if  this  movement  had  taken  place. 

Local  Signs. — The  second  kind  of  data  required  by  mod- 
ern theories  is  the  local  sign,  by  which  is  meant  some  char- 
acter in  each  position  on  the  skin  and  retina  by  which  its 
peculiar  location  is  reported.  The  doctrine  was  first  pro- 
pounded by  Lotze. 

Perception  of  Foreign  Body. — The  distinction  between 
our  own  and  a  foreign  body  arises  very  early  in  child  life, 
and  is  not  subsequent  to  the  completed  idea  of  our  own 
body.  As  we  have  seen,  the  perception  of  our  own  body  as 
extended  involves  both  distance  or  movement,  and  resist- 
ance. In  the  primary  feeling  of  resistance  we  have  the  be- 
ginning of  the  perception  of  foreign  body.  The  amount  of 
movement  or  distance,  measured  in  muscular  sensation,  in- 
dicates roughly,  at  first,  but  with  great  precision  later,  the 
localities  of  objects  around  us  in  reference  to  our  own  body. 
This  is  greatly  aided  by  active  touch  and  by  sight.  We 
feel  round  a  body  and  give  it  the  third  dimension,  which 
we  have  already  found  to  be  an  attribute  of  our  own  body. 
The  distinction  between  our  own  members  and  other  objects 
is  further  assisted  by  the  phenomenon  of  double  touch  ; 
that  is,  the  two  sensations  of  touching  and  being  touched, 
when  we  come  in  contact  with  our  own  skin.  In  paralysis 
our  own  limbs  are  to  us  as  foreign  bodies,  inasmuch  as  the 
sensation  of  active  touch  is  present  alone.  Another  impor- 
tant series  of  double  sensations  arises  when  the  child  sees 
and  also  feels  his  own  movements. 

Sense-intuition. — The  final  factor  in  perception  is  the 
gathering  up  of  all  the  data  of  sense,  time,  and  place  in  the 
finished  objects  of  the  external  world.  This  is  sense-intu- 
ition. It  is  largely  due  to  association,  as  is  shown  again  by 
pathological  eases.  Injuries  to  the  brain,  either  accidental 
(in  man)  or  intended  (in  animals),  may  leave  the  creature 
with  all  his  senses  intact,  but  with  no  power  to  distinguish 
things,  their  uses,  their  nature,  their  relationships.  This 
faculty  probably  demands  the  association  in  the  brain  of 
many  centers  bound  together  by  the  so-called  "  association 
fibers."  On  the  side  of  consciousness  it  demands  healthy 
and  concentrated  attention.  See  Association  of  Ideas,  Sug- 
gestion, Sensation,  Psychology,  Illusion,  and  Insanity. 

Literature. — See  the  Psi/cliologies  of  James,  Hciffding, 
Sully,  Ladd,  Baldwin;  Hume,  Treatise  on  Human  Nature; 
Berkeley,  Principles  of  Knouiedge;  W\\\,  I"^. rami  nation  of 
Hamilton ;  Pikler,  Belief  in  Objective  Existence ;   articles 


PERCEVAL 


PERCY 


525 


by  Stout.  Robertson.  Baldwin,  on  External  Reality  in  Mind 
(18!)()-!»1):  Royce,  The  External  World  and  the  Social  Con- 
nciouimess  (Philoa.  Review,  Sept..  1894).     J.  M.  Baluwi.n. 

IVr'cf'Viil.  Si'ENCER  :  statesman:  b.  in  London..  Kniiland, 
N'ov.  1,  170-' ;  was  tlii'  swond  son  of  .John.  Vmt\  of  Efirnont ; 
fduealiMl  at  Harrow  and  CanibridKo:  studied  law  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  ;  was  called  to  the  bar  1780;  entered  Parliament 
for  Xorthaniplon  179(>:  became  intimate  with  Pitt, through 
whose  influence  he  was  made  solicitor-general  in  the  Ad- 
dington  ministry  1801  ;  was  promoted  to  attorney-j;eneral 
1802;  conducted  the  prosecution  in  the  celebrated  Peltier 
case;  was  an  active  partisan  of  war  with  France  and  an 
opponent  of  Catholic  emancipation;  resigned  office  on  the 
deatli  of  Pitt;  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  the 
Portland  caliinet  Apr.,  1807:  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Port- 
land as  premier  Oct.,  180!) ;  and  was  assassinated  by  John 
Rellinfrham  in  the  lobby  of  the  Ilouse  of  Commons  May 
11,  181-,'. 

I'erdl  [via  O.  Fr.  from  Lat.  ^pr'crt  =  Gr.  irepKij.  perch; 
cf.  irepicKSs,  ilark-coloreil :  Sanskr.  pr' pii,  spotteii.  The  Teu- 
totiic  cognate  appears  in  Germ,  forelle}  :  a  name  originally 
applied  to  the  species  of  Perm  or  yellow  perches  (Perm 
Jhiriiititisof  Europe  (see  PiSHES  for  illustration),  and  the  re- 
lated .American  Perca  llavescens).  In  the  U.S..  especially 
.southward  and  westward,  where  the  yellow  perch  is  not 
found,  the  name  is  applied  loosely  to  various  spiny-rayed 
fishes.     See  Pkrcid.e.  Revised  by  I).  .S.  Jordan. 

I'erchlo'rates  :  See  Perchloric  Acid. 

Pcrclilo'ric  .\cid:  a  compound  of  chlorine,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen.  When  potassium  chlorate  is  heated  for  the 
purpose  of  making  oxygen  it  first  undergoes  a  change  rep- 
resented in  the  following  equaticjn,  the  products  being  oxy- 
gen, potassium  chloride,  and  potassium  perchlorate : 

2  KCIO,  =  KCl  -I-  KCIO4  -I-  (K 
By  treating  potassium  chlorate  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
heating,  perchloric  acid  di.stills  over  in  solution  in  water. 
When  pure  it  is  a  colorless,  fuming  liquid  of  the  composi- 
tion IICIO,.  It  acts  very  energetically  upon  combustible 
sulistances,  causing  explosions  in  consequence  of  the  ease 
with  which  it  gives  up  its  oxygen.  Perchlorates  are  salts 
formed  by  the  action  of  perchloric  acid  on  bases.  The  po- 
tassium perchlorate  formed  when  potassium  chlorate  is 
heated,  as  stated  above,  is  a  good  example.     Ira  Remsen. 

Per'cidtB  [^lod.  Lat.,  named  from  per'ca,  the  typical 
geims,  from  Lat.  per'ca.  See  Perch]:  a  family  of  fishes 
typified  by  the  common  yellow  perches  of  Europe  and  the 
r.  S.  Tlie  body  is  elongated;  covered  with  ctenoid  scales, 
and  the  head  conic  and  more  or  less  compressed  ;  the  mouth 
variable  in  size ;  teeth  villiform,  on  the  jaws  as  well  as  pal- 
ate; branchial  apertures  ample;  branchiostegal  rays  seven; 
dor.sals  two,  the  anterior  with  many  .spinous  rays,  the  pos- 
terior with  soft  ones;  anal  small,  far  behind;  vent rals  tho- 
racic, each  with  one  spine  and  five  rays.  The  skeleton  has 
numerous  vertelira^  (in  the  [lerch  21  -I-  20  —  21) ;  the  stomach 
is  ca'cal,  and  pyloric  ca'ca  are  developed.  The  family,  as 
now  limited,  embraces  only  fresh-water  fishes  distinguished 
by  the  increased  number  of  vertebrae  and  other  associated 
<-haracters.  To  it  are  to  be  referred,  besides  the  large  and 
familiar  species  of  the  group,  numerous  small  fishes  dis- 
tributed among  the  fresh  waters  of  the  U.  S..  commonly 
known  as  Darters,  and  composing  the  genus  Etheonfoma. 
These  small  fishes,  some  seventy  species  in  all.  are  confined 
to  the  eastern  watei's  of  the  U.  S..  and  are  remarkable  for 
their  brilliancv  of  coloration,  some  of  them  sur|)assing  in 
this  respect  all  other  fresh-water  fishes  whatsoever.  These 
an;  concentrated  perches  fitted  to  a  life  on  the  rocky  Ijot- 
toms  of  swift  streams.  All  the  I'ercidie  are  confined  to  the 
north  temperate  zone.  The  best-known  genera  are  Perca. 
including  the  common  yellow  perches;  Lucio/ierra.  includ- 
ing the  pike-perches;  Arerina.  represented  by  the  ruflies  of 
Europe;  A-f/iro.  confined  to  the  Old  World;  Etiieostoiiia, 
confined  to  the  Xew  World.         Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

I'ercop'sidlP  |  Mod.  Lat.,  naineil  from  Percopsis,  the  typ- 
ical genus;  Perca.  pirch  +  Gr.  u^is.  appearance]:  a  family 
of  fishes  represented  liy  two  genera,  Percopsis  and  Columbia, 
conlined  to  North  America.  The  form  is  perch-like,  with 
the  mouth  and  the  rough  scales  of  the  perch  associateil  with 
the  fins  of  a  trout.  The  body  is  covered  by  moderate  scales 
with  comb-like  margins;  lateral  line  well  defined  and  nearly 
straight,  but  somi'whal  concurrent  with  the  liack ;  heail 
conical,  compressed  :  opercular  a|iparatns  with  all  the  bones 
present  ami  unarmed  :  mout  li  small,  but  with  a.  lateral  cleft ; 


upper  jaw  with  its  margin  formed  by  the  intermaxillary 
bones  alone;  teeth  villiform  on  the  jaws,  but  none  on  the 
palate;  branchial  apertun's  ample;  branchiostegal  rays  six; 
one  true  dorsal  fin,  with  mostly  branched  rays;  an  adipose 
fin  also  developed  as  in  the  Salmonids ;  the  aiuil  snudl ;  ven- 
trals  thoracic.  The  family  was  considered  by  Prof.  Aga.ssiz, 
who  first  described  its  type,  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  living  fishes,  and  was  referred  by  him  cither  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  Percidie,  or  considered  as  perhaps  the  type  of  a  pe- 
culiar order;  it  is  now,  however,  generally  adniitted  to  be 
most  closely  related  to  certain  South  American  toima  (Ilap- 
lochitonidw,  etc.),  and  more  distantly  to  the  Snlmonidw. 
Two  species  are  known,  the  sand-roller  (Percopsis  guttatuH), 
from  tne  Great  Lakes  and  the  Western  rivers,  and  Columbia 
transmontana,  from  the  Columbia  river. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 
Percussion  [from  Lat.  percus'sio,  deriv.  of  percti'tere, 
strike  through  or  thoroughly ;  per,  through,  thoroughly  + 
qualere.  shake,  strike] :  in  medicine,  a  peculiar  branch  of 
auscultation,  by  which  the  presence  or  absence  of  air  and 
fluid  in  certain  internal  organs  is  ascertained  by  the  aid  of 
artificial  sounds.  These  sounds  arc  produced  either  directly 
ljy  tapping  with  the  fingei-s  or  a  small  hammer  tipped  witli 
India-rubber  on  the  surface  of  the  body  just  above  the  place 
to  be  investigated,  or  mediately  by  the  aid  of  a  pleximeter, 
and  struck  either  with  the  fingers  or  with  a  hammer.  See 
Auscultation. 

Percussion-caps ;  See  Fulminates. 

Percy :  a  noted  family  of  England,  descended  from  Will- 
iam de  Percy,  who  was  a  companion  of  William  the  Conquer- 
or, and  derived  his  name  from  the  village  of  Percy  in  Nor- 
mandy. The  barony  of  Alnwick  was  acquired  by  Henry 
de  Percy  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  His  grandson  having 
married  into  the  royal  Lancastrian  family.  Henry  Percy, 
father  of  the  celebrated  Hotspur,  was  created  Earl  of  North- 
umberland in  137T  by  Richard  II.  The  fii-st  four  earls  of 
this  family  took  prominent  parts  in  the  wars  of  tlie  Roses, 
and  all  perished  in  battle  or  by  assassination.  The  title 
became  extinct  in  1537,  but  was  revived  in  15.57  in  favor  of 
Thomas  Percy,  who  was  beheaded  at  York  1572  for  conspir- 
ing against  Elizabeth.  His  brother  Henry,  eighth  earl,  was 
charged  with  conspiring  in  favor  of  Mary.  Queen  of  Scots, 
and  was  murdered  in  the  Tower  of  London  June  21,  1585; 
Henry,  the  ninth  earl,  was  imprisoned  many  years  in  the 
Tower  for  alleged  participation  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot  of 
1605.  The  title  having  again  become  extinct  in  1670,  it  was 
I'cvived  in  1749  in  favor  of  Seymour.  Duke  of  Somerset,  a 
grand.son  of  the  last  earl.  His  son-in-law,  Sir  Hugh  Smith- 
son,  took  the  name  of  Percy,  succeeded  by  permissiim  of 
Parliament  to  the  earldom  in  1750.  and  was  made  first  Duke 
of  Northumlierland  1766.  His  son,  Hugh  (known  as  Earl 
Percy),  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Lexington,  succeeded 
to  the  dukedom  June  6,  1786,  and  died  July  10,  1817.  The 
career  of  his  son,  Algernon  Percy,  fourth  duke,  has  been 
given  under  the  title  Northumberland,  Duke  of. — The 
present  representative  of  the  family  is  Algernon  George 
Percy,  lL.  D.,  sixth  duke.  b.  May  2. 1810.  who  succeeded  to 
the  title  Aug.  22,  1867,  and  became  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
1858.  Northumberland  House.  Charing  Cross,  the  London 
residence  of  the  Percies  for  nmny  generations,  was  sold  to 
the  board  of  public  works  in  1873  for  £500.000.  to  be  pulled 
down  for  the  opening  of  a  new  street,  and  the  duke  em- 
ployed a  considerable  part  of  that  sum  in  the  improvement 
of  Trafalgar  Square. 

Percy.  Henry  (surnamed  Hotspur)  :  son  of  the  first  Earl 
of  Northiunberland :  b.  in  England  May  20,  1364;  became 
famous  in  the  wars  of  France  and  of  the  Scottish  border ; 
defeated  and  killed  Douglas  at  Otterburn  (Chevy  Chase) 
1388;  joined  Henry  of  Lancaster  1399.  aiding  him  to  obtain 
the  English  throne:  was  rewarded  with  the  wardenship  of 
the  East  Jlarches  and  the  gift  of  I  he  Isle  of  Alan  :  was  dis- 
tinguished at  the  battle  of  llomildon  Hill  1402;  lookup 
arms  with  his  father  to  place  Mortimer.  Earl  of  March,  on 
the  throne,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  July 
21,  1403.     He  is  immortalized  in  Shakspeare's  Henry  IV. 

Percy.  Thomas  :  clergyman  and  author :  b.  at  Bridge- 
north,  Shropshire.  England,  Apr.  13.  1728:  was  educated  at 
Christ  Church.  Oxfoid,  where  ho  took  his  master's  degree 
1753:  became  vicar  of  Easton  Maudit  and  rector  of  Wilby 
1 756 ;  and  Bishop  of  Dromore,  Ireland.  1 782.  D.  at  Dromore, 
Sept.  30,  1811.  His  best-known  work.  The  Reliques  of  An- 
riciil  Emjli.ih  Poefri/  (1765i.  had  a  wide  influence  in  develop- 


526 


PERDICCAS 


PliREZ  galdOs 


ing  a  taste  for  liallad  lifcratTirc  and  antifputies.  It  has 
been  repeatedly  publislicd,  e.  s-  edited  bv  II.  B.  Wheatlev 
(3  vols.,  London,  1891);  by  H.  A.  Willmott  (1893):  and  the 
I'olio  MS.  reprinted  bv  J.  W.  Hales  and  F.  J.  Furnivall 
(3  vols.,  1868),  with  Life  by  J.  Piekford.  He  translated 
Mallet's  Northern  Antiquities  (1770,  now  in  Bohn's  Librai-y), 
and  collected  a  mass  of  ancient  tales  and  poetry  which  were 
not  printed  nntil  1868.  Among  his  other  work's  is  a  Key  to 
t/ie  New  Testa  me  lit.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Perdic'cas  (in  Gr.  nepSiraos):  the  name  of  several  kings 
of  Macedonia — (1)  the  toumler  of  the  dynasty,  an  Argive, 
who  became  king  about  700  B.  c. ;  (2)  Perdiccas  II.  reigned 
from  454-413  b.  c.  :  (3)  Perdiccas  III.  reigned  from  365-360 
B.  c. :  (4)  a  prince  of  the  royal  blood  and  general  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  When  on  his  death-bed  Alexander  gave 
him  his  ring,  the  symbol  of  the  royal  power;  lie  held  the 
empire  together  for  a  short  time  by  his  superior  energy  and 
talents,  but  when  it  became  evident  that  he  himself  aspired 
to  the  crown,  a  coalition  was  formed  against  him  by  Anti- 
pater,  Crateros,  and  Ptolemy,  and  on  his  expedition  against 
Ptolemy  he  was  assassinated  in  321  B.  c,  near  Memphis,  by 
his  own  soldiers.  Revised  by  J.  R.  8.  Sterrett. 

Pereda,  pfz-ril'dali.  Jose  MarIa,  de :  novelist ;  b.  at  San- 
tander,  Sjiain,  in  1833.  His  first  repute  as  a  writer  came 
from  his  renuirkable  knowledge  of  all. the  peculiarities  of 
the  life  of  his  native  region — La  Montana,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called  in  Spain.  With  almost  photographic  accuracy, 
but  with  great  literary  skill,  he  reproduced  this  life  in  the 
sketches  which  aliout  1859  began  to  appear  in  the  journal 
called  La  Abej'a  3Iontanefia,  of  Santander.  In  1864  he  col- 
lected these  sketches  in  his  first  book,  entitled  Escenas  mon- 
tanesas.  For  some  years  he  continued  to  produce  only  such 
brief  pictures  of  the  land  and  people  he  was  familiar  with — 
Tipos  y  paisajes  (1871);  Bocelos  al  temple  (1876);  Tipos 
traslmmantes  (1877).  In  1877  began  a  new  period  in  his 
literary  career,  with  the  story  El  Biiey  Siieito.  of  ampler 
dimensions,  though  still  a  picture  of  manners  rather  than  a 
novel.  In  1878  came  the  study  of  political  intrigue,  Don 
Oonzalo  Oonzdlez  de  la  Oonzalera,  though  this  also  had 
had  a  predecessor  in  the  story  Los  hombres  de  pro,  written 
in  1872,  Ijut  published  in  the  volume  Bocelos  al  temple.  In 
1879  appeared  De  tal  palo,  tal  astilln,  in  which  at  last  there 
is  something  of  both  the  amplitude  and  the  repose  of  a  com- 
plete work  of  art.  This  was  followed  in  18S1  by  another 
volume  of  sketches,  Esbozos  y  rasguilos.  and  by  the  novel 
El  sabor  de  la  tierriica.  Since  the.se  Pereda  has  published 
the  stories  Pedro  Sanchez  (1883) ;  Sotileza  (a  study  of  Gali- 
eian  fisher-life,  1884);  La  Montdlvez  (1887);  La  Puehera 
(1888) ;  Nubes  de  est'w  (1891) ;  and  Al  primer  vuelo  :  Idilio 
vulgar  (1891).  Pereda  is  one  of  the  greatest  masters  in 
Spain  of  the  novel  of  description  or  manners.  Not  a  "  natu- 
ralist," or  realist,  by  theory,  he  yet  is  prijnarily  an  observer 
of  fact,  not  an  imaginative  creator.  So  rich  and  powerful 
is  his  style,  however,  that  his  work  rises  into  the  domain  of 
art.  The  Obras  completas  de  D.  Jose  M.  de  Pereda  began  to 
appear  in  Madrid  in  1889,  and  up  to  1891  fifteen  volumes 
had  been  issued.  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Per'egriue  Falcon  [peregrine  is  from  Lat.  peregri'nus 
(whence  Eng.  pilgrim),  migratory,  coming  from  foreign 
parts,  deriv.  oi  peregre,  "in  the  country";  per  +  ager,  field]:  a 
hawk  formerly  mucli  used  in  falconry  ;  the  Falro  peregrin  us 
of  ornithologi-sts.  It  is  bold,  graceful,  swift,  docile,  strong, 
and  destructive,  and  was  the  favorite  among  the  noble  fal- 
cons, though  less  powerful  than  the  lanner  and  the  jerfalcon. 
The  female  peregrine  is  the  bird  which  is,  par  excellence, 
called  falcon ;  the  male  is  the  tercel,  and  is  smaller  than  his 
mate.     See  also  Falcon. 

Perei'ra,  Jo.nathan,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  ;  pharmacologist  and 
therapeutist;  b.  in  Shorediteh,  London,  May  22, 1804;  studied 
at  Finsliury  for  four  years;  received  a  medical  education; 
was  licensed  by  t  he  apothecaries  1823  ;  became  fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  1825 ;  apothecary  and  chemical 
lecturer  to  the  Aldersgate  Street  Dispensary  1823  ;  Professor 
of  Materia  Medica  in  the  same  school  1832 ;  in  1833  Profes- 
.sor  of  Chemistry  in  London  Hospital ;  took  the  doctor's  de- 
gree at  Eriangen  1840:  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians  1845;  physician  to  the  London  Hospital  1851 ; 
was  one  of  the  examiners  of  London  University.  D.  in  Lon- 
don, .Jan.  20,  1853.  Ilis  great  work  was  the"  Elements  of 
Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics  (1839-40),  still  a  standard 
authority;  also  published  a  Treatise  on  Diet  (1843),  Lectures 
on  Polarized  Light  (1843),  and  other  works. 

Revised  l)v  S.  T.  Armstro.no. 


Pere'ira  da  Sil'va,  Jo.Xo  Manoel  :  historian ;  b.  at  Rio 
de  .Janeiro,  Brazil,  Aug.  30,  1817.  lie  graduated  in  law  at 
Paris,  and  settled  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  where,  after  1844,  he 
was  somewhat  prominent  in  politics.  His  works  are  vo- 
luminous, and  deal  mainly  with  modern  Brazilian  history 
and  biography.  They  include  :  Plutarco  Brasile.iro  (1847), 
enlarged  and  republished  as  Varoes  illiisfres  do  Brasil 
(1858) ;  Historia  da  fundafSo  do  Imperio  Brasileiro  (7  vols., 
1864-68) ;  Segundo  periodo  do  reinado  de  D.  Pedro  I.  (1871) ; 
and  Historia  do  Brasil  de  1S31  a  IS40  (1878).       H.  H.  S. 

Perekop  :  town  in  the  government  of  Taurida,  European 
Russia ;  on  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name,  which  connects 
the  Crimea  with  the  mainland  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  10-D). 
The  town,  which  was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  is  still  of 
great  strategical  and  commercial  importance,  as  it  is  situ- 
ated at  a  point  where  all  the  roads  leading  from  Southern 
Russia  into  the  Crimea  connect.  The  preliminary  works 
for  a  ship-canal  through  the  isthmus  were  completed  in  1889. 
Pop.  about  5,000. 

Pe'rez  (Sp.  pron.  ]ia'rcth),  Antonio;  b.  at  Monreal  de 
Ariza.  Aragon,  Spain,  in  1541 ;  natural  son  of  Gonzalo  Perez, 
who  was  long  a  secretary  of  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II. ;  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Louvain,  studying  also  at  Venice 
and  at  Madrid  ;  became  Secretary  of  State  to  Philip  II.  on 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1567;  was  the  chief  agent  of  that 
treacherous  monarch  in  many  of  his  secret  crimes,  espe- 
cially in  the  assassination  of  Juan  de  Escovedo  1578;  was 
tried  for  that  crime,  imprisoned,  and  exiled  from  the  court : 
was  again  arrested  for  the  same  crime  in  1590,  when,  being 
put  to  the  torture,  he  confessed  the  act,  but  accused  the 
king  of  complicity;  escaped  to  Aragon  in  April,  where  he 
placed  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  fueros  or  privi- 
leges of  that  kingdom  ;  was  twice  seized  by  royal  command 
and  handed  over  to  the  Inquisition,  but  on  both  occasions 
released  by  the  people,  thus  giving  rise  to  a  rebellion  which 
ended  in  the  suppression  of  the  fueros  of  Aragon.  Perez 
escaped  to  France  Nov.,  1591 ;  resided  in  England  as  secret 
agent  of  Henry  IV.  1593-95;  published  in  London  his  Be- 
lationes.  giving  his  own  account  of  his  romantic  adventures 
(1594),  and  was  the  author  of  Cartas  Fain  it  tares  and  several 
other  works,  elegantly  written.  D.  in  Paris,  Nov.  3,  1611. 
See  JMignet's  Antoine  Perez  et  Philippe  II.  (1845). 

Pf  rez  de  Hita,  Gines  :  Spani.sh  romancer  and  historian, 
the  dates  of  whose  birth  and  death  are  alike  unknown.  The 
one  assured  fact  of  his  biography  is  that  he  took  part  as  a 
soldier  in  the  cruel  campaign  against  the  revolted  Spanish 
Moors  (1.568-71).  He  was  probably  a  citizen  of  Mureia, 
though  there  are  reasons  for  thinking  that  his  birthplace 
was  the  town  of  Mula,  some  20  miles  W.  of  JIurcia.  The 
fame  of  Perez  de  Hita  comes  from  the  work,  in  two  parts, 
commonly  known  as  the  Guerras  civiles  de  Granada.  The 
first  of  these,  purporting  to  be  a  history,  was  published  in 
Saragossa  in  1595.  (An  edition  of  Alcala  (1588)  is  men- 
tioned in  some  bibliographies,  but  seems  uncertain.)  The 
work  is  not  a  history,  but  an  historical  ronumce  based  upon 
popular  tradition,  and  as  a  work  of  fiction  is  \'ery  notable. 
The  second  part,  published  in  Barcelona  in  1619  (written, 
however,  and  perhaps  published,  in  1604),  deals  with  events 
seventy  years  later  than  those  of  the  first  part — in  fact,  the 
events  of  that  very  campaign  against  tlie  Moors  in  which 
Perez  de  Hita  had  himself  taken  part.  Here  there  is  much 
of  historical  fact,  but  here  also  the  author  has  added  ro- 
mantic embellishments.  Numerous  editions  of  the  work  as 
a  whole  have  appeared  even  down  to  the  present  day.  Cal- 
deron  took  the  story  of  Tuzani  (Guerras  de  Granada,  2a 
parte,  cap.  xxii.,  xxiii..  xxiv.)  for  the  theme  of  one  of  the 
finest  of  his  plays.  Amor  despues  de  la  Muerte.  In  France 
Mme.  de  Scudery  founiled  upon  the  work  of  Perez  de  Hita 
her  romance,  L'Almahide,  which  in  its  tm-n  gave  rise  to  a 
long  series  of  romances  and  plays.  Later  we  have  also  in 
France  the  Gonsalre  de  Cordoue  of  Florian.  and  L'Aben- 
cerrage  of  Chateaubriand,  both  baseil  on  the  same  material. 
Finally,  we  have  in  the  U.  S.  the  famous  Contjuest  of  Gra- 
nada of  Washington  Irving,  which  reproduces  both  in  its 
affectation  of  historical  accuracy  and  its  romantic  coloring 
its  original.  The  be.st  edition  of  the  Guerras  de  Granada 
is  in  volume  iii.  of  Rivadeneyra's  Biblioteca^  de  Autores 
Espaiioles  (Madrid,  1876).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Pfrez  de  MontalvAii,  Juan:  See  Montalvan,  Juan 
Perez,  de. 

P^rez  (ialdfis,  Benito  ;  Spanish  novelist ;  b.  at  Las  Pal- 
nias,  Canary  islands,   ^Jav   10,   1845.     In   1863  he   went   to 


PERFECTIONISM 


PERICLES 


527 


Madrid  to  study  law,  Iml  willi  little  affection  for  the  profes- 
sion. He  already  inclined  toward  letters,  and  soon  tried  his 
hand  at  writinff  pieces  for  the  stage,  none  of  which  had  suf- 
fieient  merit  to  be  actually  produced.  In  1(<67  he  had  the 
hap[)y  inspiration  to  write  a  novel,  La  Funtana  de  Oru.  on 
which  he  worked  for  several  years,  linally  publishing  it  in 
\ti'\.  The  success  of  this  encouraged  him  to  write  a  second 
story.  El  Auda2,  puldished  in  1872.  Both  these  tales  were 
esseiitially  historical  romances,  dealing  with  events  in  Spanish 
history  of  the  years  182()-2:i  and  1804  respectively.  Through 
them  Perez  Galdos  entered  upon  his  two  long  series  of  his- 
torical novels.  ciiUed  Ijy  him  Epi.wdios  yacumales,  dealing 
either  with  the  period  of  struggle  against  Xajioleon.  or  with 
the  agitation  of  the  contest  of  Spanish  lilicralism  against 
the  tyranny  of  Ferdinand  VII.  The  first  of  these  works 
was  tmfdtgar,  written  in  1873,  and  it  has  been  succeeded 
by  the  following  volumes  of  the  first  series:  La  Curie  de 
Carlos  IV. :  El  I'J  de  Marzii  y  el  i  de  Mayo ;  Bailen  ;  JV«- 
pdleuH  en  Chamarlin  ;  Zarayoza;  Uerona\  Cadiz;  Juan 
Martin  d  Empecinado;  La  batalla  de  lo.f  Arapiles.  To 
the  second  series  belong  1-^t  Equipaje  del  Uey  June;  Memii- 
riax  de  iin  Curtesano  de  ISlo  :  La  aeyuiiila  casaca ;  El 
Grande  Orienle;  7  de  Julio;  Los  eieii  mil  liijos  de  San 
Luis;  El  Terror  de  lSii4;  Un  voluntario  realista;  Los 
AposlOlicos;  Un  faccioso  mas  y  olyunos  frailes  menos.  In 
these  works  Perez  Galdos  shows  clearly  the  influences  of 
Erckmann-Chatrian,  but  at  the  same  time  he  tells  his  story 
alwavs  with  a  force  and  purity  of  style  peculiar  to  himself, 
and  notable  enough  to  give  him  a  foremost  place  among 
living  novelists.  More  original  in  matter  and  more  inter- 
esting to  others  than  Spaniards  are  the  novels  called  by 
their  author  Novelas  espaiiolas  contempordneas.  Among 
these  are  DoUa  Perfeda;  Gloria;  Marianela;  La  f am  Hi  a 
de  Leon  Roch  ;  La  Deslieredada;  El  Amigo  Manso;  El 
Doctor  Centeno ;  Tormento  ;  La  de  Brinyas ;  Lo  Prohihido  ; 
Fortiinata  y  Jaciuta;  Jliau;  La  Incuytiita.  In  all  these 
works  are  to  be  found  both  truth  to  social  fact  and  im- 
aginative rendering  of  that  fact  in  a  very  unusual  degree. 
This  results  perhaps  from  the  circumstance  that  while  Perez 
Galdos  has  felt  deeply  the  so-called  realistic  tendencies  of 
recent  literature,  he  has  not  blindly  accepted  the  theories  of 
the  French  school  of  realists.  His  chief  admiration  is  the 
English,  not  the  French,  novel :  and  certainly  both  his  style 
and  his  matter  show  a  happy  combination  of  manliness  and 
uprightness  of  feeling  with  desire  to  state  the  truth  as  it  is. 
Of  lati"  years  Perez  (iaUh'is  has  lived  chiefly  in  Madrid,  vary- 
ing his  literary  labors  with  those  of  a  deputy,  representing 
Puerto  Kico.  He  has  also  been  long  the  editor  of  the  best 
■Spanish  jieriodieal,  the  lierista  de  Esjiai'ia.  In  politics  he 
is  an  ardent  upholder  of  the  liberal-monarchical — i.  e.  consti- 
tutional— party.  There  are  numerous  editions  of  all  Perez 
Galch'is's  novels.  See  Leopoldo  Alas  (Clarin).  Benito  Perez 
Galdos,  estudio  crilico-liogrdfico  (Madrid,  1889). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Perfectionism  :  the  cloctrine  held  by  many,  both  Roman 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  that  it  is  possible  to  lead  a  sin- 
less life.  The  former  maintain  that  the  law  of  God  may  be 
and  frequently  is  perfectly  obeyed,  yet  that  no  man  is  en- 
tirely free  from  venial  sins — i.  e.  tliose  which  do  not  send 
the  soul  to  i)erdition.  They  claim  that  as  a  matter  of  fact 
many  do  lead  perfect  lives,  and  even  accumidate  a  fund 
of  supererogatory  merit.  The  commonest  teaching  on  the 
subject  among  Protestants  proceeds  from  the  Methodists, 
who  assert  that  it  is  possible  to  live  in  complete  confcjrmity 
to  (iod's  law;  yet  not  so  that  one  is  entirely  free  from 
errors  an<l  infirmities.  There  is,  however,  no  inward  dispo- 
sition to  sin,  anil  no  outward  commission  of  it,  so  there  is 
what  is  callecl  •' Christian  perfection,"  President  Asa  Ma- 
han,  of  Olierlin  University.  Uhio,  and  Prof,  Charles  G,  Fin- 
ney, both  Congregationalists,  taught  that  one  could  attain 
that  state  of  devotedness  to  God  which  is  refpiirecl  by  the 
moral  law.  So  among  the  Society  of  Friends  it  has  been 
held  that  the  justified  may  be  free  from  actual  sin ;  but  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  creeds  agree  in  maintaining  that 
'•  sanctificalion  is  never  perfected  in  this  life;  that  sin  is 
not  in  any  case  entirely  subdued  ;  so  that  the  most  advanced 
believer  has  need  so  long  as  he  continues  in  the  flesh  daily 
to  pray  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins"  (C.  Hodge).  Tliose  who 
accept  these  creeds  agree  also  that  perfection  with  those 
who  claim  it  is  a  relative  term:  that  it  is  ba.sed  upon  a  com- 
paratively shallow  conception  of  the  holiness  of  God  and 
the  deceitfulness  of  sin.  They  assert  that  the  g<idly  who 
lay  no  claim  to  perfection  do  live  as  holily  as  those  who  do. 


but  both  are  faulty,  an<l  that  the  claim  to  be  perfect  is  one 
which  no  one  can  make  without  great  risk  of  spiritual 
pride.  Sami'EI.  MACAtLiiV  Jacksox 

Perganiiis.  or  Perg'amiini :  an  ancient  city  of  Mysia, 
Asia  Minor;  was  founded  by  Greek  colonists  on  the  north- 
ern bank  of  the  river  Cai'cus,  I'^O  stadia  (less  than  1.^  miles) 
from  the  sea.  In  the  confusion  which  reigned  nUvT  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  city  became  im[)ortant  as 
the  stronghold  of  Lysimacluis.  His  governor,  Phileta'rus, 
ina<le  himself  indepjendent,  and  Attains  I.  (241-197  b.  <•,) 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  kingdom,  of  which  Pergamus  be- 
came the  ca|)ital.  The  Romans  favored  this  new  state  as  a 
useful  ally  against  ;Mace<ioiiia  and  Syria,  and  at  different 
times  Phrvgia,  Lydia,  Pisidia,  Lycaonia,  and  Paniphylia 
were  added  to  it.  Meanwhile  the  capital  l)ecauie  one  of  the 
greatest  and  most  magnificent  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  cele- 
brated for  its  architectural  monuments,  its  splendid  library, 
its  grammar  school,  its  invention  of  parchment,  etc.  On  his 
death  (133  B.  c.)  King  Attains  III.  bequeathed  his  possessions 
to  the  Romans,  and  they  made  Pergamus  the  focus  of  all 
the  great  military  and  commercial  routes  of  Asia  Minor. 
L^'nder  the  Byzantine  rule  it  rapidly  declined,  but  the  splen- 
did and  extensive  ruins  around  the  modern  Bkrgama  (q.  v.) 
testify  to  its  former  importance. 

Periander:  See  Corinth. 

Perianth :  See  Flower. 

Pericarditis:  See  Heart  Disease. 

Pericar'dinm  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ireptKapStoy.  ir«p(, 
around  +  KapSla.  heart] :  the  fibro-serous  sac  which  turrounds 
the  heart.  Its  outer  fibrous  part  is  very  dense  and  strong; 
its  inner  or  serous  lining  membrane  is  continuous  with 
that  wliich  covers  the  heart.  It  secretes  a  thin  lubricating 
serous  fluid  which  facilitates  the  motions  of  the  heart.  See 
Heart. 

Per'icles  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  UfpiKKijs.  nepiK\e-ns,  liter.,  far- 
famed  :  irepi.  around  +  K\eos.  fame] :  statesman ;  b.  at  Athens 
about  495  B.  c„  descended  on  the  father's  side  from  the  Pi- 
sistratida»,  on  the  mother's  from  the  Alcma?onidie  ;  received 
the  instruction  of  Zeno  and  Anaxagoras;  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  army,  and  entered,  about  469  B.  c,  on  his 
political  career  as  a  member  of  the  democratic  party.  He 
proposed  laws  according  to  which  the  funds  of  the  |niblic 
treasury  were  employed  for  the  benefit  of  the  poorer  classes. 
It  became  the  law  that  citizens  should  be  paid  when  serving 
in  the  army,  on  a  jury,  or  when  performing  any  other  public 
duty,  everi  when  attending  the  religious  festivals ;  and 
thereby  it  became  possible  for  the  poorer  classes  to  take 
part  liiore  actively  in  public  life.  By  these  laws  Pericles 
gained  the  attention  and  favor  of  his  party,  and  soon  he 
attained  the  absolute  leadership  of  it  by  his  eminent  talents, 
his  irresistible  eloquence,  his  adroitness  in  party  manam- 
vring,  and  his  wise  plans.  A  great  victory  was  achieved  over 
the  aristocratic  party  in  461  B.  r. ;  its  position  was  undermined 
and  its  leader  was  cruslied.  The  Areopagus,  which  was  the 
principal  political  organ  of  the  Athenian  oligarchy,  lost 
almost  entirely  its  influence  as  a  party  organ  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  new  jury  system  ;  and  after  his  unsuccessful 
campaign  against  Mt.  Ithome,  Cimon  was  impeached,  and 
shortly  after  banished  by  ostracism.  Pericles  was  now  in 
reality  the  ruler  of  the  stat<'.  Cimon  was  recalled  in  454 
B.  c,  tint  on  the  proposition  of  Pericles,  and  it  was  said  that 
there  existed  an  agreement  between  them,  according  to 
which  Cimon  should  command  the  army  on  its  foreign  ex- 
peditions and  Pericles  govern  at  home.  After  the  death  of 
Cimon,  in  449  b.  c,  the  aristocratic  party  was  reorganized 
by  one  Thucydides,  and  once  more  arrayed  against  Pericles. 
Ill  444  B.C.  Pericles  was  accused  of  sijuandering  the  public 
money  or  employing  it  for  inappropriate  pur|ioses,  but  the 
attempt  to  overthrow  him  failed,  Thucydides  was  banished 
by  ostracism,  and  henceforth  there  existed  in  Athens  no 
really  effective  opposition  to  Pericles.  He  was  arraigned 
once  more  for  embezzling  some  of  the  gold  destined  for  the 
statue  of  .\thene  in  the  Parthenon:  his  friends  were  repeat- 
edly attacked  ;  Phidias  died  in  prison,  Anaxagoras  was  ban- 
ished, ami  Aspasia  was  saved  only  by  great  exertions;  but 
these  and  other  similar  events  were  nothing  more  than  the 
outbursts  of  a  desperate  envy  and  maliciousness.  There  is 
no  instance  in  which  any  important  mea.sure  of  Pericles 
was  frustrated  by  an  internal  opposition.  It  was  the  great 
aim  of  his  policy  to  make  Athens  the  brilliant  and  magnifi- 
cent political  center  of  a  united  Greece.  He  oppose<l  his 
countrymen's  extravagant  [dans  of  concptest  in  Egypt,  Car- 


528 


PERICLES,   j\UE  OF 


PERIODICAL 


thage,  or  Sicily,  and  concentrated  his  whole  energy  on  the 
affairs  of  Greece  herself.  Athens  stood  at  the  head  of  a 
confederacy  of  several  Greek  states  for  defense  against  a 
possible  Pei-sian  invasion.  This  confederacy  held  its  meet- 
ings and  kept  its  treasury  at  Delos.  By  Perieles's  dexterous 
negotiations  both  the  meetings  and  the  treasury  were  trans- 
ferred to  Athens  ;  furthermore,  the  contiibutiuns  of  tlie  allies 
were  commuted  from  actual  service  to  a  sum  of  money,  for 
which  Athens  alone  undertook  to  furnish  the  whole  mititary 
armament.  Thus  the  supremacy  of  Athens  was  established, 
and  it  was  further  developed  by  the  successful  settlement 
of  new  colonies,  by  supporting  the  democratic  parties  in  the 
Greek  states,  etc.  Of  great  intl\ience  too  in  this  respect  were 
the  magnificence  of  the  city  and  the  splendor  of  the  life  led 
in  it.  It  was  the  time  of  Phidias,  Socrates,  Sophocles.  The 
Parthenon,  the  first  Odeon,  and  the  Propyla?a  were  built. 
Commerce  flourished,  and  many  branches  of  industry  were 
carried  to  perfection  ;  but  Athens  had  an  unrelenting  rival 
in  the  Spartan  aristocracy.  The  Peloponnesian  war  drew 
nearer  and  nearer,  and,  although  Pericles  warded  it  off  for 
several  years  by  bribery,  at  last  it  became  inevitable.  In  the 
same  year  that  it  broke  out  the  city  was  fearfully  devastated 
by  the  plague.  Next  year  Pericles  died  (429  B.  c),  and  with 
his  death  began  the  decline  of  Athens. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pericles,  Age  of :  See  Architecture. 

Peridot :  See  Chrysolite. 

Peridotite  [from  peridot,  French  name  for  chrysolite  or 
olivine] :  an  important  group  of  very  basic,  ferro-magne- 
sian,  igneous  rocks,  free  from  feldspar,  and  having  as  their 
essential  constituent  the  mineral  olivine.  Peridotites  are 
subdivided  according  to  the  minerals  which  they  contain 
beside  olivine  as  follows:  picrite  (-(- augite),  harzbnryite 
{+  enstatite),  biichnerife  {+  augite  -I-  enstatite),  tcehrlife 
( -I- diallage),  Iherzulite  ( -|- diallage -t- enstatite),  cortlandt- 
ite  (+  enstatite  +  hornblende),  scyelite  {+  biotite),  dunite 
{+  chroraite). 

The  peridotites  are  holocrystalline  rocks  usually  with  an 
evenly  granular  structure.  They  are  generally  considered 
to  be  of  igneous  origin,  and  have  been  definitely  proved  to 
be  so  in  some  cases.  Their  component  minerals  so  readily 
change  to  serpentine  that  rocks  of  this  class  may  be  re- 
garded as  having  given  rise  to  many  of  the  masses  of  ser- 
pentine so  common  in  the  older  geological  formations  of 
the  globe.  Some  of  the  types  of  peridotite  find  their  equiv- 
alents among  the  meteoric  stones. 

Another  group  of  ferro-magnesian  rocks  closely  allied  to 
the  peridotites  is  called  by  the  collective  name  pyroxenife. 
These  rocks  contain  too  little  alumina  to  allow  of  the  for- 
mation of  feldspar,  and  also  too  much  silica  to  permit  the 
crystallization  of  olivine.  They  are  composed  essentially  of 
pyroxene  in  different  varieties,  and  may  be  subdivided,  like 
the  peridotites,  into  bronzitite,  diallagite,  websterite  (bronz- 
ite  +  diallage),  etc.  G.  H.  Williams. 

Perier,  pe-ri-a',  Casimir  :  politician ;  b.  at  Grenoble, 
department  of  Isere,  Prance,  Oct.  21,  1777;  was  educated  at 
Lyons ;  served  for  a  short  time  in  the  army  ;  engaged  then 
in  the  large  and  prosperous  banking  business  established  at 
Paris  by  his  father  and  elder  brother;  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1817,  and  became  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  opposition  under  Charles  X.  After  the 
Revolution  of  Julv,  1830,  he  was  prime  minister  to  Louis 
Philippe,  from  Mar.  13,  1831,  to  his  death,  May  16.  1832, 
and  as  such  he  occupied  a  distinctly  defined  standpoint,  the 
so-called  y«s/e-»w7(eH,  which  he  vindicated  with  great  vigor, 
and  also  with  partial  success.  Attempts  at  insurrection 
were  speedily  put  down,  and  his  resistance  to  the  differently 
colored  tendencies  of  anarchy,  ultramontane  and  radical, 
which  showed  themselves  in  France  after  1830,  was  very 
effective.  Guizot,  who  in  several  respects  was  his  political 
disciple  and  heir,  has  given  a  very  vivid  and  impressive 
picture  of  him  in  his  Memoires.  His  speeches,  etc.,  were 
published,  with  a  biographical  notice  by  Charles  de  Remu- 
sat,  as  Opinions  et  discours  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1834). 

Revised  by  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Periers,  pc-ri-ii',  Jean  Bonavexture,  des :  author ;  b.  in 
Burgundy,  France,  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century; 
though  poor,  ha<i  a  liberal  education,  and  found  a  protector  in 
Marguerite  of  Xavarre.  From  l.")31  to  1.537  he  was  engaged 
ujion  the  translation  of  the  Lysis  ol  Plato,  in  aiding  Ktiennc 
Dolet  on  his  ('ommriilarii  hiii/tid'  lnllnii\  and  nlher  scholar- 
ly labors.     In   1337  he  published  the  Cyinbatuin  mutidi,  a 


veiled  attack  on  religion,  which  was  burned  by  the  parle- 
niifnt,  lost  liirn  the  patronage  of  Jlarguerite,  and  drew  to 
him  such  universal  suspicion  that  he  committed  suicide 
about  1544.  His  best-known  work  is  his  JS'ouvelles  recrea- 
tions et  Joyeiix  devis.  a  collection  of  short  stories  reviving 
somewhat  the  matter  and  the  spirit  of  the  old  fableaux. 
His  works  have  been  edited  by  Lacour  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1866) ; 
the  Cyinbalum  miindi,  \\i\h  a  valuable  commentary,  by  F. 
Frank  (Paris,  1874).  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Per'ig-ee  [Gr.  ircpf,  around,  near  -l-  7^,  earth]  :  in  astron- 
omy, that  point  of  the  moon's  orbit  which  is  nearest  to  the 
earth.  Anciently,  when  the  sun  and  planefs  were  supposed 
to  circulate  around  the  earth,  the  term  was  also  applied  to 
them. 

PSrignenx,  pare~ego'  (anc.  Yesnniia):  town:  in  the  de- 
partment of  Dordogne,  France;  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Isle,  a  tributary  of  the  Dordogne,  95  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of 
Bordeaux  (see' map  of  France,  ref.  7-D).  The  old  part  of 
the  city,  containing  the  magnificent  cathedral  and  many 
interesting  Roman  remains,  consists  of  narrow  and  gloomy 
streets,  but  it  is  encircled  by  new  and  elegant  boulevards 
occupying  the  site  of  the  old  walls  and  ramparts.  A  large 
trade  "in  liqueurs,  truffles,  partridges,  and  wine,  and  some 
manufactures  of  paper  and  woolens  are  carried  on.  Pop. 
(1891)  31,439. 

Perilie'lion  [Gr.  wepl.  around,  near  -1-  iJAios,  sun] :  in  as- 
tronomy, tluit  [loint  in  the  orbit  of  a  planet  or  comet  which 
is  nearest  to  the  sun.  Its  position  or  longitude  is  one  of  the 
elements  by  which  the  orbit  is  determined. 

Perim,  pf7-reem' :  a  small  island  belonging  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, in  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  at  tlie  entrance  of  the 
Red  Sea,  19  miles  from  the  African  coast  and  \i  mile  from 
the  Arabian.  Area,  7  sq.  miles.  It  rises  about  230  feet  from 
the  sea,  is  rocky,  nearly  destitute  of  vegetation,  and  with- 
out water,  but  it  has  a  good  harbor  on  its  southern  coast, 
and  its  fortifications  command  the  strait  on  both  sides. 
The  passage  generally  tised  by  vessels  going  to  or  from  the 
Red  Sea  is  the  narrow  one  between  tlie  island  and  the  Ara- 
bian co.ast.  Perim  was  first  occupied  by  the  British  in 
1799,  while  Napoleon  was  in  Egypt.  It  was  given  up  in 
1801,  but  again  occupied  and  fortified  in  1857,  on  account 
of  the  cutting  of  the  Suez  Canal.  In  1883  it  was  made  a 
coaling  station.  The  island  is  nnder  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
governor  of  Bombay  Presidency.     Pop.  about  400. 

Periodical :  any  publication  appearing  at  stated  inter- 
vals. In  current  usage  the  word  is  applied  only  to  publi- 
cations composed  of  miscellaneons  articles,  appearing  less 
often  than  once  a  week  and  more  frequently  than  once  a 
year,  thus  excluding  the  daily  and  weekly  newsjiapcrs  on 
the  one  hand,  and  annual  publications,  such  as  almanacs,  di- 
rectories, etc.,  on  the  other.  Using  the  word  in  this  re- 
stricted sense,  periodicals  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three 
main  groups :  (1)  Magazines  and  reviews  devoted  to  general 
literature  and  science;  (2)  what  may  be  termed  class  peri- 
odicals, devoted  to  particular  branches  of  science,  art.  or  in- 
dustry: (3)  publications  of  academies  and  societies,  though 
in  this  group  it  is  often  difficult  to  determine  what  is  and 
what  is  not  entitled  to  be  callc<l  a  periodical.  As  regards 
form,  by  far  the  greater  number  of  periodicals  in  the  Eng- 
lish language  are  monthly  publications,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  continental  European  periodicals  as  a  whole, 
though  in  France  and  Italy  the  fortnightly  is  a  favorite 
form;  and  in  Germany  a  large  and  constantly  increasing 
number  of  periodicals  are  issued  at  irregular  intervals. 

The  earliest  representative  of  the  modern  periodical  is 
generally  considered  to  be  the  still  flourishing  Journal  dea 
Siirants,  which  began  its  career  in  Jan..  1665,  as  a  weekly 
review  of  literary  events,  but,  after  the  thirteenth  ntimber, 
was  issued  at  irregular  intervals  down  to  1723,  when  it  sus- 
pended pulilication.  to  reappear  as  a  monthly  in  1724;  after 
several  sulisequcnt  internijitions  it  was  finally  re-established 
in  1816  as  the  organ  of  the  French  Academy,  and  is  now 
edited  by  a  committee  of  scholars  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Minister  of  I'ublic  Instruction.  Though  the  origin  of  the 
modern  periodical  may  thus  be  traced  back  to  the  seven- 
teenth century,  its  development  was  slow,  and  the  periodicals 
of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  were  neither 
numerous  nor  of  great  imiiortance.  Thus  we  find  that  of 
the  5.100  scientific  and  technical  periodicals  recorded  in 
Bolton's  catalogue  as  piiWished  during  the  period  from  1665 
to  1882.  apparc'utlv  not  more  tlian  eighty  were  in  existence 
before  1800,  and  of  the  232   literary"  periodicals  inqiortant 


pe;riodic'al 


PERISTALTIC   MOTIONS 


529 


•enough  to  be  iiicludi'il  in  Poole's  Index  to  English  Litem- 
Jure,  only  three  date  Imc-k  to  1800.  The  foundation  of  T/ie 
Edinburgh  Review  in  1H03  may  be  taken  as  the  starting- 
point  of  this  remarkable  devuloiiraent  of  English  pcriodieal 
literature,  and  in  traeing  its  eourse  we  find  that  tlie  decade 
from  184U  t(j  18")0  was  notalily  iirolifie  in  new  periodieals,  as 
was  also  the  decade  from  ISfiO  to  ISTtJ,  which  was  marked  by 
the  rise  of  the  shilling  magazines.  In  the  U.  S.  the  period- 
icals of  the  eighteenth  century  were  few.  and,  as  a  rule,  had 
but  a  brief  existence.  It  was  not  till  about  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century  that  what  we  now  regard  as  the  dis- 
tinctively American  type  of  monthly  magazine  began  to  ap- 
pear. Tiie  illustrations  which  form  one  of  tlie  characteristic 
features  of  this  type,  at  first  crude  and  coarse  in  execution, 
have  now  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  obtain  accurate  statistics  of  the 
number  of  perioiiicals  now  appearing  throughout  the  world, 
but  taking  the  best  available  statistics  for  the  U.  .S.  alone 
we  find  that  in  1892  the  total  number  of  all  kinds  of  period- 
icals published  in  the  U.  S..  excluding  newspapers  and  an- 
nuals, was  :J.;W9.  Of  these,  307  appeared  fortnightly,  2,7.54 
monthly,  56  lii-monthly,  and  192  quarterly.  Tliese  figures 
may  give  sume  idea  of  the  enormous  numlier  of  periodicals 
now  published.  In  every  country  of  the  civilized  world  each 
science,  art,  and  industry  has  its  own  special  journals. 

The  few  really  valuable  and  important  papers  which  see 
the  light  in  periodicals  would  .soon  lie  buried  in  the  mass  of 
forgotten  or  neglected  journals  were  it  not  for  the  existence 
of  indexes  and  special  bibliographies  which  furnish  a  clew 
to  this  labyrinth  of  literature.  ,\niong  the  more  ijuportant 
of  these  indexes  are  the  following  :  Poole  and  Fletcher's  In- 
dex to  Firiodical  Literature  (from  1800  to  1882),  with  its 
two  supplements  (188H-87  an(l  1887-92);  it  includes  only 
periodicals  in  the  English  language,  and  purely  professional 
and  scientific  journals  are  generally  omitted.  A  continua- 
tion of  this  is  The  Annual  Literary  Index  (1892-93).  An 
animal  Index  to  Periodical  Literature  is  also  published  by 
The  Review  of  Reriews.  The  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Papers 
(1800-(i:J),  compiled  and  i)ublished  by  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  with  its  two  supplements  (1863-73  and  1873-83),  is 
an  alphalietical  index,  by  authors,  of  scientific  papers  con- 
tained in  the  transactions  of  societies,  journals,  and  other 
periodical  works  which  have  been  published  throughout  the 
world  since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  ex- 
cluding such  papers  as  are  purely  literary,  technical,  or  pro- 
fessional. For  technical  literature  an  admirable  guide  is 
provided  by  the  Repertorium  der  technischen  Journal-Lit- 
teratur,  now  published  animally  in  Berlin  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  German  Patent  Utlice.  This  index,  begun  by 
.Schubarth,  with  an  index  covering  the  period  from  1823  to 
1853,  and  continued  by  Kerl  and  Kieth,  gives  under  subject- 
headings  the  contents  of  all  the  important  technical  period- 
icals of  the  world.  The  hidex  Medicus,  edited  by  Billings 
and  Fletcher  and  published  monthly,  supplies  a  classified 
subject-index  of  the  current  medical  literature  of  the  world. 
A  very  full  listof  special  bibliographies  and  of  indexes  to 
periodicals  is  given  in  the  Handbook  for  Readers,  issued  by 
the  Bo.ston  Public  Library. 

Of  periodicals  themselves  there  exists  no  universal  cata- 
logue. Probably  the  volumes  of  the  British  Museum  Cata- 
logue devoted  to  Academies  and  Periodicals  give  the  largest 
and  fullest  general  list  of  ]ieriodicals  to  be  found  anywhere. 
For  scientific  periodicals  we  have  Bolton's  C'o/a/or/»e  ofSci- 
■entific  and  Technical  Periodicals,  KiHo-lHS-i,  published  by 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  ;  this  was  intended  to  contain  the 
priiK'ipal  independent  perioilic'als  of  any  branch  of  pure  and 
applied  science  publishe<l  in  all  countries  down  to  1K82,  but 
medical  periodicals  and  serials  [lublished  by  scientific  socie- 
ties are  not  included.  This  is  supjilemented  by  Scudder's 
Catalogue  of  Scientific  Serials  of  all  Countries,  including 
the  Transactions  of  Learned  Societies  in  the  JVatural, 
Physical,  and  Mathematical  Sciences,  1633-1870,  published 
by  Harvard  University. 

For  the  current  periodicals  of  different  countries,  ref- 
erence must  be  nuide  to  such  animal  publications  as  the 
American  yewspa/ier  Directory  for  the  U.  S.,  JIay's  liritish 
and  Irish  Press  Guide  for  Great  Britain,  Annnnire  de  la 
Presse  frani;aise  for  France,  Deutscher  Journal- /uitalog  for 
Germany,  etc.  The  growth  of  the  periodical  press  in  the 
U.  S.  is  well  described  in  North's  History  and  Present  Con- 
dition of  the  2\'ewspaper  and  Periodical  Press  of  the  United 
jSlates,  with  a  Catalogue  of  the  Publications  of  the  Census 
Year,  in  vol.  viii.  of  the  tenth  census  of  the  U.  S. 

G.  W.  Harris. 
318 


Periodic  Law  :  See  Chemistry. 

I'fritu'ci  [=  Lat.  —  Gr.  iKpiotKot,  plur.  of  irepiotKos,  dwell- 
ing around;  ncpi,  around -I- oTkos,  house,  dwelling] :  in  Laconia 
and  other  ancient  Dorian  lands,  the  descendants  of  the  more 
ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country.  The  Periojci  were  free- 
men, and  not  strictly  vassals,  nnu-h  less  serfs  like  the  He- 
lots, but  they  were  inferior  in  social  rank  and  political  rights 
to  the  S|iartiata^  They  occupied  the  iuferiiu'  kind  of  lands, 
were  artisans,  merchants,  and  saihjrs,  and  had  at  times  a 
share  in  the  government.  They  might,  at  least  at  some  pe- 
riods, intermarry  with  the  Dorians,  and  they  served  in  war 
even  as  hoplites,  though  not  in  the  same  corj)s  with  Dorians, 
They  were  in  many  cases  people  of  wealth  and  refinement. 
Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett, 

I'erios'lcum  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  (ir.  irepK^o-Teos.  surrounding 
b{mes  ;  ir€p(,  around  -t-  oo-tcov,  bone] :  the  strong  filirous  mem- 
brane wiiich  surrounds  the  bones,  excepting  only  the  [)arts 
covered  with  cartilage.  It  is  found  also  around  the  roots 
of  the  teeth,  and  lines  the  sockets  in  which  the  teeth  are 
fixed.  That  which  covers  the  outside  of  the  skull  is  the 
pericranium,  and  that  within  the  skull  is  the  dura  mater; 
but  the  dura  muter  of  the  spinal  cord  is  distinct  from  the 
periosteum.  The  periosteal  membrane  is  called  endosteum 
when  it  lines  the  medullary  cavity  of  a  bone.  The  perios- 
teum is  continuous  with  the  tendons  and  ligaments.  It  is 
very  vascular,  and  ]ilays  an  important  part  in  the  growth 
and  nutrition  of  bone.  Thus,  in  operations  for  the  removal 
of  diseased  bone  the  periosteum  should  be  carefully  peeled 
off  and  left  in  situ,  and  in  many  cases  new  and  healthy 
bone  will  be  developed  from  it,  especially  if  the  patient  be 
young.     See  Histology  (Bone).      Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Periosti'tis  [Mod.  Lat.;  perio.'i  teum  (which  see)  -i-  suffix 
-itis,  denoting  a  disease  of] :  the  inflammation  of  the  peri- 
osteum ;  sometimes  caused  by  a  syphilitic,  scrofulous,  or 
perhajis  rheumatic  dyscrasia,  or  by  injury  ;  it  is  also  very 
commonly  induced  in  boys  and  young  men  by  a  sudden  ex- 
posure to  severe  cold,  as  by  bathing  in  very  cold  water  after 
violent  exercise,  by  standing  long  in  cold  water,  and  the  like. 
It  is  a  very  painful  disease,  and  is  best  treated  by  local 
poultices,  by  opiates,  and  by  free  incisions.  Cases  due  to 
any  specific  cause  will  require  special  constitutional  treat- 
ment. Revised  by  \V.  Pepper. 

Peripatetic  Pliilosopliy  :  See  Aristotle. 
Peripatiis:  See  O.nychophor.a. 

Perissodac'tyla  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  nepiaais.  odd,  liter.,  ex- 
tra, over,  superfluous  (deriv.  of  vepl.  around,  over,  beyond) 
+  SdKTu\os.  finger,  toe] :  a  sub-order — or,  according  to  some 
authors,  an  order — of  the  hoofed  animals  (Ungulata),  so 
named  because  the  digits  are  unpaired  or  unequal.  These 
are  unpaired  or  uneven,  the  third  being  the  largest  and  most 
exserted,  the  fourth  nearly  coequal  in  size  and  position  with 
the  second,  and  the  fifth  on  the  hind  foot  at  least  atrophied  ; 
the  astragalus  has  the  anterior  or  inferior  articulate  surface 
divided  into  two  very  unequal  facets  :  the  femur  is  provided 
with  a  third  trochanter  ;  the  dorso-Iumbar  vertebra' are  in 
increased  number — i.  e.  not  less  than  twenty-two  (d.  IS—  19 
-f  1,  1-3  —  0).  The  skull  has  the  intermaxillary  bones  tecti- 
form  or  shelving  in  a  roof-like  manner  above,  and  united  at 
the  symphyses,  and  the  incisors,  when  present,  are  implanted 
nearly  vertically,  and  are  parallel  tg  their  roots;  the  stom- 
ach is  ca'cal ;  the  CiPcum  very  nuich  enlarged  and  saccu- 
lated. The  sub-order  thus  tlistinguished  includes  three 
families  represented  by  living  forms:  the  tapirs  (Tapi- 
rid(P).  rhinoceroses  {Rhinocerotidiv).  and  horses  (Eguidce). 
In  previous  geological  ages  numerous  others,  more  or  less 
related  to  them,  flourished.  The  affinities  of  these  forms 
were,  to  some  extent,  recognized  by  Cuvier,  and  still  more 
by  de  Blainville,  but  the  sub-order  was  first  distinctly  in- 
troduced with  fiinnal  characters  by  Prof,  Owen. 

Peristaltic  Motions  [/)('r/.s('r(?/('c  is  from  Gr.  irfpi(TTa\TiK6s, 
clasping  and  compressing,  deriv.  of  ■ntpiariWdii.  wrap  up, 
wrap  around  ;  ir€p(,  around -(- iTTfAAei^,  send];  ci-rtain  move- 
ments which  take  place  in  the  alimentary  camd,  the  term  be- 
ing generally  restricted  to  the  worm-like  action  by  means  of 
winch  the  food  is  carried  to  and  fro  over  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  stomach  and  intestines.  The  walls  of  both  stomach 
and  intestines  are  made  up  of  two  layers  of  involuntary  mus- 
cular tissue,  which  are  arranged  as  an  external  Icmgitudinal 
and  an  internal  circular  ;  the  outermost  layer  of  the  intestine 
is  serous,  and  is  simply  a  reflexion  of  the  peritoneum.  The 
internal  coat  consists  of  a  mucous  tissue,  varying  in  struc- 
ture in  different  parts.     From  the  anatomy  of  the  jiarts  it  is 


530 


PERISTEROPODES 


PERJURY 


easy  to  perceive  how,  by  the  simple  action  of  its  muscular 
walls,  the  food  after  its  entrance  into  the  stomach  is  first 
moved  about  in  this  organ,  and  then,  having  passed  into  the 
small  intestine,  is  carried  onward  by  the  gradual  contrac- 
tion and  relaxation,  which,  starting  from  above,  is  con- 
tinued downward.  During  the  processes  of  digestion  this 
movement  is  readily  observed  by  opening  the  abdomen  of  a 
living  animal,  audit  will  be  seen  that  the  movement  con- 
tinues for  a  short  time,  then  ceases,  to  be  renewed.  Not 
only  does  tlie  muscular  wall  carry  the  food  toward  the  out- 
let of  the  canal,  but  often  after  the  mass  has  been  pushed, 
or  rather  squeezed,  for  a  certain  distance  downward,  it  is 
carried  back  again  in  the  opposite  direction  (antiperistaltic 
movement).  There  is  probably  little  if  any  peristaltic  ac- 
tion while  the  intestine  is  empty,  it  being  the  stimulus  of 
food  wliich  causes  it.  The  alimentary  mass,  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  periphery  of  the  nerves  situated  in  the  mucous 
membrane,  imparts  a  certain  amount  of  irritation,  which  is 
followed  by  muscular  movement — i.  e.  contraction  an<l  re- 
laxation— probably  through  the  agency  of  the  ganglionic 
plexus,  situated  in  the  walls  of  the  intestine ;  and  this  slow, 
gradual  passage  of  the  food  backward  and  forward  is  re- 
quired for  the  processes  of  digestion.  Various  other  theo- 
ries are  entertained  in  regard  to  the  causation  of  peristalsis. 
The  bile  does  probably  aid  by  stimnlating  activity,  but  the 
direct  irritation  by  food  and  effete  products  is  the  impor- 
tant agency.  Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Peristerop'odeS  [from  Gr.  irepKTTfpd,  pigeon  +  ttoiSs,  TroS6s. 
foot] :  a  division,  or  sub-order,  of  the  (jriillina;  including 
the  curassows  and  mound-bnilders.  distinguished  by  having 
the  hind  toe  long  and  on  a  level  with  the  others  as  in  pi- 
geons ;  contrasted  with  Alectampodes,  or  true  fowls,  which 
have  the  hind  toe  short  and  elevated.  P.  A.  L. 

Peritliecia :  See  Fungi. 

Peritoiieiini :  See  Peritonitis. 

Peritoni'tis  [Mod.  Lat.,  deriv.  ot  peritone'um(ei.  Perios- 
titis), =  Gr.  neptrivaioi/,  liter.,  neut.  of  irepiTitiatos,  stretched 
or  stretching  over  or  all  aronnd,  peritoneum :  irepl.  around 
+ -reivfiv,  stretch]:  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum,  a  se- 
rous membrane  investing  the  viscera  of  the  abdomen  ;  popu- 
larly designated  "  inflammation  of  the  bowels."  The  peri- 
toneum has  two  layers,  and  constitutes  a  closed  sac ;  the 
external  layer  lines  the  abdominal  walls ;  the  internal  is  re- 
flected over  the  stomach  and  intestines,  liver,  spleen,  ova- 
ries, uterus,  and  bladder.  These  opposed  surfaces  are  smooth 
and  lubricated  by  secreted  serum,  permitting  the  tree  move- 
ments of  the  viscera,  their  ascent  and  descent  in  respiration, 
and  the  peristaltic  movements  of  the  bowels. 

Peritonitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum,  may  be 
due  to  traumatism,  to  cold,  to  extension  of  inflammation  from 
other  organs,  to  general  disorder  of  the  blood,  or  infection. 
Traumatic  peritonitis  is  the  result  of  bruises,  wounds,  and 
surgical  operations.  Idiopathic  peritonitis  is  a  j)rimary  in- 
flammation resulting  from  perverted  conditions  of  the 
blood,  or  from  exposure  to  cold.  Local  peritonitis  from 
extension  of  inflammation  is  a  frequent  occurrence,  the  in- 
flammatory process  being  limited  to  the  peritoneal  invest- 
ment of  a  single  organ,  as  the  liver,  uterus,  or  ovary.  A 
very  important  source  of  localized  peritonitis  is  the  diseased 
vermiform  appendix.  Very  many  cases  of  so-called  idio- 
pathic peritonitis  really  begin  as  appendicitis.  Puerperal 
peritonitis  is  inflammation  of  the  uterus  and  peritoneum  fol- 
lowing confinement.  (See  Puerperal  Fever.)  Tubercular 
peritonitis  is  an  infective  form  due  to  the  action  of  the  same 
bacillus  as  that  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  which  gains  ac- 
cess to  the  peritr)neum  through  the  food,  or  through  the 
blood  from  a  primary  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs,  intestines, 
etc.  It  is  usually  chronic,  and  consists  in  the  deposition  of 
inflamuuitory  lymph  and  miliary  tubercles,  with  interspersed 
masses  of  caseous  matter,  or  yellow  tubercle  ;  tubercle  usu- 
ally coexists  in  the  lungs  and  other  organs.  Acute  peritoni- 
tis, as  a  rule,  is  of  sudden  onset.  Abdominal  pain  is  its  prom- 
inent symptom,  at  first  localized,  but  quickly  diffused  over 
the  entire  abdomen.  The  pain  is  increased  "by  jiressure,  by 
the  movements  of  respiration,  and  by  tension  of  the  abdom- 
inal muscles.  The  breathing  is  therefore  chiefly  thoracic, 
the  diaphragm  fixed  to  prevent  abdominal  movement,  and 
the  respiration  is  correspondingly  shallow,  restrained,  and 
rapid.  The  limtis  are  retracted  upon  the  body  to  relax  ten- 
sion of  the  abdominal  surface.  There  is  temporary  paralysis 
of  the  muscular  coal  of  the  bowel ;  constipation  results,  also 
extreme  flatulent  distension  of  the  intestines,  and  general 
tumefaction  of  the  abdomen.     The  inflamed  surface  is  so 


extensive,  invests  so  many  important  organs,  producing  ex- 
tensive peripheral  nerve-irritation  as  well  as  impressions  on 
the  plexuses  of  the  sympathetic  nerve,  that  the  constitu- 
tional de|U'ession  is  very  marked.  The  face  is  pale,  hag- 
gard, and  anxious,  wearing  an  expression  of  great  suffering. 
The  teeth  are  set,  the  li[is  tightly  drawn,  the  eye  set  and 
sunken,  the  cheeks  collapsed — in  extreme  cases  constituting 
the  Hippoeratic  fades,  or  fades  grife  of  the  French.  Peri- 
tonitis is  always  a  dangerous  disease,  but  its  termination 
depends  upon  early  diagnosis  and  a  correct  treatment,  con- 
ducted with  vigor  and  persistence.  When  incipient,  it  may 
be  aborted  or  limited  by  local  use  of  ice  or  cold  water,  local 
dry  cupping,  cardiac  sedatives,  as  veratrum,  and  a  single 
prompt  saline  purge.  If  fully  developed,  opium  is  the  su- 
preme remedy  to  allay  pain  and  secure  absolute  rest  of  the 
intestines  from  their  physiological  peristaltic  action.  In 
peritonitis  the  tolerance  of  opium  is  very  great.  In  some 
forms  of  peritonitis,  particularly  in  the  puerperal,  small 
doses  of  saline  purges,  given  at  short  intervals  to  produce 
gentle  looseness  of  the  bowels,  act  with  better  success  than 
opium.  The  cold  water  or  ice  pack,  if  judiciously  used,  will 
be  of  value  during  the  acute  period  of  the  disease,  but  later 
warm  and  anodyne  applications  are  preferable.  Curiously 
enough,  chronic  tuberculous  peritonitis  is  sometimes  cura- 
ble by  simple  opening  ot  the  abdomen  (cceliotomy  or  lap- 
arotomy) and  flushing  out  the  cavity  with  an  antiseptic  so- 
lution. Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Periwinkle  :  any  one  of  various  half-shrubby  and  herba- 
ceous erect  or  trailing  plants  of  the  genus  Vi/ica  aiul  family 
AjiocynacecB.  The  V.  major,  V.  minor,  and  1'.  herbacea  of 
the  gardens  are  hardy  European  plants.  T".  rosea,  a  fine 
greenhouse  evergreen  shrub,  grows  wild  in  most  tropical  re- 
gions, and  also  in  Florida. 

Periwinkle :  the  popular  name  for  several  small  gas- 
teropodous  molluscs  of  the  genus  Littorina  and  allied  gen- 
era, and  particularly  Littorina  Uttorea.a,  species  much  used 
for  food  m  Europe,  several  hundred  tons  being  eaten  yearly. 
The  species  has  become  quite  abundant  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  U.  S.  The  name  is  also  applied  in  the  U.  S.  to  sev- 
eral large  molluscs,  Busycon  carica,  Sycotypus cayialiculatus, 
and  species  of  Purpura  which  do  great  damage  to  the  oys- 
ter beds  of  the  eastern  coast.  P.  A.  L. 

Perizo'nius.  Jacob  (Voorbroek):  historian  and  philolo- 
gian ;  b.  at  Dam.  in  Holland,  in  1651 ;  studied  under  Grje- 
vius  at  Levden  ;  Professor  of  Ancient  History  at  Franeker 
in  1681,  at'Leyden  in  1693:  d.  Apr.  6,  1715.  "His  principal 
works  are  editions  of  JElian,  Dictys  Cretensis  et  Dares 
Phrygius,  Q.  Curtius.  Animadversiones  historicce  (1685;  2d 
ed.  by  Harles,  with  biography,  ITTl) ;  Origines  Babylun.  et 
JEgiJitt.  (2  vols.,  1711;  2d  eil.  1736);  Adnotationes  in  Sue- 
totiium,  Observationes  in  Vahrium  Maximum.  See  W. 
Kramer,  Elogium  Perizonii  (1822) ;  Hofman-Peerlkamp  in 
Bibl.  eritira  nova  (v.,  pp.  545-552),  and  Ersch  und  Gruber 
(iii.,  pt.  17.  pp.  108-113).  Alfred  Gudeman. 

Perjury  [via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  perju'rium,  a  forswearing, 
a  false  oaih,  deriv.  ot perjura' re,  swear  falsely,  perjure;  per, 
through -l-./«ra>e,  swear]:  at  common  law,  the  crime  of 
willfully  giving  false  material  testimony  under  a  lawful 
oath  in"  any  judicial  proceeding.  Jlodern  statutes  have  ex- 
tended its  scope.  For  example,  §  5392  of  the  U.  S.  Revised 
Statutes  provides  that  "every  person  who,  having  taken  an 
oath  before  a  competent  tribunal,  oflicer,  or  person,  in  any 
case  in  which  a  law  of  the  U".  S.  authorizes  an  oath  to  be 
administered,  that  he  will  testify,  declare,  depose,  or  cer- 
tify truly,  or  that  any  written  testimony,  declaration,  depo- 
sition, or  certificate  liy  him  subscribed  is  true,  willfully  and 
contrarv  to  such  oathstates  or  subscribes  any  material  mat- 
ter which  he  does  not  believe  to  be  true,  is  guilty  of  perjury, 
and  shall  be  punished  by  fine  of  not  more  than  .f  2,000,  and 
by  imprisonment  at  hard  labor  not  more  than  five  years." 
See  Oath. 

Whether  the  false  testimony  was  material  is  a  question 
for  the  court.  It  it  was  material,  it  does  not  matter  that 
the  witness  was  incompetent,  or  that  his  testimony  was 
erroneously  admitted,  or  that  it  was  not  believed.  The 
essence  of  the  crime  is  not  the  harm  actually  inflicted  upon 
a  particular  litigant,  but  the  false  swearing  with  the  inten- 
tion to  pervert  justice.  Hence  one  commits  perjury  who 
s%vears  to  something  of  which  he  is  conscious  lie  has  no 
knowledge,  although  it  turns  out  to  be  true.  If  the  opinion 
of  a  witne.ss  is  material,  he  commits  perjury  by  a  willfully 
false  expression  of  it. 

As  perjury  in  a  judicial  proceeding  is  peculiarly  an  of- 


PEUKINS 


PERNAM15UC0 


531 


fense  against  the  system  of  laws  under  which  the  court  is 
organized,  it  has  been  lield  in  the  U.  S.  that  piTJury  com- 
mitted in  a  Federal  court  is  not  punishable  in  a  State  court. 
In  some  cases,  however,  a  State  otiicer  is  autliorized  by  Fed- 
eral law  to  administer  an  oath  in  matters  of  Federal  juris- 
diction, and  perjury  before  such  an  officer  is  a  crime  against 
the  U.  S. 

The  punishment  for  perjury  has  always  been  severe.  An- 
ciently it  was  death  :  then  banishment  or  the  cutting  out 
of  the  tongue;  later,  the  forfeiture  of  goods,  while  at  pres- 
ent it  is  generally  a  fine  or  imprisonment  and  incapacity  to 
be  a  witness.  Formerly  the  evidence  of  two  witnesses  was 
necessary  to  convict  one  of  perjury,  on  the  theorj-  that  the 
oath  of  the  witness  for  the  prosecution  was  no  weightier 
than  that  of  the  prisoner.  The  present  rule  is  that  the  evi- 
dence of  the  prosecution  must  be  sufficient  to  counterbal- 
ance the  prisoners  oath,  and  the  presumption  of  his  inno- 
cence.   See  U.  S.  vs.  Wood,  14  Peters  430. 

FrA>"CIS  3[.  BURDICK. 

I'erkiiis.  Klisha  :  [ihysician  :  b.  at  Xorwich,  Conn.,  .Ian. 
If!.  1741  :  established  and  supported  an  academy  at  Plain- 
field,  where  he  practiced  medicine  with  great  success.  In 
170(i  he  announced  the  invention  of  metallic  tractors  for  the 
cure  of  rheumatism,  gout,  and  the  like  diseases.  His  son 
went  to  Europe  with  the  tractors,  where,  as  well  as  in  the 
U.  .S.,  the  new  euro,  called  Perkinism,  attracted  great  at- 
tention, and  wa.s  favorably  received  even  by  physicians. 
Ijord  Rivers  presided  over  a  Perkinian  institution  in  which 
many  marvelous  cures  were  wrought  solely  by  the  power  of 
imagination,  for  the  tractors  were  simply  pins  of  iron  and 
brass  which  were  drawn  over  the  affected  part.  In  Copen- 
hagen the  medical  faculty  published  a  voluminous  report  in 
favor  of  Perkinism  ;  and  when  in  1803  the  British  physi- 
cians had  begun  to  see  through  the  ijuposture,  Thomas  G. 
Fesseiideu  produced  his  Terrible  Tractnration  as  a  defense 
of  Perkins  and  a  satire  upon  the  doctors.  Perkins  after- 
ward invented  a  remedy  of  great  alleged  value  in  the  cure 
of  fevers,  and  <iuring  a  yellow-fever  sca.son  in  New  York 
went  there  to  test  its  value,  but  fell  a  victim  to  the  disease, 
Sept.  6.  1799. 

Porkins,  Jacob:  inventor;  b.  at  Newburyport,  Mass., 
July  9.  1766  ;  was  in  childhood  jipprenticed  to  a  goldsmith  ; 
invented  a  new  method  of  plating  shoe-buckles ;  was  em- 
ployed in  1797  to  make  dies  for  the  State  coinage  ;  invented 
soon  afterward  a  nuichine  for  cutting  and  heading  nails  at 
a  single  operation,  and  was  the  originator  of  the  use  of  steel 
instead  of  copper  plates  for  engraving  bank-notes.  After 
residing  some  vears  in  Boston  and  New  York  he  engaged 
in  business  in  t*hiladelphia  in  1814  as  a  bank-note  engraver : 
went  to  England  inlslS;  obtained  a  contract  for  supply- 
ing plates  to  the  Bank  of  Ireland  ;  was  the  inventor  of  the 
steam-gun,  of  the  bathometer  for  measuring  the  depth  of 
water,  of  the  pleometer  for  registering  the  speed  of  vessels, 
and  largely  aided  in  iierfecting  the  manufacture  of  the 
steam-engine.     I),  in  London,  July  30,  1849. 

IVrlidse:  See  Entomology. 

Perm  :  the  easternmost  government  of  European  Russia. 
Area,  128,211  scj.  nules  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  6-II).  The 
larger,  central  |)art  of  the  country  is  covered  by  the  Ural 
Mountains,  which  attain  a  height  of  .5.3G0  feet.  The  chief 
branch  of  industry  is  mining.  Gold,  silver.  platin\im,  iron, 
salt,  coal,  alabaster,  marble,  and  diamonds  arc  found,  and 
some  of  the  mines  are  very  rich.  The  platinum  mines  (see 
I'LATiNtM)  are  the  richest  in  the  world.  The  western  part 
of  the  government,  situated  on  the  European  side  of  the 
mountains,  has  some  good  agricultural  land  where  rye,  oats, 
barlev,  and  potatoes  are  grown ;  on  the  Siberian  side  the 
country  is  fit  oidy  for  pa.sl ures.  Pop.  (1890)  2.811,300.  The 
capital,  Perm,  on  the  Kama,  carries  on  an  extensive  transit 
trade  between  European  and  Asiatic  Russia,  and  has  a  cathe- 
dral, distilleries,  flour-mills,  and  a  cannon-foundrv.  Pop. 
(1890)  39,281. 

Permanent  Way  :  in  railway  engineering,  the  road-bed. 
track,  bridges,  and  buildings  of  a  line  of  railway,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  rolling  stock,  which  consists  of  the  loco- 
motives and  cars. 

Permanganates :  See  Manganese. 
Pcrmangan'ic  Acid  :  See  Manganese. 
Permeability  and  Permeance:  See  Magnetism  of  Iron. 
Permian  Series  :  in  geology,  a  group  of  rocks  occurring 
in  the  i)rovincc  of  Perm,  Russia.     Formations  of  various 


other  countries  have  been  recognized  as  their  equivalents, 
and  by  some  taxonomisls  the  corresponding  portion  of  geo- 
logic time  is  styled  the  Permian  period,  and  nuide  co-ordi- 
nate with  the  Carboniferous  and  other  great  divisions  of  the 
Paheozoic  era.  A  more  prevalent  usage  recognizes  the  Per- 
mian epoch  as  the  closing  part  of  the  Carboniferous  period. 
In  the  I'.  S.  approximate  eciuivalcnts  of  the  Russian  beds 
have  lieen  noted  in  West  Virginia,  Kansas,  and  Utah.  See 
Carhonifkkous  Period,  and  consult  Bulletin  No.  80,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey.  G.  K.  G. 

Permntations  [from  Lat.  pemiida'tio,  deriv.  of  peri/iu- 
/a'rp,  change  throughout,  interchange  ; /jfr,  through,  thor- 
oughly -t-  mula're,  change] :  the  results  obtained  by  writing 
a  certain  number  of  letters  or  factors  in  every  possible 
order,  so  that  all  the  letters  shall  enter  each  result,  and  each 
letter  but  once.  Thus  the  letters  a,  b,  and  c  may  be  written 
nbc,  acb,  bric,  bca,  cab,  and  cba.  Here  there  are  three  letters 
and  1  X  3  X  3,  or  6,  permutations.  To  determine  the  num- 
ber of  permutations  of  n  letters,  n  being  any  whole  number, 
let  us  denote  the  number  of  permutations  of"  w  —  1  letters  by 
y;  if  we  now  introduce  a  new  letter,  it  is  obvious  that  it 
may  have  »  places  in  each  of  the  CJ  permutations  of  n  —  1 
letters ;  that  is,  it  may  be  written  before  the  first  letter  of 
each,  between  each  two  letters,  and  after  the  last  letter  of 
each  ;  hence  the  whole  number  of  jiermutations  of  ti  letters 
is  Q  X  71.  Now,  the  number  of  [lermutations  of  3  letters  is 
1x2x3;  hence  the  number  of  permutations  of  4  letters  is 
1x2x3x4.  Proceeding  from  this  conclusion,  we  infer 
that  the  number  of  permutations  of  5  letters  is  1  x  2  x  3  x 
4x5,  and  so  on  indefinitely.  Hence  the  number  of  permu- 
tations of  n  letters  is  the  continued  product  of  the  natural 
numbers  from  1  to  n,  inclusive,  n  being  any  whole  number. 
If  the  actual  product  indicated  by  each"  permutation  is 
found,  it  will  be  equal  to  a  fixed  quantity  in  each  case.  The 
theory  of  permutations  finds  an  important  application  in 
the  deduction  of  formulas  for  combinations  and  arrange- 
ments, and  these  in  turn  are  used  in  developing  the  theory 
of  probabilities.  See  Newcomb's  College  Algebra,  or  Oliver 
Wait  and  Jones's  Algebra.  Revised  by  S.  Newccmb. 

Pernambii'co :  a  state  in  the  eastern  part  of  Brazil ; 
bounded  N.  by  Ceara  and  Parahyba.  E.  by  the  Atlantic,  S. 
by  Alagoas  and  Bahia,  and  W.  by  Piauhy.  Area.  49.560  sq. 
miles.  A  sandstone  reef  follows  nearly  the  whole  coast,  and 
the  only  harbors  are  formed  by  openings  through  it,  as  at 
the  city  of  Pernambuco.  A  strip  extending  from  the  coast 
about  40  miles  inland  is  low  and  partly  flat  land,  originally 
covered  with  forest,  well  watered,  and"  very  fertile ;  this  is 
known  as  the  Mafia.  Beyond  it  the  surface  rises  abruirtly  . 
or  gradually  to  the  Sertuo,  or  "  desert " ;  this  is  properly  a 
part  of  the  Brazilian  plateau,  but  much  varied  with  hills 
and  valleys  and  with  a  general  southwest  slope  to  the  river 
Sao  Francisco.  Most  of  the  Serlao  is  open  land,  resembling 
the  neighboring  parts  of  Ceara  in  its  parched  dry  season 
(September  to  February)  and  its  occasional  destructive 
droughts.  Most  of  the  i>oiiulation  is  gathered  in  the  Malta 
belt,  where  the  prominent  industry  is  sugar-jdanting;  cot- 
ton is  raised  farther  inland,  and  the  Serlao  supports  large 
herds  of  cattle  in  favored  jilaces.  There  ari'  considerable 
manufactures,  and  the  stale  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
progressive  in  Brazil.  Estimated  |)op.  (1894)  l,2r>4.1.~)9.  The 
most  important  exjiorts  are  sugar,  rum.  and  cotton.  The 
coast  region  was  occupied  by  the  Dutch  1630  to  16.')4. 

Herbert  II.  Smith. 

Pernambuco  (officially  Recife):  capital  and  chief  city 
and  port  of  the  state  of  the  .same  name:  on  the  coast  at  the 
months  of  the  little  rivers  Caparibc  and  Beberibe  (see  map 
of  South  Auu^rica,  ref.  4-II).  It  consists  of  three  parts — 
Recife  proper  and  Santo  Antiuiio,  on  narrow  islands,  one 
behind  the  other,  and  Boa  Vista,  on  the  neighboring  main- 
land. These  are  all  on  flat  ground,  and  arc  connectid  by 
bridges.  Recife,  nearest  the  sea,  is  the  oldest,  and  its  iiai-- 
row  streets  and  ancient  houses,  some  of  the  Dutch  period, 
are  very  interesting;  it  contains  the  principal  wholesale 
commercial  houses.  The  other  divisions  have  wide  .streets, 
with  many  handsome  buildings,  and  the  beautiful  suburbs 
are  ormimented  with  stately  old  trees  and  exteu.siveganlcns. 
The  harbor  proper  is  formed  by  a  sandstone  reef,  which  has 
been  artificially  extendeil ;  it  will  not  admit  vessels  of  more 
than  17  feet  draught,  and  large  shi[is  must  anchor  in  the 
open  roadstead,  whence  landing  is  often  difficult.  Pernam- 
buco is  nearer  Europe  than  any  other  important  Brazilian 
|)ort,and  it  is  almost  theouly  commercial  outlet  of  the  state; 
several  railways  run  to  the  interior.    In  population  and  com- 


532 


PERONOSPORACEiE 


PERRONE 


meree  it  is  the  tliiril  city  in  Brazil ;  sugar,  rum,  cotton,  hides, 
tobacco,  cigars,  coffee,  etc.,  are  largely  exported.  The  climate 
is  generally  salubrious  ;  the  heat  is  modified  by  regular  trade- 
winds,  and  epidemics  are  infrequent.  Under  the  Dutch 
(1630-54)  Recife  was  a  mere  village ;  during  the  eighteenth 
century  it  gradually  sup)ilanted  the  original  capital  and 
port,  Olinda  iq.  v.).     Pop.  (1894)  about  l.">0,000. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Peronospora'cese  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  ■irep6vv<  brooch,  pin  + 
aw6pos.  seed] :  a  family  of  fungi,  including  the  Downy  Mil- 
dews and  White  Rusts.     See  Mildews  and  Rusts. 
P6ronse,  La  :  See  La  Pebouse. 
Peroxide  of  Hydrogren  :  See  Hydrogen  Peroxide. 
Perpetual  Apparition,  Circle  of:  See  Circle  of  Per- 
petual Apparition. 

Perpetual  Motion :  a  term  applied  to  a  mechanism 
which  is  assumed  to  [lut  itself  in  motion  and  to  possess 
sufficient  inherent  ]iower  not  only  to  continue  such  motion 
indefinitely  (or  until  the  mechanism  is  worn  out),  but  to 
have  a  surplus  which  can  be  used  in  doing  useful  work. 
The  absurdity  of  such  an  idea  is  evident  to  most  well-in- 
formed minds  the  moment  it  is  clearly  stated,  but  since  the 
first  recorded  scheme  for  a  mechanical  perpetual  motion 
(by  Willars  de  Honecort,  an  architect  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury) numbers  of  persons  have  pursued  this  ic/nis  faftiiis  of 
mechanics.  In  the  nineteenth  century  there  have  been  up- 
ward of  180  patents  (the  large  majority  of  them  English) 
granted  for  machines  intended  to  move  perpetually,  and 
during  that  and  the  preceding  century  there  have  been 
printed  descriptions  of  nearly  300  other  schemes  for  ])er- 
petual  motion  that  were  not  patented.  The  searchers  for 
perpetual  motion  have  employed  every  force  in  nature,  but 
the  majority  employ  the  force  of  gravity  in  some  way,  a 
favorite  contrivance  being  a  wheel  provided  with  movalile 
weights  intended  to  descend  on  one  side  at  a  distance  from 
the  center  of  rotation,  and  to  be  raised  on  the  other  side 
through  a  path  much  nearer  that  center. 

The  planets  are  examples  of  jierpetual  motion  on  a  grand 
scale  in  that  they  revolve  unceasingly,  but  even  they  do  not 
fulfill  the  requirements  of  the  problem  of  perpetual  motion, 
inasmuch  as  their  movements  involve  a  perfect  equilibrium 
of  forces,  and  there  is  no  suriilus  jjowcr  for  work  outside 
of  that  required  for  their  own  rotations  and  stability  in  their 
orbits.     See  Force.  W.  F.  Duefee. 

Perpetuity:  a  future  contingent  interest  in  property, 
real  or  personal,  which  is  not  to  become  a  vested  interest 
until  a  period  so  remote  as  to  be  obnoxious  to  law.  The 
terra  is  also,  though  imiiroperly,  employed  to  describe  any 
future  estate,  whether  vested  or  contingent,  in  which  the 
absolute  power  of  alienation  is  suspended  for  an  im|iroiier 
length  of  time.  It  is  in  the  latter  sense  that  the  term  is 
used  in  New  York  and  some  other  States.  In  the  former 
sense,  the  Rule  against  Perpetuities  is  a  rule  against  remote- 
ness ;  in  the  latter,  it  is  a  rule  against  restraining  alienation. 
The  prohibition  of  jierpetuities  was  only  one  of  a  number 
of  devices  adopted  at  various  times  by  the  courts  of  com- 
mon law,  to  restrain  within  reasonable  limits  the  control  of 
the  living  by  the  dead ;  to  limit  the  power  of  the  present 
owner  to  control  the  enjoyment  and  disposition  of  his  prop- 
erty by  those  who  shouhl  come  after  him.  The  English 
doctrine  of  tenures  and  estates  in  land,  whereby  a  man  might 
create  any  number  of  future  interests  to  be  enjoyed  in  suc- 
cession, apparently  ojiened  the  way  for  an  indefinite  control 
of  property  by  the  present  owner;  and  the  feudal  notion  of 
family  permanence,  fostered  under  the  influence  of  Primo- 
geniture (g.  v.),  was  a  powerful  incentive  to  the  great  land- 
owners, to  avail  themselves  of  this  opportunity.  The  his- 
tory of  our  law  of  property  is  in  large  measure  a  record  of  a 
long  warfare  between  the  landlords,  assisted  by  Parliament, 
on  the  one  side,  attempting  to  make  good  this  posthumous 
control  of  their  property,  and  the  lawyers,  backed  up  by  the 
courts,  on  the  other  side,  forever  attempting  to  set  the  pres- 
ent owner  free  from  such  posthumous  control.  In  this  con- 
test the  courts  were  finally  successful,  and  the  Rule  against 
Perpetuities  is  one  of  the  monuments  of  their  success. 

When  this  rule  was  devised,  the  efforts  of  the  landowners 
to  "tie  up''  their  estates  for  their  remote  posterity  had 
already  been  checked  in  olher  directions.  Estates  tail  had 
been  rendered  alienable,  and  the  creation  of  contingent  re- 
mainders had  been  restrained  by  tlie  artificial  rule  which 
forbade  the  limitation  of  "a  |)ossibility  upon  a  possibility" 
— as,  for  example,  a  gift  to  the  offspring  of  an  unborn  per- 


son. There  remained  only  those  future  estates  known  as 
executory  uses  and  devises,  and  it  was  to  meet  the  abuse 
of  these  'limitations  that  the  Rule  against  Perpetuities  was 
adopted.  It  provided  that  all  linntations  of  estates  by  way 
of  springing  or  shifting  use  or  executory  devise  must  take 
effect  within  the  period  of  a  life  or  lives  in  being  at  the  time 
of  creating  the  limitations  and  twenty-one  years  afterward. 
Thus  A  ma}',  by  his  will,  give  his  property  to  his  son,  B,  for 
his  life,  and  then  to  his  grandson,  C,  for  /its  life,  and  then  (It 
C  has  been  born  when  the  will  takes  effect,  at  the  death  of 
A)  to  the  eldest  son  of  C,  when  such  eldest  son  shall  attain 
the  age  of  twenty-one  years.  Here  the  estate  must  finally 
vest  within  twenty-one  years  after  the  extinction  of  the  two 
lives,  B  and  C,  both  of  which  are  in  being  at  the  time  when 
the  will  takes  effect.  It  is  therefore  within  the  rule.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  an  estate  be  given  to  A,  a  bachelor,  for  life, 
and  after  his  death  to  his  eldest  son,  when  the  latter  shall 
marry,  the  latter  limitation  is  void  under  the  rule.  A's  son 
may  not  marry  until  more  than  twenty-one  years  after  the 
death  of  A  ;  and  the  circumstance  that  he  does  in  fact  marry 
witliin  that  period  will  not  alter  the  case,  as  the  validity  of 
the  gift  is  not  determined  by  the  actual  event  but  by  the 
possibilities  of  the  situation  at  the  time  of  the  original  limi- 
tation. If  there  is  a  possibility  that  the  futm'e  estate  may 
not  vest  within  the  period  prescribed  by  the  rule  the  limi- 
tation of  that  estate  is  void  from  the  beginning. 

In  this  form  the  rule  is  in  force  to-day  in  P^ngland,  and 
generally  wherever  the  common-law  system  of  England 
prevails.  In  only  a  few  of  the  U.  S.  has  it  been  modified  in 
any  important  respects.  In  New  York  and  three  or  four 
other  States,  however,  the  common-law  rule  has  been  com- 
pletely changed  by  statute,  and  converted  into  a  rule  for- 
bidding the  suspension  of  the  absolute  power  of  alienation 
for  a  longer  period  than  two  (or  more)  lives  in  being  at  the 
time  of  the  limitation.  In  most  of  those  States  (though  not 
in  New  Ytirk)  the  further  period  of  twenty-one  years  allowed 
by  the  English  rule  may  also  be  added. 

For  a  fuller  treatment  of  the  subject,  see  Prof.  Gray's 
Jiule  ai/ainsl  Perpetuities.  George  W.  Kirchwey. 

Perpignan,  par'petn'yirah' :  capital  of  the  department 
of  Pyrenees-Orientales,  France  ;  on  the  Tet,  7  miles  from 
the  Mediterranean  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  9-F).  It  is  a 
fortress  of  first  rank,  and  commands  the  passage  between 
Prance  and  Spain.  It  has  a  cathedral  and  a  Moorish-Gothic 
Ijourse  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century,  a  college,  a  pal- 
ace of  justice,  distilleries,  bell-foundries,  aiul  manufactures 
of  leather,  cork,  and  woolen  fabrics,  and  an  active  trade  in 
oil,  wine,  grain,  silk,  and  fruits.  Perpignan  belonged  to 
Aragon  from  1172  to  1475,  when  it  was  taken  by  France. 
It  was  given  to  Spain  in  1493,  but  retaken  by  France  in 
1643.     Pop.  (1890)  27,613. 

Perrault,  pu'ro'.  Charles  :  author  ;  b.  in  Paris,  France, 
.Jan.  12,  1628  ;  studied  at  the  College  de  Beauvais,  but  left 
it  in  a  moment  of  irritation  and  with  a  comrade  finished  his 
studies  without  instructors.  He  prepared  for  the  bar  by  a 
rapid  reading  of  the  Institutes  of  Justinian,  but  did  not  prac- 
tice long:  became  next  clerk  for  his  brother  and  cultivated 
letters.  His  verse  won  him  some  reputation  and  an  election 
to  the  Academy  (1671),  and  he  found  a  protector  in  Colbert, 
whom  he  aided  in  the  foundation  of  the  Academy  of  Arts 
and  who  advanced  him  to  the  head  of  the  bureau  of  royal 
buildings.  In  1687  he  read  before  the  Academy  a  poem  en- 
titled Le  Siecle  de  Louis  !e  Orand.  jn-aising  modern  writers 
at  the  expense  of  the  ancients,  and  this  offended  the  ad- 
mirers of  antiquity  and  precipitated  the  quarrel  of  the 
"  ancients  and  moderns."  To  this  quarrel  ho  owed  his  chief 
notoriety,  being  severely  attacked  by  Boilcau.  His  position 
was  more  fully  stated  in  the  Parcitlele  des  cmciens  et  des 
modernes  (1688-96),  a  series  of  dialogues  comparing  Homer 
and  Vei-gil  with  the  French  poets.  Of  more  permanent 
value  anrthe  notices  of  men  of  letters  composing  the  series 
Les  Ilonniies  illustres  qui  out  paru  en  France  pendant  ce 
siecle  (109G-1701),  and  especially  the  volume  of  fairy  stories, 
Conten  de  ma  mere  I'Oye  (1697),  containing  Cinderella.  Blue 
Beard,  and  others,  by  which  alone  he  still  remains  popular. 
D.  May  16,  1703.  He  left  Memoires,  which  wei-e  published 
in  1749.  and  two  comedies.  His  CEuvres  CAomfS  were  pub- 
lished by  Collin  de  Plancy  (Paris,  1826) ;  the  Conies  by  Le- 
fevre  (Paris,  1875).  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Perron,  Anquetil,  du  :  See  Anquetil  du  Perron. 
Perrone,  pcr-ro'na,  Giovanni,  D.  D. :   theologian;   b.  at 
Chieri,  I'iedmont,  1794;  studied  at  Turin;  entered  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus  at  an   early  age;    taught  at  Orvieto;   spent 


PERROT 


PERRY 


533 


most  of  his  life  at  Rniiif  as  professor  of  theology  :  taiifrlit  at 
the  Roman  college  till  185:$;  visited  Englan<l  lUiriiig  the 
Roman  revolution  of  1S4S-4!):  d.  at  Rome,  Aug.  :>!).  1870. 
He  exercised  considenible  influence  on  Catholic  tlieology  in 
the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  his  leclines  at 
Rome  were  followed  by  ininiemus  students  from  both  sides 
of  the  ocean.  He  had  a  large  share  in  the  iirei)aration  of 
the  papal  bull  that  defined  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and 
in  the  preliminary  labors  for  the  Vatican  Council.  lie  was 
also  a  consultor  o'f  several  Roman  congregations,  theologian 
to  a  numl)er  of  cardinals,  etc.  His  best-known  work  is  the 
Prielectiones  Tlicoloyirte  ('.)  vols.,  18:!.5  ff.),whi(!h  contains  the 
summary  of  his  professorial  teaching.  It  had  reached  its 
fortieth  edition  at  his  death,  and  the  C(imp(tndiHm  oi  the 
same  work,  eipially  successful,  is  yet  much  used.  His  other 
writings  are  chiellv  polemical.  The  best  of  them  is  his  I'nit- 
esfanlism  (uid  the' Rule  iif  Faith  (3  vols.).  As  a  theologian 
he  represents  the  positive  doetrimil  and  the  polemical  ele- 
ment, as  distinguished  from  the  historical  and  the  meta- 
physical school.'  JOUN-  J.  KliANE. 

Perrot.  pa  rd, Georges  :  archipologist ;  b.  at  Villeneuve- 
Saint-Georges,  department  of  Seiiie-et-Oi?e.  France,  Nov.  12, 
1833;  studied  from  IH").")  to  18.58  at  the  French  school  in 
Athens:  made  in  1861  a  journey  of  exploration  in  Asia 
Minor;  dwelt  for  some  time  at  Aneyra  investigating  the 
famous  inscription  on  the  temple  which  the  (ialatians  built 
there  in  honor  of  Augustus ;  became  Professor  of  Rhetoric 
in  the  Lyceum  Louis  le  Grand.  Paris,  in  1863  ;  Professor  of 
Greek  Langiiage  and  Literature  in  the  higher  normal  school 
in  1872  ;  Professor  of  Archaeology  in  the  Faculty  of  Letters 
in  1877:  appointed  director  of  tlie  higher  normal  school  in 
1883  ;  wrote  Exploration  archeoloi/i(jue  de  la  Oalatie  et  de 
In  Tiithi//iie  { Paris.  1863-72) ;  Soui'i-nirs d'uu  voyage  en  Asie 
Mineiire  (1S64) ;  Essai  sur  le  dniit  piibtir  et  prive  de  la  n'- 
publique  athenienne  (1867) ;  and  other  works,  and  with  C. 
Chipiez,  Uistoire  de  I'art  dans  Vantiquite  (5  vols.,  1881-89). 

Perry  :  city ;  Dallas  co.,  la.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Iowa,  ref.  5-F) ;  near  the  Raccoon  river ;  on  the  Chi.,  Jlil. 
and  St.  P.  and  the  Chi.,  Rock.  Is.  and  Pac.  railways :  34 
miles  N'.  W.  of  Des  Jloines.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and 
coal  region,  and  contains  7  churches,  3  public-school  build- 
ings, a  business  coUegi-,  water  and  electric-light  jilanls,  a 
national  bank  with  capital  of  ^.jO.OOO.  a  State  bank  with 
capital  of  $50,000.  and  a  semi-weekly  and  3  weekly  news- 
papers.   Pop.  (1880)  953 ;  (1890)  2,880 ;  (1895)  3.570. 

Editor  ok  •'CniEF." 

Perry:  village  (incorporated  in  1814);  Wyoming  co., 
N.  V.  (for  location,  see  nnip  of  New  York,  ref.  5-D);  at  the 
outlet  of  Silver  Lake  ;  on  the  Silver  Lake  Railway  :  40  miles 
S.  S.  \V.  of  Rochester.  There  are  7  churches,  united  free 
acadcmv  and  union  school,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
$50,000."  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  .t;50,000,  a  school  li- 
brary, a  weekly  newspaper,  and  salt  and  reaper  works  and 
a  knitting-mill.  The  lake  affords  good  power  for  manufac- 
turing. The  Silver  Lake  Assembly,  a  noted  summer  resort 
with  over  200  cottages  and  a  po|)ulation  of  more  than  2,000 
in  the  height  of  the  season,  is  2  miles  from  the  village.  Pop. 
(1880)  1,115  ;  (1890)  1,.528,  Euitob  ok  "  lliiRALii," 

Perry:  city  (settled  in  1893);  capital  of  Noble  eo.,  Okl. ; 
on  the  Ateh..  Top.  and  S.  Ft"  Railroad  ;  30  miles  X.  of  Guth- 
rie, 60  miles  S.  of  the  Kansas  border  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Oklahoma,  ref.  2-1)).  It  contains  a  V .  S.  land-odice.  sev- 
eral churches,  public  and  private  schnols,  a  board  of  trade, 
a  State  bank.  2  private  banks,  and  3  daily  an<l  3  weekly 
newspapers.  It  has  a  large  general  tra<ie,  as  nearly  all  set- 
tlers within  a  circle  of  50  miles  do  their  outlitting  here. 
Poj).  (1894)  fixed  and  floating,  estimated,  6,000-8.00()'. 

Perry.  Arthi-r  L.^tham  :  economist;  b.  at  Lyme,  N.  II., 
Feb.  27, 1830  ;  graduated  at  Williams  College  1852  ;  became 
Professor  of  History  and  Political  Kconomy  in  that  institu- 
tion 1854,  .ind  in  1875  pastor  of  a  church  at  Williamstown. 
He  is  author  of  The  hiementi  of  Political  Economy  (New 
York,  1865),  a  work  which  is  considered  the  scientific  expo- 
nent of  free -trade  doctrines;  Introduction  to  I'olilical 
Economy  (1877);   and  Williamstown  and  Williams  Collci/c. 

Perry,  Edward  Delavan  :  Sanskrit  scholar  ;  b.  at  Troy, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  20,  1854  ;  educated  at  Columbia  College,  and  at 
the  Universities  of  Lei|)zig  and  Tiibingen  ;  successively  tutor 
in  Gn^ek,  instructor  in  Sanskrit,  ami  Professor  of  Sanskrit 
in  Columbia  College.  His  chief  works  are  Indra  in  the 
Rigveda  (in  Journal  American  Oriental  Socicti/,  vol.  xi.), 
and  A  Sanskrit  Primer  (1885 ;  2d  ed.  1886).         "li.  1.  W. 


Perry.  Matthew  Calbraith  :  commodore;  b.  at  New- 
port, R.  I.,  Apr.  10,  1794.  Known  as  an  upright  and  ener- 
getic naval  olTicer,  he  was  intrusted  by  President  Fillmore  in 
1853  with  a  letter  to  the  ruler  of  .lapan,  its  object  being 
to  establish  international  relations,  es[)ecially  with  the  view 
of  protecting  shipwrecked  mariners.  By  an  employment  of 
the  "gunboat  policy,"  but  happily  witlmut  having  to  resort 
to  actual  bloodshed,  he  induced  the  frightened  .Japanese  to 
sign  their  first,  foreign  treaty  at  Kanagawa  JIar.  1,  1854. 
Shimoda  and  Hakodate  were  opened  to  trade  with  the  U.  S., 
antl  good  treatment  was  pronused  to  shipwrecked  (^rews. 
Perry  died  in  New  York,  Mar.  4,  1858.  See  Perry  and 
Hanks,  Xarratire  of  the  Ej-pedition  of  an  American  Squad- 
ron under  Commodore  Perry,  and  Griffis,  Mattheic  Culljraith 
Perry  (Boston,  1887).  J.  31.  Dixox. 

Perry.  Nora  :  poet :  b.  at  Dudley.  iMass..  in  1841.  She 
has  been  Boston  correspondent  of  Ihe  Chicago  Tribune  and 
The  Providence  Journal,  and  has  written  After  the  Pall 
and  Other  Poems  (187.5) :  Book  of  Love  Stories  (1881) ;  For 
a  Woman,  a  novel  (1885) ;  JVew  Songs  and  Ballads  (1886) ; 
and  other  works.  H.  A.  B. 

Perry,  Oliver  Hazard  :  naval  officer;  b.  at  South  Kings- 
ton. R.  I.,  Aug.  23.  1785;  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  as  mid- 
shiiiman.  Apr.  7. 1799  :  cruised  with  his  father,  a  naval  officer, 
in  the  West  Indies  1799-1800;  was  engaged  in  the  war 
against  Tripoli  1804-05  :  became  lieutemmt  Jan.  15,  1807, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1812  was  in  command  of 
a  flotilla  of  gunboats  on  the  Atlantic^  coast,  when  in  Feb., 
1813,  he  was  transferred  at  his  own  request  to  serve  under 
Commodore  Isaac  Chauncey  on  Lake  Ontario.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  attack  u|ion  Fort  George ;  was  appointed 
to  fit  out  a  squadron  ujion  Lake  Erie,  which  he  successfully 
accomplished  at  Presque  Isle  (now  Erie),  Pa.;  and  having 
equippi'd  nine  small  vessels,  attacked  and  captured  the 
British  Heet  ne,-ir  I'ut-in-Bay,  O.,  Sept.  10,  1813.  This  ac- 
tion, known  as  the  ".battle  of  Lake  Erie,"  or  more  com- 
inordy  as  "Perry's  victory,"  obtained  him  an  immense  pop- 
ularity, partly  attributable  to  the  sententious  manner  in 
which  it  was  announced  liy  the  famous  dispatch,  "  We  have 
met  the  enemy,  and  they  are  ours."  Congress  rewarded  him 
with  a  vote  of  thaidis.  a  medal,  and  the  rank  of  captain. 
Perry  co-oi)erated  with  Gen.  Harrison  in  his  operations  at 
Detroit  and  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  Oct.  .5,  1813,  and  in 
the  following  year  was  employed  upon  the  Potomac  and  in 
the  defense  of  Baltimore,  He  coiumanded  the  Java  in  De- 
catur's squadron  in  the  Mediterranean  1815 ;  was  sent  to 
the  Spanish  Main  in  command  of  a  squadron,  June.  1819 ; 
ascended  the  Orinoco  to  Angostura  in  July  ;  was  seized  with 
yellow  fever,  and  died  at  Port  Spain,  on  the  island  of  Trini- 
dad, the  day  of  his  arrival  there,  Aug.  23,  1819.  His  re- 
mains were  removed  to  Newport  in  a  ship  of  war  by  order 
of  Congress,  and  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  that  city,  Dec.  4, 
1826,  where  an  imposing  obelisk  was  erected  by  the  State  of 
Rhode  Island.  In  Sept.,  1860,  a  marble  statue  of  Commo- 
dore Perry  was  erected  at  Cleveland,  O.,  and  on  Sept.  10, 
1885,  a  fine  bronze  statue  was  unveiled  at  Newport,  R.  I. 
See  the  Life,  by  Capt.  Alexander  S.  Mackenzie  (3  vols.,  New 
York,  1843). 

Perry,  Thomas  Sergeant  :  critic ;  b.  at  Newport,  R,  I., 
Jan.  23,  1845 ;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1866  and  was  for 
some  years  instructor  there  in  English  and  German.  He 
has  resided  much  abroad,  and  has  studied  at  French  and 
German  universities.  His  writings  are  mainly  contribu- 
tions to  literary  history,  biography,  and  criticism,  and  in- 
clude Life  and  Letters  of  Francis  Lieher  (Boston,  1882) ; 
Enqlish  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (New  York, 
1883):  From  Opiti  to  Lessing  (Boston,  1885);  The  Evolu- 
tion of  the  Snob  (1887);  from  1872  to  1874  he  edited  the 
North  American  Kevieiv.  H.  A.  Beers. 

Perry.  William  Stevens,  D.  D.  (Oxon.),  LL.  D..  D.  C.  L : 
bishop  :"  b.  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Jan.  22,  1832 ;  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1854;  studied  at  the  Virginia  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  and  privately  in  Boston,  prejiaratory  for  or- 
ders; or<lained  deacon  in  Mar.,  1857,  at  Newton,  Mass.; 
[M-iest  in  Boston.  Apr.  7,  1858;  was  rector  of  churches  in 
N.'i.shua,  N.  H.,  Portland,  Jle.,  Litdifield,  Conn.,  and  Geneva, 
N.  v..  1858-76;  was  Professor  of  History  in  Iloliart  College. 
Geneva.  N.  Y..  1871-73,  and  president  of  that  institution  for 
a  few  months  in  1876.  He  was  unanimously  elected  Bishop 
of  Iowa  in  May.  1876,  and  was  consecrated  to  the  episcopacy 
in  Trinitv  church,  Geneva,  Sept.  10;  refu.scd  the  bish- 
opric of  Nova  Scotia  in  1887.  He  wa-s  for  nearly  twenty 
years  occupied  in  general  church  work  in  addition  to  his 


534 


PERSEPHONE 


PERSIA 


parochial  labors.  He  was  deputy  from  New  Hampshire  in 
1859  •  from  Maine  in  1863 ;  assistant  secretary  to  the  House 
of  Deputies  in  1862 ;  secretary  in  1862-74 ;  was  appointed 
historiographer  of  the  American  Church  m  1868.  and  still 
retains  that  position.  He  declined  the  foreign  secretary- 
ship of  the  board  of  missions  in  1876 ;  also  the  presidency 
of  Kenyon  College.  Besides  degrees  receiyed  from  seven 
institutions  of  learning  in  the  U.  S.  and  Canada,  he  received 
that  of  I).  D.  Oxon.,  at  the  encenia  of  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford. In  1804  he  received  the  degree  of  LL.  B.  from  the 
University  of  Diildin.  His  writings,  chiefly  historical,  num- 
ber more  than  one  hundred.  Among  them  are  Journals  of 
the  General  Convrntions  of  (he  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
(Philadelphia,  1861)  and  Documentary  Histury  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America 
(2  vols.,  New  York,  1863-64),  in  which  he  was  aided  by  I)r. 
Francis  L.  Hawks;  Historical  Collections  of  the  American 
Colonial  Church  (1871-78);  Some  Summer  Days  Abroad 
(Davenport.  la.,  1880) ;  T/ie  History  of  tlie  American.  Epis- 
copal Cliurch,  15S7-18S3  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1885) ;  Life  Les- 
sons from  the  Book  of  Proverbs  (4th  ed.  1885).  He  is  an 
associate  editor  of  Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopmlia. 

S.  R.  J.  HOYT. 

Perseph'oiie,  or  Proserpina  (in  Gr.  nepa-eip6vii).  K6pri):  in 
Grecian  mythology,  a  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Denictcr,  the 
wife  of  Hades.  Along  with  Hades  she  ruled  over  the  shades 
of  the  dead  and  the  monsters  of  the  lower  world,  and  listened 
to  the  curses  of  men.  When,  as  a  maiden,  she  was  gather- 
ing flowers  near  Enna,  in  Sicily,  she  was  seized  by  Hades 
with  the  consent  of  Zeus  and  carried  in  his  chariot  to  the 
realm  of  the  dead.  In  pity  for  the  grief  of  Demeter  (see 
Ceres),  who  vainly  sought  her  daughter  the  world  over,  Zeus 
sent  Hermes  to  bring  Persephone  back ;  but  as  she  had 
tasted  a  pomegranate  (the  symbol  of  marriage),  offered  to 
her  by  Hades,  it  was  decreed  by  Zeus  that  she  should  re- 
main one  half  of  the  year  with  Hades  and  the  other  halt 
with  Demeter.  Persephone  is  thus  the  symbol  of  life  and 
death  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  because  the  decay  and 
death  of  the  corn  must  precede  a  new  and  more  fruitful  life, 
she  became  in  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries  (</.  v.)  the  symbol 
of  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  For  a  discussion  cjf  Per- 
sephone in  art,  see  the  article  Demeter  und  Kora  in  Bau- 
meister's  Denlcmaler.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Persep'oHs:  the  Greek  name  of  the  ancient  capital  of 
Persia,  whose  Persian  name  is  not  known.  It  stood  in  a 
vast  and  fertile  plain  (now  called  Merdusht),  35  miles  N.  E. 
of  Shiraz,  near  the  Medus  (now  Polwsir),  about  14  miles  above 
its  confluence  with  the  Araxes  (now  Bendemir).  C>f  the  age 
and  history  of  the  city  very  little  is  known.  It  was  not  the 
residence  of  Cyrus,  who  had  his  palace  at  Pasargada,  unless 
this  be  the  same  city,  as  assumed  by  some  antiquarians ;  but 
Xerxes.  Darius  Hystaspes,  and  others  of  the  Achannenida^ 
resided  here,  and  in  their  time  the  city  was  known  to  the 
Greeks  as  a  wonder  of  splendor  and  magnificence.  It  was 
said  to  be  completely  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
it  is  mentioned  in  history  only  once  afterward,  when  Anti- 
oehus  Epiphanes  visited  it  for  the  sake  of  plunder  (2  Mace. 
ix.  1).  Of  the  city  itself  no  traces  can  now  be  found,  though 
it  is  probable  that  it  occupied  the  same  site  as  afterward 
the  Mohammedan  fortress  Istakhr ;  but  of  the  palaces  some 
very  interesting  ruins  are  still  extant,  known  by  their  local 
nariie.  Chattel  llindr  (Forty  Columns),  or  Hall  of  Xerxes. 
They  consist  of  a  stupeiulous  substructure  of  cyclopean  ma- 
sonry, forming  a  platform  about  1,500  feet  long,  about  800 
feet  wide,  and  divided  into  three  terraces,  to  which  magnifi- 
cent flights  of  stairs  give  access.  Of  the  buildings,  a  mag- 
nificently sculptured  staircase,  the  entrance  to  a  propyheum, 
and  a  number  of  columns,  60  feet  high,  are  still  standing. 
See  Pergusson's  Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persepol is  Restored  ; 
Rawlinson's  Five  G real  Monarchies ;  and  Perse/jo/is  (Berlin, 
1882),  by  Stolze  and  Noldeke. 

Per'seua  (in  Gr.  Tltpinm) :  in  Grecian  mythology,  the  son 
of  Zeus  and  Danae,  daughter  of  Acrisius,  King  of  Argos; 
was  driven  into  exile  together  with  his  mother,  and  educated 
in  Seriphos,  one  of  I  he  Cyclades;  conquered  Medusa,  by  the 
aid  of  Ilermcs  and  Athene,  and  cut  otf  her  head  ;  returned 
after  many  adventures  lo  Argos,  from  which  Acrisius  tied 
loThessaly;  settled  afterward  at 'I'iryns  and  founded  I\lidea 
and  MyceiijE.  In  ancient  art  he  is  re|5resented  as  similar  to 
Hermes.  See  Andromeda,  Ukxx,  Goruon,  and  Pegasu.s. 
Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Perseus:  the  last  kingof  the  Macedonians;  son  of  Philip 
v.  ;  b.  about  212  i).  c.  ;  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  179  B.  c, 


and  confirmed  the  treaty  which  his  father  had  made  with 
the  Romans.  After  a  preparation  of  seven  years  he  com- 
menced war  against  Rome  with  an  excellent  army,  a  full 
treasury,  and  important  alliances.  P.  Licinius  Crassus,  the 
consnt,  was  sent  against  him,  but  was  defeated,  and  the 
Romans  were  generally  unfortunate  throughout  the  war. 
Perseus,  however,  lacked  the  energy  to  follow  up  his  victo- 
ries and  the  war  dragged  on  for  several  years  without  deci- 
sive result.  At  last,  L.  Paulus  ^Emilius  was  sent  as  com- 
mander-in-chief to  the  theater  of  war.  He  arrived  in 
March,  began  active  operations  in  June,  and  finished  the 
war,  after  a  campaign  of  thirteen  days,  by  tlie  battle  of 
Pydna,  168  b.  c.  The  Macedonian  army,  although  fighting 
with  great  valor,  was  completely  routed,  and  Perseus  fled 
with  his  money-chest  to  Samothracc.  He  was  afterward 
delivered  uji  to  the  Romans,  and  held  in  captivity  at  Alba, 
in  Italy,  where  he  died  a  few  years  later.        F.  M.  Colby. 

Persia  [=  Lat..  from  Gr.  Tltpais,  from  O.  Pers.  Pdrsa 
(>  Pers.  Ears,  or  Pars),  a  province  of  Persia]  :  a  country  of 
Western  Asia,  called  by  the  natives  Eron  or  Iran.  It  lies 
between  lat.  25°  and  39°  45'  N.  and  between  Ion.  44°  and 
63°  20'  E.  By  the  Treaty  of  Turkoinanchai  the  boundary  be- 
tween Russia  and  Persia,  W.  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  follows  the 
bed  of  the  river  Araxes,  from  near  Little  Ararat  to  Ion. 
48 '  E. ;  thence  southward  the  line  has  an  irregular  course 
to  the  Caspian  near  Astara.  By  the  same  treaty  Persia  re- 
nounced her  right  to  float  ships  of  war  on  that  sea,  thus 
virtually  making  the  southern  shore  of  the  Caspian  a 
boundary.  The  river  Atak  (Etrek)  and  the  Domine  Kuh,  by 
acknowledgment  of  Russia,  form  the  boundary  on  the  N.  E. 
The  border-line  of  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan  was  long  a 
matter  of  dispute,  but  the  question  was  referred  to  Great 
Britain  for  arbitration,  and,  after  surveys,  a  decision  and 
settlement  was  made  by  which  Seistan  proper  and  part  of 
Baluchistan  were  given  to  Persia.  The  Arabian  Sea,  the 
Gvilf  of  Ormuz,  and  the  Persian  Gulf  give  a  continuous  sea- 
coast  to  Persia  on  the  S.  The  lioundary  between  Persia  and 
Turkey  was  unsettled  until  1880,  when  Turkey  acce|;ited  the 
decision  of  a  commission  which  had  been  appointed  by 
Great  Britain  and  Russia,  and  had  made  extensive  surveys. 
The  area  of  Persia  has  been  estimated  at  640.000  sq.  miles. 
The  greatest  extent  from  N.  to  S.  is  973  miles,  and  from  E. 
to  W.  about  1.042. 

I'liysical  Features. — The  topographical  outline  is  that  of 
a  vast  plateau  surrounded  by  mountain  ranges.  The  plateau 
consists  of  elevated  plains  separated  from  one  another  by 
mountain  spurs  and  ridges.  The  central  portions  are  the 
most  elevated,  where  the  ]ilain  of  Hamadan  attains  an  alti- 
tude of  6,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  Ispahan, 
Shiraz,  Tabriz,  and  Oroomiah  (Urumeyah),  towns  widely 
separated,  have  each  an  altitude  of  4,200  feet,  and  Teheran 
3,500  feet.  The  great  ranges  of  mountains  on  the  N.  are  the 
network  of  the  Kara  Dag  and  the  Elbruz.  The  latter  rises 
near  the  steppe  of  Mogan,  and  in  a  well-defined  range  fol- 
lows the  contour  of  the  southwestern  shore  of  the  Caspian 
and  thence  pursues  an  eastward  course  through  Northern 
Persia.  On  the  E.  are  the  Domine  Kuh,  the  Shamshire,  and 
the  chain  extending  southward  from  near  Mashhad.  The 
Cotrells  are  rugged  cliffs  near  the  Persian  Gulf,  cut  and 
worn  by  the  drainage  of  the  great  plateau.  In  the  S.  E. 
the  Zagros,  in  many  parallel  ranges,  run  diagonally  S.  by  E. 
from  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  which  form  a  rugged  bor- 
der on  the  N.  W.  The  highest  peaks  are  Dainavand,  the  cone 
of  an  extinct  volcano,  18,600  feet  above  sea-level ;  Savalan, 
11,000  feet;  Sahund,  10,000  feet;  and  Elvand,  9,500  feet. 
There  are  no  greatrivers  in  Persia.  The  Kizil  Uzen.  orSafeed, 
in  the  N.,  the  Zanda  Rud  in  the  interior,  and  the  Karun  and 
Khirkah  in  tlie  S.  W.,  are  small  rivers,  but  are  the  chief 
streams  of  the  country.  The  Euphrates,  the  Araxes,  and  the 
Ilelmund  are  rivers  of  the  border.  Many  streams  flow  from 
the  mountains  to  the  desert  of  Khorassan,  where  they  form 
kabeers  or  .salt  marshes,  and  disappear  in  the  hot  season. 
The  only  inland  seas  worthy  of  note  are  the  Shahee  Sea 
(Lake  Urumeyah)  in  the  N.  W.,  and  Niris  and  Mahala 
Seas  in  Farsistan.  Nearly  all  the  interior  of  Persia  is 
described  as  desert,  but  nearly  every  part  of  the  land,  ex- 
cept Khorassan  and  Kerman,  is  so  inhabited  that  the  terra 
desert  apjilies  properly  to  parts  of  those  provinces  only. 
The  desert  of  Khorassan  is  200  by  400  miles  in  extent. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Products. — The  most  common  rocks 
are  tFap,  shale,  and  limestone  in  nearly  vertical  strata.  The 
beds  of  the  valleys  are  to  a  great  depth  composed  of  gravel 
and  clay  and  loam.     Bituminous  coal  is  found  in  the  Elbruz 


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PERSIA 


535 


Mountains,  and  mines  of  it  are  worked  near  Casveen  and 
Danmvund.  Wliite  and  green  marble  are  found  in  Khoras- 
san  ;  sulpliiiron  Damuvand  ;  lead  at  Bast  ;  gold  near  Nikpey  : 
and  iron  and  eopper  ores  in  several  places.  Kock  salt  and 
gvpsum  are  almndant.  The  tiinpioise  mines  of  Madan,  near 
Kishapur,  have  been  long  considered  the  best  mines  of  that 
gem. 

The  climate  is  distinguished  by  dryness,  except  along  tlie 
seacoast,  where  moisture  is  excessive,  by  eciualiility,  salu- 
brity, and  hejit.  Tlie  greatest  degree  of  cold  on  the  jilain 
of  Teheran  isS  to  10'  P.  The  cold  of  the  norllicrn  sections 
is  intense  in  winter  on  the  elevated  plains,  and  on  the 
mountains.  Malaria  is  excessive  in  widely  irrigated  sections 
and  where  drainage  is  delicient.  The  prevalent  diseases  are 
malarial  fevers,  typhoid,  pneumonia,  ophthalmia,  and  cuta- 
neous diseases.  Smallpox  and  measles  are  seldom  of  a  ma- 
lignant type. 

Soil  and  Products. — The  soil  of  the  plains  is  a  loam  very 
fertile  when  irrigated.  The  nortliern  slopes  of  the  Elbruz  are 
covered  with  liine,  spruce,  and  olives;  the  lowlands  on  the 
border  of  the  Caspian  are  noteil  for  dense  growth  of  forest,  in 
which  the  oak,  sycamore,  boxwood,  orange,  and  sugar-cane 
abound.  Date-palms  grow  in  the  southern  sections.  In  the 
interior  the  vine,  pomegranate,  njulberry,  fig  and  olive  trees 
flourish,  also  the  peach,  apjile,  quince,  and  other  fruit-trees. 
The  desert  blossoms  in  many  places  with  the  poppy  and  rose. 
The  chief  agricultural  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  rice,  hay, 
cotton,  tobacco,  opium,  and  a  great  variety  of  cucurbitaceous 
and  leguminous  |)lants. 

The  fauna  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  Southern  Europe, 
but  the  lion  is  found  in  the  S.,  and  the  tiger  and  leopard  in 
the  X.,  and  wild  asses  frequent  the  desert.  Domestic  ani- 
mals include  the  camel  (in  all  sections),  horse,  ass,  and 
buffalo.  Of  the  birds,  besides  those  commonly  found  in  like 
latitudes,  may  be  mentioned  the  flamingo,  stork,  and  night- 
ingale. Brook  trout  aljound  in  the  mountain  streams  and 
salmon  in  the  waters  of  the  Caspian  coast.  Vipers,  scor- 
pions, tarantulas,  and  centii>edes  are  numerous. 

Population. — The  people  of  Persia  are  of  many  races, 
Iranian.  Turkish,  Kurd,  Arabic,  Armenian,  and  Hebrew. 
The  dominant  races,  however,  are  the  Iranian  or  Persian 
and  the  Turkish,  the  latter  of  many  tribes.  The  population 
was  estimated  in  1872  at  .'5.000.000 ;"  in  1881  at  7.6.53,600;  in 
1891  at  9,000,000 ;  in  1894  at  10.000,000.  In  the  absence  of 
any  (census,  for  none  is  ever  taken  by  the  Government,  these 
estimates  are  only  aiiproximate.  The  people  are  chiefly 
occupied  in  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits,  though  a  few- 
are  engaged  in  maiuifacturing  woolen,  silk,  and  cotton 
fabrics.  Many  are  soldiers,  but  few  are  engaged  in  maritime 
pursuits.  A  large  part  of  the  population  is  nomadic,  and 
robberies  and  insurrections  are  frequent. 

Political  and  Administrative  Divisions. — No  survey  and 
accurate  territorial  division  has  ever  been  made.  The 
country  has  through  many  ages  lieen  divided  into  several 
great  provinces,  but  these  are  not  now  necessarily  adminis- 
trative divisions.  Tliev  are  Khorassan  (202,873  S(|.  miles,  in- 
cluding Seistan),  Astrabad  (28,980),  Jlazanderan  (9,660), 
Gilan  (4,830),  Azerbaijan  (38,641).  Irak-Ajemi  (94,182,  includ- 
ing Ardelan),  Lurislan  (10,2r(3),  Khuzistan  (28,981),  Pars 
(57,963),  Laristan  (19,321),  and  Herman  (135,317,  including 
Kohistan  and  Mckran).  A  subdivision  of  provinces  is  into 
niahals,  formed  liy  grouping  togetlu'r  villages  or  tribes.  The 
administrative  divisions  are  changed  often  to  suit  local  in- 
terests or  the  wish  of  a  governor. 

Principal  Cities. — These  are  Teheran  (pop.  estimated  at 
210,000),_  Tabriz  (180,000),  Mashha<l  or  Meshed  (60.000),  Is- 
palian,  Kashan,  and  Barfurush  (each  about  50.000),  Kennan, 
Vezil,  and  Casveen  or  Kasbin  (each  about  40,000).  and  llama- 
dan.  Shiraz,  Kom,  Bushire,  and  Kesht  (each  from  25,(XJ0  to 
30,000). 

Education. — There  i.s,  .strictly  speaking,  no  educational 
system.  Private  schools  are  formed  by  the  mollahs (priests) 
for  teaching  tlie  Koran  and  writing.  There  are  schools  for 
the  education  of  mollahs,  usually  built  and  .su.stained  by  a 
patron.  The  shah  sustains  a  college  in  Teheran  where  stu- 
dents are  taught,  in  part,  the  curriculum  of  European 
schools,  and  receive  an  allowance  of  clothing  Jind  funds. 

Reliyion. — The  initional  religion  is  .Mohanimcdanism.  of 
that  branch  of  the  Sheahs  known  as  Athna  Ashara,  or  the 
Twelve,  but  there  are  many  other  sects.  Of  non-Mohani- 
niedans  there  are  .Jews,  Armenians,  Guebers,  and  Xestorians, 
ill  regard  to  the  number  of  whom  no  two  authorities  agree. 
Missions  in  Persia  are  sustained  by  the  American  Presl)y- 
terians.  Church  of   England,  and   iioinan  Catholics.     The 


religious  and  social  customs  are  intimately  connected — re- 
ligion is  associated,  in  form  at  least,  witii  every  pliase  of 
life.  Each  sect  has  its  own  social  laws  and  customs.  All 
have  in  common  certain  customs  distinguished  as  Oriental; 
these,  however,  are  being  modified  by  the  introduction  of 
European  civilization  and  manners.  The  chief  national  ob- 
servances are  the  mourning  of  .Moharram.  the  fast  of  Ra- 
mazan,  and  the  feast  of  Xo  Kuz,  or  the  Xew  Year's  Day  of 
the  secular  and  solar  year.  Both  the  Mohammedan  era 
and  the  era  of  Yezdegird  are  observed. 

Government. — This  is  an  absolute  monarchy.  The  reign- 
ing monarch,  called  shah,  is  Xasr-ed-din.  who  ascended  the 
throne  soon  after  the  death  of  his  father,  on  Oct.  20.  1848. 
He  is  assisted  by  a  privy  council,  appointed  and  dismissed 
at  his  own  pleasure.  There  is  no  representation  of  the 
people.  The  affairs  of  the  general  Government  are  super- 
vised by  a  number  of  ministers,  and  departments  of  state 
are  created  and  abolished  at  the  shah's  pleasure,  and  are 
constantly  changing  in  number.  The  most  permanent  heads 
of  deparlments  are  Ministers  of  the  Interior  or  Einance,  of 
War.of  Eoreign  AfVairs.and  of  Public  Works,  and  Master  of 
the  Mint.  The  office  of  Prime  Minister  is  periodically  cre- 
ated and  as  frequently  abolished.  The  governors,  called 
lioikim.  are  ajipointed  by  the  shah,  as  are  many  of  his  sub- 
ordinates. Mollahs  may  exercise  the  I'udicial  function,  and 
their  court  is  termed  Sharah,  or  religious  law.  The  Imam 
.Jumah  and  Sheik  ul  Islam  are  appointed  by  the  shah  under 
honorary  titles,  but  they  have  no  authority  over  other  mol- 
lahs, except  in  their  own  mos(iues.  The  standing  army  is 
formed  in  general,  as  far  as  possible,  on  the  Euro])ean  sys- 
tem of  organization,  and  otBcers  of  the  Austrian,  French, 
and  other  armies  are  employed  as  drill-masters  or  com- 
manders. Theoretically,  the  number  of  troops  is  100,000, 
but  it  is  rarely  the  ease  that  the  regiments  have  their  com- 
plements. Arms  are  repaired  and  nuinufactured  in  Teheran, 
but  most  of  the  equipments  are  imported. 

Finance. — The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are  the  taxes — 
paid  in  money  or  produce — rents,  presents,  and  customs. 
The  tables  or  statistics  of  revenue  are  deficient  in  omitting 
known  soui-ces  of  income;  also  imperfect  by  reason  of  reck- 
oning some  of  the  income  of  districts  .separately,  and  also 
in  the  totals  of  provinces.  In  the  course  of  fifteen  years 
the  maximum  of  revenue  was  £1,9.50.000,  and  the  minimum 
£'1.368.000.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the  income  slightly 
exceeds  expenditures.  The  money  of  the  country  until  1889 
was  gold  and  silver  only.  At  that  date  a  bank  was  author- 
ized by  the  shah.  It  now  has  branches  in  the  principal 
cities  and  issues  paper  money. 

Trade  and  Commerce. — The  exports  are  wheat,  cotton, 
tobacco,  rice,  opium,  fruit,  oil  (olive),  wood,  wool,  hides, 
silk,  and  carpets.  The  imports  are  chiefly  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  petroleum,  and  :iotions.  The  great 
nnites  of  traffic  and  comnnmication  are.  in  the  north,  the 
caravan  road  via  Mashhad,  Teheran  and  Tabriz,  thence  to 
Erzerouni,  and  X.  fri>m  Taliriz  to  Tiflis:  the  route  from 
Resht  on  the  Caspian  via  Teheran.  Kom,  Kashan.  Ispahan, 
and  Shiraz  to  Bushire  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  Another  route 
is  from  Mohammerah,  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  to 
Teheran  via  the  Karun  river.  A  route  pursued  by  the  pil- 
grims is  from  Teheran  to  Bagdad.  The  only  wagon  roads 
are  from  Teheran  to  Kom,  and  from  Teheran  to  Casveen. 
Concessions  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  by  the  shah 
for  tlie  consti'uctioii  of  a  railway  from  Kesht  to  Teheran,  but 
though  offered  to  companies  to  be  formed  under  British, 
Preiich,  Austrian,  or  American  auspice.s.  no  one  has  ventured 
to  prosecute  the  plan.  A  company  is  (1894)  undertaking 
the  work  under  Russian  protection.  There  is  a  railway  12 
miles  long  (with  extensions)  fi-om  Teheran  to  the  village  of 
Shah  Ab<i  al  Azini. 

History. — A  sketch  of  the  early  histoi-y  of  Iran  is  given 
in  the  article  Iraxiaxs  (t/.  v.).  Since  the  Mohammedan  con- 
quest in  the  seventh  century  the  Persians  have  been  governed 
almost  wholly  liy  alien  dynasties— Ommyiad.  Abbassid.  Ghiz- 
nevid,  .Mogul,  Tiniurid,  .SufTavean,  and  others.  During  this 
period  the  boundaries  of  Pei^sia  were  often  changed.  It  was 
sometimes  a  province  of  a  larger  empire,  and  .sometimes  di- 
vided between  two  or  more  inde|ieiulent  states.  The  present 
(Kajar)  dynasty  began  with  Aga-.Molianiined,  a  eunuch,  in 
1795.  His  nephew.  Path-Ali,  lost  in  wars  with  Russia  the 
lirovinces  of  Georgia,  Armenia,  and  Eriran.  Mohammed 
Shah,  the  next  ruler,  failed  to  regain  Herat  on  account  of 
the  resistance  of  Great  Britain.  Nasr-ed-din,  the  present 
shah,  also  failed  for  the  same  reason,  but  succee<iea  in  ex- 
tending his  territories  to  the  S.  E.     During  his  reign  Eu- 


536 


PERSIAN  BERRIES 


PERSIAN  LITERATURE 


ropean  improvements  have  been  introduced  to  some  extent. 
See  Paksees,  Mohammedan  Art,  Persian  Language,  etc. 

Bibliography. — For  books  of  description  and  travel,  see 
Arnold's  Through  Persia  (INTO) ;  G.  X.  Curzon's  Persia  and 
the  Persian  Question  (2  vols..  London  and  New  York,  1892) : 
S.  G.  W.  Benjamin's  Persia  ami  the  Persians  (Boston,  1887); 
Bassett's  Persia,  the  Land  of  the  Imams  (New  York,  1886) ; 
and  Mrs.  I.  L.  B.  Bishop's  Journeys  in  Persia  and  Kurdistan 
(3  vols..  New  York  and  London,  1891).  For  Persian  history, 
see  Sir  Jolin  Malcolm's  History  of  Persia  (2  vols.,  1815); 
the  histories  by  R.  Of.  Watson  and  Clements  Markham ; 
Rawlinson,  The  Serenth  Great  Oriental  Jlonarchy  (1816); 
Noldeke's  Aufsdtze  zur  Persischen  Geschichte  (1887);  Gut- 
schmid's  Geschichte  Irans  (1887).  James  Bassett. 

Persian  Berries :  See  French  Berries. 

Persian  Gulf:  an  inlet  of  the  Arabian  Sea  through  the 
Gulf  of  Oman  and  the  Strait  of  Ormuz.  and  between  Arabia 
and  Persia.  It  is  650  miles  long,  250  miles  broad,  receives 
the  water  of  the  Shat-el-Arab.  and  contains  many  islands, 
most  of  which  are  barren  and  desolate.  The  pearl-fisheries 
along  the  Arabian  coast  are  celebrated. 

Persian  Iuscri|itions :  See  Persian  Language  and 
Cuneiform  Inscriptions. 

Persian  Insect  Powder  :  See  Feverfew. 

Persian  Language :  in  its  broadest  sense,  the  speech  of 
the  greater  part  of  Iran  from  the  period  of  the  Acha'inen- 
ian  kings,  five  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  down  to 
the  present  time.  When  no  qualification  is  added,  Persian 
is  usually  employed  to  designate  simply  the  modern  speech. 
Three  stages  in  the  history  of  the  language  may  be  recog- 
nized :  (1)"  The  language  of  the  Old  Persian  inscriptions,  (2) 
Middle  Persian  or  Pahlavl,  (8)  Modern  Persian. 

1.  Old  Persian  inscriptions  (b.  c.  521-335)  are  the  great 
monuments  of  the  Achaimonian  dynasty  preserved  in  cunei- 
form rock-cuttings,  tablets,  on  vases  and  on  some  seals. 
These  records  are  the  oldest  remains  of  the  language  of 
Western  Persia,  and  they^  present  an  Iranian  tongue  closely 
allied  to  the  idiom  of  the  Avesta  {q.  v.).  The  closeness  of 
the  relationship  may  be  illustrated  by  such  a  sentence  as 
this  in  Old  Persian:  ]<dtiy  Darayavans  \saya\iya,  ima 
tya  adam  akunavam  vasnd  A  uramazdciha  aha,  which  would 
be  represented  in  Avestan  by  saahaiti  Ddrayalmalius 
ljsa))/'^o,  ima(  ya(  azam  akir-maom  vasnn  Ahurnhe  Mazddo 
avhat — "saith  Darius  the  king:  that  which  I  have  done 
was  accomplished  by  the  grace  of  Ahura  JIazda.''  In  its 
phonology  the  ancient  Persian  is  characterized  by  a  tendency 
to  drop  final  consonants,  e.  g.  Old  P.  abara,  Av.  abara(,  Skt. 
dbharat,  Gr.  ^(J)epe  (t),  he  bore .  Old  P.  nora.  sing.  pu]<ra,  Av. 
pu\ri),  Skr.  putrd-s,  son  ;  most  of  the  phonetic  features  re- 
semble the  Avesta.  (See  Iranian  Languages.)  The  declen- 
sional system  is  like  the  Avestan  and  the  Sanskrit,  though 
less  complete;  the  dative,  for  example,  is  missing  in  Old 
Persian,  the  genitive  having  to  assume  its  functions ;  in  syn- 
tax the  Old  Persian  is  somewhat  less  perfect  than  the  two 
languages  mentioned. 

The  ancient  Persian  inscriptions  are  written  in  wedge- 
shaped  characters.  The  oldest  and  most  important  monu- 
ment is  the  noble  rock-record  of  the  great  deeds  of  Darius, 
an  inscription  of  a  thousand  lines  engraven  on  the  side  of  a 
mountain  which  rises  1,700  feet  above  the  plane  at  Behistan, 
near  Ecbatana.  This  record  is  inscribed  in  three  languages  : 
(1)  In  Old  Persian,  (2)  in  a  language  variously  designated  as 
Scythian,  Median,  or  better  New-Susian,  and  (3)  in  Assyrian. 
There  are  also  tablets  and  inscriptions  at  Persepolis,  Van, 
Susa,  and  elsewhere  in  Persia,  preserving  briefer  memorials 
of  Cyrus,  .\erxes,  and  Artaxerxes;  but  the  later  monuments, 
especially  those  of  the  last  Artaxerxes  (Ochus),  B.  c.  335, 
show  distinct  signs  of  a  decadence  of  the  ancient  speech. 
On  the  deciphering  of  the  C)ld  Persian  inscriptions,  see 
Grotefend. 

2.  Middle  Persian  or  Pahlavl.— After  the  fall  of  the 
Acha-menidiP  and  tlic  triumphant  invasion  of  Alexander  the 
Great  there  follow  five  centuries  during  which  Iran  was 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Seleucida;  and  of  the  Parthian 
Arsacids.  Prom  this  period  we  have  no  literary  remains  of 
the  Persian  language  other  than  a  few  names  or  words  pre- 
served on  coins  or  in  .some  similar  manner.  Toward  the 
close  of  tlie  Parthian  sway  and  on  the  rise  of  the  Sassanian 
dynasty  (a.  d.  226)  the  natiuuul  spirit  of  Persia  revived  and 
there  succeeded  a  period  from  tlie  third  to  th(>  seventh  cen- 
tury of  our  era  during  wliich  the  Persian  is  represented  by 
the  Pahlavi  with  its  literature  of  no  inconsiderable  extent. 


(See  Pahlavi.)  This  period  shows  a  form  of  language  much 
worn  down  as  compared  with  the  ancient  Persian,  and  char- 
acterized by  a  very  considerable  infusion  of  Semitic  (Ara- 
maic) words ;  the  presence  of  this  foreign  element  is  more 
ajiparent  than  real,  as  discussed  in  the  article  Pahlavi  (q.  v.). 
The  stage  of  the  language  during  the  Sassanian  period  is 
nearer  the  Modern  Persian  than  it  is  the  ancient  Persian. 

3.  yew  or  Modern  Persian. — The  Mohammedan  conquest 
of  Iran  in  the  seventh  century  was  linguistically  to  Persia 
what  the  Norman  conquest  was  to  the  English  sjieech.  The 
decay  of  the  inflectional  side  of  the  tongue  was  still  further 
hastened,  and  there  was  a  large  influx  of  Arabic  words  which 
tended  to  increase  ratlier  than  to  decrease  with  time.  The 
oldest  form  of  the  Jlodern  Persian  is  represented  by  Fir- 
DAUsI  (q.  v.),  the  tenth  century  epic  poet.  The  native  pur- 
ism of  Firdausi  in  his  Shah  jS'dmah  is  not  kept  up  in  later 
writers,  yet.  in  spite  of  the  Semitic  admixture  of  Arabic  ele- 
ments, Modern  Persian  has  renuiined  a  true  Iranian  speech, 
just  as  much  as  Englisli  has  remained  true  Germanic.  The 
language  has  not  preserved  any  more  of  its  inflections  than 
has  the  modern  English,  consequently  Modern  Persian  in  its 
syntax  has  jiassed  from  the  synthetic  stage  of  the  inscrip- 
tions into  that  of  an  analytic  speech.  In  phonetics  a  marked 
change  from  the  Old  Persian  tongue  may  be  noticed,  e.  g. 
Old  P.puYra-.  Va\\\.jtu.sar,  Mod.  'P.pusar,hoy;  Kx.mahrlca-, 
Pahl.  mark.  Jlod.  P.  marg.  death;  Old  P.  naiba-.  Pahl.  nevak, 
Mod.  V.ni^k,  beautiful;  Av.  Vjhrka-  (cf.  Old  P.  varkdna-, 
Hyrcania).  Pahl.  gurg.  Mod.  P.  gurg. 

The  alphaljet  employed  in  writing  Modern  Persian  (the 
ta'lik  character)  is  a  modification  of  the  Arabic  script 
(neskhi) ;  there  is  current  also  a  more  running  style  of  hand- 
writing known  as  sikastah.  The  modern  vernacular  of 
Persia  shows  a  number  of  dialects,  among  which  is  the  an- 
tique Dari  dialect,  still  preserved  by  the  Zoroastrian  guebers 
of  Iran.  (See  Parsees.)  Consult  also  Cuneiform  Inscrip- 
tions, Pahlavi,  and  Iranian  Languages  and  Literature. 

Bibliography. — On  the  Old  Persian  inscriptions,  consult 
Rawlinson's  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  (in  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society's  Journal.hoxiAon,  1846);  Spiegel,  Die  altpersischen 
Keilinschriften  (Leipzig,  1881);  Weisbach  and  Bang,  Die 
altpersischen  Keilinschriften  (Leipzig.  1893-).  (For  refer- 
ences to  Pahlavi,  see  under  that  language.)  Modern  Persian 
grammars  are  by  Lumsden  (Calcutta,  1820);  Sir  William 
Jones  (ed.  Lee,  London,  1828) ;  Chodzko  (Paris,  1852) ;  Vul- 
lers  (Giessen,  1870) ;  Fleischer  (Leipzig,  1875) ;  and  Sale- 
mann  and  Slmkowski,  Persische  Grammatik  (ISerlin,  1889). 
Dictionaries  are  :  Richardson,  Persian  and  Arabic  Diction- 
ary (London,  1852);  Vullers,  Lexicon  Persico-Latinutn 
(Bonn.  1855-64);  Palmer,  Concise  Dictionary,  Persian-Eng- 
lish  English- Persian  (Londim.  1875);  Steingass,  Persian- 
English  I)icli<inary  {Ijcmdon.  "[892) ;  and  Horn,  Grundriss 
der  yeiijierischen  Etymologic  (Strassburg,  1893).  On  the 
dialects,  consult  Browne,  A  Year  among  the  Persians  (Lon- 
don, 1892),  pp.  187,  388,  where  bibliography  is  given.  In 
Geiger  and  Kuhn's  Grundriss  d,  iran.  Philologie  (Strass- 
burg) Shukowski  is  to  treat  the  subject  of  Modern  Persian 
dialects.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Persian  Literature:  in  the  broader  sense,  all  literary 
records,  monuments,  and  writings  of  Iran  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  present  ;  the  more  ancient  forms  of  the  litera- 
ture are  discussed  under  Avesta,  Pahlavi,  and  Persian 
Language.  In  the  more  usual  ami  restricted  sense  Persian 
literature  in  its  modern  form  may  be  said  to  date  from 
about  the  ninth  century  of  our  era,  although  the  real  begin- 
ning is  to  be  sought  earlier,  as  there  was  no  actual  severing 
of  tlie  link  between  Pahlavi  and  Modern  Persian  by  the  Mo- 
hammedan conquest  of  Iran. 

Modern  Persian  literature  can  justly  boast  of  having  fine 
examples  of  the  epic  and  lyric  poetry,  of  the  romantic,  the 
satiric,  and  of  mystic  poetry;  the  drama,  however,  is  prac- 
tically wanting,  being  a  growth  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
As  to  the  real  origin  of  the  national  poetry  of  Persia,  we 
are  in  uncertainty ;  the  invention  of  metre  and  rhyme  is 
attributed  by  legend  to  the  popular  Sassanian  monarch 
Bahram  G6r.  or  Baliriim  V.  (a.  d.  420-439).  Almost  all 
modern  Persian  literature,  even  history,  as  in  tlie  case  of 
the  Arabs  also,  is  written  in  ver.se. 

Modern  Persian  Historical  Literature. — For  the  history 
not  only  of  Persia,  but  of  the  whole  Eastern  world.  Persian 
literature  possesses  the  amplest  materials.  Under  the  mon- 
arclis  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty  (beginning  226  a.  D.)  mate- 
rials had  been  collected  for  a  history  of  Persia,  and  Yezdi- 
gird  I.  early  in  the  fifth  century  ordered  an  abstract  of  them 


PERSIAN   LITERATURE 


537 


to  be  iiiude.  Tliis  was  translated  from  the  I'ahlavi,  and 
continued  liy  later  [irinces  up  to  the  account  of  the  Mohain- 
nieilan  con(iuest.  From  these  old  records  the  poet  Firdausi 
(b.  'J40  A.  l>. :  d.  1020)  composed  the  Slid/i-yHmah  or  Book 
of  Kinfjs,  for  the  coniineror  Jlahmud  of  Ghazni.  This  is 
a  magnificent  epic  of  GO.OOO  couplets,  embracing  the  whole 
of  the  legendary  history  of  Persia  from  the  remotest  times 
until  the  death  of  Yeziiigird.     See  FlKUAUsi. 

The  oldest  of  the  prose  historians  is  Tabari  (b.  SJW  A.  D. ;  d. 
922),  who  wrote  a  history  of  I'ersia  down  to  the  times  of  the 
khalifate.  II is  work  has  been  translated  for  the  Oriental 
Translation  Fund.  ((J/irunicjiie  d'Aboii  Djuf<ir  Jfiiliiiiiiiiied 
I'abari,  by  Zotenberg,  Paris,  18t)7-74.)  The  book  was  origi- 
nally written  in  Arabic,  but  only  the  Persian  version  of  it 
exists  in  a  complete  state.  In  the  fourteenth  century  Yaliya 
ibn  Abd-ul-latif,  C'azwini  (d.  Kiol  A.  d.),  published  a  com- 
prehensive general  history  entitled  Lubb-et-tawarikh,  or 
Pith  of  History.  Mohammed  ibn  Khavand-shiih  Jlirkhond 
(b.  14:!:i :  d.  1498  a.  D.)  was  author  of  the  Rauzat  us  Sitfa 
(Meadow  of  Purity),  a  history  of  Persia  from  the  t'reation 
to  A.  L).  1471.  (See  .Mirkuoxd.)  His  grandson,  Khavaiida- 
mir,  who  was  attached  to  the  court  of  IJiiber  soon  after  the 
invasion  of  India  (1528).  wrote  an  abridgment  of  this  work 
under  the  title  KhiildJidt  el  Akiibar  (Abstract  of  Informa- 
tion). It  is  in  ten  books,  and  is  an  excellent  epitome  of 
Eastern  history.  The //a4(6  ms  SYyar  (Biogra[)lier"s  Friend) 
is  another  esteemed  historical  work  by  the  same  author. 
There  is  a  very  excellent  history  of  Persia,  written  about 
1300  A.  D.  by  Wassaf  of  Shiraz ;  an  account  of  it  is  given 
by  Sir  Gore  Ouseley  in  his  Ni)tices  of  Persian  Poets  (Ori- 
ental Translation  Fund,  London,  1846),  where,  among  other 
extracts  from  the  work  (p.  232),  he  gives  a  story  which  is 
the  exact  counterpart  of  the  well-known  English  legend  of 
Whittington  and  his  cat.  Besides  these  general  histories, 
there  are  a  great  many  histories  of  particular  reigns  and  pe- 
riods. 

All  these  are  purely  Persian  works,  but  there  is  in  addi- 
tion a  large  number  of  works  written  in  that  language  in 
India,  and  relating  for  the  most  part  to  the  affaire  of  that 
country.  Of  these,  the  most  important  are  the  Ayiii  i  Ak- 
bari  (Institutes  of  Akbarthe  Great,  Emperor  of  Hindustan) ; 
Tarikh  i  Ferishtn,  a  general  history  of  India  by  Muhammed 
Kiusim  Hindu  .Shah  (d.  about  1612  A.  D.),  who  was  surnained 
Ferishta.  ed.  by  (rcn.  Briggs  (2  vols.,  Bombay,  18;51),  trans- 
lated by  A.  Uow  (London,  1770-72),  and  by  Gen.  Briggs 
(4  vols.,  London,  182'J) ;  and  the  .SVyfir  ul  Mutaakkhcriti 
(Modern  Biography),  a  history  of  India  down  to  recent 
times  (Eng.  trans,  by  Gholara  Ilossein,  3  vols.,  Calcutta, 
178!),  and  by  .].  Briggs,  London,  1832).  A  complete  account 
of  the  native  historians  of  Persia  is  given  in  A  De.'<crip(ioe. 
(JataliKjne  of  the  Historical  Maituscrints  in  the  Arabic  and 
Persian  Languayes  preserved  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society  of  (freat  Britain  and  Ireland,  by  W.  H. 
Morley  (London,  18o4). 

Poetry. — Of  tiie  various  forms  of  Persian  poetry  the 
most  important  are — (1)  the  Masnavl  (rhyming  couplets), 
which  answer  to  our  own  "  heroics,"  epic,  narrative,  and  di- 
dactic pieces  being  generally  written  in  this  meter.  (2)  The 
Ghazal  (ode).  These  are  for  the  most  part  ostensibly  an- 
acreontic songs,  love  ami  wine  being  the  constant  theme,  but 
tliey  are  really  highly  metaphorical  religious  writings,  ex- 
pounding the  peculiar  theoso[)hic  views  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary sect  the  East  has  ever  produced,  the  Sufi  dervishes. 
(3)  Tlie  Kas'tdah  (idyl),  which  is  generally  employed  in 
panegyric.  Among  the  principal  poets  of  Persia  is  lliidagl. 
lie  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nasr,  grandson  of  Ismael  Sa- 
mani,  fouinler  of  the  Samany  dynasty  (about  940).  He  was 
born  blind,  but  wrote  magnificent  lyrics,  some  few  of  which 
have  come  down  to  us.  (See  RudagI.)  Firdausi  has  already 
been  mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  historians.  In  addi- 
tion to  his  great  work,  the  Shah-Namah,  he  wrote  a  bit- 
ter satire  on  his  ungrateful  master,  Mahmud,  which  is  usu- 
ally prefixed  to  the  epic  itself,  and  a  poem  entitleil  Vusuf  u 
Zuleikha  (The  Loves  of  Joseph  and  Potiphar"s  Wife),  a  fa- 
vorite subject  with  the  Persian  bards.  (See  FiRDAi'si.)  One 
of  the  most  original  and  extraordinary  poets  of  Persia  was 
Omar  Khayyam  (d.  1123).  He  was  a  great  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  and  to  him  we  owe  the  work  called  Atjebr 
u  el  Mnkabileh,  on  the  science  which  still  bears  the  name 
"algebra"  which  he  gave  it.  His  poems  consist  entirely  of 
rubaiyat,  or  ([ualrains.  They  breathe  a  spirit  of  advanced 
free  thought,  which  sometimes,  indeed,  verges  on  atheism  : 
but  they  have  at  the  same  time  a  strange  admixture  of  re- 
fined sentiment,  philosophical  cynicism,  and  manly  feeling 


which  makes  them  unlike  any  other  composition  of  the 
kind.  (See  Omar  Khayv.x.m.)  Omar  Khayyam  in  his  youth 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Hasan  Sabah,  the  original  "  Old 
Man  of  the  Mountain  "  and  founder  of  the  celebrated  sect 
of  llasliasliin  or  As.sassins.  Auhad-ud-diu  Aiivari  (d.  about 
1200)  iiilnicted  the  notice  of  Sultan  Sanjar,  the  sixth  of  the 
Seljukian  dynasty.  He  was  an  astrologer  as  well  as  poet, 
but  having  predicted  a  terrific  storm  on  the  occasion  of  the 
conjunction  of  the  seven  planets  in  Libra  (Sept.  16,  1186), 
and  failed  signally,  he  rclin<juished  the  former  profession. 
His  princijial  works  are  Kasldahs  (odes),  which  enjoy  even 
now  a  great  reputation  in  Persia.  They  are  full  of  fine  and 
even  sublime  conceptions,  nervous  and  elegant  language, 
and  original  conceits.  The  whole  divan  or  "  collected 
works"  of  Anvari  were  lithographed  at  Tabriz  during  the 
reign  of  Xasr-ed-din.  (See  Axvari.)  Sa'dl  Jluslih-ud-dln  of 
Shlraz_(b.  about  1184' a.  D.;  d.  1291-92  a.  D.),  next  to  Hafiz 
enjoys  the  greatest  rei)utation  of  any  Persian  poet.  He  is  a 
master  of  elegant  style,  and  nuiny  of  his  works  arc  marked 
by  a  very  high  tone  of  moral  scMitiment.  That  by  which  he 
is  best  known  in  Europe  is  the  Gulistdn  (Kose-garden),  a 
beautiful  collection  of  moral  stories  in  prose  and  verse. 
Mention  should  also  be  made  of  his  Bustdn  (Fruit-garden.) 
(See  Sa'di.)  Ferld-ud-dlu  Atliir  (d.  at  a  very  advanced  age 
1230  A.  i>.)  was  an  eminent  Sufi  and  poet.  His  principal 
work  is  a  collection  of  tales  and  parables  in  verse  entitled 
Mantik  ut  Tair  (The  Language  of  Birds). 

Abu  Mohammad  ibn  Yusut,  generally  called  Shaikh  Ni- 
zam! of  Gaujah  (d.  1203  a.  d.),  wrote  a  Khamsah — i.  e.  a 
collection  of  five  didactic  poems  embodying  Sufiistic  doc- 
trines. Of  these  the  most  celebrated  are  perhaps  the  Laila 
u  Majn  im.  an  Arabian  love-story,  and  the  Sikandar-Ndmah 
(History  of  Alexander  the  Great).  Nizami's  style  is  terse 
and  rather  difficult,  but  at  the  same  time  very  forcible.  Few 
poets  contain  more  subtle  thoughts  and  pregnant  expres- 
sions ;  and  while  other  Persian  poets  generally  err  on  the 
side  of  verbiage  and  prolixity,  Nizam!  frequently  falls  into 
the  opposite  extreme.  Besides  the  five  poems  above  men- 
tioned, Nizam!  wrote  a  dlvdn,  or  collection  of  odes,  elegies, 
etc.  (See  Niz.iJii.)  Maulavi  Kumi,  Jelal-ud-din  Kuml,  the 
founder  of  the  sect  of  Mevlav!  dervishes  (b.  1207:  d.  1273), 
is  the  great  exponent  of  the  mystic  doctrines  of  the  Sufis. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Sa'di.  the  author  of  the  Gulistdn. 
His  immortal  work,  the  JIasnavl,  consists  of  six  long  books 
in  rhyming  couplets.  It  contains  a  complete  exposition  of 
the  Sufi  doctrines,  and  forms  a  perfect  repertoire  of  all  the 
tales,  legends,  fables,  and  apologues  current  in  the  East. 
This  narrative  portion  of  the  work  is  written  in  a  lively,  un- 
affected style,  but  the  long  speculative  digressions,  to  which 
the  stories  serve  merely  as  introductions,  though  instructive 
and  often  beautiful,  are  somewhat  tedious  to  a  European 
reader.  So  highly  is  the  book  esteemed  throughout  the  Mo- 
hammedan world  that  it  has  acquired  the  title  of  the  Koran 
of  Persia.  In  addition  to  the  Masnavl,  Jeliil-ud-d!n  wrote 
a  dlvdn  of  beautiful  lyrics.  The  collection  of  .Maulavi  Kumi's 
minor  poems  is  generally  known  in  India  by  the  name  of 
Kullijjat  Shems  Tabriz,  Shems  Tabriz  being  his  takhallus 
or  nom  de  plume.  (See  Kf'Mi.)  To  the  fourteenth  century 
belongs  the  famous  lyrical  poet  Hafiz,  or  Shams-ud-d!n  Mo- 
hammed, of  Shiraz.  His  poems  for  the  most  part  are  short 
odes,  or  ghazals,  ami  the  collection  of  these,  uiuler  the  title 
Dlvdn  i  Hafiz,  \s  the  best  known  in  literature.  His  death 
occurred  in  1388.  (See  II.\Fiz.)  Jam!  (b.  1414  a.  d.;  d.  1492 
A.  D.)  wrote  a  Khamsah  in  imitation  of  Niziimi,  in<'luding  a 
Sikandar  Ndmah,a,  History  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
Vnsuf  u  Zuleikha.  a  subject  also  treated  by  Firdausi;  it  is 
by  the  last-named  poem  that  he  is  best  known,  .lami  also 
publisheil  a  dlvdn  of  lyrical  odes.  His  poetry  is  much  more 
light  aiul  elegant  in  character,  and  more  full  of  feeling,  than 
Niziimi's,  but  it  lacks  the  slatcly  grandeur  and  profound 
thought  which  distinguish  the  latter.  (See  JA.Mi.)  Hatifi 
(d.  al)out  lo20  A.  D.)  was  a  nephew  and  pupil  of  Jami.  and 
wrote  many  beautiful  poems,  among  them  one  entitled  Laila 
u  Majnun,  which  has  been  edited  by  Sir  William  Jones  (Cal- 
cutta, 1787);  his  works  gav>!  promise  of  pecidiar  excellence, 
but  he  died  prematurely.  Khakrini.  Afzal-ud-din  Iljrahim  (d. 
1199  A.  n.),  was  perhaps  the  most  forcible  writer  in  the  Per- 
sian language,  and  his  poetry  is  distinguished  by  a  peculiar 
loftiness  of  thought  and  sublimity  of  style.  He  is  best  known 
by  his  odes  and  satires,  and  by  a  charming  poem  contain- 
ing an  account  of  the  countries  through  which  he  passed 
on  his  way  to  Mecca,  and  called  Tuh  fat  ul  Irdkain  (A 
Present  from  Persian  and  Arabian  Irak).  Amir  Khosru  of 
Uehli  (b.  1253  A.  u. ;  d.  1324  a.  u.)  was  of  Tartar  origin,  be- 


538 


PERSIGNY 


PERSON  AND  PERSONALITY 


ing  sprung  from  the  tribe  of  Hazara  Lachin,  near  Balkh. 
He  went  to  Hindustan,  and  settled  at  Puttiala,  near  Delili, 
where,  thanks  to  the  influence  of  his  father-in-law,  he  ob- 
tained an  important  post  at  the  court  of  Tughlak  Shah  in 
Dehli.  He  was  a  very  voluminous  writer,  and  his  poetry  is 
marked  by  great  wit  and  exuberance  of  fancy.  He  is  best 
known  by  five  Siifiistic  romances  after  the  model  of  the 
Khammh  of  Nizami.  We  must  not  omit  to  mention  the 
wild  and  stirring  improvisations  of  the  robber-poet  Kurro- 
glou,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  who,  although  writing  in  a  half-Turkish  patois, 
may  yet  be  considered  as  a  representative  of  the  rustic  muse 
of  Persia.  The  reign  of  Nasr-ed-din  produced  a  poet  of  no 
mean  pretensions.  Hakim  Kaani,  poet-laureate  to  the  shah. 
His  poems  have  been  printed  at  the  imperial  press  at  Te- 
heran, and  form  a  large  folio  volume.  Kaani  has  an  astonish- 
ing command  of  language  and  rhythm,  and  while  following 
closely  the  ancient  traditions  of  Persian  poetry  as  to  the 
form.'he  has  not  disdained  to  infuse  into  his  works  a  spice 
of  modern  learning  which  imparts  a  novel  and  pleasing 
character  to  his  style.  There  is  an  immense  crowd  of  minor 
poets  in  the  ranks  of  Persian  versifiers,  but  those  mentioned 
above  are  the  most  important  ones. 

The  aim  of  the  Oriental  poets  is  not,  as  with  our  own,  to 
discover  and  produce  new  conceits  and  new  trains  of 
thought.  In<leed,  the  introduction  of  an  entirely  novel  and 
original  simile  is  considered  rather  a  breach  of  good  taste 
than  otherwise.  Upon  the  other  hand,  the  wealth  of  the 
language  enables  them  to  clothe  a  single  idea  in  an  almost 
infinite  variety  of  forms  of  expression,  and  it  is  in  this  di- 
rection that  their  ingenuity  and  invention  are  exercised. 
In  order,  then,  to  become  able  to  read  any  fresh  poet  with 
ease,  it  is  necessary  for  the  learner  to  adopt  the  native 
method,  and  make  himself  perfectly  acquainted  with  all 
the  minutiie  of  the  works  of  one  of  the  standard  classical 
writers,  and  this  will  give  him  a  ready  key  to  all  the  rest. 
Dr.  A.  Sprenger's  Catalogue  of  the  Arabic,  Pe?'siaii,  and 
Hindustani/  JISS.  in  the  Library  of  the  King  of  Oudh 
(vol.  i.,  Calcutta,  1854),  and  Rieu's  Catalogue  of  the  Persian 
3ISS.  in  the  Britislt^  JIuseum  (3  vols.,  London,  1879-83), 
contain  short  biographical  notices  and  accounts  of  the 
works  of  all  the  principal  Persian  poets. 

Ethics,  Science,  Fiction,  and  3Iiscellatieous  Works. — The 
number  of  these  works  which  Persian  literature  contains  is 
so  numerous  that  it  would  require  a  large  volume  to  give 
anything  like  an  adequate  account  of  them.  The  modern 
Persians,  like  other  Oriental  nations,  have  lieen  stimulated 
into  intellectual  activity  in  recent  times  by  their  increased 
communications  with  the  West,  and  the  result  has  been 
that  a  number  of  useful  works  on  educational  and  scientific 
subjects  have  been  translated  from  the  various  European 
languages.  The  old  standard  authors,  however,  still  hold 
their  ground,  and  are  studied  with  as  much  ardor  as  ever. 
The  most  esteemed  and  best-known  miscellaneous  works  are 
Alchlak  i  Jelali.  a  treatise  on  Persian  moral  philosophy,  by 
Jelal-ud-din,  translated  by  W.  F.  Thompson  (1839);'  the 
Akhlak  i  Muhsini,  by  Hussein  Va'iz  Kashifi  (translated  by 
Keene,  Hertford,  18.52),  another  much  esteemed  work  on  the 
same  subject,  the  Oulistdn  of  Sa'di,  already  mentioned  in 
the  notices  of  poetical  works ;  the  Amvar  i  Suheili,  the  Per- 
sian version  of  the  fables  of  Bidpai,  by  Hussein  Vii'iz 
Kashifi ;  the  Dahistdn  i  Mazahih,  by  Muhsin  Pani,  an  in- 
teresting account  of  the  rise,  progress,  and  doctrines  of  vari- 
ous religious  sects  throughout  the  East.  It  contains,  among 
others,  a  history  of  the  ancient  religion  of  Persia,  of  Hindu- 
ism, and  of  the  different  sects  of  Mohammedanism  (trans- 
lated by  Shea  and  Trover,  Paris,  1843).  The  Beharistan,  or 
Spring  Garden,  of  Jami,  is  a  charming  collection  of  tales, 
anecdotes,  and  aphorisms,  and  contains,  besides,  short  biog- 
raphies of  twenty-eight  of  the  principal  poets  of  Persia.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  works  in  Persian  is  the  Tezkerah  i 
Ahuara,  or  Memoirs  of  the  Poets,  by  Daulat  Shah,  who  fin- 
ished it  about  1486  a.  d.  It  is  divided  into  a  preface  and 
nine  chapters,  each  chapter  containing  biographies  of  about 
twenty  poets,  written  in  a  most  entertaining  style,  with  ex- 
tracts from  and  criticisms  upon  their  works.  It  is  also  filled 
with  historical  details  of  gruat  interest  and  importance,  and 
displays  great  research  and  critical  acumen  in  its  compila- 
tion. It  forms  the  groundwork  of  von  Hammer's  Oeschichte 
der  schonen  Redekunste  Persiens.  E.  H.  Palmer. 

Revised  by  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Persig'ny,  par'se"en'yee',  Jkan  Gilbert  Victor  Fialin, 
Duo  de :   statesman ;   b.  at  St.-Germain-Lespinasse,  Loire, 


France,  Jan.  11, 1808;  entered  the  army,  but  was  discharged 
in  1830  on  account  of  insubordination ;  became  a  contributor 
to  the  Temps;  founded  in  1834  L' Occident  f ran fais,  a  Bona- 
partist  oi-gan  ;  became  very  intimate  with  Louis  Napoleon  ; 
took  part  in  the  aft'airof  Strassburg.  from  which  he  escaped, 
and  about  which  he  wrote  Relation  de  t'Entreprise  du  Prince 
Napolecm-Loiiis  (Loudon,  1837) :  took  part  also  in  the  de- 
scent on  Boulogne,  where  he  was  captured  and  imprisoned 
for  several  years,  during  which  time  he  wrote  Utiiite  des 
pyramides  d'Egypte  (1844),  a  rather  singular  performance, 
in  which  he  tried  to  demonstrate  that  those  gigantic  struc- 
tures had  been  reared  in  order  to  defend  the  Nile  valley 
against  the  sand-fiights :  was  I'estored  to  liberty  by  the  Revo- 
lution of  1848,  and  at  once  set  liimself  to  work  in  the  inter- 
est of  Napoleon,  who,  on  becoming  president,  appointed  Per- 
signy  bis  aide-de-camp.  In  1849  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  tile  Legislative  Assembly :  played  an  important  part  in 
the  coup  d'etat  of  ISol,  and  was  Minister  of  the  Interior 
from  Jan.,  1852,  to  Apr.,  1854,  and  again  from  Nov.,  1860,  to 
June,  1863.  having  in  the  interval  been  ambassador  to  Great 
Britain.  He  was  created  a  duke  in  1863.  D.  at  Nice,  Jan. 
13,  1873.  .  The  letters  on  public  affairs  which  he  now  and 
then  published  are  believed  to  have  been  inspired  by  Na- 
poleon himself.  See  Delaroa's  Le  Due  de  Persigny  et  les 
Doctrines  de  I'Empire,  1865,  and  Delord's  Histoire  du  Se- 
cond Empire,  1868-75.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Persiin'mon  [from  Virginia  Ind.  name] :  a  tree  of  the 
U.  S..  the  Diospyros  virgitiiana,  of  the  order  Ehenc{cecB, 
and  its  fruit.  The  common  jiersinimon-tree  has  a  fruit 
which  is  excessively  astringent  until  over-ripe,  but  after 
hard  frosts  have  brought  it  to  the  verge  of  decay  it  is  a  very 
sweet  and  agreeable  fruit.  The  wood  is  used  for  last-mak- 
ing and  other  turnery.  The  kaki  or  Japanese  persimmon 
(D.  kaki)  is  the  leading  fruit-tree  of  Jajian.  It  is  now  plant- 
ed in  California  and  the  southern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  in  many 
varieties,  and  its  fruit  is  becoming  of  importance.  See  Dios- 
PYKOS.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Per'siiis,  Aulus  Persius  Flaccus  :  satirist ;  b.  at  Vol- 
aterra^  in  Etruria,  Dec.  4,  34  a.  u.,  of  a  rich  equestrian  fami- 
ly; received  a  careful  education  in  the  schools  of  Rome; 
became  a  ])upil  of  Cornutus  the  Stoic  ;  moved  in  the  most 
elegant  circles  of  the  capital ;  was  acquainted  with  Lucan 
and  Scucca.  D.  Nov.  24,  62.  Six  satires  by  him,  com- 
prising 650  hexameter  lines,  are  extant,  edited  by  Jahn 
in  1843  and  by  Ileinrich  in  1844 ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
he  wrote  no  more,  and  even  left  these  in  an  unfinished 
state,  as  he  wrote  seldom  and  slowly.  They  were  edited 
after  his  death  by  his  friend  the  poet  Cajsius  Bassus,  to 
whom  the  sixth  "satire  is  addressed.  In  antiquity  these 
satires  were  read  and  appreciated  more  than  any  other  pro- 
duction of  Latin  literature:  they  were  studied  and  quoted, 
not  only  by  the  pagan  authors,  but  also  by  the  Christian 
Fathers,  such  as  Augustine,  Lactantius,  arid  Hieronymus. 
In  the  darkest  periods  of  the  Dark  Ages  they  were  still 
read,  and  their  present  standing  is  indicated  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  there  are  fourteen  English  and  twenty 
French  translations  of  them.  They  are,  nevertheless,  not 
easy  to  understand.  The  language  is  obscure  and  pedantic, 
the  metaphors  often  grotesque,  the  connection  of  ideas  dif- 
ficult to  follow.  Jluch  is  borrowed  from  Lucilius  and  Hor- 
ace, and  there  is  a  constant  straining  after  novel  and  pi- 
cjuant  effects.  On  a  more  intimate  acquaintance,  how'ever, 
a  pure,  enthusiastic,  and  earnest  soul  reveals  itself,  which,  ' 
feeling  itself  fettered  by  the  corruption  and  depravity  of 
the  age,  fights  the  foe  as  best  it  can.  There  are  later  edi- 
tions, with  English  commentary,  by  Gildersleeve  (New  York, 
1875)  and  bv  C'onington  with  an  English  translation  (3d  ed. 
revised  bv  Nettleship,  Oxford.  1893) ;  revised  text  with  Juve- 
nal, by  BUchelcr  (Berlin.  1893).      Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Personal  Bqiiatiou :  See  Equation,  Personal. 

Personal  Property  :  See  Property. 

Person  and  Personality  [person  is  via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat. 
persona,  theater-mask,  i>art  (in  a  play),  personage,  person; 
loan-word  from  6r.  Ti-pdcanrov.  mask,  face,  adapted  to  pre- 
sumeii  etymology  of  pi'r.  tlimugh  -I-  sona're,  sound  (i.  e. 
speak)]:  the  word  person  is  still  sometimes  used  to  denote 
the  corporeal  appearance  of  a  man  rather  than  his  inner  at- 
tributes, as  wlien  we  say  that  he  possesses  an  agreeable  per- 
son, or  is  personally  repulsive.  Later,  the  relations  that  a 
man  might,  sustain  in  the  world  as  a  "  personage,"  personam 
agens.  or  germs,  tiecame  prominent,  and  later  still  the  spir- 
itual functions  became  the  essential  content  of  the  notion. 
In  common  parlance  to-day  "  person  "  means  an  individual 


PERSON   AND   PERSONALITY 


539 


man  in  his  typical  completeness  as  uniting  a  luiinun  Iroily 
to  a  free  and  rational  soul.  From  this  point  of  view  per- 
sonality has  been  denied  to  pure  spirits  and  to  the  souls  of 
the  departed  awaiting  the  resurrection,  because  they  are 
bodiless  ;  also  to  idiots  because  they  are  irrational:  to  mani- 
acs because  they  are  not  free;  and  to  animals,  however  in- 
telligent, because  they  are  not  human,  liy  eiiipliasizing 
one  feature  of  the  conception  or  another, psychology, ethics, 
law,  and  theology  have  all  developed  the  conception  of  per- 
sonality in  different  ways. 

In  psychology  "personality"  designates  individualiiv,  or 
what  is  called  "  personal  identity,"  and  varioiis  opinions 
have  been  held  concerning  the  foundations  of  this.  It  is 
either  an  ultimate  and  self-subsisli'Ul  principle  at  the  core 
of  a  man.  or  it  is  a  result  derived  from  other  principles. 
Already  in  Himlu  philosophy  we  have  this  opposition  in 
the  contrast  between  the  Sankhya  system,  with  its  absolute 
plurality  or  independent  finite  souls,  and  the  Vedanta  system, 
for  which  there  exists  only  one  self,  the  supreme  Drahnum, 
with  whom  all  particular  selves  (Atnuml  are  really  coidenli- 
cal,  but  (until  they  are  redeemed  by  knowledge)  dwell  in 
the  illusion  of  finite  personality  ihrougti  not  distinguishing 
themselves  from  the  organisms  with  which  they  are  sever- 
ally conjoined.  These  organisms  have  their  psychic  as  well 
as  their  physical  side.  Their  grosser  body  is  resolved  at 
death  into  its  elements,  but  a  finer  bo<ly,  together  with  the 
senses  and  active  powers,  the  manas,  or  organ  of  conscious- 
ness and  will,  the  breath,  and  the  Icarma.  or  moral  worth 
acquired,  form  principles  of  continued  individuality  which 
ever  enter  into  other  bodies,  so  that  through  an  indefinite 
series  of  transmigrations  the  finite  personal  life  is  kept  up. 
The  miideni  tlieosopliiats'  doctrine  of  personality  is  derived 
from  the  Vedantic  system. 

Among  the  .lews  the  spiritual  principle  of  personality  was 
the  "spirit"  (Ruac/i)  or  warm  breath  of  life  which  ani- 
mated the  dust,  when  breathed  thereinto  by  Jehovah.  This 
breath-spirit,  which  we  find  as  the  ruling  conception  in  all 
primitive  thought,  maintains  its  place  in  both  Greek  and 
Chrislian  pliilosojihy,  devj^'loping  into  the  more  physiolog- 
ical conception  of  "animal  spirits  "on  the  one  hand,  and 
into  the  Pauline  doctrine  of  the  "Sjiirit,"  or pneumc(,on  the 
other.  The  animal  sjjirits  filling  the  arteries,  nerve-tubes, 
and  brain  cavities  were  supposed  to  mediate  between  the 
ratioiuil  soul  and  the  body;  the  theological  "si)irit"  me- 
diates between  God  and  the  soul  or  pst/clie. 

In  the  Greek  philosophy,  passing  over  the  confused  utter- 
ances of  the  pre-Socratic  masters,  we  find  the  ptieunia  or 
fiery  air-current  to  play  a  great  part  in  the  systems  of  the 
>S7()('c.<.  Being  of  a  nature  both  material  and  immaterial,  it 
was  well  calculated  to  serve  as  the  animating  principle  of 
the  world  at  large  as  well  as  of  the  individual  persim  in  it. 
Plato  and  Arisfotle  subordinated  the  principle  of  the  breath 
to  the  immaterial  and  rational  pst/che.  In  Plato  we  find 
the  germ  of  later  spiritualistic  conceptions  of  personality. 
The  man  is  composeil  of  two  almost  hostile  princijiles,  of 
which  the  soul  is  the  one  that  is  essential,  being  superior  to 
Nature,  pre-existing  to  the  body,  and  possessing  an  immor- 
tal destiny  to  be  attained  by  a  course  of  rational  and  moral 
development.  The  body  here  is  the  soul's  vessel  or  prison, 
and,  although  its  necessary  servant,  is  also  the  .source  of  its 
errors  and  faults.  This  dualistic  view  was  in  Aristotle's  psy- 
chology developed  into  that  wonderful  conception  of  soul  as 
"  form  "  and  body  as  "  matter  "  whicti  dominated  all  Chris- 
tian philosophy  until  the  time  of  Descartes.  For  Aristotle 
the  person  is  this  organic  unity  of  form  and  matter,  this  ani- 
mated body  in  its  completeness,  this  subject  of  biology  and 
psychology  in  one  ;  and  nutriti(m  becomes  a  function  of  the 
soul  as  much  as  thinking  is.  Sclinlaxtic  peripnti-tiriHin  lierc, 
as  elsewhere,  elaborated  the  Aristotelian  ideas  into  greater 
hardness  and  articnlaleness.  Soul  and  body,  separately 
taken,  are  incomplete  substances.  Only  their  union  is  a 
concretely  swisi's/ffi/  substance,  suppoxitum  or  /ii//i(>nf<ishf; 
and  since  in  the  case  of  the  human  soul  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
stance is  rational,  the  suppositnm  rationale  thus  composed 
is  what  is  meant  by  pcrxon.  Individua  .iii/jstantia  naturtp 
rationnlis  is  the  definition  of  "  a  person,"  often  (juoted  from 
Boethius. 

It  is  not  till  Descartes's  time  that  we  find  consummated 
with  perfect  sharpness  the  distinction,  now  so  familiar  to 
us,  of  Consciousness  and  the  Unconscious.  In  the  Cartesian 
philosophy  the  Conscious  and  the  P^xtended,  having  abso- 
lutely nothing  in  common  with  each  other,  were  raised  to 
the  rank  of  two  mutually  exclusive  substances,  and  the 
commerce  of  soul  and  body  in  the  human  person,  meiliated 


for  Descartes  himself  by  the  animal  spirits,  had  to  be  car- 
ried on  for  JIalebranche  and  other  Cartesians  by  a  perpet- 
ual miracle  of  "  divine  assistance."  The  person  was  thus 
broken  in  two,  or  rather  became  a  purely  spiritual  entity, 
while  the  rest  of  nature,  including  the  body,  was  nuiterial- 
istically  treated.  In  Cartesianism,  however,  as  in  I'erina- 
teticism,  the  finite  souls  still  constitute  a  multitude  of  dis- 
tinct substances,  and  are  not,  as  with  Spinoza,  lost  in  the 
one  substance  of  God.  Personal  identity,  in.  a  word,  is  real 
— a  principle,  not  a  result. 

In  Locke's  Kssay  Concerning  Human  Under-itandinp  the 
great  revolution  toward  empiricism  begins.  Personality  is 
now  explained  as  a  result,  and  not  assumed  as  a  principle. 
It  is  not  something  which,  by  simply  being,  gives  rise  to 
consequences,  but  something  which  is  made  from  moment 
to  moment  by  a  cause  which  can  be  assigned.  Locke  be- 
lieves, indeed,  in  souls  as-substanccs  and  in  their  identity; 
but  the  mere  ontological  self-identity  of  such  a  soul  would, 
he  says,  make  no  personal  identity  unless  a  recollecting  ctm- 
sciousness  were  joined  thereto.  "  Consciousness  "  is  what 
makes  a  person,  when  it  remembers  past  experiences,  as 
having  been  also  its  own.  If  the  same  consciousness  with 
its  memories  could  migrate  from  one  soul  to  another,  we 
should  have  personal  identity  without  identity  of  substance. 
And  conversely,  if  one  man  were  to  have  distinct  incom- 
mmiicable  consciousness  at  different  times,  he  would  make 
different  persons.  As  personality  is  annexed  to  conscious- 
ness, so  punishment  ought  to  be  annexed  to  personality,  and 
in  the  great  day,  wherein  the  secrets  of  all  hearts  are  laid 
open,  no  one  should  be  made  to  answer  for  what  he  knows 
nothing  of,  but  should  receive  his  doom,  his  conscience 
accusing  or  excusing.  The  importance  of  Locke's  doctrine 
lay  in  this,  that  he  eliminated  "substantial"'  identity  as 
transcendental  and  unimportant,  and  made  of  "  personal  " 
identity  (the  only  practically  imiiortant  sort)  a  directly  veri- 
fiable empirical"  phenomenon.  Where  not  actually  expe- 
rienced, it  is  not.  Hume  went  beyond  Locke  in  discarding 
sub.stances,  whether  spiritual  or  material  altogether.  Our 
sense  of  gradual  change  in  the  succession  of  our  particular 
"ideas,"'in  which  "  there  is  properly  no  simplicity  at  one 
time  nor  identity  in  different,"  is  what  Hume  means  by  our 
personal  identity.  Ijocke's  and  Hume's  views  have  been 
carried  out  both  in  Germany  and  England  by  the  associa- 
tionist  psychology.  v;h\ch  in  cfjnsequence  has  been  dubbed 
a  "  psychology  without  a  soul." 

Since  Kant's  time  the  consciousness  of  subjection  to  moral 
law,  and  the  autonomy  and  freedom  implied  by  such  a  con- 
sciousness, have  often  been  referred  to  as  the  specific  marks 
of  personality.  On  this  view  "  person  "  means  a  being  with 
inner  ideal  eiids,  to  which  it  freely  acknowledges  responsi- 
bility. Here  the  psychological  notion  passes  over  into  the 
ethical  and  juridical  conceptions  of  persoiudity. 

Recent  psychology  has,  in  the  main,  elaborated  itself  on 
I;ockian  lines.  The  succession  of  associated  ideas  inwardly 
belli  together  by  memory  is  regarded  by  all  schools  to  con- 
stitute the  content  of  the  empirical  self.  For  some  writers 
these  ideas  themselves  are  compounds  of  simpler  psychic 
units,  so  that  the  psychic  person  is  a  purely  secondary  re- 
sult, with  no  specialpnnciple  of  unity.  Others  contend  for 
such  a  primordial  principle,  either  in  the  shape  of  a  real 
spiritual  being  or  soul,  which  owns  the  i<leas.  or  in  that  of 
a  "  transcendental  Ego"  which  jierforms  their  synthesis. 

Ilultiple  Personality.— Thai  something  beyond  the  mere 
contemporaneous  connection  of  many  i<leas  with  one  organ- 
ism is  needed  to  make  one  personal  consciousness  result,  is 
shown  by  certain  phenonu'ua  which  psychologists  are  but 
just  beginning  to  study  with  care.  In  a  variety  of  ways 
one  ami  the  same  "  man"  may  successively  or  simultaneous- 
ly have  different  consciousnesses  that  are,  in  Locke's  words, 
incommunicable.  The  most  familiar  cases  of  this  are  ordi- 
nary forgetfulness.  absence  of  mind,  and  rapid  oblivescence 
of  (ireams,  where  subsequent,  recolleclion  proves  the  appar- 
ently lost  ideas  to  have  been  there  all  the  time.  In  som- 
nambulism, either  natural  or  "hypnotic,"  the  rule  is  for 
the  subject  to  forget  on  waking  all  that  he  has  done,  but  to 
renuMuber  it  again  on  re-entering  the  somnandmlistic  state. 
He  may  thus  live  two  alternating  per.sonal  lives  with  a  dis- 
tinct system  of  memory  in  each.  It  was  first  proved  by- 
Edmund  Gurney  that  the  memories  of  the  hypnotic  con- 
sciousness may  coexist,  after  waking,  with  the  normal  con- 
sciousness of  the  subject,  but  be  unknown  to  the  latter. 
Taking  subjects  to  whom  it  had  been  "  suggested  "  in  trance 
that  they  must  perform  certain  acts  after  waking  when  a 
signal  should  be  given  (see  Hypnotism).  b>it  whose  waking 


540 


PERSON  AND  PERSONALITY 


PERSPECTIVE 


consciousness  ignored  the  suggestion,  he  set  their  hands, 
when  they  woke,  upon  a  planchette.  and  got  the  order  au- 
toniatically  and  "  unconsciously "'  written,  wliile  their  nor- 
mal consciousness  was  occupied  in  reading  aloud,  or  in 
conversation.  At  about  the  same  time  Janet,  Biuet,  and 
others  found  phenomena  in  connection  with  tlie  an;esthetic 
surfaces  of  hysteric  patients,  whicli  proved  the  anaesthesia 
to  be  relative  only  to  the  subject's  principal  consciousness, 
another  consciousness  appearing  present  which  took  cog- 
nizance of  the  apparently  lost  sensations.  Thus  one  pa- 
tient's amesthetic  hand  can  feel  her  toilet  articles  and 
handle  them  skillfully ;  in  others,  if  the  attention  be  dis- 
tracted, the  antesthetic  hand  adapts  its  movements  to  ob- 
jects that  are  placed  in  it,  as  scissors,  matches,  etc.  Or  if 
figures  be  traced  on  the  anaesthetic  palm,  the  patient  will 
see  tliem.  vicariously,  as  it  were  ;  but  the  chief  proof,  as  with 
Gurnev,  is  by  automatic  writing.  Janet  used  what  he  calls 
the  '•  method  of  distraction  '  in  these  cases.  In  this  the 
patient  is  kept  absorbed  in  conversation  with  a  third  party, 
while  the  operator,  approaching  her  quietly,  whispers  ques- 
tions in  her  ear.  The  consciousness  engaged  in  talking  ig- 
nores the  questions,  but,  if  a  pencil  be  placed  in  the  hand, 
answers  to  them  are  automatically  written.  It  is  as  if  one 
consciousness  animated  the  speaking  mouth  and  another  the 
writing  hand,  both,  however,  using  the  ear.  Myers  has 
given  the  name  of  subliminal  selves  to  consciousnesses 
supernumerary  to  the  principal  one ;  and  Janet  and  others 
have  found  that  painful  reminiscences  split  off  from  the 
principal  consciousness,  persisting  thus  subliminally  and  re- 
vealing themselves  in  the  hypnotic  trance,  are  prime  factors 
of  the  hysteric  condition.  Cases  of  aUeniafiii;/  personality, 
in  which  the  man  or  woman  passes  at  intervals  into  a  "  sec- 
ond ''  state  with  its  own  peculiarities,  of  which  the  normal 
state,  when  resumed,  knows  nothing,  have  been  recorded  at 
great  length.  "  Leonie,"  "  Felida  X.,"  "  Luraney  Vennum," 
"  Ansel  Bourne,"  and  "  Louis  V.,"  may  be  named  as  types. 
In  the  last-named  case  there  were  as  many  as  five  different 
personalities  with  exclusive  systems  of  memory  and  pecul- 
iarities both  of  bodily  sensibility  and  character.  A  very 
large  number  of  men  and  women  can  readily  become  auto- 
matic writers,  either  with  planchette  or  pencil.  The  writ- 
ing hand  becomes  sometimes  ana'sthetic,  sometimes  not ; 
and  there  are  are  all  degrees  of  detachment  of  the  principal 
consciousness  from  what  is  written.  In  no  case,  however, 
is  the  subject's  "  will "  felt  to  be  concerned.  These  writings 
tend  in  most  cases  to  assume  the  character  of  messages  from 
spirits  who  sign  their  names ;  and  in  its  most  developed 
degree  automatic  writing  passes  into  mediumistic  trance  and 
may  be  succeeded  by  "  speaking  under  control.''^  Here  again 
there  are  degrees;  but  the  medium's  normal  consciousness 
usually  remembers  nothing  of  the  trance-utterances,  which 
may  assume  a  character  very  unlike  the  medium's  own. 
(See  Spiritualism.)  The  phenomena  of  demoniacal  posses- 
sion, so  rife  in  ancient  times  and  in  primitive  societies, 
seems  to  be  essentially  the  same  thing  as  our  trance-me- 
diuraship,  obeying,  however,  a  different  inspiration  as  re- 
gards its  moral  content.  In  both  phenomena  the  '"  attacks  " 
are  short,  no  memory  of  them  remains,  aTid  the  patient 
between  them  is  well.  The  subjects  have  nothing  in  com- 
mon with  the  insane,  technically  so  called. 

All  these  facts  have  brought  the  question  of  what  is  the 
unifying  principle  in  personality  to  the  front  again.  It  is 
certain  that  one  human  body  may  be  the  home  of  many 
consciousnesses,  and  thus,  in  Locke's  sense,  of  many  per- 
sons ;  but  much  in  the  temperament  of  the  secondary  per- 
sons seems  unaccountable  if  they  are  only  accidental  im- 
provisations, produced  by  certain  groups  of  the  patient's 
"  ideas  "  separating  from  the  rest  and  leading  a  quasi-inde- 
pendent life.  They  have  a  generic  similarity  in  many  cases, 
as  in  automatic  writing  and  trance-speaking,  which  suggests 
some  common  cause  as  yet  imperfectly  known,  or  at  any 
rate  a  conte.\t  which  it  explored  might  make  the  phenom- 
ena, witli  their  peculiar  regularity,  appear  more  rational. 
It  is  clear  already  that  the  margins  and  outskirts  of  what 
we  take  to  be  our  personality  extend  into  unknown  regions. 
Cures  and  organic  effects,  such  as  blisters,  produced  by 
hypnotic  suggestion  show  this  as  regards  our  bodily  proc- 
esses; while  the  utterances  of  mediums  and  automatic 
writers  reveal  a  wides|iread  tendency,  in  men  and  women 
otherwise  sane,  to  personifications  of  a  determinate  kind  ; 
and  these  again,  though  usually  flimsy  and  incoherent  in 
the  extreme,  do.  as  the  present  writer  believes,  occasionally 
show  a  knowle<lge  of  facts  not  possessed  by  the  primary 
person.     The  significance  and  limits  of  these   phenomena 


have  yet  to  be  understood,  and  psychology  is  but  just  be- 
ginning to  recognize  this  investigation  as  an  urgent  task. 

Bibliography. — For  opinions  before  Locke  see  all  the 
histories  of  philosophy,  especially  Sieheck's  Gesch.  d.  Psy- 
chologic ;  and  for  Hindu  ideas,  see  Deussen's  System  des 
Vedanta.  Locke's  statements  are  in  book  II.,  chap,  xxvii. 
of  his  Essay ;  Hume's  in  part  iv.,  ii  vi.  of  his  Treatise  on 
Human  Mature.  In  modern  psychology  Ladd's  Physio- 
logical Psychology,  part  iii.,  and  James's  Principles  of  Psy- 
chology, chap.  X..  may  be  referred  to,  the  one  defending  a 
Real  Being  as  the  principle  of  personal  unity,  the  other 
placing  it  in  the  function  of  memory.  General  defenses 
of  the  spiritual  view  are  A.  W.  Momerie's  book  Personality, 
and  F.  A.  Shoup's  Mechanism'  and  Personality.  The  theo- 
sophic  doctrine  is  conveniently  expressed  in  Blavatsky's  Key 
to  Tlieosophy, passim.  Binet's  Alterations  de  la  Per.wnnalite 
and  various  essays  by  Myers  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  So- 
ciety for  Psychical  Pesearc/i  give  the  facts  of  multiple  per- 
sonality in  much  detail.  William  James. 

Perspec'tive  [from  Lat.  perspi'cere,  look  through;  per, 
through  +  spi'cere,  look] :  the  art  of  representing  an  object 
upon  a  plane  surface,  so  that  the  re)iresentation  shall  exhibit 
the  same  appearance  as  the  object  itself.  To  conceive  what 
is  meant  by  the  perspective  of  an  object,  imagine  a  trans- 
parent plane  to  be  placed  between  the  eye  and  the  object, 
and  let  straight  lines  be  drawn  from  every  jioint  of  the  ob- 
ject to  the  eye.  Each  of  these  lines  will  intersect  the  trans- 
parent plane  in  a  point;  and  if  each  small  area  determined 
by  an  assemblage  of  such  points  is  properly  tinted,  the  re- 
sulting picture  will  present  the  same  appearance  as  the  ob- 
ject itself.  The  art  of  perspective  is  thus  divided  into  two 
parts :  (1)  the  correct  delineation  of  the  lines  of  the  object, 
(2)  the  proper  shading  and  coloring  of  the  picture,  so  as  to 
produce  the  desired  effect  of  distance  and  tint.  The  first, 
which  alone  is  considered  here,  is  called  linear  perspective, 
and  the  second  aerial  perspective.  The  importance  of  at- 
tending to  perspective  becomes  apparent  if  we  consider  the 
appearances  presented  by  objects  under  certain  conditions. 
For  instance,  two  parallel  rows  of  objects  of  equal  size,  if  seen 
from  a  point  midway  between  the  rows,  seem  to  converge  as 
well  as  to  grow  smaller  and  smaller ;  and  a  circle,  if  seen 
obliquely,  appears  to  be  an  ellipse.  In  what  follows  we  sup- 
pose the  perspective  drawing  to  be  made  upon  a  vertical 
plane  between  the  eye  and  the  object.  This  plane  is  called 
the  perspective  plane,  and  any  object  lying  on  the  same  side 
as  the  eye  is  said  to  be  in  front  of  the  perspective  plane,  and 
any  object  lying  on  the  other  side  is  said  to  be  behind.  The 
lines  that  are  drawn  from  the  different  points  of  the  object 
to  the  eye  are  called  visual  rays ;  all  the  visual  rays  that  are 
drawn  from  a  right  line  or  from  a  curve  in  a  [jlane  passing 
through  the  eye  make  up  a  visual  plane;  and  all  the  visual 
rays  that  are  drawn  from  any  other  curve  make  up  a  visual 
cone.  The  art  of  linear  perspective  consists  in  jiassing  visual 
planes  and  visual  cones  through  the  princijial  lines  of  the 
object,  and  finding  their  intersections  with  the  perspective 
plane.  The  method  of  proceeding  dejiends  upon  a  few  simple 
principles  of  geometry,  of  which  the  following  are  most  fre- 
quently used  :  (1)  If  two  lines  are  drawn  through  any  point 
of  an  object  their  perspectives  intersect,  and  the  point  of  in- 
tersection is  the  pers]iectivc  of  the  given  point ;  (2)  if  visual 
planes  are  passed  through  any  number  of  parallel  lines  of 
the  object,  they  intersect  each  other  in  a  visual  ray  parallel 
to  the  given  lines,  and  the  point  in  which  this  ray  intersects 
the  perspective  plane  is  a  ]ioint,  called  the  vanishing  point, 
common  to  the  perspectives  of  all  the  given  lines.  If  the 
perspective  plane  were  made  of  glass,  a  sketch  made  on  it  by 
following  with  a  pencil  all  the  lines  and  shades  of  the  ob- 
jects seen  by  the  observer  would  give  a  representation  in 
absolute  perspective;  but  this  method  is  not  practicable 
for  various  reasons.  A  series  of  rules,  founded  on  observa- 
tion and  experience,  has  been  formed  by  which  painters  are 
enabled  to  copy  nature  faithfully.  After  the  objects  to  be 
introduced  into  the  picture  and  the  distance  from  which 
they  are  to  be  viewed  have  been  determined,  it  is  necessary 
to  draw  certain  lines  ujion  the  perspective  plane,  (1)  the 
base  line — that  is,  the  base  line  of  the  sketch — which  is  tlie 
boundary  nearest  the  oljserver  of  the  objects  to  be  rcpre- 
sente<i ;  (2)  the  horizcmtal  line,  representing  the  ordinary 
position  of  the  horizon.  It  is  supposed  to  be  level  with  the 
observer's  eye.  When  the  latter  is  on  a  level  with  the  hori- 
zon it  is  generally  drawn  at  a  height  of  about  one-third  of 
the  entire  height  of  tlie  picture,  but  it  will  rise  together  with 
an  increase  in  the  elevation  of  the  observer;  (3)  the  vertical 


PERSPECTIVE 


PERTZ 


541 


line;  it  is  perpendieiiliir  to  Ixitli  tlic  other  linos  and  meets 
the  horizontal  lino  in  the  point  of  xiylif.  This  point  is  gen- 
erally placed  so  as  to  be  the  center  of  the  pictnre — that  is, 
on  a  lino  half  way  hotweon  the  two  sides.  All  lines  in  iiatnre 
perpendieiilar  to  tlio  perspective  ]ilanc.  called  /Jfrpendicii- 
lars,  are  represented  l)y  linos  intersoctini;  in  the  |)oint  of 
sight,  which  is  tluis  their  vanisliing  point.  The  points  of 
distance  are  two  points  on  the  liorizontal  line,  twice  as  far 
apart  as  the  eye  is  from  the  pictnre;  they  are  eipiidistanl 
from  the  point  of  sight  when  the  liorizontal  lines,  called 
diagonals,  of  which  thoy  are  tlie  vanishing  points,  are  in- 
clined to  the  base  lino  at  an  angle  of  45°.  As  a  visnal  ray 
parallel  to  a  system  of  diagonals  inclines  to  the  right  or  the 
left,  the  diagonals  vanish  at  the  right  hand  or  loft  hand 
jiointof  distance  respectively.  Of  other  groups  of  paruUel 
lines  tlie  vanishing  points  are  called  accidental  points.  If 
such  a  point  is  above  the  horizontal  line  it  is  called  the  acci- 
dental point  aer/a/,  and  if  below,  the  accidental  jioint  tm-cx- 
trial.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  it  may  or  may  not  lie  within 
the  limits  of  the  pic'tnre.  In  the  case  of  lines  parallel  to  the 
perspective  plane  the  perspectives  are  also  parallel  systems, 
and  from  a  mathematical  point  of  view  have  their  vanish- 
ing points  at  intiiiity.  8nch  a  line  is  called  ii parallel.  The 
object  to  be  pnt  in  perspective  may  be  given  by  its  projec- 
tion on  a  horizontal  plane  and  by  the  distances  of  its  points 
above  or  below  that  plane — i.  e.  its  plan  and  elevation. 
(See  Pko.iectiox.)  The  perspective  of  any  point  may  be 
most  easily  determinoil  as  the  intersection  of  the  pei'speo- 
tiv(w  of  a  iliagonal  and  a  perjiendicular  passing  through  the 
point;  and  the  perspective  of  the  shadow  of  a  point  upon  a 
horizontal  plane  may  lie  determined  as  the  intersection  of 
the  perspectives  of  a  ray  of  light  passing  tbrough  the  point 
and  of  tiie  projection  of  that  ray  upon  the  given  plane.  As 
an  illustration,  lot  us  find  the  perspective  of  a  cube  and  the 
perspective  of  the  shadow  which  it  casts  on  the  horizontal 
plane  of  its  base,  the  rays  of  light  being  parallel.  Take  the 
porspoctive  plane  through  the  front  face  of  the  cube,  and 
let  A  B  represent  th<'  intersection  of  the  plane  of  the  lower 
base  of  tin;  cube  w'ith  the  pers|)ective  jjlane.  Let  C  be  the 
center  of  the  picture,  and  let  I)  (_',  parallel  to  A  B,  represent 
the  horizon;  also  let  D  be  the  loft-hand  vanishing  jioint  of 
diagonals,  R  the  vanishing  point  of  rays  of  light,  and  R'  the 
vanishing  point  of  horizontal  projections  of  these  rays;  R' 
is  in  a  perpendicular  through  K  to  A  B,  and  also  in  the  line 
D  C.  Construct  the  scjuare  II  Ij  to  represent  the  front  face 
of  the  cube,  and  it  will  be  its  own  perspective.  The  edges 
of  the  cube  that  pierce  the  perspective  plane  at  H,  K,  L,  and 
M  are  periiendiculars,  and  their  indefinite  perspectives  may 
be  found  by  drawing  lines  from  those  points  to  C,  The 
diagonal  through  the  upjior  loft-hand  vertex  of  the  back 
face  pierces  the  persjioctivo  jilane  at  M  and  M  D  in  its  per- 
spective; the  point  ()  in  which  M  I)  cuts  L  C  is  therefore 
tlio  porspoctive  of  this  vortex.  The  edges  of  the  cube  par- 
allel to  L  .M  and  K  II  are  parallel  to  the  perspective  plane, 
as  are  also  the  edges  parallel  to  L  K  anil  M  11,  and  conse- 
quently their  iiorsjiectivos  are  parallel  to  the  lines  them- 
selves. Hence,  if  we  draw  O  X  and  O  P  parallel  to  L  M 
and  Ij  K,  and  then  construct  a  sipiare  on  these  lines,  it  will 
bo  the  iierspective  of  the  liack  face  of  the  cube.  The  figure 
II  O  is  then  the  required  perspective  of  the  given  cube. 

JO  C  H' 


To  find  the  perspective  of  its  shadow  on  the  horizontal 
plane  A  B,  we  draw  M  K,  which  will  bo  the  perspective  of 
the  ray  of  light  through  M,  and  II  K,  which  will  be  tiio 
perspective  of  the  horizontal  projection  of  that  ray;  the 
point  S  in  which  these  lines  intei-soct  is  the  perspective  of 
the  shadow  of  the  point  JI,  and  H  S  is  the  |ierspectivo  of  the 
shadow  of  II  M,  The  shadow  of  the  edge  M  N  is  a  perpen- 
dicular; hence,  wo  draw  SC  and  X  R,  intersecting  at  tj ; 
Jhen  is  S  Q  the  ]iorsprctivo  of  tlie  shadow  cast  by  M  X. 
The  shadow  of  X'  ()  is  a  parallel ;  hence,  we  draw  tj  T  par- 
allel to  ()  X,  and  limited  by  a  line  from  0  to  R  ;  then  is  tj  T 


the  perspective  of  the  shadow  cast  by  N  0.  The  line  T  P  is 
the  perspective  of  the  shadow  cast  by  the  edge  0  P,  The 
Iierspective  of  the  shade  and  shadow  of  the  cube,  so  far  as 
they  are  visible,  are  indicated  by  the  shaded  part  of  the 
drawing.  Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Perspiration:  See  Sweat. 

Per  Stirpes:  See  Descent. 

Perth  :  county-town  of  Perthshire.  Scotland  :  at  the  foot 
of  the  Grampian  Mountains,  on  the  Tay;  43  miles  N.  X'.  \V. 
of  Edinburgh  (sec  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  10-11).  It  is  a 
Imndsonie  city,  with  several  fine  buildings,  including  St. 
Xinian"s  Ejiiscopal  Cathedral  and  St.  .Johns  church,  an  old 
cruciform  Decorated  structure  restored  in  IMDl.  The  prin- 
cipal industries  are  dyeing,  lirewing,  and  manufactures  of 
ink  and  linen.  The  salmon-fisheries  are  important.  Pod. 
(1891)  30,r)a5.  ^  ^ 

Perth:  capital  of  the  colony  of  Western  Australia:  on 
the  Swan  river,  12  miles  above  its  mouth  (see  map  of  Aus- 
tralia, ref.  6-B).  It  is  the  financial  center  of  the  colony, 
and  is  connected  by  rail  with  Albanv.  The  town  was  con- 
stituted a  city  in  wm.  is  the  seat  of  Anglican  and  Roman 
Catholic  bishoprics,  and  has  a  number  of  fine  public  build- 
ings.    P,,p.  (IS'Ji)  10,040. 

Perth  Aniboy:  city  (incorporated  in  1784);  port  of  en- 
try ;  Middlesex  co.,  X.  J.  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  Jer- 
sey, ref.  4-D);  at  the  mouth  of  Raritan  river;  on  Raritan 
Bay,  Stat  en  Island  Sound,  and  the  Cent,  of  X.  J.,  the  Le- 
high Valley,  the  Penn..and  the  Staten  Island  Rapid  Transit 
railways:  21  miles  S.  W.  of  X'ew  York.  It  is  in  a  fire-clay 
and  kaolin  region;  has  a  large  and  excellent  harbor;  and 
contains  o  terra-cotta  works,  2  large  drv-docks,  4  machine- 
shops,  iron-foundry,  oil-rofinery,  chemical-works,  emery- 
works,  cork-factory,  and  immense  coal  and  freight  ship[iing 
dejiot  and  wharves  of  the  Lehigh  A'alley  Railroad.  There 
are  a  Young  Ladies'  Seminary,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of 
.^00,000,  a  savings-bank,  and  a  dailv  and  3  weeklv  newspa- 
pers.    Pop.  (1880)  4,808:  (1800)  9.512 ;  (1895)  13,030. 

Editor  of  "JIiudlesex  County  Democrat." 

Perlhshire:  a  central  county  of  Scotland.  Area,  2,528 
sq.  miles.  It  is  greatly  diversified  by  mountains,  forests, 
valleys,  rivers,  and  lakes.  It  is  largely  occupied  by  the 
Gram]iian  ^Jlountains,  whose  highest  peak,  Ben  Lawers"  rises 
4,000  feet.  Hardly  a  fifth  of  the  surface  is  in  tillage,  the 
rest  being  pasture,  woods,  deer-forests,  grouse-moors,  etc 
Pop.  (1891)  122.185. 

Per'tinax  :  a  Roman  of  humble  birth  who  rose  to  a 
position  of  the  highest  esteem  in  military  and  civil  life 
during  the  reigns  of  JIarcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus.  On 
the  assassination  of  the  latter  he  was  chosen  to  succeed 
him  as  emperor,  Dec.  31,  192  a.  d..  but  was  himself  mur- 
dered less  than  three  months  later  (Jlar.  28,  193  a.  d  ) 

G.  L.  H. 

Pertnrhalions  [from  hat.  pertm-ha' I  in.  disturbance,  de- 
riv.  of  pifiiiirlia  re.  disi  urb  greatly  ;  pfi;  through,  thoroughly 
4- /»7-?)«';-<',  disturb] :  deviations  in  the  nuition  of  a  planet 
from  its  elliptic  orbit,  produced  liy  tlio  attraction  of  other 
planets  upon  it.  Were  a  planet  attracted  tiy  no  bodv  except 
the  sun,  it  would,  in  accordance  with  Koplor's  laws,  describe 
an  ellipse,  having  the  sun  in  one  of  its  foci.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  attraction  of  other  planets,  every  planet 
deviates  from  such  an  ollijise,  and  these  deviations  are 
called  jiorturbations.  Periodic  perturbations  are  those 
which,  in  the  long  run.  lend  to  compensate  each  other. 
Secular  p  ■rturbalions  arc  those  changes  in  the  form  of  the 
orbit  which  go  on  in  the  same  direction  from  conturv  to 
century.  The  mathematical  theory  of  ]iorturbation  forms 
the  most  dillicult  subject  in  astronomy,  and  has  taxed  the 
powers  of  the  greatest  niatlieniaticians  in  modern  times. 
Laplace's  Meeanique  Celexte  and  other  works  of  this  kind 
are  mostly  devoted  to  the  subject.  S.  Xewcomi). 

Pertz,  (iEoRd  IIkinrich:  historian;  b.  at  Hanover.  Mar. 
28,  1795:  studied  at  Gc'ittingon :  published  in  1819  a  learned 
monograjih  on  the  Merovingian  majorcs  domus;  was  ap- 
jiointod  ill  1823  secretary  of  the  royal  archives  at  Han- 
over, and  devoted  the  rest  of  liis  lifo'to  the  collection  and 
critical  editing  of  the  oldest  sources  of  German  historv.  In 
the  oxecutioii  of  that  groat  work,  whose  results  apjicar  in 
tlie  famous  .Unnmnenfa  Ocrmaniiv  Ilistorica.  he  was  sup- 
jiorted  by  the  King  of  Hanover  and  other  German  jirinces. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  biograpliv  of  Stein  (Hanover, 
1849-54).     1).  at  Munich,  Oct.  7,  1870.  '  F.  M.  Colby. 


542 


PERU 


Peru' :  a  republic  in  the  western  part  of  South  America, 
bordering  on  the  Pacitic,  between  Ecuador  on  the  N.  and 
Chili  on  the  S.  In  the  N.  a  tract  of  about  90,000  sq.  miles, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Maraiion  or  upper  Amazon,  is  held  by 
Peru,  but  is  claimed  by  Ecuador.  Tacna  and  Arica,  for- 
merly southern  provinces  of  Peru,  are  held  by  Chili.  It  is 
impossible  to  calculate  the  area  even  approsimately ;  the  es- 
timate of  Reclus  is  378,000  sq.  miles. 

Mountains. — The  great  mountain  system  of  the  Andes  fol- 
lows the  coast,  northwesterly,  in  two  parallel  chains — the 
Cordillera,  with  its  base  generally  about  30  miles  from  the 
coast ;  and  the  Andes,  70  to  110  miles  farther  inland.  Be- 
tween these  is  a  region  of  plateaus  and  high  valleys,  varied 
by  numerous  spurs  from  both  chains,  and  cut  by  the  Vil- 
canota  Knot  or  cross  range  near  lat.  14°  30'  S.,  and  the  Cerro 
de  Pasco  Knot  near  lat.  9°  15'  S.  Prom  Cerro  de  Pasco  the 
Andes  give  off  an  eastern  branch,  sometimes  called  the  East- 
ern Cordillera.  The  Cordillera  proper  has  two  crests  in 
many  parts,  especially  toward  the  S.  :  between  them  is  a 
cold,  arid  table-land  or  puna  over  13,000  feet  high.  The 
Cordillera  is  unbroken,  and  forms  the  divide  between  the 
short  rivers  which  flow  to  the  Pacific  and  the  large  ones 
which  unite  in  the  Amazon.  Near  the  Ecuadorian  frontier 
few  of  the  mountains  in  either  range  exceed  10.000 'feet  in 
height :  Vnit  from  lat.  8°  S.  there  is  a  succession  of  snowy 
peaks,  with  passes  often  15,000  feet  high.  The  highest  sum- 
mits are  near  lat.  10'  S.  in  Ancachs ;  according  to  Hindle 
the  Cerro  de  Huascan  attains  22,050  feet.  The  limit  of  per- 
petual snow  is  from  15,.500  to  16,500  feet. 

Regional  Divisions. — The  parallel  mountain  ranges  di- 
vide Peru  into  three  habitable  regions  called  the  Jlontana. 
the  Sierra,  and  the  Costa.  The  Montana  includes  the  lower 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  together  with  the  vast  plains 
bordering  the  upper  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  in  the  X.  E. 
Here  there  are  very  heavy  and  frequent  rains  and  a  luxuri- 
ant forest  growth.  The  few  civilized  inhabitants  are  gath- 
ered near  the  great  rivers.  The  Sierra  includes  all  the  region 
between  the  Andes  and  the  Cordillera.  The  southern  part, 
to  the  Vilcafiota  cross  range,  is  included  in  the  Titicaca 
basin  ;  it  is  nearly  13,000  feet  high,  and  so  cold  that  corn  will 
not  ripen.  Between  the  Vilcanota  and  Pasco  cross  ranges  is 
the  finest  and  most  thickly  populated  part  of  Peru,  and  tlie 
ancient  center  of  Inca  civilization ;  a  wonderfully  varied  re- 
gion of  plateaus,  mountain-slopes,  and  fertile  valleys,  from 
3,000  to  12,000  feet  high.  The'  northern  part  of  the  Sierra 
includes  the  deep  gorge  of  the  un]>er  JIaranon  and  the  head 
of  the  Huallaga  valley,  a  wild  and  rather  tliinly  settled  re- 
gion of  difficult  access.  Rains  are  never  abundant  in  the 
Sierra,  and  there  is  no  true  forest :  but  the  valleys  are  well 
watered  by  streams  from  the  mountain  snows.  The  Costa, 
the  narrow  strip  between  the  Cordillera  and  the  Pacific,  is  a 
terrace  a  few  hundred  feet  high,  abutting  on  the  coast  in 
cliffs  and  varied  by  spurs  and  isolated  headlands.  It  is  an 
almost  rainless  desert,  but  crossed  by  valleys  of  great  fer- 
tility wherever  a  stream  comes  down.  The  climate  is  tem- 
perate rather  than  tropical,  and  the  winter  months  (May  to 
October)  are  characterized  by  frequent  thick  imais  (garruas). 
sometimes  with  a  light  drizzling  rain,  which  brings  out  a 
sparse  growth  of  herbs  on  the  desert  lands.  Peru  has  few 
well-sheltered  harbors,  the  most  important  lieing  Callao. 
Several  groups  of  small  rocky  islands — the  Lobos,  Chinchas, 
etc. — adjoin  the  coast ;  they  are  important  only  as  shelters 
and  for  their  deposits  of  guano,  now  nearly  exhausted. 

Volcanoes  and  Earthquakes. — The  Peruvian  volcanoes, 
only  three  or  four  of  which  are  active,  are  all  gathered  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Cordillera  ;  among  the  best  known 
are  Misti,  Oniate.  and  Ubinas.  The  region  about  them,  with 
the  whole  of  the  Costa,  is  subject  to  ti'equent  and  sometimes 
severe  earthquakes.  Lima  and  Callao  have  been  nearly 
destroyed  four  times,  the  most  disastrous  shock  being  that 
of  Oct.  28,  1746.  Arequipa  and  the  coast  cities  liave  suf- 
fered even  more,  notably  in  1868  and  1877.  In  the  Sierra 
earth()uakes  are  much  less  frequent  and  severe,  and  in  the 
Montauii  they  are  almost  unknown. 

Hirers  and  Lakes. — The  short  rivers  of  the  Pacific  slope 
are  all  unnavigable.  E.  of  the  Cordillera  the  streams  at 
first  follow  the  axes  of  the  mountain-chains,  generally  N.  or. 
N.  N.  W. ;  ultinuitely  they  break  thnmgh  the  Andes  in  deep 
gorges,  and  reach  the  northeastern  plains,  where  they  be- 
come navigable.  The  principal  trunks  are  the  Maranon  or 
upper  Amazon,  the  Huallaga.  and  the  Ucayali.  The  Javary 
is  a  river  of  the  plains  on  the  boundary  of  Brazil :  and  the 
Madre  de  Dios,  one  of  the  four  great  Ijranches  of  the  Ma- 
deira, rises  not  far  from  Cuzco.     These  rivers,  owing  to  the 


difficulty  of  communication  over  the  mountains,  are  used 
only  for  the  small  commerce  of  the  Jlontaiia,  but  they  form 
the  shortest  routes  from  Peru  to  Europe.  Lake  Titicaca 
(q.  !'.),  between  Peru  and  Bolivia,  is  navigated  by  small 
steamers,  forming  part  of  the  mixed  route  from  La  Paz  to 
the  Peruvian  coast.  There  are  several  small  lakes  in  the 
Sierra. 

Fauna  and  Productions. — The  Montana  animals  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  Brazil.  The  mountain  region  has  many 
peculiar  animals,  the  most  noteworthy  being  the  domesti- 
cated llama  and  alpaca  (the  former  used  as  a  beast  of  bur- 
den, the  latter  for  its  fleece),  with  their  wild  congeners,  and 
the  condor,  the  largest  bird  of  flight.  At  present  rubber 
and  cinchona  are  about  the  only  utilized  products  of  the 
Montana  forests.  Coca,  quinoa,  and  the  potato  grow  wild, 
and  are  cultivated  at  higher  altitudes.  Tlie  Sierra  and  coast 
valleys,  and  nearly  all  the  Montana,  are  very  fertile;  owing 
to  the  diversity  of  climate  almost  any  plant  can  be  raised, 
but  the  principal  agricultural  products  are  sugar-cane,  cot- 
ton, grapes  (used  for  brandy),  and  tobacco  in  the  Costa; 
maize  and  coca  in  the  Sierra,  with  potatoes  and  quinoa  at 
higher  altitudes:  and  maize  and  manioc  in  the  Montana. 
Peru  is  pre-eminently  a  country  of  minerals,  almost  every 
department  being  rich  in  deposits,  but  in  its  output  it  is 
surpassed  by  Bolivia  and  Chili.  Heretofore  the  silver  mines 
have  been  the  most  important :  the  veins  occur  principally 
in  the  Cordillera.  The  celebrated  mines  of  Cerro  de  Pasco 
yielded  about  $475,000,000  worth  of  silver  from  1630  to  1850 ; 
the  yield  in  1877  was  1,427,592  oz.  Gold  is  found  princi- 
pally on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  and  the  washings 
have  been  only  slightly  developed.  Other  important  metals 
are  quicksilver  (now  but  little  mined),  copper,  and  lead.  Coal 
(Jurassic)  is  now  mined  near  the  coast,  and  occurs  inland ; 
extensive  petroleum  deposits  have  been  found  in  the  north- 
western department  of  Piura,  and  are  worked  to  some  ex- 
tent. The  guano  deposits  have  been  a  source  of  great  wealth  ; 
from  1853  to  1872  8,000.000  tons  were  taken  from  the  Chincha 
islands  alone.  The  known  residue  is  only  a  few  hundred 
thousand  tons,  and  has  been  transferred  to  a  private  com- 
pany. 

People  and  Oovernment. — The  population  in  1894,  besides 
some  150,000  wild  Indians,  was  about  3,100,000.  Most  of 
these  are  descended  from  the  ancient  Kechua  tribes  or,  in 
the  Titicaca  basin,  from  the  Aynuiras.  In  the  cities  there  is 
an  intermixture  with  Spanish  blood,  and  a  comparatively 
small  proportion  is  of  pure  Spanish  descent.  The  educated 
and  ruling  class  includes  portions  of  all  these.  Negroes 
(descended  from  the  slaves  who  were  finally  liberated  in 
1855)  are  nearly  confined  to  the  coast,  where,  also,  there  are 
many  Chinese.  Spanish  is  the  common  language  in  the 
coast  cities,  but  Kechua  is  still  universally  spoken  in  the 
Sierra,  where  many  of  the  Indians  retain  their  tribal  organ- 
ization under  the  Peruvian  Liovernment.  The  wild  tribes 
are  nearly  confined  to  the  Montana,  and  few  of  them  are 
hostile.  The  constitution  now  in  force  was  adopted  in 
1859-60,  but  has  been  somewhat  amended.  Peru  is  a  cen- 
tralized or  unitarian  republic,  all  the  principal  powers  being 
concentrated  at  Lima.  The  president  is  elected  for  four 
years,  is  not  eligilile  for  immediate  re-eleetion,and  is  assisted 
iiy  a  council  of  responsible  ministers.  Congress  consists  of 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Deputies.  The  state  religion  is  the 
Roman  Catholic,  and  the  public  exercise  of  other  cults  is 
forbidden.  The  University  of  San  Marcos  at  Lima  is  the 
oldest  in  the  New  World,  and  is  still  well  attended.  The  Gov- 
ernment supports  colegios.  or  high  schools,  in  the  principal 
cities,  but  popular  education  is  still  very  backward.  The 
better  class  of  Peruvians  are  intelligent,  well-read,  generous, 
and  sociable,  but  tliey  are  somewliat  impulsive,  and  com- 
monly hot  partisans.     See  Spa.vish-American  Literature. 

('oinmerce.  etc. — The  leading  exports  in  the  order  of  their 
value  are  sugar,  silver  oi'e.  cotton,  wool,  and  hides.  More 
than  half  the  traile  is  with  Great  Britain,  and  hardly  one- 
fifteenth  with  the  U.  S.  The  total  exports  in  1891  were 
valued  at  11.616,716  sols,  total  imports  at  14,763.241.  There 
are  some  900  miles  of  railways,  the  most  important  being 
the  Oroya  route  from  Lima  over  the  Cordillera  (projected  to 
Cerro  de  Pasco  and  the  Montana),  and  that  from  Mollendo 
to  Arequipa  and  Lake  Titicaca.  The  old  Inca  roads  are 
still  used  in  parts.  There  is  telegraphic  comnuinication  be- 
tween the  principal  cities  and  by  cable  to  other  countries. 
The  metrical  system  of  weights  and  measures  is  legalized, 
but  the  old  Spanish  ones  are  used.  The  princi|ial  coin,  the 
sol.  is  nominally  worth  a  dollar,  but  really  about  fifty-five 
cents. 


PERU 


PERUGIA 


543 


Finances. — In  1890  the  wliole  of  the  foreign  <Ubt  was,  by 
agreemt'iit,  assiimeil  by  the  Peruvian  CorpDnitinii.  a  private 
company:  in  return,  the  state  railways  and  oilier  publie 
works,  and  nearly  all  the  remaining  guano,  were  transferred 
to  the  company,  the  Government  agreeing  to  pay  the  bond- 
holders ,£80.000  sterling  annually  for  thirty  years.  The  in- 
ternal liabilities  were  estimated 'in  1888  ut  109.287.000  sols, 
besides  8:!.T4T.000  sols  paper  money,  v.-orth  about  10  per 
cent,  of  the  face  value. 

History. — \'ague  traditions  relate  that  a  powerful  dy- 
nasty, tlie  Pirua.  held  the  highlands  of  Peru  and  Holivia  in 
very  ancient  times;  to  it  are  ascribed  the  remains  at  Tia- 
huanaeo  and  some  near  Cuzco.  The  Pirua  empire  is  said  to 
have  been  broken  up  about  a.  d.  1000.  The  Ixcas  (q.  v.)  es- 
tablislied  their  power  at  Cuzco  about  1230,  and  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century  ruled  the  Andean  highlands 
and  the  Pacific  coast  from  lat.  35°  S.  to  beyond  the  equator. 
The  empire  was  weakened  by  its  division  between  Iluascar 
ami  .\tahualpa  in  ir)25.  and  "a  civil  war  in  which  the  former 
was  defeated.  Pizarro  (y.  v.)  reached  Peru  in  1.527  :  he  in- 
vaded it  in  1532,  captured  and  killed  Atahualpa,  and  easily 
concjuered  the  country,  securing  an  immense  booty.  This 
leil  to  the  conquests  of  Quito  (Ecuador),  Southern  New- 
Granada,  Charcas  (Bolivia),  and  Chili.  Pizarro  founded 
Lima  as  his  capital  in  1535;  a  formidable  uprising  of  the 
Indians  was  repressed  in  1537;  and  after  the  rebellions  led 
by  the  Ai.magros,  Goxzalo  Pizarro,  and  GiRox  ((/q.  v.) 
Peru  settled  down  under  the  quiet  rule  of  the  viceroys.  It 
was  the  most  valued  of  the  Spanish  possessions,  but  few  im- 
provements were  introduced,  and  the  riches  of  the  country 
were  constantly  drained  into  the  Spanish  treasury.  The 
viceroyalty  embraced  the  wliole  of  Spanish  South  America 
and  Panama,  with  audience  divisions  corresponding,  in  part. 
to  the  modern  republics.  The  separation  of  New  Granada 
(1718)  and  La  Plata  (1776)  reduced  the  rule  of  the  viceroy  to 
Peru  proper.  Chili,  and  Quito  (Ecuador),  with  full  powers 
only  in  the  first.  In  1781  the  formidable  Indian  rebellion 
under  Tupac  Amaru  was  repressed  with  unspeakable  cruel- 
ties. Peru,  the  center  of  Spanish  power  in  South  America, 
was  the  last  region  to  throw  off  the  yoke.  Independence 
was  declared  at  Lima,  July  28,  1821,  and  the  victory  of 
Ayaeucho,  Dec.  9.  1824,  practically  ended  Spanish  rule  in 
South  .\merica.  Ecuador  and  Chili  had  already  separated, 
and  Bolivar's  rule  in  Peru  ended  in  1827.  The  country, 
under  military  riders,  was  distracted  by  civil  wars.  Santa 
Cruz,  president  of  Bolivia,  interfered,  conquered  Peru  1835- 
36,  and  united  the  two  countries;  but  Gamarra  and  other 
malcontents,  aided  by  Chili,  overthrew  him  in  1839  and 
re-established  the  old  division.  Gamarra.  made  president, 
invaded  Bolivia,  and  was  defeated  and  killed  in  1841.  A 
firm  government  was  finally  established  by  Ramon  Cas- 
tilla  in  1845.  His  successor,  Echenique,  was  deposed  after 
a  civil  war,  in  1855,  and  Castilla  was  again  president  until 
1862.  Prado,  by  a  bloodless  revolution,  usurped  the  Gov- 
ernment in  1865,  but  was  deposed  in  1868;  meanwhile  a 
Spanish  fleet,  sent  to  enforce  alleged  claims,  was  brilliantly 
repulsed  at  Callao,  Jlay  2,  1866.  The  rich  proceeds  of  the 
guano  and  nitrate  beds  induced  a  spirit  of  extravagance ; 
railways  and  other  vast  works  were  undertaken  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  public  debt  was  enormously  increased  ; 
interest  payments  were  suspended  in  1876,  but  with  con- 
stantly increasing  revenues  and  more  economical  adminis- 
tratiotis  the  future  seemed  secure.  This  hope  was  destroyed 
by  the  disastrous  war  with  Chili.  That  country  suddenly 
claimed  the  coast  lands  of  Bolivia  and  Southern  Peru,  and 
refusal  led  to  a  war  for  which  neither  Peru  nor  Bolivia  was 
prepared.  Their  luiiti'd  armies  were  disastrously  defeated  in 
the  soutli ;  the  Peruvian  luivy  was  annihilated  after  a  gallant 
struggle :  by  two  bloody  battles  the  Chilians  took  Lima, 
Jan.  17.  1881;  public  buildings,  including  the  fine  library, 
were  sacked,  and  the  rural  districts  were  desolated.  At 
length  Iglesias,  as  nominal  president,  agreed  to  a  peace  by 
which  Tarapacii  was  unconditionally  ceded  to  Chili,  the 
provinces  of  Arica  and  Tacna  were  ceded  conditionally,  and 
a  great  share  of  the  guano  beds  wjis  given  up ;  the  ceded 
territory  included  all  the  nitrate  deposits.  The  Chilians 
evacuated  Lima  in  Oct.,  1883.  Cilceres,  who  was  the  consti- 
tutional president,  refused  to  acknowledge  Iglesias.  seized 
Lima  Dec.  1,  1885.  and,  his  claim  being  ratified  by  election, 
became  president.  .Since  then  the  country  has  been  slowly 
recovering.  The  '•  revolutions"  frequently  chronicled  by 
newspapers  have  been  slight  disturbances  connected  with 
elections. 

AuTuoRiTiES. — Raimondi,  Geografia  flsica  del  Peru ;  Paz 


Soldan,  Diccionario  geogrdfico  estadistico  del  Peru  (1877) ; 
Reclus,  youvelle  giugraphie  universelle,  \n\.  xviii.  (1893) ; 
Markham.  Cuzco  and  Lima  (1856),  Travth  in  Peru  and 
India  (1862),  The  War  between  Peru  and  Chili  (1883),  and 
A  History  of  Peru  (1892) ;  Prescott.  The  Conquest  of  Peru ; 
Jlendiburu,  Diccionario  historico-biogrdfico  del  Peril  (1874- 
78) ;  Llorente,  Hisforia  del  Peru  (1860) ;  Squier,  Peru  (1877) ; 
the  works  of  von  Tschudi,  Mariano  Rivero,  and  Wiener. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Peru  :  city  ;  La  Salle  co..  111.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Il- 
linois, ref.  ;i^E);  on  the  Illinois  river  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion, the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  and  the  Burlington 
Route  and  the  Chi,,  Rock  Is.  and  Pac.  railways;  17  miles 
S.  of  Mendota,  100  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Chicago.  It  is  in  a 
coal-mining  region,  is  an  important  trade  center,  and  has 
several  manufactories,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,- 
000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  |25,()00.  and  a  daily  and  a 
weekly  newspaper.  The  river  is  navigable  to  this  point  at 
all  seasons,  and  is  here  crossed  bv  a  railway  bridge.  Pop. 
(1880)4,632;  (1890)5,550. 

Pern :  city ;  capital  of  Miami  ec,  Ind.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Indiana,  ref,  4-E) ;  on  the  Wabash  river,  the  Wa- 
bash and  Erie  Canal,  and  the  Lake  Erie  and  West,  and  the 
Wabash  railways ;  56  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Fort  Wayne,  75 
miles  Js'.  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region, 
and  contains  a  woolen-mill,  carbon-works,  flint-glass  works, 
basket-factory,  artificial-ice  works,  bagging-mills,  carriage- 
factories,  foundries,  a  brewery,  2  national  lianks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $200,000.  and  2  daily  and  2  weekly  papers. 
Pop.  (1880)  5,280 ;  (1890)  7.028.        Editor  of  "  Jol-rnal." 

Peru  Balsam :  a  balsamic  exudate  obtained  from  a 
handsome  tree  {Toluifera pereircp)  of  the  natural  order  Le- 
g-H/HWOsfP,  growing  in  San  Salvador.  Central  .\merica.  Por- 
tions of  the  bark  are  bruised  by  beating  with  blunt  instru- 
ments, and  subsequently  charred  by  flame.  A  week  or  so 
later  the  injured  bark  comes  away,  and  the  balsam,  which 
now  begins  to  exude  from  the  exposed  wood,  is  collected  on 
cloths,  from  which  it  is  afterward  separated  by  gentle  boil- 
ing in  water.  Peru  balsam  is  a  dark-brown,  viscid  sub- 
stance, like  thick  molasses,  of  a  rather  fragrant  odor,  and  a 
warm,  bitterish  taste.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  mixes 
perfectly  with  absolute  alcohol  and  chloroform.  It  is  com- 
bustible, giving  forth  white  fumes  an<l  a  fragrant  balsamic 
odor.  It  contains  a  resin,  a  volatile  oil,  and  cinnamic  and 
benzoic  acids.  Balsam  of  Peru  was  prolialily  introduced 
into  Europe  as  a  medicine  about  the  year  1524,  and  was 
considered  of  great  yalue  in  bronchial  and  other  respira- 
tory affections,  and  locally  upon  ulcers  or  wounds;  but  its 
medicinal  virtues  are  feeble,  and  in  the  U.  .S.  other  balsams 
have  almost  completely  superseded  it  in  practice. 

Revised  by  II.  A.  Hare. 

Perngia,  pa-roo'ja'a  (anc.  Perusia) :  city  ;  in  the  province 
of  Perugia,  Italy;  11  miles  from  the  historic  Lake  Trasi- 
nienus  (now  Lake  of  Perugia) ;  on  a  hill  near  the  right  bank 
of  the  Tiber.  1.600  feet  above  the  sea-level  (see  map  of  Italy, 
ref.  5-D).  The  air  is  healthful,  and  the  surrounding  coun- 
try is  picturesque  from  the  old  towns,  churches,  and  castles 
everywhere  scattered  over  it.  It  is  well  walled,  and  entered 
by  gates  mostly  mediicval  or  modern  :  but  among  them  is 
oiie  of  the  Etruscan  period,  bearing  the  inscription  "Au- 
gusta Perusia,"  placed  on  it  l)y  Augustus.  Some  remains  of 
the  old  Etruscan  walls  also  still  exist.  The  streets,  though 
often  steep,  are  broad,  and  the  squares  are  flanked  by  im- 
posing public  and  private  edifices.  In  the  Piazza  dsl 
Duomo  there  is  a  superb  fountain,  the  work  of  Niccold  and 
Giovanni  Pisano.  and  a  statue  of  Pope  Julius  III.  (1.5.55). 
.\iiiong  the  numerous  churches  are  tne  Cathedral  of  San 
Lorenzo,  a  Gothic  building  in  the  plan  of  a  Latin  cross; 
San  Domenico,  a  Gothic  edifice  rebuilt  in  1632,  containing 
a  monument  of  Benedict  XI.  by  Giovanni  Pi.sano.  and  San 
Pietro  de'  Casinensi.  a  basilica  with  a  triple  nave  and  walnut 
stall-work  designed  by  Raphael.  Some  of  the  palaces  con- 
tain choice  works  by  renowned  artists,  especially  the  1,'alaz- 
zo  del  CoUegio  del  Cainbir>.  which  is  rich  in  frescoes  by  Pe- 
rugino.  The  Palazzo  Publico  has  a  fine  Gothic  fa(;ade  dating 
from  the  fourteenth  century.  From  many  of  the  suppressed 
convents  and  other  sources  a  valuable  collection  of  pictures 
by  the  best  masters  of  the  Umbrian  school,  such  as  Peru- 
gino,  Raphael,  etc..  has  been  brought  togetlier  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts  near  the  university.  Perugia  has  always 
been  renowned  for  love  of  art  and  literature,  and  its  uni- 
versity (established  in  1307)  had  (18<.)1)  21  teadurs  and  179 
students.     Without  the   gates   there  arc  some  remarkable 


544 


PERUGIA,   LAKE   UF 


PESSIMISM 


antiquities:  among  others,  the  Torre  di  S.  Manno, on  which 
is  a  celebrated  Etruscan  inscription.  The  chief  industry  of 
the  city  is  silk-manufactures ;  there  are  also  manufactures 
of  woolens,  liqueurs,  wax  candles,  etc.  Perugia  was  one  of 
the  oldest  of  the  twelve  chief  Etruscan  cities,  and  one  of 
the  last  to  fall  before  the  Romans.  In  the  quarrel  between 
Anthony  and  Octavianus  this  town  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  foriiier,  and  was  cruelly  punished  by  the  latter,  who 
afterward  rebuilt  it.  During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  alter- 
nately independent  and  subject  to  the  papacy.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  an  episcopal  see  from  the  earliest  Christian  times, 
and  continues  such  to  the  present  day.  Though  always 
restive  under  the  papal  voke.  this  town  was  not  united  "to 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  till"  1860.     Pop.  (1893)  54,500. 

Perugia.  Lake  of  (anc.  Lncux  Trasimeyius):  a  lake  of 
Central  Italy  :  in  the  province  of  Perugia.  It  is  30  miles  in 
circumference,  and  is  surrounded  by  beautifully  wooded 
hills.     Here  Hannibal  defeated  the  Romans  in  217  B.  c. 

Periigino,  pa-roo-jee'no.  Pietro  Vaxnucci  :  called  Peru- 
gino,  or  the  Perugian :  painter:  b.  in  Castello  delta  Pieve, 
a  dependency  of  Perugia,  1446.  It  is  disputed  who  his 
teacher  was,  proljably  Verrochio.  He  became  a  remark- 
al)ly  skillful  painter  and  a  master  of  technical  execution, 
ami  was  one  of  the  first  Italians  to  use  oil-painting  freely. 
A  gentle  and  rather  meaningless  grace  and  sweetne-ss  char- 
acterizes his  female  heads,  and  his  whole  composition  is 
rather  formal  and  deliberate  than  truly  inventive.  His  great 
celebrity  is  caused  by  his  having  preceded  Raphael  in  some 
of  that  great  painter's  peculiarities:  and,  indeed,  Raphael 
was  his  pupil  for  a  time.  1).  probably  at  Perugia  in  1523. 
Among  his  important  existing  pictures  are,  at  Florence,  in 
the  UtBzi  Gallery,  a  Madonna  with  Saints;  in  the  Acad- 
emy, an  ^ss!im/)//o»  of  the  Virgin,  with  many  figures;  in 
the  Pitti  Palace,  a  Pietd  and  a  Madonna  Adoring  the  In- 
fant Christ;  in  the  National  Gallery  in  London  a  Virgin 
and  Child  icith  the  Archangels  Michael  and  Baphael;  and 
in  Rome,  in  the  Sixtine  Chapel,  a  large  fresco  of  the  Deliv- 
ery of  the  Keys  to  St.  Peter.  Russell  Sturgis. 

Perimite,  or  Terrorite  :  See  Explosives. 

Pern,  Tpper,  or  Alto :  See  BoLI\^A. 

Peruvian  Bark  :  See  Cinchona. 

Peruvians,  Ancient :  See  Incas  and  Indians  of  South 
America. 

Peruzzi,  pc7-roofsee.  Baldassare  :  painter  and  architect : 
b.  at  Accajano,  near  Siena.  Italy,  in  1481.  His  early  train- 
ing in  art  was  received  in  Siena,  but  he  became  noted  in 
Rome  in  the  beginning  of  the  pontificate  of  Julius  II.  He 
is  sometimes  supposed  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Rajihael,  with 
whom  he  became  intimate,  and  whose  manner  of  |)ainting 
he  emulated,  especially  in  his  designs  for  holy  families  and 
his  fresco-painting.  The  chapel  of  the  high  altar  at  Sant' 
Onofrio,  Rome,  is  one  of  his  most  imjiortant  works.  He  de- 
signed the  Villa  Farnesina,  and  probably  the  Farnesino 
palace  also,  for  Agostino  Chigi,  and  decorated  certain  parts 
in  fresco.  The  Sybil  Preaching  to  Augustus,  in  the  Church 
of  Fontegiusta  at  Siena,  is  one  of  his  most  admired  compo- 
sitions. He  succeeded  Raphael  as  arcliitect  of  St.  Peter's, 
and  has  higher  rank  in  architecture  than  in  painting.  I), 
in  Rome  in  1536.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Peruzzi,  Ubaldino:  statesman:  b.  in  Florence,  Apr.  2, 
1822;  was  educated  at  the  6cole  des  Mines  in  Paris;  and 
in  1848  was  appointed  gonfalonier  of  Florence.  He  was  a 
Liberal  in  politics,  and  strongly  in  favor  of  the  unity  of 
Italy  under  the  house  of  Savoy.  After  the  overthrow  of 
the  grand  duke  in  1859  (to  which  Peruzzi  himself  contrib- 
uted) he  was  elected  member  I >f  the  Tuscan  Assembly ;  after- 
ward deputy  from  Florence  to  the  Italian  parliament.  In 
1H61  Cavour  offered  him  the  post  of  Minister  of  Public 
Works,  an  office  which  he  retained  until  the  fall  of  the 
Ricasoli  ministry.  While  Rattazzi  was  in  power  Peruzzi 
threw.himself  into  the  opposition,  but  under  the  presidency 
of  Minghetti  he  took  the  portfolio  of  the  interior,  and  thus 
became  a  member  of  the  ministry  which  negotiated  with 
Napoleon  III.  the  convention  nf  Sept.  15,  1864.  for  the  trans- 
fer of  the  capital  from  Turin  to  Florence.  Peruzzi  succeeded 
(!ount  Cambray  Digny  as  syn<lic  of  Florence,  and  showed 
great  energy  in  suggesting  and  executing  important  projects 
for  the  improvement  and  embellishment  of  the  city.  In 
1882  he  was  president  of  the  commission  appointed  to  ex- 
amine the  project  of  a  commercial  treaty  with  France.  D. 
at  Florence,  Sept.  9,  1891.  F.  M.  Colby. 


Pesado,  pa-saa'do,  Jose  Joaquin,  de :  poet ;  b.  at  San 
Agustin  de  Palmar,  province  of  Puebla,  Mexico,  Feb.  9, 
1801  ;  d.  in  the  city  of  Mexico  in  1861.  His  youth  and 
early  manhood  were  passed  at  Orizaba.  As  a  young  man 
he  took  an  active  part  in  public  affairs.  beingMinister  of 
the  Interior  in  1838,  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in 
1846.  AVith  advancing  years  he  became  more  conservative 
in  politics  and  more  intensely  Catholic  in  belief;  and  in 
1854  he  withdrew  from  office  to  take  the  chair  of  Belles-lettres 
in  the  University  of  Mexico.  As  a  poet  he  was  the  chief 
representative  in  Mexico  of  the  sentimental  neo-Catholi- 
cism  which  in  France  began  with  Lamartine  and  reached 
its  perfection  in  Montalembert  and  de  Maistre.  He  delighted 
in  biblical  subjects,  though  he  was  perhaps  quite  as  much 
an  artist  in  his  descriptions  of  nature.  Three  editions  of 
his  poems  have  appeared  in  Mexico,  Poes'uis  originates  y 
traducidas.  in  1839.  1840,  and  1886  (the  last  much  the  fidl- 
est  and  most  satisfactory).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Pesarese.  Simon,  da :  See  Cantavius,  Simone. 

Pesaro,  pa  saa-ro  (anc.  Pi'sni/rwm):  town;  in  the  province 
of  Pesaro  and  Urbino,  Italy  ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Foglia.  1  mile  from  the  Adriatic  and  37  miles  by  rail  N.  W. 
of  Ancona  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-E).  Pesaro  is  strongly 
walled  and  commanded  by  a  citadel,  and  from  the  prome- 
nade upon  the  ramparts  the  view  embraces  the  neighboring 
hills  dotted  with  castles  and  villas,  the  distant  peaks  of  the 
Apennines  and  the  near  Adriatic.  The  streets  are  broad 
and  well  paved,  and  the  town  contains  many  churches  and 
private  palaces  of  interest.  The  cathedral  is  remarkable  as 
showing  by  its  three  superimposed  pavements  the  great 
changes  of  level  which  have  taken  place  on  this  coast.  Ros- 
sini, who  was  a  native  of  Pesaro.  left  all  his  fortune  to  found 
a  musical  lyceum  here.  The  maritime  trade  of  Pesaro  is 
of  some  importance,  and  there  is  an  active  traffic  in  fruits, 
grain,  beans,  silk,  and  hemp.  There  are  manufactures  of 
leather  and  majolica.  Pesaro  is  probably  of  Pclasgian  ori- 
gin, was  enlarged  and  adorned  by  the  Romans,  and  had  a 
bishop  as  early  as  251  a.  d.  It  suffered  from  barbarian  in- 
vasions, and  its  media-val  life  was  much  agitated.  Pop. 
(1893)  24,500. 

PeseHino.  pa-scl-lee  no,  Francf-scot  painter;  b.  at  Flor- 
ence, Italy,  in  1422 ;  grandson  of  Francesco  Peselli,  who 
gave  him  his  artistic  training.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  pupil  also  of  Pra  Pilippo  Lippi.  He  jiainted  for  Santa 
Croce  a  beautiful  altarjiiece  now  in  the  Louvre,  represent- 
ing St.  Francis  of  Assist  receiving  the  stigmata  and  St. 
Dominic  visiting  a  sick  man.  His  works  are  in  private  col- 
lections for  the  most  ]iart.  and  are  distinguished  by  great 
beauty  of  color  and  delightful  invention.  He  died  in  Flor- 
ence in  1457.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Peshaw'ar :  a  town  in  the  Pnnjaub,  India  ;  on  the  border 
of  Afghanistan,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Khybcr  Pass  (see 
map  of  N.  India,  ref.  3-C).  It  is  a  British  dcfeiisive  military 
station,  famous  as  "  the  bulwark  of  the  Indian  empire 
against  Afghanistan."     Pop-  (1891)  84,181.  C.  C.  A. 

Peshi'to.  or  Pesliitto  [from  Syriac  pesh'iifa,  simple] :  the 
standard  Syriac  translation  of  the  Old  and  a  part  of  the 
New  Testament.  It  was  probably  made  in  the  second  and 
third  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  and  is  now  generally 
believed  to  be  the  work  of  Christian  Jews.  It  is  a  generally 
faithful  and  scholarly  piece  of  work.  Jude,  2  Peter,  2  and 
3  John,  and  the  Apocalyjjse  are  wanting,  as  they  are  not  in 
the  canon  of  the  Syriac  Church,  but  were  translated  into 
Syriac  in  ranch  later  times.  The  Pcshito  of  to-day  is  a  re- 
vision of  a  primitive  text,  of  which  the  Gospels  were  dis- 
covered in  the  convent  of  Jit.  Sinai  in  1892  by  Mrs.  Agnes 
Smith  Lewis,  and  published  in  London.  1894. 

Revised  by  S.  JI.  Jackson. 

Pessimism  [from  Jjat.  pes'siynns.  worst] ;  in  popular 
usage,  a  term  often  applied  to  any  doctrine  or  opinion,  or 
even  to  any  mood,  which  ajjpears  to  be  predominantly  gloomy, 
especially  when  such  a  view  or  state  of  feeling  leads  the  one 
who  possesses  it  to  make  an  unhappy  forecast  of  the  future. 

Philosophical  Pessimism.  — In  technical  philosophical 
usage  pessimism  denotes  any  doctrine  concerning  the  uni- 
verse, and  especially  concerning  the  life  of  man  as  a  whole, 
which  leads  to  an  explicit  condemnation  of  the  world,  and 
of  life,  as  being  essentially'  and  radically  evil.  Philosoph- 
ical pessimism  has  almost  always  laid  considerable  stress 
upon  the  assertion  that  pain,  as  a  most  obvious  and  im- 
portant form  of  evil,  is  predominant  in  the  world  ;  but  it 
is  by  no  means  a  logical  necessity  that  a  pessimist  should 


PESSIMISM 


545 


L'onilemii  tin'  world  morcly  because  of  the  sii|ipose(l  [jreva- 
lence  of  piiinfiil  experience  involved  in  its  existence.  The 
moral  ideals  of  philosophers  have  varied  widely,  as  well  as 
the  a-sthetic  criteria  that  have  croveriied  their  judijnients  of 
reality,  and  it  would  be  quite  possible  that  one  should  be 
a  philosophical  pessimist  not  at  all  because  of  his  belief  in 
the  painfulness  of  conscious  existence,  but  solely  because  lie 
was  assured  that  the  highest  ideal  (e.  g.  the  ideal  of  ration- 
ality of  life)  which  his  doctrine  recof,'nized  was  doomed  to 
such  disastrous  defeat  in  the  actual  world  as  to  warrant  his 
condemnation  of  the  real,  because  of  its  radical  opposition 
to  this  ideal.  As  a  fact,  while  the  painfulness  of  existence 
has  played  a  larse  part  in  pessimistic  literature,  few  pessi- 
mists have  friven  this  painfulness  as  the  .so/c  reason  for  their 
criticism  of  reality.  l'hilo.sophical  pessimists  have  fre- 
quently coiirdinated  with  the  painfulness  of  life  the  neces- 
sary failure  of  tinite  beinirs  to  attain  satisfactory  knowledge ; 
and  this  inevitable  '■  is^norancc  "  has  been  afruitful  source 
of  pessimistic  condemnation  of  existence.  Yet  some  think- 
ers, not  pessimists,  have  made  pain  a  prominent  and,  in 
fact,  a  predominant  feature  in  tinite  existence,  as  such,  and 
have  nevertheless  explicitly  defined  the  universe  as  essen- 
tially good,  on  the  j;round"that  the  realization  of  the  ideal, 
at  least  in  some  due  measure,  is  possible,  despite,  or  even 
through,  the  very  presence  of  pain  in  the  world.  Such 
views,  for  instance,  are  represented  in  the  doctrine  of  Hegel. 

In  any  case,  in  order  to  avoid  numerous  vulgar  misappre- 
hensions, it  is  well  to  remember  that  no  one  is  a  pessimist 
merely  because  he  calls  life  painful,  but  rather  because  he 
regards  life  as  a  "  failure."  Pessimism  depends,  tluai,  upon 
first  assuming  or  maintaining  some  sort  of  ideal  of  what 
life  ought  to  be  or  to  become,  and  upon  then  asserting  that 
this  ideal  can  not  be  attained,  owing  to  the  radically  evil 
constitution  of  the  world. 

Hindu  Pessimism. — Pessimism  as  a  universal  doctrine  is 
first  known  to  us  in  Hindu  thought.  In  the  post-Vedic 
period  of  Hrahmimical  speculation  a  belief  that  all  tinite 
existence  is  an  evil,  from  which  some  sort  of  "deliverance" 
is  requireil.  became  a  prominent  notion  of  the  Hindu  mind 
— a  notion  which  early  received  philosophical  expression, 
and  wlii(Oi  has  continued,  as  a  sort  of  insistent  national 
idea,  ever  since,  leading  to  developments  of  great  impor- 
tance for  the  history  of  religion.  The  doctrine  of  trans- 
migration associated  itself  with  Hindu  pessimism  from  the 
outset,  and  the  endless  succession  of  births  through  which 
every  one  must  |)ass  unless  he  should  be  "  delivered  "  is  con- 
.stantly  ma<le  use  of  by  Hindu  teachers  to  emphasize  the 
weariness  of  existence,  and  the  need  of  the  "deliverance" 
itself.  The  radical  evil  of  finite  existence,  from  which  one 
needs  to  be  "delivered,"  is  very  often  defined  as  jiain :  but 
it  is  also  often  defined  as  ignorance;  and  the  fault  of  all 
finite  life  appears,  even  in  the  very  early  philosophical  and 
religious  writings  called  the  Cpaninhads,  as  in  large  meas- 
ure due  to  the  fact  that,  in  this  consciousness  of  ours,  knowl- 
edge is  necessarily  sundereii  from  its  olijects,  so  that  noliody 
here  knows  the  true  "Self,"  or  Absolute,  whom  to  know 
would  be  peace.  Hence  the  essential  restlessness  and  worth- 
lessness  of  all  definable  life.  Deliverance  from  particular 
existence  thus  appears  as  identical  with  absolute  kuowleilge, 
which  no  one  can  reach  who  remains  in  this  world,  or  who 
retains  the  life  that  In-longs  to  the  world.  (See  Tkaxsmi- 
URATioN.)  In  liucldhism  the  philosophical  formulations  of 
the  earlier  Hindu  schools  were  neglected, and  the  doctrine  of 
deliverance  was  given  a  more  distinctly  practical  form  ;  but 
the  essential  pessimism  still  remained,  and  in  fact  was  even 
more  decidedly  emphasized  than  before.  Life  is  always  an 
evil,  being  full  of  pain.  The  deepest  root  of  pain  is  desire. 
Desire  once  "seen  through"  and  absolutely  negate(l,  tlie 
peace  of  Nirvana  is  attained  ;  and  Ikmicc  comes  the  release 
both  from  the  endless  succession  of  births  and  from  all  the 
other  intolerable  responsibilities  of  our  world. 

PesKimisHc  Tendencies  in  Greek  Philoxoplty. — In  Euro- 
pean thought  pessimistic  tendencies  were  never  prominent 
until  after  the  Cliri-stian  era.  Classic  Greek  philosophy  was 
acquainted,  in  a  nieiusure,  with  some  portions  of  the  problem 
of  evil,  but,  exce|>t  in  a  few  scattered  pa.ssages.does  not  appear 
disposed  to  regard  the  highest  good  as  out  of  human  reach; 
but  after  the  CJlirislian  era  the  Neoplatoiiic  school,  with 
which  the  history  of  ancient  philosophy  closes,  comes  nearer 
to  a  consciousness  of  something  essentially  evil  about  finite 
existence,  and  .seeks  a  deliverance  through  an  union  with  the 
absolute — a  notion  which  reminds  one  in  many  ways  of  the 
thoughts  current  among  the  Iliinliis,  Plotinus,  the  lead- 
ing Neoplatoiiic:  thinker,  explicitlv  ileclares  that  the  finite 
S19 


world,  although  indeed  a  world  with  much  evil  in  it,  is  an 
emanation  from  the  highest  good  itself,  and  is  therefore  as 
good  as  the  nature  of  its  own  finitude  will  permit;  yet  he 
declares  that  no  wise  man  can  remain  content  to  live  as  a 
finite  being,  but,  finding  all  more  or  less  evil  here,  longs  for 
superconscious  union  with  the  divine  "One,"  which  union  is 
above  all  explicit  knowledge  or  definition,  although  the 
"One"  is  the  source  of  all  things. 

Christian  Jlynticism. — While  it  would  be  wrong  to  call 
this  doctrine  of  Plotinus  pessimism  in  the  strict  sense,  its 
historical  importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  severe  con- 
demnation of  finite  existence  in  which  the  Neoplatonic 
thinkers  indulged  was  later  influential  in  determining  the 
formulations  current  among  the  Christian  Mystics,  who  all 
followed  Neoplatonic  traditions;  and,  as  a  fact.  Christian 
mysticism  has  very  frequently  made  use  of  language  nearly 
as  pessimistic  as  that  of  the  Hindus.  jNIysticism,  widely 
represented  both  in  the  Catholic  and  later  in  the  Protestant 
branches  of  the  Christian  Church,  has  often  indeed  tended 
toward  actual  heresy  ;  but  even  in  its  more  orthodox  or  less 
heretical  forms  it  has  often  insisted  upon  the  doctrine  that, 
in  order  to  got  into  real  "  union  with  God,"  one  has  to  "  de- 
spise," or  to  forsake,  every  possible  form  of  finite  existence, 
not  only  as  represented  in  this  present  lower  W(]rld,but  also 
as  represented  in  any  future  or  heavenly  world.  All  "crea- 
tures," so  the  Mystics  of  the  Church  "have  often  been  dis- 
posed to  say,  must  first  be  regarded  as  "  naught "  or  as 
"worthless,"  or  even  as  "evil";  else  one  can  never  learn  to 
love  God  aright,  and  to  attain  the  final  supercon.scious  one- 
ness with  him. 

General  Relations  between  Christianity  and  Pessi)nism. — 
Much  stress  has  been  laid,  both  l)y  su])porters  and  by  oppo- 
nents of  pessimism,  upon  the  assertion  that  the  condemna- 
tion of  all  finite  existence  thus  insisted  ujion  by  the  Mys- 
tics was  really  involved,  as  a  conscious  motive,  in  the  fun- 
damental ideas  of  orthodox  Christianity  itself;  and  there 
can  indeed  be  no  doubt  that  the  tendency  to  condemn  and 
forsake  "the  things  of  this  world,"  which  lias  always  formed 
one  motive  of  Christian  piety,  has  been  easily  confused  in 
some  minds  with  an  actually  pessimistic  condemnation  of 
the  whole  finite  universe ;  and  it  is  necessary  to  mention 
this  confusion  liere,  from  the  light  that  it  tends  to  throw 
upon  the  history  of  modern  pessimism  ;  feu-  there  can  be 
no  doubt,  in  any  case,  that  the  imiiortance  given  to  the 
problem  of  evil  by  the  whole  Christian  consciousness  has 
had  much  to  do  with  making  pessimism  a  prominent  topic 
of  discussion  in  the  recent  generations  of  religious  unrest. 

Pessimism  in  Earlier  3Iodern  Philosophy. — In  modem 
thought  Leibnitz  is  well  known  as  the  author  of  a  carefully 
considered  reflective  doctrine  which  he  intended  as  a 
"  theodicy,"  or  proof  that  the  present  world  was  chosen  by 
its  creator  as  "the  best  of  possil)le  worlds."  This  optimism 
of  Leibnitz  was  a  favorite  topic  of  discussion  in  the  eight- 
eenth century,  and  was  satirized,  together  with  other  less 
philosophical  forms  of  optimism,  by  Voltaire  in  Condide. 
Kant,  although  upon  ethical  grounds  an  0[)tiniist.  still,  dur- 
ing his  critical  period,  regarded  all  attempts  at  a  tlieoretical 
theodicy  as  necessarily  doomed  to  failure.  In  his  own  analy- 
sis of  the  worth  of  lil^e  Kant  lays  stress  uiion  the  necessary 
prominence  of  the  painful  in  our  sentient  existence,  and  dis- 
tinctly asserts  that,  viewed  as  a  mere  experience,  our  life  is 
full  of  conflict,  and  has  no  aliidiiig  worth.  Its  true  worth, 
however,  lies  in  what  our  free  will  can  give  it — naniely,  con- 
formity to  a  moral  ideal,  which  we  seek  without  any  refer- 
ence to  happiness.  This  worth,  the  worth  of  a  "  gooil  will," 
is  indeed  absolute.  Meanwhile  it  is  a  "postulate  "  of  our 
moral  faith  that  in  an  immortal  life  happiness  will  be  ap- 
portioned according  to  desert. 

The  ethical  optimism  of  Kant,  joined  as  it  was  with  a 
strong  realization  that,  viewed  merely  as  sentient  experi- 
ence, life  is  rather  an  evil  than  a  good, determined  the  inter- 
esting syntheses  of  ethical  and  religious  optimism  with  a 
frankly  avowed  pessimism  concerning  life  viewed  as  mere 
finite  experience,  which  were  above  referred  to  as  [iresent  in 
the  doctrine  of  Hegel.  The  life  in  union  with  the  moral 
iileal,  or  with  the  knowledge  of  the  alisolute.  is  good;  but 
finite  life,  as  such,  apart  from  its  union  with  the  ideal,  is 
essentially  painful  and  worthless;  this  is  the  classic  doctrine 
of  German  idealism,  in  which  many  still  see  the  solution  of 
the  whole  problem. 

Schopenhauer. — It  was  reserved,  liowever,  for  Schopen- 
hauer, while  actually  buililing  on  the  basis  of  the  general 
tendencies  of  the  idealism  oi'  his  country,  first  to  deny  the 
rationality  of  the  world-principle,  or  absolute,  and  then,  in 


546 


PESSINUS 


PETER 


consequence  of  the  first  denial,  to  atBrm  tliat  the  evil  of  all 
existence  is  railical.  Schopenhauer  is  consciously  affiliated 
with  Hindu  pessimism.  The  world  is  the  expression  of  an 
irrational  and  blind  principle  called  the  Will,  similar  in 
tendency  to  the  "desire"  of  the  Buddhists,  but  defined  in 
more  explicit  and  positive  metaphysical  terms.  The  expres- 
sion of  this  Will  is  a  world  of  insatiable  striving  and  long- 
ing, which,  being  in  the  main  planless,  can  come  to  con- 
sciousness only  as  a  desire  to  change  whatever  it  finds  into 
something  else,  and  so  to  enter  into  an  endless  conflict  with 
itself,  and  pain  is  simply  the  experience  of  unsatisfied  desire. 
The  only  remedy  for  the  life  of  the  Will  lies  in  a  certain 
transcendent  form  of  self-possessed  knowledge,  only  attain- 
able by  a  sort  of  supernatural  accident,  an  absolute  resigna- 
tion, identical  with  the  insight  that  led  Buddha  to  Nirvana, 
This  resignation  Schopenhauer  called  "the  denial  of  the 
will  to  live." 

Von  Hnrtmann. — More  recently  von  Hartmann,  in  his 
Philosophy  of  the  Unconscious  and  in  other  of  his  numer- 
ous philosophical  essays,  has  attempted,  with  great  ingenu- 
ity, an  exposition  of  pessimism  whose  •metaphysical  basis 
lies  in  an  union  of  Schopenhauerian  with  other  elements, 
largely  Hegelian  in  their  source,  while  the  method  under- 
takes to  be  mainly  one  of  induction.  Schopenhauer's  proof 
for  pessimism  is  in  great  measure  rejected  by  von  Hart- 
mann, and  a  more  empirical  estimate  of  the  "  balance  "  of 
pleasure  and  pain  in  life  is  substituted.  The  result  of  this 
estimate  is.  however,  once  more  the  condemnation  of  all 
conscious  life.  The  escape  from  the  world-evil  can  be  at- 
tained only  in  the  far-off  future,  when,  in  the  course  of  evolu- 
tion, consciousness,  wise  enough  to  see  the  necessary  evil  of 
existence,  becomes  predominant  in  the  universe.  Then,  by 
the  general  consent  of  conscious  beings,  who  will  then  be 
wise  enough  to  have  the  springs  of  existence  under  their 
control,  a  common  act  of  self-denial  can  annihilate  not  only 
the  then  existent  sentient  life,  but  its  whole  physical  basis, 
and  so  bring  the  world  to  an  end. 

The  minor  defenders  of  pessimism  are  numerous,  and  its 
influence  upon  modern  literary  tendencies  is  considerable. 
For  a  fuller  account  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  James 
Sully's  Pessimism :  A  History  and  a  Criticism  (3d  ed.  1891). 

JosiAH  RoYCE. 

Pessi'nns  {now  Bala  Hissar):  ancient  city  of  Galatia; 
in  Asia  Minor  ;  on  the  Sangarius ;  the  center  of  the  worship 
of  Rhea  or  Cybele,  mother  of  the  gods.  The  almost  shape- 
less stone  image  of  the  goddess,  fabled  to  have  fallen  from 
heaven,  was  kept  in  her  chief  temple  and  attracted  wor- 
shipers from  all  over  the  eastern  world.  The  temples  and 
public  buildings  of  Pessiiuis  then  surpassed  in  magnificence 
those  of  any  other  city  in  Asia  Minor.  The  image  of  Cy- 
bele was  taken  to  Rome  in  consequence  of  an  oracle  which 
foretold  that  the  Roman  state  would  endure  forever  if  once 
possessed  of  it.  Thereupon  Pessinus  rapidly  declined  and 
is  not  mentioned  after  the  sixth  century.  Its  splendid  and 
extensive  ruins  have  been  identified  by  Texier.     E.  A.  (i. 

Pestalozzi.  Joiiaxx  IIeixrich  :  educational  reformer  and 
chief  founder  of  modern  pedagogy;  b.  at  Zurich,  Switzer- 
land, .Jan.  12.  1T46.  Always  enthusiastic  and  philanthropic, 
he  studied  first  theology,  then  law,  and,  finally,  his  health 
somewhat  impaired,  turned  to  farming.  In  1767  he  bought 
a  farm  near  the  village  of  Birr  and  built  a  house,  Neuhof. 
Hither  in  1769  he  brought  his  bride,  Anna  Schulthess,  after 
one  of  the  strangest  and  frankest  courtships  ever  recorded. 
The  farming  was  a  failure,  the  firm  that  advanced  the 
money  withdrew  from  the  enterprise,  and  finally  in  1775 
Pestalozzi.  wlio  from  the  first  was  deeply  impressed  by  the 
abject  condition  of  the  peasantry  and  had  been  greatly  in- 
terested by  the  doctrines  of  Rousseau's  ^mile,  started  a  "kind 
of  pauper  school.  He  housed,  boai'ded,  and  clothed  the  chil- 
dren in  return  for  such  work  as  they  gave  in  the  field.  By 
1780  this  experiment  had  failed.  His  wife's  fortune  was  now 
exhausted,  and  the  next  eighteen  years  were  a  period  of  great 
distress.  He  turneil  now  to  writing,  and  in  1780  published 
Abendslunde  eines  Eiiisicdlers  (Evening  Hour  of  a  Hermit) ; 
in  1781  appeared  Linnhantt  iind  Gertrud  (Leonard  and  Ger- 
trude), a  sim))le  tale  of  life  in  a  Swiss  village,  which  shows 
incidentally  and  strongly  the  effects  of  right  education.  The 
book  was  an  immense  success,  and  on  it  Pestalozzi's  fame 
as  an  author  mainly  rests.  The  vicissitudes  of  war  settled 
Pestalozzi  in  1798-99  in  charge  of  an  orphan  asylum  in  Stanz, 
where  from  stern  necessity  in  one  year  the  main  elements  of 
his  educational  system  were  developed.  In  1799  lie  joined 
Kriisi  in  opening  a  new  school  in  Burgdorf  Castle,  for  which 


he  obtained  Government  aid  in  1802.  In  1801  appeared 
the  result  of  his  educational  experience  in  his  work  Wie 
Gertrud  ihre  Kinder  lehrt  (How  Gertrude  Teaches  Her 
Children).  In  1802  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  deputa- 
tion .sent  by  the  Swiss  people  to  Paris.  In  1804  he  was 
obliged  to  remove  his  school  to  Miinehenbuchsee.  The 
chief  authority  here  being  given  to  Fellenberg,  the  same 
year  he  moved  on  to  Yverdun.  The  Yverdun  Institute 
very  soon  had  a  worldwide  reputation.  His  chief  helpers 
here  were  Niederer,  Ramsauer,  Schmid,  Steiner,  and  Kriisi. 
Schmid,  though  a  famous  teacher  of  mathematics,  was  not 
calculated  to  appreciate  his  leader,  or  his  methods.  He  ul- 
timately obtained  complete  ascendency  over  Pestalozzi's 
mind,  finally  causing  the  departure  of  the  other  masters  and 
the  downfall  of  the  institute.  In  182.5  Pestalozzi  retired  to 
Xeuhof.  He  died  at  Brugg,  Feb.  17.  1827,  and  is  buried 
near  the  schoolhouse  at  Birr,  where,  Jan.  12,  1846,  on  the 
100th  anniversary  of  his  birth,  a  memorial  was  erected  to 
him.  It  is  impossible  to  summarize  Pestalozzi's  services  to 
education,  for  he  i-ather  set  on  foot  ideas  than  originated 
methods.  He  was  pre-eminently  a  man  of  feeling  and  im- 
agination. He  woukl  never  admit  that  he  had  a  carefully 
thouglit-out  system.  Judged  by  ordinary  standards,  he  would 
have  been  considered  anything  but  a  good  teacher.  His  true 
function  was  to  educate  ideas.  Raumer  sums  up  the  serv- 
ices Pestalozzi  did  for  education  in  these  words:  "  He  com- 
pelled the  scholastic  world  to  revise  the  whole  of  their  task, 
to  reflect  on  the  nature  and  destiny  of  man,  and  also  on  the 
j)ro|ier  way  of  leading  him  from  his  youth  toward  that  des- 
tiny." Doubtless  the  best  single  biography  in  English  is 
Pestalozzi,  )iis  Life  and  Work,  by  Roger  De  Guinips.  A 
very  interesting  and  valuable  biography  is  Pestalozzi,  his 
Life,  Work,  and  Influeyice,  by  Hermann  Kriisi.  son  of  Pes- 
talozzi's assistant  ("New  York,  1875);  Pestalozzianism,  by 
Henry  Barnard  (New  York,  1862),  contains  a  great  amount 
of  valuable  material  selected  from  Barnard's  Journal  of 
Education.  See  also  Quick's  Educational  Peformers  and 
Williams's  Plistorij  of  Modern  Education.  German  litera- 
ture on  the  subject  is  extensive.  C.  H.  Thurber. 

Pestli :  See  Budapest. 

Pestilence  :  See  Epidemics  and  Plague. 

Petals :  See  Flower. 

Petalu'ma  :  city ;  Sonoma  co.,  Cal. ;  at  the  head  of  navi- 
gation on  Petaluma  Creek ;  on  the  San  Fran,  and  N.  Pac. 
Railway;  16  miles  S.  of  Santa  Rosa,  42  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
San  Francisco  (for  location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  7-B). 
It  is  in  an  agricultural,  stock-raising,  and  wine-making  re- 
gion ;  has  a  daily  line  of  steamers  to  San  Francisco ;  and 
contains  8  churches,  high  school,  3  grammar  schools,  Ursu- 
line  convent,  an  academy,  a  public  library  (founded  in  1867), 
a  national  bank  with  capital  of  S200.000,  3  State  banks  with 
capital  of  $600,000,  and  2  daily  and  3  weekly  newspapers. 
There  are  flour,  planing,  silk,  and  woolen  mills,  tannery, 
and  fruit  drving,  canning,  and  distilling  works.  Pop.  (1880) 
3,326  ;  (1890)  3,693.  Proprietor  of  "  Imprint." 

Petasos :  See  Head-dress. 

Petail,  p<!-to',  Denis  {Dionysius  Petavius) :  chronologist 
and  Catholic  theologian  ;  b.  at  Orleans,  France,  Aug.  21, 1583 ; 
became  professor  at  Bourges  in  1603,  in  Rheims  1612,  in  La 
Fleche  1613,  in  Paris  1617;  died  there  Dec.  11,  le.Vi.  Fol- 
lowing in  the  footsteps  of  Scaliger,  but  equip]ied  with  a 
profounder  mathematical  knowledge,  he  endeavored  with 
singular  success  to  systemize  and  harmonize  the  luimerous 
chronological  eras  of  the  ancients  by  ascertaining  with  the 
aid  of  mathematics  the  various  cycles  upon  which  they  were 
based.  The  results  of  his  labors  are  laid  down  in  his  Opus 
de  dor.trina  tempornm  (2  vols..  1627),  and  in  the  more  fa- 
mous Uranologinm  (Paris,  1630).  Both  are  condiined  in 
the  Verona  edition  of  1734.  His  TabuUv  chronologicre 
(Paris,  1628)  and  the  Rationarium  temporum  (1633;  new  ed. 
1849)  rem.'iined  standard  schoolbooks  for  centuries.  He  is 
also  the  author  of  a  celebrated  theological  work  De  theologicis 
dugmatihus  (5  vols.).  The  best  edition  is  by  Thomas  (Bar-le- 
Duc.  1864).  See  F.  Stanonik,  Dionysius  Petavius  (Gratz, 
1876).  Alfred  Gudeman. 

Petell'ora  :  a  river  of  European  Russia,  rising  in  the  Ural 
Motintaius.  It  flows  through  wild  forest  regions  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  which  it  enters  through  a  large  estuary  in  lat, 
68°  N.  and  Ion.  .53'  E. 

Peter.  Sai.vt  [Peter  is  via  Lat,  from  Gr.  ntVpos.  liter., 
masc.  form  nf  TreVpa,  rock,  stone] :  the  first  in  the  list  of  the 
twelve  apostles  ;  b.  in  Galilee,  at  Bethsaida,  on  the  shore  of 


PETER  I. 


PETERBOROUGH 


547 


the  Lake  of  Genncsari't,  wlioiice  he  removed  to  the  ailjoin- 
iiig  village  of  Capernainii.  lie  was  a  fisliennan,  like  his 
brother  Andrew,  and,  like  him,  he  was  probably  a  disciple 
of  John  the  Haptist.  Imt  he  followed  Christ  immediately 
when  called.  His  original  name  was  Simon,  which  ('lni>t 
changed,  dechiring.  "'I'hon  art  I'eter,  and  upon  this  rock  I 
will  build  my  Church  ■"  (Matt.  xvi.  18).  From  his  call  to 
the  office  of  apostle,  and  up  to  the  time  of  the  apostles" 
council  in  Jerusalem,  the  events  of  his  life  are  told  in  the 
(Jospels  and  the  Acts,  and  are  familiar  to  all.  His  personal 
character  is  so  distinct  and  strongly  marked  that  there 
probablv  are  no  readers  of  the  Hible  who  have  not  a  vivid 
conception  of  it,  or  any  two  whose  conce|itions  ditfer  very 
unich ;  but  after  the  apostles'  council  in  Jerusahin  (.50 
A.  II.)  he  is  only  heard  of  at  Antioch  (.VJ),  when  his  inconsist- 
ency exposed  liini  to  Paul's  stern  rebuke  (Gal.  ii.  11),  and  in 
57,  when  he  is  incidentally  referred  to  by  Paul  (1  Cor.  ix.  5). 
From  that  point  on  tradition  is  the  only  authority,  and  the 
circumstance  that  the  papal  see  rests  its  whole  claim  of  pri- 
macy on  events  related  by  this  tradition  has  caused  it  to  be 
very  much  doubted  by  Protestants.  Jerome  (De  viris  i/liis- 
tribKi)  relates  that  I'cter  was  Hishop  of  Antioch  for  several 
years,  preacheil  in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Hithynia,  and  Cappado- 
cia,  and  spent  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his  life  in  Koine, 
where  he  sufTered  martyrdom  ;  but  Paul  makes  no  refer- 
ence to  such  a  fact  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  the 
l<iug  residence  can  only  be  majntainecl  by  denying  a  tradi- 
tion that  both  Paul  and  Peter  suffered  martyrdom  there  under 
Nero.  At  the  time  of  the  Kcformalion  it  was  even  con- 
tended— for  instance,  by  S])anheim — that  Peter  never  was 
in  Rome;  but  at  [iresent  most  critics,  Protestant  as  well  as 
Ronum  Catholic,  agree  Iti  accepting  (he  tradition  in  its  prin- 
cipal traits — namely,  the  residence  of  Peter  in  Rome  and  his 
sutfering  martyrdom  there — though  it  has  not  been  possible 
to  establish  an  agreement  with  respect  to  the  dates  of  these 
events.  The  most  probable  date  is  66  or  67.  Ramsay  main- 
tains that  he  survived  the  Neronian  persecution  and  was 
living  in  80.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Peter  I.,  the  Great :  Czar  of  Russia ;  b,  at  Moscow,  June 
V2,  1672;  son  of  the  czar  Alexis  Michailowieh  ;  in  1682  suc- 
ceeded Feodor,  but  Ivan  V.,  Peter's  brother  and  the  lawful 
heir,  was  soon  after  announced  as  joint-sovereign  through 
the  efforts  of  their  sister  Sophia,  who  for  several  years  di- 
rected the  affairs  of  the  empire.  After  seven  years  of  tute- 
lage Peter  thrust  the  princess-regent  into  a  convent,  where 
she  died  twenty-two  years  later,  and  the  inactive  Ivan  in 
1689  abdicated  his  share  of  the  government.  The  new  czar 
aided  by  his  able  minister  IjE  Fort  ig.  v.)  reorganized  the 
army;  built  a  small  navy;  went  to  sea  in  person  on  Dutch 
and  English  ships,  so  as  to  learn  the  |iractical  part  of  navi- 
gation, and  took  Azof  from  the  Turks  1696,  thus  realizing 
his  ambition  of  gaining  for  Russia  a  port  on  the  Black  Sea. 
He  lived  abroad  (16!)7-98),  chiefly  at  Saardam  in  the  Neth- 
erlands and  at  Deptford  and  London;  worked  as  a  ship- 
carpenter  and  blacksmith,  and  for  some  months  studied  the 
sciences.  In  1698  he  took  ."lOO  l'".ng!ish  mechanics,  engineers, 
etc.,  to  Russia,  and  in  tlie  same  year,  tlie  Strelitzes  having 
revolted,  he  ordered  them  all  to  be  put  to  death, and  assisted 
the  executioners  with  his  own  hands;  but  pardoned  a  few 
upon  the  scaffold,  noteworthy  among  whom  was  the  young 
OrlofT,  founder  of  the  princely  house  of  Orloff.  The  czar 
now  reformed  the  calendar,  founded  schools,  introduced 
arithmetic  (hitlierto  unknown  in  Russia),  c^impelled  rich 
uuM'chants  to  engage  in  foreign  cummerce,  and  emicled  rules 
for  dress  and  deportment;  entered  upon  a  war  of  conipu'st 
against  Sweden,  supported  by  Demnark  and  Poland,  1700, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  defeated  by  Charles  XII.  at  Nar- 
va; founded  St.  Petersburg  170;i;  invaded  Courland  170.") ; 
overthrew  the  Swedes  at  Pultava  1709:  seized  the  Haltic 
provinces  1710.  and  Finlaml  I7i;i;  married  Catherine  I.,  his 
mistress,  1707.  and  declareil  hcrcz.'U'ina  1711  ;  waged  an  un- 
successful war  against  the  Turks  1711  ;  finally  gave  up  nuist 
of  Fiidand  in  the  peace  of  1721  ;  made  the  lour  of  l']urope 
1716-17.  ancl  returiu'd  with  many  liooks  and  works  of  art ; 
put  to  death  his  son  Alexei  1718,  on  the  ground  of  treason- 
able conduct;  conquered  threes  Caspian  provini^es  from  Per- 
sia 172'2.  D.  Feb.  8,  172.').  He  was  succeeded  by  Catherine 
I.,  his  wife.  Peter  was  the  first  Russian  to  take  the  title  of 
emperor  1721.  See  Eugene  Schuvler's  Pc/i-r  the  Great  (2 
vols.,  1884). 

Peter  II..  Alexeievitcli:  Czar  of  Russia;  b.  at  St.  Pe- 
tersburg. (»ct.  22,  171.");  a  grandson  of  Peter  the  Cireat.  a 
son  of  Alexei;  succeeded  Catherine  I.  in   1727.     The  most 


prominent  features  of  his  short  reign  were  the  desperate  in- 
trigues between  the  families  of  Mentchikof  and  Dolgoruki. 
The  czar  was  only  twelve  years  old  and  completely  under 
Jhe  sway  of  Mentchikof.  wlio  had  him  betrothed  to"  one  of 
his  own  daughters  an<l  jealously  kept  him  away  from  the 
court  an<l  all  business;  but  tlic  Menlchikofs  "were  over- 
thrown l)y  the  Dolgorukis,  who  planned  a  marriage  between 
the  czar  and  a  daughter  of  their  house;  this  was  lu-eventeil 
by  Peter's  death,  which  occurred  Feb.  9,  17:iO. 

Peter  III.,  Feodorovltch :  Czar  of  Russia;  b.  at  Kiel, 
in  Ilolstein,  Jan.  29,  1728;  a  son  of  Peter  the  Great's  daugh- 
ter Anna,  who  had  married  a  duke  of  Ilolstein  ;  was  desig- 
nated as  heir  to  the  Russian  crown  in  1742  by  his  aunt,  the 
Empress  Elizabeth;  married,  in  174n,  the  Princess  of  An- 
halt-Zerbst,  afterward  Catherine  II.;  ascended  the  throne 
Jan.  5,  1762.  He  had  two  very  prominent  passions — admi- 
ration of  Frederick  II.,  with  whom  he  immediately  made 
peace,  restoring  to  him  the  conquered  provinces,  and  hatred 
of  the  royal  dynasty  of  Denmark,  against  which  he  was  on 
the  point  of  waging  war  when  a  revolution,  heailed  by  his 
wife,  broke  out  at  St.  Petersburg.  Taken  completely  by 
surprise,  he  was  deposed,  and  Catherine  was  proclaimed 
empress.  He  was  strangled  in  his  bed  at  Ropscha  by  the 
brothers  Orloflf,  July  17,  1762. 

Peterboro  :  town  ;  Hillsboro  co.,  N.  H. ;  on  the  Contoo- 
cook  river,  and  the  Boston  and  Maine  and  the  Fitchburg 
railways  ;  18  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Keene,  33  miles  S.  W.  of  Con- 
conl  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  Hampshire,  ref.  10-E). 
It  contains  several  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  iron-foundries, 
and  shoe-factories,  and  has  a  town  library  (founded  in  1833), 
a  national  bank  with  capital  of  .f  100,000,  a  savings-bank 
with  deposits  of  over  |S7.'5,000,  and  a  weekly  newspaper. 
Pop.  (1880)  2,206;  (1890)  2,.507. 

Peterborough  :  town ;  capital  of  Peterborough  County, 
Ontario,  Canada;  on  the  river  Otonabee,  and  on  the  Grand 
Trunk  and  Canadian  Pacific  railways;  8.5  mdes  N.  E.  of  To- 
ronto (see  map  of  Ontario,  ref.  3-F).  It  is  handsomely  built 
on  a  fertile  plain ;  has  good  water-power,  manufactures  of 
lumber,  leather,  machinery,  castings,  farm  implements,  etc. 
It  has  a  good  trade  in  grain,  pork,  lumber,  and  flour.  A 
handsome  bridge  connects  it  wilh  the  village  ofAsliburn- 
ham.  There  are  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers,  and  a 
monthly  [leriodical.     Pop.  (1881)  6,812  ;"(1891)  9,717. 

Peterborough  :  city  ;  partly  in  Noi'thamptonshire.  part- 
ly in  Huntingdonshire,  England  ;  on  the  Nen,  76  miles  N. 
of  London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  9-J).  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  beautiful  cathedral,  built  between  1118  and  1528, 
chiefly  in  the  Norman  style.  Its  length  is  476  feet ;  the 
height  of  the  nave  to  the  ceiling  81  feet,  and  of  the  lantern- 
shaped  tower  135  feet ;  its  breadth  is  202  feet  across  the 
transept.  The  Early  English  west  front,  consisting  of  three 
arches,  is  one  of  the  grandest  pi'odncts  of  media>val  archi- 
tecture. The  town  has  a  large  trade  in  agricultural  produce, 
coal,  and  malt.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  antl  returns  one 
member  to  Parliament.     Pop.  (1891)  25,172. 

Peterborough.  Charles  Mordaunt,  Earl  of;  soldier; 
b.  in  England  about  1658;  joined  Narborough's  fleet  in  the 
Mi'diterranean  ;  won  distinction  in  Cloudesley  Shovel's  en- 
gagement with  the  dcy's  fleet  o(T  Tripoli;  took  part  in  the 
defense  of  Tangier,  and  on  returning  to  England  became  an 
active  politician,  workingin  the  Whig  inli'i'<'sls.  He  joined 
William,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  accompanied  him  to  Eng- 
land in  1688.  He  was  appointed  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury 
and  created  Earl  of  Monnuiutli.  but  retired  from  office  Jan., 
1690.  He  fell  into  disfavor  with  the  court,  and  in  1697  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  by  order  of  Parliament,  on  an  ac- 
cusation of  complicity  in  Sir  John  Fenwick's  plot  against 
the  king's  life.  In  the  same  year  he  suc<'e'eded  to  the  earl- 
dom of  Peterborough  by  the  death  of  an  uncle.  Restored 
to  favor  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne,  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  land  forces  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  Archduke 
Charles  of  Austria  in  asserting  his  claim  to  the  S]«inish 
(^rown,  and  sailed  for  Spain  in  May,  1705.  His  chief  exploit 
was  the  ca[itureof  Barcelona,  to  which  against  his  judgment 
he  had  been  obliged  to  lay  siege.  Early  in  Si'ptember  the 
siege  was  aliout  to  be  abaiuloned  as  imi)racticable,  when 
Peterborough  obtained  leave  to  undertake  a  seemingly  des- 
perate night-assault  upon  the  citadel  of  .Monjuich,  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  the  worlil.  This  was  successfully 
executed,  and  led  to  the  capture  of  Barcelona.  He  then 
began  a  brilliant  campaign,  overran  Catalonia,  Aragon,  an<i 
Valencia  wilh  the  greatest  rapidity,  and  succe-ssfully  de- 
fended Barcelona  against  the  formidable  army  of  Philip 


648 


PETER,  EPISTLES   OP  ST. 


PETERS 


V.  (1706),  but  resigned  in  1707.  in  consequence  of  dissen- 
sions with  liis  associate  commanders.  Employed  for  some 
years  in  diplomatic  posts,  he  became  governor  of  Minorca 
1713,  sided  with  the  Tories  during  the  last  years  of  Anne," 
lived  in  retirement  during  most  of  the  reigns  of  George  I. 
and  George  II.,  was  an  associate  and  friend  of  the  chief  lit- 
erary celebrities  of  the  time,  and  became  general  of  the 
marine  forces  of  Great  Britain  1733.  D.  at  Lisbon,  Oct.  25, 
1735.  Peterborough  was  a  chivalrous  and  eccentric  char- 
acter, of  vast  military  genius,  and  considerable  literary  taste, 
as  shown  by  several  occasional  publications.  He  wrote  his 
own  Memoirx,  but  they  were  destroyed  by  his  widow,  the 
celebrated  singer,  Anastasia  Robinson.  See  Macaulay's  Es- 
says, Lord  llahon's  Ilistiiry  of  England,  and  Eliot  War- 
Isurton's  ilemoir  of  Charles  Mordaunt,  Earl  of  Pderbor- 
oiigh  (1853),  which  contains  selections  from  Peterborough's 
correspondence.  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Peter.  Epistles  of  St.,  The  First:  one  of  the  catholic 
or  general  epistles ;  was  written  from  "  Babylon  "  (perhaps 
syinbolical  for  Rome,  but  more  likely  the  name  of  the  actual 
city,  which  contained  many  Jews),  about  64  A.  d.  Ramsay 
maintains  tluit  it  was  not  written  till  80  a.  d.  ;  cf.  his  Church 
in  the  Roman  Empire,  pp.  27S),  seq.  It  is  evidently  the 
product  of  perilous  times  and  inculcates  the  duty  of 
patience  under  suffering.  It  is  a  practical  epistle,  and 
addresses  itself  to  various  classes  of  readers,  to  each  assign- 
ing the  appropriate  duty.  It  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
great  religious  classics — the  commentary  by  the  saintly 
Archbishop  Leighton. — Peter,  Epistle  of  St.,  The  Second, 
has  suffered  more  from  doubts  as  to  its  authenticity  than 
any  other  book  of  the  New  Testament.  It  is  directed  against 
heretics  and  corrupt  men,  and  the  second  chapter,  in 
which  they  are  described,  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to 
the  Epistle  of  St.  .Jude.  Tiiere  is,  however,  no  good  reason 
to  abandon  the  Petrine  authorship.  The  author  claims  to 
have  been  a  witness  of  the  transfiguration,  and  uses  Petrine 
expressions.  Upon  both  epistles  a  good  commentarv  is  that 
by  J.  Lillie  (New  York,  1860).     Revised  by  S.  M.  J  acksox. 

Peter,  Gospel  and  Revelation  of:  two  apocryphal 
writings  contained  in  very  fragmentary  form  in  a  Greek 
MS.,  found  in  a  tomb  of  a  monk  at  Akhmim  in  Egypt,  the 
site  of  Panopolis.  and  not  far  from  Assiout.  l)v  U.  Bouriant 
in  the  winter  of  1886-87.  The  MS.  dates  from  the  eighth 
century.  The  writings  were  previously  only  known  by  allu- 
sions in  early  Christian  literature.  01'  the  Gosi>el,  the  frag- 
ment is  but  about  150  lines  long,  and  gives  only,  and  that 
very  imperfectly,  the  passion  and  resurrection  history  of 
Jesus.  The  date  of  original  composition  is  the  early  part  of 
the  second  century ;  the  place  is  somewhere  in  Western 
Syria.  The  Revelation  fragment  is  still  shorter,  only  about 
131  lines,  but  dates  from  the  same  time  and  place.  It  is 
mostly  a  description  of  a  revolting  character  of  the  punish- 
ments of  hell.  Naturally  most  attention  has  been  given  to 
the  Gospel,  which  is  valuable.  See  for  text  and  translation 
J.  A.  Robinson  and  R.  J.  Montague,  The  Gospel  according 
to  Peter  and  the  Revelation  of  Peter  (London.  2d  ed.  1892) ; 
H.  B.  Swete,  The  Akhmim  Fragment  of  the  Apocryphal 
Gospel  of  St.  Peter  (1893) ;  II.  voii  Schubert,  Tlie  Gospel  of 
Peter,  .Synoptical  Tables  with  Translations  and  Critical 
Apparatus  (Edinburgh,  18'J3) ;  The  Gospel  according  to 
Peter,  by  the  author  of  Supernatural  Religion  (London, 
1894).  Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 

Pe'terhead :  a  seaport  and  burgh  in  the  district  of  Bu- 
chan,  Al)erdeenshire,  Scotland  ;  44  miles  by  rail  N.  N.  E.  of 
Aberdeen  (see  map  of  Scotland,  ref.  6-J).  It  stfinds  on  a 
narrow  peninsula,  across  which  a  canal  has  been  cut  con- 
necting its  three  rock-hewn  harbors.  The  town  is  irregularly 
built,  chiefly  of  granite,  .\niong  its  buildings  may  be  men- 
tioned the  town-hall,  built  in  1788,  with  a  spire  125  feet 
high,  the  parish  church,  with  a  spire  125  feet  high,  a  free 
library  and  museum,  and  an  academy.  It  was  formerly  the 
chief  seat  in  Scotland  of  the  seal  and  whale  fisheries,  and  is 
now  noted  for  its  herring-fishery,  in  which  over  500  boats 
and  5,000  persons  are  employed.  An  immense  harbor  of 
refuge  was  begun,  chiefly  for  their  benefit,  in  1886.  and  will 
be  finished  in  1931.  The  cliief  industries  of  the  place  are 
woolen  manufactures,  lioat-building,  and  granite-polishing. 
Peterliead  unites  with  Elgin,  Banff,  CuUen.  Inverurie,  and 
Kintore  in  sending  one  member  to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1891) 
12,198.  R.  L. 

Peterhof :  an  imperial  palace  in  the  government  of  St. 
Petersburg,  Russia,  on  the  Bay  of  Cronstadt,  built  by  Peter 
the  Great.     It  contains  a  fine  collection  of  pictures," and  is 


surrounded  with  beautiful  parks  and  gardens.  A  small  town 
has  grown  up  around  it. 

Petemiann,  pii'tfr-malin,  August  :  geographer ;  b.  at 
Bleicherode,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  Apr.  18,  1832 ;  received  a 
gymnasium  education  and  entered  (1839)  the  geographical 
institution  of  Prof.  Berghaus  at  Potsdam,  where  he  assisted 
in  the  preparation  of  Berghaus's  Physical  Atlas,  and  pre- 
pared the  maps  to  A.  von  Humboldt's  Asie  Cent-rale ;  in 
1845  went  to  Edinburgh  to  superintend  the  English  edition 
of  the  Physical  Atlas,  and  in  1847  to  London,  where  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and 
wrote  a  number  of  geographical  essays  and  articles ;  in  1854 
returned  to  Germany  as  director  of  Justus  Perthes's  geo- 
graphical institution  in  Gotha,  and  (1855)  began  the  publi- 
cation of  3Iiitheilungen,  a  monthly  wliich  is  considered  as 
the  central  organ  and  the  highest  authority  in  present  geo- 
graphical literature.  D.  by  suicide  (like  his  father  and 
brother  before  him)  at  Gotha,  Sept.  25,  1878. 

Peters,  Christian  August  Friedkich  :  astronomer;  b.  in 
Hamburg.  Germany,  Sept.  7, 1806.  On  the  foundation  of  the 
Pulkowa  Oljservatory  he  became  one  of  the  principal  astron- 
omers, and  published  noteworthy  papers  on  the  parallaxes  of 
stars,  the  constant  of  nutation,  etc.  In  1849  he  resigned  and 
went  to  the  Konigsberg  Oljservatory,  but  left  to  become 
director  of  the  observatory  at  Altona  and  editor  of  the 
A.stronomische  Nachrichten.  He  continued  the  publication 
of  this  journal  until  his  death,  at  Kiel.  May  8, 1880.    S.  N. 

Peters,  Christian  Henry  Frederick,  Ph.D.:  astrono- 
mer ;  b.  at  Coldenbi'ittel,  Schleswig,  Germany,  Sept.  19, 1813  ; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Berlin  ;  engaged  in  scientific 
researches,  after  which  he  settled  in  the  U.S.;  was  employed 
upon  the  Coast  Survey  ;  became  Professor  of  Mathematics 
and  Astronomy  at  Hamilton  College  1859,  where  he  took 
charge  of  the  Litclifield  Astronomical  Observatory,  and 
made  very  extensive  investigations  concerning  comets  and 
asteroids,  discovering  more  than  forty  of  the  latter  bodies; 
catalogued  16,000  zodiacal  stars,  and  recorded  over  20.000 
solar  spots.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  observation 
of  the  total  solar  eclipse  of  Aug.  7,  1869,  at  Des  Moines,  la. ; 
was  chief  of  the  party  sent  by  the  U.  S.  Government  to  New 
Zealand  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus  of  Dec.  9,  1874,  and 
was  the  only  observer  on  that  island  who  had  complete  suc- 
cess, having  obtained  237  photographs  of  the  transit.  D. 
at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  July  19,  1890.    Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Peters,  John  Charles,  M.  D.  :  b.  in  New  York,  July  6, 
1819;  studied  homoeopathy  in  Europe,  and  returned  to  New 
York  to  pi'actice  his  profession.  He  edited  the  JVorth  Amer- 
ican Journal  of  Homa'opathy  (1856-61),  was  one  of  the 
translators  of  Rokitansky's  Pathological  Anatomy,  and  was 
the  author  of  medical  treatises.  S.  T.  A. 

Peters,  Phillis  (Wheatley):  a  Negro  poet;  b.  in  Africa 
about  1750 ;  was  taken  as  a  slave  to  Boston  1761  ;  was 
tauglit  to  read  by  the  family  of  her  master,  John  Wheatley  ; 
made  rapid  progress  in  letters ;  soon  displayed  so  much 
poetical  talent,  stimulated  by  the  reading  of  Pope's  Homer, 
that  a  volume  of  her  verses  was  printed  in  London  1773, 
with  a  copperplate  portrait  and  a  dedication  to  the  Coun- 
tess of  Huntingdon.  She  visited  England  in  that  year; 
wrote  some  notable  verses  to  Gen.  Washington.  Her  poem 
was  printed  by  his  direction  in  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine 
for  Apr.,  1776.  .She  married  a  Negro  named  John  Peters, 
who  seems  to  have  fallen  into  great  poverty  during  the 
Revolution.  D.  at  Boston  Dec.  5,  1784.  Ber  Letters  were 
printed  in  1864.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Peters,  Richard:  judge;  b.  at  Belmont  (now  part  of 
Philadelphia),  Pa.,  Aug.  23,  1744;  after  graduating  from 
college,  studied  law,  and  became  a  successful  lawyer,  dis- 
tinguished for  wit  and  brilliant  social  qualities;  was  a  cap- 
tain in  the  Revolution  ;  .secretarv  to  the  continental  board 
of  war  1776-81;  was  in  Congress  1782-83;  was  U.  S.  dis- 
trict judge  1792-1828,  and  his  decisions  upon  admiralty  ques- 
tions (published  in  3  vol.s.  in  1807)  had  much  influence  in 
shaping  the  admiralty  law  of  the  U.  S.  I),  at  Belmont,  Pa., 
Aug.  31,  1828. — His  son,  Ricuard  Peters  (b.  at  Belmont, 
Aug.,  1780;  d.  May  2,  1848),  succeeded  Mr.  Wheaton  as  re- 
porter of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  .and  pulilished  Reports  of 
the  United  States  Circuit  Court,  Third  Circuit,  l.wa-lSlS 
(17  vols.);  Condensed  Reports  of  Cases  in  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  to  1S27  (6  vols.);  Digest  of  Cases  in  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  and  District  Courts  to  1847 
(2  vols.) ;  and  Case  of  the  Cherolcee  Nation  aijainst  the  State 
of  Georgia  (1831).    'He  also  edited  Chitty 'on  Bills  (1819), 


PETERS 

Washington's  Circuit  Court  Reporix  (nird  Circuit.  1S03- 
S7;  4  vols.),  and  tlie  United  /States  tltatutes  at  Large. 

Keviseci  by  F.  Stirges  Allek. 
Peters.  Samukl:  clergyman:  b.  at  Ili-bron,  Conn.,  Dec. 
12,  1735:  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  \~Tu  ;  went  to  Eng- 
land for  onlinatioii,  and  returned  in  1700  to  become  the 
Churcli  of  England  minister  at  Hartford.  He  fled  to  Bos- 
ton in  1774  to  escape  molestation  at  the  handsof  the  Sons  of 
Liberty  on  account  of  his  aggressive  Toryism,  and  from 
Boston,  in  October,  he  sailed  to  England,  where  he  obtained 
a  small  pension  from  the  crown,  and  remained  until  1805. 
In  1781  he  published  A  General  Ilialorn  of  Connecticut 
from  its  First  Settlement  under  (ieiirye  Femrick.  Esq., 
etc..  as  being  written  "  By  a  Gentleman  of  the  Province." 
which  book  gave  rise  to  the  widespread  misconci-ptions  con- 
cerning the  Connecticut  Bi.i'K  L.tws  (ly.  v.).  in  17!J4  he 
was  chosen  Bishop  of  Vermont,  but  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  and  the  bishops  of  the  American  Church  re- 
fused him  consecration.  On  his  return  in  ISOo  to  the  U.  S. 
he  published  A  Histury  of  Rev.  Iluijk  Peters  (New  York, 
1807),  alleged  by  him  to  be  his  granduncle,  and  also  a  short 
history  of  Hebron:  in  1817  he  endeavored  to  get  possession 
of  a  tract  of  land  in  wluit  is  now  Minnesota.  D.,  in  great 
jioverty,  in  New  York,  Apr.  1!),  1820.  Peters  was  notorious 
for  his  habit  ot  falsilication.  and  his  autobiography  was 
wholly  untrustworthy.  He  wrote  his  name  variously  Sam- 
uel Peters.  Samuel  Andrew,  and  Samuel  A.,  and  appended 
to  it  the  letters  LL.  1).,  although  how  he  came  by  the  right 
to  the  title  is  unknown.  Some  books  of  reference  make  him 
D.  D.,  and  some  books  make  him  both  D.  D.  and  LL.  D.  He 
is  the  Parson  Peter  in  Trumbull's  McFingal. 

F.  Stirges  Allen. 
Petersburg':  city{laidout  by  Aliraham  Lincoln  in  1835): 
capital  of  Menard  c"o.,  III.  (for  iocation,  see  map  of  Hlinois, 
ref.  6-1)) :  on  the  Sangamon  river  and  the  Chi.  and  Alton 
and  the  Chi.,  Peoria  and  St.  L.  railways:  20  miles  X.  W.  of 
S[)ringfleld.  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  timber,  coal-mining, 
and  stock-raising  region,  and  has  medicinal  springs,  water- 
works, public  S()uare,  2  flour-mills,  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  $.50,000,  2  private  banks,  and  2  weekly  papers. 
Pop.  (1880)  3,332 ;  (1890)  2,.342.      Editor  of  "  Observer." 

Petersburg: :  town:  capital  of  Pike  co.,  Ind. ;  on  the 
Kvansville  and  Terre  Haute  Railroad  :  20  miles  S.  E.  of 
Vincennes.  44  miles  X.  X.  E.  of  Evansville  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Indiana,  ref.  10-B).  It  is  in  a  coal,  dairy,  tobacco, 
and  stock-raising  region,  and  has  flour  and  woolen  mills, 
brick  and  tile  works,  lumber-wcjrking  and  other  factories, 
a  State  bank  with  capital  of  .t;25.000,  and  three  weeklv  news- 
papers.    Pop.  (1880)  1.193;  (18U0)  1,494. 

Petersbur;?:  city  in  Virginia  (settled  in  1733.  incorpo- 
rated in  174S,  reincorporated  in  1781):  port  of  entry;  for- 
merly in  Chesterfield,  Dinwiddle,  and  Prince  George"  Coun- 
ties, but  now  independent :  on  I  lie  Appomattox  river  at  the 
head  of  tide-water,  and  the  Petersburg,  the  Xorfolk  and 
Western,  and  the  Richmond  and  Petersburg  railwavs ;  12 
miles  W.  of  the  confluencte  of  the  A])pomattox  and  James 
rivers,  22  miles  S.  of  Richmond  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Virginia,  ref.  7-H).  It  is  the  third  city  in  jrapulation  in 
the  State,  is  built  on  the  declivities  of  a  hill  sloping  to  the 
river  b,ink,  and  derives  abundant  powc^r  for  nuanufacturing 
from  the  falls  in  the  river.  Tliere  are  Hi  churches,  2  high 
schools.  9  public-school  buildings,  public-school  propertv 
valued  at  over  $75,000.  St.  I'aul's  Female  School,  the  South- 
ern Female  College,  Protestant  Episcopal  .School  for  (iirls. 
3  libraries  containing  over  13,000  volumes,  3  public  parks,  a 
national  bank  with  ca|)ilal  of  $100,000,  a  State  bank  with 
capital  of  $300,000.  and  a  quarterly,  3  daily,  and  4  weekly 
periodicals.  The  city  has  a  copious  supply  of  pure  water 
for  domestic  purposes,  has  electric-lighting"  and  street-rail- 
way platits,  and  is  the  most  important  shipping-pnini  for 
nuimifaclured  tobacco  in  the  U.  S.  The  c'cnsus  rclurns  of 
1890  showed  that  333  manufacturing  establishments  (repre- 
senting 56  industries)  reported.  These  had  a  conil)ineil 
capital  of  $3,879,151,  employed  5,315  pei-sons.  paid  $1,283,- 
612  for  wages,  and  $4.300.9'36  for  materials,  and  had  proil- 
ucts  valued  at  $6,876,352.  There  are  5  large  toliactfo-ware- 
houses.  9  tobacco-factories,  5  cotton-mills.  6  factories  for 
preparing  peanuts  for  market.  5  corn  and  3  flour  mills,  3 
bark  and  sumac  factories,  3  foundries  and  machine-shops 
for  the  manufacture  of  heavy  machinery,  silk-ndlls,  ferti- 
lizer-works, aiul  granile-ciuarries.  The  city  is  on  the  site  of 
an  Indian  village  burned  by  Xathaniel  Bacon  in  1676;  was 
t%vice  occupied  iis  headquarters  by  British  commanders  dur- 


PETERSON 


549 


ing  the  Revolutionary  war ;  received  the  popular  name  of 
"Cockade  Cit/of  the  South  "  because  of  the  gallantry  of 
its  company  of  volunteers  in  the  war  of  1812  ;  and  has  been 
called  the  "  last  citadel  of  the  Confederacy  "  from  its  heroic 
defense  in  the  war  of  1861-65.  The  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
under  Gen.  Grant,  being  induced  by  the  result  of  the  second' 
battle  of  Cohl  Harbor  to  abandon  its  advance  upon  Richmond 
by  the  line  of  the  Chickahominy.  crossed  the  James  river 
below  City  Point  June  14-lG,  1864.  and  made  formidable 
assaults  on  Petersburg  June  15.  16,  17,  and  18.  carrying 
portions  of  the  exterior  lines  on  each  of  the  first  three  days; 
but,  being  generally  unsuccessful  in  the  a.ssaults  of  the  18th, 
the  ground  occupied  at  the  close  of  the  day  was  intrenched 
and  held  u|)  to  the  close  of  the  war.  foi-i"uing  part  of  the 
line  of  investment.  The  L'nion  losses  in  these  assaults 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  was  10.586.  The  siege 
of  Petersburg  began  on  June  19.  and  was  continued  by 
constantly  gaining  and  intrenching  ground  to  the  left  anil 
moving  agsiinst  the  railways  with  a  view  to  isolating  the 
city,  combined  with  the  explosion  of  a  mine  under  one  of 
the  works,  with  the  resulting  "  battle  of  the  crater,"  and  nu- 
merous other  actions.     The  siege  w.is  continued  until  Apr. 

2,  1865.  when,  the  [ilace  being  no  longer  tenable,  Lee  with- 
drew his  army,  the  L'nion  troops  taking  possession  on  Apr. 

3.  the  surrender  at  Appomattox  occurring  Apr.  9.  Pop 
(1880)  21,656  ;  (1890)  22,680.      Revi.sed  by  James  Mercur. 

Petersen,  pa  ter-sen,  Jouann  Wiluf.lm:  theologian;  b.  at 
Osnabriick.  Hanover.  June  1,  1649;  studied  theology  at  Gies- 
sen.  Rosbach,  and  other  German  universities;  became  a  dis- 
ciple of  Spcner,  with  whom  he  met  at  Frankfort  in  1675 ;  was 
in  1677  appointed  superintendent  of  Liibeck  and  in  1688 
of  Llineburg.  In  the  meantime  he  h.ad  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Juliane  von  Asseburg,  who  claimed  that  the  Sav- 
iour often  revealed  himself  to  her  in  visions  and  spoke  to 
her  of  his  second  advent.  Petersen,  who  was  a  strong  and 
outspoken  chiliast,  put  implicit  confide;ice  in  those  revela- 
tions, and  laid  them  in  a  solemn  manner  before  the  German 
clergy.  The  municipal  council  of  Liineburg,  however,  took 
another  view  of  the  case.  He  was  deposed  in  1692,  and  lived 
afterward  at  Thymer,  near  Zerbst.  where  he  died  Jan.  23, 
1737.  (If  his  works,  which  are  very  numerous,  the  princi- 
pal are  Wuhrheit  des  herlichen  Reiehes  Jesu  Christ  (Jlagde- 
burg,  1692-93.  2  vols.)  and  Geheimniss  der  Wiederbritigung 
alter  Dinge  (Frankfort.  1700-10,  3  vols.  fol.).  He  also  wrote 
exegetical  works,  Latin  and  German  poems  (the  former 
edited  by  Leibnitz,  who  also  showed  great  sympathy  for 
Juliane  V(m  Assebiu-g),  and  an  autobiography  (3d  ed..  Frank- 
fort. 1719).  See  H.  Corrodi,  Kritische  Oeschichte  des  C/iili- 
asmus  (Frankfort,  1871 ;  3d  ed.  4  vols..  Zurich.  1794). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Petersen.  X'iels  Matthias:  scholar;  b.  at  Sanderup.  isl- 
and of  Fiinen,  Denmark,  Oct,  34.  1791  ;  studied  philology 
and  histoi-y.  and  became  Professor  of  the  Ancient  Scandi- 
navian Language  and  Literature  in  1845  at  the  University 
of  ('openhagen.  His  works  relating  to  ancient  Scandinavian 
mythology,  literature,  history,  and  language,  Det  Dans/re, 
Norske  og  ,Si'en.'<ke  Sprogs  Jlistorie  (1829).  De7i  Nordiske 
Mi/t/iologi  (1849),  Danmarks  Ili.slorie  i  Ilede.nold  (1834), 
Ifftandhoff.  i  deft  gonintehtordiske  Geogrupiti  (1834),  etc., 
though  now  superseded,  exercised  a  great  influence  at  the 
time  of  their  apiiearance.  His  History  of  Danish  Litera- 
ture (5  vols..  1853-64;  2d  ed.  1867-70)  is  the  most  elaborate 
work  on  that  subject,  and  is  tlie  standard  authority.  D.  at 
Copenhagen,  May  11,  1862.  Revised  by  D.  K.  Dodge. 

Peterson.  Fredekrk.  M.  D.,  I'h.  1). ;  neurologi.st  and 
|)oet  ;  b.  in  Faribault.  Minn.,  Mar.  1.18.59;  studied  medi- 
cine at  the  University  of  Bulfalo.  Xcw  Y(U"k,  graduating 
M.  1).  in  1879:  Professor  of  General  Pathology.  University  of 
Buffalo,  1882-84 ;  lecturer  on  nervous  dis(>ases,  Xcw  York 
Polyclinic.  1888-91  ;  instructor  in  nervous  and  mental 
diseases.  College  of  Physicans  and  Surgeons,  Xew  York, 
from  1888;  Professor  of  Xeurology.  I'niversity  of  Vermont, 
1893-94.  Delias  pulilished  two  volumes  of  poems:  Poems 
and  Swedish  Translations  (Buffalo.  1883) ;  In  the  Shade  of 
Ygdrasil  (Xew  York.  1893);  and  is  the  author  of  impor- 
tant monographs  on  neurological  subjects. 

S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Peterson,  Peter  ARcniBALn,  D.  D. :  b.  at  Petersburg. 
Va.,  Sept.  28.  1828  :  received  only  common  school  training; 
served  as  a  lieutenant  in  Company  E.  First  Regiment,  Vir- 
ginia Volunteers,  in  the  Mexican  War,  1846—48 :  in  1853 
joined  the  Virginia  Conference;  wjls  a  member  of  every 
general  conference  from  1866  to  1890 ;  served  as  chaplain  in 


550 


PETER'S   PENCE 


PETITION  OP   RIGHT 


the  Confederate  army  1861-62  :  delegate  to  CEciimenical  Con- 
ference, Washington,  IHill.  His  last  pastorate  was  in  Trin- 
ity church,  Richmond,  Va.,  where  he  died  Oct.  6,  1893.  He 
published  Handbook  of  Southern   Methodism   (1882    and 

1891).  A.  OSBORN. 

Peter's  Pence,  or  Romescot :  an  ancient  tax  for  the 
benefit  of  the  |)ope,  probably  first  levied  as  a  tax  for  the 
support  of  the  English  school  at  Rome.  (See  Lappenberg's 
History  of  England  under  the  Normans.)  Peter's  Pence 
was  paid  the  pope,  with  some  interruptions,  until  1.534.  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Henry  A'lII.,  when  it  was  finally  abolished. 
The  levy  of  Peter's  Pence  was  customary  in  various  other 
countries  at  different  times.  During  the  nineteenth  century 
it  has  been  revived  as  a  voluntary  popular  contribution. 
and  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  the  pontifical  revenue,  es- 
pecially since  the  estabhshment  of  the  Italian  monarchy. 
See  Caincellieri,  La  visita  de'  sacri  limini  ed  il  danaro  di 
S.  Pieiro  (Rome,  1821) ;  Paul  Fabre,  Etude  sur  le  Liber 
Censuum  de  I'Eylise  Romaine  (Paris,  1892). 

Revised  by  J.  J.  Keane. 

Peter's,  St.:  a  basilica  in  Rome.  It  consists  of  a  Latin 
cross  613  feet  long  and  4.50  feet  across  the  transept,  sur- 
mounted by  a  dome  which  rises  434J  feet  above  the  pave- 
ment with  a  diameter  of  19oi  feet.  The  facade  is  368  feet 
long  and  145  feet  high.  The  building  was  begun  under 
Pope  Nicholas  V..  after  a  plan  by  Rossehni,  in  14.50.  but  the 
work  was  neglected  for  nearly  half  a  century.  Under  Ju- 
lius II..  Bramante  prepared  a  new  plan,  which  was  subse- 
quently followed  out  in  the  main.  Raphael  had  charge  of 
the  building  for  some  time.  Michelangelo  designed  the 
dome  and  nearly  completed  its  erection.  The  fa(,-ade  is  by 
Carlo  Maderno,  the  colonnade  by  Bernini.  The  church  was 
consecrated  by  Urban  VIII.  Nov.  18.  1626,  the  1300th  anni- 
versary of  the  day  on  which  St.  Sylvester  consecrated  the 
basilica  which  originally  occupied  the  site.  This  was  built 
by  Constantine  the'Oreat  on  the  spot  where,  according  to 
the  tradition  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  apostle  Peter 
suffered  martyrdom.  St.  Peter's  is  the  largest  church  in 
Christendom,  and  is  exquisitely  proportioned.  See  Fontana, 
Tempio  Vaticano ;  Cancellieri,  De  Secretariis  Vaticanis ; 
Letarouillv.  Le  Vatican  et  la  Basilique  de  Saint  Pierre 
(Paris,  1882).  Revised  by  .J.  .J.  Keane. 

Peter  the  Hermit :  religious  leader ;  b.  at  Amiens  in 
the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  ;  was  educated  in  Paris 
and  Italy :  served  in  the  army  in  Flanders,  but  gave  up  the 
military  career  and  married  ;  became  a  monk  after  the  death 
of  his  wife,  and  finally  a  hermit ;  made  in  1093  a  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem,  and,  deeply  impressed  by  the  indignities  and 
cruelties  inflicted  on  tlie  Christian  pilgrims  by  the  Moham- 
medan rulers  of  the  city,  he  began  immediately  on  his  re- 
turn to  Europe,  and  with  the  authority  of  Pope  Urban  II., 
to  preach  a  general  war  for  the  delivery  of  the  holy 
sepulchre.  His  preaching  in  Italy  and  France  stirred  up 
the  whole  populace,  and  a  crusade  was  actually  determined 
upon  by  the  Council  of  Clermont  in  1095.  Peter  himself 
led  the  first  army  toward  the  Holy  Land — an  undisciplined 
and  disorderly  swarm,  containing  as  many  women  and 
children  as  men.  After  unspeakable  sufferings  on  their 
way  through  Hungary,  Bulgaria,  and  Constantinople  to 
Asia  Jlinor,  they  were  routed  and  massacred  at  Nice  by 
Sultan  Siilyman.  Next  year  a  regular  and  brilliant  army, 
comprising  the  flower  of  European  chivalry,  undertook  the 
second  crusade,  under  the  command  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 
Peter  accompanied  also  this  expedition,  and  after  the  con- 
quest of  Jerusalem  in  1099  he  preached  to  the  crusaders 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Shortly  after  he  retii'ed  to  Bel- 
gium, where  he  founded  a  monastery,  at  Neu-Moutier.  near 
Liege,  and  died  there  July  7, 11 1.5.  Some  consider  the  story 
of  his  a(!tivity  in  inciting  the  crusades  as  unauthentic,  and 
deny  that  Peter  ever  was  in  Palestine  prior  to  his  expedition. 
See  II.  Ilagenmeyer,  Peter  der  Eremit  (Leipzig.  1879). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Peterwardein  :  city  of  the  county  Syrmia.  Austria-Hun- 
gary ;  formerly  capitafof  the  Slavonii-Sl-rvian  militarv  fron- 
tier; a  strong  fortress  on  the  Daiuibe  with  barnu-ks  for  10.- 
000  men  (see  map  of  Austria-IIungjvrv,  ref.  8-H).  Here 
(1096)  Peter  the  Hermit  reviewed  the  first  crusade  and  (1716) 
Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  disastrously  defeated  the  Ottomans 
under  Damad  Ali  Pasha.     Pop.  3,603.  E.  A.  G. 

Petijsrril.  James  Lewis:  lawyer;  b.  in  Abbeville  co.,  S.C.. 
Mar.  10.  1789;  graduated  at  Columbia  College  (now  the 
University  of  South  Carolina)  in  1809;  after  his  ailmi.ssion 


I  to  the  bar  in  1812  settled  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  and  rap- 
idly rose  to  the  leadership  of  the  bar  in  his  State.  He  was 
a  decided  adherent  to  the  principles  of  the  Federal  party, 
and  in  the  days  of  nullification  he  was  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  Union  party.  He  opposed  the  doctrine  of  se- 
cession, but,  by  reason  of  liis  sincerity,  integrity,  and  abil- 
ity, retained  the  respect  and  esteem  of  his  fellow-citizens,  and 
held  various  public  and  private  positions  of  trust.  Upon 
the  secession  of  South  Carolina  he  remained  loyal  to  the 
State,  although  he  took  no  active  part  in  the  work  of  seces- 
sion. He  was  appointed  by  the  State  Lcgislatxu-e  to  codify 
the  laws  of  South  Carolina,  and  completed  the  work  a  short 
time  before  his  death,  in  Charleston,  JIar.  3,  1863.  See  his 
Biography,  by  W.  J.  Grayson  (New  York,  1866),  and  the 
Memorial  (1867)  containing  the  proceedings  of  the  Bar  of 
Charlest(m,  S.  C,  shortly  after  his  death. 

F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Potion,  pii'ti'oh',  Alexandre :  soldier  and  politician;  b. 
at  Port-au-Prince,  Haiti,  Apr.  2.  1770.  He  was  a  quadroon, 
the  son  of  a  wealthy  jilanter :  was  educated  in  Paris ;  served 
with  the  French  army  in  Haiti;  joined  the  revolt  of  1791, 
and  was  commandant  of  artillery  under  Toussaint  Louver- 
ture,  but  went  over  to  Rigaud  in  1799,  and  was  forced  to 
leave  the  island  with  him  in  1800.  Going  to  France  he  was 
attached,  as  colonel,  to  Leclerc's  expedition,  destined  to 
subdue  Haiti ;  he  did  efficient  service,  but  at  the  end  of 
1802  joined  the  new  revolt  of  those  who  feared  that  slavery 
would  be  re-established.  On  the  death  of  Dessalines,  Chris- 
tophe  seized  the  government  of  the  northern  provinces,  but 
the  rest  of  Haiti  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  mulatto  party, 
which  declared  a  republic  and  made  Pction  president  Mar. 
10,  1807.  He  was  re-elected  in  1811  and  181.5.  Christophe 
and  the  black  party,  who  still  held  the  north,  waged  an  al- 
most continual  war  against  Petion,  whose  many  enlightened 
measures  were  often  defeated  by  ignorance  and  malice.  He 
]irotected  whites  and  opened  the  ports  to  all  flags.  D.  at 
Port-au-Prince,  Mar.  29,  1818.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Petit  de  Jiilleville,  pp-tee  df-zhlil'veel',  Louis :  histor- 
ian ;  b.  in  Paris,  July  18, 1841 ;  graduated  at  the  Ecole  Nor- 
male ;  studied  in  the  French  school  at  Athens;  was  instruc- 
tor in  the  College  Stanislas,  Paris ;  then  professor  n  the 
faculty  of  letters  of  Dijon  ;  and  in  1886  was  called  to  a  pro- 
fessorship in  the  f.aculty  of  letters  of  Paris.  His  best-known 
works  are  in  connection  with  the  dramatic  history  of  France, 
Histoire  du  Ttuatre  en  France :  Les  Mysteres  (2  vols., 
1880);  Les  Comediens  au  moyen  age  (1885);  La  Cumedie  et 
les  moeurs  en  France  au  moyen  age  (1886) ;  Bejiertoire  du 
Theatre  comique  en  France  au  moyen  age  (1886) ;  Le  Thea- 
tre en  France  (1889).  A.  G.  Caxfield. 

Petition  of  Right:  (1)  a  celebrated  Engli.sh  statute 
passed  early  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  (3  Car.I.,  c.  1,  a.  d. 
1627)  for  the  purpose  of  restraining  and  limiting  the  acts 
and  prerogatives  of  the  crown,  and  securing  the  personal 
and  civil  liberties  of  the  subject.  Although  a  legislative 
act.  yet,  as  it  does  not  profess  to  establisii  any  new  rule,  but 
simply  to  reaffirm  those  already  in  existence,  it  is  in  the 
form  of  a  petition,  and  is  entitled,  "  The  Petition  exhibited 
to  His  Majesty  by  the  Lords  and  Commons,  etc..  concerning 
divers  rights  and  liberties  of  the  subjects,  with  the  King's 
Majesty's  royal  answer  thereto  in  full  Parliament."  After 
reciting  the  most  important  provision  of  Magna  Charta  and 
certain  old  statutes  jiassed  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  I.  and 
Edward  III.,  which  prohibited  unlawful  taxes  and  assess- 
ments, and  forced  loans,  and  illegal  arrests  and  imprison- 
ments, and  quartering  of  soldiers  upon  private  citizens,  and 
a  resort  to  martial  law  in  civil  cases:  and  after  reciting  in 
detail  the  various  acts  done  by  or  in  the  name  of  the  king 
which  violated  all  of  these  prohibitions — viz..  his  unwarrant- 
able levies  of  taxes,  his  forced  loans,  his  arbitrary  arrests 
and  imprisonments,  his  quartering  of  soldiers  in  private 
houses,  and  his  commissions  authorizing  the  use  of  martial 
law — the  Parliament  prays  that  all  these  acts  and  proceed- 
ings should  be  discontinued  and  not  repeated,  recapitulating 
the  violations  of  law  above  mentioned  in  detail,  and  con- 
cluding in  the  following  language:  "That  you  would  be 
pleased  to  declare  your  royal  will  and  pleasure  that  in  the 
things  aforesaid  all  your  olTicers  and  ministers  shall  serve 
you  according  to  tlie  laws  aiid  statutes  of  this  realm,  as  they 
tender  the  honor  of  Your  .Maji'slyand  tin-  pi-osperity  of  this 
kingdom."  The  king's  assent,  given  in  full  Parliament,  is 
indiciited  by  the  formula,  "Soil  droit  fait  come  est  de-fire" 
(Let  right  be  done  as  prayed).  This  declaration  of  the 
legislature  is  justly  considered  one  of  the  fundamental  and 


PETIT   MAL 


PETRARCH 


551 


constitutional  guaranties  by  which  civil  and  political  liberty 
is  secured  to  the  Hritish  people.  Although  it  does  not  con- 
tain in  express  terms  the  statement  of  broail  principles,  but 
rather  deals  with  particular  instances  of  executive  wrong- 
doing, yet  it  is  regarded  as  including  and  establishing  tlie 
principles  of  personal  right  and  liberty  in  the  most  eompre- 
liensive  manner. 

(2)  A  common-law  proceeding  by  which  a  subject  sought 
to  establish  his  lille  to  and  recover  jiossession  of  property 
which  wa.s  held  by  the  crown.  (See  IxyfEsr  ok  Office.) 
As  the  sovereign  is  not  liable  to  an  ordinary  suit  at  law,  a 
petition  setting  forth  the  facts  of  the  case  and  i)raying  for 
the  proper  relief  is  presented  to  him,  upon  which  he  indorses 
the  words  ''Suit  droit  al  partie"  (Let  right  be  dune  to  the 
party),  and  delivers  it  to  the  law  officers  of  the  crown.  The 
subsequent  proceedings  resemble  those  in  an  ordinary  action 
between  subject  and  subject;  the  issues  are  tried  before  a 
court,  and  judgment  is  rendered  for  or  against  the  petitioner 
according  to  the  merits  of  the  case.  The  Petitions  of  Riglit 
Acts  (20  and  21  Vict.,  c.  44;  23  and  24  Vict.,  e.  84;  and  36 
and  37  V'iet.,  e.  69)  provide  an  alternative  remedy  for  the 
claimant  in  these  cases.   Revised  by  Fraxcis  M.  Blrdrk. 

Petit  Mai :  See  Epilepsy. 

Petit-Thouars:  See  Dlpetit-Thouars. 

Potoskey:  village;  Emmet  co.,  Slich.;  on  Little  Traverse 
Bay,  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  the  Chi,  and  West.  Mich,  and 
the"  Grand  Kapids  and  Ind.  railways:  60  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Traverse  City,  120  miles  N.  by  E,  of  Reed  City  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Michigan,  ref.  3-1).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  re- 
gion, has  lime-kilns  and  leather  and  woodennare  factories, 
is  connected  by  a  line  of  sti'amers  with  Chicago,  Detroit, 
Escanaba,  Buffalo,  and  other  lake  ports,  and  is  a  popular 
summer  resort.  There  are  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  |.50,- 
000.  a  private  bank,  and  a  monthly  and  three  weekly  news- 
papers.    Pop.  (1880)  1,815;  (18'J0)  2.872;  (1894)  3,649'. 

Pe'tra  [=Lat.  =  (ir.  Uerpa;  cf.  irtVpa.  rock]:  the  Selah 
of  2  Kings  si  v.  7,  taken  from  the  Edomites  bv  Amaziah  I 
(839-810  B.  c).  in  the  haiuls  of  the  Moabites  about  700  i).  c, 
and  the  capital  of  the  Xaluitha'ans  (descendants  of  Xebaioth, 
the  eldest  son  of  Ishmacl)  about  300  B.  c,  when  the  Greeks 
first  knew  it  as  Petra.  During  the  reign  of  Trajan  (in  105 
A.  D.)  it  was  conquered  by  the  Romans;  is  mentioned  sev- 
eral times  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  as  an  ecclesiastical  me- 
tropolis, but  is  not  heard  of  after  about  536  A.  D.  Whether 
destroyed  by  the  Mohammedans  in  the  .seventh  century,  or 
previously  by  the  hordes  of  the  desert,  is  not  known."  Its 
identification,  suggested  by  Ritter  on  the  basis  of  facts  gath- 
ered by  Sectzen  in  1807,  was  established  by  Burckhardt  in 
1812.  A  good  description  of  the  ruins  may  be  found  in 
Robinson's  Biblical  Ittsearchim  (Boston,  1841),  as  also  in 
Murray's  (Porter's)  llnndhook  for  Syria  and  Palestine  (Lon- 
don, 1875),  and  with  numerous  illustrations  in  E.  L.  Wilson's 
In  Scripture  Lands  (Xew  York.  1890).  The  little  valley, 
now  called  Wady  Mnxa,  is  about  28  hours  N.  E.  of  Akabali, 
the  ea.stern  head  of  the  Red  .Sea.  The  ruins,  shut  in  by  cliffs 
from  150  to  300  feet  high,  occu|iy  an  area  of  about  half  a 
mile  square,  are  approached  through  a  narrow  and  dark 
caiion.  and  burst  ujion  the  traveler  in  a  way  never  to  be 
forgotten.  A  stream  still  flows  through  the'  valley.  The 
ruins  of  tombs,  a  theater,  and  a  building  supposed  to  have 
been  a  temple  are  exceedingly  piclurescjue,  as  all  these  were 
cut  from  the  living  rock,  and  not  built.  The  Bedouins  who 
infest  Petra  have  a  bad  repulalion,  and  dragomans  are 
afraid  to  conduct  small  parties  thither. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  .Iackson. 

Petrarch  (Ital.  ft/mrrw),  Francksco  :  Italian  poet  and 
scholar:  b.  at  Arezzo,  .Inly  20,  1304;  d.  at  Arqua.  near 
Padua,  .July  18,  1374.  At  the  time  of  tlie  poet's  birth  his 
family  was  in  exile  from  Florence,  his  father,  Petracco 
(name  later  modified  to  Petrarca  by  the  son),  being,  like 
Dante,  one  of  the  White  Guelphs  banished  in  1302!  The 
first  seven  years  of  the  Ixiy's  life  were  spent  with  his  mother 
at  Incisa;  in  1310  he  went  with  the  family  to  I'isa,  where 
he  began  his  studies  under  Convenevcile  da  Prato  ;  but  in 
1313  his  father  decided  to  settle  in  Avignon,  in  France, 
then  the  papal  residence.  For  many  yi'ars  this  last  city 
was  Petrarch's  real  home.  From  1315  to  1319,  however,  he 
was  studying  al  Carpentras  under  his  old  master,  then  re- 
moved to  France.  Ilis  father  now  destined  him  for  the 
career  of  jurisprudence,  and  lie  went  first  to  Jlontpellier 
1 1319),  then  to  Bologna  (1323),  to  study  for  this.  His  tastes 
were  all  for  letters,  however,  and  he  had  already  conceived 


that  passion  for  the  Latin  classics  which  was  to  make  him 
the  first  of  the  humanists,  the  true  initiator  of  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  the  Renaissance.  In  1326,  after  the  death  of 
his  father  and  mother,  the  young  man  returned  to  .Vvignon, 
and  there  entered  the  Church,  receiving,  however,  only 
minor  orders.  He  continued  his  favorite  studies,  and  also 
took  part  in  the  gay  and  licentious  life  of  the  place. 

At  Avignon,  on  Good  Friday.  Apr.  6.  1327,  as  the  poet 
himself  tells  us  (but  in  1327  Good  Friday  was  .Apr,  10),  oc- 
curred an  event  that  affected  his  whole  after-life.  In  the 
Church  of  Sta.  Clara  he  saw  for  the  first  time  the  woman  he 
was  to  celebrate  in  verses  of  more  lasting  fame  than  was  to 
be  obtained  by  any  other  product  of  his  pi'n.  Few  literary 
questions  have  been  more  discussed  than  that  of  the  reality 
or  unreality  of  this  lady,  Laura,  as  the  poet  calls  her.  Like 
Beatrice,  she  has  been  niad<'  out  to  be  almost  every  form  of 
poetical  abstraction  ;  but,  in  spite  of  all,  the  probability  re- 
mains that  she  was  Laura  do  Xoves,  wife  of  Hugues  de 
Sade,  a  lady  of  whom  we  kiiow  that  she  died  in  1348,  hav- 
ing been  the  mother  of  eleven  children.  Whoever  Laura 
was,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  poet's  love  for  her  was 
profound,  and  that  it  deeply  affected  his  whole  spiritual 
life.  It  did  not,  however,  prevent  him  from  intrigues  of  a 
lower  kind  or  from  bringing  into  the  world  illegitimate 
children  by  a  nameless  mother. 

It  was  not  long  after  he  had  first  seen  Laura  that  Petrarch 
began  to  feel  that  restlessness  which  for  many  years  made 
him  a  constant  traveler.  We  can  not  follow  his  many  pere- 
grinations, Ijut  the  reader  will  find  them  briefly  and  clearly 
enumerated  by  d'Ancona  and  Bacci  in  their  Slanuale  delta 
letteratiira  ifaliana.  vol.  i..  p.  361-372  (2d  ed.,  Florence,  1893). 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  before  he  died  he  had  visited  the  most 
notable  cities  of  Italy,  France,  and  Southern  Germany,  and 
had  even  been  as  far  as  Prague  in  Bohemia,  These  jour- 
neys, however,  did  not  impede  his  study  of  the  classics  ;  they 
rather  helped  it.  Wherever  he  went  he  was  ever  on  the 
lookout  for  manuscripts  of  his  favorite  authors,  and  he  first 
rescued  from  oblivion  Cicero's  Letters  to  Atticus  and  sev- 
eral of  his  orations,  as  well  as  a  considi'rable  portion  of 
Quintilian.  lie  also  inspired  all  those  with  whom  he  came 
in  contact  with  a  passion  for  collecting  similar  manuscripts, 
and  thus  he  began  the  necessary  task  of  gathering  together 
the  productions  of  the  ancient  world  in  order  that  they 
might  really  be  studied  and  known.  His  letters,  of  which 
a  great  number  are  preserved  to  us,  show  us  how  eagerly 
and  consistently  throughout  his  mature  life  he  labored  for 
the  restoration  of  classical  learning,  and  how  abundant 
were  the  results  of  his  efforts. 

Naturally  the  encyclopa'dic  scholarship  of  the  poet,  as 
well  as  the  remarkable  beauty  of  his  Italian  verse,  speedily 
brought  him  great  fame.  In  1340.  while  he  was  at  his  fa- 
vorite retreat  of  Vaucluse,  near  Avignon,  he  received  a 
striking  evidence  of  this  renown  in  the  form  of  simnltane- 
ous  invitations  from  the  University  of  Paris  and  from  Rome 
to  accept  the  laurel  crown.  He  decided  in  favor  of  Rome, 
and  Apr.  8,  1341,  he  was  with  great  solemnity  crowiu'd  upon 
the  Capitol.  The  next  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  many 
places,  mostly- in  Italy,  though  he  several  times  returned  to 
Avignon  and  his  beloved  Vaucluse.  In  1353,  however,  he 
abandoned  Avignon  forever,  and  his  last  years  were  spent 
in  Italy — in  Milan,  Padua,  Venice,  and  other  places.  In 
1370,  full  of  rejoicing  at  the  return  of  the  papal  curia  to 
Rome,  he  undertook  a  journey  thither,  but  fell  ill  on  the 
way,  and  retired  to  Arqua.  in  the  Euganean  hills,  twelve 
miles  from  Padua.  Here  he  lived  till  the  day  when  his 
frieixl  Lombardo  da  Serico  found  him  dead  in"  his  study, 
with  his  head  reclining  upon  the  pages  of  a  book. 

It  is  rare  that  a  man  obtains  fame  as  great  as  Petrarch's 
in  two  distinct  fields.  It  is  chiefly  as  the  poet,  the  singer 
of  Laura,  that  he  is  known  to  the  world  at  large ;  and,  in 
fact,  though  he  is  far  from  having  the  high  seriousness  of 
Dante,  it  would  be  hard  to  exaggerate  his  importance  in 
the  history  of  Italian  literature.  Yet  this  is  perhajis  not 
his  best  title  to  the  memory  of  men.  but  rather  the  fact 
that  in  him  we  have  the  initiator  of  the  movement  which 
has  had  such  profound  conseipu^nces  for  the  modern  world 
— the  movement  of  return  to  the  classics,  to  humanism,  to 
the  life  and  art  of  the  natural  man.  Both  he  and  his  con- 
temporaries were  guilty  of  nnu-li  exaggeration  and  misap- 
prehension as  to  the  true  character  of  tliis  movement.  His 
own  firm  belief,  for  instance,  in  the  superior  excellence  of 
his  Latin  epic.  Africa,  has  not  been  ju.stified  by  the  judg- 
ment of  posterity ;  and  yet  it  is  certain  that  from  the  huge 
mass  of  his  Latin  works  have  come  inlliK'uces  of  deeper  im- 


552 


PETREL 


PETROLEUM 


port  than  any  that  the  Canzoniere  gave  rise  to.  The  very 
titles  of  these  works,  however,  are  forgotten,  except  by  the 
professed  students  of  the  Renaissance,  and  can  be  mentioned 
here  only  in  the  most  cursory  way.  They  fall  into  three 
groups—works  of  erudition,  works  of  criticism  or  invective, 
and  works  of  a  personal  or  moral  character._  To  tlie  first 
group  belong  Rerum  mejnorandarum  lihrilV.,  Jtineran'um 
Syriacum,  De  vin's  illiistribus.  In  the  second  group  fall 
Jnvediva  hi  medieum,  Jnvectiva  in  Galium,  De  sui  ipsius 
et  multorum  alioruni  ijjnorantia.  The  last  group  contains 
the  poetical  Carmen  bucolicum  (twelve  eclogues)  and  Epistolm 
metric(e,  and  the  prose  treatises  De  contemptu  mundi,  or 
Secretum,  De  vita  solitaria.  De  otio  religiosorum,  De  vera 
sapientia,  De  remediis  utriusque  forfunce.  Most  of  these 
last  are  in  dialogue  form.  Finally  should  be  mentioned 
the  letters,  Epislolm,  of  which  Petrarch  himself  made  sev- 
eral collections. 

The  literature  about  Petrarch  is  now  enormous,  and  can 
be  found  best  enumerated  in  Willard  Fiske,  A  Catalogue  of 
Petrarch  Boohs  (Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1882).  There  are  countless 
editions  of  the  Italian  poems,  Canzoniere,  e.  g.  edited  by 
C.  Pasqualigo,  Venice,  1874.  The  Latin  poem  Africa,  ed- 
ited by  F.  Corradini,  is  printed  in  the  volume  Padova  a 
Francesco  Petrarca  net  quinto  centenario  dalla  sua  morte, 
1874.  Of  the  other  Latin  works  there  is  no  good  edition, 
the  best  being  still  t  hat  in  folio,  Basel,  1554.  Of  the  Epistola; 
de  rebus  familiaribus  and  Ejiistolce  varice  there  is  the  ex- 
cellent edition  of  G.  Pracassetti  (3  vols.,  1859-63),  and  the 
same  scholar  has  publislied  an  Italian  translation  of  these 
and  the  remaining  letters  (7  vols.,  1863-70).  For  Petrarch's 
life  and  literary  character,  see  the  following:  A.  Mezieres, 
Petrarque,  etc. '(Paris.  1867);  L.  Geiger,  Pefrarka  (Leipzig, 
1874);  G.  Koerting,  Petrarcas  Leben  und  Werke  (Leipzig, 
1878);  G.  Voigt,  Die  Wiederbelebung  des  classischen  Alter- 
thums  (2d  ed.  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1880);  A.  Bartoli,  Storia 
delta  letteratura  italiana  (vol.  vii.,  Florence,  1884) ;  P.  de 
Xolhac,  Petrarque  et  I'humanisme  (Paris,  1892). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Pet'rel  [from  Fr.  petrel,  dimin.  of  Lat.  Pe'frus,  Peter] : 
any  member  of  a  family  (Procellarida)  of  sea  birds  belong- 
ing to  the  order  Tuhinares.  The  name  was  originally  ap- 
plied to  the  smaller  species  which,  like  the  Mother  Carey's 
Chicken  (q.  v.)  flutter  over  the  water  with  their  feet  just 
touching  the  surface,  seeming,  like  Peter,  to  walk  upon  the 
sea.  Petrels  have  long,  narrow,  pointed  wings,  hooked  beaks 
with  the  nostrils  opening  in  a  tube.  The  plumage  is  thick, 
soft,  rather  oily,  and  has  a  peculiar,  ineradicable  musty 
smell.  These  birds  feed  on  almost  any  animal  matter,  but 
are  particularly  fond  of  fat,  and  when  captured  not  only 
defend  themselVes  with  beak  and  claw,  but  eject  from  their 
mouths  a  thick,  oily,  ill-smelling  liquid.  They  dwell  in 
communities  and  breed  in  holes,  rarely  laying  more  than  a 
single  egg,  and  come  to  and  go  from  tlie  nest  at  night.     (For 


Tlie  fulmar  petrel. 


a  description  of  the  nest  of  the  fork-tailed  petrel,  see  Nests 
OF  Birds.)  Petrels  are  pre-eminently  sea  birds,  only  coming 
a.shore  to  breed,  and  are  found  in  all  oceans,  very  sparingly 
in  the  tropics,  must  alnindaiilly  in  tlie  colder  portion  of  the 
south  temperate  zone.  The  largest  species  is  the  giant  ful- 
mar iUssifruga  yigantca).  frequently  called  the  Cape-hen  by 


sailors,  a  bird  about  3  feet  long  and  7  feet  in  spread  of  wing, 
of  a  sooty  color,  lighter  below.  The  bill  is  whitish.  This 
species  ranges  N.  in  the  Pacific  to  the  coast  of  California, 
but  the  southern  seas  are  its  true  habitat.  The  fulmar  (Ful- 
marus  glacialis)  is  the  best  known  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, the  Cape-pigeon  (q.  v. ;  Daplion  capensis)  in  the 
southern.  Those  petrels  belonging  to  the  genus  Puffinus 
and  related  genera,  which  have  a  short  nasal  tube  and 
rather  slender  beak,  are  commonly  termed  shearwaters,  but 
it  is  rather  a  "  book  name."  The  Albatross  (q.  v.)  is  a  near 
relative  of  the  petrels.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Petrie,  W.  M.  Flinders  :  Egyptologist ;  b.  June  3, 1853 ; 
educated  privately ;  engaged  in  mapping  and  measuring  an- 
cient British  earthworks  1874-80;  devoted  much  labor  to  the 
theory  of  the  recovery  of  ancient  measurements  from  monu- 
ments ;  has  made  several  exploring  expeditions  in  Egypt,  in 
the  third  of  which  he  discovered  the  city  of  Naukratis.  Au- 
thor of  numerous  works  on  Egyptology  and  archajology, 
among  the  most  important  being  Stonelienge :  Plans,  De- 
scriptions, and  Theories  (1880) ;  Tanis  (1885) ;  an  article  on 
Weights  and  Ileasures  in  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Ency- 
clopedia Britannica  (1887);  Historical  Scarabs  (1888); 
A  Season  in  Egypt  (1888) ;  Hawara,  Biahmu,  and  Arsinoe 
(1889). 

Petrifactions :  a  general  name  applied  to  fossils  in  ref- 
erence to  the  mineralization  of  the  organic  tissues  which 
were  buried  in  the  muds  and  sands  from  which  the  rocks 
were  made. 

Petrog'raphy  [from  Gr.  ireVpo,  rock  +  ypaipetv,  write] : 
that  branch  of  natural  science  which  has  for  its  object  the 
study  of  rocks.  The  terms  lithology  and  petrology  have 
thus  far  usually  been  used  as  synonyms  with  petrography, 
but  some  authors,  as  A.  H.  Green  and  Wadsworth,  have  at- 
tempted to  differentiate  their  meanings.  From  their  deri- 
vation it  would  be  natural  to  divide  these  three  terms  so  as 
to  reserve  lithology  for  the  study  of  stones  or  rocks  as  hand 
specimens,  especially  with  reference  to  their  constituent 
minerals ;  petrography  for  the  description  of  rocks  both  as 
mineral  aggregates  and  in  their  broader  field  relations  as 
geological  bodies ;  and  petrology  for  the  philosophical  dis- 
cussion of  questions  of  origin,  relationships,  metamorphism, 
etc.,  which  can  only  follow  a  considerable  advance  in  the 
two  foregoing  departments.  Petrography  is  the  most  gen- 
erally employed  of  these  three  terms  to  cover  the  entire 
field  of  rock  study.    See  Rocks. 

The  investigation  of  rocks  as  a  separate  department  of 
Geology  (q.  v.),  though  by  no  means  new,  dates  its  modern 
importance  from  the  successful  application  of  the  polarizing 
microscope  to  the  study  of  rock  sections,  cut  thin  enough 
to  be  transparent,  the  way  to  which  was  first  pointed  out 
by  Sorby  in  1858.  Petrography  includes  the  investigation  of 
the  nature,  origin,  composition  and  structure,  genetic  rela- 
tionship, and  secondary  alterations  in  all  rocks.  The  sub- 
ject is  one  whose  importance  was  clearly  recognized  at  the 
dawn  of  geologic  science,  but  for  a  long  time  it  yielded  no 
satisfactory  results  because  of  the  lack  of  adequate  appli- 
ances. It  is  now  possible  not  merely  to  identify  under  the 
microscope  (the  most  valuable  appliance)  the  constituent 
minerals  of  even  the  finest-grained  rocks,  to  determine  their 
optical  and  other  physical  constants,  and  to  make  out  their 
relative  ages,  modes  of  growth  or  the  rock  structures  which 
tliey  produce,  but  by  means  of  various  high  .specific-gravity 
solutions  and  the  electro-magnet  these  constituents  may  be 
sejiarated  in  a  pure  state  and  subjected  to  a  complete  chem- 
ical analysis.  Much  has  also  been  done  in  the  way  of  rock 
svTithesis. 

Rocks  of  a  highly  crystalline  character  have  been  most 
studied,  both  because,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  they  are 
best  suited  to  yield  definite  optical  and  chemical  results, 
and  because  tliey  are  without  those  paheontological  and 
stratigraphical  aids  to  geological  correlation  which  the  sedi- 
mentary deposits  possess.  Field  and  laboratory  study  of 
rock  masses  have  furnished  and  are  still  furnishing  material 
for  the  comparative  study  of  petrographic  provinces,  as  well 
as  for  conclusions  regarding  the  cause,  extent,  and  nature  of 
rock  alterations,  which  promise  to  throw  light  on  the  darkest 
chapters  of  our  earth's  history.         George  II.  Williams. 

Petro'leniii  [Gr.  irtVpa,  stone,  rock  -i-  Lat.  oleum,  oil] : 
the  fiuid  form  of  bitumen,  distinguished  from  maltha  by  its 
lessened  visciility,  and  its  occurrence,  in  even  its  most  dense 
forms,  free  from  water.  It  is  known  also  by  the  names 
rock-oil,  mineral  oil,  and  others.  For  its  origin,  see  the  ar- 
ticle Bitumen. 


PETROLEUM 


553 


Ilixturi/. — 111  the  production  of  petroleum  the  U.  S.  has 
taken  the  lead.  althouj,'h  it  has  been  known  in  Persia, 
China,  Japan,  and  otlier  countries  for  an  iinineinorial  pe- 
riod. In  China  it  was  obtained  from  artesian  borinjjs  be- 
fore the  dawn  of  liistory.  In  .Japan  and  Burma  duj;  wells 
have  been  employed  for  centuries.  In  Persia  it  has  been 
obtained  from  spriiij^s  from  a  very  remote  period.  Springs 
of  petroleum  early  attracted  the  attention  of  travelers  in  the 
far  East.  Herodotus  in  .'500  B.  r.  wrote  of  the  springs  of 
Zante,  which  are  still  (lowing;  and  he  describes  how  the  oil 
was  collected  on  a  myrtle  branch  dipped  into  the  spring. 
Pliny  and  Dioscorides  mention  the  oil  of  .\grigentum.  which 
was  used  in  lamps  umlcr  the  name  of  "Sicilian  oil."  The 
wells  of  .■Vniiaiio  formerly  supplied  oil  for  lighting  in  the 
city  of  tienoa.  At  Point  Apscheron.  near  Baku,  on  the 
Caspian  .Sea,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Caucasus  .Mountains, 
springs  of  petroleum  have  been  known  from  very  early  times. 
At  Venangyouiig  (earth-oil  river),  on  the  Irawadi,  a  heavy 
sort  of  petroleum  has  long  been  obtained  from  dug  wells  or 
pits,  and  sold  under  the  name  of  "  Rangoon  tar." 

The  earliest  reference  to  petroleum  in  Xorth  America  is 
found  in  Sagartl's  Ilistoire  du  Caitadu  (16H2),  in  a  letter  in 
which  a  Franciscan  missionary — Joseph  de  la  Roche  d'Al- 
lion — mentions  the  springs  in  what  is  now  Alleghany  co., 
N.  Y.  The  oil  of  these  springs,  as  well  as  that  of  Oil  Creek, 
now  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  was  used  by  the  Indians 
for  medicinal  and  other  purposes,  and  was  sold  under  the 
name  of  Seneca  oil.  The  early  settlers  in  Xorthwestern 
Pennsylvania  dug  pits  about  the  springs  and  curbed  thein. 

From  1T!H)  to  1S20  numerous  wells  were  drilled  along  the 
western  slope  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  for  brine,  from 
which  to  manufacture  salt.  These  were  located  along  the 
Alleghany,  the  upper  Ohio,  the  Muskingum,  between  Mari- 
etta and  Zanesville,  the  Kanawha,  above  Charleston,  the 
Big  Sandy,  and  the  head-waters  of  the  Tennessee  and  Cum- 
berland rivers.  In  all  of  these  localities  wells  w'ere  occa- 
sionally drilled  that  yielded  petroleum,  and  in  some  of 
them  the  amount  was  sufficient  to  spoil  them  for  brine. 
One  of  these  abandoned  wells  was  drilled  in  Wayne  co.. 
Southeastern  Kentucky,  in  1819,  and  it  has  flowed  a  small 
quantity  of  Ijlack  petroleum  ever  since.  Another  drilled  on 
Little  Rennos  Creek,  near  Burkesville,  Cumljerland  co.,  Ky., 
in  1829,  was  the  first  important  flowing  well  in  the  U.  S. 
The  oil  flowed  out  of  the  creek  and  into  the  Cumberland 
river,  where  it  covered  the  water  and  was  finally  set  on  fire, 
burning  for  a  distance  of  .56  miles.  It  ceased  flowing  in 
1860,  after  other  wells  had  been  drilled  in  the  vicinity.  For 
many  years  the  product  ran  to  waste,  but  it  was  finally  put 
up  in  bottles  and  sold  as  "  American  Medicinal  Oil,  Burkes- 
ville. Ky.,"  throughout  the  L^.  S.,  and  in  Europe. 

As  early  as  1834  Selligue  had  manufactured  in  France 
shale  oil  that  was  used  for  lighting  purposes.  In  1850  James 
Voung,  of  .Scotland,  introduced  into  commerce  paraffin 
oils,  made  from  the  Torbane  Hill  shale,  commonly  known 
under  the  name  of  "  Boghead  coal."  This  industry  soon  ex- 
tended to  other  European  countries  and  to  the  U.  S.  Ab- 
raham Ciesner  in  18.54  took  out  several  patents  in  the  U.  S. 
for  a  process  and  apparatus  for  the  manufacture  of  '■  kero- 
sene." The  manufacture  of  this  arti(tle  rapidly  developed 
in  the  U.  S.  into  an  important  industry.  On  the  .\tlaiitic 
coast  of  New  England  in  1860  there  were  forty  establish- 
ments using  Bogliea<l  coal,  imporleil  from  Scotland,  and 
albertite  from  New  Brunswick.  W.  of  the  -Vlleghanies 
the  rich  cannel  coals  of  Breckinridge  co.,  Ky.,  those  found 
at  Cannelton  on  the  Kamiwha  river,  and  at  Canfield  and 
Newark,  O..  were  distilled  for  oil.  The  most  extensive 
Works  for  this  purpose  in  the  V.  S.  in  18.59  were  the  Lucesco 
works  in  W'eslrnoreland  co..  Pa.,  with  a  capacity  of  6,000 
gal.  per  day.  The  advi'iit  of  pelroleum  finally  caused  all 
these  c<mcerns  in  the  U.  S.  to  abandon  coal  ami  take  up  pe- 
troleum. The  Pennsylvania  Rock-oil,  Compjiny  was  organ- 
ized in  18-54  for  the  purpose  of  iirocuring  petroleum  on  Oil 
Creek.  Pa.  After  many  vicissitudes,  by  1858  this  company 
had  leased  its  land  near  where  Titusville  now  stands  to  a  por- 
tion of  the  slockholilei-s,  who  employed  Col.  E.  L.  Drake  to 
drill  an  artesian  well.  Drake  first  attempted  to  dig  a  well 
in  one  of  the  oM  timbered  i)its:  but  ciuicksjinds  thwarting 
him,  he  drove  an  iron  pipe  :i6  feet  to  the  bed-rock.  The 
following  sea.son  men  were  engaged  to  drill,  and.  on  -Vug.  29, 
1859,  after  many  vexations  delays,  the  drill  struck  a  crev- 
ice, into  which  it  fell  6  inches.  The  next  day  the  well  was 
found  to  be  nearly  full  of  petroleum.  Oil  was  struck  in 
this  well  only  09  feet  from  the  surface. 

The  success  of  this  well  was  the  signal  for  a  grand  rush. 


Speculators  came  from  all  directions,  and  in  the  next  few 
years  Imndreds  of  wells  were  <lrilled  along  the  tributaries 
of  the  Alleghany  river.  The  farmers  along  Oil  Creek,  who 
could  not  have  realized  more  than  a  few  dollars  an  acre 
for  their  farms,  suddenly  found  themselves  wealthy.  As 
the  wells  in  one  locality  failed  new  ones  were  drilled  to 
take  their  places,  until  they  had  exhausted  the  valley  land 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Oil  City,  Tidioute,  Titusville,  and 
Franklin.  Then  borings  were  made  on  the  table-land  be- 
tween Oil  Creek  and  the  Alleghany  river,  and  at  other 
places,  without  regard  to  the  present  configuration  of  the 
country.  Test-wells  were  bored  all  over  the  country  E.  of 
the  Mississippi  river  wherever  an  oil  or  gas  spring  rendered 
the  pro<luction  of  oil  possible.  While  a  great  many  such 
enterprises  proved  fruitless,  there  were  opened  up  a  number 
of  minor  fields  at  some  distance  from  the  so-called  "  oil-re- 
gions of  Pennsylvania,"  where  the  famous  Pithole  excite- 
ment was  at  its  height.  In  Beaver  co..  Pa.,  the  Smith's 
Perry  field  was  opened  up,  and  in  Ohio  the  Mecca  district 
in  Trumbull  County,  the  Belden  district  in  Loraine  County, 
and  the  region  that  extends  from  the  northern  part  of 
Washington  co..  O.,  southward  through  Pleasants  and 
Ritchie  into  Wirt  co.,  W.  \n.  .-V  not  her  locality  in  West 
Virginia  was  found  along  the  Great  Kanawha  river,  above 
Charleston,  in  Kanawha  County.  Still  another  region  was  de- 
veloped in  the  southeastern  part  of  Kentucky,  near  Glasgow, 
in  Barren  County.  With  the  exception  of  the  Mecca  and 
Kanawha  districts,  which  have  been  practically  worked  out, 
all  of  these  localities  are  (1894)  producing  oil.  From  1865 
to  1875  operations  in  Pennsylvania  gradually  extended 
down  the  Alleghany  river  into  Butler  and  Clarion  Coun- 
ties, and  N.  E.  into  Warren  and  JIcKean  Counties.  The 
Butler  and  Clarion,  or  "Southern  CountiT,"  was  at  its 
height  of  production  in  1872-75 ;  then  began  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Bradford  field,  which  reached  its  height  in 
1880-81.  In  188.5-86  the  Washington  and  Greene  Counties, 
Pa.,  fields  were  opened  up,  and  later  the  region  in  Alleghany 
and  Washington  Counties  W.  of  Pittsburg. 

In  the  northwestern  counties  of  Oliio,  particularly  in  the 
vicinity  of  Findlay  in  Hancock  County,  and  Lima  in  Allen 
County,  natural  gas  had  been  known  since  the  settlement  of 
the  State.  In  drilling  wells  for  gas  in  1884  oil  was  en- 
countered, often  in  such  quantities  as  to  jirove  troublesome. 
Wells  for  oil  were  first  drilled  in  Lima  and  its  vicinity  in 
1885,  and  their  success  soon  led  to  the  development  of  a 
large  production  over  a  wide  area  in  Northwestern  Ohio 
and  Northeastern  Indiana,  known  as  the  Trenton  limestone 
or  Lima  oil-field. 

(jn  the  Pacific  coast  another  area  next  in  importance  has 
been  develo]ied  in  the  Coast  Ranges  of  Southern  California. 
For  more  than  a  century  bitumen  has  been  observed  float- 
ing upon  the  sea  in  the  .Santa  Barbara  channel.  Explora- 
tion of  the  mainland  E.  of  Point  Conception  and  S.  of  the 
line  forming  the  northern  boundary  of  Santa  Barbara  Coun- 
ty showed  that  an  immense  amount  of  bitumen  was  reach- 
ing the  surface  in  the  form  of  maltha  that  soon  became  as- 
phaltum  upon  exposure  to  the  elements.  In  1865  companies 
were  formed  in  New  York.  Philadelphia,  and  San  Francisco, 
but  their  wells  were  improperly  located,  and  failed  to  prf>- 
duce  oil.  In  1880-87  their  properties  passed  into  the  h.ands 
of  men  of  large  experience  in  the  oil-regions  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  after  several  unsuccessful  attempts,  and  a  care- 
ful examination  of  the  stratigraphy  of  the  country,  wells 
were  obtained,  principally  in  Ventura  and  Los  Angeles 
Counties,  which  have  produced  steadily  since.  Other  lo- 
cally valuable  regions  are  found  in  Wyoming  and  in  .South- 
eastern Ct>lorado. 

Outside  the  L'.  S.  the  regions  furnishing  petroleum  to 
commerce  are  those  of  Russia,  which  extend  along  the  Cau- 
casus Mountains;  those  of  Galicia  and  the  Danubian  prin- 
cipalities. Wallachia  and  Motdavia ;  and  a  small  area  in 
Peru.  The  Russian  oil-fields  are  chiefly  confined  to  a  small 
ai'ea  of  very  productive  territory  near  Baku,  which  yields 
wells  remarkable  for  their  enormous  outiuit  and  for  the 
long  time  during  which  it  is  discharged.  Operations  have 
been  carried  on  here  since  1873.  The  Galician  and  Rou- 
manian oil-fields  have  been  worked  in  a  rude  way  for  more 
than  a  century.  .Mlhough  attcm|its  have  been  made  for 
many  years  to  utilize  Peruvian  petroleum,  it  is  only  quite 
lately  that  it  has  been  imported  in  tank-steamers  into  San 
Francisco  and  sold  in  conipetition  with  the  oils  of  Califor- 
nia.   See  the  article  Petrolelm  and  Natural  Gas,  GEOii- 

OGV  OF. 

Properties. — Petroleum  is  a  liquid  varying  in  color  from 


55-i 


PETROLEUM 


a  light  straw,  tlirnugh  amber,  red,  and  brown,  to  lilack  ;  oils 
from  the  same  liieality  are  usually  of  nearly  the  same  color. 
The  Trenton  limestone  oils  are  very  black:  those  of  Oil 
Creek,  Colorado,  South  America,  Russia,  Germany,  Japan, 
and  India  are  brown  ;  the  Bradford  oils  and  those  of  the  low- 
er Alleghany  and  the  vicinity  of  Washington,  Pa.,  are  am- 
ber-colored, as  well  as  that  of  Araiano  in  Italy.  The  oil 
found  at  Smith's  Ferry  is  a  very  light  amber,  and  in  a  few 
instances  natural  petroleum  has  been  obtained  almost  color- 
less. The  colors  given  aljove  are  observed  when  the  light  is 
transmitted  througli  the  oil.  The  same  oils,  from  the  light- 
est to  all  but  the  darkest  sliades,  when  viewed  by  reflected 
light,  are  tinged  with  green.  Hence  petroleum  is  said  to 
be  dichroic,  or  of  two  colors.  In  specific  gravity  it  varies 
from  '7  to  1'2,  water  being  1.  As  it  escapes  from  the  earth 
it  is  usually  accompanied  by  water  and  a  varying  amount 
of  gas,  which  latter  it  holds  in  solution.  It  is  insoluble  in 
water,  but  itself  dissolves  about  2  per  cent,  of  water.  It  is 
partially  soluble  in  all  of  the  varieties  of  Naphtha  (q.  v.),  in 
all  varieties  of  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  bisulphide  of  car- 
bon, turpentine,  and  the  other  solvents  of  bitumen.  The 
lighter  colored  varieties  are  highly  refractive. 

The  chemical  composition  of  petroleums  varies  greatly. 
Taken  together  they  are  found  to  contain  nearly  all  the 
members  of  all  the  series  of  Hydrocarbons  (q.  v.)  known ; 
but  no  single  variety  contains  nearly  all  of  them.  The 
Trenton  limestone  oils  of  Canada  and  the  U.  S.  consist  of 
members  of  the  paraffin  and  define  series,  holding  in  so- 
lution small  quantities  of  more  complex  compounds,  into 
which  either  nitrogen,  sulphur,  or  oxygen  enter  as  constitu- 
ents. The  oils  obtained  in  the  Devonian  and  Subcarbon- 
iferous  rocks  of  Eastern  Ohio,  New  York,  Western  Penn- 
sylvania, and  West  Virginia  are  mixtures  of  paraffins  and 
olefines,  with  only  a  trace  of  nitrogen  or  sulphur  com- 
pounds. They  are  the  most  easily  refined  into  connuercial 
products  of  any  petroleums  known.  The  oils  of  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  partake  of  the  characteristics  of  both  the 
Trenton  and  Devonian  oils.  The  oils  of  Colorado  contain 
paraffins.  Those  of  the  Pacific  slope  apparently  consist  of 
memljers  of  the  benzole  series,  holding  in  solution  consider- 
able though  varying  amounts  of  pyridins  and  chinolins 
(basic  oils  containing  nitrogen),  combined  with  an  acid  re- 
sembling hippuric  acid,  in  the  form  of  an  ester  or  compound 
ether.  These  nitrogen  compounds  make  these  oils  very  dif- 
ficult to  refine,  and  by  their  decomposition  from  natural 
causes  cause  the  oils  to  pass  rapidly  into  maltha  and  as- 
phaltum.  Russian  oils  consist  of  a  mixture  of  the  hydrides 
of  the  benzole  series;  Burmese  petroleum  (Rangoon  tar) 
consists  of  a  mixture  of  olefines  and  benzoles. 

Development  of  Oil-territory. — The  successful  location  of 
oil-wells  on  any  proved  territory  requires  sound  Judgment 
and  experience.  Each  owner  of  a  tract  is  likely  to  drill 
along  the  border  of  it,  in  order  to  draw  oil  from  beyond  the 
border.  If  the  drilling  is  done  under  a  lease,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  give  the  owner  of  the  land  a  royalty  of  a  certain  sum 
per  barrel,  or  a  certain  proportion  of  the  oil,  or  a  certain 
percentage  of  the  gross  receipts.  One  well  to  5  acres  is 
considered  a  proper  ratio,  but  they  have  been  drilled  as 
closely  as  five  to  an  acre.  Wells  drilled  so  closely  exhaust 
the  oil-sand  more  rapidly;  they  have  sometimes  been  ex- 
hausted in  a  few  months. 

Great  differences  are  found  in  the  oil-sand  of  different 
localities.  Tiie  pebble  sands  of  the  Alleghany  river  and  its 
tributaries  are  masses  of  rounded  or  flattened  white  quartz 
pebbles  of  the  size  of  beans  or  grapes,  that  adhere  at  their 
points  of  contact,  constituting  a  friable  rock  with  large  in- 
terstitial spaces.  It  varies  in  thickness  from  10  to  125  feet. 
The  Warren  Siind  is  blue,  fine-grained,  and  muddy.  The 
Bradford  and  Washington  sands  are  coarse  sandstones  of  a 
brown  color.  In  Cafifornia  the  sand  is  fine-grained,  blue 
sandstone  of  marine  origin.  In  Russia  the  sand  is  a  sort  of 
cjuicksand,  very  fine  and  blue  in  color.  It  often  accom- 
panies the  oil  in  its  outflow.  It  has  been  proved  by  ex- 
periment that  file  Venango  peblile  sand  will  hold  about 
1,000  barrels  per  acre  for  every  foot  in  thickness. 

For  the  method  of  drilling  wells,  see  Well-drillino. 
When  an  oil-well  is  drilled  iulo  a  firm  rock  it  is  customary 
to  introduce  into  the  bottom  of  the  well  from  2  to  15  gal.  of 
nitroglycerin  and  explode  it  by  causing  a  mass  of  iron  to 
drop  on  a  fulminating  cap.  The  effect  of  generating  in 
the  limited  space  a  large  volume  of  gas  is  to  drive  the  oil, 
gas,  etc.,  l^ack  into  the  rock  until  an  equilibrium  is  estal)- 
lishftd  ;  then  a  reaction  follows,  and  the  expansion  of  the 
compressed  gases  forces  everytlnug  before  it  up  the  drill- 


liole  in  a  geyser  of  oil  until  the  expansive  force  subsides. 
Torpedoes  are  not  used  in  the  oil-regions  of  California. 
Aftei'  a  well  has  been  torpedoed  it  is  prepared  for  flowing 
by  introducing  into  it  a  2-inch  pipe,  at  the  lower  end  of 
which  is  attached  a  strainer.  At  some  point  below  the  cas- 
ing the  pipe  is  arranged  with  a  joint  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  portion  above  the  joint  will  slide  on  that  below.  The 
joint  is  secured  by  a  cylindrical  mass  of  India-rubber,  called 
a  packer.  The  weight  of  the  upper  portion  of  pipe  presses 
the  rubber  against  the  well  in  such  a  manner  as  to  plug 
the  drill-hole"  around  the  pipe,  and  prevent  any  oil  or  gas 
from  escaping  from  the  rock  except  by  ascending  the  pipe. 
So  long  as  the  pressure  of  gas  within  the  rock  is  sufficient 
to  force  the  oil  to  the  surface,  the  well  will  flow.  When  the 
well  ceases  to  flow  a  pump  is  introduced,  and  the  oil  lifted 
to  the  surface  until  it  ceases  to  be  remunerative. 

In  the  early  days  on  Oil  Creek  the  oil  was  transported  in 
barrels  holding  42  gal.  each ;  along  rivers  bulk-barges  were 
employed.  In  1871  wooden  tanks  on  flat  cars  came  into 
use,  and  later  these  were  followed  by  plain  iron  cylin- 
ders, holding  about  5,000  gal.  each,  which  are  still  used 
for  transporting  crude  and  refined  oil  in  America  and 
Eurojie.  Crude  oil  is  also  transported  by  means  of  pipe- 
lines, which  are  best  described  in  connection  with  the  means 
employed  for  storing  the  oil.  Every  well  is  supplied  with 
a  tank  holding  250  barrels,  from  which  a  2-inch  pipe  con- 
nects with  a  larger  tank  holding  perhaps  10,000  barrels. 
This  large  tank  is  connected  by  a  4-inch  pijie.  through  a 
pumping-station,  with  a  general  system  of  6-inch  pipes,  ex- 
tending often  for  liundreds  of  miles.  At  convenient  points 
along  these  main  lines  storage-tanks  are  jilaced,  holding 
35,000  barrels  each  :  and  pumping-stations  are  located  about 
40  miles  apart.  These  pipe-lines  are  made  of  wrought  iron, 
the  sections  screwed  into  couplings,  the  whole  of  which  is 
tested  to  a  pressure  of  2,000  lb.  to  the  square  inch.  Pipe- 
lines extend  out  of  the  oil-regions  to  Chicago,  Cleveland, 
Buffalo,  Jersey  City,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.  In  Cali- 
fornia they  extend  from  the  wells  in  the  mountains  to  Santa 
Paula  and  Ventura.  In  Russia  a  line  has  been  laid  from 
Baku  on  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Batum  on  the  Black  Sea,  a 
distance  of  about  600  miles. 

Petroleum  in  Commerce. — Petroleum,  suitable  for  refin- 
ing into  illuminating  oil,  enters  the  market  in  enormous 
quantities  through  the  pipe-lines.  The  more  dense  oils, 
which  are  suitable  for  use  as  lul.iricating  oils  in  the  crude 
state,  and  also  as  reduced  oils,  are  handleil  in  barrels  and 
tank-cars.  The  handling  of  oil  in  pipe-lines  has  rendered 
banking  in  oil  possible.  This  business  is  conducted  as  fol- 
lows :  When  oil  is  run  into  the  pipe-line  the  owner  receives 
for  it  certificates,  which,  having  been  properly  indorsed,  are 
negotiable  after  the  manner  of  certified  checks.  Certificates 
for  1.000  barrels  are  negotiable  on  the  Stock  Exchange,  like 
any  other  declaration  of  indebtedness,  and  their  purchase 
and  sale  makes  speculation  in  oil  possible.  Certificates  for 
less  than  1.000  barrels  are  sold  to  consumers  of  oil.  The  oil 
is  held  against  these  certificates  in  storage-tanks.  Iiolding 
35,000  barrels  each,  to  the  amount  of  millions  of  barrels, 
under  regulations  that  insure  its  proper  care. 

Technolocfy  of  Petroleum. — The  apparatus  employed  for 
distillation  consists  of  an  iron  still  connected  with  a  con- 
denser of  wrought-iron  pipe,  which  is  submerged  in  water. 
The  first  products  of  distillation  are  gases :  at  oi-dinary  tem- 
peratures they  pass  through  the  condenser  and  escape.  By 
cooling  the  condenser  with  ice  and  salt  the  very  volatile 
liquid  rhigolene  is  obtained;  and  by  using  a  coiulensing- 
pump  a  still  more  volatile  liquid,  cymogene.  The  first  fluids 
that  condense  at  ordinary  temperatures  have  a  gravity  of 
about  95"  B. ;  in  most  establishments  it  is  custonusry  to  run 
the  product  into  one  tank  until  the  gravity  of  the  distillate 
readies  65 -.58'  B.  This  product  is  known  as  crude  naphtha, 
and  is  subsequently  separated  by  redistillation  into  gasoline 
and  A,  B,  and  C  naphthas.  When  the  stream  of  oil  has  a 
gravity  of  5!)°  B.  it  is  run  into  the  kerosene-tank  until  the 
gravity  reaches  about  38°  B.  or  until  the  color  liecomcs  yel- 
low. After  taking  off  this  second  fraction,  the  kerosene,  the 
stream  is  run  into  the  paraffin-oil  tank  until  there  remains 
in  the  still  only  a  thick,  heavy  tar.  called  residuum.  The 
last  products  have  a  gravity  of  aliout  25  B.  The  ]iaraffin 
oil  is  put  into  barrels  and  chilled,  to  crystallize  the  paraffin, 
and  is  then  put  into  cloths  and  pressed,  in  order  to  remove 
the  oil.  The  solirl  paraffin  is  purified  by  repeatedly  melting 
it  in  naphtha,  chilling,  and  pressing. 

While  this  is  a  general  outline  of  the  process  by  distilla- 
tion, it   should  be   remarked   that  refiners  differ  it]   the  de- 


PETROLEUM 


555 


tails  nf  the  operation.  A  siiijjli'  firm  at  luiulii'stor.  X.  V., 
distill  tlicir  oils  in  a  vacuum,  [jnxliic'iiis,'  what  are  known  as 
vaeiuiiii  oils.  Formerly  very  larire  stills  were  in  use;  at 
present  llie  lar;,'est  hold  alioiit  1,'200  barrels.  In  these,  by 
slow  (list illation,  the  heavier  luliricatini;  oils  are  "cracked  ' 
into  liirhter  oils,  so  that  the  refiner  need  not  produce  any 
heavy  oils,  but  only  crude  miphllui,  illumiiiatins  oil,  and 
residuum.  The  naphthas,  buruinj;,  and  lidiricatinj,'  oils 
are  deodori/i'd  and  decolorized  for  market  by  tri'atuu'nt, 
which  consists  in  thoroughly  aiiitatini^  the  crude  distillate 
with  stronjr  sulphuric  acid  aiul  allowing  the  mixture  of 
the  acid  and  the  impurities  of  the  oil.  called  sludge,  to  sub- 
side ;  the  oil  is  removed,  and  then  agitated  with  a  solution 
of  caustic  soda,  ammonia,  or  lime  ;  this  removes  any  I'ree 
acid,  along  with  any  other  impurities  not  remcjved  liy  the 
acid,  .Alter  treatment  the  burning  oils  are  sprayed,  in  order 
to  remove  any  light  vapors  that  might  render  the  oil  unsafe. 
The  luliricating  oils,  or  reduced  oils,  protluced  by  partial 
distiII;ilion,  are  sometimes  treated  and  sometimes  filtered 
through  animal  charcoal,  to  remove  both  color  and  odor; 
thev  are  sometimes  distilled  with  superheated  steam.  The 
residuum  is  dislilled  in  small  stills,  and  yields  a  large  (|uan- 
tity  of  paralTin  and  paraffin  oil,  and  a  solid  residuum  that 
is  run  out  ot  the  still  while  it  is  hot,  called  coke-pitch,  as  it 
always  contains  a  considerable  percentage  ot  coke.  A  vari- 
ety of  solid  and  senii-soliil  preparations  are  made  by  filter- 
ing the  melted  materials  through  animal  charcoal;  vaseline 
and  various  light-colored  lubricating  oils  are  exam))les. 
Nearly  every  luitural 'petroleum  is  found  to  possess  some 
peculiarity  that  renders  some  modification  of  this  general 
technology  necessary.  Russian  petroUnim  yields  a  second 
grade,  as'cojnpared  with  the  best  .\meri(.'an  illuminating 
oil,  excellent  lubricating  oil,  and  white  solids,  that  are  not 
paraffin,  sold  under  the  name  ot  "  All)oUne."  No  first-class 
illuminating  oil  has  ever  been  made  from  California  petro- 
leum, and  very  little,  if  any.  is  now  being  manufactured  from 
that  material."  In  the  few  refineries  of  the  l'acifi(.-  coast  the 
articles  turned  out  are  gasoline,  naphtlias.  lubricating  oils, 
and  several  grades  of  both  fluid  and  solid  asphaltic  residu- 
ums.  These  resiiluums  resemble  in  some  respects  the  nat- 
ural asphalls  ;  lint  in  others  they  are  very  unlike.  The  (h'use 
black  Californi.a  [lelroleums  are  also  reduced,  and  the  fluid 
residuum  is  fouml  to  be  especially  valuable  for  use  as  an 
asphaltic:  flux  in  the  preparation  of  street-paving. 

The  yield  of  these  different  products  varies  greatly  with 
the  variety  of  oil  and  with  the  refinery.  The  following  is  a 
fair  average  for  Pennsylvania  oil  of  about  45'  B. : 

Per  cent. 

Gasoline li 

Naphthas 14 

Kerosene 5.5 

Lubricating  oil ITi 

Paraffin 2 

Loss,  gas,  and  coke-pitch 10 

Total 100 

I5y  cracking,  the  same  oil  could  be  made  to  yield : 

Per  cent. 

Naphthas 20 

Kerosene ti(5 

Loss,  gas,  and  coke-pitch 14 

Tolal 100 

Kerosene  is  the  most  important  product  of  pi'troleum.  It 
is  a  mixture  of  many  hyilrocarbons.  and  has  (lie  consistency 
of  the  essential  oils,  a  burning  taste,  and  aromatic  odor. 
It  is  nearly  colorless  by  transmitted  light,  and  slightly  fluo- 
rescent by  refiected  light.  Its  density  should  l)e  from  4;i - 
45'  H.  .\t  ordinary  temperatures  it  should  extinguisli  a 
matcli  as  readily  as  water.  It  should  not  evidve  an  inflam- 
Muible  vapor  below  110  F.,  and  should  not  take  fire  l)elow 
125'  F,  As  kerosene  <'onfaining  even  a  small  percentage 
of  naphtha  is  very  dangerous,  it  is  almost  universally  re- 
(|uired  l)y  law  tliat  kerosene  l>e  tested  before  it  is  sold,  A 
suitable  apparatus  is  recpiired,  consisting  of  a  cup  to  hold 
the  oil,  surrounde(l  l)y  a  vessel  ot  water,  wluch  is  heated  by 
a  small  s|iiril-lam]).  The  bulb  ot  a  thermometer  is  im- 
mersi'd  in  the  oil,  nol  farl)elowthe  surface.  The  oil  should 
he  healed  very  slowly;  the  temperature  should  nol  rise 
faster  than  3'  per  miniile.  The  oil  should  be  stirred  before 
applying  the  flame.  The  Hashing  test  determines  the  low- 
est temperature  al  which  the  oil  gives  oil  an  inflammalde 
vapor,     'file  leirning  test  fixes  the  Imrning-poiiit  of  the  oil, 


or  the  lowest  temperature  at  which  it  takes  fire.  One  per 
cent,  of  naphtha  will  lower  the  flashing-point  of  an  oil  10° 
without  materially  afl'ecting  the  burning  test.  The  burn- 
ing-point of  an  oil  is  from  10  to  50'  higlier  than  the  flash- 
ing-point. The  Hashing  test  should  therefore  be  the  only 
test  mentioned  in  laws  framed  to  prevent  the  sale  of  dan- 
gerous oils. 

? '.se.s  of  Pflrolfum. — The  earliest  use  of  petroleum,  both 
in  Kurope  and  in  the  U.  S.,  was  as  a  therapeutic  agent, 
in  diseases  of  the  skin  of  both  men  and  animals,  in  rheuma- 
tism and  consumption;  it  is  still  largely  a  constituent  of 
end)rocations  in  popular  >ise.  A  filtered  j)araffin  residue, 
under  the  name  of  vaseline,  cosmoljne,  or  petroleum  oint- 
ment, is  very  extensively  used,  not  only  as  a  basis  of  medi- 
cated ointments  by  the  apothecary,  but  very  gi^nerally  in 
households.  Khigoleiie  has  been  used  as  an  aiiiesthetie; 
cymogene  has  been  used  in  icc-maehines. 

Various  products  of  petroleum  besides  kerosene  are  used 
for  )iurposes  of  illumination.  Gasoline  is  used  in  large 
quantities  in  carburetors.  These  are  machines  in  which  air 
is  made  to  bubble  through  the  gasoline  an<l  dissolve  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  the  volatile  liipiid  to  f'cu'in  a  combustilde 
mixture,  which  may  lie  burned  like  orilinary  illuminating 
gas.  Illuminating  gas  has  been  made  by  causing  crude  pe- 
troleum to  drip  into  a  retort  upon  red-hot  coke.  Naphtha 
is  burned  like  gas  in  an  apparatus  in  which  it  is  vaporized 
by  the  heat  generated  during  its  combustion.  A  product 
of  petroleum  known  as  gas-oil,  which  consists  of  the  naph- 
tha and  kerosene  distillates  run  together  without  treatment, 
is  used  to  enrich  gas  deficient  in  illuminating  |iower.  As- 
tral oil  is  an  oil  of  high  flash-point,  especially  prepared 
with  reference  to  illuminating  jiower  and  safety.  Mineral 
sperm"  is  an  illuminating  oil  of  very  high  flash-point,  for 
use  in  lighthouses  and  on  locomotives. 

The  paraffin  and  other  lubricating  oils  prepared  from 
petroleum,  in  innumerable  brand.s.  liave  largely  superseded 
animal  and  vegetable  oils  throughout  the  world,  while  for 
coarse  and  heavy  bearings  the  use  of  crude  petroleum  has 
liecome  universal.  Crude  petroleum  is  used  very  extensively 
in  Russia  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  U.  S.  for  fuel,  chiefly 
for  steam  purposes.  The  residuum  of  the  refineries  is  also 
used  on  steamers  on  the  Volga  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  on 
locomotives  throughout  Soutliern  Russia.  It  has  also  been 
successfully  used  in  the  P>astern  V.  S.  for  steam  purposes, 
but  the  low  price  of  coal  in  the  Mississippi  valley  renders 
competition  impossible.  On  the  Pacific  coast  coal  is  scarce 
and  high-priced,  ami  petroleum  is  used  extensively  for  sta- 
tionary boilers,  petroleum  having  the  advantage  over  coal 
in  freedom  from  dirt,  and  the  small  expense  tor  labor  at- 
tending its  use.  Gasoline  is  very  widely  used  for  domestic 
heating  and  cooking,  notwithstanding  the  well-known  dan- 
ger attending  its  use.  It  is  more  satisfactory  than  kerosene, 
which  is  also  used  for  the  same  purpose,  and,  like  gasoline, 
in  stoves  especially  constructed  for  its  combustion.  The 
most  volatile  iiroducts  of  the  distillation  of  petroleum  are 
u.sed  for  explosion  in  the  cylinders  of  motors,  after  the  num- 
ner  in  which  gas  is  exploded  in  the  cylinders  ot  gas-engines. 
Tlie  asphaltic  residues  of  California  petroleum,  as  well  as 
coke-pitch,  are  used  for  coating  paper  and  in  tlie  manufac- 
ture of  varnishes,  paints,  lacquers,  etc. 

The  influence  of  petroleum  and  its  producis  U])on  civiliza- 
tion is  hardly  le.ss  potent  Ih.'in  thai  of  the  steam-engine  and 
electricitv.  While  thousands  of  wells  have  ceased  to  pro- 
duce, aiui  iiuuiy  localiti<'s  in  all  of  the  regions  that  contrib- 
ute to  the  world's  supply  have  ceased  to  be  important  factors 
therein,  still  the  aggregate  auuiunt  appears  to  be  sufficient 
to  meet  all  of  the  enormous  and  varied  demands;  and, from 
a  careful  survey  of  the  prospective  supply,  there  seems  to 
1)0  no  reason  to  fciar  that  these  demands  of  commerce  will 
not  be  adequately  met  for  an  indefinite  perioil. 

The  following  statistics,  from  the  Mtnernl  Jiemiiire.s  of 
the  United  States  for  1S9J,  show  the  annual  producticm  of 
petroleum  throughout  the  world,  in  liarrels  : 

PRODUCTION   OF    I'ETROLKUM. 

Pennsylvania  and  New  York 20,314.513 

West  Virginia ,s.445.  tl3 

Eastern  Ohio 2,tiO-',!t05 

Lima.  Indiana 15,li>^2,0!l7 

Florence,  Colorado .5!l4,;i!K) 

Soulheru  California 406,179 

Other  fields  in  the  V.S ".1 10 

Total  barrels  for  the  U.  S.,  W.rS 4iS.412,(i66 


556 


PETROLEUM  AND  NATURAL  GAS,  GEOLOGY  OP 


PRODUCTION   OF   PETROLEUM — CONTINUED. 

Russia,  Baku.  189.3 33.104.126 

Russia,  elsewhere,  1890 2.')l..i43 

Austria-llunj^arv 816,000 

Canada.   1893.. .' T9S.406 

Peru,  1890 350,000 

India,  1891 146,10? 

Germany,  1802 103,323 

Prance."l891 70.000 

Japan.  1890 4,8,027 

Argentine  Republic.  1891 21.000 

Italy,  1891 8.085 

Great  Britain.  1892 1,526 

Other  countries  (estimated) 200,000 

Total  number  of  barrels 84,330,809 

Literature. — Report  on  the  Rock  Oil  or  Petroleum  from 
Venango  Co.,  Pa.,  by  B.  Silliman.  Jr.  (1855;  reprinted  in 
Am.  Chemist,  i.,  18) :  The  Rock  Oil-'i  of  Ohio,  by  J.  S.  Xew- 
berry  (Ohio  Ag.  Report,  1859) ;  Notes  on  the  Iliatory  of 
Petroleum  or  Rock  Oil.  by  T.  S.  Hunt  (Canadian  Natural- 
ist.  1861);  Petroleum  or  Rock  Oil,  by  T.  S.  Hunt  {.Smithsonian 
Reiiort,  1861) ;  Geological  Survey  "of  California,  Geology,  i. 
and  ii..  appendix :  Researches  on  the  Volatile  Ili/drocarbons, 
by  C.  M.  Warren  {Mem.  Am.  Acad.,  n.  s.,  ix.) ;  /  Petrolii  in 
Italia,  by  A.  Stoppani  (Milan.  1866) ;  3Iineral  Oils  of  the 
Netherlands'  East  Indian  Possessions,  by  E.  H.  v.  Baum- 
hauer  {Archives  Neerlnndaises  des  Scie7ice's,  etc.,  xiv.,  1869) ; 
Report  on  Petroleum  as  an  Illuniinafor,  etc..  by  C.  F. 
Chandler  (Report  Health  Department  Xew  York."  1870) ; 
Report  from  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords 
on  the  Petroleum  Bill  (London,  1872) ;  Reports  of  the  Sec- 
ond Geological  Survey  of  Pennsylvania  (1874-80) ;  Reports 
of  the  Tenth  Census  of  the  U.  S.,'yol.  x..  Petroleum,  by  S.  F. 
Peckham ;  Reports  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio,  Eco- 
nomic Geology,  vol.  vi..  by  E.  Orton ;  Mineral  Resources  of 
the  United  States  (1882-93).  S.  F.  Peckhaji. 

Petroleum  and  Natural  Gas,  Geologry  of:  Petroleum 
and  natural  gas  appear  to  be  inseparably  connected.  Wher- 
ever large  supplies  of  the  one  exist  the  other  is  in  almost  all 
cases  not  far  distant.  Hence  any  statements  concerning 
the  geology  of  the  oil  are  equally  applicable  to  that  of  the 
gas.  Then,  too,  the  flow  of  large  petroleum-wells  is  always 
accompanied  by  an  immense  output  of  natural  gas,  which 
doubtless  is  dissolved  in  the  oil  under  the  great  pressure  of 
its  rock  reservoir. 

The  quantity  of  gas  occurring  immediately  with  the  oil 
varies  greatly,  depending  upon  the  depth  of"  the  oil-reser- 
voir below  the  surface  and  the  permeability  of  the  over- 
lying rocks.  When  the  rock  reservoirs  lie  near  the  surface, 
as  at  Volcano,  W.  Va.,  Mecca,  0..  and  Franklin,  Pa.,  most 
of  their  volatile  contents  escape  into  the  air,  leaving  a 
heavy  or  lubricating  oil,  with  little  or  no  gas  present,  while 
if  the  reservoir  lies  upon  the  surface,  or  its  included  oil  is 
transported  to  the  surface  in  any  manner,  evaporation  and 
oxidation  reduce  the  liquid  to  the  condition  of  asphaltum, 
as  in  the  island  of  Trinidad  and  at  many  ]5laces  in  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  and  the  Western  States  and  Territories  of 
the  U.  S.  In  Ritchie  co..  W.  Va.,  a  vertical  fissure  from  2  to 
3  feet  wide  and  extending  down  to  the  oil-sand  group  has 
been  thus  filled  with  grahamite.  From  this  universal  occur- 
rence of  oil  and  gas  together,  or  in  close  proximity  to  eacli 
otlier.  it  is  evident  that  tliey  have  had  a  common  origin,  and 
that  natural  gas  is  one  of  the  by-products  in  the  genesis  of 
petroleum.  Until  1884  geology  played  a  very  insignificant 
part  in  guiding  tlie  drill  in  it's  search  for  oi'l  and"  gas  de- 
posits. Since  that  date,  however,  the  laws  of  oil  and  gas 
distribution  and  occurrence  have  been  quite  thoroughly 
worked  out,  and  it  is  now  possiljle  to  predict  from  geological 
structure  the  general  regions  where  productive  areas  of  oil 
and  gas  may  be  found,  as  well  as  to  define  the  liounilaries  of 
nearly  all  tliose  regions  where  a  search  for  either  must  prove 
fruitless.  These  laws  have  been  formulated  under  three 
heads — Structure,  Reservoir,  and  Cover.      . 

Structure. — .\11  of  the  great  areas  of  petroleum  and  natu- 
ral gns  occur  alung  lines  rjf  disturbance  in  the  rocks,  where 
anliclinal  arches  have  tilled  the  strata  and  thrown  them 
into  consideralilc  relief,  thus  permitting  the  gas.  oil,  and 
salt  water  occurring  in  all  porous  seilimentarv  rocks  to  sep- 
arate themselves  in  the  order  of  their  specific  gravities,  the 
water  occupying  the  synclines  and  lower  slopes  of  the 
strata,  the  oil  coming  next  above  the  water  aiul  extending 
upward  until  it  is  in  turn  succeeded  by  natural  gas  higher 


up  the  slope  and  across  the  crowns  of  the  antielinals,  if  the 
rocks  are  continuously  porous.    (See  diagram.)    Hence  when 


Ideal  diagram  of  strata  to  illustrate  tht*  natural  relatitms  of  brine, 
petroleum,  and  gas  in  a  porous  bed  (Y)  coutamed  between  imper- 
vious beds  (X.  Zl.  A  well  at  A  yields  only  bruie.  A  well  at  B 
yields  first  petroleum  and  afterward  brine.  A  well  at  C  yields 
tirst  gas  and  afterward  petroleum  and  brine. 

the  rocks  are  nearly  horizontal  over  a  wide  area,  structure 
would  condemn  such  a  region  as  not  likely  to  furnish  large 
supplies  of  either  gas  or  oil.  Structure  also  teaches  that  it 
would  be  useless  to  bore  for  gas  in  a  syncline,  unless  it 
should  be  a  subordinate  feature  of  an  anticline. 

Structure  would  also  condemn  all  regions  for  gas  or  oil 
where  the  rocks  are  highly  contorted  and  the  folds  of  great 
height,  since  these  fissure  the  strata  deeply,  bring  the  res- 
ervoirs themselves  to  the  surface,  and  permit  the  escape  of 
the  oil  and  gas  they  may  once  have  contained. 

Reservoir. — When  petroleum  was  first  discovered  in  large 
quantity,  many  people  imagined  that  it  existed  in  under- 
ground lakes,  filling  large  caverns  in  the  strata,  and  it  was 
so  represented  even  in  leading  text-books  on  geology.  Pe- 
troleum does  not  occur  in  caverns,  as  thus  depicted,  but  in 
the  rocks  themselves,  disseminated  through  the  minute  cavi- 
ties and  spaces  between  the  sand-grains  and  pebbles  of  frag- 
niental  deposits,  while  in  limestones  it  occurs  in  the  crys- 
talline cavities  formed  by  the  partial  replacement  of  pure 
limestone  by  dolomite.  In  slates  it  probably  exists  mostly 
in  fissures.  All  sedimentary  beds  are  porous  to  some  ex- 
tent, but  the  finer  elastic  materials,  like  slate,  shales,  and 
ordinary  limestone,  are  so  slightly  permeable  to  liquids  that 
unless  much  fissured  they  make  poor  reservoirs  for  either  oil 
or  gas.  and  hence  the  geological  structure  may  be  favorable, 
but  if  porous  rock  reservoirs  be  absent  from  the  under- 
ground strata  we  can  not  expect  to  find  any  large  supplies 
of  oil  or  gas.  The  rate  of  production  of  any  oil-well  appears 
to  depend  Itirgely  upon  the  porosity  of  its  rock  reservoir. 
When  this  is  a  mere  bed  of  gravel,  like  the  famous  fifth  sand 
at  McDonald,  Pa.,  we  may  have  a  well  like  the  Jlalthews  or 
Mcvey,  putting  out  15.000  barrels  daily,  and  when  the  pebbles 
are  not  consolidated,  as  in  the  Baku  district  of  Russia,  the 
wells  may  flow  even  50,000  to  60,000  barrels  daily,  while  if 
the  reservoir  is  compact  and  close-grained,  wells  penetrating 
it  are  non-productive.  It  the  reservoir  rock  changes  its 
character  suddenly  a  well  practically  dry  may  exist  close 
beside  one  that  is  highly  productive.  A  non-productive 
well  was  drilled  within  300  feet  of  the  Mevey  well  at  Mc- 
Donald. Pa.,  at  the  time  the  latter  was  yielding  15,000  barrels 
daily.  The  porosity  or  quantity  of  reservoir  space  in  good 
oil  or  gas  rock  in  the  Pennsylvania  fields  varies  between  one- 
fifth  and  one-tenth  of  the  volume  of  the  rock. 

Cover. — However  coarse  or  open  the  rock  reservoir  may 
prove,  it  must  be  roofed  over  with  an  impermeable  cover, 
else  the  oil  and  gas  will  escape  to  the  air,  and  the  drill  will 
find  the  original  reservoir  practically  empty,  or  filled  v;ith 
fresh  water.  Soft  shales  or  slate  make  such  an  excellent 
cover  that  even  where  the  rocks  are  bent  at  an  angle  of  30° 
to  60'.  as  along  the  Volcano.  W.  Va..  anticlinal,  they  have 
still  retained  a  considerable  quantity  of  petroleum  in  its 
.subterranean  reservoirs,  though  from  the  sands  which  lie 
nearest  the  surface  much  of  the  oil  and  nearly  all  of  the 
natural  gas  has  escaped.  In  any  region,  then,  where  un- 
altered sedimentary  rocks  have  been  gently  tilted,  and  con- 
tain coiirse  or  porous  beds  overlain  with  a  considerable  thick- 
ness of  shale,  clay,  or  other  impermeable  rock,  we  may  ex- 
pect to  find  deposits  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas. 

Dr.  Orton  believes  that  the  terrace,  or  monoclinal  struc- 
ture, which  is  really  a  suppressed  or  arrested  anticlinal,  is 
the  most  favorable  for  accumulation  of  petroleum,  since 
this  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  rocks,  as  first  noted  by 
Jlinshall.  is  sn  common  in  the  oil-fields  of  Ohio.  It  is  also 
prevalent  in  most  of  the  oil-fields  of  Pennsylvania  and  West 
Virginia, 

The  pressure  under  which  oil  and  gas  are  found  in  porous 
rocks  is  hydnislatic,  and  identical  with  that  of  artesian 
wells.  In  any  field  newly  opened,  or  in  a  field  the  wells  of 
which  are  kept  closed  until  a  condition  of  static  equilibrium 


PETROLEUM  AXD  XATTUAL  GAS,  GEOLOGY  OF 


557 


is  restored,  it  is  approxiiiiati-ly  iiipasured  by  the  pressure  of 
a  column  of  water  rising  from  tlie  same  reservoir  at  another 
point.  If,  in  the  case  illustrated  by  the  diagram,  the  brine 
in  well  A  rises  half  way  from  the  reservoir  to  the  top,  the  oil 
in  well  B,  being  lighter  than  water,  will  rise  to  a  higher  level, 
and  the  gas  in  well  C  will  sustain  a  pressure  measured  by  that 
part  of  the  column  of  oil  in  H  which  is  above  the  surface 
of  oil  in  the  reservoir,  or  approximately  by  that  ]iart  of  the 
brine  in  A  which  is  above  the  oil-surface  in  the  reservoir. 
This  law  of  pressures  has  been  demonstrated  by  Dr.  Orton 
for  the  Trenton  limestone  reservoirs  in  Ohio  and  Indiana, 
and  the  same  rule  holds  true  for  the  oil-sands  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  West  Virginia.  An  important  corollary  is  that 
in  the  same  "oil-pool  "  the  liquid  must  occupy  about  the 
same  level  in  the  rock,  since  it  is  subjected  to  practically 
the  same  pressure  in  every  portion  of  the  pool.  Hence 
when  one  gooil  well  is  found  in  any  field,  the  proper  direc- 
tion to  go  in  seardi  of  others  is  along  the  xtrike  of  the  rocks, 
and  as  the  strike  of  the  oil-sands  is  nearly  the  same  as  that 
of  the  surface  rocks,  the  latter  may  be  used  in  tracing  out 
the  probable  course  of  oil-belts  in  advance  of  the  drill.  In 
tliis  is  found  the  philosophy  of  the  4.")',  8.5  ,  or  22i  lines 
whicli  in  dilTerenl  oil-fields  have  proved  so  popular  with  the 
practical  oilmen.  These  are  strike  lines  in  the  several  re- 
gions where  used. 

(ieoloyifdl  and  Geographical  Distributian. — Petroleum 
and  natural  gas  are  not  confined  to  any  particular  geologic- 
al horizon,  but  occur  in  rocks  of  all  ages  from  the  Lower 
Silurian  up  into  the  Quaternary,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  fol- 
h)wing  remarks  on  ilistribution  in  the  \J.  S. 

The  Trenton  limestone  of  the  Lower  Silurian  is  the  lowest 
and  oldest  known  horizon  for  productive  oil  and  gas  wells. 
This  horizon  was  first  discovered  near  Eindlay,  O.,  and  has 
[)roved  one  of  the  most  pi-olific  sources  of  oil  and  gas  that 
is  yet  known  in  the  U.  S.  Very  large  areas  in  ( )liio,  Indiana, 
and  also  in  Canada  contain  petroleum  and  natural  gas.  Dr. 
Orton  has  shown  that  the  productive  areas  of  the  Trenton 
limestone  are  confined  to  domes  and  terraces  in  this  rock, 
where  it  has  been  rendered  porous  by  the  presence  of  dolo- 
mite. 

The  Hudson  river  beds  seem  to  have  furnished  the  first 
flowing  well  on  the  continent  in  the  salt-well  of  Cumber- 
land CO.,  Ky.,  bored  in  1S29.  This  formation  is  petroliferous 
at  many  points  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  but  none  of  the 
wells  are  very  productive,  as  the  rocks  are  close-grained. 
The  Clinton  series  has  proved,  according  to  Orton,  a  rich 
repository  of  gas  in  the  vicinity  of  Lancaster  and  Newark, 
and  in  other  parts  of  Ohio,  having  also  some  oil.  It  is  also, 
according  to  the  same  authority,  the  probable  oil  and  gas 
horizon  in  the  Harren  County  oil-field  of  Kentucky,  where 
a  great  many  small  producing  wells  have  been  found.  The 
producing  stratum  is  a  sandstone  in  Ohio,  and  probably  the 
same  in  Kentucky. 

The  Corniferous  limestone,  Devonian,  appears  to  be  the 
principal  oil  horizon  in  the  Canada  petroleum-fields,  and  it 
lia.s  also  produced  oil  in  several  borings  of  Eastern  Ken- 
tucky, though  always  in  small  amounts.  The  ^larcellus 
shale  is  the  source  of  considerable  natural  gas  in  New  York, 
and  doubtless  at  many  points  in  Ohio,  but  the  wells  are  al- 
ways small.  The  Chemung  series  (including  the  Portage, 
Chemung,  and  Catskill  formations)  has  so  far  proved  the 
most  prolific  oil  and  gas  horizon  in  the  T.  S.  The  Portage 
beds  are  always  low  in  porosity  and,  so  far  as  known,  have 
yielded  gas  and  oil  only  sparingly,  the  localities  being  at 
Erie,  Pa.,  and  elsewhere  near  the  shore  of  Lake  Eric.  In 
the  Chemung  and  Catskill  roctks.  however,  we  find  coarse 
sandstones  and  conglomerates,  which  are  very  porous,  and 
both  of  these  series  have  [)roved  great  reservoii-s  of  oil  and 
gas  along  the  western  slope  of  the  Appalachian  Mountain 
system  from  the  southern  portion  of  New  York  across  Penn- 
sylvania, and  down  into  Ohio  and  West  Virginia.  The 
great  Bradford  oil-field,  as  well  as  the  Southern  New  York 
region,  derives  its  oil  and  gas  from  the  Chemung  beds 
proper,  and  that  from  Kane,  Sheffield,  Warren,  Chen-y 
Grove,  Speechly,  an<l  adjoining  regions,  conies  from  the 
same  source.  The  Catskill  rocks  ap[)ear  to  be  even  more 
prolific  in  oil  than  the  Chemung,  since  the  Venango  oil-sand 
group  of  Pennsylvania,  with  its  first,  second,  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  sands,  from  Venango  County  down  through  Clari- 
on, Butler,  Armstrong.  Mercer,  Lawrence,  Beaver.  Allegheny, 
Westmoreland,  Washington,  and  Greene,  belongs  wholly  in 
the  Catskill  beds,  with  the  possible  exception  of  its  basal 
members.  This  Venango  group  has  furnished  practically  all 
of  the  oil  and  gas  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  and  has  proved 


prolific  at  Macksburg.  0.,  and  at  Eureka,  Wellsburg,  Man- 
nington.  Big  Isaac,  and  many  other  points  in  West  Virginia. 
Two  of  the  largest  gas-wells  ever  struc'k  were  found  in  a 
member  of  the  Venango  group  at  Big  Isaac,  in  Doddridge 
CO.,  and  near  Joetown,  Marion  co.,  W.  Va. 

The  Cleveland  shale,  which,  according  to  Orton,  is  the 
black  shale  of  Southern  Ohio  and  Eastern  Kentucky,  is  also 
a  member  of  the  Venango  or  Catskill  series,  and  contains 
some  petroleum  and  gas  wherever  its  outcrop  extends.  The 
gas-wells  near  Brandenburg.  Meade  co.,  Ky.,  occur  in  this 
stratum,  and  they  have  proved  large  enough  to  pipe  to 
Louisville,  25  miles  distant.  Dr.  Orton  reports  the  shale  as 
shattered  and  fissured  at  this  locality,  and  its  reservoir 
capacity  has  thus  been  increased  to  a  large  extent. 

The  next  higher  member  of  the  geologic  scale,  the  Pocono 
sandstone  (Lower  Carboniferous),  No.  X.,  or  Vespertine  of 
Rogers,  is  also  one  of  the  great  petroliferous  horizons.  It 
is  so  far  the  principal  oil  and  gas  horizon  of  West  Virginia, 
the  Mt.  Morris,  Doll's  Run,  Peddler's  Run,. lake's  Run,  Fair- 
view,  Mod's  Run,  and  Mannington  oil  and  gas  fields  being 
found  at  this  horizon.  The  great  Sistersville  oil-field  is 
found  in  the  sanuirock,  while  it  was  the  principal  producing 
horizon  at  Volcano,  White  Oak.  and  Burning  Springs.  The 
gas-wells  of  the  Great  Kanawha,  Guyandotte,  and  Big 
Sandy  rivers  are  found  in  these  beds.  It  is  the  Slippery 
Rock  oil-sand  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Mecca  sand  in  Ohio, 
while  through  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama  it  carries 
more  or  less  oil,  gas,  or  asphalt.  The  Mountain  limestone 
series  next  above  the  Pocono  is  also  petroliferous  at  many 
points  in  Kentucky,  where  the  Keokuk  and  Chester  divi- 
sions contain  some  massive  sandstones.  The  tar-springs  of 
Breckinridge  and  Grayson  Counties  come  at  this  horizon. 
The  Pottsville  conglonierate  also  holds  hydrocarbons,  when 
covered  sufficiently  to  prevent  their  escape.  It  holds  large 
quantities  of  gas  in  Southwest  Pennsylvania  and  Northern 
West  Virginia,  and  also  considerable  oil  along  the  Volcano 
anticlinafof  the  latter  State.  This  series  also  carries  oil  in 
Southern  Ohio,  Eastern  Kentucky,  and  at  some  localities  in 
Illinois  and  Indiana. 

The  sandstones  of  the  lower  coal-measures.  No.  XIII., 
hold  oil  and  gas  in  West  Virginia,  the  Frecport  sandstone 
being  the  one  most  generally  petroliferous.  This  rock  ap- 
pears to  hold  gas  over  a  wide  area  in  Central  West  Virginia. 

The  Jlahoning  sandstone,  at  the  base  of  No.  XIV.  in  the 
Barren  measures,  is  also  widely  petroliferous,  and  at  one 
locality  near  Dunkard  creek,  Greene  co..  Pa.,  has  pro- 
duced a  large  quantity  of  oil.  It  is  also  the  "Cow  Run" 
sand  of  Southern  Ohio  and  the  Williamstown  district  of 
West  Virginia,  in  both  of  which  regions  it  has  produced  a 
considerable  quantity  of  oil. 

The  highest  stratum  geologically  that  has  ever  produced 
oil  in  the  Pennsvlvania  field  is  the  Morgautown  sandstone, 
200  feet  below  the  great  Pittsburg  coal-bed.  In  the  Duii- 
kard  region  of  Pennsylvania  a  large  weU  was  struck  in  this 
sandstone. 

The  natural  gas  at  Paola,  Kan.,  and  the  Kansas  City  re- 
gion probably  comes  from  the  coal-measures.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  oil  is  found  in  the  Triassic  beds  of  North  Carolina. 

■The  oil  and  gas  of  the  Western  States  and  Territories  are 
found  in  newer  rocks  than  those  of  the  Appalachian  region. 
The  Florence  oil-field  near  Cai5on  City.  Col.,  is  in  (he  Cre- 
taceous beds,  while  the  same  rocks  are  petroliferous  through 
Wyoming,  Dakota,  Montana,  and  New  Mexico.  The  oil  of 
California,  Jlexico,  the  West  liulies,  and  much  of  that  of 
South  A nun-ica,  occurs  in  the  pliocene.  That  of  Trinidad 
and  Peru  is  reported  to  occur  in  the  Eocene.  The  natural 
gas  near  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  is  derived  from  Pleistocene 
lake-beds;  that  of  La  Moile.  III.,  from  glacial  gravels. 

In  England  a  small  qtiantity  of  petroleum  has  V)een  found 
in  the  coal-measures.  In  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  and  in 
Savov  it  occurs  in  the  .lurassic  limestones.  That  of  the 
Apennines.  Dalmatia,  Albania.  Roumania.  Galicia.  the  Cau- 
casus, and  Baku  is  mostly  from  rocks  of  Eocene  age,  as  also 
that  from  the  Punjaub  and  Burma.  Oil  and  gas  are  also 
found  in  Persia,  Hindustan,  China.  Japan.  Java.  Australia, 
and  Africa,  and  in  all  these  cases  the  oil  zones  appear  to  lie 
parallel  to  the  principal  mountain  systeius  of  the  several 
countries,  as  they  do  in  America,  thus  imlicating  the  con- 
nection of  oil  deposits  with  rock  structure. 

Available  Store.— From  this  review  it  will  be  perceived 
that  petroleum  and  natural  gas.  like  coal,  are  distributed 
quite  generally  over  the  world  and  through  rocks  of  all 
ages,  from  the  Lower  Sibirian  up  to  the  Quaternary.  The 
process  of  exhaustion  is  a  slow  one,  many  individual  wells 


558 


PETROLOGY 


PETTY 


in  the  Pennsylvania  field  having  yielded  oil  in  paying  quan- 
tities continuously  for  a  period  of  more  than  thirty  years. 
New  districts  and  new  horizons  are  constantly  being  dis- 
covered, so  that  there  is  no  immediate  prospect  of  the  ex- 
haustion of  petroleum.  Not  so  with  natural  gas,  however, 
which  can  be  removed  from  the  rocks  so  much  more  rapidly 
and  completely  than  oil.  In  regions  like  Pittsburg,  where 
several  hundred  wells  have  been  drilled  to  the  gas  horizons, 
rapid  exhaustion  must  certainly  follow,  but  in  other  re- 
gions, where  only  a  few  wells  are  drilled,  the  supply  may  be 
counted  upon  for  an  indefinite  time,  since  large  gas-springs 
like  those  in  the  Caucasus  have  been  burning  for  centuries. 
For  other  information,  see  the  articles  Petroleum  and  Nat- 
ural Gas. 

References. — Orton,  The  Origin  and  Accumulation  of  Pe- 
troleum and  Natural  Gas  (Geological  Survey  of  Ohio,  Eco- 
nomic Geol.,  vol.  vi.,  Columbus,  1888).  and  Origin  of  the 
Rock  Pressure  of  Katural  Gas  (Bulletin  of  the  Geological 
Society  of  America,  vol.  i.,  1890);  White,  The  Jfnnnington 
Oil-field  and  the  History  of  its  Development  {Bulletin  of 
the  Geol.  Soc.  of  America,  vol.  iii.,  1892).         I.  C.  White. 

Petrol'og'y  [from  Gr.  ireVpa,  rock  +  \6yos,  discourse] : 
the  science  of  the  miueralogical  composition  of  rocks.  See 
Petrograpuv. 

Petromyzon'tldae  [Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Peiromy' zon, 
the  typical  genus ;  Gr.  ireVpo.  rock,  stome  -i-  /xufoiv,  sucking 
in.  the  name  is  given  in  allusion  to  the  manner  in  which 
these  animals  remove  small  stones  from  their  breeding- 
grounds]  :  the  single  family  of  the  order  Hyperoartii,  com- 
prising the  forms  known  as  lampreys  and  lamprey  eels. 
The  form  is  eel-like  ;  the  skin  naked ;  in  the  adult  the  head 
is  elongated,  with  branchial  and  antebranchial  regions  near- 
ly equal ;  eyes  well  developed,  not  far  in  front  of  the  first 
branchial  aperture;  mouth  with  a  subcircular  suctorial  disk 
armed  with  teeth  which  are  horny,  each  resting  on  a  soft 
papilla,  and  simple  or  multicuspid  ;  the  branchial  apertures 
are  always  seven  in  number  and  lateral ;  dorsal,  anal,  and 
caudal  fins  represented  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  a  con- 
tinuous or  interrupted  membrane ;  pectorals  and  ventrals 
not  developed ;  the  intestine  has  a  spiral  valve.  Such  are 
the  characters  of  the  adults,  but  all  the  species  undergo  a 
metamorphosis,  and  a  very  different  form  is  possessed  by 
the  young  or  larva?.  This  stage  was  formerly  regarded  as 
representing  a  peculiar  mature  form,  and  described  under 
the  name  Ammocaites:  in  this  stage  the  front  region  of  the 
head  is  little  developed,  the  eyes  are  wanting,  and  the  mouth 
is  represented  by  a  longitudinal  slit,  and  is  without  teeth. 
The  species  are,  to  some  extent,  parasitic,  and  fasten  them- 
selves by  their  suckers  to  fish,  whose  flesh  they  consume  by 
abrasion.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordax. 

Petro'iiius  Ar'blfer :  the  author  of  a  Latin  romance, 
Saliree,  also  called  Satiricon,  which  in  a  half-comieal  man- 
ner gives  a  description  of  the  vices  and  debauchery  of  Ro- 
man society  under  the  first  emperors,  now  in  prose,  now  in 
verse,  sometimes  witty,  occasionally  obscene.  Of  the  work, 
which  seems  to  have  been  very  large,  only  fragments  are 
extant,  from  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  books.  One  of 
these,  the  Supper  of  Trimalchio  (Cena  Trimalchionis),  was 
first  discovered  in  "the  midtlle  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  published  at  Paris  in  1664.  Several  attempts  have  been 
made  to  deceive  the  public  by  spurious  manuscripts  of  the 
lacking  portions  of  the  book ;  thus,  in  1693,  Francis  Nodot 
published  a  complete  Satiricon  from  a  manuscript  which 
he  pretended  to  have  found  in  Belgrade.  The  best  editions 
of  the  true  fragments  are  that  bv  Burmann  (.Amsterdam, 
1743)  ancl  that  by  Biicheler  (Berlin,  1862,  and  in  a  third 
smaller  edition  1882).  A  minute  and  thorough  collation  of 
the  JMSS.  was  made  Viy  Charles  Beck  (Cambridge,  1863). 
Of  the  author  of  this  book  nothing  is  known,  but  there  are 
strong  reasons  for  identifying  him  with  the  Petronius  of 
whose  character  and  life  Tacitus  {Annates  16,  18)  gives  an 
amusing  sketch,  the  maitre  de  plaisir,  elegantim  arbiter,  at 
the  court  of  Nero,  the  authority  and  model  in  matters  of 
taste  and  fashion  in  dress,  manners,  and  sensual  enjoyment. 
The  scene  of  the  Supper  of  Trimalchio  is  laid  in  a  town  of 
Campania,  probably  Cunue  or  Puteoli,  and  under  Nero, 
although  other  .scholars  put  it  under  Augustus  or  in  the 
last  years  of  Tiberius.  There  is  an  excellent  edition  of  the 
Cena  with  German  notes  and  translation  by  Friedlaender 
(licipzig,  1891).  .See  also  C.  Beck.  The  Age  of  Petronius 
(Cambridge,  Mass.,  18.')6);  Haley,  Qutpst.  Petron  (Harvard 
Studies,  ii.);  A.  Collignon,  i^tude  sur  Pifrone  (Paris.  1S92). 

Revised  by  JI.  Warren. 


PetropaiiloT'ski  [Harbor  of  Peter  and  Paul] :  a  strong 
Russian  naval  station  on  the  east  coast  of  Kamchatka,  com- 
manding the  Northern  Pacific  (see  map  of  Asia.  ref.  2-J). 
Pop.  about  500,  besides  the  garrison.  It  is  the  chief  town 
of  the  peninsula. 

Petrop'olis:  capital  of  the  state  of  Rio  de  .Janeiro,  Bra- 
zil ;  in  a  valley  of  the  Organ  Mountains.  2,300  feet  above 
the  sea ;  35  miles  N.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  connected  with 
it  by  a  mixed  railway  and  steamboat  route  (see  map  of 
South  America,  ref.  7-G).  Originally  a  German  colony,  it 
became  a  favorite  summer  residence  of  wealthy  residents  of 
Rio.  and  the  Emperor  Pedro  II.  had  a  summer  palace  here. 
During  the  naval  rebellion  of  1893-94  the  state  government 
removed  from  Nictheroy  to  Petropolis,  which  was  made  the 
permanent  capital  in  Oct.,  1894.  The  climate  is  delightful 
and  the  scenery  is  magnificent.     Pop.  8,500.  H.  H.  S. 

Petrosilex  ;  See  Felsite. 

Petrozavodsk' :  capital  of  the  government  of  Olonets, 
European  Russia  ;  on  the  Onega  Lake  (see  map  of  Russia, 
ref.  5-D).  It  was  founded  in  1T03  by  Peter  the  Great,  who 
discovered  the  rich  iron  ore  which  the  neighborhood  con- 
tains. It  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  many  educa- 
tional .institutions,  a  good  harbor,  and  a  large  cannon-foun- 
dry.    Pop.  11,500. 

Petriis  de  Apono  :  See  Abaxo,  Pietro,  d'. 

Petrixs  Lonibardns  :  See  Lombard.  Peter. 

Pettenkofeii.  August,  von  :  genre  and  military  painter : 
b.  in  Vienna,  Austria,  in  1821 ;  member  of  the  Vienna  Acade- 
my 1866;  memberof  Munich  Academy  1867;  knighted  1876. 
D.  in  Vienna,  Mar.  20,  1889.  His  pictures,  which  are  gen- 
erally of  small  size  and  depict  episodes  in  the  soldier  and 
peasant  life  of  Hungary,  are  painted  with  marvelous  exact- 
ness of  detail,  and  at  the  same  time  are  broad  and  com- 
plete in  general  effect.  A  Rendezvous  is  in  the  Vienna  Mu- 
seum, and  Hungarian  Peasants'  Halt  in  the  Puszta  and 
After  the  Duel  are  in  the  Pedor  Museum.  Amsterdam.  The 
Ambulance  Wagon  and  Hungarian  Volunteers  are  in  the 
collection  of  Mrs.  W.  H.  Vanderbilt,  New  York,  and  Hwi- 
garian  Artillery  on  the  March  is  owneil  by  Henry  G.  Mar- 
qiiand,  New  York.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Pettenkofer,  Max,  von,  M.  D. :  chemist  and  sanitarian ; 
b.  at  Lichteriheim,  Bavaria,  Dec.  3,  1818;  graduated  from 
the  University  of  JIunich  in  1843  :  became  a  professor  of 
chemistry  in  Munich  in  1847.  In  1866  he  initiated  the  first 
practical  instruction  in  hygiene  in  Germany,  and  has  been 
intimately  associated  with  the  advance  in  hygiene  since 
that  date.  As  a  chemist  his  researches  in  the  affinities  of 
gold,  the  preparation  of  platinum  and  of  hydraulic  lime, 
the  process  of  obtaining  illuminating  gases  from  wood,  and 
of  the  characteristics  of  oil-colors,  were  of  signal  commer- 
cial advantage.  His  announcement  made  in  1855  that  the 
aetiology  of  cholera  was  an  equation  with  three  unknown 
quantities — .r,  a  specific  germ  disseminated  by  human  inter- 
course ;  y,  a  factor  dependent  on  place  and  time,  that  might 
be  called  local  disposition  ;  and  2,  the  individual  predispo- 
sition— has  been  substantiated  by  the  facts  discovered  in 
later  years.  He  was  coeditor  of  the  Zeitschrift  fur  Bio- 
logic from  1865-82.  Among  his  important  works  are  Un- 
tersuchungen  iind  Beobarhtungen  fiber  die  Verbreitungsart 
der  Cholera,  nebst  Betrarhtungen  uber  Massregeln,  derselben 
Einhalt  zu  thun  (Munich,  1855);  Ueher  die  Verlegung  der 
Goltesacl-fr  in  Basel  (Basel,  1864) ;  Ueber  die  Kanalisirung 
der  Stadt  Basel  (Basel.  1866) ;  Boden  und  Gr-undwasser  in 
ihren  Beziehungen  zn  Cholera  nnd  Typhus  (Munich,  1869); 
Zum  gegenwart'igen  Stand  der  Cholerafrage  (Leipzig.  1877). 

S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Petti^reiv,  Charles,  D.  D.  :  bishop ;  b.  prob.ably  in 
Pennsylvania  about  1750;  removed  with  his  family  to 
North' Carolina;  became  a  teacher  at  Edenton  1773;  was 
ordained  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  Ijondon 
1775;  was  chosen  first  Bishop  of  North  Carolina  1794,  but 
was  prevented  by  accident  from  receiving  consecration. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  establishing  the  University  of 
North  Carolina.  D.  at  Bonarva.  near  Lake  Scuppernong, 
N.  C,  in  1S07.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Petty.  Sir  William  :  political  economist:  b.  at  Romsey, 
Harapsiiire.  England,  May  26,  1623  ;  was  the  son  of  a  cloth- 
ier; educated  in  the  school  of  his  native  town  and  at  Caen 
in  France;  was  for  a  time  an  officer  in  the  f^nglish  navy; 
afterward  studied  medicine  at  Paris;  obtained  from  Par- 
liament in    1647  a  patent  for  his  invention  of  a  "penta- 


PETUNIA 


PHACOCHCERID^ 


559 


graph  "  or  eopying-macliine ;  practiced  medicine  at  Oxford, 
where  he  became  assistant  to  the  professor  of  anatomy ;  ob- 
tained a  followsliip  at  Braseiuise  (_'ollef;e  164>S:  chusen  ]'rii- 
fessor  of  Anatomy  in  tlie  L'niversity  of  Oxfonl  IGol  :  Pro- 
fessor of  Music  in  (rresiuun  College  1651  ;  became  |ihysician 
to  tlie  army  in  Irehmd  and  secretary  to  Henry  i'roniwell 
163d;  was  made  surveyor  of  forfeited  hinds  in  Ireland:  en- 
tered Parliament  1658.  and  at  the  Restoration  was  kniijhted 
and  made  survcyor-iceneral  of  Ireland.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Society;  made  several  curious  inven- 
tions ami  discoveries  in  phy.sics;  lostimuch  by  the  lire  of 
London,  but  afterward  acquired  a  lari;e  fortune  by  success- 
ful speculations,  and  was  author,  amona:  other  works,  of 
The  l\)lllical  Anatomy  of  Irfland{W\i\),  Treatise  on  Taxes 
and  Contributions  (1602),  Political  Arithmetic  (16!»1).  a 
treatise  on  money  entitled  Quantuliimcunque  (1682).  which 
have  procured  him  the  reputation  of  being  the  principal 
founder  in  England  of  the  science  of  political  economy.  D. 
at  Westminster,  Dec.  16.  1687. 

Petnnia  [Mod.  Lat..  from  Braz.  petiin,  tobacco] :  a  genus 
of  annual,  biennial,  or  perennial  plants  of  the  family  So- 
lanacetp.  natives  of  the  hot  regions  of  America.  The  I'e- 
tunia  nyctaginiflora  and  P.  violacea  are  cultivated  in  Eu- 
ropean and  Xorth  American  gardens,  and  have  afforded 
numerous  hybrid  and  other  varieties,  some  of  which  arc 
very  beautiful. 

Pentiiiger,  poiting-er,  Konrad  :  antiquarian;  b.  at 
Augsburg,  Oct.  14,  1465;  d.  Dec.  34.  1547;  wrote  several 
works  on  antiquities,  and  was  the  possessor  of  the  so-called 
Tabula  Peiitingeriana,  a  map  of  the  military  roads  of  the 
West  Roman  empire  from  the  fourth  century.  It  was  first 
discovered  in  a  Benedictine  monastery  at  Tegernsee,  and 
remained  there  for  nearly  two  centuries  in  the  family  of 
Peutinger,  but  in  1814  was  bought  by  Prince  Eugene,  who 
presenteii  it  to  the  imperial  library  of  Vienna,  where  it  is 
now  preserved.  Published  by  .Sclieyb  (Vienna,  175:?) ;  by 
Mannert  (Leijizig.  1824),  who  also  gives  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  the  vicissitudes  which  this  uiiiciue  monument  of 
ancient  literature  has  gone  through  from  the  fourth  to  the 
nineteenth  centurv ;  and  in  Recueil  d'ltineraires  anciens.  by 
Portia  d'Urban  ('Paris,  1845).  t'f.  Paulus,  Erklarung  der 
Peutinger  Tafel  (1867).  Revised  by  A.  Gudeman. 

Pew  [from  0.  Fr.  pui.  poi.  rising  ground,  hill,  high  place 
<  Lat.  po  (Hum,  height,  elevated  place,  erajieror's  gallery  in 
the  circus,  appar.  liter.,  foot-rest.  C'f.  Gr.  irdSioi'.  dimin.  of 
Trovs.  TToS6s.  foot]  :  an  inclosed  seat  in  a  church.  In  England 
the  exclusive  and  perpetual  right  to  a  particular  pew  in  the 
parish  church  may  be  held  as  a  kind  of  Heirloom  (q.  r.)  by 
a  parishioner  as  an  a])purtenant  to  his  messuage  (dwelling- 
house),  such  ownersliip  arising  either  from  prescription — 
that  is,  long-continued  use — or  from  a  grant  by  the  ordinary 
or  bishop.  All  the  other  pews  not  so  claimed,  except  tliat 
appropriated  to  the  minister's  family,  are  nnder  the  control 
(if  the  churchw.'irdens,  acting  on  behalf  of  the  ordinary — i.  e. 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  Every  parishioner  is  entitled  to 
a  sitting,  and  may  enforce  his  right  by  suit  in  the  proper 
court.  This  is  the  law  applicable  to  cjiurches  built  before 
1818  ;  with  regard  to  those  btnlt  thereafter  acts  of  Parliament 
provided  fur  the  existence  of  some  free  seats  and  the  manner 
of  letting  the  rest.  Pews  in  the  E.stablished  Church  in  .Seot- 
land  are  held  under  a  similar  sy.stem.  In  the  U.  S.,  where  the 
C'lmn-h  and  slate  are  .separate,  the  metho<l  of  holding  church 
seats  is  regulated  by  the  rules  of  the  various  churches.  Oc- 
casionally the  trustees  or  vestry,  or  other  officers  of  the  cor- 
poration or  society,  retain  the  entire  custody  of  the  church 
edifice,  and  the  seals  are  free  to  all  comers  during  divine 
service.  .Sometimes  the  pews  are  leiLsed  for  a  year  only  at  a 
specified  rent;  on  the  other  han<l,  they  are  often  conveyed 
by  an  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  |)erp'etual  lea.se,  reserving 
an  annual  rent.  In  the  latter  case  the  right  of  the  pew- 
holder  is  peculiar;  it  is  property,  and  may  be  transferred, 
but  is  geTierally  exempt  from  sale  on  execution  ;  in  .some 
States  it  descends  to  the  heirs  a-s  real  estate,  and  in  others 
it  piisses  to  the  administrator  as  personal  estate.  It  is.  how- 
ever, limited,  and  suliject  to  the  ultimate  control  i>f  the 
trustees  or  vestry,  who  may,  under  restrictions  not  affecting 
the  pewholdcr,  convey  the  church  edifice,  rebuild,  repair,  or 
remodel  it  at  their  discretion.       Revised  l)y  F.  S.  Allkn. 

Pence :  See  Phcebk-hiki). 

Peyer's  Glands:  small  sacculi  peculiar  to  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  small  intestine,  termed  glamlidte  solitariip 
when  scattered  singly,  and  glanduhe  agminatie  when  col- 


lected in  groups.     Also  called  Peyer's  patches,  from  Peyer 
(1(553-1712),  who  first  described  them.     See  Histology. 

Peyroii.  p«  roiV.  Vittorio  Amadeo:  phikilogist ;  b.  at 
Turin  in  1785;  d.  1870.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Tommaso  Val- 
perga  di  Caluso,  and  succeeded  him  in  the  chair  of  Oriental 
languages.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Turin  Academy  of 
Sciences  and  foreign  mendier  of  the  French  Institute.  He 
rendered  important  .services  to  the  study  of  (ireek  and  of  Cop- 
tic :  translated  Thucydi<les  anew  into  Italian;  published  a 
critical  essay  upon  the  Hellenic  constitution,  prefixed  to  the 
Scene  Elleniche  (A  Brofferio ;  some  Greek  texts,  partly  in- 
cdita,  of  Empcdocles,  Parmenides,  Theodosianus :  and  frag- 
ments of  the  Orations  of  Cicero  for  Scaurns  and  Tullius 
and  against  Clodius.  He  has  also  the  merit  of  having 
founded  the  study  of  Coptic  by  his  Lexicon  Lingucv  Cop- 
tic<E  and  his  Grammatiea  Lingucv  Coptics. 

Revised  by  A.  Gudemas. 

Poyronnet,  pa'ro  na'.  Charles  Ignace,  Comte  de  :  states- 
man :  b.  at  Bordeaux,  France,  Oct.  9.  1778;  studied  law,  and 
praci  iced  as  an  advocate  in  his  native  city ;  became  very  con- 
spicuous during  the  first  and  second  Restorations  as  an  "ultra- 
royalist  and  stanch  adherent  of  the  Bourbons,  and  was  Min- 
ister of  .Justice  1821-28.  In  1822  he  carried  a  law  by  which 
all  press  cases  were  deprived  of  trial  by  jury  and  referred 
immediately  to  the  royal  courts,  which  were  empowered  to 
suspend  and  suppress  any  publication  which  seemed  hostile 
to  the  public  peace,  the  established  Church,  and  the  royal  au- 
thority. In  1825  he  carried  another  law  Ijy  which  profana- 
tion of  any  object  consecrated  to  the  public  worship  was 
punished  by  forced  labor  for  life.  In  1822  he  was  created  a 
count  ;  on  May  16.  1830.  he  again  entered  the  Government 
as  Minister  of  the  Interior  in  the  cabinet  of  Polignac,  and 
as  such  he  signed  the  notorious  ordinances  of  July  25,  1830, 
which  occasioned  the  Revolution  of  1830  and  the  fall  of  the 
elder  line  of  the  house  of  Bourbon.  Arraigned  before  the 
House  of  Peers  for  high  treason,  he  was  sentenced  to  im- 
prisoiuncnt  for  life  and  confined  in  the  fortress  of  Ham,  but 
Oct.  17,  1836.  he  was  pardoned.  D.  .Ian.  2.  1854.  on  Ids 
estates  in  the  Gironde.  He  wrote  a  Histoire  des  Francs 
(2d  ed.  1846)  and  Satires  (2d  ed.  1854).  F.  M.  Colbv. 

Pfleiderer,  Otto  :  German  Protestant  theologian  ;  b.  at 
Stettcn.  near  Cannstatt.  Wilrtemberg.  Sept.  1,  1839 :  stud- 
ied uiKler  Baur  at  Tiibingen  1857-61  ;  became  pastor  at 
Heilbronn  1868  ;  superintendent  and  Ordinary  Professor  of 
Theology  at  Jena  1870 ;  Professor  of  Theology  in  Berlin 
1875.  He  belongs  avowedly  to  the  school  of  Baur,  and  de- 
fends his  views  with  logical  power  and  elo(juence.  He  has 
twice  appeared  as  a  lecturer  on  English  foundations — once 
as  Hibbert  lecturer  in  London  (1885)  and  once  as  Gilford 
lecturer  in  Edinburgh  (1894).  and  both  courses  -were  pub- 
lished in  English — Lectures  on  the  Influence  of  tlie  Apostle 
Paul  on  the  Development  of  Christianity  (London,  1885) 
aiul  The  Philosophy  and  Development  of  Religion  {2  vols., 
1894).  Besides  these  there  are  in  English,  I'aulinism :  a 
Contribution  to  the  History  of  Primitive  Christian  Theol- 
oqif  (2  vols..  1877) ;  Tlie  Philosophi/  of  Tieliqion  on  the  Basis 
of  its  History  (4  vols.,  1886-88) ;  The  Development  of  Theol- 
ogy in  Germany  since  Kant  and  its  Progress  in  Great 
Britain  since  1825  (1890).       Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 

Pflii'grer.  Eduard  FRiEDRtcii  Wilhelm,  M.  I). :  physiolo- 
gist ;  b.  at  Hanau-on-the-Main,  June  7.  1829  ;  studied  medi- 
cine first  in  Jlarburg.  then  in  Berlin,  where  he  was  a  pupil 
of  John  Mueller  and  of  Du  Bois-Reymond  ;  graduated  M.  1)., 
LTniversity  of  Berlin,  in  1855 ;  elected  Professor  of  Physi- 
ology at  the  Bonn  University  in  1859 ;  established  and  ed- 
ited the  Archie  fiir  die  gesammte  Physiologic  des  Men- 
schen  und  der  Thiere  in  1868.  Among  his  important  works 
are  Die  sensorischen  Punrfionen  des  Puclcennuirks  iter  Wir- 
belthiere, etc.  (Berlin,  1853);  Untersuchungen  uberdie  Physio- 
logie  des  Electrotonus  (Berlin,  1859);  UV.scw  und  Aufgaben 
der  Physiologic  (Bonn,  1878).  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Pforz'hchu  :  town:  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  Ger- 
many :  at  the  confluence  of  the  Xagold,  Enz,  and  Wiirm  :  20 
miles  by  rail  S.  E.  of  Carlsrnhc  (see  map  of  German  Em- 
pire, ref.  6-D).  It  has  large  mantifactures  of  jewelry,  chem- 
icals, anil  linens,  iron-works,  tanneries,  and  oil-mills,  and  an 
active  trade  in  timber,  which  is  cut  in  the  neighboring 
Black  Forest.     Poj).  (1890)  29,508. 

Pliacocliff'rida!  [.Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Phacochee'ruD, 
the  typical  genus  :  <paK6s,  lentil  seed,  wart  -t-  x'i'P'"-  P'.s]  •  * 
family  of  even-toed  ungulates  comprising  the  wart-hogs, 
and  closely  related  to  the  true  hogs,  with  which  they  are 


560 


PH^DRA 


PHALAROPE 


combined  by  some  zoologists.  The  milk  dentition  is  I.  |,  C. 
I,  P.  M.  f,  M.  i ;  but  manv  of  the  teeth  are  lost  as  growth 
proceeds,  and  in  the  adult's  frequently  none  are  present  but 
the  canines  and  last  molars.  The  structure  of  the  molars 
is  peculiar,  as  they  consist  of  about  twenty  upright  columns 
of  dentine  coated'  with  enamel,  and  united  by  cement,  each 
column  having  its  own  pulp-cavity.     See  Wart-hoi;. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Phaedra  (in  Gr.  *o(5po) :  in  Greek  legend,  the  wife  of 
Theseus  and  the  stepmother  of  Hippolytus,  with  whom  she 
fell  desperately  in  love.  When  he  refused  to  comply  with 
her  wishes,  she  accused  him  to  his  father  of  an  attempt  upon 
her  honor,  but  when  she  heard  that  he  had  perished  in  con- 
sequence of  his  father's  wrath,  she  confessed  her  guilt  and 
committed  suicide.  The  tragedies  on  this  subject  by  Sojiho- 
cles  and  Euripides  are  lost,  but  there  is  a  celebrated  one  by 
Racine.  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Phse'drus :  author ;  b.  in  Thracia ;  was  taken  to  Rome 
as  a  slave,  but  was  made  free  by  Augustus,  and  was  the  first 
to  raise  the  fable  to  the  dignity  of  a  special  branch  of  Ro- 
man poetry.  He  wrote  five  books  of  fables,  now  extant  but 
incomplete,  containing  ninety-three  fables  in  all,  many  of 
which,  however,  are  only  versifications  of  the  fables  of 
^Esop.  The  style  is  easy  and  fluent,  and  the  book  often 
very  pleasant  to  read.  There  are  editions  by  Orelli  (Zurich, 
183'l),  L.  MUller  (Leipzig,  1868),  and  a  larger  critical  edition, 
containing  appendix  of  additional  fables,  18~~.  See  L.  Her- 
vieux.  Les  fahulistes  latins  (Paris.  1884).  and  Hartnian,  De 
Phmlri  fabulis  (Leyden,  1890).     Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Pha'ethon  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  *aefluj/.  Cf.  <paiBwv,  shining] :  in 
Grecian  mythology,  the  son  of  Helios.  He  obtained  one  day 
permission  of  his  father  to  drive  the  chariot  of  the  sun  across 
the  heavens,  but  the  horses  ran  off,  and  the  chariot  was  just 
about  setting  heaven  and  earth  on  fire  when  Zeus  struck 
down  the  unfortunate  driver  with  a  thunderbolt.  He  fell 
into  the  Eridanus,  and  his  sisters,  the  Heliades,  who  stood 
mourning  by  his  corpse,  were  transformed  into  poplars  and 
their  tears  iiito  amber.  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Phaetoii'idse  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Pha'ethon.ihe  typ- 
ical genus,  from  Gv.  ^afBav  (see  PiiAJiTHox).  in  allusion  to  their 
tropical  habits] :  a  family  of  birds  belonging  to  the  order 
Steganopades,  and  containing  the  Tropic  Bird  (q.  v.). 

Phagfocyto'sis  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  <paye7y.  eat  +  kvtos.  a 
hollow  vessel] :  a  word  first  used  by  Metschnikoff  to  express 
the  destruction  of  bacteria  and  other  injurious  substances 
by  means  of  white  blood-corpuscles.  In  accordance  with 
this  view  of  Metschnikoff,  the  leucocytes,  which  in  inflamma- 
tion leave  the  vessels  and  enter  into  the  tissue,  play  an  im- 
portant and  useful  part,  their  function  being  to  eat  up  and 
destroy  bacteria  and  other  injurious  solid  substances.  Met- 
schnikoff found  on  inoculating  an  animal  with  certain  or- 
ganisms that  after  inflammation  was  produced  the  bacteria 
became  included  in  the  leucocrtes,  and  when  this  was  the 
case  they  were  apparently  destroyed  or  rendered  innocuous, 
and  the  inflammation  subsided. 

It  was  found  from  the  experiments  of  Nuttall,  Buchner. 
and  others  that  the  destruction  of  the  bacteria  is  not  due  to 
this  action  of  the  leucocytes,  but  to  destructive  effects  of 
substances  contained  in  the  blood  serum,  and  the  bacteria 
are  already  destroyed  when  they  are  taken  into  the  cells. 
These  substances  in  the  blood  serum,  which  are  destructive 
to  the  bacteria,  are  either  present  naturally,  in  which  case  the 
animal  has  an  immunity  to  the  disease  inoculated,  or  they 
arise  during  the  course  of  the  disease,  and  with  their  pres- 
ence in  the  blood  in  sufficient  amount  tlie  disease  subsides. 
There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  although  the  process  has 
not  the  full  bearing  and  importance  which  was  ascribed  to 
it  by  Metschnikoff,  it  plays  an  important  role  in  <lisease. 
Not  only  are  dead  bacteria  removed  by  the  leucocytes,  but 
foreign  particles  of  all  sorts,  including  necrotic  cells  and 
port  ions  of  tissue.  These  substances  are  taken  into  the  body 
of  tlie  leucocytes,  and  there  undergo  a  complete  or  partial 
digestion,  and  are  rendered  soluble  and  thus  absorbed.  In 
other  cases  they  may  be  carried  off  while  still  in  the  body 
of  the  leucocytes.  This  is  the  case  when  particles  of  pig- 
ment are  placed  in  the  skin  as  in  tattooing.  The  presence 
of  the  leucocytes  in  such  places  is  always  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  chemical  substance  whi<'h  has  a  powerful  action  in  at- 
tracting the  leucocytes.  Tliis  substance  is  known  to  be  of 
an  albuminous  character,  and  it  is  found  in  all  cases  where 
dead  cells  of  whatever  nature,  whether  bacteria  or  the  tissue 
cells  themselves,  are  present.  W.  T.  Councilman. 


Phalan'ger :  a  common  name  for  a  marsupial  of  Ciiscus, 
Phalangista,  or  a  related  genus  of  the  family  Phalangistidce, 
popularly  known  in  Australia  as  an  opossum.  The  phalan- 
gers  are  about  the  size  of  a  eat :  have  a  rathet  small,  some- 
what pointed  head;  long,  bushy,  prehensile  tail:  and  are 
clad  in  thick,  woolly  fur.  They  are  arboreal  and  nocturnal  in 
their  habits,  and  live  on  fruit  and  leaves.  They  are  found 
in  Australia  and  Tasmania,  and  are  eaten  by  the  natives  and 
to  some  extent  by  the  settlers.  The  vulpine  phalanger  (P. 
vulpeciila).  which  is  of  fox-like  aspect,  and  gray  above,  whitish 
below,  with  white  ears  and  a  black  tail,  is  a  well-known  spe- 
cies. The  flying  phalangers.  of  the  genus  Petaunis,  have, 
like  the  flying  squirrels,  a  fold  of  membrane  running  from 
the  fore  to  the  hind  leg,  which  serves  as  a  parachute  and  en- 
ables them  to  take  long  leaps.  The  genus  ranges  from  New 
Ireland  to  New  South  Wales.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Plialansrida  [from  Gr.  <pa\iyytav.  spider  -I-  cTSos,  like] :  a 
group  of  Arachnida,  including  those  long-legged  spider-like 
forms  familiarly  known  as  harvestmen  or  daddy-long-legs. 
Thev  have  small  bodies  consisting  of  an  unsegmented  an- 
terior portion  (cephalothorax)  and  a  six-  or  eight-jointed  ab- 
domen. They  have  usually  a  single  pair  of  eyes;  they 
breathe  by  means  of  air-tubes  (tracheic),  and  so-called  lungs 
are  absent.  The  legs  are  usually  exti'emely  long  and  slender, 
the  distal  portion  (foot  or  tarsus)  being  many-jointed.  Some 
250  to  300  species  have  been  described,  South  America  be- 
ing especially  rich  in  species.  The  harvestmen  live  in  damp 
places,  crawling  over  leaves,  etc..  by  means  of  their  long  legs, 
and  being  protected  from  enemies  by  a  pair  of  "  stink  glands," 
which  o]ien  on  either  side  of  the  cephalothorax.  They  are 
largely  nocturnal,  and  feed  upon  small  insects,  etc.  Amer- 
ican sjjecies  have  been  described  by  Wood  (in  Proceedings 
Essex  Institute,  vol.  vi.,  1870)  and  Weed  (in  American  Xal- 
uralist,  1888-93).  J.  S.  Kingsley. 

Plialan^ist'idae,  or  Plialangreridie  [Phalangistidce  is 
Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Phalangista.  the  typical  genus,  from 
Gr.  <pi\ayi.  phalanx,  bone  between  joints  of  the  fingers  or 
toes.  So  called  from  the  peculiar  joining  of  the  phalanges] : 
a  family  of  herbivorous  marsupials  containing  tlie  members 
of  the  genera  Cuscus.  Phalangista.  Belideus.  and  their  allies. 
The  dentition  is  somewhat  variable,  I.  f,  C.|~J,  P.  M.f~J, 
M.  J^f.  The  fore  and  hind  liniljs  are  of  nearly  equal  size, 
all  with  five  toes.  The  first  toe  of  the  hind  foot  is  opjiosable 
to  the  others,  the  second  and  third  are  slender  and  united  by 
skin  as  far  as  the  claws.  The  stomach  is  simple;  a  ca>cum 
present  and  usually  large.  See  Cuscus,  Koala,  and  Pha- 
LAXGER.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pha'lanx  [=  Lat.=  Gr.  cpaKayl'\ :  in  the  military  organiza- 
tion of  ancient  Greece,  the  tactical  unit  of  the  heavy-armed 
troops,  a  body  of  foot-soldiers  armed  with  spears  and  shields. 
The  number  of  men  was  various.  They  were  arranged  from 
four  to  sixteen  men  deep.  In  later  times  the  great  phalanx 
under  the  JIacedonians  comprised  16.384  men,  and  was  com- 
posed of  four  minor  phalanges,  each  of  which  had  two  mer- 
archies,  or  halves.  Each  inerarchy  was  composed  of  two 
chiliarchies.  each  of  these  of  four  syntagmata,  and  each 
syntagma  of  2.56  men.  The  phalanx  was,  as  compared  with 
the  Roman  legion,  a  cumbrous  arrangement  of  men. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Phal'aris  :  proverbially  the  most  cruel  tyrant  known  to 
antiquity;  the  ruler  of  Agrigcntum  in  Sicily  for  about 
sixteen  years,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.  c.  Of 
his  history  hardly  anything  is  known  with  certainty,  most 
of  it  lieing  enveloped  in  fables.  A  prominent  feature  in 
these  fables  is  the  brazen  bull,  invented  by  one  I'erillus,  in 
which  Phalaris  roasted  his  enemies,  inaugurating  the  inge- 
nious instrument  of  torture  by  the  roasting  of  its  inventor. 
This  story  perhaps  originated  in  the  worship  of  the  Phoeni- 
cian Baal  with  human  sacrifices,  and  after  the  abolishment 
of  this  cull  its  practice  would  seem  to  have  been  associated 
with  the  memory  of  the  odious  tyrant.  The  famous  Epis- 
tles of  Phalaris.  148  in  numljer,  first  printed  at  Venice  in 
1498,  and  afterward  often  reprinted  and  translated,  give 
quite  another  picture  of  the  man's  character,  and  were  read 
through  many  centuries  with  great  edification,  until  Bent- 
ley  proved  that  they  were  spurious,  a  product  of  a  much  later 
time.  Revised  by  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Plialarope.  filla-rop:  any  one  of  three  species  of  small 
wading  birds  resembling  sandpiper.',  but  having  the  toes 
lobed,  or  furnished  with  scallop-like  margins,  which  enables 
these  liirds  to  swim  and  <live  with  great  ease.  They  are 
found  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and  breed  far  north.    On 


PHALAROPODIDiE 


PHARMACY 


5G1 


their  brpcdiriK-sroiinds  they  are  usually  found  in  couples 
about  soine  body  of  fresh  water,  but  duriuj;  their  migrations 
they  often  occur  at  sea  in  considerable  Hocks.  They  feed  on 
seeds,  insects,  and  uiiinile  Crustacea.  Wilson's  phalarope 
(Phalaropiis  tricutor)  is  peculiar  to  Xorth  America.  P. 
lubatii.i  and  Cri/mojj/iitus  fulicariu.i  are  found  in  Kurope 
and  Asia  as  well.  F.  A.  Llcas. 

Plialaropod'id*  [Mod.  Lat., named  from  Pliahi  ropiisAhe 
tvpical  genus :  Gr.  <pa\apls,  coot  +  irovs.  noh6s,  foot] ;  a  family 
of  aquatic  birds  of  the  order  /yimiVw/ff'.coutuiniiig  Ihe  i)hala- 
ropes.  The  bill  is  slender,  straight,  about  as  long  as  the 
head,  and  with  the  sides  of  the  up[)er  mandible  grooved  for 
nearly  the  whole  length;  nostrils  near  the  base,  linear,  and 
in  the  lateral  groove  of  the  mandible:  wings  long  and 
pointed  ;  tail  short  and  rounded  :  legs  rather  posterior,  with 
the  tarsi  moderate,  the  anterior  toes  unilcd  at  the  base  and 
with  lobate  sides,  and  the  hind  toe  elevated  and  with  a  nar- 
row membrane.  K.  A.  Lucas. 

Plinllic  Worship  [phallic  is  from  Gr.  <pa\KiK6s.  deriv.  of 
<paKK6s.  penis;  probably  cognate  with  Germ,  (dial.)  biille]: 
originally  the  adoration  of  the  reproductive  and  regenera- 
tive powers  of  nature,  represented  after  a  time  by  a  figure 
of  the  phallus,  or  male  generative  organ,  or  in  some  in- 
stances by  a  straight  column  or  by  the  pistil  of  a  flower,  as 
in  India  at  the  present  day.  This  worship,  whatever  of 
symbolism  it  may  have  had  at  first,  rapidly  became  a  most 
corrupt  practice.  It  prevailed  in  India  (as  at  present),  in 
Ohalda'a,  Egypt,  Syria,  Phrygia,  Greece,  and  Rome,  as  in 
later  days  among  some  of  the  American  savages,  notably 
the  Seminoles  of  Florida.  The  forms  which  this  abomina- 
tion assumed  were  innumerable.  Dionysus,  Hermes,  Venus, 
Priapus.  Pan,  Isis,  and  other  gods  were  worshiped  at  Rome 
by  phallic  symbolism. 

Phaiia'riots,  or  Fana'riots  [from  Fanar,  one  of  the 
quarters  of  Constantinople  where  they  dwell;  from  Gr.  tpa- 
vapiov.  the  ••  lieacon"  there  situated] :  a  body  of  Constantino- 
politan  G  reeks  who  claim  a  noble  Byzantine  descent.  Spared 
by  the  Turkish  compierors,  they  artfidly  insinuated  them- 
selves into  public  affairs,  and  until  lSi'2  held  many  impor- 
tant civil,  military,  and  naval  positions,  in  which  they  dis- 
played, as  a  rule,  selfish  and  ungenerous  qualities.  Their 
jiowcr  as  a  class  is  now  completely  broken. 

Phaneroga'mia.  Pliau'eroaranis  [phanerogamia  is  Mod. 
Lat.,  from  Gr.  (f>av(p6t,  apparent,  visible  (deriv.  of  (pahttv, 
(pavTifai.  show)-F  yd/jios.  marriage] :  the  highest  branch  of  the 
vegetal)le  kingdom,  the  flowering  plants.  The  less  objec- 
tionable terms  AxTiiopnYTES  {q.  v.)  and  Spcrmaphyta  are 
displacing  the  older  ones  in  recent   botanical  work.s.     See 

VEliBTADLK  KiNODO.M.  CHARLES  E.  BesSET. 

Pliaiiodes:  Greek  elegiac  poet  of  the  Alexandrian  pe- 
riod who  wrote  a  cycle  of  elegies  on  the  boy-favorites  of  the 
gods  and  heroes  ('EpiuTes  ?)  itaAofl.  The  fragment  preserved 
by  Stoba'us,  Floril.,  64,  tells  of  the  love  of  Orpheus  for 
Calais,  son  of  Boreas,  and  the  death  of  the  singer  at  the 
hamls  of  jealous  women.  Ed.  by  Schneidewin  in  his  De- 
'  Indus  and  Bergk  in  his  Anfhologia  Lyrica.  15.  L.  G. 

Pha'raoh  [Egypt.  Per-an.  great  house ;  Ileb.  P/inr'iih, 
Gr.  tapati]  :  the  royal  title  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  u.sed  gen- 
erally alone  in  the  Bible,  rendering  it  impossible  to  distin- 
guish between  successive  sovereigns.  Only  in  the  later 
periods  were  other  names  added,  as  Pharaoh-Necho  and 
Pharaoli-IIophra.  The  etymology  given  above  is  the  one 
usually  accepted,  though  several  others  have  been  proposed. 
It  is  often  compared  to  the  Turkish  Sublime  Porte.  For 
contrary  views,  see  Renouf,  Proci'i'dinys  of  the  Sociufy  of 
Biblind  Airh/eology,  vol.  xv.,  p.  421  f.  C.  R.  G. 

Pharaoh's  Hen :  See  Egyptian  Vulture. 

Pharisees  [from  Lat.  Phfirnf!fp'nK  =  GT.  tapaffoiot.  from 
Heb.  p'ruahlm  (plur.),  deriv.  ot piinm/i.  to  separate] :  a  polit- 
ical and  religious  party  among  Ihe  Jews,  originated  during 
the  time  of  the  Maccabees  in  opposition  to  the  invasion  of 
Greek  ideas  and  (ireek  customs  which  took  place  especially 
during  the  ri'ign  of  Antiochus  E|)iphanes.  While  the  Sad- 
ducees  and  the  ruling  aristocracy  had  yielded  to  the  idea  of 
a  distinction  between  religion  and  politics,  between  Church 
and  state,  the  Pharisees  still  niaintaini-d  the  old  and  gcmi- 
inely  .Jewish  view  of  a  theocracy  :  and  while  the  Sadducees 
adhered  rigorously  to  the  literal  conception  of  the  words  of 
the  sacreil  books,  the  Pharisees  adopted  the  tradition  as  a 
means  by  which  to  interpret  Scripture.  Thus  the  Phari- 
sees stood  at  the  time  of  Christ  at  once  as  the  national  party 
in  politics  and  as  the  progressive  school  in  theology,  and 
320 


their  influence  with  the  mass  of  the  people  seems  to  have 
been  very  great.  The  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  them 
are  the  Xew  Testament,  Josephus,  and  the  Mishna.  Modern 
scholars  seem  inclined,  however,  to  look  at  them  under  a 
milder  view  than  that  in  which  they  appear  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, though  it  is  only  natural  when  the  ini|)ortance  which 
they  ascribe<i  to  the  observation  of  all  minutia;  of  the  law 
led  to  hypocrisy  and  falsity. 

Pharuiacopoe'ia  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  (papiiaxoiroua.  prep- 
aration of  medicines;  <t>ipiJLaKov.  drug,  medicine  +  woiciv, 
make]:  a  book  containing  formulas  and  directions  fcjr  jire- 
paring  and  compounding  drugs  for  use  in  the  treatment  of 
disease.  Such  a  book  may  be  the  outcome  of  individual  en- 
terprise or  the  execution  of  an  order  of  the  government.  In 
many  European  states  the  Pharmrtcopopia  is  issued  by  the 
authority  of  the  Government,  and  penalties  are  attached  to 
failure  on  the  part  of  the  pharmacist  to  observe  its  direc- 
tions. In  the  U.  S.  the  P/iannaro/ioeia  is  not  prei>ared  un- 
der authority  of  the  general  Government,  but  observance  of 
its  provision  is,  in  certain  States,  required  by  special  law. 
The  first  pharmacopa'ia  published  in  the  U.  S.  was  issued 
at  Philadelphia  in  17T8  for  the  use  of  the  hospital  of  the 
U.  S.  army,  at  Lititz,  in  Pennsylvania.  This  was  published 
in  Latin."  In  the  second  edition.  Dr.  William  Brown  was 
named  as  its  author.  In  180.5  a  pharmacojia'ia  was  issued 
for  the  use  of  New  England.  Another  pharmacopa»ia  was 
issued  in  1815  for  the  use  of  the  New  York  Hospital.  In 
1817  Dr.  Lyman  Spalding,  of  New  York,  proposed  a  plan 
for  the  formation  of  a  JVational  P/umnacnpa'ia,  and  circu- 
lars being  issued  to  a  large  number  of  medical  societies, 
these  sent  delegates  to  Washington  in  1820  to  prepare  the 
first  National  Pharmacopo'ia.  which  was  issued  I)ec.  15, 
1820,  in  Latin  and  English.  Since  that  time  at  certain  in- 
tervals conventions  have  been  held  by  representatives  of  the 
medical  profession  and  pharmacists,  which  have  revised  and 
altered  the  Phannacopmia,  so  as  to  incorporate  in  it  new 
drugs  or  new  formulas  which  had  come  to  be  recognized  as 
useful,  and  to  exclude  others  which  had  fallen  into  disuse  or 
been  found  unworthy  of  a  place  in  such  a  work.  The  issue 
of  the  Pharmacopceia  of  the  United  States  of  America 
called  the  seventh  decennial  revision  was  prepared  by  a 
convention  which  met  at  Washington  in  1890.  It  was 
printed  at  Philadelphia,  and  became  official  on  Jan.  1.  1894. 
It  contains  descriptions  of  drugs  and  the  mode  of  preparing 
them  for  use,  and  a  great  variety  of  information  on  subjects 
collateral  with  these.  The  following  is  an  example  of  the 
description  of  a  drug:  "Acidum  Carbolici-.m.  Carbolic 
Acid.  CsHsOH-g.S-TS.  (Phenol.)  A  constituent  of  coal- 
tar,  obtained  by  fractional  distillation,  and  subsequently 
purified.  Carbolic  acid  should  be  kept  in  dark  amber-col- 
ored, well-stoppered  vials."  After  this  follows  a  full  de- 
scription of  the  chemical  and  physical  characteristics  and 
properties  of  carbolic  acid.  In  the  preparation  of  compound 
remedies  the  Pharmacopceia  gives  the  name  in  Latin,  then 
in  English,  then  a  description  of  the  preparation,  then  its 
constituents  with  their  proportions,  folknved  by  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  method  of  compounding  them.  Works  of  this 
kind  are  of  the  greatest  value  in  producing  uniformity  in 
the  preparation  of  drugs,  and  in  securing  reliability  as  to 
strength  and  genuineness  of  their  ingredients.  In  the  U.  S. 
there  is  no  general  law  compelling  physicians  or  ))harma- 
cists  to  follow  the  directions  of  the  Pharmacopoeia,  but  it  is 
recognized  as  the  best  guide  in  regard  to  the  preparation 
and  compounding  of  drugs,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  intelli- 
gent teaching  on  pharmacy.  Charles  W.  Dulles. 

Pliarinacy  [from  Gr.  (papiaaKeia.  use  of  niedieines.  phar- 
macy, deriv.  of  ipapfuiKeveiv.  administer  medicines,  deriv.  of 
(pipiloKov.  drug,  medicine] :  the  art  of  preparing,  preserving, 
compounding,  and  dispensing  remedies  for  disea.^e.  The 
modern  idea  of  pharmacy  includes  only  the  art  of  one  who 
acts  as  an  agent  for  the  physician,  and  in  so  far  differs 
from  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  ancients.  This  defini- 
tion corresponds  fairly  to  the  present  actual  relation  of  the 
dispensers  of  drugs  to  practitioners  of  medicine,  although 
many  who  claim  the  name  of  pharmacists  prepare  remedies 
according  lo  formulas  which  they  make  public  or  conceal, 
and  sell  these  with  indications  for  their  use  and  directions 
how  to  emjiloy  them.  This  practice  is  not  regarded  as  com- 
mendable by  physicians,  on  the  ground  that,  while  some- 
times useful,  it  may  at  times  be  damaging  to  those  who 
avail  themselves  of  it. 

The  origin  of  pharmacy  is  very  ancient.  In  the  earliest 
medical  times  it  was  carried  on  by  physicians  who  prepared 


562 


PHAROS 


PHEASANT 


their  own  remedies  and  directed  their  administration.  The 
earliest  history  of  medicine,  which  is  that  of  the  Egyptians, 
contains  records  in  the  Leipzig  and  Berlin  papyri  of  the 
preparations  of  remedies  by  the  priestly  class,  who  were  the 
physicians.  The  earliest  Greek  physicians  (the  Asclepiada-) 
prepared  their  own  remedies,  and  were  in  the  original  sense 
of  the  word  pharmacists.  About  the  time  of  the  Christian 
era  there  was  a  class  of  persons  called  rhizotomes  (root -cut- 
ters), who  collected  drugs  and  sold  them  to  physicians.  In 
a  rude  way  these  were  the  first  pharmacists  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  word.  After  this,  with  the  increase  of  medical 
practice,  there  arose  a  class  of  persons  who  made  it  a  busi- 
ness to  collect  drugs  and  prepare  them  for  the  use  of  phy- 
sicians, and  acconlingly  tliis  work  became  more  specialized. 
There  were  certainly  drug-shops  among  the  Romans,  for  one 
has  been  unearthed  at  Pompeii ;  but  it  was  not  until  the 
end  of  the  Middle  Ages  that  pharmacy  became  much  of  an 
art,  receiving  a  distinct  recognition  from  the  great  Em- 
peror Frederick  II.,  who  was  the  patron  of  the  University 
of  Salerno  in  the  thirteenth  century.  At  present  it  is  made 
an  object  of  study  in  institutions  devoted  to  it  alone,  and  is 
regulaied  by  law  in  most  civilized  lands.  .Some  of  the  most 
celebrated  schools  of  pharmacy  are  found  in  the  U.  S., 
where  men  of  great  learning  have  contributed  to  elevate  the 
standard  of  education'  of  pharmacists,  until  the  art  is  now 
sometimes  erroneously  spoken  of  as  a  profession.  The  in- 
tending pharmacist  is  instructed  in  chemistry,  botany,  phys- 
ics, animal  physiology,  materia  medica,  toxicology,  and 
pharmacology.  The  result  of  education  and  of  cultivating 
the  niceties  of  the  art  of  jiharmacy  has  been  the  preparation 
of  many  remedies,  beautiful  in  appearance  and  pleasant  to 
take,  and  at  the  same  time  of  proper  efficiency.  The  French 
pharmacists  have  unusual  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  n-hat 
are  known  as  elegant  preparations.  The  U.  S.  is  especially 
distinguished  for  what  may  be  called  neat  pharmaceutical 
preparations. 

The  shop  of  the  modern  pharmacist  is  supplied  with  many 
things  besides  drugs,  such  as  various  surgical  appliances, 
plasters,  bandages,  and  even  instruments,  with  many  articles 
of  convenience  or  of  cosmetic  usefulness.  The  enterprise  of 
modern  pharmacy  secures,  in  the  large  cities,  everything,  no 
matter  how  rare,  that  is  of  approved  value  in  the  treatment 
of  disease,  and  has  led  to  the  actual  discovery  of  useful  reme- 
dies.   See  Apothecary.  Charles  W.  Dulles. 

Plia'ros  (in  Gr.  *apos) :  an  isl.ind  off  Alexandria,  in 
Egypt,  celebrated  for  its  lighthouse.  Alexander  the  Great 
connected  the  island  with  Alexandria  (a  distance  of  7  sta- 
dia) by  a  dike. 

Pharyngobran'chli  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  ipipvy^,  throat  -i- 
Ppdyxta,  gills] :  a  group  of  fish-like  vertebrates,  so  named 
frum  the  perforation  of  the  pharynx  for  the  gill-slits.  It  is 
equivalent  to  the  class  Leptocardii  {g.  j^),  which  is  the  gen- 
erally used  term. 

Pharyngog'nathi  [Mod.  Lat. :  Gr.  (f)opu7|,  throat  +  7^801, 
jaw] :  name  api)lied  to  an  artificial  combination  of  fishes 
originally  established  by  Johannes  MuUer  for  the  reception 
of  those  teleosts  in  which  the  two  lower  pharyngeal  bones 
form  a  single  solid  piece.  The  group  thus  distinguished 
was  recognized  as  an  order  by  Miiller.  and  to  it  were  re- 
ferred some  of  the  spiny-rayed  fishes  (Labridce.  Cichlidce, 
Embinlocidce),  as  well  as  some  with  soft  rays  (Scombere- 
socUhe).  These  forms  have,  however,  on  the  one  side  no  close 
affinity  with  each  other,  and  on  the  other  side  they  are  sev- 
erally related  to  other  types  in  which  the  lower  pharyngeals 
are  separated ;  again,  there  are  fishes  of  other  families,  as 
the  <lrumfishes  (Aplodinotus  and  Pogonias)  among  the  Sci- 
wnidtp,  which  have  the  lower  pharyngeals  as  much  united 
as  in  the  typical  Pharyngognalhi  oi  yiuller.  On  account  of 
these  inconsistencies  the  order,  though  formerly  generally 
adopted,  is  now  discarded  by  the  best  ichthyologists. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Pliar'yiix  [^Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  tpipuy^.  throat,  pharynx]  : 
a  musculo-membranous  sac  situated  at  the  base  of  the  skull, 
immediately  behind  the  mouth,  nose,  and  larynx,  and  in 
front  of  the  cervical  vertebr.T,  extemling  as  far  down  as  the 
fifth,  where  it  is  continuous  with  the  oesojihagus.  It  has 
the  following  openings  into  it:  Two  from  the  nose,  the  pos- 
terior nares;  two  Eu.stachian  tubes,  which  communicate 
with  the  middle  ear;  the  mouth,  larynx,  and  oesophagus. 
It  is  lined  by  mucous  membrane,  which  is  continuous  with 
that  lining  the  various  cavities  opening  into  it.  Beneath 
this  mucous  coat  is  a  libmus  layer  known  as  the  pharyngeal 
aponeurosis;  and  beneath  this,  again,  is  a  muscular  layer. 


composed  of  the  superior,  middle,  and  inferior  constrictor 
muscles;  they  diminish  the  capacity  of  the  pharynx,  and  by 
their  successive  contraction  from  above  downward  the  food 
is  carried  along  into  the  oesophagus.  The  pharynx  is  freely 
supplied  with  glands,  which  are  situated  in  the  mucous 
membrane,  and  there  is  considerable  lymphoid  tissue  in 
various  parts.  This  is  similar  in  structure  to  the  tonsil 
gland.  The  function  of  the  pharynx  is  to  give  passage  to 
the  food  in  deglutition  and  to  the  air  in  respiration.  The 
pharynx  is  a  common  seat  of  catarrhal  inflammations,  oc- 
curring acutely  as  "  colds "  or  as  more  chronic  affections. 
Those  who  smoke  tobacco  or  drink  strong  alcoholic  bever- 
ages, as  well  as  those  whose  occupation  reqtures  public  speak- 
ing and  especially  that  in  the  open  air,  are  liable  to  a  pecu- 
liarly obstinate  form  of  inflammation  of  the  pharynx. 

Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Pliascoloiliy'idae  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Phasco'lomys, 
thetypical  genus;  Gr.(j>o(r/ca)A.os.pouch  +  ^Cs,mouse]:  afamily 
of  marsupial  mammals  containing  the  wombats(see  Wombat), 
and  distinguished  by  their  rodent-like  dentition.  The  body 
is  stout  and  large;  the  head  large;  nostrils  widely  separated 
behind,  but  converging  forward;  upper  lip  cleft ;  dentition, 
I.  \,  P.  M.  {,  M.  J,  all  of  which  are  rootless,  more  or  less  in- 
curved, and  grow  upward,  like  the  incisors  of  the  placental 
rodents;  the  limbs  are  nearly  equal,  short  and  stout,  and 
with  five  toes  to  a  foot;  anterior  toes,  with  broad  and  little- 
curved  nails ;  the  innermost  toe  of  hind  foot  small,  at  nearly 
right  angles  with  the  rest,  and  destitute  of  a  nail;  the  sec- 
ond, third,  and  fourth  toes  are  connected,  and  they,  as  well 
as  the  fifth,  have  long  curved  nails ;  tail  rudimentary ; 
stomach  simple,  with  a  special  gland  situated  to  the  left  of 
the  cardiac  orifice ;  caecum  short  and  wide,  with  a  vermi- 
form appendage.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Phasian'idw  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Phasia'nus,  the 
typical  genus,  from  Lat.  p/ins(a'n«s,  pheasant ;  ct.  Pha'sis,. 
name  of  a  river  in  Colchis.  See  Phasis]  :  a  family  of  birds 
including  most  of  the  gallinaceous  fowls.  They  ail  have  the 
bill  moderate,  with  the  sides  compressed,  and  with  the  cul- 
men  arched  toward  the  tip,  which  is  curved  over  the  lower 
mandible;  the  wings  are  moderate  and  more  or  less 
rounded;  the  tail  varial)le  in  development;  the  tarsi  are 
robust,  and  covered  with  transverse  scales  in  front,  smaller 
ones  behind,  and  still  smaller  ones  on  the  sides,  and  in  the 
cock  generally  armed  with  one  or  more  spurs;  the  toes  are 
moderate,  three  in  front  united  at  base  by  a  slight  mem- 
brane, and  a  hinder  one  short  and  elevated.  The  family 
has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  beautiful  monograph  by  D. 
G.  Elliot.  '  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pha'sis  [=  Lat.=  Gr.  iaais] :  the  ancient  name  of  the 
Rion  ov  Faz  river;  in  the  Russian  province  of  Transcau- 
casia; considered  by  the  classical  geograiihersas  the  bound- 
ary between  Europe  and  Asia.  The  Argonauts  were  fabled 
to  have  landed  at  its  mouth. 

Pheasant  [from  Lat.  Phasiamis  (sc.  mds),  the  Phasian 
bird] :  a  name  said  to  have  been  given  by  the  ancients  to 
the  best-known  species  of  pheasant  (Phasianiis  colchicus), 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  brought  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
river  Phasis,  in  Colchis.  It  is  now  used  as  a  general  name 
for  the  long-tailed  gallinaceous  birds  related  to  the  common 
I)heasant.  and  forming  the  sub-family  P/iasianina\  and  is 
extended  to  a  number  of  other  game-birds.  In  the  U.  S.  it 
is  applied  to  the  ruffed  grouse  {Bonasa  nmbellus),  in  those 
sections  of  country  where  the  quail  (Colinux)  is  termed  par- 
tridge. Phasianus  colchicus  originally  inhabited  Western 
Asia  about  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  Southeastern  Europe,  but 
it  has  been  introduced  in  other  localities,  especially  in  Eng- 
land, and  in  the  U.  S.  is  very  commonly  known  as  the  English 
pheasant.  It  is  nearly  3  feet  long,  half  of  this  being  due  to 
the  tail.  The  plumage  is  rich  and  variegated.  The  head 
and  neck  are  glossy  green,  the  lower  neck,  l)reast.  and  sides 
reddish  brown  with  a  purple  luster,  the  feathers  being  edged 
with  black.  The  rump  is  coppery  red,  wings  striped  with 
brown  and  red,  tail  gray  with  black  bands  and  brown  edges. 
The  female  is  smaller,  of  a  general  grayish  lirown.  and  she 
is  shorter  and  without  the  long  central  tail  feathers.  These 
long  feathers,  so  characteristic  of  the  males  of  the  true 
pheasants,  reach  their  maximum  in  Reeve's  pheasant  (P. 
reevesii),  in  which  they  attain  a  length  of  over  5  feet.  Two 
species  of  pheasants  closely  related  to  the  common  pheasant, 
the  ^Mongolian  jiheasant  (P.  torqua/iis)  and  the  green  pheas- 
ant {P.  ivrf:iciil<)r).  have  been  introduced  into  Oregon,  as  has 
also  the  beautiful  golden  pheasant  (Chrgsoloptiiiii  pictua). 
The  fire-back  pheasants  (Euplucamus)  are  so  called  on  ac- 


PHELPS 


PHENOLS 


5G3 


count  of  the  gUiwiiif;  red  upon  the  rump  of  the  males  of 
some  species.  To  this  genus  beh>nj;s  tlie  Macartney  pheas- 
ant, E.  i(/>iitus,  of  Siam.  Tlie  impevan  jilieasants  (Liiplin- 
pharux)  uiv  hirge  hirils  of  rich  inetallic  colors,  distinguished 
bv  their  tails  being  flat  and  rounded  instead  of  compressed 
and  pointed.  They  inhabit  the  slopes  of  the  llimahiya-s. 
The  horned  pheasants,  (ir  tragopans  (Cerionu's),  are  distin- 
guished by  a  little  pointed  wattle  on  either  side  of  the  head. 
Their  general  color  is  dull  red  with  white  snots,  and  they 
too  dwell  on  the  slopes  of  the  Himalaya.s.  Pheasants  are 
ground-frequenting  birds,  and  feed  on  grub.s,  insects,  seeds, 
and  grain.  They  are  mo.stly  polygamous,  and  the  numerous 
eggs  are  deposited  in  a  very  rude  nest.  With  the  exception 
of  Phaxidiiux  colchicitu  they  are  confined  lo  Asia  and  some 
of  the  large  adjacent  islands,  and  Japan.  A  beautiful  mon- 
ograph of  the  group  has  been  issued  by  I).  G.  Elliot,  under 
the  title  .1  Mviwunipli  (if  the  Pliasiuniild',  or  Fnniilij  uf 
Plieanants.  A  more  accessible  work  is  Tegelmeier's  VliKis- 
ants:  their  Natural  llistury  and  Practical  Management. 

P.  A.  Lucas. 
Phelps,  AfsTix,  I).  D. :  clergyman  and  author;  b.  at 
West  Brookfield.  .Mass.,  .Ian.  7, 1820:  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  I'cnnsylvania  1837;  studied  divinity  at  Andover 
and  }vew  Haven";  was  [lastor  of  the  Pine  .Street  Congrega- 
tional church.  Hoston.  .Mass.,  1843-4.8.  and  was  IJartletl  Pro- 
fe.ssor  of  Sacred  Rhetoric  in  the  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary 1848-7!».  He  published  The  Still  i/owr  (1859) ;  The 
New  Birth  (,1SG7):  The  Theory  of  Preachinc/ {18SI):  Men 
and  Books  (1882) ;  My  Portfolio  (1882) ;  English  Style  in 
Public  Di.tcour.fe  (1883);  My  Study  (IHS']):  My  Note-book 
(I8!I0);  and  numerous  articles  in  the  religious  journals. 
With  I'rof.  Park  and  Dr.  Lowell  Mason  he  edited  the  Sab- 
bath lliimn-book  (1858).  D.  at  Bar  Harbor,  Me..  Oct.  V.i, 
1890.     See  his  Life  by  his  daughter,  Mrs.  Ward  (ISill). 

Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

Plidlis.  Edward  .1.,  LL.  D. :  lawyer ;  b.  in  Vermont,  .iulv 
11,  1822;  graduated  at  Middlebury  College  in  1840;  was  at 
Yale  Law  School  1842-43  ;  a  lawyer  in  Vermont  from  1844  ; 
second  comptroller  of  the  treasury  1851-53  ;  member  of  Ver- 
mont constitutional  convention  1870;  Democratic  candidate 
for  Governor  of  Vermont  1880;  became  Kent  Professor  of 
I>!i\v  in  Yale  College  in  1881,  and  lecturer  on  constitutional 
law  in  Boston  University  in  1882.  He  was  a  Webster  Whig 
till  that  jiarty  broke  up,  and  has  since  been  an  independent 
Democrat.  He  was  U.  S.  minister  to  Great  Britain  1885-89, 
and  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  U.  S.  in  the  Bering  Sea  tri- 
bunal of  arbitration  in  1893. 

Phelps,  Elizabeth  Stlart  :  See  Ward,  Elizabeth 
Stuart. 

Phelps.  William  Walter,  LL.  D. :  statesman  ;  b.  in  New 
York  city.  Aug.  24,  1839;  graduated  at  Yale  College  1860 
and  at  Columbia  Law  School  1863;  member  of  Congress 
1873-75;  U.  S.  minister  at  Vienna  1881-82;  again  in  Con- 
gress 1883-89;  one  of  the  U.  S.  commissioners  to  negotiate 
the  Samoan  treaty  with  Germany  1889;  U.  S.  minister  at 
Berlin  18.'<9-93;  appointed  a  judge  of  the  New  .lersey  Court 
of  Errors  and  Ajipeals  1893.  D.  at  Teaneck,  N.  .!..  June  16, 
1894. 

Pheuacetiii :  a  drug  which  occurs  in  colorless  needles, 
slightly  soluble  in  water.  Its  general  action  on  the  system 
is  almost  idenlic'al  with  that  of  antipyrin  and  antifebrin, 
but  it  is  thought  by  many  physicians  to  be  safer  than  those 
remedies.  In  nervous  headaches  and  other  nerve  pain.s,  in 
doses  of  U)  grains,  it  frequently  affords  great  relief. 

Phenakis'toseope:  See  Stroboscope. 

Phciiic  .\c'i(I :  See  I'hknol  and  Carbolic  Acid. 

Phenicin,  or  Phenyl  IJnuTU:  a  coloring-matter  first 
prepared  by  Koth  in  1865  by  the  action  of  nitrosul|)huri(^ 
acid  on  phenol  (carbolic  acid).  It  is  a  brown  amorphous 
powder,  slight  ly  soluble  in  water,  very  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  acetic  aciil.  With  alkalies  it  forms  a  fine  violet- 
blue  .solution,  which  is  changed  t(j  brown  by  the  slightest 
excess  of  acid.  Il  dissolves  also  in  linu'-water.  It  consists 
of  two  coloring-mat ter.s — one  yellow  dinilro-phenol.  the 
other  a  black,  humus-like  body,  both  possessing  the  same 
tinctorial  properties.  Phenicin  was  at  one  thne  used  for 
coloring  leather,  liut  it  has  given  way  to  other  dyes. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsev. 

Phc'nol  (C„IU() -CalLi>Ih.  I'hcnic  Aciil.  Ciirbolie 
Acid,  riieiiyl  Hytlrate.  PhcMyli<'  Alcohol,  or  Coallar 
Creosote  [phenol  is  from  Gr.  tpalfeiu.  show,  named  from  its 


yielding  derivative  colors] :  a  substance  discovered  in  coal- 
tar  by  l\unge,  produced  by  the  dry  distillation  of  salicylic 
acid  and  a  number  of  other  substances.  The  urine  of  the 
cow,  horse,  and  man  yields  it  in  small  quantities.  Commer- 
cial creosote  often  consists  entirely  of  i)hen(j|,  but  the  true 
creosote  from  wood  is  a  totally  dilTerent  substaiK'e, 

Preparation. — Phenol  is  prepared  from  coal-tar.  The 
tar  is  separated  by  fractional  distillation  into  (1)  light  oil 
of  coal-tar.  crude  coal-tar  naphtha;  (2)  heavy  oil  of  coal- 
tar,  '•  dead  oil  "  ;  (3)  anthracene  oil ;  (4)  pitch  which  re- 
mains in  the  .still.  From  the  light  oil  the  phenol  is  most 
easily  prepared.  The  oil  is  rectified  by  di.stilling  with  a 
current  'of  steam,  and  leaves  behind  a  portion  known  as 
naphtha  tailings,  which  contain  about  15  per  cent,  of  phe- 
nol. From  dead  oil  it  is  more  dillicult  to  obtain  pure  phenol, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  much  crescd.  lint  the  mixture  of 
the  two,  which  is  better  than  i)ure  phenol  for  disinfecting 
purposes,  is  readily  obtained.  Dead  oil  contains  from  a 
trace  to  perhaps  12  per  cent,  of  the  tar  acids,  phenol,  cresol, 
etc.,  according  to  the  part  of  the  distillate  it  represents,  the 
entire  product  of  dead  oil  averaging  about  5  per  cent. 

Properties. — Phenol  occurs  in  long  colcuTess  needles  or 
in  white  crystalline  masses,  sp.  gr.  1  -065,  melts  at  93'-95°  P., 
and  boils  at  368'-370'  ¥.  The  crystals  delicjuesce  on  expo- 
sure to  the  air  by  absorbing  a  trace  of  water.  Phenol  smells 
like  wood-tar  creosote,  and  attacks  the  skin  like  that  sub- 
stance. It  dissolves  in  about  20  parts  of  water,  and  mixes 
in  all  proportions  with  alcohol,  ether,  and  strong  acetic  acid. 
The  aqueous  solution  of  phenol  coagulates  albumen  and  pre- 
serves animal  substances  from  decomposition.  It  even  re- 
moves the  fetid  odor  from  meat  which  is  already  in  a  state 
of  decomposition.  Fish  and  leeches  die  when  immersed  in 
the  aqueous  solution,  and  their  liodies  subsequently  dry  up 
on  exposure  to  air,  without  putrefying.  These  properties 
have  led  to  the  extensive  use  of  phenol  as  an  antiseptic  and 
disinfectant.  It  is  used  in  all  grades  of  ]iurities — dead  oil 
for  privy  vaults,  sewers,  cattle-yards,  and  cars,  and  purer 
forms  for  street-gutters,  cellar.s,  water-closets,  dwellings, 
clothing,  etc.  All  grades  except  dead  oil  should  be  mixed 
with  20  to  50  parts  of  water  before  they  are  applied,  or  they 
may  be  mixed  with  dry  slaked  lime,  sawilust,  clay,  etc., 
and  applied  in  powder;  the  first-mentioned  mixture  is  sold 
under  the  name  of  carbolate  of  lime.  Many  mixtures  of 
carbolic  acid  are  advertised  as  disinfectants  which  are  prac- 
tically worthless.  A  mere  odor  of  phenol  is  not  sufficient  to 
prevent  putrefaction.  (See  Disi.nfection  and  Fermenta- 
tion.) Phenol  is  highly  poisonous,  except  in  an  extremely  di- 
lute solution.  The  best  antidote  is  olive  oil,  administered  in 
large  quantities.  Sulphuric  acid  converts  phenol  into  phenyl- 
sulphuric  acid.  Strong  nitric  acid  converts  it  into  trinitro- 
phenic  acid.  Picric  Acid  (g.r.),  an  important  dye,  C'sHj- 
(N05)30.  On  heating  the  soda  compound  of  phenol  in 
carbonic  acid  halt  the  phenol  distills  off.  leaving  a  sodic 
.salicylate,  which  is  now  the  source  of  the  valuable  salicylic 
aci(J.  For  phenol  in  its  relations  to  medicine,  see  Carbolic 
Ann.  Revised  by  Ira  Ke.msen. 

Phenol  Colors;  an  important  class  of  artificial  dyes 
derived  from  coal-tar.  The  most  important  are  (1)  Picric 
Acid  (q.r.);  (2)  dinitro-cre.wl,  known  as  Victoria  yellow, 
aniline  yellow,  etc. ;  (3)  aurin  ;  (4)  rosolic  arid  (the  last  two 
are  described  in  the  article  Rosolic  Acid)  ;  (^y)  azuline;  (6) 
phenicin;  {7) pwonine.  The  phenols  combine  with  jihtlialic 
acid  to  form  another  class  of  colors,  known  as  the.  phthalic- 
acid  colors;  and  they  aiso  comliine  with  azo-componnds. 
See  Azo-colohs.  Revised  by  Ira  Kemsen". 

Phenology :  See  Climate. 

Phenols:  a  class  of  compounds  of  which  ordina:-y  phenol 
is  the  best-known  example.  They  are  closely  relali'd  to  the 
alcohols.  The  latter  are  derived  from  the  parallins  by  the 
substitution  of  hydroxyl  (OH)  for  hydrogen,  while  the 
phenols  are  derived  from  the  aromatic  hydrocarbons  (see 
Hvdrocarboxs)  in  the  same  way.  As  benzene  is  the  sim- 
plest of  the  aromatic  hydrocarbons,  so  the  sub.stance  called 
phenol  is  the  simplest  representative  of  the  class  to  which  it 
belongs.     lis  relation  to  benzene  is  shown  by  the  formulas: 


CeHo 
Benzeue. 


C,H,(OH) 

Phenol. 


Cresol  is  derived  from  toluene  in  the  same  way  that  phenol 
is  derived  from  benzene  : 


C.IU.CII3 
Toluene. 


p  II    ,  CHj 


Cresol. 


564: 


PHENYL 


PHILADELPUIA 


There  are  phenols  derived  from  the  hydrocarbons  by  the 
substitution  of  two  hydroxyl  groups  for  two  atoms  of  liy- 
drogen.  Tliese  are  called  di-acid  phenols.  Of  these,  hydro- 
quinone.  resorcin,  and  orcin  are  examples.  Tri-acid  phenols 
are  derived  from  tlie  aromatic  liydrocarbons  by  the  substi- 
tution of  three  hydroxyl  groups'for  hydrogen.  Pyrogallic 
acid  is  the  best-known  example  of  the  tri-acid  phenols. 
The  phenols  have  a  somewhat  more  acid  character  than  the 
alcohols.  This  is  shown  by  the  ease  with  which  they  form 
salts  when  treated  with  strong  bases  such  as  sodium  liydrox- 
ide,  XaOH,  potassium  hydroxide.  KOH,  calcium  hydroxide, 
Ca(0U)2,  etc.  They  readily  undergo  decomposition  when 
treated  with  oxidizing  agents,  and,  unless  pure,  they  are 
slowly  decomposed  by  contact  with  the  air,  the  change  being 
shown  by  change  in  color.  Ira  Remsen. 

Phenyl  (CJis):  a  univalent  radical  which  exists  in  ani- 
line, phenol,  etc. 

Phenylic  Acid  :  See  Phenol. 

Plie'rae  (in  Gr.  *Epa/):  an  ancient  city  of  Thessaly;  in  a 
fertile  plain  near  Mt.  Pelion;  10  miles  W.  of  its  port;  on 
the  Pagasa'an  Gulf;  on  the  site  of  the  modern  Velesfiiio. 
Jason,  son  of  Polyphron,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  PhenB 
in  378  B.  c,  and  subdued  the  greater,  part  of  Thessaly  up  to 
Pharsalus.  Phera^  now  became  a  splendid  and  prosperous 
town,  and  under  the  government  of  the  nephew  of  Jason, 
Alexander,  who  was  notorious  for  his  cruelty,  it  became  the 
controlling  power  of  the  whole  of  Thessaly  and  played  a 
conspicuous  part  in  Greek  politics.  The  treachery  of  Alex- 
ander induced  the  Thebans  (see  Pelopidas  and  Epaminox- 
DAS)  to  aid  the  oppressed  Thessalians,  and  after  the  battle 
of  Cynoscephahe  his  dominion  was  again  confined  to  the 
city  and  district  of  Pherie.  He  was,  nevertheless,  still 
strong  enough  to  land  troops  in  Attica  and  plunder  Piranis. 
In  358  B.  c.  Alexander  was  murdered,  and  in  352  B.  c.  Phe- 
ra;  passed  with  the  rest  of  Tliessaly  into  the  hands  of  Philip 
of  Macedon.  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Plierec'rates  (in  Gr.  tepeKparris) :  poet  of  the  Old  Attic 
comedy,  whose  strength  lay  in  liis  invention.  A  few  frag- 
ments—one of  considerable  length — may  be  found  in  Mei- 
neke's  and  Kock's  collections.  B.  L.  G. 

Pherecy'des  (in  Gr.  *ep6Ku5i)s)  of  Leros  :  a  Greek  logogra- 
pher  of  the  fifth  century  n.  c.  who  lived  in  Athens.  Of  his 
great  work  on  Greek  mythology,  often  quoted  by  ancient 
writers,  though  under  different  titles,  the  existing  fragments 
have  been  collected  and  edited  bv  MUller,  Fragmenta  Histor. 
Grceconim.  vol.  i.,  70-99,  and  vol.  iv.,  637-639.       B.  L.  G. 

Plierecydes  of  Svros  :  Greek  philosopher  of  the  sixth 
century  B.C.  He  was  considered  by  some  the  earliest  Greek 
prose  writer ;  was  a  rival  of  Thales  and  the  teacher  of  Pythag- 
oras. Of  his  work,  which  bears  the  mystic  title  'EirTativxos. 
and  seems  to  have  been  a  product  of  poetical  intuiti(jn  rather 
than  of  philosophical  reasoning,  some  fragments  are  extant, 
and  have  been  edited  by  Sturz  (2d  ed.  1824).  See  Ueber^veg- 
Heintze.  Gnnulrias  der  Gescliiclitt  der  Philosophie  des  Al- 
terthums,  p.  31.  B.  L.  G. 

Pllid'ias  (in  (ir.  ■I>ei5(as) :  the  greatest  sculptor  of  Greece  ; 
b.  at  Athens  500  H.  c. ;  was  taught  by  Hegias  and  Ageladas. 
His  career  as  a  sculptor  (he  gave  but  brief  attention  to  paint- 
ing) began  under  Cimon,  but  reached  its  glory  under  Peri- 
cles, with  whose  splendid  epoch  his  name  is  indissolubly 
associated.  He  was  a  man  of  lofty  soul,  majestic  intellect, 
consummate  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  his  art,  and 
wonderful  skill  in  design.  The  buildings  that  crowned  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens  are  believed  to  have  been  erected  under 
his  direction,  and  much  of  the  work — how  much  can  not  be 
known — may  be  ascribed  to  his  hand.  The  great  statue  of 
Athene  in  the  Parthenon,  of  gold,  ivory,  and  precious  stones, 
was,  tliere  is  little  room  for  doubt,  executed  by  him.  It  was 
finished  437  B.  c.  Later,  he  completed  the  colossal  statue  in 
gold  and  ivory  of  Zeus  in  the  temple  of  Olympia  at  Elis.  It 
sat  enthroned  in  the  temple  for  800  years,  and  was  finally 
destroyed  Vjy  fire  about  475  a.  d.  Of  these  works,  which  com- 
manded the  admiration  of  all  Greece,  and  have  given  the 
master  an  immortal  renown,  notliing  but  the  fame  remains. 
The  traditions  concerning  tlie  life  of  Phidias  are  conflict- 
ing. That  he  met  great  changes  of  fortune  from  the  fickle- 
ness of  his  countrymen,  thai  he  shared  the  popuhirity  and 
the  unpopularity  of  his  patron,  Pericles,  was  accused  of 
crimes  against  the  stale,  embezzlement,  and  even  impiety, 
and  imprisoned,  may  be  believed.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
had  a  long  life,  and  to  have  dieil  from  poison  about  432  B.  r. 
See  de  Ilouchand,  I'liiilias,  sa  vie  et  ses  ouvrages  (Paris, 


1861) ;  Petersen,  Die  Kiinsf  des  Pheidins,  etc.  (Berlin,  1873) ; 
Waldstein,  Essai/f:  on  Ike  Art  of  Phe~uUas  (Cambridge,  1885) ; 
CoUignon,  Phidias  (Paris,  1886);  Brunn,  Gi-schichte  der 
Griechischen  Kiinsf ler  (Brunswick,  1853 ;  2d  ed.  1889),  i., 
pp.  157-210;  Overbeck,  Geschichte  der  Griechischen  Plastik 
(Leipzig,  1893),  i.,  pp.  344-385;  Mitchell,  Ilisfori/  qf  An- 
cient Sculpture  (Xew  York,  1888),  i.,  pp.  299-364;  CoUi- 
gnon, Uistoire  de  la  Sculpture  Grecque  (Paris,  1892),  i.,  p. 
517  ff. — vol.  ii.,  which  has  not  appeared  in  1894,  will  con- 
tinue the  subject.  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pliigrali'a  (in  Gr.  *i7a\(a) :  a  city  in  the  southwestern 
corner  of  Arcadia,  near  the  frontier  of  Messenia,  now  Pav- 
litza.  It  was  celebrated  chiefly  for  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Epicurius  at  BassiP,  on  the  top  of  Mt.  Cotylium,  some  miles 
from  Phigalia,  The  temple  was  built  by  Ictinus,  one  of  the 
architects  of  the  Parthenon,  at  Athens.  Thirty-six  columns 
and  their  architraves  are  still  standing  The  frieze,  made 
up  of  sculptures  now  called  the  Phigalian  marbles,  is  in  the 
British  Museum.  One  half  of  it  represents  a  battle  of  the 
Greeks  and  Amazons,  the  other  half  the  struggle  of  the 
Centaurs  and  Lapiths.  The  sculjitures  are  of  almost  the 
best  style  of  early  Greek  art.  See  Stackelljcrg,  Der  Apollo- 
tempel  zu  Bassce  (1826);  Donaldson,  Antiquities  of  Aiheiis 
and  other  Places  in  Greece  (London,  1830),  vo..  iv, ;  Cock- 
erell.  The  Temple  of  Jupiter  Panhellenius  and  Apollo  Epi- 
curius at  Bassce  (London,  1860).  See  the  histories  of  Greek 
art  cited  under  Phidias.       Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Philadelphia :  See  Ala  Shehr  and  Amman. 

Philadelphia  [from  Gr.  (piXaS^Ktiia.  brotherly  love,  deriv. 
of  (piAaStAipos,  loving  one's  brother;  (pixos.  friendly,  loving 
(but  for  meaning,  cf.  <t>i\fiv.  to  love)-)-  aSe\<fi6s.  brother]:  city; 
coextensive  with  Philadelphia  Co.,  Pa.;  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Delaware  river,  103  miles  from  its  mouth,  on  both 
banks  of  the  Schuylkill  river,  which  joins  the  Delaware  near 
the  city's  southern  boundary,  and  on  the  Penn.,  the  Phila. 
and  Reading,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  and  the  Balto.  and  Ohio 
railway  systems ;  area,  129|^  sq.  miles ;  extreme  length,  20 
miles;  extreme  width,  10  miles;  water  frontage,  38  miles 
(for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-J).  It  is  the 
most  important  city  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the  third  city  in 
population  in  the  U.  S. 

Plan  of  tlie  City. — The  streets  running  N.  and  S.  are  num- 
bered (as  First,  Second,  Third,  etc.)  from  the  Delaware  west- 
ward; these  are  crossed  at  right  angles  by  streets  running 
E.  and  \V.  that  are  named  from  trees  and  the  counties  and 
Governors  of  Pennsylvania,  and  a  few  main  thoroughfares 
cross  diagonally  the  square  blocks  thus  formed.  The  prin- 
cipal streets  are  from  50  to  120  feet  wide.  The  houses  are 
nundicred  N.  and  S.  from  Market  Street,  and  W.  from  the 
Delaware,  100  to  the  block  or  square,  though  the  block  or 
square  may  not  contain  100  buililings.  Numerous  streams 
formerly  flowed  through  the  comparatively  level  land  on 
which  tiie  older  parts  of  the  city  stand.  Dock  Street  shows 
the  winding  course  of  Dock  creek.  Others  have  been  con- 
verted into  sewers.  The  Poquessing.  Pennypack,  Wissino- 
ming,  Frankford,  Gunner's,  Cohocksink,  Hollanders,  and 
Bow  creek  empty  into  the  Delaware,  the  Wissahickon  and 
Mill  creek  into  the  Schuylkill. 

On  Jan.  1,  1894,  there  were  1,297-i'^tj  miles  of  paved  and 
unpaved  streets  ;  of  these,  78'3  miles  were  laid  with  as]>halt, 
208'4  miles  with  Belgian  block,  and  49'6  miles  with  vitrified 
brick.  The  streets  are  lighted  every  night  in  the  year  by 
4,368  arc  lights,  21,368  gas  lamps,  and  19,519  gasoline  lamps. 
Between  1855  and  1893  102-O  miles  of  main  sewers  and 
448'5  miles  of  branches  were  constructed.  Most  of  the 
main  streets  are  traversed  by  trolley  cars.  The  Schuylkill 
is  spanned  by  bridges  at  Penrose  and  Gray's  ferries,  at 
South,  Walnut,  Chestnut,  Market,  and  Callo'whill  Streets, 
and  at  Girard  Avenue  and  the  Falls  of  Schuylkill,  and  by 
seven  railway  bridges.  The  most  beautiful  liriilge  in  the 
city  limits  is  the  stone  one  of  the  Reading  Railroad  over 
Wissahickon  creek.  Ninety-four  per  cent,  of  the  water- 
supply  is  drawn  from  the  Schuylkill,  the  rest  from  the  Dela- 
ware. There  are  6  pumping-stations  and  supplementary 
high  service  at  Roxborough.  Mt.  Airy,  and  P'ast  Park,  and 
10  reservoirs  and  2  tanks,  with  a  total  capacity  of  1.017,- 
2SS..S14  gal.  The  police  force  ninnbers  over  2,100  men  and 
14  matrons.  There  are  30  station-houses,  11  sub-stations, 
2  police  tug-boats,  and  18  patrol  stations. 

Public  Buildings  and  Places  of  Interest. — Among  the 
buildings  of  historic  importance  Independence  Hall  stands 
first.  The  Old  Swedes'  church,  Christ  Eiiiseojial  church, 
where  Bishop  White  preached,  Washington  W(H-shiped,  and 


v^ 


,^ 


I'llII.ADELPHIA 


565 


Franklin  and  Rnhprt  Morris  are  buried ;  C'arppntors'  Ilall, 
in  wliicli  the  first  continental  conj;ress  nu-t ;  tlieold  Ijiiilding 
on  Smith  Street,  which  was  the  first  American  theater :  Will- 
iam ['enn's  house,  which  stood  in  Letitia  Street  and  has  lieen 
removed  to  Fairmount  I'ark  ;  St.  Joseph's.  Willinn's  .Mlev  lie- 
low  Fourth,  the  scene  of  (he  pathetic  nieetin:;  of  Kvan-jeline 
and  (iaiiriel ;  Mt.  I'li-asant.  1  he  home  of  Uenedict  Arnold,  in 
East  Fairmount  I'ark;  the  modest  house  at  No.  2:i!»  .\rch 
Street,  where  Betsy  Koss  made  the  first  American  flag  for 
Washington;  and  the  site  of  the  house  at  Seventh  and 
Market,  where  JelTerson  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, are  a  few  of  the  city's  possessions  rich  in  historical 
associations.  The  principal  Government  buildings  are  the 
r.  S.  mint,  the  post-olTice,  and  the  custom-house,  Naval 
Asylum  and  Hospital,  and  two  arsenals.  Anuing  the  parks 
are'  Stenton.  once  the  property  of  Jauu'S  Logan,  and  Bar- 
tram's  Garden,  the  lirst  botanical  garden  in  .America.  The 
Schuvlkill  and  the  romantic  Wissahickon.  along  the  latter 
of  which  dwelt  Kelpius,  the  mystic,  and  Henry  Bernhard 
Koster,  the  t'hiliast  of  the  seventeenth  century,  (low  through 
p'airmoutit  I'ark.  Included  in  Fairmount  Park  are  the  resi- 
dence of  .lohn  I'enn,  the  last  colonial  governor;  the  estate 
of  the  witty  .Jiulgc  Peters,  the  Hevolutionary  Secretary  of 
War.  and  the  country-seat  of  Robert  Morris.  The  Zoological 
Garden,  of  Ifi  acres,  is  on  the  west  bank.  In  the  lower 
Schuylkill  section  of  the  park  are  oOO.OOO  trees  and  shrubs, 
including  ;i.4(IO  forest  trees,  some  of  them  'il  feet  in  circum- 
ference. l)f  llowering  shrubs  and  flowei-s  there  are  500  gen- 
era and  700  varieties.  The  park  contains  one-si.\th  of  all 
the  known  minerals  of  the  U.  S.  Fifteen  species  of  fish 
inhabit  its  waters,  an<l  77  species  of  birds  its  woods  and 
valleys.  There  are  50  miles  of  carriage  drives,  and  100 
miles  of  byways  and  bridle-paths.  Steamboats  ply  for  6 
miles  through  the  ])ark  on  the  Schuylkill,  and  the  course 
for  row-boats  on  the  Wissahickon  is  2  miles  in  length. 

Among  the  more  notable  works  of  art  are  the  equestrian 
statue  of  Washington,  made  for  tlie  Pennsylvania  S(jciety 
of  the  Cincinnati  ijy  Kmlolph  Siemering,  costing  ^225,000; 
the  Reynolds  and  McClellan  statues  in  front  of  the  city- 
hall  ;  and  the  statues  of  Gen.  Meade,  Lincoln,  aiul  .leaune 
d'Arc  in  Fairmount  Park.  The  citv-haJl,  at  Broad  and 
Market  Street.s.  has  cost  ^16,000,000.  'The  tower,  comiileled 
in  1S!»4,  is  surmounted  with  a  bronze  statue  of  William 
Penii,  ;i7  feet  in  height  and  547  feet  above  the  ])avement, 
the  altitude  exceeding  that  of  any  steeple  in  the  world. 
The  length  of  the  north  and  south  front  of  the  citv-hall  is 
470  feet,  and  of  the  east  and  west  front  486*  feet.  The  Ma- 
sonic Temple  is  on  North  Broad  Street,  opposite  the  city- 
hall.  The  permanent  cUib-houses  and  grounds  of  the  dif- 
ferent cricket  clubs  are  at  Manheim,  Haverford,  and  other 
suburbs. 

There  are  some  fifty  prominent  clubs,  among  them  the 
Philadelphia,  founded  in  1S:{4,  the  Manufacturers',  the  Rit- 
tenhouse,  the  Union  League,  the  Penn,  the  Art,  the  Sketch, 
the  Pen  and  Pencil  (of  newspaper-workers),  the  New  Cen- 
tury (for  women,  whose  drawing-room  seats  6tl0),  and  the 
United  .Service.  The  State  in  Schuylkill,  founded  in  1732, 
is  said  to  be  the  oldest  club  in  the  world.  There  are  over  50 
hotels,  and  18  theatres. 

At  the  Stale  |ieniteutiary,  on  Fairmount  Avenue,  opened 
in  1829,  the  separate  system  of  confinement  was  first  intro- 
duced. Each  prisoner  works  in  his  own  room.  The  sysiem 
has  been  adopted  in  several  European  countries.  The  Phila- 
delphia Bourse,  erected  in  1894,  at  a  cost  of  !J2,000,0()0,  is 
priiuarily  intended  as  a  place  for  the  display  and  sale  of 
evervthiug  made  in  Philadelphia's  widelv  scattered  mills 
and  "factories.  The  great  hall  is  250  feet  by  125  feet.  There 
are  400  ollices,  and  a  room  KiO  feet  scjuare  for  the  exhibition 
of  machinery  with  or  without  power.  It  has  also  all  the 
conveniences  of  a  great  club-hou.se. 

The  site  of  the  navy-yard  at  League  island,  including 
nearly  1.000  acre.s,  was  presented  to  the  U.  S.  Government 
by  the  city  in  1862.  There  are  many  cemeteries,  of  which 
the  best  known  is  Laurel  Hill,  where  many  famous  men  are 
burieil,  including  Dr.  Kane,  the  Arctic  explorer,  Gen.  Jleade, 
and  (ien.  .lolin  C.  Pemberton. 

EdHcnIiotiiil  Iiintihiliiins. — Penn's  plan  of  government 
provided  for  the  erection  of  public  schools  and  the  encour- 
agement of  useful  sciences  and  laudable  inventions.  In  1689 
the  William  Penn  Charter  School,  still  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  in  the  city,  was  formally  opened.  The  Assem- 
bly charier,  gninied  in  171 1,  provided  for  the  instruction 
of  poor  children  in  "reading,  work,  languages,  arts,  and 
sciences."     In  1740  subscriptions  were  raised  for  a  charity 


school,  and  the  site  was  purchased  in  that  year.  On  Feb. 
1,  1749,  the  lot  and  buildings  were  conveyed  to  James  Lo- 
gan and  twenty-three  other  trustees,  the  plan  having  been 
enlarged  to  include  a  college.  This  movement  of  1740  was 
the  beginning  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  See 
Pf..vnsvlv.\xia.  Uxiversitv  of. 

The  medical  colleges  comprise  the  University.  JefTerson, 
the  Woman's,  the  Hahnemann,  the  Medico-Chirurgical,  and 
the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic  ami  College  for  Graduates. 
There  are  3  colleges  of  dentistry,  1  of  pharmacy,  and  1  of 
veterinary  surgery.  : 

Philadelphia  has  over  §10.000,000  invested  in  publfC' 
school  property,  and  in  1893  the  428  public  schools,  taught 
by  2,988  teachers  and  maintained  at  an  expense  of  S;i.461,- 
183,  were  attended  by  125,180  pupils.  At  the  head  of  t  he  pub- 
lic-school system  are  the  Boys'  High  School,  the  Girls'  Higlu 
School,  and  Girls'  Normal  School.  There  are  3  manual- 
training  schools,  a  school  of  pedagogy,  a  school  of  jiractice, 
an  industrial  art  school,  3  cooking-schools,  5  combined 
grammar_and  primary  schools.  29  combined  grammar,  sec- 
ondary, and  prinuvry,  31  consolidated,  37  grammar,  52  com- 
bined secondary  and  primary,  77  kindergartens,  64  second- 
ary, and  119  primary  school.s.  The  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania offers  sixty  prize  scholarships  to  the  "pupils  of  the 
public  schools.  The  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb  at  Mt.  Airy,  the  Asylum  for  the  Blind,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Working  Home  for  Blind  Men  are  prominent 
local  charities.  The  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  founded 
in  1805,  is  the  oldest  art  institution  in  the  country.  The 
School  of  Design  for  women  was  founded  in  185:'..  .The 
Drexel  Institute,  founded  by  A.  J.  Drexel.  imparts  indus- 
trial education  to  both  men  and  women.  It  w'as  opened  in 
1891.  The  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of  Industrial 
Arts  was  incorporated  in  1876.  Its  valuable  collection  of 
fabrics,  metals,  curios,  etc..  has  been  maintained  in  Memo- 
rial Hall,  the  permanent  building  erected  by  Pennsylvania 
at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  of  1876.  The  .Spring  Garden 
Institute  aims  to  cultivate  the  industrial  side  of  art  educa- 
tion. The  Williamson  Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades, 
founded  by  I.  V.  Williamson,  is  near  Media.  Girard 
College,  to  found  which  Stephen  Girard  left  about  $7,000,- 
000.  in  1893  contained  1,559  orphan  pupils,  114  officers  and 
pupils,  and  268  employees.  The  Temple  College,  with  a 
faculty  of  40  members  and  3,000  students,  has  an  evening 
department  for  the  instruction  of  working-people  at  a  nom- 
inal charge,  and  a  day  and  afternoon  depart Uicnt  for  all 
grades  of  s<'holars.  The  Wagner  Free  Institute  of  Science, 
begun  in  1847  by  Prof.  William  Wagner,  has  a  lecture-roora 
seating  640  people,  a  library  of  7.500  volumes,  a  natural  his- 
tory museum,  and  provides  free  lectures  on  scientific  sub- 
jects. The  Franklin  Institute  was  founded  in  1824  for  the 
promotion  of  the  mechanic  arts  an<l  manufactures.  Its 
library  contains  40,000  volumes,  25.000  jiamphlets,  20.000' 
ma|is  and  charts,  and  1,000  classified  and  catalogued  photo- 
graphs. The  library  is  strictly  scientific  and  technical  in 
character.  The  institute  maintains  a  drawing-school,  pub- 
lishes a  monthly  journal,  and  awards  each  year  medals  for 
meritorious  discoveries  and  inventions.  The  American 
Philosophical  Society,  which  was  made  famous  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century  among  scientists  by  the  attainments  of  Rit- 
tenhouse,  the  great  astronomer,  and  with  the  general  public 
by  the  more  popular  experiments  of  Franklin,  and  which 
included  among  its  members  Godfrey,  the  inventor  of  the 
mariner's  quadrant.  Mason  and  Dixon,  who  ran  the  bound- 
ary-line between  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  and  many 
other  celebrated  men,  was  founded  in  1743.  Its  reference 
library  contains  50.000  volumes.  There  are  over  100  libra- 
ries open  to  the  public,  the  chief  being  the  Philadelphia  Li- 
brary, founded  in  1731.  and  its  Ridgway  branch,  which,  un- 
der the  will  of  Dr.  James  Rush,  received  a  legacy  of  1^1,000,- 
000.  With  the  Philadelphia  Library  is  the  Loganian  Library, 
begun  in  1699,  founded  by  James  Logan,  the  secretary  of 
Pennsylvania,  who  provided  that  the  libraiian  should  always 
be  one  of  his  male  descendants,  thus  creating  what  is  said 
to  be  the  only  hereditary  office  in  the  U.S.  The  .Alercantile 
Library  was  founded  in  1821.  The  library  of  the  Car- 
pentei's  Company  was  established  in  1736.  the  Friends'  Li- 
brary in  1742.  The  city  is  rich  in  special  and  reference 
libraries,  among  the  most  important  lieing  those  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Historical  Society  (30,000  volumes),  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians,  the  Law  Library,  the  Hurst  Free  Law 
Library,  and  the  library  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sci- 
ences. The  Apprentices'  Library  and  that  of  the  City  Insti- 
tute, the  latter  being  the  first  free  library  in  the  city,  are 


566 


PHILADELPHIA 


free.  A  free  library  of  7,000  volumes,  under  the  Pepper 
bequest,  has  been  opened  in  the  city-hall,  and  by  authority 
of  city  councils  a  number  of  free  libraries  have  been  es- 
tablished in  different  parts  of  the  city.  The  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences,  founded  in  1812.  has  the  largest  col- 
lection of  shells  in  existence.  Its  ornithological  cabinet 
holds  27,000  mounted  specimens  and  5.000  unmounted  skins. 
Here  are  the  Gould  collection  of  Australian  birds,  the  Bona- 
parte collection  of  European  birds,  and  the  Verreaux  collec- 
tion of  African  and  Asiatic  birds.  In  fossils,  especially  in 
invertebrates,  the  collections  are  particularly  rich.  The 
academy  gives  a  scientific  education  to  a  number  of  young 
persons  without  charge.  At  the  Historical  Society  are  the 
most  complete  collection  of  colonial  laws  in  the  U.  S.,  tlie 
Dreer  collection  of  autograph  letters,  and  a  wealth  of  his- 
torical material. 

The  churclies  number  600;  the  .Sunday-schools  616.  with 
16,937  teachers  and  17S,ti6.5  scholars.  The  first  Sunday- 
school  in  the  %vorld,  of  which  there  is  now  a  record,  was 
■conducted  at  Germantown.  There  are  25  general  hospitals, 
25  special  hospitals,  and  5  free  dispensaries.  The  oldest 
hospital  in  America  is  the  Pennsylvania,  founded  in  1751. 
The  Philadelphia  City  Hospital  is  the  largest  in  the  U.  S. 
in  capacity.  Eacli  of  the  great  medical  schools  maintains  a 
hospital,  and  most  of  the  hospitals  have  training-.schools  for 
nurses.  The  Nurses'  School  of  the  Lying-in  Charity,  found- 
ed in  1828,  is  the  oldest  in  America  and  the  second  oldest  in 
the  world.  The  Wills  Eye  Hospital  was  founded  in  1832 
for  the  relief  of  the  poor."  The  Young  ]Men"s  Christian  As- 
sociation is  the  third  in  the  world  in  size  and  equipment. 

27(6  Municipal  Oovertunenl.— The  municipal  life  of  I'liila- 
delphia  begins  with  the  charter  to  William  Penn  of  Mar.  4, 
1681,  and  the  government  of  the  provincial  council,  the 
county  court,  and  the  grand  jury.  Under  the  proprietary 
charter  of  1691.  Ilumfrey  Jlorrey  became  tlie  first  mavor. 
Penn  in  1701,  before  his  departure  to  England,  granted  a 
second  proprietary  charter  to  Philadelphia,  and  this  lasted 
iintil  the  Revolution.  From  1776  to  1789  the  government 
of  the  city  rested  in  the  justices  of  the  peace  and  the  legis- 
lative commissions.  In  1789  an  act  of  the  Legislature  in- 
corporated the  city,  which  remained  under  this  charter  until 
1854.  During  the  greater  part  of  this  period  the  govern- 
ment was  administered  practically  by  the  different  commit- 
tees of  the  city  council,  although  at  first  an  effort  was  made 
to  concentrate  power  and  responsibility  in  the  executive. 
In  1854  the  many  outlying  districts  which  previously  had 
their  separate  governments  were  consolidated  with  the  city, 
which  became  coterminous  with  the  county.  The  old  city 
had  extended  from  Vine  to  South  Streets,  aiid  from  the  Dela- 
ware to  the  Schuylkill.  The  charter  created  by  the  Bullitt 
Act  of  1885  concentrates  executive  power  in  the  niavor.  elected 
for  four  years.  He  appoints  a  director  of  public  sa'fet  v,  whose 
department  includes  the  police,  fire,  electrical,  health,  build- 
ing inspection,  city  property,  and  boiler  inspection  bureaus ; 
a  director  of  public  works,"  whose  department  includes  the 
bureaus  of  gas,  highways,  street-cleaning,  lighting,  surveys, 
and  water :  and  a  president  and  four  directors  of  the  depart- 
ment of  charities  and  correction.  The  receiver  of  taxes  and 
city  solicitor  are  city  officers  elected  in  the  spring  for  terms 
of  three  years.  The  city  treasurer  and  city  comptroller  are 
county  officers  elected  for  three  years  in  November,  the  city 
and  the  county  of  Philadelphia  Ijeing  identical  geographic- 
ally, but  having  a  separate  political  existence.  There  are  a 
central  board  of  education,  consisting  of  a  representative 
from  each  ward,  and  local  boards  in  the  different  wards. 
The  sinking  fund  commission  is  composed  of  the  mayor, 
city  comptroller,  and  one  member  elected  by  the  city 
councils.  The  park  commission  is  composed  of  the  mavor, 
the  presidents  of  select  and  common  councils,  commis- 
sioner of  city  property,  chief  engineer  of  water  department, 
and  ten  citizens  appointed  for  five  years  by  the  judges  of 
the  common  pleas  courts.  The  public  buildings  commis- 
sion, created  by  the  Legislature  in  1870,  has  had  charge  of  the 
erection  of  the  new  city-hall.  The  park  commissioners  have 
charge  of  Fairmount  Park  and  Hunting  Park.  The  other 
forty  small  parks  of  the  citv,  of  which  fifteen,  with  a  total 
area  of  51  acres,  are  improved,  wliile  the  rest  are  used  as 
children's  play-groumls.  are  under  the  control  of  the  bureau 
of  city  property  of  I  lie  de|iartment  of  public  safetv.  The 
legislative  branch  of  the  city  government  is  composeil  of  the 
select  and  common  councils.  Each  of  the  thirty-seven  wards 
is  represented  by  one  select  councilman  elected  for  three  years, 
and  by  common  councilmen,  the  number  varying  in  the  dif- 
ferent wards,  elected  for  two  years.     There  is  one  common 


councilman  for  every  2.000  names  on  the  completed  canvas- 
sers' list  of  the  year  in  wdiich  the  election  is  held.  The  judi- 
ciary consists  of  twelve  judges  of  the  court  of  common  pleas, 
four  judges  of  the  orphans  court,  and,  in  1894,  twenty-eight 
magistrates.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  State  sits  "for  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  in  the  city-hall.  The  U.  S.  circuit 
and  district  courts  sit  in  the  post-office  building.  The  city 
is  represented  in  the  Legislature  by  eight  members  of  the 
State  Senate  and  thirty-nine  members  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. Philadelphia  had  in  1894  five  representatives 
in  Congress. 

The  assessed  value  of  real  estate,  about  two-thirds  of  the 
actual  value,  is  1766.446.387.  The  tax-rate  is  ?1.85  on  every 
.SIOO  of  assessed  valuation.  The  total  city  debt  on  Jan.  l", 
1894,  was  .$54,275,444.  a  decrease  during  the  year  of  .$774,- 
715;  amount  in  the  sinking  fund,  .$24.830.363 ;  cash  in  the 
treasury,  .$6.968,.502 ;  and  taxes  due  and  collectable,  $1,227,- 
696.  These  cash  assets  amounted  to  f  33.026.561.  leaving  the 
total  debt  above  cash  assets  $21,248,883.  The  real  estate 
owned  by  the  city  is  appraised  by  the  board  of  revision  of 
taxes  at  .$45,705,699.  The  total  receipts  for  the  vear  ending 
Dec.  31, 1893,  were  .$30.1 99.515;  expenditures,  27,977,232— 
excess  of  receipts.  $2,222,283. 

Banking  and  Insurance. — In  1894  there  were  42  trust 
companies  with  a  combined  capital  of  .$29,864,729  and  de- 
posits of  $66,396,409.  These  companies  afford  facilities  that 
in  most  cities  are  furnished  by  banks,  and,  with  a  capital 
larger  than  that  of  the  banks,  control  most  of  the  market 
for  collateral  loans.  There  are  41  national  and  3  State 
banks  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $23,915,000  and  depos- 
its of  $119,678,900.  There  are  4  savings-banks  with  depos- 
its of  $52,450,828.  The  field  for  these  institutions  is  limited 
on  account  of  the  great  number  of  building  and  loan  asso- 
ciations. 450  of  which  have  offices  in  the  citv,  have  invest- 
ments of  $40,000,000,  and  receive  annually  $.x000,000. 

There  are  17  Joint-stock  fire  and  marine  insurance  com- 
panies, with  a  capital  of  $8.4.52,875.  a  surplus  of  $7,987,885, 
and  total  assets  of  $36,420,710.  There  are  3  life-insurance 
companies  of  more  than  local  standing. 

Manufactures. — The  census  returns  of  1890  showed  that 
18.166  manufacturing  establishments  (representing  330  in- 
dustries) reported.  These  had  a  combined  capital  of  $375,- 
249,715,  employed  260,264  persons,  paid  $135,917,021  for 
wages  and  $311,645,804  for  materials,  and  had  ]iroducts 
valued  at  $577,234,446.  The  following  are  the  principal  in- 
dustries reported : 


CLASSIFICATION. 


Foundry  and  machine-shop 
products 

Printing  and  publishing 

Chemicals 

Sugar  and  molasses 

Iron  and  steel 

Boots  and  shoes  (factory 
product) 

Carpets  and  rugs 

Cotton  goods 

Woolen  goods. 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods 

Leather,  morocco 

Petroleuni  refining 

Siliv  and  silk  goocS 


Esiablish- 
menU. 


345 
668 


9.3 
13.3 
123 
115 
178 

33 
4 

43 


Capital. 


Persons 
employed. 


Value  of 
ptvducts. 


S34.469.632 
32,765,323 

11,264.183 
8.207,655 
7,850,128 

4,185,794 
15.515,490 
9.0S3.S97 
16,033.111 
8.923.866 
5.4:«,443 
9,.S51.798 
5,426,920 


18.040 
10.590 
2.072 
3.181 
4,691 

5,140 
12.124 
7.080 
10.5a3 
12.637 
3.012 
2.035 
4,145 


829,5.>4.444 
25,172.053 

9.674.910 
46..59S,.524 

9,387,512 

6.,S.51,834 
22.000,681 
ll.514.li01 
21,919.781 
14,932,981 
10.8)0,198 
8,616,982 
8,059,604 


The  minimum  yearly  products  of  all  Philadelphia's  manu- 
factures have  been  estimated  at  $763,820,400.  the  number  of 
distinct  establishments  at  22.500,  and  the  number  of  em- 
ployees at  3.50.000. 

Ship-building. — In  ship-building  from  1710  to  1894  Phila- 
delphia led  all  American  cities.  From  1781  to  1790  163 
vessels  aggregating  18.000  tons  register  were  constructed  in 
Philadelphia^  From  1790  to  1812  New  Bedford  and  Nan- 
tucket whalemen  frequently  had  their  vessels  built  at  the 
Philadelphia  yards.  In  1790  John  Fitch  made  regular  trips 
between  Philadelphia  and  Trenton  with  the  first  American 
steamboat.  In  1794  Joshua  lliiinphreys,  a  Philadeljihia 
ship-builder,  designed  the  Constellation,  President,  Consti- 
tution, and  the  Congress,  and  himself  superintended  the 
building  of  the  United  States  at  Philadelphia.  The  pur- 
chase by  the  East  India  Company  in  1830  of  two  Philadel- 
phia ships  built  for  the  China  trade  resulted  in  the  closing 
of  the  British  market  to  American-built  .ships.  Cramp's 
ship-yard  was  founded  in  1830,  and  there  were  then  four- 
teen ship-building  firms  along  the  Delaware  front  of  the 
city.  Two  of  these  are  still  in  existence.  In  sixty-three 
years  the  Cramps  built  269  ships  for  the  public  service,  and 


PHILADELPHIA 


567 


in  1S94  liail  13  moiv  in  various  stages  of  construction.  The 
new  Atlantic  liners  ami  the  Newark.  New  York,  (.'olunibia. 
Iiiiliana,  and  I'hilailelpliia.  among  other  vessels  of  the  new 
navv.  were  built  at  this  yard. 

Vommeire. — There  are  7  steamship  lines  from  Pliiladel- 
iihia  to  European  ports,  5  to  .Jamaica  and  the  West  Indies, 
anil  G  coastwise.  The  International  Navigation  Company, 
owner  of  the  New  York,  the  Paris,  the  Berlin,  the  Chester, 
tlie  .St.  Louis,  and  the  St.  Paul,  is  capitalized  and  controlled 
in  Philadelphia. 

Ill  1  ?.");!  Philadelphia  exported  12.5,000  barrels  of  flour 
and  1T.").()()0  bush,  of  wlieal.  In  IW!  its  domestic  exports 
were  .i;T,0<H).()UI) ;  in  ITIIU,  .i;lT..500.0U0 ;  in  isoo.  )s;:}l,000.- 
000.  In  184:^  the  ex[iorls  had  fallen  to  §2.30O,0t)O:  in  1880 
they  reached  SoG.oOO.OOO.  their  highest  point.  In  18!);j  the 
imports  were  .?(it5,122.14T;  exports,  $49,402,482.  The  im- 
migrants arriving  at  the  port  were  in  the  same  year  28.906. 

Itailwdys. — The  railway  systems  entering  the  city  are  the 
Pennsvlvania,  controlling  8,800  miles  of  road  i  the  Pliiladel- 
phia  and  Heading,  2,499-6  miles;  the  Lehigli  Valley,  1.023 
miles:  anil  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio.  2.0.53  miles — a  total  of 
13.046  miles.  Up  to  1894  the  terminals  of  the  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Reading  railways,  in  the  heart  of  the  city  and  reached 
by  elevated  viaducts  of  brick,  stone,  and  iron  exf  ending  to  the 
outskirts,  were  the  finest  in  the  world.  At  the  Broad  Street 
and  Camden  stations  of  the  Pennsylvania  line  an  average 
of  .585  trains  and  75.4.50  passengers  arrive  and  depart  daily, 
and  203.780  trains  and  27.083,704  passengers  yearly.  The 
terminal  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  exteiuls  on  Broad 
Street  from  Market  306  feet  to  Filbert  Sti-eet,  and  with  the 
train-sheil  along  Market  and  Filbert  Streets  westwardly  for 
813  feet.  The  train-shed  has  an  arch  of  iron  and  glass  with 
a  clear  span  of  304  feet.  The  Reading  terminal,  at  Market 
and  Twelfth  Streets,  is  of  pink  granite  to  the  .second  floor, 
with  pink-tinted  brick  and  white  terra-cotta  above.  It  cost 
$10.000.0110.  Here  348  trains  and  30,000  passengers  arrive 
and  depart  daily,  and  17.100  at  the  other  Reading  stations  of 
the  city.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  has  thirty  stations  in 
Philadelphia  at  which  freight  is  received  and  distributed. 
The  aggregate  tonnage  i\X  all  the  stations  in  1892  was  10.- 
218.0(i0.  Two  grain  elevators  at  fiirard  Point  have  a  total 
capacity  of  1,750,000  bush.  The  Philadelphia  and  Heading 
Railro.-iil  has  twenty-five  freight-.stations  in  the  city.  The 
Port  Riihmond  grain  elevator  has  a  capacity  of  960,000 
bush.;  another  elevator  at  Washington  Avenue  has  a  ca- 
I)acity  of  400.000  bush.  .\t  Port  Richmond  are  the  great 
coal-wharves  of  the  Heading  Company.  The  coal-wharves 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Company  are  at  (Treenwieh  Point.  A 
short  distance  above  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill,  at  Point 
Breeze,  is  the  terminus  of  the  pipe-lines  of  the  .Standard 
Oil  Comjiany,  where  tank  steamers  rei^eive  about  35  per 
cent,  of  all  tiie  oil  exported  from  the  U.  S.  The  Schuylkill 
Canal,  108  miles,  is  controlled  by  the  Reading  Railroail.  In 
1894  city  councils  appropriated  $10,000  for  a  ])relinunary 
survey  of  a  ship-canal  across  New  Jer-sey  to  the  ocean. 

Delaware.  Hirer  Improremeiifs. — From  1836  to  1894  inclu- 
sive the  (iovcrnment  appropriated  §2.409.000  for  the  im- 
pjrovement  of  the  channel  of  the  Delaware  river,  and  $1,- 
791.000  for  the  harbor  between  Fisher's  Point  and  Kaighn's 
I'liinl.  a  distance  of  5  miles.  In  1894  Smith  and  Wind- 
mill islands  were  removed,  as  part  of  a  plan  to  contract  the 
Delaware  river  immediately  in  front  of  the  city  from  a 
width  of  2,400  feet  to  one  of  1,900  feet  by  an  extension  of 
the  wharves  on  tlie  Philadeliihia  side  to  a  length  of  from 
500  to  600  feet,  which  woidd  permit  the  widening  of  Dela- 
ware Avenue  from  50  to  1.50  feet.  To  obtain  the  desired 
depth  of  26  feet  at  mean  low  water  and  32  feet  at  high 
water  for  a  width  of  1.000  feet  from  the  harbor  line,  the  ex- 
cavation of  2.5.000,000  culiic  yards  of  material  and  the  ex- 
penditure of  $3..500.000  were  required.  By  .Inly  1.  1894, 
5,000,000  cubic  yards  had  been  excavated.  In  the  autumn 
of  that  year  an  ordinance  was  introduced  in  the  city 
councils  apijrojirialing  i!;.500,000  for  improving  the  river- 
channel  below  tlu'  harbor,  and  ij;l..500,000  for  the  widening 
of  Delaware  Avenue.  The  (iirard  estate  also  has  a  fund  of 
aliout  !?1,000,000  available  for  the  latter  purpose. 

Ilisturi/. — Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  in  1636  sent  a  little 
biind  of  .Swedish  colonists  to  the  village  of  Wiccaco,  now  a 
part  of  the  city.  .An  Indian  town  previously  stood  within 
the  present  city  limits.  In  1677  the  Swedes"  erected  a  log 
church,  which  also  served  as  a  fort.  In  1700  this  was  torn 
down  and  a  lirick  strurture  erected  on  the  site,  known  as  the 
(Hd  Swedes"  chiirrh.  which  still  stands  in  the  southern  pari 
of  the  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware.     Services  in  the 


Swedish  language  were  continued  until  1818.  The  Dutch 
vessel  Onrust.  Capt.  Hendrickson.  explored  the  Delaware  in 
1023,  and  near  New  Castle  the  Dutch  in  1651  built  Fort 
Casimir.  which  was  captured  by  the  Swedes  in  10-54,  retaken 
by  the  Dutch  the  same  year,  captured  by  the  English  in 
1(564,  surrendered  to  the  Dutch  in  1673,  and  given  over  to 
the  English  by  the  treaty  of  1674.  William  Penn's  deputy 
governor  and  cousin,  Capt.  William  Markham,  arrived  at 
Philadel[)hia  in  Oct.,  1681.  and  Penn's  commissioners  in  the 
early  summer  of  1683.  Penn  himself,  with  a  large  company 
of  Friends  or  Quakers,  reached  New  Castle  on  the  Delaware 
on  Oct.  27,  1682.  The  city  of  Philadelphia  had  been  named, 
surveyed,  platted,  and  the  lots  occupied  by  .some  settlers  in 
July,  1682.  The  Dutch  and  German  pioneer.s.  who  had  l)een 
invited  by  Penn  to  remove  to  Pennsylvania,  arrived  at  Phila- 
delphia Oct.  6,  1683,  and  settled  (jermantown,  now  a  ward 
of  the  city.  This  immigration  is  notable  becau.se  four  of 
the  innuigrjints,  Gerhard  Ilendrick.s,  Dirk  Op  den  (ir.ieff, 
Francis  Daniel  Pastorius.  and  .\braham  Op  den  tiraefT.  on 
Apr.  18,  1688,  sent  to  the  Friends'  meeting  the  first  ]iublic 
protest  ever  made  in  America  against  the  holding  of  slaves; 
because  in  1690  the  first  paper-ndll  in  America  was  erected 
by  William  Rittinghuysen,  a  Dutch  immigrant,  where  was 
niade  the  paper  used  by  William  Bradford,  the  earliest 
printer  in  the  middle  colonies:  and  because  Sower,  the  Ger- 
man printer  of  Germantown,  printed  in  German  three  quarto 
editions  of  the  Bible  before  an  edition  in  English  had  been 
printed  in  America. 

The  principal  political  events  of  the  colonial  period  were 
the  attempts,  extending  over  m.'iny  years,  to  wrest  the  politi- 
cal control  of  the  colony  from  the  Quakers  and  Germans, 
and  the  contests  between  the  Assembly  and  the  proprietary 
interests.  Benjamin  Franklin  was  active  in  the  efforts  to 
alienate  the  Germans  from  the  Quakers,  but  was  himself 
defeated  when  a  candidate  for  the  Assembly.  These  politi- 
cal struggles  had  an  important  influence  upon  the  attitude 
of  the  colony  in  the  contest  with  Great  Britain.  The  relig- 
ious and  civil  liberty  encouraged  by  Penn's  government 
caused  the  Quakers  and  the  Germans  to  feel  a  strong  attach- 
ment to  the  proprietors,  whose  rights  they  saw  would  be  im- 
periled by  revolution.  The  leaders  of  society  in  Philadel- 
phia were  not  clergymen,  as  in  Massachusetts,  but  lawyers, 
like  .John  Dickinson,  who  had  received  a  thorough  legal 
training  at  the  Inns  of  Court  in  London,  who  had  great  re- 
spect for  law,  and  who  thought  that  the  legal  methods  for 
settling  the  difficulties  should  be  exhausted  before  force  was 
resorted  to.  Opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act  took  form  in 
1765.  The  act  of  Parliament  imposing  duties  upon  paper 
and  tea  was  resisted  in  1768.  and  when  in  1773  the  news 
reached  Philadelphia  that  the  tea-ships  were  on  their  way, 
the  peo|)le  met  in  the  State-house  on  Oct.  17,  and  adopted 
resolutions  which  wei-e  unanimously  readopted  by  the  Bos- 
ton meeting  on  Nov.  5.  The  tea-ship  Polly,  Capt.  Ayres, 
from  London,  anchored  near  Philadelphia  two  days  after 
Christmas,  but  was  not  allowed  to  discharge  her  cargo. 
Carpenters'  Hall  was  the  nu>eting-place  of  the  first  Conti- 
nental Congress  of  1774.  and  the  State-house  that  of  the 
second  Congress,  which  nu't  May  2.  1775,  and  which,  on 
.Julv  2.  1776.  agreed  to  the  resolution  declaring  that  the 
united  colonies  "are.  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  in- 
dependent States."  On  July  8  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence was  first  publicly  read  by  John  Nixon  from  the  plat- 
form of  the  observatory,  which  then  stood  in  the  square 
back  of  the  hall,  and  the"  bell,  now  called  the  Liberty  bell, 
in  the  State-house  steeple  fulfilled  the  prophecy  of  its  in- 
scri]itiiin—"  Proclaim  liberty  throughout  the  land  unto  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof." 

The  city  was  soon  to  become  the  center  of  stirring  events. 
The  battle-fields  of  Trenton,  Brandy  wine,  where  more  troops 
were  engaged  than  on  any  other  battle-field  of  the  war,  the 
scene  of  the  attack  upon  and  escape  of  Wayne  at  Paoli, 
where  he  occupied  a  perilous  position  by  Washington's 
orders,  and  Valley  Forge,  are  only  an  hour's  ride  from  the 
city ;  while  Germantown,  where  the  losses  were  heavier  than 
in  "any  other  battle  of  the  war,  is  now  a  ward  of  Philadel- 
phia. Lord  Howe  entered  the  city  Sept.  26.  The  Congress 
had  fled  to  York.  Count  Donop,  with  2..500  men.  was  de- 
feated at  Red  Bank  by  Col.  Christopher  Greene  with  one- 
sixth  of  that  force  Oct.  22.  1777.  The  British  naval  attack  on 
the  same  day  also  ended  in  disaster.  Fort  Jlifllin.  on  Mud 
island,  after  a  gallant  defense  of  six  days,  was  abandoned 
on  Oct.  16.  bv  which  time  the  earthworks  had  been  leveled 
bv  the  British  fire.  On  Dec.  8  Howe  declined  a  battle  with 
Washington  at  Whitemarsh.     The  British  evacuated  Phila- 


568 


PniLAE 


PHILELPHO 


delphia  in  June.  1778,  and  Congress  returnerl.  The  conven- 
tion which  framed  the  Constitution  ot  the  U.  S.  met  at  the 
State-house  in  Jlay,  1787.  and  adjourned  Sept.  18.  Under 
the  Constitution  Philadelphia  was  the  capital  of  the  U.  S. 
from  1790  to  1800,  and  in  the  biiildin>,'.  still  standing,  at  the 
southeast  corner  of  Sixth  and  Chestnut  Streets  George 
Washington  was  inaugurated  as  President  for  a  second  term 
and  John  Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson  as  President  and 
Vice-president. 

On  the  invitation  of  the  Pennsylvania  Abolition  Society 
a  convention  was  held  in  Philadelphia  Jan.  1.  1794,  of  dele- 
gates from  the  different  abolition  societies  of  the  country. 
The  nineteenth  century  was  marked  locally  by  the  opening 
of  the  water-works  Jan.  1.  1801  ;  the  completion  of  the 
Schuylkill  Canal  in  1825 ;  the  opening  of  the  Germautown 
Railwav  in  1832 ;  the  lighting  of  the  streets  with  gas  Feb. 
18,  1836:  the  abolition 'riots "of  1834,  1835,  and  1838;  the 
burning  of  Pennsylvania  Hall  by  a  mob  on  May  17,  1838; 
the  anti-Catholic  riots  of  May  and  July,  1844;  the  civil  war 
period  ;  and  the  Centennial  Exhibition  from  May  10  to  Nov. 
10.  1876,  which  was  carried  through  entirely  by  Philadelphia 
capital,  with  the  exception  of  a  Government  loan  that  was 
repaid  in  full. 

Philadelphia's  services  to  the  Union  cause  during  the  civO 
war  (1861-65)  were  important.  One  of  her  sons.  Gen.  George 
B.  McCleilan,  organized  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and, 
with  a  brief  interruption,  commanded  it  from  June  22, 1861, 
until  Xov.  7,  1862.  Another  Philadelphian,  Gen.  George 
Gordon  Meade,  commanded  it  from  June  28,  1863,  a  few 
days  afterward  winning  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  until  the 
army  was  disbanded  in  1865.  Gen.  Andrew  A.  Humphreys, 
a  descendant  of  the  designer  of  the  famous  vessels  which 
won  the  brilliant  naval  victories  on  the  sea  in  the  war  of 
1812,  was  famous  as  chief  of  staff  of  the  same  army  and  as 
comnurnder  of  the  Second  Corps  at  the  time  of  Lee's  surren- 
der. Gen.  David  Bell  Birney,  another  corps  couimander, 
was  also  a  Philadelphian,  and  Admiral  Porter,  who  at  Port 
Fisher  commanded  the  largest  armada  the  world  had  ever 
seen,  was  a  native  of  a  Philadelphia  subui-b.  The  city  sent 
eighty  regiments  to  the  field.  The  Union  Volunteer  and 
Cooper  Shop  refreshment-saloons  fed  all  the  Union  soldiers 
from  the  North  and  East,  passing  to  the  front  and  return- 
ing home,  until  the  end  of  the  war,  the  total  number  thus 
cared  for  being  over  1,000,000.  Philadelphia  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  U.  S.  Christian  Commission,  which  expended 
$2,524,512  in  caring  for  the  soldiers,  and  distributed  stores 
valued  at  $2,953,767,  besides  Bibles,  hymn-books,  etc.  The 
Sanitary  Fair  held  in  Logan  Square  in  1864  netted  .$1,080,- 
000  for  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers.  During  the  war  the 
house  of  Jay  Cooke  &  Co.  placed  $3,000,000,000  worth  of 
Government  securities  without  direct  profit  to  the  firm.  Tn 
the  Mexican  war  E.  \V.  Clarke  &  Co.  placed  one-third  of  the 
war  loan,  Stephen  Girard  furnished  the  funds  for  the  war 
of  1812,  and  Robert  Morris  was  the  financier  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. For  a  number  of  years  the  Bank  of  the  United  States, 
of  which  Nicholas  Biddle  was  the  head,  was  the  center  of  the 
financial  currents  of  the  country,  its  position  being  destroyed 
when  President  Andrew  Jackson  vetoed  the  bill  to  recharter 
it.  and  ordered  the  removal  of  the  Government  deposits. 

There  are  20  daily  newspapers,  118  weekly  publications, 
133  monthly,  8  fortnightly,  12  quarterly,  and  5  bi-monthly 
periodicals.  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century 
Robert  Bell,  one  of  whose  clerks  was  Thomas  Paine,  intro- 
duced English  literiiture  to  the  peojile  of  the  U.  S.,  pub- 
lishing Hasselas.  Goldsmith's  Traveller  (1768),  Robertson's 
Charles  V.  (3  vols.,  1771),  Blackstone's  Commentaries;  the 
poems  of  Milton  and  Thomson,  and  other  standard  works. 
For  sixty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Philadelphia 
magazines,  from  The  Portfolio  to  Gfraham's  Magazine,  were 
the  best  in  the  U.  S. 

Popitlatinn.— (1800)  65,787;  (1820)  114,445;  (1850)  360.- 
305;  (1870)674,023;  (1880)847,170;  (1890)  1,046,964;  (1892) 
by  city  census,  1,142,6.53. 

AuTiioRiTiKS.— Westcott,  History  of  Philadelphia:  Al- 
lison and  Penrose,  Philadelphia  i6Si-lSS7.  a  Ilistori/  of 
Municipal  Development.  Isaac  R.  Pennypacker. 

Plli'lae  [=  Lat.  =  Or.  al  *(\ai ;  Egypt.  P-alel-.  the  island 
of  the  end;  (.'opt.  Pilak.  or  Pelak;  mod.  Jeziret  Anas-el- 
W'jjond] :  a  s.acred  island  in  the  Nile,  a  little  S.  of  the  first 
cataract  (about  24  N.  lat.).  devnted  principally  to  Isis  and 
Osiris,  who  were  worshiped  here  for  seventy  vcars  after  tlie 
edict  ot  Theodosius,  in  381  A.  D.,  prohibiting  the  native  cult. 
It  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  graves  of  Osiris  (g.  v.),  and 


was  hence  a  resort  of  pious  pilgrims.  On  its  west  side  is 
located  a  large  and  irregular  temple  of  Isis,  built  by  Nec- 
tanebo  II.  and  extended  by  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Roman 
enq)erors  down  to  Diocletian.  A  small  but  exceedingly 
beautiful  temple  to  Isis  is  also  located  on  the  east  of  the 
island.  It  was  built  by  Nerva  Trajanus,  and  is  usually 
known  as  Pharaoh's  Bed.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Phllaret,  Basil  Drosdoff  {Vasily  Drozdov) :  Metropol- 
itan of  Moscow ;  b.  at  Kolomna,  63  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Moscow, 
Jan.  6,  1783  ;  was  educated  in  the  theological  seminary  in 
Moscow;  became  tutor  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages; 
preacher  in  the  Sergian  monastery  of  Troizka  1806;  entered 
the  monastic  life,  and  became  archimandrite  (1811),  and 
later  rector  (1812)  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Theological  Acad- 
emy ;  Bishop  of  Reval  (1817),  Archbishop  of  Tver  and  Yaro- 
slav  (1891),  Metropolitan  of  Moscow  1821.  D.  in  Moscow, 
Dec.  1,  1867.  He  was  renowned  as  an  orator,  a  theologian, 
and  a  statesman.  He  was  learned  and  remarkably  broad- 
minded.  To  him  is  attributed  the  emancipation  of  the 
serfs.  He  was  the  constant  adviser  of  his  sovereign,  and 
the  most  venerated  and  beloved  man  in  the  Russian  em- 
pire. His  writings  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation,  and  one 
of  them,  his  Lunger  Catechism  of  the  Orthodox  Catholic 
Eastern  Church  (rep.  by  Schafl'.  Creeds,  ii.,  445-542,  in  Black- 
more's  translation),  was  sent  to  all  the  Eastern  patriarchs 
and  unanimously  approved  by  them,  and  since  1839  has 
been  generally  used  in  the  Russian  schools  and  churches. 
A  selection  of  his  sermons  in  English  translation,  with  a 
short  biography,  appeared  in  London  1873.  His  greatest 
work  was  his  history  of  the  Russian  Church  (Moscow,  1850- 
59;  German  trans.,  2  vols.,  Frankfort,  1872). 

Samuel  JIacauley  Jackson. 

Phllbrick,  John  Dudley.  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  ;  educator;  b. 
at  Deerfleld.  N.  H.,  May  27,  1818 ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
1842 ;  taught  the  next  ten  years  in  Boston ;  was  principal 
of  the  State  Normal  School,  and  State  superintendent  of 
schools  in  Connecticut  four  years;  superintendent  of  public 
schools  in  Boston  1857-74  and  1876-78;  for  ten  years  mem- 
ber of  Massachusetts  board  of  education,  and  its  agent  in 
1875 ;  president  of  State  educational  associations  of  Con- 
necticut and  Massachusetts  and  American  Institute  of  In- 
struction, and  National  Teachers'  Association  ;  was  editor 
of  Connecticut  Common-school  Journal  and  Massachusetts 
Teacher:  educational  commissioner  of  Massachusetts  to 
Vienna  Exposition  1873,  serving  as  member  of  interna- 
tional jury;  U.  S.  commissioner  of  education  and  member 
of  international  jury  at  Paris  1878,  receiving  the  decorations 
of  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  the  gold  palm  of 
llie  University  of  France.  He  was  the  author  of  nearly  fifty 
public-school  reports  of  great  value,  and  of  Citi/  School 
St/stems  in  the  United  States  (U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education 
1885),  a  comprehensive  and  valuable  studv.  D.  at  Danvers, 
Mass.,  Feb.  3,  1886.  Revised  by'C.  H.  Thurber. 

Philel'pho.  or  Filelfo.  Francesco:  humanist;  b.  at 
Tolentino.  Italy,  July  25.  1398.  Having  studied  at  Padua, 
he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  The 
next  year  (1417)  he  was  invited  to  Venice  to  teach  eloquence 
and  moral  philosophy.  Here  he  remained  two  years,  becom- 
ing a  citizen  of  Venice  and  being  treated  with  great  respect. 
In  1419  he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  Venetian  consul- 
general  (bailo)  at  Constantinople,  and  in  1420  he  arrived 
there.  He  at  once  took  up  the  study  of  Greek  under  John 
Chrysoloras,  brother  of  the  more  famous  JIanuel  (</.  v.),  and 
became  a  favorite  at  the  imperial  court.  In  1427  he  re- 
turned to  accept  the  chair  of  Eloquence  at  Venice ;  but  in 
1428  we  find  him  in  Bologna,  and  in  1429  in  Florence.  In 
1434,  however,  as  a  result  of  a  bitter  quarrel  with  the 
scholars  of  Florence  and  of  rash  participation  in  the  in- 
trigues against  Cosimo  de'  Jledici,  he  had  to  remove  to 
Siena,  After  four  years'  residence  here  he  was  invited  by 
Filippo  Jlaria  Visconti  to  Milan,  wliere  he  was  treated  with 
great  respect,  and  enabled  to  live  in  the  luxurious  and  vain- 
glorious fashion  he  loved.  After  tlie  death  of  Filippo  iMaria 
(1447).  however,  and  the  seizure  of  Milan  by  Francesco  Sfor- 
za,  he  found  his  position  an  uneasy  one.  At  last,  in  1474, 
he  was  tempted  to  accept  a  professorial  chair  at  Rome. 
Things  went  hndly  here,  and  in  1476  he  posted  back  to 
Milan.  In  1481  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Greek  Litera- 
ture in  Florence,  and  died  two  weeks  after  his  arrival  there, 
July  31,  1481.  He  was  conceited,  jealous,  passionate,  and 
absolutely  without  principle.  Yet  he  extorted  from  his  con- 
temporaries almo.st  unbounded  respect  and  admiration.  He 
was  perhaps  the  first  modern  to  know  Greek  and  Latin 


PHILEMON 


PHILIP 


569 


eqiiallv  well,  and  this  knowledge  seemed  at  the  time  almost 
a  iiiiiaclf.  Tlie  works  lie  has  left,  apart  from  his  tiaiisla- 
tions,  have  almost  no  interest  beyond  tlmt  atla<-liinK  to  the 
inseiuiity  of  their  seurrility.  See  Fruiicesci  Phildji  Epis- 
tofitntm' Fumiliarum  lihri  xxxvi.  (Vcniee,  1502) :  Salijru- 
Tuin  Jlecaloslic/ia  (Venice,  1502);  Oratiunes  Franc.  J'/iil. 
cum  quibu»(lam  aliiK  eiusdem  operibiis  {I'aiis,  1515);  E.  Le- 
prand.  Venl-dix  lettrea  t/recques  de  Francois  Filelfe  .  .  . 
d'apresle  Cod.  Trii-ul.  A7.j?  (Paris,  1892);  Cunvii-ia  Jlediola- 
nemia  (Spires,  1508) ;  C.  de  Rosmini.  Viiadi  Franc.  Filvlfo 
(3  vols.,  Milan,  1808);  G.  Voigt,  Die  Wiedtrhehbung  dts 
ktasaischen  Alterlhiiins  (2d  ed.  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1881). 

A.  li.  Marsh. 

Pllilp'mon  (in  Or.  *i\'^ytitD>'):  Greek  comic  poet ;  b.  at  Syr- 
acuse, or  at  Soli,  in  t'ilicia,  about  361  B.  c. ;  lived  mostly  in 
Athens,  where  he  was  a  successful  rival  of  Menander,  but 
spent  some  time  in  Alexandria.  I),  at  Athens  in  262  B.C. 
'I'lic  Mercator  and  Trinnmmus  of  Plautus  are  adapted  from 
Philemon,  and  fragments  of  his  plays  are  to  be  found  in 
Jleinrke's  and  Kock's  collections.  B.  L.  G. 

PliiliMiioii,  Kpistlc  of  St.  Paul  to:  a  letter  written  at 
the  same  lime  as  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  t.'olos- 
sians.  It  is  a  private  letter,  begging  forgiveness  and  ac- 
ceptanee  as  a  brother  beloved  for  a  runaway  servant,  Onesi- 
mus,  who  had  been  converted  through  the  apostle's  teach- 
ings. It  is  stated  by  tradition  that  the  letter  was  written 
from  Home.  Others  suppose  C'a;sarea  was  the  place.  One 
tradition  makes  St.  Philemon  a  Bishop  of  Colossa;,  and  in 
the  Koinan  missal  he  is  coraraemorated  on  Nov.  22.  See 
Pailine  Kpistles. 

Pllile'tilS  (in  Gr.  *iA^tos):  Greek  grammarian  and  poet 
of  the  island  of  Cos:  tutor  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus:  master 
of  Theocritus,  teacher  of  Zenodotus.  A  great  light  in  his 
day,  and  much  admired  by  his  imitator,  Propertius.  Scant 
fragments  arc  given  in  Schneidewin's  Delectus  and  Bergk's 
Autholoqia  Lyrica.  See  Couat,  La  Poesie  Alexandrine. 
pp.  08-80.  B.  L.  G. 

Pliil'idor,  Francois  Andre  Danigan:  composer  and 
chess-player;  b.  at  Dreux,  Eure-et-Loire,  France,  Sept.  7, 
1726;  received  his  musical  education  in  the  royal  chapel, 
aflernard  in  Holland  and  Germany,  where  he  resided  from 
1745  to  175-1;  composed  between  1754  and  1774  a  number 
of  operas,  comic  an<l  serious,  which  were  well  received  ;  but 
became  most  famous  as  an  unrivaled  _master  of  chess-play- 
ing. Ilis  book.  LWnalijse  du  Jen  des  Echecs  (London,  1777), 
was  for  many  years  considered  the  code  of  the  game.  I),  in 
Lrjudon,  -Vug.  24,  1795.  See  Allen's  Life  of  Philidor  (Phila- 
deliihiu.  1864). 

Philip:  the  fourth  called  to  the  apostleship  by  Christ; 
b.  at  liethsaida.  He  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Gospels, 
e.specially  by  John  (vi. ;  xii.  20-22;  sir.  8),  but  must  not  be 
confounded  with  Philip  the  Evangelist,  mentioned  in  Acts 
vi.,  who  had  four  virgin  daughters  who  pro|)hesied  (Acts 
xxi.  8,  9).  By  the  Fathers  they  are  so  confounded  that  it  is 
impossible  to  separate  them.  Thus  Theodoret  re|iorts  {Com. 
on  Ps.  cxvi.)  that  he  preacheci  in  Phrygia.  which  is  likely  ; 
Clement  of  .\\i'Kiiw\rUi  (.Stromafa,  in..  6  [Ante-y^icene  Fa- 
thers, ii..  390])  that  he  was  married  and  had  married  daugh- 
ters, wliicli  again  is  likely,  but  the  statement  may  come  from 
the  confusion  noted  above  ;  Eusebius  (Ch.  His.,  iii.,31 ;  Eng. 
trans.,  pp.  162-163)  slates  that  he  died  at  Hierapolis.  in  Syria, 
but,  a-s  the  context  shows,  he  confounds  him  with  the  evan- 
gelist. His  festival  is  celebrated  by  the  Latin  Church  on 
Jlay  1,  by  the  Greek  on  Xov.  14.  The  Ada  Fkilippi  are 
apocryphal. — Philip  the  Evaxrelist  was  one  of  the  seven 
deacons  (.Vets  vi.  5);  persecution  drove  him  to  Samaria, 
where  he  c^mfounded  Simon  Magus  (Acts  viii.  .5).  lie  was 
instrumental  in  the  conversion  of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  (viii. 
2  seq.);  afterward  preached  in  Ca'sarea  (viii.  40).  where  Paul 
met  him  (.Vets  xxi.  8).  and  Greek  Church  legends  make  him 
Bishop  of  Tralles,  in  Lydia.       Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Philip  (in  Gr.  ♦(A.urirss) :  the  name  of  five  Macedonian 
kings,  of  whom  two  became  verv  celebrated.  PiiiLU-  11. 
(359-:336),  b.  at  IVIla  in  382.  a  son  of  Amyntas  II.:  spent 
while  a  youth  three  years  as  a  hostage  ai  Thebes,  in  the 
house  of  Epaminondas,  where  he  liecame  familiar  with 
Greek  tactics  and  [)olitics.  When  he  ascended  the  throne 
Macedonia  was  attacked  from  two  sides  by  external  enemies, 
the  Illyrians  and  the  Athenians,  and  in  the  interior  it  was 
torn  by  four  pretenders  anil  their  factions:  but  in  less  than 
two  years  the  young  king  repelled  the  Illyrians,  l)Ought  off 
the  Athenians,  defeated  and  killed  the  pretenders,  and  es- 


tablished himself  firmly  in  the  kingdom.  He  immediately 
began  to  work  at  the  realization  of  his  much-cherished  plan, 
the  acquisition  of  the  supremacy  over  all  Greece,  and  by 
his  energy  and  shrewdness,  his  talents  and  unscrupulous- 
ness,  he  succeeded  at  last.  He  conquered  Pydna  and  Me- 
thone,  two  Athenian  pos.sessions  on  the  coast  of  .Macedonia, 
the  peninsula  of  Chalcidice,  with  the  prosperous  cities  of 
Olynthus,  Potidsea,  Ainphi|)olis,  etc.,  all  Athenian  colonies 
or  allies;  and  a  part  of  Thrace,  with  the  rich  gold  mines, 
and  the  town  of  Crenides,  whicli  soon  became  a  flourishing 
city  under  the  name  of  Philippi.  In  sjiite  of  Demosthenes's 
thundering  against  him.  he  achieved  these  conquests  with- 
out occasioning  any  serious  breach  with  Athens,  for  he  un- 
derstood how  to  bribe  and  how  to  deceive.  Meanwhile  he 
had  also  defeated  the  tyrant  of  Phera-  and  reduced  the  whole 
of  Thessaly,  and  during  the  two  sacred  wars  in  346  and  339 
he  acquired  a  foothold  in  Greece  pro[)er,  called  in  by  the 
Greeks  themselves— in  the  first  case,  by  the  Thebans  against 
the  Phocians;  in  the  second,  by  the  Amphiclvonic  Council 
against  the  Locrians.  Alarmed  at  his  successes!  Athens  made 
a  coalition  with  Thebes  and  other  (ireek  states  against  him, 
but  he  routed  the  allied  army  at  Cha-ronea  in  338,  and  after 
this  victory  became  the  master  of  Greece.  Bv  his  admission 
as  a  member  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council  shortly  after  the 
First  Sacred  war  he  and  the  Jlacedonians  were  recognized 
as  belonging  to  the  Greek  nation,  and  by  the  congress  at 
t.'orinth  (in  337)  he  was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  all 
the  Greeks  under  a  projected  invasion  of  Persia ;  but  the 
realization  of  this  vast  plan  he  had  to  leave  to  his  son 
Alexander :  during  his  preparations  he  was  assassinated  at 
^Ega;  by  Pausanias.— Under  Philip  V.  (220-179),  b.  in  237, 
JIacedonia  relapsed  into  insignificance.  He  dreamt,  like 
his  subjects,  only  of  the  re-establishment  of  the  empire  of 
Alexander.  His  whole  attention  was  taken  up  bv  the  East, 
by  Pergamns.  Bithynia.  Syria,  etc.,  and  meanwhile  the  dan- 
ger arose  from  the  West,  from  Pome,  which  alieadv  held 
possessions  in  Illyria.  The  offers  of  alliance  which  Hanni- 
bal made  he  treated  slightingly,  and  the  war  with  Kome, 
which  began  incidentally,  the  first  Jlacedonian  war  (210- 
205),  he  carried  on  without  enei-gy,  though  generallv  suc- 
cessfully. In  200  the  war  began  again,  the  second  Mace- 
donian war.  in  consequence  of  Philip's  aggressive  policy 
toward  Pergamns  and  the  Acha-an  association,  now  allies 
of  Rome.  The  Macedonian  army  was  completely  routed  by 
Titus  Quintius  Flamininus  at  Cynosccphahv  in  197,  and  the 
country  reduced  to  a  submissive" ally  of  Rome,  relinquishing 
all  its  conquests  in  Europe  and  Asia,  surrendering  its  fleet, 
and  paying  a  tribute.  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

P1iiH|>  :  the  name  of  six  kings  of  France.  Philip  I.,  b. 
1052.  son  of  Henry  I.  and  a  Russian  princess.  Anna,  came 
to  the  throne  in  10.59.  ruling  at  first  jointly  with  his  father, 
after  whose  death  in  1060  Philip  possessed  the  undivided 
sovereignty.  In  1071  he  married  Bertha  of  Holland,  by 
whom  he  had  three  children  ;  but  in  1091,  having  fallen  in 
love  with  Bertrade  of  Montfort,  the  wife  of  the  Count  of ' 
Anjou,  he  repudiated  the  queen  and  married  Bertvade,  in 
spite  of  the  vehement  opposition  of  the  Church.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Lyons,  who  was  papal  legate  for  France,  excom- 
municated Philip  and  Bertrade  at  the  Council  of  Autun, 
1094,  and  in  the  following  year.  1095,  at  the  Council  of 
Clermont,  Pope  Urban  II.  in  person  renewed  the  excom- 
munication. Philip,  however,  continued  to  live  with  Ber- 
trade, and  after  the  death  of  Bertha  the  Church  lost  its 
principal  argument  against  him.  Nevertheless  in  1100  the 
legates  of  Paschal  ll.  compelled  him  to  acknowledge  his 
eldest  son,  Louis,  as  coregent.  and  from  that  time  begins 
really  the  reign  of  Louis  VI.  D.  July  29,  1108.— Philip  II., 
Ai'oL-sTi's,  b.  in  Aug..  1165,  son  of  Louis  VII.  and  -Alice  of 
Champagne,  ascended  the  throne  Sept.  18,  1180,  after  the 
death  of  his  father.  His  reign  was  eminently  successful. 
In  the  controversies  which  took  place  between  Henry  II. 
of  England  and  his  sons  Philip  invariably  took  the  part 
of  the  latter,  and  not  without  profit,  though  he  afterward 
fouml  among  them  his  bitterest  and  most  formidable  ene- 
my, Richard  Co'nr  de  Lion.  Richard  ascended  the  throne 
of  England  in  1189,  and  in  the  following  year  he  and 
Philip  joined  in  their  famous  crusade.  They  quarreled  in 
the  Iloly  Land,  and  Philip  returned  to  France,  stop[)ing  at 
Rome  on  his  way  to  ask  the  pope  to  release  him  from  tho 
oath  that  he  had  taken  not  to  attack  Richard's  possessions 
in  his  absence.  The  pope  denied  his  request.  Neverthe- 
less, as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the  imprisonment  of  Richard  by 
the  Emperor  Henry  VI.,  Philip  made  an  alliance  with  John, 


570 


PHILIP 


began  the  att.ack,  and  seized  a  portion  of  tlie  English  king's 
territories  in  France.  After  the  liberation  of  Kiehard  and 
his  reconciliation  with  John,  war  broke  out  in  which  for- 
tune decided  now  on  this  side  and  now  on  that  ;  but  at 
the  death  of  Richard  in  1199.  Philip  was  the  gainer,  and, 
under  John,  England  lost  most  of  its  remaining  posses- 
sions in  France,  lie  was  equally  successful  in  his  many 
controversies  with  Flanders.  Brittany,  etc.,  with  the  feudal 
lords  of  the  realm,  and  with  the  clergy.  He  sent  his  am- 
bassadors to  the  great  Council  of  the  Lateran  in  1215,  and 
he  promised  to  give  one-fourth  of  his  revenues  to  a  new 
crusade,  but  he  absolutely  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the 
war  against  the  Albigenses.  When  Aniaury  of  Montfort 
proposed  to  cede  to  liiiu  those  domains  in  Languedoc  which 
the  Council  of  the  Lateran  had  given  to  his  father,  he  de- 
clined the  offer,  well  knowing  tliat  by  keeping  aloof  from 
this  whole  business,  with  its  horrible  crimes,  the  French 
crown  could  not  fail  finally  to  harvest  the  fruits.  The  gen- 
eral character  of  his  government  was  decidedly  aristocratic. 
The  tribunal  of  the  barons,  which  afterward  played  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  history  of  France,  was  his  creation, 
and,  though  he  was  very  careful  to  make  conspicuous  dis- 
tinctions between  the  king  and  the  feudal  lords,  he  sought 
and  found  his  principal  support  among  the  latter.  Never- 
theless, few  kings  have  done  so  much  for  the  security  and 
prosperity  of  the  cities  as  he.  A  great  number  of  places  in 
France  were  provided  with  walls  and  other  kinds  of  fortifi- 
cations during  his  reign,  and  those  works  were  generally 
executed  at  his  expense.  Paris  especially  owes  much  to  his 
munificence.  He  gave  its  university — which  already  at- 
tracted not  only  the  nobility  of  France,  but  also  that  of  Eng- 
land and  Germany — many  privileges  and  a  more  indepen- 
dent position  beside  the  Church.  He  continued  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Xotre  Dame,  which  had  been  begun  under  Louis  VII., 
and  he  built  the  churches  of  St.  Sulpice,  Ste.  Genevieve,  etc. 
He  also  laid  the  first  foundation  for  the  palace  of  the  Louvre. 
I).  July  14. 1223. — Philip  III.,  b.  Apr.  3, 1245,  was  second  son 
of  Louis  IX.  and  Margaret  of  Provence,  and  became  heir- 
apparent  to  the  crown  after  the  death  of  liis  older  brother, 
Louis.  He  embai'ked  on  a  crusade  with  his  father,  and  fol- 
lowed him  to  Tunis,  but  he  was  stricken  by  the  plague. 
Upon  the  death  of  his  father  he  was  immediately  recog- 
nized as  king,  and  after  some  minor  battles  he  made  peace 
with  Tunis  and  returned  to  Prance.  An  armistice  of  ten 
years  was  established,  all  Christian  slaves  were  liberatetl 
without  ransom,  freedom  of  worship  was  granted  to  the 
Christians,  and  210.000  gold  pieces  were  paid  to  France. 
The  rest  of  his  reign  was  quiet  and  peaceful.  D.  Oct.  5, 
1285.— Philip  IV..  The  Fair  (1285-1314),  b.  in  1268,  a  son 
of  Philip  III.,  was  an  avaricious,  haughty,  and  even  cruel 
man,  but  courageous  and  eminently  successful  in  extending 
the  boundaries  of  Prance  and  consolidating  the  power  of 
the  crown.  In  order  to  procure  money  the  king  taxed  the 
clergy.  The  pope,  Boniface  VIII.,  forbade  the  clergy  to 
pay  the  tax,  and  the  king  answered  by  forbidding  the  ex- 
portation from  France  of  money  or  other  valuables,  thereby 
cutting  off  one  of  the  richest  .sources  of  the  papal  revenue. 
The  pope  sent  a  legate,  who  remonstrated  in  an  insolent 
manner  with  the  king,  and  the  king  threw  the  legate  into 
prison.  Philip  now  convoked  the  States-General,  and  hav- 
ing ascertained  that  the  French  people  would  stand  by  him 
even  if  he  were  excommunicated,  he  pursued  his  own  course 
and  confiscated  the  property  of  those  prelates  who  sided 
with  the  pope.  Meanwhile  Boniface  assembled  a  council  at 
Kome  and  excommunicated  the  king,  but  a  French  army 
under  William  de  Nogaret  captured  Rome  and  imprisoned 
the  pope.  In  1304,  at  the  election  of  Clement  V.,  the  papal 
residence  was  transferred  to  Avignon,  and  for  a  long  time 
the  papal  authority  was  merely  a  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the 
French  king.  Clement  V.  also  sold  the  Knights  Templar  to 
Philip  IV..  who  treated  them  ifi  a  cruel  and  unjust  manner, 
in  order  to  get  possession  of  their  wealth.  (See  Templars.) — 
Philip  V.  (1310-22),  the  second  son  of  Philip  IV.,  based  his 
claims  to  the  throne  on  the  Salic  law.  His  brief  reign  was 
uneventful.— Philip  VI.  (1.328-50),  the  founder  of  the  house 
of  Valois,  b.  in  1293,  a  son  of  Charles  of  Valois,  hrotlier  to 
Philip  the  Fair;  was  first  proclaimed  regent  of  France  on 
the  death  of  Charles  IV.  in  1328,  but  when  the  queen-dowa- 
ger, who  was  pregnant  at  the  death  of  her  husband,  shortly 
after  gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  who,  according  to  the  Salic 
law,  was  excluded  from  the  French  throne.  Philip  assumed 
the  royal  dignity  and  was  crowned  at  Rheims.  Edward  III. 
of  England,  a  grandson  of  Philip  the  Fair,  laid  claim  to  the 
French  throne,  and  when  Philip  undertook  to  support  David 


Bruce  of  Scotland,  the  English  king  made  an  alliance  with 
Flanders  and  declared  war  in  1337,  thus  opening  that  ter- 
rible contest  between  the  French  and  English  dynasties 
which  lasted  for  100  years,  exhausted  England,  and  devas- 
tated Prance.  The  two  prominent  events  of  the  war  during 
the  reign  of  Philip  VI.  were  the  battle  of  Cressy  (1346),  in 
which  the  French  army  was  totally  routed,  and  the  capture 
of  Calais  by  the  English  (1347).  In  the  following  year  the 
plague,  the  so-called  Black  Death,  entered  France  and  made 
fearful  ravages :  but  in  spite  of  all  these  calamities  the  king, 
who  was  bigoted  and  debauched,  went  on  with  his  carousals, 
squandering  the  money  which  was  extorted  from  the  people 
by  heavy  taxes  and  ruinous  government  monopolies. 

Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

PlliHp:  the  name  of  five  kings  of  Spain,  of  whom  two 
deserve  a  special  notice. — Philip  II.,  b.  at  Valladolid,  May 
21,  1527 :  succeeded  his  father,  Charles  V.,  in  the  Nether- 
lands in  1555,  and  in  the  other  possessions  of  the  Spanish 
crown  Jan.  16.  1556.  Charles's  attempts  to  procure  for  his 
son  the  imperial  crown  of  Germany  and  the  Austrian  pos- 
sessions had  failed,  and  Philip's  marriage  with  Queen  Mary 
did  not  have  the  anticijiated  effect  of  making  England  the 
ally  of  Spain,  but  Philip  II.  was  nevertheless,  on  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne,  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  Europe. 
He  ruled  over  Spain,  its  vast  dominions  in  America,  the 
East  Indies  and  Africa,  the  two  Sicilies,  and  Milan,  Bur- 
gundy, and  the  Netherlands,  to  which  in  1581  he  added 
Portugal ;  and  these  countries  were  at  that  time  the  ]irin- 
cipal  centers  of  European  civilization  and  wealth.  From 
his  father's  reign  he  inherited  a  war  with  France,  the  pope, 
and  the  Turkish  sultan,  who  had  made  an  alliance  for  the 
purpose  of  depriving  the  Spanish  crown  of  its  Italian  pos- 
sessions ;  but  the  Duke  of  Alva.  Viceroy  of  Naples,  drove  the 
French  out  of  Italy  and  compelled  the  pope  to  sue  for  peace 
under  the  walls  of  Rome,  while  the  brilliant  victories  of  St. 
Quentin  and  Gravelines,  won  by  Egniont,  enabled  Philip  to 
conclude  an  advantageous  peace  with  France  at  Cateau- 
Cambresis,  A|>r.  2,  1.559.  Nevertheless  the  forty  years'  reign 
which  now  followed  was  a  period  of  decline.  The  countries 
under  his  scepter  sank  into  degradation  or  rose  in  rebellion. 
On  leaving  the  Netherlands  he  confirmed  the  political  privi- 
leges of  the  provinces,  but  he  refused  to  repeal  his  father's 
ordinances  against  heretics.  On  the  contrary,  he  would  en- 
force them,  and  immediately  set  to  work  to  extirpate  heresy 
in  the  Netherlands  by  means  of  the  Inquisition.  He  met 
with  energetic  resi-stance,  and  the  Duke  of  Alva  was  sent  as 
governor  to  the  country,  with  an  army  of  Spanish  veterans. 
Egmont,  Horn,  and  other  prominent  men  were  executed  and 
horrible  cruelties  perpetrated  ;  but  the  result  was  just  the 
opposite  of  that  which  had  been  expected.  The  resistance, 
instead  of  dying  out,  grew  into  a  revolution,  and  under  the 
organization  and  leadership  of  William  of  Orange  the  union 
of  the  seven  provinces  was  formed  at  LTfrecht  in  1579,  and  a 
proti'acteil  war  was  carried  on  against  Spain  by  land  and  sea. 
When  Philip  died  Spain  was  exhausted,  but  the  provinces 
were  not  reduced  to  obedience.  In  his  wars  against  the 
Turks  or  the  Mohammedans  in  general  he  gained  a  brill- 
iant success  by  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  Oct.  7,  1571.  After 
this  victory  it  would  have  been  possible  to  incorporate  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa  into  the  political  systems  of  the 
civilized  world,  and  Don  John  of  Austria  entertained  some 
such  idea  ;  but  Philip  felt  a  jealous  distrust  of  his  illustrious 
half-brother,  and  the  situation  of  the  Jlediterranean  pirates 
remained  the  same  after  the  liattle  as  it  had  been  before. 
The  destruction  of  the  Invincible  Armada  was  a  mortifi- 
cation which  he  bore  with  dignity,  but  the  unfortunate 
war  against  Henry  IV.  of  France  and  the  disadvantageous 
Peace  of  Vervins  (May  2,  1598)  he  felt  as  a  deep  humilia- 
tion. After  a  lingering  and  painful  disease  he  died  in 
his  palace  of  the  Eseorial  in  Sept.,  1598,  leaving  Spain  ex- 
hausted almost  to  prostration,  with  its  industry,  commerce, 
and  other  material  resources  greatly  impaired  and  dis- 
turbed, and  the  proud,  adventurous  spirit  of  its  people 
curbed  by  despotism  and  influenced  by  fanaticism,  lie 
was  four  times  married — with  Maria  of  Portugal,  Mary 
of  England.  Elizabeth  of  France,  and  Anne  of  Austria.  By 
his  first  wife  he  had  a  son,  the  unfortunate  Don  Carlos; 
by  his  fourth  wife  he  had  another,  Philip,  who  succeeded 
h'im.  (See  Prescott,  History  of  Philip  II.  (3  vols.,  1856-59), 
and  Motley,  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Bepublie  (3  vols..  1856).)— 
Philip  V.  (1701-46),  the  founder  of  the  house  of  Bourbon  in 
Spain,  b.  at  Versailles,  Dec,  19.  1683.  the  second  son  of  the 
dauphin  Louis,  son  of  Louis  XIV.  by  the  Spanish  princess 


PHILIP 


PHILIPS 


571 


Maria  Theresa ;  was  declareil  heir  to  the  S|)aiiisli  throne  bv 
the  will  of  Charles  XL,  who  died  childless  Nov.  1,  1700. 
There  was,  however,  another  ehiimant  to  the  throne — Areh- 
duke  Charles  of  Austria — and  war  began  almost  immediate- 
ly. (See  SL-(.-ei;ssio.\  Waks,  Spanish.)  15y  llie  Peace  of 
rtrecht  (17l;J)  Philip  retained  the  Spanish  crown,  but  he 
was  compelled  to  surrender  his  possessions  in  Italy  and  the 
Netherlands  to  Austria,  and  Gibraltar  to  England.  He  was 
indolent,  weak-minded,  and  always  controlled  by  his  advis- 
ers. Under  his  first  marriage,  with  Louisa  Maria  of  Savoy, 
the  Princess  Orsini  had  the  predominant  intluence:  after 
his  second  marriage,  in  1714.  with  Kli/abelh  Farne.se  of 
Parma,  the  queen.  Cardinal  Alberoni,  the  adventurer  Kip- 
jierda,  and  others  held  the  reins.  The  policy  of  the  (jueen 
was  concentrated  on  the  acquisition  of  the  former  posses- 
.sions  of  Spain  in  Italy  for  her  sons,  for  which  purpose  Spain 
waged  several  wars.  (See  SuccKSSiox  Wars,  Austrian.) 
Meanwhile  the  king  became  weaker  and  weaker.  Jan.  10, 
17'.J4,  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  eldest  son,  but  as  the 
young  king  died  Sept.  6,  1724,  Philip  was  persuaded  to  as- 
sume the  goverinnent  once  more,  though  he  had  become  al- 
most idiotic.  At  last  he  would  not  leavi;  his  bed,  and  noth- 
ing would  arouse  him  from  his  nu>ntal  stupor  but  the  songs 
ofFarincUi.     1).  in  Madrid,  July  9.  1746. 

Kevised  by  F.  JI.  Colby. 

I'liilip.  or  Sletacoin.  usually  called  King:  Philip:  young- 
er son  of  Mas.sasoit,  sachem  of  the  Pokanoket  Indians  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. He  succeeded  to  the  chieftainship  on  the  death 
of  his  brother  .\le.Kander  1062,  when  he  visited  Plymouth 
and  promised  friendship  to  the  colonists,  but  in  1673  headed 
the  war  known  by  his  name,  in  which  thirteen  towns  were 
destroyed  and  600  colonists  killed.  Philip  was  killed  at 
Mt.  Hope  Aug.  13.  1676.  by  a  party  under  Capt.  Benjamin 
Clun-ch.  after  his  tribe  had  been  nearly  annihilated. 

I'lliMppeville:  town  (founded  in  1838):  in  the  province 
of  Constautiue,  Algeria,  on  the  Gulf  of  Stora  (see  ma[)  of 
Africa,  ref.  l-D).  It  forms  the  port  of  Constantine,  is  well 
built,  ami  h,HS  a  fine  harbor  and  large  fishing,  manufactur- 
ing, anil  trading  interests.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  Pop. 
(18'J1)  21,!Mi2. 

Pllilip'pi  [Lat.:  in  (ir.  ol  i-lKnrwoi:  mod.  Filibi]:  an  an- 
cient town  of  .Alaccdonia;  built,  or  at  least  enlarged,  by  Philip, 
from  whom  it  received  its  name.  It  became  very  famous 
as  the  pljice  where  the  battle  was  fought  in  42  B.  c.  between 
Brutus  and  Cassius  on  the  one  side,  and  Antony  and  Octavi- 
aiuis  on  the  other,  lirutus  anil  Ca-ssius  were  totally  routed. 
The  apostle  I'aul  founded  a  Christian  church  here  (Epistle 
to  tlie  Philippians).  J.  K.  S.  Stebrett. 

l'hilip|iiaiis:  See  Pauline  Epistles. 

I'hilip'pics  [from  Gr.  *i\nnriKiis,  pertaining  to  Philip, 


deriv.  of  4>l\nnros.   Philip]:  a  name  properly  belonging  to 

three  s|>lendid  and  spirited  orations  of  Demosi 

King  Philip  of  Macedon.     The  first  was  delivered  in  3.51 


sthenes  against 


B.  c,  the  second  in  344,  the  third  in  341.  There  is  a  fourth 
philippic,  which  is  assigned  by  some  to  the  year  340,  and 
which  is  generally  pronounced  either  a  forgery  or  a  patch- 
work. The  fourteen  orations  of  Cicero  against  Mark  Antony 
are  also  called  |ihilippics.  They  were -delivered  in  44  and 
43  B.  c,  mostly  in  the  senate,  but  the  second  and  severest 
and  most  famous  wa.s  written  and  not  delivered.  The  name 
is  applied  to  any  severe  personal  attack  in  speech  or  print. 
Revised  by  B.  L.  Giloersleeve. 
Pliil'ippiiic  Islands:  a  group  of  over  400  islands,  ex- 
tending across  sixteen  degrees  of  latitude  between  Formosa 
and  the  Moluccas,  and  forming  the  northern  part  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago.  The  largest  are  Luzon.  Mindanao, 
Samar,  Mindoro,  Panay,  Leyte,  Xegros,  Masbate.  and  Zebu. 
The  total  area  is  estimated  at  114,320  sq.  miles,  all  under 
Spanish  rule  and  divided  into  forty-three  provinces.  Pop. 
about  7,000.000.  The  Philippine  islands  are  of  volcanic 
origin.  Active  volcanoes  are  found  throughout  the  whole 
group,  such  as  JIayon  in  Luzon  and  Buhayan  iu  Jlindanao, 
and  earthquakes  are  frequent  and  often"  violent  :  in  lHt)3 
Manilla,  the  capital  of  Luzon,  was  nearly  destroyed,  and  in 
1804  the  whole  province  of  Zamboanga.  in  Mindanao,  was 
fearfully  devastated.  The  .soil  is  exceedingly  fertile,  and  as 
water  is  abundant  both  in  lakes  and  rivers,  iiiul  the  climate 
is  hot  and  moist,  vegetable  life  reaches  here  an  almost 
gigantic  development.  The  mountains,  rising  to  a  height 
of  7.000  feet,  are  covered  to  their  very  tops  with  forests  of 
immense  trees,  yielding  excellent  timber  and  many  of  the 
most  valuable  sorts  of  wood.     Teak,  ebony,  cedar,  and  gum 


trees,  iron  and  sapan  wood,  are  inlersjiersed  with  bread- 
fruit and  eocoanut  trees,  oranges,  citrons,  mango,  tamarinds, 
and  other  varieties  of  fruit-trees,  the  whole  bound  together 
with  lloating  garlands  of  huge  climbing  plants  and  brill- 
iant parasites.  On  the  extensive  slopes  and  in  the  valleys 
are  cultivated  abaca  or  hemp,  of  which  about  (w.OOO  toils 
are  annually  exported.  In  1890  8,0110  tons  of  tobacco  and 
110,000,000  cigars  were  exported.  The  other  products  are 
cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  indigo,  rice,  wheat,  maize,  pepper,  gin- 
ger, vanilla,  cinnamon,  cocoa,  etc.  Of  dangerous  wild  beasts 
there  are  none ;  oxen,  buffaloes,  horses,  goats,  sheep,  and 
swine  of  peculiar  but  excellent  breeds  are  extensively  reared ; 
deer,  wild  boars,  pheas.-ints,  ducks,  and  fine  fish  are  abun- 
dant; the  forests  swarm  with  monkeys,  squirrels,  parrots, 
sun-birds  (X>-clan')u'tdie\  and  bees — the  jungles  with  lizards, 
.snakes,  tarantulas,  and  mo.squitoes  and  other  insects.  Gold 
is  found  :  also  iron,  copi)er,  coal,  vermilion,  saltpeter,  quick- 
silver, sulphur  (in  large  quantities,  both  pure  and  mixed 
with  copper  or  iron),  mother-of-pearl,  coral,  amber,  and  tor- 
toise-shell. 

The  Philippine  islands  were  discovered  in  1521  by  Ma- 
gellan, who  died  here  in  the  same  year,  and  a  few  "years 
later  the  Spaniards,  under  \'iUalobosi  took  possession  of  the 
group  and  named  it  in  honor  of  King  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 
The  iidiabitants  consist  iiartly  of  negritos,  who  have  woolly 
hair  and  other  characteristics  of  the  Negro,  and  seem  to 
have  formed  the  aboriginal  population.  They  live  in  the 
interior,  are  re|iulsive  and  savage  in  aspect,  and  roam  in 
bands.  There  are  only  a  few  thousand  pure  blood  negritos 
left,  as  they  have  long  been  in  ])rocess  of  extermination  by 
the  Malay  immigrants,  or  of  absorption  through  cross-breed- 
ing with  other  peoples.  The  Malays  ai-e  in  large  part  Roman 
Catholics,  settled  in  villages,  and  engaged  in  agriculture 
and  fishing.  They  possess  many  fine  branches  of  industry 
— as,  for  instance,  their  beautiful  mats  and  their  elegant 
linen  fabrics — and  they  imitate  European  industry,  ship- 
building, leather-dressing,  carriage-building,  etc.,  with  great 
success.  The  Chinese  and  the  mestizoes,  descended  from 
Chinese  fathers  and  native  mothers,  are  mostly  engaged  in 
commerce.  Very  few  Sjianiards  reside  in  the  islands,  but 
the  Chinese  are  very  numerous.  A  formidable  insurrection 
which  broke  out  in  1806  is  as  yet  (18!)7)  uiisuppressed. 

Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Pliil'ippins  [from  Philip  Pustoswiiit,  one  of  their  former 
leaders],  or  Staroverski  (old-faith  men) :  name  of  a  .sect  of 
Russian  origin  settled  since  1700  in  East  Prussia  and  Lith- 
uania. They  reject  oaths  and  the  priesthood,  refuse  to  do 
military  service,  rebaptize  all  converts  from  other  sects,  and 
have  a  celibate  eldership.  They  are  peaceable  and  indus- 
trious citizens,  but  have  at  times  fallen  into  wild,  fanatical 
excesses.  They  cling  piersistently  to  the  ancient  liturgy  of 
the  Russian  Church,  which  has  been  otFicially  discounte- 
nanced for  more  than  200  years.  The  Philippins  are  a 
branch  of  the  Raskolxiks  (q.  v.). 

PliiHppop'olis  (Bulg.  Plovdiv):  chief  city  of  Eastern 
Roumelia  (.South  Bulgaria);  picturesquely  situated  on  five 
granite  hills  close  to  the  Maritza  in  the  middle  of  the  great 
Rouraelian  plain  (see  map  of  Turkey,  rcf.  3-C).  It  is  a  cen- 
ter of  trade  in  attar  of  roses,  grain,  tobacco,  wool,  and  wine, 
and  does  an  extensive  banking  business.  The  inhabitants 
are  enter|n-ising.     Pop.  (18!)0)  33,442.  E.  A.  G. 

Pliilippotcaux,  fel' lc"e'])o  Id',  Henri  Em.manuel  Felix: 
painter;  b.  in  Paris,  Frame,  in  1815.  lie  was  a  pnpil  of 
Leon  Cognict,  and  worked  with  him  on  the  painting  of  the 
Battle  of  Mount  Tahor  for  the  JIuseum  of  Versailles.  He 
adopted  the  historical  anil  descriptive  manner  of  painting, 
and  his  work,  though  not  of  very  high  rank  as  fine  art,  is  of 
great  interest  as  illustration.  Ijate  in  life  he  painted  .sev- 
eral rernarkabli!  panoramas.  D.  Nov.  9,  1884.  Of  his  im- 
portant pictures  there  are  in  the  South  Kensington  Mu.seum 
Before  the  Battle  of  Foiifenni/  and  the  Euglisti  Squares  at 
Waterloo:  at  Versailles,  T/ie  Clievalier Baijard  defending  the 
Bridge  at  Garigliano,  The  >Siege  of  Antwerp  in  1S32,  and 
the  Battle  of  Montehello.  185',):  at  the  Luxembourg,  Louis 
XV.  on  the  Field  of  Fonlenoi/;  and  in  the  gallery  of  Mar- 
seilles, The  Last  Banquet  of  the  O'irondin.'i.  R.  S. 

PhiHps,  .\mbrose:  poet;  b.  in  Leicestershire.  England, 
about  1671  :  educated  at  St.  John's  College.  Cambridge,  and 
graduated  16!)6;  settled  in  London  as  a  writer;  was  an  asso- 
ciate of  Steele,  Addison,  and  their  circle;  wrote  six  Pas- 
torals, which  appeared  in  Tonson"s  Poetical  Miscellany 
(1709)  along  with  others  by  Pope — a  circumstance  which  led 
to  a  bitter  rivalry  between  the  two  poets;  produced  on  the 


572 


PHILIPSBURG 


PHILLIPS 


stage  three  trageilies,  Tlie  Distressed  Mother  (1713),  The 
Briton,  iind  Hum^iltreij,  Duke  of  Oloucester  (1721);  began 
in  1718  the  pulilication  of  a  serial  paper,  The  Free-thiiucer, 
"which  attained  great  popularity ;  became  secretary  to  the 
primate  and  to  the  chancellor  ol  Ireland  17~6;  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Irish  Pai'liament :  became  registrar  to  the 
prerogative  court  1734;  returned  to  London,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  his  poems  1748.  D.  there  June  8, 
1749.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Philipsbnrg:  borough;  Centre co..  Pa. ;  on  the  Moshan- 
non  river,  and  the  Penn",  tlie  TJeech  C'reek,  and  the  Alloona 
and  Philipsb.  Connecting  railways:  20  miles  N.  of  Tyrone, 
38  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Altoona  (for  location,  see  map  of  "Penn- 
svlvania.  ref."4-E).  It  is  the  center  of  the  bituminous  coal 
region,  has  a  large  lumbei'-trade,  and  contains  a  national 
bank  with  capital  of  )i!.50,OI)0,  a  private  bank,  and  a  daily,  a 
semi-weekly,  and  two  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  1,779  ; 
(1890)  3,345. 

Philip  the  Bold:  Duke  of  Burgundy;  b.  Jan.  1.5,  1343, 
a  son  of  John,  King  of  France.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  battle  of  Poitiers  (13.56).  where  he  saved  his  father's  life 
and  received  the  surname  of  Le  Ilardi.  Sept.  6,  1363,  King 
John  gave  him,  as  a  fief  of  the  French  crown,  the  duchy  of 
Burgundy,  which  had  become  vacant  by  tiie  extinction  of 
the  elder  ducal  line  in  1361.  Philip  married  Margaret  of 
Flanders,  heiress  of  Flanders.  Artois,  Rethel,  and  Nevers, 
and  founded  the  younger  ducal  line,  under  which  Burgundy 
became  one  of  the  most  prominent  powers  of  Western  Eu- 
rope. During  the  minority  and  subsequent  insanity  of 
Charles  VI.,  Philip  the  Bold  assumed  the  regency  of  France, 
which  involved  him  in  many  feuds  with  his  brother,  the  Duke 
of  Anjou,  and  his  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  but  which 
he  held  to  his  death  Apr.  27,  1404. 

Philil)  the  (Jood  :  Duke  of  Burgundy;  b.  at  Dijon.  June 
1.3,  1396,  a  grandson  of  Philip  the  Bold.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  John  the  Fearless,  after  his  assassination  on  tlie 
bridge  of  Montereau  in  1419,  and  married  in  1424  JacobiBa 
of  Holland,  heiress  of  Holland,  Brabant,  Zealand,  and  the 
rest  of  the  Low  Countries.  In  order  to  avenge  the  murder 
of  his  father,  which  had  been  perpetrated  at  the  instigation 
of  the  dauphin,  afterward  Charles  VII.,  Philip  allied  himself 
closely  with  England,  and  acknowledged  by  the  Treaty  of 
Troyes  (1420)  the  English  king  as  the  legitimate  heir  of  the 
French  crown  after  the  death  of  Charles  VI.  The  arrogance 
of  the  English,  however,  provoked  him  afterward  to  break 
the  alliance,  and  in  143.5  he  concluded  a  separate  peace  with 
Charles  VII.  and  aided  him  in  expelling  the  English  from 
France.  He  governed  his  extensive  possessions  with  great 
wisdom,  and,  in  spite  of  several  risings  in  Ghent  and  Bruges, 
occasioned  by  heavy  taxation,  he  was  much  loved  by  his  sub- 
jects.    D.  at  Bruges,  June  1.5,  1467. 

Philis'tiiies  [from  Lat.  Philistini,  from  Heb.  P'lish- 
th'iiii,  Philistines.  .See  Palestine]  :  a  people  who  occupied 
the  southern  seacoast  of  Palestine  during  most  of  the  period 
of  biblical  history,  and  were  almost  constantly  at  war  with 
the  Israelites.  The  Old  Testament  speaks  of  them  as  immi- 
grants into  Palestine  from  the  Egyptian  region  known  later 
as  Caphtor  (Gen.  x.  14:  1  Chron.  i.  13;  Amos  ix.  7;  Jer. 
xlvii.  4).  Once,  apparently,  they  are  called  Caphtorim 
(Deut.  ii.  23).  The  immigration  occurred  early,  as  they  were 
in  or  near  the  region  in  the  time  of  Isaac  (Gen.  xxvi.  1,  8, 
14,  1.5,  18),  and  probably  earlier,  in  the  time  of  Abraham 
(xxi.  32,  34).  The  accounts  of  the  conquest  under  Joshua 
seem  to  imply  that  the  region  was  then  occupied  partly  by 
Philistine  and  partly  by  Canaanite  communities  (Josh.  x. 
29-34,  40-41;  xi.  16;  xii.  11-15;  xv.  11,  38-47,  etc.,  com- 
pared with  xi.  23;  xiii.  2-3). 

Ill  the  |ihrase  "whence  the  Philistines  came  out  "(Gen. 
X.  14),  the  adverb  denotes  the  region  whence  they  came,  not 
the  race.  The  passage  gives  no  indication  as  to  whether 
the  Philistines  were  Hamitic  by  race.  Perhaps  the  evidence 
indicates  that  they  were  either  Semites  or  Aryans  who  be- 
came thoroughly  Semitici/.ed  in  language.  Some  have  tried 
to  connect  the  twelve  to  fifteen  names  and  titles  we  know 
as  Philistine  with  Sanskrit  and  Greek,  but  a  Semitic  deriva- 
tion fits  better  in  every  case.  The  en<ling  ath.  which  is 
found  in  many  names  ((ioliath.  .-Vchusalh),  is  Egyptian,  and 
indicates  an  emigration  from  F-gypt.  The  laud  of  the  Phil- 
istines was  the  low  plain  calleil  the  Shefdah,  and  their 
superiority  in  the  arts  of  war  and  in  the  possession  of  weap- 
(ms  several  times  enablcil  them  to  (•onquer  the  Israelites. 
The  five  chief  cities  of  the  I'liilistines,  Gaza,  Ashdod,  Ash- 
kelon,  Gath,  and  Ekron,  had  their  .several  princes,  who  were 


united  in  a  confederacy.  The  chief  divinities  of  the  Philis- 
tines noticed  in  the  Bible  are  Dagon,  Ashtaroth,  and  Baal- 
Zebub.  The  Philistines  shared  the  fate  of  the  Israelites  in 
successive  subjection  to  Assyria,  Babylon,  and  Egypt,  and 
disappeared  altogether  from  history  previous  to  tlie  Chris- 
tian era.  Revised  by  Willis  J.  Beecher. 

Phili'stus  (in  Gr.  *(\<o-toj)  :  Greek  historian ;  b.  about 
435  B.  c. ;  was  a  general  in  the  service  of  Dionysius  the- 
Elder  and  Dionysius  the  Younger,  and  wrote  a  history  of 
Sicily  from  the  beginning  to  363  B.C.,  in  which  he  showed 
practical  sense  and  insight  as  well  as  groveling  servility 
toward  his  masters.  Thucydides  was  his  model,  and  he  imi- 
tated hiin  in  condensation  of  style,  in  the  strictly  chrono- 
logical order  of  his  narrative,  and  in  the  use  of  speeches; 
hence  he  was  called  by  Cicero  pusillus  Thucydides.  The 
fragments  are  to  be  found  in  Mliller's  Fragmenta  Uistori- 
coram  Ormcorum,  vol.  i.,  pp.  185-192,  iv.,  p.  639  foil. 

B.  L.  GlLDEBSLEEVE. 

Phillimore,  John  George,  LL.  D.  :  b.  in  Oxfordshire, 
England,  in  1809;  educated  at  Westminster  School  and  at 
Christ  Church  College,  Oxford ;  called  to  the  b,ar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  1832 ;  became  an  eminent  jurist  and  (1851)  queen's  coun- 
sel and  professor  at  the  Middle  Temple ;  M.  P.  1852.  Besides 
a  number  of  pamphlets  on  legal  to)3ics,  he  wrote  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  and  History  of  the  Roman  Law  (Lon- 
don, 1848) ;  Private  Laiv  among  the  Romans ;  Principles 
and  Maxims  of  Jurisprudence ;  and  began  the  publication 
of  a  history  of  England  during  the  reign  of  (jeorge  III. 
(vol.  i.,  1863).  D.  at  Shiplake  House,  Oxfordshire,  Apr. 
27,  1865. — His  brother.  Sir  Robert  Joseph  Phillimore, 
D.  C.  L.,  b.  in  London,  Nov.  5,  1810.  gradu.ated  at  Oxford  in 
1831.  He  also  was  a  distinguished  lawyer  and  writer;  sat 
in  Parliament  1853-57  ;  and  held  the  offices  of  judge-advo- 
cate general  (1871),  judge  of  the  arches  court  1867-75,  judge 
of  the  high  court  of  admiralty  1867-83.  He  was  niiide  a 
liaron  in  1881.  D.  Feb.  4,  1885.  His  most  important  works 
are  Commentaries  on  International  Law  (3d  ed.  1879-89) ; 
Tlie  Ecclesiastical  Law  of  the  CIturch.  of  England  (1873; 
largely  taken  from  Burn's  Ecclesiastical  Law) ;  also,  besides 
other  works,  the  Memoirs  and  Correspondence  of  Oeorge 
Lord  Lyttelton  from  1734-73  (1845).  Jlost  of  his  works  were 
published  under  the  name  of  Robert,  or  Sir  Robert,  Philli- 
more. Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Phillips.  Georg:  historian;  b.  at  Konigsberg,  Germany, 
in  1804,  of  English  Protestant  parents;  studied  law  at  Ber- 
lin and  Gottingen  under  Savigny  and  Eichhorn ;  was  suc- 
cessively professor  at  Berlin,  Innsbruck,  and  Vienna ;  be- 
came a  Roman  Catholic  with  his  wife  in  1828,  and  retired 
from  teaching  to  live  at  Salzburg.  The  great  epochs  of  the 
MidtHe  Ages,  the  times  of  Charlemagne,  Innocent  III.,  and 
.St.  Louis,  exercised  a  powerful  charm  over  the  mind  of 
Phillips,  who  saw  in  them  the  highest  flowering  of  Catholi- 
cism. He  wrote  much  on  the  imperial  and  constitutional 
history  of  Germany,  but  he  will  be  best  remembered  by  his 
monumental  work  on  canon  law  entitled  Das  Kirchenrecht, 
of  which  seven  volumes  (Jlanz,  Regensburg)  appeared  from 
1845  to  187'3,  in  which  year  he  died.  The  work  has  been  taken 
up  by  Prof.  Vering,  of  Prague,  who  printed  in  1889  the  first 
part  of  the  eiglith  volume;  a  compendium  of  it  exists  in 
German  and  Liitin  for  the  use  of  seminaries.  He  was  a. 
man  of  very  great  eruditicjn  in  medi.Tval  matters,  possessed 
a  sure  and  solier  judgment,  and  rigorously  adhered  to  the 
historico-critical  method  in  his  great  canonical  work.  See 
Adolphe  Tardit's  Ilistoire  des  sources  du  droit  canoniqne 
(Paris,  1887),  p.  370.  He  co'-operated  with  Gorres  and  oth- 
ers in  founding  the  Historisch-politische  Blatter,  a  Roman 
Catholic  monthly  review  of  history  and  politics. 

J.  J.  Keane. 

Phillips,  John,  LL.  D.  :  benefactor;  b.  at  Andover, 
Mass.,  Dec.fi,  1719;  graduated  at  Harvard  1735;  was  for 
a  time  a  preacher,  but  became  a  successful  merchant  of 
Exeter,  N.  H.,  wdierc  in  1781  he  founded  Phillips  Exeter 
Academy  at  a  cost  of  1134.000;  gave  $31,000  to  Phillips 
Academy.  Andover.  besides  liberal  sums  to  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege and  Nassau  Hall,  New  Jersev.  D.  at  Exeter,  N.  H., 
Apr.  21.  1795. 

Phillips,  John  :  geologist ;  b.  at  Marden,  Wiltshire,  Eng- 
land, Dec,  35,  1800;  was  a  nephew  and  pupil  of  William 
Smith,  called  "the  father  of  English  geology":  became 
Professor  of  Geology  in  King's  College,  London,  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Dublin,  ami  finally  in  the  University  of  Oxford; 
and  made  important  researches  in  geology,  electricity,  mag- 


PHILLIPS 


PHILOMELE 


573 


netisra,  astronomy,  and  mpteoroloijy ;  author  of  IHustrations 
of  the  (ieuloyy  of  Yurksliire  (182!l-;56) ;  A  Treatise  on  Geol- 
vyy  (3  vols.,  1837-3S) ;  Faheozoic  Fossils  of  Cornwall,  Devon, 
etc.  (1841),  and  other  writings  on  geolo'jy.  1>.  at  Oxford, 
Apr.  24,  1874.  Revised  by  (i.  K.  Gilbert. 

Phillips,  Wendell:  orator  and  anti-slavery  leader;  b. 
in  liostoii,  Mass.,  \iiv.  211,  1811;  the  son  of  John  I'hillips, 
the  first  mayor  of  Boslon;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
18:51  anil  at  the  Cambridge  Law  School  in  1833,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  Suffolk  bar  in  1834.  When  he  entered  upon 
his  professional  career  the  anti-slavery  movement  was  at- 
tracting serious  attention.  In  1835  occurred  the  attack  on 
William  Llovd  (iarrison  by  a  Boston  mob,  and  two  years 
later  the  murder  of  Lovejoy,  the  editor  of  an  anti-slavery 
newsi)aper  in  Alton,  111.  His  sympathy  with  the  Abolition- 
ists was  strengthened  by  these  acts  of  violence,  and  at  a 
meeting  held  in  Boston'to  condemn  Lovejoy's  murder  he 
delivered  a  speech  of  great  fire  and  eloquence,  condemning 
what  he  characterized  as  the  cowardly  spirit  of  those  who 
would  submit  without  protest  to  so  gross  a  violation  of  the 
liberty  of  the  press.  From  this  time  he  was  the  foremost 
orator  of  the  Abolitionists.  He  gave  up  his  commission  as 
a  lawyer  on  the  ground  that  he  could  no  longer  hold  him- 
self bound  to  obey  the  Constitution,  which  recognized  the 
existence  of  slavery  and  protected  the  slaveholder  in  his 
rights.  Refusing  to  accept  money  for  his  services,  he  de- 
voted himself  with  unfailing  energy  to  the  advocacy  of  the 
anti-slavery  cause,  for  whic-h  he  maintained  that  even  the 
disruption" of  the  Union  was  not  too  high  a  price  to  pay. 
Believing  that  the  war  would  lead  to  emancipation,  he  sup- 
ported the  Xorth  throughout  the  contest,  and  when  that 
side  triumphed  he  still  continued  as  president  of  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Society  his  work  on  behalf  of  the  Negroes,  contend- 
ing for  their  possession  of  equal  civil  rights  with  the  whites. 
With  the  passage  of  the  Fifteenth  Amendment  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Society  found  its  objects  attained,  and  it  accord- 
ingly dissolved,  but  by  this  time  Phillips's  fame  as  an  ora- 
tor had  won  wide  recognition,  and  he  made  frequent  and 
much-applauded  speeches  on  other  topics.  In  addition  to 
his  anti-slavery  championship  he  was  an  advocate  of  wo- 
men's rights  and  a  supporter  of  the  temperance  movement, 
and  he  occasionally  lectureil  on  subjects  that  had  no  rela- 
tion to  his  aims  as  a  reformer.  A  well-known  lecture  of 
this  sort  was  that  On  the  Lost  Arts,  which  was  very  fre- 
quently repeated  by  him.  He  also  lectured  and  wrote  on 
financial  subjects,  a'nd  on  the  relations  between  capital  and 
labor.  He  advocated  prohibitory  legislation  in  regard  to 
the  sale  of  liquors,  maintaining  that  Ihe  attempt  to  govern 
great  cities  on  the  basis  of  universal  suffrage  had  been  a 
failure  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  dram-shop.  He  urged 
that  the  national  banks  be  deprived  of  the  right  to  issue 
bills,  and  that  the  Government  furnish  all  the  national  cur- 
rency, separating  it  wholly  from  any  coin  basis,  and  let  the 
currency  rest  solely  on  tlie  credit  of  the  Government.  D. 
in  Boston.  Feb.  3,  1884.  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Pllillipsburar:  city;  Warren  co.,  N.  J. ;  on  the  Delaware 
river,  and  the  Cent,  of  X.  J.,  the  Del.,  Lack,  and  West.,  the 
Lehigh  Valley,  and  the  Penn.  railways;  opposite  Kaston, 
Pa..  ")()  miles  X.  X.  W.  of  Trenton  (for  location,  see  map  of 
New  .lersey,  ref.  3-C).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  iron-ore,  and 
limestone  region,  and  is  noted  for  its  e.xtensive  iron-works 
and  their  productions.  There  are  six  public-school  build- 
ings, public-school  property  (over  $00,000),  a  national  bank 
witli  capital  of  .t;300.000,  and  a  d:iilv  and  a  weekly  news- 
paper.    Pop.  (1880)  7,181  ;  (180U)  8,U44 ;  (181)5)  i),081. 

Pllilofh'onis  (in  Gr.  'tiK6xopos) :  the  most  important  of 
the  writers  of  special  histories  of  Attica  ('ArAfSts) ;  flour- 
ished in  the  first  half  of  the  third  century  B.  c.  Fragnu-nts 
are  in  Miiller's  Frai/menta  Ilisloricurum  Graconim,  vol.  i., 
jip.  384-412.  and  iv.,'  pp.  04G-G48.  B.  L.  G. 

Pllilocte'tcs  (in  (ir.  ♦lAoKTJJTjji):  in  Grecian  mythology, 
son  of  l\eas  and  Demona-ssa.  He  was  educated  in  archery 
by  Heracles,  whose  bow  and  arrows  he  inherited  from  his 
father.  Poeas,  who  received  them  from  Heracles,  because  he 
had  set  fire  to  the  pyre  of  that  hero.  Philoctetes  started  to 
Troy  with  seven  ships,  but  having  been  bitten  on  the  island 
of  Chryse  by  a  snake  sent  by  Hera  because  of  the  service 
rendered  to  Heracles,  he  was  abaiidoiie<l  on  the  island  of 
Lemnos  by  his  fellows,  who  could  not  endure  the  stench  of 
his  wound  and  his  agonized  wailings.  He  lay  on  Lemnos 
for  more  than  nine  years,  when  he  was  Ijrought  to  Troy  by 
Odysseus  and  Diomedes,  or  Xeoptolemus,  because  an  oracle 
had  declared  that  Troy  could  not  be  taken  without  the  ar- 


rows of  Heracles.  He  was  healed  by  Machaon,  killed  Paris, 
and  Troy  was  taken.  See  the  tragedy  of  Sojihodes  entitled 
Pliiloctetes.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Philode'mus  (in  Gr.  *iAi<5i)|uos)  of  Gadara:  Greek  phi- 
losopher of  the  first  century  it.  r.,  fragments  of  whose  writ- 
ings have  been  discovered  at  llerculaneum,  some  of  thera 
of  great  importance  for  our  knowledge  of  the  Epicurean 
school,  to  which  Philodenius  belonged.  See  Hitter  and  Prel- 
ler,  Uistorin  P/iilosop/ii(r  (1888),  p.  447  foil.;  Gomnerz, 
Philodem  (1801),  and  Sudhaus,  Pkilodemi  volumina  rheto- 
rica.  A  number  of  amatory  epigrams  by  Philodemus  are 
contained  in  the  Antholoyia  Palatina. 

Phi'lo  Jiidac'us  [=  Lat.,  liter.,  Philo  the  Jew]:  theolo- 
gian ;  b.  at  Alexandria  about  20  B.  c. ;  spent  his  whole  life 
there,  with  the  exception  of  two  journeys  he  made — one  to 
Jerusalem  and  one  to  Rome.  Of  his  life  very  little  is  known. 
He  was  of  a  wealthy  family, and  occupied  a  conspicuous  po- 
sition in  his  native  plai-e.  In  the  year  40  A.  D.  he  was  cho- 
sen a  memljer  of  the  embassy  which  the  Jews  sent  to  Rome 
to  Caius  Caligula.  The  embassy  stayed  in  Rome  over  half 
a  year  without  being  admitted  to  the  presence  of  the  em- 
peror ;  but  during  the  reign  of  Claudius  a  learned  defense' 
of  the  Jews,  written  by  Philo,  was  read  in  the  Roman  sen- 
ate. The  emliassy  he  has  described  in  liis  Legaiio  ad  Ca- 
jum.  In  Alexandria  he  devoted  all  his  time  to  study,  and 
although  as  a  philosopher  he  is  without  original  genius,  the 
peculiarity  of  his  situation  as  mediator  between  Greek  and 
Oriental  wisdom,  between  Platonism  and  Judaism,  between 
polytheism  and  monotheism,  gave  his  writings  a  great  in- 
fluence in  his  own  time,  and  makes  them  interesting  to  ours. 
He  was  a  very  religious  man,  and  believed  himself  to  be  an 
orthodox  Jew ;  but  yet  is  the  first  representative  of  those  of 
his  countrymen  who  accommodated  the  faith  of  their  ances- 
tors to  the  new  circumstances.  His  writings,  which  are  in 
the  Greek  language,  nuiy  be  divided  into  three  classes — those 
defending  his  countrymen.  Contra  Flaccum,  Legatio  ad 
Cajum,  De  Nobilitate ;  those  interpreting  and  explaining 
the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews,  De  Opijicio  Mundi  (ed.  L. 
Cohn,  Breslau,  1889),  Legis  Alhgoriarum  Lihri  III.,  De 
Monarchia.  De  Prcemiis  Sacerdotum,  De  Posleritate  Caini, 
De  Cherubim.  De  Pcenitentia;  and  those  treating  meta- 
physical subjects,  De  Alternitate  Mundi  (ed.  F.  Cumont, 
Berlin,  1891),  Quod  Omnis  Probtis  Liber,  De  Vita  Contem- 
plativa.  Of  these  three  classes,  the  second  and  third  are 
the  most  interesting  with  respect  to  his  standpoint.  His 
method  of  interpretation  is  the  allegorical.  The  texts  of 
the  sacred  books  are  not  made  subjects  of  positive  criticism, 
but  employed  as  opportunities  for  the  development  of  theo- 
ries. With  him  matter  is  an  eternal  principle.  His  idea  of 
God  is  thoroughly  monotheistic,  but  between  God  and  mat- 
ter he  finds  a  convenient  place  for  the  ideas  of  Plato  trans- 
formed into  the  angels  of  the  Old  Testament.  These  ideas, 
or  powers,  or  angels  form  the  medium  through  which  God 
reveals  himself  to  the  world,  and  they  are  all  gathered  to- 
gether in  a  divine  world-spirit,  a  divine  intellect,  the  Logos, 
which,  however,  in  the  speculation  of  Philo,  remained  a  co.s- 
mic,  naturalistic  power  without  any  real  personality.  D. 
about  50  A.  D.  The  latest  conqilele  collection  (8  vols.)  was 
published  at  Leipzig  in  1893.  There  is  an  English  transla- 
tion by  C.  D.  Yonge  in  Bolm's  Ecclesiastical  Library  (4 
vols.).  '  Cf.  J.  Druinmond,  Philo  Judaus,  or  the  Alexandrian 
Philosophy  in  its  Develojjment  and  Completion  (3  vols., 
Lon<lon.  1888).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Pllilola'us  (in  Gr.  *i\(J\aor):  Pythagorean  philosopher; 
contemporary  of  Socrates.  The  geniuneness  of  the  exten- 
sive fragments  written  in  Doric  dialect  was  maintained  by 
Boeckh  in  his  Philolaus  (Berlin.  1829).  See  Ritter  anci 
Preller,  IJistoria  Philosophic  (1888),  p.  57  foil.      B.  L.  G. 

Pliilology :  See  LAN(ii-AfiE  and  Comparative  Philology. 

Philonic'Ip  (in  Gr.  ii\oiir\\ri) :  in  Grecian  mythology, 
daughter  of  Pandion,  King  of  Athens,  and  sister  of  Procne, 
the  wife  of  the  Thracian  king  Tereus,  who  lived  at  Daulis, 
in  Phocis.  Tereus  loved  Philomele,  and  having  concealed 
Procne  in  the  country  that  he  might  lie  with  Philomele 
when  she  came  to  visit  her  sister,  he  accomplished  his  pur- 
pose, and  having  cut  out  the  tongue  of  Philomele,  that  she 
might  not  inform  against  him,  he  announced  to  Procne 
that  her  sister  was  dead  ;  but  Philomele,  having  discovered 
the  truth,  wove  the  story  of  her  wrongs  into  a  mantle  and 
sent  it  to  Procne.  The  "two  sisters  then  killed  Itys.  the  son 
of  Tereus  by  Procne.  and  served  him  up  to  Tereus  for  din- 
ner.    The  sisters  lied,  Tereus  pursued,  and  when  he  had 


574 


PHILOPCEMEN 


PHILOSOPHY 


overtaken  and  was  about  to  slay  them,  the  gods,  at  tlie 
prayer  of  the  sisters,  turned  all  throe  into  birds;  Procne 
into  the  swallow,  Philoraele  into  the  nightingale,  and  Tereus 
into  the  hoopoe.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Philopoe'inen  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  ^t\onoifiTii>]  :  soldier  and 
statesman ;  b.  at  Megalopolis,  Arcadia,  in  252  B.  c,  of  a 
noble  family ;  was  carefully  educated  :  distinguished  him- 
self greatly  in  the  battle  of  Sellasia  (321  B.  c.)  as  leader  of 
the  horse ;  lived  subsequently  for  several  years  in  Crete,  and 
was  chosen  commander-in-chief  (strategos)  of  the  Achivan 
League  in  208  B.  c,  a  jiosition  which  he  held  eight  times. 
It  was  his  policy  to  put  down  rigorously  all  internal  dis- 
sensions and  feuds  in  order  to  deprive  the  Romans  of  any 
opportunity  of  interfering  in  Greek  affairs;  and  although 
his  plan  was  Anally  bafBed  by  the  fickleness  of  his  country- 
men and  the  meddlesomeness  of  the  Roman  senate,  in  de- 
tails he  achieved  many  brilliant  successes;  thus  he  com- 
pelled the  Spartans  to  join  the  league,  which  was  an  im- 
portant step  toward  the  establishment  of  a  united  Greece. 
He  was  in  Greek  history  the  last  character  of  an  heroic  east. 
"When  the  Jlessenians  revolted  against  the  league,  he  was 
seventy  years  old  and  sick  in  bed,  but  he  rose  immediately 
and  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the  league.  In 
the  ensuing  battle  he  was  captured,  and  the  hostile  com- 
mander sent  to  him  a  cup  of  poisoned  wine,  which  he  drank 
(183  B.  c).  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Philosophy  [via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  philoso'phia  =  Gr. 
(^iKoaoipia,  liter.,  love  of  wisdom ;  <pl\os.  loving  +  tropia.  wis- 
dom] :  a  term  the  introduction  of  which  is  currently  at- 
tributed to  Pythagoras  on  the  authority  of  Cicero  {Tusc,  v.. 
3)  and  Diogenes  Laertius  (i.,  12 ;  viii.,  8).  but  the  oldest 
writer  known  to  use  it  is  Herodotus  (i..  30).  The  Seven 
Wise  Men  of  Greece  were  called  a-ocpKTTai.  to  denote  their 
practical  sagacity  rather  than  their  knowledge  of  science  as 
such.  Socrates,  however,  who  left  behind  him  no  writings 
of  his  own,  is  said  to  have  called  himself  a  philosopher  in 
order  to  reprove  the  Sophists  of  his  time,  he  being  only  a 
seeker  of  wisdom — they,  self-styled  possessors  of  wisdom. 

Definition. — Many  noteworthy  definitions  of  this  science 
may  be  culled  from  its  writers.  While  the  Stoics  made  it 
include  "  a  striving  after  virtue  in  the  sciences — physics, 
ethics,  and  logic" — Epicurus  declared  it  to  be  tlie  rational 
pursuit  of  happiness.  Plato  had  already  designated  phi- 
losophy as  the  acquisition  of  true  knowledge  (eVio-rii^ij  = 
scientific  knowledge),  and  Aristotle  had  defined  it  as  the 
science  of  being  as  being  (rb  ov  ^  on).  The  relation  of  cause 
and  effect  furnishes  the  basis  of'the  definitions  of  the  earlier 
among  modern  philosophers  (Descartes,  Bacon,  Hobbes, 
Leibnitz).  Wolf  returns  substantially  to  the  Aristotelian 
basis  by  defining  it  to  be  the  science  of  possible  existence  in 
so  far  as  possible,  thus  referring  to  the  logical  conditions  of 
existence.  Fichte  makes  it  the  science  of  sciences  ( Wisseii- 
schaftslehre);  and  this  conception  is  very  generally  adopted, 
with  slight  modifications,  by  later  thinkers.  Whenever  man 
attempts  to  refer  all  of  his  cognitions  to  one  he  begins  to 
philosophize.  Each  nation's  philosophy  is  an  endeavor  to 
solve  the  problems  of  the  world,  as  they  appear  to  it  from 
the  standpoint  of  its  national  life,  by  some  one  principle. 
This  principle  may  be  any  cognition  selected  from  the  realm 
of  nature  or  from  that  of  mind.  The  systems  of  philosopliy 
of  a  given  nation  or  time  may  differ  as" to  the  one  principle 
chosen  as  the  explanatory  one,  but  they  are  certain  to  agree 
in  the  elements  of  the  problem  to  be  solved.  For  the  phi- 
losophy of  a  given  epoch  endeavors  to  state  in  ultimate 
terras  the  elements  of  the  problems  of  its  epoch.  A  philo- 
sophic solution  of  a  problem  consists  in  the  reduction  of  the 
immediate  and  contradictory  elements,  as  they  are  given  in 
life,  to  the  ultimate  terms  of  expressions  which  indicate  the 
universal  and  necessary  conditions  out  of  which  those  ele- 
ments have  arisen.  Hence  every  philosophy  has  two  fac- 
tors: (1)  The  temporal  and  finite  one,  which  includes  the 
empirical  elements  to  be  explained— that  is,  the  then  pres- 
ent world  of  man  and  nature,  which  involves  problems  to 
be  solved;  (2)  an  eternal  and  infinite  element,  or  the  per- 
manent and  unchangeable  ultimate  idea  through  which  the 
solution  is  wrought  out  and  bv  which  the  temporal  and 
finite  is  explained  :  this  element  "is  the  conception  of  the  ab- 
solute as  it  finds  exm-cssion  in  the  solution.  Thus  the  dif- 
ferent systems  of  pliilosophy  start  from  different  phases  of 
life  (because  its  phases,  from"  one  age  to  another,  are  perpet- 
ually changing),  and  yet  they  arrive  at  substantially  the 
same  result  if  they  are  complete  system.s.  The  difference, 
therefore,  between  the  systems  of"  philosophy  of  different 


peoples  appertains  rather  to  the  empirical  factor  than  to 
the  character  of  the  general  terras  in  which  the  solution  is 
expressed  and  contained.  It  has  been  pointed  out  (see  Gen- 
eralization) that  in  the  most  rudimentary  form  of  know- 
ing— i.  e.  in  sense-perception — there  is  a  synthesis  of  the 
two  extremes  of  cognition:  (1)  The  immediately  conditioned 
content,  which  is  the  particular  object  as  here  and  now  per- 
ceived ;  (2)  the  accompanying  perception  of  the  self  or 
Ego  which  perceives — that  is,  the  activity  of  self-conscious- 
ness, the  knowledge  that  it  is  I  who  am  subject  in  this  par- 
ticular act  of  perception.  Thus  in  sense-perception  two 
objects  are  necessarily  combined:  (a)  The  particular  object 
here  and  now  presented ;  (b)  the  universal  subject  of  all  ac- 
tivity of  perceiving.  This  universal  subject,  which  is  thus 
its  own  object  in  all  forms  of  knowing,  appears  in  two  char- 
acters if  we  reflect  upon  it :  (1)  It  is  absolutely  particular — 
i.  e.  present  in  this  special  moment  now  and  here,  and  in 
this  special  act  of  perception  ;  and  (2)  it  is  absolutely  uni- 
versal, retaining  its  self-identity  under  the  constant  change 
or  flux  which  essentially  belongs  to  the  process  of  the  im- 
mediate now  and  here,  or  present  moment.  The  present 
now  is  a  point  in  time,  and  thus  has  no  duration  except 
through  the  synthetical  addition  of  past  and  future  time, 
which  are  not,  but  either  were  or  else  will  be.  Thus  such  a, 
thing  as  the  perception  of  a  permanent  or  a  relatiun  of  any 
sort  (for  example,  the  one  of  identity  or  of  difference,  the 
most  elementary  and  fundamental  ones)  can  not  take  place 
without  attention  on  the  part  of  the  subject  who  perceives 
lo  the  perception  of  self  or  to  the  universal  factor  which  is 
present  in  perception.  This  act  of  attention  to  self  is  re- 
flection, self-perception  entering  all  perceptions.  The  de- 
gree of  the  power  of  reflection  or  of  attention  to  self-con- 
sciousness measures  the  ability  to  generalize  or  the  ability 
to  think;  or,  in  other  words,  the  strength  of  thought.  For 
the  minimum  of  this  power  of  reflection  admits  barely  the 
possibility  of  combining  the  perceptions  of  time-moments 
that  are  slightly  separated,  and  hence  its  results  are  bare 
perceptions  of  identity  or  difference,  without  their  quan- 
tity and  quality.  Sense-perception  increases  in  richness  of 
knowledge  in  proportion  as  the  power  of  synthesis  or  of 
combining  the  successive  elements  of  perception  increases. 
And  this  power  of  combining  such  separate  elements  is  con- 
tingent on  the  power  of  reflection  or  of  attention  to  the 
self-activity  in  perception.  Such  reflection  has  been  called 
"second  intention,"  and  is  the  condition  of  all  generaliza- 
tion. Self-eonsciousness  is  therefore  the  basis  of  all  knowl- 
edge ;  for  all  predication — from  the  emptiest  assertion.  "  This 
is  now,"  up  to  the  richest  statement  involving  the  ultimate 
relation  of  the  world  to  God  as  the  highest  principle — is 
possible  only  through  a  withdrawal  of  the  mind  out  of  the 
limiting  conditions  of  the  particular  here  and  now  by  means 
of  attention  to  its  own  activity,  which,  as  already  pointed 
out,  comprehends  the  two  phases  of  absolute  particularity 
and  absolute  universal  potentiality  in  one.  This  is  the  psy- 
chological basis  of  the  general  principle  laid  down  regarding 
the  identity  of  systems  of  philosophy  and  their  phases  of 
difference.  The  naive  state  of  mind  of  the  uncultured  hu- 
man being,  alike  with  the  acute  philosophical  intellect  or 
the  intuition  of  the  religious  mystic,  involves  in  all  its  ac- 
tivities and  at  every  moment  thereof  this  phase  of  attention 
to  the  self-activity  or  to  the  subject  which  knows.  The 
naive  or  non-philosophical  stage  of  consciousness  differs 
from  the  philosophical  stage  in  the  fact  that  the  latter  sets 
up  some  one  of  its  cognitions  as  the  highest  principle, 
through  which  it  attempts  to  explain  the  totality  of  said 
cognitions,  while  the  former  makes  no  such  attempt.  The 
philosophical  activity  of  the  mind  is  therefore  a  third  in- 
tention, or  act  of  attention  which  has  for  its  object  the  ref- 
erence of  individual  cognitions,  whether  particular  or  gen- 
eral, to  an  assumed  supreme  principle.  This  philosophical 
act,  it  is  evident  therefore,  is  a  species  of  reflection  different 
from  that  reflection  which  is  implicit  in  all  cognition.  It 
is  an  act  of  withdrawal  of  the  mind  from  immediate  cogni- 
tion, which  arises  through  the  flrst  and  second  intention  (or 
perception  and  reflection),  and  a  concentration  of  the  at- 
tention upon  the  relation  of  that  immediate  cognition  (as 
existing  in  its  separate  details)  to  all  cognition  as  totality. 
It  is  therefore  systematic  knowing.  Moreover,  as  already 
suggested,  it  may  posit  as  its  supreme  principle  any  one  of 
its  cognitions,  taking,  for  example,  an  empty  one  lying  close 
to  the  sensuous  pole  of  cognition,  or  a  concrete  one  lying 
close  to  the  pure  Elgo.  Thus  it  may  make  matter,  or  some 
form  of  matter,  as  water,  air,  fire,  or  ether,  the  philosophical 
principle  which  is  to  explain  all  things,  being  universal  and 


PHILOSOPHY 


010 


piirticuhir  at  the  same  time  ;  or  it  may  take  tor  this  purpose 
Reason  (veDy).  the  Will,  the  Idea,  the  (tuoiI,  Causa  sui,  the 
self-representing  monad,  or  some  form  nearly  approaehing 
the  pure  Kgo.  for  its  principle :  but  the  psyehologieal  pre- 
supposition underlying  all  philosophy,  whether  materialis- 
tie  or  spiritualistic,  is  the  fact  of  withdrawal  or  alislraetion 
of  the  mind  from  its  first  stage  of  cognition,  and  the  con- 
templation of  the  same  under  the  form  of  relation  to  a  sin- 
gle principle — i.  e.  to  an  absolute  totality.  This  contains 
the  remarkable  result  that  in  this  species  of  knowing  the 
mind  views  its  first  principle,  or  the  primitive  existences  by 
which  it  explains  things  as  self-activities;  which  means 
that  mind  sees  under  its  knowledge  its  own  form  as  the  ul- 
timate truth  of  all.  Take  the  standi)oint  of  materialistic 
philosophy,  for  example :  Matter  is  the  ultimate  principle, 
the  whence  and  whither  of  all.  Matter  is  thus  posited  as  a 
universal  which  is  the  sole  origin  of  all  particular  exist- 
ences, and  also  the  final  goal  of  the  same.  Hence  matter 
is  active,  giving  rise  to  special  existences,  and  also  changing 
them  into  others  with  all  the  method  and  arrangeiueut 
which  we  can  see  in  natural  laws.  For  matter  must  con- 
tain in  it  potentially  all  that  comes  from  it.  Hence  matter 
is  creative,  causing  to  arise  in  its  own  general  substance 
those  particular  limitations  which  constitute  the  ditferences 
and  individuality  of  things.  It  is  negative  or  destroyer  in 
that  it  annuls  the  individuality  of  particular  things,  caus- 
ing to  vanish  those  limitations  which  separate  or  distinguish 
this  thing  from  that  other.  Such  a  principle  as  this  "  mat- 
ter" is  assumed  to  be,  which  causes  existences  to  arise  from 
itself  by  its  own  activity  upon  itself  and  within  itself,  entirely 
unconditioned  by  any  other  existence  or  energy,  is  self-de- 
termination, and  therefore  analogous  to  that  factor  in  sen- 
suous knowing  which  was  called  the  Ego  or  self-conscious- 
ness— an  activity  which  is  universal  and  devoid  of  form, 
and  yet  incessantly  productive  of  forms,  and  destructive  of 
the  same.  All  this  is  implied  in  the  theory  of  materialism, 
and  exists  there  as  separate  ideas,  only  needing  to  be  united 
by  inferences;  but  "matter"  as  such  idea  is  a  cognition 
which  arises  only  through  reflection;  it  is  perceived  by 
"  seconil  intention,"  for  first  intention  only  refers  or  relates 
to  immediate  particular  objects,  and  not  to  general  objects 
like  "matter,"  which  is  only  a  term  for  the  persistent  activ- 
ity which  recurs  in  the  perception  of  whatever  object  it 
apprehends  in  time  and  space.  As  cognition  of  the  mind, 
therefore,  "  matter  "  is  a  product  of  "  second  intention,"  but 
as  philosophic  principle  it  is  more  than  this :  it  is  this  spe- 
cial cognition  of  matter  posited  as  the  absolute  or  as  the 
totality  and  entirety  of  cognition,  and  hence  not  as  limited 
through  other  particular  cognitions,  but  as  containing  with- 
in itself  a  limiting  power  necessary  for  the  particularization 
of  other  cognitions.  Hence  it  is  a  pure  Ego  in  so  far  as 
the  possibility  of  all  special  ideas  are  concerned,  and  an  ac- 
tive process  so  far  as  actual  particular  existence  arises  from 
it.  Thus  the  position  even  of  materialistic  philosophy  im- 
plies the  thought  of  a  totality  which  is  purely  universal, 
and  a  pure  activity  originating  particular  existences  at  the 
same  time.  Here  we  meet  the  most  important  distinc- 
tion which  belongs  to  the  definition  of  philosophy.  The 
degrees  of  consciousness  are  various,  and  diflfer  through  the 
completeness  with  which  they  grasp  the  determinations  of 
the  self-activity  of  the  Ego.  On  the  stage  of  philosophy 
consciousness  grasps  determination  as  a  totality,  and  hence 
as  self-determination ;  but  this  may  hapjien  in  all  shapes, 
from  the  emptiest  up  to  the  fullest  and  concreti-st.  Even 
in  materialism  the  attem])t  to  explain  the  world  through  an 
ultimate  principle  indicates  the  certitude  of  the  mind  of  the 
objectivity  of  its  principle  of  self-determination,  and  it 
therefore  implicitly  asserts  and  presupposes  that  the  truth 
of  things  is  self-determination.  Yet  it  may  under  this 
form  so  far  contradict  irSelf  as  to  represent  its  content, 
"matter,"  to  be  a  mere  spatial  existence,  thinking  under 
the  term  a  vague  abstraction  as  the  origin  of  all  immediate 
parlicuhirity  and  as  the  final  cause  thereof,  without  dis- 
tinctly delining  to  itself  these  attributes  as  belonging  to 
matter  as  highest  principle.  There  are.  then,  various  forms 
of  philosophy,  {litfcring  in  the  degree  of  completeness  in 
which  they  consciously  define  their  highest  principle  as  the 
concrete  LTniversal  which  originates  the  particular  by  its 
self-activity,  and  thus  realizes  itself  in  its  own  externality. 
The  distinction  of  philosophy  from  religion  (which  would 
be  thought  at  first  to  be  a  reihiction  of  all  special  l)cings  to 
an  alisolute  principle,  (iod.  in  the  same  manner  as  defined 
for  the  province  of  philosophy)  lies  in  the  fact  that  whih' 
[ihilosophy  attempts  to  comprehend  the  totality  of  things 


through  its  absolute  principle,  religion  represents  its  abso- 
lute in  the  historical  relatum  of  Creator  of  the  world,  and 
thus  while  it  does  subordinate  all  knowledge  to  one  of  its 
own  principles,  the  mind  in  religion  is  not  active  in  its  third 
intenlion.  luit  only  in  its  first  and  second  intentions.  Re- 
ligion olfers  its  teaching  to  the  lower  and  lowest  stages,  as 
well  as  to  tlie  highest  stages  of  theoretical  consciousness; 
for  its  revelation,  although  of  the  highest  essence,  is  not  im- 
mediately addressed  to  the  theoretical  reason,  but  rather  to 
the  Will.  Hence  it  presents  its  absolute,  not  for  assimila- 
tion, but  for  practical  reconciliation  with  the  individual. 
The  relation  of  theosophy  or  mysticism  to  philosophy  is  here 
to  be  defined.  Setting  out  from  the  standpoint  of  religion, 
and  positing  the  absolute  of  religion  as  not  only  the  princi- 
ple of  hunum  action,  but  also  of  theoretical  cognition,  the 
religious  mystic  explains  the  world  of  nature  an<l  of  history 
through  it.  This  constitutes  theosojihy.  It  purports  to 
arise  through  special  illumination  of  the  mind  through  the 
Absolute,  and  may  be  very  profound  and  complete  in  its 
theory  of  things.  Vnit  will  of  necessity  use  categories  bor- 
rowed from  religion,  and  consequently  tinged  with  pictured 
representations,  while  philosophy  uses  its  thoughts  abstract- 
ly, and  derives  them  from  the  activity  of  reflection. 

The  province  of  literature  is  to  be  distinguished  from  phi- 
losophy through  the  fact  that  its  works  seek  an  Epsthetic 
unity  of  form,  rather  than  a  unity  in  the  principle  por- 
trayed. It  may  happen,  as  in  the  poem  of  Lucretius,  De 
Rerum  Katiira,  that  a  philosophical  treatise  assumes  an 
aesthetic  form,  but  such  form  does  harm  to  the  requirements 
of  scientific  method.  The  essay  and  the  literary  criticism 
may  offer  profound  reflections,  but  they  are  necessarily 
hampered  through  their  form  when  it  is  literary  rather  than 
scientific. 

The  sciences,  finally,  are  more  difficult  to  distinguish 
from  philosophy,  especially  the  mental  sciences.  Indeed, 
philosophy  is  sometimes  made  synonymous  with  mental  sci- 
ence, or  with  psychology.  While  religion  agi-ees  with  phi- 
losophy in  content  (the  relation  of  the  Absolute  to  the 
world),  it  differs  from  it  in  form  (employing  the  principle 
of  faith  or  authority  instead  of  logical  necessity) ;  the  sci- 
ences, on  the  contrary,  agree  in  form,  but  disagree  in  con- 
tent. They  treat  of  the  systematic  arrangement  of  mate- 
rials within  special  jirovinces.  rather  than  the  reduction 
of  the  same  to  the  first  principle  of  all.  The  province  of 
philosophy  may  include  those  of  all  special  sciences,  and 
even  those  of  art  and  religion,  jurisprudence  and  ethics,  psy- 
chology and  ethnology,  in  so  far  as  those  provinces  are  made 
elements  of  the  problem  of  the  universe  to  be  solved  by  a 
first  principle. 

Method. — Philosophy  alone  can  cognize  methods,  whether 
of  other  provinces  of  mental  activity  or  of  its  own  proced- 
ure. First  and  most  obvious  is  the  analytic  method,  which 
proceeds  by  resolution  of  a  whole  into  its  parts,  and  is  a 
method  of  invention  or  discovery,  inasmucli  as  it  concen- 
trates indefinitely  the  power  of  the  mind  upon  a  subject  by 
attacking  its  details  singly.  This  method  is  in  philosophy 
what  the  microscope  is  in  anatomy  and  kindred  physical  in- 
vestigations. It  proceeds  from  the  vague  to  the  distinct 
and  clear.  Then  there  is  the  synthetic  method,  which  pro- 
ceeds by  combination  or  composition,  and  is  a  method  of 
generalization  or  of  principles — a  method  of  explanation 
rather  than  of  discovery.  Besides  these  species  of  method, 
their  union  gives  rise  to  higher  species  of  method  ;  (1)  De- 
ductive method,  proceeding  from  the  necessity  of  the  whole 
to  the  necessity  of  the  parts;  (2)  inductive  method,  proceed- 
ing from  particulars  contingently  given  to  their  necessary 
unity  ;  (3)  dialectic  or  genetic  method,  which  by  the  analy- 
sis of  its  object  discovers  its  essential  dependence  ujion  other 
objects  and  its  unity  with  them:  again,  considering  the  new 
object,  which  has  arisen  synthetically  through  the  discovery 
of  depentlence  in  the  first  object  upon  other  objects,  it  dis- 
covers by  analysis  a  new  form  of  dependence,  which  leads 
to  a  new  synthesis,  etc.  It  is  a  method  of  ascent  toward  a 
first  jirinciple  by  the  discovery  of  presuppositions,  and  by 
their  addition  to  the  ol)ject  considered.  It  is  contrasted  by 
Plato  {liepiil)..  bk.  vi..  ch.  xiii.)  with  the  mathematical  meth- 
od (that  of  simple  deduction),  as  the  method  which  removes 
its  hypot  hesis  (i.  e.  its  first  object)  and  ascends  toward  a  first 

Srinciple  (i-n'  avr^v  t^v  apxho).  while  geometry  and  the  kin- 
red  sciences  use  fixed  hypothesas  (i.  e.  assumed  first  prin- 
ciples), and  arc  unable  to  show  their  necessity  as  the  dia- 
lectic method  <loes  by  the  discovery  of  presuppositions.  The 
methoil  of  .Aristotle  is  dialectic  in  the  same  sense  as  that  of 
Plato,  differing  only  in  this,  that  he  makes  it  more  exhaust- 


576 


PHILOSOPUY 


ive  by  laboriously  collecting  and  discussing  all  the  inade- 
quate phrases  that  fall  under  each  subject,  exhibiting  at 
last  the  true  archetype  or  adequate  realization  of  the  spe- 
cies, as  though  he  had  empirically  discovered  it  by  careful 
investigation.  The  dialectic  method  contains  the  process 
of  analysis  in  union  with  that  of  synthesis.     Its  analysis 

E roves  to  be  a  synthesis  because  it  reveals  dependence,  and 
ence  the  relation  of  the  part  to  a  whole.  It  must  he  pres- 
ent under  all  forms  of  necessary  thinking,  even  when  the 
thinker  is  unconscious  of  liis  method;  as,  in  fact,  he  maybe 
even  of  all  method,  and  still  think  philosophically.  The  in- 
ductive and  deductive  methods,  so  called,  unite  analysis  and 
synthesis  also,  but  in  tlie  former  the  side  of  analysis  is  part- 
ly suppressed,  in  the  latter  that  of  synthesis.  Again,  the 
dialectic  method  is  skeptical  when  it  lays  chief  stress  on  its 
negative  side,  on  that  of  the  destruction  of  its  hypothesis 
through  the  discovery  of  dependence,  and  speculative  when 
it  subordinates  the  negative  phase  to  the  total  result,  which 
is  constructive  of  a  more  comprehensive  and  deeper  thought 
— hence  of  a  truer  thought. 

Classification. — (A)  From  the  foregoing  definition  of  phi- 
losophy it  is  evident  (a)  that  there  is  one  province  of  thought 
which  belongs  partly  in  the  domain  of  philosophy  and  part- 
ly in  that  of  religion — to  wit,  theosophy  or  mysticism.  In 
it  the  dogma  is  partially  rationalized,  and  therefore  belongs 
to  the  realm  of  cognition  instead  of  faith.  Theosophy  is 
the  first  form  of  philosophy,  therefore,  inasmuch  as  it  makes 
its  appearance  as  an  outgrowtli  from  religion,  the  effort  be- 
ing made  to  realize  the  content  of  religion  as  truth,  (b) 
Thought  perfectly  independent  from  religion,  and  intent  on 
constructing  a  rational  view  of  the  world  and  on  reducing 
its  common  notions  to  consistency,  may  originate  systems 
of  materialism.  This  happens  when  it  is  not  yet  sufficiently 
disciplined  to  seize  consciously  its  higher  cognitions  (those 
of  the  soul,  for  example)  as  first  principles  with  wliich  to  ex- 
plain the  world ;  it  therefore  posits  a  cognition  lying  close 
to  its  ordinary  experience  and  most  familiar  to  it,  as  the  ex- 
planation of  all.  (c)  By  continued  reflection  it  gradually 
discovers  what  it  has  implied  Ijy  endowing  a  principle  with 
the  power  of  originating  all  things,  and  comes  to  adopt, 
step  by  step,  more  spiritual  principles  until  it  reaches  pure 
idealism  and  recognizes  the  world  of  sense-perception  as 
phenomenal  manifestation  of  absolute  mind.  This  first  se- 
ries is  founded  on  the  "  third  intention  of  the  mind  "  and 
constitutes  dogmatic  philosophy.  (B)  Above  this  stand- 
point begins  the  series  of  systems  founded  on  perception  of 
method  (the  fourth  intention  of  the  mind,  making  for  its 
object  the  operations  of  the  mind  in  its  third  intention,  or 
ordinary  philosophizing),  (a)  The  first  system  founded  on 
perception  of  method  is  skepticism,  which  breaks  the  link 
between  subject  and  object,  between  the  mind  and  the  truth, 
by  calling  attention  to  the  process  or  method  of  the  mind 
in  philosophizing,  and  exhibiting  the  modifying  effect  of 
mind  upon  truth.  It  shows  tliat  the  activity  of  the  mind 
enters  and  constitutes  an  element  of  truth,  and  therefore  in- 
validates it.  (h)  Tlie  second  system  founded  on  the  percep- 
tion of  method  is  the  system  of  critical  philosophy,  giving 
to  it  the  name  which  Kant  gave  his  own  system.  On  it  is 
founded  the  third  phase  of  philosophy  wliich  we  may  call 
Absolute  Idealism,  giving  it  the  name  given  to  its  best  type, 
the  system  of  Ilegel.  (C)  As  the  second  phase  of  philoso- 
phy is  skeptical  when  it  perceives  philosophic  method  only 
in  glimpses,  so  when  it  comes  to  make  an  exhaustive  study 
of  method  and  to  learn  all  of  its  possibilities,  as  in  the  crit- 
ical philosophy  of  Kant  and  Pichte,  then  it  arrives  at  the 
insight  that  the  object  of  the  tliird  intention — namely,  mind 
as  the  first  principle  or  absolute,  is  also  the  presupposition 
of  all  psychological  method.  After  this  skepticism  becomes 
impossible.  This  third  phase  of  philosojihy  is  founded  on 
the  fifth  intention  of  the  mind  and  perceives  the  positive 
side  of  method,  and  its  necessary  universality  as  principle 
of  existence  or  as  logical  condition  of  the  world.  This  last 
system  is  sometimes  called  pure  .science,  science  of  ideas  in 
and  for  themselves,  ontological  logic,  science  of  knowledge, 
absolute  idealism,  etc.  Examples  of  each  of  these  five  sys- 
tems may  be  found  in  the  subdivision  His/on/  of  Philosophy. 
Departments.— 'V\ie  oVX  division  of  Wolf 'makes  four  de- 
partments in  philosophy  :  (")  Ontologv,  (li)  rational  psvcliol- 
ogy,  (c)  cosmology,  (d)  theology.  This  may  be  modified  to 
meet  the  present  development  of  philosophy  thus:  (a)  Pure 
science  or  logic  or  methodology— dialectical  discussion  of 
general  ideas;  (b)  science  of  iniiure,  corresponding  to  ra- 
tional cosmology  ;  (c)  science  of  spirit,  including  numerous 
subordinate  spheres,  such  as  (1)  jisychology,  (2)  ethics,  (8) 


politics  and  history,  (4)  aesthetics,  (5)  theology  (natural). 
This  corresponds  nearly  to  the  division  of  the  ancients  into 
(n)  dialectics,  (A)  physics,  (c)  ethics. 

History  of  Pkilosophi/. — The  history  of  philosophy,  ac- 
cording to  the  definition  discussed  in  this  article,  will  con- 
tain the  record  of  all  thinking  which  refers  the  manifold 
of  ex])erience  to  an  ultimate  principle ;  this  explanatory 
principle  being  materialistic  on  the  one  hand  in  the  ele- 
mentary stages  of  thought,  and  idealistic  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced stages,  while  it  becomes  a  principle  of  method  (or 
a  principle  at  once  ontological  and  psychological)  in  the 
highest  thinking. 

The  Orient  has  generally  been  excluded  from  the  domain 
of  the  history  of  philosophy,  on  the  ground  that  its  thinking 
is  not  emancipated  from  religious  authority.  Religion  and 
philosophy  are  mingled  in  a  species  of  theosophy  in  Asia, 
but  are  worthy  of  study  as  a  phase  of  transition  containing 
the  embryonic  shapes  and  metamorphoses  that  become  fully 
developed  and  distinct  in  the  literature,  religion,  and  phi- 
losophy of  the  Western  peoples.  The  Chinese  systems  of 
Lao  Tsii  (604  B.  c.)  and  Confucius  (550  B.  c.)  posit  a  first 
principle  (called  Tao  by  the  former,  and  Tai-ki  by  the 
latter),  an  abstract  indeterminate  substance,  whence  arise 
masculine  and  feminine  principles  that  beget  all  things. — 
The  Indian  caste  system  gives  rise  to  limitations  so  irksome 
and  galling  that  the  great  problem  in  Indian  thought  is 
emancipation  ;  it  seeks  relief  from  the  rigid  particularity  of 
the  distinctions  (tedious  ceremonial  observances)  which  it 
encounters  in  life,  by  flight  to  the  indefinite,  vague,  and 
empty  ground  of  substance  of  all  things,  and  finds  solid 
satisfaction  in  contemplating  Brahm — i.  c.  the  pure  identity 
wherein  neither  caste-differences,  nor  the  bewildering  luxu- 
riance of  trojiical  nature,  nor  even  the  prolific  creations  of 
its  own  active  fancy  and  teeming  intellect,  any  longer  find 
subsistence  to  vex  and  weary  it.  Besides  the  Sankhya  or 
rational  system,  there  are  reckoned  the  Nyaya,  or  logical 
system  of  Gautama,  and  its  modification  in  the  atomic  sys- 
tem of  Kanada,  called  the  Vaiseshika  Philosophy  :  the  Vedic 
system,  full  of  mysticism,  including  the  elder  school  of 
commentary  called  Furva  iliiiiaiisa,  founded  by  Jaimini, 
and  a  later  one.  called  Uttara  3Iimaiisa,  founded  by  Krish- 
na Dwaipayana;  but  the  philosophic  principle  is  the  same 
ill  all  these,  namely,  the  doctrine  that  the  absolute  is  Pure 
Being  devoid  of  all  attributes,  and  that  all  phases  of  mind 
and  matter  are  only  illusion  (Maya). — The  philosophic  stand- 
point of  the  Persian  consciousness  is  considered  to  be  an 
advance  iipon  those  just  considered,  in  that  it  gives  greater 
validity  to  the  negative  element — that  of  limitation  or  fini- 
tude,  the  principle  of  individuality  or  particularity.  It 
posits  a  process,  the  conflict  of  light  and  darkness  or  of 
good  and  evil,  the  positive  and  negative,  as  the  exi)lanatory 
principle  of  the  universe. — The  worship  of  Hercules  and  of 
Adonis  in  Syria  and  of  Osiris  in  Egypt  indicates  a  progress 
over  the  standpoint  of  Zoroa.ster,  in  that  the  principle  of 
particularity  is  still  more  highly  ]irized.  Purification 
through  pain  reconciles  the  finite  and  infinite,  and  it  is  not 
necessary  to  annihilate  the  former.  Immortality  of  the  in- 
dividual becomes  explicable,  and  the  Egyptian  mind  is 
mostly  occupied  with  this  thought. — Western  Asia  (includ- 
ing Egypt)  occupies  itself  with  the  problem  of  individuality 
and  its  e.ssential  inherence  in  the  absolute.  Its  iiiHuence 
appears  in  the  Ionic  philosophy,  particularly  in  the  teach- 
ings of  Anaximander  and  Heraclitus;  in  the  Pythagorean 
philosophy  ;  in  Ncoiilatonism  ;  in  gnosticism  ;  in  the  mys- 
ticism founded  on  the  Cabbala;  in  the  early  Christological 
speculations  of  the  Church ;  in  Arabian  mysticism. — The 
history  of  iihilosojihy  in  the  Occident,  beginning  with 
Greece,  has  to  do  with  independent  thinking,  and  is  no 
longer  obliged  to  seek  its  material  in  systems  that  are  jiartly 
religious,  partly  ethical,  and  partly  speculative.  Greek 
philosophy  begins  with  the  Ionic  school  in  Asia  Minor, 
Thales,  Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  and  Heraclitus  being 
its  chief  names.  They  set  up  material  ]irinci|iles — (a)  water, 
(b)  the  indefinite  (matter),  (f)  air,  and  (d)  fire — as  the  origin 
of  things.  Pythagoras,  born  in  Ionia  and  taught  in  its 
school  of  philosophy,  founded  a  society  in  Lower  Italy,  and 
proclaimed  numerical  harmony  as  his  principle.  The  Eleatic 
school  (also  of  Lower  Italy)  set  up  the  jirincipic  of  ]nire 
being,  thus  arriving  for  the  first  time  at  a  principle  entirely 
above  and  beyond  experience,  a  principle  seen  only  by  pure 
thought  acting  a  priori  \  it  included  Xenophancs,  Parmen- 
ides,  and  Zeno.  Enipedocles  of  Sicily  taught  that  love  and 
hate  are  the  ultimate  principles,  while  Anaxagoras  at 
Athens   announced   the   important   doctrine    that    Keason 


PillLUSOl'llV 


Oi  I 


(coBi)  arranges  and  orders  all  tldiii;s.  Leucippus  and  Demo- 
eritus  of  Thrace  founded  tlie  aloniii;  philosophy.  The 
Sophists,  of  wlioin  the  most  iin]iortant  were  Protagoras. 
Oorgias,  and  Prodicus,  discovered  and  applied  the  ])riiieiples 
of  ratiocination,  or  the  dc[iendenee  of  conviction  upon 
iTounds  or  reasons.  Socrates  investigated  universals.  seek- 
ing ultimate  grounds  for  conviction  in  order  to  establish 
moral  principles  on  a  firm  basis.  The  yovs  of  Anaxagoras 
iH'Conies  with  the  So|ihists  individual  ri'asoning — with  Soc- 
rates, universal  reason  as  ci>nscience.  Plato,  continuing  tlie 
investigation,  finds  the  theoretical  universals,  the  ideas 
or  archetypes,  anteecilent  to  and  dominant  over  the  world 
of  experience.  Aristotle,  finally,  takes  an  empirical  inven- 
torv  of  the  world,  and  completes  the  demonstration  that 
KoOi  is  the  principle  of  things  in  di'tail,  being  their  final 
cause,  lie  finds  that  all  universals  are  i)hases  of  one  uiii- 
vei-sal  Reason  (>/oDs  jroi))Ti(c<is).  which  is  the  highest  princi|)le. 
His  doctrine  of  first  and  second  entelecliies  defines  the  rela- 
tion of  individuals  to  this  absolute  Reason  and  the  grounds 
of  the  immortality  of  num.  He  m.nps  out  the  paths  of  the 
several  particular  sciences,  and  nuikes  important  investiga- 
tions in  many  of  them.  His  pupils,  Kudcmus  and  Tlu-o- 
plira-itns,  and  his  commentators,  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias, 
Porphyry,  Themistius,  Simplicius,  and,  later,  Avieenna  and 
Averroes,  deserve  mention  in  any  notice  of  Greek  philos- 
opliy,  however  brief.  TJie  Stoic  school  of  Zeno  of  Citium, 
whose  system  is  ethical  in  its  tendency,  the  school  of  Epi- 
curus, whose  system  is  an  atomic  materialism,  belong  to  the 
decline  of  Greek  philosophy.  (This  brief  summary  of  the 
first  ]ihase  of  Greek  philosopliy  may  be  supplemented  l)y 
reference  to  special  articles  in  this  cyclo|ia'dia,  such  as 
Tmai.ks,  Parmkn'idks,  Zexo  of  Elea,  Heraclitus,  Pythag- 
oiiAS,  Sophists,  Socrates.  Plato,  Aristotle,  Stoics,  Zexo 
THE  Stoic,  T'ELEOLociY,  Eokm,  Matter,  Substanxe,  Idea, 
Simplicius,  Sbxtus  Empiricus,  and  Lucretr'S.)  The  revival 
of  Greek  [)hilosophy  at  Alexandria  after  the  Christian  era  was 
occasioned  by  the  contact  of  Greek  thought  with  Orientalism. 
Alexanilria  was  the  focus  or  center  for  the  East  and  the 
West.  Xeoplatonism.  accordingly,  is  the  struggle  to  define 
the  relation  of  Greek  thought  to  spiritual  religion.  Its  dis- 
tinguished names  are  Ammonius  Saccas,  Plotinus,  the  two 
Origens,  Porphyry,  lamblichus,  and  Proclus.  Its  principle 
is  the  transcendence  of  the  Deity,  and  it  lal)ors  to  explain 
how  the  world  cnmmUcs  from  a  i)rinud  One  which  is  in 
nowise  related  to  it,  and  is  devoid  of  all  antithesis,  and 
llicrefore  unthinkable.  Boi-thius,  througli  his  C'lmsolalio 
and  his  translation  of  .-i  portion  of  the  Organon,  and  by  his 
commentary  on  the  Isayow  of  Porphyry,  transmitted  al- 
most all  that  was  known  of  Greek  philosophy  by  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  West  for  several  centuries.  (See  articles  on 
Plotinus,  Porphvrus,  Iamblichus,  Proclus,  Gnostics, 
.Mysthtsm,  and  PiiiLo  .Tud.eus.) — Within  Christianity,  (inos- 
ticism  arose  in  the  second  century  as  an  atteinjit  to  construct 
a  philosophy  on  a  Christian  basis.  Philo  had  already  specu- 
lated' m  I  he  Logos.  Valentinus  made  the  povs  the  "  only-begot- 
ten" and  the  source  of  the  Logos.  Origen  and  Clement  en- 
deavored to  assimilate  some  of  tht?  Gnostic  doctrines.  After 
the  Council  of  Nice  had  given  definition  to  the  orthodox 
faitli,  more  attention  was  given  to  the  philosophic  justifica- 
tion of  its  dogmas.  .Vthanasius,  Gregory  of  Xyssa,  St. 
Augustine,  Synesius,  ,Eneas  of  Gaza.  Philoponus,  and  the 
pseudo-Dionysius  the  Areopagite  contributed  to  this  work. 
In  the  ninth  century  it  was  the  translation  of  the  writings 
of  the  pseudo-Dionysius,  evidently  a  Neoplatonist,  by 
Scotus  Erigena  that  gave  rise  to  scholasticism.  The  con- 
troversy of  nominalism  and  realism,  in  which  Roscellinus, 
Anselin,  Abelard,  and  Williain  of  Cliam[>eaux  were  the 
chief  disputants,  occupied  the  first  period  of  scholasti- 
cism. The  mastery  of  .\ristotle  and  the  refutation  of  the 
pantheistic  commentary  of  Averroes  were  the  chief  busi- 
ness of  the  second  perioil,  in  which  appeared  the  great 
theologians  Alexander  of  Hales,  Bonaventura,  Albert  us 
Magnus,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Duns  Scotus.  Aristotle 
liccume  the  "  precimor  (^/iri.i/i  in  tinliirri/ihiin."  as  .lohn 
the  Baptist  "  in  (/rn/iiifis."  Besides  Averroes  shoulil 
be  named  Avieenna.  Alfarabi,  Alkendi,  and  Algazel  among 
the  Arabians,  and  Avicembron,  Ben  David,  ami  Closes  Mai- 
moiiides  among  the  .lewish  philosiiph(>rs.  Roger  Bacon  ami 
William  of  Occam  did  not  follow  the  prevailing  tendencies, 
the  former  being  an  experimenting  physicist  born  before 
his  time,  and  the  latter  an  invincible  o])|ionent  of  the  log- 
ical realism  current.  Xominalism  under  Occam  destroved 
the  tendency  to  rationalize  the  dogma,  and  scholasticism 
went  down  altogether.  (See  articles  on  Scholasticism,  Nomi- 
321 


XALisTs.  Realism.  Idealism,  iMMORTAi.rrv.  Necessity,  Oc- 
cam, Dins  Scotus.  and  Ai^uiXAS.)  The  fall  of  the  Eastern 
empire  brought  many  learned  Greeks  into  the  West,  and 
kindled  iit  Florence  and  elsewhere  the  direct  study  of  Plato 
and  .\ristotle  in  the  original  Greek,  whereas  hitherto  the 
interpretation  of  commentators  had  been  generally  accepted. 
Distinguished  translators  and  new  connnentators,  such  as 
Ficiiio.  Pomiionatius.  Scaliger,  appeared.  (See  Ficino.)  The 
naturalistic  opponents  of  the  traditional  philo.sophy  of  the 
schools  at  this  period,  Xic<ilaiis  Cusanus,  Jerome  Cardan, 
Telesius,  Palritius.  and  Ramus,  preimrcd  the  way  for  an 
epoch  of  emancipation  from  authority,  in  which  the  leading 
spirits  were  Giordano  Bruno,  Francis  Bacon,  and  Rene  Des- 
cartes. The  first  of  Ihe.se  attacked  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority in  matters  of  science:  the  second  founded  the  em- 
pirical method  of  philosophizing:  the  third  completed  the 
ennmcipation  from  schola.-<ticism  by  bringing  the  principles 
of  pliilosojihy  to  the  test  of  consciousness  and  by  discard- 
ing the  authority  of  tradition.  Thomas  Hobbes  applied 
Bacon's  |irinciple  to  politi<'s;  Geulincx  and  JVlalebranche 
explainecl  the  relation  of  mind  and  nuillcr  in  the  Cartesian 
dualism  :  Spinoza  avoided  the  Cartesian  dualism  altogether 
by  adopting  the  principle  of  One  Substance  with  the  two 
atlributes,  thought  and  extension.  Locke  attempted  a  crit- 
ical survey  of  the  powers  of  the  mind  to  cognize  truth,  and 
found  sense-perception  and  reOcclion  to  be  the  sonrcesof  all 
ideas.  Berkeley  drew  from  Locke's  doctrine  the  inference 
that  we  know  only  ideas  and  not  the  external  world.  Cud- 
worth,  author  of  the  In/ellirfna/  Si/xlcm,  and  Henry  More 
the  Platonist,  Gassendi  the  atnmist.  Grotius  and  PufTendorf, 
writers  on  international  law,  Bayle  the  pantheist,  are  among 
the  foremost  thinkers  of  that  time.  Jleister  Eckhart,  prob- 
ably a  puiiil  of  Albertus  Jlagnus,  founded  in  the  fourteenth 
century  along  the  Rhine  the  most  noteworthy  school  of 
theosophy  yet  known,  and  with  his  followers,  Tauler,  Hein- 
rich  Suso,  ,1ohn  Rnysbroeck.  and  the  aullior  of  Thtologia 
Germanicn.  and  Thomas  a  Kempis.  exercised  a  most  potent 
influence  on  the  growth  of  thought  in  Gcrnuuiy  and  the 
rise  of  the  spirit  that  produced  the  Protestant  Reformation. 
Jacob  Btihine,  contemporary  of  Descartes  and  Lord  Bacon, 
developed  another  system  of  theosophy  nearly  as  remark- 
able as  that  of  Eckhart,  and  in  substantial  agreement  with 
it.  With  Leibnitz,  theosopliy  becomes  jihilosophy.  His 
doctrines  were  systematized  by  \\'olf.  and  held  sway  down 
to  the  time  of  Kant.  In  his  jfonadohif/i/  he  sets  up  in  op- 
position to  the  mechanical  system  of  Descartes  the  doctrine 
of  niomids,  which  have  no  mechanical  relation  to  each 
other,  but  only  the  ideal  or  psycllologic^d  one  of  represent- 
ing each  other.  David  Hume  is  the  point  of  departure  for 
the  chief  systems  of  philosophy  which  have  appeared  dur- 
ing the  past  hundred  years.  His  criticism  on  the  idea  of 
causality,  reducing  it  to  "the  mere  '•  habit  of  surveying  things 
constantly  conjoined  with  each  other."  sapped  the  founda- 
tions of  all  dogmatic  philosophy  current  at  his  time.  La 
Jlettrie.  Voltaire.  Rousseau,  Condillac,  Diderot,  d'Alem- 
bert.  Roliinet  (who  anticipated  Darwinism  and  the  Spen- 
cerian  "evolution"),  and  Von  Holbach  arc  noted  thinkers 
in  the  same  nwvenient  in  France.  Lessing  began  the  strug- 
gle for  literary  independence  in  Germany,  and  Kant  com- 
pleted the  reaction  in  philosoiihy  and  freed  his  country  from 
its  subservience  to  French  ideas.  The  Crifigiie  of  Pure 
licaxdn  established  on  the  ground  <if  their  universality  and 
necessity  the  a  priori  ch.aracter  of  causality  and  other  cate- 
gories, and  demonstrated  the  self-activity  of  the  mind  in 
sense-jiercejition.  The  Critique  of  Prrirtical  Jieason  showeil 
that  God.  free  will,  and  immortality  arc  necessarily  postu- 
lated by  all  acts  of  the  individual  as  "  regulative  ideas" ; 
hence  these  are  the  logical  conditions  of  human  action. 
These  two  Crifiquex  rescued  religion  and  morality,  and  the 
institutions  founded  on  them,  from  the  attacks  of  skepti- 
cism, but  they  denied  the  possibility  of  theoretical  cognition 
in  the  realm  of  objective  existence.  This  inability  the  later 
schools  of  German  philosojihy  labored  to  remove.  Fiehte's 
Science  of  Knoifledije  showed  in  a  systematic  form  the  ori- 
gin of  the  categories  in  the  self-activity  of  the  mind,  and 
proveil  that  the  will  is  therefore  presupposed  everywhere  as 
a  conditioning  factor  in  cognition.  The  sensuous  factor  of 
knowledge  is  accordingly  subordinated,  and  the  moral  world 
isahnostthe  oidy  world  that  exists  for  l''ichte.  Schelling, 
however,  reacts  to  the  opposite  extniine,  and  lays  great 
stress  on  the  evolution  of  unconscious  organism  in  nature 
and  human  history.  The  central  object  of  his  system  is 
therefore  a'slhetic  art,  wherein  the  unconscious  reason 
reaches  its  completest  expression.     Schelling's  .school  in- 


578 


PHILOSOPHY 


eludes  the  distinguished  theosophist  Baader  and  the  natural- 
ists Oken,  Carus,  Oersted,  Esenbeclv,  Steffens :  the  theolo- 
gians Schleiermaeher,  Eschenniayer.  Blasche.  Gorres;  Schu- 
bert tlie  cosmologist,  Stahl  the  jurist.  Solger  and  Ast,  [es- 
thetic writers ;  besides  Krause,  Troxler,  Jacob  Wagner,  and 
others.  Hegel,  in  opposition  to  Schelling's  tendency  to  em- 
phasize unconscious  evolution,  endeavored  to  grasp  the  con- 
tent of  nature  and  mind  with  self-conscious  method.  His 
"unity  of  thought  and  being"'  means  that  universal  and 
necessary  ideas,  being  the  logical  conditions  of  tlie  world 
of  experience,  are  as  objective  as  they  are  subjective,  any 
denial  of  this  principle  being  self-contradictory,  inasmuch 
as  it  assumes  to  pronounce  a  priori  upon  the  objective  pos- 
sibility of  existence — the  very  thing  it  repudiates.  Hegel's 
philosophy,  like  that  of  Aristotle,  takes  an  encyoloptedic  in- 
ventory of  the  world  of  nature  and  man,  reconciling  and 
interpreting  all  phases.  The  most  eminent  of  the  direct 
expounders  of  Hegel  are  JIarheineke,  J.  Schulze,  Gans,  Von 
Henning,  Hotho.  Forster,  Michelet,  Rosenkranz,  Weisse, 
Goschel,  Erdmann,  M.  Carriere,  K.  Ph.  Fischer,  R,  Eucken, 
and  Kuno  Fischer.  All  these  expound  with  originality, 
and  sometimes  with  important  deviations. 

According  to  the  popular  distinction  of  Strauss,  there  is  a 
left  wing  which  expounds  the  Hegelian  system  as  a  logical 
pantheism  (panlogism) ;  a  right  wing  which  expounds  it  in 
conformity  with  orthodoxy  ;  a  center  which  agrees  substan- 
tially with  the  right  wing,  but  introduces  many  modifica- 
tions in  technique  and  interpretation.  The  study  of  Hegel 
and  of  the  Kantian  movement  in  his  direction  has  made 
its  way  into  Great  Britain  through  the  original  writings  and 
translations  of  .J.  H.  Stirling  {The  Secret  of  Hegel).  J.  Caird, 
of  Glasgow,  T.  H.  Green,  E.  Caird,  and  W.  Wallace,  of  Ox- 
ford ;  and  further  by  A.  Seth,  D.  G.  Ritchie,  B.  Bosanquet, 
E.  S.  Haldane,  E.  Wallace,  R.  Adamson.  F.  H.  Bradley; 
into  France  especially  through  A.  Vera,  Ch.  Benard ;  into 
It.aly  through  A.  Vera,  B.  Spaventa,  R.  Mariano ;  into  the 
U.  S.  through  the  Journal  of  Speculative  P/iilo.mphy,  and 
the  expositions  and  translations  of  .J.  Watson,  C.  C.  Everett, 

E.  Mulfonl,  G.  S.  Morris,  G.  H.  Howison.  H.  C.  Brockmeyer, 

D.  J.  Snider.  .J.  Rovce,  .J.  .S.  Kednev.  J.  Dewev.  \V.  S.  Hough. 
W.  M.  Bryant,  J.  M.  Sterrett,  R.  A.  Holland.  N.  M.  Butler, 
J.  G.  Schurman,  A.  T.  Ormond.  A  school  has  arisen  in 
Germany  which,  starting  from  Hegel  or  Kant,  approximates 
somewhat  in  methods  the  English  and  .Scotch  schools  of 
empirical  psychology.  Its  most  eminent  names  are  J.  H. 
Fichte.  Wirth,  Zeller,  Ulrici,  Fr.  Harms.  Bona  Meyer,  Lieb- 
mann,  Volkelt.  J.  Bergmann,  J.  Rehmke.  W.  Schuppe.  A 
materialistic  tendency  appears  in  the  writings  of  the  "  left  " 
Hegelian  wing,  and  becomes  pronounced  in  Strauss,  Feuer- 
bach,  and  some  others.  Exjierimental  psychology  has  re- 
cently taken  new  life  from  researches  in  antliropology,  eth- 
nology, folklore,  child-study,  hypnotism,  spiritism,  "mind- 
reading,  and  other  phases  of  "psychic  research,"  and  more 
especially  through  the  discoveries  in  the  physiology  of  the 
brain  and  nerves  made  since  the  success  of  Broca  in  fixing 
the  location  of  the  lesion  producing  aphasia  in  1868.  In 
England  tlie  names  of  Carpenter,  Maudsley,  D.  Ferrier, 
Gallon,  Lubbock.  Romanes,  Sully,  Spencer,  Tylor,  .1.  Ward, 
G.  C.  Robertson,  A.  Bain,  are  connected  with  one  or  another 
phase  of  this  movement :  in  America  the  names  of  G.  T. 
Ladd.  W.  .JauR-s,  G.  S.  Hall,  J.  M.  Baldwin,  J.  B.  Powell,  L. 

F.  Ward,  G.  Mallerv,  D.  G.  Brinton,  J.  Fiske,  G.  S.  Fuller- 
ton,  J.  M.  Cattell,  E.  B.  Titchener,  E.  Barnes,  C.  L.  Frank- 
lin, are  most  distinguished  in  the  several  departments  of 
this  study;  in  Italy  the  critninologist  C.  Lombroso  is  emi- 
nent ;  and  in  Germany,  where  the  movement  borrowed  its 
methods,  its  literature  is  due  to  W.  Wundt,  Helmholtz.  A. 
Horwics,  G.  T.  Fechner,  E.  Dubois- Kevmond.  A.  Schleicher, 

E.  Ilaeckel,  F.  Brentano.  II.  .Miinsterberg,  II.  El)binghaus.  C. 
Stuinpf,  H.  Witte,  T.  Lipps,  G.  K.  L^phues.  M.  Dessoir.  and 
their  colaborers ;  in  France  the  hypnotic  jihenomena  have 
received  more  attention  than  elsewliere.  and  the  location  of 
psychical  activities  in  the  brain  has  been  investigated  with 
much  tlioroughness.    The  writings  of  Th.  Ribot.  A.  Binet, 

G.  Tardc,  Ch.  Fere,  are  studied  in  lioth  hemispheres.  Her- 
bart  reproduced  Leibnitz  modified  bv  ideas  derived  from 
Kant  and  Fichte.  His  school  is  prolific  in  distinguished 
writers,  especially  in  the  ilepartmcnt  of  psychologv  as  ap- 
plied to  philology  and  education.  Promineiit  are  the  names 
of  Drobiscli.  Beneke.  Kxner.  Hartenstein,  Lazarus,  Stein- 
thal,  Waitz.  Bonitz.  Wittstein.  .\.  Fcmillee  {in  France).  II. 
Lotze's  system  is  almost  eclectic,  being  founded  on  a  criti- 
cism of  the  Herbartian  system  and  the  later  Kantian  systems. 
It  has  exercised  much  influence  in  the  U.  S.  through  the 


writings  of  B.  P.  Bowne.  G.  T.  Ladd,  and  J.  Cook.  Tren- 
delenburg's system  is  based  cliiefly  on  Aristotle  and  Kant, 
and  represents  a  reaction  against  the  logic  of  Hegel.  Scho- 
penhauer revived  the  Buddliistic  system  with  great  penetra- 
tion and  power  of  exposition,  and  with  caustic  criticism  of 
his  contemporaries.  E.  von  Hartmann  has  added  to  its  pop- 
ularity by  his  writings,  and  Frauenstaedt  has  connected  it 
with  the  "  left-wing"  interpretation  of  Hegel.  Other  dis- 
ciples of  .Schopenhauer  are  Julius  Bahnsen,  K.  Peters,  P. 
Deussen,  P.  JIainlaender.  the  novelist  Spielhagen,  and  the 
musician  Richard  Wagner.  Italian  philosopliy  counts  Gal- 
luppi,  Gioberti,  Rosmini,  Mamiani.  and  the  Hegelians  (at  Na- 
ples), Vera,  Spaventa,  Mariano,  Ragnisco.  The  writings  of 
Rosmini  have  been  translated  into  English  by  his  disciples, 
W.  Lockhart  and  T.  Davidson,  and  expositions  made  of  his 
ideas  in  psychology  and  metaphysics.  Besides  these,  there 
is  an  active  school  of  positivists  in  Italy  represented  by  R. 
Ardigo,  A.  Angiulli,  G.  Cesca,  G.  Sergi.  E.  Lombroso.  Mo- 
relli,  and  Caporali.  In  France.  Laromiguiere.  Rover  Col- 
lard.  Maine  de  Biran.  B.  Constant.  Victor  Cousin.  T.  Jouif- 
roy.  P.  Janet,  C.  de  Remusat.  Saint-Hilaire,  Emil  Saisset,  J. 
Simon,  Ravaisson.  represent  the  spiritual  tendency,  partly 
stimulated  by  the  Scotch  [ihilosophy,  partly  by  the  scholastic 
traditions  of  the  universities,  and  partly  by  the  Kantian 
movement.  Saint-Simon.  Fourier.  P.  Leroux,  represent  the 
socialistic  direction,  and  Comte  and  his  disciples  positivism. 
Comte  has  gained  followers  in  all  countries.  In  France, 
Blignieres,  Littre  (lexicographer),  P.  Lafitte.  many  of  the 
physiological  psychologists.  Taine.  are  eminent  names  in 
this  school.  In  Great  Britain  Frederick  Harrison  is  the 
leader  of  positivism.  A  reaction  against  the  materialistic 
followers  of  Locke  begun  with  V.  de  Bonald.  Jos.  de  Maistre. 
and  F.  de  Lamennais.  Writers  that  should  not  be  omitted 
in  a  list  of  French  philosophers  are  J.  Reynard.  E.  Vacherot, 
E.  Carot,  Claude  Bernard  (|)hysiologist),  J.  M.  Guyau.  and 
esjiecially  C.  Renouvier.  w'hose  writings  show  the  influence 
of  Kant.  The  Scotch  school  of  Reid.  Stewart.  Brown,  and 
Sir  W.  Hamilton  begins  with  a  reaction  against  Hume,  and 
tends  toward  a  modified  Kantianism  (in  the  system  of  Ham- 
ilton). Dr.  Mctosh  (see  McCosH,  James)  is  a  later  represent- 
ative. It  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  France  and 
the  L^.  S.  The  writings  of  Mansell  furnished  the  foundations 
of  Herbert  Spencer's  doctrine  of  the  unknowable.  The  school 
of  Locke  and  Hume  has  been  represented  in  the  nineteenth 
century  by  Stuart  Mill.  Lewes,  and  Spencer.  All  these, 
and  es|iecially  Herbert  Spencer,  have  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  upon  thinking  minds  engaged  in  natural  science. 
German  philosophy  was  introduced  to  the  English-speaking 
world  bv  Coleridge  and  Carlvle  and  later  bv  J.  H.  Stirling, 
Jowett,  "Flint,  T.  II.  Green.  "J.  F.  Ferrier,  J.  Caird  and  E. 
Caird.  Shadworth  Hodgson  has  criticised  the  Kantian  doc- 
trines of  time  and  space.  Whewell,  De  Morgan,  Boole,  Je- 
vons,  Venn,  Bradley,  and  Whateley  have  written  on  logic, 
and  H.  Sidgwick,  Leslie  Stephen,  and  James  Martineau 
have  written  on  ethics.  In  the  latest  period  there  has 
arisen  in  Germany  a  movement  which  takes  as  it?  watch- 
word "  back  to  Kant."  It  counts  among  its  leaders  Fr. 
Paulsen.  F.  A.  Lange.  0.  Lietimann.  A.  Krause.  A.  Classen, 
J.  Folkelt,  B.  Erdmann.  II.  Vaihinger,  II.  Cohen.  A.  Stad- 
ler,  P.  Natorp.  K.  Lasswitz.  and  E.  Kiinig.  The  follow- 
ing German  writers  on  philosophy  in  various  departments 
should  be  added  to  those  already  named :  Laas,  Riehl, 
and  Avenarius  as  German  positivists ;  A.  Zeising.  and  K. 
Groos,  writers  on  le.sthetics;  C.  Sigwart,  W.  Schuppe,  and  J. 
Bergmann  as  writers  on  logic.  American  philosojihy  counts 
(a)  in  its  theological  school  the  names  of  Edwards.  Dwight, 
Taylor.  Tappan,  Finney.  W.  E.  Channing.  D.  D.  Whedon  ; 
(J)  in  its  transcendentalist  school,  chiefly  founded  at  first  on 
Platonism  and  the  Coleridge  version  of  Kantianism,  and 
later  on  influenced  by  French  eclecticism.  Fichte,  and  other 
Germans,  Marsh,  En"ierson,  Margaret  Fuller,  A.  B.  Alcott. 
Theodore  Parker,  J.  F.  Clarke,  George  Ripley,  0.  A.  Brown- 
son  (who  afterward  became  a  Thomist).  F.'II.  Hedge,  and 
H.  D.  Thoreau ;  (c)  in  its  psychological  school  (following  the 
Scotch  school  or  the  French  eclectics),  N.  Porter,  F.  Bowen, 
A.  Mahan  ;  {d)  in  its  school  based  on  the  .stuily  of  Kant  or 
his  successors,  L.  P.  Hickok.  C.  C.  Everett,  J.  B.  Stallo,  and 
nearly  all  the  present  teachers  of  philosophy  in  the  colleges 
of  the  U.S.  Most  of  those  wlio  have  contributed  to  philoso- 
phv  by  their  writings  have  been  mentioned  in  other  connec- 
tio"ns.  (See  articles  on  Iuealism.  Identitv.  Knowledge, 
Reason, Skxsationalism.  Transcendentalism.  U.NDERSTAND- 
ixii,  Desiaktes.  Spinoza.  Maledranche.  Bacon  (Francis), 
Locke,  Leibnitz,  Hobbes,  Hume,  Kant,  Fichte,  Schellixo, 


PHILOSOPHY,   MUKAL 


PHLEGMASIA 


579 


Hegel.  SrnLEiERMArHER,  ScnopExnAiER.  Herhakt.  iMill,  J. 
S.,  uMil  SfEXiER.  Herhert.  Consult  alsn.  on  t  !n'  frciicral  prob- 
lems recurriiif;  in  the  history  of  philosophy,  (iKneramzation, 
Infinite,  Mind.  Moral  PiiiLosopiiv,  PsvciioLodY,  Sceiti- 
cisM,  Soil,  TiioroiiT.  ami  Will.)  The  chief  historians  of 
philosophy  are  Stanley.  Hayle,  Brucker,  Tieiieniann,  Huhle, 
Tenneinann.  Ileinholil.  Hitter.  Hegel,  Schwejrler,  Krdmann, 
Uebervveg,  Cousin.  Lewes,  Zeller,  K.  Kiseher,  L.  Ferri,  E. 
Zeller,  H.  Kalekenlierg,  W.  Windelliand,  Ludwig  Noach 
(Philosophixchen-OenchirlitlicJies  Lejcikun).  Recent  period- 
icals devoted  to  speculative  jihilosophy  are  .^c(7,sf/ir('///Mr 
Phil,  und  philosopliisc/i.  Kritik  (at  Halle);  Phil.  Mottats- 
hefte  (at  Berlin);  Die  Xeiie  Zeit  (at  Prague);  La  Filu- 
Kofia  (telle  Scuole  lliiliane  (now  Birixla  Italiana  di  filomfia 
(at  Itome) ;  Mind,  a  QHtirterly  Keriew  of  J'/iychijliiffi/  mid 
Philosojiliij  (at  London) ;  Herue  jihilosup/iii/tie  dc  la  France 
et  de  V Jitranger  (n\.  \')\r\s):  Journal  of  SiJeculatire  Philoso- 
phy (New  York);  The  Monist  (Chicago);  International 
Journal  of  E/hici  (Philadelphia);  The  Philosophical  Re- 
view (Ithaca,  N.  Y.) ;  American  Journal  of  Psychology 
(Worcester) ;  The  American  Anthropologist  (Washington) ; 
Journal  of  American  Folk-lore  (Boston);  Philosophisches 
Jahrbuch  (Fulda) ;  Vierteljahrs.'<chrift  fur  \Vi.isenschaft- 
lirhe  Philosophic  (Leipzig);  Psychological  Review  (New 
York);  The  Ptatonist  (Osceola,  Mo.);  TIte  Journal  of  the 
American  Akademe  (Jacksonville.  111.) ;  Rivista  Fitosofica 
Scientifica  and  La  Nuova  Sciema  (organs  respectively  of 
Signor  Morelli  and  Signor  Caporali,  Italian  positivists)  ; 
Revue  de  Ilypnutisme  (Paris).  '         W.  T.  Harris. 

Philosophy,  Morul :  See  Moral  Puilosophy. 

I'hilosophy  of  the  Conditioned :  See  Conditioned, 
Philosophy  or  the. 

Philos'tratlis  (in  Or.  ^i\6(TTpaTos) :  a  n.nrae  borne  by  four 
Greek  sophists  of  the  same  family  of  Lemuos :  \.  The  eld- 
est Philoslratus,  son  of  Verus.  lived  under  Nero  and  wrote 
the  dialogue  of  that  name  (Nepw;/).  preserved  among  the 
writings  of  Lucian.  2.  The  next.  Flavins  Philostratus  the 
elder,  a  descendant  of  Verus,  flourished  under  Alexander 
Sevenis  (2".J'i-2:i5  a.  d.),  and  composed,  among  other  things, 
the  Lives  of  the  Sophi.fts  (B(oi  ^o(pi(TTciv)  and  a  remarkable 
romance,  The  Life  of  Apollonius  of  Tijana  (see  Apollonh's 
OK  Tyana),  mucli  used  as  an  offset  to  the  life  of  our  Saviour. 
'i.  The  third  Philostratus,  son-in-law  of  Philostratus  II., 
wrote  a  series  of  descriptions  of  paintings;  and  4.  A  fourth 
Philostratus  wrote  a  second  series  in  imitation  of  the  first. 
Whether  and  how  far  these  descriptions  deal  with  real  works 
of  art  is  disputed.  The  works  of  these  various  Philostrati 
are  of  great  iin|)ortance  for  an  appreciation  of  the  periods 
to  which  they  belong.  There  is  a  text  edition  of  all  the 
works  by  Kayser.  in  the  Teubner  Library  ("3  vols.,  1849),  and 
a  separate  edition  of  the  Vitce  Sophistarum,  with  a  copious 
commentary  by  the  same  scholar  (Heidelberg,  1838).  A  new 
edition  of  the  Imagines  of  the  elder  Philostratus  was  pub- 
lished by  the  members  of  the  Vienna  Seminary  in  1803. 

B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Philox'enns  (in  (ir.  <l>iA<{^€cos) :  Cfreek  dithyrambic  poet 
(43.5-380  IS.  c)  of  Cythera :  lived  long  at  the  court  of  Dio- 
nysius  the  Elder,  about  whose  poetical  [lerformances  he  used 
great  plainness  of  speech.  One  of  his  dithyrambs  suggested 
the  (7yf/o/)s  of  Theocritus.  I<''ragments  of  another,  7'/i('  ]ian- 
5tte<,  are  interesting  for  their  rhythmical  form  and  for  the 
account  they  give  of  the  luxury  of  the  Sicilian  table,  and  are 
to  be  found  in  Bergk's  Poela'  Lyrici  Gra'ci.  B.  L.  G. 

Philter  [from  Lnt. phillrum  =  Or.  (piKTpov.  love-potiim. 
deriv.  of  (piKeTn.  lovej :  an  aphrodisiac  pi-epa ration.  Phil- 
ters were  much  used  in  ancient  (ircece  and  Koine,  and  the 
Thessalians  had  special  eminence  in  their  preparation. 
From  the  accounts  which  have  come  down  to  us,  many  of 
their  ingredients  were  harmless,  or  at  most  disgusting,  and 
used  on  account  of  some  purely  fanciful  efTicacy ;  while 
others,  it  would  seem,  were  violent  poisons.  Thus  a  doubt- 
ful tradition  says  that  the  poet  Lucretius  dieil  in  conse- 
quence of  a  strong  philter  given  by  his  wife;  ami  some  hold 
that  Caligula's  madness  was  caused  and  mainlaiued  by  his 
wife's  philters,  'i'he  use  of  these  potions  is  prevalent  in  al- 
most all  barbarous  and  half-civilized  lands.  As  of  old, 
magic  arts  are  employed  to  add  force  to  the  supposed  natu- 
ral powers  of  the  drugs. 

Phintias:  See  Damon  and  Pythias. 

Phips,  or  Phipps.  Sir  William  :  Governor  of  Massachu- 
setts;  b.  in  Pemaciuid,  now  Bristol,  Me.,  Feb.  2,  16.51  ;  was 
a  shepherd,  liut  when  eighteen  was  apprenticed  to  a  ship- 


builder; removed  to  Boston,  where  he  worked  as  a  ship- 
carpenter,  and  subsequently  engaged  in  commerce;  went  in 
1684  to  England,  and  obtained  means  to  fit  out  a  vessel  to 
recover  the  silver  of  one  of  the  Spanish  Plate  fleet  wrecked 
off  the  Bahamas,  but  was  not  successful  until  1687,  when 
he  obtaino<l  treasure  worth  *1..500.0()()  (some  accounts  sav 
13.000.000),  for  which  he  got  about  $80,000.  besides  receiving- 
knighthood  and  the  office  of  high  sheriff  of  New  England ; 
headed,  in  16110,  an  expedition  which  <"iptnred  Port  Koval, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  in  the  siiine  year  had  command  of  a  fleet 
which  niisiiccessfully  besieged  Quebec  ;  was  the  first  royal 
Governor  of  Massacluisetts  1692-94;  built  the  fort  of  Pema- 
quid.  Me.,  1692  ;  put  an  end  to  the  prosecutions  for  witch- 
craft by  organizing  a  special  court  of  magistrates  for  the 
consideration  of  the  cases ;  was  suddenly  called  to  England 
1694  to  answer  charges  against  him.  D.  suddenly,  of  a  ma- 
lignant fever,  in  London,  Feb.  18,  1G9.5.  His' enterprise 
and  patriotism  were  remarkable,  and  his  native  abilities 
fair,  but  he  was  ignorant,  ill-tempered,  credulous,  and  the 
tool  of  abler  men.  He  did  not  learn  to  read  until  he  was 
twenty-two  years  of  age.  Cotton  Mather  wrote  an  eulogistic 
Life  of  Phips,  who  was  a  member  of  his  church.  A  trust- 
worthy one  by  Francis  Bowen  is  given  in  .Sparks's  vtmcn'caTt 
Biography  (Boston,  1834-37). 

Phlebi'tis  [Mod.  Lat.;  Gr.  <t>K4\ti.  (t>Kf06s.  vein  +  suff.  -itis, 
denoting  a  disease  of] :  inflamiiialion  of  the  coats  of  a  vein 
or  Teins.  Phlebitis  may  occur  in  any  ]iart  of  the  body 
from  direct  injury  and  accidental  or  surgical  wounds.  Idio- 
pathic or  primary  phlebitis  occurs  chiefly  in  the  lower  ex- 
tremities, especially  in  the  tortuous  expansions  and  dilated 
pouches  of  varicose  veins.  When  a  vein  is  inflamed  its 
contained  blood  coagulates,  adheres  to  the  walls  of  the  ves- 
sel;  a  local  fibrinous  mass  or  clot  (thrombus)  obstructs  or 
wholly  suspends  the  circulation.  Except  ionally,  this  throm- 
bus organizes,  connecting  with  the  nutritive  capillaries  of 
the  venous  coats.  More  often  it  partly  or  wholly  breaks 
down,  disseminating  pus  when  atlached  by  pyogenic  (pus- 
producing)  or  putrefactive  bacteria,  and  contaminating  the 
blood,  or  giving  off  particles  which  arc  carried  by  the 
blood  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  may  lodge  in 
the  small  vessels  of  large  organs,  occluding  them.  Such 
plugs  or  emboli  deprive  a  tract  of  tissue  of  its  nutritive 
blood-supply,  and  lead  to  the  condition  of  fatty  degenera- 
tion or  abscess.  Phlebitis,  if  acute,  may  he  announced  by 
chills  and  febrile  disturbance  preceding  "the  local  inflamma- 
tion. The  affected  vessels  are  hard,  tortuous,  prominent, 
visibly  elevated  if  the  surface  be  viewed  in  profile.  There 
is  a  dusky  redness  over  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
vein,  with  slight  tumefaction  and  redness  of  an  erysipelatous 
character,  shading  off  into  adjacent  tissues.  Nodular  prom- 
inences exist  at  the  site  of  the  valves  in  the  veins.  The 
vein  is  sensitive  to  touch,  and  the  entire  part  tender  and 
painful  it  moved.  CEdema  or  dropsical  swelling,  evidenced 
by  pitting  upon  pressure,  may  result  from  the  obstructed 
circulation  ;  in  the  extremities  this  swelling  may  be  con- 
siderable, with  sense  of  great  weight,  due  to  accumulated 
venous  blood  and  serous  transtidation.  Following  cliild- 
birlh.  phlebitis  occasionally  occurs,  usually  in  the  lower  ex- 
tremities, due  to  local  thrombi  following  the  perverted  blood 
of  the  puerperal  state,  and  probably  resulting  from  absorp- 
tion of  septic  matter  by  the  open  uterine  sinuses.  This 
painful  condition  is  known  as  phlegmasia  alba  dolens  (i.  e. 
painful  white  swelling),  and  popularly  termed  "milk  leg." 
Indeed,  at  present,  the  infection  of  the  blood  by  .sejitic  mat- 
ter and  local  thrombosis  as  the  causes  producing  ]ihlebitis 
are  generally  conceded.  Phlebitis  and  venous  thrombosis 
are  cliiefly  interesting  as  engendering  embolism  and  similar 
putrefactive  disturbances  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  metas- 
tatic abscesses.  The  "multiple  abscesses"  of  the  iiver  fol- 
low inflammation  of  the  veuic  porta?.  Coexisting  absce.sses 
in  the  brain,  lung,  liver,  spleen,  and  kidneys  may  develop 
from  a  general  poison  of  the  blood.  When  a  vein  is  en- 
larged and  rigid,  as  in  the  sinuses  of  the  cranium,  the  veins 
of  ohl  ha'iuorrhoids  or  stricture  of  the  rectum,  or  the  vari- 
cose veins  of  the  leg,  its  inllainmation  is  very  liable  to  infect 
the  system.  The  treatment  of  phlebitis  is  by  local  anti- 
phlogistics  and  internal  administration  of  anti.septics  and 
tonics  with  absolute  rest  of  the  part  attacked,  and  jirompt 
evacuation  of  collections  of  pus.  Revised  liy  K.  Park. 

Phlebotomy  :  .See  Bleeding. 

Phlegma'sia  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  (pKcfucurla,  heat,  in- 
flamination.  deriv.  of  (fyKtydf.  burn]:  a  term  synonymous 
with   phlegmon,  phlegmons    inflammation,  pseudo-erysip- 


580 


PHLEGOX 


PHOCYLIDES 


elns,  diffuse  abscess,  and  now  usually  replaced  by  eeUdU/is 
or  phlegmunous  ceUuh'tis.  denoting  an  acute  inflaniniation 
of  the  subcutaneous  cellular  tissue,  tending  to  suppuration, 
in  which  the  pus  forujed  has  a  tendency  to  become  infil- 
trated through  the  tissues,  instead  of  collecting  into  one 
place  as  in  ordinary  acute  abscess.  The  causes  of  this  variety 
of  inflammation  are  sometimes  very  obscure.  It  is  always 
an  expression  of  an  infection  by  pyogenic  or  pus-forming 
bacteria,  patients  being  made  more  liable  thei-eto  by  ex- 
posure, alcoholic  excess,  wasting  disease,  etc.  It  sometimes 
results  from  mortifying  shreds  of  tissue  in  wounds,  and  com- 
plicating injuries,  but  in  by  far  the  greater  imraber  of  cases 
it  arises  spontaneously  in  debilitated  individuals — persons 
suffering  from  mal-a*similation,  and  consequently  having  a 
thin  and  impoverished  blood,  i.  e.  which  is  incapable  of 
producing  a  healthy  inflammatory  action.  In  such  individ- 
nals  it  generally  occurs  in  the  extremities,  especially  in  the 
fingers  and  hands.  The  symptoms  of  phlegmasia  are  those 
of  ordinary  inflammation  somewhat  aggravated — viz..  pain, 
heat,  redness,  and  swelling:  there  is  always  some  a?dema 
of  the  affected  part,  and,  as  a  consequence  of  it  and  the 
swelling,  a  tense,  shining  skin;  a  throbbing,  synchronous 
with  the  pulse-beats,  is  one  of  the  chief  symptoms  of  the 
disease,  and  generally  immediately  precedes  the  suppurative 
process.  In  a  few  days  tlie  skin  becomes  red  at  one  or  more 
points,  and  fluctuation  apjiears.  Sometimes  the  cedema  and 
swelling  exist  to  such  a  marked  extent  that  the  skin  is  de- 
prived of  blood,  and  consequently  becomes  gangrenous  ;  and 
as  a  complication  immense  sloughs  of  integument  often  come 
away,  exposing  the  uncovered  muscles  anil  fascia;  beneath. 
Accompanying  these  local  symptoms  there  is  always  a  high 
fever.  In  the  treatment  the  first  indication  should  be  to 
remeily  as  far  as  possible  the  condition  of  the  system  which 
has  acted  as  a  predisposing  cause  of  the  trouble :  for  this 
purpose  aperients  and  such  tonics  as  quinine  and  iron  should 
be  given.  Locally,  suppuration  should  be  hastened  by  warm 
applications,  and  as  soon  as  fluctuation  appears  at  any  point 
an  exit  should  be  made  for  the  pus  by  the  lancet ;  should 
two  or  more  outlets  be  found  to  communicate  subcutaneous- 
ly,  the  sinus  or  sinuses  should  be  laid  open  the  entire  length, 
and  he  allowed  to  heal  from  the  bottom.  Sometimes  local 
depletion,  if  practiced  at  the  outset  of  the  disease,  will  cut 
it  short.     For  phlegmasia  alba  dnlens.  see  Phlebitis. 

Revised  by  Roswell  Park. 

Phle^on  (in  Crr.  *\iyuv)  OF  Tkalles  in  Caria:  Greek 
historian  ;  fi-eeduum  of  the  P^mperor  Hadrian,  and  author 
of  a  much-read  historical  compend  in  sixteen  books  called 
Oh/mpiads.  of  which  several  chapters  have  been  preserved. 
These  and  fragments  of  other  works  of  his  are  to  be  found 
in  JlUller's  Fragtnenta  Historicorum  Ormcorum.  vol.  iii., 
pp.  602-024.  B.  L.  G. 

Phlo^is'ton  :  See  Chemistry  and  Hydrogen. 

Plllox  [Jlod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  phlox  —  Gr.  (p\6i.  a  flower, 
so  named  from  its  bright  color,  special  use  of  (p\6(,.  <pKoy6s, 
flame] :  a  genus  of  a  few  annual  and  nearly  thirty  perennial 
herbs  of  the  family  Polemoniacem,  all  but  one  Siberian  spe- 
cies Xorth  American.  The  phloxes  cultivated  in  flower- 
gardens  are  mostly  artificial  varieties  of  Phlox  paniculata, 
inncidnln.  drummondii,  and  subulatu,  all  natives  of  the  At- 
lantic U.  S.  and  Texas.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Phlox  Family:  the  Polemoniacem  (from  Pohmoniiim. 
one  of  the  genera),  a  family  of  gamopetalous  dicotyledonous 
)ilants,  mostly  herbs,  distinguished  from  allied  fannlies  by 
iiaving  regular  and  symmetrical  flowers  with  the  parts  five 
each,  except  the  superior  pistil,  which  is  of  three  carpels, 
forming  a  three-celled  capsule.  The  seed-coat  when  wet 
usually  develo)is  mucilage  and  spiral  threads,  especially  in 
the  large  genus  Gilin.  Pohmoniiim  (the  Greek  valerian  or 
.lacol/s  ladder)  is  the  oidy  European  genus,  but  the  single 
European  species  is  also  North  American,  as  are  the  few 
others  and  nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  family,  except  a  few 
peculiar  to  South  America,  and  one  or  two  extending  into 
Northeastern  Asia.  The  family  is  rich  in  plants  for  orna- 
mental cultivation,  but  is  otherwise  of  no  econoinic  impor- 
tance, the  plants  and  their  watery  juice  being  bland  and 
inert.  Phlox  {q.  r.)  furnishes  the  gardens  with  numerous 
luindsome  [jorennials  anil  one  or  two  annuals,  running  into 
many  varieties;  (Jilin  supplies  many  annuals,  chiefly  Cali- 
fornian,  and  one  or  two  showy  biennials,  such  as  the  "  stand- 
ing cypress."  A  common  cultivated  climber,  Cobcta  scan- 
dens,  \fHh  compound  leaves  and  tendrils,  is  an  anomalous 
member  of  the  family  from  Jlexico  ami  South  America. 
Revised  bv  Charles  E.  Bessey. 


Phocoe'a  :  the  most  northern  of  the  twelve  ancient  Ionian 
cities  of  Asia  Minor;  founded  by  the  Athenians  on  the 
Erythrean  Cape,  200  stadia  N.  W.  of  Smyrna.  Remarkable 
for  maritime  enterprise,  its  inhabitants  were  first  of  the 
Greeks  to  build  fifty-oared  galleys  and  to  undertake  distant 
voyages,  traversing  the  Adriatic,  Tuscan,  and  Black  Seas. 
Attacked  by  Harpagus,  general  of  Darius,  the  Phocieans 
abandoned  "their  city  rather  than  submit,  and  after  long 
wanderings  reached  Gaul  and  founded  Marseilles.  Their 
abandoned  city  attracted  colonists,  again  became  rich  and 
powerful,  and  desperately  resisted  the  Romans.  In  the  Jlid- 
dle  Ages  the  Genoese  founded  a  city,  Phoca?a  Nuova,  on  the 
same  spot,  and  with  their  ships  aided  the  Ottomans  against 
the  Greeks.  The  present  insignificant  village  of  Phokia  oc- 
cupies the  ancient  site.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Phocas  I. :  Byzantine  emperor  (602-610) ;  originally  a 
groom  in  Cappadocia.  then  a  common  soldier,  and  finally 
general;  was  made  emperor  by  the  rebellion  which  deposed 
JIauritius.  Brave  before  accession  though  always  sangui- 
nary, on  the  throne  he  became  tyrannical  and  timid  as  if 
demented ;  was  unsuccessful  in  war  against  Persia,  whose 
armies  marched  to  Chrysopolis  (Scutari).  Abhorred  as  a 
monster,  he  was  deposed  by  the  people,  and  put  to  death 
with  frightful  mutilations. — Phocas  II..  or  Nicephorus  II : 
Byzantine  emperor  (963-969) ;  before  his  accession  conquered 
Crete  from  the  Saracens  (962).  and  was  decreed  a  triumph ; 
was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  people  shortly  after  the  death 
of  Romanus  II.;  was  successful  against  the  Mussulmans  in 
Asia  Jlinor,  captured  Aleppo  and  Antioch,  made  intimate 
alliance  with  Sviatoslav,  Prince  of  Kief,  and  in  subsequent 
wars  was  victorious  throughout  Armenia  and  Jlesopotamia. 
At  the  height  of  his  successes  he  was  betrayed  by  his  wife 
Theophania,  and  assassinated  by  John  Zimisces,  her  para- 
mour. E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Plioclda;,  fos'i-dee  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Pho'ca,  the 
typical  genus,  from  Lat.  pho  ca  —  Gr.  <paiiai.  seal] :  a  family 
of  pinniped  mammals  belonging  to  the  order  Carnivora.  and 
containing  the  earless  or  hair  seals.  The  nose  is  blunt,  there 
are  no  external  ears,  the  flipjiers  are  developed  as  swimming- 
paddles,  the  hind  limbs,  which  alone  are  used  in  .swimming, 
can  not  be  directed  forward,  and,  as  a  rule,  all  the  digits 
bear  claws,  and  are  always  without  the  cartilaginous  pro- 
longations peculiar  to  the  eared  seals  {Oturiidcf).  With  the 
exception  of  one  genus  (Monachus)  all  are  inhabitants  of  the 
frigid  and  colder  portions  of  the  temperate  zones.  See 
Seal.  F.  A.  Luoas. 

Pho'clon  (in  Gr.  ^ukIuv)  :  an  Athenian  general ;  b.  about 
402  B.  c..  of  humble  descent,  but  excellently  educated  :  com- 
manded with  great  success  against  Philii)  II.  of  Macedon  in 
Eubcca,  Jlegara.  Byzantium,  and  other  places.  In  politics, 
however,  he  sided  with  the  Macedonian  party,  and  was  an 
unrelenting  adversary  of  Demosthenes.  After  the  deatli  of 
Antipater  he  became  implicated  in  the  intrigues  between 
Cassander  and  Polysperclion.  fled  to  Phocis.  was  delivered 
up  to  the  Athenians,  and  by  them  condemned  to  take  poison 
(317  B.  r.),  and  his  corpse  was  hurled  unlmried  across  the 
frontier.  One  year  later  the  Athenians  raised  his  statue  and 
erected  a  fine  monument  in  his  honor. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Plio'cis  [=Lat.=  Gr.  ^ukIs]:  an  ancient  division  of 
Greece  in  Hellas  proper;  was  bounded  S.  by  the  Corinthian 
Gulf.  E.  by  Bueotia,  N.  by  Doris,  and  W.  by  Locris.  It  was 
very  mountainous,  being  almost  entirely  covered  with  the 
famous  mountain  range  of  Paniassus.  Its  northeastern 
part  was  traversed  by  the  river  Cephissus.  which  formed  a 
beautiful  and  fertile  valley.  Delphi,  Elatea,  and  Cirrha 
were  its  principal  towns.  It  derived  its  chief  historical  in- 
terest from  the  circumstance  that  the  famous  oracle  of  Delphi 
was  .situated  in  its  territory;  but  this  circumstance  became 
at  last  the  cause  of  its  ruin.  A  verdict  of  the  Amphictyonic 
Council  ordered  the  Phocians  to  pay  a  fine  for  having  used 
a  tract  of  land  which  belonged  to  the  oracle.  When  the 
Phocians  refused  to  pay.  a  ten  years"  war  (generally  called 
the  Sacred  war),  from  ;i")5  to  ;W6  B.  c,  broke  out,  in  which 
they  fought  bravely,  nuiintaining  themselves  by  the  treas- 
ures of  the  temple  ;  but  at  last  they  were  conquered,  chiefly 
by  the  strategy  of  Philip  of  ;Macedon.  and  then  their  cities, 
twenty-two  in  number,  were  destroyed,  and  they  were  scat- 
tered in  villages,  of  which  none  was  allowed  to  contain  more 
than  fifty  houses. 

Phocyridos  (in  Gr.  *uKvAlSns)  of  ^Iiletis  :  Greek  elegiac 
poet ;  flourished  about  the  miildle  of  the  sixth  century  B.  c. 


PHCEBE 


PHCEXICIAX   LANGUAGE 


581 


His  popms  were  of  l)rief  icmijmss  and  conveyeil  moral  lessons 
in  more  or  less  humoruus  forms.  A  few  of  tliese  have  been 
preserved.  A  transparent  forf;ery  called  Phuci/lidia.  in  230 
hexameters,  once  dilifjently  conned  as  an  aiithorilHlivecode 
of  morals,  is, according  to  15ernays,the  fabrication  of  an  Alex- 
andrian Jew;  the  time  is  nncertain,  but  not  latiT  than  Nero. 
Both  real  I'hocylides  and  false  in  Bcrgk's  J'uetie  Lijrici 
(iro'ci  (4th  ed.  vol.  ii.,  pp.  (JS-lOlt).  On  the  pseudo-Phocylides 
see  the  admirable  treat  ise  of  Bernays  in  GesnmmeUe  Ahliand- 
luiigen  (vol.  i.,  pp.  I'.)2-261).  B.  L.  Gilueksleeve. 

Plld'bo  :  See  DiA.SA. 

Plia>'be-I»ir(l,  or  Pcwee:  a  well-known  fly-catcher  of 
the  U.  S.,  the  Sayurriis  fnncHS.  which  often  builds  under  old 
bridges,  mills,  and  at  other  points  near  the  water.  It  is  eas- 
ily recognized  by  its  well-known  note,  whence  its  name  is 
derived. 

Pha-'lms:  .See  IIki.iis. 

Phd'iiii'ia  [Or.  ^oiviKT).  Etymology  uncertain,  but  plau- 
sibly connected  with  tpoiv6s.  blood-red,  a  name  apfilied  to  the 
people  because  of  their  complexion,  analogous  to  the  name 
Kdom.  which  also  signilies  rcil]:  the  name  given  by  the 
(ireeks  to  ihe  narrow  strip  of  coast-land  between  the  Leb- 
anon .Mountains  and  the  Mediterranean.  Its  northern  and 
southern  limits  were  never  accurately  fixed,  but  in  a  gen- 
eral way  I'htenicia  may  be  said  to  extend  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Nahr  el-Kebir  to  Mt.  Carmel.  The  breadth  varies 
from  10  to  12  miles.  Its  excellent  harbors  gave  it  a  most 
favorable  situation  for  commerce,  and  as  early  as  the  fif- 
tecntli  century  u.  c.  the  towns  that  afterward  rose  to  such 
importance,  as  Sidon,  Tyre.  Byblos,  Beirut,  Acre,  are.  al- 
ready in  existence.  How  much  earlier  the  settlement  of 
these  places  began  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  language 
of  the  country  known  among  the  natives  as  Canaan  was 
at  the  time  already  Semitic  (see  Phce.vician  LAXfirAGE). 
and  the  Phcrnicians  whenever  they  came  either  adopted  or 
brought  with  them  this  speech.  The  lack  of  historical 
moninuents  makes  it  impossible  to  follow  the  history  of 
the  Phtenicians  in  unl)roketi  .sequence.  Inscriptions  in 
large  numbers  have  been  found  both  in  Phcpnicia  itself  and 
in  the  various  settlements  made  by  the  Pha?nicians,  but 
they  are  generally  of  a  religious  or  mortuary  character, 
while  the  historical  annals  that  appear  to  have  been  drawn 
up  by  native  historiographers  are  lost,  beyond  a  few  frag- 
ments iireserved  in  (treek  writer.s.  Upon  the  latter,  in  com- 
liinatii>n  with  the  important  notices  fouml  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  in  the  annals  of  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  kings, 
the  history  of  Phoenicia  must  largely  depend  for  its  recon- 
struction. The  earliest  notices  that  we  have  show  the  coun- 
try to  be  in  a  .state  of  dependence  upon  Egypt.  Following 
the  campaigns  of  Thothmes  III.  in  the  seventeenth  century 
B.  €.,  governors  were  stationed  at  various  points  along  the 
coast  under  Egyptian  control,  whose  duty  it  was  to  furnish 
the  tribute  imposed  upon  the  country.  This  control,  varying 
in  firmness,  continued  until  the  fourteenth  cent  ury,  when  the 
Hittites  of  Northern  Syria  appeared  as  formidable  rivals  to 
Egy|)t,  and  the  latter,  agitated  by  internal  disturbances,  was 
unaiile  to  retain  her  hold  npiin  her  foreign  possessions.  The 
centuries  following  marked  the  development  of  the  commer- 
cial prosperity  of  Phtenicia.  which  gave  her  such  an  impor- 
tant [)lace  among  the  nations  of  antiquity.  The  native  in- 
dustries of  dyes  and  tile  nuinufacturc  of  glass  were  two  of 
the  chief  factors  that  furnislied  the  stimulus  to  her  commer- 
cial activity,  and  abcmt  the  year  1000  B.  c.  we  find  the  posi- 
tion of  the  Phcenicians  as  llie  mediators  between  nations  as- 
sured. At  this  time  the  extension  of  the  Phu'iiicians  beyond 
the  mainland  begins.  The  outlying  island  of  Cyprus  nuiy 
have  been  settled  by  tlieni  even  earlier.  After  Cyprus,  the 
southern  coast  of  Asia  -Minor  and  the  islands  of  Ihe.Egcan 
became  additional  centers  of  connnercial  colonics,  and  about 
the  ninth  century  the  settlement  of  Carthage  on  the  African 
coast  took  placfe.  Other  places  fcdlowed  with  the  growth  of 
commercial  interchange.  Sicily,  Sardinia,  the  southern  coast 
of  Spain,  and,  farther  to  the  north.  Marseilles,  were  founded 
by  the  Phu-nicians.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to  (picstion 
the  tra<lition  that  Phoenician  ships  passed  through  the  .Strait 
of  (iibraltar  into  the  open  sea  and  reached  the  English  coast, 
though  whether  they  actually  Ijrouglit  back  tin  from  the 
mines  of  Cornwall  and  amlier  from  the  Baltic  ocean  has  not 
been  definitely  a.scertained.  Of  the  internal  history  of 
Phienicia  during  all  this  period  few  details  comparatively 
are  known.  The  commercud  spirit  was  not  conducive  to  the 
unfolding  of  either  military  force  or  the  creation  of  a  strong 
national  feeling.     The  cities  appear  to  have  been  independ- 


ent of  one  another  for  the  greater  part  of  their  duration  and 
only  occasionally  did  the  one  or  tlie  other  endeavor  to  extend 
her  jurisdiction  beyond  her  limits.  In  consecpience  of  this 
lack  of  unity  the  A.ssyrian  con(|ueroi-s,  when,  in  the  ninth 
century,  I  bey  began  the  serious  compiests  of  the  lands  lying 
to  the  west  of  the  Eujihrates,  nu^t  with  comparatively  little 
resi-stance;  but  the  tribute  imposed  upon  the  cities  did  not 
seriously  affect  the  connnercial  activity,  wliich  steadily  as- 
sumed larger  proportions,  and  it  was  not  until  the  advent  of 
tlie  Greeks  after  Alexander's  conquests  that  Pha'uicia  be- 
gan to  lose  her  importance.  The  independent  existence  of 
Pha'iiicia  ended  with  the  absorption  of  all  of  Syria  and 
Palestine  into  the  Roman  empire. 

The  share  taken  by  Ihe  Pluenicians  in  the  propagation  of 
the  alphabet,  which  was  probably  not  their  invention  (see 
Phcexician  Laxou age),  cut  it  les  t  hem  to  an  honorable  place  as 
potent  factors  of  civilization.  Their  religion  shows  an  eclec- 
tic character,  such  as  we  sliould  expect  in  a  nation  com- 
mingling so  largely  with  others.  To  the  substratum  of  the 
primitive  Semitic  cult,  elements  taken  from  the  Egyptian  and 
Assyrian  religions  were  added,  and  at  a  later  period  Greek 
ideas  also  niailc  themselves  felt.  The  chief  god  Biuil  was 
worshiped  in  many  different  manifestations,  and  the  com- 
bination of  tlii^  male  and  female  elements  was  a  distinguish- 
ing feature  of  the  religious  symbolism  that  led  by  a  natural 
degeneration  to  rites,  obscene  when  viewed  from  the  surface, 
but  redeemed  by  the  mystic  sense  attached  to  them. 

Literature. — Pietschmann,  Geschrchte  der  Phoenizitr 
(Berlin,  1889);  Maspero.  Hisfoire niiriinne de  !'Orii>nf. chap. 
xi.  (Paris);  George  RawUm'on.  Ili.ffori/  nf  P/iwiiicin  (not  re- 
liable; London,  1889);  Jleltzer,  Oeschichte  der  Karthager 
(Berlin,  1879) ;  Duncker,  History  of  Antigui/y  (Eng.  trans. 
London,  1877.  book  iii.);  Sayce,  Ancient  EmpiffS  of  the 
Eaist  (chap,  iii.,  London,  1884).  Among  older  works  Mover's 
Dif  P/iuenizier  (3  vols.,  Bonn,  1841-50)  still  retains  its  value, 
though  antiquated  in  parts.  Morris  Jastrow.  Jr. 

Phoenician  Langruage :  a  language  belonging  to  the 
Semitic  group  (see  Semitic  Languages),  spoken  by  the  in- 
habitants of  the  ancient  district  of  Phcenicia  (native  name 
Canaan),  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  but  with  the  found- 
ing of  colonies  by  the  Phfenicians  diffused  thnmgh  I  lie 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean  and  -Egean — notably  t'yprus, 
Rhodes.  Malta.  Sicily,  and  Sardinia — along  the  southern  and 
in  part  western  coast  of  Asia  Jlinor,  the  northern  coast  .if 
Africa,  and  the  southern  coast  of  France.  It  is  natural  that 
in  a  language  spread  over  so  large  a  district  dialectical  vari- 
ations should  arise  and  become  more  pronounced  with  the 
lapse  of  time.  Phcenician,  as  spoken  and  written  on  the 
African  and  Spanish  cojist  and  adjacent  islands,  is  thus  suf- 
ficiently marked  off  from  that  current  in  the  mother-land 
and  parts  nearer  to  it  to  perhaps  merit  the  distinct  name  of 
Punic — the  term  itself  being  only  another  form  (jf  Phceni- 
cian. This  distinction  extends  ahso  to  a  variation  in  the 
script,  and  it  is  possible  even  to  differentiate  within  the 
Punic  dialect  between  old  and  new  Punic,  but  the  differ- 
ences touch  only  minor  points,  pronunciation  and  orthogra- 
phy rather  than  morphology  jiroper  and  .syntactical  con- 
struction, .so  that  the  relation  between  eastern  and  western 
Phcenician  may  be  appropriately  compared  to  the  diver- 
gences existing  between  the  English  of  (ireat  Britain  and 
that  heard  in  tlie  U.  S.  As  in  the  latter  instance,  the  con- 
stant communicati<m  between  Pho'iiicia  and  her  colonies 
acted  as  a  check  to  the  accentuation  of  these  differences 
sufficiently  to  preserve  the  unity  of  Phamician  speech.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  Phcenician  language  is  derived  (1)  from 
the  large  number  of  inscriptions,  mostly  of  a  mortuary  (pr 
votive  charaetc^r,  found  in  Plui^nicia  itself,  but  nuire  copi- 
ously in  the  various  settlements,  notably  Carthage  and 
Citium  :  also  the  names  and  phrases  found  on  coins  and 
seals:  (2)  the  Phoenician  phra.ses  transliterated  into  Latin 
characters  occurring  in  Plautus's  comedy  of  PfpwH/M.s-;  (3) 
the  proper  names  and  occasioiuil  words  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, in  th(^  Egyptian  and  A.ssyrian  inscriptions,  and  in 
classical  writers.  Of  native  Plucnician  literature  proper, 
which  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  extensive,  and  so  far 
as  we  know  consisted  largely  of  annals,  nothing  has  been 
preserved  beyond  some  fragments  in  Greek  translation  of 
Sanchuniathon  and  llanno. 

.  The  inscriptions  form  naturally  Ihe  most  important  source, 
but  covering  as  they  do  the  period  (roughly  speaking)  front 
600  B.  <■.  to  2(K)  A.  D.'.  they  arc  tujt  coextensive  with  Plucni- 
cian history,  which  approached  its  climax  some  centuries 
earlier,  while  a  corrupt   Punic  dialect  survived  in  Africa  as 


582 


PHCENICIAN  LANGUAGE 


PHONETIC  LAWS 


late  as  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  On  the  other  luuul.  tlie 
Phoenician  phrases  in  Plautus,  as  well  as  the  transliterated 
names  and  words  revealed  through  the  other  sources  men- 
tioned, are  of  great  value  in  determining  the  more  precise 
form  of  the  language  as  well  as  the  pronunciation ;  for  tlie 
Phcenician  script,  like  all  Semitic  alphabets  (except  the 
Babylono- Assyrian  cuneiform  and  the  Ethiopic),  expresses 
onlv"  the  consonantal  framework  of  the  words,  without  any 
vowel  signs  and  only  a  very  sparing  use  of  vowel  letters. 
Even  with  this  help,  liiany  features  in  the  morphology  of  the 
language  remain  to  be  determined,  even  where  the  meaning 
of  a  text  is  perfectly  clear. 

It  has  been  definitely  ascertained  that  Phoenician  belongs 
to  the  northern  division  of  the  Semitic  group,  and  bears  the 
closest  resemblance  to  Hebrew  (see  Hebrew)  and  Jloabitie. 
Indeed,  the  variations  are  so  slight  that  it  is  regarded  by 
some  scholars  as  a  Hebrew  dialect.  Hebrew  and  Phamician 
may  more  appropriately  be  looked  upon  as  two  independent 
branches  of  some  older  form  of  Semitic  speech  once  current 
in  Palestine,  and  the  peculiarities  presented  by  each  are  due 
to  the  difl'erent  course  taken  by  tlie  two  peoples  in  their  po- 
litical, social,  and  religious  development,  just  as  the  still 
slighter  variations  between  Hebrew  and  Moabitic  are  to  be 
accounted  for.  The  more  important  points  of  divergence 
between  the  Hebrew  and  PhaMiician  are  (1)  the  use  of  Kun 
for  the  predicate  verb  in  the  latter  (as  in  Arabic)  instead  of 
hdya ;  (3)  the  more  restricted  use  of  the  article ;  (3)  the  more 
frequent  recurrence  of  certain  suffixes,  as  em  \  and  (4)  lexi- 
cographical variations  involving  the  common  use  of  certain 
stems  in  Phoenician,  as  pa'al,  to  do,  for  which  in  Hebrew 
quite  different  ones  are  brought  into  requisition.  In  general, 
Phoenician  betrays  a  more  archaic  stage  of  language  than 
Hebrew,  less  indicative  of  phonetic  decay,  and  simpler  in  its 
syntactical  constructions.  The  scantiness  of  the  vocabulary 
is  due  to  the  monotonous  character  of  the  epigraphical  ma- 
terial, which  also  is  disaijpointing  in  affording  Ijut  little  light 
for  the  history  of  Phcenicia  and  her  colonies.  See  Semitic 
Lanouaoes. 

The  Phoenician  script  is  an  interesting  and  important 
study  because  of  its  position  as  the  direct  prototype  of  the 
Greek,  Roman,  and  modern  European  alphabets  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  the  square  character  Hebrew,  Palmyrene, 
Arabic,  Nabatican,  Syriac  on  the  other,  while  less  directly 
the  Sanskrit  and  derivatives  and  tlie  Ethiopic  are  to  be 
traced  to  the  same  source.  Tiie  variations  in  the  form  of 
the  characters  are  considerable  as  we  pass  from«one  century 
to  another,  while  upon  approaching  the  Neo-Punic  period, 
the  tendency  to  cursive  script  results  in  distortions  which 
give  the  writing  a  confused  appearance.  The  oldest  speci- 
men of  •'  Phoenician  "  script  lieing  the  Moabite  Stone  (about 
850  B.  c),  the  origin  of  the  alphabet  must  be  placed  at  1000 
B.  c.  at  the  least.  The  question,  liovvever,  as  to  the  time  and 
circumstances  of  its  invention  is  still  involved  in  obscurity. 
Recent  epigraphical  discoveries  seem  to  show  that  in 
Southern  Arabia  and  along  the  Abyssinian  coast  a  more 
archaic  form  of  the  alphabet  than  even  that  of  the  Moabite 
Stone  is  to  be  found,  and  it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether 
the  Phcenicians,  whose  entire  culture  shows  little  traces  of 
originality,  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  inventors  of  the  alphabet. 
I)e  Rouge's  theory,  that  the  alphabet  is  a  derivative  of  tlie 
hieroglyphic  writing  of  Egypt,  requires  new  investigation  in 
the  light  of  the  advanced  culture  that  has  been  shown  to 
have  flourished  in  Southern  Arabia  and  Abyssinia  as  early 
at  least  as  1000  b.  c.  The  contingency  of  these  districts  to 
Egypt  and  the  commercial  intercourse  between  them  makes 
it  probable  that  we  must,  after  all,  look  to  Egypt  as  the 
source  of  the  alplialiet,  if  future  investigations  should  bear 
out  the  proposition  that  it  originated  among  the  Semites  of 
Southern  Arabia,  and  was  by  them  transmitted  to  the  Phoe- 
nicians.    See  Alphabet. 

Literature. — Schroeder,  Die  Phoenizische  .S/»vrf/ip (Halle, 
1860):  Blocli.  Phuenizisches  Glossar  (Berlin,  1891) :  Staile. 
J'Jnidili'  Pi-nfmifi  di'K  zii'iKchfn  ilcin  Phoenicischen  und  Ilf- 
hraUchen  histilirinlcii  Vi'rwniidschaftsgrades,  in  Mnrqen- 
Idndisc/ie  /^"to'/i  ;(»(/<;«  (Leipzig,  187.5) ;  M.  A.  Lew,  Phoi-- 
nizUchc  Sfudipti  (Breslau,  1857-64) ;  Kenan,  nistolre  genf- 
rale  dm  Lanyues  Simitiques  (5th  ed.  Paris,  1878),  pp.  181- 
211.  The  most  complete  collection  of  Phcenician  inscrip- 
tions is  to  be  found  in  the  Corpus  Tnxcn'ptioniim.  Semitica- 
riiin  (Paris.  1881-87),  pul)]ishcd  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Academic  des  Inscriptions  et-  Uclles-Lettres.  Previous  to 
tliis  tlie  standard  work  was  Gesenius's  Scn'pturrp  lingua>qnp 
Phmiieiw  mnimmenta  quotquol  supersnnt  cdifn  et  inedita 
(3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1887).  Morris  Jastrow,  Jr. 


PlKBnicopter'idae  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  PhcBiiicop- 
terus,  the  tyjiical  genus;  Gr.  (poivi^.  purple  red,  red  +  iTTipiti, 
feather,  wing] :  a  family  of  birds  of  jieculiar  organization, 
whose  species  are  known  under  the  English  name  flamin- 
goes. In  their  osseous  structure,  as  in  their  external  char- 
acters, they  are  almost  intermediate  between  the  duck-like 
birds  {Anatidcg  and  Palamedeidm)  and  the  stork-like  birds 
(Ciconiidm);  there  has,  therefore,  been  considerable  doubt 
as  to  their  systematic  position,  some  authors  having  asso- 
ciated them  with  the  wading  birds,  and  others  with  swim- 
ming birds:  on  the  whole,  however,  they  appear  to  be  most 
closely  related  to  the  swiraming  birds,  although  forming  a 
peculiar  type  or  "super-family"  by  themselves,  named  by 
Huxley  Aniphimorphce.    See  Flamingo. 

PlKP'liis  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  tj>o7i/i^:  cf.  Egypt,  bennu] :  a  fabled 
bird,  whose  prototype  is  found  in  the  Egyptian  Bennu; 
sacred  to  Osiris,  and  also,  particularly,  as  a  form  of  the  ris- 
ing sun,  to  Ra,  the  sun-god.  In  the  hieroglyphs  the  bennu 
is  represented  as  a  heron,  but  in  classical  myth,  following 
Herodotus  (ii.,  73),  the  phoenix  was  given  the  form  of  an 
eagle.  It  was  reputed  to  have  its  origin  amid  flame  in  the 
l;op  of  a  sacred  tree  at  Heliopolis.  Herodotus  represents  it 
as  an  Arabian  bird  which  arises  from  its  own  ashes  in  Heli- 
opolis once  in  500  years,  but  the  myth  assumed  a  variety  of 
other  forms.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

PllflBliix :  city ;  capital  of  Arizona  and  of  Marico]ia  County ; 
on  the  Salt  river,  and  the  Maricopa  and  Phosnix  Railroad; 
226  miles  N.  E.  of  Yuma  (for  location,  see  map  of  Arizona, 
ref.  13-L).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  stock-raising,  and  min- 
ing region,  and  contains  2  national  banks  with  combined 
ca]iital  of  $200,000,  3  incorporated  banks  with  capital  of 
!|l!215.200,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  and  3  daily 
anil  5  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  1,708;  (1890)  3,152. 

PhttMiix  :  village ;  Oswego  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on  the  Oswego 
river,  tlie  Oswego  Canal,  and  the  Rome.  Watertown,  and 
Ogdensburg  Railroad  ;  16  miles  N.  of  Syracuse  (for  location, 
see  map  of  New  York,  ref.  3-G).  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
region,  and  has  large  interests  in  stock-raising,  tobacco- 
growing,  and  dairying.  The  river  and  canal  afford  good 
water-power,  which  is  utilized  by  saw  and  flour  mills,  and 
other  manufactories.  There  are  a  State  liank  witli  a  capital 
of  $35,000,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.  Pop.  (1880)  1,313; 
(1890)  1,466. 

Phopiilxville :  borough  (founded  as  a  forge  in  1793,  in- 
corporated as  a  borough  in  1848) ;  Chester  co..  Pa. ;  at  the 
junction  of  the  Schuylkill  river  and  French  creek  ;  on  the 
Penn.  and  the  Phila.  and  Reading  railways;  28  miles  N.  W. 
of  Philadelphia,  30  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Reading  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  6-1).  It  is  widely  known  for 
its  rolling-mills,  blast  furnaces,  and  iron-works,  and  their 
products,  such  as  iron  bridges,  girders,  columns,  and  other 
lieavy  work,  and  for  its  hosiery-factories.  There  are  gas, 
electric-light,  and  water  plants,  a  denominational  and  4 
public  schools,  public  park,  library,  2  national  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  $300,000,  and  a  daily  and  3  weekly 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  6.682;  (1890)  8,514;  (1894)  esti- 
mated, 9,000.  Editor  of  "  Republican."' 

Plioiiaiitograpli :  See  Acoustics. 

Phoiiptic  Laws :  the  laws  governing  the  changes  of 
sound  in  the  historical  development  of  a  language.  When 
a  sound-change  like  that  of  Old  English  a  (pron.  aa)  to  Eng- 
lish u  is  observed  to  have  taken  place  in  a  great  number  of 
words  widely  separated  from  each  other  in  meaning  and 
use,  the  possibility  of  an)i:hing  like  collusion  or  a  conscious 
regulation  of  one  word  according  to  the  sound  of  another 
is  entirely  excluded,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  change  is  a 
matter  of  individual  sounds  and  not  of  complete  words  as 
such;  cf.  0.  Eng.  /ic/w  >  Eng.  home;  dcig  >  dough  (do); 
hldf>  loaf  (lof);  strad>  strode;  cnmenn  >  know;  )>«*•> 
those  ;  nd  >  no.  etc.  If  a  matter  of  individual  sounds,  (his 
change  can  not  have  been  subject  to  conscious  direction, 
because  in  the  natural  and  unstudied  jironunciation  of  words 
the  individual  articulations  from  which  the  sounds  result 
are  made  unconsciously.  Except  after  careful  acoustic  and 
physiological  analysis  the  speaker  is  not  aware,  for  instance, 
that  in  the  vfordjtidge  he  emjiloys  the  compound  consonant 
fZi  twice  (i.e.  dzudz).  He  is  not  aware  that  the  g  in  gire 
differs  from  that  in  got.  or  that  the  m  in  Iniiip  is  different 
from  that  in  lanil),  or  that  the  th  in  //lin  differs  finm  that 
in  tlien  ;  or,  if  he  is,  he  does  not  without  analysis  and  reflec- 
tion know  wherein  the  dift'erence  lies.  The  production  of 
speech,  moreover,  does  not  consist  in  the  juxtaposition  of  a 


PHONETICS 


583 


certain  number  of  definite  and  complete  articulations,  but 
in  a  current  of  sound  checked,  deflected,  and  guided  bj- 
organs  wliicli  are  in  continmnis  and  generally  coniiilicated 
siniultancDUS  movement.  As  the  organs  i)ass  from  one 
point  of  articulation  to  another  s|)eech  goes  on,  and  the 
number  of  different  sounds  produced  is  really  inlinile.  An 
absolutely  correct  analysis  of  speech  has  not  yet  been  at- 
tained, even  by  scientific  observation  and  reflection. 

In  view  of  such  considerations  as  thi'se,  it  is  evident  that 
the  production  of  sounds  is  not  governed  by  conscicnisness. 
Consequently  the  assumjition  of  sporadic,  in  the  sense  of 
willful,  sound-changes,  subject  to  the  speaker's  choice  or 
caprice,  is  untenable.  The  power  of  an  individual  willfully 
to  mispronounce  a  word  is  undeniable,  but  an  occurrence 
like  this  does  not  constitute  a  fact  of  language  history. 
Language  is  a  uncial  institution.  If  a  case  could  actually 
be  found  where  the  willful  and  capricious  mispronunciation 
of  an  individual  had  by  imitation  been  adopted  by  a  whole 
speech  cdinnumity  and  becvmie  the  unconscious  possession 
of  their  language,  then  it  would  be  a  ca.se  of  a  loan-word 
in  just  the  same  sense  as  rouge  is  a  loan-word  from  the 
French. 

Phonetic  change  is  in  its  inception  due  to  minute  and 
unconscious  deviations  in  the  speech  of  individuals.  As 
speech  is  a  social  institution  in  which  intelligibility  is  of 
even  higher  importance  tlian  expression,  these  deviations 
are  continually  subject  to  correction,  (1)  by  the  necessity  of 
intelligibility,  (2)  by  the  impressions  received  from  the 
speech  of  others,  as  well  as  the  impressions  received  from  the 
speaker's  own  more  accurate  articulations.  Before,  there- 
fore, any  deviation  can  establish  itself  in  the  language  of 
I  he  community,  it  must  do  so  as  the  resultant  of  a  practi- 
cally infinite  number  of  modifying  forces.  Tlie  language 
of  a  community  is  therefore  in  reality  an  ideal  to  -which  the 
speech  of  the  individual  is  always  being  drawn  back,  but  to 
which  in  each  single  case  of  speaking  it  may  not  absolutely 
conform. 

As  the  conditions  which  produce  the  changes  of  sounds 
are  not  dependent  on  the  particular  words  in  which  the 
sounds  occur,  it  is  evident  that  there  can  be  no  reason  to  ex- 
pect like-conditioned  sounds  to  be  differently  treated  in  dif- 
ferent words.  On  the  contrary,  we  should  expect  a  phonetic 
clumge  to  reach  throughout  the  whole  like-conditioned  ma- 
terial of  the  language.  This  expectation  finds  more  and 
more  confirmation  as  language  comes  to  be  more  accurately 
observed  in  its  natural  developments.  The  principle  that 
the  laws  of  souiul  suffer  no  exception  was  first  stated  by 
August  Leskien  in  the  introduction  to  his  DvcUnaiion  im 
Slamsch- Lilauiscfien  und  Oermanischen  (1876),  and  has 
since  that  time  been  vigorously  attacked,  vigorously  de- 
fended, and  widely  applied  in  investigation.  Though  only 
a  scientific  dognm,  it  constitutes  the  only  safe  guide  in  ety- 
mological research,  and  is  theoretically  defensible  within 
the  limits  of  the  perfectly  natural  developments  of  folk- 
speech  in  a  compact  and  homogeneous  speech-community. 
When  a  sound-change  is  in  the  act  of  extending  itself  from 
the  narrow  speech-community  where  it  is  native  to  a  wider 
speech  area  it  undoubtedly  seems  to  progress  from  word  to 
word — i.  e.  it  manifests  itself  in  some  words  before  others  ; 
tlius  in  the  ca.sc  discussed  by  W.  D.  Whitney,  Indogerman- 
ische  Forscttiingen,  iy.,  32  fi.  Such  cases  do  not,  however, 
contravene  in  the  least  the  theory  of  uniformity  in  phonetic 
change.  They  fall  under  the  head  of  processes  for  the  uni- 
fication and  solidification  of  language.  Phonetic  laws  are 
not  laws  in  the  sen.se  of  physical  laws,  but.  as  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  foregoing,  are  socio-historical  in  eliaracter. 
.\s  Paul  has  expressed  it  (P///u('/^(Vh.  chap,  iii.) :  "Sound- 
law  does  not  pretend  to  state  what  must  always  under  cer- 
tain general  conditions  regularly  recur,  but  merely  expresses 
the  reign  of  uniformity  within  a  group  of  definite  historical 
jilienomena." 

LrrEKATiRE. — H.  Paul,  Principles  of  the  Hislorg  of  Lan- 
gii'ige  (I'riiiripifn  der  Sprachgeachichte),  chap.  iii. ;  Slrong- 
liOgeman-W'lieih'r.  lliatarij  of  Language,  chaji.  iii.;  B.  Dcl- 
liriick.  Die  neuexte  Spracliforsr.huitg  (isSo) ;  K.  Brugmann, 
Ziim  heutigeik  Stand  der  Sprachwissenschaft  (1885).  Op- 
posed to  the  view  here  maintained  are.  e.  g.,  G.  Curtius,  Ziir 
Kritik  der  neuesien  Sprachforschung  (1885) :  II.  Sehuchardt, 
i'eber  die  Laulgesetze  (1885) :  F.  B.  Tarbell,  Ptmnetic  Law 
(in  Transact  I  nnn  of  t  tie  American  Pliitological  Association, 
vol.  xvii..  1886).  Bk.nj.  Iue  Wheeler. 

Phonetics  [noun  use  of  plur.  of  phonetic,  pertaining  to 
sound.s,  frum  Ur.  <ptiinr^iK6s.  pertaining  to  sounds  or  to  the 


voice,  deriv.  of  4>ui>ii,  sound,  voice] :  tlie  science  of  speech- 
sounds,  and,  in  the  usage  of  some,  al.«o  the  art  of  represent- 
ing their  eoml)inations  Ijy  writing.  Speech-sounds  are  such 
of  the  [)henomena  of  the  resonance  of  inclosed  masses  of  air 
variously  excited  by  the  organs  of  speech  as  are  used  for 
communication  of  thought.  The  res(mance  cavities  are  the 
larynx,  pharynx,  nasal  passages,  and  mouth,  with  various 
smaller  parts.  Each  cavity  has  a  separate  resonance,  and 
eacli  resonance  acts  more  or  less  in  combination  with  all  the 
others.  The  action  of  tlie  resonance  for  vowels  was  first 
(though  incompletely)  explained  bv  Ilelmholtz  {Seitsations 
of  Tone;  see  Ellis's" translation,  2d  ed..  1885,  jip.  10:3-119, 
12:5,  5:38-54;i).  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the  mode  of 
exciting  resonance  and  the  fixed  or  variable  forms  of  the 
resonance-cavities. 

I.  Mode  of  Ejccitiitg  liesonance. — (1) "  Irrespirates,"  sounds 
independent  of  respiration,  which  may  or  may  not  be  car- 
ried on  at  the  same  time  through  the  nose.  The  air  in  the 
resonance-cavities  is  excited  by  snmcks.  clicks,  smokers' 
mouth-puffs,  blowpiper's  cheek-puffs,  or  implosion  (due  to 
sudden  condensation).  All  these  are  recognized  elements  of 
language.  (2)  "  Inspirates,"  sounds  arising  from  drawing  in 
air — (a)  through  the  mouth  only,  as  in  chirps,  whistles,  sobs, 
gasps;  (i)  through  the  nose  only,  as  in  snuffling;  or  (c) 
through  both  nose  and  mouth,  as  in  snoring.  Common  ele- 
ments of  expression,  even  in  English.  (3)  "  Expirates," 
sounds  arising  from  expelling  air  from  the  lungs.  These 
are  the  commonest  and  most  important  elements  of  speech. 
(o)  •■  Physems  "  (a  name  not  in  general  use),  or  bellows-ac- 
tions of  the  lungs,  with  constant  pressure  (force,  loudness, 
and  much  of  modern  accent),  with  discontinuous  pressure 
(jerks,  the  main  element  of  aspiration),  or  with  condensation 
suddenly  relieved  (explosions,  one  element  of  post-aspira- 
tion), (h)  "  Glottids,"  or  actions  of  the  elastic  glottis,  which, 
when  the  vocal  chords  forming  it  are  wide  apart,  give  either 
inaudible  breath  (physem  weak)  or  "  flatus  " — that  is,  audi- 
ble breath  (physem  strong).  When  the  glottis  is  narrowed, 
but  not  closed,  they  give  "  whisper."  Wlien  the  glottis  is 
closed  elastically,  they  give  "  voice."  When  the  glottis  is 
closed  inelastically,  they  give  the  Arabic  hamza,  or  "  cheek." 
These  actions  also,  chiefly  by  various  tensions  of  the  vocal 
chords,  produce  variety  of  |utcli  (musical  accent,  singing), 
and  by  different  arrangements  regulate  the  size  and  dis- 
tinctness of  the  periodical  puffs  of  air  on  which  voice  de- 
pends (original  quality  of  tone,  expression),  with  other 
effects  not  so  marked,  (p)  '•  Arytenads  "  (a  name  scarcely 
used),  or  actions  of  the  gristly  glottis,  giving  by  various 
actions  the  Arabic  hha  or  wheeze,  and  ain  or  bleat,  and  the 
Danish  r  (?).  [d)  "  Hisses  "  (generally  restricted  to  voiceless 
sibilants),  arising  from  flatus  driven  through  narrow  pas- 
sages, as  for  s,  sh.  (e)  "  Sonants  "  (or  voiced  stops,  voiced 
explosives),  arising  from  driving  the  voice  into  closed  cavi- 
ties, where  the  air  rajiidly  becomes  too  condensed  to  sound. 
(/)  "  Buzzes  "  (generally  restricted  to  voiced  sibilants),  arising 
from  driving  tlie  voice  laboriously  through  passages  suita- 
ble for  hisses,  and  hence  producing  the  effect  of  a  mixture 
of  voice  and  flatus,  as  for  z.  zli.  (g)  "  Vocals "  (a  name 
hardly  used  in  this  narrow  sense,  but.  like  "  sonant,"  some- 
times applied  to  all  voiced  sounds),  arising  from  driving  the 
voice  easily  through  a  partially  obstructed  cavity,  or  one 
which  may  be  periodically  obstructed  and  relieved  by  a  vi- 
brating membrane,  as  for  /,  r.  (h)  "  Vowels,"  arising  from 
letting  the  voice  resound  clearly  in  comparatively  unob- 
structed cavities  of  the  mouth  se])aiately.  or  mouth  and 
nose  combineil,  which  modify  the  original  quality  of  tone. 

II.  Fi.red  Fornix  of  liexonance-carities. — (a)  "  Oral  vowel 
positions,"  the  uvula,  being  [iressed  against  the  back  wall  of 
the  pharynx,  shuts  off  the  nasal  cavities  ;  the  tongue,  in  part 
or  in  whole,  is  raised  to  different  heights  within  the  mouth, 
but  not  sulficiently  to  touch  the  palate  ;  the  throat  (pharynx), 
in  whole  or  in  part,  is  lengthened,  shortened,  widened  or 
narrowed  ;  the  lips  are  more  or  less  closed  or  opened  ;  or  all 
these  alterations  of  tongue,  throat,  and  lips  are  variously 
combined.  The  number  of  possible  oral  vowels  is  infinite; 
fifteen  to  t  weiity  of  them  are  common  in  European  languages. 
(b)  "  Orinasal  vowel  positions,"  the  nasal  passages  are  open 
to  the  larynx  l)y  the  advance  of  the  uvula,  and  the  various 
membranes  of  the  nose  are  variously  brought  into  action,  at 
the  same  time  that  the  various  oral  vowel  nositions  are  a.s- 
sumed.  Each  oral  vowel  generates  various  kinds  of  orinasal 
vowels  (generally  called  simply  nasal  vowels).  The;  four 
French  orina.sals  in  the  words  an.  on.  un,  rin  are  best 
known,  (r)  "  Oral  consonant  positions "'  liave  the  nasal  pas- 
sages cut  off,  as  for  oral  vowel  positions,  and  either  entirely 


584 


PHONETICS 


obstnict  the  passage  of  air,  flatus,  or  voice,  as  (1)  for  mutes 
(i.  e.  voiceless  stops  or  voiceless  explosives),  p,  t,  k,  posi- 
tions without  sound  and  rendered  effective  only  by  "  glides  "  ; 
(2)  for  iniplodents,  with  a  sound  due  to  implosion,  as  in 
modern  Saxon,  p.  b  or  t,  d  (I.,  1);  and  (3)  for  sonants  (as 
h,  d.  g.  I.,  3.  e) :  or  are  only  adapted  for  "  hisses  "  (such  as  /. 
s.  sh.  th.  I.,  3,  d),  "buzzes"  (such  as  v.  z.  zh.  dh,  I.,  3./).  or 
"  vocals  "  (such  as  /,  r,  I.,  3,  g),  by  the  formation  of  narrow 
or  choked  passages,  or  the  introduction  of  a  (possibly)  vibrat- 
ing valve.*  Such  positions  are  very  numerous,  (d)  "  Nasal 
consonant  positions ''  have  the  nasal  passage  open,  but  the 
mouth  (generally)  closed  as  for  nmtes,  and'  are  generally 
accompanied  by  voice  (as  m,  n,  tig),  but  many  other  forms 
occur.f 

III.  Changing  Forms  of  Resonance-cavities. — (1)  If  while 
a  violin-string  is  bowed  the  stopping  finger  is  slid  on  the 
finger-board  from  tlie  nut  toward  the  bridge,  the  result  is  a 
series  of  musical  sounds,  changing  by  insensible  degrees. 
The  first  and  last  sounds  may  or  may  not  be  of  sensible  dura- 
tion. In  each  case  the  changing  sounds  are  called  "  glides." 
(2)  If  the  extreme  sounds  have  sensible  duration  and  the 
glide  is  short,  the  glide  becomes  a  "  slur,"  to  which  case  the 
word  will  be  here  specially  limited,  although  musically  it 
has  a  wider  signification.  (3)  When  no  glide  or  slur  occurs, 
there  is  a  "  break "  or  silence  during  change  of  position. 
(4)  In  speech,  glides  and  slurs  are  the  cement  by  which  ele- 
ments are  bound  into  syllables.  Speech-glides  were  first 
recognized  in  Ellis"s  English  Phonetics  (1854),  and  slurs  in 
his  Early  English  Pronunciation  (part  iv.,  1874,  p.  1130). 
They  generally  arise  from  continuing  sound  during  change 
of  resonance-cavity,  but  there  are  also  (5)  "  foi'ce-glides," 
arising  from  continuously  variable  bellows-action  of  the 
lungs;  (6)  "pitch-glides."  from  continuous  alterations, 
chiefly  in  the  tension  of  the  vocal  chords;  and  (7)  "glottal 
glides,"  from  continuous  alterations  in  the  degree  of  sepa- 
ration of  the  vocal  chords,  changing  from  flatus  through 
whisper  to  voice,  and  conversely ;  and  (8)  "  arytenad  glides." 
arising  from  continuous  changing  position  of  the  gristly 
glottis.  (9) '■  Vowel  glides"  arise  from  passing  from  one 
vowel  position  to  another,  and  may  be  "lip,"  "  tongue,"  or 
"  throat  glides,"  separately  or  combined  two  or  three  to- 
gether, the  results  being  "diphthongs"  and  "fractures"  of 
the  most  diverse  character  and  of  great  philological  impor- 
tance. (10)  "  Mixed  glides  "  arise  from  passing  from  a  con- 
sonant to  a  vowel  position,  and  conversely,  and  are  most  re- 
markable in  the  case  of  mutes,  as  in  peep,  took,  because  it  is 
solely  by  the  glide  that  the  mute  becomes  effective.  When 
final,  the  mute  often  glides  on  to  a  click  or  some  flatus  (in 
English),  and  often  (in  English  and  German)  flatus  is  inter- 
posed between  the  mute  and  the  vowel,  producing  a  passing 
glottal  glide,  the  habits  of  different  nations  and  individuals 
being  extremely  different.  In  such  words  as  see,  cease, 
seize  there  are  glottal  as  well  as  mixed  glides.  (11)  "Con- 
sonant glides  "  occur  when  we  pass  from  one  consonant  po- 
sition to  another,  of  which  one  at  least  is  capable  of  flated 
or  voiced  resonance,  as  in  tree,  where  tliere  is  a  consonant 
glide  from  i  to  r,  and  a  mixed  glide  from  ;•  to  ee.  (12)  All 
these  glides  give  rise  to  shu's.  which  are  more  convenient  to 
the  speaker  than  breaks,  because  breathing  is  uninterrupted, 
and  hence  they  constantly  occur  between  syllables.  (13) 
"  Breaks  "  occur  where  the  passage  of  breath  is  interrupted 
by  some  suspension  of  expiration,  some  check  of  the  glottis, 
or  some  mute  consonant.  The  study  of  glides  is  one  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  phonetics  for  clear  enunciation,  in- 
telligible singing,  and  comparative  philology. 

The  above  analysis  of  speech-sounds,  here  merely  indi- 
cated, results  from  the  most  recent  physiological  and  lin- 
guistic investigations,  and  its  great  complication  would  ap- 
parently involve  immense  difficulty  in  the  attempt  to  find 
a  method  of  representing  speech-sounds  to  the  eye.  All 
the  accepted  alphabets  of  both  ancient  and  modern  times 
are  more  or  le.ss  defective  as  representations  of  the  phenom- 
ena of  spee(;h.  Wlien  the  Greeks  borrowed  the  Phcenician 
syllabary,  they  gave  it  a  real  alphabetic  character.  It  was  in 
this  form  that  tlie  Romans  adapted  the  same  Phcenician  char- 
acters to  their  needs,  and  from  these  two  original  sources 
all  modern  European  alphabets  are  derived.     At  an  early 

*  Ellis's  "hisses"  and  "buzzes"  include  what  are  more  often 
called  spirants  or  fricatives  ;  they  should  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  aspirates.  English  s/i  in  shut,  th  in  thin.  this,  for  exami)le,  are 
iu  strict  phonetic  use  not  aspirates  but  spirants  or  fricatives.  See 
Aspirate. 

+  The  terminology  of  phonetics  is  different  with  difTerent  writers. 
See  the  list  of  terms  in  the  appendix  of  Jespersen's  book  mentioned 
on  the  next  page. 


period  the  Roman  alphabetic  system  became  general  for 
most  Aryan  languages,  and  was  subsequently  used  for  lan- 
guages of  different  families,  as  Basque  and  Hungarian. 
The  diverse  nature  of  the  selection  of  speech-sounds  and 
systems  of  glides  and  accents  in  use  among  the  different 
nations  of  Europe  has  caused  the  Roman  letters,  individu- 
ally and  in  groups,  to  have  different  significations  in  the 
several  countries  using  them,  and  to  be  practicallv  increased 
in  number  by  the  addition  of  various  diacritical  marks. 
These  systems  of  writing  were  in  many  cases  introduced  by 
"clerks"  (ecclesiastics),  wlio  were  satisfied  with  a  rough  in- 
dication of  the  sounds  of  words  at  remote  periods  when  the 
sounds  of  the  languages  thus  reduced  to  writing  were  dif- 
ferent from  those  now  in  use  ;  but  there  was  always  an  in- 
disposition to  make  any  changes  in  orthography,  and  this 
indisposition  has  increased  since  printing"  became  widely 
used.  Hence  the  groups  of  letters  have  in  many  instances 
ceased  altogether  to  recall  the  sounds  of  the  words,  and 
consequently  alphabetical  writing  has  in  numerous  instances 
almost  reverted  to  ideographical  symbolization.  This  is  es- 
pecially the  case  in  English,  where  sign  and  sound  are  so 
practically  independent,  to  the  great  detriment  of  educa- 
tion, that  no  one  who  sees  an  English  word  for  the  first 
time  knows  how  to  speak  it,  and  no  one  who  hears  an  Eng- 
lish word  for  the  first  time  knows  how  to  spell  it. 

Missionary  enterprise  and  scientific  linguistics  have  raised 
the  question  of  a  universal  alphabet  capable  of  writing  all 
languages.  We  are  still  very  far  from  being  able  to  deter- 
mine what  should  be  the  value,  number,  or  form  of  the  sep- 
arate elementary  symbols  in  such  an  alphabet,  and  how 
their  combination  should  be  indicated.  Prof.  Lepsius,  of 
Berlin,  invented  the  "  linguistic  alphabet "  (German  ed. 
1855),  adopted  under  the  name  of  the  "standard  alphabet" 
by  the  English  Church  Missionary  Society  in  1858  (2d  Eng- 
lish ed.  1863).  and  approved  by  many  other  missionary  so- 
cieties. It  consists  of  a  mixture  of  Latin  and  Greek  letters, 
supplemented  by  a  vast  complication  of  diacritical  marks, 
which  render  its  use  so  laborious  that  in  special  adaptations 
most  of  these  tnarks  ar'e  omitted.  It  requires  new  fonts  of 
types,  and,  notwithstanding  the  number  of  its  symbols  (more 
than  250),  it  is  defective  for  well-known  languages,  both  in 
characters  for  elementary  sounds  and  in  the  means  of  rep- 
resenting glides.  Prof.  Briicke's  JVeue  ilethode  derphonei- 
ischen  Transscriptioti  (1863)  with  entirely  new  letters  is  also 
inadequate.  In  A.  Melville  Bell's  Visi'ble  Speech  (1867)* 
the  characters  are  formed  on  the  principle  of  picturing  the 
positions  of  the  speech-organs.  It  embraces  a  philosophic 
consideration  of  vowels  as  well  as  of  consonants,  and  al- 
though by  no  means  perfect,  it  was  by  far  the  best  and 
most  practical  attempt  yet  made.  It  has  been  improved  by 
Henry  Sweet,  who  has  also  provided  a  corresponding  alpha- 
bet (revised  Romic)  consisting  of  Roman  letters  and  various 
other  signs  already  used  in  printing.  (See  his  paper  on 
Sound  iV  otation,  in  Transactinns  of  the  Ph  ilohgical  Society 
(1880-81).  pt.  ii.,  177-235.)  Neither  these,  however,  nor  anv 
other  system  yet  proposed  can  be  considered  as  an  entirely 
satisfactory  solution  of  the  problem.  For  the  purposes  of 
Ellis's  Early  English  Pronunciation  (1869-89)  he  introduced 
a  temporary  system  called  "  Paheotype,"  because  it  can  be 
readily  printed  with  ordinary  or  old  types.  It  is  too  com- 
plicated and  confusing,  however,  for  general  use. 

In  the  meantime,  the  question  of  particular  phonetics, 
or  of  writing  the  sounds  of  a  particular  language  with  suffi- 
cient accuracy  for  native  use,  is  comparatively  easy.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  mention  here  four  of  the  proposed  meth- 
ods of  writing  English  on  a  phonetic  basis.  1.  Ellis's  Glos- 
sic ;  see  his  article  in  Transactions  of  the  Philological  So- 
ciety, 1870.  pt.  i..  On  Glosik,  a  neu  sistem  ov  Ingglish  speling, 
proapocrzd  four  konkurent  eus,  in  aurder  too  remidi  dhi 
difek'ts,  U'idhou-t  ditrak-ting  from  dhi  valeu  or  our preze7it 
aurlhog-rafi.  As  this  examide  shows,  glossic  often  uses  com- 
binations of  letters  to  express  single  sounds,  but  each  of 
such  combinations  is  used  always  with  the  same  value,  and 
this  is  in  most  cases  determined  by  the  commonest  value  of 
the  same  combination  in  the  usual  spelling  of  English  at 
the  present  day.  2.  Sweet's  broad  Romic  (less  complicated 
than  the  revised  Romic  mentioned  above),  in  which  the 
most  important  single  sounds  are  now  represented  by  single 
signs,  generally  Roman  letters  used  with  approximately 
their  original  Latin  values.  See  for  slightly  different  forms 
of  it  his  Handbook  of  Phonetics  (1877,"  pp.  191,  192); 
Primer  of  Phonetics  (1890,  pp.  71-82);  Elementarbuch  des 
gesprochenen  Englisch  (3d  ed.  1891);  Primer  of  Spoken 
*  See  also  his  Sounds  and  their  Fclationa  (1881). 


PnOXOGRAPII 


585 


English  (1890).  Siiiiilur  to  tliis,  but  more  iiiiiiuto,  is  the 
system  of  iiulic-atiiijr  the  proimiKiation  in  I  hi'  AV/c  Enylish 
hiclioHnry  (since  1884).  ;!.  The  Worlil-Kii^^lish  itliiliabet  of 
A.  Melville  Bell :  see  his  Wdrld-Englinh  (1888).  4.  The  pho- 
netic alphabet  proposed  in  the  report  of  a  committee  of  the 
An)erican  IMiilolo^^ical  Association  in  1877:  see  that  refiort 
(in  the  I'l-Dceediiif/n  of  the  .Vssociation)  anil  The  Sjnlling 
Jiefunii,  by  Francis  A.  March  in  CircuUtr  (if  In  format  iuii 
i\'o.  S,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  1893. 

In  recent  years  the  study  of  phonetics  ha-s  been  viijorously 
pursued,  and  many  valuable  investigations  have  tieeu  pub- 
lished. Among  the  books  and  papers  of  imjiurlance.  besides 
the  work  of  .Sweet,  are  .Sievers,  Grunchagt  tier  Pliunetik 
(4th  eil.  1803,  excellent  ;  contains  also  a  useful  bibliog- 
raphy): Trautmann,  />iV  Spriiclilaute  iin  Allgemtinen  and 
die  hniile  den  Engliaclien.  Frnnzosisclien  und  Ihntschen 
iin  liesitndcren  (1884-86):  W.  Victor,  Eleniente  der  Plione- 
li/c  des  Dentiichen.  Engliachen  uiid  Franziisixclien  (3d  ed., 
first  part.  1893;  Victor  was  also  the  editor  of  I'lionetische 
.SIndien,  6  vols.,  1887-93,  now  succeeded  by  Die  Seneren 
Spraclieii  with  the  Beiblatf,  Phonetische  Sfudien)  :  P. 
Pa-ssy.  Elude  snr  les  rhnngemenla  phoneliqiies,  etc.  (1890; 
Passy  is  the  editor  of  Le  Ma'itre  P/mneHi/ne,  18S9  and 
since:  earlier  numbers  beginning  in  188G  were  called  Dhi 
Fonelik  Tilcer);  Kousselot,  La  me/liode  yraphiqne  nppli- 
gnee  il  In  rechrrc/te  des  transformations  inconscientes  du 
/ai((7«^e  (1891).  and  Les  modijiciitions  phonetiipies  du  lan- 
yage,  etc.,  in  Heme  des  patois  gallo-romans  (\Hi>\,  pp.  65- 
208.  The  work  of  l!ous.selot  is  particularly  valuable  for 
experimental  observations  with  apparatus);  Technier,  Plio- 
fie/eVi"  (1880),  and  articles  in  Internationale  Zeitsclirift  far 
allyemeine  Sprarkwissenschaft;  Jespersen,  The  Artirnla- 
tions  of  Speech  Sounds  represented  by  Means  of  Analpha- 
betic .S'///Hio/,s(1889);  Sheldon  and  Grandgent,  Plionelic  Com- 
pensations (in  Mod.  Lang.  Xotes.  .June,  1888,  3.')4-374,  vol. 
iii.);  (irandgent,  Vowel  Meajiuremets  (in  Pub.  of  the  Mod. 
Lang.  Assoc,  of  America,  su]>pl.  to  vol.  v.,  |)p.  148  IT.;  an 
excellent  description  of  a  method  for  determining  the  shape 
of  the  oral  cavity  m  the  vowels  of  natural  speech);  K.J. 
Llovd,  Speech  Sounds:  their  Mature  and  Causation  (in 
Phoneti.iche  .Studien,  iii.,  Sol  ff..  iv.,  37  S..  183  If.,  27S  tX.,  v., 
1  If.,  129  If.,  263  tf. :  see  also  the  bibliography  in  Sievei-s.  Lloyd 
considers  the  acoustic  side  especially,  making  investigations 
similar  to  those  of  Ilelmholtz,  and  throwing  new  light  on 
the  problems  of  vowel-sounds);  Johan  Storm,  Enylische 
Ptiiliitogie,  i..  Die  lebenile  Sprache.  1.  Abteiluny  :  I'ltonetik 
und  Aussprache  (2d  ed.  1892  :  this  is  largely  devoted  to  pho- 
netics in  general,  and  contains  admirable  discussions  of  some 
of  the  most  important  works  on  the  subject);  K.  L.  Weeks, 
A  Method  of  Recording  the  Soft-palate  Movements  in  Speech 
(in  Harvard  Studies  and  SS'otes  in  Philology  and  Litera- 
ture, ii.,  213  £f.);  L.  Soames,  An  Introduction  to  Phonetics 
(English,  French,  and  German)  (1891;  a  good  introduction 
to  the  suiiject  for  English  speakers) ;  Bremer,  Deutsche  Pho- 
netik  (Leipzig,  1893).  Alex.  .1.  Ellis. 

Revised  by  E.  S.  .Sheldon. 

Plionograpll :  an  instrument  for  recording  and  repro- 
ducing sound.  The  problem  of  recording  sound  was  solved 
long  l)efore  its  reproduction  was  accomplished.  In  1807  Dr. 
Thomas  Young  pointed  out  a  method  by  which  a  tuning- 
fork  might  Ije  made  to  trace  a  record  of  its  own  vil)rations, 
but  ui'arly  half  a  century  seems  to  have  elapsed  betV>re  this 
liinl  was  put  into  practice  by  Wertheim  and  Duhamel.  A 
light  pointed  style  is  attached  to  the  end  of  one  prong  of  the 
fork,  and  made  to  press  against  a  surface  of  snioKed  glass  or 
paper;  and  this  is  then  moved  in  the  direction  across  which 
the  prong  is  vibrating.  The  combination  of  these  two  mo- 
tions produces  a  sinuous  line,  and  the  characterof  this  curve 
is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  motion  which  at  the  same 
time  impresses  the  ear  as  sound.  In  the  phonautograph  of 
Scolt  and  Koenig  (see  .Vcoi-STlcs)  the  tuning-fork  is  replaced 
by  a  slret<'hed  membrane  at  one  end  of  a  drum,  into  which 
the  sound  is  directed,  while  the  tracing  of  the  style  is  made 
upon  smoked  pajier  encircling  a  cylinder.  The  rotation  of 
this  cylinder  is  compounded  with  lateral  motion  in  the  di- 
rection of  its  axis  by  means  of  a  screw  thread  cut  upon  the 
axial  shafl.  and  moving  in  a  fixed  nut  when  the  handle  is 
turned.  In  Barlow's  logogra|>h,  constructed  in  1873.  the 
drum  is  replaced  by  a  slu)rl  trumpet,  and  to  (he  vibrating 
nu'mbraue  a  delicate  iid<-marker  is  attached.  In  1876  Dr.  C. 
.1.  Blake  obtained  very  fine  tracings  by  employing  the  tym- 
[laiuim  of  a  human  ear  for  a  logograph.  In  1878  Prof.  E. 
W.   Blake   pliotogra|ilie(l   the  motion  of  an  elastic  disk  set 


into  vibration  through  sound-waves  produced  by  the  voice. 
To  the  disk  a  small  mirror  was  attached,  and  from  this  a 
beam  of  sunlight  was  reflected  upon  a  moving  photographic 
plate. 

All  of  the  contrivances  just  described  may  quite  properly 
be  called  phonographs.  This  graphic  method  has  been  car- 
ried to  the  utmost  perfection  by  Kudol[ih  Koenig,  of  Paris; 
but  it  implies  no  attempt  to  produce  a  talking-nuichine, 
however  accurately  the  peculiarities  of  articulate  speech  mav 
be  registered.  An  elaborate  talking-machine  was  perfected 
by  the  two  Pabers,  father  and  son.  in  Vienna,  the  out(H)me 
of  many  years  of  work.  This  instrument  was  exhibited  in 
the  U.  .S.  in  1883.  An  air-blast  is  sent  through  a  rather 
complicated  arrangement  of  vents,  in  which  the  action  of 
the  human  organs  of  speech  is  imitated  as  nearly  as  possible. 
It  is  indeed  a  special  form  of  cabinet  organ  from  which  ar- 
ticulate words  are  uttered  in  a  monotone,  each  word  being 
[)honetically  spelled  out  by  skillful  numipulation  of  a  key- 
board. There  is  no  attempt  to  register  speech,  but  the  me- 
chanical numufacture  of  speech  is  successfully  accomplished 
without  the  reproduction  of  sounds  from  any  articulate 
source. 

In  1877  Thomas  A.  Edison  applied  to  a  telephone  disk  a 
style  which  pressed  upon  a  strip  of  tin-foil,  his  objecrt  being 
the  attainment  of  a  self-recording  telephone.  Accidental 
motion  of  the  indented  foil  under  the  style  ca\ised  a  mo- 
mentary reproduction  of  the  sounds  which  had  actuated  the 
telejihonedisk.  This  suggested  his  invention  of  the  modern 
phonograph,  which  was  fii-st  exhibited  in  1878.  A  telephone 
mouthpiece  was  adjusted  close  to  a  cylinder,  such  as  is  cm- 
ployed  with  the  Scott  phonautograph.  To  the  telephone 
disk  was  attached  a  metal  point,  made  to  press  gently  on  tin- 
foil, with  which  the  cylinder  was  covered.  Into  the  surface 
of  the  cylinder  a  spiral  groove  was  cut,  corresponding  to  the 
pitch  of  the  axial  screw.  By  motion  of  the  metal  point  the 
plastic  tin-foil  was  pressed  into  the  groove  beneath  it,  re- 
ceiving thus  a  series  of  slight  indentations,  which  consti- 
tuted the  registration  of  the  exciting  sound.  When  this  line 
of  indentations  was  made  to  pass  under  the  metal  point 
again  the  variable  pressure  thus  given  caused  the  disk  to  re- 
peat the  vibrations  originally  impressed  upon  it  by  the  voice ; 
and  a  talking-machine  was  thus  secured  which  gave  forth 
articulation,  not  in  a  monotone,  but  with  the  variations  of 
pitch,  loudness,  and  quality  that  had  characterized  the  voice 
of  the  speaker.  The  reproduction  was  not  quite  perfect,  but 
it  was  incomi)arably  superior  to  the  outcome  of  any  previous 
effort  to  imitate  the  human  voice. 

Interesting  as  was  the  phonograph,  considered  as  a  tri- 
umph of  ingenuity,  it  was  not  found  capable  of  satisfactory 
conmiei'cial  use.  ^Modifications  of  it  were  devised,  of  which 
the  most  important  were  the  graphophone,  by  Bell  and 
Tainter,  and  the  gramophone,  by  Berliner.  In  the  former 
of  these  a  cylinder  of  wax,  hardened  slightly  by  admixture 
of  paraflin  or  some  other  similar  waxy  substance,  was  sub- 
stituted for  tin-foil.  In  Berliner's  gramophone,  instead  of 
indentations  a  sinuous  line  is  made,  as  with  Scott's  phon- 
autograph ;  but  this  is  traced  upon  a  horizontal  revolving 
disk  of  zinc,  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  wax.  The  plate 
is  then  dinped  into  a  solution  of  chromic  acid,  so  that  the 
line  is  etcned  into  the  zinc.  Such  a  plate  when  passed  again 
under  the  style  gives  lateral  motion  to  this,  which  is  com- 
municated to  the  disk,  resulting  in  very  satisfactory  articu- 
late sound. 

Since  1886  Edison  has  improved  the  phonograph,  adopt- 
ing the  use  <if  a  wax  cylinder,  with  two  separate  mouth- 
pieces, having  specially  prepared  styles — one  for  transmitter, 
the  other  for  receiver.  The  elastic  disks  are  nuide  of  glass, 
and  great  improvement  has  been  secured  in  distinctness  of 
articidation,  but  with  corresponding  loss  of  loudness.  Prora 
the  receiving  disk  a  pair  of  tulies  are  conveyed  to  the  hear- 
er's ears.  To  secure  the  utmost  regularity  in  speed  of  rota- 
tion an  electric  motor  is  employed  to  actuate  the  wax  cylin- 
der. Its  delicacy  and  accuracy  in  reproduction  are  very 
renuirkal)le.  Not  only  talking,  but  also  whistling,  singing, 
whispering,  and  the  playing  of  any  musical  instrument 
whatever  nuiy  be  very  perfec'tly  repeated  Ijy  it. 

The  uses  to  which  the  iihonograph  may  be  put  are  mani- 
fold, but  the  actu.-il  uses  luive  been  thus  far  somewhat  lim- 
ited. The  wax  cylinders  are  capable  of  ready  transportation 
by  mail,  the  capacity  of  each  varying  from  100  to  1,000 
words,  according  to  size.  Aside  from  the  purposes  of  enter- 
tainment, the  phonograph  is  used  in  business  as  an  aid  to 
the  stenographer  and  the  typewriter. 

W.  Le  Co.vte  Stevens. 


586 


PHONOGRAPHY 


Phonofif'raphy  [Gr.  ipuyri.  sound  +  7pai^€ii',  write]  :  any 
system  of  writing  in  whicli  a  phonetic  spelling  is  used.  The 
term,  however,  is  used  specifioally  for  any  system  of  writing 
in  which  the  phonetic  elements  of  words  are  represented  by 
'•  simple  and  easily  formed  sign.s,  which  readily  enter  into 


Sig^, 

Souud. 

Name. 

Sign. 

Sound. 

Name. 

Sign. 

Sound. 

Name. 

\ 

P 

pee. 

^ 

f 

ef. 

r 

1 

el. 

\ 

b 

bee. 

L 

V 

vee. 

^ 

r 

ar. 

t 

tee. 

C 

th 

ith. 

^ 

m 

em. 

d 

dee. 

( 

Th 

thee. 

^^ 

n 

en. 

/ 

ch 

chay. 

) 

s 

es. 

v^ 

ing 

ing. 

/ 

3 

jay. 

) 

z 

zee. 

r 

y 

yay. 

k 

kay. 

J 

sh 

shay. 

") 

w 

way. 

— 

e 

eay. 
All 

J 

'itiona 

zh 
'■  Conso 

zhay. 
nant  S 

jrns. 

h 

hay. 

/ 

r 

ray. 

C 
Z) 

w 

w 

wuh. 

U 

n 

r 
y 

yeh. 
yuh. 

• 

h 

hXli 
dot. 

o 

o 

8 

ss 

iss 
cii-cle. 

ses 
circle. 

a 

st 

str 

steh 
loop. 

ster 
loop. 

Fig.  1.— The  consonant  signs. 

every  combination  required,"  the  same  sign  never  being  used 
to  represent  more  than  one  sound  or  articulation.  The  name 
"  phonograjjhy  "  was  first  applied  to  a  system  of  shorthand 
writing  by  Isaac  Pitman  in  the  second  edition  of  his  system, 
published  in  Loudon  in  1840,  but  had  been  applied  as  early 


oil. 

Fio.  a.- 


<| 

mule. 


-The  vowel  scale. 


as  1701  to  a  little  work  on  phonetic  spelling  by  J.  Jones, 
M.  D.,  London.  The  appearance  of  Pitman's  system  (first 
ed.  London,  1837)  marked  an  era  in  the  history  of  shorthand 
writing.  By  the  introduction  of  a  more  accurate  analysis 
of  the  vocal   ele- 

Jnitial  hooks. 


\  \  \ 


p-1. 


p-rl. 


Qlie  iss  circle,  aes  circle,  steh  and  ster  loops.  Uutially  and  finally: 

\  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  \.  V  \ 


arpl. 


P-J. 


ments  of  the  Eng- 
lish tongue,  and  a 
more  systematic 
presentation  of  the 
shorthand  art.  Pit- 
man d  id  very 
much  to  bring  the 
possibility  of  ver- 
batim reporting 
within  the  reach  of 

persons  of  ordinary  adaptability  for  the  practice  of  the  art. 
His  system  has  been  the  basis  of  every  subsequent  sy.stem 
which  has  received  any  considerable  tlegree  of  public  sup- 
port.    The   cliief   of 

these    are    Gi-aham's  t^^i^bb.  Affisc 

(that  presented  in 
this  article),  Mun- 
son's,  Bishops'.Cross's 
Burnz's,  Lindsley's, 
andOsgoodby's.  Gra- 
ham's systcni  is  now  written  by  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  of- 
ficial stenograpliers,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  other 
shorthand  writers,  in  the  IT.  S. 

The  Phoiiof/niphic  Alphabet.— Tho  material  of  the  pho- 
nographic alphabet   consists   of  the  simplest   geometrical 


characters— dots,  right-lines,  and  curves — variously  modified 
and  combined.  Signs  are  provided  for  forty  elements  in 
the  "working  alphabet."  The  consonants,  with  their  ap- 
propriate signs  and  names,  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  1.  The 
vowels  are  represented  by  means  of  dots  and  dashes.  They 
are  written  by  the  side  of  a  consonant  stroke,  and  the  vowel- 
scale  is  made  extensive  by  giving  a  different  vowel-signifi- 
cance to  the  dot  or  dash  according  as  it  is  written  opposite 
the  beginning,  middle,  or  end  of  the  stroke.  The  vowels 
are  read  before  or  after  an  adjacent  consonant,  according  as 
they  are  written  before  or  after  perpendicular  or  inclined, 
or  above  or  below  horizontal  strokes.  (See  Fig.  3.)  They 
are  nametl  by  their  sound.  In  rapid  writing  they  are  not 
inserted  except  to  indicate  words  of  unusual  occurrence  or 
to  vocalize  proper  names.     Indeed,  the  consonant  outlines 


^::--f--V-->-H-V"^-S--\- 


Fig.  3.— Joined  consonants. 

of  words  are  found  to  be  so  legible  and  suggestive  that  the 
vowels  are  usually  left  out  even  in  jihonographic  corre- 
spondence. Fig.  3  shows  how  the  consonants  are  combined 
in  forming  words. 

3IodiJicafions  of  the  Consonant  Sfrolces. — The  primary 
consonant  strokes  are  variously  modified  to  indicate  the 
addition  of  other  consonants ;  thus  a  small  initial  hook  in- 
dicates the  addition  of  I  or  r,  according  to  the  side  on  which 
it  is  written.  A  large  initial  hook  indicates  the  addition  Ir 
(as  in  ler.  lor,  7ar)  or  rl  (as  in  rel.  rat,  etc.),  according  to  the 
side  on  which  it  is  written  (see  Fig.  4).  A  small  final  hook 
indicates  the  addition  of  the  sound  of  /,  r,  or  n  ;  and  a  large 
final  hook  the  addition  of  shn  (tinn,  sion,  cion,  cian,  etc.)  or 
tire,  according  to  the  side  on  which  it  is  written.  The  iss  cir- 
cle when  written  at  the  beginning  of  a  stroke  (hooked  or  not) 
implies  that  the  stroke  is  preceded  by  s;  when  written  at 
the  end  of  a  stroke  (hooked  or  not),  that  the  stroke  is  fol- 
lowed by  s.  The  ses  circle  occurring  initially  or  finally  im- 
plies the  precedence  or  succedence  of  cis,  ces,  sis,  ses,  siis, 
sas,  etc.  The  steh  loop  initial  or  final  indicates  st.  The 
ster  loop  indicates  sir  (as  in  ster,  star,  etc.),  but  is  not  writ- 
ten initially.  These  circles  and  loops  when  written  finally, 
on  the  side  of  the  «  hook  (by  making  the  hook  into  a  circle 
or  loop),  signify  the  addition  of  7i-s,  n-ses,  cis,  etc.,  n-st  or 
7i-slr  to  the  stroke.  The  sound  of  s  may  be  added  to  a  stroke 
modified  by  an  /  hook  by  writing  the  iss  circle  within  the 
hook.     <S  may  be  made  to  precede  a  stroke  modified  by  an  I 


\       \ 


Halving.     Lengthening.       Widening. 


p-f-v. 


\3 

p-shn. 


^ 


\ 

b-d 


pf-s.      p-ns. 


\>     >>     \ 


p-ss.      jnrSS. 


Jtstr, 


\ 

b-Ji 


m-p-b. 


p-nst.     p-nstr.      &t-p. 


\       \ 


Fig.  4.— Consonant  modifications. 

or  r  hook  by  writing  the  iss 
making  the   r  hook   into  a 


^ 


\^ 


i-     y 


<i^ 


^ 


circle  within  the  /  hook,  or  by 

circle.      By  halving  a   stroke 

(writing  it  half  length)  t  ox  d  is  added,  accoriling  as  the 

Phrase-Writing.  TVord-Siens.  Phrase-Sign. 


J)     n 


ply;    comply,  bent,  incumbent. 


-wLensoever.        Xam      sure,     sir, 


I  am  sure,  sir. 


\ 


l)y.      be.to.be.      possibility,    in  their  own. 


Fig 


5. 
iKht 


stroke  is  light  or  heavy;  by  leyigthen  in  ff  (v/ritinf;  it  double 
length),  /;•,  dr,  thr,  or  Tlir  is  added,  according  as  the  stroke 
is  light  or  heavy  ;  by  widening,  p  or  6  is  added. 

E.rpedients  for  increasing  Speed. — Various  other  expe- 
dients are  made  use  of,  as  an  initial  dot  or  tick  or  small 


PHONOLITE 


PHOSPHORIC   ACID 


587 


circle  to  imply  a  prefix,  as  con,  com,  cog,  circum,  contra,  self- 
con,  or  self-corn  :  ii  final  dot  or  tick  (light  or  heavy),  or  circle, 
to  indicate  the  imperfect  participle  of  verbs,  an  adverbial  or 
other  aflix,  as  iny,  iiign.  or  l;/ ;  xelf  selres,  -bleiiess.  -ful- 
ness, etc.  Other  affixes  are  indicated  by  an  abbreviated 
termination,  as  sv  for  "soever"  in  whosoever,  whensoever, 
etc.;  and  the  omission  of  the  connectingpreposition"of,"  or 
of  the  prepositional  i)hrases  "  of  the."  "  of  a,'  is  indicated  by 
writing  two  words  near  together,  and  the  omission  of  "to  " 
or  "two"  by  writing  the  following  outline  just  under  the 
line  of  writing.     See  Fig.  5. 

Two  other  expedients  for  increasing  speed  remain  to  be 
noticed — phrase-writing  and  word-signs.  By  phrase-writing 
is  meant  the  junction  of  several  words  without  lifting  the 


> 


S       \'  S  ^5 ' 


Vt 


Tbtj     bATmoDjr 


of  the    spbfres. 


Pear  sir:     Yoor    received;  con-    Doted. 
favor  tests 


Fio.  6.— The  corresponding  style. 

pen.  This  does  not  diminish,  but  rather  increases,  the  legi- 
bility of  the  writing  where  tlie  words  are  grammatically 
closely  related,  as  in  the  [ihrase  "  I  am  sure."  By  the  term 
word-sign  is  meant  a  primary  character,  simple  or  modified, 
which  is  memorized  as  an  arbitrary  and  abbreviated  expres- 
sion of  a  certain  word  or  words.  The  principle  of  word-signs 
is  carried  to  a  great  extent,  and  like  phrase-writing  is  one 
of  the  reporter's  most  important  aids  for  increasing  the 
speed  of  his  %vriting.  See  Stenogr.\phy  and  Pitman's  His- 
tory of  Shorthand  (18!)1).  Revised  by  R.  LiLLEV. 

I'lioiiolite  [from  (ir.  (pwyfi,  sound  +  \idos,  stone] :  a  name 
given  by  Klaproth  to  a  dense,  hard  variety  of  volcanic  rock 
in  allusion  to  its  ring  under  the  hammer  (German.  A'/(H^- 
stein;  English,  c/tn/i.stoHs),  a  proi)erly  which  is  much  in- 
creased by  its  tendency  to  sejiarate  into  thin  slalis.  Phono- 
Ute  is  an  acid  igneous  rock  very  rich  in  alkali,  and  is  to  be 
regarded  as  the  surface  equivalent  of  eleolite-syenite.  Its 
essential  constituent  minerals  are  sanidine,  nepheliue,  and 
an  alkaline  pyroxene,  called  aegirite.  It  also  frequently 
contains  minerals  of  the  sodalite-haiiyne  group,  leucite, 
hornblende,  titanite,  apatite,  and  magnetite.  Quartz  is  never 
present  except  jis  a  secondary  product,  since  there  is  too 
much  alkali  to  allow  of  the  separation  of  free  silica.  Zeo- 
lites of  various  kinds  are  also  very  frequent  alteration  min- 
erals in  phonolite. 

This  rock  occurs  in  dikes,  flows,  and  volcanic  necks,  for  the 
most  part  of  Tertiary  age.  It  is  often  accompanied  by  its 
tuffs,  and  in  many  regions,  like  the  Auvergne.  Southern 
Baden,  and  Bnheinia.  forms  steep  and  picturesque  moun- 
tains of  small  size.  Phonolites  are  also  known  in  Northei'n 
Africa,  Italy,  the  Eifcl,  England,  Brazil,  the  Black  Hills, 
and  Colorado.  George  H.  Willia.ms. 

Phorniiou  (in  Gr.  topiilav):  an  Athenian  general  who  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  wars  with  Samos,  but  especially 
at  the  siege  of  Potida-a  in  4;i2  B.  c.  He  there  fought  witii 
Perdiccas,  King  of  Macedonia,  against  the  Chalcidians ;  in 
4;i0  B.  c.  he  led  the  Acarnanians  against  the  Ambraciots;  in 
429  n.  <\  he  was  victorious  at  N'aupactus  against  the  Pel(5- 
ponnesians,  after  which  he  once  more  commanded  the  Acar- 
nanians, who  ever  held  him  in  great  esteem.  His  tomb  was 
near  those  of  Pericles  and  Chabrias  on  the  road  to  the  .Acad- 
emy. J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Phospliiites :  See  Phosphoric  Acid  ;  also  Apatite. 

Pliosniiines  :  bases  corresponding  to  amines,  bearing  the 
same  relation  to  PII3  that  amines  do  to  XIIj.  Triethyl 
phospliine  is  P(('3ll!.)3. 

Phosplioresccnce  [deriv.  of  phosphoresce,  shine  like  phos- 
phorus, deriv.  of  phosphorus] :  the  emission  of  light  with 
little,  if  any,  heat,  and  in  most  cases  with  little  chemical 
change.  Phosphorus  emits  light  in  the  dark,  and  this  is 
due  to  slow  combustion,  the  change  being  of  the  same  kind 
as  that  which  takes  place  when  phosjjhorus  burns  actively 
in  the  air.  Phosphorescence  is  frequently  observed  to  a 
very  marked  degree  in  sea  water.  The  cause  of  this  is  not 
known,  but  the  phenomenon  is  believed  to  be  connected  with 
the  presence  of  minute  organisms  from  which  the  light  is 
given  off.  Some  substances  have  the  power  to  emit  light 
after  having  been  exposed  to  a  bright  light.  Prominent 
amcmg  these  are  the  sulphides  of  calcium,  strontium,  and 
barium.  According  to  Becquerel.  ])hosphorescence  is  a  power 
possessed  by  all  substances,  but  in  most  cases  it  lasts  oidy  a 


very  short  time.  With  calcium  sulphide  it  lasts  several 
hours,  and  the  sulphides  of  strontiinn  and  barium  have  this 
power  to  even  a  greater  extent  than  calcium  sulphide.  The 
cause  of  the  pho^horeseence  in  such  substances  is  not 
known.    See  also  Fluorescence.  Ira  Remsen. 

Phospliorip  Acid  :  the  principal  acid  formed  by  the  cle- 
ment I'liosi'iioRis  {q.  v.).  It  occurs  in  nature  mainly  in  the 
form  of  the  calcium  salt,  calcium  phosphate.  This  is  the 
principal  constituent  of  the  ashes  of  bones.  It  occurs  also 
as  phosphdrite  and,  in  combination,  in  the  mineral  apatite. 
It  can  be  made  in  the  laboratory  (1)  by  burning  pliosplmrus 
which  converts  it  into  the  oxide,  PjOs,  and  then  boiling  this 
in  water  solution  ;  (2)  by  oxidizing  phosphorus  with  nitric 

acid.     On  the  large 

/^      /^  scale  it  is  made  from 

^  VI  ^,^     o<_^i^.^         bone-ash     or    phos- 

N^  1  '^         phorite,  by  treating 

I  will  state     this  prupo-    agaia,        afl  it  is  nji-  with  SUlpllUric  acid. 

sitiou  sir,  doubtedly  e  1 1      •  i 

important.         filtering,  and  evapo- 
The  reporting  style.  rating.      When     its 

solution  is  evaporat- 
ed to  the  proper  consistency  the  acid  crystallizes  out  on 
cooling  in  the  form  of  large'  crystals  having  the  composi- 
tion represented  by  the  formula  llsPOi.  This  is  called 
orfhophosjjhuric  acid  to  distinguish  it  from  two  other  varie- 
ties of  the  acid  to  be  mentioned  below. 

Phosphates  are  the  salts  of  phosjihoric  acid,  or,  more  es- 
pecially, of  orthophosphoric  acid.  This  acid  is  tribasic,  and 
therefore  capable  of  yielding  a  great  variety  of  salts.  Each 
of  the  three  hydrogen  atoms  contained  in  its  molecule, 
HaPO,,  can  be  successively  replaced  by  metallic  elements. 
Those  salts  which  are  derived  from  theacid  by  the  replace- 
ment of  one  or  two  of  the  three  hydrogen  atoms  are  called 
acid  phosphates.  Examples  are  niiino-sndium  phosphate, 
HjXaPOi;  di-sodium  phosphate,  llXajPO,;  secondary  cal- 
cium phospliate,  HCaPO, :  primary  calcium  phospliate, 
H,Ca(P04)3,  etc.  The  last  two  salt's  mentioned  are  also 
called  acid  phosphates  of  calcium.  (Jne  or  both  are  con- 
tained in  the  preparation  commonly  called  Horsford's 
acid  phosphate.  The  normal  phos/ihates,  or  neutral  phos- 
phates, are  those  that  are  derived  from  orthophosphoric 
acid  by  the  replacement  of  all  the  hydrogen  by  metallic  ele- 
ments. Thus  silver  phosphate,  AgsPO, :  tertiary  calcium 
phosphate,  Ca3(P04)3,  etc.,  are  normal  phosphates.  Among 
the  more  important  phosphates  are  those  of  calcium.  As 
has  been  said,  tertiary  calcium  phosphate  is  the  chief  con- 
stituent of  bone-ash.  It  forms  85  per  cent,  of  this  mix- 
ture. Calcium  phosphate  exists  everywhere  in  fertile  soils, 
and  is  taken  up  by  the  plants,  from  which  in  turn  it  finds 
its  way  into  the  animal  body.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
it  is  of  fundamental  importance,  and  that  a  soil  must  either 
contain  this  salt  or  something  from  which  it  can  be  formed. 
See  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Fertilizers. 

Metaphosphoric  acid,  HPO3,  is  formed  when  orthophos- 
phoric acid  is  heated  to  400^  C.  (750'  F.).  Under  these  con- 
ditions the  latter  loses  water  as  represented  in  the  equation : 

H3PO4  =  HPO3  -I-  HjO. 
This  is  the  more  common  commercial  form  of  phosphoric 
acid.  l)eing  known  in  the  market  as  glacial  phosphoric  acid 
{Acidum  p/io.iphoricum  glaciale).  Boiled  with  water  it  is 
converted  into  ordinary  ororthophos|)horic  acid,  the  reaction 
above  represented  being  reversed.  The  salts  of  metaphos- 
I)lioric  acid  are  called  metaphosphafes.  The  acid  is  mono- 
basic, and  it  was  formerly  (called  monobasic  phosphoric  acid. 
Its  composition  is  similar  to  that  of  nitric  acid,  HXO3,  and 
chloric  acid,  IIClOs. 

Pyrnphos/thuric  arid,  H4P3O7,  is  formed  by  heating  ortho- 
phosphoric acid  to  200°-300  C.  (400'-600' F.').  The  change 
effected  is  similar  to  that  which  takes  place  in  the  conver- 
sion of  the  ortho-acid  into  the  meta-acid  (see  above).  It  is 
represented  bv  the  following  equation  : 

2H3PO,  =  H.PgO,  -1-  n,o. 
The  acid  is  tctrabasic,  and  was  at  one  time  called  tetrabasic 
phosphoric  acid.  When  a  .secondary  salt  of  orthophosphoric 
acid  IS  heated  to  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  a  pyrophos- 
phate is  formed.  Thus  di-sodium  phosphate  yields  sodium 
pvro])hosphate : 

2nXa5PO,  =  Xa.PjO,  +  11,0. 
So  also  when  a  primary  pliosjihate,  such  as  mono-sodium 
phosphate,  is  heated  high  enough  to  decompose  it,  it  yields 
a  metaphosphate : 

H,NaPO,  =  XaPO,  +  H,0. 


588 


PIIOSPUUK-IRIDIUM 


PIIOTIUS 


The  ease  with  which  the  acid  phosphates  and  the  acid  itself 
undergo  change  when  heated  gave  rise  originally  to  consider- 
able difficulty  in  their  study.  By  a  masterly  investigation 
of  these  substances  Graham  succeeded  in  explaining  the  re- 
lations between  them  and  the  products  formed  from  them, 
and  he  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  views  at  present  held 
in  regard  to  acids.  Ika  Remsex. 

Pliosphor-irldiiim  :  Holland's  compound.    See  Iridiim. 

Phosphor'oscope :  a  device  invented  by  Edmond  Bec- 
querel  for  showing  the  phenomenon  of  phos|ihorescenoe 
in  bodies  which  shine  but  for  a  very  minute  portion  of 
time  after  their  insulation.  By  suitable  perforations  in  a 
disk  revolving  over  a  box  in  which  is  the  substance  to  be 
examined,  sunlight  is  allowed  to  fall  upon  it  and  to  be  cut 
off  before  the  observer  can  see  it  througli  another  aperture. 
By  giving  to  the  disk  a  sufficiently  rapid  rotation  observa- 
tions may  be  made  after  an  interval  of  less  than  ^jButh  of 
a  second  after  light  has  ceased  to  shine  upon  the  substance. 
In  this  way  it  has  been  discovered  that  many  substances 
are  phosphorescent  (i.  e.  capable  of  emitting  light)  which 
have  never  before  been  known  to  be  so ;  but  there  are  still 
a  large  number  of  bodies  which  have  no  appreciable  phos- 
phorescence. Revised  by  Ira  Remsex. 

Phosphorus  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  <pw(T<j>6pos.  light-bring- 
ing ;  tpws.  light  -I-  ipfpeiv,  carry,  bring.  C'f.  ^aatti6pos.  name 
of  the  morning  star] :  one  of  the  chemical  elements.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  the  name  phosphorus  was  a|iplied 
to  every  body  that  gave  light  without  burning.  Gradually, 
however,  the  name  came  to  be  applied  only  to  the  element 
which  was  discovered  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century  by  Brandt  (1669).  of  Hamburg,  who  obtained  it  in 
experimenting  on  the  distillation  of  extract  of  urine  with 
charcoal.  Phosphorus  is  manufactured  by  first  making 
from  bones  a  soluble  acid  phosphate  of  lime  througli  tlic 
agency  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  mixing  and  distilling  this 
with  charcoal  in  earthen  retorts  at  a  red  heat.  Bone-ash 
contains  nearly  20  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  this  being  the 
precise  proportion  in  pure  fricalcic  phosphate ;  but  the 
amount  of  phosphorus  obtained  in  practice  is  only  from  8 
to  11  per  cent.  The  process  is  also  expensively  consump- 
tive of  fuel  and  destructive  of  apparatus,  as  well  as  of  the 
health  of  the  operatives,  these  facts  much  enhancing  the 
cost  of  phosphorus.  The  importance  of  phosphorus  is,  how- 
ever, so  great — chiefly  as  a  material  for  making  matches — 
that  the  production  is  carried  on  on  a  very  large  scale,  and 
the  annual  production  of  phosphorus  is  something  over  3.000 
tons.  There  are  two  principal  factories — one  in  France,  at 
Lyons,  the  other  in  England,  at  Oldbury  near  Birmingham. 
Some  phosphorus  is  also  made  in  Sweden  and  at  Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 

Common  commercial  phosphorus  is  a  slightly  yellowish 
body  of  wax-like  consistence,  and  translucent.  It  is  gener- 
ally cast  into  the  form  of  sticks,  which,  on  account  of  their 
dangerous  inflammability,  must  be  preserved  under  water. 
It  melts  at  44°  G.  or  111"  F.  to  a  liquid  of  oily  consistence, 
which  may  be  cooled  if  umlisturbed  much  below  tlie  melt- 
ing-point again  without  solidifying,  but  then  at  once  solidi- 
fies on  agitation.  Although  flexible  and  highly  sectile  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  it  becomes  brittle  and  breaks  with 
a  crystalline  fracture  at  the  freezing-point  of  water.  It 
may  be  crystallized  from  bisulphide  of  carbon,  in  which  it 
is  soluble,  the  crystals  belonging  to  the  regular  systemT  It 
boils  at  290'  C.  (554'  F.),  forming  a  transparent  vapor  near- 
ly four  and  a  half  times  as  heavy  as  air.  Phosphorus  is 
.slightly  soluble  in  ether  and  in  fixed  oils,  considerably  so  in 
benzene  and  in  many  essential  oils,  including  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, largely  so  in  bi.sulphide  of  carbon. 

Red  phospltO)-iis  or  amorpliiiiis  phosphorus  is  formed  from 
ordinary  phosphorus  when  the  latter  is  long  exposed  to  the 
light.  TIk!  same  change  takes  place  when  plKisphorus  is 
heated  for  a  time  in  an  atnuwpliere  free  from  oxvgen,  and 
rapidly  when  it  is  heated  to  300"  ('.  in  a  tube  herrnrlirally 
scaled.  This  variety  of  phosphorus  differs  very  markedly 
frotn  the  ordinary  variety.  It  is  a  red  powder.  It  does  not 
emit  light.  It  does  not  melt  at  a  low  temperature.  It  is 
not  poisonous,  and  ran  not  be  easily  ignited.  Further,  it  is 
insoUilile  in  bisulphide  of  carbun.  When  heated  to  260  C. 
in  an  atmosphere  of  carljnii  dioxide  it  is  converted  into  or- 
dinary phosphorus,  and  when  hi'ati'd  to  this  temperature  in 
the  air  it  takes  fire,  and  in  burning  forms  the  same  prod- 
uct that  ordinary  phosphonis  does. 

Oxides  of  I'hosphorwi. — There  are  two  known  oxides  of 
phosphorus:  (1)  phosphorous  anhydride  (PaOs),  a  soft,  white, 


readily  volatile  powder  formed  by  the  slow  oxid.ation  of 
T^hosphorus  in  a  limited  su[iply  of  dry  air;  and  (2)  phos- 
phoric anhydride,  or  phosphoi'ie  pentoxide  (PaUs),  the  prod- 
uct of  the  burning  of  phosphorus  with  flame  in  the  aii-.  It 
appears  as  a  white  smoke.  This  phosphoric  pentoxide  as 
made  in  quantities  is  a  snow-white  amorphous  powder,  which 
sublimes  at  a  moderate  heat  below  redness.  It  is  highly 
deliquescent,  and  when  added  to  water  combines  with  it 
with  great  heat  and  explosive  violence. 

In  addition  to  the  acids  mentioned  under  the  head  of 
Phosphoric  Acid  (q.  v.)  phosphorus  yields  two  other  acids. 
These  are  phosphorous  acid  and  hypophosphorous  acid. 
The  former  has  the  formula  H3PO3.  Its  salts  are  called 
phosphites.  The  latter  has  the  formula  HsPOj;  and  its 
salts  are  called  hypophosphites.     Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Medicixal  Uses  of  Phosphorus. — Pure  phosphorus  is  lo- 
cally an  intense  irritant  and  caustic  to  animal  tissues,  and 
taken  internally  is  a  virulent  poison,  whether  in  large  sin- 
gle dose  or  in  repeated  administriition  of  small  quantities. 
Even  in  a  single  fatal  dose,  however,  the  symptoms  nuiy 
not  begin  till  several  hours  after  swallowing  the  poison,  and 
death  does  not  generally  occur  till  after  several  days.  There 
are  the  usual  signs  of  irritant  poisoning — viz..  nausea,  vom- 
iting, and  sometimes  purging,  with  abdominal  pain,  but  the 
latter  symptom  is  not  so  severe  as  with  other  corrosive  poi- 
sons. A  garlicky  breath,  luminosity  of  the  eructations  and 
sometimes  of  the  secretions,  profound  disturbances  of  the 
nervous  system,  such  as  delirium,  convulsions,  coma,  with 
extreme  general  prostration,  follow,  and  the  individual  may 
die  suddenly  from  collapse  and  syncope,  or  more  slowly  af- 
ter sinking  into  coma.  Then  a  peculiar  feature  of  phos- 
phorus poisoning  sets  in — namely,  jaundice,  from  fatty  de- 
generation of  the  liver.  This  symptom  is  often  preceded  by 
a  remission  in  the  symptoms,  which  should  not  lie  con- 
sidered as  a  favorable  sign.  After  death  there  is  found  pro- 
found structural  disintegration  of  the  tissues,  with  special 
tendency  to  fatty  degeneration  of  many  of  the  organs,  and 
extravasations  of  blood  into  their  tissue.  In  chronic  ])oi- 
soning.  however.no  symptoms  occur  except  a  profound  gen- 
eral debility,  in  which  condition  the  subject  may  sink  away 
and  die.  The  antidotes  in  pliosphoru.s-poisoning  that  seem 
to  be  of  most  use  are  jiermanganate  of  potassium  and  |jer- 
oxide  of  hydrogen.  Oil  of  turpentine  is  worse  than  useless. 
Given  medicinally  in  doses  of  a  minute  fraction  of  a  grain, 
phosphorus  is  sometimes  of  benefit  in  conditions  of  nervous 
debility,  and  especially  in  neuralgias  and  bone  disease.  Un- 
der its  use  the  jiatient's  general  state  may  improve  and  the 
sjiecial  morbid  sym]itoms  abate.  Phosphorus  is  most  com- 
monly given  in  pill  form,  the  minute  dose  being  dissolved 
by  warmth  in  some  foi'ni  of  fat  wliich  congeals  on  cooling. 
It  may  also  be  given  in  solution  in  appropriate  fluid  mix- 
ture, but  most  of  these  solutions  have  an  excessively  offen- 
sive taste.  As  slow  poisoning  by  phosphorus  is  very  insidi- 
ous, the  drug  should  be  taken  only  under  the  observati<in  of 
a  physician.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Pho'tius:  ecclesiastic;  held  a  high  position  in  the  civil  ser- 
vice of  the  Byzantine  government,  and  was  distinguished  for 
his  learning  and  literary  taste,  when  in  858,  on  the  deposition 
of  Ignatius,  he  was  hurried  through  all  the  ecclesiastical  de- 
grees, and  installed  by  the  Emperor  Michael  III.  as  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople.  A  council  of  318  bishops,  held  at  Con- 
stantinople in  861.  confirmed  the  election,  but  Pope  Nich(]las  I. 
objected  to  the  irregularities  of  Photius's  elevation,  and  con- 
voked a  council  at  iiome  in  862.  which  deposed  and  excom- 
municated him.  Photius  then  gave  the  conflict  a  doctrinal 
turn,  and  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (86T)  condemned 
and  excommunicated  Pope  Nicholas  I.  because  of  heretical 
views,  thereby  laying  the  foundation  of  the  schism  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.  In  867  Photius  was  de- 
prived by  Basilius  the  Macedonian  of  his  office  and  sent  into 
exile,  and  Ignatius  was  reinstated  ;  but  after  the  death  of 
Ignatius  he  returned  to  Constantinople,  and  was  once  more 
phic'cd  on  the  piitriarchal  throne.  In  886  Leo  the  Philoso- 
pher again  exiled  him,  and  he  died  a  few  years  after  in  an 
Armenian  monastery.  Of  his  works,  the  Mi/riobihlnii  or 
Bihliotheca,  a  coUectiim  of  extr.acts  and  summaries  of  a 
large  number  of  Greek  authors  in  280  sections  (edited  by  I. 
Bekker,  1824),  the  Lexicon  (edited  by  Por.son.  1822,  and'  by 
Xaber.  2  vols.,  18661.  the  Xoniocatiim,  a  collection  of  acts 
and  decrees  of  councils  up  to  the  seventh  a'cumcnical 
council,  and  his  letters  are  of  great  interest.  A  collected 
edition  is  found  in  Migne"s  I'atroloi/icp  Cursiis  Completiis. 
Revised  by  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 


I'llUTO-KNUUAVING 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


589 


Photo-engraviiia: :  the  tirm  applied  to  a  variety  of  proc- 
esses ill  wliich  the  Hftiijii  of  lipnt  atul  tlie  vise  of  certain 
chemical  substaiuTs  supplant  the  wurk  of  the  ciisniver. 
Aliout  the  year  182G  Nicn'phore  Nie|ice,  a  Kreiichiiian,  dis- 
covered that  bitumen,  under  certain  conditions,  lieoaine  sen- 
sitive to  light,  losing  soluljility  by  its  action.  He  coated  a 
sheet  of  metal  with  bitumen  dissolved  in  oil  of  lavender, 
exposed  it  under  a  drawing  to  the  rays  of  the  sun;  the 
bimmen  becaine  insoluble  in  all  those  parts  except  where 
the  lines  protected  it  ;  tlie  latter  were  then  dissolved  away 
with  oil  of  lavender,  and  tlie  metal  thus  laid  bare  was  etched 
with  an  acid.  Many  modern  processes  are  based  upon  this 
action  of  bitumen,  but  in  others  different  substances,  ren- 
dered insoluble  by  light,  are  employed,  being  quicker  in 
their  action,  although  the  finest  results  are  still  obtainable 
by  the  bitumen  prucess. 

The  modern  method  of  producing  a  photo-engraved  metal 
block  is  as  follows  :  A  coHodiim  negative  is  first  made  of  the 
line  drawing,  giving  clear  while  lines  on  a  black  ground. 
If  from  a  photogra|ih,  or  a  washing  drawing,  or  from  any 
picture  or  object  where  there  is  a  gruddlion  of  color,  what 
is  termed  a  lialf-ione  process  must  be  em|)loyed.  This  con- 
sists in  placing  in  front  of  the  sensitive  plate  a  transparent 
screen  having  a  network  of  fine  lines  mechanically  ruled 
upon  it.  which  breaks  up  the  image  into  a  mass  of  fine  dots, 
varying  in  size  according  to  the  amount  of  light  coni|iosing 
the'various  |)arts  of  the  image  passing  throiigli  the  network. 
A  polished  plate  of  metal,  such  as  zinc,  brass,  or  copper  (the 
last  being  used  for  the  finest  work),  is  next  coated  over  with 
the  sensitive  solution — bitumen  dissolved  in  benzole  or  al- 
bumen rendered  sensitive  by  the  addition  of  bichromate  of 
ammonium  or  potassium.  When  this  is  dry,  the  plate  is  ex- 
posed to  light  beneath  the  collodion  negative  and  afterward 
treated  with  the  necessary  solvent,  turpentine  being  used  for 
the  bitumen  and  water  in  the  albumen  process.  With  the 
latter  method  the  plate  is  dried  and  dusted  over  with  finely 
powdered  asphaltum,  the  sur]>his  brushed  off.  and  the  plate 
held  over  a  stove  until  the  asphaltum  just  melts.  An  image 
capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  acid  etching-fluids  is  thus 
produced  u[)on  the  metal  plate.  It  may  be  mentioned  that 
with  some  processes  the  image  instead  of  being  iirinted  di- 
rect upon  the  plate  is  transferred  to  it.  The  plate  is  next 
coated  over  at  the  back  and  sides  with  an  acid-resisting  var- 
nish, and  then  immersed  in  the  acid  etching-bath.  H  upon 
copper,  the  etching  mordant  used  is  perchloride  of  iron.  The 
action  of  the  mordant  is  to  bite  into  the  metal  where  unpro- 
tected by  the  image,  and  in  this  manner  the  printing-plate 
is  produced.  Such  a  plate  can  be  printed  from  in  the  ordi- 
nary printing-press. 

I'liiiloyruritre. — In  printing  from  a  photo-engraved  plate 
the  ink  is  taken  up  and  transferred  to  p;iper  by  the  raised 
or  unetched  parts  of  the  ]ilate.  but  in  photogravure  the  ink 
fills  up  the  intaglio  engraved  on  the  plate  by  the  acid  and  is 
lifted  away  again  by  the  paper  pressed  tipon  it.  The  proc- 
ess of  making  a  photogravure  plate  is  as  follows:  From  the 
ordinary  photographic  negative  a  positive  transparency  is 
made.  .\  piece  of  carbon  tissue  (paper  coated  over  with 
gelatin  containing  lamjiblaek)  is  sensitized  in  bichromate 
of  potassium  aiul  ex]>osed  to  light  beneath  the  positive.  A 
copper  plate  is  dusted  ovi'r  with  very  finely  powdered  resin 
or  asphaltum. and  heated,  which  gives  it  an  etching-ground, 
rendering  it  ca])able  of  holding  the  ink.  The  exjiosed  car- 
bon tissue  is  mounted  upon  I  lie  copper  pUje  and  subjected 
to  the  action  of  hot  water.  This  dissolves  away  the  gelatin 
unacted  upon  by  light,  leaving  a  negative  image  upon  the 
copper.  It  is  then  etched  with  a  solution  of  perchloride  of 
iron,  and  tlu!  j>hotograph  cleared  off.  leaving  a  [ilate  that 
may  be  printed  from  in  the  same  manner  as  a  cojiiierplate 
etching  or  mezzotint  engraving. 

LiTKKATiTKE. — H.  I).  Farijualiar.  Tlie  Grammar  of  Pliatn- 
engraviiid  (New  York):  W.  T.  Wilkinson,  IVioto-i-niiraviiig 
(New  York) :  Carl  Sehraubstiidter.  Phatit-fngrnving  (St. 
Louis) :  W.  K.  Woodbury,  The  KnnjrlojKvilia  of  I'holug- 
rap/it/  (New  York) :  .lulius  Verfasser.  I'/ie  Half-tone  Process 
(Ijondon) :  H.  K.  IJlaney  and  \V.  K.Woodbury,  Pliotogra- 
viire  (New  York);  Geynet,  Photogravure  sur  zinc  et  ciiirre, 
(Paris).  Walter  F..  Woodhi-rv. 

Photocrrapliy  [Or.  (pm.  <t>a!T6s.  light  +  ypa^uv.  write] :  the 
art  of  producing  permanent  images  or  pictures  by  means  of 
the  chemical  action  of  light,  or,  more  strictly,  of  "  radiant 
energy." 

Early  Ilistorij. — The  first  authentic  record  of  an  attempt 
to  utilize  the  action  of  light  for  producing  pictures  appears 


in  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth  ccnturv.  In  1802 
Thomas  Wedgwood,  son  of  the  famous  potter,  published  in 
the  •/i/iirnals  of  the  Koyal  Institution  a  paper  giving  an  ac- 
count of  a  ■■  method  of  copying  paintings  on  glass  and  mak- 
ing profiles  by  the  agency  of  light."  The  sensitive  surface 
which  he  employed  was  obtained  by  impregnating  paper  or 
white  leather  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  When 
this  was  exposed  to  sunlight  under  a  design  on  translucent 
material  the  prepared  surface  darkened  in  proportion  as  the 
light  reached  it.  with  the  result  that  a  cojiy  of  the  design  in 
light  and  dark  was  produced.  Davy,  who  worked  with 
Wedgwood,  afterward  found  the  chloride  of  silver  more  sen- 
sitive than  ilie  nitrate,  and  succeeded  in  reproducing  the 
strongly  illuminated  images  formed  by  the  solar  microscope ; 
but  no  device  was  found  for  rendering  these  results  per- 
manent. Kxposcd  to  daylight  the  light  parts  soon  darkene<l, 
producing  a  uniform  tint  over  the  whole  surface  and  oblit- 
erating the  picture.  .\s  Davy  says  of  it. '■  Nothing  but  a 
method  of  preventing  the  unshaded  parts  of  the  delineation 
from  being  colored  by  exposure  to  the  day  is  wanting  to 
render  this  process  as  useful  as  it  is  elegant."  As  it  was. 
the  process  was  of  course  a  failure,  and  tJhe  development  of 
phofograpliy  was  delayed  for  nearly  forty  years  for  want  of 
a  solvent  for  the  unchanged  chloride  of  silver. 

J\'iepce's  Asptialt  Process. — A  permanent  result  was,  how- 
ever, obtained  in  1814  by  Niepce,  of  Chalons.  Having  dis- 
covered that  asphalt  is  rendered  insoluble  by  the  action  of 
light.  Niepce  exposed  a  film  of  diy  asphalt  varnish  on  pol- 
ished metal  under  a  drawing.  The  film  was  then  soaketl  in 
a  mixture  of  oil  of  lavender  and  white  petroleum,  which 
dissolved  the  parts  which  had  been  protected,  laying  bare 
the  metallic  surfaces,  and  thxis  bringing  out  a  copy  of  the 
drawing.  By  this  process  Niepce  also  succeeded  in  .securing 
pictures  of  landscapes  in  a  camera,  many  of  which  were  ex- 
hibited by  him  in  England  inl!^27.  Although  these  "helio- 
graphs" were  not  very  satisfactory  as  pictures,  the  process 
still  survives  in  modified  form  in  the  asphalt  process  for 
photo-mechanical  printing.  In  the  heliograph  method  of 
Niepce  is  foimd  the  idea  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  suc- 
cessful photographic  processes  for  making  camera  images — 
the  development  of  an  invisible  or  "latent  "  image  by  treat- 
ment after  exposure.  In  182SI  Niepce  associated  himself 
with  Daguerre,  but  died  in  1833  without  arriving  at  any  im- 
portant results.  Daguerre,  however,  pursued  the  work,'  and 
in  1839  brought  out  the  process  known  by  his  name. 

7^he  Dagiierrofype. — The  original  daguerrotype  process 
was  in  outline  as  follows:  A  carefully  polished  surface  of 
silver  dilated  on  copper)  received  a  delicate  film  of  silver 
iodide  by  fuming  with  the  vapor  of  iodine.  After  exposure 
in  the  camera  for  some  time  there  is  no  visible  change  pro- 
duced:  but  the  action  of  tlie  light  is  made  apparent  by  plac- 
ing the  plate  over  a  dish  of  heated  mercury,  whose" vapor 
condenses  on  the  parts  wliich  were  ilhiminatad,  and  in  pro- 
portion to  the  chemical  effect  producing  an  image  in  white 
amalgam  of  mercury  and  silver.  The  image  was  made  per- 
manent by  means  of  a  strong  solution  of  common  salt.  It 
was  soon  found  that  the  plates  were  more  sensitive.and  thus 
the  time  of  exposure  shortened  by  using  bromine  vapor  with 
the  iodine;  and  also,  on  suggestion  of  Sir  .lohn  Her.schel, 
that  hyposulphite  of  soda  (sodium  thiosulphate)  gave  a  bet- 
ter solution  for  "fixing"  the  image  than  common  salt; 
while  both  the  appearance  and  the  permanency  of  the  pic- 
tures were  improved  by  gilding  the  silver  portions  with  a 
solution  of  gold.  The  pictures  taken  by  this  method  were 
of  great  fidelity  and  lieauty,  and  were  very  jiopular  for  por- 
traiture until  the  invention  of  the  collodion  ]iroci>ss  some 
twelve  years  after  Daguerre's  discovery.  The  fir.sl  plioto- 
grajihii'  portraits  from  life  were  made  by  this  process  bv  Dr. 
J.  W.  Draiier.  of  New  Y(5rk,  in  1830.  The  great  defect  of  the 
method,  from  the  [iresent  standpoint,  is  that  no  copies  of 
the  original  daguerrotype  are  possible,  except  by  an  electro- 
chemical method.  Daguerre  received  from  the  French 
Government,  on  the  jmblication  of  his  proces.s.  a  pension  of 
6,000  francs,  while  Niepce"s  son,  Isiilore,  who  was  associated 
with  Daguerre  after  the  death  of  his  father,  was  given  a 
pension  of  4.000  francs. 

Tfie  Calotjipe. — While  Daguerre  was  working  in  France, 
Fox  Talliot.  in  Kngland,  was  experimenting  on  the  lines  sug- 
gested by  Wedgwood  and  Davy.  He  found  that  paper 
soaked  in  common  salt  solution  and  then  brushed  over  with 
silver  nitrate  gave  a  film  of  silver  chloride  more  sensi- 
tive to  light  than  the  chloride  in  the  slate  used  by  Davy. 
With  tills  Talbot  was  idile  not  only  to  make  prints  of  draw- 
ings, lace,  ferns,  etc.,  but  also  to  secure  images  in  the  cam- 


590 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


era.  Another  step  was  taken  with  the  discovery  by  Kev.  J. 
B.  Reade  of  the  accelerating  power  of  gallic  acid,  and  in 
1841  Talbot  patented  the  calotype  process.  By  it  a  latent 
image  is  formed  on  silver  iodide  paper  and  developed  by 
nitrate  of  silver  and  gallic  acid.  The  result  is  a  "  negative," 
or  picture  in  which  the  natural  lights  and  shades  are  re- 
versed :  but,  as  the  paper  is  somcwiiat  translucent,  and  can 
be  made  more  so  by  waxing,  "positive'"  copies  may  be  pro- 
duced in  indefinite  number  by  exposing  sensitized  paper  be- 
neath it.  This  method  of  securing  prints  by  "  contact- 
printing"  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  employed  .now. 
Among  the  defects  of  the  calotype  process  were  the  lack  of 
transparency  of  the  paper  and  the  fact  that  its  texture  was 
copied  in  the  positive  print.  The  introduction  of  glass  in- 
stead of  paper  is  due  to  Sir  .John  Ilerschel,  who  recognized 
its  value  on  account  of  transparency,  rigidity,  and  indiffer- 
ence to  chemical  agents.  In  the  first  attempts  to  use  a  glass 
support  the  film  of  silver  salt  was  formed  on  it  by  subsid- 
ence from  water.  It  proved,  however,  to  be  of  little  sensi- 
tiveness, and  did  not  adhere  well  to  the  glass. 

The  Albumen  Process. — Niepce  Saint-Victor,  seeing  the 
necessity  of  an  adherent  substance  to  hold  the  silver  salts, 
coated  glass  plates  with  albumen  (white  of  egg)  containing 
the  iodide  and  l.iromide  of  potassium  and  common  salt.  On 
drying  and  heating,  the  albumen  became  insoluble,  and  the 
film  was  sensitized  by  a  bath  of  silver  nitrate,  which  reacted 
with  the  salts  in  the  albumen,  forming  the  iodide,  bromide, 
and  chloride  ("haloids")  of  silver.  A  similarly  prepared 
albumen  surface  on  paper  was  used  for -positive  jirinting. 
The  results  were  much  finer  and  more  brilliant  than  those 
of  the  calotype  process. 

The  Collodion  Process. — In  1851  Scott  Archer  substituted 
for  albumen,  collodion,  a  solution  in  alcohol  and  ether  of 
pyroxylin,  made  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  cotton,  and 
closely  allied  to  the  explosive  guncotton.  The  collodion 
process  could  be  worked  with  greater  certainty  than  the  al- 
bumen ;  it  displaced  the  daguerrotype,  and  in  various  modi- 
fications was  practically  the  only  process  used  for  making 
negatives  for  over  twenty-five  years.  In  this  process  collo- 
dion containing  soluble  bromides  and  iodides  is  flowed  over 
a  glass  plate,  and  the  film,  when  partly  dry,  is  immersed  in 
silver  nitrate.  After  exposure  the  latent  image  is  developed 
by  means  of  an  acid  solution  of  a  reducing  agent,  such  as 
ferrous  sulphate  or  pyrogallic  acid.  This  developer  does  not 
affect  the  silver  haloids,  but  reduces  the  silver  nitrate  ad- 
hering to  the  film  to  metallic  silver,  which  is  deposited 
on  those  parts  on  which  the  light  has  acted,  and  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  that  action,  so  that  an  image  is 
built  up  in  finely  divided  silver.  This  image  can  be  inten- 
sified by  further  application  of  nitrate  of  silver  and  devel- 
oper, and  is  fixed  by  hyposulphite  of  soda.  The  negative  is 
then  washed  to  remove  all  soluble  substances,  dried,  and  used 
for  the  production  of  positives  in  the  way  already  indicated. 

Collodion  Dry  Plates. — In  this  so-called  wet-collodion 
process  the  plates  must  be  exposed  immediately  after  their 
preparation.  This  inconvenience  led  to  many  attempts  to 
impart  keejiing  qualities  to  the  film.  The  most  successful 
of  these  modifications  consisted  in  washing  off  the  excess  of 
silver  nitrate  after  the  bath  in  that  solution,  coating  the 
surface  with  some  '•  preservative,"  and  drying.  The  '■  pre- 
servatives "  were  all  organic  substances  of  some  description, 
tannin,  morphine,  coffee,  tea,  and  tobacco  being  among  those 
recommended  by  various  photographers.  The  "  dry  plates  " 
thus  prepared  kept  for  a  considerable  time,  but  were  much 
slower  than  the  original  wet  plates. 

Emulsion  Processes. — About  1864  a  collodion  film  was 
used  in  which  the  silver  salts  were  contained  in  the  state  of 
emulsion,  and  in  1871  the  first  successful  attempts  with 
a  gelatin  emulsion  were  made.  This  last  process  developed 
in  the  following  seven  or  eight  years  into  the  gelatin  liry- 
plate  met  hod,  which  since  that  time  has  been  in  general  use. 
In  botli  of  these  emulsion  processes  the  silver  haloids  formed 
by  double  decomposition  are  emulsified  in  a  mass  of  the 
vehicle,  the  soluble  products  of  tlie  reaction  removed  by 
washing,  and  the  emulsion  rendered  more  sensitive,  or 
'•ripened,''  by  standing  for  some  time,  in  the  case  of  collo- 
dion ;  or,  in  the  gelatin  process,  by  boiling  or  treatment  with 
ammonia.  The  development  of  the  latent  image  is  effected 
by  means  of  ferrous  oxalate  or  an  alkaline  solution  of  some 
reducing  agent  such  as  pyrogallic  acid.  The  exquisite  sen- 
sitiveness of  the  mipilcrn  gelatin  dry  plate  is  due  to  the 
moile  of  develo|)ment  as  well  as  to  tlie  nature  of  the  vehicle 
and  the  state  of  the  emulsified  s.alts. 

The  Action  of  Light  and  of  the  Sensitizer. — It  has  been 


seen  that  all  successful  negative  processes  depend  on  the 
use  of  salts  of  silver.  The  action  of  light  on  the  silver 
haloids  results  in  their  partial  reduction  with  loss  of  halo- 
gen. This  occurs  with  comparative  slowness  when  the  salts 
are  pure ;  but  when  they  are  in  intimate  contact  with  some 
substance  which  readily  takes  up  the  halogen  set  free  by 
the  light,  the  change  goes  on  with  greater  rapidity.  To  the 
class  of  halogen  absorbants  belong  silver  nitrate,  gelatin, 
tannin,  and  many  other  organic  substances.  These  sub- 
stances act,  therefore,  as  accelerators  or  sensitizers  when 
associated  with  the  silver  haloids.  Referring  to  the  various 
processes  which  have  been  outlined,  it  is  seen  that  in  the 
successful  cases  some  halogen-absorbing  substance  has  been 
employed.  The  greater  sensitiveness  of  the  calotype  paper, 
as  compared  with  Wedgwood  and  Davy's  preparations,  lay 
in  the  presence  of  an  excess  of  silver  nitrate.  In  the  albu- 
men and  wet-collodion  processes,  again,  it  is  free  nitrate  of 
silver  which  gives  sensitiveness ;  in  the  dry  collodion,  the 
"  preservative '" ;  while  in  the  present  dry  plate  the  role  of  sen- 
sitizer is  played  by  the  gelatin,  which  is  an  especially  efficient 
halogen  absorbant.  In  the  daguerrotype  process'  it  is  the 
silver  plate  itself  which  aids  the  action  of  light  by  taking 
up  the  halogen. 

Ripening. — The  greatly  increased  sensitiveness  of  the 
ripened  gelatin  emulsion  has  been  found  to  depend  on  a 
purely  physical  change  in  the  imbedded  particles  of  silver 
bromide,  which  increase  in  size  as  the  ri|iening  proceeds. 
This  fact  is  indicated  by  the  color  of  the  light  transmitted 
through  the  emulsion,  which  changes  as  the  process  goes  on 
from  reddish  to  gray  or  grayish  violet. 

Development. — The  first  attempts  in  securing  the  camera 
image  were  directed  to  the  discovery  of  a  "printing-out 
process,"  as  it  would  now  be  called ;  that  is,  a  process  in 
which  the  delineation  of  the  picture  should  be  complete  in 
the  camera.  Daguerre's  efforts  in  this  direction  were  un- 
successful, and  his  discovery  of  the  mercury  development  is 
said  to  have  been  the  happy  residt  of  an  accidental  exposure 
to  mercury  vapor  of  a  plate  which  had  been  tried  in  the 
camera  and  discarded  as  a  failure.  The  hint  was  not  lost 
on  the  other  workers  in  photography,  and  from  that  time 
all  negative  processes  were  by  development  of  the  latent 
and  invisible  image  produced  by  the  light.  The  most  im- 
portant developers  wliieh  have  been  employed  are  acid  solu- 
tions of  pyrogallic  acid  or  ferrous  sulphate  in  jiresence  of 
silver  nitrate,  ferrous  oxalate,  and  alkaline  solutions  of 
pyrogallic  acid,  etc.  All  developers  are  reducing  agents 
which  carry  on  the  reduction  begun  by  the  light.  The  ac- 
tion of  the  acid  developers  has  been  explained  under  the 
collodion  pi-ocess.  The  result  is  the  formation  of  an  image 
in  relief.  With  the  ferrous  oxalate  and  alkaline  developers, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  picture  is  built  up  by  growth  from 
beneath,  the  silver  of  which  it  consists  being  supplied  by 
the  particles  of  silver  haloid  underlying  and  in  contact  with 
the  material  of  the  latent  image.  In  this  case  the  image  is 
sunk  in  the  film,  forming  an  intaglio.  The  alkaline  devel- 
opers arc  much  more  powerful  than  the  otiiers.  and  could 
not  be  employed  in  connection  with  silver  nitrate,  as  in  the 
wet-collodion  process,  where  tiicy  would  cause  a  deposit  of 
silver  over  all  the  plate.  A  number  of  substitutes  for  pyro- 
gallic acid  have  been  proposed  in  recent  years,  among  them 
hydrochinon,  para-amidophenol,  eikonogen,  and  methol. 

Positive  Printing — Tlie  Silver-print. — Since  the  picture 
obtained  by  exposure  in  the  camera  and  subsequent  devel- 
opment is  a  negative,  in  which  the  light  parts  of  the  object 
are  represented  by  a  dark  deposit  of  silver,  it  is  necessary  to 
combine  with  this  negative  process  a  positive  one,  which 
shall  give  an  image  whose  shading  corresponds  with  that  of 
the  original.  As  already  stated,  the  usual  method  of  ac- 
complishing this  is  in  principle  the  same  as  that  used  by 
Talbot.  The  common  silver-print  is  made  on  paper  coated 
with  egg  albumen,  which  has  been  "salted"  with  chloride 
of  sodium  or  ammonium,  and  sensitized  by  floating  on  a 
strong  solution  of  silver  nitrate.  The  dry  paper  is  usually 
fumed  with  ammonia  shortly  before  it  is  used.  After 
proper  exjiosure  to  sunlight  under  the  negative,  the  print 
is  fixed  by  immersion  in  hyposulphite  of  soda.  In  the  fix- 
ing bath  the  picture  ae(|uires  an  objectionable  reddish  tint, 
which  is  corrected  by  "toning"  with  a  solution  of  gold. 
Combined  fixing  and  toning  baths  are  sometimes  used.  Other 
silver-printing  pmcessi's  employ  gelatin  or  collodion  in  place 
of  albinnen.  After  the  prints  are  toned  and  fixed,  all  the 
soluble  substances  which  they  retain  must  be  completely  re- 
moved by  thorough  washing  with  water.  If  this  is  not 
effectually  done,  the  photographs  become  in  time  faded  and 


PIIOTOGKAI'IIY 


591 


<lispol(irpil.  When  dry  tliey  are  trimmed  and  mounted  im 
ciirdljDiird,  iind  burnished  by  being  passed  between  heated 
metiiUii-  rollers. 

Amoiif;  tlie  printini;  processes  which  depend  upon  sensi- 
tive sulislmices  other  tliiin  silver  salts,  the  more  important 
survivals  are  those  employinj;  potassium  or  ammonium  bi- 
ehromale  in  gelatin  or  other  sensitizer,  the  blue-print  proc- 
ess. an<l  the  platinotype  process. 

CiirlKiii  /'riirtsses. — (ielatiii  containing  bichromate  is  ren- 
dered insoluble  in  water  by  action  of  light,  and  its  "tacki- 
ness" destroyed.  The  first  fact  is  utilized  by  mixing  some 
pigment  with  the  chromated  gelatin,  which  is  removed  with 
the  soluble  portions  during  development  (in  water),  leaving 
an  image  in  pigmented  gelatin;  the  second,  by  dusting 
powdered  pigment  over  the  film  after  exposure,  when  adhe- 
sion to  the  unaffecled  parts  brings  out  the  picture.  In  the 
latter  case  the  lights  and  sluules  reproduce  those  of  the 
plate  under  which  ex|iosure  was  made;  hence  the  printing 
must  be  under  a  transparent  positive.  Processes  of  this 
sort  are  known  as  "carbon  "  processes. 

Blue  Priii/n. — Blue  prints  are  made  on  paper  coated  with 
a  mixture  of  a  ferrous  salt,  usually  animonio-citratc  of  iron, 
and  I'erricyanide  of  ]iotassiurn.  The  image  is  developed 
and  fixeil  by  merely  washing  in  water,  which  brings  the  re- 
duction products  into  reaction  with  the  result  that  insoluble 
TurnbuU's  libie  is  formed,  and  dissolves  the  unaltered  salts, 
leaving  a  picture  in  blue  on  a  white  ground.  This  ]irocess  is 
largely  used  on  account  of  its  cheapness  and  simplicity  for 
copying  plans,  and  by  amateurs. 

flif  I'ldlinulypf.— In  the  platinum  process  the  paper  is 
coated  with  ferric  and  platinum  salts.  Light  reduces  the 
ferri<'  to  a  ferrous  salt,  and  this,  when  brought  into  solution 
by  the  developer  (oxalate  of  potassium),  reduces  in  turn  the 
platinum  salt,  giving  an  image  in  platinum  black.  The 
platinotype  is  very  soft  and  beautiful,  resembling  a  fine  en- 
graving, and  has  the  additional  merit  of  being  absolutely 
permanent. 

Direct  Positives. — A  thin  negative,  produced  by  short  ex- 
posure or  insufficient  devehipment,  appears  as  a  positive 
when  seen  by  reflected  light  against  a  black  background. 
This  fact  has  been  used  for  making  collodion  positives  di- 
rectly, as  in  the  ••  ambrotype,"  in  which  the  glass  plate  re- 
ceives a  dark  backing,  and  in  the  ferrotype,  or  "  tintype,"  in 
which  the  support  and  background  are  a  plate  of  enameled 
iron. 

Photo-mechanical  Printing. — A  number  of  photographic 
processes  for  the  preparation  of  plates  and  blocks,  from 
which  impressions  may  be  made  by  mechanical  printing, 
have  been  developed,  some  of  which  are  of  great  perfection, 
and  have  largely  displaced  wood-engraving  for  i)urposes  of 
illustration.  Most  of  these  depend  in  their  photographic 
part  on  the  behavior  of  bichromated  gelatin  toward  light, 
which  has  already  been  alluded  to.  The  limits  of  this  ar- 
ticle a<linit  only  of  a  brief  sketch  of  one  or  two  of  these  proc- 
esses, aiul  Ihe  reader  is  referred  for  details  and  descriptions 
of  others  to  the  books  on  the  subject  whose  titles  are  given 
at  the  end. 

Tlie  Wiindhurytype. — In  the  Woodburytype,  development 
(by  hot  water)  of  a  bichromated  gelatin  film  gives  an  image 
in  relief.  When  dry,  the  film  is  stripped  from  its  glass  sup- 
port and  forced,  face  down,  by  hydraulic  pressure  on  a  ]ilate 
of  lead.  Thegelalin  image  withstands  the  enormous  pres- 
sure, and  sinks  inio  the  lead  surface,  producing  a  mould. 
From  this  mould  the  prinlsare  made.  The  ink  is  a  mixture 
of  gelatin,  walivr,  and  coloring-m.atter.  The  mould  is  oiled, 
and  a  pool  of  ink  poured  on  it ;  then  a  sheet  of  specially  pre- 
pared jiaper  is  laid  on  lop  and  pressed  down  under  a  platen, 
which  s<)ueezes  out  all  the  ink  except  that  tilling  the  depres- 
sions of  the  mould;  this  is  allowed  to  set,  and  on  removing 
Ihe  paper  adheres  to  it,  forming  a  relief  image  whose  vary- 
ing thickness  gives  gradations  of  shade. 

Tlif  Sldiiiiotiipp. — The  slannotype  process  is  similar  to 
that  just  descrilicd.  biifdoes  away  with  the  hydraulic  pres- 
sure and  lead  mould.  The  exposure  is  m.ade  under  a  posi- 
tive, so  that  the  gelatin  image  is  itself  a  mould  like  that 
obtaine<l  in  leail  in  the  last  process.  It  would,  however, 
be  deslroyed  if  brought  in  contact  with  the  ink.  and  is 
therefore  protected  by  a  facing  of  tin-foil,  and  then  usimI  for 
prinling  in  the  same  way  as  the  lead  mould  of  the  Wood- 
burylype. 

I'/iotdli/liofjrnpIi!/. — In  photolithography  advantage  is 
taken  of  Ihe  fact  tluit  thosi-  portions  of  a  bichronuiliMi  film 
alTected  Ijy  the  light  ac(|uire  the  property  of  ludding  greasy 
lithograiihic  ink.     The  "artotype"  is  a  form  of  phololitho- 


grajih.  f)ther  processes  give  relief  blocks  for  printing  by 
etching  with  acid  the  metal  which  supports  the  gelatin  or 
asphalt  image.  ' 

Use  of  Artificial  Liglit. — While  direct  or  reflected  sun- 
light is  generally  employed  both  for  the  production  of  the 
camera  image  and  for  positive  printing,  artificial  light  may 
be  used  to  advantage  in  .some  instances.  The  electric  arc- 
light  has  occasionally  served  for  j)hotographic  illumination 
since,  the  earliest  days  of  the  daguerrotype ;  but  the  light 
that  has  proved  most  available  is  that  of  burning  magnesium, 
which  is  much  used  for  phcitographing  dark  interiors  and 
for  the  instantaneous  "flash-light  "  pictures.  For  copying 
by  means  of  the  camera,  making  negatives  of  microscopic 
ol)jecls,  contact  printing  on  dry  plates  for  transparencies, 
and  on  gelatino-broraide  paper,  gas  or  oil  light  is  commonly 
employed. 

C/iemical  Action  of  Liglit. — Light  from  different  sources, 
even  if  of  the  same  luminous  intensity,  shows  marked  dif- 
ferences in  its  chemical  effect.  It  is  well  known  that  ordi- 
nary white  light  is  compo.sed  of  a  great  numfjer  of  rays  of 
different  colors,  and  that  this  difference  in  color  is  an  ex- 
jn-ession  of  a  dift'erence  of  wave-length  or  vibration-fre- 
quency. When  white  light  is  passed  through  a  glass  prism, 
its  component  rays  are  refracted  more  strongly  as  their 
wave-length  is  less,  so  that  a  narrow  beam  is  spread  out  in 
fan  shape  and  produces  on  a  white  screen  a  "  spectrum  "  of 
color  extending  from  the  least  refrangible  red  through  yellow, 
green,  and  blue  to  violet.  Light  and  color  form  but  one  of 
the  modes  in  which  the  radiation  from  a  luminous  source 
or  "  radiant  energy  "  can  manifest  itself.  Each  has  in  gen- 
eral, besides  this  power  of  exciting  vision,  a  heating  and  a 
chemical  or  "actinic"  effect.  Nor  are  these  effects  limited 
to  the  visible  spectrum  ;  the  heat  extends  far  into  the  region 
beyond  the  red,  and  chemical  action  is  found  beyond  the 
violet ;  moreover,  the  intensity  of  these  effects  is  not  simi- 
larly distributed :  luminous  intensity  reaches  its  maximum 
in  the  yellow  part  of  the  spectrum  ;  the  greatest  heating 
effect  is  usually  in  the  infra-red  ;  while  the  chemical  action 
differs  with  the  substance  on  which  it  is  exercised,  and  in 
the  case  of  the  silver  salts  u.sed  in  photography  is  most  in 
the  blue  and  violet,  and  almost  altogether  absent  in  the 
yellow  and  red. 

This  f.act  has  several  important  consequences.  From  the 
moment  of  making  the  sensitive  emulsion  until  the  nega- 
tive is  in  the  fixing  bath,  the  material  of  the  film  must  be 
protected  from  all  actinic  rays  except  those  of  the  camera 
image  ;  and  the  inactivity  of  the  red  and  yellow  makes  it 
possible  to  conduct  all  neces.sary  operations  in  light  which 
has  been  filtered  through  glass  or  paper  of  red  or  orange 
color,  instead  of  in  the  uncertainty  of  utter  darkness. 
Again,  this  fact  explains  the  frequent  failure  of  the  photo- 
graph to  give  in  its  light  and  shade  a  truthful  representa- 
tion of  the  effect  of  colored  objects.  Reds  and  yellows  pho- 
tograph black,  while  the  blues  usually  appear  much  ligliter 
than  in  nature.  This  difficulty  has  been  in  ])art  overcome 
in  the  "  ortho-chromatic  "  and  "  iso-chromatic  "  plates,  in 
which,  by  the  application  of  certain  dyestutfs  (first  sug- 
gested by  Vogel,  1873),  the  film  is  rendered  sensitive  to  the 
usually  inactive  rays,  and  a  more  naturally  shaded  picture  is 
secured.  Finally,  the  photographic  lens  has  to  receive  a 
somewhat  different  form  from  that  of  the  optical  lens.  For 
light  in  its  passage  through  lenses  suffers  dispersion,  or 
separation  into  color,  along  witli  the  refraction  by  which 
the  imag<' is  formed.  In  a  single  lens  this  results  in  the 
jiroduction  of  a  series  of  colored  images,  the  red  one  farthest 
from  the  lens  and  the  violet  one  nearest.  I5y  the  combining 
two  lenses  whose  dispersive  power  is  o[)posed,  most  of  this 
effect  can  be  done  away  with  and  a  single  sharp  image 
formed.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to  bring  all  rays  to  ex- 
actly the  same  focus,  and  in  optical  lenses  the  correction  is 
made  for  the  most  luminous  rays,  so  that  the  actinic  rays 
form  rin  image  whose  position  (liffcrs  somewliat  from  that 
of  the  visible  one.  Consequently,  after  focusing  sharply 
with  such  a  lens,  the  negative  would  be  found  blurred. 
The  elements  of  the  photographic  lens  are  therefore  ground 
so  that  the  actinic  and  the  visual  foci  shall  coinciile. 

Lense.i. — The  photographic'  camera  is  a  development  of 
the  camera  obscura  which  was  described  by  Porta  in  the 
sixteeni  h  century.  Light  entering  a  darkened  room  through 
a  small  orifice  forms  images  of  the  objects  without;  but  a 
lens  in  place  of  this  simple  opening  gives  images  which  are 
much  brighter  and  sharper.  The  lenses  for  this  purpose 
must  be  of  the  convex  class,  as  these  alone  give  "real" 
images  which  can  be  caught  on  a  screen.     The  lenses  used 


592 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


PHOTOMETER 


in  photography  may  lie  grouped  in  tlie  following  classes : 
(1)  single  corrected" lenses;  (2)  rapid  rectilinear;  (3)  wide- 
angle  rectilinear;  (4)  portrait  lenses.  All  except  the  single 
lenses  consist  of  two  combinations,  which  differ  in  detail 
and  are  mounted  at  differeut  distances  apart,  according  to 
the  special  work  for  which  they  are  intended. 

The  focus  of  a  lens  is  the  point  in  which  rays  which  en- 
ter parallel  meet  after  emergence.  The  distance  from  the 
optical  center  of  the  lens  to  the  focus  is  called  the  focal  dis- 
tance, or,  in  the  case  of  compound  lenses,  the  "  equivalent " 
focal  distance,  being  so  termed  from  comparison  with  a 
single  lens  of  equal  power.  The  image  is  formed  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  lens  which  is  greater  as  the  object  is  nearer 
the  lens ;  for  very  distant  objects,  nearly  at  the  focal  dis- 
tance. 

Diaphragms. — Accompanying  the  lens  are  a  number  of 
diaphragms  or  "  stops,"  which  are  brass  plates  witli  circular 
openings  of  diiferent  diameters.  Placed  in  the  lens-tube 
in  a  slot  provided  for  their  reception,  the  diaphragms  cut 
off  the  outer  rays  of  the  entering  beam  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  and,  by  correcting  certain  deficiencies  of  the  lenses, 
increase  the  sharpness  of  definition  and  the  depth  of  focus. 
Since  the  light  admitted  through  the  diaphragm  varies  as 
the  area  of  its  opening,  or  the  square  of  its  diameter,  the  time 
of  exposure  must  be  varied  inversely  as  these  diameters. 
The  size  of  the  diaphragm  is  usually  expressed  in  terras  of 

f 
the  focal  distance  of  the  lens ;  thus,  -^  means  that  the  dia- 
phragm marked  in  this  way  has  an  opening  whose  diameter 
is  one-tenth  of  the  focal  distance  of  the  lens  to  which  it  be- 
longs. 

Photographs  wifhouf  a  Letts. — Since  images  are  formed 
by  admission  of  light  through  small  apertui'es,  it  is  possible 
to  take  photographs  without  a  lens.  To  get  clear  definition, 
the  diameter  of  the  orifice  must  be  several  hundred  tinu^s 
less  than  its  distance  from  the  sensitive  plate,  so  that  the 
exposures  have  to  be  very  long.  The  images  have,  however, 
the  advantage  of  being  entirely  free  from  all  distortion. 

The.  Camera. — The  camera  is  a  light-tight  wooden  box, 
or,  as  in  many  modern  cameras,  a  framework  of  wood  whose 
parts  are  connected  by  a  bellows  of  leather,  so  that  the 
camera  may  be  light  and  occupy  little  space  when  closed. 
In  front  is  fixed  the  lens,  and  at  the  back  is  a  screen  of 
ground  glass  for  focusing  the  image  by  an  arrangement 
which  serves  to  shorten  or  lengthen  the  camera  body.  With 
the  camera  are  one  or  more  plate-holders,  usually  carrying 
two  plates  back  to  back,  and  which  fit  the  back  of  the 
camera  so  that  the  film  of  one  of  the  plates  may  occupy  ex- 
actly the  position  of  the  focusing  screen.  The  plates  in  the 
plate-holiier  are  protected  from  the  light  by  a  slide  which  is 
withdrawn  during  the  exposure.  Light  is  admitted  for  the 
exposure  either  by  uncapping  and  capping  the  lens-tube,  or 
by  means  of  a  mechanical  shutter  fitted  to  the  tube,  which 
is  controlled  by  a  pneumatic  bulb,  and,  in  case  of  "instan- 
taneous "'  or  very  brief  exposures,  is  operated  by  a  spring  re- 
leased by  air  from  the  bulb. 

"  Detective"  cameras,  which  are  much  in  vogue,  arc  small 
boxes  with  mechanical  adjustment  for  focusing,  and  a 
finderj  consisting  of  a  small  auxiliary  lens  and  ground  glass 
screen  for  ascertaining  the  po.sition  of  the  image.  In  these 
cameras  the  film  is  on  a  flexible  support,  as  paper  or  cellu- 
loid, in  a  continuous  roll  wound  on  two  spools  at  the  back. 
After  an  exposure  the  film  is  reeled  from  one  spool  to  the 
other,  a  mechanical  check  indicating  when  a  proper  amount 
of  fresh  surface  is  brought  into  position.  The  shutter  is 
made  to  flash  across  the  opening  by  pressing  a  button. 

Printing. — In  printing  from  negatives,  the  negative  is 
placed  in  a  "  printing-frame,"  glass  side  out,  and  the  jire- 
parod  paper  faccil  down  on  it  and  held  in  close  contact  with 
the  film  by  a  back  secured  by  springs.  The  back  is  in  two 
parts,  hinged  together  so  that  one  part  may  be  opened  to 
examine  the  progress  of  the  printing,  while  the  paper  is 
prevented  fnini  sliifting  by  the  other. 

Photograp/n/  in  Natural  Colors. — One  of  the  earliest 
dreams  of  phutograpliers  was  to  fix  the  natural  colors  of  the 
camera  image,  rntil  quite  recently  all  attempts  in  this  di- 
rection were  unsuccessful.  Withiii  a  short  time  encourag- 
ing results  have  been  obtained  by  Lippmann  by  a  method 
based  on  the  interference  of  light.  Lippmann's  process  has 
been  improved  by  Messrs.  Lumiere,  who  are  said  to  have 
applied  it  successfully  to  landscapes  and  portraits.  At  pres- 
ent the  necessary  exposure  is  long,  and  no  copies  can  be 
made,  while  the  picture  is  clearly  visible  only  when  viewed 
at  a  certain  angle. 


Ives's  Process.^A  process  which  gives  colored  images  by 
an  indirect  method  has  been  brought  out  by  F.  E.  Ives. 
In  it  nature  is  imitated  by  a  superposition  of  monochro- 
matic images.  Starting  with  the  Voung-Helmholtz  theory, 
that  all  color  is  the  result  of  three  primary  sensations 
responding  to  red,  green,  and  blue-violet  rays  respectively, 
which  being  excited,  singly  or  together,  produce  all  possible 
tints,  three  negatives  are  made  of  the  colored  object,  one 
through  a  screen  which  allows  only  red  to  reach  the  plate,  a 
second  in  green,  and  a  third  in  blue-violet  light.  Trans- 
parencies from  each  of  these  negatives  are  made,  and  the 
three  pictures  projected  by  a  lantern  through  red,  green, 
and  blue  color  screens  respectively.  When  the  images  are 
superposed  on  the  screen  a  picture  resembling  the  natural 
object  in  tint  is  produced.  This  process  has  also  been  ap- 
[jlied  with  moderate  success  to  the  production  of  photo- 
engravings by  preparing  blocks  from  the  three  negatives 
and  printing  in  superposition  with  properly  colored  inks. 

For  tlie  so-called  Kew  Photograph;/,  see  X-rays. 

Bibliography. — A  Treatise  on  Photograph;!,  by  AV.  de 
W.  Abney  ;  Ausfilhrliches  Handbuch  der  Photograpliie.  by 
J.  M.  Eder:  same,  by  II.  W.  Vogel ;  Dictionary  of  Pho- 
tography, by  E.  J.  Wall ;  Modern  Photography,  by  W.  K. 
Burton  ;  jjaniial  of  Photographic  Cliemistry,  by  T.  F. 
Hardwick;  The  Chemistry  of  Photograjihy,  by  Raphael 
Meldola;  The  Chemistry  of  Light  and  Photograpliy,  by 
H.  W.  Vogel;  Practical  Gvide  to  Photograpliie  and  Photo- 
Mechntiical  Printing,  by  W.  K.  Burton :  Art  and  Practice 
of  Silver  Printing,  by  H.  P.  Robinson  and  Capt.  Abney; 
Photo-micrography,  by  .1.  H.  Jennings  and  R.  L.  Maddox; 
Practical  Photo-micrography,  by  Andrew  Priugle. 

J.  T.  Stoddard. 

Photolithography  :  See  Photography. 

Photoni'eter  [Or.  ^Ois.  (Pq}t6s.  light  -i-  /jtVpoc,  measure] ; 
an  instrument  for  the  comparison  of  artificial  light  sources 
with  a  standard.  All  such  instruments  are  based  ujion  the 
power  of  the  observer  to  determine  by  inspection  when  two 
contiguous  fields  of  view  are  equally  bright.  Reliahle  judg- 
ment of  this  character  can  be  formed,  as  has  been  pointed 
out  by  von  Ilelmholtz,  only  when  the  lights  illuminating 
the  two  fields  of  view  are  identical  in  color — that  is  to  say, 
ill  conipo.'iition. 

The  above  may  be  regarded  as  the  fundamental  assump- 
tion in  all  photometric  operations.  The  lack  of  jirecision  in 
photometry  as  frequently  practiced  is  indee<I  due  chiefly  to 
the  attempt  to  compare  xinlilie  sources  of  light  without  tak- 
ing into  consideration  their  difTerences  in  quality. 

It  follows  that  for  lights  which  differ  in  composition  a 
class  of  instruments  must  be  used  in  which  each  wave-length 
in  the  spectrum  of  the  standard  is  compared  separately  with 
the  corresponding  wave-length  in  the  spectrum  of  the  light 
under  investigation.  Such  instruments  (spectrophotometers) 
liave,  however,  not  been  largely  introduced  in  the  commer- 
cial measurement  of  gaslight  or  of  electric  lamps.  The  pres- 
ent article  will  be  confined  to  the  consideratiiin  of  photom- 
eters designed  for  the  comparison  of  similar  light  sources. 

The  earliest  of  these  photometers  appears  to  have  been 
due  to  Bouguer,  although  frequently  ascribed  to  Rumfoi-d. 
It  consists  simply  of  an  upright  rod  casting  shadows  ujion  a 


Fig 


white  screen  placed  behind  it  (Fig.  1).  If  the  only  liglit  fall- 
ing upon  the  screen  come  from  the  two  light  sources  /  and 
L,  which  are  to  be  compared,  the  spaces  occupied  by  the 
two  shadows  which  the  rod  s  will  cast  upon  the  screen  will 
be  illunnnated  respectively  by  the  source  to  which  the  shadow 
in  question  is  not  due.  The  brightness  of  the  two  fields 
within  the  areas  covered  by  the  shadows  may  now  be  made 
ei|ual  by  adjusting  the  distances  of  the  two  sources  of  light. 


PHOTOMETER 


593 


when  we  liave  the  following  simple  relation  between  their 
intensities  and  their  distances  from  the  screen, 

Jl  -  JbL 
/l        Di}  ' 

where  /l  and  T\  are  the  ilhiininating  powers  of  L  and  /  re- 
spectively and  Dl  and  Ih  are  their  distances  from  the 
screen.  This  relationship  holds  in  the  use  of  all  photom- 
eters based  upon  the  principle  stated  in  the  opening  para- 
graph of  this  article. 

Humford  pointed  out  the  conditions  under  which  this  in- 
strument will  give  the  best  results,  the  chief  of  which  con- 
sists in  arranging  the  ajjparatus  so  that  the  two  shadows. 
instead  of  being  widely  separated  as  in  the  ligure.  will  lie 
contiguous  and  separated  by  a  well-defined  boundary-line. 
Thus  constructed,  the  Kumford-Houguer  photometer  is  as 
sensitive  as  any  known  form  when  used  with  lights  of 
identical  composition.  It  is,  however,  more  sensitive  to 
slight  color  ditierence.s,  and  brings  out  more  strongly  than 
many  other  forms  the  uncertainties  to  which  the  photo- 
metric process  is  subject  when  we  attempt  to  apply  it  to. 
dissinnlar  sources. 

Photometers  of  the  above  type  have  been  almost  entirely 
abandoned  in  industrial  work  because  of  the  greater  con- 
venience of  a  form  devised  by  Robert  Bunsen. 

The  Bunsen  photometer  is  so  constructed  that  the  two 
fields  of  view,  the  illumination  of  which  is  to  be  brought 
into  equality,  lie  between  the  liglit-.sources,  which  are  pla(wl 
at  the  ends  of  a  track  or  bar  (the  photometer  bar).  This 
bar  carries  a  scale  which  may  be  divided  equally  through- 
out to  advantage  in  1,00(1  parts,  or  in  such  manner  as  to  be 
direct  reading  in  standard  candles  or  in  some  other  unit. 
The  essential  feature  of  the  Bunsen  photometer,  however,  is 
the  disk.  This  in  the  original  form  consisted  of  a  piece  of 
unsized  pajier  of  considerable  thickness,  a  portion  (usually 
a  central  circular  spot  2  or  3  cm.  in  diameter)  of  which 
had  been  rendered  translucent  by  treatment  with  oil  or  par- 
atlin. 

The  appearance  of  the  disk  by  reflected  light  is  that  of  a 
dark  spot  upon  a  bright  ground.  A  considerable  portion  of 
the  light  which  is  reflected  from  the  surface  of  the  opaque 
portions  of  the  paper  and  serves  to  render  it  visible  is  trans- 
mitted by  the  translucent  part.  By  transmitted  light  the 
reverse  is  true,  and  when  the  disk,  mounted  upon  a  suitable 
car,  IS  shifted  along  the  bar  between  the  two  lights  to  be 
(■ompared  it  Jiasses  through  an  intermediate  stage  where 
the  translucent  and  the  opaque  portions,  whichever  side  one 
may  view  them  from,  present  an  almost  identical  appear- 
ance. This  happens  when  the  illumination  on  both  sides  is 
alike,  and  it  only  remains  to  note  the  position  of  the  disk 
upon  the  bar  and  to  apply  the  formula  given  in  a  previous 
paragraph.  Sometimes  for  convenience  in  preparation  the 
center  of  the  di.sk  is  protected  by  being  clamped  between 
two  flat,  circular  pieces  of  metal  or  wood,  and  the  whole  is 
dipped  into  melted  parathn.  This  gives  an  opaque  spot  in 
the  middle  of  a  translucent  screen,  in  which  case  all  the 
above-mentioned  appearances  are  reversed. 

In  order  to  render  possible  simultaneous  observations  of 
the  two  sides  of  the  disk  two  mirrors  are  mounted  obliquely 

on  either  side,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  in 
wlilc'li  I)  is  the  ilisk, 
.M  M  are  the  mir- 
rors, and  A  A  is  t  he 
aperture  through 
w-liich  the  observer 
looks.  The  arrows 
inilicate  the  direc- 
tions in  which  the 
ravs  come  from  tlie 


y     J 


Fio.  2 


two  light-sources.  Fig.  Z  shows  the  bar  or  track  and  the 
position  of  the  bar  between  the  two  sountes.  L,  and  Li  in- 
dicate, respectively,  the  directions  in  which  light  comes  from 
its  sources. 

Many  modifications  of  the  Bunsen  disk  and  substitutes 
for  it  have  been  devised,  but  only  one  of  these  offers  such 
a  decided  advantage  over  the  original  form  as  to  make  it 
necessary  to  descrilie  it  here.  This  is  the  photometer  of 
liummer  and  Brodhun.  in  which  the  rays  from  the  two 
sources  are  reflecleil  obliquely  from  the 'direction  of  the 
photometer  biir  so  as  to  make  an  angle  of  00  with  one  another 
and  of  4.")'  wiili  the  bar.  At  the  point  in  whi<'h  they  cross 
each  other  a  pair  of  re<'tangnlar  prisms,  cemented  together, 
are  placed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  These  would  form  a  com- 
322 


plete  cube  with  faces  perpendicular  to  the  two  rays  were  it 
not  that  a  portion  of  the  left-hand  prism  is  cut  away,  as 
shown  in  the  diagram. 

The  result  of  this  arrangement  is  that  a  bundle  of  ravs, 
r,  rj,  from   the  observer's  right  enter  the  prism   4,  f,  ij. 


L  X 


Fio.  .3. 


Those  portions  which  reach  the  interface  betw^een  a,  and  /), 
(also  «5  ij)  are  totally  reflected,  while  those  between  o,  and 
02  pass  through.  To  an  observer  at  0  the  ai)pearancc  is 
that  of  a  bright  ring  with  a  dark  center.  If,  further,  the 
bundle  of  rays  /,  U  fall  upon  the  prism  6,  c j  b^,  only  those 
which  reach  the  face  o,  «,  will  be  transmitted.  When  the 
intensities  of  the  two  rays  are  e<jual  the  dark  center  will  dis- 
appear. When  I  is  brighter  than  r  the  center  will  be  brighter 
than  the  ring. 

This  form  of  photometer  possesses  a  higher  de<Tee  of 
sensitiveness  than  those  [U-eviously  described.  Working 
upon  a  photometer  bar  of  1,000  divisions,  with  similar  in- 


candescent lamps  at  the  ends,  the  lamps  being  maintained 
at  the  same  candle-power,  a  series  of  fifty  readings  made 
with  the  ordinary  Bunsen  photometer  and  with  the  IjUin- 
mcr-Brodlum  photometer  respectively  gave  as  the  mean 
error  of  a  single  setting  : 

Kiimmer-Brodhun ±  0884  s.  d. 

Bunsen ±  l-4o9  s.  d. 

The  sensitiveness  to  slight  color  differences  is  less  in  ca.se 
of  the  Liimmer-Brodhun  than  in  other  photometers.  A 
coni|mrison  with  the  Bunsen  disk,  which  probably  comes 
second  in  this  re.spect,  gave  for  the  change  of  voltage  to 
which  a  lOO-volt  glow-lamp  could  be  subjected  before  the 
color  difference  between  it  an<l  a  similar  lamp  at  constant 
voltage  with  which  it  was  being  compared  was  observable 
with  certainty  : 

For  f  jiininer-Br(Klhun 8'6  volts. 

For  Bunsen 'r'S  volts. 

This  lack  of  sensitiveness  to  color  differences  affords  at 
least  some  apparent  advantage,  since  the  observer  is  freed 
from  a  disturbing  element  ;  whether  the  readings,  rendered 
more  concordant  on  this  account,  are  really  of  greater  ac- 
curacy is  an  open  question.     The  chief  advantage   of  thi 


594 


PHOTOMETRY 


PHREXOLOGY 


Lumraer-Broclhun  form  undoubtedly  lies  in  the  fact  that 
observations  are  made  through  a  telescope,  only  one  eye  be- 
ing employed.  The  errors  thus  avoided  are  not  inconsidera- 
ble, as  will  appear  from  the  following  experiment : 

Ten  oliservers  in  the  physical  laboratory  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity (1889)  made  a  series  of  observations,  using  the  Bun- 
sen  photometer  and  employing  the  two  eyes  siuudtaneously 
in  the  customary  manner,  for  the  purpose  of  ileterniining 
this  error.     Two'lamps  of  intensities  I,  and  7i  were  placed 

at  the  right  and   left  ends  of  the  bar.     The  ratio  y  was 

1-0032  ±  -0015.  The  mean  of  ten  readings  by  these  observ- 
ers, however,  gave : 


Olwerver. 


h 

A       1-0590  ±  -0040 

B    0-9704  ±  -0044 

C 1  OOSl  ±  -0082 

D 1-0191  i  -0072 

E 1-0182±  -0039 


Obeerrer. 


/i 

F 10902±    0057 

G 1  073.3  ±  -0053 

H 10393±  -0042 

1 1-0297  ±    0050 

J r0320±    0027 


It  will  be  noted  that  all  but  one  of  the  observers  set  the 
disk  persistently  to  the  left  hand  of  its  true  position.  The 
error  appears  to  be  analogous  to  that  which  arises  in  the  at- 
tempt to  bisect  a  straight  line  by  judgment  formed  in  un- 
aided vision.  It  disappears  in  those  methods  in  which  only 
one  eye  is  used. 

For  further  information  concerning  photometers,  see 
Photometry  ;  for  a  discussion  of  light  standards,  see  Candle 
and  Cabcel.  The  reader  is  further  referred  to  Paiaz,  Plw- 
(ometrie  IndustrieUe.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Photometry  [Gr.  (pa^,  (puT6s.  light  -i-  /icTpov.  measure] : 
the  operation  of  measuring  the  intensity  of  light.  In  set- 
ting such  a  process  on  a  satisfactory  scientific  basis,  a  great 
diffieulty  is  met  with  in  the  fact  that  the  effect  measured  is 
not  a  physical  one,  but  merely  an  excitation  of  the  optic 
nerve,  the  amount  of  which  does  not  permit  of  any  precise 
determination.  Making  abstraction  of  the  different  colors 
of  light,  and  considering  only  ordinary  white  light,  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  photometric  investigations  are  conducted 
are  these :  A  comparison  of  the  intensity  of  two  lights  can 
be  made  only  by  increasing  or  diminishing  one  or  both  of 
them  until  they  appear  to  the  eye  to  be  equal.  For  exam- 
ple, in  comparing  the  light  from  a  gas-jet  with  that  of  a 
candle,  we  may,  by  using  various  instruments,  and  by  put- 
ting the  jet  at  different  distances,  so  diminish  the  light 
which  comes  from  the  latter  that  the  eye  shall  see  side  by 
side  the  light  of  the  candle  and  one-fifteenth  the  correspond- 
ing part  of  the  liglit  of  the  gas-jet ;  if  they  then  look  equal, 
we  shall  know  that  the  light  emitted  by  the  gas  is  fifteen 
times  that  emitted  by  the  candle.  The  instruments  by  which 
these  various  comparisons  are  made  are  called  photometers. 
See  Photometer. 

If  all  light  were  of  one  kind  the  application  of  this  method 
of  comparing  lights  would  offer  no  difficulty;  but,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  article  Light,  this  agent  is  a  heterogeneous 
mixture  of  light  of  widely  varying  wave-lengths.  No  ac- 
curate comparison  can  therefore  be  made  lietween  lights  of 
different  colors;  in  any  case  the  comparison  will  be  a  matter 
of  guesswork,  and  people  will  guess  differently  from  each 
other  when  two  lights  of  different  colors  appear  equal.  Yet 
some  system  of  photometry  is  not  only  a  necessity  in  astron- 
omy, but  in  the  practical  comparison  of  different  systems  of 
illumination.  Let  us  therefore  inquire  what  view  we  shall 
take  of  the  relation  between  the  intensity  of  beams  of  light 
of  different  colors. 

It  is  shown  in  the  article  on  Light  that,  when  considered 
as  a  physical  agent,  light  is  nothing  but  radiant  heat.  Hence 
the  only  absolute  measure  of  the  intensity  of  a  ray  of  light 
is  the  heat  or  radiant  energy  which  it  conveys.  If  we  form 
its  spectrum  by  dividing  it  into  its  prismatic  colors,  the 
proper  measure  ot  the  intensity  of  each  color,  or  each  region 
of  the  spectrum  between  two  given  wave-lengths,  is  the 
amount  of  heat  which  is  there  conveyed;  but  even  the  in- 
tensity of  the  heat  at  a  given  point  of  the  spectrum  will 
depend  on  the  way  in  which  the  spectrum  is  formed.  If  we 
proceed  by  the  units  adopted  in  the  article  Light,  we  may 
classify  the  [larts  ot  the  spectrum  as  follows:  That  of  wave- 
length between  ;i  and  4  units;  that  between  4  and  5  ;  that 
between  5  and  6;  that  between  G  ami  7,  etc. 

Of  course  we  could  sulidivide  these  regions  into  as  many 
others  as  we  cho.se.  Then  a  complete  statement  of  the  in- 
tensity of  the  different  parts  c)f  the  spectrum  would  be 
merely  a  statement  of  how  much  heat  was  conveyed  by  the 
light  between  these  several  limits  of  wave-lengths.     \Vhen, 


however,  we  refract  the  light  by  a  prism  these  four  regions 
spread  out  unequally.  Thus  the  heating  effect  in  different 
parts  of  the  spectrum  will  not  give  a  correct  expression  even 
for  the  amount  of  heat  belonging  to  that  part  of  the  spec- 
trum. It  follows  that  we  must  correct  any  determination  of 
the  relative  amounts  of  heat  thus  made,  by  allowing  for  the 
different  degrees  in  which  the  parts  of  the  spectrum  are- 
spread  out.  There  are.  however,  two  insuperable  difficul- 
ties in  the  way  of  reducing  photometry  to  a  mere  measure- 
ment of  heat.  One  is,  that  the  very  object  of  photometry  is 
to  determine  visibility,  and  not  to  measure  heat.  The  eye 
must  therefore  be  the  sole  arbiter.  Besides  this,  the  eye  is 
so  much  more  delicate  than  any  instrument  for  measuring 
heat  that  it  will  perceive  a  ray  of  light  the  heat  from  which 
could  never  be  detected.  Whitt  is  then  really  wanted  as  a 
basis  of  photometry  is  a  determination  of  the  relation  be- 
tween the  amount  of  heat  carried  by  rays  between  each  two 
limits  of  wave-length  and  the  corresponding  visibility  of 
the  light.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  can  be  no 
general  comparison  for  either  the  heating  or  the  illuminat- 
ing effect  of  different  parts  of  the  spectrum.  In  fact,  the 
relative  intensity  of  radiation  in  different  parts  of  the  spec- 
trum depends  on  the  nature  of  the  body  from  which  the 
light  comes,  and  the  absorbing  media  through  which  the 
light  has  passed.  Such  expressions  as  "  the  brightest  part 
of  the  spectrum."'  or  "the  relative  heat  in  different  parts  of 
the  spectrum,"  can  be  true  only  of  the  spectrum  of  some 
one  body — the  sun,  for  example — or  of  a  given  substance  at 
some  given  temperature — iron  at  2,000°,  for  example. 

There  are  two  possible  units  by  which  the  purely  illumi- 
nating effect  of  light  of  different  wave-length  can  be  com- 
pared. One  is  alforded  by  the  determination  of  the  least 
quantity  of  light  that  can  be  seen.  If  we  agree  to  take  this 
quantity  as  a  unit  at  each  part  of  the  spectrum  it  will  afforii 
us  a  basis  for  comparing  the  luminosity  of  light  of  different 
colors.  Yet  another  unit  would  be  the  smallest  amount  of 
light  by  which  the  eye  could  read,  or  distinguish  letters  at 
a  given  distance.  Should  we  hang  up  a  page  containing  a 
few  sentences  in  large  print — or,  better  yet,  the  test  types 
used  by  oculists — and  then  illuminate  them  with  red  light, 
yellow,  green,  blue,  etc.,  until  the  eye  could  just  distinguish 
them,  we  should  have  a  basis  for  such  a  comparison ;  but 
from  what  has  already  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  the  re- 
sults of  this  comparison  would  be  incomplete  unless  the 
amount  of  heat  carried  by  these  various  units  of  light  was 
also  determined.  This  is  quite  within  the  power  of  science, 
and,  in  fact.  Prof.  Langley  has  already  made  researches  irt 
this  direction.  When  a  table  can  once  be  constructed,  show- 
ing for  light  of  each  wave-length  what  fraction  of  a  unit  of 
heat  per  second  must  be  conveyed  to  produce  a  definite 
effect  upon  the  human  eye,  we;  shall  have  a  scientific  basis 
for  photometry.  '  S.  Newcomb. 

Photo-reHef  Printing:  See  Photography. 

Piirauza.  or  Phranzes,  George  :  last  of  the  Byzantine- 
historians  ;  b.  1401,  d.  1478  ;  was  chamberlain  ot  Jlanuel  II., 
Palieologus.  At  the  siege  of  Patras  (1429)  he  saved  the  life 
of  Constantine,  afterward  emperor,  but  was  himself  taken 
prisoner  and  made  to  endure  a  harsh  captivity.  He  was 
protovestiary  of  Constantine  XIII.  At  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople by  Mohammed  II.  his  entire  family  were  made 
slaves  ;  his  daughter  died  from  her  sufferings,  his  son  was 
murdered  in  the  sultan's  harem,  but  he  and  his  wife  escaped 
to  Sparta  and  thence  to  Corfu,  whence  he  conducted  some 
diplomatic  negotiations.  Finally  he  retired  to  the  monas- 
tery of  Tarchaniotes,  where  he  wrote  his  valuable  Chronicoru 
or  Byzantine  History.  This  covers  the  period  from  1259  to- 
1477,  and  is  interesting  and  reliable.  It  was  pulilished  at 
Vienna  in  1796  in  folio.  Bekker  gave  a  new  edition  with 
Latin  translation  in  1838.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Phrenology  [Gr.  ippiiv.  <t>pfv6s,  faculty,  mind  -I-  \6yos,  dis- 
course, reason] :  the  so-called  science  of  mental  faculty  as 
exhibited  in  the  shape,  size,  and  contour  of  the  skull.. 
This  mode  of  investigating  the  mental  capacities  of  in- 
dividuals rose  into  prominence  through  the  "systems  of 
phrenology "  of  Franz  Joseph  Gall  (1758-1828)  and  Kas- 
par  Spurzheiin  (1776-1832).  As  a  method  by  which  the 
external  examination  of  the  "bumps  and  hollows"  of  the 
skull  is  made  to  reveal  the  intellectual  and  emotional  gifts 
of  particular  men — so  considered,  the  whole  scheme  is  now 
known  to  be  worthless.  The  only  semblance  of  justification 
it  has  is  found  in  the  facts  of  brain  Localization  {q.  ik); 
but  this  extends  only  to  the  senses  and  movement,  and  shows 
all  men  to  be  alike  in  their  localizations.    It  gives  no  ground 


PHRYGIA 


PHYLLOPODA 


595 


whatever  tu  the  eliibonite  pretense  of  the  "  phrcnnlofiists" 
to  (leserilie  character.  It  is  possible  that  morpliology  may 
some  (lay  show  that  certain  ratios  in  skull  measurements 
mav.  in  (he  [>roccss  of  evolution,  have  come  to  have  some 
significance  for  mental  faculty  in  great  averages,  but  even 
that  is  forbidden  to  us  in  the  present  state  of  anthropomet- 
ric research.     See  Phvsiounomv.  J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Pliryg'ia  (in  (Jr.  ^pvyta):  a  province  in  the  western  half 
of  the  peninsula  of  Asia  .Minor,  whose  boundaries  varied 
greatly  in  different  epochs.  The  Phrygians  euugratcd  from 
Macedonia  and  founded  a  powerful  empire,  whose  capital 
city  was  situated  on  a  hill  acro.ss  the  gulf  from  Smyrna  and 
within  sight  of  the  city.  It  is  now  called  Tantalis,  or  c-ity 
of  Tantalus,  The  Acropolis  walls  and  the  tond)  of  Tantalus 
still  e.vist.  Ijater  on  the  Phrygians  secured  a  large  portion 
of  the  cruudiliug  llitlite  empire,  and  removed  their  capital 
into  the  interior.  This  was  the  city  of  the  Midases  and  the 
(oirdiuses.  Almut  this  city  of  Midas  many  remains  of  the 
I'hrygiau  civilization  slill  exist  near  the  modern  village  of 
Kuud)et.  (See  Midas  and  (ioRDius.)  The  best  account  of 
I'hrygia  and  the  Phrygians  is  in  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  His- 
lori/  iif  Art  in  I'liri/iji<t.  etc.  (London,  1892),  pp.  l-2;n, 
where  all  tlu^  literature  relating  to  the  subject  is  cited. 

J.  K.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pliryiriaii  Language:  the  language  of  the  ancient 
Phrygians,  located  in  western  central  Asia  Minor.  The 
language  is  known  to  us  only  through  a  few  glo.sses  and 
brief  inscriptions,  but,  so  far  as  can  be  judged  from  these 
scanty  remains,  it  was  an  Indo-P'uropean  tongue,  bearing 
close  relations  to  the  Armenian,  and  also,  though  more  re- 
motely, to  the  Halto-Slavic  group.  According  to  the  reports 
of  Herodotus  and  Strabo.  the  Phrygians  were  anciently  re- 
garded as  related  both  to  the  Armenians  and  the  Tliracians. 
(Cf.  llerod.,  vii.,  73;  Strabo,  c.  47.  29.").)  The  Phrygian 
glosses  are  collected  in  Lagarde,  Gesdmmflli'  Ahliaiulliin- 
geti,  jip.  283  ft.  (1SC6).  See  also  Fick,  ,S//nirlii'iii/ii'it  ilc.r  In- 
dog.  Euriipdx,  p[i.  408  IT.,  and  Zum  Phrygisclicn,  Bt'zzen- 
htrger's  /icitrdr/e,  xiv.,  50  f.  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Phr.y'iie  (in  Or.  'tpimi) :  a  Greek  hetara  (see  Het.er.e)  of 
surpassing  beauty,  who  was  emidoyed  by  Praxiteles  as  a 
model  for  his  Ciiidian  Venus,  and  by  Apelles  for  his  Venus 
Aniulyomene.  .She  was  born  at  Thespian  in  Bceotia  in  hum- 
ble circumstances,  but  when  Alexander  the  Grt^at  destroyed 
the  walls  of  Thebes  she  offered  to  rebuild  them.  When  ac- 
cused of  [irofaniug  the  Elensinian  mysteries,  and  summoned 
befon^  the  tribunal  of  the  Heliasts,  Hyperides,  her  defender, 
threw  olT  her  veil  and  exposed  her  breasts,  whereupon  the 
judges  immeiliately  acquitted  her,  and  the  people  carried 
her  in  triumph  to  the  temple  of  Aphrodite. 

Kevised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Phry'niclius  (in  Gr.  •tpwixos) :  one  of  the  frainers  of  At- 
tic tragedy,  the  first  to  bring  female  characters  on  the  stage, 
and  the  first  to  develop  a  true  dialogue,  though  the  lyric  ele- 
ment was  still  predominant,  and  Phrynichus  was  best  re- 
membered by  his  sweet  and  graceful  nudodies,  which  were 
sung  as  late  as  the  time  of  Aristo|ihaiies,  TIk;  luosi  famous 
of  his  pieces  was  the  P/iu'tiicittn  Women,  ♦o/vkto-oi,  brought 
out  with  great  splendor  by  Themistocles  in  47(1  n.  c.  t<i  com- 
memorate the  victory  over  the  Persians,  and  soon  afterward 
imitated  by  ^'Eschvlus  in  his  Persians.  An  earlier  iiiece. 
The  C(ip/iire  of  M'ilelKs  (yii\i\Tov  a\<a<ris),  is  inemorable  for 
the  story  told  by  Herodotus  that  the  audience  wa,s  so  moved 
by  the  representation  <d'  tlit^  sulferiugs  of  their  kindred  that 
they  burst  into  tears,  and  (he  jioet  was  fined  1,000  drachma' 
—a  significant  warning  against  realism  in  art.  Fragments 
are  to  be  found  in  Nauck's  Trayicurum  (rnvmnim  Fnuj- 
me.nta.  B.  L.  Gilderslkeve. 

Phthalic  Acid  (lloC.H.O,  =  C»H4(('00!I),),  Alizaric 
Acid,  Naphtlialic  Acid  [/i/it/ia/ic  is  a  dcriv.  of  (itii)p/illin- 
lene\:  an  acid  obtained  first  in  ls:i6  by  Ijaurent,  by  boiling 
naphthalene  tetrachloride  with  nitric  acid.  It  crystallizes 
in  white  iiacreoiks  laminas  arranged  in  rounded  groups  ;  is 
slightly  solulile  in  cold  water,  readily  soluble  in  alcohol  and 
ether.  By  distillation  with  an  excess  of  lime  it  yields  ben- 
zene and  calcic  carbonate;  with  a  smaller  proportion  of 
lime,  calcic  carbonate  and  benzoate.  It  forms  acid  and 
neutral  salts,  and  yields  sulistitution  produ(!ts  wit  h  brondiu'. 
chlorine,  nitric  acid,  etc.  By  distillation  it  y\ekis  pli//iali<- 
anhydride,  C«H,(),.  When' this  is  heated  to  195  C.  with 
resorciu  it  iiroduces  fluorescein.  Fluorescein  forms  a  red 
crystalline  powder;  crystallizes  in  yellow  needles  from  ine- 
thylic  alcohol ;  and  its  solution  in  an  alkali  exhibits  a  most 


beautiful  and  intensely  green  fluorescence.  Fluorescein  has 
become  of  great  industrial  importance  as  a  basis  for  the 
preparation  of  the  beautiful  dye  called  eosin,  whi(di  rivals 
safllower  and  saflroiiin  for  dyeing  rcse-red.  Eosiu  is  the  po- 
tassium salt  of  tetrabrom  fluorescein.  Other  dyestuils,  also 
called  ph/halic  acid  col(ir.i.  are  made  by  heating  phthalic  an- 
hydride with  other  substances  belonging  to  the  class  of 
phenols.  Besides  eosin  and  fluorescein  the  more  im|)ortant 
are  phenol  phthalein.  used  a,s  an  indicator  in  voUnnetric 
analysis,  pyrosi'n,  which  is  tetrajod  fluorescein,  and  ytillein, 
which  is  pyi-ogallol  phthalein.  Phthalic-acid  colors  are 
among  the  most  brilliant  of  the  arliflcial  dyes,  and  are 
used  on  cotton,  silk,  and  wool,  for  the  preparal  ion  of  lakes, 
printer's  inks,  etc.  C  F.  (,'hanuleh. 

Plitllisls:  See  Consumption  and  Cli.matb. 

Pliycls :  See  Porkeu-beards. 

PliycoPogy  [Gr.  <pvKos.  seaweed  +  \6yos,  discourse,  reason] : 
the  iiotany  of  the  algic,  or  seaweeds,  in  the  broadest  sense. 
It  thus  includes  the  green  members  of  the  Protophytes, 
PiivcopiivTES,  and  Carpopuvtes  {qq.  v.).  See  also  Desmids, 
Diato.ms,  Fu(;oids,  Kelp,  Red  Seaweeds,  and  Stoneworts, 

Phycoiiiyces:  See  Mucobace./e. 

Pliyco'pliytes.  or  Phycopli'yta  [from  Gim^Ckos,  seaweed 
+  <pvT6y.  )daut]:  a  liranch  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  in 
which  the  result  of  the  sexual  union  of  two  cells  is  the  for- 
mation of  a  single  "  resting-spore  "  (zygospore  or  oospore). 
Phycophytes  are  the  lowest  plants  which  exhibit  sexuality, 
and  by  this  they  are  easily  separated  from  the  Protophytes 
{q.  v.).  They  are  distinguished  from  the  Carpophytes  (q.  v.) 
by  the  simple  spore  which  results  from  the  sexual  act,  in 
contrast  with  the  many-celled  "  fruit "  of  the  higher  group. 

The  structure  of  the  plant-body  ranges  from  the  simple 
cell,  as  in  Protococcus,  Desmids,  and  Diatoms,  to  the  large 
Kelp  and  other  FucoiDS  {qq.  i:)  with  stems  and  leaves. 
Phycophytes  are  separable  into  two  well-marked  classes, 
and  seven  orders  as  follows :  Class  I.,  Ch/nrophi/cea; :  Orders, 
Protococcoidece,  Conjvgafa;  Siphonem,  and  Confervoidece. 
Class  II.,  Phtfopiiycem  ;  Orders.  Ph(eosporc(p.  Dictyo/ete,  and 
Fucoidea'.  In  the  first,  .second,  and  third  orders  some  of 
the  families  are  degraded,  chlorophyll-less  parasites  and  sap- 
rophytes. All  others  are  independent  plants  (holophytes), 
possessing  chlorophyll  (or  an  equivalent),  although  some- 
times hidden  by  brown  or  smoky  coloring  matter,  as  in  the 
Diatoms,  Kelps,  and  Rockweeds.  See  also  Kmbryology  in 
Plants.  Charles  K.  Bessey. 

Pliylac'terles  [from  Gr.  <pv\aKT-fipioi/.  guard-post,  safe- 
guard, amulet,  deriv.  of  (pvAoKTrip.  watcher,  guard,  deriv.  of 
<pv\a(raetv.  guard,  watch] :  properly,  amulets  worn  to  jirotect 
the  person  from  evil  influences.  In  the  New  Testament  the 
name  is  given  to  the  leathern  cases  containing  on  fine  parch- 
ment the  four  passages,  Ex.  xiii.  1-10;  xiii.  11-lG;  Deut.  vi. 
4-9;  xi.  18-21.  They  are  fastened  by  leathern  straps  to 
the  forehead  and  the  arm,  and  also  to  doorposts  and  the 
like.  This  custom  has  been  maintained  from  very  ancient 
times  by  the  Jews,  and  is  based  upon  a  literal  interpre- 
tation of  Ex.  xiii.  9,  16;  Deut.  xi.  18. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Pliy'las  [=  Lat.=  Gr.  (pvf^ai.  plur.  of  <pv\-fi.  tribe,  clan]; 
the  tribes  into  which  ancient  Alt ica  was  divided.  Their 
number  was  originally  four,  but  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
l^isistratida'  it  was  raised  to  ten  by  ('leist henes ;  two  more 
were  afterward  added  in  honor  of  Antigonus  and  his  son 
Demetrius.  At  the  head  of  each  tribe  was  a  phylarch,  who 
superintended  the  registering  of  the  members  of  the  phyh, 
organized  the  choirs  for  the  festivals,  presided  over  the  com- 
munal assemblies,  and  commanded  the  contingent  of  cav- 
alry. Afterward,  however,  the  oflice  was  divided,  the  phy- 
larch retaining  only  the  military  duties,  while  the  civil 
duties  were  transferred  to  a  new  oflice,  that  of  the  epime- 
leleii.  To  the  Athenian  .senate  each  phyle  sent  fifty  mem- 
bers. J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pliylar'cluis  (in  (ir.  ^ixapxos):  Greek  historian  of  the 
third  century  b.  c. ;  wrote  the  history  of  Greece  from  the 
expedition  of  Pyrrhus  against  the  Peloponnesus  down  to  the 
death  of  the  Spartan  king  Cleomenes  (220  B.  c),  of  whom  he 
was  a  passionate  partisan.  Fragments  are  to  be  found  in 
Midler's  Fragtnenia  Jiishiriconim  Ora'corum  (vol.  i..  pp. 
3:i4-358;  vol.  iv.,  p.  64.5).  B.  L.  G. 

Phyllo'iua:  See  JIorphology  (Vege.tahle). 
Pliyllop'oda  [Mod.  Lat..  from  Gr.  (piWov.  leaf  +  iro^i, 
Troi6%,  foot]:  the  lowest  or  most  primitive  group  of  Crusta- 


596 


PHYLLOSTOJIID.E 


PHYLLOXERA 


Apus  equalis  (after  Pack- 
ard). 


cea,  embracing  segmented  forms  prdviiled  with  numerous 
(ten  to  sixty,  or  more)  pairs  of  leaf-like  feet.  In  some  the 
>e<^nients  are  easily  seen  in  the  anterior  region  of  the 
body;  in  others  this  portion  is  covered  by  a  "carapax" 
lornied  by  a  duplication  of  the  skin,  which  either  covers 
the  body  like  a  scale,  or  is  folded  so 
tliat  it  forms  a  bivalve  shell,  in 
which  the  body  can  be  entirely  re- 
tracted. None  are  marine ;  most 
species  live  in  fresh  water,  but  some 
are  found  in  strong  brine,  for  ex- 
ample in  Great  Salt  Lake.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  that  Schmanke- 
witch  has  pointed  out  that  by  trans- 
ferring fresh-water  forms  to  brine 
he  was  able  to  change  not  only  spe- 
cific but  generic  characters.  An- 
other fact  of  interest  is  that  the 
eggs  require  desiccation  and  then 
reinimersion  in  water  before  they 
will  develop.  Corresponding  to 
the  development  of  the  carapax 
noted  above  three  families  are  rec- 
ognized, the  Branchinpoilidtp,  with- 
out carapax,  the  Apixlidw.  with 
simple  carapax,  and  the  Estheriihe, 
inclosed  in  a  bivalve  shell.  To  the  first  belong  the  "fairy 
shrimps "  common  in  roadside  pools  in  the  spring,  and  the 
brine  shrimps;  the  second  family  occurs  in  North  America 
only,  W.  of  the  Mississippi.  The  EsthericUe  of  the  ponds 
are  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  small  bivalve  molluscs.  To 
the  naturalist  these  forms  possess  the  greatest  interest,  as 
they  probably  represent  the  stock  from  which  all  other  Crus- 
tacea have  descended.  They  occur  in  all  geological  ages 
from  the  Cambrian  to  the  present. 

Literature. — Lankestei',  Quarterly  JournaJ.  Micros.  Sci. 
(xxi.,  1881) ;  Packard,  Monograph  of  Phi/llopnda  (in  Twelfth 
Annual  Report  U.  S.  Geological  [Hayden's]  Survey) ;  Claus, 
Development,  Arbeiten.  a.  d.  zoolog.  Inst,  (vi.,  Vienna,  1886). 

J.  S.  KiNGSLEY. 

Phyllostoin'ldie  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  PlnjlJos'toma, 
the  typical  genus;  Gr.  (piwov.  leaf  +  <rT6iia.  mouth] :  a  fam- 
ily of  bats,  so  named  from  the  leaf-like  nasal  a]ipcndages. 
The  nostrils  are  in  the  front  part  of  the  cutaneous  nasal  ap- 
pendages or  open  by  simple  apertures  at  the  extremity  of 
the  muzzle ;  ^rue  molars  are  developed ;  there  are  four  up- 
per incisors  ii'id  the  stomach  is  sacciform. 

Phyllotaxy :  See  Botany  and  Leaf. 

Phylloxe'ra  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  rpiwov.  leaf  -l-  ivpSs.  dry]  ;  a 
genus  of  plant-lice.  There  are  but  few  species  so  far  known 
as  indigenous  to  Europe,  but  about  twenty  species  have 
been  described  from  the  U.  S. 

The  genus  is  essentially  gall-inhabiting.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  the  other  genera  of  the  Aphididw  by  the 
three-jointed  antenna^  (the  third  .ioiut  much  the  longest),  by 
the  simple  venation  of  the  wings,  and  by  these  being  carried 
flat  on  the  back,  and  not  roof-fashion,  as  in  the  more  typ- 
ical Aphides. 

For  a  long  time  the  term  phylloxera  was  known  only  to 
the  naturalist ;  but  since  about  1870  the  grape  phylloxera, 
or  Phylloxera  vastatrix,  Planchon.  a  species  which  injuri- 
ously affects  the  grapevine,  has  attracted  so  much  attention, 
particularly  in  Europe  and  North  America,  that  it  has  come 
to  be  known  as  the  phylloxera.  This  insect,  while  it  occa- 
sionally acquires  the  gall-making  habit,  normally  dwells  un- 
derground upon  the  roots  of  the  food-plant.  A  native  of 
North  America,  discovered  in  New  York  in  18r)4  by  Fitch, 
it  is  found  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf  wherever  tlie  grapevine 
grows,  and  has  doutillessly  existed  on  the  wild  vines  from 
time  immemorial.  Karly  in  the  history  of  grape-culture  in 
the  U.  S.  the  gall-making  type  was  observed  on  the  leaves 
of  certain  varieties,  especially  on  the  Clinton.  The  more 
normal  root-inhabiting  type  was  not  suspected,  however, 
till  discovered  by  Riley  in  1871.  Meanwhile,  about  1865,  a 
peculiar  gra|)e-root  disease  began  to  attract  attention  in 
France.  At  first  noticed  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Rhone, 
it  spread  rapidly  until  the  entire  destruction  of  the  grape 
interest  was  threatened.  In  1879  infesteil  vines  had  been 
taken  up  and  destroyed  from  nearly  ;i.O()fl.O()0  acres.  For 
several  years  annual  ajipropriation.s  ariu)unting  to  almost 
$200,000  were  made  by  tlu^  goverinnent  for  the  carrying  on 
of  phylloxera  investigations,  and  in  1874  a  reward  of  ;iOO,- 
000  francs  ($60,000)  was  olTered  fur  1  he  discovery  of  an  effec- 


FiG.  1. — Upper  and  under 
wings  of  phylloxera. 


c 

Fig.  2. — c.  egg: ;  d.  sec- 
tion of  Kail,  show- 
ing niotlier  -  louse 
and  eggs  ;  e.  swell- 
ing of  tendril ;  dot 
and  lines  showing 
natural  size. 


tual  remedy.  The  study  and  investigation  which  this  in- 
duced soon  brought  to  light  the  facts  that  the  insect  produc- 
ing the  disease  was  identical  with  that  which  is  indigenous 
on  American  vines,  and  that  it  was  imported  into  France 
from  the  U.  S.  in  1863  on  vines  sent  to  French  nurserymen. 
It  now  occurs  in  all  the  vine-raising  countries  of  Europe, 
and  has  been  reported  from  South  Africa,  Algeria,  New 
Zealand,  and  Australia. 

yatural  History  of  the  Insect. — The  species,  as  already 
intimated,  presents  itself  in  two  types — the  one  (gaUicola) 
gall-inhabiting,  the  other  (radici- 
cola)  root-inhabiting.  The  former 
is  easily  distinguislied  from  tlie 
latter  (see  accompanying  figures) 
by  lacking  the  tubercles  or  warts 
oil  the  back.  On  carefully  opening 
one  of  the  galls  we  find  it  to  con- 
tain the  mother-louse  and  many 
Ijale-yellow  eggs  scarcely  one-hun- 
dredth of  an  inch  long,  and  not 
quite  half  as  thick.  The  louse  is 
about  -04  inch  long,  of  a  dull- 
orange  color,  and  looks  like  an  immature  seed  of  the  com- 
mon purslane.  The  eggs  hatch  in  six  or  eight  days,  and 
the  young  lice  differ  from  their  mother  in  their  brighter 
yellow  color  and  more  perfect  legs.  Is- 
suing from  the  mouth  of  the  gall,  the 
young  lice  scatter  over  the  vine,  most 
of  them  finding  their  way  to  the  tender 
terminal  leaves.  Here  they  begin 
sucking  the  sap.  forming  galls,  and  de- 
positing eggs,  as  their  parent  liad  done 
before.  This  process  continues  during 
the  summer  until  the  fifth  or  sixth 
generation.  Every  egg  brings  forth  a 
fertile  female,  which  soon  becomes 
wonderfully  prolific.  By  the  end  of 
September  the  galls  are  mostly  de- 
serted, and  those  which  are  left  are 
usually  infected  with  mildew,  and 
eventually  turn  brown  and  decay. 
The  young  lice  attach  themselves  to  the  roots  and  thus 
hibernate.  It  is  an  important  fact  that  the  gall-inhabiting 
insect  occurs  only  as  a  ])arthenogenetic  and  apterous  female 
form.  It  is  but  a  transient 
summer  state,  and  does,  com- 
pared with  the  other  or  root- 
inhabiting  type,  but  trifling 
damage. 

The  more  normal  or  root- 
inhabiting  type  ))resents  many 
more  forms  and  many  inter- 
esting biological  traits.  The 
newly  hatched  lice  are  pre- 
cisely like  those  which  hatch 
in  the  galls,  but.  as  they  de- 
velop, rows  of  tubercles  ap- 
pear on  the  back  where  only 
minute  short  hairs  were  observed  before  {Fig.  5).  During 
winter  these  young  are  found,  somewhat  dulled  in  color, 
adhering  clo.se"ly  to  the  roots.  As  vegetation  starts  in  spring 
they  become  active,  rapidly  enlarge,  and  soon  begin  laying 
unimpregnated  eggs,  for  there  are  at  that  time  no  males. 
The.se  bring  forth  females,  which  in  their  turn  develop  and 
lay  unimpregnated  eggs,  and 
this  virginal  reproduction 
continues  for  five  or  six  gen- 
erations, the  development  in- 
creasing in  rapidity  with  the 
heat,  but  the  number  of  eggs 
decreasing.  In  J\dy  some  of 
the  individuals  show  little 
wing-pads  at  the  sides,  and 
begin  to  issue  from  the 
ground  and  to  acquire  wings. 
These  winged  individuals  be- 
come very  numerous  in  Au- 
gust, and  continue  to  appear 
in  diminishing  numbers  I  hereafter  till  the  leaves  have  fallen. 
They  are  all  females,  and  carry  in  the  abdomen  from  three 
to  eight  eggs  of  two  sizes,  the  larger  ones  about  one-fiftieth 
of  an  inch  long  and  half  as  wide;  the  smaller, three-fourths 
as  long.  These  eggs  are  also  unimpregnated,  and  are  laid 
by  pri^ference  on  the  under  side  of  the  more  tender  leaves, 


Fig.  3.  —  Mother  gall-louse  :  3, 
dorsal;  /i,  ventral  view  ;  nat- 
ural size  indicated  between 
them. 


Fig.  4.— Newly  hatched  larva  :  a, 
ventral  ;  b,  dorsal  view  :  nat- 
ural sizes  in  circles  at  sides. 


PHYLLOXERA 


PHYSALIS 


597 


attached  by  one  end  amid  the  naturul  down.     Tlioy  increase 
somewhat  in  size,  and  give  birth  in  about  ten  days  to  the 

tnie  sexual  individuals, 
the  larger  eggs  produc- 
ing females,  the  snialler 
males.  These  individ- 
uals arc  born  fully  de- 
veloped, and  are  wing- 
less and  without  mouth 
parts.  A  remarkable 
fact  is  that  some  of  the 
females  that  never  ac- 
quire wings,  l)ut  always 
remain  on  the  roots, 
also  proiluce  the  few 
different  -  sized  eggs 
from  which  males  and  females  hatch.  The  sexes  pair  soon 
after  hatching,  and  the  female  is  delivered  on  the  Uiird  or 
fourth  day  of  a  solitary  egg,  and  then  perishes.     This  im- 


Fio.  5.— Wingle-ss  mother  root-lice  :  /, 
dorsal ;  y.  lateral  view  ;  natural  size 
indicated  at  side. 


Fig.  6. — a,  healthy  root:  6.  root  on  which  the  lice  are  working,  show- 
ing the  kn')ts  and  swelliups  caused  by  their  punctures;  c,  root 
deserted  by  them,  on  which  the  rootlets  have  begun  to  decay; 
dddt  lice  on  tl'e  larger  roots,  natural  size;  e,  female  pupa,  dor- 
sal view;  /,  winged  female,  dorsal  view,  greatly  enlarged. 

pregnated  egg  is  never  laid  on  the  leaf,  but  always  on  the 
wood,  in  sheltered  situations  above  ground,  or  on  the  roots 


Fio.  8.— Male  phylln.^era :  dot 
in  circle  showing  natural 
size. 


a  <l  L 

Fio.  7. — True  female  phylloxera  :  o.  ventral  view,  showing  obsolete 
mouth  and  solitary" egg  occupying  nearly  the  entire  t»ody;  h, 
dorsal  view;  r.  tarsus;  d,  contracted  anatjoints  after  the  egg  is 
laid;  dot  in  circle  showing  natural  size. 


underground.     The  young  hatching  from  it  is  the  normal 

parthcnogeiietic  mother,  which  lays  a  large  number  of  eggs, 

and  recommences  the  virginal 

re])roduction    and  the  cycle  of 

the  species'  curious  life.     The 

impregnated  eggs  laid  early  in 

the  season  doubtless  hatch  the 

same  year,  but  most  of  tlie  eggs 

pa.ss  the  winter  before  hatching, 

and  from  this  fact  are  known  as 

"  winter-eggs." 

Appearance  of  the  Phylloxera 
Diseane. — A  vine  attacked  by 
phyllo.iera  has  the  more  fibrous 
roots  covered  with  little  swell- 
ings ;  and  a  careful  examination 
of  the  swellings  during  the 
growing  season  will  tlisclose 
numerous  yellowish  lice  of  dif- 
ferent ages,  and  groups  of 
brighter  yellow  eggs  barely  visi- 
ble to  the  naked  eye.  '  The 
swellings  in  course  of  time  rot, 
and  the  lice  settle  on  the  larger  roots.  Vines  that  are 
more  susceptible  to  the  disease  generally  show  external  signs 
the  second  year  of  attack  in  a  sickly,  yellowish  appearance 
of  the  foliage  and  in  stunted  growth;  while  the  third  year 
they  frequently  perish,  when  an  examination  the  lice  are  no 
longer  to  be  found— they  have  left  or  died— and  all  the  finer 
roots  have  decayed  and  wasted  away. 

Spread  of  the  Dit-ease. — The  wingless  phylloxera  travels 
over  the  surface  of  the  g:round  from  vine  to  vine,  or  beneath 
the  ground  where  roots  interlock  ;  while  in  the  winged  form 
it  may  fly  or  be  carried  as  inatiy  as  15  or  20  miles,  and, 
under  exceptional  conditions,  even  more.  Through  man's 
agency,  by  commerce  in  plants  and  cuttings,  it  may  be  car- 
ried to  indefinite  distances.  Hence  the  importance  of  pre- 
cautionary measures  in  grajie-producing  countries  still  free 
from  the  scourge,  and  the  wisdom  of  laws — such  as  have 
been  enacted  by  Australia,  Algiers,  Italy,  Germany,  and 
other  countries — prohibiting  the  importation  of  vines  from 
infested  regions. 

The  Disease  more  Virident  in  Foreign  Countries  than 
where  it  is  indigenous. — A  certain  harmony  or  mutual 
adaptation  exists  between  the  autochthonous  fauna  and 
flora  of  a  country,  the  result  of  a  long-past  "struggle  for 
existence."'  Plants  and  animals  suffer  most  from  diseases 
which  they  have  not  been  accustomed  to.  American  vines, 
though  showing  a  varying  power  of  resistance  to  the  attacks 
of  phylloxera,  are  less  suiiceptible  than  the  European  vine, 
which  has  been  so  long  under  cultivation  and  which  is  more 
highly  developed  and  more  tender. 

Practical  Considerations. — Of  the  many  remedies  that 
have  been  proposed,  none  is  universally  practicable  or  satis- 
factory. .Such  an  underground  enemy  is  measurably  beyond 
man's  reach.  Submersion,  where  feasible,  is  a  sufficietjt 
protection.  Bisulphide  of  carbon  and  sulpho-carboiuite  of 
potassium  have  proved  useful,  while  petroleum  emulsions 
may  lie  used  to  advantage.  Having  discovered  that  the 
ctdtivated  American  vines  possess  a  varying  degree  of  resist- 
ance to  the  disease,  there  has  been  an  immense  demand 
from  Europe  for  cuttings  of  the  least  susceptible  of  Ameri- 
can vines.  Many  vineyards  in  France  are  being  replanted 
with  American  vines.  In  1(^81  22,000  acres  in  seventeen 
departments  were  so  planted,  while  by  18!I0  7iy,.')00  acres  in 
forty-four  departments  were  covered  with  American  vines. 
The  varieties  most  employed  are  Clinton,  Taylor,  Jacques, 
and  tho.se  more  particularly  ladonging  to  the  .species  a^sli- 
r«7/.s,  as  t'unuingham,  Norton's  Virginia,  Herbenumt,  Cyn- 
thiana,  etc.  V.  V.  Kiley. 

Revised  by  Vernon  L.  Kellogo. 

I'liylogeny  [from  Gr.<pv\oy.  tribe,  race  -f  root  oj  ylyi/itrdm. 
be  born]  ;  a  term  introduc-ed  by  llaeckel  to  include  the  evo- 
luti(Ui  of  tlu-  race.  Ontogeny,  ilie  {■cmtraslcd  term,  iiiclu<les 
the  developnu'iit  of  the  individual  from  the  germ.  See 
Moi(i>iioi.o«v. 

Pliy'salis  [from  Gr.  (pva-awts.  bhulder.  kind  of  plant  with 
bladder-like  husk  or  calyx] :  a  genus  of  annual  or  perennial 
herbs  of  the  family  Solauacea'  or  nightshades,  embracing 
about  thirty  species,  seventeen  of  which  aie  found  in  the 
U.S.  The  P.  peruviana,  otherwi.se  known  as  strawberry 
tomato,  grouiul-cherry.  winter-cherry,  yellow  aikekengi  or 
Cape   gooseberry,   is    cultivated    in   gardens    in    England, 


598 


PHYSAPODA 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


France,  and  the  U.  S..  and  bears  an  edible  fruit  inclosed  in 
a  balloon-shaped  netted  angular  calyx.  The  P.  alkekengi. 
probably  a  native  o£  Spain  or  North  Africa,  bears  a  brilliant 
scarlet  "berrv,  and  is  an  ornamental  garden  plant.  An 
American  species,  P.  philadelphica.  or  purple  ground- 
cherry,  has  a  dark-purple  berry  an  inch  in  diameter,  which 
is  sometimes  preserved.     Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Physap'oda:  See  Entomologv. 

Physeter'itlsp  [Jlod.  liat.,  named  from  Physe'ter.  the  typ- 
ical genus,  from  Gr.  (fmo-TjTTJp.  blower,  bellows,  kind  nf  whale, 
deriv.  of  (pvaav.  blow,  blow  up]:  a  family  of  toothed  whales, 
containing  the  sperm-whale  (P/ii/se/er)  and  pigmy  sperm- 
whale  (Kogia).  Its  members  have  a  blunt  bead,  which  pro- 
jects forward  in  advance  of  the  jaw.  the  blowhole  well  for- 
ward, and  in  the  sperm-whale  on  the  left  side  ;  there  is  no 
back  fin.  The  skull,  which  is  unsymmetrical,  has  its  front 
upper  edges  turned  upward  to  form  a  sort  of  basin  in  which 
rests  the  cartilage  containing  the  spermaceti.  The  halves 
of  the  lower  jaw  are  anteriorly  in  contact  for  some  distance, 
and  in  the  adult  teeth  are  present  in  the  lower  jaw  only. 
See  Cachalot.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Physical  Education :  the  training  of  muscles  and 
nerves,  which  constitutes  the  modern  practice  of  gym- 
nastics. Though  the  term  physical  education  is  of  com- 
parativelv  recent  date,  and  the  thought  suggested  compli- 
cated and  extensive,  the  idea  itself  is  older  than  any  records, 
and  the  underlying  principles  and  methods  which  we  now 
apply  consciously  and  understandingly  were  prehistorically 
applied,  perhaps"  unconsciously,  yet  at  least  effectively,  as 
shown  by  the  physique  developed.  As  we  compare  the 
physique  of  to-day"  with  that  of  two  or  three  thousand  years 
ago,  we  find  very"  slight  differences.  Again,  in  those  races 
which  are  still  in  their  childhood  as  to  mental  and  social 
development,  we  find  essentially  the  same  physical  propor- 
tions. This  physique  has  result'ed  from  the  physical  activ- 
ity necessitated"  by  the  environment  of  the  generations 
which  have  preceded. 

Ancient  Aims  and  Methods. — In  the  earliest  records  we 
learn  nothing  of  any  conscious  body  training.  The  early 
peoples  did  what  they  were  forced  to  do,  hunted,  farmed, 
or  took  care  of  their  flocks,  each  one  doing  a  multitude  of 
things,  and  thus  getting,  perforce,  a  good  all-round  body 
training.  Their  relations  to  their  neighbors  were  not  al- 
ways pleasant,  and  it  was  important  to  be  able  to  fight  ef- 
fectively ;  hence  the  practice  with  the  club,  bow.  spear,  and 
sword  naturally  assumed  a  prominence  in  the  education  of 
the  youth.  Here  we  find  the  first  hint  of  physical  educa- 
tionin  the  training  of  the  body  for  a  definite  future  end. 
In  all  primitive  peojjles  this  seems  to  have  been  the  main 
factor,  and  has  determined  the  body  training  toward  endur- 
ance of  fatiguing  travel,  running,  swimming,  and  in  the 
use  of  weapons.  The  plays  of  childhood,  then  as  now, 
tended  to  the  imitation  of  the  most  attractive  occupations 
of  the  parents,  so  again  we  have  the  use  of  toy  weapons  as 
well  as  spontaneous  games  which  arose  from  the  pure  enjoy- 
ment of  physical  activity.  Strength  meant  so  much  to  the 
more  warlike  of  the  primitive  peoples  that  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  they  worshiped  it  as  an  attribute  of  the  gods,  and 
sought  to  develop  it  by  constant  practice,  crowning  the 
strongest,  bravest  man  as  hero  and  leader.  In  studying  the 
early  records  we  find  that  the  ideals  of  the  peoples  aflfected 
markedly  the  physical  life.  Warlike  nations  tended  to  skill 
and  endurance  in  the  use  of  weapons  and  armor,  while 
others,  as  in  India,  prized  grace  and  suppleness. 

77(e  Orenlxs. — Among  the  early  Greeks  the  ability  to  wield 
effectively  the  sword  and  spear,  javelin  and  bow,  to  run, 
climb,  and  endure  fatigue  transcended  in  practical  value  all 
other  accomplishments,  so  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that 
the  education  of  the  youth  consisted  essentially  of  this  train- 
ing. I..ater  the  ideals  of  the  Greeks  became  broader,  and  we 
have  the  conscious  training  for  grace  and  synunetry.  The 
physical  training  of  the  Greeks  was  of  a  general  character, 
consisting  largely  of  games  and  contests,  including  running, 
leaping,  wrestling,  throwing  the  discus  and  spear,  boxing, 
use  of  bow.  various  games  with  balls,  and  swimming.  Many 
gymnasia  were  maintained  for  systematic  training  in  ath- 
letics and  gymna.stics.  The  physical  life  was  considered  as 
of  equal  importance  witli  the  mental  in  the  palmy  days  of 
Athens,  and  at  the  contests  in  Olympia  and  elsewhere  the 
successful  competitors  were  crowned  with  olive  as  were  the 
poets  and  orators.  The  educational  value  of  gymnastics  was 
recognized  by  them  in  addition  to  the  merely  utilitarian,  and 
"mens  sana  in  corpore  sano"  is  here  first  suggested. 


The  spirit  of  friendly  contest  was  gradually  lost,  and  pro- 
fessionalism resulted  from  the  lowering  of  physical  ideals, 
gymnastics  and  athletics  becoming  a  duty  of  the  slaves  for 
the  amusement  of  their  effeminate  masters.  The  Romans 
borrowed  generously  from  the  (irceks  in  their  ideas  of  body 
training,  outdoing  them  in  building  magnificent  baths  and 
gymnasia;  but  in  their  history  is  repeated  the  same  change 
in  physical  ideals  and  resulting  etieminacy.  The  barbarians 
who  conquered  them  possessed  the  physical  power  in  which 
they  were  wanting. 

Middle  Ages. —  Until  the  invention  of  firearms  military 
success  was  dependent  upon  bodily  strength.  We  find 
this  holding  true  through  the  Middle  Ages,  when  the  edu- 
cational side  of  exercise  was  ignored  and  only  the  utilita- 
rian valued.  In  contrast  to  this  military  attitude  was  the 
monkish,  in  which  the  body  was  disowned  and  the  soul  only 
regarded.  On  the  one  hand,  we  have  chivalry  developed 
with  strength,  grace,  and  beauty  as  ideals,  while  in  sharp  an- 
tagonism we  have  the  monasteries  filled  with  men  who 
looked  upon  the  body  as  a  fetter  to  the  soul,  a  thing  to  be 
scourged  and  starved  into  subordination.  With  the  advent 
of  gunpowder  the  utilitarian  stimulus  to  training  was  lost, 
for  men  no  longer  won  battles  by  brute  force,  and  phys- 
ical training  became  a  thing  of  the  past,  aside  from  the 
spontaneous  games  of  childhood  and  youth. 

Beginning  of  Modern  Gymna.'itics. — Luther  began  a  re- 
action from  this  condition,  though  little  was  accomplished 
for  many  years.  A  German  physician,  Mercurialis,  pub- 
lished a  treatise  (De  Arte  Gymnastica.  1.573)  on  the  old 
Greek  gymnastics  in  which  he  em})hasized  the  hygienic 
effects  of  exercise.  Similarly  an  English  physician,  Thomas 
Fuller  (1654  to  1734),  advocated  a  return  to  the  Greek  meth- 
ods. Montaigne  and  Locke  made  strenuous  efforts  in  be- 
half of  a  broad  education  to  include  phy.sical  training,  but 
it  remained  for  Rousseau  by  his  Emile  (1762)  to  rouse  gen- 
eral public  interest  in  the  movement. 

Germany. — Basedow,  Salzraann,  Pestalozzi,  Gutsmuths, 
Vieth,  and  Nachtigall  became  successively  interested,  and 
established  gymnasiums  in  connection  with  certain  schools. 
They  worked  enthusiastically,  devising  new  movements  and 
testing  them,  selecting  and  systematizing  those  which 
seemed  valuable.  The  movement  had  not  become  general 
till  Jahn,  an  accomplished  gymnast,  conceived  the  idea  of 
nationalizing  Germany  by  educating  the  youth,  and  rousing 
in  them  the  spirit  of  patriotism.  To  this  end  he  organized 
societies  for  systematic  instruction  and  training  in  gymnas- 
tics and  athletics.  He  also  invented  many  pieces  of  appa- 
ratus, such  as  the  parallel  and  horizontal  bars,  and  greatly 
enriched  systematic  gymnastics  by  adding  new  and  varied 
exercises.  Jahn  is  indeed  the  father  of  modern  gymnastics. 
His  influence  spread  quickly  through  Germany ;  societies 
were  organized  in  the  towns  and  villages,  and  the  youth  be- 
came strong,  active,  brave,  and  patriotic.  Much  credit  must 
be  given  to  Spiess,  also,  for  suggesting  many  features  which 
popularize  gymnastics.  After  the  German  war  for  indepen- 
dence the  gymnasiums  flourished  till  IHl!),  when  they  were 
suppressed  for  political  reasons,  but  revived  in  1844.  The 
spread  of  gymnastics  in  the  V.  S.  and  other  countries  at  this 
time  was  due  to  exiled  teachers  from  Germany.  In  Switzer- 
land a  complete  system  was  organized  by  Clias  at  the  same 
time  Jahn  was  working  in  Germany,  ami  this  extended 
throughout  the  schools  and  spread  to  France,  Italy,  and 
England.  The  German  influence  has  been  preponderate  in 
the  L^.  S.  At  Milwaukee  a  normal  school  for  the  training  of 
gymnastic  teachers  has  been  maintained  l)y  the  Turners  for 
years,  and  their  societies  are  found  in  all  the  larger  cities 
supporting  well-equipped  gymnasiums,  constantly  used  by 
the  enthusiastic  members,  and  always  exerting  a  strong  in- 
fluence for  the  broader  schof)l  ctirriculuin  which  shall  in- 
clude gymnastics.  A  marked  characteristic  of  the  German 
system  is  that  it  grows  spontaneously,  because  it  embodies 
tiie  play  instinct,  and  rouses  all  the  stimulating  emotions  of 
play,  at  the  same  time  giving  the  needed  exercise. 

Siredisli  System. — Ling,  the  founder  of  the  Swedish  sys- 
tem, was  familiar  with  what  Jahn  and  others  were  doing  in 
Germany  and  Denmark,  but  worked  out  a  system  of  move- 
ments from  an  entirely  different  standpoint.  He  analyzed 
nu:)vements  into  elements,  each  perfurmed  by  as  few  muscles 
as  possible,  thus  claiming  to  localize  the  will  and  train  co- 
ordination. After  drilling  on  these  elementary  movements 
for  "purity"  he  combined  them  into  groups  forming  com- 
jilete  exercises.  The  resemblance  to  the  a-b-c  method  of 
learning  to  read  is  striking.  Ling's  aims  were  liygienic, 
ediicatiiinal,  therapeutic,  and  military,  and   he   worked  out 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 


599 


what  must  be  regarded  a.s  the  most  definite  system  of  p)i_vs- 
ical  training  tliat  has  yel  been  evolved.  He  forniuhited  the 
idea  of  progression,  niakiiii;  it  more  extensive  than  tlic  (ier- 
maiis.  because  he  forced  all  to  bcfriii  with  rudimentary 
movements,  while  the  (iernums  built  upon  what  the  pupils 
already  knew.  Ling  maile  a  rigid  artilicial  prdgression. 
while  with  the  others  the  natural  power  was  the  guide  to 
progress.  He  made  a  "day's  order"  the  unit  of  work,  in- 
sisting that  all  parts  of  the  body  should  be  exercised,  and 
that  exerei.se  sliould  begin  gradually,  reaching  a  maximum 
of  effort  before  tlie  end  of  the  work,  and  hnishing  with 
slow  ea.<y  movements  to  aid  the  heart  to  resume  its  nor- 
mal beating.  He  worked  constantly  for  discipline  and  in- 
itiated each  movement  by  a  command,  thus  keeping  the 
attention  fixed.  This  necessitated  the  naming  of  all  move- 
ments, and  has  resulted  in  an  extensive  nomenclature. 
Music  can  not  be  used  with  the  order  movements,  and  is  dep- 
recated l)y  the  Swedes.  The  .Swedish  work  was  intrcxiuced 
in  the  form  of  "movement  cure"  by  Taylor,  of  New  York, 
many  years  ago.  Dio  Ijewis  based  his  ".Mutual  Help" 
gymnastics  for  sc'hools  u]x)n  the  Swedish  idea  of  analysis, 
but  made  the  valuable  addition  of  resistance  in  all  the 
movements.  Since  1889  a  strong  effort  has  been  made  to 
introduce  the  unmodified  .Swedish  system  generally  into  tlie 
schools  of  the  U.  S. 

Physical  Training  in  England. — England's  contribution 
to  physical  training  has  l)cen  chiefly  the  development  of 
sports  and  games,  such  as  archery,  football,  cricket,  ten- 
nis, boating,  hare  and  hcHimls,  handball,  etc.  Tiiese  fur- 
nish undoubtedly  as  complete  and  thorough  body  develop- 
ment as  was  gotten  in  the  primitive  days.  Dr.  Parke  has 
stated  it  very  strongly :  "The  national  games  of  English 
boys  are  infinitely  superior  to  any  system  of  artificial  exer- 
cise ever  devised."  The  great  difficulty  is  that  sucli  games 
can  not  be  made  available  for  the  projier  development  of  all 
the  children  of  the  nation,  owing  to  lack  of  time  and'space. 
In  186"3  Lord  Elcho  made  a  strong  effort  for  scientific  phys- 
ical training,  and  soon  after  Maclaren  began  his  work  at 
Oxford,  which  has  resulted  in  such  valuable  contributions 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  hygiene  of  exercise  an<i  training. 
{Phi/.sicnl  Education,  1869,  and  Training  in  Theory  and 
Practice,  1874.) 

In  the  United  States. — Between  1821  and  1879  several  of 
the  schools  and  colleges  in  the  V.  S.  established  gymnasiums, 
chieffy  inttuenced  by  the  Germans.  The  building  of  the 
Hemenway  gymnasium  in  1879  by  Harvard  College  marks 
the  beginning  of  an  era  in  gymnastics  in  the  U.  S.  Its  in- 
fluence may  be  seen  in  the  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of 
gymmusiums,  all  founded,  essentially.  u])on  the  Harvard  sys- 
tem of  measurements  an<l  appliances.  These  now  number 
more  than  1,000,  incluiling  the  \.  M.  C  .V.  gymnasiums,  and 
have  cost  millions  of  dollars. 

The  Harvard  System. — The  Harvard  system  of  develop- 
ing appliances  started  in  1869,  when  Dr.  Sargent  took  charge 
of  the  Bowdoin  College  gymnasium  as  stiulent-instnictor. 
At  this  time  the  equipment  of  a  gymnasium  consisted  of  cer- 
tain (icrman  apparatus,  parallel  bars,  horizontal  bar,  tra- 
peze, etc.,  which  were  used  by  a  few  of  the  students  only. 
The  mass  of  the  students  were  not  ex[x>rts  in  these  exer- 
cises, and  did  little  or  nothing  in  the  way  of  gymna.stics 
aside  from  the  enforced  military  drill,  from  which  they  re- 
volted. They  were  hardy  fellows  and  accustomed  to  heavy 
outdoor  work,  yet  few  were  really  well  developed,  most  of 
them  having  done  work  which  left  its  impress  in  cliaracter- 
istic  asymmetry  and  faulty  attitudes.  A  careful  .study  of  the 
problems  thus  presented  led  to  the  forinulation  of  certain 
general  principli's  which  have  since  served  lus  valuable 
guides.  It  was  seen  that  attitudes  necessitated  by  occupa- 
tions liecame  fixed  habits  in  ratio  to  the  length  of  time  they 
were  held  uncorrected  by  other  attitudes:  also  that  in  indi- 
viduals possessing  unequal  muscular  development  faulty  at- 
titudes were  often  the  result  of  the  a|)parent  shortening  of 
stronger  muscles,  the  increased  tonicity  of  these  muscles 
exerting  a  constant  pull  with  the  result  mentioned.  Thus 
the  necessity  of  supplementing  the  developnu>nt  due  to  oc- 
cupation was  clearly  seen,  and  also  the  rational  method  of 
effecting  this  by  the  local  development  of  the  relaxed 
weaker  muscles.  To  do  this  economically  and  definitely 
various  machines  were  devised  which  offered  the  required 
resistance.  The  first  of  these  was  the  adjustable  chest- 
weight  (1869).  This  exercising-machine  enaliled  one  to  ex- 
ercise so  nnich  of  the  body  that  it  was  praetiially  ninversal 
in  its  application,  and  was  adopted  by  the  gymnasiums  of  the 
r.  .S.  till   now  it  is  a  staple  part  of  their  equipment.     The 


chest-weight  was  followed  by  other  "developing  appliances" 
as  this  kind  of  apparatus  came  to  be  called,  all  from  the 
same  motive,  to  furnish  means  selectively  to  build  up  weak 
and  relaxed  muscles  to  the  best  advantage.  Such  develop- 
ing appliances  are  the  high  and  low  pulleys,  leg-macliine.s, 
wrist  and  ankle  machines,  chest  expanders  and  develop- 
ers, (piarter  circle,  abdominal  machine,  etc.,  fortv  in  num- 
ber, devi.sed  chiefly  between  the  years  1869-79.'  Dr.  Sar- 
gent's gymnasium  in  New  York  was  the  first  to  be  at  all 
fully  equipped  with  this  apparatus  (1878),  and  the  Hemen- 
way gymnasium.  Harvaril  I'niversity,  was  the  next  (1879); 
this  is  one  of  the  most  fully  equi])i)ed  in  the  U.  S.  The  _ 
developing  appliances  were  devised  to  supplement  other 
gymnasium  work,  not  to  replace  it.  The  movements  are 
|)raetically  sinular  to  the  Swedish,  but  differ  essentially  in 
that  they  are  all  made  against  external  resistance  which  can 
be  adjusted  to  strength,  hence  co-ordination  is  trained  to  an 
economical  expenditure  of  energy  in  overcoming  such  re.sist- 
ance.  This  is  an  important  distinction  which  serves  as  one 
basis  for  the  cla.ssific-ation  of  movements,  for  in  slow  free 
movements,  stich  as  the  Swedish,  nnu'h  of  the  resistance 
comes  from  the  contraction  of  antagonistic  muscles.  The 
individual's  need  may  be  maile  the  basis  of  work,  and  a  clear 
prescription  given  specifically  directing  his  work  toward  the 
attainment  of  his  ideal  form  and  condition,  not  only  from  a 
physical  standpoint,  but  in  relatiim  to  his  intellectual  activ- 
ity. This  makes  it  important  to  have  a  trained  physician 
study  the  individual  and  decide  the  problems  presented  in 
each  case. 

Zander,  of  Sweden,  has  devised  an  elaborate  set  of  appa- 
ratus for  resistive  movements  both  active  and  passive,  an- 
swering much  the  same  purpose  as  the  developing  appli- 
ances, but  too  expensive  to  t)e  generally  available. 

Aiithropometri/. — Doubtless  for  ages  measurements  have 
been  taken  as  a  means  for  comparing  muscular  develo|inient 
and  recording  the  progress  of  an  inclividual  while  in  train- 
ing. These  measurements  were  chiefly  of  the  height,  weight, 
upper  arm,  forearm,  chest,  thigh,  and  calf,  and  were  made 
at  first  with  no  idea  of  collecting  data,  but  for  immediate 
limited  use.  About  1870  anthropologists  and  ethnologists 
became  interested,  and  by  their  suggestions  gave  an  impetus 
to  a  broader  consideration  of  the  subject.  The  value  of  the 
measurements  of  a  large  number  of  individuals  of  school 
and  college  age  was  now  first  realized  as  contributing  to  a 


study  of  the  rate  of  growth,  influences  affect i 


growth. 


males  as  compared  with  females,  different  nationalities,  etc. 
all  questions  of  vital  importance.  To  the  more  obvious 
measurements  taken  previously  were  added  bone  lengths, 
joint  circumferences,  and  girths  of  important  parts  of  the 
head,  trunk,  and  limbs,  together  with  certain  strength  tests, 
as  grip,  number  of  times  pull-up  and  push-up,  strength  of 
back,  leg,  and  chest  muscles,  of  expiratory  muscles,  cajiacity 
of  lungs,  and  a  record  of  color  of  eyes  and  hair,  liistorv  of 
diseases  and  habits,  and  nationality  of  parents  and  grand- 
parents. This  list  of  measurements  was  defiiulely  selected 
and  methods  of  taking  formulated  in  1878,  and  presented 
by  Dr.  Sargent  in  a  report  to  the  .American  .•\s.-iociation  for 
t  he  Advancement  of  Physical  Education  in  1886,  to  insure 
the  general  use  of  the  same  methods,  and  hence  to  mjike  the 
results  of  all  examinations  comparable.  A'aluable  tables  of 
measurements  have  been  contributed  since  1860  by  Baxter 
and  (iould,  army  recruits:  Galton,  of  boys,  1875;  Bowditch, 
of  school  children,  Jiep.  State  Board  of  Health,  Ma.ssachu- 
setts,  1877-79-91;  Roberts,  Cow.  Pep.  British  Association, 
1878;  Hitchcock.  Amherst  students,  1887-89-90-92;  Eris- 
iminn.  Russian  factory  employees.  1889;  Pagliaui,  Italian 
children;  Wood,  Welleslcy  students.  1890;  Porter,  school 
children  of  St.  Louis,  1893;  Sargent,  Harvard  students,  etc. 
The  inimber  of  persons  of  whom  complete  measurements 
had  been  charted  in  percentile  grades  was  iri.OOO  in  1893. 

The  method  of  graphically  representing  the  values  of  in- 
dividual measurements  relative  to  the  wliole  mass  of  meas- 
urements by  percentile  grach's,  puldished  by  (ialton  in  1885, 
has  been  of  the  greatest  a.ssistance  in  studying  the  statistics 
gathered,  bringing  to  light  as  it  has  numerous  minor  prol>- 
lems  before  overIooke<l.  This  method  also  made  possible 
the  charting  of  tables  so  that  they  can  be  used  quickly  and 
conveniently. 

.Attention  is  now  being  directed  to  the  necessity  for  tests 
which  shall  show  the  condition  of  an  individualas  a  vital 
unit,  not  merely  as  a  mass  of  muscle  and  bone  ;  tests  of 
quickness,  accuracy,  endurance  of  mental  and  muscular 
power,  of  voluntary  muscular  control,  <lelicacy  of  adjust- 
ment of  automatic  control,  of  circulation  general  and  local. 


600 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


of  respiration,  response  of  circulation  and  respiration  to 
exercise,  fatigue,  tone  of  nervous  and  muscular  systems,  etc. 
These  are  problems  constantly  faciuf;  one  practically  inter- 
ested in  physical  education,  biit  so  ditficult  of  approach  that 
little  has  yet  been  done.  Mosso,  Denieny,  Galton,  Warner, 
and  others  are  working  on  the  problems  in  Europe,  and 
Harvard  University  has  established  a  laboratory  for  such 
research  in  the  U.  S. 

Charting  Measurements. — The  classification  of  large  num- 
bers of  individuals  shows  a  remarkable  uniformity  in  the 
distribution  of  variation  of  corresponding  measurements. 
The  law  of  this  variation  is  shown  by  the  chart  given  here- 
with, of  heights  of  individuals  of  the  same  age.     It  will  be 


^SOO    Observations 


Beiutil  In  inchts  3S   36    j7  3^    3S    io    it    t~'   i. 

Curve  of  distribution  of  &48  observations.    Heights  of  boys  five  years 
old.    From  Bowditcli's  tables. 

seen  that  at  the  center  we  have  by  far  the  larger  number  of 
observations  suggesting  for  this  age  a  tendency  to  a  "  me- 
dium "height.  AH  other  measurements  may  be  similarly 
plotted  ami  the  means  determined.  Putting  these  means 
together,  of  all  the  items  measured  we  may  determine  the 
parts  of  what  may  be  called  a  medium  or  normal  individual. 
By  a  similar  method  were  gotten  the  data  for  modeling  the 
statues  representing  the  normal  college  student,  male  and 
female,  exhibited  by  Dr.  Sargent  at  the  Coluuiluan  Exposi- 
tion, Chicago,  1893.  This  medium  individual,  of  course, 
shows  the  actual  general  type  prevailing,  not  the  highest 
type  perhaps  attainable,  and  the  test  of  its  correctness  is 
the  fact  that  if  a  number  of  new  measurements  of  the  same 
class  of  individuals  is  added  it  does  not  change  this  type, 
but  merely  falls  into  proper  relation  to  it.  Dr.  Porter  has 
contributed  a  valuable  study  of  the  relation  of  weight  to 
scholarship  in  school  children  of  St.  Louis.  He  has  taken 
weight  as  an  index  to  strength  and  development,  and  has 
expressed  the  relation  of  weight  and  age  to  scholarship  in 
percentile  grades.  This  has  brought  out  the  fact  that  large 
children  take  higher  intellectual  rank  than  small  ones  in  all 
the  grades  of  the  school,  and  that  the  rate  of  growth  is  prac- 
tically the  same  for  all  grades  of  intellectual  precocity. 
President  Hyde  of  Bowdoin  College  has  shown  that  schol- 
arship and  physical  development  in  college  work  go  similarly 
hand  in  hand.  Dr.  Bowditch  has  clearly  shown  the  rate  of 
growth  in  children  of  school  age,  and  demonstrated  the 
physical  superiority  of  girls  from  eleven  to  fourteen  years 
of  age,  due  to  their  more  rapid  development.  See  Sargent. 
iV.  A.  Rev.,  Feb.,  1883;  Pfiysiral  Training  in  American 
Colleges  and  Unirersities;  Ilartwell  in  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Eilucafion  (1886),  p.  663  ;  and  J.  Stanley  Hall, 
A  Bibliography  of  Education  (1886).  D.  A.  Sargent. 

Physical  Geography :  the  geography  of  nature,  or  the 
science  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  its  envelopes.  The 
structure  of  the  earth  and  the  history  of  the  changes  to 
which  the  structure  and  surface  configuration  are  due  are 
the  field  of  geology;  the  general  form  of  the  earth  as  a 
spheroid  belongs  to  geodesy ;  its  motions  and  its  relations 
to  other  planets  ami  the  sun  belong  to  astronomy  ;  the  <lis- 
tribution  of  human  races  on  the  earth  belongs  to  ethnog- 
raphy: the  partitioning  of  the  earth  among  governmental 
organizations  to  political  geography;  and  the  redistribu- 
tion of  natural  products  through  human  transportation  to 
commercial  geography.  Physical  geography  includes  physi- 
ography, or  the  classification  and  explanation  of  the  vari- 
ous elements  of  the  surface  configuration  ;  oceanography, 
or  the  description  an<l  study  of  the  aqueous  envelope ;  me- 
teorology, or  the  description  and  study  of  the  gaseous  envel- 
ope; zoogeography,  or  the  natural  distribution  of  animals; 
and  iihytogeograpliy.  or  the  natural  distribution  of   plants. 

See  GKO(iR.\PHV,    PUVSIOliRAIMIV,  HVOKOGRAPIIV,  OCEAN,  ME- 
TEOROLOGY, and  Geoorai'Iik  AL  Botany.      G.  K.  Gilbert. 
Physical  Training :  See  Physical  Educatiox. 


Physics,  or  Physical  Science  [physics  is  from  Gr.  tpv(TiK6s. 
natural,  deriv.  of  (pv(ns,  nature] :  literally,  the  knowledge  of 
the  processes,  both  mechanical  and  vital,  which  occur  in  na- 
ture. In  this  .sense  the  word  physical  has  the  same  meaning 
as  natural,  but  in  the  development  of  science  the  words 
have  been  specialized  and  the  former  has  been  used  so  as  to 
exclude  the  study  of  organized  bodies  and  the  mineral  world. 
Thus  physics  lies  between  pure  mathematics — that  is,  arith- 
metic, algebra,  and  geometry — on  the  one  hand,  and  natural 
history  on  the  other  hand.  "Chemistry  is  properly  a  physical 
science,  but  custom  has  excluded  it  from  the  domain  of 
physics.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  divisions  of 
physics : 

I.  Mechaxics  {q.  v.),  which  includes  kinematics  (see  Mo- 
tion), Dynamics  {g.  v. ;  see  also  Energy).  Statics  (g.  v. ;  see 
also  Composition  of  Forces),  or  the  subject  may  be  divided 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  body  studied.  Thus  we  have 
the  mechanics  of  a  ]iarticle,  of  a  rigid  body,  of  an  elastic 
body,  and  of  a  fluid,  the  last  being  sulidivided  into  Hydro- 
statics {g.  ('.)  and  hydrodynamics  (see  Hydrai'Lics). 

II.  The  secondary  physical  sciences,  viz. :  Optics  {g.  v.y 
where  its  subdivision  into  different  departments,  light,  etc., 
is  given) ;  Acoustics  {g.  i:  ;  see  also  Refraction  of  Sound, 
etc.);  Electricity  {g.  v.):  Magnetism  {g.  v.  ;  see  also  Mag- 
NETIS.M  OF  Iron  and  Magnetism,  Terrestrial)  ;  and  the 
branches  dealing  with  the  action  of  pressure  and  heat  in 
changing  the  volumes  and  physical  states  of  bodies,  for 
which  see  Heat,  Gas,  LiytiDS,  Pneumatics,  Thermodynam- 
ics, etc.  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Physics  of  Veg'etation  :  See  Physiology,  Vegetable. 

Physiocrats  :  See  Political  Economy. 

Physiognomy  [from  Gr.  (pvinoyvuiioiiia.  art  of  judging  a 
man  by  his  features,  deriv.  of  (pva-ioyyutxtif.  judging  by  fea- 
tures; {pva-ts,  nature  -I-  yviliiwv.  judge] :  the  art  of  interpret- 
ing the  character  of  man  by  facial  conformation  and  ex- 
pression. It  was  first  presented  as  a  systematic  study  by 
Lavater  in  1775.  It  was  included  in  the  systematic  phre- 
nology of  Gall  and  Spurzheim.  While  much  has  been,  and 
is  still,  claimed  for  physiognomy  inconsistent  with  the  facts 
of  the  natural  history  of  man  and  the  laws  of  physiology,  the 
face  may  be  regarded  as  an  intlex.  by  facial  expressions  de- 
veloped both  voluntarily  and  involuntarily,  of  the  promi- 
nent characteristics  of  intellect,  emotion,  and  will.  The 
physiognomy  of  infants,  while  the  intellect  is  latent,  ex- 
presses only  happiness  and  pain  or  sorrow.  With  the  train- 
ing of  the  tongue  and  lips  in  phonatioo,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  language  of  expression  by  the  control  of  the 
muscles  of  the  eye.  the  nostrils,  and  mouth,  combinations 
of  facial  lines  and  individuality  of  features  become  estab- 
lished. By  electrical  excitation  of  muscles  and  groups  of 
muscles  of  the  face,  the  various  expressions  of  mirth,  sor- 
row, impotency,  power,  etc.,  may  be  pi'oduced  irrespective 
of  the  mental  condition — expressions  which  the  subject's 
character  had  never  developed.  In  hypnotic  experimenta- 
tion, also,  the  state  called  catalepsy  is  favorable  to  the  sys- 
tematic study  of  the  muscles  of  facial  expression.  Recent 
research  shows  that  a  large  part  of  facial  expression  is  ac- 
quired by  unconscious  imitation  of  that  of  others.  See 
Charles  Bell.  The  Anatomy  of  Facial  E.rpression\,  Darwin, 
The  Expression  of  the  Emotions.     Also  see  Face. 

Revised  by  J.  JIark  Baldwin. 

Physiography  [Gr.  (pia-ts.  nature  +  ypa(p(ti/.  write] :  as  a 
part  of  physical  geography,  the  science  which  describes, 
classifies,  and  explains  the  forms  of  the  earth's  surface. 
The  features  of  the  earth  are  conveniently  grouped  accord- 
ing to  form,  and  also  uniier  the  processes  by  which  they 
have  been  produced.  In  this  article  they  are  arranged  pri- 
marily according  to  form,  and  those  of  like  furm  are  chissi- 
fied  ijy  genesis.  The  processes  through  which  they  origi- 
nate are  :  1,  diastrophism,  or  uplift  and  downthrow  ;  3,  vol- 
canism ;  3,  ero.sion  and  deposition  by  water;  4,  erosion  and 
deposition  by  wind :  5,  erosion  and  deposition  by  waves ; 
and,  6,  erosion  and  deposition  by  glaciers.  These  are  de- 
scribed under  Dynamic  (ieology  in  Geology  (g.  i\). 

Features  of  the  Land. — Upon  the  uneven  surface  of  the 
earth  rests  a  great  body  of  water  which,  being  gathered  in 
the  hollows,  divides  the  surface  into  a  submerged  or  oceanic 
portion,  and  an  emergent  portion,  the  dry  land.  As  viewed 
on  the  map  and  in  respect  to  climate  and  various  activities 
of  man.  the  relation  of  the  land  to  the  ocean  is  of  great 
importance,  and  the  shapes  of  the  land,  as  defined  by  coasts, 
are  distinguished  as  continents,  islands,  peninsulas,  etc. 
Continents  are  the  greatest  of  the  land  areas.     Their  ex^ 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


601 


tent,  connections,  and  peculiarities  of  outline  depend  on 
what  may  be  regarded  as  an  accidental  condition — the 
amount  of  water  on  the  earth's  surface ;  but  they  may  also 
he  re£jardcd  as  the  suniniits  of  the  j^reatcr  prominences  of 
the  earth's  surface,  and  these  prominences  are  Ihe  result  of 
subterranean  processes,  the  nature  of  which  is  little  under- 
stood.    See  CoNTINKXT  and  K.AKTH. 

Islniuis  are  in  general  small  continents,  and  similarly  owe 
their  character  to  the  accident  of  ocean-level,  but  .some- 
thing more  specific  can  be  said  as  to  their  origin  than  in  the 
case  of  continents.  Some  of  them  are  produced  by  the  lo- 
cal and  narrowly  limited  uplift  of  the  occan-lloor;  others 
bv  the  building  of  subterraiu'iin  volcanoes  whose  peaks  arc 
finally  carried  above  the  surface  ;  yet  others  arc  occasioned 
bv  the  elevation  or  sul)sidence  of  broad  tracts  of  the  earth's 
surface,  elevation  bringing  above  water  the  shoals  of  the 
ocean-bed.  subsidence  causing  the  sea  to  overflow  the  lower 
parts  of  the  land,  leaving  plateaus  or  mountains  as  islands  : 
vet  another  class  have  an  organic  origin,  being  forineil  by 
the  growth  of  coral  reefs  whi(^h  eventually  reach  the  sur- 
face. Low  and  temporary  islands  are  formed  iihiiig  some 
coasts  through  the  shifting  of  sands  by  winds  and  currents. 
Out  of  fresh-water  lakes,  which  usually  result  from  the 
flooding  of  tracts  previously  dry,  pre-existent  hills  and 
mountains  sometimes  project  as  islands,  and  certain  rhyth- 
mic factors  in  the  flow  of  streams  cause  them  to  divide 
their  waters  from  time  to  time  so  as  to  inclose  islands.  See 
Islands  and  Kivkrs. 

Petiinsiilds.  (lifTi'ring  from  islands  only  in  their  narrow 
connections  with  nuunlands.  may  be  ascribed  to  all  the 
causes  which  originate  islands,  and  in  the  progressive  de- 
velopment of  geograiihic  forms  there  is  a  constant  intercon- 
version  of  islands  and  peninsulas.  Upon  the  subsidence  of 
land  or  rise  of  water  new  peninsulas  are  won  from  the  main- 
land, old  peninsulas  are  converted  into  islands,  and  islands 
are  s\d)merged  ;  by  tlie  reverse  process  new  islands  emerge 
from  the  waters,  old  islands  become  joined  to  the  land,  and 
old  peninsulas  become  surrounded  by  land.  A  special  va- 
riety of  peninsula,  called  a  npit,  is  built  by  waves  and  cur- 
rents in  a  peculiar  manner.  A  wind  which  drives  waves 
against  a  shore  also  drifts  the  water  along  the  shore.  Sand 
and  pebbles  rolled  upon  the  beach  by  the  waves  are  carried 
by  the  current  in  the  direction  of  its  motion,  and  wherever 
the  current  leaves  the  shore,  as,  for  example,  at  a  cape,  the 
drifted  particles  come  to  rest,  being  built  into  a  low  em- 
bankment, chiefly  submerged  but  rising  a  fow  feet  above 
the  water.  Currents  from  other  directions,  and  especially 
tidal  currents,  often  curve  the  spit  at  its  end.  and  in  this 
way  the  end  sometimes  grows  broad,  as  in  Sandy  Hook, 
X.  J.,  so  as  to  produce  the  typical  peninsular  outline.  The 
barriers  or  lianks  of  the  coast  from  New.Iersey  to  Texas  are 
of  similar  character,  and  are  essentially  peninsulas,  though 
often  temporarily  converted  into  islands.     See  Coast. 

In/fimiis<>!!,  lu'ing  only  those  parts  of  peninsulas  which  dis- 
tinguish them  from  islands,  hardly  deserve  special  mention. 
In  general  they  express  only  a  relation  between  a  pre-exist- 
ent surface  form  and  a  particular  position  of  water-level; 
but  there  is  one  variety  which  is  a  work  of  construction. 
Where  an  island  lies  close  to  the  mainland  or  close  to  an- 
other island,  the  waves  and  currents  usually  build  a  spit 
from  one  land  toward  the  other,  and  the  completion  of  this 
process  unites  the  two  by  a  natural  causeway,  which  is  over- 
run by  the  water  only  during  the  most  viok-nt  storms. 

Capes  also  in  general  express  the  relations  of  ancient 
forms  to  modern  ocean-level.  They  are  origimil  .salients  of 
land  iimsses.  There  is,  however,  a  special  type  depending 
on  the  modifications  of  shores  by  waves  aiul  currents.  An 
examination  of  the  map  of  the  .-Vtlantic  coast  from  Virginia 
to  Florida  will  show  a  scries  of  cusps  which  are  largely  in- 
dependent of  the  forms  of  the  neighboring  nuiiidand.  They 
consist  of  low  bars  of  sand,  aiul  arc  probably  associated  with 
eddies  of  the  oceanic  circidation. 

Passing  now  to  those  interior  features  of  the  land  which 
depend  upon  the  slope  or  relief  of  the  surface,  we  recognize 
that  certain  ones  are  convex  or  prominent,  others  are  con- 
cave, and  yet  others  are  intermediati'  in  character.  The 
principal  convex  features  are  plateaus,  mountains,  hills,  and 
ridges;  the  ccmcave,  basins,  valleys,  and  gorges;  the  inter- 
mediate, slopes,  plains,  terraces,  aiul  eliirs. 

PlnleauK  are  broa<i  uplands  of  somewhat  even  surface. 
They  may  be  indefinitely  bounded:  they  may  be  limited  on 
all  sides  by  clilTs  overlooking  adjacent  areius,  or  descetuiing 
cliffs  may  limit  them  on  oiu'  side  and  ascending  cliffs  or 
slopes  on  the  other.     Their  surface  may  be  continuous,  or 


may  be  interrupted  by  stream  gorges  or  by  valleys.  A 
I)lateau  traversed  by  many  deep  waterways  is  said  to  be  dis- 
sected. Many  plateaus,  including  all  the  greatest,  are  pro- 
duced by  the  u[iliftingof  plains;  others  are  sculptured  from 
greater  uplifted  masses,  and  owe  their  forms  to  the  presence 
in  those  masses  of  talmlar  bodies  of  resistant  rock  ;  yet  others 
are  produced  by  the  floodingof  an  upland  with  lavas  which, 
yielding  less  rapidly  to  subseijuent  erosion,  not  only  them- 
selves survive,  but  protect  the  rocks  beneath  them  while  the 
surrouiuiing  country.is  worn  down.  Plateaus  of  moderate 
size,  and  especially  those  with  lava  caps,  are  called  "table 
mountains,"  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  U.  S.  the  term 
"  mesa  "  is  applied  to  small  plateaus  definitely  bounded  by 
cliffs.     .See  Pi,ati;au. 

Mounfiihis  differ  from  plate.aus  by  having  narrow  or 
acute  summits,  and  they  are  always  bounded  by  steep  slopes. 
Many  are  due  to  uplift  along  relatively  narrow  belts,  ae- 
comjianied  with  folding  and  faulting  of  the  rocks.  Others 
are  built  by  the  heaping  of  lava  and  scoria  about  volcanic 
vents.  Yet  others  are  residua  of  i>lateaus  which  have  suf- 
fered stream  dissection  until  the  extensicm  of  gorges  and 
valleys  has  obliterated  the  original  even  top.  As  the  dis- 
section of  plateaus  proceeds  more  rapidly  in  soft  rocks  than 
in  hard,  the  residuary  mountains  usually  mark  the  positions 
of  the  harder  parts  of  the  great,  mass  originally  lifted  in  the 
creation  of  the  jilatejiu.     Sec  Moi-ntaix  and  Volcaxoi;s. 

JJills  are  prominences  smaller  than  mountains.  Some  of 
them,  like  some  mountains,  are  volcanic  heaps,  and  many, 
like  other  mountains,  are  produced  by  the  dissection  of 
plateaus  and  ]ilains;  but  none  are  the  direct  results  of  up- 
lift. A  large  numlier  are  occasioned  by  glacial  deposition, 
and  a  few  by  a'olian  deposition.  Hills  due  to  differential 
wear  by  rain  and  streams  are  partly  located  by  hard  rock 
masses"  and  partly  by  the  positions  of  minor  divides,  which 
often  have  no  relation  to  rock  texture.  Where  the  degrad- 
ing agent  is  glacial  ice.  relative  hardness  is  probably  the 
chief  determining  condition.  Hills  of  glacial  drift  are 
limited  to  the  tracts  which  were  overrun  by  the  Pleistocene 
glaciers  (see  Pleistocene  Period),  and  arise  from  the  ir- 
regularity of  the  process  by  which  the  detrital  load  of  a 
glacier  is  deposited.  Hills  of  a'olian  origin  (see  Dune)  are 
traveling  bodies  of  sand,  and  are  essentially  related  to  the 
rhythmic  process  by  which  the  wind  transports  such  ma- 
terial. In  general  hills  are  round-topped  as  compared  with 
mountains :  but  in  arid  regions  the  hills  containing  cores 
of  hard  rock  are  apt  to  have  acute  summits,  and  in  the 
Western  U.  S.  such  hills  are  partly  discriminated  by  the 
term  "butte." 

liidi/es.  being  merely  long  ami  narrow  hills  or  mountains, 
may  seem  ill  entitled  to  consideration  as  a  separate  class  ; 
but  usage  has  given  them  a  distinctive  name,  and  several 
of  the  processes  of  their  genesis  are  equally  distinct.  The 
greatest  of  ridges  are  produced  by  ujilift  and  are  called 
mountain  ranges,  and  the  same  process  is  appealed  to  in  ex- 
planation of  certain  very  small  ridges  measuring  but  a  few 
yards  in  height  and  a  few  rods  in  width.  AuKmg  glacial 
deposits  the  moraine,  the  osar  or  eskcr,  and  many  dnimlins 
are  ridges.  Where  streams  deposit  their  detrital  loads  in 
deltas  the  heaviest  deposits  are  made  next  the  banks,  so 
that  the  water,  when  at  low  stage,  flows  between  parallel 
ridges  or  natural  levees.  The  spits,  barriers,  and  bars  of 
gravel  anil  sand  which  are  built  along  coasts  by  the  action 
of  waves  and  currents  are  sulmierged  ridges,  and  if  afterward 
the  coast  is  lifted  above  water,  tliese  appear  as  ridges  of  the 
land.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  ridge-producing 
processes  is  dissection.  When  a  plain  is  lifted  so  high  as  to 
be  ilis-sectcd  by  its  streams  it  often  happens  that  the  prin- 
cipal streams  run  parallel  to  one  another,  and  as  their  val- 
leys broaden  the  intervening  tracts  are  reduced  to  ridges. 
Ridges  of  similar  origin  on  mountain-flanks  are  called 
"spurs."  When  a  plateau  consisting  of  folded  strata  is 
deeply  dissected,  as,  for  example,  in  the  Appalachian  dis- 
trict, the  ridge  is  the  most  important  of  the  resulting  fea- 
tures. The  original  folding  and  faulting  of  the  rocks  causes 
the  outcrops  of  the  various  beds  to  occ\ipy  long,  narrow, 
parallel  belts;  and  the  nnerpial  degradation  of  these,  de- 
pendent on  differences  in  the  qualities  of  the  rocks,  pro- 
duces a  system  of  parallel  valleys  and  ridges. 

Basins  are  tracts  limited  by  divides  or  water-partings. 
They  are  thus  units  with  reference  to  the  drainage  of  tJhe 
land  by  rivers.  They  may  be  regarded  as  secondary  results 
of  the  various  causes  which  produce  mountains  and  other 
uplands.  Their  interior  shapes  depend  largely  upon  the 
action  of  streams,  which  are  ever  engaged  in  remodeling  the 


602 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


face  of  the  land,  excavating  here  and  filling  there.  It  is  a 
general  law  of  stream  sculpture  that  the  upper  slopes  are 
steeper  than  the  lower,  and  basins  are  therefore  in  general 
eonoave  in  cross  profile,  as  the  name  implies.  Exceptions 
to  this  rule  are  introduced  by  local  uplift,  and  other  excep- 
tions depend  on  the  great  diflerences  among  rocks  in  their 
ability  to  oppose  and  retard  the  work  of  water.  Thus 
basins  are  <Iiversitieil.     See  Rivers. 

A  special  class  of  basins,  those  which  do  not  drain  to  the 
ocean  but  are  completely  encircled  by  water-partings,  de- 
serve separate  mention.  They  are  known  as  interior  or 
closed  basins.  Many  of  them,  including  the  greatest,  arise 
from  the  unequal  uplifting  of  the  land,  and  this  process  is 
supplemented,  especially  in  the  arid  interiors  of  continents, 
by  local  accumulations  of  alluvium,  which  gathers  with  rela- 
tive rapidity  along  the  bases  of  mountains.  In  a  region  of 
great  rainfall  the  alluvial  process  is  Inoperative,  because  the 
entire  water-supply  of  a  basin  escaping  from  it  at  one  point 
constitutes  so  powerful  an  agent  of  transportation  that  an 
alluvial  dam  can  not  be  formed  across  it.  Where  the  rain- 
fall is  so  scanty  that  the  rivers  are  not  perennial,  the  local 
mountain  storm  may  create  at  the  critical  point  an  alluvial 
<lam  which  is  not  immediately  removed,  and  which,  once  es- 
tablished, tends  to  grow  and  become  permanent.  This  is 
well  illustrated  in  the  Great  Basin  of  the  Western  U.  S., 
where  uplift  has  produced  a  multitude  of  ranges  trending 
N.  and  S.,  and  the  storm-swept  alluvium  from  these  has 
partitioned  the  intervening  valleys  into  many  separate 
basins.  Valleys  of  various  kinds  are  also  dammed  by  lavas 
and  thus  divided  into  basins ;  and  the  heaping  of  volcanic 
ejecta about  a  vent  walls  in  a  circular  basin  called  a  "crater." 
In  districts  where  the  prevailing  rock  is  limestone  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  drainage  is  often  subterranean,  the  rain- 
water finding  its  way  through  crevices  to  stream-bearing 
channels  beneath.  Such  crevices  are  in  time  enlarged,  as- 
suming funnel  forms,  when  they  are  known  as  "  limestone 
sinks "  or  "  swallow-holes,"  and  they  are  often  afterward 
clogged  at  the  bottom  and  converted  into  basins.  The  ir- 
regular heaping  of  sand  by  the  wind  leads  to  the  inclosure 
of  small  basins,  and  in  arid  regions  basins  are  sometimes 
hollowed  out  by  the  erosive  action  of  the  wind.  The  action 
of  a  stream  upon  its  channel  produces  a  somewhat  uneven 
bed,  so  that  if  the  water  is  afterward  dried  away  there  re- 
main a  series  of  small  basins.  On  a  greater  scale  ice-streams 
produce  uneven  beds,  and  the  great  areas  overrun  by  Pleis- 
tocene ice  abound  in  lake  basins  carved  from  the  rock. 
Most  of  these  are  shallow,  but  a  few,  like  the  hollows  hold- 
ing the  Laurentian  lakes,  are  deep.  Many  other  basins 
arise  from  the  obstruction  of  valleys  by  morainic  drift,  and 
the  uneven  surfaces  of  the  greater  moraines  abound  in  small 
hollows.  The  glaciated  area  is  thus  characterized  by  its 
numerous  basins,  and  as  the  rainfall  is  abundant,  these  are 
mostly  occupied  by  lakes  and  ponds.    See  B.isin  and  Lakks. 

Valleys  are  lowlands  between  uplands.  Many  valleys  are 
individual  basins,  but  others  are  parts  of  drainage  basins, 
and  yet  others  belong  to  several  basins.  An  important 
class  are  caused  by  differential  uplift,  or  perhaps  by  a  local 
sinking  of  the  land.  Another  important  class  are  carved 
out  by  streams  in  the  dissection  of  a  plateau.  The  ice  of 
the  Plei.stocene  period  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  altering 
the  forms  of  valleys  which  had  been  previously  created  by 
streams,  but  such  alteration  was  sometimes  of  greater  im- 
portance than  the  original  stream  work.  The  name  valley 
is  commonly  applied  only  to  those  hollows  having  at  bottom 
lowlands  of  some  width,  but  in  physical  geography  the  term 
is  sometimes  used  generically  for  all  hollows  of  the  land 
surface,  including  valleys  proper  and  gorges.    See  Valley. 

Gorges. — The  channel  occupied  by  a  stream  may  be  exca- 
vated from  the  rock  or  earth  beneath  or  inclosed  by  the 
building  of  banks  with  detritus  brought  by  the  stream  itself. 
When  a  stream  flows  at  base-level,  it  retains  a  constant 
depthot  channel,  building  on  one  bank  as  much  as  is  cut 
away  from  the  other.  If  the  tract  is  lifted  into  a  mountain 
or  plateau,  the  stream  at  once  cuts  its  channel  deeper,  pro- 
ducing a  treni-h  or  gorge.  When  uplift  is  arrested,  a  limit 
to  down-cutting  is  eventually  reached,  and  the  stream  then 
moves  to  the  right  and  left  laterally,  broadening  the  gorge 
and  producing  a  valley.  The  gorge  is  thus  the  first  step  of 
dissection  and  the  preluile  to  the  valley.  Where  uplift  is 
unequal  or  where  the  rocks  traversed  are  of  diverse  char- 
acter, the  valley  phase  is  reached  earlier  by  some  jiarts  of 
the  stream  than  by  others,  and  thus  many  streams  traverse 
alternately  valleys  and  gorges.  Gorges  are  produced  also 
by  stream-action  in  a  district   the  configuration  of    which 


has  been  modified  by  volcanism  or  by  glaciation,  and  in 
general  they  testify  to  the  recency  either  of  a  drainage  sys- 
tem or  of  conditions  by  which  it  is  affected.  The  synonomy 
of  the  word  gorge  is  extensive  but  chiefly  local.  The  ravine 
is  of  small  size;  a  glen  in  North  America  is  similar  to  a 
ravine,  but  in  Great  Britain  is  a  narrow  valley,  the  use  of 
chasm  is  largely  poetic,  but  always  implies  vertical  walls; 
clove  is  restricted  to  the  Catskill  Mountains  and  neighboring 
regions ;  canon  is  a  term  widely  used  in  the  western  parts  of 
the  U.  S.     See  Gorge  and  CaSon. 

Slopes. — The  meaning  of  the  word  mountain  includes  the 
idea  of  mass ;  the  meaning  of  valley  includes  that  of  vol- 
ume. If  we  avoid  these  implications  and  give  attention 
only  to  the  surface,  we  see  that  it  is  composed  of  various 
facets  or  slopes — for  example,  the  sides  of  mountains,  the 
sides  of  valleys,  etc.  A  special  terminology  ajiplies  to  the 
various  features  of  slopes.  Surfaces  nearly  level  ave  plains; 
a  class  of  fragmentary  plains  are  terraces ;  surfaces  nearly 
vertical  are  cliffs ;  and  certain  slopes  of  intermediate  grade 
have  also  received  names. 

Plains. — Tracts  of  land  are  rendered  approximately  level 
and  smooth  in  various  ways.  When  sediment  is  deposited 
beneath  a  lake  or  ocean,  the  agitation  of  the  water  tends  to 
lirevent  it  from  coming  to  rest  on  prominences  and  thus 
leads  to  the  filling  of  hollows,  and  the  ultimate  result  is  an 
even  surface.  Many  of  the  great  plains  have  been  thus 
formed  beneath  the  water  and  afterward  lifted  into  dry 
land.  Other  plains  are  produced  by  streams,  which  work 
toward  this  result  by  two  processes.  (1)  A  river  flowing  at 
base-level,  that  is,  having  its  surface  but  little  above  the 
body  of  water  to  which  it  discharges,  pursues  a  sinuous 
course,  and  washes  away  the  bank  on  the  outer  side  of  each 
curve,  at  the  same  time  building  up  the  bank  on  the  inner 
side.  In  this  way  il  enlarges  its  valley,  and  it  also  spreads 
over  the  bottom  of  the  valley  a  sheet  of  alluvium.  The 
surface  of  this  sheet,  being  overflowed  when  the  volume  of 
water  is  greatest,  is  called  the  flood-plain  of  the  stream. 
Although  the  material  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  flood- 
plain  is  deposited  by  the  stream,  the  plain  owes  its  extent 
primarily  to  the  action  of  the  stream  in  cutting  at  the  sides 
of  the  valley  so  as  to  enlarge  it.  (2)  Wherever  a  stream  de- 
posits more  than  it  excavates,  so  as  to  build  up  its  bed,  it 
produces  a  plain  by  burying  all  inequalities  of  the  pre- 
existent  surface  under  its  alluvium.  Deltas  are  plains  of 
this  character,  and  wherever  the  local  conditions  cause  a 
stream  to  deposit  its  load  in  an  interior  valley,  the  result  is 
a  detrital  [ilain  known  as  an  alluvial  cone.  Such  plains 
surround  the  bases  of  the  mountains  of  the  Great  Basin. 
When  a  tract  remains  for  a  very  long  time  with  the  same 
relation  to  the  sea,  its  streams  all  arrive  at  base-level  and 
open  out  broad  valleys,  and  eventually  the  divides  between 
the  valleys  waste  away  so  that  the  whole  tract  constitutes 
a  single  plain.  This  is  called  a  base-level  plain,  and  when 
the  process  of  formation  is  approximately  comiilete.  but  the 
positions  of  some  divides  are  still  marked  by  hills,  it  is 
known  as  a  peneplain.  A  few  plains  have  been  proiUiced  by 
great  floods  of  lava  filling  depressions  and  oliliterating 
previous  rugosity  of  the  surface.  A  more  important  class 
are  ascribed  to  the  destructive  and  constructive  processes 
pertaining  to  coasts.  The  waves  attack  promontories,  cut- 
ting them  away  and  accumulating  the  material  in  contigu- 
ous bays.  Their  tendency  is  thus  to  render  the  surface 
more  even ;  and  if  a  continent  is  slowly  depressed,  so  as  to 
permit  the  waves  to  accomplish  their  work  progressively 
over  the  whole  surface,  there  results  a  subaqueous  plain, 
and  this,  through  subsequent  uplift,  may  become  part  of 
the  land.  It  is  called  a  plain  of  marine  denudation.  See 
PLAi>f,  Delta,  and  Flood-plain. 

Terraces  are  subordinate  and  nearly  level  plains  inter- 
rupting steeper  slopes.  I'sually  they  are  bounded  upon  one 
side  or  liolh  by  clitfs.  Where  a  series  of  them  occur  on  the 
same  slo])e,  they  are  comparable  to  a  flight  of  stairs.  When- 
ever a  stream  held  long  at  base-level  has  develo])ed  a  broad 
flood-plain,  and  the  land  is  afterward  lifted  so  that  the 
stream  can  deepen  its  valley,  the  old  flood-plain  is  left  as  a 
terrace  on  the  side  of  the  valley.  Developing  a  new  flood- 
plain  at  the  new  base-level,  the  stream  may  obliterate  the 
terrace,  or  a  second  uplift  may  cause  it  to  abando:i  the 
newer  flood-plain  and  thus  leave  two  terraces  at  different 
heights.  Repetition  of  the  process  may  produce  an  indefi- 
nite number  of  terraces  on  the  same  valley-side  ;  but  a  series 
may  also  result  from  the  continuous  descent  of  a  stream 
channel  toward  an  ultimate  base-level,  provided  the  descent 
is  so  slow  that  it  does  not  prevent  a  considerable  amount  of 


PHYSIOGRAPHY 


603 


Iftteral  cutting.  When  a  repion  occuiiied  by  level  strata  of 
alternating  character  is  trenched  by  streams,  the  sides  of 
the  pirjtes  an;  eaten  back  by  the  wash  of  rains,  which  re- 
moves the  rock  as  fast  as  it  is  disinteijrated  by  frost,  etc. 
As  some  beds  are  disiritefjrated  more  rapidly  than  others, 
the  vulley-side  is  carveil  into  a  series  of  terraces.  Terraces 
of  another  type  were  produced  by  the  Pleistocene  jjlaciers, 
which  at  various  stages  of  their  rece.ssion  occuiiied  the  lower 
parts  of  valleys,  and  received  against  their  flanks  flat-topped 
accumulations  of  alluvium  which  remained  after  the  ice 
had  disappeared.  The  sloping  .strands  wrought  on  coasts 
by  the  waves,  and  the  deltas  built  at  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
both  appear  as  terraces  if  subsequent  changes  cause  the 
waters  to  retreat.     See  Tkrrace. 

CI ijfn  are  prodnced  directly  by  uplift  when  the  rock  on 
one  side  of  a  fracture  rises  above  the  other.  The  steep 
faces  of  some  mountains  are  of  this  origin.  The  sides  of  a 
gorge  are  clifTs  due  to  stream-cutting,  and  in  stream  valleys 
a  cliff  or  blnlf  is  produced  wherever  the  meandering  current 
encroaches  on  the  valley-siiic.  In  the  latter  case  the  cliil  is 
a.s.sociated  in  origin  with  the  flood-plains,  and  in  terraced 
valleys  such  clilfs  sometimes  occur  in  series.  The  same 
differential  process  which  develops  terraces  from  level 
strata  of  alternating  texture  also  develops  cliffs,  and  cliffs 
and  terraces  constitute  a  stairway.  Cliffs  are  also  produced 
by  unequal  erosion  by  glaciers,  and  at  the  heads  of  moun- 
tain glaciers  the  ice  eats  backward  by  a  sajtping  process, 
[)roducing  a  semicircular  clilf  known  as  a  cirque  or  amphi- 
tlieater.  W^iere  waves  erode  a  coast,  their  direct  work  is 
limited  to  a  zone  at  the  water-level,  and  they  undercut 
higher  masses  of  land,  causing  them  to  fall  away  in  cliffs. 
See  Clikk. 

Taluses. — The  stability  of  a  precipitous  cliff  depends  on 
the  strength  of  its  material,  and  it  wastes  away  as  rapidly 
a.s  its  rock  is  fractured  by  frost  or  sudden  heating.  Loos- 
ened fragnumts  fall  to  the  base,  and  there  accumulate  in  a 
steep  slope  which  eventually  extends  to  the  top.  .'^uch  a 
sloping  heap  of  detritus,  calleil  a  talus,  is  found  at  the  base 
of  every  clilf  which  is  not  by  some  process  perpetually  re- 
newed. Its  grade,  known  to  engineers  as  the  earth  slope, 
makes  an  angle  of  about  30'  with  the  horizon. 

Fkaturks  of  the  Water. — By  outline,  by  size,  and  by 
relation  to  land,  bodies  of  water  are  distinguished  as  oceans, 
sea.s,  lakes,  liays,  straits,  etc.  The  forms  of  their  bottoms 
are  distinguished  as  deeps,  oceanic  plateaus,  .shoals,  etc. 

Uceanx. — The  earth's  aqueous  envelope,  collectively  known 
as  the  ocean,  is  divided,  through  the  relation  of  its  parts  to 
continents,  into  a  number  of  parts,  likewise  called  oceans. 
The  ocean  ba.sins  are  but  complements  of  the  continental 
prominences,  and  ai'c  referable  to  the  same  unknown  cause. 
II  is  probable  that  the  ocean-beds  are  of  heavier  material 
than  the  continents,  and  that  an  adjustment  of  level  is  pre- 
vented by  this  difference  of  ik'nsity,  but  the  cause  of  the 
difference  is  not  understood.     See  Ui'EA.v. 

Seas  are  snudl  oceans,  and  their  basins  are  referable  to 
the  same  general  cause ;  but  it  is  generally  believed  that 
while  the  ocean  basins  are  part  of  the  original  configuration 
of  the  earth,  or  at  least  of  immense  antiquity,  some  of  the 
sea  ba>sins  are  relatively  young,  having  been  produced  by  the 
submergence  of  land  basins  through  the  depression  of  large 
continental  tracts. 

Lakes. — The  basins  occupied  by  lakes  and  ponds  liave  al- 
ready been  discussed  jus  ba.sins  of  the  land,  (iiven  an  inte- 
rior "basin,  or  cnp-like  hollow,  the  existence  of  a  pernuinenf 
lake  is  a  question  of  climate.  After  every  storm  the  water 
gathers  in  the  bottom  of  the  basin,  and  a  portion  of  it  at 
least  is  thence  evaporated.  The  rale  of  evaporat  ion  depends 
on  climate  and  the  extent  of  the  water  surface,  and  the  ex- 
tent of  water  surface  has  its  nui.ximum  detcrndned  by  the 
size  of  the  basin  at  the  level  of  the  lowest  point  of  its  rim. 
Thus  the  special  configuration  of  the  basin  and  the  local 
conditions  of  rainfall  ami  evaporation  deternune  whether 
or  not  it  shall  contain  a  pernuinent  lake,  and  if  permanent 
whether  the  lake  shall  have  outlet  over  the  rim.  The  basins 
of  all  lakes  are  slowly  filled  by  sediments  washed  into  them 
from  till'  siiU's;  the  channels  of  lake  outlets  are  gra<lually 
di'epened  by  the  outflowing  streams:  thus  in  two  ways 
physiographic  processes  tend  to  abolish  lake  basins,  and  but 
for  the  persistence  or  recurrence  of  the  processes  which  cre- 
ate them,  they  would  cease  to  diversify  the  face  (d'  I  he  land. 
See  Lakes. 

linys,  the  converse  of  capes,  are  re-entrants  of  the  land. 
Some  of  the  larger  are  called  (/i///x,  and  some  of  the  least 
inclosed  biy/ifs.     It  is  possible  that  some  are   remnants  of 


the  primordial  topography  of  the  globe,  but  the  greater 
number  may  be  ascribed  to  the  local  ujilift  of  the  promon- 
tories that  partly  inclose  them,  and  to  tlie  flooding  of  basins 
by  the  dejiression  of  l>roa<i  continental  tracts.  Where  the 
subinergeil  hollow  of  the  land  was  previously  a  stream  val- 
ley, the  resulting  bay  is  called  an  I'ntiiary  or  drownecl  river 
valley,  and  the  nanie_//o(v/  is  applied  to  submerged  valleys 
originally  shaped  by  glaciers.  The  extension  of  .spiis  into 
shallow  water  sometimes  partitions  off  a  portion  of  the  sea 
winch  is  known  as  a  lagoon. 

Straits,  the  converse  of  isthmuses,  have  a  similar  history 
which  need  not  be  recited.  When  the  passage  Ijetween  ah 
island  and  mainland  is  extensive,  it  is  sometimes  called  a 
rliannel.  and  the  word  .•ioiind  has  a  local  but  not  consistent 
use  in  the  same  sense. 

Tlie  coiitii/iiration  of  the  hed  of  the  ocean,  becoming  known 
only  through  the  plummet,  has  been  little  discussed  with  ref- 
erence to  its  causes.  Doubtless  the  greater  features,  the 
deejis  and  oceanic  plateaus,  result  from  the  same  causes 
which  have  jiroiluced  the  ocean  basins  themselves.  By  com- 
parison with  the  volcanic  peaks  which  project  above  the 
surface,  it  is  easy  to  infer  that  many  prominences  of  the 
ocean-floor  are  due  to  eniption.  The"  idea  fornu'rly  |)reva- 
lent,  that  the  sea-bottom  has  become  smooth  thnmgh  sedi- 
mentation, has  been  largely  di.spelled,  first,  by  the  discovery 
that  the  bed  of  the  deep  sea  is  not  more  level  than  the  sur- 
face of  the  land  ;  second,  by  the  discovery  that  the  sedi- 
ments washed  from  the  land  are  not  widely  spread,  but  fall 
to  bottom  chiefly  near  the  shore.  The  'submerged  belts 
close  to  the  coast  are  indeed  smoothed  and  shallowed  by 
sedimentation,  but  they  constitiite  only  a  small  part  of  th"e 
oceanic  area.  By  reason  of  their  eontra.sfed  character  they 
are  sometimes  called  the  continental  shelves.  The  points  o'f 
the  ocean-bed  which  approach  the  surface  are  sometimes 
acute,  and  are  then  called  reefs;  more  often  they  are  com- 
paratively smooth,  and  are  designated  as  shoal.s"  or  banks. 
It  is  probable  that  most  of  the  shoals  are  submerged  islands 
or  capes  whose  surfaces  have  been  leveled  by  sub-aerial 
processes  of  scidpture. 

Differentiation  and  Interpretation  of  Features. — In 
the  brief  outline  of  the  subject  here  presented  only  the 
principal  topographic  species  and  their  more  important 
genetic  varieties  have  been  mentioned,  and  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  explain  how  the  varieties  are  discriminated. 
It  is  in  general  true  that  all  the  various  topographic  forms 
produced  by  each  physiographic  agency  are  essentially  dis- 
tinct from  all  the  forms  ])roduced  by  each  other  agency, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  reseiiiblances  are  often  so 
great  that  the  same  name  may  with  propriety  be  applied  to 
results  from  several  processes.  Thus  certain  results  from 
uplift,  from  aqueous  erosion,  from  glacial  deposition,  and 
from  littoral  deposition  have  such  formal  resemblances  that 
they  are  all  called  ridges:  but  comparative  study  shows  that 
there  are  details  of  form  by  means  of  which  each  individual 
ridge  may  be  referred  to  its  cause.  These  criteria  arc  sup- 
plemented in  many  instances  by  differences  of  material  and 
differences  of  topographic  relation.  Through  attention  to 
such  distinctions  an  intelligible  nieainiig  is  found  in  each 
feature  of  the  landscape:  and  each  interpretation  of  a  topo- 
graphic form  is  a  contriliution  to  the  history  of  the  globe's 
surfac-e.  To  ravel  thai  history  the  geologist  studies  the  in- 
ternal siruclure.  the  gc-ogr-apher  the  s\irface  configuration. 
The  earlier  history  is  disi'overed  by  the  geologist  alone; 
there  is  an  intermediate  chapter  to  which  both  contribute, 
and  the  closing  paragra])hs  belong  to  the  student  of  geog- 
raphy. 

Bibliography. — Davis,  Geographic  Methods  in  Geologic 
Invpstigation  {Nat.  Geog.  3fag.,  vol.  i.,  ij.  16,  1888) ;  Davis, 
Hirers  and  \'al/(i/.v  i)f  J'cniisi/lrania  (^at.  Oeog.  Jfag.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  18;!,  188!)) :  Davis,  Jiivers  of  yorthern  New  Jersey 
(Nat.  Geog.  Mag.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  81, 18i)6) ;  de  hi  Noe,  Les  formes 
du  terrain  (1888);  Gcikie,  Scenery  of  Scotland  (1887):  Gil- 
bert, Geology  of  tlie  Henry  jl/ountains  (1877) ;  (iilbert. 
Topographic  Features  of  Lake  Shores  (Fifth  Ann.  Rpt. 
V.  S.  Geol.  Snrr..  ]k  6!),  1884);  Hayes  and  ramiibell.  Geo- 
morphologfi  of  tlie  Southern  Ap}ialachians  (Nat.  (leog.  Mag., 
vol.  vi.,  p."():!,  18!)4):  Ileini,  Gletschcrkunde.  (1885)':  Ilcim, 
Mechanismus  der  Gehirgsbildunq  (Zurich,  1878);  Huxley, 
J'hysiogra/ihi/  (l»S»);  JuM,  Volcanoes  (IHSl);  Powell,  Gedl- 
".'/.'/  of  the  Eastern  Portion  of  the  Uinta  Mountains  {lH7Qi); 
Powell,  Colorado  Hirer  of  the  We.ft  (1875):  Suess, />as  Ant- 
litz  der  Krde  (1888);  von  Kichthofen,  Fuhrer  fur  For- 
sc.hnnqsreisende  (1886);  Phillipson,  Studien  iiher  Wasaer- 
.■icheiden  (1886).  G.  K.  Gll.liERT. 


604 


PHYSIOLOGUS 


PHYSIOLOGY 


Physiologns  (Gr.  *v(rto\6yos):  the  title  given  to  a  Greek 
treatise  composed  in  tlie  early  Christian  centuries,  in  which 
the  habits  or  qualities  of  beasts,  birds,  reptiles,  and  even 
precious  stones  are  related  as  affording  allegorical  or  mys- 
tical illustration  of  Christian  truths.  The  natural  history 
of  the  book  is  of  the  most  fabulous  kind,  as  is  illustrated  by 
the  account  of  the  panther.  This  beast,  says  the  Physiologus, 
when  he  has  eaten  his  fill,  sleeps  three  days;  then  wakes 
and  lifts  up  his  voice,  at  the  same  time  emitting  with  his 
breath  a  wonderfully  sweet  odor.  Attracted  by  this,  all  the 
other  animals  from  far  and  near  approach,  except  the  ser- 
pent, which  is  the  panther's  enemy.  So  Christ,  risen  from 
the  dead  on  the  third  day,  gathered  about  him  both  .lews 
and  Gentiles ;  but  the  serpent  is  the  devil,  whom  Christ 
overcame.  Still  better  known  than  this  is  the  account  of 
the  fabulous  Phoenix,  symbolic  of  the  Resurrection. 

There  is  much  uncertainty  about  the  date  and  circum- 
stances of  the  composition  of  the  Physiologus.  It  is  proba- 
ble that  it  was  originally  written  at  Alexandria  in  the 
second  century  a.  d.,  and  intended  for  the  edification  of 
Christian  believers  of  a  mystical  turn  of  mind.  It  imme- 
diately became  extremely  popular,  and  for  many  centuries 
was  a  source  of  allegorical  illustrations  for  Christian  writers 
and  preachers.  It  was  translated  into  many  languages — 
Latin  (early  fifth  century),  Ethiopic,  Armenian,  Syriac. 
Arabic,  Anglo-Saxon,  German,  Icelandic,  English,  French, 
Provencal,  Spanish — not  all  of  these,  of  course,  directly 
from  the  Greek  original.  No  small  part  of  the  remarkable 
attributions  of  qualities  to  animals,  so  common  in  all  the 
literatures  of  Europe,  is  due  to  the  wide  circulation  of  this 
treatise  in  its  many  forms.  The  Greek  text  is  best  printed 
by  Pitra,  in  the  Specilegium  Sohsmense  (vol.  iii.,  1855) ;  the 
Latin  text,  by  Cahier,  ilelanges  crArcheologie  (vols,  ii.-iv.). 
For  an  account  of  the  origin,  character,  and  diffusion  of 
the  work,  and  a  bibliography  of  the  editions  of  the  various 
texts,  see  P.  Lauchert,  Geschichfe  des  Physiologus  (Strass- 
burg,  1889  ;  has  also  a  Greek  and  a  German  text).  See  also 
the  introduction  of  F.  Hommel.  in  his  Aethiopisehe  Veber- 
setzuiig  des  Physiologus  (Leipzig,  1877).        A.  R.  Marsh. 

Physiologry  [Gr.  (pvcris.  nature  -I-  \6yos.  discourse,  reason]  : 
that  department  of  natural  science  which  treats  of  the  laws, 
processes,  and  phenomena  of  living  organisms.  The  prom- 
inent features  of  the  physiology  of  the  human  being  are 
vital  force  and  nutrition.  Vitality  is  the  first  condition  of 
animal  existence — the  condition  determining  growth  and 
maintenance;  nutrition  supplies  the  material  of  the  ger- 
minal and  incipient  stages  of  organism,  the  mature  growth  of 
the  body,  and  constant  renewal  and  regeneration  which 
counterbalance  the  waste  of  tissue  metamorphosis. 

The  blood  is  the  circidating  nutritive  fluid  of  the  body — 
one-thirteenth  of  the  entire  weight,  or  about  12  lb.  It  is  al- 
kaline, and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1'052.  It  consists  of  the 
plasma,  or  water  with  allSumen,  fibrine,  and  salts  in  solu- 
tion, and  the  solid  elements,  the  red  and  white  blood-cells 
and  blood-plaques.  The  blood-cells  constitute  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  of  its  volume.  The  white  are  the  largest, 
but  relatively  few — one  to  three  or  more  hundred  of  the  red. 
The  white  have  active  aina'boid  movements,  and  proljably 
migrate  from  the  vessels  under  certain  circumstances  to 
form  new  cells  and  tissues  or  for  processes  of  repair.  Red 
corpuscles  carry  oxygen  from  the  lungs  to  the  tissues ; 
they  convey  nutritive  matters,  and  bring  about  changes  in 
certain  of  the  products  of  digestion.  Spectroscopic  anal- 
ysis of  red  globules  reveals  haemoglobin,  salts  of  potash,  and 
many  other  substances. 

The  heart  is  the  center  of  the  circulation,  propelling  the 
blood  into  the  arteries  with  a  force  of  51J  lb. — a  force  stead- 
ily decreasing  as  the  arteries  subdivide  and  approach  the 
capillaries.  Capillary  circulation  is  effected  chiefly  by  a  re- 
maining element  of  cardiac  force.  The  veins  return  the 
blood  to  the  heart.  The  veins  ai'e  more  numerous  than  the 
arteries — have  a  much  greater  capacity ;  hence,  the  venous 
blood  circulates  with  less  rapidity  than  the  arterial.  Venous 
return  is  aided  by  the  compression  of  the  integuments,  ex- 
ercise, and  the  presence  of  valves  in  the  veins.  In  15.5iS 
Servetus  discovererl  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through 
the  lungs.  In  l(i():i  Fabricius  demonstrated  the  valves  of 
thevein.s;  he  was  Harvey's  preceptor  at  Padua.  In  1616 
Harvey  demonstrated  the  general  circulation  of  the  blood, 
publishing  his  researchesjn  1628.  In  1661  Malpighi  discov- 
ered cells  in  tlie  bloo<l ;  in  1673  Leuwenhoeck  determined 
these  anatomical  elements  more  definitely  ;  in  1770-75  Will- 
iam Ilewson  discovered  the  white  blood-cells. 


Respiration  is  a  double  act  of  inspiration  and  expiration, 
expansion  and  contraction  of  the  lung.  Freshly  inhaled  air 
parts  with  oxygen  in  the  vesicles  of  the  lung,  which  is  taken 
up  by  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood,  while  expired  air  is 
loaded  with  carbonic-acid  gas.  received  from  venous  blood. 
Respiration  is  an  involuntary  act.  formerly  regarded  as 
reflex  from  the  presence  of  impure  air  in  the  lung,  now  es- 
tablished as  largely  emanating  from  the  cognizance  which 
the  medulla  oblongata  takes  of  the  nutritive  demand  of  all 
parts  of  the  body  tor  a  constant  supply  of  oxygen.  Certain 
lower  animals  have  no  lungs,  but  receive  the  oxygen  by 
direct  surface  absorption,  or  through  structures  which  are 
the  analogues  of  lungs. 

The  materials  of  the  blood  are  supplied  by  food  after 
preparation  by  the  processes  of  digestion.  Appetite  and 
hunger  are  also  sensations  of  centric  origin,  indicative  of  the 
nutritive  demands  of  the  tissues.  Food  must  be  varied  in 
character,  and  include  nitrogenous  substances,  hydrocar- 
bons, carbohydrates,  water,  and  a  proportion  of  salts.  The 
pi'climinary  steps  of  digestion  are  mastication,  insalivation, 
and  deglutition.  Albuminous  substances  are  digested  by 
the  gastric  and  pancreatic  juices,  starchy  and  saccharine 
substances  by  the  saliva  and  pancreatic  and  intestinal 
juices,  and  fatty  substances  by  the  secretions  of  the  small 
intestine,  pancreas,  and  liver.  Enmlsified  food  is  but  little 
absoi'bed  from  the  stomach,  but  chiefly  by  the  lacteals  of 
the  bowels,  and  emptied  by  the  thoracic  duet  into  the  blood. 
The  lacteals  are  a  part  of  the  general  lymphatic  or  absorb- 
ent vessels  distributed  throughout  the  body,  discovered  by 
Eustachius  and  Asellius  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Secre- 
tion is  the  action  of  special  glands  in  the  body,  which  elab- 
orate elements  of  the  blood  for  special  purposes,  as  the  fluid 
bathing  the  pleura  and  peritoneum,  the  synovial  fluid  lubri- 
cating joints,  mucus  to  moisten  the  air-tubes  and  intestines, 
saliva,  gastric  and  intestinal  juices  to  digest  food.  Excre- 
tion is  a  glandular  separation  from  the  blood  of  effete  prod- 
ucts— the  urine,  fiPces.  Pascal  matter  is  partially  debris  of 
digested  food.  Bile  is  to  be  regarded  secretory  so  far  as  it 
aids  digestion.  Certain  ductless  glands — the  spleen,  supra- 
renal capsules,  thymus,  thyroid,  pituitary,  and  pineal  glands 
are  specially  concerned  in  the  elaboration  of  the  blood.  Nu- 
tritive waste  and  supply  and  glandular  activity  evolve  heat 
to  maintain  the  normal  temperature  of  the  body — in  the 
healthy  adult,  98'5"  P.,  with  little  variation. 

The  nervous  system  was  divided  by  Bichat  into  the  cere- 
bro-spinal  and  the  sympathetic.  The  first  comprises  the 
brain,  spinal  cord,  motor  and  sensory  nerves,  and  nerves  of 
special  sense.  The  brain  and  cord  have  gray  and  white  sub- 
stances; the  gray  is  ganglionic,  composed  of  cells  which 
originate  force  or  receive  impressions ;  the  white  is  tubular, 
nerve-tracts  which  transmit  motor  stinnilus  from  the  brain 
to  the  muscles  or  sensory  impressions  from  the  body  to  the 
brain.  The  rapidity  of  nerve  action  is  about  111  feet  per 
second.  Motor  nerve-fibers  terminate  in  neural  plates  upon 
the  surface  of  the  muscular  fiber.  Sensation  is  received  by 
the  tactile  bodies  of  the  hands  ami  feet,  the  sensative  papil- 
hp  of  the  skin,  taste-buds  of  the  tongue,  etc.  The  brain 
comprises  the  cerebrum — the  seat  of  the  mind — the  basal 
ganglia,  the  cerebellum,  pons  Varolii,  and  medulla — control- 
ling vital  functions.  The  spinal  cord  is  a  column  of  nerve- 
fibers  connecting  the  brain  with  their  distributions  through- 
out the  l)ody.  It  possesses  a  vast  number  of  nerve-cells,  and 
is  the  seat  of  independent  reflex  action  ;  it  also  has  a  partial 
control  of  co-ordinated  action  of  groups  of  muscles.  The 
cranial  nerves  proceed  from  the  brain  to  their  destination 
without  entering  the  cord  ;  they  are  partly  nerves  of  special 
sense — sight,  hearing,  smell,  anil  taste ;  the  facial  nerve  gov- 
erns the  expression  of  the  face:  the  pneumogastric  nerve 
has  important  connections  with  the  action  of  the  heart,  res- 
piration, and  movements  of  the  larynx,  and  also  influences 
the  digestive  processes. 

Speech  is  produced  by  movements  of  the  larynx,  tongue, 
teeth,  and  lips,  methodically  trained  to  create  sounds,  which, 
by  custom,  are  representative  of  ideas;  it  is  an  artificial 
nietliod.  the  invention  of  man.  and  slowly  developed  and 
[x'rfected.  Siglit  is  the  impression  received  by  the  brain  of 
light  and  the  iuiages  of  objects,  transmitted  through  the  op- 
tical media  of  tlie  eye  to  the  sensitive  retina  and  optic  nerve. 
Hearing  is  a  transmission  of  sound-waves  to  the  tympatium, 
and,  by  the  system  of  ossicles  and  resonating  canals  and 
cavities,  to  the  filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve.  Generation, 
or  reproduction  of  definite  .species  and  of  individual  charac- 
teristics, is  the  result  of  predetermined  law.  Conception 
begins  with   the   fecundation   of  germiiuil  elements,  which 


PHYSIOLOGY,  VEGKTABLE 


605 


develop  vitality,  motion,  and  nntritive  f;rowl[i:  by  succes- 
sive steps — cellular  uuiHiplicution,  nutritive  mi'iiibranc, 
nerve-canals,  primitive  bloud-vesscls,  heart,  lungs,  glands. 
lateral  walls  of  tlic  body,  inclosing  cavities,  budding  of  the 
extremities,  and  facial  conformation — the  embryo  pro- 
gresses to  the  perfect  lainian  lieing. 

Revised  l)y  Edward  T.  Keiciiert. 
Physiology,  Vcj^etable :  that  brandi  of  science  which 
deals  with  the  activities  of  tlie  cells,  tissues,  and  organs  of 
living  plants.  To  treat  of  these  exhaustively  wcmld  far  ex- 
ceed tlie  limits  of  lliis  article,  so  oidy  a  general  outline  of 
the  subject  is  liere  given.  For  convenience,  the  phi'nomena 
involved  may  be  considered  under  five  lieads,  viz..  Nutri- 
tion, (irowth,  IJcproduction,  Physics  of  Vegetation,  and 
Plant  Movements. 

NirTRiTioN  inchidcs  all  those  activities  wliich  have  to  do 
with  the  supply  of  matter  to  meet  the  wants  of  living  cells. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  life  of  a  cell  involves  the 
use  of  nuitter.  and  that  as  long  as  a  cell  is  living  it  must 
have  a  continual  supply  of  certain  substances.  .Accordingly 
we  find  that  every  mass  of  living  protoplasm  under  favora- 
ble conditions  is  continually  absorbing  watery  solutions. 
Imbibition  is  one  of  the  most  pronounced  of  the  properties 
of  living  protoplasm,  and  its  absence  is  one  of  the  marked 
distinctions  between  living  and  dead  cells.  Along  with  the 
water  thus  absortied  are  taken  in  the  various  substances  dis- 
solved in  it  :  these  may  have  been  solids  dissolved  in  the 
water,  or  liquids,  or  even  gases.  It  appears,  however,  that 
solutions  are  not  always  absorbed  without  modification  ;  thus, 
of  a  2-per-cent.  solution  outside  of  the  cell  proportionately 
more  water  than  dissolved  substance  may  be  absorbed,  so 
that  the  solution  in  the  cell  may  have  a  strength  of  no  more 
I  han  1  per  cent. ;  or  the  opposite  may  occur,  and  the 
strength  of  the  solution  in  the  cell  may  be  greater  than  that 
outside  of  it.  This  selective  power  may  even  bring  about 
chemical  changes  in  the  watery  solutions,  when  the  plant- 
cells  absorb  certain  constituent  parts  of  the  chemical  com- 
pounds. 

Once  absorbed,  the  solutions  diffuse  through  the  watery 
protoplasm  and  the  watery  contents  of  the  vacuoles,  "cell- 
sap."  This  diffusion  continues  from  cell  to  cell  in  thin- 
walled  tissues,  and  is  here  known  as  osmosis,  the  thin  cell- 
walls  serving  as  permeable  membranes  through  which  the 
solutions  pas.s.  In  laboratory  experiments  the  rate  of  dif- 
fusion varies  greatly,  and  is  dependent  upon  the  solution 
itself,  the  substance  in  which  il  diltuses.  and  the  tempera- 
ture; thus  hydrochloric  acid  diffuses  more  than  twice  as 
rapidly  as  common  salt,  and  seven  times  as  rapidly  as  cane- 
sugar.     This  law  must  hold  fbr  solutions  in  plants'  also. 

Gases  also  are  absorbed  directly  by  living  cells,  and  these 
are  diffused  through  other  gases  'in  the  plant,  or  they  enter 
into  watery  solutions  as  described  above. 

In  all  the  fori'going  the  plant  is  simply  taking  material, 
but  the  latter  does  not  yet  properly  constitute  a  part  of  its 
living  sul)stance.  It  is  still  unas'similiited  plant-food,  and 
must  undergo  considerable  changes  l)efore  the  plant  can 
make  use  of  it.  One  of  the  be.st  known  of  the  assimilative 
processes  is  that  by  which  the  plant  obtains  its  carbon, 
hence  called  carbon-n.ssimilaticm,  or,  on  account  of  its  great 
importance,  often  spoken  of  as  assimilation  exclusively. 
The  term  here  used,  carbon  assimilation,  is  to  be  preferred, 
inasmuch  as  it  permits  us  to  speak  of  other  kinds  of  assimi- 
lation in  the  plant. 

Carlion  assimilation  takes  place  only  in  protoplasm  which 
is  stained  with  chlorophyll.  When  a'green  mass  of  proto- 
plasm is  supplied  with  carbon  dioxide  (CO,),  it  is  able  in  the 
sunlight  (or  other  strong  light)  to  break  up  this  compound 
and  to  use  its  carbon.  At  the  same  time  some  of  \]\v  water 
(II3O)  is  liroki-n  nj}  anil  its  constituents  are  united  with 
those  of  the  carbon  dioxide.  The  successive  stejis  can  not 
be  given  with  certainty.  One  of  the  best-known  comijounds 
formed  in  the  series  (')f  changes  is  starch  (('ellioOt),  which 
may  usually  be  detected  in  the  green  cells  after  they  have 
bc'cn  exjiosed  to  the  light  for  some  time.  The  results  thus 
far  may  be  expressed  as  follows  : 

5  molecules  of  11,0  -        ll,„0j 

6  molecules  of  C'(^j  =  ('o         0,j 
1  molecule  of  starch  =  C.TTTTOT" 

K.xcess  of  oxygen  =  (),, 

Now,  while  starch  is  not  made  in  such  a  direct  way,  it  is 
worthy  of  note  that  in  the  chemical  changes  involved  there 
is  a  setting  free  of  oxygen  as  recpiired  by  the  expression 
above.     In  some  eases  the  carbon  compounil  formed  at  this 


.stage  is  not  starch,  but  something  etpiivalent  (physiolog- 
ically) to  it,  as  oil,  or  possibly  glucose  (CoIIiaOo).  These  car- 
bohydrates are  readily  taken  into  the  protoplasm  as  con- 
stituents of  its  substance,  from  which  in  turn  it  may  build 
a  cellulose  wall  ((',II,„()t),  or  form  glucose  (CoH.jO,),  sucrose 
(CijIljjO,,),  inulin.  giiins,  oils,  acids,  etc.  The  importance 
of  carbon  assimilation  may  be  inferred  at  once  from  the 
fact  that  abont  one-half  o'f  the  dry  substance  of  plants  is 
composed  of  carl)on,  all  of  which  has  been  obtained  from 
carbon  dioxide  by  the  process  outlined  above. 

Another  important  assimilative  process  is  that  by  which 
nitrog<'n  is  obtained.  Tliis  substance,  although  not  present 
in  such  large  (piantity  as  carbon,  is  of  high  i'mportance  on 
account  of  its  entering  largely  into  the  composition  of  pro- 
toplasm, and  especially  the  cell  nucleu.s.  Inasmuch  as  about 
80  per  c(mt.  of  the  air  is  free  nitrogen,  it  might  be  supposed 
that  plants  derive  it  from  this  source,  but  careful  experi- 
ments show  this  not  to  be  the  case.  On  the  contrary,  the 
nit;rogen  is  derived  from  compounds  in  the  air  and  water, 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  nitrates  of  various  bases  (e.  g.  soda, 
potash,  lime,  animonia,  etc.),  or  some  ammonia  salt  (e.  g. 
the  nitrate,  chloride,  sulphate,  carbonate,  etc.).  In  the 
higher  plants  it  has  been  shown  that  these  compounds  un- 
dergo decomposition  and  reconstruction  in  the  leaf,  the  re- 
sult being  the  formation  of  proteid  substances;  but  it  is 
also  held  that  probably  every  living  cell  is  capable  of  taking 
part  in  these  processes. 

Of  the  assimilation  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  still  less 
is  known  than  in  the  case  of  nitrogen.  We  know  that  sul- 
phur is  absorb<'d  in  the  form  of  sulphates  (of  ammonia, 
potash,  lime,  and  magnesia),  and  some  of  these  are  to  be 
found  in  the  cells  of  plants,  but  where  and  how  they  are 
broken  up  is  not  known.  It  has  been  suggested  tha't  the 
crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  which  occur  in  many  plants  are 
residua  of  chemical  changes  by  which  sulphur  was  set  free 
from  calcium  suljihate.  If  true,  this  would  sliow  that  the 
assimilation  of  sulphur  takes  place  in  all  active  tissues  of 
the  [jlant.  Phosphorus  is  absorbed  in  the  phosphate  of 
lime,  which  undergoes  decomposition  in  the  tissues,  but  the 
details  of  the  process  are  not  known. 

A  number  of  other  substances — e.  g.  potassium,  calcium, 
iron,  etc.— enter  into  the  proper  food  of  plants  as  solutions 
of  their  .salts,  which  afterward  undergo  decomposition,  thus 
allowing  their  assimilation.  They  are  commonly  called  the 
"  ash  "  of  plants,  and  are  often  erroneously  regarded  as  con- 
sisting of  unassimilated  matter.  That  tliev  enter  into  the 
vital  activities  of  the  plant  has  been  shown  by  the  experi- 
ment of  withholding  them,  with  the  result  that  the  plant  so 
treated  always  languishes  or  dies. 

Even  after  the  various  substances  which  constitute  plant- 
food  have  become  assimilated  they  undergo  many  chemical 
changes.    Every  living  ti.ssue.  and  perhaps  everv  living  cell, 
is  the  seat  of  chemical  changes  in  assimilated  inatter,  whose 
results  have  in  many  cases  been  made  out  by  chemists  who 
have  made  numerous  analyses,  but  in  no  case  are  the  details 
of  these  chemical  changes  <'crtainly  known.     We  know  that 
in  many  of  these  operations  oxygen  is  absorbed  bv  the  active 
cells,  and  that  as  one  result  of  their  activity  they  excrete 
carbon  dioxide.     These  after-changes  of  assii'nilated  matter 
have  l>een  known  in  physiology  as  metastasis  or  metabolism. 
To  the  foregoing  g(>ni'ral  ac'eount   of  the  nutritive  activi- 
ties of  |ilaiits   should    be   added    the   following:  In   homo- 
geneous-celled holophyles  (i.  e.  green  plants  whose  cells  are 
all  alike)  every  cell  performs  all  the  operations  noted  above; 
but  in  heterogeneous-celled  holophytes  there  is  a  division  of 
labor.  Some  cells  or  ma.sses  of  cells  engaging  in  certain  ac- 
tivities (piite  dilTerent  from  those  engaged  in  bv  other  cells 
or  tissues.     Thus  in  a  moss  the  cells  of  the  root-hairs  (rhi- 
zoids)  which  cloihe  tlie  suliterrancan  part  of  the  stem  engage 
in  the   ab-sorption  of  watery  solutions  almost  exclusivcfv, 
ami  since  they  do  not  take  ])art   in  carlion  assimilalion  they 
are  destitute  of  chlorojihyll.     On  the  other  hand,  the  cell's 
in  the  leaves  are  active  in  carbon  assimilation,  and  have  an 
abundance   of    chlorophyll.     They   absorl)   carbon    dioxide 
and  but   very  little,  if  any,   water  or  soluble  food-matter. 
The  cells  of  the  leaves  and  stem  must  therefore  obtain  their 
supply  of  watery  soliiti<.ns  from  the  cells  in  the  .soil.     The 
cells  contiguous  to  those  which  absorb  the  .solutions  from 
the  soil  ab.sorb  from  the  latter,  those  next  removed  now  ab- 
■sorb  from  those  newly  supiilied,  and  so  on  from  cell   to  cell 
to  those  at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  planl.     In  this  way, 
by  simple  absorption  from  cell"  to  cell,  water  and  solutions 
are  transported   to  all   portions  of  the  plant-body.     Now, 
many  of  the  cells  above  ground  are  often  in  contact  with 


606 


PHYSIOLOGY,   VEGETABLE 


dry  air  into  which  some  of  their  water  evaporates.  The 
ceils  which  suffer  this  loss  of  water  repair  it  by  absorbing 
water  from  contiguous  cells,  and  these  absorb  from  still 
others,  and  so  on.  There  is  thus  a  general  upward  move- 
ment of  water  in  the  moss-stem  due  to  the  loss  of  water 
from  the  leaves.  Again  it  is  .seen  that  the  carbohydrates 
ai'e  formed  in  the  green  cells  alone,  and  from  these  they  are 
diffused  and  absorbed  as  solutions  from  cell  to  cell  through- 
out the  plant.  Thus  there  may  be  an  upward  movement  of 
water  while  there  is  a  downward  diffusion  of  carbohydrates 
(and  probably  of  other  assimilated  matters  also). 

In  a  plant  with  a  still  more  complex  structure,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  common  sunflower,  the  cells  of  the  surface  of  the 
roots  absorb  watery  solutions,  which  are  then  absorbed  from 
cell  to  cell  in  tlie  large  and  numerous  i-oots,  finally  passing 
in  the  same  way  from  eel!  to  cell  in  the  stem  and  even  to 
the  leaves  and  flowers.  The  loss  of  water  by  evaporation 
from  the  leaves  is  much  less  proportionately  than  from  the 
leaves  of  mosses,  the  latter  consisting  of  but  a  single  layer 
of  unprotected  cells,  while  the  active  cells  in  the  sunflower- 
leaf  are  protected  by  a  layer  of  specially  modified  thick- 
walled  cells  (the  epidermis)  less  pervious  to  moistui'e.  When, 
however,  the  stomates  (breathing  pores)  are  open  for  the  in- 
gress and  egress  of  gases,  much  nu>isture  escapes,  and  this 
is  replaced  by  absorption  from  cell  to  cell  as  in  the  moss. 
The  fact  that  moisture  escapes  through  the  open  stomates 
has  led  to  the  assumption  that  they  are  for  the  purpose  of 
permitting  moisture  to  escape,  and  that  the  leaves  of  higher 
plants  are  "  organs  of  evaporation."  On  the  contrary,  the 
stomates  are  clearly  for  pi'eventing  as  far  as  possible  the 
loss  of  water,  while  permitting  the  free  interchange  of 
gases,  and  the  leaf  is  rather  a  skillfully  devised  structure  in 
which  a  multitude  of  thin-walled  cells  gorged  with  moisture 
are  exposed  freely  to  the  air  with  a  minimum  of  lo.ss  of 
water  by  evaporation. 

The  stomates  of  the  leaves  and  stem  when  open  admit 
the  external  gases  to  the  intercellular  spaces  of  the  whole 
plant,  and  also  allow  the  internal  gases  to  escape  into  the 
air.  There  is  thus  a  respiration  in  plants  of  the  high  or- 
ganization of  the  sunflower,  l^ut  when  examined  closely  this 
does  not  differ  in  any  essential  from  the  simple  absorption 
and  excretion  of  gases  by  a  single-celled  jilant. 

In  the  hysterophytes  (parasites  and  saprophytes)  the  solu- 
tions absorbed  consist  partly  or  wholly  of  assimilated  mat- 
ter. When  this  includes  the  carbon  products  of  assimila- 
tion the  plant  does  not  develop  chlorophyll,  as  in  the  dod- 
ders, Indian-pipes,  broom-rapes,  and  the  vast  assemblage  of 
"fungi."  When,  however,  there  is  little  or  no  absorption 
of  carbon  compounds,  chlorophyll  is  present  and  the  leaves 
are  well  developed,  as  in  the  mistletoe.  In  the  dodders  the 
absorption  is  performed  by  suckers  (outgrowths)  on  the 
steins,  and  as  a  consequence  the  roots  do  not  develop.  In 
these  leafless,  rootless,  and  eventually  almost  stemless 
plants  there  is  probably  little  assimilation  of  any  kind : 
they  are  nourished  much  as  the  flower  and  fruit-clusters  of 
ordinary  plants  are.  The  evaporation  of  water  is  probably 
as  rapid  in  hysterophytes  as  in  holophytes  of  equal  struc- 
tural complexity  and  similar  habits.  The  fungi  quickly  lose 
their  water  and  become  wilted  and  dried  up  when  their  sup- 
ply of  moisture  is  cut  off.  On  the  other  hand,  among  the 
flowering  hysterophytes  the  absence  or  small  size  of  the 
leaves  greatly  reduces  the  amount  of  evaporation.  Clearly, 
also,  the  respiration  of  hysterophytes  is  less  than  in  holo- 
phytes, there  being  little  or  no  absorption  of  carbon  dioxide. 
Oxygen,  however,  is  absorbed,  and  carbon  dioxide  excreted 
by  most  if  not  all  hysterophytes. 

Growth.— A  young  cell  consists  of  a  nucleus  and  a  solid 
(continuous)  mass  of  protoplasm  closely  invested  by  a  wall. 
During  the  nutritive  processes  described  above  the.  sub- 
stance of  the  protoplasm  is  increased,  and  this  requires  an 
increase  in  the  area  of  the  wall ;  these  two  increments  con- 
stitute the  simple  growth  of  the  cell.  Later,  the  absorption 
of  water  and  the  formation  of  a  large  vacuole,  with  or  with- 
out an  increase  in  the  mass  of  the  protoplasm,  may  require 
the  iiKM-ease  in  the;  area  of  the  wall :  this,  also,  is  gVowth  of 
the  cell.  In  its  increase  in  area  the  wall  is  first  distended 
by  the  internal  pressure,  and  new  matter  (<'ellulose)  is  se- 
creted upon  or  in  it,  thus  permanently  increasing  its  area. 

In  simple  plants  every  cell  may  grow,  producing  an  ag- 
gregate growth  of  the  whole  plant-body.  As  each  cell 
reaches  a  certain  size  it  divides  into  two,  which  then  grow, 
and  divide  again,  and  so  on.  Contiiuied  growth  thus  in- 
volves the  growth  of  the  cell  and  its  fission,  and  where  the 
plant-body  is  made  .up  of  similar  cells  the  growth  is  general 


throughout  it.  Where,  however,  the  plant-body  is  made  up> 
of  dissimilar  cells,  involving  and  implying  dissimilarity  of 
function,  growth  is  confined  to  particular  masses  of  cells, 
occupying  definite  portions  of  the  plant-body  or  its  organs. 
In  such  a  case  we  generally  say  that  growth  is  confined  to 
the  younger  cell-masses;  this  is  necessarily  true,  but  con- 
veys little  information ;  it  would  be  more  accurate  to  say 
that  such  and  such  cell-masses  have  a  short  growing  period, 
while  others  retain  their  power  of  growth  for  long  periods. 
The  woody  stem  of  an  ordinary  dicotyledonous  shrub  or 
tree  consists  of  masses  of  different  kinds  of  cells  which  soon 
lose  their  power  of  growth  ;  thus  the  wood-cells,  vessels,  and 
even  the  parenchymatous  cells  of  the  wood,  pith,  and  bark 
are  soon  incapable  of  growth  in  size,  and  retain  but  little 
longer  the  power  of  growth  in  thickness  of  the  wall.  In 
the  same  stem  certain  other  cells  (lying  between  the  wood 
and  bark)  retain  their  growing  power  for  many  months. 

Reproduction. — One  of  the  most  important  functions  of 
plants  is  reproduction,  or  the  formation  of  new  individuals 
from  the  living  cells  of  those  already  existing.  For  a  dis- 
cussion of  this  subject,  see  Reproduction  {in  Plants). 

TuE  Physics  of  Veoetation. — Since  all  parts  of  plants 
are  composed  of  matter,  it  follows  that  they  are  subject  to 
physical  forces.  In  a  living  cell  there  is  no  suspension  of 
the  action  of  any  force  or  of  any  physical  law.  Every 
atom  of  matter  in  the  cell  is  as  much  under  the  control  of 
force  as  it  was  before  it  entered  into  living  matter.  In  the 
cell  there  are  many  forces,  and  what  we  see  is  the  resultant 
of  all,  not  of  one  alone,  and  it  is  this  complex  result  which 
sometimes  has  puzzled  us.  We  can  no  more  reasonably 
doubt  that  the  matter  in  living  cells  is  still  subject  to  phys- 
ical forces  because  of  apparently  paradoxical  results  than 
we  can  entertain  doubts  of  the  mutual  attraction  of  all  mat- 
ter because  smoke  rises,  or  the  similar  poles  of  magnets  re- 
pel one  another.  It  is  only  when  we  take  a  superficial 
view  of  such  cases  that  they  appear  paradoxical. 

It  is  not  necessary,  even  if  it  were  possible,  to  discuss  in 
detail  the  action  of  the  various  physical  forces  upon  each 
mass  of  matter  in  living  plant-cells.  It  concerns  us  more 
in  this  place  to  note  the  behavior  of  the  living  cells,  cell- 
masses,  or  the  whole  plant  under  the  influence  of  physical 
forces  of  varying  intensities. 

Heat. — For  every  cell  there  is  a  certain  range  of  tempera- 
ture in  which  it  is  active,  culminating  in  an  optimiim  tem- 
perature; above  this  its  activity  decreases  rapidly  to  its 
ma.nmu7}i  temi^erature,  where  all  activity  ceases.  In  like 
manner  below  the  optimum  temperature  activity  decreases; 
not  so  rapidly,  however,  until  the  minimum  is  reached, 
where  activity  ceases  again.  This  range  of  activity  is  not 
the  same  for  all  plants,  and  in  many-celled  plants  it  often 
differs  considerably  for  different  parts  of  the  plant-body. 
Prof.  Sachs,  of  Germany,  determined  this  range  for  the  ger- 
mination of  the  following  seeds : 


SEEDS. 

Minimum. 

Optimum. 

Maximum. 

Indian  corn 

Pumpkin 

Wheat  . . 

9-4»  C.=48-92°  F. 
140°  C.=57-2  °  F. 
.50°C.=4I0  ■=  F. 
50''C.=410  °  F. 

34'>C.=93-a°F. 
34°0.=9.S-8°F. 
a9''C.=84-2°F. 
29°C.=84'2°F. 

46°C.  =  114-8°F. 
46°  C.  =  n4-8°  F. 
42°  C  -107-6°  F 

37°  C-  98-6°F. 

Common  observation  shows  that  plants  differ  much  as  to 
the  degree  of  heat  necessary  for  germination,  as  well  as  for 
other  activities,  but  we  have  little  in  the  way  of  careful  meas- 
urements upon  anything  more  than  the  germination  of 
seeds.  Certain  experiments  appear  to  indicate  that  the 
range  in  green  parts  of  plants  is  much  greater  than  has 
usually  been  supposed,  in  some  cases  approaching  0°  C. 
and  in  others  reaching  50°  to  55°  C.  (123°  to  131°  F.),  or 
even  more.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certain  that  other  parts 
of  plants  will  not  endure  such  temperatures;  e.  g.  roots  and 
underground  stems. 

When  tlie  maximum  temperature  for  a  plant-cell  is  ex- 
ceeded, a  point  is  generally  soon  reached  where  by  coagula- 
tion of  the  albuminoids  or  by  some  other  changes  the 
structure  of  the  protoplasm  is  permanently  altered,  render- 
ing further  activity  impossible,  even  upon  the  return  to  a 
favorable  temperature.  Such  a  cell  is  "  dead."  Reduction 
of  the  temperature  below  the  minimum  sooner  or  later  re- 
sults in  a  similar  permanent  alteration  of  the  .structure  of 
the  protoplasm,  with  the  consequent  "death  "of  the  cell. 
Here  it  is  noticed  that  watery  cells  can  not  endure  as  low 
temperatures  as  those  which  contain  little  water;  e.  g.  a  dry 
embryo  in  a  kernel  of  Indian  corn  will  endure  a  tempera- 
ture of  40°  or  more   below  0°  C.  (  —  40    F.),  liut  when  it  has 


PHYSIOLOGY,  VEGETABLE 


60T 


made  a  little  growtli  a  slight  frost  (0°  C.  or  32°  F.)  will 
quickly  kill  it.  In  many  respects  the  results  of  too  great  a 
reiluclion  of  temperature  are  similar  to  those  [jroduced  by 
too  great  an  elevation  ;  the  alliuminoiils  heeoine  coagulated 
and  the  protoplasm  structure  is  permanently  changed.  In 
both  cas<>s  the  power  of  imbibing  water  and  of  rendering 
the  cell  turgid  is  lost,  and  in  ordinary- temperatures  chem- 
ical changes  in  the  free  solutions  soon  set  in,  resulting  in 
their  rapid  disintegration. 

Liijld. — Directly  or  indirectly  all  plants  are  dependent 
upon  the  light.  Although  many  para.sites  and  saprophytes 
grow  in  complete  darkness,  they  do  so  by  using  nuUerial 
which  developed  in  the  light.  We  have  seen  (siiprd)  that 
carbon  assimilation  is  possible  in  the  light  only  in  cells 
whose  protophism  is  stained  with  chlorophyll.  All  the  car- 
bon of  vegetation  came  originally  from  chlorophyll-bearing 
cells,  made  active  by  the  light.  Just  how  the  light  affects 
the  green  protoplasm  in  carbon  assimilation  is  not  known, 
nor  do  we  know  how  light  brings  about  the  formation  of 
chlorophyll  by  the  protoplasm.  We  can  only  regard  light 
as  a  force  which,  acting  upon  the  complex  compdund  pro- 
tophism, produces  molecular  changes  resulting  in  the  secre- 
tion first  of  chlorophyll,  and  second  of  a  carbon  compound. 
Here  it  must  be  remarked  that  not  all  cells  secrete  chloro- 
phyll in  the  light,  although  many  which  are  normally  color- 
less become  green  under  its  influence;  thus  while  many 
roots  !i,nd  uniU>rground  stems  become  green  on  exposure  to 
the  light,  the  petals  of  many  flowers,  the  stems  of  the  dod- 
ders, and  the  cells  of  fungi  when  so  exposed  develop  no 
chlorophyll.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  some  kind  of  color- 
ing-nnittcr  is  ])roduce(l  in  nearly  all  cells  on  exposure  to 
the  light,  as  is  well  shown  Vjy  the  familiar  experiment  of 
growing  Uowers,  fruits,  and  various  fungi  in  complete  dark- 
ness, when  they  are  usually  much  paler  or  wholly  wanting 
in  color.  The  color  of  some  flowere  appears  to  be  in(h^- 
pendent  of  the  direct  action  of  light,  as  shown  by  Prof. 
Sachs,  who  ol>tained  perfectly  normal  flowers  of  the  tulip, 
iris,  s(iuash,  and  morning-glory  when  grown  in  the  darkness, 
although  the  leaves  were  completely  etiolated. 

It  has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  light  somewhat 
retards  the  growtli  of  certain  cells.  A  shoot  grown  in  dark- 
ness or  deficient  light  is  always  longer  than  one  grown  in 
strong  light.  Even  in  the  daily  growth  of  plants  the  rate 
during  the  day  is  less  than  during  the  night.  This  has 
been  called  by  Prof.  Vines,  of  England,  the  "  tonic  influ- 
ence of  light."  Here  wo  must  note  that  while  the  .stem 
grows  more  ra[iidly  in  darkness,  the  leaves  grow  less  rapid- 
ly, and  in.  complete  darkness  remain  very  smaU. 

OravitatidH. — JIany  cells  always  grow  in  a  particular  di- 
rection with  respect  to  the  earth's  mass  (gravitation).  Thus 
the  principal  roots  usually  grow  toward  the  earth,  while 
most  st<'ms  grow  away  from  it.  When  a  seed  germinates 
its  roots  invariably  take  a  dow'nward  and  its  stems  an  up- 
ward direction,  and  it  does  this  regarilless  of  its  immediate 
surroundings.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  experiment 
shown  in  l-'ig.  1,  in  which  seeds  are  planted  half  an  inch  deep 
in  a  flower-pot,  which  is  then  covered 
with  coarse  netting  and  inverted  upon 
a  ring-stand.  Helow  it  is  placed  a 
mirror,  standing  at  a  proper  angle  to 
reflect  light  upon  the  under  surface 
of  the  flower-pot.  A  tall  bell-jar  is 
put  over  the  apparatus  and  water  is 
kept  in  the  dish  so  as  to  preserve  a 
moist  atmos|)here.  The  whole  is  now 
placed  in  a  light  room  of  the  projier 
temperature.  Upon  germination  the 
stems  invariably  grow  upward,  dee]ier 
and  deejier  into  the  ground  ami  dark- 
ness, while  the  ro(jts  grow  down,  out 
of  the  ground,  and  into  the  light.  If, 
now,  we  make  another  experiment  we 
may  understand  the  matter  better. 
Two  small  flasks  cimtaining  a  little 
water  are  slipped  over  opposite  ends 
of  a  wooden  rod  and  retained  in  place 
by  a  coil  of  wire,  as  shown  in  Fig.  "2.  A  sprouted  seed  is 
previously  fastened  to  each  end  of  the  rod  by  a  .stout  pin, 
and  the  whole  is  rotated  rapiilly  upon  the  steel  rod  s  by  a 
water  or  elec^tric  motor.  As  the  roots  develop  they  grow 
outward  in  the  direction  of  the  centrifugal  force,  and  the 
stems  grow  inward,  or  in  opposition  to  that  force.  Upon 
slower  rotation  both  roots  and  steins  grow  diagonally,  the 
angle  depending  upim  the  rate  of  revolution. 


Flo.  1.  — E.\periiiient. 


In  considering  the  mode  of  action  of  gravitation  upon 
parts  of  plants  we  can  not  suppose  that  the  root-cells  are 
more  subject  to  it  than  the  cells  of  the  stem.  Perhaps  the 
best  statement  which  we  can  now  make  of  this  matter  is  that 
each  cell  exhiliits  what  we  may 
call  "  polarity  ''  with  resjject  to 
the  lines  of  constant  force  (grav- 
itation, or  centrifugal  force). 
When  these  lines  are  vertical,  as 

in  gravitation,  the  cells  exhibit  |1 5 

vertical  polaritv;  when  the  lines 

of  force  are  horizontal,  the  cells    j,,„  o_RotatinK  apparatus. 

exhiliit  horizontal  p<ilarity;  and 

when,  as  in  the  experiment  above,  there  are  two  lines  of  force 

acting  at  right  angles  to  each  otlier,  the  axis  of  polarity  is 

diagonal.     This  general  statement,  while  incomplete,  and 

here  applied  only  to  the  principal  roots  and  stems,  is  callable 

of  a  far  wider  aiiplication,  and  doubtless  may  be  useful  as  a 

working  hypothesis. 

J-Jli^ch-icit;/. — While  plants  exhibit  electrical  conditions  in 
common  with  other  material  objects,  they  seem  at  present  to 
possess  no  physiological  significance.  Every  chemical 
change  in  the  cell  probably  produces  some  disturbance  of  its 
electrical  conditions  and  of  those  of  its  neighboring  cells. 
.So,  too,  the  considerable  amount  of  evaporation  of  water 
from  leaves  and  other  aerial  parts  probably  [iroduces electri- 
cal disturbances.  Various  observers  have  noticed  w'eak 
electrical  currents  between  different  tissues  upon  making 
tranverse  sections  of  steins  or  leaves.  None  of  these  appear 
to  be  of  any  importance  physiologically,  at  least  as  now 
understood.  Strong  electrical  currents,  especially  when  in- 
terrupted, quickly  disorganize  the  protoplasm  ;  weak  cur- 
rents retard  or  arrest  protoplasmic  movements,  and  very 
weak  currents  produce  no  perceptible  effect. 

Humidity  of  the  Air. — Since  the  walls  of  living  plant- 
cells  are  usually  permeable  to  water  it  follows  that  when  ex- 
posed to  relatively  dry  air  they  lose  a  portion  of  their  watery 
contents  by  evaporation  and  soon  cease  thoir  activity.  Id 
many-celled  plants  this  loss  is  repaired  by  the  absorption  of 
water  from  contiguous  cells  not  so  exposed,  and  the  latter 
in  turn  repair  their  loss  by  absorption  from  the  surround- 
ing moisture  (water  or  moist  earth).  The  condition  of  the 
atmospliere  may  thus  set  up  many  disturbances  in  the  plant, 
but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  loss  of  water  by  the 
plant  is  a  purely  physical  process. 

Siiiijily  (if  Energy  to  the  Plant. — The  work  done  by  a  plant 
involves  the  expenditure  of  energy.  In  hysterophytes  the 
decomposition  of  the  chemical  compounds  absorbed  by  them 
affords  a  supply  of  energy  fully,  or  nearly,  adequate  for  all 
their  needs.  In  holophytes  the  case  is  far  different :  they 
absorb  compounds  of  simple  chemical  constitution  supply- 
ing relatively  little  available  energy,  but  in  their  chloro- 
phyll-stained" cells  they  are  able  to  arrest  the  energy  of  the 
suiiljeam,  and  divert  it  to  the  work  of  the  plant.  Doubtless 
green  i)lants  derive  some  energy  from  the  decomposition  of 
the  compounds  absorbed  by  them  and  perhaps  more  from 
the  heat  to  which  they  are  exposed,  and  possibly  to  a  slight 
extent  from  other  sources,  but  the  great  supply  of  energy  is 
the  light  of  the  sun.  It  has  been  shown  experimentally  that 
any  other  bright  light,  whether  produced  liy  lamps  of  vari- 
ous kinds  or  by  the  electric  arc,  when  of  sufficient  intensity 
may  be  a  source  of  energy  for  green  plants. 

Plant  JIovements. — It  is  one  of  the  essential  character- 
istics of  living  things  that  they  move,  although  "motility" 
and  "life"  are  not  synonymous.  A  complete  examination 
of  the  motility  of  plants  would  include  the  many  kinds  of 
movements  exhibited  by  |)rotoplasm,  whether  naked  (as  in 
zoospores)  or  inclosed  within  walls  of  greater  or  less  rigidity, 
and  ill  addition  the  very  slow  movements  connected  with 
growth  and  nutrition. 

Nutation. — Under  this  term  are  gathered  those  ca.ses  in 
which  terminal  parts  of  plants  move  spontaneously  and 
somewhat  regularly  in  definite  directions.  It  has  been  ol> 
served  that  the  glowing  ends  of  climbing  plants  perform 
circular  nutations;  thus  in  the  hop  and  honeysuckle  the  free 
ends  of  the  stems  rotate  in  the  direction  of  the  hands  of  a 
watch  (Fig.  ;i,  «),  while  in  I  he  yam.  bean,  and  morning-glory 
the  rotation  is  the  revei-se  (Fig.  3,  i).  In  other  cases  the 
nutation  is  a  sim|)le  swaying  back  and  forth,  as  Darwin  has 
oliserved,  in  many  leaves  and  growing  shoots. 

(leotropinm. — this  term  includes  all  those  movements  of 
plants  or  their  parts  due  directly  or  indirectly  to  gravita- 
tion, iliscussed  aoove.  In  many  works  I  he  movement  toward 
the  earth  is  termed  geotropisin,  and  crgans  exhibiting  it  are 


608 


PHYSIOLOGY,  VEGETABLE 


PIA   MATER 


said  to  be  geotropic.  Organs  which  move  away  from  the 
earth,  then,  exliibit  negative  geotropism,  anil  are  said  to  l)e 
negatively  geotropic. 

Ueliotropism.—\n  like  manner  the  movements  of  plants 
or  their  parts  due  to  the  light  are  included  under  the  term 


Fio.  4.— Ordinary  (n^and  "sleeping;"  (6) 
positions  of  leaves  of  white  clover. 


Fig.  3.— Twining  stem  of  hop  (a)  and  yam  ib).  showing  opposite 
nutations. 

heliotropisra.  Organs  which  turn  toward  the  light  are  helio- 
tropic  (or sometimes  positively  heliotropic),  while  those  which 
turn  away  from  it  are  said  to  be  negatively  heliotropic,  and 
the  phenomenon  is  negative  heliotropism.  The  upper  sur- 
face of  most  leaves  is"  positively  and  the  lower  negatively 
heliotropic;  yet  some  leaves  have  both  surfaces  positively 
heliotropic,  and  their  blades  are  therefore  approximately 
vertical  and  parallel  with  the  meridian,  as  is  notably  the 
case  in  the  compass-plant  (Silphium  laciniatum)  of  the 
prairies  of  the  U.  S.  The  tendrils  of  many  plants  are  nega- 
tively heliotropic,  as  are  also  the  runners  of  some  others. 

The  movements  of  plants  with  the  decrease  in  the 
amount  of  light,  as  at  nightfall,  often  called  the  "  sleep  of 

plants,"  are  heliotropic 
in  their  nature.  Some 
of  these  are  quite 
marked,  as  in  many  of 
the  clovers,  beans,  peas, 
and  their  allies.  The 
species  of  OxaUs  are 
notable  for  their  nycti- 
tropic  movements. 
Irritability.  —  JIany 
parts  of  plants  exhibit  movements  as  a  result  of  physical 
contact  with  some  object.  For  this  sensitiveness  to  contact 
the  term  irritaliility  has  been  used.  One  of  the  best  exam- 
ples of  this  is  the  well-known  "sensitive-plant"  (Mimosa 
pndica),  whose  leaflets  quickly  assume  a  particular  position 
when  rudely  touched.  A  more  remarkable  example  is  the 
Venus"s  fly-trap  (Dioncia  miiscipula),  in  which  each  lobe  of 
the  leaf  has  three  sensitive  hairs  upon  its  upper  surface ;  and 
when  these  are  touched  the  two  halves  of  the  leaf  close  to- 
gether quickly.  (See  Insectivorous  Plants.)  Many  sta- 
mens are  sensitive  to  touch,  as  in  the  barberry,  portulaca, 
and  purslane. 

The  tendrils  of  many  plants  exhibit  irritability,  and  when 
touched  by  an  object  bend  toward  and  eventually  coil 
around  it.  If  after  contact  and  some  bending  the  tendril 
be  freed  once  more,  it  will  soon  straighten  out  as  before,  and 
may  be  made  to  bend  in  the  opposite  direction  by  another 
contact ;  and  this  may  be  repeated  a  number  of  times.  See, 
further.  Botany,  Protoplasm,  and  IIistolouv,  Vegetable. 

Literature. — The  most  important  of  the  recent  general 
works  im  plant  physiologj-  are  the  following,  in  which  may 
be  found  full  references  to  hoi>ks  and  p;ipers  on  special 
topics:  Charles  Darwin,  TJ)/"  Jlorciiients  and  Habits  of 
Climbing  Plants  (2d  ed.  IST.i),  luid  The  Poivi-r  of  Moveme.nt 
in  Plants  (1880):  W.  PfelTer,  Pflanzenpbj/siolopie  (1881); 
W.  Dettiier,  System  dfr  P/lnnzfnpJiysiolofjie  (1882) ;  G.  L. 
Goodale,  Physiological  Botany  (188r));  S.  11.  Vines.  Lectures 
on  the  PliysioliKjy  of  Plants  (18H0):  J.  Sachs,  Lectures  on 
the  Physiolof/y  of  Plants  lEtig.  ed.  1887);  A.  Zimmerman, 
Die  Morpholoyie  und  Physiologie  der  Pflanzemelle  (ISSl): 


W.  Detmer,  Das  Pflanzenphysiologische  Praktikum  (1888); 
J.  Wiesner,  Elemente  der  Wissenscliaftlichen  Botanik  (3 
vols.,  1889-91);  J.  Sachs,  Gesammelte  Abhandlungen  uber 
Ptiamenphysiologie  (1892-93) ;  W.  Oels,  Pflanzenphysio- 
logische V'ersuche  (1893),  English  translation  by  D.  T. 
MacDougal  under  the  title  of  L'j-periniental  Plant  Physiol- 
ogy (1894).  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Physitbeism :  See  Indians  of  Xorth  America. 

Physopoda  :  See  Entomology. 

Physos'toiiii  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  (pv<ra.  bellows  (i.  e.  air- 
bladder)  -I-  arSjia,  mouth] :  those  teleostean  fishes  which  are 
provided  with  a  duct  connecting  the  air-bladder  with  the 
intestine  as  by  a  mouth,  in  allusion  to  which  the  name  has 
lieen  given.  The  name  has  been  used  with  varying  limits 
by  different  authors. 

Phytopli'thires  [from  Gr.  (pvr6i/.  plant  +  (pe^ip.  louse] :  that 
group  of  Ilemipterous  insects  which  contains  the  leaf-fleas 
(Psyllidcg).  plant-lice  (Aphides,  q.  v.),  and  scale-insects  (Coc- 
cidce),  characterized  by  having  usually  wingless  females, 
wings  when  present  with  few  veins  and  uniform  texture, 
and  the  body  frequently  concealed  by  a  waxy  or  powdery 
secretion  from  certain  dermal  glands.  All  are  parasitic  on 
plants,  and  cause  no  little  damage  to  agricultural  and  hor- 
ticultural interests.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  to  be  found 
in  the  cochineal  insect  (Coccus  cacti)  the  lac-insect  (Coc- 
cus lacca),  and  the  manna-insect  (C.  manniparus),  which 
produce  directly  or  indirectly  products  of  value  to  man. 
Among  the  most  injurious  forms  is  the  grape  Phylloxera 
(q.  v.),  though  many  of  the  scale-insects  are  serious  pests. 

J.  S.  Kingsley. 

Phytozo'oii,  pi.  Pliyfozo'a  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ipvT6v, 
plant  +  (ifov.  animal] :  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  the  an- 
therozoids,  or  male  sexual  cells  of  certain  cryptogamous 
plants. 

Piaceiiza.  pee-a"'a-chen'za"a  (anc.  Placentia) :  chief  town 
of  the  province  of  Piacenza,  Italy  :  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Po,  a  little  below  its  junction  with  the  Trebbia  ;  43  miles 
S.  E.  of  Milan  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref,  3-C).  Formerly  a 
fortress  of  considerable  strength,  it  is  still  surrounded  by 
ramparts  and  trenches  forming  a  circuit  of  4  miles.  The 
streets  are  broad,  the  Stradone  Farnese  being  the  finest, 
and  the  principal  square,  the  Piazza  de'  Cavalli,  in  which 
are  equestrian  statues  in  bronze  of  Alessandro  Farnese, 
governor  of  the  Netherlands,  and  his  son  Ranuccio,  has  a 
busy  aspect.  The  city  in  general,  however,  has  a  decayed 
and' somber  look,  owing  partly  to  the  media?val  character  of 
many  of  the  buildings.  The  cathedral,  begun  in  1122  on 
the  foundations  of  a  nmch  earlier  church,  is  Lombardo- 
Gothic  in  style,  and  in  its  interior  contains  numerous 
frescoes  mostly  by  Guercino  and  L.  Caracci.  Among  other 
noticeable  churches  are  Sant'  Antonio,  once  the  catliedral, 
built  in  324  (on  the  spot,  it  is  said,  where  St.  Barnabas  first 
preached  to  the  people),  but  much  altereii  by  restorations, 
and  San  Sisto,  which  is  known  as  giving  its  name  to  Raph- 
ael's famous  Madonna,  now  in  Dresden.  The  Palazzo  Far- 
nese. called  Ija  Cittadella,  was  a  splendid  structure,  but  is 
now  a  barrack.  The  Palazzo  Comunale  (1281),  in  the  main 
front  of  the  lower  story,  constructed  of  marble,  presents  fine 
open-pointed  arcades.  The  municipal  library  contains  120,- 
000  volumes.  This  town,  of  Gallic  origin,  served  the  Ro- 
mans as  a  strong  point  of  defense  against  Hannibal,  and 
the  construction  of  the  great  military  road  of  M.  jEmilius 
Lepidus  and  various  large  canals  raised  it  to  great  pros- 
perity. Under  the  troths  it  was  allowed  to  govern  itself, 
and  under  the  Lombards  and  Franks  it  had  a  feudal  lord. 
In  1545  it  was  united  with  Parma  (<j.  v.)  to  form  a  duchy  for 
Pierluigi  Farnese,  son  of  Paul  III.  In  1859  it  was  united  to 
the  kingdom  of  Italy.  The  trade  of  Piacenza  is  chiefly  in 
the  products  of  the  rich  neighboring  country — grain,  wine, 
cheese,  etc.:  the  manufactures  are  silk,  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  and  pottery.  Pop.  (1892)  37,000.  The  province  has 
an  area  of  954  sq.  miles.     Pop.  (1892)  229,039. 

Revised  by  R,  A.  Roberts. 
Piacenza,  Duke  of  :  See  Lebrun,  Charles  Francois. 
Pi'a  Ma'ter  [Mod.  Lat.,  fancifully  taken  from  Lat.  pi'a 
mater,  pious  or  gentle  mother ;  see  Dura  Mater]  :  the  in- 
nermost of  the  meninges  or  membranes  covering  the  brain 
and  s])inal  cord.  It  is  so  named  because  it  serves  in  nour- 
ishing the  nerve-centers.  It  is  a  fine  plexus  of  blood-vessels 
covering  the  brain.  dip])ing  down  into  its  convolutions, 
forming  the  velum  iiiterpositum  in  the  third  and  the  choroid 
jilexus  in  the  fourth  ventricle.     A  small  part,  over  the  crura 


I'lANUKCJKTK 


PI-BESETH 


609 


anil  pons,  is  not  vtTv  vascular,  but  toujjli  ami  fibrous.  It 
is  abuuiluntlj-  supplied  with  nerves  ami  lyin|j|iatics.  The 
pia  mater  is  liable  to  inflammatory  diseases  which  are  col- 
lectively designated  meniugitis.  The  [lia  mater  of  the 
spinal  cord  is  less  va.scnlar  than  that  of  (he  brain,  with 
which  it  is  continuous,  ll  is  partly  composed  of  lonj;itudi- 
nal  fibrous  bun<iles.  It  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
cord,  of  which  it  is  the  neurilemma.  The  tunica  vasculosa 
of  the  testes  is  also  called  i)ia  inaler. 

Revised  liy  Willlvm  Piii-PKR. 

Pianoforte  [  =  Ital.;  pia  no.so!t{<  Lat. /;/«'«  H.S-.  smooth, 
whence  Kni;.  plane,  plain)  +  for'fe.  strong,  loud] :  a  musical 
instrument  played  by  a  double  row  of  keys  upon  a  finger- 
board, each  key  being  connected  with  a  hammer  which 
strikes  a  steel  string.  The  principle  of  the  keyboard  was 
applied  to  a  musical  instrument,  tlie  clavichord,  as  early  as 
the  fourth  century,  and  oilier  instruments  of  the  same  class, 
»s  the  cithara,  the  liar|)sichord,  and  the  spinet,  were  popu- 
lar clown  to  the  eighleenfh  century.  The  invention  of  the 
[lianoforte  has  been  claimed  for  Germany.  Italy.  Prance, 
and  England.  The  best  evidence  seems  to  assign  it  to  Bar- 
tolorameo  Cristofori.  a  harpsichord-nuiker  at  Padua.  Italy, 
about  the  year  1710.  Marius  claimed  a  similar  invention 
in  Paris  in  1716.  and  Chrisfoph  (iottlieb  .Schroter  in  Ger- 
many in  1717.  It  was  not  until  1700  that  the  instrument 
was  raannfactureil  in  England  by  German  mechanics;  and 
it  was  first  practically  introduced  into  France  by  Sebastien 
firard.  (See  Eraru.)  The  firm  of  Broa<lwood  &  Slodart 
soon  took  a  leading  position  as  English  manufacturers,  and 
improvements  were  rapidly  made,  the  instrument  speedily 
attaining  jiopularity.  The  grand  piano  seems  to  have 
been  first  nuide  in  1781.  the  upright  in  17ilo.  Few  pianos 
had  been  exported  to  the  U.  S.  when,  in  1822,  Jonas  t'hick- 
ering  began  their  manufacture  at  Boston,  being  thus  the 
pioneer  of  an  important  industry.  In  the  form  of  the  in- 
strument called  the  grand  piano  the  strings  are  placed  hori- 
zontally and  parallel  to  the  keys.  In  the  ''upright  "  piano 
they  run  perpendicularly.  The  manufa'cture  of  tlie  so- 
called  "s{|uare"  piano  has  practically  ceased,  owing  to  the 
more  convenient  form  of  the  "  upright,"'  especially  wliere 
little  space  is  available.  The  former  objection  to  the  "up- 
right" piano — viz.,  that  it  soon  got  out  of  tune — has  been 
remedied.  The  piano  is  essentially  the  musical  instrument 
of  modern  times.  It  has  become  a  household  requisite,  and 
as  a  consequence  its  manufacturing  industry  has  become 
a  colossal  one,  extending  over  the  whole  civilized  world. 
Outside  its  own  characteristics  and  powers  as  a  solo  instru- 
ment, no  other  can  so  well  represent  the  orchestra  or  suc- 
cessions of  complex  harmonies  perhaps  originally  written 
for  voices.  In  fact,  it  is  the  musician's  indisjiensable  assist- 
ant in  every  way.  Its  own  literature,  both  singly  and  in 
combination  with  other  instruments,  is  the  richest,  the  great 
composers  from  Bach  and  Scarlatti  down  to  the  jircsent 
day  liaving  bequeathed  to  the  piano  a  wealth  of  their  best 
thought  and  inspiration.  Kevised  by  DfULEV  Buck. 

Pi'arisfs.  called  also  the  Pauline  Congregation,  and 
jiopularly  known  as  Scolopins  [I'ian'fitx  is  from  Lat.  /«'  h.s-, 
pious;  SciAopins  is  from  \m\.  svlti)  In  /hk,  religious  (liter., 
pious)  school] :  a  congregation  of  regular  clerks  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  founded  in  1.5!!!).  for  the  purpose  of 
spreading  education,  by  St.  .Joseph  Calasanetius,  who  was 
born  at  Calasanz,  in  Aragon,  Sept.  11.  l-ioG;  studied  law 
at  Lerida  and  theology  at  .Vlcala;  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
1582.  and  settled  in  I.")!)2  in  Koine,  where  he  clied  .\ug.  2.'). 
1648.  His  remarkable  success  as  a  teai-her  induced  liini  to 
form  an  association,  which  in  1612  had  over  1.200  pupils  in 
Rome.  The  Piarists  were  confirmed  by  Paul  V.  (1617)  and 
by  (iregory  XV.  (1622).  when  they  received  the  official  title 
of  Regular  Clerks  of  the  Pious  Schools.  The  congregatitm 
was  allowed  by  Gregory  XV.  to  take  solemn  vows.  Alexan- 
der VII.  brought  lliein  back  to  tlii-ir  original  condition, 
while  CleiuenI  I.\.  (1660)  re-establislied  them  in  the  state 
of  regulars.  They  are  found  chiefiv  in  Kiirope.  See  His- 
ton/  of  liL-liijiuKti'OrdiTs.  by  (_'.  W.  ('■urrier  (1894). 

Piassava.  or  Piassaba.  Fiber  [/liitssava  is  via  Portug., 
from  the  Braz.  name| :  a  coarse  substance  used  for  making 
brushes  and  brooms  for  street-sweeping.  It  is  exjiorted 
from  Urazil,  and  is  produced  chiefly  from  the  palm-trees, 
Leopiililinia  piaxmiba  and  Altalea  funifera.  See  Chi^ui- 
cuivfi  Palm. 

Piatt.  John  .Tamks:  poet;  b.  at  Milton,  Ind..  Mar.  1, 
1835;  was  educated  at  the  Columbus  (().)  High  School  and 
Kenvon  College;  reiiKjved  to  Illinois  in  1856, and  soon  after 
323 


became  a  contributor  to  the  Louisville  Journal  and  confi- 
dential secretary  to  its  editor,  Geoige  I).  Prentice.  From 
1861  to  1S67  he  was  clerk  in  the  Treasury  Department  at 
Washington.  In  1867-70  he  was  engaged  upon  newspaper 
work  at  Cincinnati,  0.  In  1870  he  became  clerk  to  the 
\j.  S.  House  of  Representatives,  and  librarian  to  the  House 
in  1871.  He  was  consul  at  Cork,  Ireland  (1882-94) ;  joint 
autlior,  with  W.  1).  llowclls,  of  PueiiiH  by  'Two  Friends 
(1860);  with  his  wife,  wrote  Kests  at  Was/iinylon  (1863); 
sole  author  of  Poems  in  Sunshine  and  Firi'.iiyht  (1866); 
Western  Windows  (1868);  La  ml  mark.'!,  etc.  (1871);  Poems 
of  Bouse  and  Home  (1879);  ld>/ls  and  Lyrics  of  tlie  Ohio 
Valley  (1884  and  1888),  etc.— His  wife.  Sarah  JIorgan 
(Bryan)  Piatt,  b.  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  Aug.  11,  18:!6.  and 
married  in  1861.  is  also  distinguished  as  a  writer  of  verse. 
She  has  ])ublislied  ^  Woman's  yV';?(S  (1871) ;  A  Voyage  to 
the  Fortunate  MesiXHli);  Tliat  Netv  World  (1876);  Dra- 
matic Persons  and  Moods  (1880) ;  The  Witch  in  the  Glass 
(1889),  etc.  RevLsed  by  II.  A.  Beers. 

Piailhy,  pce-ow-ee'  (also  written  Piauh'i):  a  northeastern 
state  of  Brazil ;  between  Ceara,  Pernaml)uco.  Bahia,  Jlaran- 
liao,  and  the  Atlantic.  Area,  116.506  sq.  miles.  It  lies  en- 
tirely in  the  basin  of  the  Parxahviia  {q.  v.),  E.  of  that  river; 
the  coast  is  very  short,  and  the  mouth  of  Hie  river  forms 
the  only  seaport.  The  interior  consists  of  table-lands,  di- 
vided by  numerous  tracts  of  lower  lands;  tliere  is  little  true 
forest,  the  land  being  open  or  varied  with  dry  catinya  woods. 
The  climate  resembles  that  of  Ceara  in  its  long  dry  seasons 
and  occasional  severe  droughts;  the  vegetation  withers  and 
most  of  the  streams  disappear  in  the  dry  months.  Piauhy 
is  one  of  the  poorest  as  well  as  least  populous  of  the  Brazilian 
states.  The  only  important  industry  is  cattle-raising.  The 
exports  are  hides,  cotton,  vegetable  wax.  and  a  few  drugs. 
Small  steamers  ascend  the  Parnahyba.  The  capital.  There- 
sina.  is  a  small  place  on  that  river.  Pop.  (1894)  estimated, 
3(J0.609.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Piazza  Armerina.  pet'-aat'sa'a-a'ar-nia-ree'nali :  city;  in 
the  province  of  Caltanissetta.  Sicily  ;  39  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  the 
town  of  Caltani.ssetta  (sec  rnaii  of  Italy,  ref.  10-F).  It  is 
situated  on  a  hill  surrounded  by  an  undulating  countrv  of 
great  fertility.  It  has  a  cathedral,  liuilt  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  an  episcopal  palace,  ami  a  communal  library.  Pi- 
azza Armerina  is  a  very  ancient  town,  settled,  tradition 
says,  by  a  colony  of  Greeks  from  Plata>a>.  Under  the  Nor- 
mans it  rose  to  importance:  it  was  destroyed  in  1160,  but 
rebuilt  three  years  later.  Its  prosperity  depends  on  the 
abundance  of  grain,  wine,  oil,  chestnuts,  and  walnuts  pro- 
duced in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  of  city  about  17.040  ;  of  com- 
mune, 19,600. 

Piazzi.  pee-aat'se"e,  Giuseppe:  astronomer;  b.  at  Ponte, 
in  the  Valtelline.  Italy,  July  16.  1746.  His  master  was  the 
mathematician  Father  Giambattista  Bcccaria.  and  he  him- 
self joined  the  order  of  the  Theatines.  After  being  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  several  of  the  large  Italian  univer- 
sities, he  wasajipointed  yi  1780  Professor  of  Mathematics  at 
Palermo,  where  he  promoted  the  establishment  of  an  ob.ser- 
vatory,  and  finally  went  to  France  and  England  to  obtain 
instruments  for  it.  Tliis  observatory  was  o|iened  in  1791, 
and  there  Piazzi  compiled  ]\\siuu\im^  Cutalmjiie  of  the  Stars, 
On  Jan.  1,  1801.  he  discovered  the  planet  or  asteroid  Ceres, 
which  opened  the  way  for  the  discovery  of  so  many  others. 
Piazzi  revised  the  plan  of  the  new  observatory  at  Naples,  of 
which  he  was  afterward  for  some  time  the  director.  D. 
July  22,  1826.  On  occasion  of  the  erection  of  a  monument 
to  Piazzi  at  Ponte.  B.  E.  Maineri  published  his  biography. 

Pi-llesetll  [Egypt.  7Vi-a/.s/.  dwelling  of  Bast,  the  cat- 
headed  di'ity;  Gr!  Bou/SewTos :  .Mod.  Tell  liasla];  the  He- 
brew (Ezek.  XXX.  17)  name  of  Bubast is.  a  very  ancient  city 
of  Egypt ;  situated  on  the  Tanitic  branch  of  the  Nile,  about 
midway  between  Ilcliopolis  and  Tanis.  Manetho  has  pre- 
served a  legend  which  mentions  the  place  as  existing  as 
early  as  the  second  dynasty,  and  monumental  remains  have 
been  discovered  which  date  from  the  fourth,  sixth,  twelfth, 
and  succeeding  dynasties,  as  well  as  others  which  indicate 
that  it  had  a  coiitinuous  history  clown  to  Roiiian  times. 
Specially  noteworthy  are  the  remains  left  by  Ramses  II. 
and  Osorkon  II.  It  was  also  a  stronghold  of  the  Ilyksos, 
and  the  name  of  one  of  these  foreign  sovereigns  was  discov- 
ered there  by  Naville,  who  reads  the  hieroglyphics  as  lan- 
ra.  corresponding  to  the  lanias  or  Annas  of  Josephus.  It 
may  have  been  the  royal  residence  at  the  time  of  Joseph, 
and  in  that  case  it  corrc^sponds  well  with  the  Biblical  narra- 
tive in  being  near  to  the  land  of  (ioshen  (q.  v.).     .See  Herod- 


610 


PIBROCH 


otu«    ii     59.  67,  137,  166:  Naville,  Biibastis  (Lomlon,  1891) 

>ind  Festival  Hall  of  Osprkoi,  II.  (London,  1892),  being  the 

einhth  and  tenth  Memoirs  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  tund. 

"  Charles  K.  Gillett. 

Pibroch  [from  (ine\.  piohni-i-eaclul.  pipe  music,  deriv.  of 
viobdir,  piiier,  dcriv.  of  pioba.  pipe,  bagpipe,  from  Eng. 
pineV  the  war-notes  of  the  Highland  bagpipe.  There  are 
numerous  compositions  of  tliis  kind,  scarcely  distinguish- 
able from  each  other  by  the  untrained  ear.  The  use  of  tins 
pipe  in  Scottish  warfare  has  been  traced  back  no  farther 
than  1594. 

Pie'amar  [IjuL  pix,  pi' cis,  pitch -t- nm«'r«.s,  bitter]:  an 
oily  body  found  in  wood-tar. 


Fr 


Picard,  pe'e'kaar',  Alfred:  civil  engineer;  b.  in  Paris, 
J.  ranee.  Dee.  21,  1844;  studied  at  the  Ecolc  de  Ponts  et 
Chau^4es  graduating  in  1864;  engineer  in  chief  in  1880; 
insiiector-general  of  first  class  in  1891  ;  honorary  director- 
general  of  the  commissions  of  bridges  and  roads,  of  mines, 
and  of  railways  ;  president  of  section  of  the  council  of  state  ; 
president  of  the  consulting  commission  on  railways,  and  of 
many  other  Government  commissions  :  editor  of  the  oflicial 
reports  of  the  Exposition  of  1889  ;  commissioner-general  of 
the  Universal  Exposition  to  be  held  at  Paris  in  1900;  grand 
officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor ;  vice-president  of  the  inter- 
national railway  congress  of  St.  Petersburg  in  1892. 

Picard,  Jeax  :  astronomer;  b.  at  La  Pleche,  department 
of  Sarthe,  France,  July  21,  1620;  accomplished  the  first 
exact  measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  between 
Amiens  and  Malvoisin ;  made  a  number  of  valuable  im- 
provements in  the  instruments  of  observation  and  methods 
of  calculation  :  was  the  real  founder  and  constructor  of  the 
Observatory  of  Paris  :  founded  the  Connaixsmui'  des  Tcmpn. 
the  French  astronomical  ejihemcris,  the  publication  of  which 
has  continued  annually  for  more  than  two  centuries ;  is 
noted  for  the  noble  disinterestedness  with  which  he  aided 
other  astronomers,  such  as  Ole  Romer  the  Dane,  Cassini 
the  Italian,  etc..  and  wrote,  among  other  works,  La  llesure 
de  la  Terce  (1671),  and  Voyage  d'Vranibourtj.  on  Observa- 
tions astroiiomiques  faites  en  Danemark  (1680).  D.  in 
Paris.  Oct.  12,  1682.  Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Picard,  Louis  Benoit  :  dramatist;  b.  in  Paris,  France, 
.July  29,  1769.  At  the  age  of  eigliteen  he  became  an  actor, 
and  in  1789  he  produced  his  first  jilay:  thereafter  he  con- 
tinued in  the  double  role  of  actor  and  author.  He  entered 
the  Theatre  Fran(;ais  in  1792;  about  1800  became  director 
of  the  Theatre  Louvois,  afterward  the  Odeon  ;  in  1807  was 
called  to  direct  the  Opera,  and  returned  in  1816  to  the 
Odeon.  D.  Dee.  31,  1828.  He  wrote  a  large  number  of 
popular  comedies,  marked  by  naturalness,  gayety,  and  ferr 
tility  of  invention.  They  are  [lartly  contained  in  his  Tliea- 
tre  (8  vols.,  Paris.  1821)  and  Theatre  republicain  (1832). 

Picards :  See  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free 
Spirit. 

Pic'ardy:  an  old  province  of  France;  bordering  on  the 
English  Channel.  It  is  now  divided  into  tlie  departments 
of  Somme  and  Pas-de-Calais ;  parts  of  it  belong  to  the  de- 
partments of  Aisne,  Oise,  and  Yonne. 

Piccini,  pi-chee'ne"e,  or  Picciniii,  Nicolo  :  composer;  b. 
at  Bari,  Italy,  in  1728  ;  received  his  musical  education  in  the 
conservatory  of  Naples ;  made  in  1 754  his  de.lmt  as  a  composer 
with  the  opera  Le  Donne  dispettose ;  achieved  in  1760  an 
almost  unprecedented  success  liy  his  opera,  Cecchina.  ossia 
la  huonafiyliuola;  went  in  177(5  to  Paris,  and  engaged  in  a 
musical  contest,  with  Gluck.  brought  about  Ijy  the  directors 
of  the  Grand  Opera.  He  composed  during  this  period  Ro- 
land, Phaoii.  Af;/s,  Iphigi'nie  en  Taiiride.  etc.,  in  all  fifteen 
operas;  but,  although  most  of  them  were  received  with 
great  enthusiasm,  Gluck  wa.s  victorious,  and.  other  troubles 
being  added  to  the  defeat,  Piccini  left  Paris  for  Naples  in 
1791.  In  Italy  he  composed  several  successful  operas,  Gri- 
gelda,  n  Servo  Padrone,  etc..  but  the  Government  suspected 
him  of  sympathizing  with  the  French  Revolution,  and  in 
1798  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  Bonaparte  gave  him  a  po- 
sition as  inspector  of  music  at  the  National  Conservatory. 
D.  at  Passy.  May  7,  1800.  He  was  a  talented  representative 
of  the  Italian  music  of  that  period,  and  his  productivity 
was  enormous;  from  1754  to  1775  he  composed  133  operas, 
besides  many  pieces  of  church  music,  etc. 

PIccolom'iMi  :  a  celebrated  Itidian  family  which  flour- 
isheil  ill  Sieiui,  and  Amalfi.  Its  most  noted  members  were 
^F.N'EAs  SvLvirs  PiccoLOMiNE.  afterward  Pope  Plus  II.  (14.58- 


PICHLER 

64),  his  nephew,  Francesco  Todeschini,  who  also  became 
pope,  under  the  name  of  Pius  III.,  but  died  in  the  year  of 
his  election,  and  the  general  Octavio  Piccolomini  (1599- 
1656).  who  fought  in  the  Thirty  Years'  war  on  the  Imperial 
side,  joining  the  armv  of  Wallenstein  in  1627,  and  winning 
distinction  in  the  battle  of  Liitzen  in  1632.  Though  pro- 
moted to  a  high  command  liy  Wallenstein,  he  turned  against 
and  was  one  of  those  who  conspired  to  overthrow  him,  re- 
ceiving for  this  service  a  part  of  Wallenstein's  estates.  Af- 
ter this  he  fought  with  some  success  against  the  Swedes  and 
in  the  Netlierlands:  entered  the  Spanish  service  in  1643, 
was  recalled  by  the  em)>eror  in  1648,  and  made  marshal. 

Pi'cea  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  pix,  picis,  pitch]:  a  ge- 
nus of  coniferous  trees  including  about  a  dozen  species,- 
known  as  spruces,  all  natives  of  the  cooler  portions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  They  have  four-sided  needle-shaped 
leaves,  scattered  singly  over  the  surfaces  of  the  twigs,  which 
after  the  fall  of  the  leaves  are  covered  with  the  elevated 
leaf  bases.  The  cones  are  composed  of  persistent  scales,  and 
lience  do  not  fall  away  from  the  axis,  as  they  do  in  the  firs 
(Abies).  Six  species  arc  natives  of  North  America,  the  best 
known  being  P.  alba,  the  white  spruce.  P.  nigra,  the  black 
spruce.  P.  pungens.  Rocky  Mountain  spruce,  and  P.  engel- 
iiianni,  Engelmann's  spruce.  The  European  P.  excelsa,  Nor- 
way sjiruce,  is  commonly  planted  in  North  America  as  an 
oriiamental  tree.  Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Piclicgni,  pt'esh'grli',  Charles:  general;  b.  at  Arbols, 
department  of  Jura,  France,  Feb.  16,  1761  ;  was  a  teacher  of 
mathematics  at  the  military  school  of  Brienne  while  Bona- 
parte was  a  pupil  there ;  entered  the  artillery  service  of  the 

Revolutionary  army,  and  rose  rapidly;  was  coi 

chief  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  in  1793,  of  the 


was  comraander-in- 
cniet  01  me  army  ol  tne  ttnine  in  iisw,  of  the  army  of  the 
North  in  1794;  conquered  Holland  and  organized  the  Ba- 
tavian  republic  in  1795  :  resumed  the  command  of  the  army 
of  the  Rhine,  lint  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  Bour- 
bons, and  falling  under  suspicion  on  account  of  his  inactivity 
and  the  reverses  that  his  army  sustained,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  command  in  '1796.  In  1797  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  chosen  its  president,  but,  his 
plottings  with  the  emigres  and  the  Royalist  party  being  dis- 
covered, he  was  arrested,  Sept.  4,  1797,  and  transported  to 
Cayenne.  In  1798  he  escaped  to  England,  where  he  formed 
a  conspiracy  with  Cadoudal,  the  Polignacs,  and  others  against 
Napoleon's'life.  He  repaired  secretly  to  Paris,  but  the  con- 
spiracy had  in  the  meantime  become  known  to  the  police ; 
he  was  captured,  imprisoned,  and  found  strangled  in  his 
cell  Apr.  5,  1804.  See  Lives  by  Gassier  (1814),  Pierret  (1826), 
and  Bouziers  (1870).  F.  M.  Colby. 

Picliiclago :  a  name  for  the  little  armadillos  of  the  ge- 
nus Chlamvdophorus  (q.  v.). 

Piehin'clia,  La:  a  volcano  of  Ecuador:  immediately  N. 
of  the  city  of  Quito  and  almost  under  the  equator.  It  lias 
several  peaks  and  craters:  the  highest,  called  the  Guagua 
Pichincha.  is  15.916  feet  above  the  sea,  and  appears  to  be 
gradually  rising.  The  crater  of  Guagua  Pichincha.  which 
can  be  visited  without  great  difiiculty,  is  2,500  feet  deep,  or 
one  of  the  deepest  in  the  world;  there  have  been  no  violent 
eruptions  since  1660,  but  vapor  issues  continually.  On  the^ 
side  of  this  volcano  was  fought,  Jlay  24,  1822,  the  battle  of 
Pichincha,  in  which  the  patriots,  under  Sucre,  defeated  the 
Sjjaniards  and  secured  the  indepenilence  of  Ecuador.  The 
province  of  Pichincha  (named  in  honor  of  this  victory)  in- 
cludes the  city  of  Quito  and  the  surrounding  plateau.  Area, 
6.218  sq.  miles.     Pop.  (1890)  about  205,000.  H.  H.  S. 

Pichler,  Johann:  gem-engraver;  b.  at  Naples,  Jan., 
1734.  He  was  the  pupil  of  his" father,  Anton  Pichler  (1697- 
1779),  and  began  to  cut  Intaglio-gems  while  still  a  boy.  He 
copied  many  anticiue  gems,  and,  as  he  seems  to  have  sold 
them  at  low" prices  and  to  have  done  such  work  to  order,  it 
Is  probalile  that  a  great  number  of  supposed  antiques  are 
by  his  hand.  At  a  later  time  he  signed  his  gems,  usuig 
commonly  his  surname  in  Greek  capitals,  niXAEP.  In  1763 
he  went  to  Rome.  A  head  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  caused 
him  to  be  ennobled  and  addeil  greatly  to  his  fame.  He  was 
recognized  as  the  first  gem-engraver  of  his  time,  and  under- 
took the  most  difficult  tasks  in  the  line  of  his  art.^  Among- 
other  subjects  he  took  up  the  representation  of  Gra'co-Ro- 
man  statues  and  busts.  Besides  his  intaglio-gems  he  pro- 
duced a  few  cameos.  He  also  painted  some  pictures  and 
began  the  engraving  of  a  set  of  plates  after  the  Raphael 
frescoes  in  the  Vatican.     I),  at  Rome,  Jan.  25,  1791. 

Russell  Sturois. 


I'KllURIC   ACID 


PICKERING 


611 


Pii'liurif  Acid  :  Sue  Lalric  Acid. 

I'icirurim  Beans,  or  Sassafras  Nuts:  a  name  given  to 
the  seed-lolies  of  yeclaiiflra  puckuri/  (properly  Oculea  pi- 
vhurim).  a  .South  American  laiiraceous  tree.  They  are  used 
liv  chocolate-makers  and  olhei-s  for  flavoring.  They  have  a 
strong  taste,  resembling  nutmeg  as  well  a.s  sa.ssal'ras. 

Pici  [from  Lat.  pieu.s,  a  woodpecker] :  an  order  of  liirds 
containing  the  woodpeckers  and  wrynecks.  The  character- 
istics are  a  peculiar  modification  of  the  schizognatlunis  palate, 
no  liasiptcrygoid  processes,  a  Y-sliaped  manubrium,  no  ca'ca, 
and  a  tufted  oil-gland.  The  fourth  toe  is  lunn'il  liackward, 
the  first  in  oiu;  genus  lacking.  Iluxlcy  placed  the  wood- 
[leckcrs  in  a  group  <'alled  Celeoniorplitv.  and  Dr.  Parker, 
from  certain  peculiarities  in  the  ijafate,  made  them  a  dis- 
tinct order,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  Siiuruynathiv. 
Other  authors  have  extended  the  limits  of  the  group,  though 
not  always  recognizing  it  as  an  order.  Thus  Kiirliringer  in- 
cludes the  harbets  (('(ijiitonid(e),  toucans  (lilianiplut.ftUhi'), 
and  indicators  (IndicaUtridiv),  and  Sliarpe — in  his  Piri- 
fiiniifi — includes  the  puff-birds  (Bucconidu')  and  iacamars 
[Galbiilidic).  ¥.  A.  Lucas. 

Pic'ida'  [Alod.  Lat.,  named  from  P/cks,  the  typical  genus 
or  group,  from  Lat.  /ji  ciix,  woodpecker,  whence  Kng.  pie,  a 
bird]:  a  family  <if  birds  containing  the  woodpeckers  (see 
WooDi'KiKKK)  and  wrynecks,  although  these  last  are  some- 
times placed  in  a  separate  family  (Iiingidie). 

Pick,  Arnold,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D. :  alienist ;  b.  at  Gross-Mcser- 
itsch,  Moravia,  .July  iO.  llS-il ;  educated  at  Iglau,  .Moravia; 
became  medical  assistant  in  the  Asylum  for  the  Insane  at 
Oldenburg  in  187.),  at  Prague  in  1877;  [irivat  doccnt  at  the 
L'niversity  of  Prague  in  ISSO,  and  Professor  of  Psychiatry 
at  the  same  univei'sity  in  1886.  His  works  are  nuiinly  mon- 
ographs in  [isychiatry,  neurology,  physiological  psychology, 
etc.,  besides  his  Jieitrdye  zur  Palhulotjie  u.  Piiihul.  Antifo- 
tnie  rff.s  ('fiilralnenrnsijstems  (1879-80),  written  in  collabo- 
ration with  Otto  Kohle'r.  J.  M.  H, 

Pick,  Hkuxiiari),  Ph.  D. :  author;  b.  at  Kempen,  Prussia, 
Dec.  Ill,  1842;  eilucated  at  Breslau,  Berlin,  and  I'nion  Sem- 
inary, Xew  York.  After  filling  pastorates  in  the  Prcsl.iy- 
terian  Church,  entered  the  Lutheran  ministry  in  1884,  serv- 
ing a  congregation  in  Allegheny,  Pa.  He  is  a  contributor 
to  many  important  publications  (McClintock  and  Strong's 
CydojxFdin.  Schatf-Herzog  Encydojicedia,  etc.);  has  in- 
de.xetl  Lange's  Commentaries  and  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers, 
and  has  published  a  number  of  translations.  H.  E.  J. 

Pickens,  Andrew:  soldier;  b.  at  Paxton,  Bucks  co.. 
Pa.,  Sept.  l:i,  17:J!>,  of  Huguenot  descent:  went  with  liis 
parents  to  the  Waxhaw  Settlement,  S.  (.'.,  in  17o2  ;  was  a 
volunteer  in  Grant's  expedition  against  the  Chcrokees  17G1 ; 
was  a  captain  of  militia  .at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  ; 
soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  shared  with 
Marion  and  Sumter  the  honor  of  the  heroic  resistance  made 
in  South  Carolina  to  the  overwhelming  numbers  of  the 
British  and  Tory  forces.  In  Feb.,  1770.  with  400  men,  he 
defeated  Col.  Boyil  with  700  Tories  at  Kettle  Creek,  aiul  at 
the  battle  of  the  Cowpens, .Ian.  17,  1781,  he  commanded  the 
militia,  which  he  rallieil  and  brought  a  secoml  time  into  ac- 
tion after  they  had  been  broken  and  compelled  to  retreat; 
for  this  service  C(mgress  voted  him  a  swcu'd.  .\fter  the 
war  he  was  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Legislature; 
served  in  Congress  17!)3-!)r);  was  frecpiently  commissioned 
to  make  treaties  with  the  Indians;  settled  at  Hopcwellin  the 
Pendleton  district,  which  he  had  purchased  from  tlu'  Ind- 
ians by  the  Hopewell  treaty.     I),  there  Aug.  17,  1817. 

Pickens,  Fkancis  Wilkinson:  Governor  of  South  Caro- 
lina; son  of  (ien.  .Xndrew  Pickens;  b.  at  Togadoo,  S.  ('., 
Apr.  7.  18I)-");  was  educated  at  South  Carolina  College,  and 
in  18'J!)  became  a  lawyer  of  Edgefield  district  ;  was  promi- 
nent as  a  nuUifier  in  the  State  Legislature  in  18:!'2 ;  wa.s  in 
Congress  1834-4^  ;  opposed  the  Blutfton  secession  movement 
of  1844;  L'.  S.  minister  to  Russia  18.~)8-(i0:  (iovernor  of 
South  Carolina  1800-62,  and  as  such  had  important  coimec- 
tion  with  the  early  secession  moveiuenis  of  his  State.  I),  at 
Edgefield,  S.  C..  .Ian.  25,  1869. 

Pickerel  [Mod.  Eng.  piLerel.  dimin.  of  pihe.  pikel:  in 
Knglaud  the  yoinig  of  the  pike  {Ksa.r  luciiix);  in  the?  I'.  S. 
any  one  of  various  fishes;  thus  in  numy  localities  the  name 
is  given  to  the  small  ICsociD.i':  (r/.  c),  and  in  some  places  (e.g. 
the  interior  lakes  of  the  Northwestern  Stales)  to  the  A'.w.r 
luciiix.  the  word  being  used  as  a  synonym  for  pike,  although 
sometimes  incorrectly  applied  to  other  fishes  of  similar 
fi'rm.     At  the  beginning  of  spring  the  jiickerel  leaves  the 


larger  rivers  and  ascends  the  creeks  and  narrow  ditches  in 
order  to  deposit  its  spawn.  The  growth  of  the  young  pick- 
erel is  extremely  rapid,  and  from  its  birth  it  exhibits  re- 
markalile  voracity.    See  Pike.     Revised  by  I).  S.  Jordan. 

Pickering'.  Edward  Ciiarlks  :  astronomer;  great  grand- 
sou  of  Col.  Timothy  Pickering;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  .luly  19, 
1846;  graduated  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  1865; 
taught  mathematics  at  Cambridge  186.5-07:  was  shortly 
afterwjird  elected  Thayer  Professor  of  Physics  at  the  Ma.ssa- 
chusetts  Institute  of  Technology;  was  a  member  of  the 
Nautical  Almanac  party  which  observed  the  total  eclipse  of 
Aug.  7,  1869,  in  Iowa,  and  of  the  Coast  Survey  party  sent  to 
Spain  with  a  similar  object  in  1870;  has  conducted  extended 
observations  in  optics,  and  es|)ecially  in  regard  to  tlie])olar- 
ization  of  glass  and  of  the  sky,  on  which  sul)jects  he  has  con- 
tributed papers  to  several  scientific  journals :  and  has  suc- 
cessfully carried  out  the  laboratory  method  of  teaching 
physics  upon  a  system  exhibiteil  in  liis  work  entitled  Phys- 
ical JIanipulafion  (1874).  His  system  has  been  largely 
adopted  in  other  institutions.  In  1873  he  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  afterward  became 
director  of  tlie  Harvard  Observatory  at  Cambridge.  Mass., 
which  he  raised  to  be  one  of  the  most  active  in  the  world  in 
the  lines  of  spectroscopy  and  celestial  photography.  He  re- 
ceived the  gold  nu'dal  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  of 
England  in  1886.  Revised  by  .S.  Newcomb. 

Pickering:.  .loHN.  LL.  D. :  philologist  and  archajologist ; 
son  of  Col.  Timothy  Pickering ;  b.  at  .Salem,  Mass.,  Feb.  7, 
1777:  accompanied  his  father  in  his  visits  to  the  Six  Nations 
of  Central  New  York,  deriving  from  that  circumstance  his 
fondness  for  American  jihilology;  gradiuited  at  Harvard 
1796;  studied  law  in  Pliiladelpiiia;  was  attached  to  the 
U.  S.  legations  in  LisVion  and  London  1797-1801  :  a  lawver 
of  Salem,  Mass.,  1801-27:  city  solicitor  of  Boston  182946: 
was  much  in  the  State  Legisl;iture.  and  assisted  in  revising 
the  statutes:  was  a  laborious  philological  student  and  famil- 
iar with  many  languages;  president  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  and  Sciences ;  founder  and  first  president  of  the 
American  Oriental  Society;  maintained  a  correspondence  for 
many  years  on  philological  topic^s  with  P.  S.  Duponccau  and 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt ;  author  of  valuable  legal,  archaeo- 
logical, and  philological  pa])ers.  including  an  Esmy  on  a 
Uniform  Orthography  for  the  Indian  J.anyiiayex  of  Surth 
America  (1820),  in  which  he  proposed  the  aliihabet  adopted  by 
American  missionaries  in  reducing  to  writing  not  only  Ind- 
ian but  Polynesian  languages;  Pemarku  on  the  Indian 
Languages  (if  North  America  (Philadelphia,  1836) :  Vocab- 
ulary ur  Collection  of  Words  and  Phrases  supjiosed  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  United  States  (1810) :  dreek  and  English 
■Lexicon  (1826;  3d  ed.  revised  and  enlarged,  1840).  1).  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  May  5,  1846.       Revised  by  B.  I.  Wiieei.lk. 

Pickering.  Timothy,  LL.  D.  :  statesman;  b,  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  July  0,  1745;  graduated  at  Harvard  1763;  was  com- 
missioned lieutenant  of  militia  1706;  studied  law  while  act- 
ing as  selectman,  assessor,  and  town  clerk  of  Salem;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  1768;  was  prominent  in  resistaiu'c  to  Brit- 
ish aggressions;  in  1775  became  judge  of  the  maritime  and 
common  pleas  courts,  was  elected  colonel  of  militia,  and 
published  An  Easy  Plan  of  Discipline  for  a  Militia,  which 
was  made  the  oflScial  text-book  in  Jlassachusctts  and  in  the 
Continental  army  :  joined  the  Continental  iirmy  at  Jlorris- 
town.  N.  J.,  in  1776  at  the  head  of  a  regiment  raised  in  Es- 
sex Countv.  .Mass. ;  served  through  the  Revolution  as  colonel 
with  valor  and  <)isinterestedness;  became  in  1777  Wash- 
ington's adjutant-general,  serving  as  such  at  Brandywine 
and  Germantown,  and  member  of  the  board  of  war  in  the 
same  year;  quartermaster-general  1780-85;  became  a  com- 
mission merchant  at  Philaclelphia  at  the  close  of  the  war: 
was  sent  in  1786  by  the  Feiieral  Government  to  settle  the 
dispute  between  Pennsylvania  and  Connecticut  over  land 
titles  in  the  valley  of  Wyoming,  Pa. ;  acquired  a  large  tract 
of  land  in  that  region,  settled  at  Wilkesbarre,  and  strove 
with  much  wi.sdom  to  harmonize  the  conllieting  elements, 
but  was  seized  and  im[irisoned  for  twenty  days;  was  a  dele- 
gate from  Luzerne  County  to  the  Pennsylvania  constitu- 
tional conventions  of  1787  and  1790:  negotiated  treaties 
with  the  Six  N.ntions  of  New  York  in  1790,  1791.  and  1794, 
and  with  the  Ohio  Indians  in  1793;  Postmaster-tieneral 
1791-95:  appointed  Secretary  of  War  1795,  and  was  instru- 
mental in  founding  West  Point  Aca<)cniy ;  became  l'.  S. 
Secretai-y  of  State  1795,  and  was  retained  by  President 
.\dams  until  1800,  when  he  was  dismissed  with  the  rest  of 
the  caliinet;  returned  to  the  forests  of  Pennsylvania   and 


612 


PICKETT 


PICTON 


built  a  log  house  for  his  family,  when  by  sale  of  a  portion 
of  his  laiuJs  to  friends  in  Massachusetts,  he  was  set  free 
from  heavy  debts  and  returned  to  Massachusetts  to  settle  at 
Danvers;  was  made  a  judge  of  common  pleas  1803;  was 
U.  S.  Senator  1803-11 ;  made  himself  unpopular  by  oppos- 
ing the  Louisiana  purchase  and  the  embargo  of  1807 ;  also 
■was  opposed  to  the  war  of  1812,  but  served  as  commissioner 
for  the  defense  of  the  Massachusetts  coast;  in  Congress 
1815-17;  declined  a  re-election  to  the  Senate  1816;  was  au- 
thor of  able  political  pamphlets ;  devoted  much  attention 
to  agriculture,  being  president  of  the  Essex  Agricultural 
Society;  was  an  ardent  Federalist.  (See  Essex  Junto,  TuE.) 
He  published  several  occasional  addresses  and  pamphlets : 
Letter  to  Governor  Siittivan  on  the  Embargo.  Addresses  to 
the  People,  Politieal  Essays,  and  a  severe  Review  of  l/te 
Correspondence  lielween  John  Adams  and  U".  Ci/nniny/uim 
(1824),  etc.  D.  at  .Salem,  Mass..  Jan.  29,  1839.  .See  his  Life, 
begun  by  his  son  Octavius,  and  completed  by  Rev.  Charles 
W.  Upham  (4  vols.,  1867-73);  Adams,  Documents  Relating 
to  Keic  England  Federalism  (Boston,  1877) ;  and  the  article 
on  Pickering  by  Lodge,  Atlantic  Monthly,  vol.  xli. 

Pickett.  Georoe  Edward:  soldier;  b.  in  Richmond,  Va., 
Jan.  2~>,  1835;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy, 
and  entered  the  army  as  brevet  second  lieutenant  of  infan- 
try July,  1846;  engaged  in  the  war  with  Mexico  from  Vera 
Cruz  to  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Mexico;  brevet  tirst  lieu- 
tenant and  captain  for  gallantry  at  Contreras,  Chui-ubusco, 
and  Chapultepec ;  on  frontier  duty  1848-61,  becoming  cap- 
tain of  Ninth  Infantry  Mar.  3,  1855.  He  resigned  June  25, 
1861,  and  in  September  was  appointed  colonel  in  the  Con- 
federate army,  and  brigadier  and  major  general  in  1863.  In 
the  Virginia  Peninsular  campaign  of  1863  l:e  led  a  brigade. 
and  was  severely  wounded  at  Gaines's  Mill.  Continuing 
thereafter  with  tlic  army  of  Xortliern  Virginia,  he  partiei- 

Eated  in  the  battles  of  that  army,  and  was  conspicuous  for 
is  bravery  and  intelligence.  At  Gettysburg  his  division 
led  the  assaulting  column  which  suflfered  so  severely  July  3, 
1863 ;  he  also  commanded  in  North  Carolina,  at  the'  capture 
of  Plymouth.  In  the  campaign  of  1864-65  he  made  the 
final  stand  at  Five  Forks,  where  his  division  was  surrounded 
and  broken  up  after  a  desperate  resistance.  D.  at  Norfolk, 
Va..  July  30,  1875.  Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Pickling  and  Pickles :  See  Preservation  of  Food. 

Picknell,  William  Lamb:  landscape-painter;  b.  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  in  1853;  pupil  of  George  Inness  in  Rome,  of 
Gerome  in  Paris,  and  of  Robert  Wylie  in  Brittany ;  member 
of  the  Society  of  American  Artists  1880;  member  of  the 
Society  of  British  Artists:  honorable  mention,  Paris  Salon, 
1880.  His  pictures  of  sunlight  effects  are  remarkably  lu- 
minous, and  his  methods  are  broad  and  vigorous.  The'Con- 
carneau  Road  (1880)  is  in  the  collection  of  T.  B.  Clarke, 
New  York,  and  works  by  him  are  in  the  Metropolitan  JIu- 
seum.  New  York ;  Pennsylvania  Academy,  Philadelphia ; 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston;  and  the  collection  of  the 
corporation  of  Liverpool,  England,      William  A.  Coffin. 

Pico,  peeks :  one  of  the  Azores  Island.s  (q.  v.) ;  belong- 
ing to  the  central  group;  comprises  an  area  of  143  sq.  miles, 
and  includes  the  volcanic  mass  of  Pico  Alto.  7.613  feet  high, 
the  highest  mountain  of  the  group.  The  island  is  fertile 
and  well  wooded,  and  produces  an  excellent  wine,  of  which 
about  25,000  pipes  are  annually  exported.     Pop.  39.000. 

Pico  della  Mirandola,  Giovanni,  Count  of  Mirandola 
and  Prince  of  Concordia:  philosopher  and  mystic;  b.  Feb. 
24,  1463  ;  studied  at  Bologna,  and  visited  several  schools  in 
Italy  anil  France  ;  went  to  Florence  1484,  and  there  became 
intimate  with  the  group  of  Platonizing  thinkers  known  as 
the  ■■  Academy."  Seeking  to  reconcile  the  Platonic  and  the 
Arisldtelian  systems  of  philosophy,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to 
liarmonize  religion  and  philosophy,  he  fell  into  a  vague  and 
mystical  method  of  interpretation.  The  wide  range  of  his 
knowledge  is  illustrated  by  his  offer  in  1486  to  defend 
against  all  comers  900  propositions  de  omni  re  scibili.  They 
are  drawn  from  theology,  dialectics,  ethics,  phvsics,  mathe- 
nialics,  natural  magic,  the  Cabbalah.  As  preparatorv  to  the 
great  debate,  he  prepared  a  discourse.  De  hominis  di'gnitate. 
a  splenilid  aninnati.m  of  man's  capacitv  to  take  all  wisdom 
and  all  truth  for  his  promise.  Influence'd  l)v  Pico's  enemies. 
Pope  Innoc.'nt  VIII.  forbade  the  reading  of  the  propositions, 
as  in  part  heretical.  Pico  retired  to  France,  but  Alexander 
yi.  in  1493  absolved  him  from  all  taint  of  heresy.  I),  in 
Florence.  Nov.  17.  1494.  By  the  great  scholars  of  the  time 
he  was  regarded  as  the  wonder  of  the  wnrld,  but  posterity 


has  not  confirmed  their  judgment.  It  is  only  too  clear  that 
his  commaiul  of  the  twenty-two  langiuiges  lie  was  reputed 
to  know  (among  them  Greek,  Arabic,  and  Chaldee)  was  very 
superficial;  and  that  in  philosophy  he  was  one  of  those  ar- 
dent but  ineffectual  spirits  whose  supposed  discovery  of  the 
secret  of  the  universe  is  but  an  atfirmation  of  their  own  lack 
of  clearness.  The  works  of  Pico  that  have  come  down  to  us 
are  almost  exclusively  in  Latin.  In  his  extreme  youth  he 
had  written  verses  in  Italian,  but  later  he  foreswore  such 
trifles  and  destroyed  most  of  those  he  had  already  composed. 
His  Opera  have  been  printed  in  folio  at  Bologna  (1496),  Ven- 
ice (1498),  Strassburg  (1504),  Basel  (1557,  and  often  after  that 
date).  The  most  important  are  Conclusiones philosophicee, 
cabhalisticif  et  theologic(e  (1486),  containing  the  900  propo- 
sitions mentioned  above;  Apologia  O.  Pici  Mirand.,  Con- 
cordite  Com  if  is  {1489);  Dispiitationes  adrersus  asti-ologiam 
divinatricem  lihri  XIL  (1495):  Heptaplus,  id  est  de  Dei 
creatoris  opere  se.r  dierum  lihri  VII.  (already  in  the  hands 
of  friends  in  1489);  Aurece  ad  faniiliares  epistolo'  (1499). 
Of  his  great  ])rojected  Concordia  Platonis  et  Aristotelis,  he 
had  completed  only  the  treatise  De  ente  et  uno,  when  death 
interrupted  his  labors.  See  Dreydorff,  Das  System  des  Jo- 
hannes Pico  delta  Mirandola  (Marburg,  1888). 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Picot,  pe"e'ko',  Francois  fiDOUARD:  historical  and  genre 
painter;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Oct.  17,  1786;  d.  there  Mar.  15, 
1868;  pupil  of  Vincent ;  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  1813;  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute  1836:  first-class  medal.  Salon,  1819;  Le- 
gion of  Honor  1853.  He  was  the  master  of  a  large  number 
of  celebrated  painters,  including  Pils.  Calianel.  Bouguereau, 
and  Henner.  Among  his  works  are  Meeting  of  Venus  and 
^Eneas  (1819),  Brussels  Museum;  Cephalus  and  Procris 
(1834),  Amiens  Museum ;  several  portraits  in  the  Museum 
at  \'ersailles,  and  ceilings  in  the  Louvre.  W.  A.  C. 

Picotees :  See  Carnation  (the  flower). 

Picric  Acid,  Trinitrocarbol'ic  Acid,  Trinitropheiiol, 
Trinitrophenic  Acid,  or  Carbazotic  Acid :  the  acid  whose 
symbol  is  CsHstNOsJsO.  It  is  produced  by  the  action  of  hot 
nitric  acid  on  phenol,  salicylic  acid,  indigo,  aloes,  silk,  etc. ; 
it  is  usually  prepared  from  pure  crystallized  phenol.  It 
crystallizes  in  beautiful  pale-yellow,  scaly  crystals,  or  nee- 
dles ;  dissolves  in  eighty-six  parts  of  water  at  60'  F.,  and  in 
much  less  at  312°  F. ;  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
benzol,  and  in  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids.  When  heated  it 
melts,  and  on  cooling  solidifies  to  a  crystalline  mass ;  at  a 
higher  temperature  it  sublimes ;  when  quickly  heated,  it 
explodes.  Its  taste  is  very  bitter.  Its  solution  in  water  is 
yellow,  and  it  imparts  a  yellow  color  to  the  skin  and  to  silk 
and  wool ;  hence  it  is  used  as  a  yellow  dye.  By  mordanting 
with  argol  or  alum  before  dyeing,  the  color  is  rendered  more 
stable.  It  has  been  common  to  supply  for  this  purpose  the 
picrate  of  soda,  which  is  very  explosive,  and  has  given  rise 
to  serious  accidents.  A  beautiful  green  dye  is  made  by 
mixing  the  picric  acid  with  indigo  carmine.  The  Victoria 
yellow  is  trinitro-cresol,  not  picric  acid.  Leather  is  dyed 
with  picric  acid,  particularly  alum-tawed  leather  for  belt 
lacings.  Goods  dyed  with  picric  acid  resist  light  well,  but 
are  liable  to  suffer  on  washing  with  soap.  As  vegetable  fibers 
do  not  take  picric  acid,  it  affords  a  ready  method  for  detect- 
ing cotton  and  flax  when  mixed  with  silk  or  wool.  It  is  said 
to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  hops  in  making  beer.  Many 
of  the  salts  of  picric  acid  are  explosive.  A  mixture  of  fifty- 
four  parts  of  ammonium  picrate  and  forty-six  of  potassium 
nitrate  has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  gunpowder.  Other 
mixtures  for  gunpowder  are  formed  of  potassium  picrate, 
niter,  and  carbon.  For  explosive  powder  for  torjiedoes  the 
carbon  is  omitted.  Melinite,  one  of  the  most  powerful  ex- 
plosives, is  said  to  consist  only  of  compressed  picric  acid. 
See  Explosives.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Picrite :  See  Peridotite. 

Picrotoxine  [Gr.  viKp6s.  bitter  -i-  To|iK((y,  arrow-poisou, 
poison] :  a  jioisonous  bitter  principle  found  in  the  cocculus 
indiciis  of  commerce,  the  berries  of  the  Anamirta  cocculus. 
An  infusion  of  the  berries  has  been  used  against  lice,  and 
the  alkaloid  has  been  employed  for  the  prevention  of  night 
sweats. 

Picton  :  a  port  of  entry:  capital  of  Prince  Edward  co., 
Ontario.  Canada:  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  40  miles  S.  S.  W. 
from  Kingston:  terminus  of  the  Cent.  Out.  Railway  (see 
map  of  Ontario,  ref.  4-G).  It  is  the  seat  of  Ontario  College, 
has  fruit-canning  factories  and  a  maiuifactory  of  fence-wire, 
and  two  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1891)  3,387. 


PICTOU 


PIERCE 


613 


Fictou :  port  of  entry:  capital  of  Pietou  County.  Xova 
Scotia;  on  a  safe  and  c-onmioilioiis  liarl)or  at  the  terminus 
of  a  branch  of  tlie  Intercolonial  liailway ;  114  miles  by  niil 
N.  N.  K.  of  Halifax  (see  map  of  (Quebec,'  ref.  2-C).  Steainers 
ply  to  Charlottetown,  (ijuebec,  ami  the  ports  of  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence.  Bituminous  coal  is  mined  near  by.  There 
are  consi<lerable  manufactures,  also  an  academy,  court-house, 
and  a  weekly  newspaper.     I'op.  (18111)  2,!I'J8. 

I'icts:  a  Ci4tic  tribe,  the  Caledonians  of  the  Roman 
writers,  inhabiting?  the  lowlands  and  the  eastern  part  of 
Scotland  ;  are  first  nu-ntioned  under  the  name  of  the  I'icti 
in  a  speech  addressed  by  the  rhetorician  Kumenius  to  the 
Emperor  Constantius  Chlorus  on  his  return  in  i'Mi  a.  u.  after 
the  victory  over  Allectus.  They  were  divided  into  the 
Southern  and  Xorthern  I'icts  by  the  (irampian  Mountains. 
The  Southern  Picts  were  converted  to  Christianity  early  in 
the  fifth  century  by  St.  Ninian;  the  Northern  by  St.  Co- 
lumba,  who  began  ilio  work  of  conversion  in  563.  Their 
history  is  obscure,  and  its  details  have  been  the  subject  of 
much  controversy.  Xor  are  authorities  agreed  ujion  what 
languages  they  spoke.  In  the  ninth  ccMitury  they  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Scots,  a  kindred  trilie  which  inva<led  the  coun- 
try from  Ireland.  Keniu'th  II.  coiKjuered  the  whole  of 
Scotland,  made  it  one  kingdom,  and  took  up  his  residence 
in  thi!  old  I'ietish  capital,  Forteviot,  in  .Stratherne.  Snbse- 
i|iiently  attacked  on  both  sides — from  the  X.  by  the  Scandi- 
navian invaders,  and  from  the  S.  by  the  Teutonic  inhabit- 
ants of  England  —  the  Pictish  language  and  nationality 
gradually  ilisappeared.  See  Innes.  Ciril  and  Ecclcsiasti- 
citl  Hislori/  of  Scnlldnd  :  Pinkerton,  [nipiiri/  i/ifo  /lif  Ilis- 
tori/  uf  Scotland;  Stokes,  On  the  Linguistic  Value  of  the 
Irish  Annals ;  and  Rhys,  Celtic  Scotland  (1884). 

P.  M.  Colby. 

Pictiire-g'allery :  a  room  especially  prepared  for  the  ex- 
hibition of  pictures,  the  word  (jallenj  expressing  the  com- 
parative length  and  narrowness  of  nu)st  of  such  rooms. 
(See  (tallery.)  Jlany  of  the  public  museums  of  Europe 
are  houseii  in  ancient  palaces  whose  long  rooms  arc  not  very 
skillfully  altered  to  suit  the  new  pur[)oses.  New  gallcri<'S 
also  are  often  defective  in  respect  to  the  light-openings.  It 
is  reipnred  to  throw  the  light  more  upon  the  walls  than 
upon  the  floor,  and  to  have  this  light  come  at  such  an  angle 
that  there  shall  be  no  flash  on  the  surface  of  the  picture  at 
any  ordinary  position  of  the  spectator.  Sunshine  and  even 
the  reflection  and  glow  of  sunshine  u|ion  the  glass  of  the  light- 
openings  are  to  be  avoided.  It  is  found  in  practice  that  the 
section  of  gallery  and  the  position  of  the  light  which  suits 
a  room  of  certain  dimensions  is  not  suitable  to  galleries 
much  wider  or  narrower;  not  only  the  height  has  to  be 
chatiged,  but  the  relative  positions  of  the  light-openings 
and  the  wall.  See  the  Handhnch  der  Architektiii;  pub- 
lished at  Darmstadt  (part  iv.,  sixth  half-volume,  fourth  num- 
ber). Russell  Stcrgis. 

Pidirin-  (or  Piareon-)  Elisriisli:  an  artificial  dialect  cm- 
ployed  in  Hongkong  and  the  treaty-ports  of  China  by  for- 
eigners of  all  nation.'dities  wlio  do  imt  s|]eak  Chinese,  in  their 
dealings  with  native  servants,  merchants,  coolies,  etc.  Its 
base  is  corrufitcd  English,  with  a  mixture  of  Chinese,  Portu- 
guese, and  Malay  words,  arranged  according  to  Chinese 
idiom.  Owing  to  the  ditVicully  the  Chinese  have  in  pro- 
nouncing consonantal  terminations,  vowel  terminations  -o 
and  -ee  abound,  as  o/o  for  old,  irifo  for  wife,  talkee  for  talk, 
rntchee  for  catch,  muehee  for  much,  etc.  Belonii  takes  the 
place  of  the  verb  to  he  :  my  =  I,  mc,  mine  ;  plentij  =  very  ; 
topside  =  above,  upstairs;  that  xide  =  there.;  this  side  ^z 
here;  hair  /f(.s/uV)«  =  wliy  ;  xrn'ci/ =  know  ;  nuin-man  ^= 
slow,  gently,  quietly  ;  cho/i-ehop  =  (piick  ;  maskee  =  no  mat- 
ter, never  mind :  chou'-chow  =  food,  eat,  etc.  The  word 
pidgin  is  itself  a  Chinese  corruption  of  the  English  word 
■■  business."  R.  Lili.ey. 

Pied'raoiit  (Ital.  Piemonfe):  territory  of  Northern  Italy; 
bounded  S.  by  the  Maritime  .Mps,  \V.  by  the  Graian  and 
Cottian,  N.  by  the  Pennine  Alps,  and  E.  by  the  river  Ticino; 
area.  1 1,840  s(|.  miles.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  becanu' a 
pos,session  of  the  house  of  Savoy,  ami  now  it  forms,  with 
slightly  altered  boundaries,  a  large  division  of  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  being  subdivided  into  the  four  provinces  of  Turin, 
Cuneo,  Alessandria,  and  Xovara.  The  greater  part  of  this 
country  is  mountainous,  covered  with  spurs  of  the  Alfis,  be- 
tween which  the  numerous  atlluents  of  the  Po,  the  Tanaro, 
Bormida,  Clusone,  Dora,  Sesia,  etc.,  form  beautiful  and  fer- 
tile valU'ys;  but  toward  the  E.  the  country  gradually  opens 
into  the  plain  of  the  Po.     Rice,  wlieat,  maize,  wine,  olive  oil. 


and  many  varieties  of  fruits  are  produced,  and  extensive 
dairy-farming  and  manufacturing  in<Uislries  are  carried  on. 
The  method  of  the  Piedmonlese  silk-culture  is  celebrated 
and  very  successful.  Pop.  (18!t2)  3,-.>70,!)88,  See  Italy,  and 
Sardinia,  Kinudom  op. 

Piedmont  Plain  or  Platean  :  a  term  applied  by  geog- 
raphers to  that  portion  of  the  North  .\nu-rican  continent 
which  lii'S  W.  of  the  Coastal  Pi.aix  {q.  r.)  and  E.  of  the 
Appalachian  Mountains.  These  portions  are  quite  strongly 
contrasted.  The  dividing  line  between  the  two,  known  as 
the  fdll  line,  marks  the  localities  where  the  streams  from 
the  W.  leave  the  region  of  hard  rocks  adjacent  to  the  Ap- 
l)alachians  and  enter  the  newer  and  more  easily  eroded  ter- 
rain's f(U'niing  the  coastal  plain.  In  most  instances  the  fall 
line  also  imlicates  where  the  streams  lose  their  current  and 
merge  with  the  estuaries  formed  by  the  submergence  of  the 
lower  jiortions  of  their  channels.  In  New  England  the  Pied- 
mont plateau  is  broad  but  less  clearly  defined  than  in  the 
Middle  and  Southern  Atlantic  States,  where  it  is  a  broken, 
hilly  country,  composed  principally  of  crystalline  rocks,  and 
deeply  trenched  by  the  rivers  flowing  across  it.  It  broadens 
from  New  York  southward,  and  reaches  its  greatest  width  in 
North  Carolina,  where  it  extends  ejistward  some  300  miles 
from  the  Appalachians.  Israel  C.  Ri'SSELl. 

Pie'per,  Franz  Augustus  Otto  ;  theologian  ;  b.  in  Pom- 
erania,  June  37,  1852;  educated  at  Watertown,  Wis.,  and 
St.  Louis,  Mo,  After  a  pastorate  at  Manitowoc,  Wis.,  1875- 
78.  he  became  professor  in  Concordia  Theological  Seminary, 
first  as  the  colleague  and  afterward  as  the  successor  of  Dr. 
C.  F.  W.  Walther.  Besides  numerous  articles  in  the  Ger- 
man language.  Prof.  Pieper  has  contributed  in  English  to 
The  Dislinetice  Doctrines  and  Usages  of  the  General  Bod- 
ies of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  and  to  The  J-^-es- 
hfjterian  and  Reformed  Review.  He  is  the  leader  of  the 
Missouri  Lutherans.  H.  E.  Jacobs. 

Pierce.  Franklin  ;  the  fourteenth  President  of  the  U.  S. ; 
b.  at  Hillsborough.  X.  H.,  Nov,  23.  1804;  graduated  in  1824 
at  Bowdoin  College,  where  he  was  the  intimate  associate  of 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  his  lifelong  friend  ;  was  the  law-pupil 
of  Levi  Woodbury;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  prac- 
ticed law  with  success  in  Hillsborough  and  Concord,  N.  H. ; 
represented  the  former  town  in  the  State  Legislature  1827- 
33;  was  in  Congress  1833-37;  in  the  U.S.  Senate  1837-42; 
was  heartily  in  favor  of  the  union  of  Texas  with  the  U.  S. ; 
twice  declined  positions  in  the  cabinet  of  Mr.  Polk ;  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Mexican  war,  commanding  a  brigade ; 
was  president  of  the  New  Hampshire  constitutional  conven- 
tion 18.50-51 ;  was  chosen  President  of  the  U.  S.  in  18.52  by 
254  electoral  votes  to  42  for  Gen.  Scott,  the  Whig  candidate. 
Mr.  Pierce's  administration  was  a  period  of  great  political 
excitement.  In  his  inaugural  address.  Mar.  4,  1853,  he 
strongly  denounced  the  agitation  of  the  slavery  question 
then  going  on.  and  maintained  that  slavery  was  recognized 
by  the  Constitution,  and  that  the  Fugitive  Slave  law  was 
c(mstitutional  and  ought  to  be  strictly  enforced.  Promi- 
nent among  the  events  of  liis  administration  werelhetTadsden 
Purchase,  the  rejieal  of  the  Missouri  Comiiromise,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  troubles  in  Kansas,  during  which  the  Presi- 
dent opjiosed  by  every  means  in  his  power  the  organization 
of  a  Free-State  government.  He  sought  to  justify  the  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska  Act,  and  in  his  special  mes.sage  of  Jan.  24, 
18.5G,  represented  the  formation  of  a  Free-State  government 
as  an  ai't  of  rebellion.  Other  important  events  of  his  ad- 
ministration were  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty  with  Japan  by 
Commodore  Perry,  the  publication  of  the  ttstend  Manifesto, 
the  sellleiiieiit  of  the  <lispul(!  over  tlu'  boundary  between  the 
U.S.  and  Jlcxico,  and  Walker's  filibustering  expedition  to 
Nicaragua.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  State  rights 
doctrine,  and  during  the  war  of  1861-65  svmpathized  with 
the  Southern  States.  D.  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  ()ct._  8,  186S). 
His  Life,  dov/n  to  his  nomination,  was  written  by  Nathaniel 
Hawtliorne  (Boston,  18.52).  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Pierce,  George  Foster,  D.  D.  :  bishop;  son  of  Lovick 
Pierce,  D.  D. ;  b.  in  Greene  co„Ga.,  Feb.  3. 1811  ;  studied  law 
with  his  uncle.  Hon.  George  Foster;  in  1831  joined  the 
Georgia  conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church; 
performed  imiiortant  pastoral  work  in  Georgia  and  South 
Carolina.and  |)residcd  over  literary  instil  lit  ions  (Emory  Col- 
lege for  six  years)  till  18.54,  when  he  was  made  bishop;  was 
a  member  of  the  General  Conferences  of  1844,  1846,  1850, 
and  1854  ;  published  Incidents  of  Western  Travel  (Nashville, 
1857)  and  several  sermons,  addresses,  etc.  D.  near  Sparta, 
Ga.,  Sept.  3,  1884.  Itevised  by  A.  Osbokn. 


eii 


PIEltOijA 


PIGEON 


Plero'la,  Nicolas,  de :  politii-ian  :  b.  at  Camana,  Are- 
quipa,  Peru,  Jan.  .5,  18S9 ;  son  of  the  director  of  the  Lima 
museum :  studied  and  practiced  law  in  that  city,  and  was  a 
well-known  journalist.  Under  President  Balta  (1868-73)  he 
was  Jlinister  of  the  Treasury,  and  consequently  was  directly 
connected  with  the  enormous  outlays  of  that  period.  He 
led  abortive  revolts  against  Pardo  1872  and  1874,  and  Prado 
1877.  After  the  first  reverses  of  the  Chilian  war.  President 
Prado  went  to  Europe :  Pierola  then  headed  another  revolt, 
deposed  the  vice-president,  and  was  declared  supreme  chief 
at  Lima  Dee.  23,  1879.  Owing  to  the  urgent  need  for  a  re- 
sponsible head  the  republic  generally  accepted  hmi.  He 
showed  great  activitv,  especially  in  defending  Lima;  when 
that  city  was  taken  (Jan.  17,  1881)  he  fled  into  the  interior, 
convoking  a' congress  at  Arequipa,  but  in  the  following  No- 
vember he  resigned  and  went  to  Europe.  He  tried  to  seize 
the  presidency  again  in  1885.  Owing  to  his  restless  and 
revolutionary  "spirit  he  has  several  times  been  banished,  but 
he  has  a  considerable  political  following  in  Peru.  He  was 
a  presidential  candidate  in  1804.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pierre:  citv;  capital  of  South  Dakota  and  of  Hughes 
County  (for  location,  see  map  of  South  Dakota,  ref.  6-D) ;  on 
the  Missouri  river  and  the  Chicago  and  N.  \V.  Railway  ;  158 
miles  W.  of  Huron.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  stock-rais- 
ing region,  and  is  the  principal  trading-fioint  for  the  Black 
nflls  section.  It  is  the  seat  of  Pierre  University  (Presby- 
terian, cliartered  in  1883),  and  of  an  Indian  industrial  school 
established  bv  the  U,  S.  Government,  and  contains  3  national 
banks,  with  combined  capital  of  $200,000,  a  State  bank  witli 
capital  of  |50,000,  and  a  daily,  3  weekly,  and  3  monthly  i)e- 
riodicals.     Pop.  (1880)  not  reported  ;  (1890)  3,236. 

Editor  of  "  Capital." 

Pierrepont,  Edwards,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  :  jurist;  b.  in 
North  Haven,  Conn.,  Mar.  4,  1817:  gradu.ited  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1837,  and  a  vear  later  was  admitted  to  the  bar; 
practiced  law  at  Coluhibus,  0.,  till  1845,  when  he  removed 
to  New  York  citv ;  in  1857  was  elected  a  judge  of  the  su- 
perior court  of  New  York,  but  resigned  that  position  in 
1860,  and  returned  to  the  practice  of  law ;  was  engaged  by 
the  National  Government  in  1867  to  conduct  its  case  against 
John  H.  Surratt,  indicted  for  complicity  in  the  murder  of 
President  Lincoln  :  in  1869  was  appointed  by  President 
Grant  U.  S.  district  attorney  for  the  southern  district  of 
New  York,  but  resigned  that  office  in  May,  1870 ;  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to"  Russia  but  declined  in  1873 :  was  ap- 
pointed attorney-general  of  the  U.  S.  in  1875,  minister  to 
England  in  1876,  resigned  in  1877.  He  received  the  degree 
of  LL.  D.  from  Columbian  College,  Washington,  and  from 
Yale  College,  and  that  of  D.  C,  L,  from  Oxford  University. 
D.  in  New  York,  Mar.  6,  1893. 

Piers:  See  Harbors. 

Pierson,  Arthur  Tappan,  D.  I). :  minister ;  b.  in  New 
York  citv.  Mar.  6,  1837 ;  educated  at  Hamilton  C'ollege  and 
Union  Theological  Seminary;  was  pastor  of  the  Congrega- 
tional churches.  West  Winsted,  Conn.,  1859-60;  Bingham- 
ton,  N.  Y.,  1860-63;  Norwalk,  Conn.,  1863;  of  the  Presby- 
terian churches,  Waterford,  N.  Y.,  1863-69:  Fort  Street, 
Detroit,  Mich.,  1869-83;  Second.  Indianapolis,  Ind„  1883- 
83;  Bethany,  Philadelphia,  1883-91:  supplied  the  Metro- 
politan Tabernacle,  London,  England,  1891-93;  and  was 
incumbent  of  the  Dutf  lectureship  in  1892.  Besides  fre- 
quent contributions  to  periodicals,  Dr.  Pierson  has  edited 
The  Missionary  Review  of  the  World  since  its  inception, 
1888  (New  York),  and  has  published  many  evangelistic  and 
missionary  works,  such  as  Many  Infallihle  Pruofy  (1886  ;  2d 
ed.  1889):  T/ie  Crisis  of  Missions  (New  York,  1886);  Evan- 
gelisfic  Work  in  Principle  and  Practice  (1887  ;  2d  ed,  1888) ; 
The  Divine  Enterprise  of  Missions  (1891) ;  The  Miracles  of 
Missions  {Vri^l);  The  Heart  of  the  Gospel  (Sermons,  1891) ; 
The  Divine  Art  of  Preaching  (New  York  and  London, 
1892) :  and  Tlie  New  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (1894).    C.  K.  H. 

Piers  Plowman :  See  ExoLisn  Literature. 

Pietermaritzbiirg,  or  Maritzhnrg':  capital  of  Natal 
\(/.  V.) ;  at  an  altitude  of  over  2,000  feet  above  the  sea;  on  a 
Tcrtile  plain  watered  by  a  tributary  of  the  Umgeni ;  73  miles 
by  the  main  line  of  the  Natal  Government  Railway  System 
N.  of  Durban  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  9-F).  It  is  also  con- 
nected by  rail  with  the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Trans- 
vaal. The  chief  buildings  are  the  government-house  and 
the  otTice  of  the  colonial  secretary ;  and  there  is  a  military 
camp  here  which  is  occupied  by  the  (irincipal  division  of 
troops  stationed  in  the  colony      '''>.• ..,i.,...  ;,„ 


The  town  takes  its  name 


from  its  Boer  founders,  Pieter  Relief  and  Gert  Maritz.  Pop. 
(1891)  17,500.  of  whom  two-thirds  are  whites,  the  rest  being 
natives  and  coolies. 

Pietists  [from  hat. pi' etas,  piety,  deriv.  of  pi'ns.  oKserving 
what  isproiicr  toward  parents  or  God,  pious  (often  implying 
merely  formal  or  outward  oljservance)] :  in  Germany,  Chris- 
tians "who  never  formed  a  sect  nor  professed  distinctive  doc- 
trines, but  were  noted  for  their  preference  of  ]iractical 
religion.  The  movement  took  place  wholly  within  the 
Lutheran  Church,  and  may  be  characterized  as  an  attempt 
to  make  even  the  least  important  every-day  doings  expressive 
of  the  religious  spirit,  and  eliminate  from  human  life  any- 
thing— such  as  dancing,  visiting  the  theater,  etc. — which 
proves  hostile  to  such  a  modification.  The  first  writers  of 
importance  who  assumed  this  ground  were  Johann  Arndt 
(Vom  wdhren  Christenthiim.  1605)  and  Johann  V.  Andrese 
(Invitatio  Fraternitatis  C'hristi.  1617).  The  term  was  first 
apjilied  in  derision  to  a  number  of  teachers  at  Leipzig  in 
168!l.  chief  among  whom  was  A.  H.  Prancke,  and  was  soon 
afterward  employed  chiefly  as  a  designation  of  the  followers 
of  Philipp  Jakob  Spexer  (q.  v.).  The  combined  influence  of 
S)>ener  and  Prancke  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  University 
of  Halle,  which  became  a  center  of  the  pietistic  movement. 
The  rationalism  of  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  and  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  operated  adversely  to  pietism, 
but  since  the  overthrow  of  rationalism  it  has  largely  revived 
in  Germany,  especially  in  Berlin.  Silesia,  and  Wiirtemberg. 
The  general  history  of  "Pietism  has  been  written  bv  H.  Schmid 
(Nfirdlingen.  1863),  H.  Heppe  (Leyden,  1879),  anil  A.  Ritschl 
(Bonn,  1880-86,  3  vols.).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Pie'tra  Dii'ra  [Ital.,  liter.,  hard  stone] ;  a  name  applied  to 
the  better  kinds  of  cameo  and  mosaic  work.     See  Mosaic. 

Piezom'eter  [Gr.  iriffei;/.  iiress  -i-  jifrpov.  a  measure] :  an 
instrument  for  measuring  the  compression  of  water  and  of 
other  fluids  under  pressure.  The  first  successful  piezometer 
was  that  of  Oersted,  in  which  the  pressure  was  gauged  liy 
the  manometer,  and  the  amount  of  compression  of  the  water 
was  indicated  by  the  use  of  mercury  in  a  glass  tube.  Reg- 
naulfs  piezometer  is  in  principle  the  same,  but  it  also  takes 
into  account  tlie  expansion  of  the  tubes  under  pressure,  and 
consequently  gives  more  accurate  results.  Where  the  pres- 
sures to  be  used  are  beyond  the  crushing  point  for  glass 
steel  tubes  are  used  and' the  encroachment  of  the  mercury 
upon  the  manometer  tube  is  recorded  by  gold  plating  the 
inner  surface  of  the  latter  previous  to  the  test,  and  afterward 
noting  to  what  height  the  gold  has  been  amalgamated. 

Revised  by  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Pig:  See  Swine. 

Piffafet'ta,  Antonio  :  traveler ;  b.  at  Vicenza,  Italy,  in 
1491."  In  1510  he  went  to  Spain  in  the  suite  of  the  papal 
nuncio :  bv  special  permission  he  accompanied  the  expedi- 
tion of  Slagalhaes  in  1519,  and  was  one  of  those  who  re- 
turned in  the  Victoria  1522,  after  the  first  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe.  A  letter  which  be  wrote  to  Charles  V.,  de- 
scribing the  voyage,  was  quickly  published  in  several  lan- 
guages. He  prepared  a  longer  account,  which  was  discov- 
erecl  and  published  at  Jlilan  in  1800  as  Primo  Viaggio 
intorno  at  gloho  terracqneo.  Pigafetta  is  the  principal  au- 
thoritv  on  this  important  voyage.  D.,  probably  at  Vicenza, 
about"l534.  '  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pigeon  [=  Pr.  <  Lat.  pi'pio,  a  young  piping  or  chirping 
bird,  deriv.  of  pipire,  pipe,  peep,  chirp] :  any  member  of 
the  order  Columhte,  a  group  of  birds  typified  by  the  famil- 
iar domestic  pigeon.  The  characters  of  the  order  are  given 
under  Columb.e,  and  although  the  members  of  tlie  group 
jiresent  great  variations  in  regard  to  size  and  color,  yet,  with 
one  or  two  exceptions,  they  are  all  readily  recognizable. 
There  is  popularly,  supposed  to  be  a  difference  between 
doves  and  pigeons, "but  it  has  no  existence  in  nature.  Some- 
thing like  500  species  have  been  described,  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  temperate  and  warm  parts  of  the 
globe,  but  most  abundant  in  the  iMalay  Archipelago,  which 
has  about  120  species.  Wallace  accounts  for  this  abun- 
dance by  the  absence  in  this  region  of  fruit-eating  animals, 
like  mohkevs  and  squirrels.  The  most  aberrant  number  of 
the  order  i"s  the  Samoan  tooth-billed  pigeon  (Diditnculus 
strigirostris),  so  named  from  the  notches  in  the  lower  man- 
dible. It  is  the  nearest  living  relative  of  the  extinct  Dodo 
{q.  v.\  but  the  aflSnitv  between  the  two  is  not  very  close. 
The  specifics  name  is  iii  allusion  to  the  hooked  upper  man- 
dible, whicli  suggests  that  of  a  bird  of  prey.  This  bird  is 
about  a  foot  long  ;  the  head  and  greater  portion  of  the  un- 


PIGEON-ENGLISH 


PIKE 


615 


•der  parts  are  glossy  greenish  black  ;  the  larger  share  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  boiiy,  iiioluding  the  tail,  is  chest  luit  tjrowii, 
the  feathers  on  the  upper  part  of  tlie  mantle  tipped  with 
greenish  black.  It  fdrnierlv  nested  on  the  ground,  a  fact 
which  threatened  to  lead  to  its  externunation.  owing  to  the 
attacks  of  dogs,  cats,  and  rats,  but  changed  its  habits  and 
took  to  nesting  in  trees  and  thus  prolonged  its  days. 

The  Nicobar  |)igcon  {('(ilwnas  nicnbarica).  from  New 
(iuinea  and  some  of  the  adjacent  islands,  is  another  peculiar 
form,  having  a  remarkable  horn-like  lining  to  its  gizzard. 
The  plumage,  except  the  tail  (which  is  while),  is  of  various 
shades  of  green  with  metallic  reflections,  and  the  lower  part 
of  the  neck  is  adorned  with  pointe<l  feathers  much  like  the 
hackles  of  a  cock.  Tl)e  brilliantly  colored  fruit-pigeons,  of 
the  genus  ('(trpophdt/ii  and  allied  genera,  come  from  Aus- 
tralia, the  JIalay  Archipelago,  anil  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 
(ireen  is  perhaps  their  ])redominant  color,  but  some  are 
almost  as  gay  in  plumage  as  any  of  the  parrots.  Some  of 
the  fruit-pigeons  of  the  genus  Treron,  owing  to  the  spicy 
fruits  on  which  they  feed,  are  said  to  surpass  all  other  birds 
in  flavor,  and  some  present  very  interesting  modifications 
of  the  gizzard. 

The  giants  of  the  order  are  the  crowned  pigeons,  Goura 
(q.  V.) :  the  pygmies  are  found  among  the  little  ground-doves 
(Colum/iiffdllina.  (ffopi-liii,  etc.),  some  of  which  are  little 
larger  than  a  sparrow.  Finally  we  come  to  f/ie.  pigeon 
(Columba  livia)  or  rock-pigeon,  which  is  found  in  a  wild 
state  over  a  great  part  of  Europe,  breeding  ujioii  rocky 
precipices,  especially  near  the  sea.  The  wings  are  black  at 
their  outer  margin,  and  have  a  black  bar  on  the  secondaries, 
and  a  second  on  the  great  coverts;  the  rump  is  ashy;  the 
tail  bluish  ash.  black  for  the  terminal  third,  with  the  lateral 
feathers  white  e.Kternally  for  their  basal  third.  This  plum- 
age may  be  seen  almost  feather  for  feather  in  some  of  the 
common  ilomesticated  pig(M)ns.  The  blue  rock-pigeon  is  by 
most  authorities  considered  to  be  the  [larent  stock  of  iilt 
breeds  ol  domestic  pigeons,  of  which  there  are  at  least  2.")0 
varieties,  but  other  authorities  consider  that  some  of  the 
rastern  breeds  sprang  from  Co/iimbn  intermKlia,  a  very 
similar  bird.  The  domestic  birds  differ  not  only  in  color, 
-markings,  and  size,  but  even  in  the  number  of  their  ver- 
tebne  and  ribs,  as  well  as  in  the  shape  and  proportions  of 
their  .skull.s.  Darwin,  who  made  an  extensive  study  of 
jiigeons,  divides  them  into  four  principal  groups,  Pouters, 
Carriers,  Tumblers,  and  Trun)peters,  with  eleven  sub-groups 
or  races.  There  are  at  least  1.50  <listinct  breeds  recognized 
by  fanciers.  For  a  fvdl  discussion  of  the  question  see  Dar- 
win's Animalu  and  Plants  tiniler  Domestication,  vol.  ii. 

The  carrier-pigeon  is  perhaps  the  best  known  by  name  of 
all  domestic  breeds,  but  it  is  not  the  bird  used  for  carrying 
messages.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  case  formerly,  the 
modern  carrier  is  a  mere  fancy  breed  distinguished  by  a  large 
fleshy  carbuncle  about  the  b;ise  of  the  bill  and  a  smaller  one 
around  each  eye.  The  bird  used  for  carrying  messages  and 
for  long-distance  flying  is  the  homer,  which  is  not  bred  for 
"points"  and  is  not  essentially  different  from  an  ordinary 
•dove-cote  pigeon  in  appearance.  By  careful  selection  the 
pigeon's  natural  fondness  for  its  own  loft  has  been  intensi- 
fle<l,  while  by  selection  and  training  birds  have  been  raised 
which  will  return  Ikjuic  from  distances  of  from  201)  to  500 
Jniles.  and.  very  rarely,  from  1,000  miles. 

The  fantail  belongs  to  the  short-billed  tumbler  group, 
and  is  characterized  by  the  great  number  of  tail  feathers, 
which  should  be  at  lejist  twenty-four,  and  may  be  as  many 
as  forty,  and  by  having  the  tail  carried  more  or  less  erect 
and  open.  The  head  should  also  be  carried  well  over  the 
back,  toward  the  root  of  the  tail,  an<l  breeding  has  gone  so 
far  in  this  directi<m  that  these  birds  are  hollow-backed  and 
some  have  great  ditficulty  in  picking  up  their  food. 

For  domestic  breeds,  see  Fulton's  Ilhistrated  Book  of 
Pigfons.  There  is  no  modern  monographic  work  on  pig- 
eons save  the  British  Museum  Calaloyne  of  Game  liirdit, 
by  Ogilvie  (Jrant.  See  also  EvoMTio.v,  Doiio,  Goira, 
PASSE.NGER-I'ItiEON,  Jacobin,  Poutkr,  and  TriMI'KTKR. 

F.  A,  LicAS. 

Pigeon-English  :  See  PiDoix-KNoi.isn. 

Pigeon-ppa :  the  pea-like  pulse  grown  upon  the  legu- 
minous shrubs  Cujanua  JlavuH  and  birolor,  which  are  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  many  tropical  countries,  where 
t  hey  are  higiily  valueil.  The  better  sorts  are  very  palata- 
ble substitutes  for  the  pea. 

Pigmontiition  [from  Lat. /)wm«?i<K7n,  paint,  color,  deriv. 
-of  pinyere,  to  paint,  to  decorate] :  in  physiology,  a  discolor- 


ation produced  by  the  deposition,  especially  to  excess,  of  a 
pigment  in  the  ti.ssues.  A  certain  amount  of  pigment  is  one 
of  the  normal  constituents  of  the  body.  The  great  .source of 
pigment  is  found  in  the  coloring  nuitterof  the  red  blood-cor- 
puscles, an<l  it  is  proliable  that  all  of  tlic  jiigments  found  in 
the  tissues  represent  various  modifications  of  this.  Under 
normal  circumstances  the  greatest  amount  of  pigjuentation 
is  found  in  the  epidermal  appendages,  especially  in  the 
hair.  The  varying  color  of  this  is  due  to  the  different 
amounts  and  possibly  different  physical  relations  to  the 
tissue  of  the  same  pigment.  The  same  is  true  of  the  eyes, 
which  owe  their  color  to  the  pigment  contained  in  the  iris. 
A  varying  amount  of  |)ignu:nt  is  found  in  the  skin.  In  a 
section  of  the  .Negro  skin  there  is  found  a  liiu'of  pigment  in 
and  between  the  cells  of  the  deepest  layer  of  epidermis.  The 
formation  of  the  pigment  does  not  seem  to  be  a  function  of 
the  epidermic  cells,  but  it  is  formed  by  certain  cells  of  the 
connective  tissue,  and  when  formed  is  taken  up  by  the  epi- 
dermic cells.  The  color  of  different  organs  of  the  body  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  es.sentially  the  same  pigment.  An 
increased  formation  of  the  pigment  plays  an  essential  part 
in  various  pathological  conditions  of  the  body,  and  a  diseased 
condition  of  the  adrenal  glands  is  associated  with  an  in- 
creased formation  of  pigment.  In  the  skin  the  greatest  for- 
mation of  pigment  under  jiathological  conditions  is  .seen  in 
the  pigmented  tumors.  All  these  tumors  spring  from  the 
mesoderm  and  usually  originate  in  tissues  where  there  is 
normally  a  formation  of  pigment,  as  in  the  choroid  coat  of 
the  eye  and  in  the  skin.  Another  source  of  pigment  is  also 
given  when  organs  are  subjected  to  long-standing  conges- 
tion, or  wlien  hannorrhage  takes  place  in  organs.  A  number 
of  red  blood-corpuscles  are  then  destroyed  and  their  pig- 
ment is  taken  up  in  the  tissues.  The  pigmentation  of  the 
skin  which  follows  a  bruise  or  an  injury  is  due  to  changes 
following  on  a  hiemorrhage.  \V.  T.  Councilmax. 

Pigments :  coloring  matters  which  when  mi.xed  with 
oil.  water,  or  gum,  form  paint.  They  are  either  mineral  or 
extracted  from  organic  matter.     See  Paint. 

Pigmy :  See  Pygmy  Tribes. 

Pigmy  Ape:  See  Barbary  Ape. 

Pig-nut:  See  Hickory. 

PigresiinGr.  Uiyp-rts:  Greek  poet  of  the  fifth  century  B.C., 
brother  of  Artemisia  (</.  v.).  and  reputed  authorof  the  mock- 
heroic  poem,  Tlie  Battle  of  tlie  Frugs  and  31ice  (Barpaxo/ivo- 
fiaxia),  once  attributed  to  Homer.  (See  editions  bv  Baumeis- 
ter.  IS.Ji,  and  Brandt,  1888,)  To  him  was  ascribed  also  the 
Jlaryiten  {Mapy'iTTis),  the  hero  of  which  was  a  blundering  Jack- 
of-all-trades  and  master-of-none.  a  phrase  wliicli  goes  back 
to  the  Greek  original :  irSw^  TpriffTaTo  tpya,  kokws  5'  riiriffTaro 
irdma.  B.  L.  G. 

Pigweed :  See  Chexopodiu.m. 

Pike  [M.  Eng.  pike,  appar.  deriv.  of  jiike.  a  sharp  point, 
etc.  Cf.  Fr.  i/'oc/if/.  pike,  deriv.  of  broclie.  spit];  anyone 
of  various  species  of  fishes.  The  English  i)ike(£'.vo.r  luciux) 
has  been  supposed  to  have  been  "so  called  either  from  the 
likeness  of  its  nose  to  a  |)ike  or  spear,  or  because  it  moves 
itself  in  the  water  like  a  spear  thrown  "  (/i'/V/irtr(/.sv>;i);  or 
with  greater  probability  because  of  the  |ioinled  or  pike-like 
teeth.  In  the  U.  S.  the  name  is  applied  to  the  same  species, 
and  in  some  places  to  the  smaller  species  of  the  same  genus 
— e.  g.  Eaoj-  reticiilatii.i.  B\to.r  niger,  etc.  These  are,  how- 
ever, generally  called  jiickerel.  The  Esox  mastu'nongy  is  in 
most  sections  distinguished  under  the  name  muskellungo. 
All  the  species  agree  in  the  form  familiar  to  most  persons 
from  personal  acquaintance  with  some  one  or  other  of  the 
species,  or  from  the  illustrations  in  angling  books,  and 
differ  chiefly  in  the  comi)arative  length  of  the  snout,  the 


The  pilie. 

extension  of  scales  on  the  cheeks  and  opercul.c,  the  number 
of  rays  in  the  dorsal  and  anal  fin.s.  and  color.  The  name 
•'  pike,"  either  alone  or  in  combination,  is  also  perverted  to 


616 


PIKE 


PILES 


species  very  different  from  those  just  considered.  In  some 
parts  of  the  U.  S.,  e.  g.  the  species  of  Lucioperca  (a  genus 
closely  related  to  Perca  or  tlie  perches)  are  called  walled- 
eyed  pike,  or  simply  pike.    See  Esocid.e  and  Fishes. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pike :  a  spear  with  wooden  handle  and  metal  head,  car- 
ried by  foot  soldiers.  In  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  from 
1.5  to  20  feet  in  length,  but  was  gradually  reduced  to  from 
10  to  14  feet.  It  was  designed  for  use  as  a  thrusting,  not  as 
a  missile  weapon.  Before  the  introduction  of  the  musket, 
about  1525  a.  d.,  the  mass  of  the  infantry  was  armed  with 
the  pike.  Concurrently  with  the  more  general  use  of  the 
musket  the  number  of"  pikemen  was  reduced  ;  but  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  they  still  constituted 
half  of  each  battalion,  being  massed  ten  dee])  in  the  center, 
with  the  musketeers  on  the  flanks.  With  the  introduction 
of  the  bayonet  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  use  of  the 
pike  was  gradually  given  up,  although,  owing  to  lack  of 
other  arms,  it  has  been  used  in  comparatively  recent  times, 
as  during  the  French  Revolution.  James  Mercur. 

Pike.  Albert  :  author;  b.  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Dec.  29, 1809; 
studied  at  Harvard  University;  went  in  18.81  to  Santa  Fe, 
N.  M.,  by  way  of  St.  Louis,  much  of  the  way  on  foot ; 
reached  Eort  Smith,  Ark.,  in  1832  in  a  destitute  state;  was 
a  journalist  at  Little  Rock  1834-36,  after  which  he  became 
a  successful  lawyer  and  a  prominent  States-rights  politi- 
cian: served  as  a  captain  of  Arkansas  cavalry  in  the  Jlexi- 
canwar;  was  brigadier-general  in  the  Confederate  service 
during  the  civil  war;  editor  of  Memphis  Appeal,  1867-68; 
author  of  Prose  Sketches  and  Poems  (1834) ;  5  vols,  of  Law 
Reports  (1840^5) ;  Tlie  Arkansas  Form-book  (1845) ;  JVugo' 
(poems,  1854) ;  a  romance  (1835) ;  a  volume  of  Masonic 
statutes  and  regulations  (18-59) :  Morals  and  Dogma  of  Free- 
masonry  (1870).  His  Uymns  to  the  Gods  were  originally 
contributed  to  Blackwood's  Magazine  in  1839.  Privately 
printed  collections  of  his  poems  were  issued  in  1873  and 
1881.  He  was  the  grand  commander  of  Scottish  Rite  Ma- 
sonry of  the  southern  jurisdiction  and  the  chief  of  the  Royal 
Order  of  Scotland  in  the  U.  S.  D.  at  Washington.  D.  C, 
Apr.  2,  1891.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Pike,  Zebulom  Montgomery:  soldier;  b.  at  Laniberton, 
N.  J.,  Jan.  5,  1779;  son  of  a  captain  in  the  U.  S.  army ;  be- 
came a  cadet  in  his  father's  regiment  1799 ;  was  soon  pro- 
moted to  captain ;  headed  an  expedition  whicli  penetrated 
to  tlie  head-waters  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  autumn  of  1805 ; 
in  the  following  year  was  charged  with  an  exploration  of 
the  interior  of  Louisiana  territory,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
discovered  Pike's  Peak  in  the  Kocky  Jlountains  and  reached 
the  Rio  Grande  ;  was  detained  by  Spanish  authorities,  taken 
to  Santa  Fe  for  examination,  and  his  papers  seized.  Being 
ultimately  released,  he  arrived  at  Xatchitoches  July  1, 1807, 
received  tlie  thanks  of  the  Government  for  his  services,  was 
rapidly  promoted,  published  in  1810  an  account  of  his  two 
expeditions,  became  brigadier-general  1813,  and  coinmanded 
the  expedition  sent  against  York  (now  Toronto),  Canada,  in 
the  assault  of  wliich  place  he  was  killed  Apr.  27,  1813.  See 
his  Life,  by  H.  Wliiting,  in  Sparks's  American  Biograpliy 
(2d  series,  vol.  v.). 

Pike's  Peak :  a  sumiuit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  named 
in  honor  of  Gen.  Zebulon  M.  Pike,  who  discovered  it  in 
1806.  Its  altitude  is  14,147  feet,  an<l  as  it  .stands  in  the  Front 
range  it  is  visible  from  a  wide  area  of  the  plains.  From 
1842  to  1888  it  was  occupied  as  a  meteorological  station  by 
the  U.  S.  Signal  Service,  and  observations  were  resumed  by 
the  Weather  Bureau  in  1892.  In  1890  it  was  connected  by 
a  cog  railway  with  Manitou,  and  it  is  a  popidar  resort  for 
tourists.  Its  lower  slopes  are  covered  by  a  forest  of  pine 
and  fir,  the  upper  limit  being  at  11,500  feet,  above  which 
the  rocks  are  bare.  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Pilas'ter  [from  Lat.  piJa,  pillar] :  a  square  pillar,  at- 
tached to  a  wall,  from  which  it  projects  but  little.  It  some- 
times has  tlie  taper  of  a  column,  and  is  sometimes  of  equal 
breadth  from  top  to  bottom.  Its  base  and  ca|iital  usually 
conform  to  tliose  of  the  pillars  or  columns,  though  this  was 
not  the  custom  among  the  Greeks.  The  name  pilaster  is 
also  given  to  a  projecting  pier  of  rough  brick  or  stone  stand- 
ing on  tlie  inside  of  a  wall,  and  designed  to  sustain  the  end 
of  a  sleeper  for  the  floor  aljove. 

Pi'latc,  PoNTifs :  the  fifth  Roman  procurator  of  Juda>a 
and  Samaria;  entered  his  office  in  26  a,  D.,  residing  partly 
in  Ciesarea  and  partly  in  Jeru.salem,  where  he  inhabited  the 
magnificent  palace  liuilt  by  Herod  the  Great.     In  36  he  was 


arraigned  by  the  Samaritans  before  the  Syrian  proconsul, 
Vitellius.  on  account  of  his  unjust  and  cruel  government, 
and  Vitellius  sent  him  to  Rome  to  answer  the  accusations 
before  the  emperor.  The  issue  is  not  known  with  certainty. 
According  to  Eusebius,  he  was  banished  to  V'ienne  in  Gaul, 
and  committed  suicide  soon  after.  According  to  a  widely 
spread  tradition,  he  was  beheaded  under  Nero.  A  great 
number  of  legends,  more  or  less  fanciful,  clustered  natu- 
rally around  his  name.  His  singidar  behavior  during  the 
trial  of  Christ,  as  we  read  it  in  the  Bible,  excited  from  the  ear- 
liest time  a  most  vivid  interest,  and  occasioned  very  different 
explanations.  TertuUian  calls  \\\m  jam  pro  sua  conscienlia 
Christiannni,aad  the  ^Ethiopian  Church  declared  him  a  mar- 
tyr and  a  saint.  Modern  scholars,  however,  agree  generally 
in  considering  him  one  of  those  frivolous  characters  which 
were  the  natural  offspring  of  the  Roman  civilization  in  the 
Augustan  period — capable  of  receiving  a  strong  impression 
of  the  sublime,  but  utterly  unable  to  act  on  such  an  impres- 
sion. The  cruel  massacre  of  the  Samaritans  at  Gerizim.  the 
immediate  cause  of  his  downfall,  is  consistent  with  that  kind 
of  weakness  of  character  which  rises  from  moral  indiffer- 
ence. The  so-called  Acta  Pilati  (of  which  an  English  trans- 
lation is  found  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Library)  give  an  account 
of  the  trial  of  Jesus,  but  of  course  they  are  spurious,  as  are 
also  numerous  other  works  either  attributed  to  him,  as  the 
Epistota  Pilati,  a  letter  purporting  to  be  Pilate's  description 
to  Tiberius  of  the  resurrection,  or  describing  his  subsequent 
life  and  punishment.  His  wife  is  generally  called  Procia  or 
Claudia  Procula  by  the  Pilate  legends,  and  represented  as  a 
proselyte  of  the  gate.  Origen,  Chrysostoni,  and  Hilary  assert 
that  she  became  a  Christian.  The  Greek  Chiirch  has  made 
her  a  saint,  and  observes  Oct.  27  as  her  day. 

Revised  by  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Pilat'ka,  Fla. ;  See  Palatka,  Fla. 

Pilcliard  :  See  Clupeid.t,. 

Pilcomayo,  pe'el-kfj-miyo :  a  river  of  South  America; 
rises  in  Bolivia,  X.  W.  of  Potosi ;  flows  S.  E.  through  the 
Gran  Chaco,  where  it  separates  the  Argentine  Republic  from 
Paraguay,  and  joins  the  Paraguay  by  several  mouths  just  be- 
low Asuncion.  Length  probably  over  1.100  miles.  Though 
most  of  its  course  is  through  a  plain,  it  is  so  shallow  anil  so 
much  obstructed  that  it  is  nearly  useless  for  navigation,  at 
least  in  the  dry  season;  in  some  places  the  channel  is  almost 
lost  in  marshes.  H.  H.  S. 

Pile-driver  :  an  apparatus  for  driving  piles  into  the 
ground.  The  common  pile-driver  consists  of  a  frame  hav- 
ing two  vertical  timbers  or  guides  between  which  an  iron 
ram  is  drawn  up  by  a  rope  passing  over  a  pulley  at  the  top, 
and  then  allowed  to  drop  on  the  head  of  the  pile  ;  the  ram 
weighs  from  1.000  to  2,000  lb.,  its  fall  is  from  10  to  20 
feet,  and  the  number  of  blows  per  minute  is  five  or  more. 
The  steam  pile-driver,  invented  by  Xasmyth.  has  a  steam 
cylinder  which  can  be  set  at  different  elevations  between 
vertical  guides.  The  piston  in  this  cylinder  is  lifted  up  by 
steam  pressure,  and  thus  the  ram,  which  is  attached  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  piston  rod.  is  raised  :  the  ram  weighs  from 
2.000  to  4,000  lb.,  falls  about  3  feet,  and  the  number  of 
blows  per  minute  is  about  sixty.  In  the  gunpowder  pile- 
driver,  invented  by  Shaw,  a  cartridge  of  powder  is  placed 
upon  the  head  of  the  pile  and  exploded  by  the  impact  of  the 
falling  ram ;  the  force  of  the  explosion  drives  down  the 
pile  and  throws  up  the  ram,  which  is  caught  and  held  by  an 
automatic  device  at  its  highest  elevation.  In  soft  soils  piles 
should  be  driven  until  the  penetration  under  a  single  blow 
of  the  ram  is  only  1  or  2  inches.     Mansfield  Merriman. 

Piles  (in  engineering) :  See  Foundation. 

Piles,  or  Hiemorrhoids  [piles  is  from  Mod.  Lat.  pi'lm, 
piles,  liter.,  plnr.  of  Lat.  pi'la,  ball] :  vascular  and  fibro-vas- 
cular  tumors  of  the  lower  bowel  or  rectum — termed  exter- 
nal piles  when  below  the  sphincter  muscle  and  upon  the 
verge  of  the  anus;  internal  piles  when  above  the  sphincter. 
In  structure  they  are  due  to  congestion  or  dilatation  of  the 
ha>morrhoidal  veins,  which  are  connected  with  the  portal  ve- 
nous circulation,  returning  blood  from  the  intestines  through 
the  portal  vein  and  liver  to  the  vena  cava  and  the  heart. 
Piles  when  chronic  are  dilated  veins  of  the  anus  and  rectum, 
with  filirous  thickening  of  the  tissues  and  mucous  mem- 
brane investing  them.  HaMuorrhoids  are  caused  in  the 
first  place  by  anything  which  obstructs  the  outflow  of  lilood 
from  the  rectal  veins,  and  in  the  second  place  by  any  local 
irritation  tending  to  cause  congestions  or  infiammatory 
processes.     They  seldom  afUict  persons  who  are  robust,  ab- 


PILEUS 


PILOT-FISH 


617 


stemioiis,  frugal,  ami  rnf;ai;o(l  in  iiotive  exercise.  They  re- 
sult from  exce.s.sive  eating  and  drinking,  congestion  or  cir- 
rhosis of  the  liver,  alcoholic  excesses,  and  constipation. 
Sedentary  occupation  favors  their  developnient.  Cavalry 
officers  and  railway  travelers  siitfer  from  piles — in  part  from 
constipation,  in  part  from  the  intUienceof  incessant  jarring 
and  hypostatic  congestion  of  the  lower  liowel.  The  aliuse 
of  harsh  and  powerful  cathartics,  drinking  water  impreg- 
nated with  mineral  substances,  and  too  fine,  non-laxative 
diet  may  develop  piles.  Pregnant  women  have  piles  from 
pressure  of  the  gravid  uterus  upon  the  veins.  Internal 
piles  may  increase  in  size,  and  in  efforts  of  evacuation  he 
protruded  from  the  liowel.  I5y  this  stretching  the  iKcmor- 
rhoidal  tumors  in  time  become  peilunculaled,  and  are  forci'd 
out  with  every  act  of  defecation.  They  rei|uire  to  be  con- 
stantly returned:  failure  to  do  this  may  result  in  their 
strangulation,  ulceration,  bleeding,  and  even  removal  by 
gangrene.  Kxternal  pih-s  when  inllamed  may  also  ulcerate 
and  bleed.  Ha'morrlioids  when  inllamed  render  evacua- 
tions of  the  bowels  very  painful,  and  cause  suffering  in  sit- 
ting and  walking.  Patients  with  ha'morrhoids  usiuiUy  dis- 
charge mucus  from  the  anus,  and  sometimes  shreds  and 
patches  of  organized  lymph.  I'iles  are  to  be  prevented, 
and  also  treated  in  their  milder  forms  and  stages,  by  regu- 
lated, laxative  diet,  active  exercise,  and  mild  saline  cathar- 
tics. When  pedunculateil  they  may  be  removed  by  the 
knife,  ligalure,  or  galvano-eautery.  When  they  are  stran- 
gulated they  miist  lie  reduced  in  size  by  ice  or  cold  water, 
oiled,  and  returned.  Ulcerateil  and  inflamed  piles  are 
treated  by  cidd  a]i()lications,  astringent  and  anodyne  oint- 
ments, and  free  evacuation  of  watery  stools  by  use  of  saline 
cathartics.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Pilous:  Sec  Head-dress. 

Pilgrim  Fathers:  the  na.-ne  commonly  applied  to  the 
earliest  settlers  in  MAss.\ciifS£TTs  {q.  v.).  They  had  sepa- 
rated from  the  Chundi  of  Knglaml  and  sought  refuge  in 
Holland,  whence  they  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  in  1G20. 
founding  the  Plymouth  colony.  In  religion  they  were  In- 
dependents, while   the   Massachusetts  Bay  colonists  were 

Pl'IUTANS  (q.   ('.). 

Pillar:  See  Couiiix. 

Pillar  Saints  or  Stylitcs:  in  the  Eastern  Church, 
chiefly  in  Syria,  a  class  of  ascetics  who  dwelt  each  on  the 
top  of  a  lofty  pillar,  after  the  example  of  St.  Simeon 
Styi.ites  (q.  v.).  Th(^  practice  l)egan  to  prevail  in  the  fourth 
century,  and  in  the  twelfth  was  not  yet  extinct.  It  never 
penetrated  into  the  West. 

Pillars  of  Hercules:  See  Gibraltar. 

Pilling.  .Tames  Coxstaxtixe  :  ethnologist;  b.  in  Wash- 
ington. L).  C,  N'<iv.  10,  1846.  He  attended  the  public  schools 
and  (ionzaga  College.  .\t  the  age  of  twenty  was  employed 
as  stenographer  in  court  work,  in  committee  work  in  Con- 
gress, and  in  the  various  commissions  established  by  Con- 
gress for  the  settlement  of  claims  resulting  from  the  civil 
war.  In  IHTo  he  joined  the  survey  id'  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  under  !Maj.  J.  W.  Powell ;  in  1880  was  made  <'hief 
clerk  of  the  U.  .S.  Geological  .Survey  ;  in  1K91  became  ethnol- 
ogist in  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution. 1).  at  Oiney.  Md.,  July  26,  189o.  His  publications, 
which  are  chiefly  bibliographical,  range  from  1881  to  the 
time  of  his  death,  and  relate  to  tlu'  languages  and  literatures 
of  the  Eskimo  (1887),  Siouan  (1887),  Iroquoian  (1888).  Musk- 
hogean  (1889).  Algonquian  (18!)I),  Athapascan  (1892),  Chi- 
nookan  (1893).  Salishan  {189;i).  Wakaslian  (1894).  and  other 
linguistic  stocks  of  North  .\merican  Indians.  .Vmong  his 
earliest  works  was  a  Cntalngiie.  of  Lini/nis/ir  Jfannwripfa 
in  lite  Bureau  itf  Kllimihitjij  in  Washington  (ISSI).  This 
was  followed  in  188")  by  a  general  work  on  Indian  bibliog- 
raphy entitled  Proof-sheets  of  a  liiblitxjruphii  of  the  Lan- 
guncies  of  the  JS'orfh  American  Indians,  llis  latest  work, 
as  yet  unpublished,  was  a  bibliography  of  the  ancient  Mexi- 
can language. 

Pillory  [from  O.  Fi:  pilori.  pillory:  cf.  Portug.  pe/our- 
inhi),  Proveni;.  espitlori  <  Lat.  *speculnriinn.  deriv.  of  sper- 
idiiin,  mirror.  Vv.  pilori  has  been  influenced  in  form  by 
//(7(Vr.  ]iillar| :  an  iuslrument  of  punishment,  consisting  of 
a  wooden  frame  in  which  the  olfeniU-r's  head  ami  arms  were 
inserted,  he  standing,  thus  confined  in  a  stoo]iing  |)0stnre, 
exposed  to  public  ridicule.  Something  of  the  kind  existed 
in  England  previous  to  the  Norman  Con([nest.  and  was 
known  as  the  haLifani/.  or  catch-neck.  From  the  reign  of 
Henry  111.,  and  especially  during  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth. 


and  eighteenth  centuries,  the  )iillory  was  a  statute  punish- 
ment for  perjurers,  forgers,  users  of  false  weights,  etc.  Its 
use  was  abolished  by  56  Geo.  III.,  c.  1:18  (1816).  except  for 
perjury  and  subornation,  and  was  altogether  abolished  by  7 
VVni.  IV.  and  1  Vict.,  c.  23  (1837).  In  France  a  similar  im- 
plement, called  the  carcan.  was  in  use  until  1832.  The  pil- 
lory was  in  use  in  the  American  colonies,  and  [n'ovision  for 
its  u.se  existed  on  the  statute-books  of  the  V.  S.  until  1839, 
but  it  seems  not  to  have  been  employed  after  the  lievolu- 
tion.  See  Stephen's  Commentaries.  Andrews's  Punishment 
in  the  Olden  Times,  The  lieliquary  for  Apr.,  1861,  and  The 
Penny  Magazine  (ii.,  108.)    Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Pillow,  Gideon  .Iornson:  soldier:  b.  in  Williamson  co., 
Teiin..  .June  8,  1806;  graduated  at  the  University  of  Nash- 
ville 1827  ;  studied  law' ;  practiced  successfnlly  at  Columbia; 
was  a  delegate  to  the  national  Democratic  convention  of 
1844,  where  he  was  influential  in  securing  the  nomination  of 
James  K.  Polk  for  the  presidency;  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  of  Teiniessee  volunteers  July  11,  1846,  (hiring  the 
war  with  Mexico  ;  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  siege  ot 
Veni  Cruz;  commanded  the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of 
Cerro  Gordo,  where  he  was  wounded  ;  was  inaile  major-gen- 
end  Apr.  13.  1847;  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Churubusco, 
Molino  del  Rev.  and  Cliapulte])ec.  being  severely  woundeil 
in  the  latter;  came  hito  collision  with  tien.  Scott  in  regard 
to  the  convention  ot  Tacubaya,  which  he  disapproved,  and 
at  llis  own  request  was  tried  by  a  military  court  upon 
charges  ot  insubordination  preferred  by  Gen.  Scott,  but  was 
honorably  acijuitted.  He  was  honorably  <lischarged  July  20, 
1848.  and  resumed  the  practice  of  law  in  Tennessee;  was  a 
meml-ier  of  the  Nashville  convention  of  18.i0.  where  he  op- 
posed extreme  measures;  raised  a  large  force  of  Tennessee 
volunteers  for  the  Confederate  service  in  1861 ;  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general;  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Bel- 
mont Nov.  7,  1861 ;  was  second  in  command  at  Fort  Donel- 
son  in  February:  escaped  before  the  surrender,  and  after- 
ward served  under  Gen.  Beauregard  in  the  .Southwest.  D. 
in  Lee  co..  Avk..  Oct.  8,  1878.    Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Pilot  [from  Fr.  pilote  :  Ital.,  pedoto,  piloto  :  Span,  piloto. 
from  a  deriv.  of  Gr.  injSiij'.  oar.  tttiSoAiov.  rudder.  The  Dutch 
words  pi/loot,  etc.,  are  [irobalily  borroweil  from  Komanic 
sources]:  the  steersman  of  a  ship;  the  oflicer  or  person  on 
board  ship  who  has  charge  of  the  helm  and  of  the  ship's 
coiir.se  :  in  the  specific  and  more  usual  sense,  the  person  ap- 
pointed and  authorized  by  law  to  conduct  or  steer  a  vessel 
through  a  river,  road,  channel,  etc..  or  into  or  out  of  a  har- 
bor or  port.  Pilotage  is  the  service  rendered  by  a  pilot; 
also  the  compensation  received  by  a  pilot. 

Pilots  of  the  description  last  mentioned  are  rendered  nec- 
essary by  the  exigencies  of  modern  commerce  by  water.  In 
Great  Britain  the  appointment  and  much  of  the  regulation 
of  pilots  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  societies  or  corporations, 
either  holding  ancient  charters  or  existing  under  statutory 
authority,  and  called  Pilotage  Authorities.  The  most  im- 
[lortant  of  these  corporations  is  that  of  the  Trinity  House  of 
Deptford  Strand,  which  has  the  control  of  the  jjilots  of  the 
CiXQtiE  Ports  (q.  v.).  The  jurisdiction  of  pilotage  authori- 
ties ill  Great  Britain  now  depends  for  most  purposes,  inde- 
]iendentlv  of  local  statutes,  iqioii  the  Jler<diaiit  Shipping 
.\ct  of  1804.  In  the  U.  S.  the  States  and  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment have  concurrent  jurisdicti<m  to  pass  pilcjtage  laws, 
the  jiower  of  Congress  being  superior  to  that  of  the  States, 
and  exclusive  when  exercised  (by  virtue  of  Art.  I.,  ij  8,  of 
the  Federal  Constitution).  Pilots  are  licensed  in  the  U.  S. 
either  by  the  Governor  of  a  State,  or  by  a  commission,  or 
under  federal  laws. 

Vessels  are  required  by  statute  to  take  a  licensed  pilot, 
and  iiiusi  pay  pilotage  to  tlie  first  pilot  offi'ring  himself.  In 
(ireat  Britain  the  Merchant  Shipping  .\ct  of  18.')4  provides 
that  no  owner  or  master  of  any  ship  shall  be  answerable  to 
any  person  whatever  for  any  loss  or  damage  occasioned  by 
the  fault  or  incapacity  of  any  qualified  pilot  acting  in 
charge  of  the  ship  where  the  employment  of  the  pilot  is 
compulsory  by  law.  In  the  l'.  S.  the  owner  is  not  exoner- 
ated from  liability  for  ilamages  resulting  from  gross  mi.s- 
man.agement  liy  the  jiilot  by  reason  of  flic  emiiloyment  of 
the  pilot  being  compulsory.  The  pilot's  fees  are  regulated  by 
statute,  or  in  Great  Britain  by  the  pilotage  authorities,  or  by 
custom.  See  JIaude  and  Pollock's  Law  of  Merchant  Strip- 
ping. Abbott's  Laic  Relative  to  Merchant  Ships  and  Sea- 
men, and  Parson's  Maritime  Law.        F.  Stcrges  Allen. 

Pilot-flsli.  or  Pilot  [so  called  because  it  was  formerly 
supposed  to  act  as  a  pilot  to  the  mariner,  and  is  still  sup- 


€18 


PILOT  MOUNTAIN 


PIMAN  INDIANS 


posed  to  act  as  such  to  sharks]  :  a  carangoid  fish  (Naucrates 
due/or),  rarely  much  more  than  a  toot  long,  which  is  found 
in  almost  all  tropical  aiul  tiin|«Tate  seas.    These  fishes  often 


The  pilot-flsh. 


follow  in  the  wake  of  vessels,  associating  with  sharks,  and 
taking  the  refuse  thrown  from  the  ships.  They  are  elon- 
gated, symmetrical,  fusiform  fishes,  of  graceful  form  and  with 
seven  cross-hands  of  black,  which,  however,  in  part  disap- 
pear in  after-life.  They  are  remarkable  for  the  changes 
which  they  undergo  with  age,  which  have  led  to  the  idea 
that  the  young  j^ilot-fish  was  a  species  distinct  from  the 
adult.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Pilot  Mountain  :  See  Ararat. 

Pilot-snake  :  a  harmless  snake  (Coluber  obsoletus)  com- 
mon in  the  Kastern  and  Southern  U.  S.  It  is  dark  brown 
or  black  above,  mottled  or  clouded  below,  and  is  more 
heavily  built  and  less  active  than  the  true  black  snake 
(Bascanium  rniistrictor).  F.  A.  L. 

Piloty.  po'e'lo  ti'c.  Karl,  von:  historical  painter;  b.  in 
Munich,  Oct.  1.  1826:  d.  there  July  21,  1886;  son  of  a 
lithographer,  Ferdinand  Piloty,  from  whom  he  received  his 
first  instruction  ;  afterward  pupil  in  Munich  Academy.  He 
visited  Venice  in  1847,  painted  portraits  in  Leipzig  in  1849, 
went  to  Paris  and  Antwerp  in  1852,  and  thereafter  devoted 
himself  to  painting  pictures  of  historical  subjects.  He  was 
appointed  a  jirofessor  in  the  Munich  Academy  in  1856  and 
director  in  1874.  and  had  numerous  Americans  among  his 
pupils.  His  style  is  academic.  One  of  his  most  celebrated 
works,  iVfTO  on  the  Ruins  of  Rome  (1861),  is  in  the  National 
Museum  at  Pesth ;  his  Galileo  in  Prison  is  in  the  Cologne 
Museum  ;  The  Entri/  of  Oodfrey  de  Bouillon  into  Jerusa- 
lem (1862)  is  in  the  JIaximilianeum.  Mimich  ;  Columbus  Dis- 
covering Land  (1866)  in  the  Shack  Gallery,  Munich:  the 
Triumph  of  Oermanicus  (1873)  in  the  New  Pinakothek, 
Munich;  and  the.  Death  of  Alexander  the  Great  (1886)  in 
the  National  Gallery,  Berlin.  His  lt7.se  and  Foolish  Vir- 
gins (1881)  was  exhibited  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  L^.  S. 
in  1887-88.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Pilpay,  Pilpai,  or  Bidpai:  Oriental  fabulist;  lived  sev- 
eral centuries  b.  c.  ;  the  reputed  author  of  a  collection  of 
fables  not  now  extant,  but  contained  partially  in  the  Pan- 
CHATANTRA  (q.  ('.)  and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  MAHA-BB.iRATA 
(q.  V.)  and  the  Histopadesa. 

Pils,  peelz.  Isidore  Alex.4ndhe  Avguste:  historical  and 
military  painter;  b.  in  Paris,  Nov.  17,  1815:  pnpi!  of  Picot ; 
awarded  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  1838 ;  medals  Salons  1846, 
1855,  and  1857 ;  first-class  medal,  Paris  Exi)osition,  1867 ; 
medal  of  honor  Salon  1861 ;  became  officer  Legion  of  Hon- 
or 1867 ;  member  of  the  Institute  1868 ;  d.  at  Douarnenez, 
France,  Sept.  3.  1875.  He  first  attracted  attention  in  184!) 
by  the  exhibition  of  his  picture  Rouget  de  I'lsle  Singing  the 
Marseillaise,  and  his  battle  pictures  made  his  works  very 
popular.  They  are  open  to  criticism  for  technical  faults, 
however.  He  was  a  Professor  of  Painting  in  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts  for  a  number  of  years.       William  A.  Coffin. 

Pil'sen:  town  of  Bohemia.  Austria;  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Mies  and  the  Beraun :  67  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Prague 
(see  map  of  .Austria-Hungary,  ref.  3-b).  It  lies  in  a  fertile 
valley,  and  is  surrounded  liy  promenades  on  the  site  of  the 
old  walls.  Among  the  l)nildings  are  the  Gothic  church  of  St. 
Bartholomew  (12t»2)  and  the  Renaissance  town-hall.  Tliere 
are  large  breweries  producing  annually  9.000.000  gal.  of  the 
beer  known  as  Pilsener,  and  manufactures  of  leather,  pot- 
tery, machinery,  etc.  In  the  neighborhood  are  mines  of 
iron,  coal,  and  alum.  During  the  Hussite  wars  Pilsen  was 
besieged  several  times,  and  was  stormed  by  Count  Mansfeld 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war.'  The  first  print- 
ing-press in  Bohemia  was  set  up  here  in  1468.  Pop.  (1891) 
50,693,  about  cipially  divided  between  Germans  and  Czechs. 

Pinian  Indians:  a  linguistic  stock  of  North  American 
Indians.     The  term  Pima,  whicli  as  a  tribal  name  was  first 


used  by  Father  Eusebio  Kino  as  early  as  1692,  is  said  to 
mean  "no."  and  was  employed,  as  now  used,  through  a  mis- 
understanding. The  aboriginal  name  of  the  Pima  proper 
is  A'kemorl-Oohtam.  signifying  river  people.  According  to 
some  authorities,  the  Piman  Indians,  as  here  recognized, 
form  but  part  of  a  linguistic  group  emljracing  the  Shosho- 
nean,  Piman,  and  Aztec  or  Nahuatl  tribes.  The  relation- 
ship of  these  peoples,  howevei',  has  yet  to  be  demonstrated. 

Tribes. — With  the  exception  of  the  Pima  Alta  or  Pima 
proper,  and  part  of  the  Papago,  the  tribes  composing  this 
stock  inhabit  a  vast  area  in  Northwestern  IMexico,  includ- 
ing the  greater  portions  of  the  states  of  Sonora,  Chihuahua, 
Sinaloa.  and  Durango.  as  well  as  parts  of  Jalisco  and  Zaea- 
tecas.  Beside  the  tribes  mentioned,  the  stock  embraces  the 
Pima  Baja  or  Xevome,  Opata,  Tai'ahumar.  Cahita,  Cora,  and 
Tejiehuan.  with  their  numerous  ramifications. 

Pima  Alta. — According  to  tradition,  the  Pima  Alta  for- 
merly lived  in  the  Salado  valley.  Southern  Arizona,  whence 
they  extended  their  settlements  into  the  valley  of  the  Gila. 
According  to  their  mythology,  a  delnge  came  and  left  but 
a  single  survi\-or,  a  chief  named  Ci-ho,  or  So-ho,  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  present  Pima  tribe.  One  of  his  descendants, 
Sivano,  erected  as  his  residence  the  now  ruined  adobe  struc- 
ture called  Casas  Grandes  (q.  v.).  and  constructed  numer- 
ous other  pueblos  in  the  Gila  and  Salado  valleys.  The 
Sobaipuri,  an  extinct  branch  of  the  Pima,  attributed  these 
now  ruined  pueblos  to  people  who  had  come  from  Tusayan, 
or  from  the  north,  and  this  is  strengthened  by  recent  re- 
search, which  tends  to  show  that  the  culture  of  the  inhabit- 
ants was  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  ancient  Pueblos  of  the 
north.  Sivano"s  tribe  became  so  populous  that  many  of  its 
members  were  forced  to  emigrate  to  the  Salado  valley,  where 
tliey  followed  the  example  of  their  ancestors  of  the  Gila  by 
constructing  extensive  irrigating  canals  and  reservoirs,  and 
by  building  large  defensive  villages  of  adobe. 

The  Pima  attribute  their  downfall  to  the  destruction 
wrought  by  foreign  tribes  from  the  east.  Prior  to  this,  how- 
ever, a  jiart  of  the  tribe  seceded  from  the  main  liody  and 
settled  in  the  valleys  of  Northern  Sonora,  where  they  be- 
came known  as  Pima  Baja.  or  Nevome,  and  Opata.  When 
the  other  natives  descended  from  the  mountains  and  reset- 
tled the  valley  of  the  Salado,  they  never  rebuilt  the  substan- 
tial adobe  dwellings,  but  constructed  dome-shajied  lodges 
of  poles  covered  with  thatch  and  earth,  and  in  such  liabita- 
tions  they  have  since  dwelt.  In  early  historic  times  the 
Pima  were  joined  by  the  Maricopa,  a  Yuman  tribe  who  left 
the  Lower  Gila  owing  to  constant  oppression  by  the  Cuchan 
or  Yuma.  Although  speaking  distinct  languages,  the  Mari- 
copa and  Pima  intermarry,  and  theii'  general  habits  and 
customs  are  similar. 

It  is  probable  that  the  teachings  of  Father  Eusebio  Kino 
and  his  followers,  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, influenced  the  primitive  beliefs  of  the  Pima  Alta. 
They  now  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  supreme  being,  known 
as  the  '•  Prophet  of  the  Earth,"  and  also  in  a  nuilevolent 
deity.  Sickness,  misfortune,  and  death  are  attributed  to 
sorcery,  and  medicine-men  are  employed  to  overcome  the 
evil  influence  of  the  sorcerers. 

JIarriage  among  the  Pima  is  entered  into  with  little  cere- 
mony, and  is  never  considered  binding,  and  the  number  of 
a  man's  wives  is  only  a  question  of  the  husband's  ability  to 
support  more  than  one  wife.  The  women  perform  much  of 
the  labor,  save  the  hunting,  plowing,  and  sowing. 

The  agriculture  of  the  Pima  Alta  is  conducted  by  irriga- 
tion, and  antedates  the  Columliian  epoch.  Each  village 
possesses  an  irrigating  canal,  frequently  several  miles  in 
length.  They  cultivate  wheat,  corn,  barley,  beans,  pump- 
kins, squashes,  melons,  onions,  and  a  small  su]i|ily  of  inferior 
short  cotton.  One  of  the  principal  food  products  of  their 
country  is  the  bean  of  the  mesquite,  which  is  jirepared  and 
made  into  loaves.  The  fruit  of  the  zaguara  cactus  {Cerejcs 
giganteus)  is  also  gathered  by  the  women  and  made  into  an 
intoxicating  beverage.  The  Pima  women  are  expert  makers 
of  water-tight  basketry,  prettily  decorated.  They  also  man- 
ufacture a  coarse  pottery,  some  of  which  also  is  decorated. 

The  Pima  Alta.  who  numbered  4.464  in  1890,  are  confined, 
with  the  ilaricopa.  to  reservations  in  the  Salado  and  Gila 
valleys.  Arizona. 

I'a//  ago. — Tliis  tribe  inhabits  the  territory  S.  and  S.  E.  of 
the  Gila  river,  on  (iila  Bend  reservation,  especially  S.  of 
Tucson,  Ariz.,  and  extending  across  the  desert  waste  known 
as  till'  Papagueria  into  .Sonora,  Mexico.  Like  the  Pima,  the 
Pajiago  sulisist  by  agriculture,  and  are  frugal  and  jieace- 
able.     An  extensive  trade  in  salt,  taken  from  the  great  in- 


riMAN    I.VDIANS 


PINACEiE 


619 


hind  sail-lakes,  is  coikIucIimI  by  tliis  trilif,  anil  they  alsii 
iiiaiiufacture  and  S(dl  a  sirup  extracted  ficini  I  lie  pitaliaya. 
Tlioy  are  tall  and  dark-complexioned;  their  dialect  differs 
but  little  from  that  of  the  Pinni,  and  their  haliils  and  cus- 
toms, as  well  as  their  traditions,  are  quite  similar.  'I'lie  trilie 
suffered  much  from  the  hostility  of  the  Apache  prior  to  the 
subjupition  of  tlie  latter.  Within  the  limits  of  the  V.  S. 
tlie  I'apajjo  number  about  o.OOU.  There  are  possibly  its  many 
more  in  Sonora. 

Sohaipu'ri. — .\llied  to  the  I'ima  and  I'apa^o  were  the 
Sobaii)uri,  a  tribe  now  unknown  by  that  name,  but  in  the 
eip;liteciith  century  oceupyinj;  the  Santa  Cruz  and  San  IVdro 
valleys,  and  the  valley  of  the  tiila  between  the  conlluences 
of  those  intermittent  streams.  Pri>bably  tliis  tribe  was 
forced  from  its  settlements  liy  the  depredatin';  .\pache,  and 
compelled  to  join  its  nearest  kindred,  the  I'apago,  by  whom 
they  have  been  absorbed. 

Xero'iiif. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  Lower  Pima,  or 
I'ima  Baja.  and  their  subdivisions  inhabit inj;  the  rcfjion  of 
South  Central  Sonora.  The  social  organization  ami  relijrious 
system  of  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  Xevome,  prior  to  the 
teachings  of  Catholic  missionaries,  were  analogous  to  those 
of  th(^  Yaqui,  their  southern  neighboi-s,  although  the  dialects 
of  the  two  branches  were  so  differentiated  that  intercourse 
was  possible  only  through  a  sign-language.  The  Nevome 
were  agriculturi-sts ;  they  dres.sed  better  than  most  of  their 
kindred,  and  lived  in  flat-roofed  adobe  house's.  The  Xevome 
were  divided  geographically  into  a  northern  and  a  southern 
branch.  These  were  autonomous,  often  at  ennuty  with  each 
other,  and  inhabited  a  number  of  indeiH'udently  governed 
villages.     The  population  is  estimated  at  about  S.OOO. 

0  pdla. — Adjoining  the  I'apago  and  Pima  Alta  on  the 
S.  E.  is  a  large  body  of  Indians  whose  tribal  name  is  .loyl- 
ra-wa.  and  who  were  formerly  at  enmity  with  their  northern 
neighbors,  hence  the  appellation  Opata,  a  Pima  term  derived 
from  <j'i/),  enemy,  and  ootnm,  jieople,  folk. 

Physically  the  Opata  are  fine  specimens  of  the  Indian 
race.  They  are  generally  below  the  medium  size,  but  are 
well-proportioned ;  their  complexion  is  not  so  dark  as  that 
of  the  Yaqui :  their  features  are  regular  and  agreeable,  and 
their  hair  is  unusually  soft.     They  number  about  5,500. 

Prior  to  the  advent  of  the  Spanish  missionaries  the  habits 
and  customs  of  the  Dpatawere  akin  to  those  of  the  Pima 
and  Papago  X.  anil  W. :  now,  however,  they  have  become 
so  thoroughly  transformed  as  almost  to  have  forgotten  their 
native  tongue.  They  are  described  as  of  a  submi-ssive  dis- 
position, with  much  regard  for  honesty  and  morality. 

Taraliumdr. — The  name  of  tliis  division  is  derived  from 
huma,  to  run  ;  ta/a,  or  tara,  foot  =  fool-racers,  in  allusion 
to  the  custom  of  running  and  driving  a  wooden  ball  before 
them  with  their  feet.  Their  habitat  embraces  the  head- 
waters of  the  principal  .southern  Sonora  and  Chihuahua 
I  streams  in  the  .Sierra  .Madre.  They  are  still  very  primitive, 
living  in  hovels  or  in  caves  in  the  mountain  fastnesses  and 
barrancas,  and  subsisting  by  hunting  deer  and  smaller  game, 
and  by  the  cultivation  of  maize,  beans,  pepjier.  and  potatoes. 
They  are  robu.st,  of  medium  height,  and  have  swarthy  com- 
jilexions  and  scanty  beards,  but  long,  thick,  lilack  hair. 
I'hey  formerly  tattooed  the  forehead,  lips,  and  cheeks  in 
various  patterns.  'I'lieir  docile  character  contributed  to 
their  reduction  by  the  .Spanish  settlers,  notwithstanding 
I  their  large  number,  which  is  said  to  reach  about  15,000.  and 
by  some  is  even  estimated  at  40.000.  The  names  of  the  set- 
tlements of  the  Tarahumar  almost  invariably  terminate  in 
the  locative  form  cliic. 

Cahi  la. — This  division  inhabits  the  southwestern  coast  of 
Sonora  and  the  northwestern  coast  of  Sinaloa,  extending 
from  hit.  2S'  to  25°  ;i0'.  The  Vaqui  and  Mayo  tribes  form 
the  most  important  part  of  the  Cahita  division.  The  men 
are  robust,  but  well  formed:  their  complexion  is  dark 
l)ronze  and  their  features,  though  somewhat  coarse,  are  not 
unpleasant.  The  women  are  small  and  rather  thick-set. 
Owing  to  the  semi-tropical  climate  their  dwellings  are  un- 
sulistantially  constructed  of  canes  and  boughs  covered  with 
palm-leaves.  In  the  fertile  valleys  about  the  mouths  of 
streams  they  engage  in  raising  corn,  cotton,  calabashes, 
lieaiis.  and  tobacco,  and  also  in  cultivating  the  mescal-pro- 
ducing agave. 

The  Mayo  and  the  Yaqui  Iiave  a  triVial  chief;  both  are 
divided  into  a  number  of  autonomous  villages,  which  com- 
l)ine  only  in  case  of  warfare,  lu  both  groups  a  system  of 
clans  is  found,  and  esoteric  orders  similar  to  those  of  the 
Pueblos  exist.  Their  religious  beliefs  are  characterized  by 
fotichism,  and  they  recognize  no  supreme  being. 


In  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Mayo  and 
Yaqui  probably  numbered  together  about  fiO.OOO.  There 
are  now  about  Ki.oOO  Yaqui  and  half  as  many  JIayo.  Like 
most  of  the  southern  tribes  of  the  Piman  stock  these  have 
largely  become  Ilispanized,  except  in  language.  The  Yaqui 
are  described  as  naturally  industrious,  and  are  employed  as 
cattlemen,  teamsters,  farmers,  sailors,  etc.  They  are  also 
good  miners,  and  are  expert  in  pearl-diving.  They  exhibit 
an  unusual  talent  for  music. 

Co  ra. — This  division,  which  embraces  the  Cora.  Xavarita, 
Tecualme,  .Muutzizti,  Teacuacitzisti,  .\teacari,  and  Colotlan, 
with  their  sul)-tribes.  inhabits  mainly  the  territory  contigu- 
ous to  the  Kio  de  San  Peilro.  Their  country,  therefore,  lies 
chiefly  within  the  stale  of  .lalisco.  They  were  warlike,  liv- 
ing independently  in  the  mountain  glens  and  ravines  lintil 
1721-22,  when  they  were  subjugated  by  the  Spanish  and 
compelled  to  follow  more  civilized  ways.  The  Cora  lan- 
guage does  not  exist  in  its  native  purity,  having  been  in- 
fluenced by  contact  with  civilization.  Although  hostile, 
they  were  agriculturists  and  manufacturers  of  coarse  woolen 
blaiikets.     The  |iopulatioii  is  about  20.000. 

Ti'pc/tiidii. — The  native  name  of  this  tribal  division  is  de- 
rived from  ti-.pe.huani,  conqueror,  victor.  They  inhabited 
mainly  the  state  of  Duraiigo,  but  their  domain  extended 
also  into  Southern  and  Western  Chihuahua,  Xortheastern 
and  Southeastern  Sinaloa,  Xortheastern  Jalisco,  X'orthern 
Zacatecas,  and  Southwestern  Coahuila.  Xow,  however,  the 
tribe  is  confined  to  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  be- 
tween lat.  25°  and  26  .  Their  primitive  condition  resem- 
bled that  of  the  Cahita  tribes,  locally  varied  through  environ- 
ment. While  strictly  an  agricultural  people  (cotton  and 
corn  being  their  princijial  products),  they  were  ever  ready 
to  defend  the  log  and  stone  habitations  they  had  constructecl 
on  almost  inaccessible  crags.  In  valor  they  were  regarded 
as  foremost  among  the  tribes  of  Mexico,  and  chastity  they 
held  in  high  esteem.  They  wove  their  cotton  into  articles 
of  clothing,  which  they  dyed  and  liartered  with  neighboring 
tribes.     The  population  is  less  than  1.000. 

Ai'TiioRiTiES. — K.  W.  H.  Hardy,  lYavels  in  the  Inferior 
of  Mexico  (London,  lS2tf) ;  J.  A.  de  Escudero,  JS'oticias  esta- 
disticas  de  Chihuahua  (Mexico.  1834).  and  Noticias  exta- 
difsficas  de  Sonora  y  Sinaloa  (Mexico,  1849) ;  C.  A.  Pajeken, 
Reise-Eriyinerungen  (Bremen,  1861);  Manuel  Orozco  y  Be- 
rra,  Geugrafia  de  las  Leni/uas  de  Mexico  (Mexico,  1864) ;  P. 
E.  Grossman,  Pima  Indians  of  Arizona  (in  .Smithsonian 
Report  for  1871,  Wa.shington,  1871!);  Antonio  Garcia  Cubas, 
The  Republic  of  Mexico  in  1S7G  (Henderson's  translation, 
Mexico,  1876) ;  Hubert  II.  Bancroft,  Works,  vols,  i.,  xv.  (San 
Francisco.  1882.  1884);  A.  F.  Bandelier,  in  Papers  of  Ike 
Arch(fological  Institute  of  America,  American  Series,  iii., 
pt.  1 ;  iv..  pt.  2  (Boston,  1890, 1892),  and  works  cited  therein. 
See  Indians  ok  X^irth  Amkrica.  J.  \V.  Powell. 

Pimen'ta,  or  Pimento  [from  Span,  pimien'ta  and  pitni- 
ento  <  Lat.  piymen  turn,  paint,  pigment.  Juice  of  plants]: 
a  name  given  to  the  unripe  berries  of  a  handsome  ever- 
green tree  (Pimenta  officinalis,  family  Mijrtaceu').  growing 
throughout  the  West  Indies  and  in  Mexico  and  .South  Amer- 
ica. The  fruit  is  a  small  globular  berry,  rather  less  than  a 
third  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  it  is  two-celled,  each  cell  con- 
taining a  single  black  kidney-shaped  seed.  The  active  prin- 
ciples are  a  volatile  oil,  contained  in  the  proportion  of  from 
;i  to  4  per  cent.,  and  a  green  fixed  oil.  I5otli  of  these  occur 
in  largest  ])roportion  in  the  cortical  portion  of  the  fruit. 
Pimenta  has  a  warm,  pungent,  aromatic  taste,  and  may  be 
used  in  medicine  for  the  general  purposes  of  the  aromatic 
spices — namely,  as  stomachics,  to  improve  digestive  power, 
to  allay  nausea,  and  correct  the  nauseating  and  griping  ef- 
fects of  other  medicines.  Its  most  common  use,  however,  is 
as  a  spice  in  cookery,  for  which  it  is  largely  consumed  under 
the  name  of  allspice  or  Jamaica  pepper.  It  is  obtained  in 
commerce  from  Jamaica.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Hark. 

Pimpprripl,  or  Poor  Mnifs  Woatlier-g'lass:  a  common 
herb  of  Europe  (.Iwrn/aH/.s- «nv'«.i/.s-),  naturalized  in  Xorth 
America,  having  rather  handsome  flowers,  most  commonly 
scarlet,  but  often  white  or  blue.  It  is  remarkable  that  it  al- 
ways closes  upon  the  approach  of  bad  weather.  The  water- 
pimpernel  is  Samolus  calerundi,  found  in  the  U.  S.  and 
most  other  countries.  S.  Jlorihundus  and  S.  ebracteatus  are 
found  in  the  Gulf  States.  The  above  plants  all  belong  to 
the  Primulaceir.  The  first-mentioned  was  thought  to  have 
active  medicinal  powers,  and  the  second  was  onco  looked 
upon  as  having  magical  qualities. 

Piiiacca! :  See  Conifers. 


620 


PINCHBECK 


PINE 


Pinchbeck  :  a  kind  of  brass  formerly  much  used  for 
making  cheap  wateh-cases,  and  now  used  as  a  substitute  for 
the  more  costly  bronze.  It  contains  over  80  per  cent,  of 
copper  (the  rest  is  zinc),  and  has  when  new  a  look  quite  like 
that  of  gold. 

Pinckney,  Charles.  LL.  D.  :  statesman  ;  b.  at  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  1758 :  was  Ijred  a  lawyer,  and  during  a  part  of 
the  Revolution  was  held  a  prisoner  by  the  British,  and  after 
the  peace  represented  South  Carolina  in  Congress.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  convention  of  1787  which  framed 
the  U.  S.  Constitution,  and  one  of  the  drafts  submitted  to 
that  body  was  made  by  him.  In  1788  he  was  president  of 
the  convention  in  which  .South  Carolina  ratified  the  U.  S. 
Constitution,  and  in  17!*U  he  presided  over  the  convention 
which  adopted  the  State  constitution.  He  was  Governor  of 
the  State  1789-93,  1796-98,  1806-08;  U.  S.  Senator  1798- 
1801 ;  minister  to  Spain  1803-05:  and  was  again  in  Congress 
1819-31 ;  an  ardent  and  eloquent  anti-Federalist.  D.  at 
Charleston,  Oct.  29,  1824. 

Pinckney,  Charles  Cotesworth,  LL.  D. :  statesman ; 
b.  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Feb.  25, 1746;  was  educated  at  West- 
minster, at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  the  Middle  Temple, 
London ;  studied  military  science  at  Caen,  France  ;  became 
a  barrister  at  Charleston  1769  ;  served  as  captain,  and  after- 
ward as  colonel  of  South  Carolina  troops  in  the  Revolution  ; 
was  aid  to  Washington  in  1777;  displayed  great  valor  and 
skill  in  the  Southern  campaigns  1778-80  ;  suffered  much  as 
a  prisoner  of  war  1780-82  ;  became  a  brigadier-general  1788, 
and  later  a  major-general  of  the  State,  and  still  later  of  U.  S. 
troops  (1797) ;  declined  many  important  offices  ;  assisted  in 
framing  the  U.  S.  Constitution ;  was  one  of  the  special  min- 
isters to  France  1796-97,  when  he  was  ordered  to  leave  that 
country ;  was  the  author  of  the  famous  sentiment,  "  Millions 
for  defense,  but  not  one  cent  for  tribute  " ;  Federalist  can- 
didate for  Vice-President  1800,  and  one  of  the  ablest  lawyers 
of  his  time.     D.  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Aug.  16,  1825. 

Pinckney,  Thomas  :  .statesman  ;  brother  of  C.  C.  Pinck- 
ney: b.  at  Charleston  Oct.  23.  1750;  graduated  at  0.\ford, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Temple,  London.  1770;  en- 
tered the  Revolutionary  army,  in  which  he  served  with  much 
distinction,  receiving  a  bad  wound  at  Camden;  Governor  of 
South  Carolina  1787-89  ;  U.  S.  minister  to  London  1793-94, 
and  to  Madrid  1794-96,  when  he  negotiated  the  impoi'tant 
treaty  of  San  Ildefonso ;  was  in  Congress  1799-1801 ;  ap- 
pointed major-general  1812,  and  served  against  the  Creeks 
and  Serainoles  with  success.     D.  at  Charleston,  Nov.  2, 1828. 

Pindar  (in  Gr.  nivSapos)  :  the  greatest  of  Greek  lyric  poets  ; 
b.  aliout  533  b.  c.  of  an  ancient  family  of  Cynoscephahc  near 
Thebes ;  was  carefully  trained  in  musical  arts  by  the  best 
masters ;  began  his  career  at  an  early  age,  and  before  the 
Persian  war  (490  b.  i\)  had  gained  a  national  reputation. 
During  the  Persian  war,  liowever,  he  did  not  and  could  not 
espouse  the  national  cause,  for  Thebes  was  on  the  side  of  the 
invader,  and  being  a  Theban  and  an  aristocrat,  he  went  with 
his  state  and  his  caste.  Still  he  showed  that  he  was  too  good 
a  Greek  not  to  sympathize  with  the  great  achievements  of 
the  war  of  liberation,  and  his  praise  of  Athens  is  said  to 
have  brought  on  him  a  fine  from  liis  "  Mother  Thebes  "  and 
a  rich  reward  from  the  "  violet-wrcath'd  city."  Pindar 
traveled  far  and  wide  in  the  exercise  of  his  profession  as  a 
lyric  poet  whose  office  it  was  to  adorn  the  great  occasions 
of  life,  and  he  was  everywhere  honored  and  reverenced  by 
the  princes  of  earth.  His  character  was  as  lofty  as  his  verse. 
He  was  a  priest  as  well  as  a  poet,  a  favored  guest  of  the 
Delphic  god,  and  the  last  proi)liet  of  the  old  Doric  creed. 
The  date  of  his  death  is  uncerUiin,  but  he  can  not  have  lived 
much  beyond  450  B.C.  His  poetry  covered  the  whole  field 
of  Greek  lyric,  and  the  fragments  that  remain  show  his  po- 
etical faculty  in  various  ranges  of  composition,  in  banquet 
songs  and  in  choruses  for  virgins,  in  dithvrambs  and  in 
dirges,  but  the  height  of  his  art  reveals  itself  in  the  only 
poems  Ihat  we  have  entire,  his  Hymns  of  Victon/  ('Eirii'/Kiai, 
odes  written  in  honur  of  victors  in  the  four  great  national 
punesof  Greece,  Olympian,  Pythian,  Nemean.and  Isthmian. 
The  opulence  of  these  [loems,  their  brilliancv  of  imagina- 
tion and  of  diction,  the  swing  of  their  movenient,  their  ele- 
vation and  their  force,  have  been' recognized  by  all  critics 
and  have  excited  the  emulation  of  IVrists  froiii  the  poet's 
day  to  this:  but  the  springs  of  Pindar's  art  seem  to  have 
been  hidden  from  critics  and  imitators  alike  for  many  gen- 
erations. A  ••  Pindaric  ode"  has  Ijeen  too  often  synonymous 
with  rant  and  bomliasi,  and  it  was  not  until  thenineteenth 
century  that  a  diligent  study  of  Pindar  showed  that  there  is 


profound  art  in  the  plan,  as  well  as  in  the  details,  and  that 
everything  works  together  to  produce  a  total  effect.  The 
myths  which  constitute  so  important  a  part  of  these  epinicia 
are  not  mere  idle  or  incidental  adornments,  but  grow  up  out 
of  the  theme  and  form  an  organic  part  of  the  structure ; 
they  serve  to  idealize  victory  and  victor  and  to  make  what 
might  have  been  a  mere  occasional  poem  into  an  eternal 
type.  The  meters  are  not  lawless,  as  they  were  once  thought 
to  be,  but  obey  the  rule  of  a  refined  and  exacting  system,  and 
it  is  through  the  symmetry  of  the  meters  that  scholars  learned 
first  to  divine  and  then  to  prove  the  symmetry  of  the  thought. 
Much  that  would  have  aided  in  the  appreciation  of  Pindar 
has  been  lost,  Ijut  though  music  and  dance  have  perished,  the 
rhythm  that  regulated  liolh  survives  in  the  language  and 
has  proved  itself  a  key  to  the  inner  life  of  the  Pindaric 
poems.  Renewed  study  only  confirms  the  judgment  that 
Pindar  combines,  in  almost  unique  perfection,  largeness  of 
manner  and  elaborateness  of  detail. 

His  poems  were  edited  by  Bockh  (Berlin,  1811-21)  in  three 
parts,  still  the  great  edition ;  Dissen-Schneidewin  (1847) ; 
Jlommsen  (1864) ;  Bergk  in  his  PoeUe  Lyrici  Grceci  (4  ed. 
1878).  Text  edition  by  Christ  in  the  Teubner  Library  (1879) ; 
with  English  notes  by  I'ennell  (1879-83,  new  ed.  of  Olympians 
and  Pythians,  1893) ;  by  Gildersleeve,  Olympians  and  Pyth- 
ians  (New  York,  1885) ;  by  Bury,  JVemeatis  and  Jsthmians 
(1890-92).  Translated  into  English  prose  by  Ernest  Myers 
(2  ed.  1884).  The  best  book  on  Pindar  and  his  art  is  by  Alfred 
Croiset,  Pindare  et  les  lois  du  lyrisme  grec  (3  ed.  Paris, 
1886).  See  also  the  chapter  on  Pindar,  in  Jebb's  Classical 
Greek  Poetry  (1893),  and  Fraccaroli's  elaborate  work,  Le  Odi 
di  Pindaro  (1894).  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Pindar,  Peter:  See  WoLCOT,  John.  ■ 

Pindemonte,  Ippolito  :  poet ;  b.  at  Verona,  Italy,  Nov. 
13,  1753.  Of  noble  birth,  he  was  entered  by  his  family,  as 
soon  as  he  had  comjileted  his  studies  at  Modena,  among  the 
Knights  of  the  Order  of  Malta.  After  some  years  of  service 
in  Malta  and  Sicily  his  health  gave  out,  andhe  was  obliged 
to  retire  from  active  life.  He  settled  at  his  country  estate, 
Avesa,  near  Verona,  and  gave  himself  to  letters.  He  tried 
his  hand  at  tragedy,  but  with  poor  success.  In  1785,  how- 
ever, he  brought  out  Poesie  Campestri,  which  had  immedi- 
ate recognition.  These  were  delicate  and  tender  praises  of 
the  country  lite,  after  the  manner  of  the  English  poets  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  He  had  already  begun  to  be  in- 
timate with  the  best  Italian  poets  of  his  time,  among  them 
Monti  and  Foscolo,  of  whom  the  latter  had  dedicated  to 
him  his  Sepohri.  In  1788  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  re- 
mained for  two  years,  becoming  intimate  with  Alfieri,  who 
deferred  to  his  critical  judgment.  The  French  Revolution 
caused  him  to  return  to  Italy  in  1791.  In  1795  he  iiublished 
a  new  edition  of  the  Poesie  Campestri,  with  the  addition  of 
Prose  Campestri — essays  of  a  contemplative  and  philosophic- 
kind.  In  1804  he  published  his  tragedy  Arminio — suitaVjle 
for  reading  rather  than  for  representation,  and  accompanied 
by  three  dissertations  on  the  dramatic  art.  In  1805  appeared 
a  volume  of  Sermoni — satires  in  the  manner  of  Horace,  and 
gay  rather  than  angry  castigations  of  the  follies  of  his  time. 
In  1809  he  printed  the  first  books  of  his  delicate  and  graceful 
translation  in  blank  verse  of  Homer's  Odyssey,  and  in  1832 
the  remainder.  His  Epistole  in  fersi  (1819)  are  filled  with 
sadness  at  the  sufferings  of  Italy.  His  last  work,  a  series  of 
Elogi  di  htterati  (1825-26),  contains  sympathetic  notices  of 
conten;porary  scholars  and  poets.  D.  at  Verona,  Italy,  Nov. 
18.  1828.  See  B.  Montanari,  Delia  vita  e  delle  opere  d'lp- 
polito  Pindemonte  (Venice,  1834)  and  Le  Poesie  originali  di 
1pp.  Pindemonte,  ed.  by  A.  Torri,  with  discorso  by  P.  Dal 
Ris  (Florence,  1858). — His  brother.  Marquis  Giovanni  Pin- 
demonte (b.  at  Verona  in  1751 ;  d.  there  Jan.  23,  1812)  wrote 
a  number  of  interesting  plays,  collected  under  the  title 
Componimenti  teatrali  (4  vols.,  Milan,  1804).  J 

A.  R.  Marsh.  fl 

Pine  [0.  Eng.  pm,  from  Lat.  pi'nus,  pine] :  gymnosper- 
mous  trees  belonging  to  tlie  genus  Pinus  of  the  family  Ptna- 
cew  and  order  Conifero'.  (See  Conifers.)  They  are  described 
as  follows  l)y  Dr.  George  Engelmann  : 

"  Their  angular,  two  or  three  edged  leaves  (almost  always 
serrulate  or  rough  on  the  edges),  in  bunches  of  two  to  five, 
are  inclosed  in  a  sheath  of  membranaceous  scales ;  one 
(Western  American)  species  has  a  single  rounded  leaf  in 
this  sheath.  Their  sterile  flowers  develop  almndantly  at 
the  base  of  the  shoots  of  the  same  spring;  the  fertile  clus- 
ters appear  singly,  or  a  few  together  higher  up  or  near  the 
top  of  such  shoots.     The  young  fruit  remains  almost  sta- 


PINEAL   GLAND 


PINES,  ISLE   OF 


621 


tionary  for  a  whole  year,  and  only  in  the  second  summer 
the  cone  enlarges,  maturing  in  the  autumn.  We  distin- 
guish two  sections  of  true  IliIu^'!.  The  white  pines  have  five 
mostly  slender  leaves  in  a  bunch  ;  scales  of  the  cones  rather 

thin  :  w 1  whiter,  lighter,  softer,  and   less  resinous,  and 

therefore  highly  prized  for  cariu-nter-work.  Of  these,  the 
white  pine  of  the  Eastern  and  Northern  L'.  8.  (P.  xirobus)  is 
the  fairest  representative,  a  tree  of  magniticent  proportions 
an<l  universal  application. and  highly  prized  as  an  ornamental 
tree.  .Similar,  still  nmre  ornamental,  but  also  more  slender, 
is  the  Himalaya  or  Hutan  white  pine.  In  the  Western 
L'.  S.  this  group  of  pines  is  represented  by  the  colossal 
sugar-pine  [['.  Iiunlieiliana),  with  its  immense  cones  and 
large  edible  seeds,  and  by  the  mountain  white  pine  [P. 
moniicolii)  of  the  I'acilic  mountains;  another  species,  with 
large  sfpiarrose  cones  (P.  ayarahuite),  is  spread  over  the 
Mexican  mountains.  Similar  to  these,  but  distinguished  by 
more  rigid  leaves,  shorter,  thicker  cones,  with  thicker  scales 
and  large,  edible,  almost  wingless  seeds,  is  the  small  group 
of  the  t'emlini  |)ines,  the  principal  species  of  which  grows 
on  the  Kumpean  and  Siberian  Alps,  the  similar  P.  alfjicaulix 
on  the  Pacific  alps,  and  P.  JlfJ'ili'f  on  the  Hocky  Moun- 
tain.s.  /-".  cembra  furnishes  the  red  wood  with  the  white  sap 
from  which  particolored  Swi.ss  carvings  are  made. 

"  The  second  and  liy  far  the  largest  section  of  true  pines 
comprises  those  with  knobby  scales,  leaves  from  one  to  five 
in  a  bundle.  The  small  group  of  the  four  Mexican  and 
Western  .\nierican  nut-pines  closely  approaches  to  the  last ; 
they  are  small  and  scraggy  trees  that  make  excellent  fire- 
wix)d,  with  globose  cones,  the  scales  thick  with  very  promi- 
nent knobs,  bearing  large,  edible,  wingless  seeds,  like  those 
of  Cenibra,  and  with  leaves  varying  in  the  different  species 
from  a  single  one  (/'.  monophijUus)  to  five  in  number. 

•■  Next  to  these  range  the  large-fruited  nut-pines,  with 
tliick  or  hook-knobbed  .scales,  and  large  short-winged  seeds, 
of  which  /'.  pinea  is  the  Mediterranean  and  P.  sabiniaita. 
coulferi.  and  fwri-i/miri  the  Western  American  representa- 
tives. t)f  the  large  number  of  pines  remaining,  some  bear 
their  cones  just  below  the  terminal  bud  of  the  same  year"s 
shoot  ;  their  scales  are  usually  thinner,  with  less  prominent 
prickles,  and  their  wood  whiter  and  less  resinous.  The 
Scotch  and  the  Austrian  pine  of  Europe,  and  the  red  pine 
of  the  Northern  L'.  S..  all  of  them  with  leaves  in  pairs,  be- 
long here,  as  also  the  long  and  five-leaved,  large-coned,  and 
variable  Mexican  pines  of  the  alliance  of  P.  monfezumce. 
Those  pines  that  bear  lateral  cones  have  usually  very  knobby 
and  prickly  scales,  and  heavy,  resinous,  yellowish  wood — the 
real  yellow  or  pitch  pines.  Here  range  the  seaside  pine  {P. 
pinaster  of  the  Mediterranean  regions),  the  Eastern  iiitch- 
pine,  tlu>  .Jersey  pine,  prickly  pine,  loblolly  pine,  the  yellow 
pine.  Elliott's  pine.  and.  above  all.  that  most  important  and 
magnificent  of  all  pitch-pines  in  the  V.  S.,  the  long-leaved 
pine  of  till?  South  (/'.  aKstralis).  which  furnishes  a  most 
highly  prized  naval  timber  and  nearly  all  the  resinous  prod- 
ucts of  the  country.  To  the  yellow  pines  belong  al.so  a 
number  of  We.stern  pines,  the  most  important  and  widest 
spread  of  which  is  the  heavy  pine  (P.  pnnderosa),  P.  con- 
tiirta.  the  interesting  but  very  local  Monterey  iiine  (P.  in- 
signis),  and  a  few  others."' 

In  all,  seventy  species  of  pines  are  known,  extending  from 
the  Arctic  regions  southward  in  both  hemispheres  to  sub- 
tropical or  tropical  countries  (Central  America  and  the  East 
Indies);  and  somewhat  more  than  one-half  of  these  occur  in 
North  .\nuriia.  Ciiarlks  E.  Bksskv. 

Pin'eal  (ilaiKl  or  Hody  :  See  Parietal  Evf.  and  Brain. 

Pineapple:  the  compound  conical  fruit  of  a  plant  of  the 
family  /iromeliarete  {Ananassa  saliva) ;  a  native  of  tropical 
America,  naturalized  in  many  hot  countries,  and  cultivated 
also  in  hothouses.  It  is  one  of  the  best  of  fruits.  The  Ba- 
hamas and  South  Florida  are  finely  adapted  to  pineapple 
culture.  From  the  fillers  of  the  leaves  of  this  and  allied 
plants  a  beautiful  fabric  called  pina  muslin  is  made. 

Pine  Bluff:  city  (settled  in  ISli),  plotted  in  1836):  capi- 
tal of  .leffei-son  co..  Ark,  (for  location,  see  map  of  Arkan.sa.s, 
ref.  4-1)):  on  the  Arkansas  river  at  the  hea(i  of  low-water 
navigation,  and  on  the  .St.  L..  Iron  Mount,  and  South.,  and 
the  St.  L.  S.  West,  railways;  42  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Little 
Hock.  It  is  built  on  a  bluff  22H  feet  aliove  sea-level ;  is  in 
the  cotton-producing  region  of  the  State  ;  has  a  large  tot- 
ton-compress,  extensive  railway-oar  factory,  the  general  shops 
of  the  St.  Louis  S.  Western  Hailroad.  flour-mill  and  grain- 
elevator,  cottonseed-oil  mill.  2  planing-mills.  and  ice-factory, 
and  contains  a  branch  of  the  State  Normal  College,  3  Stale 


banks  with  combined  capital  of  $350,000,  and  2  dailv  and  4 
weeklv  papers.  A  large  amount  of  cotton  and  lumber  is 
han.lled  annually.  Pop.  (1880)  3.203 ;  (1890)  <(.<»52  ;  (1894) 
estiiiialeil,  17,000.  Editor  oK  "  Commercial." 

Piiii',  Cape  :  See  Cape  Pise. 

Pine-chafer :  any  one  of  various  coleopterous  insects 
whose  larv;e  commit  great  ravages  in  pine  forests,  eating 
away  the  new  material  between  the  bark  and  the  wood. 
These  insects  are  Pissodes  strobi,  Tomicus  pint,  T.  xylo- 
yraphus.  and  several  sjiecies  of  Ilyluryus. 

Pine  Family  :  See  Conifers. 

Pine-fincli,  or  Goldflneh  :  a  bird  of  the  family  Fringil- 
lid(e,  the  Spinns  pinits  of  recent  authors.  It  is  a  near  rel- 
ative of  the  common  goldfinch  of  the  U.  S.  (Spinus  Iris- 
tis).  and  occurs  more  or  less  abundantly  throughout  North 
America,  It  attains  a  length  of  about  4f  inches,  is  brown- 
ish olive  above,  and  beneath  whitish,  streaked  with  dusky. 
It  feeds  chiefly  on  the  seeds  of  hemlock  and  other  trees,  as 
well  as  those  of  grasses,  etc.  Revised  by  P.  A,  Lucas. 

Pine-grosbeak  :  a  bird  of  the  family  Fringillida!,  the 
Pinicola  enudealor  (Linn.),  Cab.  It  is" found  throughout 
the  northern  regions  of  the  Old  as  well  as  New  WorkL  Its 
average  length  is  about  8^  inches ;  the  bill  and  legs  are 
black  :  the  male  is  ro.sy  colored  (tinged,  except  on  the  head, 
with  lirownish)  above,  ashy  below ;  the  female  brownish  above, 
ashy  (tinged  with  greenish  yellow)  below.  As  indicated  by 
the  name,  this  bird  frequents  pine  and  other  evergreen  for- 
ests ;  it  feeds  on  spruce-seeds,  etc.  It  is  rare  in  the  L^.  S., 
except  near  the  northern  border,  although  occasionally 
abundant  even  so  far  S.  as  Philadelphia. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pinel',  Philippe.  M.  D.  :  alienist ;  b.  at  St.-Paul.  Tarn, 
France,  Apr.  20. 174.5;  st  udied  medicine  at  Toulouse  and  Mont- 
pellier,  graduating  M,  I),  from  the  former  in  1773;  removed  in 
1778  to  Paris;  obtained  a  prize  in  1791  for  his  Traile medico- 
philosophiqiie  siir  I'Alihialion  mentale.  and  was  appointed 
physician  of  the  Bicctre  in  1792,  and  in  1795  of  the  Sal- 
petriere.  He  substituted  compassion,  kindness,  and  justice 
for  the  chains  and  cells  that  confined  the  insane,  and,  recog- 
nizing insanity  as  a  disease,  he  inaugurated  its  scientific 
stuily.  He  was  Professor  of  Hygiene  and  subsetjuently  of 
Pathology  in  the  School  of  Medicine  at  Paris  until  1822, 
when  the  faculty  was  reorganized,  and,  owing  to  jealousies, 
his  name  was  omitted  save  as  an  honorary  professor.  He 
was  author  of  Lri  JS'osographie philosophiqtie  (1798)  and  La 
Medecine  dinique  (1802).     D.  in  Paris,  Oct.  26,  1826. 

Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Pine'lo.  Antonio  de  Leon  :  jurist  and  author:  b.  at  Cor- 
doba (now  in  the  Argentine  Republic)  about  1590.  He 
studied  law  at  Lima,  and  subsequently  went  to  Spain,  where 
he  was  judge  of  the  Casa  de  Coiitratacion  at  .Seville,  and 
historical  secretary  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies.  He  was 
employed  to  codify  the  laws  relating  to  the  Sjianish  colonies, 
laboring  for  many  years  and  examining  more  than  500.000 
cedillas.  The  work  was  published  under  the  title  Pecopila- 
ciun  general  de  las  Leyes  de  las  ]ndias.  in  four  volumes,  in 
Madrid,  1080;  it  was  made  authoritative,  was  for  over  a 
century  the  organic  law  of  the  colonies,  and  is.  besides,  a 
mine  of  historical  information.  There  are  .several  revisions. 
Pinelo  also  published  a  life  of  Toribio,  Archbishop  of  Lima, 
several  valiiabU;  works  on  the  American  colonies  and  their 
laws,  and  the  first  bibliography  of  the  .Spanish  colonies,  en- 
titled Bibliiiteca  oriental  y  occidental,  ndutica  y  geogrdtica 
(JIadrid,  1629;  revised  ed.  by  Gonzalez  de  Barcia.  3  vols., 
1737-38).     I),  at  .Seville  about  1675.     Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pinero'lo  (in  Fr.  Pignerol):  town  of  Northern  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Turin,  on  a  hill  1,200  feet  above  the  sea;  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  torrent  Chisonc :  23  miles  S.  W.  of  the 
city  of  Turin  (.see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-A).  The  cathedral 
stands  near  an  ancient  tower,  once  a  ]irison,  Imt  at  present 
serving  as  a  campanile  or  belfry.  The  old  I'iazza  d'Armi  is 
now  shaded  with  American  elms.  From  the  early  part  of 
the  eleventh  century  il  was  a  strong  fortress,  held  for  the 
most  part  by  the  house  of  Savoy,  though  France  frequently, 
and  often  successfully,  disputed  its  pos.session.  In  1096  the 
fortifications  of  Pinerolo  were,  in  accordance  with  a  treaty, 
mostly  destroyed.  Since  1748  il  has  been  an  ejiisi-opal  see. 
It  is  a  place  of  considerable  industry;  its  manufactures  are 
silks,  woolens,  cottons,  liipieurs,  etc.     Pop,  12,000, 

Pines,  Isle  of:  an  islan<l  of  the  Spanish  West  Indies;  35 
miles  S.  of  the  western  end  of  Cuba.     It  is  a  dependency  of 


622 


PINES,   ISLE   OF 


PINK  FAMILY 


Cuba,  contains  1,314  sq.  miles  of  undulating  or  flat  and 
marshy  land,  and  has  about  2.500  inhabitants.  Capital  and 
principal  village,  Nueva  Gerona.  The  island  contains  mar- 
ble quarries,  and  is  a  favorite  health  resort  for  sufferers  from 
lung  diseases.  H.  H.  S. 

Pines,  Isle  rff,  or  Hiinea :  an  island  in  the  southern 
Pacific  Ocean,  belonging  to  France;  in  lat.  22°  38'  S.,  Ion. 
167°  35'  E. ;  30  miles  from  the  southeastern  extremity  of 
New  Caledonia.  It  was  discovered  in  1774  by  Capt.  Cook, 
and  was  selected  in  1873  by  the  French  Assemlily  for  a 
penal  station.  The  inhabitants  belong  to  the  same  race  as 
the  population  of  New  Caledonia.  Exclusive  of  the  con- 
victs they  number  about  800. 

Pine-snake  :  a  large  serpent  (Pittiophis  melanoleuciis), 
6  feet  long.  3  inches  thick,  of  a  shining  white  color  with 
dark-brown  spots.  It  receives  its  name  from  having  its  home 
in  the  pineries  of  Eastern  Niirth  America,  from  New  Jersey 
southward,  though  it  is  also  sometimes  called  the  "  bull- 
snake,"  from  the  loud  bellowing  sound  it  produces.  It  emits 
a  strong,  disagreeable  odor.  It  feeds  on  eggs  and  small 
birds  and  mammals,  and  is  harmless  to  man. 

Pingrfi,  pah'gra',  Alexandre  Qui:  astronomer;  b.  in 
Paris,  France,  Sept.  4.  1711 ;  studied  theology,  but  adopted 
Jansenistic  views,  and  devoted  himself  to  astronomy ;  pub- 
lished 1754-57  a  nautical  almanac  under  the  title  of  J-Jfat 
du  Ciel ;  greatly  extended  Lacaille's  table  of  eclipses  in  the 
second  edition  of  L'Arf  de  verifier  les  Dates;  wrote  in  1783 
his  Gometographie,  ou  Traite  historique  des  Gometes  (3  vols.), 
which  is  his  principal  work,  and  translated  the  poem  by 
Manilius,  Astronomica  (1786).     D.  in  Paris,  May  1,  171(6. 

Pin^nicula;  See  Butterwort. 

Pini,  pee'nw,  Gaet.\no,  M.  I). :  physician  and  hygienist ; 
b.  at  Leghorn,  Italy,  A]ir.  1, 1846 ;  studied  at  the  Universities 
of  Pisa  and  Naples,  gnuluating  JI.  D.  suinma  cum  hiiide 
from  the  former  in  1869.  His  medical  studies  were  inter- 
rupted in  1866  by  service  as  a  private  in  the  war  between 
Italy  and  Austria,  and  again  in  1867  under  Garilialdi.  In 
1870  he  was  on  the  staff  cjf  the  Eiicirlopi-dla  Midicii  Itrth- 
uiia.  He  originated  and  secured  the  funds  for  the  erection 
of  the  hospital  for  rhachitic  children  in  Milan  in  1875.  He 
originated  and  organized  the  Royal  Italian  Society  of  Hy- 
giene in  1878.  In  1876  he  founded  the  Milan  society  for 
cremation,  and  was  instrumental  in  originating  a  number  of 
these  societies  in  Italy.  He  was  an  earnest  worker  in  phi- 
lanthropy, originating  the  Brotherly  Aid  Society  and  the 
Night  Asylums.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Italian  Pellagra 
commission.     D.  Sept.  25, 1886.  S.  T.  Armstronu. 

Pinll  [ef.  pink,  prick,  make  jagged];  the  name  of  va- 
rious plants  of  the  genus  Dianthus,  all  natives  of  Asia  and 
Europe,  for  the  wild  pinks  of  the  U.  S.  are  of  the  genus 
Sileiie,  and  are  properly  called  campions  or  catchflies ;  al- 
though D.  armeria,  D.  pro/ifer,  and  one  or  two  others  are 
sparingly  naturalized.  The  most  common  pinks  are  beau- 
tiful garden  and  window  flowers,  often  delightfully  fragrant. 
There  are  thousands  of  fine  varieties — carnations  (compris- 
ing flakes,  bizarres,  picotees),  pheasant's-eyes,  monthlies, 
Chinese  pinks,  maidens,  Carthusian  pinks,  etc.  (See  Car- 
nation.) They  are  somewhat  doubtfully  referred  to  some 
four  or  five  original  species  {D.  plumarius,  carynphylliis, 
chinensis,  carthusianorum,  superbus,  deltoides,  etc.).  The 
commonest  pink  of  old  gardens,  once  much  used  for  bor- 
ders, is  D.  pliimarius.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Pinkertoh,  Allan  G.:  founder  of  the  Pinkerton  iletec- 
tive  agency;  b.  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1819;  took  part  in 
the  Chartist  outbreak  in  Birmingham,  and  to  escape  im- 
prisonment emigrated  to  the  U.  S.  in  1843.  He  settleil  in 
Illinois,  where  he  became  a  deputy-sheriff,  and  in  1850 
founded  his  detective  agency  in  Chicago.  During  the  V.  S. 
civil  war  he  was  in  charge  of  the  secret-service  division  of 
the  army,  and  both  at  tliat  time  and  later  showed  unusual 
skill  and  courage  in  detecting  and  bringing  to  justice  the 
authors  of  crime.  He  broki^  up  several  notorious  gangs  of 
thieves,  rec-overed  large  amounts  of  stolen  money,  and  did 
effective  work  against  the  Molly  Maguires  in  Pennsylvania. 
Among  his  published  writings  are  The  M<dhj  Mai/iiircK  find 
the  Detective  (1877);  Criminal  Reminiscences  (i87S);  Tlie 
Sp!/  nf  the  Kehellion  (1883) ;  and  Tlurty  Years  a  Detective 
(1884).     D.  in  Chicago,  1884.  F.  M.  Colby. 

Pinkerton,  John;  author;  b.  at  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
Feb.  13,  1758;  passed  an  apiirenticeship  of  five  years  to  the 
law  in  his  native  city:  settled  in  London  1780;  devoted 
himself  to  literature  under  the  patronage  of  Horace  Wal- 


pole,  and  produced  an  immense  number  of  works,  chiefly 
historical,  none  of  which,  however,  were  marked  by  any 
great  talent.  The  best  known  is  his  General  Collection  of 
Voyages  and  Travels  (17  vols.  4to.  1808-14),  with  maps  and 
engravings,  which  is  still  useful  for  reference.  He  wrot© 
some  poems  of  merit.  Init  his  Ancient  Scottish  Poems  (2  vols., 
1786),  purpiirting  to  be  from  the  MS.  coUectionsof  Sir  Rich- 
ard Maitland.  has  been  pronounced  a  literary  forgery,  prob- 
ably executed  by  himself.  In  1804  he  settled  in  Paris,  where 
he  died  Mar.  10,  1826.  See  his  Literary  Correspondence, 
edited  by  Dawson  Turner,  1830. 

Pinkeye,  or  Influenza  (Epizootic) :  an  infectious  disease 
of  horses,  characterized  by  high  temperature,  great  prostra- 
tion, redness,  and  swelling  of  the  eyelids  (whence  its  name), 
and  other  mucous  membranes  of  the  head,  and  swelling  of 
the  limbs.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  known  diseases  of  horses, 
having  been  described  by  Rnsius.  an  Italian  writer,  in  1301 ; 
since  then  numerous  outbreaks  have  been  recorded  at  vary- 
ing intervals.  In  1872  and  1873  the  disease  spread  over  all 
of  North  America,  and  so  many  horses  were  attacked  that 
commerce  was  seriously  interfered  with.  An  outbreak  oc- 
curred in  Europe  in  1883  and  1883,  when  large  numbers  of 
horses  were  affected. 

This  disease  always  results  from  direct  or  indirect  expo- 
sure to  diseased  animals  or  to  their  exhalations.  The  infec- 
tious material  is  sometimes  carried  long  distances  by  the 
wind  or  by  fomites.  In  outbreaks  it  is  noticed  that  the  dis- 
ease spreads  most  rapidly  along  channels  of  commerce,  and 
requires  a  long  time  to  reach  remote  and  thinly  settled  dis- 
tricts. The  cause  of  pinkeye  has  not  been  discovered,  al- 
though it  has  been  determined  by  Pfeiffer  that  a  short  Iiacil- 
lus  is  the  etiological  factor  in  a  similar  disease — influenza  of 
man.  The  period  of  incidjation  is  from  four  to  seven  days, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  the  disease  begins  suddenly  with, 
high  fever  and  great  depression.  The  onslaught  and  prog- 
ress are  so  rapid  that  the  height  of  the  disease  may  be 
reached  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  temperature  sometimes 
advances  from  normal  to  106°  F.  within  a  few  hours.  The 
pulse  and  respirations  are  quickened.  The  animal  evidences 
depression  by  hanging  the  head,  allowing  the  ears  to  drooji, 
refusing  food,  refusing  to  move,  l)ut  wlien  forced  to  do  so 
walking  with  an  irregular,  tottering  gait.  The  eyelids  are 
swollen,  the  legs  and  sheath  become  cedematous.  and  some- 
times the  substernal  region  as  well.  The  visible  mucous 
membranes  of  the  digestive  tract  are  injected  and  red,  and 
there  is  some  constipation.  A  discharge  from  the  nose  and 
a  cough  indicate  irritation  of  the  respiratory  mucous  mem- 
brane. The  eye  is  sometimes  involved  to  the  extent  of  an 
inflammation  of  the  cornea  and  iris  that  may  lead  to  lilind- 
ness.  Recovery  usually  takes  place  in  from  five  to  fourteen 
days,  but  complications,  as  exhaustion  of  the  heart,  ca- 
tarrhal pneumonia,  diarrhoea,  laminitis,  or  paralysis  of  the 
brain,  may  prolong  the  case  or  cause  death.  Mortality  re- 
sults in  from  2  to  10  per  cent.,  depending  largely  on  the  type 
and  virulence  of  the  special  outbreak. 

In  treating  pinkeye  good  care  and  properly  selected  foods 
are  of  the  greatest  importance.  The  horse  should  be  al- 
lowed a  plentiful  supply  of  pure  air,  an  abundance  of  pure 
cold  water,  and  soft  laxative  foods,  as  grass,  green-corn  fod- 
der, roots,  apples,  bran  mashes,  steamed  grain,  etc.  The 
skin  should  lie  kept  brushed  and  the  swollen  parts  moist- 
ened frequently  with  eixiling,  astringent  washes.  The  eyes 
should  be  washed  at  short  intervals  with  boracic-acid  solu- 
tion, and.  if  painful,  protected  from  the  light.  Constant 
stimulation  of  the  heart  is  required.  The  bowels  should  Ije 
kept  open  with  small  doses  of  salts  or  with  calomel.  Clys- 
ters of  cold  water  are  useful  to  reduce  the  temperature. 
Antipyrine  is  frequently  used  with  benefit,  and  nux  vomica 
and  quinine  are  usually  administered  freely. 

Leonaru  Pearson. 

Pink  Family,  or  Pinkworts:  the  Garyophyllacetv,  a 
group  of  (mostly)  herbaceous  dicotyledons,  with  opposite 
entire  leaves,  and  stems  with  swollen  joints;  flowers  usually 
dichlamydeous,  the  petals  separate;  ovary  siqierior,  com- 
pound, (lue-  to  five-celled,  the  ovules  axial,  or  on  a  central 
column.  There  are  about  1,100  known  species,  mostly  na- 
tives of  temperate  and  cold  countries.  Many  species  are 
cultivated  for  their  beautiful  flowers,  as  the  pinks  (species 
of  Dianthus,  especially  D.  caryophyllus,  the  carnation  ;  D. 
c/nnensis,  the  Chinese  pink ;  D,  barbatus,  the  sweet-will- 
iam; D.  superbus,  etc.),  rose-campions  (species  of  Lych- 
nis), catchfly  (Silene),  soapwort  (Haponaria),  etc. 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 


PINKNEY 


PINZON 


623 


Pinkney.  Kdwahu  Coatf,  :  poet;  son  of  William  Pink- 
ncy,  statesman:  b.  in  London.  England,  Oct.  1.  IfSOi ;  edu- 
cated at  St.  Mary's  College,  Baltimore:  was  in  the  naval 
service  l»lt5-24:  practiced  law  at  Baltimore  with  little  suc- 
cess, but  was  appointed  Professor  of  Klu't<iric  and  Belles- 
Lettres  in  the  I'niversity  of  Maryland  ;  publisheil  Ji'odolp/i 
niul  other  I'ofinx  (IS^.l).  and  edited  for  a  short  time  a  polit- 
ical journal.  The  Mdiijlander  (1827).  I),  at  Baltimore.  .\\^T. 
11,  182H.  .Some  of  his  lyrics  have  much  grace  and  spirit. 
The  best  known  of  then'i,  .-1  Health — "  I  fill  this  cup  to  one 
nuide  up  of  loveliness  alone,"  was  enthusiastically  praised 
by  Kdgar  Allan  Poe.  Revised  by  II.  A.Bekrs. 

Pinkiipy,  Wii.i.iam.  LL.  D.  :  statesman:  b.  at  Annap- 
olis, .Vd..  Nfar.  17.  1704:  was  the  son  of  an  English  loyal- 
ist: studied  medicine  and  law:  was  admitted  to  the  Ijar 
1786,  an<l  rapidly  rose  to  eminence.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  State  convention  that  ratified  the  U.  S.  Constitution  in 
1788,  and  was  elected  in  the  same  year  to  the  State  Legisla- 
ture. He  W!us  a  l^  S.  commissioner  in  England  under  the 
Jay  Treaty  179t>-1804;  attorney-general  of  his  native  State 
18(1");  minister  extraordinary,  with  Mimroe,  to  Great  Britain 
1800 ;  minister  resident  there  1807-11 ;  U.S.  attorney-gen- 
eral 1811-14:  served  as  a  volunteer  officer  in  the  war  of 
1813,  and  was  woundeii  at  Bladensburg :  was  in  Congress 
1815-1816;  was  appointed  minister  to  Itussia,  and  special 
envoy  to  Xaples  in  1810,  but  resigned  in  1818.  He  was 
r.  .S.' Senator  1820-22.  1).  Eeb.  25.  1822.  See  Life,  hy  H. 
Wheaton  (1826) ;  by  W.  Pinkney,  D.  D.  (1853). 
I  Pinkroot :  the  root  of  a  showy  herb  of  the  U.  S.  (Spige- 

lia  mariliindica),  found  from  New  .Jersey  to  Wisconsin  and 
Texas.  The  infusion  of  this  root  is  much  used  as  an  anthel- 
udntic  ;  it  has  also  some  narcotic  qualities.  In  use  it  should 
be  combined  with  a  cathartic,  such  a?  senna.  Four  other 
species  occur  in  the  I'.  S.  .S'.  antJielmia  is  a  similar  plant 
of  South  America.     They  belong  to  the  LuganiaceiE. 

Pinkworts  :  See  Pi.nk  Family. 

Pin-money :  in  law.  an  annual  sura  of  money,  sometimes 
|)r<ividi-d  for  in  a  marriage  settlement,  to  be  paid  by  the 
husband  to  the  wife  for  the  purpose  of  defraying  her  own 
personal  expenses  for  dress  and  the  like.  When  the  wife 
dies,  her  representatives  can  not  claim  any  arrears  that  may 
be  unpaid  at  the  time,  nor  can  the  husband  ever  be  com- 
pelled to  pay  more  than  the  arrears  of  a  single  year ;  for 
the  allowance  is  inten<ied  to  be  fully  expended  in  each  cur- 
rent year,  and  is  designed  to  keep  up  the  family  dignity 
and  appearance,  and  not  to  furnish  the  wife  a  means  of  ac- 
cumulation. Both  the  name  and  the  provision  for  the  wife 
which  it  designates  are  practically  unknown  in  the  U.  S.. 
being  nearly  confined  to  tln^  English  law  and  social  cus- 
toms, though  the  terra  soraetimes  occurs  in  Scoti'h  marriage 
contracts.  The  origin  of  the  term  is  uncertain ;  by  some  it 
is  traced  to  an  ancient  tax  in  Prance  for  supplying  the 
queen  with  pins.     See  Frazer  on  Husband  and  Wife. 

Revised  by  P.  Stl-roes  AlIjEX. 

Pinnated  Gronsc:  a  name  given  to  the  prairie-hen  (Tijm- 
panuchus  americaiin.t)  on  account  of  the  pointed  tufts  of 
feathers  on  either  side  of  the  neck.     See  Pi{Airie-hi;.v. 

Pin'nidie  |Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Pin'na,  the  typical 
genus,  from  (ir,  nlma,  a  kind  of  niu.s,sel]:  a  family  of  bi- 
valve molluscs  occurring  in  warra  sejis.  They  have  an 
elongate  triangular  shell  of  delicate  texture  and  moor  them- 
selves, like  the  mussels,  by  a  silken  "byssus."  About  fifty 
living  species  are  known. 

Pinnipedes  [Lat.  /ii/>'na.  feather,  fin  +  pes. pedis,  foot] : 
a  sub-onliT  of  carnivorous  mararaals  containing  the  seals, 
.  sea-lioMs,  walruses,  and  their  relatives ;  so  called  from  the  fact 
that  the  feet  are  so  mcMlified  as  to  form  paddles  for  swim- 
ming, the  toes  being  united  by  a  web  or  fold  of  skin.  The 
group  is  differentiated  into  three  well-defined  families:  (1) 
Otariid(P.  or  sea-lions  and  sea-bears ;  (2)  Phneidw.  or  typical 
seals,  and  (3)  Odubwnidm,  or  walruses,  each  of  which  is  no- 
ticed under  its  own  name.  Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Pins  [M.  Kng.  pi)me  <  O.  FjUg.  pinn,  pin,  peg,  from  Lat. 
pin'nii.  feather,  fin.  pen]:  pieces  of  wire  pointed  at  one  end 
and  provided  with  a  head  at  the  other,  designed  for  fasten- 
ing together  various  articles  or  for  ornanuuit.  The  pins 
which  have  been  found  in  Egyptian.  Etruscan, and  old  .Scan- 
dinavian tombs,  or  in  other  ways  have  come  down  to  us  from 
antiquity,  are  mostly  very  elaborate  and  expensive  instru- 
ments, nuide  of  iron,  bronze,  brass,  silver,  or  gohl,  sonu'- 
times  12  inches  long,  with  artistically  executed  heads  of 
wood,  bone,  ivory,  aml)er,  metal,  or  jirecious  stones;  and  it 


is  evident  that  in  many  cases  in  which  we  now  use  pins  the 
ancients  used  clasps,  laces,  and  other  contrivances.  In  Eng- 
land pins  came  into  common  use  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
l)Ut  were  at  first  imported  from  the  Continent.  Soon,  how- 
ever, the  manufacture  was  introduced  into  Kngland,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  centur_\»Birmingham  be- 
came the  center  of  this  branch  of  industry.  In  the  U.  S. 
it  was  attempted  in  1820,  and  again  in  1824,  but  not  firmly 
established  until  the  invention  of  the  ilowe  machine  in 
18;i2.  The  original  process  of  the  manufacture  by  hand, 
from  the  straightening  of  the  wire  to  the  spinning  and  ham- 
mering of  the  head,  was  long  and  tedious,  and  required  no 
less  than  fourteen  distinctly  different  operations.  At  pres- 
ent, all  these  processes,  from  the  cutting  of  the  wire  to  the 
sticking  of  the  pins  into  papers,  are  performed  by  machin- 
ery, which  needs  only  to  be  fed  by  the  proper  materials  at 
each  stage  of  its  operation.  The  manufacture  of  safety  pins 
(in  which  the  point  rests  in  and  is  covered  by  a  loop)  has 
also  reached  large  proportions  both  in  Birmingham  and  the 
U.S. 

Pinsk  :  town  ;  in  the  government  of  Minsk,  Russia  :  172 
miles  S.  W.  of  Jlinsk  (see  map  of  Russia,  ref.  8-B).  It  has 
a  considerable  trade  carried  on  by  means  of  the  navigable 
river  Pina,  which  connects  it  with  the  fertile  regions  on  the 
Dnieper.     Pop.  (1890)  32,480,  nu)Stly  Jews. 

Pint :  a  measure  of  capacity,  the  eighth  part  of  a  gallon. 
See  Weights  and  Measures. 

Pinto:  See  Mendez-Pixto. 

Pinto  :  See  Serpa  Pin'to. 

Pinto,  Francisco  Antonio:  soldier  and  politician;  b. 
at  Santiago,  Chili,  1785.  Hc^  studied  law  at  Santiago;  sup- 
ported the  patriot  cause  in  1810,  and  represented  the  first 
republic  in  Buenos  Ayres  and  England;  returned  in  1817, 
entered  the  patriot  army,  and  served  with  distinction  in 
Charcas  and  Peru.  In  1824  he  was  foreign  minister ;  was 
elected  vice-president  of  Chili  at  the  Vieginning  of  1827, 
and  soon  after,  by  the  resignation  of  Freire,  liecame  presi- 
dent, holding  the  post  until  July,  1829,  when  he  resigned. 
Two  months  later  he  was  again  made  president  by  election, 
but  the  republic  was  on  the  eve  of  a  revolution,  and  he  was 
forced  to  resign  Nov.  3,  1829.  He  was  the  liberal  candi- 
date for  president  in  1841.  D.  at  Santiago,  July  18,  1858. 
— His  son,  Anibal  Pinto,  was  b.  at  Santiago  in  1825  ;  was 
Minister  of  War  and  Marine  1871-76  and  president  Sept.  18, 
1876-Sept.  18.  1881  ;  he  was  a  moderate  liberal  in  politics, 
and  was  the  first  of  his  party  elected  to  the  presidency  after 
1830.  The  war  with  Bolivia  and  Peru  began  in  1879  and 
continued  through  President  Pinto's  term.  D.  at  Valpa- 
raiso, 1884.  Herbert  IL  Smith. 

Pintnriecliio,  pin-too-ree  kw-o,  Bernardino  di  Betto: 
painter  ;  b.  at  Perugia,  Italy,  in  1454.  Fiorenzo  di  Lorenzo 
was  his  first  master.  He  afterward  entered  into  partnership 
with  Pietro  Perugino.  He  is  considered  the  greatest  deco- 
rative artist  of  his  time.  He  painted  some  frescoes  in  the 
Sistine  chapel  and  the  Borgia  apartments  in  the  Vatican, 
some  frescoes  in  Castel  St.  Angelo.  which  have  entirely  been 
effaccil.  the  lilirary  of  the  Duomo  of  Siena,  the  vault  of  the 
choir  of  .Santa  Jliiria  del  Popolo  in  Rome,  and  the  Huffa- 
lini  chapel  in  the  Church  of  Aracoeli  in  Rome.  At  Siiello 
there  is  much  of  his  work,  but  it  is  sadly  decayed.  His 
altar-|)ieces  are  numerous.  Pinturit:chio  always  painted  in 
tem|)era.     I),  at  Siena,  151:1  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Pin-worm  :  a  name  given  to  a  parasitic  nematode  worm, 
(J.n/nris  rermicularis.  in  allusion  to  the  pricking  sensation 
it  produces  in  the  perianal  region  of  infected  persons.  It  is 
threa<i-like,  rarely  more  than  half  an  inch  in  length,  and 
occurs,  often  in  numbers,  in  the  rectum  of  human  beings, 
especially  children.  It  comes  to  the  exterior  to  lay  its  eggs 
in  the  region  around  the  vent.  The  eggs  or  young  must  be 
again  taken  into  the  alimentary  canal  before  going  through 
their  development,  and  infection  takes  place  through  the 
mouth.  The  trouble  usually  disappears  in  a  short  time 
spontaneously,  but  medical  treatment,  and,  above  all.  clean- 
liness, will  m"itigate  the  attacks.  J.  S.  Kinosi.ev. 

Pinzon':  the  name  of  three  brothers,  ship-buildcrs  and 
navigators,  of  Palos.  Spain,  who  were  connected  with  some  of 
the  first  voyages  to  America.  The  eldest.  Martin  Ai.oXSO, 
aided  Columbus  in  preparing  for  his  first  voyage  in  1493.  He 
sailed  with  the  expediti<m.  in  command  of  the  Pinta:  parted 
company  with  Columbus  on  the  coast  of  Cuba  Nov..  1492; 
was  the  first  to  discover  Haiti,  where  he  rejoined  the  admiral 
Jan.  6,  1493;  and  during  the  nturn  voyage  was  again  sepa- 


624 


PIOMBO 


PIQUET 


rated  by  a  storm,  Feb.  14,  reaching  Bayona,  a  port  of 
Galicia.  Thence  he  sent  an  account  uf  the  discovery  to  tlie 
Spanish   sovereigns,    but  they  paid   little  attention   to  it, 

fiving  all  the  honor  to  Columbus.  Pinzon  returned  to 
'alos,  where  he  died  sljortly  after  of  chagrin,  as  was  as- 
serted. Columbus  and  his  friends  charged  Pinzon  with 
willful  desertion  on  the  coast  of  Cuba,  and  with  attempting 
to  appropriate  the  honor  of  the  discovery.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  was  asserteil  later  that  Columbus  had  been  incited 
to  the  voyage  by  information  received  from  Pinzon,  and 
there  is  a  generally  discredited  story  that  Pinzon  liad 
already  been  on  the  coast  of  Brazil  in  a  French  sliip. — 
Another  brother,  Vicente  YaSez,  commanded  the  Xiiia 
under  Columbus  in  1493,  but  he  is  better  known  for 
his  voyage  of  loOO,  wlien  lie  crossed  the  equator,  reached 
the  coast  of  Brazil  near  Cajie  St.  Augustine,  coasted  north- 
westward, discovered  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  passed  be- 
tween Trinidad  and  the  mainland,  and  returned  to  Spain 
by  way  of  Espaiiola.  This  was  the  first  discovery  of  the 
Brazilian  coast,  but  as  the  country  was  in  the  hemisphere 
assigned  to  Portugal  by  the  convention  of  Tordesillas,  Spain 
derived  no  benefit  from  it.  Pinzon  was  associated  with 
Juan  Diaz  de  Solis  in  two  voyages — an  exploration  of  the 
Gulf  of  Honduras  in  1506,  and  one  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
South  America,  probably  to  lat.  40°  S.,  in  1508.  D.  at  Palos 
about  1524. — A  third  brother,  P''ranxisco  Martin,  was  pilot 
of  the  Pinta  in  1402-93,  but  is  not  otherwise  known.  The 
family  was  ennobled  by  Charles  V.,  and  has  had  .some  dis- 
tinguished modern  representatives.      Herbert  U.  Smith. 

Piombo,  pee-om'bo.  Fra  Sebastiano,  del  (his  real  name 
was  Luciani,  but  he  signed  himself  Sebastiano  Veneziano, 
that  is,  the  Venetian) :  jiainter ;  b.  at  Venice  in  1485.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini  at  first,  and  afterward  of 
Giorgione,  whose  style  he  adopted  in  his  great  altar-piece  in 
the  Church  of  San  Giovanni  Crisostomo.  In  1512  he  went 
to  Rome  to  paint  some  frescoes  in  the  Farnesina.  at  the  in- 
vitation of  Agostino  Chigi.  Michelangelo  then  became  his 
friend,  and  employed  him  in  some  of  his  important  work. 
He  became  second  to  none  as  a  painter  of  altar-pieces,  and 
was  also  very  successful  in  portraiture.  Clement  VII.  ap- 
pointed him  Frate  del  Piombo  (that  is,  the  monk,  keeper  of 
the  seal)  in  1531,  and  he  held  this  office  also  under  Paul  III. 
till  his  death  at  Rome  in  1547.  The  National  Gallery  in 
London  possesses  Sebastiano "s  masterpiece.  The  Raising  uf 
Lazarus.  At  Viterbo  there  is  a  Pield  of  great  beauty.  The 
Scourging  of  our  Lord,  in  San  Pietro  in  Montorio,  Rome, 
is  also  a  great  work.  His  portrait  of  Andrea  Doria  in  the 
Doria  Palace,  Rome,  and  his  portrait  of  a  lady  in  tlie  Ufflzi 
Gallery,  Florence,  are  excellent  examples  of  his  skill. 

W.  J.  Stillman. 

Piorry,  pe'eo  ree',  Pierre  Adolphe,  M.  D.  :  clinician  ;  b. 
at  Poitiers,  France,  Dec.  31,  1794;  studied  medicine;  took 
his  degree  in  1816;  became  professor  of  pathology  at  Paris 
in  1840,  changing  this  for  the  chair  of  clinical  medicine  in 
1850,  and  retired  into  private  life  in  1866.  He  invented  the 
pleximeter,  described  in  his  T'raite  sur  la  Percussion  nie- 
diate,  for  which  he  received  the  Montyon  prize  in  1828.  He 
also  wrote  De  VHerkliie  dans  le.s  Maladies  (1840) ;  Traite 
de  Medecine  pratique  et  de  Pathologie  iatrique  ou  medicale 
(9  vols.,  1841-51) ;  Traite  de  Plessimetrisme  et  d'Organo- 
grapkisme  (1866).     I),  in  Paris,  May  29,  1879. 

Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Piozzi.pe'e-ofsce,  Mrs.  Hester  Lynch  Salusburt:  author; 
b.  at  Bodvel,  Carnarvonshire.  Wales,  Jan.  16,1740;  married, 
in  1763,  Henry  Thrale,  a  wealthy  brewer,  subsequently  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament;  made  in  1764  the  acquaint.-inee  of  Dr. 
Samuel  Johnson,  who  became  in  1766  an  inmate  of  her  fam- 
ily at  Southwark,  and  remained  such  until  Mr.  Thrale's 
death  in  1781;  contributed  several  poems  to  Mr.s.  Anna 
Williams's  volume  of  Miscellanies  (1766),  among  which  was 
the  celebrated  Three  Warnings,  often  supposed  to  l)e  the 
composition  of  Dr.  Johnson  ;  married,  in  1784.  Gabriel  Pi- 
ozzi.  a  native  of  Florence,  then  a  music-teacher  at  Bath  ;  re- 
sided a  year  or  two  at  Florence,  where  she  edited  a  volume 
entitled  The  Florence  MLtceUany  (1785)  under  the  signature 
of  "Anna  Matilda,"  thereby  attracting  the  relentless  criti- 
cism of  GifEord  against  the" Delia  Crusea  school;  published 
Anecdotes  of  Dr.  Johnson  (1786);  Letters  to  and  from  Dr. 
John-ton  (1788);  a  book  of  travels  on  the  Continent  (1789); 
British  S;/nont/mi/  (1794) ;  and  Retrospection  (1801).  I),  at 
€lift(m,  near  Brisiol,  .May  2,  1821.  See  her  Autoliiographii, 
Letters,  and  Literary  jiemains  (2  vols.,  1861),  edited  by 
Abraham  Hayward. 


Pipefish  :  a  name  given  to  various  fishes  with  a  tubular 
or  pipe-like  snout,  chiefly  belonging  to  the  order  Lopho- 
branchiala  and  family  Svngnathid^  {q.  v.). 

Pipe-line  ;  See  Petroleum. 

Piperacese;  the  pepper  family;  dicotyledonous  herbs, 
shrubs,  or  rarely  trees,  with  naked,  usuallysmall,  and  often 
imperfect  flowers  which  are  commonly  spicate ;  stamens 
usually  two  to  six  ;  ovary  superior,  simple,  or  compound  ; 
ovules  one  or  few  in  each  carpel ;  seeds  with  small  endo- 
sperm and  large  perisperm  ;  embryo  very  small.  There  are 
1,025  known  species,  nearly  all  tropical.  Many  jjossess  acrid, 
astringent,  or  narcotic  properties,  which  have  given  them 
economic  value,  as  Piper  nigrum,  a  climbing  shruliby  spe- 
cies of  the  East  Indies,  whose  dried  fruits  constitute  the  well- 
known  black  pejiper  of  commerce.  Other  products  are  cu- 
bebs,  obtained  from  P.  cuheba  of  the  East  Indies,  and  betel- 
leaves  used  from  P.betle.  Hpeciesof  Peperom  ia  are  cultivated, 
and  many  are  known  as  pepper-elders.   Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Piper'iio  :  town  of  Italy,  province  of  Rome ;  about  50 
miles  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Rome  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  6-E). 
It  stands  on  an  elevation  in  the  midst  of  an  amphitheater 
of  lofty  hills  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Volscian  town  of 
P/-('ce;-«»m,  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  It  is  almost  en- 
tirely surrounded  by  castellated  walls  with  towers,  and 
stones  and  inscriptions,  taken  from  the  ruined  temples  and 
palaces  of  the  ancient  city  just  below  it,  serve  to  adorn  the 
more  modern  town.  Here  Thomas  Aquinas  died  in  1272. 
Pipierno  is  very  unhealthful,  owing  to  its  nearness  to  the 
Pontine  marshes.     Pop.  about  4,500. 

Pipette  [  =  Fr.,  dimin.  of  pipe,  pipe]  :  a  chemical  labora- 
tory instrument  of  glass  which  is  used  for  sucking  up  quan- 
tities of  liquids  by  the  application  of  mouth-suedon.  The 
pipette  has  therefore  a  long  stem  with  a  contracted  orifice 
for  introduction  into  deep  or  narrow-mouthed  vessels,  with 
a  bulbous  or  elongated  expanded  portion  above  to  contain 
the  liquid.  Sometimes  pipettes  are  graduated,  so  that 
known  quantities  of  liquids  may  be  taken  up. 

Pipit :  See  Titlark. 

Pippi ;  See  Giulio  Romano. 

Piqiia :  city;  Miami  co.,  O.;  on  the  Miami  river,  the 
Miami  and  Erie  Canal,  and  the  Cin..  Hamil.  and  Dayton, 
Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.,  and  the  Jliami  Valley  railways; 
28  miles  X.  by  W.  of  Dayton,  73  miles  W.  by  X.  of  Colum- 
bus (for  location,  see  map  of  Ohio,  ref.  5-C).  It  is  the  sec- 
ond largest  linseed-oil  center  in  the  U.  S.,  and  contains 
linseed-oil  works,  straw-board  mills,  bent-wood  works,  roll- 
ing-mills, tin-plate  works,  stove-foundry,  corrugated  iron- 
works, woolen-mills,  hosiery  and  wagon  works,  and  school- 
desk  and  furniture  factories.  There  are  7  jiublic-school 
buildings,  public-school  property  valued  at  over  |3D0,000, 
the  Schmidlapp  Free  School,  public  library,  3  national  banks 
with  combined  capital  of  |500.000,  and  3  daily  and  4  weekly 
newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  6,031;  (1890)  9,090;  (1894)  esti- 
mated, 13,000.      J.  W.  Morris,  editor  of  "  Daily  Call." 

Piquet  [Fr.] :  a  game  of  cards  in  which  the  ace,  king, 
queen,  knave,  ten,  nine,  eight,  and  seven  of  each  suit  are 
employed,  ranking  in  the  order  given.  After  shuffling  and 
dealing,  two  by  two,  to  each  of  the  two  players,  until  each 
holds  twelve  cards,  the  rest  are  laid  on  the  table,  and  con- 
stitute a  talon  of  eight  cards.  Next,  the  non-dealer  discards 
from  one  to  five  of  his  poorest  cards,  and  draws  as  many 
more  from  the  talon.  The  opponent  next  discards.  The 
first  player  now  reckons  points,  as  follows :  For  carte  blanche 
(twelve  plain  cards).  10  points;  for  point  (the  hand  fullest 
of  any  one  suit,  or,  if  both  hands  arc  alike,  the  liest  luuid  of 
the  two  high  suits,  calling  aces  eleven,  face-cards  each  ten, 
and  counting  pips  on  the  plain  cards)  the  highest  hand 
scores  the  number  of  cards  in  his  fullest  suit ;  for  sequence 
(the  greatest  number  of  consecutive  cards  in  any  suit,  or,  if 
both  hands  are  alike  in  this  respect,  the  one  whose  highest 
sequence  begins  with  the  higher  card  ;  but  no  two  cards 
make  a  sequence)  the  better  hand  scores  as  follows  ;  If  the 
best  sequence  is  three  cards,  count  3;  for  four  cards,  4;  for 
five,  15;  for  six,  16;  for  seven,  17.  etc.  Sometimes  all  se- 
quences are  scored.  For  the  quatorze,  of  four  equal  honor- 
cards,  the  highest  scores  14,  or  if  there  are  no  sets  of  four, 
the  highest  set  of  three  equal  honor-cards  counts  3,  etc. 
The  first  player  now  plays  a  card.  The  opponent  now 
scores  his  carte  litanche  if  he  has  any,  adds  what  other 
points  he  has,  and  then  follows  suit.  Each  player  counts  1 
for  each  leail :  and  if  the  second  jilayer  takes  a  trick,  he 
counts  1  for  that.     The  one  who  takes  the  larger  numlier  of 


PIRACU'AHA 


PISAGUA 


625 


tricks  counts  10  for  ran/x;  if  lie  takes  all.  lio  counts  40 
more  ior  cnpot.  If  I  he  first  liaud  nmUes  '^!)  by  preliiuiimry 
scores,  and  1  by  first  load,  he  coniils  :i()  more  by  iiitjiie  ;  but 
if  Ids  first  score  comes  up  to  :iO  before  his  lead,  hi'  scores  60 
more  bv  repique:  100  or  lOt  points  make  the  Raine,  but 
there  arc  several  ways  of  scoring  besides  the  above. 

Piracicaba.  pL'e-rali-.sir-kaa  bail,  or  Cuiistitiiicao,  kon- 
stee-twee-sowiV  :  a  city  of  the  state  of  8ao  I'aulo,  Brazil ;  on 
a  riv<'r  of  the  same  name,  a  branch  of  the  Tiete  ;  97  miles 
N.  \V.  of  Sao  Paulo,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  It 
is  the  center  of  a  rich  coffee  and  sugar  district,  and  lia.s  a 
thriving  trade;  a  water-fall  on  the  river  is  utilized  for  sev- 
eral mills.     ]'op.  (1S04)  about  15,000.  II.  II.  S. 

Piracy  [from  (ir.  ireiparefo.  deriv.  of  Or.  TreipaT-qs.  pirate, 
liter.,  one  who  makes  .■illack.s,  deriv.  of  -irelpa,  trial,  attempt, 
jittack,  deriv.  of  jrcipav,  try]:  robbery  on  the  liifjli  seas; 
depreilations  connnitted  by  persons  without  the  comnnssion 
or  authority  of  any  state.  In  the  law  of  nations  the  essen- 
tial element  of  the  crime  is  the  intention  of  i)reyinj^  indis- 
crinuiiately  on  the  human  race,  rat iier  than  a  desire  to  in- 
tlicl  danuij^e  upon  some  particular  nationality.  As  the  high 
seas  are  not  under  the  jurisdiction  of  any  state,  piracy 
is  justicial)le  in  any  court.  A  pirate  is  a  sea-rover  who 
preys  on  the  vessels  and  goods  of  any  nation  that  he  falls  in 
witii.or  makes  descents  on  the  l.-uid  for  a  similar  purpose  of 
plunder.  A  privateer  exceeding  its  commission  might  not 
be  accounti'd  as  a  piratical  vessel,  but  one  with  a  commis- 
sion from  two  opi>i>.site.  belligerents  would  be  piratical,  since 
the  only  motive  for  such  a  double  commission  is  plunder  of 
both  parties  and  of  vessels  bound  to  the  ports  of  either.  The 
ves,sel  of  a  part  of  a  state,  organized  for  rebellion  and  inde- 
pendence, has  been  held  to  be  piratical,  because,  altliough  it 
may  have  received  a  commission  from  the  rebel  govern- 
ment, it  carries  a  ll:ig  unknown  to  international  law,  and 
oilers  no  guaranty  of  legid  belligerent  behavior;  but  the 
better  opinion  is  that  as  such  a  vessel  does  not  scour  the 
sea  for  tlie  purpose  of  i)lunder,  and  wages  war  with  but  one 
nation,  it  wants  two  important  characteristics  of  piracy. 
I'iracy,  in  the  international  sense  of  the  word,  is  a  crime 
against  all  nations,  but  each  nation  in  its  own  criminal  code 
may  class  other  crimes  under  this  head  ;  thus  the  L'.  S.  made 
the  slave-trade  to  bi^  piracy  for  all  its  citizens  on  any  ship, 
and  for  persons  not  citizens  on  its  vessels;  yet,  for  all  that, 
the  slave-trade,  though  it  might  be  made  criminal  by  the  laws 
of  all  civilized  nations,  is  not  piratical  in  an  international 
sense.  A  slave-trading  vessel  from  the  U.  8.  could  not  be 
captured  by  the  cruisers  of  any  other  country  without  spe- 
cial treaty  to  that  effect;  but  an  act  of  strict  piracy  could 
be  tried  everywhere,  for  a  piratical  ship,  as  being  at  war 
with  the  world,  could  be  captured  by  the  vessel  of  any  na- 
tion. As  a  rule,  the  search  of  one  vessel  by  a  public  ship  of 
another  state  is  a  war  i-ight  only,  but  search  on  suspicion  of 
piracy  exists  in  time  of  peace.  The  usual  penalty  for  piracy 
IS  the  coidiscation  of  the  piratical  ship  and  hanging  of  its 
crew.  This  shows  the  wide  difference  between  piracy  and 
privateering,  since  the  penally  for  the  latter  is  at  most  ira- 
prisoninenl.  Revised  by  T.  S.  Wqolsey. 

Pira>'iis  f  =  Lat.  =  (ir.  Xlfipaitis]  :  a  tow-n  situated  about 
the  chief  harbor  of  Atiikns  o/.  v.).  and  connected  with 
Athens  by  the  eelc-brated  long  walls  (see  map  of  tireece,  ref. 
17-L).  It  is  a  town  of  great  commercial  importance.  Pop. 
(1889)  34,337. 

Piranesi,  piHvraVna'si'e,  Giamb,\ttist.\  :  etcher  and  line- 
engraver  and  architect ;  b,  at  Venice  in  ]7'20.  He  first  stud- 
ied drawing  with  his  mot  lier"s  brother,  but  i)erfecled  himself 
in  this  art  in  Rome  under  (iiuseppe  Vasi,  who  taught  him 
engraving  also.  He  became  an  excellent  architect.  Clement 
XIII.  cmiiloyed  him  to  restore  the  Church  of  the  Knights 
of  Malta  on  the  Aventine.  He  is  best  known  for  his  en- 
gravings of  the  moiunnents  of  Rome,  ancient  and  modern, 
a  work  in  sixteen  volumes. — His  sou  Fkaxcksco,  b.  in  1748. 
was  also  an  engraver,  and  continued  this  series  after  liis 
father's  death.     Their  works  are  scarcely  distinguishable. 

W.  J.  Stillman. 

Piro  :  See  Pueblo  Indians  and  TaSoan  Indians. 

I'iroii.  pi^;'r»n',  Ai.Kxis  :  author;  b.  at  l)i,jon,  France, 
.luly  0,  l(i89;  studied  law,  but  did  not  practice;  left  his  na- 
tive town  chiefly  on  account  of  an  improper  ode  he  wrote; 
lived  in  Paris  for  a  long  time  in  obscurity;  began  to  write 
for  the  minor  theaters,  and  obtained  admission  to  literary 
and  eiegant  society  by  liis  brilliant  sarc'asm  and  ready  wit: 
entered  into  a  rather  ludicrous  rivalrv  with  Voltaire  as  a 


tragedian,  but  wrote  an  excellent  lomedy.  La  Jife/romanie 
(1738).  Wlu'ii  proposed  as  a  member  of  the  Academy  lie 
was  rejected  on  account  of  his  ode,  not  by  the  Academy, 
but  by  Louis  XV.  I),  in  Paris,  .Ian.  21.  1773.  There  is  a 
collected  edition  of  his  works  by  Rigoley  de  Juvigny  (7  vols., 
Paris,  1776). 

Pisa,  peezali,  or  pee'sali :  capital  of  the  province  of  Pisa, 
Italy:  on  the  Arno;  49  miles  W.  by  rail  of  Florence  (see 
map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-C).  It  is  still  a  walled  town,  and  is  en- 
tered by  six  gates.  The  bridges  are  very  fine.  es])ccially 
the  Ponte  del  Alezzo,  which  spans  the  center  of  the  .semi- 
circle formed  liy  the  Avno  within  the  town.  An  aqueduct 
4  miles  in  length  sup])lies  the  town  with  water.  The  Duo- 
mo  (or  cathedral),  founded  probably  in  1063,  on  the  site  of 
a  palace  of  Hadrian,  has  a  line  dome,  and  possesses  several 
jiaintings  by  Cim.ibue,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  others.  The 
Baptistery  (I li)4)  and  the  hcaiung  Tower  (1174)  are  both 
circular  structures,  the  former  180  feet  in  height  and  160 
in  diameter;  the  latter,  179  feet  in  height  and  50  in  diame- 
ter, with  an  inclination  of  13  ft.  8  in.  (the  cornices  being  in- 
eluded),  from  the  ])erpendicnlar.  This  position,  it  seems 
probable,  was  not  due  to  the  design  of  the  architects,  but 
was  assumed  iluring  the  progress  of  the  work.  The  Campo 
.Santo  is  adorned  with  frescoes  by  Benozzo  Ciozzoli.  Orcagna, 
and  others.  The  University  of  Pisa  (1338)  counts  Galileo 
among  its  former  pupils  and  professors.  It  has  a  natural 
history  museum,  a  library  of  120,000  volumes,  and  (1891) 
64  teachers  and  728  students.  The  town  po.ssesses  an  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts  and  a  botanical  garden.  Pisa  is  of  very 
remote  and  uncertain  origin.  Under  the  first  Roman  em- 
perors it  rose  to  great  prosperity,  whicli  lasted  till  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fifth  century,  alter  which  time  it  shared  in  the 
comuKMi  calamities  of  barbarian  invasion.  In  1003  the  pope 
invited  Pisa,  then  an  independent  republic,  to  assist  in  ex- 
pelling the  Saracens  from  the  Roman  territory.  After 
wresting  .Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  other  places  from  the  in- 
fidels. Pisa  gave  lierself  to  commerce  and  tlie  arts  of  peace, 
but  her  rapidly  increasing  power  and  wealth  excited  the 
jealousy  of  (ienoa  and  of  the  other  neighboring  republics. 
Several  Guelphic  cities,  instigated  by  Ugolino  Gherardcsca, 
a  traitor  noble  of  Pisa,  Hinted  in  a  league  against  this  Ghib- 
elline  commonwealth.  The  Pisans  finally  suffered  a  great 
naval  defeat  at  Meloria  in  1284.  Henceforth,  rival  families 
and  rival  parties  disputed  the  govenunent  of  the  city,  but 
the  commonwealth  sustained  itself,  both  against  France  and 
its  own  sister  republics,  until  1.509,  when  it  was  forced  to 
submit  to  P^lorence.  From  this  tinu>  the  history  of  Pisa  is 
one  with  that  of  Tuscany.  It  was  formerly  a  seaport,  but, 
owing  to  the  accumulation  of  deposits  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Arno.  is  now  about  6  miles  distant  from  the  sea.  and  its 
once  important  commerce  has  been  transferred  to  Jjeghoi'ii. 
There  are  manufactures  of  cottons  and  silks  and  coral  and 
alabaster  ornaments.     Pop.  (1893),  with  the  suburbs.  fil..500. 

Revised  by  R.  A.  RonEirrs. 

Pisa.  Coillioil  of:  a  council  called  to  heal  the  schism 
which  had  distracted  the  Church  since  1378.  It  was  con- 
sidered (ecumenical  by  Gallican  theologians,  but  not  by  the 
Ronuui  Catholic  Church.  Bcdlarmine  says  it  w'as  "neither 
clearly  approved  nor  clearly  rejected."  It  was  sunnnoned 
neither  by  pope  nor  emperor,  but  by  fourteen  cardinals  (seven 
in  each  obedience)  of  the  two  riv.al  popes.  It  met  in  the 
cathedral  of  Pisa.  Mar.  25.  1409.  and  lield  its  twenty-third 
and  last  session  Aug.  7.  1409.  It  was  C'omposed  of  24  car- 
dinals, 4  patriarch.s  80  bisho|]S  in  person  and  102  by 
proxy,  87  abbots  in  person  and  200  by  proxy,  the  ambas- 
sadors of  several  governments,  the  represent  at  ivi's  of  13 
universities,  and  more  than  300  professors  and  doctors  of 
canon  law.  On  June  5,  1409,  the  council  deposed  Gregory 
XII.  of  the  Roman  line  and  Benedict  XIII.  of  the  Avignon 
line,  declaring  them  both  to  be  .schismatics,  heretics,  per- 
jurers, and  vcnv-breakers.  On  .lune  26.  the  24  (some  say 
only  22)  cardinals  elected  Peter  Philargi,  who  took  the  name 
of  Alexandi'r  \'.  The  reforms  talked  of  were  then  ad- 
jouriu'd  for  the  consideration  of  a  general  council  to  meet 
in  Apr.,  1412.  The  Church  now  had  three  rival  [lopes  in- 
stead of  two.  F.  ^I.  CoLRV. 

Pisa'giiB:  a  town  and  port  of  the  province  of  Tarapjica, 
Chili  (formerly  in  Peru);  45  miles  X.  of  Iciuique;  lat.  19' 
36'  30"  .S.  (see  nuip  of  South  America,  ref.  6-C).  A  partial 
shelter  is  here  afforded  to  ships  by  a  projecting  jioint.  The 
town  is  built  on  a  narrow  space  between  the  shore  and  a 
lino  of  high  clilTs;  the  whole  surrounding  country  is  a 
desert.     Next  to  Iquique,  it  is  the  principal  center  of  the 


626 


PISAN 


PISCICULTUKE 


nitrate-trade ;  the  prnduet  is  brouglit  down  from  the 
interior  by  mil.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Chilian  war 
this  was  a  i>oiut  of  great  inijiortance  ;  it  was  bombarded 
Apr.  ly,  1H79,  and  taken  by  the  Chilians  Nov.  2.  During 
the  civil  war  of  1891  it  was  the  scene  of  severe  fighting, 
changing  hands  several  times.     Pop.  8,000.  H.  H.  S. 

Pisan,  Christine,  de :  poet :  b.  in  Venice  in  1364 ;  d. 
about  1431.  Her  father,  Thomas  de  Pisan  (or  Pezano),  fa- 
mous in  his  time  for  his  knowledge  of  the  speculative  sci- 
ences and  especially  astrology,  held  a  public  position  of  in- 
fluence. Hence  he  was  drawn,  soon  after  the  daughter's 
birth,  by  a  tempting  offer  of  King  Charles  V.  of  France. 
Pour  years  later,  prcjbably  in  1368.  he  removed  his  family 
also  to  Paris,  where  they  were  received  into  the  society  of 
the  court.  In  137fl  Christine  was  married  to  a  Picard  gen- 
tleman, by  name  Estienne  du  Castel,  who  died  in  1389. 
Left  with  three  children  to  a  life  of  care  and  pecuniary  dif- 
ficulties, and  tormented  with  lawsuits  by  unscrupulous  per- 
sons, who  had  had  business  relations  with  her  husband,  she 
seems  to  have  turned  to  writing  almost  of  necessity.  The 
example  and  care  o.t  her  fattier  hud  made  her  an  excellent 
scholar,  perhaps  the  best  Latinist  of  her  period  in  Prance. 
Her  opinions  were  original,  and  she  was  able  to  estimate 
critically  the  ideas  and  tendencies  she  saw  about  her.  Her 
acquaintance  with  great  people  enabled  her  to  obtain  an  in- 
come from  her  works  by  dedications  and  similar  means, 
and  speedily  her  fame  spread  even  beyond  the  borders  of 
Prance.  Her  poetical  manner  seems  to  owe  much  to  Guil- 
laume  de  Machault  and  to  Eustache  Desehamps;  but  her 
prose,  perhaps  owing  to  her  reading  of  classic  models,  has 
an  amplitude  and  power  all  its  own.  In  her  earlier  years 
she  seems  to  have  composed  many  of  those  light  but  gracious 
verses  so  popular  at  the  time — ballades,  lais,  virelais,  ron- 
deaus, jeux  a  vendre,  etc.  Later  she  wrote  a  number  of 
longer  and  more  serious  poems,  including  Epitre  au  Dieu 
d'Amours  (1399)  and  Les  sept  Seautnes  (1410).  Her  prose 
works  fall  into  several  grou[)S.  The  first  deals  with  the 
dignity  of  woman,  which  had  been  maligned  in  the  famous 
Roman  de  la  Rose  and  other  works.  Here  belong  La  Cite 
des  Dames  (1405?);  Le  Livre  des  trois  Vertus  (1406 f); 
^pttres  sur  le  Roman  de  la  Rose  (1407).  Another  group 
contains  works  of  a  moral  or  didactic  character  designed 
primarily  for  men  :  Epitre  d'Othea  a  Hector  (1386  f,  in  min- 
gled verse  and  prose);  Le  Corps  de  Policie  {1407  I):  Foils 
d'armes  et  de  Chevalerie  (1404-07?),  based  largely  on  Vege- 
tius.  Finally  we  have  works  of  an  historical  or  patriotic 
kind :  La  Vie  et  les  bonnes  Meurs  du  sage  Roy  Charles 
V.  (1404) ;  Lamentations  sur  les  maux  de  la  guerre  civile 
(1410) ;  Le  Livre  de  la  Paix  (1412-13).  Besides  the  above 
works,  we  have  a  quaint  biographical  piece.  La  Vision  de 
Christine  (1405).  and  two  versions  from  the  Latin,  which 
show  Christine's  love  of  moralizing.  These  are  the  Dits 
Moraux,  in  verse,  based  on  the  distiches  of  the  so-called 
Dionysius  Cato,  and  the  Livre  de  Prudence  et  I'Enseigne- 
ment  de  bien  vivre.  in  prose,  based  on  the  treatise  De  quat- 
iuor  virlutibus,  attributed  to  Martin  of  Braga.  In  1418 
the  poet  entered  a  convent,  and  her  voice  was  stilled  until 
1429,  when  the  appearance  of  Jeanne  d'Arc  as  the  savior,  of 
France  elicited  from  her  the  last  and  most  beautiful  of  her 
poems.  She  seems  not  to  have  been  living  when  her  heroine 
met  her  sad  fate. 

There  is  no  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Christine  de 
Pisan.  The  earlier  poems  are  edited  by  M.  Roy,  2  vols., 
Paris,  1886-91  (Soe.  des  aneiens  textes  franc;.) ;  Le  Chemin 
du  long  Estiide,  by  R.  PUsehel  (Berlin  and  Paris,  1881) ;  Le 
Dit  de  la  Rose,  by  P.  Heuehenkamp  (Halle,  1891).  See 
also  R.Thomiissy,  Essai  sur  les  ecrits polifiques  de  Christine 
de  Pisan  (Paris',  1838);  and  F.  Koch,  Leben  u.  Werke  der 
Christine  de  Pisan  (Goslar,  1885),  and  Ueber  die  Werke  der 
Christine  de  Pizan  (in  Zeitsch.f.  neufram.  Sprache  u.  Lilt., 
1886).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Pisan'der  (in  Or.  neia-afSpos)  OF  Rhodes  :  Greek  epic  poet 
who  flourished,  according  to  Suidas,  about  the  middle  of 
the  seventh  century  n.  c,  but  probably  much  later.  Pisan- 
der  is  noteworthy  for  having  first  endowed  Hercules  with 
the  club  and  the  lion's  skin,  suggestive  of  sun-worship.  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  he  too  fixed  the  number  of  labors 
at  twelve,  corresponding  to  the  signs  of  the  zodiac. 

B.  L.  G. 

Pisaiio,  Aniirea  :  See  Andrea  Pisano. 

Pisano,  Giovanni  :  See  Giovanni  da  Pisa. 

Pisaiio,  Giunta:  painter;  b.  at  Pisa,  Italy,  1190.  He 
was  the  first  who  attemjited  to  free  himself  from  the  By- 


zantine traditions.  One  of  his  earliest  works  is  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Pisa,  a  Crucifixion.  Examples  of  his  art  exist 
in  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli  at  Assisi,  as  also  in  the  upper 
church  of  St.  Francis  there.  He  may  be  considered  to  have 
prepared  the  way  tor  Cimabue.     D.  in  1236.  W.  J.  S. 

Pisaiio,  ViTTORE,  known  also  as  Pisaiiello :  Italian 
painter  and  medalist ;  b.  at  San  Vigilio,  in  Veronese  terri- 
tory, in  1380.  He  studied  painting  under  Altichieri  da 
Zevio,  and  painted  both  in  tempera  and  fresco.  He  worked 
in  Venice  in  1421-22  together  with  Gentile  da  Fabriano. 
Most  of  his  works  in  fresco  at  Verona  and  elsewhere  have 
disappeared.  Of  his  easel-pictures  only  three  exist,  one  of 
which,  St.  Anthony  and  St.  George,  is  in  the  National  Gal- 
lery, London.  It  is  as  a  medalist  that  he  is  best  known. 
D.  "in  1455  or  1456.  W.  J.  S. 

Piscary :  See  Hereditaments. 

Piscary,  Cominon  of:  See  Fishery  Laws. 

Piscat'aqiia  River  :  a  river  which  is  for  a  few  miles  the 
boundary  between  Maine  and  New  Hampshire ;  formed  by 
the  junction  of  Salmon  Falls  and  Cocheco  rivers,  both  of 
which  furnish  extensive  and  well-utilized  water-power.  Its 
lower  course  is  tidal,  and  constitutes  the  harbor  of  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.     Drainage  area,  550  sq.  miles. 

Piscataquis  River :  a  stream  which  rises  in  Somerset 
CO.,  Me.,  flows  E.,  and  reaches  the  Penobscot  at  Howland. 
Length,  71  miles.     Drainage  area,  1,276  sq.  miles. 

Pisces :  the  twelfth  sign  of  the  zodiac,  which  the  sun  en- 
ters Feb.  20.  It  formerly  corresponded  to  the  constellation 
of  that  name.  Owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
'the  constellation  Pisces  is  now  mostly  in  the  sign  Aries.  It 
contains  no  prominent  stars. 

Pis'cicultiire  [Lat.  pi.?ci.s.  fish  4-  cvttura.  culture,  care] : 
the  artificial  cultivation  of  aquatio  animals,  as  described 
under  the  synonymous  term  Fisu-ci'LTURE  (q.  v.).  Resting 
u]ion  the  basis  of  scientific  study  and  associated  with  ade- 
quate protective  legislation,  it  is  capable  of  maintaining  the 
sources  of  supply  utilized  by  the  fishery  industries.  Pisci- 
cultura!  operations  are  extensively  carried  on  by  private 
individuals  for  profit  and  by  governments  for  the  public 
benefit. 

European  Fish-cuUtire. — In  Europe  Dr.  Nicolas  Borodine 
reported  416  fish-hatcheries  in  1891,  all  of  which  except  82 
were  private  establishments  occupied  chiefiy  with  trout  and 
salmon  culture.  Governmental  aid  was  extended  in  Nor- 
way, Switzerland,  France,  Italy,  Great  Britain,  Austria,  and 
Russia,  named  in  the  order  of  the  number  of  hatcheries 
supported  by  them.  Norway  entered  upon  the  work  in  1850 
and  now  takes  first  rank  in  the  number  of  its  establishments, 
the  amount  of  its  annual  grant  for  fish-cidture.  and  the 
results  accomplished,  having  produced  200.000,000  cod  in 
1891  at  its  station  at  Flodevigen.  Germany  supports  the 
once  famous  but  now  unimportant  hatchery  at  Hiiningen ; 
France  subsidizes  a  small  private  shad-hatchery  at  St.-Pierre- 
Ics-Elbeuf  on  the  Seine,  and  contemplates  the  establishment 
of  a  piscicultural  school  at  Gremaz,  where  M.  Lugrin  in- 
vented a  method  of  ai-tificially  propagating  live  food  for 
young  fish;  Italy  has  hatching  stations  at  Brescia  and 
Rome;  the  Netherlands  appropriates  a  small  sum  for  plant- 
ing salmon  fry  in  the  Rhine ;  Russia  has  a  station  princi- 
pally for  whitefish-culture  at  Nicholsk ;  and  Scotland  sus- 
tains a  small  marine  hatchery  at  Dunbar.  The  Govern- 
ments of  New  Zealand,  Australia,  and  Japan  also  aid  in  re- 
stocking their  public  waters,  their  operations  relating  almost 
exclusively  to  the  acclimatization  of  exotic  salmon  and  trout. 

jP('.s7i  and  Fishery  Commissions. — Public  fish-culture  in 
many  countries  is  conducted  through  the  agency  of  scien- 
tific bureaus  and  associations.  Thus  in  Norway  operations 
are  carried  on  by  the  Society  for  the  Development  of  Nor- 
wegian Fisheries;  the  Netherlands  has  its  commission  for 
the  sea  fisheries,  to  #hich  the  Government  refers  all  matters 
relating  to  fishery  interests;  in  Germany  the  Deutschcr 
Fischerei  Verein  (German  Fishery  Union)  and  the  Com- 
mission for  the  Investigation  of  the  German  Seas  are  partly 
supported  by  public  funds  in  their  piscicultural  work  and 
scientific  investigations ;  Scotland  has  a  fishery  board,  chiefly 
for  the  in(iuiry  into  the  proper  basis  of  fishery  legislation, 
but  ))artly  I'Ugaged  in  marine  fish-culture  at  its  Dunbar 
station.  For  the  extent  to  which  the  Government  promotes 
pisciculture  in  the  U.  S.  see  Fisii-culture.  Newfoundland 
also  maintains  a  superintendent  of  the  fisheries,  and  is  es- 
pecially active  in  the  propagation  of  the  cod  and  the  lobster. 

Artificial  Propagation. — Modern    pisciculture    includes 


PISCICULTURE 


627 


artificial  as  well  as  natural  [iropagation  uiid  rearing  of  use- 
ful and  ornamental  walfr-aiiiiiials,  and  the  acclimatization 
of  species  in  waters  to  vvliich  they  are  not  native.  The  ne- 
cessity of  artificial  propagation  has  become  most  manifest 
in  interior  waters  where  fishing  operations  and  artificial  ol> 
structions  have  interfered  with  natural  reproduction;  also 
in  shallow  seas  to  which  the  slioals  of  gravid  fish  resort  for 
spawning,  just  as  the  need  of  reguhilion  lias  liecome  evident 
to  protect  the  seals  on  their  shore  breeding-grounds  and  the 
approaches  thereto,  the  oyster  on  its  flats,  and  the  whale  in 
its  arctic  nursery  shallows. 

Artificial  propagation  forms  the  basis  of  successful  pisci- 
culture, and  hius  arrived  at  such  a  point  of  development 
tliat  it  affords  many  advantages  over  mitural  reproduction. 
Under  natural  conditions  only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
eggs  cast  by  the  female  are  impregnated.  A.  N.  Cheney 
found  by  actual  counting  of  eggs  in  a  Canadian  salmon 
river  that  only  2  per  cent,  had  been  fertilized.  I5y  the  arti- 
ficial method  nearly  all  the  eggs  can  be  im|)regnated  and 
hatched :  it  is  common  to  hatch  !)7  per  cent,  of  them.  In 
a  state  of  nature  eggs  are  devoured  by  insects,  fishes,  birds, 
mammals,  and  other  enemies;  they  are  destroyed  by  fresh- 
ets, eruslied  by  logs,  or  smothered  in  mud  and  mill  refuse. 
The  young  fish  es<?aping  these  dangers  are  attacked  inces- 
santly by  hosts  of  predatory  animals  as  well  as  by  larger  in- 
dividuals of  their  own  kind.  In  a  hatchery  or  pond  station 
both  eggs  and  young  are  protecle<l  almost  entirely  from  all 
these  destructive  agencies,  the  growing  fish  mu  assorted  ac- 
cording to  size,  and  are  regularly  ami  properly  fed. 

Classifitatinn  of  Ei/gti. — The  fish  egg.  like  that  of  other 
animals,  consists  of  the  germ-cell,  the  yolk,  and  the  yolk- 
membrane,  and  varies  greatly  in  size  according  to  the  amount 
of  its  yolk  element.  After  leaving  the  yolk-membratu",  or 
shell,  the  young  fish  is  nourished  by  the  yolk  for  a  period 
varying  from  a  few  days,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pike-perch, 
shad,  and  bass,  to  several  weeks,  as  in  the  case  of  salmon 
and  trout.  The  eggs  differ  greatly  not  only  in  size  and 
toughness  of  the  shell,  but  also  in  their  specific  gravity,  and 
they  have  been  classifie<i  with  reference  to  the  latter  property 
into :  1,  heavy  eggs,  like  those  of  salmon,  trout.  pike-|)erch. 
yellow  perch,  black  bass,  sea-herring,  and  smelt;  2,  semi- 
buoyant  eggs,  as  in  the  shad,  wliitefish.  anil  sucker;  3,  buoy- 
ant eggs,  as  found  in  the  cod,  haddock,  mackerel,  tiuitog, 
and  eunner.  Heavy  eggs  are  again  divided  into  adiiesive 
and  non-adhesive,  according  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  a 
glutinous  covering  on  the  yolk-membrane. 

Ilatching  Ap/jrirafus. — Salmon  and  trout  eggs  were  first 
hatched  (m  gravel  in  perforated  boxes  placed  in  running 
water.  Xext  in  order  came  the  Coste  parallel  glass  tubes  or 
grilles  as  a  substitute  for  the  gravel.  In  1873  Ilolton  in- 
vented a  box  intended  to  utilize  an  upward  current  of  water 
psissing  through  a  number  of  egg-trays  placed  one  above 
another,  and  escaping  at  the  top.  The  Clark  hatching- 
trough,  also  intended  to  economize  space,  is  divided  by 
watertight  partitions  into  ten  or  twenty  compartments, 
each  containing  a  series  of  egg-trays.  Water  is  introduced 
into  the  top  of  the  first  compartment,  escapes  at  the  bottom, 
passes  over  the  top  of  the  partition  into  the  next  compart- 
ment, and  so  on.  The  Williamson  box  resembles  Clark's,  but 
utilizes  an  upward  current  of  water  produced  by  a  <louble 
partition.  Livingston  .Stone  substituted  wire-trays  or  bas- 
kets for  the  egg-trays  used  in  the  Williamson  box.  placing 
in  ea<'h  basket  numerous  layers  of  salmon  eggs.  Tliis  form 
of  apparatus  wsus  among  those  successfully  employed  by  the 
U.  S.  Fish  Commission  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  at 
Chicago. 

Heavy  eggs  are  developed  also  in  cylindrical  glass  jars, 
either  open  or  closed  at  the  top,  the  water  being  admitted 
near  the  bottom,  <lirectly  or  by  means  of  a  tulic,  and  escap- 
ing at  the  top.  Types  of  such  devices  are  the  Chase,  the 
Wilmot,  the  Ferguson,  and  the  McDonald  jars.  The  up- 
ward current  not  oidy  buoys  iin  the  eggs,  but  also  facilitates 
the  removal  of  dead  eggs  and  other  injurious  substances. 
As_  the  embryos  develoned  from  heavy  eggs  are  uiuible  to 
swim  when  first  hatched,  they  must  be  removed  to  rearing 
troughs,  where  they  are  usually  kept  on  gravel. 

Adhesive  eggs  were  formerly, and  to  some  extent  still  are, 
collected  on  grass  roots,  twigs",  panes  of  glass,  or  other  sur- 
faces to  which  they  adhere  during  the  incubation  period. 
The  apparatus  was  placed  in  running  water  or  in  an  alter- 
nating upward  and  downward  current,  the  water  piissing over 
one  partition,  under  the  next,  an<l  so  on.  The  box  used  by 
Christian  Lund  in  ITtJl.  the  smelt-hatching  box  of  .lame's 
Kicardo,  employed  in  1S7G,  and  the  box  devised  at  Glouces- 


ter. .Mass.,  by  F.  X.  Clark  in  1878,  are  among  the  early  types. 
At  the  present  time  glutinous  eggs — those  of  the  pike-percli 
for  example— are  freed  from  their  adhesive  envelope  by 
manipulation  in  a  solution  of  starch  or  muek,  and  are  after- 
ward hatched  like  free  heavy  eggs. 

Among  semi-buoyant  eggs  those  of  the  shad  were  former- 
ly hatched  successfully,  but  inconveniently,  in  a  rectangular 
box  invented  by  Setli  Green.  The  box  "had  a  wire-cloth 
bottom,  and  was  caused  to  float  at  a  small  angle;  to  the  cur^ 
rent  by  means  of  long  wooden  cleats  on  the  sides.  This  ar- 
rangement was  intended  to  intensify  the  action  of  the  cur- 
rent in  buoying  up  the  eggs.  The  "boxes  were  placed  in  a 
streani,  and  required  constant  supervision  to  prevent  injury 
to  their  contents.  Variations  of  the  Green  box  were  made 
by  l5rackett,of  Massachusetts, and  byStilwell  and  Atkins,  of 
Maine.  Semi-buoyant  eggs  are  now  developed  in  the  jars 
used  for  heavy  eggs  with  greater  comfort  and  safetv  and  an 
increa.sed  percentage  of  fry. 

Buoyant  eggs  were  first  suceessfullv  hatched  in  large 
numbers  in  the  U.  S.  by  Capt,  II.  C.  "Chester  in  1885  by 
means  of  the  McDonald  cod-hat<:hing  box  modified  by  sub"- 
stituting  large  glass  jars  for  the  inner  box  of  McDonald. 
That  box  was  supplied  with  water  through  the  center  of  tlic 
bottom,  and  had  an  intermittent  siphon  at  each  end.  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  give  a  rise  and  fall  of  5  inches,  imitating  tidal 
motion.  The  improved  cod-hatching  box  of  .Marshall  Mc- 
Donald resembles  the  original  pattern  devised  in  1880,  but 
the  inner  wooden  box  has  a  slightly  oval  bottom  covered 
with  cheese-cloth,  and  a  small  additional  current  of  water  is 
introduced  from  the  water-chamber  through  an  openingnear 
the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  this  gives  the  eggs  a  rotary  mo- 
tion which  is  highly  advantageous.  The  flow  of  water  is 
from  below  upward. 

Lobsters. — The  hatching  period  of  lobster  eggs  in  1892 
varied  from  two  days  to  thirty-five  days,  according  to  tem- 
perature of  the  water.  The  eggs  did"  not  begin  to  hatch 
until  the  water  reached  54'  F.  the  largest  lobster  brought 
to  the  Wood's  Hole.  Mass.,  station  that  year  measured  124 
inches  and  had  24,300  eggs.  The  averag"e  number  (.btained 
was  12,000.  The  eggs  are  readily  hatched  in  the  cod  boxes 
above  refeiTcd  to  and  in  the  jars"  used  for  heavy  fish  eggs. 

Transportation  of  Eygs.— Fish  eggs  are  usuallv  shipped 
after  the  eye-spots  are  present  between  layers  of  damp  moss 
or  cotton,  or  on  flannel  or  zinc  bottom-trays  lined  w-ith  mos.s, 
and  sometimes  with  a  covering  of  clean"  snow.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  inside  of  the  shipping-box  is  kejit  low  by 
means  of  ice.  Eggs  are  frequently  sent  before  thev  have 
reached  the  eyed  stage,  notably  pike-perch  and  wliitefish 
eggs.  The  method  of  shipping  shad  eggs  in  bulk  on  flannel 
trays,  introduced  by  U.  S.  Pish  Commissioner  McDonald, 
revolutionized  the  movement  of  such  eggs  from  the  field  sta- 
tions to  distant  hatching  establishments. 

Care  of  the  Young.— ^o  attempt  is  made  to  feed  the 
young  of  marine  fishes  or  of  the  fresh-water  shad  and  pike- 
perch,  the  fry  being  released  soon  after  hatching.  Shad, 
however,  have  been  successfully  reared  on  natural  food  in 
ponds  to  the  age  of  six  months,  when  they  are  allowed  to 
migrate  seaward.  The  yolk-sac  of  salmon' and  trout  sus- 
tains the  fry  during  a  period  of  thirty  to  fifty  days  after 
leaving  the  egg,  but  feeding  usually  begins  a  week"  or  ten 
days  before  the  absorption  of  the  sac  is  completed.  Raw 
liver  ground  very  fine  and  jiassed  through  a  sieve  is  used. 
This  is  dilut(Ml  witli  water  to  the  consistence  of  cream,  and 
the  fry  are  fed  just  enough  to  satisfy  their  hunger  several 
times  a  day,  care  being  taken  to  remove  all  refuse  remain- 
ing on  the  bottom  after  feeiling.  The  larva'  of  gnats,  mos- 
fjuitoes,  flies,  and  various  small  crustaceans,  are  eini)loycd  at 
different  stages  of  the  growth  of  the  young,  and  the  flesh  of 
ilomestic  animals  constitutes  the  principal  food  of  older  fish. 

A  series  of  rearing  ponds  is  one  of  the  most  important  ad- 
juncts to  a  fish-hatchery.  These  should  have  an  adequate 
supply  of  brook  or  river  water,  which  for  trout  or  salmon 
work  should  not  exceed  70°  in  temjierature  in  midsummer. 
The  shape,  size,  and  depths  of  ponds  vary  with  the  jnir- 
[)ose  for  which  they  are  intended,  but  each  should  have  an 
independent  supply  and  drainage  to  provide  for  complete 
isolation  from  the  remainder  of  the  series.  A  prime  requisite 
is  a  bountiful  supply  of  pure  water  under  perfect  ccuitiol. 

LiTEKATL'RE. — .\mong  the  numerous  works  upon  pisciciil- 
tural  methods  are  the  following:  Fi.vr/utic/it.  hy  Mnx  von 
dem  Home  and  others  (Berlin.  1881);  Hubrecht.  Oi^.sler-nil- 
tiireand  Ot/ster-fislieries  in  the  I^'etherlands  {\joi\i\'oi\.lSKi); 
Ilaxo,  De  la  fecondation  arlificielle  de,i  tetif.^  de.i  poi-^-tous 
(Epinal,  1853) ;  Coste,  Intitruciions  siir  la  pisciculture  (Paris, 


628 


PISCIDIA  EUYTIIRIA 


PISTIL 


1856);  Koltz,  3Iiilfiplic(iti(m  artificitUe  des  poissnns  (lirus- 
sels,  1858):  Buckland,  Fislt-hatchinii  (London.  1863) ;  'Fv&n- 
vXs,  Fish-culturK  (London,  1868);  Bertra'in,  Harvest  of  the 
Sea  (London,  1865 ;  New  York,  1866) ;  Day,  Fish-culture 
{London,  1883) ;  Home,  Salmon  and  Salmon-fisheries 
<London,  1883);  Marston,  Coarse  Fish-oiliure  (London, 
1883);  Maitland,  On  the  Culture  of  Salmon idw  and  the  Ac- 
dimatization  of  Fish  (London,  1883);  Maitland,  The  His- 
tory of  Howietoun;  Kent,  Artificial  Culture  of  Lobsters 
(London,  1883);  Day,  British  and  Irish  Salmonidte  (Lon- 
don, 1887) ;  Fry,  A  Complete  Treatise  on  Artificial  Fish- 
breeding  (New  York,  1854) ;  Garlick,  A  Treatise  on  the 
Artificial  Propaijation  of  Certain  Kinds  of  Fish  (Cleveland, 
1857);  Utiaxsh,  Artificial  Propagation  of  i^('«A  (Burlington, 
Vt.,  1857):  Norris,  American  Fish-culture  (Philadel[ihia, 
1868);  Green,  Tz-o^Z-f  ((//«;•«  (Caledonia,  N.  Y.,  1870);  Slack, 
Practical  Trout-culture  (New  Y'ork,  1872);  Klippart,  An 
Essay  on  Fish-culture  (Colurabiis.  0.,  1873) ;  Stone.  Domes- 
ticated Trout  (Boston,  1873) ;  Green  and  RooseTelt,  Fish- 
hatching  and  Fish-catching  (Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1879) ; 
Hessel,  Carp-culture,  \J.  S.  Fish  Coram.  Report,  part  iv. ; 
Logan,  Carp-culture  (Youngstown,  0.,  1888);  Mulertt,  The 
Gold-fish  and  its  Culture  (Cincinnati).  Much  varied  infor- 
mation can  also  be  obtained  from  the  annual  reports  and 
bulletins  of  the  V.  S.  Fish  Commission,  the  reports  of  State 
fish  commissions  and  of  the  Department  of  Marine  and  Fish- 
eries of  Canada,  the  journals  of  the  Society  of  Acclimatiza- 
tion and  the  Society  of  Agriculture  of  France,  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  American  Fisheries  Society,  the  publications  of 
the  Deutscher  Fischerei  Verein.  and  of  the  fisheries  depart- 
ments of  Norway  and  Finland.  The  Field,  Land  and  Water, 
and  The  Fishing  Gazette  (London).    Tarleion  H.  Bean. 

Piscidia  erytliria :  a  leguminous  tree  growing  in  the 
West  Indies,  popularly  known  as  Jamaica  dogwood.  Tlic 
wood  of  this  tree  is  largely  sold  in  commerce,  and  the  bark 
has  been  employed  for  catching  fish,  as  when  placed  in  the 
water  it  stupefies  them.  It  is  supposed  to  possess  consider- 
able narcotic  power,  and  to  be  a  useful  substitute  for  opium 
in  some  eases  of  insomnia  due  to  pain.  H.  A.  Hare. 

Pi'seinskii,  AlekseI  Teokilaktovich  :  author  ;  b.  in  the 
village  of  Kameue,  in  the  governnu'nt  of  Kostroma,  Russia, 
Mar."  20,  1820;  d.  Jan.,  1881.  During  his  youth  he  became 
familiar  with  the  life  of  the  people,  and  also  saw  something 
of  tlie  Freemasons,  whom  he  afterward  described  in  a  poor 
novel,  TIte  Freemasons  (1881).  After  studying  mathemat- 
ics four  years  in  the  University  of  Moscow,  he  entered  the 
Government  service  (1844)  in  the  town  of  Kostroma,  but  re- 
signed (1853)  and  moved  to  St.  Petersburg  in  order  to  de- 
vote; himself  exclusively  to  literature.  After  1862  he  lived 
in  Moscow.  His  first  novel,  Trufiak  (The  Jester)  ai)peared 
in  1850,  his  second,  A  Loi^e  Jlatcli,  in  18.53.  The  same  year 
witnessed  his  best  drama,  Gorkaia  Sudbina  (A  Bitter  Lot), 
a  powerful  and  painful  piece  that  is  still  played.  His  great- 
est novel,  A  Thousand  Souls,  came  out  in  1858.  Among 
his  later  books,  which  were  especially  attacks  on  the  lib- 
eral tendencies  of  the  time.  The  Storm  i/  Sea  (1863),  The 
Men  of  1S40  (mm),  and  In  the  Whirlpool  (1871)  are  note- 
worthy. Some  of  his  short  stories,  such  as  Leshil  (The 
Wood  Demon)  and  Piterstcliik.  are  masterpieces.  Most  of 
his  dramas  {Veteran  and  Recruit,  Baal,  The  Hypochondriac, 
etc.)  were  less  successful.  He  was  an  unsparing  realist  wlio 
painted  with  great  force  and  fidelity  low  and  repulsive 
characters,  or  the  miseries  of  everyday  life.  His  weakness 
lay  in  his  utter  absence  of  ideals.  A  complete  edition  of 
the  novels  and  tales  he  had  then  written  appeared  in  1861- 
65;  of  his  plays  in  1874.  ;\tost  of  his  best  work  has  been 
translated  into  French  and  German.  A.  C.  Cooliiige. 

Pis'gall :  a  mountain  of  Palestine,  E.  of  the  Jordan, 
mentioned  several  times  in  the  Pentateuch.  It  was  the 
summit  from  which  Moses  obtained  his  view  of  the  Prom- 
ised Land  (Dent,  xx.xiv.  1).  In  1873  it  was  identified  by 
Prof.  John  A.  Paine,  of  the  American  Palestine  Explora"- 
tion  Societ  y,  wit  h  Sidghah,  2,360  feet  above  the  sea.  Though 
not  the  highest  summit  of  tlie  range,  it  reaches  out  toward 
the  valley  so  a.s  to  command  a  very  wide  prospect. 

Pisid'ia:  an  ancient  territory  of  Asia  Minor,  with  varv- 
ing  and  ill-defined  boundaries,'situated  between  Phrygia, 
Isauria,  Cilicia,  I'ampliylia,  Lycia,  and  Caria.  It  was  in- 
habited by  wild  and  proilalory'tribes,  ruled  liy  petty  chiefs. 
The  Romans  never  wholly  subdued  Pisidia,' though  thev 
held  possession  of  its  chief  towns — Antioch,  itscapilal.Sala- 
gassus,  and  Selge.  It  is  now  included  in  the  Ottoman  vila- 
yet of  Kouieh.  E.  A.  G. 


Pisis'tratns  [=Lat.  =  Gr.  lleicrfo-TpaTos] :  a  tyrant  of 
Athens,  a  son  of  Hippocrates,  and  a  kinsman  of  Solon. 
When  in  571  B.  f.  Solon  left  Athens  for  ten  years  in  order 
to  test  the  working  of  his  laws,  Pisistratus  entered  politics 
as  an  advocate  of  the  cause  of  the  lower  classes,  whose  con- 
fidence he  won.  By  a  ruse  he  persuaded  the  people  to  give 
him  a  body-guard,  which  he  gradually  increased,  until  in 
560  D.  c.  he  felt  himself  strong  enough  to  assume  the  role  of 
tyrant.  Later  he  hail  to  flee  the  country,  and  lived  in  exile 
for  five  years,  when,  with  the  help  of  Megacles,  he  was  re- 
stored to  power.  A  second  time  he  was  banished,  and  re- 
mained in  exile  eleven  years.  The  dates  of  his  exile  are 
variously  given  by  chronologers.  By  the  help  of  Thebans, 
Argivcs,  and  Naxians.  he  was  again  restored  to  power,  and 
died  on  the  throne  in  527  b.  c.  Between  560  and  527  he 
was  tyrant  seventeen  years  and  an  exile  sixteen  years.  As 
tyrant  he  was  distinguished  for  his  mildness  and"  reverence 
for  the  laws  of  Solon,  which  in  the  main  he  left  undisturl)ed. 
He  was  the  patron  of  agriculture,  the  arts,  and  sciences. 
He  built  many  public  edifices,  and  caused  the  poems  of  tlo- 
mer  to  be  collected  and  edited.  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
tyranny  by  his  eldest  son  Hippias  (q.  v.).  J.  R.  S.  S. 

Pistachio-nut,  or  Green  Almond  [pistachio  is  from 
Span,  pistacho  <  Lat.  pista'cium  =  Gr.  irutTiKiov.  pist.achio- 
nut,  deriv.  of  irnrTaicT),  pistachio-tree,  from  i'ers.  pistah.  Cf. 
Arab,  fistag]:  tlie  fruit  of  the  pistachio-tree,  Pistocta  j'pra 
(family  Anacardiacecc),  which  is  common  in  the  S.  of  Eu- 
rope and  in  Asia  and  Africa.  The  nut  is  delicious  for  des- 
sert. The  kernel  is  somewhat  like  that  of  the  almond,  but 
is  green.  The  nut  yields  a  good  table  oil.  To  the  same 
genus  belong  the  mastich,  the  terebinth,  and  other  valu- 
able trees.  Lamb  fattened  upon  pistachio-nuts  is  a  famous 
delicacy. 

Pistil  [from  Lat.  pistU'lum,  pestle,  so  called  from  its 
shape] :  the  part  of  a  flower  which  produces  ovules.  It 
normally  occupies  the  center  of  the  flower,  the  stamens,  pet- 
als, and  sepals,  when  present,  surrounding  it.  It  is  a  leaf- 
structure  (phyllome),  and  in  its  simplest  form  consists  of  a 
single  phyllome  (technically  a  "carpel"),  folded  upward  so 


1 


Pistils  :  a,  simple  of  Isopyrum  ;  b  and  c,  compound  of  StapUylea  ; 
d  and  e,  compound  of  Ascyrum  ;  enlarged. 

that  its  edges  meet  (n).  Here  the  ovules  normally  grow 
upon  the  infolded  edges  (placenta^).  In  many  cases  two  or 
more  pistils  (carpels)  grow  more  or  less  perfectly  into  a 
compound  structure  (b  c  d  e).  Here  the  ovules  still  grow 
upon  the  phyllome  edges,  but  these  may  be  the  edges  of 
the  same  or  of  different  phyllomes.  according  as  each  phyl- 
lome is  fully  infolded  (b  c).  or  only  partially  so,  its  edges 
joining  with  those  of  other  phyllomes  ((/  e).  In  the  pistils  of 
many  plants  the  placenta  undergoes  some  displacement; 
thus  the  ovules  may  be  on  the  surface  or  the  midrib  of  the 
carpel. 

In  every  pistil,  whether  simple  or  compound,  the  en- 
larged, ovule-bearing  part  is  called  the  ovary,  the  more  or 
less  slender  portion  above  it  is  the  style,  and  this  is  termi- 
nated by  the  stigma.  The  style  may  be  very  long,  .as  in  Ind- 
ian corn,  where  it  is  known  as  the  "silk,"  or  very  short, 
or  even  wanting,  as  in  the  barV>erry.  The  stigma  is  com- 
posed of  a  soft,  specialized  tissue,  commonly  exuding  a 
sticky  substance,  and  designed  for  the  reception  of  the  pol- 
len. It  nuiy  be  a  cap  on  the  summit  of  the  style,  a  surface 
extending  downward  for  some  distance,  or  it  may  be  more 
or  less  liranclied. 

.\  flower  may  have  many  simple  pistils,  and  this  appears 
to  have  been  the  condition  in  primitive  flowers,  now  illus- 
trated by  the  crowfoots  (Ranunrnlacea')  and  water-plan- 
tains (Alisniacew) ;  more  commoidy,  however,  the  jiistils 
have  united  into  a  single  compound  jiistil,  as  in  the  great 
majority  of  flowering  i)lants.     Moreover,  many  compound 


PISTO.IA 


PITCIlEK-l'LANTS 


629 


pistils  l\ave  umlcrfione  siu-h  struct unil  siiiiiilifuialiun  tliat 
they  ol'Icii  appear  to  lie  simple,  as  in  tlie  eoiiiposiles,  wliere 
the  biearpcllary  pistil  lias  but  a  single  ovule,  and  appears 
at  first  siglit  to  be  inontK-arpeliary. 

Altliougli  the  pistil  normally  oceupies  the  inner  ami  up- 
per part  of  the  flower  (then  sai<l  to  be  siiperiur  to  tlie  oilier 
organs),  it  may  seem  to  tie  lielow  the  other  jiarts  by  I  lie 
growth  of  the  latter  above  it  (wlien  it  is  saiil  to  lie  inferior 
to  the  other  organs),  as  in  the  composites,  irises,  and  or- 
chids. As  the  seeds  form,  the  pistil  (now  called  the  peri- 
ciir/j)  undergoes  certain  modilications,  sometimes  becoming 
llesliy,  sometimes  wholly  or  in  jiart  hard  and  stony,  while 
sometimes  it  simply  dries  into  a  brittle  pod. 

Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Pistoja,  pc^'S-td  Vifii  (ane.  l'i.<:loria) :  town;  in  the  prov- 
ince of  V'lorencc,  Italy  ;  ~1  miles  X.  W.  of  the  city  of  Flor- 
ence (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-0).  It  lies  in  a  fertile  valley 
between  two  spurs  of  the  .\]ieiiiiines.  one  of  which  sejiarates 
the  valley  of  the  lower  Ariio  from  that  of  the  Ombrone.  a 
torrent  flowing  a  little  to  the  E.  of  this  town.  A  wall, 
rhomboidal  in  outline,  surrouruls  the  town,  which  is  entered 
by  four  gates  besiilcs  tlie  I'aiiway  barrier.  The  streets  are 
wide  and  well  paved,  and  the  squares  large.  The  cathe- 
dral, in  form  an  aiu'ient  basilica,  was  built  in  the  twelfth 
century,  rebuilt  by  Niccolo  da  I'isa.  ami  since  modern- 
ized. It  eonlains  a  famous  silver  altar  and  the  cenotaph 
of  Cino  da  Pistoja.  San  Bartolomeo,  San  Giovanni,  au<l 
Sant'  Andrea  are  all  churches  of  very  ancient  dates ;  the 
last  named  contains  a  pulpit  of  white  marble  (1801)  exquis- 
itely wrought  in  alto-rilievo  ;  also  a  marble  group  by  Niccolo 
da  Pisa.  The  bishop's  palace  is  an  imposing  edifice.  The 
facade  of  the  hospital  is  decorated  with  remarUablc  terra- 
cottas by  the  younger  members  of  the  Delia  Kobbia  family, 
representing  the  seven  works  of  mercy.  In  (52  n.  r.  t'ati- 
line  was  defeated  here,  (iregory  the  (Jreat  sent  Pistoja  its 
first  bishop  in  .5114.  .-Vl'ter  a  long  period  of  |irosperity  the 
town  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Florence  early  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  The  manufactures  of  Pistoja  consist  chiefly 
of  linens,  glass,  needles,  and  especially  firearms.  Pistols  are 
said  to  have  been  first  made  here,  a  fact  which  is  thought 
by  many  to  explain  their  name.     Pop.  (1802)  20.1110. 

Pitlival.  [le'e  ta'a  vaal',  Fr.4N"(,'ois  (tayot.  de  :  leg:il  writer: 
b.  at  Lyons.  France,  in  l(i73  ;  d.  in  Paris  in  IT-f'i.  .\fler  serv- 
ing for  a  lime  in  the  army  he  studied  law,  and,  lieing  ad- 
mitted as  an  advocate  in  1713,  practiced  in  Paris,  and  ac- 
(jnired  a  name  by  his  publication  of  Causta  celt'.hrps  et  inte- 
ressan/es  (20  vols.,  Paris,  1734-48),  which  was  a  collection  of 
celebrated  law  cases  and  their  decisions.  It  was  continued 
after  the  death  of  Pilaval  by  Fr.-im;ois  Kiclier  (22  vols..  Am- 
sterdani.  1772-.S.S).  In  1S42  llitzigaiid  llilriiig  began  a  simi- 
lar collecti<m  at  Leip/ig.  under  the  title  of  iJer  iii-iii'  I'itin-til, 
which  was  afterward  continued  by  VoUert.  lie  undertook 
a  number  of  collections  similar  to  Cdiisex  celt'bre.'i,  some  of 
which  were  of  a  more  frivolous  character.  Among  the  most 
celebrated  are  the  Bibliot/ieii'ie,  dus  (renn  de  Coiir.  on  Me- 
langes curieiix  des  buns  moU  de.  Henri  I  V..  de  /yonix  XIV., 
etc.  (2  vols..  Paris,  1772,  and  8  vols.,  1746):  //Art  d'orner 
Vexprit  en  rnmusanl  (2  vols.,  Paris.  1748);  JCtprit  def  Con- 
versations nr/reables  (8  vols.,  Paris.  1781):  ,S(iil/iex  d'esprit 


(3  vols..  1732). 


Revised  bv  F.  SrVRdES  Al.I.EN. 


I'itciiirii  Islaiiil  :  i>larid  in  the  Pacific  Ocean;  in  lat. 
2.")  3  S.,  Ion.  180  t)  W.  .\iva.  1}  sq.  miles.  It  is  the  only 
place  on  the  route  from  South  America  to  Otaheite  in  which 
fresh  water  can  be  |irociired.  It  was  discovered  in  1767  and 
colonized  in  171)0  by  nine  mutineers  from  II.  JI.  S.  Hounty 
and  eighteen  Tahilians — six  men  and  twelve  women.  Af- 
ter successive  murilers  there  were  left  on  the  island  in  1800 
one  Knglishman  who  called  himself  .loliii  Adams,  together 
with  eight  or  nine  women  ami  several  children.  From  these 
the  jireseiit  inhabitants,  about  loO,  are  descended.  They 
c.'imc  under  Brilish  control  in  1839.  See  N'oRroLK  1sla.ni) 
and  T.  H.  Murray's  Pitcairn  Inland  (new  ed.  1885). 

I'itcll:  in  music,  the  degree  of  acuteness  or  gravity  of 
a  sound,  as  distinguished  from  its  other  qualities,  as  loud- 
ness, harshness,  or  smoothness,  etc.  The  fixing  of  some  in- 
variable stamlard  of  pitch,  whereby  any  given  note  of  the 
scale  shall  represent  a  sound  of  one  ami  the  same  degree  of 
acuteness  in  all  written  music,  has  been  an  object  of  inter- 
est and  inipi>rlaiice  from  the  first  rise  of  musical  science. 
It  is  iniiiroliable  that  in  early  times,  when  music  was  in 
its  rudest  state,  there  was  any  standard  corresponding  to 
what  we  now  call  eimeert-pileh  ;  for  though  the  ancient 
(ireeks  had  a  certain  faniiliaritv  with   the  relations  and  or- 


der of  intervals,  yet  the  very  imperfect  nature  of  their  in- 
struments seems  to  forbid  the  conclusion  that  the  adjust- 
ment of  such  instruments  to  a  strictly  .accurate  pitch  was 
an  object  of  much  practical  importance.  There  is  much 
room  for  conjecture  in  regard  to  the  mode  in  which  the 
pitch  of  the  scale  came  to  be  settled  by  common  con.sent  as 
it  stood,  for  instance,  in  the  fifleenlh  or  sixteenth  cenlurv. 
It  is  probable  that  the  organ-builders  of  that  period  con- 
tribuleil  as  much  to  the  settlement  of  the  question  of  pitch 
as  those  who  found  its  .solution  in  the  doctrine  of  vibrations. 
The  organ-builder  knew  that  an  open  pipe  about  2  feet  long 
and  of  moderate  diameter  would  give  the  sound  which  we 
now  call  •■  middle  C";  and  the  theorist  knew  1  hat  the  col- 
umn of  air  in  such  a  pipe  would  make  .512  vibrations  in  a 
second  of  lime:  but  in  all  such  cases  the  practi<'al  issue 
would  pro\e  of  more  immediate  consequence  than  the  theo- 
retical'; and  the  fixing  of  any  one  sound  by  a  jiipe  of  a  cer- 
tain length  would  be,  in  fad,'  the  fixing  of  the  whole  scale 
above  and  below,  whether  that  .sound  were  taken  as  tonic, 
dominant,  or  any  other  term  in  the  octave.  When  by  this 
or  any  other  means  a  standard  of  pitch  w'as  once  estab- 
lished, conformity  to  it  would  almost  necessarily  follow  in 
vocal  exercises  and  in  the  construction  and  InniMg  of  in- 
struments gi'iierally.  This  c<informity.  however,  has  never 
been  strictly  exact,  either  in  time  or  place.  From  the  sev- 
enteenth century  down  to  the  death  of  Beethoven  evidence 
shows  that  the  pitch  was  practically  the  same  in  various 
countries.  From  this  date,  however,  the  orchestivil  wind 
instruments  began  to  be  much  improved  in  construction, 
and  their  mannfactiirers  and  players  alike  discovered  that 
a  slightly  higher  [litch  much  enlumced  llie  quality  ami  brill- 
iancy of  the  instruments.  As  tlie  strings  were  oliliged  to 
tune  1o  the  wind  instruments,  a  gradual  rise  of  pitch  neces- 
sarily ensued,  affecting  voices  as  w'l'U  whenever  orchestral 
accompaniment  was  employed.  In  1878  it  was  stated  that 
the  ))ilch  at  the  Italian  opera  in  London  (not  the  jiitch  of 
Italy)  was  a  semitone  above  that  of  Beethoven's  day.  All 
attempts  to  better  this  state  of  things  in  Kngland  liave 
failed.  The  vocalist  singing  wit  h  orchestra  must  eit  her  have 
the  piece  trausp<i.sed  downward  or  tax  his  throat.  Infortu- 
nately  this  is  not  always  a  mere  tinestion  of  conqiass  or 
endurance,  but  of  a  changed  quality  as  compared  with  the 
composer's  design. 

In  18.58  the  French  (iovernment  appointed  a  joint  com- 
mission of  distinguished  musicians  and  physicists  to  exam- 
ine and  determine  tlie(|uestion.    ^--a — ^ Thev  reported  in 

Feb..  1850.  fixing  the  st  andard  A  [jg~3^  at  485  double  vi- 
brations per  second.  This  was  ™  confirmed  by 
law.  and  has  had  a  most  beneficial  musical  influence  in 
France  and  elsewhere.  In  the  U.  S.  more  or  less  discrep- 
ancy has  existed,  principally  through  the  desire  of  |)iaiio- 
manufacturers  to  retain  a  high  iiitch  for  the  sake  of  greater 
biilliancy.  The  orchestral  pitch  has  not  been  so  high  as  the 
English,  although  a  trifie  highi'r  than  the  French,  ll  was 
agreed,  however,  by  the  [irim-ipal  ]ilMno-maiiufacliiiers  in 
convention  at  New  Voik  that  the  tnide  should  adopt  the 
Fren<-h  standard  |)itch  (A  =  485  ilouble  vilirations  per  sec- 
ond) for  all  musical  instruments  manufactured  in  the 
U.S.,  and  that  the  change  be  accomplished  on  the  part 
of  all  manufacturers  by  July  1.  181)2.  In  view  of  the 
above  the  well-chosen  title  of  "  international  pitch "  was 
adopted  as  agreeing  with  that  of  France,  Italy,  and  (ier- 
many,  I*-  B. 

pitch:  SeeTAK. 

Pilchbli'iidf:  See  Ukaxi.mtk. 

Pitcher.  Tuomas  Gamule:  soldier;  b.  at  Kockport.  Ind.. 
Oct.  28,  1821 ;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  .Military  Aca<lemy.  and 
entered  the  army  as  brevet  .second  lieutenant  of  infantry 
Jidy.  1845;  served  with  his  company  in  Texas  throughout 
the'  Mexican  war.  receiving  brevet  of  first  lieutenant  at 
Contreras  and  Churubnsco ;  attained  a  captaincy  1858; 
served  on  the  frontier  till  1861  ;  was  severely  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  t'edar  Mountain,  Aug.  9,  1863:  was  appoinleil 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  Nov..  1,862.  and  on  recovery 
from  his  wound  serveil  as  assistant  provost-marshal-gencral. 
He  wius  ajipoinled  colonel  Forty-fourth  Infantry  in  ls66; 
transferred  to  First  Infantry  1870;  superintendent  U.  S. 
.Mililarv  Academv  1866-70;  governor  of  .Soldiers'  Home 
1870-78:  retired  'June,  1878:  superintendent  of  New  York 
State  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Home  1880-87.  I>.  at  Fort 
Bayard.  N.  M..  Oct.  21.  1895.  J-  M. 

Pitchcr-|>lailts:  plants  which  have  their  leaves,  or  some 
considerable  portion  of  the  leaf,  in  the  form  of  a  pitcher, 


630 


PITCHSTONE 


PITT 


urn,  trumpet-shaped  tube,  or  other  hollow  vessel  (technically 
called  an  ascidium)  capable  of  holding  water.  The  princi- 
pal kinds  belong  to  five  different  genera  of  plants  in  three 
tamilies,  which  have  no  near  relationship  or  resemblance 
except  in  the  pitchers.  All,  or  nearly  all,  are  insectivorous. 
One,  of  a  single  species,  peculiar  to  Southwestern  Australia, 
is  thought  to  belong  to  the  Saxifrage  family,  where  it 
stands  alone.  It  is  named  Cephalutus  fuUicularia.  The 
leaves  are  all  in  a  cluster  next  the  ground ;  some  are  flat 
and  of  ordinary  conformation ;  others  are  oval  pitchers, 
hanging  from  a,  short  stalk  near  the  top  on  one  side,  and 
fitted  with  a  lid,  which  neatly  covers 
the  mouth,  resting  at  first  upon  a  thick- 
ened and  crested  ring  which  surrounds 
and  strengthens  the  orifice,  but  open- 
ing on  its  hinge  as  soon  us  the  pitcher 
is  full  grown.  It  has  long  been  ob- 
served that  this  pitcher  secretes  a 
watery  fluid  and  entraps  many  insects. 
Little  more  is  yet  known  as  to  its  ac- 
tion, although  the  plant  has  long  been 
in  conservatories;  but  it  is  difficult  of 
cultivation.  The  other  pitcher-plants 
belong  to  two  families,  which  so  far 
as  known  contain  only  pitcher-hearing 
plants.  One  of  them,  Nepenthaceie, 
consists  of  numerous  species  of  one  ge- 
nus, chiefly  inhabiting  the  Indian  Archipelago ;  the  other, 
Sarraceniacece,  is  wholly  American,  mainly  North  Ameri- 
can, and  consists  of  three  genera — one,  of  a  single  species  in 
the  mountains  of  California;  another,  of  one  species,  in  the 
mountains  of  British  Guiana;  the  third,  of  several  species, 
confined  to  Atlantic  North  America.  This  is  Sarraceitia. 
The  pitchers  are  all  at  the  root,  and  appear  to  rise  from  the 
ground  in  a  cluster.  Instead  of  a  lid,  they  have  a  sort  of 
hood  at  the  top,  and  a  projecting  wing  runs  down  the  in- 
ner or  upper  sitle  from  top  to  bottom.  See  Insectivorous 
Plants  and  Nepenthes.  Hevised  by  Charles  E.  Bessey. 
Piti'hstoiie :  See  Obsidian. 

Pith  :  the  central,  usually  soft,  tissue  in  the  stems  of  di- 
cotyledonous plants.  When  the  stem  is  young  it  consists 
throughout  of  uniform  tissue,  in  which  fibro-vascular  bun- 
dles arise  by  a  differentiation  of  the  cells  in  certain  columns 
equidistant  from  the  center  («),     The  tissue  inside  of  the 


Cephalotus. 


d    --=—  c 

Cross-sections  of  dicotyledonous  stem-s. 

ring  of  bundles  is  the  pith,  and  it  is  evident  that  that  lying 
outside  of  the  ring,  the  primary  bark,  is  a  part  of  the  same 
tissue-mass.  As  the  bundles  become  larger  the  ))ith  and 
l)ark  become  more  widely  separated  (A),  and  here  the  con- 
necting radiating  portions  are  known  as  "  medullary  rays." 
In  woody  stems  the  fibro-vascular  bundles  crowd  so  closely 
against  one  another  that  the  connecting  medullary  rays  are 
very  thin,  now  known  as  the  "silver  grain"  of  wood  (c). 

The  pith  is  continuous  from  the  main  stem  into  all  its 
branches  and  brauchlets.  During  the  first  year  or  two  (rare- 
ly longer)  the  pith-cells  are  active,  and  are  used  for  the 
storage  of  starch  and  other  foodstuff;  after  this  they  die 
and  are  functionlcss.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Pitliom  [Egypt.  Pa-Tarn,  dwelling  of  Tum  or  Atum; 
Copt.  Puthom;  (ir.  naroujuos] :  the  Hebrew  name  of  one  of 
the  "  store-(fities "  of  Egypt,  built  bv  the  Israelites  (Ex.  i. 
11)  for  Hamses  IF.,  at  tlie  east  end  "of  the  Wadi  Tiunilat. 
just  VV.  of  the  Hue  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  at  the  present 
railwav  station,  Ramses.  The  site  was  discovered  liv  Naville 
in  18H;i  (Slore-citij  of  Pif/iom,  3d  ed.  1888,  first  Memoir  of 
the  Kgyptian  Exploration  Fund).  The  civil  name  of  the 
])lace  was  Thoku-t  (Succoth).  the  second  station  mentioned 
in  the  Kxodiis  itinerary.  The  discovery  was  particularlv 
important,  because  it  tended  to  fix  both  the  date  and  the 
route  of  the  Kxodiis.  The  general  View  is  that  the  Exodus 
occuircd  under  Meiieptah,  the  follower  of  Ramses  II.  Sec 
also  IlKiiocii'OLis.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 


Pitman,  Sir  Isaac  :  founder  of  the  Pitman  system  of 
shorthand;  b.  at  Trowbridge,  Wiltshire,  England,  Jan.  4, 
1818  ;  was  educated  in  the  normal  college  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  School  Society  at  London ;  was  appointed  master 
of  the  British  School  at  Barton-on-IIumber  1832 ;  established 
a  similar  school  at  Wotton-under-Edge  1836;  published 
Steiioi/riipliic  Shorthand  (1837)  and  Phonography,  or  Writ- 
ing of  Sound  (1840),  giving  the  principles  of  his  invention 
of  a  superior  method  of  shorthand  called  jihonography, 
since  so  widely  diffused  as  almost  to  have  extinguished  the 
earlier  systems;  removed  to  Bath,  where  he  conducted  a 
school  11^39-43;  devoted  himself  to  the  perfection  and  prop- 
agation of  phonography  and  its  complement  phonetics ; 
founded  in  1843  the  Phonetic  Society,  and  established  the 
Phonetic  Institute,  a  printing-office  from  which  he  has 
brought  out  for  many  years  T%e  Phonetic  Journal  (weekly, 
with  a  lithographed  Supplement);  issued  several  revised 
manuals  of  phonography  and  a  considerable  number  of 
standard  works  in  phonetic  printing.  His  most  complete 
professional  work  is  the  Phonographic  Reporter's  Companion 
(1853).  His  system  was  introduced  into  the  U.S.  by  S.  P. 
Andrews  and  A.  F.  Boyle  in  their  Complete  Phonographic 
Clasn-lioo/i  (1847),  soon  followed  by  many  similar  works.  He 
was  knighted  in  1894.  D.  Jan.  23,  1897.  See  Reed's  Piog- 
raphg  of  Isaac  Pitman  (1890). — His  brother,  Benn  Pitman, 
b.  at  Trowbridge,  July  23,  1832,  lectured  on  phonography 
in  Great  Britain  1843-52,  and  aided  his  brother  in  compil- 
ing text-books ;  removed  to  the  U.  S.,  settling  at  Cincinnati, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  phonography ;  publisheil  a 
Jlanual  of  Ptioiaigrrtphtj  (New  York,  1855):  reported  the 
treason  trials  at  Indianapolis  (1865)  and  the  trial  of  the 
assassins  of  President  Lincoln  (New  York,  1865).  In  1873 
he  abandoned  reporting  and  became  connected  with  the 
school  of  design,  now  the  art  academy  of  the  University  of 
(Uncinnati,  as  lecturer  and  teacher.  With  Jerome  B.  How- 
ard he  published  The  Phojiographic  Dictionary  (1883).  His 
present  system  differs  slightly  from  that  of  Ills  brother. 

Pito :  See  Chica. 

Pitoii  Biirli  :  See  Caribbee  Bark. 

Pitra,  pe'e'traa',  Jean  Baptiste:  ecclesiastic  .and  author; 
b.  at  Champforgeuil,  Saone-et-Loire,  Prance,  Aug.  31,  1812; 
took  holy  orders ;  became  a  member  of  the  Benedictine  con- 
gregation of  Solesines:  published  SpicilegiMn  Sotesmense 
(5  vols.,  Paris.  1853-60);  was  commissioned  in  1858  by  Pius 
IX.  to  write  a  history  of  Oriental  rites  and  canon  law,  of 
which  the  first  volume  appeared  in  1864,  second  in  1868,  un- 
der the  title  of  Juris  Ecclesiastici  Grcecorum  Ilistoria  et 
Jfonumenta.  He  became  a  cardinal  Mar.  16, 1863  ;  librarian 
of  the  Yatican  in  1869,  and  eanlinal-bishop  of  Frascati  1879. 
I).  Feb.  3,  1889. 

Pit  River  Indians:  See  Palaiunihan  Indians. 

Pitt,  William  :  See  Chatham,  Earl  of. 

Pitt,  ^VlLLIAM.  generally  called  the  Younger  Pitt  :  states- 
man :  second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham  ;  b.  at  Hayes,  near 
Bromley,  Kent,  England,  May  28.  1759;  being  of  delicate 
constitution,  he  was  educated  by  private  tutor  until  he  en- 
tered the  University  of  Cambridge,  in  1773;  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1780.  He  was  elected  M.  P.  f(.ir  the  pocket  bor- 
ough of  Apiileby  in  Jan.,  1781,  and  allied  himself  to  the  op- 
position ])arty  under  the  leadership  of  Shclburne,  and  by 
brilliant  speech  at  once  won  a  position  as  a  leader.  Al- 
though he  opposed  the  ministry  on  many  occasions  and  de- 
nounced the  war  with  the  American  colonies,  he  did  not 
unreservedly  ally  himself  to  the  opposition.  He  refused 
office  under' the  Whig  ministry  of  Rockingham,  and  at  this 
time  began  the  only  partially  successful  advocacy  of  parlia- 
mentary reform  which  marked  his  political  career.  On  the 
deatli  of  Rockingham  he  was  given  the  great  place  of  Chan- 
cellor of  the  E.Kcheriuer  by  Shclburne,  who  was  made  First 
Lord  of  the  Treasury,  in  July,  1782.  In  1783  Pitt  resigned 
office  with  Shellnirne,  who  was  driven  from  power  by  the 
coalition  of  North  (who  had  been  leader  of  the  Tories)  with 
Rockingham  and  Fox,  who  had  been  Whig  leaders.  In  the 
next  session  a  cabinet  was  formed  by  North  and  Fox,  who 
were  made  Secretaries  of  State  with  ostensibly  equal  power, 
and  peace  was  made  with  the  American  colonies  on  terms 
practically  the  same  as  those  of  the  treaty  the  negotiation 
of  which  had  contributed  to  the  downfall  of  the  Shelburne 
ministry ;  but  Fox's  bill  for  transferring  the  government  of 
India  from  the  East  Indian  Company  to  seven  commissioners 
was  defeated,  and  the  coalition  cabinet  compelled  to  retire. 
Pitt,  ill  llec,  1783,  was  called  upon  to  form  a  new  cabinet,  be- 


PITTA 


PITTSBURG 


G31 


ill"-  iiiaile  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  CliaiK-ellor  of  the 
Kxi;he(iuur,  aii<l  Uexby  Duxdas  (ry.  v.)  became  his  chief  coun- 
selor and  adviser.  Although  Pitt  had  a  good  majority  in 
the  House  of  Ijonl.s,  in  the  Commons  he  was  opposed  liy 
praeti(-ally  all  the  great  parliaiiieulary  d<'liatcrs  of  his  day, 
iiu-luding  Fox,  Hurke,  North,  and  Sheridan.  Although  met 
with  repeated  adverse  votes  in  the  t_'ommons  he  refused  to 
resign  or  dissolve  Parliament  until,  in  1784.  he  had  succeeded 
in  obtaining  a  majority,  and  then  dissolved  Parliament.  At 
the  general  election  he  obtained  a  large  majority  and  was 
establishe<l  in  the  position  of  leader  of  the  ministry,  which 
he  mainlaineii  for  fourteen  years.  His  administration  was 
marked  by  parliamentary  reforms,  the  establishment  of  the 
right  of  Parliament  to  provide  for  the  exi'rcise  of  suiireme 
power  during  the  incapacity  of  the  king,  the  imtting  down 
of  direct  parliamentary  corruption,  and  the  abolition  of 
many  sinecures;  reform  in  the  system  of  collecting  reven- 
ues liiid  making  loans,  the  reorganization  of  tin'  Indian  gov- 
<'rniiient  upon  the  basis  which  continued  until  the  aliolitioii 
of  the  Kast  Indian  Comi)any  in  lS.-)8,  the  revision  of  tlie  sys- 
tem of  trade  duties,  and  the  making  of  an  enlightened  coiii- 
meriual  treaty  with  France.  He  remained  strictly  neutral 
with  regard  to  the  opposing  parties  in  tlii'  French  Revolu- 
tion, but  in  response  to  the  pressure  of  public  opinion  he 
ileclared  a  war  against  the  French  .Jacobins,  which  was 
weakly  and  unskillfully  conducted,  and  marked  by  many 
disasters.  His  lack  of  success  in  this  war.  and  the  severity 
of  his  suppressive  measures  for  putting  down  .lacobinism  at 
home,  weakened  his  [losition,  and  in  Jlar.,  ISOI,  on  the  fail- 
ure to  carry  out  his  plan  for  uniting  Fnglaud  and  Ireland 
and  removing  the  disalulities  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  he  re- 
signed ollice.  A  new  ministry  was  formed  which  concluded 
the  Peace  of  Amiens  in  Jlay.lSOl,  but  in  1804  the  ministry 
was  defeated  and  Pitt  was  recalled.  He  formed  a  new  min- 
istry, made  up,  with  the  exception  of  Henry  Duiidas,  of  men 
of  inferifir  talents,  the  king  refusing  to  allow  Fox  to  be 
summoned  and  Fox"s  friends  refusing  to  accept  positions 
without  him.  In  1805  he  was  driven  from  ollice  and,  em- 
bittered by  England's  reverses,  he  died  at  Putney,  Jan.  23, 
180(i.         "  F.  Sturoks  Allen. 

Pitta :  a  generic  name,  adopted  as  a  common  name  for 
any  bird  of  the  family  Pittid.e  {q.  v.). 

Pit'tacus  (in  Gr.  nlrTOKos):  one  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men 
of  Greece ;  b.  at  Mytileiie  in  Lesbos  6.52  B.  c. ;  .hs  a  leader  of 
the  democratic  party  participated  very  actively  in  all  the 
feuds  and  emljroilments  of  his  native  city,  and  in  589  B.  c. 
was  chosen  ifsi/mui'tit.s  (ruler  with  absolute  power),  which 
olTice  he  filled  to  570  b.  c.  1).  569  B.  c.  Of  his  acts  as  a  ruler 
nothing  is  known;  of  his  elegiac  poems  Diogenes  Laertius 
has  preserved  a  few  lines.     Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pit'tida>  I  Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Pitta,  the  tyjiical  ge- 
nus, from  (ir.  irfrra.  pitcli] :  a  family  of  passerine  birds  popu- 
larly knoHu  under  the  name  ant-thrushes.  'I'liey  are  larger 
than  the  thrush,  with  a  large  head.  ]ihimp  body,  short,  even 
tail.  and.  for  a  passerine  bird,  remarkably  long  legs.  They 
are  strikingly  or  showily  (!Olored  with  black,  white,  red,  and 
peculiar  metallic  blues.  They  are  inhabitants  of  India  and 
the  contiguous  regions,  as  well  as  Western  Africa,  Australia, 
and  M.adagascar,  where  alone  the  species  of  y-'/i(7o/;(//f(  are 
found.  Tlie  family  embraces  only  two  genera — i.  e.  Pitta 
and  Pliiiii/iilld.  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Pittos'ponim  Family:  the  J'ittofipiiracea> ;  dicotyled- 
onous shrubs  and  trees,  with  alternate  leaves;  flowers  per- 
fect, dichlamyileous;  sepals  anil  jietals  live  each,  free  or 
coherent;  stamens  five,  free;  superior  ovary,  mostly  bicar- 
jiellary,  one-celled,  many-ovuled.  About  ninety  species  are 
known,  all  natives  of  the  region  8.  of  the  Erjuator  (ex- 
<tliisive  of  .South  America).  The  largest  genus,  Piltuspnrum. 
is  represented  by  many  shrubby  species  which  are  coniinonly 
grown  in  conscrvatorii's,  notably  /'.  toltira,  I',  ririilitlnnim. 
I',  fiu/mioifleit,  etc.  Species  of  Sotlijn,  liillartUrra,  and 
Mttniintltu.i,  all  natives  of  Australia,  are  grown,  also,  in  con- 
.sirvatories.  Charles  K.  Ressev. 

Pitlshnry:  city;  Crawford  co.,  Kan. :  on  the  Alch..  Top. 
and  S.  Fe.  the  Kan.  City.  Ft.  Scott  and  Mem.,  the  Kan.  City. 
Pitts,  and  (iiilf.  the  Mo.  Pac.  and  the  St.  L.  and  San  Fran, 
railways;  10  miles  .S.  E.  of  Girard.  the  county-.seat  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Kansas,  ref.  7-K).  It  is  in  a  coal-mining 
region,  and  (contains  zinc-works,  a  public  high  school,  ;i  na- 
tional banks  with  combiiieil  capital  of  .^1250,000, a  State  bank 
with  capital  of  ^IK.dlMI.  and  2  rljiilv  ami  5  weeklv  newspa- 
pers.    P,,p.  ^188U)  ti24;  (18'J0)  6.6U7;  (1895)  8,982.' 


Pittslmrg,  or  Pittsburgh  (Pittsburg  is  the  spelling 
adopted  by  the  U.  S.  postal  authorities;  Pittstnirgh  is  that 
of  the  municipal  authorities):  city;  capital  of  Allegheny 
CO..  Pa.;  at  the  coiiHuence  of  the  .Mlegliany  and  Mononga- 
liela  rivers,  which  here  form  the  Ohio  river;  on  eight  main 
and  .several  branch  lines  of  railway;  148  miles  S.  of  Erie, 
;i54  miles  \V.  by  X.  of  Philadelphia  (for  location,  see  map  of 
Pennsylvania,  ref.  5-A).  It  is  698  feet  above  tide-level  at 
Philacielphia.  is  picturesipie  in  its  location  and  surroundings, 
has  a  length  of  8  miles  and  an  extreme  width  of  5  miles, 
and  has  an  area  of  27?  sij.  miles.  It  is  the  second  city  in 
the  State  in  po]mlalion.  manufaclures,  and  wealth.  The 
town  originally  occupied  a  very  limited  plateau  betw'een  the 
Alleghany  and  Miuiongahela  rivers,  and  was  closely  envi- 
roned by  lofty  hills.  As  the  city  enlarged  its  borders  these 
hills  were  at  first  either  cut  down  or  greatly  reduced,  but 
afterward  tliey  were  left  undi.sturbed  as  to  size,  and  the  city 
now  spreads  for  miles  over  the  hilltops,  llerron  Hill,  535  feet 
above  the  city  datum  line,  being  the  highest,  and  Highland 
.\  venue,  372  feet,  beingone  of  the  most  beautifully  improved 
portions  of  the  city.  There  are  405  miles  of  st reel .s.  of  which 
175  miles  are  paved  and  105  miles  sewered,  and  they  are 
lighted  by  l.tiOO  arc-lights  of  200-candle  power,  and  by  over 
2,400  gasoline  and  1.50  incandescent  lam|i.s.  The  city  is 
connected  with  Alleglieny  and  oilier  suburbs  by  seventeen 
bridges,  twelve  for  general  tratlic  and  five  for  railways.  The 
principal  lines  of  railways  centering  in  Pittsburg  are  the 
Pennsylvania  system,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, and  theVan- 
derbilt  system.  The  Alleghany.  Monougahela.  and  Ohio  riv- 
ers form  a  waterway  for  an  enormous  freight  and  jiassenger 
traffic,  extending  100  miles  N.  by  the  Alleghany.  100  miles 
S.  into  West  Virginia  by  the  Jlonongahela,  and  Ijv  way  of 
the  Ohio  river  S.  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  W.  to  the  foot  of  the 
Rocky  Jlountains.  and  X.  to  the  Canadian  liorder.  During 
1892  the  river  tonnage  of  freight  originating  in  Pittsburg 
was  4.804,855  tons;  railway  tonnage.  37.999.392  tons — a  total 
of  42.804.247  tons,  which  Wiis  larger  than  that  of  any  other 
city  in  the  L^  S.,  and  was  claimed  to  be  the  largest  in  the 
world.  Navigation  on  the  three  rivers  has  been  greatly  fa- 
cilitated by  the  construction  of  dams  principally  on  the  mov- 
able ]ilan.  The  greatest  achievement  in  the  way  of  river  im- 
provement is  the  Davis  island  dam,  5  miles  below  the  city, 
on  the  Ohio  river;  this  is  the  first  of  a  series  of  movable 
dams  for  the  permanent  improvement  of  the  river.  The 
lock  is  600  feet  long  and  110  feet  wide;  length  of  dam  and 
width  of  lock,  1,333  feet.  The  dam  creates  a  lake  or  pool  of 
navigable  water  8  miles  long,  throwing  around  Pittsburg  a 
fine  harlior  unaflfeeted  by  drought  or  low  water  in  the  rivers. 
Over  .seven  years  were  spent  in  its  construction.  During 
periods  of  liigh  water  no  dam  or  ob.st ruction  of  any  kind 
apjjcars  in  the  river,  but  as  soon  as  the  water  begins  to  re- 
cede the  wickets  are  raised  and  a  uniform  depth  of  water  is 
jiresei-ved.     The  cost  was  about  ^1.000.000. 

Pittsburg  is  the  center  of  the  greatest  natural-gas  field 
in  the  U.  S.  It  is  estimated  that  !3;3O,OOO,OO0  are  invested 
in  the  production  and  distribution  of  this  smokeless  fuel  for 
domestic  purposes  and  light  manufacturing.  The  city  is 
also  the  center  of  the  petroleum-producing  territory.  Within 
a  radius  of  30  miles  the  |)roduction  averages  40,000  barrels 
dailv.  three-fifths  of  the  output  of  the  U.  S.  The  total  an- 
nual value  is  ?;10.()00.0()0. 

Tlie  bituminous  coal-field  by  which  Pittsburg  is  surround- 
ed is  estimated  at  10.000  s(|.  miles  in  extent ;  126  mines  are 
operated,  all  owned  by  Pittsliurg  firms,  emiiloying  15.000 
persons,  whose  wages  reach  about  S6..500.0()0  |ier  annum. 
The  production  in'  1890  was  10.0.85,085  tons.  The  output 
of  coke  in  the  Piltsburg  region  in  1892  from  17.327  ovens 
aggregated  6.:i00.69t  tons;  value,  .'j;!  1.971.232.  The  region 
contains  a  total  area  of  87.776  acres.  11,219  of  which  have 
been  mined  and  683  reserved  for  buildings.  AH  the  plants 
are  owned  ami  operated  by  Pittsburg  firms,  and  the  output 
was  65  per  cent,  of  all  coke  made  in  the  V .  S. 

Pittsburg  prodnceil  in  1892  one-fifth  of  the  entire  amount 
of  iron  and  steel  manufactured  iutlieU.  .S.  The  26  blast 
furnaces  and  62  rolling-mills  in  the  territory  produced 
1,775.257  Ions  of  pig-iron.  55,722  tons  of  crucible  steel  in- 
got.s.  1.5.50.2.52  tons  of  all  other  kinds  of  steel.  1.188,727 
tons  of  rails,  bars,  bolts,  rods,  shapes,  and  skelp-iron,  and 
248.3()9  tons  of  sheets  and  plates.  More  than  half  of  the 
Ressemer  steel,  rolled  iron  and  steel,  rails,  and  plates  and 
sheets  made  in  the  IT.  S.  is  manufactured  here,  making  a 
total  product  of  steel  and  iron  of  4.818.327  tons.  The  sev- 
eral plants  of  a  great  corporation,  capitalized  at  .'i:25.O0O.O0O, 
prorluceil  in  one  inonth  100,000  tons  of  pig-iron  from  spiegel 


632 


PITTSBURG 


PITTSTON 


ami  feiTO-manganese  ores.  100,000  of  coke,  and  50,000  of 
limestone.  In  addition  tliere  was  made  and  siiipped  a  fin- 
ished product  of  over  100,000  tons,  consisting  of  open-hearth 
and  Bessemer  steel  blooms,  billets,  slabs,  plates  for  boilers, 
bridges,  tanks,  and  various  structural  shapes.  Bessemer  steel 
rails  from  16  to  85  lb.  per  yard,  car-forgings,  and  wire  nails. 
The  capacity  of  one  plant  for  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails 
exceeds  16  miles  of  single  track  per  day.  Pittsburg  is  the 
leading  plate-glass  center  of  the  world,  having  within  a 
radius  of  40  miles  seven  immense  factories,  with  a  yearly 
capacity  of  1.3..500,000  sq.  feet.  These  factories  represent  a 
direct  investment  of  more  than  .$10,000,000,  and  give  em- 
ployment to  .5,000  people,  and  indirectly  to  many  more  in 
the  immediate  vicinity.  Twenty-tliree  firms  are  engaged 
in  the  maiuifacture  of  flint  and  lime  glass.  The  annual 
production  of  tableware  alone  is  about  24.000  tons;  of  bot- 
tles upward  of  60.000.000;  of  lamp-chimneys  U(iward  of 
40,000,000;  and  one  firm  alone  has  produced  18,552,000  tum- 
blers in  a  vear.  The  product  of  window  glass  in  18'J3  was 
1,414,000  boxes,  equal  to  70,720,000  feet,  or  about  35  per 
cent,  of  the  total  product  of  the  U.  S. 

The  locomotive-works  turned  out  231  standard  and  nar- 
row gauge  engines  during  1893.  ranging  in  weight  from  5 
to  65  tons;  capacity  of  the  works.  400  locomotives  per  an- 
num; capital  invested.  S.55 1.000;  persons  employed,  1,025; 
wages  paid,  §558.000.  Other  industries  include  the  manu- 
facture of  artistic  brass  goods,  fire-brick,  salt,  stoves,  build- 
ing-brick, chemicals,  white  lead,  and  paper.  There  are 
23  large  wholesale  grocery  houses  in  the  city  whose  opera- 
tions exceed  $25,000,000  a  year;  6  houses  engaged  in  the 
drv-gooils  and  carpet  trade  whose  yearly  sales  approximate 
$iri.(Kii).Oili):  and  4  clothing  houses  whose  annual  sales  ex- 
ceed $4,600,000. 

Conspicuous  among  the  public  buildings  of  the  city  are  the 
county  buildings,  cost  .f 2,500,000;  Carnegie  Library,  at  the 
entrance  to  Schenley  Park,  cost  .?1, 100,000 :  U.  S.  "custom- 
house and  post-office,  cost  |1,.500,000;  and  the  exposition 
structure  on  the  site  of  Fort  Duquesne,  notable  for  its  un- 
usual size  and  beauty.  The  city  contains  187  churches, 
with  a  membership  of  105,757,  of  which  147,  with  48,841 
members,  are  Protestant,  and  40,  with  .56,916  members,  are 
Roman  Catholic.  The  Protestant  Church  property  is  valued 
at  15,539,950,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  at  |;1,373,"000.  The 
latter  Church  maintains  14  religious  houses.  In  1894  there 
were  68  public-school  buildings,  which  cost  §3,917.000,  in- 
cluding a  new  High  School  building,  which  cost  §250,000  ; 
36,000  pupils,  and  727  teachers.  The  High  School  building 
is  used  exclusively  for  normal  and  commercial  classes. 
Among  the  charitable  institutions  are  seven  hospitals:  the 
Western  Pennsylvania,  the  Homoeopathic,  the  Mercy,  the 
Pittsburg  Infirmary,  the  Home  for  Incuraljles.  and  St. 
Francis's  and  .St.  Jlary's  hospitals.  There  are  two  public 
parks:  Schenley,  the  gift  of  Mrs.  Schenley,  of  England, 
formerly  of  Pittsburg,  a  tract  of  500  acres  endowed  by  na- 
ture with  rare  beauty,  and  Highland,  a  tract  of  aliout  150 
acres,  which  connects  the  Fast  End  with  the  Highland  res- 
ervoir. The  city  in  July.  1894.  contained  30  national  banks 
with  a  combined  capital  and  surplus  of  §20.841,625,  and  24 
State  banks  with  capital  and  surplus  of  §7,589,241.  There 
were  50  newspapers  of  all  kinds,  of  which  9  were  dailies, 
and  the  remainder  weekly,  religious,  and  social  papers. 

The  territory  occupied  by  the  city  of  Pittsliurg  and  Al- 
legheny County  was  originally  claimed  by  the  French,  on 
the  grounds  of  discovery  and  explorations  by  La  Salle  in 
1669.  Traders  and  Indians  followed  soon  after  and  made  a 
lodgment  in  what  promised  to  be  a  valuable  ac(iuisition  of 
territfiry.  The  French  resolved  to  expel  the  traders,  and 
sent  ('apt.  Celeron  de  Bienville  with  a  company  of  soldiers 
and  Indians  in  1749  to  taki^  military  possession  of  the  land, 
claimeil  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Wabash  river.  ()n  Nov. 
23,  1753,  George  Washington  arrived,  under  onU^rs  from  Gov. 
I)inwid<iie  of  Virginia,  to  establish  a  fort  at  the  junction  of 
the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela  rivers.  While  the  erection 
of  this  work  was  in  progress  the  French,  led  by  Gen.  Contre- 
C(«ur  witli  a  large  force  of  soldiers  and  Imlians",  fell  upon  t  he 
little  band  uniler  command  of  Ensign  Ward  and  compelled 
it  to  surrender.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  French  war. 
The  expulsion  of  the  traders  was  followed  by  the  erection 
of  Fort  Dnqiiesne,  named  in  honor  of  the  governor  of  Can- 
ada, The  English  (iovernment  determined  to  regain  the 
territory,  and  to  this  end  sent  Gen.  Braddock  with  a  large 
force  of  Knglish  and  Virginian  troops  to  drive  out  the 
French.  The  expedition  met  with  a  disastrous  defeat  in 
the  famous  battle  of  liraddock's  Fields,  .luly  9,  1755.  at  the 


hands  of  the  French  and  Indians.  Fort  Duquesne  was 
abandoned  and  burned  Nov.  24. 1758.  Gen.  Forbes  at  once 
took  possession,  rebuilt  the  fort,  and  named  it  Fort  Pitt  in 
honor  of  the  great  English  statesman.  Pop.  (1880)  156,389 ; 
(1890)  238,617.  Geokge  H.  Anderson. 

Pittsbiirar  Landing:  See  Shiloh. 

Pittsfleld  :  city  (site  granted  to  Boston  in  1735,  known 
as  Boston  Plantation  till  its  incorporation  as  a  village  under 
its  present  name  in  1761,  chartered  as  a  city  in  1890) ;  coun- 
ty-seat of  Berkshire  CO.,  Mass.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, ref.  2-C) ;  between  two  branches  of  the  Housa- 
tonic  river ;  on  the  Boston  and  Albany,  and  the  Berkshire 
division  of  the  N.  V.,  X.  H.  and  Hart,  railways ;  50  miles 
E.  S.  E.  of  Allmny.  X.  Y..  53  nules  W.  X.  W.  of  Springfield. 
It  is  on  a  plateau  nearly  1,200  feet  above  sea-level,  in  a 
beautiful  valley  between  the  Hoosac  Mountains  on  the  E. 
and  the  Taconic  ^Mountains  on  the  W.,  through  which  flow 
the  Hoosac  and  Housatonic  rivers,  and  is  partly  surrounded 
by  hills  some  600  feet  higher  than  the  plateau.  There  are 
several  lakes  which  discharge  into  the  Housatonic  river,  from 
one  of  which,  Ashley,  is  derived  the  supply  of  water  for  do- 
mestic purposes.  The  lakes  and  branches  of  the  river  aiford 
fine  power  for  manufacturing.  The  city  has  gas  and  electric 
light  plants.  3  public  parks,  county  court-house  of  white 
marble  that  cost  nearly  §400,000,  Alhena-um  building  that 
cost  §100,000  and  contains  an  art  gallery,  a  museum,  and  a 
free  library;  Hospital  of  the  House  of  Mercy,  Old  Woman's 
Home,  Training-school  for  Xurces,  3  national  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  .^82.5^,000,  2  savings-banks  with  deposits 
of  §3,212,619  :  and  2  daily  and  5  weekly  periodicals.  There 
are  11  churches,  34  public-school  buildings,  public-school 
property  valued  at  over  .§215,000,  and  15  cotton  and  woolen 
mills,  3  shoe-factories,  2  machine-shops,  a  paper-mill,  and 
other  industrial  works.  The  Berkshire  Agricultural  Society 
(1810)  has  large  exhibition-grounds.  Pop.  (1880)  13,364; 
(1890)  17,281 ;  (1895)  20,461,  Editor  of  '•Journal," 

Pittston:  city;  Luzerne  co.,  Pa.;  on  the  Susquehanna 
river,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Lackawanna,  and  the  Del., 
Lack,  and  West.,  the  Del.  and  Hudson,  the  Lehigh  Valley, 
the  Cent,  of  X.  J.,  the  Erie  and  Wyo.  Valley,  and  the  Wilkes- 
barre  and  East,  railways ;  8  miles  X.  E.  of  Wilkesbarre,  the 
county-seat,  and  10  miles  S.  E.  of  Scranton  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  3-H).  It  is  the  geographical  cen- 
ter of  the  Wyoming  anthracite  coal-field,  which  is  about  50 
miles  long  and  5  miles  wide,  and  is  in  an  almost  continuous 
chain  of  cities  and  villages  containing  a  population  of  270,- 
000  in  1890  and  about  325,000  in  1894.  The  city  is  li  miles 
long,  with  an  average  width  of  half  a  mile.  It  is  connected 
by  a  belt-line  electi'ic  railway,  running  on  both  sides  of  the 
Susquehanna,  with  Williesbarre,  Xanticoke,  and  Plymouth, 
and  by  four  bridges  across  the  river  with  the  boroughs  of 
West  Pittston  and  Exeter,  and,  including  the  boroughs  of 
West  Pittston,  Kxeter,  and  Hughestown,  and  other  contigu- 
ous territory,  is  the  trade,  postal,  telegraph,  and  express 
center  of  a  region  which  contains  a  population  of  more  than 
30,000  witliin  a  radius  of  3  miles.  Pittston  is  lighted  by  gas 
and  electricity,  and  has  a  well-equipped  volunteer  fire  de- 
partment. Tliere  are  English,  German,  Slavonian  and  Polish 
Roman  Catholic,  English  and  Welsh  Baptist,  Presbyterian, 
Methcxlist  Eiiisropal,  Methodist  Protestant,  Protestant  Epis- 
copal, Congregational,  and  Lutheran  churches,  a  high  school, 
5  other  public  schools,  public-school  property  valued  at  over 
§80,000,  a  hospital  erected  in  1893,  a  national  bank  (First) 
with  capital  of  §250,000,  3  savings-banks  (]\liners'  and  Peo- 
ple's) with  capital  of  §60,000  and  §75,000  respectively,  and 
a  daily,  a  weekly,  and  a  monthly  periodical.  Manufacturing 
is  promoted  by  cheap  fuel,  superior  railway  facilities,  and 
natural  advantages.  The  establishments  include  3  machine- 
shops.  3  planing-mills.  3  breweries,  2  knitting-mills,  2  pork- 
packing  lionses,  stove-works,  ladies'  underwear  factory,  steam 
flour-mills,  paper-mill,  terra-cotta  works,  steel-range  works, 
pressed-brick  works,  and  dve-works.  In  1894  the  city  had 
an  assessed  valuation  of  §7.^0,000  and  a  debt  of  §32,000,  and 
was  about  to  increase  the  debt  to  the  constitutional  limit  to 
aid  local  improvements.  Pittston  was  named  after  William 
Pitt ;  was  formerly  a  part  of  Pittston  township,  which  was 
laid  out  in  176cS  ;  was  settled  about  1770 ;  became  a  post-office 
station  under  the  name  of  Pittston  Ferry  in  1811;  was  in- 
corporated as  a  borough  in  1853,  and  as  a  city  of  the  third 
cla.ss  in  1894.  Pop.  (1880)  7,472  ;  (1890)  13,302.-^West  Pitts- 
ton, on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  is  largely  a  village 
of  homes;  has  5  Protestant  churches  and  high  school:  in 
1894  had  an  assessed   valuation  of  §581,774.  public-school 


i 


PITUITARY    BODV 


PIZARRO 


633 


iiropcrty  valued  at  iffiii.OOO.  ami  a  dclit  of  ^lO.OOO,  about  to 
lie  increased  to  constitutional  limit  for  local  improvements. 
The  Luzerne  County  fair-grounds  are  immediately  S.  of  the 
borough  line.     Pop.'  (l.s«0)  2,544  ;  (IHSIO)  3,1>0(>. 

TuEo.  Hart,  kditok  ok  "  Evexi.no  Gazette." 

I'itii'itary  IJody:  See  llvpoi-iivsis. 

Piu'ra:  a  maritime  department  in  the  extreme  north- 
western part  of  Peru,  bordering  on  Kcuador.  Area,  27,201 
sq.  miles.  The  western  or  c<iast  region  consists  maiidy  of 
deserts,  which,  however,  afford  a  scanty  pasturage  at  certain 
seasons;  they  are  varied  by  rocky  hills  and  headlands,  anil 
are  divided  by  the  fertile  valley  of  the  river  C'hira.  The 
eastern  part  lies  in  the  Conlillera,  which  here  is  of  no  great 
height,  and  is  interspersed  with  valleys  of  tropical  luxuri- 
ance. Grazing  and  cotton-growing  are  the  jirincipal  rural 
industries  ;  coal-beds  exist ;  silver  an<l  to  some  extent  gold 
are  mined  :  a  rich  petroleum  basin  has  been  discovered, 
and  several  borings  have  been  mailo.  Pop.,  bv  census  of 
\h:6.  \r,r,,rm:  in  1804,  nearlv  200,(100,  Piura.'the  capital 
and  largest  town  (pop.  ISSO,  .S.OOO),  lies  on  the  river  Piura 
in  a  fertile  valley  (see  nuip  of  South  .Vmerica,  ref.  4-B).  It 
is  connected  by  rail  with  its  port  of  Paita.  H.  H.  S. 

Pi'us  [Lat..  liter.,  pious,  religious,  dutiful] :  the  name  of 
nine  popes.  Pn"s  I.,  about  t  he  middle  of  the  second  century, 
of  whom  very  little  is  accurately  known. —  Pius  II.  (^J^nea 
Sylvia  PirroUiiiini),  14oT-(i4  :  a  native  of  Siena ;  humanist ; 
secretary  to  the  Council  of  Basel,  friend  and  counselor  of 
Frederick  III.;  brought  about  the  Concordats  "of  the 
princes"  (1446)  and  of  .\schatlenburg  (1448):  made  Bishop 
of  Trent  and  afterward  of  Siena :  proclaimed  cardinal  (1406) 
by  Calixlus  III.,  and  succeeded  the  latter  as  pope  (1457). 
The  great  object  of  his  pontilicato  was  a  crusade  against 
the  Turks,  but  it  proved  abortive.  As  pope  he  rejected 
several  principles  and  utterances  of  his  earlier  life,  and 
labored  hard  to  restore  the  Roman  see  to  its  ancient  glory. 
As  a  writer  he  is  known  by  his  letters,  his  Histnnj  of  Fred- 
erick III.,  his  Di-arripliim  of  frermd/ii/,  and  Commmfaries 
on  events  of  his  own  time, — Pus  III.  (1503),  a  ne[jhew  of 
Pius  II.,  reigned  only  twenty-six  days. — Pius  IV.  (Giovnnni 
Anyi'ln  de  Muliri),  1550-65;  reopened  the  sessions  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  issued  the  profession  of  faith  actually 
taken  by  all  who  hold  any  ecclesiastical  ollice,  either  in  the 
pa.storal  care  or  in  seminaries  and  universities ;  conceded,  by 
request  of  civil  authorities,  communion  under  both  species 
to  the  laity  of  the  German  states  ;  this  was  afterward  with- 
drawn.— Pius  V.  (Michele  Ghisliiri).  1566-72;  published 
(1566)  the  liaman  CalerhiHin,  and  laler  on  corrected  editions 
of  the  Breviary  and  Missal;  was  very  active  against  the 
spread  of  Protestantism;  excommunicated  Queen  Elizabeth; 
and  contributed  much  to  the  viiftory  of  Lepanto  (1571).  He 
died  in  the  odor  of  sanctity,  and  was  canonized  by  Clement 
XI.  (1712). — Pius  VI.  {(riovaiini  Angelo  de'  Braschi),  1775- 
99;  improved  the  administration  of  the  papal  state ;  dried 
the  Pontine  marshes  ;  built  the  MuseoClemcntino-Pio  ;  visit- 
ed Vienna  1782  :  condemned  (1704)  eighty-five  propositions 
of  the  Synod  of  Pistoja  (1786)  as  contrary  to  Catholic  faith 
and  discipline;  rejected  the  principles  and  acts  of  the  Con- 
gress of  Ems  in  his  lieph/  to  the.  Jlc/ropoli/riiix  of  JIayence, 
Treves,  Cologne,  and  Salzburg,  on  the  Apostolic  Nunciatures 
(1780);  refused  to  sanction  the  civil  constitution  of  the 
French  clergv;  lost  Avignon  and  the  Venaissin  to  France 
(1790),  and  (17'96-07)  the  northern  part  of  the  papal  state  to 
the  new  Cisalpine  K<'public,  with  a  heavy  indemnity  in  money, 
manuscripts,  and  art-works:  signeil  the  Treaty  of  Tolentino 
(1797),  by  which  the  dismemberment  of  his  state  was  con- 
firmed; anil  was  carried  off  to  France  in  Feb.,  1798,  by  Gen. 
Berthier.  He  died,  aged  eighty-one,  at  Valence,  Aug.  29. 1 799, 
after  sulTering  much  cruelty  and  persecution  from  Napo- 
leon.— Pius  \'\l.  (firi'r/nrio  Baniiilm  Chiarnmonti),  1800-23: 
a  relative  of  Pius  \'l.  ;  <dcctcd  at  Venice  ;  signed  I  he  concor- 
dat of  1801  with  Napoleon,  by  which  the  French  Church 
was  divided  anew  into  ten  metropolitan  and  fifty  .sutTragan 
sees;  the  resignation  of  the  actual  bishops  requested;  the 
presentations  of  the  new  ones  accorded  to  Napoleon;  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  acknowledged  as  that  of  the  state; 
an<i  the  salaries  of  the  clergy  pai<l  by  the  latter,  as  a  repara- 
tion for  the  confiscated  esrates.  This  concordat  underwent 
various  modifications.  In  1821  a  division  into  eighty  dio- 
ceses was  adopted,  which  has  been  further  modifieil.  until 
now  there  are  in  France  eighty-four  sees.  The  Roman 
Church  has  never  recognized  the  Organic  -Articdes  which 
Napoleon  addeil  to  the  original  concordat  for  political  pur- 
poses.    Pius  visited  Paris  for  the  coronation  of  Napoleon 


(Dec.  2,  1804);  refused  to  declare  null  the  marriage  of  the 
emjieror's  brother,  Jerome,  with  Miss  Patterson;  was  seized 
by  Napoleon's  orders  July  6, 1809,  and  imprisoned  at  Savona, 
while  his  cardinals  were  summoned  to  Paris,  and  the  papal 
state  abolished  (Feb,  7,  1810):  confirmed  unwillingly  the 
decrees  of  the  National  Council  (1811) :  was  brought  (1812) 
from  Savona  to  Fontainebleau,  in  order  to  terrify  him  into 
submission  to  the  emperorV  will ;  signed  a  new  concordat 
(Jan,  25,  1813),  which  sacrificed  many  important  rights  of 
the  pope;  .soon  regretted  his  .step,  and  by  the  advice  of  the 
black  cardinals,  notably  Pietro  and  Pacca,  recalled  it  in  a 
document  wherein  he  declared  he  wimid  rather  die  than 
[lersevere  in  his  sinful  act.  lie  was  set  free  by  Napoleon  after 
the  battle  of  Leipzig  (Jan.  23, 1814),  and  saw  Napoleon  resign 
his  throne  in  the  very  castle  of  Fontainebleau  ;  returned  to 
Rome  (May  24,  1814);  ha<l  several  provinces  of  the  jiapal 
state  restored  to  him  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815) :  fled 
to  Genoa  on  occasion  of  the  escape  of  Napoleon  from  Elba : 
signed  concordats  with  several  European  nations,  and  re- 
stored the  Jesuits  1814,  (See  Wiseman,  The  Last  Four 
Po/)f,s,  London,  1859). — Pius  VIII.  (Fratiresco  Xaverio  Cas- 
tiylione).  1829-130 ;  denounced  indilTerentism,  Bible  societies, 
and  Freemasonry;  obtained  the  erection  of  an  Armenian 
archbishopric  at  Constantiiicjiile,  and  condemned  the  slave- 
trade. — Pus  IX.  (Giovanni  Maria  Mastai-Ferrctti),  1846- 
78;  began  his  pontificate  by  an  amnesty  and  liberal  reforms: 
fled  from  Rome  on  an  outbreak  of  revolution  (1848) :  re- 
stored by  France  (1850);  deprived  of  the  legations  (1860)  by 
Victor  Emmanuel,  in  s]iile  of  the  spirited  defense  of  the 
papal  zouaves;  maintained  his  independence  against  Gari- 
baldi (1867).  but  Wiis  entirely  dispossessed  of  the  temporal 
power  (Sei)t.  20,  1870)  by  the  army  of  Victor  Emnumuel  ; 
refused  to  accept  the  "  guarantees"  of  May  15,  1871,  as  im- 
plying an  indirect  recognition  of  the  "  accomplished  facts  '" ; 
confined  himself  thenceforth  to  the  precincts  of  the  Vatican. 
The  pontificate  of  Pius  IX.  is  notable  for  many  acts  of  im- 
portance. He  declared  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary  to  be  a  dogma,  or  ancient  belief  of  the 
Church  (Dec.  8,  185'4) ;  published  the  Syllabus  of  (80)  Er- 
rors, extracted  from  previous  documents  of  his  pontificate 
(1864) ;  convoked  the  Vatican  Council  (1868),  in  which  the 
papal  infallibility  was  declared  by  the  constitution  Pastor 
^ternus  (July  18, 1870);  restored  the  hierarchy  in  England 
(1850)  and  Holland  (1853):  canonized  the  Japanese  martyrs 
(1867)  on  the  occasion  of  the  eighteenth  century  of  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul ;  established  national  colleges 
at  Rome;  encouraged  the  missions,  protected  learning,  and 
elevated  many  distinguished  scholars  to  places  of  influence. 
As  a  man,  he  was  remarkable  for  his  gentle  and  humane 
character,  his  geniality  and  affability,  which  never  deserted 
him.  He  died  Feb.  7,  1878,  aged  eighty-six,  after  a  reign  of 
over  thirty-one  years,  the  only  one  that  surpas.ses  the  tradi- 
tional twentv-five  of  St.  Peter,  He  is  buried  at  San  Lorenzo 
fuori  le  JIura,  See  O'Reilly,  Life  of  Pius  IX. ;  the  Ada  Pii 
IX. ;  Cardinal  iManning,  History  of  the  Vatican  Council. 

John  J.  Keane. 

Piute  or  Painte  ludiaus  :  See  Siiosuoxean  Indians. 

Pizar'ro.  Frantlsco  ;  conqueror  of  Peru  :  b.  at  Truxillo, 
Estreniailura,  Spain,  about  1471.  He  was  the  illegitimate 
son  of  a  Sjiaiiish  officer  ;  received  no  regular  education,  but 
served  with  his  father  in  Italy;  and  ultimately  drifted  to 
America,  where  he  first  ajipears  at  Darieii  as  a  soldier  under 
Ojeda  (1509);  the  latter  left  the  colony  in  his  charge  dur- 
ing its  period  of  greatest  sutTering.  (See  Darien.)  He  was 
connected  with  various  raids  against  the  Indians,  was  with 
Balboa  in  the  discovery  of  the  Pacific  1513,  and  about  1519 
settled  at  Panama.  Rumors  of  a  rich  country  to  the  S.  had 
reached  the  isthmus,  and  in  1.522  Pizarro  joined  with  Diego 
de  Almagro  and  a  priest  named  Lui|Ue  in  a  schemt^  for  its 
discovery  anil  conquest  by  way  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The 
first  attemjit,  in  1524,  failed.  In  a  second  they  were  aided 
financially  by  Gaspar  de  Esjiino.sa :  great  sufterings  were 
endured,  but  Pizarro  overcame  them  by  his  dogged  perti- 
nacity, and  in  1.528  saw  and  visited  Tumbez  and  other  towns 
of  the  Peruvian  coast,  where  he  was  well  received.  With 
certain  proof  of  the  riches  of  the  country  he  hastened  to 
Spain,  where  he  was  empowered  to  conquer  and  settle  Peru 
(at  his  own  ex[)ense),  and  was  appointed  its  governor,  Al- 
magro receiving  the  title  of  marshal.  Espino.sa  continued 
to  aid  the  enterprise,  and  Pizarro  was  able  to  leave  Panama 
in  Jan.,  1531.  with  three  yes.sels  and  185  men  :  Hernando  de 
■Soto  joined  him  in  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  with  re-enforce- 
ments;  Almagro  and  others  followed   loo   late   to  share  in 


634 


PIZARRO 


PLAGUE 


the  first  plunder.  Pizarro  landed  at  Turabez ;  at  Caxa- 
marca,  Nov.  15,  1533,  he  met  the  Inca  Atahualpa,  who  liad 
just  conquered  his  bi'other  Huascar,  and  was  going  to  rceeive 
the  crown  at  Cuzco.  Atahualpa,  while  on  a  peaceful  visit 
to  Pizarro,  was  treacherously  seized  and  his  unarmed  escort 
was  massacred.  To  obtain  his  liberty  he  promised  to  fill  a 
room  with  gold,  and  he  actually  collected,  through  his  offi- 
cers, a  sum  equal  to  4,605,670  ducats,  equivalent  to  $17,300,- 
000  of  modern  money.  Though  this  was  appropriated  by 
Pizarro  and  his  band,  the  Inca  was  basely  killed  on  a  false 
charge  of  conspiracy.  Pizarro  now  marched  to  Cuzco :  he 
met  with  some  resistance  from  Atahualpa's  generals,  but  at 
Cuzco  the  legitimate  Inca,  Manco,  swore  fealty  to  the  sov- 
ereign of  Spain,  and  was  allowed  to  reign  as  a  puppet  mon- 
arch under  surveillance.  Pizarro  received  the  title  of  mar- 
quis, and  founded  Lima  (Jan.,  1535)  as  his  capital.  Manco 
escaped  in  Apr.,  1536,  and  headed  an  Indian  uprising, 
which,  for  a  time,  threatened  to  drive  the  Spaniards  from 
the  country  ;  but  aid  flocked  in  from  the  other  colonies,  and 
the  Indians  were  subdued.  Almagro  had  frequently  quar- 
reled with  Pizarro,  whom  he  accused  of  appropriating  all 
the  benefits  of  the  conquest,  though  the  enterprise  had  been 
a  Joint  one.  He  was  quieted  for  a  time  by  being  made  gov- 
ernor of  Chili,  but  in  1537  he  returned  disappointed  from 
that  country  and  seized  Cuzco,  claiming  that  it  lay  within 
his  domain.  War  with  Pizarro  followed  ;  Almagro  was  de- 
feated at  Las  Salinas  Aiir.  36,  1538,  and  was  soon  after  cap- 
tured and  executed.  Pizarro  allowed  many  of  Alraagro's 
followers  to  live  at  Lima,  where  they  conspired  and  mur- 
dered him  in  his  palace  June  36,  1541.  He  was  an  igno- 
rant and  often  brutal  soldier,  though  with  a  natural  genius 
for  command,  and  no  worse  than  other  leaders  of  the  time. 

Herbert  H.  Sjiith. 

Pizarro,  GoNZALo:  half-brother  (also  illegitimate)  of  Fran- 
cisco Pizarro  ;  b.  at  Truxillo  aljout  1306.  He  followed  his 
brother  in  the  conquest  of  Peru  1531-34:  took  part  in  the 
defense  of  Cuzco  against  Manco  Inca  1536 ;  was  captured 
by  Almagro,  but  escaped  and  led  the  infantry  against  him 
at  Las  Salinas ;  and  subsequently  conquered  Charcas  or 
Bolivia,  where  he  received  a  grant  of  the  rich  mining  re- 
gion around  Potosi,  and  acquired  great  wealth.  In  1540 
he  was  made  governor  of  Quito  ;  thence,  in  1541,  he  led  an 
unsuccessful  expedition  over  the  mountains  to  the  forests 
of  the  Napo,  where  Orellana  {q.  v.)  deserted  him  and  be- 
came the  first  explorer  of  the  Amazon.  In  1544  the  vice- 
roy Nuiiez  Vela  arrived  to  enforce  the  "  new  laws"  against 
Indian  slavery.  Pizarro  headed  a  rebellion  against  him, 
seized  Lima  Oct.,  1544.  drove  the  viceroy  into  New  Granada, 
and  ultimately  defeated  and  killed  him  at  the  battle  of 
Anaquito,  near-Quito,  Jan.  18.  1546.  Pizarro's  officers  took 
possession  of  Panama,  and  for  a  year  he  ruled  Peru  undis- 
turbed. Pedro  de  la  Gasea,  sent  from  Spain  to  subdue  the 
rebellion,  gained  possession  of  the  Isthmus  by  politic  means 
and  landed  in  Peru.  Pizarro  i-etreated  southward,  and  near 
Lake  Titicaca  defeated  the  royalist  force  of  Centeno,  Oct. 
26.  1347.  Elated  with  his  success,  he  returned  and  met 
Gasca's  army  near  Cuzco,  but  his  forces  deserted  him  with- 
out fighting,  he  surrendered,  and  was  executed  at  Cuzco 
Apr.  13  (f),  1348.  Other  lirothers  of  the  Pizarro  family  were 
Juan,  who  was  killed  during  the  defense  of  Cuzco,'  July, 
1536 ;  and  IIernanuo  (legitimate),  who  was  prominent  in 
the  conquest  and  commanded  the  army  against  Almagro 
1538;  he  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  was  imprisoned  for 
many  years. — Peuro  Pizarro,  a  cousin  of  the  conqueror 
and  his  page,  wrote  an  account  of  the  conquest  which  has 
been  published  in  modern  times. — Fernando  Pizarro  v 
Orellana,  grandson  of  Hernando  and  great-grandson  of 
the  conqueror,  published,  in  1639,  Varones  ilustres  del  Nue,- 
vo  Mundo,  which  includes  lives  of  the  Pizarros  and  other 
conquerors  of  the  New  World.  Descendants  of  the  family 
have  been  prominent  in  Spanish  America  and  in  Brazil. 

Herbert  H.  Sjiith. 

Placoiita  [from  1ja.t.p!acen,'fa,  flat  cake,  from  6r.  ttXokoSs, 
iT\axovvTos.  flat  cake,  deriv.  of  irA.a{.  TrXoiciis,  anything  flat  aiul 
broad]:  a  special  organ  dcvelopi-d  in  the  higher  mammals 
(hence  Mammalia  /ilaren/alia)  fi>rlhe  nourishment  of  the 
embryo  while  it  remains  in  the  uterus.  Referring  the  reader 
to  the  articles  Fcetis  and  Embryology,  where  the  human 
placenta  is  described,  for  a  description  of  the  parts  con- 
cerned, we  may  here  mention  some  of  the  modifieati(ms  of 
this  organ  in  the  diflercnt  orders  of  mammals.  Tlie  chorion 
of  the  cml)ryo  m;iy  be  regarded  as  the  central  structure  in 
the  formation  of  the  placenta.     Upon  its  surface  are  devel- 


oped numerous  small  branching  outgrowths  (villi),  into 
which  ramifications  of  the  embryonic  blood-vessels  extend. 
These  villi  enter  into  more  or  less  intimate  connection  with 
the  mucous  uterine  walls  of  the  mother,  and  through  them 
nourishment  is  brought  to  the  young.  Accordingly  as  the 
villi  are  arranged  the  character  of  the  placenta  varies.  Thus 
in  the  pig.  horse,  etc..  tliey  are  evenly  distributed  over  the 
surface  of  the  chorion,  giving  rise  to  a  diffuse  placenta.  In 
most  other  forms  they  are  restricted  to  certain  regiims,  and 
the  rest  of  the  chorion  is  smooth  and  contains  but  few 
blood-vessels.  Among  the  ruminants  (cow,  sheep,  deer)  the 
villi  are  aggregated  in  patches  (cotyledons)  varying  from 
5  to  100  or  more  (cotyledonary  placenta).  In  the  carnivores 
the  villi  are  arranged  in  a  ring  (zonary  placenta),  while  in 
the  primates,  bats,  insectivores,  and  rodents  they  take  the 
shape  of  a  disk  {placenta  discoidea).  The  degree  of  union 
between  the  villi  and  the  maternal  tissues  varies  consider- 
ably. In  those  forms  with  diffuse  and  cotyledonary  pla- 
centiP  the  villi  extend  into  corresponding  pits  in  the  uterine 
walls,  but  the  union  is  not  intimate,  and  a  little  pulling  is 
sufficient  to  effect  a  separation.  In  these  forms  at  liirth 
the  embryonic  placenta  becomes  separated  from  the  maternal 
portion,  and  the  latter  remains  behind  (placenta  non  decid- 
uata).  In  the  other  types  the  union  is  more  intimate,  the 
parts  so  growing  together  that  separation  is  no  longer  pos- 
sible without  injury  to  the  uterine  mucosa.  In  these  forms 
(placenta  decidua)  a  portion  of  the  uterine  mucous  mem- 
brane is  cast  as  a  part  of  the  after-birth.  j\mong  the  eden- 
tates almost  every  type  of  placenta  is  said  to  occur. 

The  attempt  has  been  made  to  use  placental  characters 
as  an  aid  in  classification,  but  not  with  perfect  success.  The 
literature  is  large.  Prominent  works  are  Turner's  Anatomy 
of  Hie  Placenta  (Edinburgh,  1876);  Minot,  Uterus  and  Em- 
bryo. Journal  of  Morptiologti  (ii.,  1889;  contains  bibliogra- 
phy): and  papers  by  Hubrecht  (Quarterly  Jotirnal  of  Mi- 
cros. Science.  1889-94).  J.  S.  Kingsley. 

Placeuta'lia  [deriv.  oi placenta'] :  a  name  given  by  Owen 
to  those  mammals  provided  with  a  placenta.  It  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  Monodel|ihia  of  recent  authors.     See  Mammals. 

Placentla :  See  Piacenza. 

Plac'ldiis,  LiicTATius :  a  grammarian  of  the  fifth  century ; 
author  of  a  valualde  glossary  of  obsolete  and  difficult  words 
largely  drawn  from  Plautus.  He  also  composed  scholia  to 
the  poet  Statins.  The  best  editions  of  the  Olossce  are  by  A. 
Deuerling  (Leipzig.  1875)  and  G.  Goetz  in  Cor/ius  Olos.sario- 
num  Lafinoruin.  vol.  v.,  pp.  1-158  (Leipzig.  1894).     M.  W. 

Placopli'ora  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ttAoI,  jilate  +  ipfpnv, 
l)ear,  in  allusion  to  the  several  plate-like  shells] :  the  (U'der 
of  MoLLUsoA  (q.  V.)  which  contains  the  chitons. 

Plag'Ue  [from  Ijnt. pla'ga.  stroke,  blow,  deriv.  oiplan'gere, 
strike  (cf.  Gr.  n^-nyv.  blow,  deriv.  of  Tr\riaaiiv.  strike] :  a 
malignant  and  fatal  contagious  fever,  also  called  bubonic 
plague,  from  the  frequency  of  suppurating  lymphatic  glands, 
so-called  buboes.  It  is  now  little  known,  but  was  formerly 
endemic  in  Egypt  and  the  Levant,  and  spread  in  devastat- 
ing epidemics  throughout  Euroi>e.  By  its  mortality  it  was 
an  obstacle  to  the  growth  of  countries  and  the  advance  of 
civilization.  It  was  termed  "the  pest,"  the  "black  death." 
and  the  "great  mortality."  Its  first  appearance  in  Europe 
was  at  Constantinople  in  A.  D.  544.  Since  that  tinu;  epi- 
demics have  occurred  at  variable  intervals :  there  were 
forty-five  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  Great  Plague 
of  London  was  in  1665,  and  was  supposed  to  have  been 
brought  from  Holland.  It  is  estimated  that  in  Europe  35,- 
0(10.()U0  have  died  of  plague.  The  disease  has  prevailed  in 
brief  and  local  epidemics  during  the  eighteenth  and  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  centuries — at  Copenhagen  in  1713, 
Marseilles  1730,  Moscow  1771,  Malta  1813.  Silesia  1819,  Bul- 
garia (in  the  Russian  army)  in  1838-39.  Its  last  apiiearanee 
in  Egypt  w.as  in  1844.  In  1857-38  it  occurred  among  the 
Arabs  of  North  Africa,  in  1857  in  Jlesopotamia,  and  in  1871 
in  Persian  Kurdistan.  An  epidemic  in  the  provinces  lior- 
dering  the  Volga  in  1878  attracted  considerable  altontion 
among  scientific  num.  The  plague  is  now  regarded  as  a 
zymotic  disease,  dependent  ujion  insalubrious  and  poisonous 
atmospheric  or  telluric  conditions,  a  materies  morbi  gaining 
access  to  the  blood,  and  rapidly  multiplying  in  it  aiui  de- 
stroying its  nutritive  elements.  In  malignity  and  nature  it 
resembles  typhus  fever.  The  propagation  of  the  disease  oc- 
curs by  direct  or  indirect  contagion.  In  Egypt  the  overflow 
of  the  Nile  was  considered  its  pestilential  source.  Over- 
crowding, bad  ventilation,  uncleanliness,  deficient  food,  and 


PLACtI'KS  of   ICOYI'T 


PLAIN 


635 


residence  in  damp,  iiuirsliy  soils  luive  been  considoroci  tlip 
predisposing  causes  of  local  epidemics.  After  exposure  there 
IS  a  period  of  latency  or  incubation  of  from  two  to  seven 
days.  The  disease  has  four  stages,  yet  all  may  occur  in 
rapid  succession  and  brii'f  lime:  (1)  invasion.  (3)  fever,  (IJ) 
local  phlegmons,  and  (4)  collapse  or  cimvalesccnce.  It  is 
preceded  by  lassituile  and  enrccblomcnt  of  mind  and  body  ; 
its  delinite  onscl  is  announced  by  shivering,  headache,  ver- 
tigo, vomiting,  high  fever-heat,  great  prostration,  stupor  or 
unconsciousne.-is,  blood  in  the  urine  or  from  the  bowels,  the 
appearance  of  buboes  or  sujipurative  enlargement  of  lym- 
phatic glands,  or  of  carbuncles:  or,  again,  in  fatal  cases,  of 
petechia'  or  pur|)le  spols  and  mottling  of  the  skin.  Ila'in- 
orrhage  into  the  lungs  and  from  ihe  lungs  was  a  frciiuent 
symptom  of  the  "black  death"  of  the  Jiiddle  Ages.  Us 
duration  is  from  two  to  ten  days,  and  convaUwceiice  is  slow. 
It  is  prevetited  by  hygieidc  measures  and  public  i|Uarantine. 
but  its  treatment,  beyond  gem'ral  measures  of  .stimulation 
and  nutritive  support,  avails  little. 

Hevised  by  William  Pepper. 

Plagues  of  Ksrvpt :  a  series  of  calamities,  ten  in  number, 
which  befel  the  Egyptians  (Kx.  vii.  14,  ff.):  due  to  the  re- 
fusal of  King  Pharaoh  to  let  tlic  Israelites  ilcpart  from  his 
country.  They  have  been  explained  \ipon  a  luitural  basis 
somewiiat  as  follows.  The  red  (bloo<l)  color  of  the  \ile  is 
alleged  to  have  been  witnessed  in  historic  times,  and  is  ex- 
plained by  the  presence  of  infusoria  from  the  swamps  whose 
waters  run  into  the  Nile.  During  high  Nile  the  frogs,  the 
Kgyptian  symbol  of  "  multitude."  sought  the  higher  ground 
and,  dying  when  the  water  rapidly  fell,  were  gathered  into 
heaps,  there  to  rot.  The  drying  pools  engendered  multi- 
tudes of  gnats  and  tlies,  whose  part  consisteil  in  causing  cu- 
taneous irritation  and  in  s])reading  the  contagion  of  the 
nmrrain,  which  is  regarded  as  anthrax,  a  disease  due  to  the 
dead  frogs.  This  disease  principally  attacks  cattle,  but  may 
be  commnnicated  to  men.  Its  outward  nuinifestation  woidd 
be  in  "boils,"  while  inwarilly  it  would  prove  fatal,  particu- 
larly when  re-enforced  by  the  meat  diet  necessitated  liy  the 
destruction  of  vegetable  life  after  the  plaglies  of  the  hail 
and  locusts.  Hail,  thmuli'r,  and  the  cast  wind,  the  agents 
of  other  jilagiU'S,  were  usmd  phenomena  except  as  to  inten- 
sity. There  are,  nevertheless,  other  features  of  the  plagues 
n'cordi'd  in  Kxodus  which  are  not  capable  of  so  easy  an  ex- 
planation, aiul  even  if  the  theory  outliiuid  above  be  granted 
there  would  remain  the  miracles  of  providence,  if  not  of 
power.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Plaice  :  a  tlat-lish.  Plruroni-rtes  platesna.  weighing  from 
(i  to  13  lb.     It  feeds  on  mollusca,  Crustacea,  and  young  fish, 


and  inhabits  sandy  banks  and  muddy  grounds  in  the  sea. 
It  is  highly  esteemed  for  f 1,  and  is  common  on  the  Eu- 
ropean coasts.     Sec  Pleltro.nectiu.e. 

Plain  :  a  broad  expanse  of  level  or  nearlv  level  land. 
Plains  are  here  considered  wit  h  respect  to  the  origin  of  their 
strata;  to  their  altitude,  whereby  they  are  associated  with 
plateaus;  to  the  degree  of  development  of  vfdieys  acro.ss 
their  surface;  and  to  their  distribution,  clinnite," fertility, 
and  resources. 

Marine  I '/ a in-t.— The  largest  plains  of  the  world  consist 
of  horizontal  strata,  deposited  when  the  region  was  the  bed 
of  a  lake  or  Ihe  lloor  of  the  shallow  oeean  margin.  For 
example,  the  Coastal  Plai.v  (q.  r.)  of  the  Kiustern  V.  S.  is 
a  surface  of  snudl  relief,  formerlv  iiart  of  the  contiiu'ntal 
shelf.  (See  Ocea.n.)  When  the  land  stood  lower  than  now. 
it  received  sediments  borne  down   liy  rivers   (U-  worn   by 


waves;  at  present  it  is  revealed  in  consequence  of  an  even 
uplift,  allhcaigh  a  considerable  extent  of  the  shelf  still  re- 
mains under  the  sea.  Its  marine  origin  is  indicated  not 
only  by  its  bedded  structure,  but  also  by  its  numerous  fos- 
sils, t'lose  study  of  this  region  deiiu)nstrates  that  it  is  geo- 
logically in  a  debatable  state,  oscillating  up  and  down  in 
the  course  of  g(^ological  periods ;  at  present  exposing  less 
surface  as  land  than  in  a  recently  [lasl  period  (see  Coast), 
but  niore  than  in  a  still  earlier  period.  The  great  plains  of 
the  V.  .S.  are  of  a  more  complex  history.  Their  sediments, 
as  indicated  by  fossils,  are  in  part  marine,  in  part  lacustrine. 
It  is  evident  from  their  present  slight  incline  that  the  re- 
gion must  have  been  uplifted  and  inclined  since  the  strata 
were  deposited. 

Larii.sl/iiii-  P/aina. — The  plain  of  Ilungarv  mav  be  taken 
as  the  type  of  a  lacustrine  )ilain  ;  its  basin  is"inclo"sed  by  the 
Carpathian  .Mountains  on  the  K.,  and  the  Danube  has"now 
cut  a  deep  outlet-valley  through  them ;  but  at  an  earlier 
time,  before  the  outlet  was  cut  so  deep,  a  lake  existed  be- 
hind the  mountains,  ami  Ihe  present  [dain  is  composed 
chiefly  of  sediments  brought  into  the  lake  from  the  inclosing 
slopes.  The  [ilain  of  the  middle  Rhine,  between  the  Vosges 
and  the  Black  Forest  Jlonnlains.  aiul  the  Vale  of  Kashmir 
in  Northwest  India  have  a  similar  historv;  all  these  ex- 
amples being  more  or  less  strewn  over  bv  river  flood-plain 
deposits  since  their  lakes  disappeared.  'Plains,  partlv  of 
lacustrine  origin,  partly  of  surface  si  ream-wash,  are  well  ex- 
hibited in  the  interior  basins  of  Utah  and  Nevada  (see  Bonne- 
ville Lake  and  Lahontan  Lake),  as  well  as  in  other  basins 
of  interior  draiiuige,  such  as  the  inner  plateau  of  Mexico, 
and  presumably  t  he  great  cent  ral  depression  of  Asia.  Basins 
of  this  kind  are  formed  by  the  uneven  uplift  of  mountain 
ranges  and  plateaus  around  their  borders,  while  other  ranges 
diversify  their  interior.  The  waste  from  the  crests  and 
shoulders  of  the  mountains  accumulates  in  the  intermediate 
hollows,  burying  the  mountains  even  up  to  their  waists,  and 
producing  broad  even  plain.s.  The  process  of  degrading  the 
mountains  and  fllling  the  depressions  proceeds  in  the  dry 
climate  of  to-day.  when  streams  spread  out  detritus  as  they 
wither  after  leaving  the  mountains,  as  well  as  in  the  former 
more  humid  climate  of  the  region,  %vhen  the  wash  from  the 
mountains  ran  into  lakes ;  but  the  most  extensive  plains  of 
Utah  and  Nevada  are  old  lake-bottoms  revealed  by  desicca- 
tion, and  not  yet  covered  by  the  stream-wash  of  a  dry  cli- 
mate. .Sometinu^s  the  disajipearance  of  former  lakes  leaves  a 
broad  central  deiM-<'ssion  covered  with  a  level  slieet  of  sidt. 
such  as  are  known  in  Tibet,  in  Persia,  and  in  the  intcrmon- 
tane  depression  to  which  the  southward  discliarge  of  Lake 
Titicaca  flows  in  Bolivia.  Broad  saliferous  marshes  of  this 
kind  occur  on  the  Argent  ine  pampas,  there  called  srilinas.  In 
regions  of  extreme  dryness  even  the  wind-borne  dust  from 
the  uplands  aids  in  filling  up  the  depressions.  JInch  im- 
portance has  been  attributed  to  this  process  in  forming  ex- 
tended plains  in  inner  Cliina,  their  fine  s.iil  being  generally 
given  the  Gernniu  name  /op.s-.s.  Peculiar  ex.-imples  of  lacu.s- 
trine  plains  are  found  in  those  regions  where  the  relrciiting 
ice-sheet  of  the  glacial  period  obstructed  the  flow  of  rivers 
whose  basins  sloped  against  it.  Smooth  sheets  of  fine  silt 
were  deposited  in  the  lakes  thus  formed;  but  with  the 
further  retreat  of  the  ice.  the  lakes  were  discharged  and  the 
lake-bottom  plains  laid  bare.  Many  of  the  northern  prairies 
of  the  U.  S.  arc  of  this  origin.  See  Prairie  and  Aoassiz, 
Lake. 

Flitvialile  Plnins. — Large  rivei-s  build  brojid  flood-plains 
(see  Flood-I'Lain)  in  their  valley.s,  and  delta  plains  (see 
Delta)  at  their  mouths.  The  Mississippi  gives  an  exam- 
ple of  a  flood-plain  with  delta  front.  «-ell  inclo.sed  between 
bluffs  of  the  slightly  higher  marine  coastal  plain.  Here 
must  be  included  also  various  extensive  areas  over  which 
wandering  rivers  havi-  spread  out  their  detritus.  The  plain 
of  the  "  valley  "  of  California,  the  plain  of  the  "  vallev  "  of 
the  Po,  the  Iiulo-Gangetic  plain  of  Northern  India,  and  Ihe 
plain  of  Eastern  Chitui  are  all  of  this  character,  having  re- 
ceived their  nuiterials  from  adjacent  nu)untains.  Along  the 
margin  of  the  sea.  in  shallow  bays  and  lagoons  protected 
by  bars  from  the  outer  waves,  tidal  marshes  are  built  up  to 
high-tide  level.  These  plains  attain  a  considerable  area 
along  Ihe  coast  of  the  U.  S. 

Jjiivn-plninK;  lef-jilains.  —  Extensive  outflows  of  lava 
have  occurred  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  flooding  the 
lower  lands  and  thus  forming  broad  plains  of  remarkably 
level  surface.  These  are  exceptiomdly  well  illustrated  in 
the  basin  of  the  Shoshone  river  in  Southern  Idaho.  The 
river  has  transsected  the  plain  in  its  canyon,  revealing  the 


636 


PLAIX 


bedded  structure  of  the  lavas.  The  vast  plains  of  ioe  and 
snow  that  cover  Greenland,  and  that  presumably  exist  in- 
land from  the  Antarctic  ice-wall,  as  seen  by  Ross,  should  not 
be  forgotten.  Nansen"s  journey  across  Greenland  demon- 
strates that  the  interior  of  that  laud  is  a  vast  desert  plain 
of  ice  and  snow.  Tlie  Malaspina  glacier  at  the  foot  of  Mt. 
St.  Elias,  in  Canada,  may  be  regarded  as  a  glacial  delta 
plain,  being  supplied  by  valley  glaciers  from  the  mountains, 
and  spreading  out  over  a  surface  of  15  by  40  miles  on  the 
coastal  lowlaiul.  (See  GL.1CIKRS.)  During  the  glacial  period, 
ice-plains  like  those  of  Greenland  had  great  extension  in 
Northeastern  America  and  Northwestern  Europe.  It  was 
during  the  presence  of  these  creeping  ice-sheets  that  many 
of  the  smooth  plains  of  unstratified  glacial  drift  (till)  were 
spread  out  in  Ohio  and  the  adjacent  northern  central  States; 
for  while  glacial  action  has  ordinarily  been  looked  on  as 
chiefly  destructive,  it  was  chiefly  constructive  in  these  re- 
gions, where  the  ice-sheet  was  relatively  thin,  its  motion  re- 
duced, and  the  quantity  of  loose  material  beneath  it  exces- 
sive. Its  action  in  Ohio  may  therefore  be  contrasted  with 
its  more  destructive  action  in  Canada,  much  in  the  same 
way  that  the  constructive  action  of  a  river  in  its  delta  may 
be  contrasted  with  the  destructive  action  of  its  head-waters. 
Many  fertile  prairies  in  the  northern  central  States  are  till- 
plains. 

Dissection  of  Plains. — River  flood-plains,  being  built  at  a 
slope  suitable  to  the  grade  of  their  rivers,  do  not  suffer  dis- 
section, unless  the  volume  of  the  river  is  altered  or  the  slope 
of  the  land  is  changed  by  tilting.  The  latter  seems  to  have 
been  the  case  with  those  former  flood-plains,  remnants  of 
which  are  now  seen  in  upper  terrace-plains  of  many  of  the 
northern  valleys  of  the  U.  S. 

Marine  plains,  when  rising  above  sea-level,  may  acquire  a 
greater  or  less  altitude,  the  loftier  areas  being  called  plateaus. 
(See  Plateau.)  They  are  then  dissected  by  their  streams 
and  thus  diversified  in  the  course  of  geological  periods  of 
time.  Many  examples  can  be  collected  in  various  stages  of 
development.  Plains  may  thus  acquire  so  strong  and  varied 
a  relief  as  to  be  popularly  called  rolling  or  hilly  country. 
The  littoral  portion  of  the  gently  inclined  coastal  plain  from 
New  Jersey  to  Texas  is  very  little  dissected,  and  only  by 
shallow  valleys  ;  it  presents  broad  stretches  of  almost  dead- 
level  surface.  Further  inland,  where  the  ascending  plain  is 
higher  and  has  been  out  of  the  sea  longer,  it  is  more  diver- 
sified, giving  a  pleasing  variety  of  gentle  hills  and  valleys. 
It  is  not  infrequently  the  case  that  the  former  inland  exten- 
sion of  a  coastal  plain  has  been  stripped  off  from  its  founda- 
tion rocks,  and  that  the  edges  of  the  more  resistant  strata  of 
the  plain  thus  take  the  form  of  inland-facing  slopes  or  es- 
carpments. The  lowland  on  the  inner  side  of  the  escarp- 
ment is  then  chiefly  drained  by  longitudinal  streams,  which 
escape  by  occasional  transverse  valleys  through  the  outer  and 
higher  part  of  the  plain.  The  belt  of  elevated  ground  from 
Navesink  S.  W.  across  New  Jersey  to  Delaware  Bay  is  of 
this  origin ;  railways  and  canal  between  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  follow  the  inner  longitudinal  lowland.  If  the 
coastal  plain  consists  of  several  alternating  harder  and  softer 
strata  of  considerable  thickness  and  gentle  seaward  inclina- 
tion, several  higher  and  lower  belts  roughly  parallel  to  the 
coast-line  may  be  developed  by  denudation  ;  the  inner  slope 
of  the  higher  belts  being  relatively  steep,  while  the  outer  slope 
is  gentle  and  even.  The  coastal  plain  of  Alabama  has  sev- 
eral of  these  belts,  of  which  the  Chunnenugga  ridge  is  the 
strongest ;  it  descends  by  a  tame  escarpment  to  an  inner 
lowland  belt.  In  Texas,  similar  features  are  well  shown  ; 
one  of  the  most  distinct  of  the  inward  ascending  plains  be- 
ing the  (Jrand  Prairie,  which  falls  oS  westward  by  a  well- 
marked  ragged  inland-facing  escarpment  to  the  central  de- 
nuded region  of  the  State.  The  Cotswold  and  the  Chiltern 
hills,  drained  by  the  upper  Thames  in  England,  belong 
here ;  tliey  descend  gently  to  the  S.  E.  and  more  abruptly 
in  ragged  escarpments  to  the  N.  W.  The  Niagara  upland 
of  Western  New  York  terminates  in  an  escarpment  facing 
the  ancient  crystalline  area  of  Canada.  (See  Niagara  Falls.) 
Wisconsin  possesses  a  well-marked  example  of  this  kind  :  its 
central  denuded  plain  being  inclosed  on  the  S.  and  W.  liy 
dis.seeted  uplands  rising  from  the  plain  in  very  ragged  es- 
carpments and  nunu'rous  detached  outliers. 

Plains  of  Den  iiiln/ion. — When  plains  have  long  been  above 
the  sea,  the  widening  valleys  <'onsunie  the  uplands,  decreas- 
ing the  variety  of  form  that  was  for  a  time  developed,  and 
ultimately  producing  a  broad  lowland  of  denudation.  A 
great  part  of  the  Sahara  (ij.  r.)  is  well  advanced  toward  this 
consummation,  its  broadly  denuded  surface  having  a  varictv 


of  open  lowlands,  retreating  escarpments,  and  isolated  out- 
liers ;  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  regard  it  as  an  even  lowland, 
and  only  a  very  small  marginal  part  of  its  area  is  below 
sea-level.  The  great  plains  in  the  western  part  of  the  U.  S. 
have  also  reached  an  advanced  stage  of  denudation,  as  their 
numerous  isolated  mesas  and  outliers  testify. 

At  any  stage  in  the  reduction  of  uplifted  plains  to  low- 
lands of  denudation  the  region  may  again  be  elevated  and 
enter  a  new  cycle  of  dissection  and  denudation.  Large  areas 
in  Central  Missouri,  Southern  tHiio,  and  Northern  Kentucky 
have  this  composite  history,  their  even  uplands  of  to-day 
being  old  lowlands  of  denudation.  Portions  of  the  Great 
Plains,  as  in  Eastern  Montana,  are  similarly  uplifted  low- 
lands of  advanced  denudation,  occasionally  surmounted  by 
unconsumed  mesas  and  outliers,  and  now  trenched  across 
by  young  valleys  that  belong  to  the  new  cycle  of  dissection  ; 
many  bad-land  areas  are  found  along  the  borders  of  these 
valleys  of  the  second  generation.  Northwestern  Prance 
possesses  a  well-marked  old  plain  of  denudation,  now  raised 
to  an  upland  and  beautifully  dissected  by  the  valleys  of  its 
rejuvenated  streams. 

Plains  of  quite  another  kind  occur  in  regions  of  disordered 
structure  that  were  once  mountainous,  but  which  are  now 
reduced  to  lowlands  of  faint  relief  by  long  continued  de- 
nudation. These  lowlands  are  never  so  even  as  those  formed 
beneath  seas  or  lakes;  nor  have  they  commonly  an  extended 
surface ;  they  most  commonly  occur  as  gently  rolling  low- 
lands, associated  with  low  ridges  that  are  not  yet  subdued  to 
the  lowland  level.  The  open  lowlands  of  the  great  Appa- 
lachian valley  and  the  more  irregular  lowlands  that  run 
among  the  Appalachian  ridges  are  of  this  kind.  Mention 
of  related  features  will  be  found  under  Plateau. 

The  climatic  conditions  of  plains  are  in  many  cases  close- 
ly associated  with  their  conditions  of  origin.  For  example, 
the  ice-plains  are  deserts  of  cold;  the  [dains  of  interior  ba- 
sins, once  lacustrine,  are  now  prevailingly  arid  and  desert, 
peopled  only  where  streams  descend  from  the  inclosing 
mountains  and  afford  water  for  natural  or  artificial  irriga- 
ticm.  Salt-plains,  the  residual  deposits  of  certain  evaporated 
lakes,  are  absolutely  barren.  On  the  other  hand,  the  flood- 
plains  of  rivers  are  ordinarily  fertile,  being  of  fine  soil  and 
plentiful  water-supply;  they  may  be  productive  even  when 
bordered  by  deserts,  as  in  the  famous  case  of  the  Nile  and 
in  many  less-known  examples,  such  as  those  which  descend 
from  the  Andes  through  the  deserts  on  the  westward  slope. 
Delta  plains  of  large  rivers  are  fertile  ;  but  those  of  smaller 
rivers  descending  from  mountains  close  to  the  sea  are  often 
stony.  Lava-plains  are  deserts  until  a  soil  is  formed  by 
weathering  their  surface  ;  then  they  may  be  fertile,  as  in  the 
lava  plateau  of  Southern  India.  Marine  plains  are  of  such 
vast  extent  that  they  embrace  ail  conditions  of  climate  and 
fertility.  They  include  the  frozen  ground  of  Siberia  and 
Northern  Canada :  the  arid  steppes  of  Western  Asia,  yielding 
grass  under  their  summer  rains ;  the  broad  Sahara,  whose 
varied  surface  is  parched  by  the  drying  trade-winds,  re- 
freshed by  winter  rains  on  its  northern  border,  by  summer 
rains  on  its  southern  border.  In  the  New  World  there  are 
the  luxuriant  selvas  of  the  Amazon,  partly  marine,  partly 
fluviatile  in  origin,  well  watered  by  the  equatorial  rains ; 
the  llanos  of  Venezuela  and  the  campos  of  inner  Brazil,  well 
watered  and  grassed  under  a  vertical  sun,  but  dry  and  dusty 
in  the  opjiosite  season.  The  Argentine  pampas  are  prevail- 
ingly too  dry,  being  like  the  Great  Plains  of  the  U.  S.  in  the 
rain-shadow  of  the  Cordilleras.  (See  Deserts  and  Rain.) 
South  America,  narrowing  in  the  temperate  zone,  has  no 
analogue  to  the  broad  plains  and  uplands  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  U.  S. 

Pesotirces  of  Plains. — Ijacustrine  plains  and  river  flood- 
plains  usually  have  a  fine  soil,  ailmirable  for  agriculture  if 
the  climate  is  favorable :  but  they  have  no  mineral  resources 
except  clays  and  sand,  or  salt  in  the  case  of  certain  lacus- 
trine plains.  Young  marine  plains,  however  well  adapted 
to  agriculture,  are,  as  a  rule,  poor  in  mineral  products,  al- 
though they  sometimes  have,  in  addition  to  sand  and  clay, 
valualile  deposits  of  marl  and  phosphates,  useful  as  fertiliz- 
ers, and  sometimes  diatomaceous  earth,  useful  in  various 
arts.  In  the  absence  of  good  road  metal,  and  by  reason  of 
the  flatness  and  poor  drainage  of  the  surface,  the  roads  of 
all  these  plains  are  prevailingly  poor,  being  least  bad  on 
gravels  and  worst  on  clays.  Older  dissected  plains,  whose 
rocks  were  deposited  long  ago.  and  whose  surface  may  have 
been  through  successive  cycles  of  denudation,  may  be  as  rich 
agriculturally  as  the  younger  forms  ;  as,  for  example,  in  the 
famous  Blue  Grass  region  of  Central   Kentucky;  and  they 


PLAIXFIELD 


PLANKT 


637 


possess  in  addilion  a  luodorate  variety  of  useful  minerals 
and  iilentiful  {;oo<i  roaii  nictiil.  I'oal  and  iron  ores  are 
foun(l  in  llie  dissected  uplands  of  the  Ohio  valley  ;  ores  of 
lead  and  zinc  oeeur  in  the  uplands  of  Missouri,  Iowa,  and 
Wisconsin.  IJuildinij-stones,  limestone,  and  clay,  as  well  as 
road  materials  ot  high  value,  are  here  well  distributed. 
Those  lowland  plains  which  are  produced  by  the  denuiialion 
of  former  mountains  have  a  great  variety  of  mineral  prod- 
ucts.    The  forest  products  vary  greatly  with  the  climate, 

W.  M.  Davis. 

Plniiifleld :  city  (incorporated  as  a  city  in  1N6S)):  Union 
CO.,  N.  •!. :  on  Green  Brook,  and  the  Central  Railroad 
of  N.  J. ;  11  miles  X.  of  New  Hrunswick,  ^4  miles  W.  S.  \V. 
of  New  York  city  (for  location,  see  m.-ip  of  \ew  .lersey,  ref. 
;!-D).  It  is  a  beautiful  residential  place,  with  Xetherwood 
Heights  on  the  E,  and  ranges  of  the  15lue  Mountains  on  the 
W.  The  city  and  cluster  of  suburban  villages  are  lighted 
with  gas  and  electricity,  and  are  laid  out  with  broad  straight 
streets  tastefully  ornamented  with  lawns,  parks,  and  shade 
trees.  I'lainfield  contains  14  churches,  .5  public-school  build- 
ings, public-school  property  valued  at  over  .'j!l80,()00,  a  semi- 
nary for  young  lailies.  an  academy  for  boys,  jniblio  library 
and  art  gallery,  public-school,  seminary,  and  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
libraries.  2  music-halls,  .Muhlenberg  Hospital,  2  national 
banks  with  coml)ined  capital  of  §3.50,000,  a  savings-bank, 
and  :{  daily,  2  weekly,  and  three  monthly  periodicals.  The 
princi|)al  industries  are  the  marnifacture  ot  printing-presses, 
oil-cloth,  carpets,  and  machine  tools.  Pop.  (1880)  8,125; 
(1800)  ll,2l!T:  (181).-))  i:!,(i20. 

Plain  Sonar,  or  Plain  Chant  (Lat.  caiitusfir'mus,  Ital. 
rtinfn  frrmo):  in  music,  the  simple,  grave,  and  unadorned 
chant  in  which  the  .serv-ices  of  the  Catholic  Church  have 
been  rendered  from  a  very  early  age.  It  consists  largely 
of  monotone,  and  its  inflections  seldom  exceed  the  range  of 
an  octave.  The  ecclesiastical  chant  is  supposed  to  be  chiefly 
of  Greek  origin,  with  some  modifications  brought  in  from 
Hebrew  sources  by  the  converts  from  Judaism  in  the  first 
centuries.  Prior  to  the  time  of  St.  Ambrose  (fourth  century) 
the  music  of  the  Church  was  in  a  rude  and  unsettled  con- 
dition, but  by  his  skill  and  energy  it  assumed  the  more 
regular  form  known  as  the  Ambrosian  chant.  At  a  later 
period  Gregory  the  Great  introduced  many  im]5rovements, 
corrected  certain  abuses,  and  gave  to  the  ritual  chant  that 
more  systematic  form  which  has  since  borne  his  name. 
Plain  song  is  usually  written  in  black  note  on  a  stave  of 
four  lines,  with  either  a  C  or  an  F  clef.  See  Gregorian 
Music.  Revised  by  Dudley  Buck. 

Plains,  The,  or  The  Great  Plains:  one  of  the  great 
physiographic  districts  of  Xorth  America.  Through  the 
entire  breadth  of  the  U.  S.  from  Texas  to  the  northern 
boundary  and  thence  for  a  distance  hiilf  as  great  in  the 
Dominion  of  (^anada,  a  sloping  plateau  descends  eastward 
from  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Moimtains.  Its  breadth 
is  from  300  to  600  miles,  and  the  eastward  descent  in  that 
distaiKte  ranges  from  2,000  to  .5,000  feet.  The  plain  appears 
to  have  been  more  nearly  level  until  a  late  geologic  period, 
being  partly  occupied  by  lakes  in  early  Neocene  time.  It 
then  received  its  inclination  through  the  uplifting  of  its 
western  edge  at  a  time  when  the  plateau  carrying  the  Rocky 
Mountains  was  also  raised.  Its  surface  is  diversified  by  a 
few  mountain  districts,  such  as  the  Black  Hills  and  .Sun 
Dance  Hills,  by  numerous  streams  which  cross  it  from  W. 
to  K.  and  have  excavated  valleys  to  a  depth  of  several  hun- 
dred feet  below  the  general  surfa(H>,  and  by  other  districts, 
such  as  the  Had  Lands  of  Dakota,  where  the  surface  has 
been  intricatel\  sculptured  by  rains  and  minor  streams  ;  but 
in  general  the  surface  is  undulatory  and  monotonous.  The 
characteristic  feature  of  the  climate  is  aridity,  the  amount 
of  rainfall  ranging  from  ten  or  fifteen  degrees  at  the  west 
to  twenty  or  twenty-five  degrees  at  the  east.  In  the  western 
portions  agriculture  can  not  be  jiracticed  without  artificial 
irrigation  of  the  land,  and  at  the  east  it  is  somewhat  pre- 
carious, as  severe  sulTering  is  caused  by  occasional  droughts. 
In  general  the  stream -beds  are  of  such  character  that  the 
control  of  their  waters  for  purposes  of  irrigation  is  dillicult, 
but  near  the  mountains  the  conditions  are  more  favorable 
and  an  increasing  acreage  is  irrigated.  This,  however,  must 
always  constitute  bvit  a  small  fraction  of  the  entire  surface, 
and  grazing  is  likely  to  remain  the  prevailing  industry  of 
the  region.  In  general  the  plains  are  treeless  except  in'the 
immediate  vicinity  of  p<'rnianent  streams,  but  there  are  a 
few  forest  tracts  in  the  nnrthern  portion  anil  elsewhere  near 
the  eastern  margin.     See  1'i.aix.  G.  K.  Gilbicrt. 


Plaintiff  [from  Anglo-Fr.  =  0.  Fr.  plainlif,  complain- 
ing, deriv.  of  plainte,  complaint.  Cf.  Kng.  plaiittii'e]  :  one 
who  makes  plaint ;  that  is,  one  who  states  in  a  common-law 
court  his  cause  of  action  against  another.  In  equity  courts, 
the  moving  party  in  a  .suit  is  called  the  comjilainant  ;  and' 
in  admiralty  and  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  the  libelant. 
Sometimes  the  legal  title  to  the  claim  sued  upon  is  in  one 
person,  while  another  holds  the  equitable  title  thereto.  The 
former  is  known  as  the  legal  plaintiff,  while  the  latter  is  the 
equitable  plaintifl'.  Under  the  common-law  procedure  a 
claim  which  had  been  assigned  was  suable  only  in  the  name 
of  the  assigner.  who  was  called  the  nominal  plaintilT,  while 
the  one  who  brought  and  enforced  the  action  was  the  real 
plaintiff.  iModcrn  codes  generally  require  actions  to  be 
brought  in  the  names  of  the  real  parties  in  interest.  Plain- 
tilT in  error  designates  the  one  who  sues  out  a  writ  of  error — 
that  is,  apjieals  to  a  higher  court  from  the  decision  of  an 
inferior  tribunal.  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Planche.  plalmsha',  James  Robinson  :  playwright,  arch- 
aeologist, and  herald  ;  b.  in  London,  Feb.  27,  1796  ;  became 
early  distinguished  as  a  writer  of  plays  and  librettos:  gave 
great  attention  to  arcluvology  and  costumes,  on  which  sub- 
jects he  wrote ;  aided  in  founding  the  British  Archa-ological 
A.ssociation,  and  was  long  its  honorary  secretary  and  editor 
of  its  Journal:  author  of  some  200  dramatic  "pieces;  pub- 
lished in  18.52  The  Pursuivant  of  Arms  (Hd  ed.  1874),  a 
treatise  on  heraldic  subjects,  which  procured  him  the  ap- 
pointment of  Rouge  Croix  Pursuivant  in  18.54.  In  1866  he 
was  promoted  to  be  Somerset  Herald.  He  wrote  books  of 
travel,  songs,  etc.     D.  May  29,  1880. 

Planoy.  plaaiVsee',  Jacques  Albin  Simon  Collin,  de,  gen- 
erally called  Collin  de  Plancy :  author;  b.  at  Plancy,  de- 
partment of  Aube,  France,  Jan.  28,  1793;  went  to  Paris  in 
1812  ;  built  up  a  business  as  a  printer,  publisher,  editor,  and 
author,  and  wrote  Dictionnaire-  infernal,  Dictionnaire  fki- 
dal,  Memoires  d'un  Vilain  an  U^'Siede.  Taxe  des  Parties 
casnelles  de  la  Bovtiqve  dii  Pape,  Biograph  ie  pitforesque  des 
Jesnites,  Le  Dinble  peint  par  lui-nieme,  etc. — all  in  an  anti- 
religious,  revolutionary,  and  frivolous  manner.  In  1830  he 
fled  from  Paris  on  account  of  pecmiiary  difficulties,  and  set- 
tled at  Brussels,  where  he  wrote  Pastes  militaires  de  la  Bel- 
gique.  Histoire  des  premieres  Annees  du  Regne  de  Leopold, 
and  other  things — all  very  flattering  to  the  national  vanity  of 
the  Belgians.  In  1837  he  was  able  to  return  to  Paris,  and  he 
went  back  thoroughly  converted.  lie  then  wrote  ieg'cndfsrfc 
la  Sainte  Vierge,  Legendes  des  Origines.  Legendes  du  Juif- 
Errant.  Chronique  de  Godefroy  de  Bouillon.  Legendes  des 
Sept  Pec.hes  rapitaux.  Legendes  des  Esprits  et  desDhnonxqni 
circulent  avtour  de  nous,  I^e  Chansonnier  du  Cliretien.  etc. 
The  method  which  he  generally  applied  in  making  a  new 
book  consisted  in  cutting  up  two  old  ones  and  rearranging 
their  contents.  The  new  book  was  then  generally  provided 
with  a  new  pseudonym.  Among  the  many  nai'nes  he  em- 
filoyed  as  an  author  are  Paul  Beranger.  Croquelardon,  Hor- 
misdas-Peath,  Baron  Nilense.  Saint-Albin,  and  Johannes 
Videlbius.    I).  Jan.  13,  1881.     Revised  by  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Planer-tree  [named  from  J.  S.  Planer  (1743-89),  a  Ger- 
man botanist] :  a  rather  small  ulmaceons  tree  (Planera 
aquatica)  of  swampy  lands  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
U.  S.  It  has  the  general  appearance  of  the  elms,  but  is 
quite  distinct  from  them  in  flower  and  fruit.  Its  timber  is 
hard,  and  suitable  for  many  economic  uses.  The  wood  of 
Planera  ahelirea.  of  the  Levant,  is  aromatic.  It  is  the 
Cretan  false  sandal-wood  of  old  writers.  Another  planer- 
tree  is  P.  rirhardi  of  Persia  and  the  Caucasus,  partly  natu- 
raliz<'d  in  Europe,  and  sometimes  called  zelkona.  It  is  a 
tall  and  handsome  tree,  jiroducing  excellent  timber. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Baii.kv. 

Planet  [via  O.  Pr.  from  Lat.  plane'ta  =  Gr.  itAoi^jttjs. 
planet,  liter.,  wanderer,  deriv.  of  irKavri.  a  wandering,  deriv. 
of  ■ttXavacrBai.  wander] :  originally,  any  one  of  those  lieavenly 
bodies  which  seemed  to  change  their  positions  on  the  celes- 
tial sjihere.  In  the  earliest  days  it  was  noticed  that  all  the 
constellations  and  the  tlirusands  of  stars  which  formed 
them  preserve<l  their  relative  [lositions  from  year  to  year 
and  from  generation  to  generation  ■nifhout  any  apparent 
change  whatever,  rising  and  setting  as  if  they  were  fixed  to 
the  interior  of  a  revolving  sphere  encompassing  the  whole 
earth.  Seven  celestial  bodies  were  found  to  form  an  excep- 
tion ;  these  were  the  sun.  the  moon,  and  five  bright  stare, 
Mercury,  Venus,  Mai-s,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  From  the 
changing  positions  of  these  bodies  they  derived  their  appel- 
lation of  planets.    Sec  Ptole.maii-  System. 


638 


PLANE-TABLE 


PLANT-LOUSE 


When  the  Copernican  system  was  established  a  different 
classification  became  necessary.  One  of  the  planets,  the 
sun,  became  the  center  of  tlie  solar  system.  The  term 
planet  could  therefore  no  longer  be  applied  to  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  earth  itself  became  a  heavenly  body,  re- 
volving around  the  sun  lilce  the  five  known  planets.  The 
position  of  the  moon  alone  remained  unchanged.  It  was  still 
a  planet  revolving  around  tlie  earth.  Thus  by  a  natural 
use  of  words  the  terra  planet  was  ajiplied  to  all  tlie  bodies 
which  perform  tlieir  revohitions  ai-ound  the  sun.  Those 
which,  like  the  moon  and  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  revolve 
around  these  planets  are  sometimes  called  secondary  planets  ; 
but  in  the  practical  use  of  words  the  term  planet  is  now  ap- 
plied only  to  those  bodies  of  which  the  sun  is  the  center  of 
motion. 

Among  the  common  characters  possessed  by  the  planets 
are  (1)  they  are  globular  bodies,  rotating  on  their  axes,  and 
therefore  slightly  ellipsoidal  in  figure  ;  (2)  most  of  them  are 
probably  surrounded  by  atmospheres,  more  or  less  dense ; 
(3)  they'shine  by  reflecting  the  light  of  the  sun.  Particulars 
of  their  relations  to  each  other  and  of  the  elements  of  their 
orbits  are  given  in  the  article  Soi.ab  System.  A  detailed 
description  of  each  of  the  major  planets  is  given  under  its 
name.  S.  Newcomb. 

Plane-table  :  an  instrument  used  in  surveying  for  map- 
ping in  the  field.  It  is  particularly  em]3loyed  for  making 
topographical  maps  in  cases  where  a  triangulation  has  first 
been  executed.  It  is  not  used  where  great  accuracy  is  re- 
quired, but  is  particularly  valuable  on  account  of  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  it  can  be  used  in  good  weather.  Although 
an  ancient  instrument,  its  use  has  been  mainly  confined 
to  topographical  mapping  on  a  small  scale.  The  plane- 
table  consists  essentially  of  a  drawing-board  mounted  on  a 
tripod  in  such  manner  that  its  upper  surface  may  be  made 
horizontal,  and  so  that  the  entire  table  may  be  turned  in 
azimuth  through  any  angle  whatever.  The  combination  of 
parts  by  which  these  motions  are  effected  is  similar  to  that 
employed  in  leveling  and  orienting  the  horizontal  limb  of 
an  engineer's  transit.  The  instrument  as  described  is  ac- 
companied by  a  ruler,  usually  of  brass,  and  provided  with 
a  telescope  so  mounted  that  its  line  of  collimation  and  the 
edge  of  the  ruler  shall  always  be  in  the  same  plane.  The 
telescope  is  arranged  with  a  vertical  arc,  by  means  of  which 
small  angles  of  elevation  and  of  depression  may  be  measured. 
The  paper  on  which  the  map  is  to  be  made  is  stretched  and 
held  firmly  in  contact  with  the  table  by  suitable  clamps. 
One  of  the  methods  of  using  the  plane-table  is  indicated  in 
the  diagram.     Let  it  be  required  to  determine  the  relative 


position  of  the  points  P,  Q,  and  R.  Two  stations,  A  and  B, 
are  selected  as  the  extremities  of  a  base-line,  A  B,  and  each 
is  marked  by  a  flag  ;  the  distance  between  them  is  measured  ; 
a  line.  Aft,  is  drawn  on  the  paper  C  D  to  any  suitable  scale 
to  represent  the  line  A  B.  The  plane-table  is  then  set  up 
at  A  and  leveled,  so  that  the  point  A  of  the  table  shall  be 
over  the  corresponding  point  A  in  the  field  ;  the  edge  of  the 
ruler  is  then  made  to  coincide  with  the  line  Ab,  and  then 
the  latter  is  turn(Hl  in  azimuth  till  the  flag  at  B  coincides 
with  the  iiilersceti{m  of  the  cross-hairs  of  the  telescope,  and 
in  this  jKisition  it  is  clamped.  The  telescope  is  then  turned 
in  siiccrssion  upon  the  olijects  P,  Q,  and  li,  the  edge  of  the 
ruler  always  touching  the  point  A  ;  and  in  each  of  these 
positions  a  ))encil  line  is  drawn  along  the  edge  of  the  ruler. 
The  instrument  is  then  taken  to  B  and  leveled,  so  that  the 
point  H  of  the  (able  shall  be  over  the  point  B  in  the 
field  ;  the  edge  of  the  ruler  is  made  to  coincide  with  Jia, 
and  then  the  telescope  is  directed  to  the  flag  at  A  ;  and  in 
this  position  the  talile  is  clamped.  The  lelcsccjpe  is  then 
turned  in  succession  to  the  points  P,  (.^,  and  R,  and  in  each 
position  a  line  is  drawn  along  tlie  edge  of  the  rnler  inter- 
secting the  lines  drawn  to  the  same  points  at  the  other  .sta- 


tion ;  the  points  p,  q,  and  r.  in  which  the  latter  lines  inter- 
sect the  former,  have  the  same  relative  positions  on  the  plot 
that  the  given  points  have  in  the  fieUI.  Another  method  is 
to  determine  the  distances  AP  and  AR  by  means  of  a  stadia- 
rod,  when  they  may  be  laid  oS  to  scale  from  A,  thus  locat- 
ing p  and  /■ ;  by  this  metliod  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  trans- 
fer the  table  to  B.  Revised  by  Mansfield  Merriman. 

Planetoid  :  See  Asteroid. 

Plane-tree  Faiiiily  [plane  is  via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  pla- 
tanus  —  Gr.  TrAararas,  plane-tree,  ileriv.  of  irAoTu?,  broad] ; 
the  Platanacae  :  trees  with  alternate  palmately  veined 
leaves;  flowers  inoncecious.  much  reduced,  in  globular 
heads ;  perianth  of  three  to  six  sepal-like  scales ;  stamens 
three  to  six;  pistils  two  to  eight,  superior,  each  with  a 
single  ovule.  The  single  genus.  Plafanns,  contains  six 
species,  widely  distribuled  in  north  temperate  regions.  P. 
occidentalis  is  the  common  plane-tree  or  buttonwood  of  the 
Eastern  U.  S.,  where  it  is  often  erroneously  called  sycamore. 
P.  orientalis,  the  plane-tree  of  the  Old  World,  which  resem- 
bles the  former  species,  is  occasionally  planted  in  America. 
In  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  times  there  were  many  more 
species  of  Plafanvs  than  are  now  living.        C.  E.  Bessey. 

Planquette,  plaaiVket'.  Robert:  opera-composer;  b.  in 
Paris,  France,  July  31, 1850 ;  educated  in  the  Paris  Conserv- 
atoiy.  His  early  operettas.  Valet  de  Cour,  Le  Sermenf  de 
Mine.  Qringoire,  and  Paille  d'Avoine,  were  successful.  Next 
came  his  greatest  success,  Les  Cloches  de  Corneville,  well 
known  in  English  as  2'he  Chimes  of  Normandy;  first  per- 
formed in  Paris  Apr.  19.  18TT.  He  has  since  composed  sev- 
eral operettas,  including  Hip  Van  Winkle,  Le  Chevalier 
Oaston,  Les  Voltigeurs,  and  Nell  Owynne.  D.  E.  H. 

Plant :  See  Vegetable  Kingdom,  Botany,  Geographical 
Botany;  Plants,  Fossil;  Phy'siology,  Vegetable;  Mor- 
puoLOGY,  Vegetable  ;  Climate,  etc. 

Planta^'enet :  the  surname  of  the  Angevine  dynasty  of 
English  monarchs,  derived  from  the  marriage  of  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I.,  to  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  Count  of 
Anjou.  The  Plantagenet  monarchs  reigned  from  1154  to 
1485,  when  the  victory  of  Bosworth  transferred  the  crown 
to  the  house  of  Tudor.  They  were  usually  ambitious  and 
warlike  princes.     See  England,  History  of. 

Plantain  [from  0.  Fr.  plantain,  plane-tree  :  Span,  pldn- 
tano.  pldtano  <  Lat.  pla'laiins.  See  Plane-tree  Family]  : 
the  fruit  of  the  coarser  cultivated  varieties  of  Musa  para- 
disiaca,  the  finer  and  more  delicate  sorts  being  called  ba- 
nanas. The  plantain  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  is 
now  common  in  nearly  all  hot  countries.  It  is  of  the  family 
Musacem.  Tlie  plantain  furnishes  a  very  large  part  of  the 
food  of  the  human  race  in  some  hot  countries.  The  leaves 
yield  a  fiber  which  closely  resembles  Manilla  Hemp  {q.  v.). 
The  name  plantain  is  also  ajiplied  to  the  species  of  the  weedy 
genus  Plantago,  inhabitants  of  all  yards  and  waste  places  in 
temperate  climates.  Revised  by  L.  II.  Bailey. 

Plantain  Family;  i\\e  Plantaginacecf,  a  family  of  dico- 
tyledonous herbs  of  doubtful  affinity  found  in  nearly  every 
l)art  of  the  world,  but  mostly  in  temperate  regions.  Most 
of  the  siiecies,  of  which  there  are  from  150  to  200,  belong  to 
the  genus  Plantago.  The  common  plantain,  Plantago  ma- 
jor, is  common  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  world.  Although 
nearly  inert,  it  is  employed  in  domestic  medicine.  Its  seeds 
are  fed  to  cage-birds,  and  its  young  leaves,  boiled  as  pot- 
herbs, are  palatable.  In  the  U.  S.  the  ribwort  (/'.  lanceolata) 
is  a  common  weed.  The  fleaworts  (P.  psyllium  and  1'.  arena- 
ria)  are  raised  in  France  for  the  seetls,  which  yield  a  valua- 
ble size  for  cotton  goods  and  paper.     Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Plant-cutter  ;  a  bird  of  the  genus  Phytotoma,  so  called 
from  its  habit  of  cutting  off  leaves  and  buds  from  trees  and 
plants.  The  birds  of  this  genus  are  characterized  by  tooth- 
like serrations  along  the  edge  of  the  mandible  as  well  as  in- 
side the  upper  jaw.  The  few  species  are  peculiar  to  South 
America,  and  are  very  destructive.  They  resemble  sparrows 
in  appearance,  but  are  most  nearly  related  to  the  tanagers. 

Plantigrada,  or  Plantigrades  [from  Lat.,  \>\.  of  planti- 
gradiis,  iilaiitigrade.  from  Lat.  jitanta,  sole  +  gradi,  walk]  : 
those  animals  in  which  the  heel  touches  the  ground  in  walking, 
as  the  bear,  raccoon,  etc.  The  term  is  the  opposite  of  Diqiti- 
grada  {q.  v.),  and  was  employed  by  Illiger  for  a  "family"  of 
mammals,  including  species  now  placed  in  separate  families. 
It  is  now  used  in  a  ilcscriptive  sense  only.  F.  A.  L. 

Plant  Jelly  ;  See  Pectin. 

Plant-louse  :  See  Aphides  and  Gall  Insects. 


PLANTS,  FOSSIL 


63» 


Plants,  Fossil :  plants  or  vegetable  impressions  preserved 
in  the  earth  by  natural  agencies,  sueh  as  inhumation,  petri- 
faetion,  carbonization,  or  incrustation. 

IltsTORV  OK  TiiK  S(ii';NrE. — In  view  of  the  great  abundance 
of  vegetable  remains  now  known  to  occur  in  nearly  all  the 
great  systems  of  rocks  throughout  the  world,  it  has  been  con- 
sidered' remarkaljle  that  no  iiiention  of  their  existence  should 
have  been  found  in  the  writings  of  the  au<ient  (ireeks  and 
Romans  nor  in  any  extant  work  earlier  tlian  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  first  puldished  allusion  to  fossil  plants  thus 
far  discovered  occm's  in  the  treatise  on  minerals  of  Albertus 
Magnus,  which  appeared  in  the  last  half  of  that  century. 
.More  than  a  lumilred  yeai-s  later  Martin  Luther,  in  his  com- 
mentaries on  the  books  of  Jlose.s,  brought  forward  the  exist- 
ence of  petrified  wood  as  evidence  of  tlie  Noachian  deluge, 
and  during  the  sixteenth  century  considerable  discussion 
wiLs  (.'arried  on  by  .\gricola.  Matthiolus,  (iesner,  and  others 
relative  to  the  nature  and  origin  of  vegetable  petrifactions, 
embodying  the  vague  speculations  of  tliese  early  times. 

All  this,  however,  had  reference  to  petrified  or  lignitized 
blocks  of  wood  or  trunks  of  trees,  and  betrayed  no  acquaint- 
ance on  the  part  of  these  writers  with  any  of  the  (lefinite 
organs  of  i)lants  in  the  fossil  state.  It  was  not  until  toward 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  that  these  latter  at 
length  attracted  attention,  and  although  Daniel  Major  of 
Jena,  in  IfitU  includeil  some  such  in  his  lyithoUxjia  curiosii, 
it  remained  for  Kdward  Lhwyd,  a  Welshman,  in  169!),  in  an 
important  illustrated  work,  to  furnish  the  basis  for  the  fu- 
ture scientific  study  of  fossil  plants.  From  this  time  to  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  evidence  rapidly  accumu- 
lated, and  discnssioit  was  rife  and  sometimes  acrimonious. 

The  primitive  notion  of  the  formation  of  these  objects  in 
the  rocks,  through  the  action  of  a  virtus  formativa  ov  vis 
litpidifica,  f^ave  way  to  the  Lutheran  doctrine  that  they  rep- 
resented j)lants  that  were  washed  up  an<l  straiuled  on  the 
shores  of  Euroi)e  by  the  flood,  of  which  Scheuchzer  proved 
the  most  vigorous  champion.  The  botanists  who  at  last  be- 
gan to  examine  the  abundant  Carboniferous  ferns  taken 
from  the  coal-mines  declared  that  they  were  not  the  same  as 
those  then  inhabiting  the  country,  but  were  of  tfopical  as- 
pect, and  the  theory  was  set  on  foot  that  by  some  great  con- 
vulsion the  vegetal  ion  of  the  torrid  zone  had  once  been  torn 
from  the  soil  by  tidal  waves  of  the  sea  and  transported  to 
more  northern  climes.  Among  those  who  leaned  toward 
this  view  was  Antoiiu!  .lussieu,  the  first  of  the  great  line  of 
botanists  of  that  name. 

In  this  pregeologie  age  the  idea  that  the  fossil  plants 
were  extinct  forms  and  belonged  to  a  past  age  of  the  worlil 
had  not  yet  dawned,  but  it  was  destined  soon  to  do  .so,  and 
the  teachings  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Leibnitz,  and  Lehmann 
at  last  pre)iared  the  way  for  Hlumenbach,  who,  before  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  laid  the  foundation  for  the 
true  science,  upon  which  Baron  von  Schlotheim,  Count 
Sternberg,  and  especially  Adolphe  Urongniart,  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  erected  so  noble  a  superstructure. 

The  succeeding  half  century  brought  IVu-th  an  extensive 
literature  of  fossil  plants,  einl)racing  among  others  the 
works  of  Giippert,  L'nger,  Schimper,  Williamson,  lleer,  Kt- 
tingshausen,  .Scheidi,  Saporta,  and  Carruthers  in  Kurope,  of 
Sir  William  Dawson  in  Canada,  and  of  Lesquereux  and 
Newberry  in  the  U.  S. 

Progress  in  tlu'  knowledge  of  fossil  |>lants  naturally  in- 
creased with  the  (piantity  and  ([Uality  of  the  material 
brought  to  light.  ScheuchzcT  in  lliS  enumerated  445  spe- 
cies, and  attempted  to  classify  them  according  to  the  sys- 
tem of  Tournefort,  but  his  work  was  unscientific,  and  his 
species  largely  fancifid.  Brongniart  in  18'.28  descriljcd  M)l 
species  after  a  thorough  revision  of  all  the  specimens  known 
and  careful  exclusion  of  dosblful  material.  This  formed  a 
solid  basis  for  future  work,  and  the  luimber  of  authenti- 
cated forms  rapidly  increased,  l'nger  was  able  to  catalogue 
1,648  species  in  184.'),  and  three  years  later  Gfippert  raised 
this  to  2,0.55.  Progn'ss  was  unabated  during  the  next  twen- 
ty-flve  years,  and  .Schimper's  great  work,  published  in  1874, 
dcseribe.s  about  0,01)0  species  of  fossil  plants.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  (1895),  though  all  care  were  exercised  in  elimmat- 
mg  synonyms,  there  would  probably  remain  unwaril  of  10,- 
(M)0  forms  which,  so  far  as  can  be  known,  are  distinct. 

When  we  consider  that  tlu'  present  known  flora  of  the 
globe  comjirises  over  1.50,000  species  of  plants,  the  number 
of  fossil  plants,  distributed  as  they  are  through  so  nuuiy 
gcologfc  periods,  seems  small  indeec'l,  but  it  is  siill  true  that 
the  representation  from  some  horizons  aiul  particular  local- 
ities occasionally  approaches  the  numerical  relations  that 


subsist  at  the  present  time.  But  the  botanist  is  interested 
in  the  ninnber  of  these  forms  only  as  furnishing  a  basis  for 
their  classification,  and  thus  throwing  light  upon  the  real 
character  of  the  extinct  vegetation  of  the  earth. 

DlFKICUl.TlES  IN  THE  WaV  OK  THE  STUDY  OK  KosSII,  Pl.\.VTS. 

— The  study  of  fossil  plants  presents  pecmliar  dilliculties  to 
the  paleontologist  from  the  fragmentary  character  of  most 
plant-remains,  and  from  the  incomplete  preservation  of 
their  perishal)le  tissues.  Of  many  extinct  species  of  trees, 
in  which  the  indiviiluals  may  have  been  UX)  feet  in  height, 
the  only  traces  yet  obtained  are  a  few  leaves  of  w'hich  the  out- 
lines and  the  nervation  are  imperfectly  preserved.  All  bot- 
anists know  how  variable  the  leaves  of  trees  are:  and  since 
they  often  find  nuich  difliculty  in  discriminating  between 
genera  and  sjiecies  when  many  entire  individmils,  complete 
in  root,  stem,  leaf,  flower,  anil  fruit,  are  before  them,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  they  have  little  faith  in  the  <lc(luct ions 
made  from  a  few  variable  and  incomplete  organs.  No 
doubt  the  iidierent  dilliculties  of  the  subject  have  favored 
hasty  geiu'ralization — have,  in  fact,  led  to  many  errors — and 
should  inspire  a  proper  caution ;  yet  many  fossil  plants 
have  been  discovered,  and  the  preservation  of  some  of  them 
is  so  complete  that  they  afford  material  for  legitimate  and 
important  deductions  in  regaril  to  the  hi.slory  of  plant-life 
on  the  globe ;  indeed,  it  nuiy  be  said  that  the  generalities  of 
this  history  are  already  well  established. 

Geological  History  ok  the  Principal  Types  ok  Vegeta- 
tion.— The  plants  now  inhabiting  the  earth's  surface,  as  well 
as  those  that  have  successively  flourisluMl  during  the  several 
geologic  ages  of  its  history,  may  be  diviiled  into  a  few  great 
groups  which  constitute  so  many  dilTerent  kinds  or  ti/pes  of 
vegetation,  varying  greatly  in  form  and  general  character 
as  well  as  in  their  degree  of  stnictural  advancement  or  per- 
fection. The  time  and  manner  in  which  these  several  great 
types  made  their  appearance  on  the  globe  are  indicated,  in 
so  far  as  they  can  be  known  at  all.  by  fo.ssil  plants.  It 
therefore  becomes  a  matter  of  the  highest  interest  to  en- 
deavor to  trace  these  types  of  vegetation  liack  to  their  ori- 
gin, and  to  note  the  manner  of  their  subsequent  develop- 
ment. 

According  to  the  most  approved  modem  classification  of 
plants  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  primarily  divided  into  the 
four  co-ordinate  groups  or  sub-kingdoms  called  respective- 
ly, 1,  TlinUophyles;  2,  Bryophyti'.K;  'd,  I^fridophytes:  and 
4,  Spermnphyles;  the  first  of  which  embraces  the  lowest 
cryptogams,  the  second  the  mosses  and  liverworts  (these  two 
constituting  the  old  division  of  cellular  cryptogams),  the 
third  the  vascular  cryptogams,  and  the  fourth  all  phanero- 
gams. These  divisions  are,  however,  usually  broader  than 
the  types  which  will  be  treated  below,  and  in  most  cases  em- 
brace several  such.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  in 
dealing  with  the  extinct  forms  of  the  remote  past  one  is 
looking  back  through  the  stages  of  plant-development.  In 
fact,  there  is  no  longer  any  doubt  that  many  of  those  an- 
cient types  really  emboilied  the  primal  elements  of  several 
of  those  which  in  the  slow  course  of  ages  were  evolved  out 
of  them,  and  ultimately  assumed  more  definite  and  distinct 
form.  They  are  in  such  cases  what  have  been  called  com- 
prehennive  types — i.  e.  types  that  comprehend  in  their  struc- 
tures thir  inchoate  germs  of  later  forms.  Such  types  have 
also  been  happily  teriiu'd  jirnplirtic,  in  that  they  contain  the 
promi.se  and  prophecy  of  a  life  that  is  to  flourish  in  subse- 
quent ages. 

The  types  of  vegetation  whose  history  the  study  of  fossil 
plants  serves  best  to  elucidate  are  the  following:  Under  the 
Thallophytes  fall,  in  ascending  order  of  development,  1,  the 
Protopliytes;  2,  theAtyrc;  'i,  W\c  Characeie  \  4,  the  Liehetis; 
and  5,  thc^  Fungi.  The  Bryo])hytes  play  so  inconsyiicnous  a 
role  that  their  subdivision  is  unnecessary.  Under  the  Pteri- 
dophytes  are  ranged.  1,  the  Ferns;  2,  the  Rhiziicitrps;  3,  the 
Fquiselinew  ;  aii<l  4,  the  Lycopo/linete.  The  above  ten  types 
complete  the  cryptogamic  series,  which,  though  it  fills  a 
subordinate  place  in  the  |)resent  flora,  assumes  extraordi- 
nary prominence  in  the  history  of  past  plant-life.  The  great 
sub-kingdom  of  sperraophytes  or  phanerogams  hiis  for  its 
leading  fossil  types,  1.  the  (iymnosperms;  2,  the  Monocoty- 
ledons;  and  8,  the  Dieolyleiioiis:  the  last  two  constituting 
the  Anyiosperms.  which  crown  the  vegetable  scries.  The 
geological  history  of  these  thirteen  types  of  vegetation  may 
be  briefly  sketeheil  as  follows: 

I'he  Prutopliytes. — From  t  hi^  supposed  absence  of  the  low- 
est forms  of  cellular  cryptogams  in  the  older  rocks  it  has 
been  argued  that  such  forms  are  of  comjiaratively  modern 
origin.     The  greater  part  of  these,  however,  are  of  such  a 


640 


PLANTS,  FOSSIL 


soft  or  gelatinous  nature  that  they  obviously  could  not  be 
preserved  under  any  ordinary  conditions  of  sedimentation. 
The  diatoms,  which  possess  siliceous  shields,  are  preserved 
in  vast  abundance  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  heavy  de- 
posits of  diatomaceous  earth  occurring  along  the  Potomac 
and  James  rivers  in  Maryland  and  Virginia,  at  Monterey 
in  California,  in  Bohemia,  and  many  other  parts  of  Europe, 
as  well  as  in  remoter  regions.  But  all  such  beds  are  of  Ter- 
tiary or  more  recent  date,  and  it  is  fair  to  claim  that  this 
group  at  least  is  of  modern  origin. 

The  fact  that  plants  alone  can  transform  inorganic  into 
organic  matter  has  justly  been  brought  forward  in  support 
of  the  claim  that  plant-lite  must  have  preceded  animal  life. 
But  however  conclusive  this  proposition  may  seem  it  would 
have  little  value  for  science  if  not  confirmed  by  facts.  There 
are,  however,  certain  facts  bearing  upon  this  question  which 
were  confidently  urged  long  before  the  discovery  of  any  of 
the  primitive  forms  of  vegetatile  life  in  the  older  sediment- 
ary rocks.  Chief  among  these  is  the  existence  of  vast  de- 
posits of  plumbago  or  graphite,  a  pure  form  of  carbon,  in 
rooks  too  ancient  to  contain  any  deiinite  forms  of  life  either 
animal  or  vegetable — viz.,  in  the  Laurentian  system  of 
Canada  and  other  ancient  deposits.  The  doubts  that  ex- 
isted in  the  minds  of  some  as  to  the  organic  origin  of 
graphite  would  seem  now  to  be  dispelled  by  the  discoveiy 
of  the  fronds  of  ferns  in  the  Devonian  in  the  state  of 
graphite. 

The  nature  of  the  vegetation  that  produced  the  Lauren- 
tian graphite  beds  is  of  course  conjectural,  but  within  the 
last  decade,  due  chiefly  to  the  investigations  of  Reinsch,  it 
has  been  made  practically  certain  that  the  waters  of  the 
Paleozoic  seas  teemed  witli  myriad  forms  of  lowly  crypto- 
gamio  life,  forms  related  to  tlie  Jlyxomycefes  and  other 
protophytes.  The  metamorpliic  rocks  have  jiroliably  lost 
all  traces  of  these  structures,  while  those  of  the  Cambrian 
and  Silurian  do  not  seem  to  be  adapted  to  retaining  them, 
but  from  the  Devonian  upward  to  the  Cretaceous,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  Carboniferous,  impressed  upon  the  coal  itself 
and  occupying  the  chinks  and  crevices  in  its  seams  and 
lumps,  tliese  strange  microscopic  organisms  have  left  their 
traces  in  great  profusion.  Much  light  is  thus  thrown  on  the 
origin  of  coal,  while  the  existence  of  a  great  abundance  of 
primordial  vegetable  life  as  the  food  and  sustenance  of  the 
early  animals  seems  sufficiently  demonstrated. 

The  Algm. — There  has  been  much  animated  discussion  as 
to  the  nature  of  certain  objects  which  have  been  held  by 
some  paleobotanists  to  be  fossil  alg:e.  These  consist  of 
markings  and  reliefs  of  somewhat  definite  form  resembling 
living  AlgtB  upon  the  rocks  of  Paleozoic  or  even  earlier 
ages.  The  most  important  of  tliese  have  been  referred  by 
these  authors  to  the  genera  Bilobites,  Cruziana,  Rhyso- 
phycus,  Vexillum,  Eophyton,  Dendrophycus.  etc.  In  most 
cases  they  are  so  indefinite  that  even  the  most  sanguine 
admit  their  doubtful  character ;  in  a  few,  however,  the 
evidence  of  their  vegetable  origin  is  more  distinct.  But  in 
nearly  all  it  has  been  called  in  question,  and  tlie  problem 
is  one  for  which  from  its  very  nature  a  definite  settlement 
can  scarcely  be  hoped.  The  principal  authors  who  have 
maintained  that  these  markings  represent  real  plants  are 
the  Marquis  Saporta  and  Senhor  Delgado,  while  of  those 
who  have  most  vigorously  attacked  this  view  Dr.  A.  G. 
Nathorst  has  taken  the  leail,  and  been  followed  by  Dawson, 
Newberry,  ami  many  others.  All,  however,  admit  that 
there  is  no  antecedent  improbability  that  algie  inliabited 
the  waters  in  which  these  rocks  were  laid  down,  and  also 
that  some  of  these  forms  really  represent  such  organisms. 
Among  the  best  authenticated  of  these  fossil  algie  may  be 
mentioned  forms  of  Buthotrephis.  Pal(Pophycus,  Licrophy- 
ctis,  P/iytdpxin.  Sphenothallus.  Harlania  (Arthrophycus).  and 
PaliFoclioiiiln'len  of  the  Silurian,  and  Spirnphytnn,  Fucoides, 
and  yeiiui/iip/iyfnii  of  the  Devonian.  The  remarkable  trunks 
from  the  Lower  Devonian  of  Canada,  descrilicd  liy  Dawson 
and  Penhallciw  under  the  name  of  Nomttuph'yton,  and 
claimed  to  reiiresciit  veritiible  trees,  have  been  subjected  to 
the  most  rigid  examination,  and  are  pronounced  to  be  Algie 
allied  to  tlie  Laminariw.  Similar  trunks  have  also  been 
found  lower  in  the  scale,  even  as  low  as  the  Denbighshire 
Grits  at  the  base  of  the  Lower  Silurian.  Aniiil  all  the  di- 
versity of  opinion  therfl'iire  it  seems  evident  that  the  Paleo- 
zoic .seas  contained  and  pmliably  abounded  in  marine  alg.-e  ; 
while  the  occurrence  of  Nem.atophyton,  above  mentioned, 
which  is  held  to  have  inhabited  the  land,  tends  to  show  that 
tliis  type  formed  no  excp|ition  to  the  law,  so  well  exempli- 
fied by  the  higher  ones,  that  tlie  prevailing  types  of  struc- 


ture reached  a  higher  expression  in  Paleozoic  time  than  the 
same  types  exhibit  at  the  present  time. 

In  later  geological  formations  the  forms  of  algje,  though 
less  robust,  are  more  definite  and  better  preserved,  and 
from  tlie  Carboniferous  to  the  Miocene,  but  especially  in 
the  Cretaceous  and  Eocene  (Flysch),  such  genera  as  Chon- 
drites, Hiilymenites,  Sphcerococcites,  Gyrophyl/ifes.  Mun- 
steria,  Cyli/idrites,  DtUsserites,  Cysloseira,  etc.,  are  of  com- 
mon occurrence. 

The  ChciraceiF,  which  mark  a  sort  of  transition  from  the 
algas  to  the  bryopliytes,  are  represented  in  the  fossil  state 
by  some  sixty  species  of  the  genus  Chara,  which  makes 
the  "feather  beds"  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  rivers,  all 
founded  on  the  characteristic  spirally  twisted  "fruits"  of 
that  genus.  They  range  from  the  Oolite  to  the  Pleistocene, 
but  are  most  abundant  in  the  Eocene.  That  the  group  may 
have  had  a  much  earlier  origin  is  at  least  suggested  by  the 
discovery  in  the  Lower  Devonian  (Corniferous  Limestone) 
of  Ohio  of  small  bodies  having  a  great  general  resemblance 
to  Chara  fruits,  though  differing  in  both  the  number  and 
direction  of  the  coils.  The  former  reference  of  these  forms, 
as  well  as  of  the  nearly  identical  Saccamina  of  Dawson,  to 
the  Foraminifera  is  disputed  by  Brady,  the  highest  au- 
thority on  that  group  of  animals. 

The  Lichens. — This  group,  which  is  classed  with  the 
fungi  by  many  modern  botanists,  but  tonus  a  type  very 
distinct  in  external  appearance,  though  abundant  at  the 
present  day  is  hardly  known  in  the  fossil  state,  some  dozen 
species  only,  part  of  which  are  of  doubtful  character,  hav- 
ing been  described,  all  from  the  late  Tertiary  deposits. 
Those,  however,  that  have  been  found  imbedded  in  amber 
are  very  perfectly  preserved,  and  lielong  in  some  instances 
to  the  same  species  with  the  lichens  most  common  in  Eu- 
rope and  America  at  the  present  time.  Prom  their  nature 
the  lichens  are  not  likely  to  be  preserved,  but  it  is  probable 
that  certain  of  the  hard  and  woody  forms  that  grow  on  trees 
will  be  found  attached  to  petrified  trunks  so  abundant  in 
some  places.  It  seems  quite  certain  that  if  the.se  plants  had 
been  at  all  abundant  in  the  forests  of  the  coal  period  they 
would  have  been  found  in  connection  with  the  perfectly 
preserved  impressions  of  the  external  surfaces  of  trees  in 
our  coal  mines.  It  is  probable  that  lichens,  if  they  existed 
at  all,  were  much  less  abundant  in  the  Carboniterous  period 
than  they  are  at  present. 

The  Fimgi. — yuite  a  large  number  of  fossil  fungi  have 
been  described  first  and  last  by  Unger,  Goppert,  Heer,  and 
others,  and  Prof.  Meschinelli  has  recently  publi.shed,  as  a 
part  of  Saecardo's  great  work  on  the  fungi  of  the  globe,  a 
complete  list  of  all  the  known  species,  amounting  to  329, 
and  classed  under  forty-one  genera.  They  are  chiefly  Ter- 
tiary, and  found  forming  spots  on  dicotyledonous  leaves. 
Such  are  the  large  genera  Sphcerites,  Xylomites.  etc.,  but 
the  genera  Archagaricon,  Peronospnrites,  Protoinycifes,  and  J 
Excipulites  are  Carboniferous,  anil  there  are  a  few  Mesozoic  I 
forms. 

Tlie  Bryophytes. — The  plants  of  this  group,  which  in- 
clude the  mosses  and  liverworts,  and  with  the  thallophytes 
constitute  the  cellular  cryptogams,  form  a  conspicuous  fea- 
ture in  the  present  vegetation  of  the  world.  They  were, 
however,  prior  to  the  year  1885,  unknown  with  certainty  in 
any  formation  older  'than  the  Tertiary.  It  is  true  that 
Dcbey  and  Ettingshausen  in  1859  had  figured  an  obscure 
form  from  the  Upper  Cretaceous  of  Liraburg,  in  Belgium, 
which  they  regarded  as  an  ancestral  moss,  and  still  earlier 
(1839)  Roemer  had  made  known  another  equally  uncertain 
supposed  muscite  from  the  Wealden  of  Hanover,  neither  of 
which,  however,  was  accepted  by  Schimper,  the  great  au- 
thority on  both  living  and  fossil  mosses.  The  celebrated 
Swiss  paleontologist  Oswald  Hirer,  having  in  1865  detected 
certain  beetles  of  the  genus  Byrrhiis  that  now  live  exclu- 
sively among  mosses  as  occurring  in  the  Lias  of  Scham- 
lielen  in  Switzerhind.  remarked  that  the  ground  at  that  spot 
was  then  probably  carpeted  with  mosses,  and  ventured  the 
prediction  that  their  fossil  remains  would  yet  be  found. 
This  jirediction  has  not  yet  been  verified  for  any  part  of 
the  Jlesozoic  age,  but  its  sagacity  has  been  strongly  vindi- 
cated by  the  identification  in  1885  by  Renault  an<l  Zeiller 
in  the  coal-measures  of  Conimenlry.  department  of  AUier, 
KrMiice.  of  what  these  authors  regard  as  a  true  moss  allied 
to  Pulytrichum,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  Muscilespoly- 
irichaceiis.  This  accidental  discovery  of  mosses  in  the 
Carboniferous  is  due  to  the  extremely  favorable  conditions 
that  existed  at  that  period  for  the  preservation  of  fossil 
plants,  even  those  least  adapted  to  it.  and  the  absence  of  the 


''     I 


PLANTS,   FOSSIL 


641 


Bryophytes  throuKhout  the  Mesozoic  mu?t  in  like  manner 
be  attributed  to  the  les.s  favorable  conilitions  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  plant  remains  that  characterize  that  prolonged 
period.  Tliat  plants  of  this  type  will  some  time  be  found 
in  considerable  abuniiance  in  tlie  Paleozi>ic  and  tlie  history 
of  the  ty(>e  be  traced  through  the  several  systems  of  -Meso- 
zoic  strata  is  a  forecast  wliich  is  justified  by  the  history  of 
science. 

Both  mosses  and  liverworts  occur  in  considerable  abun- 
dance in  the  Tertiary,  especially  in  the  amber  and  lignite  or 
brown  coal,  to  the  latter  of  which  they  seem  to  have  con- 
tributed larfjely.  as  they  now  do  to  the  formation  of  peat. 
The  species  found  in  tlie  amber  are  so  perfectly  preserved 
that  their  generic  and  specitic  characters  may  often  be  de- 
termined with  accuracy,  and  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  all 
the  species  so  determined  are  closely  allied  to.  and  some  are 
identical  with,  those  now  growing  in  Kurope.  'I'he  J/<n-- 
chantia  poli/iiKir/jhii.  a  liverwort,  is  perliaps  tlie  most  widely 
distributed  of  all  living  plants,  and  a  fossil  species.  M.  sezan- 
nensis,  from  the  lowest  Tertiary  (Paleocene)  strata  of  France, 
closely  resembli'S  it  and  may  have  been  its  progenitor.  The 
Hepatiece.  or  liverwort  family,  are  somewhat  less  highly  or- 
ganized than  the  JIu.-ici,  or  moss  family,  and  their  future 
discovery  much  earlier  in  the  series  would  not  be  a  matter 
of  surprise. 

The  Pteridophy/es.— These  embrace  the  great  group  more 
popularly  known  as  the  vascular  cryptogams,  and  it  is  not 
an  exaggeration  to  say  that  they  have  a  greater  interest  for 
paleobotany  than  any  other  one  of  the  primary  subdivisions 
of  the  vegt'table  kingdom.  Nearly  all  the  living  types  are 
represented  in  the  fossil  state,  but  several  of  these,  especially 
the  ferns,  Equisetinem  and  Li/copodinete.  attained  in  Paleo- 
zoic time  a  clevelopment  and  luxuriance  far  exceeding  those 
exhibited  by  the  same  types  at  the  present  day.  They  con- 
stituted the'bulk  of  the  "great  coal  flora,  assumed  the  stature 
of  true  trees,  and  formeil  veritable  forests  on  the  low  marshy 
continents  and  islands  of  the  Carboniferous  epoch. 

The  Ferii-t. — Probably  the  most  consjiicuous  type  of  an- 
cient vegetation  wa-s  that  of  the  ferns.  The  ferns  of  tem- 
perate regions  are  now  chiefly  small  herbaceous  plants,  but 
in  the  tropi(^s  tree-ferns  still  abound.  In  the  Carboniferous 
there  were  doubtless  some  ferns  of  low  stature.  Init  there  is 
evidence  that  the  tree-terns  were  a  regular  constituent  of 
the  forests  everywhere,  and  tliat  in  many  places  they  over- 
shadowed all  other  vegetation.  The  classification  of  ferns 
is  cliiefly  possible  only  by  their  fruiting  organs.  Imt  the  re- 
mains that  have  come  down  contain  these  only  in  extremely 
rare  cases,  so  that  it  is  still  scarcely  known  to  which  of  the 
living  groups  the  great  genera  Peeopteris.  Neuropteris,  etc., 
are  most  closely  related.  Discoveries,  however,  point  to  the 
conclusion  that  these  ancient  forms  were  very  unlike  those 
of  modern,  or  even  of  Jlesozoic  time,  and  that  there  was 
almost  as  great  a  change  at  the  close  of  the  Paleozoic  in 
the  character  of  the  ferns  as  in  that  of  the  other  types  'of 
pteri<lophytes. 

The  Rhizticarps. — The  small  family  of  rhizocarps  in- 
cludes the  popularly  little-known  genera  Marsilfa.  Pilu- 
laria,  Salvinia,  and  Azolla.  They  differ  in  appearance  from 
most  ferns,  but  structurally  they  are  the  same  except  in 
bearing  two  kinds  of  s|>ores,  the  one  kind  small,  calle<l  mi- 
crospores, ami  performing  male  functions,  the  other  large, 
called  macrospore.s,  and  performing  female  functions.  The 
first  named  of  these  genera  occurs  in  the  fossil  state,  the 
four  or  five  species  of  fos.sil  Marsilea  ranging  from  the  Ju- 
rassic to  the  lliocene.  Unlvinia  is.even  better  retiresented, 
a  dozen  or  more  species  occurring  in  the  I'pper  Cri'taceous 
and  through  the  Tertiary.  Hut  the  type  is  pr(jl)ably  much 
older.  .Sir  J.  W.  Dawson  is  disposed  to  refer  his  Devonian 
genus  Pailophjiton  to  the  rhizocarps,  and  it  certainly  does 
closely  re.semlile  the  modern  Pilutaria  or  pillworts.  The 
Alesozoic  Saf/KHnpffris  is  now  referred  to  the  Marsilcacew, 
and  this  may  take  with  it  the  much  oliler  Olonxopfrris  and 
its  allies.  But  besides  these  indications  of  the  aiiliijuity 
of  this  type  there  have  now  been  found  at  a  luimber  of 
places  in  the  Devonian  the  characteristic  spore-cases  of  tlie 
rliizocarps,  mo.st  resemliling  those  o{  Salfuiia.  Tlie.se  oc- 
cur in  Canada,  Illinois,  Ohio,  and  Brazil.  Dawson  has  de- 
scribed a  number  of  species  founded  on  these  objects  under 
the  name  of  ProtDsahnnia,  and  he  cogently  argues  that  they 
indicate  the  prevalence  in  those  ages  of  an  abumhvnt  rhizo- 
carpean  flora. 

T/if  hAiniKefineo'. — This  type  is  only  represented  in  the 
living  flora  by  the  genus  Eiinisetum,  the  .scouring-rushe.s.  so 
called  from  the  iiuantity  of  silcx  contained  in  their  tissues. 
325 


They  are  mostly  low.  rush-like,  but  leafless  marsh-plants  with 
jointed  stems.  In  the  early  floras,  however,  the  type  em- 
braced the  great  family  Calamariir.  including  the  genera 
Cnlamites,  CalamoJendron.  Asterophyllitex.  Annularia,  and 
a  host  of  other  forms  mostly  of  arliorescent  character  and 
strange  aspect.  They  abound  in  the  coal-measures  of  all 
countries,  and  reach  far  back  into  the  Devonian.  They  be- 
came extinct  at  the  close  of  the  Paleozoic  and  were  succeed- 
ed by  Tria,ssic  forms  of  Equiitetum.  much  larger  than  those 
of  the  present  day,  and  by  the  allied  genus  Sch i zoneura. 
Reduced  forms  of  /iV/h/w/hto continue  through  the  Tertiary, 
at  the  close  of  which  the  type  had  dwindled  to  something 
like  its  present  insignificance. 

The  Li/copodineif. — If  the  ferns  were  the  most  universal 
and  ubiquitous  of  the  primordial  types  of  vegetation,  the 
lycopods  excelled  in  their  size,  majesty,  and  strangeness. 
For  to  this  type,  now  represented  by  the  humble  ground- 
pines  or  club-mosses,  belonged  the  great  Carboniferous  gen- 
era Lepidodendron  and  SigiUaria  with  their  numerous  rel- 
atives, whose  scaly  trunks  are  so  abundant  in  the  roof- 
stones  of  all  coal-mines.  It  was  also  one  or  several  of  these 
great  trees  whose  subterranean  parts  are  known  as  Sfii/ma- 
ria,  and  which  form  such  conspicuous  and  grotesque  objects 
in  the  coal-measures  of  nearly  all  countries.  These  plants 
were  also  true  forest-trees,  rising  above  the  ferns  and  cala- 
mites  and  dominating  the  Carboniferous  landscape.  They 
probably  had  their  origin  in  the  Silurian,  being  abumlant  in 
the  Devonian,  where  many  sjiecies  of  Lfpidndi'tidriin  have 
been  found,  and  where  the  anomalous  linrwyiiia  and  Ar- 
throstigyna  described  by  Dawson  may  have  preceded  and  be- 
gotten them. 

All  these  monarchs  of  the  Paleozoic  forests  went  down 
with  the  calamites  before  the  Permian  winter,  to  be  but 
feebly  succeeded  by  forms  of  Lycopodite-s  connecting  them 
with  the  modern  L/i/copodium.  Of  other  lycopods  the 
genus  Sc-lagineUa  is  sparingly  represented  in  the  fossil  state 
from  the  C'retaceoiis  upward,  while  forms  allied  to  Isaetex, 
the  quillworts,  have  been  found  in  the  Jura.ssic  and  also  in 
the  Miocene. 

The  G ymnosperms. — This  group,  now  constituting  a  class 
in  botany,  and  perhaps  too  comprehensive  to  be  regarded 
as  a  single  type,  embraces  the  three  natural  orders  Cycada- 
reee,  Coniferee,  and  Gnelacece.  The  first  two  of  these  are 
among  the  most  important  families  of  fossil  plant.s. 

The  Cycadacece,  now  a  rare  group,  but  familiar  to  aU 
through  the  common  Cycas  revoluta  of  the  greenhouses,  and 
seeming,  by  its  external  appearance  at  least,  to  connect  the 
tree-ferns  with  the  palms,  once  formed  tlie  leading  type  of 
vegetation  over  the  greater  part  of  the  earth.  This  was  in 
Jurassic  time,  since  which,  like  the  great  cryiitogamic  types 
of  earlier  ages,  it  has  declined  and  nearly  disappeared. 

The  Conifera,  or  cone-bearing  family  of  plants,  which 
embraces  the  pines,  firs,  spmces.  cedai-s,  etc.,  had  a  very 
early  origin,  being  found  in  forms  ajiproacliing  some  of 
the  living  ones  at  the  close  of  the  Carboniferous,  when  such 
genera  as  Walchia.  UUmannia.  and  Vollzia  made  their  ap- 
pearance. These,  however,  as  well  as  the  modified  ;\Iesozoic 
forms,  Brach yphyllum,  Pdlisaya,  Aranrarilcs,  etc.,  that  suc- 
ceeded them,  were  more  closely  allied  to  the  present  South 
American  araucarian  pines  than  to  those  that  make  up  the 
evergi"een  forests  of  the  northern  heniis])lieri',  while  the  ])re- 
dominant  Cretaceous  and  'I'ertiarv  forms  so  closely  approach 
the  great  redwoods  of  Western  ifortli  America  that  most  of 
them  have  been  referred  to  the  germs  Sequoia.  The  true 
|>incs  wiTC  of  more  modern  origin. 

The  dnelncKi'  embrace  the  three  genera  Oncfiim.  Ephe- 
dra, and  Welicifxchin.  all  singular  jilants.  the  last  two  espe- 
cially being  among  the  most  anomalous  of  all  known  forms 
of  vegetable  life.  Ephedra  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  gen- 
era to  which  any  fo.ssil  plants  are  believed  to  be  related. 
One  such  was  descrilied  by  Ileer  from  the  OiiHte  of  Siberia 
under  the  name  of  Ephedrites  aniiqiius.  Another  has  been 
found  in  the  Upper  Jurassic  of  France.  Two  others  range 
through  the  Tertiaiy.  and  one.  possibly  a  true  Ephidra.  is 
a  celelirated  amber-plant.  The  genus  has  also  been  found 
in  the  Pleistocene. 

There  exist  in  the  flora  of  the  globe  certain  forms  which 
bear  evidence  of  being  the  lingering  representatives  of  great 
families  that  have  flourished  in  the  remote  past,  and  are 
now  approaching  extinction.  Such  forms  have  been  appro- 
priately called  tranuig  typex.  To  this  cla.ss  lielong  the  gen- 
era E(pii>ii'/iim  and  Lycopndinm.  The  modi'rn  cycads  are 
a  further  illustration.  Some  of  the  most  interesting  of 
these  waning  types,  however,  belong  to  the  Conifera',  chief 


642 


PLANTS,   FOSSIL 


among  which  are  the  well-known  maidenhair-tree,  Ginkgo 
hiloba,  and  the  redwood  and  mammoth  trees  of  the  Paeitic 
coast.  The  maidenhair-tree  is  the  sole  survivor  of  a  long  line 
of  ancestors  which  appear  to  have  been  abundant  at  differ- 
ent epochs.  It  can  be  traced  Ijack  through  all  the  ages  of 
Cenozoic  and  Mesozoie  time,  with  little  change  in  the  form 
of  leaf  until  the  Oolite  is  reached,  when  the  blade  becomes 
so  divided  that  some  of  its  extreme  forms  take  the  name  of 
Baiera,  a  genus  ranging  through  most  of  the  Mesozoie.  In 
the  Permian  it  is  replaced  by  the  still  more  dissected  forms 
GinkgopluiUum  and  Ti-ichopitij.%  which  are  probably  its  an- 
cestors, aiid  these  in  turn  were  preceded,  and  perhaps  be- 
gotten, by  tlie  whittleseyas.  noeggerathias,  and  cordaites  of 
the  Carboniferous  and  Devonian  measures. 

That  the  sequoias  are  a  waning  type  is  proved  by  their 
extremely  restricted  range  and  number  in  the  present  flora, 
coupled  with  their  great  abundance  and  wide  distribution 
in  the  floras  of  the  past,  the  two  Californian  species  being 
all  that  remain  of  more  than  fifty  species  known  in  the  fos- 
sil state,  ranging  from  the  Jurassic  to  tlie  Pliocene,  and, 
from  Greenland  and  Spitzliergen  to  Chili  and  Xew  Zealand. 

These  are  by  no  means  the  only  cases,  and  the  class  of 
gvmnosperras  bears  evidence  of  having  been  very  gradually 
ushered  into  existence.  Toward  the  close  of  the  Carbonifer- 
ous there  apjieared  a  number  of  aberrant  forms,  such  as 
Dolerophyllum.  Psi/ginop/ii/l/i(m,  CannopJiylUies,  Dicrano- 
p/iylliim.,  etc.,  which  are  proljably  ancestral  Ciymnosperms, 
and  these,  with  the  line  of  Tdxintie  leading  from  Cordaites 
to  the  modern  ginkgo  and  the  yews,  it  has  Ijeen  proposed  to 
erect  into  a  group  to  be  called  progi/mnospenns.  Indeed, 
the  Marquis  Saporta  would  take  the  Cijcadacea'  out  of  the 
true  gyninospermic  column  and  unite  them  with  this  ances- 
tral group. 

JVie  Monocotyledons. — Much  interest  attaches  to  this  type 
of  vegetation,  which,  though  comparatively  small,  has  the 
extraordinary  merit  of  furnishing  all  tlie  cereals  for  man's 
use.  None  of  these,  however,  are  found  at  any  remote  geo- 
logic epoch,  ^md  they  seem,  singularly  enough,  to  have  been 
developed  at  about  the  same  time  that  man  made  his  ap- 
pearance on  the  earth.  The  ancestry  of  this  type  is  en- 
shrouded in  obscurity,  and  some  have  maintained  that  its 
origin  was  not  as  remote  as  that  of  the  dicotyledons.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  none  of  the  now  recognized  forms  of  inono- 
cotyledonous  plants  have  been  n-cognized  with  certainty  at 
an  earlier  period  than  the  Cretaceous.  There  are,  however, 
certain  peculiar  forms  of  extinct  vegetation  occurring  in  the 
Lower  Trias  and  extending  to  the  Upper  Jurassic,  that  have 
been  referred  with  confidence  by  some  authors  to  the  mono- 
cotyledons. Such  are  the  Yiiccites  and  ^iJthop/tylhim  of 
the  Buutersantlstein  of  Alsatia,  and  the  Witliainwnia  and 
Weltricliia  of  the  Rhetie  and  Oolite.  To  these  have  been 
added  the  Dichoneuron  hookeri  of  the  Permian  of  Russia. 
Of  these  and  some  other  forms  usually  referred  to  the  Cy- 
eadaceai,  Saporta  would  establish  an  ancestral  group,  the 
proangiosperms.  analogous  to  the  progymnosperms  above- 
mentioned.  This  author,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Marion, 
made  an  exceedingly  praiseworthy  efllort  to  demonstrate 
from  both  paleontology  and  embryology  the  transition  from 
the  monocotyledon  to  the  dicotyledon,  and  at  least  succeed- 
ed in  showing  that  the  distinction  so  obvious  between  the 
linear  parallel-nerved  monocotyledonous  and  the  broad  net- 
ted-veined  dicotyledonous  leaf  is  obliterated  in  many  cases 
in  the  life-history  of  these  plants. 

With  the  exception  of  the  palms  the  monocotyledons  have 
played  an  unimportant  role  in  the  past  history  of  vegeta- 
tion. The  date  of  their  first  appearance  is  imperfectly 
known  on  account  of  the  problematical  character  of  most  of 
the  early  forms.  All  those  that  can  with  certainty  be  so 
classed  occur  as  late  as  the  Cretaceous,  while  the  ancestors 
of  our  grasses  and  cereals,  as  well  as  of  the  now  abundant 
rushes,  eluli-rushes,  and  sedges  do  not  appear  earlier  than 
the  Tertiary.  The  chief  interest  centers  in  the  palms,  which 
began  their  career  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous  and  attained 
their  maximmn  dcveh.pmrnt  in  the  early  Tertiary.  During 
all  but  the  latter  part  (I'liocene)  of  Tertiary  time,  as  well 
as  during  the  Senonian  and  Laramie  periods  (Upper  Cre- 
taceous), the  palms  tlourislied  in  great  luxuriance,  and  have 
left  their  gigantic  leaves  and  peculiar  fruits  in  the  rocks  of 
Euro[)o  and  North  America  as  far  north  as  Kngland  and 
Vancouver  island.  Anion;;  Hie  richest  of  these  deposits  of 
palms  are  those  of  tinldin  and  Florissant,  Colorado,  repre- 
senting the  Laramie,  Denver,  and  Green  river  formations, 
where  Sfilidl  major  and  Flabellaria  florissanti  exhibit 
leaves  from  2  to  4  feet  in  width. 


Tlie  Dicotyledons. — This  great  type,  embracing  most  de- 
ciduous trees  and  foliage-plants  and  thousands  of  broad- 
leaved  evergreen  tropical  and  subtropical  trees  and  shrubs, 
now  constitutes  the  dominant  vegetation  of  the  globe.  It 
had  no  existence  in  the  earlier  geologic  ages  and  only  came 
on  the  scene  in  late  Mesozoie  time.  But  it  soon  outstripped 
all  its  competitors,  vying  with  the  palms  for  the  mastery 
during  the  late  Cretaceous  and  gaining  the  complete  ascend- 
ant during  early  Tertiary  time.  Its  geologic  history  is 
chiefly  known  through  leaves  that  have  been  dropped  or 
blown  by  the  winds  into  the  waters  of  the  seas,  lakes,  and 
rivers  on  whose  shores  these  plants  grew,  and  which,  from  the 
thin  and  broad  nature  of  such  organs,  were  quickly  covered 
by  the  sediment  and  preserved  in  the  rocks.  Other  organs, 
such  as  flowers  and  fruits,  especially  the  latter,  are,  however, 
sometimes  found,  and  by  their  aid  the  determinations  based 
on  leaves  alone  can  then  be  verified  or  corrected.  The  neces- 
sity for  identifying  so  large  a  mass  of  material  from  leaves 
alone  has  created  a  new  department  of  botany  previously  neg- 
lected. The  form  of  leaves  was  formerly  alone  relied  upon 
in  describing  plants,  but  this  furnishes  little  aid  to  the  paleo- 
botanist.  who  must  determine  not  only  the  species  but  the 
genus  and  even  the  order  from  such  data  alone.  This  led 
to  the  study  of  nervation,  which  was  found  to  have  a  much 
higher  systematic  value.  It  may  be  saiil  that  while  form 
possesses  only  specific  value,  nervation  possesses  generic, 
and  sometimes  ordinal,  value  in  the  classification  of  plants, 
and  a  somewhat  complete  system  of  classification  has  been 
laboriously  elaborated,  based  on  tlie  nature  and  arrange- 
ment of  tlie  veins  and  veinlets  that  distribute  the  flbro-vas- 
cular  bundles  to  the  blade  of  the  leaf. 

Throughout  Cretaceous  and  all  but  late  Tertiary  time  the 
evidence  thus  presented  goes  to  prove  that  the  dicotyledon- 
ous vegetation  consisted  chiefly  of  trees  and  shrubs  with 
somewhat  thick,  tough,  and  leathery  leaves,  such  as  now 
characterize  the  flora  of  tropical  and  subtropical  countries, 
and  this  is  in  harmony  with  the  views  of  most  geologists 
that  the  climate  of  the  earth  has  undergone  a  gradual 
change  by  the  slow  lowering  of  its  temperature,  at  least 
down  to  "the  beginning  of  the  last  series  of  glacial  epochs, 
during  and  since  which  little  is  known  of  the  fossil  vegeta- 
tion. 

Many  Cretaceous  and  early  Tertiary  forms  have  been  re- 
ferred to  genera  that  now  exist,  sucli  as  Populus,  Salix, 
Sassafras,  Plataniis,  Quercus,  Ficus.  3Iiignolia,  Lirioden- 
dron,  Viburnvm,  etc.,  and  doubtless  such  references  possess 
a  degree  of  correctness,  but  it  is  better  to  make  the  mental 
reservation  in  most  cases  that  these  ancient  forms  are  prob- 
ably the  forerunners  and  ancestors  of  the  living  genera,  and 
that  could  their  flowers,  fruits,  and  other  organs  be  per- 
fectly known  it  might  be  necessary  to  create  new  genera  for 
their  reception. 

The  Dicotyledons  furnish  numerous  examples  of  waning 
tyVes  as  defined  above.  Such  is  the  genus  Sassafras,  with 
only  one  living  representative  of  some  dozen  fossil  species. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  tulip-tree,  Liriodendron  tuUpifera, 
and  the  ancestors  of  both  these  species  date  back  to  the 
Lower  Cretaceous.  Liqvidambar  is  a  somewhat  similar 
example,  and  seems  to  merge  into  Platanus,  which  is  prob- 
ably the  most  interesting  genus  from  this  point  of  view. 

Geological  Ri5St'Mi5. — The  general  character  of  the  fossil 
vegetation  of  the  globe  has  been  depicted  in  the  foregoing 
paragraphs,  but  in  treating  the  great  tyjies,  some  of  which 
range  through  a  series  of  geologic  ages,  it  has  not  been  pos- 
silile  to  convey  as  clear  an  idea  as  seems  desirable  of  the 
flora  of  each  of  the  successive  periods  of  geologic  time.  A 
brief  resume,  therefore,  from  this  |ioint  of  view,  seems  to  be 
justified  even  at  the  risk  of  some  slight  repetition. 

It  should  be  premised,  however,  that  the  fundamental 
divisions  of  geologic  time  which  are  suggested  by  the  history 
of  plant-life  diflfer  slightly  from  those  commonly  adopted 
as  based  upon  animal  life."  The  Eophytic  and  Paleophytic 
ages  correspond  with  sulficient  exactness  with  the  Eozoic 
(.\rclieaii  and  Algonkian)  and  Paleozoic  (Cambrian.  Silurian, 
Devonian,  and  Carboniferous)  ages,  but  the  Mesophytic  age 
properly  ends  with  the  Jurassic  instead  of  the  Cretaceous, 
liecause  it  is  here  that  the  greatest  break  in  the  entire  series 
occurs  by  tlie  introduction  and  rapid  rise  of  the  great  dicoty- 
ledonous flora  which  ever  afterward  maintained  such  an  un- 
disputed supremacy.  Again,  the  Ceno]iliytic  age  begins 
with  the  Cretaceous  instead  of  the  Tertiary,  which  is  the 
|ioiiit  of  origin  of  the  Cenozoic,  and  is  more  completely 
broken  in  the  plant  than  in  the  animal  series  by  the  ap- 
proach of  the  glacial  epoch,  while  this  break  occurs  some- 


I 


PLANTS,   FOSSIL 


643 


what  earlier  in  tlie  fciniier  than  in  the  hitter,  or  at  a  [idint 
in  the  Xeoeene  perind  eurrespondins  approximately  to  the 
line  drawn  by  Lyell  between  the  Miooene  ami  the  I'lioeene. 
Below  this  line  there  is  everywhere  eviilenee  of  a  warm 
tropienl  or  subtropieal  climate,  and  the  introduetion  of 
forms  indicative  of  a  temperate  or  more  or  less  arctic  cli- 
mate is  here  somewhat  sudden  and  alirupt. 

So  far  as  plants  are  concerned,  therefore,  the  geological 
series  may  be  divided  into  five  great  ages:  the  Kophytic, 
Palcophy'tic,  Jlesophytic,  Cenophytic,  and  Neojihylie.  ages. 
The  I'iophytie  and  I'aleophytic  constitute  the  Primary,  the 
Mesophytie  the  Secondary,  the  Cenophytic  the  Tertiary,  and 
the  Neophytic  the  (,)uaternary  division  of  time.  In  the 
following  enumeration  of  the  successive  floras,  however,  the 
les.ser  periods  in  more  common  use  by  geologists  will  be 
employed : 

Tliii I'recamhrian  Flora. — Little  as  is  known  of  what  the 
real  nature  of  the  Eophytic  flora  was,  there  is  still  sutlicient 
evidence,  as  wjus  set  forth  when  treating  of  the  Protoi)hytes, 
to  make  it  tolerably  safe  to  assume  that  this  primitive  vege- 
tation consisted  mainly  or  exclusively  of  the  lowest  forms 
of  eryptogamii'  life — those  unorganized  plasmala,  cytodes, 
or  unicellular  liodies  which  formed  the  initial  life  of  the 
planet,  and  sprang  by  some  unknown  archegonic  process 
from  the  womb  of  the  great  "mother  of  life,"'  the  sea.  To 
such  forms,  and  many  still  exist,  the  term  Protojihytes  has 
been  applied.  The  Eophytic  period  may  therefore  be  ap- 
proiiriately  calU'd  the  age  of  Protophytes. 

The  (Min/in'iin  Flora. — -The  Cambrian,  which  is  now  rec- 
ognized as  including  the  Potsdam  Sandstone,  the  Taconic 
system,  and  all  below  the  Ordovician  of  some  authors,  con- 
tains many  of  the  problematical  organisms  discussed  under 
Algie,  some  of  which  are  undoubtedly  plants  belonging  to 
that  type.  Among  these  are  probably  some  of  the  species 
of  Fucoides,  Buthutrf.pliU.  and  Palreuphi/cns  that  have  been 
described  from  rocks  of  this  age  in  New  York,  Vermont, 
Wisconsin,  and  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota,  as  well 
as  from  England,  Wales,  Sweden,  and  otlier  countries  of 
Europe. 

Thi'  Silurian  Flora. — Scarcely  more  can  be  said  for  the 
Lower  Silurian  than  for  the  Cambrian,  and  the  same  forms 
recur  only  in  greater  number  and  distinctness.  Mut  here 
is  encountereil  in  the  Trenton  Limestone  the  genus  Plii/- 
to/)ni.f.  and  in  the  Hudson  Kiver  Uroui)  the  genera  Splieno- 
thalhi.-i  and  Licrophijcun,  as  well  as  all  the  various  forms 
from  Southern  Ohio,  some  of  which  are  doubtless  of  vegeta- 
ble nature.  The  Spheiiopht/lliun  primisvuin  and  Profosfig- 
ma  sigillarioides,  as  well  as  the  supposed  species  of  Sigil- 
laria,  descrilted  by  Lesquereux  from  this  deposit  have  been 
called  in  question  and  are  still  in  doubt,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  Eopferix  morierei,  a  supposeil  Lower  Silurian  fern 
from  Southern  France.  It  is  therefore  still  uncertain 
whether  any  positive  evidence  exists  of  the  occurrence  of 
Pteridophytes  or  any  form  of  land-vegetation  in  the  Lower 
Silurian. 

In  the  Upper  Silurian,  however,  such  forms  have  been 
found  under  conditions  that  seem  to  leave  no  doubt  of  their 
existence  at  that  epoch.  Besides  the  recurrence  of  the  fu- 
coidal  remains  with  increasing  abundance  and  definiteness 
of  structure,  there  is  not  only  the  land-thallopliyte  Xfiiia- 
toplii/loit,  but  the  sup|ii>seil  rhizocarpcau  genus  I'silaphii- 
toii,  and  the  probably  pti'rldophytic  /'rolanniilaria,  Arlhru- 
stiyma,  Bi;ra'i/nia,  and  07y/;/(«/(7(r/;v;«,  constituting  a  firm 
Silurian  basis  for  the  future  lan<l- vegetation  of  the  globe. 

The  Duvonian  Flora. — The  change  in  passing  from  the 
Silurian  to  the  I)ev<iriian  flora  is  so  abrupt  that  it  must  be 
attributed  in  great  jiart  to  the  imperfection  of  the  geological 
record.  Still  it  strongly  suggests  that  there  nuiy  have  been 
about  the  close  of  Silurian  time  a  great  lowering  of  temper- 
ature analogi>us  to  that  which  is  now  generally  believe<l  to 
have  occurred  at  the  close  of  the  Cari)oniferous.  Scarcely 
any  of  the  fucoidal  forms  persisted,  though  some  peculiar 
to  tliat  age,  such  as  the  Spirophyton,  or  ci>ckstail  fucoid, 
are  found.  I5ut  the  places  of  these  are  supplied  many  times 
over  by  far  higher  types  of  land-ijlants,  clearly  impressed 
upon  the  rocks  or  petrified  in  place  with  their  internal 
structure  preserved,  so  as  to  leave  no  doulit  as  to  their 
vegetable  nature,  and  to  enable  us  to  determine  their  bo- 
tanical relations.  Not  oidy  were  all  the  great  types  of  Pteri- 
dophytes represented — the  ferns  by  ArcJiiriipteris,  Cyclop- 
teri.H,  Sphenopterii^,  liknrhiopterix,  .Megalopliris,  etc.;  tlie 
rhizocarps  l)y  Puilopliyton  and  Protosalrinia ;  the  Caln- 
viarim  by  liornia,  Ikilamilfx,  AnteropliijlliteK,  and  Anii\i- 
laria ;   and   the    lycopods    by  Lepidodendron,   ISigillaria, 


ICiiorria,  and  Siigmaria — but  a  large  number  of  gymno- 
spermous  or  progymnospermoiis  forms  were  introduced, 
such  as  yoi'ggerathia.  Cordaites,  Dado.Tylun^  and  Syrin- 
goxyloii.  The  Devonian  flora  was  therefore  tlie  beginning 
of  the  Carlioniferous  flora,  wliicti  is  next  to  be  considered. 

Tlic  ( 'arljuniferous  Flora. — This  flora  is  too  well  and 
popularly  known  to  require  a  detailed  examination.  It  was 
the  climax  in  the  development  of  all  the  great  types  of 
Pteridophytes  above  described.  It  flourished  iluring  a  pe- 
riod of  the  earth's  history  marked  by  a  warm,  tropical  cli- 
mate, yet  not  too  hot  for  the  growth  of  land-vegetation ;  by 
a  great  i>reponderance  of  ocean  over  land  ;  by  a  mostly  low, 
flat,  marshy  condition  of  the  land-surface,  which  was'prob- 
ably  largely  insular  or  peninsular,  the  isl.-iijils.  tongues,  mid 
necks  of  land,  as  well  as  the  marshy  and  lake-strewn  conti- 
nental expanses  bathed  in  the  moisture  of  their  almost 
steaming  waters,  and  perhaps  nearly  always  overhung  with 
a  nimbus  cloud-envelope  and  drenched  by  ceasele.ss  mists  or 
rains.  Under  such  conditions  the  luxuriant  forests  of  tree- 
ferns,  Icpidophytes,  calamites,  and  cord.-i'ites,  flourished  un- 
molested, and  Were  aide  to  attain  that  extraordinary  devel- 
opment which  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  wonders  that 
science  has  revealed  to  man. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  period,  during  the  phase  which  is 
commonly  marked  oil  as  the  Permian,  a  change  began  to 
take  place  in  the  character  of  the  flora;  the  earlier  forms 
were  reduced  in  size  and  impoi'tanci!,  and  new  ones,  such  as 
VTalchia  and  UUmanitia,  apjieared,  more  nearly  appiroach- 
ing  the  later  forms  of  the  Coiiifertr.  Among  these  the 
genus  Voltzia  is  sparingly  found,  a  form  whicli  was  to  rcap- 
jiear  in  the  early  Trias.  The  rapid  and  ull  imately  complete 
extinction  during  this  epoch  of  the  great  Paleozoic  Pterido- 
phytes that  reigned  so  absolutely  over  the  preceding  ages 
marks  one  of  the  most  abrupt  transitions  in  the  geological 
history  of  the  earth. 

I'he  2'riassic  Flora. — To  pass  from  the  Paleozoic  to  the 
Mesozoic  age  is  to  enter  anew  world.  The  calamites  of  the 
Carboniferous  had  disappeared,  but  these  had  given  place  to 
forms  of  true  Equisetum.  some  "of  which,  such  as  E.  rogersi 
of  the  Richmond  coal-fleld  in  Virginia,  still  attained  a  great 
size.  The  great  lycopods  of  the  coal-period  had  all  per- 
ished, as  no  traces  of  them  are  found  in  the  Triassie.  The 
most  noticeable  trees  of  the  Lower  Trias  are  the  ])eculiar 
conifers  Albert ia  and  Voltzia.  They  are  l)f)th  araiicarians, 
but  quite  different  from  those  which  preceded  aud  followed 
them.  The  most  conspicuous  and  characteristic  feature  in 
the  Triassie  flora  is  the  great  development  it  exhibits  of  the 
family  of  cycads.  These  were  so  numerous,  varied,  and 
showy  that  they  have  caused  the  Triassie  and  Jurassic  ages 
to  be  called  by  .some  the  reign  of  cycads. 

The  flora  of  the  Trias  has  now  been  somewhat  thoroughly 
studied  in  North  America  from  large  collections  made  in 
the  coal-basins  of  Richmond,  Va..  and  of  the  I)ee|>  and 
Dan  rivers.  North  Carolina,  as  well  as  from  the  Connecticut 
valley,  from  the  Newark  beds  of  New  Jersey,  and  in  the 
West  from  the  cojiper  region  near  Abiquiu,  New  Jlexico. 
These  investigations  have  revealed  a  flora  most  like  that  of 
the  Upper  Trias  in  the  Old  \\'orld,  being  coniixised  of  the 
same  genera  and  in  part  of  the  same  sjiccies.  The  ferns  and 
cycads  form  the  largest  groups,  ami  are  about  equally  pre- 
dominant. After  these  come  the  conifers  and  next  the 
equiscta.  More  than  one  hundred  species  of  these  four  types 
are  now  known  from  the  American  deposits.  Careful  com- 
parisons have  been  made  of  this  flora  with  those  of  other 
countries,  and  the  conclusion  has  been  reached  that  it  repre- 
sents the  extreme  upper  member  of  that  system,  correspond- 
ing to  the  Upper  Keuper  or  Rlielic  of  Europe. 

'i'liis  I'pper  Triassie  flora  is  of  the  greatest  interest,  as  it 
bears  evidence  of  having  migrated  from  the  .southern  hemi- 
sphere. It  abounds  in  Australia  and  India,  and  has  been 
found  in  South  Africa  and  the  Argentine  Republic.  From 
these  regions  it  seems  to  have  spread  in  the  Old  World  to 
Asia  Minor,  Cochin  China.  China  proper,  Japan,  Siberia,  an<l 
Europe,  and  in  the  New  Worhl  to  Honduras,  Mexico,  and 
the  regions  of  the  C  S.  enumerated  above.  It  appears  in 
India  and  Australia  at  an  earlier  period,  and  is  a  mollifica- 
tion of  the  Carlioniferous  types  that  existed  there.  These 
survived  the  ordeal  that  laid  low  the  pteridophytic  coal 
flora  of  the  north,  and  reappeared  in  alti^red  forms  as  the 
widespread  Jlcsozoic  flora  of  the  globe. 

The  Jurassic  Flora. — No  fossil  plants  liave  yet  been  found 
in  America  which  come  from  strata  that  have  lieen  identi- 
fied wilh  cerlainty  as  Jurassic,  although  the  Triassie  flora 
above  described  belongs,  as  slated,  to  the  extreme  top  of 


644 


PLANTS,  FOSSIL 


that  system,  and  was  long  supposed  to  represent  the  Oolite, 
which"  in  Europe  is  rich  in  plant-remains.  On  the  York- 
shire coast  of  England  and  in  many  parts  of  France,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  as  well  as  in  India  and  Siberia,  there  are  ex- 
tensive deposits  of  that  age  that  contain  fossil  plants,  of 
which  some  five  or  six  hundred  species  have  been  described. 
Several  hundred  more  are  known  from  the  Lias  below,  and 
the  Coral,  Portland,  Purbeek,  and  Kimmeridge  beds  above 
the  Oolite.  These  constitute  simply  a  gradual  modification 
of  the  Keuper  and  Rhetic  flora  already  described,  and  their 
differences  are  too  much  matters  of  detail  to  require  enu- 
meration here. 

The  Cretaceous  Flora. — As  already  remarked,  the  Creta- 
ceous gave  a  new  dispensation  to  the  plant-life  of  the  globe 
in  the  first  appearance  here  of  the  great  type  of  Dicotyle- 
dons. These  are  now  known  to  occur  at  the  very  base  of 
the  system,  but  of  peculiar  form  and  character,  indicative  of 
an  embryonic  state,  and  mingled  with  other  types — ferns, 
cycads,  conifei-s,  etc. — of  Jurassic  aspect.  The  Potomac  for- 
mation of  Virginia,  first  made  known  in  its  botanical  rela- 
tions by  Prof.  Fontaine  in  1889,  is  tlie  earliest  in  the  world 
at  which  this  type  of  vegetation  is  known  to  have  existed. 
Saporta,  however,  has  discovered  dicotyledonous  plants  in 
collections  from  Portugal  at  a  horizon  only  slightly  higher. 
A  single  plant  of  this  sub-class  had  been  found  by  Heer 
during  his  study  of  the  arctic  floras  in  the  Kome  beds  of 
Greenland,  which  were  referred  to  the  Lower  C'retaceous. 
but  not  to  its  extreme  base,  prior  to  which  none  were  known 
older  than  the  Cenomanian  or  Jliddle  Cretaceous  of  Europe. 
At  that  horizon  they  had  long  been  known,  and  have  been 
described  from  many  parts  of  the  Continent — Saxony,  Bohe- 
mia, Moravia,  etc. — also  from  the  Atane  beds  of  Greenland. 
The  Dakota  formation  of  Kansas  and  Xebraska  is  placed  at 
about  the  same  age,  and  has  yielded  a  very  large  flora  in 
which  Dicotyledons  greatly  predominate.  Until  very  re- 
cently it  was  believed  that  the  Raritan  and  Amlioy  clays  of 
New  Jersey,  which  have  also  furnished  plants  of  this  type, 
were  nearly  of  the  same  age,  but  researches  now  in  progress 
point  to  an  earlier  date  for'tliese  deposits,  while  the  same 
flora  has  been  found  to  extend  southward  to  the  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  Potomac  river,  where  it  blends  with  tliat  of  the 
Potomac  formation.  It  likewise  recurs  in  Alabama  and 
Mississippi,  where  large  collections  have  already  been  made, 
and  it  will  probably  be  traced  much  fartlier. 

The  forms  other  than  dicotyledons  that  characterize  the 
Potomac  formation — ferns,  equiseta,  cycads,  and  conifers — 
have  been  found  in  the  Kootanie  formation  of  the  British 
Northwest  Territories  and  at  Great  Falls,  Montana ;  and  dur- 
ing the  summer  of  1891  a  flora  was  brought  to  light  in  the 
Trinity  division  of  the  great  Comanche  scries  of  Texas 
which  embodies  the  same  types  and  is  probably  of  the  same 
age. 

The  Upper  Cretaceous  flora,  which  is  also  very  rich  and 
has  been  made  known  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  in  Greenland, 
and  in  British  America,  shows  some  advance  toward  that  of 
the  Tertiary,  especially  in  the  presence  of  palms,  but  also 
in  the  more  modern  character  of  both  its  dicotyledons  and 
its  less  advanced  types.  Distinct  from  this  and  occupying 
the  extreme  Upper  Cretaceous,  perhaps  extending  into  the 
Eocene,  is  the  great  Laramie  formation  of  the  Rocky  Jloun- 
tain  region.  Its  flora  is  remarkable  both  in  its  character 
and  its  abundance.  Notwithstanding  its  modern  aspect, 
containing  as  it  does  several  now  living  species,  it  still  em- 
braces a  great  number  of  wholly  peculiar  forms,  some  of 
which  seem  to  be  of  South  American  type.  This  interesting 
flora  is  as  yet  only  partially  known  to  the  world,  and  is  still 
the  object  of  active  research. 

The  Tertuirji  Flora. — In  the  geological  history  of  tlie 
earth  there  have  been  two  great  periods  during  which  the 
deposition  of  vegetable  matter  has  played  a  leading  role — 
great  shoaling  periods,  they  may  be  called — resulting  in  ex- 
tensive coal-beds,  and  in  and  atjout  these,  immense  deposits 
of  fossil  plants.  Tliese  periods  were  the  Carboniferous  and 
the  Tertiary,  or.  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  tlie  coal-meas- 
ures and  the  Eu-Mlocene.  No  other  periods  can  be  com- 
Iiared  with  these  from  this  point  of  view,  and  they  seem  to 
murk  the  conipleti<m  of  a  great  cycle  in  the  ages. 

The  dicotyledons  predominate"  in  the  Tertiary  flora,  and 
the  generalities  of  its  features  have  been  already  given  in 
what  has  heon  .said  of  tlie  geological  history  of  "that  type. 
The  flora  of  the  Tertiary  is  also  so  great  and  so  varied  that 
any  detailed  description  of  it  would  carry  this  article  far 
beyond  its  prescribed  limits.  Probably  half  of  all  known 
sjJBcies  of  fossil  jjlants  occur  in  tlie  Tertiary,  and  these  not 


only  represent  every  one  of  the  great  types  of  vegetation 
that  have  been  passed  in  review,  but  they  also  represent  a 
great  number  of  the  orders  and  genera  of  the  present  flora 
of  the  earth.  A  few  general  conclusions  drawn  from  the 
facts  are  therefore  all  tluit  can,  with  propriety,  be  added: 

1.  Everything  indicates  that  the  flora  of  the  Tertiary  was 
directly  derived  from  that  of  the  Cretaceous,  and  has  in 
turn  given  birth  to  the  flora  of  the  present  day. 

2.  In  the  Eocene  Tertiary  a  luxuriant  vegetation  cov- 
ered the  northern  portion  of  the  North  American  continent, 
Northern  Asia,  and  tlie  arctic  lands  as  far  north  as  Grin- 
nel  Land,  hit.  81  46  N.,  and  some  400  species  of  chiefly  ar- 
borescent plants  are  represented  in  this  arctic  flora. 

3.  The  number  of  arctic  American  Tertiary  species  found 
in  European  deposits  of  the  same  age  is  so  large  as  to  war- 
rant the  inference  that  tliere  was  a  land  connection  between 
the  two  continents  during  this  age.  This  community  of 
character  has  also  been  considered  indicative  of  the  coloni- 
zation of  Europe  by  the  American  flora  in  the  Miocene  age, 
and  the  plane-tree  of  the  Old  World  has  been  shown  to  have 
had  an  American  origin.  Moreover  the  similarity  of  the 
flora  of  Japan  to  that  of  Eastern  North  America  indicates 
that  tliere  was  a  land-connection  between  North  America 
and  Asia  during  Tertiary  time. 

The  Keophytir.  Flora. — The  properly  geological  record  of 
plant-life  practically  closes  with  the  Miocene.  The  Plio- 
Pleistocene  flora  is  very  small,  and  most  of  the  forms  oc- 
curring in  it  are  still  living.  The  remainder  are  found 
upon  comparison  to  resemble  living  ones  more  or  less 
closely,  which  lessens  the  interest  usually  felt  in  them.  The 
Auriferous  Gravels  of  California  and  Australia  contain,  how- 
ever, a  good  number  of  apparently  extinct  species  repre- 
sented chiefly  in  the  former  case  by  leaf-impressions  and  in 
the  latter  by  fruits  and  seeds.  Pleistocene  plant-bearing  de- 
posits occur  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  notably  at  Utznach  and 
Diirnten  in  Switzerland,  at  Cannstatt  in  France,  and  on  the 
Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Sussex  coasts  of  England.  They  are 
also  known  in  North  America,  as  at  Green's  creek  on  the 
Ottawa  river  in  Canada,  near  Columbus,  Ky.,  on  the  Slissis- 
sippi  river,  and  at  Boaz  in  Graves  County  of  the  same  State. 
Dr.  Nathorst  has  long  been  studying  the  glacial-drift  depos- 
its of  Northern  Europe  to  find  remains  of  glacial  vegetation, 
and  has  discovered  many  species.  Some  of  the  localities 
are  as  far  south  as  Switzerland,  Wiirtemberg,  Bavaria,  and 
Hungary.  Prolonged  study  of  the  geograpliical  distribu- 
tion of  living  plants,  in  connection  with  the  above-men- 
tioned facts,  has  led  to  the  following  general  conclusion : 
With  the  approach  of  the  glacial  period  the  flora  of  the 
Tertiary,  where  it  could  retreat,  was  driven  soutliward ; 
where  it  could  not,  it  was  destroyed,  and  even  the  lowlands 
were  occupied  by  an  arctic  vegetation.  When  at  length, 
however,  the  climate  moderated  after  the  ice  period,  these 
boreal  plants  moved  northward  or  climbed  the  mountains, 
where  .they  found  a  permanent  arctic  temperature.  The 
more  ancient  flora  that  had  been  driven  southward  then 
gradually  resumed  its  northward  marcli,  and,  greatly  modi- 
fied by  its  long  exile  and  wanderings,  slowly  reclaimed  the 
less  elevated  territory,  forming  ultimately  the  present  flora 
of  the  temperate  zone. 

Dominant    Types    of    Geologic    Ages. — A   retrospective 
glance  over  the  successive  ages  of  geologic  time,  as  stamped 
each  by  its  ]jeculiar  flora,  will  make  it  possible  to  select  in 
each  case  some  type  of  plants  which  may  be  said  to  charac- 
terize that  age,  to  dominate  it,  as  it  were,  and  reign  for  the 
time  beinf?r  over  all  other  types.     Thus  the  Eophytic  age 
may  be  called  the  reign  of  protophytes;  the  Cambrian  and 
.Silurian  taken  together,  the  reign  of  alga;;   the  Devonian 
and   Carljoniferous    taken    together,   the    reign    of    pteri- 
dophytes;    the  Triassic   and  Jurassic   taken   together,   the 
reign  of  gymnosperms;   and  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary 
taken  together,  the  reign  of  dicotyledons.     The  algte  cul- 
minated in  the  Upper  Silurian;  the  ferns,  lepidophytes,  and 
calainites  in  the  coal-measures;  the  cycads  in  theOolite;j 
the  conifers  in  the  Cretaceous;  the  palms  in  the  Eocene jj 
and  the  apetalons  and   jiolypetalons  dicotyledons   in   thoj 
Miocene.     The  present  may  "be  regarded  as  "the  age  of  lilia-j 
ceous  and  glumaceous  monocotyledons  and  gamopetalousi 
dicotyledons.  I 

Rel.\tio.n  of  Fossil  Pl.\mts  to  Biology  ly  General. — I 
The  discovery  and  careful  study  of  such  large  numbers  off 
]ilant-forms  occurring  in  the  different  geological  formations] 
have  greatly  enlarged  the  fund  of  knowledge  relative  to  thai 
history  and  development  of  plants,  and  led  to  extensive] 
modifications   in   the   prevailing   system   of   classification. 


PLANTS,   FOSSIL 

Only  a  few  of  the  more  important  of  these  results  can  be 
presented  here. 

It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  structure  of  the  stem 
constituted  the  most  fundamental  ('haracler  in  tlie  classifi- 
cation of  phanerogams,  and  that  sul)-kin};d<>Mi  was  accord- 
ingly sulMiivide<i  primarily  into  those  possi'ssiiig  the  endoge- 
nous and  exogenous  structures  rcsi)ectively.  This  classifi- 
cation naturally  grouped  the  gymnosperuis  with  the  di- 
cotyledonous augiospernis.  leaving  the  monocotyledons  to 
constitute  a  distinct  cUuss  supposed  to  be  lower  in  organiza- 
tion than  !Miy  of  these.  Hut  I  he  order  of  appearance  of  these 
several  types  in  tlie  past  history  of  the  earth,  as  set  forth 
above,  showed  that  the  gymnosperuis  antedated  the  mono- 
cotyledons by  a  vast  [wriod.  and  alumst  demonstrated  their 
direct  development  out  of  the  early  cryptogams.  .\t  first 
it  was  sought  to  take  advantage  of  this  to  disprove  the  true 
course  of  evolution  of  ])lant-life  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
types;  but,  on  the  one  hand,  closer  study  of  the  internal 
structure  of  the  gymnosperuis  soon  showed  that  this  was 
widely  unlike  that  of  the  dicotyledons,  while  on  the  other, 
the  investigations  of  (ierman  botanists  established  t tie  real 
genetic  rehitiouship  between  the  reproductive  apparat  us  and 
Function  in  gymnosperms  and  the  higher  cryptogams.  Uoth 
these  results  may  now  be  regarded  as  established  in  their  gen- 
eral aspects,  ami  di.scussion  is  narrowed  down  to  the  minor 
details.  This  affiliates  the  Cycadaceo'  and  Cotiiferie  wit  h  the 
cryptogams  and  separates  the  gymnosperms  from  the  dicot- 
yledons as  forming  a  far  earlier  aiul  less  developed  type  of 
vegetation.  The  monocotyledons,  possessing  the  closed  ovary 
in  common  with  the  dicotyledons,  can  now  be  appropriately 
united  with  the  latter  to  form  the  true  angiospernis.  giving 
to  their  endogenous  structure  its  proper  subordinate  rank 
in  the  chissifieation.  To  add  to  the  force  of  these  modifiea- 
tions  it  has  more  recently  been  discovered  that  a  number  of 
the  more  highly  (h'veloped  ery|)togams  of  Paleozoic  time 
acquired  the  exogenous  structure.  Such  is  the  case  with 
Sigillnrin,  Sligmaria,  Calamites.  Cnlamadendrnn.  and  other 
less  prominent  types.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that  in  the 
process  of  development  in  plants  the  exogenous  structure  has 
been  attained  in  varying  degrees  along  several  ascending 
lines,  and  that  there  is  a  different  kind  of  exogeny  in  the 
calamite.  the  lepidophyte,  the  cycad,  the  conifer,  and'  the  di- 
cotyledonous angiosperm,  while  something  resembling  ex- 
ogeny has  been  shown  to  exist  in  certain  fossil  ferns  and  in 
certain  living  monocotyledons. 

Fossil  plants  id.so  clearly  illustrate  the  much  wider  truth 
that  progress  in  organic  development  takes  ])lace  by  means 
of  an  irregular  succession  of  new  dejiarturesor  fresh  ramifi- 
cations from  the  older  or  lower  parts  of  the  generally  ad- 
vancing trunk  by  a  process  which  has  been  called  sijmpodial 
dicholomij,  and  is  not  in  any  sense  a  continuous  chain  or 
linear  series.  The  ancient  types  that  reached  so  high  a  de- 
gree of  development  became  extinct,  while  lower  and  less 
perfect  types  underwent  ailvantageous  modification  and 
were  perpetuated.  In  other  words,  evolution  takes  place 
through  the  extinction  of  trunk  lines  of  descent  and  the 
persistence  of  unspecialized  types — through  the  origination 
out  of  the  lower,  less  differentiated  forms  of  potentially 
higher  types  of  structure,  i.  e.  types  of  structure  better 
adapted  to  their  environment,  while  the  forms  that  have  be- 
come specialized  and  attained  tlu!  maximum  development 
possible  for  that  type  of  structure,  unable  to  change,  suc- 
cumb to  the  changing  environment.  Thus  broadly  viewed 
the  law  of  evolution  liolds  strictly  throughout  the  geological 
history  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  ;  that  is  to  say,  progress 
from  the  lower  to  the  higher  types  went  on  with  the  ad- 
vance of  geologii-  time,  and  there  was  a  general  upward 
tendency  in  structural  development  through  the  great  peri- 
ods of  geology.  Although  the  highest  forms  of  all  the  most 
ancient  tvpes  have  beitome  extinct  they  have  always  been 
succecdeil  by  higher  types,  and  although  the  lower  forms  of 
these  earliest  tvpes  have  sometimes  persisted,  they  liave 
always  remaine<l  subordinate  to  the  great  ruling  types  that 
have  distanced  them  in  the  race  for  life. 

Hiiii.iofjRAPHV. — The  following  are  a  few  of  the  most  im- 
portant modern  works  that  treat  the  subject  of  fossil  plants 
either  in  a  general  or  a  popular  wav  :  W.  Ph.  Schiniper, 
Traiti  de  Fali'tjiito/iu/if  Vef/i'tale  (Paris.  18fif»-74;  text  in 
3  vols.  8vo,  Atla-s  4lo);  (i.  Saporta,  />«  Monde  den  Plantes 
avant  Vappariliun  de  I'homme  (1  vol.,  Paris,  1879):  A. 
Schcnk,  Die  foKxilen  I'llunzenresle  (1  vol.,  Breslau,  1888) ; 
Lester  F.  Ward,  SKetcli  of  Paleoliotani/  (in  Fifth  .Vnnnal 
Ueport  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  for  188:{-^4,  pp.  at^i-J.'i'J. 
\Vi;shington,  1885)  ;  J.  \V.  Dawson,  The  Ueological  llistury 


PLATA,  RIO    I)K   LA 


G-i5 


of  Plants  (International  Scientific  Series,  vol.  Ixi..  1  vol.. 
New  York,  1888):  Schiinner  and  Schenk,  Palaophiitologie^ 
being  Part  II.  of  Zittel's  Uandhuch  der  Palaimtologie 
(Munich  atiil  Leipzig.  ISIIO):  H.  Solms-Laubach,  Fossil 
Botany  (translated  from  the  German,  1  vol..  Oxford.  1891). 

LesTiiR  F.  Ward. 
Planilla  [Lat..  liter.,  little  plane]  :  a  .stage  in  the  devel- 
opment of  Ctelenterates,  etc.,  in  which  a  solid,  two-lavere(i 
embryo  is  developed,  not  by  typical  gastrulation  (see  Em- 
HRYOi.CHJV),  but  by  a  cutting  off  of  the  inner  ends  of  the 
cells  of  an  earlier  stage. 

Pluqiicmiiip,  plaak'meen'  :  town  ;  capital  of  Iberville 
parish,  I^a. ;  on  the  Missi.s.sippi  river,  and  the  Texas  and 
Pacific  Railway  ;  20  miles  S.  of  IJaton  Rouge,  85  miles  W. 
by  N.  of  New  Orleans  (for  location,  see  map  of  Louisiana, 
ref.  10-E).  It  is  a  shipping-point  for  cotton  and  sugar,  and 
has  sawmills  and  sliingle-mills,  barrel-factory,  a  State  bank, 
the  Academv  of  St.  Basil,  and  a  dailv  and  two  weekly  news- 
I)apers.     Poji.  (1880)  2,001 ;  (1890)  ;5,222. 

Plusina:  See  Bi.oon;  also  Chalcedony. 

Plassey,  Battle  of:  See  Ci,ive. 

Plaster  I  <  I.  Kng.  plaster,  from  hat.  *plas'tnim.  empla^- 
tnini  =  (ir.  t^irAoo-Tpoi'.  Jilaster.  deriv.  of  iforKiiradv.  daub 
on,  stulT  in:  ev.  in  +  irKaaaav.  to  mould]:  in  pharmacy, 
ail  adhesive  mixture  of  lead  oxide  and  a  fatty  acid,  ora 
resinous  and  fatty  compound,  often  medicated,  designed 
to  be  spread  upon  leather,  linen,  or  even  paper,  and  then 
applied  to  some  portion  of  the  human  body.  Plasters  have 
a  considerable  use  in  medicine,  and  especially  in  surgery, 
where  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  are  employed  for  many 
purposes. 

Plastering :  See  Stucco. 

Plaster-of-Paris :  See  Gypsum. 

Platse'fe  (in  (Jr.  nxaraiai.  or  riAi^Taio) :  ancient  city  of 
Greece,  in  Bceotia:  on  the  northern  slope  of  Mt.  Cithivron  ; 
famous  as  the  place  where  in  479  B.C.  the  Greeks  under 
Pausanias  totally  routed  the  Persians  under  Mardonius.  The 
city  was  destroyed  by  the  Thelians.  in  427  and  in  :j74  B.  c, 
but  was  both  times  rebuilt,  and  existed  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury A.  D.  Remains  of  it  are  still  visible  near  the  village  of 
Kokhla.  The  site  was  excavated  by  the  American  School  of 
Classical  Studies  at  Athens  in  1889.  See  American  Journal 
of  Archeology  (1889),  pp.  428-489.  and  1890.  pp.  108-111. 
Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Stkrrett. 

Plata,  La:  See  Argentine  Republic. 

Plata.  La  (city):  See  La  Plata. 

Plafanis'tidip  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Platanis'ta,  the 
typical  genus,  from  Lat.  platanis  fa  =  Or.  irAoTovio-T^s.  an 
animal  of  the  Ganges,  perhaps  the  susu] :  a  family  of  the 
toothed  cetaceans,  allied  to  the  dolphins  and  represented  by 
the  singular  susus  of  the  Indian  rivers.  The  form  is  dolphin- 
like except  as  to  the  head,  which  is  distinguished  by  its  u])- 
raised  forehead  and  its  small  eyes;  the  blow-hole  is  longi- 
tudinal; the  beak  is  elongated;  the  cervical  vertebr;e  are 
all  seiiarate;  the  costal  cartilages  remain  unossifie<l  ;  the 
maxillary  bones  are  remarkal)le  for  their  large  bony,  in- 
curved crests;  the  teeth  are  simple  and  destitute  of  cin- 
gulum  or  tubercle.  The;  family  is  represented  l)y  a  single 
known  genus,  with  two  sjiecies — (1)  Platani.ita  gangetica,  in- 
habiting the  (iauges  and  Brahmaputra  and  their  tributaries; 
and  (2)  I\  Indi.  found  in  the  river  Indus.  They  rarely  ex- 
ceed the  length  of  7  feet.  Although  the  body  appears  to  be 
adapted  for  swiftness,  they  are  said  to  be  rather  sluggish 
animals;  they  prey  upon  fish,  like  their  salt-water  relatives. 

Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Plata.  I{io  de  la  (in  English  often  called  River  Plate): 
an  inlet  in  the  southeastern  coast  of  South  America :  jirop- 
erly  the  estuary  of  the  river  Parana  (q.  v.),  but  also  receiv- 
ing the  Uruguay.  It  separates  L'ruguay  on  the  N.  from  the 
Argentine  Republic  on  the  S.  W.  It  is  ab(mt  190  miles 
long  and  14;i  miles  wide  at  the  mouth;  the  depth  varies 
from  2i  to  10  fathoms  ;  and  the  strong  currents  make  navi- 
gation difficult.  During  storms,  especially  the  pamjieros  of 
the  winter  months  (May  to  October),  the  Plata  is  more  dan- 
gerous than  the  open  sea.  The  best  harbor  is  that  of  Mon- 
tevideo :  there  are  no  good  natural  ones  on  the  Argentine 
side,  landing  being  obstructed  by  wide  shallows ;  a  partial 
remedy  has  been  formed  in  the  artificial  port  of  La  Plata. 
The  Rio  de  la  Plata  drains,  by  the  Parana,  Paraguay  and 
Uruguay,  an  area  of  about  1,100,000  sq.  miles.        II.  II.  S. 


646 


PLATEAU 


Plateau  :  a  terra  introduced  by  the  French  geographer 
Buache  in  the  eighteenth  century,  to  designate  elevated  re- 
gions of  somewhat  even  surface.  Like  plains,  the  greater 
number  of  plateaus  are  built  of  essentially  horizontal  strata, 
either  sedimentary  beds  or  lava-sheets.  The  effort  to  dis- 
tinguish between  plains  and  plateaus  at  some  definite  limit 
•of  altitude  is  not  successful,  because  it  introduces  an  arbi- 
trarv  division  where  nature  exhibits  many  gradations.  The 
•Great  Plains  of  the  U.  S.  are  known  as  plains,  although  only 
their  eastern  border  is  below  the  altitude  that  is  usually 
adopted  as  separating  the  two  classes  of  forms.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  term"  plateau  is  often  justly  applied  to  an 
upland  having  a  moderate  altitiide  above  sea-level,  but  ris- 
ing over  a  lower  plain  by  a  well-marked  escarpment,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Niagara  limestone  plateau  of  Western  New 
York.  Plateau  is  not  an  appropriate  name  for  elevated 
basins,  like  the  parks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Colorado 
or  the  Vale  of  Kashmir  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  which 
are  closely  walled  in  on  all  sides  by  higher  land ;  nor  is  the 
word  well  used  to  refer  to  the  unseen  foundation-mass  of 
land  above  which  mountains  rise  and  into  which  valleys  are 
not  yet  cut,  although  it  is  employed  in  this  sense  by  some 
geographers. 

Lofty  plateaus  are  seldom  so  level  as  lowland  plains ;  for 
example,  the  plateaus  of  Arizona  are  great  blocks  of  coun- 
try, 6,000  to  10,000  feet  in  altitude,  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  profound  divisional  planes  or  "faults,"  each  block 
having  a  slight  inclination  and  a  slightly  different  altitude 
from  that  of  its  neighbor ;  yet  the  llano  estacado  or  stock- 
aded plain  of  Western  Texas,  with  an  altitude  of  3,000  or 
4,000  feet,  is  remarkably  smooth  over  great  areas,  being 
compared  to  the  surface  of  the  sea;  its  margin,  however,  is 
eroded  into  deep  valleys  and  isolated  outliers. 

Owing  to  their  height,  plateaus  may  attain  a  great  diver- 
sity and  intensity  of  relief  under  the  action  of  denuding 
forces,  as  in  the  high  plateaus  of  Utah,  whose  marginal 
cliffs  or  escarpments  are  profoundly  gashed  by  colossal 
ravines,  or  the  plateaus  of  Arizona,  which  are  trenched 
across  by  the  caiiun  of  the  Colorado  River  (q.  v.).  Like 
lofty  mountains,  the  uplands  of  lofty  plateaus  are  cooler 
and  generally  better  watered  than  the  surrounding  low- 
lands; thus  one  of  the  plateaus  of  Utah  is  named  the 
Aquarius,  from  bearing  streams  and  forests  while  overlook- 
ing arid  and  desert  lower  lands ;  but  when,  in  spite  of  being 
high,  plateaus  are  sheltered  on  the  side  toward  the  sea  by 
yet  more  lofty  mountains,  they  are  dry,  and  instead  of  suf- 
fering dissection  by  outflowing  streams,  they  may  gather 
the  waste  from  the  adjacent  higher  slopes  and  "build  up  their 
surface.  Thus  the  broad  interior  plateau  of  Tibet,  with  an 
altitude  of  13.000  or  14,000  feet,  bordered  on  the  S.  by  the 
towering  Himalaya  and  broken  by  various  mountain  ranges, 
is  an  arid  region,  with  glaring  sun  and  strong  dusty  winds 
by  day,  and  cold,  relatively  calm  nights. 

When  plateaus  are  well  dissected  little  of  the  even  surface 
of  the  original  upland  may  remain,  the  region  being  thor- 
oughly invaded  by  irregularly  branching  valleys.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Alleghany  plateau  is  in  this  stage  of 
development.  In  the  northeastern  part  its  inequality  of 
form  is  so  great  as  to  give  it  the  name  of  Catskill  Moun- 
tains. In  West  Virginia  it  is  deeply  trenched  by  many  val- 
leys, notably  by  the  canyon  of  New  river,  over  1,000  feet  deep 
beneath  the  remaining  portion  of  the  upland,  all  of  which  is 
diversified  by  ramifying  river  branches.  In  Northern  Ala- 
bama relatively  large  blocks  of  even  upland  remain  between 
wide  open  valleys.  Plateaus  in  this  stage  of  varied  form 
and  strong  relief  are  less  easily  occupied  than  in  earlier  or 
later  stages.  The  people  dwelling  in  strongly  dissected  pla- 
teaus have  a  diiricult  life;  they  can  not  move  about  easily, 
and  their  advance  in  civilization  is  slow. 

In  later  stages  of  denudation  the  valleys  within  the 
plateaus  widen  and  consume  the  greater  part  of  the  up- 
lands, leaving  only  isolated  masses,  such  as  occur  on  a  mod- 
erate scale  in  Saxon  Switzerland,  or  with  much  greater 
magnitude  in  the  interior  of  British  Guiana,  where  great 
table-mountains — Roraima  and  its  fellows — rise  to  com- 
manding altitudes,  descending  on  all  sides  by  steep  cliffs  of 
1,000  or  more  feet  to  the  surnnmding  lower  lands.  Similar 
dissected  plateaus  and  tal)le-mountains  of  sandstone  and 
lava  beds  are  fcmnd  in  the  plateau  region  of  Abyssinia. 

Denudation  of  Plateaux. — In  the  progress  of  denudation 
of  a  great  plateau-mass  the  weaker  strata  are  selected  for 
faster  consumption  by  the  atmospheric  forces,  while  the  in- 
terbedded  harder  strata  stand  out  in  bold  escarpments  or 
cliffs.     Thus  in  Eastern  Utah,  when  standing  on  the  mar- 


gin of  one  of  the  higher  plateaus  at  an  altitude  of  11,000  feet 
or  more,  the  eye  ranges  over  a  vast  expanse  of  nearly  level 
terraces,  descending  from  one  to  the  next  by  cliffs  of  strange 
aspect,  which,  as  described  by  Dutton,  "  are  truly  marvel- 
ous, whether  considered  with  respect  to  their  magnitude, 
their  seemingly  interminable  length,  their  great  number,  or 
their  singular  sculpture."  Each  terrace  slopes  gently  back 
from  its  cliff-edge  to  the  foot  of  the  next  cliff  behind  it. 
Each  cliff,  1.000  to  1,500  feet  in  height,  marks  the  occur- 
rence of  a  relatively  resistant  stratum  in  the  plateau-mass, 
the  total  thickness  of  strata  being  10,000  feet.  Although  for 
the  most  part  barren  of  vegetation,  the  color  of  the  region 
is  greatly  varied  through  reds,  yellows,  grays,  and  whites. 
The  features  thus  described  are  the  result  of  extensive  de- 
nudation, while  the  whole  region  stood  at  a  much  less  eleva- 
tion above  sea-level;  since  then  it  has  been  broadly  uplifted, 
and  the  revived  rivers  and  streams  have  trenched  deep  and 
narrow  caiions  across  the  terraced  surface.  It  is  a  marvel- 
ous region,  not  only  from  its  gigantic  illustration  of  plateau- 
topography,  but  from  its  emphatic  teaching  of  the  principles 
of  land-sculpture  on  a  huge  scale.  A  good  example  of  a 
plateau,  of  gently  ascending  surface,  terminating  in  a  bold 
escarpment,  is  found  in  the  Rauhe  Alp  and  the  associated 
uplands  of  Wilrtemberg.  A  series  of  similar  forms  of  mod- 
erate altitude  occurs  on  either  side  of  Rheims  in  Northeast- 
ern France.  These  forms  are  of  interest  in  their  influence 
on  products  and  occupations  in  populations  of  closely  adja- 
cent ai'eas,  above  and  below  the  escarpment. 

Plateaus  of  another  class  possess  an  even  surface  in  spite 
of  being  composed  of  disordered  rocks,  being  in  fact  old 
mountain  regions  reduced  to  lowlands  by  long-continued 
denudation  (see  Plain),  and  then  broadly  elevated  to  greater 
altitude.  The  plateaus  thus  formed  are  never  so  smooth  as 
the  younger  plains  of  the  first  class  ;  when  elevated  they  are 
again  attacked  by  streams,  and  thus  diversified  in  the  man- 
ner already  described  for  the  other  class  of  plateaus ;  but 
the  valleys  are  still  generally  arranged  in  the  prevailing  trend 
of  the  former  mountains,  and  the  intervening  plateau  up- 
lands therefore  present  a  linear  grouping  quite  unlike  the 
remnants  of  plateaus  of  horizontal  structure,  in  which  the 
disposition  of  the  interstream  uplands  and  spurs  is  exces- 
sively irregular.  Plateaus  of  the  first  class  frequently  pos- 
sess well-marked  cliffs  that  rim  around  their  remnant  masses, 
continuous  for  many  miles;  plateaus  of  the  second  class  never 
possess  these  forms,  but,  on  account  of  the  tilted  and  disor- 
dered structure  of  their  rocks,  are  worn  into  a  ridge-like 
topography.  While  plateaus  of  the  first  class  are  built  of 
unaltered  sedimentary  rocks  or  lava-sheets,  those  of  the  sec- 
ond class  are  often  built  of  greatly  disturbed  metamorphic 
sedimentary  rocks,  or  of  foliated  or  massive  crystalline  rocks, 
such  as  prevailed  deep  within  the  original  mountain  mass, 
now  laid  bare  by  denudation.  The  mineral  products  of  the 
two  classes  of  plateaus  are  therefore  quite  unlike,  the  second 
class  being  much  the  richer  in  rarer  minerals  and  in  metallic 
ores. 

The  broad  plateau-like  uplands  of  the  Ardennes,  along  the 
Franco-Belgian  boundary  and  extending  northeastward 
into  Germany,  are  examples  of  the  second  class  of  plateaus ; 
they  are  not  yet  much  dissected,  but  are  here  and  there 
deeply  trenched,  as  by  the  Rhine,  the  Moselle,  and  the 
Meuse.  The  Black  Forest  is  a  highland  of  the  same  nature, 
but  it  was  never  so  well  worn  down  when  a  lowland,  and  it 
is  now  more  dissected  since  its  elevation.  The  Scotch  high- 
lands repeat  the  same  features,  but  rise  to  a  greater  height, 
and  are  much  interrupted  by  the  opening  of  their  deep 
glens.  Much  of  the  interior  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula 
seems  to  belong  in  this  class  of  forms;  but  it  is  still  over- 
looked by  so  many  bold  eminences  that  were  not  consumed 
before  its  elevation  to  its  present  altitude  that  it  is  com- 
nuinly  classed  with  mountains;  it  is,  raoi-eover,  traversed  by 
deep  valleys  whose  lower  courses  are  submerged,  producing 
the  renowned  fiords  of  the  Norwegian  coast.  In  the  U.  S. 
the  highlands  of  Southeastern  New  York  constitute  a  dis- 
sected )ilateau,  although  the  relatively  even  ujilands  are  not 
to  be  recognized  by  the  traveler  through  the  deep  gorge  of 
the  Hudson.  As  a  whole,  the  uplands  slope  gently  to  the 
S.  E.,  but  they  m.ay  be  traced  with  even  altitude  southwest- 
ward  into  the  highlands  of  New  Jersey,  and  northeastward 
into  the  western  plateau  (Berkshire  Hills)  of  Jlassachusetts 
and  beyond.  Occasional  eminences,  unconsumed  when  the 
region  was  a  lowland,  rise  here  and  there  above  the  plateau 
uplands,  and  of  these  Mt.  Monadnock  in  Southwestern  New 
Hampshire  may  be  taken  as  the  type.  The  middle  part  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  is  an  inclined  plateau  of  the  same  kind. 


PLATEAU 


PLATINUM 


647 


fulliiif;  abruptly  into  the  interior  basin  of  Nevada,  descend- 
ing genllv  to  the  valU'V  of  California,  and  deeply  trenched 
bv  canons.     See  Piivsiographv.  W.  M.  Davis. 

Plateau,  plaa  tr> ,  .Joseph  A.ntoixe  Ferdi.vaxd  :  physicist ; 
h.  in  Brussels,  Oct.  14.  1801.  lie  was  an  authority  in  physi- 
ological optics  and  capillarity,  but  his  writings  extend  over 
nearly  the  entire  range  of  experimental  physics.  He  was 
Professor  of  Physics  in  the  University  of  Ghent  from  iy:i.5 
till  his  death.  Sept.  15,  1883.  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  mid- 
dle life  he  had  sacrificed  his  evcsight  to  liis  studies  of  sub- 
jective vision.  Notwithstanding  that  misfortune,  he  con- 
tinued his  investigations  in  physiological  optics,  observing 
through  the  eyes  of  members  of  his  family.  Thus  in  his 
])aper  on  I'lrsistence  of  Vision  (1876)  his  son  Felix  and  his 
son-in-law  Van  der  Mcnsbrugghe  were  his  visual  assistants. 
Plateau's  researches  upon  the  surface  tension  of  liipiids  were 
collected  in  book-form  under  the  title  Statique  experiinen- 
tnle.  el  t/ieorigue  des  Liquideg  soiiitiis  mix  setiks  Forces 
moUculaires  (2  vols.,  1873).  Ilis  latest  work  was  a  very 
complete  bibliography  of  works  on  physiological  optics. 

E.  L.  Nicnoi.s. 

Plaled  Ware:  See  Electrq-platin-i;. 

Platenllalleniiiiiide.  ])laat(>n-haal('r-mun-de,  Graf  von: 
poet;  b.  at  Ansbach,  Bavaria.  Oct.  S-l,  1796;  was  educated 
in  the  military  academy  of  Munich ;  served  for  a  short 
time  as  an  officer  in  the  Bavarian  army,  but  soon  tired  of 
military  life  and  studied  philology  and  philosophy  at  Wiirz- 
burg  and  Erlangen.  A  pension  which  the  King  of  Bavaria 
granted  him  in  182G  enabled  him  to  devote  himself  entire- 
ly to  literary  pui-suits.  He  went  to  Italy,  where  he  lived 
during  the  rest  of  his  life.  D.  at  Syracuse,  Sicily,  Dec.  5, 
l-SM.  Though  Platen  in  his  excellent  dramatic  satires  Die 
verhdnijnissvolle  Gubel  (1826)  and  Der  romantische  Oedipus 
(1829)  is  one  of  the  strongest  assailants  of  the  romantic 
school,  his  earliest  literary  productions.'  the  dramas  Der 
gldserne  Panloffel  (1823)  and  Der  Sc/mIz  des  Ji/tam/isiuit 
(1824),  distinctly  show  the  influence  of  romanticism.  Of 
this,  however,  he  gradually  freed  himself  by  the  study  of 
the  classic  ancient  poets  as  well  as  bv  the  development  of 
his  innate  feeling  for  perfect  artistic  form.  His  mastership 
in  regard  to  the  latter  is  especially  evinced  in  his  poems, 
which  by  the  purity  of  their  rhymes  and  the  easy  handling 
of  the  most  difficult  and  complicated  rhythms  became  the 
models  for  the  younger  generations  of  German  poets.  While 
the  true  poetic  value  of  his  lyric  productions  must  be  ques- 
tioned. Platen's  claims  as  a  reformer  of  the  technics  of 
poetry  remain  undisputed.  See  Platen's  Summiliche  ^Yerke 
(1876);  Schack.  Pandora  (1890);  B.  L.  Gildersleeve,  Essays 
and  Studies  (ISltO).  Ji'Lius  Goehel. 

Plathelminthes  [Gr.  irAoTiis.  flat  -i-  eA/uvs (plur.  eA/iii-aes), 
a  parasitic  worm]:  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, embracing  worm-like  forms  with  unjointed  bodies,  in 
which  no  cielom  is  recognizable,  and  in  which  the  alimen- 
tary canal  has  but  a  single  opening  (mouth).  .Some  live 
freely,  and  others  as  parasites.  The  free  forms  occur  some 
on  the  land,  some  in  fresh  water,  and  .some  in  the  sea.  The 
parasitic  forms,  which  are  usually  provided  with  one  or 
more  suckei's  for  adhering  to  the  host,  atTect  almost  every 
group  of  animals,  fastening  them.selves  to  the  exterior,  or 
occurring  in  the  alimentary  tract  or  penetrating  into  the 
various  tissues  (jf  the  body.  Three  cliusses  are  recognized : 
TurbcUaria.  Trematoda,  and  Cestoidea.  The  Nenu?rlines, 
formerly  regarded  as  members  of  this  group,  are  now  as- 
signed a  ditterent  position.  J.  S.  Kixgsley. 

Platin-iridiiini :  See  Iridium. 

Platiiiiiiii,  or  Plat'iiia  [platinum  is  Mod.  Lat..  from 
Span,  plalina.  platinum,  dimin.  o{  plata,  silver]:  a  whitish, 
steel-gray  metal,  malleable,  very  ductile,  and  as  unalterable 
by  ordinary  agencies  as  gold.  It  occurs  in  the  native  state, 
and  in  this  form  its  specific  gravity  ranges  from  16  to  19, 
an<l  its  hardness  upon  the  mineralogical  scale  from  4  to  4'.'), 
being  harder  than  either  goUi  or  silver,  and  a  little  softer  than 
iron.  When  fuseil  and  refined,  howc^ver,  it  is  as  soft  as  cop- 
per, and  the  gravity  is  increased  to  21-.5.  The  conductivity 
for  heat  at  12  C.  is  8-4;  for  eleetricitv  of  the  annealed 
metal  at  0°  C.  is  16-4;  silver  =100.  Tliis  metal  was  first 
discovered  in  Choco,  South  America,  and  was  taken  thence 
to  Spain  in  173.")  by  the  traveler  Ulloa.  Its  chemical  and 
physical  |)roperties  were  studied  by  European  chemists  as 
early  as  17.50.  The  native  mixture  of  metals  from  Siberia, 
called  "poly.xene."  was  analyzed  in  1828  by  Berzelius.  who 
found  it  to  contain  iron,  rhodium,  iridium,  i)alladium,  coj)- 


per,  and  osmium,  the  amount  of  platinum  ranging  from  73 
to  86'.5  per  cent. 

Platinum  is  found,  like  gold,  chiefly  in  alluvial  deposits, 
in  rounded  grains,  pepites  or  nuggets,  or  in  flattened  scales 
worn  smooth  by  attrition  in  the  gravel  of  river-beds.  It  is 
there  associated  with  gold  and  the  other  heavy  metals,  as 
iridium  and  iridosmine.  Having  nearly  the  sa'me  specific 
gravity  as  gold,  it  can  not  be  separated  from  it  by  washing 
in  the  ordinary  way,  so  that  quicksilver,  which  will  amalga- 
mate with  the  gold  and  leave  the  platinum  untouched,  is 
used  to  effoct  the  separation. 

Daubree  has  shown  that  a  part,  at  least,  of  the  metal  from 
the  L'rals  was  origiiuilly  imbedded  with  chromic  iron  in  a 
serpentine  rock  derived  from  olivine.  This  view  has  been 
sustained  by  the  discovery  of  platinum  in  place  ui)on  Mt. 
Soloneff.  in  an  inclusion  of  chromite  and  serpentine  in  alter- 
nate bands  with  dolomite,  in  a  country  rock  of  olivine,  or 
peridot,  of  the  variety  known  as  dunite.  It  has  not  been 
found,  however,  in  regular  veins  in  quartz,  and  its  precise 
mode  of  occurrence  is  still  obscure.  A  nugget  of  plaliinim 
weighing  104  grammes,  associated  with  chromite,  was  found 
near  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  derived 
from  serpentine  rock.  It  has  been  discovered  in  the  form  of 
an  arsenide  in  the  Sudbury  region,  Ontario,  Canada.  This 
mineral,  containing  ■')2-.")7  per  cent,  of  platinum,  has  been 
described  under  the  nanu'  of  spcrrylite.  It  has  the  peculiar 
property  of  not  being  easily  welted  by  water,  and  the  fine 
particles  float  on  the  surface.  British  Columbia  has  supplied 
a  small  amount  of  platinum  annually  since  18f>7.  It  is  found 
in  the  be.ach-sands  at  Port  Orl'ord,  Or.,  in  small  thin  scales 
with  osmiridiura  and  other  metals  of  the  gnmp.  (See  O'eol. 
Rec.  Cah,  p.  300.)  The  production,  however,  is  oidy  nomi- 
nal, being  incidental  to  gold-washing,  the  amount  for  the 
whole  of  the  U.  S.  for  1890  being  officially  stated  as  600  oz., 
and  in  1892  80  oz..  valued  at  s;.'5..iO  per  oz'  The  metal  is  re- 
ported to  have  been  foimd  in  New  South  Wales,  but  there 
is  no  notable  product i(jn.  and  while  the  old  localities  of  Co- 
lumbia. Brazil,  and  Borneo  may  contribute  .somewhat  to  the 
total  of  the  world's  su]iply.  the  great  bulk  of  the  metal  is 
produced  in  Russia  from  gravel  (icjiosits  upon  the  western 
slope  of  the  Ural  Mountains  in  the  government  of  Perm, 
where  it  is  found  on  various  private  properties  and  state 
lands.  In  the  mining  district  of  Goroblagodat  there  are 
seventy  allotments,  or  claims.  The  product  of  platinum  is 
subject  to  a  tax  of  3  per  cent,  for  leasehold  claims  and  4  per 
cent,  for  the  freehold.  Tliere  are  two  establishments  in  St. 
Peter.sburg  for  refining  crude  platinum  ore.  polyxene.  but 
the  greater  portion  of  the  product  is  exported  in  its  crude 
state.  Although  the  deposits  were  discovered  in  1819,  ac- 
tual working  for  production  of  the  metal  did  not  Ijegin  un- 
til 1824,  when  rich  deposits  were  found  in  the  Xijnii-Tagilsk 
district. 

From  1828  to  1845  platinum  was  coined  and  used  as 
money  in  Russia  in  pieces  of  3,  6.  and  12  roubles;  the  total 
value  of  the  platinum  coinage  was  4.250.000  roubles.  Dur- 
ing this  period  the  production  of  platinum  was  much  .stim- 
ulated. When  the  coinage  was  stopped  the  production  al- 
most ceased  for  some  years,  but  it  revived  in  1859.  From 
that  time  the  jiroduction  has  been  variable  according  to  the 
demand  and  price.  From  1886  to  1890  the  average  yearly 
product  was  206  ponds,  equivalent  to  about  3,375  kilog.,  or 
7,425  lb.  avoir.  The  total  j)roduction  of  cru<le  platinum  in 
Russia  from  1824  to  1890,  inclusive,  was  6,373  pouds. 

At  present  the  most  productive  deposits  are  those  at 
Nijnii-Tagilsk.  belonging  to  Prince  Donato,  and  tho.se  be- 
longing to  Count  Shuvalov.  In  1890  there  were  5,853  men 
engaged  in  the  production  of  platinum. 

Nearly  all  the  native  platinum  from  the  Urals  is  magnetic. 
Some  masses  have  true  jiolarity  and  hold  iron  filings  like 
magnetic  iron  ore.  There  were  several  specimens  of  this 
kind  in  the  collection  .sent  to  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1867 
by  Prince  Demidoff.  One  specimen  at  Paris  was  6  inches  in 
its  greatest  diameter,  and  weighed  13  lb.  troy.  A  mass  weigh- 
ing 21  lb.  is  preserve<l  in  the  Demidoff  cabinet.  Masses 
weighing  from  9  t(j  12  lb.  were  shown  by  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernment at  Philadelphia  1876.  A  specimen  weighing  4.728 
grammes,  and  perfect  in  form,  was  shown  at  Vienna  in  1873. 

Platinum  is  infusible  in  any  ordinary  furnace.  iMit  mehs 
freely  in  the  flame  of  the  oxyli'ydrogen  or  Hare  furnace,  and 
in  the  electric  arc.  Its  meltiiig-iioint  is  given  as  1,779°  C. 
When  heated  beyond  fusion  it  begins  to  volatilize.  The 
fused  metal  absorbs  oxygen  and  "spits"  on  cooling.  At  a 
red  heat  it  occludes  hydrogen,  which  it  retains  on  cooling. 
It  has  the  projierty  of  condensing  oxygen  upon  its  surface, 


648 


PLATINUM   BLACK 


PLATO 


and  the  gas  so  condensed  lias  a  higli  degree  of  chemical  ac- 
tivity shown  particularly  in  spongy  platinum  and  Plati- 
num'Black  iq.  v.).  At  a"  red  heat  platinum  permits  hydro- 
gen to  pass  through  it,  but  is  not  permeable  to  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  or  carbonic  acid.  At  a  white  heat  it  is  easily 
■welded,  which  permits  of  large  masses  being  made  from 
scraps  and  from  platinum  s]jonge. 

Achard  as  early  as  178-1  worked  the  metal  by  alloying  it 
with  arsenic,  shaping  it  as  desired,  and  then  expelling  the 
arsenic  by  heat.  The  process  of  working  platinum  sponge 
into  compact  metal  by  compression,  usually  credited  to 
Wollaston,  is  said  to  have  originated  with  Thomas  Cock,  of 
England,  about  the  year  1800.  Since  the  production  of 
large  homogeneous  masses  by  fusion  befi:>re  the  oxyhydrogen 
flame,  these  processes  have  been  abandoned.  Dr.  Hare,  of 
Philadelphia,  originated  the  modern  method  of  fusion.  As 
early  as  the  year  1837  he  melted  28  oz.  into  one  homogene- 
ous malleable  mass.  Deville  and  Debray.  of  Paris,  perfected 
this  method,  and  now  ingots  weighing  200  lb.  or  more  are 
readily  cast.  An  ingot  of  this  weight  was  exhibited  by 
Johnson  &  Matthey  at  the  London  Exhibition  of  1863.  A 
regulus  of  platiu-iridium  which  weighed  a  quarter  of  a  ton 
was  made  in  1874  for  the  metric  commission  in  Paris. 

The  chief  solvent  of  the  metal  is  aqua  regia,  and  the 
chloride  is  the  most  important  salt.  Platinum  forms  alloys 
with  gold  and  silver  and  with  many  of  the  more  fusible 
metals.  These  alloys  are  more  fusible  than  pure  platinum. 
When  combined  with  iridium  it  forms  an  alloy  of  great 
hardness,  especially  well  adapted  for  gun-veuts  and  for 
standard  weights  and  measures.  The  alloy  known  as  ])hitin- 
iridium  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  standard  meters,  and 
is  melted  in  lime-crucibles  upon  Deville's  method.  For  de- 
tails of  the  process  for  the  purification  of  platinum  and  its 
fusion  in  large  quantities  reference  should  be  made  to  the 
memoirs  of  Deville  and  Debray  upon  platinum  and  the  as- 
sociated metals.  Gold  is  used  as  the  solder  for  platinum,  but 
the  best  joints  are  made  by  the  autogenic  method.  Molten 
platinum  is  regarded  as  the  best  standard  of  light. 

The  invention  of  the  incandescent  electrical  lamp  caused 
a  great  demand  for  platinum  wire.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
quantity  required  increased  from  nothing  in  1880  to  55,000 
oz.  in  1892.  Large  quantities  are  consumed  yearly  for  dental 
purposes,  probably  85,000  oz.  in  the  U.  S.  and  25,000  oz.  in 
England.  About  80,000  oz.  are  required  yearly  for  sul- 
phuric-acid stills.  Chemists  and  jewelers  require  some  20,- 
000  oz.,  making  the  entire  consumption  about  215,000  oz. 
yearly,  of  which  probably  30  to  40  per  cent,  is  old  scrap 
(see  Eng.  (Did  Mui.  Jour..  Iv.,  194).  The  U.  S.  importations 
of  platinum  for  1891  were  4,649  lb. 

The  price  of  platinum  varies  greatly  :  In  Dec,  1891,  it 
commanded  ^12  per  oz.  in  Xew  York;  in  Jan.,  1892,  ^10.50; 
in  JIar.,  1892,  it  fell  to  §9.  For  the  results  of  researclies  on 
the  platinum  metals  and  compounds,  reference  is  made  to  a 
series  of  articles  by  Prof.  VVolcott  Gibbs  in  TIte  American 
Journal  of  Science,  xxix.,  1860 ;  xxxi.,  p.  63  ;  xxxiv.,  p.  342 ; 
xxxvii,,  p.  57.  W.  P.  Blake. 

Platiinini  Black:  a  finely  divided  form  of  platinum,  re- 
sembling soot  ;  discovered  by  Liebig.  It  has  the  property 
of  condensing  gases  upon  its  surface  in  a  remarkable  de- 
gree. It  absorbs  many  times  its  bulk  of  oxygen  gas,  and 
gives  it  off  in  contact  with  alcohol  or  ether,  forming  new 
compounds.  It  is  capable  of  taking  up  800  times  its  own 
volume  of  oxygen,  and  is  a  most  active  catalytic  agent. 
Platinum  sponge  is  another  form  of  the  metal,  porous  and 
slightly  coherent,  obtained  by  heating  to  redness  the  double 
chloride  of  platinum  and  ammonium.  It  also  condenses 
gases  upon  its  surface,  and  becomes  red-hot  in  a  current  of 
hydrogen  gas  and  inflames  the  gas.  The  hydrogen  lamp  of 
Dobereiner,  a  scientific  toy  used  to  a  limited  extent  for 
producing  a  light  before  the  discovery  of  friction  matches, 
was  based  upon  this  property  of  platinum  sponge. 

W.  P.  Blake. 

Pla'to  [  =  Lat.  =Gr.  TWaTuv.  Plato,  a  nickname  given 
him  from  his  broad  shoiUders,  di-riv.  of  v^aris.  broad,  his 
true  name  being  ^rt'.5ifw/p.5  ("ApiffTOK^fjs)] :  a  Greek  philoso- 
pher, who  was  born  429  n.  c,  and  died  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
one  years.  Solon  and  Codrus  were  both  reckoned  among 
his  ancestoi'S.  With  the  O]iinions  of  all  previous  pliilo.sophers 
he  seems  to  have  been  familiar.  There  are  stories  of  his 
travels  in  Egypt  and  the  Kast,  but  they  rest  on  little  or  no 
foundation  in  his  own  writings.  Aristotle  shows  an  inti- 
mate ncM|uainlauce  witli  his  doctrines,  but  tells  us  hanlly 
anything  about  him  personally.     The  accounts  given  tirst 


by  writers  who  lived  many  centuries  after  him,  snch  as 
Proclus  and  lamblichus,  are  of  no  value;  and  yet  there  is 
no  philosopher  of  antiquity  with  whom  we  have  the  means 
of  so  close  an  acquaintance.  There  was  one  teacher  whom 
he  has  made  most  familiar  to  us.  and  from  whom,  in  turn, 
we  become  most  familiar  with  the  pupil :  Plato  ami  Socrates 
are  inseparable  names.  They  are  one  power  in  the  world's 
movement.  This  view  can  be  held  witliout  diminishing  the 
value  or  the  position  of  either.  Plato  is  not  the  mere  re- 
porter, neither  is  Socrates  the  merely  ideal  sketch.  The  iden- 
tity of  the  two  minds  apjiears  especially  in  the  doctrine  of 
ideas.  It  is  this,  more  than  anything  else,  thatgivescharac- 
ter  to  the  Platonic  philosophy.  It  is,  too,  the  doctrine  which 
shows  how  far  from  the  truth  is  the  prevailing  not  ion  of  this 
philosophy,  as  mystical,  transcendental,  imaginative,  far  re- 
moved from  what  is  called  "common  sense"  or  "  positive 
knowledge."  "  Nothing  so  clear,"  says  the  young  man  Sim- 
mias  in  the  P/icedo,  "as  this  doctrine  of  reminiscence,  and 
the  ideas  of  the  fair  and  the  good  thus  awakened  in  the  soul." 
The  word  idea  is  used  in  two  different  yet  closely  related  as- 
pects. An  idea  is.  in  the  first  place,  what  the  mind  adds  to  a 
sensation,  so  as  to  make  it  rational.  Without  it  the  sense  is 
&\oyos,  as  Plfito  supposed  the  animal  to  be  (a  view,  in  fact, 
helil  by  Aristotle  as  well  as  Plato),  mere  sense,  and  of  itself 
incaiiablc  of  becoming  anything  more.  His  illustrations  are 
drawn  mainly  from  the  mathematical  ideas.  In  attempting 
to  follow  him  here  the  utmost  brevity  must  be  consulted. 
Let  us  image  to  ourselves  a  confused  mass  of  spots  or  points, 
such  as  the  spattcrings  of  a  paint-brush  thrown  at  hazard 
upon  a  canvas.  There  is  visible,  at  first,  no  order,  no  idea 
— nothing  for  the  mind,  all  for  the  sense.  As  far  as  the 
soul  is  concerned,  there  seems  nothing  there — or  rather  no 
tiring  since  it  is  form  of  some  kind  that  makes  a  thing;  that 
is,  a  thing  thinkable,  a  res  or  reality  for  the  mind.  The 
animal  and  the  m^n  see  at  first  the  same,  neither  more  nor 
less.  So  far  as  sense  is  concerned,  the  former  may  even 
have  the  keener  vision.  The  human  subject  at  last  beholds 
the  dawning  of  something  supersensual,  though  the  light 
has  come  from  himself.  Even  in  a  single  point  he  sees 
something  more  than  the  point.  It  is  the  idea  of  unity. 
The  spatterings  begin  to  assume  form,  or  the  soul  is  waking 
up  to  give  its  own  forms  to  the  formless.  He  is  rising  above 
sense.  He  begins  to  see  continuity,  or  the  rudiments  of 
line-extension.  He  looks  more  steadily  ;  there  is  something 
more  than  mere  lineality ;  rectilineality,  or  .straight7iess.  is 
coming  into  view.  It  may  be  a  mere  approach  to  it ;  for 
the  cognition  of  defect,  or  deviation,  or  non-.'>traightne.^s, 
is  just  as  positive  an  evidence  of  some  supersensual  measur- 
ing-rule or  idea  as  the  most  perfect  agreement.  In  all  this 
he  not  only  cognizes,  but  re-cognizes.  This  supersensual 
thing  has  an  interest  for  him  beyond  anything  of  sense. 
There  is  beauty  in  it.  He  seems  to  know  it.  although  it 
never  may  have  crossed  his  sense  before.  Has  he  imagined 
it^  What,  then,  called  out  that  superseusual  power?  A 
closer  gaze  sees  not  only  a  series  of  points  forming  one 
straight  line  (or  evenness,  rb  iaov),  but  another  seeming  to 
hold  to  it  a  peculiar  relation.  There  is  the  equality,  or  the 
approach  to  equality,  of  angular  spaces.  Here  is  a  new 
beauty,  a  new  interest,  which  could  not  have  come  from 
lines,  perfect  or  imperfect,  inclining  to  each  other  in  any 
manner  however  irregular.  There  is  no  name  as  yet,  but 
the  soul  sees  perpendicularity,  and  delights  in  it  as  satisfy- 
ing its  idea.  In  the  same  way  it  sees  parallelism.  It  is 
another  aspect  of  theri  iaor.  It  sees  relation  ;  it  sees  ratio, 
multiple,  proportion.  In  this  way  one  might  go  through 
the  infinite  range  of  the  mathematical  ideas.  Their  teach- 
ing is  really  ai/dixt^cns,  recollection,  Ijut  not  merely  the  recol- 
lection of  one  object  of  sense  by  another,  as  of  Simmias  by 
Ccbes,  but  the  true  calling  up  of  something  in  the  soul 
at  the  sight  of  some  outward  oliject  serving  as  its  perfect 
or  imperfect  diagram.  It  is  that  which  gives  intelligibility 
to  the  object,  making  it  a  real  thins  for  the  mind — its  own 
creation,  in  fact,  instead  of  the  tohti  and  bo/iu,  the  utter 
forndessness  of  sense. 

In  an  analogous  way  are  seen  the  ideas  of  the  fair  and 
the  good.  The  emotional  mingles  with  them  all.  In  the 
sight  of  a  straight  line  even  there  is  beauty,  interest,  emo- 
tion, something  of  the  soul's  own  ;  and  this  is  because,  like 
all  beauty,  it  is  in  some  way  soul  seeing  soul,  and  rejoicing 
at  the  sight.  If  such  an  appearance  were  made  by  nature, 
it  only  shows  that  ideas  are  older  still,  fashioning  the  laws 
and  poirers  of  luiture  in  harmony  with  their  forms  and 
equalities.  Or  it  is  like  the  emotion  of  the  boys  in  the 
Jleno  and  the  Theittetus,  as  Socrates,  in  his  obstetric  way. 


PLATO 


649 


delivers  them  of  tlu'ir  mental  births:  it  is  soiiietliiiig  wliieh 
thev  felt  tliev  hitil  ever  k-ii<iirn.  but  <liil  not  knuir  tliat  tliey 
knew  it.  Kven  cxperienee,  here,  teaches  an  a  pritiri  truth, 
stranpe  as  that  may  seem.  A  man  need  only  carefully  ex- 
amine the  difference  in  his  own  feelings  between  the  learn- 
ing of  an  inductive  truth  wholly  from  without,  and  the 
soul's  recognition  of  an  idea  in  geometry,  in  morals,  or  in 
a'stheties. 

Now,  this  is  not  mystical  or  transcendental  or  a  mere  play 
upon  words,  as  the  followers  of  Mill  would  call  it.  It  is 
clear  as  the  light  itself.  It  is.  as  has  been  said,  the  true  doc- 
trine of  "  common  sense,"  of  the  Koti/aiv  imotav,  and  I'lato  is 
the  most  lucid  of  all  writers  in  bringing  it  out.  When  a 
young  man  .sees  it,  his  mode  of  thinkinic,  his  |)hili>sophical 
and,  in  .sumo  respects,  his  theological,  temperament  is 
chanired  for  ever. 

Atiother  Platonic  doctrine,  somewhat  different  from  this, 
though  often  ciiiifounded  with  it,  is  that  of  univemaU  as 
real  cxistcn<'cs.  Nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  names 
for  them  are  in  language  before  the  names  of  individuals  ; 
and  that  is  one  rea.son  why  Plato  insists  .so  much  on  dia- 
lectics as  a  mode  of  discovering  universal  truths.  It  is  not 
generalization  alone,  but  that  within  us,  which  makes  us 
generalize,  instead  of  being  content  with  individual  sense- 
objects.  Without  it  we  should  be  like  the  animal,  who  has 
no  language,  not  from  defect  of  vocal  organs  (for  some  are 
here  superior  to  man),  but  because  he  has  no  inner  or  ideal 
world  for  which  language  is  needed.  We  can  not  seek,  says 
Plutarch,  without  some  idea  of  that  for  which  we  are  seek- 
ing. We  must  have  some  notion  of  universals  before  we 
can  even  lliink  of  classifying.  ITumiiiiifi/  is  as  real  as  the 
individual  man,  who  liecomes  miin — that  is,  who  becomes 
real — by  partaking  of  this  divine  creation.  It  was  for  this 
doctrine  of  universals  that  Plato  was  ever  a  favorite  with 
the  be.st  of  the  Christian  Fathers,  the  Schoolmen,  and  the 
Reformers.  In  the  old  Nominalism  of  Epicurus,  especially 
a.s  revived  by  Abelard,  they  saw  the  dissolution  of  all  faith, 
even  as  the  best  thinkers  now  regard  it  as  threatening  the  in- 
terest of  all  true  science.  If  individuals  are  the  only  reali- 
ties, it  can  not  stop  short  of  individual  atoms.  All  forms 
are  but  accidental  phenomena;  there  are  no  species;  all  are 
reduced  to  arl>itrary  chissitications,  liaving  no  standard  but 
the  ever-varying  assimilations  of  sense. 

Connected  with  iilcds  is  Plato's  doctrine  of  pre-existence. 
Did  ho  mean  an  individual  pre-existenoe  ?  He  sometimes 
seems  to  accommodate  his  language  to  such  a  conception. 
In  the  hiirldy  imaginative  Pha'dnia.  Socrates  has  something 
to  say  of  uuliorn  souls  ••  riding  on  the  supcrcdestial  sphere." 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  to  maintain  such  a 
pre-existence  of  imliridnal  .souls  in  a  former  sense-world, 
like  the  present,  w-ould  destroy  the  argument  in  the  Phipdo. 
The  true  ideal  ren\ini.scence  is  gone.  It  wouhl  only  be  a 
sense-notice  in  this  life,  recalling  a  preceding  sense-notice 
in  another.  The  whole  of  that  immortal  argument  is  based 
upon  the  fact  of  a  sense-experience  hen',  calling  up  an  idea 
belonging  to  the  very  constitution  of  the  soul  regarded  as 
lying  back  of  all  sense.  It  is  the  pre-existence,  then,  of 
something  belonging  to  all  rational  souls,  an<l  l)y  partaking 
of  which  they  become  rational  as  they  are  born  into  this 
life.     "  In  the  image  of  God  made  He  man." 

The  doctrine  of  Plato,  that  evil  dwells  in  matter,  whether 
as  an  eternal  or  an  acquired  principle,  might  \n:  regarded  as 
a  mere  speculation,  and  in  tlial  sense  coint)arativcly  liarm- 
h'ss.  It  may  be  called,  however,  the  great  defect  of  Ihc^ 
Platonic  philosophy  ;  not  by  making  two  clernal.s,  hut  from 
the  great  practical  mi.schicf  it  w-orks  in  its  ethical  teaching. 
It:  may  lie  said  to  have  given  it  ascetic  features  not  derived 
from  Pythagoras.  It  introduces  a  purgatorial  idea  into  its 
otherwise  most  impressive  system  of  future  retribution;  hut 
worse  Ihiin  all  is  the  view  it  gives  of  sin  as  mainly,  if  not 
whoilv.  belonging  to  t\w  Jlc.i/i.  It  is  the  (pp6vTjiJLa  trapK^s.  tak- 
ing the  latter  word  literally  for  the  very  hody  itself,  instead 
of  using  it,  as  Paul  does,  for  all  that  is  wrong  in  our  per- 
verted human  nature.  In  consequence  of  this  laying  all  evil 
upon  the  poor  body,  it  ignores  the  sins  of  the  spirit,  or 
"  lusls  of  the  mind,"  as  Paul  calls  them — the  dire  soul-sins, 
such  as  aml)ition,  malice,  revenge — that  have  little  if  any- 
thing to  do  with  any  corporeal  constitution — or  envy,  that 
pun'  spiritual  devilism.  haired  of  another's  excellence,  which 
a  disemliiidied  demon  m.'iy  be  cmiceived  a.s  possessuig  in 
even  a  higher  dei;ree  than  the  most  fleshly  man.  Tliese 
snul-xinx  are  hardly  mentioned  by  Plato  at  all.  He  stands 
in  striking  contrast  with  the  Greek  poets  here,  as  his  doc- 
trine is  equally  opposed  to  a  sound  ethical  psychology.    The 


body  would  soon  be  all  right,  a  irai^o  TrvtviiaTtKiv,  in  fact,  if 
the  soul,  the  original  corrupter,  were  perfectly  pure  ;  and 
yet  to  get  away  from  this  txuly,  as  the  seat  of  evil,  is  repre- 
sented, even  in  the  Phcedon,  as  the  most  morally  deserving 
of  human  efforts. 

To  compensate  for  this  great  defect  there  is  the  noble 
argument,  presented  in  so  n\any  (daces,  that  virtue,  the 
good,  the  ayaB6ii.  inseparable  from  the  Ka\6v.  the  fair,  is  the 
end  of  the  rational  life,  instead  of  happiness,  the  riSu,  the 
pleasant,  the  agreeable,  evermore  resolving  its(df,  in  its 
more  refined  as  well  as  its  grosser  forms,  into  pleasurable 
sensations  as  its  nitimate  analysis.  MhiippineKsXH'.  the  end, 
whether  of  the  individual  or  of  the  universe,  then  rirtite  is 
a  means,  a  subordinate  thing;  and  that  is  a  position  which 
Plato  could  not  bear.  It  was  not  a  compromise  between 
Hedonism  and  Cyreneacism,  that  is,  an  identifying  virtue 
with  happiness,  and  making  the  latter,  in  the  end,  the  un- 
failing acconqianiment  of  the  former,  or,  as  it  is  commonly 
expressed,  virtue  its  ow'n  reward.  Any  such  thought  of 
compensation  would  have  destroyed  the  Platonic  idea: 
"  Men  must  serve  God,  or  serve  the  good,  for  naught."  See 
the  picture  of  "  the  superlatively  righteous  man  "  (4  SikokJ- 
TaTos  avhp,  in  the  second  book  of  the  lieiiuhtic,  360,  ;!6!). 
He  has  the  ring  of  Gyges  that  gives  invisibility  ;  he  can  do 
all  evil  with  impunity  and  without  reproach  ;  yet  is  he 
righteous  still.  He  may  be  the  very  opposite  of  this,  hav- 
ing the  reputation  of  unrighteousness,  and  no  means  of  ever 
reversing  the  unjust  decision  ;  yet  is  he  righteous  still. 
The  picture,  even  thus  far.  tries  our  Christian  faith,  but  it 
does  not  stop  here.  He  may  be  made  to  endure  the  severest 
pains,  with  no  prospect  of  deliverance  either  now  or  at  any 
other  time  ;  yet  he  is  righteous  still.  The  hope  of  compen- 
sation must  have  no  place  on  the  canvas.  Finally, says  this 
strange  painter,  whsxt  may  a  irnin  thus  conditioned  expect 
from  his  fellow  men  i  Wonderful  is  the  answer  ;  'O  Si'xoios, 
ovTta  StaKeifieifos,  na/TTtywacTat,  (TTp€^\(iia^rai,  SfSrifTerat,  Kol, 
reKeuTvv,  irdfra  KoKa  TraBwt/.  ai^ao'x'fSuAeu^ijo'eTai  I  The  righte- 
ous man  in  this  state  will  be  scourgeil  ;  he  will  suffer  dis- 
locating tortures  ;  he  shall  be  houmi  with  cords,  and,  finally, 
after  suffering  all  evils,  he  shall  be  impaled  or  crucified.) 
It  is  not  at  all  strange  that  some  of  the  Christian  Fathers 
were  almo.st  inclined  to  regard  this  as  a  prophecy  of  Him, 
"  the  Prince  and  Perfecter  of  Faith,"  who.  '•  instead  of  the 
joy  set  before  him  (ai/rl  x^P"')-  eu'lurcd  the  cross,  despising 
shame,"  that  we  might  be  "  partakers  of  his  righteousness." 
In  another  place  (Gorg.,  494,49.5)  the  same  exhausting  |iroc- 
ess  is  pursued  in  respect  to  pleimiire.  The  rjSi.  or  liappi- 
ness,  if  it  is  the  end  of  being,  becomes  sinqily  a  i|Uesliun  of 
i/iuintiti/.  It  is  the  amount  that  is  to  be  considered,  whether 
it  be  the  glut  of  some  exquisite  moment,  or  a  thinner  pleas- 
ure hoarded  for  its  rarity  and  spread  over  a  longer  period. 
The  cultivated  Cyrenean  has  no  right  to  talk  of  his  refined 
hajipiness  and  to  condemn  that  of  others  as  gross  and  low. 
If  the  ^5t;  is  the  a.yaS6v,  then  it  constitutes  the  ayadhs  airfip, 
and  the  man  who  gets  the  most  of  it  is  "  the  better  man." 
Then,  too,  if  the  world  were  one  huge  Cv""-  ^"  "u'lle  as  to  be 
quivering  forever  with  the  maximum  of  ecstatic  sensational 
delight,  that  would  be  the  be.st  of  all  possible  worlds.  Dis- 
card the  ayaeSu  as  the  end  of  life,  and  the  maxim  J)e  (jusH- 
hiis  non  est  disputandum  becomes  the  highest  ethical  rule. 
Happiness  in  that  case  is  only  to  l)e  judged  by  its  degree  or 
its  intensity.  If  there  are  real  differences  in  pleasures,  so 
that  some  maybe  called  c/iidd  and  others  inrf.  then  there 
must  be  some  more  ultimate  principle,  not  resolving  itself 
into  happiness  or  into  "  self- rcwartiing  virtues,"  according 
to  which  their  respective  ranks  and  moral  values  are  to  be 
determined.  The  argument  is  unanswerable,  and  this  gives 
rise  to  a  like  extnnne  statement  in  the  opposite  direction. 
Some  of  the  lowest  pleasures,  as  they  are  called,  excel  all 
others  in  the  fullness  of  their  pleasing  sensations.  Let  the 
man  who  chooses  this  have  it  for  his  portion  to  all  eternity 
— no  palling,  no  abatement;  one  everla.sting  succession  of 
nev<'r-paining,  never-cloying,  pleasurable,  ami  even  ec- 
static, emotion.  The  .\lmighty  nnght  have  made  it  so.  He 
has,  indeed,  most  mercifully  put  Nature  in  the  way,  making 
her  his  executioner,  instead  of  the  lawgiver,  as  a  certain 
kind  of  modern  ethics  are  inclined  to  regard  it.  Plato, 
however,  presents  it  as  an  ethical  and  a-sthetical  supposi- 
tion. What  should  we  think  of  one  who  had  chosen,  and 
to  whom  there  was  permitteil,  for  ever,  such  an  uncloycd 
existence^  The  answer  is  most  dramatically  brought  out 
of  the  moral  feeling,  even  of  the  sensualist.  Socrates  but 
gives  back  to  him  his  own  rising  thoughts  :  "  Such  an  ex- 
istence, would  it  not  be  Sfivhs  Kai  aiVxpiis— siw'ful  and  shame- 


650 


PLAT'l' 


PLATTDBUTSCH 


fuir 


'  Would  he  not  be   £9A.ios,  a  very  wretch  indeed,  not 


ill  the  sense  of  pain,  but  as  denoting  the  extreme  of  degra- 
dation and  perdition,  abhorrent  to  the  rational  mind  t  " 

What  is  called  Plato's  lieilonic  view  is  carried  even  into 
the  state.  As  he  says,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  book 
and  in  other  parts  of  tlie  RepubUc.  the  oljjeet  of  govern- 
ment is  not  so  much  to  make  men  happier  or  richer  as  to 
secure  a  healthy  civic  organism — oirois  onfiaKiaTa  oK-i\  ri  Tr6\is 
— "for  in  such  a  commonwealth  may  we  best  hope  to  find 
righteousness."  Tliere  is  tlie  same  idea  in  tlie  OorgiiW, 
that  the  true  statesman  is  he  who  aims  not  to  phase,  but 
to  leave  the  people  morally  better,  "  healthier  in  their 
souls,"  than  he  found  tliem. 

There  is  one  feature  in  the  Platonic  Dialogues  which  has 
not  received  the  attention  it  deserves.  Allusion  is  made 
to  what  are  called  the  Platonic  myths.  For  the  more  ex- 
tensive and  gorgeous  of  them  the  reader  is  referred  to  tlie 
close  of  the  Republic,  Ihe  P/uedon,  and  the  Oorgias;  the 
first  two  setting  forth  tlie  retributions  of  the  unseen  world. 
and  the  third  the  appalling  scenes  of  tlie  spiritual  judg- 
ment "for  sins  done  in  the  body."  Xowhere  out  of  the 
vpritings  of  Paul  does  this  expression  assume  a  more  ter- 
rific significance.  The  "  sins  done  in  the  body,"  all  appear- 
ing as  marks  in  the  soul,  not  one,  the  least,  having  failed 
in  stamping  itself  upon  the  tablet  of  the  eternal  spiritual 
memory.  There  is  the  myth  of  Prometheus  in  the  Pro- 
tagoras, the  fanciful  mytli  of  the  Phmdrus ;  the  wholly 
original  and  splendid  myth  of  the  Politicus,  setting  forth 
the  alternating  cosmical  periods,  the  one  of  the  divine 
order,  the  other  of  Nature  left  to  herself,  when  (in  direct 
opposition  to  the  latest  scientific  holdings)  she  inevitably 
begins  to  degenerate,  as  having  in  herself  no  principle  of 
progression,  or  even  of  permanence,  though  even  in  her 
abandonment  she  may  preserve  some  portions  of  tlie  sper- 
matic reasons  that  were  sown  during  her  diviner  circuit. 

Some  dialogues,  even  quite  long  ones,  seem  to  come  to  no 
result.  These  have  been  called  tentative,  sometimes  skep- 
tical. Socrates  himself  is  made  to  style  thamiXw kathartic, 
sometimes  the  kunegetic.  Their  object  is  to  evacuate  the 
soul  of  error  before  the  attempt  to  fill  it  witli  trutli — to 
chase  away  the  idols  of  the  cavern  in  order  to  admit  the 
sunlight  witli  its  realities ;  or,  to  use  another  figure,  to  test 
whetlier  tlie  idea  so  long  sought  proves  to  be,  on  its  birth, 
a  true  offspring  of  the  soul  or  nothing  more  than  an  uhv 
ai/efucuoi'.  an  aljortion,  or  wind-egg,  to  be  cast  away. 

Tliere  have  been  various  translations  of  Plato,  such  as 
tliose  of  Taylor,  Sydenham,  Victor  Cousin,  and  others. 
The  one,  however,  which  for  the  English  reader  must  super- 
sede all  others  is  that  of  Jowett.  He  has  transferred  this 
most  spiritual  and  colloquial  Greek  into  the  most  vivacious 
and,  at  the  same  time,  idiomatic  English.  See  Socrates, 
Idea,  and  Idealism,  Puilosophv,  Plotinus.  Immortality, 
Realism,  and  Soul.  Revised  by  W.  T.  IIaeris. 

Piatt,  Thomas  Collier:  politician;  b.  at  Owego,  N.  Y., 
July  15,  1833  ;  was  educated  at  Yale  College,  but  early  gave 
up  the  idea  of  a  professional  career,  entered  into  business,  was 
president  of  the  Tioga  National  Bank,  afterward  of  tlie  United 
States  Express  Company,  took  an  active  part  in  jjolitics,  and 
was  elected  a  member  of  Congress  in  1873  and  1875.  On 
Jan.  18, 1881,  he  was  chosen  U.  S.  Senator,  but,  on  account  of 
a  disagreement  between  him  and  the  executive  with  resficct 
to  the  appointment  of  the  collectorship  of  the  city  of  New 
York,  he  resigned  his  seat  on  May  14,  1881.  He  has  always 
been  a  prominent  member  of  the  Republican  national  conven- 
tions, and  the  recognized  leader  of  the  Republican  organiza- 
tions of  his  State.     Elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  Jan.,  18S)7. 

Plattdeiitscli,  or  Low  Saxon :  the  eastern  branch  of 
Low  German.  The  term  "  Plattdcutsch  "  occurs  first  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Low  Saxon  iss|iuken  in 
Northern  Germany,  its  area  covering  about  one-third  of  that 
of  the  German  empire.  It  passes  beyond  the  German  bound- 
ary only  toward  the  W.,  where  it  is  found  in  the  eastern 
provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  (See  Dutch  Language.)  The 
boundary  between  Low  Saxon  and  Low  Frankish— and 
further  on  between  Low  Saxon  and  Midland  German— lies 
E.  of  the  Rhine,  and  may  be  roughly  indicated  by  a  line  run- 
ning from  the  soutlu^ast  corner  of  the  Zuvder  Zee  to  a  point 
a  few  miles  beyond  Elberfeld  in  the  direction  of  Siegen. 
There  it  turns  norlhcastwai-d.  running  in  an  almost  straight 
line  to  the  Elbe,  N.  of  Wittenberg.  From  Wittenberg  the 
boundary-line  taki-s  its  course  eastw.ard  until  it  crosses  the 
Spree  near  Liibben.  There  it  again  turns  to  the  N.  K, 
crosses  the  Oder  at  Fiirstenberg,  and  finally  reaches  the  Sla- 


vonic frontier  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Posen,  near  Birn- 
baum  on  the  Warthe.  In  the  east  and  north  the  boundary  of 
the  Low  Saxon  dialect  coincides  with  that  of  the  German 
language,  which  is,  however,  not  exactly  identical  with  that 
of  the  German  empire. 

There  are,  according  to  time  and  locality,  several  varieties 
of  Low  Saxon,  viz. : 

(1)  Old  Saxo7i,  from  the  earliest  times  until  about  the  end 
of  the  eleventh  centui-y.  The  earliest  monument  is  a  baptis- 
mal vow,  composed  for  the  mission  among  the  heathen  Saxons 
in  772  or  soon  afterward.  The  year  830  is  generally  assumed 
as  the  date  of  the  most  important  work  in  Old  Saxon,  viz., 
the  so-called  Heliand  (i.  e.  Saviour),  a  poem  of  about  6,000 
lines  in  alliterative  verse,  narrating  the  life  and  death  of  the 
Saviour  according  to  the  four  Gospels.  Its  author  seems 
to  have  been  a  monk  of  the  monastery  Werden  on  the  Ruhr. 
It  is  certain  that  the  poem  originated  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Low  Frankish  dialect.  For  a  long  time  the  text  of 
the  Heliand  was  known  from  two  fairly  complete  manu- 
scripts (the  Cottonianus,  C,  and  the  Monacensis,  31)  and  a 
short  fragment  found  in  1880  at  Prague  (and  accordingly 
marked  P).  Another  fragment  (I')  was  discovered  in  Apr., 
18fl4,  by  Prof.  Zangemeister,  of  Heidelberg,  in  the  Vatican 
Library  at  Rome.  The  same  JIS.  in  which  this  was  found 
also  contains  several  fragments  (amounting  altogether  to  337 
lines)  of  an  Old  Saxon  Genesis,  written  like  the  Heliand  in 
alliterative  verse,  and  probably  also  the  work  of  the  author 
of  the  Heliand.  This  discovery  is  important  in  several  re- 
spects, since  it  throws  additional  light  on  the  question  of 
the  origin  of  the  Hiliaiiil,  and,  among  others,  confirms  the 
theory  advanced  in  1875  by  Prof.  Sievers  that  part  (viz., 
aljout  600  lines)  of  t  he  Anglo-Saxon  Genesis  was  translated 
from  an  Old  Saxon  ])oem. 

To  the  ninth  and  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century  be- 
long, furthermore,  a  formula  of  confession  (apparently  older 
than  the  Heliand),  two  charms,  a  fragment  of  a  translation 
of  one  of  Beda's  homilies,  two  leaves  (badly  conserved)  from 
a  commentary  to  the  Psalms,  lists  from  two  monasteries  of 
taxes  which  they  were  entitled  to  collect,  and  finally  several 
collections  of  glosses.  Old  Saxon  dialect  forms  are  recogniz- 
able, too,  in  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  important  Old  High 
German  poems,  the  Hildebrandslied,'w\nch  was  transcribed 
into  High  Frankish  from  an  Old  Saxon  original.  Most  of  the 
remnants  of  Old  Saxon  literature  come  from  the  western 
part  of  the  Saxon  territory,  es])ecially  from  Westphalia  and 
the  districts  near  the  area  of  the  Low  Frankish  dialect.  There 
existed  at  that  time  no  common  literary  language  in  Low 
German,  each  scribe  using,  as  a  rule  (i.  e.  unless  he  copied, 
more  or  less  closely,  the  dialect  of  another  manuscript),  his 
own  dialect.  Toward  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  literary 
production  in  Old  Saxon  apparently  came  to  a  stop ;  at 
least  there  is  in  tradition  at  that  time  a  break  which  extends 
beyond  the  next  200  years. 

(2)  Middle  Low  Saxon,  from  the  twelfth  to  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  This  period  is  distinguished  from  Old 
Saxon  by  differences  similar  to  those  that  separate  Middle 
Dutch  from  Old  Dutch,  or  Middle  High  German  from  Old 
High  German,  the  most  noticeable  among  which  is  the 
transition  of  the  earlier  various  vowels  of  inflectional  end- 
ings into  the  one  vowel  e.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  these  changes  took  place  gradually.  The  year  1100  is 
an  approximative  limit  between  the  two  jieriods,  altliough, 
as  far  as  literary  tradition  is  concerned,  the  former  ceases 
during  the  tenth  century  and  the  latter  does  not  commence 
before  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth.  The  earliest  poetical 
work  in  Middle  Saxon  appears  to  be  the  rhymed  chronicle 
of  Gandersheim  (a  convent  in  Brunswick,  near  the  Hartz 
Jlountains),  written  in  1216  by  the  priest  Eberhard.  Among 
the  earliest  prose  works  is  the  Sarli  sen  Spiegel,  a  description 
of  the  Saxon  common  and  feudal  law,  made  by  the  knight 
Eyke  von  Repechowe  (or  Repgau,  in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt), 
probably  between  1220  and  1230.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
important  works  in  Low  German  and  one  of  the  chief  sources 
of  Germanic  law.  It  was  soon  adopted  as  a  legal  code  in 
Northern  Germany  and  was  imitated  in  Southern  Germany 
liy  similar  works,  the  liest  known  of  which  is  the  Schwa- 
betisjiiegel.  To  a  cleric,  who,  like  the  author  of  the  Sach- 
.sens/iiegel,  belonged  to  the  family  von  Repgan  in  Anhalt, 
is  due  the  first  attempt  in  Middle  Saxon  historical  prose, 
viz.,  the  so-called  S<i.ron  or  Repgowish  Chronicle,  written 
in  or  soon  after  the  year  1237.  It  is  noteworthy  that  most 
of  the  earlier  Middle  Low  Saxon  literature  belongs  to  the 
region  N.  and  E.  of  the  Hartz  Mountains,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Goslar,  Blankenburg,  Bernburg,  and  near  the  frontier  of 


I'LATTDEUTSCH 


G51 


those  districts  in  wliich  formerly  Slavonic  was  spoken.  Later 
i<n  tiio  center  of  lilerature  is  shifted  northward,  and  a  pre- 
iloniinant  position  is  occnpied  by  the  llanse  towns,  Bremen, 
llamlinrj,',  Lliheck,  l.iiiieliurg,  IJnmswick,  SIralsund,  Kij;a. 
anil  others.  Tlie  cMlrniiiatiun  of  Middle  Low  Saxon  or,  as 
it  is  f;enerally  termed.  Middle  Low  (ierman  literature  (from 
about  llioO  to  1501))  almost  entirely  coincides  with  that  of 
the  ilanseatic  Leaj;ue.  There  is  frcim  the  fourteenth  century 
downward  a  remarkable  nniformily  in  the  literary  languaj;e, 
which  finds  its  explanation  by  the  fact  that  the  ollicial  lan- 
{ruaj;o  of  the  Hanseat  i(-  League  (sometimes  calKnl  df  ostersche 
Sprake,  the  eastern  language),  or,  in  other  words,  the  dia- 
lect of  its  metropolis,  Lilbeck.  furnished  the  basis  for  a  fixed 
literary  language.  The  dififerences  between  the  lo(-al  dia- 
lects of  Lilbeck,  Hamburg.  Bremen,  LUneburg,  Stralsund, 
and  other  towns  of  Xc^rthern  Germany  were  from  the  outset 
very  slight.  Using  in  script  the  same  dialect  as  Liibeck 
did  not  for  the.se  towns  mean  ado|iting  a  new  but  simply 
writing  their  own  dialect.  After  this  dialect  had  gained 
the  rank  of  an  olTicial  and  literary  language  among  the 
Norlliern  German  towns  it  was  gradually  adojited  in  literary 
usage  in  X\\>-  southern  and  western  parts  of  the  Low  Saxon 
territory,  where  it  differed  considerably  from  the  local  dia- 
lects. Traces,  indeed,  of  local  peculiarities  are  found  in 
works  written,  e.g.,  in  Brunswick  or  in  Westjihalia,  but  not 
to  such  an  extent  as  we  should  find  them  if  the  scribes  had 
really  intended  to  write  in  their  own  dialect.  Even  in  char- 
ters and  private  deeils  the  usage  of  local  dialects  is  more  and 
more  sujjci-seded  by  that  of  the  literary  language.  It  is  for 
this  reason  impossible  to  gain  from  our  sources  a  correct  idea 
of  the  condition  of  the  Low  German  dialects  at  the  Middle 
Saxon  time.  There  is  in  Middle  Low  Gernnin  after  liJ.iOan 
extensive  literature,  both  in  poetry  and  in  prose.  Most  of 
the  poetical  works  lack  in  originality,  and  do  not,  with  the 
exception  of  the  beast-epic  and  of  .several  ecclesiastical 
dramas,  reach  the  standard  of  .Middle  Iligh  German  litera- 
ture. The  best-known  poeui  is  the  l)east-epic  Re.iiii'ke  ih'r 
VuK.  pul)lished  at  Lilbeck  in  14!tS.  The  work  is  a  nn^re 
translation  of  the  Dutch  lieinaerl.  It  follows  closely  that 
edition  of  Reinaert's  Hixtorie  which  about  1487  had  been 
published  by  the  Dutch  schoolmaster  Ileinric  van  .\lkmaer; 
lull  the  unknown  Low  tjerman  author  has  translated  so 
skillfully  that  his  wi>rk  reads  like  an  original  poem.  It  at 
once  met  with  general  favor  and  before  1662  there  were  14 
Low  German  exlitions.  7  Latin,  '.i  Danish,  and  1  Swedish. 
As  regards  prose  works.  Middle  Low  (Jerman  is  in  every  re- 
spect superior  to  Middle  High  (icrnuin.  The  prose  style  had 
been  cultivated  in  Middle  Saxon  at  an  early  date  in  legal, 
historical,  and  ecclesiastic  writing.s.  The  authors  even  of 
tho.se  early  works  show  a  perfect  command  of  the  language, 
and  we  must  admire,  in  translations  as  well  as  in  works 
written  originally  in  Low  (ierman.  on  the  one  hand  a  natu- 
ral gift  for  narrating  in  a  simple  and  entertaining  manner, 
on  the  other  hand  a  remarkable  ability  in  expressing  ab- 
.stract  thoughts  and  in  easily  haiulling  diiricnlt  syntactical 
relations.  Specimens  of  Low  (ierman  prose  of  the  best  time 
are  Detmar's  Chronic  of  Liibeck  (written  between  i:J86  and 
1400),  the  Seelenfronf  (a  dogmatic  work,  preserved  in  several 
MSS..  the  earliest  of  which  is  from  1407),  and  the  Passional 
(printed  at  Liibeck  in  1488  and  later,  also  found  in  earlier 
.\ISS.).  After  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when 
the  Ilanseatic  League  was  losing  its  influence  and  High 
(ierman  began  to  occupy  a  predominant  position  in  the 
Church  and  in  literature.  Low  German  entered  upon  a  pe- 
riod of  decline.  The  transition  of  the  sixteenth  to  the  sev- 
enteenth century  nnirks  the  limit  between  Middle  Saxon 
and  Modern  Saxon,  since  by  that  time  High  German  had  in 
Northern  Germany  become  the  recognized  literary  language. 
{'■i)  MoJirn  Low  Siiron.  from  about  1600  to  the  present 
tiuie.  While  the  present  Low  Saxon  dialects  dilTer  consid- 
erably from  Middle  Low  .Saxon,  there  is  but  little  difference 
between  the  language  of  the  sixteenth  ami  that  of  the  early 
seventeenth  century.  Xot  a  few  Middle  Low  (ierman  liooks 
intended  for  the  use  of  the  people  appeared  in  new  editions 
in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  excep- 
tional cases  even  later.  The  last  Low  (ierman  Bible  was 
printed  in  1G31.  With  the  exception  of  these  posthumous 
works  of  .Middli'  Low  German  literature.  Low  Saxon  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  takes  the  position  of 
a  popular  dialect,  which  is  admitted  into  regular  literature 
only  occ.isionally  ami  for  special  i)urposcs — e.g.  in  rustic 
poems  or  in  poems  that  ridicule  current  fashions  and  follies 
(especially  those  of  the  upper  classes),  or  contrast  Low  (ier- 
nnm  with  High  German.      Here  belong  the  Veer  ticltertz 


Oediehte  (Four  Humorous  Poems),  published  in  1652  by 
Prof.  Laurcmberg  (see  Laurkmhei{o,  Johann),  and  in  the 
eighteenth  century  several  original  poems  (e.  g.  Die  hulflose 
Sa^sinne)  and  translations  of  VergiKs  Eclogues  and  of 
some  of  Horace's  L'/iistles  and  .Salirex  (partly  published  in 
1729  and  17:J2.  partly  extant  in  a  MS.  volun'ie  of  1738),  by 
the  rector  Caspar  Abel.  Low  Saxon  scenes  occur  in  melo- 
dranuus  antl  comic  operas  of  the  sixteenth  and  the  seven- 
teenth centuries,  the  Low  German  pea.sant  being  a  tradi- 
tional favorit(>  in  the  jester's  part.  Among  the  Idyllen, 
written  in  hexameters  by  the  well-known  poet  .loh.  Heinr, 
Voss,  there  are  two  in  Low  Saxon,  viz.,  De  Winterauend 
(177.5)  and  De  Oe/dhapers  (1777).  His  example  caused  .loh. 
P.  Ilcbel  to  publish  in  his  native  South  German  dialect  his 
Allmndnnisc/ie  Gedic/ite,  which  soon  becaine  popular,  and 
in  return  encouraged  Low  Saxons  to  avail  themselves  more 
frequently  of  their  dialect  in  poetry.  There  is  at  present 
an  ample  literature  in  Low  Saxon,  both  in  poetry  and  in 
prose,  representing  many  local  varieties  of  the  dialect.  The 
liest-known  modern  authors  in  Plattdeutsch  are  Fritz  Keuter 
(1810-74)  and  Klaus  Grotli  (b.  181!)).  The  former  gained  a 
prominent  place  among  the  (icnnan  humorists  by  his  Ut 
mine  Stromtid  (i.  e.  In  my  Farming  Time).  Dorchhltichting 
(i.  e.  His  Highness),  and  other  tales  from  Low  German  coun- 
try-life, written  in  the  Mecklenburg  ilialect  and  collected 
under  the  nanu'  of  Olle  Kaniellen  (i.  e.  Old  Stories).  Groth's 
chief  work  is  the  Quickhorn  (i.  e. — Spring  of  Life),  a  coUec- 
ti(m  of  jjoems  written  in  the  dialect  of  Ditmarschen  (in 
Ilolstein).  which  were  first  [lublished  in  18.52  and  have  gone 
through  many  editions  since.  While  Keuter  is  an  ennnently 
realistic  author.  Groth's  purpose  was  to  write  poems  in 
which  the  Low  (jerman  people  might  recognize  themselves 
in  an  idealized  form.  Notwithstanding  these  and  many 
other  attempts  to  secure  for  the  Plattdeutsch  a  place  in  lit- 
erature. High  German  is  at  present  in  Northern  (iermany 
the  language  of  literature,  and  also  that  of  the  school  and 
the  Church,  of  the  Government,  and  of  the  educated  classes. 
Low  Saxon,  as  a  spoken  language,  is  losing  ground  from 
day  to  day.  Even  where  the  peo])le  still  adhere  to  the 
Plattdeutsch.  which  as  a  rule  is  the  case  in  the  country  dis- 
trict-s,  the  genuine  dialect  is  becoming  adulterated  by  words 
and  constructions  borrowed  from  High  (iernian.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  value  of  Low  Saxon,  both  in  its  literary  monu- 
ments and  in  its  living  dialects,  as  a  means  for  investigating 
the  development  of  German  mental  life  and  the  history  of 
the  German  language,  is  more  and  more  appreciated.  The 
center  of  the  efforts  that  arc  made  to  this  end  is  the  Low 
German  Dialect  Society  ( Verein  fur  niederdeulsche  Sprach- 
forscli ling),  founded  in  187.5,  whose  publications  consist  of 
an  annual  volume  (Jahrbncli).  a  monthly  periodical  (Korre- 
sponden'blatl).  a  series  of  Low  (ierman  texts  (mostly  re- 
prints of  earlier  works),  and  a  collection  of  dicticmaries  and 
gramniatic;d  studies.  Among  the  works  undertaken  by  in- 
dividual scholars,  the  most  important  is  the  Spruchallas 
von  Nord-  und  Mitteldeutscldand.  which  is  Ijeing  compiled, 
with  the  support  of  the  (ierman  (iovernment,  by  Dr,  G. 
Wenker  at  Marburg.  This  author  sent  to  every  school- 
teacher in  (iermany  a  sheet  containing  forty  simple  .sen- 
tences in  Modern  German,  and  asked  for  a  translation  into 
the  local  dialects.  These  sentences  were  selected  so  as  to 
contain  certain  words  in  which  the  peculiarities  of  the  va- 
rious dialects  should  appear.  The  44,2.51  answers  furnished 
him  with  the  material  for  his  nuips.  The  first  number  of 
the  S/irachatlas,  containing  six  ma]is,  appeared  in  1881, 
Publication,  however,  was  subsequently  abandoned,  and  the 
author  now  gives  his  autograph  maps  to  the  Royal  Library 
at  Berlin  for  preservation.  They  are  open  to  the  inspection 
of  scholars.  The  Modern  Low  Saxoii  dialects  fall  into  two 
groups,  viz.,  (1)  Northeast  Saxon,  in  t)ldenburg,  Bremen, 
Hanover,  Brunswick,  Hamburg,  Ilolstein,  Mecklenburg, 
IJrandenbnrg,  Pommern,  East  Prussia;  (2)  Westphalian,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Westphalia  and  in  the  principality 
of  Waldeck.  The  former  are  better  known,  since  the  writ- 
ings of  Keuter  and  Groth  belong  to  that  group.  They  are 
'  closely  related  to  the  Hanse  dialect  of  Miiidle  Low  German 
literature.  The  We.sti)halian  dialects  are  especially  note- 
worthy on  account  of  their  vowel  system,  which  to  this  day 
preserves  many  original  features  that  were  lost  in  the  north- 
eastern group  more  than  600  years  ago.  There  are  numer- 
o»is  local  varieties  in  both  groups. 

Refkrenxks.*  (o)  Old  Saxon.— Old  Saxon  lilerature  is 
treateti  bv  K.  Kiigel  in  his  Gescfiichte  der  deuischen  Li/fera- 
tur,  vol.  i'.,  pt.  1  (Strassburg,  1894),  p.  276.  seq..  and  in  Paul's 

•  Works  on  Low  German  dialects  in  geueral  are  given  under  (c). 


652 


PLATTDEUTSCH 


PLAUTUS 


an 
(V 


Orundriss  der  german.  PhUologie.  vol.  ii.,  pt.  1  (Strassburg, 
1893),  p.  198,  seq.  The  best  critical  edition  of  the  Eeliand 
is  the  one  by  Sievers  (Halle,  1878),  which  gives  the  MSS.  C 
d  M.  The  Prague  fragment,  P.  was  published  by  Larabel 
ienna,  1881),  the  Vatican  fragment.  T(with  the  Vatican 
fragments  of  the  Genesis.  Iiy  Zangemeister  and  Braune),  in 
Netie  Heidelben/er  Jalirhiicher.  iv.,  nr.  2  (Heidelberg,  1894). 
There  are  smaller  editions,  with  vocabulary,  by  Riickert 
(Leipzig,  1876,  with  notes),  Heyne  (3d  ed.  Paderborn, 
1883),  and  Behaghel  (Ilalle,  1882).  The  best  dictionary  is 
Schnieller's  Glossarium  Saxonicum  (Munich,  1840).  The 
smaller  Old  Saxon  texts  are  found  in  Heyne's  Kleiiiere 
altniederdeutsdie  DenkmMer  (2d  ed.  Paderborn,  1877).  A 
new  edition  by  J.  H.  Gallee  is  to  appear  at  Leyden.  For 
Old  Saxon  grammar,  see  (iallee's  Altsachsische  Orammatik, 
i.  (Halle  and  Loydeii.  IMIll),  and  W.  Schluter.  Untersuchun- 
gen  zur  Gesrhic'hte  d.  (il/sacks.  Spmche.  i.  (Gottingen,  1892). 

(b)  Middle  Lou^  Saxon. — A  brief  sketch  of  Middle  Low 
Saxon  literature  by  H.  Jellinghaus  is  found  in  Paul's  Oi-und- 
riss,  ii.,  1,  p.  419,  seq. ;  a  fuller  account  of  the  poetry  in 
Goedeke's  Dejifsche  Literaturgeschichte,  i.,  pp.  457-484. 
The  Gandershcim  chronicle  was  published  by  Weiland  in 
Deutsche  Chroniken,  vol.  ii..  p.  397,  seq.  There  is  a  critical 
edition  of  the  Saehsenspiegel.  by  Homeyer,  in  3  vols.  (1835- 
44;  vol.  i.  in  3d  ed.  1861),  and  smaller  editions  by  Weiske 
(6th  ed.  1883)  and  by  Lubben  (1879).  An  edition  of  the 
Saxon  or  Repgowish  Chronicle,  by  Weiland,  appeared  at 
Hanover  in  1877.  Recent  editions  (with  vocabulary-)  of  the 
Low  Saxon  Reineke  der  Vos  are  those  by  Lilbben  (Oldenburg, 
1867),  by  K.  Schroder  (Leipzig,  1872),  and  by  Prien  (Halle, 
1887).  Many  Miildle  Low  Saxon  texts  are  still  unpublished. 
The  elements  of  Middle  Low  Saxon  grammar  and  specimens 
of  various  literary  works  are  given  in  Liibben's  Mittelnieder- 
deutsche  Grammatik  mit  Chresiomathie  und  Glossar  (Leip- 
zig, 1883).  A  comprehensive  dictionary,  in  six  volumes, 
was  begun  by  Schiller  in  1873  and  finished  by  Lubben  in 
1881.  There  is  a  handv  dictionary,  in  one  volume,  by  Lub- 
ben and  Walther  (Norden.  1888). 

(c)  Modern  Loiv  Saxon. — For  a  bibliography  of  works  on 
Low  German  in  general  and  Modern  Low  Saxon  in  par- 
ticular, see  C.  F.  Herrmann,  Bibliotheca  Germanica  (Halle, 
1878).  p.  67,  seq. ;  von  Bahder,  Die  deutsche  Philologie  (Pa- 
derborn, 1883),  p.  160,  seq.  \  Kauffmann,  in  Paul's  Orund- 
riss, i.  (1891),  p.  968,  seq.;  Mentz,  Bihliographie  der  deut- 
schen  Miindartenforschung  (Leipzig,  1893) ;  also  the  Jahres- 
bericht  iiber  germanische  Plii/rjluyie,  vol.  i.,  seq.  (Berlin, 
1879,  seq.).  Important  periodicals  are  Die  deufschen  Mund- 
arten  (vols,  i.-vi.,  1854^58 :  vol.  vii.,  1877) ;  Jahrbuch  des 
Vereins  fur  niederd.  Sprachforschung  (vol.  i.,  seq.,  1875, 
seq.) :  Korrespondenzblatt  des  Vereins  fiir  niederd.  Sprach- 
forschung (vol.  i.,  seq.,  1874,  seq.).  There  are  several  dia- 
lect maps,  e.  g.  Bernliardi,  Sprachkarfn  von  Deiifschland 
(3d  ed.  Cassel,  1849);  Piper,  Die  Verbreitung  der  deutschen 
Dialekte  bis  um  das  Jahr  13U0  (Lahr,  1880).  Lauremberg's 
Veer  Schertz  Gedichte  have  been  reprinted  by  Braune 
(Halle,  1879).  Selections  from  Abel's  poems  are  given  by 
Hofmeister  in  the  Jahrbuch  of  the  Low  German  Dialect 
Society,  vol.  viii.,  p.  115.  seq.  (collected  by  Gaedertz).  There 
is  a  small   Plattdeulsches   Vi'iirterbuch   zu,   Fritz   Reuters 

Werken,  by  Frehse  (Wismar,  1867).  Groth's  Quickborn  con- 
tains a  brief  but  valuable  glossary  by  K.  MuUenhoff.  A 
comprehensive  collection  of  specimens  of  the  various  dia- 
lects is  Firmenich's  Germaniens  Volkerstimmen  (8  vols., 
Berlin,  1843-68).  Gramnuirs  and  dictionaries  are :  (1)  North- 
east Saxcm  :  Nerger,  Grammatik  des  mecklenburgischenDia- 
lekts  (Leipzig,  1869);  Versuch  eines  Bremisch-Niedersdch- 
sischen  Wi'irterbuches  (6  vols.,  Bremen,  1767-1869) ;  Ten 
Doornkaat-Koolmann,  Worterbuch  der  ostfnes.  Sprache  (3 
vols.,  Norden,  1879-84);  Schambach,  Gottingisc.h-Oruben- 
hagensches  Idiolikon (Hanover.  1858) ;  Schiltz, Holsteinisches 
IdioHlcon  (4  vols.,  Hamburg.  1800-06),  etc.  (3)  Westphalian  : 
Holthausen,  Die  Soe.ster  Mundart  (Xorden,  1886);  Woeste, 
Worterbuch  der  Westfdlischen  Mundart  (Norden,  1883). 
On  the  classification  of  the  modern  dialects  and  the  differ- 
ences between  Northeast  Saxon  and  Westphalian,  see  Jel- 
linghaus, yiur  Einteiluny  der  niederdeufschen  Mundarteti 
(Kiel,  1884) ;  W'enker,  Das  rheinische  Piatt  (DiJsseldorf, 
1877) :  the  reports  on  Wenker's  Sprachaflas.  by  Wrede,  in 
Anzeiger  f.  dt.  Alterthum,  vol.  xviii., .s(=f/.  (Berlin,  1892,  seq.): 
Jostes,  Schriffspraehe  und  Volksdialekte  (in  the  Jahrbuch 
of  the  Low  German  Dialect  Society,  xi.,  p.  85,  seq.);  Collilz, 
■  Ueberdas  rergleichende  Studium  derniederdeittschen  Mund- 
arten  (in  the  Korrespondenzblatt  of  the  Low  German  Dialect 
Society,  xi.,  p.  23,  seq.).  Hermann  Collitz. 


Platte  River:  a  stream  formed  in  Lincoln  co..  Neb.,  by 
the  union  of  the  North  and  South  Forks.  The  former  rises 
in  the  North  Park,  Col.,  receiving  the  Sweetwater,  the  La- 
ramie, and  other  streams.  The  South  Platte  flows  from 
the  South  Park  of  Colorado,  and  in  its  upper  course  is  ex- 
tensively utilized  in  irrigation  and  as  a  source  of  water- 
power.  The  united  stream  flows  E.,  and  reaches  the  Mis- 
souri at  Plattsmoutli.  It  is  the  widest  affluent  of  the  Mis- 
souri, but  neither  the  largest  in  volume  nor  the  longest. 
Its  mouth  is  over  1,000  yards  wide,  but  it  is  so  shallow  that 
it  can  nowhere  be  navigated  with  much  success.  Its  valley 
is  generally  very  fertile.  The  drainage  area  is  estimated  at 
7..500  sq.  miles.  The  Loup  Fork  and  Elkhorn  are  the  chief 
tributaries.     Length  of  the  main  stream,  900  miles. 

Platteville:  city;  Grant  co..  Wis.;  on  the  Little  Platte 
river,  ami  the  Chi. 'and  N.  W.  and  the  Clii.,  Jlil.  and  St.  P. 
railways :  18  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Dubuque,  la.  (for  location,        ■ 
see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-C).     It  is  in  an  agricultural       1 
and  lead-mining  region,  contains  a  State  normal  school,  a       " 
national  bank  with  capital  of  |50,000,  an<l  two  weekly  news- 
papers, and  has  several  flour- and  planing-mills,  foundries, 
etc.     Pop.  (1880)  2,687;  (1890)  2,740;  (1895)  3,331.  J 

Plilttsburg  :  village ;  capital  of  Clinton  eo.,  N.  Y. ;  on  \ 
the  Saranac  river  at  its  entrance  into  Cumberland  Bay,  a 
part  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  on  the  Chateaugay  and  the 
Del.  and  Hudson  railways;  20  miles  N.  W.  of  Burlington, 
Vt.,  155  miles  N.  of  Albany  (for  location,  see  map  of  New 
York,  ref.  1-J).  It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  good  water- 
power  from  the  lake,  and  a  large  lake  commerce  and  lumber- 
trade.  There  are  4  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
$400,000,  a  daily,  3  monthly,  and  2  weekly  periodicals,  U.  S. 
Government  building,  the  finest  U.  S.  arniy  barracks  in  the 
Union,  a  State  normal  school,  academy, '2  libraries,  and 
woolen-,  flour-,  and  saw-mills,  several  large  pulp-mills,  and 
3  foundries,  sewing-machine  factory,  and  n]achine-shof>s. 
Plattsburg  is  becoming  noted  as  a  summer  resort.  It  is  the 
home  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Summer  School  of  America,  an 
institution  on  the  plan  of  Chautauqua.  In  Sept.,  1814,  Com- 
modore McDonough  gained  a  victory  over  a  British  fleet  in 
Cumberland  Bay,  and  Gen.  Macomb  repulsed  a  superior  Brit- 
ish force  on  land.  Pop.  (1880)  5,245;  (1890)  7,010 ;  (1894)  esti- 
mated. 8,600.      W.  H.  Ferrell,  editor  of  "  The  Press." 

Plattsmoutli  :  city  (site  acquired  by  the  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment by  treaty  with  the  Indians  in  1854,  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1855) ;  capital  of  Cass  co.,  Neb.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Nebraska,  ref.  10-H) ;  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Platte  and  Missouri  rivers;  on  the  Burlington  Route  and 
the  Mo.  Pac.  railways ;  33  miles  S.  of  Omaha.  It  is  engaged 
in  the  grain-,  cattle-,  and  lumber-trade,  and  has  4  cigar-fac- 
tories, brick-  and  terra-cotta  works,  carriage- and  wagon-fac- 
tories, and  the  principal  shopis  of  the  Burlington  Route  Rail- 
way. There  are  11  churches,  8  public-school  buildings,  in- 
cluding a  high  school  that  cost  $25,000;  court-house  that 
cost  180,000 ;  opera-house  that  cost  |50,000 ;  gas  and  elec- 
tric light  plants ;  improved  water-works ;  new  sewerage  sys- 
tem ;  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  .$50,000,  and  2  State 
banks  with  capital  of  $100,000;  and  3  daily  and  3  weekly 
newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  4,175;  (1890)  8,392.' 

Editor  of  "  Herald." 

Platyp'tera  [Mod.  Lat..  from  Gr.  irKarvs,  broad  +  infp6v, 
wing]:  the  order  of  insects  which  includes  the  while  ants 
and  which  is  also  known  as  Isoptera.  See  Entomolouy  and 
Termites. 

Plat'yptis  :  See  Duckbill  and  Ornithorhynciiid^. 

Plaiieii.  plow'en  ;  town  ;  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  Ger- 
many; on  the  Elster;  78  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Leipzig  (see  map 
of  (lermany,  ref.  5-F).  It  has  many  good  educational  in- 
stitutions, and  large  manufactures  of  paper,  leather,  mus- 
lin, cambric.  Jaconet,  and  other  woolen  and  linen  goods. 
Po]).  (1890)  47,'007. 

Plau'tiis.  Titus  Maccius;  play-writer;  b.  about 254  B.C. 
at  Sarsina.  in  Fmbria  :  went  early  to  Rome,  where  he  found 
emplnyuu'Ut  with  the  actors;  saved  some  money  and  started 
a  business  of  his  own,  but  failed;  worked  afterward  at  a 
hand-mill  at  Rome,  and  wrote,  while  thus  employed,  three 
comedies,  which  he  succeeded  in  selling  to  the  managers  of 
the  public  festivals.  They  were  well  received,  anil  from 
this  time  till  his  death,  184  B.  c,  he  lived  as  a  play-writer. 
The  plots,  and  also  generally  the  characters,  of  his  plays 
he  took  from  the  Greek  comedians,  as  Menander.  Diphilus, 
Demophilus,  and  Philemon,  but  both  underwent  a  very  free 
treatment  aiul  a  thorough  Latinization,  which  may  be  in- 


PLAYA 


PLEA 


653 


ferri'd  from  the  general  character  of  his  dialofciie  :  it  is  not 
only  Ituent  and  witty,  but  racy  and  tal<eii  fresh  from  tlip 
lips  of  tlie  people.  In  his  hiuidliiifr  of  the  meters  he  shows 
great  skill  and  versatility.  While  Terence,  who  was  much 
more  elegant,  but  also  a  mueh  closer  imitator  of  the  Creeks, 
<'omplaiMS  that  the  audieuce  ran  away  from  his  plays  to 
look  at  some  rope-damx-r.  Plautns  remained  a  favorite  with 
the  Uomans  down  to  the  time  of  Diocletian,  and  was  appre- 
ciated not  onlv  bv  the  masses,  but  also  by  the  most  fastidious 
p„,ple— e.  g.  Cicero.  According  to  Gelliiis,  there  existed  Kit) 
plays  which  bore  his  name,  but  the  number  of  those  nn- 
<lUi"stionablv  genuine  Varro  limited  to  twenty-one,  which 
are  doubtless  those  extiint,  namely,  Amplutnto,  Adinuria, 
A  uluhiria.  lidcchidea.  ( 'iijitiri,  ( 'nshui,  CisieUaria,  Ciurulio, 
Eindirus.  Jlemech m i, .Mtirator.  Miles ffloriosiis,  Jloslellana, 
J\e>iulit.%  Persa,  Pseiidulus,  Jiiidenx,  Stichiis.  Triinnnmii.i. 
Truculentuis.  and  Vidularin.  Of  the  last  of  these,  only  frag- 
ments remain  in  the  Aiidirosian  [lalimpscst.  The  great  pwig- 
ress  made  in  Plautine  criticism  in  the  nineteenth  century  is 
due  largely  to  Kitschl  and  his  scliool.  The  great  critical 
edition  begun  by  him  was  completed  by  Ijoewe,  Goetz.  and 
Schoell  (Leipzig,"  1871-94).  A  notable  contribution  also  is 
.Studemund's  Plauti  fabularwn  religiiiie  Amiirosianie  (Ber- 
lin 188iJ).  See  also  Ussing's  complete  edition  with  Latin 
notes  (5  vols.,  Copenhagen,  lST5-,s(j).  The  Plautine  litera- 
ture is  very  extensive.  Of  ainiotated  editions  of  separate 
i)lavs  may  "be  mentioned  Cnplivi,  Trinummim.  Mihs.  ami 
Manrchtiu.  bv  Hrix  (Leipzig)  ;  Milfs.  Mut<tifUiiria,  and 
/VHrfo/K-s.  bv"Lorenz  (Berlin):  Ciiptivi.hy  llallidie;  Milca, 
by  Tyrrell;  Amphitruo.  by  Palmer;  liiidi-iis  and  Jftifste/laria, 
l)'y  Soinienschein ;  PsemlMlun,  by  E.  P.  Morris.  There  is  an 
English  translation  by  Thornton  and  Warner  (■>  vols.,  1767- 
74)"  another  bv  Rilev  (2  vols.,  1852). 

Revised  by  JI.  Warrex. 

Plliya:  a  name  adopted  from  the  Spanish  (meaning,  lit- 
erally, shore  or  strand),  for  barren  mud-]ilains,  left  by  the 
evaporation  of  temjiorary  lakes  in  arid  regions.  Typical 
examjiles  occur  in  many  of  the  desert  valleys  of  the  Great 
Basin,  between  the  KiK-"ky  Mountains  and  Sierra  Xevada. 
The  winter  is  tliere  the  rainy  season,  and  water  collects  in 
the  valleys,  formiiii;  shallow"  lakes,  or  "sinks,"  which  are 
sometime's  300or  ;!U0  s(i.  miles  in  area,  but  do  not  overflow. 
These  lakes  usually  evaporate  to  dryness  during  the  succeed- 
ing sumuujr,  but  "in  (jtlier  instances  exist  for  a  series  of 
years,  and  are  desiccated  only  during  seasons  of  excejjtional 
(Iryness.  These  "  playa-lake"s  "'  are  always  alkaline,  and  of 
a  yellowish  color,  owing  to  the  exceedingly  fine  silt  held  in 
suspension.  The  deposits  they  leave  on  evaporating  become 
so  hard  that  the  wheels  of  a  lieavy  wagon  leave  but  a  slight 
impression  on  them.  Their  surfaces  shrink  and  crack  so  as 
to  resemble  a  tessellated  pavement  of  cream-colored  marble. 
In  some  instances  the  playas  become  coated  with  efflorescent 
salts  during  the  summer. "anil  then  appear  as  it  covered  with 
drifting  snow.  Hxeuvations  made  in  the  |ilaya-e!irth  fail  to 
reveal  a  stratification  o(  the  deposit.  In  some  inslauees 
land-  and  fresh-water  shells  are  washed  into  the  playa-lakes, 
and  liones  of  land-animals  and  other  stream-borne  de/irin 
may  be  contrilnited  by  the  streams  which  feed  them.  The 
valleys  of  the  Great  I'Jasin  are  filled  to  the  <lepth  of  many 
hinidreds  of  feet  with  playa-deposits.and  in  some  instances, 
judging  from  the  character  of  the  nearly  buried  mountain- 
peaks  in  the  centers  of  broad  deserts,  the  depth  of  filling 
nnist  be  measured  by  t  housauds  (d'  feet.  Playa  deposits  bear 
.■I  striking  similarity  to  the  Uh^ss  of  Asia,  and  .seem  to  indi- 
cate the  mode  in  which  that  deposit  was  formed.  (See  LoKss.) 
Consult  Lake  Lahontaii.  Monm/m/ili  .\'o.  11,  United  Sfalen 
(Geological  Survey,  and  Suharriul  Deposits  of  the  Arid  J\'e- 
</ion  of  North  America,  in  Oeoloyicnl  Magazine,  vol.  vi. 
"(London,  1889).  Isr.vklC.  Russkll. 

IMayfair.  .lonx  :  scientist :  b.  at  Benvie,  Forfarshire.  Scot- 
land. Mar.  10,  1748;  eiUu-ateil  at  the  Uinversity  of  St.  An- 
drews, where  he  was  distinguished  for  his  attainments  in 
natural  history;  became  a  nunisler  of  the  Scotch  Church 
1772;  held  the  living  of  Bi'uvie  177:i-82,  when  he  resigned, 
removed  to  l'',iliMl>urgli,and  bccami'  a  private  tutor;  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  University 
of  Ediid)urgh  178,"),  I'rofessor  of  Natural  Philosophy  18(ir), 
and  became  in  the  same  year  general  secretary  of  the  Kdin- 
liurgh  Royal  Society.  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
Trinisactioiis  of  that  body,  as  well  as  to  The  Ediiiliurgli  Hi- 
rieii':  pulilished  IttH.-^tratiiiiis  of  the  Ilntliinian  Theiirji  of 
llie  Kitrlh  (1802)  and  Outlines  of  Sntiind  Phihisiijihij  (i 
vols.,  1812-16),  containing  the  substance  of  his  university 


lectures.  Prof.  Playfair  was  one  of  the  precursors  of  the 
geological  discoverers  of  the  nineteenth  cent  ury,  and  traveled 
in  search  of  geological  data  in  France,  Switzi'rland,  and 
Italy:  left  incomplete  at  his  death  an  interesting  Disser- 
tation oil-  the  Progress  of  Matheitiaticat  and  Physical  Sci- 
ence, pre[)ared  for  the  supplement  to  the  Ene yclopcedia 
liritannica.  IX  in  Edinburgh  July  19,  181!).  A  collected 
edition  of  his  works  was  issued  at  Kdiid)urgh  (4  vols.,  1822). 

Revised  by  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Playfair.  Lvox,  Baron,  K.  C.  B..  F.  K.  S.,  LL.  D. :  scien- 
tist aiid  statesman;  b.  at  Meerut.  in  Bengal,  Jlay  21.  1819; 
educated  at  St.  Andrews,  Scotland,  and  the  Andersonian 
Uinversity,  Glasgow;  studied  chemistry  under  (iraham  and 
Liebig;  engaged  in  industrial  chemistry:  became  in  1843 
Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  liuyal  Iiistilution.  and  was  in 
1844  apjiointed  on  the  commission  constituted  to  examine 
into  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  large  towns  and  populous 
di.stricts  of  Great  Britain:  was  apiiointed  special  commis- 
sioner in  charge  of  the  <lepartinent  of  juries  at  the  London 
exhibition  of  18.51.  and  in  1858  look  the  chair  of  Chemistry 
in  the  University  of  Edinljurgli;  Ipi'came  iu  1868  a  liberal 
member  of  Parliament  for  the  Universities  of  Edinburgh 
and  Aberdeen;  postmaster-general  1S73-74;  and  has  held 
many  other  public  positions  of  importance.  He  was  made 
a  K.'C.  B.  in  1883  and  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Play- 
lair  of  St.  Andrews  in  1893.  Together  with  W.  Gregory  he 
edited  Liebig's  Chemistry  in  its  Application  to  Agriculture 
and  Physiology,  and  is  the  author  of  numerous  scientific  me- 
moirs— Science  in  its  Relation  to  />«io;-(I85;i) ;  (hi  the  Food 
of  Man  in  Pelatiiin  to  his  Useftil  ir(()7.{1865) :  On  Primary 
and  Technical  Ediicatiun  (1870);  On  Teaching.  Universi- 
ties, and  Examining  Boards  (\^Ti);  Universities  in  their 
Relation  to  Professional  Education  (1873) ;  Science  in  Re- 
lation to  the  J'uhlic  Weal  (1885),  and  a  variety  of  minor 
papers. 

PLayiiig-cards  ;  a  kind  of  cards  used  for  playing  games. 
In  iiio("lern  times,  and  for  the  most  common  games,  a  pack 
of  cards  numbers  fifty-two,  an<l  cimsists  of  four  suits,  two 
red  (hearts  and  diamonds)  and  two  black  (clubs  and  spades), 
each  suit  comprising  thirteen  cards — three  jiicture-cards, 
the  king,  queen,  and  knave;  and  ten  pip-cards  numbered 
from  one,  the  ace,  to  ten.  Chinese  jiacks  have  only  thirty 
cards — three  suits  of  nine  cards  each,  and  three  single  cards, 
which  rank  higher  than  the  others.  In  India  and  other 
countries  there  are  various  other  kinds  of  playing-cards, 
and  in  Europe  and  America  innumerable  games  require 
cards  made  especially  for  them. 

The  traditional  history  of  European  playing-cards  de- 
rived them,  like  chess,  from  Asiatic  sources.  In  one  ac- 
count it  is  asserted  that  the  Saracens  first  introduced  them 
into  Spain  and  Italy,  and  that  thence  they  spread  to  the 
rest  of  Europe,  while  other  authorities  attribute  their  ori- 
gin to  China  and  to  India  :  but  later  investigations  have 
thrown  much  doubt  (^n  all  previous  theories,  and  it  is  clidmed 
that  plaving-cards  originated  in  Europe  itself,  probably  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  Prior  to  their  invention,  cards 
with  emblematic  pictures  were  u.sed  in  fortune-telling. 
The  first  packs  for  jilaying-purijoses  varied  in  the  innnber  of 
picture  cards,  but  pip-cards  were  from  the  first  divided  into 
four  suits.  The  nujdern  hearts,  diamonds,  clubs,  and  spades 
were  designated  in  Italy  and  Spain  by  ciqis,  money,  clubs, 
and  swords,  and  in  Germany  by  hearts,  bells,  acorns,  and 
leaves.  All  symbolic  meanings  attached  to  these  devices 
are  fanciful. 

The  fifty-two  card  pack  has  existed  substantially  as  at 
present  sin'ce  the  fifteenth  century.  Indicators,  or  small  in- 
dexes ]ilaced  at  the  corners  of  the  cards,  were  introduced 
in  1860.  The  modern  production  of  |ilaying-cards  is  enor- 
mous: the  number  of  packs  imulc  annually  runs  up  to  the 
tens  of  millions.  Their  manufacture  is  a  (iovernment  mo- 
nopoly in  Russia,  and  in  (ireat  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  forms  a 
subject  of  s])ccial  taxation.  The  first  games  played  were 
chiefly  of  chance,  but  the  tendency  has  generally  been 
toward  those  that  require  greater  skill.  See  E.  S.  Taylor's 
History  of  Playing-cards  (1865);  Willshire,  Descriptive 
Catalogue  of  Cards  in  the  British  Museii/n  (1877);  Van 
Rensselaer.  The  Devil's  Picture-books  (New  York.  1890). 
For  a  description  of  the  most  common  games,  .see  A\  nisT, 
Cassixo,  Euchre,  Seven-ui',  etc.  S.  A.  Torrance. 

Plea  [M.  VAig.plee.  plat,  plait,  from  Q.  Fr.  plait,  plaid 
<  Lat.  pla'ciluni,  judgment,  opinion,  decision,  liter.,  that 
which  is  pli-asing  to  one.  deriv.  of  place're.  please] :  in  the 
common-law  sy.steiu  of  pleading,  strictly,  the  first  defense 


654 


PLEADING 


PLEASURE 


or  statement  of  fact  interposed  by  the  defendant  in  an  ac- 
tion at  law.  (See  Pleading.)  The  term  plea  is  also  used 
as  a  name  for  an  action  or  suit,  as  in  the  expression  court  of 
common  pleas  (see  Courts)  ;  also  in  the  expression  pleas  of 
the  cruwn,  nsed  to  designate  the  criminal  cases  in  England, 
in  which  the  crown  is  the  nominal  Prosecutor  {g.  i:),  al- 
though in  fact  the  prosecutor  is  usually  a  private  person. 

F.  Stueges  Allen. 

Pleading  [deriv.  of  plead  <  M.  Bng.  pleden,  plaiden, 
from  0.  Fr.  plaidier.  deriv.  of  plaid,  plea.  See  Plea]  :  in 
law,  the  making  of  the  written  allegations  of  the  parties  to 
an  action,  by  %vhieh  tlicy  state  their  respective  claims  and 
defenses  and  finally  arrive  at  an  issue  of  fact  or  of  law,  the 
decision  of  which  will  determine  the  judicial  controversy 
between  them  ;  also  (in  the  pi.)  the  allegations  themselves. 
The  pleadings  of  an  action  are  a  part  of  the  steps  compre- 
hended under  the  general  term  Procedure  (q.  v.).  and,  like 
the  other  parts  of  procedure,  they  are  marked  in  the  early 
stage  by  a  rigid  and  excessive  formality  which  is  unsuited 
to  the  needs  of  our  modern  civilization.  This  early  exces- 
sive formality  and  the  subsequent  modifications  to  meet  the 
needs  of  changing  circumstances  can  be  noted  here  only  as 
it  has  taken  place  in  the  law  of  England  and  the  LT.  S. 
Only  pleading  in  civil  actions  will  be  here  treated  of,  since, 
although  the  terminologies  in  civil  and  criminal  pleading 
differ,  the  principles  are  the  same  :  thus,  an  indictment  in  a 
criminal  action  corresponds  to  the  declaration  or  complaint 
of  a  civil  action.  Prior  to  the  comprehensive  reforms  ef- 
fected by  statute  there  had  long  existed  in  England  and  the 
U.  S.  three  different  types  or  species  of  pleading — common- 
law  pleading,  equity  plea<ling,  and  pleading  by  allegation 
(in  the  admiralty  and  ecclesiastical  courts). 

Common-law  Pleading. — The  common-law  method  pre- 
vailed exclusively  in  the  courts  of  law.  At  a  very  early 
period  the  parties  to  a  suit  appeared  in  open  court  and 
made  oral  statements  of  their  claims  and  defenses  in  the 
actual  presence  of  the  judges,  which  were  at  once  written 
down  by  an  officer  of  court ;  and  this  official  transcript 
constituted  the  record  of  the  proceedings.  This  oral  mode 
.seems  to  have  continued  until  about  the  middle  of  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.  The  common-law  system,  as  it  was 
subsequently  perfected,  arose  from  the  substitution  of 
written  allegations  in  the  place  of  these  oral  ones;  and 
such  writings,  instead  of  being  presented  to  the  judges 
themselves  sitting  in  court,  were  filed  by  the  attorneys  in 
the  offices  of  the  proper  clerks. 

The  first  pleading  by  the  plaintiff  was  the  declaration, 
which  contained  a  statement  of  the  cause  of  action  made  in 
a  highly  artificial,  formal,  and  technical  manner,  and  in 
language  which  differed  widely  from  the  English  of  ordi- 
nary narrative,  and  also  indicated  the  particular  form  of 
action  which  the  plaintiff  had  adopted. 

If  the  defendant  aduiitted  the  truth  of  the  facts  set  forth 
by  the  plaintiff,  but  denied  that  in  law  they  constituted  the 
cause  of  action  against  him,  his  pleading  was  termed  a  de- 
murrer. If,  however,  he  desired  to  present  an  issue  of  fact, 
his  pleading  was  styled  tlie  plea.  Tiie  pleas  by  the  defend- 
ant, and  all  subsequent  pleadings  in  tlic  suit  by  eitlier  of 
the  parties,  were  separated  into  two  classes — those  by  way 
of  traverse,  which  directly  denied  all  of  the  essential  state- 
ments of  fact  contained  in  the  preceding  pleadings  of  the 
adverse  party  ;  and  those  by  way  of  confession  and  avoid- 
ance, which  admitted  such  statements  to  be  true,  but  al- 
leged other  and  new  facts  obviating  and  destroying  their 
legal  effect.  If  the  defendant's  plea  was  a  traverse,  an  issue 
of  fact  was  formed  at  once  ;  if  it  was  in  confession  and 
avoidance,  the  plaintiff  must  interpose  a  replication  or  a 
demurrer.  In  this  manner  the  alternate  allegations  were 
conducted  until  either  an  issue  of  law  was  presented  bv  a 
demurrer  or  an  issue  of  fact  by  a  direct  affirmation  on  the 
one  side  and  a  denial  thereof  on  the  other  ;  in  actual  prac- 
tice, however,  the  series  seldom  was  extended  bevond  the 
replication. 

The  rules  which  governed  the  common-law  svstem  and 
regulated  tlie  maiuu-r  of  making  the  averments  were  ex- 
ceedingly refined,  precise,  and  formal,  and  litigations  were 
often  decideil  upon  the  most  technical  questions,  without 
reference  to  the  mc'rits  of  the  controversy. 

Equity  Pleading.— \n  a  case  in  equity  the  comidainant's 
case  was  stated  in  a  hill  of  complaint  and  the  defendant's 
in  an  answer,  and  these  ordinarily  constituted  the  only 
pleadings,  although  a  few  particular  defenses  were  .set  out  in 
a  form  known  as  the  plea.     The  parties  were  not  subjected 


to  the  technical  rules  of  the  common  law.  but  used  a  more 
natural  mode  of  statement.  The  pleader  averred  not  only 
the  principal  facts  constituting  the  ground  for  relief  or  the 
defense,  but  also  the  evidence  by  which  these  facts  were 
substantiated,  so  that  the  cause  could  often  be  decided  upon 
these  averments  alone. 

Pleading  hy  Allegation. — The  mode  of  pleading  in  the 
court  of  admiralty  and  the  ecclesiastical  courts  was  sub- 
stantially iilentical,  in  respect  to  the  matters  required  to  be 
stated,  with  the  equity  method,  and  differed  from  that 
simply  in  tlie  external  form  of  the  averments.  Each  im- 
portant fact,  together  with  the  detail  of  evidence  concern- 
ing it,  was  contained  in  a  separate  paragraph,  technically 
termed  an  allegation,  so  that  the  Libel  (q.  v.)  of  the  complain- 
ing party,  which  corresponded  to  the  declaration  and  the  bill 
of  other  courts,  was  separated  into  a  number  of  distinct 
paragraphs  or  allegations,  each  relating  to  a  single  fact  or 
occurrence. 

Code  Pleading. — The  injustice  and  delay  occasioned  by 
these  formal  and  cumbersome  methods  of  pleading  led  to 
the  series  of  reforms  which  have  created  the  systems  of  code 
pleading.  In  the  V.  S.  the  Legislature  of  New  York  began 
the  reform  in  1848  by  effecting  for  that  State  a  radical 
change  in  these  modes  of  pleading  by  the  adoption  of  the 
Code  of  Civil  Procedure  ;  the  reform  thus  inaugurated  has 
extended  into  most  of  the  States  and  Territories  of  the  U.  S. 
In  England  the  first  decisive  step  in  this  direction  was  made 
by  the  Common-law  Procedure  Act  of  1854 ;  but  the  system 
of  code  pleading  was  not  fully  adopted  there  until  the  Ju- 
dicature Acts  of  1873  and  1875  consolidated  all  the  com- 
mon-law and  equity  courts,  and  abolished  the  distinction 
between  legal  and  equitable  suits  and  the  rules  which  gov- 
erned the  common-law  pleading.  The  parties  in  all  actions 
are  required  to  state  the  facts  constituting  the  ground  of 
relief  or  the  defense  as  they  actually  existed,  in  ordinary 
language,  without  any  technical  formality,  and  without  any 
averments  of  evidence  or  of  legal  conclusions.  In  some  of 
the  States  the  first  pleading  by  the  plaintiff  is  denominated 
the  complaint,  in  others  {he  petition,  while  in  England  it  is 
called  the  statement  of  claim.  The  only  pleading  of  fact 
by  the  defendant  is  styled  the  answer  in  all  of  the  several 
States,  but  in  the  English  practice  the  statement  of  defense. 
Under  certain  circumstances  the  plaintiff  must  put  in  a 
reply,  but  the  pleadings  of  fact  can  seldom  extend  beyond 
this  point.  The  defendant  may  demur  to  the  plaintiff's 
complaint,  petition,  or  statement  of  claim,  and  to  his  reply; 
and  the  plaintiff  may  demur  to  the  defendant's  answer  or 
statement  of  defense.  The  underlying  principle  of  this  re- 
formed system  is  natural,  correct,  and  at  the  same  time 
truly  scientific,  but  in  its  practical  application  there  is  yet 
much  to  be  learned.  See  the  works  of  Stephen,  Chitty, 
Story,  and  Gould  on  Pleading;  Odgers's  Principles  of 
Pleading  (in  England);  Bishop's  Code  Practice  in  Personal 
Actions  (in  New  York) ;  and  the  Reports  of  the  Jioyal 
Commissioners  on  Practice  and  Pleading  (1829-34  and 
1851-60) ;  also  the  American  and  English  Encyclopctdia 
of  Law.  John  Norton  Pomeroy. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Pleas  of  the  Crown  :  See  Plea. 

Pleasonton.  Alfred:  soldier:  b.  in  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, Dec,  1823 ;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
1844;  assigned  to  First  Dragoons ;  captain  Second  Dragoons 
Mar.,  1855  ;  major  Second  Cavalry  Feb.,  1862.  He  took  part 
in  the  war  against  Mexico,  and  served  on  frontier  duty  as 
acting  assistant  adjutant-general.  In  the  civil  war  he  served 
throughout  the  Virginia  Peninsular  campaign  of  1862:  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  of  volunteers  July  16,  1862,  he 
commanded  in  September  the  division  of  cavalry  following 
Lee's  army.  He  was  engaged  at  Boonsboro,  Soutli  Mountain. 
Antietam,  and  Fredericksburg:  at  Chaiicellorsville  his  action 
was  most  effective  in  checking  the  further  advance  of  Stone- 
wall Jackson's  corps,  which  threatened  to  carry  all  before 
it.  Promoted  to  be  major-general  in  June,  1863,  he  was  en- 
gaged in  the  actions  preceding  Gettysburg,  where  he  also 
commanded  in  chief  the  cavalry;  transferred  to  Missouri  in 
1864,  he  drove  Gen.  Price  from  the  State.  He  received  the 
brevets  of  lieutenant-colonel,  colonel,  brigadier- and  major- 
general  for  gallantry  in  the  field.  Mustered  out  of  the 
volunteer  service  Jan.,  1866,  he  in  1868  resigned  his  com- 
mission in  the  regular  army,  and  became  U.  S.  collector  of  in- 
ternal revenue.  He  Wiis  appointed  major  U.  S.  army  Oct.  19. 
1888;  retired  1888.     D.  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb."  17,  1897 

Pleasure :  See  Pain. 


PLEBISCITE 


PLEISTOCENE   PERIOD 


655 


Plebiscite,  pl<5bi-seet'  [Lat.  plebiscitum] :  in  modern 
France,  a  Uecree  of  the  whole  nation  olitained  by  universal 
suffrage,  a  proceedinjj  which  both  \a]ioleon  Land  Napoleon 
III.  usccl  in  order  to  legitimize  their  roups  d'etat.  After  the 
dissolution  of  the  Directory.  Nov.  il.  lT!)i).  Napoleon  I.  ap- 
pealed to  the  nation  in  this  way,  and  Napoleon  III.  did  the 
same  after  the  dissolution  of  the  National  Assiynbly.  Dec.  2, 
18.ll,  the  first  plibisrite,  in  May,  1804,  giving:  a  majority  of 
3,.572,:i'J'J  votes;  the  second,  in  Nov..  1S.52,  giving  a  majority 
of  8,1.')7.7,52  votes.  In  the  Roman  republic  a  plehiscilum  was 
a  law  passed  at  the  comitia  trilntia  by  the  plehs  or  commons 
on  the  rogation  of  a  tribune,  and  was  different  from  a  hu'. 
which  was  passed  at  the  comitia  ctnturiata  by  the  pupalus 
or  patricians  on  the  rogation  of  a  consul  or  other  senatorian 
magistrate. 

Plchs  uiiil  Plebeians:  See  Patriciax. 

Plecop'tera  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  irXiKftv.  twist  +  irrep6y, 
wing]:  that  order  of  insects  which  contains  the  so-called 
stone-flies  (I'erlidiF).  and  whicdi  receives  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  the  broader  hinder  wing  is  folded,  when  at  rest,  be- 
neath the  other,  much  as  in  the  grasshoppers.  The  larvie 
are  very  abundant  in  fresh-water  streams,  where  they  crawl 
about  beneath  stones,  etc..  and  furnish  a  considerable  ele- 
ment in  the  food-supply  of  many  fishes.  In  Europe  several 
species  are  used  for  li.ait  in  fishing,  one  being  called  "  yellow 
Sally"  and  another  '•  willow-fly.''     See  Entomologv. 

J.  S.  KlNGSLEY. 

Pledgre :  See  Pawnbroking  and  Mortgage. 

Pleiaile  :  name  assumed  by  a  group  of  seven  Greek  poets 
of  the  thinl  century  H.  c,  and  in  imitation  of  them  by  seven 
French  poetsof  the  sixteenth  century,  who,  inspired  by  the  re- 
vival of  the  study  of  classical  letters,  strove  to  renew  French 
language  and  literature  in  their  image.  They  were  Pierre 
l{onsard.  who  came  to  be  the  leader  of  the  movement.  Joa- 
chim du  Bellay,  Rcmi  Bellau,  Jean  Daurat,  Pontus  de  Thy- 
ard,  Antoine  de  Bait',  and  Ktienne  Jodelle.  A.  G.  C. 

Ple'iades.  or  Plei'ade.s  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  n\riidSes  and  IlAei- 

aSfs :  cf.  TrAeii'.  to  sail,  their  rising  indicating  the  beginning 
of  the  time  of  .safe  navigation]:  in  astronomy,  a  group  of 
stars  in  the  shouliler  of  Taurus,  called  "the  seven  stars," 
though  to  most  eyes  only  six  are  visible,  while  keen  eyes  can 
see  eleven.  There  are,  however,  hundreds  of  telescopic  stars 
in  the  group,  and  Hersehel  has  shown  that  they  are,  phys- 
ically, closely  related  to  each  other.  In  Grecian  mythology 
the  seven  stars  were  seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and  PleTone, 
one  of  whom  (Sterope)  became  invisible  from  shame,  because 
she  had  been  emliraced  by  a  mortal.  S.  Newcomb. 

Pleistocene  Period  [pJeislnrene  is  from  Gr.  irXfiai-os, 
n\ost  +  Kaiii6s.  new]:  the  latest  division  of  geologic  time,  or 
the  division  succeeding  the  Neocene  period  and  preceding 
historic  time.  The  terms  Quaternary  era.  Post-tertiary  pe- 
riod. Glacial  period,  and  Ice-age  are  synonyms.  Most  of 
the  geologic  periods  are  distinguished  one  from  another  by 
means  of  their  faunas  and  floras,  but  the  Pleistocene  is  pri- 
marily distinguished  by  peculiarities  of  its  climatic  history. 
The  climate  of  the  earth,  or  of  a  large  part  of  it,  was  then 
colder  than  it  had  previously  been  for  several  geologic  pe- 
riods, and  colder  than  it  is  at  present. 

Extent  of  (flacialioii. — The  most  striking  feature  con- 
nected with  this  lowered  temperature  was  the  growth  of 
mountain  glaciers  and  the  creaticm  of  immense  ice-fields 
where  none  had  existed  before.  The  evidence  of  these 
changes  is  found  not  only  in  certain  deposits  of  peculiar 
composition,  but  in  erpialiy  pecidiar  types  of  topographic 
form.  In  unglaciaterl  regions  streams  descend  over  succes- 
sively gentler  slopes  from  heail  to  mouth.  Lakes  are  of  rare 
occurrence,  being  confined  for  the  most  part  to  deltas  and 
to  interior  basins.  In  glaciated  regions  there  is  relatively 
little  continuity  of  slope,  lakes  are  abundant,  and  the  courses 
of  streams  are  irregular.  In  luiglaciated  regions  the  soil 
re.sults  from  the  disintegration  and  decomposition  of  the 
rock  beneath,  except  that  the  alluvium  along  streams  con- 
sists of  gravel  and  finer  particles  brought  down  by  the 
streams.  In  glaciated  regions  the  soil  is  never  derived  di- 
rectly from  the  rock  beneath,  but  consists  of  material  trans- 
ported from  a  greater  or  less  distaiu'c.  This  material,  known 
as  Drikt  {ij.  v.).  differs  from  alluvium  in  that  some  of  its 
bowlders  are  of  great  size,  in  that  its  transportation  has  not 
been  simply  down  the  slope,  in  that  its  materials  are  not 
generally  rounded  and  sorted,  and  in  other  ways.  Beneath 
the  drift  the  bed-rock  lies  undei'omposcd.  and  its  surface  is 
usually  polished   or  covered  with   parallel   scratches  and 


grooves.  Deposits  made  liy  water  are  in  general  smooth  of 
surface,  and  slope  in  the  direction  of  the  depositing  current. 
Deposits  from  ice  are  of  uneven  surface,  abounding  in  knolls 
and  imdrained  hollows.  By  the  aid  of  such  data  as  these 
the  following  general  facts  have  been  learned  with  reference 
to  the  distriliution  of  the  Pleistocene  ice.  In  North  .Vmerica 
the  small  glaciers  of  the  Kocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  and  the  greater  glaciers  of  Alaska,  were  all  ex- 
panded, descending  the  mountain  slopes  to  greater  distances. 
Glaciers  were  also  formed  on  many  mountains  where  they 
no  longer  exist.  The  glaciers  of  the  Alaskan  mountains 
and  the  western  niounlains  of  British  America  extended  so 
as  to  coalesce  and  fill  the  iiiterveniitg  valleys,  producing  an 
ice-field  comparal)le  with  that  of  Greenland.  At  the  same 
time  a  much  larger  field  was  formed  in  Northeastern  Amer- 
ica. Its  northern  linuts  are  not  yet  determined,  but  it  ex- 
tended eastward  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  westward  nearly  to 
the  northwestern  field  just  mentioned,  and  southward  over 
the  Great  Lakes  into  the  U.  .S.  (See  Gkologv.  map  No.  2.) 
New  England  was  com[)letcly  buried,  nearly  the  whole  of 
New  York,  and  parts  of  New  .lersey  and  Peni'isylvaiua.  The 
Ohio  river  was  reached  near  (.'inciniiali,  and  tlie  Missouri  at 
many  points.  Indeed,  the  present  courses  of  the  Ohio  and 
Missouri  were  largely  determined  by  the  position  of  the  ice- 
front.  In  Europe  the  glaciers  of  the  Pyrenees.  Alps,  and 
Cq^icasus  were  greatly  extended.  Those  o'f  Scandinavia  not 
merely  coalesced,  but  spread  to  immense  distances  eastward, 
southward,  and  southwestward,  making  an  ice-field  several 
times  greater  than  that  of  Greenland.  A  large  part  of 
Russia,  Poland,  Denmark,  and  Holland,  and  parts  of  Ger- 
many and  Belgium  were  covered,  as  also  were  the  North 
Sea.  the  whole  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  all  but  the 
southern  extremity  of  England.  In  the  Himalayas.  Tian 
Shan,  and  other  high  mountains  of  Asia  the  local  glaciers 
were  increased.  The  combined  ice-fields  of  Europe  and 
North  America  were  then  equal  to  the  present  great  ice- 
field of  the  Antarctic  continent. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  changes  were  equally  sig- 
nificant, although  less  in  areal  extent  by  reason  of  the 
smaller  ratio  of  land  to  water.  It  is  believed  that  the  Ant- 
arctic ice-field  was  extended.  The  mountain-glaciers  of 
Patagonia  were  expanded,  becoming  confluent  and  over- 
running the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula,  so  as  to  produce 
a  field  little  inferior  to  that  of  Greenland.  The  southern 
island  of  New  Zealand  was  largely  overrun  by  ice.  and  a 
few  glaciers  were  created  in  Australia  and  South  Africa. 

Associated  Phenomena. — Where  the  glaciers  reached  the 
ocean  they  broke  up  into  icebergs,  which  distributed  the 
detrital  matter  widely  over  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  some 
p<u-tions  of  this  sea-bottom  have  since  been  lifted  into  land. 
Elsewhere  ice-tongues  served  as  dams,  obstructing  the  free 
drainage  of  valleys  and  creating  temjiorary  lakes,  by  means 
of  which  iceberg  drift  was  transported.  Some  of  the  mo.st 
important  of  these  occupied  the  basins  of  Lake  Winnipeg 
and  the  Laurentian  lakes,  but  instead  of  discharging  to 
Hudson  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of  .St.  Lawrence,  found  outlet 
southward  to  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio,  and  eastward  to  the 
Hudson.  (See  Agassiz,  Lake.)  In  regions  of  interior  drain- 
age the  cooler  climate,  by  diminishing  evaporation  and  pos- 
sibly by  increasing  rainfall,  caused  the  creation  or  expansion 
of  lakes  which  left  permanent  record  in  the  form  of  beach- 
lines  and  sediments.  Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah,  Pyramid  Lake, 
Nevada,  ami  the  Caspian  and  Dead  Seas  of  Asia  were  all 
greatly  enlarged.  (See  Bon.veville.  Lake,  and  Laho.vtan, 
Lake.)  Coincident  with  the  greatest  expansion  of  glaciers 
were  local  changes  in  the  relative  altitude  of  land  anil  sea, 
and  to  some  extent  the  connection  of  these  has  been  defi- 
nitely established.  Thus  certain  gravels,  .sands,  and  terraces 
on  the  plains  bordering  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  of  the 
U.  S.  have  been  determined  to  be  of  Pleistocene  age. 

As  the  temperature  fell,  animals  and  plants  of  |)oIar  and 
temperate  zones  gradually  worked  towar<l  the  tropics,  and 
as  tne  temperature  again  rose  they  slowly  migrated  pole- 
ward. At  each  locality,  therefore,  there  was  a  series  of  life- 
changes  corresponding  to  the  clinuitic  changes,  and  to  some 
extent  these  are  recordeii  by  fossils  in  contemiioraneons  de- 
posits. They  are  recorded  also  by  a  peculiar  isolation  of 
various  species  u]ion  mountain  tops.  During  the  period  of 
rising  temperature  the  plants  and  animals  favored  by  low 
temperature  were  able  to  adjust  themselves  to  changing  con- 
ditions not  only  by  migrating  poleward,  but  also  by  ascend- 
ing mountain  slopes;  and  thus  many  mountain  tracts  in  tem- 
perate regions  came  to  be  iidiabiti'il  liy  colonies  of  plants 
and  animals  belonging  to  distant  latitudes  .'nid  separated 


656 


PLEISTOCENE   PERIOD 


PLETHORA 


from  cognate  floras  and  faunas  by  wide  intervals  whose 
present  (.■liniate  is  a  complete  barrier  to  intercomniuMication. 

Cause  of  Climatic  Changes. — One  of  the  vexed  iiuestions 
of  geology  is  the  cause  of  the  Pleistocene  cold.  One  theory 
ascribes  it  to  variations  in  the  quantity  of  heat  radiated  by 
the  sun.  This  theory  is  adequate,  and,  as  regards  tlie  earth, 
simple ;  but  it  has  not  been  widely  entertained,  because  no 
satisfactory  exi>lanation  has  been  "offered  of  the  postulated 
variation  in  sohir  radiation.  A  second  theory  is  based  on 
secular  variations  in  the  relation  of  the  earth  to  the  sun. 
The  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  varies  slowly  and  ir- 
regularlv,  and  it  is  computed  that  two  important  maxima 
of  eccentricity  have  oceurred  at  late  geologic  dates.  The 
theoretic  effect  of  high  eccentricity  is  to  produce  a  glacial 
climate  in  one  hemisphere  and  a  mild  climate  in  the  other, 
the  difference  depending  on  the  i-elation  of  the  solstices  to 
perihelion.  When  these  relations  are  reversed  through  jire- 
cession,  the  climates  of  the  two  hemispheres  would  be  inter- 
changed, and  such  interchange  should  theoretically  occur 
many  times  during  each  period  of  maximum  eccentricity. 
This  theory  has  received  more  attention  and  is  more  widely 
entertained  than  any  other.  A  third  theory  assumes  that 
the  axis  of  rotation  lias  changed  its  position  with  reference 
to  the  earth's  surface,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  pole  has 
wandered,  carrying  with  it  glacial  conditions.  This  theory 
seems  adequate,  but  there  is  no  independent  evidence  that 
the  pole  has  thus  wandered,  and  a  competent  cause  for  any 
permanent  or  large  change  of  position  has  not  been  dis- 
covered, A  fourth  theory  appeals  to  geographic  changes, 
especially  changes  in  the  distribution  of  land  and  water. 
As  large  aqueous  precipitation  is  necessary  to  the  formation 
of  glaciers,  their  present  distribution  is  greatly  influenced 
by  the  relation  of  bodies  of  warm  water  to  bodies  of  cold 
land.  Thus  ocean  currents  are  important  factors.  The 
directions  of  ocean  currents  are  determined  by  the  distribu- 
tion of  land  and  water.  It  can  readily  be  imagined  that 
the  land  and  water  of  the  globe  might  be  so  distributed  as 
to  prevent,  on  the  one  hand,  or  greatly  increase,  on  the 
other,  the  polar  accumulations  of  ice,  and  the  theory  appeals 
to  this  possibility ;  but  it  has  not  yet  been  ascertained  that 
the  actual  arrangement  of  land  and  water  in  Pleistocene 
time  was  such  as  to  produce  the  climates  which  then  existed. 
A  fifth  theory  ascribes  Pleistocene  glaciation  to  a  general 
and  great  uplifting  of  the  regions  in  which  it  occurred. 
This  cause  is  probably  competent,  but  it  has  not  been  shown 
that  the  glaciated  districts  actually  had  great  elevation  at 
the  time  when  their  glaciers  were  formed.  In  the  presence 
of  so  large  a  number  of  theories  deserving  serious  considera- 
tion, it  is  needless  to  enumerate  less  plausible  explanations, 
of  which  a  considerable  number  have  been  suggested.  The 
body  of  known  facts  is  of  such  importance,  and  the  body 
of  pertinent  and  obtainable  knowledge  is  so  vast,  that  we 
may  feel  assured  a  satisfactory  explanation  will  eventually 
be  found. 

Complexity  of  Pleistocene  History. — In  many  places  gla- 
cial deposits  are  overlain  by  peat  or  other  deposits  which 
could  not  have  been  formed  beneath  the  ice.  and  these  in 
turn  are  overlain  by  other  glacial  deposits.  In  this  way  it 
is  shown  that  mountain  glaciers  and  lowland  ice-sheets  ad- 
vanced and  retreated  more  than  once.  In  the  opinion  of 
some  students,  such  advances  and  retreats  were  numerous 
and  of  great  amount,  so  that  there  were  in  effect  a  consider- 
able number  of  glacial  epochs.  In  the  opinion  of  others, 
there  were  two  principal  glacial  epochs,  separated  by  an  in- 
terglacial  epoch,  when  tlie  climate  did  not  differ  greatly 
from  that  of  the  present  time.  A  third  opinion  recognizes 
but  one  great  climatic  revolution,  this  being  characterized 
by  minor  oscillations,  causing  the  ice  margin  to  advance 
and  retreat  over  narrow  areas.  When  this  question  has 
been  settled,  an  important  contribution  will  have  been  made 
to  th(^  question  of  cause,  for  the  current  theory,  founded  on 
the  aslninomi(!  history  of  eccentricity  and  precession,  im- 
plies a  lung  alternation  of  glacial  and  mild  climates  in  each 
hemisphere,  while  the  theories  of  varying  solar  energy  ami 
geographic  change  can  most  plausibly  be  appealed  to  in  ex- 
planation of  a  single  great  climatic  event. 

Closely  related  to  the  (luestion  of  complexity  is  the  ques- 
tion of  synchrony.  While  there  is  much  evidence  to  sliow 
that  the  ancient  glaciation  of  different  continents  and  dif- 
ferent homisjiheres  occurred  in  the  same  general  portion  of 
geologic  time,  it  is  as  yet  impossible  to  .say  whether  the 
great  climatic  changes  of  widely  separated  regions  occurred 
at  the  same  time. 

Literature. — Although  the  Pleistocene  is  the  shortest  of 


all  the  geologic  periods,  its  literature  is  by  far  the  most 
abundant.  This  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  Pleisto- 
cene deposits,  being  last  formed,  overlie  all  others,  and  are 
exceptionally  prominent  and  accessible.  From  these  abun- 
dant data  it  is  possible  to  derive  .some  comprehension  of  the 
complexity  of  the  physical  history  of  the  period,  and  the 
field  for  discussion  thus  opened  has  proved  fertile  and  at- 
tractive. It'  may  fairly  be  assumed  thaX  the  histories  of 
other  geologic  periods  are  equally  complex,  and  apjiear  sim- 
ple only  from  the  paucity  of  data  for  their  determination. 

Additional  informntion  in  regard  to  glacial  sculpture  may 
be  found  in  the  articles  Glaciers  and  Mountain.  (See  also 
Drift  and  Geology.)  The  question  of  the  unity  or  diver- 
sity of  the  period  is  discussed  by  Wright  and  Chamberlin 
in  The  American  Journal  of  Science  for  1893  and  1893. 
The  following  books  and  papers  discuss  the  causes  of  the 
glacial  climate,  and  describe  the  more  important  of  the 
American  Pleistocene  phenomena:  Chamberlin's  Hypotheses 
as  to  the  Cause  of  tlie  (rhicinl  Period  (American  Geologist, 
vol,  viii.,  1891);  Terminal  Moraine  of  the  Second  Olacial 
Epoch  ( Third  Annual  Report,  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey, 1883) ;  Rock  Scorings  of  the  Great  Ice  Invasions  {Sei'enth 
Annual  Report,  United  States  Geological  Survey,  1888); 
CroU's  Climate  and  Time  (1875),  Climate  and  Cosmology 
(1885);  Dawson's  Later  Physiographical  Geology  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Region  of  Canada  (Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Canada,  vol.  viii.,  1890) ;  Geikie's  Great 
Ice  Age  (1873),  Fragments  of  Earth  Lore  (1893);  Gilbert's 
Lake  Bonneville  (Monogrctph  I.,  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  1890) ;  Wright's  Ice  Age  in  America  (1887). 

G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Pleonasm  [from  Gr.  TrKfovatTix6s.  superabundance,  deriv. 
of  TTAcovdfEii/,  to  be  more  than  enough] :  the  use  of  more 
words  than  are  strictly  necessary  for  the  bare  expression  of 
an  idea.  It  involves  the  use  of  words  whose  idea  is  already 
contained  in  some  other  part  of  the  statement,  generally  in 
some  part  which  is  syntactically  different.  It  represents, 
though  logically  inaccurate,  a  natural  linguistic  method  of 
enhancing  and  enforcing  an  idea,  or  of  giving  it  clearer 
definition,  and  appears  in  the  greatest  variety  of  usages; 
thus,  like  as  if.  from  henceforth,  most  unkindest,  <peiyeiv 
<puy^.  to  flee  in  flight,  the  reaso7i  ii'hy  he  did  this  is  because, 
etc'  Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Plesiop'idse  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Ple'siops,  the  typical 
genus;  Gr.  ir\ri<ylos,  near  -|-  &\p,  om6s.  eye,  face] :  a  family  of 
fishes  of  the  order  Teleocephali.  In  external  appearance 
they  have  some  resemblance  to  the  American  sunfishes,  the 
body  being  oblong,  compressed,  and  covered  with  moderate 
scales ;  the  lateral  line  is  interrupted ;  the  head  rounded 
anteriorly ;  the  opercula  unarmed  ;  the  mouth  has  a  lateral 
cleft,  and  the  upper  jaw  is  moderately  protractile;  teeth 
small,  on  the  Jaws  as  well  as  palate;  branchial  apertures 
continuous  below  ;  branchiostegal  rays  six ;  dorsal  elongated, 
with  the  spinous  portion  longer  than  the  soft;  anal  with  its 
soft  part  opposite  that  of  the  dorsal,  and  armed  with  three 
spines  ;  pectorals  with  branched  rays ;  ventrals  each  with  a 
spine  and  four  soft  rays.  These  fishes  are  especially  recog- 
nizable by  the  development  of  only  four  soft  rays  in  the 
ventral  fins.  They  inhabit  the  salt  water,  and  extend  from 
the  Red  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  The  scientific  name  al- 
ludes to  the  approximation  of  the  eyes,  resulting  from  the 
narrow  frontal  bones, 

Plesiosau'rus  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  vK-i)<tIos.  near  -i-  aavpos.  liz- 
ard]:  a  genus  of  large  extinct  marine  reptiles,  which  were 
abundant  in  Me-sozoic  time,  but  had  no  representatives  in 
the  Tertiary.  The  skull  was  small,  and  the  teeth  were  in 
distinct  sockets.  The  neck  was  much  elongated,  and  the 
tail  coin]iaratively  short.  The  limbs  were  in  the  form  of 
jiaddles,  resembling  those  of  the  turtles,  and  were  nearly  of 
the  same  size  before  and  behind.  Some  nuMubers  of  the 
group  were  of  enormous  size,  and  others  quite  sr)iall.  The 
genus  J'lesiosaurus  is  not  rare  in  European  format i(Uis,  but 
has  not  been  found  in  America,  its  chief  re|iresentatives 
there  being  Panto.saurus  in  the  .lurassic,  and  Cimoliosaurus 
in  the  Cretaceous.  0.  C.  Marsh, 

Plpskov :  See  Pskov. 

Pleth'ora  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  vK-nedpn.  fullness,  plethora, 
deriv.  of  TrA^eos,  multitude  ;  cf.  ■ir\iipris,  full]  :  among  older 
medical  autlioril  ies.  the  condition  now  commonly  called  fuU- 
bloodedness.  Tliis  excessive  richness  in  the  i|Uantity  or 
quality  of  the  blood  was  thought  to  be  indicated  Ijv  tlie  red- 
ness of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes,  the  full,  bounding 


PLEUKA 


PLEUKONECTID.K 


657 


pulses,  the  tendency  to  liietiKirrhases  ami  palpitations,  and 
other  symptoms.  Modern  iiivcstijiation,  however,  has  shown 
that  these  symptoms  are  the  result  of  peculiarly  vijjorous 
circulation  and  iu)t  of  excess  of  blood.  In  reality  plethora 
does  not  exist  excepting  possibly  us  a  teinjnirary  condition. 

\V  Il.LIAM  I'lil'l'EK. 

I'lt'u'ra  [.Mod.  I,at..  from  (Jr.  jrA€upa,  rib.  side]:  a  thin 
membrane  that  lines  the  cavities  of  the  chest,  extending 
over  the  external  surface  of  the  lungs.  It  consists  of  two 
closed  sacs.  The  [lortion  lining  the  chest  is  distinguished 
as  the  costal  pleura,  and  is  a  sheet  of  ela.stic  cellular  tissue 
loosely  attached  to  the  ribs,  muscles,  and  adjacent  jiarts. 
That  lining  the  lungs,  known  as  the  pulnioiuiry  pleura,  is 
composed  of  a  superficial  layer  of  fine  cellular  tissue  aijd  a 
second  elastic  layer  of  coarser  fibrous  tissue,  which  materi- 
ally a.ssists  in  ex|)iration.  Both  portions  of  the  pleura  are 
covered  inside  with  a  dclicaU'  layer  of  endolheliuin.and  the 
narrow  spaces  iiiclosi'd  in  ea<'h  sac  are  known  as  the  pleural 
cavities,  anil  are  kept  conslai\tly  supplied  with  a  serous  fluid 
which  enables  the  opposite  layers  to  glide  easily  upon  each 
other  in  the  movements  of  respiration. 

In  entumoloijy  the  pleura  is  the  side  of  the  stethidium  be- 
tween the  thorax  aiul  |iectus.  Uevisod  by  \V.  I'ki'Pkk. 

Pleurisy,  or  Plciirifis  [phurisy  is  from  Fr.  ph-uresie  < 
Lat.  pleu'ri.sis.  Uir  vtivher  pleuri  lis  =  Or.  TAeupiTu.  pleurisy, 
deriv.  of  ir\fvpi,  rib,  side] :  inflammation  of  the  I'leuka  (g.  v.), 
acute  or  chronic.  It  may  be  what  is  called  dry,  with  little 
or  no  effusion,  or  it  uuiy  be  accompanied  by  effusion.  Pleu- 
risy may  be  caused  by  exposure  to  cold,  injuries  to  the  mem- 
brane itself  (traumatism),  or  the  communication  of  inftam- 
mati.m  fnun  adjacent  structures.  This  latter  head  includes 
many  causes,  sui-h  as  inilammation  of  the  lung,  of  the  chest- 
wall,  of  the  diajjliragm,  and  of  the  organs  contiguous  to  the 
wall  of  the  chest  and  the  diaphragm.  Besides  these,  a  very 
common  cause  of  pleurisy  is  tuberculosis ;  aiul  in  patients 
who  have  repeated  attacks  of  pleurisy  this  is  probably  al- 
most always  the  cause.  Rheumatism  is  also  a  cause  of  pleu- 
risy, and  it  may  occur  in  the  course  of  fevers,  especially  in 
smallpox  and  scarlet  fever.  Blood-poisoning  (septicaMuia) 
is  quite  a  common  cause  of  pleurisy,  and  so  is  disease  of  the 
kidneys. 

In  the  dry  form  of  pleurisy  the  first  change  visible  is  a 
clouding  of  the  cells  on  the  surface  of  the  plevira,  so  that  it 
loses  its  beautiful  transparent  luster  and  looks  opaijue,  red- 
dened, slightly  roughi'ued.  and  is  marked  by  minute  con- 
gested Idood-vessels.  This  congestion  sometimes  causes  a 
rupture  (if  small  vessels  and  the  pouring  out  (extravasation) 
of  small  ((lumtities  of  blood  beneath  the  surface  layer  of  the 
pleura.  After  this  there  often  form  on  the  surface  of  the 
pleura  patches  of  organized  lymph  ([ilastic  exudate)  like  a<l- 
nerent  flakes.  At  tliis  stage  of  pleurisy  the  exudate  may  be 
reabsorbed  and  the  patient  may  recover  perfectly,  or  it  may 
remain  as  an  organized  (le|iosit  on  either  the  lung  pleura 
(visceral  pleura)  or  the  pleura  covering  the  chest-wall  (jiari- 
etal  pleura),  or  that  of  the  diaphragm  or  mcilia.stinum.  This 
form  of  pleurisy  may  also  result  in  adhesions  lietween  the 
opposite  pleural  surface  and  the  fornuition  of  patches  of  ad- 
hesion or  of  bands,  narrow  but  of  appreciable  length,  limit- 
ing the  movement  of  the  lung  in  the  thoracic  cavity. 

In  pleurisy  with  efTusion  (hydrothorax)  there  is  poured 
out  more  or  less  excess  of  the  fluiii  which  ordinarily  merely 
lubricates  the  pleural  surfaces.  When  this  etTusion  is  small 
it  may  cause  no  appreci.nble  trouble,  and  indeed  <'iitirely  es- 
cape detection  ;  when  it  is  extensive,  it  may  press  the  lung 
into  a  very  small  space,  and  so  seriously  interfere  with  res- 
piration and  circulation  as  to  cause  death.  A  pleuritic  etTu- 
sion may  become  purulent  by  the  multiplication  in  it  of  pus 
cells.  This  constitutes  empyema,  a  condition  which  endan- 
gers life,  not  <iidy  by  mechanical  ]iressure  on  the  lung,  but 
also  by  the  impairment  of  the  constitution  incident  to  the 
presence  in  thi^  body  of  what  is  practically  a  huge  abscess. 
An  empyema  may  n'juain  for  some  time  without  communi- 
cation with  the  outer  air,  or  it  nuiy  burrow  its  way  out 
through  the  walls  of  the  chest  or  the  diaphragm,  or  into  a 
bronchial  tube.  In  the  latter  case  the  pus  is  discharged  by 
coughing. 

The  symptoms  of  pleurisy  are  fever,  pain  in  the  side,  dif- 
ficulty in  breathing,  and  often  a  dry,  unproductive  cough. 
A  patient  often  finds  it  easii>r  to  lie  upon  the  alTected  side, 
because  the  motion  of  the  side  is  thereiiy  restricted.  There 
are  general  symptoms  of  illness,  by  which  the  disease  may 
1)0  distinguislieci  from  neuralgia  or  rheumatism  of  the 
chest-wall.  The  physical  signs  of  dry  pleurisy  are  verv 
326 


slight,  consisting  chiefly  in  the  sound  of  rubbing  (friction 
sound)  between  the  two  roughened  pleural  surfaces.  In  the 
stage  of  effusion  the  sounds  are  those  to  be  expected  from 
the  displacement  of  the  air  vesicles  of  the  lungs  by  a  fluid. 
Percussion  over  the  former  discloses  resonance,  while  there 
is  dullness  or  flatness  (m  percussion  over  the  area  occui)ied 
by  fluid,  whether  this  be  serous  or  imrulent.  In  pleurisv 
there  is  always  some  impairment  of  the  motion  of  the  side 
of  the  chest  affected,  and  evidences  of  interference  with  the 
function  of  respiration,  such  as  shortness  of  breath  and  im- 
perfect aeration  of  the  blood,  are  often  plainly  discernible 
by  the  eye.  Where  there  is  much  effusion  there  is  bidging 
of  the  affected  side,  and  obliteration  of  the  lines  of  depres- 
sion which  normally  exist  between  each  pair  of  ribs.  With 
such  effusions  there  is  sometimes  displaVement  of  the  heart 
and  even  encroachment  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  chest. 
After  the  fluid  of  pleuritic  effusion  has  been  ab.sorljcd,  or 
that  of  empyema  has  been  carried  off  or  discharged,  the 
crowded  lung  sometimes  fails  to  expand  again  and  to  occu- 
py the  full  lung  space  of  its  side  of  the  chest.  This  nuiy  be 
tlue  to  permanent  contraction  of  the  lung,  or  to  the  fornui- 
tion. when  it  is  contracted,  of  adhesions  to  the  chest-wall, 
which  prevent  the  lung  from  resuming  its  fornu'r  dimen- 
sions. In  either  case  tlie  thorax  becomes  distorted  by  de- 
pression of  the  chest-wall  under  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere, esjjecially  in  young  subjects. 

The  treatment  of  pleurisy  wilhoul  effusion  is  usually  sim- 
ple, consisting  in  measures  to  promote  excretion  from  the 
bowels,  from  the  kidneys,  and  from  the  skin,  with  rest  in  bed 
and  judicious  diet.  Xo  nu'dicines  are  needed  except  such 
as  contribute  to  these  ends  or  as  are  used  to  allay  ])ain. 
Pleurisy  with  effusion  requires  nuire  treatment  and  often 
surgical  measures  to  rid  the  chest  of  its  accumulated  fluid. 
When  the  effusion  is  serous  it  may  be  removed  easily  and 
simply  by  the  operation  of  tapping  the  chest.  The'most 
perfect  form  of  tapping  is  that  by  means  of  an  instrument 
called  "the  aspirator."  invented  by  a  French  physician, 
Dieulafoy.  In  this,  a  suctirin  pump,  attached  to  a  tube  and 
a  hollow  needle,  is  useil  to  withdraw  fluid  from  the  chest. 
When  the  effusion  of  pleurisy  is  ))urulent,  the  accumulation 
must  be  treated  on  the  .same  principles  as  those  that  govern 
the  treatment  of  abscesses  elsewhere  in  the  cavities  of  the 
body.  So  long  ago  as  the  time  of  Hippocrates  such  cases 
were  treated  wisely  and  skillfully  by  surgical  operation — that 
is,  by  making  an  incision  through  the  chest-wall  and  allow- 
ing the  fluid  to  come  away.  In  modern  times  such  abscess 
cavities  are  treated  by  opening,  emptying,  wasliing  out — es- 
pecially with  medicated  fluids — and  )iriilnnged  drainage  l)y 
means  of  the  insertion  of  tubes,  or  even  by  the  removal  of  a 
portion  of  a  rib  or  ribs. 

In  itself  pleurisy  is  not  a  very  dangerous  disease,  but  if  it 
be  caused  by  constitutional  disease  like  tuljcrculosis,  or  if  it 
occur  in  a  patient  with  a  poor  constitution,  or  if  it  be  un- 
wisely managed,  it  nuiy  end  in  death  or  |)ernuinent  dis- 
ability. Charles  W.  Dilles. 

Ploiirisy-root :  See  Asclepias  and  Butterfly-weed. 

Pleiirodcl'idiv  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  P/eiiro deles,  the 
typical  genus;  Gr.  TAfuptJ.  side,  ribs  +  S^Aos.  visilile]:  a  fam- 
ily of  salanuinders  chiefly  inhaliitiug  the  Old  World.  'I'lie 
palatines  liear  teeth  on  the  inner  margins;  prefrontals  as  well 
as  pterygoids  are  present;  the  frontals  are  broad,  and  not 
emliraced  by  the  parietals ;  the  occipital  condyles  are  .sessile  ; 
the  parasphencjid  has  no  dentigerous  jdates ;  the  vertebnc 
are  only  concave  behind  ;  the  carpus  and  tarsus  are  ossified. 
The  typical  species  has  the  ribs  protruding  through  the  sides 
of  the  body,  in  allusion  to  which  the  name  I'lenrodeles  has 
been  given.  ■!.  S.  Kinuslev. 

Pleurodi'rii  [Mod.  Lat.:  Gr.  irKeupd.  side  +  Seipii  (dial, 
for  Sfpt).  "eck| :  according  to  some  authors,  a  sub-order  of 
the  order  TV-s/Hrf/Ho/o,  or  tortoises :  distinguished  by  the 
neck  l>ending  sideways  and  the  incapability  of  retraction  of 
the  head  completely  under  the  carapace,  and  thus  contrast- 
ing with  those  tortoises  in  which  the  neck  bends  in  a  vert- 
ical plane.  The  pelvis  is  fixed  to  the  carajiace  and  jdastron. 
The  group  emijraces  families  peculiar  to  the  southern  hem- 
isphere and  related  forms  found  in  the  early  epochs  of  the 
northern.  The  generally  recognized  families  are  J'udur- 
nemididiF,  Chelydida'.  Hydraspididfe,  I'elomediisidii',  ami 
Sternolliiiridtp.  Revised  by  D.  S.  .Iordax. 

Pleiironef'lida!  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Pleuioner'/es, 
the  typical  genus;  (Jr.  nKtvpa.  side  +  i^kttjj.  swimmer) :  a 
family  of  fishes  including  tlie  ordinary  flat-fishes,  such  as 
flounders,  turbots,  halibuts,  plaice,  etc.     It  belongs  to  the 


658 


PLEURO-PNEUMONIA 


PLOCEID.E 


order  Heierosomata.  The  body  is  always  much  compressed, 
with  one  of  its  sides  (which  is  upward  when  the  animal  is 
reclining  on  its  side)  darl<-eolored,  and  the  other  (which 
is  downward)  generally  white:  the  scales  are  variously  de- 
veloped (sometimes  ctenoid,  sometimes  cycloid,  and  some- 
times wanting) ;  the  head  compressed  ;  both  eyes  are  on  the 
same  side,  one  being  on  or  near  the  forehead,  the  other  com- 
paratively low  down  ;  opereula  normal,  unarmed  ;  mouth 
terminal,  and  with  an  oblique  lateral  cleft  and  of  various 
extent;  branchial  apertures  continuous  below;  branchioste- 
gal  rays  Ave  to  eight ;  dorsal  elongated,  extending  generally 
from  about  the  rostral  region  to  near  the  caudal  fin ;  anal 
fin  also  elongated,  and  extending  about  as  far  back  as  the 
dorsal ;  both  are  composed  almost  solely  of  articulated  rays ; 
caudal  fin  distinct  from  the  dorsal  and  anal ;  pectorals  on 
both  sides ;  ventrals  jugular.  The  skeleton  has  numerous 
vertebne ;  pyloric  ca'ca  are  generally  developed,  but  iu 
small  number.  The  species  of  the  family  thus  defined  are 
distinguishable  into  three  sub-families — (1)  Phuronectime, 
in  whicli  the  mouth  is  small,  and  the  supramaxillary  ends 
before  or  under  the  front  of  the  eye  ;  (3)  Hippoglossince.  in 
which  the  mouth  is  large,  and  the  supermaxillaries  extend 
more  or  less  under  the  eye,  and  the  ventrals  are  lateral ; 
and  (3)  Rhoinbitue,  in  which  the  mouth  is  large,  and  the 
ventral  fin  on  the  dark  side  inserted  on  the  ridge  of  the  ab- 
domen. The  species  are  numerous,  and  are  found  distribu- 
ted in  every  sea,  and  some  of  them  ascend  rivers.  They  live 
chiefly  on  sandy  bottoms,  and  rest  with  their  white  side  be- 
low and  the  dark  one  upturned.  Although  almost  all  have 
the  eyeless  side  white  or  colorless,  a  few  have  dull  spots  on 
that  side,  and  in  some  species  it  is  colored  like  the  eyed 
side.  The  very  young  have  the  body  vertical  in  the  water 
and  the  eyes  symmetrical.  In  the  process  of  development 
the  body  becomes  horizontal,  and  the  head  is  twisted  or 
modified  so  that  the  eye  of  the  lower  side  is  transferred 
around  or  through  the  head  to  the  opposite  side.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  most  common  species  in  the  markets  of  the  East- 
ern States  are  the  small-mouthed  flounder  (Pseiidnphnro- 
nectes  americanus),  a  large-mouthed  flounder  {Fdrrilirlithijs 
denfatus),  and  the  halibut  (Hippoglonsus  hippoylos-tus).  The 
American  species  are  mostly  different  from  those  of  Europe, 
and  the  true  turbot.  like  the  true  sole,  has  never  been  taken 
in  American  waters.  Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Pleiiro-imeiimoiiia :  one  of  the  names  by  which  the  or- 
dinary type  of  pneumonia  (croupous  pneumonia)  has  been 
designated.  It  signifies  tliat  the  pleura  or  covering  of  the 
lung  is  inflauied  at  the  same  time  as  the  lung  itself.  This 
is  always  the  case  in  croupous  pneumonia ;  but  exception- 
ally the  pleural  involvement  is  of  such  prominence  that  the 
term  pleuro-pneumonia  seems  specially  applicable.     W.  P. 

Pleiiro-pneumonia  (of  cattle),  or  Liiiiff  Plague:  a  con- 
tagious febrile  disease  of  cattle,  characterized  by  a  progress- 
ive interstitial  pneumoni.a,  in  which  the  inflammatory  proc- 
ess usually  extends  to  the  pleura. 

It  has  been  known  from  the  time  of  the  first  written  rec- 
ords of  the  diseases  of  animals.  It  has  often  followed  in 
tlie  wake  of  European  armies,  having  been  spread  by  the 
cattle  carried  along  for  food.  This  disease  has  existed  in 
all  countries  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  Norway  and 
Sweden,  and  has  been  carried  by  cattle  from  these  infected 
countries  to  Great  Britain,  Africa,  Australia,  and  North 
America.  Lung  plague  usually  spreads  rapidly  among  the 
cattle  of  a  country  into  which  it  is  introduced,  unless  re- 
strictive measures  are  adopted  to  prevent  traffic  in  diseased 
and  possibly  diseased  animals.  In  ]8;i9  cattle  from  The 
Hague  carried  this  mala<iy  to  Cork.  Ireland,  and  from  this 
point  the  British  Isles  became  infected.  A  British  ship 
landed  a  cow  suffering  with  pleuro-pneumonia  at  Brooklyn 
in  1843.  JIany  cattle  in  the  adjacent  districts  became  in- 
fected from  this  source,  and  the  disease  gradually  spread 
until  herds  were  infected  in  several  of  the  Eastern  States. 
Subsequently  .sliipmonts  of  diseased  cattle  carried  pleuro- 
pneumonia to  Kentucky,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri. 
The  disease  lias,  however,  been  completely  stamped  out  in 
the  U.  S.  by  the  bureau  of  animal  industry.  The  symp- 
toms of  lung  plague  are  fever,  dry  muzzle,  accelerated  pulse 
and  respinil ion,  depression,  cough,  and  the  altered  sounds 
u[)on  auscultation  and  percussion  that  indicate  pneumonia 
and  pleurisy.  In  about  one-half  of  the  cases  death  occurs 
in  from  two  to  four  weeks  after  the  beginning  of  an  attack. 
Of  the  remaining  cases  about  equal  numbers  become  chronic 
and  recover.  After  death  the  lungs  have  a  peculiar  "  mar- 
bled ■'  appearance,  due  to  the  exudation  of  yellowish  serum 


into  the  thick  layers  of  connective  tissue  which  separate  the 
dark  colored  and  hepatized  areas  of  lung  tissue.  In  ad- 
vanced cases  the  lung  becomes  broken  down  and  caseous  in 
spots  that  range  in  size  from  that  of  a  walnut  to  that  of  a 
child's  head.  These  areas  are  encapsulated  in  a  fibrous 
membrane.  It  sometimes  happens  that  cattle  that  have  aji- 
parently  recovered  convey  the  disease  to  others  after  several 
mouths  or  years  have  passed,  and  this  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  these  capsules  may  break,  allowing  their  semi-fluid 
contents  to  escape. 

No  therapeusis  that  has  been  tried  is  of  any  value,  so 
efforts  to  cure  have  been  abandoned,  and  governments  have 
made  regulations  providing  for  the  quarantine  of  diseased 
and  suspected  animals  and  for  the  slaughter  of  all  that  are 
regifrded  as  dangerous  to  healthy  cattle.  It  was  by  the  en- 
forcement of  these  measures  that  the  U.  S.  freed  itself  from 
pleuro-pneumonia.  and  the  same  measures  are  (1804)  being 
employed  in  England  with  g(]od  prospect's. 

It  is  estimated  that  for  a  long  series  of  years  the  annual 
loss  to  Great  Britain  from  lung  plague  amounted  to  £2.000,- 
000.  It  is  impossible  to  estimate  accurately  the  amount  of 
loss  caused  by  this  disease  in  the  U.  S..  but  it  is  known  to 
amount  to  several  million  dollars.         Leonard  Pearson. 

Plevna  (Bulgarian.  Pleren):  town  of  Bulgaria;  on  the 
Vid;  26  miles  S.  of  the  Danube  (see  map  of  Turkey,  ref. 
3-C).  Here  the  Ottotnan  army  under  Osman  Paslia  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Russians  from  July  18  to  Dec.  10,  1877,  and, 
after  a  desperate  resistance,  was  forced  to  surrender,  43,000 
men  being  taken  prisoners.  This  was  the  critical  event  of 
the  Russo-Turkish  war.     Pop.  (1888)  14.307. 

Plili'y  (full  Latin  name  Giiius  Plinins  Secundus),  gen- 
erally called  Pliny  the  Elder:  author;  b.  at  Novum  Co- 
mum,  23  A.  D.,  of  a  noble  and  wealthy  family;  served  in 
the  army  under  Domitius  Corbulo  and  Pomponius  Secundus 
in  Germany,  where  he  composed  De  Jaculatione  Equestri 
and  began  a  history  of  the  wars  in  Germany  (Bellorum  Oer- 
manke  libri  xx.)  \  was  in  Rome  again  in  52 ;  studied  juris- 
prudence and  began  to  practice.  During  Nero's  reign  he 
composed  his  Studiosus,  in  3  books,  and  Diibius  Sermo,  in 
8  books.  According  to  a  Greek  inscription  found  in  Arados, 
which  Mommsen  refers  to  Pliny,  he  served  in  the  Jewish 
war  in  Syria  in  70  and  was  afterward  pi-ocuratur  Syriw. 
We  know  also  that  he  was  procurator  in  Spain  under  Ves- 
pasian, and  that  he  must  have  been  in  Gaul  and  Africa,  but 
it  is  impossible  to  date  his  journeys.  In  Rome  he  lived  in 
great  intimacy  with  the  Emperors  'Vespasian  and  Titus,  and 
was  suffocated  by  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  79.  There  is 
a  detailed  and  very  interesting  account  of  his  death  by  his 
nephew,  Pliny  the  Younger,  in  a  letter  to  Tacitus  (Epist.. 
vi.  16).  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  but  of  his  works  only 
the  Hiaforia  Naiuralis.  in  37  books,  is  extant,  edited  in  20 
vols,  by  Panckoucke,  with  commentaries  and  notes  (Paris, 
1829-33),  bv  Sillig(8  vols.,Gotha,  1851-58),  and  bv  Detlefsen 
(6  vols.,  Berlin,  1866-73);  translated  into  English  by  Phile- 
mon Holland  (London,  1601),  and  in  Bohn's  Classical  Library 
(6  vols.,  1855). — His  nephew,  Gaius  Plinius  C.bcilius  Secun- 
dus, generally  called  Pliny  the  Younger,  b.  61  or  62  a.  d. 
in  Novum  Comum,  was  adopted  and  educated  by  his  uncle ; 
served  in  the  army  in  Syria ;  held  several  high  offices  (con- 
sul 100).  but  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  literary  studies  and 
the  practice  of  law.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Tacitus 
and  Trajan.  According  to  IMommsen,  he  was  legate  proprae- 
tor of  Bithynia,  with  consular  power  in  111  and  112  or  112 
and  113,  persecuting  the  Christians  there  in  112.  There  is 
no  trace  of  him  after  this  time.  His  Panegyricns  and  his 
Epislolw.  10  books,  were  edited,  with  notes,  by  G.  H.  Schiifer 
(Leipzig,  1805)  and  G.  E.  Gierig  (Leipzig,  1806);  best  critical 
ed.  by  Keil  (Leipzig.  1870);  Epislolip,  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  ^lelmoth  (1746),  Lord  Orrery  (1759);  summary  in 
Ancie'tit  Classics  (1872).  See  also  Mommsen  in  Heniifs  (vol. 
iii.,  pp.  31-139).  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Pliocene  Period  [pliocene  is  from  Gr.  irXeiaiv,  more  -i- 
Kaiv6s,  new] :  the  division  of  geologic  time  following  the 
Miocene  Period  and  preceding  the  Pleistocene.  In  the 
chronological  system  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey for  the  geologic  atlas  of  the  U.  S.,  the  Jliocene  and 
Pliocene  periods  of  earlier  classifications  are  included  in  the 
Neocene  Period  {g.  v.). 

Plioliippus  ;  See  Horse,  Fossil. 

Ploce'idw  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Plo'ceus.  the  typical 
genus,  from  Gr.  TrKoKfis.  weaver,  braider,  deriv.  of  irXiKfiv, 
twist,  braid,  weave] :  a  fauiily  of  snuiU  finch-like  birds,  com- 


PLOMBlfiRES 


PLOVER 


659 


prisiiiK  the  weaver-birds  which  in  the  tropical  regions  of  the 
01(1  World  hold  the  place  of  the  finches  of  the  temperate 
zone.  The  bill  is  strong  and  conical,  the  culmen  advancing 
backward  on  the  forehead  and  arched  to  the  tip.  which  is 
entire ;  the  wings  are  somewhat  rounded,  with  the  first 
quill  remarkably  short  :  the  tarsi  with  long  seutelhe  in 
front.    The  family  contains  about  250  species.    .See  Wkaver- 

BIRI).  F.  A.  Ll'lAS. 

Plombif-rps,  ploii'bi-ar'  :  a  small  town  in  the  department 
of  Vusges,  France  ;  14  miles  .S.  of  flpinal  (.see  map  of  France, 
rcf.  4-H).  It  is  beautifully  situated  in  the  valley  of  the 
Angronne,  a  tributary  of  the  Saone.  and  is  noted  for  its  ther- 
mal springs,  much  recommended  for  diseases  of  the  liver, 
the  digestive  organs,  and  the  skin.  The  springs  have  been 
used  for  medicinal  purposes  since  the  times  of  the  Hoinans, 
but  the  present  elegant  bathing  establishments  were  founded 
by  Najioleon  HI.  'Pop.  (1891)  1,869. 

Plot'idiP  [Mod.  Lnt.,  named  from  Plo'tus,  the  typical 
genus,  from  (ir.  ir\(DT<is,  floating,  sailing] :  a  family  of  water 
birds  belonging  to  the  order  Steyanopodes,  and  containing 
the  darters.     See  Daktkb. 

I'ioti'iius:  philosopher:  b.  at  Lycopolis,  Egypt,  about 
205  A.  1). ;  went  to  Alexandria  in  232.  and  spent  there  ten 
years  under  the  tutelage  and  instruction  of  Ammonius  Sac- 
cas.  In  242  he  accompanied  the  Emperor  Gordianus  on 
his  expedition  against  the  Persians,  in  order  to  nuike  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  philosophy  of  Persia  and  India; 
but  the  emperor  was  murdered  in  Mesopotamia  in  243, 
and  Plotinus  repaired  l)y  Antiochia  to  Rome.  Here  he  ap- 
plied himself  to  the  teaching  of  philosophy,  attracted  im- 
mense audiences,  gained  numerous  disciples,  and  enjoyeil 
great  respect  and  confidence.  In  269  he  retired  into  soli- 
tude. D.  at  Putcoli,  in  Campania,  the  following  year.  The 
most  famous  of  his  disciples.  Porphyrins,  collected  his  works 
and  wrote  a  biography  of  him.  The  collection  com]«ises  a 
great  number  of  treatises  on  different  subjects — on  beauty, 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  supreme  good,  the  genesis 
of  idea.s.  against  the  Gnostics,  etc. — arranged  in  si.K  divi- 
sions, each  consisting  of  nine  books,  for  which  reason  they 
are  called  EnneiuU.  Parts  have  been  translated  into  Gei-- 
man  and  English  (by  Thomas  Taylor  into  f>nglisli,  namely, 
six  books  of  the  first  ICnneiul.  two  of  the  second,  four  of  tlie 
third,  four  of  the  fourth,  five  of  the  fifth,  and  three  of  the 
.sixth),  the  whole  into  French  by  Bouillet  in  3  vols.,  with 
full  commentary  (Paris,  18.57). 

The  philosophy  of  Plotinus  is  a  vision  rather  than  a  sys- 
tem. The  center  of  all  that  exists  is  the  One.  which  is  above 
intellect,  if  not  above  the  good ;  in  short,  a  God  that  does 
not  create  in  any  proper  sense;  the  intellect  "emanates" 
from  it,  not  as  its  creation.  The  intellect  in  turn  is  of  a 
divine  nature,  though  secondary,  and  it  alone  is  the  creator 
of  lower  orders  of  being.  From  God  emanates  the  soul  of 
the  world  ;  from  the  soul  of  the  world  emanates  the  soul  of 
man  ;  and  in  this  way  the  divine  descends  from  sphere  to 
sphere,  forming  itself  into  time  and  space  aiul  building  up 
its  own  body,  until  at  last  it  aiTives  at  matter.  The  divine 
can  form  matter,  but  not  penetrate  it  so  as  to  prevent  it 
from  collapsing  and  returning  into  chaos.  Matter  is  the 
seat  of  imperfection  and  evil ;  and  the  aim  of  life  is  to  re- 
turn from  the  polluting  contact  with  it  into  the  One.  The 
connection  between  the  soul  and  God  is  much  deeper  and 
more  intimate  than  that  between  the  soul  and  the  body. 
In  the  third  L'nnead,  book  viii.,  chapters  iii.  and  iv.,  is 
found  the  original  of  those  fine  poetic  sayings  attributed  to 
Schelling  and  oken.  that  reason  dreams  in  the  |)lant,  feels 
in  the  animal,  and  thinks  in  man.  Although  the  soul,  with 
its  pow<'r  of  vegetative,  sensitive,  intellecttuil.  and  rational 
life,  actuates  the  body  even  in  the  most  minute  details  of 
life,  still  it  does  not  form  one  with  it.  Otherwise  with  re- 
spect to  its  union  with  God.  "  We  move  round  him  like  a 
choral  dance  ;  even  when  we  look  from  him  we  revolve  al)out 
him  :  we  do  not  always  look  at  him.  but  when  we  do  we  have 
satisfaction  and  rest  and  the  harmony  which  belongs  to  that 
divine  movement.  In  this  movement  the  mind  beholds  the 
fountain  of  life,  the  fountain  of  mind,  the  origin  of  being, 
the  cause  of  good,  the  root  of  the  soul.  There  will  be  a  time 
when  this  vision  shall  be  continnal.  the  mind  being  no  more 
interrupted  nor  sulTering  any  perturbation  from  the  body." 
For  it  is  the  body  which  disturbs  that  contemplation  of  God 
in  which  our  soul  unites  with  the  universal  soul,  a  union 
which  can  not  be  effected  by  the  reason,  as  the  reason  is  in- 
capable of  grappling  immediately  with  things  divine,  but 
which  must  be  effected  bv  an   immediate  intuition,  bv  an 


ecstasy,  in  which  "  the  soul  sinks  into  a  deep  silence  and  all 
around  her  the  tumult  of  the  senses  and  the  agitations  of 
the  body  grow  still."  It  is  this  doctrine  of  a  unity  tran- 
scending the  intellect  that  constitutes  the  weakness' of  the 
Neoplatonistic  philosophy.  It  professes  to  derive  this  doe- 
trine  from  Plato,  but  it  is  Plato's  merit  to  have  identified 
God  with  absolute  reason.  It  is  a  lajise  out  of  Hellenistic 
philosophy  proper  into  Orientalism  which  holds  the  Abso- 
lute to  be  empty  being  or  unitv. 

■  Revised  by  W.  T.  Harris. 

Ploiig,  plowg,  Parmo  Carl:  poet;  b.  in  Kolding.  Den- 
mark. Oct.  29.  1813.  Like  Hostrup,  he  began  as  a  students' 
poet,  but  later  developed  into  one  of  the  warmest  and  most 
effective  champions  of  Scandinavianism  and  the  Danish 
spirit  in  Southern  .lutland.  His  influence  for  these  causes 
was  exerted  both  through  his  poems  and  his  work  as  editor 
of  the  patriotic  paper  Fa-drdandft  (1841-87).  He  was 
also  for  many  years  a  member  of  the  Kigsdag.  and  plavcd  an 
iiiiportant  pai"t  in  the  drafting  of  the  constitution  (1848). 
His  first  collection  of  poems,  Poul  rtyttitrs  Vixer  og  Vers 
(Paul  Rytter's  Ballads  and  Verses,  1847),  appeared  anony- 
mously, and  was  followed  by  Samlede  Biy/e  (Collected 
Poems,  1861),  containing  a  number  of  patriotic  poems,  and 
Nytre  Sange  og  Digte.  (Later  Songs  and  Poems.  1869).  D. 
Oct.  27,  1894,  D.  K.  Dodge. 

Plough,  or  Plow  [0.  Eng.  ploh  :  Germ,  plhig  :  Dutch 
pliteg] :  an  implement  for  breaking  up  the  soil :  iiscd.  though 
in  a  primitive  form,  as  far  back  in  ancient  time  as  history 
reaches.  The  Old  Testament  speaks  of  ploughs  with  share's 
shod  with  socks  of  iron  or  bronze.  The  Greeks  knew  the 
wheel-plough.  The  modern  plough,  with  its  mould-board 
to  turn  over  the  broken-up  soil,  was  invented  in  the  Nether- 
lands in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  has  since  been  much 
improved.  The  first  steam-plough  was  worked  in  England 
in  1832. 

Plover  [from  0.  Fr.  plainer,  liter.,  rain-bird  ;  cf.  Lat. 
pluviu,  rain  ;  so  called,  perhaps,  because  it  makes  its  appear- 
ance in  wet  weather,  or  because  its  piping  cry  was  thought 
to  portend  rain] :  a  common  name  for  any  member  of  the 
family  Charadriidce,  a  group  of  wading  birds  of  the  order 
Litiiiculce.  Plovers  have  a  bill  much  like  that  of  a  pigeon, 
hard  at  the  tip,  covered  with  soft  skin  toward  the  base, 
reticulate  tarsi,  long  pointed  wings,  tail  of  moderate 
length  and  usually  twelve  feathers,  toes  slightly  webbed, 
the  hinderniost  lacking  or  very  small.  The  head  is  rather 
large  and  full,  neck  short,  body  plump.  There  are  nearly  a 
hundred  species  distributed  pretty  much  over  the  world 


The  golden  plover. 

The  golden  plover  (Charadrius  dominicns).  a  typical  and 
well-known  species,  is  named  from  its  plumage,  which  in 
summer  is  black  above,  spotted  with  golden  yellow  and 
white;  beneath,  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  head,  about 
the  base  of  the  bill  and  eyes,  black.  In  winter  it  is  much 
grayer,  for.  in  common  wiih  many  other  species,  there  is  a 
considerable  difference  in  the  plumage  at  different  seasons. 
This  bird  is  remarkable  for  the  extent  of  its  migrations, 
breeding  in  Arctic  North  America  and  moving  S.  in  win- 
ter nearly  or  quite  to  Patagonia.  The  European  golden  plov- 
er is  Chiiradrius  pluvialis.  The  gray  plover  (Charadrius 
— or  Squalarola — helvetica)  is  another  wide-ranging  .species, 
for  it  breeds  in  the  northern  parts  of  America,  Asia,  and 


660 


PLOWDEN 


PLUM 


Eastern  Europe,  and  occurs  at  otiier  times  as  far  S.  as  Tas- 
mania. Tlie  thick-knees  (ffifi/cnfmM.s)  are  the  largest  mem- 
bers of  the  grouji,  measuring  about  14  inches  in  length. 
Their  plumage  of  reddish  or  brownish  gray  harmonizes  well 
with  the  barren  tracts  which  they  seem  to  prefer,  anil  the 
young,  when  surprised,  often  esca|ie  detection  by  crouching 
flat  among  the  pebbles.  The  killdeer  (^^yiaUiis  vocifera). 
so  named  from  its  note,  is  the  type  of  a  small  group  of 
pretty  plovers  distinguished  by  I'llack  breast-bands.  The 
killdeer  is  brown  above,  but  the  piping  plovers  belonging  to 
the  same  genus  are  light  gray,  their  plumage  blending  in 
with  the  sand  and  pebbles  of  the  sea  beaches.  The  crook- 
billed  plover  (Anarhynchxis  frontalis)  of  New  Zealand  is  a 
small  species  noteworthy  from  tlie  fact  that  it  is  the  only 
bird  whose  bill  is  decidedly  bent  sideways.  Some  of  the 
large  plovers  of  the  genus  Lobirimetlus  and  allied  genera 
have  a  well-developed  sharp  spur  on  the  bend  of  the  wing 
which  forms  a  rather  formidable  weapon.  The  plovers  have 
been  made  the  subject  of  a  monograph  by  Seebohm  (Lon- 
don, 1887).  The  CROcoDrLE-BiED,  Dotterel,  and  Lapwing 
(qq.  V.)  are  also  plovers.  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Plowdeii.  Edmund:  law  reporter;  b.  in  151!)  at  Plowden, 
in  Shropshire  ;  liegan  the  study  of  law  in  the  Middle 
Temple  in  1539,  then  studied  in  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  in 
which  latter  place  ho  was  admitted  (1553)  to  practice  sur- 
gery and  physic ;  in  1557  again  studied  in  the  Middle 
Temple,  and  was  made  sergeant-at-law  Oct.  27,  1558.  He 
was  a  strict  Roman  Catholic,  and  this  alone  is  said  to  have 
prevented  him  from  promotion  to  high  office.  He  was 
treasurer  of  the  Middle  Temple  during  the  rebuilding  of 
the  Great  Hall,  in  one  of  tlie  windows  of  which  his  arms, 
with  the  date  1576,  still  remain.  D.  Feb.  6,  1584,  an<l  was 
buried  in  the  Temple  church.  His  Commentaries  or  Reports 
of  law  cases,  which  were  originally  in  law  French,  cover  the 
period  from  3  Edward  VI.  to  23  Elizabeth  (1550-80),  and 
rank  among  the  best  reports  of  any  age.  Plowden's  grand- 
son was  made  "  Earl  Palatine,  Governor,  and  Captain  of  the 
province  of  New  Albion  in  North  America."  See  Wallace, 
The  Reporters  (I3oston,  1882).  F.  Stubges  Allen. 

Plum  [0.  Eng.  plume,  from  Lat.  jirhnum,  later  pruna 
(whence  Eng.  prune,  via  Pi\)  =  Gr.  irpovmv,  earlier  irpovinvov, 
plum]  :  any  tree  of  the  genus  P)-uims.  family  Rosacea; ;  char- 
acterized by  a  smooth,  usually  glaucous  fruit  (also  called 
plum),  with  a  more  or  less  elongated  stem  and  a  flat  or 
flattish  stone.  The  botany  of  the  plums  is  more  complex 
than  that  of  any  other  fruit  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
U.  S.  The  origin  of  the  common  plum  is  itself  a  matter  of 
dispute,  but  the  fruit  was  probably  originally  native  to  Per- 
sia and  Anatolia.  It  is  known  to  most  botanists  as  Prnnits 
domestica,  but  some  writers  hold  that  two  or  more  species 
are  concerned  in  its  origin.  The  only  other  European  or 
Western  Asian  species  of  plum  in  common  cultivation  in 
*  the  U.  S.  is  the  myrobalan,  or  cherry  ])lum,  F.  cerasifera 
(or  P.  myrobalana).  This  is  used  mostly  as  a  stock  upon 
which  to  bud  other  plums,  although  there  are  two  or  three 
fruit-bearing  varieties  of  it.  This  plum  is  distinguished 
from  P.  domestica  by  a  somewhat  slower  growth,  smaller 
and  thinner  leaves,  very  early  small  flowers,  and  small, 
round,  cherry-like  fruits  wliich  have  a  soft,  watery,  sweet 
flesh.  It  is  possible  that  this  myrobalan  plum  is  really  of 
the  same. species  as  P.  domestica,  and  that  it  represents  a 
nearer  approach  to  the  aboriginal  type.  The  varieties  of 
plums  {Pruniis  domestica)  are  numerous,  and  several  classi- 
fications of  them,  by  form  or  color,  have  been  suggested.  It 
is  customary  to  divide  them  into  plums  proper  and  ]5runcs, 
although  there  are  no  constant  differences  between  these  two 
groups.  (See  Prune.)  The  damsons  are  sometimes  held 
to  be  a  distinct  type,  or  even  species,  but  they  are  simply 
very  small  firm-meated  plums.  In  North  America  these 
common  or  European  plums  {P.  doinestica)  thrive  best  in 
the  States  and  provinces  from  Pennsylvania  north  and  east, 
and  westward  to  Lake  Michigan,  and  upon  the  Pacific  coast. 

Another  type  of  plum  which  is  now  attracting  much  at- 
tention is  the  .lapanese  group,  the  offspring  of  Pnimis  tri- 
fliyra,  which  is  supposed  to  lie  native  to  China.  This  species 
first  reached  the  U.  S.  in  1870,  when  Mr.  IIo\igh,  of  Vaca- 
ville,  Cal.,  procured  several  trees  from  .Japan.  A  variety 
was  generallyintroduced  or  distributed  about  1883,  under 
the  name  of  Kelsey,  in  memory  of  John  Kelsey,  of  Berke- 
ley, Cal.,  who  first  recognized  tlie  merits  of  the  fruit,  and 
who  first  obtained  ripe  specimens.  This  variety  is  adapted 
only  to  the  warmer  portions  of  the  U.  S. ;  but  other  varieties 
of  this  type  thrive  as  well  in  tlie  North — at  least  ten  are 


hardy  and  productive  in  New  York.  The  Japanese  plums 
differ  from  those  of  the  Primus  domestica  type  in  a  more 
robust  growtli,  longer,  thinner,  and  glabrous  obovate,  or 
broadly  ol)lanceolate  leaves,  flower  buds  usually  in  threes, 
fruit  heart-shaped  and  often  unequilateral,  with  a  very  firm 
flesh  and  often  a  thick,  tough  skin.  Most  of  the  Japanese 
plums  are  very  handsome,  and  keep  long  after  being  picked. 
They  are  very  valualile  for  commercial  cultivation  in  the 
U.  S.,  and  appear  to  thrive  equally  well  where  any  of  the 
common  orchard  fruits  can  endure  the  climate,  and  in  this 
respect  they  are  greatly  superior  to  the  varieties  of  P.  do- 
mestica.    Their  nomenclature  is  much  confused. 

A  third  important  group  of  plums  comprises  the  native 
types,  the  offshoots  of  several  indigenous  species.  The  first 
of  those  plums  to  attract  wide  attention  was  the  Wild 
Goose,  which  was  introduced  from  Tennessee  about  1850. 
About  200  varieties  have  been  described,  the  greater  imm- 
ber  being  chance  varieties  found  in  woods  and  copses. 
These  native  plums  belong  chiefly  to  three  species :  Prunns 
americaiia,  characterized  by  dark,  rough  growth,  large 
obovate,  and  more  or  less  jagged  dull  leaves,  and  red  or 
red-marked,  mostly  flatteneil  fruits,  with  a  very  heavy 
bloom,  tough  skin,  and  sweet,  firm  ttesh  ;  Prunus  hortulana 
(Wild  Goose  type),  with  a  smoother  and  more  peach-like 
growth,  narrowly  ovate  or  lance-ovate,  smooth,  shining,  fine- 
ly toothed  leaves,  and  very  bright,  slightly  speckled  slen- 
der-stemmed red  or  yellow  fruits  with  a  soft,  juicy  flesh  and 
a  very  thin  bloom :  and  Prunus  angusti folia,  the  Chicka- 
saw plums,  with  a  slender,  zigzag  growth  and  narrower  con- 
duplicate  leaves,  and  fruit  much  like  that  of  the  Wild  Goose 
type.  As  a  whole,  these  native  plums  are  adapted  to  almost 
every  climate  in  the  U.  S.  The  varieties  of  P.  americana 
thrive  in  all  the  Northern  States,  even  in  the  Dakotas,  and 
also  as  far  S.  as  Delaware,  and  some  varieties  are  recom- 
mended even  for  Texas.  The  Wild  Goose,  or  P.  hortulana 
type,  is  adapted  to  the  Southern  and  Jliddle  States,  and 
some  forms  thrive  in  New  York  and  Illinois.  The  true 
Chickasaws  are  not  adapted  to  cultivation  much  N.  of 
Mason  and  Dixon"s  line.  Other  native  plums  in  cultiva- 
tion are  the  beach-plum  (P.  maritima),  the  sand-plum  of 
the  plains  (P.  watsoiii),  and  the  Pacific  coast  plum  (P.  suh- 
cordaia).  The  native  plums  are  inferior  to  the  P.  domes- 
tica and  P.  trifiora  types,  but  their  great  hardiness  and 
adaptability  strongly  recommend  them. 

The  Simon  or  Apricot  plum  (Prunus  simonii)  is  a  distinct 
Chinese  species,  which  was  introduced  into  the  LT.  S.  by  way 
of  Prance  about  1880  or  a  little  earlier.  It  is  peach-like  in 
botanical  characters,  the  fruit  being  closely  sessile  and  the 
leaves  long.  The  fruit  is  maroon  red  and  very  handsome, 
flattened  endwise,  with  a  strong  suture.  The  habit  of  the 
tree  is  very  strict,  and  the  leaves  are  strongly  conduplicate. 
In  the  eastern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  the  tree  is  unproductive, 
and  the  fruit  usually  has  an  unpleasant,  bitter-almond  flavor; 
but  upon  the  Pacific  slope  the  species  has  distinct  commer- 
cial value. 

Plums  thrive  best,  as  a  rule,  upon  rather  heavy  soils,  par- 
ticularly upon  those  containing  clay.  All  varieties  can  be 
budded  upon  the  peach,  altliough  this  method  of  propaga- 
tion is  not  common  in  the  northern  jiarts  of  the  U.  S.,  ex- 
cejit  perhaps  for  the  Japanese  type.  The  commonest  stock 
is  the  myrobalan,  but  because  of  its  slow  growth  it  tends  to 
dwarf  the  tree,  and  it  suckers  liadly  from  the  root.  The 
ideal  stock  for  the  common  plum  is  undoubtedly  its  own 
seedlings,  particularly  the  seedlings  of  the  half-wild  and 
consequently  little  variable  forms.  The  buds  are  usually 
set  in  the  second  summer  following  the  sowing  of  the  seed, 
and  the  trees  are  ready  for  sale  when  the  tops  are  two  or 
three  years  old. 

The  chief  insect  depredator  of  the  plum  is  the  curculio, 
the  same  insect  which  infests  the  peach,  apricot,  and  cherry. 
The  beetle  lays  its  eggs  under  flaps  or  crescents,  which  it 
raises  on  the  siu'face  of  the  young  fruits,  and  the  larvai  are 
the  "  woi'ms  "  of  the  stone  fruits.  The  only  accepted  meth- 
od of  fighting  the  insect  is  to  jar  the  beetles  on  to  sheets  in 
early  morning,  before  they  liegin  to  fly. 

Plums  are  attacked  by  many  kinds  of  fungi.  One  of  the 
most  serious  is  the  shot-hole  fungus  or  leaf-blight,  which 
perforates  the  leaves  and  causes  them  to  fall.  This  disease 
is  held  in  check  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture.  (See 
FuNoiciDE.)  Another  fungus  causes  Plum  Pockets  (q.  v.). 
Tlie  fruit-rot.  which  causes  the  death  and  decay  of  the  fruit 
while  it  still  hangs  on  the  tree,  and  which  may  also  kill  the 
fruit-spurs,  is  kept  in  check  by  the  use  of  Borileaux  mixture 
aided  by  the  destruction  of  diseased  fruits.    The  black-knot. 


I'LL'MHAGO 


PLUMBING 


661 


or  |iliiiii-w<ii-t,  i.s  a  fungous  disease  afTeoting  tlio  branclips  or 
even  llie  trunk.  (See  I'l.rM  Knot).  In  .some  of  the  U.S. 
laws  for  the  suppression  of  this  disease  have  Ijeeii  passed. 
Some  of  the  leading  varieties  of  plums  are  the  following: 
I'riiitii.i  (loinestirii. — liorul)ard,  liavay  (ireen  (iage.  Uiad- 
shaw  or  Niagara,  C'oe's  Golden  Drop  or  Silver  I'rune,  Freneh 
and  Shropshire  Damsons,  Gernum  I'nine,  Fellenherg.  Gueii, 
.Moore's  Arctic, Green  Gage,  Prune  d'Agen,  Hungarian  Prune, 
Copper.  .lelTerson,  Impirial  Gage,  Quackenbos,  Yellow  Egg, 
Washington,  French  I'rune. 

/'.  trijliirit. — Kelscy.  Kurbaidc,  Alnindancc,  Satsuma,  Cha- 
l)ot.  Maru.  (Igon,  lied  Nagate. 

I',  amrririiiw. — Weaver,  Wolf,  (Quaker.  Dc  Soto,  Rolling- 
stone,  Purple  Yoseniil<'.  Forest  Garden.  Deep  {'reek,  Cheiu'v. 
/■'.  /iiirliiliniii. — Wild  Goose,  liolden  Peauty,  Missouri  Apri- 
cot, Moreman.  Heed,  Roulette,  Waylaud,  Miner. 

P.  anf/iixfifulia. — Xewmau,  Arkansas  Lombard.  Gaddo 
Chief,  Lone  Star,  Jennie  Lucas,  Pottawattamie,  Robinson. 

L.  IL  Hailev. 
Pliimhngo  :  See  Graphite. 

I'liiniliing  [deriv.  of  plumb,  liter.,  seal  or  repair  with 
lead,  from  Lat.  phi  in  hum,  lead]:  the  art  of  casting  and 
working  in  lead  or  other  metals  and  applying  them  to  va- 
rious inirjKises  coniu'cted  with  buildings,  especially  to  pur- 
poses of  water-supply  and  ilrainage.  Li  the  earlier  ages 
'  lead  was  the  material  most  used  for  these  purposes,  on  ac- 
count of  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  worked  by  simple 
means.  The  progress  of  the  arts  hiis  taught  the  ready  ma- 
nipulation of  iron,  and  it  has  to  a  great  extent  supplanted 
the  softer  metals  in  works  of  this  nature.  Lead  pi[jcs  were 
used  by  all  the  celebrated  nations  ut  old.  In  the  ancient 
cities  of  Asia,  Egypt,  (ireece,  Syria,  etc.,  they  were  used  for 
conveying  water  under  pressures  too  great  for  pipes  of 
earthenware.  In  the  earlier  ages  lead  pipes  were  made  from 
sheets  of  lead  rolled  into  the  form  of  cylinders  and  soldered 
at  the  eilges.  They  were  rarely  subjected  to  pressure. 
Ancient  cities  were  usually  supplied  with  water  by  aque- 
ducts, and  the  distributing  pipes  seldom  rose  above  the 
ground  floor.  The  Romans,  however,  used  lead  pipes  in 
their  a(pieilucts  in  some  cases  in  crossing  deep  valleys  where 
bridging  was  difficult.  Several  pipes  were  generally  put  in, 
of  small  size,  so  that  they  could  be  more  easily  made  to 
withstand  the  pressure,  and  in  such  a  way  that  a  break  in 
one  of  them  would  not  entirely  cut  otT  the  supply.  Corfield 
cites  a  case  where  there  were  ten  of  these  leaden  siphons  in 
one  a(|ueduct.  He  cites  cases  where  the  pressure  was  about 
200  lb.  ])er  square  inch. 

The  perfection  of  pum|)ing-machinery,  and  especially  of 
that  cla.ss  of  inimping-niachinery  designed  to  pump  against 
heavy  pressures,  modern  high  buildings,  and  the  modern 
system  of  fire-protection,  unite  to  modify  the  ancient  meth- 
ods of  plumbing.  Distributing-pipes  are  now  often  sub- 
jecteil  to  a  pressure  of  100  to  200  lb.  per  square  inch.  In  a 
majority  of  cases  distributing-jiipes  are  continuously  under 
a  pressure,  and  no  reservoir  is  needed.  In  some  districts  the 
pressure  is  periodically  raised  so  as  to  fill  the  pipes,  and  tanks 
are  necessary  to  maintain  a  constant  supply.  In  some  cases 
where  the  street-mains  are  under  a  high  |)ressure,  pressure- 
reducing  valves  are  inserted  in  the  service-pipes  to  modify 
the  pressure  on  the  pipes  within  the  houses. 

Street-mains  are  now  usually  c'onstructed  of  cast  iron  with 
leaded  joints :  into  these  casl-iron  pipes  are  screwed  bra.ss 
stopcocks  to  which  the  service-pipes  supplying  buiUlings  are 
attached.  Service-pipes  are  usually  nuide  of  lead  or  wrought 
iron.  The  capacities  of  different  sizes  of  service-pipes  in 
gallons  per  minute  are  given  in  the  following  table,  compiled 
bv  J.  N.  Tubbs: 


DIAMETER 
IN   INCilKS. 


BEAD  IN  FEET. 


».. 
».. 
».. 
»• 
I.. 
1... 

u.. 
u . 


10. 


0-92 

1-89 
3-30 
521 


1-30    1-59 

2-68   3-27 

4-68   5-72 

.371  no3 


40. 


60. 


70. 


80. 


90. 


•tili  lOMI  in 
I(V7ll  1.".    Ki  IK 

I4:)(;','ii  :!l  21- 
isivssn  «:tL>- 


1-84  206  2-26  244  261 
3-78  4-23  463  .500i  ,5-:Mj 
6-61  7-:ill  8-09  8-74!  9-341  9 
10'43lir6r)  1277  13  7(1  14  74  i: 
■7  ir>  :)2  17  13  IK  77  211  27  21  fi7  22 
.3  21  4(1  2:i!i2  2i;  2"  2K  :tO  :ill  2r>  :12 
17  2K72  82-11  3.'>-lK  3S-(l(l  1(1-112  43 
I  -57  :i7  II  -7(1  ir>  77  49  44  .V,>  S."-)  nCi 


100. 


23-  72  .-W  .')!  41  (IK  47-43  .-.3  03  ."iS  (19  (12  7.i  I17-(IK  71 
29-4K  41-65  51  INliriK  9tl  115-92  72  22,78-00  83-38  88 


291 

.'■.■98 
1044 
64116-48 
97-24  2:i 
I(i:13-83 
OS  45-31 
0(1  59-09 
15  75  00 
+4  93-2:) 


The  average  amount  of  water  supplied  to  each  consumer 
per  day  in  cities  of  I  he  U.  S.  is  about  100  gal.,  this  excessive 
use  being  due  to  waslefuln(\ss.  In  Kiiropcan  cities  the  sup- 
ply is  usually  le.ss  than  .TO  gal.     The  practice  in  (iermany  is 


to  allow  40  gal.  per  day  per  iierson.  In  Great  Britain  it  is 
customary  to  allow  3i  gal.  'I  he  waste  of  water  can  be  best 
checked  by  metei-s  set  in  the  supply-pipe  of  each  consumer. 

The  purposes  for  which  water  is  used  in  buildings  are 
constantly  increasing,  and  as  a  conscipience  the  plumbing 
is  constantly  becoming  more  intricate.  An  ordinary  mod- 
ern dwelling  is  usually  supplied  with  water-closets,  urinals, 
bathtubs,  laundry-tubs,  sloji-sinks,  wa.shstands,  hot-water 
boiler,  etc. 

The  distributing-pipes  within  buildings  should  be  ar- 
ranged so  that  by  means  of  a  slop  and  waste  cock  they  can 
be  completely  emptied.  To  accomplish  this  it  is  necessary 
that  the  main  pipe  and  each  branch  |)ipe  taken  off  fr<im  it 
shall  b(^'  continuously  ascending.  If  there  are  jxx-kets  or 
depressions  in  the  system  they  will  retain  water,  and  when 
the  building  is  unoccupied  the  pipes  will  be  liable  to  injury 
from  freezing. 

Whenever  the  water-supply  is  used  for  flushing  water- 
closets,  urinals,  etc.,  or  for  any  purpose  where  a  back  flow 
of  water  might  contaminate  the  siipplv  used  for  drinking 
and  culinary  purposes,  the  walershould  'first  be  received  into 
a  special  tank  or  the  pipes  otherwise  disconnected,  so  that 
a  back  flow  will  not  be  possible. 

House-draiiiugf.—\\\  the  arrangement  of  pipes  and  ap- 
pliances for  house-drainage  or  the  removal  of  water  which 
has  been  fouled  (sewage),  more  care  and  ingenuity  arc  re- 
quired on  the  part  of  the  plumber  than  in  the  pipes  and 
fixtures  [lertaining  to  water-supply;  for  sewage  is  a  con- 
stant menace  to  health. 

Ill  the  system  of  (lipes  intended  for  the  removal  of 
sewage  from  buildings  a  comjilcte  barrier  should  be  inter- 
posed against  the  passage  of  air  currents  into  the  building. 
To  maintain  a  proper  barrier  at  all  times  and  under  all 
conditions  of  use  and  disuse  is  a  somewhat  difficult  matter. 
The  method  in  use,  and  about  the  only  practical  one,  is  by 
trajis  or  depressions  in  the  [lipe.  whereby  the  passage  of  air 
is  ojjposed  by  a  head  of  water.  The  head  is  necessarily 
slight,  however,  and  it  is  necessary  to  ]irotect  the  traps  froiii 
pressure  and  from  siphonage  by  ample  vents  which  main- 
tain the  pressure  within  the  pipes  at  the  normal  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  The  fouled  water  should  lie  immediately 
and  completely  removed  from  the  vicinity  of  the  building. 
Any  system  which  contem|ilates  the  retention  of  anv  por- 
tion of  it  for  any  length  of  time  is  imperfect.  The'main 
drain  for  buildings  should  be  from  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter, 
except  in  extreme  cases,  and  laid  wilh  as  much  descent  as 
possible.  The  inclination  should  not  be  less  than  one  in 
fifty.  The  method  of  connecting  the  main  drain  with  the 
soil-pipe  depends  on  the  method  of  ventilation.  The  sim- 
plest method  is  to  extend  the  main  drain  upward  and  out 
through  the  roof,  unbroken  by  a  trap  in  any  portion.  In 
this  case  it  serves  the  double  purpose  of  soil-  aiid  ventilaling- 
pipe,  and  the  air  which  passes  into  the  street  sewers  at  man- 
holes supplies  the  draft  upward  along  the  .street  sewers  and 
out  through  the  house  ventilating-pipes  and  their  ujiward 
extensions.  In  this  case  the  isolation  of  the  interior  of 
buildings  from  sewer  air  depends  solely  upon  the  trap  under 
each  fixture.  When  the  street  sewers  are  properly  con- 
st ructcd  on  the  "  separate  "  system  (sec  Sewkr age)  and  prop- 
erly cared  for,  this  metlKjd  has  proved  enlirely  satisfactory. 
It  has  advantages  in  simplicity  and  facility  of  arraiigeinent. 
Where  the  sewers  are  built  on  the  combined  ])lan  a  trap  on 
the  house  sewer  combined  wilh  a  fresh-air  inlet  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. This  diverts  the  foul-air  currents  from  the  interior 
pipe  and  provides  a  supply  of  fresh  air  for  the  upward  cur- 
rent through  the  soil  and  ventilating  pipe.  If  the  street 
sewers  are  noti  projierly  ventilated  at  frequent  intervals, 
either  by  the  upward  extension  of  exterior  or  interior  unob- 
structed pipes  or  otherwise,  there  may  be  reason  to  believe 
that  an  i.solated  one  may  draw  from  too  wide  a  territory 
and  prove  ofTcnsive.  In  this  case  it  is  advisable  to  dispense 
wilh  any  vent-pipe  communicating  directly  with  the  sewer. 

The  main  drain  within  or  under  the  house  and  for  a  few 
feet  outside  of  it  should  be  of  iron,  with  lead-calked  joints. 
It  is  better  to  fasten  it  along  the  wall  by  iron  brackets  or 
hangers  abrve  the  cellar  liol loin,  giving  it  as  great  an  in- 
clination as  is  possible.  Fixtures  in  the  basement  should  be 
avoided.  Removable  hand-holes  or  bra.ss  cleaning-screws 
should  be  provided  at  intervals  through  which  obstructions 
can  be  removed.  All  iron  pi|)ps  and  fittings  should  be  thor- 
oughly coated  outside  and  inside  with  coal-pitch  varnish  ap- 
plied hot. 

It  is  customary  to  make  waste-pipes,  particularly  short 
ones,  of  lead,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  much  more  easily 


662 


PLUMBING 


PLUM  POCKETS 


manipulated  than  iron.  The  proper  method  of  connecting 
lead  pipes  to  iron  is  by  means  of  a  brass  thimble  soldered 
to  the  lead  pipe  and  calked  into  a  hub  on  the  iron  pipe. 

It  is  best  to  have  soil-,  waste-,  and  ventilating-pipes  ex- 
posed as  much  as  possible.  When  inclosed  within  parti- 
tions they  are  not  readily  accessible  for  inspection  or  re- 
pair. Plliinbing  fixtures  should  be  confined  to  the  bath- 
room, wliere  special  means  of  ventilation  can  be  employed, 
and  to  the  kitchen,  laundry,  and  similar  rooms.  A  fixture 
rarely  used  is  a  greater  source  of  danger  than  one  used  fre- 
quently. 

Particular  care  should  be  used  in  arranging  the  ventilation 
of  a  building  so  tliat  the  air  currents  tend  to  pass  outward 
from  the  group  of  rooms  containing  plumbing  fixtures, 
fresh  air  being  admitted  to  other  portions  of  the  building. 
The  facility  with  which  this  can  be  accomplished,  and  also 
the  proper  grouping  of  the  fixtures  and  the  simplicity  of 
the  system  of  pipes,  will  depend  largely  npon  the  architect. 
Ample  means  should  be  provided  for  flushing  all  jjortions 
of  the  soil-  and  waste-pipes  and  all  fixtures.  This  is  most 
effective  when  special  flushing  cisterns  are  supplied.  Every 
fixture  should  be  provided  with  a  trap,  and  since  the  object 
of  the  trap  is  to  isolate  the  fouled  interior  surface  of  the 
waste-pipe  from  the  air  of  the  room,  it  is  evident  that  the 
trap  should  be  as  close  to  the  fixture  as  possible.  Notwith- 
standing many  efforts  to  introduce  a  trap  whose  seal  can 
not  be  broken  by  siphonage,  and  which  will  be  self-cleans- 
ing, the  plain  running  trap  of  uniform  bore  is  still  in  general 
use.  This  trap  is  liable  to  have  its  seal  broken  by  siphon- 
age,  and  to  prevent  this  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  a  liack  air- 
pipe  which  is  connected  with  the  crown  of  the  trap  on  the 
downward  side  and  passes  to  the  roof  independently  of  the 
ventilating-pipe  proper,  or  is  connected  with  it  above  the 
highest  fixture.  This  back  air-pi]:ie  should  be  of  ample 
capacity  to  preserve  the  normal  air-pressure  when  consider- 
able quantities  of  water  are  flowing  down  the  soil-pipe.  The 
system  of  back  air-vents  is  open  to  the  following  objections  : 
It  considerably  complicates  the  system  of  piping,  especially 
when  fixtures  are  not  closely  grouped.  There  is  a  possibility 
of  the  pipes  being  fouled  at  their  junction  with  the  crown 
of  the  trap.  It  adds  to  the  expense.  Back  air-vents  tend  to 
increase  the  interior  circiilation  of  air  considerably.  This 
is  beneficial  so  far  as  the  purity  of  the  interior  of  the  pipes 
is  concerned,  but  it  also  increases  the  evaporation  from 
traps.  This  will  do  no  harm  if  the  fixtures  are  in  constant 
use.  On  the  other  liand,  if  special  anti-siplioning  ti'aps  are 
used  thei'e  will  be  little  circulation  of  the  outer  purifying 
air  through  the  waste-pipes. 

When  the  soil-,  waste-,  and  ventilating-pipes  are  all  in 
position,  and  before  the  fixtures  are  put  in  place,  a  test  of 
the  thoroughness  of  the  work  should  be  made.  This  can  be 
done  as  follows:  Close  up  the  main  drain  where  the  iron 
pipe  terminates  outside  the  house  wall,  also  the  exposed 
ends  of  all  pipes  where  fixtures  are  to  be  connected,  and  the 
fresh-air  inlet  if  there  is  any.  The  ends  of  lead  pipes  should 
be  left  somewhat  longer  than  necessary,  so  that  this  can  be 
conveniently  done  by  flattening  them  and  closing  with 
solder.  When  all  openings  in  the  entire  system  of  pipes 
are  tightly  closed  below,  fill  the  system  of  pipes  with  water 
nearly  to  the  top  and  mark  the  height  at  which  the  water 
stands.  The  entire  work  should  be  inspected  while  under 
pressure,  and  joints  recalked  where  necessary. 

If  roof  water  is  admitted  to  the  sewers. the  rain-water 
leader  should  connect  with  the  main  soil-pipe  directly  above 
the  main  trap.  No  waste-  or  soil-pipe  should  be  connected 
with  the  rain-water  leader.  The  following  table  gives  the 
requisite  size  of  liouse  drains  for  roof  areas  of  the  dimen- 
sions given  (calculated  by  Robert  Moore) : 


SIZE  OF  LOT 

FALL  PER  HUNDRED. 

IN   FEET. 

ro. 

1-6. 

8-0. 

2"5. 

3-0. 

80  X   1.50 

25  X  150 

30  X  150 

Diameter 
In  inches. 
3-5 
3-74 
4-0 
4-85 
4-5 
4-75 
50 
5.37 
5-62 
60 
6-25 
6-5 

Diameter 
in  inches. 

3  12 
3-5 
3-75 
4-0 
4-25 

4  87 
4  5 
4-87 
5-25 
5-5 
5-75 
60 

Diameter 
in  inches. 

30 

325 

3-5 

3-75 

3-87 

412 

4-8 

4-62 

4-87 

6-25 

55 

5-75 

Diameter 
In  inches. 
2  87 
312 
337 
3-62 
3-75 
40 
4  12 
4-37 

4  75 

5  0 
5-25 
5-5 

Diameter 
ill  inches. 
275 
30 
3-25 
3-5 
3-68 
3-87 
40 
4-25 
4-5 
4-87 
50 
5  25 

35  X  1.50. 

40  X  1.50 

45  X  150 

50  X  150 

60  X  150 

70  X  1.50 

80  X  150 

90  X  150 

100  X  150  

In  nearly  all  cities  plumbing  is  governed  by  rules  and 
regulations  defining  specifically  the  class  of  work  to  be 
done,  sizes  of  pipes  of  various  kinds  for  particular  purposes, 
class  of  fixtures,  etc.  The  work  is  permitted  to  be  done  by 
licensed  plumbers  only,  and  in  the  larger  cities  they  are 
under  the  surveillance  of  expert  inspectors  in  the  employ 
of  the  city.  George  S.  Pierson. 

Plumes :  See  Feathers. 

Plum  Knot :  the  Ploivrightia  morbosa.  a  parasitic  fungus 
of  the  order  Pi/reiwmycetecB  and  family  Dothidiacece,  which 
lives  upon  twigs  of  plums  and  cherries,  producing  black, 
knot-like  masses,  2  to  4  inches  long  and  J  to  J  inch  in  diam- 
eter (a,  reduced).  The  threads  of  the  parasite  penetrate  the 
living  tissues  of  the  host  in  spring  and  early  summer,  pro- 
ducing a  considerable  swelling  of  the  tissues.  The  surface 
of  the  young  knot  now  becomes  covered  with  a  velvety  coat- 
ing of  dark-colored  vertical  threads,  which  produce  minute 
spores  (conidia,  b).    As  winter  approaches  other  reproductive 


a,  plum  knot,  reduced  ;  6,  conidia  on  threads  ;  c,  perithecium,  with 
spore-sacs  ;  d,  spore-sacs  and  spores  (,6,  c,  d,  much  enlarged). 

structures  develop ;  the  surface  becomes  covered  with  mi- 
nute hollow,  wart-like  bodies  (perithecia)  within  which  are 
produced  a  number  of  spore-sacs,  each  with  eight  ascospores 
(c,  d).  Plum  knot  may  be  reproduced  from  the  conidia  or 
the  ascospores,  but  it  is  often  perennial,  the  parasitic  threads 
growing  down  each  year  from  the  old  knot  into  previously 
unaffected  tissues. 

This  disease  is  sometimes  quite  harmful.  All  knots  should 
be  cut  off  and  burned  as  soon  as  they  appear.  The  thorough 
washing  of  the  tree  in  early  spring  with  poisonous  solutions, 
as  of  copper  or  iron  sulphate,  will  doubtless  destroy  many 
spores  and  tend  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Plum  Pockets :  a  disease  of  plums  in  which  they  are 
swollen,  hollow,  and  distorted  («).  It  is  caused  by  a  para- 
sitic fungus,  Exoascus  pruni  (family  Gi/mnoancete).  which 
penetrates  the  tissues  of  the  young  plum  and  finally  pro- 
duces spore-sacs  upon  the  surface.  Each  spoi'e-sac  at  ma- 
turity contains  about  eight  ascospores  (J). 

"Tlie  jiockets  make  their  appearance  soon  after  the  flow- 
ers have  fallen,  attain  full  size,  and  drop  from  the  tree 
towaril  the  middle  or  last  of  June.  At  first  they  are  more 
or  less  globular  in  sha|ie,  but  as  they  grow  older  they  be- 
come oblong  or  oval,  and  fre(|uently  more  or  less  curved. 
They  vary  in  size,  but  as  a  rule  are  from  1  to  2  inches  in 
length  and  from  ^  to  1  inch  in  diameter.  When  young  they 
are  nearly  smooth,  and  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
healthy  fruit  by  their  pale-yellow  or  reddish  color.  As  they 
grow  older  the  color  changes  to  gray,  the  surface  appearing 


PLUMPTRE 


PLUTARCH 


663 


as  though  it  hail  boon  spriiikloil  with  fine  pnwilor,  and  at 
the  same  time  tlio  jxH'kets  boodnio  wrinkled.  Finally  tliey 
turn  lilaek  or  ihirk  brown,  and  rattle  like  blaiiders  when 
brought  in  contact  with  any  liard  substaiiee.     They  remain 


l\l(V\f^ 


a  b 

a,  plum  pockets  ;  6.  a  mass  of  spore-sacs,  highly  magnified. 

on  the  tree  in  this  condition  for  two  or  three  days,  then  fall 
to  the  grovind  and  perish," — Galloway.  This  disease  may 
be  considerably  reduced  by  the  early  removal  and  destruc- 
tion of  all  tlie  disea.^ed  plums.  For  an  exhaustive  account 
of  plum  pockets  and  the  fungus  producing  the  disease,  con- 
sult B.  T.  Galloway's  paper  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
Deiiarliii'id  of  Agriculture  for  1888.     Charles  E.  Bessey. 

IMiiiiiii'tre,  Edward  Hayes,  D.  D.  :  clergyman  and  au- 
thor; b.  in  London,  Aug.  6,  1821  ;  was  educated  at  Univer- 
sity College,  Oxford ;  became  fellow  of  Brasenose  College 
1844  :  chaplain  at  King's  College,  London,  1847 ;  Professor 
of  Pastoral  Tlieology  in  that  institution  1853  ;  prebendary 
of  St,  Paul's  1863;  professor  of  e.xegesis  of  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment 1SG4  :  rector  of  Pluckley  1869  ;  vicar  of  Bickley  1873, 
and  Dean  of  Wells  1881.  \\i'  was  preacher  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  and  Boyle  lecturer  (1866-67),  and  was  one  of  the  (_)ld 
Testament  company  of  revisers.  Author  of  several  volumes 
of  sermons,  addresses,  and  classical  translations — King's 
College  iSermons  (1859) ;  Lazarux,  and  other  Poems  (1864) ; 
Sermonn  on  Theoloyij  and  Life  (1866) ;  Christ  and  Christen- 
dom (1867) ;  Biljlical  Studies  (1870) ;  Respice.  Aspice,  Pros- 
pice,  and  the  Law  of  Progress  in  Theology  (1876) ;  »S'/.  Paul  in 
Asia  Minor  and  at  the  Syrian  Antioch  (1877);  A  Popular 
Exposition  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Sere?i  Churches  of  Asia 
(1877);  translations  of  S(ii)hoclesand  ^Eschylus;  The  Sjiirits 
i7i  Prison,  and  other  Studies  on  the  Life  after  Death  (1885), 
etc. — of  many  articles  in  Dr.  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible, 
of  liililical  Studies  (1870),  and  editor  of  the  Xew  Bible  Ex- 
positor (1875).  His  latest  wovk  was  a  Life  of  Bishojj  Kerr 
(1886).     1).  at  Tunbridge  Wells,  Feb.  1,  1891, 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Pliinket,  William  Coxyxiiiiam,  Baron  :  orator  and  states- 
man ;  li.  at  ICnniskillen,  Ireland,  in  .luly,  1765 :  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Dublin  ;  studied  law  at  Liiu^oln's 
Inn  ;  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  1787.  He  became  king's 
counsel  1798;  was  elected  to  the  Irish  I'arliamcnt  in  the 
same  year;  was  in  1803.  as  solicitor-general,  prosecuting  at- 
torney in  the  trial  of  Emmet ;  was  attorney-general  for 
Ireland  180,5-07.  He  sat  in  Parliament  1807-'J2,  where  he 
liivoreil  Catholic  emancipation;  became  again  attorney-gen- 
eral for  Ireland  18'22;  chief  justice  and  baron  1827,  and  was 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  1830-41.  D.  in  County  Wicklow, 
.Ian.  4,  1854. 

PliiraUsm  [from  Ijat.  plus,  plu'ris,  more]  :  in  canon  law, 
the  possession  of  more  than  one  ecclesiastical  benefice  by 
the  same  person  at  the  sanu'  lime.  In  the  earlier  times  of 
the  Christian  Chiirch  ])luralism  was  considered  unlawful, 
and  it  was  forbidden  by  many  councils,  as,  for  instance,  by 
those  of  Chalcediin  (451)  and  N'lciea  (787).  Later,  however, 
it  became  one  of  the  most  common  and  most  vicious  prac- 
tices In  the  Woman  Catholic  Church,  and  in  order  to  screen 
its  uidawfulness  very  subtle  distinctions  were  made  by  the 
canonists.  Benefices  were  divided  into  compatible  and  in- 
compatible— that  is,  such  as  could  be  held  together  and 
such  a,s  could  not,  Incompatiliility  might  arise,  for  in- 
stance, from  the  duty  of  residence  :"  thus  it  would  be  im- 
[xissible  for  the  same  man  to  be  Bishop  of  I'alermo  and 
Tronilhjem  at  the  sanu.'  time,  because  it  was  a  bishop's  duly 
to  reside  in  his  diocese  ;  but  then  the  pope  could  grant  a 


dispensation  from  the  duty  of  residence,'  and  thereby  the 
two  benefices  became  at  once  compatible.  At  one  time  it 
was  very  common  to  find  Italian  clergymen  living  at  the 
court  of  Rome  and  enjoying  the  revenues  of  ditferent  bene- 
fices in  Spain,  France,  Cei'inaiiy,  and  Scandinavia.  In  mod- 
ern limes  this  evil  has  disappeared  almost  entirely  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

The  English  law  before  the  Refornuition  in  the  main  co- 
incided with  the  canon  law,  and  the  legislation  of  Henry 
VIII.  generally  preserved  the  same  sjiiril.  oidy  substituting 
the  dispensiTig  power  of  the  crown  for  that  of  tlie  pope. 
By  13  and  14  N'ictoria,  c.  98,  it  is  provided  that  no  incum- 
bent of  a  benefice  shall  take  and  hold  together  with  it  an- 
other benefice — the  word  "  benefice  "  in  this  sense  comjiris- 
ing  any  perpetual  curacy,  endowed  pidilic  chapel,  ))arochial 
chapelry,  or  district  chapelry — unless  the  churches  are  within 
3  miles  of  one  another  by  the  nearest  road  and  the  ainuial 
value  of  one  of  them  does  not  exceed  £100;  nor  can  two 
benefices  be  held  together  if  the  jiojiulation  of  one  exceeds 
3,000  and  that  of  the  other  .500.  A  dispensati<m  or  license 
can  be  obtained  from  the  archbishop,  liowever,  so  as  to  allow 
two  benefices  to  be  held  together ;  and  if  the  archbishop 
should  refuse  his  license,  the  party  may  apj)eal  to  the  privy 
council,  A  special  provision  prohibits  the  head  ruler  of  any 
college  or  hail  in  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
from  taking  any  cathedral  preferment  or  any  other  bene- 
fice. If  any  person  holding  a  benefice  accepts  another 
benefice  contrary  to  the  statute,  the  first  lienefice  becomes 
ipso  facto  void.  Pluralism  has  almost  died  oid  in  the 
Church  of  England.  It  does  not  obtain  in  the  other 
branches  of  the  Anglican  communion.  In  Ireland  no  dis- 
pensation to  hold  two  benefices  can  be  granted.  In  .Scot- 
land no  minister  of  the  Established  Church  can  hold  two  or 
more  charges,  but  it  is  possible  for  a  minister  also  to  hold  a 
chair  as  professoi'  in  a  university  provided  that  his  charge 
is  in  the  same  city  as  the  university.  If  a  country  minister 
accepts  a  chair  as  professor,  he  must  resign  one  of  the  offices 
within  a  certain  time  after  the  a])pointmcnt. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry'. 

Plush  [from  Fr.  pluche,  peluche  :  lta,\. peluzzo  <  Late  Lat. 
*pilu'ceus.  hairy,  shaggy,  deriv.  of  Jjiit.pi'tus,  hair] :  a  fabric 
which  differs  from  velvet  in  not  being  shorn,  and  in  having 
a  long  pile  or  shag.  It  is  sometimes  all  worsted,  sometimes 
worsted  with  a  mohair  pile,  and  most  frequently  of  cotton 
with  a  silk  pile.  This  kind  last  mentioned  is  used  for  hat- 
making.  The  loops  of  the  pile  are  cut  with  a  long  needle- 
like  knife. 

Plutarch  (in  Cr.  nKoirapxas) :  Cireek  biographer  and  es- 
sayist ;  b.  at  Chan-onea  in  B.jeotia,  46  a,  d.  He  belonged  to 
a  wealthy  and  distinguished  family,  and  lived  a  long  life  of 
study  and  of  honorable  employment  both  in  the  service  of 
the  empire  and  in  the  service  of  Bceotia.  A  model  husband 
and  father,  he  practiced  the  noble  doctrines  that  he  preached. 
There  was  no  more  amiable  character  in  the  history  of  his 
times,  no  more  sympathetic  and  generous  soul.  D.  about 
120  A.  D.  His  works,  which  are  many,  fall  into  two  classes, 
historical  and  ethical,  the  latter  dealing  with  jihilcj.sophical, 
moral,  and  miscellaneous  subjects  and  commonly  referred 
to  roughly  as  JIuralia.  Of  his  historical  works  the  most  fa- 
mous is  the  collection  of  Parallel  Lives  (Btoi  TtapaK\ri\oi), 
forty-six  lives  in  twenty-three  pairs,  a  Greek  life  being  set 
over  against  a  Roman,  Nineteen  of  the  pairs  are  followed 
each  by  a  comparison.  Besides  these  Parallel  Lives  four 
isolated  lives  have  been  preserved.  Plutarch  is  not  an  his- 
torian, he  is  a  moralist,  and  thinks  more  of  the  le.sson  con- 
veyed by  the  facts  than  of  the  facts  themselves.  Everything 
is  welcome  to  him  that  will  illuminate  the  character  he  is 
drawing,  that  will  point  to  the  moral  he  is  teaching.  .Vnec- 
dote,  jest,  quotation,  nothing  comes  andss ;  and  while  the 
free  and  easy  handling  of  his  material  gives  many  prolilems 
to  historical  critics,  Plutarch  has  been  the  delight  of  all  suc- 
ceeding generations,  and  is  still  to  be  reckoned  among  the 
greatest  of  biographers.  His  treatises  called  Moralia  have 
not  been  so  po]nilar  as  they  deserve  to  be,  especially  of  re- 
cent years,  but  they  are  full  of  interesting  anecdotes,  happy 
quotations,  fine  reflections,  odd  bits  of  recondite  learning,  a 
perfect  treasure-house  of  wisdom  and  knowledge,  I'lutarch 
is  not  a  philo.sopher  of  the  first  order  any  more  than  he  is 
an  historian  of  the  first  order ;  he  is  not  a  consecutive 
thinker;  he  is  not  a  vigorous  writer,  nor  a  soaring  genius, 
but  he  is  a  man  of  sweet  and  pure  nature,  whose  vast  read- 
ing is  lighted  up  by  true  liumanity. 

Editions. — The  text  with  Latin  translation  most  conven- 


664 


PLUTO 


PLYMPTON 


iently  accessible  is  in  the  Didot  collection  (5  vols.,  Paris, 
1846-55) ;  Reiske  (Leipzig,  1774-82).  The  Lives  were  edited 
by  Koraes  (6  vols.,  Paris,  1809-14) :  Morals,  by  Wyttenbach 
(8  vols.,  Leipzig,  1796-1834).  There  is  a  critical  edition 
o£  the  Lives,  by  Sintenis  (Leipzig,  18o2-oo),  in  the  Teubner 
collection,  and  of  the  Morals  in  the  same  by  Bcrnadakis.  Dr. 
Holden's  editions  of  Plutiirch's  Demosthenes  and  of  the 
Oracchi,  of  Nicias,  Sulla,  and  Timoleon  are  very  service- 
able. A  famous  old  English  translation  after  the  French  of 
Amyot  is  by  North  (1579).  There  is  a  later  rendering  by  the 
Langhornes  (1770),  revised  by  C'lough  (1859).  An  old  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the  Morals  by  several  hands  has  been  re- 
vised anil  corrected  by  W.  W.  Goodwin  (5  vols.,  Boston, 
1870).  See  A  Popular  Lilroductioii  to  Plutarch,  by  Arch- 
bishop R.  C.  Trench  (London,  1873),  and  R.  Volkniann, 
Plutarch  (Berlin.  1869).  B.  L.  Gildersleevu. 

Pluto  (in  Gr.  nKovTai>) :  the  name  used  among  the  Romans 
for  Hades  (q.  v.).  though  it  originated  with  the  Greeks,  who 
called  hira  by  that  name  because,  as  the  god  of  the  lower 
world,  he  was  lord  over  all  wealth,  both  vegetable  and  min- 
eral, that  is  concealed  by  the  earth  from  which  all  wealth 
springs.  J.  K.  S.  S. 

Plutus  [  =  Lat.  =  Gr.  nxoSros.  liter.,  wealth] :  in  ancient 
mythology,  the  personification  of  riches,  much  used  by  the 
poets  and  often  represented  by  art,  but  never  worshiped. 
Zeus  is  said  to  have  blinded  him  in  order  that  he  might  not 
bestow  his  favors  on  righteous  men  only,  but  that  he  might 
distribute  his  gifts  blindly  and  without  any  regard  to  mer- 
it. At  Thebes  there  was  a  statue  of  Fortune,  at  Athens  one 
of  Peace,  and  at  Thespiie  one  of  Athene  the  Worker,  and  in 
each  of  these  cases  Plutus  was  represented  as  the  child  of 
those  divinities,  symbolically  expressing  the  sources  of 
wealth.  He  seems  to  have  commonly  been  represented  as  a 
boy  with  a  cornucopia.         Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Plymoiltll  :  town ;  in  the  county  of  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land :  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  sound  of  the  same  name : 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Plym  ;  346  miles  W.  S.  W.  by  rail  of 
London,  and  128  S.  W.  of  Bristol  (see  map  of  England,  ref. 
lo-D).  Taken  in  its  largest  sense,  it  comprises  what  are 
called  the  "three  towns" — Plymouth  proper  on  the  E., 
Stonehouse  in  the  middle,  and  Devonport  on  the  W.  Be- 
side the  citadel,  an  obsolete  fortification  built  by  Charles  IL 
at  the  eastern  end  of  the  bold  headland  called  the  Hoe,  there 
is  a  chain  of  forts  of  great  strength  mounted  with  guns  of 
heavy  calilier,  which  form  a  complete  line  of  defense  by 
land  and  sea.  The  tflwn  is  irregularly  built,  but  great  im- 
provements have  been  made.  Among  the  principal  build- 
ings are  the  new  (iuildhall,  in  the  Gothic  style,  opened  in 
1874;  the  Proprietary  Library,  in  which  there  is  the  Cot- 
tonian  collection  of  pictures ;  and  the  Athenseuni,  which 
contains  a  library,  lecture-hall,  museum,  and  art  gallery. 
The  parish  church  of  St.  Andrew,  in  the  Perpendicular 
style,  dates  originally  from  14:^0,  but  was  completely  re- 
stored in  1875  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott.  In  1888  the  JVIarine 
Biological  Laboratory  was  opened. 

As  a  great  naval  station  Plymouth  owes  its  pre-eminence 
to  the  spaciousness  and  extent  of  Plymouth  Sound,  within 
which  tile  whole  British  navy  might  anchor  with  safety.  To 
protect  the  interior  of  this  estuary  the  Plymouth  break- 
water was  constructed.  (See  Breakwater.)  The  eastern 
harbor,  Sutton  Pool,  is  an  anchorage  for  the  shipjiing  em- 
ployed in  the  fisheries  and  general  trade.  The  Great  West- 
ern Docks  include  a  floating  basin  of  over  13  acres,  a  tidal 
harbor  of  35  acres,  and  a  graving-dock.  The  port  has  a 
considerable  trade,  and  is  used  by  lines  of  passenger  steam- 
ers to  South  Africa,  the  East,  and  Australasia.  There  is  also 
a  large  coasting  trade.  There  are  some  manufactures  of 
chemical  compounds,  biscuits,  soap,  manures,  etc. 

Plymouth  was  used  as  a  port  by  the  Black  Prince,  and  in 
the  reign  of  Elizalieth  it  was  the  principal  port  of  England. 
In  the  wars  with  Napoleon  it  was  the  rival  of  Portsmouth  in 
naval  activitv.  Plymouth  returns  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment. Poji.  of  Plymouth  proper  (1893)  86.701 ;  with  Stone- 
house  and  Devonport  (1891)  154,417.  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Plyilioiltll :  town ;  capital  of  Plymouth  co.,  Mass.  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  4-J):  on  Massachu- 
setts Bay  an<l  the  Old  Colony  division  of  the  N.  Y.,  N.  II. 
and  Hart.  Railroad;  37  miles  S.  E.  of  Boston.  It  occupies 
a  strip  of  18  miles  along  the  coast  varying  from  5  to  9  miles 
in  width,  is  the  oldest  town  in  New  England,  and  has  a 
healtliful  climate,  the  heat  of  summer  seldom  Vieing  op- 
pressive or  the  cold  of  winter  intense.  It  has  public  water- 
works and  sewer  system,  gas,  electric  plant  for  light  and 


power,  electric  street-railway,  3  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $410,000,  3  savings-baidvs  with  aggregate 
deposits  of  $3,276,893,  a  co-operative  bank,  9  churches,  pub- 
lic library,  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  The  industries  com- 
prise the  numufacture  of  woolen  cloth,  cotton  sail-duck, 
insulated  wire,  patent  bedstead  joints,  boots  and  shoes,  cord- 
age, tacks,  rivets,  wire  nails,  stoves,  hollow-ware,  steel  shanks, 
zinc  and  copper  electrical  supplies,  and  other  articles.  Plym- 
outh is  celebrated  as  the  landing-place  of  the  Pilgrim  Fa- 
thei's  on  Dec.  11  (Dec.  31.  n.  s.),  1620.  The  rock  on  which 
they  first  stepped  is  in  Water  Street,  and  is  now  covered 
with  a  fine  granite  canopy.  Pilgrim  Hall  contains  numer- 
ous relics  of  the  Pilgrims,  and  many  interesting  antiquities. 
Cole's  Hill  and  Burial  Hill  ai-e  points  of  much  interest,  be-  J 
cause  of  the  burial  there  of  many  of  the  Pilgrims.  The  cor-  ^ 
ner-stone  of  a  national  monument  to  the  Pilgrims  was  laid 
Aug.  1.  1859.  and  the  structure  was  dedicated  Aug.  1,  1889. 
It  is  81  ft.  high,  cost  about  $150,000.  and  is  surmounted  by 
a  statue  of  Faith,  in  granite,  36  ft.  high,  the  largest  granite 
stat  ue  in  the  world.  Four  immense  monolithic  statues,  weigh- 
ing about  16  tons  each,  and  representing  Morality,  Law,  Edu-  1 
cation,  and  Freedom,  with  beailtiful  marble  bas-reliefs  be-  ' 
neath  each,  are  seated  on  the  buttresses  of  this  monument. 
Pop.  (1880)  7,093  ;  (1890)  7,314;  (1895)  7,957. 

C.  C.  Doten,  editor  of  "  Old  Colony  Memorial." 

Plymoiltll :  town ;  one  of  the  capitals  of  Grafton  co., 
N.  H. ;  at  the  junction  of  the  Pemigewasset  and  Bakers 
rivers,  and  on  the  Concord  and  Montreal  Railroad  ;  50  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Concord,  the  State  capital  (for  location,  see  map 
of  New  Hampshire,  ref.  6-E).  It  is  in  a  region  much  fre- 
quented by  tourists  and  widely  known  for  its  beautiful  scen- 
ery, and  contains  the  State  Normal  School  (opened  in  1871), 
the  Holderness  School  for  Boys  (Protestant  Episcopal),  a 
national  bank  with  capital  of  $75,000,  a  weekly  newspaper, 
and  manufactories  of  gloves,  shoes,  and  leather.  Pop.  (1880) 
1,719 ;  (1890)  1,853. 

Plymouth  :  town,  seaport,  and  capital  of  Washington  co., 
N.  C. :  on  Albemarle  Sound ;  about  100  miles  E.  of  Raleigh 
(for  location,  see  map  of  North  Carolina,  ref.  3-J).  It  is  in 
an  agricultural  region,  ships  large  quantities  of  cotton,  lum- 
ber, and  vegetables,  and  contains  a  State  normal  school 
(opened  in  1886),  lumber  and  cotton  mills,  and  a  weekly 
newspaper.     Pop.  (1880)  836  ;  (1890)  1,213. 

Plymouth  :  borough ;  Luzerne  co..  Pa. ;  on  the  Susque- 
hanna river,  and  the  Del.,  Lack,  and  West.  Railroad  ;  4  miles 
S.  W.  of  Wilkesbarre,  the  county-seat,  30  miles  S.  W.  of 
Scranton  (for  location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  3-H). 
It  is  in  a  coal-mining  region,  and  contains  a  high  school,  4 
public-school  buildings,  public-school  property  valued  at 
over  $50,000,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $100,000,  and 
3  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  6.085  ;  (1890)  9,344. 

Plymouth  Brethren:  a  Christian  body  holding  in  the 
main'  Calvinistic  views,  but  peculiar  in  that  it  rejects  all 
ecclesiastical  organization  and  insists  on  the  complete  parity 
of  all  believers.  Hence  it  has  no  presiding  officers  in  its 
public  meetings,  nor  any  clergy.  It  was  started  in  Dublin  in 
1837,  mainly  through  the  exertions  of  John  Nelson  Darby, 
from  whom"  the  sect  gets  its  b^st-known  name,  Darbyites; 
in  1831  it  took  a  fresh  hold  at  Plymouth,  England,  whence 
its  name,  Plymouth  Brethren,  again  under  Darby,  and  large- 
ly Vjy  his  writings  and  personal  service  spread  over  the  Brit- 
ish Isles,  the  Continent,  Canada,  and  the  U.  S.  Darby  was 
born  in  London,  Nov.  18,  1800;  graduated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  1819;  was  first  a  lawyer,  then  a  clergyman, 
1835,  but  in  1837  he  left  the  Established  Church.  He  died 
at  Bournemouth,  England,  Apr.  39,  1883.  His  writings 
were  collected  and  edited  by  W.  Kelly  (33  vols.,  London, 
1867-83).  The  brethren  are  now  divided  into  several  par- 
ties, but  all  agree  in  rejecting  creeds,  an  ordained  ministry, 
and  a  separate  organization,  and  in  meeting  in  halls  or  pri- 
vate houses  instead  of  having  churches.  According  to  the 
census  of  1890  there  were  in  the  U.  S.  four  such  parties,  with 
an  aggregate  of  6,661  communicants.  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Plymouth  Sound  :  an  inlet  of  the  English  Channel  on 
the  .-iouthern  coast  of  England,  between  the  counties  of  Dev- 
on and  Cornwall.  It  is  3  miles  long,  4  miles  broad,  and 
forms,  with  the  estuaries  of  the  Plym  and  the  Tamar,  the 
harbors  of  Plymouth  and  Devonport,  well  known  as  one  of 
the  principal  naval  stations  of  Great  Britain.  See  Devon- 
port  and  Plymouth. 

Plym|il(>n.  George  Washington:  scientist;  b.  at  Wal- 
tham",  Mass.,  Nov.  18,  1837;  graduated  at  the  Rensselaer 


PNEUMATIC   DYNAMITE   GUN 


PNEUMATICS 


665 


Polytechnic  Institute  at  Troy,  N.  V.,  1847;  was  Professor 
of  Engineerin<r  and  Architecture  at  Clcvehinil  Univei-sity 
1852-5:i;  of  mathematics  in  the  State  Normal  School,  Al- 
bany, N.  Y..  185:}— >■).  and  aijain  1858-00,  and  in  the  State 
N'orinal  School,  Trenton,  N.  J..  IStiO-ti:):  became  Professor 
of  Physical  Science  at  the  Urooklyn  Polytechnic  InstitMt<> 
186:i.  and  of  Chemistry  and  Toxicolo{;y  in  tlie  Lung  Island 
Collej^e  ilospilal  in  1864,  and  of  Physics  at  Cooper  Insti- 
tute, N.  Y.,  1869.  He  was  appointed  director  of  the  night 
schools  of  the  Cooper  Union  in  187!).  In  the  practice  of  en- 
gineering he  was  chief  engineer  of  water-supply  and  drain- 
age of  liergen,  N.  J.,  from  1867  to  186!):  commissioner  of 
.■lectrical  subways  for  tlie  city  of  Brooklyn  1885  to  1880; 
and  memlicr  of  the  board  of  experts  to  improve  transjicn-ta- 
tion  over  the  East  Kiver  bridge.  lie  has  been  a  member  of 
the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineei-s  since  1868.  He  is 
the  author  of  The  Blowpipe  (1851»),  ThtStarfinder  (\»~ii), 
The  Aneroid  (1880).  and  translator  of  Jannetaz's  Determi- 
nnlion  of  IfocfiH  (1877).  lie  was  editor  of  Van  Nostrand's 
Kclerlic  K  nil  i  nee  ring  Mayazine  1870-86. 

Pneiini:itic  Dynamite  Gun  :  See  Orijxance. 

Piiciuiiatios  [from  (ir.  ■mnvii.aTiKir.  relating  to  wind  or 
air,  deriv.  of  nvdiia.  mdiMTos.  wind,  air,  l>reath,  spirit,  deriv. 
of  ■irv(7i'.  blow,  breath]:  that  department  of  physics  which 
deals  with  the  properties  of  gases. 

In  this  article  the  influence  of  pressure  is  particularly 
considered,  together  with  the  means 
of  producing  changes  of  pressure  and 
of  measuring  the  same. 

The  ])rincipal  phenomena  of  pneu- 
matics depend  upon  what  is  known  as 
the  Itiw  uf  Mariotte  (or  Boyle),  a  law 
which  expresses  the  relation  between 
the  pressure  of  a  gas  and  its  volume. 
This  law,  which  applies  rigorously  only 
to  what  is  known  as  a  "  perfect  gas," 
is  given  in  the  simple  formula 

ToPo  =  I'p, 

which  states  the  fact  that  pressures 
jio,  p  and  volumes  Vo,  v  are  inversely 
proportional  to  one  another. 

For  the  verification  of  Mariotte's 
law  t  he  two  pieces  of  apparatus,  shown 
in  Pigs.  1  and  3  respectively,  are  com- 
monly used. 

Fig.  1,  which  gives  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  the  apparatus  for  moderate 
pressures  greater  than  one  atmosphere, 
shows  a  glass  tube  with  two  arms,  one 
of  which,  the  shorter,  is  closed  above, 
while  the  other  is  open. 

When  the  o|ien  arm  of  the  appara- 
tus is  partly  filled  %vilh  mercury,  a 
certain  amount  of  air  is  entrapped  in 
the  closed  portion  of  the  tube,  and  the 
volume  of  this  air  depends  upon  the 
pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected.  The  pressure  is  measured 
by  the  difference  in  the  height  of  the  columns  of  mercury 
in  the  two  arms,  plus  the  barometric  pres.sure.  A  stop-cock 
at  the  bottom  of  the  tube  facilitates  the  withdrawing  of  mer- 
cury. 

I'he  contents  of  the  closed  arm,  per  unit  of  length,  having 
been  carefully  determined,  pressure  is  applied  liy  the  intro- 
duction of  mercury  until  the  volume  reachesa  desired  value. 
Hy  further  adjustment  of  the  mercury  and  determination  of 
the  corresponding  volumes,  the  law  of  .Mariotte  may  be  veri- 
fied through  a  considerable  range  of  pressures. 

Helow  one  atmosphere  the  apparatus  is  given  the  form 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  in  which  C  is  a  <lcep  cistern  of  mercury  into 
which  an  inverted  tube  of  glass,  t.  previously  nearly  filled 
with  the  same  liquid,  is  inverted.  As  the  inverted  tube  is 
raised  and  lowered  the  column  of  air  therein  expands  and 
contracts  in  accordance  with  the  law  under  discussion.  The 
volumes  are  determined  by  calibration  of  the  tube;  the 
pressures  from  the  barometric  i)ressure.  minus  the  elevation 
of  the  mercury  in  the  iuner  lube  above  the  level  of  that 
witliin  the  cistern.  The  figure  shows  the  apparatus  with 
the  inverted  tube  in  three  positions  (Fig.  2). 

Marked  divergence  from  Mariotte's  law  occurs  in  the  case 
of  all  known  gsises.  as  we  approach  a  certain  temperature 
(the  so-calleil  critical  temperature)  which  is  fixed  for  each 
particular  gas.     Hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  air,  methane. 


Fig.  1. 


and  carbon  monoxide  have  critical  temperatures  so  low  that 
they  can  only  be  reached  by  processes  of  artificial  refrigera- 


FiG.  9. 

tion.  (See  Liquids.)  They  are  known  as  the  permanent 
gases,  an  appellation  which  is  justified  under  all  usual  condi- 
tions, since  they  obey 
Mariotte's  law  approx- 
imately under  whatev- 
er pressures  may  be 
brought  to  bear. 

Crases,  as  sulphur  di- 
oxide, which  have  a 
critical  temperature 
higher  than  the  tem- 
perature of  experimen- 
tation are  capable  of 
being  liquefied  by  pres- 
sure alone.  Such  gases 
show  a  divergence 
from  Jiariotte's  law 
which  is  always  in  the 
direction  of  too  great 
compressibility.  The 
presence  of  such  va- 
pors in  admixture  with 
a  permanent  gas  will 
also  cause  appreciable 
deviation  from  the  law 
on  the  part  of  the 
mixture. 

The  behavior  of  a 
gas  remote  from  its 
boiling-point,  and  con- 
se(iuenlly  obedient  to 
Jiariotte's  law,  and 
that  of  a  gas  near  the 
point  of  liquefaction, 
and  therefore  exhibit- 
ing deviations  from 
the  law,  are  shown 
gra[)hically  in  the  dia- 
grams of  Figs.  3  and 
4,  in  which  ordinates 
are  pressures  and  ab- 
scissas are  volumes. 

The  peculiarity  of  the  lines  in  the  former  diagram,  which 
are  hyperbolic,  is  that  upon  any  line  the  product  of  the  or- 


l«    \  \   \    \  \\    \\\^\^'^\\^    •   ^^ 

',    '    V    ^     \    V   '      ^  ^    ^   ^^^  ^v'^     \-'-     V 

■    '.     >     \     \     \     \    \    V  ^    ^  ^     N  ^S  "^     N^   ^,  ^ 

I      I     \      \      \     ^,    ^      ^  ^      \  ^    •>      ^     ^    V  ^  , 
'       1       \      \     \      \    ^,    ^       ^    ^      \  ^     S     \    X    N^ 

'      \       \      \       \      ^    \   ^       ^-^      ^    N    •^.    N    \    ^ 

•   >   \  N  \  ^^o^'--^^" 

■         \          \        ^         N       ^     '^       -       ^   ^  .^N 

"v'\     ^r-^   ^-^:-::- 

^^.  .p   ---.         :: 

"'"'*-  ^ 

,                          —  —  -_-,.—  . 

Fio.  3. 

i-     X      -      >,     \     \     \     \      -       V      ^      v^ 

' ;   ^   ',  \  \  \  \  V  \  ^   ^ ,  • 

■■        >        \      \      S       \     V     \\     ^        ^^ 

\    ^,   \  ^    ^     \  \    - 

.      .---\       >      ■-       N    ^      V       s     V     - 

\.-5''.N  \  \   \\^^  ^> 

i'-— •/>   \'\N^-^^> 

1;         w  \  ^-  '^    -.^-  ■ 
•,  \  '-.  N  N  ^.  - 

» ,.--'^^            X             *^        '^v         ^^        "■ 

'                                  '        '              ^  *          ^  «■            '"-«. 

^,              "^^ 

'■c          \A            :- 

1 

FlQ.  4. 


666 


PNEUMATICS 


dinat.es  {vp}  is  a  constant.  Eacli  line  describes  the  changes 
of  volume  corresponding  to  the  variations  of  pressure  for  a 
given  temperature.  The  temperatures  rise  with  increase  in 
the  ordinates.  Pig.  4  gives  the  corresponding  lines  in  the 
case  of  a  vapor.  At  the  highest  temperature  shown,  those 
for  the  lines  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  the  divergence 
from  Mariotte's  law  is  inconsiderable.  For  lower  tempera- 
tures a  tendency  is  developed  which  shows  itself  in  double 
curvature  of  the  lines.  Finally,  certain  lines,  those,  namely, 
which  cross  the  dotted  area  A  B  C,  suffer  discontinuity  of 
curvature.  Temperatures  corresponding  to  these  lines  are 
below  the  critical  temperature.  The  breaks  in  them  indi- 
cate the  points  at  which  liquefaction  begins  and  is  com- 
pleted. 

Researches  by  Regnanlt,  Amagat,  Natterer,  Cailletet 
seem  to  show  that  even  the  permanent  gases  do  not  fulfill 
the  definition  of  a  perfect  gas  mentioned  above.  The  di- 
vergence from  the  law  of  Mariotte  does  not,  however,  con- 
sist simply  in  the  exhibition  of  greater  and  greater  com- 
pressibility with  increasing  pressure,  as  is  the  case  with 
vapors.  It  is  more  complicated  in  character.  Amagat,  us- 
ing a  modification  of  the  method  of  Cailletet,  found  for  nitro- 
gen the  product  j9i',  which  for  perfect  gases  should  be  con- 
stant, the  following  values  all  of  which  are  referred  to  the 
value  of  that  product  at  a  pressure  of  one  atmosphere. 


PreiBures.  pv. 

2rS9atra 0-9894 


46-50 
62-03 
73-00 
80-58 
90-98 
109-17 
126-90 


0-9876 
0-9858 

0  9868 
0-9875 
0-9893 
0-9940 

1  0015 


Pressures. 

168-81  atm, 

208-64  '•  . 

251-13  "  . 

290-93  "  . 

332-04  "  . 

373-30  "  . 

430-77  "  . 


pv. 
0255 
0530 
0815 
1218 
1625 
2070 
2696 


The  values  for  this  and  for  the  other  gases  tested,  with  the 
exception  of  hydrogen,  show  a  too  great  compressibility  up 
to  a  maximum  in  the  neighborhood  of  sixty  atmospheres 
(corresponding  to  tlie  minimum  value  of  /jc  in  the  forego- 
ing table).  The  com)ircssil)ility  then  diminishes  again,  so 
that  at  the  pressure  of  about  100  atmospheres  the  value  of 
pv  becomes  unity  and  at  higher  pressures  takes  increas- 
ingly large  values.  Hydrogen  alone  shows  for  all  pressure  a 
degree  of  compressibility  smaller  than  those  demanded  by 
Mariotte's  law. 

Of  importance,  likewise,  are  the  densities  of  gases  and 
their  behavior  wlien  subjected  to  changes  of  temperature. 
The  densities  of  some  of  the  more  important  gases  and  va- 
pors are  given  in  Table  II. 

TABLE   II. — DENSITY   OF   QASES   AND   VAPORS. 


of  water-pumps,  and  the  forms  still  in  use  in  the  production 
of  ordinary  vacua  are  constructed  with  valves. 


AnimAnia  (NHs) 

C'hlnriii.-  n%) 

Hvilr..rli|..i-icacid(HCI) 

Methane  1CH4) 

Carbon  monoxide  (CO). . 
Carbon  dio.^ide  (COj) . . . 

OxyEen  (0.j) 

Sulphur  dioxide  (SOj). . . 

Nitrogen  (No) 

Hydrogen  (H,) 

Steam  (HjO) 

Air 


Density  (compared 

Weight  of  one  liter, 

with  air). 

grammes. 

0-589 

0-761 

2-449 

3-167 

1-259 

1-638 

0-553 

0-715 

0-967 

1-251 

1-51968 

1-96503 

1- 10521 

1-42908 

2  213 

2-861 

0-9701 

1-2544 

0- 069234 

0-089523 

0-62182 

0-80405 

1-0000 

1-293052 

Influence  of  Temperature. — This  is  expressed  by  the 
explained  in  Heat  {q.  v.),  which  may  be  written 


law 


pv  =  po' 


(-a- 


Taking  into  consideration  the  deviations  from  Mariotte's 
law  and  analogous  deviations  from  the  law  of  Gay-Lussac, 
numerous  attempts  liavc  been  made  to  find  an  equation 
which  will  express  completely  the  behavior  of  an  actual  gas. 
Van  der  Waals  (1873)  gave  as  tlie  complete  formula  of  con- 
dition, 

in  which  a  and  b  are  small  constants  and  T  is  the  aljsolute 
temperature. 

The  usual  instrument  for  producing  changes  of  pressure 
is  the  air-pump  (invented  by  Ot  to  von  (ruerieke  about  1650). 
The  term  is  usually  apjilied  alike  to  pumps  used  for  the 
production  of  a  vncuiiiii  uiid  to  eoiii|)ri>ssion-pumps. 

Vacuum-pumps,  in  their  curlier  foi-ms,  were  modifications 


One  of  the  simplest  and  best-known  types  of  vacuum- 
pump  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.     This  pump  contains  only  one 


Fia.  6. 

valve  which  is  placed  within  the  piston.  Another  form 
(that  of  Silbermann),  Fig.  6,  contains  two  valves,  one  work- 
ing upward  and  the  other 
downward,  situated  in  the 
base  of  the  cylinder.  The 
piston  is  solid. 

Many  other  varieties  of 
the  meclianical  vacuum- 
pump  have  been  devised. 
The  general  principles,  ap- 
plicable to  all  forms,  are 
given  here :  (1)  Since  gases 
are  of  small  density  tlie  vol- 
umes displaced  should  be 
relatively  much  larger  than 
in  the  case  of  water-pumps. 
(2)  The  valves  should  be 
capable  of  action  under  the 
smallest  possible  differences 
of  pressure.  This  point  is 
of  great  importance  where 
the  production  of  high  vacua 
is  desired.  (3)  Joints  nuist 
bo  as  nearly  ]ierfect  as  re- 
gards the  matter  of  gas-leak- 
age as  it  is  possible  to  make 
them. 

These  two  last  factors  lim- 
it tlie  usefulness  of  air-pumps  with  valves,  since  the  highest 
degree  of  exhaustion  wliich  can  be  olitaiued  with  such  a 
pump  is  cither  thiit  at  wliich  tlie  valves  cease  to  work  or  at 
which  tlie  rale  of  leakage   equals  the  rate   of   exhaustion. 


Fig.  7. 


PNEUMATICS 


667 


The  latter  is  the  more  important,  since  the  failure  of  valve- 
action  may  be  remedied  by  supplanting  the  movements  due 
to  differences  of  pressure  with 
movements  which  follow  positively 
and  at  the  i>roper  instant  those  of 
the  piston. 

Fig.  7  shows  such  a  device,  l)y 
K.  S.  Kitchie.  In  these  instru- 
UH'nts  the  valve  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cylinder  is  opened  and  closed 
by  means  of  a  rod  (a)  which  is  fitted 
to  a  stuffing-ljox  in  the  plunger. 
The  valve  in  the  piston  is  also  oper- 
ated directly  from  the  stroke,  for 
which  purpose  the  piston-rod  is 
Kio.  s.  given  the  form  shown  in  the  ligure. 

Thus  4  is  opened  and  c  e  is  closed 
at  the  bcgiiniiug  of  the  stroke  without  reference  to  the  dif- 
fereiu.'i'S  of  pressure. 

The  arrangement  of  the  lower  valve  in  Ritchie's  pump  is 
shown  in  more  detail  in  Fig.  8.  It  consists  of  a  conical 
plug  whicli  is  carefully  fitted  to  the  tapering  end  of  the 
tube  which  leads  from' the  exhausted  receiver  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  pump-cylinder.  This  plug  is  attached  to  the 
eud  of  a  roil  carrieil  by  the  piston,  as  above  described.  A 
disk  of  oiled  silk  completes  the  closure. 

Mercury  Vacunm-jnimps.  —  An 
important  class  of  air-pumps  are 
those  used  in  the  proiluction  of 
very  high  vacua,  such  as  it  is  nec- 
essary to  obtain  in  many  scientiHc 
investigations,  and  conuiu'rcially. 
in  the  uuiuufacture  of  all  forms  of 
the  electric  glow-lamp,  where  an 
inert  atmosphere  is  not  used.  Mc- 
chanical  pumps  of  the  forms  just 
described  can  rarely  be  nuide  to 
produce  an  exhaustion  amounting 
to  rcuTuth  of  an  atmosphere,  where- 
as the  pressure  within  the  bulb  of 
a  properly  constructed  glow-lamp 
does  tiot  exceed  tsW"'  "^f  an  at- 
mosphere. In  [ihysical  research  it 
is  frequently  necessary  to  obtain 
still  higher  vacua,  amounting  some- 
times to  -TcRrJrijTrijth  or  even  to 
iriuiifioTiinrth  of  an  atmosphere.  For 
sucii  purposes  (me  of  the  following 
forms  of  mercury-pumps  is  used  : 

(«)  The  Geixsler  Pump.  —  This 
instnnnent,  which  has  found  ex- 
tended application  in  the  numufac- 
ture  of  electric  lamps,  is  shown  in 
one  of  its  very  sim]ilest  forms  in 
Fig.  9.  The  essential  parts  are  the 
two  buUis  of  heavy  glass,  each  of 
which  is  capable  of  holding  about  two  liters.  These  are 
connected  by  means  of  the  long  vertical  glass  tubi^  /,  which 
must  somewhat  exceed  the  barometric  coliuun  in  heiglit, 
and  the  strong  flexible  lul)e  (j  attached  to  the  lower  end  of 
/and  to  the  movable  bulb  15.  There  must  be,  further,  two 
tubes  connecting  the  fixed  bulb  A  respectively  with  the  outer 
air  and  with  tlu'  vessel  whicli  is  to  be  exhausted.  These 
must  lie  provided  with  stop-cocks. 

The  pid(-ess  of  pumping  with  apparatus  of  this  type  con- 
sists (1)  in  closing  the  stop-cock  a,  which  leads  to  the  re- 
ceiver and  opening  /;,  which  gives  egress  to  the  outer  air, 
the  movjible  bulb  \\  being  raised  to  a  height  sucli  as  to  cause 
the  mercury  to  flow  over  into  .V.  completely  lilliug  it,  and 
driving  the  jireviously  conlained  air  out  through  the  egress- 
tube.  (2)  This  operation  being  completed  the  stop-cock  /)  is 
closed:  the  bulb  15  is  lowered  to  a  position  at  least  700  mm. 
below  the  bottom  of  the  bulb  A  and  the  stop-cock  a  is 
openeii.  The  result  of  the  second  operation  is  an  influx  of 
air  from  the  receiver  to  the  bulb  A,  whi<'h  is  then  expelled 
by  a  repetition  of  operation  (1).  Hy  continued  alternations 
of  the  two  operations  the  pressure  may  be  reduced  to  any 
desired  point  within  a  limit  lying  much  below  that  attain- 
able with  valve-pumps. 

In  practice,  there  are  attached  to  the  Geissler  pum|)  va- 
rious accessory  parts  not  shown  in  the  figure,  such  as  drying- 
tubes  between  the  vessel   to  be  exhausted  and  the  bulb  A, 
and  mercury-traps  between  the  latter  and  the  outer  air. 
The  operation  of  the  Geissler  pump   is  a  laborious  one. 


since  it  involves  the  repeated  lifting  of  a  large  mass  of  mer- 
cury t  hrough  a  vertical  distance  of  about  a  meter.  Where  such 
puiiips  are  in  continual  use.  as  in  the  mimp-rooms  of  incan- 
descent-lamp factories,  it  is  usual  to  drive  the  mercury  into 
and  out  of  the  bulb  A  by  pneumatic  iiressure,  leaving  to  the 
manijiulator  only  the  task  of  turning  the  stop-cocks. 

In   these   cases   the   apjiaralus   consists  of   a   mechanical 
pump  driven  by  power,  and  capable  of  maintaining  a  reduc- 


I'lu.  u. 


Fio.  III. 

tion  of  pressure  of  700  mm.  The  tieissler  pump,  also,  is 
modified  to  suit  the  conditions  of  working.  The  bulb  B  is 
fixed,  its  position  with  reference  to  A  being  that  shown  in 
Fig.  10,  which  gives  the  arrangement  of  one  of  the  simplest 
of  this  tvpe  of  pumps. 

In  the  use  of  such  a  pump  the  tube  /*  is  connected  with 
the  mechanical  pump,  and  the  stop-cocks  /(  and  i  are  turned 
so  as  to  bring  the  atmosphere  within  H  A,  the  connected 
vessel  «)  (drying-flask),  and  /  to  the  low- 
pressure  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
latter.  The  two-way  sto|)-cock  h  is  then  i  ,,  I 
turned  so  as  to  admit  air  from  without  to  \.J 
B.  whereby  the  mercury  rises  into  A,  driv-  |f 
ing  the  air  before  it  through  the  nicrcury- 
trap  t.  A  glass  valve,  r,  rises  upon  tlie 
surface  of  the  mercury  during  this  opera- 
tion until  it  closes  the  contraction  in  the 
tube,  w-hich  it  has  been  ground  to  fit.  The 
restoration  of  the  stop-cock  h  to  its  first 
]iosition  empties  the  bulb  A,  and  jiroduces 
further  exhaustion  of  I  in  proportion  to  the 
additional  space  thus  iirovided. 

{b)  The  Spremjel  pump  is  a  mercury- 
pump  based  upon  a  different  principle 
from  that  of  Geissler.  The  principle  was 
really  due  to  Biinsen,  who,  in  1868,  de- 
scribed a  water-jet  pump  for  hastening  the 
filtration  processes  of  the  analytical  chem- 
ist. Sprengcl  made  use  of  a  mercury  col- 
umn flowing  downward  through  a  vertical 
tube  of  small  bore.  Fig.  1 1  shows  a  simple 
form  of  the  Sprengel  pump,  designed  uy 
Weiiihold.  The  long  vertical  tube  a,  en- 
larged at  c,  is  fed  with  mercury  from  the 
lube  b.  which  is  given  the  form  shown  in 
the  figure  to  jireveiit  loss  of  vacuum  in 
case  the  supply  of  that   liquid  is  not   con-  ],•,(,,  u. 

linuouslv  maintained.  The  mercury  flow- 
ing froiii  the  narrow  tube,  at  a  rate  which  is  regulated  by 
the  height  of  the  reservoir,  R,  forms  drojis  in  the  wider  u|iper 
portion  of  the  pump-tube  a.  Each  of  these,  as  it  falls  into 
the  contracted  jiart,  entraps  a  bubble  of  air  and  carries  it 
down  into  the  lower  reservoir  r,  whence  it  escapes  to  the 


em 


PNEUMATICS 


outer  atmosphere.     This  process  is  a  continuous  one,  and 
■when  the  apparatus  is  properly  proportioned  and  clean,  and 

when  clean  mercury 
is  used,  the  pump 
will  frequently  con- 
tinue in  action  until 
a  pressure  o[  less 
than  the  millionth 
of  an  atmosphere  is 
attained.  For  vacua 
of  a  still  higher  order 
many  special  precau- 
tions must  be  taken. 
Co  mp  r  e  s  s  io  n- 
piimps.  —  This  class 
of  air-pumps  is  much 
easier  to  construct 
than  are  vacuum- 
pumps,  since  it  is  not 
necessary,  generally 
speaking,  to  over- 
come all  leakage,  nor 
do  the  valves  need  to 
be  brought  to  the 
same  degree  of  deli- 
cacy. The  charac- 
teristic features  of 
compression  -  pumps. 
Fig.  ]2. '  when  used  as  blow- 

ers, are  the  large  size 
of  the  cylinder  and  of  the  valves.  There  are,  as  a  rule,  two 
sets  of  valves,  so  that  both  the  up  and  the  down  stroke  are 
effective.  When  pumps  are  to  be  used  for  the  production 
of  high  pressures,  rather  than  for  the  supply  of  large  quan- 
tities of  air,  they  are  made,  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  with 
tliick  walls  and  small  apertures.  Figs.  12  and  13  show  typ- 
ical pumps  for  the  production  of  a  blast ;  Fig.  14  a  fan  in 
which  the  rapid  rotation  of 
floats  within  a  cylindrical  com- 
partment takes  the  place  of  the 
piston-motion,  and.  by  centrif- 
ugal action,  produces  a  contin- 
uous and  powerful  draught. 

Measurements  of  gas-pressure 
are  made  by  means  of  manome- 
ters. These  instruments  depend 
upon  the  balancing  of  the  elas- 
tic forces  of  the  gas  by  means 
of  a  column  of  liquid,  usual- 
ly mercury  (open-tube  manome- 
ters), upon  the  compression  of 
a  gas  within  a  closed  receiver 
(closed  -  tube  manometers),  or 
upon  the  direct  mechanical  ac- 
tion of  the  gas  in  distorting  a 
flexible  closed  box  or  tube  (pressure-gauges).  The  last- 
named  class  corresponds  to  the  aneroid  barometer,  of  which 
indeed  it  is  only  a  suitable  modification. 

Fig.  15  shows  the  essential  parts  of  an  "  open-tube " 
manometer  for  moderate  pressures;  Fig.  16  of  a  "closed- 
tube"  manometer  with  cylindrical  bore;  and  Fig.  17  an  in- 
strument of  the  same  class  in  wliich  the  tube  is  conical. 
The  object  of  this  modification  in  which 
the  scale  will  remain  open  is  for  high 
pressures.  Fig.  18  presents  the  essential 
features  of  a  well-known  type  of  pressure- 
gauges. 

For  the  measurement  of  high  vacua  a 
special  form  of  "closed-tube  "  mancimcter 
Fig.  14.  is  use,|_     'fliis  instrument,  which  is  known 

from  its  inventor  as  the  McLeod  gauge,  is  shown  in  its 
essential  features  in  Fig.  19.  It  consists  of  a  bulb  of  glass 
mounted  upon  a  glass  tube  somewhat  longer  than  a  barom- 
eter tube.  Into  the  top  of  this  bulb  is  inserted,  by  the 
glass-blower's  process,  a  capillary  tube,  closed  above,  the 
contents  of  which,  for  each  ccMliiucter  of  its  length,  is  known 
in  terms  of  the  contents  of  tlie  bulb.  A  side-tube  inserted 
below  the  mouth  of  the  bulb  connects  the  apparatus  her- 
metically with  the  receiver  the  vacuum  of  which  is  to  be 
measured.  To  the  bottom  of  the  long  vertical  tube  an  open 
reservoir  of  mercury  is  attached  by  means  of  a  strong 
flexible  tube  similar  to  that  tiscd  in  the  Geissler  pump. 

The  process  of  measuring  a  vacuum  with  the  McLeod 
gauge  is  as  follows  :  During  the  exhaustion  the  reservoir  of 


mercury  is  kept  in  a  position  so  far  below  the  bulb  of  the 
gauge  that  the  manometric  columu  formed  by  the  atmos- 


FiG.  13. 


Fig.  16. 


pheric  pressure  without  will  not  reach  the  side  tube.  (See 
Fig.  19.)  When  it  is  desired  to  measure  the  vacuum,  the 
reservoir  is  raised  until  the  mercury  reaches  the  side-tube, 


Fig.  17.  Fig.  18. 

thus  isolating  the  body  of  extenuated  gas  within  the  bulb. 
The  reservoir  is  then  raised  still  farther,and  the  airwithin  the 
bulb  thus  caused  to  contract 
under  the  increasing  pressure 
until,  if  the  vacuum  be  one 
sufficiently  high  to  be  meas- 
ured in  this  way,  the  mercury 
has  entirely  filled  the  bulb 
and  has  driven  the  air  into 
the  capillary  tube.  The  final 
operations  consist  in  adjust- 
ing the  mercury  within  and 
without  to  the  same  height, 
and  in  observing  the  volume 
of  the  compressed  air.  A 
comparison  of  its  volume 
with  that  at  which  it  ex- 
isted at  the  beginning  of  the 
experiment  afi'ords  data  for 
computation  of  the  initial 
pressure. 

Appliances  based  upon  the 
behavior  of  gases  under  pres- 
sure are  numerous.  Within 
the  limits  of  this  article  it  is 
possililc  to  refer  very  briefly 
oidy  to  a  few  familiar  exam- 
ples. 

The    properties    of    com- 


Fig.  19. 


pressed  gases  afford  a  means  of  storage  of  energy.  Some- 
times this  is  tor  short  intervals,  as  between  the  strokes  of  a 
force-inimp,  where  the  air  compressed  in  the  receiver  main- 
tains the  velocity  of  efflux  during  tlie  periods  when  there  is 
no  direct  impulse.     In  other  cases  the  storage  is  on  a  much 


PNEUMATIC   TRAXSMISSION 


669 


larger  scale,  as  in  the  ease  of  compressed-air  motors.  In 
the  city  of  Berne,  for  instance,  a  street -railway  is  operated 
by  means  of  tlie  energy  stored  at  a  piiinping-station  at  one 
end  of  the  line,  where  a  cylinder  upon  the  car  is  filled  with 
air  at  high  pressure.  One  such  tilling  serves  to  drive  the 
car  to  the  other  end  of  the  road  and  back  again.  On  ac- 
count of  the  thermal  losses  involved,  such  systems  are  never 
of  high  economical  efliciency.  They  can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage only  where  power  which  would  otherwise  go  to  waste 
can  be  utilized,  as  in  the  case  of  abundant  water-power. 

Compressed  air  is  extensively  used  in  the  building  of 
bridge  piers,  of  tunnels,  ami  of  foundations,  whore  water  or 
quicksand  is  to  be  excluded.  It  is  also  used  for  the  trans- 
mission of  small  parcels,  etc.,  through  tubes,  at  high  speed. 
(See  Pnkitmatic  Traxsmissiox.)  The  fact  that  pressure  is 
transmitted  through  gases  at  a  vclo<'ity  equivjilent  to  that 
of  a  sound-wave  has  led  to  the  use  of  pneumatic  systems  of 
signaling,  in  which  change  of  pressure  at  one  point  in  a 
system  of  closed  tubes  is  made  to  operate  some  signaling 
device  at  a  distance.  E.  L.  Xichol.s. 

Piieiimiitic  Transmission  :  a  method  of  transmitting 
written  messages  and  packages  of  goods  through  tubes  by 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  or  the  action  of  compressed 
air.  The  operation  of  the  apparatus  may  be  illustrated  by 
inserting  one  end  of  a  small  tube  of  glass  or  nu'tal.  contain- 
ing a  pellet  of  moistened  paper,  in  the  mouth.  Upon  forc- 
ing air  into  the  tidie  the  pellet  will  movi'  from  the  exjieri- 
nienter,  but  if  the  air  is  drawn  out  of  the  lube  the  pellet 
will  move  toward  the  experimenter.  These  methods  are 
used  in  all  apparatus  for  pneumatic  transmission,  a  com- 
pression or  exhausting  air-pump  being  used  for  controlling 
the  air  and  a  hollow  piston  of  leather  or  other  suitable  ma- 
terial for  containing  and  carrying  the  messages;  but  there 
is  a  variety  of  special  apparatus  for  regulating  the  speed 
and  for  inserting  and  removing  the  piston  with  its  freight 
of  messages  from  the  tube. 

In  16y7  Denys  I'apin  first  suggested  the  idea  of  apparatus 
for  pneumatic  transmission,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that 
his  plan  was  fried.  In  1792  Le  Did ionnaire  EncydopiditiHe 
iloi  Amusements  des  Sciences,  published  in  Paris,  gave  a 
graphic  account  of  an  experiment  in  pneumatic  transmission, 
a  round  wooden  box  containing  a  paper  being  propelled  by  a 
[jowerful  blast  of  air  through  an  underground  pipe  for  a  dis- 
tance of  three-quarters  of  a  mile.  This,  however,  was  only 
for  amusement.  The  industrial  aspect  of  pneumatic  trans- 
mission was  investigated  in  1810  by  Medhurst,  a  Danish 
engineer,  who  issued  a  pamphlet  entitled  A  yew  Method  for 
Transporting  Parcels  and  Letters  l/y  Air.  He  followed  this 
by  another  in  1812  entitled  .Some  Calculations  and  Remarls 
fending  to  Prove  the  Possibility  of  the  J\V»'  Method  for 
Transporting  Letters  and  Parcels  by  A  ir.  Nothing  practical 
was  developed  from  the  proposal  of  Medhurst.  In  1824  Val- 
loric  proposed  a  wooden  tube  6  ft.  6  in.  in  diameter  for  carry- 
ing passengers  between  London  and  Brighton  ;  carriages  were 
to  be  blown  through  the  tube,  but  the  suggestion  was  never 
carried  out.  In  1827  Medhurst  again  proposed  a  methorl  of 
pneumatic  transmission  by  means  of  a  piston  pro[)elled  in  a 
tube  by  air-pressure,  the  piston  being  connected  with  a  car- 
riage exterior  to  the  tuiie  by  means  of  a  rod  |iassing  through 
a  slot  covered  by  a  valve  which  the  rod  opened  and  closed 
as  the  piston  moved  forward.  As  the  air-pressure  was  ob- 
tained from  the  atmosphere  (the  air  being  exhausted  in 
front  of  the  traveling  piston  and  allowed  to  enter  the  tube 
liehind  it),  this  system  was  called  the  atmospheric  railway. 

Although  Medhurst "s  proposals  were  not  carrieil  out  prac- 
tically, the  ideaofi)neumatic  transmission,  by  which  the  move- 
ment of  the  load  transmitted  was  accomplished  in  carriages 
outside  of  the  tube  in  which  the  piston  moved,  originated 
with  him,  and  was  in  reality  the  first  system  which  was  com- 
mercially employed.  Meilluirsfs  invention  has  been  made 
the  foundation  yf  upward  of  fifty  British  patents  (ranging 

I  in  date  from  1827  to  18.50),  most  of  which  relate  to  modifi- 
cations of  the  valve  covering  the  slit  in  the  top  of  the  tube, 
or  to  mechanism  for  opening  and  (dosing  it.  This  system 
was  first  tried  in  1842  on  a  half  mile  of  line  at  Wormwood 
Scrubs,  near  London,  and  a  speed  of  :W  miles  an  hour  was 
obtained.  This  experiment  led  to  the  employment  of  the 
system  on  the  Kingstown  and  Dalkey  Railway,  a  line  of  Ij 
miles  near  Kingstown,  Ireland,  on  which  trains  were  run  at 

I  the  rate  of  4.5  nules  per  lunir.  Several  short  lines  were  con- 
structed in  England,  and  in  1847  the  line  from  Paris  to  St.- 
Oermain  was  Ijuilt.  This  road  was  worked  on  the  pneu- 
matic plan  for  over  twenty  years,  and  outlived  aU  its  pneu- 


matic predecessors.  At  present  there  is  no  pneumatic  trans- 
mission system  using  a  slit  tube  and  an  exterior  carriage. 

In  the  system  of  imeunuitic  transmission  employed  in 
all  the  large  cities  of  Europe  and  in  many  places  in  the 
U.  S.  the  articles  to  be  conveyed  are  always  witliin  Un;  lube, 
which  extends  from  one  station  to  another.  This  method 
of  [ineumatic  transmission  was  first  carried  out  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  by  Latimer  Clark  in  1853  between  the  Central 
and  Stock  Exchange  stations  of  the  Electric  and  Interna- 
tional Telegraph  Company  in  London.  The  tube  coimect- 
ing  the  stations  was  1^  inches  in  diameter  and  6G0  feet 
long.  Carriers  contaiinng  a  nuudier  of  messages  were  sucked 
through  (in  one  direction  only)  by  creating  a  partial  vacuum 
at  the  delivery  end  of  the  tube.  C.  F.  Varley,  in  1858,  im- 
proved the  system  by  using  compressed  air  to  force  the  car- 
riers in  one  direction,  a  jjartial  vacuum  being  used  to  draw 
them  in  the  opposite:  this  is  known  as  the  radial  system  of 
imenmatic  transmission,  for  the  reason  that  a  large' number 
of  tubes  can  radiate  in  all  directions  from  a  single  station. 
This  system  has  been  brought  to  great  perfection  in  connec- 
tion with  the  telegrajih  department  of  the  British  post-office, 
with  thirty-six  tubes  in  London  alone.  Another  method  of 
working,  used  in  Paris  and  other  large  continental  cities,  is 
called  the  circuit  system.  In  this  stations  are  grouped  on 
circular  or  loopetl  lines,  around  which  cari-iers  travel  in  one 
direction  only.  The  pressure  used  in  the  tubes  of  the  Brit- 
ish post-oflice  is  10  lb.  jier  sipuire  inch  of  compression,  or  7  lb. 
of  vacuum,  and  the  time  of  transit  through  a  lube  2i  inches 
in  diameter  is  1  minute  for  a  distance  of  S.OUO  feet  and  5J 
minutes  for  9,000  feet. 

The  first  application  of  pneumatic  transmission  to  the 
conveying  of  mails  and  parcels  was  made  in  1863  by  the 
Pneumatic  Dispatch  Company  of  London,  which  construct- 
ed a  line  of  D-shaped  tube  (the  convex  side  uppermost) 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  from  the  terminus  of 
the  Northwestern  Railway  at  Euston  to  the  district  post- 
oflice  in  Eversholt  Street,  a  distance  of  about  1,800  feet. 
The  dimensions  of  the  tube  were  2  ft.  8  in.  wide  and  the 
same  in  height.  The  carriages  were  cradle-like  boxes  made 
to  conform  to  the  shajie  of  the  tube  (although  not  touching 
it)  and  mounted  upon  four  wheels.  These  carriages  were 
nuide  to  travel  in  tlie  tube  at  the  rate  of  17  miles  per  hour, 
and  regularly  transmitted  fifteen  mails  per  day  each  way. 
The  result  of  the  working  of  this  line  was  so  satisfactory 
that  in  1872  a  line  with  a  pair  of  D-shaped  tubes, 4  feet  wide 
and  4  ft.  6  in.  high,  was  laid  from  Euston  station  to  the  Gen- 
eral Post-office,  a  distance  of  14.214  feet.  The  time  usually 
occupied  in  transit  is  12  minutes,  and  10  or  12  tons  are 
drawn  up  grades  of  1  in  14  without  difficulty. 

With  a  view  of  demonstrating  the  applicability  of  the 
principles  of  pneumatic  transmission  to  passenger  traffic, 
the  Pneumatic  Dispatch  Company  had  constructed  at  the 
Crystal  Palace.  Sydenham,  a  brick  tunnel  about  10  feet  high 
l>y  9  feet  wide,  capable  of  admitting  the  largest  carriages 
used  on  the  Northwestern  Railway.  This  tunnel  was  1.800 
feet  in  length.  The  gradients  were  1  in  15  (3.52  feet  per 
mile)  and  the  transit  was  made  in  50  seconds  with  a  pres- 
sure of  but  2i  oz.  per  scpiare  inch.  The  motion  was  said  to 
be  smooth  and  agreeable,  and  stoppages  were  made  gently 
and  without  jerk.  In  18(jil  Alfred  Beach  began  the  con- 
struction of  a  pneumatic  railway  under  Broadway,  New 
York.  The  internal  diameter  of  the  tunnel  was  8  feet,  and 
the  portion  of  the  line  completed  extended  from  Warren  to 
Barclay  Streets.  .Some  experimental  work  was  done  on  this 
line,  but  the  enterprise  was  abandoned  owing  to  a  variety  of 
reasons  not  at  all  connected  with  the  principle  of  pneumatic 
transmission. 

Notwithstanding  the  success  of  pneumatic  transmission 
in  connection  with  the  postal  service  of  European  nations, 
it  was  not  until  1892  that  the  U.  S.  Government  decided  to 
give  the  system  a  trial,  and  a  plant  was  laid  down  in  Phila- 
delphia, extending  from  the  General  Post-office  at  Ninth 
and  Chestnut  Streets  to  the  sub-station  on  Chestnut  Street 
lietween  Third  and  Fourth  Streets,  a  di.stance  of  2.928  feet. 
There  are  two  tubes  of  iron,  bored  to  an  internal  diameter 
of  CJ  inches  and  made  in  sections  of  12  feet  in  length.  This 
plant  was  juit  in  operation  on  Feb.  17.  1893,  and  has  been  so 
successfvd  that  it  is  proposed  to  establish  an  extended  sys- 
tem of  pneunuitic  transmission  covering  the  whole  city. 
Pneumatic  tubes  have  been  used  for  many  years  by  the 
Western  Uidon  Telegrajih  Company  to  convey  messages 
from  sub-stations  in  New  York  to  the  general  office,  and 
they  have  also  been  largely  employed  in  commercial  estab- 
lishments to  convey  change  from  a  central  office  to  the 


670 


PNEUMOGASTRIC  NERVE 


POCAHONTAS 


several  sales-counters;  but  pneumatic  transmission  has  not 
reached  a  development  in  the  U.  S.  equal  to  that  in  Europe. 

W.  F.  DURFEE. 

Pneiiiiiosrastric  Nerve  [pnenmogastric  is  from  Gr.  Ti/eii- 
nav,  lung  +  yaarrip,  stomach :  so  called  from  its  distribu- 
tion to  the  lungs  and  stomach] :  the  tenth  cerebral  nerve, 
though  largely  a  spinal  nerve.  Its  nucleus  of  origin  is 
a  mass  of  ganglion-cells  Iving  deep  in  the  posterior  part 
of  the  meduUii"  oblongata.'in  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ven- 
tricle, and  its  fibers  escape  from  the  side  of  the  medulla. 
It  issues  from  the  skull  by  the  jugular  foramen,  at  which 
point  there  is  a  ganglionic  enlargement  of  the  nerve.  It 
then  descends  with  the  carotid  artery  to  the  chest,  and  after 
entering  the  thorax  lies  upon  the  oesophagus.  Upon  the 
lower  part  of  the  esophagus  the  two  nerves  conjoin,  pass 
through  the  diaphragm,  and  are  distributed  to  the  stonuich 
and  solar  plexus.  At  the  level  of  the  jugular  foramen  the 
pneumogastrie  is  joined  by  branches  from  motor  nerves — 
the  facial,  hypoglossal,  spinal  accessory,  etc.  The  branches 
of  the  pneuraogastrio  are  sent  to  the  pharynx,  to  the  larynx 
(superior  laryngeal  nerve,  which  is  sensory,  inferior  laryn- 
geal, which  is  motor),  to  the  heart,  lungs,  oesophagus,  and 
stomach.  From  its  origin  to  its  ganglion  (analogous  to  pos- 
terior root  of  spinal  nerves)  the  pneumogastrie  nerve  is 
purely  sensory,  and  its  most  important  function — viz.,  the 
regulation  of  breathing  by  the  transmission  of  sensations 
through  its  pulmonary  branches  to  the  medulla  (center  of 
respiration) — is  performed  by  that  property.  Below  the 
ganglion  it  is  a  mixed  nerve.  The  motor  properties  of  the 
inferior  laryngeal  (actions  of  breathing  and  voice)  are  de- 
rived chiefly  from  the  branch  of  the  spinal  accessory  nerve, 
and  the  pharyngeal  branch  derives  its  motor  power  from 
the  nerves  which  join  the  pneumogastrie  below  the  ganglion. 
The  action  of  tlie  pneumogastrie  on  the  heart  (through  car- 
diac branches  and  cardiac  plexus)  is  cheeking  or  inhibitory, 
paralysis  of  the  pneumogastrie  producing  excessive  rapidity 
of  the  heart's  action  (and  slow  respiration),  while  irritation 
of  the  nerve  slows  or  stops  the  cardiac  movements.  The 
movements  of  the  oesophagus  and  stomach  are  under  the 
control  of  the  motor  fibers  of  the  pneumogastrie. 

Revised  by  William  Pepper. 

Pnenmonia  [=  Mod.  Lat.  =  Gr.,  deriv.  of  wevfiav,  lung] : 
inflammation  of  the  lung,  of  the  lining  of  the  air-sacs,  and 
of  the  interstitial  framework  of  the  lung.  Pneumonia  has 
been  classified  into  (1)  catarrhal  pneumonia,  when  only  the 
air-sacs  a,re  involved,  filled  with  products  of  catarrhal  in- 
flammation, extending  from  the  bronchial  tubes ;  (3)  crnup- 
ous  pneumonia,  when  the  air-sacs  are  filled  with  solid 
lymph  exuded  from  their  inflamed  walls:  (8)  interstitial 
pneumonia,  a  slow  and  chronic  inflammatory  infiltration 
and  consolidation  of  the  fibrous  structures  which  surround 
the  air-sacs  and  minute  bronchial  tubes.  As  commonly  used, 
however,  in  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S..  the  term  pneumonia 
means  the  croupous  form  only,  an  inflammation  of  the  air- 
sacs,  which  are  the  functional  elements  of  the  lung  for 
tlie  oxygenation  of  the  blood  and  the  liberation  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  This  form,  popularly  known  by  the  name 
of  '•  lung  fever."  is  usually  confined  to  one  lung  and  often 
to  one  lobe,  though  it  sometimes  attacks  the  lobes  suc- 
cessively. Accordingly,  it  is  further  designated  as  "  lobar 
pneumonia."  Primary  pneumonia  in  healthy  persons  oc- 
curs more  often  in  the  right  lung,  beginning,  as  a  rule,  at 
the  base  of  the  lung  and  progressing  upward  toward  the 
apex.  In  old  and  feeble  persons  it  may  begin  at  the  apex, 
but  pneumonia  when  local  or  beginning  at  the  apex  is  usu- 
ally tuberculous  in  nature  and  the  beginning  of  a  chronic 
phthisis.  Pneumonia  is  a  disease  chiefly  of  adults,  and  more 
often  of  males.  It  results  from  infection  by  a  specific  micro- 
organism, the  jPHe!/»iococcHsorZ)/j0^t'occ)<A7»ieMHjo?iMP,  when 
the  system  is  rendered  susceptible  by  chilling,  exposure, 
fatigue,  and  similar  causes.  Pneumonia  is  therefore  an  infec- 
tious disease,  and  to  a  degree  it  is  also  contagious.  House 
and  institution  epidemics  have  frequently  been  observed. 
The  disease  is  announced  by  a  heavy  chill,  high  fever,  rapid 
respiration,  [re(|uent  pulse,  fluslied  clieek — on  the  side  of  the 
affected  lung;  in  severe  cases  by  delirium  and  symptoms  of 
a  typhoid  nature.  There  is  acute  pain  in  the  side,  due  to 
congestion  of  the  pleura,  and  a  duller,  heavier  pain  or  sore- 
ness of  the  side,  with  sense  of  weight,  due  to  excess  of  blood 
and  the  solid  products  of  inflannnation  in  the  lung.  There 
is  cough,  with  expectoration  of  mucus  tinged  with  blood 
or  rust-colored,  and  in  grave  cases  l)r(jwnish  or  ilark  sputa, 
resembling  tobacco-juice  or  prune-juice,  and  indicative  of  a 


decomposed  state  of  the  blood,  and  the  exuded  elements 
filling  the  vesicles.  The  contents  of  the  vesicles  are  gradu- 
ally softened  and  expectorated,  and  the  lung  restored  to  its 
noruud  state.  Acute  pneumonia  of  adults,  although  grave 
in  its  symptoms,  is  usually  curable,  and,  contrary  to  popu- 
lar apprehension,  seldom  leads  to  subsequent  consumption. 

Pneumonia  in  children  is  usually  acute  catarrhal  inflam- 
mation of  the  minute  bronchial  tubes  and  air-sacs,  occurring 
in  one  or  many  lobules  of  both  lungs.  It  is  liable  to  leave 
portions  of  lung-substance  inactive,  collapsed,  or  consoli- 
dated, and  develop  the  catarrhal  form  of  phthisis ;  but  many 
of  the  cases  in  which  it  is  supposed  tliat  phthisis  has  fol- 
lowed catarrhal  pneumonia  are  really  tuberculous  catarrhal 
pneumonia  from  the  first. 

Pneumonia  is  variously  treated.  Locally,  cold  water  and 
ice-bags  may  abort  or  limit  the  inflammation  at  its  begin- 
ning. When  established,  warm  applications,  as  poultices, 
warm  anodyne  fomentations,  cotton-batting,  and  oil-silk  af- 
ford the  greatest  comfort  and  favor  resolution  and  removal 
of  the  exudation  from  the  air-sacs.  Carbonate  and  muriate 
of  ammonia  are  used  as  diffusive  stimulants  and  to  liquefy 
the  exuded  lymph ;  calisaya  bark  or  quinine,  alcoholic  stimu- 
lation, and  rich  liquid  diet  to  sustain  strength  are  also  em- 
ployed. At  the  very  onset  bleeding  is  at  times  a  useful 
measure  of  treatment.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Po  [Lat.  Padus,  or,  poetically,  Eridanus ;  Gr.  'HpiSoi/fij] : 
the  largest  river  of  Italy.  Rising  on  the  east  flank  of  Monte 
Viso,  at  a  height  of  6,.560  feet  above  the  sea,  it  flows  N.  E., 
receiving  many  affluents  in  its  course,  till  its  junction  with 
the  Dora  Balfea  near  Chivasso,  thence  a  little  S.  of  E.  to 
the  Adriatic,  into  which  it  discharges  by  several  mouths; 
length,  360  miles;  drainage  area,  27,000  sq.  miles.  In  the 
first  20  miles  of  its  course  it  descends  5,300  feet  to  a  point 
near  Revello,  and  though  here  a  large  stream  its  bed  is  some- 
times left  dry  for  a  considerable  distance.  At  Valenza,  about 
one-third  of  the  whole  distance  from  its  source  to  its  outlet, 
it  reaches  the  level  of  some  600  feet  above  the  sea,  and  from 
this  point  it  flows  chiefly  through  its  own  alluvion  to  the 
Adriatic,  and  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  130  tons. 

The  Po  is  diked  continuously  from  near  Cremona  to  the 
marshes  at  its  outlet.  The  levees  do  not  follow  the  smaller 
windings  of  the  river,  but  in  many  places  leave  a  space  of 
even  miles  between  them.  An  embankment  running  along 
the  margin  of  the  channel  is  called  argine  a  froldo,  or  .sim- 
ply froldo.  When  it  recedes  sensibly  from  the  river  it  is 
called  argine  a  galena.  The  golene,  or  spaces  between  the 
levee  and  the  channel,  are  frequently  protected  by  low  dikes 
and  cultivated,  but  in  every  considerable  rise  of  the  river 
the  natural  banks  are  overflowed  and  the  golene  submerged. 

The  river  receives  fully  four-tenths  of  its  volume  from  a 
chain  of  lakes  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  extending  E. 
and  W.  about  150  miles,  and  with  a  total  area  of  more  than 
300  sq.  miles.  The  mean  discharge  into  the  Adriatic  is  60,- 
745  cubic  feet  to  the  second,  whicli  appears  to  differ  little 
from  the  delivery  of  the  Hhone  and  of  the  Rhine, and  equals 
about  one-eleventh  of  that  of  tlie  Mississijipi.  Its  waters 
are  usually  at  their  lowest  stage  twice  in  the  year,  about  the 
summer  and  winter  solstices,  and  at  their  highest  in  May 
and  October. 

Besides  its  vast  discharge  proiiortionally  to  the  extent  of 
its  basin,  the  enormous  amount  of  mineral  matter  ground 
down  to  fine  silt  deposited  by  its  waters  at  and  near  its  out- 
let— a  consequence  of  the  fact  that  most  of  its  tributaries 
are  mountain-torrents — is  a  noteworthy  feature  in  the  physi- 
cal character  of  the  Po.  In  floods  this  is  calculated  to  equal 
iroTjth  part  of  the  total  delivery  in  volume,  or  almost  ten 
times  the  mean  proportion  of  solid  matter  borne  down  by 
the  Jlississippi.  The  deposit  extends  the  delta  of  the  Po  into 
the  Adriatic  at  a  rate  of  advance  not  greatly  inferior  to  that 
of  the  Mississippi,  or  more  than  200  feet  per  year,  though  the 
lateral  spread  of  the  sediment  is  less  than  at  the  mouth  of 
the  American  river.  GeoHqe  P.  Marsh. 

Abridged  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Pocahontas :  daughter  of  Powhatan,  a  powerful  Indian 
chief  of  Virginia :  b.  about  1595.  According  to  the  True 
Relation  of  Capt.  John  Smith,  she  in  1607  rescued  the  latter 
from  death  when  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Indians.  The 
rescue,  according  to  Smith's  narrative,  took  place  at  Werowo- 
conioco  (now  Shelly).  Gloucester  co.,  Va..  near  the  junction 
of  Carter's  creek  and  York  river.  In  1609  she  visited  Smith 
with  news  of  an  intended  Indian  attack,  and  she  .several 
times  supplied  the  hungry  colonists  of  .lamestown  with 
corn.    In  1612  the  chief  Japazaws  sold  her  to  ArgaJl,  and  her 


POCOCK 


POE 


671 


fattier  offcrwl  a  ransom  fur  her  release,  but  could  not  agree 
with  her  captor  on  the  terms.  In  1618  slie  married  Thomas 
Rolfe,  afterward  secretary  and  recorder-f;eneral  of  Virginia, 
She  wius  baptized  as  Kebeeea.  went  to  Ijoudoii.  and  was  pre- 
sented at  court.  D.  a)  (iravesetiil.  Kn.i;land,  .Mar..  ItilT, 
leaving  a  .son,  Thomas  Rolfe,  from  whom  tlio  Kandol|)hs, 
(iuys,  I  lemmings,  and  other  leading  families  of  Virginia 
trace  their  descent.  See  Doyle's  English  Colonies  in 
Amerim  [ixa-i). 

Pocock,  KnwAKL),  I).  I).:  Orientalist;  b.  at  Oxford,  Eng- 
land, Nov.  S.  1004:  graduated  there  in  1(!'22;  was  fellow  of 
Corpus  C'hristi  College  in  l(i5S,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  Eastern  learning,  lie  was  chaplain  to  the  English 
factory  at,  .Vleppo,  Syria,  from  Ut'M  to  U;:i(i,  wlien  he  returned 
to  Oxford  to  take  the  professorship  of  Arabic,  then  just 
founded  by  .Vrehbishop  Laud,  .Vfter  giving  one  course  of 
lectures  he  went  back  to  the  Orient,  and  was  in  Constanti- 
nople from  1687  to  1640,  collecting  manuscripts  and  coins 
and  ardently  pursuing  his  favorite  studies.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1040,  and  iti  1048  his  college  gave  him  the  liv- 
ing of  Childn'y  in  Kerksliiri',  nearOxf(jrd.  In  1648  he  was 
appointed  to  tlie  chair  of  Hebrew,  and  became  canon -of 
Christ  Churcli  the  same  year.  A  stanch  thougli  not  intem- 
perate royalist,  he  would  have  lost  his  professorships  in  the 
time  of  Cromwell  but  for  the  remonstrances  of  John  Owen 
and  John  Selden.  The  restoration  of  Charles  II.  in  1060 
multiplieil  and  secured  his  honors.  D.  in  Oxford,  Sept.  10, 
1691.  He  i)ublisheil.  besides  otiier  works,  Verxiun  from  the 
Syriac  and  JS'dteii  on  the  K/ii.itlea  of  J  Peter,  2  and  3  John. 
and  Jude.  omitted  in  the  I'eshilo  (1680) ;  Specimen  Ilistorite 
Arahiini  (\liiS);  Porta  Mosis  (1655);  Annals  of  Eutijcliiiix 
(1658);  Arabic  Version  of  Grotius  de  Veritate(lQiiQ)\  Abul- 
farayii  Ilistoria  Dynasiiarum  (1663) ;  and  English  Com- 
mentaries on  Micah  (1077),  Malachi  (1677),  Hosea  (1685), 
and  Joel  (lO'Jl).  See  his  Works  and  Life,  in  2  vols.,  by 
Leonard  Tw'ells  (London,  1740). 

Revised  by  S.  JI.  Jackson. 

P4»fOfk<'.  Richard,  LL.  D.i  traveler:  b.  at  Southampton, 
England,  in  1704;  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1781:  took  the 
degree  of  LL.  1).  in  1788;  traveled  in  the  East  1787-42; 
published  his  Description  of  the  East  and  some  other  Coun- 
tries (2  vols,  fob,  with  178  plates:  vol,  i..  Observations  on 
Egypt ;  vol.  ii.,  part  i.,  Palestine.  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Cy- 
prus, and  Candia — part  ii,.  Islands  of  the  Archipelago, 
Asia  Jfinor,  Thrace,  Greece,  etc.)  in  1743^5;  a  German 
translation  appeared  (Eriangen,  1754-55,  8  parts),  and  a 
French  one  (N'euchatel,  1772-73,  7  vols.).  He  was  made 
Archdeacon  of  Dublin  in  1745,  Bishoj)  of  Ossory  in  1756, 
and  in  1765  Bishop  of  Jleath,  and  died  at  Charlcville,  near 
Tullauu)re,  on  Sept.  15  of  that  year.  He  wrote  his  Travels 
in  Scotland  (edited  from  original  JVIS.,  with  memoir  by  I). 
\\^.  Kemp,  Edinljurgh,  Scottish  Historical  Society,  1887), 
in  Ireland  (edited  by  G.  T.  Stokes,  Dublin,  1891X  and  in 
England  (2  vols.,  London,  Camden  Soc,  1888-89),  He  was 
the;  author  of  some  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
and  in  the  Archa-ologia,  but  his  fame  rests  upon  his  work 
on  I'ali'stine,  which  Robinson  pronounces  "one  of  the  most 
important,"  although  he  knew  but  little  Arabic  and  his 
scholarship  was  more  classical  tlian  biblical. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jacksox. 

Po'cornoke  River:  a  river  which  risers  in  the  Cypress 
Swamp  of  Sussex  Co.,  Del.,  and  Hows  60  miles  S.  and  S.  W., 
mostly  in  .Maryland,  to  C'hesapeake  Bay.  The  tide  ascends 
22  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  20  miles,  to  Snow  Hill,  Md. 

Podcs'ta  [Lat.  joo^es/as,  power]:  a  municipal  magistrate 
in  Italian  cities.  The  name  was  formerly  applied  to  the 
chief  magistrates  of  Italian  towns,  appointed  in  troubled 
times  with  full  dictatorial  powers.  He  was  usually  a  stran- 
ger to  all  the  local  factions,  and  during  his  terra  of  oflice 
wa.s  prohibited  by  law  from  forming  any  inliinate  connection 
with  the  citizens  over  whom  he  ruleil.  He  was  .appointed 
for  a  term  of  years,  but  he  sometimes  became  a  permanent 
despotic  ruler.  The  name  was  probably  lirst  given  to  the 
German  magistrates  whom  Frederick  Barbarossa  appointed 
over  the  Lombard  cities. 

Podgoritza  (city  under  (he  hill):  town;  situated  on  the 
Moratcha  in  territ(U-y  ceded  to  Jlontenegro  by  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin  (1878);  strategically  impiu-lant  as  commanding 
Northern  -Vlliania.  It  was  foundeil  in  the  fifteenth  century 
by  Mohammed  II.,  and  built  from  the  neighboring  ruins  of 
Uioclea,  where  Diocletian  was  born.  Every  Sunday  a  great 
bazar  or  market  is  held,  tiironged  by  Albanian  and  Monte- 


negrin mountaineers  when  not  engaged  in  war.  It  carries 
on  a  large  trade  in  honev,  skins,  wax.  and  wool.  Pop. 
6,000,  "  E.  A.  Grosvenor, 

Podioipptl'ida;  [Mod.  Lat.,   named   from   Podiceps,  the 

typical  genus  ;  Lat.po'deu-.po  dicis.  rump  +  pes.pe'dis,  foot]: 
a  family  (.f  swimming  birds,  including  the  grebes,  distin- 
guished by  their  rudimentary  tail,  flattened  tarsi,  broadly 
lobed  toes,"  of  which  the  outermost  is  the  longest,  and  flat- 
tened nails.  The  body  is  short,  plumage  close  and  silky, 
legs  placed  far  backward.  The  name  is  sometimes  written 
Podieipiihe.    See  Grebe.  F.  A.  L. 

Podil'lirad,  pod-yiibraad,  George:  King  of  Bohemia;  b. 
in  .\pr.,  1420,  of  a  noble  and  wealthy  Bohemian  family  be- 
longing to  the  moderate  section  of  the  Hussite  party  ;  joined 
the  L"tra(|uisls  after  the  election  of  .\lbert  of  .\ustria  to  the 
Boliemian  throne  in  14:^8,  ami  distinguished  himself  greatly 
by  compelling  .\ll)ert  to  raise  the  siege  of  Tabor.  As  leader 
of  the  whole  Hussite  party  he  became  governor  of  Bohemia 
in  1444,  during  the  minority  of  .Albert's  son,  Ladislaus  the 
Posthumous,  and  on  the  death  of  Ladislaus  he  was  elected 
king  himself,  and  crowned  at  Prague  JIar.  2,  1458.  It  was 
his  great  aim  to  reconcile  the  Hussites  and  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics among  his  subjects,  and  he  acted  with  wisdom,  and 
with  some  success;  but  llie  pope  excommunicated  him  as  a 
heretic,  preached  a  crusade  against  liiiii  in  (icrmany,  incited 
his  son-in-law,  Matthias  Corviiuis,  King  of  Hungary,  to  at- 
tack him,  and  even  instigated  his  own  Roman  Catholic  sub- 
jects to  revolt  against  him.  Podiebrad  su])pre.ssed  the  in- 
surrection, routed  the  German  crusaders,  defeated  the  Hun- 
garians several  times,  and,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  anti- 
])apal  and  anti-Hungarian  party  in  Bohemia,  he  induced 
his  countrymen  to  elect  Ladislaus,  heir  of  the  Polish  crown, 
as  his  successor,  while  his  two  sons  retired  into  the  ranks 
of  the  nobility.  D.  Mar.  22,  1471.  See  Riehter,  Georg  von 
Podiebrad's  Bestrebungen  (1808);  Jordan,  Das  Konigthum 
Georgs  von  Podiebrad  (1809) ;  and  Bachmann,  Ein  Jahr 
bohmiscker  Geschichte  (1876).       Revised  by  F.  M.  Coluy. 

Podo'lia:  government  of  European  Russia;  bounded  W. 
by  Galicia  (Austria)  and  S.  by  the  Dniester.  Area,  16,224 
sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  mostly  level,  the  soil  fertile,  and 
the  climate  mild.  Grain,  hemp,  flax,  hops,  and  tobacco  are 
grown,  and  the  vine  and  the  mulberry  are  extensively  culti- 
vated. Large  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared,  and 
there  are  important  manufactories  of  beetroot  sugar,  distil- 
leries, and  sugar-refineries.     Pop.  (1890)  2,604,800^ 

Podophyllum  and  PodophyUln :  See  May-apple, 

Podii'ra  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  irois,  TroS6s,  foot  +  ovpd.  tail] :  a 
genus  of  insects  of  the  order  Thysanura,  interesting  from 
the  fact  that  the  scales  with  wliich  the  body  is  covered  are 
sometimes  used  as  test-objects  for  the  microscope, 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan:  author:  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  19, 
1809;  son  of  David  Poe  and  Elizabeth  Arnold,  an  English 
actress.  His  parents,  who  pursued  the  vocation  of  actors, 
having  died  in  his  early  childhood,  Ivlgar  was  adopted  by 
a  wealthy  citizen  of  Riclimond,  Va.  (John  Allan),  by  whom 
he  was  sent  to  school  at,  .Stoke  Xew'ington,  near  London, 
Englanil,  from  1815  to  1820;  entered  the  University  of 
Virginia,  at  Charlottesville,  in  1S26.  but  was  removed  within 
a  year,  probably  on  account  of  addiction  to  the  gaming- 
table. In  1827  he  went  to  Boston,  and  issued  there  liis  first 
volume,  Tamerlane  and  other  Poems;  enlisted  in  the  U.  S. 
arniv  as  a  private  under  an  assumed  name,  and  was  admitted 
a  cadet  at  West  Point  1830,  but  was  dismissed  .Mar.  6.  1831. 
In  1883,  while  living  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  he  took  a  .*100  prize 
bv  his  story  .1  Manuscript  found  in  a  Bottle,  and  this  led  to 
his  appoiniment  as  editor  of  The  Southern  JJterary  Mes- 
senger. Kichmond,  Va.  While  occupying  that  position  Poe 
married  his  cousin,  Virginia  Cleinm.  and  led  for  two  or 
three  years  a  life  of  considerable  regularity,  devoting  him- 
self to  study  and  writing  many  tales,  reviews,  essays,  and 
brief  poems.  Having  at  length  quarreled  with  his  pui)lislier, 
Poe  removed  to  New  York  Jan.,  1887;  earned  a  precarious 
living  for  a  year  by  writing  occasional  articles  in  several 
papers;  publislieil  in  1888  his  first  prose  volume.  The  Nar- 
rative of  Arthur  Gordon  Pym:  went  to  Philadelphia  ;  was 
editor  (if  Burton's  Gentleman'.'^  Magazine  from  May,  1839, 
to  June,  1840,  and  of  Graham'x  Magazine  from  -Apr.,  1841, 
for  about  a  year;  publisheil  Tales  of  the  Grotesque  and 
Arabesque  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia.  184()):  gained  a  prize  of 
.^lOO  olTcred  bv  The  Dollar  Newspaper,  in  1848,  with  his  tale 
The  Gold  Bug:  removed  to  New  York  in  the  autumn  of 
1844,  where  tlie  appearance  of  his  best-known  production, 


672 


POE 


POET-LAUREATE 


The  Raven,  in  Colton's  Whiij  Review  for  Feb..  1845,  gained 
liim  a  wide  reputation,  and  procured  liim  the  post  of  sub- 
editor on  Willis's  and  Morris's  Home  Journal;  was  asso- 
ciated with  C.  F.  Briggs  in  the  management  of  The  Broacl- 
loay  Journal  1845^6 ;  contributed  to  Oodey's  Lady's  Book 
May  to  Julv,  1846,  the  biographical  and  critical  sketclies 
entitled  The  Literati  of  New  York  City;  resided  about 
this  time  in  a  cottage  at'Fordham,  Westchester  County,  and 
fell  into  such  poverty  that  an  appeal  to  public  charity  in 
his  behalf  was  nuiile  by  N.  P.  Willis  in  The  Home  Journal; 
lost  his  wife,  who  had  clung  to  him  with  fond  devotion,  in 
Jan.,  1847 ;  delivered  at  the  Society  Lilirary.  Feb.,  1848,  a 
lecture,  publislied  soon  after  under  the  title  Eureka,  a  Prose 
Poem.  D.  in  Baltimore,  Oct.  7,  1849.  A  monument  to  his 
memory  was  erected  iti  the  Westminster  churchyard,  Balti- 
more, Oct.,  1875,  by  a  subscrijition  raised  by  the  school- 
teachers of  that  city.  The  works  of  Poe  have  been  repeat- 
edly republished  since  his  death,  both  in  the  U.  S.  and  in 
England,  and  have  attained  an  immense  popularity  in  a 
French  translation.  They  were  first  edited  in  Xew  York  (4 
vols.,  1850)  by  Poe's  "  literary  executor,"  Rufus  Wilmot 
Griswold,  who  prefixed  a  defamatory  Memoir,  many  of  the 
allegations  of  which  have  been  successfully  refuted  by  later 
biographers,  such  as  Mrs.  Sarah  Helen  Whitman  in  her 
Edgar  A.  Poe  and  his  Critics  (I860),  John  H.  Ingram  in  a 
Ilenioir  prefixed  to  Poe's  Works  (Edinburgh,  1874),  and 
Richard  Henry  Stoddard  in  a  memoir  accompanying  a  new 
edition  of  the  Poems  (New  York  and  London,  1875).  The 
best  biography  of  him  is  that  written  by  George  E.  Wood- 
berry  and  published  in  the  American  Men  of  Letters  Series 
(1885).  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Foe,  Orlando  Metcalfe:  soldier;  b.  in  Ohio,  Mar.,  IHS'2; 
graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Alilitary  Academy,  and  entered  the 
topographical  engineers  July,  1856:  captain  of  engineers 
1863 ;  colonel  July,  1888.  He  was  engaged  upon  lake-sur- 
vey duty  until  the  outbreak  of  civil  war  in  1861,  when,  after 
serving'as  chief  engineer  in  the  department  of  the  Ohio  and 
on  the  staff  of  Gen.  McClellan,  he  was  (Sept.,  1861)  appointed 
colonel  of  the  Second  Michigan  Volunteers,  and  served  with 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  until  Dec,  1863,  having  been  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  Nov.  39, 1863 ;  subsequently  served 
as  chief  engineer  of  the  Twenty-third  Corps  of  the  Army  of 
the  Ohio,  and  of  Gen.  Sherman's  army  in  the  invasion  of 
Georgia  and  march  to  the  sea,  gaining  the  successive  brevets 
frominajor  to  brigadier-general  for  gallant  and  meritorious 
services.  Returning  to  duty  with  the  Corps  of  Engineers  at 
the  close  of  the  war,  he  was  (1865-70)  engineer  secretary  of 
the  U.  S.  lightliouse  board ;  in  1870-73  constructed  the  light- 
house on  Spectacle  Reef,  Lake  Huron.  He  was  aide-de- 
camp on  the  staff  of  the  general  of  the  army  1873-84,  mem- 
ber of  the  lighthouse  board  1874-84,  and  has  been  since  1883 
member  of  various  engineer  boards  charged  with  the  con- 
struction of  river  and  harbor  works  on  the  northern  and 
northwestern  lakes,  including  the  new  lock  at  the  .Ste.  Marie's 
Falls  Canal.  Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Pflecilop'oda  [Jlod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  jtoikiXos.  many-colored, 
manifold  -I-  iroiis.  iroSiis,  foot] :  a  term  sometimes  used  as 
equivalent  to  JIerosto.mata  (q.  v.). 

Poetics :  See  Poetry. 

Poet-laureate  [laureate  is  from  Lat.  laureatus.  crowned 
■with  laurel,  deriv.  of  lau'rea,  laurel  (in  both  ancient  and 
modern  times  a  symbol  of  triumph)] :  a  title  bestowed  at 
universities  and  by  sovereigns  at  various  courts.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans,  in  their  public  ceremonies,  sometimes 
crowned  their  poets  with  symbolical  chaplets  of  the  bay- 
tree  sacred  to  Apollo.  It  was  in  imitation  of  this  ceremony 
that  Petrarch  was  laureated  on  the  Capitol  in  Rome,  on 
Easter  Day,  1341.  The  title,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  was 
commonly  an  academic  and  not  a  courtly  distinction  ;  it 
was  conferrecl  by  the  universities  for  skill  in  Latin  verse, 
and  was  of  t  he  nature  of  a  degree.  It  was  in  that  scholastic 
sense  of  the  term  tliat  John  Skelton  was  made poeta  laurea- 
tus at  Oxford  in  1489. 

The  fact  that  the  king  united  with  the  university  in  the 
bestowal  of  the  honor  indicates  the  way  in  which  the  laure- 
ateship  finally  became  a  regular  court  appointment.  In 
Germany  the  custom  of  crowning  poets  with  laurel  was  an 
im])erial  prerogative,  but  was  sometimes  delegated  by  the 
emperor  to  the  counts  palatine  and  the  universities.  In 
Spain  the  custom  was  cslal)lislied  at  the  University  of  Se- 
ville. France  was  seemingly  tlie  only  country  of  media'val 
Europe  in  which  the  title  was  not  known. 

During  the  reigns  of  the  Ncrman  kings  of  England  there 


had  frequently  been  attached  to  the  royal  household  an  of- 
ficer called  the  versificator.  or  king's  poet,  who  celebrated 
his  lord's  achievements  in  Latin  verse,  and  received  an  an- 
nual stipend.  The  circumstances  under  which  the  title  of 
poet-laureate  was  transferred  to  these  court  poets  are  some- 
what obscure.  Robert  Whittington,  who  received  the  laurel 
at  Oxford  in  1513,  is  described  as  the  last  of  the  university 
laureates.  The  first  king's  laureate  of  whom  any  mention 
is  made  was  John  Kay.  who  was  poet  to  Edward  IV.  The 
second  was  Andrew  Bernard,  who  held  the  title  under  Henry 
VII.  and  Henry  VIII.  He  had  a  salary  of  ten  iTiarks.  His 
Epitlialarnia.  S'ew  Year's  verses,  ,and  other  ollicial  perform- 
ances arc  in  Latin,  thus  continuing  the  tradition  of  the  uni- 
versity laureates.  Then  follow  a  number  of  poets  who  have 
been  termed  volunteer  laureates.  The.se  were  Richard 
Edwards,  Edmund  Spenser,  and  Samuel  Daniel.  They  all 
hold  court  appointments  of  one  kind  or  another,  and  re- 
ceived grants  of  money  or  of  land,  but  they  were  not  offi- 
cially styled  poets-laureate. 

Ben  Jonson  was  the  first  in  the  line  of  officially  appointed 
poets-laureate.  He  was  appointeil  liy  James  I.  in  1616,  at 
an  annual  salary  of  100  marks  (£67).  which  was  raised  by 
Charles  I.  to  i'lOO,  with  a  tierce  of  canary  wine.  The  writ- 
ten instrument  granting  this  increase  of  pension  is  dated 
Mar.,  1630,  and  is  the  first  regularly  issued  patent  for  the 
office  of  poct-laui'eate. 

After  his  death  in  1637  the  laureateship  was  conferred 
u])on  Sir  William  Davenant  (Dee.  13,  1638).  From  the 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war  and  during  the  Commonwealth 
(1643-60)  the  office  was  in  abeyance.  Davenant  was  a  royal- 
ist, was  active  in  the  king's  cause,  and  was  several  times  im- 
prisoned by  the  Parliament.  After  his  death  in  1668  John 
Dryden  succeeded  to  the  laurel  (1670),  and  was  also  nuide 
historiographer  royal.  The  salary  of  the  two  offices 
amounted  to  £300,  with  the  annual  tierce  of  canary.  His 
salary  was  shortly  increased  to  £300,  with  a  further  annual 
pension  of  £100  to  be  dependent  on  the  king's  pleasure.  He 
wrote  no  laureate  odes,  but  composed  an  elegy,  Threnodia 
Augustalis,  on  the  death  of  Charles  II,  in  1685,  James  II, 
continued  to  Dryden  the  title  and  emoluments  of  the  office, 
but  omitted  the  butt  of  canary  from  his  perquisites.  In 
1686  he  was  granted  an  additional  pension  of  £100  a  year. 
At  the  revolution  of  1688  Dryden  was  deposed  from  his 
office,  which  was  given  to  his  old  enemy,  tlie  "true  blue" 
Protestant  and  Whig  poet  Thomas  Shadwell,  whom  he  had 
lampooned  unmercifully  in  his  satire  3lac  Flecknoe. 

From  the  time  of  Dryden  to  the  time  of  Southey  the 
English  laurel  was  worn  by  a  succession  of  poetasters. 
Poets  like  Pope,  Prior.  Goldsmith,  and  Cowper  were  jiassed 
over,  and  the  honor  bestowed  upon  Tate,  Eusden,  and  Pye. 
"The  bays"  became  a  sure  badge  of  mediocrity  and  a  tar- 
get for  universal  scorn  in  lampoon,  epigram,  caricature,  and 
jiarody.  The  names  of  these  laureates  and  the  dates  of  their 
incumbency  are  as  follows:  Thomas  Shadwell,  1688-93; 
Nahum  Tate,  1693-1715;  Nicholas  Rowe,  1715-18:  Law- 
rence Eusden.  1718-30;  Colley  Cibber.  1730-57;  William 
Whitehead,  1757-85;  Thomas  Warton.  1785-90;  Henry 
James  Pye,  1790-1813.  Shadwell  began  the  f;isliion,  which 
was  continued  by  his  successors  down  to  the  time  of  So\ith- 
ey,  of  composing  annivei'sary  odes  on  the  king's  birthday 
and  on  New  Year's  Day.  These  were  set  to  nuisic  by  the 
covirt  composer,  and  sung  in  the  royal  chapel  or  the  state 
drawing-rooms.  During  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  poet-laureate  was  vested  in  the  lord 
chamberlain  ;  and  Tate,  who  had  served  under  William 
and  Mary,  was  formally  reappointed  in  1714  by  that  func- 
tioruiry,  in  whose  hands  the  bestowal  of  the  office  has  re- 
maineil  ever  since. 

Of  the  eighteenth-century  laureates.  Tate  is  remembered 
chiefly  by  his  (and  Brady's)  versions  of  the  Psalms  in  meter, 
and  liow'e  by  his  edition  of  Shakspeare.  Cibljer,  the  mana- 
ger of  Drury  Lane  theater,  was  a  man  of  wit  and  a  success- 
ful playwright,  but  a  small  poet.  Thomas  Warton  was  a 
respectalile  appi>intment.  He  was  an  antiijuavy  and  critic, 
a  scluilar  of  elegant  tastes,  and  a  genuine  though  by  no 
means  a  great  poet.  In  Eusden  and  Pye  the  laureateship 
touched  the  lowest  point  in  the  history  of  the  institution. 
t)n  Cibber's  death  the  laurel  had  been  offered  to  Gray,  who 
declined  it.  During  Pye's  tenure  of  office  the  annual  tierce 
of  canary  was  comnmted  for  a  money  payment  of  £37. 

In  lNi3  the  laureateship,  which  had  been  offered  Sir 
Walli'r  Scott  and  by  him  declined,  was  given  to  Robert 
Southey,  who  made  it  a  condition  of  his  acceptance  that  he 
should  be  expected  to  write  official  odes  only  upon  occasions 


POKTRY 


POGODIN 


673 


of  his  own  choosing.  A  number  of  such  |i(>iforniances,  com- 
posed at  irregular  intervals,  are  among  his  writings.  South- 
ev's  poems  on  public  events  are  not  of  his  ha|>pii'sl,  and  his 
unfortunate  Vision  uf  JuJyment,  composi'd  »n  the  death  of 
(ieorge  III.,  brought  upon  him  a  terrible  punishment  in  the 
shape  of  Bvron's  wicked  and  brilliant  satire  of  the  same 
title.  Soutiiey  wa.s  by  no  means  the  best  poet  in  England, 
but  his  worth  and  abilities  rescued  the  ollice  of  poet-laureate 
from  the  general  contempt  in  which  it  was  lieUl. 

After  his  death  in  11S43  the  laureatcship  was  most  fittingly 
bestowed  upon  William  Wordsworth,  the  first  great  poet 
who  had  received  it  since  Dryden.  It  was  expressly  stipu- 
lated th.'it  nothing  should  be  required  from  him  in  the  way 
of  official  venses,  and  nothing  of  the  kind  came  from  his 
pen  during  the  seven  years  of  his  incundjency. 

On  Wordswortli's  death  in  18.50  the  honor  was  conferred 
upon  Alfred  Tennyson,  the  foremost  living  English  poet, 
who  inherited,  in  his  own  words, 

This  laurel,  greener  from  the  brows 
Of  him  who  uttereii  notliiup  base. 

As  in  the  case  of  his  two  immediate  predecessors,  Tennyson's 
official  verses  were  strictly  voluntary.  Among  them  may 
be  mentioned  the  dedication  of  his  7rf<//.s'  of  the  King  to  the 
memory  of  Prince  Albert,  the  dedication  to  the  Queen  of 
his  1851  volume  of  poems,  ami  the  llV/comf  fo  Ale.ranilra 
(1863).  Since  Tennyson's  death  in  1892  the  olHce  has  been 
vacant.  See  The  Lives  of  the  Poets  Laureate,  by  W.  S.  Au.s- 
tin  and  J.  Ralph,  London,  18i)3;  Tlte  I'oets  Laureate  of  Eng- 
land, by  Walter  Hamilton,  London,  1879.      IT.  A.  Beers. 

Poetry  [from  O.  Pr.  poeierie,  deriv.  of  poete  <  Lat.  poe'- 
ta  =  Gr.  iroiTjT^s,  maker,  the  creator  of  a  poem] :  accord- 
ing to  Aristotle  (Poetics,  i.,  1),  the  imitation,  by  means  of 
rhythm,  words,  and  melody,  of  the  actions  of  men.  To  the 
modern  iiKiuirer,  however,  this  definition  seems  somewhat 
far-fetched  and  decidedly  inade<juate.  In  trying  to  frame 
a  better  one  there  is  an  inevitable  confusion,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  mind,  as  it  strives  to  define,  oscillates  between 
realization  of  the  process  of  poetic  creation,  or  making,  and 
recollection  of  what  has  in  fact  been  created  by  poets.  The 
creative  arts  are  really  closely  akin,  and  the  terra  "mak- 
ing" fits  one  almost  as  well  as  another;  but  we  do  not  call 
painting  and  sculpture  poetry,  and  although  the  prose  novel 
is  imitation  of  the  actions  of  men,  and  often  implies  the  act 
of  making  or  creating,  yet  we  do  not  denominate  even  this 
poetry.  We  are.  in  fact,  even  in  the  field  of  literature, 
forced  back  upon  a  pui'ely  empirical  definition,  and  we 
can  probably  do  no  better  than  to  adopt  the  test  which  is 
popularly  employed  for  determining  whether  a  literary  work 
IS  or  is  not  poetry.  This  is,  and  perhaps  always  has  been, 
the  presence  of  rhythm  or  meter. 

It  seems  to  be  certain  that  this  addition  of  rhythmical  or 
metrical  effect  is  what  in  the  first  place  made  any  form  of 
literature  possible.  Language  first  gained  distinction  and 
became  something  with  an  existence  apart  from  the  S])eaker 
throtigh  the  imposition  upon  it  of  a  form  unused  in  ordi- 
Tiary  intercourse  between  men.  There  were  several  ways  in 
which  this  imposition  could  occur.  One  of  the  most  primi- 
tive of  human  impulses  is  that  to  rhythmic  motions  of  the 
body — i.  e.  to  the  dance;  and  it  is  inevitable  that  words  ut- 
tered in  accom|)animent  to  the  dance  should  partake  of  its 
rhythmic  character.  Then,  modulated  utterance,  or  song. 
may  fairly  be  called  instinctive  in  the  human  race,  and  this 
necessarily  brings  with  it  rhythm  in  the  words  sung.  The 
extension  of  music  to  instruments,  even  the  most  barbar- 
ous, carries  the  same  result.  The  very  memory,  with  its 
demand  for  regularity  in  the  form  of  what  is  remembered, 
tends  in  the  same  direction.  Thus  many  forces  must  have 
co-operated  to  give  to  language  at  certain  times  atid  on  cer- 
tain occasions  a  quality  which  ordinarily  it  has  not.  Here 
wius  the  beginning  of  poetry;  and  it  was  inevitable  that  in 
time  all  the  sentiments  ami  emotions,  all  the  memories,  tra- 
ditions, and  intellectual  interests  of  immkind  that  are  at 
all  removed  from  the  gross  needs  of  daily  life,  should  find 
utterance  in  poetical  form. 

The  varieties  of  poetry  are  numerous  and  not  rigidly  dis- 
tinguishable from  one  another.  At  the  sauie  time  each  lias 
in  a  sense  an  organic  life  of  its  own.  and  corresponds  with 
%ome  accuracy  to  a  human  interest  or  function.  The  reailer 
will  find  the  character  and  history  of  the  chief  poetic  forms 
discussed  in  the  following  articles:  Rali.ad  Poktrv,  Dioac- 
Tic,  Drama,  Epic  Poktrv,  Ei'ioram.  Gestk,  G.nomic  Pokts, 
!lv.MN0L0c,Y,  Lyric  Poetry.  Ode,  Pastoral  Poetry,  Ro- 
MA.NCES,  Satire,  Sonnet,  and  Theater.  See  also  Fine  Arts. 
327 


Of  inquiries  into  the  nature  and  function  of  poetry,  Aris- 
totle's Poetics  is,  despite  its  incompleteness,  still  the  best. 
The  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace  has  a  practical  rather  than  theo- 
retic purpose,  and  this  is  true  of  tlie  numerous  treatises  that 
Horace  has  ins|)ired — e.  g.  the  Ars  poetica  of  \'ida,  Boileau's 
Art  Poetique,  and  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism.  As  a  rule, 
however,  poetry  has  been  systematically  discussed  chiefiy  by 
writers  engaged  with  some  theory  of  a!stheties.  These  have 
rarely  taken  the  trouble  to  base  their  conclusions  on  a  care- 
ful investigation  of  the  history  of  poetry  in  its  several  kinds. 
Two  brief  treatises  in  Knglish  in  defense  of  poetry  contain 
int('resting  hints  upon  the  inner  nature  of  the  art.  These 
are  Sir  Philip  Sidnev's  Defense  of  Poesy  and  Shelley's  essiiy 
with  the  same  title.  "  Wilhelm  Scherer's  Poetik  (Berlin,  1888) 
and  I<\  B.  Gummcre's  Handbook  of  Poetics  for  Students  of 
English  Verse  (Boston,  1885)  are  also  heljiful  and  suggestive. 

A,  R.  Marsh. 

Poge.  Cape  :  See  Cape  Poge. 

Pog'gcndorir,  .lonAxx  Christian  :  physicist ;  b.  in  Ham- 
burg, Germany,  Dec.  29,  1796;  was  educated  at  the  L'ni- 
versity  of  Berlin,  where  he  became  Professor  of  Physics  in 
1834;  attained  great  distinction  as  an  observer  of  magnetic 
and  electrical  phenomena ;  pul)lislied  a  Treatise  on  Voltaic 
Electricity  {\H2\),  and  in  1824  became  editor  of  the  renowned 
Anna/en  der  Pliysik  vnd  Cliemie.  and  with  Licbig  edited 
the  WiJrterbuch  der  Cliemie ;  wrote  important  works  on  biog- 
rajihy  and  on  the  literature  of  the  physical  and  mathe- 
matical sciences.     D.  Jan.  24,  1877, 

Poggio,  BraocioHnl,  podjo-bra'at-chS-leene'e,  Giovanni 
Francesco:  humanist :  b.  at  Terranuovo,  near  Arezzo,  Italy, 
in  1380;  apostolic  secretary  1403-53,  in  which  year  he  was 
elected  chancellor  of  Florence.  D.  in  1459.  On  his  diplo- 
matics missions  he  employed  his  leisure  in  looking  for  MSS., 
and  his  search  was  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  a  complete 
(^nintilian,  seven  speeches  of  Cicero,  twelve  hitherto  un- 
known comedies  of  Plautus.  Aminianus  JIarcellinus,  Aratea, 
Silius  Italicus,  i\Ianilius,  Petronius,  Columella,  Frontinus, 
Nonius,  Probus,  parts  of  Lucretius,  Valerius  Flaccus,  Pris- 
cian,  Vilruvius,  Statius's  Silvtr,  and  it  is  due  to  his  unflag- 
ging enthusiasm  and  perseverance  that  the  Dialogus  and 
Germania  of  Tacitus  and  the  fragment  of  Suetouius,  De 
grammnticis  et  rhetoribus,  were  rescued  from  destruction 
in  a  (icrnian  monastery.  Poggio  also  did  good  service  in 
preserving  the  ruins  of  ancient  Rome,  and  his  collection  of 
inscriptions,  only  rivaled  in  extent  by  those  of  his  contem- 
porary Kyriacus,  prove  him  to  have  been  fully  alive  to  the 
paramount  historical  importance  which  attaches  to  epi- 
graphic  documents.  See  Voigt,  Wiederbelebung  des  class. 
Alterthums  (i.,  pp.  237-262,  ii..  254,  fl".,  329-4342);  I.  A.  Sy- 
monds,  Renaissance  in  Italy  (ii.,  pp.  134,  ff.,  230-246) ;  Hen- 
zen.  in  the  Corpus  Jnscript.  Latin,  (vi.,  1);  W.  Shepard,  TJie 
Life  of  Poggio  (2d  ed.  London,  1807).  A.  Gudejian. 

Pogo'din,  Mikhail  Petrovich  :  writer  and  archieolo- 
gist;  b.  in  JIoscow.  Russia,  Nov.  23,  1800.  Even  before 
graduating  from  the  university  he  had  begun  to  establish 
a  reputation  by  his  articles  on  The  Chronicle  of  Nestor 
and  by  translations  of  German  works.  In  1823  he  pub- 
lished his  dissertation  on  The  Origin  of  the  Russians.  In 
1825  he  was  made  instructor  and  in  1830  ]irofcssor  at  the 
Moscow  University,  where  he  remained  until  1844,  when 
he  resigned  in  order  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  his  other 
tasks.  During  this  time  he  attemi)ted  various  kinds  of  lit- 
erature, including  translations  from  the  (ierinan,  an  his- 
torical tragedv,  Marfa  the  Possadnitsa  (1831).  stories  (3 
vols.,  1833),  and  a  dramatized  History  of  the  False  Deme- 
trius (183.5),  besides  editing  works  of  various  kinds.  He 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  tlie  Moscowskil  Vestnik  (Moscow 
Messenger,  1827-30)  and  the  Russian  Observer.  His  chief 
interest,  however,  was  the  early  history  of  his  country.  He 
was  an  ardent  Slavophil,  though  he  def(?ndcd  the  memory 
of  Peter  the  Great,  and  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Moscow  Slav  Committee,  which  labored  to  prepare  the  way 
for  Panslavisin.  Although  ho  never  completed  his  great 
history  of  Russia  (1846-54,  7  vols.,  fragmentary  disquisi- 
tions rather  than  a  connected  account),  he  wrote  much  of 
value.  In  1841  he  founded  Moskvithinin  (The  JIuscovite), 
an  historical  magazine  tliat  came  out  for  fifteen  years.  D. 
in  Moscow,  Dec.  8,  1875.  Among  the  best-known  of  his 
works  are  The  Character  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  (1828);  The 
Complicitii  of  Oodunov  in  the  Murder  of  Demetrius  (1829): 
Tlie  Historical  Basis  of  Serfdom  (1858);  and  The  First 
Seventeen  Years  of  the  Reign  of  Peter  the  Great  (1875). 

A.  C.  Cooi.niiiE. 


674 


POINSETT 


POISON   OF   SERPENTS 


Poinsett.  Joel  Roberts.  LL.  D.  :  statesman  ;  b.  at 
Charleston,  S.  C,  Mar.  2,  1779.  of  a  Huguenot  family  ;  spent 
his  early  childliood  in  England  ;  educated  at  Greenfield 
Hill.  t;onn.,  under  Timothy  Dwight  1793-94:  went  again  to 
England  1796;  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and  en- 
tered the  military  academy  at  Woolwich  ;  returned  to 
Charleston  and  studied  law  1800;  went  again  to  Europe 
1801  ;  traveled  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  Russia  ;  returned 
home  in  1809 ;  was  sent  to  Chili  by  President  Madison  to 
report  on  the  revolution  in  that  country,  and  there  acquired 
great  popularity ;  was  in  Congress  from  South  Carolina 
1821-2.5  ;  U.  S.  ininistcr  to  Mexico  1822  and  1825-29,  filling 
a  position  then  very  difficult  and  important ;  U.  S.  Secre- 
tary of  War  18;i7-41  ;  founded  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
Charleston,  S.  C.  and  liberally  endowed  the  National  Insti- 
tution ;  author  of  Notes  on  Mexico  (Philadelphia,  1824)  and 
of  various  published  essays  and  discourses,  and  was  a  strong 
opponent  of  the  extreme  States-rights  view.  D.  at  States- 
burg,  S.  C,  Dec.  12,  1851. 

Point  Alphabet :  See  Blind.  Education  of  the. 

Point  de  (ilalle  :  a  town  of  Ceylon.     See  Galle. 

Pointe-a-Pitre,  La :  largest  town  and  principal  port  of 
Guadeloupe,  French  West  Indies ;  at  the  southwestern  cor- 
ner of  the  island  of  Grande  Terre,  near  the  narrow  channel 
which  separates  it  from  Basse  Terre  (see  map  of  West  Ind- 
ies, ref.  7-M).  The  harbor,  sheltered  by  the  two  islands, 
is  one  of  the  best  in  the  West  Indies.  The  town  is  well  laid 
out.  There  is  a  fine  shaded  promenade,  and  many  of  the 
dwellings  are  surrounded  by  beautiful  gardens.  The  most 
important  export  is  sugar.  Pointe-a-Pitre  was  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake  in  1843,  and  has  suffered  severely  from 
fires.     Pop.  about  20,000.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Point  Edward  :  See  Sarxia. 

Pointer:  one  of  a  breed  of  dogs  much  used  by  sports- 
men; so  called  because  they  stop  and  point  toward  the 
game  which  they  scent.  This  habit  has  been  so  developed 
by  training  and  breeding  as  to  have  almost  become  an 
instinct.  Pointers  are  short-haired  dogs,  and  should  have 
a  wide  head,  with  very  apparent  occipital  crest :  ears  thin, 
soft,  and  long,  hanging  flat  at  the  side  of  the  head  ;  deep 
chest,  strong  loins,  and  tapering  tail,  thick  at  the  root.  The 
pointer  is  one  of  the  hound  group,  and  it  is  believed  the 
breed  originated  in  Spain.     See  Dogs.  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Point  Levi :  See  Levis. 

Poison  :  See  Toxicology,  Jurisprudence,  Medical  ;  and 
Lead-poisonino. 

Poison-ivy :  See  Rhus. 

Poison  of  Serpents:  a  poison  with  which  certain  ser- 
pents are  provided,  and  which  is  formed  by  a  pair  of  glands 
which  lie  back  of  and  below  the  eye  on  each  side.  Each 
gland  discharges  its  secretion  through  a  duct  which  leads  to 
a  reservoir  and  finally  to  the  base  of  a  hollow  fang.  When 
the  mouth  is  closed  the  fangs  lie  in  a  horizoutal  position 
against  the  upper  jaw,  but  when  open  and  the  serpent  is 
about  to  strike,  muscular  fibers  connected  with  the  roots  of 
the  fangs  contract  and  throw  the  latter  almost  at  right 
angles  to  the  jaw.  When  the  prey  is  seized  the  fangs  are 
driven  into  the  flesli  of  the  victim,  and  muscular  fibers  con- 
nected with  the  venom-reservoirs  are  simultaneously  ren- 
dered active,  so  that  the  poison  is  forced  through  the  gland- 
ducts  and  hollow  fangs  into  the  wound.  The  quantity  dis- 
charged varies  from  a  part  of  a  drop  to  over  a  teaspoonful, 
depending  chiefly  upon  the  size  and  activity  of  the  serpent, 
the  climate  and  season  of  the  year,  and  the  lapse  of  time  in- 
tervening since  the  last  discharge. 

The  venom  of  all  serpents  is  a  thin  yellowish  (occasionally 
colorless)  fluid  which  is  composed  chiefly  of  albuminous 
matters  in  solution,  and  bears  certain  general  resemblances  to 
the  saliva  of  higher  vertebrates.  It  contains  about  25  per 
cent,  of  water,  jind  when  dried  breaks  up  into  bright  translu- 
cent pieces  which  closely  resemble  crystals.  Jlany  attemjits 
have  been  made  to  isolate  its  poisonous  principles,  which 
for  a  long  time  were  believed  to  be  of  the  nature  of  alka- 
loids, especially  ptomaines,  but  Mitchell  and  Reichert,  who 
were  the  first  to  isolate  them,  have  shown  that  they  are  rep- 
resented in  the  alliuminous  substances  above  referred  to. 
These  they  have  found  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
which  they  have  termed  venom-glohulins  and  venom-pep- 
tones. Their  researches  render  it  probable  that  all  venoms 
contain  one  or  more  representatives  of  each  of  these  classes. 
In  some  as  many  a^  four  venom-globulins  and  one  venom- 


peptone  have  been  isolated,  thus  proving  the  existence  of 
as  many  as  five  distinct  poisons  in  a  single  specimen. 
Venom  belongs  to  the  group  of  virulent  poisons,  a  quarter 
of  a  dro]i  being  sufficient  to  kill  a  pigeon,  and  a  few  drops 
to  kill  a  dog. 

The  effects  are  divisible  into  local  and  general,  immediate 
and  remote.  The  venom  having  been  injected  under  the 
skin  by  the  fang,  the  first  effect  is  a  general  feebleness,  in 
which  the  heart  shares,  and  which  is  sometimes  accompanied 
by  nausea  and  vomiting.  If  the  amount  be  large,  the  animal 
or  man  dies  within  a  time  which  varies  from  a  few  minutes 
to  hours :  if  the  early  depression  passes  over,  recovery  is 
often  sudden,  or  else  the  creature  poisoned  enters  the  "sec- 
ond stage  of  the  poisoning.  This  is  characterized  by  blood- 
changes,  and  by  a  general  degradation  in  the  nutrition  of 
every  tissue,  so  that  all  suffer  in  some  degree.  The  series 
of  changes  begins  with  lessened  or  lost  power  of  the  blood 
to  clot;  at  the  same  time  the  texture  of  the  smaller  vessels 
is  so  altered  as  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  incoagulable 
blood,  which,  if  the  animal  survive  long,  finds  its  way  into 
the  tissue  of  nearly  every  organ,  thus  causing  symptoms  which 
vary  according  as  the  organ  most  affected  is  the  brain,  spinal 
cord,  liver,  lungs,  or  kidneys.  These  changes  result,  there- 
fore, in  bleeding  from  the  mucous  surfaces  of  the  breathing 
and  digestive  organs,  and  in  oppressed  respiration,  bloody 
stools,  or  bloody  urine,  and  finally  in  coma  or  convulsions 
and  death.  The  local  symptoms  vary  with  the  snake,  but 
vary  in  degree  only.  First,  there  is  thrown  out  about  the 
fang-track  a  vast  amount  of  blood,  which,  as  it  can  not  clot, 
soaks  through  the  tissues,  and  even  stains  the  bones.  The 
adjacent  muscles  soften,  and  at  last  inflammation  comes 
on.  with  great  swelling  and  pain,  and  finally  local  death  of 
the  part. 

There  is  no  antidote  that  is  efficient  when  administered 
internally.  A  solution  of  permanganate  of  potassium  and 
the  liquor  chloride  of  iron  are  powerful  local  antidotes;  that 
is,  when  they  are  brought  in  contact  with  the  venom  in  the 
wound  they  chemically  destroy  the  poison  and  thus  render 
it  inert.  The  permanganate  is  for  all  venoms  the  better, 
since  it  destroys  both  globulins  and  peptones,  while  the 
chloride  of  iron  is  destructive  only  to  the  globulins,  and  but 
slightly  impairs  the  toxicity  of  the  peptone.  The  proper 
treatment  of  snake-bite  is  at  once  to  tie  a  ligature  above 
the  part  bitten  (or,  better,  put  an  elastic  bandage  around 
the  whole  limb),  immediately  lay  open  the  wound  in  the 
line  of  the  fang-mark,  and  thoroughly  wash  out  the  part 
with  a  solution  of  permanganate  of  potassium,  encouraging 
bleeding  by  pressure  toward  the  incision.  In  case  no  anti- 
dote such  as  permanganate  of  potassium  or  chloride  of  iron 
is  at  hanil,  it  is  useless  to  apply  any  local  dressing  save  to 
put  the  part  in  hot  water,  wash  it,  and  provoke  bleeding. 
Next,  alcohol  should  be  given  until  the  heart  is  excited,  when 
the  ligature  may  be  loosened  a  little,  so  as  to  admit  to  the 
general  circulation  some  of  the  poison,  which  soon  or  late 
must  reach  it  unless  destroyed  by  some  local  antidote  or  re- 
moved by  bleeding,  etc.  Should  the  heart  begin  to  fail  the 
ligature  should  be  tightened  again  and  more  stimulant  given, 
so  that  any  poison  that  might  remain  may  be  fought  in  de- 
tail. Alcohol  is  an  antidote  of  uncertain  value.  It  is  but 
a  stimulant  to  carry  a  suddenly  enfeebled  system  over  a 
time  of  weakness.  For  the  second  stage  there  is  little  to  do 
but  to  ease  pain. 

Rattlesnake-bite  is  rarely  fatal ;  cobra-bite  is  often  fatal, 
as  is  attested  by  the  fearful  death-rate  in  India  from  this 
cause.  Cobra-bite  is  more  deadly  partly  on  account  of  the 
venom  being  a  stronger  poison,  and  partly  because  of  the 
generally  larger  size  of  the  snakes  and  of  the  speed  with 
which  in  hot  climates  the  serpents  accumulate  venom,  the 
severity  of  the  symptoms  being,  in  a  large  measure,  directly 
as  the  dose  of  the  poison.  Sewall  has  shown  that  animals 
subjected  to  repeated  small  doses  of  venom  gradually  ac- 
<iuire  imtnunity  from  what  would  be  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances fatal  doses.  Snake-venom  does  not  affect  plants,  but 
to  all  life  above  these  it  is  fatal  when  inoculated  in  sufficient 
amount,  although  it  does  not  seem  to  have  much  power  to 
injure  when  swallowed,  so  that  pigeons  have  even  been  fed 
on  it  to  the  extent  of  twenty  or  thirty  drops  a  day  for  a 
week  without  harming  them.  Mixture  with  gastric  juic^ 
alone  does  not  destroy  its  power,  but  it  is  altered  below  the 
stomach,  and  seems  unable  to  enter  the  blood  in  a  virulent 
form  by  this  channel.  Warm-blooded  animals  die  easily 
from  venom — cold-blooded  creatures  slowly,  unless  kept  very 
warm. 

The  authorities  on  serpent-venom  are  Fontana's  Poisons; 


roissoN 


POLAND 


G75 


Weir  Mitchell,  Veiiojn  uf  the  Jiattlesnake :  Payrcr,  77ie  Poi- 
simous  Serpents  of  India;  Weir  Mitchell  and  Kihvani  T. 
Keichert,  Venomts  of  Poisonous  Serpenta ;  and  Wall,  Ind- 
ian Snake-poisons.         Revised  by  Euwakd  T.  Keichert. 

Pois'son,  SiMKON  Denis  :  physicist  ;  b.  at  Pithiviers.  de- 
partment of  Liiiret,  France,  June  21,  1781 ;  was  educated  at 
the  ficole  I'olytechnique,  and  became  professor  in  that 
school  in  18t)2 ;  member  of  the  bureau  of  longitudes  in 
1808;  counselor  of  the  university  in  1820;  peer  of  France 
in  1K17.  \y.  Apr.  2.5,  1840.  His  priiuipal  works  are  Traite 
de  Mecanique  (2  vols.,  1811):  7'likirie  nouvetle  de  I'action 
capillaire  (1831) :  Theorin  Mathematiqne  de  la  chaleur  (2 
vols.,  183.5-37) ;  Stir  rinvarialiUite  des  rtunjen  mouvements 
des  grands  axes  planetaires,  besides  about  300  memoirs  in 
scientilie  journals,  mostly  on  mathematical  physics. 

Poitiers.  Fr.  pron.  pwaa  ti-a  :  chief  town  of  the  depart- 
ment of  V'ienne.  France;  on  the  ('lain,  at  its  junction  with 
the  Boivre  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  i)-I)).  It  is  old  and  ir- 
rejfularly  built,  but  it  lias  a  celebrated  lyceuni,  a  theoloi;- 
ical  semiiuiry,  a  public  library  with  30,000  volumes  and  400 
MSS.,  and  other  educational  institutions.  The  Cathedral  of 
St.  Peter  was  begun  by  Kleanor  of  (iuienne  in  1162,  on  the 
ruins  of  a  Roman  basilica,  and  completed  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  Church  of  St.  .John,  originally  a  baptistery 
(about"7(H)).  is  the  oldest  Christian  building  in  France.  In 
1882  the  remains  of  an  entire  Gallo-ltoman  town  were  dis- 
covered here:  they  comprise  a  teni|ile,  batlis,  and  streets, 
spread  over  14  acres.  Breweries,  distilleries,  spinning-mills, 
glass-works,  and  tanneries  are  in  operation,  and  jifi  active 
trade  is  carried  on  in  grain,  wine,  hemp,  wool,  wax,  honey, 
and  leather.  Called  Limonum  at  the  time  of  the  Roman 
conquest,  it  took  the  name  Poitiers,  from  the  Pictones  or 
I'ictavi.  Christianity  was  introduced  in  the  third  century, 
and  St..  Hilary  (</.  v.)  was  the  first  bishop.  N'ear  here  Ed- 
ward the  Black  Prince  defeated  and  captured  King  John 
of  France  in  13.56.     Fop.  (1891)  37,497. 

Poitiers,  Diana  of:  See  Diane  de  Poitiers. 

Poiton' :  an  old  province  of  Western  France,  now  di- 
vided into  the  departments  of  Deus-Sevres,  Vendee,  and 
Vienne.  It  became  an  English  possession  in  11.52,  on  the 
marriage  of  Eleanor,  the  t^ountess  of  Poitou,  and  Henry  of 
Anjou,  afterward  Henry  II.  of  England.  In  1204  Pliilip 
Augustus  took  it  from  England,  and  although  it  once  more 
reverted  to  that  country  in  1300  by  the  Peace  of  Bretigny. 
it  was  soon  after  reconquered,  and  finally  incorporated  with 
the  possessions  of  the  French  crown.  It  contains  some  of 
the  most  fertile  tracts  of  French  soil,  and  is  remarkably  well 
cultivated. 

Poke:  See  Garget-root  and  Pokeweed  Familv. 

Poker:  a  game  at  cards,  played  with  a  full  pack  by 
from  two  to  six  persons.  Five  cards  are  dealt  each  player, 
one  at  a  tirap.  The  eldest  hand  (aye)  deposits  a  certain 
number  of  chilis  (tokens  which  represent  money,  unless  the 
game  is  played  merely  for  amusement),  called  tlie  ante  ;  the 
others  in  turn  either  deposit  twice  this  amount  (i.  e.  go  in), 
or  withdraw  from  tin;  hand  (pass).  If  they  all  pass,  the 
eldest  hand  takes  back  the  ante  and  deals  a  new  hand  ; 
otherwise  he  either  doubles  his  original  stake  or  willidraws, 
forfeiting  his  ante.  (Another,  more  coniinon,  metliod  is  for 
all  the  players  to  go  in  each  hand  by  contributing  the  ante.) 
The  players  who  have  gone  in  then  in  turn  discard  as  many 
cards  as  they  wish,  and  receive  the  same  inimber  of  new- 
cards  from  the  pack.  The  player  at  the  left  of  the  eldest 
hand  then  bets  any  amount  not  exceeding  a  limit  iirevi- 
ously  agreed  upon,  or  passes  out  and  forfeits  the  staKe  al- 
ready in  the  p6oI.  The  next  player  either  sees  him  (bc'ts  a 
like  amount),  goes  belter  (bets  in  addition  to  thjs  a  sum  not 
exceeding  the  limit),  or  passes  out.  This  conlinnes  till  one 
player  forces  the  others  out  and  takes  the  pool,  or  until  all 
the  other  players  in  see  the  last  raise  (none  going  better), 
and  call.  They  then  show  their  hands  and  the  strongest 
hand  wins  the  pool. 

Hands  rank  in  .strength  as  follows,  beginning  with  the 
highest:  1,  straight  flush  (sequence  of  five  cards  in  the  same 
suit);  2,  four  of  a  kind  (accompanied,  of  course,  by  a  card 
of  dilTerent  denomination);  'i,  full,  or  full  house  (a  trijilet 
and  a  pair) ;  4,  _/f«.sA  (five  cards  of  the  same  suit):  5,  straight 
(five  cards  in  sequence) ;  6,  triplet,  or  three  of  a  kind  ;  7, 
two  pairs;  8,  one  pair  (two  cards  of  the  same  denonuna- 
tion,  the  other  thriH.-  being  of  dilTerent  ones).  The  denomi- 
nations of  cards  rank  in  value  as  in  whist  (except  that  in  the 
straight  and  straight  flush  the  a<!e  may  rank  either  above 


the  king  or  below  the  deuce) ;  as  between  two  or  more 
straights  or  straight  flushes,  the  one  beginning  with  the 
highest  card  wins.  Four  aces  form  the  higliest  four  of  a 
kind,  four  deuces  the  lowest:  and  so  for  triplets  and  pairs. 
In  deci<ling  between  two  fulls,  only  the  triplets  are  consid- 
ered;  liL'tween  two  hands  each  containing  two  pairs,  only 
the  higher  pair  in  each,  unless  these  are  alike.  As  between 
flushes,  that  containing  the  highest  card  wins;  if  cards  of 
the  same  denomination  lead  each,  the  cards  .second  highest 
are  considered,  and  so  on.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  de- 
cide between  two  hands,  each  containing  (I)  two  pairs,  pair 
and  pair  alike,  (2)  one  pair  of  the  same  denomination,  or  (3) 
not  even  a  pair.  In  this  case  the  higlujst  single  card  wins; 
of  hands  remaining  tied  in  this  respect  also,  each  counts  its 
next  highest  card  (the  highest  winning),  and  so  on. 

The  game  above  described  is  the  simplest  form  of  draw- 
poker.  Variations  from  it,  especially  in  the  manner  of  form- 
ing the  hand  and  of  betting,  are  innumerable.  In  straight 
poker  no  discard  is  made,  and  all  the  players  must  stake  the 
ante.  In  whiskg-pokcr  an  extra  hand  is  dealt,  and  the  play- 
ers strive  to  improve  their  hands  by  exchanging  cards  with 
it  in  turn. 

Pokeweed  Family:  the  Phytolaccacem;  dicotyledonous 
herbs  or  shrubs,  rarely  trees,  with  alternate  leaves:  flowers 
mostly  perfect;  perianth  regular,  usually  single  ;  pistil  one, 
simple  or  compound ;  ovules  usually  solitary ;  seeds  with 
copious  endosfierm,  and  a  large  peripheral  curved  embryo. 
The  species  number  about  fifty-five,  and  are  very  widely 
distributed  throughout  sub-tropical  and  temperate  regions. 
In  the  U.  S.  there  are  four  species  of  Phi/tulacca,  Petiveria, 
and  liivina.  The  common  pokeweed  or  Garoet-root  (q.  v.), 
Phi/tolaeca  decandra,  is  grown  for  ornamental  purposes  in 
Europe,  as  are  also  the  other  species  indigenous  to  the  U.S. 

Charles  K.  Bessey. 

Po'la:  town;  near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Peninsula 
of  Istria,  Austria;  .54  miles  S.  of  Trieste  (see  map  of  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, ref.  9-C).  It  is  the  mo.st  important  naval 
station  of  Austria-Hungary:  it  has  a  deep  and  spacious 
harbor,  almost  completely  landlocked,  an  arsenal,  docks, 
artillery  stores,  etc.  The  hills  surrounding  the  harbor  are 
crowned  with  forts  and  batteries.  Pola  has  also  a  consider- 
able shipping-trade,  exporting  fish,  timber,  and  the  sand 
used  in  making  Venetian  glass,  ami  impcuiing  coal  and  pro- 
visions. Besides  the  citadel,  which  overlooks  the  town  and 
the  bay,  the  chief  buildings  are  the  cathedral  (fifteenth 
century),  the  Franciscan  convent  (thirteenth  century),  and 
the  infantry  barracks.  There  is  a  naval  observatory,  found- 
ed in  1871,  where  twenty-eight  planetoids  were  discovered 
(1874-80)  by  I.  Palisa.  "  In  the  suburb  of  San  Policarpo 
there  is  a  fine  p.ark  with  a  monument  to  the  Emperor  Jlax- 
iinilian  of  Mexico.  Pola  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Pietas  Julia,  of  which  it  contains  several  interesting  re- 
mains, a  well-preserved  amphitheater,  which  couhl  accom- 
modate 20,000  spectators,  a  triumphal  arch,  etc.  Pop.  (1890) 
39,273.  11.  A.  RoiiERTS. 

Po'land  [Pole,  Polack  -l-  land'\;  a  former  kingdom  of  Eu- 
rope, the  Polish  Polsko.  About  I  he  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  it  extended  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains ;  was  bounded  on  the  \V.  by  the  Prussian  provinces  of 
Pomerania,  Brandenburg,  and  .Silesia,  and  on  the  X.  and  E. 
by  the  Russian  governments  of  Livonia,  PskolT,  Smolensk, 
(.'"hernigotf,  Poltava,  and  Kherson.  Its  area  was  about  282,- 
000  sq.  miles  (a  little  larger  than  Texas).  This  territory  be- 
longs to  the  cent  ral  jilain  of  Euro|je,  and  is  crossed  by  only 
one  range  of  hills,  which  form  a  watershed  between  the 
rivers  flowing  into  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea.  Large 
tracts  are  covered  with  swamps,  sand  and  forests,  but  gen- 
erally the  soil  is  a  light  loam,  well  suited  for  agriculture 
and  pasturage.  For  many  centuries  large  herds  of  cattle, 
horses,  and  swine  have  been  reared  here  ;  and  cereals,  hemp, 
timber,  honey,  and  wax  have  been  produced.  There  are  ex- 
tensive mines  of  salt,  and  a  few  of  iron,  copper,  and  silver. 
The  bulk  of  the  present  inhabitants  consists  of  Poles,  but 
there  are  several  other  races,  including  Ciermans.  Lithua- 
nians, and  Jews,  each  of  which  numbers  over  2.00(1,000.  The 
Poles  are  chiefly  Roman  Catholics.  The  members  of  the 
Greek  Church  come  next  in  numbers,  and  the  Germans  are 
mostly  Protestants. 

The  Poles  belong  cthnologically  to  the  Slavic  family. 
They  appeared  first  in  history  in' the  fifth  century  under 
the  name  of  Poliani ;  they  occupied  the  plain  beiween  the 
Oiler  and  the  Mslnla  along  with  other  Slavic  tribes,  which  in 
the  course  of  time  they  partly  subdued  and  absorbed.    Their 


676 


POLAND 


POLARIZATION 


history  does  not  cease  to  be  fabulous,  liowever,  until  the  time 
of  Mieczyslas  (962-992).  He  was  convertetl  to  Christianity, 
and  so  brought  his  country  in  contact  with  the  south  and 
west  of  Europe.  His  son,  Boleslas  I.  (992-1025),  extended 
his  frontiers  to  the  Saale,  the  Dnieper,  and  the  Danube,  and 
received  the  royal  crown  from  the  pope.  These  rulers  be- 
longed to  the  Piast  dynasty,  which  became  extinct  with 
Casimir  III.  in  1370.  On  the  death  of  his  successor,  Louis 
of  Hungary,  the  hitter's  daugliter  married  Jagiello,  Grand 
Duke  of  Lithuania,  who  united  that  country  with  Poland. 
In  1572  the  dynasty  of  tlie  Jagellons  (</.  v.)  became  extinct 
with  Sigismund  II.,  and  Poland  became  an  elective  mon- 
archy. This  principle  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the 
national  downfall.  The  people  saw  in  the  elective  mon- 
archy a  guarantee  of  their  liberty,  but  overlooked  the  fact 
that  it  threatened  their  existence  as  a  nation.  There  were 
other  defects  in  their  political  organization,  as,  for  instance, 
the  liberum  veto.  By  this  principle  the  decision  of  the  Polish 
Diet  did  not  depend  upon  the  majority  but  the  unanindty 
of  the  votes,  so  that  any  one  member,  by  his  veto,  had  it  in 
his  power  to  render  the  diet's  proceedings  ineffective.  Fur- 
ther, there  were  grave  defects  in  the  social  organization. 
Trade  and  commerce  were  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jews,  who  were  avaricious  and  the  objects  of  popular  con- 
tempt ;  they  never  ranked  as  an  important  branch  of  the  busi- 
ness of  the  people.  Literature  and  art  were  the  only  serious 
occupations  of  the  nobility.  The  nation  consisted  of  two 
classes  only — the  nobles,  who  owned  the  soil  and  strove  to  gain 
an  illusory  freedom  from  the  crown  ;  and  the  serfs,  who  culti- 
vated the  soil  to  which  they  were  tied.  There  was  no  third 
estate.  In  several  cases  the  peasants  sided  with  the  oppres- 
sors of  the  Polish  nation,  and  fell  on  their  countrymen  who 
were  fighting  for  the  freedom  of  their  fatherland.  In  1573 
25,000  Polish  noblemen  assembled  on  the  field  of  Wola  to 
elect  their  new  king.  Henry  of  Valois,  the  most  worthless 
of  the  candidates,  was  chosen,  but  shortly  afterward  fled 
from  the  country.  Stephen  Bathori  (1575-86),  voivode  of 
Transylvania,  one  of  Poland's  best  kings,  followed.  He  or- 
ganized the  Cossacks  into  regiments,  and  fought  success- 
fully against  the  Russians.  Then  came  three  princes  of  the 
Swedish  Vasa  dynasty  (1.587-1668),  Sigismund  III.,  Ladislas 
IV.,  and  Casimir  John  II.  {qq.  v.).  Then  followed  iMichael 
Wisniowiecki  (1669-73)  and  John  III.,  Sobieski  (1674-96),  and 
next  two  electors  of  Sa,\ony,  Augustus  II.  and  Augustus 
III.  (qq.  v.).  Every  new  ruler  caused  new  wars  with  new  ene- 
mies, and  internal  dissensions  split  the  nation  into  as  many 
parties  as  there  were  claimants  to  the  throne,  while  bribery, 
intrigue,  treachery,  and  violence  flourished.  On  the  deatJh 
of  Augustus  III.  in  1763  a  party  called  monarchists  or  re- 
formers, and  headed  by  the  Czartoryski  family,  desired  to 
abolish  the  liberum  veto  and  establish  an  hereditary  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  and  with  this  object  they  secured  the  sup- 
port of  Catharine  II.  of  Russia.  With  her  aid  they  placed 
Stanislaus  Augustus  Poniatowski  (q.  v.)  on  the  throne  (1764). 
The  work  of  reform  began,  but  Catharine,  seeing  that  in  this 
way  Poland  would  fall  out  of  her  grasp,  changed  her  policy. 
There  was  another  party,  lieaded  by  the  family  of  Potocki, 
who  maintained  the  old  oligarchical  institutions.  They 
had  adopted  the  Polish  principle  of  religious  toleration,  while 
the  Czartoryskis  were  fanatical  Roman  Catholics.  Catliarine 
elected  to  support  religious  toleration,  and,  opposing  her  for- 
mer favorite  Poniatowski,  had  a  number  of  his  adherents  ex- 
iled to  Siberia.  The  Confederation  of  Bar  (in  Podolia)  was 
now  formed  ;  an  army  was  assembled,  and  an  alliance  made 
with  the  Turks.  Catharine  already  had  a  large  army  in  the 
country,  and  in  1772  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies  also  en- 
tered Poland,  when  the  first  partition  was  effected.  Russia 
took  an  area  of  42,000  sq.  miles,  Prussia  took  Posen  ((/.  v.) 
with  an  area  of  13,000  sq.  miles,  and  Austria  took  Galicia 
(q.  V.)  with  an  area  of  27,000  sq.  miles.  Tlie  whole  country 
was  now  aroused  to  a  sense  of  danger.  The  liberum  veto 
was  formally  suppressed  and  many  reforms  were  made; 
but  some  of  the  nobles  were  discontented  at  the  loss  of 
their  ju-ivileges,  and  formed  the  Confederation  of  Targo- 
vitza  (1792).  At  their  instigation  Russian  troops  entered 
Poland  again.  Prus.sia  now  joined  the  Russians,  and  a 
fruitless  resistance,  headed  by  Joseph  Poniatowski  {q.  v.) 
and  Kosciusko  (q.  v.),  resulted  in  a  second  partition.  Rus- 
sia took  96,000  sq.  nules  and  Prussia  22,000  sq.  miles.  A 
general  rising  in  all  the  Polish  provinces  was  the  conse- 
quence, and  the  Ru.ssians  and  Prussians  were  compelled  to 
retreat;  but  at  the  critical  moment  Austria  came  upon  the 
scene  and  turned  the  balance.  Kosciusko  was  taken  pris- 
oner at  the  battle   of   Maciejowice,  Warsaw  capitulated  to 


Suwarow.  the  king  resigned  his  crown,  and  the  third  par- 
tition (1795)  put  an  end  to  the  political  existence  of  Poland. 
Russia  took  43,000  sq.  miles,  Prussia  21,000  sq.  miles,  in- 
cluding the  capital,  Warsaw,  and  Austria  18.000  sq.  miles. 
The  subsequent  wars  of  the  French  with  the  enemies  of  Po- 
land and  the  promises  of  Napoleon  rallied  the  Poles  around 
him  ;  but  all  that  Napoleon  accomplished  was  the  formation 
of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  by  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  (1807),  with  a 
liberal  constitution  and  the  King  of  Saxony  at  its  head. 
It  was  chiefly  composed  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Prussian 
and  Austrian  portions  of  the  later  partitions.  By  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  in  1815  the  division  of  Poland  was  re-ar- 
ranged. The  share  of  Austria  was  diminished,  and  Prus- 
sia received  less  than  it  had  after  the  second  partition.  The 
greater  part  of  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  was  united,  as  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  to  the  Russian  empire,  but  only  by  the 
bond  of  a  common  monarch.  Thus  finally  Russia  obtained 
220,500  sq.  miles,  viz.,  the  kingdom  of  Poland  and  the  gov- 
ernments of  Courland,  Vitebsk,  Grodno,  Minsk,  Moghilev, 
Volhynia,  Kieff,  .and  Podolia.  Of  those,  however,  Kietf  had 
been  conquered  and  held  by  Russia  since  1669,  while  Cour- 
land had  had  no  close  connection  with  Poland  since  1710. 
(See  BiREN.)  The  population  of  this  territory,  excluding  the 
two  latter  provinces,  in  1890  was  about  19,000,000.  Prussia 
obtained  26.000  sq.  miles,  viz.,  Posen  and  about  half  of 
East  and  West  Prussia,  with  a  population  (1890)  of  over 
3,000,000 ;  and  Austria  obtained  35,500  sq.  miles,  viz..  Ga- 
licia, Bukowina,  and  some  small  districts  (see  Cracow),  with 
a  population  (1890)  of  over  7,000,000. 

The  sR-ealled  kingdom  of  Poland  received  from  Alexander 
I.  a  constitution  with  a  responsible  ministry  and  a  separate 
army  :  but  there  was  still  a  spirit  of  discontent  which  devel- 
oped into  an  insnrrection  in  1830.  After  several  sanguinary 
engagements  this  was  suppressed  the  following  year,  and  in 
1832  Poland  was  declared  an  integral  part  of  Russia.  After 
another  unsuccessful  insurrection  (1863-64)  Poland  was  de- 
prived of  its  last  remnant  of  independence.  Finally,  by  a 
ukase  of  the  emperor,  dated  Feb.  23,  1868,  the  government 
of  Poland  was  incorporated  with  that  of  Russia,  and  since 
then  the  ten  governments — Kalisz,  Kielce,  Lomja,  Lublin, 
Piotrkow,  Plock,  Radora,  Siedlce,  Suwalki,  and  Warsaw — 
into  which  it  is  divided  have  been  groiqaed  with  those  of 
Russia.  Their  area  is  49,157  sq.  miles,  and  their  population, 
exclusive  of  the  military,  was,  in  1890,  8,256,562. 

R.  A.  Roberts. 

Polar  Circles  :  See  Antarctic  and  Arctic. 

Polar  Clock :  an  instrument  invented  by  Wheatstone, 
which,  when  accurately  adjusted,  indicates  the  apparent  solar 
time  within  a  very  few  minutes.  It  will  operate  even  when 
the  sky  is  overcast  with  clouds,  provided  there  be  an  unob- 
scured  spot  at  the  pole  through  which  the  blue  sky  may  be 
seen.  It  ap]jlies  the  fact  that  the  plane  of  polarization  of 
sky  light  is  always  90°  from  the  sun. 

Polarization  [deriv.  ot  polarize,  deriv.  oi ^olar'] :  a  term 
applied  in  optics  to  certain  modifications  in  the  character  of 
the  wave-motions  to  which  light  is  due.  These  modifications 
arise  under  certain  conditions  from  reflection,  refraction,  etc. 
They  are  the  source  of  some  of  the  most  beautiful  and  in- 
teresting phenomena  in  the  domain  of  light. 

Polarization  is  a  question,  primarily,  of  the  pLane  of  vi- 
bration of  light-waves.  (See  Lujht.)  Light-waves  possess  a 
period  of  vibration  so  brief  (509,000,000,000  vibrations  per 
second  for  yellow  light)  that  the  shortest  period  of  time 
which  can  be  isolated  and  dealt  with  experimentally  will 
contain  millions  of  oscillations.  Even  the  wave-length  lies 
almost  beyond  the  range  of  direct  observation.  Our  knowl- 
edge of  the  motions  which  constitute  light  is  therefore  al- 
most entirely  indirect.  There  is  an  abundance  of  indirect  evi- 
dence that  the  wave-motion  is  transversi.',  but  in  the  case  of 
ordinary  light,  as  it  conies  to  us  from  the  sun  or  from  arti- 
ficial sources,  there  appears  to  be  no  plane  of  vibration 
which  renuuns  fixed  long  enough  to  enable  us  to  determine 
its  position.  On  the  contrary,  the  ray  behaves  as  though 
conqiosed  of  components  vibrating  in  every  plane.  This  is 
an  effect  which  might  be  produced,  as  was  long  since  sug- 
gested by  Fresnel,  by  a  plane  transverse  wave,  the  plane  of 
vibration  of  which  revolves  with  a  rotational  period  small 
in  comparison  with  appreciable  time-intervals.  Such  a  ray 
is  said  to  be  iwpolarized.  Any  process  which  will  serve  to 
give  a  ray  a  fixed  plane  of  vibration  is  termed  a  polarizing 
process;  the  apparatus  is  called  &  polarizer. 

Polarization  by  Double  Refraction. — An  important  ex- 
ample of  the  production  of  polarized  light  occurs  when  a 


POLARIZATION 


677 


ray  is  made  to  pass  through  any  substance  the  elasticity  of 
which  is  not  in  all  directions  the  same.  In  such  media  the 
Telocity  of  waves  vibrating  in  a  single  plane  (le|)ends  ujion 
the  position  of  that  plane.  Many  crystals  possess  the  above 
property,  and  when  a  ray  of  light  is  transmitted  by  them  it 
IS  resolved  into  two  plane  waves,  which  travel,  in  general, 
with  different  velocities.  See  Mineralogy  (Optical  Proper- 
ties). 

The  simplest  method  of  attacking  the  problem  is  that 
adopted  by  lluyghens  200  years  ago.  This  consists  in  find- 
ing the  form  of  the  wave-surfaces  in  the  case  of  a  wave 
emanating  from  a  point  within  tlio  crystal. 

From  the  ojilical  point  of  view,  doubly  refracting  crystals 
may  be  groujied  as  follows : 

(1)  Uniaxial  negatice  crystals  (caleite,  tourmaline,  sodium 
nitrate,  etc.). 

(2)  Uniaxial  positive  crystals  (quart.-,  zirctm,  ice,  etc.). 

(3)  .B(a.rja7  crystals  (aragonite,  selenite,  potassium  nitrate, 
sugar,  and  all  crystals  which  do  not  belong  to  the  cubic  or 
the  hexagonal  systems). 

In  uniaxial  crystals  a  ray  from  without,  in  the  direction  of 
the  optical  axis,  sutlers  no  double  refraction,  and  therefore 
all  waves  due  to  vibrations  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  travel 
with  the  same  velocity. 

If  0,  Figs.  1  and  2,  be  a  center  of  radiation  within  a  uni- 
axial crystal,  two  waves  will  be  propagated.  The  first  of 
the.se  is  due  to  vibrations  always  iierpendieular  to  the  axis, 
and  its  surface  is  a  s|ihere.  It  is  called  the  ordinary  wave. 
The  other  wave  is  due  to  vibrations  at  various  angles  with 
*  the  axis.     Its  sur- 

"  face  is  an  ellijisoid 

of  revolution.  In 
negative  crystals 
the  directions  of 
greatest  velocity 
are  tho,se  for  which 
the  vibrations  are 
parallel  to  the  axis. 
The  ellipsoid  of 
the  wave  -  surface 
therefore  has  its 
major  axis  (c  d, 
Fig.  1)  perpendic- 
ular to  the  axis  a  h. 
The  wave-surfaces 
of  negative  uniax- 
ial crvstals  are  the 


Fig.  I.- 


-Wave-propa^ation  in  a  negative 
uniaxial  crystal. 


surfaces  of  revolution  produced  by  the  rotation  of  the 
sphere  and  ellipse  in  Fig.  1  upon  the'axis  a  h.  The  ellii)Soid 
which  forms  the  surface  of  the  extraordinary  wave  incloses 
the  sphere. 

In  positive  uniaxial  crystals  waves  produced  bv  vibrations 
parallel  to  the  axis  possess  a  minimum  velocity."  The  elli|)- 

soidal  surface  of 
the  extraordinary 
ray  has  its  major 
axis  coincident 
with  the  optical 
axis  of  the  crystal, 
and  the  two  wave- 
surfaces  are  those 
generated  by  the 
revolution  of  the 
circle  and  the  in- 
scribed ellipse  of 
Fig.  2.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  ex- 
traordinary ray  in 
negative  crystals 
possesses  the  high- 
er velocity,  except 
in  the  direction  of 
the  axis,  where  it 
attains  the  velocity 
of  the  ordinarv  ray 
as  a  minimum  limiting  value.  In  positive  crystals  the  ve- 
locity of  the  extraordinary  ray,  however,  is  always  less  than 
that  of  the  ordinary,  excepting  in  the  axial  direction,  where 
it  reaches  its  maximum  value. 

The  a|)plication  of  the  above-descrribed  properties  of  aniso- 
tropic media  to  the  case  of  a  ray  entering  a  uniaxial  nega- 
tive crystal,  such  as  calcite,  obliquely  from  without,  is  as 
follows : 
A  bundle  of  rays  is  represented  by  ab,cd.  Fig.  3,  of 


Fio.  2. 


Wave-propapation  in  a  positive 
uniaxial  crystal. 


which  the  wave-surface  is  plane  and  normal  to  the  direc- 
tion-lines.    Su<rh  a  wave-surface,  be,  impinges  obliquely 


'    K, 


Fio.  3. 

upon  the  surface  of  the  crystal  (K,Ka)  at  b.  During  the 
time  in  which  the  wave  in  air  passes  over  a  distance,  ed, 
two  waves  within  the  crystal  are  being  i)ropagated.  Of 
these,  we  need  to  consider  only  the  elements  which  may  be 
regarded  as  arising  from  the  point  b.  The  two  wave-sur- 
faces within  the  crystal  having  b  as  their  origin  will  be  a 
sphere  and  an  ellipsoid,  represented  in  the  figure  by  the 
circle  (tn)  and  the  ellipse  (n),  respectively.  At  the  instant 
when  the  wave  in  air  reaches  rf  the  position  of  the  two  waves 
within  the  crystal  will  be  defined  by  the  radius  t/and  radius 
vector  bg,  respectively.  These  have  lengths  determined  by 
the  relations  of  the  velocities  of  the  ordinary  rav  J/ and  the 
extraordinary  ray  bg  to  the  velocity  in  air."  The  <iiiection 
of  the  two  rays  is  determined  by  drawing  tangents  to  the 
circle  and  ellipse  from  the  point  d.  The  ordinary  ray, 
being  most  retarded,  is  most  bent  from  its  course.  Tlie 
law  of  its  refraction  is  that  of  Snell.     See  Refractio.v. 

The  passage  of  a  ray  through  a  rhombic  piece  of  caleite 
is  shown  in  Fig.  4,  in  which  /  is  the  incident  rav  and  o  and 


Fic.  4 

e  are  the  emergent  ordinary  and  extraordinary  rays.  It  is 
evident,  since  these  are  completely  polarized. "that"  anv  de- 
vice w'hich  would  suppress  one  of  them  would  affo'rd  a 
single  ray  of  polarized  light.  .Such  a  device  is  the  Xicol 
prism,  the  best-known  and  most  useful  of  polarizers. 

77(e  JS'icol  prism,  describetl  in  1841  by  William  Kicol. 
consists  of  a  block  of  caleite  (Fig.  o).  cut  "through  at  right 
angles  to  its  end-faces  and  cemented  in  the  section  by 
means  of  Canada  balsam.  The  angles  of  the  rhomb  are 
such  that  the  ordinary  ray  meets  the  cemented  laver  at  an 
angle  greater  than  the  critical  angle  of  total  reflection,  and 
is  therefore  entirely  diverted  to  the  side  wall  of  the  prism. 
To  the  ordinary  ray,  therefore,  the  Xicol  luism  is  0|)aque. 
The  extraordinary  ray  reaches  the  cemented  interfaces  at  an 


Fio.  5. 

angle  less  than  that  at  which  total  reflection  begins.  It, 
therefore,  is  transmitted.  When  we  throw  a  beam  of  un- 
polarized  light  through  the  prism,  we  obtain  after  trans- 
mission a  completely  polarized  ray,  the  intensity  of  which  is 
equal  to  one-half  that  of  the  incident  ray,  less  the  sum  of 
the  losses  by  reflection  and  absorption. 

The  Ffjiirniilt  Prism. — Various  modifications  of  the  Xicol 
prism  have  been  made,  all  of  which,  however,  make  use  of 
the  essential  principle  of  the  original  form — the  suppres- 


678 


POLARIZATION 


sion  of  one  component  by  total  reflection.     The  best  known 
of  these  modifications  is  that  devised  by  Foucault,  in  which 

the  layer  of  Can- 
ada balsam  is 
supplanted  by  an 
air  -  space  be- 
tween the  halves 
of  the  divided 
rhomb.  See  Fig- 
ure 6. 

Polarization 
by  Reflection. — 
The  nature  of  the  phenomena  of  polarization  would  lead  one 
to  exjiect  that  polarization  of  a  ray  might  be  obtained  by 
causing  the  same  to  be  reflected.  If  we  consider  an  ordinary 
ray  to  be  resolved  into  two  components,  vibrating  at  right 
angles  to  one  another,  and  suppose  the  ray  obliquely  inci- 
dent to  a  plane  mirror  so  placed  that  one  of  the  components 
will  vibrate  jjarallel  to  its  face,  it  is  evident  that  the  two 
components  will  meet  the  mirror  under  different  conditions. 
In  point  of  fact  the  mirror  does  not  reflect  both  components 
equally  well,  save  when  the  incidence  is  normal,  under  which 
condition  both  rays  are  vibrating  parallel  to  its  surface.  As 
the  angle  of  incidence  increases,  the  components  whose  vibra- 
tions make  an  angle  with  the  mirror  are  less  and  less  strong- 
ly reflected,  whereby  the  resultant  becomes  jxirtially  polar- 
ized. At  a  certain  angle,  known  as  the  anyle  of  complete 
polarization,  the  above-mentioned  component  ceases  to  be 
reflected,  and  the  reflected  ray  consists  of  completely  polar- 
ized light,  vibrating  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  incidence 
and  reflection. 

Brewster's  Law. — The  angle  of  complete  polarization,  as 
was  pointed  out  by  Malus,  who  discovered  the  iihenomenon 
of  polarization  by  reflection  in  1810,  depends  u]ion  the  re- 
fractive index  of  the  material  of  which  the  mirror  is  made. 
Brewster  gave  definite  expression  to  the  relation  (1815),  as 
follows : 

The  angle  of  comjileie  polarization  is  the  angle  of  inci- 
dence for  which  the  reflected  ray  is  perpendicular  to  the  re- 
fracted ray. 

In  Fig.  7  we  have  from  Snell's  law  -: —  =  n,  which  at 

sin  r 
the  angle  of  complete  polarization,  when  i  -\-  r  =  90',  be- 

sin  i  sin  i  sin  i 

comes  -. —  =  ~ — — — ..  = :  =  tan  *  =  n. 

sm  r      sui  (90   —  0      cost 


Fia.  7. 

This  afl'onls  another  statement  of  Brewster's  law,  viz. : 

The  angle  of  complete  polarization  is  tliat  angle  of  inci- 
dence the  tangent  of  which  is  equal  to  the  index  of  refrac- 
tion of  the  mirror. 

The  above  statements  refer  to  the  reflection  from  the  first 
surfai'c,  and  not  to  internal  reflection.  They  apply  to  non- 
metallic  surfaces  only.  To  obtain  plane  polarize<l  light 
therefore  by  a  single  reflection  we  must  use  a  non-metallic 
mirror,  and  must  suppress  all  tho.se  rays  which,  entering  the 
substance  of  the  mirror,  might  be  reflected  from  its  second 
surface.  The  material  cominonly  used  is  an  opaque  black 
glass. 

Polarization  hi/  Ordinary  Refraction. — An  inquiry  which 
follows  directly  upon  the  statement  of  polarization  bv  reflec- 
tion is  that  concerning  the  con<lition  of  the  refracted  ray. 
That  component  of  the  incident  ray  which  ceases  to  be  re- 


\r 


Fig.  8. 


fleeted  at  the  angle  of  complete  polarization  we  should  ex- 
pect to  find  transmitted  by  the  medium  as  a  refracted  ray, 
unless  the  vibrations  were  destroyed  at  the  surface  with 
transformation  of  energy.  Experiment  shows  that  this 
polarized  comiionent  always  forms  a  part  of  the  refracted 
ray,  but  never  the  whole  of  it,  since  the  other  component  is 
partly  refracted  and  partly  reflected  at  every  angle  cjf  inci- 
dence. By  ordinary  refraction,  then,  partial  polarization  in 
a  plane  jierpendicujar  to  that  obtained  by  reflection  is  pro- 
duced, the  degree  of  polarization  reaching  a  maximum  at 
the  angle  of  incidence  for  which  tan  i  =  n.  By  pa,ssing  this 
partially  ]«ilarized  ray  at  the  projier  angle  through  a  series 
of  parallel  glass  plates  the  unpolarized  portion  can  be  re- 
duced indefinitely,  so  that  by  successive  transmission  an 
almost  completely  polarized  ray  can  be  obtained. 

Polarization  by  means  of  Tourmaline. — The  crystalline 
mineral  tourmaline  possesses  a  molecular  structure  which 
adajits  it  peculiarly  to  the  production  of  polarization  by 
transmission.  A  plate  of  this  nuneral,  cut  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  i)rincipal  axis  of  the  crystal  is  parallel  to  the  sur- 
face, will  transmit  only  those  vibrations 
which  are  perpendicular  to  the  direction 
of  the  axis.  To  waves  vibrating  parallel 
to  the  axis  such  a  plate  is  opaque.  The 
objection  to  this  method  of  obtaining  po- 
larized light  is  the  strong  selective  absorp- 
tion to  which  rays  passing  through  tourma- 
line are  subjected.  The  best  specimens  are 
far  from  colorless  or  transparent. 

Polariscopes. — In  the  study  of  polwized 
light  it  is  necessary,  in  addition  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  polarized  ray,  to  be  able  to  test 
the  character  of  radiation  as  to  the  plane  of 
its  vibrations.  To  these  ends  two  polariz- 
ing devices,  such  as  the  black  glass  mirror, 
the  Nicol  prism,  or  the  plate  of  tourmaline, 
must  be  used  together.  Such  a  combination 
is  called  a  polariscope. 

The  essential  parts  of  a  reflecting  polari- 
scope are  two  mirrors,  Mi  Ma,  Fig.  8,  afford- 
ing reflection  from  their  first  surfaces  only. 
These  are  so  mounted  that  the  incident  ray 
i  will  always  strike  Mi  at  the  polarizing  angle,  and  the  re- 
flected ray  r  will  strike  Ma  at  the  same  angle.  The  latter 
mirror  (Ma)  is  called  the  analyzer,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  polarizer  (Ml).  The  same  terms  are  used  to  designate 
the  corresponding  parts  of  any  polariscope. 

The  reflecting  polariscope  is  frequently  given  the  form 
shown  in  Fig.  9,  an  arrangement 
due  to  Norremberg,  in  which 
the  lower  mirror  is  a  plate  of 
clear  unsilvered  glass.  Rays  of 
light  reaching  the  mirror  from 
the  direction  a  are  polarized 
by  reflection,  and  thrown  down- 
ward upon  the  mirror  c,  whence 
they  are  returned  vertically  up- 
ward through  A  B  to  the  an- 
alyzer S,  which  is  a  mirror  of 
black  glass.  The  analyzer  re- 
volves within  a  graduated  cir- 
cle by  means  of  which  its  posi- 
tion can  be  determined.  An 
adjustable  platform  between 
the  two  mirrors  supports  objects 
the  behavior  of  which  when 
subjected  to  polarized  light  is 
to  be  studied. 

Since  the  angle  of  complete 
polarization  depends  upon  the 
index  of  refraction,  and  since 
the  latter  is  a  function  of  the 
wave-length,  it  follows  that  no 
reflecting  polariscope  can  give 
complete  polarization  excepting 
in  monochromatic  light.  On 
that  account  and  for  other  rea- 
sons polariscopes  making  use  of 
double  retraction  are  to  be  preferred.  .Such  instruments 
consist  of  two  Nicol  jirisins,  or  equivalent  devices,  mounted 
one  behind  the  other  in  the  path  of  the  ray  which  is  to  be 
polarized  and  analyzeil.  The  analyzer  (A.  Fig.  10),  and 
sonielinic's  the  polarizer  (P,  I'ig.  10)  also,  is  free  to  revolve  in 
the  axis  of  the  ray.     Divided  circles  enable  the  observer  to 


Fig.  9. 


POLARIZATION 


679 


ascertain  the  angle  which  their  polarizing  planes  make  with 
one  another. 

The  performance  of  two  Xicol  prisms  mounted  as  above 
follows  directly  from  what  luis  already  been  stated  with  ref- 
erence to  this  iiielhod  of  producing;  pnlari/.ed  lifjht. 

Kays  transmitted  by  I'  in  tlie  direction  of  tlie  axis  of  the 
instrument  will  be  completely  polarized  in  the  principal 


plane  of  the  prism,  with  loss  of  something  more  than  half 
of  the  initial  intensity.  The  polarized  ray  upon  enterinf^ 
the  prism  .\  will  be  resolved  into  two  components  vihnii- 
inj?  at  ri^rlit  anj;les  to  and  in  the  principal  plane  ni  A.  The 
former  of  these  components,  which  is  the  ordinary  ray,  is 
sujjpressed  by  total  reflection,  while  the  extraordinary  ray 
is  transmitted. 

The  relative  intensity  of  the  two  components  depends 
upon  the  angle  a  between  the  principal  planes  of  the  prisms 
P  and  A,  a  relationship  which  may  be  expressed  as  follows: 
Jo  =  I  sin*  o. 
7.  =  7  cos«  a  .  •  . 
I„  +  J,  =  I{sin''  a  +  cos»  a)  =  7. 
7  is  the  ray  incident  upon  A.  7„  and  7„  the  ordinary  and 
extraordinary  components  of  the  same.     Losses  by  common 
_^ reflection  and  ab- 
sorption   are   neg- 
lected.    It  will  be 
seen   that  the   in- 
tensity     of       the 
transmitted      ray, 
7„  is  proportional 
to  cos'  o.      When 
the      prisms     are 
crossed    (a  =  90°) 
no   light  is  trans- 
mitted ;  when  they 
are     parallel  {o  = 
0')  A  is  transpar- 
ent to  the   polar- 
ized     ray,     trans- 
mitting it  without 
any    losses     other 
than  those  due  to 
reflection   and  ab- 
sorption. 

Polariscopes  with 
Nicol  prisms  pos- 
.sess  the  advantage 
of  afTording  com- 
plete polarization 
of  all  wave-lengtlis 
alike.  They  are 
indeed    for     most 


Relative  transmitting 
power  of  Calcite 
for  differeut  colors., 


.5m 


.6(. 


.7m 


Fio. 


c  n 


11. 


purposes  the  best  of  all  types.  The  chief  disadvantages  are 
costliness  of  tlie  matiTial.  calcite,  of  which  the  prisms  are 
made,  and  the  smalliiess  of  tlie  apertures  of  the  instrument. 
Small  ilimensions  are  a  matter  of  necessity  in  Xicol  prisms 
on  account  of  the  giving  out  of  the  supply  of  large  crystals 
of  transparent  calcite.  Prisms,  like  those  exhibited  by 
Spottiswoode  at  an  exhibition  of  .scientific  apparatus  in 
London,  which  had  a  clear  aperture  of  9  cm.,  are  no  longer 
to  lie  olitained. 

.\notlier  disadvantage  in  the  use  of  calcite  lies  in  its  fail- 
ure to  transmit  all  wave-lengths  of  the  visible  spectrum 
with  eipial  freedom.  Measurements  of  the  losses  experi- 
enced by  a  ray  of  white  light  in  traversing  a  pair  of  Xicol 
prisms  were  made  by  the  writer  and  Prof.  P.  W.  Snow  in 
IWIl  (Pliilosnpliical  jliigaziiip  (.">),  vol.  xxxiii..  |i.  3T9).  The 
results,  which  are  given  graphically  in  Fig.  11.  show  dimin- 
ishing transparency  throughout  the  green  and  Idue  of  the 
spectrum, until  at  wave-length  0'4  ^  relatively  less  than  lialf 
as  nmcli  light  is  transmitted  as  at  wave-length  0'6 /i. 


Fio 


Tourmaline  Polariscopes. — The  property  which  tourma- 
line pos.se.sses  of  absorbing  one  of  the  polarized  components 
of  rays  traversing  it  at  right  angles 
to  the  principal  axis  make.s  it  prac- 
ticable to  construct  a  simjile  form 
of  polariscope  out  of  two  plates  of 
that  material.  Two  tourmaline 
plates  (A  15  and  C  I),  Fig.  12)  placed 
one  over  the  other  with  axes  parallel 
will  transmit  light  with  losses  diir 
only  to  reflection  and  ordinary  ab- 
sorption ;  the  latter  source  of  loss  is 
unfortunately  an  important  one, 
greatly  dimini.shing  in  ojiticul  work 
the  u.sefulncss  of  tourmaline.  When 
placed  with  axes  crossed  as  in  Fig. 
la  the  plates  A  B,  C  I)  are  complete- 
ly opaque.  The  usual  form  of  the 
tourmaline  polariscope  is  that  of  Fig.  14.  The  two  plates 
are  mounted  in  a  longs-shaped  clamp,  with  freedom  of  rota- 
tion upon  a  common  axis. 
Sjjecimens  to  be  examined  in 
polarized  light  are  [ilacetl  be- 
tween thein.  Tourmaline 
plates  also  serve  as  eye-pieces 
in  many  forms  of  polarizing 
apparatus. 

Polarization  in  Biaxial 
Crystals. — In  the  diseus.sion 
of  the  passage  of  light 
through  anisotropic  bodies 
we  have  considered,  thus  far,  f-,^   j^ 

crystals  in  which  only  a  sin- 
gle direction  could  be  found  for  which  double  refraction  did 
not  exist.  All  crystals  of  the  rhombic,  mimoclinic,  and  tri- 
ctinic  systems,  however,  possess  two  siu'h 
directions,  from  which  fact  they  are  called 
biaxial  crystals.  Polarization-phenomena 
in  such  crystals  are  necessarily  more  com- 
jilicated  than  in  crystals  with  one  axis. 
They  can  lie  discussed  only  very  briefly 
here.  In  biaxial  crystals  there  is  no 
ordinary  ray.  Xeither  of  the  two  com- 
ponents into  which  rays  traversing  such 
crystals  are  divided  follows  the  law  of 
refraction  for  isotropic  media.  The  two 
rays  are  polarized  at  right  angles,  and 
they  travel  at  velocities  depending  upon 
the  elastic  structure  of  the  crystal. 

Fresnel's  method  of  finding  the  wave- 
surface  in  a  biaxial  crystal,  stated  in  a 
few  words,  consisted  in  establishing  three 
axes  (Fig.  15) :  one  {a  b)  in  the  direction 
of  greatest  elasticity,  one  (c  d)  in  the 
direction  of  least  elasticity,  and  a  third 
perpendicular  to  these.  Upon  these  axes 
an  ellip.soid  is  to  be  imagined,  taking  the 
length  of  each  axis  proportional  to  the 
elastic  (]iialily  for  light-vibrations  in  the 
direction  in  question.  The  velocity  of 
the  two  light -waves  propagated  in  any 
desired  direction  from  a  source  at  the 
center  of  the  ellipsoid  can  be  found  by 
taking  a  plane  section  of  the  ellipsoid 
through  the  center  of  flie  same  and  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  along  whidi  the  velocities  are  required.  The  major 
and  minor  axes  of  the  cr 

ellipse  which  forms  the 
section  of  the  ellipsoid, 
as  mentioned  above, 
give  tlie  velocities  of 
the    two    waves.      By    ^ 

means   of   this    proce-  • 

dure  the  surface  call  be 
fully  determineil.  This 
surface  can  tie  repre- 
sented only  by  means 
of  a  three-dimensional 
model.  Cross-sections 
of  it  in  the  planes  a  b, 
c(l :  a  I),  r  f:  and  r  d.  e  f,  are  shown  in  Figs.  16,  17.  and  18. 

Applications  of  polarized  light  are  made  in  the  study  of 
crystalline  forms,  in  which  field  many  very  beautiful  phe- 
nomena occur;  in  the  microscopic  detection  of  various  cel- 


Flo.  15. 


6S0 


POLARIZATION 


lular  structures,  as,  for  example,  in  distinguishing  between 
the  various  forms  of  starch;  and,  what  is  very  important 


from  an  industrial  point  of  view,  in  the  determination  of 
the  strength  of  sugar-solutions.  The  last-named  applica- 
tion has  led  to  the  development  of  a  special  class  of  appa- 
ratus and  of  special  methods  of  work.     See  Saccharijietkv. 


In  the  study  of  crystals  under  the  polariscope  the  speci- 
men is  placed  between  crossed  nicols,  and  is  viewed  by 
transmitted  light.  If  double  refraction  takes  place  the  re- 
sult is  the  restoration  of  light  to  the  hitherto  dark  field  of 


view  and  the  production  of  color  effects,  the  nature  of 
which  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  specimen  and  the 
kind  of  illumination  to  which  it  is  subjected.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  color  effects  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

(1)  T}nn  plates  of  imiaxinl  or  biaxial  c;vy'''''i's  cut  paral- 
lel to  the  axis  or  axes.     When   viewed   by   parallel   rays 


between  crossed  nicols  they  show  in  general  a  brilliant  color, 
which  depends  upon  the  thickness  of  the  plate  and  the  posi- 
tions of  polarizer,  analyzer, 
and  siiocimen  with  reference 
to  each  other. 

This  phenomenon,  which 
is  the  simplest  with  which 
we  have  to  do  in  chromatic 
polarization,  is  due  to  the 
same  causes  as  the  more 
complicated  cases  to  be 
mentioned  later.  The  plane 
polarized  ray  from  the  first 
prism  is,  in  general,  resolved 
into  two  components  within 
the  specimen.  These  vibrate 
at  right  angles  with  one  an- 
other, and,  traveling  at  dif- 
ferent velocities  within  the  crystal,  issue  with  difference  of 
phase.  In  the  second  nicol  each  of  these  components  is  again 
resolved,  and  those  components  of  each  which  move  in  the 
polarizing  plane  are  trans- 
mitted. After  passage  of 
the  second  nicol  we  have 
then  all  the  conditions  nec- 
essary for  the  production  of 
color  by  interference  (see 
Interference  and  Thin 
Plates,  Colors  of),  viz., 
two  rays  traveling  along  the 
same  path,  with  difference 
of  phase  but  with  the  same 
plane  of  vibration.  A  tint 
will  therefore  be  produced, 
of  which  the  intensity  de- 
[lends  upon  the  relative  am- 
plitudes of  the  transmitted 
components,  and  the  color  upon  the  difference  of  phase.  If 
the  plate  be  of  uniform  thickness,  the  tint  will  be  miiform 
over  its  surface  ;  if  wedge-shaped,  it  will  be  crossed  by  inter- 
ference-bands, etc. 

(2)  Uniaxial  crystals  cut  perpendicularly  to  the  axis, 
and  viewed  hy  convergent 
light  between  crossed  nicols. 
In  this  ca§e,  which  can  be 
tested  in  a  simple  manner 
by  jjlacing  a  properly  cut 
piece  between  the  plates  of 
the  tourmaline  tongs  and 
holding  the  same  close  to 
the  eye,  one  sees  a  beautiful 
set  of  colored  rings,  either 
with  a  bright  center  and 
cut  by  a  dark  rectangular 
cross  (Fig.  19),  or  with  a 
dark  center  and  bright  cross 
(Fig.  20),  according  to  the 
relative  positions  of  the  part  Fig.  21. 

of  the  apparatus. 

(3)  Biaxial  crystals  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  median 
line  and  viewed  by  convergent  light  between,  crossed  nicols. 
The  system  of  rings  and  brushes  is  that  shown  in  Pig.  21, 
when  the  planes  of  the  optical  axes  are  at  45°  with  the 
polarizing  jilanes  of  the  nic- 
ols. This  goes  over  into  the 
pattern  of  Fig.  22  when  the 
planes  of  the  o|itical  axes 
coincide  with  that  of  one  of 
the  prisms. 

The  above  are  among  the 
most  important  of  the  nu- 
merous cases  which  the  crys- 
tallographer  has  occasion  to 
observe  and  to  analyze.  The 
color  effects  in  all  are  due 
to  the  same  cause,  the  in- 
terference of  the  polarized 
rays  after  emergence  from 
the  second  Nicol  prism. 

Temporary  and  Artificial  Double  Refraction. — Isotropic 
media  can  be  rendered  doubly  refracting  by  any  process 
which  lu-oduees  internal  strains.  A  rectangular  block  of 
glass,  for  instance,  wlien  placed  between  crossed  nicols  does 
not  restore  light  to  the  field  of  view,  but  when  pressure  is 


.--"-' 

^SSfiJf^ 

0/i^ 

'^^p*^-  ■ 

?:^\ 

^&[{l 

\''>..V\ 

^mn 

'M 

■  f  f  1 1  fplL  -ly 

v^^Kll 

■i  ff//jM 

i  IT 

W^^M 

If  Hi 

^j^m. 

w^ 

m. 

i'-gi;-' 

Fio. 


I'OI,AK   RESEARCH 


681 


applied  l>y  means  of  a  elninp.  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  23, 
temporary  double  refraction   is  priMlueed  and   eolor-elTects 


cyp 


^^tfEsP^ 


Rsno 


Fig.  aj. 


Fio.  Zi. 


analoiions  to  those  in  crystals  occur.  The  sudden  cooling 
of  heated  gla.ss  produces  permanent  strains,  the  presence  of 
which  gives  figures  of  great  symmetry  and  beauty.  Fig.  34 
shows  such  a  pattern  produced  by  polarized  light  in  a  rec- 
tangular plate  of  chilled  glass. 

In  the  foregoing  account  many  phenomena  have  been  al- 
together neglected.  Such  are  those  connected  with  the 
passage  of  light  through  quartz,  the  rotation  of  the  plane  of 
polarization  in  that  substance  and  in  various  liquids,  the 
rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  in  the  magnetic  field, 
and  the  question  of  circular  and  elliptical  polarization. 
For  a  discussion  of  these  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  larger 
treatises  on  experimental  optics  and  to  the  proper  chap- 
ters in  the  manuals  of  physics.  Among  the  best  known 
of  such  books  are  Fresnel's  (Euvrex;  Verdet,  Trctite  d'Op- 
tiqiie:  Mascart.  Traite  d'Opfique :  Wiillner,  Lehrburh  der 
ni/sik  :  MiUler-Pouillet,  Lehrhuch  der  Phyxik  ;  Molle, 
Courx  de  Physique;  Winkelmann,  Ilandhuch  dir  Phi/sik; 
Preston,  Light;  Spottiswoode,  Polarization  of  Light,  a 
popular  treatise.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Polar  Research  [polar  is  from  "L&i. polaris.  pertaining 
to  the  poles,  deriv.  of  pu'lus,  pole  =  Gr.  irifAos.  pivot,  hinge, 
axis,  pole,  deriv.  of  ireXeiv,  move,  go] :  exploration  of  the 
regions  about  the  poles  of  the  earth,  and  investigation  of  the 
various  questions  concerned  therewith.  This  is  the  greatest 
un.solved  problem  in  geography,  and  on  its  solution  turn 
many  theories  of  terrestrial  physics  and  even  some  of  those 
of  astronomy.  The  older  attempts  at  its  solution  were  only 
partial  in  design,  being  devoted  to  finding  a  northeast  or 
northwest  passage,  or  to  reaching  the  geographic  or  mag- 
netic pole.  They  were  unsuccessful,  except  in  finiling  the 
magnetic  pole,  and  they  did  not  add  greatly  to  knowledge, 
although  full  of  hardship  and  disaster.  The  later  idea  of 
residence  in  the  polar  region  and  gradual  advance  has 
proved  so  much  more  successful  and  less  perilous  that  we 
may  now  safely  reckon  on  eventual  and  complete  success 
in  the  solution  of  all  questions  depending  on  polar  research. 

History  of  Arctic  Kxploratiun. — The  dilTerent  relations 
of  the  two  poles  to  the  distribution  of  land  and  water  and 
to  the  zone  of  maritime  aiui  geogra])hic  enterprise  have 
caused  the  exploration  of  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions 
to  follow  quite  difTcrent  courses. 

The  earliest  recorded  attempt  at  Arctic  research  was  one 
to  find  a  commercial  maritime  route  to  China  and  India  by 
the  north  of  Europe  anil  Asia.  The  first  expedition  was  that 
of  Sir  Hugh  VVilloughliy,  who  left  the  Thames  with  three 
ships  in  1.")")^!.  Two  of  the  ships  appear  to  have  reached 
Kalguev  island,  but  were  never  heard  from  afterward.  The 
third  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Dwina,  and  its  company 
crossed  over  by  land  to  Moscow.  As  a  result  the  White  Sea 
was  opened  to  British  commerce.  A  later  expedition  under 
Stephen  Burroughs  reached  Vaygach  island,  and  in  1.5t<0 
I'et  and  .lackman  penetrated  the  Kara  Sea.  The  expedi- 
tions so  tar  were  British;  the  work  was  now  taken  up  by 
the  Dutch.  Under  Barents  an  expedition  reacheil  Xova 
Zembla  in  1504  and  the  Kara  Sea  in  159.5.  In  1596  Barents 
discovered  Spitzbergen  and  reached  a  latitude  of  at  least 
80  N.  In  the  seventeenth  century  Franz  .Joseph  Land  was 
apparently  reached  by  a  whaler  named  Koule.  In  the  suc- 
ceeding centuries  many  attempts,  mostly  by  Russians  and 
Norwegians,  were  nuulo  to  penetrate  along  the  northeast 
)assage  farther  E.  than  Nova  Zembla  and  the  Kara  Sea, 
ut  all  were  tinsucccssful  until  in  1878-79.  when  the  pas- 
sage was  successfully  made  by  Nordenskjold  on  the  \'ega. 


\; 


Spitzbergen  had  probably  long  been  known  to  hardy  Rus- 
sian and  Norwegian  fishermen,  but,  brought  once  to  the  at- 
tention of  geographers  by  Barents,  it  became  a  point  of  de- 
parture for  farther  polar  ex[)lorati(m,  and  in  tiicse  explora- 
tions all  the  nations  of  Northern  Kurope  have  taken  part. 
Departing  from  this  archipelago  in  1607  Hudson  discovered 
.Ian  Mayen.  It  was  soon  found  that  the  sea  to  the  N.  of 
Spitzbergen  was  usually  blocked  by  ice,  and  numerous  ex- 
peditions were  undertaken  on  sledges.  They  have  all  been 
relatively  unsuccessful,  and  the  highest  latitude  reached  in 
this  way  was  82°  45'  N.  by  I'arry  in  1827. 

.\n  easy  access  to  the  pole  seems  to  be  afforded  by  the 
great  exijanse  of  ocean  between  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen, 
l)ut  efforts  in  this  ilirection  have  been  especially  barren  of 
useful  results.  This  jiart  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  encum- 
bered by  ice  ap|)arently  brought  down  by  a  current  from 
the  N.  The  east  coast  of  Greenland  is  more  iidiospilable 
than  the  west  coast. 

The  greatest  activity  in  Arctic  exploration  has  been  to  the 
N.  of  the  American  continent  in  the  Arctic  Archipelago, 
and  especially  along  the  west  coast  of  Greenland.  This 
coast  had  long  been  known  to  the  Northmen,  and  was  ap- 
parently visited  by  Nicolas  and  Antonio  Zeno,  two  Vene- 
tian noblemen,  inthe  fourteenth  century.  It  also  offered 
the  problem  of  the  northwest  passage,  corres[ionding  to 
that  of  the  northeast,  already  described.  Sebastian  Cabot 
unsuccessfully  searched  for  "this  passage  in  1498,  and  was 
followed  in  1576  by  Frobisher.  The  search  was  actively 
continued  by  Davis.  Iliidson.  Ross,  Parry,  Richardsoii, 
Franklin,  and  others  until,  on  his  return  in"  1833,  Ross  an- 
nounced that  a  practicable  northwest  passage  could  not  ex- 
ist. Nevertheless  in  1845  Franklin  was  sent  out  with  two 
ships  and  108  men  under  instructions  to  find  this  passage  at 
all  hazards.  As  time  passed  and  nothing  further  was  heard 
from  this  expedition,  intense  interest  in  its  fate  was  aroused 
throughout  the  civilized  world,  and  expedition  after  expe- 
dition was  sent  under  the  auspices  of  Great  Britain  an<i  the 
U.  S.  in  its  search.  Among  the  leaders  of  these  were  Ross, 
Collinson  and  MacClure,  Belcher,  Kennedy,  McClintoek, 
Rae,  and  Kane.  The  search  continued  for  more  than  thirty 
years  before  the  fate  of  the  Franklin  expedition  was  finally 
determined,  and  this  was  done  by  a  young  U.  S.  lieutenant 
named  .Schwatka,  who.  following  the  indications  of  McClin- 
toek and  the  reports  of  natives,  found  the  graves  of  the  last 
remnant  of  the  force  and  other  mementoes  in  the  desert  ex- 
panse between  Great  Fish  river  and  Huilson  Bay.  The  geo- 
graphic results  of  the  search  for  Franklin  were  very  rich. 
The  great  complicated  and  ice-covered  .Vrctie  Archipelago 
was  explored,  adding  from  4.000  to  5.000  sq.  miles  to  the 
area  capable  of  being  mapjied  with  fair  accuracy. 

Hayes,  who  had  accompanied  Kane,  was  convinced  that 
an  open  sea  exists  about  tlie  geographic  pole.  He  returned 
in  1860.  and  reached  the  latitude  of  81"  35'  N.  by  way  of 
Smith  Sound,  but  did  not  find  the  open  sea.  Hall  repeated 
the  expedition  in  1871,  and  reached  lat.  82°  16'  N.  Hall 
died  the  following  winter,  and  the  remnants  of  the  expedi- 
tion were  rescued  from  a  field  of  ice  on  which  they  had 
been  floating  186  days  and  on  which  they  had  trav(ded  1,700 
miles.  In  1875  Narcs  took  the  same  course,  and  in  1876  a 
|>arty  of  his  men  under  Markham  traversed  the  frozen  sur- 
face of  the  polar  sea  to  the  N.  of  Griiuiell  Land  an<l  reached 
the  latitude  of  83  20  N.  For  the  winter  1882-83.  by  in- 
ternational co-operation,  stations  were  established  at  many 
points  near  or  within  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Circles, 
chiefly  to  carry  on  meteorological  and  magnetic  observa- 
tions. The  most  luirtherly  of  these  was  that  establi.shed  at 
Lady  Franklin  Bay.  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Griiniell  Land, 
in  lat.  81°  44  N.,  under  the  charge  of  Greely.  The  party 
was  established  in  Aug.,  1881.  It  retreated  S.  to  Camp  Clay 
in  Aug..  1883,  and  was  rescued  in  June,  1884.  having  only 
seven  survivors  out  of  thirty-two  men.  The  northernmost 
point  reached  was  on  the  north  coa.st  of  Greenland,  in  lat. 
83'  24',  ami  was  gained  by  a  small  party  under  Lieut.  Lock- 
wood.  This  is  the  northerinuost  jioint  reached  by  civilized 
man  up  to  Dec,  1894.  The  idea  of  residence  in  polar  lati- 
tudes has  since  been  carried  out  by  Lieut.  Peary,  who  has 
spent  two  winters  with  his  family,  and  without  serious  hard- 
ship, on  the  we.st  coast  of  Greenland  above  lat.  75'. 

The  New  Siberian  islands  were  discovered  in  1770  by  a, 
Russian  merchant  named  Liakhof.  The  abundance  of  fos- 
sil ivory  on  Kotelnyi  (one  of  these  islands)  attracted  com- 
mercial attention  to  the  southern  members  of  this  group, 
and  they  were  often  visited.  Bennett  island  was  discovered 
by  De  Long  in  his  perilous  escape  from  the  Jeannette  in 


682 


POLAR   RESEARCH 


1881,  as  well  as  two  small  islands  farther  W.  but  belonging 
to  the  same  group. 

There  have  been  but  few  expeditions  by  way  of  Bering 
Straits,  and  they  have  been  unsuccessful.  A  raodificatiun  of 
the  plans  heretofore  employed  is  that  of  Nansex  (}.  v.),  who 
believed  that  a  general  ocean  current  sweeps  over  the  polar  re- 
gion from  the  vicinity  of  the  New  Siberian  islands  to  the  east- 
ern and  western  coastsof  Greenland.  To  this  hypothetical  cur- 
rent, and  in  a  ship  made  for  the  purpose  of  being  fastened  in 
the  ice  and  drifting  with  it,  he  intrusted  himself  in  the  summer 
of  1893.  In  Aug..  18!)6,  he  returned  without  mishap,  and  re- 
ported that  he  had  reached  8G  14'  N.  lat.  before  turning  south- 
ward.    See  Furthest  yorth  (London  and  New  York,  1897). 

History  of  Antarctic  Exploration.- — The  lands  of  the 
Antarctic  region  were  unknown  and  unsuspected  until 
1773-75,  when  they  were  discovered  by  Cook.  Previous 
searches  for  a  terra  australis  seem  to  have  related  only  to 
Australasia  and  isolated  islands  far  N.  of  the  Antarctic 
Circle.  On  a  second  cruise  Cook  circumnavigated  the  globe 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  showed  that  the 
southern  continent  was  isolated  and  almost  entirely  within 
that  circle.  In  1819  an  English  whaler,  William  Smith, 
was  driven  S.  of  the  Falkland  islands  to  South  Shetland, 
and  in  1819-21  the  Russian  navigator  Bellingshausen  passed 
westward  from  South  Shetland  within  the  Antarctic  C'ircle 
and  discovered  two  small  islands  which  he  named  Alexan- 
der I.  and  Peter  I.  In  1833  the  whaler  Weddell  penetrated 
to  the  parallel  74°  1.5'  S.  in  the  longitude  of  Cape  St.  Roque, 
and  reported  little  serious  obstacle  to  navigation.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Messrs.  Enderby,  of 
London,  interested  in  whaling,  instructed  their  captains  to 
explore  as  far  southward  and  as  thoroughly  as  possible. 
Their  Capt.  Briscoe  in  1831  discovered  Enderby  Land,  about 
one-third  of  a  circle  eastward  from  South  Shetland  and 
forming  the  second  angle  of  the  triangular  southern  conti- 
nent. In  1833  he  discovered  and  landed  on  Adelaide  island, 
which  lies  S.  W.  of  South  Shetland  and  near  Graham  Land. 
He  was  apparently  the  first  man  to  set  foot  on  the  southern 
continent.  In  1833  Capt.  Kemp  discovered  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  Enderby  Land.  In  1888  their  Capt.  Balleny 
discovered  the  third  angle  of  this  continent  in  what  is  now 
known  as  Wilkes  Land.  In  1839-43  the  Antarctic  region 
was  visited  by  a  L^.  S.  expedition  under  Wilkes,  a  French  one 
under  d'Urville,  and  a  British  one  under  Ross.  Many  dis- 
coveries were  made  by  each,  but  the  most  successful  was 
the  last  named.  Ross  penetrated  to  78'  S.  in  the  latitude 
of  New  Zealand  and  discovered  the  mountainous  district  of 
Victoria  Land,  terminating  to  the  southward  in  the  active 
volcano  Mt.  Erebus,  12,000  feet  high.  Since  this  date  only 
occasional  sealers  or  whalers  have  penetrated  to  the  south- 
ern continent,  the  most  notable  of  these  cruises  being  that 
of  three  Dundee  whalers  (Donald,  Bruce,  and  Murdoch)  in 
1893-94.  No  noteworthy  additions  to  the  knowledge  of 
Antarctic  lands  have  been  made  since  the  expeditions  of 
1839-43. 

Results. — Each  terrestrial  pole  is  covered  by  a  cap  of  con- 
tinuous ice,  which  remains  unbroken  on  the  land-areas  and 
apparently  over  the  smaller  inclosed  water-areas  of  extreme 
high  latitudes,  and  these  cajis  vary  in  size  with  the  season 
and  with  the  year.  Greenland  is  covered  with  an  unbroken 
ice-sheet,  and  so  probably  is  also  the  southern  continent. 
Around  the  margin  of  these  caps  is  an  area  of  variable 
width  covered  with  floating  ice,  either  derived  from  the 
frozen  surface  of  the  ocean  when  it  forms  the  pack,  the  ice- 
fields or  the  floebergs,  or  derived  from  the  sheet  of  land-ice 
when  it  forms  icebergs.  This  area  is  more  or  less  open,  and 
at  its  outer  margin  is  very  open,  irregular,  and  variable. 
Floating  ice  extends  farther  toward  the  equator  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  than  elsewhere.  In  the  North  Atlantic  it  may 
float  as  far  S.  as  lat.  43°  N.  and  in  the  South  Atlantic  to 
lat.  39=  S. 

In  general  the  surface-currents  of  the  ocean  flow  away 
from  the  ice-caps.  An  exception  is  found  in  the  Antarctic 
field,  where  S.  of  New  Zealand  a  current  sets  in  toward  the 
great  bay  in  this  field  which  was  found  bv  Ross.  Another 
is  in  the  Arctic  field,  where  the  Gulf  Stream  extended  enters 
the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  N.  of  Scandinavia. 

Of  the  climate  of  the  Antarctic  regions  little  is  known, 
but  a  fairly  accurate  picture  of  the  succession  of  seasons 
can  be  made  for  I  lie  Arctic.  The  entire  Arctic  area  (ex- 
tending far  S.  in  Siberia  and  North  America)  has  a  mean 
annual  tem|)erature  of  32  or  lower,  except  the  northeast 
coast  of  Norway  and  a  coastal  strip  of  small  size  on  Eastern 
Greenland.     The  region  of  lowest   mean   annual  tempera- 


tures appears  to  extend  over  a  strip  reaching  from  Grinnell 
Land  across  the  New  Siberian  islands  to  the  basin  of  the 
Yana  river  in  .Siberia.  This  area  passes  slightly  to  the 
American  side  of  the  pole,  is  apparently  mostly  covered  by 
water,  and  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  0'  F.  or  lower. 
The  seasons  are  reduced  to  two,  summer  and  winter,  and 
the  diurnal  changes  are  relatively  slight.  The  greatest 
cold  in  winter  is  in  the  Yana  basin,  where  the  mean  tem- 
perature for  .January  descends  to  —  50'  F.  or  lower.  In 
Grinnell  Land  for  this  month  it  is  about  —  35'  F.  The 
July  mean  temperatures  run  from  36'  F.  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  pole  to  about  50'  F.  near  the  Arctic  C'ircle.  In  the 
Yana  basin  it  is  about  30'.  The  precipitation  about  the 
pole  is  small,  varying  from  8  to  25  inches,  and  is  somewhat 
more  likely  to  fall  in  late  summer  than  at  other  seasons. 
The  accumulations  of  ice  and  snow  are  due  not  to  heavy 
precipitation,  but  to  the  conservation  of  what  does  fall.  It 
is  largely  in  the  form  of  snow,  and  evaporation  is  very 
small  because  of  the  low  temperatures.  Fog  and  high 
winds  are  common. 

Tlie  north  magnetic  pole  was  found  by  Ross  to  be  on 
Boothia  Felix  in  1832.  It  has  since  traveled  a  few  degrees 
E.  and  is  now  probably  near  the  southeast  angle  of  this 
peninsula.  The  south  magnetic  pole  is  in  an  unexplored 
area  S.  of  Australia  and  17°  35'  from  the  geographic  pole. 
In  Arctic  regions  the  compass-needle  is  subject  to  so  great 
variations  and  uncertainties  that  its  usefulness  is  much  im- 
paired. These  variations  are  due  in  part  to  the  vicinity  of 
the  magnetic  pole  and  in  part  to  sudden  and  severe,  yet  un- 
explained, magnetic  storms.  Other  anomalies,  not  explained 
as  above,  are  thought  to  be  due  to  the  existence  of  masses 
of  iron  ore  in  the  rocks.  Arctic  researches  have  also  given 
opportunity  for  many  studies  of  the  aurora.  The  center  of 
greatest  freciuency  is  in  Northeastern  America. 

The  geology  of  the  Arctic  region  is  apparently  as  diversi- 
fied as  elsewhere.     Certain  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  strata 
in  Spitzbergen.  Northern  Greenland,  and  the  Arctic  Archi- 
pelago show  that  in  Cretaceous  times  this  area  had  a  sub- 
tropical climate  with  a  luxuriant  flora,  something  like  that 
now  found  in  Southern  Japan.     By  Tertiary  times  the  cli- 
mate, as  shown  by  the  fossil  flora,  had  become  cooler  and      ■ 
was  like  that  of  Western  Oregon.     Volcanic  action  is  seen     ■ 
only  about  the  south  pole.     The  Erebus  volcano  already      ■ 
mentioned  was  active  when  seen,  and  a  small  isolated  peak 
500   feet   high   among  the   South   Shetland    islands  emits 
smoke   continuously.     Several    volcanic   peaks  and  craters 
have  been  recognized  and  much  volcanic  scoria  seen. 

Tlie  flora  of  Arctic  regions  is   scanty.     Willows,  dwarf 
birches,  and  a  few  other  shrubs  extend  to  Southern  Green- 
land and  a  dwarf  willow  extends  far  north.     The  flowering      _ 
herbs  of  high  latitudes  are  few  in  number,  and  include  sev-     ■ 
eral  rushes  and  grasses,  the  dandelion,  a  poppy,  the  crow-     I 
berry,  and  several  saxifrages.     The  most  common  and  most     1 
Arctic  flowering  plant  is  the  Saxifraga  oppositifolia.    Be-      1 
yond  these  are  found  only  flowerless  plants — mosses,  algae, 
and  lichens.    The  Antarctic  flora  is  much  more  scanty  than 
the  Arctic.     The  species  are  identical  or  very  similar  in  all 
longitudes  in  each  polar  region. 

Animal  life  is  relatively  more  abundant,  but  there  is  the 
same  resemblance  of  species.  The  Lady  Franklin  Bay 
part^'  recorded  N.  of  lat.  81°  the  polar  bear,  the  Arctic  fox, 
the  blue  fox,  the  wolf,  the  ermine,  a  lemming,  the  polar 
hare,  the  reindeer,  and  the  musk-ox.  The  two  last  named 
have  been  abundant  in  Northern  Greenland  and  the  rein- 
deer is  abundant  on  Spitzbergen.  The  party  also  recorded 
three  species  of  seal,  two  species  of  wlude,  the  swordfish, 
and  the  narwhal.  Thirty-two  species  of  birds  have  been 
observed  N.  of  81°  30'  N.,  and  the  most  of  these  have  also 
been  seen  at  Point  Barrow  and  on  Nova  Zembla  and  Spitz- 
bergen. The  rock-ptarmigan  is  the  only  winter  resident, 
the  others  being  migratory.  The  list  includes  the  gray 
eagle,  gyrfalcoti.  snowy  owl,  raven,  snow-bunting,  two  geese, 
three  ducks,  and  a  dozen  gulls,  terns,  auks,  divers,  and  sim- 
ilar birds.  The  migratory  birds  arrive  usually  in  June  and 
depart  in  September.  There  are  also  many  fish  and  lower 
marine  forms  and  insects. 

The  Antarctic  region  has  generally  been  represented  as 
swarming  with  animal  life,  especially  the  marine  forms. 
The  Dunilee  whalers  before  referred  to  in  the  summer  of 
1893-94  found  five  species  of  whale  (not,  however,  right 
whales  or  sperm-whales),  four  species  of  .seals,  and  twenty 
species  of  birds,  among  them  seven  petrels,  two  gulls,  two 
terns,  the  common  hooded  crow,  and  a  black-and-white 
duck.     Enormous  numbers  of  penguins  were  seen. 


POLAR  SEAS 


POLEVOI 


683 


The  Antarctic  area  is  uninhabited  by  man,  as  also  are 
Nova  Zembla,  the  Xew  Siberian  islands.  Franz  Josepli  Land, 
Spitzbergen,  Jan  Mayen,  and  the  Arctic  Arcliinelago,  but 
OQ  the  coasts  of  tlie  last  named  are  many  evidences  of  a 
former  occujiation  by  the  Eskimo.  'I'he  Lapps  occupy  the 
Arctic  coasts  of  Europe  W.  of  the  White  Sea,  and  the  Sara- 
oyeds  eastward  to  the  Yulmal  Peninsula.  From  the  mouth 
of  the  Ol)i  to  that  of  the  Kolyma  the  coast  is  now  unin- 
habited, thoujjh  probalily  once  occupied.  Prom  the  Kolyma 
mouth  to  Bering  Straits  the  coast  is  occupied  by  the  Chuk- 
chees,  who  also  extend  southward  about  the  Anadyr  Gulf. 
The  Arctic  coast  of  America,  both  sides  of  Kalliii  Bay,  and 
Davis  Strait,  and  the  southeast  coast  of  Greeidand  are  oc- 
cupied by  Eskimo.  The  most  northern  of  these  are  the 
Arctic  Highlanders,  who  occupy  the  western  shore  of  (Jreen- 
land  to  the  N.  of  Melville  Bay.  They  are  simple  in  life, 
kindly  in  character,  and  not  less  intellectual  than  their 
brethren  farther  S.  Tliey  now  reach  in  their  mii,'rations 
no  higher  N.  than  lat.  7!)  .  but  traces  vt  their  former  occu- 
pation can  be  found  farther  X.  anil  on  Grinnell  Land. 
Though  they  endure  the  rigors  of  their  climate  with  equa- 
nimity and  fair  comfort,  they  are  thought  to  be  decreasing 
in  numbers. 

See  for  further  information  Greexlaxd,  .Siberia,  Xqva 
Zembi.a  Spitzberoe.n  :  Cook,  James;  Franklin,  Joh.n.  etc. 

References. — The  literature  of  polar  research  is  very  ex- 
tensive. The  best  modern  books  are  the  series  of  reports 
of  the  international  polar  expeditions  of  1882-83.  'These  are 
all  government  reports,  and  are  as  follows:  V.  S.,  Point  Bar- 
row (1885)  and  Lady  Franklin  Hay  (1888);  English,  Fort 
Jtae  (1886);  French,  Cape  Horn  (.5  vols.,  1884-88);  Danish, 
Oodthaab  (1889);  Xorwegian,  liomekop  (1888);  Swedish, 
Spitzbergen  (1887);  German,  Kingua  Fiord  (\H9iQ)  and  South 
Georgia  (1886) ;  Austrian,  Jan  Mayen  (1886) ;  Finnish.  So- 
denkijla  (18S6) ;  Russian,  Lena  (1886)  and  Xdva  Zt-mbla 
(1886).  A  list  of  the  literature  to  1890  is  given  in  Saint- 
Martin  and  Rousselet — Xonveaii  Dictionnaire  de  Geoyra- 
pfiie  universelle,  articles  liegion  Antarrtique  and  Region 
Arctiqiie  (1892).  Mark  \V.  Harrington. 

Polar  Seas :  See  Antarctic  Ocean  and  Arctic  Ocean. 

Pol'dor  [Dutch];  the  technical  term  in  Holland  for  a 
once  sul)merged  area  of  land  surrounded  by  dikes  and  re- 
claimed by  artificial  drainage,  usually  in  the  smaller  polders 
by  wheels  driven  by  windmills,  in  the  great  polders  by  pow- 
erful pumping-engines  moved  by  steam.  The  polders  vary  in 
area  from  100  acres  and  less  to  12.000  or  15.000  acres;  their 
surface  is  usually  depressed  from  1  to  15  or  20  feet  below  the 
surrounding  country,  and  these  lowest,  as  those  of  Schieland 
near  Rotterdam,  the  llaarlemermeer  polder,  etc.,  are  below 
the  sea-level.  South  Holland  alone  contains  more  than  1,000 
polders.  The  most  important  are  those  which  have  been 
created  by  artificial  drainage  of  what  were  permanently- 
submerged  area-s,  such  as  that  of  the  Haarlemermeer.  (See 
Uaari.em  Lake.)  In  connection  with  the  formatiim  of  the 
NoRTa  Ska  Canal  (</.  r.).  all  the  areas  once  covered  by  the 
waters  of  the  Y  and  Wijkermeer  are  converted  into  polders. 

Pole,  Reoinald:  prelate;  b.  at  Stourton  Castle. .Staff ord- 
shirc.  England,  in  Mar.,  l.")00;  son  of  Sir  Richard  Pole,  Lord 
Montacute,  and  of  Margaret  Plautagenet,  Countess  of  .Salis- 
bury ;  grailuated  at  Uxfonl,  1515,  and  afterward  studied  at 
the  University  of  Padua,  Italy,  1.120-23.  Ueturning  to 
England  in  1525,  he  was  favorably  received  by  his  cousin, 
Henry  V'lII..  by  whom  he  was  sent  in  1529  to  negotiate  for 
the  approval  l)y  the  University  of  Paris  of  the  projected 
divorce  of  t^ueen  Catharine  of  Aragon.  but  soon  came  him- 
self to  an  opinion  adverse  to  that  measure,  and  tho\igh 
the  king  sought  to  win  his  support  by  making  him  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  Pole  refused  the  offer  and  left  the  king- 
dom. He  resided  successively  at  Avignon,  Padua,  and 
Venice;  sent  to  Henry  his  book,  I'ro  Fcclesia.iticts  IMitatis 
Defenxione  (1536).  for  writing  which  he  was  summoned  to 
return  to  England,  anil,  refusing  to  obey,  was  deprived  of 
his  ecclesiastical  preferments  ami  attainted  Ijy  Parliament, 
but  in  compensation  was  in  the  same  year  invited  to  Rome 
by  Pope  Paid  III.  and  created  cardinal  Dee.  3.  In  his  hos- 
tility to  the  Protestant  cause  he  tried  to  induce  the  Roman 
Catholic  powers  to  undertake  the  invasion  of  England,  but 
was  unsuccessful.  He  was  legate  at  Viterbo  1.539—12;  pre- 
sided as  [lajial  legate  at  the  opening  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
Dec.  13,  1.545;  wjvs  excepted  by  name  from  the  amnesty  de- 
creed by  Edward  VI.  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  1.547: 
was  a  ppimiiient  candidate  for  the  papacy  in  the  election  of 
1549;  was  appointed  legate  to  England  on  the  accession  of 


Queen  Mary,  and  received  liy  her  with  great  pomp  Nov.  24, 
1554 ;  successfully  invited  Parliament  to  a  reconciliation 
with  the  papacy,  and  freed  the  realm  from  spiritual  cen- 
sures; was  appointed  by  the  po])e  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
Dec.  11.  1555;  was  consecrated  Mar.  22,  1556;  elected  chan- 
cellor (;f  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  1556; 
ma<le  a  visitation  of  the  universities  Feb.,  1557,  and  exercised 
a  great  influence  upon  the  government  of  Mary.  D.  at  Lam- 
beth Palace  Nov.  18.  1.5.58,  the  day  following  the  death  of 
Mary.  Author  of  Liber  de  Conrilio  (1.562),  the  first  work 
printed  at  Rome  by  Paulus  Manutius  ;  De  Summo  I'untifice 
C/iri.sti  ill  Terra:  'tVeoriVy  (1569).  and  ,■!  Treatise  of  Justifi- 
cation (1569),  besides  his  principal  work,  previously  men- 
tioned. Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Pole-axe :  See  Battle-axe. 

Polecat :  a  name  often,  in  the  L^.  S.,  applied  to  the  skunk. 
Mephitis  me/Jiitica,  but  properly  belonging  to  one  of  the 
weasels — Putorius  fmtidus — a  European  species  (also  called 
fitch),  about  16  inches  long.  The  fur.  whicli  is  brown,  black- 
ish on  the  tail  and  feet,  and  harsh,  is  used  in  making  paint- 
brushes, but  the  name  fitch,  originally  given  to  brushes  made 
from  the  fur  of  this  animal,  has  been  extended  to  others. 
The  ferret  is  a  semi-domesticated,  more  or  less  albinistic, 
variety  of  this  species.  F.  A.  L. 

Polem'ies  [from  Gr.  iro\ftuK6s.  warlike,  deriv.  of  it6\ifms, 
war]:  the  side  of  the  department  of  dogmatics  especially  con- 
cerned with  ecclesiastical  controversy,  particularly  of  an  ag- 
gressive character.  It  recognizes  and  emphasizes  confes- 
sional differences  and  maintains  the  distinctive  denomina- 
tional tenets.  It  may  be  justly  said  that  polemics  is  as  old  as 
the  Church.  For  many  centuries  it  was  a  somewhat  promi- 
nent feature  of  all  theological  writing.  As  was  inevitable, 
at  times  there  was  more  disposition  to  win  a  victory  over  an 
opponent  than  to  establish  the  truth,  and  the  literary  battle 
between  the  Latin  and  Greek  Churches,  between  Protestants 
and  Roman  Catholics,  and  between  different  branches  of  the 
Protestant  Church  have  been  too  frequently  characterized 
by  unholy  passion  and  unfair  methods;  but  there  is  a 
growing  indifference  to  theological  distinctions,  and  the 
churches  are  coming  nearer  together;  so  there  is  less  polem- 
ics in  the  systems  of  theology.  Irenics,  or  the  harmonizing 
of  differences,  is  the  end  to  be  sought  by  polemics.  The  for- 
mation of  religious  and  philanthropic  societies  by  members 
of  different  denominations,  the  bringing  of  the  Old  Catholic, 
the  orthodox  Oriental,  and  the  Anglican  Churches  toget  her, 
in  conferences  and  such  gatherings  as  the  World's  Parlia- 
ment of  Religions  in  Chicago  in  1893 — these  are  signs  that 
polemics  is  yielding  to  irenics.  The  early  Christian  apol- 
ogies, while  defenses  against,  were  also  attacks  upon  Pagan- 
ism. They  are  translated  in  the  Ante-Xicene  Christian 
Library.  The  Latin  theologians  of  the  ninth  century  busied 
themselves  with  attacks  upon  the  Greek  theologians.  The 
most  elaborate  work  upon  this  controversy  is  by  Joseph 
Cardinal  Hergenrother,  Photius.  Patriarch  von  Constanti- 
nopel  (Regensburg.  3  vols.,  1867-69).  Of  the  conflict  be- 
tween Romanism  and  Protestaiitisnt  the  best  works  are  by 
J.  A.  Moehler  (R.  C),  Eng.  trans.  Symbolism  (2  vols..  Lon- 
dcm,  1847),  and  by  K.  Hase,  Handliuch  der  protestantischen 
I'ljeniik  geyen  die  romisch-katholisclie  Kirche  (Leipzig,  5th 
cd.  1890).  The  systematic  theologies  of  the  various  Protes- 
tant denominations,  e.  g.  C.  Hodge  (Presbyterian,  3  vols., 
Xew  York.  1H72),  W.  G.  T.  Shedd  (Presbvterian,  3  vols.,  1884- 
94).  H.  H.  Smith  (Presbvterian  1884)."A.  11.  Strong  (Bap- 
tist, 1889),  II.  Schmid  (Lutheran.  Eng.  trans..  Philadelphia, 
1876),  S.  Buel  (Anglican,  Xew  York,  1890),  J.  Miley  (.Metho- 
dist, 2  vols.,  1892-94),  contain  discussions  of  points  in  con- 
troversy between  the  different  denominations,  such  as  pre- 
destination, regeneration,  and  the  divine  unity.  The  Church 
creeds  are  to  a  certain  extent  polemical.  See  the  most  com- 
plete collection,  by  P.  Schaff.  Tlie  Creeds  of  Christendom 
(5th  ed.,  New  York,  1890).     See  Apologetics. 

Samiel  IMacauley  Jackson. 

Polemon  (in  Gr.  no\€><i>i')  the  Perieqete  :  the  first  to  de- 
vehip  the  preparation  of  "giude-books,"  with  especial  refer- 
ence to  works  of  art,  inscriptions,  aiul  the  like;  flourished 
about  1.50  B.C.,  and  is  sujiposed  to  have  been  the  source  of 
much  of  the  wisdom  of  Pai'sanias  (q.v.).  See  ."Miiller, 
Frag.  Histor.  Grcecorum.  vol.  iii.,  pp.  108-148.      B.  L.  G. 

PolenioniacesB:  See  Phlox  Family. 

PoIovk'i,  XiKOLAi  ALEKSEiKvicn  :  author;  b.  in  Irkutsk, 
Siberia.  June  22,  1796.  .Self-taught  and  originally  a  mer- 
chant, he  gave  liimself  up  to  literature,  and  founded  the 


68i 


POLIANTHITS 


POLICE 


JIoscow  Telegraph  (1825),  which  became  one  of  the  chief 
Russian  journals  of  the  day.  He  attacked  with  passion  and 
skill  the  writers  of  the  pseudo-classical  school,  in  oppo- 
sition to  whom  he  defended  Pushkin,  Byron,  and  other  ro- 
mantic authors.  His  own  talent  was  remarkably  raany- 
siiled,  for  he  was  at  the  same  time  critic,  story-teller, 
dramatist,  historian,  and  translator  with  varying  success. 
Some  of  his  plays  {CgvUiio.  Parasha.  The  Grandfather  of 
the  Russian  Fleet,  Death  and  Honor,  etc.)  are  still  played, 
in  spite  of  absunl  exaggerations  in  them,  which  are  also  to 
be  found  in  his  stories  (Abaddonna,  T/ie  Bliss  of  Madness, 
Emma,  etc.).  His  Outlines  of  Russian  Literature  had  value 
for  his  time,  but  his  unfinished  attempt  to  write  Russian 
history  (6  vols.,  1824-33)  in  the  style  of  Guizot  and  Niebuhr, 
and  in  rivalry  to  the  great  work  of  Karamzin  (q.  v.),  was  a 
failure.  His  later  years  were  unfortunate.  His  paper  was 
suppressed  by  the  Government  (1885).  As  by  changing  his 
opinions  he  had  lost  his  former  adherents,  in  order  to  sup- 
port his  numerous  family  he  was  obliged  to  do  literary  hack- 
work as  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Son  of  the  Fatherland,  in 
support  of  the  party  he  had  formerly  opposed.  D.  Feb.  22, 
1846. — His  son,  Petr  Nikolaievich  Polevoi,  has  written  a 
Life  of  Shakspeare  (prefatory  to  the  edition  of  translations 
from  Shakspeare  of  (jerbel  and  Xekrasov,  4  vols.,  18(56-67) ; 
a  well-known  History  of  Russia  in  Sketches  and  Biogra- 
phies (4th  ed.  1881),  and  other  works.         A.  C.  Coolidge. 

PoHiiiithe.s  Tuberosa :  See  Tuberose. 

Police  [=:  Fr.  <  Lat.  politi'a  =  Gr.  iroXneia,  condition  of 
a  city  or  state,  government,  administration,  from  ttSms, 
city,  state]:  the  means  instituted  by  the  government  to 
maintain  public  order,  liberty,  property,  and  individual  or 
personal  security.  In  the  accomplishment  of  this  function 
it  is  sometimes  the  auxiliary  of  the  administrative  depart- 
ment, sometimes  of  the  judicial  department.  In  the  former 
ease  the  measures  which  it  employs  are  chiefly  preventive, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  discretionary. 

The  real  court  of  first  instance  is  the  policeman.  The 
policeman  on  his  daily  post  is  the  universal  referee,  as  well 
as  the  universal  guide-board ;  he  has  knowledge  of  more  dis- 
putes and  quarrels  and  he  decides  more  cases  than  all  the 
courts  in  the  land.  Of  course,  these  are  to  the  last  degree 
trivial  when  looked  at  individually,  but  in  the  aggregate 
they  are  of  vast  importance.  If  the  policeman  be  a  man  of 
good  common  sense  he  so  decides  these  cases  as  not  only  to 
put  an  end  to  animosity  between  neighbors,  but  to  prevent 
an  infinite  number  of  petty  lawsuits  which  would  otherwise 
occupy  the  courts.  In  doing  this  he  merely  carries  out  the 
object  of  his  vocation — to  keep  the  peace. 

It  is  a  narrow  view  of  a  policeman's  functions  which  pic- 
tures him  solely  as  arresting  criminals.  The  discovery  and 
apprehension  of  those  who  have  broken  the  law  is  a" most 
important  part  of  his  work,  but  in  addition  he  has  many 
petty  duties,  such  as  seeing  that  outside  doors  are  locked, 
watching  the  street  traffic  and  untangling  blocks  of  vehicles, 
lookmg  after  the  safety  of  women  and  children,  enforcing 
corporation  ordinances,  and  finding  lost  children.  The  or- 
ganization of  the  police  in  a  city  enables  cognate  branches 
of  that  city's  government  to  bring  laws  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  people  as  no  other  machinery  can.  In  time  of  threat- 
ened epidemic,  for  example,  the  health  authorities  would  be 
practically  helpless  without  the  police.  As  contrasted  with 
the  aggregate  of  these  functions,  in  their  value  to  the  com- 
munity, the  sterner  duties  of  the  police,  such  as  suppressing 
riot,  are  of  eom])aratively  little  worth. 

The  need  of  discipline,  of  centralized  power,  has  imparted 
to  the  police  in  every  large  city  a  semi-military  organizaticju. 
Everywhere  the  same  general  system  is  to  be  found.  The 
people  are  represented  by  the  police  commission,  which  ap- 
points men  to  serve  on  the  force,  makes  the  rides  wliich 
are  to  govern  them,  sometimes  fixes  salaries,  etc.  It  is  in 
the  commission,  when  there  is  more  than  one  member,  that 
all  debate  on  police  matters  takes  place,  and  it  is  here  that 
debate  ends.  Immediately  after  the  commission,  and  subject 
to  the  rules  made  by  it,  comes  the  police  force.  A  marked 
difference  is  seen  at  once,  because  membership  in  this  is  al- 
ways for  life  or  good  behavior,  and  there  is  always  a  pension 
for  those  worn  out  in  the  service.  In  some  case's  the  police 
force  is  complete  within  itself;  that  is,  the  administration 
of  the  rules  made  by  the  commission  is  carried  on  by  the 
ofTicials  of  the  fore*  without  interference.  In  other  words, 
the  force  is  autonomous. 

At  the  head  <if  the  force  is  an  official  known  by  various 
titles  in  the  different  localities,  but  often  called  superintend- 


ent. It  is  his  business  to  see  the  orders  of  the  commission 
carried  out,  to  see  that  the  members  of  the  force,  each  in  his 
degree,  perform  the  multifarious  duties  exacted  of  them.  He 
is  the  executive  head  of  the  force,  and  while  he  may,  if  he 
sees  fit,  consult  with  the  higher  officers  on  matters  of  mo- 
ment, he  issues  orders  to  the  force  which  all  must  obey.  He 
is,  from  his  position,  not  only  the  central  authority,  but  the 
very  mainspring  of  the  force.  In  practice  it  has  been  found 
that  the  more  uncontrolled  the  authority  of  this  officer,  the 
better  the  force;  the  more  it  is  interfered  with,  the  more  dis- 
organized and  inefficient  the  force  becomes.  In  some  organiza- 
tions of  police,  all  promotions  rest  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  official  who  is  the  immediate  superior  of  the  person  to 
be  promoted  and  on  the  ajiproval  of  the  superintendent. 
This  system  has  given  the  best  results  among  the  members 
of  the  force.  Xo  other  has  so  completely  secured  [iromotion 
for  merit,  simply  because  all  other  systems  have  introduced 
causes  for  promotion  which  are  not  connected  with  the  di- 
rect efficiency  of  the  force. 

Immediately  under  the  superintendent  there  are  officials 
called  inspectors  in  the  U.  S.  Each  inspector  has  assigned 
to  him  five  or  more  precincts  over  which  he  has  executive 
control.  As  the  superintendent  carries  out  the  orders  of 
the  commission,  so  the  inspectors  carry  out  the  orders  of  the 
sujierintendent,  and  see  that  they  are  obeyed. 

With  reference  to  the  population,  a  city  is  divided  into 
sections  called  precincts,  or  in  some  countries,  districts,  and 
at  the  heiid  of  each  is  a  captain  of  police.  He  rules  the  men 
attached  to  his  precinct  or  station  house — a  building  fitted 
up  for  the  jjolice  and  containing  cells  for  prisoners — sees 
that  the  laws  are  obeyed,  and  the  rules  of  the  force  carried 
out. 

Below  the  captains  in  rank  come  the  sergeants,  or  in  some 
cities  lieutenants  and  then  sergeants.  One  of  these  is  on 
duty  in  the  precinct-house  day  and  night.  In  many  respects 
his  duties  are  those  of  the  captain.  He  is,  however,  more  in 
contact  with  the  people.  He  has  many  decisions  to  make, 
and  must  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  simpler  rules  of 
criminal  law. 

The  '•  roundsmen,"  as  they  are  called  in  the  IT.  S.,  are  the 
officers  to  wliom  is  intrusted  the  inspection  of  the  patrolmen. 
It  is  their  duty  to  see  that  the  latter  are  walking  their  posts, 
that  they  do  not  break  any  of  the  rules  made  for  tlicm,  and 
that  they  are  at  all  times  carefully  watching  for  the  welfare 
of  the  people. 

There  is  a  separate  branch  of  the  force  which  contributes 
in  no  small  degree  to  tlie  suppression  and  punisliment  of 
criminals.  This  is  the  detective  bureau.  It  consists  of  a 
nutnber  of  men  who  have  been  selected  for  their  shrewdness, 
courage,  and  eomrnon  sense,  and  for  their  acquaintance 
with  the  faces  and  careers  of  criminals.  It  is  the  special 
duty  of  tlie  detectives  to  investigate  crime,  but  a  far  more 
important  part  of  their  work  is  the  prevention  of  crime  by 
a  ceaseless  watch  kept  on  the  dangerous  elements  of  society. 
Cnder  their  scrutiny  come  the  anarchist  and  the  pickpocket, 
the  burglar  and  the  confidence  operator,  and  though  the 
greater  part  of  their  work  is  never  known  to  the  jiublic, 
they  are  a  powerful  agency  in  the  maintenance  of  order  in 
the  community. 

In  many  countries  there  is  a  branch  of  the  police  which 
is  practically  unknown  in  the  U.  S.  These  are  the  political 
detectives,  tlie  inen  who  watch  those  who  are  or  who  are 
sujiposed  to  be  inimical  to  the  existing  government.  Dur- 
ing the  civil  war,  and  for  a  short  time  afterward,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  secret  service  of  the  U.  S.  Government  did  work 
of  this  kind,  but  since  then  the  only  avowed  enemies  of  the 
Government  in  the  U.  S.,  the  anarchists,  are  looked  after 
by  the  local  police. 

The  jiolice  furce  of  the  city  of  New  York  is  governed  by 
a  commission,  having  four  members,  apjiointed  for  a  period 
by  the  mayor.  The  force  consists  (1894)  of  a  superintend- 
ent, 4  inspectors,  38  captains,  163  sergeants,  40  detective  ser- 
geants, 174  roundsmen,  and  3.380  ])atrolmen — in  all,  3.800 
men,  besides  15  surgeons,  79  doormen  or  janitors  of  station- 
houses,  and  21  matrons  who  attend  female  prisoners.  The 
city  is  divided  into  38  jirecincts  and  3  inspection  districts. 
The  posts  patrolled  in  the  day  are  twice  as  long  as  those 
during  the  night,  so  that  during  the  latter  twice  as  many 
men  are  on  duty.  In  addition,  a  reserve  of  men  is  kept  in 
each  precinct-house  ready  to  be  sent  to  any  point  at  which 
they  are  required.  In  the  upper  jiart  of  the  city,  where  the 
posts  are  very  long,  many  of  the  men  are  mounted.  In  time 
of  d.angcr,  i>r  when  there  is  any  great  popular  festival,  the 
whole  force  is  on  duty  night  and  day.     There  is  a  sjiecial 


I 


POLICE 


POLIGNAC 


C85 


detail,  known  as  the  harbor  police,  which  watches  the  ship- 
piiiK  from  launches  ar.d  boats. 

Ill  Chicago  the  police  force  consists  of  a  superintendent. 
an  assistant  superinten<ient.  3  inspectors,  a  chief  of  detect- 
ives, a  suporiiitondeiit  of  the  bureau  of  identification,  l.'j 
captains.  5!)  lieutenants,  207  sergeants,  and  2,4'J3  patrolmen 
—in  all  2.841  men. 

In  London  the  commission  consists  of  a  chief  commis- 
sioner and  two  assistants,  who  are  appointed  for  life  by  the 
Queen  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Home  Secretary.  The 
metropolitan  police  force  consists  of  (1891)  .'j  chief  constables, 
31  suiierintendeiits,  787  inspectors — equivalent  to  captains  in 
New  York— l.U;!7  sergeants,  and  12,583  constables— in  all. 
15,043  men.  There  are  180  police  districts  (precincts)  in 
London.  This  is  exclusive  of  the  city  police,  which  consists 
of  005  men. 

The  metropolitan  district  of  Dublin  has  its  own  police, 
created  under  parliamentary  act  of  1836.  The  force  con- 
sisted on  Dec.  31,  1892,  of  l' chief  commissioner,  8  superin- 
tendents, 24  inspectors,  176  sergeants,  and  940  constables. 

The  Scotch  p.. lice  were  organized  under  parliamentary 
acts  of  1857  and  1862.  auxiliary  to  and  amemlatory  of  acts 
passed  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
force  is  subdivided  info  county  districts,  the  authority  gov- 
erning each  county  force  being  vested  in  a  commission  con- 
sisting of  seven  county  chancellors,  and  the  sheriff  of  the 
county  being  an  ex  ojjicin  member  of  the  commission.  In 
ScotlaiKl.  which  has  an  area  of  29.785  sq.  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  4.025,647,  the  total  number  of  police  in  all  tlie  differ- 
ent counties  is  4.700.  or  1  for  every  852  of  the  po|iulation. 

In  Paris  the  organization  of  the  police  is  distinctly  mili- 
tary. Under  the  Miiuster  of  the  Interior,  who  is  in  the 
cabinet,  there  is  the  prefect  of  police  and  his  subordinate, 
the  director  of  i>ublic  safely.  The  prefect  occn])ies  almost 
a  cabinet  position,  in  that  he  is  exijected  to  resign  if  the 
force  fail  in  any  great  emergency.  For  example,  the  pre- 
fect, M.  Loze,  resigned  after  the  students'  riots  in  1892,  and 
his  successor,  JI.  Leijin.  after  the  assassination  of  President 
Carnot.  There  are  80  commissionnaires,  2  division  in- 
spectors, 25  clerks,  38  officers.  25  principal  inspectors,  100 
brigadiers  (equivalent  to  sergeants  in  Xew  York),  700 under- 
brigadiers  (roundsmen),  and  6.800  guards  of  the  public  peace 
— in  all,  7,770  men.  "  Indicators."  as  they  are  called,  are 
men  outside  the  force  who  watch  everybody.  They  are.  in 
fact,  spies,  and  the  majority  are  reformed  criminals. 

In  Herlin  the  police  are  divided  into  the  county  police. 
the  industrial,  the  building,  the  criminal,  the  public  safety, 
the  stranger,  and  the  community  police.  The  fire  dejiart- 
ment  is  also  a  part  of  the  same  general  bureau.  The  Jlin- 
ister  of  the  Interior  is  the  head  of  the  police  force,  and  the 
system  is  purelv  military.  L'nder  him  is  the  general  with  a 
staff  of  twelve  brigade-generals  who  rank  as  colonels  in  the 
army,  forty-nine  district-officers  who  rank  as  majors  or  cap- 
tains, and  so  on.     The  men  carry  swords  and  firearms. 

In  Russia  the  police  form  the  executive  administrators  of 
the  whole  empire,  and  their  number  is  not  published.  In 
St.  Petersburg  there  are  about  10,000  police— officials  of  the 
public  safety — who  maintain  order.  They  are  not  armed  in 
any  way,  but  carry  whistles.  The  number  of  those  cm- 
ployed  as  detectives  in  the  famous  "  Third  Section  "  is  un- 
known. It  is  the  duty  of  these  men  to  keep  a  constant 
watch  on  everybody,  especially  foreigners  in  the  country, 
and  to  make  their  reports  to  the  head  of  the  section  person- 
ally. For  many  years  this  was  the  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
but  of  late  it  has  been  some  man,  generally  selected  from 
the  array,  who  has  been  especially  appointed. 

The  pcjlice  in  cities  in  Spain,  Belgium,  and  Italy  are  or- 
ganized under  the  military  system  so  generally  ajiproved  of 
on  the  Continent.  In  Turkey  the  police  are  more  like 
watchmen  who  look  out  for  fires  than  guardians  of  the 
peace. 

Police  organizations  of  a  military  character  are  main- 
tained in  several  portions  of  the  British  empire.  In  Ire- 
land the  Hoyal  Irish  Constabulary,  organized  in  1836,  have 
done  good  service,  and  it  is  this  force  which  put  into  effect 
the  various  coercion  acts  jiassed  by  Parliament.  In  Canada 
a  system  of  mounted  police  was  formed  on  the  model  of  the 
Royal  Irish  Constabulary,  and  in  the  Northwest  territories 
have  managed  the  In<lians  and  maintained  laws  with  thor- 
oughness. In  Australia  and  Africa  similar  organizations 
have  been  started,  and  the  police  branch  of  the  Kast  Indian 
Government  is  much  like  them.  The  organization  is  purely 
military  in  form;  there  is  generally  a  lieutenant-colonel  or 
major  at  the  head,  responsible  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior 


or  the  official  who  answers  to  him.  Under  the  command- 
ing officer  there  are  captains,  lieutenants,  sergeants,  and 
privates.  These  bodies  of  men  have  done  splendid  service 
and  have  kept  the  peace  over  large  territories  at  a  minimum 
of  cost.  In  Australia  the  police  have  ruled  the  gold-fields 
and  the  blacks,  and  in  South  Africa  a  similar  force  has 
(1894)  been  organized  to  maintain  order  among  the  miners 
in  the  gold  regi(ms  and  to  hold  in  check  the  Matabeles  and 
other  tribes.  In  India  the  force  is  recruited  from  the  na- 
tives, but  the  officers  are  British.  There  is  life-tenure  of 
position  and  a  pension  for  old  age  or  disability.  With  the 
mixed  ()Opiilation  of  India,  governed  by  an  alien  race,  the 
supervision  exercised  by  the  |)olice  is  of  enormous  value. 

Keturning  to  the  police  in  cities,  a  comparison  of  the  num- 
ber of  men  with  the  population  is  of  interest.  The  figures 
are  as  follows : 


Xew  York 

Taris 

London,  metropolitan  and  city 

police  districts  11891) 

St.  Petersburg 

Glasgow 


FopulfttioD. 


1.975.648* 
2,:M4,550 

5.fA3.S06 

978.30!) 
670.000 


No.  of 

police. 


3.800 


1.5.M8 

10,000 

1,303 


No.  of  men,  wom- 

eu,  aiid  children 

t;uarded  hy  ono 

policeiDUi. 


519 
399 

353 
97 
514 


*  Population  estimated  by  Registrar  of  Vital  Statistics,  New  York 
Health  Departnieut,  October  12,  181M. 

It  must  be  rememljered  that  in  the  Paris  police  the  "  in- 
dicators" and  the  Government  political  detectives  are  not 
included,  and  that  in  London  the  extremely  puzzling  streets 
make  a  large  number  of  human  sign-boards  imperatively 
necessary,  and  the  dense  traffic  requires  to  be  regulated  by 
a  large  number  of  men.  The  police  in  European  cities,  not 
excepting  those  of  Great  Britain,  are  aided  to  a  great  extent 
in  their  duties,  so  far  as  those  duties  relate  to  suppressing 
organized  lawlessness,  by  the  regular  troops,  large  garrisons 
of  which  are  quartered  in  every  town  of  any  considerable 
size.  "  Thomas  Byrnes. 

Policy :  a  name  ap])lied  to  various  forms  of  lottery.  In 
one  forni  the  "policy  shops"  give  out  each  afternoon  sli|)S 
containing  two  columns  of  twelve  numbers  each,  and  each 
evening  slips  containing  two  columns  of  thirteen  each.  The 
numbers  in  each  column  are  drawn  by  lot  from  those  be- 
tween 1  and  78  inclusive.  Before  the  drawing  a  person  may 
make  bets  in  various  ways ;  in  a  "  straight  gig  "  the  player 
selects  three  numbers  and  receives  odds  of  100  to  1  for  the 
afternoon  slips,  or  87+  to  1  for  the  evening  slips,  that  they 
will  not  all  three  appear  in  the  same  column  of  the  slip. 
In  this  the  real  chances  against  the  player  are  nearly  173 
to  1  for  the  afternoon,  and  exactly  133  tol  for  the  evening, 
even  when  the  drawing  is  fairly  conducted.  Policy-playing 
is  much  in  vogue  among  certain  classes,  in  spite  of  laws 
against  it,  and  dreams  and  other  superstitions  are  much  re- 
lied on  in  the  choice  of  numbers. 

Polignae.  po  Iw-nya'ak' :  the  name  of  a  French  family 
which  played  a  conspicuous  and  fatal  part  in  th('  later  his- 
tory of  the  Bourbons. — .Itles.  CofXT  w.  Poliuxac,  and  his 
wife,  YOLANDK  .MaKTINE  (iABlilELLF.  OE  PoLASTROX,  wefc  the 
most  intimate  friends  of  M.-irie  Antoinette  and  the  mo.st 
jiromincnt  members  of  that  faction  of  the  court  which  in- 
trigued against  the  reforms  of  Louis  XVI.  and  his  ministers. 
The  count  was  made  a  duke  in  1780.  postmaster-general  in 
1782,  and  the  family  received  immense  dotations  of  land 
and  money.  As  the'prodigality  of  the  queen  and  the  polit- 
ical mistakes  she  made  were  generally  ascrilicd  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Duchess  of  Polignac.  she  and  her  husband  were 
the  special  objects  of  the  French  people's  hatred  and  con- 
tempt. They  left  the  country,  together  with  the  Count  of 
ArtoLs.  July  16.  1789,  as  the  fii'st  emigres.  The  duchess  dieil 
at  Vienna  in  Dec,  1793.  The  duke  went  afterward  to  Rus- 
sia, where  he  was  well  received  by  Catherine  II.;  she  gave 
him  an  estate  in  Ukraine,  where  he  died  Sept.  21.  1817. 
His  three  sons  tried  first  to  form  an  intrigue  for  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Bourlions  by  the  First  Consul,  through 
his  wife,  .losephine;  afterward  they  participated  in  the  con- 
spiracy of  Cadoudal,  and  were  imprisoned  at  Paris  when 
the  allied  army  ai)proached  the  city.  The  second  of  them, 
.IfLES  AiiousTUS  Armand  Marie,  b.  May  14. 1780,  was  inado 
a  Roman  prince  bv  the  pope  in  1820,  and  became  president 
of  the  cabinet  .\ug.  8.  1829.  As  such  he  signed  the  famous 
nrdonnnnrex  of  .lulv  25.  1830.  which  caused  the  immediate 
downfall  of  the  P.ourbou  dvnaslv.     He  fied.  but  was  arrest- 


686 


POLISH   LANGUAGE 


POLISH  LITERATURE 


ed,  and  sentenced  by  the  Chamber  of  Peers  to  imprisonment 
for  life  and  forfeiture  of  his  titles  and  rights  as  a  citizen. 
Restored  to  liberty  by  the  amnesty  of  Nov.  39, 1836,  he  went 
to  England.     D.  at  St.-Germain,  Mar.  39,  1847. 

Revised  by  P.  M.  Colby. 

Polish  Language :  See  Slavic  Languages. 

Polish  Literature :  the  literary  monuments  of  the  Polish 
language  both  before  and  since  the  final  partition  of  Poland. 
This  literature,  like  the  nation  itself,  has  passed  through 
many  vicissitudes.  Seven  distinct  periods  of  its  develop- 
ment are  generally  recognized. 

I.  Poland  under  Ike  Piasts  (down  to  1386  A.  d.).— The 
ancient  (heathen)  Poles  were  not  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
writing,  and  what  little  of  their  literature  has  been  pre- 
served by  tradition  is  found  in  folk-song  and  fairy-tale. 
Christianity  introduced  Bohemian,  German,  and  Latin  cul- 
ture into  Poland,  and  the  native  language  entered  on  a 
struggle  against  the  German  and  Latin  cultivated  by  the 
priests  in  their  schools.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Polish 
literature  are  a  translation  of  Psalm  1.  (about  1390),  the 
hymn  Boytirodzica  Qtiothex  ot  God),  ascribed  to  St.  Adalbert 
(d.  997),  and  the  psalter  of  Queen  Margareth  (d.  1349).  The 
historians  of  this  period,  Martin  Gallus,  Mateusz  Cholewa, 
Wincenty  Kadlubek  (d.  1333),  and  others,  wrote  in  Latin. 

II.  Poland  under  the  Jagelluns  (1386-1548).— The  inven- 
tion of  printing  (first  press  in  Cracow,  1465)  and  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Academy  of  Cracow  (re-established,  1397)  exer- 
cised a  powerful  influence  on  the  development  of  native 
Polish  literature.  The  Bible  of  Saros  Patak  dates  from 
1455.  Important  collections  of  judicial  decisions  were 
made.  Some  poets  still  wrote  in  Latin,  but  Stanislaw 
Ciolek,  Jedrzey  Galka,  and  others,  wrote  in  Polish.  In  this 
period  were  made  the  first  attempts  at  dramatic  composition 
(mysteries,  with  biblical  subjects).  Theological  contro- 
versies created  considerable  polemical  literature.  The  chief 
works  of  the  period  are  the  legal  tracts  of  Jan  Ostrorog 
and  the  historical  writings  (in  Latin)  of  Jan  Dlugosz  (d. 
1480),  who  is  justly  considered  the  father  of  Polish  history. 
Kronika  Polska,  by  Chwalczewski,  and  a  few  other  works 
were  written  in  Polish. 

III.  The  Golden  Age  (1548-1606).— The  Reformation  and 
the  generous  policy  of  Sigismund  August  combined  to  raise 
the  standard  of  native  literature  to  a  level  hitherto  unknown. 
Poland  was  the  common  refuge  of  western  "  heretics,"  the  Bo- 
hemian Hussites,  and  others,  whose  Polish  adherents  cham- 
pioned their  tenets  in  Polish  and  thus  compelled  the  Catholic 
majority  to  employ  that  language,  though  Latin  did  not  yet 
wholly  disappear  ;  but  the  large  number  of  polemical  tracts, 
postillas,  religious  songs,  and  translations  of  tlie  Scriptures 
possessed  but  an  ephemeral  value.  Talented  literary  n\eu 
received  encouragement  and  generous  support  from  the  king 
and  many  high-minded  nobles  and  ecclesiastics ;  native 
poetry  found  a  number  of  gifted  interpreters,  and  this  period 
is  pre-eminent  in  both  quality  and  quantity  of  literary  works. 
It  is  also  marked  by  the  decline  of  the  Cracow  Academy 
and  the  rise  of  Jesuit  influence  in  Poland  (first  Jesuit  college 
established  1564). 

The  most  prominent  names  of  the  golden  age  are  those 
of  Mikolaj  Rej  z  Naglowic  (d.  1569),  Jan  Kochanowski  (d. 
1584),  his  brother  Peter,  Sebastian  Klonowicz,  Mikolaj  Sep 
Szarzynski  (d.  1581),  Kaspar  Miaskowski,  Piotr  Skarga  (d. 
1575),  and  Stanislaw  Grochowski  (<1.  1613).  Rej  was  not  a 
great  poet,  but  his  prose  work  Zwierciadlo  (Tlie  Mirror),  in 
which  he  presents  the  portrait  of  an  ideal  Polish  nobleman, 
patriot,  and  Christian,  is  very  valuable.  Jan  Kochanowski 
is  the  first  great  poet.  Having  no  domestic  models  he  had 
to  invent  a  poetical  language.  He  is  best  known  by  his  ex- 
cellent translation  of  tlie  Psalms,  his  touching  elegies  Treny 
(Tears),  his  songs  and  satires,  and,  above  all,  the  Fraszky. 
His  drama  Odprawa  posluw  greckich  (The  Expedition  of 
the  Grecian  Envoys)  is  one  of  the  earliest  Slavonic  dramas. 
Piotr  Skarga,  a  champion  of  Catholicism,  was  the  greatest 
preacher  of  his  country.  Szarzynski  and  Klonowicz  fol- 
lowed Jan  Kochanowski ;  Miaskowski  and  Grochowski  cul- 
tivated religious  poetry ;  Szymon  Szymonowicz  and  Szymon 
/imorowicz  wrote  five,  idyls.  Jlik'olaj,  Piotr  and  Jedrzej 
Kochanowski  translateil  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  classics. 
Some  of  the  poets  still  wrote  in  Latin.  Valuable  historical 
material  is  contained  in  the  Acta  Tomiciana. 

IV.  Tlie  Panegi/ri.tt.'i  (1600-1764).- The  corruption  of 
taste  prevailing  tln'oughout  Europe  soon  invaded  Poland, 
and  the  golden  age  of  her  literature  was  followed  by  a  period 
of  decline.     Panegyric  verses,  full  of   bombast,  generally 


written  for  a  pecuniary  consideration,  became  the  fashion. 
Every  wedding,  funeral,  and  baptism  was  celebrated  by 
long-winded  speeches  and  poems,  and  the  custom  of  min- 
gling Latin  and  other  foreign  words  with  those  of  the  native 
language  in  macaronic  verse  became  universal.  The  best 
poets  of  the  time  were  survivors  of  the  preceding  era.  At 
their  head  stands  Waelaw  Potocki  (d.  about  1696),  whose 
fame  rests  on  his  great  epic,  Wojna  Chocimxka  (The  Cam- 
paign of  Choeim).  Krysztof  Opalinski  (d.  1656)  is  the  onlyj 
satirist  of  note.  A  complete  transition  to  Frenchified  poetr 
was  effected  in  the  works  of  the  Morsztyns :  Hieronym, 
Jedrzej,  Stanislaw,  and  Zbihniev.  Dui'ing  this  period  his- 
torians confined  their  attention  to  memoirs.  The  first  Polish 
newspaper  made  its  appearance  under  Sigismund  III. 

V.  The  Era  of  Stanislaw  Augustas  (1764-1831). — This 
was  an  era  of  French  classicism,  a  period  of  frivolous  self- 
conceit.  French  customs,  ideas,  and  forms  dominated  in 
literature  as  well  as  in  society.  At  first  the  amount  of 
literary  work  was  comparatively  small,  notwithstanding  the 
efforts  of  individual  talent.  Between  1764  and  1778  only 
416  works  were  published  in  Poland,  of  which  84  were  re-  fl 
ligious,  37  ethical,  33  political,  13  philosophical,  34  mathe-  1 
matical,  14  geographical,  56  historical,  13  oratorical,  56 
poetical,  33  fiction,  37  grammatical,  13  medical,  3  architec- 
tural, and  33  agricultural.  With  a  change  of  political  con- 
ditions, however,  came  a  change  in  literature  ;  in  the  four 
years  of  the  famous  parliament  (1788-91)  the  nation  did 
more  thinking  and  printing  than  it  had  done  before  in  a 
century,  and  the  functions  of  public  newspapers  became 
highly  important. 

Poetry  followed  French  models  for  the  most  part,  though 
there  are  some  notable  exceptions.  Ignacy  Krasicki  (d. 
1801)  was  an  original  genius,  particularly  in  his  satires,  as 
was  also  Adam  Stanislaw  Naruszewicz.  Krasicki's  works 
Mi/szeis  (The  War  of  Mice)  and  llonomacliia  (War  of 
Monks)  are  famous.  Stanislaw  Trerabecki  (d.  1813)  was  a 
master  of  form,  but  not  a  true  poet.  Kajetan  Wegierski 
(d.  1787)  was  a  clever  rhymester,  but  his  poetry  is  too  sen- 
sual and  voluptuous.  Franciszek  Karpiiiski  (d.  1838)  and 
Kniaznin  (d.  1807)  were  authors  of  popular  songs.  Midway 
between  the  national  and  the  French  schools  stood  three  nota- 
ble poets  of  the  Warsaw  principality — Jan  Pawel  Woroniez 
(d.  1839),  Julian  Ursyn  Niemczewicz  (d.  1841),  a  patriotic 
satirist,  theorist,  historian,  dramatist,  and  novelist,  and 
Wojciech  Boguslawski,  the  true  founder  of  Polish  drama, 
whose  Cud  mniemany  won  great  popularity.  French  trag- 
edy at  this  time  found  many  translators  and  imitators,  who 
were  loudly  applauded,  though  lacking  talent. 

In  history  the  greatest  name  was  that  of  the  archosologist 
Adam  Naruszewicz.  Of  liis  later  followers  Lelewel  was  the 
best.  Politics  gave  rise  to  a  considerable  numljer  of  pam- 
phlets, history  of  literature  began  to  receive  attention,  and 
philology  made  rapid  progress.  Onufryj  Kopczyriski  was 
the  first  great  grammarian,  and  Sanmel  Bogurail  Linde 
wrote  the  first  standard  dictionary  of  the  Polish  language. 

VI.  The  Era  of  Ilickiewicz  (1831-63). — French  pseuilo- 
classicism  could  not  dominate  Poland  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time;  national  poetry  inspired  the  poets  of  the 
new  generation.  In  Boguslawski's  idyllic  drama  Krako- 
loiac.y  i  gorale  (The  Cracowians  an<l  the  Mountaineers)  the 
national  note  is  first  sounded.  The  influence  of  Byron, 
Walter  Scott,  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Victor  Hugo  is  manifest. 
Adam  Mickiewicz  (d.  1855),  the  leader  of  the  romanticists,  is 
the  greatest  poet  not  only  of  Poland,  but  of  the  entire  Sla- 
vonic race.  His  great  epic  poems  Graiyna.  Konrad  Wallen- 
rod,  and  Payi  Tadeusz  marked  him  at  once  as  a  modern 
Homer.  In  his  footsteps  followed  Antoni  Eduard  Odyniec, 
Julian  Korsak,  Alexander  Chodzko,  Antoni  Gorecki,  Jozef 
Massalski,  and  others.  The  life  of  the  people  of  Ukraina 
found  its  poets  in  Bogdan  Zaleski  (d.  1887),  Severyn  Gosz- 
czyiiski,  and  Michael  Grabowski.  The  unfortunate  Antoni 
Malczewski,  too,  wrote  3Iarya;  a  story  of  LTkiaina.  The  ro- 
manticists were  sharply  criticised  by  Osiiiski,  DmochoWski, 
and  others,  Iiut  the  attacks  were  ably  repeHed  by  Mickie- 
wicz himself,  and  pseudo-classicism  was  finally  doomed  in 
Maurice  Moehnacki's  critical  work  0  literaturze  polskiij  w 
wiel;u  XIX. 

In  Galicia  reform  was  preached  by  the  Halirzanin.  The 
new  movement  soon  invaded  the  field  of  novel-writing, 
Walter  Scott  being  the  principal  model  for  Polish  authors. 
Niemcewicz's  Ja7i  z  Teczyna  created  a.  sensaticui.  Then  fol- 
lowed K.  Gaszyiiski,  F.  Wezyk,  F.  Skarbek,  the  historical 
novelist  Felix  Bernatowicz,  Sime.  Jaraczewska,  Alex.  Bro- 
mikowski.  and  others. 


POLITIAXUS 


POLITICAIi  ECOXOMY 


687 


The  revolution  of  1830  stopped  the  peaceable  evolution  of 
Polish  letters.  It  brought  stagnation  to  domestic  produc- 
tion. Polish  talent  was  lo  he  found  in  exile,  and  Polish 
books  then  began  to  a|i|iear  at  Paris,  Avignon,  .Strassburg, 
Brussels,  London,  Heriin,  Vii-nna,  and  especially  Leipzig. 
Poland  revived  slnwly.  The  review  ^^'i^en^lk■i  appeared 
first,  followed  at  Warsaw  by  the  Aleneuni  of  Jo/.ef  Ignacy 
Kra.szewski  (d.  1887),  Poland's  greatest  novelist.  In  the 
forties  St.  Petersburg  became  an  important  literary  center. 
A  decided  turn  for  the  better  was  announced  in  1831  by  the 
appearance  of  the  Dzieiiiiik  Warszawski.  Some  of  the  old 
poets  were  heanl  again.  Mickiewicz  published  I'nn  J'li- 
deusz ;  Bogdan  Zaleski,  S.  Goszczynski,  and  .S.  Witwicki 
were  still  active.  Among  the  younger  generation  appeared 
three  great  lights  of  the  romantic  school — Zygmunt  Kra- 
siiiski,  Wincenty  Pol,  and  the  proud  and  daring  Juljusz  Slo- 
wacki,  a  rival  of  Jlickiewiez  himself.  The  greatest  j)oets  to 
come  to  prominence  at  the  end  of  this  period  were  Kornel 
Ujejski  (lyric)  and  Wladyslaw  Syrokomla  (d.  IHti'.*).  and  the 
greatest  novelists  Jan  Zacharjasewicz  and  Eliza  t)r- 
zeszkowa. 

Waclaw  A.  Maciejowski  was  at  first  the  only  historian  of 
note,  and  kindred  branches  of  literature  were  much  neg- 
lected ;  but  an  increased  activity  dates  from  1841.  Karol 
Szajnocha  and  Alex.  Batowski,  editors  of  ancient  historical 
documents,  deserve  special  notice.  Philosophy  found  its 
first  exponents  in  Karol  Libelt  and  Bronislaw  Trentowski. 
Among  the  linguists  .\ntoni  Malecki  is  foremost. 

VII.  The  Present  (since  186:i). — The  present  literature  is 
noted  for  its  riches,  though  it  possesses  but  few  names  of  in- 
ternational fame.  The  modern  Polish  novel  dealschiefly  with 
social  questions — the  relation  of  the  nobility  to  the  peasant- 
ry, the  position  of  woman,  that  of  the  Jew,  etc.  The  best- 
known  author  is  llenryk  Sienkiewicz,  a  number  of  whose 
novels  have  lieen  translated  into  English  by  Jeremiah  Cur- 
tin  (With  Fire  and  Sirord,  Without  Dogma,  etc.).  Other 
well-known  novelists  are  Boleslaw  Prus,  W.  Los,  T.  T.  Jez, 
Eliza  Orzeszkowa,  Marya  Konopnicka  (poet  as  well  as  nov- 
elist), Jan  Zacharjasiewicz  (writer  of  character  novels),  Os- 
toja,  and  Lewer.  Among  the  poets  should  be  mentioned 
Marya  Konopnicka,  W.  Wysocki,  Felicyan,  K.  Lewandow- 
ski,  and  Jliriara  (Zenon  Przesmycki).  The  foremost  drama- 
tist of  the  nineteenth  century  is  Alexander,  the  Count  Fre- 
dro,  whose  comedies  are  still  popular,  though  French  in 
style  and  color.  Others  whose  works  are  meritorious  are 
Antoni  Malecki  (List  zelazny,  Orochowy  wieniec),  Jozef 
Szujski  (Halszka  z  Oatroga),  Apollo  Karzeniowski,  Roraa- 
nowski  (Fopiel  i  Pinxt),  and,  above  all,  Edward  Lubowski 
(Przenqdy,  Sqd  hniioroiry,  etc.).  The  prominent  historians 
are  Antoni  Malecki,  the  veteran,  A.  Sczepanski.  K.  Wali- 
szewski,  \V.  Boguslawski,  anil  W.  Spasowicz.  Owing  to  the 
division  of  Poland  the  kingdom  has  three  literary  centers — 
Warsaw^,  Posen,  and  Cracow. 

Bibliography. — A  number  of  histories  of  Polish  litera- 
ture have  been  written  in  the  native  tongue,  among  them 
those  of  Bentkowski  (1814)  and  Wiesniewski  (10  vols..  Cra- 
cow, 184o-.5T),  besides  many  works  on  special  portions  of  it. 
There  are  also  several  good  works  in  German. 

J.  J.  Kr.\l. 

Politia'nus.  -\xoelus:  See  Poliziano,  Angf.i.o. 

Political  Economy  [political  is  from  6r.  iroXiriKiij,  per- 
taining to  citizens  i>r  to  government  or  a  state,  deriv.  of 
iroAlTTjs.  citizen,  deriv.  of  v6\it.  city,  state;  economy  is  from 
Gr.  otmyofiia.  economy,  management,  liter.,  household  man- 
agement :  olxoi.  house  +  Kf'^fic,  <listribute] :  the  science  of 
wealth,  or  the  body  of  knowledge  which  relates  to  the  pro- 
duction, distribution,  and  exchange  of  wealth.  It  is  only 
within  the  concluding  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  that 
this  view  of  the  scope  of  political  economy  has  been  gener- 
ally accepted.  Down  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
it  was  regardeil  as  an  art  rather  than  a  science.  It  meant 
the  art  of  conducting  the  business  of  a  naticm,  just  as  do- 
mestic economv  meant  the  art  of  conducting  the  business 
of  a  household,  while  it  was  a  broader  term  than  finance, 
which  applied  to  the  business  of  the  government  alone.  The 
writers  of  the  seventeenth  aiul  eighteenth  centuries  made 
the  analogy  between  national  and  domestic  economy  far  too 
close.  They  thought  that  it  was  the  object  of  a  nation  to 
get  rich  in  the  same  sense  that  it  was  the  object  of  an  indi- 
vidual to  get  rich.  As  an  individual  may  grow  prosperous 
by  producing  more  than  he  consumes,  and  thus  selling  more 
than  he  buys,  so  the  earlier  writers  on  political  economy  con- 
ceived that  a  nation  would  grow  rich  by  selling  more  to 


other  nations  than  it  bought  from  them,  and  that  this  was 
the  only  way  by  which  the  nation  could  be  thoroughly  pros- 
perous. This  view  was  at  the  basis  of  the  mercantile  system 
of  political  economy,  so  called,  because  it  treated  the  busi- 
ness of  a  nation  like  that  of  a  single  merchant.  Perhaps  the 
leading  British  mercantilists  were  Thomas  Mun  in  the 
seventeenth  century  and  Sir  James  Steuart  in  the  eighteenth. 
Steuarl's  Int/niry  into  the  Principles  of  Politirnl  Economy 
(1767)  was  the  most  cimiprehensive  English  treatise  i)revious 
to  that  of  Adam  Smith.  To  the  eighteenth  century  belongs 
the  work  of  Galiani  in  Italy,  Justi  in  Germany,  and  Sonnen- 
fels  in  Austria.  Practical  applications  of  the  mercantile 
principle  were  seen  in  the  commercial  policy  of  nearly  all 
European  states  down  to  the  French  Revolution,  and  still 
survive  in  many  of  the  protective  tariff  systems.  It  was  ex- 
emplified in  the  English  navigation  acts,  and  by  the  finan- 
cial policy  of  Colbert  in  France  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  mercantilists  applied  to  national 
policy  the  principles  of  a  miser  rather  than  of  a  farsighted 
merchant,  and  that  a  wise  business  man  becomes  rich,  not 
by  the  money  that  he  accumulates,  but  by  that  which  he 
spends  farsightedly  as  a  rein  vest  nu>nt.  This  line  of  criti- 
cism did  not  escape  the  notice  of  the  mercantilists  them- 
selves. It  was  vigorously  urged  by  Sir  Dudley  North  (1691), 
and  by  his  contemporary  Sir  William  Petty.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  these  criticisms  were  carried  still  further  by 
the  French  school  of  economists  known  as  physiocrats. 
This  name  wa^  intended  to  emphasize  their  belief  that  legis- 
lative policy  was  subordinate  in  its  effects  to  the  action  of 
the  powers  of  nature.  Whereas  the  mercantilists  had  at- 
tached too  much  importance  to  money  as  a  measure  of 
wealth  aiul  laid  undue  stress  on  forms  of  commerce,  the 
physiocrats  considered  that  national  wealth  was  represented 
by  the  raw  materials  available,  and  laid  chief  stress  on  the 
productiveness  of  agriculture.  The  leaders  of  this  school 
were  (Juesnay  (1694-1774)  and  de  Gournay  (1712-59).  The 
most  eminent  representative  of  the  school  in  practical  life 
was  the  great  French  minister  Turgot  (1727-81).  It  was  a 
severe  misfortune  to  France  that  t Ids  farsighted  statesman 
was  thwarted  in  the  carrying  out  of  his  proposed  reforms, 
which  might  have  done  mucli  to  mitigate  the  violence  of  the 
Revolution.  Contemporary  with  the  French  physiocrats  we 
find  the  work  of  Beecariii  (1738-94)  in  Italy,' and  Adam 
Smith  (172.3-90)  in  England. 

The  work  of  Smith,  whose  Wealth  of  Nations  was  pub- 
lished in  1776.  forms  the  starting-point  of  modern  thought 
on  political  economy.  He  criticised  the  mercantilists  as  un- 
sparingly as  did  hisFrench  and  Italian  contemporaries  :  but 
he  took  a  broader  view  than  the  physiocrats  in  seeing  that 
labor,  as  well  as  natural  resources,  was  a  decisive  element  in 
wealth  and  national  prosperity.  He  also  develo[)ed  far 
more  clearly  than  the  physiocrats  some  operations  of  indi- 
vidual freedom  and  enterprise  in  their  effect  upon  prices, 
and  in  so  doing  laid  the  foundation  for  the  modern  concep- 
tion of  economics  as  a  science  rather  than  an  art.  To 
Smith,  more  than  any  one  else,  is  due  the  clear  presentation 
of  the  truth  that  under  free  competition  prices  will  ordi- 
narily adjust  themselves  to  cost  of  production:  and  the 
analysis — imperfect,  it  is  true — of  cost  of  production  into 
its  various  component  parts.  The  scientific  nu'thod  of 
Smitii  was  carried  much  further  by  Malthus  (1766-1884)  and 
Ricardo  (1773-1823).  Malthus  devoted  special  attention  tb 
social  economy,  the  principles  of  consumption,  and  the 
effect  of  increJLsing  numbers  upon  national  or  individual 
well-being.  Ricardo  .started  at  the  opposite  extreme,  with 
the  investigation  of  money,  banking,  aiul  finance.  Apply- 
ing the  methods  of  finance  to  the  analysis  of  cost  of  produc- 
tion, he  developed  the  theory  of  rent  which  is  associated  with 
his  name,  as  the  theory  of  population  is  connected  with  that 
of  Malthus.  The  popular  movenu'nt  for  the  repeal  of  the 
corn-laws  gave  these  writers  and  their  successt)rs,  of  whom 
SicCidloch  and  .Senior  were  the  most  prominent,  an  opportu- 
nity to  nuike  their  influence  felt.  To  this  group  of  writers 
the  name  of  the  English  classical  school  is  habitually  applied. 
The  work  of  this  school  is  summed  up  and  systematized  in 
John  Stuart  'SWW's  Principles  of  Political  L'conorny  (1848), 
which  is  the  leading  treatise  on  the  science.  Its  views  are 
.set  forth  in  a  more  popular,  but  less  philosophic,  form  in 
Fawcetl's  Manual  of  Political  Economy.  The  continental 
writers  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  foUowed 
closelvinthelinesof  the  English.  Amongthe  French  were  J. 
B.  Sav  (1767-1832),  Sismondi  (1773-1842).  and  Basliat  (1801- 
,50),  the  last  named  being  the  most  brilliant,  but  least  scien- 
tific.    The  classical  doctriru's  of  political  economy  are  gen- 


688 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY 


erally  held  by  French  economists  of  the  present  day,  among 
whom  Leroy-Beaulieu  is  perhaps  the  most  prominent.  In 
Germany  during  tlie  same  period  the  leading  names  are 
those  of  Kau  (1793-1870)  and  von  Thunen  (1783-1850),  the 
latter  of  whom  perhaps  anticipated  modern  developments 
more  than  any  contemporary  writer  in  Prance  or  England. 

It  was  a  general  characteristic  of  the  classical  school  to 
believe  in  the  let-alone  or  laissez-faire  policy.  With  few 
exceptions  these  writers  held  that,  under  the  action  of  indi- 
vidual liberty,  the  maximum  of  efficiency,  as  well  as  of  jus- 
tice, woidd  be  secured,  and  that  all  interference  with  liberty 
of  contract  was  at  least  prima  facie  bad.  Not  content  with 
criticising  the  mercantile  system,  they  opposed  the  factory 
acts  as  such.  Not  content  with  pointing  out  the  error  of 
most  legislation,  they  indulged  in  the  most  optimistic  views 
as  to  the  results  of  non-interference— views  which  the  facts 
did  not  always  justify.  They^  thus  exposed  themselves  to 
severe  criticism  from'  the  socialist  school,  of  whom  Marx 
(1818-83)  and  Lassalle  (1835-64)  were  the  recognized  leaders. 
Marx  showed  that,  in  point  of  fact,  free  competition  did  not 
produce  the  results  which  the  political  economists  expected, 
and  he  therefore  drew  the  conclusion  that  the  social  system 
which  formed  the  basis  of  their  assumptions  was  radically 
bad,  while  Lassalle,  whose  reasonings  were  historical  rather 
than  economic,  endeavored  to  trace  the  direction  wliich 
social  changes  must  take  in  order  to  give  the  workman  what 
he  considered  a  just  share  of  the  product  of  industry.  Tlie 
protectionist  writers  also  criticised  the  English  classical 
school,  but  on  lines  wholly  different  from  those  of  the  so- 
cialists. Instead  of  accepting  the  deductions  and  attacking 
the  system  on  which  they  were  based,  they  may  be  said  to 
have  accepted  the  system  and  attacked  certain  deductions 
from  it.  The  leading  writers  of  the  protectionist  school 
during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  were  List  in 
Germany  (1789-1846)  and  Carey  in  the  U.  S.  (1798-1879). 
They  agree  with  Adam  Smith  and  his  followers  in  condemn- 
ing the  extreme  errors  of  the  mercantile  system  and  in  re- 
garding labor  and  capital  as  the  essential  forms  of  wealth, 
but  they  believe  that  the  greatest  efficiency  of  lalior  and 
wisest  expenditure  of  capital  can  be  obtained,  not  by  indi- 
vidual self-interest,  but  by  certain  restrictions  on  the  [lart 
of  government.  Much  of  their  argument  is  historical,  rather 
than  deductive.  That  is,  they  trace  changes  in  the  economic 
policy  of  nations  as  a  whole,  rather  than  methods  of  indi- 
vidual action  under  given  conditions.  In  this  way  the  pro- 
tectionist school  shades  almost  indistinguishably  into  the 
modern  German  historical  school,  of  which  Knies  is  regarded 
as  the  founder,  and  which  numbers  among  its  most  promi- 
nent members  the  names  of  llildebrand,  Brentano,  Schiiffle, 
Wagner,  Cohn,  and  .SchmoUer. 

The  criticisms  of  the  German  historical  school  have  found 
an  echo  in  England,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  in  Cliffe 
Leslie  and  Thorold  Rogers  and  W.  .J.  Ashley. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  work  of  the  histor- 
ical school  has  been  very  iuefTective  in  proportion  to  its 
volume.  The  modifications  in  economic  doctrines  since  1870 
have  largely  come  througli  the  detailed  criticisms  of  those 
writers  who  profess  to  apply  the  deductive  or  individual 
method.  The  beginnings  of  this  criticism  may  be  seen  in 
the  writings  of  Cairnes  (1823-75)  and  Bagehot  (1836-77).  Of 
greater  importance  were  the  criticisms  of  Longe  and  Thorn- 
ton on  the  traditional  doctrine  of  wages.  Mill  himself  was 
converted  to  Thornton's  views,  although  he  died  too  early  to 
incorporate  the  results  in  his  Principles  of  Political  Econ- 
omy. Similar  lines  of  criticism  were  carried  on  by  F.  A. 
Walker  in  America  and  Marshall  in  England. 

Side  by  side  with  this  critical  progress  we  have  a  con- 
structive movement  on  the  part  of  the  mathematical  school 
of  economists.  As  early  as  1838  Cournot  had  made  some 
important  applications  of  mathematics  to  the  economic 
analysis,  and  the  almost  unnoticed  work  of  Gossen  in  1857 
hail  carried  the  same  method  still  f\irther;  but  it  was  re- 
served for  Stanley  .levons  in  1871,  in  his  Theory  of  Pol  id  col 
Economy,  to  call  general  attention  to  the  advantages  of  this 
method.  Coming  at  the  time  he  did,  he  was  able  to  lay  the 
foundation  for  certain  positive  theories  of  political  economy 
which  could  take  the  place  of  some  of  the  untenable  princi- 
ples of  the  cl.assical  school.  Contemporary  with  Jevons  we 
have  the  work  of  Walras  in  Switzerlanil,  and  subsequently 
of  Pantaleoni  in  Italy  and  Edgeworth  in  England,  while 
Marshall  in  England,  Clark  and  Patten  in  America,  Menger, 
Wicser,  Sax,  ami  Biihm-Bawcrk  in  Austria  have  done  nnu'h 
to  present  the  results  of  similar  methods  of  an,alysis,  divested 
of  their  algebraic  form.     So  important  have  been  the  con- 


tributions of  the  Austrians  in  this  field  that  the  name  "Aus- 
trian school "  is  now  habitually  applied  to  this  whole  group 
of  writers. 

Political  economy  in  the  U.  S.  was  somewhat  slow  in 
its  development.  With  the  exception  of  Henry  C.  Carey, 
there  was  for  a  long  time  no  economist  of  originality  and 
eminence.  The  first  teachers  of  political  economy,  like 
Amasa  Walker,  A.  L.  Chapin,  or  A.  L.  Perry,  both  in  their 
thought  and  in  their  writings  followed  closely  in  the  lines 
of  the  English  classical  school.  Much  more  important  work 
was  done  in  the  years  following  the  war  by  a  group  of  prac- 
tical men  working  in  special  lines  of  study.  First  in  this 
group  sliould  be  named  David  A.  Wells,  for  some  years  U.  S. 
revenue  commissioner,  whose  works  on  taxation  and  trade 
have  a  woi'ld-wide  reputation.  His  last,  and  in  some  re- 
s]iects  most  comprehensive,  bciok  is  entitled  Recent  Economic 
Changes.  Edward  Atkinson  has  done  work  of  equal  im- 
portance with  reference  to  questions  of  production,  dis- 
tribution, and  internal  commerce.  Charles  Francis  Adams, 
as  Massachusetts  railway  commissioner,  laid  the  foundation 
for  a  scientific  study  of  railway  problems.  Carroll  I). 
Wright,  as  labor  commissioner,  first  of  Massachusetts  and 
then  of  the  V.  S.,  has  attained  a  world-wide  reputation  for 
his  iTivcstigations  on  wages  and  other  matters  connected 
witli  the  factory  system.  In  connection  with  this  group 
should  be  mentioned  the  names  of  John  .lay  Knox  and  Hor- 
ace White,  leading  authorities  on  questions  of  banking  and 
finance.  Chief  among  theoretical  writers  should  be  named 
P.  A.  Walker,  superintendent  of  the  census  of  1870  and 
1880,  professor  at  Vale,  and  afterward  president  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  who  is  probably  the 
leading  economist  of  the  present  day,  in  the  English-speak- 
ing world,  at  any  rate;  W.  G.  Sumner,  of  Yale,  who  has 
publi.shcd  books  on  American  financial  history  and  on  cer- 
tain sociological  questions  ;  and  Simon  Newcomb,  of  Wash- 
ington, a  political  economist  as  well  as  astronomer. 

A  special  place  in  the  history  of  economics  in  the  V.  S. 
must  be  assigned  to  Henry  George,  a  writer  standing  mid- 
way between  the  classical  economists  and  the  socialists, 
agreeing  with  the  former  in  their  advocacy  of  freedom  from 
interference,  with  the  latter  in  tlieir  projects  of  nationaliza- 
tion of  the  land.  His  Progress  and  Poverty  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1879,  and  has  had  an  unprecedented  popular  in- 
fluence. Another  important  writer,  springing  like  Henry 
George  from  the  ranks  of  the  laborers,  but  more  conserva- 
tive in  his  conclusions  and  more  careful  in  his  methods  of 
analysis,  is  George  Gunton. 

LTntil  .about  1880  most  of  the  study  of  political  economy  in 
the  U.  ,S.  had  been  under  English  influence.  At  that  time 
a  grouji  of  younger  men  who  had  studied  in  Germany  came 
into  prominence,  and  began  to  mould  economic  thought 
in  the  direction  of  the  historical  method.  Among  those 
who  were  prominent  in  this  direction  were  Prof.  K.  T.  Ely, 
of  Johns  Hopkins  University  and  subsequently  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin,  Prof.  E.  J.  James,  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  Prof.  Henry  C.  Adams,  now  of  the 
LTniversity  of  Michigan.  Under  their  influence  the  Ameri- 
can Economic  Association,  whose  publications  have  done 
much  to  increase  the  interest  in  economic  study,  was  found- 
ed in  1885.  Among  its  most  important  members  are  Prof. 
J.  B.  Clark,  of  Amherst  College,  Prof.  F.  II.  (biddings,  of 
Bryn  Mawr,  and  Prof.  J.  W.  Jenks,  of  Cornell.  In  the  most 
recent  years  the  economic  courses  in  all  the  leading  colleges 
of  the  U.  S.  have  been  strengthened,  and  most  of  them 
maintain  publications  specially  devoted  to  economics  and 
political  science.  Among  scientific  publications  largely  de- 
voted to  political  economy,  besides  those  of  the  American 
Economic  Association,  may  be  mentioned  The  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Economics  (Harvard),  Political  Science  Quar- 
terly (Columbia).  The  Economic  .Journal  (Chicago),  The 
Yale  Jx'erieu:  and  the  Annals  of  tlie  American  Academy  of 
J'olitiral  and  Social  Scieiice. 

Scope  of  the  Srie7ice. — Political  economy  or  economies  is 
the  science  which  undertakes  to  explain  prices  and  price- 
movements.  Any  such  explanation  involves  two  processes. 
We  may  assume  a  given  set  of  laws  and  customs,  and  see 
how  the  operation  of  individual  motives  will  afl'ect  the  price 
of  dilTercnt  goods  or  services ;  or  we  may  go  one  steji  farther 
Imck  anil  investigate  the  reasons  which  have  caused  those 
laws  and  customs  to  be  established,  and  which  make  modi- 
fications desirable  or  prob.able.  Those  who  chiefly  occupy 
themselves  with  the  former  class  of  problems  are  s.aid  to 
employ  the  deductive  method,  those  who  chiefly  study  the 
latter  class  employ  the  historical  method ;  but  it  is  begin- 


POLITICAL   ECON'OMY 


689 


ning  to  l)e  umlerstdncl  tliat  any  good  economist  must  cm- 
ploy  both  metli.icis,  jind  llmt  the  distinction  between  the 
so-called  deductive  and  historical  schools  is  much  less  fun- 
damental than  was  once  supposed. 

Political  economy,  as  thus  defined,  is  a  science  and  not  an 
art.  It  is  occupied  primarily  with  explanations  rather  than 
precepts.  It  bears  the  same  relation  to  tlie  arts  of  finance 
and  legislation  that  the  science  of  physiology  bears  to  the 
arts  of  meilicine  and  hygiene,  or  the  science  of  mechanics  to 
the  art  of  building. 

Price  and  Value. — .\  price  is  the  quantity  of  one  article 
or  service  which  is  exchanged  for  another.  If  a  ton  of  coal 
is  exchanged  for  5  bush,  of  wheat,  either  may  be  said  to  be 
the  price  of  the  other;  but  usually  prices  are  expressed  in 
some  one  article — money — which  is  adopted  as  a  common 
measure  or  standard. 

JIany  economists  make  a  distineticm  between  price  and 
value  bv  restrict iiig  the  term  jirice  to  tliose  cases  wh('re  it  is 
measured  in  money,  and  apjilying  the  word  value  to  all 
other  standards  of" exchange;  but  this  does  not  correspond 
to  common  usage,  and  is  almost  always  misleading.  In 
common  usage,  a  price  is  a  fact,  the  amount  of  something 
which  we  must  pay  for  something  else;  while  value  is  an 
entimate,  either  by  the  community  or  by  some  individmil,of 
what  a  price  ought  to  be.  Lender  ordinary  circumstances 
value  means  the  average  probable  price.  If  we  say,  for 
example,  that  certain  "railway  stock  is  selling  below  its 
true  value,  we  mean  that,  in  our  opinion,  this  stock  will,  on 
an  average,  sell  for  a  higher  price  than  it  now  commands. 
Value  is  also  sometimes  used  to  mean  what,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  speaker,  is  regarded  as  a  just  price.  If  we  say  that  a 
combination  is  al)Ie  to  keep  the  price  of  oil  above  its  true 
value,  we  mean  above  that  price  which  wo\dd  constitute  a 
fair  return  for  the  labor  and  capital  invested.  Many  of  the 
fallacies  in  economic  reasoning  arise  from  treating  the 
term  value  as  an  estimate  at  one  point  of  the  reasoning,  and 
as  a  fact  at  anotlier  point.  It  is  better  to  confine  it  en- 
tirely to  the  former  use  and  to  employ  the  word  price  for 
the  latter. 

IIdw  Value  is  Determined.  Competliinn. — The  value  or 
proper  price  of  an  article  maybe  determined  by  the  com- 
munity in  two  ways,  either  by  custom  or  by  competition. 
The  former  was  almost  universal  in  inedia!val  times. 

It  was  believed  by  the  media-val  writers,  as  it  is  believed 
by  the  modern  socialists,  that  value  depends  on  cost  of  pro- 
duction, that  there  is  a  constant  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
producers  to  sell  their  articles  for  more  than  the  value  or 
just  price,  and  that  public  sentiment,  or  even  legislative  en- 
actment, should  fix  a  price  of  this  kind  and  compel  the  pro- 
ducers to  maintain  it.  The  objections  to  this  view  are,  first, 
that  such  a  way  of  determining  prices  is  possible  only  where 
the  processes  of  industry  are  simple  and  uniform.  In  the 
absei#e  of  such  uniformity,  the  public  can  not  readily  de- 
termine what  is  the  cost  of  production  of  an  article  or  its 
just  price  on  this  basis.  Second,  even  when  the  price  has 
been  fixed  with  substantial  correctness,  it  is  diffieidt  to  in- 
sure the  production  of  the  right  quantity.  If  more  is  pro- 
duced than  the  pulilic  will  take  at  the  price  in  question,  it 
goes  to  waste.  If  less  is  produced  than  the  public  wants  at 
such  a  price,  there  will  lie  scarcity  and  distress.  Only  in 
the  case  of  iiroduction  for  orders  or  for  a  perfectly  uniform 
market  could  this  matter  be  regulated  under  the  median-al 
system,  and  even  under  such  circumstances  it  was  necessary 
to  determine  by  tlie  most  tyrannical  rules  what  trade  each 
man  should  be  allowed  to  pursue. 

The  moilern  method  of  determining  value  by  competition 
avoids  thi'se  dilliculties.  Sujipose  wheat  has  been  selling  in 
the  New  York  market  at  ^1  a  bushel.  The  dealers  find  that 
the  quantities  supplied  by  the  producers  at  this  price  are  less 
than  the  quantities  demanded  by  the  consumers,  that  the 
stocks  on  hand  are  diminishing,  that  if  this  process  con- 
tinues there  will  be  a  scarcity.  They  put  the  price  up  to 
f  l.O.')  a  bushel.  At  this  price  there  will  obviously  be  some- 
what fewer  persons  who  wish  to  buy  and  somewhat  more 
who  are  willing  to  sell.  Theipiantity  supplied  becomes  equal 
to  the  quantity  demanded  ;  if  this  process  goes  far  enough, 
it  becomes  even  greater.  Then  comes  a  reaction.  The  deal- 
ers are  afraid  tliat  unsold  stock  will  accumulate  on  their 
hands.  They  will  put  the  price  down  to  JSl,  or  even  to  95 
cents,  in  order  to  adjust  the  quantity  which  the  public  is 
willing  to  buy,  to  that  which  the  producers  stand  ready  to 
sell.  The  essence  of  this  method  is  that  the  producers  are 
allowed  to  fix  the  price  at  the  point  which  the  public  is  pre- 
pared to  pa  v.  The  advantages  of  this  system  over  the  svs- 
328 


tem  of  customary  prices  are,  first,  that  it  prevents  waste. 
If  wheat  reuuiincd  at  $1  a  bushel  until  the  wliole  supply  was 
used  uji.  people  would  not  economize  in  their  consumption, 
and  would  find  themselves  unexpectedly  face  to  face  with  a 
season  of  famine.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  jirice  were  kept 
at  ^1  a  bushel  when  the  supply  was  so  great  that  it  could  not 
all  be  used  at  that  price,  the  accumulated  stocks  would  deteri- 
orate and  not  be  used  to  advantage.  Ry  adjusting  the  prices 
to  the  quantities  on  hand,  excessive  use  on  the  part  of  con- 
sumers or  excessive  accumulation  on  the  part  of  producers 
is  avoided.  Second,  the  system  of  competition  directs  pro- 
duction automatically.  If  there  is  going  to  be  a  scarcity 
of  wheat,  any  custom  or  law  which  prevents  an  increase  of 
price  takes  away  from  producers  the  motive  to  meet  the 
public  need.  If  the  price  of  wheat  be  allowed  to  rise  to 
$1.05,  new  supplies  of  wheat  are  attracted  to  the  market  and 
prevent  famine  or  scarcity.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  such  in- 
crease be  prohibited,  it  is  merely  an  attemjit  to  check  the 
distress  by  re])ressing  the  sym]itoni.  In  fixing  prices  bv 
custom,  a  deficiency  in  production  is  perpetuated  ;  but  if 
free  competition  be  allowed,  that  deficiency  is  permitted  to 
correct  itself.  Third,  and  most  important  of  all,  competi- 
tion makes  price  conform  to  cost  of  production  more  close- 
ly than  is  possible  by  any  system  of  legal  enactments;  for 
if  the  price  of  any  article  continues  for  any  length  of  time 
in  excess  of  the  cost  of  product  ion.  new  capital  and  new  la- 
borers will  be  attracted  iu  the  business  of  supplying  it.  The 
quantity  offered  will  increase,  and  the  [irice  will  go  down. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  price  of  an  article  for  any  con- 
siderable time  fails  to  cover  the  cost  of  pnxiuction,  capital 
and  labor  will  go  out  of  the  business,  the  quantity  supplied 
will  be  diminished,  and  prices  will  rise  until  they  reach  a 
fair  and  just  level.  This  automatic  adjustment  of  price  to 
cost  makes  the  modern  system  fairer,  as  well  as  more  elastic, 
than  the  mediaeval  one. 

Relation  of  Value  to  Utility  and  Co.it  of  Producfio?i. — 
Under  this  system  the  value  of  an  article  does  not  depend 
primarily  on  its  cost  of  production,  but  on  its  utility;  not 
upon  the  utility  of  the  article  as  a  wliole,  be  it  observed,  but 
upon  the  utility  of  additional  supplies  of  that  article.  It 
may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that  the  ulility  of  ad- 
ditional supplies  of  any  article  in  a  given  market  tends  to 
decrease  as  the  quantity  of  that  article  supplied  from  day  to 
day  increases.  This  utility  of  additional  sujiplies  is  the  pri- 
mary cause  of  the  value.  Competition  among  different 
sellers  insures  that  the  price  of  one  part  of  the  supply  will 
not  be  much  greater  than  that  of  another;  in  other  words, 
that  the  value  of  the  article  as  a  whole  will  be  fixed  by  the 
utility  of  the  last  increments  or  additions  to  the  supply. 
The  increase  of  supply  will  go  on  so  long  as  this  value  more 
than  covers  the  cost  of  production.  ^Vhcn  it  ceases  to  cover 
the  cost  of  production  there  is  at  once  a  reaction;  the 
utility  of  the  additional  supplies  is  less  than  the  sacrifices 
involved  in  producing  them,  the  price  received  no  longer 
covers  the  expenses  of  production,  and  the  quantity  offered 
will  diminish  until  the  utility  becomes  substantially  equal 
to  the  cost. 

Functioiisofthe  Speculator. — The  adjustment  is  not  uni- 
versal or  immediate.  In  .some  lines  of  business,  where  con- 
siderable stocks  of  goods  must  be  kept  on  hand,  and  where 
large  amounts  of  fixed  capital  are  required  before  additional 
supplies  can  be  put  on  the  market,  such  an  adjustment  may 
take  months,  or  even  years,  during  which  competition  of 
sellers  may  be  very  ineffective,  and  prices  remain  much 
higher  than  cost  of  production.  Such  a  state  of  things  is 
not  practically  remedied  by  tlie  socialistic  schemes  that 
have  hitherto  been  tried,  for  the  government  is  quite  as 
likely  as  the  individual  producer  to  take  advantage  of  any 
such  temporary  monopoly.  It  is  the  function  of  the  specula- 
tor in  modern  society  to  avoid  such  fluctuations.  A  man  is 
allowed  to  buy  cheap  and  to  sell  dear  because,  on  the  w  hole, 
such  a  process  does  the  community  more  good  than  harm. 
If  the  speculator  makes  money  for  himself  by  simjily  antici- 
pating the  needs  of  the  market  instead  of  manipulating  it, 
he  does  an  inestimable  service  to  the  community  at  the 
same  time.  By  buying  when  prices  arc  low  he  prevents 
waste.  By  selling  when  prices  are  high  he  makes  available 
those  supplies  which  he  has  saved  in  times  of  plenty.  Nor 
is  speculation  confined  to  mercantile  transactions.  I'nder 
the  modern  system,  every  manufacturer  and  almost  every 
jiroducer  is.  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  a  speculator.  If  by 
his  skill  and  foresight  he  is  able  to  sell  goods  for  more  than 
they  cost  him,  he  serves  the  public  by  directing  labor  in 
lines  where  its  products  are  needed.     If,  on  the  other  hand. 


690 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY 


he  fails  to  cover  his  expenses,  he  has  injured  the  public  as 
well  as  himself,  for  he  has  direeted  hilior  in  lines  where  its 
products  were  much  less  needed.  What  holds  true  of  the 
control  of  labor  is  still  more  conspicuously  true  of  the  con- 
trol of  capital.  The  man  who  directs  capital  into  profitable 
lines  is  making  profitable  use  not  merely  of  the  labor  of  the 
present,  but  of  that  of  the  past.  He  is  utilizing  not  merely 
the  community's  present  work,  but  its  system  of  past  ac- 
cumulations. 

It  must  not  be  assumed  that  this  speculative  system 
always  selects  the  best  employers  or  the  best  methods  of 
business  management,  but  it  is  true  that  it  develops  better 
employers  and  better  methods  than  any  other  system  which 
has  hitherto  been  devised.  It  was  because  of  its  superior 
efficiency  that  it  supplanted  by  degrees  the  old  medieval 
system  wiiich  has  been  already  described,  and  which  was 
closely  analogous  to  that  proposed  by  the  socialists.  From 
the  fifteenth  century  down  to  the  nineteenth  greater  powers 
have  been  constantly  put  in  the  hands  of  those  who  could 
control  capital.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  right  to  pui-sue  a 
trade  and  to  hire  laborers  was  in  large  measure  hereditary. 
To-day  any  one  who  will  take  the  risks  of  advancing  the  capi- 
tal is  allowed  to  assume  the  direction  of  industry.  This  con- 
stitutes the  wages  system.  He  is  even  allowed  to  borrow  the 
capital  of  others,  and,  within  wide  limits,  to  make  what 
terms  he  pleases  for  borrowing  it.  This  constitutes  the  sys- 
tem of  interest.  To  encourage  the  speculative  investment  of 
capital  for  remote  ends,  there  has  developed  a  system  of 
land-tenure  and  land-transfer,  which  gives  control  of  agri- 
culture and  building  to  the  capitalist  instead  of  the  govern- 
ment. To  facilitate  the  investment  of  capital  in  new  meth- 
ods of  manufacture  whose  return  is  somewhat  doubtful,  a 
system  of  patents  and  patent-rights  has  come  into  exist- 
ence. To  make  possible  the  association  of  the  capital  of 
different  individuals  in  industries  requiring  concentrated 
management,  governments  have  not  merely  promoted  the 
establishment  of  joint-stock  companies  or  corporations,  but 
have  allowed  their  power  to  increase  almost  to  the  danger 
limit.  Each  step  in  this  development  has  been  taken  some- 
what reluctantly,  because  the  speculative  management  of 
industry  proved  more  efficient  than  its  regulation  by  tradi- 
tion or  by  government. 

Attacks  on  the  Existing  System. — It  is  claimed  by  the 
socialists  that  the  price  detei-mined  under  the  existing  sys- 
tem tends  to  the  advantage  of  the  capitalists  and  the  disad- 
vantage of  the  laborers — that  the  rich  are  growing  richer 
and  the  poor  poorer  as  a  direct  consequence  of  this  system. 
They  hold  that  of  the  enormous  increase  in  efficiency  of  labor 
during  the  nineteenth  century  the  laborer  himself  has  re- 
ceived but  a  slight  benefit,  and  that  the  rest  has  therefore 
accrued  to  the  speculator  or  capitalist,  as  a  class.  IMost  of 
the  reasoning  of  writers  of  this  school  rests  upon  the  as- 
sumption that  capital  is  monopolized,  while  laborers  are 
competing  with  one  another.  If  there  were  but  one  capi- 
talist in  the  world,  the  reasoning  of  the  socialists  might 
possibly  hold  true.  In  those  industries  where  capital  is  so 
concentrated  as  to  form  a  practical  monopoly,  what  they 
say  may  be  partly  true ;  but,  taking  the  world  as  a  whole, 
their  charges  are  not  well  founded  in  fact  or  in  theory.  The 
investigations  of  Col.  Wright  and  Edward  Atkinson  show 
conclusively  that  the  poor  are  not  growing  poorer,  eitlier  in 
their  absolute  condition  or  in  their  share  of  the  national  in- 
come, and  that  if  the  difference  in  accumulations  between 
the  richest  and  the  poorest  is  greater  now  th.'in  it  was  a 
hundred  years  ago,  it  is  because  the  accumulated  wealth 
itself  is  so  much  greater  that  the  difference  between  the 
richest  and  the  poorest  must  necessarily  be  larger.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  the  laborers  individually  have  a 
liigher  average  standard  of  comfort  under  the  operation  of 
the  speculative  system  than  ever  before,  and  that,  as  a  class, 
their  share  in  the  national  income  is  increasing  rather  than 
diminishing. 

The  Distritiution  of  Wealth. — The  distribution  of  returns 
between  laborers  and  capitalists  is  one  of  the  most  perplex- 
ing subjects  in  political  economy.  The  old  or  "  classical " 
theory  was  that  the  owners  of  capital,  as  a  class,  set  aside 
certain  funds  for  tlie  payment  of  wages,  that  the  amount  of 
this  fund  depended  on  I  lie  amiiunt  of  capital  available  for 
employment,  and  furnislied  tlu'  total  real  wages  of  the  com- 
munity, while  the  average  rate  of  wages  of  each  individual 
was  to  be  found  by  dividing  tliis  fund  by  the  number  of 
laborers.  Under  this  view,  known  as  the  wage-fimd  the- 
ory, the  aggregate  wages  coidd  lie  increased  only  by  an  in- 
crease in  arciiiiinlalioiis.     The  rate  of  wages  in  any  given 


amount  of  accumulation  could  be  increased  only  by  dimin- 
ishing the  number  of  laborers  among  whom  this  product 
was  to  be  divided.  This  theory  is  incomplete  because  it 
fails  to  take  account  of  the  fact  that,  with  a  given  amount 
of  accumulation,  a  greater  or  less  activity  in  the  use  of 
capital  may  cause  the  amount  offered  to  the  laborer  to  rise 
at  the  expense  of  the  auiount  wasted  or  imperfectly  utilized. 
It  will  often  happen  that  years  when  the  past  accumula- 
tions are  small  are  the  very  ones  when  wages  are  high,  be- 
cause the  expectation  of  renewed  business  activity  causes 
business  men  to  utilize  the  existing  product  to  the  utmost. 
This  is  sometimes  seen  after  a  war.  It  is  often  seen  in  a 
time  of  recovery  from  a  commercial  crisis.  It  is  almost 
always  seen  in  the  early  development  of  a  new  country.  In 
all  these  cases  acoimulations  are  small,  but  the  spirit  of 
enterprise  is  so  large  that  wages  become  really,  as  well  as 
nominally,  high.  It  is  evident  that  the  speculator  will  ad- 
vance money  so  long  as  he  expects  the  product  to  be  decid- 
edly in  excess  of  the  cost  of  wages  and  materials.  Each 
extension  of  his  enterprise  constitutes  at  once  a  demand  for 
labor  in  the  present  and  a  supply  of  products  in  the  future. 
His  operations  and  those  of  other  persons  in  the  same  busi- 
ness tend  to  push  wages  up  now  and  to  push  prices  down 
six  months  or  a  year  hence.  This  will  continue  until  the 
difference  becomes  very  small.  The  limit  of  this  difference 
between  what  the  employer  will  [lay  for  wages  and  materials 
(and  this  expenditure  for  materials  is,  for  the  most  part,  but 
a  repayment  of  wages  already  advanced)  and  the  expected 
price  of  the  product  is  to  be  found  in  the  interest  which  he 
must  pay  on  his  advances  during  the  period  of  production. 
Price  tends  to  conform  to  the  amount  of  wages  and  interest 
under  ordinary  conditions.  If  the  price  is  inadequate  to 
pay  wages  and  interest,  the  employer  will  find  that  he  has 
made  a  speculative  mistake  and  will  go  out  of  business.  If 
the  price  more  than  covers  wages  and  interest,  the  employer 
will  feel  that  he  has  done  well  and  will  strive  to  extend  "his 
operations  in  the  next  period  of  production. 

Differential  Gains.  Theory  of  Sent. — Some  business, 
however,  is  not  done  under  ordinary  conditions.  A  part  of 
the  supply  may  be  produced  under  exceptional  advantages 
of  location.  If  the  New  York  market  must  have  a  certain 
amount  of  Dakota  wheat,  the  people  in  Minnesota,  who  are 
supplying  the  same  market,  have  an  advantage  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  do  not  have  to  ship  their  wheat  so  far.  The 
price  can  not  fall  below  the  cost  of  production  for  Dakota 
wheat,  else  the  quantity  supplied  would  be  too  small.  The 
difference  in  location  gives  rise  to  a  gain  which  is  known 
as  rent.  If  certain  of  the  persons  supjilying  the  New  York 
market  have  the  benefit  of  some  processes  and  methods  of 
industry  which  are  not  open  to  all,  we  again  have  a  special 
gain  closely  analogous  to  the  rent  of  land,  due  to  patents 
or  monopolies  of  a  process  of  production.  Finally,  if  un- 
der a  given  set  of  conditions  one  producer  is  possessed  of 
exceptional  organizing  power,  so  that  he  can  produce  part 
of  the  supply  at  less  than  the  general  cost  of  the  whole,  he 
obtains  a  gain  known  as  profits  in  the  narrower  sense,  due 
to  his  monopoly  of  brains.  Price,  under  the  existing  sys- 
tem, is  not  determined  by  the  average  cost  of  production  of 
the  commodity  as  a  whole,  but  tends  to  apjiroach  the  cost 
of  production  of  that  part  of  the  supply  which  is  produced 
without  exceptional  advantages  of  any  kind.  Rent  and 
profits  form  part  of  the  returns  of  industry,  but  are  not 
elements  in  the  cost  of  production  in  the  same  sense  that 
wages  and  interest  are  elements.  They  are  known  to  the 
economist  by  the  name  of  differential  gains,  and  the  laws 
to  which  they  are  subject  are  much  clearer  than  those  which 
regulate  wages  and  interest. 

Theory  of  Population  and  Wages. — Wages  form,  without 
any  question,  the  largest  element  in  cost  of  production. 
Under  the  competitive  system  they  are  determined  by  an  ad- 
justment between  the  supply  of  and  demand  for  labor.  The 
supply  of  labor  under  certain  conditions  tends  to  increase 
so  rapidly  that  some  persons  have  supposed  that  wages  for 
unskilled"  labor  must  perpetually  remain  at  the  starvation- 
point,  and  that  no  progress  for  the  mass  of  laborers  was 
possible  except  by  rigid  limitation  of  their  numliers.  This 
view  has  been  associated  with  the  name  of  Malthus,  who 
first  developed  certain  important  facts  relating  to  popula- 
tion. He  showed  the  existence  of  a  tendency  of  population 
to  increase  faster  than  the  means  of  subsistence,  and  pointed 
out  that  if  this  tendency  went  on  unchecked  there  must 
soon  come  a  time  when  the  increased  numbers  of  the  labor- 
ers woultl  prevent  any  gain  from  improved  processes :  a  time, 
in  short,  when  wages  would  be  so  low  that  starvation  must 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY 


691 


ensue,  and  continue  until  the  number  of  laborers  was  again 
brouglit  within  the  limit  of  the  foo(i-su[)|)ly.  lie  saw  no 
escape  Irom  this  liilliculty  except  by  a  policy  of  conscious 
restriction  of  population  on  the  [lart  of  the  laborers  them- 
selves. In  its  main  features  the  theory  of  Malthus  has 
withstood  the  attacks  of  the  critics.  It  is  not  true,  as  urged 
bv  Henry  George,  that  increased  population  will  take  care 
of  itself.'  It  is,  however,  a  mistake  to  assume  that  there  is 
anv  such  general  pressure  of  population  upon  subsistence  as 
Jlillthus  supposes.  The  institutions  of  private  property  and 
of  the  family  have  localized  this  pressure  of  population  upon 
subsistence,  and  have  confined  the  destructive  elTects  of 
overpopulation  within  narrow  limits.  If  a  confirmation  of 
these  views  were  needed,  it  would  be  found  in  the  experi- 
ence of  England  and  other  countries  with  regard  to  poor 
relief.  Wherever  it  has  been  assumed  that  groups  or  classes 
of  men  would  be  supported  by  the  community,  there  luts 
been  a  tendency  to  multiply  their  numbers.  Wherever,  on 
the  contrary,  relief  has  been  strictly  limited  and  a  spirit 
of  independence  cultivated,  the  number  of  paupers  has  di- 
minished in  a  most  unexpected  manner.  What  Malthus 
says  about  population  as  a  whole  would  probably  be  true 
in  the  case  of  a  society  organized  on  the  more  extreme 
forms  of  socialism,  but  it  does  not  hold  true  of  society  to- 
dav.  <  Iti  the  contrary,  the  institution  of  the  family  has  es- 
tablished certain  standards  of  comfort  an<l  certain  habits 
of  proviilence  which  prevent  the  multiplication  of  numbers 
up  to  the  limit  of  the  food-supply,  and  which  causes  the 
increase  of  wages  to  be  largely  spent,  not  in  .supporting 
greater  numbers  under  the  old  conditions,  but  in  supporting 
the  old  numbers  under  better  ccmditious.  Of  this  generali- 
zation, the  statistics  of  America  and  Western  Europe  furnish 
suflicient  proof.  The  rate  of  wages  for  any  given  grade  of 
indust  ry  is  primarily  determined  by  the  standard  of  com- 
fort set  by  the  ma.ss  of  laborers  themselves.  The  extent  to 
which  labor  can  be  employed  in  any  given  direction  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  product  which  the  public  will  consume 
at  rates  sutTicient  to  insure  to  the  laborers  wages  which 
will  conform  to  this  standard.  The  employer,  under  the 
existing  system,  makes  a  speculative  judgment  of  what 
this  amount  will  lie.  The  demand  for  labor  is  not  deter- 
mined by  accumulations,  as  was  falsely  stated  by  the 
'•  classical  "  theory  already  referred  to,  but  by  the  expected 
value  of  the  product  as  estimated  by  those  who  control  the 
capital  of  the  community. 

Theory  of  Interest. — If  no  time  elapsed  between  the  ex- 
penditure of  labor  and  the  return  of  the  product,  or  if 
there  were  no  such  thing  as  interest,  the  probability  is  that 
the  price  would  adjust  itself  accurately  to  the  labor  cost; 
but  as  it  is,  interest  enters  into  the  prices  of  nearly  all  prod- 
ucts. The  rate  of  interest  is  determined  by  a  bargain  or 
series  of  bargains  l)etween  the  borrowers  and  the  lenders. 
Whoever  has  accumulated  disposable  property  or  capital,  of 
which  money  is  but  the  symbol,  has  the  right  to  the  control 
of  industry,  anil  the  speculative  ein|iloyer  is  paying  a  greater 
or  less  rate  of  interest  to  secure  the  chance  of  using  that  right 
himself.  (Even  if  he  is  working  with  his  own  capital  the 
case  is  not  essentially  altereil,  for  he  could  sell  the  right  to 
the  use  of  that  capital  to  some  one  else,  and  he  will  there- 
fore not  employ  it  himself  unless  he  can  obtain  a  profit  cor- 
responding to  that  which  he  would  receive  by  disposing  of 
these  rights  to  others.)  The  conditions  which  enter  into 
this  bargain  are  an  estimate  of  risk  on  the  part  of  the 
lender  ami  an  expectatii>u  of  profit  on  tlie  part  of  the  bor- 
rower. The  expected  profit  on  a  loan  creates  a  denuind  for 
such  loans,  just  as  utility  creates  a  demand  for  commodi- 
ties. The  estimated  risk  tends  to  limit  the  supply  of  such 
loans,  just  as  cost  of  production  and  many  other  con- 
.siderations  tend  to  limit  the  supply  of  commodities;  but, 
just  a-s  in  the  purchase  of  ordinary  commodities  some  [ler- 
sons  are  able  to  buy  them  for  less  than  their  utility  to  them 
as  individuals,  and  some  are  able  to  sell  those  commodities 
for  less  than  the  cost  to  them  as  individmils,  .so,  in  the  case 
of  interest,  .some  can  borrow  at  rates  which  leave  them  a 
large  margin  of  expected  profit,  and  some  can  lend  at  rates 
decideilly  above  those  which  they  would  take  in  case  of 
necessity.  The  rate  for  any  given  class  of  loans  adju.sts 
itself  to  the  point  which  will  bring  intothe  market  an  amount 
of  such  capital  equal  to  the  amount  business  men  demand 
at  the  rale  in  question.  Risk  enters  into  interest  in  jire- 
cisely  the  same  way  that  cost  of  production  enters  into  value. 

Deprerintiim  nf  Capital. — It  is,  to  say  the  least,  an  open 
question  whether  in  the  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain  to-day  the 
losses  of   investors  on  their   jirincipal  do  not  more  than 


counterbalance  the  receipts  in  the  form  of  interest  or  divi- 
dends. That  the  borrowers  of  capital  as  a  class  make 
money  by  the  aggregate  of  transactions  there  can  be  little 
doubt,  but  that  the  lenders  of  money  more  than  indemnify 
themselves  for  their  losses  is  by  no  means  certain.  The 
socialist  assumption  of  an  enormous  sum  earned  by  capital 
in  the  form  of  nitercst  is  miquestionably  false,  and  so  long 
as  this  is  so  any  .scheme  based  upon  the  a.s.snmption  of  such 
a  surplus  nmst  be  regarded  as  Utopian.  The  causes  which 
fix  the  rate  or  the  amount  of  interest  must  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  those  which  establish  the  system  of  in- 
terest. The  system  of  interest  has  grown  up  t)ecausc,  on 
the  whole,  it  brought  the  use  of  capital  into  efficient  hands. 
Society  maintains  this  system  as  a  means  of  securing  effi- 
ciency. Whether  the  judgment  of  individual  investors  with 
regard  to  the  rate  they  are  receiving  lie  true  or  false  is  a 
secondary  question,  and  one  with  which  society  has  not 
hitherto  concerned  itself. 

EffKi-t  nf  Improvements  in  Production. — A  controversy 
has  arisen  as  to  what  class  in  society  receives  the  "residual 
share"  of  the  product  of  industry.  To  whom,  it  is  asked, 
does  the  benefit  of  improvements  in  production  ultimately 
go  i  The  socialist,  as  a  rule,  holds  that  it  goes  to  the  capi- 
talist. Henry  George  thinks  that  it  goes  to  the  landowner. 
Gen.  Walker,  with  the  majority  of  economists,  believes  that 
it  goes  to  the  laborer.  The  last  view  appears  to  be  nearest 
the  truth.  To  be  sure,  in  an  individual  transaction  under 
the  exi.sting  system  it  is  the  speculator  who  receives  the 
gain.  If  he  has  introduced  an  improved  process  which  is 
covered  by  a  patent,  he  is.  for  the  time  being,  enabled  to 
sell  his  goods  at  the  old  priifes,  while  his  cost  of  production 
has  been  much  reduced  and  his  profits  correspondingly  in- 
creased. When,  however,  the  use  of  the  new  process  be- 
comes general  and  all  the  less  ec^onomical  producers  have 
gradually  dropped  out  of  the  business,  a  fall  in  prices  or  an 
increase  in  wages,  or  both,  must  ultimately  follow.  There 
may  be  a  considerable  gam  to  the;  landowner  in  the  form  of 
rent,  as  urged  by  George  :  but  it  does  not  seem  likely  that 
this  is  nearly  so  important  an  element  as  George  assumes. 
The  action  of  different  business  men  narrows  down  the  mar- 
gin between  wages  at  one  extreme  and  prices  at  the  other. 
True,  there  always  remains  a  crcrtain  amount  of  margin 
represented  by  the  rate  of  interest,  and  it  might  be  sup- 
posed that  with  the  increased  accuraidations  of  capital  the 
amount  paid  in  interest  would  be  covered ;  but  the  investi- 
gations of  Edward  Atkinson  go  to  show  that  the  increa.se 
in  capital  under  the  old  system  of  industry,  where  each  man 
worked  by  himself  or  in  small  factories,  though  less  in  each 
individual  case,  was  even  greater  in  the  aggregate  than  ex- 
ists at  the  present  day,  and  that  the  ultimate  benefit  of  the 
improvement  shows  itself  in  a  larger  demand  for  labor  and 
a  lower  price  of  product.  By  the  former  the  laborer  bene- 
fits directly.  By  the  latter  he  benefits  with  the  rest  of 
the  community,  as  a  consinner.  Though  it  doubtless  is 
true  that  the  gain  to  consinners  from  new  processes  has 
been  more  conspicuous  than  the  iiuTeaiie  in  wages,  it  is 
also  true  that  the  result  of  new  processes  and  new  methods 
has  been  to  promote  an  increa.sed  ])opular  use  of  commodi- 
ties which  were  formerly  confined  to  a  few.  It  is  the 
staples,  rather  than  the  luxuries,  that  have  cheapened.  So 
far  as  this  is  true,  the  gain  from  the  new  processes  goes  to 
the  laborers  rather  than  to  the  landowners  or  capitalists. 
This  will  appear  in  another  way  if  the  conditions  under  the 
present  system  of  manufacture  be  compared  with  those 
under  the  system  of  hand  labor.  Under  the  system  of  hand 
labor  there  was  a  small  (luautity  of  each  kind  of  manu- 
factured article  sold  at  high  prices,  and  the  laborer  made 
his  jnoncy  not  by  the  quantity  of  his  output,  but  by  the 
high  price  for  each  unit  of  work,  lie  resisted  labor-saving 
machinery  because  it  seemed  likely  to  throw  him  out  of 
I'lnploymeiit ;  but  the  cheaiiening  of  the  product  created 
an  increa-sed  demand  which  more  than  counterbalanced 
the  increase  in  supply.  When  railways  were  first  intro- 
duced they  were  opposed  bv  large  classes  of  the  community 
because  it  wa.s  thought  tliat  the  increased  eflBcieney  of 
transportation  would  throw  teamsters  and  innkeepers  out 
of  employment:  but  the  increase  of  travel  and  shipment 
]irove(l  to  be  nmny  times  more  than  the  increase  of  effi- 
ciency, so  that  to-day  the  reduction  of  cost  from  a  dollar  a 
ton-mile  to  a  cent  a  ton-mile  has  increased  the  amount  of 
transportation  more  than  a  hundreilfold,  and  has  increased 
the  demand  for  labor  instead  of  diminishing  it. 

(I'overnment  Interference  with  Industry. — These  general 
principles  form  the  basis  of  what  is  known  as  the  system  of 


692 


POLITICAL   ECONOMY 


POLITICAL  PARTIES 


laissez  fairs,  or  the  scientific  justification  of  the  let-alone 
policy.  The  majority  of  economists  have  held  tiiat  it  was 
best  for  the  community  that  tlie  interference  of  government 
with  industry  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  that  in 
this  way  a  higher  degree  of  industrial  efficiency  and  a  more 
equitable  distribution  of  wealth  could  be  secured  than  in 
any  other ;  but  there  has  been  some  disposition  to  modify 
these  views,  especially  with  regard  to  equity  of  distribution. 
The  principle  that  government  should  not  interfere  with  in- 
dustry is  no  longer  treated  as  an  axiom,  but  as  a  general  re- 
sult of  experience.  That  most  cases  of  government  inter- 
ference with  industry  have  done  harm  instead  of  good  is 
pretty  clearly  proved  by  history ;  but  it  is  far  from  true  that 
all  such  interference  has  been  bad,  or  that  projjosed  meas- 
ures of  restriction  should  be  condemned  unheard. 

Usury  laws  furnish  an  example  of  tlie  kind  of  government 
interference  which  seems  right,  but  really  is  wrong.  Tiiose 
who  advocate  the  restriction  of  the  rate  of  interest  say  that 
the  capitalists  are  few  iu  number,  intelligent,  and  well  oi"- 
ganized,  while  the  borrowers  are  many,  needy,  and  short- 
sighted. In  these  circumstances  it  has  been  urged  that  the 
government  should  step  in  and  fix  a  maximum  rate  as  a 
necessary  means  of  preventing  extortion.  Yet  the  amount 
of  good  which  has  been  done  by  such  interference  has  been 
very  much  less  than  the  amount  of  harm.  In  the  great  ma- 
jority of  cases  the  high  rate  of  interest  is  not  an  indication 
of  extortion  so  much  as  of  exceptioiuil  opportunities  for  the 
investment  of  capital.  If  we  refuse  to  permit  the  high  rate 
one  of  two  things  happens.  Either  the  law  will  be  evaded, 
wliich  is  always  bad,  or  the  sui)plyof  capital  will  be  restrict- 
ed, the  development  of  the  country  checked,  and  the  rich  op- 
portunities which  made  the  high  rate  of  interest  possible 
will  remain  unused.  The  high  rate  of  interest  is  a  symptom 
of  scarcity  of  capital.  The  attempt  to  lower  the  rate  by  law 
makes  that  scarcity  continue,  and  deprives  the  community 
of  the  natural  means  of  remedying  it. 

The  Labor  Contract. — A  somewhat  similar  case  is  fur- 
nished by  the  relations  between  labor  and  capital.  Here 
again  tlie  relations  between  workmen  and  employers  are 
somewhat  like  those  between  borrowers  and  lenders,  and  it 
has  been  proposed  that  the  government  should  remedy  the 
disadvantage  under  which  laborers  act  by  direct  interference 
with  the  wages  contract.  A  few  extretiiists  think  that  gov- 
ernment ought  to  fix  the  rate  of  wages,  a  great  many  more  be- 
lieve in  regulation  of  the  hours  of  labor,  while  a  still  larger 
number  hold  that  the  work  of  women  and  children  should 
be  subjected  to  special  oversight  and  special  regulations.  It 
is  hardly  necessary  to  say  tliat  attempts  to  fix  tlie  rate  of 
wages  have  proved  a  failure  wherever  tried.  Attempts  to 
regulate  the  hours  of  labor  have  been  successful  in  a  limited 
degree,  yet  even  here  it  may  be  questioned  whether  much 
good  has  been  done  in  connection  with  the  labor  of  adult 
men.  The  work  of  women  and  children  furnishes  much 
better  ground  for  regulation.  This  is  one  of  the  cases  where 
the  self-interest  of  the  individuals  does  not  promote  the  best 
iiiterests  of  the  community.  As  men  are  constituted  each  is 
likely  to  strive  for  the  maximum  enjoyment  in  the  present, 
even  though  the  labor  power  and  the  intelligence  of  the 
community  in  the  future  be  jeopardized  by  keeping  married 
women  and  children  in  factories.  The  experience  of  f^ng- 
land  and  of  many  parts  of  the  U.  S.  with  restrictive  acts 
concerning  such  labor  has  been  distinctly  good.  See  Fac- 
tories AND  Factory  System. 

3IonopoHes,  Railway  Regulation. — Special  regulation  is 
als()  proposed  in  those  cases  where  an  individual  or  group  of 
individuals  has  a  monopoly  in  a  particular  line  of  business, 
whether  that  monopoly  be  due  to  special  legislation,  or,  as 
is  now  more  commonly  the  case,  to  the  necessities  of  busi- 
ness organization.  With  the  progress  of  invention  large 
establishments  have  become  more  economical  than  small 
ones.  It  is  no  longer  possible  for  the  independent  workman 
to  compete  with  the  large  monopoly.  It  is  scarcely  possible 
for  the  small  establishment  to  compete  with  the  great  one. 
In  radway  business  first,  and  afterward  in  all  other  lines  of 
industry  requiring  much  capital,  monopolies  have  grown  up 
in  the  hands  of  enormous  joint-stock  companies.  It  is  held, 
with  a  great  deal  of  plausibility, that  such  industries  form  a 
necessary  subject  for  special  regulation  by  the  government, 
if  not  for  direct  government  ownership,  and  that  in  the  ab- 
sence of  such  special  regulation  the  public  has  no  protection 
whatever.  Jlost  of  the  arrangements  of  modern  society  are 
based  upon  the  assumption  that  individuals  will  act  as  in- 
dividuals, and  where  such  individual  action  docs  not  in  fact 
take  place  many  of  the  traditions  of  modern  industrial  law 


cease  to  apply.  Yet  even  in  those  cases  the  dangers  of  in- 
terference are  greater  and  those  of  non-interference  less  than 
superficial  observers  suppose.     See  Monopolies. 

Throughout  this  article  the  purchasing  power  of  money 
has  been  assumed  to  be  constant,  and  little  has  been  said 
about  variations  in  the  operation  of  the  credit  system.  On 
the  way  in  which  sujijily  and  demand  regulates  the  value  of 
money  comment  will  be  found  under  Currency.  The  oper- 
ations of  the  credit  system  and  their  effect  on  speculation 
are  treated  under  the  head  of  Commercial  Crises,  while 
certain  details  respecting  the  relation  of  labor  and  capital 
are  treated  more  at  length  under  Wages.     See  also  Rent. 

Bibliography. — The  best  account  of  the  literature  of  the 
science  is  Luigi  Co-aa's  Introduction  to  tlie  Study  of  Polit- 
ical Economy  (translated  from  Italian  by  Louis  Dyer,  Lon- 
don, 1893).  Among  the  most  important  of  the  many  books 
on  the  subject  accessiljle  to  English  readers  are  Adam  Smith, 
An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of 
Nations  (edited  by  .J.  E.  Thorold  Rogers,  Oxford,  1880) ; 
•John  Stuart  Mill, -P;'i«c(y)/e«  of  Political  Economy  (hondon, 
1848) ;  Henry  C.  Carey,  Principles  of  Social  Science  (Phila- 
delpliia,  1858,  a  classical  work  of  the  protectionist  school) ; 
W.  Stanley  Jevons,  Theory  of  Political  Economy  (London, 
1871,  the  first  important  work  of  the  mathematical  school) ; 
Henry  George,  Progress  and  Poverty  (San  Francisco,  1879) ; 
Francis  A.  Walker,  Political  Economy  (2d  ed.  New  York, 
1887);  Alfred  Marshall,  Principles  of  Economics  (London, 
1890).  A.  T.  Hadley. 

Political  Parties:  free  social  organizations  founded 
and  kept  together  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing  certain 
political  results. 

Political  Parties  in  General. — Essential  Principles. — 
Political  parties  can  not  exist  and  flourish  where  govern- 
ment is  not  of  a  nature  to  be  influenced  greatly  by  public 
opinion  ;  but  where  public  opinion  is  recognized  and  en- 
couraged they  grow  up  spontaneously  out  of  certain  psycho- 
logical characteristics  of  human  nature.  In  regard  to  all 
important  political  questions  there  will  not  only  be  differ- 
ing opinions,  but  such  opinions,  when  free  to  act,  will  al- 
most invariably  range  themselves  ultimately  into  two  op- 
posing parties.  When  not  influenced  by  authority  or  con- 
siderations of  personal  gain  or  loss,  such  party  alliances 
are  determined  by  certain  fundamental  conce]>tions  or  prin- 
ciples. Those  persons  in  whom  the  importance  of  stabil- 
ity and  order  predominates  range  themselves  on  the  one 
side,  while  on  the  opposite  side  are  to  be  found  those  who 
give  emphasis  to  the  importance  of  action  and  progress. 
Frederick  Rohmer,  in  his  Doctrine  of  Parties,  compares 
these  two  principles  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  different 
periods  of  liuman  life.  The  boy  and  the  youth,  he  says,  rep- 
resent the  impulse  in  behalf  of  action  and  progress.  This 
impulse  corresponds  with  the  radical  element  in  political 
life.  At  the  other  extreme  the  old  man  represents  the  most 
conservative  element.  He  is  inclined  to  oppose  every  de- 
pai'ture  from  the  ways  of  the  past  ;  he  distrusts  all  innova- 
tions ;  he  forms  at  once  an  obstacle  to  progress  and  a  secur- 
ity against  precipitancy.  Between  these  two  elements  repre- 
sented by  age  and  youth  there  are  elements  represented  by 
the  developing  stages  of  manhood.  Conservatism  may  be 
found  in  the  boy  and  radicalism  may  be  found  in  the  old 
man,  but  whatever  the  views  of  the  individuals  at  the  two 
extremes,  there  is  an  intermediate  period  during  which  less 
extreme  views  are  commonly  held.  While,  therefore,  youth 
and  old  age  are  the  jiersonifications  of  radicalism  and  abso- 
lutism, manhood  is  the  personification  on  the  one  hand  of 
liberalism,  and  of  conservatism  on  the  other.  Hence  wher- 
ever political  parties  are  organized  these  four  elements,  corre- 
sponding to  the  terms  absolutist,  conservative,  liberal,  and 
radical,  will  be  found  in  a  greater  or  less  state  of  activity. 
The  doctrines  in  relation  to  which  political  parties  take 
their  characteristic  positions  are  determined  by  the  domi- 
nant political  issues  of  the  day  ;  but  whatever  the  question 
at  issue,  the  matter  of  personal  temperament  will  generally 
exercise  a  controlling  influence  in  determining  party  affilia- 
tions. This,  however,  must  not  be  understood  as  ajiplying 
to  all  classes  of  persons.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  two 
cliisses  to  whom  these  considerations  do  not  apply :  First, 
those  who  unselfishly  devote  their  lives  to  the  work  of  re- 
forming what  they  consider  abuses,  and,  secondly,  those 
whose  political  actions  are  selfishly  determined  by  consid- 
erations of  personal  advantage.  These  two  classes  either 
refuse  to  acknowledge  allegiance  to  any  party  or  are  bound 
by  such  feeble  party  ties  that  they  can  readily  pass  from 


POLITICAL   PARTIES 


093 


one  party  to  another.  It  is  in  consequence  of  such  feeble- 
ness of  tenure  that  these  two  classes  constitute  the  uncer- 
tain element  in  every  popular  election.  Notwithstandinj; 
the  tendencies  of  political  parties  to  jtroup  themselves  into 
a  dual  system  under  the  general  character  of  conservatives 
and  lilierals,  it  frequently  happens  that  minor  interests  of 
various  kincls  express  themselves,  as  shown  below,  by  means 
of  separate  organizations. 

Party  Declaratiuns  and  Methods  of  Action. — The  doc- 
trines of  political  parties  are  nowhere  very  clearly  or  au- 
thoritatively expressed.  This  statement  would  .seem  to  be 
at  variance  with  the  custom  in  the  U.S.  of  adopting  "party 
platforms":  but  a  very  slight  familiarity  with  the  political 
tiistory  of  that  country  must  reveal  the  fact  that  such  dec- 
larations have  no  very  authoritative  significance.  The  im- 
portance of  such  a  manifesto  of  course  depends  upon  the 
deliberateness  and  the  discretion  with  which  it  is  framed. 
The  Tamworth  manifesto  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1837  out- 
lined the  policy  by  which  the  Conservative  party  in  Great 
Britain  was  guided  for  many  years,  and  the  Nottingham 
address  by  W.  K.  Ghiilstone  in  1890  performed  a  similar 
service  for  the  Liberals;  but  in  the  V.  S.  the  platforms 
are  either  the  joint  product  of  conflicting  opinions,  or  the 
utterances  of  single  individuals  acting  in  an  irresponsible 
capacity.  They  are  ordinarily  designed  (piite  as  much  to 
show  the  weaknesses  of  the  opposing  party  as  to  set  forth 
the  principles  of  the  party  making  the  declaration.  More- 
over, new  exigencies  may  arise,  and  if  the  declarations  are 
too  definite  there  may  be  no  room  for  that  flexibility  neces- 
sary to  party  efl[iciency.  If  a  party  declares  itself  unequivo- 
cally in  favor  of  an  immediate  policy  of  a  certain  kind,  it 
may  be  found  a  little  later  that  only  a  jiartial  fulfillment  of 
its  promises  are  for  the  present  within  the  range  of  possi- 
bility. Hence  it  is  that  the  various  party  platforms  are  gen- 
erally somewhat  vague  in  their  utterances,  and  that  par- 
ties consider  themselves  bound  to  such  utterances  by  very 
slender  ties. 

The  management  of  political  parties  differs  greatly  in 
different  countries.  In  Great  Britain  each  party  has  its 
oflicial  leader,  who,  acting  under  such  advice  as  he  may 
seek,  controls  and  directs  all  party  action.  By  parliamen- 
tary law  all  candidates  are  required  under  oath  to  make  a 
public  statement  in  detail  of  expenditures  of  every  kind, 
such  expenditures  being  strictly  defined  and  limited  by 
statute.  Contested  elections  are  tried,  not  by  Parliament, 
but  by  the  courts,  and  in  case  the  law  in  regard  to  expendi- 
tures is  shown  to  have  been  violated  the  seat  of  the  defend- 
ant goes  to  his  opponent.  Nominations  are  made  by  per- 
sonal announcement,  not  by  the  choice  of  a  Caucus  (q.  v.). 
As  the  legitimate  expenses  of  a  parliamentary  election  for 
printing  and  for  speakers  are  necessarily  very  considerable. 
the  number  of  candidates  presenting  themselves  is  limited 
by  the  probabilities  of  success  or  failure.  In  the  U.  vS.,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  is  practically  very  much  less  individ- 
ual libi'rty  on  the  part  of  candidates,  and  very  much  more 
party  supervision.  The  candidate  does  not  nominate  liim- 
self,  but  is  nominated  by  a  caucus  or  a  convention.  Kach 
political  iiarty  has  its  national  committee,  its  committee  in 
each  State,  and  its  local  committees.  These  committees  de- 
termine the  general  plan  of  canvass  or  "  campaign,"  pro- 
viding, for  the  most  part,  by  voluntary  subscriptions  for  the 
necessary  expenses.  Toward  these  expenses  the  candidates 
are  expected  to  make  large  contributions;  and  in  many  in- 
stances holders  of  minor  oOices  have  been  made  to  feel  that 
the  permanency  of  their  tenure  depended  upon  the  liberality 
of  their  contributions.  The  freedom  with  which  money  is 
expended  depends  upon  the  supposed  importance  of  the 
election.  In  ease  of  a  hotly  contested  election,  especially 
when  a  U.  S.  Senator  is  to  be  chosen  by  the  Legislature  or 
when  there  is  a  presidential  election,  the  efforts  of  the  vari- 
ous political  committees  are  extended  down  to  a  personal 
canvass  of  the  voters  in  every  voting  precinct.  It  not  in- 
frequently happens  that  even  in  the  largest  States  the  issue 
is  determined  by  a  very  small  majority.  In  the  presidential 
election  of  18S4  the  entire  electoral  vote  of  the  State  of  New 
York  was  determined  by  a  majority  of  only  a  few  hundred, 
and  the  electoral  vote  of  the  State  determined  the  presi- 
dential election,  on  which  depcndeil  the  tenure  of  more  than 
100,000  subordinate  officials.  Either  human  nature  must 
be  reformed  or  so  momentous  an  issue  must  be  the  parent 
of  widespread  corruption.  With  human  nature  as  it  is,  the 
more  thorough  the  organization  of  political  parties,  the  more 
intense  will  be  the  political  feeling,  and  the  more  danger- 
ous will  be  the  political  menace. 


Political  Parties  i.n'  Particular  States. — In  Great  Brit- 
ain.— The  four  i>rincipal  parties  represented  in  the  British 
Parliament  are  the  Conservatives,  Liberals,  Home-rulers, 
and  Liberal-Unionists.  Of  these,  the  first  two  can  be  traced 
back  to  the  early  times  of  the  monarchy,  in  that  the  earliest 
records  reveal  the  existence  of  contests  between  a  party  of 
progress  and  a  party  that  clung  with  tenacity  to  the  estali- 
lished  order.  A  clearer  dividing-line  appears  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  but  party  designations  corresponding  in  any 
respect  to  the  present  [larty  terms  were  not  employed  till 
the  time  of  the  great  civil  war,  in  which  Cavaliers  and 
Koundhea<ls  may  be  regarded  as  the  prototypes  of  the  two 
modern  groups".  The  latter,  however,  correspond  more 
nearly  to  the  later  distinction  between  Petitioners  and  Ab- 
horrers — terms  employed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  to  desig- 
nate respectively  those  who  favored  the  petition  for  the 
summoning  of  a  Parliament  hostile  to  the  succession  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  and  those  who,  in  their  hatred  of  the  Ex- 
clusion Bill,  declared  their  "abhorrence"  of  the  attempt 
to  induce  the  king  to  call  Parliament.  These  terms  soon 
gave  way  to  the  more  familiar  Whigs  and  Tories,  as  the  ene- 
mies and  friends  of  the  royal  prerogative  were  respectively 
called  ;  and  these  names  continued  to  designate  the  party  of 
progress  and  the  jiarty  that  held  to  established  rights  till, in 
the  nineteenth  century,  they  were  replaced  by  the  terras 
Liberals  and  Conservatives.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
the  party  issues  which  divide  modern  Liberals  and  Con- 
servatives can  be  found  in  the  older  distinctions  between 
Whigs  and  Tories  or  their  respective  predecessors,  but  the 
same  attitude  toward  measures  of  change  and  reform  is  dis- 
cernible throughout  all  the  vicissitudes  of  party  history. 
The  Hume, Rule  party  came  into  existence  as  a  distinct 
political  organization  through  the  efforts  of  Butt  and  Par- 
nell.  (See  Home  Rule.)  By  an  alliance  with  tlie  Liberals 
under  Gladstone's  leadership,  in  1886,  it  made  Home  Rule 
the  chief  issue  between  the  Liberals  and  Conservatives,  and 
in  the  House  of  Commons  of  1892  secured  a  majority  favor- 
able to  that  measure.  This  action  of  the  Liberals  caused  the 
defection  of  an  important  group  of  members  who,  under 
the  name  of  Liberal-Unionists  (q.  v.),  have  strenuously  op- 
posed Home  Rule  for  Ireland.  A  less  important  party  than 
any  of  these  is  the  Labor  party,  which  is  socialistic  in  some 
features.     See  Great  Hkitxis' (Uistory)  and  Parliament. 

In  Fratice. — While  progressive  and  conservative  elements 
are  discernible  throughout  French  political  history,  it  was 
not  till  the  era  of  the  Revolution  that  definite  party  issues 
and  partv  names  made  their  appearance.  Radical  and  jnod- 
erate  opposition  to  the  old  regime  were  the  respective  char- 
acteristics of  the  Jacobins  and  the  Girondists  {qq.  v.)  dur- 
ing this  period,  while  the  Feuillants  tried  to  maintain  the 
Bourbon  monarchy,  but  with  constitutional  limitations. 
Since  that  time  political  parties  in  France  have  passed 
through  many  changes  both  of  name  and  principle.  After 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  on  the  final  overthrow  of 
Napoleon  I.,  there  were,  in  addition  to  the  Constitutional 
Monarchists  who  supported  Louis  XVHI.,  the  Ultra-Hoyal- 
ists.  or  adherents  of  the  Count  of  Artois.  afterward  Charles 
X..  the  Bona|iartists.  the  Doctrinaires  (</.  r.),  and  the  Re- 
publicans. When  the  Bourbon  monarchy  was  finally  over- 
thrown. Louis  Philippe,  the  representative  of  constitutional 
monarchv.  encountered  an  ojipositjon  from  Bonapartists, 
Republicans,  and  Legitimists.  The  first  of  these  triumphed 
with  the  elevation  of  Napoleon  III.  to  the  imperial  throne 
in  18")'^,  and  the  second,  the  Reimblicans,  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  republic  in  1871.  The  death  of  the  Comte  de 
Chambord  in  1886  ma*le  the  Count  of  Paris  of  the  Orleans 
branch  the  heir  to  the  Legitimist  claims,  and  his  death  in 
1894  has  brought  the  voung  Duke  of  Orleans  forward  as  the 
representative  of  the  Royalist  party.  This  group,  however, 
has  lost  much  of  its  importance  as  an  element  of  opposition 
to  the  Flench  republic,  and  the  Bonapartists  and  Radicals 
have  shown  themselves  more  dangerous  enemies  to  the  Gov- 
ernment. The  reactionary  elements  of  the  opposition,  in- 
cluding both  Bonapartists' and  Jlonarchists,  sit  together  in 
the  Chamber,  and  are  known  as  the  Right.  The  Repulili- 
cans  may  be  divided  into  the  Opportunists,  who  believe  in 
adapting  their  political  action  to  circum-slaiices  rather  than 
forcing  it  into  conformitv  with  certain  pre-established  prin- 
ciples, the  Moderates,  and  the  Radicals.  The  last  of  these 
constitute  the  Extreme  Left,  while  the  more  moderate 
groups  make  up  the  Center.    See  France,  History  of. 

In  the  (lerman  Empire.— The  leading  parliamentary 
groups  in  the  Reichstag  after  the  formation  of  the  empire 
were  the  National  Liberals,  who,  though  not  in  sympathy 


094 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


with  Bismarck's  general  policy,  supported  bis  efforts  for 
uiiitication  and  reform ;  the  remnant  of  the  Progressists 
(Fortschrittspai-tei),  wtio  opposed  all  compromise  with  Bis- 
marck ;  the  Old  Conservatives,  hostile  even  to  the  measure 
of  reform  that  Bismarck  was  willing  to  concede ;  and  the 
Free  Conservatives  (Reichspartei).  who  were  his  thorough- 
going supporters.  To  these  were  added  the  Ultramontane 
partv.  or  Center,  composed  of  Roman  Catholics  who  opposed 
the  "Government's  policy  durjng  the  Kl-lti-rkampf  (g.  v.). 
the  Social  Democrats,  with  a  "socialistic  programme,  the 
Jewish  members  held  together  by  racial  interests;  and  the 
protesting  delegates  from  Alsace-Lorraine.  Since  1871  the 
representation  of  the  Social  Democrats  in  the  Reichstag  hijs 
increased  from  two  in  that  year  to  forty-three  after  the  elec- 
tion of  1893 ;  but  none  of  the  numerous  parties  has  in- 
creased sufficiently  to  secure  a  majority  in  the  Reichstag. 
After  the  election  of  1893  the  principal  parties  rejiresented 
in  that  body  were,  in  the  order  of  numerical  strength,  the 
Center,  called  also  the  Ultramontane  or  Clerical  party, 
German  Conservatives,  National  Liberals,  Social  Democrats, 
Radicals  (Freisiniiige),  Free  Conservatives,  and  Anti- 
Semites. 

/»  Italy. — The  distinction  between  conservatism  and  lib- 
eralism can  not  be  clearly  discerned  in  the  division  of  Ital- 
ian parties,  since  both  the  majority  and  the  greater  portion 
of  the  minority  profess  liljeral  principles.  They  are  divided, 
however,  on  minor  issues,  the  supportere  of  the  ministry  be- 
ing known  as  the  Ministerial  Left,  and  the  others  as  the  Oppo- 
sition Left,  or  the  Pentarchists.  The  Irredentists  are  those 
who  demand  the  annexation  of  "  unredeemed '"  Italy — i.  e. 
of  the  provinces  inhabited  by  an  Italian-speaking  popula- 
tion but  subject  to  a  foreign  government. 

In  other  European  countries  the  names  and  principles  of 
the  leading  political  parties  may  be  briefly  summarized  as 
follows:  In  Austria  racial  and  religious  differences  consti- 
tute the  chief  political  issues.  Thus  the  party  of  the  Young 
Czechs  desire  natioiuil  emancipation,  to  which  the  Germans, 
the  most  numerous  element,  are  opposed.  The  chief  parties 
in  the  lower  house  of  the  Reichsrath  may  be  described  as 
the  German  Liberals,  the  Poles,  and  the  German  Conserva- 
tives and  Clericals.  In  Belgium  the  two  leading  parties  are 
the  Catholics,  or  Clericals,  and  the  Liberals.  In  the  Danish 
Rigsdag  the  Right,  or  Conservatives,  hold  that  the  lower 
house,  or  Folkething,  has  not  the  supremacy  in  matters  of 
taxation  and  finance  and  in  the  choice  of  the  ministers, 
while  the  Left  contend  that  these  rights  are  vested  in  that 
body.  In  the  Spanish  Cortes  there  are,  in  addition  to  the 
usual  division  into  Liberals  and  Con.servatives,  the  extreme 
Republicans  and  the  moderate  Republicans,  or  Possibilists. 
A  few  Carlists  were  returned  in  the  elections  of  1893. 

In  the  United  States. — The  principal  political  parties  in 
the  U.  S.  are  discussed  in  the  articles  De.mocratic  Party, 
Republican  Party,  People's  Party,  and  Prohibition  Party 
(qq.  v.).  For  an  account  of  older  political  groups,  see  Feder- 
alist, Anti-Federalists,  Free-Soil  Party,  and  Know- 
nothings  ;  and  for  the  general  facts  of  party  history  and  the 
discussion  of  party  programmes,  see  United  States  (His- 
tory), Slavery,  Free  Trade,  Protection,  Nationalism,  etc. 
On  the  subject  of  the  methods  of  political  parties  in  the  U.  S., 
see  the  articles  Civil  Service  and  Civil  Service  Reform 
and  Primary  Elections.  On  the  general  subject  of  political 
parties,  consult  Wachsmuth,  Geschichte  der  poUtischen  Par- 
teiungen  (3  vols.,  1856) :  Cooke,  History  of  Party  in  England 
(3  vols.,  1836);  lioXimet,  Doctrine  of  Parties(\^4:i);  Sidgwick, 
Elements  of  Politics  (1891,  chap,  xxix.) ;  Woolsey,  Political 
Science  (1878,  pt.  iii.,  chap,  xiv.) ;  Bryce,  American  Common- 
wealtli  (vol.  i.).  C.  K.  Adams. 

Political  Science:  the  science  which  treats  of  the  nature 
of  the  state,  and  of  the  principles  underlying  society  organ- 
ized for  the  purpose  of  governing  itself.  In  accomplishing 
its  objects  jjolitical  society  employs  force.  This  is  what  espe- 
cially distinguishes  it  from  industrial  society,  whose  moving 
power  is  simply  the  desires  of  its  individual  members,  and 
from  religious  society,  whose  motive  power  is  likewise  indi- 
vidualistic, acting  through  the  consciences  of  its  members. 
Of  course,  religious  bodies  have  often  employed  force  to 
carry  out  tlieir  ]ilans,  but  in  that  case  they  have  become 
political,  interfering  in  the  government  of  the  state. 

Nature. —  The  origin  of  the  .state  has  been  explained  usu- 
ally in  accordance  with  one  of  three  theories:  First,  the 
theological.  By  this  God  is  declared  to  have  directly  in- 
structed man  how  to  organize  government,  and  to  have  up- 
held government  by  divine  intervention.     Second,  the  con- 


tract theory.  This  presumes  that  men  first  lived  in  a  state 
of  nature,  each  independent  of  others,  and  with  unlimited 
rights  to  all  things.  To  keep  peace  and  to  secure  the  bene- 
fits of  co-operation,  they  entered  into  a  contract  by  which 
each  gave  up  many  of  his  individual  rights  and  agreed  to 
submit  to  government.  Hobbes,  Locke,  and  Rousseau,  the 
chief  exponents  of  this  doctrine,  advocate  entirely  different 
forms  of  government,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  historical  por- 
tion of  this  article,  and  the  theory  is  now  abandoned  by  sci- 
entific writers,  though  it  still  has  some  vogue.  Third,  the 
natural  or  development  theory.  As  Aristotle  says,  man  is  a 
political  being,  formed  for  society.  From  the  family,  or- 
ganized unconsciously  under  the  father,  grows  the  tribe, 
thence  the  state,  assuming  gradually  the  form  of  govern- 
ment best  adapted  to  its  needs.  Man  can  not  develop  nor- 
mally outside  the  state. 

Tlie  purpose  of  the  state  may  be  considered  either  from 
the  standpoint  of  its  members  or  from  that  of  the  state  as 
an  organized  unit.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  individual. 
Aristotle  has  well  said  that  the  state  exists  to  enable  man 
not  merely  to  live,  but  to  live  well,  or  better,  as  Pollock  puts 
it,  the  purpose  is  "  complete  life  in  the  associated  state." 
From  the  other  point  of  view.  Burgess,  following  Eoltzen- 
dorff,  gives  three  ends:  the  immediate  purpose  of  securing 
orderly  government  and  liberty  within  the  state;  the  next 
end  of  developing  the  national  spirit  and  strength  ;  the  ulti- 
mate purpose,  the  perfection  of  humanity,  to  be  secured 
finally,  after  a'ons  of  separate  national  governments,  in  one 
all-inclusive  world-state. 

Relation  of  Political  Science  to  Politics. — Ordinarily  by 
the  word  politics  used  alone  one  understands  the  art  cor- 
responding to  political  science.  The  practice  of  politics, 
naturally,  arises  in  governments  of  a  low  grade  long  before 
the  science,  and  experience  eventually  furnishes  the  material 
from  which  the  general  principles  of  the  science  are  drawn. 
The  politician,  however,  or  the  statesman — for  a  statesman 
is  simply  a  practical  politician  of  the  highest  class — in  an 
advanced  stage  of  civilization  has  much  to  learn  from  the 
teacher  of  the  science  of  politics,  the  political  philosopher. 
The  latter,  from  his  studies,  is  the  better  equipped  of  the 
two  in  the  knowledge  of  the  experience  of  the  [last  and  in 
the  fundamental  principles  of  true  statecraft,  though  it  is 
doubtless  true  that  he  less  often  knows  the  temper  of  the 
peojile  and  the  special  form  into  which  a  law  must  be  put 
to  be  adapted  to  their  needs.  The  two  classes  of  men  need 
to  work  hand  in  hand.  Neither  can  do  his  best  work  with- 
out the  aid  of  the  other.  It  has  been  a  common  fault  of 
political  philosophers  to  limit  their  studies  too  much  to  the 
letter  of  constitutions  and  laws.  By  so  doing,  and  by  thus 
failing  to  study  the  actual  working  of  the  laws,  they  have 
often  been  led  into  false  judgments.  They  have  failed  to 
catch  the  sjiirit  of  the  law.  Even  great  writers  like  Mon- 
tesquieu have  at  times  failed  in  this  regard.  The  chief  in- 
tellectual characteristic  of  the  political  |>hilosopher  should 
be  an  unprejudiced  judgment;  but  he  needs  a  wide  and 
accurate  knowledge  of  facts  as  well.  The  business  of  the 
statesman  is  action — the  accomplishment  of  some  specific 
purpose  for  the  good  of  his  people.  He  needs  chiefly  knowl- 
edge of  men,  their  motives  and  passions,  and  firmness  and 
skill  in  handling  the  means  at  his  disposal  to  bring  about 
the  desired  results. 

The  relation  of  politics  to  morals  is  as  difficult  a  topic  as 
the  political  philosopher  has  to  consider ;  it  is  one  that  the 
practical  politician  meets  daily,  and  no  one  who  is  conver- 
sant with  the  actual  working  of  politics  doubts  that  many 
politicians  treat  the  subject  of  morals  differently  when  con- 
sidering it  from  the  standpoint  of  their  duties  as  statesmen 
than  when  looking  at  it  from  their  private  standpoint.  Few 
men  will  plant  themselves  openly  on  the  side  of  JIachiavelli, 
and  say  that  when  the  advantage  of  the  state  is  concerned 
the  end  justifies  the  means,  however  corrupt  or  wicked  in 
themselves  the  means  may  be :  and  yet  politicians — honest 
men — condone  many  corrupt  practices  in  public  life.  The 
following  is  practically  the  view  of  Bluntschli  on  this  sub- 
ject :  Many  of  the  aims  of  statesmen  may  be  morally  indif- 
ferent, as  when  they  favor  the  extension  of  a  railway  system, 
but  they  ought  never  to  be  immoral.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  the  statesman  deals  with  men  as  they 
are — weak,  and  often  wicked — and  that  his  business  is  to  do 
something  for  the  good  of  his  people.  He  is  a  man  of  ac- 
tion. He  can  not,  therefore,  if  he  is  to  succeed,  lift  himself 
far  above  the  level  of  the  best  average  thought  of  his  people. 
He  ought  to  have  high  ideals;  he  can  not  hope  to  attain 
them  soon.     These  ideals  are  doubtless  rising  among  the 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


695 


people,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  statesman  to  lead  the  peo- 
ple ;  but  he  can  not  push  forward  very  rapidly.  One  would 
not  justify  the  cruel  acts  of  earlier  times  against  prisoners 
of  war;  but  we  justify  war  itself,  one  of  the  greatest  of  evils 
and  wrongs,  and  justitialile  only  on  the  ground  that  it  pre- 
vents a  greater  evil.  In  moilern  society  one  of  the  chief 
purposes  of  the  state  is  to  effect  the  moral  advancement  of 
its  citizens.  This  suggests  the  questicm  whether  the  man 
whose  political  sagacity  and  skill  are  liliely  to  serve  the  in- 
terests of  the  state,  but  whose  private  life  is  known  to  be 
immoral,  is  entitled  to  the  support  of  conscientious  citizens. 
The  evil  of  an  individual  may  possibly  further  the  good  of 
the  whole,  and  in  certain  circumstances  the  statesman  seems 
to  be  justified  in  making  use  of  ci>rru|)t  agents  and  evil 
passions  to  secure  good  results.  This  doctrine,  however, 
may  readily  be  abused. 

Closely  connected  with  this  topic  is  the  one  concerning 
what  has  been  called  the  right  of  revolution.  Society  de- 
velops and  changes ;  laws  once  suitable  become  so  no  longer. 
Often  to  avoid  an  injustice  they  must  be  broken  or  evaded 
before  they  are  changed.  To  suit  the  law  to  specific  cases 
is  the  duty  of  the  courts  ;  and  in  its  interpretation  the  law 
itself  is  slowly  changed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  times. 
When,  however,  need  is  felt  for  a  great  change  it  must 
come,  or  suffering  will  ensue.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  ad- 
vantages of  modern  governments  that  the  laws  can  be 
changed  directly  by  the  act  of  the  people,  usually  without 
violence.  In  this  way  peaceful  revolutions  arise.  When, 
however,  the  executors  of  the  law  have  a  pci-sonal  interest 
in  upholding  the  law,  and  the  law,  as  executed,  has  become 
very  oppressive,  the  question  arises.  Shall  the  people  endure 
the  wrong  or  commit  the  crime  of  overthrowing  the  law? 
Here,  as  before,  one  has  but  a  choice  of  evils,  and  all  agree 
nowadays  that  circumstances  may  be  so  onerous  as  to  justi- 
fy a  bloody  revolution.  The  law  exists  for  the  state  :  it  must 
be  shaped  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  state. 

Tile  relation  of  political  science  to  economics  appears 
most  clearly  in  the  fact  that  the  individualistic  economic 
motive  often  determines  the  political  action  of  the  citizens. 
In  times  of  war  or  other  national  crisis  the  patriotic  im- 
pulses are  apt  to  dominate,  but  in  times  of  peace  each  person 
and  each  class  is  inclined  to  keep  personal  welfare  in  the 
foreground  and  to  think  little  of  the  good  of  the  state. 
Hence  arise  class  legislation,  political  corruption,  and  the  rule 
of  the  wealthy  or  of  demagogues.  The  clashing  economic 
interests  of  different  classes  lead  to  .struggles  for  political 
supremacy,  and  by  these  struggles  constitutions  are  sub- 
verted and  new  ones  made.  Contrariwisi;,  political  a(tlion 
is  often  the  dominant  cause  in  bringing  about  a  change  in 
economic  cimditions.     See  Representation-. 

The  best  form  of  government  for  the  state  is  a  topic  that 
has  engaged  the  thoughts  of  philosophers  in  all  ages.  Com- 
parative studies  have  led  to  the  belief  that  there  is  no  ab- 
solutely best  form.  Each  people  must  have  a  form  adapted 
to  its  special  stage  of  civilization,  character,  and  needs.  No 
one  doubts  that  the  nineteenth  century  shows  a  strong  tend- 
ency toward  democracy,  under  various  forms,  in  all  civilized 
nations.  There  is  also  an  evident  tendency  for  tlie  state  to 
increa.se  its  functions  and  to  become  more  active  in  regulat- 
ing business  and  j)rivate  life.  The  limit  of  this  activity  can 
not  yet  be  seen. 

History. — Ancient  Times. — Aristotle  may  be  said  to  be 
the  founder  of  political  science,  and,  indeed,  since  his  day  no 
other  writer  has  appeared  who  has  surpassed  him  in  philo- 
sophical penetration  and  power  of  analysi-s,  or  even  probably 
in  extent  and  thoroughness  of  research.  Before  his  time  in 
the  East — in  India  and  China — there  had  been  writings  that 
touched  the  subject,  especially  in  connection  with  religions 
teachings,  but  no  (me  had  formulated  it.  The  laws  of  Manu 
in  India  give  in  detail  many  duties  of  the  different  castes  in 
society,  and  even  those  of  the  king  and  courts  are  considered 
at  some  length,  while  Confucius  and  Mencius  in  China, 
among  many  other  wise  sayings,  especially  on  morals  and 
religiim,  give  some  also  on  the  relations  and  duties  of  govern- 
ments and  people.  .Mencius  even  goes  so  far  in  liberal  views 
as  to  declare  that  a  people  may  rid  itself  of  a  king  with 
whom  it  is  dissatisfied.  Again,  he  divides  citizens  into  two 
classes,  the  head-workers  and  the  hand-workers,  but  he  has 
not  treated  the  subject  at  all  fully  or  scientihcally.  In  early 
Greece  Ilomer  and  Solon  give  wise  ailvice  on  specific  pciints : 
Aristophanes,  in  sal  irizing  the  wickedness  of  demagogues  and 
the  folly  of  the  people,  sliows  much  political  wisdom.  Soc- 
rates rendered  important  service  to  the  science  by  his  dis- 
cussions on  ethics  as  applied  in  political  life.   Plato,  in  his  lie- 


public,  and  especially  in  the  Laws,  treats  the  subject  at  con- 
siderable length,  though  not  sy.stematically.  In  the  liepub- 
lie  he  gives  us  an  ideal  state.  He  docs  not  pretend  to  con- 
sider the  state  as  it  is,  or  even  to  consider  men  as  they  are; 
rather  he  writes  a  romance  showing  a  state  and  men  as  he 
might  wish  them  to  be.  In  the  Lairs  he  discusses  the  sub- 
ject of  government  with  much  more  regard  for  actual  affairs, 
and,  in  fact,  in  both  works  there  are  wise  suggi'stions  for 
statesmen  and  many  good  ideas  that  might  bear  fruit  in 
experience.  For  examjile,  though  the  mental  and  physical 
education  of  the  young  can  not  wisely  be  directed  in  all  re- 
spects as  Plato  advises,  the  importance  of  the  proper  train- 
ing of  the  young,  if  one  would  have  a  successful  state,  can 
not  be  overlooked.  It  would  not  be  well,  perhaps,  to  have 
philosophers  the  sole  governing  class,  with  the  oilier  classes 
under  tlieir  control,  as  he  suggests :  it  would  be  well  to  liave 
rulers,  by  whatever  means  selected,  wise.  The  family  can 
not  be  abolished,  as  Plato  wishes.  He  is  right  in  thinking 
that,  in  great  part,  at  least,  justice  is  the  true  end  of  the 
state,  and  that  the  true  strength  of  the  state  lies  in  virtue. 

In  Aristotle  we  find  thonjugh  pre)mration  for  his  work, 
the  proper  method,  wonderful  insight,  and  completeness  in 
his  treatment.  lie  had  collected,  arranged,  and  digested, 
it  is  said,  ;i(i()  different  constitutions;  and  with  this  mass  of 
facts  at  hand  he  formulated  his  general  principles.  He 
analyzes  into  their  clenK^nts  the  state  and  government.  He 
traces  the  influence  of  the  various  factors  of  which  the 
state  is  com]ioscd,  and  their  relations  to  one  anotlier.  His 
idea  regarding  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  state  is  summed 
up  in  the  words,  man  is  a  political  being.  This  contains 
what  is  true  regarding  the  divine  origin  of  the  state ;  it  im- 
plies all  that  is  true  regarding  the  theory  of  the  .social  con- 
tract. Man  was  created  to  live  in  society,  and  with  a  nature 
that  develops  only  there.  Society  Vjegins  without  special 
intent  of  man.  As  he  develops  his  acts  become  more  and 
more  conscious,  and  politics  becomes  an  art  as  well  as  a  sci- 
ence ;  civilized  government  is  based  in  great  part  upon  con- 
tract. Aristotle  classified  governments  into  monarchie-s,  ar- 
istocracies, and  democracies,  a  division  foUowed  since  his 
day,  though  the  mixed  forms  of  the  jire.sent  day  render  it 
now  of  doubtful  utility  for  modern  use,  the  names  often  not 
conforming  to  the  reality.  He  rightly,  too,  saw  that  the 
chief  danger  to  each  fnrm  of  government  was  in  the  abuse 
of  its  principle,  the  carrying  of  its  principle  so  far  ttiat  it 
would  become  unbearable.  The  chief  danger  of  a  democ- 
racy, for  instance,  is  that  democracy  will  be  carried  to  the 
extent  of  anarchy,  when  the  people  will  demand  a  strong 
hand  to  restore  tranquillity.  The  monarchy,  loo,  is  in  dan- 
ger of  becoming  a  tyranny,  as  he  said,  that  in  its  turn  must 
be  overthrown.  In  France,  since  the  days  of  Mazariu,  this 
principle  of  Aristotle's  has  been  exemplified  more  than 
once.  From  the  nature  of  Greek  civilization  Aristotle 
was  unable  to  see  the  evil  of  slavery.  Instead  of  that,  he 
seems  to  consider  it  a  necessity  and  even  a  blessing.  His 
doctrine  of  natural  slavery^that  .some  men  are  born  to 
command,  while  others,  from  their  natures,  are  incapable 
of  self-direction — has  in  it  much  truth,  and  is  an  advanced 
criticism  on  the  practice  of  his  tinu'.  In  the  philosophical 
schools  established  after  Aristotle's  time  there  are  hints  of 
some  of  the  later  doctrines.  The  Cynics  protested  right- 
fully against  the  too  great  exaltation  of  the  state  by  Plato 
and"  Aristotle.  The  K])icurean  doctrine,  by  leading  men 
away  from  public  life,  had  a  like  tendency.  Epicurus, 
too,  may  be  fairly  considered  the  precursor  of  Hobbes  in 
the  enunciatiim  of  the  doctrine  of  the  social  compact.  The 
Stoics  laid  down  and  emphasized  the  principle  of  natural 
justice  that  played  so  great  a  role  in  later  times.  Cicero, 
Marcus  Aurelius,  Epictetus,  and  others,  in  their  writings 
on  ethical  subjects,  exposed  the  weakness  of  the  slave  sys- 
tem, while  Cicero,  Polyiiius.  and  the  jurisconsults  of  the  em- 
pire, discussed  with  effect  the  forms  of  the  state,  the  nature 
of  law,  etc.,  thougli  generally  with  little  advance  on  the  doc- 
trines of  Aristotle. 

Christianiti/  and  the  Renaissance. — Although  Christian- 
ity may  be  said  to  have  revolutionized  the  politics  of  the 
wiirhl,  "the  purpose  of  Christianity  was  not  political.  Christ 
stated  that  his  "kingdom  was  not  of  this  worlil,"  and  the 
disciples  taught  men  to  "be  subject  unto  the  higher  pow- 
ers." The  doctrine  of  absolute  submission  to  the  will  of 
God  and  the  founding  of  a  spiritual  "kingilom  "  with  Christ 
as  its  supreme  head  show  nothing  different  in  purpose  from 
the  old  .Jewish  polit  ical  theories.  Practically,  however,  when 
the  "  kingdom  "  is  made  a  spiritual  kingdom  solely,  and 
when  the  decision  as  to  the  duly  of  every  inrlividual  regard- 


696 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


ing  this  kingdom  is  left  to  himself  to  make,  and  he  is  held 
individually  responsible  for  his  beliefs  and  his  acts,  we  have 
an  entirely  new  principle.  Individual  responsibility  and  the 
equality  of  all  are  democratic  principles  that,  if  carried  out 
in  the  religious  world,  will  certainly  make  themselves  felt 
ultimately  in  the  political  world.  The  manifestation,  how- 
ever, of  the  force  of  this  principle  did  not  make  itself  felt 
until  about  the  beginning  of  modern  history,  and  not  until 
recent  times  has  it  been  of  prime  consequence  in  the  politi- 
cal world.  The  early  Christians  contented  themselves  with 
keeping  Church  and  state  apart,  and  with  looking  after  the 
moral  and  religious  life.  When  at  length  the  state  became 
Christian,  however,  the  question  of  supremacy  arose;  and 
the  struggle  between  Cliurch  and  state  lasted  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages.  Thomas  Aquinas  was  the  most  illustrious 
writer  on  one  side,  as  was  Dante  on  the  other. 

With  the  Renaissance  came  a  new  spirit  into  all  fields 
of  learning,  and  in  Jlachiavelli  political  science  found  an 
admirably  equipped  exponent  of  the  political  doctrines  of 
his  day  and  a  writer  whose  teachings  have  had  a  great  in- 
fluence. He  was  a  man  of  wide  experience  in  political  mat- 
ters and  of  keen  insight  into  human  nature  and  the  real 
character  of  political  problems.  He  did  for  political  science 
the  great  service  of  separating  in  thought  the  field  of  poli- 
tics from  that  of  morals.  In  political  jiractice  the  states- 
man can  not  afford  to  neglect  the  moral  sentiment  of  his 
people  nor  to  favor  immoral  practices.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
very  important  for  the  student  of  political  science  to  dis- 
tinguish the  two  fields,  and  to  be  able  to  look  at  political 
prolilems  from  the  standpoint  of  only  the  advantage  of  the 
state.  This  Machiavelli  did  more  completely,  probably, 
than  any  other  writer.  He  sets  out  in  the  Prince  the  way 
in  which  a  ruler,  under  various  circumstances,  should  act 
in  order  to  hold  and  to  strengthen  his  government,  and  in 
giving  these  counsels  he  halts  at  nothing,  however  bad.  If 
they  can  strengthen  the  ruler,  as  he  tliinks  they  can  under 
certain  circumstances,  he  advises  hypocrisy,  treachery,  op- 
pression, and  murder.  See  Machiavelli,  Niccolo  di  Ber- 
nardo. 

Modern  Times. — The  Reformation  emphasized  the  princi- 
ple of  individual  responsibility  as  it  had  never  before  been 
em|ihasizcd,  and  this  brought  about  a  freer  discussion  of  re- 
ligious and,  naturally,  also  of  political  principles.  Protes- 
tants first,  and  then  Catliolics,  questioned  the  rights  of  kings 
and  peoples,  and  then  first  the  question  of  sovereignty  and 
where  it  rests  was  propounded,  the  question  that  since  then 
has  been  the  central  one  in  political  philosophy.  There 
were  many  writers  on  all  sides — Luther,  Melanchthon, 
Reuchlin,  Colet,  More,  Erasmus,  Politian,  Suarez,  Calvin, 
Bacon.  The  most  illustrious  was  Bodin,  whose  great  work 
Les  Livres  de  la  Republique  in  method  and  extent  may  be 
compared  with  those  of  Aristotle  and  Montesquieu,  for  he, 
too,  studies  historically,  and  attempts  to  base  his  opinions 
on  a  wide  knowledge  of  facts.  He  criticises  Aristotle  on 
many  points,  sometimes  effectively,  sometimes  not.  He  ex- 
poses well  the  weakness  of  slavery,  and  his  denunciation 
comes  with  more  force  from  the  fact  that  slavery  was  then 
rapidly  on  the  increase,  owing  to  the  discovery  of  America 
nearly  a  century  before.  His  discussion  of  sovereignty  is 
able,  and  though  in  attempting  to  discover  the  best  form  of 
government  he  takes  sides  in  favor  of  monarchy,  he  yet  rec- 
ognizes so  well  the  weaknesses  as  well  as  the  strong  points 
of  each  form  that  he  can  not  be  considered  partisan  or 
narrow-minded.  In  his  opinion  every  form  of  government 
should  be  subject  to  divine  law.  He  is  a  vigorous  opponent 
of  Machiavelli,  declaring  that  justice  is  the  strongest  support 
of  all  governments,  and  that  the  governor  is  bound  at  any 
rate  to  do  justice.  He  has  also  rendered  a  valuable  service 
to  the  science  by  Ids  careful  distinction  between  public  and 
private  law. 

The  English  revolutions  were  indirectly  the  cause  of  the 
two  greatest  works  on  political  science  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Wlien  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings 
had  been  pushed  to  an  extreme  in  practical  politics  by  the 
house  of  Stuart,  its  weakness  was  shown  by  the  decapitation 
of  Charles  I.  and  the  forced  abdication  of  James  II.  Natu- 
rally the  violent  controversies  of  the  day  led  the  thinkers  of 
both  schools  to  formulate  their  doctrines  and  to  defend  the 
actions  of  their  parties  by  an  apfieal  to  reason.  Hobbes,  in 
his  Leviat/iiin,  defends  absolutism.  In  a  state  of  nature, 
which  seems  to  him  to  be  a  state  of  natural  warfare,  each 
man  has  a  right  to  defend  himself.  To  secure  peace  and 
protection  each  one  surrenders  tliis  right  to  a  common  ruler. 
This  surrender  is  complete  and  irrevocable  ;  the  ruler  there- 


fore is  absolute,  subject  only  to  the  law  of  God.    See  Hobbes, 
Thomas.  ■ 

Many  others  wrote  on  the  side  of  Hobbes,  notably  Filmer,  ■ 
and  many  wrote  refutations  of  his  opinions.  The  best  work  ■ 
of  the  latter  kind,  though  it  was  directed  especially  against 
Filmer,  and  the  one  that  had  by  far  the  most  influence,  was 
the  Essay  on  Civil  Goivrnmenf,  by  John  Locke.  Locke 
starts,  as  does  Hobbes,  from  the  state  of  nature ;  but  the 
state  of  nature  in  his  judgment  exists  between  men  when-  j 
ever  there  is  no  superior  power  to  determine  their  possible  I 
disputes.  This  state  is  not  necessarily  a  state  of  warfare.  * 
for  there  are  rights  which  exist  among  men  even  without 
government — natural  rights  which  have  their  corresponding 
obligations  recognized  by  all  even  where  civil  law  does  not 
exist.  Among  these  natural  rights  are  the  right  of  prop- 
erty, the  right  of  liberty,  the  right  to  labor.  Society  is 
formed  by  contract,  to  be  sure,  to  protect  and  carry  out 
these  rights,  but  it  is  not  formed  by  the  renunciation  of 
these  rights  to  a  ruler.  Rather  the  ruler  is  the  instrument 
in  the  hands  of  the  people  to  enforce  these  natural,  but  still 
retained,  rights.  One  readily  sees  the  conclusions  that  are 
drawn  from  such  premises.  He  founds  the  right  of  prop- 
erty upon  labor,  a  new  doctrine  then,  and  one  tending  most 
strongly  toward  upholding  the  control  of  the  House  of 
Commons  over  the  royal  purse.  He,  of  course,  attacks  slav- 
ery as  subversive  of  one  of  the  natural  rights.  Most  pointed 
of  all  at  the  time,  and  most  closely  applicalile  to  the  situa- 
tion, is  his  doctrine  of  the  right  of  revolution — if  the  king 
fails  in  his  duty  to  the  people,  they  may  depose  him. 

Montesquieu,  in  his  Esprit  des  Lois,  furnished  one  of  the 
most  learned  works  on  the  subject  of  political  science. 
■'  History  explained  by  laws  and  laws  by  customs  ;  the  se- 
crets of  the  customs  sought  for  in  the  hidden  instincts  of 
human  nature,  in  the  mode  of  development  of  each  society, 
in  the  influence  of  climate,  and  in  the  particular  needs 
created  for  each  nation  by  its  geographical  position ;  all 
the  differences  of  race,  genius,  and  legislation  ranged  in  har- 
monious order  ;  the  science  of  government,  which  embraces 
morals,  religion,  commerce,  and  industry,  and  withal,  order, 
method,  and  perspicuity,  joined  to  an  ever-present  con- 
sciousness of  the  grandeur  of  man,  of  the  responsibility  of 
the  powerful,  of  the  rights  of  the  oppressed,  and  a  vigorous 
love  of  justice  and  right '" — these  are  some  of  the  merits 
claimed  for  the  work  by  its  admirers.  In  it  are  found  some 
wrong  interpretations  of  facts,  but  it  is  filled  with  valuable 
information,  with  profound  reflections,  and  has  been  prob- 
ably the  most  influential  work  in  modern  practical  politics. 
Montesquieu's  interpretation  of  the  English  Constitution, 
with  his  strong  advocacy  of  the  doctrine  of  the  separation 
of  the  legislative,  judicial,  and  executive  powers,  has  been 
generally  followed  until  within  a  few  years,  and  it  doubtless 
had  direct  influence  in  shaping  the  Con.stitution  of  the  U.  S. 
American  thinkers  are  inclined  to  believe  in  the  desii'ability 
of  this  separation  of  jiowers,  as  did  lie ;  but  the  experience 
of  Great  Britain  has  led  many  to  question  its  wisdom,  and 
it  is  doubtful  if  now  a  nuijority  of  writers  on  political  science 
will  be  found  in  agreement  with  him.  His  theory  as  to  the 
principles  of  governments,  in  wliich  he  makes  monarchy  rest 
upon  honor  and  democracy  ujion  virtue,  i.  e.  patriotism  and 
love  of  equality,  is  very  suggestive  and  contains  much  truth. 
His  views  as  to  corruption  in  governments  and  as  to  the 
dangers  from  corruption  that  surround  democracies  can  not 
be  kept  too  closely  in  mind.  His  view  of  popular  liberty  is 
that  of  to-day,  and  to  him  is  due  the  credit  of  having  es- 
tablished it  as  a  principle.  His  method  was  right.  His 
thoughts,  that  one  must  carefully  study  the  human  passions 
that  underlie  political  forms ;  that  the  forms  of  government 
were  relative  to  climate,  stage  of  civilization,  surrounding 
people,  etc.;  the  theory  of  the  division  of  powers  and  of 
checks  and  balances  in  government,  were  important  services 
rendered  to  the  science. 

Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  in  his  Confraf  Social,  elaborated 
the  doctrine  of  the  social  contract  that  had  been  y>vo- 
pounded  by  Hobbes  and  developed  in  another  direction  by 
Locke.  Before  examining  the  act  by  which  a  people  choose 
a  king,  he  thinks  it  wise  to  examine  the  process  by  which 
people  become  a  people.  "To  find  a  form  of  association 
which  shall  defend  and  protect  with  the  public  force  the 
person  and  property  of  each  associate,  and  by  means  of 
winch  each,  uniting  with  all,  shall  obey,  however,  only  him- 
self, and  remain  as  free  as  before  "  is  his  problem.  Each 
citizen  in  his  state  loses  natural  liberty,  but  gains  civil  lib- 
erty. The  general  will  controls  all.  The  contract  is  among 
the  people.     The  relation  between  people  and  king  is  not  a 


POLITY,   ECCLESIASTICAL 


POLIZIAXO 


697 


contract,  but  u  Imsincss  method  that  the  people  can  change 
at  will.  Any  form  of  government  may  do,  so  long  as 
people  really'  keep  control.  Indeed,  unless  the  people  are 
good  anil  intelligent,  a  republic  is  perhaps  not  suited  to 
them.  He  thinks  that  all  the  people  should  come  together 
periodically  to  vote  («)  whether  they  wish  to  keep  the  pres- 
ent form  of  government,  and  (6)  whether  they  wish  to  leave 
the  government  in  the  hands  of  the  present  rulers. 

To  his  teachings  regarding  the  omnipotence  of  the  people, 
set  liefore  the  people  in  attractive  form  and  widely  read,  is 
ascribed  by  many  a  great  influence  in  forming  a  tlieory  for 
the  French  Kevolution. 

The  economists  of  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  and 
of  the  tii-st  half  of  the  nineteenth,  by  their  doctrine  of  free 
trade,  which  resulted  in  extreme  laissez-faire  doctrines, 
exercised  a  great  influence  over  political  thought  and  theo- 
ries, which  has  not  yet  ceased.  This  doctrine  tended  toward 
individualism,  springing  from  the  theory  that  the  interests 
of  the  state  coinciile  with  those  of  indivichials,  without  sulli- 
cient  considcnition  of  the  frequent  hostility  of  private  in- 
terests to  one  another.  Later  in  the  century  the  rise  of  the 
socialistic  school  gave  a  new  turn  to  political  as  well  as  to 
economic  thought,  and  as  a  consequence  the  great  question 
of  political  science  of  to-day  is  to  fix  the  limits  of  the  activ- 
ity of  the  state.  On  the  one  hand,  the  iiulivi<lualists  think 
that  the  state  shoulil  exert  only  what  may  be  called  its  po- 
lice [lower,  securing  to  each  safety  of  property  and  liberty  to 
work  as  he  will,  but  taking  no  initiative  in  industrial  enter- 
prises. On  the  other  hand,  the  socialists  or  nationalists  wish 
to  put  all  industrial  control,  and  even  all  ca|iital.  into  the 
hands  of  the  state  for  managcynent.  Both  seek  eipially  the 
good  of  the  greatest  number,  or,  perhaps,  more  accurately 
stated  the  greatest  good  of  all;  both  claim  to  base  their 
theories  on  justice. 

Among  other  modern  writers  who  have  contributed  to  the 
advancement  a  few  require  especial  mention.  Bentham  and 
Austin,  in  England,  did  much  in  expounding  the  llu'ory  of 
sovereignty  ami  law,  and  in  effecting  legislation  along  crim- 
inal and  economic  lines.  De  Tocqueville,  in  his  Democracy 
mylwpricn.  attempted  to  show  by  an  examination  of  the  real 
working  of  democracy  in  the  great  republic  the  fundamental 
princi|ilesof  that  form  of  government.  The  work  is  of  great 
value  from  the  standpoint  of  information  as  well  as  of  philo- 
sophical criticism,  though  it  may  now  be  said  to  be  super- 
seded in  great  part  by  the  work  of  James  Bryce,  The  Amer- 
ican Commonuvallh.  Bluntschli  in  Germany,  Lieber  in  the 
U.  S.,  and  Laveleve  in  Belgium  rendered  distinguished  serv- 
ice in  expouniling  political  principles.  Herbert  Spencer,  in 
his  Political  Institutions  and  in  his  great  collection  of  facts 
regarding  various  societies,  better  than  any  other  writer  of 
the  day,  perhaps,  may  be  said  to  have  formulated  a  general 
theory,  and  to  nave  thrown  light  upon  the  origin  of  politi- 
cal institutions,  though  on  this  last  point  some  of  the  writers 
on  anthropology  have  done  as  good  work.  Spa<'e  will  not 
permit  the  enumeration  of  the  long  list  of  names  that  might 
be  cited  as  those  of  living  writers  in  this  field,  for  the  present 
day  is  one  of  active  investigation,  and  many  works  of  great 
value  have  been  produced.  The  tendency  seems  to  be 
toward  study  of  special  problems  and  separate  states  rather 
than  toward  general  philosophical  works,  though  two  or 
three  of  the  later  writers,  especially  in  connection  with 
sociology,  seem  to  be  preparing  to  formulate  again  with 
ability  the  general  principles  of  politics. 

Authorities. — The  best  authorities  are,  of  course,  the 
works  of  the  great  writers,  the  best  of  whom  have  been  men- 
tioned. The  best  general  commentary  covering  the  whole 
field  is  I'aul  .lanefs  Itistoire  de  la  science  politi(/ue  dans  sea 
rapports  arec  la  morale.  Besides  may  be  mentioned  Bur- 
gess, Political  Science  and  Comparative  Constitutional 
'jaw,  I'ollock,  History  of  the  Science  of  Politics;  Blunt- 
schli, Lehre  vom  Modernen  Staat  (the  first  volume  has  been 
translated  into  English  under  the  title,  77ie  Tlieory  of  the 
State) ;  W'oolsey.  Political  Science ;  Lieber,  Civil  Liberty 
and  Self-tjorernment  and  Politiccd  Ethics.  Lalor's  Cyclo- 
/Mpdia  (if  Political  Science  contains  many  excellent  articles 
on  the  various  branches  of  the  subject. 

Jeremi.\ii  W.  Jenks. 


Polity,  Ecclpsinstical  :  the  form,  system,  and  method 
of  Church  government.  There  are  three  general  plans  of 
such  government,  ea<'h  of  which  has  been  advocated  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  the  pl.m  laid  down  in  the  New  Testament 
for  the  perpetual  conduct  of  the  Church.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  growing  agreement  among  Protestant   scholars   to 


f: 


concede  that  the  New  Testament  can  not  be  quoted  for  any 
one  plan  exclusively.  The  three  plans  named  are  in  their 
historic  order:  1.  The  Presbyterian,  or  government  by  pres- 
byters, or  elders,  also  styled  bishops,  all  the  clergy  being  on 
a  level,  these  officers  coming  directly  from  the  synagogue, 
and  historically  from  the  earliest  constitution  of  the  He- 
brew people.  (See  Pkesbvtkr  and  Prksuytkrun  CiirRcu.) 
3.  The  Congregational,  according  to  which  each  congrega- 
tion regulates  its  affairs  and  settles  its  belief  indepen- 
dent of  control  by  other  congregations,  although  such 
are  called  in  for  consultative  purposes  and  joint  action. 
(See  CoN(iRE(!ATioN'ALisM.)  ',i.  The  Episcopalian,  or  gov- 
ernment by  bishops  who  constitute  an  order  superior  to 
the  presbyters  and  deacons.  (.See  Bisiiop.)  Originally  it 
would  seem  that  the  bishop  was  merely  the  presiding  eider 
over  the  b<:ard  of  elders  which  governed  the  local  church; 
then  he  was  the  permanent  president,  then  raised  above  the 
other  elders.  In  the  Ignatian  I-^pistles  (a.  d.  107-lH)  this 
distinction  between  presbyter  and  bishop  is  first  made.  The 
next  stej)  is  the  development  of  the  diocese,  or  the  union  of 
several  congregations  under  one  bisho[).  This  phenomenon 
comes  out  in  Ireiucus  (d.  about  200),  Tertullian  (d.  240),  and 
es])ecially  in  Cyprian  (d.  2.58).  Then  came  the  metropolitan 
and  patriarchal  system,  when  the  uniim  of  Church  and  state 
had  been  effected  under  Constantine  (d.  337).  The  metropoli- 
tans were  styled  archbishops  in  the  West.  They  were  the 
bishops  of  the  chief  cities  and  presided  over  the  bishops  of 
the  adjacent  province.  The  iiatriarchs  were  the  Bishops  of 
Alexandria,  -Vntioch,  Rome,  Jerusalem,  and  Constantinople, 
and  had  the  oversight  of  two  or  more  provinces.  They  or- 
dained the  metropolitans.  The  Greek  Church  ha.s'  five 
patriarchs,  but  substituted  the  Patriarchate  of  Moscow  for 
that  of  Rome.  The  Bishop  of  Rome  protested  against  the 
action  of  the  Fourth  CEcumenical  Council  (Chalcedon  451, 
Can.  28,  cf.  Ilefele  ii.,  527,  se(j.)  in  jmtting  the  Bishop  of 
New  Rome  (Constantinople)  on  a  level  with  him  of  Old 
Rome,  and  the  conflict  ol  the  Kast  and  West  Churches  may 
be  said  to  have  thus  begun.  So  came  about  the  final  de- 
velopment and  the  highest  of  the  episcopal  idea.  The 
Bishop  of  Rome  became  the  pope,  and  since  1870  the  in- 
fallible pope,  superior  to  patriarchs,  metropolitans,  and 
bishops,  the  successor  of  St.  Peter,  and  the  head  of  the  Uni- 
versal Church. 

The  Church  of  England  is  episcopal  in  government,  and 
claims  apostolic  succession.  It  is  governed  by  two  arch- 
bishops— Canterbury  and  York — under  the  supremacy  of 
the  sovereign.  The  Church  in  the  U.  S..  as  the  Episcopal 
denomination  prefers  to  he  called,  and  the  branches  of  the 
Church  of  England  are  also  episcopal.  The  V)ishops  of  the 
Swedish  and  Danish  Lutheran  Churches,  of  the  Moravians, 
Jlcthodist  Episcopal.  United  Brethren  in  Christ,  Evangel- 
ical .Association,  and  other  denominations  are  properly  super- 
intciideiils,  and  no  divine  right  is  predicated  of  them. 

Tlu;  Presbyterian  plan  is  adopted  by  Reformed  bodies 
which  do  not  call  themselves  Presbyterian.  It  is  usually 
linked  with  Calvinistic  theology.  The  Ccmgregational  plan 
in  like  manner  is  adopted  by  those  who  are  not  styled  Con- 
gregationalists,  as  the  Baptists,  Discijiles  of  Christ,  Unita- 
rians, and  L^niversalists. 

IjIterati're. — For  the  New  Testament  polity,  see  G.  A. 
Jacob,  Tlie  Eccle.siastical  Polity  of  the  jVeiv  Testament 
(Lombm  and  New  York,  1871;  3d.  ed.  1894):  E.  Hatch, 
The  Organization  of  the  Early  Chri.itian  Churches  (1881  ; 
2d  cd.  1888)  [advocates  the  Greek  origin  of  the  Church 
polity]:  for  Presbvterian  view,  s<'e  Charles  Hodge,  J)isrus- 
.fions  in  Church  Polity  (New  York,  1878);  A.  T.  MetJill, 
Church  Government  (Philadelphia,  18i)0):  for  theCongreea- 
tional,  H.  JI.  Dexter,  (^onqreqatiimalism  (Bo.>.tim,  1865:  5th 
ed.  187!)):  (t.  T.  Ladd.  The  Principles  of  Church  Polity 
(New  York,  1882) ;  and  for  the  Eiiiscopalian,  see  Francis  Yin- 
ton,  Manual  Commentary  on  the  General  Canon  Law  and 
Constitution  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  (^hurch  in  the 
United  States  (1870).  Samuel  Macauley  Jackson. 

Poliziaiio  (Lat.  Politianus;  Eng.  Politian),  ANnEr,o: 
humanist  and  poet  :  b.  at  Alontepulciano  (whence  his  own 
name),  July  14,  1454;  d.  at  Florence,  Sept.  24,  1494.  In 
1469  he  was  sent  to  Florence  to  study,  and  had  as  his  mas- 
tei-s  several  of  the  most  renowned  scholars  of  the  time  ;  at- 
tracting the  attention  of  Pietro  de'  Medici,  he  was  made  the 
school-companion  of  the  hitter's  son  Lorenzo.  Here  began 
the  lifelong  intimacy  of  the  scholar  with  the  great  Floren- 
tine family.  ,\t  eighteen  years  of  age  he  began  a  Latin  version 
of  the  J  Had,  which,  so  far  as  it  was  finished  (5  books,  of 


698 


POLK 


POLLAIUOLO 


which,  however,  the  first  was  by  Marsuppini),  showed  mar- 
velous facility.  Even  earlier  he  had  tried  his  hand  at  Ijoth 
Greek  and  Latin  verses — epijjrams.  elegies,  odes — and  these 
he  wrote  with  great  ease  and  brilliancy  all  his  life.  He  was 
the  first  modern  whose  command  of  both  classic  tongues 
was  so  great  that  he  could  freely  clothe  his  thought  in 
either.  'Xot  less  remarkable  was  his  passion  for  exact  schol- 
arship. He  toiled  unremittingly  on  the  text  of  the  ancients, 
employing  as  aids  inscriptions  and  coins,  as  well  as  manu- 
scripts. Particularly  important  were  his  labors  on  the  text 
of  the  famous  manuscript  of  the  Pandects,  which  Florence 
had  taken  from  Pisa,  as  Pisa  from  Amalfi.  He  translated 
from  Greek  into  Latin  Epictetus,  Herodian,  Hippocrates, 
Galen.  Plutarch's  Eroticus,  Vhito's  Charmifles.  and  portions 
of  other  authors.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  was  made 
Professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  Eloquence  in  the  studio,  or 
university,  at  Florence  :  and  his  lecture-room  was  frequent- 
ed even  by  his  own  former  masters.  To  these  audiences 
were  read  "his  introductions  to  his  courses  ( prwlectiones), 
several  of  them  in  verse,  in  which  he  discussed  and  praised 
that  form  of  literature  represented  by  the  author  about 
to  be  expounded.  This  success  aroused  the  jealousies  of 
other  scholars :  and  when  in  1489  Poliziano  printed  a  col- 
lection of  critical  notes  to  classical  authors  {JIlscellanea),he 
was  speedily  assailed  by  Giorgio  Jlerula.  BartolommeoScala, 
Michele  JMaruIlo.  and  other  humanists.  The  strife  lasted 
till  his  death.  Poliziano  was  also  one  of  the  most  important 
Italian  poets  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  Was  a  spirit 
eager  for  beauty,  delighting  in  nature,  gifted  with  imagina- 
tive sympathy  for  the  loveliness  to  be  found  even  in  simple 
things,  and,  though  he  was  essentially  a  court  jjoet,  it  was 
not  as  subservient  or  adulatory  that  he  praised  his  friends 
as  well  as  masters,  the  Medici.  His  first  important  work 
in  Italian,  L'Orfen.  which  was  recited  in  JIantua  in  July, 
1471,  is  the  earliest  Italian  secular  drama  extant.  Later 
this  was  remodeled,  probably  by  one  Antonio  Tcbaldeo,  into 
a  regular  tragedy  in  five  acts.  Probably  in  1475.  in  honor 
of  a  splendid  tournament  held  in  Florence,  Poliziano  began 
his  Stanze  per  la  (/iostra  del  magnifico  Giuliano  di  Piero 
de'  Medici — left  unfinished,  however,  perliaps  iMX'ause  of  the 
death  of  Simonetta  Cattaneo,  whom  Giuliano  loved  and  the 
poet  sang.  Still  more  gracious  and  lovely  than  these  longer 
works  are  the  rispe/fi  and  ballate  whioli  the  poet  wrote 
under  the  inspiration  of  the  naive  popular  songs  of  Tuscany 
— sframbotti,  rispeffi,  etc.  Like  many  scliolars  of  his  time, 
Poliziano,  though  not  a  priest,  enjoyed  benefices  and  emolu- 
ments of  the  Church.  He  became  secular  prior  of  the  Church 
of  San  Paolo  in  Florence,  and  in  1486  was  made  canon. 
Only  his  premature  death  prevented  his  becoming  a  car- 
dinal. The  Opera  Angeli  Pulitiani  were  published  at  Lyons 
(3  vols..  1586-46).  G.  Cardncci  edited,  with  excellent  intro- 
duction, Le  Stanze.  I'Orfeo  e  le  Rime  (P'lorence,  1863) ;  and 
I.  del  Lungo.  the  Prose  Volgari  e  Poesie  Lntine  e  Greche 
(PTorence,  1867).  The  best  Life  is  the  Latin  one  of  F. 
O.  Menckenins  (Leipzig,  1736).  See  also  A.  Gaspary.  Ge- 
sehichfe  der  ifalienischen  Literafiir,  vol.  ii.,  p.  213,  seq.  (Ber- 
lin, 1888);  and  J.  A.  Symonds,  The  Renaissance  in  Italy. 

A.  R.  Marsh. 

Polk.  James  Knox  :  eleventh  President  of  the  U.  S. ;  b. 
in  Mecklenburg  co.,  N.  C,  Nov.  2,  1795.  of  Scotch-Irish 
stock  originally  named  Pollock ;  was  a  grand-nephew  of  Col. 
Thomas  Polk,  celebrated  in  connection  with  the  JIepklen- 
BURG  Declaration  (q.  v.);  removed  to  Tennessee  with  his 
father,  Samuel  Polk,  1806;  graduated  at  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  1818;  studied  law  in  Xiishville  with  Felix 
Grundy  (q.  v.) ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1820 ;  was  a  member 
of  the  State  Legislature  1823-25;  acquired  prominence  as  a 
lawyer;  was  elected  to  Congress  1824,  and  continuouslv  re- 
elected until  1839;  was  an 'able  speaker  and  debater:  "con- 
spicuous as  an  opponent  of  the  administration  of  Adams,  of 
all  Federal  ai)propriations  for  internal  improvements,  of 
protective  tariffs,  and  of  the  national  bank  ;  was  an  earlv 
and  influential  supporter  of  Jackson,  whose  conduct  in  the 
removal  of  the  deposits  he  vindicated  in  the  -session  of  1833- 
34,  being  then  chairman  of  the  committee  of  wavs  and 
means;  was  defeated  as  a  Democratic  candidate  for  .Speaker 
1834,  but  elected  1835,  and  re-elected  1837.  presiding  over 
the  House  with  dignity  and  abilitv ;  was  Governor  of  Ten- 
nessee 1839-40;  was  proposed  by  the  Legislatures  of  Tennes- 
see and  of  other  States  1840  as  a  suitable  candidate  for 
Vice-President  of  the  U.  S.,  but  received  onlv  one  electoral 
vote.  He  was  defeated  in  1S41  as  a  candidate" for  re-election 
as  Governor ;  was  nominated  by  the  Democratic  national  con- 


vention at  Baltimore  (May  27,  1844)  for  the  presidency  in  op- 
position to  Henry  Clay,  and  elected  by  170  electoral  votes 
against  105,  the  chief  issue  being  the  annexation  of  Texas, 
which  was  accomplished  by  the  expiring  administration  of 
Tyler  the  day  before  Polk's  inaugurati(m.  Mar.  4,  1845. 
President  Polk  formed  an  able  cabinet,  consisting  of  James 
Buchanan,  Robert  J.  Walker,  AVilliam  L.  Marey,  George 
Bancroft,  Cave  Johnson,  and  John  Y.  ^Mason :  settled  the 
Oregon  boundary  question  ;  created  the  Department  of  the 
Interior;  succeeded  in  carrying  the  low  tariff  of  1846:  reor- 
ganized the  financial  system  of  the  Government ;  and  con- 
ducted the  Mexican  war,  which  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of 
California  and  Xcw  Mexico  and  had  far-reaching  conse- 
quences upon  the  later  fortunes  of  the  re]Hiblic.  The  annex- 
ation of  Texas  caused,  as  had  been  predicted,  an  immediate 
rupture  between  the  U.  .S.  and  Jlexico.  On  June  4,  1845, 
President  Herrera  of  Mexico  issued  a  proclamation  de- 
claring the  right  of  Jlexico  to  the  Texan  territory,  and 
his  determination  to  defend  it  by  arms  if  necessary.  Fully 
aware  of  the  hostile  feelings  of  the  Mexicans,  President 
Polk  ordered  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor,  then  in  command  of  the 
U.  S.  troops  in  the  Southwest,  to  go  to  Texas  and  take  up  a 
position  as  near  the  Rio  Grande  as  prudence  would  allow, 
that  river  being  regarded  by  the  U.  S.  as  the  boundary  be- 
tween Mexico  and  Texas,  while  the  Mexican  Government 
claimed  jurisdiction  to  the  Nueces.  In  September  Gen. 
Taylor  formed  a  camp  at  Corpus  Christi,  and  there  he  re- 
mained during  the  autumn  and  winter;  but  in  Jan.,  1846, 
he  was  ordered  to  move  his  camp  to  the  Rio  Grande,  oppo- 
site the  city  of  Jlatamoras.  There  he  was  attacked  by  the 
Mexicans,  but  defeated  theni;  and  on  May  11,  1846,  Con- 
gress declared  that  "  by  the  act  of  the  republic  of  Mexico 
a  state  of  war  exists  between  that  Government  and  the 
V.  S.."  authorized  the  President  to  raise  50,000  volunteers, 
and  appropriated  .^10,000.000  for  carrying  on  the  war.  It 
was  jirosecuted  with  great  energy,  and  lasted  two  years. 
Declining  to  seek  a  renomination,  Polk  retired  from  the 
[iresidency  3Iar.  4.  1849,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Gen. 
Zachary  Taylor ;  retired  to  Nashville,  and  died  there  June 
15,  1849.  Without  being  possessed  of  extraordinary  talents, 
he  was  a  ca])able  administrator  of  jiublic  affairs  and  irre- 
proachable in  private  life.  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Polk,  Leoxidas  :  bishop  and  soldier ;  b.  at  Raleigh,  N.  C, 
Apr.  10,  1806 ;  grailuated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy, 
and  entered  the  artillery  July.  1827;  resigned  Dec.  1,  1827; 
in  1831  was  ordained  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church ; 
was  missionary  bishop  of  Arkansas  and  the  Indian  Tei'ritory 
.S.  of  36'  30 ,  with  provisional  charge  of  the  diocese  of  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  and  missions  in  the  republic 
of  Texas  1838-41 ;  bishop  of  Louisiana  1841-61.  In  1861  he 
accepted  the  appointment  of  mjijor-general  in  the  Confed- 
erate army — without,  however,  resigning  his  bishopric — and 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  districts  along  the  Mississippi 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas  to  Paducah,  on  the  Ohio  ; 
Fort  Donelson  and  Fort  Henry  were  constructed  under  his 
direction.  He  subsequently  commanded  a  division  in  the 
West ;  at  Murfreesboro",  Chattanooga,  C'hickamauga,  and  in 
the  Georgia  campaign  of  1864  commanded  a  corps,  ranking 
then  as  lieutenant-general.  He  was  killed  by  a  cannon-shot 
at  Pine  Mountain,  Ga.,  June  14,  1864.  See  Leonidas  Polk, 
Bishop  and  General,  by  W.  M.  Polk.  LL.  D.  (2  vols..  New 
York,  1893).  Revised  by  James  Mercur. 

Polko,  Elise:  story-writer;  b.  at  Leipzig,  Jan.  31,  1823; 
a  sister  oif  the  African  traveler  Edward  Vogel ;  was  trained 
under  Garcia  as  an  opera-singer,  and  appeared  on  the  stage 
in  Frankfort ;  after  lier  marriage  left  the  stage  and  devoted 
herself  to  literature,  living  at  jlinden  and  subsequently  at 
Deutz,  on  the  Rhine  ;  made  her  debut  by  her  Ilusikalische 
Mdrchen  (Leipzig,  1852),  which  afterward  grew  into  a  whole 
series,  comprising  many  volumes.  Among  her  other  works 
are  Neue  Novelleii  ;  Ein  Frauenleben  (Leipzig.  1854) ;  Aus 
der  Kftnstlerwelt ;  Erinneriingen  an  Felix  Mendelssohn 
Bnrlhuld)/  (LeipyAi;.  1S68;  translated  into  English  by  Lady 
Wallace.  London,  1869) :  a  Life  of  her  brother ;  Plaudereien 
(1872-73):  Alts  dem  Jahre  1S70 :  Xeiies  Mcirchenbuch(M.iD- 
den,  1884) ;  and  several  books  for  children. 

Pollaiiiolo,  pol-la'a-yoo-o'lo,  Axxoxio:  painter,  sculptor, 
golilsmith.  and  engraver;  b.  at  Florence,  Italy,  in  1429.  He 
studied  under  Bartoluccio,  the  stepfather  of  Lorenzo  Ghib- 
erti,  who  employed  him  in  modeling  the  ornaments  of  the 
andiitrave  of  the  central  gates  of  the  baptistery  of  Florence. 
.After  this  he  workeil  on  his  own  account  as  a  goldsmith. 
Vasari  asserts  that  he  was  the  first  artist  who  dissected  tlie 


PULLAUOLO 


POLLUX 


699 


dcail  bodv  for  art  instruction.  Uo  devoted  himself  to  paiiit- 
ini;  after  he  had  attained  nincli  success  as  a  sculptor,  an<l 
wius  one  of  the  earliest  ?'lorentine  artists  who  used  the  oil 
medium.     I),  at  Home,  Feb.  14,  1498.        W.  J.  Stili.ma.s. 

I'ollaiuoU).  PrF.Ro:  painter;  b.  at  Florence,  Italy,  1443; 
lirother  of  Antonio  PoUaiuolo.  Vasari  says  that  the  younger 
I'ollaiuolo  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea  del  Castagno,  but  this  is 
doubtful.  The  two  brothers  generally  worked  conjointly. 
Antonio  furnishing  the  design  and  I'iero  carrying  it  out  in 
color  in  manv  instances.  D.  in  U'.tG.  The  .Vartyrdom  of 
St.  SebaKti a li  in  the  London  Natii.naUiallcry  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  work  of  both  brothers.  It  was  painted  for 
I  he  I'ucci  chapel  in  Florence,  ai\d  linishecl  in  1475.  Piero 
designeil  the  Helvivlere  Palace  built  l)y  Innocent  VIIL  He 
was  a  medalist  also,  and  an  engraver ;  his  works  in  this 
branch  surpassed  all  others  of  his  time.     W.  J.  Still.max. 

Pollen  1  from  Lat.  pollen,  fine  flour  or  dust  ] :  the  dust-like 
cells  produced  in  the  anthers  of  flowers.  They  are  developed 
as  follows  :  When  the  anther  is  still  young  the  cells  in  (usually 
four)  longitudinal  columns  uiulergo  internal  division,  each 
into  four  daughter-cells  (see  Figures,  a.  li)  and  these  cover 

themselves  with  a 
coat  of  cellulose, 
at  first  thin,  but 
later  thick  and  sep- 
arable into  an  outer 
aiul  an  inner  wall. 
In  the  meantime 
the  wall  of  the 
mother-cell  usual- 
ly deliquesces,  and 
the  pollen-cells  are 
set  free  within  the 
anther.  Later  the 
anther  opens  (usu- 
ally by  splitting 
longitudinally)  and 
the  pollen  falls  out 
as  a  yellowish, 
sometimes  whiti.sh 
powder.  In  some 
cases  the  pollen- 
cells  adhere  nu)re 
or  less  to  one  an- 
other by  a  sticky 
substance  in  mass- 
es of  considerable 
size,  as  is  seen  in 
milkweeds  and  or- 
chids. 

In  the  study  of 
the  comparative 
anatomy  of  plants 

a,  cross-section  of  a  column  of  pollfD  mother.  ''  ,1,^  seen  that  the 
cells  ;  h.  development  of  poUeiicells  from  pollen -cell  is  the 
a  mothcr-eell :  c.  the  two  uuclt-i  in  pollen-  homologue  of  the 
cells,  one  cell  germi.iating.  All  highly  „jjf.,.ospore  of  the 
magnitleU.  ,  -    ,      ^    i? 

higher     tern  worts, 

and  some  botanists  now  use  this  term  in  preference  to  the 
old  one  of  pollen-cell.  Before  germination  the  pollen-cell 
has  two  nuclei — namely,  the  "vegetative"  anil  the  "genera- 
tive" nuclei,  the  former  the  sole  representative  of  tlie  iiro- 
thallium  (r).  In  gymnosperius  there  are  usually  two  or 
more  fully  formed  vegetative  cells.  See,  further,  the  arti- 
cles BoTA.NV,  Flower,  and  PiivsioLoc.v,  Vkuetable. 

CnARi.Es  E.  Bessey. 

I'ol'lio,  Gail's  Asixil'S  :  orator  and  author  ;  b.  at  Konu'  in 
70  II.  c. ;  began  his  career  as  an  orator;  sided  in  the  war  be- 
tween Ca'sar  and  Ponipey  with  the  former,  whom  he  accom- 
panied from  the  Kvibicon  to  Rome,  and  again  nn  the  march 
to  Pharsalia;  commanded  in  Spain  against  Sextus  Pompeitis; 
was  consul  in  40  b.  c,  during  the  first  triumvirate  ;  made  a 
successful  campaign  in  Illyria  in  ;!!»;  retired  from  public 
life,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits;  was  a  friend 
of  Vergil,  Horace,  and  Catullus;  founded  the  fii;st  public 
library  in  Rome,  ami  wrote  a  history  of  the  civil  war  in 
seventeen  books,  which  is  lost.  He  was  also  a  |ioet  and  lit- 
erary critic.  I).  .5  a.  I).  Three  lettei's  from  him  to  Cicero 
have  been  preserved,  and  a  few  fragments  of  his  oration.s.  As 
an  orator  he  enjoyed  a  very  great  reputation;  his  contem- 
poraries ranked  him  next  to  Cicero  and  on  the  same  line  as 
('a>sarand  Brutus.  He  was  very  young  when  he  attracted 
great  attention  by  his  accusation  of  C.  Cato,  who  as  tribune. 


in  ')G  n.  c,  had  committed  luimcrons  illegal  acts  in  favor 
of  Pompey  and  Crassus.  Afterward  he  defended  the 
rhetors   Sloschus   and  Apollodorus,   who    were   accused   of 

t)oisoning  their  relatives  for  the  sake  of  the  inheritance,  and 
le  continued  to  plead  to  the  last.  His  speeches  were  always 
very  carefully  prepared.  He  was  especially  anxious  to 
eliiiiituite  anything  vague  or  superfluous,  avoiding  the  re- 
dunilancy  of  Cicero,  whom  he  sharply  (■ritiei.sed;  but  his 
austere  tiiste  .sometimes  nuide  him  dry,  a  tpiality  which  be- 
came still  more  visible  among  his  pupils  and  imitators.  Ho 
was  fond  of  archaic  and  poetic  expressions,  and  Landgraf 
and  Wiillllin  attribute  to  him  the  Helium  Africum,  but  this 
is  still  a  disputed  question.  He  inlrocluced  the  custom,  after- 
waril  so  common,  of  reciting  his  writings  to  an  audience  of 
friends.  See  .J.  II.  Schmalz,  I'eber  den  S/irnchf/ebraiich  des 
Aninius  I'ollto  (Munich,  l.HiiO) ;  also  Wiillllin.  Archiv  fur 
Lai.  Le.i-ikogni/jfiie  (\i..>ii-\Oii);  Lanilgraf,  rnlersuchiingen 
zu  f '(j'.sar  mid .leuieii  Fortsitzern  (Erlangen,  1888) ;  and  Wfilf- 
flin  and  Miadonski,  Polionis  de  Bello  Africa  CommetituriuH 
(Leipzig,  188i»).  Revi.sJd  by  M.  Wakkex. 

Pollock  :  See  CoAi.Fisn. 

Pollock,  Sir  Charles  Edward  :  lawyer  and  author  of 
legal  works;  b.  Oct.  21,  1823;  son  of  Sir  Frederick  Pollock; 
studied  law  under  .lustice  Willes  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1847;  made  queen's  counsel  in  ISGO  ;  appointed  baron  of 
the  exchequer  in  1873,  and  knighted  in  the  same  year.  Be- 
siiles  other  writings  he  has  puldishccl  a  Co/npeiidiiim  on  the 
Lair  of  Merehiuit  Shippiny  (as  joint  author  with  Frederick 
P.  Maude :  4th  ed.  London,  1884)  and  a  Trent ixe  on  the  Power 
of  the  Courts  of  Common  Law  to  Compel  the  Production  of 
Ihtcuments  for  Inspection.  P.  S.  A. 

Pollock.  Sir  Frederick:  lawyer;  b.  in  London,  England, 
Sept.  23,  1783:  graduated  at  Cambridge  180G  ;  studied  law 
at  the  Middle  Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  Nov.,  1807; 
had  great  success  in  his  profession  ;  became  king's  counsel 
1827;  sat  in  Parliament  for  Huntingdon  1831-44;  was 
knighted  Dec,  1834 ;  was  attorney-general  during  the  first 
and  second  administrations  of  Sir  Robert  Peel;  chief  baron 
of  the  court  of  exchequer  an<l  privy  councilor  from  Apr., 
1844.  to  18()6.  when  he  retired  with  a  baronetcy.  D.  at 
llatton,  near  London,  Aug.  23,  1870. 

Revised  by  F.  Sturqes  Allex. 
Pollock,  Sir  Frederick:  jurist;  b.  Dec.  10, 184.5;  grand- 
son of  Sir  Frederick  Pollock.  He  was  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge University,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  in  1871  :  has  been  several  times  examiner  in  law  at 
Cambridge  University  and  in  other  universities;  Professor 
of  .Jurisprudence  at  University  College,  London,  1882-83 ; 
Professor  of  Law  in  the  Inns  of  Court  1884-1)1 ;  Corpus  Pro- 
fessor of  .Jurisprudence  at  Oxford  University  since  1883; 
lecturer  in  the  University  of  Calcutta  1893-94.  He  has 
been  editor  of  TVie  Law  Quarterly  Reriew  since  188.5,  aiul 
of  the  revised  reports  siiu-c  1891,  He  has  written  much  for 
periodicals  upon  jurisprudence  and  legal  ethics,  arul  is  a 
leader  in  the  modern  school  of  historical  and  analytical 
law  writers.  II is  most  important  works  are  Principles  of 
Contract  ((ith  ed.  1894);  The  Law  of  Torts  (4th  cd.  1894); 
A  Dige.ft  of  the  Law  nf  Partnership  (.5th  cd.  1890);  The 
Land  Law's  (2d  ed.  1887);  Spinoza,  his  Life  and  Philoso- 
phi/  (1880);  The  Law  of  Fraud.  .Visrepresentation.  and 
Mistake  in  British  India  (1S94):  Leadini/  Cases  done  into 
Fni/lish.  anil  Other  Dirersions  (1892);  Lssai/s  on  Jurispru- 
dence and  Ethics  (1882).  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Pollock.  Walter  IIerries;  journalist;  b.  in  London  in 
1850;  brother  of  Sir  Frederick  Pollock,  jurist.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Cambridge,  in  1871,  and  was  calle<l  to  the  bar  in 
1874.  In  1884  he  Ijecame  editor  of  The  Saturday  Review. 
Author  of  Lectures  on  French  Poets  (1879)  ;  Songs  and 
Khipnes  (1882) ;  The  Picture's  Secret  (1883) ;  Verses  of  Two 
Toiiyues  (1884) :  and  (with  Ladv  Pollock,  his  mother)  Ama- 
teur Theatricals  (1880).  "  H.  A.  Beers. 

Pol'lok.  Robert  :  poet  ;  b.  at  Muirhouse.  Renfrewsliire, 
Scotland,  in  1799  ;  grailuated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow; 
studied  theologv,  and  was  licensed  as  a  preacher  of  the 
United  Secession  Church  1827.  D.  at  Southampton,  Hants, 
Sept.  17,  1837.  Author  of  Tales  of  the  Covenanters  (1823) 
and  of  77ic  Cour.se  of  Time  (1827),  a  poem  in  blank  vei-se 
which  gave  great  promise  of  future  excellence.  It  became 
extremely  jiopular  in  Great  Britain  and  in  the  U.  S.,  where 
for  many  years  it  was  used  in  schools  as  a  parsing-book. 
Poll-tax :  Sec  Finance. 
Pollux  :  See  Castor  and  PoLnrx. 


700 


POLLUX 


POLO,   MARCO 


Pol'lux  (in  (xr.  noKvSevKvs),  .Ti'Lius  :  scholar  ;  b.  at  Nau- 
cratis,  Egypt,  about  laO  a.  d.  ;  lived  in  Athens  as  teacher  of 
rhetoric  and  philosophv.  His  Onomasticon,  edited  by  Din- 
dorf  (Leipzig:,  1834)  and  Bekker  (Berlin,  1846),  is  a  kind  of 
dictionary  in  which  the  principal  words  relating  to  certain 
subjects  are  collected  into  groups,  defined,  and  illustrated 
by  quotations.  The  work  is  of  manifold  interest  to  the  stu- 
dent of  the  Greek  language,  literature,  and  art. 

Po'lo:  a  modern  adaptation  of  the  Persian  game  of 
cfiaugdn,  the  origin  of  which  is  unknown.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  Great  Britain  in  1869,  from  India,  by  officers  of 
the  Tenth  Hussars;  into  the  U.  S.  in  1876  by  James  Gordon 
Bennett;  and  in  1883  a  flourishing  club  was  started  in  Mex- 
ico city.  It  has  earnest  supporters  in  Africa  and  Australia, 
while  "in  Great  Britain  it  has  long  been  a  recognized  sport. 
The  fame  is  an  old  one  in  Tibet,  and  the  Japanese  have  a 
very  similar  form  of  recreation  in  daikii. 

Briefly,  polo  is  simply  playing  the  game  of  "hockey"  or 
"  shinny,"  on  horseback.  The  game  consists  in  knocking  a 
ball,  with  a  stick  having  a  crook  or  "  mallet "  at  its  end,  from 
one  goal  to  another,  these  goals  being  some  8  yards  wide  and 
about  350  yards  apart  at  opposite  sides  of  a  level  rectangular 
field.  The  players,  four  upon  eacli  side,  are  mounted  on 
ponies.  By  the  rules  of  the  New  York  club  the  height  of  the 
ponies  is  limited  to  14  hands,  and  the  "mallets"  to  be  used 
must  be  4  ft.  4  in.  in  length.  The  ponies  used  are  "  hog- 
maned,"  and  have  their  tails  cut  short.  The  game  is  ex- 
tremely rough,  and  acciients  upon  the  field  are  numerous. 
Because  of  the  expense  attached  to  securing  and  keeping 
"  mounts"  the  game  is  confined  to  the  wealthier  classes. 

Roller-polo  came  in  with  roller-skating  rinks,  with  rules 
adapting  it  to  skaters  and  indoor  playing. 

Waler-polo  seems  to  have  no  logical  connection  with  polo 
proper,  it  being  a  game  played  by  swimmers.  Sides  are 
chosen,  and  the  attempt  made  while  swimming  to  force  a 
football  through  the  opponents"  goal.  This  game  has  gen- 
erally been  confined  to  the  baths  in  the  larger  gymnasiums. 

E.  Hitchcock,  Jr. 

Polo :  city ;  Ogle  co.,  111. ;  on  the  Burl.  Route  and  the 
111.  Cent,  railways;  12  miles  N.  of  Dixon,  23  miles  S.  of 
Freeport  (for  location,  see  map  of  Illinois,  ref.  2-E).  It  is 
in  an  agricultural  region ;  contains  a  high  school,  the  Buf- 
falo Public  Library  (founded  in  1871),  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  |6.5,00(j,  a  ju'lvate  bank,  a  semi-weekly  and  a 
weekly  newspaper,  and  manufactories  of  agricultural  im- 
plements and  buggies ;  and  ships  large  quantities  of  cattle 
and  hogs.     Pop.  (1880)  1,819  ;  (1890)  1,738. 

Polo,  Gaspar  Gil:  romancer;  b.  at  Valencia,  Spain, 
probably  about  1540;  little  is  known  of  his  life.  Most  like- 
ly he  is  the  same  Gaspar  Gil  Polo  who  held  the  second  pro- 
fessorship of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Valencia  from  1566 
to  1574.  He  seems  also  to  have  had  legal  training,  for  he 
appears  in  Valencian  documents  of  1571  to  1573  with  the 
title  of  "  Notario."  He  died  probably  before  1591.  Ilis 
fame  is  due  to  the  fact  that  he  published  at  Valencia,  in 
1564,  a  continuation  of  the  Diana  Enamoracla  of  Monte- 
MAVOR  (q.  v.).  This  passed  through  many  editions  in  Spain, 
and  was  translated  into  several  other  languages — e.  g.  Eng- 
lish, by  Bartholomew  Yong  (with  Montemayor's  Diana, 
1598);  Latin,  by  Caspar  Barth  (under  the  title  Eroto-didaa- 
calus  sive  Nemoralium  libri  V„  Hanover,  1625).  Cervantes 
esteemed  Polo's  work  more  highly  than  Jlontemayor's  (cf. 
Don  Qnijote.  i.,  6).  The  best  edition  of  Gil  Polo's  Diana  is 
that  with  Life,  by  Francisco  Cerda  y  Rico  (Madrid,  1778). 
A  good  modern  edition  of  the  text  is  printed  with  that  of 
Montemayor's  Diana,  in  the  Biblioteca  cldsica  espanola 
(Barcelona,  1886).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Polo  de  Medina,  Salvador  Jacinto:  poet;  b.  in  Murcia. 
Spain,  about  1607;  d.  aliout  1660.  After  studying  and 
amusing  himself  with  poetry  in  his  native  place  he  went, 
about  1630,  to  ^ladrid  to  continue  his  studies.  He  became 
a  priest,  and  in  1638  was  secretary  to  the  Bishop  of  Lugo. 
In  his  earliiT  work  he  showed  himself  gifted  with  consider- 
able satiric  power.  His  chief  model  was  Cervantes,  but  he 
was  influenced  also  by  Gongora  and  Saavedra.  In  1630  he 
published  at  Madrid  his  Acndemias  del  Jard'in,  his  Buen 
hiimor  de  las  77i>imix.  and  his  fables  Apolo  y  Dafne  and  Pan 
y  Siringa.  In  1636  appeared  Ids  Hospital  de  incurables, 
via/e  de  esfe.  miindo  al  otro — a  vision,  in  which  the  poet 
visits  the  infernal  world.  His  moral  treatise  Oobierno  tnoral 
a  Leiio  (1657)  was  much  admired,  and  frequently  imitated 
during  the  remainder  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  first 
complete  edition  of  his  works,  Obras  en  prosa  y  verso,  ap- 


peared at  Saragossa  in  1664.  The  works  in  verse  are  printed 
in  vol.  xlii.  of  Rivadeneyra's  Biblioteca  de  Autores  Espafio- 
les  (Madrid,  1875).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Polo,  Marco:  traveler;  b.  in  Venice  in  1254;  son  of  I 
Nicolo  Polo,  one  of  three  brothers,  who  seem  to  have  been  ■ 
jointly  engaged  in  extensive  mercantile  ventures  in  the 
Blast.  In  tlie  year  1260  Nicolo,  who  had  left  a  family  at 
Venice,  and  his  brother  JIatfeo  went  on  a  mercantile  ven- 
ture to  the  Tartar  court  at  Sarai  on  the  Volga.  Thence 
circumstances  carried  them  to  Bokhara,  and  a  party  of 
Mongol  envoys,  passing  that  way,  invited  their  company  to 
the  court  of  the  Great  Khan  in  the  far  East.  Kublai,  the 
ablest  descendant  and  successor  of  Chinghiz,  was  then  reign- 
ing. Never  before  having  seen  European  gentlemen,  he 
took  the  Polos  into  great  favor,  and  after  a  time  sent  them 
back,  in  the  character  of  envoys,  to  the  papal  court,  to  ask, 
among  other  things,  for  a  great  body  of  priests  to  instruct 
his  people.  The  two  brothers  reached  Acre  in  Apr.,  1269, 
and,  hearing  that  the  papal  see  was  vacant,  went  home. 
Nicolo  found  that  his  wife  was  dead,  but  that  his  son  Mar- 
co, the  subject  of  this  article,  was  then  a  fine  lad  of  fifteen. 
After  waiting  two  years  vainly  for  a  new  pope,  the  broth- 
ers started  again  for  the  East,  taking  young  Marco.  They 
were  yet  on  the  Gulf  of  Scanderoon  when  they  heard  at 
last  of  a  pope's  election  in  the  person  of  Tedaldo  Visconti, 
a  Church  dignitary  of  Acre,  who  had  shown  great  interest 
in  their  mission,  and  who  afterward  reigned  creditably  as 
Gregory  X.  He  recalled  them  to  Acre  to  receive  his  letters, 
but  in  lieu  of  the  hundred  teachers  asked  by  Kublai  he 
could  give  but  two,  and  the  hearts  of  these  failed  at  the 
outset.  The  long  journey  to  Cathay  occupied  three  years 
and  a  half.  It  lay  through  Southern  Armenia,  Persia,  the 
valley  of  the  Oxus,  and  Badakhshan,  thence  over  the  high 
plateau  of  Pamir.  From  Pamir  they  descended  upon  Kash- 
gar,  and  thence  by  Khotan  and  across  the  Gobi  desert  to 
Tangut,  as  the  country  at  the  western  end  of  the  Cireat 
Wall  was  then  called.  Here  they  were  met  as  the  Great 
Khan's  guests,  and  conducted  to  his  summer-seat  at  Shangtu 
on  the  plateau  of  Mongolia,  nearly  200  miles  N.  of  Peking. 
Kublai  received  the  party  cordially,  and  showed  especial 
favor  to  Marco.  The  young  man  applied  himself  to  ac- 
quire some  languages  current  at  the  Mongol  court  (though 
Chinese  was  certainly  not  one  of  his  acquisitions),  and  soon 
got  employment  in  the  khan's  service.  His  first  important 
commission  carried  him  through  Western  China  and  the 
wild  Tibetan  frontier  to  Yunnan,  called  by  the  Mongols 
Karajang  (Carajan),  and  thence  to  the  borders  of  Burma 
{Mien).  A  mission  to  India  was  one  of  his  charges,  and  the 
government  of  the  great  city  of  Yangchow,  on  the  Grand 
Canal,  with  its  district,  was  another.  The  khan  grew  old, 
and  the  Polos  began  to  fear  what  might  follow  his  death; 
they  desired  to  depart,  but  he  heard  them  with  displeasure; 
and  it  was  not  till  1293  that  an  opportunity  offered.  Kub- 
lai's  kinsman,  Arghtin,  Khan  of  Persia  in  i286,  having  lost 
his  favorite  wife,  Bulugan,  envoys  were  sent  to  Cambaluc  to 
request  that  a  Mongol  lady  of  Bulugan's  own  family  be  se- 
lected to  succeed  her,  as  she  had  requested  on  her  deathbed. 
Kukiichin,  a  beautiful  maiden  of  seventeen,  was  selected. 
The  envoys  desired  to  return  by  sea,  and  sought  the  com- 
pany of  the  experienced  Venetians.  Kublai  was  reluctant, 
but  consented,  and  fitted  the  party  out  nobly  for  the  voyage, 
charging  the  Polos  with  friendly  messages  for  the  Kings  of 
France,  England,  and  Spain.  Their  fleet  of  fourteen  ves- 
sels sailed  from  Fuh-kien  in  the  beginning  of  1392;  the 
voyage  was  long  and  disastrous,  but  the  Polos  after  two 
years  landed  in  Persia.  After  a  time  the  Polos  proceeded 
to  Europe,  and  late  in  1295  reached  Venice,  where  they 
were  received  coldly  by  their  relatives,  who  had  long  con- 
sidered them  dead.  Venice  and  Genoa  were  then  in  hot 
and  often  sanguinary  rivalry.  In  1298  Marco  joined  the 
Venetian  fleet  under  Andrea  Dandolo  as  gentleman-com- 
mander {sopra  comifo)  of  a  galley,  and  in  an  action  off  CUir- 
zola  was  taken  prisoner  with  7,000  others  and  carried  to 
Genoa.  At  Genoa  he  fell  in  with  a  certain  Rusticiano  or 
Rustichcllo  of  Pisa,  an  inmate  also  of  the  prison  there. 
To  him  is  due  the  preservation  of  Polo's  travels  and  mem- 
ory, for  he  probably  suggested  the  record  of  his  experi- 
ences, and  certainly  he  wrote  them  down  from  Polo's  dicta- 
tion. In  the  summer  of  1299  peace  was  made  and  the  pris- 
oners were  liberated.  Marco  Polo  survived  to  Jan.,  1324, 
the  date  of  his  will  still  extant,  but  died  soon  after — cer- 
tainly before  June,  1325.  He  had  married,  and  left  three 
daughters ;  two  of  them  married  before  his  death. 


POLTAVA 


POI.YCAKP 


701 


The  Book  of  Marco  Polo  consists  of  two  unequal  sec- 
tions. The  first,  called  I'rotogue,  is  ii  pei'sonal  narrative  of 
great  interest,  hut  too  preat  brevity.  The  second  consists 
of  a,  long  series  of  chapters,  extremely  various  in  lenj,'th  and 
interest,  descriptive  of  tlie  regions  of  Asia  visited  l^y  the 
Polos  in  tlieir  diiferent  journeys,  but  especially  of  the  Kni- 
)ieror  Kulilai.  liis  court  and  dominions.  It  is  a  curious  fact 
that  tlie  original  work.  di<'lated  by  JIareo,  u  Venetian,  to 
Kustichello,  a,  Pisan,  Wiis  written  in  French,  and  very  bad 
French  too.  The  greatest  number  of  i\l.SS.  are,  however,  in 
Latin,  a  version  by  Friar  Pipino,  executed  in  Polo's  life- 
time, having  been  mucli  ditTuseil.  Italian  versions  are  also 
numerous,  the  Frencli  less  so.  but  far  more  valualde.  The 
wliole  numlier  of  MS.S.  known  is  under  eighty.  Polo's  recog- 
nition as  prince  of  mediaeval  travelers  is  line  to  Ids  romantic 
story  and  to  tlie  vast  compass  of  his  travels,  anticipating  so 
many  supposed  discoveries  of  the  sixteenth  century,  rather 
than  to  transcendent  character  or  cajjacity.  He  was  the  first 
traveler  to  trace  a  route  across  the  whole  longitude  of  Asia 
from  the  sliores  of  Cilicia  to  the  Yellow  Sea — tlu'  fir.st  trav- 
eler to  reveal  China  in  all  its  wealth  and  vastnes.s.  the  first 
to  tell  of  the  nations  on  its  borders;  of  Tibet,  of  Burma, 
of  Laos,  of  Siam,  of  Cocldn-Chiini,  of  .Japan;  the  first  to 
speak  of  that  museum  of  beauty  and  wonder,  the  Indian 
Archipelago;  of  Java,  the  pearl  of  islands:  of  Sumatra 
[Java  Minor);  of  Ceylon,  with  its  Mountain  of  Adam;  of 
India,  not  as  a  mythical  i-egion,  but  as  a  country  seen  and 
]iartially  explored;  of  the  secluded  Christian  kingdom  of 
Abyssinia;  of  Zanzibar,  Madagascar,  and  Socotra :  and  of 
remotely  opposite  (puirters  of  the  high  plateaus  of  Pamir, 
with  tlieir  wild  sheep;  of  Siberia  and  the  Arctic  Ocean;  of 
white  bears,  sledge-dogs,  and  reindeer-riding  Tunguses. 
His  book  has  presented  many  difficulties,  but  progi'ess  in 
exploration  and  in  the  translation  of  Oriental  literature  has 
made  nujst  of  them  now  clear.  Marsden's  (Lon<lon,  181S) 
was  llie  first  edition  of  value;  Pauthier's  (Paris,  I860) 
brought  a  vast  amount  of  curious  and  interesting  Chinese 
learning  to  bear  upon  the  subject.  Tlie  most  important  is 
Yule's  Book  of  Ser  Marco  Polo  (3  vols.,  London,  1871  ;  2d 
ed.  1875).  Revised  by  R.  Lillev. 

I'oltava,  ]i«l-tiui'va"ii :  government  of  European  Russia  ; 
bordering  S.  and  W.  on  the  Dnieper.  Area.  19,263  sq.  miles. 
The  surface  is  level,  the  soil  fertile,  and  the  climate  mild. 
Agriculture  and  rearing  of  cattle  are  almost  the  only  branches 
of  industry  pursued.  Grain,  hemp,  tobacco,  the  sunflower, 
and  fruits  are  raised  :  bees  and  silkworms  are  extensively 
reared.     Pop.  (1890)  2,808,600. 

I'oltava,  or  Pultowa  :  town  ;  capital  of  the  government 
of  Poltava,  Russia;  on  the  Vorskhi,  a  tributary  of  the  Dnie- 

Fer;  88  miles  S.  \V.  of  KharkolT  (see  map  of  Russia,  ret  9-1)). 
t  has  manufactures  of  tobacco  and  leather  and  four  annual 
fairs,  at  which  horses,  cattle,  leather,  wool,  hides,  etc.,  are 
sold  to  the  value  of  about  $13,000,000  annually.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric.  June  27.  1709.  Peter  the  (Treat  won  here 
a  decisive  victory  over  Charles  Xll.,  in  commemoration  of 
which  a  Large  monument  has  been  raised  in  the  principal 
square.     Pop.  (1S91)  4:S,.'>6;!. 

Folyse'iiiis  (Or.  TIoKicuvos) :  sophist;  flourisluMl  umler 
Marcus  Aurelius.  and  composed  in  rlietorical  style  an<i  with 
an  utter  lack  of  critical  spirit  eight  books  of  Stratagentx 
(2TpoTj)7ii^Ta).  which  are  extant  with  the  exception  of  ga]is 
in  I  lie  sixth  and  seventh.  There  arc  editions  by  Casaubon 
(iri8!l)  and  liy  \V;iltllin  Mellier. 

Revised  by  15.  L.  (Tii.nKRSLEEVE. 

Polyandry  [Or.  ToKit.  much,  many  -l-  avfip.  avSpis,  man] : 
See  Makkiaoi;  an<l  Maiuiieu  Women. 

Polyaii'thus  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  (ir.  7ro\uoi'flos.  many-llow- 
ereil ;  iroA,us.  much,  many  4-  ij-flos.  fioweil :  any  one  of  a  large 
class  of  primrosi's.  protiably  belonging  to  Primiilit  gnindi- 
fiorii.imil  closely  allied  to  the  auriculas,  cowslips,  oxlijis,  etc. 
The  polyaiitlms  is  a  hardy  perennial,  and  the  flowei's  are 
often  Ijcaulifiil  and  profuse. 

Polyatomic  Alcohols:  See  Ai.coiious. 

Polyliasic  Aciil.s:  See  Aciu. 

Polyli'iiis:  Greek  liistorian  (1).  20.5.  d.  about  12:i  u.  c.) ; 
a  native  of  .Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia;  son  of  Lyeortas.  gen- 
eral of  the  Aclnean  League.  His  birth  and  his  ability 
lirought  him  early  to  the  front,  and  he  was  employed  in  im- 
portant diplomatic  and  military  allairs.  After  the  defeat 
of  Perseus  at  Pydiia,  in  167,  he  was  one  of  the  1,000  promi- 
nent Achipans  who  were  deported  to  Italy  by  the  ({oimins  as 
hostages  for  the  future  good  conduct  of  the  Aclia'an  League. 


In  his  seventeen  years  of  exile  lie  learned  to  appreciate  the 
mission  of  Rome  ;  and  Ids  study  of  the  Roman  state  and  his 
familiar  intercourse  with  the  leading  men  of  Rome  filled 
him  with  admiration  of  the  new  favorites  of  fortune  (Tuxij). 
He  was  an  intimate  in  the  house  of  ..Emilius  Paulus,  and 
accompanied  Scipio  the  younger  on  his  campaigns.  In  150 
his  exile  was  at  an  end.  but  he  returned  to  Rome  twice  and 
was  in  the  suite  of  Scipio  at  the  fall  of  Carthage  (146)  and 
at  the  siege  of  Numantia.  Polybius  was  of  great  service  to 
his  countrymen  in  their  subsequent  complications  with 
Rome,  and  was  highly  honored  for  his  patriotic  interven- 
tion. He  preserved  liis  mental  and  physical  vigor  to  the 
age  of  eighty-two  years,  when  ho  died  in  consequence  of  a 
fall  from  his  horse.  His  great  work  was  his  histories  in 
forty  books,  five  of  which  have  come  down  to  us  entire;  of 
the  remainder  we  have  fragments  of  considerable  compass, 
part  of  them  preserved  in  the  excerpts  of  Con.sfantinus  Por- 
phyrogenitus. 

Polybius  is  the  expounder  and  exemplar  of  the  "prag- 
matic "  method  in  liislor)-.  The  facts(irf)a-)/iaTo)  once  ascer- 
tained must  be  made  to  yield  their  causes,  the  causes  ascer- 
tained must  be  made  to 'yield  lessons  for  tlie  future.  Prag- 
matic and  practical  are  the  same  thing  from  difl'erent  points 
of  view.  For  the  ascertainment  of  the  facts  he  was  rarely 
equipped  by  practical  knowledge  of  the  art  of  war  and  the 
lit(^  of  politics.  Not  only  did  he  bring  a  critical  spirit  to 
bear  on  the  traditions  of  the  past  and  on  the  work  of  his 
predecessors  in  the  domain  of  history,  but  he  was  personally 
cognizant  of  many  of  the  events  which  lie  describes.  He 
"thinks  -straight  and  sees  clear."  and  his  love  of  truth  is 
manifest;  but  there  is  far  too  much  "exposure"  of  his  fel- 
low-workers, far  too  much  sermonizing  about  right  methods 
and  correct  results ;  although  no  one  can  deny  t  liat'in  t  he  study 
of  the  causes  of  events  Polybius  showed  in  some  directions 
wider  and  deeper  vision  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  and 
with  him  begins  a  new  era  of  historiograiihy.  He  studied 
wliat  was  in  man,  he  studied  what  was  in  nature,  in  order 
to  find  the  springs  of  action:  and  it  was  lie  who  taught  his- 
torians to  take  into  calculation  the  effect  of  political  insti- 
tutions, and  the  influence  of  soil,  of  climatr,  of  geographical 
situation.  True,  his  practical  soul  was  not  open  to  the  in- 
fluence of  religion,  which  was  to  him  an  engine  to  work  on 
the  nijisses  withal,  not  a  spirit  to  animate  a  nation.  To  him 
the  central  force  of  history  which  dominated  all  the  causes 
he  had  so  lalioriously  evolved  was  a  mysterious  Tixn  (For- 
tune), the  unknown,  unaccountaljle  power  that  took  the  place 
of  the  old  gods.  He  does  not  seem  to  have  been  susce])tible 
to  the  charm  of  poetry  or  alive  to  the  influences  of  philoso- 
phy, but,  Romanized  though  he  was,  Polybius  was  still  too 
much  a  Greek  not  to  admit  with  Aristotle  the  potency  of 
music.  As  a  stylist,  Polybius  has  the  merit  of  clearness,  but 
lacks  grace  and  charm,  and  his  mechanical  .scrupulousness 
in  the  .avoidance  of  the  hiatus  stands  in  amusing  contrast 
with  his  neglect  of  the  weightier  matters  of  stylistic  law. 
With  Polybius  begins  the  perio<l  of  the  so-called  common 
dialect  in  contradistinction  to  Attic;  he  lets  in  new  words 
with  a  flood,  multiplies  periphrases,  and  inspissates  his  style 
with  abstracts  and  articular  infinitives.  The  student  of 
classical  Greek  finds  himself  in  a  new  world  of  language 
just  as  the  student  of  Greek  history  finds  himself  in  a  new 
world  of  thought. 

Kditio.vs. — Schweighiiuser  (Leipzig.  1789-95);  8  vols.,  I. 
Bckker  (Berlin,  1844):  L.  Dindorf, 're-edited  bv  Bi'ittner- 
Wobst  (Leiiizig,  1S82;  Hultsch.  2d  ed.  Leipzig,  1888.  Trans- 
lated into  English  by  Sliuckburgli,  2  vols.,  London.  1889). 
See  also  W.  W.  Capes,  Tin'  History  of  the  Aclnvan  League 
as  rontaineil  in  the  Itemains  of  Poli/ljiiis  (London,  1888); 
J.  L.  Strachan-Davidson,  Selections  from  Poli/biits  (Oxford, 
1888) ;  and   Rudolf  von  Scala,  Die  Studieii  des  Poli/liiiis  (2 

vols.,  1890).  15.  L.  GiLUEKSLEEVE. 

Pol'ycarp  [from  Lat.  Pohjcarpus  =  Gr.  TloKvKapwos.  liter., 
bearing  much  fruit] :  one  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  b.  about 
70  A.  1)..  apparently  of  Christian  parentage;  a  disciple  of 
St.  John  and  Bislio])  of  Smyrna,  where  he  suffered  martyr- 
dom, probally.  acccu-iling  to  modern  scholars,  in  l.")5  or  1-56. 
The  old  date  was  166  or  167  A.  I).  Most  of  what  is  known 
of  him  comes  from  his  pupil  Irenanis,  who  was  Bishop  of 
Lyons  177-202  A.  n.  In  his  letter  to  Florinus  (preserved  by 
Eusebius,  Hist.,  v.,  20)  Irena^us  gives  a  gnqiliic  account  of 
Polycarp  as  remembered  by  him.  Another  extract  (Adv. 
liar.,  iii.,  3,  4)  emphasizes  Polycarp's  hostility  to  heretics, 
and  there  is  still  another  extract  from  a  letter  of  Ireiueus 
to  Victor,  Bishop  of  Rome  (preserved  by  ICusebius,  Ilist.,v., 


702 


POLYCENTRID^ 


POLYGLOT 


24),  in  relation  to  the  Passover  dispute,  describing  a  visit  of 
Polyearp  to  Anieetus,  Bishop  of  Rome  from  154  a.  d.  An 
epistle  from  the  Church  in  Smyrna  to  a  neighboring  Church 
in  Philomelium,  describing  the  martyrdom  of  Polyearp, 
is  probably  in  its  main  contents  genuine,  but  in  its  present 
form  has  two  closing  sections  which  are  not.  Some  fea- 
tures of  the  narrative  are  above  suspicion  and  in  keeping 
•with  the  best  traditions  of  the  age.  When  entreated  to 
save  his  life  by  reviling  Christ  the  answer  of  the  martyr 
was  :  "  Eighty  "and  six  years  have  I  served  him,  and  he  has 
done  me  no  il'l.  How,  then,  can  I  blaspheme  my  King  who 
has  saved  me  f "  The  spot  now  pointed  out  as  the  site  of 
this  martvrdom  is  marked  by  a  tall  cypress  on  the  face  of 
Mt.  Pagiis,  overlooking  the  city  of  Smyrna.  Polycarp's 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians  appears  to  have  been  written 
shortly  after  the  martyrdom  of  Ignatius,  11.5  a.  d.  Its 
genuineness  is  now  generally  conceded.  Its  tone  is  horta- 
tory ;  its  most  important  characteristic,  great  prof useness 
of  quotation  from  the  apostolic  writings.  The  best  recent 
editions  of  Polvcarp  are  by  Jacobson  (1838  ;  4th  ed.  1863) ;  by 
Hefele  {1839;  oth  ed.  by  Punk,  1878):  by  I)ressel(1857;  3d 
ed.  bv  Zahn,  1876);  but  especially  by  Lightfoot  (Jt/naiius 
and  Polyearp,  1885).  See  also  Lightfoofs  Apostolic  Fath- 
ers (1893).  Hevised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Polycen'tridie  [Mod.  Lat. :  named  from  Polijren'trus, 
the  typical  geniis ;  Gr.  Troxis,  much,  many  +  xivrpov.  goad, 
spine] :  a  family  of  spiny-rayed  fishes  peculiar  to  the  fresh 
waters  of  tropical  South  America.  It  is  composed  of  two 
genera — (1)  Polycentrus.  without  a  barbel,  and  (2)  Mono- 
cirrus,  with  a  barbel.  Two  species  of  the  former  and  one 
of  the  latter  are  known. 

Polycliaetae  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  itoXis,  many  -i-  x"^'"'';. 
bristle] :  an  order  of  annelids  (jointed  worms)  belonging  to 
the  class  Ch^topoda  (q.  v.).  In  these  forms  each  segment 
of  the  body  bears  numerous  bristles,  which  either  project 
from  the  general  surface  or  from  fleshy  outgrowtlis  (para- 
podia)  on  the  sides  of  jthe  body.  The  head  is  distinct  and 
usually  provided  with  feeler-like  appendages,  some  of  which 
may  be  modified  into  gills;  the  parapodia  are  usually  com- 
plicated in  sha]ie,  and  besides  the  bristles  they  may  bear 
tentacular  [irocesses  (cirri)  and  in  some  instances  respiratory 
organs.  The  internal  organs  are  upon  the  general  annelid 
plan,  but  usually  the  circulatory  organs  are  highly  devel- 
oped. Reproduction  is  largely  by  means  of  eggs,  although 
some  species  have  the  power  of  spontaneously  dividing  into 
two  individuals.  The  young  escape  from  the  egg  as  a 
spherical  embryo  (trochophore),  which  gradually  elongates 
into  the  adult  condition.  With  the  excc|ition  of  tlie  single 
genus  Jlanyunkin  from  the  Schuylkill  river,  Pennsylvania, 
all  are  marine.  Among  them  are  many  forms  beautiful 
alike  in  shape  and  color,  which  go  far  toward  contradicting 
the  common  impression  that  a  worm  is  a  loathsome  crea- 
ture. The  PolychmtcB  are  usually  subdivided  into  two 
groups.  In  one,  Errantia,  the  animal  lives  a  free  life, 
either  burrowing  in  the  mud  or  swimming  through  the 
water.  These  animals  are  predaceous  and  are  provided 
with  strong  jaws  for  capturing  their  prey.  In  the  second 
group,  Tubicola  or  Sedentaria,  the  parapodia  are  less 
developed,  the  animals  live  in  tubes  of  their  own  con- 
struction, and,  since  jaws  are  lacking,  they  have  to  depend 
for  food  upon  the  minute  particles  brought  them  in  the 
currents  of  water  produced  by  the  appendages  of  the  head. 
There  are  many  hundreds  of  species  of  Polychcetip.  The 
most  valuable  papers  upon  the  group  are  Ehlers,  Die  Bor- 
stenieiirmfr  (Leipzig,  1864-68);  Claparede,  Anyielides  du 
Oolfe  dio  Naples  (Geneva,  1868-70) ;  and  various  articles  by 
Grube,  Malragren,  etc.  The  American  species  have  large- 
ly been  described  by  Verrill  (Tnverfehrata  of  Vineyard 
Sound),  Webster,  and  Andrews.  For  the  development,  ref- 
;  erence  should  be  made  to  Hatschek  (Arbeilen  Zool.  Inst., 
Vienna,  i.,  1878),  Wilson  (Johns  Hopkins  Studies,  ii.,  1882 ; 
Journal  of  Morphology,  vi..  1892),  A.  Agassiz,  and  Fewkes. 
For  structure,  Claparede  (1862),  Meyer  (Mittheil.  d.  Zool. 
Station,  Naples,  vii.,  1887),  Andrews,  and  others. 

J.  S.  KiNGSLEY. 

Polychrome :  synonymous  with  ^sculin  {q.  w). 

Polyphromy :  the  application  of  varied  and  generally 
bright  colors  to  buildings,  statuary,  and  other  objects;  also 
the  study  or  theory  of  this  art.  Most  ancient  peoples  dec- 
orated their  buildings  inside  and  out  with  painting  in  vivid 
colors.  When  this  was  not  done  it  was  because  the  materials 
of  the  building  or  of  its  facing  were  naturally  varied  in 
color:  Thus  the  frieze  of  the  Ereehtheion  at  Athens  was  in 


black  marble,  with  white-marble  figures  in  relief  upon  it, 
and  the  interiors  of  Roman  temples,  basilicas,  and  palaces 
were  lined  with  variegated  natural  marbles.  Oriental  na- 
tions, both  those  of  the  far  East  and  the  Mohammedan 
peoples  of  the  Levant,  show  great  skill  in  polychromy.  The 
differences  between  these  nations  in  their  use  of  color  in 
this  way  are  considerable :  Thus  the  Japanese  excel  in  the 
combination  of  browns  and  grays,  gold  of  different  tints, 
bronze,  and  other  alloys,  and  generally  in  all  the  effects  of 
subdued  and  delicate  color,  while  the  Chinese  surpass  them 
and  all  other  peoples  of  modern  times  in  handling  dark  and 
light  blue,  pure  green,  vivid  yellow,  orange,  and  white.  The 
surprisingly  refined  combinations  which  they  make  of  these 
strong  and  pure  colors  help  us  to  understand  how  a  Greek 
temple  may  have  looked  with  patterns  and  even  broad  sur- 
faces of  pure  red  and  deep  blue,  with  white  and  gold.  The 
modern  peoples  of  European  extraction  show  little  power  in 
making  designs  in  color,  and  are  generally  content  to  copy 
those  of  antiquity  or  of  the  East.  Russell  Sturgis. 

Polycle'tilS  (in  Gr.  UoKvKKinoi):  statuary  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.  c. ;  b.  at  Sicyon.  Acha'a  ;  was  ma<le  a  citizen  of  Argos  ;. 
received  instruction,  together  with  Phidias  and  Myron,  from 
Ageladas,  and  made  the  celebrated  chryselephantine  statue 
of  Hera  in  the  IIera?um  of  Argos,  and  the  still  more  cele- 
brated statue  of  the  Spear-bearer,  which  was  afterward 
studied  by  other  artists  as  containing  the  eanon  with  re- 
spect to  the  projiortions  of  the  human  body.  He  was  also 
famous  as  an  architect,  and  built  the  theater  of  Epidaurus. 
See  ^Murray.  History  of  Greek  Sculpture  (London.  1880),  i., 
I).  257  ff.  ;  Mitchell,  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture  (New 
York,  1888),  i.,  p.  384  ff. ;  Overb'eck,  Geschichte  der  (friech- 
ischen  Plastik  (Leipzig,  1893).  i.,  p.  507  ff. ;  CoUignon,  His- 
toire  de  la  Sculpture  Orecque  (Paris,  1892),  i.,  p.  485  ff. ;  see 
also  the  article  Polyhleitos  in  Baumeister's  Denkmdler. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Polyc'rates  (in  Gr.  noXwpaTTjs) :  tyrant  of  Samos;  one  of 
the  most  daring  and  most  successful  of  the  many  sea-kings 
who  in  ancient  times  swarmed  over  the  .tEgean  Sea.  When 
seeking  the  alliance  of  Egypt,  he  was  warned  by  Amasis 
that  he  should  sacrifice  whatever  he  valued  most  highly  in 
order  to  ward  off  the  envy  of  the  gods.  He  consequently 
threw  his  ring,  a  jewel  of  immense  value,  into  the  sea,  but 
the  next  day  the  ring  was  foiuul  in  the  stomach  of  a  fish 
that  was  served  up  on  his  table.  Thereupon  Amasis  aban- 
doned the  alliance  on  the  ground  tliat  his  destruction  was 
decreed  by  the  gods.  His  life,  which  was  one  long  series  of 
brilliant  victories,  ended,  nevertheless,  in  a  pitiful  manner. 
One  Ora'tes,  satrap  of  Sardis,  lured  him  into  Jlagnesia,  and 
seized  and  crucified  him  for  some  unknown  reason  about 
522  B.  e.  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Polydieraonism  :  See  Animism. 

Polyg'aniy  [from  Gr.  voKvya/xia.  deriv.  of  Tro\6yafj.os.  po- 
lygamous, having  many  marriages ;  ttoKvs,  many  -i-  yd/ios, 
marriage] :  the  state  of  a  man  having  two  or  more  wives  at 
the  same  time.  The  state  of  a  woman  having  two  or  more 
husbands  at  the  same  time  is  generally  called  polyandry. 
In  ancient  times  polygamy  was  practiced  by  all  the  Eastern 
nations,  and  was  sanctioned,  or  at  least  tolerated,  by  their 
religions.  In  the  Homeric  age  it  seems  to  have  existed  to 
some  extent  among  the  Greeks,  but  during  the  later  devel- 
opment of  Greek  civilization  it  entirely  disappeared.  To 
the  Romans  and  the  Gotho-Germanie  races  it  was  unknown. 
With  the  Jews  it  was  common  among  the  patriarchs  and 
tolerated  by  the  law  of  Moses,  but  toward  the  beginning  of 
our  era  the  custom  appears  to  have  died  out.  The  Koran 
sanctions  it,  but  among  the  Arabs  it  does  not  prevail  as  a 
general  rule.  Among  Christians,  although  the  New  Testa- 
ment contains  no  positive  injunction  against  it,  it  was  never 
tolerated  excejrt  among  the  Mormons.  (See  JIormons.)  In 
modern  times  polygamy  is  common  only  among  the  sava^.j 
African  and  3Ialayo-Polynesian  races,  and  among  the  de- 
graded nations  of  Asia.     See  Bigamy. 

Polyajlot  [from  the  Gr.  voXis.  many,  and  7A(iTTo,  tongue] : 
a  book  with  versions  of  its  texts  in  several  languages,  but 
generally  used  only  of  such  editions  of  the  Bible.  Of  Ori- 
gen's  Biblia  Hexapla  (see  Ortgen),  only  a  few  fragments 
are  extant.  The  first  great  ])olyglot  printed  was  the  Com- 
plutensian  (printed  under  the  care  and  at  the  cost  of  Car- 
dinal Ximenes  at  Alcala  de  Henares,  S|iain.  named  in  Latin 
Coniplutum.  1.502-17,  6  vols,  fob,  but  not  iiubjished  till 
1.520):  it  was  followed  bv  the  Antwerp  (edited  liy  Bene- 
dict Arias  Montanus,  8  vols,  fol.,  1569-72),  the  Parisian  (ed- 


POLYGNOTUS 


POLYZOA 


703 


ited  by  Gabriel  Sionita,  1628-45,  10  vols,  fol.),  l.iit  all  these 
are  far  surpassed  by  the  Loiuiou  (edited  by  Walton,  6  vols, 
fol.,  l()r)4-r)7). 

I'olyfrno'tus :  painter:  b.  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
eentiiry  it. «'.  in  the  island  of  Thasos;  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  Cinion.  and  lived  mostly  in  Athen.s,  wliere  he 
deeorated  tlii'  temple  of  'I'liesens.  the  Anaeeum  or  ti'mple  of 
Castor  and  I'cjIIu.x.  and  the  I'u'eile  or  i)ainted  portieo  ;  af- 
terward, also,  the  inner  halls  of  the  I'ropyhea.  He  painted 
also  some  important  pi<'tures  at  Delphi.  His  pietnres  were 
celebrated  in  anticjuity,  anil  the  art  of  painting  appears  to 
have  been  raised  from  early  formality  and  elevated  to  a 
high  standard  liy  his  genius.  Revised  by  R.  Sitrgis. 

Polytron  [from  (Jr.  7ro\u7<.»'os.  polygonal,  many-eornered ; 
iroAus.  many  +  7a?>'£o.  corner,  angle]  :  a  plane  figure  bounded 
on  all  sides  by  .straiglit  lines.  The  bounding  lines  are 
called  -niles  of  the  polygon,  and  the  points  at  which  they 
meet  are  called  rerticfx  of  the  polygon;  the  entire  bonml- 
ing  line  is  ealleil  ihe  jierimeler.  Polygons  are  divided  into 
classes  according  to  the  number  of  their  sides  or  angles. 
Polygons  of  three  sides  are  called  triiiiit/les;  those  of  four 
sides  are  called  qtiadrilaferals:  those  of  five  sides, /«« /«- 
gotiK ;  those  of  six  sides,  /le.ragoiw.  and  .so  on.  If  the  sides 
of  a  polygon  are  equal,  the  polygon  is  said  to  be  ec/iiilaferal ; 
if  its  angles  are  eijual.  il  is  called  eijuiangiilar.  A  regular 
polygon  is  both  equilateral  and  equiangular.  A  closed 
broken  line,  all  of  whose  sides  are  not  in  a  single  ))lane,  is 
often  called  a  twisted  jmlijgon.    Revised  by  R.  A.  Roherts. 

Polyg'onal  Numbers:  See  Xvmbkrs. 

Polygor'dius  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Or.  Tro\i5s,  many  +  T6pSioi, 
(iordius,  in  allusion  to  the  (iordian  knot) :  a  genus  of  anne- 
lid worms,  interesting  from  the  sim|)licity  of  its  structure, 
which  nuiy  he  due  either  to  its  being  a  primitive  form  or  to 
degeneracy.  It  is  usually,  with  a  few  others,  assigned  to  a 
special  group,  Arcliiaiinelida.  Species  are  found  in  the 
seas  of  Europe  and  -\merica. 

Polyhedral  .\ngle :  a  solid  angle  formed  by  three  or 
more  planes  passing  through  a  common  point.  If  there  arc 
but  three  planes  the  angle  is  called  In/tedrat.  The  inter- 
sections of  the  boun<ling  planes  are  called edgeK  of  the  poly- 
hedral angle,  and  their  common  point  is  caUed  the  ivrfexoi 
the  angle.  If  a  sphere  be  described  about  the  vertex  as  a 
center  with  a  ra<lius  equal  to  1,  the  part  of  its  surface  in- 
eluded  within  the  bounding  planes  is  taken  as  the  measure 
of  the  angle.  Revised  by  S.  Xewcomb. 

Polyhedron  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  iro\veSpos,  having  many 
bases  or  sides:  ttoAus.  many -t-  eSpa,  seat,  side]:  a  solid 
bounded  on  all  sides  by  polygons.  The  polygons  are  called 
fares,  and  Ihe  lines  in  which  they  meet  are  culled  edge.i  of 
the  polyhedron.  The  |ioints  in  which  two  or  more  edges 
meet  are  I'alled  vertices  of  the  polyhedron.  The  simplest 
|)olyhedron  is  bounded  by  four  triangles,  and  is  the  pyra- 
niiil  known  as  a  tetrahedron. 

Polyhym'nia  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  Uo\wfiyla.  liter.,  abounding 
in  songs:  woxis,  many  +  vfivos,  song] :  one  of  the  Muses,  the 
inventor  of  the  lyre  and  the  genius  of  lyric  poetry;  gener- 
ally represented  by  ancient  artists  in  a  pensive  attitude. 

Polymer'ism  :  See  Isomorphism. 

Polymorphism  [from  Gr.  Troxiiioptpos.  multiform  ;  iroXiis, 
niiiny  +  ^lopip-n.  form]:  in  biology,  that  condition  in  which 
dillerenl  kinds  of  imlividuals  ap|>ear  in  the  .same  species. 
In  the  animal  kingdom  it  has  its  greatest  exemplification 
in  the  group  of  Sii'iio.noI'Mok.e  ((/.  c).  where  the  whole  col- 
ony is  made  up  of  memliers.  all  reducible  l<i  a  common  type, 
whi<'h  are  specialized  for  the  functions  of  float iiig,  swim- 
ming, reproduction,  eating,  and  touch.  Among  the  free 
forms  it  is  not  so  common,  l)ut  still  is  not  rare.  Thus 
among  insects  we  find  liullerflies  in  which  not  oidy  the  males 
and  fenniles  are  ditlereiit  in  their  markings,  but  among  the 
females  different  pallerns  nniy  easily  l)e  recognized:  in 
fact,  so  dilferent  may  they  be  that  did  we  not  know  their 
life-history  we  shiuild  not  regard  them  as  belonging  to  the 
same  species.  Where  but  two  forms  are  known,  the  phe- 
nomenon is  spoken  of  as  Di.mori'IUs.m  {q.  v.).  .1.  S.  K. 

Polyiiem'id;e  [Mod.  Lat..  named  from  Polgne Diiik.  the 
ty[)ical  genus:  Gr.  iroKvs.  many  -t-  i/tj^o,  thread] :  a  family  of 
sriiny-rayed  fishes  peculiar  for  the  free  filiform  rays  below 
the  pectoral  fins.  The  family  is  representeil  by  about  twen- 
ty-five species,  distritmteil  in  almost  all  tropical  regions,  and 
one  {PulgdactylHs  urtimeiiius)  occasionally  wanders  north- 
ward as  far  as  New  York. 


Polyne'sia  [Gr.  iro\is.  nmny  -(-  i/^(Toj,  island]  :  a  geo- 
graphical designation  .somewlial"  loosely  applied.  It  is  now 
generally  u.sed  for  that  part  of  Oceanic'a  which  lies  S.  of  the 
equator  and  K.  of  the  170th  meridian  of  E.  ion. — a  division 
ba-sed  on  ethnographic  grounds. 

Polyui'ees  (in  Gr.  UoKwdicns] :  in  Grecian  mythology,  the 
fir.st-born  son  of  CEoiei  s  (</.  c),  by  his  own  mo'lher  .locasta. 
He  was  banished  from  Thelies  by  his  younger  l)rother,  Eteo- 
cles,  and  fled  tii  Argos,  where  he  married  Argeia,  a  daughter 
of  Adrastus,  the  King  of  Argos.  Adrastus  undertook  to 
rein.state  Polynices,  but  the  seer  Amphiaraus  knew  that  the 
expedition  (see  Sevex  A(i.\i.NST  Thebes)  was  doomed  to  fail- 
ure, and  he  urged  Adrastus  not  to  undertake  it.  Polvnices 
gave  the  necklace  of  Harmonia  to  Eriphyle,  and  she  per- 
suaded her  husband  to  sanction  the  expedition,  which  meant 
death  to  himsidf.  All  Ihe  chieftains  except  Adrastus  were 
slain  at  Thebe.s,  Polynices  falling  at  the  han<ls  of  Eteocles, 
whom  he  slew.  .1.  |{.  s.  .Sterrett. 

Polyp  [Mod.  Lat.  po'li/piis;  Or.  iroXiis,  many  -I-  vois, 
fool]:  one  of  the  individuals  of  any  of  the  fixed  CVei.exte- 
R.viA  (q.v.).  and  in  earlier  times  of  the  I'ohjzoa  and  Tuni- 
cates.  At  one  time  there  was  recognized  a  "class"  of  po- 
lyps or  ,-1  nthozua.  but  the  term  is  obsolete.     See  Scvpiiozoa. 

Polyphe'Mins  (in  Gr.  Tlo\ilpr|^xos^ :  in  Grecian  mythology, 
the  famous  Cyclops,  a  son  of  Poseidon;  a  gigantic  monster 
with  one  eye  In  the  center  of  the  forehead;  lived  in  the 
island  of  Thrinacia,  where  he  captured  Odysseus  cm  his  re- 
turn from  Troy.  Odysseus  escaped  by  making  Polvphemus 
drunk  and  burning  out  his  eye.     .See  Galatea. 

Polyphony  |(ir.  -iroXvpwvia.  variety  of  tones;  »o\i;i.  many 
+  <f>ii>vii.  tone]:  in  music,  composition  in  several  parts,  vocal 
or  instrumental,  each  part  having  an  independent  melodic 
flow  of  its  own,  but  all  uniting  to  express  one  musical 
thought  or  idea.  This  is  in  contrast  to  homophony,  so 
called,  which  may  be  popularly  explained  as  a  simple"  suc- 
cession of  chords  supporting  a  given  melody,  but  without 
independent  progression  among  the  various  "accompanying 
parts  or  voices  themselves.  A  well-written  fugue  exhi"bits, 
through  the  independent  movement  of  its  parts,  a  good  ex- 
ample of  practical  polyjihony.  There  is  no  essential  dis- 
tinction between  polyphonic  and  contrapuntal  writing. 

Dudley  I5r(  k. 

Polyplacoph'ora  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  iro\h.  nniny  -i-  vKii, 
ttKokSs,  tablet,  \ilate  +  <pfpeiv,  bear]:  an  order  of  "molluscs 
containing  the  chitons,  and  better  called  Placophora.  See 
Chiton  and  Mollusca. 

Pol'ypod,  orPol'ypody  [polypod'xs  from  Gr.iro\iJi,  maity 
-t-  irouj.  7ro5<is.  foot :  pulgpodg  is  from  Gr.  iroKvs  +  iroSlov, 
dimin.  of  ttovs.  foot] :  popular  names  given  to  many  f<'rns, 
but  properly  belonging  to  those  of  the  genus  J'olg/mdiiim, 
of  which  the  L'.  S.  has  eleven  species,  growing  on  rocks, 
tree-trunks,  etc.     See  Ferxworts.  C.  E.  B. 

Polyp'terns  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  iroAuj.  many  +  Tnepiv, 
feather,  wing|:  a  genus  of  ganoid  fishes  of  considerable 
interest  to  the  natur.'dist  from  its  affinities  to  the  lower 
sharks,  the  siluroid  fishes,  and  the  urodele  batrachians,  as 
well  as  from  the  fact  that  it  and  another  African  genus 
(('(d(imoichthys)  are  the  only  living  representatives  of  a 
group  of  fishes  which  were  ])redomiuant  in  Pala'ozoic  times. 
I'olypteriis  bichir,  the  only  species,  occurs  in  the  rivers  of 
West  Africa  and  in  the  u])per  Nile.  It  reaches  a  length  of 
4  feet,  the  body  is  covered  with  lozenge-shajied  scales,  and 
the  dorsal  fin  is  represented  by  from  eight  to  eighteen 
spines,  each  bearing  an  articulated  fiidet.  For  details  of 
structure,  sec  ht^ydig. /^eifsrlirift  fur  wiss.  Xoologie,  v. (1^4); 
van  Willie,  Xiederland.  Arcliir  fur  Zool..  v.  (18^2) ;  Pollard, 
Zoiilog.  Julerhiicher,  v.  (1892);  and  Traquair,  Juur.  of  Anat. 
and  Physiid.,  v.  (1871).  J.  S.  KiNusLEY. 

Polytechnic  Schools:  See  Schools. 

Polytheism  :  See  .Vmmism  and  God. 

Polyn'rla  [Gr.  vo\is.  much  h- o5po>',  urine]:  excessive 
urination.  The  term  is  applied  to  occasional  increase  in  the 
flow  of  urine,  due  to  transient  causes,  but  also  to  a  per- 
manent condition  ordisease  characterized  by  excessive  excre- 
tion of  urine,  consisting  cdiiefiy  of  water,  but  not  dangerous 
and  seldom  met  with.     .See  Diabetes.  W.  P. 

Polyzo'a  [Gr.  iroAiir,  many  -t-  (."vov,  animal]:  a  group  of 
animals  fornu'riy  associated  with  the  hydroids,  later  among 
the  molluscs. and  recently  placed  among  the  worms. together 
with  the  lirachiopods  ami  sipunculids.  in  a  class.  I'rosopygii. 
The  name  J'olyzoa  alludes  to  the  fact  that  tliesc  fornis  are 


704 


POMBAL 


POMEROY 


colonial,  many  individuals  being  associated  together,  while 
the  term  Brtjozoa  used  mostly  by  the  Germans  has  reference 
to  the  mossy  appearance  due  to  the  small  size  of  the  numer- 
ous individuals.  The  separate  animals  are  situated  in  cham- 
bers or  "  cells "'  in  a  horny  or  calcareous  exoskeleton,  and  each 
can  retract  entirely  into  the  hard  case.  When  extended, 
each  polyp  presents'  a  circle  of  tentacles  (sometimes  folded 
into  a  horseshoe  shape)  borne  on  a  disk  or  lophophore,  in 
the  center  of  which  is  the  mouth,  the  alimentary  canal 
(consisting  of  oesophagus,  stomach,  and  intestine),  folded  on 
Itself,  the  vent  being  either  inside  the  circle  of  tentacles,  or, 
more  usually,  just  outside  the  lophophore.  The  nervous 
system  consists  of  a  ganglion  between  mouth  and  vent. 
Xephridia  (liut  a  single  pair)  are  occasionally  present,  and 
open  near  the  mouth.  The  stomach  is  usually  tied  to  the 
body-wall  by  a  cord,  or  funiculus,  in  which  may  be  .situated 
either  the  testes  or  both  testes  and  ovaries.  In  some  the 
sexes  are  separate,  in  others  united  in  the  same  individual. 
The  Polyzoa  reproduce  both  by  eggs  and  by  budding.  The 
eggs  in  their  develoiunent  pass  through  a  nietamorjihosis, 
with  free-swimming  embryos  entirely  different  from  the 
adult.  When  the  adult  condition  is  reached,  the  sessile  in- 
dividual forms  the  beginning  of  a  colony  which  increases  in 
size  by  the  outgrowth  of  new  persons  from  the  older  mem- 
bers of  the  colony.  In  the  Entoprocta  the  buds  become  de- 
tached, forming  free  individuals. 

The  Polyzoa  nve  divided  into  Entoprocta  and  Ectoprocta, 
accordingly  as  the  vent  is  within  or  outsiile  the  circle  of 
tentacles.  The  Entoprocta  are  few  in  number,  and  are  all 
marine.  The  numerous  Ectoprocta  are  subdivided  into 
the  Gymnohemata,  in  which  the  tentacles  are  in  a  true 
circle,  and  the  Phylactolcemata,  in  which  the  circle  of  ten- 
tacles is  folded  in  horseshoe  shape.  These  latter  are  ex- 
clusively fresh-water  forms,  and  frequently  occur  in  large 
gelatinous  masses  in  lakes  and  streams.  To  carry  the  species 
through  the  winter  cold,  they  form  peculiar  reproductive 
Ijiids  or  statoblasts,  inclosed  in  hard  shells,  which,  with  tlie 
return  of  warm  weather,  re-form  the  colony.  Except  one  or 
two  genera,  all  of  the  Oymnolcvmata  are  marine.  The  genera 
Rhabdopleura  and  Cepnalmliscus,  formerly  regarded  as  poly- 
zoans  (Pferobranchia),  are  thought  to  be  related  to  Balaxo- 
(iLossus  (q.  v.).  Polyzoans  occur  in  all  geological  ages  since 
the  Silurian.  See  Hincks's  British  Marine  Polyzoa  (1880); 
Hyatt.  Proceed.  Esuex  Institute,  v.;  and  papers  by  Barrois, 
Schmidt,  Smitt,  etc.  J.  S.  Kingsley. 

Ponibal',  Sebastian  Joseph  de  Carvalho  e  Mello,  Mar- 
quis of :  statesman ;  b.  near  Coimbra,  Portugal.  May  13. 
1699;  studied  law  at  the  University  of  t'oimbra:  spent 
some  years  in  the  army;  afterward  entered  the  civil  service 
and  obtained  the  favor  of  the  court ;  was  sent  in  1739  as 
minister  to  London,  and  in  1745  to  Vienna,  where  he  mar- 
ried the  wealthy  Countess  of  Daun,  and  succeeded  as  media- 
tor in  averting  the  threatened  rupture  between  the  court  of 
Austria  and  Po|ie  Benedict  XIV.;  became  Minister  of  For- 
eign Affairs  of  Portugal  1750 ;  acquired  a  great  influence 
over  his  sovereign.  King  Joseph;  displayed  great  vigor  and 
judgment  as  a  jiolitical  reformer,  curtailing  the  powers  of 
the  Inquisition  and  improving  the  finances  of  the  kingdom  ; 
exercised  a  kind  of  beneficent  dictatorshi|i  during  the  davs 
of  panic  following  the  great  earthquake  of  Nov.,  1755  ;  su- 
perintended the  rebuilding  of  the  city  with  greater  magnifi- 
cence ;  became  first  minister  1756.  and  caused  the  banish- 
ment from  Portugal  of  all  the  members  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  by  royal  decree  of  Se|jt.  3,  1759,  they  having  been 
suspected  of  connection  with  the  attempted  as-sassination  of 
the  king  in  tlie  previous  year;  created  Count  of  Oeiras  in 
1759,  he  was  made  Marquis  of  Pombal  in  1770.  and  retained 
nearly  supreme  power  until  Joseph's  death  in  1777.  On  tlie 
accession  of  Pedro  III.  he  was  superseded  in  favor  at  court. 
and  retired  to  his  estates.  D.  at  Pombal.  May  5,  1782.  He 
is  known  in  Portugal  as  the  "great  marquis."  See  Smith. 
Memoirs  of  Pombal  (London,  1843);  Op|)ermann.  Pombal 
und  die  Jesuiten  (Hanover,  1845);  and  Canot.i,  Marquis 
Pombal  (London,  1871).  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Pomegrniiatp.  i)rim-gran'it  [from  0.  Tr.  ponfe  ffrenate< 
Late  hat.  po  mum  (earlier  malum)  grana  turn,  lit.,  apple 
with  many  seeds;  jm'mnm,  fruit,  apple  -I-  grana  tus,  seeded; 
deriv.  of  gra'niim,  grain,  seed]:  a  shrub,  Pu/iica  granalnm, 
of  the  Old  World  (of  the  family  Granatacece),  now  natural- 
ized in  most  warm  countries.  It  grows  finely  in  those  parts 
of  the  U.  S.  bordering  the  (iulf  of  Mexico.'  Its  fruit,  also 
called  pomegranate,  is  of  fine  apjiearance.  Some  of  the  va- 
rieties are  sub-acid  and  otiu-rs  sweet ;  mostof  them  abound 


in  small  seeds,  but  some  are  seedless.  The  fruit  is  very  grate- 
ful in  hot  climates.  The  plant  is  sometimes  used  for  hedges. 
The  flowers  are  very  fine,  and  sometimes  are  double.  The 
bark  is  used  in  tanning.  The  rind  of  pomegranates  is  a 
good  astringent  for  medicinal  use.  Its  active  principle  (pel- 
leticrine)  and  the  bark  of  the  root  are  good  anthelmintics 
against  the  tapeworm.  H.  A.  H. 

Pomelo,  or  Pumelo :  See  Shaddock. 

Pomerania  (Germ.  Pommer7i):  province  of  Prussia; 
bordering  X.  on  the  Baltic,  and  bounded  W.  by  Mecklen- 
burg and  S.  and  E.  by  the  provinces  of  Brandenburg  and 
West  Prussia.  Area.  11,623  sq.  miles.  The  ground  is  low 
and  the  surface  level.  Along  the  Oder  and  the  Baltic  the 
soil  is  marshy,  and  produces  good  jiasture ;  in  other  ])laees 
it  is  sandy  and  little  productive.  Rye.  wheat,  potatoes,  and 
hemp  are  cultivated  :  cattle  and  poultry  are  reared  ;  the  fish- 
eries are  important ;  smoked  geese  and  pickled  eels  form  two 
considerable  items  of  exportation.  There  is  an  extensive 
commerce  in  the  coast  towns,  where  also  ship-building  and 
manufactures  of  sugar,  chemicals,  machines,  paper,  tobacco, 
etc..  are  carried  on.  The  former  inhabitants  of  Pomerania 
were  of  Wendish  origin,  and  formed  an  independent  Wend- 
ish  dukedom  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Tlie  jjresent  Pome- 
ranians belong  pirincipally  to  the  old  Saxon  stock.  From 
the  fourteenth  century  the  portions  E.  and  W.  of  the  Oder, 
called  Hither  and  Farther  Pomerania,  were  separate  duchies 
until  1625,  when  they  were  united  under  Boleslaus  XIV. 
On  his  death,  in  1637,  the  ruling  dynasty  became  extinct, 
and  the  country  was  divided  between  Prussia  and  Sweden, 
which  during  "the  Thirty  Years'  war  had  made  large  con- 
quests in  Germany.  After  the  death  of  Charles  XII.,  Swe- 
den was  eom]ielled  in  1720  to  cede  a  part  of  Pomerania  to 
Prussia,  but  it  was  not  until  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  that 
the  entire  province  became  part  of  Prussia.  Pop.  (1890) 
1,520,889.  R.  A.  R. 

Poilieraiilan  Dog :  a  name  frequently  given  to  the  Spitz 
E)0G  (q.  v.). 

Pomeraims :  See  Bugexhagex. 

Poiueroy :  city ;  capital  of  Meigs  co.,  O. ;  on  the  Ohio 
river,  and  the  Columbus.  Hock.  Val.  and  Toledo  Railway : 
18  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Gallipolis.  about  midway  between  Cin- 
cinnati and  Pittsburg,  Pa.  (for  location,  see  map  of  Ohio, 
ref.  7-G).  It  is  situated  on  a  narrow  striji  of  land  between 
the  river  and  a  range  of  precipitous  hills,  and  has  daily 
steamboat  connection  with  the  principal  river  towns;  is  in 
a  region  underlaid  with  Ijitumiiious  and  cannel  coal  and  de- 
posits of  salt,  and  is  engaged  principally  in  coal-mining.  Salt 
in  large  quantities  is  obtained  by  simply  boring  into  the 
earth.  There  are  rolling-  and  nail-mills,  steam-engine  and 
machine  shops,  flour-,  saw-,  planing-,  and  woolen-mills,  a  na- 
tional bank  with  capital  of  §50.000,  a  private  bank,  and  2 
dailv,  a  semi-weekly,  and  2  weeklv  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880) 
5.560 ;  (1890)  4,726." 

Poraeroy.  John  Norton.  LL.  D.  :  lawyer ;  b.  at  Rochester, 
N.  Y..  Apr."  12.  1828;  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  1847; 
studied  law,  and  was  ailmitted  to  the  bar  1851 ;  Professor  of 
Law  and  dean  of  the  law  faculty  in  the  University  of  New 
York  1864-69;  returned  to  Rochester  to  jiractice  his  pro- 
fession ;  removed  in  1878  to  San  Francisco  to  take  the  cliair 
of  municipal  law  in  the  law  department  in  the  University 
of  California.  He  was  a  man  of  wide  and  accurate  learn- 
ing, and  wrote  numerous  articles  for  magazines  uiion  tojiics 
connected  with  constitutional  and  international  law,  gen- 
eral jurisprudence,  and  the  science  of  polities:  edited  edi- 
tions of  Sedgwick's  Statutory  and  Constitutional  Law 
(1874)  and  Archbold's  Criminal  Pleading  and  Evidence 
(1877).  and,  besides  other  minor  works,  wrote  Ayi  Introduc- 
tion to  Municipal  Law  (2d  ed.  1883);  An  Introduction  to 
the  Constitutional  Law  of  the  United  States  (9th  ed.  18,86) : 
Treatises  on  Jurisprudence  as  Administered  in  the  United 
States  (3  vols.,  1881-83) :  Remedies  and  Remedial  Rights, 
according  to  the  Reformed  American  Procedure  (2d  ed.  1883) ; 
Civil  Code  in  California  (1885);  Treatises  on  the  Law  of 
Riparian  Rights  (posthumous,  1887).  D.  in  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  Feb.  15,  1885.  P.  Sturges  Allen. 

Pomeroy.  Seth:  soldier:  b.  at  Northampton.  Mass.,  May 
20.  1706:  was  major  in  the  Jlassachusetts  forces  at  the  caji- 
ture  of  Louisburg  1745:  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  regiment 
commanded  by  Col.  Ephraiin  Williams,  at  whose  death,  in 
the  battle  of  Lake  George,  Sept.  8.  1755.  he  took  command 
and  gained  a  complete  victory  over  Baron  Dieskau.  By  oc- 
cupation a  mechanic,  he  was  "skilled  in  the  manufa*'ture  of 


POMFRET 


POMPEII 


705 


arras.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Miu^sacluisetts  provincial 
Congress  1774-T5,  by  which  lie  was  elected  a  ireneral  olViccr 
Oct.,  1774,  and  a  brifcadier-freneral  Keb.,  177.5;  fouglit  at 
Bunker  Ilill  as  a  private  soldier,  and  was  soon  afterward 
appointed  senior  brijraiiier  by  the  Continental  (Congress,  but 
declined  the  honor  in  conseiinence  of  disputes  which  arose 
abtiut  military  rank,  and  retired  to  his  farni.  In  the 
autumn  of  17f6  he  raised  a  considerable  military  force  for 
the  relief  of  the  army  under  Washinf^ton,  and  marched  to 
the  Hudson  river.     D'.  at  Peekskill.  .N.  Y.,  in  Feb.,  1777. 

Pomfret:  See  Po.ntefract. 

Poniolojiry  [Lat.  po  mum.  fruit  +  Gr.  \6'yos.  discoui-se, 
reason]:  the  science  of  fruit-culture.  Pomology  nuiy  be 
divided  into  four  heads,  especially  as  concerns  its  applica- 
tion to  the  U.S.:  ri7(>«//Krf,  or  grape-growing;  orcuurd- 
ing  {which  is  again  divided  into  the  cultivation  of  pomaceous 
fruits,  or  the  pear  and  apple-like  tribes ;  drupaceous  or  stone 
fruits;  citrous  fruits,  as  oranges  and  lemons;  nut-fruits, 
nuciculture;  and  i)almaceous  fruits);  small-fruit  ciilliire; 
andcranherry-cttlture..  Poraological  interests  are  greater  in 
the  U.  S.  than  in  any  otlier  country. 

Statistics  of  the  viticultural  interests  in  the  U.  S.  are 
given  under  Grape.  (See  also  Nursery,  ami  the  articles  on 
the  various  fruits;  also  lIoRTicL-LTt:RK.)  The  total  invest- 
ment in  commercial  fruit-growing  in  1890  was  estimated  to 
exceed  $1,000,000,000.  The  area  devoted  to  peaches  was 
507,736  acres;  valuation  of  produce,  !?7G,1(!0,400.  Upward 
of  $90,000,000  were  invested  in  peach-growing.  <  )f  almonds, 
California  had  1,450,234  trees,  nearly  half  of  which  had  ar- 
rived at  bearing  age.  Of  cocoanuts,  Florida  had  12;!,227 
bearing  trees  and  1,19!),.')49  young  trees.  There  were  666,007 
lemon-trees,  of  which  386.636  were  in  Florida,  the  remainder 
in  California.  California  had  607,377  olive-trees.  Pine- 
apples were  represented  in  Florida  by  21,605,000  plants. 
Ihc  number  of  orange-trees  was  as  follows: 

Beftring.        Not  bearing, 

Florida 3.725,272        7,408,5W 

California 1,5.53,801       2,22.3,710 


4,279,073       9,632,253—13.911,326 
Other  States,  about 600,000 

Total  number  of  trees 14,51 1,326 

The  literature  of  American  pomology,  aside  from  viticul- 
ture, is  not  extensive.  The  first  distinct  pomological  work 
was  William  Coxe's  Viei(i  of  the  Cultivation  of  Fruit  Trefs 
(Philadelphia,  1817).  This  was  followed  iiy  works  by 
James  Timelier,  The  American  Orchardist  (1822,  2d  ed, 
1825):  William  Vvmpe,  Pomological  Manual  (2d  ed.  1832); 
William  Kenriek,  The  New  American  Orchardist  (1833); 
Robert  Manning,  Hook  of  Fruits  (1838;  2d  ed.  by  John  M. 
Ives,  1844);  E.  .Sayers,  The  American  Fruit  Garden  Com- 
pajiion  (1839)  ;  A.  J.  Downing,  Tlie  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees 
of  America  (1845,  with  subsequent  editions) ;  John  J.  Thomas. 
The  Fruit  Culturist  (1846,  with  subsequent  editions); 
Thomas  Bridgeman,  The  Fruit  Culticntor's  Manual  (1845) ; 
George  Jaqiies,  ^1  /Practical  Treatise  on  the  Management  of 
Fruit  Trees  (IH4Q) :  Chauncey  Goodrich,  The  Northern  Fruit 
Culturist  (1849).  A  few  others  of  less  note,  jis  well  as  Amer- 
ican editions  of  English  works,  appeared  befoi'e  1850.  Since 
that  date  the  chief  writers  of  books  have  been  Hooper, 
Warder,  Barry,  Thomas,  Downing,  Fuller,  Strong,  Haker, 
Ucii',  and  Wickson.  L.  H.  IJaii.ky. 

Poiiio'na :  the  Roman  goildess  of  ganlens  and  fruit,  of 
whose  wooing  by  \'ertUMimis,  the  god  of  the  revolving  year, 
I  >vid  has  made  a  pretty  story  {Metam(ir//hose.i,  xiv.,  623  ff.). 
Her  worship  was  presided  over  by  a  s])ecial  priest,  the  flamen 
Pomonalis,  and  in  the  country  between  Ardea  and  Ostia 
there  was  a  grove,  called  the  Pomonal,  sacred  to  her. 
I'umoaa ;  the  largest  of  the  Orkney  islands. 
Pomona:  city:  Los  Angeles  co.,  Cal. ;  on  the  S.  Pac. 
Railroad;  33  miles  E.  of  Los  Angeles,  the  county-scat  (for 
location,  see  map  of  California,  ref.  12-F).  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural, mining,  and  fruit-growing  region,  contains  several 
manufact(U-ies.  and  has  3  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
*2O0,U00,  and  3  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1890)  3,634. 

Pompadour.  prnVpaa  door  .Jeanne  .\ntoinktte  Poissox. 
Manpiise  de  :  b.  in  Paris.  France,  Dec.  29.  1721  ;  was  su|i- 
posed  to  be  the  natural  daughter  of  Le  Normant  de  Tour- 
nehem,  a  farmer-general  of  the  revenues,  who  provided  for 
her  education  ;  was  noted  for  her  dignity,  beauty,  intelli- 
gence, and  wit ;  was  married  in  1741  to  Le  Normant  d't^- 
toiles,  a  nephew  of  her  guardian;  became  the  mistress  of 
Louis  XV.  in  1745  ;  was  presented  at  court  as  Marchioness 
32a 


of  Pompadour,  and  splendidly  established  in  the  royal  resi- 
dences at  Paris,  Versailles,  and  Fontainelileau  ;  received 
several  magnificent  estates  and  an  annual  income  of  1,500,- 
000  francs,  and  exercised  a  decided  influence  on  the  Gov- 
ernment of  France  for  nearly  twenty  years,  in  all  its 
tiranches — its  finances,  foreign  alliances,  military  opera- 
tions, etc. — bringing  loss  and  disgrace  over  the  kingdom. 
On  the  other  hand,  she  deserves jiraise  for  her  patronage  of 
literary  men  and  artists.  Her  efforts  to  retain  her  influence 
over  the  king  were  unceasing,  and  she  accomplished  her 
ends  largely  by  encouraging  him  in  his  excesses.  D.  at 
Versailles,  Apr!  15.  1764,  detested  by  the  whole  French  j>eo- 
ple.  See  the  .study  by  Campardon  (1867):  E.  and  J.  de  Gon- 
court,  Les  Mattresses  de  Louis  XV.  (vol.  ii.,  1860);  Beau- 
joint,  Secret  Memoirs  of  La  Marquise  de  Pompadour  (1885) ; 
and  the  volumes  of  her  Correspondance,  edited  by  Malassis 
(1878)  and  by  Bonhomme  (1880). 

Pompaiio  [adapted  from  Spanish  juimpano,  a  kind  of 
fish  (Stromaieus  fiatola)  found  ^n  Kuropean  waters] :  a 
name  applied  to  several  food-fishes,  ]iarlicularly  to  I'rachy- 
notus  carolinus,  a  species  found  in  the  (iulf  of  Mexico  and 
highly  valued.  It  is  rather  deep  in  form,  bluish  above, 
silvery  on  the  sides,  and  attains  a  length  of  about  18  inches. 
In  California  the  name  is  given  to  a  smaller  fish  of  some- 
what similar  shape  {Stromaieus  similliinus),  F.  A.  L. 

Pompeii,  pom-pa'ye^ :  an  ancient  city  of  Campania,  on 
the  bay  of  Najiles,  at  the  foot  of  Jit.  Vesuvius.  The  date  of 
its  founding  is  unknown.  Its  oldest  architectural  remains 
reveal  the  Doric  style  of  the  sixth  century  n.  c.  The  Oscans 
seem  to  have  occupied  the  city  down  to  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century  B.  c,  when  it  was  wrested  from  t  liein  by  the  Sainnites. 
At  this  early  period,  through  contact  wit  h  the  Greek  colonies 
of  Southern  Italy,  the  city  had  arrived  at  a  degree  of  culture 
far  surpassing  the  contemporary  civilization  of  Rome.  The 
Samnite  wars  (342-290  B.  c.)  brought  Pompeii,  along  with  the 
rest  of  Campania,  into  partial  subjection  to  Rome,  through 
an  alliance  in  which  Rome's  position  was  supreme ;  but  in 
all  domestic  affairs  of  government  it  still  enjoyed  autonomy. 
Not  until  the  Social  war  (90-88  b.  c.)  was  this  semi-independ- 
ence replaced  by  regular  subjection  to  Rome  as  a  Roman  col- 
ony. Pompeii  was  a  well-to-do  commercial  city,  with  a  har- 
bor on  the  Sarno,  somewhat  nearer  to  the  sea  than  at  pres- 
ent. For  a  century  before  its  destruction  it  was  also  a 
favorite  site  for  the  villas  of  wealthy  Romans,  attracted 
hither  by  the  beauty  of  its  location  and  the  healthfulness  of 
its  climate.  Its  population  at  the  time  of  its  destruction  is 
conjecturally  placed  (by  Man)  at  30.000.  V\i  to  the  year  63 
A.  D.  Vesuvius  had  never,  since  the  settlement  of  the  region, 
given  any  indication  of  its  volcanic  character,  but  at  that 
time  Pompeii  and  the  surrounding  country  were  violently 
shaken  by  earthquakes,  which  wrought  much  destruction, 
evidences  of  whieli  are  still  distinguishable  among  the  later 
ruins.  While  the  inhabitants  were  still  occupied  in  re- 
building the  city,  the  sudden  eruption  of  Aug.  24,  79  A.  D.. 
overwhelmed  them.  (For  details  of  this  event,  see  the  fa- 
mous descriptions  in  the  correspondence  of  the  younger 
Pliny,  vi.,  16  and  20).  This  eruption  was  attended  by  earth- 
quake, which  did  much  damage  that  couM  not  have  been 
caused  by  the  shower  of  small  stones  and  ashes  beneath 
which  the  city  was  buried.  The  depth  of  the  covering  of 
volcanic  matter  is  14  or  15  feet,  the  lower  layer  consisting 
of  small  pumice-stones,  the  iqiper  layer  of  ashes,  each  of 
about  equal  thickness.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  volcjinie 
matter  set  fire  to  the  city,  but  the  carbonized  condition  of 
all  woodwork  found  is  due  rather  to  chemi<al  change  under 
the  influence  of  moisture.  After  the  eruption  the  upper 
portions  of  the  larger  buildings  still  ]irojec1ed  above  the 
surface,  and  were  not  only  thus  themselves  more  (piickly 
destroyed,  but  they  served  also  to  guide  excavations  which 
were  doubtless  made  soon  afterward  ftu'  valuables  of  all 
sorts,  including  the  marble  which  must  have  adorned  |mb- 
lic  buildings.  Jlost  of  the  inhabitants  escaped  unharmed, 
but,  from  the  skeletons  discovered,  Man  estimates  that  not 
less  than  2,000  perished.  During  the  Miildle  .\ges  the  exist- 
ence of  Pompeii  was  forgotten  and  its  site  was  unknown. 
Excavations  were  begun  in  1748,  and  continued  irregularly 
for  more  than  a  century.  The  present  systematic  work  of 
unearthing  the  city  was  begun  in  1861  by  (iiuseppe  Fiorelli. 
About  half  of  the  city  has  been  disclosed,  and  the  course  of 
the  wall  has  been  determined. 

The  outline  of  the  boundaries  of  Pompeii  is  of  oval  form, 
fitting  in  general  the  hill  of  lava  formation  on  which  it  is 
built.     The  town  was  laid  out  regularly,  with  the  principal 


706 


POMPEII 


POMPELMOOSE 


streets  running  N.  and  S.  and  E.  and  W.,  although  some 
deviation  from  parallel  lines  was  occasioned  in  places  by  ir- 
regularities of  the  surface.  The  streets  vary  in  width,  aver- 
aging, however,  about  20  feet,  and  are  paved  with  irregular 
blocks  of  lava.  Narrow  sidewalks  are  found  on  both  sides  of 
the  street,  beneath  which  the  conduits  of  a  very  complete 
sewer  system  are  carried.  The  public  buildings  were  clus- 
tered about  two  centers,  the  Forum  and  the  Stabian  gate. 
The  Forum,  situated  near  the  western  edge  of  the  city,  was 
a  rectangular  space,  completely  surrounded  by  temples  and 
other  structures — such  as  the  basilica,  the  tribunals,  the  ma- 
eellum  (or  market-hall) — serving  various  public  ends.  The 
area  of  the  Forum  itself  was  adorned  on  the  north  side  by 
the  temple  of  Jupiter,  and  surrounded  on  the  remaining  three 
sides  by  long  porticoes.  None  of  the  buildings  about  the 
Forum  are  perfectly  preserved,  but  the  foundations  and  the 
columns  still  standing  have  generally  made  it  possible  to  as- 
certain their  design.  The  second  group  of  buildings  about 
the  Stabian  gate  extend^l  along  one  side  of  the  so-called 
triangular  Forum,  a  three-sided  space  almost  surrounded  by 
an  admirable  Doric  portico.  Within  this  space  is  situateil 
the  most  ancient  edifice  of  Pompeii,  commonly  (but  errone- 
ously) called  the  temple  of  Ilercules,  a  structure  in  the  Doric 
style  of  the  sixth  century  B.  c,  which  had  already  fallen  into 
ruins  at  the  time  of  the  city's  destruction.  The  open  space 
of  the  Forum  triangulare  served  doubtless  as  the  entrance  to 
the  large  theater,  an  adjacent  structure  on  the  east  side.  This 
theater  had  a  seating  capacity  of  about  5,000.  The  stage  is 
raised  above  the  orchestra,  and  accessible  from  the  latter  by 
a  flight  of  stairs.  Adjoining  the  larger  theater  and  nearer 
the  Stabian  gate  is  the  smaller  theater,  used,  it  would  seem, 
for  less  formal  occasions.  Further  toward  the  center  of  the 
city  from  the  Stabian  gate  are  found  the  Stabian  baths,  the 
most  completely  preserved  example  of  that  institution  so 
characteristic  of  Roman  civilization.  Two  other  establish- 
ments of  similar  character  are  found  in  different  parts  of 
the  city.  No  buildings,  however,  possess  a  greater  interest 
than  the  private  houses,  of  which  those  here  found  are  the 
only  well-preserved  examples  now  existing.  The  Pompeian 
jjriyate  residence  is  identical  with  the  Roman  house  as  de- 
scribed by  Vitruvius,  and  consists  of  a  central  room  or 
atrium  with  smaller  apartments  clustered  about  it.  Most 
commonly,  however,  this  simple  arrangement  is  amplified  by 
the  addition  of  an  open  court  or  garden  behind  the  atrium 
surrounded  by  columns,  and  hence  called  the  peristylium. 
The  houses  afforded  no  outlook  upon  the  street,  and  indeed 
very  frequently  the  apartments  on  either  side  of  the  entrance 
had  no  communication  with  the  house  itself,  but  were  rented 
as  shops. 

The  works  of  art  in  marble  and  bronze  which  have  been 
discovered  at  Pompeii  are  for  the  most  part  preserved  in 
the  museum  at  Naples.  They  are  of  very  great  interest,  al- 
though for  the  most  part  inferior  to  the  works  of  similar 
character  discovered  at  Herculaneum  (q.  v.).  Among  the 
most  attractive  and  unique  decorations  discovered  at  Pom- 
peii are  the  paintings  which  adorned  the  walls  of  public 
buildings  and  of  the  more  sumptuous  private  residences. 
There  is  discernible  in  them  considerable  diversity  of  style, 
showing  a  development  from  the  imitation  of  purely 'ar- 
chitectural effects  to  the  treatment  of  landscape,  myth- 
ological figures,  and  scenes  from  daily  life  and  from  history. 
The  last  and  most  characteristic  period  is  represented  by 
designs  which  combine,  in  curious  and  often  grotesque 
fashion,  fantastic  architectural  motives  with  figures  and 
ornamental  treatment  of  foliage.  Another  interesting  form 
of  decoration  is  the  mosaic  work  which  adorns  the  floors  of 
many  of  the  houses.  Usually  it  consists  of  merely  ornamen- 
tal designs  in  black  and  white,  but  there  are  a  few  exatnples 
of  more  elaborate  work,  such  as  the  famous  representation  of 
the  battle  of  Alexander  in  the  Casa  del  Fauno.  No  maiiu- 
.scripts  or  important  literary  monuments,  aside  from  inscrip- 
tions, have  been  found  at  Pompeii.  Of  the  latter  there  are 
many  very  interesting  specimens,  ranging  in  subject-matter 
from  announcements  of  the  merits  of  candidates  for  pub- 
lic office  or  proclamations  of  gladiatorial  games  to  personal 
effusions  of  the  most  diversified  character. 

Literature.— (jcneral  works:  G.  Fiorelli,  Pom.peianarum 
antiquitatiim  historia.  with  plates  (3  vols.,  Najiles,  1860-64) ; 
T.  B.  Dyer,  Pompeii,  its  Ili.s/o!-;/,  its  Buildings,  and  its  An- 
tiquities (2d  ed.  2  vols..  London,  1875) ;  .J.  Ove'rbeck,  Pompeii 
in  seinen  Oebaiideyi.Alferthiimern  und  Kunstwerken  darge- 
stellt  (the  principal  work,  4th  cd.  revised  by  A.  Man,  Leipzig, 
1884);  A.  Man,  Fn/irer  duir./i  Pompeii  (Naples,  1893).  On 
the  mural  paintings :  A.  Mau,  Geschichte  der  decorativen 


VTandmnlerei  in  Pompeii  (Berlin,  1882).  For  the  inscriptions, 
see  vol.  iv.  of  the  Corpus  ] nscriptionum  Latinarum,  ed.  C. 
Zangemei.ster  (Berlin,  1871).  For  detailed  bibliography,  con- 
sult Bibliogratia  di  Ponipei,  Ercolnno  e  Stabia,  compiled 
by  F.  Furcliheim  (Najiles,  1891).  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Poinpe'ius  Trogiis  :  See  Trogus. 

Pompcy   (Lat.    Gnceus    Pompeius,   called    JIagnus,   the 
Great) :  a  Roman  general ;  b.  in  106  B.  c.  of  a  plebeian  fam- 
ily which  had  only  recently  emerged  from  obscurity.    From 
childhood    Pompey   enjoyed   a   military  training,"  fighting 
with  his  father  in  the  Social  War  (90-88  B.  c),  and  taking 
sides  with  Sulla  and  the  aristocratic  party  in  the  contest 
with  Marius.    In  81  b.  c,  contrary  to  all  precedent  and  rule, 
he  was  granted  a  triumph,  and  was  greeted  by  Sulla  with 
the  cognomen  Magnus,  which  he  continued  to  bear  through 
life,  and  even  passed  on  to  his  son.     After  Sulla's  death  he 
was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party.     His 
successes  in  the  war  against  Sertorius  in  Spain,  and  in  the 
suppression  of  the  rebellion  of  the  slaves,  were  not  indicative 
of  great  military  talent,  but  they  stood  out  by  contrast  to 
the  failures  of  the  leaders  who  had  preceded  him  with  suffi- 
cient brilliancy  to  make  him  a  successful  candidate  for  the 
consulship  before  he  had  passed  through  the  usual  prelimi- 
nary grades  of  office.   However,  it  was  only  by  accepting  the 
programme  of  the  democratic  party  that  he  could  secure 
the  coveted  prize,  thus  alienating  himself  from  the  sena- 
torial party  with  which  he  had'hitherto  been  identified. 
Although  as  consul  (70  b.  c.)  he  carried  out  the  popular 
measures  in  abolition  of  the  constitution  of  Sulla,  he  did  not 
make  himself  a  leader  of  the  democratic  party.    For  several 
years  after  his  consulship  he  took  no  active  part  in  public 
affairs,  but  his  military  skill  was  too  great  and  too  much 
needed  to  be  long  unused.    A  popular  measure  proposed  that 
he  be  intrusted  with  extraordinary  and  absolute  powers  for 
the  purpose   of  clearing  the  Mediterranean  of  the  pirates 
who  infested  it,  and  who  had  so  harassed  the  carrying  trade 
that  the  price  of  grain  was  intolerably  high.     The  bill  was 
passed  against  the  united  opposition  of  the  aristocracy,  which 
saw  in  the  proposition  nothing  less  than  the  abolition  of 
the  constitution  and  the  inauguration  of  an  absolute  one- 
man  rule.     The  pirates  were  speedily  driven  from  the  sea, 
and  in  less  than  a  year  the  supreme  command  of  the  opera- 
tions against  Mithridates  was  intrusted  to  him  (66  B.  c).    In 
this  mission  he  was  also  successful,  and  had  attained  a  po- 
litical and  military  influence  which  seemed  to  the  aristoc- 
racy a  nienace  to  the  constitution,  and  which  would  have 
been  so  in  the  case  of  a  bolder  and  more  discerning  man;, 
hut  on  his  return  in  61  b.  c.  Pompey  found  himself  in  a  posi- 
tion of  complete  isolation.     He  had  disbanded  his  army, 
losing  thereby  his  power  of  intimidation,  and,  feared  by  the- 
democrats  and  disliked  by  the  aristocracy,  he  ventured  on 
no  escape  from  his  embarrassment  in  individual  action,  and 
was   therefore   forced   into   the  coalition  with  Ca'sar  and 
Crassus  (the  first  triumvirate),  for  the  sake  of  having  his- 
wishes  in  regard  to  the  reward  of  his  army  and  himself  car- 
ried out.     Although  Pompey  enjoyed  with  Ca?sar  a  position 
almost  supreme  in  Roman  politics,  it  became  more  and  more 
apparent  that  Ciesar  was  the  heir  to  the  opportunity  which 
Pompey  had  let  slip.     In  the  distribution  of  political  prizes 
among  the  members  of  the  coalition  Pompey  secured  lar- 
gesses of  land  with  which  to  reward  his  army,' and  a  formal 
approval  of  his  settlement  of  affairs  in  the'  East.     Again, 
after  the  renewal  of  the  triumvirate  in  56.  Pompey  and 
Crassus  were  made  consuls  for  the  following  year,  and  the 
provinces  of  Spain  were  intrusted  to  Pompey  for  a  period 
of  five  years.     He,  however,  governed  them  "only  through 
his  representatives.     The  course  of  events  from  the  year  53- 
on,  by  which  Pompey  once  more  became  the  leader  of  the 
senatorial   party  against  Ca>sar,  the  advance  of  t'a^sar  on 
Rome  (early  part  of  49  B.  c),  and  the  retreat  of  Pompey 
through  Italy  into  Epirus,  belong  eqiuilly  to  the  history  of 
Cesar  (q.  v.).     The  final  contest  took  place  at  Pharsalus  in 
Thessaly,  and  Pompey  was  completely  routed.     He  fie<l  to 
Egypt,  and  there,  as  lie  was  disembarking,  he  was  treacher- 
ously murdered.  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Poilipey'9  Pillar  (so  called) :  a  stone  pillar  erected,  ac- 
cording to  an  inscription  on  its  base,  by  one  Publius,  pre- 
fect of  Egypt,  in  honor  of  Diocletian,  about  296  a.  u.  It 
stands  on  an  eminence  just  S.  of  Alexandria.  The  shaft,  73 
feet  long,  is  of  beautiful  highly  polished  red  granite.  The 
total  height  of  the  column  is  98  ft.  9  in. 

Ponipelmoose:  See  Shaddock. 


POMPONIUS 


PONTA   DELGADA 


ro7 


ronipo'iiiiis.  Lniis  :  a  Liitin  pool  from  Bologna  (Hoiio- 
nia),  who  flourished  about  90  B.  c. ;  famous  as  a  writer  of 
Fabidm  Atdlanw.  Some  seventy  titles  anil  nearly  2(J0  verses 
have  been  preserved  in  the  citations  of  grammarians.  See 
Kibbeck,  Comicorum  Bumanorum  Fragmenta.         M.  W. 

I'oniponiiis  Mela:  See  Mela. 

I'oma  Indians:  See  Siolan  Indians. 

Ponce,  pontha:  the  second  eity  in  size  and  one  of  the 
most  important  ports  of  the  Spanish  island  of  Puerto  Kico; 
on  a  plain  a  mile  back  from  a  bay  of  the  southern  coast  (see 
map  of  West  Todies,  ref.  (i-.l).  A  tramway  connects  it  with 
its  port  on  the  l)ay.  which  forms  a  somewhat  imperfectly 
sheltered  harbor.  Near  the  town  are  the  celelmili'd  min- 
eral sprinj;s  of  Quintanii.  much  fri'iiuentcd  liy  invalids. 
Ponce  has  a  thrivinjr  trade,  principally  in  coffee.  Popula- 
tion of  the  district  (1887)  42,388  ;  of  the  city  proper  proba- 

l)ly  2,^5,000.  IIl.RBF.RT  11.  S.MITII. 

Pon'cc  de  Leon',  .Itan  :  conqueror  and  discoverer;  b.  in 
Aragon,  Spain,  about  1460.  He  was  of  noble  family,  served 
in  the  conquest  of  Granada,  and  in  1493  went  with  Colum- 
bus to  Espuilola;  later  he  was  j,'overnor,  under  Ovando,  of 
the  eastern  part  of  that  island,  whence  he  passed  over  to 
Puerto  Kico  in  1508  and  began  its  con(|uest ;  in  1510  he  was 
appointed  its  governor.  From  the  Indians  he  heard  of  an 
"  island "  called  Bimini,  to  the  N.  W.,  and  it  was  re- 
ported that  this  contained  a  miraculous  spring  which  would 
restore  the  aged  to  youth ;  probably  the  supposed  island 
was  Florida.  Ponce  de  Leon  received  in  1512  a  grant  to  dis- 
cover and  settle  Bimini ;  he  sailed  from  Puerto  Rico  in  Mar., 
1513.  discovered  some  of  the  B.'ihama.s,  coasted  along  the 
Atlantic  side  of  the  mainland  to  hit.  30  8'  N.,  and  on  East- 
er Sunday,  Apr.  8,  landed  and  took  possession,  calling  the 
country  Florida,  from  Pascua  Florida,  the  Spanish  name  for 
Palm  Sunday.  He  also  explored  the  Gulf  coast  to  lat.  27  30' 
N.,  and  returned  to  Puerto  Rico  in  September.  His  grants 
were  renewed,  but  owing  to  Indian  wars  in  Puerto  Kico  he 
could  not  again  sail  for  Florida  until  1521.  He  then  at- 
tempted to  plant  a  colony,  but  was  driven  off  by  the  Ind- 
ians and  was  himself  so  badly  wounded  that  he  died  shortly 
after  reaching  the  coast  of  Cuba.         Herbert  H.  Smitu. 

Ponce  (le  Leon,  Lfis  :  See  Leon,  de. 

Ponehielli.  pon-kee-el'le'e.  Amilcare:  opera-composer; 
b.  at  Paderno  Fasolaro,  Cremona,  Italy,  Aug.  31,  1834  ;  after 
being  educated  at  the  Milan  Conservatory  produced  his  first 
o])era,  I Proinessi  Sposi,  at  Cremona,  in  1856.  Following  this 
he  wrote  La  SavoJarUa  (1861);  Rixhrico  (1864);  La  Stella 
dd  Monte  (1867) ;  Le  Due  Oemelk  (ballet,  1873) ;  Clarina 
(l)allet,  1873);  I  Lituani  (1874);  Gioconda  (1876);  II  Fi- 
glio  Prodigo  (1880) ;  Mariim  Delorme  (1885) ;  together  with 
several  other  less  successful  operas,  some  cantatas,  and  small- 
er works.     D.  at  Milan,  Jan.  16,  1886.  D.  E.  Hervev. 

Pond,  Jonx,  P.  R.  S. :  astronomer;  b.  in  London  in  1767; 
educate<l  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge:  studied  astronomy 
under  Wales,  the  companion  of  ('apt.  Cook;  succeeded  Dr. 
N.  Mask<'lyne  as  astronomer-royal  ISll  ;  devoted  himself  to 
cataloguing  and  determining  the  exact  places  of  the  fixed 
stars ;  translated  Laplace's  System  of  the  World  (2  vols., 
1809) ;  and  published  numerous  papers  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  learned  societies.     D.  at  Blackheath,  Sept.  7,  1836. 

Pondicherr)",  pon-di-sher  ri :  a  French  possession  in 
India  ;  on  the  Coromandcl  coast,  83  miles  S.  W.  of  Madras, 
in  lat.  11°  .55'  N.  (see  map  of  South  India,  ref.  6-F).  It 
comprises  an  area  of  107  sq.  miles,  with  172.941  iidiabitants. 
It  consists  of  a  low,  flat  [ilain,  with  a  sandy,  not  very  pro- 
ductive soil,  and  is  only  partly  walercil  by  the  river  Gingee. 
The  town  of  Pondicherry,  which  is  the  capital  of  all  the 
French  possessions  in  India,  is  regularly  laid  out  and  well 
built,  with  fine  promenades  and  plaiit.-ilions.  Its  mamifac- 
tures  of  fine  cotton  cloth  and  cotion  thread  are  important  ; 
it  has  no  harbor,  vessels  are  compelled  to  anchor  in  an  open 
rojulstead,  and  landing  is  diflicull  on  account  of  the  surf. 
Pop.  (1889)  41,253.  Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Pondoland  :  a  district  of  Cape  Colony,  Africa;  inhabited 
by  the  Ama-Pondo,  a  branch  of  the  Kaflir  family.  Pop., 
estimated,  200,000.  It  is  the  most  easlern  coast-region  of 
Cape  Colony,  and  is  chiefly  watered  by  the  St.  John's  or 
Umzimvubu  river.  It  was  the  last  of  independent  KatTraria 
to  fall  (1878)  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  by  whom  a  mili- 
tary post  is  maintained  on  the  St.  John's  river,  where  the 
resident  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Cape  is  stationed. 
See  Kaffraria.  C.  C.  Ada.ms. 


Pond-scums :  small  fresh-water  alga)  of  the  order  Con- 
jugatiB  and  the  family  .2^^«ema<:e<e.  See  Vegetable  Kino- 
do  .M. 

Pondweed  Family:  the  Naiadaie(r :  aquatic  mono- 
cotyledonous  herbs,  with  alternate  or  opposite  submerged  or 
floating  leaves:  flowers  perfect  or  diclinous;  perianth  usu- 
ally wanting,  sometimes  of  six  or  more  segments;  pi.stils 
one  to  six,  simple,  superior,  with  two  to  many  ovules.  The 
species,  which  are  found  in  all  regions,  immber  about  120. 
They  occur  in  most  ponds  and  ditches,  esijecially  in  still, 
shallow  waters.  They  are  to  be  regarded  as  modified  from 
the  Alimiia  type  by  a  suppression  of  the  perianth  and  a  re- 
duction in  the  stamens  and  pistils.  The  species  (sixty-four) 
indigenous  to  the  U.  S.  are  described  and  figured  by  Dr. 
Thomas  Morong  in  his  lievision  of  the  yorth  American 
JS'aiadaeea;  (1893).  C'nARLES  E.  Bessey. 

Poniatow'ski :  the  name  of  a  celebrated  princely  family 
of  Poland  directly  descended  from  the  Italian  family  of 
the  Tiirelli,  which  settled  in  Poland  in  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  closely  allied  to  the  Leszczynskis 
and  Czartoryskis.  The  most  prominent  members  of  the 
family  were  (1)  Stanislas  Augustus,  the  last  King  of  Po- 
land, li.  in  Lithuania,  Jan.  17,  1732;  aseend<'d  the  throne  in 
1764  bv  the  influence  of  Catherine  II.  of  Russia;  resigned 
in  179.J,  ami  died  at  St.  I'ctcrsburg,  Feb.  12,  1798.  He  was 
weak,  irresolute,  and  utterly  incapable  of  grappling  with 
the  party  fury  of  his  subjects  and  the  treachery  of  his  allies. 
The,  principal  events  of  his  unhappy  reign  are  told  in  the 
history  of  Poland  (q.  v.). — (2)  Joseph  Antony,  b.  at  Warsaw, 
May  7,  1762,  a  nephew  of  the  king;  received  a  military 
education  ;  served  in  the  Austrian  army  in  the  Turkish  war ; 
entered  the  Polish  army  in  1789  as  a  major-general:  com- 
manded against  the  Russians  in  1792,  but  retired  from  serv- 
ice when  the  king  joined  the  confederation  of  Targovitza; 
fought  again  in  1794  against  Russia  under  Kosciusko:  re- 
paired to  Vienna  in  1795,  but  returned  to  Warsaw  in  1798, 
and  lived  on  his  estates,  at  that  time  under  Prussian  do- 
minion. In  1807  he  commanded  the  Polish  army  which 
aided  Napoleon  against  Russia,  and  when  the  duchy  of  War- 
saw was  established  by  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  war.  In  1812  he  commanded  the  Polish  contin- 
gent of  the  grand  army  during  the  Russian  campaign,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  valor  and  tactical  talent.  Short- 
ly before  the  battle  of  Leipzig  he  was  made  a  marshal  of 
Prance,  and  after  the  battle  he  was  charged  with  covering 
the  retreat  of  the  army,  but  was  drowned  (Oct.  19.  1813)  in 
crossing  the  river  Elster. — (3)  Joseph,  b.  at  Rome  in  Feb., 
1810;  became  known  as  a  composer  of  several  operas  and 
masses.  Don  Desiderio  was  performed  at  Paris  in  1868 
with  considerable  success.     D.  in  London,  Julv  3,  1873. 

Revised  by  F".  M.  Colby. 

Ponka  Indians:  See  Siouan  Indians. 

Ponsard,  poii  saar',  Francis  :  dramatist ;  b.  at  Vienne, 
Isere,  France,  June  1,  1814;  studied  law  in  Paris,  and  be- 
gan to  practice  at  Vienne,  but  removed  to  Paris  and  gave 
up  law  for  literature.  He  was  first  an  admirer  of  Hugo, 
and  in  1837  translated  Byron's  Monfred.  He  did  not  fol- 
low the  romantic  progress  of  Hugo,  and  profited  by  the 
new  favor  won  for  classical  plays  by  fhe  brilliant  interpre- 
tations of  Rachel  and  the  recoil  from  the  extremes  of  Hugo 
to  bring  out  Liicrtce,  an  attempt  to  reconcile  the  old  clas- 
sical tragedy  with  a  modest  romanticism.  His  success  was 
immense,  aiid  he  was  hailed  as  the  founder  of  the  school  of 
"good  sense."  After  the  further  tragedies,  ^li/nes  de  Mi- 
ranie  (1846).  Charlotte  Cordaij  (1850),  and  llijase  (1852),  he 
renewed  his  success  with  the  comedies  L'Honneur  et  l' Argent 
(18,53).  La  Bourse  (18.56),  Le  T.ion  Amnureux  (1866),  and 
Galilee  (1867).  D.  in  Paris,  July  13,  1867.  His  (Kuvres 
completes  (3  vols.)  were  published  in  1876.  A.  0.  C. 

Ponson  dn  Terrail,  pon  soiVdil-tfT'raa/',  Pierre  Ale.\is 
DE  PoNsoN,  Vicomte  de :  novelist:  b.  at  Montnuuir,  Isere, 
France,  July  8,  1829;  intended  for  the  navy,  his  weakness 
in  nuit hematics  unfitted  him  for  it,  and  he  tunuMl  to  writ- 
ing. He  began  in  1850  with  feuilletons  in  La  Jlode  and 
V Opinion  publique.  Les  Coulisses  du  Monde  (1853)  founded 
his  celebrity  and  gaine<l  him  a  special  public.  He  supplied 
the  cheaper  papers  with  a  vast  numlierof  novels  of  .sensa- 
tional adventure  and  incident,  which  were  very  jiopular.  D. 
at  Bordeaux,  Jan.  30,  1871.  A.  0.  Canfield. 

Pons  Varolii :  See  Brain. 

Ponla  Delgada.  pon  taa-del-gaa'da'a :  town  of  the  Azores 
islands,  situated  on  the  southern  coast  of  St.  Michael.     Its 


708 


PONTCHARTRAIX 


PONTINE   MARSHES 


harbor  is  shallow  and  the  roadstead  outside  the  harbor  un- 
safe, yet  it  has  a  large  trade,  especially  in  oranges  to  Great 
Britain,  grain  to  Portugal,  and  earthenware  to  Brazil.  Poji. 
about  17,500. 

Pontcliartraiu,  pon-ehar-tran'.  Lake  [named  after  Je- 
rome Phelypeaux,  C'omte  de  Pontchartrain,  Minister  of  Ma- 
rine under  Louis  XIV.]  :  a  lake  of  Louisiana,  about  40 
miles  in  its  longest  dimension  E.  and  W.  and  25  miles  N. 
and  S.,  the  southern  shore  of  which  is  but  about  5  miles 
distant  from  and  nearly  parallel  to  the  Jlississiiipi  river  in 
its  local  easterly  course  in  this  region.  It  is  separated  on 
the  W.  by  a  peninsula  of  cypress-swamp  from  Lake  Maure- 
pas  (named. after  Count  jlaurepas,  son  and  successor  of 
Pontchartrain),  a  much  smaller  lake,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  the  Pass  Manchac.  New  Orleans  communicates 
with  the  lake  by  a  branch  of  the  Louisville  and  Nashville 
Railroad,  and  by  two  canals  navigable  by  schooners  and 
smaller  craft,  one  of  which  (see  Borgne)  enters  the  head  of 
the  bayou  St.  John,  by  which  the  navigation  is  continued 
to  the  lake ;  the  other  is  wholly  artificial.  These  canals 
have  their  heads  in  "  basins"  in  the  rear  of  the  city  ;  they 
do  not  communicate  with  the  Mississipjii.  The  lake  com- 
municates with  Lake  Borgne  and  Mississippi  Sound  by  the 
passes  of  the  Rigolets  and  Chef  Menteur.  through  which 
there  is  a  tidal  flow  of  the  sea-water.  Fort  Pike  and  Fort 
Macomb  defend  these  passes.  An  important  commerce  in 
lumber,  firewood,  bricks,  etc.,  is  carried  on  through  the  lake 
and  the  Rigolets.  The  northern  shore  of  the  lakes,  a  con- 
tinuation westerly  of  the  "  pine-woods  "  region,  is  elevated 
and  healthful.  There  are  many  places  of  resort  on  the 
shores  of  the  lake. 

Pont  (III  (iard,  jiondii-gaar' :  the  remains  of  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  Roman  structures  in  France,  consisting  of 
three  tiers  of  arches,  on  which  the  aqueduct  which  brought 
the  water  of  the  Aure  to  Nimes  crossed  the  Gard  10  miles 
X.  E.  of  that  city.     See  Aquedltts. 

Pontecorvo,  pon'tra-korvo :  town ;  in  the  province  of 
Caserta,  Italy ;  on  the  Garigliano,  about  28  miles  S.  of 
Sora  and  37  miles  N.  W.  of  Capua  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref. 
6-E).  The  old  walls  and  towers,  once  very  strong,  are  now 
in  a  ruinous  condition.  A  bridge  of  Pelasgian  construction 
connected  the  city  with  its  suburbs.  This  liridge  was  broken 
down  to  check  the  march  of  Hannibal,  and  afterward  re- 
stored. In  1860  it  was  blown  up  by  the  Bourbon  troops, 
but  was  rebuilt  soon  after.  In  and  near  the  town  there  are 
some  fine  churches,  containing  frescoes,  and  among  the 
archives  of  the  cathedral  are  Lombard,  Gothic,  and  me- 
dieval Latin  MSS.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  Fregellte  are 
distinctly  traceable,  and  among  them  are  found  mosaics  of 
great  beauty.  Bonaparte  created  Bernadotte  Prince  of  Pon- 
tecorvo in  1806.  Macaroni  and  works  in  plaster  constitute 
the  chief  industries.     Pop.  5,172. 

Ponte.  da  :  See  Bassaxo. 

Poiitefraet.  pom  fret,  or  Pomfret :  town  of  Yorkshire, 
England  ;  on  the  Aire  ;  13  miles  S.  E.  of  Leeds  (see  map  of 
England,  ref.  7-1).  It  has  two  churches,  a  grammar-school 
(founded  in  1549),  a  town-hall,  a  market-hall :  trades  chiefly 
in  grain,  cattle,  malt,  and  garden-produce.  Pop.  (1891)  9.702 ; 
of  the  parliamentary  borough  (which  returns  one  member). 
16,407. 

Ponteredra,  -vadraa :  town ;  in  the  province  of  Pon- 
tevedra,  Spain;  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Pontevedra;  on 
the  Lerez,  which  is  crossed  by  a  noble'  bridge  (pons  vettis) 
built  in  Roman  times  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref.  13-A).  The 
city  is  substantially  built,  and  the  surroundings  are  among 
the  most  fertile  regions  of  S|)ain.  There  are  sardine-fisheries 
and  manufactures  of  hats  and  cloth.  Pop.  (1887)  19.996. 
The  province  of  Pontevedra  lies  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  be- 
tween the  Minho  and  L'lla  rivers.  Area.  1.739  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  (1887)  443,385. 

^Pontiac:  Indian  chief:  b.  near  the  river  Ottawa  about 
1720;  son  of  an  Ojibway  woman ;  through  the  alliance  of 
the  Ojiliways  and  I'ottawattainies  with  the  Ottawas  became 
cliiet  of  the  three  tribes;  becanii'  an  ally  of  ihe  French  in 
Northern  Michigan,  and  in  1746  defendi^d  Detroit  against 
Indian  attacks.  He  was  present,  it  is  believed,  at  Brad- 
dock's  defeat  in  1755.  After  the  British  in  1760  had  dis- 
placed the  French  in  the  Northwest,  Pontiac  organized  a 
conspiracy  among  the  Indian  tribes  between  the  Ottawa 
and  the  lower  Mississippi  with  the  purpose  of  murdering 
the  British  garrisons  at  all  points.  In  May,  1763,  eiglit 
garrisons  (ranging  from  Western  Pennsylvaiiia  to   Mack- 


inaw) were  destroyed  or  dispersed  on  the  same  day,  and  the 
whole  frontier  was  ravaged.  The  attack  on  Detroit,  led  by 
Pontiac  himself,  was  anticipated  by  the  British,  but  the 
chieftain  besieged  the  town  May  12-Oct.  12,  1763,  maintain- 
ing his  force  by  food  received  from  the  Canadian  settlers, 
who  received  in  return  promissory  notes  written  on  birch- 
bark,  all  of  which  Pontiac  subsequently  redeemed.  Desert- 
ed by  his  followers,  he  still  endeavored  to  arouse  his  people 
to  the  dangers  in  store  for  them,  but  in  1766  he  was  obliged 
to  submit  to  the  British  rule.  He  was  murdered  at  Cahokia, 
111.,  in  1769,  bv  an  Illinois  Indian.  See  Parkraan's  Conspir- 
acy of  Pontiac  (1867). 

Pontiac :  city ;  capital  of  Livingston  co..  111. ;  on  the 
Vermilion  river,  and  the  Chi.  and  Alton,  the  111.  Cent.,  and 
the  Wabash  railways;  33  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Bloomington, 
93  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Chicago  (for  location,  see  map  of  Illi- 
nois, ref.  4-F).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  coal-mining,  and 
stock-raising  region,  and  contains  several  mills,  iron-foun- 
dry, shoe-factories,  straw-jjajier  factory,  the  Illinois  State 
Reformatorv.  2  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
$100,000,  and  3  weeklv  newspaiiers.  Pop.  (1880)  2.242; 
(1890)  2.784. 

Pontiac  :  city ;  capital  of  Oakland  co.,  Mich,  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Jlichigan,  ref.  7-K) ;  on  the  Clinton  river, 
and  the  Detroit,  Gr.  Haven  and  Mil.  and  the  Pontiac,  Ox- 
ford and  N.  railways ;  26  miles  N.  \V.  of  Detroit.  Within 
the  county  and  a  few  miles  from  the  city  are  over  400  lakes, 
with  a  total  area  of  about  30,000  sq.  miles,  teeming  with 
choice  fish,  and  having  on  their  shores  the  Michigan  Mili- 
tary Academy  and  many  club-houses,  hotels,  and  summer 
residences.  The  city  has  a  large  trade  in  wool  and  agri- 
cultural productions,  and  contains  the  Eastern  Michigan 
Asylum  for  the  Insane,  gas  and  electric  lights,  a  national 
bank  (capital  §100,000).  3  State  banks  (combined  capital 
1150.000).  and  5  weeklv  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  4,509; 
(1890)  6,200 ;  (1894)  7,276.  Editor  of  '•  Gazette." 

Pontianak';  town  of  Borneo;  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
island,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Landak  and  the  Kapuas, 
which  from  here  to  its  mouth  is  called  the  Pontianak,  and 
lined  on  both  sides  with  impenetrable  forests  (see  map  of 
East  Indies,  ref.  7-D).  Pontianak  is  the  capital  of  the 
Dutch  dominions  of  Western  Borneo,  the  residence  of  the 
governor,  and  is  defended  by  Fort  du  Bus.  Its  trade  in 
diamonds,  gold-dust,  sugar,  rice,  cotton,  and  coffee  is  im- 
portant. Pop.,  estimated.  15,000,  most  of  whom  are  Chinese, 
and  very  few  Europeans.    Revised  by  M.  W.  Harrington. 

Pon'tifex  [=  "Lat. pons,  jmn'tis,  bridge  (perhaps  originally 
a  path,  road)  +  fa  cere,  make] :  a  priest  of  the  college  of  the 
pontifiees,  the  foundation  of  which  ti'adilion  carried  back  to 
Numa.  Before  the  banishment  of  the  kings  the  king  him- 
self was  at  the  head  of  this  college,  but  after  that  time  it 
was  presided  over  by  a  member  of  the  college  called  the 
pontifex  maximus,  or  chief  priest,  whose  ofiicial  residence 
was  the  old  royal  palace,  the  regia.  The  pontifiees  did  not, 
like  the  flamens,  have  charge  of  the  worship  of  particular 
divinities,  but  they  exercised  a  general  supervision  over  the 
public  religion,  interpreted  and  declared  the  pontifical  law, 
managed  the  complex  machinery  of  the  Roman  calendar, 
and  acted  as  official  advisers  to  the  senate  and  magistrates 
in  all  religious  matters  requiring  their  attention.  The  col- 
lege originally  consisted  of  five  members,  including  the  pon- 
tifex maximus.  but  by  the  end  of  the  repulilic  it  had  been 
increased  to  fifteen,  while  under  the  empire  new  members 
were  added  to  it  without  reference  to  a  fixed  numl)er.  At 
first  vacancies  were  filled  by  the  choice  of  the  college  itself 
(coopfio),  later  the  pontifex  maximus,  and  finally  all  of  the 
pontifiees  were  elected  by  the  people.  In  imperial  times  the 
emperor  was  always  the  pontifex  maximus.  G.  L.  H. 

Pontifical  States:  See  Papal  States. 

Pontine  Marshes  [Pontine  is  from  Lat.  Pontinus, 
Pomptiniis  for  *Pometi  nus.  Pometian,  deriv.  of  Pome'tia, 
ancient  name  of  the  place  near  which  these  marshes  are  sit- 
uated]: a  tract  of  marshy  ground  in  the  province  of  Rome 
in  Italy.  The  marshes  extend  from  the  vicinity  of  Cisterna 
S.  W.  to  the  sea  at  Terracina.  a  distance  of  aliout  28  miles, 
with  a  mean  width  of  little  more  than  5  miles.  The  level 
near  Cisterna  is  about  30  feet  above  the  sea.  while  at  Terra- 
cina it  dips  below  the  sea-level.  Both  the  marshes  and  the 
boggy  and  tangled  forest  on  the  low  sands  which  bound 
them  on  the  S.  W.  are  very  unhealthful  during  the  warm 
season,  and  the  miasma  they  exhale  is  borne  by  the  south 
winds  even  to  Rome.     The  ancient  Romans  made  many  par- 


PONTOIS 


POOLE 


709 


tially  successful  attempts  to  drain  and  reclaim  this  terri- 
tory, built  the  Appian  Way  through  the  center  of  it,  and 
constructed  a  navigable  canal  not  far  from  the  line  of  the 
road,  (juite  down  to  Terracina.  Pliny  states  that  this  dis- 
trict was  once  thickly  inliabited  and  contained  twenty  or 
thirty  large  towns,  besides  numerous  villages  and  hamlets. 
Several  drainage  schemes  were  promoted  by  the  popes,  es- 
pecially by  Pius  VI.,  in  tin-  last  (luarter  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  See  Prony,  Desrrlption  hijdnnjraphique  et  s/alix- 
tiiiiie  Jfs  Marais  Puntius  (1813) ;  Giurdani.  Gita  alle  Palitili 
/'online  (1872).  Revised  by  U.  \V.  Hahki.noto.v. 

I'ontois,  poiVtwaa',  Jean  Felix  IIonork  :  lawyer  and 
writer ;  b.  at  Thouars,  France.  July  26,  1837.  After  he  came 
of  age  he  took  up  legal  work  (1859)  as  a  digester,  and  was 
nuule  a  judge  of  the  tribunal  of  Annecy:  was  transferred 
to  the  tribunal  of  Algi<-rs  1874;  nuide  judge  of  the  appel- 
late court  of  Algiers  1871>;  and  successively  judge  of  tlie 
court  of  Hourges,  president  of  the  tribunal  of  Tunis  1883, 
and  president  of  the  division  of  the  court  of  a|:ipeals  at 
Ninu's  1886;  resigned  in  1889,  and  entered  into  active  and 
successful  political  work  in  opposition  to  the  Boulangerisis, 
with  whose  administration  of  affairs  in  Tunis  he  had  been 
dissatisfied  while  there.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  lie  has  published  Lr.s  Petits-J!l^  ,le  Tartufe  (1864); 
liefonne  du  Code  d' histnicliun  criniiiu-Uc  ft  dii  Code  pt'iial 
(1871);  La  Conspiration  du  (rrn^ral  lierton  (1877);  and 
other  political  and  judicial  studies,  as  well  as  some  theatrical 
plays,  as  Les  Ilannetons,  JJix  Minutes  dWrriit,  La  -Robe  de 
Chanibre  de  Diderot,  etc.  F.  Sti'Kges  Allen. 

Ponton:  See  Hridoks.  Military. 

I'ontop'piilan.  Erik  Likvihsen:  historian  and  theolo- 
giaii  :  li.  at  .\arhuus.  Jutland,  Denmark,  Aug.  24,  1698; 
studied  theology  at  tlie  L'niversity  of  Copenhagen  ;  became 
professor  in  1738;  liishop  of  Hergen,  Norway,  in  1747;  chan- 
cellor of  the  l'niversity  of  Copenhagen  in  175o.  D.  at  Copen- 
hagen Dec.  20,  1764.  As  a  theologian  he  was  a  disciple  of 
Speller;  n-s  an  histori<-al  writer  he  was  careful,  generally 
accurate,  and  possessed  of  immense  learning.  His  principal 
works,  written  in  German,  Danish,  and  Latin,  are  Everrir- 
ulum  ferment i  veteris  (1736);  Psalmeboy  (1740);  Gesta  et 
Vestigia  Danorum  extra  Daniam  (3  vols.,  1740);  ilenoza 
(3  vols.,  1742),  a  theological  romance;  Glossariam  Norrafji- 
cum  (1749);  Antiales  ecrle.iia'  Danirip  diplomatici  (1741- 
52);  Xorijes  naturlige  Historie  (1752;  translated  into  Eng- 
lish, London,  1755);  Den  Danske  Atlas  ij  vols..  1763-81),  a 
topogra]ihical  account  of  Denmark.  D.  K.  DouoE. 

Poiilor'mo,  Jacoi'o,  ili :  painter;  b.  at  Pontorino,  near 
Empoli,  Italy,  in  May.  1494;  family  name  Carucci  or  Car- 
Rucci.  He  studied  painting  with  his  father,  and  afterward 
with  Ijeonardo  da  \  inei,  Albertinelli,  and  Piero  di  Cosiino 
successively,  until  in  1512  he  became  a  follower  of  Andrea 
del  Sarto,  whose  manner  he  finally  adopted.  His  finest  work 
is  the  fresco-painting  of  the  Visitation  in  tlie  court  of  the 
Aniiuiiziata  in  Florence.  The  fresco  jiaintings  of  the  Deliiye 
and  the  fjusf  Judgment  for  the  (.'hurch  of  .San  Lorenzo  in 
FloreiK^e  have  disappeared.  He  was  the  master  of  Bron- 
zino,  who  painted  under  him  in  many  of  his  works.  Pon- 
tormo  died  at  Florence,  and  was  buried  in  the  Church  of  the 
Anniinziata,  Jan.  2.  1,557.  A  Iloli/  Fitmily  and  a  portrait 
of  Giovanni  delle  Corniole,  in  the  Louvre,  are  good  examples 
of  his  art ;  also  the  portrait  of  a  boy  in  the  London  National 
Gallery.  "  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Ponlus :  an  ancient  territory  of  Asia  Minor,  lying  S.  of 
thi^  Black  Sea,  between  the  I'hasis  and  Halys.  The  name 
was  firsi  applied  by  Xeiiophon.  ,\fterward  it  became  an  in- 
dependent kingdom,  ami  included  the  territory  between 
Colchis,  Armenia,  Cappadoeia,  Galatia.  and  Paphlagonia. 
Its  historic  celebrity  is  mainly  due  to  Mithridates  VI.  the 
Great  (120-63  b.  c),  who  made  it  a  great  power,  but  who  was 
conipiered  by  Pom|iey  65  n.  c.  It  became  a  Roman  province 
63  II.  c.  It  is  now  comprised  in  the  Ottoman  vilayets  of 
Sivas  and  Trebizond.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Pontiis  Kiixiniis:  See  Black  Sea. 

Poiitzeii.  Krnest:  civil  engineer;  b.  at  Budapest,  Hun- 
gary, .lull.  2(t.  1838:  studied  in  the  Polytechnic  School  of 
Vienna,  and  in  the  l^cole  ile  Poiits  et  Cliaussees  of  France, 
graduating  in  1860  at  the  head  of  his  class;  he  was  for  four 
years  in  the  service  of  the  Austrian  Railway  Company:  in 
1864  was  engaged  by  the  Southern  Railway  of  Austria,  first 
as  inspector  of  operation,  and  afterward  placed  in  charge  of 
the  railways  in  Venice,  upon  completion  of  which  he  was 
for  three  years  in  charge  of  the  worlvs  of  the  |>ort  of  Trieste. 


In  1869-70  he  was  head  of  tlie  main  oflice  of  Kleim  Brothers, 
where  he  worked  out  the  complete  plans  of  the  Arlberg 
Railway  and  built  a  railway  in  Transylvania;  in  1870-75 
he  was  consulting  engineer  to  the  Anglo-Austrian  Bank. 
In  1873  he  visited  the  I'.  S.  for  study;  in  1876  was  member 
of  the  jurii's  on  railways  and  on  industries  of  the  Centennial 
Exposition.  ^h\  his  return  he  took  up  his  permanent  resi- 
dence in  Paris.  He  was  a  delegate  of  the  French  Govern- 
ment to  the  railway  conference  at  Berne  in  1886,  and  to  that 
of  St.  Petersburg  in  1892.  He  was  sent  to  Russia  by  the 
French  Government  in  1890  to  study  the  transportation  of 
grain.  His  plans  for  the  sewerage  of  Havre  and  of  Cairo 
received  first  prizes.  He  is  general  manager  of  the  Southern 
Railway  of  Spain  and  consulting  engineer  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian  railway  in  Greece.  He  has  published  many  pamphlets, 
pajiers,  etc..  upon  engineering  subjects,  lias  wrilteii  many 
papei's  for  the  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  of  France,  and  has 
published  a  treatise  on  JHetliods  of  Cotistruction.  His  most 
important  work,  in  which  he  was  associated  with  E.  Lar- 
vinne,  is  u[)oii  the  railways  of  America.       W.  R.  IIuttox. 

Pony  [probably  of  Celtic  origin;  cf.  Gaelic  ponaidli}: 
a  small  form  of  the  horse.  The  most  famous  European 
ponies  are  the  Shetland,  Iceland,  Welsh,  Dartmoor,  Cor.siean, 
and  Greek,  lu  North  America  there  are  the  Canadian,  Sable 
Island.  Gay  Head.  Sea  Island,  and  mustang.  .These  little 
a,ninK:ls  arc  tough  and  spirited,  but  often  vicious.  The 
smalhicss  and  unusual  growth  of  the  hair,  mane,  and  tail 
of  many  are  due  to  exposure  and  scanty  food  for  many  gen- 
erations. 

Poodle  [loan-word  from  Germ,  pudel.  small  dog]:  a 
dog  distinguished  by  the  extremely  long  and  curly  hair. 
This  may  vary  from  the  wiry  texture  found  in  the  Russian 
poodle  to  the  woolly  curls  of  the  French  breed,  but  should 
in  all  be  thick  and  elastic.  The  color  may  be  brown,  white, 
or  black,  but  not  mottled,  and  the  weight"  may  vary  from  5 
to  40  111.  The  head  should  be  broad  and  carried  high,  ears 
long  and  well-clad,  tail  carried  with  an  upward  curve. 
Poodles  are  very  intelligent  and  usually  play  an  important 
part  in  exhibitions  of  trained  dogs.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pool :  in  the  V.  S.  and  elsew  here,  a  game  played  on  a 
table  similar  to  that  used  in  billiards,  except  that  at  each 
corner  and  midway  of  the  two  sides  '•pockets"  are  inserted. 
(See  Billiards.)  One  cue-liall  and  object-balls  numbered 
consecutively  from  one  to  fifteen  are  employed.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  a  game  the  latter  are  usually  arranged  in  the  form 
of  a  pyramid,  with  the  a]iex  on  what  corresponds  to  X\w  red- 
ball  spot  of  a  billiard-table.  The  cue-ball  is  placed  anywhere 
liehind  the  string-line,  and  is  played  at  the  numbered  balls, 
the  object  being  to  drive  them  into  the  iiockcts;  a  player's 
turn  ends  with  the  first  shot  in  which  he  fails  fairly  to  pock- 
et one,  and  the  next  player  |ilays  the  cue-ball  from  where 
he  findsit,or,  if  pocketed,  from  behind  the  string-line.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  the  game,  each  with  elaborate  rules. 
In  pi/rawid  pool  each  ball  pocketed  counts  one,  and  (when 
only  tw'o  play)  the  first  to  secure  eight  wins.  Failing  to  hit 
any  object-ball,  or  driving  the  cue-ball  ofT  the  table  or  into 
a  pocket,  involves  the  forfeiture  of  one  ball  (together  with 
any  balls  pocketed  in  the  shot  itself),  and  this  is  placed  on 
the  spot  or  as  near  as  may  be  directly  Ix^hind  it.  In  fifteen- 
ball  pool  the  forfeit  is  three  points,  and  each  ball  secured 
counts  its  number.  Continuous  pool  is  played  in  tourna- 
ments; it  is  like  pyramid  pool,  except  that  I  he  game  consists 
of  any  number  of  balls  or  points  agreed  on,  and  forfeitures 
are  deducted  from  the  playeFs  score,  instead  of  a  ball  being 
replaced  on  the  table. 

In  Great  Britain  games  like  the  above  arc  called  pyramids, 
the  term  pool  being  applied  to  a  game  played  for  a  stake  on 
a  jiool-tablc.  each  player  having  one  ball.  The  object  of  this 
game  is  to  drive  the  balls  of  opponents  into  the  pockets; 
for  each  ball  so  pocketed  I  he  player  receives  from  its  owner 
a  stipulaled  sum  ;  when  one's  ball  has  thrice  been  so  pock- 
eted the  player  withdraws  from  the  game  and  his  share  of 
the  stake,  but  he  may  on  certain  conditions  secure  another 
"  life  "  by  adding  a  further  sum  to  the  stake.  The  jjlayer 
whose  ball  hist  remains  on  the  table  wins  the  game. 

PooIp:  town;  in  Dorsetshire,  England;  on  the  estuary 
of  the  Frome  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  14-C).  It  has  some 
ship-building  and  manufactures  of  sail-cloth  and  cordage, 
and  exjiorts  pipeclay  and  potter's  clay.     Pop.  (1891)  15,405. 

Poolo.  John  :  humorist:  b.  in  England  in  1792:  author 
of  a  large  number  of  suceessful  diuma.s  and  farces,  of  which 
the  best  known  were  Paul  Pry  (182.5),  Deaf  as  a  Post,  Turn- 


710 


POOLE 


POPE 


ing  the  Tables,  and  an  adaptation  of  Shirley's  Wife's  Strata- 
gem. He  also  wrote  novels,  essavs.  and  character  sketches, 
among  which  Little  Pedlingtuii  'iind  the  Pedlingtonians  (3 
vols.,  1839)  took  high  rank  for  originality  and  racy  hninor. 
In  his  last  years  Poole  enjoved  a  [leusion  from  the  civil  list. 
D.  in  London,  Feb.  5,  1879. ' 

Poole,  Matthew:  author:  b.  at  York  in  1624:  educated 
at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge  :  took  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England,  and  became  rector  of  St.  Jlichael-le-Querne, 
London,  but  was  ejected  for  nonconformity  in  16G3  ;  wrote 
much  against  Roman  Catholicism :  is  said  to  have  narrowly 
escaped  being  murdered  at  the  time  of  the  "  Popish  plot," 
and  removed  to  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  Oct.,  1679.  Au- 
thor, among  other  works,  of  a  famous  compendium  of  the 
critical  views  of  150  liiblical  comment.itors,  entitled  Synop- 
sis Criticorum.  (5  vols,  fol.,  London,  1669-76),  and  of  Anno- 
tations upon  the  Holy  Bible  (2  vols,  fol.,  1683-85),  left  un- 
finished, but  couipleted  from  Isaiah  Iviii.  by  eminent  Non- 
conformists (reprinted  1842,  3  vols.). 

Poole,  WiLLH.M  Frederick,  LL.  D.:  bibliographer;  b.  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  Dec.  24, 1821 ;  graduated  at  Vale  College  1849; 
published  while  there  an  Index  to  Subjects  in  Bei-iews  and 
Periodicals  (1848),  subsequentlv  expanded  into  the  valuable 
Index  to  Periodical  Literature  {\S53,  and  3d  ed.  1882).  He 
was  librarian  of  the  Boston  Mercantile  Library  1852-56,  of  the 
Boston  Athena-um  1856-69,  of  the  Cincinnati  Public  Library 
1869-73,  of  the  t;hicago  Pulilic  Lilirary  1873-87,  when  he  be- 
came librarian  of  the  Newberry  Lilirary,  Chicago.  Author 
of  The  Battle  of  the  Dictionarii's  (\SoH):  Weh.'iterian  Orthog- 
raphy (1857) ;  and  Cotton.  Mather  and  Salem  Witchcraft 
(1869).     I),  at  Evanston.  III.,  Mar.  1,  1894.      H.  A.  Beers. 

Poo'iia:  town  of  British  India;  capital  of  the  district  of 
Poona,  in  the  Presidency  of  Bombay  ;  on  the  Mula.  near  its 
influx  in  the  Mula;  on  a  dry  and  treeless  plain,  2,(X.)0  feet 
above  the  sea  (see  map  of  South  India,  ref.  3-C).  Although 
the  climate  is  hot  and  dry.  and  w.ater  is  scarce,  the  place  is 
considered  healthful,  and  has  been  made  the  station  of  the 
army  of  Bombay.  The  city  is  well  built,  and  contains  the 
palace  of  the  former  Mahratta  rulers,  many  fine  barracks,  a 
college,  and  several  other  educational  institutions.  It  is  con- 
nected with  Bombay  by  railway.     Pop.  (1891)  160,460. 

Poore,  Benjamin  Perley  :  journalist :  b.  at  Newbury, 
Mass.,  Nov.  2,  1820 ;  learned  the  printing  business  ;  edited 
The  Southern  Whig  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  1838-40;  became  an 
attache  of  the  U.  S.  legation  in  Belgium  1841 ;  made  a  val- 
uable collection  of  historical  MSS.  from  the  French  archives 
for  the  State  of  Massachusetts  1844-48;  traveled  in  Egypt, 
Palestine,  and  other  Eastern  countries  as  correspondent  of 
the  Boston  Atlas  1843-48  ;  published  The  Rise  and  Fall  of 
Louis  Philippe  (1848) ;  Campaign  Life  of  Gen.  Taylori\8iS) ; 
T/ie  Early  Life  of  Xapoleon  (1851) ;  became  editor  and  pro- 
prietor of  The  American  Sentinel  (1851);  became  editor  of 
Congressional  Directory  in  1867;  compiled  A  Descriptive 
Catalogue  of  the  Government  Publications  of  the  United 
States,  1774~81  (1885);  and  Reminiscences  of  Sixty  Years 
in  the  National  Metropolis  (1886).  D.  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
May  30,  1887. 

Poor  Laws :  See  Pauperism. 

Poorteii-sclnvartz,  J.  M.  van  der:  novelist,  whose  pen- 
name  is  Maarten  Maartens;  b.  in  Holland  in  1857;  lived 
when  a  child  in  England,  but  was  educated  in  Germany  and 
at  Utrecht  University  ;  became  a  barrister,  and  was  destined 
by  his  parents  for  a  political  career,  but  devotes  himself 
entirely  to  literature  and  the  life  of  a  country  gentleman. 
His  works  which  are  written  in  English  include!  The  Sin  of 
Joost  Avelingh  (1890):  .1/1  Old  Maid's  Love  (1891);  God's 
Fool  and  .1  Question  of  Taste  (1892) ;  The  Greater  Glory 
(1894);  and  My  Lady  Nobody  (1895). 

Popayaii' :  capital  of  the  department  of  Cauca,  Colom- 
bia; 3  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Cauca,  near  the  source 
of  that  river:  on  the  inland  route  from  Bogota  to  Quito, 
and  200  miles  S.  \V.  of  the  former  (see  map  of  South 
America,  ref.  2-B).  It  is  b\iilt  on  a  beautiful  plain  near  the 
foot  of  the  Purace  volcano.  5.712  feet  above  sea-level.  It 
was  fouiuled  by  Beiialcazar  in  1536,  on  the  site  of  the  Indian 
village  which  liad  been  ruled  by  the  chief  Payan:  foratime 
the  district  formed  the  province  or  "kingdoni "'  of  Popayan. 
The  city  was  important  for  its  commerce,  for  gold-mines, 
and  for  a  mint  established  in  1749;  but  it  suffereil  greatly 
during  the  revolution  and  in  subsequent  civil  wars,  and  is 
now  nuicli  decayed.  It  is  a  bishop's  see.  and  has  a  university 
and  college.     Pop.  about  8,000.  Herbert  11.  .S.mitii. 


Pope  [0.  Eng. /)«/)«,  from  \jiX.pa! pa.  papa,  father,  bishop, 
(later)  pope] :  the  ordinary  name  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Origin  of  the  Name. — The  name  was  originally  given  to 
all  bishops  as  signifying  among  other  things  the  spiritual 
generation  in  baptism  and  their  supreme  responsibility. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  there  was  a  grow- 
ing tendency  in  the  West  to  restrict  its  use  to  the  Bishop  of 
Rome.  Since  Gregory  VII.  (1073-85)  it  has  been  formally 
reserved  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  as  the  usual  title  signifying 
his  primacy  of  honor  and  jurisdiction  within  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church. 

Beginniiigs  of  the  Papacy. — The  papal  idea  can  be  traced 
from  primitive  times.  No  other  see  ever  claimed  the  su- 
preme ecclesiastical  primacy  as  the  Roman  see  has  from  the 
most  remote  antiquity,  and  there  are  strong  arguments  to 
show  that  this  claim  was  allowed.  The  magisterial  letter  of 
St.  Clement  to  the  Corinthians  (about  a.  d.  96);  the  visit  of 
St.  Polycarp  to  Rome  (Euseb.,  H.  E.  V.,  24) ;  the  testimony 
of  St.  irena?us  {Adv.  htereses,  iii.,  3);  St.  Victor's  display 
of  world-wide  authority  and  his  power  to  exclude  from  the 
"common  unity";  the  claim  to  the  "power  of  the  keys," 
and  the  citation  of  Matt.  xvi.  19,  made  by  some  pre-Coii- 
stantinian  pope,  whom  Harnack  thinks  to  be  Victor  (see 
opp.  S.  Cypriani,  ed.  Hartel.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  92,  seq.)  ;  St. 
Stephen's  judicial  action  in  hearing  appeals,  and  his  vindi- 
cation of  the  true  tradition  on  baptism  (ibid.,  vol.  ii.);  St. 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria  writing  to  his  namesake  of  Rome 
for  guidance,  "so  that  he  might  not  err"  (St.  Athanasius, 
De  Sententia  Dionysii) ;  the  conduct  of  the  Emperors 
Decius  and  Aurelian  ;  the  ambition  of  early  arch-heretics  to 
obtain  the  favor  of  the  Roman  Church — all  these  indica- 
tions, and  several  others  previous  to  the  peace  of  the  Church 
(a.  d.  312),  show  that  Christian  public  opinion  recognized  "at 
Rome  the  chief  authority  of  the  new  religion.  That  this  au- 
thority has  been  exercised  since  then  in  every  age,  both  East 
and  West,  needs  no  proof,  nor  need  the  revolts  against  it,  the 
disuse  of  it,  the  minimizing  of  its  range,  blind  us  to  the  fact 
of  its  existence  or  tempt  us  to  modify  its  essential  outlines. 
Of  the  latest  definitions  of  the  papal  authority  the  highest 
and  most  autlientic  are  those  of  the  general  councils  of 
Florence  (1439),  Trent  (1563),  and  the  Vatican  (1870).  These 
great  assemblies  of  Catholic  bishops  and  doctors  added 
nothing  new  to  the  ancient  concept  of  the  papal  authority, 
but  asserted  in  detail  and  in  more  definite  phraseology  what 
had  been  the  rule  in  the  Catholic  Church  from  the  remotest 
times.  For  a  compendious  collection  of  the  earliest  refer- 
ences to  the  papal  authority,  see  Allnatt,  Cathedra  Petri 
(London,  1883).  Among  the  best  works  on  the  early  history 
of  the  Roman  Church  are  Doellinger,  Hippolytiis  und  Cal- 
listus :  Hagemann,  Die  romische  Kirche  (Freiburg,  1864) ; 
and  Schroedl,  Geschichte  der  Pdpste  und  der  romischen 
Kirche  in  der  Urzcit  des  Christerithums  (Mentz,  1888). 
The  prefaces  of  Duchesne  in  his  edition  of  the  Liber  Pontiji- 
calis  are  henceforth  indispensable.  See  Rivington,  TJte 
Primitive  Church  and  the  See  of  I'eter  (London,  1894). 

Authority  of  the  Pope. — The  ])ope  enjoys  a  primacy  orsu- 
premacy  of  honor  and  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  Church, 
individually  and  collectively.  He  is  the  supreme  teacher  or 
doctor,  and  in  this  capacity  is  infallilile  when  speaking  as 
such — i.e.  ex  cathedra — or  defining  a  doctrine  of  faith  or 
morals  to  be  held  by  the  whole  Church.  He  is  the  supreme 
legislator  in  the  Church,  and  can  interpret,  modify,  and  dis- 
pense in  all  matters  of  ecclesiastical  law.  He  is  the  su- 
preme judge  of  the  faithful,  whether  members  of  the  hier- 
archy or  laymen,  and  can  hear  and  decide  all  major  causes 
and  appeals  from  lower  tribunals.  He  is  the  supreme  ad- 
ministrator, and  as  such  has  power  to  watch  over  the  divine 
service,  and  to  appoint,  remove,  or  transfer  bishops.  lie  is 
the  supreme  supervisor,  and  in  this  quality  I'eccives  regu- 
larly relations  from  bishops  and  other  chief  ecclesiastical 
authorities  of  the  state  of  religion  within  the  limits  of  their 
jurisdiction.  This  is  supplemented  by  stated  personal  visits 
paid  l.iy  the  liishoiis,  and  known  as  the  Visitation  to  the 
Tombs  of  the  Apostles  (.SS.  Peter  and  Paul).  The  universal 
ecrlcsi,astical  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  is  immediate,  ordinary, 
and  truly  ejiiscopal,  and  incluih's  the  right  to  send  agents 
who  may  represent  his  person  ami  authority  liefore  the 
churches,  or  even  before  the  temporal  authorities.  The 
authority  described  is  vested  in  the  pope  by  divine  right, 
because  he  is  the  legitimate  successor  of  St.  Peter,  and  as 
such  truly  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  the  chief  bishoji  of  the 
Catholic  world,  (he  visible  and  ministerial  head  of  the 
whole  Church,  whose  invisible  and  eternal  head  is  Jesus 
Christ.     The  honorary  distinctions   of   the   pope   in   title. 


I'orio 


ni 


dress,  and  functions  are  many.  For  an  account  of  them 
S(>e  Laeminer,  Jn.itiliitionen  des  Katlwlischen  Kirchenrechts 
(Freilmiij,  1H!I2).  Cf.  also  Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesiastical 
Law  (vol.  i.,  Nuw  Vurk,  1887). 

The  election  of  the  po/if^  oriiriiially  porrormcd  by  tlie 
clergy  of  Home  and  the  suburban  bisluips.  willi  participation 
of  the  faithful,  has  undergone  many  vicissitudes,  a«  may 
be  seen  in  Lucius  Lector,  Le  Cunrlave  (Paris,  18!i;i).  It 
was  Nicliohis  II.  who  definitely  placed  it  (10.5!))  in  the  hands 
of  the  cardinals,  aud.  with  some  modilications,  this  is  the 
present  method  of  the  election.  The  cardinals  meet  on  Ihe 
eleventh  day  after  the  pope's  decea.se  in  a  series  of  double 
cells  (conclave),  one  for  each  cardinal,  his  secretary  and 
chamberlain,  and  on  the  twelfth  day  the  election  begins. 
They  are  not  bound  to  elect  a  cardinal — oidy  heretics  and 
siinoniacal  persons  arc  excluded — ami  the  closing  act  of  the 
election  takes  place  in  a  chaiiel  specially  reserved  for  that 
purpose.  Certain  Catholic  courts  have  been  wont  to  exer- 
cise the  right  to  exclude  objectionable  candidates,  but  there 
exists  no  juridical  acknowledgment  of  this  so-called  "  right 
of  exclusion."  When  the  pope-elect  accepts  the  result  of 
the  conclave  he  changes  liis  baptismal  name  (as  a  rule)  and 
chooses  another.  If  he  be  not  a  bishop,  he  is  always  conse- 
crateil  by  the  ('arilinal-bishop  of  Usiia.  The  reception  of 
the  pallium,  the  solemn  coronation,  and  the  '"  possession  "  of 
the  Lateran  Church  take  place  after  this,  but  the  entire 
papal  jurisdiction  passes  into  his  hantls  when  he  accepts  the 
election. 

Temporal  Power  of  the  Pope. — The  origins  of  the  tem- 
poral power  are  visil)Ie  in  the  last  decades  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, especially  under  (iregory  the  Great.  >fational  and  re- 
ligious feeling  contributed  to  its  growth  in  the  first  half  of 
the  eighth  i-entury.  and  in  the  latter  half  of  the  same  the 
papacy  entered  the  list  of  European  states  by  the  formal 
donations  of  Pepin  and  t'harlemagne.  The  spurious  Donatio 
Constanlin i  has  been  great  ly  overrated  in  the  discussion  of  the 
evolut icm  of  the  temporal  jiower  ( Kiit/lish  ITixtorical  liei'iew, 
July.  1S!)4).  rndervariousformsandwith  varyingboundaries 
the  papal  .state  existed  through  the  Middle  Ages  as  a  spon- 
taneous, legitimate  growth,  and  its  long,  pacific  po.ssession 
through  twelve  centuries  was  no  despicable  element  in  the 
propagation  of  Christian  faith  and  culture.  The  violent 
usurpation  of  Napoleon  I.  was  undone  by  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  (181.5).  Heginning  with  1860  the  Piedmontese  gov- 
ernment encroached  on  the  states  of  the  Church,  and  in  1870 
they  were  incorporated  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  The 
popes  have  never  recognized  the  fact,  nor  accepted  the  law 
of  guarantees  by  which  the  Italian  kingdom  undertook  to 
regulate  its  iutiu'ual  relations  with  the  jiapucy. 

Tlie  Papal  tlorirnment. — The  ordinary  administration  of 
the  papal  authority  is  ('arried  on  through  the  Curia  Romami, 
— i.  e.  the  body  of  officials  and  agents  whom  the  pope  em- 
ploys in  his  government,  whether  in  the  character  of  sn- 
prenu'  head  of  the  Church,  as  chief  metropolitan  of  Italy, as 
Bishoi)  of  Rome,  or  as  a  temporal  authority.  The  curiid 
jurisdiction,  though  not  distinct  from  tlu;  papal,  is  ordinary, 
i.e.  legally  fixed  and  attached  to  the  office.  The  curia  con- 
sists iti  general  of  cardimds.  prelates,  and  curiah'.i.  or  minor 
officials.  The  cardinals  form  the  papal  senate,  and  are  the 
ordinary  advi.sers  of  the  pope.  The  S(jlemn  assembly  of  all 
the  cardinals  in  the  latter  capacity  is  known  as  the  consis- 
tory, which  in  turn  maybe  either  private  or  public;  the  lat- 
ter kiml  usually  takes  place  twice  a  year,  and  is  only  a 
formal  ratification  of  acts  already  accomplished. 

Since  Sixtiis  V.  (l.">8.")-!)())  the  supreme  jurisdiction  of  the 
pope  is  regidarly  exercised  through  a  number  of  congrega- 
tion.s,  over  which,  Jis  a  rule,  some  cardinal  presides  in  the 
quality  of  prefect,  aided  by  assessors,  consultors,  secretaries, 
advcx'ates,  etc.  Questions  of  law  and  finance,  petitions  of 
the  faithful,  the  expedition  of  bulls,  briefs,  apo.slolic  letters, 
etc.,  have  each  their  special  tribunal  or  agency,  some  of  them 
very  ancient  .like  t  he  Sarra  /i'«/i(uiid  t  lie  ( 'iinri'llaria  a/ioxtoti- 
ca.  The  cardinal-secretary  of  stat  e  is  t  he  official  reprcsentjitive 
of  the  pope  lad'ore  foreign  courts  or  states,  and  is  the  ordi- 
nary head  of  the  body  of  legates.  lumcios.  ablegates,  etc., 
through  whom  the  pope  keeps  in  touch  with  the  temporal 
and  spiritual  affairs  of  Christendom. 

.AiTiioKiTiKS  AND  LiTKKATfRK. — The  ohlest  lives  of  the 
popes  are  found  in  the  Ijilier  Ponfiticalia  (ed.  Duchesne. 
Paris,  1880-92),  and  in  Watterich,  \'it{F  Romanorttm  Pon- 
tificum  (Leipzig,  1862).  There  is  a  cataloi/ne  raisnnne  of 
their  letters  for  the  first  twelve  centuries  in  .lafTe.  liegesta 
Romnnorum  Pontijicum  (2d  ed.).  The  papal  correspoiulence 
since  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  is  (18U-t)  being 


published  from  the  Vatican  archives  through  a  immber  of 
investigators,  individual  and  collective.  The  Bullarium 
Homanum  (ed.  Coquelincs,  19  vols..  Home,  17y!)-44,  with 
later  continuations,  Turin,  1857-72)  contains  the  text  of  a 
great  numy  [lublic  [lapal  documents  in  later  centuries. 
Platina,  Onofrio.  Panvinio,  Ciacconio,  and  Oldreinus  are  the 
post-Renaissance  continuators  of  the  "old  lives  of  the 
popes."  It  is  difficult  to  recommend  any  one  work  as  abso- 
lutely reliable  for  the  lives  of  all  the  poi>es.  A  midtitudeof 
monographs  on  individual  popes,  fixed  ej)0chs,  and  prob- 
lems apjiear  yearly.  Their  sjiirit  dilfers  according  to  the 
education  and  prepossessions  of  the  writer,  but  there  is  a 
growing  tendency  toward  a  moi'e  calm  and  objective  view  of 
the  papal  history.  A  model  of  this  new  method  is  Pa.sfor's 
J/istory  of  the  Popes  in  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance 
(Freiburg,  1886).  Similar  monographs  of  Creighton  and 
Kanke  mi  the  popes  since  the  Heuaissance,  of  Gregory  VII., 
by  Voigt,  and  Innocent  111.,  by  llurti-r.  are  valuable.  An 
excellent  means  to  obtain  accurate  inforniation  concerning 
a  given  [lope  is  to  consult  U.  ^Chevalier's  Repertoire  des 
sources  historiiptes  du  Moyen  Age  (Paris,  1877-88),  where 
the  sources  and  the  relative  literature  up  to  date  are  given. 
Artaud  de  Montor's  History  of  the  Popes,  and  (imene's 
(Jeschichte  der  Piipste  (Hegensbvirg,  1875),  are  pojiular  and 
useful  books.  The  books  of  De  jlaistre,  iJu  Pitpe,  Doel- 
lingcr.  Kirche  iind  Kirchen,  Papstihum  vnd  Kircheustaat, 
and  Murphy,  The  Chair  of  Peter,  are  also  to  be  read.  Sev- 
eral foolish  fables  once  current  are  exploded  in  Doellinger's 
Pupstfabeln  (Stuttgart,  1890). 

List  of  the  Popes. — The  following  list  is  taken  from  the 
chronological  work  of  Father  Gams.  O.  S.  H.,  Series  Episco- 
porum  Erclesiip  Cafholira-  (Hegensburg,  1873).  Tlie  <lates 
of  accession  of  the  popes  uj)  to  the  first  part  of  the  third  cen- 
tury are  ajiproximative.  but  rest  on  sound  calculations,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  writings  of  Duchesne.  De  Rossi.  Light- 
foot,  and  others,  as  against  the  theory  of  Lipsius.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the  custom  arose  of  taking  a 
new  name  on  the  occasion  of  election  to  the  papacy.  The 
usual  mode  of  cessation  of  the  papal  office  is  by  death,  but 
it  can  be  resigned,  as  was  done  by  Celestine  V.  anil  Gregory 
XII.  SS.  Liberius.  Silverius,  and  Martin  were  exiled  for  a 
time  or  forever,  b'ut  they  remained  juridically  popes  to 
their  death.  There  are  some  knotty  problems  in  the  long 
chronology,  but  they  are  not  unsolvable,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  jirefaces  and  notes  of  Duchesne  in  his  edition  of 
the  Liber  Pontificalis.  For  a  charming  account  of  the 
tombs  of  the  popes  see  Ampere's  translation  of  Gregorovius's 
Die  Gralxlenhm  filer  der  PBpste. 


Name.  Dst«  of  AccesGioa. 

B.  Peter 41 

St.  I^inus 

St.  t'letus  ( Anencletus)  about 

St.  Clement  I " 

St.  Evaristus " 

St, -Alexander " 

St.  Sixtus  ( Xystus) " 

St.  Telesphorus " 

St.  Hvpinus " 

St.  Pius. " 

St.  .\nicetus " 

.St.  S( Iter " 

St.  Elelitlierus " 

St.  Victor  I " 

St.  Zephvrinus '^ 

St.  Calixtus  I " 

St.  I'rlian  I 

St.  Pontianus 23(1 

St.  .\nterus 

St.  Fabianiis 

St.  Cornelius 

St.  I.ueius 

St.  Stephen  I SA 

.St.  SixtusiXy8tus)II... 

St.  I)innvsius 

St.  Felix" 

St.  Eiitychiamis 

St.  Gaius 

St.  Marcellinus 

St.  Jlareellus ."Urr 

St.  Eusebins .ino 

St.  MelehiadctlMiltiades)...    .W!) 

St.  Sylvester M\ 

St.  Marcus 3.% 

St.  Julius 3.sr 

St.  Liberius :«2 

St.  Dninaana .Idti 

St.  Sirieius :tH4 

St.  .\nastaaius ;ifl8 

St.  Innocent  1 403 

St .  Zosiinua 417 

St.  Boniface  I 4IH 

St.  Celestine  1 432 

St.  Sixtiia  in m 

St.  Leo  1 440 


or 

79 
91 
100 
IDS) 
119 
128 
1.38 
142 
15ti 
168 
177 
1(10 
202 
21S 


231 
23(i 
•ill 
253 


2.')9 
2(ifl 


as3 

29() 


Nnme.  Date  of  acceasion. 

St.  HitnriuR 4B1 

St.  Siinplieiua 468 

St.  Felix  III 483 

St.  (ielasiiis 492 

St.  .•\nu.stasius  II 496 

St.  Synimaeiius 498 

St.  tl(irniisda.s 514 

St.  .lohiil 52,3 

St   Fflix  IV 526 

St.  Boniface  II 630 

St.  John  II 532 

St.  Agapeius  1 585 

St.  Silverius 636 

Vir^ilius  637 

Pelatjius  1 5.55 

.T.ihn  III 560 

Benedict  1 574 

PelaRins  II 578 

St.  firepiry  1 590 

Sabiniainis fi04 

Boniface  III 607 

St.  Boniface  IV 608 

St.  Deusdedit 615 

Boniface  V 619 

Honorius 625 

Severinus 640 

.John  IV 640 

Theodiaiis  I tHS 

St.  .Martin 649 

St.  F.iifjeniuR  I e-iTA 

St.  Vitaliatuis 657 

.\deiidatus 672 

Donns 676 

St.  AKatho 678 

St.  Leo  II 682 

St.  Benedict  n 684 

John  V 685 

Conon 686 

St.  Serffius  1 687 

John  VI  701 

John  VII 705 

SisinniUR 708 

Constant  ine  1 708 

St.  Oreirorv  II 715 

St.  GreRory  III 781 


Y12 


POPE 


Name.  Date  of  acceisioD. 

St.  Zaoharias 7-11 

Stephen  II 75:J 

Stephen  III  ".W 

St.  Paul  1 757 

Constantino  II 767 

Stephen  IV 7S« 

Hadrian  1 772 

St.LeoIII 7S5 

Stephen  V 81B 

St.  Paschal  1 817 

Eugenins  II 824 

Valentiuus 827 

Gregory  IV 827 

Sergius  II 844 

St.  Leo  IV 847 

Benedict  III  855 

St.NicholasI 858 

Hadrian  II 867 

John  VIII 872 

Mariuus  1 882 

Hadrian  III 884 

Stephen  VI 885 

J'orniosus 8H1 

Boniface  VI 8!W 

Stephen  VI.  (VII.) 896 

Romanus 8H7 

Theodorus  II 897 

John  IX 8!)8 

Benedict  IV iidii 

Leo  V iiiia 


Christopher  . . 
-Sergius  III — 
Anastasius  III 

Laudo 

John  X 

Leo  VI 

Stephen  VIU. 

John  XI 931 

Leo  VI.  (VII.) 936 

Stephen  IX 9.39 

Marinns  II 942 

Agapetus  II 946 

John  XII 955 

Leo  VIII 963 

Benedict  V 964 

JohnXIU 965 

Benedict  VI 973 

Benedict  VII 974 

John  XIV 9S.3 

Boniface  VII 984 

John  XV 985 

Gregory  V 996 


Name.  Date  of 

Clement  III 1187 

Celestine  III 1191 

Innocent  III 1198 

Honorius  III 1216 

Gregory  IX 1287 

Celestine  IV 1241 

Innocent  IV 1243 

Alexander  IV 1264 

Urban  IV 1261 

Clement  IV 1265 

Gregory  X 1271 

Innocent  V 1276 

Hadrian  V 1276 

John  XXI 12T6 

Nicholas  IH 1277 

Martin  IV 1281 

Honorius  IV 1285 

Nicholas  IV 1288 

St.  Celestine  V 1294 

Boniface  VIII 1294 

Benedict  XI 1303 

Clement  V 1305 

John  XXII 1316 

Benedict  XII 1334 

Clement  VI 1.342 

Innocent  VI 1352 

Urban  V 1362 

Gregory  XI 1370 

Urban  VI 1378 

H..iiiface  IX 1.389 

Innocent  VII 1404 

Gregory  XII  1406 

Alexander  V 1409 

John  XXUI 1410 

Martin  V 1417 

Eugenins  IV 1431 

Nicholas  V 1447 

Cali.xtus  III 1455 

Pius  11 14.58 

Paul  n 1464 

SixtusIV   1471 

Innocent  VIII 1484 

Alexander  VI 1492 

PiusUI 1503 

Julius  TI 1.503 

Leo  X 1513 

Hadrian  VI 1.582 

Clement  VII 1523 

Paul  III 15.34 

Julius  in 15.50 

Marceilus  II 1555 

Paul  IV 1555 

Pius  IV 1.559 

St.  Pius  V 1.566 

Gregory  XIH 1572 

Sixtns  V 1585 

Urban  VII 1.590 

llre(,'..ry  XIV 1590 

liin.Mcnt  IX 1591 

clHiii.-nt  VIII 1692 

l.e.i  XI 1605 

Paul  V 1605 

Gregory  XV 1621 

Urban  Vm 1623 

Innocent  X Ifr(4 

Alexander  VII 1655 

Clement  IX 1667 

Clement  X 1670 

Inniicent  XI  1676 

.Alexander  VTIl 1689 

Iimcicent  XH 1691 

cl.MHfiit  XI 1700 

Iminci-Tit  XHI 1721 

liciic.lict  XIII 1724 

CIcMU-iif  XII 1730 

Beliidict  XIV 1740 

Clement  XIII 17.58 

Clement  XIV 1769 

Pius  VI 1775 

Pius  VII 1800 

l.ei.  XII 1828 

Pius  VIII 1829 

Gregory  XVI 1830 

Pius  IX 1846 

Leo  XUI 1878 

John  J.  Keane. 

Pope,  Alexander:  poet;  b.  in  London,  May  21,1688;  d.  at 
Twickeiiliarii,  ilay  30, 1744.  His  fatlier  was  a  retired  linen- 
draper  and  a  Konian  Catholic,  and  shortly  after  the  poet's 
birth  the  family  tool<  up  tlieir  residence  at  Binfield,  in  Wind- 
sor Forest.  P< ipe  was  sickly  and  deformed,  and  was  educated 
at  home  by  tlie  family  priest  and  at  two  small  schools.  He 
was  very  jtrecoc-ious,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  translated  into 
verse  tlie  first  book  of  the  Tliebais  and  wrote  an  epic  poem, 
Alcander,  which  was  never  i>ublished.  Plis  first  publication 
was  a  series  of  Paslimds  (1709),  musically  versified,  but,  like 
all  Pope's  poetry  of  natural  description,  tame  and  artificial. 
These  were  followed  liy  ihe  Essai/  on  Criticism  (1711),  a 
didactic  poem  on  tlu^  rides  of  taste;  The  Ba/ie  of  the 
Lock  (1712,  and  much  enlarged  in  1714),  a  brilliant  mock- 
heroic,  occasioned  by  a  quarrel  between  Lord  Petrc  and  Miss 
Arabella  Permor;  the  Messiah  (1712),  a  sacred  pastoral 
)on  Vergil's  Pollio;    Wirulsor   Forest   (1713),  a 


Sylvester  II.  (Gerbert).. 

John  XVII.  (Sicco) 

John  XVHI 

Sergius  IV 

■\Benedict  VIII 

John  XIX 

Benedict  IX 

Gregory  VI 

Clement  II 

Damasus  II 

St.  Leo  IX 

Victor  H 

Stephen  X 


999 
1003 
1003 
10119 

nil-,' 

1(1-JI 

l(i:i:i 
1(11,-1 
liiii; 

1018 
1049 
10,55 
1057 
Benedict  X 10.58 


Nicholas  II 
Alexander  II. . . . 
St.  Gregory  VII 

Victor  ill 

Urban  11 

Paschal  II 

Gelasins  II 

Calixtus  II 

Honorius  II 

Innocent  II 

Celestine  II 1143 

Lucius  II 1 144 

Eugenins  III 1 145 

Anastasius  IV 115:! 

Hadrian  IV ll.-,4 

Alexander  III 1 1 ;V,i 

Lucius  III llKi 

Urban  III 11S5 

Gregory  VIII i ik7 


1059 
lOf.i 

iiira 

liisti 

IdSS 

iii:i:i 
ins 

1119 
1124 
11.31 


modeled   upon 


descriptive  piece ;  The  Temple  of  Fame  (1715),  a  para- 
phrase of  Chaucer's  House  of  Fame;  and  a  collection  of 
his  poetical  works  in  1717,  which  included  his  only  experi- 
ments in  the  poetry  of  pathos  and  passion,  the  Elegy  to  the 
Memory  of  an  Unfortunate  Lady  and  Eloisa  to  Abelard. 
Meanwhile  he  had  undertaken  a  verse-translation  of  Homer. 
The  first  volume  of  the  Iliad  apiieared  in  1715,  and  the 
last  in  1720;  the  Odyssey,  in  which  he  had  the  help  of 
Fenton  and  Broome,  in  172.5.  Pope's  Homer  was  published 
by  subscrijition  and  brought  him  about  .£9,000.  After  his 
father's  death  in  1717  he  bought  a  little  villa,  with  five 
acres  of  ground,  at  Twickenham  on  the  Thames.  This  was 
his  home  for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  wliere  he  amused 
himself  with  landscape-gardening  and  received  his  friends, 
among  whom  were  Swift,  Gay,  Arbuthnot,  and  Henry  St. 
John,  Lord  Boliugbroke.  Pope  was  sensitive  and  spiteful. 
He  had  literary  or  personal  quarrels  with  Addison,  Colley 
Gibber,  Curll  the  bookseller,  John  Dennis  the  critic.  Lady 
Mary  Wortley  Montagu — for  whom  he  had  formerly  pro- 
fessed warm  admiration — Theobald  the  Shakspeare  editor, 
and  many  others.  He  paid  off  his  grudges  in  his  clever  and 
malicious  satires.  Stung  by  the  incessant  lampoons  of  the 
small  Grub  Street  hacks  and  penny-a-liners,  he  crucified 
them  all  in  his  Dunciad,  an  epic  of  the  dunces,  the  first  edi- 
tion of  which  was  published  in  1728,  and  a  final  edition, 
with  TVie  A'eiv  Dimciad,  or  fourth  book,  added  in  1743.  In 
1732-34  was  published  the  Essay  on  3Ian,  a  moral  didactic 
poem  in  four  books.  This  poem  abounds  in  pithy  sayings 
and  sententious  maxims  which  have  become  universally  cur- 
rent. As  a  philosophical  poem  it  is  neither  coherent  nor 
consecutive.  It  expresses  in  po])ular  shape  and  with  great 
verbal  cunning  ideas  taken  from  the  Leibnitzian  o|itiniism 
which  Pope  had  caught  from  the  conversations  of  his  friend 
Bolingljruke,  but  which  he  himself  imperfectly  understood. 
From  1731  to  1738  he  wrote  and  published  the  satires  and 
verse-epistles  which,  under  the  titles  Moral  Essays  and 
Iiiiitations  of  Horace,  form,  jjerhaps,  his  most  characteristic 
ami  most  enduring  work.  Pojie  was  not  a  great  poet ;  he 
seldom  touches  the  heart  or  stimulates  the  imagination.  His 
translation  of  Homer  is  brilliant  but  false.  His  much-ad- 
mired Eloisa  to  Abelard,  thougli  siilendid  in  exjiression,  is 
rhetoric  rather  than  poetry ;  but  he  was  a  great  verbal  ar- 
tist, and  excelled  especially  in  the  art  of  putting  things. 
He  is  more  frequently  quoted  than  any  English  jioet  with 
the  exception  of  Shaksiieare.  He  brought  the  mock  epic  of 
artificial  society,  the  Horatian  verse-essay,  and  the  formal 
satire  to  the  highest  perfection,  and  he  gave  the  heroic  coup- 
let, which  was  his  favorite  medium  of  expression,  the  great- 
est ]>ossible  smoothness,  variety,  and  point.  His  influence 
in  English  poetry  was  supreme  throughout  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  H.  A.  Beers. 

Pope,  John  :  soldier :  b.  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  Mar.  16, 1822 ; 
graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  and  commissioned 
brevet  second  lieutenant  of  topographical  engineers  July  1, 
1842,  captain  1856.  Appointed  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers May  17,  1861,  he  held  important  commands  in  Mis- 
.soui'i,  and  in  Dec,  1861,  surprised  a  Confederate  camp  at 
Milford,  which  he  captured  with  large  supplies,  thus  forcing 
the  Confederate  general  Price  to  Southeastern  Missouri ;  fol- 
lowing up  his  success,  now  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
Mississippi,  in  co-operation  with  Admiral  Foote  New  Mad- 
rid was  taken  (Mar.  14,  1862).  He  was  made  major-gen- 
eral Mar.  21,  1863,  and  on  Apr.  8  ca,iitured  Island  No.  10  in 
IMississip[ii  river,  with  upward  of  6,000  prisoners  and  about 
125  cannon  and  7,000  small-arms.  Uniting  with  the  com- 
bined armies  under  Gen.  Halleck,  he  participated  in  the  ad- 
vance upon  Corinth,  and  upon  the  evacuation  of  that  place 
(May  30)  pursued  the  Confederate  army  as  far  as  Baldwin. 
He  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army  (July 
14,  1862)  and  jilaced  in  command  of  the  Army  of  Virginia, 
to  which  was  added  the  Army  of  tlie  Potomac.  The  unsuc- 
cessful battle  of  Manassas,  or  Second  Bull  Run.  was  fought 
Aug.  29-30,  and  the  next  day  (Sept.  1)  that  of  Chantilly ;  a. 
few  days  later  Pope  resigned  his  command,  and  resumed 
command  of  the  department  of  the  Northwest.  He  charged 
the  faihu-e  of  his  operations  in  Virginia  to  the  misconduct 
of  Gen.  Fitz  John  Porter  at  the  battle  of  Manassas.  (See 
Porter,  Fitz  Joun.)  Subsequently  he  commanded  the  de- 
[larlments  of  the  Missouri,  the  Lakes,  and  the  Mississippi, 
lie  became  major-general  Oct.  26,  1882;  retired  Mar.  16, 
1886.  D.  at  Sandusky,  0.,  Sept.  23.  1892.  He  published 
Campaign  of  Virginia  of  July  and  August,  1S6J  (Wash- 
ington, 1865). 


POPE 


POPULATION 


713 


Pope,  John  Henry  :  statesman  ;  b.  in  the  Kastern  Town- 
ships, Province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  in  1824 ;  eiliicateil  at  the 
High  School  in  Conipton;  was  a  farmer  in  early  life.  He 
represenlcil  Conipton  in  the  Canadian  Assembly  I.S57-(i7. 
and  in  the  Dominicm  Parliament  18(57-89;  was  Minister  of 
Agricidture  1871-7;i  and  1878-8"),  and  Minister  of  Kailways 
and  Canals  188r)-8!).  In  1880  he  visited  London  with  Sir 
.lohn  A.  Macdonald  an<l  Sir  Charles  Tnp])er,  and  took  ae- 
tive  part  in  the  negotiations  which  led  to  the  Pacific  Kail- 
way  contract.     D.  Apr.  1,  188!).  X.  M. 

Popliuiii.  .Sir  John  :  b.  at  Wellington,  Somersetshire,  Kng- 
land.  in  lo^l ;  entered  Haliol  College,  Oxford,  then  Ihe.Micl- 
dle  Temple,  and  in  l.")71  became  sergeant-ut-law  ;  afterward 
was  appointed  solicitor-general  and  gave  up  liis  sergeant- 
ship;  Speaker  of  the  llonse  of  Commons  1.581;  attorney- 
general  ir)8.'(.  in  which  ollice  he  conducted  the  trials  of  those 
im|)licated  in  the  liablnngton  eonspiracy  ;  lord  chief  justice 
of  the  king's  bench  .June  8,  1.592.  which  ollice  he  held  for 
fifteen  years,  during  which  he  %vas  noted  fur  his  extreme 
severity  to  prisoners  antl  his  impartiality  in  trials  involving 
narty  disputes,  lli'  presided  at  the  trials  i>f  Sir  Christopher 
HUiiit.  Sir  Walter  Kaleigh,  (iviy  Fawkes,  and  other  noted 
persons.  lie  was  the  authorof  a  part  of  Pupliam's  Reports. 
whi<-h  are  of  little  autliority.  1).  .Jinie  HI.  1(507.  He  was 
active  in  colonization  schemes,  and  was  one  of  the  patentees 
associated  with  Sir  I'Vrdinando  (iorgcs  and  (ieorge  Popham. 
— Gkohoe  Poi'U.am.  b.  in  Somersetshire,  Kngland.  about  1.5.50, 
was  a  brother  of  Sir  John  I'ophara.  and  was.  with  him  and 
Sir  Fernando  (iorges.  one  of  the  patentees  of  an  extensive 
territory  in  the  present  Slate  of  Maine  in  the  U.  S.  He 
sailed  from  Plymouth  May  'il.  1(507,  with  two  ships  and  100 
men,  and  landed  .Vug.  1.5  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  or 
Sagadahoc  river,  where  they  built  a  rude  fort  wliich  they 
named  Fort  George.  This  was  tlie  first  Knglish  settlement 
in  New  England,  but  in  the  spring  of  1008,  after  the  death 
of  I'opham  (Feb.  .5).  it  was  abandoned  by  the  cohinists,  who 
returned  to  Kngland. — Sir  Fhanc  is  Poi'Iiam.  probably  a  son 
of  Sir  .John,  was  also  a  jiatentee  of  New  England  and  was  a 
member  of  Parliament  in  1620.  F.  Sturues  Allex. 

Popish  Plot :  See  Oates,  Titus. 

Poplar  [JI.  Eng.  popler.  from  O.  Fr.  /loplier  >  Mod.  Fr. 
pei(//li(r,  peuple  :  Ital.  pioppo  :  Span,  pnhu  <  Lat.  po'pnlus 
and  Vulg.  Lat.  *i)lupHs,  p(jpl;ir|:  properly  the  name  of  any 
tree  belonging  to  the  genus  I'o/jitlus  and  family  Salicacefp, 
but  popularly  and  very  incorrectly  extended  to  the  Tilip- 
TRKK  ((/.  c.)  of  the  U.  S.  The  true  poplars  have  a  light,  white 
wood,  which  is  very  perishable  if  exposed  to  the  weather  or 
if  not  carefully  seasoned.  The  common  balsain-|ioplar, 
tacamahac,  or  balm-of-Gilead  tree  {P.  bahairiiffra)  pro- 
duces a  ciipious  fragrant  n-sin  on  its  buds;  it  is  a  haiKlsome 
tree  of  North  .\merica  and  Asia.  Seviu-al  of  the  poplars  of 
the  U.  S.  are  called  Cottonwood,  although  this  name  is 
properly  applied  to  the  Carolina  poi)lar  (P.  monih'feni). 
(See  CoTToxwooD-TUKK.)  The  cottonwoods  are  usc^ful  for 
fuel  and  timber,  but  liabk'  to  warp  unless  prepared  with 
care.  The  white  po]ilar,  or  .\nierican  aspen,  P.  tremuloides, 
is  a  handsome  tree,  as  is  the  /'.  i/rdiidiai'iifdfn.  P.  Itefero- 
phtjUa  is  a  large  Cottonwood  with  large,  downy  leaves.  The 
abelc,  or  silver-leaf  poj)lar  of  Europe.  /'.  uiha'.  is  frci|ncntly 
planted  in  the  U.  S.  It  spreails  rapidly  by  the  roots.  Its 
tindjer  is  excellent,  as  also  is  that  of  the  gray  anil  black 
European  jioplars,  P.  cane.scens  and  nifira.  The  Lombardy 
iKipl.ir  (/'.  nigra,  var.  italica)  is  remarkable  for  the  singu- 
lar upward  tendency  of  its  branches.  One  of  the  mo.«t  im- 
portant of  the  more  recent  economic  uses  of  the  poplars 
is  th<'  manufacture  of  paper-pulp  from  tlieirwood.  Several 
poplars  from  Russia  have  been  inti'oduced  into  the  I'.  S.  for 
|ilanling  in  the  northern  prairie  .States.  Of  these  the  best 
IS  /'.  lanrifolia.  the  Cerlinensis  poplar,  which  is  the  Euro- 
pean representative  of  the  American  cottonwoo<l.  For  an 
account  of  the  cultivated  poplars,  see  Hnlletin  (58,  Coi-nell 
rniver.>ity  ex|ieriment  station.     Revised  by  L.  H.  Uailey. 

Ittplar  IHuir:  city:  capital  of  Butler  co.,  Jfo.;  on  the 
Hig  RIack  river,  and  the  St.  L..  Iron  Mt.  and  Southern  Rail- 
way; 74  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Cairo.  16(5  miles  S.  of  St.  Louis 
(for  location.  si>e  map  of  Missouri,  ref.  8-.I).  It  has  manu- 
factories of  luirdjer,  slaves,  pottery,  brick,  anil  tile,  and  ccm- 
taius  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $.50,000.  and  2  dailv  and 
2  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  791 ;  (1890)  2,187. 

Popocatepetl  [.\7,tec,  smoking  mountain] :  a  quiescent 
volcano  (if  Alexieo  ;  on  the  confines  of  the  states  of  Mexico 
and  Puebla ;  43  miles  S.  E.  of  Mexico  city ;  height  about 


1 7.800  feet,  or  380  feet  less  tlian  Orizaba,  the  highest  peak  in 
Mexico.  From  about  14.800  feet  (in  .lanuary)  it  is  covered 
with  snow  ;  below  thisthere  is  a  broad  zone  of  pine- and  oak- 
forest.  The  luscent  is  difficult.  There  are  two  principal 
craters;  the  upper  and  more  recent  one  is  about  l.OtX)  feel 
deep  and  has  large  deposits  of  sulphur,  which  are  regularly 
mined.  There  is  no  clear  record  of  an  eruption  within  his- 
torical times;  sulphur  fumes  and  occasionally  smoke  are 
given  out.  Herbert   H.  S.mith. 

Poppy  [M.  Eng.  popy  <  0.  Eng.  popig,  from  Lat.  pa/m- 
ver,  l>oppy]  :  any  plant  of  the  genus  Papaver  of  the  family 
Papiiverdceii'.  The  Hower  is  large  and  showy,  the  corolla 
being  generally  four-petaled  and  the  calyx  two-leaved.  The 
stigma  is  in  the  form  of  rays,  ranging  from  four  to  twenty 
in  lunuber.  It  springs  directly  from  the  ovary  and  persi.sts 
upon  the  capsule.  The  latter  is  one-celled,  though  with  im- 
perfect partitions,  and  contains  numerous  seeds  which  es- 
cape by  pores  under  the  llaring  stigma.  The  [Joppy  is  an 
animal  or  perennial  herbaceous  plant,  and  abounds  in  a 
milky  juice.  There  are  about  a  score  of  specie.s.  natives  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  most  of  which  are  found  only  in  the  warm 
temperate  regions.  By  far  the  most  important  species  is 
/•'.  suiiint'f(fri)in.  from  which  the  drug  o|iium  is  obtained. 
(See  Opil'M.)  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  si)ecies,  of 
which  the  most  prominent  are  called  the  while  and  Olac/c 
poppy,  respectively,  from  the  color  of  the  seeds.  The 
flower  of  the  former  is  white — that  of  the  latter  generally 
red  or  violet,  though  also  sometimes  white.  This  species  of 
poppy  has  been  known  from  a  remote  period  in  the  coun- 
tries  liordering  on  the  eastern  coa.st  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  is  now  extensively  grown  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  Persia, 
Egypt,  Europe,  India,  and  China.  In  the  Oriental  coun- 
tries it  is  cultivated  for  opium,  but  in  France  and  Germany 
principally  for  a  bland  fixed  oil.  poppy-oil,  found  in  the 
seeds.  This  oil  exists  in  the  seeds  in  about  the  proportion 
of  40  per  cent.,  is  entirely  devoid  of  narcotic  propertie.'.  and 
is  nsed  extensively  for  the  same  purposes  as  olive-oil,  which 
it  much  resembles.  In  England  there  occurs  in  abundance 
a  species  of  poppy  called  the  red  poppy  or  corn-roue  (/'. 
rhoeas).  having  a  fiery-red  flower,  the  scarlet  petals  of  which 
are  used  in  pharmacy  to  impart  a  brilliant  color  to  mixtures. 
In  the  U.  S.  the  P.  somniferiim  has  lieen  naturalized,  but 
is  cultivated  |)rincipally  as  a  gardeTi-flower.  The  Iceland 
poppy  (P.  niidirauh).  with  white  and  yellow  long-stalked 
flowers,  is  a  spring-flowering  species  which  is  grown  for  or- 
nament. Revised  by  L.  II.  Bailey. 

Poppy  Family :  the  Papai-erncMP :  dicotyledonous  herbs, 
with  a  white  or  red  latex  ;  leaves  alteriuite  :  flowers  perfect ; 
perianth  double,  the  sepals  two.  the  jietals  four  to  eight,  or 
more;  pistil  one.  superior,  compound,  one-celled,  of  two  to 
sixteen  carpels,  placentae  two  to  many,  parietal ;  ovules  usu- 
ally many.  About  160  species  are  known,  mostly  natives  of 
the  temperate  and  snb-tropical  regions  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. As  here  treated  the  family  includes  a  considerable 
iiumlierof  ])lants  cultivated  for  their  beautiful  flowers  and 
foliage,  e.g.  the  California  pop|:iy  (Ef:c/t.tclio/l.iia  aitifornica), 
blood-root  (Sanguinaria  raiiadeiixi.'s),  prickly  poppy  (Arge- 
moyie,  of  several  species),  Jioppy  (Papaver,  of  many  species, 
including  /'.  aomniftrniii.  the  opium-poppy),  bleeding-heart 
(liiciiniUa  upec/abilig).  fumitory  (Adiumia  funyosa),  and 
many  species  of  Corydalis  and  Fumaria. 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Population  [from  Lat.  popula'lio.  liter.,  peojding,  deriv. 
of  papula  re.  people,  populate,  deriv.  of  po pulnif,  peo|)le, 
whence  V.ns^.  peo])le]:  the  total  luimber  of  iidiabitants  of  a 
country,  district,  city,  or  region.  The  population  of  any 
part  of  the  earth's  surface  is  deternuned  by  one  or  more  of 
several  causes.  The  nuist  important  of  these  may  be  enu- 
merated as,  fii-st,  ada]3lation  of  soil  and  climate  to  produce 
food  ;  second,  natural  advantages  for  the  manufacture  of 
articles  desired :  third,  facilities  for  moving  products  from 
regions  where  there  is  exee.ivs  to  regions  where  there  is  scar- 
city :  fourth,  enterprise  and  ingenuity  of  men  in  availing 
themselvesof  existingadvantages;  and,  fifth,  knowledge  and 
public  spirit  in  warding  olT  the  natural  and  artificial  checks 
upon  increase  of  population.     See  Political  Eco.nomy. 

The  tendency  of  all  animal  as  well  as  vegetable  life  to  in- 
crease in  geometrical  ratio  is  kept  in  cheek  by  various  coun- 
teracting influences.  In  the  case  of  man  not  only  war  and 
pestilence  but  also  certain  social  conditions  tend  to  retard 
the  natur.il  increase.  In  a  complicated  society  where  there 
are  already  marked  social  distinctions  it  is  noteworthy  that 
the  increase  among  the  poorer  classes  is  more  rapid  than 


714 


POPULATION 


PORCELAIN,   REAUMUR'S 


among  the  rich.  Malthus  and  others  hare  accounted  for 
this  difference  by  an  absence  of  prudential  conditions  on 
the  part  of  the  poor.  Where  there  is  no  hope  of  bettering 
the  condition  there  is  a  tendency  to  recklessness  of  indul- 
gence, but  where  wealth  and  social  distinctions  have  been 
established  marriages  on  the  part  of  the  wealthier  clas.ses 
are  often  postponed  and  consequently  the  number  of  chil- 
dren born  is  dimiuished. 

Until  recently  the  various  natural  and  artificial  checks 
upon  the  growth  of  population  have  very  nearly  counter- 
balanced the  tendencies  to  increase.  The  introduction  of 
civilized  methods  of  government  into  countries  formerly 
barbaric  has  lessened  war,  famine,  and  pestilence,  and  thus 
removed  some  of  the  most  powerfid  checks  upon  growth. 
The  general  advances  of  civilization  have  tended  in  the 
same  direction.  The  more  general  prevalence  of  hygienic 
methods  of  life,  greater  care  in  furnishing  supplies  of  un- 
tainted water,  a  better  understanding  of  the  causes  of  vari- 
ous diseases  and  the  means  of  preventing  them,  and,  above 
all,  the  more  general  adoption  of  sanitary  drainage,  have 
tended  very  greatly  to  diminish  the  death-rate  and  so  re- 
move some  of  the  checks  upon  the  increase  of  population. 
The  most  powerful  of  all  influences  in  this  direction  have 
been  the  methods  and  facilities  introduced  within  the  nine- 
teenth century  for  the  more  easy  distribution  of  surplus 
products.  Regions  which  formerly  seemed  incapable  of  sup- 
plying the  necessities  of  mankind  are  now  supplied  from 
remote  regions,  and  the  consequence  is  that  all  over  tlie 
civilized  world  population  has  increased  with  a  rapidity 
hitherto  entirely  unknown.  Within  one  century  the  popu- 
lation of  the  various  countries  of  Europe  has  increased 
more  than  it  had  increased  for  several  centuries  before. 
The  following  table  will  show  not  only  that  this  tendency 
is  still  going  on  in  the  Old  World  as  well  as  in  the  New,  but 
also  will  enable  the  reader  to  judge  as  to  the  comparative 
rate  of  increase  in  the  cities  and  in  the  several  countries : 

TABLE    SHOWING    THE   COMPABATIVE    GROWTH    OF  POPULATION 
IN   DIFFERENT   COUNTRIES   OF   EUROPE   AND   AMERICA. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  COMPARATIVE  GROWTH  OF  POPULATION 
IN  THE  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  EUROPE  AND  THE  U.  S. — 
CONTINUED. 


COUNTRIES. 


Europe  : 

England 

Ireland 

Scotland 

Wales 

Austria-H  ungary . 

Austria 

Hungary 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France  

Germany 

Greece 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Portugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden  

Switzerland 

Turkey 

Amkrica  : 

U.  S 

Canada  It 

Newfoundland  . . . 


(la 


(1869)  15, 
(1876)     5. 

1, 

(1872)36, 

t41. 

1, 

86, 

(1869)  3, 
1, 
(1869)     3, 

~8, 


,495,131 
,411.416 
,,360,018 
,817.135 
,634,848 
,217,521 
,417,337 
,3.36,185 
,794,783 
.103,921 
,060,000 
,457,894 
,801,154 
,579,529 
701,365 
,Q95,158 
,281,44' 


,168,535 
,669,147 


i,558,371 
i,739.235 
I  161,374 


1880-81. 


1890-91. 


24,613,9-34 

5,174,8.36 

8,736,573 

1,360,505 

.37,633,923 

21,981,881 

15,642,102 

5,530,000 

1,980,359 

37,678,048 

45,234,000 

(1879)    1,979,453 

28,459,628 

(1879)   4,012,693 

No  census. 
(1878)    4,160,375 

No  census, 

(1877)  16.635.860 

4,565,668 

2,846.10a 

4,275,000 

50.189.209 

4,324.810 

181,763 


(1889) 


27.482,104 

4,704.750 

4,026,647 

1,618,914 

♦41.043,835 

83,707,908 

17,335.989 

6,069,331 

2,I85..335 

.   38,218,903 

49,428,470 

2,187,308 

t30..347.2<)I 

4,631,744 

2.001,000 


(1887-89) i 
(1887-89) 


86,782,574 
17.560,346 
4,784,981 
8,917.7.64 
4,786,546 

62,654,303 

4,839,411 

197,934 


*  Including  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 

+  Statesman''s  Year-book  tor  1873  gives  40,111,265  (including  Alsace 
and  Lorraine). 

t  Estimated.  II  Excludes  Newfoundland. 

§  Excluding  Poland  and  Finland.  II  Estimated. 

TABLE    SHOWING    THE    COMPARATIVE    GROWTH    OF   POPULATION 
IN  THE   PRINCIPAL   CITIES   OF   EUROPE   AND   THE    U.   S. 


CITIES. 

Enoland  : 

London 

Liverpool ... 

Manchester... 

Birmingham.. 

Leeds 

Sheffield 

Bristol 

Bradford  

Nottingham . . 

Hull 

Salford 

Portsmouth  . . 
Scotland : 

Glasgow 

Edinburgh 

Dundee 

Aberdeen 


1870-71. 

1880-81. 

1890-91. 

3,364,260 

3,833.441 

4,211.056 

493,405 

552.425 

517.951 

379.374 

462,»3 

506,.343 

343,787 

400.757 

429,171 

8.69,218 

309.126 

.367,.506 

239,916 

284.410 

334.343 

132.6.57 

206..603 

220,666 

145.830 

183,032 

216,361 

86,631 

186,656 

211,984 

131.892 

154.2.50 

199.991 

134,801 

176.233 

198,136 

113,.669 

127,953 

159,255 

477.156 

555,289 

618.471 

1!«1,979 

228.075 

261.261 

181.925 

140,463 

)53.0fi6 

88.108 

105,818 

121,905 

CITIES. 


Ireland ; 

Belfast 

Dublin 

Wales — Cardiff 

Al'STRIA-HrNGARY  : 

Vienna 

Budapest 

Prague 

Trieste 

Lemberg 

Griitz 

Belgu'm  : 

Brussels 

Antwerp 

Ghent 

Li^ge 

Denmark : 

Copenhagen 

France : 

Paris — 

Lyons 

Marseilles 

Bordeaux 

Lille 

Toulouse 

Germany  : 

Berlin 

Leipzig 

Munich 

Breslau 

Hamburg 

Cologne 

Dresden 

Magdeburg 

Frankfort 

Hanover 

Konigsberg 

Greece  : 

Athens 

Italy.* 
Netherlands  : 

Amsterdam 

Rotterdam 

Hague  (The) 

Norway ; 

Christiania 

Spain  : 

Madrid 

Barcelona 

Valencia 

Seville 

Malaga 

Sweden  : 

Stockholm 

Gothenburg 

L^NiTED  States  : 

New  York 

Chicago 

Philadelphia 

Brooklyn 

St.  Louis 

Boston 

Baltimore 

San  Francisco 

Cincinnati 

(^'leveland 

Buffalo 

New  Orleans 

Pittsburg 

Washington 

Detroit 

Milwaukee 

Newark 

IVIinneapolis 

Jerse.v  City 

Louisville 


(1876) 


1870-71. 


(1876) 
(1866) 
(1866) 


174,412 
246,326 
56,911 

1,001,999 

309,708 

157,713 

109,324 

87,109 

81,119 

310,217 
136,663 
181,469 
111,863 

197,576 

1,988,806 
823,954 
300,131 


(1872)   126,936 

826,341 

127,387 

169,693 

207,997 

236,879 

139,2.33 

177,089 

84,401 

91,040 

87,626 

112,092 

48,107 


274.931 
123,097 
93,083 

57,381 

381,470 
349.100 
107,703 
118,398 
94,733 

124,691 
58,164 

942,292 

298.977 

674.082 

396.099 

810,864 

250,526 

267,354 

149,473 

216,839 

93,889 

117,714 

191,418 

86,076 

109.199 

79,677 

71,440 

106,059 

13,066 

82..546 

100,753 


1880-81. 


207.671 

249,486 

85,378 


347,536 
163,318 
144.437 
110,250 
97,726 

.391,393 
169,579 
1.30,671 
119,942 

273,727 


194,241 
154,749 


1,122,385 
148,760 
389,343 
273,390 
290,056 
144,751 
220,216 
97,.529 
137,600 
123,860 
150,396 

63,374 


308,948 
147.082 
111,016 

119,407 

397,690 

'  i'43.856 
133,938 
115,882 

169.439 
74,418 

1,306,299 
50.3,186 
847,170 
666,663 
350.518 
362.839 
332.313 
233,959 
2.6,6,139 
160,146 
156,134 
216,090 
1.56,389 
177.624 
116..340 
115,.5a7 
1.36.508 
46.887 
130,733 
123,758 


1890-91. 


*  No  census  since  1879. 

The  density  of  the  population  per  square  mile  in  various 
countries  in  l8tll  is  indicated  by  the  followins  figures:  Bel- 
gium, 53.5-81 ;  the  Netherlands,  359-55:  Great  Britain,  811-88; 
China,  205-07  ;  Japan,  364.59  ;  Italy,  263-.59  ;  Germany, 
334-05  ;  France,  187-36  -,  Switzerland,  184-60 ;  Denmark, 
163-73;  Austria  -  Hungary,  161-88;  India,  150-43;  Spain, 
84-33;  Russia,  45-75;  U.  "S.,  20-77.  The  most  recent  esti- 
mate of  the  total  population  of  the  world  is  fourteen  hun- 
cired  and  eighty  millions.  C.  K.  Adaws. 

Porbeagle:  a  shark  of  the  genus  Lamnn.  especially  L. 
coniiibica,  a  species  common  in  the  North  Atlantic,  which 
reaches  a  length  of  10  feet.  The  porbeagles  have  rather 
slender  teeth  and  feed  on  fishes. 

Porcelain  :  See  Pottery  and  Porcelain. 

Poreelaiii,  Rf'aiimnr's:  a  porcelain-like  substance,  first 
obtiiined  liy  R(.'aumur  by  devitrifying  ordinary  glass.  Ex- 
cessively slow  cooling  will  .sometimes  produce  devitrifica- 
tion, particularly  in  very  calcareous  glasses,  but  it  often  oc- 


poRcn 


PORIHM 


715 


eurs  in  actual  glass-workiii';  iis  an  effect  of  careless  and 
repeated  lieating  and  cooling'.  Tlie  s'ls*  becomes  opaiiue, 
tougher,  and  less  susceptible  to  fracture  from  sudden  heat- 
ing and  cooling,  having  reiiUy  something  of  a  |)orcelain-like 
character.  It  is  attributed  to  llie  fornuitioii  of  crystalline 
compounds  in  the  mass,  which,  when  once  formed,  are  di(K- 
cult  of  refusion. 

Porch :  a  covered  and  |)artly  inclosed  approach  to  an  en- 
trance-door, as  of  a  church  or  dwelling-house  :  also,  by  ex- 
tension, a  covered  or  partly  inclosed  room  or  hall  not  neces- 
sarilv  leading  into  or  connected  with  an  inclosed  building; 
a  covered  prnmenade,  or  portico  :  in  this  .sense  the  term  is 
going  out  of  use  :  no  one  would  call  the  Stoics  the  philoso- 
phers of  the  porch,  but  the  word  portico  or  stoa  would  be 
used.  In  the  lir.st  sense,  the  porch  of  a  tireek  or  Roman 
temple,  the /)™»a(M-.  might  be  the  lirst  thing  entered  from 
without,  or  might  be  inclosed  by  the  peristyle  or  continuous 
portico  of  columns ;  it  was  an  outer  vestibule.  The  porch 
of  a  Gothic  church  was  sometimes  such  a  vestibule,  project- 
ing like  a  small  wing  or  pavilion  from  the  larger  structure, 
and  was  sometimes  merely  a  ileeply  recessed  doorway,  as  in 
the  great  cathedrals.  In  this  latter  case  the  actual  working 
thickness  of  the  wall  of  the  building  was  often  added  to  by 
an  outer  gable  or  screen,  so  as  to  make  the  di'pth  of  the 
porch  greater.  In  modern  times  the  carriarje-porch  is  built 
well  outside  of  the  main  structure,  and  has  this  peculiarity 
that  the  carriage  is  not  to  enter  the  building,  but  only  to 
discharge  or  take  up  its  passengers  and  then  pass  on.  A 
carriage-porch  differs  from  a  manjuise  in  being  more  solid 
and  architectural.  Rlssf.ll  Stukois. 

Porcupine  [M.  Eng.  porkepyn,  from  O.  Fr.  pore  espin, 
liter.,  spine-hog  <  Lat.  pur'cun.  pig  +  sjti'na.  spine,  thorn] : 
any  one  of  various  rodents  characterized  by  the  develop- 
ment of  sharp  spines  among  the  hairs.  These  spines  or 
quills  are  really  greatly  exaggerated  hairs,  and  almost  every 
degree  of  deveio]>ment,  from  scjft  hairs  to  st  rong,  stiff  spines, 
may  be  found  in  the  same  animal.  These  quills,  which  are 
the  wea()ons  of  the  poreu|)ine.  can  be  erected  by  means  of 
peculiar  muscles,  and  the  animal,  when  attacked,  bristles  up 
and  charges  backward.  The  spines  are  finely  barbed  at  the 
tip,  and  frequently  bec'ome  detached  and  stick  in  the  assail- 
ant's hide  or  nose,  and  this  has  given  rise  to  the  fable  that 
the  porcupine  shoots  his  f|uills.  Poreu|)ines  Ijclong  to  two 
distinct  groups — the  HyalriciJie.  with  the  genera  Hystrix, 
Acantli  ion,  and  Atherura,  peculiar  to  the  Old  World,  and  the 
Spalacopodirlie,  with  the  genera  Erelltizon,  Cercolabes,  and 
ChvetomyH.  restricted  to  America.  By  many  zoologists  these 
two  groups  are  considered  as  divisions  of  one  family.  The 
best-known  species,  the  African  porcu])inc  (Ihjstrix  cristata), 
found  in  Spain,  Sicily.  Italy,  and  Xortlu^rn  Africa,  is  a 
stout,  heavily  built  animal,  a  little  over  2  feet  in  length, 
with  a  crest  of  very  long,  stiff  hairs  down  the  nape.  The 
quills  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  are  very  long,  and,  like 
t^e  hairs,  marked  with  rings  of  black  ami  white.  The  quills 
upon  the  short  tail  are  truncated  and  open  at  the  ends.  The 
animal  dwells  in  burrows  or  crannies  anumg  the  rocks,  lives 
on  vegetables,  and  is  sometimes  sold  in  the  markets  for  food. 
The  common  porcupine  of  North  America,  Erethizon  dor- 
satitm,  is  prevailingly  gray  or  blackish,  and  large  specimens 
attain  a  total  lengtli  of  nearly  3  feet.  The  quills  are  abun- 
dant and  very  sharp,  but  are  comparatively  short,  being  in 
winter  almo.st  ctmcealed  by  the  long  hair.  The  tail  is  of 
considerable  length,  and  the  animal  strikes  with  it  very  ef- 
fectively. This  species  is  found  from  Maine  westward 
through  the  northern  part  of  t  he  U.  S.  and  over  a  great  part 
of  British  America.  In  the  West  it  is  replaced  by  another 
speeie.s,  Kn-tliizon  epixanthiis.  distinguished  by  the  yellow- 
ish color  of  the  long  outer  hairs.  These  aninuils  climb  read- 
ily, live  on  leaves  and  bark,  and  are  extremely  fond  of  salt, 
sometimes  eating  into  barrels  of  salt  provisiims  stored  by 
lumbermen.  The  South  American  porcupines  of  the  genus 
Cercolfi/ip.s,  or  Si/ne/liere-s,  which  range  from  Mexico  to 
Brazil,  arc  distinguished  by  long  prehensile  tails.  They  are 
thickly  clad  with  short  spines.  The  Brazilian  porcupines  of 
the  genus  dluetomys  are  characterize<l  by  short,  weak,  wavy 
spines,  which,  except  about  the  shoulders,  are  scarcely  more 
tnan  very  strong  bristles.  The  species  of  Atheriirn,\nov,-a 
as  brush-tailed  porcupines,  found  in  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
some  of  the  large  adjacent  islands,  and  Africa,  have  short 
and  rather  weak  (laltened  spines.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Porcupine  Ant-euter:  the  Ki-nrt)XA  (q.  v.). 
PordeiiD'ne :  town:  in  the  orovince  of  Udine,  Italy:  on 
the  right   Ijunk  of  the  Noiuello;  about  30  miles  from  the 


city  of  Udine  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-E).  Of  its  ancient 
walls  and  sjjlendid  castle  only  the  ruins  remain.  In  the 
Palazzo  Conmnalc,  the  cathedral  (begun  Ki47),  and  in  sev- 
eral smaller  churches  may  be  seen  oil-paintings  and  fre.scoes 
by  Licinio.  also  called  II  Pordenone,  and  others  of  his  school. 
Pordenone  has  utilized  its  abundant  water-power,  and  has 
cotton,  silk,  and  earthen  and  iron  ware  manufactories. 
Pop.  .5,100. 

Pordenone:  See  Licinio. 

Pore  [via  Fr.  from  Lat.  po'rus  —  Gr.  ■ir6po!.  pore,  ford, 
means,  etc.,  liter.,  way,  passage]:  a  very  luirrow  passage  in 
any  solid  substance ;  particularly  an  efferent  duct  of  the 
glands  in  the  skin  of  animals.  The  largest  and  least  abun- 
dant of  these  are  the  ducts  of  the  sebaceous  glands,  which 
secrete  an  oily  substance.  They  are  numerous  on  the  head 
and  face  and  near  the  orifices  of  the  body,  but  elsewhere 
fewer  (jr  even  wanting.  The  ducts  of  the  sweat-glands  are 
most  numerous  on  the  palm  of  the  hand,  where  2,800  have 
been  counted  in  1  sq.  inch.  Krause  estimates  the  number 
on  a  single  [lerson  at  2,:!sl.248. 

Porfl'rio  Ui'az,  Ciudad' (formerly  Piedras  Negras) :  a 
frontier  town  of  the  state  of  Coahuila,  Mexico ;  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  opposite  Eagle  Pass,  Tex. ;  on  Mex.  Internat. 
Railroad  (see  map  of  Jlexico,  ref.  3-G).  It  is  in  the  "free 
zone,"  and  its  custom-house  has  to  do  principally  with  goods 
in  transit.  '  II.  H.  S. 

Porfyriiis:  See  Optatianus. 

Porgy :  a  name  applied  in  different  localities  to  any  one 
of  several  dilTerent  fishes.  In  Europe  it  is  given  to  Pagrus 
vulgaris;  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  U.  S.  to  the  scup, 
SIcnotomnx  nri/yropx.  and  sometimes  to  the  menhaden,  Bre- 
voortid  ti/ron/ins;  rarely  to  the  moon  fish  or  angel-fish,  (7i(e- 
todipterus  faber.    See  Fisheries.  P.  A.  L. 

Porifera :  See  Sponges. 

Po'rism  [via  Fr.  and  Lat.  from  Gr.  Tr6pi<Tiia.  thing  pro- 
cured, hence  a  deduction  from  a  demonstration,  corollary, 
deriv.  of  iropiffiv,  carry,  bring,  furnish,  jirocure] :  a  name 
given  by  ancient  geometers  to  a  class  of  i)r(>positions  having 
for  their  object  to  show  what  conditions  will  render  certain 
l)roblems  indeterminate.  In  order  that  the  solution  of  a 
problem  may  be  determinate,  there  must  be  as  many  inde- 
pendent conditions  as  there  are  parts  to  be  determined.  If, 
therefore,  any  supposition  can  be  made  on  the  data  of  the 
problem  that'will  cause  one  of  the  given  conditions  to  depend 
u])on  one  or  more  of  the  others,  the  solution  will  become  in- 
determinate ;  that  is,  the  problem  will  have  an  infinite 
imraber  of  solutions.  The  oliject  of  the  porism  is.  then,  to 
discover  an  hypothesis  that  will  make  one  of  the  given  con- 
ditions of  a  determinate  problem  dependent  upon  one  or 
more  of  the  others.  The  na- 
ture of  a  porism  will  be  illus- 
trated by  an  example:  Let 
A  B  C  be  a  given  triangle, 
and  D  any  point  in  its  plane  ; 
it  is  required  to  draw  a  line 
through  I)  such  that  the 
sum  of  the  perpendiculars 
to  it  from  the  two  vertices 
on  one  side  shall  be  equal  to  the  perpendicular  to  it  from 
the  vertex  on  the  other  side.  Suppose  the  problem  solved, 
and  let  I)  E  be  a  line  such  that  the  sum  of  A  E  and  B  G  is 
ecpial  to  C  F.  Draw  C  H  bisecting  A  IJ  at  II  ami  cutting 
D  E  at  L;  also  draw  II  K  perpendicvilar  to  1)  E;  then 
will  H  K  =  i(A  E  +  BG).  or  f  F  =  211  K.  From  the  sind- 
lar  triangles' L  K  II  and  L  F  V  we  have  II  K  :  II  1,  :  :  f  F  : 
C  L,  or  C  F  —  211  L.  Hence  the  line  I)  E  must  cut  II  C  at 
a  point  one-third  of  the  distance  from  II  to  t',  and  this  no 
nuitter  what  nuiy  be  the  position  of  I).  In  the  general  case 
— that  is,  when  D  and  L  do  not  coincide— the  jiroblem  isde- 
termimite,  and  admits  of  but  one  solution.  Now  let  it  be 
required  to  find  the  condition  that  will  make  the  problem 
inileterminate.  If  we  suppose  D  to  coincide  with  L.  the  pre- 
ceding proportion  will  be  true  whatever  may  be  the  direc- 
tion of  E  K:  hence  the  condition  rc(|uired  is  that  D  shall 
coincide  with  L.  and  the  finding  of  this  condition  consti- 
tutes the  essential  part  of  the  porism.  The  porism  just 
considered  nuiy  be  enunciated  as  follows:  To  find  in  the 
plane  of  a  triangle  a  point  such  that  if  any  line  is  drawn 
through  it.  and  perpendiculars  let  fall  upon  it  from  'h"^  ^''j*'' 
tices,  the  sum  of  the  perpendicnlai-s  on  one  side  shall  be 
equal  to  the  perpendicular  on  the  other  side. 

Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 


716 


POROSITY 


PORTADOWN 


Porosity  [deriv.  of  porous,  deriv.  of  pore.  See  Pore]  : 
a  property  of  matter  in  aocordance  with  wliicli  its  molecules 
are  separated  by  intervals  or  pores.  The  porosity,  for  in- 
stance, of  stone  or  wood  is  [iroved  by  immersing  the  object 
in  water  under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump  ;  wlien  the  air 
is  exhausted  from  tlie  surface,  that  inclosed  in  the  pores  of 
the  object  will  rise  to  the  surface  in  the  form  of  bubbles. 
The  porosity  of  cast  iror  has  been  proved  by  forcing  water 
through  the  pores  of  a  plate  4  inches  thick,  and  the  porosity 
of  liquids  is  exhibited  by  mixing  alcohol  and  water,  when 
the  volume  of  the  mixture  is  found  to  be  less  than  the  sum 
of  the  volumes  of  the  components. 

Porpliy'rio.  Pompoxr-s:  a  Latin  grammarian  of  the 
fourth  centurv,  perhaps  from  Africa,  whose  commentary  on 
the  works  of  Horace  is  still  extant.  Edition  by  W.  Meyer 
(Leipzig.  1874). 

Porphyrogenitiis  :  See  Coxstaxtine  VIL 

Porphyry  [Gr.  nopci>vplTris,  from  iropipipa.  [lurple] :  See 
Rocks  and  Buildixo-stoxe. 

Porphyry,  or  (Lat.)  Porphyrins :  Xeoplatonist  philos- 
opher ;  b.  at  Batanea,  Syria,  233  A.  D. ;  received  the  instruc- 
tion of  Origen  at  Cssarea :  studied  afterward  at  Athens 
under  Longinus,  and  finally  in  Rome  under  Plotinus.  of 
whom  he  became  a  passionate  disciple ;  traveled  in  Sicily 
and  other  countries,  but  returned  subsequently  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  about  305.  Of  his  numerous  works,  the 
greater  part  is  not  extant.  The  most  impoi'tant  of  his  lost 
productions  was  his  work  against  Christianity,  which  was 
publicly  burneil  by  order  of  Theodosius  II.  in  448.  Among 
the  works  which  have  come  down  to  us  are  biographies  of 
Plotinus  and  Pythagoras ;  a  commentary  on  Aristotle's 
Categorim,  generally  printed  as  an  introduction  to  the  Or- 
ganon  ;  a  treatise  d'e  Abstiiientia,  etc.  There  is  no  collected 
edition  of  his  works. 

Porpoise  [M.  Eng.  porpeys,  from  0.  Fr.  porpeis,  liter., 
hogfish  <  Ijat.  porciis,  hog  +  pis'cis,  fish] :  any  one  of  va- 
rious small  cetaceans,  rarely  over  8  or  y  feet  in  length,  be- 
longing to  the  family  Delphtniihu.  properly  distinguished 
from  the  dolphins  (see  Dolphin),  which  are  also  called  por- 
poises, by  not„having  the  anterior  part  of  the  head  prolonged 
into  a  distinct  beak.  They  have  sharp  conical  teeth  in  both 
jaws,  adapted  for  seizing  slippery  living  prey.     They  go  in 


The  porpoise. 

shoals,  sometimes  containing  many  hundreds,  and  are  found 
in  nearly  all  seas,  but  more  especially  in  temperate  latitudes. 
and  usually  not  very  far  from  land.  The  common  species. 
Phocwna  coitimiini.i,  known  also  as  puffing-pig  and  puffer, 
attains  a  leiiglh  of  6  feet,  has  peculiar  compressed  teeth,  and 
is  glossy  black  above,  lighter  beneath.  It  sometimes  as- 
cends rivers  for  considerable  distances.  The  skunk-por- 
f)oise,  Lagenorhynclius  acutits,  of  the  North  Atlantic,  is 
arger,  with  broad  stripes  of  white  and  yellow  on  the  sides. 
In  favorable  localities  various  species  are  taken  for  their 
blubber,  which  yields  oil,  and  for  their  skins,  which  make 
good  leather.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Porrlgo :  See  Favus. 

Porro,  KorARDo.  M.  D.  :  gynaecologist ;  b.  near  Padua, 
Italy,  Sept.  17,  184',J;  studied  medicine  in  Pavia,  graduating 
M.  b.  in  1H65  ;  frnm  lS6.-)-HS  was  assistant  at  tlie  Milan  Os- 
jiedale  Maggiore  ;  in  1H68  lie  was  appointed  as.sistant  and 
subsequently  Professor  of  Olistetrics  at  the  University  of 
Milan.  He  accepted  tlie  same  chair  in  the  I'niversity  of 
Pavia  in  1875,  and  remained  there  until  1883,  wlien  he  re- 


turned to  Milan.  In  1876  he  published  a  method  of  ampu- 
tating the  uterus  that  served  to  give  him  worldwide  promi- 
nence. He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  monographs  on 
gyna>cological  topics.  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Por'seiia  (less  correctly  Porsew'raa) :  king  of  the  Etrurian 
city  of  Clusium,  under  whose  leadership  the  Etruscans  com- 
pelled Rome  to  capitulate,  and,  as  Pliny  the  elder  reports, 
to  surrender  all  weapons  and  agree  to  employ  iron  hence- 
forth only  for  agricultural  implements.  How  long  this  sub- 
jection continued  and  how  the  Romans  regained  their  inde- 
pendence we  do  not  know.  The  disgrace  of  the  event, 
knowledge  of  which  we  owe  to  incidental  remarks  of  Tacitus 
and  Pliny,  was  concealed  under  the  romantic  stories,  nar- 
rated by  Livy,  of  Horatius  at  the  bridge,  of  Scaivola's  sac- 
rifice of  his  hand  in  the  flame  to  show  Porsena  the  character 
of  Roman  patriotism,  and  of  the  consequent  voluntary  with- 
drawal of  the  Etruscan  forces.  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Porsoii,  Richard  :  Greek  scholar ;  b.  at  East  Ruston, 
Norfolk.  England,  Dec.  25, 1759  ;  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  won  the  Craven 
scholarship,  the  chancellor's  medal,  and  a  fellowship  1782  ; 
began  the  publication  of  a  series  of  critical  labors  ujion  the 
texts  of  classical  authors;  published  in  1790  his  famous 
Letters  on  the  spuriousness  of  the  text  of  the  three  wit- 
nesses ;  resigned  his  fellowship  1791  from  conscientious- 
scruples  about  subscribing  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  ;  be- 
came Regius  Professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge,  and  librarian 
of  the  London  Institution  1806.  ^fext  to  Bentley,  Porson  is 
the  greatest  text-critic  whom  England  has  produced.  Pub- 
lished critical  editions  of  Euripides's  Hecuba  (with  a  famous 
introduction  on  Greek  versification).  Orestes,  Phcenissie,  and 
Medea  ;  ^schylus  (2  vols.) ;  and  many  contributions  to  the 
text  of  Greek  authors.  D.  in  London,  Sept.  25,  1808.  See 
Tracts  and  MisceUaneons  Criticism  of  Bichard  Porson 
(edited  by  Kidd,  1815),  and  J.  S.  Watson's  Life  of  Richard 
Porson  (1861).  Revised  by  A.  Gudeman. 

Por'ta,  Carlo  :  b.  at  Milan,  1776 ;  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Alessandro  Manzoni  and  of  Tomraaso  Grossi.  Of  his 
poems  in  the  Milanese  dialect,  which  have  passed  through 
many  editions,  the  most  celebrated  is  the  one  entitled  Dis- 
grazi  de  Giovanin  Bongee.  Porta  was  an  amiable  satirist, 
most  true  to  nature,  and  full  of  power  and  vigor.  D.  1821. 
Porta,  Baccio  della:  same  as  Bartolommeo  (q.  v.). 
Porta,  GiACOMO,  della:  architect;  b.  at  Milan,  Italy,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He  began  model- 
ing stucco  bas-reliefs  under  Gobbo,  but  he  studied  architec- 
ture under  Vignola,  whom  he  succeeded  as  architect  of  St. 
Peter's.  He  finished  the  Palace  of  the  Senator  on  the  Capi- 
tol of  Rome,  which  Vignola  had  continued  after  the  draw- 
ings of  Michelangelo.  He  constructed  the  Gregorian  chapel 
for  Gregory  XIII.,  which  cost  the  pope  80,000  scude,  the 
Greek  church  in  X'm  Babuino,  the  Church  of  the  Madonna, 
dei  Monti,  and  a  portion  of  that  of  the  Florentines  in  Via 
Giulia  in  Rome.  At  the  Certosa  of  Pavia  he  designed  the 
tomb  of  the  Conte  di  Virtu,  and  worked  on  the  facade  of  ., 
the  church.  In  1.531  he  was  invited  to  Genoa,  where  he 
built  in  the  cathedral  the  chajiel  of  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
which  was  decorated  with  sculpture  by  his  nephew  Will- 
iam. Lastly,  together  with  Fontana.  he  constructed  the  cu- 
pola of  St.  Peter's,  changing,  with  Sixtus  V.'s  permission, 
Michelangelo's  design  by  making  the  curve  of  the  dome  more 
elliptical  than  in  the  original  model.  He  built  also  the 
facade  of  San  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  besides  many  fountains  in 
Piazza  Navona,  Piazza  Colonna,  and  Piazza  del  Popolo.  D. 
in  1604.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Porta,  GiAMBATTiSTA,  della:  philosopher;  b.  in  Naples 
about  1543;  traveled  much  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  France; 
founded  in  his  native  city  the  first  society  for  the  study  of 
physical  science  in  Italy,  called  Academia  Secretorum  Na- 
tura?.  which  held  its  meetings  in  his  own  house,  and  to 
which  no  one  was  admitted  unless  he  had  made  some  dis- 
covery in  natural  philosophy ;  was  accused  of  magic,  and, 
though  acquitted  by  the  pope,  was  compelled  to  dissolve  his 
academy;  wrote  many  volumes  on  natural  magic,  geometry, 
optics,  "the  human  physiognomy,  etc. ;  and  invented  the 
camera  obscura.     D.  in  Naples,  Fell.  4,  1615. 

Portatlonn:  town;  in  the  county  of  Armagh,  Ireland;  on 
the  Bann  ;  25  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Belfast  (see  map  of  Ireland, 
ref.  5-1).  It  has  large  distilleries  and  manufactures  of  linen 
and  linen  yarn,  and  an  active  trade  in  agricultural  produce. 
It  communicates  by  canal  with  the  sea  at  Newry.  Pop. 
(1891)  8,430. 


PORTAGE 


PORTIOK 


ill 


Portage:  city  (founded  in  1838,  formerly- called  Winne- 
bago Portage);  capital  of  Columbia  oo..  Wis.  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Wisconsin,  rcf.  (i-D) :  on  the  Wisconsin  river, 
the  ship-canal  connoctiiiK  tlie  Wisconsin  and  Fox  rivers, 
and  llic  I'lii..  Mil.  an<l  St.  P.  and  1  lie  Wis.  Cent,  railways  ; 
30  miles  N.  ipf  .Madison,  S.")  miles  N.  W.  n{  .Milwaukee.  It  is 
in  an  agricultural  and  hnnberinj;  region,  has  important  com- 
mercial and  manufacturing  interests,  anil  contains  a  State 
bank  with  capital  of  ^To.OUU,  and  a  dailv  newspaper  and 
four  weekly  ones.  Poi).  (ISSO)  4,346;  (ISi)O)  .-,.148:  (lS!t.-.) 
5,419.  Editor  of  "  State  KmiisTiiK." 

Portage  la  Prairie:  town;  in  the  province  of  Manitoba, 
Canada;  on  the  Assiniboine  river;  56  miles  by  rail  W.  of 
Winnipeg;  on  the  Canadian  Paiilic,  Maiiituba  and  North- 
western, and  Northern  Pacific 'iailways.  It  is  the  market- 
town  of  a  rich  farming  country,  has  Hour-mills,  grain-ele- 
vators, a  biscuit-factory,  paper-mill,  etc.,  and  a  semi-weekly 
and  two  weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1891)  H.dH'.i. 

Portalis,  por'ta"alees',  Jean  Ktiexxe  Marie  :  jurist :  b.  at 
Bau.sset,  in  Provence,  France,  Apr.  1. 1745  :  attended  the  uni- 
versity at  Ai.t,  and  became  an  advocate  in  1765  and  later  the 
leader  of  the  bar  at  Aix.  He  was  for  some  years  active  in 
politics  in  opposition  to  the  parly  of  Jlirabeau,  and  opposed 
the  measures  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  but  in  179(j  aban- 
doned politics,  retiring  t"  Lyons.  In  1798,  after  the  procla- 
mation of  the  repulilic,  he  returned  to  Paris  and  resumed 
his  law  practice,  and  after  the  death  of  Kobespierre  became 
the  leader  of  the  moderate  party  opposed  to  the  Directory ; 
was  later  proscrilied  and  escaped  to  Switzerland,  whence  he 
returned  after  Honaparte  became  the  First  Consul.  He 
early  showed  a  thorough  insight  into  the  spirit  of  the 
French  law  and  a  marked  ability  in  the  matter  of  develop- 
ing anil  systematizing  it.  15y  Napoleon  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  commission  for  drawing  up  the  Civil  Code. 
of  which  lie  was  the  principal  author,  the  treatment  of 
many  of  the  most  imjiortant  subjects,  especially  those  of 
marriage  and  heirship,  being  intrusted  to  him,  and  to  those 
labors  he  chiefly  owes  his  fame.  In  1801  he  was  put  in 
charge  of  the  department  of  public  works,  and  in  this  ca- 
pacity had  the  chief  share  in  the  drawing  up  of  the  Concor- 
dat ;  in  180li  was  a  member  of  the  Instit  ute ;  in  1804  Minister 
of  Public  Worship,  in  which  capacity  he  was  the  leader  in  re- 
organizing the  French  Church  ;  in  1805  was  made  a  Knight 
Grand  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  D.  in  Paris,  Aug.  25. 
1807.  See  liene  LavoUee's  Portalis,  sa  I'ie  et  ses  teutres 
(Paris,  1869).  P.  Sturges  Allen. 

Port  Artlllir :  town;  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  Canada; 
on  Thunder  Hay,  an  arm  of  Lake  Superior;  on  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway;  993  miles  from  .Montreal  and  431  miles 
from  Winnijieg.  Steamships  ply  between  it  and  Owen  Sound 
on  Georgian  IJay.  The  town  has  docks,  a  grain-elevator, 
some  manufactures,  and  a  trade  in  lumber.  It  has  a  daily 
and  two  weekly  newspapei-s.     Pop.  (1891)  2.6!t8. 

Port  Arthur  (called  by  the  Chinese  Lu-,ihmi-/;'ow):  a 
landlocked  harbor  on  the  Strait  of  Pechili.  near  Kin-chow- 
t'ing  and  the  southwest  extremity  of  the  province  of  Liao- 
tung  or  Shing-king,  JIanchuria  (see  map  of  China,  rcf.  3-K). 
The  harbor  is  almost  surrounded  by  hills  from  300  to  1,500 
feet  in  height,  with  cultivated  valleys  between.  In  1881  it 
was  merely  a  good  wind-bound  harlior  for  junks  trading 
along  the  coast.  It  was  then  decided  to  make  it  the  chief 
naval  station  of  C'hiiia.  and  the  necessary  docks,  dry-docks, 
refitting-basins,  foundries,  workshops,  and  dockyards,  were 
completed  (1891)  by  French  contractors.  The  'harbor  en- 
trance, which  is  from  200  to  :iOO  yards  wide,  was  deepened  so 
as  to  admit  the  heaviest  war-vessels,  ami  well-(M)nstructed 
forts  armed  with  modern  guns  were  constructed  to  defend 
the  port  both  from  land  and  sea  attacks.  The  village,  con- 
sisting (1881)  of  aljout  sixtv  mud  huts,  bei^ame  a  well-built 
town  (1893)  of  about  l,00(j  houses  and  shops,  with  6,000 
inhabitants,  exclusive  of  the  garrison  of  7,000  soldiers.  It 
had  4  native  banks,  2  temples,  and  2  large  theaters.  The 
port  is  free  from  ice  throughout  the  winter.  Port  .Vrthur 
was  captured  (Nov.  22. 1894)  by  the  .Iapane.se  under  Marshal 
Oyama,  and  held  until  .Jan.,  1896.  C.  C.  Adams. 

Port-aii-Prinee  :  cajdtal  and  most  important  city  and 
port  of  the  republic  of  Haiti ;  on  a  dee(>  bay  of  the  western 
coa,st  (sec  map  of  West  Indies,  rcf.  5-G).  The  harbor  is 
good  and  safe.  The  city,  built  on  sloping  ground,  is  regu- 
larly laid  out,  with  wide  streets  ;  but  it  is  very  dirty,  there 
are  few  pretentious  edifices,  and  numerous  ruins  attest  the 
ravages  of  the  civil  wars.     Nearly  all  the  houses  are  of  wood, 


as  building  with  stone  was  abandoned  after  the  disastrous 
earthipiakes  of  1751  and  1770;  the  place  has  suffered  even 
more  from  fires,  some  of  them  the  work  of  jiolitical  leaders. 
The  surrounding  scenery  is  very  beautiful,  but  the  moun- 
tains shut  off  the  winds  and  make  Port-au-Prince  one  of  the 
hottest  places  in  the  island.  Except  during  epidemics  of 
yellow  fever  it  is  not.  however,  very  unhealtliful.  The  com- 
merce is  important,  the  |irincipal  exports  being  coffee,  log- 
wood, hides,  and  cacao.  Thecity  was  founded  in  1749.  Poi). 
from  ;i0.000  to  60,000.  Herbekt  H.  S.mith. 

Port  Chester:  village  (incorporated  in  18(!8) ;  Westches- 
ter CO.,  N.  Y.  (for  location,  see  map  of  New  York.  ref.  8-J) ; 
on  Long  Island  Sound,  and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  11.  and  Hart.  Rail- 
road ;  20  miles  .\.  E.  of  New  York  city.  30  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Hridgeport,  Conn.  It  contains  a  national  bank  with 
capkal  of  §100.000,  a  savings-bank  with  deposits  of  over 
$923,000,  2  primary  schools,  public  high-school,  an  insti- 
tute, a  public  lil)rary.  3  carriage-factories  2  iron-foundries, 
2  screw-  and  bolt-factories,  woolen-mill,  shirt-factories,  car- 
riage-coupling works,  and  a  monthlv  and  2  weekly  period- 
icals.    Pop.  (1880)  3,254  ;  (1890)  5.274. 

Editor  ok  ••  Journal." 

Port  Clinton:  village;  capital  of  Ottawa  co.,  O. ;  on 
Lake  Erie  .at  the  month  of  the  Portage  river,  and  on  the 
Lake  .Shore  and  Mich.  S.  Railway;  14  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Sandusky,  35  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Toledo  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Ohio,  ref.  1-E).  It  has  considerable  lake  commerce,  is 
engaged  principally  in  fishing  and  in  grape  and  peach  cul- 
ture, and  contains  a  high-school,  a  State  bank  with  capital 
of  .?;;tt,O00.  and  four  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1.^80)  1,600; 
(1890)  2,049. 

Port  l)ei)osit :  town ;  Cecil  co.,  Md. ;  on  the  Susquehanna 
river,  and  the  Pcnn.  and  the  Philn.,  Wilm.  and  Halt,  rail- 
ways; 41  miles  E.  X.  E.  of  Haltimore  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Maryland,  ref.  1-G).  It  has  a  large  lumber-ti-ade,  and 
contains  valualile  granite-quarrie.s,  foundry,  grist-mill,  a  na- 
tional bank  with  capital  of  ^100.000,  and  a  weekly  news- 
liaper.     Pop.  (1880)  1,950;  (1890)  1.908. 

Porte  cocliere :  a  door  in  the  outer  wall  of  a  house, 
large  and  high  enough  to  allow  a  carriage  and  hoi-ses  to  pass 
in  and  out.  Such  a  door  generally  leads  to  a  stable  beyond 
the  house  or  opening  on  the  court.  The  use  of  this  "term 
for  a  carriage-porch  is  improper. 

Port  Eliz'abeth:  the  principal  seaport  of  the  eastern 
part  of  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa:  839  miles  from  Cape 
Town,  and  connected  with  that  city  an<i  with  Kimberley 
by  rail  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  10-F).  It  was  founcU-d  in 
1820,  and  is  situated  on  Algoa  Bay.  Its  growth  has  been 
steady  and  rapid.  The  wool-trade  of  all  the  eastern  dis- 
tricts of  the  colonv  is  concentrated  here,  and  fine  ware- 
houses line  the  bay."    Pop.  (1891)  23.266. 

Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Porte,  Ottoman  Porte,  or.  more  commonly.  Sublime 
Porte:  an  otllcial  title  of  the  Ottoman  Government.  The 
Ottomans  lik<'ii  their  government  to  a  tent,  at  whose  porte 
or  door  justice  is  administered  and  deliberations  held.  At 
Constantinople  the  name  lidb-i-JJumayoiin.  Exalted  or  Sub- 
lime Porte,  is  also  applied  to  the  main  entrance  of  the  Se- 
raglio. E.  A.  G. 

Porter :  See  Beer. 

Porter,  Alexaxder  :  jurist  ;  b.  near  Armagh.  Ireland, 
in  17.'^6:  removeil  to  the  t'.  S.  1801  ;  engaged  in  mercantile 
pursuits  in  Nashville,  Tenn. ;  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1807;  settled  at  St.  Martinsville,  La.,  1810; 
was  a  member  of  the  convention  which  formed  a  State  con- 
stitution 1811 ;  gained  prominence  as  a  jurist  and  asa  Whig 
politician  ;  became  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Lou- 
isiana 1821  ;  was  U.  S.  Senator  1834-37.  and  o]i|iosed  the 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  advo- 
cated the  recognition  of  the  independence  of  Texas;  again 
elected  in  1843,  and  served  till  incapacitated  by  ill-health. 
D.  at  Attakapas.  La.,  Jan.  13,  1844.  The  moulding  of  the 
jurisprudence  of  Louisiana  in  its  present  form  is  largely  duo 
to  the  labors  of  Judge  Porter. 

Porter.  Andrew,  A.  M. :  soldier ;  son  of  George  Bryan 
Porter,  (iovernor  of  Jlichigan  ;  b.  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  July 
10,  1820.  Educated  as  a  civil  engineer  at  Lafayette  Col- 
lege, Pennsylvania,  he  practiced  his  profession  for  several 
years,  ami  was  appointeci  first  lieutenant  U.  S.  Mounted  Rifles 
'May  27,  1846;  captain  May,  1847.  He  .served  in  the  Mexi- 
can war,  and  was  breveted  major  for  gallantry  at  Contreras 


718 


PORTER 


and  Clmrubusco,  and  lieutenant-colonel  at  Chapultepec ; 
colonel  Sixteenth  Infantry  May  14,  1861,  and  brigadier- 
general  of  vohinteers  May  17,  ISGl.  He  served  in  tlie  Bull 
Run  campaign  and  battle,  and  was  subsequently  provost- 
marshal  of  Washington,  D.  C.  Honorably  mustered  out  of 
volunteer  service  Apr.,  1864,  he  resigned  from  the  army 
May,  1864.     D.  in  Paris,  Jan.  3,  1872.         James  Mebcub.  " 

Porter,  Charles  T.  :  mechanical  engineer ;  b.  at  Au- 
burn, N.  Y.,  Jan.  18,  1826 ;  graduated  at  Hamilton  College, 
1845;  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  1847;  prac- 
ticed in  Rochester  and  New  York  city,  but  after  a  few  years 
abandoned  the  law  for  mechanical  pursuits,  especially  steam- 
engineering  ;  patented  the  central  counterpoise  governor 
for  steam-engines  1859,  and  an  isochronous  centrifugal  gov- 
ernor for  marine  engines  1861  ;  became  associated  with  John 
P.  Allen  in  the  manufacture  of  the  Porter-Allen  engine,  the 
constructive  features  of  which  were  designed  by  him  ;  was 
the  first  manufacturer  to  use  high  rotative  speeds  in  sta- 
tionary steam-engines  with  success.  He  published  an  essay 
on  the  use  of  the  Richards  indicator  (1874),  and  a  volume 
entitled  Mechanics  and  Faith:  a  Study  of  the  Spiritual 
Truths  in  Nature  (1885).  He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of 
the  American  Society  of  Jlechanieal  Engineers,  and  was  for 
several  years  a  member  of  its  council. 

Porter,  David  :  naval  officer  and  diplomat ;  b.  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Feb.  1.  1780 ;  served  from  boyhood  on  board  a 
merchant-vessel  under  his  father,  who  was  a  sea-captain  : 
entered  the  U.  S.  navy  as  midshipman  Apr.,  1798 ;  was  on 
board  the  Constellation  during  her  engagement  with  a  French 
frigate  1799  ;  became  a  lieutenant  Oct..  1799  ;  was  wounded 
in  an  action  with  pirates  on  the  coast  of  Santo  Domingo 
Jan.,  1800 ;  took  part  in  the  naval  war  upon  Tripoli  1801- 
06 ;  was  captured  in  the  Philadelphia  Oct.,  1803,  and  held 
for  eighteen  months  a  prisoner  ;  was  given  command  of  the 
frigate  Essex  (32  guns)  in  1812  ;  captured  the  Alert,  tlie  first 
man-of-war  taken  from  the  British ;  sailed  to  the  Pacific 
Jan.,  1813 ;  captured  several  whalers  and  trading-vessels, 
but  his  own  shi[i  was  captured  in  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso 
Mar.  28,  1814,  by  two  British  vessels  after  a  severe  fight; 
published  a  Journal  of  the  Cruise  of  the  Essex  (3  vols., 
Philadelphia,  1815;  2d  ed.  New  York.  1822):  was  a  navy 
commissioner  1815-23  :  commanded  an  expedition  against 
West  Indian  pirates  1824 ;  was  court-martialed  and  suspend- 
ed for  six  months  in  1825  for  disobedience  to  orders  in  a 
difficulty  with  the  Spanish  authorities  of  Puerto  Rico ;  re- 
signed his  commission  Aug.  18, 1826,  and  accepted  the  com- 
mand of  the  Mexican  navy ;  was  sent  as  consul  to  Algiers 
1829  ;  was  made  charge  d'affaires  to  Turkey  1831  ;  was  after- 
ward appointed  minister  resident  and  negotiated  sevei-al 
treaties  with  the  Porte.  D.  at  Pera,  near  Constantinople, 
Mar.  3, 1843.  His  remains  were  buried  in  the  grounds  of  the 
U.  S.  Naval  Asylum  at  Philadelphia.  From  his  letters  to  a 
friend  a  work  was  compiled,  Constantinofile  and  its  En- 
virons (2  vols.,  1835).  See  the  Life  by  his  son  David  D. 
Porter  (Albany,  1875). 

Porter,  David  Dixon  :  naval  officer ;  b.  at  Chester.  Pa., 
June  8,  1813.  His  father,  the  gallant  Porter  of  Essex  fame, 
having  accepted  the  position  of  commander-in-chief  of  the 
naval  forces  of  Mexico  during  her  war  with  Spain,  obtained 
an  appointment  for  his  son  as  a  midshipman  in  the  Jlexican 
navy.  Two  years  after  David  D.  Porter  entered  the  U.  S. 
navy  as  a  midshipman,  and  as  a  lieutenant  eighteen  years 
later  was  actively  engaged  in  all  the  operations" of  the  navy 
on  the  east  coast  of  Mexico.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out. 
Porter,  then  a  lieutenant,  was  dispatched  in  the  Powhatan 
to  the  relief  of  Fort  Pickens,  Fla.  He  then  fitted  out  a 
mortar-flotilla  for  the  reduction  of  the  forts  guarding  the 
approaches  to  New  Orleans  by  the  lower  Mississippi.  After 
the  fall  of  New  Orleans  the  mortar-flotilla  was  actively  en- 
gaged at  Vicksburg,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1862  Porter  was 
placed  in  command  of  all  the  naval  forces  on  the  western 
rivers  above  New  Orleans,  with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 
His  ability  as  a  commander-in-chief  was  then  exhibited,  not 
only  in  the  battles  which  he  fought,  but  also  in  the  creation 
of  a  formidable  fleet  out  of  river-steamboats,  which  he  cov- 
ered with  such  plating  as  they  could  bear.  In  1864  Porter 
was  transferred  to  the  Atlantic  coast  to  command  the  na- 
val forces  destined  to  operate  against  the  defenses  of  Wil- 
mington. N.  C,  and  on  Jan.  15,  1805,  the  fall  of  Fort  Fisher 
ended  his  arduous  war-service.  In  1866  he  was  made  vice- 
admiral,  and  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy ;  and  on  the  death  of  Farragut  (1870)  he  became  the 
admiral  of  the  navy.     He  was  the  author  of  Allan  Dare 


aiid  Robert  le  Diable  (New  York,  1885) ;  ITie  Adventures 
of  Harry  Marline  (1885);  Incidents  and  Anecdotes  of  the 
Cicil  War  (1885);  and  was  a  contributor  to  current  litera- 
ture.    D.  at  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  13,  1891. 

Porter,  Pitz  John  :  .soldier ;  b.  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
1822  ;  graduated  at  U.  S.  Military  Academy ;  entered  the 
army  as  brevet  second  lieutenant  .July  1, 1845  ;  served  in  the 
war  with  Mexico  ;  from  1849  to  1855  was  stationed  at  West 
Point  either  as  instructor  or  adjutant  of  the  Military  Acad- 
emy; was  appointed  assistant  adjutant-general  June,  1856; 
served  as  chief  of  staff  in  department  of  the  West  during  the 
Kansas  troubles  (1856)  and  on  the  Utah  expedition  1857-59. 
In  .\pr.,  1861,  he  was  assigned  to  the  duty  of  maintaining 
railway  communication  through  Baltimore  to  Washington. 
While  at  Harrisburg,  and  when  communication  with  Wash- 
ington was  broken.  Porter  was  shown  telegrams  from  Hon. 
Francis  P.  Blair  through  Gov.  Curtin  to  the  President,  ask- 
ing that  the  Missouri  troops  be  mustered  and  used  for  the 
protection  of  that  State.  He  at  once  assumed  the  authority 
of  the  Secretary  of  War  in  giving  the  orders  requested. 
This  was  approved  by  the  authorities  in  Washington.  Un- 
til Aug.,  1861,  he  served  in  Maryland  and  Virginia  with  the 
army  under  Gen.  Patterson  and  his  successor.  Gen.  Banks ; 
and  was  then  appointed  colonel  of  U.  S.  infantry  and  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  and  assigned  to  duty  in  Wash- 
ington. 

In  1862  he  took  part  in  the  Virginia  peninsular  campaign  ; 
was  made  director  of  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  and  upon  the 
evacuation  of  that  place  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Fifth  Army-corps,  with  which  he  fought  several  battles,  in- 
cluding those  of  Mechanicsville  and  Gaines's  Mill.  In  the 
transfer  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from  the  peninsida  to 
Northeastern  Virginia  he  was  ordered  to  stop  at  William.s- 
burg  and  become  the  rear  guard  of  the  army,  which  would 
pass  through  his  lines  to  Yorktown  and  Fortress  Monroe. 
Reliably  informed  that  Lee  was  hastening  to  crush  Pope 
before  he  could  be  re-enforced  by  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
and  knowing  that  the  army  in  withdrawing  was  not  mo- 
lested. Porter  instead  continued  the  march  and  therebv 
joined  Pope  several  days  earlier  than  if  he  had  complied 
with  orders.  Pope  highly  approved  of  this  action.  Porter 
fought  under  Pope  the  memorable  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run.  (See  Bull  Run.  Second  Battle  of).  He  was  then 
placed  in  command  of  the  defenses  of  Washington,  S.  of 
the  Potomac  :  then  was  ordered  to  rejoin  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  at  that  time  in  Maryland,  and  was  permitted  to 
select  a  division  of  12,000  men.  At  the  battle  of  Antietam 
this  division  was  held  in  reserve,  but  after  it  Porter  fol- 
lowed the  enemy  into  Virginia  and  with  his  corps  alone 
fought  the  battle  of  Shepherdstown,  capturing  many  pris- 
oners and  a  batterv  of  artillery  which  had  been  lost  at  the 
first  battle  of  Bull"  Run. 

On  Nov.  12  he  was  relieved  from  command  and  ordered 
to  Washington.  Here  he  was  tried  by  court  martial  on  al- 
leged disobedience  of  orders  inider  Pope,  declared  guilty 
and  cashiered.  A  re-examination  was  made  of  the  charges 
in  1878,  resulting  in  his  complete  vindication.  Against  many 
difflcidties  in  Congress  from  1879  to  1886  a  bill  was  finally 
passed  restoring  him  (Aug.  6.  1886)  to  the  army  as  a  colonel 
of  infantry  from  May  14,  1861,  and,  at  his  own  request,  he 
was  immecliately  placed  on  the  retired  list. 

Porter,  Horace  :  soldier  ;  b.  at  Huntington,  Pa.,  Apr.  15, 
1837;  son  of  David  Rittenhouse  Porter,  Governor  of  Penn- 
sylvania (1838-45) ;  graduated  at  U.  S.  Military  Academy 
1860;  chief  of  artillery  at  capture  of  Fort  Pulaski;  on  staff 
of  Gen.  McClellan  1863;  chief  of  ordnance  on  staff  of  Gen. 
Rosecrans  1863;  aide-de-camp  of  Grant  till  the  close  of  the 
war,  and  his  private  secretary  during  his  first  j)residential 
term.  He  was  breveted  brigadier-general  for  gallant  and 
meritorious  services.   He  is  noted  as  an  after-dinner  speaker. 

Porter.  Jane  :  novelist ;  b.  at  Durham,  England,  in  1776; 
daughter  of  a  surgeon  in  the  .Sixth  Dragoons,  who  died  dur- 
ing her  childhood  ;  was  educated  at  Edinlnirgh  ;  afterward 
lived  with  her  mother  successively  at  London,  at  Ditton-on- 
Thames,  and  at  Esher;  published  in  1803  her  popular  novel, 
Thaddeus  of  Warsaw,  in  1810  the  equally  successful  Sco^ 
tish  Chiefs;  wrote,  at  the  request  of  George  IV.,  Uuke 
Christian  of  Luneburg,  or  Traditions  from  the  Ilartz  (3 
vols..  1824):  and,  besides  several  other  novels  issued  in  1831, 
a  fictitious  but  liighly  circumstantial  Xarratire  of  the  Sliip- 
wreck  of  Sir  Edward  Seaward,  which  by  some  reviewers 
was  deemed  a  genuine  narrative  of  facts.  D.  at  Bristol,  May 
24,  1850.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 


PORTER 


PORT   HUDSON 


719 


Porter,  Josus  IjEslie,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  D.  Litt. :  clergyman 

anil  aiitluir:  b.  at  Burt,  Ireland,  Oct.  4,  182:5;  was  educated 
at  tlie  L'niversities  of  Glasgow  and  Edinbuixli.  and  at  the 
Free  Churcli  College,  Edinburgh;  was  f>asti)r  at  Neweastle- 
(jii-Tyne  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England  1846-4!); 
inissionarj'  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  in  Damas- 
cus 184!>-5i):  was  Professor  of  Biblical  Criticism  in  the  As- 
s<Mnbly's  college  in  Belfast  1860-77;  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion in  Irelanil  1878;  president  of  Queen's  College,  Belfast, 
1879.  till  his  dcatli  there  Mar.  16.  1889.  He  is  the  author 
of  Fire  }>or.s  in  Damascus  (London,  2  vols.,  185.5;  2d  eil. 
1870);  Handbook  for  Syria  and  Palestine  (1858;  2  vols., 
:id  ed.  1875);  The  Pentateuch  and  the  Gospels  (1864);  The 
Giant  Cities  of  Bashan  (1865);  The  Life  and  Times  of 
Jhnry  Cooke.  D.  D.,  LL.  D..  his  father-in-law  (1871;  3d 
ed.  1877);  The  I'ew  and  Study  Bible  (1876),  etc. 

Revised  by  S.  JI.  Jackson. 

Porter.  No.\h.  I).  D.,  LL.  D. ;  educator  and  autlior  ;  b.  at 
Farmington.  Cotni.,  Dec.  14,  1811  ;  son  of  Rev.  Noah  Porter, 
1).  1)..  minister  of  Farmington  nearly  sixty  years  (b.  1781; 
d.  Sept.  24,  1866);  graduated  at  Yale  College' 1831 ;  master 
of  Hopkins  grammar  school,  at  New  Haven,  1831-33;  was 
tutor  at  Yale  1833-35,  pursuing  theological  studies  at  the 
same  time;  liccaine  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  at 
New  Milford,  Conn.,  Apr.,  1836 ;  settled  at  Springfield,  Mass., 
1843;  was  chosen  Clark  Professor  of  Metaphysics  and  Moral 
Philosophy  at  Yale  College  1846;  spent  a  year  (1853-54)  in 
Europe,  chiefly  in  Germany,  where  he  made  a  close  study  of 
modern  German  philosophy ;  was  elected  president  of  Yale 
College  on  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Woolsey  in  1871.  Presi- 
dent Porter  resigned  the  presidency  in  Oct.,  188.5.  to  take 
effect  at  the  following  commencement.  He  retained  the 
office  of  Clark  Professor  of  Metaphysics  and  Moral  Philos- 
ophy until  his  death  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  JIar.  4,  1892. 
lie  was  author  of  a  prize  essay  on  The  Educational  Systems 
of  the  Puritans  and  the  Jesuits  compared  (New  York.  1851); 
The  Human  Lttellect.  with  an  Introduction  upon  Psychohigy 
and  the  Soul  (New  York,  1868) ;  Books  and  Reading  (1870) ; 
American  Colleges  and  the  American  Public  (1870;  2d  ed., 
with  additions,  1878) ;  Elements  of  Intellectual  Philosophy 
(1871),  being  an  abridgment  of  the  larger  work  ;  Tlie  Science 
of  Nature  versus  the  Science  of  Man  (1871);  Science  and 
Sentiment  (1882) ;  Elements  of  Moral  Science  (1885) ;  Bish- 
op Berkeley  (1885);  and  Kant's  Ethics  (1886).  Dr.  Por- 
ter was  the  principal  editor  of  the  revised  edition  of  Web- 
ster's Dictionary  (1864,  1880,  and  1890),  and  contributed 
al)undantly  to  religious  and  literary  reviews  and  p«'riodi- 
cals.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  of  metaphysicians,  and  a 
man  of  varied  talents  and  attainments. 

Revised  by  G.  P.  Fisher. 

Porter.  Peter  Biel:  soldier;  h.  at  .Salisbury,  Conn.,  in 
1773;  studied  law;  settled  in  New  York  State;  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1808,  re-elected  in  1810,  and  the  year  follow- 
ing, as  chairman  of  the  (committee  on  foreign  relations, 
prepared  and  introduced  the  celebrated  report  recommend- 
ing war  with  Great  Britain.  Hostilities  having  begun,  he 
resigned  his  seat  in  Congress  .and  served  throughout  the  war 
with  distinction,  holding  important  commands.  In  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  services  the  city  of  New  York  pre- 
sented him  with  the  freedom  of  the  city,  the  State  of  New 
York  voted  him  a  sword,  and  he  received  the  thanks  of  the 
Congress  of  the  U.  S.,  with  a  gold  medal.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1816  by  President  Madison  a  commissioner  un- 
der the  treaty  to  settle  the  bounilary-line  between  Canada 
and  the  U.  S.  An  early  projector  of  the  Erie  Canal,  he  with 
Morris  and  Clinton  constituted  the  first  board  of  commis- 
sioners for  selecting  its  route.  In  1828  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War,  and  held  the  office  during  Adams's  ad- 
ministration.    D.  at  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  in  1844. 

Porter.  Sir  Robert  Ker:  hi.storical  painter  and  traveler; 
brother  of  .laiK^  Porter,  the  novelist;  b.  at  Durham,  Eng- 
land, alifiut  1775;  went  to  Spain  with  Sir  John  Moore  1808; 
was  knighted  in  1811;  was  consul  in  Venezuela  1820-41; 
lived  many  years  in  Russia.  Among  his  most  remarkable 
paintings  are  The  Siege  of  Acre:  Peter  the  Great  planning 
the  fort  of  Cronstadt  and  St.  Peter.'iburg,  a  fresco  painted 
on  the  walls  of  the  admiralty  in  St.  Petersburg;  and  Christ 
ble.ising  the  Little  Children,  which,  together  with  an  Ecce 
Homo,  was  paint cil  in  Caracas.  D.  in  .St.  Petersburg,  May 
4,  1842.  He  was  the  author  of  Travels  in  Russia  and  Swe- 
den (1808);  Letters  from  Portugal  and  Spain  (1809);  An 
Account  of  the  Hussian  Campaign  (1813);  and  Travels  iii 
Georgia,  Persia,  and  Armenia  (1821-22). 


Porter.  Thomas  Conrad,  D. D..  LL. D. :  botanist;  b.  at 
Alexandria.  Pa.,  Jan.  22,  1822 ;  educated  in  Harrisbnrg 
Academy,  Lafayette  College,  and  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary;  minister  of  the  Gospel  1844-49;  Professor  of 
Natural  Sciences  in  Marshall  College  1849-53 ;  same  in 
Franklin  College  1853-66;  Professor  of  Botany  in  Lafayette 
College,  Easton,  Pa.,  1866.  Among  his  scientific  publica- 
tions are  Sketch  of  the  Flora  of  Pennsylvania  (mTi):  Sketch 
of  the  Botany  of  the  Vnited  States  (1873);  A  Synopsis  of 
the  Flora  of  Colorado  (prepared  conjointly  with  .lohn  AL 
Coulter,  1874);  A  List  of  the  Carices  of  Pennsylvania  (1887); 
^1  List  of  the  Grasses  of  Pennsylvania  (1893);  and  many 
shorter  papers  in  l^e  Botanical  Gazette  and  Bulletin  of  the 
Torrey  Botanical  Club.  Cuarles  E.  Bessey. 

Porter,  William  David:  naval  officer;  son  of  David 
Porter,  naval  officer ;  b.  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  Mar.  10,  1809 ; 
entered  the  U.  S.  navy  as  midshipman  Jan.  1,  1823;  became 
lieutenant  Dec.  31,  1833;  was  the  originator  of  the  light- 
house system  in  use  in  the  D.  S. ;  served  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  during  the  war  between  the  V.  S.  and  Mexico;  was 
retired  18.55;  ri'-entered  the  navy  1859;  built  and  com- 
manded the  ironclad  Essex  in  the  Mississippi  flotilla  1861- 
62;  participated  in  the  attacks  on  Forts  Henry  and  Donel- 
son ;  sailed  down  Jlississippi  river  to  New  Orleans,  forcing 
a  pa.ssage  by  several  Confederate  batteries;  took  part  in  en- 
gagements at  Vicksburg,  Baton  Rouge  (where  he  effected 
the  destruction  of  the  Confederate  ironclad  Arkansas), 
Natchez,  and  l^ort  Hudson,  and  was  made  commodore  July 
16.  1862.  Owing  to  feeble  health  he  took  little  part  in  sub- 
sequent naval  service.     D.  in  New  York,  Jlay  1,  1864. 

Por'teiis,  Beilby.  D.  D.  :  bishop ;  b.  at  York,  England, 
May  8,  1731;  was  educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  obtained  a  fellowship  and  gained  the  Sealonian 
prize  for  poetry;  became  chaplain  to  Archbishop  Seeker 
1762,  and  to  George  III.  1769;  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Chester  1776.  and  of  London  1787.  D.  in  London,  May  13, 
1809.  Author  of  a  Review  of  the  Life  and  Character  of 
Archbi.'thop  Seeker  (1797),  in  which  the  efforts  of  the  pri- 
mate to  accomplish  the  introduction  of  bishops  in  the 
American  colonies  were  detailed  anil  defended  ;  A  Summary 
of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity:  and  other  works,  of  which 
a  collected  edition,  preceded  by  a  memoir,  was  published  in 
six  volumes,  1811.  Revised  by  \V.  S.  Perry. 

Port  Glasgow:  town  of  Renfrewshire,  Scotland;  on  the 
Clyde;  20  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Glasgow  (see  map  of  Scotland, 
ref.  11-F);  has  large  quays,  ship-building  docks,  extensive 
manufactures  of  sail-cloth  and  ropes,  iron- and  brass-foun- 
dries, and  considerable  importation  of  American  timber. 
Pop.  (1891)  14.047. 

Port  Hamilton  :  a  spacious  harbor  in  the  island  of  Ki'i- 
wun.  one  of  the  Nanhow  group,  lying  S.  of  Korea,  just  N. 
of  34°  N.  lat.  (see  map  of  China,  ref.  5-M).  Only  three  of 
these  islands  are  of  importance.  When  Great  Britain  and 
Ru.ssia  seemed  (Apr.,  1885)  on  the  verge  of  war  over  ihoir 
conflicting  Asian  interests  Great  Britain  seized  Port  Ham- 
ilton, against  the  protests  of  China  and  Jajmn,  as  a  coaling- 
station  and  naval  port  of  much  strategic  value,  command- 
ing the  Korea  Strait.  It  wjis  found  that  the  anchorage- 
ground  Wiis  poor,  that  adequate  fortifications  would  cost 
enormously,  and  Great  Britain  (Jan.,  1887)  transferred  the 
islands  to  China.  C.  C.  Adams. 

Port  Hudson:  post  village;  in  East  Baton  Rouge  parish. 
La.  (for  Icjiation  of  parish,  see  map  of  Louisiana,  ref.  9-E); 
on  left  bank  of  the  .Mississipi)i.  Pop.  (1890)  2.50.  Port 
Hudson  stands  on  a  high  bluff'  at  a  sharp  bend  of  the  river. 
During  the  late  summer  and  autumn  of  1862  Confederate 
batteries,  heavily  mounted,  well-protected,  and  strongly 
manned,  had  been  erected  along  the  bluffs  for  a  distance  of 
about  3  miles,  completely  commanding  the  river.  On  the 
night  of  Mar.  14-15,  1863,  the  Union  fleet  of  four  sloops-of- 
war  and  five  gunboats,  under  Farnignt,  attempted  to  pass 
these  batteries.  Of  these  the  Hartford  and  the  gunboat 
Albatross  succeeded,  but  the  remainder  were  driven  back, 
one  being  destroyed  and  four  disabled.  The  place  was  in- 
vested by  Gen.  Banks.  May  21-26, 1863,  and  a  general  a.ssault 
was  made  May  27,  which  was  repulsed,  the  Union  loss  being 
1.995  killed  and  wotindeil ;  the  Confederate  loss  was  not 
more  than  300.  An  effort  to  carry  the  works  by  storm  (June 
14)  was  repidsed  with  a  Union  loss  of  about  1.805.  On  July 
7  tidings  were  received  that  Vicksburg  had  fallen  three 
days  before,  and  negotiations  for  the  surrender  of  Port 
Hi'idson  were  at  once  opened.     The  surrender  was  made 


720 


PORT  HURON 


PORTLAND 


July  9.  There  were  about  6,400  prisoners  of  war,  51  guns, 
5,000  small-arms,  much  ammunition,  and  2  steamers  were 
also  captured.  The  siege  had  lasted  forty-five  days.  The 
entire  Union  loss  was  about  4.o00men;  the  Confederate 
loss  about  800,  exclusive  of  prisoners.  The  capture  of  Port 
Hudson  opened  the  entire  course  of  the  Mississippi. 

Revised  by  James  SIerci'R. 

Port  Huron  :  city  (settled  by  whites  in  1686,  originally 
called  Desmond,  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1857) ;  port  of  en- 
try :  capital  of  St.  Clair  co.,  Mich. ;  on  the  St.  Clair  and 
Black  rivers,  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Huron,  and  on  the  Grand 
Trunk,  the  Chi.  and  Gr.  Trunk,  and  the  Flint  and  Pere 
Marquette  railways ;  56  miles  N.  X.  E.  of  Detroit  (for  loca- 
tion, see  map  of  Jlichigan,  ref.  7-K).  It  contains  13  churches. 
14  public-school  buildings,  public-school  property  valued  at 
over  $300,000,  Academy  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  several  pa- 
rochial and  private  schools,  5  public  parks,  Holly  system  of 
water-works,  with  supply  from  Lake  Huron,  public  library, 
U.  S.  Government  buildmg  that  cost  $250,000,  hospital,  a 
national  bank  with  capital  of  |13.5,000,  3  State  banks  with 
combined  capital  of  f  250,000,  a  private  bank,  and  2  daily,  6 
weekly,  and  3  monthly  periodicals.  It  has  16  miles  of  paved 
streets,  7  of  electric  railway,  electric-light  plant,  3  fuel  and 

fas-light  plants,  35  hotels,  and  many  handsome  business 
uildrags.  It  has  a  large  grain-,  lumber-,  and  wool-trade. 
Among  the  industrial  works  are  the  locomotive-shops  of  the 
Grand  Trunk  Railway,  which  also  has  car-  and  repair-shops, 
threshing-machine  manufactory,  7  grain-elevators,  3  Hour- 
mills,  3  dry-docks,  4  foundries,  6  carriage-  and  wagon-shops, 
4  marble-works,  5  cigar-factories,  1  planing-mill,  2  engine- 
works,  2  breweries,  4  bottling-works,  3  lime-kilns,  and  a 
plant  for  manufacturing  paper  from  spruce  wood.  The  city 
is  connected  with  Sarnia,  Canada,  by  a  steam-ferry  and  by 
a  tunnel  constructed  to  accommodate  the  connecting  \J.  S. 
and  Canadian  railways.  Pop.  (1880)  8,883;  (1890)  13,543; 
(1894,  State  census)  18,140. 

L.  A.  Sherman,  editor  op  "  Times." 

Portici,  por'te-e-che'e :  town  ;  in  the  province  of  Naples, 
Italy ;  on  the  Bay  of  Naples,  at  the  western  foot  of  Vesu- 
vius ;  about  5  miles  S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Naples  (see  map  of 
Italy,  ref.  7-F).  Since  79  A.  D.  the  volcano  has  poured  its 
burning  lava  seven  times  over  the  spot  on  which  Portici 
now  stands,  and  as  many  times  it  has  been  rebuilt.  The  ex- 
cavations in  search  of  the  treasures  of  Hebculaneum  {q.  v.) 
were  begun  here  in  1714.  The  modern  town  contains  a 
long  street,  a  fine  square,  a  mole  for  the  convenience  of  the 
shipping,  a  little  fort  which  commands  the  roadstead,  and 
an  agricultural  college,  formerly  a  royal  palace,  built  in 
1737.  The  industry  of  Portici  consists  of  fishing,  a  small 
coasting  trade,  and  the  manufactui-e  of  silk  and  ribbons. 
Pop.  12,372. 

Port  Jeryis:  village  ;  Orange  co.,  N.  T.  (for  location,  see 
map  of  New  York,  ref.  7-J) ;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Never- 
sink  and  the  Delaware  rivers,  and  the  intersection  of  the 
boundary-lines  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania ; 
on  the  Erie  and  the  Port  Jervis,  Monticello  and  N.  Y.  rail- 
ways, and  the  Del.  and  Hudson  Canal ;  21  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Middletown,  88  miles  N.  W.  of  New  York  city.  It  is  widely 
noted  for  the  beauty  of  its  location  and  surrounding  scenery, 
and  contains  3  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
$330,000,  a  soldiers'  monument  (unveiled  in  1886),  a  district- 
school  lilirary,  re|iair-shops  of  the  Erie  Railroad,  2  glass- 
factories,  3  foinidries,  and  boot-  and  shoe-,  saw-,  harness-, 
shirt-,  and  glove-factories,  and  a  monthly,  3  daily,  and  3 
weekly  periodicals.     Pop.  (1880)  8.678  :  (1890)  9,337. 

Editor  of  •'  Gazette." 

Portland,  N.  B. :  a  suburb  of  St.  John  (q.  v.). 

Portland  :  town  ;  Middlesex  co.,  Conn,  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Connecticut,  ref.  9-H) ;  on  the  Connecticut  river, 
and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  II.  and  Hart.  Railroad  :  nearly  opposite 
Middletown.  It  is  best  known  for  its  quarries  of  brown 
sandstone.  Other  industries  are  ship-building  and  the 
manufacture  of  steam-governors  and  various  kinds  of  tin- 
ware. It  has  water-works,  electric  lights,  a  national  bank 
with  capital  of  $150,000,  a  savings-bank,  and  a  weekly  and 
a  monthly  periodical.     Pop.  (1880)  4,157  :  (1890)  4,687. 

Editor  ok  ••  Middlesex  Coun-ty  Record." 

Portland  :  city ;  capital  of  Jay  co.,  Ind. ;  on  the  Sala- 
monie  river,  and  the  Grand  Rapids  and  Ind.  and  the  Lake 
Erie  and  West,  railways  ;  43  miles  N.  of  Richmoml,  49  miles 
S.  by  E.  of  Fort  Wayne  (tor  location,  see  map  of  Indiana. 
ref.  5-G).     It  is  in  a  natural-gas  region,  has  a  large  lumber- 


trade,  and  contains  several  manufactories,  3  State  banks 
with  combined  capital  of  $110,000,  and  a  daily  and  4  weekly 
newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  1,694  ;  (1890)  3,735. 

Portland  :  city  (settled  by  the  English  in  1633,  incorpo- 
rated as  a  town  in  1786,  as  a  city  in  1833);  port  of  entry  ; 
capital  of  Cunilierland  co..  Me.  (for  location,  see  map  of 
JIaine,  ref.  10-B) ;  on  Casco  Bay,  and  the  Boston  and  Maine, 
the  Maine  Cent.,  the  Gr.  Trunk,  and  the  Portland  and 
Rochester  railways  ;  63  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Augusta,  108  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  Boston.  It  is  the  largest  and  most  important 
city  in  the  State,  is  built  on  a  peninsula  jutting  into  the 
bay,  and  has  a  picturesque  harbor  dotted  with  islands  and 
defended  by  Forts  Preble,  Scammel,  and  Gorges,  by  earth- 
works on  Portland  Head  and  Cushing's  island  (projected), 
and  by  a  modern  torpedo  system.  Communication  by  water 
is  afforded  by  a  daily  steamboat-line  to  Boston  and  a  semi- 
weekly  line  "to  New  York  city,  and  in  winter  two  weekly 
steamship-lines  to  Europe.  The  city  is  the  winter  port  of 
the  ocean  steamships  connecting  with  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway  at  Montreal  in  summer.  The  harlior  is  accessible 
without  a  pilot  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  and  has  been  the 
scene  of  commercial  activity,  particularly  in  the  line  of 
trade  with  the  West  Indies,  for  many  generations.  Port- 
land constitutes  a  U.  S.  customs  district ;  in  1891  merchan- 
dise to  the  value  of  $7,433,518  was  imported  and  domestic 
]jroducts  to  the  value  of  $9,559,080  were  exported.  The 
city  contains  a  U.  S.  custom-house  of  granite,  a  U.  S.  post- 
office  and  court  building  of  white  marble,  an  imposing  city- 
hall  of  olive-colored  freestone,  8  national  banks  with  com- 
bined capital  of  $3,650,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of 
$100,000,  2  savings-banks  with  aggregate  deposits  of  $13,- 
889.300,  6  private  banks,  and  4  daily,  11  weekly,  9  monthly, 
and  4  (juarterly  periodicals.  The  principal  churches  are  the 
Cathedral  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  (Roman  Catholic), 
St.  Luke's  Cathedral  (Protestant  Ejiiscopal).  the  Payson  Me- 
morial, the  First  Baptist,  the  First  Parish,  the  double-spired 
Chestnut  Street  Methodist  Episcopal,  St.  Paul's  and  St. 
Stephen's  (Protestant  Episcopal),  and  St.  Dominic's  (Roman 
Catliolic).  The  public-school  property  is  valued  at  over 
$400,000,  and  comprises  17  school-buildings.  There  are  9 
libraries  of  all  kinds,  containing  over  71,000  volumes.  Those 
of  the  Maine  Historical  Society  and  the  Portland  Society  of 
Natural  History  are  in  a  building  erected  by  James  P.  Bax- 
ter in  1889  and  presented  to  the  two  societies  for  use  in 
common.  Among  the  notable  buildings  is  the  Longfellow 
homestead  on  Congress  Street,  which  was  erected  in  1785-87 
and  presented  to  the  Maine  Historical  Society  in  1893.  The 
principal  industries  are  meat-packing  and  tlie  manufacture 
of  locomotives,  foundry  and  machine-shop  produi^ts,  and 
boots  and  shoes.  In  1893  the  assessed  valuation  of  the  city 
was  $36,833,990,  and  in  1894  the  net  debt  was  $1,483,760. 
The  original  settlement  was  destroyed  by  the  Indians  in 
1676,  and  its  successor  by  the  French  and  Indians  in  1690. 
In  1775  the  village  was  bombarded  and  burned  by  a  British 
fleet,  and  in  1866  a  third  part  of  the  city  was  destroyed  by 
fire.     Pop.  (1880)  33,810;  (1890)36,43.5. 

George  S.  Rowell,  editor  of  "Advertiser." 

Portland  :  city  (laid  out  in  1845,  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1851,  enlarged  by  the  annexation  of  Albina  and  East 
Portland  in  1891) ;  capital  of  Multnomah  co..  Ore. ;  on  the 
Willamette  river,  13  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Columbia,  and  the  N.  Pac,  the  S.  Pac.  the  Union  Pac,  and 
the  Portland  and  Willamette  Valley  railways  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Oregon,  ref'.  3-C).  The  city  is  built  on  sloping 
ground,  the  river  dividing  it  nearly  in  the  midiUo.  A  range 
of  hills  on  the  W.,  within  easy  walking  distance,  rises  to  an 
elevation  of  1,000  feet.  The  Cascade  Mountains,  with  the 
snow-capped  peaks  of  Mt.  Hood,  Mt.  Adams,  Mt.  St.  Helen, 
and  Mt.  Rainier,  and  the  picturesque  gorge  of  the  Columbia, 
are  in  plain  view.  Although  the  city  is  130  miles  from  the 
ocean,  its  location  at  the  head  of  deep-water  navigation  on  the 
two  rivers  makes  it  in  reality  a  seaport.  The  largest  steam- 
ships are  able  to  go  direct  to  the  city  wharves  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  the  city  has  regular  water-communication 
with  the  greater  part  of  the  .State  of  Washington,  with  As- 
toria, The  Dalles,  Albany,  Corvallis,  and  Dayton,  in  Ore- 
gon ;  with  Lewiston,  in  Idaho ;  with  Puget  Soimd,  British 
Columbia,  Alaska,  and  San  Francisco ;  and  with  the  prin- 
cipal Chinese  and  Japanese  ports.  Lying  in  the  heart  of  a 
great  producing  region,  with  exceptional  shijiping  facilities 
by  rail  and  water,  the  city  is  an  important  center  of  com- 
mercial activity.  In  1893  the  deep-sea  commerce  of  the 
port  was,  foreign,  $7,350,000 ;  coastwise,  $3,909,000— total. 


PORTLAND 


POKTKAITURE 


721 


$11,259,000:  anil  llio  sliipiiieiits  of  pnnliico  iiinl  nierclian- 
dise  eastward  a^'ureKated  .t4,(iO().(K)0.  There  were  24  mer- 
cantile hiiuses  iiavinff  a  capital  nf  ni(jre  than  $1,000,000 
ejich,  the  wholesale  jobbing  trade  e.\eeedin)f  in  value  .*124,- 
000,000.  The  ag^feKi'lt'  banking  capital  was  over  $10,000, 
000,  and  the  bank  clearings  of  the  year  over  $10!l,r)U0,000. 
The  census  returns  of  ItSUO  showeil  that  504  niamifacluring 
establislinients  (represent in;;  M8  industries)  reported  These 
ha«l  a  combined  capital  of  $16,808,028,  employed  !),240  per- 
sons, paid  $7,17y.7;i:{  for  wages  and  $12,427,071  for  mate- 
rials, and  had  products  valued  at  $24,429,44!).  The  prin- 
cipal industries,  in  the  order  of  capital  employed,  were 
those  connected  with  himl>er,  printing  and  publishing,  malt 
liquors,  furniture,  awnings,  tents  and  .sails,  bridges,  and 
slaughtering  and  meat-packing.  Portland  is  supplied  with 
water  from  a  stream  SO  miles  distant,  which  has  its  source 
on  Mt.  Ilood  ;  is  lighted  with  gas  and  electricity;  has  over 
125  miles  of  street-railwav  ;  contains  a  number  of  massive 
buildings,  including  the  \j.  S.  Government  building,  city- 
hall,  ('haml)er  of  Commerce,  L'nion  Dejiot,  and  the  Hotel 
Portland  :  and  has  3  daily.  23  weekly,  a  semi-montlily.  and 
15  monthly  periodicals.  There  are  30  cluirches,  15  public- 
school  buildinits,  public-school  property  vahied  at  over 
$()00,000.  the  l?ishop  Scott  Academy  (Protestant  r,pisco|ial, 
opene<l  1870),  St.  Helen's  Hall  (Protestant  Kpiscopal,  char- 
tered 18G9),  St.  Michael's  College  (Roman  Catholic,  opened 
1H71),  Portland  Ai'a<iemy  (non-sectarian),  the  medical  de- 
partments of  the  State  and  the  Willamette  Tniversitics,  and 
a  business  college.  In  1893  the  asses.sed  valuations  of  the 
city  aggregated  $54,332,500.  and  on  Jan.  I.  1894,  the  bonded 
debt  was  $2,721,500,  i>f  which  $1,150,000  was  in  water  bonils. 
Pop.  (1880)  17.577:  (1890)  46,385:  (1891)  after  the  consoli- 
dation of  Albina,  East  Portland,  and  Portland,  estimate<i, 
72,0(M).  W.  11.  Scott,  editor  of  "  Uri;gonia.n." 

Portland.  OrKKs  of  :  See  Bentixck. 
Portland  Cement:  See  Cement. 

Portland.  Isle  of:  a  peninsula  on  the  coa,st  of  Dorset- 
shire, England;  about  4  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Weymouth.  It 
is  connected  with  the  mainland  liy  a  ridge  of  loose  shingle, 
the  Chcsil  Bank,  ami  reaches  495  feet  in  height  at  the  Verne, 
from  which  it  slojies  gradually  to  Portland  liill,  its  southern 
extremity,  where  there  are  two  lighthouses.  Portland  is 
noted  tor  its  quarries  of  excellent  building-stone,  the  stone 
of  which  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  in  Ijondon.  is  built  ;  other 
features  are  the  old  castle  erected  by  Henry  VIII.;  the  mag- 
nificent breakwater,  with  which  are  connected  a  naval  sta- 
tion and  a  harbor  of  refuge  ;  its  prisons,  capable  of  accom- 
modating 1,500  convicts;  Bow  and  Arrow  Castle,  a.scribed 
to  Rufus  ;  and  the  Pennsvlvania  Ca.stle  (1800),  built  by  Ciov- 
ernor  Penn.  (See  Breakwater.)  Pop.  (I8!)l)  11.000. 
Portland  Viisp;  See  Glass  {Glass  in  Artistic  Use). 
Port  Liiraca :  town;  capital  of  Calhoun  Co.,  Tex.:  on 
Matagorda  liay,  and  the  S.  Pac.  Railroad  ;  '20  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  (for  location,  see  map  of  Texas,  ref.  G-I). 
Indianola,  the  former  capital  of  the  county,  a  port  of  entry, 
and  a  town  of  large  commercial  importance,  was  almost  en- 
tirely swept  away  liy  a  Hood  in  1875,  and  what  was  left  was 
destroyed  by  a  second  flood  in  1886.  The  business  of  the 
town  was  then  transferred  to  Port  Lavaca,  which  was  made 
the  couuty-seat.  The  principal  industries  are  fishing,  oyster- 
ing,  and  fruit-cultivation.     Pop.  (1890)  365. 

Port  Loil'is;  cajiilal  of  the  British  colony  of  Mairith's 
(q.  v.):  on  the  northwest  of  tlie  island.  It  is  well  built  and 
strongly  fortified,  has  a  good  harbor,  barracks,  a  public  li- 
brary, a  theater,  a  botanic  garden,  and  is  the  commercial 
center  of  the  colony.     Pop.  (1891)  62,046. 

Port  Million'  (anc.  Partus  Magonis) :  capital  of  Jlinorca, 
on  the  southern  coast  of  the  island  (see  map  of  Spain,  ref. 
6-M).  It  has  a  spacious  and  .safe  harbor,  capable  of  accoin- 
raodating  a  fleet  of  men-of-war.  It  was  made  a  first-class 
fortress  by  the  British,  who  held  Minorca  twice  during  the 
eighteenth  centurv.  Cattle,  cotton,  shoes,  and  lioney  are 
exported.     Pop.  (1887)  18,445. 

Portiieiif:  village;  Portneuf  County,  Province  of  Que- 
bec, C'anada  :  on  the  St.  Lawrence  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Portneuf  river,  and  on  the  Can.  Pac.  Railway  ;  35  miles  S.  W. 
from  the  city  of  Quebec  (see  map  of  (Quebec,  ref.  4-C).  The 
St.  Lawrence  has  a  beautiful  appearance  as  it  bends  into 
the  bay  which  forms  the  harl)or  of  the  village.  Opposite  is 
Point  Platon  with  its  [)icturesque  village.  There  are  sev- 
eral mills,  the  chief  indust  ry  being  the  manufacture  of  paper. 
Pop.  of  the  parish  about  1,850.  J.  M.  IIari'ER. 

330 


Por'to  .Vle'gre  :  capital  and  largest  city  of  the  .state  of 
Rio  (irande  do  .Sul.  Brazil ;  beautifully  situated  on  the  Gua- 
hyba  or  broadeneil  lower  part  of  the  river  Jacuhy  ;  38  miles 
from  its  mouth  in  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos,  and  by  the  latter 
and  the  Rio  Grande,  246  miles  from  the  sea  (see  map  of 
South  .-\merica,  ref.  7-F).  The  town  is  built  partly  on  flat 
land,  partly  on  a  low  promontory.  There  are  few  preten- 
tious edifices.  The  outskirts,  reached  by  horse  railways,  are 
adorned  with  beautiful  gardens.  Porto  Alegre  is  one  of  the 
cleanest,  prettiest,  and  most  thriving  cities  of  Brazil,  and  it 
is  Very  healthful.  Ves-sels  which  can  pass  the  Rio  (jrande 
bar  ascend  to  this  place  and  load  directly  at  wharves;  and 
small  steamboats  connect  the  port  with  towns  on  the  Jacuhy 
and  with  numerous  German  and  Italian  colonies  on  the 
branch  rivei-s;  much  of  the  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  German 
merchants.  The  city  is  the  emporium  of  the  agricultural 
region  in  the  northern  part  of  Kio  Grande  do  .SnI,  and  is 
growing  rapidly.     Pop.  (1894)  about  45,000.  II.  II.  S. 

Porto- Perraio,  por  to-fer-raa'yo :  capital  of  the  island  of 
Klka  ((•/.  v.).     Pop.  3,737. 

Port  of  Spain  ;  capital  and  principal  town  and  port  of 
the  island  of  Trinidad,  West  In<lies;  on  the  Gulf  of  Paria 
(west  coast  of  the  island),  fronting  a  small  bay  (see  map  of 
West  Indies,  ref.  9-M).  It  is  well  laid  out  on  flat  ground, 
and  has  many  handsome  buikUngs.  especially  in  the  out- 
skirts, where  the  houses  of  the  better  idass  are  surrounded 
by  extensive  gardens.  The  Botanical  Garden  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  British  colonies.  The  governor's  residence,  a 
fine  edifice,  is  in  this  garden.  Port  of  Spain  lias  most  of 
the  commerce  of  the  colony,  and  is  the  entrepot  for  much 
of  the  English  trade  with  the  northern  part  of  South  Amer- 
ica; regular  lines  of  steamers  connect  it  with  Europe,  the 
U.  S.,  the  Venezuelan  ports,  and  the  Orinoco.  The  harbor 
is  safe,  but  vessels  are  obliged  to  anchor  at  some  distance 
from  the  shore.  The  climate  is  hot,  but  generallv  health- 
ful.    Pop.  (istio)  31.858.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Porto  Maurizio.  maa-o"b-rit  si-o  (anc.  Portus  Maurilii): 
chief  town  in  the  jirovince  of  the  same  name,  Italy  ;  about 
14  miles  from  San  Remo  and  41  miles  by  rail  E.  by  N.  of  Nice 
(see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-B).  It  consists  of  an  old  town  on  a 
hill  and  a  new  one  by  the  sea.  The  former  was  once  well 
fortified  and  walled.  The  harbor  is  formed  by  two  moles, 
and  is  entered  from  the  S.  S.  W.  There  is  a  large  produc- 
tion of  olives  and  a  considerable  coasting  trade.  Pop. 
6,309.  The  iirovincc  has  an  area  of  455  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
(1892)  142.200. 

Port  Orchard:  naval  station  (name  changed  from  Sid- 
ney. I8!)4):  capital  of  Kitsap  co..  Wash.;  on  Port  Orchard 
Bay,  an  arm  of  Puget  Sound.  18  miles  W.  of  Seattle  (for  lo- 
cation, see  map  of  Washington,  ref.  3-C).  A  tract  of  200 
acres  was  secured  by  the  C.  S.  Government  in  1801.  and  Con- 
gress aiipropriatcd  $700,000  for  the  construction  of  a  timber 
dry  dock  600  feet  long,  75  feet  wide  on  the  floor,  and  of 
sufficient  depth  to  accommodate  vessels  of  30  feet  draught, 
the  largest  dry  dock  in  the  U.  S.  Congress  also  authorized 
a  survey  for  a  (fanal  to  connect  the  sound  at  this  point  with 
Lake  Washington,  a  fresh-water  body  2*  miles  inland,  for 
the  pnrpo.se  of  affording  the  station  a  harbor  where  vessels 
could  be  free  from  the  attacks  of  shipworms. 

Porto  Rico  :  See  Puerto  Rico. 

Porto  Segiiro.  Baron  and  Viscount  of  :  See  Varnha- 
oen,  Francisco  Adoepiio,  de. 

Portraiture,  or  Portrait-art:  the  fine  art  which  has 
for  its  subjects  the  likenesses  of  men  and  women,  and  by 
extension  ideal  attempted  likenesses  of  those  who  are  dead. 
So  little  of  what  the  oldest  races  did  in  this  field  remains  to 
us  that  until  Mariette's  discovery  in  Lower  Egypt  of  por- 
trait-statues belonging  to  the  third  dynasty  (u.  c.  4449)  it 
was  believed  by  some  that  the  art  of  portraiture  was  of  recent 
origin.  Coming  down  to  historic  times,  the  earliest  portraits 
of  which  we  have  any  mention  are  those  Apelles  made  of 
Alexander  and  Antigonus.  We  have  but  little  record  of 
the  snb.sequent  history  of  portraiture  in  Greece,  for  nearly 
all  traces  of  Greek  painting  have  disapjieared,  and  no  well- 
authenticated  portrait-bnst  or  statue  of  antique  Greek  work- 
manship exists.  The  painters  and  sculptors  of  the  Renais- 
sance and  the  succeeding  epoch  were  very  much  occuiiied 
with  i)ortrait-art.  An  important  exception  is  Jlichelangelo. 
who  left  no  portraits.  Even  the  statues  of  Lorenzo  and 
Giulianb  in  the  Aledici  chapel  he  declared  he  did  not  intend 
for  portraits.  Ra|ihael  and  his  contem]ioraries,  and  their 
immediate  successors,  brought  the  art  to  its  full  perfection. 


r29 


PORTRAITURE 


PORTSMOUTH 


In  Spain  Velasquez  is  the  greatest  name,  but  less  skill 
than  his,  which  was  supreme,  would  have  sufficed  to  give 
pre-eminence  in  a  country  where  portrait-painting  was  so 
little  practiced  as  it  was  in  the  Peninsula.  N.  of  the  Alps, 
Van  Eyck,  Cranach,  Diirer,  Holbein,  Rubens,  Franz  Hals, 
and  Rembrandt  distinguished  themselves  in  portraiture. 
Holbein  belongs,  however,  as  much  to  England  as  to  Ger- 
many ;  most  of  his  finest  jiortraits  are  in  England.  Since 
his  time  Germany  has  not  produced  any  great  portrait- 
painter.  In  France  no  native-born  portrait-painter  of  any 
distinction  appeared  until  the  eighteenth  century.  Francis 
I.  invited  several  Italian  artists  into  Prance,  chief  among 
them  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  from  whose  hand  the  king  hoped 
he  might  get  other  portraits  equal  to  that  of  Mona  Lisa  del 
Giocondo,  now  in  the  Louvre,  on  which  Leonardo  worked 
for  four  years,  and  which  Francis  bought  of  him  for  4,000 
golden  crowns ;  but,  as  is  well  known,  Leonardo  did  not 
paint  a  single  jiicture  while  he  was  in  Prance. 

In  England.  Holbein  may  be  said  to  have  created  portrait- 
painting  ;  he  had  many  imitators,  some  of  them  most  skillful, 
yet,  though  the  country  did  not  produce  many  portrait- 
painters  of  consideration  before  the  eighteenth  century,  she 
welcomed  good  painters  from  otlier  lands.  In  JIary's  time, 
Antonio  Moro  came  from  Utrecht,  and  in  Elizabeth's  reign 
Federigo  Zucchero,  an  Italian,  was  in  vogue.  A  Dutch 
painter,  Lucas  de  Heere,  also  found  employment.  Later 
were  the  two  Olivers,  of  French  extraction  ;  they  were  mini- 
ature-paintei-s,  and  contemporary  with  them  was  Nicholas 
Hilliard,  one  of  the  first  Englishmen  by  birth  who  gained 
distinction  in  the  art.  The  brief  visit  of  Rubens  gave,  after 
Holbein,  the  second  great  impetus  to  the  art  of  portrait- 
painting  in  England.  He  remained  in  the  island  only  one 
year,  but  he  painted  many  portraits.  He  was  followed  by 
his  great  pupil.  Van  Dyck,  who  became  for  England  a  stand- 
ard of  excellence  in  portraiture.  Peter  Lely,  a  Westpha- 
lian,  went  to  England  and  established  himself  as  a  portrait- 
painter.  Besides  Cromwell  and  many  of  his  chiefs,  he  painted 
all  the  beauties  of  Charles  II. 's  court.  Cornells  .lanssen,  of 
Leyden,  a  good  painter,  went  over  in  1618.  While  Lely  was 
flourishing,  Gottfried  Kneller,  a  native  of  Lubeok,  arrived ; 
he  had  already  gained  some  distinction  in  Euro|>e.  He  had 
great  success  in  England,  and  painted  Dryden,  Addison,  and 
Pope,  and  nearly  every  notable  man  and  woman  of  his  time 
in  the  island.  With  the  appearance  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
(1723-93)  began  a  new  and  more  fruitful  period,  the  third 
important  influence  affecting  the  growth  of  painting,  and 
particularly  of  portrait-painting,  in  England ;  and  frcjm  his 
time  to  the  present  the  history  of  English  portraiture  has 
never  lacked  great  names.  Thomas  Gainsborough,  his  con- 
temporary (1727-88),  would  have  been  a  dangerous  rival  if 
he  had  devoted  himself  as  exclusively  to  portraiture  as  Reyn- 
olds did,  but  he  preferred  landsca|je-painting.  and  though 
his  portraits  are  charming,  he  is  most  known  as  one  of  the 
founders  of  landscape-painting  in  England.  Another  not- 
able painter  of  this  time  was  Romney  (1734-1802),  whose 
reputation  has  increased  with  time.  John  Opie  (1761-1807) 
also  gained  considerable  distinction. 

The  modern  French  school  began  with  David  (1748-1825), 
who  was  before  all  a  so-called  historical  painter,  but  who 
made  some  excellent  jiortraits.  Prance,  however,  has  never 
had  a  great  artist  whose  name  is  identified  exclusively  with 
portrait-painting,  or  even  to  any  considerable  extent  so 
identified.  With  those  even  who  have  excelled  in  it.  it  has 
always  been  held  of  secondary  importance.  Yet  Gerard 
(1770-1837)  made  many  interesting  portraits,  and  those  of 
Ingres  (1781-1867)  must  surely  outlive  all  but  two  or  three 
of  the  imaginative  compositions  on  which  he  tliought  to  build 
his  fame. 

Sculpture  in  England  has  been  more  successful  in  por- 
traiture than  in  ideal  work.  It  owed  its  modern  impulse 
to  a  Frenchman.  Roubiliac  (169.5  ?-1762),  who  went  to  Eng- 
land in  1720,  anil  by  the  very  excess  of  his  dramatic  concep- 
tion and  the  superfluous  energy  of  his  execution  gave  an  im- 
Eetus  to  his  art  in  England  which  in  a  dull,  pedantic  time 
ore  down  everything  before  it.  He  was  followed  by  a  num- 
ber of  distinguishoil  sculptors — Flaxman,  Banks,  Nollekens 
— of  whom  Flaxman  was  the  greatest  artist,  but  less  known 
as  a  sculptor  of  portraits  than  the  others.  More  recent  are 
Westmacott,  Gibson,  Foley,  Bell,  Marshall-Wood,  Boehm, 
and  Woolner.  The  portrait-busts  of  the  last  two  are  pro- 
ductions of  singular  merit ;  they  include  busts  of  Carlyle 
and  Tennvson. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  art  of  portraiture  properly  begins  with 
Copley,  who  was  born  in  Boston  in  1737,  but  lived  in  Eng- 


land from  1774  till  his  death  in  1815.  His  manner  of  paint- 
ing was  somewhat  cold  and  hard,  but  he  drew  well,  his  color 
is  agreeable,  and  he  gave  a  good  deal  of  life  and  animation 
to  his  heads.  He  was  followed  by  John  Trumbull,  who, 
though  he  failed  as  an  historical  painter,  deserves  to  be  re- 
membered for  his  miniatures.  Another  excellent  miniature- 
painter  was  Malbone.  The  most  distinguished  name  after 
Copley  is,  however,  that  of  Gilbert  Stuart  (1756-1828),  an 
artist  who  when  at  his  best  was  one  of  the  most  excellent 
painters  of  his  time.  Otlier  notable  names  are  those  of  Les- 
lie, Sully.  Inman,  Harding,  Healy,  Elliot,  Baker,  Hunting- 
ton, Page,  and  Furness.         Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Port-Royal  (or,  more  properly.  Port-Royal  des  Champs) ; 

an  institution  founded  in  1204  by  Matthieu  de  Montmorency 
at  Chevreuse,  near  Versailles,  as  a  monastery  for  Bernardine 
or  Cistercian  nuns.  In  the  course  of  time  it  became  noted 
as  an  educational  institution,  to  which  the  French  nobility 
sent  their  young  daughters,  but  at  the  same  time  it  lost  to 
some  degree  its  religious  character,  until  in  the  beginning  of 
the  seveuteenth  century  the  abbess.  Mere  ]Marie  Angelique 
(see  Arnauld,  Marie  Ancelique),  thoroughly  reformed  the 
establishment  and  revived  the  old  religious  discipline,  with 
its  rigid  seclusion,  poverty,  and  asceticism.  She  was  a  sister 
of  Antoine  Arnauld,  "the  great  Arnauld,"  Professor  in 
Theology  at  the  Sorbonne  and  an  ardent  disciple  of  Jansen, 
and  thus  the  monastery  became  Jansenistic.  It  flourished, 
and  the  number  of  nuns  increased  rapidly.  In  1625  the  Hotel 
de  Clugny,  in  the  Faubourg  de  St.  Jacques,  Paris,  was  bought, 
and  a  branch  institution  was  founded  here  under  the  title  of 
Port-Royal  de  Paris,  and  in  1626  a  new  and  extended  abbey 
was  erected  at  Port-Royal  des  Champs.  Jleanwhile  a  num- 
ber of  pious  and  learned  men  had  established  themselves  at 
a  farmhouse  near  Port-Royal  des  Champs,  called  Les  Granges, 
for  the  purpose  of  leading  a  secluded  and  ascetic  life,  devoted 
to  studies  and  religious  exercises:  and  when  the  nuns  re- 
moved to  the  new  abbey  these  " solitaries  of  Port-Royal" 
were  allowed  to  occupy  the  old  place  under  the  immediate 
juris<liction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris.  They  were  all  Jan- 
senists,  and  soon  Port-Royal  became  famous  as  the  center  of 
the  whole  Jansenistic  movement  and  the  focus  of  the  opposi- 
tion to  the  Jesuits.  Here  the  Jansenists  founded  a  school 
which  numbered  among  its  pupils  some  of  the  most  famous 
men  of  the  time,  as,  for  example,  Tillemont  and  Racine,  and 
here  were  prepared  those  formidable  attacks  on  the  Society 
of  Jesus  which  startled  the  whole  world.  In  1669  the  two 
monasteries,  Port-Royal  des  Champs  and  Port-Royal  de  Paris, 
were  separated,  and  the  latter  reorganized  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Jesuits ;  and  when  the  nuns  of  Port-Royal  des 
Champs  still  refused  to  subscribe  to  the  papal  condemna- 
tion of  Jansen,  they  were  dispersed  in  1709  and  imprisoned 
in  various  other  monasteries  of  France,  and  the  buildings  of 
their  abbey  leveled  to  the  ground.  See  Fontaine,  Memoires 
pour  servir  a  rUistoire  de  Port-Royal  (2  vols.,  1736) ;  Racine, 
Histoire.  abregee  de  Port-Royal  (1742);  Sainte-Beuve,  Fort- 
Royal  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1842-78) ;  Beard,  Port-Royal  (2  vols., 
London,  1861).  Revised  by  F.  M.  Colby. 

Port  Royal :  town ;  in  Beaufort  co.,  S.  C. ;  terminus  of 
Port  Royal  and  Augusta  Railway  (for  location  of  county, 
see  map  "of  South  Carolina,  ref.  8-E):  noted  for  one  of  the 
earliest  settlements  made  by  the  Spaniards  within  the  pres- 
ent limits  of  the  V.  S..  for  important  events  during  the  civil 
war.  and  as  the  rendezvous  of  the  North  Atlantic  squadron 
of  the  U.S.  navy.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
A  large  dry-dock  was  completed  in  1895.     Pop.  (1890)  524. 

Port  Said' :  town :  in  Egypt,  at  the  junction  of  the  Suez 
Canal  with  the  Mediterranean  (sec  map  of  Africa,  ref.  1-F). 
No  village  existed  here  in  1859  when,  near  the  present  site, 
the  first  spadeful  of  earth  was  turned  in  digging  the  canal. 
Port  Said  is  built  mainly  on  earth  since  dug  out.  In  1894 
the  population  was  over  20,000.  Its  fine  harbor,  entirely 
artificial,  is  formed  by  two  moles,  that  on  the  W.  over  8,000 
feet  long.  E.  A.  G. 

Port  Sarnia :  See  Sarnia. 

Portsmouth :  town  of  Hampshire,  England ;  on  the 
island  of  Portsea ;  23  miles  S.  E.  of  Southampton  and  74 
miles  S.  W.  of  London  (see  map  of  England,  ref.  14-1).  The 
limits  of  the  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  which 
are  identical,  comprise,  in  addition  to  Portsmouth  proper, 
the  town  of  Portsea,  the  sulnirbs  of  Ijandport  and  Southsea, 
and  nearly  the  whole  of  Portsea  island.  Portsmouth  and 
Portsea  were  encircled  by  a  fortified  enceinte,  a  portion  of 
which  has  been  removed  as  useless  since  1872 ;  but  under 


PORTSMOUTH 


PORTUGAL 


723 


the  action  of  the  defense  commission  appointed  in  1859  a 
chain  of  worl<s  was  built  on  modern  types  from  'i  to  5  miles 
distant.  This  includes  the  llilseii  lines  and  the  forts  of 
Portsdown  Hill  on  tli»  land  side,  and  the  Simthkad  (7.  v.) 
forts  on  the  sea  side.  Portsmouth  pro|ier  presents  for  the 
most  part  an  unattractive  appearance,  liul  many  improve- 
ments have  heen  maile.  A  new  town-hall  was  upened  in 
18!)().  Amoni;  theold  liuildinirsmay  be  nu'ntioned  I  he  Church 
of  St.  Thomas,  orijjinally  dating  from  the  twelfth  century, 
and  the  Early  English  garrison  chapel,  restored  by  Street  in 
1867.  In  Portsea  there  is  a  convict  priscm,  and  Laiidport 
has  a  people's  park,  opened  in  1878.  Southsea  is  a  fashion- 
able watering-place  with  assembly-rooms,  a  pier,  and  an  es- 
|)lanaile  'J  miles  in  length. 

Portsmouth  harlior,  which  is  about  400  yards  wide  at  its 
entrance  between  Portsmouth  and  (iosi-oirr  (q.  v.).  exjiands 
into  a  spacious  l)asin.  stretching  4  miles  inward  N.  W.  of  the 
town.  It  affords  anchorage  to  large  war-vessels  at  all  times, 
as  there  are  24  fi'ct  of  water  in  the  channel  at  low  water. 
The  dockyard  is  tlie  most  important  establishment  of  the 
kind  in  Great  Hritain.  It  covers  an  area  of  2!Ki  acres  and 
contains  dry-docks  capal)le  of  admitting  tin'  largest  vessels, 
warehouses,  anchor- forges,  iron  and  copper  mills,  rope- 
houses,  hemp-stores,  sail-lofts,  etc.,  in  addition  to  the  twelve 
wet-docks,  which  are  from  23  to  86  feet  deeji,  lined  with 
solid  masonry,  roofed  over,  and  closed  by  lock-gates. 

The  local  trade  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  Government  es- 
tablishments. 15rewing  is  carried  on,  and  there  is  consider- 
able trallic  in  coal,  timber,  cattle,  and  agricultural  produce. 

Portsmouth's  iuiiKirtance  began  with  Henry  V'lll.,  the 
town  was  t'ortitied  by  Edward  IV.,  and  the  works  were  con- 
tinued at  intervals  afterward.  In  1642  it  was  taken  by  the 
Parliameutarv  forces.  It  returns  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment.     I'op- (li^y-i)  1'57,277.  K.  A.  Roukkts, 

Portsmouth  :  city  (settled  in  1623,  became  Portsmouth 
township  in  IG08,  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1849),  port  of 
entrv,  and  one  of  the  capitals  of  Rockingham  co.,  N.  H. ;  on 
the  f'iscataiiua  river,  and  the  Boston  and  Maine  and  the  Con- 
cord and  Montreal  railways;  .54  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Boston 
(for  location,  see  nuip  of  Xew  Hampsliire,  ref.  lO-G).  It  is 
the  oiilyseaport  in  the  State,  is  built  on  a  peninsula  ;H  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  has  a  very  spacious  harbor,  from  '.i'l  to  75 
feet  deep,  which  is  never  frozen.  The  harbor  is  protected 
by  earthworks  on  (lerrish's  island  and  .Jerry's  Point  near  its 
entrance,  and  farther  up  are  two  disused  stone  forts.  Consti- 
tution and  MeClary.  Bridges  connect  the  city  with  Kittery, 
Me.,  and  with  Newcastle  on  Green  island.  The  U.  S.  navy- 
yard,  olTicially  known  as  the  Portsmouth  navy-yard,  is  on 
Continental  islaiul,  half  a  mile  from  the  city,  and  belongs 
to  Kittery,  Me.  It  comprises  170  acres  of  ground,  has  a 
large  balance  dry  dock  and  several  ship-houses,  and  has 
turned  out  a  nmnber  of  noted  wooden  war-vessels.  The  city 
contains  a  U.  S.  (iovernment  building,  a  life-saving  station, 
and  a  signal-service  station.  There  are  12  churches,  9  pub- 
lic-school buildings,  public-school  property  valued  at  over 
$85,000,  2  libraries  (the  Athenaeum,  which  also  has  a  valua- 
ble museum,  and  the  Free  Public)  cont.aining  over  20.000 
volumes,  2  academies,  4  national  banks  with  combined  capi- 
tal of  $800,000,  2  savings-banks,  a  trust  and  guarantee  com- 
Eany,  and  3  (hiily  an<l  ;i  weekly  newspapers.  Portsmouth 
as  been  noted  for  its  ship-building  for  more  than  two  cen- 
turies. Among  the  early  vessels  of  note  built  there  were  the 
P»lklan<l,  .54  guns,  in  1090.  and  the  America,  .50  guns,  in 
1749,  both  on  orders  from  the  British  (roverinnent,  ami  the 
Ranger,  18  guns,  in  1777,  ordered  by  the  Continental  Con- 
gress. The  latter  vessel  was  first  commanded  l)y  .John  Paul 
.Jones,  and  was  the  first  one  to  carry  the  Stars  and  St  ripes  and 
to  receive  a  salute.  The  city  contains  a  miinber  of  historic 
buildings,  a  hospital.  Homo  for  Indigent  Women,  Eemale 
Asylum,  Home  for  Children,  board  of  trade,  marble-works, 
and  several  breweries,  planing-mills,  nuu-hine-shops,  shoe- 
factories,  copper  and  brass  foundry,  and  hosiery,  glove,  and 
soap  factories.     Pop.  (1880)  9,690  ;  (1890)  9,827. 

Portsmontll :  city :  capital  of  .Scioto  co.,  O.  (for  location, 
see  maj)  of  ( )hio,  ref.  8-E) ;  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ohio 
and  .Scioto  rivers  :  on  t  he  Bait.  an<l  ().  S.  West.,  the  Norfolk 
and  West.,  and  the  Cin.,  Ports,  and  Va.  railways;  at  the  S. 
terminusof  theOhioand  Erie  canal;  100  miles  S.of  Colum- 
bus, 114  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Cinciinuiti.  It  is  built  on  a  |)lain 
partly  inclosed  by  high  hills,  the  ground  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Ohio  river  rising  to  a  height  of  ,500  feet.  The 
region  is  rich  in  agricultural  lands  and  in  mineral  resources, 
particularly  iron  ore,  and  the  city  is  a  shipping-point  for  a 


large  variety  of  productions.  The  industrial  establishments 
include  rolling-mills,  iron  and  steel  works,  extensive  shoe- 
factories,  lumber  and  planing  nulls,  flour-mills,  stove-found- 
ries, several  distilleries,  fire-l)rick  plants,  furniture  and  ve- 
neer factories,  and  wheel-works.  The  city  has  water  sup- 
plied from  the  Ohio  river  by  tlie  Holly  system,  electric  lights, 
7  public-school  buildings,  public-school  propertv  valued  at 
over  $180,000,  public  library  (founded  in  1879),  the  Ohio 
Military  Academy  (non-sectarian),  8  national  banks  with 
combined  capital' of  §475,000,  a  State  bank  witli  capital  of 
$50,000,  an  incorporated  bank,  and  a  dailv  and  5  weekly 
newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  11,321 ;  (1890)  12,894. 

Editor  of  "  Times." 

Portsmouth  :  city ;  capital  of  Norfolk  co.,  Va. ;  on  tlie 
east  bank  of  the  Elizabeth  river  and  the  Atlantic  and  Dan- 
ville, the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  and  the  Norfolk  and  Carolina 
railways  ;  opposite  Nokkoi.k  (7.  c).  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  ferry  (for  hication,  sec  map  of  Virginia,  ref.  7-J). 
The  U.  S.  n.avy-yard,  oflicially  known  as  the  Norfolk  navy- 
yard,  is  at  Gosport,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  city.  There 
are  also  a  large  dry  dock,  naval  hospital,  and  marine  "barracks. 
The  city  has  a  steamboat  line  to  Baltimore  and  regular 
steamship  connection  with  the  principal  Atlantic  p(U-ts.  and 
with  Norfolk  constitutes  a  U.  .S.  customs  district,  from 
whic-h  are  exported  large  quantities  of  ('otlon,  lumber,  oak 
staves,  naval  stores,  pig  iron,  and,  to  Northern  cities,  early 
vegetables.  It  contains  the  sliops  of  the  Sealioard  Air  Line 
Railroad.  3  State  banks  with  combined  capital  of  $201,500, 
and  a  dailv,  a  weeklv,  and  a  monthlv  periodical.  Pop.  (1880) 
11,390;  (1890)  13,268;  with  suburbs,  19,268. 

Editor  of  "  Progress." 

Port  Townsend :  city  (laid  out  in  1852),  port  of  entry 
for  the  Paget  Sound  customs  district,  and  capital  of  .Tt-fJer- 
son  CO.,  Wash. ;  on  Quimper  peninsula,  between  Port  Dis- 
covery and  Port  Townsend  Bays, and  on  the  Port  Townsend 
Southern  Railroad;  65  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Seattle,  90  miles 
E.  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  (for  location,  see  map  of  Washing- 
ton, ref.  2-C).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  mineral,  and  lum- 
bering region,  and  is  a  place  of  large  strategic  impor- 
tance. The  U.  S.  Government  has  established  Fort  Town- 
send  on  the  west  side  of  Port  Townsend  Bay.  21  miles  by 
water  and  5  miles  by  land  from  the  city,  ami  has  reserved 
Point  Hudson,  Point  I'artridge,  Marrowstone  Point,  ami 
Admiralty  Head  as  sites  for  fortifications.  It  has  also 
established  a  quarantine  station  ami  a  marine  hospital.  The 
city  has  gas  and  electric  light  [ilants.  a  system  of  water- 
works supplied  from  Little  t^uilcene  river  l)y  gravity,  sev- 
eral lines  of  street-railway,  a  line  of  daily  .steamers  to  Vic- 
toria, British  Columbia,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of 
$100,000,  3  State  banks  with  combined  ca|>ital  of  $180,000, 
and  2  daily  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  There  are  several 
foundries  and  machine-shops,  saw  and  flour  mills,  steel,  wire, 
and  nail  works,  and  other  manufactories.  Pop.  (1880)  917; 
(1890)  4,558.  Editor  of  "  Call." 

Por'tilgal.  Port.  pron.  por-too-gaal'  [from  Portug.  and 
Span.  Furtugal  <  Late  Lat.  Partus  Cale,  liter.,  the  Harbor 
of  Cale,  orig.  name  of  the  city  of  Oporto] :  a  kingdom  of 
Europe,  occupying  tlie  soul  hwestern  part  of  the  Iberian  Pen- 
insula, between  Spain  and  the  Atlantic  (see  map  of  Spain 
and  Portugal).  Area  (of  the  continental  portion  only),  34,808 
sq.  miles.  The  islamls  of  Madeira  and  the  Azores  {<jq.  v.) 
are  directly  united  with  it. 

Physical  Features. — Portugal  is  not  naturally  divided 
from  Spain;  as  a  whole,  it  is  lower  than  Siiain,  with  more 
low  ground.  The  northern  half  is  essentially  niountaincuis, 
and  its  scenery  is  very  picturesque.  The  Serra  da  Estrella 
crosses  the  center.  Its  peaks  attain  6,.539  feel,  and  arc  cov- 
ered with  snow  during  the  winter  months.  Southern  Por- 
tugal consists  of  plains  and  rolling  lands,  varied  toward  the 
S.  W.  by  spurs  of  the  Sierra  Morena.  One  of  these  spurs,  the 
Serra  de  Algarve.  extends  to  the  ocean.  The  princijial  rivers 
rise  in  Spain.  The  Minho  and  Guadiana,  on  the  frontiers, 
are  navigated  by  boats.  The  Douro.  which  crosses  the 
mountain  region,  is  also  navigable  for  barges,  and  its  mouth 
forms  the  har^jorof  Oporto.  The  Tejo  or  Tagus  crosses  the 
southern  plain,  and  its  broadened  mouth  is  the  splendid 
liarbor  of  Lislxm.  Seagoing  vessels  ascend  to  .Santarem, 
about  40  miles.  The  northern  and  southern  coasts  are  gen- 
erally rocky.  Between  Oporto  and  Cape  Carvoeiro  there 
are  extensive  sand-dunes,  backed  by  marshes.  Almost  the 
only  gooil  harbors  are  at  Lisbon  and  Oporto. 

Climate.  Soil,  and  Xatiiral  Prodiirlions. — The  climate  is 
mild  and  equable  ;  on  tlie  coasts  frosts  are  rare.     Olives  and 


724 


PORTUGAL 


PORTUGUESE-BRAZILIAN  LITERATURE 


oranges  grow  well  nearly  everywhere,  and  palms  flourish  in 
theS.  Rains  are  abundant.  The  available  lands  are  general- 
ly very  fertile  ;  exceptions  are  the  oak-barrens  of  Aleratejo. 
Considerable  tracts  of  forest  remain.  The  common  trees 
are  oaks,  pines,  and  chestnuts.  The  cork-oak  grows  wild 
and  is  cultivated.  The  coast  fisheries  of  sardines,  tunnies, 
etc.,  compete  with  those  of  France.  The  ni<wt  important 
mineral  products  are  copper,  antimony,  manganese,  lead, 
and  salt  from  the  coast  lagoons;  a  little  gold,  zinc,  iron, 
and  coal  are  obtained. 

Agriculture. — Wine  is  the  most  important  product  and 
export,  including  port  from  the  valley  of  the  Douro  and 
various  light-red  wines  from  near  Lisbon.  The  Portuguese 
oranges,  olives  and  olive  oil,  figs,  tomatoes,  etc.,  are  known 
throughout  the  world.  Cereals  (maize,  wheat,  rye,  and  a 
little  rice)  occupy  the  largest  area.  Stock-raising  is  in- 
creasing. Large  herds  of  swine  run  almost  wild  in  the  oak- 
barrens  of  Alemtejo.  Agricultural  methods  are  backward, 
partly  owing  to  ignorance  and  lack  of  tools,  partly  to  ex- 
cessive division  of  land  and  the  absence  and  neglect  of  the 
large  proprietors. 

Manufactures. — Besides  the  numerous  establishments  for 
oil  and  wine  making  and  for  canning  fruits,  there  are  im- 
portant factories,  especially  in  Lisbon  and  Oporto.  Cotton 
and  silk  thread  and  cloths,  veil  stuffs,  gold  and  silver  fili- 
gree work,  shoes,  gloves,  etc.,  are  made.  Ship-building  is 
now  confined  to  a  few  yards. 

Commerce  and  Communications. — The  most  important 
exports  are  wine,  cork,  fish,  copper  ore,  and  fruits.  In  1891 
the  exports  were  valued  at  31,872,000  milreis;  the  imports 
at  50,024,000  milreis.  About  one-fourth  of  the  trade  is 
with  Great  Britain.  Portugal  now  has  good  roads  and  tele- 
graph system  and  nearly  1,000  miles  of  railways.  Over  one- 
third  of  the  latter  belong  to  the  state  and  the  rest  have  state 
subventions. 

People  and  Cfovernment. — The  Portuguese,  like  the  Span- 
ish, are  descended  from  Celto-lberic  tribes,  inure  or  less 
modified  by  Latin,  Visigothic,  and  Moorish  blood.  The 
language,  laws,  and  many  arts  and  customs  have  come  down 
with  little  change  from  the  Romans.  The  educated  class  is 
comparatively  small,  but  has  nearly  all  the  wealth  and  in- 
fluence. The  lower  classes  are  ignorant  and  superstitious, 
but  industrious  and  shrewd.  Population  in  1881,  4,708,178. 
The  annual  increase  is  slight,  owing  to  the  constant  drain  to 
Brazil.  The  Government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy. 
Parliament  consists  of  a  house  of  peers  and  a  house  of  dele- 
gates. Adult  males  who  can  read  and  write  and  have  a 
clear  income  ot  100  milreis  possess  the  right  of  suffrage. 
The  state  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  other  creeds 
are  tolerated.  Primary  education  is  nominally  compulsory, 
but  the  illiterate  class  is  still  very  large.  Lisbon  and  Opor- 
to have  schools  of  medicine,  law,  fine  arts,  technology,  etc. 
The  University  of  Coimbra  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
celebrated  in  Europe. 

Weights,  3Iea.iures,  and  Coins. — The  metric  system  is  in 
general  use.  The  Portuguese  libra  is  1-012  lb.  avoirdupois; 
the  alqueire  is  0'36  bush.  The  milreis  or  1,000  reis  is 
equal  to  about  $1.07;  the  conto  is  1,000  milreis.  In  express- 
ing sums  of  money  the  milreis  or  dollar  mark  is  written 
after  the  milreis  but  before  the  odd  reis;  thus  1,230|178 
means  1,230  milreis  (or  1  conto  and  230  milreis)  and  178 
reis.  The  testoon  or  tostdo  is  100  reis — about  10  cents — 
and  the  vintem  is  20  reis.  Gold  is  the  standard.  Gold 
coins  of  10  milreis  (coroa)  and  5,  2,  and  1  milreis  are  used, 
and  there  are  smaller  coins  of  silver  and  bronze. 

Finances.— \\i  June,  1893,  the  external  debt  was  281,824,- 
700  milreis;  the  internal  debt  244,886.060.  Most  of  the 
debt  is  now  funded  at  4i  and  4  per  cent.  Of  late  years 
there  has  been  an  almost  constantly  recurring  deficit,  with 
defaults  or  delays  in  payments ;  measures  have  been  taken 
for  retrenchment.  The  annual  revenue  is  about  45,000,000 
milreis. 

Histnrti. — Portugal  was  one  of  the  little  kingdoms  formed 
when  the  Christians  began  to  drive  back  tiie  Mohammedans. 
Henry  of  Burgundy  married  the  daughter  of  Alfonso  VI.. 
and,  about  1095,  received  her  dowrv,  the  latelv  conquered 
Portocallo,  or  Northern  Portugal,  as  a  fief  of  Galicia.  By 
wars  and  conquests  the  region  was  consolidate<i  and  made 
independent.  Henry's  son,  Affonso  Henritpies  (1128-85).  is 
called  the  founder  of  the  monarchy,  because  he  took  the 
title  of  king  (1139  or  1140).  ami  drove  the  Moors  far  south- 
ward, caiituring  LisUjn  in  1147.  About  12.50  the  Moors 
were  finally  ilriven  from  .Mgarve.  By  a  revolution  in  1:»3 
the  throne  passed  from  the  line  of  Burgundy  to  that  of 


Aviz.  John  II.  broke  the  power  of  the  nobles,  and  made 
that  of  the  crown  absolute.  Exploration  was  stimulated  by 
Prince  Henry,  the  Navigator,  who  conceived  or  adopted  the 
idea  of  circumnavigating  Africa  to  reach  India.  Madeira 
and  the  Cape  Verde  islands  were  discovered  and  colonized; 
and  Bartolomeu  Diaz  reached  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1486). 
Portugal  became  the  center  of  maritime  knowledge ;  a  papal 
bull  and  the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas  (1494)  gave  the  eastern 
hemisphere  to  Portuguese  conquest  and  the  western  to  Spain. 
In  1497  Vasco  da  Gama  reached  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope ;  trading-posts  were  speedily  established  on  the  Asiatic 
coasts;  Ceylon  and  the  Moluccas  were  conquered,  and  within 
a  few  years  the  whole  stream  of  Eastern  trade  was  turneii  into 
Lislion.  Brazil  was  discovered  in  1500.  The  soldiers  and 
statesmen  seldom  returned  from  the  East,  and  the  laborers 
were  drained  into  Brazil.  King  Sebastian  perished  with  his 
army  in  a  war  with  the  Moors  of  western  Africa  (1578),  and 
Portugal  was  seized  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  At  once  the  fab- 
ric fell  to  pieces;  the  Dutch  seized  the  Eastern  trade,  the 
African  posts,  and  part  of  Brazil,  and  Portuguese  commerce 
was  swept  from  the  seas.  The  successors  of  Philip  failed  to 
keep  his  promise  to  preserve  the  autonomy  of  Portugal, 
and  a  revolution,  begun  in  1640  and  supported  by  England, 
wrested  the  country  from  Spain  and  gave  the  crown  to  the 
house  of  Bragan(,-a,  in  which  it  still  remains.  The  Brazilian 
possessions,  recovered  from  the  Dutch,  became  a  new  source 
of  wealth,  especially  after  the  discovery  of  gold  and  diamonds. 
On  Nov.  1,  1755,  occurred  the  great  earthquake  which  de- 
stroyed Lisbon,  the  only  severe  one  in  the  history  of  Portu- 
gal. In  1807  the  Portuguese  court  fled  to  Brazil  before  the 
armies  of  Napoleon.  The  French  were  soon  driven  out  by 
the  British.  A  popular  revolution  in  1820  ended  in  the 
adoption  of  a  constitution ;  John  VI.,  returning  from  Bra- 
zil soon  after,  was  compelled  to  sign  this.  In  1822  Brazil 
became  independent  under  Pedro  I.,  son  of  the  Portuguese 
king ;  this  blow  nearly  ruined  Portugal.  By  the  death  of 
John  VI.  in  1826  the  crown  fell  to  the  Brazilian  emperor, 
who  resigned  it  in  favor  of  liis  infant  daughter,  Maria  da 
Gloria  ;  she  was,  for  a  time,  robbed  of  her  rights  by  the 
usurpation  of  Dom  Miguel  (1828),  but  Dom  Pedro,  having 
resigned  the  Brazilian  throne,  headed  a  successful  revolt  in 
favor  of  his  daughter,  who  became  queen  in  1834.  Several 
petty  political  revolts  followed  until  1852,  when  the  con- 
stitution was  revised  to  suit  all  parties.  Since  then  Portu- 
gal has  been  at  peace  and  generally  advancing,  but  she  has 
incurred  a  crushing  public  debt,  and  the  growth  of  the  re- 
publican party  threatens  trouble  for  the  future.  The  Afri- 
can colonies  have  been  expanded  into  large  possessions  and 
are  carefully  cherished,  but  they  have  given  rise  to  bound- 
ary disputes  with  Great  Britain. 

Colonies. — The  following  table  shows  the  (approximate) 
extent  and  population  of  the  Portuguese  colonies: 


POSSESSIONS. 


Cape  Verde,  Princess,  and  St.  Thomas  islands. 

West  African  possessions - 

East  Africa 

Possessions  in  Asia  and  the  East  Indies  (Goa, 
Macao,  Timor,  etc.) 


Totals. 


Aren  la  sq.  m.     Population 


2.104 
489.n00 

aiii.ruo 

7,900 


761,804 


1:<1,970 
a,8(Xl,lX)0 
1,. "100,000 

939,320 


5,371,290 


Authorities. — Esladistica  de  Portugal  (official  1892); 
Aldama-Ayola,  Compendia  geogrdfico-estadistico  de  Portu- 
gal y  .9US  p'osesiones  ullramarinas  (1880);  Crawfiird,  Portu- 
gal :  Old  and  New  (1880) ;  Herculano,  Historia  de  Portugal ; 
Stephens,  The  Stori/  of  Portugal  (1891);  Covvo,  Colon ias 
Portuguezas  (1883-87) ;  Major,  Prince  Henry,  the  Naviga- 
tor ;  Salisbury,  Portugal  and  its  People  {\8t>'S).  -; 

Herbert  II.  Smith.        i 

Portuguese-Brazilian  Literature :   the   literature  of    i 
Brazil,  from  the  time  of  its  settlement  down  to  the  present.     I 
Since  Brazil  was  colonized  by  the  Portuguese,  this  literature     1 
is  in  the  Portuguese  language,  and  for  this  reason  it  would 
be  possible  to  treat  it  as  a  part  of  Portuguese  literature. 
Since  Brazil  has  become  an  independent  nation,  however, 
it  seems  better  to  discuss  the  manifestations  of  Brazilian 
national  feeling  and  thought  in  a  distinct  article.  , 

I.  Colonial  Period. — During  the  colonial  period  of  three  I 
centuries  Brazil  received  nearly  all  its  impressions  of  the  1 
outer  world  through  Portugal.  There  were  few  schools  ex- 
cept the  Jesuit  colleges,  and  hardly  any  libraries  or  books. 
Wealthy  young  men  went  to  Portugal  to  study  law  or  di- 
vinity, and  i-itlier  remained  there  or  returned  to  take  secular 
and  Ciiurch  ollices.     Under  these  circumstances  there  was 


PORTUGUESE-BRAZILIAN   LITERATURE 


PORTUGUESE  LANGUAGE 


(25 


little  (chance  for  the  growth  of  a  (iistiiietively  Hrazilian  lit- 
erature ;  the  few  writers  of  note  generally  followed  Portu- 
i;uese  models.  Tlie.lesiiit  missionaries — commonly  of  Knro- 
peaii  hirlh — were  the  first  Colonial  authors.  Living  amonfj 
the  Inilians  they  imbibed  the  spirit  of  the  forests  and 
plains,  and  in  their  letters — especially  in  those  of  Anchieta 
— we  may  trace  the  tii-st  germs  of  a  national  literature. 
The  same  order  gave  to  the  colony  its  only  great  genius — 
Antonio  Vieira.  who  was  a  Brazilian  by  education,  though 
not  by  birl  h.  He  wa-s  the  first  of  the  Portuguese  orators,  one 
of  the  first  prose-writers,  anil  a  statesman  of  worldwide 
fame.  In  history  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
protluced  only  niissionaiT  chronicles  like  those  of  Viiscon- 
cellos  and  .laboatiio,  or  local  accounts  (jf  wars  and  discov- 
eries, like  the  Ctif/riali)  Limitiiiio  of  Prei  Raphael  de  .Jesus, 
or  the  Noticias  of  Vasconeellos :  the  endless  rc/nforios  and 
roleiros,  most  of  them  unpublislied,  are  valuable  as  docu- 
ments, but  mere  rubbish  from  a  literary  standpoint.  In 
17:!0  Rocha  Pitta,  a  native  of  Mahia,  published  his  Hisforin 
(In  America  Pnrhiyiieza,  the  first  complete  and  really  read- 
able history  of  Brazil.  This  was  foUowcil  by  the  local  Aii- 
naes  hisloricns  do  Maranhdo  (174!)),  by  Berredo,  a  Portu- 
guese governor;  l\m  Mfiiioria  nobn;  a  ntjiilnnia  de  Sun 
Vicente  (1797^,  of  Prei  (iaspar  Madre  de  Dios,  etc.  In 
natural  science,  ethnology,  and  geography  we  have  matiy 
scattered  notices,  but  no  special  works  of  any  note  by  Bra- 
zilian authors  before  the  en<l  of  the  eighteenth  century; 
the  reports  of  the  naturalist  .\lexandre  Rodrigues  Perreira 
and  the  engineer  Ricanlo  Pranco,  who  were  attached  to 
the  boundary  commission,  178:i-'.W.  have  only  been  pub- 
lished in  part  in  modern  times.  Perhaps  the  first  Brazilian 
poet  worth  naming  was  Gregorio  de  .Mattos  (iuerra  {Bahia, 
16.33-96) ;  his  biting  satires  would  have  won  him  fame  had 
not  so  many  of  them  been  defaced  by  obscenity.  Later 
several  poets  of  note  clustered  around  the  viceregal  coiu't  at 
Rio  de  .Janeiro,  or  found  their  way  thi'iice  to  Europe  ;  such 
were  Frci  Francisco  de  Sao  Carlos  (1763-1829),  whose  sacred 
epic,  AsaumpfSn  da  Snntifmima  Viri/em,  is,  in  some  sense, 
comparable  to  Piiradise  Lost ;  Antonio  Pereira  de  .Souza 
Calda-s  (1702-1814),  writer  of  sacred  odes;  the  mulatto  .Jose 
Basilio  da  Gama  (1740-9.1),  best  known  for  his  historical 
poem,  Uruguay;  JLinuel  Ignacio  da  Silva  Alvarenga.  whose 
pastorals  and  love-songs  are  still  widely  read;  the  lyric 
poets  Domingos  (,'aldas  Barboza  and  .\ntonio  Diniz  ;  and 
Frei  Jose  da  .Santa  Ritta  Duriio,  ani  hor  of  Caramuru  (1781). 
the  first  epic  founded  ou  Indian  life.  Antonio  Jose  da  Silva 
(170.'5-39)  went  from  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  Portugal,  l.iecame 
famous  as  an  author  of  comedies,  and  c^venlnally  met  a 
tragic  death  at  the  hands  of  the  Juciuisition.  Equally  stid 
was  the  fate  of  a  brilliant  coterie  of  poets  in  Minas  Geraes : 
Claudio  Manuel  da  Costa,  unrivaled  for  liis  sonnets  and 
odes  ;  Thomaz  Antonio  Gonzaga,  with  his  melodious  verses 
to  "  Marilia  "  ;  and  Alvarenga  I\'ixoto.  They  were  involved 
in  an  alleged  conspiracy  in  1789;  Costa  committed  suicide, 
au<i  the  others  went  into  penal  servitude.  To  this  list  we 
nuiy  add  Botelho  d'Oliveira,  a  native  of  Bahia  who  pub- 
lished his  Musica  do  Partuim  in  1705.  All  these  follow, 
more  or  less,  the  Portuguese  classic  or  romantic  models  ; 
but  here  and  there  wo  can  see  the  true  national  spirit  strag- 
gling for  utterance,  as  in  some  passages  from  Botelho  and 
Gonzaga.  Santa  Ritta  Durao  clung  to  a  severely  classic 
measure  and  style;  and  the  incongruity  of  Indians  who 
talk  and  act  like  (ireek  heroes  is  too  great  a  strain  for  tlie 
modern  reader  :  it  obsc'ures  the  real  merit  of  his  verse. 

II.  Modern  Period. — The  sojourn  of  tlie  Portuguese  court 
at  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1807-21)  was  marked  I)y  increased  literary 
activity,  principally  in  the  j)rosc  domains  of  history  and 

feography ;  then  appearecl  Pizarro's  Memorial  hiatorims, 
anctos's  Memoriiix  do  lieino  do  Brazil,  .'\yres  de  Cazal's 
Corographia  Brasiliva,  and  V'elloso's  Flora  Ptiimineiisix. 
The  independence  brought  a  host  of  political  writers,  brill- 
iant orators,  such  as  the  .Vndradas  (one  of  them  a  well-known 
naturalist  also),  and  economists.  The  King  of  Portugal  had 
left  one  priceless  legacy  to  Brazil — his  historical  library, 
which  became  tlu^  nucleus  of  the  great  public  library  at  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  Distinguished  naturalists  visited  llie  country 
and  wrote  enthusiastically  abcuit  it  ;  ami  Brazilian  authors 
began  to  sec  that  their  inspiration  lay  in  the  magnificent 
scenes  about  them.  French  literature  became  very  iionular. 
and  doubtless  had  a  strong  influence,  but  in  the  mam  the 
best  writers  became  nationalizeil.  The  reign  of  Pedro  II. 
saw  the  birth  of  a  new  school,  which  is  still  in  its  infancy, 
but  has  a  brilliant  future,  .\lmost  every  page  of  it  la'ars 
the  impress  of  tropii'al  nature — the  forests  and  mountains. 


the  gigantic  rivers,  and  vast  plains  of  the  interior;  above 
all  the  Indians,  who  are  so  indis-solubly  coimecled  with  colo- 
nial history  and  country  life.  One  poet  of  tlie  first  rank  has 
appeared — Antonio  Gon(;alves  Dias — and  the  brilliant  color- 
ing of  his  descriptive  verees.  combined  with  their  tender  sen- 
timent, has  made  them  household  words  in  Brazil  and  Por- 
tugal. Poems  like  Rosa  no  mar.  J'iaya.  A  tempe.slade.  and 
0  tjigante  de pedra  will  live  as  long  as  tlie  language  does ; 
and  the  lines  beginning 

9Iii]ba  terra  tein  palnieira.s 
*■  OiKle  cauta  o  sabia," 

might  almost  be  called  the  Brazilian  national  hymn.  Jla- 
galhaes,  another  poet  of  note,  has  been  called  the  founder  of 
the  Brazilian  school.  It  is  certain  that  his  Indian  epic,  A 
confederaijUo  don  7'o moyos.  Contains  passages  of  rare  lieanty, 
but  it  lacks  the  fire  of  Dias.  Among  a  multitude  of  lesser 
poets  we  may  mention  Casimero  de  .Vbreu,  well  known  for 
his  delightful  love-.songs ;  Sylvio  Romero,  Araujo  i'orto- 
Alegre,  ami  Castro  .Alves.  In  romance  Alencar  is  the  best 
known.  The  popularity  of  his  Indian  stories  is  rather  un- 
deserved, though  they  contain  excellent  ile.scriptive  passages. 
Very  much  superior  in  plot,  description,  and  character- 
drawing  are  the  novels  of  Escragnolle  Taunay.  His /?i»(o- 
cencia  has  been  translated  into  F.nglish,  Imt  only  one  famil- 
iar with  country  lite  in  Brazil  can  appreciate  its  fidelity  to 
nature.  Taunay's  descriptive  pcjwcrs  are  also  well  si-en  in 
his  Jtetraite  de  Laguna  (originally  written  in  French)  and 
Scena.f  de  I'frt^em,  both  relating  episodes  of  the  Paraguayan 
war.  JIacedo  is  another  novelist  of  note.  The  greatest  of 
the  Brazilian  historians  is  Varidiagen  (Viscount  of  Porto 
Seguro),  whose  Historia  do  Brazil  is  a  classic.  Other  his- 
torians of  note  are  Pereira  da  .Silva,  Lisboa  (also  noted  for 
his  essays),  and  Fernandes  Pinheiro.  The  historical  criti- 
cisms of  Capistrano  de  Abreu  are  excellent.  Cactano  da 
Silva  in  historical  geography;  Beaurcpaire  Rohan.  Cunha 
Mattos,  anil  others  in  geography  and  travels;  Coulo  de 
Magalhaes  in  ethnology:  and  Bocayuva  and  Patrocinio  in 
journalism,  are  all  well-known  names.  In  natural  science 
foreigners  as  yet  occupy  the  first  place.  See  Pereira  da 
Silva,  Os  varoeH  illuxtres  do  Brazil  (IS.^S) :  Pinheiro.  Litte- 
ratura  naciotial  (1862) ;  Mello  Moraes  Filho,  Curso  de  Litte- 
raturn  Brazileira  (1882) ;  F.  Wolf,  Jli.itoirede  la  Litth'ature 
/«-e'.s(7("fH>«;  (Berlin,  1863).  Hkkbkrt  H.  Smith. 

Portiigrnose  Laiigmagc:  the  national  language  of  Portu- 
gal, used  also  in  the  I'ortuguesc  colonii's  and  Brazil,  and  (in 
a  dialectal  form)  in  the  border  province  of  (ialicia  in  North- 
western Spain.  The  number  of  native  speakers  of  the  lan- 
guage can  not  be  even  approximalelv  given;  it  is  probaJjly 
over  10,000,000.  and  may  reach  2O.(l(JO,(l0O. 

The  system  of  sounds  of  the  language  is  complex  and  ill 
indicated  by  the  usual  etymological  spelling.  Disregarding 
some  minute  shades  we  may  describe  it  as  follows:  There 
are  eleven  oral  vowels :  two  /"s  (about  as  in  English  ma- 
rhine,  written  /.  y,  e;  or  English  hill,  written  i)\  two  e's 
(one  close,  ■nritten  e.  e  :  one  open,  written  e.  e.  e):  three  a's 
(onc!  as  in  English /«//ic)-.  written  «,  n  :  one  diflerently  de- 
scribed as  like  English  a  in  alioitt  or  French  a  in  dartii, 
written  a,  a;  one  aliout  like  the  sound  in  English  hot.  writ- 
ten a.  a) ;  two  o's  (one  close,  written  o.  u.  ou  ;  one  open, 'writ- 
ten o.  o) ;  a  u.  US  in  English  rule,  written  u.  o:  a  vowel 
comjiarablo  with  the  French  mute  e.  written  <',  /.  There 
are  five  nasal  vowels:  the  nasal  of  the  first  /,  written  jot, 
('«  ;  that  of  close  c  written  em.  en;  that  of  the  secimd  a. 
written  am.  an.  a;  that  of  close  o,  written  07n,  on.  o;  that 
of  «,  written  Mm,  un.  These  are  not  like  the  French  nasal 
vowels.  Noteworthy  are  also  certain  nasal  diphthongs,  as 
de  an(l  oe  (both  these  cimI  in  the  sound  of  nasal  /).  The 
consonants,  like  the  vowels,  are  differently  given  by  differ- 
ent oliservcrs ;  we  reckon  here  twenty-five:  p,  h.  a  bilabial 
V  (written  b),  f.  v,  ir  (consonantal  «,  written  «,  n).  m.  I.  d.  I. 
n  (these  four  more  dental  than  in  English),  a  dental  spirant 
(as  in  English  that,  written  d).  a  gutturalized  /,  .s  (written 
s.  c.  f),  z  (written  z.  s)),  two  varieties  of  r  as  in  Spanish,  one 
strongly  rolled  (written  r,  rr.  rh),  the  other  not  so  rolled 
(written  r),  both  pronounced  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue, 
sibilants  as  in  English  shut  (written  x.  ch,  s.  z)  and  ]ihn.t- 
iire  (written  _/.  g.  s.  z).  a  palatal  /  resembling  English  ///  in 
niilliiin  (written  Ih),  a  palatal  n  resembling  English  ni  in 
union  (written  nh).  y  (consonantal  i,  written  i',  e).  k  (as  in 
I''nglish  cool,  key),  g  (as  in  English  good.  gild),  and  (not 
always  recognized)  the  nasal  sound  in  English  xing.  song 
(written  «,  which  at  the  same  time  indicates  na.sality  of  the 
preceding  vowel). 


726 


PORTUGUESE   LITERATURE 


The  grammatical  structure  of  the  hmguage  is  similar  to 
that  of  Spanish,  and  tlie  same  resemblance  exists  for  tlie 
sources  of  its  vocabulary,  though  it  has  borrowed  more 
from  France.  A  peculiar  feature  is  the  inflexion  of  the  in- 
finitive witli  personal  endings,  which  helps  to  make  clear 
the  person  tliought  of.  The  original  pluperfect  is  now  gen- 
erally a  conditional,  as  in  Spanish,  but  the  original  sense 
also  "exists.  The  use  of  Portuguese  in  writings  preserved 
dates  from  about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  In  tlie 
sixteenth  centurv,  later  than  in  Italy  and  Spain,  appear  the 
beginnings  of  grammatical  treatment.  A  dictionary  begun 
by  the  Acadeuiy  in  IVXi  was  not  carried  beyond  the  letter 
A,  but  Bluteau's  Vorabulario  portuguez  e  latino  (8  vols., 
1712-21,  with  a  supplement  in  2  vols.,  1737-28)  is  earlier, 
and  the  Elucidario  das  palavras,  termos  e  frases  que  em 
Portugal  avtiyamente  se  usaram,  etc.,  of  Joaquim  de  Santa 
Rosade  Viterbo  appeared  in  1798-99.  The  best  historical 
study  of  phonology  and  inflexions  is  that  of  Cornu  in  Gro- 
ber's  Orundriss  d'er  romanischen  Philologie,  i.,  715  ff.  The 
description  of  the  modern  sounds  given  above  is  based 
mainly  on  A.  R.  Gongalves  V^ianna's  Exposifdo  da  pronnn- 
cia  normal  portugueza  (Lisbon,  1892) ;  see  also  his  earlier 
study  in  Romania,  xii.,  29  ff.,  and  the  articles  of  Prince  L.-L. 
Bonaparte  in  Trans,  of  the.  Philological  Society  (1880-81), 
p.  23  ff.  (1882-84),  p.  404  ff.,  and  II.  Sweet,  ib.  (1883-84),  p. 
203  ff.  Work  on  Portuguese  philology,  including  dialects, 
has  been  done  by  J.  Leite  de  Vasconcellos,  F.  A.  Coelho, 
Carolina  Michaelis  de  Vasconcellos  (e.  g.  Der  "  porlugie- 
sische  "  Tnfitdtiv  in  Romanische  Forschimgen,  vii.,  49  ff.), 
H.  Schucliardt  (especially  his  Kreolische  Studien  in  the 
publications  of  the  Vienna  Academy),  H.  R.  Lang,  and 
others;  see  articles  in  the  Revista  lusita?ia  and  other  pe- 
riodicals, and  the  bibliographies  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  ro- 
manische Philologie. 

Dictionaries:  J.  L.  Roquette,  Dictionnaire  portugais- 
franfais  (Paris,  1855) ;  J.  de  Lacerda,  New  Dictionary  of  the 
'Portuguese  and  English  Languages  (3  vols.,  Lisbon,  1866- 
71) ;  D.  Vieira,  Grande  diccionario  portuguez  (6  vols.,  1871- 
74) ;  A.  de  Moraes  Silva,  Diccionario  da  lingua  portugueza 
(7th  ed.  2  vols.,  Lisbon,  1877-78) ;  Caldas  Aulete,  Diccionario 
coniemporanen  da  lingua  portugueza  (Lisbon,  1881);  J.  Fe- 
lix Pereira,  Vocabulario  sonira  {lAshoxi,lii%%)\  F.  A.  Coelho, 
Diccionario  manual  etgmologico  (Lisbon,  1890) ;  H.  Michael- 
is,  Neiv  Dictionary  of  the  Portuguese  and  English  Lan- 
guages (3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1898,  and  a  Portuguese-German 
dictionary  by  the  same  compiler,  1887-89),  etc.  Grammars: 
Elwes,  A  Grammar  of  the  Portuguese  Language  (London, 
1876 ;  3d  ed.  1884) ;  A.  Vieyra,  A  New  Portuguese  Grammar 
(London,  1768  and  since) ;  "C.  von  Reinhardstoettner,  Gram- 
matik  der  port ugiesischen  Sprache  (Strassburg,  1878);  J. 
Ribeiro,  Grammnlicn  portugueza  (3"  anno)  (3d  ed.  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  1889);  E.  Jlonaci  and  F.  d'Ovidio,  Ilanualetti  d' 
introduzio?ie  agli  stndj  neolatini,  iii.  Portoghese  (Imola, 
1881),  etc.    See  also  Romance  Languages.    E.  S.  Shelugn. 

Portuguese  Literature:  the  works  in  prose  and  verse, 
written  in  the  Portuguese  tongue,  whether  in  Portugal  or 
in  the  Portuguese  colonies,  with  the  exception  of  Brazil. 
(See  Portuguese-Brazilian  Literature.)  Owing  to  the 
comparatively  restricted  territory  and  population  of  Portu- 
gal, her  literature  can  not  be  esteemed  one  of  the  great  Eu- 
ropean literatures.  Moreover,  the  national  life  has  not  had 
the  fullness  and  original  energy  requisite  for  the  creation 
of  a  really  independent  literary  tradition.  Portugal  has,  in 
the  main,  followed  intellectual  movements  received  from 
abroad,  and  the  periods  of  her  literature  must  all  be  denom- 
inated according  to  these  successive  foreign  influences.  At 
the  same  time,  the  temperament  of  the  people  is  distinctly 
marked  with  its  inclination  to  melancholy,  to  reverie,  to 
sentimental  longings — in  short,  to  what  the  Portuguese 
themselves  call  by  the  untranslatable  naxae  saudades;  and 
the  literature,  even  where  its  matter  is  entirely  borrowed, 
has  an  air  and  a  charm  all  its  own. 

First  Period  (1200-1385) ;  French  and  Provencal  Influ- 
ence.— During  this  period  the  Spanish  province  of  Galicia, 
whose  dialect  had  not  yet  become  distinct  from  Portuguese, 
must  !)e  included  with  Portugal.  Although  there  were  cer- 
tainly in  this  considerable  region  indigenous  intellectual 
traditions  dating  from  the  Roman  time,  and  although  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Arabs,  since  the  eighth  century,  had 
had  its  effect  on  culture,  still  tlie  first  influences  tending  to 
arouse  imaginative  and  literary  activity  in  modern  Portugal 
came  from  the  N.  of  the  Pyrenees — i.  e.  from  France  and 
Provence.     These  influences  began  to  be  felt  as  early  as  the 


nintli  century,  when  the  shrine  of  St.  James  at  Compostella 
became  the  chief  object  of  veneration  and  goal  of  pilgrim- 
ages for  all  Western  Europe.  Then  the  wars  against  the 
Moors  brought  many  French  soldiers  into  the  Peninsula; 
and  after  Toledo  had  been  recovered  (1085),  many  French 
clergy  and  scholars,  and  even  colonists,  were  invited  to  set- 
tle in  the  new-won  territory.  Intermarriages  also  between 
the  peninsular  princes  and  nobility  and  the  French  became 
frequent,  and  finally  came  the  establishment  of  the  Bur- 
gundian  family  on  the  Portuguese  throne.  As  early  as  tlie 
twelfth  century — the  great  literary  period  of  mediieval 
France — there  was  imitation  among  the  Portuguese-Galician 
nobility  of  the  courtly  lyrics  of  their  northern  neighbors. 
The  earliest  of  these  that  have  come  down  to  us,  however, 
are  of  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  essentially  aristocratic  character  of  the  new 
poetry,  the  models  followed  were  rather  Provencal  than 
French  proper.  During  the  thirteenth  century  the  school 
of  Pcjrtuguese-Galician  troubadours  rapidly  developed,  and, 
indeei-1,  the  Portuguese-Galician  dialect  became  the  regular 
language  even  for  the  Spanish  lyric  poets.  The  full  splen- 
dor of  this  new  art  was  reached  in  the  second  half  of  the 
century,  especially  at  the  court  of  King  Dionysius  (Dom 
Diniz,  1379-1335),  who  was  a  poet  himself,  and  whose  two 
natural  sons  were  poets.  The  Spanish  king  Alfonso  X.,  el 
Sabio  (1252-84),  had  also  given  distinction  to  the  style  by 
writing  his  lyric  poems,  both  sacred  and  jirofane,  in  the 
Portuguese-Galician  tongue.  The  active  production  of  such 
lyric  poetry  continued  till  about  1350,  and  the  list  of  poets 
contains  more  than  150  names,  many  of  them  princes  and 
other  persons  of  high  rank.  The  poems  themselves,  in  so 
far  as  they  are  left  to  us,  are  contained  in  several  song- 
books,  or  Cancioneiros,  of  which  the  most  important  are 
the  so-called  Cancioneiro  da  Ajuda,  preserved  in  Portugal, 
and  the  Italian  Cancioneiro  do  Vaticano  (Cod.  Vat.,  4803) 
and  Cancioneiro  Colocci-Brancuti  (belonging  to  Count 
Brancuti  di  Cagli).  The  numerous  poetical  forms  include 
all  the  important  varieties  employed  by  the  troubadours  of 
Provence.  The  most  serious  defect  of  the  mass  of  poems  is 
their  almost  complete  artificiality. 

Contemporary  with  this  lyric  production  we  find  traces 
in  Portugal  of  general  interest  in  the  historic  or  romantic 
traditions  treated  in  the  narrative  poems  of  Northern 
Prance  and  of  Spain.  The  Arthurian  legends,  the  heroic 
tales  about  Charlemagne  and  his  peers,  and  certain  of  the 
Spanish  popular  historic  themes  were  undoubtedly  sung  in 
Portugal.  Perhaps  at  this  time  the  famous  romance  of 
Amadis  de  Gaula  began  to  take  shape.  (See  Lobeira, 
Vasco,  de.)  No  other  considerable  work,  however,  on  any 
of  these  subjects  seems  to  have  been  produced.  The  works 
in  prose  of  this  period  are  of  slight  account,  being  mainly 
either  translations  from  Latin,  French,  and  Spanish  books, 
both  religious  and  secular,  or  meager  chronicles  and  geneal- 
ogies of  the  Portuguese  nobility  {Livros  de  Linhagens,  or 
Nobiliarios). 

Second  Period  (1385-1521) ;  Spanish  Influence. — This  pe- 
riod, intermediary  between  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  mod- 
ern world,  was  rather  one  of  intellectual  preparation  than 
of  actual  literary  achievement.  A  great  change  had  to  be 
undergone  by  Portugal,  as  by  the  rest  of  Europe,  under  the 
influence  of  that  revival  of  classical  studies  which  had  been 
initiated  in  Italy  by  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Lisbon  had  already  been  founded  by  Dom  Diniz  in 
1291,  and,  though  shifted  several  times  from  the  capital  to 
Coiinbra  and  back  again,  speedily  acquired  great  impor- 
tance for  Portuguese  culture.  During  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  we  find  a  wide  extension  of  the  study 
first  of  the  Latin  and  later  of  the  Greek  classics.  At  the 
same  time  intercourse  with  Italy  became  more  constant,  and 
Italian  literary  ideals  gradually  replaced  the  older  French 
and  Provencal  traditions.  The  first  effect  of  the  readjust- 
ment was  almost  a  cessation  of  poetical  composition.  From 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  to  the  second  half  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  we  have  no  Portuguese  [loctry  of  impor- 
tance. Then  there  was  developed  at  the  royal  court  a  school 
of  poets,  which,  while  not  completely  assimilating  the  new 
ideas,  still  served  to  introduce  them.  These  singers,  com- 
monly QnWeA  poetas  palacianos,  did  not  directly  imitate  the 
Italians,  but  instead  the  Spanish  iniit.ators  of  the  Italians, 
like  the  Jlarques  de  Santillana,  Juan  de  Meiia,  Jorge 
Manrique,  etc.  The  number  of  t\\L'  pnefns  juttarianos  was 
large,  and  included  persons  of  the  highest  rank.  Their 
verses  were  collected  and  printed  in  1516  by  the  courtier 
and  poet  Garcia  de  Rcsende  in  the  volume  entitled  Cancio- 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE 


r27 


neiro  Cferal,  whidi  contains  about  1,000  ijouiiis,  all  written 
apparently  after  1448. 

Tlic  most  noteworthy  prose  works  of  this  period  are 
the  first  i;reat  Porliijrnesc  chronicles.  Four  of  these  were 
written  durinj;:  the  lifleenth  century — those  of  Fernain 
Lopez,  (ionu'S  Eaunes  de  Zurara,  Vasco  Fernandes  de  Lu- 
cena,  and  Huy  de  I'ina.  Furthermore, there  was  a  reniark- 
alily  rich  literature  of  translations,  especially  from  the  Latin 
classics. 

Tlu'rd  Period  (1521-80);  Italian  Influence— This,  the 
ifohlen  aj;e  of  Porlusruese  literature,  is  ushered  in  by  three 
writers  still  closely  allied  with  the  past,  but  at  the  same 
time  innovators  and  indicators  of  tendencies  destined  to 
become  dominant  in  the  future — Gil  Vicente  (1502-36), 
Christovam  Falcao  (d.  1.").50  0,  and  Bernanlim  Uibeiro  (b. 
14SG  I).  The  first  of  these  was  the  founder  of  the  Portuguese 
drama  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  richest  anil  most 
varied  geniuses  of  his  native  land.  The  im|)ulse  to  the  cre- 
ation of  his  dramatic  pieces  (aulos)  seems  to  have  come  from 
the -iH/y-t  or  Echigmt  of  the  Spanish  Juan  del  Kncina  (see 
E.vciNA,  Jf.\N,  deli.  ]iublishecl  in  1496;  but  the  PortiigU(!se 
poet  far  outdid  his  models  in  variety  and  originality.  His 
drauuis,  which  are  both  religious  and  secular,  show  the  most 
remarkable  commingling  of  all  kinds  of  elements — mediicval 
and  Renaissance,  popular  and  learned,  sacred  and  profane. 
Falciio  and  Ribeiro.  on  the  other  hand,  introduced  that  ex- 
pression of  sentinu'Utal  feeling  in  pastoral  form  which,  on 
the  whole,  has  best  fitted  the  Portugu<'se  temperament. 
Their  inspiration  seems  to  have  proceeded  first  from  the 
pastoral  works  which  the  Italians  began  to  write  at  the  very 
dawn  of  the  Renaissance  (see  Pastoral  Poetkv)  ;  but  cer- 
tainly they  owed  much  to  the  popular  pastoral  songs  (se- 
rraiiilhas,  etc.)  which  are  among  the  most  characteristic 
products  of  the  Portuguese  genius. 

The  note  given  uncertainly  by  these  poets  was  first  struck 
with  fullness  and  power  by  Francisco  de  Sii  e  Miranda 
(1495-1557),  the  first  classic  writer  of  Portugal.  After  he 
had  already  become  a  Icarnetl  man,  this  poet  in  1521  under- 
took a  journey  to  Italy  and  Spain  with  the  avowed  purpose 
of  learning  what  was  newest  and  best  in  literature  and  art. 
He  remained  live  or  six  years  in  Italy,  entering  into  rela- 
tions with  the  most  eminent  writers  and  scholars,  and  after 
his  return  to  Portugal  he  speedily  became  almost  a  literary 
dictator.  Humanistic  studies  were,  as  a  conseijuence,  pur- 
sueil  with  far  greater  zeal,  and  Portuguese  poets  cultivated 
ideals  quite  different  from  those  of  their  predecessors.  In 
particular,  Sii  e  Miranda  ()Ut  forward  Petraridi  and  his  Ital- 
ian disciples  as  the  only  true  models  for  lyric  poets ;  he  greatly 
strengthened  the  im])ulse  to  the  pastoral  form  ;  and  his  in- 
troiluction  of  comedy  after  the  manner  of  the  Italians  and 
of  Plant  us  and  Terence  gave  the  drauui  a  new  direction. 
His  followers  and  imitators  were  many,  but  only  one  can  be 
mentioned  here,  Jorge  Ferreira  de  Vasconcellos  (d.  1585), 
whose  tragedy  in  the  anticpie  style,  hies  de  Castro,  still  re- 
mains unsurpassed  in  Portugal. 

The  poet  who  combines  within  himself  all  these  tenden- 
cies and  who  gave  them  idliniate  expression  was  Luis  de 
Camoes  (1524-80),  the  greatest  figure  in  the  history  of  Por- 
tuguese letters.  Of  passionate  and  imprcssiomible  tempera- 
ment, yet  capable  of  feeling  to  the  full  the  glories  of  the 
freat  period  of  Portuguese  discovery  and  conquest  in  the 
la-st  and  West  Indi(!s,  Camoes  gave  utterance  to  his  own 
experiences  and  emotions  in  exquisite  lyrics,  and  to  the  he- 
roic history  of  his  country  in  an  epic,  Os  Luxiadas,  which  is 
among  the  best  the  moderns  have  produced.  So  connuand- 
ing  was  his  genius  that  the  succeeding  generation  of  poets 
in  Ijolli  kinds  may  best  be  grouped  under  the  one  name 
Camuninfas,  or  discijilcs  of  Camoes. 

Despite  the  greater  importance  of  poetry,  prose  also 
flourished  greatly  in  this  period.  Its  most  remarkable 
monuments  were  historical  works,  of  which  nuiy  be  men- 
tioned the  Decadas  of  Joao  de  Barros  (141(0-1570) ;  the  His- 
liirid  do  Di:irobrimi'nlo  da  India  of  Fernam  Lopes  <le  Cas- 
taidieda  (d.  15.50);  the  Ilistnria  da  Provincia  de.  Santa 
Cruz  of  Pedro  de  Magalhaes  (Jandavo  ;  the  C/ininira  de  D. 
Mauoel  and  Clironiea  de  I).  .Indo  II.  of  Dainiao  de  (Joes 
(1.501-72);  the  Latin  De  rebus  Emanualis  tiliri  XII.  of 
.leronymo  Osorio  (d.  1.580),  later  made  a  classic  in  the  trans- 
lation of  Francisco  Mauoel  do  Nascimento  (pnbl.  1804) ;  the 
Cliriinira  de  D.  Joao  III.  of  Francisco  de  Andrade  (1540- 
1614) ;  and  the  often  too  inuigimitive  book  of  travels  in  Asia, 
/'<rei/rinari'ie.f,  of  Fermim  Mendes  Pinto  (I.50!)-80).  Of 
other  Works  in  prose  from  this  time  the  most  notable  are 
the  romances  of  chivalry,  the  number  of  which  is  great. 


The  best  of  them,  however.  Pahneirim  de  Inglaterra,  we 
have  only  in  a  garbled  .Spanish  form.  Worth  mentioning 
here,  though  not  written  till  about  15!I5.  is  the  pastoral  ro- 
mance by  Fernam  Alvares  do  Oriente, entitled  A  Lusitania 
tra-iformada,  based  on  Sannazaro's  Arcadia. 

Foiirtli  y^criod  (1580-1700);  Spaiiisli-Italian  Culteranis- 
tic  Injluence. — As  in  Spain,  the  golden  age  was  followed 
by  a  long  period  of  literary  decay.  That  curious  literary 
movcnu'iit  Known  in  Italy  and  France  as  Marinism,  in  Eng- 
land as  Kuphuism,  in  .Spain  as  Gongorism  or  Culteranisni, 
extended  also  to  Portugal.  Command  of  the  substance  of 
poetry  having  been  lost,  poets  strove  to  make  up  for  it  by 
intricacies  and  aitificialities  of  style.  The  large  and  gra- 
cious manner  of  the  classic  writers  was  succeeded  by  the 
tortured  and  laborious  efforts  of  the  makers  of  concetti. 
Accordingly,  in  all  this  long  period  we  have  but  a  few  great 
names.  Francisco  Mauoel  de  Mello  (1611-66)  showed  both 
in  lyric  poetry  and  in  the  [xistoral  romance  something  of 
the  old  charm.  Francisco  Kodrigues  Lobo  (d.  1625)  at- 
tained a  certain  success  in  the  latter  form.  In  the  sacred 
and  profane  lyrics  of  I).  Francisco  de  Portugal  and  of  the 
mm  Sor  Violante  do  Ceo  (1601-0:5)  an  occasional  note  of 
truth  and  power  is  struc-k.  The  immerous  epic  poets  rarely 
produce  a  readable  work — foi*  example,  the  JI/«/f/cc«  Con- 
qnistada  of  Francisco  de  Sa  e  Jlenezes  (d.  1664),  and  the 
Viriuto  traj/ico  of  Hraz  Garcia  de  Wascarenhas.  The  ora- 
tory of  the  Jesuit  preacher  Antonio  Vieira  (1608-07)  could 
become  at  times  direct  and  strong.  Most  characteristic  of 
the  time  was  the  foiinalii>n  of  n\imero>is  literary  acade- 
mies, after  the  fashion  of  the  Italians — some  of  (hem  with 
the  most  fantastic  names  and  the  strangest  conceiitions  of 
literarv  art. 

Fifth  /-"(■/■(Of/ (1700-1825);  P.iendo-Classteism.—^Aki'  the 
rest  of  Eurojie,  Portugal  gave  the  eighteenth  century  to  the 
contest  between  the  old  manner  of  thinking  and  living  and 
rapidly  invading  science  and  rationalism  ;  and  here,  as  else- 
where, it  was  France  that  gave  rise  to  the  revolutionary  im- 
pulses. Despite  all  the  eflorts  of  the  conservative  |iart  of 
six'iety,  aided  by  the  ruthless  cruelties  of  the  Inquisition, 
the  movement  could  not  be  stayed.  Gradually  here  and 
there  one  of  the  numerous  academies  became  a  meeting- 
place  for  enlightened  men  eager  to  share  the  scientific  ad- 
vances of  their  time.  Such  were  the  Acadeniia  Portu- 
gueza,  founded  early  in  tlie  century  liy  Francisco  Xavier 
de  Menezes,  Count  of  Kriceira,  and  the  Arcadia  Flyssipo- 
nense,  established  in  1756  by  Antonio  Diidz  da  Cruz  e 
Silva  and  others.  j\t  the  same  time  literature  began  to 
adopt  as  models  first  the  great  French  writers  of  the  age  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  later  Voltaire,  the  Encyclopaedists,  and  to 
some  extent  Rousseau.  While  this  process  of  regulating 
and  rationalizing  was  going  on.it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  interest  of  literary  art  decidedly  diminished.  For  .some 
reason  Brazil  for  the  monu'nt  fairly  eclipsed  the  mother- 
country.  In  the  latter  the  chief  names  are  Antonio  Diniz 
da  Cruz  e  Silva  (17iJl-!)0),  mentioned  above,  and  Francisco 
Mauoel  do  Na.scimento  (1784-1810).  Serving  as  links  to  con- 
nect this  with  the  following  period,  we  have  Manoel  Maria 
Barbo.sa  du  Bocage  (1765-1805)  and  Jose  Agostinho  de  Ma- 
cedo  (17G1-18;!1). 

Si.rlli  J'eriod  (since  1825) ;  Botnanticism. — The  literary 
phenonu'iui  of  the  ronumtic  movement  were  the  same  in 
Portugal  as  elsewhere.  The  scientific  studies  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  had  greatly  enlarged  the  range  of  intcllec- 
tmd  interests,  and  the  agitations  of  the  revolutiomiry  period 
turned  the  atti'idion  of  the  best  spirits  to  the  furthermg  of 
patriotic  mitional  life.  These  efforts  oidy  the  more  alarmed 
the  I'orlugnese  conservatives,  and  as  a  result  immy  of  the 
liberals  were  forced  into  temjiorary  exile,  thus  becoming  all 
the  better  acquainted  with  the  tendencies  of  contemporary 
Europe.  The  true  initiator  of  Romanticism  in  Portugal 
was  Joilo  Baptista  da  Silva  Leitilo.  Viscount  of  Almeida 
Garrett  (1700-1854),  who  was  equally  influential  in  politics 
and  in  literature.  It  was  he  who  established  a  national 
theater  and  provided  it  with  a  series  of  dramas  full  of  na- 
tional reminiscences  and  of  jiatriotic  feeling.  He  produced 
in  his  novel  O  Arro  de  Santa  Anna  (1846)  one  of  the  chief 
ronumtic  historical  novels  in  the  language.  He  also  en- 
couraged the  collection  of  popular  songs  and  traditions, 
which  have  done  nnich  to  strengthen  the  sense  of  national 
life  among  the  Portuguese.  Only  less  important  (han  his 
efforts  were  those  of  Alexandre  "Herculano  de  Carvalho  e 
Araujo  (1810-77),  the  chief  of  the  Portuguese  historical  nov- 
elists as  well  as  an  historian  of  the  first  rank.  Somewhat 
aside  from  the  romantic   movement,  i>n  the   other  hand, 


728 


PORTUGUESE  MAN-OF-WAR 


POSITIVISM 


stood  Antonio  Peliciano  do  Oastilho  (1800-75),  the  master 
of  an  exquisite  poetic  style,  with  but  little  originality  of 
ideas. 

Romanticism  everywhere  in  Europe  easily  degenerated 
into  extravagance,  and  the  succeeding  generation  of  Portu- 
guese writers  did  not  escape  tlie  danger.  While  novelists 
like  Rebello  da  Silva,  blendes  Leal,  and  Andrade  Corvo  suc- 
ceeded in  giving  something  of  measure  to  their  work,  too 
many  others  fell  into  the  merest  literary  oddities.  The 
poets,  like  Soares  dos  Passos  (1826-60),  abandoned  whole- 
some and  generous  life  for  melancholy  ami  dilettante  senti- 
ment. Since  1865,  however,  a  strong  reaction  has  set  in, 
finding  expression  in  the  utterances  of  the  so-called  Coim- 
bra  school  (escho/a  de  Coimbra).  The  representatives  of 
this  new  movement  have  striven  to  replace  the  triviality 
and  vagueness  of  the  ultra-romanticists  by  serious  studies 
in  the  literature,  art,  and  history  of  Portugal  as  well  as  of 
other  countries.  Notewortliy  names  here  are  those  of  the 
Positivist  and  literary  historian  Theophilo  Braga  (b.  1843), 
the  philologist  P.  A.  Coelho,  tlie  critic  and  scholar  J.  Leite 
de  Vasconcellos.  To  pure  literature  belongs  the  poet  Joao 
de  Deus  (Nogueira  Ramos),  one  of  the  most  excellent  of  the 
contemporary  lyric  poets  of  Europe. 

Bibliography. — The  best  sketch  of  Portuguese  literature 
is  that  of  Carolina  Michaelis  de  Vasconcellos,  in  Grober's 
Orundriss  der  rotiMinischen  Phllolngie,  vol.  ii..  pt.  3  (Strass- 
burg,  1894),  which  contains  full  bibliographical  information. 
In  Portuguese  we  have  the  long  scries  of  volumes  by  Theo- 
philo Braga,  which,  though  issued  under  various  titles,  form 
parts  of  the  author's  early  conceived  Hisforia  da  Littera- 
tura  Portugueza  (1870,  seq.).  These  are  impaired  by  numer- 
ous inconsistencies  and  changes  of  view.  See  also  Costa  e 
Silva,  Ensaio  Biographico-Critico  sobre  os  melhores  Poetas 
Portuguezes  (10  vols.,  Lisbon,  1850-56) ;  Andrade  Perreira 
and  C.  Castello-Branco,  Ciirso  de  Litteraturtt  Portugueza 
(Lisbon,  1875-76) ;  Barbosa-Machado,  BibUotheca  Lusitana 
(4  vols.,  1741-53) ;  Francisco  da  Silva,  Diccionario  Biblio- 
graphico  Porhiguez  (continued  by  Brito-Aranha ;  15  vols, 
up  to  1890) ;  R.  Pinto  de  Mattos,  Manual  Bibtiographico 
Porfuguez  (Oporto,  1878);  Maxime  Formont,  Le  mouvement 
poetique  contemporain  en  Portugal  {Lyons,  1893);  Candido 
de  Pigueiredo,  Homens  e  lettras  (1881).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Portuguese  Man-of-war :  any  one  of  the  large  siphono- 
phores  of  the  genus  Ph.ysalia.    See  SiPH0N0PH0R.i:. 

Portulacacefe :  See  Purslane  Family. 

Port  Whitby,  Canada :  See  Whitby. 

Port  Wine :  See  Wine. 

Po'rns :  a  king  of  India,  ruling  E.  of  the  Hydaspes ;  at- 
tacked Alexander  when  he  tried  to  cross  this  river,  but  was 
defeated,  wounded,  and  captured.  He  was  treated  with 
great  kindness,  however,  by  Alexander,  and  restored  to  his 
kingdom,  which  was  much  enlarged.  As  an  ally  of  the 
Macedonians  he  afterward  supported  them  on  their  further 
expedition  into  India,  but  after  the  departure  of  Alexander 
he  was  put  to  death  by  Budemus,  who  was  left  in  command 
of  the  Greek  army  of  occupation. 

Pijsclll,  Thomas  :  religious  leader ;  b.  at  Horetz,  in  Bo- 
hemia, Mar.  3,  1769 ;  was  appointed  cliajilain  at  Ampfel- 
wang,  in  Upper  Austria,  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  caused  great  commotion  there  and  in  the  adja- 
cent districts  by  the  singular  doctrines  he  propounded — 
that  women  could  hear  confession  and  give  absolution,  that 
a  certain  process  of  purification  which  produced  convulsions 
was  necessary  to  salvation,  etc.  He  found  many  adherents, 
and  finally  formed  an  independent  sect,  the  Piischlians ; 
but,  as  the  wildest  excesses  took  place  in  their  assemblies, 
the  police  interfered.  Pfischl  was  arrested  and  found  com- 
pletely insane,  and  was  taken  to  a  lunatic  asylum  in  Vienna, 
where  ho  died  Nov.  15,  1837.  His  followers,  who  went  so 
far  as  to  offer  human  sacrifices,  were  dispersed  by  force. 

PoseiMon  (in  Or.  TloaftSSiv) :  in  Grecian  mythology,  son 
of  Cnmus  and  liliea.  brother  of  Zeus,  and  husband  of  Amphi- 
trite.  When  the  universe  was  apportioned  out.  after  the  con- 
quest of  the  Titans,  he  roceivetl  as  his  portion  the  empire  of 
tlie  sea,  an  element  of  peculiar  importance  in  the  Greek 
mind.  He  is  the  equal  of  Zeus,  he  surrounds  and  holds  the 
earth,  he  is  lord  over  all  other  sea  divinities,  he  sends  storms 
and  quiets  the  waves,  he  sends  earthquakes  (which  the  Greeks 
thought  originated  in  the  sea),  he  dwells  in  the  sea.  Like  the 
sea,  he  is  ever  prone  to  .stormy  anger ;  the  waves  are  his  horses 
(and  so  he  was  regarded  as  the  cn^ator  of  the  horse,  and  the 
patron  of  the  chariot-race);  the  trident,  a  stroke  of  which 


blasts  rocks  and  makes  water  to  spring  forth,  is  his  awful 
scepter.  Relatively  speaking,  he  is  rarely  depicted  in  art, 
but  on  this  point  see  the  article  Poseidon  in  Baumeister's 
Denkmaler.  3.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Posen,  po'zen :  province  of  Prussia ;  bounded  by  Silesia, 
Brandenburg,  Pomerania,  West  Prussia,  and  Poland.  Area, 
11,178  sq.  miles.  The  land  is  a  low  and  level  plain,  inter- 
sected by  the  Netze,  the  Warthe,  and  the  Obra,  tributaries 
of  the  Oder,  and  bounded  for  a  short  distance  on  the  N.  E. 
by  the  Vistula.  It  is  dotted  all  over  with  small  lakes,  and 
covered  to  a  great  extent  with  fine  forests.  The  soil  is  fruit- 
ful and  well  cultivated.  Cattle  of  superior  quality  are 
rearetl,  and  large  crops  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats  are 
raised.  Manufactures  of  cloth,  machinery,  sugar,  and  tiles 
are  carried  on.  Posen  formed  a  part  of  Poland  until  the 
first  partition  of  that  country,  when  Prussia  took  the  largest 
part  of  the  present  province.  This  was  enlarged  at  the  two 
following  partitions,  an  act  solemnly  sanctioned  at  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  in  1815.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  inhabit- 
ants are  Poles,  who  are  principally  Roman  Catholics,  while 
the  Germans  are  mainly  Protestants.     Pop.  (1890)  1,751,642. 

Posen  :  capital  of  the  province  of  Posen,  Prussia;  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Zybina  and  Warthe ;  150  miles  E.  of  Berlin 
and  90  miles  N.  of  Breslau  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref. 
3-1).  The  Prussian  Government  has  made  it  one  of  its  great 
fortified  places,  and  surrounded  it  by  a  modern  enceinte 
with  citadel  and  outworks  at  a  cost  of  114,000,000  thalers. 
It  contains  many  fine  buildings,  including  a  town-hall  and 
a  cathedral,  many  promenades  and  puljlic  squares,  several 
good  educational  and  benevolent  institutions,  and  manu- 
factures of  tobacco,  sealing-wax,  wax  candles,  leather,  furs, 
liqueurs,  gold  and  silver  ware,  woolen  and  linen  fabrics, 
arms  and  carriages.  Posen  is  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
archbishopric.     Pop.  (1890)  69,627. 

Posey,  Thomas  :  soldier ;  b.  in  Eastern  Virginia,  July  9, 
1750;  removed  to  Western  Virginia  in  1769;  was  quarter- 
master of  Lewis's  division  of  Lord  Dunmore's  expedition 
against  the  Ohio  Indians,  and  took. part  in  the  memorable 
battle  of  Point  Pleasant  Oct.  10,  1774 ;  was  in  the  following 
year  a  member  of  the  Virginia  committee  of  correspondence, 
and  captain  of  a  company  which  he  raised  for  the  Seventh 
Virginia  Regiment;  participated  in  the  defeat  of  Lord  Dun- 
more  at  Gwynn's  island  July  8,  1776;  joined  the  Continental 
army  at  Middlebrook.  N.  J.,  early  in  1777;  was  transferred 
to  Morgan's  famous  rifle  regiment ;  distinguished  himself  in 
an  action  at  Piscataway,  N.  J.,  and  in  the  battles  of  Bemis 
Heights  and  Stillwater  under  Gen.  Gates;  commanded  the 
regiment  with  the  rank  of  major  in  an  expedition  against 
the  Indians  in  the  Wyoming  valley  Oct.,  1778  ;  commanded 
the  Eleventh  Virginia  Regiment  1779,  distinguishing  himself 
at  the  head  of  a  battery  at  Stony  Point ;  was  present  at  the 
surrender  of  Yorktown  ;  served  under  Wayne  in  Georgia ; 
defeated  the  Indians  June  23, 1782  ;  resided  in  Spottsylvania 
CO.,  Va.,  for  many  years  after  the  war;  was  appointed  briga- 
dier-general Peb.  14, 1793,  and  served  under  Gen.  Wayne  in 
his  campaigns  against  the  Indians  in  the  Northwest;  re- 
moved soon  afterward  to  Kentucky,  where  he  became  lieu- 
tenant-governor and  major-general,  1809  ;  was  U.  S.  Senator 
from  Louisiana  1812-13 ;  succeeded  Harrison  as  Governor 
of  Indiana  Territorv  1813,  and  became  agent  for  Indian 
pffairs  1816.  D.  at  "Shawneetown,  111.,  Mar.  19,  1818.  His 
Life  was  published  in  Sparks's  American  Biography. 

Posido'nius  (Gr.  UoaeiSdimos) :  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Stoic  school;  historian,  physicist ;  b.  at  Apamea,  in  Syria 
(128  B.  c.) ;  founded  a  school  in  Rhodes,  which  Cicero  at- 
tended ;  traveled  far  and  wide.  His  great  work  was  a  his- 
tory in  fifty-two  hooks,  a  continuation  of  Polybius,  embrac- 
ing the  period  from  145-83  n.  c  V>.  45  n.  c.  Fragments  are 
given  in  Miiller's  Fragmenta.  Ili.sloriforum  Onecorum,  vol. 
iii.,  pp.  245-296.  B.  L.  G. 

Posilipo,  po-sec'li-po  [Ital.  <  Lat.  Pauaily'pum  =  Gr.  IIou- 
aiximov,  liter.,  stopping  or  ending  care] :  the  name  of  a  villa 
of  the  notorious  epicure  Vedius  Pollio,  afterward  extended 
to  the  entire  eminence  which  bounds  the  city  of  Naples  on 
the  W.     See  Naples. 

Positivism  [deriv.  of  positive,  in  the  sense  of  indubitable, 
certain]:  the  system  of  philosophy  and  religion  founded  by 
Auguste  Comte  (1798-1857).  (See  Comte.)  In  his  youth  he 
showed  a  strong  taste  for  mathematics,  and  it  was  while  en- 
gaged in  teaching  geometry  in  Paris  that  he  became  associated 
(lKlW-24)  with  Saint-Simon,  the  celebrated  fnunder  of  a  sect 
of  world-menilers.    It  appears  to  have  been  during  this  period 


i 


POSITIVISM 


729 


ttiaf  he  bcpiii  I"  conceive  his  great  sdienie  fur  the  reorgiini- 
zaticiii  of  society  by  philosophy.  Coiiite  iiiaintaineil  tliat 
the  phenomena  of  society  conform  to  fixed  and  ascertain- 
able laws,  no  less  than  the  phenomena  of  chemical  combina- 
tion or  planetary  rotation.  To  discover  the  laws  or  most 
general  aspects  of  the  snccession  of  social  events  was  there- 
fore the  great  tiusk  which  t'omte  set  befori;  himself:  bnt 
from  his  standpoint  such  a  task  as  this  required  systematic 
preparation  on  an  immense  scale,  for  the  phenomena  of 
human  society  are  by  far  the  most  complicated  with  which 
investigation  has  to  deal.  In  two  ways  the  successfid  study 
of  them  involves  a  previous  study  of  the  most  general  as- 
pects of  all  other  phenomena;  for,  in  the  first  place,  the 
human  units  of  society  conform  to  physical,  chemical,  and 
biological  laws,  so  that  these  must  be  known  before  we  can 
give  a  complete  account  of  the  actions  of  social  nidts :  and, 
in  the  second  place,  each  science  has  devices  for  getting  at 
the  truth  abo\it  things  which  are  to  some  extent  peculiar 
to  itself,  so  that  we  must  look  over  the  whole  field  in  order 
to  equip  ourselves  adequately  for  a  research  which  will  call 
into  play  all  the  devices  we  can  bring  to  bear.  One  science, 
for  example,  succeeds  pre-eminently  l)y  the  use  of  exjieri- 
nient,  while  another,  in  which  experiment  is  less  likely  to 
return  liiudly  satisfactory  answers,  gets  along  best  by  using 
the  com|iarative  method.  Let  ns,  therefore,  study  each 
method  in  that  science  which  best  illustrates  the  proper  use 
of  it,  and  then  we  shall  be  the  better  prepared  to  investigate 
the  excessively  comi)lex  questions  presented  by  the  phenom- 
ena of  human  society. 

ChiKsilication  of  the  Sciences. — Thus  in  the  attempt  to 
inaugurate  a  scientific  theory  of  social  phenomena  Comte 
was  led  incidentally  to  work  up  the  elements  of  a  grand 
theory  of  scientific  method.     As  his  acquaintance  with  phys- 
ical science  was  wholly  at  second-hand,  he  fell   into  many 
errors  in  the  details  of  his  scheme,  but  he  nevertheless  ac- 
complished so  much  a.s  to  entitle  him  to  a  very  high  place 
as  a  writer  on  method.     Ills  first  task  was  to  classify  the 
*      various  sciences  in  the  order  of  their  logical  dependence. 
Having  made  a  division  between  abstract  and  concrete  sci- 
ences, corresponiling  nearly  to  the  old  division  between  nat- 
ural philosophy  aiul  natural  history,  Comte  arranged  his  so- 
called  abstract  sciences  in  a  linear  series.     He  began  with 
the  most  simple  and  general  phenomena,  to  proceed  step  by 
ste|i  to  those  which  are  most  complex  and  special.     Ipon 
this  principle  the  inorganic  sciences,  as  a  group,  were  mani- 
festly to  come  before  those  which  deal  with  organic  phe- 
nomena.   l'\ir  example,  we  can  study  thermal  radiations  and 
chemical  reactions  without  taking  vital  forces  into  the  ac- 
count, but  we  can  not  study  living  organisms  without  ap- 
pealing to  physics  and  chemistry  at  every  step.     In  the  re- 
gion of  inorganic  science  Comte  placed  astronomy  first,  as 
(lealing  (in  his  timei  only  with  gravitative  force  a.s  mani- 
fested in  the  relatively  simple  phenomena  of  the  mutual  at- 
tractions of  the  heaveidy  bodies  ;  whereas  physics,  which  he 
placed  next,  treats  not  only  of  gravitative  force  as  nuuii- 
fested  throughout  relatively  complex  terrestrial  phenomena, 
but  also  of  such  modes  of  forces  as  cohesion  and  capillarity, 
and  of  the  varieties  of  wave-motion  known  as  sound,  heat, 
light,  magnetism,  and  electricity.     Chemistry,  dealing  with 
the  still  more  complex  phenomena  in  which  ilu^  relative  po- 
sitions of  inipleculesare  altered  heterogeneously.  resulting  in 
new  compouiiils  with  new  properties,  was  ranked  thinl   in 
order.     Passing  then  to  organic  science,  Comie  grouped  to- 
gether, uniler  the  head  of  biology,  the  most  general  aspects 
of  nutrition  and  reproduction,  of  muscular  contractility  and 
lu'rvous  sensibility  ;  under  the  last-nam<>d  head  he  included 
all  the  phenonu'iia  of  mind,  leaving  no  place  for  psychology 
as  an  independent  science,  and  setting  aside  altogether  the 
study  of  the  subjective  phenomena  of  consciousness  by  in- 
trospective observation.     Last  in  the  series, as  obviously  the 
most  complex  and  specialized  of  all,  was  ranked  the  science 
of  sociology.     Mathematics,  on  the  other  hand,  was  placed 
before  all  these  sciences,  the  phenomena  of  number,  form, 
and  magnitude  being  universal,  and  capable  of  generaliza- 
tion without  reference  to  other  phenomena.     The  "  hier- 
archy of  the  positive  sciences"  thus  came  out  in  the  follow- 
ing order:  (1)  mathematics;  (2)  astronomy ;  (:i)  physics;  (4) 
chemistry;  (.'))  biology  ;  ((i)  sociology.    According  to  Comte, 
this  arrangement  represented  not  only  the  logical  order  in 
which  the  sciences  depeiul  one  upon  another,  but  also  the 
historical  onler  in  which  they  have  been  successively  devel- 
oj)ed  and   in   which  they  have  aided  each  other's  advance. 
1  hus  astronomy,  according  to  Comte,  was  truly  a  science  in 
the  days  of  llipparcluis,  wiuh'  physics  became  a  science,  in 


the  true  sense  of  the  word,  only  when  Galileo  discovered  the 
increment  of  velocity  in  falling  bodies ;  chemistry  was  not 
scientific  until  the  time  of  Lavoisier  ;  biology  wsis  first  or- 
ganized into  a  coherent  body  of  doctrine  by  Bichat ;  and 
sociology  had  to  wait  until  ail  these  lines  of  inquiry  were 
gathered  together  in  the  haiuls  of  the  founder  of  positivism. 
This  Comlist  classification  of  the  sciences  has  fascinated 
many  minds,  but  it  is  not  at  present  accejited  by  scientific 
thinkers.     For  a  full  examination  of  this  subject  the  reader 
nuiy  be  referred  to  Herbert  Spencer's  essays  on  the  Classi- 
ficdtioH  of  the  Sciences  and  tlie  Oenexis  of  Science,  and  to 
John  Fiske's  Outlines  of  Coamic  Philosophy,  part  i.,  ch.  viii. 
Methods  of  Scientific   Ini/iiiri/.—Comle's   classification, 
however,  was  not  a  bail  one  for  the  practical  ends  which  he 
had  in  view.     He  cared  much  less  about  organizing  a  co- 
herent body  of  doctrine  concerning  the  various  provinces  of 
nature  than  about  co-ordinating  the  methods  of  research 
whi<rli  the  sciences  severally  best  illustrate.     His  most  im- 
portant step  consisted  in  assigning  to  eacli  class  of  phe- 
nomena its  appropriate  method  of  investigation,  and   in 
clearly  marking  out  the  limits  within  which  each  metliod  is 
applicable.     It  is  this  which  makes  it  still  interesting  and 
profitable  to  reail  his  great  work,  even  in  those  chapters  on 
physics,  chemistry,  and  biology,  wlii<-h  in  nearly  all  other 
respects  the  revolutions  in  science  have  rendered  thorough- 
ly antiquated.     According  to  Comte  the  resources  at  our 
disposal  for  the  inductive  investigation  of  phenomeiui  may 
be  classified   as  observation,  experiment,  and  comi)arison. 
In  simple  observation  we  merely  collate  the  phenomena  as 
they  are  presented  to  us;  in  experiment,  we  artificially  vary 
the  circumstances;  in  comparison,  we  watch  the  circum- 
stances as  they  are  varied  for  us  on  a  great  scale  by  nature. 
The  conditions  of  successful  observation  are  best  studied  in 
astronomy,  where  experiment  is  out  of  the  question,  owing 
to  the  magnitude  and  inaccessibility  of  the  phenomena,  and 
where  the  comparative  method  is  only  beginning  to  be  ap- 
plied.     Physics  and  chemistry,  on  the  other  hand,  are,  jixir 
crcelleiice.  "the  sciences  of  experiment,  since  we  can  vary  the 
phenomena  almost  indefinitely.     In  biology,  experiment  is 
also  indispensable,  nearly  all  our  knowledge  of  the  more 
important  organic  functions  having  been  gained  through 
vivisection  and  other  forms  of  experiment;  but  exiieriment 
is  far  more  complicated  and  difficult  to  interpret  in  biology 
than  in  physics,  partly  owing  to  the  subtlety  of  the  causes 
in  operation,  partly  because  the  experiment  itself  sets  in 
molion  a  new  series  of  phenomena  which  are  liable  to  mask 
and  obscure  those  which  we  wish  to  observe.     Hence  the 
practical  study  of  experimentation  should  not  begin  in  bi- 
ology, but  in  physics  or  chemistry,  where  the  conditions  are 
simpler.     On  the  other  hand,  it  is  in  biology  that  we  can 
best  learn  the  use  of  the  comparative  method,  since  here 
we  have  a  vast  hierarchy  of  organisms,  in  which  various  or- 
gans and  their  corresponding  functions  appear  in  all  stages 
of  development.     It  was  in  biology  that  the  nuithod  of  com- 
parison was  first  employed  upon  a  great  scale,  and  since  the 
time  of  Cuvier  its  extension  overall  departments  of  socio- 
logical inquiry,  including  linguistics,  mythology,  and  juris- 
prudencH',  is  perhaps  the  most  striking  event  in  the  history 
of  science. 

The  Three  5'/o.9e.s.— Perhaps  no  better  illustration  of  the 
use  of  the  comparative  method  coidd  be  found  t  han  is  fur- 
nished bv  Comte's  first  wide  generalization  from  the  facts  of 
history.  When,  after  his  preparatory  discussion  of  scientific 
methods,  Comte  endeavored  to  sum  up  the  most  prominent 
aspects  of  social  progress,  both  intellectual  and  material, 
his  first  achievement  was  his  celebrated  theory  of  1  he '•  three 
stages"  through  which  men's  conceptions  nnist  pass.  This 
theory  constitutes  the  nmst  essential  part  of  the  structure 
of  positivism.  He  who  intelligently  accepts  the  so-called 
"law  of  the  three  stages"  may  properly  be  regarded  as  a 
positivist;  he  who  rejects  the  so-called  "law,"  as  an  imide- 
quate  and  misleading  description  of  the  phenomena  which 
it  seeks  to  generalize,  must  be  ranked  among  the  antago- 
nists of  the  positive  philosophy. 

At  the  beginning  of  his  great  work  Comte  tells  us  that 
"the  mind  employs  successively  in  each  of  its  researches 
three  methods  of  philosojihizing,  of  which  the  character  is 
essentiallv  dilTerent  and  even  radically  opposed — first,  the 
theological  method,  then  the  melaiihysical.  lastly  the  posi- 
tive. The  theological  system  arrives  at  the  highest  perfec- 
tion of  which  it  is  susceptil)le  when  it  has  substituted  the 
providential  action  of  a  single  Being  for  the  capricious  play 
of  the  innumerable  indep<>ndent  deities  which  were  primi- 
tivelv  imagined.    Likewise  the  perfect  icm  of  the  metaphysical 


730 


POSITIVISM 


system  consists  in  conceiving,  instead  of  many  particular 
entities,  one  grand  entity.  Nature,  as  the  source  of  all  phe- 
nomena. Finally,  the  perfection  of  the  positive  system 
would  be  to  represent  all  observable  phenomena  as  par- 
ticular cases  of  a  single  general  fact."  In  accordance  with 
this  general  view  Comte  maintains  that  in  every  depart- 
ment of  inquiry  human  speculation  has  passed  through  or 
is  passing  through  these  three  stages;  and,  by  way  of  weld- 
ing firmly  together  tlie  different  parts  of  his  system,  he  af- 
firms that  the  order  in  wliich  the  respect^'e  sciences  have 
advanced  toward  the  positive  stage  is  truly  represented  by 
the  order  in  which  they  are  ranked  in  his  linear  classifica- 
tion. Obviously  we  have  here  a  very  important  theorem ; 
for  if  this  view  of  intellectual  progress  could  be  demon- 
strated it  would  follow  that  the  conceptions  of  mankind 
must  eventually  become  "  positive "  with  reference  to  all 
questions,  and  Comte's  claim  to  be  regarded  as  the  philo- 
sophic lawgiver  for  the  whole  future  of  the  human  race 
might  not  seem  extravagant. 

When  Herbert  Spencer's  system  of  philosophy  was  begin- 
ning to  attract  general  attention  (about  1860),  and  while  it 
had  as  yet  been  but  partially  expounded,  it  was  very  fre- 
quently confounded  with  Positivism.  In  truth  the  Spen- 
cerian  "philosophy  is  the  very  antipodes  of  Positivism,  and  a 
statement  of  their  fundamental  difference  serves  most  vivid- 
ly to  illustrate  the  real  character  of  the  latter. 

With  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  the  "three  stages,"  Spen- 
cer and  his  school  hold  a  ])osition  diametrically  opposed  to 
that  held  by  the  Positivists.  Between  the  three  terminal 
conceptions — of  God,  of  Nature,  and  of  Law — as  above  de- 
scribed by  Comte,  Spencer  denies  that  there  is  any  incon- 
gruity, or  that  the  latter  supersedes  the  former ;  he  main- 
tains, on  the  contrary,  that  science,  when  properly  under- 
stood, remains  quite  at  one  with  metaphysics  and  theology 
in  the  assertion  of  Unconditional  Existence  as  the  source  of 
Conditioned  Existence.  While  in  Comte's  .system,  there- 
fore, the  assumed  confiict  between  science  and  religion  is 
emphasized  and  perpetuated,  in  Spencer's  system  it  disap- 
pears entirely.  The  system  of  Spencer  has  by  many  persons 
been  supposed  to  be  akin  to  positivism,  because,  like  the 
latter,  it  rejects  as  illegitimate  sundry  a  priori  methods  of 
arriving  at  truth  which  have  hitherto  been  more  custom- 
arily associated  with  the  processes  of  raetapliysics  and 
theology  than  with  those  of  science:  but  this  surface  re- 
semblance only  shows  that  all  modern  philosophy,  following 
out  a  tendency  which  has  been  apparent  for  two  centuries, 
is  becoming  more  and  more  thoroughly  permeated  by  the 
scientific  spirit  of  wariness  in  its  method  of  reaching  con- 
clusions. The  difference  between  positivism  and  evolution- 
ism is  the  difference  between  a  system  that  is  radically  revo- 
lutionary and  quasi-atheistical,  and  a  system  that  is  con- 
servatively progressive  and  in  the  deepest  sense  theistic. 

Social  Philosophy. — This  difference  is  further  elucidated 
by  Comte's  theory  of  sociology,  and  it  serves  in  turn  to  elu- 
cidate that  theory.  The  fifth  volume  of  his  great  work  is  a 
brilliant  survey  of  European  history,  in  which  the  "  law  of 
the  three  stages"  is  applied  and  illustrated  with  admirable 
ingenuity.  It  shoidd  be  read  in  connection  with  tJie  His- 
tory of  Cicilization  by  Guizot,  which  in  some  respects  it 
resembles,  though  the  latter  writer,  while  inferior  to  Comte 
in  depth  of  thought,  yet  far  surpasses  him  in  philosophic 
appreciation  of  the  democratic  and  Protestant  aspects  of 
modern  society.  Along  with  the  progress  from  theological 
to  positive  habits  of  thought,  Comte  joins  the  ])rogress  from 
military  to  industrial  modes  of  life,  and  maintains — incor- 
rectly, as  evolutionists  hold — that  the  latter  change  is  de- 
termined by  the  former.  This  brings  us  to  his  fundamental 
point.  He  passes  over  the  history  of  moral  progress,  and 
while  admitting  as  a  fact  the  growth  of  the  sympathetic 
and  social  feelings  at  the  expense  of  the  selfi.sh  and  unso- 
cial, lie  yet  fails  to  take  this  into  the  account  as  the  pre- 
eminent factor  in  social  changes,  and  always  argues  as  if 
social  amelioration  were  the  product  of  a  reformation  of 
speculative  beliefs.  Instead  of  recognizing  that  the  franie- 
work  of  society  is  based  ultimately  upon  character,  he  Re- 
gards it  as  based  ultimately  iijion  opinion.  To  tliis,  as  to 
nearly  all  the  theorems  of  positivism,  the  Evolutionists  of 
Spencer's  school  oppose  a  directly  contrary  theorem.  They 
hold  that,  in  order  to  improve  society,  it  "is  not  enough  to 
effect  a  change  of  beliefs,  but  it  is  further  necessary  that 
there  should  be  a  gradual  change  in  men's  dispositions  and 
prevalent  motives.  Now,  im]irovemcnt  in  charac^ter  is  a 
slow  result  of  countless  influences  siunmed  up  in  what  lias 
been  called  social  discipline,  and  accordingly  Evolutionists 


do  not  suppose  it  possible  to  effect  a  radical  reformation  of 
society — to  bring  in  the  millennium,  for  example — by  any 
such  movement,  taken  separately,  as  can  be  carried  out  by 
one  man  or  a  single  generation  of  men  :  least  of  all,  do  they 
believe  it  possible  to  reform  society  by  means  of  philosophy. 
The  whole  structure  of  positivism,  the  whole  litework  of 
Comte,  is  founded  on  the  precisely  contrary  belief,  that  so- 
ciety can  be  reorganized  by  means  of  philosophy — that  in 
order  to  insure  a  more  harmonious  co-operation  of  human 
interests  it  is  sufficient  to  effect  a  unification  of  men's  be- 
liefs. The  evil  which  Comte  always  regarded  as  the  grand 
fundamental  evil  to  be  remedied,  and  which  is  always  thus 
alluded  to  by  his  followers,  is  what  they  are  fond  of  calling 
"the  intellectual  anarchy  of  the  Western  World."  Tlie  be- 
lief that  individuality,  as  involving  variety  in  opinion  and 
behavior,  is  equivalent  to  "anarchy,"  and  that  "order" 
means  uniformity,  is  profoundly  in  accordance  with  the  gen- 
eral temper  of  Comte's  mind.  It  was  to  put  an  end  to  this 
"anarchy,"  and  to  inaugurate  an  era  of  uniformity  in  belief 
and  conduct,  that  Comte  entered  upon  his  long  series  of 
philosophical  labors :  and  from  first  to  last  he  kept  this  end 
steadily  in  view.  All  his  profound  studies  in  the  philos- 
ophy of  method,  and  all  his  elaborate  historical  generaliza- 
tions, were  merely  as  incidents  in  the  accomiilishment  of 
this  great  central  task. 

Ttte  Positive  Polity  and  Religion  of  Humanity. — In  1845 
Comte's  old  project,  of  inatigurating  a  new  philosophy  which 
should  renovate  human  society,  assumed  the  form  of  an  at- 
tempt to  institute  a  new  religion,  which  Prof.  Huxley  has 
happily  and  tersely  described  as  "  Catholicism  minus  Chris- 
tianity," and  in  which  Comte,  instead  of  the  pope,  was  to 
be  sovereign  pontiff.  In  one  of  his  works,  published  some 
seven  years  after  this  time,  he  alludes  to  it  as  the  era  in  his 
life  when  to  the  career  of  Aristotle,  which  he  had  hitherto 
followed,  he  added  the  career  of  St.  Paul !  Yet  the  philo- 
sophic germs  of  this  later  career,  as  above  hinted,  are  appar- 
ent enough  in  his  earlier  work.  There  was  no  such  break 
between  his  earlier  and  his  later  speculations  as  one  would  If 
infer  from  reading  Mill's  Augnste  Comte  and  Positii'ism. 
The  early  philosophic  project  for  reorganizing  society  came 
to  be  transfigured  into  a  quasi-religious  project,  but  its  gen- 
eral outlines  underwent  no  further  change  than  was  neces- 
sarily implied  in  such  a  transfiguration  of  external  aspect. 
The  end  in  view  still  was  to  insure  a  fixed  and  uniform 
standard  of  social  action  by  establishing  a  fixed  and  uniform 
standard  of  belief :  but  the  attainment  of  such  a  standard 
by  means  of  scientific  methods  was  no  longer  deemed  suf- 
ficient ;  in  addition  to  this  there  must  be  a  uniform  relig- 
ious impulse  and  a  uniform  cultus;  but  as  the  assumed  out- 
growing of  the  theological  stage  of  thought  involved  the 
ignoring  of  Deity,  and  as  even  Comte  was  not  alile  to  im- 
agine a  religion  without  some  stirt  of  a  god,  it  became  nec- 
essary to  furnish  some  new  kind  of  deity  as  the  source  of 
this  new  religious  impulse  and  the  object  of  this  new  cultus. 
Tliis  new  kind  of  deity,  according  to  Comte,  is  Humanity, 
and  the  religious  impulse  of  the  future  is  to  be  tlie  imjiulse 
to  serve  Humanity  and  to  deserve  well  of  it.  It  must  be 
admitted  that  the  ethical  side  of  this  conception  of  religion 
is  lofty  enough,  but  the  speculative  side  of  it  may  well 
seem  too  grotesque  to  be  seriously  entertained  Ijy  any  one 
endowed  with  the  slightest  modicum  of  that  sense  fit  humor 
which,  next  to  religious  faith,  is  the  most  desirable  posses- 
sion of  a  human  being.  Comte  spent  the  later  years  of  his 
life  in  rearing  upon  this  basis  a  system  of  practical  ]ihiloso- 
phy  astonishingly  minute  in  detail,  which  in  complicated 
absurdity  has  probably  never  been  matched  l)y  the  [iroduc- 
tions  of  any  other  human  mind.  'J'he  ideal  of  society,  as 
described  by  Comte,  is  a  state  in  whicli  everything — even  to 
the  minutest  details  of  life — is  to  be  prescribed  by  unques- 
tioned authority,  in  which  the  New  Pope  or  "high  priest  of 
Humanity  "  is  to  decide  upon  the  age  at  which  each  man 
shall  be  married,  what  profession  he  shall  choose,  upon  what 
scientific  researches  he  shall  enter,  and  when  he  shall  be- 
come emeritus  as  to  the  genonU  work  of  life.  No  caliph, 
in  his  wildest  dreams  of  absolutism,  ever  imagined  such  a 
state  of  things  as  Comte  souglit  to  work  out  for  his  ideal 
society.  The  main  features  of  this  scheme  were  shaped  in 
curious  accordance  with  the  Roman  Catholic  ideal  as  con- 
ceived by  the  mediaeval  popes.  There  was  to  be  a  class  of 
philosofihers  corresponding  to  the  class  of  priests  under  the 
old  regime,  with  unlimited  control  over  opinions.  The  arch- 
pliilosopher,  or  "  high  priest  of  Humanity,"  was  to  supersede 
tlie  pope :  and  Paris  was  to  be  the  holy  city  of  the  Positivist 
as  Rome  had  been  the  holy  city  of  the  Roman  Catholic. 


POSITIVISM 


POSTAL  SKHVICE 


731 


A  new  calendar  was  to  be  instituted,  beginning  with  the 
French  Revohilion  of  1T89,  and  like  the  old  one  was  to  be 
made  up  of  saints"  days,  save  that  i)liiloso|)hers,  poets,  legis- 
lators, inventoi-s,  anil  prc-eniini-ntly  deserving  men  of  all 
sorts,  and  of  all  ages  and  eouritries,  were  to  be  substituted  for 
the  saints  of  the  old  calendar:  an<l  for  the  Virgin  Mother 
an  antitype  was  to  be  found  in  the  ideal  of  Humanity,  sym- 
bolized as  "a  woman  of  thirty  with  a  child  in  her  arms." 
And  so  on  throughout  a  host  of  arbitrary  details. 

Huhjeclive  St/nfhesin. — In  the  very  last  yeai-s  of  Comte's 
life  syuiploms  of  mental  aberration  became  unmistakable. 
After  finishing  the  Ponitii'e  I'nlihj  he  began  a  new  work, 
called  Suhjei-live.  Synihexix.  in  wliit-h  il  is  recommended  that 
decimal  numeration  should  be  abandoned  in  favor  of  a  se[)- 
timal  system,  because  seven  is  a  sacred  number,  and,  more- 
over, being  a  prime  number,  is  better  fitted  to  inspire  the 
human  intellect  with  a  sense  of  its  necessary  limitations! 
Every  volume,  moreover,  constituting  a  distinct  treatise, 
should  consist  of  "seven  chapters,  besides  the  introduction 
and  the  con(dusion ;  and  each  of  these  should  be  composed 
of  three  parts.  Each  tliird  part  of  a  chapter  should  be  di- 
vided into  seven  sections,  each  composed  of  seven  groujjs  of 
sentences,  se|)arated  by  the  usual  break  of  line,"  etc.  The 
author  did  not  live  to  complete  this  work,  but  died  soon 
after  his  first  volume  was  published. 

CnmW-t  Followers. — At  his  death  Comte  left  one  great 
disciple,  fimile  Littre,  one  of  the  most  consummate  scholars 
that  Prance  has  produced ;  but  Littre  was  regarded  as  half 
a  heretic  by  the  thoroughgoing  disciples  of  Comte,  as  he  re- 
fused to  follow  the  teaclier  through  his  later  vagaries.  Ro- 
binet,  the  eminent  physiologist,  became  a  follower  of  Comte  ; 
and  besides  this  a  small  number  of  Positivists,  under  the 
leadei-ship  of  Laflitte,  continued  for  some  years  in  Paris  to 
profess  the  "  religion  of  huuumity."  In  {Jermany,  positiv- 
ism has  never  gained  any  footing  at  all :  in  England,  only 
a  precarious  one.  Among  the  declared  followers  of  Comte 
in  I-Ingland  are  t'ongreve.  Prof.  K.  S.  Ucesly,  Frederic  Har- 
rison, and  Dr.  Bridges:  and  .lohn  Morley  has  been  consid- 
erably influenced  by  him.  As  a  rule,  the  positivist  school 
is  characterized  by  a  sympathy  with  communists  and  boy- 
cotting strikers,  a  partiality  for  the  short  and  sharp  des- 
potic method  of  settling  scK'ial  questions,  a  tendency  to 
regard  politics  from  the  sentimentalist  point  of  view,  a  dis- 
like to  individuality  of  thought,  an  ohiuseness  to  the  re- 
quirements of  scientific  method,  and  (in  the  speculative 
region)  hostility  to  the  theory  of  evolution,  the  doctrine  of 
the  correlation  of  forces,  and  other  theories  which  have  as- 
sumed prominence  since  the  time  when  their  master  Comte 
stigmatized  all  such  kinds  of  theorizing  as  "  metaphysical  " 
anil  "chimerical." 

I'.iiu^iouRAPnv. — The  works  of  Augusto  Comte  are  as  fol- 
lows: Cuurx  de  P/iilosophie  positive  (6  vols..  Paris,  1830-43; 
since  republished  with  preface  by  Littre,  1804);  Traile  ele- 
vienlaire  de,  (feomelrie  andlylu/ue  (1843);  Trade  pliilo- 
mphique  d' Axtrunomie  popiilaire  (1H44);  Discours  sur  I' Es- 
prit posit  if  (1844);  Discours  sur  l' Ensemble  du  Posit  ii'isme 
(1848 ;  afterward  included  in  the  Politiipie  posifit-e) :  Citlen- 
drier  positiviste  (1849);  Ciilte  si/stematigue  de  l^ITumanite 
(1850);  Cafechisme  posi/irisle  (Kimo,  1852);  Si/sthne  de 
Politique  positive,  oh  Traite  de  Soriologie,  instifuant  la  lie- 
ligiun  de  V Humaniti  (4  vols.,  1852-54);  Appel  aux  Conser- 
vateurs  (1855)  ;  Si/nthese  subjective  (vol.  i.,  1856) — all  at 
Paris,  and,  e.xcept  the  Catechisme,  in  8vo.  English  transla- 
tions :  The  Positive  Philosophy,  bv  Miss  Harriet  Martincau, 
very  much  abridged  (3  vols.  8vo,  London,  1853 :  New  York. 
1858) ;  Catechism  of  Positive  Religion,  by  Richard  Con- 
greve  (13mo,  1858);  A  General  View  of  Positivism  (Dis- 
cours sur  r Ensemble,  etc.),  by  .1.  II.  Bridges  (8vo,  1865) — all 
in  London.  Part  of  the  first  volume  of  tlie  Philosophic 
positive,  translated  l)y  \V.  M.  (iillespie,  was  published  (Xew 
York,  1858)  under  the  title  Philosophy  of  Mathematics.  A 
review  entitled  fja  Philosophic  positive,  cimducted  by  Littre 
and  Wyro\iboff.  was  ])ublished  six  times  a  year  in  Paris, 
1867-74.  .\s  auxiliary  expositions  and  discussions  of  the 
positive  philosophy,  the  student  should  consult  Littre,  ,-l«- 
guste  dointe  et  la  Philosophic  positive  (Paris,  1864):  Paroles 
de  Philosophic  positive  (186'i);  Auyiisle  Comte  et  Stuart 
.Uill  (1866);  Pcllarin,  h'ssai  critique  sur  la  Philosophic 
jMsitive  (Paris,  1864);  Robinet,  Notice  sur  I'tEuvre  et  sur 
la  Vie  d'Auqusle  Comte  (Vnri^.XHCA);  IJIignieres,  Exposition 
de  la  lieliffion  et  de  la  J'hilosophie  positive  (Paris.  1857); 
Mill,  AugiLtte  Comte  and  Positivism  (London  and  liosion, 
186G);  liridges.  The  Vnity  of  Comte's  Life  and  Doctrine 
I  London,  1866);  C  (r.  David  (pseudonym  for  David  (j.  (  lolyt. 


A  Positivist  Primer  (New  York,  1871) ;  Lewes,  Comic's  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Sciences  (London,  1853);  History  of  Philoso- 
phy (3d  ed.  2  vols.,  London,  1867).  Edward  Caird's  The 
Social  Philo.mphy  and  Religion  of  Comte  (Xew  York,  1885) 
is  a  criticism  from  a  metaphysical  standpoint.  These  are 
the  principal  works  out  of  a  considerable  body  of  literature 
on  the  subject.  For  hostile  criticisms  see  Huxley,  The  Sci- 
entific Aspects  of  Positivism,  in  his  Lay  Sermons  (London, 
1870;  reprinted  in  New  York);  Spencer,  Recent  Discus- 
sions in  Science,  Philosophy,  and  Morals  (New  York,  1873); 
aiul  Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophy  (2  vols.,  London,  1874, 
ami  Boston,  1875),  by  the  present  writer,         John  Fiske. 

Pos'se  Comita'tng;  a  law  Latin  phrase,  meaning  liter- 
ally "the  power  of  the  county."  I5y  the  common  law  the 
sheriff  whde  engaged  in  executing  process,  especially  when 
it  was  criminal,  or  in  pursuing  and  arresting  felons,  or  in 
exercising  his  functions  generally  as  the  chief  administrative 
officer  charged  with  the  duty  of  enforcing  the  keeping  of  the 
peace,  was  authorized  to  summon  to  his  aid,  if  necessary,  all 
the  men  above  the  age  of  fifteen  years  within  the  county, 
with  the  exception  of  the  sick  or  infirm,  ecclesiastics,  and 
peers,  and  they  constituted,  in  the  ancient  technical  nomen- 
clature, the  jiosse  comitatus.  The  same  authority  is  given 
to  the  sheriff  in  the  U.  S.,  allhough  its  exercise  is  often  reg- 
ulated by  statute.  T"he  ordinary  cases  in  which  such  a  re- 
sort is  had  to  t  he  active  assistance  of  jirivate  citizens  are  the 
quelling  of  riots,  the  overcoming  of  forcible  seizures  or  de- 
tainers of  land,  the  subduing  of  forcible  rescues  made  or  at- 
tempted of  persons  arrested  pursuant  to  the  command  of  a 
proper  writ,  and  the  resistance  to  any  forcible  measures  in 
opposition  to  the  execution  of  public  justice;  in  shoi't, 
wherever  a  breach  of  the  peace  has  attained,  or  tlireatens  to 
attain,  such  magnitude  that  the  oflicials  themselves  are  una- 
ble fo  suppress  it.  Since  the  sheriff  may  call  out  the  entire 
jiower  of  the  county,  he  may  likewise,  under  the  circum- 
stances above  described,  summon  one  or  more  individuals, 
or  any  number  less  than  the  whole.  In  Great  Britain  the 
calling  out  of  the  posse  comitatus  is  ex[)ressly  authorized 
by  the  Sheriffs  Act.  1887,  see.  8.  subscc.  2,  for  the  purpose  of 
resisting  the  execution  of  a  writ. 

Revised  by  F.  Stuboes  Allen. 

Postal  SerTice:  that  liranch  of  the  public  service  which 
is  concerned  particularly  with  the  conveyance  and  delivery 
of  letters  and  other  documents,  newspapers,  book-packets, 
etc.,  the  issue  of  money-orders,  and  in  some  instances  with 
the  management  of  the  telegraphs,  savings-banks,  etc.,  as  in 
Great  Britain. 

Origin  and  Early  History. — The  beginnings  of  the  pres- 
ent highly  organized  postal  systems  of  the  world  are  doubt- 
less to  be  found  in  tlic  lines  of  couriers  which  rulers  early 
established  for  tiie  prompt  transmission  of  decrees  and  other 
dispatches  connected  with  governmcnial  affairs.  The  ear- 
liest known  system  was  that  established  in  559  B.  c.  by 
Cyrus  the  Elder,  King  of  Persia,  who  maintained  relays  of 
mounted  men  at  fixed  stations,  ready  at  a  moment's  tiotice 
to  forward  the  king's  messages  from  post  to  jiost.  China 
has  nuiintaincd  such  a  system  from  a  very  early  date,  and 
JIarco  Polo  tells  us  that  in  his  day  (the  laftcr  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century)  the  "(ireat  Klian"  maintained  10.000 
iiost-stations.  and  more  than  300,000  horses  for  the  use  of 
his  messengers  and  couriers,  who  traveled  "a  good  200  or 
350  miles  in  the  day  and  as  ntuch  in  the  night,"  a  fresh 
horse  and  rider  being  snpplieil  without  delay  every  25  or  30 
miles.  Establishments  of  Ihis  kind  existed  among  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  time  of  Augustus,  h.  c.  31.  and  in  France  under 
Charlemagne,  but  the  first  actual  letter-post  for  comnu'rcial 
purposes  appears  to  have  originated  in  the  Hanse  towns 
early  in  the  twelfth  century.  A  century  laterthe  L'nivcrsity 
of  Paris  established  an  ellicient  postal  system,  which  con- 
tinued till  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  One 
of  the  earliest  posts  in  Europe  for  general  accommodation 
was  that  established  in  1516  by  Franz  of  Thurn  and  Taxis, 
for  Maximilian,  the  Kmperor  of  (iermany.  The  office  of 
postnuister-general  became  hereditary  in  the  Counts  of 
Thurn  and  Taxis,  and  was  held  by  them  until  the  dissolution 
of  the  (ierman  empire  in  1806. 

England. — As  early  as  1252  royal  messengers,  called 
nuncii,  were  employed  in  England  for  the  conveyance  of 
letters,  and  in  1470,  when  Edward  IV.  was  waging  war  on 
Scotland,  he  established  post-stations  20  miles  apart,  be- 
tween that  country  and  England;  but  it  appears  that  until 
the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  no  regular  system  of  posts  existed 
in  England. 


r32 


POSTAL  SERVICE 


Though  these  establishments  were  primarily  for  the  trans- 
mission of  the  royal  letters,  and  the  conveyance  of  persons 
traveling  on  the  king's  business,  the  post-riders  and  post- 
masters soon  found  it  both  convenient  and  profitable  to  un- 
dertake the  conveyance  of  private  letters  and  private  travel- 
ers, and  so  extensive  had  this  practice  become  that  Eliza- 
beth commanded  that  all  packets  on  the  queen's  business  or 
the  affairs  of  state  should  liave  precedence  of  private  cor- 
respondence. In  1603  James  I.  issued  a  proclamation  giving 
to  post-agents  the  exclusive  right  of  letting  horses  to  travel- 
ers, and  a  later  proclamation  (1609)  forbade  all  persons  not 
duly  authorized  by  the  master  of  the  posts  from  collecting, 
carrying,  and  delivering  letters.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  state  monopoly  of  letter-carrying  in  England. 

At  this  time  there  were  only  four  official  post-routes  in 
the  kingdom,  one  through  Kent  to  Dover  and  the  continent 
of  Europe,  one  to  Plymouth,  where  the  royal  dockyard  was 
situated,  one  to  Ireland  by  way  of  Beaumaris,  and  one  to 
Scotland  via  Berwick.  In  161!)  the  Du  Questres,  father  and 
son.  were  placed  in  charge  of  the  first  of  these  routes.  Their 
successor,  Thomas  Witherings,  introduced  many  postal  re- 
forms, and  in  1635  was  ordered  by  Charles  to  establish  a 
running  post  between  London  and  Edinburgh  (410  miles), 
to  go  day  and  niglit,  and  return  in  six  days.  Witherings 
was  succeeded  by  Prideaux,  who  not  only  established  weekly 
posts  all  over  England,  but  seems  to  have  made  the  service 
self-supporting.  In  16.50  he  undertook  to  pay  a  fixed  rent 
of  £.5,000  a  year  for  the  exclusive  right  to  run  the  post- 
office,  and  thus  began  the  system  of  farming  the  postal  serv- 
ice, which  continued  well  into  the  eighteenth  century. 

While  letters  could  be  sent  from  London  to  many  places 
in  the  country,  it  was  not  until  1680  that  citizens  in  one  part 
of  London  could  communicate  by  letter  with  persons  in 
other  parts  or  in  the  suburbs.  Such  a  system  was  intro- 
duced by  a  London  merchant  named  William  Dockwra,  who 
divided  London  and  its  suburbs  into  seven  districts,  each 
with  its  own  sorting-office,  and  opened  between  400  and 
500  receiving-offices  at  which  messengers  called  every  hour 
for  letters  or  parcels.  The  amount  charged  for  each  pack- 
age was  Id.,  provided  it  did  not  exceed  1  Hi.  in  weight  or 
£10  in  value.  Deliveries  were  made  in  the  business  parts 
of  the  city  ten  or  twelve  times  a  day,  and  elsewhere  from 
four  to  eight  times.  The  success  of  the  undertaking  ex- 
cited the  greed  of  the  Duke  of  York,  on  whom  the  revenue 
of  the  post-office  had  been  settled,  and  in  less  than  five  years 
from  its  introduction  this  penny  post  was  incorporated  with 
the  General  Post-office,  and  Dockwra  was  later  appointed 
comptroller.  In  1701  this  rate  was  advanced  to  2d.,  an  in- 
crease legalized  by  Parliament  in  1730.  Similar  posts  were 
established  in  Edinburgh.  JNIanchester,  Bristol,  and  Birming- 
ham in  1793 ;  and  in  Dublin  in  1773. 

In  1780  the  monopoly  of  letting  post-horses  was  abol- 
ished, and  four  years  later  mail-coaches  were  introduced 
with  success  by  John  Palmer,  manager  of  the  Bath  theater, 
and  did  good  service  for  sixty  years.  Steamships  were  first 
used  for  the  convevance  of  mails  in  1821,  and  railways  in 
1830. 

United  States. — The  post-office  existed  in  America  from 
its  earliest  settlement.  Originally  it  was  merely  a  recepta- 
cle in  the  coffee-house,  where  letters  arriving  from  abroad 
were  deposited,  to  be  taken  by  those  to  whom  they  were  ad- 
dressed or  carried  to  them  by  their  neighbors.  The  fii-st 
legislation  on  the  subject  is  found  in  the  records  of  the  gen- 
eral court  of  Massachusetts  for  1639,  and  the  next  in  the 
colonial  law  of  Virginia  in  1657.  The  former  provides  "  that 
notice  be  given  that  Richard  Fairbanks  his  house  in  Boston 
is  the  place  afipointetl  for  all  letters  which  are  brought  be- 
yond the  seas  or  are  to  be  sent  thither,  to  be  left  with  him ; 
and  he  is  to  take  care  that  thev  are  to  be  delivered  or  sent 
according  to  the  directions  ;  aiid  he  is  allowed  for  every  let- 
ter a  penny,  and  must  answer  all  miscarriages  throni;h  his 
own  neglect  in  this  kind."  The  colonial  law  of  Virginia  re- 
quired "every  planter  to  provide  a  messenger  to  convey 
the  dispatches,  as  they  arrived,  to  the  next  plantation, 
and  .so  on,  on  p.nin  of  forfeiting  a  hogshead  of  tobacco  for 
<lcfault."  (Jradually  a  postal  service  was  established  be- 
tween the  several  colonies  along  the  coast,  and  in  1672  there 
was  "a  post  to  goe  monthly  from  New  York  to  Boston." 
In  the  year  1692  Thomas  Xeale  received  letters  patent, 
good  for  twenty-one  years,  authorizing  him  to  set  up  posts 
in  North  America,  and  under  this  grant  the  postal  affairs  of 
the  colonies  of  North  America  were  conducted  by  Neale's 
representative  ami  his  successors  until  1710.  when  the  postal 
service  of  the  British  empire  was  consolidated  into  one  es- 


tablishment, with  chief  offices  at  London,  Edinburgh,  Dublin, 
and  New  York.  One  of  the  earliest  acts  of  the  Continental 
Congress  was  the  establishment  of  a  post-office  and  post- 
routes  from  Falmouth,  Me.,  to  Savannah,  Ga.,  "for  con- 
veying intelligence  and  letters  throughout  this  continent," 
and  to  sjjread  knowledge  of  the  acts  of  Congress  and  the 
progress  of  the  Revolution  among  the  different  colonies. 
Benjamin  Franklin  was  the  first  postmaster-general,  and 
under  his  practical  management  the  postal  service  was  soon 
extended  through  all  the  colonies.  Newspapers  were  gen- 
erally published  by  the  postmasters  of  the  several  cities, 
and  their  papers  had  not  only  been  sent  free  through  the 
mails,  but  all  others  excluded.  Franklin  was  the  first  to  give 
equal  privilege  to  all  publishers;  subsequently  a  small  sum 
was  charged  as  postage,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  per- 
quisite of  the  postmaster,  but  no  regular  postage  on  news- 
papers was  established  by  law  until  1792. 

Postage,  or  fixed  charges  for  the  conveyance  of  letters, 
was  first  introduced  in  England  by  Witherings  about  1635, 
when  the  royal  sanction  was  first  given  to  a  scale  of  2d.  for 
a  single  letter  (that  is,  written  on  only  one  sheet  of  paper) 
for  any  distance  under  80  miles,  4d.  for  over  80  and  under 
140,  and  Gd.  for  distances  above  140 ;  Sd.  to  Scotland,  and  i)d. 
to  Ireland.  From  that  date  until  1840  the  basis  of  rate  con- 
tinued to  be  distance  and  not  weight,  except  in  regard  to  the 
penny  post  already  referred  to.  Parliamentary  regulation  of 
rates  began  in  1657.  and  these  were  increased  and  decreased 
from  time  to  time  according  to  the  exigencies  of  Govern- 
ment or  of  the  pension-list.  In  1813  the  rates  were  for  a 
third  time  increased,  4d.  being  charged  for  15  miles,  5r7.  for 
distances  over  15  and  under  20  miles,  6rf.  above  20  and  under 
30  miles,  7d.  above  30  and  under  50  miles,  Sd.  above  50  and 
under  80  miles,  and  so  on,  \7d.  being  charged  for  any  dis- 
tance above  700  miles.  These  rates  were  almost  prohibitory, 
and  many  curious  devices  were  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  avoiding  payment.  In  1837  Mr.  (afterward  Sir)  Rowland 
Hill  began  an  agitation  for  cheaper  rates,  and  proposed  an 
inland  or  domestic  rate  of  Id.  for  every  letter  weighing 
not  more  than  half  an  ounce,  the  abolition  of  the  Frank- 
ing Privilege  (g.  !•.),  more  frequent  mails,  and  speedier  de- 
livery. Three  years  later  his  agitation  was  successful,  and 
penny  postage  became  the  rule  for  the  United  Kingdom. 
Since  1871  the  rates  there  have  been  Id.  for  a  letter  not 
exceeding  1  oz. :  exceeding  1  oz.,  but  not  exceeding  2  oz., 
lid.:  2  oz.,  but  not  exceeding  4  07,.,2d.;  from  4  to  6  oz., 
3W. :  6  to  8  oz.,  3d. :  8  to  10  oz.,  3-|rf. :  and  so  on  at  the  rate 
of  id.  for  every  additional  2  oz.  Double  postage  is  charged 
when  not  prepaid,  and  deficient  postage  entails  a  charge  of 
double  the  deficiency.  The  fee  for  registration  is  2d.,  with 
compensation  (in  case  of  loss)  up  to  £5,  3d.,  with  compensa- 
tion up  to  £10,  and  so  on,  with  id.  additional  for  each  added 
£5  of  comjiensation,  up  to  £50.  Newspapers  registered  at 
the  General  Post-office  and  published  in  the  United  Kingdom 
are  carried  for  |r/.  each.  For  books  the  charge  is  0.  for 
every  2  oz.  or  fraction  thereof.  No  package  of  newspapers 
must  exceed  14  lb.  in  weight,  2  feet  in  length,  or  1  foot  in 
width  or  depth.  Book-packets  must  not  exceed  6  by  9  by  18 
inches,  or  5  lb.  in  weight. 

In  the  U.  S.  for  some  years  after  1776  postage  was  paid  in 
currency,  and  was  increased  as  the  cuiTency  depreciated  un- 
til finally  the  rate  was  reduced  and  made  payable  in  specie. 
The  rates  fixed  in  1792  were:  For  30  miles  and  under,  6 
cents:  over  30  and  not  exceeding  60  miles,  8;  between  60 
and  100  miles,  10:  between  100  and  1.50  miles,  12;  between 
150  and  200  miles,  15:  between  200  and  250  miles,  17:  be- 
tween 250  and  .8.50  miles,  20;  between  3.50  and  450  miles, 
22 ;  over  450  miles,  25.  Few  letters  were  sent  at  such  high 
rates,  ami  from  1800  to  1830  the  increase  scarcely  kept  pace 
with  tlie  growth  of  the  po[iulation.  Many  letters  were  sent 
privately,  and  after  the  express  companies  were  started  a 
great  many  were  sent  by  them  at  less  than  the  postage,  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  post-office  department.  The 
first  important  changes  in  postage  were  made  in  1845,  when 
a  scale  based  on  both  weight  and  distance  was  introduced. 
The  rates  were  for  letters  not  exceeding  i  oz.  carried  for  any 
distance  under  300  miles,  5  cents;  over  300  miles  10  cents; 
and  an  additional  rate  for  every  additional  half  ounce  or 
fraction  thereof.  Newspapers  were  carried  free  for  30  miles : 
for  over  30  and  under  100.  or  within  the  State,  1  cent:  over 
100  miles,  or  out  of  the  State,  H  cents.  The  next  most 
important  change  was  in  1851,  when  a  single  letter  weighing 
not  more  than  i  oz.  was  charged  3  cents  for  distances  under 
3,000  miles  (5  cents  if  not  prepaid),  and  6  cents  over  3,000 
miles  (12  cents  if  not  prepaid).     In  1855  the  rate  was  made 


POSTAL  SERVICE 


733 


3  cents  for  all  distances  under  3,000  miles,  and  10  cents  for 
distances  over  8,000  miles.  In  1863  the  element  of  distance 
dropped  out  of  the  scale,  and  a  uniform  rate  of  3  cents  was 
charged  on  all  domestic  letters  not  exceeding  i  oz.  or  frac- 
tion thereof.  In  Oct.,  1883,  ordinary  letter-postage  was  re- 
duced 33J  per  cent.,  and  the  rates  are  now  for  letters  2  cents 
for  each  ounce  or  fraction  thereof;  for  postal  cards,  1  cent ; 
for  sccond-cla.ss  matter  or  regular  publications,  1  cent  a 

1)ound  ;  for  third-class  or  transient  newspapers,  and  all  other 
linds  of  printed  matter,  1  cent  for  each 'J  oz. :  for  fourth- 
clas.s.  or  mert'liandise,  1  cent  an  ounce.  The  limit  of  weight 
of  third  or  fourth  class  matter,  liooks  excepted,  is  4  11).  This 
postage  mu.st  be  fully  prepaid  on  all  matter  except  letters; 
on  these  at  least  2  cents  nmst  be  prepaid.  The  fee  for  the 
registration  of  letters  or  other  articles  is  8  cents. 

Stamps. — The  stamps  used  by  the  Counts  of  Thurn  and 
Taxis  are  to  be  found  in  many  collections,  but  the  modern 
postage  stamp  dates  back  no  further  than  1840,  when  it 
was  introduced  into  general  use  in  (ireat  Britain  bv  Rowland 
Hill.  Zurich  and  Urazil  adopted  the  idea  in  1843,  the  L'.  S. 
in  1847,  Russia  in  184S,  France,  Bavaria,  Tuscany,  Belgium, 
and  New  South  Wales  in  1849,  and  Austria-llungary  in 
1850.    Since  then  its  use  has  become  universal.    .See  Stamps. 

Organizal ion. — In  the  L'nited  Kingdom  the  management 
of  the  postal  service  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Postmas- 
ter-General, who  is  a  member  of  the  Government,  frei|uent- 
ly  a  cabinet  minister,  and  goes  out  of  office  with  the  admin- 
istration. The  permaiK'iit  ofHcials  are  a  chief  secretary,  a 
financial  secretary,  four  other  secretaries,  each  of  whom 
takes  charge  of  some  separate  branch,  a  secretary  for  Ire- 
land, a  surveyor-general  for  Scotland,  and  an  accountant- 
general.  During  the  year  1S93  the  postal  service  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  employed  a  permanent  force  of  71,956 
persons,  of  whom  10,465  were  women,  besidijs  about  59,000 
other  persons  employed  by  local  postmasters,  of  whom  16.- 
000  were  women  and  girls.  In  the  U.  S.  the  head  of  the 
postal  service  is  the  Postma^ter-Gene^al,  who  has  been  a 
cabinet  minister  since  1826.  Under  him  are  four  assistant 
postmasters-general  (appointed  by  the  President),  of  whom 
the  first  is  the  general  executive,  in  charge  also  of  the  deail- 
letter  office,  the  free-delivery  service,  and  the  money-order 
system ;  the  second  has  charge  of  the  transportation  of  all 
mail  matter;  the  third  is  the  bookkeeper  of  the  department 
and  attends  to  the  issuing  of  stamps  and  the  classilication 
of  the  mail  matter;  and  the  fourth  manages  post-ollice  in- 
spections, receives  the  bonds  of  postmasters,  ai)points  fourth- 
chiss  postmasters,  etc.  The  sixth  auditor  is  the  officer  of 
the  L .  S.  Treasury  who  has  charge  of  post-office  accounts. 
Over  .500  clerks  are  employed  in  his  department,  which  an- 
nually audits  about  450.0(10,000  accounts.  Over  200,000  per- 
sons are  employed  in  the  l'.  S.  postal  service. 

I'mlal  Union. — At  the  invitation  of  Germany,  a  po.stal 
congress  of  all  the  states  of  Europe,  the  U.  S.,  and  Kgypt, 
was  held  at  Berne  in  Oct.,  1874,  for  the  purpose  of  consider- 
ing how  greater  uniformity  in  the  treatment  of  correspon<i- 
ence  could  be  secured,  how  accounts  could  be  simplified, 
and  rates  reduced,  etc.  A  ]«)stal  convention  was  agreed 
upon,  which  wa.s  signed  by  the  delegates  from  the  countries 
of  liurope  and  from  the  \j.  S.,  was  ratified  liy  the  several 
governments,  and  went  into  effect  July  1,  187.5.  A  postal 
union  was  organized,  with  a  central  office  at  Berne,  uniler 
the  supervision  of  the  post-office  department  of  Switzer- 
laml,  for  the  purpose  of  considering  and  working  out  all 
questions  in  the  interests  of  the  union.  These  conventions 
are  now  held  every  throe  years.  Instead  of  the  varying 
rates  theretofore  jirevalent,  the  following  uniform  postage 
was  adopted  for  mail  matter  from  any  country  of  the  union 
to  any  oilier:  a  cents  on  prepaid  and  10  cents  on  unprepaid 
letters  weighing  not  over  \  oz. ;  newspapers  not  over  2  oz.  in 
weight,  1  cent;  books  and  other  printed  matter  and  patterns 
of  merchaiulise  not  exceeding  8J  oz.,  1  cent  for  each  2  oz. ; 
postal  cards,  2  cents.  Prepayment  is  invariably  required  ex- 
cept on  letters.  The  union  now  embraces  nearly  every  coun- 
try in  the  world  except  China,  which  has  no  modern  postal 
system. 

Canada. — Down  to  the  time  of  the  confederation  in  1868 
each  province  controlled  its  own  postal  system,  but  since  that 
date  the  rate  of  domestic  letter-postage  is  3  cents  per  oz.  (in 
the  U,  S.  it  is  2  cents).  By  an  agreement  made  between 
Canada  and  the  U.  S.  in  1875  each  country  receives  and  de- 
livers the  letters  of  the  other  at  their  respective  inland  rates 
without  keeping  account  of  the  same,  as  each  country  retains 
the  full  amount  of  po.stage  collected  by  it.  In  1879  Canada 
entered  the  Postal  Union. 


The  statistics  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1893,  are  as 
follows  :  Lettei-s,  106.290.000  (of  which  3,254,000  were  regis- 
tered) ;  postal  cards,  22,7!H),()00 ;  newspapers  and  periodicals 
sent  l)y  individuals,  24,220,000;  newspapers  sent  from  office 
of  publication,  66,1.50,916:  books,  circulars,  .«amples,  etc., 
2,620.2110 ;  and  parcels,  343,000.  Number  of  offices.  8,475,  of 
which  1,168  issued  967.866  money-orders  aggregating  $12,- 
902,976,  of  which  $10,404,857  were  payable  iu  Canada  and 
$2,269,635  were  |)ayable  abroad. 

A  usiralaxia. — The  first  Australasian  post-office  was  estab- 
lished at  Sydney  in  1810,  and  the  postmaster  was  allowed  to 
charge  8rf.  for  every  English  or  foreign  letter  of  whatever 
weight  and  Is.  6i7.  for  every  parcel  not  exceeding  20  lb. 
Colonial  letters  were  charged  4a.  irrespective  of  weight,  and 
soldiers'  letters  were  free. 

The  first  i)cistal  act  was  passed  in  1825.  but  its  provisions 
were  not  put  into  full  force  until  1828.  when  the  lowest  rate 
for  a  letter  weighing  J  oz.  was  'Sd.  In  1831  a  twopenny  post 
was  established  in  Sydney ;  in  1837  a  post-office  was  estab- 
lished in  Melbourne,  then  a  part  of  Xew  South  Wales.  In 
Oct.,  1891,  the  seven  colonies  entered  the  Universal  Postal 
Union. 

The  following  table  shows  the  postal  business  of  each  of 
the  colonies  during  1890: 


COLONV. 

Po.t- 
olSces. 

Letl«ra  And 
poBt-cvdi. 

Booka,  paroeU, 
and  pickog,.*. 

KewipRpera. 

New  South  Wales 

Victoria      

1,338- 

1,671 

892 

609 

82 

315 

1,058 

,')8.385„300 
62,526.448 
14.709.504 
16,794.679 
2,629,698 
5,172.824 
22,877,320 

8.9.<i9.600 
7.684,915 
2.047.446 
1,251.416 
.129.871 
963,167 
4,403,181 

40.5tfr.200 
22  729  005 

1 1  -103  726 

Soutli  Australia 

Western  .\ustralia 

Tasma  nia 

9.460,075 
2.135.!K)6 
4,941.571 

New  Zealand 

11,137.846 

Australasia    .   . 

5.965 

183  095  773 

25  619  596 

102  465  329 

liegisfered  Letters. — It  would  seem  that  in  the  English 
[)ost-office  all  correspondence  was  registered  from  a  very 
early  iieriod.  An  order  in  council  dated  July,  1556.  and 
another  in  1603  provide  that  '•  every  post  shall  keepe  a  large 
and  faire  leger  paper  f)ooke  to  entre  our  packets  in  as  they 
shal  be  brought  unto  him  with  the  day  of  the  moneth,  houre 
of  the  day  or  night,  that  they  came  to  his  handes,  together 
with  the  name  of  him  or  them  by  whom  or  unto  whom  they 
were  transcribed  and  directed."  This  practice  was  con- 
firmed in  1792,  but  no  receipts  were  given  the  sender  until 
1814.  During  the  year  ending  Mar.  31.  1893.  12,132,144 
letters  and  parcels  were  registered  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  under  the  new  sy.stem  of  registration  and  insurance  in- 
troduced on  Dec.  1.  1892.  compensation  amounting  to  £550 
was  paid  on  507  registered  packages  that  had  been  lost  or 
damaged.  Registration  was  introduced  into  the  U.  S.  in 
18.54.  The  number  of  pieces  of  mail  matter  registered  dur- 
ing 1892-93  was  15.561.410  (2,759.016  free  of  charge). 

Free  Delirer//. — Until  1774  there  was  no  free  delivery  in 
England  exce]}t  in  a  few  of  the  largi^r  cities  and  towns,  and 
it  was  not  until  many  cases  had  been  decided  by  the  courts 
against  the  jiostal  authorities  that  letter-carriers  were  ap- 
pointed, and  the  custonuiry  delivery  fee  of  \<l.  or  nu)re  was 
omitted.  Free  delivery  is  now  universal  throughout  the 
Tinted  Kingdom.  In  the  U.  S.  the  free-delivery  system  in 
cities  was  begun  in  1863. and  only  in  large  cities.  This  was 
extended  in  1887  to  all  cities  with  a  population  of  over 
10.000  or  a  postal  revenue  of  $10,000. 

Special  delivery  was  intnxluced  into  the  V.  S.  in  1885.  By 
this  a  fee  of  10  cents  secures  immediate  delivery  by  special 
messenger.  In  1892-93  3.375.6!)3  pieces  were  mailed  for 
special  delivery,  1.500  messengers  were  employed,  and  the 
average  time  of  delivering  a  packet  was  nineteen  minutes. 
In  (ireat  Britain  an  "express  delivery"  corresponds  some- 
what to  the  s|>ecial  delivery  of  the  U.  S. 

J'arceh-post. — There  is  no  inland  parcels-post,  strictly  so 
called,  in  the  U.  S.,  the  cla-ssification  of  fourth-class  matter, 
by  which  books  and  many  kinds  of  merchandise  may  be 
transmitted  through  the  nuiils,  taking  its  place.  There  is  a 
parcels-post,  however,  with  .Mexico,  Hawaii,  the  Windward 
and  I.eeward  islands,  and  several  of  the  countries  of  .South 
America,  and  to  them  48.966  parcels  were  dispatched  in 
1892-93,  an  increase  of  8,716  over  the  preceding  fiscal  year. 
A  parcels-post  between  the  United  Kingdom  aiul  India  had 
long  existed,  but  it  was  not  until  Aug.  1,  1883.  that  an  iidand 
parcels-post  was  estalilished.  The  limit  of  weight  is  11  lbs.; 
the  rate  is  3(/.  for  1  lb.  or  less,  and  1^.  for  everv  additional 
lb.  During  the  year  ending  Mar.  31,  1893,  52,370,326  par- 
cels were  carried  for  £1,151,051. 


734 


POSTAL  SERVICE 


POST-MORTEM   EXAMINATION 


Money-order  SyMem. — This  had  its  origin  in  1703  in  a 
private  venture  of  three  English  post-office  cler]<s  who,  under 
the  name  of  Stow  &  Co.,  used  the  postal  facilities  at  their 
command  for  the  transmission  of  small  sums  of  money  to 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  fee  in  these  early  days 
was  8f/.  per  £1,  of  which  3d.  "went  to  the  postmaster  issuing 
an  order,  M.  to  the  postmaster  who  paid  it,  and  2d.  to  the 
company.  In  1888  this  business  was  incorporated  with 
the  post-office  department.  In  the  three  months  ending 
Oct.  10,  1800,  697  orders  for  £8,863  were  issued.  For  the 
year  ending  Mar.  31,  1893,  10,442,918  orders  were  issued  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  amounting  to  £28,683,951.  The  sys- 
tem was  introduced  into  the  U.  S.  in  1864.  During  the  year 
1893-93  13,300,735  domestic  orders,  aggregating  $127,576,- 
433.65,  were  issued  by  18,434  U.  S.  money-order  offices,  and 
1,055,999  international  orders,  aggregating  .$16,341,837.86, 
were  issued  by  2,407  otfices.  Postal  notes  or  orders  were 
introduced  in  Great  Britain  in  1881,  and  in  the  U.  S.  in 
1883.  At  first  these  were  payable  to  bearer,  but  as  many 
abuses  in  the  way  of  fraudulent  negotiation  had  crept  in,  the 
British  authorities  have  insisted  since  1892  on  the  insertion 
of  the  name  of  the  payee.  In  the  U.  S.  the  postal-note  sys- 
tem was  abolished  in  1894  and  incorporated  with  the  regular 
money-order  system.  In  Great  Britain  in  1891  56,590,068 
postal  orders  were  issued.  During  1892-93  7,753,310  postal 
notes,  to  the  value  of  $12,903,076.73,  were  issued  in  the  U.  S. 

Post-office  sarings-banJiS  were  established  in  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1861,  and  flourished  in  the  British  colonies  as 
well  as  in  several  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  In  Great 
Britain  the  interest  allowed  is  2J  per  cent. ;  the  lowest  de- 
posit is  one  shilling,  and  one  person's  deposits  may  not  ex- 
ceed £30  in  any  one  year,  nor  £150  in  all.  On  Dec.  31, 
1893,  10,519  post-offices  were  open  for  the  transaction  of  a 
savings-bank  business,  and  in  that  year  the  number  of  ac- 
counts opened  was  1.036.623,  the  amount  deposited  amount- 
ing to  £31,334.903,  and  the  total  amount  standing  at  the 
credit  of  depositors  was  £75,853,079.  Postal  savings-ljanks 
were  introduced  into  Prance  in  1881.  On  Dec.  31,  1893,  the 
accounts  numbered  3,095,633,  with  aggregate  deposits  of 
607,871,935  francs.    See  the  article  Savings-banks. 

Telegraphs. — In  1870  the  British  Governiuent  acquired 
possession  of  all  the  telegraph  lines  then  existing,  and  placed 
them  under  the  management  of  the  post-office.  The  rates 
charged  have  consequently  been  cheapened  and  the  number 
of  messages  sent  greatly  increased  ;  in  1893  this  was  69,907,- 
848  for  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Statistir-s. — The  growth  of  the  postal  systems  of  the  world 
since  the  introduction  of  cheap  postage  has  been  phenom- 
enal. In  Great  Britain  the  total  number  of  letters  mailed 
in  1839  was  76,000,000.  In  1840,  the  year  in  which  penny 
postage  was  introduced,  the  number  was  169,000,000.  In 
1882-83  it  had  increased  to  1,380,000,000,  while  in  1893-93 
the  total  deliveries  amounted  to  2,785.270.000;  of  these 
1,700,500,000  were  letters,  an  average  of  46'6  to  each  person. 
In  India  in  1856  there  were  only  753  post-offices:  in  1893 
there  were  31,465,  and  through  these  passed  308,403,108  let- 
ters, post-cards  and  money-orders,  25,910,386  newspapers, 
2,108,685  parcels,  and  10.711,051  book  and  other  packets, 
making  a  total  of  347,133,330  pieces.  In  the  U.  S.  the 
growth  has  been  still  more  remarkable.  In  1790  there  were 
only  75  post-offices  and  1,875  miles  of  post-road  open,  while 
the  number  of  letters  and  transient  papers  delivered  did 
not  exceed  3,000,000.  On  June  30,  1893,  the  number  of 
post-offices  was  68,403  (of  which  610  were  free-delivery  of- 
fices) ;  the  number  of  mail  routes  was  30,831,  including  1,116 
railway  lines  and  36  steamboat  lines,  and  agLrregating  453,- 
833-83  miles  in  length;  and  for  the  year  ls!rJ-03  the  total 
number  of  pieces  of  mail  matter  handled  was  10,336,314,985, 
of  which  7,131,627  were  sent  to  the  dead-letter  office  in 
Washington.  This  increase  is  in  part  due  to  the  remarkable 
growth  of  the  efficiency  of  the  service.  The  railway  post- 
office  system,  in  which  each  mail  car  is  converted  into  a  dis- 
tributing post-office,  lessens  very  greatly  the  average  time 
of  transmission.  In  the  year  1892-93  the  pieces  of  mail 
matter  distributed  in  transit  on  railway  and  steamship  lines 
numbered  0,772,075,810. 

Ueveniie. — The  British  post-office  has  always  been  a  pay- 
ing concern.  In  1893  its  income  (£10,344,353)  exceeded  its 
expenditures  by  £3,826,756.  In  the  U.  S.,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  has  long  been  an  annual  deficiency,  caused  chiefly  by 
the  cheap  rales  (1  cent  per  lb.)  at  which  second-class  mat- 
ter is  carried.  During  the  year  ending  .lune  30,  1803,  the 
gross  revenue  was  $75,896,933.  and  the  expenditures  $81,- 
074,104,  leaving  a  deficit  of  $5,177,171.     See  Finance. 


Offenses  agaiyist  Postal  Laws. — A  brief  notice  of  the  pro- 
visions of  the  postal  laws  of  the  V.  S.  is  all  that  can  be  given 
here,  but  these  provisions  may  be  taken  as  giving  a  general 
idea  of  those  in  force  in  most  countries. 

It  is  unlawful  to  deposit  in  the  mail  any  article  intended 
or  adapted  for  any  indecent  or  immoral  use,  or  any  printed 
or  written  matter  giving  information  where  such  things  can 
be  secured :  also  to  send  by  mail  any  letter  or  circular  con- 
cerning any  kind  of  lotteries,  or  concerning  any  scheme  or 
device  intended  to  defraud  and  deceive  the  public,  or  to  aid 
in  obtaining  money  under  false  pretenses.  The  act  of  send- 
ing through  the  mail  any  matter  having  on  the  outside  any 
language  of  a  threatening,  inflammatory,  or  libelous  char- 
acter, or  which  is  obviously  intended  to  reflect  injuriously 
upon  the  character  or  conduct  of  another,  is  also  unlawful ; 
thus  dunning-notes  should  not  be  sent  on  postal-cards.  The 
use  of  the  mail  in  order  to  defraud  by,  or  to  sell,  dispose  of, 
or  furnish,  any  counterfeit  or  spurious  coin,  bank-notes,  or 
other  security  is  a  crime  punishable  by  fine  or  imjirison- 
ment,  or  Ijoth. 

Opening  the  letters  of  other  persons,  even  though  not 
sealed,  is  forbidden  by  law.  This  may  be  done  only  under 
a  warrant  particularly  describing  the  thing  to  be  seized.  It 
is  an  offense  punishable  by  a  fine  of  not  more  than  $100  to 
knowingly  and  willfully  obstruct  or  retard  the  passage  of 
the  mail.  Statutes  also  exist  imposing  imprisonment  at  hard 
labor  for  embezzlement  or  destruction  of  mail  matter  by 
postal  employees,  for  stealing  from  the  mail  by  other  per- 
sons, and  for  robbing  any  mail  from  a  mail-carrier  or  agent. 

See  hev/ins.  Her  Majesty's  3Iails  {Ijondon,  1864);  History 
of  Penny  Postage  in  Hill's  Life  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill  (1880) ; 
Hyde's  The  Royal  Mail :  its  Curiosities  and  Romance  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1885) ;  A  Hundred  Years  by  Post,  and 
Tlie  Post  in  Grant  and  Farm.  (London,  1894) ;  Joyce,  His- 
tory of  the  Post-office  (London,  1893) ;  Marshall  Gushing, 
The  Story  of  Our  Post-office  (Boston,  1893) :  and  the  United 
States  Official  Postal  Guide.  R.  Lilley. 

Postlim'iny  [from  Lat.  postliminium,  liter.,  condition 
after  having  crossed  the  threshold ;  post,  after  -i-  timen, 
li'minis,  threshold] :  in  Roman  law,  return  from  a  state  of 
capture  and  its  consequences,  or  restoration  to  former  po- 
litical and  other  rights.  Capture  of  a  Roman  in  war,  as 
well  as  of  any  one  else,  was  held  to  make  him  a  slave  ;  and 
as  a  slave  could  make  no  will  nor  have  any  civil  rights,  the 
captured  Roman's  rights  of  property,  citizenship,  even  of 
family,  would  be  by  this  calamity  not  merely  suspended, 
but  brought  to  an  end.  The  right  of  testament  was  saved 
from  the  effect  of  capture  by  the  fiction  of  the  Cornelian 
law,  according  to  which  tlie  soldier  was  conceived  of  as  hav- 
ing been  killed  in  battle  while  yet  a  free  Roman.  The 
rights  of  citizenship,  family,  and  property  were  saved  by 
the  jus  postliminii,  also  a  legal  fiction,  by  which,  if  he  had 
freed  himself  during  war  or  had  been  restored  by  treaty,  it 
was  assumed  that  he  had  never  been  away.  This  doctrine 
of  postliminy  has  been  imported  from  the  Roman  into  the 
international  law,  unnecessarily  perhaps,  to  explain  the  re- 
vival of  the  title  of  an  original  owner  to  his  property  upon 
its  recapture.  Thus  a  ship  if  retaken  (but  by  tl.  S.  usage 
not  after  condemnation  by  a  prize-court)  reverts  to  the 
original  owner,  subject  to  salvage.  (See  Recapture.)  In 
like  manner  is  restored  the  sovereignty  of  a  territory  which 
has  temporarily  passed  into  the  power  of  an  invader,  but 
later  drives  him  out  or  is  abandoned  by  him.  Nevertheless, 
many  non-political  acts  of  the  temporary  sovereign  which 
are  in  the  line  of  lawful  government  are  binding  after  the 
restoration.  Revised  by  T.  S.  Woolsey. 

Post-mortem  Examination  [post  mortem  is  Lat.  for 
after  death] ;  the  examination  of  the  body  to  determine  the 
cause  and  manner  of  death.  In  cases  of  poisoning  the  na- 
ture of  the  poison  and  possibly  the  manner  of  its  adminis- 
tration may  be  determined ;  in  death  from  violence  the  ex- 
amination will  often  reveal  the  nature  of  the  weapon  used 
in  the  infliction  of  the  wounds  and  the  relative  positions  of 
the  victim  and  assailant  at  the  time.  Such  examinations 
are  also  made  in  order  to  study  the  lesions  which  are  pro- 
duced in  various  organs  as  the  result  of  disease.  The  brain 
is  removed  and  examined  by  making  an  incision  across  the 
top  of  the  head  between  the  ears,  dissecting  back  the  scalp, 
and  sawing  through  the  skull.  All  of  the  thoracic  and  ab- 
dominal viscera  are  examined  by  making  a  single  long  in- 
cision which  passes  from  the  root  of  the  neck  to  the  sym- 
physis. After  a  thorough  examination  and  description  all 
the  organs  are  replaced,  and  the  body  carefully  cleaned  and 


POST-OFFICE 


POTASSIUM 


135 


sewed  up.    The  incisions  are  made  in  such  a  manner  that 
no  trace  of  them  is  visible  when  tlie  body  is  afrain  dressed. 

\V.  T.  ColNCILMAN. 

Post-ofHce:  an  office  where  letters,  etc.,  are  received  for 
transmission  to  various  destinations,  and  from  which  let- 
tors  that  have  been  received  are  delivered.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  that  department  of  the  public  service  which 
is  chargcnl  with  the  reception,  conveyance,  and  delivery  of 
letters,  etc.     Sec  Postal  Skrvice. 

Post-tertiary  Period  :  See  Pleistocene  Period. 

Potash  :  See  Potassium. 

Potassae  Bitartras:  See  Cream  ok  Tartar. 

Potassium  (Mod.  Lat.,  from  Kiig.  potn.sh;  pof  +  as?i]: 
a  metallic  element  discovered  by  Davy  in  1S07  while  experi- 
menting on  the  action  of  a  powerful  electric  current  on 
molten  caustic  potash  (potassium  hydroxide,  potassic  hy- 
drate). Potash  is  potassium  carbonate,  a  constituent  of 
wood-ashes,  from  which  caustic  potash  (IvOll)  is  obtained. 
Lavoisier  first  suggested  that  the  caustic  alkalies  were  com- 
pounds of  oxygen,  but  the  evidence  was  furnished  by  Davy's 
experiments.  It  was  later  shown  by  Urunner  that  the  metal 
can  be  made  by  distilling  at  a  white  heat  an  intimate  mix- 
ture of  potassium  carbonate  and  charcoal,  and  this  method 
is  now  used  for  the  purpo.se  of  preparing  the  metal  on  a 
large  scale.  Potassium  occurs  in  many  minerals,  princi- 
pally in  feldspar,  which  is  very  widely  distribnted  in  nature. 
It  occurs  in  combination  with  clilorine  as  carnallite  and 
sylvite  in  the  great  deposits  at  Stassfurt,  (lermany :  in  com- 
bination with  sulphuric  acid  and  aluminium  as  alum  ;  with 
nitric  acid  as  saltpeter  or  potassium  nitrate.  Potassium  is 
found,  further,  in  combination  in  all  soils  in  consequence 
of  the  natural  decomposition  of  the  minerals  containing  it. 
It  is  taken  up  by  the  plants,  and  when  vegetable  matter 
is  burned  it  remains  behind,  print:ipally  as  the  carbonate. 
When  the  ash  is  treated  with  water  the  carbonate  dissolves, 
and  by  evaporating  the  solution  thus  obtained  the  carbon- 
ate remains  behind  in  impure  condition.  Potassium  occurs 
further  in  the  form  of  a  salt  of  tartaric  acid  in  grape-juice, 
and  is  deposited  from  this.  The  deposit  is  called  crude  tar- 
tar. An  intimate  mixture  of  pola.ssium  carbonate  and  char- 
coal, which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  potassium,  is  made 
by  heating  this  crude  tartar  in  a  closed  vessel.  To  make 
potassium,  the  intimate  mixture  thus  obtained  is  placeil  in 
a  wrought-iron  retort  connected  with  a  closed  fiat  receiver 
of  sheet  iron.  The  retort  being  heated  to  a  high  temper- 
ature, the  metal  distills  over  into  the  receiver,  which,  at  the 
end  of  the  operation,  is  placed  under  petroleum. 

Potassium  has  a  bright  metallic  luster  on  its  freshly  cut 
surfaces,  but  this  quickly  tarnishes  on  account  of  the  case 
with  which  moisture  acts  upon  it.  The  metal  is  soft,  and 
lighter  than  water.  When  thrown  upon  water  the  latter  is 
decomposed,  the  products  of  the  action  being  potassium  hy- 
droxide, KOH,  and  hydrogen.  The  heat  evolved  is  sufficient 
to  set  the  hydrogen  on  fire,  and  at  the  same  time  a  little  of 
the  potassium  is  burned,  so  that  the  flame  has  the  character- 
istic violet  color  of  potassium  flames.  The  symbol  of  potas- 
sium is  K;  its  atomic  weight  39. 

Compounds  of  Potassium. — Potassium  chloride,  KCl.  as 
already  stated,  is  found  in  the  deposits  at  Stassf  urt  as  sylvite, 
ancl  in  combination  with  magnesium  chloride,  MgCU.KCl  -f- 
61Ii(J,  as  carnallite.  Potassium  bromide,  KI5r,  is  largely 
used  in  medicine.  It  is  prepared  by  artificial  methods. 
The  iodide,  KI,  is  also  e.xtensively  used  in  medicine  and  in 
photography.  The  hydroxide  or  hi/dra'e.  KOII.  commonly 
called  caustic  potash,  is  made  by  treating  the  carlromite  in 
solution  with  lime.  The  solution  thus  oljtained  is  drawn 
off  and  evaporated  in  iron  or  silver  vessels.  Solid  caustic 
potash  is  a  white,  brittle  substance.  In  contact  with  air 
it  absorbs  water  ami  carbonic  acid.  It  decomposes  Fats 
(q.  v.),  forming  Glycerin  (</.  v.)  and  soaps.  (See  Soap.)  It  is 
an  extremely  energetic  Base  (7.  i'.).  The  sulphides  of  potfu;- 
sium  are  forme<l  by  melting  together  potassium  carbonate 
and  sulpliur.  ,-lf(V7  potassium  tartrate  (see  ('ream  oi-'  Tar- 
tar). Potassium  nitrate  (see  Saltpeter).  Potassium  car- 
bonate. KjCO,,  is  the  principal  soluble  ingredient  of  wood- 
ashes  and  is  extracted  by  treating  the  ashes  with  water.  For- 
merly all  the  potiuisium  carbonate  made  was  obtained  from 
wood-ashes,  but  at  present  not  more  than  half  of  the  sup- 
ply comes  from  this  source.  The  other  sources  are  the  resi- 
dues from  the  manufacture  of  beet-sngar,  potassium  sul- 
phate and  chloride,  and  wool-fat.  Potassium  silirate  is  pre- 
pared in  solution  by  dissolving  sand  in  potassium  carbonate 


or  hydroxide.  It  is  prepared  on  a  large  scale  by  melting 
together  quartz-powder  and  puritiid  potash.  It  is  known 
as  water-glass,  or,  to  distinguish  it  from  that  made  with 
sodium  carbonate  or  hydroxide,  potash  irate r-fflaxs.  Potan- 
sium  ferroci/anide  or  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  KjFe(CN),, 
is  a  beautiful  yellow  compound  obtained  by  heating  refuse 
animal  matter,  such  as  horn,  hoofs,  blood,  etc.,  with  impure 
liolassium  carbonate  and  scrap  iron.  The  salt  is  of  great 
value,  as  it  is  the  starting-point  in  the  preparation  of  all  the 
cyanides,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Prussian  blue. 

Regarding  the  relations  of  potassium  salts  to  the  growth 
of  plants,  see  Aurrtltural  Chemistry.        Ira  Remsen. 

Medicinal  Uses  ok  Potassium  Compounds. — Potassium 
hydroxide  (caustic  potash),  from  its  strong  chemical  affini- 
ties, is  powerfully  caustic  to  living  tissues.  It  unites  with 
water  and  with  albuminous  substances,  and  from  its  deli- 
quescence and  high  diffusive  power  rapidly  penetrates  the 
tissues,  and  thus  carries  its  destructive  effects  very  deeply. 
The  slough  is  black,  slimy,  and  pultaceous.  Taken  inter- 
nally, alone  or  in  strong  solution,  it  is  a  violent  corrosive 
poison.  The  antidote  is  some  organic  acid,  such  as  acetic 
(vinegar),  citric,  or  tartaric.  In  weaker  solution  caustic 
potash  swells  and  softens  epithelium,  producing  a  slippery 
feel  to  the  fingers.  It  is  used  in  surgery  as  a  caustic,  being 
fused  anil  run  into  cylindrical  moulds  about  the  size  of  a 
goosequill,  so  as  to  form  conveniently  shaped  sticks.  A 
solution  of  specific  gravity  I'Ofio  is  official  in  the  United 
Slates  Pharmacopoeia,  and  may  lie  used  for  the  general 
purposes  of  alkaline  medication ;  but  alkaline  salts  of  the 
same  base  are  preferable,  and  this  solution  is  therefore  em- 
ployed more  in  pharmacy  than  in  medicine.  Potassium 
carbonate  and  bicarbonate  are  strongly  alkaline,  and  have 
essentially  the  physiological  properties  of  solution  of  caus- 
tic potash.  They  art;  used  externally  in  weak  solution  as 
lotions  in  skin  diseases  to  remove  dried  epithelial  crusts 
and  scabs  and  control  the  excessive  secret  icm  of  such  dis- 
eases as  eczema.  They  are  not  much  given  internally. 
They  are  sufficiently  alkaline  to  be  poisonous  in  large  doses. 
Potassium  acetate  and  citrate,  though  of  neutral  reaction, 
become  converted  into  carbonates  in  the  blood  through 
decomposition  of  the  organic  acids.  They  thus  tend  to 
increase  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood,  to  alkalize  the  urine, 
and  especially  to  diminish  the  quantity  of  uric  acid  pres- 
ent in  the  system.  They  are  u.sed  medicinally  in  rheuma- 
tism, gout,  and  uric-acid  gravel  to  diminish  the  excess  of 
acidity  characteristic  of  those  disirases,  antl  in  dropsy  and 
deficient  secretion  ol  urine  to  jiroduce  diuresis.  Solutiim  of 
the  citrate,  freshly  made  by  saturating  lemon-juice  with  potas- 
sium carbonate  and  drunk  during  effervescence,  is  a  favorite 
mode  of  giving  the  salt  for  the  above  purposes,  and  is  also  a 
verv  refreshing  fever-draught,  for  allaying  nausea,  and  for 
reducing  over-action  of  the  heart  in  acute  febrile  states. 
Potassium  arid  sodium  tartrate  (Rochelle  or  Seignette  salt) 
is  of  low  diffusion  power,  and  in  large  dose  is  purgative  sim- 
ply, producing,  like  other  cathartic  salts,  watery  stools.  In 
snialler  quantities,  as  a  drachm,  given  considerably  diluted, 
it  is  absorbed  and  its  acid  decomposed,  anil  then  under  the 
form  of  carbonate  it  produces  the  effects  and  may  be  used  for 
the  purpose  stated  for  potassium  acetate  and  citrate.  It  is 
also  employed  as  a  purgative,  and  is  most  commonly  given  in 
the  form  of  the  seidlitz  pou'der  (pulvis  effervescens  composi- 
tus  of  the  United  States  Pharmacopaiia).  A  seidlilz  powder 
consists  of  2  drachms  of  the  Rochelle  salt  and  40  grains  of 
sodium  bicarbonate,  put  up  in  a  bine  paper,  and  3.5  grains  of 
tartaric  acid,  put  up  in  a  white  i>aper.  The  contents  of  the 
two  papers  are  to  be  separately  dissolved  in  about  2  fluid- 
ounces  of  water,  and  the  solutions  mixed  and  drunk  dur- 
ing their  effervescence.  Acid  potassium  tartrate,  or  cream 
of  tartar,  is  a  powerful  diuretic,  and  in  fidl  dose  is  purga- 
tive. It  ought  not  to  be  used,  therefore,  for  alkaline  inter- 
nal medication,  like  the  acetate  or  citrate,  ^'eutral  /iotas- 
sium  tartrate  is  also  purgative,  but,  from  its  disagreeable 
taste,  the  acid  tartrate  is  medicinally  preferable.  Potassium 
sul/ihate  is  purgative,  but  is  harsh  and  may  be  jioisonous, 
and  is  therefore  little  used.  Potassium  HiVni/e  (niter  or  salt- 
peter) is  irritant,  and  in  large  dose  poisonous,  inflaming  the 
stomach,  causing  vomiting  and  purging,  and  also  having  an 
effect,  common  to  many  of  the  stronger  potassium  com- 
pounds, of  affecting  the  heart,  enfeebling  its  power,  and 
even  causing  death  by  syncope.  Niter  is  used  in  medicines 
as  an  ingredient  of  cooling  saline  draughts  in  fever,  to  re- 
duce over-action  of  the  heart,  and  was  at  one  time  largely 
emploved  in  acute  rheumatism.  Niter  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  so-called  sweet  spirit  of  niter,  which  is  a  peculiar 


736 


POTATO 


ethereal  compound  containing  nitrous  ether  and  alcoliol. 
Potassixun  chlorate,  though  of  high  diffusion  power  like 
niter,  is  less  freely  soluble,  and  is  hence  not  so  strongly  irri- 
tant, yet  it  is  the  most  poisonous  salt  of  potassium,  except 
the  cyanide,  producing,  in  addition  to  local  changes,  a  rapid 
breaking  down  of  the  blood  and  intense  inflammation  of 
the  kidneys.  This  salt  is  peculiar  in  being  largely  excreted 
by  the  salivary  glands  and  increasing  their  secretion.  IMe- 
dicinally,  its  use  is  almost  confined  to  inflammatory  and  ul- 
cerative" diseases  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  over  which  it 
often  has  a  remarkable  power.  A  saturated  solution  may 
be  gargled,  or  a  few  of  the  crystals  may  be  held  in  the 
mouth  and  allowed  slowly  to  dissolve.  It  should  not  be 
swallowed,  except  in  very  small  quantities. 

The  other  potassium  salts  used  in  medicine  derive  pecul- 
iar powers  from  their  several  acidifying  principles.  Po- 
tassium cyanide  is  intensely  poisonous,  and  has  essentially 
the  properties  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid  {q.  v.).  Potassium 
ferrocyanide  has  but  feeble  physiological  action,  and  is 
practically  used  only  in  pharmacy  and  the  arts.  The  prop- 
erties of  potassium  iodide  will  be  found  described  under 
Iodine  (Jledicinal  Uses  of).  Potassium  bromide  has  peculiar 
powers  over  the  nervous  system,  in  addition  to  possessing 
the  properties  of  potassium  salts  in  general,  of  enfeebling 
the  heart  and  tending  to  cause  diuresis.  The  nervous  influ- 
ence is  first  a  mere  blunting  of  reflex  excitability,  cerebral 
and  spinal,  passing  to  complete  paralysis  if  the  drug  be  ad- 
ministered too  long  in  inordinate  quantities.  The  produc- 
tion of  an  eru|ition  on  the  face  like  acne,  and  moderate 
salivation  with  a  fa'tid  breath,  are  minor  effects  following 
the  continued  use  of  the  drug.  This  salt  is  largely  used  in 
medicine  to  allay  morbid  nervous  irritability,  and  is  of 
special  curative  power  in  epilepsy,  for  the  treatment  of 
which  it  is  the  best  remedy  yet  found.  Potassium  sulphide 
is  used  in  medicine  for  the  sulphur  it  contains.  (See  Sul- 
phur, Medicinal  Uses  of.)  Potassium  bichromate  is  irri- 
tant an'd  caustic,  and  internally  a  corrosive  poison.  It  is 
official  in.tlie  P/iarmacopwia  for  pharmaceutical  use,  being 
employed  for  the  preparation  of  sodium  valerianate.  It  is 
also  used  rarely  in  medicine.  Potassium  permanganate  in 
concentrated  solution  is  slowly  caustic,  but  the  medicinal 
use  of  the  salt  is  as  a  disinfectant  and  emmenagogue.  As 
a  disinfectant  it  acts  by  oxidation  through  giving  up  some 
of  its  own  oxygen,  and  in  weak  solution  is  an  excellent  dis- 
infectant application  to  wounds,  foul  sores,  and  ulcers. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Potato  [from  Span,  patata,  batata,  from  Haytian,  batata, 
sweet  potato] :  the  most  widely  cultivated  and  valuable  of 
esculent  tubers.  It  is  the  Solanum  tuberosum,  the  typical 
species  of  a  typical  genus,  of  vast  extent  and  widely  differ- 
ing characteristics  (see  Nightshade  Family),  and  is  allied  to 
several  powerful  narcotics,  such  as  tobacco,  henbane,  and 
belladonna,  as  well  as  to  other  esculents,  such  as  the  tomato, 
egg-plant,  and  capsicum.  The  potato  is  a  native  of  the  ele- 
vated tropical  valleys  of  Chili,  Peru,  and  Mexico,  and  a  form 
of  it,  scarcely  distinct  (var.  boreale),  occurs  as  far  N.  as 
Southern  Colorado.  It  probably  was  carried  to  Spain  from 
Peru  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  introduced  into  Vir- 
ginia from  Florida  by  the  Spanish  explorers,  and  into  Great 
Britain  from  Virginia  by  Sir  John  Hawkins  in  156.5,  though 
the  credit  is  usually  assigned  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  was 
never  in  Virginia.  It  is  found  in  several  varieties  in  a  wild 
state  in  Peru,  Chili,  and  the  island  of  Chiloe,  the  wild  plant 
bearing  still  a  close  resemblance  to  the  cultivated,  except 
in  the  abnormal  development  of  the  tuber  in  the  latter. 
The  common  potato  was  described  in  1597  under  the  name 
of  Batata  riri/iniana  by  Gerard  in  his  Herball,  and  in  tiie 
following  century  it  was  cultivated  on  a  .small  scale  in  the 
Netherlands,  Burgundy,  and  Italy,  and  on  account  of  its 
great  yield  was  recommended  by  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don in  1(JU3  for  introduction  into  Ireland  as  a  safeguard 
against  famines;  but  it  was  not  until  near  the  middle  of  the 
eightceulli  century  that  it  acquired  any  real  importance  in 
Eiirojie  outside  of  Ireland.  It  was  little  regarded  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  seems  to  luive  been  unknown  in  New  England 
until  the  eighteenth  century,  when  it  was  carried  thither 
from  Ireland.  The  potatoes  not  mentioned  in  The  Com- 
plete Gardiner,  a  work  pulilished  in  1719,  and  as  late  as 
1771  only  two  varieties,  a  white  and  a  red,  were  mentioned 
in  the  most  important  English  work  on  gardening,  anil 
they  were  ccmsidered  chiefly  as  food  for  swine  and  cattle. 
The  roots  are  distinct  from  the  tuber,  which  is  in  reality 
an  underground  stem,  naturally  of  considerable  size,  and 


abnormally  developed  by  cultivation,  through  the  accumu- 
lation of  starch  for  the  "use  of  the  plants  growing  from  the 
eyes  or  buds.  Under  proper  trimming  and  management  the 
branches  above  ground  may  be  made  to  assume  several  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  tubers. 

The  potato  is  a  perennial  plant,  with  smooth  herbaceous 
stems,  from  1  to  3  feet  in  height,  with  pinnate  leaves,  flow- 
ers varying  in  breadth  from  an  inch  to  2  inelies,  and  in 
color  from  bluish  white  to  purple,  and  consisting  of  a  wheel- 
shaped  corolla,  more  or  less  veined,  bearing  a  globular  pur- 
plish fruit  or  seed-ball  of  the  size  of  a  gooseberry,  and  an 
herbage  characterized  by  a  narcotic  smell,  and  practically 
useless,  though  it  may  be  eaten  by  cattle,  and,  like  spinach, 
by  man.  One  of  the  leading  qualities  of  the  potato  is  an  ex- 
traordinary productiveness,  far  exceeding  that  of  any  escu- 
lent with  which  it  can  be  placed  in  competition,  an  equal 
amount  of  ground  yielding,  according  to  Humboldt,  thirty 
times  greater  weight  of  potatoes  than  of  wheat.  Potatoes 
consist  almost  wholly  of  starch,  and  are  accordingly  defi- 
cient in  nitrogen,  and  ill-adapted  for  an  exclusive  article  of 
diet.  They  are  hardy,  and  grow  well  throughout  a  vast  ex- 
tent of  the"  earth's  surface.  In  the  U.  S.  they  yield  best  in 
the  extreme  north,  especially  in  New  York  and  New  Eng- 
land, and  also  in  Canada ;  and  in  Europe  are  successfully 
cultivated  up  to  60'  N.  lat.  in  Sweden.  Formerly  plant- 
ed exclusively  by  hand  in  hills  3  or  4  feet  apart,  they  are 
now  dropped  extensively  in  drills.  Where  large  quantities 
of  potatoes  are  grown,  various  mechanical  devices  are  in 
use  for  dividing  the  drills  and  throwing  up  the  tubers, 
ready  to  be  gatliered  by  hand.  There  is  a  bitter  principle 
subsisting  in  the  potato  which  may  be  considered  as  some- 
what poisonous,  and  which  is  aggravated  by  the  action  of 
light  to  such  a  degree  as  to  turn  green  :  this  princiiile  must 
be  removed  by  cooking  before  the  tuber  is  fit  for  food ;  hence 
the  water  in  which  such  potatoes  have  been  boiled  should 
never  be  employed  in  the  preparation  of  other  food.  The 
[larticidar  variety  of  potato  can  be  secured  only  by  planting 
the  tubers.  The  seed  of  a  single  ball  will  often  produce 
many  varieties  of  potatoes,  and  can  not  be  depended  upon 
to  propagate  the  parent  stock.  The  varieties  most  esteemed 
in  the  U.  S.  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  seemed 
to  receive  a  complete  check  by  the  potato-rot  of  1845,  and 
they  afterward  practically  fell  into  disesteem,  and  were  re- 
placed by  others.  The  best  of  the  old  favorites  was  prob- 
ably the  Mercer  or  Neshannock  (so  called  from  having  origi- 
nated on  Neshannock  Creek,  Mercer  co..  Pa.) ;  its  place  in 
point  of  popularity  was  thereafter  filled  by  the  Jackson, 
White  Garnet,  Chili,  Peach-blow,  and  Early  "Goodrich,  most 
of  which  were  originated  by  Rev.  Chauncey  E.  Goodrich, 
of  Utica.  N.  Y.,  to  whom  the  world  is  largely  indebted  for 
the  improvement  of  this  important  plant.  Later,  Early 
Rose,  Beauty  of  Hebron,  Burbank,  and  other  varieties,  be- 
came pojjular  and  superseded  the  old  ones ;  and  these  varie- 
ties are  in  turn  giving  place  to  others.  Varieties  of  pota- 
toes soon  disappear  or  '"  run  out."  The  early  varieties  of 
potatoes  now  seldom  produce  seed-balls,  and  the  late  sorts 
are  less  productive  of  seed  than  formerly.  This  is  due  to 
the  excessive  deflection  of  the  vital  energy  to  tuber  produc- 
tion in  the  highly  improved  varieties,  and  the  failure  of  the 
flowers  is  particularly  marked  in  the  early  kinds,  probably 
because  the  energy  is  deflected  to  the  tubers  before  the  flow- 
ers are  formed. 

There  are  several  serious  enemies  to  the  potato-plant,  of 
wliich  the  best  known  is  the  Colorado  Potato-bitg  (ij.  v.). 
The  blight  or  rot  has  been  somewhat  prevalent  since  its 
first  destructive  appearance  about  1840,  although  it  is  not 
equally  bad  in  all  years.  The  true  potato  bliglit  and  rot  is 
caused'  by  a  fungus  known  as  Phytophthora  infestans,  and 
it  is  readily  kept  in  check  by  frequent  and  thorough  spray- 
ings with  Bordeaux  nnxture."  (See  Fungicide.)  It  is  thought, 
however,  that  some  forms  of  blight  and  rot  are  due  to  a  bac- 
terium, the  exact  nature  of  which  is  not  known. 

The  potato  crop  is  less  important  in  the  national  economy 
in  the  U.  S.  than  in  Europe.  The  crop  of  Europe  aggregates 
more  than  the  entire  wheat  crop  of  the  world.  The  average 
annual  production  in  the  U.  S.  from  1881  to  1800  was  169,- 
809.053  bush.,  while  that  of  a  like  period  in  France  was 
396.746.138  ;  in  Austria.  306.984,697:  in  Germanv,  891,733,- 
040:  in  Russia,  300.31.5.070 ;  in  the  United  Kingdom,  328,- 
093.397.  In  1893  the  U.  S.  exported  $708,757  worth  of  po- 
tatoes and  imported  |1.998,708  worth.  For  further  infor- 
mation, consult  tlie  experiment  station  bulletins,  Carman's 
A'ew  Potato  Culture,  and  Terry's  A  B  C  of  Potato  Culture. 
See  also  Food.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 


POTATO-BUG 


POTEMKIN 


737 


Potal(i-bii^  :  a  name  applied  iiulispriininatoly  by  fann- 
ers to  a  great  many  ilitlerent  insects  that  attack  the  potato. 
Among  tliem  are  llie  following:  Buriny  hi  the  stalk — the 
stalk-borer  ((fortyna  nilfla) ;  the  potato-stalk  weevil  {Baii- 
ditis  Irinolatun).  Feeditiij  ii/xm  llii>  liairx — the  potato-worm 
(Sphinx  5-macul(ila):  the  three-lined  leaf-beetle  (/>«»(«  <;•(- 
lineata) ;  the  cucumber  flea-beetle  {Jlaltica  ciiciiinnris) ;  over 
half  a  dozen  species  of  blister-beetles,  belonging  to  the  gen- 
era Lytin  and  K/iicaiifa  ;  and  finally  the  Colorado  potato- 
beetle  (/tory/j/ioci  Ju-liiicala),  a  hemispherical  yellow  beetle 
about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  with  ten  black  stripes  on 
the  elytra.     This  last  alone  is  treated  in  this  article.    See 

E.NTOMOLOOV. 

Few  insects  have  attracted  greater  attention  than  has 
this  species  since  1860.  First  described  by  Thomas  Say, 
who  found  it  common  on  the  upper  Missouri  in  1824,  it  was 
afterward  scarcely  heard  of  till  18.59.  It  fed  originally  on 
the  sand-burr  {>>ulanum  rostraium),  a  wild  plant  belonging 
to  the  same  genus  as  the  potato.  It  was  first  found  falling 
ill  large  numbers  on  tlie  cultivated  potato  about  100  miles 
W.  ordmaha.  Neb.,  in  18.")!).  In  1861  it  invaded  Iowa;  in 
18()'3,  Southwest  Wisconsin  :  in  1864  and  1860  it  crossed  the 
Mississippi  to  the  western  part  of  Illinois  ;  in  1866  it  occu- 
pied most  of  the  U.  .S.  \V.  of  a  line  drawn  between  Chi- 
cago and  St.  Louis :  in  1867  it  reached  Southwest  Michigan 
and  Western  Indiana:  in  1868  many  parts  of  Ohio,  and 
from  thai  time  on  kept  spreading  from  year  to  year,  until. 
in  1874.  it  touched  the  Atlantic  seaboard  at  numerous 
places.  an<i  in  187o  was  common  from  Virginia  to  Maine. 
It  thus  traveled  over  1,500  miles  in  a  direct  liiu'  within  16 
years,  and  spread  over  an  area  of  something  like  1,.~)00,000 
si|.  miles.  Though  most  injurious  during  the  first  few  years 
of  its  advent,  it  always  remains  where  it  has  once  obtained 
a  foothold. 

Natural  ffistory. — The  insect  hibernates  in  the  perfect  or 
beetle  state.  As  vegetation  starts  in  spring  the  insect  issues 
from  the  grouiul,  ami  long  before  potatcjes  are  \i)i.  or  even 
planted,  it  may  be  seen  flying  in  search  of  food  aiul  com- 
pany. It  frequently  works  into  a  sprouting  hill  of  pota- 
toes as  these  are  raising  the  soil,  and  feeds  upon  the  tender 
sprouts  and  tubers:  and  as  soon  as  the  plant  shows  itself 
the  fetnale  begins  to  lay  her  oval  orange  eggs  in  clusters  of 
from  ten  to  forty,  each  attached  by  one  end  to  the  under 
side  of  a  leaf  or  to  a  stem.  With  favorable  weather  there 
hatches,  in  the  course  of  a  week,  from  each  egg  a  snuill, 
dark  red,  hunchbacked  larva,  which  becomes  paler  and  ac- 
quires a  double  row  of  lateral  black  spots  as  it  advances 
toward  full  growtli.  This  period  arrives  in  about  three 
weeks  from  hatching,  and  the  larva  finally  burrows  into  the 
ground,  where  it  becomes  a  [uipa.  and  finally  a  beetle  in 
from  seven  to  ten  days,  the  wliole  cycle  of  its  transforma- 
tions frotn  the  egg  to  the  beetle  requiring  rarely  more  than 
a  month.  In  the  latitude  of  St.  Louisthereare  three  brooils 
aniuudly,  the  last  brood  of  beetles  issuing  from  the  ground 
early  in  the  fall.  The  migratory  habit  is  often  very  notice- 
able in  this  last  brood  of  the  beetles,  and  for  weeks  they 
nuiy  be  seen  flying  in  bevies  or  traveling  on  foot  in  im- 
mense armies.  The  beetle  feeds  less  than  the  larva,  but  is, 
nevertheless,  very  tenacious  of  life.  The  period  of  oviposi- 
tion  covers  about  a  month  for  each  female,  and  the  number 
of  eggs  [iroduced  by  each  averages  about  .WO.  While  the 
species  feeds  by  preference  on  plants  belonging  to  the  genus 
Solanum.  !iml  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  could  thrive  for  any 
length  of  time  on  other  plants  than  those  of  the  family 
Solanaceoe  yet  in  its  inarch  across  the  U.  S.  it  has  adapted 
itself  in  an  eim'rgency  to  a  number  of  other  species.  In 
the  article  F.ntomoi.oov  (q.  v.)  there  is  an  illustration  of  the 
iiLsect  in  its  various  stages. 

Nntiiriil  Enemii'K. — With  the  insect's  advance  the  num- 
ber of  its  natural  enemies  has  increased.  The  rose-breasted 
grosbeak  often  ellectually  clears  a  potato-patch  of  the  pest, 
and  the  donu'stic  chicken  has  in  some  sections  acquired  a 
taste  for  it.  The  crow,  the  quail,  the  skunk,  the  toad,  and 
some  species  of  t  he  long-legged  harvest  men  or  "  grandfather 
graybeards"  {/'hnlanffiiim)  feed  upon  it.  The  most  ellicient 
aids,  however,  are  found  in  its  own  class.  Over  two  dozen 
of  these  have  been  described.  The  oidy  true  parasite  known 
to  infest  it  is  a  tachina-fly  {Lj/ilella  doriz/ihunr)  belonging 
to  the  I)ii>tera,  and  having  the  general  appearance  of  a  com- 
mon house-fly.  Certain  asilus-flies — a  family  of  the  same 
order — pounce  upon  and  suck  out  the  juices  of  the  beetle. 
In  its  own  order  a  number  of  grouml-beetles  (CarahiiUe) 
devour  it,  and  several  species  of  lady-liird  (CoccinillidiF) 
feed  greedilv  on  its  egg.s.  Among  hugs,(lIeteroptera)  several 
331 


species  are  also  very  efficient,  piercing  the  beetle,  and  more 
particularly  the  larva,  with  their  strong  beaks,  and  sucking 
out  the  vitals.  These  are  especially  the  sjiiiu^d  soldier-bug 
(.4  rm«,sy>i'Ho.v«),  the  many-banded  robber  (//(I  r/«jf<or  CI  Hc/wi), 
and  the  ring-banded  soldier-bug  (Ptrillua  ciiriimcinctus). 

Methods  of  Vombatiny  it. — The  first  beetles  and  eggs  to 
appear  should  be  destroyed,  but  great  care  must  be  had  to 
discrimiiuite  between  the  eggs  of  the  ladybirds,  which  re- 
semljle  those  of  Dorypltora  in  color  and  mode  of  attach- 
ment, but  are  invariably  somewhat  smaller.  Numerous 
mechanical  means — machines  used  by  hand,  and  even  by 
horse-power — have  been  devised  to  knock  the  insects  off  the 
vines  and  collect  them  ;  and  during  very  hot  and  dry  sum- 
mer weather  in  the  more  western  parts  of  the  U.  .S.  the  in- 
sects perish  when  merely  knocked  on  to  the  ground.  The 
oidy  cheap  and  effective  way  of  protecting  the  plants  when 
once  the  insect  has  been  allowed  unduly  to  multijily  is  by 
the  use  of  Paris  green  or  London  purple.  This  jioison  is 
now  very  generally  employed,  either  as  a  powder  with  about 
twenty-five  parts  of  some  diluent,  such  as  ashes,  lime, 
bran,  or  flour — the  last  t  he  best ;  or  in  suspension  at  the  rate 
of  a  tablespoonful  of  the  pure  green  to  3  gal.  of  water, 
and  with  a  certain  portion  of  molasses  or  other  cheap  sticky 
substance  to  facilitate  adhesion. 

This  article  would  be  incomplete  without  a  reference  to 
the  bogus  Colorado  potato-beetle  (-Dor(//)AornyHH(,'/r<)!  which 
so  closely  resembles  the  species  under  consideration  that  it 
was  formerly  often  mistaken  for  it.  even  by  good  entomol- 
ogists. In  juncta,  as  compared  with  JO-lineafa.  the  eggs 
are  paler;  the  larva  is  paler,  with  but  one  row  of  lateral 


Bopus  Colorado  potato-tieette  :  a  a,  egffs  :  b  b,  la^^'a  :  c,  beetle  :  rf, 
eular'Ketl  elytron  ;  e.  enlarged  leg.  Colors,  a,  whitish  yellow  ;  6, 
ereani  yellow,  brown,  and  black  :  c,  black,  j'ellow,  and  brown. 

black  dots,  instead  of  two;  the  beetle  has  the  second  and 
third  black  stripes  on  the  elytra  (counting  from  the  lower 
edge)  joined  at  the  ends,  instead  fif  the  third  and  fourth  ; 
the  ptnictures  of  elytra  more  regularly  in  rows,  and  the  legs 
with  pale  instead  of  dark  ttirsi.  am!  with  a  black  spot  on 
the  thighs.  It  feeds  on  the  nettle  {.Solaniim  carolinense), 
has  always  existed  in  the  southern  half  of  Missouri  east- 
ward, and  never  touches  the  cultivated  potato. 

Revised  by  J.  S.  Kingsley. 

I'otato-fly :  See  Cantharis. 

Potato,  Sweet :  See  Sweet  Potato. 

I'ote'khin,  AlekseI  AxTiroviru  :  author ;  b.  at  Kine.sh- 
lua,  government  of  Kostroma,  Russia,  July  1,  1829.  After 
finishing  his  studies  he  settled  in  St.  Petersburg.  lie  has 
described  with  unsparing  fidelity  the  darker  side  of  the  life 
of  the  lower  classes.  Among  his  novels  are:  The  Peasant 
Wonimi.  For  Money  (a  description  of  factiuT  life),  and 
yo}tny  fnrlinations  (ISIQ).  .Many  of  his  peasant  tales  are 
excellent,  for  instance.  Tit  Sofronov  Ka^aiiok;  'The  Sick 
Woman  (1876),  Under  the  Spell' of  Money  (1876),  Before  the 
Community  (1877),  Village  Leeches  (1880).  On  account  of 
the  sharp  criticism  of  Russian  conditions  which  they  pro- 
voke, his  dramas  have  not  been  allowed  by  the  censors  to  be 
put  on  the  stage.  Among  the  best  known  are  The  Voice 
of  the  J'eople  not  the  Voice  of  God  (18.53).  Ill-gotten  Goods 
do  not  Prosper  (1854).  Tinsel,  The  Serered  Limh.  A  Profit- 
able Undertaking  (1870),  A  Love  Match,  and  7'he  Guilty 
Woman.  A.  C.  Cooliuge. 

Potem'kin.  Oreoor  Ai.EXANnROViTcn  :  Russian  min- 
ister of  state  :  b.  in  1739  of  a  family  of  Polish  nobility  on 
its  estate  in  the  government  of  Smolensk;  entered  the  Rus- 
sian army,  and  was  ensign  in  the  imperiid  body-guard  when 
he  attracted  the  attention  of  Catherine  IL.shortly  after  her 
accession  to  the  throne,  by  his  handsome  person.  He  was 
appointed  gentleman  of  the  bedchamber  by  the  emprcivS, 
and  superseded  Orloff  as  her  lover.  This  intimacy  did  not 
last  long,  and  he  was  absent  from  court  for  some  time,  serv- 


738 


POTENTIAL 


ing  in  the  war  against  Turkey,  but  on  his  return  enjoyed  a 
greater  influence  than  ever.  By  his  entire  freedom  from 
jealousy  and  by  liis  mastery  of  the  art  of  making  himself 
interesting  and  indispensable,  he  retained  his  iniluenee  over 
the  empress  to  his  death.  Xot  only  the  empress  herself,  but 
foreign  monarchs — Frederick  the  Great,  Maria  Theresa,  and 
Joseph  II. — loaded  him  with  honors  and  riches  and  sub- 
mitted to  all  his  whims ;  and  as  an  alliance  with  Russia  at 
this  time  began  to  be  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
neigliboring  states — .Sweden,  Poland,  Prussia,  Austria,  and 
Turkey — he,  as  the  dispenser  of  this  alliance,  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  polities  of  Kurope.  Tliat  he  had  some 
ability  is  shown  liythe  success  of  many  of  his  undertakings, 
but  in  private  life  he  was  capricious,  vain,  and  licentious, 
and  his  public  career  affords  no  proof  that  he  possessed  a 
high  order  of  statesmanship.  Among  the  acts  of  his  minis- 
try were  the  foundation  of  the  cities  of  Kherson,  Kertcli, 
Nikolaicv,  Sebastopol,  etc.,  the  creation  of  a  Russian  fleet  in 
the  Black  Sea.  the  Turkish  wars  which  resulted  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  Crimea,  Caucasus,  etc.  D.  on  the  road  be- 
tween Jassy  and  Nikolaiev,  Oct.  15,  1791.  See  Cerenville, 
Vie  cle  Prince  Potemkin  (1807) :  Memoirs  of  Potemkin  (Lon- 
don, 1814) ;  and  de  Ligne,  Memoire  de  la  Cour  de  Riissie 
(1859).  Revised  by  P.  M.  Colby. 

Potential  [from  Lat.  poten'tia.  power,  possibility,  deriv. 
of  posse,  be  able] :  in  mathematics,  a  scalar  function,  usu- 
ally called  T',  of  the  co-ordinates  of  a  point,  first  introduced 
by  Laplace  in  the  discussion  of  gravitation  in  his  Mecanique 
Celeste.  The  name  potential  was  given  to  it  by  George  Green, 
in  his  now  famous  Essay  on  the  Ajiplication  of  Jlatliemat- 
ical  Analysis  to  t/ie  Theories  of  Electricity  (Xottingham, 
1838).  Green  almost  created  the  theory  as  we  have  it,  but 
so  completely  buried  was  his  essay  for  nearly  twenty  years 
that  most  of  its  important  theorems  had  in  the  meantime 
been  rediscovered  by  Gauss,  Charles,  Sturm,  and  Thomson. 

The  introduction  of  the  term  potential  into  practical  and 
even  elementary  electricity  is  a  remarkable  example  of  the 
influence  of  pure  mathematics  on  the  development  and  ra- 
tionalization of  a  science.  It  is  entirely  probable  that  the 
extensive  use  of  the  term  potential,  and  the  ideas  which  it 
directly  or  remotely  represents,  have  been  due  in  great  de- 
gree to  the  jiredominant  influence  on  scientific  thought  of 
the  principle  of  the  conservation  of  energy.     See  Exergy. 

The  mutual  potential  energy  of  a  system  of  two  bodies  in 
any  given  position  is  the  amount  of  work  done  by  their 
mutual  repulsion  in  separating  them  to  an  infinite  distance. 
When  the  bodies  mutually  attract  their  piotential  energy  is 
conventionally  negative.  Work,  which  is  the  measure  of 
energy,  is  the  product  of  the  force  acting  and  the  compo- 
nent of  the  motion  produced  in  the  direction  of  the  force. 

The  potential  at  any  point,  due  to  any  attracting  or  re- 
pelling agent,  is  the  mutual  potential  energy  between  it  and 
a  unit  quantity  of  the  agent  jilaced  at  that  point.  Thus 
the  gravitational  jiotential  at  a  point  is  tlie  work  required 
to  remove  unit  mass  of  matter  from  the  point  to  an  infinite 
distance. 

Potential  is  applied  to  central  forces,  and  generally, 
though  not  necessarily,  to  those  varying  as  the  inverse 
square  of  the  distance.  Thus  the  force  at  /-",  due  to  the  act- 
ing agent  q,  distant  r  from  the  point,  is  -^  if  the  unit  quan- 
tity is  so  chosen  as  to  render  the  constant  in  the  expression 
for  the  force  equal  to  unity.  The  work  done  in  moving  the 
unit  quantity  at  P  a  distance  dr  along  a  line  of  force  is 

^  dr.    A  line  of  force  is  a  line  tangential  at  each  point  to 

the  direction  of  the  force. 

If  we  integrate  the  above  expression  between  the  limits 
r  and  infinity,  the  work  done  will  by  definition  be  the  po- 

/GO 
,j(lr  ^  7 

If  the  potential  at   /'  is  due  to  several  acting  masses, 

then  the  total  potential  at   P  is  the  value  of  ^  for  all  the 

acting  masses  conjointly,  or  Fp  =2^.     Thus  the  electrical 

r 
potential  at  the  center  of  a  sphere,  charged  with  a  quantity 

of  electricity  g,  is  2  -|  =  ^-  2  j  =  X  ^here  R  is  the  radius. 

See  ELECTRiriTV. 

From  the  definition  of  the  potential  at  a  point  it  follows 


that  the  excess  of  the  potential  at  the  point  A  over  that  at 
B  is  the  work  which  must  be  expended  against  the  acting 
forces  in  moving  unit  mass  from  B  to  A.  The  word  mass 
here  denotes  the  acting  agent  of  any  kind.  The  work  done 
is  independent  of  the  path  traversed ;  otherwise  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  by  moving  unit  mass  back  and  forth  along  suit- 
able paths  between  the  two  points  an  infinite  amount  of 
work  might  be  done  without  any  expenditure  of  energy. 

An  equipotential  surface,  in  gravity  a  level  surface,  is  one 
having  the  same  value  of  the  potential  at  all  points.  There 
is  therefore  no  difference  of  potential  on  the  surface,  and 
no  work  is  done  in  moving  any  mass  of  the  acting  agent 
from  one  point  to  any  other  on  an  equipotential  surface. 
Hence  there  is  no  component  of  force  along  such  a  surface, 
or  it  is  perpendicular  to  all  the  lines  of  force  meeting  it. 

Let  there  be  two  equipotential  surfaces  with  potentials 
T'l  and  Vi ;  then  the  work  done  in  displacing  unit  mass 
from  any  point  on  one  surface  to  any  point  on  the  other  is 
I'l— I's.  It  is  independent  of  the  position  of  the  points 
on  the  two  surfaces  and  the  path  traversed  from  one  point 
to  the  other. 

The  work  done  in  transferring  a  mass,  m,  from  one  sur- 
face to  the  other  is  m  (  Fj  —  I'j). 

Force  is  a  function  of  jmtetitial.  Consider  two  equi- 
potential surfaces  indefinitely  near  each  other,  their  dis- 
tance along  a  normal  being  dn.  Let  E  be  the  force  along 
this  line.  Then  Fdn  =  V,  —  I'j  =  —  dV,  if  Vi  and  Fj  are 
the  indefinitely  near  values  of  the  potentials  on  the  two 
surfaces.  g  y 

Therefore  .f  =  —  -=-,  or  the  force  at  any  point  is  equal 

to  the  negative  derivative  of  the  potential  with  respect  to 
the  normal  to  the  equipotential  surface  passing  through  the 
point.  The  force  along  any  line  may  be  similarly  expressed. 
Let  a  be  the  angle  which  the  line  makes  with  the  normal  to 
the  equipotential  surface,  and  let  ds  denote  the  portion  of 
the  line  lying  between  the  two  indefinitely  near  surfaces. 
Also  let  E,  be  the  force  along  the  line.    Then  E^  =  Fcos  a  = 

= — cos  o.     But  cos  0=-;-.     Hence 

dn  as 

E  -_^^-_^ 
dn  ds  ~       ds' 

Thus  the  component  of  the  force  in  any  direction  is  the 
partial  derivative  of  the  potential  in  this  direction.  In  oth- 
er words  the  force  along  any  line  is  the  rate  at  which  the 
potential  decreases  per  unit  length  of  the  line. 

Potential  plays  a  paramount  part  in  the  study  of  electri- 
cal phenomena.  Positive  electricity  tends  to  flow  from  places 
of  higher  to  places  of  lower  potential.  Hence  the  surface 
of  a  charged  conductor  in  electrical  equilibrium  is  an  equi- 
potential surface.  Moreover,  all  points  of  such  a  conductor 
have  the  same  potential.  The  potential  of  a  sphere  is  there- 
fore the  same  as  the  potential  at  its  center,  or  ~. 

a 

The  capacity  of  a  conductor  is  the  quantity  of  electricity 
required  to  raise  its  potential  from  zero  to  unity;  and  since 
the  potential  increases  directly  as  the  charge,  it  follows  that 

the  capacity  equals  -^  (quantity  per  unit  potential).    Since 

Q  0 

the  potential  of  a  sphere  is  -^,  dividing  0  by  -^  we  have  H 

as  the  capacity,  or  the  capacity  of  a  sphere  is  numerically 
equal  to  its  radius.  A  sphere  of  unit  radius  has  unit  capacity. 
The  eneryy  of  a  charge  may  be  expressed  as  a  function  of 
the  potential.  If  a  quantity  of  electricity,  Q,  is  transferred 
from  potential  Ti  to  T'j,  the  work  done  during  the  flow,  or 
the  energy  converted  into  other  forms,  is  Q(Vi  —  W),  Vi 
being  greater  than  T'j.  If,  however,  a  conductor  has  its 
potential  raised  from  zero  to  unity  by  a  charge,  Q,  then  the 
potential  energy  stored  up  is  iQV;  or,  since  Q  =  CV,  the 
energy  of  the  charge  is  -Jt'T''.  This  may  be  demonstrated 
as  follows :  Let  clQ  be  an  element  of  the  charge  ;  to  transfer 
it  from  a  place  of  zero  potential  to  the  conductor  at  poten- 
tial Fo  requires  that  work  be  done  upon  it  equal  to  dQ  Fo. 
But  since  Q  =  f  Fo,  dQ  =  CdV„.     Hence 

dQ  Vo  =  CVJVo,  and  fcV„dr„  =  iCVK 

Jo 

Now  the  capacity  C  is  a  constant.  Therefore  the  poten- 
tial energy  of  the  charge  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
potential  to  which  the  conductor  is  raised  by  the  charge. 
If  the  capacity  of  a  charged  conductor  could  be  doubled, 
both  the  fiotential  and  the  stored  energy  would  be  reduced 
to  one-half. 


POTENTILLA 


POTOMAC  FCJKMATION 


739 


In  current  electricity  the  difference  of  potential  between 
two  points  plays  a  most  important  rule.  It  is  numerically 
equal  to  the  work  done  in  curryinj;  a  unit  of  electricity  in 
the  positive  diroction  from  one  point  to  the  other.  Tims 
the  potential  ditlerciii-e  liotWfcn  the  terminals  of  a  battery 
when  the  circuit  is  closed  is  the  energy  represented  by  the 
piussajre  of  a  unit  of  electricity  from  the  positive  pole  around 
throuffh  the  external  circuit  to  the  negative.  The  total 
energy  transformed  iluriiig  tlie  passage  of  Q  units  is  Q 
times  the  potential  dillereuce.  This  remains  true  whether 
the  energy  expended  in  tlie  transfer  is  converted  into  heat 
because  of  the  ohmic  resistance,  or  whellicr  a  portion  does 
mechanical  work  by  means  of  a  proper  mi>lor  lievicc  in  the 
circuit,  or  whclhcr  the  energy  is  in  part  stored  up  liy  elec- 
trolysis, or  wlicther  it  is  stored  up  Ijy  producing  llial  strain 
in  tiie  etlier  called  a  magnetic  field. 

The  potential  difference  between  two  points  on  a  circuit 
is  numerically  eqmil  to  the  electromotive  force  (written 
E.  .M.  !•'.)  producing  the  current  flow  from  one  point  to  tlie 
other,  so  long  as  the  circuit  joining  tlie  points  contains  no 
source  of  E.  M.  F.  In  such  portion  of  a  circuit  the  current 
flows  from  higher  to  lower  potential,  but  within  the  region 
where  the  E.  M.  F.  has  its  origin  the  current  flows  from 
lower  to  higher  potential,  being  so  impelled  by  the  cause 
there  acting  to  produce  an  elect I'ic  How. 

In  any  part  of  a  conducting  circuit  the  loss  of  polcnlial 
is  jointly  proportional  to  the  electrical  resistance  and  the 
current  strengtli.  This  loss  is  a  fall  of  potential  so  long  as 
no  source  of  E.  M.  F.  is  encountered.  It  may  exactly  c<iun- 
terbalance  the  gain  due  to  the  E.  -M.  F.'s  encountered.  In 
this  case  there  will  be  a  curreni  How  produced  by  an  E.  M.  F. 
without  any  potential  ditTercnccs.  Potenti;d  dilTerences  are 
therefore  due  to  E.  M.  F.'s  ratlu'r  than  the  reverse. 

Potential  differences  are  established  by  contact  of  dis- 
similar substances,  by  chemical  action,  by  heat,  by  pressure, 
in  physiological  processes,  and  by  the  relative  movement  of 
a  <'ouiluctor  and  tlie  lines  of  tVin-c  surrounding  a  magnet. 

.\  iiotential  difference  produces  in  insulators  or  dielectrics 
a  displacement  stress  by  which  electricity  is  displaced  in 
the  direction  of  the  potential  decrease.  If  the  medium  is  of 
such  a  nature  that  it  can  oppose  or  resist  this  stress  it  is 
called  a  non-conductor;  but  if  it  yields  to  the  electric  stress 
the  medium  is  a  conductor,  the  potential  energy  of  the  state 
ofstr.-iin  is  converted  into  heat,  and  a  continuous  current 
flows  so  luug  as  the  potential  difference  is  maintained. 

For  fuller  informaticm  the  following  authors  should  be 
consulled:  Clau.sius,  i>iV-  Pofenliutfunctiun  iind  tins  I'oten- 
lial;  Mascart  and  Joubert,  Le(;()ns  snr  I'^tectriciti'-  el  le 
Maijnetisme;  Thomson  and  Tait.  Treatise  on  Natural  I'tii- 
losiiphii:  Peirce.  Theiirij  of  llie  Xewtonian  Potential  Func- 
tion; Jlaxwell,  Elerfririti/  anil  Miiynelium;  Cumm'ui';,  The- 
ory of  Eleclriciti/  ;  Mathieu,  Thiorie  du  Pottntiel  el  ses 
Applications  d  I  Electrostal ique  el  au  Magnetisme. 

Hk.nkv  S.  Caruart. 

rofentiPla  [dimin.  of  Lat.  potens,  powerful,  from  its 
supposed  virtuesj  :  a  genus  of  herbs  and  slirubs  of  the  family 
Ponacea:  There  are  many  species,  mostly  herbs,  about  forty 
of  which  are  natives  of  the  U.  S.  The  plants  known  as 
einquofoil,  tive-linger.  and  torment il  belong  to  this  genus. 
They  have  a  highly  astringent  property,  which  is  useful  in 
medicine,  and  in  the  Orkneys  and  Ijaplanil  their  roots  have 
been  employed  in  domestic  tanning  and  dyeing. 

Poten'za:  chief  town  of  the  province  of  Potenza.  Italy: 
on  a  hill  near  the  river  Hasento  (auc.  Casiientus);  1(K!  miles 
E.  liy  S.  of  Naples  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  T-O).  'I'he  chief 
buililings  are  the  cathedral,  the  seminary,  and  the  hospital 
of  San  Carlo.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  ancient  I'olentia, 
which  was  founded  by  the  Lucanians  on  a  site  lower  down 
the  hill.  Il  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
on  Dee.  17,  1S57.  There  is  now  little  activity  of  any  kind 
here,  though  the  neighboring  country  is  agricullurally  rich, 
producing  silk,  honey,  and  cheese.  Pop.  (18S13)  lS,.'jl)0. — The 
province  (fornierlv  calleil  liasilieata)  has  an  area  of  3,845  sq. 
miles.     Pop.  (1S!)2)  .•)4 1 ,8(i."). 

I'otgietcr.  Everuard  .Ioiian.nes:  critic  and  poet;  h.  at 
Zwolle.  Il(.lland,.hine27. 1808;  d.at  Amsterdam,  Feb. 3. 1875. 
His  earlier  life  was  given  to  trade,  first  at  .\mstcrdam,  then 
at  Antwerp,  and  finally  at  Amsterdam  once  more.  His 
tastes,  however,  were  always  literary,  and  he  speedily  became 
acquainted  with  a  circle  of  brilliant  young  writers.  In  18:i7, 
in  company  with  certain  of  these,  he  founded  tlie  best  of  the 
Dutch  reviews,  l)e  (lids,  of  which  he  was  editor  for  thirty 
years.     The  inlluence  of  this  [leriodical  on  Dutch  letter-;  ha- 


been  very  great ;  and  Potgieter,  with  liis  friend  and  fellow 
contributor,  Bakhuizen  van  den  Hrink,  became  the  head  of 
the  new  school  that  was  trying  to  do  away  with  the  artifi- 
ciality of  style  and  triviality  of  matter  all  too  prevalent  in 
Dutch  literature  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Besides  a  number  of  short  stories,  he  wrote  avast  number 
of  critical  articles  and  a  consideralile  body  of  poetry.  In 
18G4  he  issued  a  collection  of  the  former,  entitled  Proza 
(3  vols.) ;  and  later  two  volumes  of  the  latter,  Potzy  (2  vols., 
1868-61)).  After  his  death  Joh.  ('.  Zimmerman  issued  six  vol- 
umes of  his  literary  remains — Verspreide  en  Nayelaten  Wer- 
ken  :  Proza,  Poezy.  en  Kritische  Studien  (1875-85).  Later 
still  the  same  e<iitor  printed  his  entire  Werken  in  18  vols. 
{Haarlem,  1885).  A.  K.  JIarsh. 

Potllier,  pwti-fi,  Robert  Josi;i'II:  law-writer;  b.  at  Or- 
leans, France.  .Ian.  0,  1699;  was  educated  in  the  College  of 
the  .Jesuits,  and  afterward  studie<l  law  in  the  University  of 
Orleans,  and  in  1730  was  made  one  of  the  counselors,  or  mag- 
istrates, of  the  prcsidial  (a  local  court  of  last  resort),  which 
position  his  father  had  lield  before  him:  in  1749  became 
Professor  of  Law  in  the  Univei'sity  of  Orleans,  and  wrote 
many  treatises  on  the  law,  among  the  best  known  of  which 
are  i'anilectii'  ,Ju.itiiiiana'  (:i  vols.,  1748-,53),  often  reprinted; 
JIaritime  Contracts;  Contracts  of  Sale;  Tlie  Ijiiie  of  Obli- 
gations of  Contracts,  etc.  Of  all  French  legal  wrilers  he  is 
the  one  oftenest  and  most  confident Iv  cited  as  an  authority, 
and  fully  three-quarters  of  the  Civil  Code  is  taken  almost 
verbatim  from  his  works.  Many  po.sthumous  works  by  him 
were  published,  which,  however,  are  of  much  less  value  than 
his  others.     1).  at  Orleans,  Mar.  2,  1773.  F.  S.  Allen. 

Pot-hole  :  an  approximately  vertical  and  cylindric  cavity 
in  rocks,  produced  by  a  whirling  current  of  water.  The 
cutting  is  done  by  sanil-grains,  and  especially  pebbles  and 
bowlders,  which  by  their  weight  are  kept  at  the  bottom  and 
whirled  about  by  the  water.  While  the  whirling  motion 
can  not  be  directly  seen,  it  is  inferred  from  the  circular 
character  of  the  holes,  and  from  the  fact  that  some  of  them 
are  channeled  about  the  periphery  of  the  bottom  as  though 
cut  by  a  diamond  drill.  Pot-holes  oc(-ur  on  the  beds  of 
streams  whose  .steep  grades  give  them  high  velocity,  and 
they  are  often  many  feet  in  di'iith.  It  is  believed  thai  they 
arc'  formed  also  beneath  glaciers,  where  crevasses  permit 
streams  of  water  to  plunge  from  the  surface  to  the  base. 
As  the  ice  moves  forward  crevasses  are  successively  fcn-med 
at  the  same  spot,  and  the  plunging  water  is  thus  enabled  to 
excavate  deeply.  There  is  a  scries  of  holes  referred  to  this 
action  near  Cohoes  Falls.  N.  Y..  and  one  of  these  was  deter- 
mined to  have  a  depth  of  over  60  feet. 

The  deep  pool  usually  found  beneath  a  cataract  is  closely 
allied  to  the  [lot-hole.  in  thai  il  is  excavated  by  stones  driven 
violently  by  a  plunging  stream  of  water;  but  the  motion  in 
this  case  is  not  ordinarily  gyratory,  and  the  excavation  is 
less  symmetrical.  '     '  "  G.  K.  (iiLiiKur. 

Poti  :  Russian  fortress;  in  the  Trans-Caucasus,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rioni  (see  ma))  of  Russia, 
ref.  12-F).  It  was  captured  from  the  Ottomans  (1809),  but 
restored  at  the  treaty  of  Bucharest  and  finally  ceili-d  to 
Russia  by  the  treaty  of  .\driano|)le  (1839).  This  stronghold 
is  exceedingly  im]K)rlaiit  as  commnnding  the  shore  route 
between  Persia  and  Russia.     Pop.  (1890)  4,8i;i.     E.  A.  (J. 

Poto'inac:  a  river  of  the  U.  S.,  forming  through  its 
whole  course  the  boundary  between  JIaryland  and  Virginia, 
and  West  Virginia.  It  i.s  formed  by  the  junction  of  two 
branches,  of  which  the  northern  rises  in  the  Alleghanies 
of  West  Virginia,  and  the  southern  in  the  .Shenandoah 
range,  ^'a.  It  resembles  a  bow  in  form,  is  nearly  400  miles 
in  length,  receives  as  tributaries  from  Virginia  the  Shenan- 
doah, Savage,  and  Jlonoeacy  rivers,  is  an  estuary  from 
6  to  8  miles  wide  for  100  miles  of  its  lower  course,  and 
enters  Che.-^apeake  Bay  75  miles  frcnii  the  .\llantic.  Wash- 
ington. D.  C.  the  national  capital,  is  situated  upon  its  left 
bank.  125  miles  above  its  mouth,  to  which  point  the  tide 
ascends,  and  it  is  navigable  for  large  vessels,  .\bove  Wash- 
ington are  several  falls.  The  scenery  of  the  upper  Potomac 
is  remarkably  picturesque,  especially  the  junction  of  the 
Shemmdoah  at  Har|ier"s  Ferry.  On  its  lower  couise  are  the 
birthplace  and  the  resi<ience  of  Washington,  and  in  its 
whole  extent  it  formeil  an  important  strategical  line  during 
the  civil  war. 

Potomac  Formation:  the  lowest  of  the  geological  forma- 
tions representing  the  Cretaceous  period  on  the  .\llantie coast 
nf  North  America.     The  rocks  are  variegated  clays,  friable 


740 


POTOSi 


POTTER 


sandstones,  gravel,  and  sand,  with  many  alternations,  form- 
ing a  series  from  5  to  500  feet  thick  ;  tliey  rest  unconforma- 
bly  on  crystalline  rocks  and  on  upturned  and  eroded  strata 
of  the  Newark  system,  and  are  overlaid  by  tossiliferous  Eo- 
cene and  Neocene  strata.  The  group  forms  a  belt  about  10 
miles  wide  in  Maryland  but  narrowing  southward,  which  has 
been  traced  from  the  Delaware  along  the  west  side  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  and  to  the  E.  of  Wasliiiigton  and  Richmond,  to 
Weldon,  N.  C,  a  distance  of  300  miles.  The  Rarilan  forma- 
tion in  New  Jersey,  which  includes  the  Amboy  and  Wood- 
bridge  clays,  is  thought  to  belong  to  this  terrane,  as  are  also 
the  Tuscaloosa  formation  of  Alabama,  and  the  Trinity  beds 
of  Texas  and  Arkansas.  Great  numbers  of  fossil  leaves, 
principally  of  broad-leaved  trees,  have  been  found  in  these 
rocks  in  V'irginia,  Maryland,  and  New  Jersey  :  a  few  fresh- 
water shells  and  the  bones  of  large  reptiles,  allied  to  Juras- 
sic species,  have  also  been  discovered.  Consult  W  J  Mc- 
Gee,Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  xxxv.  (1888) ;  Twelfth  Annual  Re- 
port, U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  (1890-91),  pp.  421^24;  W.  M.  Fon- 
taine, Monograph  No.  15,  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv. ;  0.  C.  Marsh, 
Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  vol.  xxxv.  (1888).         Israel  C.  Russell. 

PotosS,  po-to-see' :  a  city  of  Bolivia;  on  the  side  of  the 
Potosi  Mountain,  a  peak  of  the  Eastern  Cordilleras ;  47  miles 
S.  W.  of  Sucre  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  6-D).  It  is 
one  of  the  highest  inhabited  places  in  the  world,  being  13,- 
324  feet  above  sea-level.  The  climate  is  cold  and  change- 
able, though  not  unhealthfiil  to  regular  residents ;  owing  to 
the  rarefied  atmosphere  new-born  children  often  die  or  be- 
come deaf.  Silver  lodes  were  discovered  here  in  1546,  and 
were  long  the  richest  known  deposits  in  the  world ;  up  to 
1864  they  had  yielded  the  sum  of  |2,9 19,899,400.  The 
deposits  are  far  from  being  exhausted,  but,  owing  to  the 
great  depth  to  which  shafts  have  been  sunk  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  drainage,  most  of  them  have  becouie  unprofitable 
by  the  mining  svstems  now  in  vogue ;  about  2.000  shafts 
have  been  abandoned.  The  yield  in  1890  was  196,365 
oz.  During  the  eighteenth  century  Potosi,  with  its  im- 
mediate vicinity,  is  said  to  have  had  a  population  of  170,- 
000.  The  fine  mint  and  the  cathedral  attest  its  former 
grandeur.  Pop.  about  12,000.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Potosi,  which  embraces  that  portion  of  the 
Bolivian  mountain  region  adjacent  to  the  Argentine  Re- 
public and  Chili,  with  an  area  of  85,046  sq.  miles  (claimed), 
and  a  population  (1888)  of  237.755.  It  is  noted  principally 
for  its  silver  mines,  including,  besides  Potosi,  those  of  Poreo 
and  lluanchaca,  the  latter  now  the  most  iiroductive  in  Bo- 
livia.    Gold  and  tin  are  also  mined.     Herbert  II.  Smith. 

Potosi,  Mexico:  See  San  Luis  Potosi. 

Potsdam  :  city  ;  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  Prus- 
sia: at  the  confluence  of  the  Ruthe  and  the  Havel,  17  miles 
S.  W.  of  Berlin  (see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  3-G).  It  is 
well  laid  out  and  well  built,  having  many  fine  streets,  public 
squares,  promenades,  public  edifices,  gates,  bridges,  and  mon- 
uments. It  contains  large  barracks  and  other  military  estab- 
lishments, educational  and  benevolent  institutions,  and  a 
great  number  of  royal  palaces  and  summer  houses,  old  and 
new,  some  of  which  are  built  on  a  grand  scale  and  surrounded 
with  extensive  gardens  and  parks.  Here  is  an  astro-physical 
observatory,  founded  1874,  witli  two  equatorial  refractors,  for 
spectroscopic,  photographic,  and  other  observations.  Pots- 
dam was  founded  by  the  elector  Frederick  William,  who 
built  a  ].ialace  here  in  1673,  but  its  modern  splendor  is  prin- 
cipally due  to  Frederick  the  Great,  while  each  of  his  suc- 
cessors contril)uted  to  the  embellishment  and  extension  of 
the  town.  Its  industries  comprise  market-gardening,  manu- 
factures of  firearms,  and  the  production  of  sugar,  chocolate, 
tobacco,  and  cotton  and  woolen  goods.     Pop.  (1890)  54,125. 

Potsdam :  village ;  St.  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y. :  on  the 
Racket  river  and  the  Rome,  Watertown  and  Ogdensburg 
Railroad  ;  22  miles  E.  of  Ogdensburg  (for  location,  see  map 
of  New  York.  ref.  1-H).  It  is  princfpally  noted  for  its  ex- 
tensive quarries  of  sandstone  of  a  geological  formation  to 
which  the  name  of  the  village  has  been  given.  The  region 
traversed  Ijy  the  Upper  Racket  river  affords  an  immense 
supply  of  lumber  wliich  is  floated  in  rafts  down  the  stream. 
Potsdam  has  a  Holly  system  of  water-works,  improved  sew- 
erage, electric  lights,  a  State  normal  and  training  school, 
agricultural  fair  grounds,  public  library,  a  national  liank 
with  capital  of  .1;200,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  .'{toO.- 
000,  .several  fonndries.  machine-shops,  saw-mills,  furniture- 
factories,  agricultural  implement  works,  and  other  manu- 
factories, anil  three  weekly  news])apers.  Pop.  (1880)  2.762  ; 
(1890)  3,!I61.  Editor  of  "Courier  and  Freeman." 


Potsdam  Sandstone :  in  geology,  a  formation  of  the 
Cambrian  period  occurring  in  New  York  and  Canada  N.  of 
the  Adirondack  Mountains.  It  is  the  basal  member  of  the 
New  York  Svstem  (</.  v.).  and  was  long  supposed  to  be  the 
oldest  American  Pala-ozoic  formation.  The  name  has  been 
applied  also  to  sandstones  at  the  base  of  the  Palaeozoic  series 
in  various  other  parts  of  North  America,  but  it  has  now  be- 
come known,  from  a  comparison  of  fossils,  that  not  all  such 
sandstones  are  of  the  same  age  as  the  Potsdam.  According 
to  Walcott  the  Potsdam  sandstone  is  the  chronologic  equiva- 
lent of  certain  limestones  occurring  S.  of  the  Adirondacks 
and  in  Vermont,  of  the  Knox  shales  of  Tennessee  and  the 
Connasauga  shales  of  Alabama,  of  the  St.  Croix  sandstone 
in  Jlinnesota,  of  the  basal  sandstone  in  Dakota,  Montana, 
Wyoming,  and  Colorado,  of  the  Gallatin  limestones  of  Mon- 
tana and  the  Hamburg  limestone  of  Nevada,  of  the  Tonto 
group  of  Arizona,  and  of  the  Katemcy  group  of  Texas. 
Other  Cambrian  formations  of  the  U.  S.,  so  far  as  deter- 
mined, are  of  earlier  date.  In  the  district  N.  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks the  sandstone  has  a  maximum  thickness  of  500  feet. 
It  is  rather  thinly  bedded,  and  is  usually  yellowish  brown 
or  reddish  brown.  It  is  extensively  quarried  for  paving 
blocks  and  to  less  extent  for  flagging  and  building  .stones. 
See  Cambrian  Period,  and  consult  Bulletin  No.  81,  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey.  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Potstone  :  a  variety  of  talc,  sometimes  wrought,  like 
soapstone,  into  pots,  stoves,  and  kettles.  It  abounds  in 
Europe,  and  is  coarser  and  more  granular  than  the  best 
soapstone. 

Pott,  August  Friedkich  :  comparative  philologist ;  b.  at 
Nettelrede,  in  Hanover,  Nov.  14,  1802  ;  studied  philology  at 
Gottingen  ;  was  appointed  professor  in  Halle  in  1833.  The 
Eti/mologische  Forsclnmgen,  his  greatest  work,  was  published 
in  1836  (2d  ed.  5  vols,  and  index  vol.,  1859-76).  He  also 
wrote  Die  Zigeuner  in  Europa  und  Asien  (3  vols.,  Halle, 
1845);  Die  quinaere  und  vigesimale  Ziilmethode  (1847):  Die 
Personennamen  und  Hire  Enfsfe]iung.?arten  (1853;  2d  ed. 
1859);  Anti-Kaulen  (1863);  Die  Sprachverschiedenheiten 
in  Europa  an  den  Zalilen  nachgewiesen  (Halle,  1868) ;  Wur- 
zelworterbuch  der  indog.  Sprachen  (1867-73,  and  in  Ety- 
molog.  Forschungen,  2d  ed.  vol.  ii.,  part  2) ;  Wilhelm  von 
Humboldt  imd  die  Sprach  wissenschaft  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1876 ; 
2d  ed.  1880) ;  and  important  articles  in  journals,  collected  in 
full  by  Horn  in  Bezzenhergers  Beitrage,  xiii.,  338  ff.  D.  at 
Halle,  July  5,  1887.  Revised  by  A.  Gudeman. 

Pott,  Peeoival  :  surgeon  ;  b.  in  London,  England,  1713  ; 
was  apprenticed  in  his  sixteenth  year  to  a  surgeon  of  St. 
Bartholomew's  Hospital,  with  whom  he  served  six  years;  in 
1745  was  made  assistant  surgeon,  and  from  1749  to  1787  was 
surgeon  to  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital.  His  investigations 
into  the  causes  of  certain  forms  of  spinal  disease  are  classic. 
Some  of  his  publications  are  A  Treatise  on  Ruptures  (Lon- 
don, 1756);  Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Consequences 
of  Wounds  and  Contusions  of  the  Head,  etc.,  (1760);  Re- 
nnirks  on  that  Kind  nf  Palsij  of  the  Lower  Limbs  n'liich  is 
Frequenth/  found  to  accompany  a  Curvature  of  the  Spine 
(1779).    D.  bee.  22,  1788.  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Pottawatomi  Indians:  See  A lgonquian  Indians. 

Potter,  Alonzo.  D.  D..  LL.  D.  ;  bishop  ;  b.  at  La  Grange, 
N.  Y.,  July  10,  1800 ;  graduated  in  1818  at  Union  College, 
and  afterward  married  the  only  daughter  of  President  Nott; 
became  a  college  tutor  1819,  and  held  a  mathematical  pro- 
fessorship in  Union  College  1821-26 ;  took  deacon's  orders 
in  the  Protestant  Episcoptil  Church  1821 ;  was  advanced 
to  the  priesthood  1824 ;  was  rector  of  St.  Paul's,  Boston, 
1826-31  ;  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  and  vice-president 
of  Union  College  1831-45  :  became  Bishop  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1845  ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Episcopal  Hospital 
and  the  Divinity  School,  Philadelphia.  Author  of  Political 
Economy  (1841);  Handbook  for  Readers  and  Students 
(1847):  Discour.?es.ete.  (1858);  Religious  Philo.iophy  {1870), 
and  other  works.     D.  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  July  4.  1865. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Potter,  Eliphalet  Nott,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. :  educator;  son 
of  Bishop  Alonzo  Potter  :  b.  at  Schenectady.  N.  Y.,  Sept.  30, 
1836  ;  graduated  at  Union  College  1861 ;  studied  theology  ; 
took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church;  was  pastor  of  cliurches 
at  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  and  Troy.  N.  Y. ;  built  at  the  former 
place  three  churches,  and  at  the  hitter  two  chapels ;  be- 
came Professor  of  Christian  Evidences  at  Lehigh  Univer- 
sity 1866.  and  president  of  Union  University  (formerly  called 
Union  College)  1871,  adding  the  duties  of  chancellor  of  that 


POTTER 


POTTEKY  AND  PORCELAIN 


741 


institution  1873.  Ho  resijrncd  in  1884,  and  became  presi- 
dent of  Hobart  Collei;e,  Geneva,  N.  Y.  He  was  elected 
Bishop  of  Nebraska,  but  declined  the  office,  lie  is  author 
of  Parochial  Sermons,  and  luis  also  prepared  a  work  on 
Christian  Evidences  at  the  Close  of  the  Xineteenth  Cen- 
tury. Revised  by  \V.  S.  Perry. 

Potter,  Henry  Codmax,  D.  U..  LI..  I).,  D.C.L.:  bishop: 
b.  at  Schenectady.  N.  Y.,  May  35,  188.5,  the  son  of  Bishop 
Alonzo  Potter;  graduated  at  the  Protestant  Episcopal  The- 
ological Scniinarv.  \'ir;rinia.  1857;  became  rector  of  Grace 
Church,  New  York,  18(58 ;  bishop  of  New  Y'ork.  1887.  He 
is  the  author  of  Sisterhoods  and  Deaconesses  at  Home  and 
Abroad  (New  York,  1871);  Gales  of  the  East:  a  Winter 
in  Egypt  and  Syria  (1870);  Sermons  of  the  City  (1881); 
Wat/marks  1870-1801 ;  being  Discourses  with  Some  Account 
of  their  Occasions  (1892). 

Potter,  Horatio.  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  O.\on. :  bishop; 
b.  at  Ijh  (i  range,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  9,  1802;  a  brother  of  Bishop 
Alonzo  Potter;  graduated  at  Union  College  1826;  took  dea- 
con's orders  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  1827 ;  was 
advanced  to  the  priesthood  1828;  was  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics in  Washington  (now  Trinity)  College.  Hartford,  Conn., 
1828-83 ;  became  in  1883  rector  of  St.  Peter's,  Albany  ;  in 
1854  became  provisional  bishop,  and  in  1861  Bishop,  of  New 
York.  Bishoj)  Potter's  episcopate  was  wise,  conservative. 
and  in  the  main  conciliatory.    D.  in  New  Y'ork,  .Jan.  2. 1887. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Potter.  Jonx,  D.  D. ;  archbishop  ;  b.  at  Wakefield,  Y'ork- 
shire,  England,  about  1674 ;  educated  at  the  Wakefield 
free  school ;  entered  University  College,  Oxford,  in  1688 ; 
published  a  volume  of  Variantes  Lectiones  on  one  of  the 
works  of  Plutarch  (16!)3) ;  became  fellow  of  Lincoln  College 
1694  ;  edited  Lycophron's  Alexandra  1697;  was  ordained  in 
tlu"  Aiigliciiu  Church  1697;  published  his  principal  work. 
Arclurologia  Gritca  (2  vols.,  1697-98) ;  became  chaplain  to 
Archbishop  Tenison  1706;  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity  at 
Oxford  1708;  Bishop  of  Oxford  1715,  having  just  finished 
his  edition  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  and  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  1737.  D.  at  Lambeth,  Oct.  10,  1747. 
His  Theological  Works  appeared  in  3  vols.,  1753. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Potter.  Pail  or  Pai'LVs  :  painter  ;  baptized  at  Enkhuiz- 
en,  Holland,  Nov.  20.  162.5.  He  studied  art  with  his  father 
at  Amsterdam,  and  subsequently  at  Haarlem  under  Jacob  de 
Weth.  He  painted  at  Delft  two  years,  then  went  to  The 
Hague,  where  he  married  in  1650;  settled  in  Amsterdam  in 
16.52;  d.  there,  Jan.  17, 16.54.  Among  his  best-known  works 
is  that  at  The  Hague  called  the  }  oung  Bull,  painted  in 
1647 ;  a  finer  but  smaller  picture  of  the  same  subject  is  at 
Buckingham  Palace.  His  works  are  to  be  found  in  the 
principal  collections  at  The  Hague,  Amsterdam,  St.  Peters- 
l)urg,  Copenhagen,  Paris,  Turin,  and  London.  A  portrait 
of  Paul  Potter  by  Van  der  Heist  is  in  The  Hague  Museum. 

W.  J.  Still.max. 

Potter,  William  James.  .\.  B. ;  clergyman  and  author ; 
b.  at  Dartmouth,  Mass..  Feb.  1,  1830;  educated  at  Friends' 
Boanling  School.  Providence,  R.  I.,  Bridgewater,  Mass., 
Normal  School,  Harvard  College,  Harvard  Divinity  School, 
and  in  Germany ;  taught  in  district  schools  one  year;  usher 
in  Bristol  Academy  one  year;  instructor  in  Cambridge 
High  School  two  years;  was  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  church. 
New  Bedforil,  Mass.,  thirty-three  years,  including  one  year 
spent  in  military  service  (1863-64)  witli  title  of  hospital 
chaplain  ;  detailed  for  special  service  under  the  Secretary  of 
War :  aided  in  establishing  the  American  Free  Heligious 
Association  ;  was  its  secretary  from  its  origin,  1867,  to  1883, 
and  its  president  1882-93 ;  editor  of  The  Index  1880-87 ; 
author  of  Twenty-five  Sermon.'<  of  Twenty-five  Years  (1883),  a 
highly  representative  expression  of  later  Unitarian  thought ; 
A  History  of  the  First  Congregational  Society  in  Xew 
Bedford  (18881;  Four  Discourses  Suggested  by  the  Life  and 
Tragic  Death  of  Abraham  Lincoln  (1865),  and  various  ser- 
mons, essays,  and  adilresses,  many  of  which  may  be  found 
in  The  Radical.  '  J.  W.  C'iiadwiok. 

Pottery  and  Poreelain  [pottery  is  from  Fr.  poterie, 
<ieriv.  of  pol.  pot ;  porcelain  is  from  O.  Fr.  porcelaine.  from 
Ital.  porcellana,  a  sea-shell,  sea-mussel,  hence  fine  clay,  [)or- 
celain,  deriv.  of  Lat.  porcus.  in  its  obscene  sense  of  pu- 
denda muliebria,  to  which  the  shell  of  the  sea-mussel  was 
compared] :  pottery  denotes,  first,  objects  made  of  material 
(generally  clay)  whii'li  is  mouliled  while  soft  and  then  baked 
until  it  becomes  hard ;  second,  a  place  where  such  objects 


are  produced ;  and  third,  the  art  and  process  of  their  manu- 
facture. In  a  narrower  and  more  customary  sense,  the 
word  pottery  is  applied  only  to  the  coarser  varieties  of  such 
objects:  porcelain  comprising  the  finer,  translucent,  orsemi- 
translucent  kinds,  linth  are  generally  nuide  of  clay,  and 
are  keramic  ware  (see  Keramu  s),  but  the  terms  are  stretched 
to  cover  some  wares  that  are  lujt  clay  wares. 

Materials. — Clay  is  very  widely  dispersed  over  all  the 
continents  and  the  larger  islands  of  the  world,  and  every- 
where has  been  used  for  making  vessels  since  the  most  re- 
mote antiquity.  It  is  easy  to  mould  by  hand  or  by  tools, 
keeps  its  shape  well  if  kept  moist,  and  can  be  remoulded  as 
often  as  desired.  When  baked,  or  fired,  it  hardens  without 
serious  shrinkage  or  deformation,  and  will  then  keep  its 
shape  permanently.  Different  kinds  of  clay  give  different 
colored  baked  wares;  thus  at  Apt,  in  Provence,  there  are 
beds  of  pale-l)rown  clay,  which  have  been  in  use  during  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  by  potters  in  that 
town,  and  which  furnish  the  terrines,  or  covered  pots  in 
which  various  delicacies  for  the  table  are  put  up,  these  ter- 
rines being  almost  exactly  of  the  same  color  as  the  unbaked 
clay.  While  the  clay  described  above,  and  that  of  which  yel- 
low bricks  and  cream-colored  terra-cotta  are  made,  is  hardly 
changed  in  color  by  firing,  on  the  other  hand,  all  clays  which 
contain  much  iron  turn  red  in  the  oven;  thus  common  red 
bricks  are  not  red  before  firing,  but  generally  f)f  a  pale  mud- 
color.  The  clay  which  forms  the  chief  ingredi<'nt  of  porce- 
lain is  calleil  Kaolix  {q.  v.).  This  is  while  and  mealy,  and 
consists  of  decomposed  feldspar.  Clay  made  very  thin,  to  be 
applied  to  the  surface  of  a  piece  of  pottery  and  baked  with 
it.  is  called  slij).  The  piece  may  be  dipped  in  the  slip,  or 
the  slip  may  be  poured  on  from  the  nose  of  a  can,  as  when 
used  to  make  stripes  and  bands  for  ornament.  The  glaze  or 
enamel  with  which  the  clay  body  is  covered  in  many  kinds 
of  pottery  and  porcelain  is  more  diverse  in  composition.  The 
extreniefv  thin  glaze  of  some  fine  kinds  of  ancient  pottery 
h.is  not  been  successfully  analyzed.  The  equally  thin  glaze 
on  the  hard  .•itoneivare  of  which  vinegar-jugs,  Selters-water 
bottles,  English  beer  bottles,  etc.,  are  made,  is  produced  by 
throwing  common  salt  into  the  oven,  where  it  is  decom- 
posed, the  soda  of  the  salt  condiiuing  with  the  alumina  of 
the  clay  to  form  a  thin,  hard  silicate.  Other  kinds  of  stone- 
ware, and  some  kinds  of  soft  earthenware,  are  covered  with 
a  lead  glaze,  made  from  white  lead,  flint,  fragments  of  glass, 
and  other  materials  in  smaller  quantities.  These  are  ground 
together  to  a  very  fine  powder,  and  mixed  with  water  to 
form  a  thin  paste,  which  is  applied  to  the  surface  by  dip- 
ping, or  with  the  brush.  The  glaze  of  porcelain  is  made  of 
a  mixture  of  quartz  and  kaolin,  or  of  feldspar  and  kaolin, 
with  small  quantities  of  other  ingredients.  In  all  glazes  the 
requirements, are  that  they  shall  combine  readily  with  the 
surface  of  the  body,  and  cling  to  it,  that  they  shall  fuse  and 
become  vitrified  at  a  lower  temperature  than  that  needed 
for  firing  the  body,  and  that  the  surface,  when  baked,  shall 
be  hard  and  insoluble  in  ordinary  liquids.  It  is  also  gener- 
ally a  re(iuisite  that  the  glaze  should  not  contract  so  much 
in  the  firing  as  to  crack  ;  but  the  crackle,  which  is  so  great 
an  ornament  to  many  Oriental  wares,  is  produced  by  allow- 
ing the  glaze  to  shrink  an<l  separate,  and  then,  in  some  cases, 
filling  the  cracks  with  color  before  another  firing. 

When  a  glaze  is  opaque  and  put  on  rather  thickly,  it  is 
called  enamel.  The  most  common  enamel  is  stanniferous-— 
that  is,  made  in  part  of  an  oxide  of  tin.  Such  an  enamel  is 
perfectly  o])aque.  pure  white,  lustrous,  and  with  a  soft  sur- 
face which  receives  color  well,  so  that  good  painting  on  the 
surface  of  such  an  enamel  is  often  more  beautiful  than  the 
painting  on  porcelain.  It  is  sometimes  inqiossible  to  tell  in 
ancient  pieces  whether  the  thick  white  coating  is  enamel  or 
slip.  The  pigments  used  for  jiainting  on  pottery  and  porce- 
lain are  fusible  or  vitrifiable  colors.  These  have  often  a  very 
different  appearance  before  firing  to  that  which  they  are  to 
give  to  the  finished  piece. 

Proce.i.'ies  of  Manufacture. — The  chief  implement  used  by 
the  maker  oC  pottery  or  porcelain  vessels  is  the  potter's 
wheel, a.  horizontally  "revolving  disk,  upon  which  the  lump 
of  clay  is  held,  and  which  the  workman  revolves  at  his  wish. 
By  the  rotary  motion  a  true  roundness  is  given  to  the  ves- 
sel, and  (he  soft  clay  is  shaped  and  reshaped  very  quickly 
()y  a  skillful  hand,  the  vase  or  jar  being  drawn  out  larger, 
or  spread  broader,  or  modified  in  its  shape  by  a  (ouch  as  it 
whirls.  The  simplest  poKer's  wheel  is  turned  by  hand,  but 
other  arrangements  are  made  to  turn  it  more  easily,  or  with- 
out the  effort  of  the  potter,  and  the  best  form  seems  to  be 
one  with  a  treadle  for  the  foot,  acting  on  the  vertical  axis, 


742 


POTTERY  AND   PORCELAIN 


to  wliich  are  attached  the  flat  disk  for  the  clay,  at  the  top, 
and  a  fly-wheel  at  the  bottom.     Handles  and  spouts  are 


Fig.  1.— The  potter's  wheel. 

moulded  separately,  either  by  hand  or  in  plaster  moulds, 
and  stuck  on  to  the  body  while  still  soft.  Elaborately 
modeled  ornaments,  figures  of  men  and  animals,  and  the 
like,  whether  attached  to  vessels  or  forming  ornamental 
objects  by  themselves,  are  made  with  the  sculptors"  model- 
ing tools. 

When  the  shaping  is  done,  the  piece  is  allowed  to  dry 
somewhat  before  firing,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  let  it 
dry  so  much  as  to  crack.  Common  earthenware  is  fired 
only  once.  Glazed  and  enameled  wares  are  fired  once  for 
the  body  and  once  for  the  covering.  Painted  wares  are 
fired  a  third  time  for  all  colors  which  are  apjilied  upon  the 
glaze,  and  a  fourth  time,  always  with  decreasing  temper- 
atures, for  gilding.  The  firing  (see  Kiln)  is  sometimes  re- 
peated more  frequently,  because  the  degree  of  heat  and  the 
length  of  the  exposure  may  greatly  modify  the  color  which 
a  pigment  will  turni.sh,  and  because  retouches  and  altera- 
tions need  new  baking.  Moreover,  different  workmen  em- 
ploy ditt'orent  processes :  thus  much  Japanese  porcelain  is 
fired  before  the  under-glaze  colors  are  applied,  then  fired 
for  those  colors,  all  before  the  first  glaze  has  been  put  on. 
Some  of  the  celebrated  colors,  or  the  cloudings  and  stain- 
ings  of  color,  are  the  result  of  accidents  occurring  in  spite 
of  all  care  and  skill,  and  some  of  these  accidental  colors  it 
has  been  found  impossible  to  reproduce  at  will. 

Decorating  is  chiefly  accomplished  by  painting  with  a 
brush,  the  pigments  being  earthy  or  metallic,  usually  me- 
tallic oxides.     Borax  and  otlier  materials  are  used  as  fluxes. 


Fig.  2. — The  muffle  for  fi.'cing  the  colors  on  decorated  porcelain. 


and  some  kind  of  oil  is  used  to  facilitate  the  laying  on.  The 
color  when  fired  becomes  glass,  either  in  a  s'olid  mass  of 
some  thickness  or  in  a  mere  film.  .Some  colors  are  applied 
upon  tlie  body  under  the  glaze,  but  few  can  bear  the  great 
heat  necessary  for  firing  the  body.  Some  painting  is  done 
upon  the  unbaked  but  dried  surface  of  the  stanniferous 
enamel  when  applied  to  the  body;  the  color  for  this  must 
also  be  very  resistant.  Other  work  is  done  upon  the  enamel 
after  baking,  aM<i  for  this  the  low  heat  of  the  muffle  is  suffi- 
cient, fiold  is  applied  with  a  brush,  as  powder,  and  is  bur- 
nished after  firing.     Luster  is  generally  metallic,  the  metal 


being  very  finely  divided,  so  as  to  give  its  effect  when  laid 
on  as  a  paint  and  fired  without  burnishing. 

Besides  painting  with  the  brush,  some  effects  are  pro- 
duced by  putting  on  the  color  in  mass  and  letting  it  trickle 
down  the  surface  until  stopped  and  fixed  by  the  heat  of  the 
kiln.  Other  similar  effects  are  got  by  blowing  color  from  a 
tube,  or  splashing  or  sprinkling  it  in  drops.  Sometimes  an 
accidental  form,  as  of  a  seeming  cloud  or  mountain,  pro. 
duced  by  splashing  or  smearing,  has  given  a  suggestion  for 
a  design,  which  has  then  been  carried  out  deliberately. 
Sometimes  the  decoration  is  in  form  as  well  as  color,  the, 
one  aiding  the  other,  as  when  a  vase  is  covered  with  a 
raised  pattern,  simulating  basket-work, Which  is  then  height- 
ened with  color  and  gold. 

Eartheiuvare.  Unglazed. — What  is  called /we/i  (s/on'c  ware 
is  that  to  wliich  no  approximate  date  can  be  given  with  any 
certainty,  and  which  is  not  even  associated  with  an  epoch 
which  can  be  fixed.  Thus  the  burial-mounds  of  Europe 
and  America  have  furnished  enormous  numbers  of  vases  of 
tliirerent  kinds  which  can  not  be  dated  at  all.  Under  ordi- 
nary conditions,  earthenware  which  is  well  baked  will  last 
indefinitely  under  ground,  and  a  burial-vase  found  to-day 
in  France  or  England  may  be  of  a  time  only  just  before  the 
Roman  occupation  or  centuries  older  than  that.  Vessels 
found  in  these  depositories  are  sometimes  filled  with  bones 
and  ashes  of  the  dead,  sometimes  they  are  vessels  for  drink- 
ing or  for  food,  and  sometimes  they  seem  to  be  merely  orna- 
mental. All  are  made  simply  of  clay,  and  this,  while  still 
soft,  has  been  impressed  with  patterns  of  different  sorts  or 
even  cut  through,  the  openings  being  arranged  for  decorative 
effect.  These  impressions  and  cuttings  are  fixed  by  the 
baking  of  the  clay,  and  endure  as  long  as  the  vessel  lasts. 
Circles  have  been  made  by  the  impression  of  a  ring,  perhaps 
the  end  of  a  round  stick  with  the  center  cut  away ;  groups 
of  dots  or  punctures  have  been  made  by  a  stick  with  a 
notched  end,  or  cut  into  teeth  in  its  length;  zigzags  and 
bands  have  been  drawn  with  a  sharp  point ;  in  short,  there 
are  found  all  the  devices  which  would  suggest  themselves  to 
a  savage  having  soft  clay  before  him  and  desiring  to  orna- 
ment it.  The  forms  of  these  vases  are  often  rather  grace- 
ful, though  rude,  and  evidently  luodeled  by  hand  alone,  and 
the  ornament  well  applied  and  effective. 

Tlie  next  step  is  to  ornament  the  vessels  with  slip,  or  clay 
thinned  with  water  and  applied  to  the  surface.  This  may 
be  a  finer  and  whiter  clay,  and  in  this  way  effective  patterns 
are  produced.  Handles  and  purely  ornamental  strips  and 
lumps  of  clay,  whether  of  the  same  clay  as  the  body  of  the 
piece  or  of  the  finer  slip,  are  often  applied.  The  slip  may 
be  used  also  to  fill  up  patterns  impressed  deeply  into  the 
surface. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  uses  to  which  earthenware 
was  put  in  ancient  times  is  that  of  inscribed  tablets.  In 
Jlesopotamia  immense  numbers  of  these  square  tiles  have 
been  found,  impressed  with  characters  which  have  been  read 
by  modern  scholars.  They  are  practically  books,  and  whole 
libraries  of  these  are  known  and  are  gradually  yielding  up 
their  record  of  times  which  can  be  fixed  approxiraatelv  at 
from  4000  or  4500  to  2000  b.  c.  This  land  of  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris.  Syria,  Cyprus,  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece 
liave  yielded  a  great  amount  of  what  is  called  archaic  pot- 
tery— that  is,  ware  which  can  be  associated  with  other  mon- 
uments, .such  iis  bronzes  and  gems,  and  in  this  way  dated 
approximately,  though  belonging  to  a  time  little  known  by 
historical  records.  These  pieces  have  been  made  on  the 
potter's  wheel,  and  are  therefore  fairly  regular  and  smooth. 
Their  forms  are  varied  endlessly  and  are  often  very  beauti- 
ful, and  impressed  ornaments,  like  those  of  the  prehistoric 
pottery,  but  far  more  neatly  worked,  are  freely  used.  Pat- 
terns are  also  made  in  white  or  yellow  slip  on  a  darker  body, 
and  these  are  very  effective.  Painting  is  used  also,  the  colors 
being  earths,  such  as  ocher.  The  painting  is  very  thin,  and 
is  rather  a  staining  of  the  surface.  It  is  applied  upon  the 
body  and  upon  the  slip  alike. 

In  later  times  unglazed  earthenware  has  been  less  used 
for  ornamental  vessels,  because  more  decorative  kinds  of 
ware  have  been  made,  but  statuettes  and  groups,  architec- 
tural ornaments  and  the  like,  have  been  made  by  the  Etrus- 
cans, by  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  liy  all  the  [peoples  of  Europe 
and  Asia  from  antiquity  to  the  present.  Earthenware  used 
in  this  way  is  generally  called  terra-coHa.  Great  numbers 
of  such  sculptures  in  unglazed  terra-cotta  exist  in  public 
museums,  and  among  these  is  much  fine  art  of  a  very  re- 
fined tj'[ie  of  various  dates  from  the  Egyptian  and  Etruscan 
burial-urns  to  the  portrait-busts  made  by  sculptors  in  Europe 


POTTERY   AXD    PORCELAIN 


743 


Fig.  3.— Egyptian  bottle  of  tin- 
blazed  waft',  or'iiainciited  witli 
grot^'stjue  heat!  of  ttie  j;od  Bes. 


and  America  at  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  eentury.  There 
is  constant  use  of  unglazcd  earthenware  for  bricks,  roof-tiles, 
Urain-tiles,  and  other  articles  of  utility. 

Edrthenware,  Glazed  and  Enameled. — The  utility  of 
i;lazing  is  that  it  makes  ])orous-clay  vessels  water-tight,  but 
it  is  employed  ('([ually  lor  decorative  effect  and  to  protect 
surface  decoration  in  colors.  Sometimes  this  gla/.e  is  a 
mere  film ;  thus  in  fine  tireek  vases  its  thickness  can  hardly 
he  seen  in  the  fracture :  it  is  a  mere  gla.s.sy  film.  Sometimes 
it  is  solid  and  opa((ue,  as  thick  as  very  stout  paper,  and 
covers  up  the  body  of  the  ware  so  that  this  cati  not  be  seen 
at  all,  as  in  Maiolica  ((/.  )'.).  Somelimes  it  is  thick  and  yet 
translucent,  as  in  some  Chinese  and  Japanese  wares  of  which 
the  body  is  impressed  with  deeply  sunk  patterns,  the  glaze 
usually  of  what  is  called  a  celadon  green,  showing  a  deeper 
color  where  it  fills  the  sunken  lines. 

This  class  is  the  largest,  and  inclniles  the  greatest  number 
of  sub-classes.  Perhaps  nine- 
Icnlhs  of  the  keramic  ware 
which  students  and  collec- 
tors prize  belongs  to  this 
class.  The  painted  (Jreek 
vases  are  of  this  class,  be- 
cause the  black  coating 
which  makes  up  so  impor- 
tant a  part  of  their  syst<'m 
of  decoration,  though  its  ex- 
act composition  is  disputed, 
is  clearly  of  the  nature  of 
an  enamel  ;  and  because  the 
glossy  surface  of  the  whole 
vase  has  been  produced  by 
tlie  use  of  a  very  thin  glaze. 
In  the  fine  (ireck  vase  (Fig. 
4)  the  figures  are  of  the  color 
of  the  yellowish-red  clay, 
the  background  black,  made 
of  the  enamel  mentioned 
above,  put  on  with  the  brush, 
and  Worked  around  the  fig- 
ures. Many  vases  of  the 
same  epoch  are  known  which 
are  entirely  covered  with  the  black  glaze,  and  depend  upon 
their  form  and  slight  ornaments  in  relief  for  their  effect. 
This  example  (Fig.  4)  is  one  of  the  so-called  red-figured 
vases  which  are  considered  as  belonging  to  the  finest  class 
of  Greek  keramic  art,  and  of  the  fourth  century  n.  c.  Vases 
earlier  than  this,  but  still  later  and  finer  than  the  archaic 
ware  described  above,  and  fiUly  glazed,  had  the  figures  in 
black  on  the  red  grouiul.  No  kind  of  earthenware  known  is 
more  interesting  than  these  Greek  vases,  thousands  of  which 
have  been  found  in  Southern  Italy,  in  Greece,  and  in  other 
Mediterranean  lands.  They  give  the  oidy  clear  notion  of 
what  Greek  painting  must  have  been.  In  themselves,  too, 
they  are  of  great  artistic  value,  as  their  forms  are  of  incom- 
parable grace,  and  the  figure  subjects,  however  formal  and  in- 
complete the  pictures  may  seem,  have  very  important  artis- 
tic qualities.  It  seems  certain  that  tlds  great  iiulustry  had 
ceased  altogether  long  before  the  Christian  era.  Xo  such 
vases  were  produced  under  the  Roman  empire,  although 
sculpture  and  painting,  glass  aiul  metal-work,  and  most  of 
the  fine  arts  of  the  (ireeks  were  still  flourishing. 

Greek  painted  vases  were  called  F.truscan  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  probably  because  those  found  in  the  tombs 
of  ancient  Etruria  were  the  first  to  attract  notice.  It  is 
known  now  that  they  were  brought  from  Greece  in  large 
nundiers.  There  was  also  a  real  Etruscan  pottery.  Jlost  of 
the  pieces  known  arc  unglazed  black  ware,  but  some  vases 
exist  which  have  a  thin  glaze  nearly  like  that  of  the  Greeks. 
Under  the  Roman  domiiuon,  glazed  pottery  was  made  in 
many  parts  of  the  empire.  Tlie  type  of  it  is  the  red  ware, 
of  fine  texture  and  smooth  surface,  generally  rather  soft  and 
easily  broken,  and  covereil  witli  a  very  thin  glaze.  This  is 
called  Samian  ware,  from  the  Isle  of  Samos,  but  there  is  no 
certainty  as  to  its  place  of  manufacture.  Early  in  the 
idneteenth  century  it  was  discovered  that  a  ware  very  simi- 
lar to  this  was  made  at  ,\re7Z0,  in  Tuscany,  and  the  Samian 
ware  was  i>rol)ably  made  in  many  places,  varying  slightly  in 
color  and  character.  It  was  often  adorned  with  arabesque 
and  figures  in  relief. 

Ware  with  a  thii-k  and  opaque  enamel  was  not  used  by 
the  Greeks,  nor,  ap|iarcntly,  under  the  Roman  empire,  but 
it  had  been  used  l)y  the  Egyptians  at  an  early  date,  and 
the  most  splendid  specimens  of  it  known  had  been  made 


before  the  Parthenon  was  built.  Persia,  always  a  center  of 
fine  decorative  art,  had  possessed  from  the  time  of  Darius 
large  friezes  of  life  size,  numau  figures,  and  animals  in  re- 
lief, decorated  with  enameU  of  the  most  brilliant  coloring. 


Fig.  4.— Birth  of  .\tlierif.  on  a  lO.-.k  pt-like.  from  Vulcl. 

The  Louvre  now  has  a  number  of  the  figures,  and  their 
beauty  and  brilliancy  almost  exceed  belief.  Other  speci- 
mens of  this  art,  from  the  somewhat  more  recent  palace 
of  Artaxerxes  Mnemoii.  are  ainuist  equal  in  merit.  These 
colored  reliefs,  twenty-three  centuries  old.  are  the  finest 
known  instances  of  color  applied  to  archi.tecture,  as  well 
as  unequah'd  pieces  o!  rnameled  earthenware.  In  Persia 
this  splendid  art  was  n  it  allowed  to  die  out.  ai]d  specimens 
of  it  of  all  ages  are  known.  In  tlie  eleventh  and  following 
centuries  of  the  Christian  era  the  Persian  vases,  dishes, 
hanging  lamps  for  mo.>^<pies  and  the  like,  and  the  imitations 
of  them  made  in  Rhodes  and  other  parts  of  the  Levant,  were 
the  most  l)eautiful  keramic  wares  made  anywhere  to  the  W. 
of  China,  ami  the  inflnencc  of  the  designs  and  manufacture 
of  these  was  felt  throughout  the  south  of  Europe.  In  Spain, 
.Sicily,  and  the  liale.-iric  islands  a  beautiful  ware,  decorated 
with  a  few  simple  colors  and  a  free  use  of  metallic  lustrous 
glazes,  was  made;  this  is 
known  as  Ilispano-Moresque 
ware.  In  Italy,  in  the  four- 
teenth and  following  cen- 
turies, the  sjilendid  ware 
called  Maiomca  {g.  i\)  was 
made,  perhaps  surpassing 
Persian  ware  in  beauty,  es- 
pecially as  regards  the  me- 
tallic luster,  which  is  the 
most  vivid  and  striking  of 
all  keramic  decorations. 

E.'irthenware  with  an 
opai[Ue  enanu'l  was -next  to 
conquer  the  North.  In 
France,  after  the  great 
achievements  of  Palissv 
{g.  v.),  a  numlier  of  less  pe- 
culiar and  abnormal  kinds 
of  faTcnce  were  proiluced. 
What  is  known  as  Rouen 
ware  reacheil  its  greatest 
development  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  faience 
of   Ncvei-s,  that  of    Mous- 


FiG.  .'). — Etruscan  Hine-pilolier.  of 
black  ware :  IVrseus  aud  tbe 
Oorgoiis. 


liers-la-Reine,  succeeded;  then  the  potteries  of  Strassburg, 
those  of  Niederwiller  in  Lorraine,  Alarseilles,  and  Sceaux. 
In   the   eighteenth   century  enormous  quantities  of  these 


7M 


POTTERY   AXD  PORCELAIN 


wares,  decorated  with  bouquets  and  festoons  and  figures  in 
color  on  a  white  ground,  were  made  in  France  and  Ger- 
many.    Some  attempts  were  made  to  imitate  the  rich  and 

solid  coloring  of  maiolica, 
and  some  Oriental  designs 
were  copied,  but  generally 
a  delicate  and  light-colored 
-Hie  prevailed.  Dutch 
\vare,  known  generally  as 
I  lellt,  is  of  the  same  epoch. 
I'he  Delft  pieces  most  com- 
monly met  with  are  painted 
in  blue  on  a  white  ground, 
in  imitation  of  Chinese  por- 
celain, but  there  is  also  a 
great  deal  of  it  decorated 
Fig.  6.— Proto-Samian  cup,  with  an  jn  several  colors  with  gold. 
At'lfen°"°"''  ""  '"  '       "    There  are  many,  also,  which 

are  painted  with  scenes  of 
life,  landscapes,  and  animals  both  domestic  and  wild.  The 
forms  of  the  pieces  during  the  seventeenth  century  are  gen- 
erally very  simple  and  refined,  with  some  tendency  toward 
imitation  of  the  shapes  of  Chinese  pieces  of  the  best  styles. 
There  are  also  many  plnqims,  or  flat  slabs,  for  lianging  "on  a 
wall,  and  these  are  often  painted  with  pictures  of  an  elabo- 
rate sort. 

In  England  but  little  artistic  faience  was  made.  Tlie 
"ironstone  china"  and  other  varieties  of  what  the  French 
call  fn'ience  fine,  together  with  Wedgwood  ware,  are  men- 
tioned below  under  Stoneware.  Inexpensive  tableware  is 
often  decorated  with  transferred  patterns.  These  are  iirst 
printed  upon  paper  and  then  transferred  from  the  paper  to 
the  unbaked  ware.  Cheapness  is  secured  in  this  way,  but 
the  process  has  nearly  ruined  English  pottery  as  a  decora- 
tive art,  and  has  done  great  harm  on  the  Continent. 

In  China  and  Japan  the  abundance  of  porcelain  and  (in 
Japan)  of  the  hard  and  durable  stonewares  of  yellow  body 
has  always  kept  down  the  supply  of  glazed  earthenware"; 
moreover,  less  of  it  is  known  in  tlie  West  because  of  the  at- 
tractiveness of  those  above-named  keramic  vases.  It  may 
be  said  that  for  the  common  needs  of  life  the  Orientals  use 
hard  earthenware  with  only  a  very  thin  siliceous  glaze,  and 
that  this  kind  of  pottery  approaches  common  stoneware  so 
closely  that  it  is  impossible  to  draw  the  line  between  them. 
These  peoples  of  the  extreme  East  are  such  skilled  potters 
that  they  use  all  processes  freely,  very  often  to  the  confu- 
sion of  the  Western  student  of  keramics.  Thus  a  very  orna- 
mental kind  of  ware  is  made  with  a  dark-brown  and  very 
hard  body,  the  surface  of  which  is  very  smooth  and  fine  but 
not  glossy ;  upon  this  a  white  or  buff  porcelaneous  glaze  is 
applied  in  places,  so  that  the  two  colors  contrast  with  one 
another.  A  statuette,  for  instance,  will  have  the  flesh  of 
the  brown  earthenware  and  the  dress  of  the  whitish  glaze. 
and  this  glaze  may  then  be  painted  in  many  colors.  Com- 
pletely covered  faience,  where  no  part  of  the  body  shows,  is 
also  made.  Decorative  pieces  are  sometimes  brought  to  the 
West.  The  great  "  porcelain  tower  "  near  Nanking,  which 
was  destroyed  in  the  Tai-ping  rebellion,  was  faced  with  fai- 
ence, covered  with  thick  enamel,  and  richly  painted,  some 
of  the  white  bricks  being  a  true  porcelain. 

Staneirare. — Much  the  most  famous  variety  of  this  hard 
and  thoroughly  baked  pottery  is  that  known  as  Cologne 
ware,  or  as  Gres-de-Flandres.  During  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury splendid  vessels  were  made  of  this,  the  forms  most 
varied  and  fantastic,  the  ornamentation  applied  in  relief  by 
means  of  a  great  number  of  stamps,  and  the  color-effect 
limited  to  the  combination  of  a  cold  blue  in  places  with  the 
soft  gray  of  the  ware  itself.  This  is  the  more  interesting 
that  the  pieces  differ  so  slightly  from  the  commonest  vessels 
of  daily  use.  The  finest  Colo'gne  ware  tankard  is  only  a 
common  vinegar  jug  or  beer  mug  somewhat  adorned,  and  it 
is  the  more  valuable  to  the  student  of  design  on  that  ac- 
count. Wedgwood  ware  should  be  considered  in  connection 
with  stoneware  because  of  the  non-porous  character  of  the 
paste.  The  chief  kinds  are  cream-ware  or  queen "s-ware.  of  a 
light  buff,  colored  throughout  the  body,  used  for  fine  dishes 
and  other  table  utensils  ;  jasper,  which  was  generallv  either 
blue  or  white,  very  uniform  and  fine  grained,  and  capable 
of  taking  the  sharjx'st  edges  and  neatest  impressions,  and 
therefore  used  for  ba.s-reliefs  small  and  large:  basalt,  a 
black  paste,  also  very  fine,  and  used  for  ornamental  vases, 
but  also  for  tea-sets  and  tlie  like  ;  crystalline,  in  which  are 
included  imitations  of  natural  agates."  porphyries,  and  mar- 
bles, the  colored  veins  going  througli  the  body.     From  1 780 


to  1810  Wedgwood's  pieces  were  exported  largely  to  the 
Continent,  and  were  used  freely  in  England.  Bas-reliefs  in 
white  on  a  blue  ground  were  used  for  buttons  and  brooches,  M 
and  larger  ones  were  set  into  mantels  and  the  paneling  of  I 
rooms,  or  hung  up  like  the  plaques  of  Delft  and  Moustiers. 
Vases,  sometimes  mounted  in  gilt  metal,  and  often  set  upon 
high  pedestals,  were  sent  as  ceremonial  gifts,  and  used  for 
the  decoration  of  the  most  stately  apartments.  John  Flax- 
man  (see  Flaxman',  John)  was  employed  upon  the  bas-reliefs, 
and  some  of  his  portrait  medallions  and  groups  in  white 
"jasper"  are  of  real  interest  as  sculpture.  The  most  im- 
portant single  piece  made  by  Wedgwood  is  an  imitation 
of  the  famous  Portland  vase,  of  which  a  number  of  copies 
were  made.  Other  English  wares,  distinguished  by  the 
French  writers  as  fa'ience  fine,  and  known  in  England  by 
various  special  names  adofited  by  the  makers,  are  half  way 
between  stoneware  and  artificial  porcelain,  their  composi- 
tion partaking  of  both.  The  paste  is  light-colored  and 
solidly  baked,  and  the  glaze  is  thin  and  transparent.  It  is 
rare  that  they  have  much  artistic  merit,  but  they  are  excel- 
lent as  tableware.  Some  of  them  approach  closely  to 
Wedgwood's  queen's-ware  in  appearance. 

The  yellow  ware  of  Japan,  known  to  the  West  chiefly  as- 
Kioto  and  Satsuma  pottery,  is  very  hard  and  not  porous  in 
the  body,  and  has  a  very  thin  and  transparent  glaze  not 
changing  the  color  of  the  piece.  It  is  therefore  more  nearly 
stoneware  than  earthenware.  Vases  and  dishes,  statuettes, 
and  groups  of  this  beautiful  ware  are  verj-  well  known. 
The  artistic  merit  of  the  decoration  is  of  many  degrees; 
there  are  some  pieces  in  which  the  delicacy  and  softness  of 
effect  entitles  the  ornament  to  be  considered  as  beautiful 
and  as  truly  appropriate  to  keramic  ware  as  any  that  is 
known,  but  most  of  the  pieces  are  somewhat  more  harsh  ia 
color,  and  the  painting  often  tends  toward  extreme  minute- 
ness and  the  display  of  technical  skill. 

Porcelain. — This  appears  to  be  the  discovery  of  the  Chi- 
nese, and  all  its  highest  attainments  are  due  to  that  people. 
Few  persons  are  aware  of  the  endless  variety  of  decoration 
to  be  found  in  Chinese  porcelain,  for  no  collection  in  any- 
public  museum  contains  nearly  all  the  varieties  that  exist. 
Japanese  porcelain  is  hard  and  fine,  and  exquisitely  made 
and  finished,  but  there  are  only  three  or  four  styles  of  paint- 
ing used  in  its  decoration,  while  the  Chinese  styles  can  be- 
counted  by  hundreds.  There  are  many  vases  and  plates  in. 
Western  collections  which  are  painted  most  artistically  and 
delicately  with  flowers,  groups  of  men  and  women  in  rich 
costumes,  and  other  subjects,  all  vivid  colors  treated  in  the 
most  judicious  manner.  Blue  painting  on  white,  when  car- 
ried to  its  highest  pitch  of  excellence,  is  extraordinarily  dec- 
orative. The  fault  of  too  great  sharpness  of  outline  and  of 
too  sudden  contrast  between  pattern  and  background  is  not 
to  be  found  with  the  best  pieces.  Of  Japanese  porcelains  the 
best  known  is  also  the  finest — viz.,  the  "Old  Japan"  or 
Hizen  porcelain,  painted  in  blue  under  the  glaze  and  then 
enameled  colors  and  gold  ujion  the  glaze.  The  general  effect 
is  a  combination  of  dull  blue  and  dusky  red  with  pale  gold^ 
on  a  brilliant  white  ground. 

Porcelain  was  first  made  in  Europe  by  Bcittger  in  the 
employ  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony  about  1710.  Previous  to 
that  time  a  factory  kept  up  by  the  Medici  at  Florence  had 
made  a  few  pieces  of  a  ware  very  like  a  real  porcelain,  and 
long  thought  to  be  so.  but  now  known  to  be  not  a  clay  ware. 
The  sight  of  the  Saxony  porcelain  excited  afresh  the  mak- 
ers of  fine  pottery  in  France  and  England,  and  many  at- 
tempts to  imitate  this  and  the  Oriental  porcelains  were 
made.  These  attempts  resulted  in  soft  porcelain  {pate 
tetidre).  and  in  English  artificial  porcelain,  both  very  com- 
plicated in  their  make,  with  many  ingredients  in  the  body 
and  the  paste,  but  hardly  clay  wares.  About  1770  the  se- 
cret of  the  kaolin  or  true  porcelain  clay  became  known  in 
France,  and  from  that  time  real  porcelain  was  made  at 
Sevres:  but  the  artistic  qualities  of  Saxony  and  Sevres 
porcelain  are  Viy  no  means  equal  to  the  skill  shown  in  the 
manufacture  or  to  the  enormous  prices  paid  for  fine  pieces. 
The  Saxony  porcelain — generally  called  Dresden,  or,  more 
properly.  Meissen,  from  the  town  where  the  factory  is  situ- 
ated— that  of  Vienna  beginning  about  174."),  and  that  of  Ber- 
lin from  about  1750  may  all  be  considered  rivals  of  Sevres 
porcelain  in  the  favor  of  collectors.  The  German  pieces  are 
generally  still  less  artistic  and  appropriate  in  design  than 
those  of  Friince.  but  these,  as  well  as  the  Sevres,  command 
admiration  fortheirdelicate  finish  and  the  wonderful  skill  of 
the  makers  and  decorators  of  the  finer  pieces.  Each  of 
these  factories  has  always  been  a  Government  enterprise. 


POTTERY  AXt)   PORCELAIN 


745 


ami  the  most  important  productions  are  generally  to  be  seen 
in  palaues,  having  been  sunt  as  gifts  from  one  court  to 
another. 

Exceptional  Wares. 

Egyptian  Green  ll'ore. — This  curious  ware,  commonly 
called  "  porcelain."  is  almost  wliolly  composed  of  sand,  half 
melted,  held  together  by  a  little  plastic  material,  and  glazed 
with  silex;  in  other  words,  it  is  a  half-made  glass,  and  is 
very  easily  broken.  It  is  of  a  beautiful  green  or  blue  tinge, 
ami  decorated  with  simple  patterns,  generally  in  a  darker 
blue. 

Henri  Deux  Ware. — This  extraordinary  pottery  was  a  mys- 
tery to  students  until  Benjamin  Fillon  located  its  manufac- 
ture in  the  east  of  France,  calling  it  Faience  d'Oiron,  from 
a  village  in  the  department  of  Deux-Sevres.  It  is  now  called 
FaTeuce  dc  St.-Porchaire,  from  a  village  in  tlie  t'harente- 
Infcrieure.  There  are  only  fifty-three  pieces  of  it  known, 
of  which  about  a  dozen  are  in  one  gla.ss  case  in  the  Louvre  ; 
all  of  the  .same  general  style  of  make  and  design ;  all  are 
without  doubt  the  product  of  one  and  the  same  private 
workshop.  The  great  peculiarity  of  the  decoration  is  the 
inlaying  of  clay  of  one  color  in  a  clay  body  of  another  color. 
Little  metal  stamps,  like  bookbinders'  stamp;:,  were  u.sed  for 
this,  the  clay  being  removed  from  the  parts  cut  out  by  the 
stamp.s,  and  the  clay  of  a  dilferent  color  put  in,  after  which 
the  whole  was  fired,  and  then  glazed  anil  fired  again. 

Soft  Porcelain. — The  early  Sevres  ware  brings  enormous 
prices,  mainly  because  of  its  rarity,  but  it  is  really  some- 
what more  refined  in  effect  because  of  the  slight  absorption 
of  the  colors  by  the  paste.  As  was  said  above  of  Chinese 
porcelain,  so  P^uropean  real  or  hard  porcelain  seems  to 
many  persons  harsh  in  its  sharp-edged  and  strongly  con- 
trasling  colors,  while  pate  tendre  is  softer  in  its  gradations. 

English  Porcelain. — This,  in  itsditferent  varieties — Derby, 
Chelsea,  Bow,  "  Spoile,"  Worcester,  Lowestoft — is  generally 
made  of  an  artificial  mixture,  and  is  rather  glass  than 
keramic  ware.  It  is  rarely  fine  in  design,  the  more  expen- 
sive pieces  being  very  clumsy  in  form,  and  painted  and 
gilded  in  execrable  taste,  and  the  cheajier  pieces  ruined  by 
having  the  colored  patterns  transferred  to  their  surface 
from  prints  on  pa[icr.  Tlii«  is  a  way  of  getting  an  appear- 
ance of  decoration  cheaply,  but  no  process  is  more  devoid  of 
true  ornamental  effect.  Some  fine  Derby  ware  statuettes  and 
groups  have  been  sold  in  the  bl.suuit,  unglazed  and  uncol- 
ored,  and  these  are  very  attractive,  the  example  of  Wedg- 
wood ware  and  Flaxman's  designs  carried  out  in  this  ma- 
terial having  influenced  English  work  more  as  to  sculptured 
form  than  in  other  ways. 

Modern  Wares. — At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century 
there  are  so  many  different  wares  and  so  many  different 
processes  of  manufacture,  many  of  these  latter  being  also 
kept  secret,  that  classification  is  extremely  difficult.  Gen- 
erally the  forms  are  ugly,  partly  because  the  art  of  model- 
ing simple  and  suitable  teapots  and  cups  has  been  lost  by 
I  he  workmen,  and  only  a  trained  artist  can  satisfy  himself 
without  inartistic  additions  and  attempts  at  novelty,  partly 
because  the  demand  for  extreme  neatness  and  uniformity 
makes  all  natural  grace  impossible.  The  decoration  in 
color  and  gold  is  usually  disagreeable  from  its  hard  monot- 
ony. In  France,  however,  some  simple  faience  is  decorated 
with  flower  patterns,  of  which  the  outline  is  printed  or 
transferred,  bnt  the  filling  in  with  natural-seeming  colors 
is  done  l)y  hand.  At  a  higher  jprice  are  made  some  tea-sets 
and  the  like,  which  are  painted  entirely  by  hand,  a  spray  of 
roses  or  other  flower  being  laid  across  each  plate,  very  well 
drawn  and  colored.  I  tiougli  not  very  well  arranged  as  decora- 
ticm.  One  exceptional  style  of  decoration  is  that  called  a 
pates  rapportees  or  pate  sur  pale,  in  which  pure  white  semi- 
translucent  reliefs  are  raised  on  a  colored  ground,  the  color 
showing  through  the  thin  edges,  and  the  relief  growing  more 
purely  white  as  the  pate  grows  thicker.  This  hius  been  in 
use  since  1852 ;  it  is  often  called  by  the  name  of  Solon,  who 
produces  it  for  a  London  dealer,  but  it  is  also  made  at 
Sevres.  In  the  L'.  S.  some  private  persons  have  |)ainted 
clever  designs  of  wild  plants  variously  grouped.  The  Rook- 
wood  pottery,  of  Cincinnati,  turns  out  large  and  small  dec- 
orative pieces  of  great  variety  of  forms.  These,  and  the 
tableware,  are  decorated  with  very  able  painting  of  natural- 
looking  sprigs  and  bouquets  in  white,  buff,  gray,  etc.,  on  a 
ground  of  dark  brown,  dark  green,  and  similar  colors  passing 
into  one  another  by  gradations.  Galle,  of  Xancy,  in  France, 
makes  ornamental  vessels  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  un- 
expected designs,  always  interesting  bnt  often  more  novel 


than  beautiful.  Delaherche,  of  Paris,  makes  noble  vases 
decorated  with  strong  dark-colored  glazes  with  fine  grada- 
tion, somewhat  like  Chinese  single-colored  porcelains.  Mas- 
sier,  of  the  Gulf  Juan,  near  Toulon,  makes  the  most  exqui- 
site pieces,  decorated  with  mere  zigzags  and  cloudings,  and 
halt-seen  bouquets,  l)ut  this  ware  is  unfortunately  extreme- 
ly soft,  and  its  paste  is  scratched  by  a  touch.  The  royal 
factory  of  Copenhagen  turns  out  dishes  and  vases  painted 
with  landscape  effects,  birds,  etc.,  in  pale  grays  and  white, 
some  of  which  are  very  decorative  in  a  subdued  way.  The 
Japanese  makers  of  the  close  of  the  century  are  also  vying 
with  one  another  in  the  production  of  extremely  delicate 
and  highly  ornamented  pieces,  as  well  as  tableware,  and 
the  cheapness  of  even  their  very  beautiful  productions  is 
remarkable.  Tiles  for  wall  decoration  are  made  in  endless 
variety  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S.,  the  best  in  color  being 
French,  but  some  of  those  with  figure  subjects  and  heads  in 
low  relief  made  in  the  U.  S.  are  extremely  effective. 

_  Pottery  and  porceliiin  are  made  at  many  places  in  the 
V.  S.  At  East  Liverpool,  O.,  are  about  thirty  different 
establishments,  some  of  which  produce  decorative  wares. 
At  Trenton,  X.  J.,  are  peihaiis  as  many  separate  establish- 
ments. At  Cincinnati,  0.,  are  two  or  three  commercial 
manufacturing  establishments,  besides  the  private  associa- 
tions, in  which  much  very  novel  and  sometimes  successful 
artistic  work  has  been  produced.  Besides  these  there  are 
works  in  Xew  Hampshire,  at  Keene;  in  Massachusetts,  at 
Cambridge,  Chelsea,  and  East  Boston:  in  Connecticut,  at 
Hartford ;  in  New  York,  at  L'tica,  Greenpoint  (Long  Island), 
Syracuse,  and  the  city  of  New  York ;  in  Xew  Jersey,  at 
Perth  Amboy  and  Meulo  Park;  in  Pennsylvania,  at  Beaver 
Falls,  Morrisville,  Pittsburg,  Phtenixville,  Spring  Mills,  and 
Philadelphia;  in  Maryland,  at  Baltimore  ;  in  West  Yirginia, 
at  Wheeling;  in  Georgia,  at  Atlanta;  in  Kentucky,  at  Cov- 
ington; in  Ohio,  at  Akron,  Steubenville,  and  Zanesville;  in 
Indiana,  at  Indianapolis  and  Anderson ;  in  Illinois,  at 
Peoria ;  in  W'isconsin,  at  Edgerton.  According  to  t  he  IJ.  S. 
census  of  1890  the  value  of  the  clay  and  pottery  products  of 
the  707  establishments  which  reported  was  $22,057,090,  ex- 
cluding bricks  and  tiles. 

Bibliography. — See  Keramics.  Also  for  prehistoric  and 
early  pottery,  Lubbock.  Prehistoric  7'imes;  D.  Wilson,  Pre- 
/listoric  Annals  of  Scotland  ;  Perrin,  Etudes  Prehisloriques. 
For  Greek  vases,  C.  T.  Newton,  Catalogue  of  Greek  V'a,se,s  in 
ttie  British  Museum  ;  Heydeman,  Griechische  Vasenbilder ; 
and  by  the  same  author,  Vasensammliing  des  Museo  IS'azion- 
ale  zu   Neapel:    Benndorf,   Griechische   und   Siciliensche 

Vasenbilder;  Millingen,  Unedited  Monuments;  Lenorinant 
and  de  Witte,  jl/o?f«»if«)',s  ('eramograjihigues;  Fiorelli,  Vast 
Dipinii;  Duinont  and  Chaplain,  Les  Ceramiques  de  la 
Grrce  Propre;  de  Witte,  Vasi-s  I'eintesde  la  Collection  Cas- 
tellani;  Rayet  and  Collignon,  ift  Ceramique  Grecque;  Du- 
inont, Peinture  Ceramique  de  la  Grece,  and  also  Vases  Peinls 
de  la  Grece;  Froehner,  Anatomie  des  Vases  Grecs;  A.  S. 
Murray,  Handbook  of  Greek  Archwologg.  For  Etruscan 
and  Roman  |)ottery,  see  Pliny's  JVatural  History;  Dennis, 
The  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Ktriiria;  Martha,  L'Art 
Ktrusque;  and  a  number  of  reports  on  special  excavations 
of  cemeteries  at  Bologna,  Perugia,  etc.  Also  Fabroni,  Vasi 
Fittili  Aretini.  For  Persian  and  Eastern  wares,  Fortnum, 
South  Ken--<ington  Museum  Cataloqueof  Majolica,  Hispano- 
More,<ico,  Persian,  Damascus,  and  Rhodian  Wares ;  Davil- 
Wvv,  Les  Faiences  Hispano- Moresques;  and  for  fine  plates, 
Bourgoin.  Les  Arts  Aralies,  and  Prisse  d'Avennes,  Art 
Arabe;  Darcel  and  Delange.  i^o(V«re.s-  Italiennes  (full-size 
coloreil  figures);  Labarte,  Histoire  des  Arts  industriels; 
Jacquemart.  SVotice  sur  les  Majoliqnes  de  la  Collection  Cam- 
para;  ChalTers,  Tlie  Keramic  Gallerij  (photographs);  and  a 
great  number  of  special  works  on  the  productions  of  Pesaro, 
Urbino,  Faenza,  and  other  towns.  For  European  wares  of 
the  sixteenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  besides  the  general 
works  mentioned  under  Keramics  and  at  the  end  of  this 
article,  see  Garnier,  Histoire  de  la  Ceramique  (1883).  Gar- 
nicr's  Dictioiinaire  de  la  Ceramique  is  |)eihaps  the  latest, 
and  is  one  of  the  best  on  majolica.  For  English  pottery 
and  soft  porcelain,  see  Miss  Meteyard's  several  books  on 
Wedgwood  Ware,  Binn's  Cenlunj  of  Pottery  in  Worcester, 
and  Owen,  Ceramic  Art  iti  Bristol.  General  books  on 
English  wares  are  Solon,  The  Old  English  Poller;  Jewett, 
Ceramic  Art  of  Great  Britain;  and  Church,  Catalogue 
of  Enqlish  Pottery.  For  Chinese  and  Japanese  wares,  see 
Bushell,  Oriental  Ceramic  Art.  magnificently  illustrated 
(1897);  Jacquemart  and  Le  Blant,  Histoire  de  la  Porce- 
laine ;  Audsley  and  Bowes,  Keramic  Art  of  Japan  (London, 


7i6 


POTTINGER 


POULTRY 


1875),  uncritical,  but  finely  illustrated :  du  Sartel,  La  Por- 
celaine  de  Chine  ■  Stanislas  Julien,  Hisfoire  de  la  Porcelaine 
de  Chine.  A  recent  and  thorough  work  on  pottery  and  por- 
celain in  the  U.  S.  is  by  E.  A.  Barber,  and  has  many  illustra- 
tions. For  general  works  on  pottery  and  porcelain,  besides 
the  books  named  under  Keramics.  .*ue  Brongniart.  2'raite 
des  Arts  ceramigues  (Paris,  1844) ;  W.  Chaffers,  Marks  and 
Monograms  on  Pottery  (London,  1863):  Treadwell,  Manual 
of  Pottery  and  Porcelain  (Xew  York,  1872):  Eliza  Meteyard, 
Wedgwood  and  his  Works  (London,  1873) ;  Champion,  Two 
Centuries  of  Ceramic  Art  in  Bristol  (London,  1873) ;  Beck- 
with.  On  Pottery  (New  York).  Russell  Sturgis. 

Pottiiiger,  pot  in-j<>r.  Sir  Henky  :  diplomat ;  b.  in  Coun- 
ty Down,  Ireland,  in  1789 ;  went  in  1804  as  a  cadet  to  In- 
dia, where  he  rose  through  all  the  grades  of  tlie  service ; 
was  political  resident  in  Cutch  and  Scinde  1824-39 :  was 
made  a  baronet  Dec,  1839:  went  to  China  as  ambassador 
and  superintendent  of  British  trade  1841 :  co-operated  with 
Admiral  Parker  in  effecting  the  captnre  of  Amoy  and  other 
places;  concluded  the  treaty  of  peace  of  Aug.  29,  1842, 
which  opened  five  Chinese  ports  to  the  commerce  of  all  na- 
tions :  was  appointed  governor  of  Hongkong  Apr.,  1843 ; 
became  privy  councilor  on  his  return  to  England  May, 
1844 ;  was  governor  of  Cape  Colony  1846^7,  and  governor 
and  commander-in-chief  of  Madras  presidency  1847-54. 
Author  of  Travels  in  Beloochistan  and  Sinde  (1816).  D.  at 
Valetta,  Malta,  Mar.  18,  1854. 

Pot'to :  a  name  applied  to  the  Kinkajou  (q.  v.). 

Pott's  Disease  of  the  Spine  :  See  Spinal  Caries. 

Pottstowii :  borough ;  Montgomery  co..  Pa. :  on  the 
Schuylkill  river,  the  Schuylkill  Canal,  and  the  Phila.  and 
Reading  and  the  Penn.  railways :  18  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Read- 
ing, 40  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Philadelphia  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Pennsylvania,  i-ef.  6-1).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and 
mineral  region,  and  is  widely  known  for  its  manufactures, 
particularly  of  iron  and  steel.  Besides  the  plant  of  the 
Pottstown  Iron  Company,  which  includes  furnaces,  rolling- 
mill,  steel-works,  and  niachiue-shops.  and  that  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Bridge  Company,  there  are  3  rolling-mills,  a  steel- 
mill,  2  nail-factories,  a  furnace  for  pig-iron,  boiler-works, 
agricultural-implement  works,  5  cigar-factories,  3  carriage- 
factories,  2  planing-mills,  and  other  industrial  works,  includ- 
ing in  the  borough  and  its  vicinity  more,  than  20  creameries. 
The  borough  contains  22  churches,  public-school  propertv 
valued  at  over  $115,000,  Normal  Institute,  Ilill  School.  2 
school  libraries  (High  and  Hill)  containing  over  5,000  vol- 
umes, 3  national  banks  (combineil  capital  of  .?60().000).  and  2 
daily  and  2  weeklv  newspapers.  Pup.  (1880)  5.305  :  (1890)  13,- 
285 ;  (1894)  estimated,  17,160.    Editor  of  ••  Daily  News." 

Pottsville:  borough;  capital  of  Schuylkill  co..  Pa.;  on 
the  Schuylkill  river,  and  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Penn.,  the 
People's,  and  the  Phila,  and  Reading  railways;  35  miles 
N.  W.  of  Reading,  93  miles  X.  W.  of  Philadelphia  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Pennsylvania,  ref.  5-H).  It  is  in  the 
extreme  southern  part  of  the  great  Schuylkill  anthracite 
coal-field,  where  shafts  have  been  sunk  in 'the  valleys  to  a 
depth  of  1,600  feet  to  reach  the  underlying  coal-beds,  while 
on  the  mountain-sides  the  coal-beds  crop  out,  and  it  is  the 
chief  shipping-point  of  this  coal  region.  It  was  here  that  an- 
thracite coal  was  first  successfully  used  for  smelting  purposes 
in  1839,  and  the  prize  of  $5,000  offered  by  wealthy  Phila- 
delphians  to  the  individual  who  would  succeed  in  smelting 
iron  ore  with  anthracite  coal  was  awarded  to  the  Pottsville 
furnace.  There  are  3  national  banks  with  combined  capital 
of  $800,000,  a  State  bank  with  cajiital  of  $200,000.  a  trust 
company  with  capital  of  $250,000,  and  a  private  bank.  The 
public-school  property  is  valued  at  over  $300,000.  There 
are  excellent  public  schools,  comprising  besides  the  lower 
grades  3  grammar  schools  and  a  high  school,  and  a  com- 
mercial business  college,  2  private  schools,  and  2  parochial 
schools.  There  are  3  libraries  (Athen:eum,  Public  School, 
and  the  Schuylkill  County  Law)  containing  over  10,000  vol- 
umes, and  3  daily  and  7  weeklv  new.spapers.  The  churches 
and  chapels  number  23.  The"  borough  has  gas  and  water 
works,  electric  liglits,  electric  railways  connecting  the  ad- 
joining towns,  and  a  steam-heating  \>\&nt.  The  industrial 
works  include  furnaces,  rolling-mills,  stove  and  other  foun- 
dries, several  boiler,  engine,  and  machine  shops,  pottery, 
bolt  and  nut  factories,  planing-mills,  spike-mills,  shirt  and 
stocking  factories,  large  breweries,  an  extensive  silk-mill 
and  bridge-works.  Pop.  (1880)  13,253;  (1890)  14,117;  (1894) 
estimated,  16,000.  Baird  Halberstadt. 


Penciled  Kat :  See  Gopher. 

Pouglilieepsie :  city ;  capital  of  Dutchess  co.,  N.  Y. ;  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Hudson  river;  75  miles  X.  of  New 
York  and  69  miles  S.  of  Albany  (see  map  of  New  York,  ref. 
7-J).  It  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Poughkeepsie  and 
Eastern  Railway,  and  is  on  the  lines  of  the  X.  Y.  C.  and  H. 
R.  Railroad  and  the  Philadelphia,  Reading  and  New  Eng- 
land Railroad,  which  last  here  crosses  the  Hudson  river  on 
a  cantilever  bridge  at  an  elevation  of  212  feet.  (.See  Bridges.) 
Connection  also  is  here  made  with  the  West  Shore  Railroad 
by  ferry.  Poughkeepsie  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  at  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  first  substantial 
building  was  erected  not  far  from  1705.  The  Legislature 
of  New  York  met  in  Poughkeepsie  in  1778  to  accept  the  ar- 
ticles of  confederation  adopted  by  delegates  from  the  thir- 
teen States.  Here  also  on  July  2(5, 1788,  a  State  convention, 
through  the  elocjuent  and  patriotic  endeavors  of  Alexander 
Hamilton,  ratified  the  national  Constitution.  The  city  is 
partly  upon  a  hillside  sloping  to  the  river,  but  largely  upon 
table-land  extending  eastward  to  Vassar  College,  2  miles 
away.  At  the  N.  is  College  Hill,  whose  summit  is  500  feet 
above  the  town.  The  whole  of  this  hill,  excejiting  the  res- 
ervoir-grounds, has  been  given  to  the  city  by  one  of  its  citi- 
zens as  a  public  park;  its  area  is  nearly  100 acres.  The  city 
is  lighted  by  electricity,  and  its  streets  are  traversed  by  elec- 
tric cars,  by  which  communication  is  held  with  Vassar  Col- 
lege and  Wappinger's  Palls,  a  manufacturing  village  8  miles 
below.  Poughkeepsie  is  distinguished  for  its  seminaries  of 
learning,  of  which  Vassar  College  (q.  v.),  Riverview  Mili- 
tary Academy,  Eastman's  Business  College,  and  Lyndon 
Hall  are  prominent.  It  has  23  churches.  6  national  banks,  a 
savings-bank,  a  public  library.  Orphan  Asylum,  Old  Ladies' 
Home,  Old  Men's  Home,  hospital,  and  many  other  chari- 
table institutions,  while  to  the  N.,  just  outside  the  city  limits, 
is  the  Hudson  River  Hospital  for  the  Insane.  There  are  many 
important  and  flourishing  manufacturing  interests,  and  4 
daily,  a  semi-weekly,  3  weekly,  and  3  monthly  periodicals. 
The  city  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  Hudson.  Pop. 
(1880)  30,207 ;  (1890)  22,306.  Francis  B.  Wheeler. 

Ponlp  [from  ¥t. poulpel:  a  common  name  for  any  s]>e- 
cies  of  eight-armed  Cephalopod.     See  Mollusca. 

Poultice:  a  soft  composition  of  bread,  flaxseed,  meal, 
slippery-elm  bark,  or  herbs,  applied  warm  or  at  as  high  a 
temperature  as  the  part  to  which  it  is  applied  will  bear,  in 
order  to  hasten  inflammation  and  produce  suppuration. 
Cold  poultices  or  other  cataplasms — for  instance,  of  cotton- 
wool steeped  in  water — are  ajiplied  to  prevent  inflammation 
or  mitigate  pain. 

Poultney:  town;  Rutland  co.,  Vt. ;  on  the  Poultnev 
river,  and  the  Del.  and  Hudson  Railroad ;  7  miles  S.  by  Vf. 
of  Castleton,  18  miles  S.  W.  of  Rutland,  the  county-seat  (for 
location,  see  map  of  Vermont,  ref.  7-B).  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural region,  and  has  several  slate-quarries,  slate-manu- 
factories, foundry,  machine-shops,  the  Troy  Conference 
Academy  (Methodist  Episcopal,  chartered  in  1834),  a  na- 
tional bank  with  capital  of  $50,000,  and  a  weekly  newspa- 
per.   Pop.  (1880)  3,717;  (1890)3,031. 

Poultry  [from  0.  Fr.  pouleterie,  deriv.  of  poulet.  chicken]  : 
domestic  fowls,  either  gallinaceous  or  aquatic.  Of  the  for- 
mer there  are  sixty-eight  breeds,  each  bred  to  a  standard  of 
points  and  possessing  certain  characteristics  of  color,  form, 
and  habits.  The  standard  breeds  are  classified  as  Ameri- 
can, Asiatic,  Mediterranean,  Polish,  Hamburg,  French,  Eng- 
lish, tJame,  Game  Bantam,  Bantam,  and  Jliscellaneous. 

American. — The  American  class  comprises  the  Plymouth 
Rocks,  Wyandot  tes,  Javas,  Dominiques,  and  Jersey  Blues. 
The  Plymouth  Rocks  are  subdivided  into  White.  Buff,  and 
Barred  varieties,  the  Javas  into  Black.  White,  and  Mottled, 
and  the  Wyandottes  into  White,  Golden,  Silver,  Buff,  and 
Black.  They  are  of  medium  size,  and  vary  in  color.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Dominiques,  which  have  rose-combs, 
they  possess  single  straight  combs  which  are  serrated.  The 
fowls  of  the  American  class  are  good  layers.  The  color  of 
the  eggs  is  usually  light  brown,  sometimes  nearly  white. 
The  hens  are  persistent  sitters. 

Asiatic.^ln  this  class  are  included  the  Light  Brahmas, 
Dark  Brahmas,  Partridge  Cochins,  Black  Cochins,  White 
Cochins.  Buff  Cochins,  and  Langshans.  They  are  the  largest 
of  the  gallinaceous  fowls,  the  Light  Brahmas  leading  in 
weight.  All  fowls  of  this  class  have  feathered  legs,  and  all 
have  single  comlis,  with  the  exception  of  the  Light  Brahmas 
and  Dark   Brahmas,  which  possess  pea-combs.     They  are 


POULTRY 


747 


hardr,  large,  luul  adapted  to  confinement.  The  hens  are 
excellent  layers  and  mothers. 

Mfdilnrraitean. — To  the  Mediterranean  clas.s  belong  the 
Ijeghorns,  Minorcus,  Andalusiaiis,  and  Black  Spanish.  The 
Leghorns  are  siil)divide(l,  uecurding  to  the  color  of  llie 
phiinage,  into  black,  white,  brown,  doniini(|ue,  and  bu(T. 
There  are  also  two  varieties  known  as  rose-comb  brown  and 
rose-comb  white.  The  Minorcas  are  separated  into  two  va- 
rieties— white  and  black.  The  fowls  of  the  Meiliterranean 
class  are  small,  of  active  habits,  unhtted  for  continemcnt, 
and  are  excellent  foragers  on  a  range.  Thev  are  not  sit- 
ters. They  rank  first  as  layers,  bnt  are  dehcient  in  size 
and  attractiveness  as  market-fowls.  Like  all  non-sitters, 
they  lay  eggs  entirely  white  in  color. 

Folish. — The  fowls  of  the  Polish  cla.ss  are  non-sitters,  and 
are  excellent  layers  dnring  spring  and  snmmer,  but  are  not 
very  hardy.  Tliey  are  valued  chielly  for  their  beautiful 
plumage.  They  possess  large  crests,  and  some  vai'ieties 
nave  beards.  The  Polish  breeds  are  subdivided  into  the 
wliile-crested  black,  golden,  silver,  white,  bearded  golden, 
bearded  silver,  bearded  white,  and  bull  laced. 

Jliimbui-g. — This  class  inelu<les  the  Hamburgs  and  Red 
Caps.  They  have  rose-combs,  are  small,  lay  white  eggs,  and 
are  non-sitters.  They  arc  not  adapted  to  confinement,  but 
are  excellent  foragers  on  a  range.  As  table  and  market 
fowls  they  are  not  in  favor,  and  also  lack  in  hardiness. 
They  are  i)eantiful  in  [)lumage,  and  are  second  to  the  Polish 
as  ornamental  fowls.  The  llandmrgs  are  separated  into 
golden-spauglcd,  silver-spangled,  golden-penciled,  silver- 
penciled,  white,  aiui  black. 

French. — The  French  class  comprises  the  Hondans,  Creve- 
coBurs.  and  La  Flcches.  They  are  non-sitters  and  excellent 
table-fowls,  but  are  unable  to  endure  severe  winters  and 
damp  weather.  The  fowls  of  the  lloudan  breed,  however, 
are  raised  successfully  in  some  sections  of  Xorth  .Vmerica. 
The  Houdans  and  Creveco^urs  possess  crests  and  beards, 
while  the  La  Flechc  is  without  either.  The  Houdan  pos- 
sesses a  fifth  toe  on  each  foot. 

English. — The  Dorkings  compose  the  English  class,  being 
separated  into  white,  gray,  and  colored.  For  the  table  they 
arc  unrivaled.  The  chicks  are  difficult  to  raise,  and  the 
adults  are  not  well  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  U.  .S.  The 
Dorking  has  five  toes  on  each  foot,  is  very  compact  in  bo<ly, 
and  the  eggs  are  white  in  color.  The  females  are  excellent 
sitters  and  mothers. 

Oitine. — To  this  class  belong  the  Malays,  Sumatras,  Black- 
breasled  reds,  the  various  Duckwings — brown,  white,  pyle, 
and  Indian.  Games  intended  for  combats  in  the  pit  differ 
from  the  standard  varieties  in  being  bred  without  regard  to 
color  or  form,  as  courage  is  more  essential.  The  Game  fowls 
are  excellent  fur  the  table  and  have  an  abundance  of  "  breast 
meal."  The  females  are  superior  sitters  and  mothers,  but 
are  not  above  the  average  as  layers. 

Bantam. — The  Game  Bantams  do  not  differ  from  the 
standard  Game  fowls  except  in  size.  They  are  esteemed  as 
pets.  Cocks  should  not  exceed  23  oz.  in  weight  nor  hens  20 
oz.  The  Ulack-breasted  reds  are  the  favorites.  Of  Ban- 
tams other  than  Game  are  the  Pckin  (or  Cochin),  Hooted, 
Japanese,  white-crested  White  Polish,  Rose-comb  Black, 
Rose-comb  White,  Golden  Sebright,  and  Silver  Sebright. 

Miscellaneous. — The  miscellaneous  class  includes  the  Sul- 
tans, Silkies,  Frizzles,  Russians,  and  breeds  that  are  consid- 
ered oddities.  They  possess  no  merit  of  importance,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Russian,  which  is  a  desirable  breed 
for  the  market,  the  hens  also  being  e.xcellcnt  layers  and 
mothers. 

Characleri.stics  of  Breeds. — As  cattle  have  been  classified 
into  breeds,  as  milk,  butter,  and  beef  |)roducers,  so  do  the 
breeds  of  fowls  differ  in  points  of  merit.  The  same  breed 
can  not  be  superior  as  egg-producers  and  in  furnishing 
choice  meat  for  the  table,  as  egg-production  is  antagonis- 
tic to  the  production  of  meat  of  the  best  quality.  The  Asi- 
atic class  IS  composed  of  fowls  that  have  been  reared  in  con- 
finement for  many  years  until  their  wings  have  been  so 
reduced  in  size  as  to  render  fiying  impossible,  while  the 
size  of  the  body  has  been  increa.sed.  These  fowls  fatten 
very  reatlily,  and  if  judiciously  managed  produce  eggs  dur- 
ing all  seasons.  As  the  motive  power  of  the  wings  is  in  the 
muscles  of  the  breast,  the  amount  of  "  breast  meat "'  has 
been  lessened  and  the  quality  of  the  flesh  is  inferior,  al- 
though their  large  size  is  an  advantage  in  making  an  at- 
tractive display  in  market. 

Fowls  of  the  active  breeds,  such  as  the  Leghorns.  Ham- 
burgs, and  Minorcas,  convert  a  large  proportion  of  their 


carbonaceous  food  into  force,  and  consequently  they  do  not 
fatten  as  readily  as  the  large  breeds.  They  are  non-sitters, 
although  experiments  demonstrate  that  hens  of  all  breeds 
become  broody  when  they  have  too  nmch  food  and  become 
fat.  Fowls  of  Auu'rican  breeds  are  hardy,  and  while  not 
equaling  those  of  the  Mediterranean  class  as  layers  nor  ri- 
valing the  Dorkings  in  quality  of  flesh,  they  are  above  the 
average  in  both  respects,  but  are  liable  to  become  overfat 
uidess  fed  carefully  during  the  winter.  They  are  iiartially 
adapted  to  confinement,  but,  like  fowls  of  all  breeds,  thrive 
best  on  a  range.  The  best  breeds  for  egg-production,  con- 
sidering hardiness  and  adaptability  to  climate,  are  the  Leg- 
horns, Minorcas,  Wyandottes,  Plymouth  Rocks,  Brahmas, 
and  Langshans,  in  the  order  named.  If  the  object  is  to 
produce  poultry  for  market  the  breeds  should  be  selected 
without  regard  to  their  laying  <inalities.  Considering  hardi- 
ness as  a  factor,  the  best  breeds  for  market  arc  the  Plymouth 
Rocks.  Li^ht  Brahmas,  Cochins.  Wyandottes,  and  Lang- 
shans, the  last-named  lireed,  however,  not  possessing  the  de- 
sired yellow  skin  and  legs.  For  the  table  the  Dorkings  and 
Ganu's  are  unexcelled,  but  they  are  too  diflictult  to  raise  for 
market,  owing  to  rapid  feathering  when  very  young. 

Turkei/.f  and  Guinea-fowls. — There  are  six  brt^eds  of 
turkeys — the  buff,  bronze,  slate,  white,  black,  and  Xarragan- 
sett.  The  leading  breeds  are  the  bronze  and  white,  the 
others  being  rar(!  aiul  possessing  no  especial  merit.  The 
bronze  is  the  heaviest,  the  reipiircd  weight  of  the  adult 
male  being  32  lb.  and  that  of  the  female  22  lb.  There  are 
three  varieties  of  guinea-fowls— the  pearl,  white,  and  bronze. 
They  are  not  recognized  in  the  list  of  domestic  breeds  and 
find  no  sale  in  market.  On  farms,  however,  they  are  re- 
garded as  excellent  layers  and  their  flesh  is  considered  deli- 
cate. The  period  of  incubation  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
turkey,  and  their  habits  are  nearly  the  same  in  the  domesti- 
cated state. 

Aquatic  Fowls. — Geese  are  separated  into  the  Toulou.se, 
Embden.  African,  Canada.  Egyptian,  White  China,  and 
Brown  t'hina breeds,  all  rare  excejit  the  first  two.  Of  ducks 
there  are  the  Pekin,  Ayle.sbury,  Rouen,  White  Muscovy,  Col- 
ored Muscovy,  and  Cayuga,  all  well-known  breeds.  The  Call 
and  East  Indian  are  very  small  and  are  seldom  kept  on 
farms.  The  crested  duck  is  Ijred  more  as  a  novelty  than 
for  practical  purposes.  The  Muscovy  ducks  differ  from  the 
others  in  requiring  a  longer  period  for  incubation  and  in 
producing  sterile  progeny  when  crossed  with  other  breeds; 
the  cross-bred  female  lays  eggs  which  will  not  hatch.  It  is 
therefore  doubtful  if  the  Muscovy  is  really  a  duck:  its  pe- 
riod of  incubation  and  habits  approach  more  nearly  those 
of  the  goose.     See  Goose  and  DfcK. 

Feeding. — Laying  hens  require  food  of  a  character  en- 
tirely different  from  that  suitable  for  non-producers.  An 
egg  is  composed  of  12i  per  cent,  of  albumen.  21  per  cent,  of 
oil  anil  fat,  and  10  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter,  the  greater 
proportion  of  the  egg  being  water.  As  grain  is  deficient  in 
tiuu!  and  is  largely  .starch,  it  has  a  tendency  to  fatten  rather 
than  to  supply  the  elements  compcsing  the  egg.  Digestion 
and  assimilation  are  promoted  when  the  food  is  varied,  and 
egg-production  is  increased  when  the  ration  is  well  balanced. 
The  individual  characteristics  of  the  hens  must  be  consid- 
ered, as  no  two  hens  are  alike  even  when  of  the  same  breed, 
one  requiring  more  food  than  another  and  preferring  kinds 
that  may  not  be  acceptable  to  her  companions.  Bulky  food 
— such  as  chopped  grass,  clover,  vegetable  tops,  cooked  po- 
tatoes, and  turnips — is  essential  because  grain  is  too  concen- 
trated. Pounded  bones,  meat,  and  milk  should  always  be 
included  in  the  ration,  as  they  are  highly  nitrogenous  and 
seldom  fail  to  in'omole  laying. 

It  is  ilifiUult  to  prescribe  a  routine  course  of  feeding. 
During  the  winter  season  the  first  essential  is  warmth, 
which  is  promoted  by  shelter  and  a  liberal  supply  of  grain. 
Ground  food,  scalded,  is  excellent  as  a  morning  meal,  or  the 
ground  grain  may  be  mixed  with  clover  hay  which  has  been 
cut  very  fine  and  scalded.  The  allowance  of  food  should  be 
light,  and  to  induce  the  hens  to  exercise  a  snnill  quantity  of 
millet  .seed  should  be  scattered  in  cut  straw,  leaves,  or  litter 
of  any  kind.  No  food  should  be  given  at  noon.  Late  in  the 
afternoon  about  1  lb.  of  chopped  lean  meat  or  ground  bone 
may  be  alloweil  twenty  liens,  after  which  wheat  or  corn,  or 
both,  should  be  scattered  over  the  ground  in  order  that  the 
hens  may  exercise  in  securing  it.  Troughs  should  not  be  used 
except  when  feeding  moistened  ground  grain.  During  the 
summer  mouths  the  hens  can  secure  all  food  required  on  a 
range,  as  gra.ss,  seeds,  and  insects  will  be  abundant.  Water 
should  be  at  all  times  where  it  can  be  procured  easily  by 


748 


POULTRY 


POWELL 


the  fowls.  No  fixed  allowance  of  food  for  a  flock  can  be 
determined  upon,  especially  when  the  food  is  varied.  It 
will  require  about  5  peeks  of  corn,  or  its  equivalent,  to  sup- 
port a  hen  for  a  year. 

Turkeys  and  guinea-fowls  thrive  best  on  a  range,  and  are 
capable  of  securing  the  whole  of  their  food  during  the 
greater  portion  of  the  year.  A  meal,  composed  of  corn  or 
wheat,  given  at  night,  will  induce  them  to  come  up  regularly 
to  roost  near  the  dwelling-house.  In  winter  they  should 
have  grain  twice  a  day.  Geese  and  ducks  are  partial  to 
green  foods,  and  if  grass  is  abundant  they  will  have  no  dif- 
ficulty in  securing  food  in  summer.  A  meal  of  cooked  tur- 
nips, thickened  with  bran,  given  twice  a  day  in  winter,  with 
a  supply  of  chopped  clover  hay,  scalded,  will  keep  them  in 
good  condition. 

Care  of  the  Yoiutg. — Chicks  are  hatched  at  a  temperature 
of  103°.  Hens  seldom  become  broody  during  the  winter 
season,  and  many  poultrymen  resort  to  incubators  and 
brooders  during  that  period.  Xo  food  is  required  for  thir- 
ty-six hours  after  hatching.  The  chicks  should  l>e  given 
dry  food  in  preference  to  dough  of  any  kind.  Oatmeal,  or 
rolled  oats,  should  be  kept  in  a  little  trough  before  them, 
and  three  times  a  day  they  should  be  fed  on  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  corn  meal,  middlings,  sifted  ground 
oats,  and  ground  meat,  moistened  and  cooked  as  bread. 
When  ten  days  old  they  should  receive  cracked  corn,  wheat, 
finely  cut  clover  (scalded),  cooked  potatoes  or  turnips,  or 
anything  that  will  be  acceptable.  They  should  be  kept 
warm  and  dry ;  water  should  be  given  in  vessels  that  permit 
them  to  wet  their  beaks  only.  Young  turkeys  require  food 
that  is  highly  nitrogenous,  as  they  grow  feathei-s  so  rapidly 
as  to  become  debilitated,  while  the  least  dampness  is  inju- 
rious. They  may  be  fed  in  the  same  manner  as  chicks,  but, 
in  addition,  should  be  given  chopped  eggs  that  have  been 
boiled,  finely  chopped  onion-tops,  milk  curds,  and  cooked 
lean  meat.  Goslings  and  ducklings  require  soft  food,  such 
as  cooked  turnips  or  potatoes,  with  ground  grain  of  any 
kind,  given  in  troughs.  Water  must  be  supplied  freely  for 
drinking  purposes,  but  they  should  not  be  allowed  on  ponds 
until  well  feathered,  as  they  may  become  chilled  and  jierish. 

Jlanagemenf. — Lice  and  disease  are  the  chief  drawbacks. 
If  the  poultry-houses  are  kept  clear  of  lice  the  fowls  can 
then  rid  themselves  of  vermin  by  the  use  of  the  dust-bath. 
Drenching  the  poultry-house  with  an  emulsion  of  kerosene 
is  the  most  effective  remedy.  Large  gray  lice  destroy  many 
young  chicks  and  turkeys ;  anointing  the  heads  with  a  few 
drops  of  sweet  oil  is  the  remedy.  Roup  is  the  most  preva- 
lent disease  among  gallinaceous  birds,  and  exists  in  many 
forms,  the  symptoms  being  hoarse  breathing,  swelled  eyes 
and  heads,  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  and  in  the  malig- 
nant or  contagious  form  it  is  accompanied  with  a  very  foul 
odor,  the  birds  gradually  drooping.  There  is  no  remedy 
for  the  disease,  the  most  economical  method  being  to  de- 
stroy the  sick  birds  and  thoroughly  to  clean  and  disinfect  the 
premises.  Cholera  is  a  rare  disease,  the  supposed  cases  be- 
ing mostly  indigestion  resulting  from  overfeeding.  There 
is  no  sure  remedy  for  cholera,  but  good  results  have  been 
obtained  by  adding  a  teaspoonful  of  liquid  carbolic  acid  to 
each  quart  of  drinking-water.  The  symptoms  are  greenish 
droppings,  intense  thirst,  prostration,  and  death  or  relief 
within  forty-eight  hours.  Chicks  should  not  be  kept  with 
adults  until  well  advanced  in  growth,  and  pullets  intended 
for  laying  the  next  season  will  thrive  best  when  not  with 
the  young  cockerels.  The  poultry-house  should  be  cleaned 
daily,  and  if  the  flock  is  confined  in  yards  it  will  be  an  ad- 
vantage to  have  two  yards  for  each  "flock,  so  as  to  change 
from  one  yard  into  the  other.  The  unoccupied  yard  should 
be  used  for  growing  green  food,  the  top  soil  being  turned 
under ;  in  this  way  the  yards  can  be  kept  clean.  Poultry 
will  always  give  the  best  results  on  a  range,  and  an  orchard 
serves  the  purpose  well.  Although  prices  of  eggs  are  higher 
in  winter  than  in  summer,  the  small  cost  of  "the  food  and 
tlie  larger  nunilier  of  eggs  secured  afford  a  greater  profit 
on  poultry  and  eggs  in  summer  than  in  winter.  Poultrv- 
houses  should  be  well  lighted  with  windows,  as  fowls  will 
not  remain  in  a  dark  poultry-house  during  the  day  even  if 
the  weather  is  stormy.  The  decimal  svstem  will  "serve  to 
guide  in  making  many  estimates.  Onlften  hens  should  be 
allowed  with  one  male,  ten  chicks  in  one  brood  are  a  suffi- 
cient number,  and  ten  hens  should  have  a  house  10  feet 
square.  Ten  weeks  is  enough  for  a  chick  to  make  suffi- 
cient growth  to  reach  the  market,  and  the  pullets  of  the 
large  breeds  should  begin  to  lay  when  ten  months  old. 

Although  aquatic  birds  prefer  to  have  access  to  a  body  of 


water,  yet  they  are  very  susceptible  to  dampness,  and  will 
thrive  best  wlien  kept  in  houses  having  board  floors,  upon 
which  straw  should  be  placed.  Turkeys  always  seek  high 
roosts,  and  should  be  given  an  open  shed  witli  the  roosts 
near  the  roof  as  a  protection  against  storms.  When  com- 
pelled to  roost  in  the  open  air  they  become  liable  to  roup, 
a  disease  which  destroys  a  large  number  of  them. 

Patrick  H.  Jacobs. 

Ponud :  See  Avoirdupois  and  Weights  and  Measures. 

Pouiid-nets :  See  Fisheries. 

Pound  Sterling:  a  denomination  of  English  money, 
equal  in  value  to  20  shillings,  or  240  pence,  into  which  "a 
pound  of  silver  was  anciently  divided,  thus  giving  origin  to 
the  term  "pound."  The  word  "sterling''  is  of  obscure  ori- 
■gin,  but  probably  is  derived  from  Easterling,  the  popular 
name  of  the  Baltic  and  German  traders  who  visited  London 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  silver  penny  was  first  called  East- 
erling.   See  Coinage. 

Poussin,  Gaspard  :  See  Dughet. 

Poiissin,poo'san',  Nicolas:  painter:  b.  at  Yillers,  in  Nor- 
mandy, June,  1.594.  Quintin  Varin.  of  Les  Andelys.  taught 
him  painting.  He  went  to  Paris  at  the  age  of  eighteen  and 
studied  there  for  a  time.  He  was  not  able  to  get  to  Rome 
till  the  age  of  thirty.  There  he  lived  with  Du  (juesnoy, 
afterward  called  II  Piammingo;  thisartist  wasof  much  serv- 
ice to  him  in  the  development  of  his  style.  Poussin  studied 
anatomy  in  Rome  and  attended  the  academy  of  Domenichi- 
no.  He  endured  great  poverty  until  Cardinal  Barberini, 
who  had  been  ambassador  in  France  and  Spain,  took  him 
under  his  protection  ou  his  return  to  Rome,  and  commis- 
sioned him  to  paint  two  pictures — The  Death  of  Germanicus 
and  The  Capture  of  Jerusalem.  The  patronage  of  the  car- 
dinal brought  him  good  fortune  and  when,  after  an  absence  t 
of  sixteen  years,  he  I'eturned  to  Paris  he  was  introduced  to  \ 
Louis  Xlli.  by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  The  king  gave  him  the 
appointment  of  court  painter  with  rooms  in  the  Tuileries 
and  a  salary  of  120  francs  a  year.  He  returned  to  Rome  to  \ 
fetch  his  wife,  but  as  Louis  XIII.  died  about  this  time  Pous- 
sin spent  his  remaining  years  in  Rome.  He  died  Nov.  19, 
1665,  and  was  buried  in  San  Lorenzo  in  Lucina.  More  than 
200  prints  have  been  engraved  after  his  pictures,  Poussin 
liad  an  immense  influence  in  landscape-painting.  Gaspard 
Dughet  was  his  brother-in-law  and  pupil.   W.  J.  Stillman. 

Pout :  See  Bib. 

Pouter :  a  breed  of  pigeons  characterized  by  the  great 
dilatation  of  the  gullet,  which  can  be  distended  with  air  un- 
til the  neck  assumes  a  globular  shape.  This  is  simply  the 
swelling  of  the  neck  seen  during  the  act  of  cooing,  carried 
to  a  greatly  exaggerated  condition  by  selection.  The  legs 
are  long  and  feathered,  tail  and  wings  long,  the  latter  point- 
ed and  weak.  The  pouter  has  one  more  pair  of  ribs  and  two 
more  presacral  vertebrae  than  ordinary  pigeons.     P.  A.  L. 

Powder :  See  Explosives  and  Gunpowder. 

Powderly,  Terenxe  Yincent:  labor  leader;  b.  at  Car- 
bondale.  Pa..  Jan.  22,  1849;  attended  a  district  school;  was 
switch-tender  on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Railroad  1863- 
64 ;  car-repairer  1864-66 ;  served  apprenticeship  at  machin- 
ist's trade  1866-69  :  removed  to  Seranton,  Pa.,  1869  ;  worked 
as  a  machinist  until  1877  ;  elected  mayor  of  Seranton  1878  ; 
re-elected  1880,  1882 ;  elected  general  master  workman, 
Kniglits  of  Labor,  1879,  and  held  office  until  1894;  admitted 
to  the  bar  1894.  He  has  lectured  on  industrial  questions  in 
the  principal  cities  of  the  U.  S.  and  Canada;  has  published 
Thirty  Years  of  Labor,  and  is  a  contributor  to  The  Journal 
of  the  Kniffhts  of  Labor,  The  North  Americaii  Review,  and 
other  periodicals. 

Powell.  Baden.  F.  R.  S.  :  mathematician  and  theologian  ; 
b.  at  Stamford  Hill,  near  London,  Aug.  22.  1796;  educated 
at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  graduated  1817;  took  orders 
in  the  Church  of  England  ;  became  vicar  of  Plumstead  1821 ; 
was  Savilian  Professor  of  Geometry  at  Oxford  from  1827 
till  his  death  in  London,  June  11,  i860.  Author  of  many 
contributions  to  scientific  periodicals,  of  several  mathemat- 
ical treatises,  and  published,  among  otlier  works.  The  Con- 
nection of  Natural  and  Divine  Truth  (1838);  The  Order  of 
Nature  considered  in  Reference  to  the  Claims  of  Revelation 
(18.59);  and  an  essay  0»  the  Study  of  the  Evidences  of  Chris- 
tian it  i/.  in  the  celebrated  volume  entitled  Essays  and  Re- 
views'(\>im). 

Powell,  John  Wesley,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. :  geologist  and  an- 
thropologist ;  b.  at  Mt.  Morris,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  24,  1834.    The 


POWER 


POWHATAN 


741) 


son  of  a  Methodist  minisler,  his  youth,  in  Ohio,  Wisconsin, 
iind  Illinois,  was  attended  with  hard  work,  exposure,  and 
iirivulioii.  He  studieil  as  he  had  opportunity  at  Illinois, 
Wheaton,  and  Olierliu  Colleges,  leaching  meaiilinie  and 
iiiukint;  scientific  collections.  During  the  civil  war  he  rose 
from  the  ranks  to  a  lieutenant -colonelcy  in  the  Second  Hli- 
nois  artillery,  and  lost  his  right  arm  at  Shiloh.  In  lH(i.5  and 
lHt)6  he  served  as  professor  in  the  Wesleyan  College  ami  the 
Illinois  Normal  Cniversity  successively,  and  during  the  next 
year  he  led  an  exploring  parly  through  the  hitherto  un- 
visited  canyon  of  the  Colorado  river.  The  successof  this  ex- 
l)edition  caused  Congress  to  authorize  a  survey  of  this  mys- 
terious river  and  the  Uocky  .Mountain  region  and  to  place 
Maj.  I'owell  at  its  head.  In  IST'.I  the  four  separate  surveys 
operating  in  the  Territories  were  consolidated,  nanieci  the 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  and  made  a  bureau  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  and  the  same  year  the  liureau  of  Eth- 
nology was  organized  with  Jlaj.  Powell  as  its  chief,  as  a 
part  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  The  nest  year,  on  the 
retirement  of  Clarence  King,  Maj.  Powell  became  director 
of  the  survey  also.  The  reports  and  nionograjihs  issued 
under  his  direction  have  been  the  handsomest  and  most 
valuable  publications  of  the  Government,  and  in  1891  the 
Fri-Mch  .\cademy  awarded  to  him  and  his  scientific  corps  the 
famcms  Cuvier  prize.  He  has  received  degrees  from  Harvard 
and  Heidelberg,  is  a  member  of  the  chief  scientific  societies 
of  the  U.  S.,  of  some  of  which  he  has  held  the  presidency, 
atul  has  been  nuide  honorary  or  corresponding  member  of 
the  important  scientific  societies  in  all  countries.  In  the 
summer  of  181)4  he  resigned  his  position  as  director  of  the 
Geological  Survey,  but  retained  that  of  the  Hurcau  of  Eth- 
nology. Among  his  best  known  books  are  Exjihirafioii  of 
the  Oolorndo  liivev  (1875):  Report  on  the  (feolugy  of  the 
Vinta  Mountains  (1876);  Report  on  the  Arid  Region  of 
the  United  States  (1879);  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Ind- 
ian Languages  (1880) ;  Studies  in  Sociology  (1887) ;  Can- 
yons of  the  Colorado  (1893).  He  is  an  associate  editor  of 
Joh/tson's  Universal  Cyclopivdin. 

Power,  He.vry,  M.  1?.  Lond.,  P.  R.  C.  S. :  ophthalmologist: 
b.  at  N.'intes.  France,  Sept.  3.  18^9;  studied  medicine  at  St. 
Barthohunew's  Hospital,  London,  Ijecoming  in  1851  a  mem- 
ber, and  in  1854  a  fellow,  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons; 
subsequently  became  a  member  of  the  council  and  vice-presi- 
dent of  that  body  ;  was  appointed  ophthalmic  surgeon  and 
lecturer  on  diseases  of  the  eye  at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital ; 
was  lecturer  on  physiology  at  the  Westminster  Hospital,  and 
edited  the  Gth,  7th,  8th,  and  9th  editions  of  Carpenter's 
Principles  of  Iluman  Physiology;  was  examiner  in  natural 
sciences  for  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  ;  was 
co-editor  of  A  Biennial  Retrospect  of  Medicine  and  Surgery 
from  1805-74.  While  he  has  practiced  his  specialty,  oph- 
thalmology, he  is  eijually  well  known  as  a  physiologist.  His 
important  works  are  Illustrations  of  some  of  the  Priticipal 
Diseases  of  the  Eye  (London,  1868)  and  Elements  of  Iluman 
Physiology  (1884).  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Power,  Tyrone:  actor;  b.  in  County  Waterford,  Ireland, 
Nov.  2,  1797;  removed  to  Wales  in  early  life;  nuide  his 
debut  at  the  CardilT  theater;  retired  from  the  stage  for 
several  years;  played  in  the  principal  citi(^s  of  England,  in- 
cluding London  ;  excelled  in  the  delineation  of  Iri>li  charac- 
ters. I)uring  his  last  engagement  at  the  Ilaymarket  theater 
Power's  salary  was  advanced  to  t'150  per  week.  He  made 
successful  tours  in  the  U.  S.  1833-35  and  1840—41.  and  em- 
barked for  Europe  Mar.  11, 1841,  in  the  .steamshij)  President, 
which  was  never  hi^ard  of  afterward.  He  wrote  two  novels 
and  Impressions  of  America  ('i  vols.,  London,  1835). 

Revised  by  B.  15.  Vallkntine. 

Power-loom  :  See  Loom. 

Power  of  .\tloriiey:  a  written  instrument  conferring 
upon  one  person  the  power  to  act  for  another.  It  is  a  deed, 
or  sealed  instrument,  at  common  law;  but  modern  statutes 
frei|uently  dispense  with  the  seal.  It  ordinarily  contains 
the  name  of  the  principal,  the  name  of  the  agi'uf.  a  precise 
statement  of  the  authority  conferred,  with  a  declaration 
that  the  principal  ratifies  and  confirms  all  authorized  acts 
of  the  agent,  and  the  seal  and  signature  of  the  principal. 
Often  it  gives  to  the  agent  the  power  to  substitute  a  tliird 
person  in  his  stead.  A  power  of  attorney  may  be  revoked, 
unless  the  power  is  coupled  with  an  interest.     See  .Aoext. 

Francis  M.  Blrdick. 

Powers :  in  the  real  property  law  of  England  and  the 
L'.  S.  an  authority  vested  in  one  person  to  dispose  of  an  es- 


tate which  is  vested  in  another.  It  may  be  created  by  the 
deed  or  will  by  which  the  estate  itself  is  conveyed,  and  the 
power  to  make  a  further  disjiosition  of  the  estate  may  be 
reserved  by  the  person  making  the  conveyance,  or  may  be 
conferred  by  him  on  the  grantee  of  the  estate  or  on  a 
stranger.  A  usual  mode  of  creating  a  power  at  common 
law  is  for  the  grantor  or  donor  of  the  estate  to  convey  it  by 
deed  or  will  to  A  for  life,  at  the  same  time  givingA  the 
power  to  appoint,  by  deed  or  will,  the  person  who  should 
have  the  estate  after  A's  death.  Here  the  grantor  of  the  es- 
tate is  called  the  (/oHor  of  the  power.  A  is  known  as  the 
donee  or  appointer,  and  the  person  designated  by  A  to  take 
the  estate  after  the  termination  of  his  own  life-estate  is 
called  the  appointee  under  the  jiower. 

The  effect  of  the  execution  of  the  power  by  A  is  to 
vest  the  estate  at  once  in  the  appointee,  and  the  latter  is 
considered  to  have  derived  his  estate,  not  from  A  (who  was 
never  seised  of  it  himself),  but  from  the  original  donor,  and 
through  and  by  virtue  of  the  will  or  deed  by  which  the 
power  of  appointment  was  created. 

The  institution  of  powere  wa.s  one  of  the  devices  of  the 
great  land-owners  for  tying  up  estates  for  the  benefit  of  their 
families  and  for  restricting,  to  some  extent,  the  alienation 
of  the  estates  by  their  immediate  descendants.  They  owed 
their  origin  to  "that  highly  artificial  but  flexible  system  of 
conveyancing  which  resulted  from  the  operation  of  the 
Statute  of  Uses.  (See  Uses.)  They  have  greatly  diminished 
in  importance  but  are  still  in  use  in  England  and  in  the 
U.  S.,  though  in  many  of  the  States  their  use  is  much  re- 
stricted by  statute.  The  principal  employment  of  powers 
at  the  ]iresent  time  is  to  confer  on  executors  or  trustees  the 
authority  to  sell  lands  under  a  will,  for  the  payment  of 
debts,  legacies,  or  for  other  purposes.  Where  sucl'i  a  power 
is  given,  without  any  estate  in  the  land,  it  operates  by  way 
of  executory  devise  in  favor  of  the  person  to  whom  the  land 
is  sold  under  the  power,  and  the  purchaser  takes  as  devisee 
under  the  will  and  not  by  way  of  conveyance  from  the 
trustee  or  executor.  The  fee  in  the  meantime  goes  to  the 
heir  until  the  power  is  executed  ;  but  where  the  land  itself 
is  devised  to  the  trustee  or  executor  for  the  purpose  of  the 
sale,  the  purchaser  derives  his  title  from  him  and  not  from 
the  will. 

The  leading  treatise  on  this  intricate  branch  of  the  law  is 
Sugden  on  Powers.  Sec  also  American  and  English  Ency- 
clopaedia of  Law,  article  Powers.    George  W.  Kirchwev. 

Powers.  Hiram  :  sculptor;  b.  at  Woodstock,  Vt.,  .July  29, 
1805.  In  1817  his  parents  removed  to  Cincinnati.  (_)..  where 
he  lived  until  1835,  and  where  he  began  his  life  work  by 
learning  to  take  casts  from  models  and  by  making  wax 
figures  for  a  museum.  In  1835  he  went  to  Washington, 
D.  C,  where  he  constructed  a  revolving  jet  d'eau  for  the 
Capitol  grounds,  and  modeled  the  heads  of  several  distin- 
guished men,  including  .1.  Q.  Adams,  .Jackson.  Van  Buren, 
Webster.  Calhoun,  and  Preston.  After  spending  two  win- 
ters in  Washington,  Powers,  with  the  assistance  of  friends, 
removed  to  Florence,  Italy,  in  1837.  His  busts  acquired  a 
reputation  for  fidelity  to  nature  and  the  highest  possible 
finish,  and  the  insufficiency  of  his  pecuniary  resources 
obliged  him  to  confine  himself'  to  this  branch  of  his  art  to 
the  extent  of  his  orders ;  but  he  devoted  every  spare  mo- 
ment to  ideal  work,  and  the  Greek  Slare — finished  in  1843, 
and  purchased  by  Alexander  T.  Stewart — secured  for  its 
author  a  certain  position  among  modern  sculptors.  i\Iany 
repetitions  of  this  statue  were  made,  most  of  them  for  Eng- 
land. In  the  winter  of  1872-73  his  already  declining  health 
became  so  impaired  that  he  was  obliged  to  discontinue  work, 
and  on  June  27.  1873.  the  sudden  rupture  of  a  blood-vessel 
closed  his  life.  Besides  the  above-iuimed  works.  Powers  exe- 
cuted a  large  number  of  ideal  busts  of  great  merit,  as  well 
as  many  statues;  among  the  latter,  those  of  Washington, 
The  Fisher  Hoy,  America,  Eve  Disconsolate,  and  The  Last 
of  the  Tribes.  Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Powers.  Mechanical:  See  51  echanical  Powers. 

Powhatan':  the  principal  chief  of  several  confederate 
clans  or  tribes  of  Eastern  Virginia  at  the  time  of  the  settle- 
ment of  .Jamestown  in  1607,  usually  called  "emperor"  by 
the  early  writers,  though  the  number  of  his  subjects  was  es- 
tinuited'at  only  8.000.  "  He  was  hostile  to  the  English,  with 
whom  he  repeatedly  came  into  collision.  Powhatan's  prin- 
cipal residence  was  at  Werowocomoco  on  York  river,  within 
the  present  limits  of  Gloucester  County,  where  he  nuiin- 
tained  considerable  pomp,  being  always  attended  by  a  body- 
guard of  four  warriors.     D.  in  Apr.,  1618. 


750 


POWNALL 


PRADIER 


Pownall,  Thomas,  LL.  D.  :  statesman ;  b.  at  Lincoln, 
England,  in  1722;  graduated  at  Cambridge  1743;  became 
secretary  to  the  commissioners  for  trade  and  plantations 
1745;  went  to  New  Jersey  as  secretary  of  that  province 
1753;  became  lieutenant-governor  1755:  was  a  member  of 
the  colonial  congress  which  met  at  Albany  in  1754  to  devise 
measures  of  defense  against  the  French ;  was  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  1757-60,  of  South  Carolina  1760-61,  after 
which  he  became  director-general  of  the  office  of  control ; 
sat  in  Parliament,  where  he  opposed  in  many  well-consid- 
ered speeches  the  rash  policy  of  the  crown  toward  the 
American  colonies;  publislied  The  Administrafion  of  the 
Colonies  (1766) ;  A  Topographical  Descripliun  of  the  Mid- 
dle British  Colonies  (1775) ;  and  many  other  works  on  ar- 
chipology  and  politics.  D.  at  Bath,  England,  Feb.  25,  1805. 
Poynter,  Edward  John  :  historical  painter ;  b.  in  Paris. 
of  English  parents,  ]\lar.  20.  1836;  studied  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  London,  and  under  Gleyre  in  Paris;  Royal  Aca- 
demician 1876 ;  Slade  Professor  of  Fine  Arts  at  University 
College,  London,  1870-75 ;  director  of  the  art  schools  at 
South  Kensington  Museum  1875.  One  of  his  most  cele- 
brated works  is  Atalanla's  Race  (1876).  and  he  has  executed 
noteworthy  frescoes  in  St.  Stephen's  church,  Dulwich,  and 
mosaics  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament.     Studio  in  London. 

W.  A.  C. 
Pozzi,  pot'se'e,  Samuel  Jean,  M.  D.  :  gynaecologist ;  b.  at 
Bergerac,  Dordogne.  France,  Oct.  3, 1846 ;  studied  medicine 
in  Paris,  graduating  M.  D.  in  1873  ;  in  1875  became  associate 
professor  in  the  faculty,  and  in  1877  surgeon  to  the  hospi- 
tals; paid  special  attention  to  gymecology,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  prominent  of  European  specialists.  His  most  impor- 
tant work  is  Traite  de  gijnecologie  cUnique  et  operatoire 
(Paris,  1890).  S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Pozzo  di  Borgro.  pot'so-de"e-bor'go.  Carlo  Andrea  :  dip- 
lomat; b.  at  Alata.  in  Corsica,  Mar.  8,  1764;  studied  law  at 
the  University  of  Pisa,  and  settled  as  an  advocate  at  Ajac- 
cio,  where  he  lived  in  great  intimacy  with  Joseph  and  Na- 
poleon Bonaparte.  This  friendship  soon  cooled,  however, 
and  the  relation  between  the  former  friends  assumed  a  very 
bitter  character  wlien  Pozzo  di  Borgo  espoused  the  cause  of 
Paoli,  who  showed  great  confidence  in  Imn.  In  1791  he 
represented  Ajaccio  in  the  National  Assembly,  and  sided 
with  the  Girondists,  but  returned  to  Corsica  in  1792;  held  a 
high  position  in  the  government  of  the  island  during  its 
occupation  by  the  British,  and  fled,  after  their  expulsion,  to 
London.  Here  he  became  the  agent  of  the  French  emigres, 
and  began  his  flying  missions  from  one  court  to  another  to 
form  plots  anil  coalitions  against  France.  In  1803  he  en- 
tered the  Russian  diplomatic  service,  and  the  interest  which 
Alexander  L  took  in  him  gave  an  oppoitunity  of  gratifying 
his  hatred  of  the  Bonapartes.  The  intimacy  which  sprang 
up  between  Napoleon  and  Alexander  after  the  Peace  of  Til- 
sit brought  him  for  a  moment  into  great  danger,  and  he 
went  first  to  Austria  and  then  to  England,  never  ceasing  to 
work  for  the  downfall  of  Napoleon.  In  1813  the  Czur  re- 
called him  to  St.  Petersburg.  He  induced  Alexander  to 
continue  the  war  in  1813,  and  he  persuaded  the  allies  to 
reject  Napoleon's  oflfei's  of  peace.  He  wrote  the  famous 
proclamation  which  preceded  the  entrance  of  the  allies  into 
France — that  they  waged  war  against  Naiioleon,  not  against 
the  French  people — and  he  had  at  last  tlie  triumph  of  sign- 
ing the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1815  as  Russian  ambassador. 
After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he  remained  in  the  Russian  serv- 
ice, and  enjoyed  great  esteem  from  the  Russian  court, 
though  perhaps  not  always  full  confidence.  In  1825  the 
Emperor  Nicholas  made  him  a  count.  lie  was  for  several 
years  ambassador  in  Paris,  where  he  was  the  oi-acle  of  the 
doctrinaires  and  detested  by  the  radicals.  In  1834  he  was 
appointed  amljassador  in  London,  but  retired  from  public 
life  in  1835.  D.  in  Paris,  Feb.  15,  1843.  See  Vuhrer,  Xo- 
tice  biographique  sur  le  Cumte  Pozzo  di  Sorgo  (Paris,  1842). 
Pozzuolana,  ijiJt-soo-o-laa'naa  :  a  rock  possessing  the 
properties  of  hydraulic  lime  or  cement,  so  called  from  the 
village  of  Pozzuola,  near  the  base  of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  where  it 
was  first  discovereil.  The  word  is  applied  to  the  pozzuo- 
lanas  proper,  tras  or  terras,  the  arenes,  some  of  the  ocherous 
earths,  and  the  sands  of  certain  graywackes,  granites,  ba- 
salts, etc.  Their  ]>rineipal  ingredients  are  silica  and  alu- 
mina, the  former  largely  preponderating,  and  most  of  them 
contain  small  quantities  of  soda  and  potash,  and  the  oxides 
of  iron  and  manganese.  Wlicn  finely  pidverized,  even 
without  previous  roasting,  and  combined  with  a  paste  of 
common  lime,  a  liydraulic  mixture  is  produced  which  will 


compare  favorably  with  the  mortars  of  hydraulic  lime  and 
sand.  Pozzuolana  itself  was  known  to  both  \'itruvius  and 
Pliny,  and  it  was  extensively  used  by  the  Romans  before 
their  day.  Vitruvius  gives  a  formula  which,  with  slight 
variations,  has  been  followed  in  Italy  ever  since  :  12  parts  of 
pozzuolana,  well  pulverized  ;  6  parts  of  quartzose  sand,  well 
washed  ;  and  9  parts  of  rich  lime,  recently  slaked.  This 
constitutes  the  mortar.  To  this  is  added  6  parts  of  broken 
stone,  porous  and  angular,  when  it  is  intended  for  concrete 
or  monolithic  masonry. 

Tras  closely  resembles  pozzuolana,  and  is  employed  sub- 
stantially in  the  same  way.  It  is  found  on  the  Rhine  be- 
tween Mayence  and  Cologne,  and  in  various  localities  in 
Holland.  The  arenes  are  a  species  of  ocherous  sand,  con- 
taining so  large  a  proportion  of  clay  that  they  can  be 
mixed  into  a  paste  with  water  without  the  addition  of 
lime,  and  used  in  that  state  for  pise  work,  as  well  a-s  for 
common  mortar.  Mixed  with  rich  lime,  they  yield  hy- 
draulic mortars  of  considerable  energy.  Many  of  the  nat- 
ural pozzuolanas  are  improved  by  a  slight  roasting,  and  an 
artificial  pozzuolana  may  be  produced  Ijy  subjecting  clay  to 
a  slight  calcination.  Brick-dust  mixed  with  common  lime 
gives  a  feel^ly  hydraulic  mortar.  Forge  scales  from  the 
smith's  anvil,  the  slags  from  iron-foundries,  and  the  ashes 
from  lime-kilns,  containing  cinders,  coal,  and  lime,  are  arti- 
ficial pozzuolanas.         Revised  by  Mansfield  Merrijian. 

PozziioH,  pot-soo-o'lee  (Gr.  Ai/taiapx'a ;  Lat.  Piifeolt) : 
town  in  the  province  of  Naples,  Italy :  on  the  northern 
shore  of  the  Bay  of  Pozzuoli,  about  6  miles  W.  of  the  city 
of  Naples  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  7-F).  The  streets  are  nar- 
row and  irregular,  and  many  of  them  very  steep.  Among 
the  buildings  there  is  little  of  interest  except  the  cathedral 
of  St.  Proculus,  which  occupies  the  site  of  a  temple  erected 
to  Augustus  by  L.  Calpurnius.  The  neighborhood  of  Poz- 
zuoli, however,  abounds  in  interest  for  the  archaeologist. 
The  famous  temple  of  Serapis  consisted  of  a  rectangular 
court  inclosed  by  forty-eight  massive  columns,  ami  having 
in  the  center  a  round  temple  with  sixteen  Corinthian  pillars 
of  African  marble.  Tlie  statue  of  Serapis  is  now  in  the 
National  JMuseum  of  Naples.  The  amphitheater  erected  in 
the  time  of  the  Flavian  dynasty  accommodated  30.000  spec- 
tators. There  are  besides  minor  i-uins,  among  which  are  a 
temple  of  Neptune  and  a  temple  in  honor  of  Hadrian,  which 
was  built  on  the  site  of  Cicero's  villa.  In  194  b.  c.  Puteoli 
was  colonized  from  Rome,  and  afterward  became  the  most 
important  commercial  port  in  Italv.  Later  it  was  sacked 
by  Alaric  (410),  Genseric  (455),  Tot'ila  (545),  and  the  Turks 
(1550),  and  ruined  by  earthquakes  in  1198  and  1538.  In 
1888-90  military  engineering  works,  a  branch  of  the  Arm- 
strong works  at  Newcastle,  were  established  here.  Agricul- 
ture, fishing,  soap-making,  etc.,  are  carried  on.    Poji.  11,967. 

Practice :  in  law,  the  form  and  manner  of  conducting 
suits  or  prosecutions  (whether  legal  or  equitable,  civil  or 
criminal)  through  the  necessary  steps  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples and  rules  governing  in  the  several  courts.  The  scope 
of  the  meaning  of  the  terra  is  not  definitely  settled,  but  it 
is  generally  used  as  excluding  the  principles  and  rules  of 
both  pleading  and  evidence,  and  referring  rather  to  the 
formal  method  and  course  of  bringing  matters  pleaded  to 
trial  and  proof,  and  of  enforcing  judgment.  The  jurispru- 
dence of  every  civilized  country,  ancient  or  modern,  has  es- 
tablished certain  formal  modes  in  which  proceedings  before 
public  tribunals  must  be  conducted,  as  being  in  general  pro- 
motive of  pulilic  justice,  and  contributing  to  private  con- 
venience. The  rules  of  practice  are  to  a  large  extent  fixed 
by  custom  or  statute,  but  the  judges  of  the  different  courts 
are  very  generally  intrusted  with  a  large  discretionary  power 
of  changing  them.  See  the  general  treatises  of  Chitty  and 
Daniell  (Chitty,  common  practice  law;  Daniel,  chancery,  or 
equity,  practice)  and  tlie  numerous  special  treatises  on  the 
practice  of  the  various  courts.  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Pradier.  James:  sculptor;  b.  at  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
May  23,  1792.  In  1809  he  entered  the  studio  of  Baron  Le- 
mot,  and  l.iy  special  favor  was  exempted  from  the  conscrip- 
tion even  in  the  height  of  Napoleon's  demands  ujion  his  em- 
pire. In  1813  he  won  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  by  his  bas- 
relief  of  Philoctetes  and  Ulysses  in  Lemnos.  He  then  spent 
the  usual  time  of  five  years  in  Rome,  and  on  his  return  ex- 
hibited a  Nymph,  now  in  the  Museum  of  Rouen,  aiul  other 
works.  During  another  stay  in  Italy,  before  1823,  he  pro- 
duced three  statues,  which  were  bought  by  the  Govern- 
ment for  the  Luxembourg  JIuseum — a  Venus,  a  Psyche,  and 
a  Son  of  Niobe.    Then  came  a  number  of  important  works 


PRADIER-FOD^Kfi 


PRAGUE 


751 


for  tlie  cliurflios  of  Paris  and  Versailles,  a  Venn.'!  now  in  tlio 
Museum  of  (trlcans,  a  group  of  tlie  T/irci'  0'nici:i  which 
stands  in  tlio  .Musmim  of  Versailles,  the  colossal  allei;orieal 
statues  of  Straxxhu/y  and  Lille  on  the  Place  de  la  Concorde 
in  Paris,  several  statues  for  the  fountain  of  Moliere  near  the 
great  National  Library,  the  Twelve  Victiiries  of  the  tomb  of 
Napoleon  in  the  Church  of  Les  Invali<les,  statues  for  the 
funeral  chapel  of  the  royal  family  at  Dreux,  four  bas-reliefs. 
Fame  for  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  and  a  great  number  of 
smaller  works  in  public  and  private  collections.  lie  was  al- 
ways as  classical  as  he  knew  how  to  be,  but  his  work  has  a 
feminine  grace  which  lie  did  not  find  in  his  (ira'co-Roman 
models.     D.  at  Bougival,  near  Paris,  June  14,  1852. 

RussKLi^  Sturgis. 

Pradier-Fod^rf.  Pail  Louis  Ekxest:  publicist;  b.  at 
Strassburg,  July  11,  1S27;  studied  law  in  SIrassburg,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Paris  in  18r)~,  and  made  Profes- 
sor of  Public  Law  in  the  Armenian  College  of  Jloorat :  ap- 
pointed in  1874  by  the  Peruvian  tJovernnu'ut  to  organize 
the  instruction  in  the  studies  of  political  anil  adunnistrative 
sciences  in  the  University  of  Lima.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
with  Chili  he  returned  to  France  and  was  made  i-vnueiller 
(judge)  of  the  court  of  appeal  of  Lyons  June  S,  1882  ;  Cheva- 
lier of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  He  has  published,  besides 
other  works.  La  (Question  de  I' Alabama  et  le  Droit  des  (fens  ; 
Commenfiiire  sur  le  Code  de  Justice  Mililaire;  Traite  de 
Droit  International  Public,  Europeen  et  Americain;  Droit 
de  la  Guerre  et  de  la  Paix  (translation  of  the  work  by  (Jro- 
tius);  Precis  de  Droit  Administratif;  Traite  de  Droit 
Commercial.  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

I'radon,  pra'i'don',  Nicolas  :  dramatic  poet  ;  b.  at 
Rouen,  France.  16::!2;  went  early  to  Paris  and  devoted  himself 
to  literature.  Of  very  mediocre  poetic  gifts,  he  was  yet  able 
to  enjoy  a  great  temporary  reputation  as  a  tragic  poet,  (irof- 
iting  bv  the  jealousies  excited  by  the  popularity  of  Racine. 
]\\ii  Ph'edre  et  Hippoli/te  (1677),  played  a  few  days  after  the 
Phedre  of  Racine,  appeared,  by  an  intrigue  of  Racine's  ene- 
mies, to  have  a  striking  triumph  over  it,  which  led  Racine 
to  renounce  the  drama.     U.  in  Jan.,  1698.  A.  G.  C. 

Pracd,  prad,  Wixtrrop  Mackwortii  :  poet  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, July  2(i,  1802  ;  educated  at  Eton  ;  was  the  associate  of 
John  ;\liiullrie  and  H.  N.  Coleridge  in  editing  The  Etonian; 
entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  graduated  1825  ; 
contributed  to  Knight's  Quarterly  Marjnzine ;  was  called 
to  the  bar  182!) :  satin  Parliament  as  a  Conservative  for  St. 
(xerniiun,  and  subsetiuently  for  Great  Yarmouth  and  Ayles- 
bury ;  became  secretary  of  the  board  of  control  1834,  and 
afterward  recorder  of  Barnstaple  and  deputy  high  steward 
for  t  he  University  of  Cambridge.  He  wrote  essays  and  grace- 
ful (VT.s  de  societe  for  the  magazines.  I),  in  London,  July 
15,  18:i!).  His  Poems  were  edited  in  Xew  York  by  R.  W. 
Griswold  (1844),  and,  with  a  Memoir,  by  \V.  IL  Whitinore  (2 
vols.,  1850),  and  a  complete  edition,  with  a  memoir  by  Rev. 
Derweiit  Coleridge,  was  issued  by  his  sister.  Lady  Young 
(2  vols.,  1864).  His  [irose  essays  were  published  in  1887  and 
an  edition  of  his  political  poems  in  1888. 

Pneneste :  See  Palestrina. 
Privrapliaelites:  See  Prekaphaelites. 

Prw'tdr  [  =  Lat.,  for  *prn'itor,  one  who  goes  before, 
dcriv.  of  pneire,  go  before;  prw,  before  -I-  ire,  go]:  in  an- 
cient Rome,  a  magistrate  creatc<l  by  the  Licinian  law  of  367 
It.  c.  as  "  lesser  colleague  "  of  the  two  consuls.  Hi  practice, 
however,  the  funeticuis  of  the  praHor  were  ciuite  cxcdusively 
judicial.  He  was  obliged  to  remain  in  the  city,  and  from 
this  fact  was  called  the  prcptor  urbanus.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  third  century  H.  v.,  with  tlui  increa.se  of  the  city's 
population,  an  additional  ju-a'tor  was  named  and  given  ju- 
risiliction  over  the  foreigners  resident  at  Rome,  and  hence 
called  the  prirtor  /leref/rinux.  With  the  expansion  of  Ro- 
man territory  new  jira-tors  were  added  initil  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius  (41-54  a.  d.)  there  were  eighteen,  though  not  all  of 
them  exercised  judicial  fuiu-tions.  In  the  I'.-irly  part  of  the 
first  century  n.  r.  the  custom  was  imiugurateil  of  practically 
exteniling  a  pra'tor's  term  of  office  by  sending  him  out  as 
governor  of  a  province  on  the  expiration  of  his  year  of 
service  in  the  city.  Hy  their  decisions  as  judges,  ami  espe- 
cially by  their  edicts  or  official  announcements  of  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  jurisdiction  would  be  based,  tin'  pra'tors 
became  most  important  agents  in  the  development  of  the 
Roman  law.  G.  L.  Hexdrukson. 

Pra'toriaiis  [from  Lat.  prieto'rium,  or  cohors  prwto'ria. 
pra'torium,  pra'torian  cohort,  orig,  the  body-guard  of  a  gen- 


eral (Lat.  prwtor,  prajtor,  general),  later  of  the  emperor] : 
t\w  personal  guard  of  the  Roman  emperors.  During  the 
time  of  the  republic  the  general  in  command  had  a  guard, 
a  cohors  pra>loria,  which  consisted  of  picked  soldiers  from 
the  legions,  whose  only  mark  of  distinction  from  the  com- 
mon soldiers  was  the  bravery  or  devotion  which  had  com- 
mended their  selection.  At  the  end  of  a  campaign  this 
guard  was  always  dissolved  and  its  members  returned  to 
the  legions.  Augustus,  however,  transformed  (in  27  n.  c.) 
his  co/iors  prcptoria  into  a  standing  body  of  troojis,  consist- 
ing of  ten  cohorts,  each  numbering  1,000  men  (horse  and 
foot),  of  which  he  kept  three  in  Rome  for  servi('e  in  the  pal- 
ace, while  the  rest  were  stationed  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  metropolis.  Tiberius  gathered  all  the  cohorts  to  Rome 
for  the  sake  of  maintaining  a  better  discipline,  and  built 
them  a  fortified  camp  in  the  northeastern  corner  of  the 
city,  and  Vitellius  increased  their  number  to  sixteen  co- 
horts. Originally,  only  Italians  were  employed  in  this 
guard,  but  later  others  were  admitted  from  regions  which 
had  become  thoroughly  Romanized.  The  term  of  service  was 
sixteen  years  ;  the  pay  double  that  of  the  legions  ;  the  rank 
of  a  private  of  the  guard  equal  to  that  of  a  centurion  in  the 
legions ;  and  when  the  time  of  service  expired  each  soldier 
received  20,000  sesterces.  In  the  hands  of  ambitious  and 
unscrupulous  prefects  their  political  influence  was  often 
superior  to  that  of  emperor  or  senate.  They  were  the  mur- 
derers of  many  of  the  emperors,  none  of  whom  could  main- 
tain themselves  without  their  aid,  and  their  voice  was  often 
the  controlling  one  in  determining  the  inijjerial  succession. 
In  the  remodeling  of  the  Roman  military  system  by  Con- 
stantine  the  pra'torian  guard  was  abolished. 

Revised  by  G.  L.  IIexdrickson. 

Pragmatic  Sanction:  a  diplomatic  term  which  origi- 
nated with  the  Byzantine  court,  and  denoted  the  highest 
and  most  solemn  state  ordinances  issued  by  the  emperor. 
It  was  early  introduced  into  France,  and  has  become  his- 
torical as  applied  to  four  imjiortant  instruments — namely, 
(1)  that  by  which  Charles  VII.  and  the  States-General  of 
France,  assembled  at  Bourges  in  143.8,  adopted  those  de- 
crees of  the  Council  of  Basel  which  authorized  the  election 
of  bishops  by  cathedral  chapters,  and  which  were  con- 
demned by  the  pope.  (See  Gallican  Church.)  (2)  That  by 
which  the  same  decrees  were  adopted  by  the  German  Diet, 
assembled  at  Mentz  in  1439.  (3)  That  by  which  Charles 
VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  who  had  no  male  issue,  settled 
the  right  of  succession  to  his  Austrian  dominions  on  his 
daughter,  Maria  Theresa.  It  was  accepted  by  the  various 
peoples  over  which  he  ruled,  consented  to  by  the  different 
members  of  his  family,  guaranteed  by  all  the  European 
states,  but  immediately  after  his  death  (Oct.  20,  1740)  the 
war  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (see  Succession  Wars) 
broke  out.  (4)  That  by  which  Charles  III.  of  Spain  in  1759 
settled  the  right  of  succession  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  on  his  third  son,  Ferdinand. 

Pragrue  (Germ.  Prag:  Czech,  Pralia):  the  capital  of 
Bohemia,  Austria ;  in  lat.  50'  5'  N.,  Ion.  14 '  25'  E. ;  on 
both  sides  of  the  Moldau,  217  miles  by  rail  N.  N.  W.  of 
Vienna  (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  3-D).  It  pre- 
sents a  picturesque  and  imposing  aspect  on  account  of  the 
diversity  of  the  surface  on  wdiich  it  stands  and  its  numer- 
ous towers,  spires,  and  domes.  It  was  surrounded  by  a  wall 
12  miles  in  circumference,  which,  since  1866,  has  been  to 
a  great  extent  removed  :  outside  this  line  extend  the  sub- 
urbs of  Karolinenthal,  Wyscherad,  Weinberg,  and  Smichow. 
The  city  proper  consists  of  five  parts — the  Altstadt,  Neu- 
stadt,  and  Josephstadt  on  the  right  baid<  f>f  the  Jloldau, 
and  tlie  Ilradschin  and  Kleinseite  on  the  left — connected 
with  each  other  by  several  bridges,  of  which  the  most  re- 
markable is  the  Karlsbriicke,  built  1358-1503  of  stone,  31J 
feet  broad.  1.572  feet  long,  resting  on  sixteen  arches  and 
adorned  with  statues.  The  Altstadt.  consisting  of  narrow, 
crooked  streets  lined  with  tall,  quaint  old  houses,  the  Xeu- 
sladt.of  a  more  modern  and  elegant  a|>p<'arance,  and  the 
Josephstadt,  the  Jewish  city,  form  the  business  part  of 
Prague  ;  the  Ilradschin  and  Kleinseite  consist  ahuost  exclu- 
sively of  palaces  and  public  binldings.  Here  is  the  imperial 
castle,  one  of  the  largest  royal  residences  in  Europe.  The 
Ilradschin  Place,  formed  by  the  immense  palaces  of  the  pri- 
mate, the  ex-Emperor  Ferdinand,  and  Prince  Schwarzenberg, 
extends  in  front  of  tlie  castle.  On  the  terrace  in  the  rear  of 
the  castle  stands  the  cathedral  of  SI.  Vitus,  a  (iothic  struc- 
ture built  1343-85.  and  containing  the  tomb  of  St.  Nepomuk, 
the  patron  saint  of  the  country,  with  his  monument  of  solid 


T52 


PRAIRIE 


PRAKRIT   LANGUAGES 


silver  weighing  30  cwt..  and  a  mausoleum  of  Carrara  marble 
erected  by  Rudolph  II.  over  the  Bohemian  kings.  Among 
the  most  prominent  buildings  of  the  Kleinseite  are  the  so- 
called  Sachsenhaus,  built  in  the  tliirteenth  century  ;  the  gor- 
geous Church  of  St.  Nicolai,  erected  in  162IS  Ijy  the  Jesuits  ; 
the  palaces  of  Waldstein  with  beautiful  gardens,  of  Fursten- 
berg  with  a  large  library  and  a  picture-gallery,  of  Nostitz 
with  a  collection  of  coins,  a  liljrary,  and  an  art  gallery,  etc. 
In  the  Altstadt  is  the  church  Am  Teyn,  the  old  Hussite 
church,  founded  in  1407.  containing  the  monuments  of  the 
two  Bohemian  martyrs,  Cyrilhis  and  Methodius,  and  of  the 
Danish  astronomer  Tycho  Brahc.  Tlie  university  has  a  li- 
brary containing  195,000  volumes  and  3,800  MSS.,  a  botan- 
ical garden,  a  laboratory,  an  observatory,  and  the  faculties 
of  theology,  law,  uiedicine,  philosophy  (which  comprises  also 
languages  and  history),  and  the  exact  sciences.  It  was  found- 
ed in  1348  by  Charles  IV.,  and  was  frequented  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  by  alsout  10.000  students,  but  subsequently 
its  importance  decreased.  It  was  reorganized  in  1881  and 
now  has  two  sides,  one  German  and  the  other  Czech.  In 
1893  the  former  had  153  teachers  and  1.248  students,  and 
the  latter  153  teachers  and  3,354  students.  There  is  also  a 
technical  high  school  of  engineering  and  chemistry  with 
(1893)  117  teachers  and  569  students.  The  suburb  of  Karo- 
linenthal,  which  is  of  modern  growth,  has  numerous  fine 
buildings,  public  gardens,  and  manufacturing  establish- 
ments ;  farther  N.  there  are  public  walks  on  the  Moldau  and 
a  great  botanical  garden.  The  commerce  and  industry  of  the 
city  are  considerable.  Leather,  glass,  liqueurs,  beer,  spirits, 
chemicals,  woolens,  linens,  metal  ware,  and  machinery  are 
raaniifactured.  Prague  was  founded  in  the  eighth  century, 
and  has  ever  since  formed  the  leading  center  of  the  Czech 
community.  After  the  connection  with  Austria,  Bohemia 
was  often  dragged  into  wars  entirely  foreign  to  its  interests, 
and  Prague,  as  its  capital  and  a  strong  fortress,  has  several 
times  sullered  severely  from  sieges  and  bombardments.  In 
1866  it  was  occupied  by  the  Prussians  without  bloodshed, 
and  a  treaty  was  concluded  here.  About  four-fiftlis  of  the 
inhabitants  are  Czech.  Pop.  (1890)  of  the  town  proper,  184,- 
109  ;  with  the  suburbs  (1893)  337,953. 

Revised  by  R.  A.  Robeets. 

Prairie  [=  Fr.  <  Late  \jaX.prala'ria,  an  extensive  mead- 
ow, deriv.  otpra'/um,  meadow  >  Fr.  pre,  meadow] :  a  word 
applied  by  the  early  explorers  of  North  America  to  the  fertile, 
grassy  plains  of  the  Mississip]ii  basin.  Prairies  are  level 
or  gently  rolling,  and  free  from  trees.  The  origin  of  their 
even  surface  has  been  described  under  Plain  {q.  v.)  as 
sheets  of  fine  glacial  drift,  or  beds  of  former  lakes,  or 
swamps,  or  deeply  weathered  plains  of  denudation.  The 
absence  of  trees  has  been  much  discussed.  It  can  not  be 
ascribed  to  deficiency  of  rainfall,  as  is  the  case  on  the  tree- 
less Western  plains,  for  over  the  prairies  the  rainfall  is  suf- 
ficient and  well  distributed  through  the  year.  It  can  not 
be  ascribed  to  excess  of  heat  or  cold,  for  trees  grow  alnui- 
dantly  in  forests  farther  S.  and  N.,  as  well  as  along  water- 
courses and  on  hilly  interruptions  of  the  prairies.  Moreover, 
trees  will  flourish  on  prairies  if  they  are  artificially  planted 
and  eared  for.  The  absence  of  trees  is  more  [ilausibly  ascribed 
to  the  prevailingly  fine  and  close  texture  of  the  prairie  soil, 
this  explanation  being  particularly  applicable  to  those 
smaller  prairies  formed  by  the  gradual  filling  of  swampy 
lakes  with  peaty  growth  and  fine  silt,  and  to  those  broader 
prairies  that  represent  the  bottom  of  glacial  lakes.  There 
is  reason  to  think  that  the  former  prevalence  of  prairie  fires, 
while  the  country  was  occupied  by  Indians,  may  have  had 
much  to  do  with  retarding  the  invasion  of  trees  into  dis- 
tricts where  they  would  naturally  spread  ;  for  trees  are 
invading  certain  prairies,  now  that  the  settlement  of  the  re- 
gion prevents  the  frequent  recurrence  of  fires. 

Tlie  prairie  region  of  the  u])per  Mississippi  valley  is  of 
extraordinary  richness  agriculturally,  and  has  tempted  rapid 
settlement  by  emigration  from  Europe  and  from  the  older 
Eastern  States ;  it  is  in  this  respect  strongly  contrasted 
with  the  semi-arid,  treeless  plains  farther  W. 

Tlie  prairies  need  no  clearing  of  trees  or  rocks,  and  they 
yield  abundant  crops.  Their  disadvantages  are  insufficient 
local  supply  of  liinlicr  for  building  and  fuel,  scarcity  of 
buililing  stone  and  road  metal,  and  generally  a  want  of 
sufficient  slope  for  good  drainage.  W.M.  Davis. 

Prairie-dog:  any  rodent  of  the  genus  rynowj/.s,  which 
forms  a  |)art  of  the  great  squirrel  family,  whose  members  are 
closely  related  to  the  ground  or  (irairie  squirrels  {Spermoph- 
ilus).    Why  they  were  called  dogs  it  is  difficult  to  see,  for 


they  neither  look,  act,  nor  bark  like  those  animals.  They 
are  considerably  larger  than  the  squirrels,  being  generally 
about  a  foot  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is  short 
and  from  about  3  to  nearly  5  inches  in  length,  according  to 
the  species.  They  inhabit  the  prairies  of  Western  North 
America,  congregate  in  large  numbers,  and  form  communi- 
ties designated  as  "  villages."  They  burrow  to  a  consider- 
able distance  in  the  ground,  throwing  up  around  the  mouths 
of  the  burrows  hillocks  on  which  they  are  wont  to  mount  and 
from  thence  survey  the  doings  of  the  community.  Horses 
are  sometimes  thrown  by  stumbling  into  such  burrows. 
Pour  si:)ecies  of  Cynomys  are  recognized,  the  best  known 
being  C.  Indimicianus,  abundant  on  the  plains  from  Kansas 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  from  Western  Texas  to  49° 
N.  The  table  still  clings  to  this  species  that  it  lives  in  har- 
mony with  the  burrowing  owl  (Speotyto)  and  rattlesnake, 
but  when  any  two  of  the  above-named  animals  are  found 
together  it  is  either  due  to  accident  or  bodes  ill  to  the  young 
"  dogs  "  or  owls.  Cyiiiitiiys  mexicanus  is  a  more  southern 
species,  while  C.  gunnisoni  and  levcurus  inhabit  uplands. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Prairie  dii  Chlen,  pra'ree-doo-shecn' :  city ;  capital  of 
Crawford  co..  Wis. ;  on  the  Mississip))i  river,  3  miles  from 
its  junction  with  the  Wisconsin,  and  the  Burlington  Route 
and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P.  railways ;  70  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Dubuque,  la.,  194  miles  W.  of  IWilwaukee  (for  location, 
see  map  of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-C).  It  has  a  large  river  trade, 
numerous  artesian  mineral  wells,  several  mills,  machine- 
shops,  and  otiier  manufactories,  St.  Mary"s  Institute,  St. 
John's  College,  a  State  l;ank.  and  two  weekly  newspapers. 
-Pop.  (1880)  3,777;  (1890)  3,131 ;  (1895)  3,286. 

Prairie-lieii,  or  Pinnated  Grouse :  a  peculiar  form  of 
the  grouse  family,  the  Tympanuchns  aniericanus,  restricted 
to  the  IT.  S.  and  found  chiefly  on  comparatively  open 
plains  and  prairies.  The  species  is  at  once  recognizable  by 
the  extension  of  feathers  to  the  lower  end  of  the  tarsus,  the 
air-bladders,  and  the  long  and  lanceolate  feathers  of  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  and  the  short,  subtruncate  tail ;  the  for- 
mer generic  name  iCnpidoiiia)  alludes  to  the  long  neck- 
feathers,  which  have  recalled  to  the  imagination  of  some 
the  wings  of  the  fabled  Cupid  ;  beneath  these  feathers  on 
each  side  i.3  a  bare  and  distensible  air-sac  developed  in  the 
male,  and  connected  with  the  organs  of  voice.  During  the 
love  season  the  male  inflates  the  bladders,  which  then  re- 
semble small  oranges,  lowers  his  head  to  the  ground,  and 
opening  his  bill  gives  utterance  to  a  single  sound,  produced 
partly  by  means  of  the  air  contained  in  these  l)ladders, 
which  are  alternately  filled  and  emptied  as  he  makes  his 
booming  noise.  If  these  sacs  are  jranctured  they  are  no 
longer  resonant.  The  prairie-hen  feeds  chiefly  upon  ber- 
ries of  various  plants,  as  well  as  upon  the  buds,  and  in  some 
places  encroaches  considerably  upon  the  domains  of  the 
farmer.  This  species  ranges  from  Illinois  westward  to  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  Jlountains,  and  formerly  abounded, 
but  has  been  decimated  by  market  gunners.  It  is  replaced 
in  the  Southwest  by  T.  pallidicinda.  A  very  closely  related 
species,  Tympanuchus  cupido,  formerly  inhabited  portions 
of  the  eastern  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  and  in  comparatively  re- 
cent times  was  common  on  Long  Island,  but  has  now  been 
almost  exterminated,  onlv  a  few  individuals  being  left  on 
JIartha's  Vineyard  and  Naushon.  This  Ijird  was  for  a  long 
time  confounded  with  the  Western  species,  and  much  con- 
fusion of  names  has  arisen  in  consequence. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Prairie-squirrel :  anv  member  of  the  genus  ,Spermoph- 
iliis,  of  the  family  Seiiiridce,  found  in  various  ])arts  of 
the  U.  S.  These  are  simjily  squirrels  frequenting  the 
ground  rather  than  the  trees,  and  having  a  shorter  tail  than 
the  tree-squirrels,  and  also  provided  with  cheek-po\iches. 
They  live  on  the  prairie-lands  of  the  Western  States  and 
Territories,  make  burrows,  and  generally  associate  in  con- 
siderable communities.  Eleven  species  are  now  recognized 
as  inhabitants  of  various  parts  of  the  U.  S. ;  the  best  known 
are  the  Spermophilus  lH-lineatus  (striped  gopher  and  prairie- 
.squirrel  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  adjacent  States),  and  the 
Spermophilus  franklini  (great  gopher  of  Illinois  and  cor- 
responding latitudes  upward  to  the  Saskatchewan  region). 
See  also  SriuRiD.K. 

Prairie-wolf:  See  Wolf. 

Priikrit  Languages  [Prakrit  is  from  Sanskr.  Prakrta, 
liter.,  natural,  common,  vulgar,  vernacular,  deriv.  ofpra/crti, 
origin]:  in  Hindu  usage,  all  languages  derived  from  San- 


PRAKRIT  LANGUAGES 


753 


skrit  as  their  cominon  source  (prakrfi) ;  Sanskritisfs  and 
linguists,  however,  restrict  the  connotation  of  tliis  term  to 
the  languages  ininieiliately  derived  from  Sanskrit,  while 
they  call  those  more  remotely  connected  with  it  bhashd, 
vernaculars,  flr  modern  Prakrits.  This  article  refers  to  the 
Prakrit  dialects  in  the  narrower  signification  of  the  word. 

Tlie  source  of  the  Prakrit  languages  is  not  the  literary 
Sanskrit  which  has  been  cultivated  by  the  Brahinaris  as 
their  sacred  language,  but  popular  idioms  of  perhai)S  equal 
anti(iuity,  which  may  be  regarded  as  constituting,  together 
with  literary  Sanskrit,  the  Aryan  dialects  of  ancient  India. 
The  Prakrits  are  lineal  descendants  from  them.  There  have 
been  brought  forward  some  very  interesting  speculations  on 
the  distribution  of  these  old  Indian  dialects  (see  Hoernle's 
Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Gandian  Languages,  houdon, 
1880,  p.  xxxi.  1!.),  but  no  certainty  is  yet  attainable. 

Though  the  root  of  the  Prakrits  is  fixed  in  the  ancient 
Indian  dialects,  they  developed  under  the  continued  influ- 
ence of  the  Sanskrit.  Their  constant  dependence  on  it  is 
more  visilde  in  the  literary  Prakrits  than  it  would  have  been 
in  the  popular  language,  but  of  the  latter  we  know  little  or 
nothing.  The  development  of  the  Prakrits  differs  consider- 
ably from  that  of  languages  which  were  entirely  left  to 
themselves.  Xearly  all  crude  forms  of  Sanskrit  words  could 
at  all  times  be  borrowed  by  Prakrit  writers,  provided  that 
they  were  made  to  agree  with  the  phonetic  laws  of  the  dia- 
lect ;  such  words  are  called  tatsamas  when  they  are  identical 
with  their  Sanskrit  prototypes,  and  tacHtharan  when  their  dif- 
ference from  them  is  caused  by  a  phonetic  change  only. 
On  their  account  all  Prakrits  look  more  archaic  than  their 
long  separation  in  time  from  their  parent  language  would 
lead  us  to  expect.  'I'his  appearance,  however,  is  deceptive, 
for  many  words  of  common  use,  as  some  verbs  (called 
tlidtrailefa-s),  numerals,  pronouns,  etc.,  which  could  not  be 
borrowed  from  the  sacred  language,  present  forms  which 
can  not  be  brought  under  the  well-known  phonetic  laws  of 
Prakrit.  The  same  renuirk  applies  to  the  so-called  dei;is — 
i.  e.  words  used  in  the  Pntkrits,  which  can  not  be  derived 
from  Sanskrit,  or  have  a  meaning  different  from  their  mean- 
ing in  Sanskrit.  The  Derhidmamdld  of  Ilemachandra  (ed. 
by  Prof.  Pischel  in  the  Bombay  Sanskrit  Series,  1880)  con- 
tains about  3,000  dei;1  words,  most  of  which  are,  as  would 
seem  at  present,  without  corresponding  originals  in  Sanskrit. 
They  are  probably  derived  from  such  Sanskrit  prototypes 
as  belonged  to  the  vocabulary  of  the  common  people.and 
were  therefore  beyond  the  remodeling  influence  of  learned 
authors. 

The  oldest  Prakrits  are  the  Pilli,  the  nearly  cognate  idioms 
of  the  inscriptions,  ranging  from  about  2.50  B.  r.  to  200  a.  d. 
The  Prakrits  proper,  which  represent  a  more  advanced  phase 
in  the  developnu-nt  of  the  language,  come  next  in  time. 
Among  them  Pai(;aci  seems  to  have  preserved  the  most 
arcliaic  character.  In  this  language  was  composed  the 
Brttatkatlia  by  (iunadhya,  probably  in  the  first  century  a.  d. 
It  has  not  yet  been  recovered,  and  we  have  but  scant  ma- 
terials to  form  an  idea  of  its  language.  Younger  than  it 
from  a  linguistic  point  of  view,  liut  oliler  froni  a  literary 
one,  is  the  Jaina  Prakrit,  or  the  language  in  which  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Jains  were  written;  but  as  these 
works  were  brought  into  their  present  shape  many  centuries 
after  their  com]iosition.  their  language  may  have  undergone 
alterations.  As  it  is.  it  resembles  the  ^laharashtri  dialect 
in  most  points,  but  it  has  nuuiy  forms  which  may  be  older 
or  be  derived  from  other  sources.  The  wi'iter  lielievcs  that 
the  .laina  Pnlkrit  represents  faithfully,  on  the  whole,  an  old 
literary  Prakrit,  and  that  the  Jlaharashtri  is  but  a  more 
modern  and  retined  variety  of  it,  which  assumed  its  present 
form  in  order  to  be  suitable  for  songs.  The  oldest  work 
extant,  written  in  .Mahariishtri,  is  the  Sapta^atakam,  or  col- 
lection of  TOO  stanzas  by  various  older  |)oets.  editeil  by  Prof. 
A.  Weber  (Leipzig,  188i).  and  in  the  h'dri/amdid  (liombay, 
1889).  Its  reputed  collector  is  King  Satavahana  or  Ilala, 
who  lived  probalily  about  the  second  century  a.  v.  Maha- 
rashtri  is  considered  by  the  Prakrit  grammarians  as  the 
standard  Prakrit:  in  it  are  composed  all  Prstkrit  poems 
.such  as  the  Si'tiihandha,  Gaudava/ia,  etc.,  and  it  has  been 
used  by  Jaina  writers  in  many  non-canonical  works  in  verse 
and  prose.  There  is,  indeed",  a  large  literature  extant  in 
Maharashtri.  The  other  dialects  are  chiefly  used  in  dramas 
in  wiiii-h  nearly  all  women  and  some  men.  not  of  tlie  highest 
rank,  speak  various  Prakrit  dialects.  The  one  most  fre- 
<|uently  employed  is  the  (,'auraseni,  but  its  use  is  almost  en- 
tirely restricted  to  prose,  while  the  same  persons  use  Malia- 
rashlri  in  their  songs  or  verses.  The  renuiiniiig  diidects, 
332 


among  which  Magadhi,  Ardhamiigadhi,  Pai?aci.  Avantiki 
are  the  most  conspicuous,  are  reserved  for  persons  of  the 
lowest  .social,  moral,  or  intellectual  status,  or  to  denote 
their  local  extraction.  Most  of  these  dialects  are  named 
after  countries.  [)robably  after  those  where  they  were  spoken. 
A  third  gnmp  of  Prakrit  diale<'ts  which  has  luuhu'gone  the 
greatest  changes  is  collectively  called  Apabhraiii<;a,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  language  of  ahhvras  or  cowherds. 
These  idioms  seem  to  have  been  the  forerunners  of  the 
modern  vernaculars  of  India,  and  to  have  gradually  merged 
into  them.  Yet  they  are  apparently  as  old  as  the  other 
Prakrits,  since  they  are  used  in  one  of  Kalidasa's  plays,  and 
some  Apabhram^a  peculiarities  occur  in  metrical  works  of 
the  Jaiiui  canon. 

All  Prakrits,  Piili  included,  differ  from  Sanskrit  in  the 
following  ]>oints:  (1)  They  have  lost  (a)  the  Sanskrit  vowels 
/■;  /;  ai \  an.  replacing  tiiem  by  a,  i,  u,  ri\  Hi;  e  or  a'l;  6 
or  ail ;  (i)  the  Visarga.  (3)  They  have  but  one  sibilant  (rare- 
ly two),  usually  s,  instead  of  the  three  sibilants  in  Sanskrit. 
(3)  They  do  not  admit  groups  of  more  than  two  consonants, 
wiiich,  besides,  must  never  be  dissimilar.  (4)  They  shorten 
long  vowels  before  two  consonants  (few  exceptions  in  Pali), 
and  occasionally  lengtlien  a  short  vowel  when  an  original 
group  has  been  reduced  to  one  consonant.  (5)  At  the  end  of 
words  they  allow  only  vowels  and  the  anusvdra.  (6)  They 
have  lost  the  dual  number.  Besides  these  special  changes, 
the  inflection,  especially  that  of  the  verb,  has  been  gradually 
simplified  till  in  the  most  modern  Prakrits  only  few  original 
forms  are  left. 

In  Prakrit  proper  single  con.sonants  between  vowels, 
which  are  generally  retained  in  Pali,  are  variously  modified. 
In  Blilharashtri  the  following  consonants  are  drojiped  be- 
tween vowels:  k,  g.  c.j,  t,  d,  y;  they  cither  disapi)ear  en- 
tirely or  with  the  Jainas  are  replaced  l)y  a  scarcely  audible 
y.  The  aspirates  kh,  git,  tit,  dh.  ph.  bit  become  h.  The  cere- 
bral surds  become  soft,  d  becomes  /;  <;  and  sh,  s;  p  and  6, 
v;  n,  n.  The  same  changes  occur  in  (^'auraseni  except  that 
the  soft  consonants,  which  are  dropped  or  replaced  by  h  in 
Jlaharashtri,  remain  unchanged,  and  the  surds  become  soft. 
This  also  applies  to  Magadhi  which,  besides,  changes  r  to  I, 
and  the  sibilants  to  f.  Paif;aci  as  taught  by  the  gramma- 
rians totally  differs  in  this  respect  from  Maharashtri  and 
the  other  dialects,  as  it  retains  all  single  consonants  between 
vowels,  and  only  changes  d  to  /,  n  to  n.  Except  these  two 
changes  Pai(;aei  scarcely  differs  from  the  Prakrit  of  the  in- 
scriptions ;  its  difference  from  Pali  consists  in  the  gram- 
matical structure  of  the  language  which  is  more  like  that 
of  Prakrit  proper.  In  the  subdialect  Cidikapai^'aci  every 
soft  consonant  is  changed  to  the  eorres])onding  surd.  Jaina 
Prakrit  has  an  intermediate  position  between  Pai^aci  and 
the  standard  Prakrit,  at  least  as  regards  single  consonants; 
for  it  optionally  retains  them.  It  may  be  mentioned  that 
it  admits  the  dental  n  when  it  is  initial  or  doubled  or  joined 
with  }t. 

Iintial  single  consonants  undergo  no  change  except  y, 
which  in  Maharashtri  and  (,'auraseni  becomes  /,  while  in 
;\lagadlii  it  retains  its  sound  ami  even/  is  changed  to  y. 

Conjunct  consonants  are  treated  in  very  much  the  same 
way  as  in  Pali  (see  the  article  on  Pali)  :  even  those  con- 
junct consonants  which  are  admitted  in  Piili.  nsjv.  It;  vtj.  yh, 
vh,  ir.  br.  tr,  si;  ki;  sm,  are  assimilated  in  Prakrit  to  JJ.  II, 
vv.  jjh.  bbh.  tt.  bh,  ft,  ss,  kk.  nth.  In  some  points  the  dialects 
differ  from  one  another.  Thus  (^aurascni  admits  yy  for  ry, 
wliich  in  Maliariishtri  is  clumged  into  j('/,  and  Magadhi  al- 
ways has  )/(/  for  the  JJ  of  the  common  Prakrit.  Magadhi 
retains  .<>■  before  other  consonants  and  substitutes  st  for  tt 
and  shth,  st  for  sth  and  rth.  fch  for  clichli.  the  Jilti-dmtdtya 
and  /i  for  ksh;  it  shares  with  the  Paivaci  and  the  older 
Prakrits  the  change  of  iiy.  iiy.Jii,  iij  to  ftii,  which  corre- 
s]ionds  to  nn  in  the  other  dialects. 

As  regards  the  inflection  of  nouns  and  adjectives,  stems 
ending  in  consonants  generally  drop  the  consonant  or  add 
a  vowel,  so  that  they  practically  become  stems  ending  in 
vowels;  but  some  stems  in  n  and  r  have  retained  a  few 
origin.al  inflected  forms.  Thus  we  have  only  three  declen- 
sions ;  (1)  stems  in  a  ;  (2)  stems  in  i  or  u  ;  (3)  the  feminine 
stems  in  a,  t,  «.  Following  are  the  paradigms  of  the  nuis- 
culine  in  a  and  the  feminines  in  a:  Singular  nom.  devo; 
voc.  di'va;  ace.  divam;  instr.  devi'iia(m);  Ani.  devde  (very 
rare):  al)I.  devdCi,  derd:  gen.  di'vassa:  loc.  di're.  derammt. 
Plural  nom.  voc.  devd;  ace.  difi';  instr.  di'fi'hiini):  gen. 
di~i'diia{m):  loc.  devesu ;  abl.  devehimto.  devesumto  {not  fre- 
(|uent).  Sing.  nom.  viahild:  voc.  maliilS;  ace.  mnhilam; 
abl.  iiiahildo:  instr.  gen.  loc.  maliilde.     Plural   nom.  voc. 


754 


PRAM 


PRAWN 


ace.  mahildo,  etc.  Nom.  ace.  plural  of  neuters  vandim  or 
vanani.  In  ^auraseni  the  abl.  is  derddo;  loe.  only  dere; 
ace.  plur.  devd.  The  pronouns  differ  only  in  the  gen.  plur., 
which  may  be  tesim,  tdsim,  or  tdnain.  The  personal  pro- 
nouns have  developed  niiiny  new  forms,  most  of  which  can 
be  accounted  for  by  the  principle  of  analogy. 

Prakrit  has  suffered  the  greatest  loss  of  forms  in  the  con- 
jugation of  verbs.  Of  original  tenses  it  possesses  but  the 
present  with  its  modes  (nidicative,  optative,  and  imperative) 
and  the  future.  The  present  or,  more  usually,  the  past  pas- 
sive participle  is  substituted  for  the  original  past  tenses — 
the  imperfect,  perfect,  ami  aorist.  The  Atmancpailam  is  lost, 
except  the  third  person  singular  and  plural,  which  are  oc- 
casionally met  with.  There  is  but  one  set  of  endings:  mi. 
xi,  i:  mo,  ha,  nti  (in  (^auraseni,  mi,  si,  di\  mha,  dha,  nti). 
The  imperative  has  peculiar  endings  in  the  second  person 
singular:  hi,  su  ((,'auraseui,  ssa);  third  sing,  u  (^auraseni, 
du) ;  third  plural  nta. 

The  original  variety  of  stems  has  given  way  to  great  sim- 
plicity ;  all  stems  of  the  present  end  in  a  or  e,  few  in  a  or  o. 
From  this  stem  the  modes  and  tenses  are  derived.  Follow- 
ing are  the  Mahilrashtri  forms  of  the  third  person  singular 
of  a  verb  in  a:  Present,  i/t«n«s ;  imperative,  i/ia;«i!«;  opta- 
tive, bhanejjd ;  future,  bhanissai or  bhanihii.  The  participle 
of  the  present  is  bluinanta,  bhanamdna;  of  the  future, 
bhanissanta,  bhaitisnamdna;  the  infinitive  is  hhanimn  ;  the 
gerund,  bhaiiinm,  bhaiiiija.  bhaititld;  the  future  pass,  part., 
bhanii/ai'va,  bhananijja:  the  perfect  pass,  part.,  bhaniya. 
There  are,  however,  many  irregular  forms  which  in  truth 
are  generally  the  regular  Sanskrit  forms.  Besides  the  active, 
Prakrit  has  a  regular  passive  verb,  bhanijjai,  or  one  directly 
derived  from  Sanskrit,  bhannai.  and  a  causative  verb,  bha- 
ndvei.  Both  active  and  causative  may  be  conjugated  in  all 
tenses  and  modes. 

For  details  of  Prakrit  grammar,  the  student  is  referred  to 
the  following  works:  Chr.  Lassen,  Institutiones  liiujurv 
Pracriticm  (Bonn,  1837);  II.  Jacobi,  Ausgewiihlie  Erzah- 
luiigen  in  Mdhdrdshlrl  (Leipzig.  1886) ;  E.  Milller,  Beitrdge 
zitr  Orammatik  des  Jaina  Prdkrit  (Leipzig,  1876) ;  and  to 
the  native  grammarians :  Vararuchi,  Prakrita  Prakd4a,ed.  E. 
B.  Cowell  (London,  1868) ;  Ilemachandra,  Grammaiik  der 
Prdkrit  Sprachen,  ed.  R.  Pischel  (Halle,  1877-80) ;  Chanda, 
Prakrita  Lakshana,  ed.  K.  lloernle  (Calcutta,  1880). 

Hermann  Jacobi. 

Pram,  Kristen  Henbiksen  :  Danish  poet  and  critic ;  b. 
in  Norway  of  Danish  parents,  17.56.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
vast  number  of  jioems  and  plays  of  slight  value,  the  best  of 
the  former  being  Emilies  Kilde  (Emilia's  Spring).  As  one 
of  the  founders  and  eilitors  of  the  critical  journal  Miiierca, 
he  exerted  great  and  beneficial  influence  on  public  taste  in 
the  north.  I),  at  St.  Thomas,  1831.  His  works  were  edited 
by  K.  L.  Rahbek  (6  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1834-29).     D.  K.  D. 

Prase :  See  Quartz. 

Pratiiias  (Gr.  Xlparlms)  of  Plilius  in  the  Peloponnesus: 
Greek  poet;  flourished  toward  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
B.  c,  and  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  satyr  drama  into 
Athens.  Interesting  fragments  of  his  lyrics  are  given  in 
Bergk,  Poeim  Lyrici  Orieci,  vol.  iii.,  5.57  foil.  (4th  ed.). 

Prato  (sometimes  called  Pra/o  (ft  Toscatia):  town;  in  the 
province  of  Florence,  Italy ;  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bisen- 
zio  ;  11  miles  N.  W.  of  Florence  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  4-D). 
It  is  situated  in  a  plain  surrounded  by  hills;  has  a  citadel 
and  a  cathedral  with  frescoes  by  Filippo  Lippi,  and  manu- 
factures of  cloth,  paper,  and  straw  liats;  the  water  of  tlie 
Bisenzio  is  largely  used  to  work  machinery.  The  chief  do- 
mestic industry  is  straw-plaiting.     Pop.  1.5,.51(). 

Pratt,  Charles:  See  Camden.  Charles  Pratt,  Earl  of. 

Pratt,  Orson  :  Mormon  apostle  and  author ;  b.  at  Hart- 
ford, Washington  CO.,  N.  Y..  Sept.  19, 1811 ;  was  eiiucated  in 
common  schools  in  (_"olum!)ia  County ;  became  a  member  of 
the  Mormon  (!lnirch.  in  which  he  was  one  of  the  "twelve 
apostles"  ;  travclc'd  extensively  as  a  preacher;  was  also  Pro- 
fessor of  J\Iathematies  in  Deseret  University,  and  Churi'h 
historian,  and  was  for  several  sessions  Speaker  of  the  Utah 
House  of  Representatives:  author  of  Divine  Aiil/ii'iilirity 
of  the.  Book  of  Mormon ;  Cubic  and  Bi-Quadralic  L'ljiia- 
/tore.9  (London,  1866):  The  Great  First  Cause;  The  Ab- 
surdities of  Iinmaterialism  ;  and  many  religious  pam- 
phlets; had  in  !\IS.  Lectures  on  Astronomy  and  Differen- 
tiiil  Ciiteiilus.  and  was  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  a  work 
to  be  entitled  A  New  System  of  the  Universe.  D.  at  Salt 
Lake  City,  Oct.  3,  1881.  ' 


Pratt,  Parlev  Parker:  Mormon  apostle;  b.  at  Burling- 
ton, N.  Y.,  Apr.  13,  1807;  joined  the  Mormon  Church  in 
1830,  and  was  a  member  in  1835  of  the  first  quorum  of  the- 
twelve  apostles;  traveled  widely  in  the  U.  S.  in  his  efforts 
to  make  converts;  visited  England  in  1840,  .where  he  es- 
tablished and  edited  at  Manchester  The  Millennial  Star; 
revisited  England  in  1846 ;  explored  parts  of  what  is  now 
Utah  in  1847  and  1849  ;  made  a  proselyting  tour  to  the  Pa- 
cific coast  in  1851  and  1834 ;  on  a  similar  tour  eastward  was 
assassinated  near  Van  Buren,  Ark.,  May  13,  1857.  He  was 
the  author  of  numerous  pamphlets,  and  of  the  works  Voice 
of  Warning  and  Instruction  to  all  People  (New  York,  1837) ; 
History  of  the  Persecutions  in  Missouri  (Detroit,  1839); 
and  Key  to  the  Science  of  Theology  (Liverpool,  1854). 

Pratt,  Zadock  :  manufacturer;  b.  at  Stephentown,  Rens- 
selaer CO.,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  30,  1790;  began  business  1811  as  a 
saddler  and  harness-maker ;  located  a  tannery  in  1834  among 
the  Catskill  Mountains  on  Schoharie  Kill,  Greene  County, 
which  became  the  nucleus  of  the  town  of  Prattsville ;  was 
elected  to  Congress  1836,  and  again  1842 ;  became  noted 
for  his  advocacy  of  cheap  postage;  procured  the  establish- 
ment of  the  National  Bureau  of  Statistics,  and  prepared 
the  plans  for  the  new  post-oftice  building  at  Washington; 
became  colonel  of  militia  1823,  State  Senator  1830,  presi- 
dential elector  1836  and  1852;  was  an  active  Democratic 
politician,  a  delegate  to  the  Baltimore  convention  of  1853 
and  president  of  many  industrial  and  benevolent  institu- 
tions.    D.  at  Bergen,  N.  J.,  Apr.  6,  1871. 

Pratt  Institute:  an  educational  institution  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y. ;  founded  in  1887,  and  endowed  by  Charles  Pratt 
(1830-1891),  and  administered  by  his  sons,  who  constitute  a 
board  of  trustees.  Its  work  is  on  four  general  lines:  (1) 
Educational,  pure  and  simple,  aiming  to  develop  the  facul- 
ties harmoniously,  as  in  the  high-school  department,  where 
art  and  manual  training  play  a  large  part  in  fitting  youth 
for  life ;  (2)  normal — the  preparation  of  teachers  ;  (3)  tech- 
nical— special  training  for  skill  in  handicraft,  applied  science, 
household  science,  domestic  art,  library  economy,  etc.;  (4) 
philanthropic  and  social — designed  to  exert  a  pronounced 
influence  on  the  comnnmity  for  industry,  thrift,  self-cul- 
ture, good-citizenship,  etc. ;  illustrated  in  free  lecture  courses 
on  social  science  and  on  art,  in  a  savings-bank,  a  free  library, 
and  a  "  neighborship  association,"  for  Pratt  Institute  ex- 
tension. 

The  departments,  each  administered  by  a  director,  are 
high  school,  with  classes  in  language,  history,  politics,  mathe- 
matics, science,  drawing  and  manual  training,  and  music; 
department  of  fine  art,  including  freehand  drawing  and 
drawing  from  life,  painting,  designing,  modeling,  normal 
training,  wood-carving,  art  needlework  ;  of  domestic  art,  in- 
cluding sewing,  dressmaking,  study  of  textiles,  millinery, 
physical  culture ;  of  domestic  science,  including  household 
economy,  cookery,  laundry-work,  hygiene,  and  homenursing; 
of  science  and  technology,  including  mechanical  drawing, 
machine  design,  mathematics,  mechanism,  strength  of  ma- 
terials, tlieory  of  sicani-cngine,  trade-school  work;  of  com- 
merce, including  plionography,  typewriting,  bookkeeping, 
and  commercial  arithmetic;  of  kindergarten,  including 
theory  and  practice ;  of  libraries,  including  library  economy 
and  management,  a  circulating  department  of  45,000  vol- 
umes, large  reading  and  reference  rooms,  with  branches; 
the  thrift,  including  investments,  deposits,  loans :  of  mu- 
seums, including  art  and  industrial  collections.  Tliere  are 
classes  for  morning,  afternoon,  and  evening.  The  average 
number  of  students  in  1894  was  4,000.  C.  M.  Pratt. 

Pratz,  Le  Page,  du :  colonizer  and  explorer ;  b.  in  Hol- 
land about  1690;  entered  the  French  army  in  early  youth; 
was  engaged  in  campaigns  in  Germany ;  became  a  member 
of  a  French  Western  Land  Company,  which  obtained  the 
grant  of  a  tract  of  land  near  New  Orleans,  lia. ;  conducted 
an  expedition  thither  1718 ;  made  fruitless  efforts  at  colo- 
nization;  ascended  tlie  Mississippi  1720,  and  settled  among 
the  Natchez ;  explored  Missouri  and  Arkansas  rivers ;  was  for 
several  years  treasurer  of  the  land  eom]ianyat  New  Orleans; 
returned  to  France  1734;  published  a  valuable  History  of 
Louisiana  (3  vols.,  1758).     D.  in  1775. 

Praivii  [M.  Eng.  prane.  jirobably  from  a  deriv.  of  Lat 
perna,  mussel]:  a  name  applied  to  many  of  the  smaller 
long-tailed  deea|iod  crustaceans,  chiefly  to  those  of  the 
Pahrmonidre  and  J^enei(l(P.  In  Europe  and  in  the  tropics 
tliey  are  used  as  food,  but  in  the  U.  S.,  except  in  the  South- 
ern'States,  they  are  little  used.  Some  of  the  species  which 
inhabit  the  seas  of  warm  climates  reach  a  large  size. 


PRAXITELES 


PRAYER 


755 


Praxit'eles :  a  Greek  sculptor ;  head  of  the  Attic  school ; 
b.,  it  is  thouglit,  at  Athens  about  393  B.  c.  Of  his  life  noth- 
ing is  known  ;  of  his  works  we  have  an  idea  throujjli  tradi- 
tion, descriptions,  images  on  coins,  copies,  and  fragments. 
His  favorite  material  was  marble,  though  he  wrouglit  also 
in  bronze.  The  Cuidian  Venus,  celebrated  in  antiquity, 
which  travelers  went  to  Cnidus  expressly  to  sec,  which  King 
Nicomedes  is  said  to  have  offered  in  vain  to  buy  at  the  price 
of  the  whole  debt  of  the  island,  we  know  by  copies,  one  of  the 
most  famous  being  in  the  Vatican  Museum,  partly  concealed 
by  metal  drapery.  Another  famous  Venus  was  at  Cos.  The 
Cupid  of  tlie  Vatican,  the  Sittyr  in  the  Capitol,  the  Apollo 
Sauroktonos  in  Florence  and  tlie  Louvre,  the  Narcissus  in 
Naples,  familiar  to  visitors  at  the  galleries  and  to  lovers  of 
art,  are  thouglit  to  be  reproductions,  replicas,  or  copies  of 
works  of  his.  One  statue  only  is  known  which  is  certainly 
his  own  work,  the  famous  Ihnnes  at  Olympia  in  Greece. 
Praxiteles  has  been  called  the  sculptor  of  the  beautiful,  as 
Phidias  was  of  the  sublime. 

Pray,  Isaac  Clark:  journalist  and  actor;  b.  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  May  l.l,  181:!;  graduated  at  Amherst  College  18*3; 
became  a  journalist  at  Boston  and  New  York,  and  subse- 
quently a  successful  theatrical  manager  and  actor,  and  both 
in  the  U.  S.  and  in  England  aided  in  the  professional  train- 
ing of  several  theatrical  celebrities,  including  Charlotte 
Cushman  :  published  Prose  and  Verse  (1835),  Pwews  (1837), 
Book  of  the  Drama  (18.51),  Jleinoirs  of  James  G.  Bennett 
(1855) ;  was  author  of  several  burlesques  and  other  plays,  in- 
cluding a  tragedy,  Virginius:  edited  several  magazines  and 
other  i)eriodieals,  and  conducted  the  Philadelphia  Inquirer 
1859-60.     D.  in  Xew  York,  Nov.  28.  1869. 

Revised  by  B.  B.  Vallextine. 

Prayer  [from  O.  Fr.  preiere  (  >  Pr.  priere)  <  Lat.  pre- 
fariu'i.  pertaining  to  prayer,  deriv.  of  preca'ri,  entreat, 
pray  >  O.  Fr.  preier,  whence  Y^ng.  pray}  :  the  communion 
of  the  soul  with  God.  It  is  the  necessary  result  of  the  rec- 
ognition of  the  dependent  relation  of  the  creature  to  the 
Creator.  It  may  be  exceedingly  various  in  form,  "  uttered 
or  unexpressed,"  but  in  its  most  perfect  form  it  is  the  ex- 
pression of  thought,  feeling,  or  purjiose  to  God  in  language. 
Such  prayer  will  consist  in  adoration,  thanksgiving,  confes- 
sion, petition,  and  intercession.  Adoration  expresses  a 
sense  of  the  excellence,  glory,  majesty,  and  holiness  of  God, 
and  delight  in  his  works  of  providence  and  redemption.  It 
is  the  natural  utterance  of  every  heart  in  which  there  is 
a  true  love  for  him,  which  must  delight  in  his  excellences. 
The  prayers  of  the  Bible,  specially  the  Psalms,  are  full  of  it. 
Thanksgiving  recognizes  with  gratitude  the  special  good- 
ness of  God,  as  it  has  been  manifested  in  particular  benettts 
conferred.  Confession  recognizes  sinfulness,  general  or  ex- 
plicit, with  the  expression  of  penitence,  the  promise  of  ref- 
ormation, and  the  request  for  pardon  and  for  grace.  Its 
language  is :  '•  Forgive  us  our  debts  as  we  forgive  our  debt- 
ors." All  ap[)roach  to  God  partakes  of  that  original  repent- 
ance by  wliich  nuvn  gives  himself  to  God  in  conversion,  and 
all  prayer  is  the  repetition  of  the  cry  of  the  publican  (Luke 
xviii.  13),  especially  when  sins  have  long  been  persisted  in, 
and  when  prayer  is  the  resunijition  of  long  neglected  duty 
(Ezra  ix.  6-15,  X.  11).  Petition  may  properly  embrace  our 
daily  physical  wants,  "our  daily  brcail,"  the  general  course 
of  our  life,  its  great  affairs,  our  work  and  career,  success  in 
our  efforts  to  perform  all  the  ordinary  and  extraordinary 
duties  of  our  lot  and  station  (Romans  i.  10),  our  special  ne- 
cessities also,  whether  in  times  of  crisis,  in  sickness,  and  want, 
or  in  more  common  times  (Isaiah  xxxviii.  3;  Matt.  xxvi. 
36  ff. ;  llel).  v.  7;  Psalms  xxxv.,  xxxviii..  xl.,  etc.);  but 
particularly  it  should  include  spiritual  gifts  of  every  sort, 
which  constitute  the  burden  of  tlie  biblical  prayers  (Eph.  i. 
16,  iii.  14-19:  .lohn  xvii.).  and  prayer  for  which  is  never 
denied  since  it  is  "according  to  the  will  of  God"  (1  .lohn  v. 
14;  Luke  xi.  13);  and  it  reaches  its  culmination  in  the 
great  petition,  embodying  substantially  all  others:  "Thy 
kingdom  come,  thy  will  be  done  on  earth  as  it  is  in  heaven." 
Intercession  is  both  recommended  by  the  example  of  our 
Lord,  who  completes  therein  his  sacerdiital  office  (lleb.  vii. 
25,  ix.  23-28),  and  comm.anded  by  the  apostle  (1  Tim.  ii.  1), 
and  shouhl  embrace  every  person  and  every  cause  with 
which  the  sup|iliant  has  a  natural  connection,  even  his 
enemies  (Matt.  v.  44). 

Prayer  is  founded  upon  the  belief  that  it  constitutes  a 
real  transaction  between  the  soul  and  God,  leading  to  real 
and  dediiite  consequences.  Its  effects  may  be  subjective, 
preparing  the  soul  to  receive  the  gifts  of  God,  exerting  a 


soothing,  purifying,  and  elevating  influence  upon  it ;  or  ob- 
jective, in  the  consequent  communication  to  the  soul  of 
gifts  of  gra<'e  or  the  conferment  of  outward  benefits.  It 
has  its  conditions,  however.  The  suppliant  must  corae  in 
the  s|>irit  of  true  submission  and  reconciliation  to  God,  else 
there  is  no  communion  (Psalms  Ixvi.  18).  Plvery  prayer  must 
contain  implicitly  or  explicitly  the  petition  "Thv  will  be 
done"  (Matt.  vi.  io,  xxvi.  42).  "Hence  it  can  not  be  dicta- 
tion ;  nor  the  substitution  in  the  intent  of  the  petitioner  of 
the  will  of  man  for  that  of  God,  which  would  make  prayer, 
if  it  were  thus  answered,  a  calamity  to  the  universe ;  nor 
the  substitution  of  the  wisdom  of  man  for  that  of  God  :  but 
it  is  the  petition  of  a  child,  and  must  have  the  childlike 
spirit  of  a  subject,  and  must  have  the  loyal  spirit  of  one 
who  recognizes  both  limitations  and  shortcomings.  Faith 
is  also  a  condition  (Heb.  xi.  6).  It  lays  hold  of  God  with 
confidence  in  him,  and  it  may  at  times  rise  into  the  realm 
of  moral  certainty,  as  was  the"case  in  the  faith  that  wrought 
miracles  (Matt.  xxi.  22),  or  as  when  perfect  obedience  has 
brought  perfect  union  with  Christ  (.John  xv.  7),  when  per- 
fect sympathy  with  God  brings  the  knowledge  that  petitions 
are  in  accord  with  his  will  (1  John  v.  14,  15),  and  when  the 
spirit  iuspireth  the  petition  (Romans  viii.  26).  Prayer  must 
also  be  offered  in  the  name  of  Christ  (John  xiv.  1.3',  14,  xvi. 
23,  24,  26),  that  is,  upon  the  gromid  of  his  person  and  work, 
and  by  a  believer  in  liim,  pleading  his  intercession. 

The  objections  to  the  possibility  or  the  reality  of  prayer 
are  mostly  evacuated  by  the  true  understanding  of  its  na- 
ture. If  it  be  said  that  God  is  too  great  to  answer  prayer, 
the  reply  is  that  he  may,  and  as  it  seems  actually  does,  call 
man  into  a  co-operation  with  him  in  his  greatest  works 
through  prayer.  The  existence  of  general  laws  in  the  uni- 
verse which,  it  is  said,  do  not  permit  of  exceptions  in  an- 
swer to  prayers,  may  be  so  viewed  as  to  imply  that  there  is 
back  of  these  laws  no  conscious  .Spirit,  in  which  case  the  re- 
ply is  the  whole  arginnent  of  theism.  Or  these  laws  may  be 
viewed  merely  as  an  observed  fact,  so  invariable  as  to  leave 
no  place  for  the  supposition  of  their  continual  interruption. 
But  if  there  is  a  personal  God,  the  laws  of  the  universe  are 
modes  of  his  operation,  and  not  forces  superior  to  him 
which  he  can  not  administer.  Nor  does  the  answer  of 
prayer  necessarily  involve  the  suspension  of  laws,  except  in 
the  sense  that  one  suspends  the  law  of  gravitation  when  he 
lifts  a  stone.  So  far  as  man  can  say,  every  ordinary  answer 
to  prayer  may  be  in  the  strictest  accord  with  natural  law. 
Certainly  no  law  is  violated  when  a  widow  prays  for  bread, 
and  when  the  thought  is  suggested  to  the  mind  of  some 
prosperous  friend  to  send  her  just  then  an  abundance  of 
food.  It  is  the  "just  then  "  wliich  shows  the  hand  of  God  ; 
but  law  is  not  violated.  Neither  does  the  divine  predeter- 
mination destroy  the  reality  of  prayer.  Let  all  things  be 
foreknown  and  foredetermined.  Including  both  my  prayer 
and  Its  answer :  still  I  have  a  free  will,  and  can  pray  or  de- 
cline to  pray,  and  hence  my  prayer  is  a  real  act  ;  and  the 
answer  is  just  as  real  as  if  it  never  entered  into  the  thought 
of  God  till  I  had  already  prayed.  The  whole  difficulty  about 
prayer  being  answered  or  not  answered  resolves  itself  into 
one  of  the  manner  in  which  the  divine  and  human  agencies 
co-operate.  The  objection  that  as  a  fact  many  prayers  are 
not  answered  is  met  by  the  consideration  that,  if  an  answer 
is  not  given  in  the  precise  form  in  which  it  was  put.  it  is 
because  of  the  higher  wisdom  of  the  Giver,  which  was  in- 
voked in  and  with  the  petition,  and  by  the  affirmation  that 
no  true  petitioner  ever  fails  to  find  some  form  of  answer  to 
his  request. 

The  forms  of  prayer  have  been  quite  various.  The  ancient 
Greeks  offered  prayers  and  vows  together.  The  worshiper 
raised  his  eyes  and  hands  toward  heaven  or  toward  the  im- 
ages of  the  gods.  lie  stood,  or  if  in  deeper  earnest  he  and  at 
times  all  the  assembly  knell.  Suppliants  wore  garlands  on 
their  heads  or  necks,  and  carried  boughs  of  olive  or  laurel 
twined  with  wool,  with  which  they  touched  the  knees  or 
cheeks  of  the  Images.  Libations  of  wine,  water,  or  oil  were 
poured  out.  The  Romans  covered  their  heads,  bowed  to  the 
ground,  moved  completely  rouiiil  from  right  to  left,  as  If  to 
meet  the  god  from  whatever  direction  he  might  approach  ; 
then,  with  the  right  hand  on  the  mouth,  looked  toward  the 
east  or  toward  the  altars  or  Images.  In  higher  devotion  they 
knelt  or  were  prostrate,  and  laid  hold  on  the  altar.  Public 
prayers  were  oifered  by  the  priest  or  magistrate.  The  Mo- 
saic law  took  prayer  for  granted ;  the  temple  was  "  the 
house  of  jirayer "  where  public  prayer  accompanied  the 
sacrifices  and  where  private  prayer  was  offered.  Those  who 
were  absent  from  the  teraj)le  prayed  toward  It.     The  chief 


756 


PRAYER-BOOK 


PRECAMBRIAN  FLORA 


hours  for  the  duty  were  9  A.  M.,  12  m.,  and  3  p.  M.  To  these 
were  added  the  beginninj;  and  end  of  night  and  the  time  of 
eating.  According  to  the  degree  of  his  fervor,  the  Jew 
stood,  bowed,  knelt,  or  prostrated  himself.  Free  prayers 
were  constantly  otfered,  though  forms  were  used  with  tithe- 
offerings  and  certain  blessings,  but  Solomon's  prayer  at  the 
dedication  of  the  temple  seems  to  have  been  the  beginning 
of  a  liturgy,  which  at  the  time  of  Christ  had  developed  into 
a  set  service  before,  during,  and  after  the  sacrifice.  A  simi- 
lar liturgy  was  used  in  the  synagogue,  from  which  the  peti- 
tions of  the  Lord's  Prayer  were  probably  drawn.  Prayer 
was  accompanied  by  almsgiving  and  fasting,  and  was  made 
in  conspicuous  places,  with  many  vain  repetitions,  by  formal- 
ists who  loved  display.  Among  the  early  Christians  pray- 
er was  the  chief  service,  and  was  counted  the  main  bond  of 
unity.  In  their  methods  they  followed  Jewish  customs 
largely.  The  pastor  led  the  congregation,  using  both  free 
prayer  and  forms.  A  strong  liturgical  tendency  appears  early 
in  both  the  East  and  the  West.  Worship  was  first  simple, 
then  intricate,  then  regulated,  then  liturgical.  Liturgies 
were  made  first  by  the  bishops,  then  by  the  metropolitans. 
Early  Christians  knelt  in  ordinary  prayer,  but  stood  on  the 
Lord's  Day  and  from  Easter  to  Whitsunday,  in  honor  of 
Christ's  resurrection.  Prayer  at  all  times  and  in  all  places 
was  commended,  though  the  temple  and  other  places  of 
meeting,  the  Lord's  Days,  occa.sional  appointed  days,  morn- 
ing and  night,  times  of  eating,  times  of  success  or  distress, 
and  crises  of  every  kind  were  deemed  peculiarly  appropriate. 

Frank  Hugh  Foster. 

Prayer-book  :  See  Liturgics  and  Episcopal  Church, 
The  Protestant. 

Preai'Iiing  Friars  :  See  Dominicans. 

Prc-A(laiiiites :  men  living  before  the  time  of  Adam. 
This  term  has  been  adoiited  by  various  writers  to  designate 
the  tribes  or  nations  which  they  believe  existed  on  the  earth 
before  the  date  assigned  by  the  usual  scriptural  chronology 
to  the  appearance  of  Adam  and  Eve.  Before  the  investi- 
gations of  geologists  and  archipologists  in  the  nineteenth 
century  there  was  no  positive  reason  for  imputing  a  greater 
antiquity  to  the  human  race  than  that  given  in  the  book  of 
Genesis.  This  itself  was  not  definitely  fixed,  as  the  chrono- 
logical data  of  the  Pentateuch  differ  widely  in  the  three 
authoritative  ancient  versions  known  as  the  Masoretic  He- 
brew text,  the  Septuagint  (which  is  the  early  Greek  transla- 
tion), and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch.  The  usual  date  for 
the  creation  of  Adam  given  in  English  works  is  that  de- 
rived by  Archbishop  Usher  (about  1660)  from  the  Hebrew 
text,  and  places  it  4.004  years  before  the  birtiii  of  Christ. 
The  calculations  of  William  Hales  (about  1810)  founded 
upon  the  Septuagint  assigned  the  creation  of  Adam  to 
5411  B.  c.  Still  wider  variations  have  been  advanced  by 
other  competent  orthodox  scholars,  so  that  it  is  stated  in  a 
publication  bv  the  University  of  Oxford  (Chronological 
Tables,  1835)  that  "  not  less  than  300  different  dates  'have 
been  assigned  as  the  era  of  the  creation,  varying  in  the  ex- 
tremes no  less  than  3,000  years."  The  decided  tendency 
among  the  ripest  scholars  of  all  Christian  denominations  is 
to  regard  the  account  of  the  Pentateuch,  in  respect  to  time, 
as  symbolical,  indicative  of  the  relation  of  the  primitive 
human  race  to  their  Creator,  and  not  as  an  historical  narra- 
tion. The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  the  location  of  Adam's 
creation.  It  was  long  supposed  to  have  been  somewhere 
in  the  valley  of  the  river  Euphrates,  and  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  discover  the  precise  spot  once  occupied 
there  by  the  Garden  of  Eden  ;  but  a  closer  examination  of 
the  text  shows  that  Eden  lay  eastward  from  the  scene  of 
Adam's  first  existence  as  described,  and  that  the  river  Nile 
(Gihon)  was  its  western  boundary.  From  these  exegetical 
considerations,  the  term  "  pre-Adamites "  means  simply 
those  memliers  of  the  human  race  who  lived  previous  to 
the  beginning  of  the  chronological  records  in  the  book  of 
Genesis.  That  there  were  suc^h.  and  in  considerable  num- 
bers, is  distinctly  implied  by  that  book  itself,  for  there 
.would  have  been  no  necessitv  for  placing  a  mark  on  Cain  to 
prevent  him  being  killed  if"  there  had  been  no  one  living 
but  members  of  his  own  family  ;  nor  could  he  have  built  a 
city  if  there  had  been  none  to 'live  in  it.  It  is  entirely  con- 
sistent, therefore,  with  faith  in  the  scriptural  narrat'ive  to 
recognize  an  antifiuity  of  the  human  race  indefinitelv  greater 
than  that  attributed  to  it  in  the  chronology  of  Archbishop 
Usher.  The  necessity  of  so  doing  became' apparent  when 
geologists  and  archa-ologists  discovered  in  undisturbed  de- 
posits of  vast  antiquity  the  fragments  of  human  bones  and 


the  relics  of  human  industry.  These  have  been  exhumed 
in  every  continent,  showing  that  at  a  very  remote  epoch 
man  was  not  only  living  upon  the  earth,  but  had  already 
wandered  widely  over  its  surface.  The  scene  of  his  first 
home  can  only  approximately  be  defined,  and  the  term  of 
his  existence  as  a  species  can  not  from  such  data  be  estab- 
lished with  accuracy  :  but  in  the  opinion  of  most  competent 
observers  it  must  be  estimated  by  tens  of  thousands  of 
years.  Furthermore,  investigations  on  the  sites  of  the  oldest 
known  cities  of  the  valleys  of  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates 
prove  beycjnd  question  that  several  of  them  were  founded 
and  were  the  scenes  of  a  developed  civilization  long  ante- 
cedent to  the  remotest  date  above  mentioned  as  that  of  the 
creation  of  Adam.  Prof.  Norman  Lockyer  has  demon- 
strated from  astronomic  data  that  some  of  the  temples  of 
Philie  in  Egypt  were  constructed  not  later  than  6400  B.  c. ; 
and  the  explorations  of  Nitfir  in  Babylonia  show  it  to  have 
been  a  city  already  old  in  age  at  Usher's  alleged  date  of  the 
creation  of  the  world.  Even  in  America,  usually  considered 
to  have  been  the  latest  of  the  continents  to  have  received 
its  human  population,  relics  have  been  found,  both  in  the 
northern  and  southern  continents,  which  indicate  that  its 
extensive  area  was  at  least  sparsely  inhabited  by  tribes  of 
low  culture  when  many  animals  were  living  which  are  now  ■ 
extinct,  and  when  the  climate  and  the  distribution  of  land 
and  water  were  widely  different  from  those  now  prevailing. 
This  means  a  lapse  of  many  thousand  years  since  the  earliest 
men  reached  its  shores. 

It  may  be  said  in  conclusion  th.at  the  term  "  pre-Adam- 
ites "  is  no  longer  regarded  as  sufficiently  accurate  for  the 
language  of  science.  It  is  better  to  employ  the  phrase  "  lire- 
historic  men,"  meaning  those  who  lived  before  the  recorded 
dates  of  any  authentic  historical  narratives.  This  avoids 
the  impossible  effort  to  frame  a  correspondence  between  the 
scriptural  account  of  creation,  which  was  certainly  not  in- 
tended to  be  a  treatise  on  geology,  and  the  results  of  modern 
scientific  research,  which,  upon  this  subject,  have  by  no 
means  reached  harmonious  conclusisns  among  themselves. 

D.  G.  Brinton. 

Preble,  preb'l.  Edward  :  naval  officer ;  b.  at  Falmouth 
(now  Portland).  Me..  Aug.  15.  1761 ;  in  1777  embarked  in  a 
privateer,  and  in  1779  entered  as  midshipman  in  the  pro- 
vincial navy  ;  was  taken  prisoner  in  New  York  harbor,  and 
upon  his  release  served  as  first  lieutenant  on  board  the  sloop 
of  war  Winthrop.  with  which  he  remained  until  178"2,  greatly 
distinguishing  himself  by  boarding  with  four  men  an  armed 
British  brig  off  Castine,  Me.,  and  capturing  her  under  fire. 
In  1799  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Essex, 
and  in  1803  he  commanded  the  squadron  sent  against  Trip- 
oli. Arriving  at  Tangier,  he  concluded  peaceful  negotia- 
tions with  the  Sultan  (jf  Morocco,  after  which  he  proceeded 
to  blockade  Tripoli,  which  he  subjected  to  repeated  vigor- 
ous bomliardments,  interrupted  by  several  sharp  engage- 
ments with  tlie  Tripolitan  gunboats.  In  Sept.,  1804,  hav- 
ing been  relieved  by  Com.  Barron,  he  returned  home,  and 
received  the  thanks  of  Congress  and  a  gold  medal.  D.  at 
Portland.  Aug.  21,  1807. 

Preble,  George  Henrt  :  naval  officer;  b.  at  Portland, 
Me.,  Feb.  25,  1816  :  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  Oct. 

10.  1835.  Served  in  Florida  against  the  Seminoles.  and  in 
the  Mexican  war  participated  in  the  capture  of  Alvarado 
and  Tampico:  was  in  several  actions  with  Chinese  pirates 
in  1854-55;  commanded  the  Katahdin  at  the  taking  of 
New  Orleans  in  1862,  and  the  fleet  brigade  in  the  battles 
of  Honey  Hill  and  De  Vaux's  Neck  in  1864.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  rear  admiral  Se])t.  30,  1876;  retired 
Feb.  25.  1878.  D.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Mar.  1,  1885.  He  was 
the  author  of  History  of  the  American  Flog  (Albany,  1872); 
History  of  Steam  Kavigation  (Philadelphia,  1883);  and 
other  historical  works.  Revised  by  C.  Belknap. 

Preble,  William  Pitt,  LL.  D.  :  jurist ;  b.  at  York.  Me., 
Nov.  27,  1783;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  1806;  was 
tutor  in  mathematics  there  1809-11  ;  became  a  lawyer  and 
a  leader  of  the  Democratic  party  ;  was  U.  S.  district  attor- 
ney 1813;  settled  at  Portland  1818;  was  a  leading  member 
of  the  convention  which  formed  the  State  constitution  of 
Maine  1819;  on  the  inauguration  of  the  new  State  govern- 
ment was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court 
1820 ;  was  minister  to  the  Netherlands  1829 ;  held  many 
other  public  offices  ;  was  the  first  president  of  the  Atlantic 
and  St.  Lawrence  Railroad  1847.     D.  at  Portland,  Me.,  Oct. 

11,  lfS57. 

Precainbrinii  Flora:  See  Plants,  Fossil. 


PRECEDENTS 


PEECIOUS  STONES 


757 


Prec'edents  [from  Lat.  prmce' dens,  pres.  i)artic.  of  prm- 
c^'dere,  go  before,  preeede  ;  pr(s.  before  +  ce'dere,  go]  :  (11 
forms  of  procedure,  of  conveyancing,  and  the  like,  which 
have  been  approved  by  usage  or  judicial  aulhority,  and 
therefore  may  be  followed  safely  ;  (2)  decisions  of  I  he  courts 
which  declare  a  rule  of  law  susceptible  of  application  to 
other  cases. 

Legal  precedents  have  a  place  in  every  system  of  juris- 
prudence, but  English  law  is  peculiar  in  the  limits  and  the 
value  which  it  i)uts  upon  them.  It  confines  them  to  the 
jwlicial  decisions  of  actiuilly  litigated  cases.  The  opinions 
of  distinguished  lawyers  anil  text-writers  are  not  precedents, 
and  British  judges  frequently  condemn  the  practice  of 
eiling  such  opinions  even  upon  the  argument  of  a  cause. 
(i'nion  Bank-  vs.  Mu/i.s/ei;  37  Chancery  l)ivisi(m  51.)  In 
the  V.  S.,  however,  such  practice  is  not  discouraged  by  the 
courts,  but  tlie  oiiinion  of  a  text-writer  is  never  treated  as  a 
precwlent. 

The  value  of  a  judicial  precedent  varies  with  the  ques- 
tions involved  and  with  the  rank  of  the  court  from  which  it 
enumates.  If  the  (luesticm  is  one  of  procedure,  and  espe- 
cially if  it  is  decided  without  serious  contest,  the  court  will 
not  consiiler  itself  bound  by  its  prior  decision.  (Cross  vs. 
Jiur/x-e,  140  V.  .S.  82.)  The  declaration  of  a  rule  of  substan- 
tive law  by  a  court  of  last  resort  is  binding  on  all  inferior  tri- 
liunals  within  that  jurisdiction,  and  will  not  be  overruled  by 
the  same  court  unless  it  is  convinced  that  the  principle  laid 
down  is  erroneous  ami  works  serious  hardshi|).  The  strong- 
est argument  in  favor  of  this  practice  is  that  of  convenience. 
It  has  been  stated  in  the  following  terms  by  Chancellor 
Kent:  "It  would  therefore  be  extremely  inconvenient  to 
the  public  if  precedents  were  not  duly  regarded  and  implic- 
itly followed.  It  is  by  the  notoriety  and  stability  of  such 
rules  that  professional  men  can  give  safe  advice  to  those 
who  consult  them,  and  people  in  general  can  venture  with 
confidence  to  buy  and  trust,  and  to  deal  with  each  other. 
If  judicial  decisions  were  to  be  lightly  disregarded,  we 
should  disturb  and  unsettle  the  great  landmarks  of  prop- 
erty." This  '■  sort  of  consecration,"  to  use  Sir  Ilenry 
Maine's  expression,  which  English  law  gives  to  judicial  prec- 
edents, exercises  a  most  conservative  influence  in  legal  de- 
velopment. At  times  it  has  conserved  error  and  barred 
legal  progress.  This  is  especially  notable  in  international 
law,  where  the  rules  evolved  by  the  courts  based  on  early 
precedents  are  frequently  less  enlightened  and  benignant 
than  those  formulated  by  military  commanders,  who  are 
not  bound  by  the  precedents  of  an  earlier  and  less  humane 
.■ige. 

After  a  decision  of  the  court  of  last  resort  has  been  over- 
ruled it  is  treated  not  as  having  been  bad  law,  but  as  not 
having  been  law  at  all.  It  still  concludes  the  parties  to  the 
case  in  which  it  was  rendered,  but  it  does  not  afl'ect  the 
rights  of  other  parties  depending  on  the  question  erroneous- 
ly (leciiled. 
I  In  the  U.  S.  the  decisions  of  State  courts  are  binding  prec- 

edents upon  the  Federal  tribunals  when  they  decide  (pies- 
tions  dependent  upon  local  statutes  or  local  usages  of  a 
fixed  ann  permanent  operation,  such  as  the  rights  and  titles 
to  immovables,  but  not  when  they  decide  questions  of  gen- 
eral commercial  law.  lialtimnre  Railivdi)  vs.  Baiu/ft,  149 
U.  S.  ;!()8.  Francis  M.  BuiiuicK. 

Precession  of  llie  Equinoxes  [precession  is  from  Lat. 
prwce'dere,  go  before  or  ahead  ;  pne,  before  +  ce'dere,  go] : 
a  slow  change  in  the  position  of  the  equinox  among  the 
stars,  of  such  a  nature  that  the  pole  of  the  equator  moves 
around  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic  in  a  period  of  about  25,000 
years.  It  wa.s  first  discovered  througli  .a  dilTerence  in  the 
length  of  the  year  as  delermined  by  the  passage  of  thi'  sun 
through  the  equinox,  ami  by  its  angular  distance  from  a 
bright  star.  The  tlistance  of  the  smi  from  the  si  ar  Spica  or 
o  Virginis  was  determined  from  lime  to  time  by  Ilipparchus 
and  other  ancient  astronomers  by  measuring  the  distance 
between  the  sun  and  the  moon  shortly  before  sunset,  and 
lietween  the  moon  and  star  after  sunset.  This  double  meas- 
ure was  necessary,  because  the  star  and  the  sun  could  never 
be  seen  at  the  same  time.  .\t  the  end  of  a  year,  when  the 
earth  ha<l  made  a  revolution  arounil  the  sun.  the  same  dis- 
tance could  again  be  measured.  I5y  repealing  the  measures 
at  an  interval  of  one  or  two  centuries  the  true  time  of  the 
revolution  of  the  earth,  or  the  sidereal  year,  could  thus  be 
determined.  In  this  way  it  was  found  by  IIip]iarchus  and 
IMolemy  that  the  length  of  the  sidereal  year  was  a  few 
minutes   more  than   ;!()5^  days;    but   the   interval   between 


two  passages  of  the  sun  over  the  equator  was  found  to  be  a. 
few  minutes  less  than  .S65J  days.  This  showed  the  point  at 
whicdi  the  sun  cros.sed  the  equator.  This  point  was  called 
the  equinox,  and  was  subject  to  a  continual  motion  from  E. 
toward  \V.  among  the  stars.  According  to  the  ancient  as- 
tronomers the  motion  was  a  degree  in  a  hundred  years,  so 
that  a  complete  revolution  would  have  required  30,000  years. 
Modern  astronomy,  however,  shows  it  to  be  greater,  about 
50'25"  in  a  year,  and  therefore  a  degree  in  alxiul  seventy- 
one  years;  but  the  amount  varies  with  the  oblicpiity  of  the 
ecliptic,  and  will  increase  for  several  centuries  to  come. 

When  the  motion  of  the  earth  around  the  sun  was  under- 
stood, it  was  seen  that  precession  meant  sinij)ly  a  gradual 
change  in  the  direction  of  the  earth's  axis.  Newton  showed 
that  this  change  was  due  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and 
moon  upon  the  slight  protuberance  of  the  earth  around 
the  equator.  The  effect  of  the  moon  is  about  twice  that  of 
the  sun.  Were  the  earth  perfectly  s|>herical,  there  never 
could  be  any  change  in  the  direction  of  its  axis;  but  owing 
to  the  centrifugal  force  generated  by  its  rotation  on  its  axis, 
the  e(|Uatorial  parts  an^  slightly  expanded,  and  tlie  figure  is 
changed  into  that  of  a  spheroid,  flattened  at  the  poles,  and 
bulging  at  the  equator.  In  consequence  of  this  bulging, 
there  is  a  certain  excess  of  attraction  upon  those  parts  of 
the  equator  nearest  the  sun  or  moon,  and  a  deficiency  in 
those  parts  farthest  from  it.  This  slight  effect  causes  the 
unceasing  change  which  has  been  described.  The  action  is 
somewhat  analogous  to  that  which  makes  a  top  in  rapid 
rotation  perform  a  slow  motion  round  and  round,  so  as  to 
describe  the  surface  of  a  cone.  If  the  sun  and  moon  were 
always  in  the  plane  of  the  earth's  ecpiator — that  is,  if  there 
were  no  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic — the  attraction  of  these 
bodies  upon  the  northern  and  southern  hemisi)heres  would 
be  symmetrical,  and  there  would  be  no  such  motion  as  has 
been  described,  and  therefore  no  precession.  The  latter 
arises  from  and  varies  with  the  sun's  declinaticju.  At  the 
time  of  the  equinoxes  the  sun  is  on  the  earth's  equator,  and 
farthest  from  it  at  the  solstices.  The  result  is  that  the  force 
which  produces  precession  is  not  a  uniform  one,  but  takes 
place  in  a  series  of  small  cycloids,  two  in  each  year.  This 
inequality  of  motion  is  called  nutiition. 

Nutation,  as  here  described,  is  jiroduced  not  only  by  the 
action  of  the  sun,  but  also  by  that  of  the  moon :  but  in 
the  case  of  the  latter  action  there  is  also  another  inequal- 
ity due  to  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the  revolution  of  the 
moon's  nodes  in  a  period  of  eighteen  and  a  half  years,  the 
actit)n  of  the  moon  in  producing  precession  is  more  power- 
ful at  some  epochs  than  it  is  at  others.  Again  the  result  is 
an  inequality,  having  a  period  equal  to  that  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  moon's  nodes.  This  is  called  lunar  mifalion. 
The  semi-annual  term  produced  by  the  sun  is  called  solar 
nutation.  In  addition  to  these  princij)al  incipudities  there 
are  a  nundjer  of  minuter  ones,  depending  on  the  eccentric- 
ity of  the  sun's  orbit,  and  on  the  inclination  of  the  lunar 
orbit  to  the  ecliptic.  The  formulas  for  these  terms  are  given 
in  astronomical  ephemerides,  to  which  reference  may  be 
made.  S.  Newcomh. 

Pr6cieiises,  pra'si-oz'  :  name  giv<'n  in  France  in  the 
seventeenth  century  to  a  group  of  women  who  cultivated  an 
'extreme  refinement  in  speech  and  nuinners.  They  carried 
to  excess  the  concern  for  propriety  aiul  elegance  of  expres- 
sion and  of  the  forms  of  social  intercourse  which,  centering 
in  the  Hotel  de  Uambouillet,  was  doing  much  to  refine 
Frciu-h  language  and  society.  With  the  pn'i'iciises  this  ele- 
gance became  aflfectation.  Such  connnon  words  as  mirror 
or  chair  were  held  vulgar ;  thc'y  were  to  be  replaced  by 
"counselor  of  the  graces"  and  "convenience  of  conversa- 
tion." For  a  moment  the  precieiises  were  conspicuous  in 
the  salons  that  imitated  the  Hotel  de  Kambouillet.  ami  even 
invaded  that  salon  itself,  and  threatened  to  impo.se  their  jar- 
gon on  the  French  language  :  but  good  sense,  aided  mate- 
rially by  the  pungent  satire  of  Moliere's  f'reeieuses  ridicules, 
turned  them  into  ridicule.  Cf.  Livet,  I'recieux  et  Pre- 
cieusps  (Paris,  18.5!)) ;  V.  Cousin,  La  Socii'te  franfaise  au 
XV 11'  siecle  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1858).  A.  G'.  Caxkiixd. 

Precious  Stones:  mineral  substances  possessing  such 
beauty  and  brilliancy  of  color,  hardness,  and  rarity,  as  to  fit 
them  for  use  in  jewelry  or  for  ornamental  pur]ioses.  Strict- 
ly speaking,  the  only  jirecious  stones  are  the  diamond,  ruby, 
sapphire,  and  emerald,  though  the  term  is  oft  en  extciuled  to 
the  opal,  notwithstanding  its  lack  of  hardness,  and  to  the 
pearl,  which  is  strictly  an  animal  jirodnct. 

There  are  other  minerals  hard  enough  to  scratch  quartz, 


758 


PRECOCITY 


PREFIXES 


without  metallic  luster,  but  generally  brilliant  and  beauti- 
iul,  such  as  the  chrysoberji,  alexandrite,  tourmaline,  spinel, 
zircon,  andalusite,  aquamarine,  and  topaz,  which  are  known 
as  semi-precious  or  "  fancy"  stones  (called  pierres  de  fan- 
■taisie  by  the  French).  Minerals  of  both  these  classes,  espe- 
•cially  when  cut  and  polished,  are  popularly  called  gems,  but 
mineralogically  only  the  semi-precious  stones  are  so  called, 
while  archseologieally  the  term  gem  is  restricted  to  engraved 
stones,  such  as  intaglios  and  cameos.     See  Gem. 

The  diamond,  although  the  hardest  and  the  most  brilliant 
of  the  precious  stones,  does  not  command  the  highest  price 
unless  it  be  of  a  fine  red,  blue,  or  green  color,  all  of  excep- 
tional rarity.  Fine  rubies  command  from  five  to  ten  times 
the  price  of  fine  white  diamonds.  Emeralds  rank  next  in 
value,  and  frequently  sell  for  as  much  as  or  more  than 
fine  diamonds;  sapphires  for  somewhat  less;  fine  cafs-eyes 
and  the  alexandrite  variety  frequently  sell  for  as  much  as 
sappiiires.  The  finest  Hungarian  opals  frequently  com- 
mand one-half  the  value  of  diamonds,  but  little  increase 
in  price  with  size.  The  New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  and 
Washington  opals  sell  for  less.  Kuby  spinels  of  deep  ruby- 
like color  frequently  command  a  price  nearly  as  great  as 
that  of  the  diamond.  The  diamond  is  10  in  hardness ;  sap- 
phire. 8'9 :  chrysoberyl  or  cafs-eye,  8-5 :  spinel,  8  ;  topaz  and 
aquamarine,  8 ;  emerald  and  zircon,  7'8  ;  timrmaline,  7'5  ; 
garnet,  agate-chalcedony,  and  bloodstone,  7'3  ;  rock-crystal, 
smoky  cairngorm,  smoky  quartz,  amethyst,  7  :  turquoise  and 
opal,  6.  The  beauty  of  the  precious  stones  is  brought  out 
by  cutting  and  polishing,  or  the  correct  form  of  cutting  and 
the  angle  of  the  various  facets.  To  produce  the  greatest 
brilliancy  the  brilliant  form  of  cutting  is  the  best.  The 
most  perfect  brilliant  cut  has  fifty-eight  facets.  To  heighten 
the  color  in  a  stone  the  step,  degree,  or  trap  cutting  is  the 
best. 

The  terms  •'  artificial "  and  "  imitation  "  must  not  be  con- 
founded in  speaking  of  gems  or  precious  stones,  the  former 
being  of  the  true  material,  but  produced  by  art.  while  the 
latter  are  imitations  in  other  materials.  Nearly  all  gems, 
with  the  exception  of  the  diamond,  have  been  artificially 
I  rodu<eil,  but.  with  the  exception  of  the  ruby,  only  in  small 
examples.  Rubies  have  been  made,  but  the  chamber  of 
commerce  of  precious  stones  of  Paris  has  decreed  that  all 
gems  of  this  kind  shall  be  sold  as  artificial  and  not  as  pre- 
cious stones.  Imitation  gems  comprise  (1)  what  are  known 
as  doublets,  in  which  the  upper  part  of  the  gem  is  made  of 
garnet,  quartz,  or  other  hard  stone,  below  which  is  cemented 
glass  the  color  of  the  stone  to  be  imitated  ;  for  instance,  an 
imitation  emerald  may  have  its  top  of  garnet  or  quartz,  and 
the  back  a  green  glass.  Other  kinds  are  (2)  those  which  are 
made  by  heating  rock-crystal  ami  jilunging  it  in  a  solution 
the  color  of  the  gem  to  be  imitated ;  and  (3)  those  made  en- 
tirely of  glass,  for  which  purpose  a  brilliant  glass  is  em- 
ployed containing  oxide  of  lead,  and  known  as  paste  or 
strass.  This  is  colored  by  small  amounts  of  metallic  ox- 
ides, according  to  the  tint  desired — e.  g.  oxide  of  cobalt  for 
blue,  oxide  of  manganese  for  violet,  etc. 

Pearls  are  imitated  by  lining  tiny  hollow  glass  beads  with 
the  scale  of  the  bleakfish.  called  essence  d'orient.  and  then 
filling  them  with  wax.  Another  imitation  is  made  by  sil- 
vering beads  made  of  mother-of-pearl.    Georue  F.  Kuxz. 

Precocity  [from  Lat.  pne'cox,  prcc'cocis.  cooked  or  rip- 
ened too  soon ;  pr(V,  before  +  co'quere,  cook] :  a  rapid  and 
abnormally  early  development  of  the  mental  powers,  some- 
times associated  with  a  correspondingly  early  ripening  of 
the  functions  of  the  body.  The  popular  belief  that  preco- 
cious infants  are  usually  destined  to  early  decay  of  mental 
and  physical  power.s,  resulting  in  speedy  death,  idiocy,  or  at 
the  best  in  mediocrity,  is  welffounded,  as  can  be  established 
by  abundant  proofs:  but  there  are  exceptions  to  the  rule. 
No  doubt  precocity  is  often  associated  with  diseases  of  the 
nervous  system,  with  scrofidous  symptoms,  and  with  rickets, 
liut  not  a  few  instances  can  be  adduced  of  precocitv  associ- 
ated with  apparently  good  health.  There  is  a  double  rela- 
tionship between  ill-health  and  precocitv.  The  former  bv 
restraining  a  child  leads  to  habits  of  reading  and  association 
with  older  people,  and  thus  to  precocitv.  The  latter  by 
causing  a  taste  for  reading  and  indoor  life  tends  to  engen- 
<ler  ill-health  or  disease.  Precocious  children  should  be  re- 
strained from  following  their  intellectual  bent,  and  their 
physical  culture  encouraged.  Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Predestination   [from    Lat.  prcedestina're,  predestine, 

•  foreordain  ;  pr(e.  before  +  deslina  re,  establish,  determine] : 

in  theology,  the  doctrine  according  to  which  God  has  fore- 


ordained from  eternity  and  unchangeably  whatever  takes 
place.  It  was  first  defined  and  debated  during  the  contro- 
versy between  Pelagius  (see  Pelagianism)  and  St.  Augustine 
(q.  v.).  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  Jansenists  (see 
Jansenism)  became  the  champions  of  predestination.  It  was 
generally  adopted  by  the  earliest  Reformers,  but  while  in 
the  Reformed  Church  it  received  a  very  strict  and  explicit 
development  by  Calvin  (see  Calvinism),  to  which  the  Ar- 
minians  (see  Arminius  and  Arminiaxism)  opposed  a  milder 
explanation,  it  was  for  some  time  entirely  given  u|i  by  the 
Lutheran  Church  until  Schleiermacher  revived  it  in  a  miti- 
gated and  somewhat  mystical  form.  The  doctrine  is  dis- 
tinct from  various  theories  of  the  method  by  which  events 
are  governed ;  and  it  is  in  every  form  intended  to  be  totally 
different  from  the  idea  of  fate.  All  the  chief  points  of  the 
idea  will  be  found  expanded  in  Forbes"s  Predestination  (Ed- 
inburgh, 1878).     See  also  Mohammedanism. 

Revised  by  F.  H.  Foster. 
Predicate  (in  logic):  the  second  terra  in  a  proposition; 
that  which  is  asserted  or  predicated  of  the  subject.    See 
Logic. 

Preece.  William  Henry  :  electrician  ;  b.  near  Caernarvon, 
North  Wales,  Feb.  15. 1834 :  was  educated  at  King's  College, 
London ;  received  practical  training  in  the  telegraph  and 
cable  service.  In  1870  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Post- 
office  as  divisional  engineer,  was  appointed  electrician  in 
1877.  and  chief  electrician  in  1802.  He  is  the  author  of 
many  important  papers  in  electro-technics,  particularly  in 
the  fields  of  submarine  telegraphy  ami  telephony.  He  is 
also  the  author  (with  Sir  James  Sivewright)  of  a  well-known 
Text-book  of  Telegraphy,  and  (in  collaboration  with  Julius 
Maier)  of  a  volume  on  the  telephone.  Mr.  Preece  is  a  fel- 
low of  the  Royal  Society  and  a  member  of  numerous  other 
learned  scientific  associations.  E.  L.  Nichols. 

Pre-emption  [Lat.  prce,  before  +  e'mere,  emptiim,  buy, 
obtain,  (in  compounds)  take] :  the  act  of  one  belligerent  in 
seizing  upon  the  sea,  and  taking  at  a  price,  certain  kinds  of 
neutral  property  not  strictly  contraband  intended  for  im- 
portation within  the  territory  of  his  foe;  a  forced  purchase 
instead  of  confiscation.  It  was  a  relaxation  of  the  harsh- 
ness of  the  doctrine  of  occasional  contraband.  See  Contra- 
band. T.  S.  W. 

Prefect  [from  Lat.  prwfectus.  prefect ;  prce,  before  -I- 
factus,  made] :  the  title  of  many  officers  and  magistrates 
of  ancient  Rome.  The  prwfectus  urbi  was  the  warden  of 
the  city,  and  was  anciently  an  officer  of  great  djgnitv  and 
importance,  but  his  duties  varied  much  at  different  [leriods, 
and  at  times  were  almost  nominal.  The  jirstorian  prefects 
commanded  the  inqierial  body-guard.  The  prafecliis  an- 
nonce  was  an  extraordinary  magistrate  of  great  importance 
who  presided  over  the  cnrn-market  and  the  distribution  of 
public  charity.  In  modern  France  a  prefect  is  an  impor- 
tant official,  the  chief  of  police  in  each  department,  and  a 
kind  of  Justice  of  the  peace. 

Prefixes  :  significant  particles  joined  to  the  beginning  of 
words.  In  the  Indo-European  languages  the  prefixes  are 
generally  adverbial  or  prepositional  in  character,  and  their 
use  with  nouns  appears  to  have  been  originally  due  to  a  con- 
nection with  verbs  either  in  meaning  or  by  direct  deriva- 
tion ;  thus  Eng.  belief  owes  its  existence  to  believe.  In 
primitive  Teutonic  these  prepositional  jircfixes  were  accent- 
ed in  the  nouns  but  unaccented  in  the  verbs.  Traces  of 
this  appear  in  modern  German — as  ant  wort,  but  entspre'- 
chen:  ur'theil.  but  ertheilen:  iirlaub,  but  erlau'ben.  In 
English  the  native  Teutonic  prefixes  are  relatively  few — 
e.  g.  a-  in  arise,  he-  in  begin,  for-  in  forget,  tnis-  in  misdeed, 
of-  in  offspring,  nn-  (Germ,  a/it-,  ent-)  in  untie,  un-  ( :  Gr.  d- : 
Lat.  in-)  in  vmvi.se.  The  Latin  prefixes  are  the  most  com- 
mon ;  some  of  them  come  with  Latin  words  directly  from 
the  Latin,  as  ab-  in  abscond,  ad-  in  adapt,  amb-  in  ambition, 
ante-  in  antecedent,  bi-  in  bisect,  circiim-  in  circumvent,  con- 
in  conduct,  contra-  in  contradict,  de-  in  delegate,  dis-  in  dis- 
solve, ex-  in  express,  extra-  in  extravagant,  in-  in  invade, 
in-  ( :  Gr.  d- :  Germ,  un-)  in  insane,  inter-  in  interference, 
intra- in  introduce,  ob-  in  obviate,  ]>er-  in  pervade,  post-  in 
postpone,  pro"-  in  precept,  pro-  in  produce,  retro-  in  retro- 
grade, se-  in  seduce,  .w»n'-  in  semicolon,  sub-  in  siihscribe, 
.•luper-  in  superim/mse,  trans-  in  tran,spose;  others  come 
from  Latin  via  the  French,  as  counter-  (<Lat.  contra-) 
in  counterpart,  es-  (<  Lat.  ex-)  in  escape,  en-  (<  Lat.  in-)  in 
enjoin,  enter-  (<  Lat.  inter-)  in  eyttertain,  par-(<.  Lat.  per-) 
in  pardon,  sur-  (<  Lat.  super-)  in  surface.    The  Greek  has 


PKKCN'ANCY 


PRERAPHAELITES 


r59 


also  furnislicd  a  number  of  important  prefixes,  as  ariti-  in 
anlilliesi.1,  ajm-  in  apology,  cata-  in  catalogyte,  ili-  in  di- 
graph, dia-  in  diameter,  en-  in  energy,  endo-  in  endngnmous, 
epi-  in  epitaph,  exo-  in  exoyamouf),  hyper-  in  hypercritirnl, 
hypo-  in  hypodermic,  meta-  in  metathesis,  para-  in  parody, 
Ky?i-  in  .lynllie.ii.i.  In  the  strietest  sense,  however,  none  of 
tliese  alien  prefixes  can  be  regarded  as  having  acquired  a 
position  as  English  prefixes,  unless  they  have  proven  their 
vitality  by  contributing  to  the  formation  of  new  words. 
The  Greek  en-  of  enthusiaam  is  only  from  the  (ireek  point 
of  view  a  prefix.  In  English  it  is  merely  a  syllable  of  a 
loan-word.  It  shows  no  vitality.  Contrast  anii-  in  anti- 
fat,  anti-snapper.  '        Hexj.  Ide  WnEKLER. 

I'roff  iiiiiicy :  See  Obstetrics. 

I'rojevalsky,  Col.  Xicoi.ai   Micihelovitcii  :  .See  Prje- 

VAI.SKV. 

Prel'afc  [from  Lat.  prwla'tu-i,  preferred,  or  placed  be- 
fore :  pari  ic.  of  pra-ferre,  prefer] :  a  term  applicable  to  all 
ecclesiastics  of  high  rank,  as  well  as  some  of  the  inferior 
dignitaries  of  the  papal  court.  Prelates  of  the  Great  Mantle 
are  the  lowest  in  rank ;  those  of  the  Small  Mantle,  of  higher 
rank.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  they  have  mostly  the 
title  of  "  monsignore." 

Premise:  See  Logic. 

Premium:  See  Insurante. 

Premonstratensiaiis  [by  analogy  of  Lat.  prmmonstra're, 
show  beforehand,  point  out  the  way,  from  Fr.  Prvmontre  < 
Lat.  pratum  mon.'<tra  turn,  litvr..  shown  meadow],  or  Xorber- 
tincs :  a  religious  order  established  at  Pivniontre,  near 
liaon,  in  Prance,  in  1120,  by  St.  Xorbert  (1080-1134).  Nor- 
bert  was  a  relative  of  the  Emperor  Henry  V.,  and  held  sev- 
eral rich  benefices,  when  suddenly  he  was  converted,  and 
retired  from  the  world  to  found  a  new  monastic  order, 
which  followed  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine  and  were  in  part 
canons  regular.  He  became  Archbishop  of  JIagdeliurg  in 
1127.  The  order  (which  had  become  very  powerful  and 
widespread)  kept  up  the  primitive  vigor  of  tlie  rule  for 
about  120  years,  but  began  to  decline  toward  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  It  was  divided  about  1573  into  two  con- 
gregations, the  Spanish  abbeys  having  a  stricter  observance. 
In  1630  the  whole  order  received  the  stricter  rule.  It  is  not 
very  large,  but  has  convents  both  of  monks  and  nuns,  es- 
pecially in  Austria,  Belgium,  and  Holland.  The  habit  is 
whiti'.  See  ITiiynni,i  Annale,i  Ordini>i  P.  (Xancy,  1734);  Win- 
ter, Die  Premonatratennen  d.  l.'fen  Jahrhiinderts  {Berlin, 
1865) ;  and  Currier,  History  of  Religious  Orders  (Xew  York, 
1894).  Revised  by  J.  J.  Keaxe. 

Preiice.  or  Prince,  Thomas:  governor  of  Plymouth, 
Miiss. ;  b.  in  England  in  IGOl :  was  one  of  the  Leyden  Pil- 
grims ;  arrived  at  Plymouth,  Mas.s.,  in  1621 ;  was  one  of  the 
first  settlers  at  Nansett  or  Eastham ;  was  chosen  governor 
in  1634, 163S,  and  continuously  from  1657  to  his  death ;  was 
assistant  lG3r)-37  and  163i)-.j7;  was  <listinguished  for  relig- 
ious zeiil  and  the  promotion  of  education.  D.  at  Plvmouth, 
Mar.  211,  1073. 

Prentice,  George  Desison;  journalist;  b.  at  Preston, 
Conn..  Dec.  18,  1802;  gra(luate<l  at  Brown  University  1S23; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1829;  edited  The  Weekly  Review, 
Hartford.  Conn..  1828-30:  from  1830  to  his  death  was  editor 
of  the  Louisville,  Ky.,  Journal,  which  he  made  one  of  the 
leading  Whig  newspapers  of  the  country;  author  of  many 
fugitive  poems  and  of  a  Life  of  Henry  Clay  (1831):  Pren- 
ticeana  (1859),  a  collection  of  his  witticisms,  has  gone  t  hrough 
several  enlarged  editions.  I),  at  Jjouisville,  Ky..  .Jan.  22, 
1870.  His  Life  has  been  written  by  G.  W.  Gritlin,  and  a 
posthumous  edition  of  his  Poems  wa.s  issued  in  187ti. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Prentiss,  George  Lewis,  T).  D.  :  minister  and  jirofessor; 
b.  in  Gorham,  Me.,  May  12,  1S16;  was  educated  at  Bowdoin 
College;  studied  theology  in  Halle  and  Berlin  1839-41  ;  was 
pastor  of  the  South  Trinitarian  church,  X'ew  Bedford,  ]\Iass., 
1845-51.  of  Mercer  Street  Presbvlerian  church,  Xew  York, 
1851-58  :  traveled  abroad  1858-00 ;  in  1860  organized  the 
Church  of  the  Covenant  in  Xew  York,  of  which  he  was  pas- 
tor till  1873:  since  1873  he  has  been  Professor  of  Pastoral 
Theology,  Church  Polity,  and  Missionary  Work  in  Union 
Seminarv.  Besides  sermons,  addresses,  and  contributions 
to  periotlicals.  Dr.  Prentiss  has  published  Memoir  of  Sear- 
geant  Smith  Prentiss  (2  vols.,  Xew  York,  18.55;  new  edition 
1879);  Discourse  in  Memori/  of  Thomas  Ilarveij  Skinner, 
D.D.,  LL.D.  (1871);  Our  A''ational  Bane  (1877)';  Life  and 


Letters  of  Elizabeth  Prentiss  {\SS'2:  new  edition  1887);  The 
Union  T?ieological Seminary  {XSHU);  The  Agreement  between 
Union  Seminary  and  the  (leneral  Assembly  (1891);  and 
The  ProMem  of  the  Veto  Power  and  Now  to  Solve  It  (1892). 
— His  wife,  Elizabeth  {Pay.ion)  Prentiss  (b.  at  Portland, 
Me.,  Oct.  26,  1818 :  d.  at  Dorset,  Vt.,  Aug.  13,  1878),  was  mar- 
ried in  1845;  published  a  number  of  very  popular  works, 
including  Little  Susy's  Six  Birthdays  (1853);  The  Flower 
of  the  Family  (1856):  Fred  and  Maria  and  Me  (1868); 
Stepping  Heavenward  (1869),  translated  into  several  foreign 
languages;  The  Percys  (1870):  Aunt  Jane's  Hero  (1871); 
Urbane  and  His  Frie7ids  (1874) ;  27ie  Home  at  Greylock 
(1876) ;  and  Gentleman  Jim  (1879).  C.  K.  Uo'vt. 

Prentiss,  Searoeant  Smith:  lawyer;  b.  in  Portland,  Me., 
Sept.  30,  1808;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  1826.  He 
practiced  law  at  S'icksburg,  Miss.,  but  losing  much  ymiperty 
by  legal  process,  and  partly  also  Ijecause  he  regarded  that 
State  as  "  disgniced  and  degraded  "  by  its  repudiation  of  its 
bonded  debt,  he  removed  to  Xew  Orleans  in  1845,  and  died 
at  Longwood,  near  Xatchez,  Sliss.,  July  1,  1850.  He  was 
eminent  as  a  lawyer,  and  still  more  so  as  an  orator.  In  the 
opinion  of  such  judges  as  Daniel  Webster  and  Edward  Ev- 
erett he  was  a  peer  of  the  statesmen  of  the  period  so  prolific 
in  eloquent  men.  Sec  his  Life,  by  his  brother,  George 
Lewis  Prentiss. 

PrejMisitions  [from  Lat.  pnepo.titio  {pro',  before  +  po- 
nere,  jilace),  a  translation  of  the  Greek  term  jrpiifletris  :  irpij, 
before  4-  eeij'ai,  set,  referring  to  the  usual  position  of  these 
words  before  the  noun]:  a  class  of  words  which  serve  the 
purpose  of  defining  the  relation  of  a  noun-word  to  its  gov- 
erning word  in  the  sentence.  Thus  in  the  sentences  he 
went  to  it,  he  went  from  it,  he  went  for  it,  the  prepositions 
to.  from,  for  set  forth  the  relation  existing  between  the  act 
of  going  and  the  thing  // ;  similarly  in  the  case  of  relations 
between  nouns  or  adjectives  and  nouns.as  the  son  of  John, 
readi/  for  use.  In  the  primitive  Indo-European,  which  was 
a  highly  inflected  language,  these  relations  were  expressed 
chiefly  "by  the  case-endings,  and  prepositions  were  used  only 
where  these  relations  were  not  clearly  or  definitely  enough 
expressed  bv  the  case-endings.  Such  is  also  approximately 
the  conditiim  in  the  classical  Greek  and  Latin.  The  group 
of  words  which  afterward  became  prepositions  were  in  Indo- 
]<;uropean  chiefly,  and  in  their  origin  probably  entirely  used 
as  jireverl.is — i.  e.  they  were  closely  attached  to  the  verb, 
and  served  to  define  more  clearly  the  nature  of  the  action  ; 
cf.  Gr.  kot'  &p'  ef€To,  he  sat  down;  Sanskr.  tisthd  rdtham 
ddhi  tdm.  step  upon  this  car.  In  the  last  example  the  pre- 
verb  adhi,  upon,  serves  so  directly  to  suggest  the  aspect  of 
the  action  toward  the  governed  object  that  it  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  jireposition.  It  represents  the  transition  from 
preverb  to  preposition.  In  the  English,  tu  pass  by  the  house, 
w/iat  were  you  thinking  of.  it  is  also  difficult  to  determine 
whether  by  and  of  are  preverbs  or  prepositions — i.  e.  whether 
their  connection  is  closer  with  verb  or  noun.  The  fact  that 
pas.s-by  and  think-of  can  be  inflected  in  the  passive  voice, 
it  can  not  be  passed  by,  it  must  not  be  thought  of  points, 
however,  to  the  conclusion  that  y/ns.s-iy  and  think-of  are 
compound  verbs  in  nearly  the  same  sense  as  Gr.  Trapa^tlireiy, 
or  Lat.  deliherare.  '  Bexj.  Ide  Wueei.ek. 

Prerapliaelites,  or  Pra>raphaelites,  or  Pre-Ravhael- 
ites:  a  verv  small  body  of  artists  and  lovei-s  of  fine  art.  called 
by  themselves  the  Pre-Rapliaelite  Brotherhood,  and  formed 
in  ijondon  in  1849;  less  projierly,  all  those  artists  and  oth- 
ers in  England  or  elsewhere  who  executed  or  admired  artis- 
tic work  done  in  supposed  sympathy  with  the  aims  of  the 
brotherhood— that  is,  those  who  ]>ainted  minutely  and  with 
attention  to  detail;  those  who  sought  an  unaccustomed  re- 
ality of  gesture  or  pose  in  painting  or  sculpture  :  or  those 
wlio  took  religious  and  mystical  subjects  and  tried  to  give 
them  new  interpretations;  thus  the  school  of  Cornelius  was 
called  the  German  Pre-Rai)haelites.  The  name  given  in  this 
wav  was  often  imippropriate  and  misplaced. 

the  Pre-Raphaelite  Brotherhood,  or  P.  R.  B.,  consisted 
of  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  William  IMichrtel  Rossetti,  Will- 
iam Holman  Hunt,  John  Everett  Millais.  James  CoUinson, 
Frederick  Cietu-ge  Stephens,  and  Thomas  Woolner.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latest  writers  (m  the  subject  and  biographers 
of  Rossetti,  no  other  persons  ever  became  inemliers  of  the 
brotherhood.  They  were  all  very  young  men  ;  Woolner  and 
Hunt,  apparontlv  the  oldest,  were  twenty-seven  and  twenty- 
five  vcars  of  age.  the  Rosscttis  much  younger.  They  saw 
in  pa'intings  of  the  fifteenth  century  a  religious  enthusiasm 
and  a  simplicity  of  artistic  aim  which  they  longed  to  re- 


760 


PRESBURG 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


call,  and  they  thought  that  Rajihael's  early  work  in  Rome 
marked  tlie  change  from  that  purer  art  to  later  and  less 
single-minded  designing.  One  of  their  first  objects  was 
to  publish  a  journal,  in  which  their  ideas  about  fine  art 
should  be  expressed  in  prose  and  verse,  and  embodied  in 
etchings,  and  The  Germ  was  begun  in  1850,  had  its  name 
changed  to  Art  and  Poetry  after  the  second  issue,  and 
never  appeared  after  the  fourth  number.  This  little  maga- 
zine contains  Thomas  Woolner's  poem.  My  Beautiful  Lady, 
and  several  poems  by  Dante  Rossetti  and  Christina  Rossetti 
which  are  contained  (often  altered)  iu  their  collected  works. 

The  avowed  purposes  of  the  brotherhood  were  the  en- 
couragement of  perfoi-t  sincerity  and  a  lofty  purpose  in  the 
practice  of  art.  Some  of  their  rules  or  maxims  seem  now 
excessively  strict,  and  even  fettering,  but  the  fine  art  of  the 
day  in  England  seemed  to  young  and  high-minded  men  ex- 
tremely meaningless  and  feeble,  and  that  of  all  Europe,  so 
far  as  they  knew  it.  devoid  of  any  true  purpose,  and  they 
stated  their  principles  in  a  dogmatic  form  by  way  of  pro- 
test and  counter-action.  Thus  it  was  laid  down  as  a  prin- 
ciple that  a  figure  should  be  painted  from  one  and  only  one 
person  serving  as  a  model.  It  is  evident  from  the  pictures 
themselves  that  the  painter  allowed  himself  to  impart  as 
much  of  feeling  to  the  expression  of  the  face  as  he  wished 
and  could  achieve.  Probably,  too,  he  felt  at  liberty  to  make 
stifE  movements  more  easy,  or  else  he  did  so  unconsciously. 
The  one  man  or  woman  in  the  costume  desired,  with  the 
color  and  light  actually  seen  in  it.  he  painted  just  as  it 
seemed  to  him.  Even  gesture  was  to  be  stiff  and  awkward 
if  thereby  it  became  natural  and  dramatic;  thus  in  Millais's 
picture,  taken  from  Keats"s  poem  Isabella,  or  the  Pot  of 
Basil,  a  painting  of  Isabella  and  Lorenzo  at  the  supper- 
table,  where  Isabella's  brothers  and  their  household  are  seat- 
ed, one  of  the  brothers  reaches  out  his  right  leg  with  ener- 
getic kick  at  the  hound  whose  head  lies  in  Isabella's  lap, 
and  the  other  bites  his  nails  and  grins  savagely  at  Lorenzo, 
who  is  speaking  to  Isabella  tenderly  and  handing  her  fruit. 
There  was  also  a  disposition,  like  that  of  the  recent  impres- 
sionists, to  paint  effects  of  light  and  color,  generally  seen 
by  artists  only.  There  was  also  a  very  free  use  of  suggest- 
ive and  illustrative  imagery,  aiding  the  main  purpose  of  the 
composition. 

Artists  not  included  in  the  original  brotherhood,  but 
who  were  considered  Pre-Raphaelites  among  Englishmen  of 
the  years  from  1850  and  1860,  were  Arthur  Hughes,  Ford 
Madox  Brown,  and  Edward  Burne-.Iones.  The  architects 
most  interested  in  the  Gotliic  revival  were  also  considered 
as  more  or  less  allied  with  the  Pre-Raphaelites,  especially 
Sir  Thomas  Woodward  and  William  Burges.  and  perhaps 
Philip  Weljb.  John  Ruskin  was  looked  upon  as  the  most 
ardent  and  influential  advocate  of  Pre-Raphaelite  doctrines 
and  practice. 

BiBLiOGRAPHV. —  The  Fortnightly  Review,  vol.  xlix.,  con- 
tains Holman  Hunt's  paper  on  the  brotherhood,  and  The 
Portfolio,  new  series.  May,  1894,  consists  of  a  monograph  on 
D.  G.  Rossetti  by  Frederick  G.  Stephens.  Also  see  Esther 
Wood,  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  and  the  Pre-Raphaelite  Move- 
ment ;  William  .Sharp,  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  a  Record 
and  a  Study  ;  Harry  Quilter,  Preferences  in  Art,  Life,  and 
Literature;  Ruskin's  pamphlet,  Pre-Raphaelitism,  and  pas- 
sages in  other  works.  The  large-paper  edition  of  the  last- 
named  work  contains  many  photographic  copies  of  pictures, 
and  Mrs.  Wood's  book  and  Stephens's  essay  each  give  several 
illustrations.  The  Moxon  Tennyson's  Poems  of  1856  con- 
tains several  wood-cuts  after  designs  by  Rossetti.  Hunt,  and 
Millais.  Russell  Sturgis. 

Presbursr:  See  Pressburg. 

Presbyter  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  jrpEff^uTcpor,  elder,  deriv.  (liter., 
compar.)  of  Trpeafivs,  old] :  the  title  of  an  officer  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  given  at  first  on  account  of  age,  length  of 
service,  or  dignity.  It  was  a  Jewish-Christian  name,  and 
came  from  the  synagogue.  In  the  New  Testament  the 
words  "  presbyter"  and  "bishop"  are  interchangeable.  In 
each  early  church  tliere  was  a  board  of  presbyters.  Their 
duties  were  to  superintend  the  church  order,  discipline,  and 
doctrine,  to  teach,  preach,  visit  the  sick,  receive  strangers. 
and  preside  at  the  meetings.  They  were  appointed  by  the 
apostles  or  their  representatives,  or  may  have  been  elected 
or  nominated  l>y  the  people.  They  were  ordained  with 
prayer  and  the  laving  on  of  liands.  See  J.  A.  Hodge,  W/iat 
is  Presbyterian  ioic  ?  (Philadelphia,  1882);  A.  T.  JIcGill. 
Church  Government  (Philadelphia,  1890).  See  Presbyteri- 
an Church. 


Presbyterian  Clinrch  [Presbyterian  is  from  Gr.  itpeafii- 
repos,  elder,  and  irpea-^vTepiov,  a  body  of  elders.  See  Pres- 
byter] :  a  distinctive  title  descriptive  of  one  division  of  the 
Church  of  God.  I.  yame. — The  Greek  word  is  used  in 
both  the  Septuagint  and  the  New  Testament  to  designate  a 
body  of  officers  to  whom  was  committed  the  government 
of  the  Church.  In  the  Septuagint  (e.  g.  Lev.  iv.  14.  15)  the 
term  synagogue  is  used  for  the  congregation  of  Israel,  and 
"the  elders  (presbyters)  of  the  synagogue"  are  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  whole  people.  In  the  New  Testament  the 
synagogue  is  a  parish  church,  but  the  elders  of  the  Jews 
are  members  of  the  Sanhedrin  and  representatives  of  the 
whole  people,  though  possibly  they  are  sometimes  local, 
e.  g.  Luke  vii.  3.  In  some  later  writings  the  elders  are  the 
officers  of  the  local  synagogue.  The  title  and  the  duties  it 
implies  were  retained  under  the  new  dispensation,  as  the 
Christian  Church  was  the  outgrowth  of  the  Jewish.  Hence 
the  name  is  the  key  to  the  system. 

II.  Constitution. — The  visible  Church  is  held  to  be  the 
aggregate  of  those  wlio  are  known  as  the  people  of  God.  It 
exists  in  the  form  of  organized  associations.  Eveiy  such 
association  must  have  its  official  representatives;  and,  since 
an  ecclesiastical  organization  is  of  necessity  widespread,  it 
must  provide  both  for  particular  congregations  and  for  the 
relations  of  these  to  each  other.  In  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  the  Presliyterian  Church,  as  it  now  exists,  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  the  United  States  of  America  is  taken  as 
a  type,  though  the  features  indicated  are  mainly  those  that 
are  common  to  most  Presbyterian  churches.  A  particular 
congregation  is  generally  organized  by  some  recognized  au- 
thority, but  is  complete  in  itself.  It  elects  its  own  officers, 
who  are — (1)  a  pastor,  (2)  a  bench  of  elders,  (3)  a  Vioard  of 
deacons.  A  pastor,  once  elected,  is  installed  by  the  ecclesi- 
astical body,  called  presbytery,  with  which  the  congregation 
is  connected.  In  case  no  past(U-  is  installed,  an  ordained  min- 
ister may  have  charge  of  tlie  congregation,  subject  to  the 
oversight  of  tlie  presbytery.  The  elders  are  elected  by  the 
people  and  "  set  apart "  by  the  presiding  minister  or  by  the 
presbytery.  To  them  is  committed  the  spiritual  oversight 
and  government  of  the  congregation.  Their  number  is  de- 
termined by  the  wishes  of  the  people;  it  is  seldom  less  than 
three  or  greater  than  twelve.  The  office  is  for  life,  but  in 
some  congregations  the  term  of  active  service  is  limited  by 
vote.  The  board  of  deacons  is  also  elected  by  the  congre- 
gation, and  its  members  are  "set  apart"  by  solemn  cere- 
mony, as  are  the  elders.  Their  duty  is  to  care  for  the  poor 
of  the  congregation  and  for  such  temporal  interests  as  may 
be  committed  to  them.  They  have  no  governmental  con- 
trol. In  most  parts  of  the  U.  S.  there  is  a  civil  corpora- 
tion, created  by  State  law,  technically  differing  from  tlie 
ecclesiastical  '•  congregation,"  though  practically  consisting 
of  the  same  persons,  which  owns  and  manages  the  property, 
through  trustees  chosen  for  that  purpose.  In  Scotland  and 
in  some  parts  of  the  LT.  S.  the  duties  of  trustees  are  dis- 
charged by  the  deacons. 

Governmentally.  there  are  in  the  Presbyterian  body  four 
"judicatures."  styled  in  order  the  session,  the  presbytery, 
the  synod,  and  the  general  assembly.  The  session  consists 
of  the  bench  of  elders  above  described.  Of  this  judicatory 
the  pastor  is  ex  officio  a  member  and  its  moderator.  The 
presbytery  consists  of  all  the  ministers  or  "teaching  elders" 
(as  they  are  sometimes  distinctively  called)  and  one  "  ruling 
elder  "  from  each  congregation  in  a  limited  district.  Each 
minister  in  that  district  is.  if  received  by  vote,  a  permanent 
member  of  the  presbytery.  The  ruling  elders  act  at  par- 
ticular meetings,  being  elected  by  the  sessions  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  duties  of  this  body  are  "  to  receive  and  issue 
appeals  from  church  sessions,  and  references  brought  before 
them  in  an  orderly  manner;  to  examine  and  license  candi- 
dates for  the  holy  ministry:  to  ordain,  install,  remove,  and 
judge  ministers;  to  examine  and  approve  or  censure  the 
records  of  church  sessions;  to  resolve  questions  of  doctrine 
or  discipline  seriously  and  reasonably  proposed ;  to  con- 
demn erroneous  opinions  wliich  injure  the  purity  or  peace 
of  the  Cliurch;  to  visit  particular  churches  for  the  purpose 
of  ini|uiring  into  their  state  and  redressing  the  evils  that 
may  have  arisen  in  them ;  to  unite  or  divide  congregations 
at  the  request  of  the  people,  or  to  form  or  receive  new  con- 
gregations; and  in  general  to  order  whatever  pertains  to 
the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  churches  under  their  care" 
{Form  of  Government).  The  synod  originally  consisted  of 
all  the  ministers  and  one  elder  from  each  congregation  with- 
in a  larger  district,  which  must  embrace  at  least  three  pres- 
byteries.    At  present,  however,  in  some  of  the  Presbyterian 


PRESBYTERIAN   CHURCH 


rei 


chiirehcs,  the  synod  is  a  body  of  delegates.  It  stands  to  the 
presbyteries  within  its  bounds  in  the  same  relation  in  svhieh 
eaeli  jiresbyterv  stands  to  its  churches.  It  is  empowered  to 
receive  and  issue  appeals  from  the  presbyteries,  to  examine 
their  records,  to  form  or  divide  or  unite  these  lower  bodies, 
and  generally  to  take  proper  oversight  of  presbyteries,  ses- 
sions, and  people  under  their  care.  The  yfneral  assembly 
consists  of  an  eciual  deles^ation  of  ministers  and  elders  from 
each  presliytery.  For  tiie  proportion  and  the  functions  of 
this  judicatory,  see  (Jkxeral  Assembly. 

Ili.  Essential  Principles  of  Church  I'ulitij. — Three thiiifrs 
are  essential  in  Presbyterian  polity.  First,  there  must  be  a 
presbyter  ministry,  that  is.  a  body  of  ordained  ministers, 
equal  in  order.  In  this  Presbyterians  agree  with  the  other 
chmvhes  that  hold  to  the  parity  of  the  ministry.  They 
differ,  on  the  one  hand,  with  those  who  recognize  other  or- 
ders in  the  ministry  (bishops  or  deacons,  for  instance),  either 
above  or  lielow  the"  order  of  elders:  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
with  those  who  do  not  set  their  ministers  apart  by  ordimi- 
tion.  Second,  tlierc  must  be  ruling  eliters,  distinct  from 
ordaiiieil  ministers,  and  co-ordinate  with  them  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  church.  Properly  speaking,  the  Presbyte- 
rian elder  (presbyter)  is  not  the  ruling  elder,  but  is  the  min- 
ister, though  the' opposite  use  of  the  term  is  very  prevalent, 
lea<iing  tosorae  confusion  concerning  the  two  ollices.  The 
setting  apart  of  the  ruling  elder  is  often  called  ordination. 
like  the  setting  apart  of  the  minister,  but  the  standards  of 
the  Presbyterian  churches  do  not  teach  that  the  two  are 
ecpiivalent.  Third,  there  is  the  principle  of  review  and  con- 
trol by  the  higher  judicatories.  These  are  not,  as  among 
Congi-egationalists,  merely  advisory  or  arbitrating  bodies, 
but  have  an  actual  right  of  jurisdiction.  Connected  with 
these  three  )ioints  are  others  of  less  importance.  In  partic- 
ular the  ollice  of  deacon,  as  above  described,  is  quite  differ- 
ent from  the  office  of  deacon  in  other  churches. 

IV.  Doctrines. — A  church  with  PresVjyterian  polity  is 
Presbvterian  irrespective  of  all  questions  of  doctrine;  but. 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Presbyterian  churches  mainly  hold 
to  the  type  of  theology  that  is  called  Calvinistie.  .Several 
different  tlieological  symbols  are  accepted  among  the  differ- 
ent Presbyterian  bodies.  Probably  those  that  come  nearest 
to  being  typical  are  the  Confession  of  Faith  and  the  Cate- 
chisms adiipteil  l)y  the  famous  Westminster  Assemlily,  and 
then  by  the  Parliament  of  England  and  by  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  1G40-1S.  These  plant  themselves  first  of  all  upon 
the  fundamental  Protestant  principle  that  the  books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  were  given  by  inspiration,  and 
are  the  only  infallible  rule  of  faith  and  conduct.  From 
the  .Scriptures  they  deduce  a  system  of  doctrine  controlled 
at  every  point  by  the  idea  of  the  sovereignty  of  God.  Hu- 
man freedom  and  divine  love  ai'e  atlirmed,  and  all  deep 
ethical  and  spiritual  truths  and  experiences  are  either  af- 
tirmi'il  or  taken  for  granted,  l)ut  tlie  thing  that  is  every- 
where uuide  conspicuous  is  that  God  controls  beforehand 
all  his  creatures  and  all  their  actions.  Among  the  princi- 
pal doctrines  held  are:  B'irst,  God  in  three  persons.  Father. 
Son,  and  Holy  (ihost,  these  three  "the  same  in  substance, 
i(|ual  in  power  and  glory."  Second,  man  morally  depraved 
by  nat  ure.  Third.  .lesus  Christ  an  atoning  Saviour.  Fourth, 
just ilical ion  by  faith  in  the  Redeemer.  Fifth,  regeneration 
and  sanctificatioii  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  Sixth,  eteriuil  hap- 
piness in  the  other  world  for  believers,  and  elermil  punish- 
ment for  tlie  finally  impenitent.  To  the  articles  of  the 
"C!oufessions"  of  tlie  different  branches  of  the  t'hurch  the 
officers  are  required  to  subscribe  at  their  ordination  ;  but 
the  only  usual  requirements  for  memViership  are  repeutaiu-e 
from  sin.  faith  in  the  Lord  .lesus  Christ,  and  an  unreserved 
consecration  to  God.  See  Christiaxitv,  Cai,vinism,  and  the 
articles  on  the  various  specific  religious  doctrines. 

V.  llistorij. — Presbyterians  claim  that  their  history  be- 
gins even  before  the  apostolic  age :  that  the  analogy  between 
the  constitution  of  the  Presbyterian  chnrcli  an<l  that  of  the 
.Jewish  church  is  eviilent,  being  much  closer  than  that  of 
flower  to  seed ;  that  the  synagogue  had  its  rabbi,  its  bench 
of  elders,  its  appeal  to  a  higher  I'cclesiaslical  court  at  .Jeru- 
salem :  that  the  Christian  church,  very  naturally,  adopted 
the  principal  ideas  of  that  church  order  to  whic'h  it  suc- 
lec'dcd.  Further,  according  to  their  view,  the  congregations 
of  the  apostolic  Church  were  organized  associations  of  tlie 
people  of  God.  now  assuming  the  title  of  Christians.  The 
officers  of  these  congregations  were  ordained  elders.  Appeals 
went  up  from  one  body  of  ecclesiastical  rulers  to  another. 
Ordinations  to  the  ministry,  as  in  the  case  of  Timothy,  were 
performed  by  the  "  laying  on  of  the  handsof  the  presbytery." 


The  whole  visible  Church  was  regarded  as  one  body,  and  the 
decrees  of  the  as,sembled  apostles  and  elders  at  Jerusalem 
were,  when  sent  down  to  the  congregations,  received  as  au- 
thoritative. It  is  claimed  but  by  few  that  the  present  order 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  precisely  that  of  the  apostolic 
age;  few  claim  ayxre  (/i'i'i'«o  authority  for  tlie  system;  yet 
its  principles  are  believed  to  have  undergone  little  change. 
After  the  apostolic  age  presbyterian  government  in  the 
Church  gradually  gave  way  to  prelatical.  It  is  claimed  that 
there  are  traces  of  Presbyterianism  in  all  the  centuries,  but, 
at  best,  they  are  not  very  ilistinct.  Among  the  Culdees  and 
otlier  earliest  Chri-stians  in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain  ; 
among  the  Albigenses  and,  later,  among  the  Vaudois  or 
VV'aldenses,  in  France  and  Piedmont :  among  the  Hussites  in 
Bohemia  and  their  successors  the  Taborites,  the  Bohemian 
Brethren,  the  older  Moravian  Brethren  ;  among  the  English 
Lollards  and  other  early  Protestants  froin  WycliiTe  to  Cran- 
mer  and  Hooper,  from  the  fourtiH'tith  century  to  the  six-' 
teenth — among  these,  and  elsewhere,  elements  may  be  dis- 
tinguished affiliated  with  Presbyterianism  as  it  now  exists, 
but  also  other  elements  not  so  alliliateil.  When,  however, 
the  Reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century  broke  with  the 
Church  of  Rome,  they  found  themselves  in  need  of  a  polity 
by  which  to  organize  the  churches  of  the  Reformation. 
They  looked  into  the  New  Testament  for  such  a  polity,  with 
the  pretty  uniform  result  of  finding  there,  each  of"  them, 
some  elements  of  what  we  now  know  as  Presbvterianism ; 
though,  when  it  is  saiil  that  "all  the  Reformed  churches  in 
Prance,  Germany.  Holland,  Hungary,  Geneva,  and  Scotland 
were  thorough  Presbyterians,  not  only  in  [jrinciple  but  also 
in  practice,"  the  statement  is  misleailing  if  we  understand 
by  it  that  all  these  churches  were  at  once  organized  into 
congregations,  each  choosing  ruling  elders  for  itself,  with 
relations  of  appeal  and  review  and  control  between  each 
and  a  higher  judicatory.  The  changes  that  actually  occurred 
were  affected  by  complications  concerning  church  and 
state,  liy  the  retaining  of  ideas  and  usages  that  had  pre- 
vailed under  Roman  supremacy,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
some  quarters  Jiy  ideas  of  independency  in  church  govern- 
ment that  sprang  up  along  with  Presbyterian  ideas.  In 
some  cases  ruling  elders  were  for  a  city  or  for  ^  district, 
and  not  for  a  particular  congregation.  In  John  Calvin's 
church  at  Geneva  the  ruling  elders  were  appointed  not  by 
the  people,  but  by  the  civil  authorities.  A  Presbyterian 
polity  of  some  sort,  however,  came  to  be  very  prevalent 
among  the  churches  of  the  Jieformation.  See  Reforma- 
tion, Geneva,  CALvax,  Huss,  Hussites,  Huguenots,  etc. 

These  churches  became  classified  as  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed. Though  the  Lutheran  churches  have  always  re- 
tained certain  elements  of  Presbyterianism  in  their  polity, 
they  are  not  regarded  as  Presbyterian  churches.  The  dis- 
tinctive symbols  of  the  Reformed  churches,  on  the  other 
hand, "are  regarded  as  monuments  of  Presbyterian  ortho- 
doxy. This  is  especially  true  of  the  Galilean  Confession, 
adopted  by  the  first  national  synod  of  France  in  1559 ;  the 
Belgic  Confes,sion.  written  in  1561,  and  afterward  adopted 
in  Belgium  and  Holland:  the  Second  Helvetic  Confession, 
written  by  Bullinger  in  1562,  and  afterward  adopted  in 
Switzerland.  Scotland,  Hungary,  France,  Poland,  and  other 
countries;  the  Heidelberg  C'atechism.  prepared  in  15(i2  ;  the 
Canons  of  Dort,  made  for  the  Netherlands  in  1619;  and 
various  symbols  of  the  British  churches. 

At  present,  however,  the  established  Refcn-med  churches 
on  the  Continent  are  hardly  to  be  counted  as  in  sympathy 
with  Presbyterianism.  The  Churches  of  Switzerland  and 
of  Hungary,  of  the  Helvetic  Confession,  and  the  Church  of 
the  Netherlands  come  nearest  to  being  exceptions  to  this 
rule.  In  dilferent  localities,  more  perhaps  in  France  than 
elsewhere,  the  churches  that  now  coml>iiie  a  genuine  Pres- 
byterian polity  with  an  evangelical  Calvinistie  theology 
maintain  some  sort  of  continuity  with  the  Reformed 
churches  of  the  sixteenth  century;  but,  in  the  main,  these 
churches  are  relatively  small,  and  are  in  an  attitude  of  prac- 
tical dissent  from  the  established  churches  of  the  countries 
where  they  exist. 

In  Great  Britain  the  case  is  somewhat  different.  The 
first  Scottish  General  Assembly  was  organized  by  .lohn 
Knox  and  others  in  15G0.  A  presliytery  was  formed  at 
Wandsworth.  Englanil.  in  1572,  and  such  Englishmen  as 
Thomas  Cartwright  (1585-1603)  and  Walter  Travers  advo- 
cated Presbyterian  principles.  In  15112  the  Scottish  church 
was  formally  established  by  act  of  Parliament.  (See  the 
article  Scotland,  ClluRrn  OF.)  Then  folhjwed  the  anti- 
Presbyterian  policy  of  King  James  and   King  Charles  and 


r62 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


the  Covenant  movements  of  1638  and  1643.  (See  Covenant- 
ers and  Covenant,  National.)  Meanwhile  Puritanism, 
which  at  that  stage  was  strongly  Presbyterian,  made  great 
progress  in  England.  In  1643 "the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
English  divines,  with  four  assessors  from  Sc-otland,  was  con- 
vened in  London  by  act  of  Parliament.  In  1647  and  1648 
the  various  jiarts  of  the  doctrinal  standards  framed  by  them 
were  adopted  by  the  English  and  Scottish  Parliaments. 
Till  the  death  of  Cromwell  the  Presbyterianisra  thus  de- 
fined was  nominally  (though  not  actually)  the  established 
religion  of  England."  At  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  Epis- 
copacy was  ren^stablished  in  both  countries.  On  their  over- 
throw the  Presbyterian  polity  was  restored  in  Scotland.  In 
Ireland  Presbyterianism  a])peared  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  firmly  established  there  liy  the 
middle  of  the  century,  and  has  maintained  itself  with  vicis- 
situdes somewhat  like  those  through  which  the  Scottish 
churches  have  passed.  On  the  history  of  Presbyterianism, 
in  addition  to  articles  already  referred  to.  see  Henderson, 
Alexander  ;  Knox,  Joun  ;  Westminster  Standards,  etc. 

VI.  Soine  of  the  existing  Presbyterian  Churches. — Pres- 
byterians in  America  are  descended  from  those  of  every  part 
of  Europe,  but  in  their  organized  churches  only  those  of 
Germany,  Holland,  England,  and  Scotland  are  perpetuated. 
The  Reformed  Church  in  Germany  is  represented  by  the 
Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States  {q.  v.).  popularly 
known  as  the  German  Reformed  Church.  Its  standard  is 
the  Ileidellierg  Catechism.  German  immigration  began  as 
early  as  1684.  Churches  were  organized  soon  after,  and  a 
synod  in  1747.  Statistics  of  this  and  the  other  churches 
named  are  given  at  the  end  of  this  article. 

Tlie  Reformed  Church  of  the  Netherlands  took  for  its 
standards  the  Belgic  Confession  and  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism, and  later  the  Canons  of  Dort ;  but,  notwithstanding 
its  abundant  confessional  bulwarks,  it  changed  in  doctrine 
and  discipline,  and  in  1835,  in  protest  against  the  alleged 
growing  laxity,  a  number  of  ministers  and  people  separated 
from  it,  and  are  now  known  as  the  Christian  Reformed 
t!hurch.  In  America  the  oldest  churcli  of  the  Prestiyterian 
order  is  the  daughter  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland, 
the  Reformed  Church  in  America,  popularly  called  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church.  It  adopts  the  three  standards 
of  the  Holland  church,  and  in  addition  the  Nicene  and 
Athanasian  creeds.  Its  eai'liest  congregation  was  organized 
in  New  Amsterdam  (now  New  York)  in  1638.  Negfitiations 
were  in  progress  for  organic  union  between  this  cliurch  and 
the  German  Reformed  Church,  but  the  action  taken  in  1893 
was  adverse.  In  1833  tlie  Rev.  Sol  Froeligh  and  othei's 
separated  from  this  church  and  formed  the  True  Reformed 
Dutch  Church.  At  one  time  this  body  had  attained  to  some 
importance,  but  it  dwindled  to  a  few  congregations,  and 
in  1889  these  were  absorbed  into  the  Christian  Reformed 
Church  of  the  United  States.  This  is  a  branch  of  the  church 
of  the  same  name  in  Holland,  and  is  a  comparatively  recent 
body.  In  1883  it  received  a  considerable  accession  from 
members  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  synod  of  Chicago,  who 
were  dissatisfied  with  the  refusal  of  that  church  to  make 
Freemasonry  a  subject  of  church  discipline.  It  now  exists 
in  the  form  of  one  synod,  with  seven  classes,  and  about  100 
churches,  about  half  of  its  strength  being  in  Michigan. 

The  changes  in  the  British  Presbyterian  churches  and 
their  American  progeny  are  more  complicated.  The  Pres- 
byterian churches  in  Scotland  are  the  Ref(jrmed  Church  of 
Scotland,  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church,  the  Synod  of 
United  Original  Seceders,  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  and 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church.  The  origin  of  tlie  Church 
•of  Scotland  has  already  been  noticed.  During  the  interval 
between  1660  and  1689.  and  especially  during  the  last  ten 
years  of  that  time,  many  Scotchmen,  among  whom  Richard 
Cameron  was  prominent,  abjured  the  sovereignty  of  King 
Charles  11.  and  King  James  II.  on  account  of  their  tyranny, 
and  especially  their  violation  of  the  Solemn  League  aiid  Cov- 
enant. These  people  formed  societies,  and  were  known  as 
Cameronians  and  Covenanters.  At  the  accession  of  William 
and  Mary,  Presbyterianism  in  Scotland  was  restored  on  the 
basis  of  the  old  establishment  of  1593,  and  of  the  Westmin- 
ster standards,  the  Cuvenant  not  being  re-enacted.  For  tliis 
reason  many  members  of  the  societies  stood  aloof  from  tlie 
established  church.  In  1706  Rev.  John  Macmillan  joined 
them,  and  in  1743  the  Rev.  Mr.  Nairn.  They  then  consti- 
tuted the  "  Reformed  Presbytery."  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  whose 
members  are  popularly  known  as  Covenanters,  or  Cameron- 
ians.    About  1863  a  large  majority  in  the  Scotch  synod  of 


this  Church  held  that  it  was  consistent  with  their  principles 
so  far  to  countenance  existing  political  institutions  as  to 
vote  for  a  member  of  Parliament.  A  minority  thought 
otherwise,  and  a  disruption  took  place.  In  1876  the  larger 
body  joined  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  The  smaller  still 
maintains  its  existence. 

In  1718  Edward  Fisher's  book.  The  Marroic  of  Modern 
Divinitfi.  was  republished  in  Scotland.  The  General  As- 
sembly of  1730  condemned  the  book.  Twelve  ministers,  of 
wliom"  Ebenezer  Erskine  was  one,  sent  to  the  Assembly  a 
representation  to  the  effect  that  some  of  the  propositions 
they  had  condemned  were  identical  with  statements  in  the 
Scriptures  and  in  tlie  church  standards.  In  1733  the  Assem- 
bly rebuked  them  for  this.  They  are  known  as  Marrow 
Men  and  Representers.  In  1731  the  Assembly  approved  the 
calling  of  ministers  to  a  congregation  by  tlie  patrons  and 
elders,  without  the  consent  of  the  congregation.  Erskine 
rebuked  this  in  two  sermons  preached  in  1733.  Being  ad- 
monished for  so  doing,  he  and  three  others  protested.  They 
were  suspended.  In  December  of  that  year  they  organized 
the  Associate  Presbytery.  In  1745  the  number  of  congre- 
gations had  increased  to  forty-five,  and  the  Associate  Synod 
was  formed.  Two  years  later  a  controversy  culminated  re- 
specting the  oath  taken  by  the  burgesses  of  Edinburgh  and 
other  towns,  which  included  a  profession  of  "  the  true  re- 
ligion presently  professed  within  this  realm."  The  Anti- 
burghers  held  that  the  swearing  of  this  oath  was  a  sin,  to 
be  punished  by  excommunication,  and  went  through  the 
form  of  deposing  and  excommunicating  Erskine  and  the 
others  wdio  held  the  opposite  view,  and  who  were  known  as 
Burghers.  Both  Burghers  and  Antiburghers  increased  rap- 
idly, and  each  claimed  to  be  the  Associate  Synod ;  but  in 
1788  the  Antiburghers  divided  into  four  provincial  synods, 
and  from  that  time  were  called  the  General  Associate  Synod. 

Meanwhile,  in  1753,  Thomas  Gillespie  was  deposed  by  the 
Church  of  Scotland  for  refusing  to  take  jmrt  in  the  installa- 
tion of  a  minister  whom  he  regarded  as  thrust  upon  an  un- 
willing congregation.  In  1761  he,  with  two  others,  formed 
the  Relief  Presbytery.  This  grew  in  time  into  the  Relief 
Church,  with  a  synod  and  seven  presbyteries. 

For  more  than  fifty  years  the  Burgher  and  Antiburgher 
synods  grew  side  by  side,  with  no  intercourse  between  them. 
Tlien  controversies  arose  in  each  in  regard  to  the  power  of 
the  civil  magistrate  in  matters  of  religion.  In  each  the 
more  liberal  party  was  largely  in  the  majority,  and  was 
called  New  Light,  while  the  other  party  was  called  Old  Light. 
In  1799  tlie  Old  Light  Burghers  seceded,  taking  the  name 
Associate  Presbytery,  which  became  in  1805  the  Associate 
Synod,  or  Original  Burgher  Synod.  In  1804  McCrie  and 
three  others  (Old  Lights)  withdrew  from  the  Antilnirgher 
Synod  and  formed  the  Constitutional  Associate  Presbytery. 

Thus,  in  1830,  there  were  in  existence  in  Scotland  five 
little  denominations  of  seceders  from  the  national  church. 
In  that  year  139  of  the  congregations  of  the  New  Light 
Antiburgher  Synod  united  with  the  154  congregations  of 
the  New  Light  Burgher  Synod,  forming  the  United  Seces- 
sion Church.  The  remaining  eight  of  the  Antiburgher  con- 
gregations united  in  1837  with  the  Old  Light  Antiburghers, 
forming  the  Associate  Synod  of  Original  Seceders.  In  1839 
a  majority  of  the  Old  Light  Burgher  Synod  joined  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  The  remainder,  in  1843,  joined  the 
Associate  Synod  of  Original  Seceders,  taking  the  name  of 
United  Original  Seceders.  A  small  majority  of  these,  twen- 
ty-seven ministers  in  all,  joined  the  Prce  Church  in  1853. 
The  remainder  constitute  the  present  synod  of  this  name. 
In  1841  James  Morrison,  minister  of  the  United  Secession 
Church,  was  deposed  for  holding,  inter  alia,  that  the  spirit 
strives  with  all  the  unregenerate,  and  that  the  atonement 
is  universal :  and  he  and  others  formed  the  Evanoelical  , 
Union  (g.  v.).  In  1847  the  United  Secession  Church  joined 
with  the  Relief  Church,  forming  the  United  Presliytcrian 
Church  of  Scotland,  which  thus  became  a  large  and  impor- 
tant body. 

This  sketch  of  the  Scottish  churches  is  completed  by 
stating  that  in  1843  the  Free  Church  of  Scotlanh  (ly.  v.) 
came  out  from  the  established  church.  The  question  at 
stake  was  measurably  the  same  as  in  the  times  of  Erskine, 
namely,  the  right  of  a  congregation  to  choose  its  pastor. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  in  1853  and  1876  it  absorbed  ma- 
jorities of  the  Original  Seceders  and  of  the  Reformed  Pres- 
byterians, or  that  negotiations  for  union  have  at  times  been 
pending  between  the  United  Presbyterian  and  the  Free 
churches. 

In  England  the  Presbyterianism  estaljlished  in  1647-48 


PRESBYTERIAN  CnURCH 


763 


failed  to  take  penmiiient  root.  JIaiiy  of  the  Puritans  ciiii- 
grated  and  others  conformed  to  tiie  established  church. 
Some  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  lapsed  from  orthodoxy, 
but  during  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  new 
Presbyterianism  has  grown  up  in  Kni^land.  Previous  to 
1HT6  there  was  in  Kn;,'land  a  branch  of  the  Scottish  rnilcd 
Presbyterian  Cliurch  ami  an  Kn^rlish  Presbyterian  church. 
In  thiit  year  the  two  united,  taking  the  name  of  the  English 
body,  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England.  There  is  also 
in  England  a  synod  connected  with  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land. There  is  a  strong  Welsh  Church,  sometimes  called 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Wales,  but  oftener  the  Welsh 
Calvinistic  Methodist  Church.  In  Ireland  are  the  I'resl)y- 
terian  Church  in  Ireland,  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Ireland,  the  Eastern  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Ireland,  and  the  Secession  Church  of  Ireland.  The  second 
and  fourtli  of  these  are  in  connection  with  the  Scottish 
churches  of  the  same  names. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  German  and  Dutch  Presl)y- 
terian  bodies  in  Ainerica.  Had  the  early  Dutch  ascendency 
been  maintained,  the  Dutch  type  of  I'resljyterianism  would 
perhaps  liave  remained  dominant.  As  affairs  turned  out, 
the  mould  of  the  principal  type  of  Presbyterianism  in  the 
U.  S.  was  formed  by  the  fusion  of  English  Puritans  with 
I)eopIe  from  the  churches  of  Scotland  and  Ireland.  Into 
this  mould  Presbyterians  of  other  types  became  assimi- 
lated, among  these  very  prominently  the  French  Huguenots. 
Into  this  main  body  were  absorbed  a  large  proportion  even 
of  the  (ierman  and  Dutch  Presbyterians,  and,  probably,  a 
majority  of  the  immigrants  who  belonged  to  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  and  the  Secession  churches  of  Scotland.  Many 
of  these  last,  however,  adhered  to  their  old-country  prefer- 
ences and  organized  churches  of  their  own,  and  we  will 
briefly  follow  their  history  before  taking  up  thai  of  the 
larger  bodies. 

The  Seeeders  (Antiburghers  mainly)  organized  the  Asso- 
ciate Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania  about  1753  and  that  of 
New  York  in  I7TG.  The  Covenanters  organized  a  Reformed 
Presbytery  in  1774.  In  1782  the  three  presbyteries  united, 
forming  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  North  America; 
but  some  members  of  each  body  refused  to  go  into  the 
union,  and  before  1800  an  additional  body  had  been  organ- 
ized, so  that  the  century  opened  with  four  of  these  organ- 
izations— an  Associate  Presbytery  or  Presbyteries,  a  Re- 
formed Presbytery,  an  Associate  Reformed  Synod,  and  the 
Reformed  Dissenting  Presbytery.  Of  the  last  there  seems 
to  be  no  further  trace. 

The  Reformed  Presbyterians  organized  a  synod  in  1809 
and  a  general  synod  in  1823.  In  1833  a  division  occurred 
similar  to  that  which  came  thirty  years  later  in  Scotland, 
the  New  Light  party  holding  that  it  was  right  to  vote  and 
hold  office  under  the  Government  of  the  V.  S.,  and  the  Old 
Light  party  holding  the  contrary.  This  caused  a  division. 
The  New  Light  body  has  ever  since  been  known  as  the  Re- 
formed Presijyterian  Church  in  North  America  (General 
Synod).  The  other  is  the  Reformed  Presljyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America  (Synod).  In  1840  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Covenanteil  Church  withdrew  from  the 
Synod  on  account  of  the  alleged  lack  of  strictness  in  that 
body.  In  1883  the  Reformed  Presliyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  was  formed  by  separation  from 
the  General  Syno<l. 

The  Associate  Presbyterians  in  1801  organized  the  Asso- 
<'iate  Synod  of  North  America,  otherwise  known  as  tlie  As- 
sociate Church  of  North  America.  In  18.58  the  number  of 
c<mgregations  had  become  nearly  300.  It  was  then  merged 
into  the  U.vitkd  Presbyterian  Cni'Rcn  of  North  America 
o/.  v.),  though  a  small  minority  continued  their  separate  ex- 
istence and  per|)etuate  the  nam(<  of  I  lie  Associate  Church. 

The  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterians  in  1802  formed  a 
general  synod,  including  the  synods  of  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, Scioto,  and  the  Carolinas.  In  1820  the  Synod  of 
Scioto  withdrew.  About  the  same  time  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt was  made  to  unite  the  Associate  Reformed  and  Re- 
formed Dutch  churches  under  the  name  of  the  Reformed 
Protestant  Church  of  North  America.  In  1821  the  Synod 
of  the  Carolinas  became  an  independent  body,  which  still 
exists  as  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South.  The 
.same  year  a  union  was  made  illegally  between  the  .\ssoeiate 
Reformed  body  and  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church.  In  this  attempt  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  was 
practically  merged  into  the  (jeneral  Assembly.  The  Scioto 
Synod  grew,  became  a  general  synod,  and  after  several  un- 
successful attempts  united  again  with  the  New  York  Synod 


in  IS.")."),  forming  a  body  of  367  congregations.  This  body- 
three  years  later  consolidated  with  the  Associate  Presbyte- 
rians into  the  United  Presbyterian  Church.  There  still  re- 
mained, however,  a  separate  body  named  the  Associate  Re- 
formed Synod  of  New  York.  By  1894  all  the  congregations 
of  this  body  save  two  were  absorbed  into  other  churches. 

The  first  presbytery  in  the  American  colonies  was  that  of 
Philailelphia,  formed' in  1705.  In  1716  the  Synod  of  Phila- 
delphia was  constituted.  In  1729  it  adopted  the  Westmin- 
ster Confession  of  Faith.  In  174.5  the  presbyteries  of  New 
Brunswick,  New  York,  and  a  part  of  that  of  Newcastle  with- 
drew and  formed  the  independent  Synod  of  New  York, 
This  was  called  the  New  Side  Synod,  and  the  old  Synod  of 
Philadelphia  the  Old  Side.  The  Old  Side  stood  aloof  from 
Whitefield  and  revivals,  and  insisted  on  a  fidl  course  of 
scholastic  sturly  for  ministers  ;  the  New  Side  atliliated  with 
Whitefield  and  judged  of  ministers  by  their  qualifications 
and  not  l)y  their  scholastic  studies  only.  The  synod  came 
together  again  in  1758  as  the  Synod  of  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia. The  Old  Side  ministers  were  in  the  majority  at 
the  disrui)tion:  at  the  reunion  the  New  Side  outnumbered 
them  three  to  one. 

Four  ministers  .withdrew  in  1779  .and  formed  the  Presby- 
tery of  Morris  County.  Three  other  affiliated  presbyteries 
were  formed  within  the  next  eighteen  years.  They  were 
known  as  the  Associated  Presbyteries.  In  no  very  long 
time  they  were  absorbed  by  other  bodies. 

In  1788  the  Synod  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  had  in- 
creased to  sixteen  presbyteries.  In  1789  these  were  dis- 
triliuted  into  four  synods,  and  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America  was 
organized.  Very  soon  after,  as  the  effect  of  a  plan  of  united 
work  with  the  Congregationalists  of  New  England,  the 
churches  of  the  assembly  multiplied  greatly  in  the  new  set- 
tlements of  New  York  and  Ohio.  In  the  first  decade  of  the 
nineteenth  century  differences  arose  among  the  Scotch-Irish 
Presbyterians  in  the  Cumberland  valley,  and  these  resulted 
in  the  formation  of  the  Ci'.mberlaxd  Presbyterian  Church 
ig.  !'.).  In  the  following  decades  arose  the  division  into  Old 
School  and  New  School.  The  New  School  men  were  charged 
at  the  time  with  laxity  in  doctrine  and  discipline.  This 
they  denied,  and  they  certainly  made  good  their  denial. 
As  the  Old  School  party  was  strong  in  the  Southern  States, 
the  party  was  charged  with  proslavery  sympathies ;  but  if; 
does  not  appear  that  this  was  true  in  such  a  sense  as  to  af- 
fect their  ecclesiastical  conduct.  The  difference  was  partly 
a  difference  of  race  and  temperament,  English  blood  being 
relatively  more  prominent  among  the  New  School  men,  and 
Scotch-Irish  blood  among  the  Old  School  men.  The  Old 
School  men  magnified  the  jirerogatives  of  church  govern- 
ment and  church  office,  were  ambitious  of  pow'cr  in  the 
church  cotirts,  were  very  ready  to  bring  men  before  church 
courts  for  trial,  were  impatient  of  any  restrictions  that 
should  prevent  a  majority  in  a  church  court  doing  as  it 
pleased.  The  New  School  men  were  not  ambitious  to  dis- 
tinguish themselves  as  ecclesiastical  leaders,  insisted  on 
constitutional  restrictions  as  limiting  the  power  of  majori- 
ties in  church  courts,  preferred  to  deal  with  innovations 
rather  by  study  and  argument  than  by  prosecution.  In 
1837  the  Old  School  men,  finding  themselves  in  a  majority 
in  the  General  Assembly,  passed  a  vote  exscinding  several  of 
the  synods  in  which  the  New  School  men  were  most  numer- 
ous. "  The  New  School  men  denied  the  constitutionality  of 
this,  but  accepted  the  situation  under  protest,  and  were  soon 
in  good  working  order  as  a  church  by  themselves.  In  1858 
the  Southi!rn  presbyteries  of  the  New  School  church  with- 
drew ami  formed  ihe  United  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church.  In  18G2  the  Southern  cimstituency  of  the  Old 
School  clnirch  withdrew  and  formed  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  Confederate  States  of  America,  a  name  which  at  the 
close  of  the  civil  war  was  changed  to  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States.  The  following  year  this  body 
formed  an  organic  union  with  the  United  Synod  of  the 
south,  and  a  few  years  later  incorporated  the  synods  of  Mis- 
som'i  and  Kentucky,  which  had  been  practicallv  exscinded 
by  the  Old  School  "General  Assembly  in  ISfifi.  in  1869  the 
Old  School  and  New  School  General  Assemblies  after  thirty- 
two  years  of  separation  were  reuiiit/>d. 

With  the  addition  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  the  list  is  substantially  complete. 

In  Canada.  Presbyterianism  was  planted  in  nearly  as 
many  different  forms  as  in  the  IT.  S.,  and  passed  through 
somewhat  similar  stages.  The  several  movements  for  union 
cidminaled  in  1875,  when  practically  all  the  Canadian  Pres- 


764 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


byterian  churches  were  consolidated  into  one  church  bear- 
ing the  name  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada.  In  Aus- 
tralia, New  Zealand,  and  other  British  dependencies,  and  in 
Soutli  Africa,  are  vigorous  bodies  of  the  Presljyterian  order. 

VII.  Church  Institutions. — The  Presbyterian  churches 
commonly  manage  their  missionary  work,  domestic  and 
foreign,  and  other  special  forms  of  church  work,  through 
permanent  boards  or  permanent  committees.  For  example, 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  tlie  United  States  of  America 
has  the  following  organizations  of  this  sort:  The  trustees 
of  the  assembly,  the  boards  of  home  missions,  of  foreign 
missions,  of  education,  of  publication  and  Sabljath-school 
work,  of  church  erection,  of  ministerial  relief,  of  freed- 
men,  of  aid  for  colleges  and  academies,  and  the  permanent 
committee  on  temperance.  Tlie  other  Presbyterian 
churches  have  similar  arrangements.  In  addition,  many 
particular  synods  and  presbyteries  are  incorporated,  having 
boards  of  trustees  of  their  own,  authorized  to  hold  and  use 
property  for  church  purposes.  The  Presbyterian  churches 
also  have  a  large  number  of  educational  institutions.  (See 
College,  and  the  names  of  particular  institutions.)  Further, 
they  have  hospitals  and  asylums  in  many  parts  of  the  eartli, 
and  also  historical  societies,  houses  of  publication,  clubs, 
family  papers,  reviews,  etc.  The  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  and  the  Young  People's  Society  of  Christian  En- 
deavor have  been  especially  fruitful  in  their  work  among 
Presbyterians. 

VIII.  Present  Condition  of  Presbyterianism. — The  vari- 
ous evangelical  Presbyterian  churches  number  about  4,13.'),- 
000  communicants,  representing  a  population  of  about  five 
tiines  that  number— nearly  one-fifth  of  the  Protestant  popu- 
lation of  the  world.  In  order  to  give  an  account  of  the  dif- 
ferent Presbyterian  bodies  by  name  it  has  been  necessary 
to  describe  the  series  of  disruptions  and  reunions  that  have 
characterized  Presbyterian  history.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  this  phase  has  never  had  more  than  a  small  rela- 
tive importance  as  compared  with  the  Christian  work  done 
in  these  churches,  which  have  always  been  distinguished  for 
the  number  and  character  of  their'educational  institutions, 
for  the  extent  of  their  foreign  missionary  operations,  for 
their  liberal  contributions  for  religious  and  educational  pur- 
poses, and  for  thoughtful  preaching. 

In  1873  a  movement  was  made  in  the  U.  S.  toward  bring- 
ing the  scattered  families  of  Presbyterianism  into  at  least 
a  federative  union.  This  movement  was  responded  to  in 
other  lands.  The  result  was  a  council  held  in  London, 
July,  1875,  to  agree  upon  a  constitution  of  confederation. 
The  first  general  council  of  the  confederation  was  held  at 
Edinburgh  July.  1877;  the  second  at  Philadelphia  Sept., 
1880 ;  the  third  at  Belfast  June  and  July,  1884 ;  the  fourth 
in  London  July,  1888;  the  fifth  in  Toronto  Sept.,  1893. 
The  union  is  styled  The  Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches 
holding  the  Presbyterian  System.  It  is  popularly  known  as 
the  Pan-Presbyterian  Council. 

In  the  different  branches  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
there  is  more  or  less  of  movement  toward  creed  revision. 
Several  of  the  British  churches  have  adopted  changes  in  the 
Westminster  standards,  or  explanatory  declarations,  or  both. 
In  the  largest  American  Presbyterian'church  there  has  been 
wide  but  fruitless  discussion  on  this  subject.  Correspond- 
ence is  also  in  progress  with  reference  to  the  formulation  of 
a  creed  which  shall  express  the  consensus  of  doctrine  in  all 
the  churches  of  tlie  alliance. 

IX.  Statistics. — The  following  general  summary,  and  the 
statistics  for  Great  Britain,  are  taken  from  the  volume  of 
the  Toronto  council,  with  corrections  and  supplementation. 
The  fuller  statistics  for  North  America  are  taken,  except 
when  the  contrary  is  indicated,  from  official  sources  for  1894  : 

GENERAL   SU.MM.^RY. 


COUNTRIES. 

i 
1 

11 

3   « 

iK-g 

ii 

o    3    O 

o  B  S 

European  continent 

31 
IS 
6 
10 
17 
3 
2 
8 
2 

91 

321 

2T« 

14 

IH 

658 

.5 

li 

43 

14 

5,289 

5,149 

160 

228 

11,921 

52 

.39 

463 

194 

6,602 

4,643 

108 

174 

12,788 

37 

41 

405 

166 

753,901 

1,436.152 

20,344 

131.931 

1,708.M3 

3,4^'.T 

lO.KIHI 

39,590 

The  United  Kingdom 

Africa 

North  .\meric'a 

Suutli  .America 

Western  islands 

Grand  totals  for  1893 

Totals  for  1888 

1,256 
1.406 

23,495 
25,787 

33.957 
23,077 

4.125.904 
3,721, (it-'O 

FULLER  STATISTICS  FOR  GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   NORTH  AMERICA. 


CHURCHES. 


Church  ..f  Scotland 

Refoiiiu'd  I'icsli,  rliurch  of  Scotland  . . . 

United  i_>rit;inal  Sceeders 

Free  C'hurcli  of  Scotland 

United  Presb.  Church  of  Scotland 

Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland 

Reformed  Presb.  Church  of  Ireland 

Eastern  Reformed  Presb.  Church  of  Ireland 

Secession  Church  of  Ireland 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Meth.  Church 

Church  of  Scotland  in  England 

Presbyterian  Church  of  England 

Reformed  Church  in  ■A.merica  (D.  Ref.) 

Christian  Ref.  Church  in  America 

Ref.vriiied  Church  in  the  U.  S 

Presbyterian  Cliurch,  U.  S.  A 

Cumlierland  I'resbyterian  Church 

*  Cumberland  Presb.  Church  (colored) 

Presbyterian  C^hurch,  U.  S 

Associate  Pres.  Synod  of  North  America. . . 

+  -Associate  Ref.  Pres.  Churches 

A.ssociate  Ref.  Synod  of  the  South . . 

Ret.  Presb.  Cihurch  in  N.  A.  (Gen.  Synod). . 

Ref.  Presb.  Church  in  U.  S.  A.  (Synod! 

t  Ref.  Presb.  Covenanted  Church 

t  Ref.  Presb.  Church  in  the  U.  S.  and  Canada 
United  Presb.  Church  of  North  America. 

*  Welsh  Calv.  Methodist  Church  in  the  U.  S. 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada 

*  Church  of  Scotland  in  Canada 

*  Ch.  of  Scotland  in  the  Maritime  Provinces 


ft 

: 

11 

.3 

§  = 

u 

S 

1,685 

1,500 

13 

8 

39 

36 

1,092 

1,142 

617 

606 

657 

637 

36 

29 

8 

10 

7 

1,446 

672 

14 

16 

385 

.308 

613 

614 

119 

71 

1,583 

885 

7.387 

6,641 

2.881 

1,708 

285 

200 

3,713 

1,319 

3:3 

14 

2 

7 

131 

103 

48 

35 

119 

109 

4 

1 

939 

833 

175 

117 

2,606 

1,087 

10 

9 

12 

8 

693,393 

1.1S5 

3,617 

.3.38,978 

186,298 

103,736 

4,024 

i',236 

136,051 

3,800 

65,841 

100,811 

13,351 

212,830 

896,997 

184,138 

16,000 

199,167 

1.100 

350 

10,088 

1 4,602 

9,787 

.37 

60O 

115.272 

12,202 

181,370 

1,000 

1,000 


*  Records  of  Toronto  Council. 


t  U.  S.  Census  of  1 


X.  Literature.— The  literature  of  Presbyterianism  is  ex- 
tensive.    First.  It  has  its  place  in  many  general  historical 
works,  particularly  those  that  treat  of  religious  and  mis- 
sionary movements  in  the  Reformation  and  post-Reformation 
period.    A  valuable  bibliography  of  tliis  period  is  contained 
in  Fisher's  History  of  tlie  Peformation.     Second.  Presby- 
terian statistics  and  other  information  are  to  be  found  in 
the   census   reports   and  other  archives  of  the  U.  S.  and 
other  nations.    Such  material  in  compendious  form  is  given 
in    such   works    as    The    Census   of  the   Churclies  (1894) 
and  The  Religious  Forces  of  the  United  States,  vol.  i.  in 
the  American  Church  History  Series  (1893),  by  H.  K.  Car- 
roll ;  Our  Country  (revised  edition  1891).  by  Josiah  Strong; 
Problem,  of  Religious  Progress  (1881),  by  Daniel  Dorchester ; 
and  The  Churches  and  Chtirchless  of  Scotland,  by  Robert 
Howie.  Third.  Sessions,  presbyteries,  svnods,  general  assem- 
l)lies,  and  the  Alliance  are  record-keeping  bodies,  and  their 
records  and  archives,  eitlier  in  manuscript  or  published,  are 
the  true  sources  of  information.     The  prominent  churches 
publish  their  minutes  annually,  and  some  publish  an  ad- 
ditional volume  of  reports  and"  documents.     Collections  of 
these  are  accessible  in  libraries.     Among  the  publications 
of  this  kind  that  have  an  interdenominational  value  may 
be  mentioned  the  Scotti.'ih  Church  and  University  Almanac, 
Nevin's  Presbyterian  Year-book,  and  the  quadrennial  vol- 
umes of  the  Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches.     P'or  the 
earliest  period,  see  Introduction  to  the  Records  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  I646-47,  3Iinutes  of  the  General  Assembly, 
1G.U-J,9  (Edinburgh,  1874),  and  The  Westminster  Assembiy, 
its    History    and    Standards   (London,    1883),   by   A.   P. 
JMitchell ;  History  of  the  Westminster  Assemhli/  of  Di vines 
(4th  ed.,  revised,  Edinburgh,  1878).  by  W.  JI.  Iletlierington; 
and  Documentary  History  of  the  WestminsterAssemMli/{Pres- 
byterian  Revieiv,  Jan.,  1880),  by  C.  A.  Briggs.     Fourth.  A 
unique  work,  of  importance  to  those  interested  in  the  creed- 
revision  movements  of  1887-92,  is  the  scrap-book  entitled 
Co7ifessional  Revision,  made  by  Winthrop  S.  Gilman.  of 
which  comidete  copies  exist  in  the  libraries  of  Union,  Au- 
burn, and  Princeton  Theological  Seminaries.     Fifth.  The 
doctrinal  position  of  the  Presbyterians  is  defined  in  the 
published  standards  of  each  Church.    The  well-known  Con- 
fession of  Faith  of  the  Scottish  and  American  chuix'hes  is 
the  most   prominent  example.      A   good   account  of  the 
celebrated    statements  of   Presbyterian   doctrine   may  be 
found  in  Creeds  of  Christendom',  by  Philip  Schaff  (,')th  ed. 
1890).      Of  Presbyterian   theological  works  the   following 
are  a  few  among  maiiv  :  History  of  Christian  Doctrines 
(1889)  and  Dogmatic  Theology  (2d'ed.  1889),  bv  W.  G.  T. 
Shedd;  Christian  Dogmatics'ilSS^),  by  J.  J.  Van'Oosterzee; 
Systematic    Theology   (1873),   by   C.   Hodge;    Outlines  of 
Theology  (1863,  and  later  editions),  by  A.  A.  Hodge;  Sys- 


PRESBYTERIAN   CLIURCH 


PRESCOTT 


765 


tern  of  Christinn  Theology  (4th  ed.  1890),  by  II.  B.  Smith; 
Prtsfut  Daij  Tln'oloi/y  (1H93),  by  L.  F.  Steams;  Systematic 
TlieoUiyy  (Niisliville,  1870),  by  K.  Heard  ;  Tlie  Doctrine  of 
the  ('ori'iiiiiiln  ill  /{eformi'd  'I heoliiyi)  {\X',l\).\ty  (i.Voa;  and 
The  Iii.ililiitesof  the  Chri.^tiau  Hrl'iyion  ( ls!li-!l.j),  by  K.  V. 
Gerhart.  Sixtli.  Work.s  uii  C'hurcli  polily  :  The  Boolm  of 
Discipline  of  the  several  (diurches  ;  The  Line  of  Creeds 
in  Scotliiiut  (IH07),  by  A.  T.  Iiines ;  Mucl'herson's  Pres- 
byterianism  (Scottisli);  Ijevi's  Digest  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Eiiyland:  Digest  of  Deliverances  in  tlie  United 
Presbyleriiin  Church,  bv  A.  G.  WaUace;  Assembly  Digest, 
by  S.J.  Baird  (1K.16,  rev.  ed.  18.W);  The  I'resbyterian  Di- 
gest of  ISSi;,  by  \V.  E.  Jloore;  Digest  of  the  Presbyterian 
Churih  (South)  to  ISS7,hy  W.  A.  Alexander  ;  Manual  of 
Church  I'o/ity  (lH~H),\,y  S.  M.  Hopkins;  What  is  Presby- 
terian //((»'/ (1884),  by  J.  A.  Hodfje  ;  lielations  of  Ciril 
Law  to' Church  Polity  (ISl')),  hy  Justice  William  Strong; 
and  Manual  of  /jiuc  and  Usage  (1888),  by  B.  F.  Mittinjjer. 
EiRhth.  Works  on  the  history  of  Bresbyterianism :  Knox's 
History  of  the  lief orinaf ion  in  Scotland;  P.urtoti's  History 
of  Scoiliinil ;  Mr(  'rie's  Vindication  of  tlie  Sciiftish  Covenant- 
ers; HIstiiry  of  tlie  Puritans,  by  Stowell,  Uethcrinj;ton,  and 
Xoal ;  I'linnley's  The  Presbyterian  Church  throughout  the 
World  (187."));  Stoushton's  History  of  lieligions  in,  Eng- 
land (1884);  and  Blaokie's  History  of  Presbyterianism  in 
^ew  kngland  {1>^HI).  Church  of  Scotlanii :  The  histories 
of  Calderwood,  .Spotiswood,  Row,  and  Woodrow,  among  the 
ohier  aiilhorities;  those  of  llethciington  (1853),  Stanlev 
(1872),  Walker  (1882),  Moffat  (1884),  P.'.M.  Mnir  (1893);  and 
St.  (liles  Lectures,  first  series  (1881).  Reformed  Church  in 
the  U.  S. :  Tercentenary  Monument,  Chambersbiirg  (18(53); 
History  of  the  Reformed  Church,  by  L.  Mayer  (1851),  by  E. 
V.  Gerhart  (18(53),  bv  J.  H.  Dul)bs,  in  American  Church 
History  Series,  vol.  vi'i.  (1895),  and  Historic  Manual  (1885), 
by  J.  H.  Dubbs.  Reformed  Chundi  in  America :  Manned 
(3d  cd.  1879),  Centennial  Discourses  (187(5),  Centennial  Vol- 
ume of  the  New  Hruiisicick  ,SV'//(//(f(/7/ (1884).  and  The  Re- 
formed Church  in  America  in  the  .American  Church  History 
Series,  vol.  vii.  (1895),  by  E.  T.  Corwin  ;  Histori/  of  Rutgers 
College  (1879),  by  T.  S.  Doolittle  ;  The  Huguenots  on  the 
Jlackensack  (1886)  and  TTie  Reformed  Church  in  America 
(185(5;  3d  ed.  1889),  by  D.  D.  Demarest.  Reformed  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Scotland:  Naismith's  Hisiurical  Sketch 
(1887),  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland:  M"Ker- 
row's  Histori/  of  the  United  Secession  Church  (1841); 
Struther's  Histori/  of  the  Relief  Church  (1843) ;  and  Mac- 
kelvie's  Jhh((/.s  and  Statutes  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  (1873).  Free  Church  of  Scotland:  Ilanna's  Life 
of  Dr.  Chalmers;  Hainy's  Life  of  William  Cunningham; 
Vy'aWicv'a  Life  of  Buchanan;  Buchanan's  Teti  Years'  Con- 
flict (1849)  ;'Brvce's  Ten  Years  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
(1859):  Our  Ciiurrh  Heritaqe  {IXTi).  Religious'  Histori/  of 
Svollantl  (1SS21,  ami  Scottish  Church  llisluri/  (ISSO).  by  \. 
L.Walker;  The  Free  Church  of  Scotland  (\mi),h)-  VaUv 
Bayne  ;  and  (in  one  vfdunu')  Scotland's  Free  Church,  by  G. 
B.  Rvlev.  with  the  Summary  of  Free  Church  Progress,  by 
J.  M."  M'cCandlish  (1893).  Presbyterian  Church  of  England: 
'P.  McCrie's  Annals  of  the  English  Presbytery  from  t/w 
Earliest  I'eriod  to  the  Present  Time(lH~2) ;  Ske.-its's  History 
of  Free  Churches  in  England,  a.  n.  WA'.V-/,?.77(18()!)) ;  Dry.s- 
(\a.\K's  The  Presbyterians  in  England  (\8Hf));  Black's  /Vcs- 
byterianism  in  England  in  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth 
Centuries;  and  I).  Fraser's  I'resbyterian  Church  in  Eng- 
land (1892).  Welsh  Calvinistic  Church:  Enci/clopendia 
Cambrensis  (10  vols.,  in  Welsh,  Denbigh,  1882).'  Presby- 
terian Churcli  in  Irel.ind  :  Ecclesiastical  Histori/ of  Ireland 
(1S75).  liv  W.  I).  Killcn;  The  Presln/teriiui  Church  in  He- 
land,  bv'P.  Adair  (lS(J(i),  bv  J.  S. 'Ueid  (18(57),  and  bv  W. 
Cieland"  (1892).  Rrf..rmod  Presbyterian:  (ihisgow's  7/i'.s- 
tory  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Churcli;  Reformation 
Principles  as  Testimony.  United  Presbvterian  Church : 
United  Presbyterianism  (2d  cd.  1883),  by  \V.  J.  Rcid ;  The 
United  I'l-esbyterian  Church,  by  A.  G.  Wallace,  in  Ilay's 
J'reshyteriims  (1892),  and  by  J.  B.  Scouller,  in  vol.  ii.  of 
the  Anu'rican  Church  History  Series  (1894).  Cumberland 
l'resl)ytcrian  Church:  The  I'resbyterian  Church  in  Ken- 
tucky (1847).  liy  R.  Davidson;  the  Cuniberland  Presbi/- 
trrian  Church, 'by  B.  W.  McDonnold  (I8SS).  and  by  R.  V. 
Foster  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  .\merican  Cliundi  History  Scries 
(1894).  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  Uinted  States  of  Amer- 
ica: llotchkin's  History  of  Western  New  York  (1848);  The 
Presbyterian  Churcli  in  America  (1857),  by  R.  Webster; 
Sketch  of  Presbyterianism  in  Central  New  York  (1877).  by 
P.  H.  Fowler;   History  of  the  Division  in  the  Presbyterian 


Church  (1852),  by  G.  N.  Judd  ;  Brown's  Historical  'Vindicor- 
tio/i  of  the  Abrogation  of  the  Plan  of  Fh»071  (1855) ;  His- 
tory of  the  Neil'  School  (1868),  liy  S.  J.  Baird  ;  Presbyterian 
Reunion  (1870);  Centennial  Historical  Discourses  ISld); 
Historical  Almanac  (10  vols.,  18.58-6S1,  by  T.  M.  Wilson; 
Constitutional  History  of  the  J'resbyli  rian  Church  (1840), 
bv  C.  Hodge;  The  Presbi/terian  Church  (revised  cd.  1873), 
by  E.  11.  Gillelt;  Presbyterians  (1892),  by  G.  P.  Hays; 
American  Presbyterianism  (1885),  by  ('.  A.  Briggs;  and 
Presbyterians,  by  R.  E.  Thompson,  in  the  American  Church 
History  Series,  vol.  vi.  (1895).  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
U.  S. :  Howe's  Presbi/terian  Church  in  South  Carolina 
(vol.  i.,  1870;  vol.  ii.,  1883) ;  James  H.  ThornwelVs  Collected 
Writings  (Hichmon<i,  1881-86),  his  Life  and  Letters  (1875), 
by  B.  M.  Palmer;  and  The  Southern  I'resbyterian  Church, 
by  T.  C.  Johnson,  in  vol.  ii,  of  the  American  Church  His- 
tory Series  (1894).  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist:  Welsh 
Methodism  (in  Welsh,  3  vols.,  Wrexham,  Wales,  1850-56), 
bv  J.  Hughes:  The  Welsli  Calvinistic  3Ietliodists  (Rome, 
\.  Y.,  18.54).  I)y  W.  Rolanrl :  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodism, 
(I.ond.m,  1872),  by  W.  Williams;  and  The  Welsh  in  Amer- 
ica (in  Welsh,  1872),  by  R.  D.  Thomas.  The  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada:  History  of  tlie  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Canada,  by  G.  Bryce  (1875),  by  W.  Cieland  (1890),  by  W. 
(5regg  (1890);  and  Short  History  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada  from  the  Earliest  to  the  Present  Times 
(1892),  by  W.  Gregg. 

Revised  by  W.  J.  Beecher  and  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

I'rescott,  William  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Groton,  Mass.,  Feb. 
20,  1726  ;  served  in  the  expeditions  against  Cape  Breton 
(1754)  and  Acadia  (1756),  attaining  the  rank  of  captain; 
became  a  farmer  in  the  town  of  Pepperell,  where  he  inher- 
ited a  considerable  landed  estate  ;  commanded  a  regiment 
of  minutemen  1775;  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Lexington, 
and  commanded  in  that  of  Bunker  Hill  (according  to  the 
usual  account) ;  resigned  from  the  array  1777,  but  took  part 
as  a  volunteer  in  the  campaign  against  Burgoyne  in  the 
same  year ;  and  sat  in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  for 
several  years.     D.  Oct.  13,  1795. 

Prescott.  William  Hicklino  :  historian;  b.  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  JMay  4,  1796.  He  entered  Harvard  College  as  a  sopho- 
more in  1811.  Not  long  after  he  received  injuries  which 
eventually  resulted  in  total  blindness  in  one  eye  and  partial 
loss  of  sight  in  the  other.  Owing  to  this  misfortune  he  was 
forced  to  enijiloy  a  reader  for  his  historical  investigations, 
and  in  writing  he  used  an  ingeniously  contrived  frame,  the 
"  noctograph."  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1814  with  high 
honors  in  classics  and  literature;  traveled  in  the  Azores, 
England,  France,  and  Italy  1815-17,  and  settled  in  Boston, 
where  he  was  married  in  1820.  He  chose  as  his  special  field 
of  literary  work  modern  Spain  and  the  Spanish  conr|uests 
in  America.  In  the  course  of  his  researches  he  procured 
from  Spain  copies  of  a  large  number  of  valualilc  manu- 
scripts. His  first  book.  History  of  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  (3  vols.,  Boston,  1837),  was  the  result  of  ten 
years  of  laljor.  It  was  recognized  in  Europe  as  the  most 
meritorious  historical  work  which  had  yet  appeared  in 
America,  and  was  translated  into  French.  Spanish,  Italian, 
Gi-rman.  and  Dutch;  yet  it  is  stated  that  Pre.scotl  himself, 
with  cliaracteristic  modesty,  refused  to  give  it  to  the  world 
until  urged  to  do  so  by  his  friends.  In  1843  apjieared  his 
most  brilliant  work.  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico;  it 
was  followed  by  Biographical  and  Critical  Jliscellanies 
(1845);  Conquest  of  Peru  (1847):  anil  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Philijt  the  Second  (3  vols..  1857-58.  incomplete).  In  1858 
he  edited  Robertson's  Charles  tlie  Fifth,  with  a  supplement 
on  the  life  of  the  emjieror  after  his  abdii-ation,  and  he  was 
the  author  of  historical  an<l  c'rilical  articles  in  The  North 
American  Review  and  other  periodicals.  His  relations  with 
Irving.  .Motley,  and  Tieknor  were  particularly  cordial,  and 
their  mutual  concessions  honored  them  all.  Irving,  who 
had  begun  a  work  on  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  resigned 
the  field  to  Prescott  as  soon  as  he  heard  that  the  latter 
had  taken  it  up,  and  Prescott  ai<ied  and  encouraged  Jlot- 
Icy  to  write  his  Dutch  Republic,  though  the  subject  was 
partly  covered  by  his  own  Pliili/i  the  Second.  Prescott,  like 
Irving,  was  a  brilliant  writer  and  a  painstaking  investi- 
gator, but  his  tendency  to  hero-worsinp  and  to  pictur- 
esque coloring  often  produces  a  false  impression.  He  him- 
self was  aware  of  this,  and  tried  to  counterbalance  it  by 
occasional  rigid  condemnalion  of  such  men  as  Cortes  and 
Pizarro,  l)\it  liis  evident  symjialhy  and  his  gorgeous  descrip- 
tions blind   us  to  the  cruelty  and  injustice  of  the  conquer- 


766 


PKESCRIPTION 


ors.  His  works  are  among  the.  American  classics  and  have 
had  numerous  editions.  D.  in  Boston.  Jan.  38,  1859.  See 
Ticknor,  Life  of  W.  U.  Prescott  (1864),  and  for  critical  es- 
timates AUibone's  Dictiunart/  of  Authors  and  Bancroft's 
Mexico,  vol.  i.,  pp.  7,  17,  701-702.         Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Prescription  [from  Lat.  pnescrip'tio,  liter.,  a  writing 
before  or  in  front  of;  in  Roman  procedure,  a  defense  whicli, 
if  proven,  renders  unnecessary  the  examination  of  the  plain- 
tiff's allegations,  and  which  "was  therefore  put  at  the  top 
of  the  formula  sent  to  the  referee;  deriv.  of  prmseri'bere, 
write  before  ;  pne,  before  +  scribere.  write]  :  the  conversion 
of  an  actual  into  a  legal  state  of  things  by  lapse  of  time.  It 
is  evident  that  jirescription,  in  this  sense,  plays  a  very  im- 
portant part  in  public  law.  In  the  relations  of  state  to  state, 
and  of  class  to  class  within  the  same  state,  power  actually 
asserted  is  constantly  transforming  itself  into  right,  and 
rights  left  unexercised  are  sooner  or  later  lost. 

In  private  relations,  lapse  of  time  seems  to  have  had 
equally  great  and  equally  general  results  in  early  society. 
Originally,  rights  of  all  kinds  appear  to  have  been  created 
by  successful  force  and  extinguished  by  the  failure  to  exer- 
cise them.  In  civilized  states,  however,  the  law  does  not 
give  prescription  so  wide  an  effect.  Certain  rights  only  are 
established  by  the  exercise  of  the  corresponding  power, 
and  certain  rights  oidy  are  lost  by  non-user.  To  the  for- 
mer category  belong,  regularly,  riglits  over  things.  To  the 
latter  category  belong  certain  rights  in  re,  and  nearly  all 
rights  of  action,  or  claims,  wlietlier  in  rem  or  in  personam. 
For  the  Roman  and  modern  European  law  governing  tlie 
prescriptive  extinction  of  claims,  see  Limitation  ok  Actions  ; 
•what  remains  to  be  noted  is  the  law  governing  the  pre- 
scriptive establishment  and  extinction  of  rights  over  things. 

1.  The  Roman  law  started  with  the  rule  that  all  corporeal 
objects  capable  of  private  ownership  passed,  in  relatively 
short  terms,  into  the  ownership  of  the  possessor  :  movables 
in  one  year,  immovables  in  two  years.  This  nictliod  of  ac- 
quiring property  riglit  was  called  "  taking  by  use"  {iisii- 
capio).  In  tlie  provinces,  where  usucaption.  as  an  institu- 
tion of  the  civil  law,  was  held  to  be  inapplicable,  an  analo- 
gous protection  was  given  to  the  possessor  of  realty  by  the 
"  prescription  of  long  time."  The  rules  of  usucaption  and 
of  prescription  were  subjected,  partly  by  legislation  and 
partly  by  interpretation,  to  certain  qualifications,  and  the 
two  institutions  were  fused  into  one  by  Justinian.  Accord- 
ing to  the  rules  laid  down  by  him,  the  possessor  of  movables 
acquired  ownership  in  three  years;  the  possessor  of  immov- 
ables in  ten  years  inter  pnesenies  (i.  e.  when  both  the  prior 
and  the  present  possessor  resided  in  the  same  province),  and 
in  twenty  years  inter  absentes.  In  order  to  ripen  into  owner- 
ship the  "possession  had  to  be  "juristic"  and  must  have  been 
acquired  bona  tide,  whicli  regularly  implied  color  of  title. 
In  calculating  the  term  of  possession  the  possessor  was  per- 
mitted to  reckon  the  possession  of  him  from  wliom  he  ob- 
tained possession  {accesnio  possession  is),  provided  the  latter 
also  had  acquired  bona  fide.  Things  incapable  of  owner- 
ship {res  e.ctra  commercium)  were,  of  course,  incapable  of 
prescription  ;  also,  by  the  rule  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  tilings 
which  had  been  stolen,  and  by  a  later  enactment  things 
of  which  the  possession  had  been  acquired  originally  by 
force. 

This  "  ordinary  "  prescription  was  supplemented  in  the 
codification  of  Justinian  by  a  much  more  sweeping  prce- 
seriptio  longissimi  temporis.  By  virtue  of  this  so-called 
"  extraordinary  "  prescription,  possession,  if  acquired  bona 
fide,  was  converted  into  ownership  whenever  the  previous 
owner's  actions  were  lost  by  limitation.  The  period  in  this 
case  was  thirty  or  forty  years. 

Lesser  rights  over  things,  e.  g.,  the  servitudes  or  easements 
upon  realty,  were  capable  of  being  acquired  by  prescription 
in  ten  or  twenty  years. 

As  to  the  loss  (if  rights  over  things  by  non-user,  distinc- 
tions were  drawn.  Ownership  was  not  lost  by  non-user,  but 
only  in  conse(|uenee  uf  the  creation  of  a  new  adverse  ownei'- 
ship.  Real  or  "  pr.edial  "  servitudes  were  extinguished  by 
non-user  whenever  the  exercise  of  the  right  involved  posi- 
tive acts  on  the  part  of  its  holder  (as,  for  exam)ile,  in  the 
case  of  a  right  of  wav).  When  the  servitude  merely  im- 
po.sed  upon  the  owner  of  the  servient  estate  the  duty  of  not 
doing  certain  things  (which  was  regularly  the  case  with  the 
so-called  "town  servitudes  ")  the  servitude  was  extinguished 
only  by  "usucaption  of  liberty,"  i.  e.  the  owner  of  the 
servient  estate  must  do  that  which  lie  was  forbidden  to  do 
and  must  maintain  this  altitude  of  opposition  for  the  legal 


period  (ten  or  twenty  years).     The  so-called   "  personal " 
servitudes  were  not  extinguished  by  non-user. 

All  tlie  shorter  prescriptions  of  the  Roman  law  were  sus- 
pended during  the  minority  of  the  true  owner,  and  in  cer- 
tain other  cases  where  he  was  unable  to  press  his  claim.  No 
such  suspension  was  recognized  in  the  case  of  the  prescrip- 
tions of  thirty  or  forty  years. 

2.  Uedia'ml  Developments. — Teutonic  custom  recognized, 
as  regarded  immovables,  no  acquisition  of  ownership  by 
lapse  of  time,  but  only  a  strengthened  claim  of  the  possessor 
to  legal  protection.  This  protection  was  given  through  the 
rules  of  procedure  and  particularly  of  evidence.  He  who 
had  possessed  for  a  "'  year  and  day,"  however  vicious  his 
original  possession,  had  at  least  the  advantage  of  the  defen- 
sive position ;  and  if  his  possession  was  based  on  a  colorable 
title,  like  inheritance  or  conveyance  in  folk-moot,  he  might 
either  ignore  opposing  claims  or  defend  himself  by  prov- 
ing, with  the  aid  of  compurgators,  his  possession,  and  by 
his  "  sole  oath  "  the  manner  in  which  he  acquired  posses- 
sion. This  protection  was  obviously  based  rather  on  the 
extinction  of  opposing  claims  than  on  the  acquisition  of 
prescriptive  right. 

As  regarded  movables,  Teutonic  custom  treated  posses- 
sion as  ownership  except  in  the  case  of  things  lost  or 
stolen  ;  but  here  again  the  protection  of  the  possessor  was 
based,  originally,  on  the  fact  that  the  owner  of  movables 
who  had  parted  with  possession  of  his  free  will  was  al- 
lowed no  action  of  recovery  against  other  persons  than  his 
bailee. 

The  Church  accepted  the  Roman  rules  of  prescription, 
liut  with  one  important  modification.  The  Roman  law  re- 
quired that  possession  should  be  obtained  bona  fide,  but 
did  not  demand  the  continuance  of  bona  fides.  In  other 
words,  the  fact  that  the  possessor  discovered,  after  pre- 
scriptive possession  had  been  established,  that  liis  title  was 
liad,  did  not  interfere  with  the  completion  of  the  prescrip- 
tion. The  Church  made  such  a  discovery  fatal  to  the  com- 
pletion of  prescription  (mala  fides  sii/ierveniens  nocet). 
This  rule  was  generally  recognized  and  enforced  by  the 
secular  courts. 

3.  iloderii  legislations  generally  recognize,  in  some  form 
and  to  some  extent,  the  Roman  theories  of  prescription  (Pr. 
prescription.  Germ.  Ersitzung).  According  to  the  analogy  of 
the  Roman  extraordinary  prescription,  the  European  codes 
generally  treat  the  extinction  of  the  previous  owner's  ac- 
tion of  recovery  as  establishing  the  ownership  of  the  honest 
possessor.  The  Code  Napoleon  goes  further  and  discards 
the  Roman  requirement  of  bona  fides.  The  rules  of  ordi- 
nary prescription  are  substantially  Roman,  but  in  some 
legislations  the  character  of  the  title  on  which  prescription 
can  be  based  has  been  modified.  The  Roman  law  (lermitted 
prescription  when  the  possessor  erroneously  iinagiiied  that 
he  had  color  of  title  ;  so,  for  example,  when  he  acquired 
possession  through  a  representative  or  agent  and  errone- 
ously supposed  that  tlie  agent  had  acquired  by  some  legal 
method  of  transfer  (so-called  "  putative  ''  title).  The  Roman 
law,  again,  permitted  the  heir  to  prescribe,  although  his  an- 
cestor liad  held  possession  for  another  as  bailee  or  lessee, 
etc.,  provided  the  heir  was  ignorant  of  this  fact  (title  pro 
herede).  lu  the  latter  case  prescription  is  excluded  by  the  i 
French  law ;  in  the  former  case  it  is  excluded  by  the  Aus- 
ti-ian  law.  which  admits  prescription  only  when  the  possessor! 
has  at  least  a  color  of  title.  I 

The  whole  doctrine,  however,  has  lost  or  is  losing  niuchl 
of  its  importance  in  modern  European  law,  by  reason  ofl 
changes  in  the  law  concerning  acquisition  of  ownership.  Asl 
regards  movables,  the  tendency  is  to  give  further  protection! 
to  the  honest  possessor  than  was  given  as  Roman  law.  In  a  j 
large  number  of  cases  honest  possession  carries  with  it  aj 
perfect  title,  exception  being  made  only  in  the  case  of  lost  j 
and  stolen  property.  The  Code  Napoleon,  which  gocsl 
furthest  in  the  protection  of  the  honest  possessor,  laysl 
down  no  rules  at  all  concerning  the  prescriptive  acquisition! 
of  movables.  The  matter  is  regulated  by  treating  honestl 
possession  as  equivalent  to  ownership,  except  in  the  case  of  J 
things  lost  or  stolen,  and  by  limiting  the  action  for  the  re-j 
covery  of  lost  or  stnli^n  things  to  three  years. 

In  the  (ierman  law  there  is  a  tendency  to  exclude  pre-l 
scription  of  realty.  This  tendency  is  due  to  the  develop-! 
ment  of  the  "land-book"  system  (see  Recokding)  and  to! 
the  publica  fides  which  entries  in  the  land-book  enjoy.  In! 
Prussia  and  in  a  large  number  of  minor  (ierman  states  pre-l 
scription  is  absolutely  excluded  as  against  a  registered  title;! 
and  in  some  of  these  states,  in  which  registration  is  madel 


PRESCRIl'TIOX 


767 


essential  to  title,  prcsfription  of  unrcgistcroil  lami  <;ives 
oiilv  a  i'if,'lit  to  (Iciiuiml  ivgist ration.  Tlie  (icriiian  draft 
ciiilc  exi-lndes  real  iiropiM-ty  from  prescription. 

The  Austrian  coile,  whirli  does  not  go  so  far  in  the  pro- 
tection of  the  registered  title,  makes  the  entry  in  tlie  land- 
book  a  basis  for  a  pecidiar  [)rescriplion  of  perfect  title  with- 
out actual  possession.  The  person  registered  as  owner  ob- 
tains "  full  right"  against  all  the  world  in  three  years. 

4.  77(e(;ry.^I'rescriplive  acquisition  is  defended  i)n  the 
same  grounds  which  are  held  to  justify  the  Limitatio.n  ok 
Actions  ((/.  v.).  Statutes  of  prescription  are  also  "statutes 
of  rest."  The  wrong  apparently  done  to  hiiu  who  loses 
his  right  in  consequence  of  the  establishment  of  an  ad- 
verse right  disajipears  when  it  is  considered  that  he  has 
only  himself  to  blame,  that  he  is  the  victim  of  his  own 
negligence.  An  independent  reason  for  recognizing  pre- 
scriptive acquisition  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it  not  merely 
transforms  imperfect  into  perfect  titles,  l]ut  that  it  also 
transforms  derivative  into  original  titles,  and  frees  owners 
from  the  necessity  of  proving  the  titles  of  their  predecessors. 
The  fcM'mer  result  of  prescription  is  occasional,  the  latter  is 
constant.  This  constant  convei-sion  of  derivative  into  orig- 
inal titles  is  really  the  most  important  function  discharged 
bv  laws  of  prescription  ;  and  it  is  because  the  same  end  is 
gained,  as  regards  realty,  by  the  German  registration  laws, 
and  as  regards  movables,  by  the  protection  given  to  the  hon- 
est possessor  as  such,  that  prescription  is  losing  its  impor- 
tance in  modern  European  law, 

Immi:;mokial  1'kksi'Iuptiox. — Ordinary  prescription  and 
the  so-called  extraordinary  prescription  of  thirty  or  forty 
vears  create  and  extinguish  only  certain  kinds  of  property 
rights.  It  is  commonly  asserted  liy  Kuropean  jurists  that 
by  virtue  of  the  so-called  "  immemorial  presi'riplion  "  any 
sort  of  status  may  become  a  legal  status  :  and  that,  in  |)ar- 
ticular.  private  rights  which  can  not  be  establishi'd  liy  any 
other  sort  of  prescription  (e.g.  obligations)  may  be  established 
by  the  fact  that  they  have  been  exercised  "  time  out  of 
niind."  According  to  one  theory,  immemorial  prescription 
absolutely  creates  rights  ;  according  to  another,  it  creates  a 
presiunption  that  the  powers  actually  exercised  are  rightful 
— a  presumption  that  can  he  overturned  only  by  showing 
that  their  origin  was  unlawful.  The  doctrine  is  not  liased 
wholly  upon  the  Roman  law,  which  recognized  immemorial 
prescription  only  in  a  very  limited  elii-ss  of  cases  (viz..  rights 
of  way.  water  rights,  etc.,  (jnorum  memoria  mm  I'.rfat),  but 
upon  certain  provisions  of  the  canon  law  and  the  rules  of 
old  (ierman  custom.  The  canon  law,  however,  recognized 
immemorial  prescription  only  as  establishing  rights  of 
ecclesiastical  supervision,  rights  to  tithes,  and  rights  to  cer- 
tain tolls  and  triliutes.  all  of  which  are  properly  ])ublic.  not 
private  rights;  and  while  old  (Terman  custom  uplield  as 
pre^umabiy  rightful  a  state  of  things  which  had  existed  for 
at  least  two  generations,  provided  the  older  members  of  the 
community  had  neither  known  nor  heard  of  a  contrary 
state  of  tilings,  the  rights  thus  established  were  either 
quasi-public  riglits  or  rights  capable  of  what  the  Romans 
called  quasi-possession.  Those  who,  nevertheless,  aflirm  the 
general  recogniticm  of  immemorial  prescription  in  old  Ger- 
man law  not  infrequently  confuse  the  establishment  of  U^gal 
rules  by  immemorial  custom  with  the  establishment  of  rights 
by  |irescription.  The  doctrine  of  immemorial  prescription 
seems  to  have  no  place  in  modern  private  law.    It  is  igiujred 


by  all  the  Kuropean  codes. 


Mu.NROK  SSUTH. 


Prescription:  English  and  V.  S.  Laic. — In  the  common- 
law  system  the  term  prenrripfion.  though  borrowed  from 
the  civil  law  and  embodying  the  same  h'gal  conception,  is 
used  in  a  much  narrower  sense.  Here  it  describes  the  ac- 
(|uisition  by  lapse  of  time  oidy  of  those  rights  over  the  land 
of  others  which  the  Roman  law  rlescribed  as  /ierritiulfit — 
such  !us  casements  anil  profits  (see  K.vskmk.vt  and  Hkkkdita- 
MKXTs.  Iiiritr/jon'iil) — and  it  has  no  reference  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  title  to  lands  or  gooils  by  long  occupation.  The 
theory  of  the  common  law  as  to  the  title  to  lands  by  (idverse 
poaxcxxiiiti  was  that  the  property  in  the  land  was  at  once 
transferred  liy  the  disseisin  and  occupancy  to  the  wrongful 
taker,  and  that  the  lapse  of  time  operated  not  to  confer  any 
additional  right  upon  the  latter,  but  only  to  make  liiiii  more 
secure  liy  depriving  t  he  former  owner  of  his  remedies  against 
the  wrongful  transfer  of  title.  (See  Limit.\tio.s'  ok  Actions. 
lieal  I'roprrtii.)  The  theory  of  /jrcxcn'/tliuti,  on  the  other 
hiinil.  is  that  Icing  and  uninterrupted  enjoyment  of  a  use  or 
profit  in  anicther's  land  is  of  itself  conclusive  evidence  of  a 
right  lawfully  ac(iuired  at  some  remote  period  in  the  past. 


It  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  many  of  these 
prescriptive  rights  go  back  to  a  time  when  the  land  over 
which  they  are  asserted  was  common  land,  and  when  the 
use  in  question  was  merely  the  exercise  of  a  common  right, 
and  that  the  private  ownership  of  the  land  affected  was  im- 
posed upon  these  original  rights  of  enjoyment  and  was  ex- 
ercised in  subordination  to  them.  This  is  especially  true  of 
that  extensive  class  of  rights  known  as  "rights  of  com- 
mon" (see  Uereuitaments,  Incorporeal),  as  well  as  of  those 
customary  rights  which  are  hereinafter  described.  This  his- 
torical view  <if  the  origin  of  prescriptive  rights,  however 
true  in  fact,  could  not  long  withstand  the  feudalization  of 
the  common  law  of  property.  In  a  system  under  which  all 
lands  were  held,  directly  or  indirectly,  of  the  king,  as  lord 
paramount,  there  was  no  room  for  any  theory  of  original 
ownership  of  lands  in  common.  (See  Est.\tes,  Feudal  Sys- 
tem, and  Property.)  Accordingly  a  support  for  these  pre- 
scriptive rights  was  fouiuf  in  the  doctrine  of  a  "lost  grant." 
1'his  doctrine  was  expressed  in  terms  of  a  legal  presump- 
tion, that  uninterrupted,  notorious,  and  adverse  enjoyment 
of  the  right  asserte<l,  from  time  immemorial  (i.  e.  for  so  long 
a  time  "that  the  memory  of  man  ran  not  to  the  contrary"), 
was  evidence  of  a  grant  of  such  right  in  the  remote  past  by 
the  then  owner  of  the  "  servient  tenement  "  to  the  ancestor  or 
predecessor  (as  the  case  might  be)  of  the  person  now  claim- 
ing the  right.  Tliis  theory  of  a  lost  grant  was,  of  course,  a 
fiction,  pure  and  simple,  and  was  invented  in  order  to  give  a 
color  of  legality  to  the  prescriptive  claim,  there  being  in 
English  law  no  countenance  for  the  doctrine  of  the  civil 
law  that  mere  persistence  for  any  length  of  time  in  a  wrong- 
ful state  of  affairs  converts  it  into  a  right  and  lawful  state 
of  affairs.  Originally,  however,  the  fiction  was  taken  very 
seriously  by  the  judges,  and  the  question  as  to  whether  there 
had  in  fact  been  such  a  grant  as  was  alleged  was  submitted 
to  the  jury  for  their  determination.  .\t  a  later  period  the 
doctrine  took  its  place  as  a  true  presumption  of  law  (see 
Presumptions),  the  existence  of  the  grant  being  arbitrarily 
assumed  by  the  law  from  the  fact  of  use  and  enjoyment  for 
the  required  term  and  under  the  proper  conditions.  It  was 
still  possitile,  however,  to  rebut  tliis  presumption  by  show- 
ing that  such  a  grant  as  the  one  alleged  could  in  fact  never 
have  been  made.  This  appears  to  be  the  state  of  the  law  in 
England  at  present  in  cases  not  covered  by  the  statute  here- 
inafter referred  to.  ■  (See  3  Harv.  Law  Rev.  183.)  In  the 
U.  S.,  however,  the  fictitious  character  of  the  doctrine  of  a 
lost  grant  has,  as  a  general  thing,  been  fully  recognized  and 
evidence  is  not  admitted  to  rebut  the  allegation.  This  re- 
sult is  commonly  expressed  tiy  saying  that  the  presumption 
of  a  grant  has  become  "conclusive,"  but  the  tnic  view  of  the 
matter  would  seem  to  be  that  the  law  no  longer  indulges  in 
any  jiresumption  regarding  the  origin  of  the  right  in  ques- 
tion, but  arbitrarily  holds  that  due  and  proper  enjoyment 
t  hereof  shall  be  conclusive  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the 
right. 

The  length  of  time  requisite  to  answer  the  description  of 
"immemorial"  enjoyment  has  varied  greatly  from  time  to 
time,  the  period  of  limitation  of  real  actions  (see  Jieal  Prop- 
erti/,  under  Limitation  ok  Actions)  having  usually  been 
adopted  by  the  courts  as  the  measure  of  the  prescriptive 
term.  This  rule  formerly  reijuired  the  tenant  to  .show 
that  his  possession  or  enjoyment  dated  back  to  the  ac- 
cession of  Richard  I.  (a.  d.1189),  but,  when  the  lapse  of 
centuries  rendered  this  an  inconvenient  measure  of  the  right 
claimed,  it  was  shortened  by  statute  (li'i  lien.  VIII.,  c.  2, 
A.  D.  1540)  to  sixty  years,  and  finally  to  tw'enty  years,  at 
which  it  now  stands  in  England  and  most  of  the  IJ.  S.  The 
courts  having  taken  over  this  period  of  limitation  as  the 
measure  of  the  jirescri]itive  term,  it  follows  that  a  right  in 
the  nature  of  an  easement  or  profit  over  the  land  of  another 
may  now  generally  be  acciuired  by  enjoyment  of  the  right 
for  twenty  years,  though  different  periods,  varying  from  fif- 
teen to  thirty  years,  have  been  adopted  in  a  few  of  the 
States.  A  disability  existing  at  the  time  the  prescriptive 
period  began  to  run  will  lie  allowed  in  eomputing  the  lat- 
ter, as  in  the  case  of  the  limitation  of  actions  for  the  recov- 
ery of  real  estate.  In  England  the  whole  subject  is  now  for 
the  most  part  regulated  and  the  length  of  the  |irescriptive 
term  fixed  by  a  Prescription  Act  (2  and  3  Win.  IV..  eh.  71, 
A.  II.  1832).  but  in  the  V.  S.  the  doctrine  continues  to  be  gov- 
erned by  the  eomnion  law  as  above  set  forth. 

Xot  all  easements  or  rights  in  tlie  nature  of  easements 
may  lie  acquirctl  by  prescription.  The  use  or  enjoyment  re- 
lied upon  as  the  foundation  of  the  right  must  be  of  such  a 
character  that  it  is  a  visible  and  notorious  infringement 


768 


PRESCRIPTION 


PRESERVATION  OF   POOD 


upon  another's  property  rights.  It  is  wholly  iinmaterial 
whether  the  person  against  whom  the  right  is  claimed  has 
actual  knowledge  of  the  infringement  or  not,  but  the  acts 
relied  uiion  must  be  of  such  a  character  that  he  might  or 
should  have  known  of  them.  In  all  cases  of  positive  ease- 
ment— such  as  rights  of  wav,  of  drainage,  and  the  like — and 
in  all  profits,  the  notoriety  of  the  enjoyment  is  conclusively 
presumed  ;  but  where  the"easement  is  of  the  kind  descrilied 
as  negative — such  as  lateral  support,  light,  etc. — and  where 
the  user  is  unobtrusive  and  of  such  a  nature  that  it  can  not 
be  conveniently  interrui>ted,  the  courts  have  been  loath  to 
recognize  a  right  founded  upon  mere  prescriijtive  enjoy- 
ment. As  applied  to  the  easement  of  light  the  principle 
has  long  been  established  in  England  under  the  name  of 
"ancient  lights,"  and  the  English  courts  have  lately  applied 
it  to  an  easement  of  the  support  of  one  house  by  another 
(Angus  vs.  Dnltoii.  3  Q.  B.  D.  85;  4  Q.  B.  D.  163;  6  App. 
Cas.  740),  but  they  have  refused  to  extend  it  so  as  to  include 
a  right  to  the  flow  of  air  to  a  windmill  or  to  legalize  a 
nuisance  arising  from  the  vibration  of  a  wall  in  consequence 
of  the  operation  of  a  pestle  and  mortar.  In  the  U.  S.  the 
courts  have  generally  refused  to  recognize  the  validity  of 
prescriptive  claims  to  negative  easements  on  the  ground  of 
the  unsuitability  of  the  doctrine  to  the  conditions  of  life 
and  property  in  a  new  country. 

Prescriptive  rights  as  here  described  should  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  similar  rights  existing  by  local  or  special 
custom,  with  which  they  are  often  confounded.  In  Eng- 
land (though  not,  it  would  seem,  in  the  U.  S. ;  see  Acker- 
man  vs.  Shelp,  3  Halsted  [N.  J.]  125)  all  persons  residing 
in  a  certain  community  or  belonging  to  a  certain  calling 
may  have  common  rights,  in  the  nature  of  easements,  over 
the  land  of  an  individual  by  virtue  of  a  local  custom  of 
great  anticjuity.  What  distinguishes  these  customary  rights 
from  prescriptive  rights  proper  is  the  fact  that  they  attach 
to  the  persons  belonging  to  the  group  in  question  by  virtue 
merely  of  their  domicile  or  calling,  as  the  case  may  be,  and 
that  a  person  who  has  newly  become  a  member  of  the  com- 
munity or  guild  in  question  is  entitled  to  the  right  equally 
with  all  other  members  thereof,  whereas  in  the  case  of  pre- 
scription proper  the  person  asserting  the  right  must  show 
that  it  has  descended  to  him  from  his  ancestors  or  prede- 
cessors in  title,  as  the  ease  may  be,  or  at  least  that  it  has 
been  enjoyed  by  himself  for  the  prescriptive  period. 

In  addition  to  the  authorities  cited  in  the  course  of  this 
article,  see  Gale  on  Easements  and  Washburne  on  Ease- 
ments and  Servitudes.  George  W.  Kirchwey. 

Prescription:  in  international  law,  a  founding  of  good 
title  to  territory  which  without  a  treaty  of  cession  or  any 
well-defined  right  has  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  been 
held  in  possession  by  a  state.  The  objections  to  it  are  (1) 
its  indeflniteness,  since  no  fixed  limit  of  time  exists  to  con- 
stitute prescriptive  possession  ;  (2)  the  false  resemblance  to 
the  common  law  doctrine,  inasmuch  as  a  dispossessed  state 
can  not  be  bound  to  declare  war  in  order  to  prevent  i)re- 
scription  from  running  against  it;  (3)  its  frequent  violation 
at  the  dictate  of  national  policy. 

In  spite  of  such  arguments,  the  principle  of  a  prescrip- 
tive title  to  territory  has  obtained  in  international  law  to 
quiet  an  originally  doubtful  title  and  to  remove  the  uncer- 
tainty which  would  result  if  ownership  of  territory,  though 
wrongfully  acquired,  after  years  of  uninterrupted  enjoyment 
could  be  called  in  question.  Thus  Wheaton  believes  this 
doctrine  to  be  founded  upon  the  general  consent  of  man- 
kind and  man's  sense  of  its  mutual  utility, and  that  it  tends 
to  promote  the  general  welfare. 

Phillimore  asserts  that  "  the  peace  of  the  world,  the  high- 
est and  best  interests  of  humanity,  the  fulfillment  of  the 
ends  for  which  states  exist,  require  that  this  doctrine  be 
firmly  incorfmrated  in  the  code  of  international  law." 

Hall  declares  that  "the  object  of  prescription  as  between 
states  is  mainly  to  assist  in  creating  a  stability  of  interna- 
tional order,  which  is  of  more  practical  advantage  than  the 
bare  possibility  f)f  an  ultimate  victory  of  right,"  at  the 
same  time  ])oinling  out  the  defects  of  the  theory.  These 
opinions  are  shared  by  nearly  all  publicists.  In  accordance 
with  this  principle,  Poland,  divided  between  three  states 
under  no  pretext  of  legality,  has  now  lost  its  identity,  and 
legally  belongs  to  them.  Among  the  proofs  of  prcscri])tive 
possession  may  be  mentioned  publicity,  long  ccmtinued 
(though  not  necessarily  immemorial)  occupancy,  absence  of 
interruption,  and  the  use  of  the  state's  resources  upon  the 
land.  'J'nEonoRE  S.  Woolskv. 


Prescription :  a  written  formula  for  the  com|iounding 
and  dispensing  of  medicines.  Previous  to  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury physicians  disjiensed  their  remedies,  and  the  prescrip- 
tion was  chiefly  a  record  for  the  guidance  of  an  assistant, 
who  performed  the  manual  work,  and  for  the  preservation 
of  valuable  or  standard  curative  combinations ;  but  with  the 
separation  of  the  vocations  of  physician  and  apothecary  the 
prescri|ition  has  become  the  medium  of  communication  be- 
tween them,  the  written  instructions  of  the  former  to  the 
latter.  The  ingredients  of  a  prescription  are  commonly 
designated  in  Latin ;  the  nomenclature  of  botany  and  of 
chemistry  determines  the  names  of  vegetable  and  mineral 
remedies,  and  their  technical  names  are  the  only  ones  by 
which  they  can  be  definitely  known  and  correctly  prepared. 
Tlie  enumeration  of  the  several  articles  is  preceded  by  the 
symbol  5 ,  an  abbreviation  of  Lat.  recipe  (take).  This  symbol 
has  also  been  regarded  as  a  modification  of  the  sign  if,  the 
symbol  of  Jupiter,  with  which  the  ancients  prefaced  their  pre- 
scriptions to  propitiate  the  gods  and  insure  a  favorable  action 
of  their  drugs.  The  several  component  parts  of  a  prescrip- 
tion should  be  enumerated  in  the  order — (1)  of  their  chem- 
ical relation  and  pharmaceutical  combination  ;  (2)  with  ref- 
erence to  the  object  sought  by  each.  The  chief  therapeutic 
or  remedial  agent  should  be  jirorainent;  co-operating  reme- 
dies and  those  producing  other  and  secondary  effects,  termed 
adj II va7it ia,  veceive  the  second  position;  articles  intended 
to  modify  or  correct  the  action  of  the  preceding,  termed 
corrigeiitia,  come  next;  and,  lastly,  substances,  liquid  or 
solid,  intended  to  secure  definite  quantity  or  consistency,  to 
insure  solubility  and  uniform  subdivision  of  doses,  and  va- 
riously known  as  tlie  vehicle.  e.rcipienl,  or  menstruum.  The 
latter  term  arose  from  the  superstition  of  ancient  chemists 
and  alchemists  that  dissolvents  acted  best  at  the  time  of  the 
lunar  changes.  The  quantities  of  the  components  are  ex- 
pressed by  symbols.  The  prescription  terminates  with  the 
abbreviation  W.  of  Lat.  misce  (mix).  Appended  to  the 
prescription  the  physician  usually  adds  instructions  of  the 
dose  and  time  and  method  of  taking.  These  are  usually  in 
Latin,  which  the  apothecary  translates  and  transcribes  on 
the  label  of  the  dispensed  medicine  :  but  the  custom  is 
growing  of  restricting  the  use  of  Latin  to  the  prescription 
proper,  and  stating  the  direction  for  use  plainly  in  English. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Presentment :  in  criminal  law,  strictly,  the  act  of  a 
gran<l  jury  which  of  its  own  motion  and  from  its  own  knowl- 
edge, or  from  evidence  placed  before  it.  and  without  a  bill 
of  indictment,  makes  a  written  accusation  charging  some 
person  or  persons  with  the  commission  of  some  public  offense. 
At  the  common  law,  before  criminal  proceeding  can  be  in- 
stituted against  the  accused  upon  this  accusation,  an  Indict- 
ment ((/.  V.)  must  be  framed,  but  in  some  of  the  U.  S.  this 
rule  is  modified,  and  a  trial  may  be  had  upon  the  present- 
ment. Sometimes  in  the  U.  S.  grand  juries  make  general 
charges  of  public  evils  or  offenses  for  the  purpose  of  calling 
the  attention  of  the  public  or  the  proper  officers  to  them, 
without  intending  that  they  shall  be  a  basis  for  an  indict- 
ment or  information.     See  Grand  Jury.         F.  S.  Allen. 

Preservation  of  Food  :  the  art  of  treating  articles  of 
food  so  as  to  prevent  their  deterioration  and  loss  through 
lapse  of  time.  Although  applicable  to  all  perishable  foods, 
it  is  of  especial  importance  in  relation  to  fruit.  The  value 
of  fruits  in  the  diet  of  hunuin  beings  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. Their  juices  regulate  tlie  biliary  secretions  and 
the  action  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  purify  the  blood. 
Grapes,  peaches,  strawberries,  blackberries,  and,  ]ire-emi- 
nently,  apples,  if  partaken  of  freely  when  at  their  ripest 
and  best,  go  far  toward  obviating  the  need  of  cathartics  and 
astringents. 

Desiccation. — Even  a  partial  appreciation  of  the  nutri- 
tive, alterative,  and  curative  properties  of  fruits,  roots,  and 
other  vegetable  edibles  at  an  early  age  begot  the  desire  to 
preserve  them  during  the  seasons  when  fresh  supplies  were 
not  procurable.  Succidence  made  them  valuable,  yet  for  a 
long  time  desiccation  was  tlie  only  method  of  preventing 
them  from  decaying  into  worthlessness.  Dried  dates,  packed 
in  bags,  under  powerful  pressure,  were  as  essential  to  the 
Arab  in  his  desert  wanderings  as  jerked  buffalo,  drieil  in 
the  sun  or  smoked  over  the  fire,  was  to  the  North  American 
Indian.  Delicious  juices  during  this  process  became  granu- 
lated sugar,  and  nuich  of  sweetness  and  distinctive  flavor 
were  lost.  The  antiseptic  effect  of  desiccation  upon  flesh 
and  fish  was  aided  by  salt,  and  certain  fruits  and  green 
cereals  were  packed  down  in  this,  the  saline  taste  being  ex- 


PRESERVATION   OF   FOOD 


769 


tracted  by  soaking  in  several  waters  before  eating.  Peaches, 
figs,  apricots,  limes,  prunes,  cherries,  and  grajH's  boiled  in 
sirup  and  then  desiccated  were  known  as  candied  sweet- 
meats. They  iire  popular  still  un<ier  the  name  of  crystal- 
lized fruits.  (linger  an<l  other  medicinal  roots  are  some- 
times preserved  by  mere  desiccation,  natural  or  artificial,  or 
are  cooked  in  sirup  and  then  dried.  Fruits,  vegetables, 
meat,  and  fish  are  now  dried  in  kilns  far  more  rapidly  and 
effectually  than  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  waste  by  slirink- 
ago  being  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  very  form  of  the 
juice-cells  remaining  almost  unchanged. 

Methdil  of  ('(Diiiini/. — In  canning  the  chief  agent  is  heat; 
the  object  is  to  retain  as  far  as  practicaljle  the  natural  char- 
acter of  the  article  subjected  to  the  process,  and  to  arrest 
at  a  given  point  agencies  which  would,  in  the  natural  course 
of  events,  cause  decay.  To  effect  this  air  must  be  abso- 
lutely excluded.  The  minutest  flaw  in  the  can  or  in  the 
rubber  padding  the  tightly  screwed  toj)  will  admit  bacteria, 
the  presence  of  wliieh  means  putrescence.  It  is  recpiisite, 
also,  that  tlic  substance  to  be  preserved  should  be  made  hot 
througli  and  througli.  The  heart  of  the  fruit  or  vegetable, 
or  the  center  of  the  lump  of  Hesh  or  fish  to  be  canned,  mu.st 
be  of  the  same  high  temperature  with  the  outside,  or  the 
germs  which  cause  decomposition  will  not  be  destroyed. 

The  larger  fruits  are  prepared  for  canning  by  paring  and 
r.MMoving  hard  portions  that  would  resist  the  action  of  heat, 
and  decayed  parts  that  would  mar  the  flavor  and  color.  As 
the  fruit  is  pared  it  is  dropped  into  cold  water,  lest  it  should 
'"rust."  that  is,  darken  with  exposure  to  the  air,  witli  con- 
sequent injury  to  the  flavor.  When  ready  for  heating  the 
prepared  peaches,  [lears,  or  apples  are  packed  in  a  kettle  of 
clean  bell-metal,  of  agate  ironware,  or  of  iron  lined  with 
porcelain.  Sugar,  in  the  proportion  of  one  tablespoonful  to 
each  pound  of  fruit,  is  scattered  between  the  layers,  and 
the  whole  is  brought  slowly  to  the  boiling-point.  This 
reached,  the  contents  of  the  kettle  are  cooked  gently  three 
minutes,  to  insure  a  thorough  and  even  temperature.  There 
must  be  no  dimiinition  of  heat  throughout  the  operation. 
The  glass  jars  or  tin  cans  designed  to  receive  the  fruit  must 
be  made  hot,  filled  to  overflowing  directly  from  the  kettle, 
and  sealed  instantly.  The  fruit  and  litjuor  in  cooling  will 
leave  a  vacuum  between  the  cover  and  the  contents.  Were 
space  left  while  the  fruit  is  hot  it  would  be  fiUeil  with  germ- 
laden  air.  anil  the  process  be  imperfect.  Small  fruits  are 
canned  in  the  same  way,  with  the  omission  of  the  prefatory 
paring.  Vegetables  of  every  kind  are  put  up  in  accordance 
with  the  leading  principles  of  thorough  lieating  and  her- 
raetical  sealing.  VVhen  the  work  is  done  skillfully  the  pre- 
served fruit  is  good  for  two  years,  often  for  ten. 

Jleats  of  various  sorts,  and  such  fleshy  fish  as  salmon  and 
sturgeon,  are  cut  into  neat  pieces,  boiled  for  a  longer  time 
than  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  sealed  hot.  f'liicken  and 
tongue  are  sometimi^s  cooked  tender,  packed  into  glass  or 
metal  cjujes,  and  the  interstices  between  the  pieces  filled 
with  well-seasoned  raeat-jelly  or  '•  aspic."  This  is  a  hot 
liquid  when  the  cans  are  .sealed,  but  congeals  in  cooling  and 
ten<ls  to  preserve  the  meat,  while  adding  much  to  the  pal- 
atableness  and  elegance  of  the  dish  when  served.  Sardines, 
anchovies,  and  other  small  fish  are  cooked  in  oil.  [iressed 
into  tin  boxes  or  glass  jars,  covered  with  boiling  oil.  and 
sealed.  Pales  and  potted  meals  are  made  of  well-cooked 
meats  highly  seasoned,  ground  into  a  paste,  and  pressed 
hard  into  cases.  The  surface  is  covered  with  melted  butter 
or  lard,  scalding  hot,  and  the  cover  is  air-tight. 

Somewhat  similar  in  priiu'iple  to  canning  is  the  use  of 
dry  sand,  sawdust,  ground  cork,  and  desiccated  earth  in 
packing  grape-s,  apples,  and  pears  for  long  keeping — the  in- 
tent in  each  case  being  exclusion  of  the  outer  air.  When- 
ever this  can  be  accomplished  the  integrity  of  the  article  to 
be  i)reserved  is  tolerably  sure.  Other  approved  agents  are 
tin-foil  and  raw  cotton. 

Pickles. — Almost  every  variety  of  esculent  known  to  man 
is  prepared  and  stored  for  table  use  by  means  of  spiced 
vinegar.  Green  vegetables,  lialile  to  spoil  by  reason  of  the 
succulence  that  is  their  chief  recommemlatioii,  must  first  be 
made  firm.  This  is  done  by  steeping  tliem  in  strong  brine 
for  a  number  of  days.  .Several  times  during  the  jirocess  the 
pickling  substances  are  taken  out,  cleansed,  and  picked  over, 
all  doul)tful  sjiecimens  being  rejected  and  the  sound  re- 
turned to  freshly  made  brine.  When  sufficiently  hard  they 
are  transferred  to  a  vessel  containing  pure,  soft  water,  and 
left  tlius  for  twenty-four  hours.  A  kettle  is  lineil  with  green 
vine-leaves,  the  cu(uml)ers,  mangoes,  green  ]H'ppers,  niclon- 
rind,  gherkins,  or  whatever  other  articles  are  on  hand,  are 
3»3 


packed  into  it  with  alternate  layers  of  vine-leaves,  and  cov- 
ered thickly  with  the  same.  Powdered  alum  is  sprinkled 
between  the  layers  and  over  the  topmost  stratum,  and  cold 
water  poured  in  until  the  kettle  is  full,  alter  which  the  con- 
tents are  slowly  cooked,  or  steamed,  for  a  couple  of  hours, 
or  until  the  vegetables  are  of  a  fine  green.  They  arc  then 
thrown  into  ice-cold  water,  and  lie  in  it  for  an  hour  or 
more.  Finally,  they  are  packed  in  a  jar  and  scalding  vine- 
gar, highly  spiced,  is  poured  over  them.  The  vinegar  is 
strained  olf,  heated,  and  returned  to  the  pickles  every  two 
or  three  days  for  a  fortnight.  The  jars  are  then  covered 
and  set  away  in  the  cellar  or  other  cool  place  for  the  pickles 
to  ri|ien.     Thus  prepared  they  keeii  good  for  years. 

Meats  and  every  variety  of  fish,  oysters,  clams,  lobsters. 
shrimps,  etc..  are  pickled  by  being  partially  cooked  in  clear 
water,  and  while  lukewarm  treated  with  boiling  vinegar 
sea.soned  with  whole  spices,  red  pepper,  and  a  little  salt. 
These  nmst  be  sealed  boiling  hot.  Pickled  oysters  and 
clams,  if  put  up  in  glass  vessels,  shoidd  be  kejii  in  a  dark 
plac(!,  as  the  light  darkens,  and  even  has  a  tendency  to  de- 
coinjjose  them. 

Raw  meats  and  fish  are  preserved  from  decomposition  by 
plunging  them  into  and  keeping  them  below  the  surface  of 
a  solution  of  salt  and  water  strong  enough  to  float  an  egg. 
This  process  is  technically  known  as  corning.  While  it  pre- 
vents decay,  it  hardens  flber  and  grain  and  renders  the  food 
more  undigestible  than  when  fresh.  Beef  and  the  legs  and 
shoulders  of  pork  are  often  treated  with  a  mixture  of  salt- 
peter, sugar,  and  salt,  rubbed  well  into  them  before  they  are 
covered  with  brine — treatment  repeated  at  stated  intervals 
for  two  or  three  weeks,  until  the  corning  or  pickling  is  com- 
plete. 

Olives,  young  limes,  and  anchovies  are  preserved  by  scald- 
ing them  in  salt  and  water,  then  filling  the  bottles  iii  which 
tliey  are  packed  with  the  same.  C'ucumliers,  nuuigoes,  and 
the  like  can  be  kept  in  simple  brine  for  months,  but  deteri- 
orate in  tenderness  and  flavor. 

(.'iirinff  is  done  by  suspending  flesh  or  fish  that  has  al- 
ready undergone  pickling  in  the  smoke  of  smoldering 
wood,  usually  hickory  or  oak,  and  leaving  it  thus  for  an  in- 
definite time,  seldom  for  less  than  a  month.  A  blackish 
crust,  that  tastes  and  smells  of  the  creosote  which  is  the 
antiseptic  agent  here,  while  it  supplements  the  work  of  the 
brine  and  saltpeter,  is  not  always  proof  against  the  invading 
host  of  bacteria  and  other  invisible  enemies.  Unless  hams, 
shouhlers,  and  rounds  are  further  defended  by  stout  linen 
cases,  which,  in  turn,  are  fortified  by  whitewash  or  jiaint, 
they  cati  not  be  reckoned  upon  with  safety.  Some  house- 
wives envelop  bacon  in  thick  paper  and  bury  it  in  sifted 
ashes.  Bufl'alo-meat  and  salted  fish  hang  all  winter  from 
the  ceiling  of  wigwam  and  hut :  the  flitch  of  bacon  of  "ye 
olden  tiiue"  hung  in  the  cotter's  wide-mouthed  chimney. 
The  (jreeiilanders  and  Lapps  dry  and  tlien  smoke  reindeer 
venison  and  seal-meat.  In  Labrador  and  other  regions 
where  herring  abound  tens  of  thousands  of  barrels  of  these 
fish  are  salted,  smoked,  and  pickled  annually  for  the  home 
and  foreign  market.  The  Yarmouth  bloaters  of  England 
hold  a  high  |)lace  in  this  class  of  staple  provisions. 

£</{/■■<  may  he  preserved  good  for  two  months  by  washing 
them  all  over  with  a  solution  of  gum  tragacanth  and  water, 
letting  them  dry  in  the  shade,  and  packing  them,  the  small 
ends  downward,  in  Itran.  meal,  flour,  or  salt.  Another  way 
is  to  arrange  them,  small  ends  downward,  in  a  crock  and 
cover  them  wuth  lime-water.  This  is  made  by  mixing  a 
pound  of  lime,  2  oz.  of  salt,  and  half  an  ounce  of  saltpeter 
in  a  gallon  of  boiling  water,  stirring  it  until  all  are  dis- 
solved, and  letting  it  get  perfectly  cold  before  it  is  added 
to  the  eggs.  Still  another  more  expensive  method  of  keep- 
ing eggs  is  to  pack  them  as  above  directed  and  pour  over 
them  half-C(mgealed  lard  as  cool  as  it  can  be  and  yet  How, 
and  letting  it  harden  about  the  eggs.  Some  housewives 
grease  eggs  with  lard  or  oil  and  pack  them  in  bran  or  salt. 

Charrual  is  a  potent  antiseptic.  Butter  may  be  kept 
sweet  for  a  long  time  by  fitting  into  the  bottom  of  crock  or 
firkin  a  linen  bag  of  powdered  chai-coal.  A  bag  of  coarse 
charcoal  is  often  kept  in  the  barrel  of  pickled  meat,  and  bits, 
wra|ipeil  in  thin  cloths,  introduced  into  the  inside  of  fish 
and  fowl  after  they  are  cleaned,  will  ward  off  decomposition 
for  a  day  or  two. 

Preserves. — This  term  is  popularly  applied  to  fruits  cooked 
in  sirup  in  the  proportion  of  a  poim<l  of  sugar  to  one  of 
fruit.  Our  great-grandmothers  called  them  "conserves." 
and  gave  them  honorable  place  among  their  stored  delica- 
cies.    Under  the  head  of  preserves  come  jams  and  manna- 


770 


PRESERVATION   OF  TIMBER 


PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTORAL  COMMISSION 


lades,  the  only  difference  between  these  and  the'conserve 
proper  being  that  less  sugar  is  needed  for  jams,  and  that 
they  and  marmalades  are  stewed  down  to  a  smooth  paste. 
In  the  regidar  jireserve  care  is  taken  to  retain,  as  far  as  may 
be,  the  form  of  the  fruit.  Clearness  of  sirup  and  agreeable 
color  iu  the  conserve  are  much  esteemed  by  housewives. 
The  process  is  delicate  and  tedious,  and  for  some  years  the 
quicker  and  more  economical  method  of  canning  threatened 
to  supersede  it  entirely. 

Fruit  Jellies  are  made  by  pressing  and  straining  the  juice 
from  the  pulp,  boiling  it  clear,  and  adding  a  pound  of  sugar 
for  each  pint  of  scalding  lifjuid,  stirring  the  mixture  over 
the  fire  until  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  and  filling  heated  glasses 
or  china  jars  with  it.  When  the  jelly  is  cold  and  firm  the 
surface  is  covered  with  tissue-paper,  saturated  witli  spirits, 
before  metal  or  paper  tops  are  fitted  upon  the  glasses. 

Alcoholic  liqnorn  are  efficient  agents  in  the  preservation 
of  fruits.  A  rich  sirup  is  made  in  which  the  fruit,  pared  or 
with  the  skins  on,  is  gently  stewed  until  tender  and  clear; 
the  liquor  is  added  an  instant  before  the  kettle  leaves  the 
fire.  When  this  preliminary  stage  is  neglected  the  sub- 
stance immersed  in  the  spirits  becomes  tough  and  acrid. 

Condensed  Milk. — See  Milk. 

Extreme  cold,  by  suspending  natural  processes  which 
would  induce  decay,  has  long  been  recognized  as  a  valuable 
accessory  in  preserving  food.  Food  of  every  description, 
including  the  most  delicate  fruits,  is  transported  from  one 
side  of  the  continent  to  the  other  in  refrigerator-cars.  Sum- 
mer hotels  have  immense  store-rooms,  constructed  upon  the 
refrigerator  ]u-inciple,  in  which  fish,  poultry,  and  what  is 
sold  as  "  butcher's  meat"  may  be  kept  for  long  periods.  The 
beef  killed  upon  the  Texas  plantation  finds  a  market  in 
New  York  and  Boston.  Adirondack  trout  and  salmon  from 
the  Kennebec  river  set  forth  tallies  in  New  Orleans  and  San 
Francisco.  Marion  Harland. 

Preservation  of  Timber :  the  act  or  process  of  rendering 
timber  more  durable.  Methods  which  accomplish  this  end 
are  important  as  positive  aids  in  arresting  the  progress  of 
the  exhaustion  of  the  timber-supply.  The  extent  to  which 
the  various  practical  methods  of  preserving  timber  are  used 
depends  upon  the  cost  of  timber,  the  nature  of  the  struc- 
ture, etc. 

Decay  of  wood  proceeds  from  agencies  Ijoth  internal  and 
external.  Cellulose,  which  constitntes  the  great  bulk  of 
woody  tissue,  is  by  itself  an  exceedingly  imperishable  sub- 
stance, but  appears,  when  in  contact  with  fermenting  or 
putrefying  nitrogenous  matters,  to  be  capable  of  entering 
into  decomposition  like  its  isomers  and  congeners  sugar 
and  starch,  forming  humus-like  substances,  devoid  of  co- 
herence. Fermentation  or  putrefaction  can  not  take  place 
in  the  absence  of  moisture,  and  hence  perfect  seasoning  of 
the  wood  is  a  powerful  preservative.  This  process,  however, 
is  exceedingly  consumptive  of  time  and  expensive ;  being 
nugatory,  moreover,  in  case  the  wood  is  to  be  exposed  to 
moisture.  It  has  been  thought  that  this  internal  destructive 
agency  is  best  antagonized  by  the  use  of  chemical  agents. 
Other  internal  destructive  agencies  arise  from  the  eggs  of 
insects  deposited  in  the  wood  or  under  the  bark.  This  may 
be  sometimes,  though  not  always,  renieiiied  by  stripping  ok 
the  bark ;  impregnation  with  agents  poisonous  to  the  de- 
veloping larva?  is  surer.  External  destroying  agencies  are 
many,  and  are  most  powerful  when  the  wood  is  exposed  to 
simultaneous  action  of  air  and  moisture,  which  engender 
and  foster  a  number  of  destructive  processes.  Under  sea- 
water,  and  between  high  and  low  tide,  the  teredo  is  an- 
other destructive  agent.  In  tropical  countries  ants  are  ene- 
mies of  timber  structures.  Contact  with  iron  also  destroys 
cellulose  rapidly,  through  a  slow  combustion  set  up  between 
the  carbon  of  the  cellulo.se  and  the  oxvgen  of  ferric  oxide. 
A  species  of  disintegration  called  Dry  Hot  (</.  v.)  is  also 
caused  by  the  action  of  some  fungi.     See  also  Rot. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  methods 
of  treatment  for  rendering  wood  durable  that  have  been 
practiced  and  havi-  uu't  with  approval. 

TAe  J/<!i!/twZ  o/A'///(H.— Impregnation  with  a  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate,  bichloride  of  mercury.  This  was  the 
first  method  experimented  with  in  the  U.'S.,  and  great  ex- 
pectations were  entertained  regarding  it.  It  is  founded  on 
the  known  property  of  (corrosive  sublimate  to  form  insoluble 
compounds  with  alliurniuoid  bodies. 

T/ie  Methods  of  /y»//r7(p/-iV.— Impregnation  with  sulphate 
of  c.opiter,  also  with  chloride  of  calcium.  Sulphate  of  cop- 
per has  much  preservative  power,  and  is  cheaper  and  far 


less  dangerous  to  handle  than  corrosive  sublimate.  It  is, 
however,  removed  gradually  from  the  wood  by  moisture. 
Chloride  of  calcium  renders  the  wood  fire-proof,  adding  also 
great  strength  and  toughness.  The  latter  substance  has 
never  been  sufficiently  or  fairly  experimented  with,  con- 
sidering its  cheapness  and  the  enormous  advantages  it  holds 
out.  Dr.  Boucherie  was  also  the  inventor  of  a  method  of 
making  the  preservative  liquids  penetrate  the  tree  while 
still  standing.  Notches  are  cut  in  the  trunk  near  the  roots, 
and  caoutchouc  bags  holding  the  solutions  bound  on.  The 
tree  sucks  up  the  liquid  through  the  evaporation  from  the 
leaves  above. 

2Vie  Method  of  Burnett. — A  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc. 
This  agent,  like  corrosive  sublimate,  operates  by  combining 
with  the  fermentable  albuminoids,  but  is  much  cheaper  and 
not  noxious.  For  many  uses  burnettized  timber  is  no  doubt 
very  valuable. 

The  Method  of  Bethell. — The  impregnation  of  the  wood 
with  heavy  oils  of  coal-tar,  called  in  Great  Britain  "creosote 
oil " — in  tile  U.  S.  "  dead  oil."  This  method  has  been  large- 
ly used  in  Europe,  and  apparently  with  much  success,  even 
against  the  salt-water  teredo,  wliieh  other  methods  do  not 
resist.  The  oil  was  forced  into  the  pores  of  the  timber  in  a 
strong  receiver  by  a  pressure  of  13  or  14  atmospheres. 

T?ie  Method  of  Seeleij. — This  is  an  improvement  on  that 
of  Bethell.  The  wood  is  immersed  in  the  oil — a  crude  car- 
bolic acid  being  used,  which  is  believed  to  be  much  more 
efficient  than  the  common  dead  oil — in  a  closed  tank,  and 
the  temperature  raised  to  300  F.  The  air  and  moisture  are 
thus  expelled  from  the  timber,  which  is  then  suddenly  in- 
troduced into  a  bath  of  cold  carbolic  acid.  By  this  ingen- 
ious process  an  absolute  impregnation  is  accomplished. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Preserves :  See  Preservation  of  Food. 

President :  in  the  U.  S.,  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  na- 
tion, chosen  by  a  college  of  electors  elected  by  the  voters 
of  the  several  States.  The  term  of  office  is  four  years, 
after  which  the  President  may  be  a  candidate  for  re-elec- 
tion, but  custom  and  precedent  are  against  electing  him 
for  a  third  term.  The  office,  which  was  established  by 
the  Constitution  of  1787,  imposes  upon  the  incumbent  the 
obligation  to  see  that  the  laws  are  faithfully  executed,  au- 
thorizes him  to  grant  pardons  and  reprieves,  to  conclude 
treaties  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate,  to  veto  un- 
wise legislative  measures,  which  can  then  be  passed  only 
by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  house  of  Congress,  and  to 
appoint  officers  to  administer  the  laws.  He  is  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  U.  S.,  and  of  the  militia 
of  the  several  States,  when  called  into  the  service  of  the  U.  S. 
Upon  the  death,  removal,  or  resignation  of  the  President,  the 
Vice-President  succeeds  him  in  office.  If,  for  any  reason, 
both  the  President  and  the  Vice-President  are  unable  to  serve, 
a  member  of  the  cabinet,  in  the  following  order,  acts  as  Presi- 
dent until  the  disability  is  removed  or  a  President  is  elect- 
ed :  the  Secretary  of  State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secre- 
tary of  War.  Attorney-General,  Postmaster-General,  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy,  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  and  Secretary  of 
Agriculture. 

Presidential  Electoral  Commission  :  a  board  appoint- 
ed (luring  the  second  session  of  the  Forty-fourth  Congress 
of  the  U.  S.  to  determine  questions  arising  out  of  the  pres- 
entation of  two  or  more  discordant  certificates  of  the  votes 
of  the  electoral  colleges  of  certain  States  in  wliich  the  elec- 
tion of  presidential  electors  had  been  contested.  The  result 
of  the  election  depended  on  the  voice  of  three  States,  Flor- 
ida, Louisiana,  and  South  Caroliiui.  in  which  both  parties 
claimed  the  victory  :  and  of  a  fourth.  Oregon,  in  which  one 
elector  was  claimed  to  have  been  electeil  by  a  minority,  in 
consequence  of  a  constitutional  dis(|ualificalion  affecting 
one  of  the  candidates  of  the  majority.  Prom  Louisiana, 
Oregcm,  and  South  Carolina,  the  certificates  presented  were 
in  each  case  twofold,  and  from  Florida  threefold.  The 
electoral  congress  was  so  divided  between  the  opposing  par- 
ties that  the  choice  of  the  Deuuicratic  electors  in  any  one 
of  the  contested  Slates  woidil  have  given  the  majority  to 
the  Democrats,  while  the  clioii-e  of  the  Republicans  in  all 
would  give  that  party  a  majority  of  one.  An  angry  con- 
troversy arose  as  to  the  constitutional  mode  of  deciding  be- 
tween these  competing  certificates.  The  dispute  assumed 
proportions  which  even  threatened  the  peace  of  the  republic. 
For  the  purpose  of  averting  the  impending  danger  a  joint 
committee  of  fourteen  n\embers  from  the  two  houses  was 
appointed  early  in  Jan.,  1877,  to  devise,  if  possible,  some 


PRESIDIO   OF   SAX   FRAXt'ISCO 


PRESTON 


771 


means  satisfactory  to  all  of  ascertaining  the  legal  result  of 
the  election.  The  bill  reported  liy  this  eoinniittee  on  .Ian. 
18  anil  passed  liy  lioth  houses  in  the  following  week  provided 
tor  the  creation  of  .-i  tribunal  to  be  composed  of  live  Sena- 
tors, five  Representatives,  and  live  associate  justices  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  I'.  S.,  fonr  of  the  latter  being  desig- 
nated iiy  their  districts  in  the  bill  itself,  the  fifth  to  be  sub- 
sciiuently  chosen  by  these  four;  to  which  tribunal  shouhi  be 
referred  the  conflicting  certilicates.  with  the  authority  to 
ascertain  the  legal  vote  of  each  State  in  which  the  election 
was  contested.  The  bill  further  provided  that  the  decisions 
of  such  tribunal  in  every  case  should  stand,  unless  rejected 
by  the  concurrent  vote  of  both  houses. 

On  .Ian.  81  the  commission  was  elected,  three  Rei)nblicans 
and  two  Democrats  being  taken  by  agreement  from  the 
Senate,  and  three  Democrats  and  two  Republicans  from  the 
llou.se.  The  four  justices  having  chosen  a  l{e])ublican.  the 
relative  strength  of  the  two  parties  in  the  commission  was 
eight  Republicans  to  seven  Democrats.  When  the  subject 
had  been  argueil  by  t he  ablest  legal  counsel  that  could  be 
engaged  on  lioth  sides,  the  vote  in  favor  of  the  respective 
certilicates  was  eight  Hepidjlicaiis  against  seven  Democrats, 
the  eight  l{ei)ublicans  voting  in  favor  of  the  Republican 
electors  in  each  of  the  contested  States,  thus  giving  to  their 
parly  the  majority  of  IS.")  to  184  in  the  electoral  congress. 
The  (h'cision  was  communicated  to  the  joint  convention  of 
the  houses  of  t'ongress  on  Thursday.  Mar.  1,  and  on  Mar.  2 
the  president  of  the  convention  announced  that  Rutherford 
B.  llayes,  of  Ohio,  had  been  duly  elected  President  of  the 
U.  S.  Revised  by  C.  K.  Adams. 

Prpsidio  of  San  Francisco :  a  military  post  in  the  north- 
west suburlis  of  San  Francisco,  Cal.  It  takes  its  name  from 
the  Si)aiiish  prcxiilio.  a  garrison  or  fortress,  the  Spanish 
garrison  defending  .San  Francisco  having  been  located  near 
this  site.  The  jiost  is  arranged  for  the  accommodation  of 
sixteen  companies,  liut  usiuiUy  the  garrison  is  nuu-h  smaller. 
It  is  distant  4i  miles  from  the  railway  .station  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  city  railway.  The 
reservation  is  large — 1,.')40  acres — affording  sites  tor  gun 
and  miutar  batteries  for  harbor  defense.  J.  JI. 

Pros(|iie  Isle,  presk'eel':  town;  Aroostook  co..  Me.:  on 
th(^  .\roostook  river,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railwav:  42 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Iloulton,  the  county-seat  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Maine,  ref.  3-F).  The  river  affords  abundant  power 
for  manufacturing,  in  whicli  the  town  has  large  interest. 
There  arc  a  number  of  saw  and  grist  mills,  starch-factories, 
and  machine-shops,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  !?.")0,000, 
a  trust  and  banking-house  with  capital  of  .f 50,001),  and  a 
weekly  newspaper.    I'op.  (1880;  2,446  ;  (1890)  3,046. 

Press :  See  Printing-presses. 

Prcssldirg  (llun.  Pnzxonij;  Lat.  Posnnium):  town:  one 
of  the  linest  of  Hungary;  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Danube, 
near  the  frontier  of  Lower  Austria  (see  map  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  ref.  .5-F).  It  was  the  Ilungiiriau  capitid  from 
1541  till  1784,  when  .Toseph  H.  restored  that  dignity  to  its 
former  possessor — Huda.  It  has  a  stately  cathedral  and  a 
city-hall,  begun  in  10!)0  and  1288  respectively,  an  academy, 
museums  of  antiquity  and  natural  history,  and  nunu^rous 
other  excellent  educational  anil  philanthropic  institutions. 
Ruins  of  its  magniliceiit  royal  caslle.  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1811,  crown  the  neighboring  liiU  277  feet  above  tlie  river. 
It  maimfactures  chemical.s,  leather,  and  gold  and  silver 
ware,  and  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  grain  ami  wine.  Po)). 
(18!)0)  .■)2.411,  of  whom  less  than  a  fourth  are  Hungariarjs, 
the  majority  being  Ciernuuis.  E.  A.  Grosvk.nok. 

Prt'ssensf.  prd  sa"iih  sii ,  Edmoxd  (DEHAfLT),  de,  T>.  I).: 
elergynum  and  author;  b.  in  Paris,  .Jan.  24.  1824:  was  edu- 
cated in  I'aris.  I.ausaiuu'.  Ilalle.  and  Herlin  ;  was  pa.stor  of 
the  Chapelle  Tail  bout,  Paris  (Evangelical  or  Indepeiulent 
Protestant),  1847-70:  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from 
Breslau  186!t,  from  Montauban  1876,  and  from  Edinburgh 
1884;  an  eIoi|uent  and  earnest  preacher,  his  whole  energies 
were  devoted  to  the  nniinteiumce  of  the  freedom  of  the 
Church  from  state  interference  and  from  dependence  upon 
state  aid,  and  to  the  presentation  of  Christianity  as  the 
means  of  solving  the  itnporlant  moral  atul  social  questions 
of  the  day.  After  the  proclamation  of  the  republic  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  French  Assembly,  and  a  life  sena- 
tor Nov.  i;!.  188:i.  Among  his  principal  works  are  Confe- 
rences sur  le  C/tristiani-fini'  dans  son  Applicatiim  aiur  (Jiifn- 
lions  socin/es  (Paris.  1849);  IIIMoire  ilex  tniis  premicm 
siicles  tie  I'Sglixe  Chretienne  (1858-77,  6  vols. ;  2d  ed.  1889, 


seq. ;  Eng.  trans.  1869-77  ;  introduction  to  new  edition  sepa- 
rately trans,  inider  title  Ancient  Warld  and  Christianity, 
Hug.  t rans.  1888) ;  L'£glise  el  la  Revolution  fianfaixe  (1864 ; 
2d  ed.  1867  :  Eng.  trans.  The  Church  and  Ihe  French  Revolu- 
tion. London.  1869);  .lexux-Chrixt,  xon  Temps,  sa  Vie,  etc. 
(1866;  7th  ed.  1884:  trans,  into  English  bv  Annie  Ilarwood, 
L,ondon,  1866;  4th  ed.  1871);  Le  Conciledu  Vatican  (XHTi); 
JCticdes  confemporaines  {\HW;  Eng.  I  rans.  Cuntemporary 
I'ortrait.-i.  1880);  Les  Origines  (1882;  Kng.  trans.  Study  of 
Origins,  1888).     D.  in  Paris,  Apr.  8,  1891. 

lievised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 
Pressing:  to  Deatli :  See  Pi;ine  Forte  et  Duri;. 

Pressn re-sense :  the  apparatus  in  the  skin,  muscles,  etc., 
and  its  nervous  connections,  which  gives  sensations  of  weight 
or  |)ressure.  Such  a  sense,  apart  from  touch  and  muscular- 
movement  sensation,  is  clainu'd  liy  expert  invest  igalons,  and 
very  delicate  determinations  have  been  made  upon  the  mini- 
mum perce[itd.>le  ]>ressure,  the  pressure  giving  pain,  the 
snudlest  perceptible  difference  of  pressures,  etit.  See  Psy- 
cno-i'Hvsus  and  Sensation.  .7.  .M.  H. 

Prester  John  {Priest  John) :  a  semi-mythical  character 
who  figured  largely  in  the  geographical  "romances  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  whose  true  country  and  period  are  tlifficult  to 
be  fixed  with  certainty.  According  to  general  belief,  there 
was  somewhere  in  the  interior  of  Asia  or  Africa  a  kingdom 
which  had  been  converted  from  Islam  to  Christianity,  gov- 
erned by  a  priest-king  nanu'd  .lohn,  who  was  exceedingly 
anxious  to  open  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Church  of 
Rome.  During  two  centuries  numerous  embassies  were  .sent 
to  Central  A.sia.  and  even  to  Abyssinia  (1481-95).  in  search 
of  the  lost  Christian  nation,  but  the  .search  proved  fruitless. 
The  oi-igin  of  the  legend  a|ipears  to  date  from  the  Nestorian 
missions  which  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  pene- 
trated to  Karakorum  in  Turkestan,  and  converted  Ihe  khan 
of  that  district,  named  Fug,  who  was  overthrown  and  killed 
by  (ienghis  Khan  in  1202.  He  appears  to  li.-ive  authorized 
the  Nestiu'ians  to  make  in  his  name  certain  recpiests  of  the 
pope,  and  to  their  glownig  narratives,  sent  to  the  (Jreek  em- 
peror and  to  the  Kings  of  France  and  Portugal,  Europe  was 
indi'bted  for  a  favorite  cycle  of  legends  which  may  lie  re,>id 
in  .\ssem;i.ni's  Bibliotheca  Orie?italis.  Father  Kubruquis, 
sent  by  St.  Louis,  King  of  l<''rance  (1253),  in  .search  of  Pres- 
ter .lohn,  jjcnetrated  to  Karakorum.  (See  his  interesting 
narrative  in  Purchases  Pilgrims.)  There  are  extant  letters 
from  Prester  .John  to  the  (Ireek  emperor  Manuel  (1165)  and 
one  to  him  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  (1177).  See  (i.  Oppert, 
Der  Presbyter  Johannes  in  Sage  und  Gescliichte  (Berlin, 
1864;  2d  ed.  1870);  P.  Zamk'e,  Der  Priester  Johannes 
(Leipzig,  1876-79,  2  parts);  and  note  in  Col.  Yule's  edition 
of  the  Travels  of  Marco  Polo  (London,  1871  ;  2d  ed.  1875). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Preston:  town  ;  in  Lancashire.  England  ;  on  the  Rihble, 
at  the  head  of  its  estuary;  28  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Liverpool 
(see  map  of  Hngland,  ref.  7-F).  It  is  substantially  built, 
principally  of  brick,  at  a  height  of  about  120  fi'ct  aliove  the 
river.  The  town-hall,  designeil  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  is  a 
Fren<'h  (lot hie  structure  with  a  spire.  The  Roman  Catholic 
church,  St.  Walburge's.  has  the  highest  spire  (306  feet)  built 
in  England  since  the  Reformat  ion.  Three  public  parks  were 
laid  out  ill  1867.  Preston  was  constituted  a  jiort  in  1843,  and 
since  1885  the  clianncl  has  been  deejiencd  ami  a  dock  of  40 
acres  constructed.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  Lanca- 
shire cotton  industry.  (See  Lancashire, /Hf/M.v/rfV'.s-).  There 
are  also  iron  and  brass  foundries,  tanneries,  rope-walks, 
glass-works,  ship-building  yards,  engineering  and  machine 
shops,  breweries,  and  distilleries.  .\s  capital  of  a  district 
which  was  granted  to  the  cathedral  iJiurch  of  York,  the 
place  came  to  be  known  as  Priests'  town,  afterward  Preston. 
Near  Preston.  Aug.  17,  1648,  Cromwell  totally  routed  the 
rovalists.  Preston  returns  two  members  to"  Parliament. 
P.'>|i.  (1893)  110.225. 

Preston.  Harriet  W.vters:  author;  b.  at  Danvcrs, 
Mass.,  about  1843.  She  has  spent  much  time  abroad,  and  is 
known  especially  as  a  translator  from  French  and  I'roven- 
(;al.  In  1873  she  published  a  translation  of  the  Mireio  of 
the  Proven<;al  poet  Mistral,  and  in  1881  a  .spirited  rendering 
ot  Vergil's  Oeorgics.  She  is  also  the  mithor  o[  Aspendale 
(1872);  Love  in  the  Nineteenlh  (^enlury  (1874);  Trouba- 
dours and  Trouveres  (.WiS);  A  Year  in  Eden  (1886);  and 
other  works.  II.  A.  Bkkrs. 

Preston.  Marcjaret  Ji-nkin:  author;  b.  in  Philadelphia 
about  1835;  daughter  of  Rev.  George  Junkin,  who  became, 


772 


PRESTON 


PREVITALE 


in  1848,  president  of  Washington  and  Lee  University,  and  wife 
(1857)  of  Col.  J.  T.  L.  Preston,  professor  in  the  Virginia 
MilitaiT  Institute ;  is  author  of  /Silver  Wood,  a  Book  of 
Memories  (1856) ;  Beechenbrook.  a  Rhyme  of  the  War  (1866) ; 
The  Young  Ruler's  Question  (186!)) ;  Old  Songs  and  JVew 
(1870):  Cartoons  (1875) ;  Colonial  Ballads  (im",);  and  other 
writings  in  prose  and  verse,  chiefly  upon  topics  connected 
with  the  civil  war.  Her  translation  of  the  Dies  Irie,  which 
appeared  in  1855,  has  been  highly  commended. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Preston,  Riglit  Rev.  Thomas  Scott,  V.  G. :  prelate  ;  b. 
at  Hartford,  Cimui.,  July  23,  1834 ;  graduated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Hartford,  1843 ;  entered  the  Protestant  Episcopal  min- 
istry 1846;  assistant  rector  Church  of  the  Ascension,  New 
York,  and  later  of  St.  Luke's;  became  a  Roman  Catholic 
1849 ;  studied  at  St.  Joseph's  Theological  Seminary,  Ford- 
ham,  N.  Y. ;  ordained  a  priest  1850;  assistant  at  the  cathe- 
dral. New  York  ;  subsequently  pastor  St.  Mai-y's,  Yonkers, 
N.  Y.-;  appointed  parish  priest  of  St.  Ann's,  New  York, 
1861  ;  appointed  chancellor  of  the  diocese  of  New  York 
1853,  and  vicar-general  1873  ;  appointed  domestic  prelate  in 
the  pope's  household,  with  title  of  monsignore,  1881  ;  pro- 
moted prothonotary  apostolic  1888 ;  author  of  Ark  of  the 
Covenant  (1860) ;  Life  of  St.  Ilari/  Jlcigdalene  (1861) ;  Ser- 
mons  for  the  Seasons  (1864);  Life  of  St.  Vineent  de  Paul 
(1866)";  Christian  Unit g  (mm);  Pnrgaforian  Manual  (\86~): 
Reason  and  Revelation  (1868);  Christ  and  the  Cliurcli,  etc. 
1).  in  New  York,  Nov.  4,  1891.       Revised  by  J.  J.  Keane. 

Prestwich,  Joseph,  F.  R.  S.  :  geologist ;  b.  at  Claphara. 
London,  England,  Mar.  Vi,  1812 ;  educated  at  University 
College,  Tjondon ;  received  medals  from  the  Geological  So- 
ciety 1849,  the  Royal  Society  1865,  and  the  Institute  of 
Civil  Engineers  for  his  contributions  to  science ;  has  been 
repeatedly  appointed  by  the  Government  on  scientific  com- 
missions; Professor  of  Geology  at  Oxford  University  1874- 
88  ;  president  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London  1.S70-72  ; 
vice-president  of  the  Royal  Society  1870-71 ;  and  president 
of  the  international  congress  of  geologists  in  London  1888. 
Prestwich's  more  important  researches  relate  to  Pleistocene 
submergences  of  the  land  and  the  evidences  of  prehistoric 
man.  In  1886-88  he  published  a  manual  of  geology  in  two 
volumes.  D.  at  Darent  Ilulme.  Slioreliam,  Kent,  June  23, 
1896.  Revised  by  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Presillii'ptions  [from  Lat.  pnesump'tio,  a  taking  before- 
hand, a  supposing  beforehand,  presumption :  prif,  lief  ore  -l- 
su' mere,  take] :  assumptions  of  fiict  made  by  the  law  and 
embodied  in  legal  rules  (presumptions  of  law).  The  term 
has  been  involved  in  much  ambiguity,  owing,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  its  familiar  use  to  describe  mere  inferences  of  fact- 
(presumptions  of  fact),  as  well  as  to  its  employment,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  cover  a  class  of  legal  fictions  whereby 
new  rules  of  substantive  law  are  introduced  under  the 
guise  of  assumptions  of  fact  (conclusive  presumptions  of 
law). 

All  presumptions  are  originally  presumptions  of  fact  of 
varying  weight  according  to  tlie  strength  of  the  inference 
in  a  given  case.  The  law,  for  its  own  purposes,  selects  cer- 
tain of  the  strongest  of  these  presumptions  of  fact,  and 
adopts  them,  gives  them  a  weight  beyond  that  which  logic 
and  reason  attach  to  them,  and  arbitrarily  assumes  that  tlie 
inference  is  the  correct  one  miless  and  until  evidence  is 
produced  to  prove  that  it  is  not.  Here,  then,  we  have  the 
■"  presumption  "  proper,  the  "  presumption  of  law." 

Every  fact  which  tends,  however  slightly,  to  support  the 
fact  sought  to  be  established  by  evidence  raises  a  "  pre- 
suinption  of  fact."  Suppose  it  be  required  to  prove  that 
X  is  dead.  It  is  proven  that  he  has  been  missing  for  a 
year;  that  he  was  last  seen  embarking  <m  a  long  voyage; 
that  the  vessel  in  which  he  embarked  has  never  been  iieard 
from.  Each  of  those  facts,  as  a  matter  of  logic  and  reason, 
suggests  more  or  less  strongly  the  probable  fate  of  X.  They 
all  "raise  a  presumption."  i.  e.  snggest  the  inference  that 
X  has  lost  his  life  by  drowning.  But  this  presumption  of 
fact  has  no  legal  sanction.  Its  appeal  is  to  logic,  to  the 
reasoning  faculty,  and  its  force  is  no  greater  in  a  court  of 
law  than  in  the  forinn  of  logic  and  reason  outside. 

liut  the  inference  from  the  facts  proven  may  in  a  given 
case  be  so  obvious  or  so  clearly  demanded  by  the  policy  of 
the  law  that  it  would  be  mischievous  to  leave  it  to  be  drawn 
by  the  untrustworthy  reason  of  a  jury  or  even  of  a  particu- 
lar judge.  Hence  the  law,  distrustful  of  individual  judg- 
ment, prescribes  in  advance  what  inferences  shall  be  drawn 
from  certain  facts.     Thus  if  a  nnm  has  been  absent  from 


home  for  seven  years,  and  unheard  of  during  that  time,  the 
law  will  not  in  a  particular  case  allow  the  court  or  jury  to 
draw  the  inference  that  he  is  probably  alive,  but  arbitrarily 
directs  the  inference  that  he  is  dead.  Hence  we  have  the 
familiar  presumption  of  law  that  seven  years'  unexplained 
absence  is  presumptive  evidence  of  death. 

A  presumption,  then,  is  a  rule  which  fixes  the  legal  value 
of  a  fact  or  facts  in  evidence,  and  this  legal  value  may  be 
exactly  the  same  as  the  logical  value  of  the  fact,  but  is 
more  likely  to  be  in  excess  of  its  logical  value.  As,  for  ex- 
ample, there  may  be  cases  where  the  absence  of  a  person 
for  seven  years  would  not  logically  demand  the  conclusion 
that  he  is  dead,  but  the  law  draws  that  conclusion  in  all 
cases,  nevertheless.  Of  course  this  presumption  may  (like 
all  true  presumptions)  be  rebutted  by  showing  that  the  man 
is  actually  alive.  The  presumption  has  in  that  case  per- 
formed the  usual  office  of  presumptions  of  law  in  shifting 
the  burden  of  proof  from  the  party  in  whose  favor  the  pre- 
sumption was  drawn  to  the  party  who  seeks  to  rebut  it. 

It  has  already  been  intimated  that  what  is  known  as  a 
conclusive  presumption  of  law  is  not  properly  speaking  a 
presumption  at  all,  but  a  rule  of  substantive  law  which  has 
in  the  jirocess  of  legal  evolution  lost  its  inferential  or  pre- 
sumptive character,  though  continuing  to  be  expressed  in 
terms  of  presumption.  It  is  obvious  that  whenever  a  pre- 
sumption becomes  conclusive  it  can  only  be  by  discarding 
as  immaterial  the  fact  which  is  assumed.  In  other  words, 
the  facts  in  evidence  now  have  consequences  attached  to 
Ihem  which  are  entirely  independent  of  the  intermediate 
facts  '■  presumed  "  to  exist.  This  process  is  well  illustrated 
in  the  development  of  the  doctrine  of  a  "lost  grant,"  as  the 
foundation  of  rights  claimed  by  prescrijition.  (See  Pre- 
scription.) In  the  present  state  of  that  doctrine,  as  it  ob- 
tains in  the  U.  S.,  at  least,  twenty  years'  enjoyment  under 
the  proper  conditions  of  the  right  claimed  is  said  to  raise 
a  "conclusive  presumption"  that  the  right  had  a  lawful 
origin.  But  this  is  only  a  more  awkward  and  I'oundabout 
way  of  saying  that  twenty  years'  enjoyment  of  itself  con- 
fers the  right  claimed.  The  law  no  longer  indulges  in  any 
presumptions  on  the  suiiject,  but  it  continues  to  veil  the  new 
rule  behind  the  legal  fiction  of  a  presumption. 

The  number  of  presumptions  of  law  is  very  large,  and  is 
constantly  being  augmented  liy  the  process  of  judicial  legis- 
lation above  described,  as  well  as  by  direct  legislative  act. 
They  play  an  important  ]iart  in  the  due  and  orderly  admin- 
istration of  justice,  and  furnish  the  best  existing  means  for 
the  modification  and  amelioration  of  the  law  by  the  process 
of  adjudication. 

See  Greenleaf  on  Evidence,  Best  on  Evidence  (Chamber- 
layne's  edition),  and  Prof.  J.  B.  Thayer's  article.  Presump- 
tions and  the  Law  of  Evidence,  3  Harv.  l^aw  Rev.  141. 

George  W.  Kircuwey. 

Pretender:  a  name  frequently  applied  to  the  Stuart 
claimant  to  the  British  throne  after  the  death  of  the  exiled 
James  II.  The  Pretenders  were  the  son  and  grandson  of 
that  monarch,  the  lineal  heirs  to  the  throne,  which  they  re- 
spectively attempted  to  recover  by  means  of  the  "  Jacobite  " 
insurrections  in  Scotland  in  1715  and  1745.  See  the  articles 
James  Francis  Edward  Stuart  and  Charles  Edward. 

Pretoria:  capital  of  the  South  African  Repuljlic  ;  on  the 
Apies,  a  head-stream  of  the  Limpopo;  1,040  miles  by  rail 
N.  E.  of  Cape  Town.  Railways  connect  Pretoria  with  Lou- 
ren(;o  Jlarques  on  Delagoa  Bay  and  with  Durban  and  Cape 
Town.  The  town  lies  at  an  elevation  of  4,500  feet  in  a  plain 
surrounded  by  hills.  It  has  become  inqiortant  as  a  place 
of  resort  for  the  miners  of  the  northern  gold-fields.  New 
public  l)uildings,  including  a  ]iarliament-liousc,  have  been 
constructed.  Pop.  12,000,  of  whom  about  three-fourths  are 
whites. 

Previons  Question  :  in  parliamentary  law,  the  question 
whether  the  main  issue  shall  now  be  voted  on.  In  the  U.  S. 
the  motion  is  made  and  seconded  by  supporters  of  I  he  issue 
for  the  ]:)urpose  of  shutting  off  fui-t  her  deflate  ;  they  therefore, 
of  ccnirse,  vote  in  the  affirmative  <in  the  [irevious  question  it- 
.self.  In  the  British  Parliament  the  jirevious  question  is 
brought  forward  and  seconded  by  o|i]ionents  of  the  nuiin 
issue,  who  vote  against  the  motion  when  put  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  the  jiutting  of  the  main  question.  See  Par- 
liamentary Law  and  Cloture. 

Previtale.  ])r(7-vi"e-taa'lf7.  Andrea:  painter:  b.  at  Ber- 
gamo, Italy,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He 
probably  studied  uniler  Giovanni  Bellini  in  Venice,  as  his 
earliest  known  work,  an  altar-piece  at  Borgo  Sant'  Antonio, 


PRfiVOST   D'EXILES 


PRICE 


773 


l)ears  the  inscription  Andreas  Bergomensis  dissipidus  {sic) 
Jo  Bellini.  The  altar-piece  of  St.  Joliii  the  Baptist  in  ISto. 
Spirito  Hi  liiTfjamo  is  consiileied  liis  finest  work.  D.  of  tlie 
[ilaf^iie  at  Ucrgunio  in  1.12^.  Many  of  liis  pictures  are  at 
l!i'i'I;;uno.  The  National  Gallery  in  London  possesses  a 
M(uloiina  and  Child  hy  him.        '  \V.  J.  Stillman. 

PrCvo.st  d'E.xiles,  prd  v6'd(7f;;zeer,  Ablie  AxTOiNE  Prax- 
(■ois:  novelist;  b.  at  llesdin,  Artois,  France,  Apr.  1,  1697. 
After  a  t;ood  education  he  vibrated  for  a  time  between  the 
army  and  the  order  of  the  Jesuits.  In  1719  he  entered  the 
order  of  Uenedietinc  monks  of  Saint-Maur,  and  for  several 
years  gave  liimscif  to  serious  study.  ile  left  the  order 
somewhat  irre,i,ailarly  (1727  <ir  172.S).  fled  to  Holland,  and 
devoted  himself  to  letters.  His  first  work,  Jlimoires  d'lm 
homme  di;  ijiinlil(^  (S  vols.,  172y-;i2).  revealed  his  gifts  as  a 
story-teller,  and  was  very  successful.  Ue  went  to  England 
in  17*i,  and  in  1734  was  permitted  to  return  to  Paris.  I). 
Nov.  2:!,  1763.  .\mong  his  works  are  Ij'IIinfoire  de  M. 
Cleivland  (S  vols.,  1732-;i9):  Ac  Diiiji-n  (/c  Killerine  (6 
vols.,  173"));  translations  of  Kicliardson's  Pamiila  and  Cla- 
rissa ;  and  above  all  the  Ilistiiirt  dn  clu'valinr  des  Grieux  d 
de  Maiion  Lcscaut  (1731),  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  t!ie 
French  novel  of  all  times.  It  has  often  been  republished. 
Ills  (Uurres  choisies  were  published  in  1783  and  in  1810-16. 

A.  G.  Caxfield. 

Prfivost-Paradol',  -p.iji  ralidol ,  Li'cies  Anatole:  au- 
thor: b.  in  Paris,  France,  Aug.  8, 1829;  liecaine  Professor  of 
French  Mtcrature  in  .\ix  in  183.5 ;  was  a  frciiuent  contributor 
to  I'arisiau  journals,  and  wrote  Rente  de  I  llistoire  univer- 
srlle  (1854) ;  Du  Hole  de  la  Fain  ille  dans  I'L'dtiration  (1857) ; 
Kssais  (3  vols.,  1859-63):  (^ueh/iies  pages  d'llisloire  cun- 
teinpiiraine  (4  vols.,  1862-66) :  ancl  La  France  noueelle  (1868). 
In  1870  he  went  as  ambassador  to  W.-ishington,  1).  C  He 
arrived  in  .July,  but  on  Aug.  11  committed  suicide. 

Prt'yer,  Tuierry  William,  M.  D.,  Ph.  D. :  psychologist 
anil  fihysiologist ;  b.  in  Manchester,  England,  .July  4,  1841  : 
educated  in  Manchester,  London,  Duisburg,  Bcmn,  and  at 
the  Universities  of  Bonn,  Berlin,  Heidelberg,  Vienna,  and 
Paris;  became  privat  docent  at  Bonn  in  1865,  Professor  of 
Physiology  at  .Jena  in  1869,  and  privat  docent  at  Berlin  ir 
1888.  His  |iriuci|>al  works  arc  Die  (irenzen  des  EnipHnd- 
uui/srennm/ens  und  des  H'w//t«s  (Bonn,  1868);  Veber  Emp- 
Jindune/en  (Berlin,  1867);  Elemente  der  rei nen  Empfindiiny.i- 
lehre  (.Jena,  1877);  Die  Kalaplexie  und  der  thierische  Ilijp- 
nntismus  (.lena,  1878);  Die  Entdeckung  des  Hypnolismus 
(Berlin,  1881);  i'el/er  den  Farben-  and  Temperalursinn 
(Bonn,  1881);  Veber  die  GremenderTiinn'alirnehmung(3<;\\&, 
1876);  Aliiistiscke  Untersuchunqen  (Jena,  187!t) ;  Die  Seele 
des  /i7/(r/i'.s- (Leipzig,  1881 ;  3d  ed!  1890) ;  Specielle  Phi/siologie 
des  Enibri/ii  (Leipzig,  1883-84);  Elemente  der  alli/iiiiehien 
J'hi/sioliii;ie  (Lei(izig,  1883);  Die  Erkldrung  des  Gedanki  n- 
/(".scH.s  (Leipzig,  188.5);  Die  Bewegungen  der  Seesterne  (Ber- 
lin, 1887) ;  and  Der  Hypnolismus  (Vienna,  1890). 

J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Prlacantli'idsB  [Jtod.  Lat.,  named  from  Priacan'thus, 
the  typical  genus;  Gr. irpiaiv.  saw  4-  aKavda.  spine] :  a  family  of 
fishes  of  the  sub-order  Acantlio/deri.  distinguished  by  tlieir 
very  large  eyes  and  small  rough  scales,  which  extend  on  the 
snout  and  jaws.  Over  twenty  species  are  known  from  differ- 
ent tropical  seas,  in  all  of  which  some  species  are  found. 
They  are  generally  of  a  reddish  color. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pri'am  (in  Gr.  Uf,lafios):  son  of  Laoraedon  and  Strymo, 
and  the  last  King  of  Troy.  His  origituil  name  was  Po- 
darces,  but  he  received  the  name  of  Pi'iani  because  he  was 
ransomed  (irp/oirdai)  by  his  sister  Ilesione  from  Heracles, 
lie  was  the  husband  of  Hecuba,  the  f.-dher  of  Hector,  Paris, 
Poly  xena,  Cassandra.  Deiphobus,  Helen  us,  Troilus,  and  others. 
During  liis  reign  fell  the  Trojan  war.  which  ended  with  the 
destruction  of  Troy  and  tlic  extinction  of  his  race.  The 
matchless  words  of  the  Ili'ail  of  Homer  narrate  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  events  of  the  Trojan  war.     J.  K.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pribilof  or  Pri  by  loff  Islands:  a  groupof  small  volcanic 
islands  in  Bering  Sea;  192  miles  N.  of  Umdaska,  200  miles 
S.  of  St.  Matthew,  and  about  the  same  distance  W.  of  Cape 
Newerduim,  on  the  mainland.  The  climate  is  disitprceable ; 
but  th(^  perfect  isolation  of  these  islands,  and  the  mist  and 
fog  which  prevail,  cause  the  fur-seal  to  select  these  grounds 
for  the  purpose  of  lireeding.  The  great  scal-jn'oducing 
island  is  St.  Paul,  with  a  shore-line  of  42  mile.s,  of  which  16i 
miles  are  frequented  by  the  fur-seal.s.     See  Seal-fisheries. 

Revised  by  G.  K.  Gilbert. 


Price  :  See  Political  Economy. 

Price:  town;  capital  of  Carbon  co.  (organized  from  the 
norlheni  |iart  of  Emery  County  in  1894),  Utah;  on  the  Price 
river,  and  the  Rio  Grande  Western  Railway;  78  miles  S.  E. 
of  Provo  City,  122  miles  S.  E.  of  Salt  Lake  City  (for  loea^ 
tion,  see  map  of  Utah,  ref.  5-X).  It  is  in  an  agricultural, 
stock-raising,  and  mining  region,  is  the  immediate  starting- 
point  for  Fort  Duchesne  and  the  Uintah  and  Uncomfiahgre 
Indian  reservations,  and  is  the  shipping-point  for  a  mine 
of  reimirkably  pure  asphaltum.  The  town  has  a  church, 
two  pid)lie  scliools,  and  a  weekly  newspaper.     Pop.  (1895) 

Price,  BoNAMY:  economist ;  b.  in  the  island  of  Guernsey, 
May  22,  1807:  graduated  at  Oxford,  1829;  soon  afterward 
became  assistant  master  at  Rugby  ScIioijI.  where  he  remained 
as  teacher  till  1850.  and  Professor  of  Political  Econoniv  at 
Oxford  University  1868.  Prof.  Price  was  a  distinguished 
representative  of  free-trade  doctrines,  which  he  presented 
to  the  public  of  the  U.  S.  in  1874  in  a  series  of  lectures.  He 
was  the  author  of  Tlie  Principles  of  Currency  (1869);  Of 
Currency  and  Panking  (1876) ;  Practical  Political  Economy 
(1878) ;  and  of  many  articles  in  reviews  and  magazines.  D. 
in  London,  Jan.  8,  1888. 

Price,  Ira  JIairice.  B.  D.,  Ph.  P.:  educator;  b.  near 
Newark.  O..  Apr.  29, 1856;  graduated  at  Denison  University 
1879;  I'rofessor  of  Greek  and  Jlodern  Languages,  Univer- 
sity of  Des  Moines  (now  Des  .Moines  College),  Iowa.  1879-80 ; 
instructor  in  French  and  tierman,  Morgan  I'ark  Military 
Academy.  1880-83  :  instructor  in  correspondence.  School  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Hebrew,  1882-84;  Ph.  D.,  Univer- 
sity of  Leijizig,  1887;  instructor  in  Hebrew  and  cognate 
languages.  Baptist  Union  Theological  Seminary,  1886-88; 
[irofessor  of  same  department,  1888i-92;  Associate  Professor 
of  the  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures  in  the  Graduate 
School  of  the  University  of  Chicago.  He  is  author  of  An 
Introduction  into  the  Inscriptions  discovered  by  Mons.  E. 
de  Sarzec  (Munich,  1887);  Syllalius  of  Old  Testament  His- 
tory (1891 ;  3d  ed.  1892);  associate  eilitor  of  new  edition  of 
Gesenins's  Hebrew  Grammar  (Boston,  1892);  member  edi- 
torial staff  of  the  Standard  Dictionary  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage (New  York,  1893-95). 

Price. Richard, D.D.,LL.D.,F. R.S.:  philosopher;  b.at 
Tynton,  Glamorganshire,  Wales,  Feb.  22,  1723;  ciiucated  at 
Talgarth  and  Coward's  Acaileiny  in  London  :  became  a 
Presbyterian  minister;  was  chaplain  to  a  Mr.  Streatficld  at 
Stoke  Newington  1743-56.  and  pastor  of  churches  at  Hack- 
ney and  Newington  Green  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  D.  in 
London,  Apr.  19. 1791.  Author  of  many  pajiers  in  the  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,  and  of  numerous  theological,  econom- 
ical, and  political  publications,  among  which  were  A  lieview 
of  tlie  Principal  Questions  and  DifUculties  in  Morals  (\'i58); 
Oljservations  on  Recrsionary  I'aynienfs,  Annuities,  etc. 
(1769);  ,1/1  Appeal  to  the  Public  on  the  Subject  of  the  Na- 
tional Debt  (1771);  The  Nature  and  Dignity  of  the  Human 
Soul  (ITiG);  Obseri'ations  on  the  Nature  of  Civil  Liberty, 
Principles  of  Government,  and  the  .lustire  and  Policy  of  the 
War  with  America,  (1776);  Additional  Observations,  etc. 
(1777) :  A  n  Essay  on  the  Present  State  of  Population  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales  (1779);  aiul  Observations  on  the  Importarice 
of  the  American  Revolution  (1784).  The  [lamphletson  Amer- 
ican affairs  forcibly  and  eloijueiitly  advocated  the  claims  of 
the  colonists  to  an  ample  redress  of  grievances,  and  60,000 
copies  of  the  first  pumphlet  on  this  suljject  were  sold  in  a 
few  months.  Dr.  Price's  various  writings  on  the  doctrine  of 
chances,  annuities,  and  the  duration  of  life  entitle  him  to  a 
high  place  among  the  founders  of  the  science  of  vital  statis- 
tics, and  his  financial  publications  give  him  similar  rank  in 
regard  to  ]iulitical  economy.  In  religious  opinions  he  was  a 
precursor  of  the  Unitarian  movement,  agreeing  in  many 
tilings  with  his  frieml  Dr.  Priestli'V.  See  his  il/emo(>s,  by 
his  nephew,  William  Morgan.  F.  R.S.  (1815). 

Price,  Stkri.ixc.  :  .soldier;  b.  in  Prince  Edward  co.,  Va., 
Sept.  11.  1809;  settled  in  Charlton  Co.,  Mo.,  18:30:  served  in 
the  Legislature;  was  member  of  Congress  1845-47;  colonel 
of  Missouri  volunteers  in  the  Mexican  war:  captured  Taos, 
N.  M. ;  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Canada,  N.  JL,  Jan.  24, 
1847;  was  made,  brigadier-general  July  20,  1847,  and  ap- 
pointed military  governor  of  Chihuahua;  gained  the  batllo 
of  Santa  Cruz  de  Rosales  Mar.  16,  1848.  He  wa.s  Govci'nor 
of  ^lissouri  18.53-57;  presided  oviu-  the  State  convention 
of  Feb.,  1861  ;  was  ap|>ointed  major-general  of  the  State 
forces  by  Gov.  Claiborne  F.  Jackson,  and  endeavored  to  pre- 


774 


PURE 


PRIEST 


cipitate  the  withdrawal  of  Missouri  from  the  Union,  Init  was 
foiled  in  his  purpose  by  the  promptness  of  F.  P.  Blair  and 
Nathaniel  Lyon  in  compelling  the  surrender  of  the  State 
guard  at  St.  Louis,  and  defeating  the  militia  at  Boonville. 
In  the  South,  however,  the  Governor  and  Price  recruited 
an  army  of  about  8,000  men,  and,  being  joined  by  Jlet'ul- 
lough  with  3,000  from  Arkansas,  defeated  Lyon  and  Sigel 
at  Springfield  Aug.  7.  Price  quarreled  with  McCuIlough, 
who  withdrew  his  forces;  captured  Lexington,  with  3,000 
prisoners,  after  a  four  days"  siege,  Sept.  20,  for  which  he 
was  thanked  by  the  Confederate  C'ongress;  was  soon  forced 
to  retreat  into  Arkansas ;  was  appointed  major-general  in 
the  Confederate  service  JIar.,  1862:  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Pea  Ridge,  luka,  and  Corinth;  was  in  command  of  the 
department  of  Arkansas  1863-64,  when  he  entered  into  a 
combination  with  Clement  Vallandigham,  of  Ohio,  and  other 
Northern  sympathizers  with  the  Confederacy,  founding 
the  secret  organization  known  as  Knights  of  the  Golden 
Circle,  of  which  he  was  "grand  commander,"  and  which 
nearly  25,000  Missourians  joined.  lie  invaded  Missouri 
Sept.,  1864,  advancing  with  nearly  20,000  men  as  far  as 
Pilot  Knob,  but  failed  to  rally  the  Knights  to  his  standard 
on  account  of  the  measures  taken  by  Gen,  Roseerans  in  the 
discovery  and  repression  of  the  plot;  jiresented  himself 
before  Jefferson  City  and  pushed  westward  to  the  Kansas 
border,  but  being  pursued  by  Pleasonton  and  Curtis,  had  to 
retreat  to  Arkansas,  thereby  terminating  in  disaster  a  move- 
ment which  had  been  expected  to  result  in  the  conquest  of 
Illinois  and  other  States.  After  the  war  Gen.  Price  went  to 
Mexico  and  founded  a  colony  of  ex-Confederate  officers  near 
Cordova;  but  the  downfall  of  Maximilian  involved  that  of 
the  colony,  and  he  returned  to  Missouri  early  in  1867  in  pov- 
erty and  broken  health.     D.  in  St.  Louis,  Sept.  29,  1867. 

Price,  Thomas  Randolph,  A.  M..  LL.  D. :  professor  of 
Greek  and  English;  b.  in  Richmond,  Va.,  Mar.  18.1839: 
educated  at  University  of  Virginia  (1856-59),  Uiuversities  of 
Berlin  and  Kiel  (18r>9-61);  served  in  the  Confederate  army  ; 
Professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at  Randolph  College  1867-70, 
Greek  and  English  1870-76  :  Professor  of  Greek  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia  1876-82:  became  Professor  of  English 
Language  and  Literature,  Columbia  College,  1882 ;  author 
of  The  Teaching  of  the  Mnther-Tong>ie  (\ii~')\  Shakespeare's 
Verse  Construction  {18S9);  editor  of  Othello,  Bankside  edi- 
tion of  Shakspeare  (1890).  C.  II.  Thurber. 

Prit'h'ard,  James  Cowles,  M.  D.  :  ethnologist ;  b.  at  Ross, 
Herefordshire,  England,  Feb.  11,  1786;  resided  in  youth  at 
Bristol ;  studied  medicine  at  Bristol,  London,  and  Edin- 
burgh :  began  practice  as  a  physician  at  Bristol  in  1810,  and 
received  medical  appointments  at  the  Clifton  Dispensary, 
St.  Peter's  Hospital,  and  the  Bristol  Infirmary.  In  1813  he 
published  his  chief  work,  Hesearches  into  tlie'Phi/sirnl  His- 
tory of  Manlcind  (4th  ed.  1841-51).  Dr.  Prichard  then  ap- 
plied liimself  to  |>hilology,  and  produced  his  standard  trea- 
tise on  7'he  Eastern  Origin  of  the  Celtic  Nations  (1831  ;  2d 
ed.  1857).  In  1843  he  issued  his  Natural  History  of  Man 
(4th  ed.  1855);  became  1845  commissioner  in  lunacy:  was 
for  many  years  president  of  the  Ethnological  Society,  and 

Sublished  several  works  on  medical  subjects.   D.  in  London, 
iec.  22,  1848. 

Prickly-ash,  or  Toothache-tree :  the  Xanthoxi/lum 
americanitm ;  a  large  prickly  shrub,  belonging  to'  the 
Rutacece  ;  found  in  most  parts  of  the  U.  S.  The  leaves  have 
the  smell  of  lemons.  The  bark  is  aromatic  and  stimulant, 
and  is  used  as  a  remedy  for  toothache,  for  rheumatism,  and 
other  diseases.  A',  carotin ianitm,  the  Southern  prickly  ash. 
has  a  more  southern  range.  It  becomes  quite  a  large  tree. 
Its  bark  is  extremely  pungent,  and  is  armed  with  curious 

frickly  warts.  X.  iloridanum  and  A',  pterota  grow  also  in 
'lorida.  China,  Japan,  South  America,  and  the  West  Indies 
abound  in  species  of  this  genus,  nearly  or  quite  all  aro- 
matic, i>ungent,  and  medicinal. 

Priclily  Heat :  a  ])opnlar  name  for  eruptive  skin  dis- 
eases, occurring  in  hot  weather  and  cliaracterized  bv  itch- 
ing and  sensations  of  stinging.  Disordered  digestion,  con- 
stipation, and  abnormal  perspiration  are  causes.  The  disease 
is  known  as  "miliaria"  in  technical  language.  In  India 
there  is  quite  a  formidable  variety  of  lichen  called  bv  this 
name.  A  popular  treatment  is  the  use  of  saline  cathartics, 
which  doubtless  arc  sometimes  advantageous.  Soothing  lo- 
tions containing  carbolic  acid,  i-amphor,  and  similar  seila- 
tivcs  are  useful,  and  the  di.scase  is  often  avoided  bv  sus- 
ceptible persons  by  frequent  bathing  and  protection'  from 
the  sun's  rays.  W.  Pepper. 


Priekly-pear :  any  cactus  of  the  genus  Opuntia,  espe- 
cially 0.  vulgaris,  a  native  of  many  places  in  the  U.  S.  from 
Massachusetts  southward  and  westward.  It  is  naturalized 
extensively  in  the  Old  World.  Its  fruit  is  smooth  and  eat- 
able, but  not  so  good  as  that  of  O.frcus  indicus,  which  is 
[irickly.  Some  of  the  numerous  species  are  used  for  forage 
in  Jlcxico.  The  erect  kinds  are  serviceable  hedge-plants. 
One  species  is  the  official  emblem  of  Mexico.  Some  prickly- 
pears  afford  food  to  the  cochineal  insect. 

Prideaiix,  prid  o,  Humphrey,  D.  D.  :  b.  at  Padstow, 
Cornwall,  England.  May  2,  1648;  educated  at  Westminster 
School ;  educated  at  Christ  Church.  (Jxford,  and  graduated 
1672  ;  published  a  Latin  account  of  the  Arundelian  marbles, 
Marmora  O.roniensia  (1676) ;  became  rector  of  St.  Clement's, 
Oxford  (1679);  prebendary  of  Norwich  1681.  archdeacon  of 
Suffolk  1688,  and  dean  of  Norwich  1702.  D.  at  Norwich, 
Nov.  1,  1724.  Author  of  a  Life  of  JIahomet  (1697),  once 
very  popular,  and  of  Tlie  Connection  of  the  History  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  (4  vols.,  1715-18),  which  is'  fre- 
quently reprinted. 

Pride's  Purge :  See  Cromwell,  Oliver. 

Priess'nitz.  Vincent:  hydropathist ;  b.  at  Grafenberg, 
Austrian  Silesia,  Oct.  5,  1799,  of  peasant  parents;  became 
the  inventor  of  hydropathy,  and  in  1822,  by  special  authority 
from  the  Austiian  Government,  the  founder  of  the  Griifen- 
berg  water-cure,  which  he  administered  till  his  death  Nov. 
28,  1851.    See  Hydropathy. 

Priest  [0.  Eng.  preost,  like  Germ,  priester,  an  early  loan- 
word from  hnt.  pres  byter,  in  a  Vulg.  Lat.  form  of  *prebis- 
ter.  In  Rom.  languages  the  word  appears  as  Ital.  prete  :  Fr. 
pretre,  Provenc;.  preste-s.  Lat.  presbyter  =  Gr.  7rp€o-j3uTEpos, 
elder] ;  one  authorized  to  perform  certain  jjublic  religious 
acts,  particularly  religioussacrifices ;  in  hierarchical  churches, 
one  of  the  second  order  of  the  ministry.  In  all  nations  of  an- 
tiquity among  whom  a  system  of  worship  received  any  con- 
siderable development  there  existed  also  a  system  of  priest- 
hood. The  priest  stood  in  a  sort  of  mediatorial  relation 
between  God  and  man.  and  under  the  Hebrew  legislation  this 
was  divinely  recognized  and  received  the  emphatic  sanction 
of  divine  appointment.  In  earliest  times  the  functions  of  the 
priest  appear  to  have  been  discharged  by  the  head  of  the 
family,  who,  as  the  recognized  superior  of  all  its  members, 
was  the  fittest  person  to  appear  for  them  before  God. 
Hence  came  what  is  called  the  "  patriarchal  priesthood." 
As  the  family  multiplied  into  the  tribe  the  duties  of  its 
head  became  too  numerous  for  the  proper  discharge  of 
the  priesthood,  as  well  as  often  incongruous,  and  persons 
were  specially  selected  to  fill  the  office,  as  in  the  case  of 
Jethro,  "  the  priest  of  Midian."  When  the  tribe  became  a 
nation  a  class  of  men  was  set  aside  for  the  same  purpose,  al- 
though the  monarch  often  remained  at  the  nominal  head  of 
the  priesthood  thus  established,  as  was  the  case  in  Egypt. 
Among  the  most  ancient  nations,  India,  Egypt,  and  the 
Hebrews,  the  priesthood  was  hereditary,  and  in  the  two 
former  constituted  a  class  distinctly  separated  in  their 
whole  life  from  the  rest  of  the  nation,  and  in  Egypt  en- 
dowed with  large  landed  estates  and  great  wealth.  Among 
the  Hebrews,  on  the  contrary,  the  priests  were  only  allowe(l 
cities  necessary  for  their  residence,  and  were  cut  off  from 
other  inheritance  in  land  among  the  tribes  of  Israel.  They 
were  only  in  so  far  a  caste  as  was  necessary  for  the  dis- 
charge of  their  duties,  and  in  all  otlier  respects  were  on 
the  same  footing  as  their  fellow  citizens,  it  being  especially 
noteworthy  that  all  were  entirely  equal  before  the  law. 
Their  support  was  provided  for  by  a  tithe  from  the  Lcvites 
of  the  tithes  received  by  them  from  the  whole  body  of  the 
people,  and  also  by  assigned  portions  of  most  of  the  sacri- 
fices. As  there  was  no  provision  in  the  Hebrew  law  for 
the  enforcement  of  the  payment  of  the  tithes,  their  in- 
come was  dependent  upon  the  general  fidelity  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  especial  function  of  the  Aaronic  priesthood  was 
to  come  near  to  God — themselves  of  the  i)eoi>le,  yet  spe- 
cially sanctified  on  their  behalf  to  approach  God  and  ob- 
tain from  him  pardon  and  blessings  for  their  brethren. 
Hence  their  cliief  characteristic  must  be  Imlincss.  which 
was  set  forth  in  the  Levitical  law  in  every  possible  sym- 
bolical Wiiy.  as  well  as  directly  commanded.  The  first  of 
all  their  duties  was  the  offering  of  sacrifice,  thus  "  making 
atonement  for  the  people."  No  sacrifice  coiUd  be  offered 
or  incense  burned  without  their  intervention.  They  liad 
also,  as  naturally  connected  with  this,  the  general  care  of 
the  sanctuary  and  the  multitudinous  duties  flowing  from 
this;   and,  as  being  themselves  especially  trained  in  the 


PRIESTLEY 


PRIETO 


V(0 


liaw,  to  them  was  assigned  the  duty  of  teaching  it  to  the 
people.  They  had,  however,  little  or  nothing  of  the  pa,i- 
liiral  relation  towanl  the  people;  their  dmies  were  almost 
wlioUv  ollieial.  Their  (jvialifiealions  were  Aaronie  descent, 
perfect  physical  formation,  and,  during  their  ministrations, 
freedom  from  legal  uncleanness  and  ahstineiice  from  wine 
and  intoxicating  drinks.  There  wa.s  no  linutation  of  age. 
In  marriage  they  were  only  restricted  to  virgins  or  widows 
lit  one  of  the  tribes  of   Israel.     When  largely  multiplied, 

i[i  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon,  tliey  were  divideil  into 
twenty-four  courses,  which   were  placetl   on  duty  each  one 

week  in  turn.  Wiieii  on  duty,  Hkc  the  Egy|itiaii  priests, 
they  wore  linen  robes  an<l  were  unshod.  The  whole  order 
culminated  in  the  high  priest,  whose  office  was  also  hered- 
itary, and  who  by  the  magnificeiu-e  of  his  official  robes  was 
marked  as  very  much  elevated  above  lijs  brethren.  He 
was  peculiarly  the  appciiiitcid  nie<liHtor  as  a  type  of  the 
promised  Redeemer  to  come,  and  alone  once  in  every  year 
entered  the  Holy  of  liolies.  He  could  marry  only  a  virgin 
within  the  priestly  family.  Later  there  was  a  "'second 
priest,"  or  vice  high  priest.  The  whole  Hebrew  priest- 
hood, having  its  main  function  in  the  "  making  of  atone- 
ment," necessarily  ceased  with  the  cnming  of  Christ.  By 
Canon  34  of  the  Anglican  t'hnrch  i>iie  must  be  twenty-tour 
years  of  age  before  he  can  be  admitted  to  the  prii'sthood  : 
anciently  thirty  years  was  requireil.  Still  by  dispensation 
t'or  sufficient  cause  it  may  be,  and  has  occasionally  been, 

'inferred  at  an  earlier  age.  In  the  Protestant  Episcojial 
I'hurch  the  person  prie.sted  must  l)c  twenty-four  years  old, 
and  usually  the  interval  of  a  year  is  required  between  ordi- 
nation to  the  diaconate  and  admission  to  the  priesthood. 
Cimsult  Kalisch. /'re/i7K('Hf//7/  ExKay  to  Lev.  viii.:  Kiipcr. 
/A(js  I^iesterthum  des  atten  Biinihx. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Pkury. 
Catholic  theology  teaches  that  Christ,  "a  high  priest  ac- 
c.inling  to  the  order  of  Melchisedeeh  "(Heb.  v.  10),  instituted 
at  the  Last  Supper  not  oidy  a  sacrament,  but  a  sacrifice  also, 
and  by  comnumding  the  a])ostles  to  do  what  he  had  done 
for  a  comnienoratidu  of  him  (Luke  xxii.  19),  established 
the  priesthoiid  of  the  new  Law.  The  oiTering  of  the  eueha- 
ristic  sacrifice  in  the  Mass.  the  clean  oblation  identical  with 
that  of  the  cross,  is  the  principal  function  of  the  Christian 
priest.  Also  by  his  ministration  the  faithful  partake  of  the 
fruits  of  this  sacrifice,  chiefly  in  Holy  Communion,  and,  ac- 
cording to  their  various  needs,  in  the  sacraments  of  bap- 
tism, penance,  and  extreme  unction.  Confirmation  and  holy 
•  irders  are  administered  by  the  bishop,  while  in  matrimony, 
as  theologians  generally  hohl,  the  contracting  parties  are 
the  ministers  and  the  priest  or  bishop  is  the  official  witness. 
The  priest,  moreover,  is  chargcil  with  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel,  and  with  the  religious  instrnetioti  and  spiritual  di- 
rection of  those  committed  to  his  care.  The  jurisdiction 
necessary  for  exercising  sacerdotal  functions  is  given  by  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  the  priest  permanently  or 
temporarily  resides,  and  the  priesthood  itself  is  conferred  by 
the  bishop  at  ordination.  It  imparts  to  the  worthy  recipient 
those  graces  or  supernatural  helps  which  he  needs  for  the 
faithful  discharge  of  his  duties,  and  imprints  upon  his  soul 
a  character  which  can  never  lie  ('(faced.  Once  ordained,  the 
priest,  though  he  may  be  deprived  of  the  right  to  exercise 
his  office,  always  retains  the  essential  power  of  consecrating 
the  body  and  blooil  of  Christ.  .See  Lambrecht,  I>e  S'"°  Mis- 
KiP  Sarrificio  (Louvain,  1S75) ;  Probst,  Siikmmi'nlf  iind  Sak- 
rameH/aij>»  (Tubingen,  1H73);  Cardinal  Planning,  The,  Eter- 
nal Priesthood  (1883).  J.  J.  Keantj. 

Priestley.  .JosEi'ii :  physicist  and  writer  on  theology:  b. 
Birstal-Kieldhead.  near  Leeds.  England,  Mar.  24,  "lT;!:i 
(N.  s.);  was  son  of  a  cloth-dresser ;  was  placed  at  a  free  gram- 
mar school,  and  at  a  Presbyterian  academy  at  Daventry;  ob- 
tained by  private  study  a  knowledge  of  the  classics  and 
miidern  languages,  to  which  he  added  Hebrew  and  the 
rudiments  of  Chaldaic,  Syriac,  and  .Arabic;  rejecteii  some 
points  of  the  Calvirustic  theology  befi)re  entering  college, 
but  was  ordained  in  ITofi  assistant  minister  to  an  Inilepenil- 
ent  congregation  at  Needham-Market.  SnfTdlk;  left  that 
post  in  1758  on  account  of  having  adopted  ['nitarian  views; 
taught  a  private  school  at  Nantwicli.  Cheshire.  I7.")8-61. 
making  there  numerous  experiments  in  ]ihysics.  and  writing 
his  first  published  work.  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  liemi.s- 
■tinn  (1701);  was  teacher  of  languages  and  literature  in  an 
academy  at  Warrington  1761-67.  during  which  period  he 
made  tlie  acquaint ance  of  Dr.  Richard  Price  and  of  Dr. 
Franklin,  and  prepared,  at  the  instance  of  the  latter,  his 


at 


History  and  Present  State  of  Eleclriciti/,  with  Origirial  Ex- 
periments (1767).  which  procured  hihi  the  degree  of  LL.  D. 
from  the  University  of  Edinburgh  and  election  as  fellow  of 
the  Koyal  Society:  was  pastor  of  Mill  Hill  Chapel,  Leeds, 
1767-7-i;  nuide  there  important  researches  in  pneumatics 
and  chemistry,  which  he  gave  to  the  world  in  \\'\*  Directions 
for  Jiiipref/nnting  Water  with  Fixed  A  ir  (1773).  anil  History 
and  I'lesent  State  nf  Disroreries  relatimj  to  Visiiin,  Light, 
and  Colors  (2  vols.  4to.  1772);  published  his  Inxtitiiles  of 
.Xdtiiral  and  lievealed  Hetiijion  (8  vols..  1772-74),  which  he 
had  begun  eighteen  years  before;  was  from  1773  to  1780  li- 
brarian and  literary  companion  to  the  Earl  of  .Shelburne, 
whom  he  attended  in  1774  in  a  tour  on  the  Continent ;  made 
in  that  year  the  discovery  of  oxygen  (called  by  him  dephlo- 
gisticated  air;  see  Chemistry),  soon  followed  by  that  of  other 
gases,  besides  contributions  to  theoretical  chemistry  set  forth 
in  his  Ej-/jerimi'nts  and  Oliserrdtions  on  Different  Kinds  of 
,1(>  (3  vols.,  1774-77);  published  (Ml A-~><)  Disquisition  re- 
latinfi  to  Mutter  and  Spirit,  and  other  philo.sophical  works 
which  exciteil  much  controversy.  In  17S0  Priestley  retired 
fmm  the  service  of  Lord  Shelburne  with  a  life-pension  of 
£150,  became  minister  to  the  prinidpal  Independent  congre- 
gation at  Birnungham,  and  addressed  to  an  eminent  French- 
man his  Letters  to  a  J'liihisophicdl  I'nheliever,  in  which  he 
contended  strongly  for  the  doctrines  of  a  revelation  and  a 
resurrection.  This  was  followed  by  his  History  of  the  Cor- 
ruptions of  Christianity  (2  vols.,  1782);  History  of  Early 
0])inions  cimcerning  Jesus  Christ,  compiled  fro7n  Original 
Writers,  proving  that  the  (,'hristian  Church  iras  at  first 
Unitarian  (4  vols.,  1786).and  other  works,  including Xei'/ers 
to  Burke,  occasioned  hy  his  Jieflections  on  the  Bevohition  in 
France  (17!tl).  The  last  treatise  procured  him  an  honorary 
citizenship  in  the  French  republic,  and  was  the  cause  of  a 
riot  at  Birmingham  (July  15,  17!tl).  in  which  Priestley's 
house  was  ])illaged  and  his  library,  manuscripts,  and  scien- 
tific apjiaratus  scattered  through  the  streets,  he  himself 
escajiing  )iersonal  violence  by  flight.  For  three  years  he  re- 
sided at  Hackney  as  the  successor  of  Dr.  Price,  instituted 
a  suit  for  compensation  for  his  losses,  in  which  he  was  suc- 
cessful after  nine  years'  delay,  and  in  1794  removed  to  the 
U.  S.,  where  his  sons  already  resided.  He  settled  on  his 
son's  farm  at  Northumberland.  Pa.,  where  he  pa.ssed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life:  wrote  replies  to  Volney  and  Paine,  and 
several  other  works  of  little  comparative  imjiortance,  the 
most  elaborate  being  Notes  on  all  the  Books  of  Scripture 
(Northumberland,  4  vols.,  1803).  He  declined  a  professor- 
ship in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  but  occasionally 
preached  at  Philadelphia,  and  delivered  there  two  .series  of 
Di.vour.ies  relating  to  the  Evidences  of  Bevealed  Religion 
(1796-97).  D.  at  Northumberland,  Pa..  Feb.  6,  1804.  His 
autobiographical  J/emu/cs,  with  a  continuation  by  his  .son, 
appeared  in  1806,  and  a  collection  of  his  Theological  and 
Jliscellaneous  Works  (26  vols.,  Hackney,  1817-32)  was 
edited  by  John  Towell  Rutt,  vols.  i.  and  ii.  being  com- 
posed of  his  Life  and  Correspondence.  A  bibliography  of 
Dr.  Priestley's  productions,  prepared  at  Washington  (1875), 
gives  the  titles  of  more  than  300  .sei)arate  publications. 

Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Priestley.  Sir  William  Ovebexd.  JI.  D..  LL.  D., 
F.  R.C.  P. :  obstetrician:  b.  near  Leeds.  Yorkshire.  June 
24,  1829;  grand-nephew  of  Joseph  Priestley;  educated  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  and  took  the  degree  of  M.  D. 
in  1853;  received  the  senate  gold  medal  for  original  research 
at  graduation  ;  .settled  in  London  as  a  jihysician  in  1856  :  be- 
came lecturer  on  midwifery  at  the  ."Middlesex  Hospital ;  Pro- 
fessor of  Ob.stetric  Jledicine  in  King's  College.  Lcmdon,  and 
physician  to  King's  College  Hospital  1862;  and  later  con- 
sulting physician  to  King's  College  Hospital.  He  is  a  fellow 
of  several  colleges,  and  member  of  various  Ii'arned  societies; 
has  been  examiner  in  the  University  of  London.  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Physicians.  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  University  of 
Cambridge,  and  Victoria  Univei-sity  ;  in  1875  and  1876  was 
president  of  the  Obstetrical  Society  of  London.  He  has  pub- 
lished On  the  Development  of  the  Oravid  Uterus;  On  the 
Pathology  of  Intrauterine  Ihaih  ;  and  was  joint  editor  of 
Sir  J.  Y.  Simpson's  Obstetric  Works.  He  was  knighted  in 
1893. 

I'rieto,  pre^-ato,  JoAQrix :  general  and  politician ;  b.  at 
Concepeion,  Chili.  Aug.  20,  1786.  After  serving  in  the 
Spanish  militia  he  joineil  the  patriots  in  1811 ;  took  part  in 
all  the  revolutionary  struggles,  holding  high  military  of- 
fices; was  prominent  in  congress  from  1823  as  a  leader  of 
the  conservative  party;  joined  in  the  conservative  revolt  of 


776 


PRIM 


PRIMATES 


1829-;50.  deciding  its  success  by  his  victnrv  over  Freire  at 
Lireay  Apr.  17,  1830,  and  on  the  death  of  Ovalle  was  made 
provisional  president  by  congress  Mar.  22.  1881.  He  was 
confirmed  in  the  post  by  a  regular  election,  hoklins,'  it  by 
re-election  until  Sept.,  1841.  With  him  began  the  prosper- 
ous though  somewhat  reactionary  rule  of  the  conservative 
party  in  Chili.  A  constitution  (still  in  force,  though  some- 
what amended)  was  adopted  in  May.  1833;  there  was  an 
unsuccessful  revolt  in  1836.  and  Chili  aided  Peruvian  mal- 
contents to  overthrow  the  Peru-Bolivian  confederation  1837- 
38.  After  retiring  from  the  presidency  Gen.  Prieto  was 
councilor  of  state,  senator,  and  commandant  at  Valparaiso, 
where  he  died  Nov.  22,  1854.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Prim,  JcAN  :  Count  of  Reus  and  Marquis  of  Castillejos ; 
b.  in   Reus,   Catalonia,   Spain,    Dec.   6.   1814:  entered   the 
Spanish  army  in  boyhood  ;  obtained  rapid  promotion  dur- 
ing the  first  Carlist  war;  became  colonel  in  1837;  was  soon 
afterward  elected  to  the  Cortes,  plotted  against  the  govern- 
ment of  Espartero,  and  in  1843  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  a  revolt  in  Catalonia.     He  aided  materially  in  effectin"- 
the   return   of  Christina,  but.  falling  under '  suspicion   of 
treason,  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  death.     He  was  par- 
doned, however,  and  appointed  governor  of  Puerto  Rico. 
He  was  commander  of  the  reserve  division  in  the  war  against 
Morocco  1859-60,  gaining  a  great  military  reputation  and  the 
title  of  marquis.     As  commander  of  the  Spanish  contino-ent 
in  the  allied  intervention  in  Me.\ico  1861.  he  was  instrunient- 
al  in  bringing  about  the  convention  of  .Soledad.  Feb.  19, 1862. 
in  which  assurance  was  given  that  the  independence  of  the 
Mexican  republic  would  not  be  disturbed.     On  his  return  to 
Spain  he  successfully  defended  his  conduct  in  the  Cortes,  de- 
nouncing the  ambitious  plans  of  the  French  emperor ;  'was 
banished  from  Madrid  Aug..  1864 ;  devoted  himself  thence- 
forth to  the  overthrow  of  Isabella,  for  which  object  he  en- 
tered into  various  combinations  and  headed  several  unsuc- 
cessful insurrections,  especially  that  of  Jan..  1866.  in  Ara- 
gon  and  Catalonia,  but  ultimiitelv  succeeded  in  organizin"- 
the  movement  which  in  Sept.,  1868,  through'  the  aid  of  Sei^ 
rano  and   Topete,  resulted  in  the  flight  of  the   queen   to 
France ;  was   welcomed   with   enthusiasm   at   Madrid :  be- 
came Minister  of  War  and  head  of  the  cabinet  in  the  new 
provisional  government ;  conducted  several  negotiations  for 
founding  a  new  dynasty  in  Spain;  furnished  the  pretext  for 
the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-71  bv  his  offer  of  the  crown 
of  Spain  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern,  and  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1870  obtained  from  the  Cortes  the  election  of  the 
Italian  prince  Amadeus,  Duke  of  Aosta.     On  the  dav  that 
the  new  king  landed  at  Barcelona  (Dee.  28)  Prim  was  at- 
tacked by  assassins  in  a  street  of  Madrid,  and  received  eight 
balls  in  his  body,  and  died  two  days  later  (Dec.  30,  1870)." 

Revised  by  P.  M.  Colby. 

Primary  Elections:  in  U.  S.  politics,  a  term  usually 
applied  to  the  preliminary  meetings  of  the  voters  of  any 
political  party  to  nominate  candidates  for  offices  to  be  filled 
by  the  people  at  a  subsequent  election,  or  to  choose  dele- 
gates to  a  convention  that  will  make  such  nominations. 
The  word  caucus  is  sometimes  used  with  reference  to  a 
meeting  of  certain  members  of  a  legislature  or  other  delib- 
erative body  to  decide  upon  harmonious  action  with  refer- 
ence to  pending  business.  (See  Caucus.)  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  primary  election  is  the  source  of  all  nominations, 
from  that  of  the  village  constable  or  pathmaster  (unless 
these  officers  are  both  nominated  and  elected  in  town  meet- 
ing) to  that  of  President,  although  this  has  not  been  true 
throughout  the  history  of  the  country.  fVom  1800  till  1824 
the  presidential  candidates  of  one  partv  at  least,  and  often 
of  both,  were  designated  by  the  members  of  Congress  in  a 
congressional  caucus,  though  in  the  later  years  some  of  the 
State  Legislatures  also  made  nominations,  "in  1828  the  presi- 
dential candidates  were  nominated  by  the  State  Legislatures, 
and  in  1832  the  present  system  of 'nomination  by  conven- 
tion founded  upon  the  primaries  was  started. 

In  rural  districts,  or  in  smaller  towns  where  the  voters  of 
each  political  jiarty  are  personally  known  to  one  another,  the 
ordinary  primary  election  is  not  generally  seriously  abused. 
The  local  political  leaders  are  likely  to  pack  the  meetings  in 
the  interest  of  their  favorites ;  but  this  can  be  successfully 
done,  with  rare  exceptions,  only  when  there  is  apathy  on  the 
part  of  many  voters.  In  the  larger  cities,  owing  to  the  lack 
of  acquaintance  among  the  voters,  there  are  many  opportu- 
nities for  fraud,  and  many  abuses.  The  necessity  of  some 
means  of  identifying  voters  has  led  in  New  York  and  other 
large  cities  to  the  formation  of  local  political  associations  ; 


and  from  these  associations  have  come  the  worst  abuses.  A 
check  list  of  names  of  voters  is  of  course  necessary,  no  per- 
son being  allowed  to  vote  whose  name  does  not  appear  on 
the  list.  This  machinery  of  registration,  and  the  necessity 
of  having  some  authority  to  call  meetings,  make  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  committee  imperative.  These  committees 
often  reapi»inted.  soon  know  their  districts  so  well  that  they 
can  manage  them  better  than  any  one  else  :  hence  they  have 
much  influence  with  higher  party  officials.  In  New"  York 
each  assembly  district  has  had  its  local  association  in  the 
nature  of  a  permanent  club,  and  its  committee,  associated 
with  a  central  committee,  which  has  had  the  general  direc- 
tion of  affairs  in  the  city.  The  two  leading  parties  have 
had.  under  somewhat  different  forms,  practically  the  same 
method  of  working.  The  direction  of  affairs  has  been  held, 
in  the  main,  in  the  hands  of  the  central  committee:  and  as 
membership  in  the  local  associations  has  been  limited  by 
pledges  of  support  of  regular  candidates  selected  by  the  com- 
mittee, pledges  that  many  men  could  not  give,  t"he  control 
has  been  retained.  This  rigid  control  has  at  times  permitted 
not  more  than  one-sixth,  or  even  not  more  than  one-tenth, 
of  the  voters  to  take  part  in  nominations,  and  even  these 
were  compelled  to  follow  the  dictates  of  the  small  central 
executive  committee.  In  such  circumstances  nominations 
could  be  made  by  the  "  boss  "  at  will. 

Much  thought  has  been  given  to  finding  remedies  for 
these  evils  in  making  nominations,  but  none  that  have  been 
suggested  are  entirely  satisfactory.  The  system  of  propor- 
tional representation,  as  found  in  three  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land, by  lessening  the  strength  of  parties  and  party  feeling  is 
said  to  have  had  a  marked  influence  toward  purifying  nomi- 
nations and  elections.  (See  Representation.)  Under  the 
present  system  of  party  government  in  the  U.  S.,  probably 
more  has  been  accomplished  than  in  any  other  way  by  what 
are  called  "  Primary  Election  Laws"  in  several  States.  By 
these  laws— found  in  more  or  less  complete  form  in  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  Missouri,  California,  Illinois,  Kansas,  West  Vir- 
ginia, Wyoming,  Wisconsin,  Oregon,  Washington,  etc.— 
primary  elections  are  no  longer  to  be  considered  entirely  as 
voluntary  meetings.  The  most  complete  laws  provide  regu- 
lations for  duly  calling  and  publishing  notices  of  meeting, 
for  registration  of  voters,  for  inspectors,  challenging,  voting! 
etc..  with  severe  penalties  against  fraud,  as  well  as  against 
bribery  or  undue  influence  of  any  kind.  Late  practice  in 
some  districts  in  New  York  shows  that  a  good  system  of 
minority  representation  in  the  primary  election  i'tself  has 
had  excellent  results.  Jeremiah  W.  Jenks. 

Primary  Scliools :  See  Ccmmox  Schools. 
Primate  [viii  0.  Fr.  from  hat.  pri'mas,  prima'tis.  one  of 
the  first,  chief,  (in  Media>v.  Lat.)  a  primate,  deriv.  of  pri- 
mus, first]:  originally,  in  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the  Church  of  "England,  the 
first  in  rank  of  the  archbishops  in  a  country.  Thus  in  Eng- 
land the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  was  long  primate,  but 
at  present  the  Archbishop  of  York  is  styled  "  Primate  of 
England,"  while  Canterbury  takes  the  higher  title  of  "  Pri- 
mate of  all  England."  The  Church  of  Ireland  Archbishop 
of  Dublin  has  the  title  "  Primate  of  Ireland,"  and  the  Church 
of  Ireland  and  Roman  Catholic  Archbishops  of  Armagh  are 
each  called  "  Primate  of  all  Ireland."  Five  or  six  French 
prelates  are  called  primates,  but  the  Archbishop  of  Lyons  is 
"  Primate  of  primates."  Again,  the  Archbishop  of  B"raga  is 
Primate  of  Portugal,  although  inferior  in  rank  to  the  Patri- 
arch of  Lisbon.  These  facts  indicate  that  the  office  of  pri- 
mate has  to  some  extent  and  in  certain  cases  become  a  titular 
one,  or  at  least  a  mere  indication  of  a  comparatively  unim- 
portant precedence.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Primates  [Jlod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  pri  mns.  prima  /is.  of  the 
first,  chief,  excellent,  deriv.  of  pri  mus,  first]  :  an  order  of 
monodelph  mammals  including  man.  the  monkeys,  and  the 
lemurs.  These  are  all  externally  distinguished  by  the  fore 
as  well  as  hind  limbs  being  completely  or  almost  entirely 
exserted  outside  of  the  common  integument,  and  thus  dis- 
tinguished from  the  ordinary  quadrupeds,  in  which  the 
proximal  joints  are  inclosed  therein  ;  the  members  have  also 
generally  five  digits,  developed  on  the  hands  as  well  as 
feet ;  the  innermost  or  first  of  the  hand  or  fore  foot  being 
the  thumb,  which  is,  however,  frequently  suppressed,  and 
the  corresponding  and  innermost  digit  of  the  foot  being 
thickened  and  generally  opposable  like  the  thumb  to  the 
other  digits,  only  in  man  assuming  parallelism  with  them; 
this  great  toe  is  always  furnished  with  a  depressed  nail ; 
the  teeth  are  not  distinctive,  being  modified  according  to 


PRIMATICCIO 


PRIME   NUMBERS 


777 


several  types;  they  are,  however,  at  least  in  one  stage,  in- 
cisors, canines,  aiid  molars;  of  the  inoisoi-s  there  are  in 
each  jaw  generally  four,  and  nevermore,  although  they  may 
be  reduceil  to  two,  or  all  in  the  upiicr  jaw  may  be  sup- 
pressed; the  clavicles  arc  always  comploti-ly  developed  and 
co-ordinated  with  the  development  of  <listinct  shoulders  ami 
their  distance  from  each  other;  the  brain  has  a  large 
cerebrum  which  completely  overlaps  the  olfactiiry  lobes  in 
front,  and  behind  more  or  less  covers  the  cerebellum  ;  on 
the  interior  surface  of  each  hemisphere  behind  a  peculiar 
sulcus  (the  so-called  calcarine)  exists,  which  is  co-ordi- 
nated with  the  development  of  a  raised  portion  (the  hip]io- 
campus  minor)  within  the  posterior  corner  of  the  ventricle 
by  which  the  posterior  lobe  of  the  cerebrum  is  traversed. 
The  order  as  thus  distinguished  includes  two  sub-orders — 

(1)  vlHy/iro/)otrfert,  comprising  the  families  IlominUUe  (man), 
Siniiidm  (the  large  tailless  apes),  Cerrojiil/iecitUe  (the  Old 
World  monkeys,  baboons,  etc.).  CebidiE  (the  common  New 
World  monkeys),  and  Midiche  (the  marmosets,  etc.);  and 

(2)  Prosimiw.'w'Mi  the  families  Lemun'da;  Tarxidit.  and 
Daubenfonidw.  The  order,  as  thus  limited  and  defined,  is 
the  result,  of  studies  of  recent  zoologists.  Liinueus,  who 
framed  the  name,  embraced  under  it  in  addition  to  the 
forms  above  indicated,  all  I  he  Cfieiroplera  and  Gdleopitliecns. 
Hy  C'uvier  and  his  numerous  followers  the  true  I'rimates 
were  differentiated  into  two  orders — Bimana  (including 
nuin)  and  Quadrumaim  (including  the  monkeys  and  lemurs). 
The  naturalness  of  the  association  of  man  with  the  monkeys 
is  now  almost  universally  conceded,  and  the  main  question 
in  disput*  at  the  present  time  is  whether  those  forms  (the 
anthropoids)  should  be  associated  with  the  lemuroids  in  a 
single  order,  or  the  two  distinguished  as  independent  orders. 
The  differences  between  them  are  certainly  great,  and  the 
discovery  by  Alphonse  Milne-Edwards  of  the  peculiarities 
of  the  lerauroid  placentas  adds  to  the  arguments  in  favor  of 
their  separation,  and  the  question  is  a  very  evenly  balanced 
one.     See,  further,  the  names  of  the  sub-orders  and  families. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

I'riiiiatioclo.  pree-maa-tiie'tcho,  Francesco:  painter;  b.  at 
Bologna,  14!i0,  of  a  noble  family.  Innocenzio  da  Imola  and 
Hagnacavallo  were  his  first  masters,  but  it  was  at  Mantua, 
whei'e  he  studied  under  Giidio  Uomano,  that  he  learned  the 
art  of  color  and  modeling  in  stucco  as  a  means  of  decora- 
tion. He  gave  proof  of  his  talents  in  this  line  by  the  two 
pieces  in  the  Palazzo  del  Te.  He  painted  also  several  sub- 
jects after  Giulio  Romano's  designs,  so  that  when  Francis  I. 
of  France  asked  Duke  (ionzaga  to  send  him  a  painter  ca- 
pable of  directing  the  decoration  of  Fontainebleau,  Primatic- 
cio  was  sent  as  the  best  of  Romano's  followers.  After  nine 
years,  during  which  time  his  work  gave  much  satisfaction, 
he  became  the  superintendent  of  the  king's  buildings,  suc- 
ceeding in  this  post  the  Florentine  Rosso,  who  had  died, 
and  of  whom  Primaticcio  ha^l  always  been  extremely  jeal- 
ous. After  the  death  of  Francis  I.  he  continued  to  hold  the 
same  post  under  Henry  II..  and  Francis  II.  made  him  com- 
missary-in-general of  all  the  buildings  in  the  kingdom.  lie 
gave  the  designs  for  all  statues,  decorations,  fountains, 
goldsmiths"  work,  and  of  all  court  pageants.  Ue  built  the 
first  chateau  at  Meudon  for  the  Cardinal  de  Lorraine, 
and  adorned  it  with  sculpture  and  paintings.  He  became 
the  artist  in  highest  renown,  and  was  a  protector  of  art,  ex- 
cept when  touched  by  jealousy  of  any  exlraonlinary  talent. 
He  was  an  implacable  enemy  of  Benveniito  Cellini,  whom 
he  tried  to  deprive  of  commissions  by  conspiring  against 
him  tirgether  with  the  king's  mistress.  Madame  d'Kstainpes. 
The  (lallery  of  Ulysses  at  Fontainebleau  Wiis  considered  one 
of  the  finest  works  of  the  kind  in  France.  The  painting  is 
utterly  ruined  by  time,  so  that  the  designs  are  known  to  us 
oidy  through  engravings.  Primaticcio  died  in  Paris  in  1.570. 
The  Louvre  contains  two  of  his  works,  which  are  very  rare 
in  Italy;  in  Bologna  the  most  remarkable  is  that  in  the 
Zambeccari  Gallery,  rcpresentitig  a  concert  of  three  women. 

\V.  J.  Stillmax. 

Prime.  Samtki,  Irex.f.us:  editor  and  author;  son  of  Pr. 
Nathaniel  S.  Prime;  b.  at  Ballston,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  6,  1813; 
graduated  at  Williams  College  1H2!):  studied  theology  at 
Princeton;  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  preached  several  years,  but  on  account  of  ill- 
health  withdrew  from  the  pulpit  in  1840.  when  he  became 
editor  of  The  JS'ew  York  Ohafrvn;  the  lea<Iing  religious  pa- 
per of  his  denomination — a  |)ost  he  retained  till  his  death; 
several  times  visited  Europe,  and  [lublished  some  forty 
volumes,  chiefly  anonymous.     Among  his  books  are  Travels 


in  Europe  and  the  East  (2  vols.,  ISS.I) ;  Letters  from  Sufilzer- 
Innd  (1860);  The  Bible  in  the  Levant  (1859);  Memoirs  of 
liev.  Sicholns  Murray  (1862);  The  Alhanibra  and  the 
Kremlin  (1873) ;  and  a  I^ife  of  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  (1874). 
D.  at  Manchester,  Vt.,  .luly  18,  1885.  His  autobiography 
appeared,  ed.  by  \V.  Prime,  in  1886. 

Prime,  William  Cowper  ;  journalist ;  b.  at  Cambridge, 
N.  Y.,  Oct.  31,  1825.  Graduated  at  Princeton  College,  and 
practiced  law  in  New  York  till  1861.  He  was  afterward 
editor  of  the  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce:  traveled  in 
Egypt  and  Palestine;  was  made  Professor  of  the  History  of 
Art  at  Princeton  in  1884.  His  published  writings  include 
The  Uivl  Creek  Letters  (IS-iS):  Boat  Life  in  £(////>/  {lUnl); 
Tent  Life  in  the  Holy  Jjund  (1857);  Coiiix.  Medals,  and 
Seals  (1860);  /  Go  A-fishini/  (1878);  I'otten/  and  Porce- 
lain (1878);  Holy  Cross  (1879);  and  other  works;  edited 
McClellan's  Oivn  Story  (1886),  and  wrote  a  biography  of 
Gen.  JlcClellan  for  that  volume.  H.  A.  Beer's. 

Prime  Mover :  the  term  employed  to  designate  a  ma- 
chine, the  office  of  which  is  to  transform  the  energy  ex- 
pended in  some  natural  source  of  power  into  available  work. 
For  example,  a  (piantity  of  water  falling  from  one  level  to 
another  represents  an  expenditure  of  energy  due  to  the  force 
of  gravity,  equivalent  in  foot-pounds  to  the  product  of  the 
weight  oi'  X\w-  wafer  mulliplied  by  the  height  of  fall  in  feet. 
In  falling  without  obstruction  or  resistance  the  velocity  of 
the  water  continually  increases,  and  the  energy  is  usually 
di.ssipatcd  in  the  shock  at  the  bottom  of  the  fall.  To  render 
this  source  of  power  available,  a  water-wheel  may  be  intro- 
duced, which,  receiving  the  impulses  of  the  falling  par- 
ticles, causes  a  portion  of  the  work  to  be  transformed  into 
useful  work,  and  the  water  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  fall 
with  its  energy  diminished  by  precisely  the  quantity  which 
has  been  so  transferred  or  transmuted  into  the  work  ab- 
sorbed liy  the  water-wheel. 

While  prime  movers  generally  have  the  characteristics  of 
other  machines  in  many  respects,  yet  only  a  few  machines 
can  be  classed  as  prime  movers.  In  |irimc  movers  the  con- 
struction and  arrangement  of  their  parts  depend  on  the 
nature  or  source  of  the  energy  which  is  to  lie  utilized,  and 
denuind  the  application  of  a  wide  range  of  the  physical  sci- 
ences, tjuestions  of  economy  of  power  should  receive  first 
consi<l(n-ation.     See  Machines  and  JIaciiinery. 

The  sources  of  energy  in  nature  which  are  made  available 
for  useful  purposes  by  the  aid  of  jiriine  movers  are  heat, 
the  energy  of  falling  water,  the  motions  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  electricity  or  magnetism.  The  latter  being,  however, 
regarded  as  referable  to  heat,  and  the  second  and  third 
sources  mentioned  being  manifestations  of  the  force  of  grav- 
ity, the  ultimate  sources  of  availalile  energy  rmiy  be  ccmsid- 
ered  to  be  heat  and  gravitatiim.  As  regards  muscular  en- 
ergy, men  and  animals  may  be  regardful  as  prime  movers — 
perifect  exhibitions,  in  this  respect,  of  the  imperfect  results 
of  human  efforts  in  artificial  constructions. 

The  heat-engine,  under  the  form  of  the  steam-engine, 
holds  the  first  place  in  inifiortance  among  all  the  prime 
movers.  In  the  investigations  and  exp<'rinLenfs  coimeeted 
with  economy  in  its  use  and  its  adaptation  fo  various  pur- 
poses, especially  to  the  propulsion  of  steamships,  it  has 
engaged  the  attention  of  scientific  men,  practical  engineers, 
and  artisans  to  a  greater  extent  than  all  others  combined  ; 
an<l  the  developments  arising  from  its  use  have  given  rise  to 
a  special  branch  of  engineering  science.  The  use  of  the 
water-wheel  in  the  form  of  the  turbine,  the  second  prime 
mover  in  importance,  has  been  greatly  extended  through 
the  new  facilities  afforded  for  its  construction  bv  steam 
machinery  and  the  arts  and  industries  developed  by  it. 
Hot-air  engines,  gas-engines,  and  electi'o-dynamic  engines 
are  prime  movei's  more  restricted  in  their  applications,  but 
they  possess  respectively  peculiarities  which  render  them 
a<lvantageous  under  certain  conditions.  The  windmill  is 
anofher  jirime  mover  which  in  favorable  localities  is  of 
great  value.  See  Dynamo-electric  Macihm:.  Gas-exoine, 
iloT-AiR  Engine,  Steam-enoine.  Water-power,  and  Wind- 
mills. Revised  by  R.  A.  Roherts. 

Prime  Numbers  [prime  is  liter,  first,  i.e.  in  any  series 
of  multiples  into  which  a  prime  number  can  enter,  from  Lat. 
pri  inus.  first] ;  tho.se  whole  numbers  which  can  not  be  ex- 
actly divided  by  any  other  whole  number  except  1.  Two 
numbers  are  prime  with  respect  to  each  other  when  they  can 
not  both  be  divided  bv  anv  whole  number  except  1.  Thus 
2.  3.  n.  etc.,  are  prime  numbers:  6  and  25  are  prime  with  re- 
spect to  each  otiier.     No  rule  has  been  found  for  discover- 


778 


PRIMITIVE  METHODISTS 


PRINCE 


ing  prime  numbers  by  a  direct  process.  A  method  of  sift- 
ing out  numbers  not  prime  was  described  by  Eratosthenes, 
and  for  that  reason  is  generally  known  as  Eratosthcnes's 
sieve.  The  method  is  as  follows':  Since  every  even  number 
is  divisible  by  3,  we  may  omit  or  sift  out  all  such  numbers, 
and  remembering  that  3  itself  is  prime,  we  write  down  the 
series  of  odd  numbers  up  to  any  limit,  say  up  to  99  :  1,  3,  5, 
7.  9.  11,  13,  15,  etc.  We  begin  with  the  first  prime  number 
after  3,  which  is  3,  and  counting  from  it,  we  strike  out  every 
third  number,  because  all  such  numbers  are  divisible  by  3, 
and  therefore  are  not  prime.  We  then  begin  with  5,  and 
counting  from  it  we  strike  out  every  fifth  number,  because 
all  such  numbers  are  divisible  by  5.  We  then  liegin  with  7, 
and  counting  from  it,  we  strike  out  every  seventh  number. 
The  remaining  numbers,  up  to  the  square  of  the  next  prime 
number  whose  multiples  are  to  be  struck  out,  are  prime.  In 
this  wav  we  find  that  the  prime  numbers  less  than  100  are 
1,  2,  3,  .5.  7,  11,  13.  17,  19,  23,  29.  31,  37,  41,  43,  47,  .53,  59,  61, 
67,  71,  73.  79.  83,  89,  and  97.  The  operation  of  sifting  may 
be  extended  to  any  series  of  whole  numbers,  but  beyond  a 
certain  limit  the  operation  becomes  tedious.  In  applying 
the  method  just  described  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  if  a 
number  can  not  be  divided  by  a  prime  number  less  than  its 
own  square  root,  that  number  must  be  prime.  Thus  in  the 
case  supposed  we  need  not  go  farther  than  7,  because  7  is 
the  greatest  prime  number  less  than  \/lOO.  From  the  na- 
ture of  the  process  of  Eratosthenes  it  is  evident  that  the 
number  of  prime  numbers  in  a  given  interval  will  be  less 
the  higher  that  interval  commences.  The  number  of  prime 
numbers  up  to  10.000  is  1.230 ;  the  number  between  10.000  and 
20,000  is  1,033  :  between  20,000  and  30,000  it  is  985.  and  so 
on.  Many  tables  of  prime  numbers  have  been  published  of 
greater  or  less  extent :  those  of  Burckhardt  exteml  to  the 
number  3.036,000 ;  Glaisher's  tables  extend  from  3.000.000 
to  6,000,000  ;  Dase's  from  6.000.000  to  9,000,000.  The  high- 
est numberthat  has  been  shown  to  be  prime  is  2"  — 1=2,147,- 
483,647  ;  this  was  found  by  Euler. 

Revised  by  S.  Xewcomb. 

Primitive  Metliotlists  :  See  JIethodism. 

Primitive  Wesleyans :  See  Methodism. 

Primogen'iture  [Lat.  primus.  Hist  +  genifu'ra,  a  be- 
getting, being  born,  but  in  meaning  deriv.  of  primoge'nitus, 
first-born;  primus,  first  +  gig' ni,  genitus.  be  born]:  the 
preference  m  inheritance  which  the  law  accords  to  the  eld- 
est born.  The  sole  and  exclusive  heirship  of  the  eldest  son 
in  the  English  rule  of  primogeniture  dates  back  directly 
only  to  the  complete  establishment  of  the  feudal  system  of 
land  tenure  in  England  after  the  Norman  conquest.  On  the 
Continent,  however,  in  the  feudal  states  which  were  erected 
on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  principle  had  already 
completely  triumphed  over  the  Teutonic  as  weH  as  the  Ro- 
man ideas  of  succession.  Its  obscure  origin  and  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  it  overran  Western  Europe  at  tliis  time  con- 
stitute one  of  the  puzzles  of  legal  history.  In  the  multitude 
of  different  customary  rules  of  descent  which  a  study  of 
primitive  society  discloses,  it  is  seldom  that  the  student 
comes  upon  any  traces  of  it.  The  right  of  the  eldest  son  pre- 
vails, indeed,  but  it  is  as  a  right  of  political  succession,  and 
not  of  succession  to  property.  In  this  latter  form  it  was  un- 
known either  to  the  Greek  or  to  the  Roman  jurisprudence, 
and  the  ■•birthright"  of  the  Hebrew  and  of  the  Hindu  law, 
which  is  sometimes  confounded  with  the  rule  of  primogeni- 
ture, was  at  the  most  only  a  recognition  of  the  claim  of  one 
of  several  sons  (not  necessarily  the  eldest)  to  a  double  por- 
tion of  the  inheritance. 

The  general  acceptance  of  the  doctrine  of  primogeniture 
in  the  Middle  Ages  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  pecul- 
iarly adapted  to  the  necessities  of  that  mixture  of  political, 
social,  and  property  relations  which  we  call  the  feudal  sys- 
tem. With  the  well-nigh  complete  disappearance  of  that 
system,  however,  the  rule  of  primogeniture  has  generally 
been  swept  away,  surviving  only,  on  the  Continent,  as  a  rule 
regulating  succession  to  the  crown.  In  England  only  has 
it  been  preserved  in  full  force  and  virtue.  There  it  still 
prevails,  as  a  rule  or  canon  of  descent  of  real  property, 
"  that,"  to  use  I51ackstone's  statement  of  the  rule,  "  the  male 
issue  shall  be  admitted  before  the  female."  and,  "  where  there 
are  two  or  more  males  in  eipud  degree,  the  eldest  only  shall 
inherit ;  but  the  females  all  together."  Of  course,  under  a 
system  of  law  in  which  the  landowner  may  freely  alienate 
his  estate  by  will,  it  is  really  optional  with  him  whether  he 
will,  by  dying  intestate,  subject  his  re.il  property  to  the  rule 
of  primogeniture  or  not.     The  system  has  been  persistently 


attacked  of  late,  but  it  has  become  too  closely  bound  up  with 
the  habits  and  traditions  of  the  English  peoi)le  to  be  easily 
dislodged. 

The  rule  of  primogeniture  was  introduced,  along  with  the 
rest  of  the  common  law,  into  the  English  colonies  in  Amer- 
ica, but  the  principle  has  long  since  been  repudiated,  by 
statute  or  constitutional  inhibition,  in  all  of  the  States  as 
being  unsuited  to  the  spirit  of  their  institutions.  In  the 
V .  S.,  as  also  in  Canada  and  the  English  colonics  generally, 
all  descendants  of  the  same  degree  inherit  the  real  property 
of  their  ancestor  equally  as  tenants  in  common.  See  Maine's 
Ancient  Lnw  and  Early  History  of  Institutions  and  the 
Commentaries  of  Blackstone  and  Kent. 

Georre  W.  Kirchwev. 

Primrose  [(by  confusion  with  rose)  <  M.  Eng.  primeroh, 
via  0.  Fr.  from  Liat.  pri'mnln,  primrose,  deriv.  of  pri'mus, 
first,  named  from  its  early  flowering]  :  any  jilant  of  the  ge- 
nus Primula,  although  many  have  separate  names.  They 
are  handsome  flowering  herbs,  largely  European.  The  true 
primrose  is  P.  grandijlorn  of  Europe.  P.  officinnlis  is  the 
cowslip,  of  which  the  polyanthus  is  a  cultivated  form,  all  of 
these  running  into  many  varieties.  The  birdseye  primrose 
{P.  farinosa)  belongs  to  a  humbler  division  of  the  genus. 
This  and  the  related  P.  mistassinica  are  indigenous  to  the 
northern  parts  of  North  America.  P.  aurictila,  the  parent 
of  the  auriculas  of  the  gardens,  is  a  native  of  Southern  Eu- 
rope. The  oxlip  is  P.  elatior.  The  Chinese  primrose  (P. 
sinensis),  now  one  of  the  commonest  house-plants,  repre- 
sents a  different  section  of  the  genus,  to  which  P.  cortu- 
soides.  a  choice  Siberian  species,  also  belongs.  P.  ohconica, 
from  China,  is  a  species  much  prized  for  greenhouse  culture. 
It  has  pungent  hairs  which  are  irritating-poisonous  to  some 
persons.  The  evening  primroses  are  species  of  (Enothera,  of 
a  wholly  different  family,  and  took  the  name  from  a  very  su- 
perficial likeness  of  the  corolla  to  that  of  the  true  primrose. 

Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Primrose  Family:  the  Primula'cecp  (from  Primula,  the 
typical  genus);  a  family  of  gamopetalous,  dicotyledonous 
lierbs,  widely  distributed  over  the  world,  but  chiefly  in  the 
cooler  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  Plants  of  this 
family  are  characterized  by  having  stamens  of  the  same 
number  as  the  lobes  of  the  corolla,  and  opposite  them,  on 
the  tube  or  throat,  a  single  style  and  stigma,  and  a  one- 
celled  ovary  with  a  free  central  placenta,  liearing  several  or 
numerous  ovules.  To  this  must  be  added  the  herbaceous 
character,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Jlyrtinacem,  trop- 
ical trees  or  shrubs  which  have  a  similar  floral  structure. 
Except  a  slight  acridity.  Primulucece  are  nearly  inert  plants, 
of  no  economic  importance  beyond  the  beauty  of  their  blos- 
soms. Besides  the  Primrose  {g.  v.)  and  its  near  allies,  the 
cyclamen,  the  beautiful  dodecatheon  of  the  I'.  S.,  popular- 
ly known  as  American  cowslip  and  shooting-star,  and  one 
species  of  Anagallis,  are  familiar  in  ornamental  cultivation. 
Revised  by  Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Prince  [via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  prin'ceps.  prin'cipis,  one  who 
is  ftrst.  leader,  chief,  ruler,  sovereign ;  ])ri  mus.  first  +  ca'pere. 
take]:  a  title  which  sprang  from  that  of  the  Roman  jn-inceps 
senntus.  which  became  a  title  of  the  Roman  emperors,  and 
from  them  passed  to  mediaeval  and  modern  sovereigns. 
There  are  also  sovereign  rulers  who  have  no  higher  title 
than  prince.  Nobles  of  the  blood  are  in  general  called 
princes,  whether  they  officially  bear  this  or  some  inferior 
title.  In  continental  Europe  there  are  also  princes  who  are 
not  related  to  sovereign  families  (called  in  Germany  Fiirst, 
and  not  Prinz).  Strictly,  all  English  nobles  of  higher  rank 
than  viscount  are  entitled  to  be  styled  princes,  but  in  prac- 
tical use  princes  of  the  blood  are  the  only  ones  so  desig- 
nated. 

Prince.  Thomas  :  clergyman  and  author ;  b.  at  Sandwich, 
Mass.,  Jlay  15,  1687:  graduated  at  Harvard  1707;  went  to 
England  1709;  attended  lectures  at  Gresham  College,  Lon- 
don; preached  at  Combs.  Suffolk,  1712-16,  and  elsewhere  in 
England;  returned  to  Massachusetts  1717;  was  ordained 
colleague  of  Rev.  Dr.  Joseph  Sewall.  pastor  of  the  Old  South 
church.  Boston,  Oct.  1,  1718;  devoted  many  years  to  the 
collection  of  materials  for  the  civil  and  religious  history  of 
New  England,  and  gathered  a  valuable  library,  which  he 
bequeathed  to  the  Old  South  church.  D.  in  Boston,  Oct.  23, 
1758.  When  the  Old  South  church  was  desecrated  by  Brit- 
ish soldiery  during  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  manuscript 
documents  in  the  Prince  library  were  stolen  or  destroyed. 
The  books,  tracts,  and  MSS.  remaining,  1.500  in  number, 
were  deposited  in  the  Boston  Public  Library  in  1860.    Prince 


PRINCE   EDWARD   ISLAND 


PKINGLE 


inihlished,  in  n<Iililic)ii  to  sermons,  many  occasional  writings, 
including  An  Acroiml  of  I  he  First  Aiironi  liureitUa  (171T) ; 
Earthquakes  of  yew  Eiiylanil  (1T55);  ami  a  revision  of  tlic 
Xew  Engliind  I'xdim-bmik  (ITri.S);  uiul  nndertook  a  work 
valuable  from  its  extreme  accuracy  of  detail.  New  Eiif/luiiJ 
Chronolngy,  of  which,  however,  oidy  vol.  i.  (IT^ifi)  anil  part 
of  vol.  ii.  (1755)  appeared,  extending  only  to  1633  (new  ed. 
1826). 

Prinrp  Kdwanl  Island  [named  in  1708  in  honor  of 
Kdwaril.  Duke  of  Kent,  father  of  (jueen  Victoria]:  an  isl- 
anil  in  the  (inlf  of  St.  Lawrence,  const  it ntini;.  since  1873, 
the  smallest  |irovince  of  the  Dominion  of  Canaila  (see  map 
of  I'roviuce  of  t^iieliec.  Prince  Edward  Island,  etc.).  Area. 
2,13:?  si|.  miles.  Pop.  (18!)1)  lOD.OSS.  Twenty-four  minor 
islands  belong  to  the  province.  There  are  nmnerous  bays, 
harbors,  and  promontories.  Northumberland  Strait,  on  the 
S.  and  W.,  separates  it  from  the  maiidan<l  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Hrunswick.  The  soil  is  viTy  fertile.  The  s\n-face 
is  generally  level,  with  some  low  liills.  The  climate  is  in- 
sular ami  therefore  not  severe.  The  forests  are  greatly  re- 
duced. They  consist  of  birch,  elm.  nia|ile,  ash.  beech,  [line. 
spruce,  fir,  hemlock,  cedar,  juniper  or  tamarack,  poplar. 
and  willow.  Vast  qiuintities  of  sea-maimre  are  everywhere 
accessible.  The  waters  teem  with  fish — mackerel,  herring, 
cod,  and  many  other  species — and  the  north  shore  is  one  of 
the  best  fishiug-grouiuls  in  North  America.  The  numnfac- 
turing  interests  are  not  extensive,  but  ship-building  is  an 
important  industry.  A  railway  extends  the  whole  length  of 
the  island.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye.  potatoes,  buckwheat. 
and  garden  vegetables  are  raised.  Cattle,  horses,  swine. 
sheep,  and  poultry  are  bred  extensively.  The  island  is  di- 
vided into  three  counties — King's.  Queen's,  aiul  Prince — 
each  of  which  elects  ten  representatives  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly.  There  has  lieen  a  system  of  free  public  schools 
since  1821.  The  system  includes  gramnnir  or  higher  schools, 
secondary  schools,  anil  normal  schools  for  the  training  of 
ti'achers.  There  are  three  denominational  collegi's — Roman 
I'atholii'.  Anglican,  and  Wisleyan — all  at  fharlottetown, 
the  capital.  During  the  summer  the  island  is  visited  l)y 
regular  lines  of  steamers  and  by  thousands  of  fishing-vessels. 
In  winter  the  island  was  formerly  almost  inaccessible,  but 
this  disadvantage  has  been  partly  remedied  by  a  steamship 
owneil  by  the  (iovernment.  and  specially  designed  for  win- 
ter navigation.     There  is  a  submarine  telegraph. 

Ili.tli)ri/. — The  island  (the  lie  St.  Jean  of  the  French)  was 
discovered  by  the  Cabots  in  1497.  It  began  to  be  settled  by 
the  French  (171")),  who  increased  rapidly  for  many  years.  In 
1764.  having  come  under  British  rule,  it  was  abandoned  by 
many  of  the  French. and  it  was  then  parceled  out  anumgsixty- 
seveii  grantees,  who  agreed  to  furnish  a  numerous  colony  of 
Protestant  settlers  (not  English)  for  the  colony.  Tluuigh 
these  ccmditions  were  lu'ver  fulfilled,  the  great  estates  were 
not  liroken  up  until  187").  when  t  heir  aliseiitee  landlords  were 
finally  bought  out  inider  the  Land  Purchase  Act  of  that 
year.  The  Roman  Catholic  religion  was  m-ver  fully  toler- 
ated till  1830.  There  is  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Char- 
lottctown.  and  that  body  is  more  numerous  than  any  other 
denomination.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Aoa.ms. 

Prince  of  the  Peace:  See  Godoy,  Manl-el,  de. 

Prince  of  Wales,  Cape:  See  Cape  Prince  of  Wales. 

Prin'eeps  [Lat.,  the  first  man]:  the  civil  title  of  the 
Koniau  emperors,  as  imperntnr  was  their  military  title. 
How  the  word  first  came  to  be  used  in  this  sense  is  a  nuitter 
of  dispute,  many  holding  (with  Momiusen)  that  it  was  a  new 
ilesigiuition,  created  to  comprehend  the  vari<ais  powers  con- 
centrated in  the  haruls  of  Augustus,  in  27  n.  c,  by  virtue  of 
which  he  became  the  '"first  citizen";  while  others,  with  ap- 
parently belter  reason,  maintain  that  it  was  nothing  more 
than  a  continuation  of  the  ancient  title  of  prhirepn  seyiafiiti, 
and  that  from  its  absolute  use  in  the  first  instance  by  the 
^i-mitors  (as  princepa  nnsler)  it  was  gradually  extended,  until 
Augustus  himself  made  official  use  of  it  in  this  way,  and 
thus  established  the  title  as  the  imperial  designation.  It 
should  be  understood,  however,  that  this  dispute  has  regard 
only  to  the  origin  of  the  designation,  and  that  in  any  case 
the  word  piiiire/>\  as  applied  to  Augustus  and  the  succeed- 
ing emperors,  has  a  significance  entirely  new.  For  while 
no  unprece<lentctl  powers  had  been  lodged  in  the  hands  of 
Augustus,  he  was  the  first  to  unite  in  one  person  military 
authority,  in  the  [irovinces  aiul  at  home,  with  .several  of  the 
most  important  civil  otlice.s,  such  as  the  tribimitian  power, 
the  censorship,  and  the  supreme  pontificate. 

G.  L.  IIendrickson. 


Prince  Rnpert's  Drops :  glass  drops  with  an  elongated, 
tapering  form,  made  by  throwing  melted  glass  into  water. 
A  smart  blow  upon  the  large  end  makes  no  impression,  but 
if  the  smallest  part  be  picked  off  the  small  end,  the  whole 
falls  into  powder.  They  derive  their  name  from  the  fact 
that  Prince  Rupert,  a  nephew  of  Charles  I.,  introduced  them 
into  England. 

Prince's  Feathers:  See  Amaranth. 

Prince's  Islands:  eight  islands  in  the  JIarmora  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Nicouudia.  Prinkipo.  Chalki,  An- 
tigone, and  Proti  are  the  <hief.  Most  enchanting  in  climate 
and  natural  scenery,  in  all  ages  they  have  been  the  favorite 
resort  of  the  wealthy  and  luxurious  classes  of  Constantino- 
ple. Many  emperors  and  members  of  the  Byzantine  impe- 
rial families  have  resided  there.  Also  they  have  been  occu- 
pied by  immerous  monasteries,  some  of  which  still  exist. 
At  Chalki  is  the  chief  theological  semiiuiry  of  the  Orthodox 
Church,  manned  by  an  able  ami  learned  corps  of  professors. 
The  disastrous  earthquake  of  July,  1894.  wrecked  many 
buildings  and  caused  great  loss  of  life.  E.  A.  G. 

Prince's  Metal:  See  Brass. 

Princeton:  city:  capital  of  Bureau  co..  III.;  on  the  Chi.. 
Burl,  and  Quincy  Railroad  :  22  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Mendota, 
105  miles  VV.  S.  W.  of  Chicago  (for  location,  see  map  of  Illi- 
nois, ref.  3-D).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  coal-mining 
region,  and  contains  Hour-mills,  grain-warehouses,  agricul- 
tural-implement works,  foundry  and  machine-shop.  2  libra- 
ries (High  .School,  founded  1867.  Matson.  founded  1879),  3 
mitional  banks  with  combineil  capital  of  ^315.(M(0,  and  3 
weekly  newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  3.4:39;  (1890)  3.396. 

Princeton:  city;  capital  of  Gibson  Co..  Ind. ;  on  the 
Evansv.  and  Terre  Haute  and  the  Louisv..  Evansv.  and  St. 
L.  Consolidated  railways;  24  miles  S.  of  Vincennes,  37 
miles  N.  of  Evansville  (for  location,  see  map  of  Indiana,  ref. 
11-B).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  ancl  contains  flour-, 
woolen-,  and  planing-mills.  grain-elevator,  carriage-facto- 
ries, a  public  librarv  (founded  in  1879).  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  i:75.000.'a  State  bank  with  cai.ital  of  $100,000, 
and  three  weekly  [japers.     Pop.  (1880)  2,506  ;  (1890)  3,076. 

Princeton:  borough;  ^Mercer  co.,  N.  J. ;  on  the  Delaware 
and  Raritan  Canal;  10  miles  N.  E.  of  Trenton,  50  miles 
S.  W.  of  New  York  city  (tor  location,  see  map  of  New  Jer- 
sey, ref.  4-C).  It  is  on  a  high  ridge,  3  miles  from  the  main 
line  of  the  Penn.  Railroad,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
branch  line,  and  commands  an  extensive  view  of  the  sur- 
rounding country.  The  borinigh  is  laid  out  with  wide 
streets,  beautifully  shaded  and  ormimented  with  broad 
lawns,  and  contains  some  quaint  colonial  houses  and  many 
fine  modern  residences.  The  old  graveyard  has  been  called 
•■  the  Westminster  of  America,"  because  of  the  eminent  per- 
sons l)uried  there.  There  are  8  churches,  Evelyn  College 
for  young  women,  a  national  bank  with  capital  of  $50,000, 
a  .State  bank  with  capital  of  $100,000.  a  savings-bank,  2 
weekly  newspapers,  and  4  college  periodicals.  Princeton  is 
most  widely  noted  as  the  seat  of  Princeton  University  (see 
New  Jersey,  College  ok),  and  of  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America  (founded  in  1812;  now  has  about  :W0  students). 
It  is  also  noted  as  the  scene  of  a  battle  in  the  Revolution- 
ary war.  which  proved  the  initiative  of  operations  by  which 
the  British  were  driven  from  the  greater  part  of  the  two 
Jerseys.  Washington  surprised  and  capttired  Trenton  on 
Dec.  26,  1776,  and  concentrated  his  army  there  a  few  days 
afterward.  Cornwallis.  resuming  command  of  the  British  in 
the  Jerseys  after  the  surrender  of  Trenton,  made  his  head- 
quarters at  Princeton.  On  Jan.  2, 1777,  Cornwallis  advanced 
the  greater  part  of  his  army  toward  Trenton,  intending  to 
attack  the  Americans  on  the  following  day.  Washington, 
learning  that  only  a  snudl  force  remained  at  Princeton, 
made  a  night  march  thither,  surprised  the  British  at  day- 
break on  Jan.  3  near  the  college,  and  routed  and  dispersed 
them  within  thirty  minutes,  inflicting  a  lo.ss  of  100  killed  and 
wounded  and  of  230  prisoners,  and  sustaining  a  loss  of  less 
than  30.  Though  the  forces  engaged  were  small,  the  result 
was  of  great  value  in  encouraging  the  colonists,  who  had 
become  disheartened  by  many  reverses.  Pop.  (1880)  3,209 ; 
(1890)  3,422;  (1895)  3,488.  H.  C.  Camerox. 

Pringle,  Thomas  :  poet ;  b.  at  Blaiklaw.  Teviotdale,  Scot- 
land, Jan.  5.  1789;  gradiuated  at  Edinburgh  University; 
becaiiu'  clerk  to  the  commissioners  on  the  public  records  of 
Scotland;  began  in  1811  to  publish  occasional  poems;  be- 
came in  1817  coeditor  with  James  Cleghorn  of  the  Edin- 


780 


PRINTING 


burgh  Monthly  Magazine;  was  at  the  same  time  editor  of 
the  Star,  a  semi-weekly  newspaper,  and  of  Constable's  Maga- 
zine; emigrated  to  South  Africa  1830:  taught  school  at 
Cape  Town  ;  became  librarian  to  the  colonial  Government, 
and  successively  edited  two  newspapers;  returned  to  P]ng- 
land  1826 ;  became  secretary  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Society 
1827;  published  African  Sketches  (1834),  etc.,  and  left  a 
posthumiius  Xarrative  of  a  Residence  in  South  Africa 
(1835).  D.  Dec.  5,  1834.  See  Poetical  Works  of  Thomas 
Pringle,  with  a  Sketch  of  his  Life,  by  Leitch  Ritchie  (1838). 

Printing:  [deriv.  of  print,  shortened  from  imjtrint,  from 
0.  Fr.  empreindre  <  Lat.  iinpri'mere,  impress;  in.  in,  on-l- 
pre'mere.  pressum,  press] :  the  processes  which  are  involved 
in  making  copies,  generally  in  ink  and  by  pressure,  of  letter- 
press or  of  designs  en'graved,  etched,  or  drawn  upon  a  solid 
surface.  In  its  most  restricted  sense,  and  that  in  which  it 
is  used  in  this  article,  it  is  synonymous  with  typography  (in 
its  widest  sense),  and  includes  typesetting,  electrotyping, 
stereotyping,  etc.,  and  the  taking  of  impressions  from  the 
inked  surface  of  the  type  thus  set  up,  or  of  plates  made 
from  them  on  presses  specially  constructed  for  the  purpose ; 
but  in  a  wider  sense  lithography,  engraving,  zincography, 
and  embossing  books  in  raised  letters  tor  the  blind,  as  well 
as  the  reproduction  of  photographic  images  by  the  action  of 
the  sun  on  specially  prepared  paper,  etc.,  are  all  included. 

History. — From  the  earliest  historic  period  some  mode  of 
engraving  and  producing  impressions  or  devices  has  been 
known,  but  it  seems  not  to  have  advanced  beyond  the  form 
of  seals  until  the  time  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians. 
Their  buildings  were  generally  built  of  burnt  brick,  which 
were  stamped  with  an  inscription  according  to  the  character 
of  the  edifice,  and  bore  the  name  of  the  reigning  monarch. 
In  many  instances  these  impressions  show  clearly  that  the 
stamp  was  engraved  in  relief  and  applied  to  the  plastic 
clay.  The  Assyrians,  unlike  any  other  nation  of  antiquity, 
employed  terra-cotta  prisms,  cylinders,  and  tablets  for  all 
the  purposes  of  writing  and  the  preservation  of  their  litera- 
ture. (See  Assyrian  Literature.)  The  Egyptians  also  used 
stamps  to  impress  the  bricks  used  for  their  buildings.  The 
stamps  appear  to  have  been  used  to  mark  the  destination  of 
the  bricks.  The  Chinese  have  used  a  simple  mode  of  print- 
ing from  an  early  date.  A  work  supposed  to  have  been 
written  during  the  reign  of  Wu  Wang  (in  the  twelfth  century 
B.  c.)  mentions  the  blackening  of  engraved  characters,  but 
this  is  probably  an  allusion  to  some  mode  of  making  inscrip- 
tions more  legible  by  blackening  the  letters.  According  to 
their  chronicles,  the  early  attempts  of  their  present  mode  of 
printing  were  made  about  .50  B.  c,  but  no  great  advance  was 
made  till  the  reign  of  JNIing-Tsung  (927-934  A.  D.),  when 
Pung-Taou  made  copies  of  the  classical  books  by  taking 
impressions  from  stone  plates,  into  which  the  letters  had 
been  cut ;  in  the  impression  therefore  the  letters  were  white 
on  a  field  of  black.  Fung-Taou  then  printed  an  edition  of 
the  nine  King,  or  classical  books,  for  the  imperial  college 
at  Peking,  from  wooden  blocks  engraved  in  relief:  this 
work  was  completed  in  952.  In  1041  a  Chinese  blacksmith 
cut  the  most  frequently  used  characters  upon  cubes  of  porce- 
lain paste,  which  he  then  baked  until  hardened.  These,  be- 
ing of  different  heights  and  thicknesses,  were  jilaeed  in  a 
kind  of  cement,  pressed  down  evenly,  and  printed  from ; 
but  this  process  seems  not  to  have  extended  after  his  time. 
Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute  separate 
characters  for  the  engraved  blocks,  but  it  is  rendered  diffi- 
cult because  every  word  in  Chinese  requires  a  separate  char- 
acter, instead  of  each  word  being  composed  of  elements  re- 
solvable into  the  simple  alphabet  of  Western  nations.  It  is 
estimated  that  there  are  about  80,000  of  these  characters, 
though  not  more  than  14,000  to  15,000  are  in  regular  use. 
Movable  tyiie,  hot  h  of  wood  and  of  copper,  have  long  been  in 
use  in  (Jhina,  and  some  large  works  have  been  printed  from 
them.  (See  FiNcvcLop.i:DiA.)  The  Peking  Gazette  is  printed 
from  movable  wooden  type  (see  Newspapers),  and  millions 
of  pages  of  books  and  periodicals  in  Chinese  are  annually 
printed  from  raovalile  type  at  the  mission  presses  and  else- 
where. The  (irei'ks  were  early  acquainted  with  engraving 
on  metal,  their  maps  being  cut  with  lines  below  the  surface, 
but  it  does  not  appear  tliat  t  hey  multiplied  copies  from  them. 
The  ancient  Romans  maile  use  of  metal  stamps,  with  charac- 
ters engraved  in  relief,  to  mark  their  articles  of  commerce 
and  brand  cattle.     The  old  Koman  potters  appear  to  have 

f)Ossessed  separate  stamps  for  letters,  as  some  of  their  clay 
amps  show  that  the  inscriptions  were  made  by  impressing 
each  letter  separately.   Tlie  liritish  Museum  contains  several 


Roman  stamps  with  the  letters  engraved  in  relief,  which  seem 
to  have  been  used  to  print  the  owner's  signature  on  docu- 
ments. Although  the  Romans  had  no  mechanical  mode  of 
multiplying  literature,  they  had  a  well-organized  system  of 
slave-labor,  which  enabled  books  to  be  written  cheaply,  and 
nearly  every  one  could  boast  of  having  one  or  more  volumes. 
With  the  decline  of  Roman  civilization  literature  was  de- 
spised by  all  ranks  of  society.  During  the  following  cen- 
turies the  taste  for  literature  was  cultivated  by  a  few;  the 
Church  through  her  scribes  fostered  the  transcription  of 
the  Bible,  the  classics  were  multiplied,  and  gradually  the 
people  acquired  a  thirst  for  knowledge  which  was  but  poor- 
ly supplied.  With  the  introduction  of  the  art  of  paper-mak- 
ing, about  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  epistolary 
correspondence  increased,  books  were  multiplied  more  rap- 
idly, and  with  the  endeavor  to  supply  the  people  more 
cheaply  with  religious  reading  wood-engraving  was  invent- 
ed, first  to  disseminate  scriptural  scenes,  and  afterward  to 
make  illustrations  and  texts  for  books  in  imitation  of  the 
manuscripts  of  the  period. 

Block-printing  and  Block-hooks. — Toward  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth  century  wood  was  engraved  upon  in  Italy, 
Sicily,  and  .Spain  to  produce  designs  with  the  aid  of  ink  on 
fabrics  of  linen  and  silk.  Playing-cards  were  produced  by 
the  same  method,  and  afterward  colored  by  hand  or  by 
means  of  stencil-plates.  Old  manuscripts  of  this  time  are 
in  existence  which  have  initial  letters,  and  sometimes  pic- 
tures printed,  while  the  text  is  in  handwriting.  There  is  in 
the  library  of  Upsala,  Sweden,  a  curious  volume  known  as 
the  Codex  Argenfeiis,  or  Silvered  Book,  a  translation  of  the 
four  Gospels,  so  called  because  the  letters  are  in  silver  on 
leaves  of  purple  vellum,  supposed  to  have  been  made  not 
later  than  the  sixth  century.  From  the  indentation  on  the 
other  side  of  the  leaf,  and  the  turned  letters  found  occa- 
sionally, it  seems  to  have  been  made  by  the  separate  stamp- 
ing of  each  letter  upon  the  leaf.  About  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century  single  prints  of  a  religious  character 
appeared,  from  Germany  and  Holland.  These  pictures,  or 
image-prints,  were  made  of  many  sizes,  generally  engraved 
in  outline,  and  highly  colored.  The  earliest  known  with 
date  is  that  of  St.  Christopher  carrying  the  infant  Saviour 
upon  his  back  across  a  river.  It  has  a  legend  of  two  lines 
at  the  foot,  with  the  date  1433.  Three  copies  are  known 
to  be  in  existence.  It  is  about  8  by  11  inches  in  size, 
printed  on  paper,  and  in  ink  almost  black,  differing  thus 
from  other  image-prints,  which  are  generally  in  a  dull 
or  faded  l)rown  ink.  There  are  many  other  image-prints 
which  are  referred  to  about  the  same  date.  Maimals  of  de- 
votion followed,  of  a  limited  number  of  pages,  generally 
containing  pictures  with  a  few  words  beneath  or  in  the  in- 
terior, some  having  the  pictures  on  one  leaf  and  the  expla- 
nation or  text  on  the  other.  The  most  notable  of  these  were 
the  Bildia  Pauperum,  or  Bibles  for  the  Poor,  or  rather  books 
for  indigent  preachers,  consisting  of  a  series  of  rude  en- 
gravings, each  occupying  a  page,  on  one  side  of  the  leaf 
only,  and  divided  into  compartments  having  pictorial  illus- 
trations of  the  most  remarkable  incidents  mentioned  in  the 
Pentateuch,  the  Gospels,  and  the  Apocalypse,  and  accom- 
panied with  exjJanations  in  Gothic  characters.  The  two 
pages  facing  each  other  were  engraved  on  one  block  of 
wood,  and  the  book  put  together  in  sections  of  two  leaves, 
two  pages  of  illustrations  being  followed  by  two  blank 
pages.  It  was  a  folio,  printed  on  paper,  in  ink  of  a  dull  or 
rusty-brown  color,  and  contained  forty  pages,  each  engrav- 
ing being  10  inches  long  and  "i  inches  wide,  without  folios ; 
but  the  first  twenty  pages  were  marked  in  alphabetical  or- 
der from  a.  to  v,  and  the  last  twenty  with  the  same  letters 
having  a  dot  before  and  after,  as  .a.  to  .v.  Its  tlate  is  re- 
ferred to  about  1430.  At  least  four  distinct  editions  from 
wood,  two  Latin  and  two  German,  have  been  discovered. 
Of  the  first  edition  there  are  known  to  be  fifteen  copies, 
varying  in  slight  particulars,  but  tending  to  prove  a  com- 
mon origin.  The  workmanship  of  the  Biblia  Pauperum  is 
like  that  of  other  block-books,  of  which  notable  examples 
of  an  early  date  are  the  Apocah/psis  Joliannis.  three  works 
on  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  Enndtkrist  or  Antichrist,  Ars  Me- 
morandi,  Ars  Miiriendi,  and  Speculum  IIii manic  Salvor 
tionis.  Sotheliy,  in  his  Principia  Typographica  (,1858),  de- 
scribes twenty-one  block-books,  all  distinct  works. 

Introduction  of  Typography. — There  is  no  exact  and  en- 
tirely acceptable  account  of  the  invention  of  typography 
from  the  pen  of  any  eye-witness  or  contemporary  chronicler. 
Our  knowledge  of  the  subject  has  been  gathered  from  the 
imprints  of  the  first  books ;  from  casual  and  often  inexact 


PRINTING 


781 


notices  of  early  writers,  wlio  relate  hearsay  testimony ;  and 
from  legal  records,  sometimes  of  doubtful  authority.  All 
the  notices  are  deticient  in  necessary  details.  Tlicy  show- 
that  the  invention  was  not  fully  appreciated,  eitiier  l)y  the 
printers  or  by  the  public.  When  I  lie  eye-witnesses  were  dead, 
and  the  merit  of  the  invention  was  acknowledged,  explicit 
and  positive  testimony  began  to  appear,  but  this  testimony 
was  usually  colored  by  family  or  national  pride.  The 
claiuuint  of  earliest  date  is  Laurens  Janszoon  Koster,  of 
Haarlem,  whose  name  was  first  mentioned  in  print  in  158H. 
It  is  said  that  Koster  invented  typesof  wood  about  1428,  and 
types  of  nu-lal  at  a  later  dale,  tliat  with  lliese  lie  printed  the 
S/ieruliim  .Sdlulif!  and  other  little  book.s,  and  that  about 
1440  one  .Lihn  (by  inifilication  .bjhii  Fust  or  Faust),  then  a 
workman  in  Koster's  employ,  stole  his  types  and  his  secret, 
carried  them  to  Jlentz,  and  there  introduced  typograjihy. 
Koster  died  soon  after,  leaving  no  known  successor  nor  any 
school  or  |)roeess  of  printing  that  can  be  claimed  as  his. 
Dr.  Van  der  Linde,  in  his  Ilaarhm  Leijeiid.  has  proved  the 
falsity  of  the  Koster  legend,  but  William  I51ades.  in  liis 
Pentateuch  of  Frinting,  holds  that  even  if  the  Koster  le- 
gend be  proved  untrue,  there  is  evidence  of  a  |)etty  but  un- 
siiecessful  practice  of  typography  in  Holland  before  H.K). 
This  evidence  is  indirect,  inferential,  aiul  unsatisfactory. 
( )ther  claimants  for  the  honor  of  the  invention  are  .Vlbert 
I'lisler,  of  Bamberg,  Germany,  an  engraver  on  wood,  whose 
first  dated  book  is  of  the  year  1461  ;  Pamphilo  Castaldi.  of 
l*\'ltre,  Italy  (to  whom  a  statue  wils  erei'ted  there  in  186H). 
who  is  said  to  have  taught  Fust  how  to  nuike  types  before 
14o4;  John  Jlentel,  of  .Strassburg,  who  is  said  to  liave  been 
a  printer  as  early  as  1440;  and  I'rocope  Valdfoghel,  a  gold- 
smith of  Prague,  who  taught  "artificial  writing"  by  means 
of  metal  letters  at  Avignon,  France,  in  1444.  The  testi- 
mony in  favor  of  these  and  of  other  claimants  of  minor  im- 
portance has  not  withstood  critical  investigation.  John 
Gutenberg  is  the  oidy  clainumt  who  is  known  to  have  re- 
ceived honor  as  the  true  inventor  during  his  lifetime.  He 
did  not  put  his  name  on  any  of  his  books:  he  did  not  per- 
sonally make  any  claim  to  be  the  inventor:  he  did  not 
clearly  describe  his  invention.  Most  of  our  knowledge  of 
him  and  his  work  is  di>rive<l  from  legal  documents  and  the 
testimony  of  friends,  who  meagerly  and  often  inexactly  de- 
scribed his  processes.  The  records  of  a  suit  at  law  in  which 
judgment  was  recorded  Dec.  12,  14;J!I,  show  that  he  was 
then  at  variance  with  his  copartners,  Dritzehen,  Kifle,  and 
lleilmann.  It  appears  from  the  written  testimony  that  he 
had  been  engaged  in  the  development  of  a  secret  process, 
from  which  all  the  partners  ho|ied  to  get  great  profit  at  the 
fair  of  .Ai.x-la-Chapelle  to  be  held  in  1440.  Only  one  of  the 
witnesses  testified  that  the  work  was  printing.  It  does  not 
appear  that  Gutenberg  was  then  successful  as  a  printer,  for 
there  is  no  book  that  can  be  even  jilausibly  claimed  as  the 
result  of  his  work  in  Strassburg.  The  genuineness  of  this 
legal  record  has  been  challenged  by  Dr.  Ilessels,  but  it  has 
been  accepted  as  t  rust  wort  hy  by  nu)st  bibliographers.  Unfor- 
tunately, it  was  destroyed  by  the  Prussian  army  in  the  siege  of 
Strassl)urg  in  1870.  In  1448  Gutenberg  was  a  resident  of 
Mentz,  with  a  printing-office  in  the  house  of  his  uncle.  In 
1455  he  appears  as  defendant  in  a  suit  brought  by  John 
Fust  or  Faust  for  the  recovery  of  1,5,50  guihlers,  lent  for 
the  purpose  of  •"nuiking  tools"  for  "vellum,  jiaper,  aiul 
ink,"  and  for  the  "  work  on  the  books."  Fust  won  the  suit 
and  took  possession  of  the  printed  work  and  types  of  (iuten- 
berg.  This  did  not  prevent  Gutenberg  from  establishing  a 
new  printing-office,  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  managed 
until  his  ileath  in  1468.  As  Fust  and  his  son-in-law,  Peter 
Schocffer,  continued  to  print  after  1455,  and  as  there  is  some 
reason  to  believe  that  there  was  a  third  unknown  and 
unnamed  printing-house  in  Mentz  before  1455,  it  is  diflicidt 
to  specify  the  books  made  by  Guteidierg.  The  Ijetter.s  of 
Indulyence  of  IJiJjJf,  iJioo,  and  HDl,  and  six  small  pamphlets 
luive  been  attributed  to  him,  on  account  of  the  similarity  of 
their  types  with  the  types  of  his  books,  but  the  evidence  is  not 
sullic'ient.  The  ISil)le  nf  /,.i  linen,  usually  bound  in  three  vol- 
umes, folio,  two  columns  to  the  ]iage,  published  before  1456: 
the  Bihie  of  -Hi  liiie.i.  three  volumes,  folio,  two  (Milumns  to 
the  page,  of  unknown  date  (certainly  before  1460,  anil  pos- 
sibly before  1450);  and  the  Catliolicon  of  H<iO,  a  Latin  dic- 
tionary of  748  pages  folio,  two  columns  to  the  page,  are  the 
best  specimens  of  the  work  reasonably  accredited  to  his 
press — all  of  them  tmmistakable  productions  of  a  master. 
In  1465  Gutenl)erg  was  appointed  by  the  elector  as  one  of 
his  courtiers,  in  recognition  of  his  services.  When  he  died 
the  elector  forbade  his  printing-office  to  be  removed   from 


Mentz.  Gutenberg's  neglect  to  assert  himself  as  the  inven- 
tor of  printing  was  incompletely  remedied  by  his  friends 
and  successors,  but  it  was  generally  admitted  before  the 
vear  1500,  by  printers  everywhere,  in  France,  Germany, 
Italy,  and  the  Netherlands,  that  Gutenberg  was  the  in- 
ventor of  typography.  A  tablet  certifying  Ids  right  as  an 
inventor  was  put  up  soon  after  his  death  in  the  church  at 
Jlentz,  and  another  in  1509  in  a  law  school  of  that  city. 
Statues  have  been  erected  to  him  in  Mentz,  Frankfort,  and 
Stra.ssburg.  The  merit  of  Gutenberg's  invention  was  large- 
ly in  his  superior  method  of  making  types  by  means  of 
punch,  matrix,  and  mould.  When  he  began  his  experi- 
ments he  found  already  in  common  use  |iapcr,  printing- 
ink,  engraving  in  relief,  some  form  of  printing-press,  and 
the  art  of  jirinting  playing-cards  and  block-books.  Pos- 
sibly isolated  types  were  then  in  use,  but  they  could  not  be 
used  to  profit,  because  they  were  not  scientifically  made 
and  sufficiently  exact.  That  Gutenberg  derived  advantage 
from  the  successful  experiments  of  earlier  block-book  print- 
el's  is  probable,  but  he  must  have  added  to  the  common 
stock  of  knowledge  much  more  than  he  found.  Guten- 
berg's method  of  type-making  was  the  only  key  to  the  in- 
vention of  practical  typography.  It  was  so  considered  by 
him  when  he  speaks  in  the  Cntholieon  of  L'/GO  of  the  new 
art  as  dependent  on  "the  admirable  [iroportion,  harmony, 
and  connection  of  the  punches  and  matrices."  Fust  and 
Schocffer  furtlicr  say  in  the  Psalter  of  14S7  that  the  book 
was  made  liy  the  "masterly  invention  of  print iiig  and  also 
of  type-making.''  The  [irinting-prcss  is  never  mentioned  by 
any' early  writer  as  an  important  factor  in  the  development 
of  the  invention.  Gutenberg's  process  of  type-making  has 
been  improved  in  details,  but  its  elementary  principles  have 
not  been  found  susceptible  of  any  imiirovenient. 

A  few  years  after  the  sacking  of  Mentz  (1463)  the  pupils 
and  the  workmen  of  Fust  and  Schocffer  were  dispersed,  the 
discovery  was  made  public,  and  t  he  art  siu-ead  over  Europe. 
F'rom  Mentz  the  art  was  transplanted  to  Koine  in  1467  by 
Sweynheym  and  Pannartz  :  to  Paris  in  146!) :  to  England  in 
1477:  and  to  Spain  in  1474.  Hawkins,  in  his  Titles  of  the 
First  Books  (New  York,  1884).  gives  a  chronological  table  of 
236  places  wliere  the  art  was  practiced  during  the  fifteenth 
century,  with  the  names  of  the  printers  when  known,  and  of 
the  first  productions  of  their  presses.  Of  the  various  editions 
of  books  pulilished  in  the  sixteenth  century,  one-half  were 
Italian,  of  which  one-half  were  Venetian  ;  one-seventeenth 
were  English. 

Printing  in  America. — The  date  of  the  introduction  of 
printing  into  America  is  uncertain,  but  from  the  record 
of  three  early  Sjianish  authorities  it  is  believed  that  the 
art  was  introduced  into  ^Mexico  by  Viceroy  Antonio  de  Men- 
doza.  who  arrived  in  that  country  in  Oct.,  1535.  The  first 
])rinler's  name  was  Juan  Pablos.  an<i  the  first  work  luinted 
the  Escain  e.yii ritual  para  llcgar  al  C'ielo  of  San  Juan  Cli- 
inaco,  a  translation  from  the  Latin  into  t'astilian  by  the 
printer  himself.  No  copy  of  the  work  exists.  The  first  book 
with  date  establishes  tlie  fact  that  a  press  was  working  in 
the  city  of  Mexico  in  1540.  It  is  called  Manual  de  Adulto.% 
dated  'Dec.  Ki,  1540,  a  quarto  in  Gothic  letter,  printed  by 
Juan  Cromberger,  whose  imiirint  is  also  on  several  other 
books  printed  from  1540  to  1544.  This  Cromberger  was  a 
celebrated  printer  of  Seville,  and  books  bearing  his  imprint 
at  this  place  also  appeared  both  before  and  after  the  dates 
of  the  Mexican  works.  It  is  suggested,  to  reconcile  all  the 
statements  brought  to  light,  that  Juan  Pablos  may  have 
been  at  Seville  in  the  employ  of  Cromberger,  wlio  was 
charged  by  Jlcndoza  with  the  cstalilishment  of  a  printing- 
press  in  tlie  city  of  Mexico,  and  who  sent  Juan  Pablos  over 
to  conduct  the  business  in  the  name  and  for  the  benefit  of 
his  master:  that  after  rromberger's  death  Pablos  became 
the  owner  of  the  establishinent,  and  was  in  this  way,  al- 
though not  the  first  owner  of  a  print ing-|>ress,  entitled  to 
the  honor  of  calling  himself  the  first  printer  of  Mexico. 
The  next  press  established  in  the  New  World  was  at  Lima, 
Peru,  aljout  1584.  the  earliest  known  book  iirinted  there  be- 
ing the  Doctrina  Christiana,  a  quarto  in  the  Quichua  and 
.\vmara  laiuruages,  printed  by  .Antonio  Hicardo  in  15_84. 
Several  other  religious  works  liy  the  same  jirinter  in  1585 
and  1586  are  in  existence.  Between  1540  and  1600  there 
is  recorded  the  issue  of  ninety-three  works  in  the  city  of 
Mexico  and  seven  in  Lima.  In'l6:?i)  the  first  press  in  North 
America  was  erected  at  Camliridge,  Mass..  in  the  house  of 
the  president  of  Harvard  College,  Kev.  Henry  Dunster. 
through  the  efforts  of  Kev.  Joseph  Glover,  who  died  while 
liringing  the   press  and  materials   to   this  place.     It  was 


782 


PRIXTIXG 


placed  under  the  direction  of  Stephen  Daye,  by  whom  tlie 
first  work  issued  was  The  Freentan's  Oath,  followed  by  Ati 
Almanack  in  the  same  year.  Dave  was  succeeded  about  164'J 
by  Samuel  tJreen,  under  whom, "in  1660-63,  was  printed  the 
celebrated  Indian  Bible  of  Eliot,  and  other  of  his  works  in 
the  Indian  language.  This  press  is  still  active,  and  known 
as  the  '•  University  Press."  The  next  press  was  established 
in  Boston  in  1676,  after  which  printing  gradually  extended 
throughout  the  colonies.  In  1775  the  whole  number  of 
printing-houses  in  the  British  colonies  was  fifty. 

Early  Printed  Books. — It  is  interesting  to  note  the  pecul- 
iarities of  the  first  printed  works.  An  edition  consisted 
of  a  limited  number,  for  200  or  300  was  then  esteemed  a 
large  issue.  The  size  was  either  large  or  small  folio,  some- 
times quarto.  The  leaves  were  without  running  title,  direc- 
tion-word, folios,  or  paragraphs.  The  words  were  printed 
close  together;  abbreviations  were  numerous;  the  orthog- 
raphy was  arbitrary;  the  sentences  were  distinguished  only 
by  the  single  or  the  double  point,  but  subsequently  the  vir- 
gule  /  was  used  for  the  simple  pause,  answering  to  our 
comma.  The  initial  letters  at  the  beginning  of  a  chapter  or 
important  division  were  left  blank  to  be  tilled  in  by  hand. 
In  some  works  the  embellishmeuts  surrounding  the  text 
were  illuminated  in  colors,  even  gold  and  silver,  and  charged 
with  saints,  birds,  flowers,  etc.  The  printer's  name,  resi- 
dence, etc.,  were  either  omitted  or  put  at  the  end.  The  date 
was  often  omitted,  sometimes  obscurely  indicated,  or  printed 
either  at  full  length  or  by  numerical  letters,  and  sometimes 
in  several  ways  together,  as, "  One  Thousand  cccc.  and  Ixiiii.," 
etc.,  but  always  at  the  end.  A  variety  of  characters  was  un- 
common ;  as  a  rule  a  Gothic  letter  of  the  same  size  was  used 
through  the  work. 

Type. — These  are  the  letters  or  characters  used  in  typog- 
raphy. A  type  is  a  thin  metallic  bar,  like  Fig.  1,  wliich 
represents  the  letter  JI,  and  has  the  following  characteris- 
tics:  c  is  the  face;  /,  the  body;  g,  the  nick;  a  to  b,  tlie 
width  or  set;  b  to  d  the  heightof  the  printed  character;  c 
to  e,  the  height  to  paper ;  d,  the  shoulder ;  from  d  to  the  face 
is  called  the  beard  ;  h,  the  groove  left  in  dressing  by  cutting 
off  the  superfluous  metal  left  by  the  mould,  which  leaves  two 
parts  for  the  bottom  of  the  type,  called  the  feet ;  the  thicker 
stroke  of  a  letter  is  called  the  stem  or  body- 
mark;  the  fine  lines  at  the  top  and  the  bot- 
tom of  a  letter  are  the  serifs;  a  projection 
over  the  body,  as  the  top  and  the  bottom  of  f. 
Is  a  kern.  Types  are  made  of  type-metal,  .-i 
composition  of  which  the  principal  ingredient 
Is  lead.  The  ty)5e-founders  of  the  present  day 
use  alloys  which  are  generally  trade-secrets. 
The  alloy  most  ajijiroved  is  composed  of  cer- 
tain proportions  of  lead,  antimony,  tin,  and 
copper,  so  that  the  metal  shall  be  liard,  yet  not 
brittle;  ductile,  yet  tough;  flowing  freely,  yet 
hardening  quickly.  This  composition  on  so- 
lidifying contracts  but  very  slightly  and  in- 
sures the  sharpness  of  the  lines  of  the  face ;  the  antimony 
gives  hardness,  the  tin  toughness,  and  the  copper  tenacity. 
Different  sizes  of  type  are  made  of  varying  qualities  of  metal, 
designated  ordinary  metal,  hard  metal,  and  extra-hard  metal. 
Comparatively  soft  metal  is  used  for  spaces  and  large  tyjie, 
while  small  type  is  composed  of  hard  metal.  Type  is  made 
more  durable  by  a  process  which  deposits  a  thin  film  of  cop- 
per over  the  face.  Roman  and  Italic  type  are  most  com- 
monly employed  in  printing  books  in  Europe  and  America, 
and  these  have  undergone  every  change  in  form  that  taste  or 
fancy  could  suggest,  as  may  be  noticed  in  the  multitude  of 
sizes,  shades,  and  ornamentation  exhibited  in  the  display- 
lines  of  books,  papers,  circulars,  and  posters. 

Wood  Type.— The  large  letters  used  in  handbills  and 
posters  are  made  of  wood,  usually  maple  or  bay  mahogany, 
which  is  prepared  as  for  wood-engraving.  Bv  the  old  method 
the  outline  of  th<>  character  was  fii-st  carefullv  cut  upon  the 
face  of  t  he  block,  and  this  was  afterward  put  un<ler  a  revolv- 
ing drill,  which  cut  away  the  superfluous  wood,  when  it  was 
finished  by  an  engraver.  William  Leavenworth,  of  Alli'U- 
town,  N.  .1.,  in  1834  applied  the  pantograph  to  the  cutting 
of  wood  type.  In  this  a  tracing-point  at  one  end  follows 
the  outline  of  a  large  model  letter,  and  is  repeated  at  the 
other  end  by  a  revolving  cutter,  which  cuts  the  letter  from  a 
block  of  wood,  after  which  it  is  dressed  with  a  graver. 

^Sfce.s  of  Type. — Tlie  various  sizes  of  type  have  grown 
gradually  into  use,  as  the  re(iuirements  of  books  and  news- 
papers have  dictated,  or  the  pride  of  puncli-cutters  has  ac- 
complished.    The  names  given  to  them  arc  arbitrary  and 


Fio.  1.— Type. 


unmeaning.  The  following  are  the  old  names  of  the  sizes 
most  used  in  books  and  newspapers:  1.  Brilliant;  2.  Dia- 
mond ;  3.  Pearl ;  4.  Agate  or  ruby  ;  .■).  Noni)areil ;  6.  Minion  ; 
7.  Bi-evier;  8.  Bourgeois;  9.  Long  primer;  10.  Small  pica; 
11.  Pica;   12.  English:  13.  Great  prinu'r. 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  sizes  of  type  up  to 
great  primer,  the  numbers  corresponding  to  the  numbers 
and  names  above. 

\  , nbcdf  rKbiJk1mno)i<jr.tuTwi)  a 

i, BbcderghijhlmDopqrstuTwxrx 

0. abcdefglujliluinopqrstavwxyz 

4. — abcdcfgliijklninopqrsluvwxyz 

5. — abcdeffihijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

6. — al>cdefghijkluinopqrstu\'wxyz 

7. — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

8. — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

St.— abcdefghijklinnopqrstiivvvxyz 
10.— abcdefghijkliiinopqfstiivw.\vz 
11.— abedefghijldmuopqrstiivvvxyz 
12.— abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

i3.-abcdefghijklmiiopqrstuvwx 

These  alphabets  show  clearly  the  difference  in  the  height  of 
face  and  the  thickness  of  the  letters  of  the  various  fonts. 
Larger  sizes,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  named  according  to 
the  number  of  pica  lines  in  depth,  as  four-line  pica,  five- 
line  pica,  etc.  Between  nonpareil  and  minion  there  is  a  size 
in  Great  Britain  known  as  emerald.  Xewsjiapers  use  minion, 
nonpai-eil,  and  agate  extensively.  Diamond  is  seldom  used 
for  entire  works.  The  Oxfoni  University  Press  issued  in 
1875  the  "smallest  Bible  in  the  world,"  in  English,  printed 
on  India  paper,  from  diamond  type;  it  contained  984  pages, 
each  72  lines  long,  including  the  liead,  and  37  ems  wide.  The 
bound  volume  is  2f  inches  wide,  4f  inches  long,  and  half  an 
inch  thick.  The  American  Bible  Society  issued  in  1857  a 
diamond  Bible,  containing  882  pages,  eacli  72  lines  long,  and 
41  ems  wide,  which  has  the  usual  thin  paper  and  leather 
binding.  If  presented  in  the  English  dress,  it  would  be 
about  a  quarter  inch  wider  and  longer,  but  100  pages  thiimer. 
Brilliant  is  rarely  employed,  except  for  references  or  side- 
notes  to  Bibles,  etc.  Small  as  this  type  is,  a  type-cutter  of 
Berlin  has  formed  a  type  so  minute  as  to  be  scarcely  read- 
able without  a  good  magnifying-glass.  More  surprising  still, 
as  early  as  1828  Henri  Didot,  of  Paris,  had  cut  characters  of 
almost  microscopic  fineness,  25  lines  to  the  English  inch, 
with  which  he  printed  an  elegant  edition  of  Horace  in  64mo. 
The  names  here  given  to  types  are  those  of  the  old  system, 
which  is  steadily  falling  into  disuse  in  Europe  and  America. 
The  U.  S.  Type  Founders'  Association  in  1886  changed  the 
names  and  dimensions  of  all  bodies,  as  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table : 


.S-point . 
3J  "  . 
4       "      . 


B 

8 
0 
10 

II 

12 


Fraction  of  a 
inch. 


0041.5 
0  0484 

o-055;i 
ooHaa 

0  0698 

00T61 

0083 

0  0968 

OllOT 

01245 

01.%3 

0-1522 

0166 


Excelsior. 

Brilliant. 

Diamond. 

Pearl. 

Agate. 

NonpareiJ. 

Minion. 

Brevier. 

Bourgeois. 

Long  primer. 

Small  pica. 

Pica. 


These  numerical  names  define  the  size  of  each  body  and 
its  relation  to  all  other  bodies.  The  French  system  of 
points,  from  which  the  American  system  was  cojiied.  has  its 
point  of  larger  size — '0376  4-  cm.,  which  is  too  lai'ge  for  the 
nicer  subdivisions  of  bodies  made  by  type-founders  in  the 
U.  S.  Eleven  points  French  are  nearly  as  large?  as  twelve 
points  American.  The  French  system  has  been  adopted  in. 
Germany,  .Spain,  Belgium.  Switzerland,  and  Italy. 

llriylil.  Meaxureiiii'ttt,  and  Stdniliird. — The  height  to  pa- 
|ier,  or  the  distance  from  the  face  to  the  feet  of  type,  varies 
in  the  type  made  by  the  foundries  of  Kurope  and  America. 
The  .standaril  English  height  is -9166  iiu-li ;  the  U.  S.  new 


PRINTING 


783 


stanilard  is  -9186  inch;  the  French  standard  is  higlicr;  the 
Russian  standard  is  more  tlmn  1  iiicli.  Tlicre  is  no  jjcner- 
ally  accept imI  standard  of  widlli  for  llic  alphabet  of  twcntv- 
six  letters,  which  must  vary  with  the  fashion  ol  the  face  and 
the  size  of  the  body.  As  types  decrease  in  size  helow  bour- 
geois they  must  be  made  of  steadily  increasing  width.  Dif- 
ferent fonts  will  vary  from  twelve  ems  to  sixteen  ems  to  the 
alphabet.  Book-compositors  require  fonts  from  pica  to 
l)ourgeois  to  measiir<>  not  less  than  thirteen  ems.  and  below 
liourgeois  not  less  than  fourteen  ems;  for  smaller  sizes  a 
greater  width  is  exacted.  For  very  thin  types  that  fall  be- 
low the  standard  extra  compensation  is  allowed.  The  earli- 
est cxiict  standard  is  the  French,  in  general  use  on  the  Con- 
tinent, which  divides  pi<-a,  one-sixth  of  an  inch  deep,  into 
twelve  parts,  called  points,  and  conforms  each  size  to  a  cer- 
tain numlier  of  these  points.  The  standards  vary  in  tireat 
Britain  and  the  U.  S.,  though  geuerally,  a  pica  lieing  about 
one-sixth  of  an  inch,  two  nonpareils  are  ei|Ual  to  one  pica, 
two  pearls  to  one  long  primer,  two  diamonds  to  one  bour- 
geois. The  following  table  will  give  an  idea  of  the  propor- 
tions of  types  to  space,  etc.,  taking  Bruce's  standard  of  length, 
in  which  201-58  lines  of  diamond  are  contained  in  a  foot. 
and  every  size  is  made  r2'2462  per  cent,  smaller  than  the  size 
f(dlowing  it: 


Pearl 

Agate 

Nonpareil .... 

MillifMl 

Brevier 

I^oui't^eois  . . .. 
I.oni;  primer.. 
Small  pica.. . . 
PiL-a 


Lines  in  a 
fout. 

179-69 

IGO 

144M 

126!)9 

113  13 

100-79 


Emf  in  a 
pound. 


800 
690 
520 
3(iO 
290 
270 
200 
170 
130 


Squnre  inches 
in  t.OOU  ems. 


4-,W 

5-a9 
e-93 

10- 10 

la-tM 

18-20 
2110 

2772 


Types  made  by  the  point  system  will  show  slight  vari- 
ations from  the  figures  of  this  table. 

One  pound  of  composed  type  occupies  3-5  sq.  inches.  For 
the  various  processes  in  making  type,  see  Tyi'E-founding. 

fonts. — A  complete  assortment  of  type  of  any  one  face  or 
size  is  called  a  font  or  fiiiiiit,  which  may  be  varied  to  any 
extent.  Type-foundei-S  have  a  scheme  for  the  proportional 
quantity  of  every  letter  required  for  a  font,  and  a  peculiar 
scale  is  necessai-y  for  every  laiiguage.  In  (ii-eat  Britain 
founders  select  a  scale  having  JlOOll  of  the  small  letter  hi  for 
its  basis.  In  the  U.  S.  th(\  founders  adopt  nearly  the  same 
.scheme  by  w-eight,  and  propoi-tion  all  fonts.  lai-ge  or  small, 
accordingly,  a  font  I'f  50U  lb.  containing  20  lb.  8  oz.  of  a  and 
28  lb.  4  oz.  of  e.  The  following  table  show-s  the  relative  pro- 
portion of  every  chai-acter  i-eijuired  in  a  font  of  800  lb.  of 
pica  for  ordinary  w-ork  in  the  hZnglish  languiige : 

A   FONT  OF   PICA,   -WEIOHINO  800  LB. 


Small  letUn. 

a  S,500 

b  \.rM 

e  .•J.iKW 

d  4.-10I) 

e  12,aX) 

f  2,500 

K  1,700 

h  6.400 

i  8,000 

j  400 

k  M) 

1  4.000 

m 3.00(1 

n  8.000 

o  8.000 

p  1.700 

q  .VX) 

r  fi.aw 

s  H.aio 

t    H.OOO 

u   S.400 

V  1.2IM) 

w 2,000 

X     400 

y  2,000 

z    200 

& 200 

ft 400 

fl   .WO 

fl   200 

ffl 1.10 

m 100 

le 100 

(8 00 

— I.V) 

90 

60 


Points,  «tc. 
4.500 

;    800 

:    600 

2,000 

-    1,000 

?    200 

!    l.-iO 

'    7(X) 

(    .'iOO 

[    IM 

•    100 

t  too 

t  100 

S  IIHI 

1  100 

H  60 

Figures. 

1    1.300 

2  \.m\ 

3  l.IOO 

4  1.000 

5  1,000 

6  1.000 

7  l.iKlO 

8  l.OIKI 

9  l.lKlO 

0  L.'iOO 

Acvrntt. 

«    200 

& 200 

a 200 

o   200 

All    otJier  ac- 
cents, UK)  each. 


Capitals. 


A   .... 

....  600 

B  .... 

....  400 

C   .... 

....  500 

D  .... 

....  600 

E     ... 

....  600 

F   .... 

....  400 

O 

....  400 

H  .... 

....  400 

I     .... 

....  800 

J    .... 

....  300 

K  .... 

....  300 

L    .... 

....  .500 

IVI  .... 

....  400 

N  .... 

....  400 

0  .... 

....  400 

P    .... 

....  400 

t::.: 

....   180 
....  400 

s    .... 

....  ."iOO 

T    .... 

....  6.W 

u  .... 

....  300 

V   .... 

....  .300 

w  . . . . 

....  400 

X  .... 

....   180 

Y  .... 

....  800 

Z   .... 

....     80 

JE.... 

....     40 

as..... 

....    ;w 

Small  capitals. 


CE 


,300 
200 
250 
iiO 
.300 
200 
200 
200 
400 
150 
LW 
2.50 
200 
200 
200 

am 

90 
200 
2.50 
82.5 
,  1.51) 
1.50 
200 

90 

1.50 

,     40 

20 

15 


Spacas. 

3-em  spaces 18.000 

4em      -        12.000 

5-em      "         S.IHH) 

Hair      "       3.000 

Km  quads 2..500 

En       ••      5.000 

Large  quadrats,  80  11). 


This  is  the  proportion  for  Roman  letters,  etc.  An  Italic 
font  to  accompany  this  would  be  in  the  proportion  of  one- 
tenth  of  the  Roman,  not  including  spaces  and  small  capitals. 
To  give  an  idea  of  the  number  of  pages  this  will  set.  suppose 
the  page  of  pica  type  to  be  8i  inches  h)ng  by  uj  inches  wide, 
or  r>:i  lines  long  by  3.5  lines  or  ems  wide.  This  will  give 
1,8.5.5  ems  in  a  page;  there  being  130  ems  in  a  pound,  this 
will  make  the  page  weigh  nearly  14J  lb.,  which,  divided  into 
800  lb.,  gives  about  .56  pages.  This  calculation  shows  only 
how  many  pages  could  be  set  if  every  character  w-ere  used, 
but  copy  alwavs  exhausts  the  characters  unequally.  Fonts 
of  book-type  vary  from  .50  lb.  to  20,000  lb. 

Arraittjfmi-Ht  of  the  Ti/pe  in  Cases. — The  type  when  re- 
ceived from  the  founder  are  arranged  in  a  case  containing 


* 

'A 

% 

A 
H 
P 

t 

% 
i; 
I 
Q 

Y 

X 
H 
& 

K 
R 
Z 

% 

% 

-«« 

S 

£ 

B 
I 
<J 
Y 

@ 

2-cm 

2-em 

.l-em 
3-eni 

n 

L 

s 
J 

%_ 

A 
E 
H 
T 



o 
Q 

Vb 

E 
M 

T 

a 

SB 

F 

N 
V 

] 

oe 

A 

H 
P 

X 

M 
P 
N 
V 

C 
K 
R 
Z 

G 

0 

0 

s 
J 

W 

W 

X 

) 

U 

liair 

.p. 

ffl 

Fig.  2. — Upi)er  case. 

boxes  of  varioiis  .Mzes  for  the  difierent  characters.  The  lower 
case  has  remained  nearly  the  same  as  it  w^as  200  years  ago. 
It  is  a  tray  of  wood,  about  li  inches  deep,  32*  inches  long,  and 
16}  inches  wide.  Cases  go  in  pairs,  the  upper  case  (Fig.  2) 
containing  98  boxes  for  capitals,  etc.,  and  the  lower  case 
(Fig.  3)  containing  54  boxes  for  small  letters,  figures,  and 


ffi 

jsp.  1  »v.\ 

k 

e 

1    1  2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

j 

be           d 

i 

s 

f 

g 

ff 
fl 

9 
0 

? 

z 

1 

m 

n 

b 

0 

y 

P 

w 

' 

en 
qds. 

em 
qds. 

X 
0 

V 

u 

t 

Sm 
spaces. 

a 

r 

— 

— 

2-  and  3.pin 
quadrats. 

Fio.  3. — Lower  ca.se. 

spaces.  Fig.  2  shows  the  case  adopted  by  the  book-com- 
positors of  the  U.  S.,  having  the  capitals  on  the  left  side  and 
the  small  capitals  on  the  right.  Newspaper  compositors 
prefer  the  capitals  on  the  right  side  and  the  small  cajiitals 
on  the  left.  The  lower  case  is  so  arranged  that  the  letters 
most  frequently  used  are  placed  in  large  boxes  toward  the 
middle  and  in  front  of  the  compositor.  These  cases  are 
placed  on  a  fi'ame  or  stand  about  the  heiglit  of  the  bi-cast, 
and  ill  a  sloping  position  from  the  toji  to  thi-  bottom  of  the 
case,  the  capital  ca.se  on  the  npiier  part  of  the  frame,  w-hcnee 
called  upper  case,  and  the  case  containing  the  small  letters 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  frame,  hence  called  lower  case. 
These  cases  contain  only  Roman  letters.  Italics  and  all 
other  varieties  are  kept  sejiarately  in  similar  case.s.  The 
spaces  noticeil  in  the  cases  are  of  ditTerent  wiilths.  so  made 
to  e()ualize  the  spacing.  The  em  is  a  .sciuare  sjiace;  c«,  2  to 
an  em  ;  3-em,  3  to  an  em ;  4-em,  4  to  an  em ;  .5-em,  5  to  an 
em  ;  and  liaii--spaces. G  to  13  to  an  em;  2-  and  3-ein  quadrats 
are  double  or  triple  ems. 

Composition  or  Ti/pesettinr/. — The  compositor  in  setting 
up  tvpc  uses  a  small  frame  of  steel,  having  three  sides  and 
a  bottom,  called  the  com- 
posing-stick (Fig.  4).  It  is 
usually  from  6  to  12  inches 
long,  2  inches  wide,  and  S 
inch  deep,  and  will  hold 
about  20  lines  of  minion. 
Larger  sizes  are  occasionally  used  for  wide  measures.  Two 
sides  ai-e  immovatile,  the  thii'd  side  being  movable  to  be  ad- 
.jiisteil  to  the  width  of  the  page,  and  then  clasped,  as  in  the 
Grover  patent  (Fig.  4).  or  secured  with  a  screw.  A  settilig- 
rule.  tvpe  hi;;li.  and  of  the  rciiuireil  measure,  is  also  used  with 
the  .stick  ;  it  is  made  of  a  strip  of  steel  or  bra.ss,  having  a 
short  pointed  projection  at  the  top  of  the  right  end  or  on  both 


784 


PRINTING 


ends.  It  enables  the  type  to  be  put  quickly  in  its  place,  and 
is  used  in  emptying  matter  from  the  stick,  iu  lifting  matter, 
and  to  support  matter  in  the  left  hand  while  distributing  with 
the  right.  Having  received  a  "  take  "  or  small  portion  of  the 
copy  of  a  vpork,  which  is  placed  conveniently  on  the  ujiper 
case,  the  compositor  holds  in  his  left  hand  the  stick,  made 
up  to  the  required  measure,  like  a  small  trough,  the  rule 
resting  against  the  back,  and  stands  in  front  of  the  frame 
or  the  left  of  the  middle  of  the  case.  Observing  and  re- 
membering a  few  words  of  the  copy,  he  looks  to  the  proper 
box  for  the  first  letter,  picks  it  up  with  the  right  hand  so 
that  the  nick  (Fig.  1,  g)  shall  be  outward  and  from  him.  and 
lays  it  in  the  stick  with  the  nick  looking  toward  the  open- 
ing, which  brings  the  letter  right  side  up.  While  putting  the 
fii-st  letter  in  the  stick,  his  eye  at  the  same  time  lnoks  toward 
the  next  box,  and,  his  hand  "following  immediately,  he  again 
picks  up  a  letter  with  tlie  nick  from  him,  and  places  it  by 
the  side  of  the  other.  He  does  not  look  at  the  face  of  the 
letter,  but  glances  at  the  nick  (Fig.  1.  g).  and  takes  it  for 
granted  that  if  it  come  from  the  right  box  it  must  be  the 
right  letter.  He  secures  every  letter  successively  with  the 
thumb  of  the  left  hand  as  the  type  are  placed  side  by  side 
in  line  from  left  to  right.  As  nearly  as  the  letters  will  al- 
low in  print,  the  type  are  set  in  the  stick  thus :  j^.uloS.mdq.i. 
The  compositor  always  reads  the  t^-pe  in  this  manner,  and 
does  so  as  quickly  as  the  ordinary  reader  comprehends  the 
printed  page.  When  he  comes  to  the  end  of  his  line,  and 
finds  that  he  has  a  syllable  or  word  which  is  either  too  long 
or  too  short  to  fill  out  the  measure,  he  has  to  perform  an 
operation  which  re<iuires  care  and  judgment.  This  is  called 
justification.  The  first  and  the  last  letter  must  be  at  the 
extremities  of  the  line;  and  the  distances  between  the 
words  must  be  made  as  nearly  as  possible  uniform  by  chang- 
ing the  spaces,  already  described,  and  thus  getting  in  or 
driving  out  the  whole  of  the  syllable  or  word.  The  first  line 
being  justified,  the  rule  is  lifted  to  the  front,  and  the  com- 
positor proceeds  with  the  next  line,  and  so  on  till  the  stick 
is  full.  If  the  matter  is  open,  ihin  strips  of  metal  (called 
'■  leads  ■')  are  placed  between  the  lines.  Placing  the  rule  at 
the  front,  he  clasps  the  stickful  with  the  thumbs  on  each 
upper  corner,  the  forefingers  on  each  lower  corner,  and  the 
side  of  the  first  and  second  joints  of  each  middle  finger  at 
the  left  and  right  sides  of  the  type,  presses  the  corners  and 
the  sides  toward  the  center,  and  thus  readily  lifts  the  mass 
of  separate  letters;  but  it  requires  some  practice  to  do  this 
neatly.  The  stickful  is  placed  on  a  galley,  or  oblong  tray 
of  wood  or  brass,  having  a  raised  edge  of  half  an  inch  on 
two,  three,  or  four  sides,  but  generally  on  the  left  side  and 
top.  Having  completed  his  portion,  the  matter,  as  it  is  now 
called,  is  ready  to  be  maile  up. 

Distribution  of  the  Type. — When  the  compositor  has  set 
most  of  the  type  out  of  the  case,  he  distributes  dead  matter. 
The  matter  is  first  wet  with  water  to  hold  the  type  slightly 
together.  Placing  twenty  lines  or  so  on  the  rule,  held  in  the 
left  hand  and  resting  against  the  inside  of  the  thumb  and 
on  the  side  of  the  third  finger,  he  takes  a  few  words  between 
the  thumb  and  middle  finger  of  the  right  hand,  separates 
the  letters  by  the  pressure  of  the  forefinger,  and,  when  his 
hand  is  over  the  proper  box,  lets  the  letter  fall.  This  he 
continues  till  the  case  is  full. 

Composing  and  Distributing  Machines. — JIuch  labor  and 
ingenuity  have  been  expended  in  efforts  to  substitute  nui- 
chinery  for  hand-labor  in  setting  type,  and  though  about 
100  patents  have  been  granted,  but  few  machines  are  in  use. 
The  only  typesetting  machines  now  doing  practical  work  in 
the  U.  S.  (1894)  are  the  Mergenthaler  or  Linotype,  the 
Thorne,  the  MacMillan,  and  the  Burr.  The  Mergenthaler  is 
also  a  type-making  machine.  It  produces  lines  of  news- 
paper tyjje  in  solid  bars,  at  the  rate  of  three  or  four  lines  a 
minute.  The  Lanston  machine  makes  single  types  and  com- 
poses them.  The  Thorne  machine  makes  use  of  the  type  of 
type-founders,  composing  and  distributing  them  at  the  rate 
of  4,000  e.ms  or  more  an  hour.  The  MacMillan  also  makes 
use  of  founded  type,  wliich  it  composes  at  the  same  rate  of 
speed,  but  its  distribution  has  to  be  done  on  a  separate  ma- 
chine. The  Paige  maciiine  uses  type  already  founded,  which 
it  composes,  distributes,  and  justifies  at  a  very  high  rate  of 
speed.  The  Burr  machine  makes  use  of  founded  type,  which 
it  composes  rapidly,  but  it  requires  a  separate  machine  for 
distribution,  hvery  machine,  however  fast  or  accurate,  has 
disadvantages.  ;\Iost  of  the  typesetting  of  the  world  is  still 
done  by  hand. 

i'nit  of  Measurement. — In  the  U.  S.  the  compositor  is 
paid  according  to  the  number  of  ems  he  sets  (in  Great 


Britain  by  the  number  of  ens),  without  compensation  for 
filling  his  case  or  for  correcting  errors.  Difficult  manuscript 
or  intricate  composition,  however,  is  generally  done  at  a  cer- 
tain price  per  week.  In  Continental  Europe  matter  is  meas- 
ured generally  by  the  nuuiber  of  letters,  a  more  equitable 
method,  as  modern  newspaper  type  varies  from  12  to  18  ems 
to  the  alphabet.  The  em  of  measurement  is  the  square  of 
the  body  of  type  to  be  measured  ;  the  en  of  measurement  is 
one-half  of  that  square.  In  measuring  the  width  of  col- 
umns or  pages,  the  letter  m  is  placed  sidewise  in  the  stick, 
thus, 

and  the  number  of  these,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  lines 
in  length,  gives  the  number  of  ems  ;  for  instance,  this  cydo- 
p;edia  is  set  in  brevier  type,  27  ems  wide  in  a  column,  84 
lines  loug  (not  counting  "head  and  foot  lines),  and  two  col- 
umns in  a  page — 27x84x2.  making  4,.536  ems  in  a  page. 
The  average  number  of  pieces  of  metal,  spaces  and  letters, 
is  2-25  to  an  em,  so  that  1,000  ems  contain  about  2.2.50  pieces! 
In  an  average  page  of  this  cyclopa-dia  there  are  1,680  words, 
10  words  to  a  line,  5  letters  to  a  word;  in  addition,  the  spaces 
average  2-25  ems  in  a  line,  and  409  ems  in  a  page.  Words, 
therefore,  in  the  English  language  average  5  lettere,  and  in 
type  2-5  ems  each.  The  number  of  ems  the  average  com- 
positor will  set  in  an  hour  is  800.  .Many  compositors  are  re- 
ported to  have  set  from  1,500  to  2,000  ems  per  hour,  and  a 
large  number  average  over  1,300  ems. 

Make-up. — In  newspaper-work  or  work  requiring  many 
corrections,  or  for  other  reasons,  a  proof  is  taken  of  tlie  mat- 
ter secured  in  a  galley  in  long  pieces,  read,  and  corrected, 
sent  to  the  author,  and  then  made  up,  read,  corrected,  and 
sent  to  press  or  stereotyped.  Usually,  it  is  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  "  niaker-up,"  who.  having'  set  the  appropriate 
headings,  places  a  head-line  at  tlie  top  of  the  matter,  con- 
taining the  running-title  of  the  book  or  the  appropriate  sub- 
divisions of  the  work,  divides  the  matter  into  pages  with  a 
gauge,  affixes  the  foot-line — a  blank  line  put  at  the  bottom 
of  a  page — containing  sometimes  the  signature  or  folio,  and 
binds  the  page  with  cord.  A  proof,  termed  the  '•  first  proof," 
is  taken,  given  to  the  proof-reader,  who  carefullv  compares 
it  with  the  author's  copy  by  the  aid  of  a  copy-holder,  who 
reads  aloud,  and  the  errors  noted  are  corrected  by  the  com- 
positor. A  second  proof,  or  "  revise,"  is  compared  with  the 
first,  and  sent  to  the  author  for  his  revision.  His  corrections 
are  made,  and  the  third  or  "  press  proof  "  is  carefullv  read, 
generally  by  a  more  skillful  proof-reader  than  the  first",  when 
the  corrections  are  made,  and  the  matter  is  ready  for  the 
press   or  for  stereotyping  or  electrotyping.     See"STEREo- 

TYPIXG. 

Impo-iition  is  the  method  of  so  arranging  the  pages  that 
they  will  be  in  consecutive  order  when  the  sheet  or  section 
of  a  book  is  folded.  When  the  jiages  are  to  be  stereotyped 
or  electrotyped.  only  a  few  pages  in  their  regular  order  are 
secured  together  and  cast ;  yet  these  cast  pages  are  after- 
ward imposed  on  the  press  in 
the  same  manner  as  described 
below.  For  over  400  years  im- 
position remained  merely  a  trial 
process,  the  few  early  modes 
having  been  handed  down  to 
the  present  time  without  any  at- 
tempt at  systematic  explanation. 
The  pages  are  laid  upon  a  mar- 
ble or  iron  table,  called  the  stone. 
Any  number  of  pages  may  be 
imposed  in  one  form,  from  2  to 
128.  according  to  the  size.  The 
first  page  in  simple  forms  is 
placed  in  the  left-hand  corner, 
with  the  foot  of  the  page  toward 
the  imposer,  and  when  completed 
the  last  page  is  found  at  its  side. 
The  second  page  and  the  next 
to  the  last  are  together;  the 
third  and  the  third  from  the 
last,  and  so  on,  advancing  one 
from  the  first  folio  and  receding  one  from  the  last,  until  the 
two  middle  pages  are  reached,  which  are  in  the  4to  the  2d 
and  .Sd  ;  in  the  8vo.  the  4th  and  .ith  ;  in  the  12mo.  the  6th 
and  7th;  in  the  16mo,  the  8th  and  9th;  in  the  24mo.  the 
12th  and  13th.  and  so  <m.  (The  terms  4to.  8vo.  etc..  here 
refer  to  the  numlier  of  pages  in  a  form,  the  usual  designa- 
tion of  printers.)    The  imposition  of  the  octavo.  Fig.  5,  and 


□  □□□ 

□  □□□ 

□  □□□ 

□  □□□ 

Fio.  5.— Imposition  of  the  oc- 
tavo. 


PRINTING 

of  the  duodecimo,  Pig.  6,  will  illustrate  the  principle,  the 
folio  at  one  end  of  the  page  representing  the  head. 

The  pages  are  adjusted  to  the  rcquireil  distanee  apart  ac- 
cording to  tlie  size  of  the  paper,  an  iron  "  chase  "  or  frame  is 
placed  around  them,  ami  wood  or  metal  furniture,  half  an 
inch  high,  of  various  thicknesses,  is  placed,  some  at  the  heail 
of  the  pages,  called  "  head-sticks,"  some  between  the  pages. 


PRINTING-PRESSES 


785 


□  □□Q 


□  □□□ 

□  □□□ 


□  □□□ 


□  □□□ 

□  □□ 


Fig.  6. — ImposiLiou  of  tlie  duoilecimo. 

called  "gutters,"  and  others  at  the  sides  and  feet,  called 
"side"  and  "  foot  sticks."  The  latter  are  larger  at  one  end 
than  the  other,  so  that  small  wedges  of  wood  or  metal, 
called  "quoins,"  may  be  driven  tiglitly  between  them  and 
the  sides  of  the  chase,  locking  tlie  type  firmly,  making  it 
like  a  solid  piece,  which  may  be  lifted  and  placed  on  the 
press.  The  general  practice  up  to  recent  date  was  to  place 
the  pages  which  would  appear  on  the  outside  of  a  sheet  in  a 
single  chase,  an<l  the  inside  pages  in  another  chase,  requir- 
ing every  sheet  to  be  printed  from  two  forms  for  one  copy. 
.\11  the  pages  of  a  single  sheet  are  now  usually  placed  in 
one  chase,  and  the  paper  turned  over  on  the  press,  making 
two  copies  at  two  impressions.  The  chase  is  crossed  by  two 
iron  bars,  represented  by  the  long  lines  across  Fig.  5  and 
Fig.  6,  which  support  and  keep  the  chase  from  springing. 

Sigyialures. — The  signature  is  a  figure  or  a  letter  of  the 
alphabet  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  first  page  of  every  form, 
or  a  section  or  sub-section  of  a  form,  to  denote  the  order  of 
the  sheets,  ami  serves  as  a  guide  to  the  binder.  In  an  edi- 
tion of  Terence,  printed  by  Antonio  Zarot  at  Milan  in  1470, 
signatures  were  used,  and  it  is  the  first  printed  book  known 
to  have  them.  Catch-words  were  once  extensively  used, 
placed  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  to  show  the  connecting  word 
on  the  next  page,  and  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  by 
Vindelius  de  Spira  in  Venice  ;  but  the  Assyrians  used  catch- 
wonls.  The  English  generally  use  for  signatures  the  alpha- 
betical letters,  omitting  J,  V,  \V,  which  were  not  used  in 
the  Gothic  letters  of  the  early  printers;  and  if  the  sheets 
extend  beyond  Z,  the  letters  are  doubled  or  preceded  by  a 
figure.  The  practice  in  the  U.  S.,  and  in  most  European 
nations,  is  to  use  figures,  a  section  to  be  inset  being  distin- 
guished by  a  star  after  the  signature  figure.  The  star 
shows  that  that  part  of  the  sheet  is  cut  off  and  placed  in- 
side the  first  part  when  folded.  This  is  the  simplest  and 
readiest  for  the  biniler. 

Sizes  of  Bookx. — The  descriptive  names  of  the  sizes  of 
Ijooks  refer  to  the  size  of  the  loaves,  and  originated  from 
the  number  of  leaves  into  which  a  sheet  of  paper  was  folded 
after  printing.  The  facility  of  paper  manufacture  has 
placed  within  the  reach  of  printers  any  size  of  sheet,  so  that 
the  size  of  the  page  of  a  book  now  depends  only  on  the  wish 
of  the  publisher.  The  book  when  bound  is  termed  accord- 
ing to  the  nearest  size  of  the  regular  sheets. 


SIZE  OF  BOOK. 


Royal  4to 

Mc'^lium  4to 

Itiip'M-ial  Hvo  , .. , 

Siip'T-roval  8vo. 

Mi'iliiim  Svo 

<'ri'\vn  Svo 

Medium  I-.imo. . .. 

Ujino 

ISmo..., 

34mo 

"        82mo 


P«^.  Id 

SlM  of  Iraf,  un- 

•  sbM. 

trlmmod,  iD  Inebet. 

8 

11x14 

8 

91x12 

16 

8x11} 

IB 

7x10} 

16 

6x9} 

16 

!>}xHt 

•n 

5}x7» 

33 

4lx6| 

36 

4x6} 

48 

3>x5} 

64 

8x4f 

The  size  of  paper  called  medium,  19  by  24  inches,  is  the 
standard  by  which  all  sizes  of  books,  not  otherwise  specif- 
ically describeil.  are  classifieil ;  ami  quarto,  octavo,  duodec- 
imo, etc.,  mean  that  the  leaves  of  books  of  these  sizes  are 
nearly  the  fourth,  eightli,  twelfth,  etc.,  of  the  medium  sheet. 
384 


Printing-ink  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  prepared  oil  and 
smoke-black  or  other  coloring-matter.  News  ink  has  more 
of  oil.  and  book  ink  more  of  black.  When  properly  made 
it  "distributes"  or  freely  spreads  out  in  a  very  thin  film  on 
the  inking  rollei-s  and  "the  types,  is  readily  transferred  to 
jiaper  by  impression,  and  adheres  to  it  wlien  dry  without 
smearing  or  fading. 

Frinting-rollers. — In  the  early  days  of  ])rinting  the  ink 
was  applied  to  the  type  by  large  "leather-coated  balls.  Each 
ball  was  fitted  to  a  handle  of  wood.  The  interior  of  the  ball 
was  stuffed  with  wool  or  hair  to  make  it  elastic.  One  of 
these  the  pressnum  took  in  each  hand,  and.  applving  them 
to  the  ink-table,  daubed  and  knocked  them  togel"lier  to  dis- 
tribute the  ink  ecpially.  and  then  blac'ked  the  form  by  beat- 
ing the  balls  upon  the  face  of  the  tyjie.  Rollers  wound  with 
cloth  and  covered  with  soft  leather  were  next  introduced, 
but  to  B.  Forster,  of  England,  is  due  the  invention  (about 
1820)  of  the  present  roller.  These  rollers  consist  of  a  com- 
position of  glue  and  molasses,  boiled  together,  and  moulded 
u|)on  a  cylinder  of  wood  encasing  an  iron  rod,  which  works 
in  a  handle  or  in  a  proper  frame  for  large  presses.  This 
cylindrical  inking  roller  is  rolled  over  the  type,  and  applies 
the  ink  in  a  quick  and  even  manner.  Otlier  compositions 
have  been  tried  for  rollers,  but  this  was  preferred  for  many 
years  on  account  of  its  peculiar  softness,  even  retention  o"f 
the  ink,  and  cheapness.  The  composition  now  most  ajiproved 
for  its  greater  durability  is  a  combination  of  glue,  glycerin, 
and  sugar. 

Paper. — The  paper  used  in  newspaper-printing  is  always 
dampened  before  use,  as  wet  paper  takes  the  ink  better  than 
dry,  and  is  now  generally  wet  by  a  wetting-press.  Paper  is 
usually  supplied  by  the  "ream  of  20  quires  of  24  sheets,  or 
480  sheets  per  ream.  For  the  perfecting  press  paper  is  sup- 
]ilied  from  3  to  5  miles  long,  a  single  web  containing  from 
5,000  to  10,000  sheets.  After  printing,  for  book-work  the 
sheets'  are  hung  up  to  dry,  placed  between  sheets  of  thin 
smooth  mill-board,  placed  "in  an  hydraulic  press,  and  sub- 
jected to  great  pressure,  which  siiiooths  and  restores  the 
brilliant  appearance  of  the  paper.  The  sheets  are  afterward 
forwarded  by  the  binder.     See  Bookhindixo. 

BiBLioGRAPHT. — The  bibliography  of  printing  is  volumi- 
nous: but  a  few  of  the  prominent  treatises  are  mentioned 
below.  The  origin  of  typography  has  been  treated  by  Dr.  A. 
Van  der  Linde  in  The  'llaartem  'Legend  (translated  by  J.  II. 
Hessels,  London.  1871)  and  in  Giiienben/  (Stuttgart, "1878) ; 
by  .1.  H.  Hessels  in  Gutenberg  (London, 'l882) ;  A.  F.  Didot, 
E-^xfii  ,tur  la  Ti/pographie  (Paris,  1851);  A.  Bernard,  De 
Vorigine  e.t  des  Debuts  de  V Imprimerie  en  Europe  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1853) ;  Karl  Faullman,  Geschichte  der  Buchdrucker- 
kunsl  (Leipzig,  1882);  T.  L.  De  Vinne,  T/ie  Invention  of 
Printing  (New  York,  1878).  The  development  of  typog- 
raphy among  English-speaking  peoples  has  been  treated 
of  by  Ames  in  his  Typographical  Antiquities  of  various 
editions,  of  which  Herbert's  is  best ;  C.  II.  Timperley,  Dic- 
tionart/  of  Printers  and  Printing  (London,  1839) ;  W.  Blades, 
William  Caxton  (London,  186"l-6;i) ;  Talbot  B.  Reed,  Old 
English  Letter  Founderies  (London,  1887) ;  Isaiah  Thomas, 
History  of  Printing  in  America  (2  vols.,  Worcester,  1810). 
The  ])ractice  of  typography  has  been  explained  by  T.  C. 
Hansard,  Typogrnphia  (London.  1825) ;  Hingwalt,  Encyclo- 
pcpdia  of  Printing  (Philadelpliia,  1871);  A.  Marahrens, 
Handhuch  der  Typographic  (Leipzig,  1870) ;  T.  Lefevre, 
Guide  Pratique  du  Compositeur  (V&ris,  1855);  and  The  Dic- 
tionary of  Printing  and  Bookmaking  (New  York,  1893). 
Good  facsimile  plates  of  early  books  have  been  published  by 
Sotheby,  Prinripia  Typographia  (3  vols.,  London,  1858);  J. 
W.  Iloltrop,  Monuments  Typographiques  (The  Hague.  1868) ; 
Weigel  and  Zestermann.  Die  A  nfiinge  der  Driickerkunst  in 
Bild  und  Schrift  (2  vol-s.,  Leipzig",  1866).  Bigmore  and 
Wymans's  Bibliography  of  Printing  (3  vols.,  London,  1880) 
is  a  useful  catalogue  of  all  the  authorities. 

Revised  by  Theouoke  L.  De  Vinxe. 

Printing-presses :  machines  for  taking  impressions  from 
an  inked  surface  upon  paper,  used  for  books,  newspapers, 
handbills,  etc. 

The  Earliest  Form. — Gutenberg's  printing-press  consisted 
of  two  upright  timbers  with  crosspieces  of  wood  to  stay 
them  together  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  two  intermediate 
cross-timbers.  On  one  of  these  the  ty|)e  was  .supported,  and 
through  the  other  a  wooden  .screw  passed,  its  lower  point 
resting  on  the  center  of  a  wooden  "  platen,"  which  was  thus 
screwed  down  upon  the  type  after  it  had  been  inked  and  the 
paper  spread  over  it.     The  mechanical  principle  embodied 


786 


PRINTING-PRESSES 


Fio.  1. — The  Franklin  screw-lever  press. 


in    this    machine   is   found   in   the   old  cheese   and   linen 
presses. 

This  simple  form  of  press  continued  in  use  for  about  150 
years,  or  until  the  early  part  of  tlie  seventeenth  century, 
without  any  material  cliange.  The  forms  of  type  were 
placed  upon  wood  or  stone  beds,  incased  in  frames  calleil 
'■  coffins,"  moved  in  and  out  laboriously  by  hand,  and  after 
each  impression  the  platen  had  to  be  screwed  up  with  the 
bar,  so  that  the  paper  which  had  been  printed  might  be  re- 
moved and  hung  up  to  dry. 

Blaeuw's  Press. — Tlie  first  recorded  improvements  in  this 
press  were  made  by  William  Janson  Blaeuw,  a  printer  of  Am- 
sterdam, about  1620. 
He  passed  the  spindle 
of  the  screw  through 
a  square  block  which 
was  guided  in  the 
wooden  frame,  and 
suspended  the  platen 
from  this  block.  He 
also  placed  a  device 
upon  the  press  for 
rolling  the  bed  in  and 
out,  and  added  a  new 
form  of  iron  liand-lever 
I'or  turning  the  screw. 
Blaeuw's  press  was  in- 
troduced into  Eng- 
land, and  used  there 
as  well  as  on  the  Con- 
tinent, being  substan- 
tially the  same  as  that  Benjamin  Franklin  worked  upon 
when  in  London  in  1725. 

Introduction  of  Iron  Printing-presses. — Little  further 
improvement  was  made  in  the  printing-press  before  the 
year  1798,  when  the  Earl  of  Stanhope  caused  one  to  be 
made,  the  frame  of  which,  instead  of  being  of  wood,  was 
one  piece  of  cast  iron.  A  necessity  had  arisen  for  greater 
power  in  giving  the  impression,  especially  in  the  printing 
of  wood-cuts,  and  the  tendency  was  naturally  toward  larger 
forms  of  type,  requiring  greater  exertion  on  the  part  of  the 
printer.  The  Earl  of  Stanhope  retained  the  screw,  but 
added  a  combination  of  levers  to  assist  the  pressman  in 
gaining  greater  power  with  less  expenditure  of  energy. 
These  machines,  although  very  heavy  and  cumbersome,  came 
into  use  to  some  extent.  . 

The  next  practical  improvement  was  made  by  George 
Clymer,  of  Philadelphia,  who,  about  1816,  devised  an  iron 
machine,  entirely  dispensing  with  the  screw.  A  long, 
heavy  cast-iron  lever  was  placed  over  the  platen,  one  end 
attached  to  one  of  tlie  uprights  of  the  cast-iron  frame  and 
the  other  capalile  of  being  raised  and  lowered  by  a  com- 
bination of  smaller  levers,  worked  by  the  pressman  after  the 
manner  of  tlie  ordinary  hand-press.  The  impression  was 
given  and  the  platen  raised  and  lowered  by  a  spindle  or 
pin  attached  to  the  center  of  the  large  cross  lever  at  the 
top.  Clyraer  carried  his  invention  to  England,  where  it  was 
introduced  to  some  extent,  and  was  known  as  the  Columbian 
press.  In  England  Rutheven,  Brown,  and  others  made  iron 
hand-presses,  all  improving  upon  the  Stanhope.  In  1822 
Peter  Smith  devised  a  machine  witli  a  cast-iron  frame,  in 
which  a  toggle-joint,  at  once  simple  and  effective,  took  the 
place  of  the  screw  with  levers. 

The  Washi7ig(on  Press. — In  1827  Samuel  Rust,  of  New 
York,  perfected  an  invention  which  was  a  great  improve- 
ment on  the  Smith  press.  The  frame,  instead  of  being  all 
of  cast  iron,  had  the  uprights  at  the  sides  hollowed  for  the 
admission  of  wrouglit-iron  bars,  which  were  securely  riveted 
at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  casting.  This  gave  not  only  ad- 
ditional strength,  but  greatly  diminished  the  amount  of  metal 
used  in  tlie  construction.  The  toggle  motion  was  also  a 
great  improvement  over  that  in  the  Smith  press.  This 
patent  was  purchased  by  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  who  improved  upon 
it.  The  new  invention  was  known  as  the  Washington  press, 
and  in  principle  and  construction  has  never  been  surpassed 
by  any  hand  printing-machine. 

The  bed  slides  on  a  track  and  is  run  in  and  out  from  un- 
der the  platen  by  turning  a  crank  wliich  has  belts  attached 
to  a  pulley  upon  its  shaft.  The  impression  of  the  platen  is 
given  by  means  ot  a  bent  lever  acting  on  a  toggle-joint,  and 
the  platen  is  lifted  by  springs  on  eitlier  side.  Attached  to 
the  bed  is  a  tympan-fraiiic  covered  with  cloth,  and  stand- 
ing inclined  to  receive  the  sheet  to  be  printed.  Another 
frame,  called  the  frisket,  is  attached  to  the  tyinpan,  and 


covered  with  a  sheet  of  paper,  having  the  parts  that  would 
be  printed  upon  cut  away,  so  as  to  prevent  the  chase  and 
furniture  from  blacking  or  soiling  the  sheet.    The  frisket 


Fig.  2.— The  Washington  hand-press. 

is  turned  down  over  the  sheet  and  tympanand  all  are  folded 
down  when  the  impression  is  taken.  Automatic  inking-roll- 
ers  were  attached  to  this  machine. 

77ie  hed-and-platen  system  of  printing  Vfas  up  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  nineteenth  century  the  favorite  method  for  fine 
books  and  illustrations,  and  it  is  still  used  to  a  great  extent. 
The  first  "  power  "  or  steam  press  upon  this  principle  was 
made  by  Daniel  Tread  well,  of  Boston,  in  1822.  The  frames 
were  of  wood,  but  probably  only  three  or  four  were  ever  con- 
structed. The  best  press  of  this  description  is  that  devised 
and  patented  by  Isaac  Adams,  of  Boston,  in  1830  and  1836, 


Fio.  3.— The  Adams  bed-and-platen  press. 

and  by  Otis  Tufts,  of  the  same  place,  in  1834.  This  was 
first  made  with  a  wooden  and  afterward  with  an  iron  frame. 
In  1858  Adams's  business  became  the  property  of  Hoe  &  Co., 
who  continued  to  manufacture  these  presses,  with  added  im- 
provements. In  these  machines  the  type  is  placed  upon  an 
iron  bed,  after  the  usual  manner  of  the  hand-press,  and  this 
bed  is  raised  and  lowered  by  straightening  a  toggle-joint  by 
means  of  cams,  thus  giving  the  impression  upon  the  iron 
platen  fixed  above  it,  and  firmly  held  in  position  by  upright 
iron  rods  secured  to  the  foundation  of  the  machine.  The 
ink-fountain  is  at  one  end  of  the  press ;  the  inking-rollers 
travel  twice  over  the  form,  in  a  movable  frisket-frame,  while 
the  bed  is  down ;  the  paper  is  taken  in  by  grippers  on  the 
frisket  and  carried  over  the  form,  when  the  bed  rises  and 
the  impression  is  given ;  finally,  the  sheets  pass  forward 
from  the  frisket  by  tapes  to  a  sheet-flier,  which  delivers 
them  on  the  fly-board.  One  thousand  sheets  per  hour  is 
the  maximum  speed  of  the  larger  sizes  of  the  Adams 
press. 

Job-presses. — Many  different  kinds  of  small  presses  on  the 
bed-and-platen  principle  are  made  ;  a  typical  one  is  the  Gor- 
don, illustrated  on  the  next  page.  This  can  print  over  1,000 
cards  or  small  sheets  per  hour.  Special  presses  are  also 
made  for  printing  cards  or  tickets  and  numbering  or  let- 
tering them  consecutively. 

Cylinder  Presses. — The  method  of  printing  from  plates  or 
forms  carried  upon  a  flat  bed  backward  and  forward  beneath 
a  cylinder  had  lieen  employed  in  a  rude  form  by  printers  of 
copperplate  engravings  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Wilh  the 
re-introduction  of  this  system  began  an  entirely  new  era  in 
the  history  of  the  printing-press.     It  should  be  undei'stood, 


PRINTING-PRESSES 


787 


however,  that  the  vast  number  of  patents  granted  for  jn-int- 
ing-machines  in  wliich  the  cylinder  is  connected  with  the  lied, 
or  by  the  operalidn  of  two  cylinders  together,  one  holding 
the  form  and  the  other  giving  the  impression,  are  almost  all 


The  Gordiiii  press 


for  improvements  and  devices  of  detail,  the  radical  principles 
upon  which  they  are  founded  remaining  the  same.  There 
will  be  here  described  only  those  presses  which  have  been  in 
use  as  praci  ical  improvements. 

The,  Flat-bed  Cylinder  Press. — The  credit  of  actually  in- 
troducing into  use  a  flat-bed  cylinder  press  is  due  to  a  Saxon 
named  Priederieh  Koenig,  who  visited  England  in  180C,  and 
through  the  assistance  of  Thomas  Bensley,  a  printer  in 
London,  devised  a  machine  which  in  1813-13  was  used  by 
him,  and  printed,  aniong  other  publications,  a  part  of  Clark- 
son's  Life  i>f  William  Penn.  Koenig  was  assisted  also  by 
a  mechanic  named  Andrew  Bauer,  a  fellow  countryman. 
The  form  of  type  was  placed  on  a  flat  bed,  the  cylinder 
above  it  having  a  threefold  motion,  or  stopping  three  times, 
the  first  third  of  the  turn  receiving  the  sheet  upon  one  of 
the  tyinpans  and  securing  it  by  the  frisket ;  the  second  giv- 
ing the  impressiiin,  and  allowing  the  sheet  to  be  removed  by 
han<i ;  and  the  third  returning  the  tympan  empty  to  receive 
another  sheet.  He  also  devised  what  has  proved,  even  to 
this  day,  to  be  the  best  mechanism  for  producing  recipro- 
cating motion  of  the  type-bed.  This  consists  of  a  pinion 
carried  on  the  inner  end  of  a  long  shaft  which  is  turni^d 
by  gearing  from  the  side  of  the  press-frame,  and  has  in  its 
length  a  universal  joint,  allowing  an  up-and-down  motion 
of  the  pinion.  Underneath  the  bed  and  fastened  to  it  is  a 
"  rack,"  or  double  row  of  teeth  set  back  to  back,  with  a  cres- 
cent-shaped segment  of  hard  metal  at  each  end.  The  shaft 
being  set  in  motion  revolves  the  pinion,  which  moves  the 
bed  by  engaging  the  teeth  in  this  rack.  On  reaching  the 
end  of  the  rack,  the  pinion  turns  around  over  a  pin  or  stud 
against  the  segment  at  the  end  of  the  rack,  and  immediately 
re-engages  its  teeth  in  the  opposite  side,  so  carrying  the  bed 
back  again.  Tliis  motion  is  repeated  at  the  opposite  end  of 
the  rack,  and  the  bed  again  stop[)ed  and  returned. 

The  Cunlinuously  Revolving  Cylinder  Prexs. — In  1814 
Koenig  patented  a  continuously  revolving  cylinder  pre.s.s. 
The  part  of  the  periphery  of  the  cylinder  not  used  forgiving 
the  impression  is  slightly  reduced  in  diameter,  so  as  to  allow 
the  form  to  return  under  it  freely  after  giving  an  impres- 
sion. He  showed  designs  adapting  it  for  use  as  a  single- 
cylinder  jiress,  anil  also  as  a  two-cylinder  press,  both  for  print- 
ing one  side  of  the  paper  at  a  time;  likewise  a  two-cylinder 
Fress  for  printing  both  sides  of  the  paper  at  one  operation, 
n  this  latter  press  the  two  forms  were  placed  one  at  each 
end  of  a  long  bed,  and  the  paper  after  being  printed  on  one 
side  by  one  cylinder  was  carried  by  tapes  over  a  registering 
roller  to  the  other  cylinder,  where  it  was  printed  upon  the 
opposite  side.  This  press,  termed  a  "  perfecting"  press,  was 
afterward  im|iroved  by  Applegalh  and  Cowjicr,  so  as  to  be 
considiTed  at  the  lime  a  very  efficient  machine. 

Koenig  erected  in  the  office  of  the  London  Times  in  1814 
two  of  the  two-cylinder  presses  mentioned  above,  which 
printed  on  one  side  of  the  paper  only,  at  the  rate  of  800 
sheets  per  hour.  I  le  was  not  alone  in  his  elTorts  to  perfect  a 
cylinder  press.  Various  patents  were  gotten  out  by  Hacon 
and  Donkin  in  181:! ;  liy  Cowper  in  181(i,  and  again  in  1818; 
and  liy  .\pplcgatli  in  1818. 


Kapler's  Improvemetits. — The  most  ingenious  and  practi- 
cal device  in  connection  with  the  movements  of  a  flat  bed 
and  a  cylinder  for  printing-machines  was  patented  by 
Napier  in  1828  and  1880.  He  was  the  first  who  introduced 
"grippers"  or  ••  fingers"  for  the  conveyance  of  the  sheets 
around  the  cylinder  during  the  impression,  and  for  deliver- 
ing them  after  printing.  Tapes  or  strings  had  previously 
been  used.  He  was  also  the  first  to  construct  presses  in  whicii 
the  impression-cylinders  are  of  small  size,  and  make  two  or 
more  revolutions  to  each  sheet  printed;  and  he  devised  the 
toggles  for  bringing  the  cylinders  down  to  jirint  on  the  form 
and  then  raising  them  to  let  the  form  run  back  without 
touching. 

The  Sinyle  Large  Cylinder  Press. — About  1833  Robert 
Hoe  made  the  first  cylinder  press  ever  used  in  the  U.  S.  It 
was  the  pattern  known  as  the  single  large  cylinder,  the 
cylinder  making  one  revolution  for  each  impression  in  print- 


;,L'  c_\  llliijt-f   I'l 


ing,  and  never  stopping.  Only  a  portion  of  the  cylinder 
was  employed  to  taKe  the  impression,  the  remainder  of  its 
circumference  being  turned  down  small  enough  to  allow  the 
type  on  the  bed  to  pass  back  under  it  without  touching. 
Similar  presses  were  made  later  by  other  manufacturers, 
and  this  form  of  press  is  still  in  use,  with  jjatented  auto- 
matic sheet-fliers,  and  other  im]irovements. 

The  Stop  Cylinder  Press. — The  press  upon  which  the  fin- 
est letterpress  and  wood-cut  work  is  turned  off  is  known  as 
the  Stop  Cylinder.  This  was  devised  and  patented  by  a 
Frenchman"  named  Dutartre  in  1853,  and  was  later  intro- 
duced into  the  U.  S.,  and  improved  in  many  respects.  The 
type  is  secured  upon  an  ii'on  bed,  which  moves  back  and 
forth  upon  friction-rollers  of  steel  by  a  simple  crank  motion, 


^wM 


Fig.  «.— The  stcji  ej  I 


stopping  and  starting  without  noise  or  jar.  The  cylinder  is 
stopped  and  started  by  a  cam  motion  petiding  the  backward 
travel  of  the  bed.  and  during  the  interval  of  rest  the  sheet 
is  fed  down  against  the  guides  and  the  grippers  close  upon 
it  before  the  cylinder  starts,  thus  insuring  the  utmost  accu- 
racy of  register.  After  the  impression  the  sheet  is  trans- 
feiTcd  to  a  skeleton  cylinder,  also  containing  grippers,  which 
receive  and  deliver  it  over  fine  cords  upon  the  sheet-flier, 
which  in  turn  deposits  it  upon  the  table.  The  distribution 
of  the  ink  is  effected  partly  liy  a  vibrating  ]iiilislied  steel 
cylinder,  and  partly  upon  a  flat  table  at  the  end  of  the 
(raveling  bed.  the  number  of  inking-rollers  varying  from 
four  to  six.  The  average  output  of  one  of  these  presses 
with  a  bed  36  by  •')4  inches  is  from  1,000  to  1,500  impres- 
sions per  hour.  The  very  finest  engraving,  or  cut-work, 
such  as  would  be  done  with  the  greatest  deliberation  uiion 
the  Washington  hand-press,  is  printed  upon  it  at  a  speed  of 
700  impressions  per  hour. 


788 


PRINTING-PRESSES 


Up  to  1847  American  newspapers  were  printed  upon  single 
small-oylinder  and  double-cylinder  machines.  The  output  of 
one  of  the  single-cylinder  presses  reached  2,000  impressions 
per  hour,  or  about"  as  fast  as  the  feeder  could  lay  down  the 
sheets.  With  the  double-cylinder  press  the  travel  of  the  bed 
was  of  such  length  that  the  form  of  type  passed  backward 
and  forward  under  both  cylinders.  Two  feeders  accord- 
ingly put  in  the  sheets,  the'  maximum  speed  obtained  from 
each  cylinder  being  about  3,000,  or  4,000  per  hour  for  the 
two  cylinders,  printed  upon  one  side.  The  growing  demand 
for  papers  containing  the  latest  news,  however,  necessitated 
faster  machines.  The  presses  of  Middleton,  Dryden  &  Ford, 
and  others  in  England  failed  to  meet  the  requirements  thei-e, 
as  did  the  single  cylinder  and  double  cylinder  in  the  U.  S. 

The  Type-rerolvuiff  Machine. — Experiments  made  in  184.5 
and  1846  res\ilted  in  the  construction  of  a  press  known  as 
the  Hoe  type-revolving  machine.  The  first  of  these  ma- 
chines was'  placed  in  The  Public  Ledger  office  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1846.  The  basis  of  these  inventions  consisted  in 
an  apparatus  for  securely  fastening  the  forms  of  type  on  a 
central  cylinder  placed  in  a  horizontal  position.  This  was 
accomplished  by  the  construction  of  cast-iron  or  brass  beds, 
one  for  each  page  of  the  newspaper.  The  column  rules  were 
made  "  V  "-shaped,  i.  e.  tapering  toward  the  feet  of  the  type. 
It  was  found  that,  with  jiroper  arrangement  for  locking  up 
or  securing  the  type  upon  these  beds,  it  could  be  held  firmly 
in  position,  the  surface  forming  a  true  circle,  and  the  cylin- 
der revolved  at  any  speed  required  without  danger  of  the  type 
falling  out.  Around  this  central  cylinder  from  four  to  ten 
impression-cylinders,  according  to  the  output  required,  were 
grouped.  The  sheets  were  fed  in  by  boys,  and  taken  from 
the  feed-board  by  automatic  grippers,  or  fingers,  operated 
by  cams  in  the  impression-cylinders,  which  conveyed  them 


Fig.  7. — Eigjht-cylinder  type-revolving  machine. 

around  against  the  revolving  form  of  the  central  cylinder. 
Here,  again,  a  great  advantage  was  gained  by  the  use  of  the 
patented  sheet-flier,  consisting  of  a  row  of  long  wooden  fin- 
gers fastened  to  a  shaft,  and  operated  by  a  cam  and  springs, 
the  sheet  after  printing  being  conducted  out  underneath 
each  feed-board  by  means  of  tapes  to  the  sheet-fliers,  which 
laid  them  in  piles  on  tables,  the  number  of  fliers  and  tables 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  impression-cylinders.  The 
inking  was  accomplished  by  the  use  of  composition-rollers 
placed  between  each  of  the  impression-cylinders,  the  foun- 
tain being  below,  underneath  the  main  type-cylinder.  The 
portion  of  the  surface  of  this  type-cylinder  not  occu]iied  by 
the  type  itself  was  utilized  as  a  distributing-table,  its  sur- 
face being  lower  than  that  of  the  type,  and  the  inking-rollers 
rising  and  falling  alternately  to  place  the  ink  on  I  he  type 
and  receive  a  new  supply  from  the  distributing-surface.  The 
speed  obtained  was  about  2,000  sheets  to  each  feeder  per 
hour,  thus  giving,  with  what  was  called  a  four-feeder  or 
four-cylinder  machine,  a  running  capacity  of  about  8,000 
papers  per  hour  printed  upon  one  side.  As  the  demands  of 
the  newspapers  increased  more  impression-cylinders  were 
added,  until  those  machines  were  made  with  .as  many  as  ten 
grouped  around  the  central  cylinder,  giving  an  aggregate 
speed  of  aliout  20,000  papers  per  hour  printed  upon  one  side. 
A  revolution  in  newspaper-printing  took  place.  Journals 
which  before  had  been  limited  in  their  circulation  by  their 
inability  to  furnish  the  papers  rapidly  increased  their  issues, 
and  many  new  ones  were  started.  'The  first  one  put  up 
abroad  was  erected  in  1S18.  in  the  office  of  La  Pafrie  in 
Paris.  In  18.56  Edward  Lloyd,  of  Lloyd's  Weekh/  Limdori 
Newfspaper,  ordered  a  .six-cyiiudcr  machine,  and  later  the 
London  Timen  ordered  two  ten-cylinder  presses  to  replace 
an  Applegath  machine. 

In  the  meantime  experiments  had  demonstrated  the  pos- 
sibility of  casting  stereotype  plates  on  a  curve.  The  process 
wius  brought  to  perfection  by  the  use  of  flexible  paper  ma- 


trices, upon  which  the  metal  was  cast  in  curved  moulds  to 
any  circle  desired,  and  these  plates  were  placed  upon  the 
type-revolving  machine  upon  beds  adapted  to  receive  them 
instead  of  the  type-forms.  The  newspaper  publishers  were 
thus  enabled  to  duplicate  the  forms,  and  run  several  ma- 
chines at  the  same  time. 

Improvements  by  Applegath  and  Cowper. — After  the  re- 
turn of  Koenig  to  Germany  an  Englishman  named  Apple- 
gath, in  connection  with  a  machinist  named  Cowper,  made 
various  improvements,  mostly  in  the  way  of  simi)lifying 
Koenig's  presses,  and  in  1848  constructed  for  the  London 
Times  an  elaborate  machine,  entirely  upon  the  cylindrical 
principle.  All  of  the  cylinders  of  this  machine  were  vertical. 
The  type  was  placed  upon  a  large  upright  central  cylinder, 
but  tlie  circumference,  instead  of  presenting  a  complete  cir- 
cle, represented  as  many  flat  surfaces  as  there  were  columns 
in  the  newspaper,  the  forms  thus  being  polygonal.  Around 
this  central  or  form  cylinder  were  placed  eight  smaller  verti- 
cal cylinders  for  taking  the  impression,  rollers  being  intro- 
duced to  ink  the  type  as  it  passed  alternately  from  one  of 
these  impression-cylinders  to  another.  The  sheets  were  fed 
down  by  hand  from  eight  flat  horizontal  feed-boards  through 
tapes,  then  grasped  by  another  set  of  tapes  and  passed 
sideways  between  the  impression-cylinder  and  the  type-cyl- 
inder, thus  oVjtaining  sheets  printed  upon  one  side.  The  im- 
pression-cylinder delivered  them,  still  in  a  vertical  position, 
into  the  hands  of  boys,  one  stationed  at  each  cylinder  to  re- 
ceive them.  The  results  obtained  from  this  machine  were 
in  a  measure  satisfactory,  as  the  number  of  papers  printed 
per  hour  upon  one  side,  from  one  form  of  type,  was  in- 
creased to  8,000.  The  press  used  in  the  London  Times  office 
was  the  only  one  of  this  kind  ever  made. 

Use  of  a  Contiimo'us  Web. — In  1835  Sir  Rowland  Hill  sug- 
gested the  possibilities  of  a  machine  which  should  print  both 
sides  at  once  from  a  roll  of  paper.  Cotton  cloths  had  long 
been  printed  in  this  way,  the  cylinders  being  engraved  and 
the  cloth  after  printing  being  reeled  up  again.     William 


Fig.  8.— Ttie  Bullocli  stereotype  perfecting  press. 

Bullock,  of  Philadelphia,  constructed  in  1865  the  first  ma- 
chine to  print  from  a  continuous  web  or  roll  of  paper.  It 
consisted  of  two  ]iairs  of  cylinders — i.  e.  two  form  or  plate 
cylinders  and  two  impression-eylindei-s.  The  second  impres- 
sion-cylinder was  made  of  large  size  to  provide  additional 
tympan-surface,  to  lessen  the  offset  from  the  first  printed 
side  of  the  paper.  The  stereotype  plates  were  not  made  to 
fill  the  whole  circumference  of  each  of  the  form-cylinders, 
since  by  means  of  knives  in  cylinders  the  sheets  were  cut 
before  printing.  The  sheets  were  carried  through  the  press 
by  tapes  and  fingers,  and  delivery  sought  to  be  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  series  of  automatic  metal  nippers  placed 
upon  endless  leather  belts  at  such  distance  apart  as  to  grasp 
each  sheet  successively  as  it  came  from  the  last  printing- 
cylinders.  This  machine  was  unreliable,  especially  in  the 
delivery  of  the  papers,  but  it  was  finally  so  far  perfected 
that  it  came  into  use  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Litroduction  of  the  Rotary  Perfecting  Press. — Meanwhile 
the  proprietors  of  the  London  Times  had  begun  experi- 
ments with  the  view  of  making  a  rotary  perfecting  press, 
and  started  the  first  one  in  their  office  about  1868.  It  was 
similar  in  construction  to  the  Bullock  press  so  far  as  the 
printing  apjiaratus  was  concerned,  excepting  that  tlie  cylin- 
dci's  were  all  of  one  size  and  placed  one  above  the  other. 
'I'lie  sheets  were  severed  after  printing,  brought  up  by 
tapes,  and  carried  down  to  a  sheet-flier  which  moved  back 
and  forth  and  "  flirted "  the  sheets  alternately  into  the 
hands  of  two  boys  seated  opposite  one  another  on  cither 
side  of  the  sheet -flier. 

Marinoni,  of  Paris,  also  devised  a  machine  on  a  similar 
])rinciple,  making  the  impression  and  the  form  cylinders  of 
one  size  and  pLaced  them  one  above  the  other,  but  having 
separate  tty-boards  for  the  delivery  of  the  sheets. 


PRINTING-PRESSES 


789 


In  IHTl  K.  Hoe  &  Co.  also  turned  their  attention  to  the 
construction  of  a  rotary  perfecting  press  to  print  from  a 
continuous  web  of  paper.  Tiie  greatest  difficulties  were — 1. 
The  set-dIT  of  tlie  lirst  side.  Devices  wore  used  to  overcome 
this,  and  the  iuU-niakers  were  induced  to  pay  special  atten- 
tion to  till!  manufacture  of  rapid-drying  inks.  3.  The  need 
of  paper  in  the  roll  of  uniform  iiertectiou  and  strength.  The 
paper-makers  were  led  to  produce  large  rolls  of  paper  meet- 
ing these  requirements.  li.  The  necessity  of  a  rapid  sever- 
ing of  the  sheets  after  printing.  4.  The  need  of  a  reliable 
and  accurate  delivery. 

Thi'se  last  two  operations  were  not  accomplished  satisfac- 
torily until  the  appearance  of  the  Hoe  machine.  In  this 
press  the  sheets  were  not  entirely  severed  by  the  cutters, 
but  simply  perforated  after  the  printing.  They  were  then 
drawn  on  by  accelerating  tapes,  which  completely  separated 
them,  to  a  gathering  cylinder  so  constructed  that  six  per- 
fect papers,  or  any  other  desired  number,  could  be  gatliered 
one  over  the  other.  These,  by  means  of  a  switch,  were  at 
the  proper  moment  turned  off  to  one  sheet-flier  which  de- 
posited them  on  the  receiving-board.  The  first  of  these  ma- 
chines was  placed  in  the  otlice  of  Lloyd's  Weekly  London 
Newspaper,  ami  the  first  one  used  in  the  U.  S.  in  the  Trihune 
office  in  Xew  York.  There  was  no  limit  to  their  capacity 
for  [irinting  e.^ceepting  the  ability  of  tlie  i)aper  to  stand  the 
strain  of  passing  through  the  press,  which  could  produce 
from  a  single  set  of  stereotype  plates  IS.OOO  perfect  papers 
an  hour,  delivered  accurately  on  one  feed-board.  The  aver- 
age speed,  however,  in  printing-offices  was  12.000  per  hour. 
The  WiUter  press,  made  by  the  London  2'imes,  was  used 
liy  it.,  and  also  by  the  London  Daily  News  and  by  The.  New 
Tork  Times.  Further  than  that  it  made  no  progress.  Mean- 
time t,he  Hoe  machine  was  adopted  by  most  of  the  large 
newspapers  in  the  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain.  These  new  meth- 
ods of  course  entirely  superseded  the  type-revolving  machine, 
which  had  held  the  field  in  the  newspaper  world  for  over 
twenty  years  and  of  whicOi  175  had  been  made. 

Introduction  of  Automatic  Folders. — It  was  desirable 
that  the  presses  should  deliver  the  papers  folded.  The 
firet  apparatus  to  accomplish  this  was  similar  in  design 
to  the  hand  folding-machines  in  common  use  in  printing- 
offices.  The  slieets,  fed  by  hand  into  these  macliines,  were 
carried  by  tapes  runnins;  upon  pulleys  under  striking  blades, 
which  forced  them  between  pairs  of  folding  rollers.  After 
the  first  fold  they  were  again  carried  in  a  similar  manner 
under  striking  blades,  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  and 
again  struck  down  between  rollers  to  receive  a  second  fold. 
This  action  was  continued  until  the  desired  number  of  folds 
had  been  secured.  Folders  of  this  description  were  attached 
to  the  fast  presses,  but  none  made  could  be  worked  faster 
than  about  8,000  per  hour,  until  in  18To  Hoe  &  Co.  patented 
a  rotating  folding  cylinder  which  folded  the  papers  at  the 
rate  of  l.l.OIIO  per  hour.  The  first  of  these  folding-machines 
were  put  upon  pri'sses  made  for  the  Philadelphia  Times, 
and  operated  in  the  (Centennial  Exhil)ition  in  1876. 

Striking  blade  folders  were  useil  in  the  Bullock  press, 
and  in  machines  made  by  C.  Potter,  Jr.,  &  IJo..  and  others. 
Andrew  Campljell,  a  printing-press  manufacturer,  also  con- 
structed a  rotary  perfecting  press,  but  his  devices  were  not 
original.  Four  or  five  machines  were  made  by  him,  and 
these  soon  went  out  of  use. 

Further  Advances  in  Fast  Printing. — About  1876  Jfessrs. 
Anthony  and  Taylor,  of  England,  took  out  patents  for  devices 
by  which  the  webs  of  paper  could  be  turned  over  after 
printing  on  one  side  and  the  opposite  or  reverse  side  pre- 
sented to  the  printing  cylinder.  Edward  L.  Ford,  engaged 
in  the  publication  of  a  newspaper  in  New  York,  patented 
the  uniting  of  the  product  of  two  or  more  printing  mechan- 
isms, thus  proilueing  (in  restricted  form)  a  multiple  number 
of  pages  at  one  time.  He  was  unable,  however,  to  di'velop 
his  plans  to  any  practical  result,  but  deserves  the  credit  of 
being  the  first  to  patent,  if  not  to  conceive,  the  idea  of  the 
association  of  printed  sheets  for  this  purpose. 

The  DoiMe-supplement  Press. — Furt  her  experiments  upon 
the  manipulation  of  webs  of  paper  resulted  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  Hoe  double-supplement  ju'ess,  tlu'  first  specinum 
of  which  was  purchased  by  James  (iordon  Bennett,  of  The 
New  York  Herald.  For  a  third  time  a  complete  revolution 
of  the  methods  of  fast  newspaper  printing  look  place.  The 
most  remarkable  features  of  this  machine  are  its  extreme 
simplicity,  considering  the  work  it  performs,  and  its  great 
speed,  accuracy,  and  efficiency.  It  turns  out  either  four,  six, 
eight,  ten,  or  twelve  page  jiapers  at  24.000  per  hour,  and 
sixteen-page  papere  at  12,000  per  hour,  the  odd  pages  being 


in  every  case  accurately  inserted  and  pasted  in.  and  the 
papers  cut  at  the  top  and  delivered  folded.  This  machine 
is  constructed  in  two  parts,  in  one  portion  the  cylinders  be- 
ing twice  tlie  length  of  those  in  the  other,  the  shortest  cyl- 
inders being  used  fcjr  the  supplements  of  the  paper  when  it 
is  desired  to  print  more  than  eight  pages.  The  plates  being 
secured  on  the  cylinders,  the  paper  enters  from  the  two  rolls 
into  the  two  portions  of  the  machine,  through  each  of  wiiich 
it  is  carried  between  the  two  pairs  of  tyjie  and  impression 
cylinders,  and  printed  on  both  sides,  after  which  the  two 
broad  ribbons  or  "webs"  pass  over  turning-bars  and  other 
devices,  by  which  they  are  laid  evenly  one  over  the  other, 
and  pasted  together.  The  webs  of  paper  then  pass  down 
upon  a  triangular  "  former,"  which  folds  them  along  the 
center  margin.  They  are  then  taken  over  a  cylinder,  from 
which  they  receive  tlie  final  folds,  a  revolving  blade  within 
this  cylinder  projecting  and  thrusting  the  paper  between 
folding  rollers,  while  at  the  same  moment  a  knife  in  the  same 
cylinder  sevei-s  the  sheet,  and  a  rajiidly  revolving  mechan- 
ism, resembling  in  its  motion  human  fingers,  causes  their 
accurate  disposal  upon  traveling  belts,  conveying  them  on 
for  final  removal. 

Previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  doulile-supplement 
press.  Hoe  &  Co.  had  made  what  is  known  as  their  double 
perfecting  macliine.  This  embraces  substantially  the  print- 
ing and  folding  devices  embodied  in  the  double-supplement 
machine,  and  is  the  connecting  link  between  it  and  the  or- 
dinary "single"  or  two-page-wide  press. 

The  Quadruple  Newspaper  Fress. — The  next  improve- 
ment in  fast  presses  was  the  con,struction  of  the  quad- 
ruple newspaper  press.  The  first  one  was  constructed  by 
R.  Hoe  _&  Co.  in  1887  and  placed  in  the  office  of  The  New 
York  World.    The  same  principles  were  embraced  in  this  as 


Fig.  9.— The  Hoe  "quadruple"  newspaper  perfecting  press   and 

folders. 

in  the  double  supplement,  but  developed  to  a  greater  extent. 
The  supplement  portion  of  the  press  was  increased  in  width. 
By  nu'ans  of  ingenious  arrangements  of  the  turning-bars 
and  manipulation  of  the  w'ebs  of  paper  this  press  was  made 
to  produce  eight-page  papers  at  a  running  speed  of  48.000 
per  hour ;  also  24,000  per  hour  of  either  ten,  twelve,  four- 
teen, or  sixteen  page  papers,  all  delivered  in  perfect  form, 
cut  at  the  top,  pasted,  and  folded  ready  for  the  carrier  or 
the  mails.  This  press,  together  with  the  double-supplement 
press,  superseded  almost  all  others  in  the  large  offices  of  the 
U.  S.,  as  well  as  in  Great  Britain  and  Australia. 

The  Sextuple  Pre.s-.s. — In  1880  the  same  firm  undertook 
the  task  of  constructing  a  nvachine  for  The  New  York  Her- 
ald, which  would  even  eclipse  the  ciua<lriiple  machine.  It 
is  knon-n  as  the  sextuple  macliine.  and  occupied  about  eigh- 
teen months  in  construction.  It  is  composed  of  about  16.000 
pieces,  and  weighs  about  OS  tons.  The  form  and  impression 
cylinders  are  all  placed  parallel,  instead  of  any  being  at  right 
angles,  as  in  the  (piadruple  and  double-sujijilement  jiresses. 
The  |iress  is  fed  from  three  roll.s.  and  can  print,  cut.  paste, 
fold,  count,  and  deliver  complete  in  an  hour  24,000  Hi  raids 
of  fourteen,  twenty,  or  twenty-four  pages  each,  30.000  of 
sixteen  pages  each,  48,000  of  ten  or  twelve  pages  each,  or 
72.000  (20  per  second)  of  eight  pages  each.  It  has  six  plate- 
cylinders,  each  carrying  eight  stereotype  plates  a  page  in 
size,  and  making  at  full  speed  200  revolutions  per  minute. 

Ty/ie-revolfing  Ferfecting  Presses. — About  1871  a  ma- 
chine called  the  Prestonian  was  made  by  Poster,  a  machin- 
ist of  Preston,  England,  and  several  were  set  to  work,  but 
did  not  enjoy  any  great  degree  of  favor.  They  embodied  a 
combination  of  the  Hoe  type-revolving  machine  with  the 
endless  sheet  perfecting  press.  The  form  of  type  for  one 
side  of  the  [laper  was  placed  upon  one  cylinder,  with  im- 
pression-cylinders arouTul  it,  in  the  manner  of  the  Iloe  press, 
and  the  form  for  the  other  side  on  another  cylinder,  and  tho 
paper  passed  from  one  set  of  imprcssiou-cyliuders  to  the 


790 


PRINTING-PRESSES 


other.  The  objection  to  this  machine  was  its  laeli  of  speed. 
The  same  principle,  however,  liaJ  been  developed  years  be- 
fore in  the  type-revolving  perfecting  presses,  having  two 
sets  of  type-forms  on  separate  large  cylinders,  and  feeding 


Fio.   10.— The    Hoe 


■sextuple"   newspaper   perfecting  press   and 
folders. 


the  sheets  in  by  hand,  conveying  them  from  one  impression- 
cvlinder  to  the  other  and  again.st  the  forms  by  means  of 
lingers  or  grippers.  The  sheets  were  then  delivered  on  a 
sheet-flier.  These  presses  were  especially  designed  for  jirint- 
ing  books  of  which  large  numbers  were  required,  such  as 
text-books  and  spelling-books.  The  contents  of  a  whole 
book  could  be  placed  on  these  cylinders  and  printed  and 
delivered  at  one  impression.  One  of  these  machines,  built 
in  1852,  is  still  (1895)  in  operation  at  Messrs.  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.'s  printing-office  in  Brooklyn. 

The  Rotary  Type  Endless  Sheet  Perfecting  Press. — In 
1881  Hoe  &  Co.  turned  their  attention  to  the  making  of  a 
machine  which  should  print  from  one  form  of  type  at  a 
greater  speed  than  had  ever  yet  been  attained.  The  result 
was  the  rotary  type  endl&ss  sheet  perfecting  press.  The 
principle  of  this  machine  was  in  a  measure  that  of  their 
type-revolving  press.  The  forms  of  type  for  both  sides  of 
the  paper  were  placed  on  a  central  cylinder,  which  was  sur- 
rounded by  impression-cylinders  and  inking-rollers.  The 
roll  of  paper  was  placed  at  the  end  of  the  press,  passed 
around  the  impression-cylinders  arranged  at  one  side  of  the 
form  cylinder,  and  then  turned  upside  down  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  machine,  thence  being  carried  upward.  The  op- 
posite or  unprinted  side  was  presented  in  turn  between  each 
impression-cylinder  and  the  forms.  If  four  impression- 
cylinders  were  placed  around  the  central  cylinder,  then  at 
each  revolution  of  the  latter  fonr  perfect  papers  were 
printed.  If  eight  impression-cylinders  were  placed  around 
the  central  cylinder,  then  eight  perfect  papers  were  printed 
at  one  revolution  of  the  main  or  form  cylinder.  The  speed 
attained  by  this  machine  with  four  impression-cylinders 
was  about  12.000  per  hour,  and  from  machines  with  eight 
impression-cylinders  24,000  copies  per  hour  were  printed  all 
folded. 

The  Prudential  Perfecting  3Iachine. — In  1889  a  patented 
perfecting  machine  called  the  Prudential  was  made,  in 
which  the  plates,  or  forms,  for  both  sides  are  placed  upon 
one  cylinder,  one  side  of  the  form  of  matter  being  placed 
upon  one  end,  or  half,  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  other  side 
upon  the  opposite  portion  of  the  cylinder.  One  impression- 
cylinder  only  is  used,  and  the  inking  apparatus  is  greatly 
extended.  This  machine  is  remarkable  for  the  great  variety 
of  work  it  will  do.  At  a  higli  rate  of  speed,  sheets  of  8,  16, 
24,  and  .so  on  up  to  96  or  128  pages  may  be  printed  and  de- 
livered folded  in  either  12mo,  8vo,  4to,  or  folio  sizes,  ready 
for  the  binder.  The  press  does  the  work  of  ten  flat-bed  cyl- 
inder presses  and  ten  hand-feed  folding-machines.  C!urved 
electrotypes  are  now  made  successfully,  and  this  press  is  the 
first  to  bring  the  printing  of  the  average  book  and  catalogue 
within  the  range  of  web-press  work.  While  in  general  prin- 
ciples the  press  is  similar  to  the  large  newspaper  perfecting 
presses,  though  very  much  smaller  in  bulk,  it  has  increased 
facilities  for  distribution,  and  finer  adjustments  through- 
out. The  plates  admit  of  underlays  and  overlays  the  same 
as  on  a  flat-bed  press.  Tliere  are  no  tapes,  the  folding  being 
done  on  rollers  and  small  cylinders  without  smutting  the 
printing.  In  the  folding-machine  there  are  knives  which 
cut  the  sheet  into  the  right  size  for  folding,  after  which  tlicy 
are  automatically  delivered  counted  in  lots  of  fifty  each. 
The  speed  on  a  thirty-two-page  form  is  about  16,000  copies 
per  hour. 

The  Century  Magazine's  Press. — In  1886  Hoe  &  Co.  made 
an  advance  toward  perfection  in  the  rotary  system  of  print- 
ing, and  constructed  for  Theodore  L.  l)e  Vinne,  the  printer 


of  The  Century  Magazine,  a  perfecting  press  to  do  the  plain 
forms  of  that  periodical. 

This  press  prints  from  curved  electrotype  plates,  and  the 
product  at  every  revolution  of  the  cylinder  is  sixty-four 
pages,  neatly  printed,  truly  cut,  and  accurately  registered 
and  fokled,  ready  for  the  binder.  This  web  press  is  not  so 
fast  as  the  web  press  of  daily  newspapers,  but  it  performs 
more  operations  and  does  more  accurate  work.  It  is  not 
large  or  noisy,  but  the  paper  goes  through  the  cylinders  at 
the  rate  of  nearly  200  feet  a  minute.  It  does  the  work  of 
ten  presses  of  the  stop  cylinder  or  two-revolution  type. 

The  Rotary  Art  Press. — The  success  of  this  perfecting 
press  induced  the  makers  to  devise  a  machine  on  the  rotary 
principle  adapted  for  the  finest  kind  of  illustrations;  in 
short,  to  make  a  press  which  should  do  work  as  fine  as  it 
was  possible  to  do  on  the  hand-press,  or  the  stop  cylinder. 
The  result  was  the  setting  up,  in  1890,  at  the  De  Vinne 
Press,  of  a  machine  known  as  the  rotary  art  press.  This 
machine  is  described  in  the  Century  of  Nov.,  1890,  as 
follows:  "Sixty-four  plates  of  the  ('«n/«ry,  truly  bent  to 
the  proper  curve,  are  firmly  fastened  on  one  cylinder  60 
inches  long  and  about  30  inches  in  diameter;  sixteen  ink- 
ing-rollers, supplied  with  ink  from  two  fountains,  success- 
fully ink  these  sixty-four  plates  with  a  delicacy  and  yet 
with  a  fullness  of  color  never  before  attained.  The  shafts 
of  the  impression-cylinder  and  the  plate-cylinders,  4-J  inches 
in  diameter,  do  not  give  or  spring  under  the  strongest  im- 
pression. Although  rigid  in  every  part,  in  the  hands  of  an 
expert  pressman  it  can  be  made  responsive  to  the  slightest 
overlay.  This  machine  is  fed  by  four  feeders  from  single 
sheets  in  the  usual  manner,  and  does  the  work  of  four  stop 
cylinders  in  superior  style." 

The  Onee-a-iVeek  Press. — Another  rotary  perfecting  ma- 
chine for  fine  cut-work  was  made  in  1891  liy  the  same  manu- 
facturers, and  is  known  as  the  Once-a-Week  press.  In  this 
machine  the  apparatus  for  printing  the  first  side  is  placed 
at  right  angles  with  that  for  the  second  side.  The  paper,  after 
being  taken  from  the  roll  through  the  first  pair  of  cylinders, 
printing  the  inside  or  type  side  of  the  periodical,  takes  a 
half  turn  over  obliquely  placed  turning-bars,  passing  the 
paper  reversed  into  the  other  portion  of  the  printing  appara- 
tus. This  second  portion  of  the  machine,  being  intended  to  do 
the  finest  quality  of  cut-work,  is  supplied  with  a  more  elab- 
orate inking  apparatus,  and  eight  form-rollers,  which  dis- 
tribute the  ink  in  thin  layers  over  the  plates.  In  the  fold- 
ing apparatus  tajies  are  entirely  dispensed  with,  and  the 
sheets  of  heavy  cut-work  are  folded  and  delivered  fresh 
from  the  press,  without  any  smutting  or  set-off  of  the  ink. 

Ingenious  devices  are  found  in  a  machine  which  was  con- 
structed in  1892,  and  put  up  in  the  office  of  the  Hartford, 
Coun.,  Courant.  From  a  single  set  of  stereotype  plates  this 
machine  produces  either  four,  six,  eight,  ten,  twelve,  four- 
teen, or  sixteen  page  papers  at  a  speed  of  12,000  per  hour, 
all  cut  at  the  top,  pasted  and  folded,  and  the  supplements 
inserted  in  their  proper  places.  With  duplicate  sets  of  plates 
it  will  print  four,  six,  or  eight  page  papers  at  24,000  per 
hour.  Two  narrow  rolls  are  placed  nearly  end  to  end  at 
the  back  of  the  machine.  The  paper  from  one  of  these  goes 
through  the  machine  and  is  printed,  then  over  the  "  former," 
and  on  to  the  final  cutting  cylinders  without  interruption. 
The  peculiarity  of  the  invention  consists  in  taking  the  paper 
from  the  other  roll,  which  is  run  at  half  the  speed  of  the  first, 
conveying  it  into  the  printing  mechanism  of  the  cylinders 
by  accelerating  its  motion,  and  presenting  the  small  sheet 
which  has  been  severed  for  the  two-page  supplement  between 
the  cylinders  in  such  a  way  that  it  receives  the  imjircssion 
from  the  two  supplement  plates.  This  machine  covers  a 
floor-space  of  only  18  feet  by  8-J  feet,  and  is  8  feet  high. 

Color-printing. — It  has  been  found  that  a  combination 
of  three  primary  colors  properly  printed  will  ]iroducc  any 
picture  required.  To  these  black  is  sometimes  added,  mak- 
ing four  printings  for  a  complete  colored  picture.  Taking 
advantage  of  this  the  daily  newspapers  have  attempted  to 
meet  the  popular  taste  for  colored  pictures,  and  to  that  end 
presses  have  been  constructed  for  some  of  the  leading  New 
York  newspapers.  In  the  presses  for  printing  in  colors  the 
forms  for  the  different  colors  are  placed  upon  separate  cylin- 
ders, opposite  to  each  of  which  are  attached  imjiression-cylin- 
ders.  The  paper  passing  through  this  series  of  cylinders  re- 
ceives in  perfect  register  the  different  colors,  having  first 
been  printed  in  black  upon  one  side.  These  colored  supple- 
ments are  delivered  from  the  machinesfolded,  without  smut- 
ting. The  art  of  simultaneous  color-printing  on  the  rotary 
principle  is  still  in  its  infancy.  Robert  Hoe. 


PRIOR 


PRISOX 


791 


Prior.  Matthew:  pool  ami  iliplomalist :  b.  at  Wini- 
borno-Minster,  Dorsetshire,  Knslniid,  July  21,  1664.  lie 
was  edueatetl  at  .St.  John's  CoUejje,  ('arabriilije.  where  he 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Charles  Jlontagu,  afterward  Karl 
of  Halifax,  and  with  him  wrote  a  poem,  The  City  Mouse 
and  Counlri/  JIousi-  (16HT),  intended  as  a  travesty  upon 
Dryden's  Hind  and  Panfher.  Introducetl  at  court  by  his 
patron,  Prior  became  a  favorite  with  William  III. ;  was 
secretary  of  the  commissioners  who  concluded  the  Treaty  of 
Ryswicli  1697;  secretary  of  embassy  at  Paris  16'J8:  I'nder- 
Secretary  of  State  1699;  commissioner  of  trade  1700,  in 
which  year  he  pulilished  his  Carman  Seciihire,  in  praise  of 
King  William  ;  entered  Parliament  1701  ;  became  soon 
afterward  a  vehement  Tory  ;  was  sent  to  Paris  with  Boling- 
broke  1711  to  make  private  proposals  for  peace;  was 
oliarged  with  treason  for  his  conduct  in  this  negotiation  on 
the  accession  of  the  Whigs  to  power  in  1714;  and  was  im- 
prisoned two  years  in  his  own  house,  during  which  time  he 
wrote  Alma,  or  the  I'roj/ress  of  the  Mind.  1>.  at  Wimpole, 
Cambridgeshire,  Sept.  18,  17"il,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  His  collected  poems  were  first  published 
in  1709,  and  in  a  sumptuous  folio  in  1718.  a  subscription 
edition  which  brought  him  £4,000.  He  excelled  in  epigram, 
society  verse,  and  the  short  humorous  fable.  A  selection 
of  his  poetry  was  edited  by  Austin  Dobson  in  1889. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Priscian,  .surnamed  C.esariensis,  probably  because  he 
was  born  at  tVsarea :  the  most  celebrated  Latin  gramma- 
rian ;  nourished  about  500  a.  d.,  and  was  a  teacher  of  Latin 
at  Constantinople,  where  he  received  a  salary  from  the 
eoui't.  lUAComnietitarionini  Graminalicorum  Libri XVIII., 
of  which  the  first  sixteen  V>ooks  treat  upon  the  eight  parts 
of  speech  recognized  by  the  ancient  grammarians,  and  the 
liu>t  two  on  syntax,  were  edited  by  Krehl  (Ijeipzig,  1819) 
and  Hertz  (Leipzig,  1855-59, 3  vols.).  Other  works  extant  are 
a  grammatical  catechism  on  parts  of  the  ^-Eneid,  a  treatise 
on  the  symbols  used  to  denote  immbers  and  weights,  an  essay 
on  accents,  another  on  the  meters  of  Terence,  etc.,  edited 
by  Lindemann  (Leyden,  1818)  and  by  Keil  (Leipzig,  1860). 
Two  ]M>ems,  De  Lniide  Anaslasii  imperatori,f,vinUen  about 
512,  and  Periege.'iis,  both  in  hexameters,  are  printed  in  Baeh- 
rens's  Poette  Lat.  3Iinores  (vol.  v.,  pp.  264-312). 

Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Pri.scia'nHS,  Tmeouorus:  physician;  a  pupil  of  Vindi- 
cianus.  He  lived  at  the  court  of  Constantinople  in  the 
fourth  century  a.  d.,  and  is  the  author  of  a  work,  Rerum 
Medicarum  lAltri  Qudtuor,  first  printed  in  1532  at  .Strass- 
burg,  in  which  he  tries  to  combine  the  ideas  of  the  method- 
ical and  dogmatical  schools  with  those  of  the  empirical. 

Priscil'liaii  :  Bishop  of  Avila,  in  S|iain;  belonged  to  a 
noble  Spanish  family  ;  founded  a  sect  whose  doctrines  were 
a  blending  of  iManicluvisni  and  Gnosticism.  In  379  the  exist- 
ence of  the  sect  became  known,  and  in  380  the  Council  of 
Saragossa  comlemned  its  doctrines  and  excommunicated  its 
founder.  The  influence  of  Priscillian  was  too  powerful, 
however,  and  his  most  zealous  adversary.  Bishop  Ithacius  of 
Ossonoba,  was  compelled  to  fly.  He  sought  refuge  with 
the  usurper  Maximus,  who  had  Priscillian  bronght  to  trial 
before  the  Council  of  Treves,  condemned,  and  put  to  death 
in  385.  It  was  the  fir.st  instance  of  a  Christian  Ijeing  put  to 
death  for  heresy,  and  it  arcnised  the  indignation  of  .St.  Mar- 
tin of  Tours.  St.  ^Vmbrose,  and  others.  The  sect  spread 
subseouently  from  Northern  Spain  to  Languedoc.  and  even 
into  Northern  Italy,  but  disappeared  entirely  in  the  sixth 
century,  after  the  second  .synod  of  Braga  in  .563.  See  Lub- 
kert,  Dn  Hcfresi  Priscilliani  (Copenhagen,  1840),  and  Man- 
dernach,  Iresc/iinhfe  des  Priscilliayiismiis  (Treves,  1851). 
Up  to  1885  it  was  supposrcl  that  no  works  of  Priscillian 
had  been  preserved,  but  in  that  year  G.  Schepss  discovered 
in  a  Wiirzburg  i\IS.  eleven  tractates,  which  he  proved  to 
be  by  Priscillian,  and  edited  in  the  Corpii.t  Errl.  hut.,  vol. 
xviii.  (Vienna,  188!t).  See  also  by  the  same  writer  Archiv. 
filr  Lat.  Lexifiigniptiie  (iii..  309-328),  and  Priscillian  tin 
ntuaufyefundfnvr  Lat.  Srhriftsteller  (Wiirzburg,  1886). 

Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Prism  [from  Lat.  prisma  =  dr.  wptcriio.  jirism,  liter., 
something  sawed  out.deriv.  of  wp(eiii.iTpl((ti',  saw]  :  a  polyhe- 
dron two  of  whose  faces  are  equal  polygons,  having  their 
sides  parallel  and  all  the  remaining  faces  |iarallelograms. 
The  first-nanie(l  faces  are  called  bases,  and  the  remaining 
ones  make  up  what  is  calleil  the  lateral  surface  of  the  prism. 
The  distance  bet sveen  the  bases  is  the  altitude  of  the  prism. 
For  the  N'icol  prism,  see  Polarization. 


Prisnioid  [Gr.  Trflffiia.  prism  +  suflfix  -oid,  having  tho 
form  of,  Gr.  cTSos.  form] :  a  polyhedron  resembling  a  prism. 
It  is  a  frustum  of  a  wedge.  The  volume  of  a  prisnioid  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  its  ])arallel  bases  plus  four  times  the 
section  midway  between  the  bases  nmlliplied  by  one-sixth 
of  the  altituile. 

Prisiiioidal  Formula  :  a  formula  for  computing  the 
volumes  of  certain  solids,  mainly  used  by  civil  engineers  for 
earthwork  calculations.  Let  L  be  the  length  of  any  prism, 
A  the  area  of  one  end,  B  the  area  of  the  other,  and  M  the 
area  of  a  section  halt  way  between  the  two  ends.  Then  tho 
volume  of  the  prism  is 

V  =^  iL(A  +  iM  +  B). 

This  fornnila  applies  not  only  to  prisms,  pyramids,  and 
solids  bounded  by  planes,  but  also  to  those  bounded  by 
warped  surfaces,  and  to  those  inclosed  by  surfaces  which  are 
generated  by  conic  sections. 

The  two-term  prismoidal  formula,  due  to  Halsted,  is 

V=iL(A  +  3X). 
in  which  3'  is  the  area  of  a  section  at  two-thirds  the  alti- 
tude from  the  l)ase  A.  Mansi'ielu  Merriman. 

Prison  [from  O.  Fr.  prison  :  Ital.  prigione  :  Span,  pri- 
sion  <  hat. pri'n'sio.  -on is  (or  /;re/ii°««(o),  seizure,  confliie- 
ment,  deriv.  of  prendere  (pretiendere),  seize] :  primarily,  a 
place  of  detention  for  debtors  or  persons  charged  with  po- 
litical or  other  crimes  until  they  were  tried  or  adjudged 
guilty  or  innocent  of  the  offenses  for  which  they  were  com- 
mitted ;  later,  the  prison  has  become,  to  some  extent,  the 
place  and  instrument  of  punishment.  The  idea  of  punish- 
ment by  imprisonment  itself  does  not  seem  to  have  entered 
into  the  minds  of  the  rulers  of  ancient  times,  though  the 
prison  was  often,  from  its  crowded  and  fdthy  condition,  its 
want  of  ventilation,  tlie  foul  fevers  and  plagues  engendered 
there,  and  the  starvation  inflicted  on  its  hapless  inmates,  a 
place  of  cruel  torture  and  often  of  speedy  death ;  but  the 
ancient  idea  of  punishment  was  embodied  in  the  stocks, 
scourging,  be.iting  with  rods,  the  bastinaiki,  the  knout,  the 
wheel,  the  rack,  the  thumb-screw,  the  iron  boot,  mutilation 
of  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  nose,  the  hand,  the  foot,  etc. ;  the 
crown  of  thorns,  walking  over  hot  irons  or  coals,  branding, 
whipping  at  the  whipping-post  or  the  tail  of  a  cart,  the  pil- 
lory, the  ball  and  chain,  the  treadmill,  or  the  galleys;  or, 
where  the  punishment  w;is  intended  to  be  death,  the  stake, 
the  terrible  death  by  crucifixion,  beheading,  stoning,  the  ad- 
ministration of  poison,  or,  in  more  modern  times,  hanging, 
the  guillotine,  or  the  garrote. 

Prisons  of  Egijpt  and  Palestine. — Detention  of  debtors 
and  of  political  and  other  offenders  was  very  early  an  ad- 
mitted necessity.  The  earliest  instances  of  its  use  are  found 
among  the  Egyptians,  whose  superior  civilization  led  them 
to  devise  measures  of  police  of  which  other  nations,  less  ad- 
vanced, had  not  yet  felt  the  want.  Thus  we  find  in  Gen. 
xxxix.  20  that  "Joseph's  master  took  him  and  put  liim  into 
the  prison,  a  place  where  the  king's  prisoners  were  bound  ; 
and  he  was  there  in  the  ]>rison."  This  was  primarily  a 
place  of  confinement  for  jiolitical  prisoners.  There  are  nu- 
merous references  to  prisons  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  well 
as  among  profane  writers  contemporary  with  its  later  books, 
but  always  as  a  place  of  detention  simply,  though  in  the 
case  of  Jin'emiah  the  dungeon  connected  with  the  prison 
(Jer.  xxxviii.  6),  from  the  depth  of  its  miry  bottom  and  its 
filthiness,  seems  to  have  been  intended  for  the  destruction 
of  the  prisoners  who  were  cast  into  it.  All  the  Oriental  mon- 
archies had  their  prisons;  but  though  tliese  were,  as  they 
are  still,  wretchecl,  ill-ventilated,  and  filthy  dens,  in  which 
it  would  seem  to  be  impossilile  to  sujiport  life,  and  where 
the  poor  culprit  who  had  no  money  or  friends  was  welcome 
to  die  of  starvation  and  foul  air  as  soon  as  he  liked,  yet 
the  only  theory  of  the  prison  was  that  it  was  simply  a  place 
of  detention,  and  no  length  of  endurance  of  its  horrors  was 
allowed  to  mitigate  in  any  way  the  .severity  of  the  iihysical 
tortures  or  punishments  inlliiicd  on  him  if  lie  was  found 
guilty  of  the  oiTense  with  which  he  was  charged. 

(ireek  and  lioman  Prisons. — .Among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans the  prison,  though  more  cleanly,  was  generally  only  a 
place  of  detention,  though  the  "  inner  pri.son."  low,  close,  and 
liardly  ventilated  at  all,  was  occasionally  made  a  place  of 
temporary  torture.  By  the  laws  of  Rome,  a  Roman  citizen 
could  not  be  cast  into  pri.son  except  by  the  direct  command 
of  the  ein|ieror  and  for  some  very  grave  offense;  and  the  vio- 
lation of  I  his  law  was  severely  iiuiiished.  The  usual  method 
of  detention  for  a  Roman  citizen  was  to  chain  his  right  arm 


792 


PRISON 


to  the  left  arm  of  a  soldier,  who  was  made  responsible  for 
his  safe-keeping  ;  sometimes  each  arm  was  chained  to  a 
soldier :  this  guard  was  changed  every  twelve  hours.  In 
the  first  century  after  Christ  there  was  at  Rome  one  prison, 
and  possibly  more,  intended  for  the  confinement  of  prison- 
ers condemned  to  death  or  awaiting  a  final  hearing  before 
the  emperor.  This  was  the  Mamertine  prison,  consisting  of 
two  (possibly  three)  distinct  vaults,  one  below  the  other. 
The  upper  was  16  feet  in  height,  30  in  length,  and  23  in 
breadth ;  the  lower  was  smaller  and  lower,  and  the  only 
access  to  it  was  by  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  ceiling, 
through  which  the  prisoners  were  let  down.  This  was  origi- 
nally the  case  also  with  the  upper  vault,  called  the  dungeon 
of  Ancus  Martins.  There  were  houses  of  detention  in  Rome 
which  were  used  for  the  safe  keeping  of  slaves.  Even  at  a 
later  period  the  Code  .Justinian  has  very  little  to  say  of  pris- 
ons ;  its  penalties  were  scourgings,  tortures,  mutilations,  and 
death. 

Medieval  Prisons. — With  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, and  the  assumption  of  power  over  small  districts  of 
territory  by  the  feudal  barons,  there  came  a  change.  The 
great  tower  of  every  castle,  the  donjon,  had  its  keep  or 
strong-room,  often  underground,  to  which  foe  or  rival  was 
forthwith  consigned.  They  were  utterly  unfit  for  the  con- 
finement of  human  beings,  and  the  names  oubliettes  (little 
places  of  the  forgotten)  or  vade-in-pace  (go  in  peace)  by 
which  they  were  designated  in  grim  jest  by  their  builders 
or  owners  indicated  but  too  truly  their  murderous  purpose. 
Of  a  somewhat  better  character,  though  still  cheerless  and 
almost  hopeless  prisons,  were  those  isolated  fortresses  where 
chiefs,  nobles,  and  kings  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  often  in- 
carcerated. The  Tower  of  London  belonged  to  the  same 
class. 

Prisons  of  the  Inquisition. — The  prisons  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion in  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Prance,  Belgium,  and  Aus- 
tria, though  not  in  the  main  intended  so  much  for  |)unish- 
ment  as  for  detention — the  punishment  (often  within  the 
prison-walls)  consisting  mainly  in  the  racks,  wheels,  boots, 
thumb-screws,  and  other  instruments  of  torture  which  a 
fiendish  ingenuity  exhausted  itself  in  contriving,  and  in  the 
autos-de-fe  and  other  modes  of  inflicting  the  death-penalty 
— were  yet,  in  some  cases,  places  of  protracted  and  cruel 
punishment,  in  which  every  idea  of  horror  and  ajiprehen- 
sion  which  could  torture  the  mind  of  the  victim  was  sug- 
gested, to  aggravate  the  distress  of  confinement.  Even  dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  century  the  victims  of  this  cruel  im- 
prisonment have  died  by  slow  torture. 

Prisons  of  the  Eighteenth  Century. — On  the  Continent, 
and  even  in  Great  Britain,  the  idea  that  imprisonment, 
except  in  the  case  of  political  offenders,  constitutes  any 
part  of  the  punishment  of  crime  does  not  seem  to  have 
dawned  upon  the  minds  of  statesmen,  political  economists, 
or  penologists — if  the  latter  class  could  be  said  to  have  ex- 
isted— until  well  into  the  eighteenth  century.  There  were 
jails,  houses  of  detention,  prisons — if  they  might  be  called 
such — biith  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  Continent,  but  they 
were  filled  with  debtors,  persons  arrested  for  crime  and 
awaiting  trial,  and  those  who  luid  been  sentenced  to  banish- 
ment or  transportation,  to  slavery,  to  the  galleys,  or  to  exe- 
cution. The  jails  and  prisons  were  so  filthy  and  ill-venti- 
lated that  deadly  fevers,  the  plague,  and  the  black  deatli 
would  occur  in  them,  and  frequently  spread  over  the  adja- 
cent country.  At  what  was  known  as  the  "Black  Assize" 
in  England,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  over  300  persons, 
including  juiiges,  jury,  lawyers,  and  spectators,  fell  victims 
to  a  malignant  jail-fever  which  was  communicated  by  the 
prisoners  brought  out  of  the  jail  for  trial.  The  moral  pol- 
lution of  these  jails  was  as  great  as  the  physical  :  the  gross- 
est intemperance  and  licentiousness  prevailed  in  all  of  them, 
and  the  fee  for  the  prostitution  of  the  female  prisoners  was 
a  recognized  perquisite  of  the  keepers. 

John  Howard  and  his  Associates. — Attempts  were  made 
to  reform  and  improve  the  jails  in  England,  as  well  as  on  t  he 
the  Continent,  by  .John  Howard  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century ;  they  were  attended  with  some  success,  though 
not  so  great  as  his  philanthropic  efforts  and  the  final  sacrifice 
of  his  life  to  the  cause  warranted.  Beccaria  in  Italy,  and  Sir 
William  Blackstone,  .Jeremy  fScntham,  and  Mr.  Eden  (after- 
ward Lord  Auckland)  in  Great  Britain,  took  up  the  work 
and  went  forward  with  it.  At  this  time,  however.  Great 
Britain  was  largely  engaged  in  schemes  of  transportation, 
which  her  statesmen  believed  would  rid  them  of  her 
vicious  po[iulation,  and  they  were  not  inclined  to  give  much 
heed  to  measures  of  prison  reform.     Tliey  had  sent  convicts 


to  Virginia  from  1619  to  17T0,  until  they  would  no  longer 
be  received,  and,  after  the  beginning  of  settlements  in  Aus- 
tralia and  the  adjacent  islands,  had  forwarded  thousands  to 
Botany  Bay,  Sydney,  Tasmania,  North  and  West  Australia, 
and  to  British  Guiana,  till  about  1850;  but,  contrary  to 
their  expectations,  the  number  of  criminals  at  home  did  not 
decrease.  Jlost  of  the  continental  states  had  tried  the  same 
experiment  of  transjjortation,  and  with  about  the  same  suc- 
cess. Prance,  while  sending  off  large  numbers  of  criminals, 
consigned  very  many  to  the  galleys,  where  they  learned  only 
evil,  and  at  their  discharge  became  leaders  in  crime.  Rus- 
sia sent  the  greater  part  of  her  criminals,  as  well  as  her 
political  offenders,  to  the  mines  in  Siberia,  and  most  of  the 
other  powers  rid  themselves  of  their  criminals  by  trans- 
portation wlierever  they  could  find  the  opportunity,  some- 
times sending  tliem  to  the  territories  of  the  U.  S.,  to  "Mexico, 
and  to  South  America.  These  efforts  did  not  lessen  the 
number  of  actual  criminals.  As  yet  the  possibility  of  the 
reformation  of  criminals  was  not  conceded. 

Prison  Reform  in  Oreat  Britain. — All  efforts  to  keep 
down  the  number  by  transportation  having  failed,  and  the 
benevolent  labors  of  John  Howard,  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Pry, 
and  of  the  aldermanic  committee  of  London  having  proved 
ineffectual  to  remedy  the  evil,  Sir  T.  Powell  Buxton,  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament,  published  in  1818  an  Inquiry  whether 
Crime  and  Jlisery  are  produced  or  prevented  by  the  Present 
System  of  Discipline.  After  a  conflict  of  nearly  thirty 
years  the  prisons  and  prison-systems  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  were  very  thoroughly  reformed ;  transportation 
ceased,  and  the  convict  prisons,  though  more  expensive  than 
they  should  be,  are  well  managed,  and  many  of  their  pris- 
oners are  reformed.  Many  of  the  convicts  are  employed  in 
the  great  naval  shipyar<ls  at  Dartmouth  and  Portsmouth. 
The  jails  are  cleaidy,  well-ventilated,  and  for  the  most  part 
have  some  employment  for  the  prisoners,  which  keeps  them 
from  mischief  and  contributes  a  small  sum  toward  the  ex- 
pense of  their  support.  The  reformatories  for  young  offend- 
ers have,  by  reforming  the  young  criminals,  prevented  the 
increase  of  the  criminal  class,  and  greatly  diminished  the 
number  and  magnitude  of  crimes  in  the  kingdom.  In  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  by  a  different  application  of  the  same 
principles,  a  still  greater  measure  of  success  has  been  at- 
tained. What  is  known  as  the  Crofton  or  Irish  system  of 
prison  discipline  has  proved  very  successful  in  Ireland. 

Prisons  in  the  United  States. — In  the  U.  S.  transportation 
has  never  been  attempted  as  a  means  of  ridding  the  com- 
munity of  the  dangerous  classes.  Before  the  Revolutionary 
war  the  criminal  code  was  very  severe;  death  was  the  pen- 
alty of  a  great  number  of  crimes;  in  one  of  the  States  115 
crimes  punishable  by  death  were  enumerated ;  in  other 
States  the  number  was  from  80  to  100.  Burglary,  horse- 
stealing, highway  robbery,  and  even  grand  larceny,  as  well 
as  forgery,  counterfeiting,  and  numy  other  crimes  now  pun- 
ishal)le  by  a  moderate  term  of  imprisonment,  subjected  the 
criminal  to  the  death-penalty.  At  tlie  same  time  tlie  prisons 
were  in  a  wretched  condition,  hardly  better  tlian  those  of 
Great  Britain.  In  1786  Pennsylvania  made  the  first  effort 
at  im])rovement  of  her  prisons  by  the  adoption  of  the  solitary/ 
plan  of  discipline.  Reforms  were  accomplished  in  Boston  by 
the  Prison  Discipline  Society,  which  existed  from  1824  to  1844 
The  Prison  Association  of  New  York  was  organized  in  1844. 
The  "separate  plan"  in  operation  at  tlie  Eastern  peniten- 
tiary at  Philadelphia  is  very  expensive ;  the  work  is  un- 
profitable, the  proceeds  of  it  not  defraying  more  than  one- 
sixth  of  the  expenses  of  the  prison  ;  and,  though  there  is  not 
so  much  insanity  or  fatuity  as  under  the  solitary  system,  the 
prisoners  fail  in  self-reliance,  and  are  vei-y  seldom  of  any 
service  to  the  community  after  their  discharge.  In  1831-23 
the  "congregated  or  silent  system"  (now  known  as  the  Au- 
burn system),  was  adopted  at  Aulnirn,  N.  Y.,  and  soon  at- 
tained such  a  reputation  that  it  was  adopted  by  other  States, 
and  with  various  modifications  is  now  the  prevalent  system 
in  the  U.  S.     See  Prison  Discipline. 

In  many  of  the  congregate  prisons  the  labor  of  the  prison- 
ers is  let  to  contractors  at  a  given  sum  per  day :  in  several 
of  the  States  the  whole  expenses  of  the  prison  are  thus  de- 
frayed, and  in  some  a  surplus  is  paid  into  the  State  treasury. 
In  some  cases  the  State  employs  the  convicts  and  disposes 
of  the  products  of  their  labor,  but  these  generally  fail  to  de- 
fray the  entire  expenses.  Jlauy  objections  have  been  made 
to  the  contracting  of  the  labor  of  prisoners,  and  in  several 
States  it  has  been  superseded  by  what  is  known  as  the 
"piece  price,"  and  "State  account"  systems. 

County  Jails. — Of  all  the  prisons  in  the  U.  S.,  county  jails 


PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


793 


are  the  most  unsatisfactory.  Willi  rare  exceptions,  prison- 
ers of  all  grades  and  of  all  ages  are  horded  together  in  a 
common  hall,  and  the  contaminating  influences  of  associa- 
tion are  so  injurious  that  all  penologists  are  agreed  in  the 
conclusion  thai  no  large  progress  can  he  made  in  reducing 
crime  until  this  evil  is  corrected.  The  remedy  clearly  con- 
sists in  such  a  separation  of  prisoners  awaiting  trial  as  will 
not  permit  any  prisoner  to  associate  with  any  other  prisoner. 
This  rule  has  been  enforced  in  England  for  many  years,  and 
its  violation  by  any  jailer  is  made  a  penal  ollense  by  act  of 
Parliament.  In  the  U.  .S.  this  system  was  first  adopted  in 
Massachusetts,  in  the  SiiiTolk  County  jail  in  Boston  about 
1800.  and  the  results  have  been  so  satisfactory  that  it  has 
been  extended  to  all  other  jails  in  the  State  where  the  con- 
struction of  the  jail  will  permit.  In  Ohio  a  similar  require- 
ment has  been  made  by  legislative  enactment,  and  in  several 
Western  States  new  jails  have  been  constructed  with  a  view 
to  confining  prisoners  in  separate  cells.  See  bn'RisoxjiiiXT. 
Revised  by  R.  Brinkerhoff. 

Prison  Discipline:  the  proper  care  and  regulation  of 
persons  suffering  detention  or  ]junishment  by  incarceration. 
Tliree  systems  of  prison  discipline  divide  the  study  and  the 
suffrages  of  the  civilized  world — viz.,  the  Auburn,  or  con- 
gregate silent  system ;  the  Philadelphia,  or  separate  cell 
system  ;  and  the  system  of  progressive  classification — some- 
times called  the  Irish  system,  because  first  applied  in  Ire- 
land— sometimes  the  ("rolton  system,  from  the  name  of  the 
man  who  devised  and  applied  it  in  the  form  it  has  there,  al- 
though Capt.  Alexander  Maconochie,  of  the  British  navy, 
was  the  real  author  of  the  system.  The  essential  principle 
of  the  Auburn  system  is  that  of  absolute  separation  of  the 
prisoners  by  night  and  associated  silent  labor  by  day.  This 
system  is  almost  universal  in  the  V.  S.,  and  has  also  a  foot- 
hold in  various  Euro|]ean  countries,  where,  too,  the  old  system 
of  common  dormitories  has  far  too  wide  a  prevalence,  though 
it  has  no  defenders.  Some  of  the  convict  prisons  of  the 
U.  S.  do  not  even  claim  to  conduct  their  discipline  upon  the 
strictly  silent  principle ;  in  others,  where  the  claim  is  made, 
the  rule  of  silence  has  but  a  partial  enforcement,  while  in 
comparatively  few  is  the  rigidity  of  the  old  discipline  of  ab- 
solute non-intercourse  maintained  in  full  force.  The  essen- 
tial principle  of  the  separate-cell  system  is  that  of  a  com- 
plete bodily  separation  of  tin'  ]>risoners  in  labor,  recreation, 
and  rest.  The  Eastern  penitentiary  at  Philadelphia  is  the 
only  State  prison  in  the  U.  S.  conducted  upon  the  separate 
system.  There  are,  however,  two  local  prisons  in  Penn- 
sylvania, at  Chester  and  Media,  where  the  system  is  still  in 
operation.  This  system,  known  throughout  the, world  as 
the  Pennsylvania  system,  has  been  adopted  with  some  modi- 
fications  in  several  European  countries,  notably  in  Belgium, 
where  it  is  in  operation  in  all  convict  prisons,  apparently 
with  good  results.  In  the  U.  S.  it  has  not  proved  satisfac- 
tory. Isolation  lies  at  the  foundation  of  both  these  systems. 
The  difference  between  them  is  one  of  application  rather 
than  of  principle. 

IVie  System  of  Progressive  Classification. — Capt.  Alex- 
ander Maconochie  was,  on  his  own  api)lication  in  1840,  in- 
vested with  the  governorship  of  the  British  penal  colony  of 
Norfolk  island,  at  that  time  containing  a  criminal  popula- 
tion of  1,500,  made  up  of  the  worst  convicts  ever  sent  out 
by  the  mother-country.  He  there  became  the  originator 
and  founder  of  the  system  of  progressive  classification  as 
an  agent  in  prison  disciplin(!  and  the  reformation  of  prison- 
ers. The  discipline  inaugurated  by  him  was  called  by  its 
author  the  "social  system  of  prison  treatment,"  because  of 
the  play  therein  given  to  the  social  instincts  of  hunnmity  ; 
but  it  is  commonly  known  among  penologists  as  the  "  mark  " 
system,  because  of  the  use  which  it  makes  of  marks  in  re- 
cording the  progress  of  the  prisoner  in  industry,  education, 
order,  and  virtue.  Capt.  JMaconocliie  sought  to  make  prison 
life  an  image  of  free  life.  lie  treated  the  convict  as  a  laborer, 
with  marks  for  wages.  His  nuirks  were  nuide  to  i>lay  the  part 
of  money,  for  with  them  the  prisoner  was  refpiired  to  pur- 
chase his  food,  clothes,  schooling,  etc.,  while  oidy  the  surplus 
of  these  earnings  counted  toward  his  liberation.  Undi^r  this 
system  the  prisoner  is  not  to  be  sentenced  to  a  certain  num- 
ber of  months  or  years,  but  to  earn  a  certain  number  of  nnirks 
over  and  above  his  kee|).  Maconochie  fixed  on  ten  marks  as  a 
fair  day's  wages,  the  men  being  paid  by  piece-work,  and  not 
by  time,  and  for  every  ten  marks  saved  the  convict  shortened 
his  imprisonment  by  a  day.  At  the  stores  he  purchased  his 
dailv  supplies,  paying  for  them  in  marks.  The  rations  were 
served  out  at  three  rates.     The  coarsest  cost  three  marks 


per  day,  the  next  four,  and  the  best  five.  The  self-denying 
prisoner  might  thus  save  seven  and  the  self-indulgent  five 
marks  each  day  for  the  purchase  of  his  liberty.  As  extra 
marks  were  allowed  for  overwork,  it  was  possit)le  to  hoard 
at  the  rate  of  eight  or  ten  a  day  as  the  fruit  of  diligence 
and  self-denial.  Moreover,  the  marks  furnished  the  means 
of  disciplinary  punishment,  a  proportionate  fine  in  marks 
being  the  penalty  for  every  act  of  disobedience  or  failure 
in  duty.  While,  by  this  machinery  of  marks,  Capt.  Ma- 
conochie trained  his  convicts  to  habits  of  industry  and  fru- 
gality, he  adopted  different  means  to  accomplish  his  other 
objects.  He  divided  the  convicts"  sentences  into  three  pe- 
riods. During  the  first  or  penal  stage  the  men  worked 
under  a  sharp  and  stringent  discipline.  At  the  conclusion 
of  this  they  were  allowed  to  form  themselves  into  compa- 
nies of  six  each — the  members  of  each  company  being  left  to 
choose  their  own  companions — and  then  they  entered  into 
the  second  or  social  stage.  In  this  stage  the  six  prisoners 
forming  a  company  had  a  common  fund  of  marks,  into 
which  common  stock  the  daily  earnings  of  each  member 
were  paid,  and  from  which  the  supplies  and  fines  for  the 
whole  company  were  deducted.  They  were  thus  made  re- 
sponsible for  each  other's  conduct,  and  naturally  became 
watchful  both  over  themselves  and  their  companions.  In  the 
last  or  individualized  stage  the  companies  were  broken  up, 
and,  though  every  man  was  still  kept  at  work  to  earn  his  daily 
talc  of  nutrks,  he  was  in  other  respects  comparatively  free. 
He  had  his  own  hut  and  garden,  his  own  piggery  and  poul- 
try-yard, the  products  of  which  he  might  sell  to  the  olHcers 
of  the  colcjny  or  the  ships  that  touched  at  the  island.  By 
thus  giving  the  probationer  property  and  rights  of  his  own, 
Maconochie  hoped  to  teach  him  respect  for  those  of  other 
people.  He  was  four  years  on  Norfolk  island.  His  success 
was  wonderful,  though  he  was  never  allowed  by  the  British 
Government  to  bring  all  the  jjrinciples  of  his  system  into 
play,  and  so  give  it  a  full  and  fair  trial. 

A  tew  years  after  Maconoehie's  retirement  from  Norfolk 
island,  Capt.  (later  Sir)  Walter  Crofton,  following  in  his  foot- 
prints, devised  and  established  a  new  system  of  convict  pris- 
ons for  Ireland.  He  adopted  the  nuirk  system  of  Macono- 
chie, with  modifications  which  improved  it  in  many  impor- 
tant respects.  The  Crofton  system  consists  of  three  stages: 
A  penal  stage  of  separate  imprisonment,  continuing  eight 
months:  a  reformatory  stage,  longer  or  shorter  according 
to  the  length  of  the  sentence,  with  separation  at  night  and 
associated  labor  by  day,  in  which  the  principle  of  progres- 
sive classification  is  applied  with  a  gradual  lifting  of  re- 
straint and  enlargement  of  privilege,  including  an  increased 
share  in  his  earnings  as  the  prisoner  advances  from  class  to 
class;  and  a  testing  stage,  designed  to  verify  the  reforma- 
tory power  of  the  preceding  discipline,  and  also  to  serve  as 
a  period  of  natural  training  which  shall  gradually  prepare 
the  prisoner  for  full  liberty.  The  Crofton  system  may  be 
shortly  defined  as  an  adult  reformatory,  in  whidi  the  will 
of  the  prisoner  is  brought  into  accord  with  the  will  of  the 
prison-keeper,  and  held  there  for  so  long  a  time  that  virtue 
becomes  a  habit,  and  where  the  object  is  to  teach  and  train 
the  prisoner,  during  his  detention,  in  such  manner  that  on 
his  discharge  he  may  be  able  to  resist  temptation  and  in- 
clined to  lead  an  upright,  worthy  life.  This  must  be  done 
by  |ilacing  the  prisoner's  fate,  as  far  as  possible,  in  his  own 
hands,  and  by  enabling  him,  through  industry  and  good  con- 
duct, to  raise  himself,  step  by  step,  to  positions  of  increased 
freedom  and  privilege;  while  i<lleness  and  bad  conduct,  on 
the  other  hand,  keep  him  in  a  condition  of  coercion  and  re- 
straint. 

Croftox  System  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  L'.  S.,  reformatories  for  adult  criminals  upon  the 
general  principles  of  the  Crofton  system  have  been  estab- 
lished in  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
Michigan,  and  Minnesota. 

The  Elmira  Reforniattiry. — The  first  of  these,  the  Elmira 
Reformatory,  upon  which  the  others  are  nuiiidy  patterned, 
was  opened  in  1870  at  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  and  is  known  as  the 
New  York  .State  Reformatory.  Prisoners  received  at  El- 
mira arc  such  as  are  convicted  of  their  first  offense  for  fel- 
ony, and  are  held  under  what  is  known  as  the  indefinite  or 
indeterminate  sentence;  that  is,  they  are  not  sentenced  for 
any  specific  period  of  time,  but  may  be  held  for  the  maxi- 
mum period  for  which  they  might  have  been  sentenced  for 
the  crime  committed,  and  can  not  be  discharged  until  they 
have  served  the  minimum  period  provided  by  statute  for 
such  offense ;  but  having  served  such  minimum  period  they 


r9-t 


PRISON  DISCIPLINE 


PRIVATEERING 


may  be  allowed,  under  regulations  established  by  the  board 
of  managers,  to  go  upon  parole  outside  of  the  buildings  and 
inclosures,  but  to  remain,  while  on  [larole,  in  the  legal  cus- 
tody and  under  the  control  of  the  board,  and  subject  at  any 
time  to  be  taken  back  to  the  institution. 

Classification  of  Inmates. — Tlii'  reformatory  plan  includes 
the  dividing  of  prisoners  into  three  grades,  viz.,  the  upper 
first,  the  lower  first,  and  tlie  second ;  and  all  enter  the  lower 
first,  to  rise  or  fall  according  to  cornpliance  with  reforma- 
tory requirements.  The  measure  of  every  man's  career  in 
the  reformatory  is  the  record  appearing  upon  the  pages 
bearing  his  name  in  the  conduct,  labor,  and  school  ledgers. 
By  maintaining  a  good  record  for  six  successive  months 
prisoners  in  this  grade  may  advance  to  the  upper-first  grade, 
from  which  alone  they  may  secure  release  prior  to  the  ex- 
piration of  the  maximum  time  for  which  they  could  have 
been  imprisoned.  In  this  they  wear  a  uniform  of  sky-blue, 
their  cells  are  more  commodious,  and  they  have  more  privi- 
leges in  many  ways.  If  their  records  continue  perfect  an- 
other six  months  they  become  candidates  for  conditional  re- 
lease, provided  satisfactory  em]5loyment  can  be  secured  for 
them.  The  downward  step  from  the  lower-first  grade  leads 
to  the  second  or  convict  grade.  Into  this  drop  the  lower- 
first  grade  men  whose  conduct,  school,  or  labor  records  are 
imperfect  for  two  or  three  months  in  succession.  Those  who 
are  reduced  to  this  class  forfeit  all  credit  marks,  and  may 
secure  readmission  to  the  next  higher  grade  only  by  earn- 
ing a  perfect  marking  for  three  successive  months.  Those 
who  fall  to  the  second  grade  a  second  time  may  not  emerge 
from  it  for  six  months,  and  the  third  degradation  is  not  fol- 
lowed by  advancement  for  a  year.  The  uniform  of  the  con- 
vict grade  is  a  bright  red.  Its  wearers  are  quartered  in  the 
smallest  cells,  are  deprived  of  all  room  furniture  not  essen- 
tial to  health  and  cleanliness,  have  no  sheets  on  their  beds, 
receive  no  tea  or  cofi;ee  with  their  rations,  lose  the  privilege 
of  drawing  literature  of  any  kind  from  the  library,  and  lose 
their  right  to  receive  trade  instructions  as  such. 

While  men  of  the  upper-flrst  grade  are  allowed  to  write 
one  letter  each  month,  and  those  of  the  lower  first  one  in 
every  two  months  to  known  relatives,  second-grade  men  are 
not  permitted  to  have  any  communication  whatever  with  the 
outside  world. 

In  the  cell  blocks,  on  the  drill-ground,  and  at  general  as- 
semblages the  members  of  the  difllerent  grades  are  grouped 
and  kept  separate  one  from  another;  but  it  is  impossible,  of 
course,  to  maintain  this  separation  in  the  shops  and  trade- 
sehools.  The  engagements  of  each  inmate  are  intended  to 
absorb  his  thoughts  completely  during  the  most  of  his  wak- 
ing moments,  and  they  are  suliiciently  varied,  though  sys- 
tematized, to  prevent  any  of  the  noxious  effects  upon  the 
mind  that  are  often  the  effect  of  monotonous  habits.  Their 
engagements  are  work  in  the  shops,  trade-schools,  and  other 
occupations,  and  the  day  is  closed  with  military  drill  and 
dress  parade.  In  the  evening  are  cla-ss  meetings  in  school 
studies  and  other  educational  opportunities. 

The  results  of  reformatory  treatment  under  these  condi- 
tions have  been  very  satisfactory,  and  the  records  show  that 
of  the  graduates  of  Elmira  over  80  per  cent,  have  reinstated 
themselves  in  society,  and  are  earning  an  honest  living. 

Other  Reformatories. — The  reformatory  at  Concord,  Mass., 
was  opened  in  1884.  Like  Elmira  it  has  three  grades,  and  a 
marking  system  by  which  the  prisoner  rises  or  falls,  but  un- 
like Elmira  it  receives  misdemeanants  as  well  as  felons,  and 
there  is  no  limit  as  to  age  or  number  of  offenses,  and  only  a 
part  of  the  prisoners  are  subject  to  the  indeterminate  sen- 
tence. The  prison  for  women  at  Sherborn,  Mass.,  estab- 
lished in  1877,  is  .also  conducted  on  a  system  similar  to  that 
of  Elmira,  although  it  has  four  grades  instead  of  three.  It 
is  wholly  under  the  management  of  women,  and  as  a  prison 
for  women  it  has  no  superior. 

Corporal  Punishments. — In  the  U.  S.,  in  the  best-regidated 
prisons,  corporal  jjunishments  are  no  longer  considered  a 
necessity  for  the  maintenance  of  discipline,  and  in  manv 
they  are  entirely  ahobshed.  In  the  Western  penitentiary  of 
Pennsylvania,  at  Allegheny,  no  form  of  physical  torture  h<as 
been  tolerated  since  about  1870,  and  so  also  at  the  great 
prisons  at  Jullrt,  111.,  and  the  military  prison  at  Leaven- 
worth, Kan.,  and  better  discipline  is  reported  than  in  previ- 
ous years  when  the  lash  or  its  equivalents  were  in  use. 

In  New  Jersey,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  and  other  States,  cor- 
poral punishments  are  prohibited  by  law,  and  a  majority  of 
the  most  enlightened  i)rison-wardeus"  in  the  IT.  S.  regard  them 
as  a  relic  of  barbarism,  and  worse  than  useless  in  the  main- 
tenance of  order  in  prison. 


Prison  A.'isociations. — Among  the  agencies  in  the  IT.  S. 
which  have  been  largely  instrumental  in  educating  the  public 
mind  to  the  requirements  of  better  methods  in  dealing  with 
the  criminal  classes  are  the  various  prison  associations.  State 
and  national,  and  State  boards  of  charity  and  correction. 
The  most  important  of  these  is  the  National  Prison  Con- 
gress, which  was  organized  in  1870  and  brings  together  an- 
nually, for  the  discussion  of  prison  questions,  prison  officials 
and  others  interested  in  pi'ison  management.  The  annual 
reports  of  these  various  associations  constitute  a  library 
upon  prison  subjects,  and  as  knowledge  accumulates  penol- 
ogy is  more  and  more  becoming  an  exact  science. 

Among  the  principles  already  established  sufficiently  to  be 
considered  axioms  by  penologists  in  the  U.  S.  are — 

1.  County  jails  should  be  solely  places  for  the  detention  of 
prisoners  awaiting  trial,  and  in  them  no  prisoner  shoukl  be 
permitted  to  associate  with  any  other  prisoner.  3.  Prisoners 
convicted  of  misdemeanors  should  be  sent  to  district  work- 
houses and  employed  at  productive  labor.  3.  Prisoners 
convicted  of  felony  should  he  sent  to  jjenitentiaries,  of 
which  there  sliould  be  at  least  two  in  each  State — one  a  re- 
formatory for  young  men,  and  the  other  for  life-prisoners 
and  ineorrigibles.  4.  All  sentences,  except  for  life,  should  be 
indefinite,  subject  to  parole  and  police  supervision  within  a 
minimum  and  maximum  limit.  5.  All  able-bodied  prisoners 
should  be  kept  at  productive  labor,  but  those  in  reforma- 
tories should  receive  such  educational  and  industrial  train- 
ing as  will  enable  them  to  earn  an  honest  living  after  dis- 
charge. 6.  All  prisoners  upon  discharge  sliould  be  systemat- 
ically aided  to  obtain  em])loyment.  7.  Prisoners  convicted 
more  than  twice  for  felony  should  be  adjudged  incorrigible 
and  sentenced  for  life,  or  at  least  for  long  periods,  with  the 
privilege  of  parole  for  good  conduct  at  the  maximum  limit 
of  a  first  conviction.  8.  Prison  officers  should  be  as  thor- 
oughly trained  for  their  duties  as  are  army  and  navy  officers, 
and  their  teiuire  of  office  sliould  be  as  secure  and  their  com- 
pensation as  liberal.  9.  Prisoners  convicted  of  violations  of 
Federal  laws  should  be  confined  in  prisons  owned  and  con- 
trolled by  the  general  Government.  10.  In  all  prisons  moral 
and  religious  culture  should  be  the  leading  reformatory  in- 
fluences, and  a  prison  school,  with  competent  instructors, 
should  be  an  indispensable  requirement. 

Revised  by  R.  Brinkerhoff. 

Prisoners  of  War :  See  War. 

Pris'tidsp  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Pris'tis,  the  typical 
gemis.  from  Gr.  irpitrTir.  assumed  to  mean  sawfish  (deriv.  of 
irpieiv,  saw),  properly  Trprjo-Tis,  a  kind  of  whale,  liter.,  blower, 
s|iouter,  deriv.  of  irpiiBeiv,  blow,  spout] :  a  family  of  sela- 
chians of  the  order  liai.a',  represented  by  the  sawfishes.  The 
body  combines  peculiarities  of  the  sharks  and  rays,  being 
elongated  like  the  former,  but  with  the  pectoral  fins  devel- 
oped and  the  branchial  apertures  inferior,  as  in  the  latter ; 
the  shagreen  is  very  fine  ;  the  snout  produced  into  a  very 
long,  flat,  dagger-like  appendage,  which  is  armed  on  each 
edge  with  a  row  of  strong,  compressed,  straight  teeth.  The 
nostrils  are  inferior ;  mouth  small  and  transverse  ;  teeth  on 
the  jaws  minute  ;  branchial  apertures  inward  from  the  base 
of  the  pectoral  fins  ;  spiracles  large,  behind  the  eyes  ;  dorsal 
fins  two.  unarmed,  the  first  more  or  less  behind  the  ventrals ; 
pectorals  with  the  front  margins  free,  and  not  extending  on 
the  head.  The  teeth  which  are  on  the  margin  of  the  saw 
are  of  peculiar  development,  and  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  true  teeth  of  the  jaws  ;  the  skeleton  of  the  saw-like 
appendage  has  from  three  to  five  hollow  sub-cylindrical  tubes 
which  taper  toward  the  end,  and  are  incrusted  with  a  grain- 
like osseous  deposit.  The  sawfishes  are  found  in  all  trojiical 
seas,  and  one  species  {Pristis  antiquorum)  occurs  on  both 
coasts  of  tlie  LT.  S.,  especially  in  the  more  southern  waters. 
An  I^ast  Indian  species  lives  in  part  in  fresh  water. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Privateering  :  the  act  or  practice  of  cruising  in  a  priva- 
teer for  the  purpo.se  of  preying  upon  the  merchant  vessels 
of  a  hostile  power. 

As  there  may  be  legalized  land  forces  of  an  irregular 
character  to  supplement  a  regular  army,  on  the  condition  of 
tlieir  conforming  to  the  rules  and  usages  of  war,  so  upon 
the  high  seas  the  war  navy  of  a  belligerent  may  be  assisted 
in  certain  of  its  duties  by  private  armed  vessels. 

These  vessels,  with  their  crews,  might  be  hired  by  the  gov- 
ernments, or  impressed  into  the  sovereign's  service,  whether 
owned  by  natives  or  by  foreignens — the  latter  called  Ww  jus 
(inr/ariie  or  drnif  d'anparie;  or  they  might  be  vessels  owned 
and  manned  by  private  persons  but  kejit  up  at  the  public 


PRIVATEERING 


PRIVILEGE 


795 


expense  ;  or  public  vessels  with  a  civw  aiul  outfit  provided 
for  by  private  persons;  or,  finally,  private  vessels  officered 
and  sent  to  sea  at  the  charges  and  risk  of  private  persons 
under  a  government  commission.  Of  these  four  ways  of 
sending  vessels  out  to  sea,  the  last-named  only  has  been  in 
vogue  in  the  most  modern  times.  In  commercial  states  this 
ha-s  been  a  favorite  way  of  employing  .sailors  and  niercliant 
ships  when  trade  was  crippled  by  war;  and  to  a  nation  with 
a  small  navy  but  with  a  large  seafaring  class  it  offered  the 
prospect  of  something  like  eciuality  on  the  sea  with  a  nation 
possessing  a  good-sized  Heet. 

Although  sometimes  bounties  have  been  offered  to  priva- 
teers for  the  capture  of  the  men-of-war  of  an  enemy,  this 
can  hardly  be  considered  a  usual  part  of  their  duty  or  be 
reasonalily  expected  of  them.  They  are  neither  built, 
armed,  nor  manned  with  such  service  in  view,  but  rather 
to  prey  ui)on  the  commerce  of  an  enemy,  being  entitled  to 
a  share  in  their  captures. 

In  commissioning  privateers  it  is  usual  for  a  govern- 
ment to  put  their  owners  and  captains  under  bonds.  A 
letter  of  nuinpie  is  given,  which  aluuc  entitles  a  vessel  to 
any  share  in  a  capture  madi'  from  the  enemy,  after  adjudi- 
cation by  a  prize  court,  and  the  absence  of  which  exposes 
a  vessel  "calling  itself  a  privateer,  with  its  crew,  to  harsh 
treatment,  as  having  almost  a  piratical  character.  Any 
great  irregularity  or  lawlessness  will  involve  forfeiture  of 
vessels  and  other  penalties,  including  by  English  usage 
damages  from  the  owners;  but,  in  truth,  lawlessness  and 
harsh  treatment  of  the  enemy  could  iu'ver  be  prevented. 
The  motive  of  the  expedition  being  plunder,  the  captain 
and  officers  having  no  professional  honor,  the  crews  being 
often  a  motley  collection  of  adventurers,  privateering  was 
long  felt  to  be  a  great  evil,  and  earnest  voices  were  raised 
against  it,  especially  by  enlightened  men  in  the  V.  S.  Thus 
Franklin  inserted  a  provision  forbidding  reciprocally  the 
issue  of  letters  of  mariiue  in  the  treaty  l)et\veen  the  V.  S. 
and  Pru.ssia  negotiated  by  him  in  1785.  .At  length,  in  18.56, 
the  parties  to  the  Declanition  of  Paris  brought  aliout  a  new 
era  in  international  law  by  the  four  rules  relating  to  war- 
fare on  the  sea,  one  of  which  was  that  "  privateering  is  and 
remains  abolished.''  Other  nations  were  invited  to  give 
their  assent  to  these  rules  on  the  condition  of  accepting  all 
or  none,  and  nearly  all  Chi'istiau  states  accepted  tTiem. 
.Several  of  them  were  sucli  as  the  U.  S.  had  always  con- 
tended for,  but  adhesion  was  refused  on  the  ground  that  the 
republic  would  have  no  ade((n!ite  force,  if  it  abandoned 
privateering,  to  cope  with  nations  possessing  a  large  navy, 
as  its  own  jjolicy  was  to  have  a  small  one.  The  offer,  how- 
ever, was  made— but  without  effect — to  adopt  the  rules, 
provided  that  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Paris  would 
go  further  and  exempt  all  innocent  traffic  of  enemies  on  the 
.sea  from  capture.  This  was  called  the  Marey  amendment. 
In  1861  Mr.  Seward,  being  Secretary  of  State,  made  offer  to 
two  of  the  principal  European  powers,  on  the  part  of  the 
U.  S.,  to  come  under  the  operation  of  the  four  rules  ;  but  as 
it  was  understood  that  tin;  stipulation  would  be  for  the  en- 
tire republic,  including  the  Confederate  States,  and  as  thus 
the.se  powers  would  be  parties  in  imposing  a  rule  of  warfare  on 
the  Confederate  Stati's,  as,  in  short,  it  was  a  scheme  to  ]ire- 
vent  them  from  using  privateers  by  the  aid  of  international 
law,  till'  offer  was  declined.     .See  1)i:clar.\tiox  ok  Paris. 

The  aliandonment  of  the  use  of  privateers  by  so  large  a 
number  of  states,  and  the  provision  for  the  safety  of  ene- 
mies' goods  on  neutral  vessels  in  the  same  document,  put 
a  new  face  on  maritime  warfare.  At  the  outbreak  of  a  war, 
if  the  risk  of  capture  is  great  enough,  neutral  vessels  hence- 
forth will  take  the  place  of  ludligereiit  oiu's  for  commercial 
purposes,  and  the  motive  of  capture  is  greatly  diminished 
for  public  cruisers,  the  only  ones  now  remaining.  Thus  it 
can  be  no  very  great  concession  that  belligerents  may  safely 
use  their  own  merchant  ships,  unless  neutrals  regard  it  of 
importance  for  them  to  get  the  business  of  times  of  contest 
into  their  hands.  The  parties  to  the  four  rules,  however, 
may  still  legitimately  employ  |irivateers  against  the  U.  S. 
and  other  non-signers  of  the  rules,  tlie  obligation  to  observe 
them  being  only  a  reciprocal  one  between  the  signers. 

Subjects  of  the  U.  S.  are,  by  statute,  forbidden  to  accept 
letters  of  marijne  fi'om  powers  at  pejice  with  it,  and  this, 
apart  from  the  Declaration  of  Paris,  is  a  common  rule. 
Privateers  were  not  employed  by  either  North  or  South  in 
the  civil  war  in  the  U.  S.,  the  Confederate  ships  commoidy 
called  privateers  being  really  commissioned  men-oC-war, 
though  in  some  cases  illegally  fitted  out. 

Revi.sed  by  T.  S.  Woolsky. 


Privet  [other  Eng.  names  for  the  same  are  primprini, 
primef.  tiiioU'b  privie.  The  iiitroiluclion  of  the  v  is  unex- 
plained ;  primd  is  probably  connected  with  prune,  to  trim]: 
the  Liiiunlrum  i-ulgare,  an  oleaceous  slirnb  of  Europe,  now 
luiluraiized  to  some  extent  in  the  U.  S. ;  chiefiy  used  as  a 
hedge-iilant,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  It  makes  a 
close,  handsome  hedge,  though  it  is  not  thorny.  Its  wood, 
though  small,  is  saved  for  turners'  use  in  Europe,  and  its 
berries  yield  a  pink  coloring-matter  used  by  nuip-colorers. 
There  are  several  rather  ornamental  allied  species,  one  of 
which,  L.  japnnicum,  is  known  popularly  as  the  California 
privet.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Privilege  |from  \j&i.privile'glum,m\  ordinance  in  favor 
of  an  individual ;  pri'vus,  private  +  lex,  te'gifi,  law] :  a  bene- 
fit or  immunity  which  is  not  enjoyed  by  all.  Some  forms 
of  privilege  are  considered  in  the  articles  on  Libel  and 
Slander  and  on  Monopolies  (</(/.  i'.).  The  present  discus- 
sion will  be  confined  to  the  (irivileges  of  legislators,  and  to 
those  of  citizens  under  the  L'.  S.  Con.stitution. 

Privileges  of  Legislators. — Members  of  the  British  House 
of  Commons  are  not  liable  to  be  sued  for  any  words  uttered 
in  the  House,  however  injurious  they  may  be  to  others  ;  nor 
can  they  be  detained  by  the  civil  process  of  any  court  dur- 
ing a  session  of  Parliament,  nor  during  a  convenient  time 
before  and  after  the  close  of  a  session.  Tlie  U.  S.  Constitution 
provides  that  the  Senators  and  Represent  at  ives  '•  shall  in  all 
cases,  except;'  treason,  felony,  ami  breach  of  the  peace,  be 
privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  .ses- 
sions of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and  return- 
ing from  the  same ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either 
house  they  shall  not  be  que.stioned  in  any  other  place." 
(Art.  I.,  §6.)  Similar  privileges  are  .secured  to  State  legis- 
lators by  the  State  constitutions. 

Privileges  and  Immunities  of  Citizens. — Article  IV.,  §2, 
of  the  LI.  S.  Constitution  declares:  "The  citizens  of  each 
State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  ))rivilegcs  and  immunities  of 
citizens  in  the  several  States."  This  guaranty  is  confined, 
it  will  be  noticed,  to  those  privileges  which  belong  to  citi- 
zenship. It  does  not  extend  to  the  privilege  of  taking  fish 
in  the  public  waters  of  another  State.  Public  fisheries  are 
the  property  of  the  State,  and  its  inhabitants  have  a  right 
in  them  by  virtue  of  citizenship  and  domicile,  and  not  by 
virtue  of  citizenship  only.  Nor  does  it  secure  to  the  citizen 
of  one  State  that  community  interest  in  property  owned  by 
his  wife  in  another  State  which  is  accorded  by  the  laws  of 
the  latter  to  its  resident  citizens.  {Conner  vs.  Elliott,  18 
Howard  .591.)  Nor  does  it  apjdy  to  artificial  persons — cor- 
[lorations — which  pos.sess  oidy  such  attriljutes  as  are  be- 
stowed by  the  State  creating  them.  Many  political  rights, 
such  as  the  right  of  suffrage  and  the  right  to  hold  office,  are 
not  within  this  constitutional  guaranty,  for  these  do  not 
pertain  to  citizenship  necessarily.  In  every  State  large 
numbers  of  citizens  do  not  possess  them.  The  provision  in 
question  ap])lies  to  ''  those  privileges  and  immunities  which 
are  fundamental,  which  behmg  to  the  citizens  of  all  free 
governments,  and  which  have  at  all  times  been  enjoyed  by 
citizens  of  the  several  States  wliich  compose  this  Union, 
front  the  time  of  their  becoming  free,  independent,  and 
sovereign:  .  .  .  jirotection  by  the  Ciovernment,  with  the 
right  to  acquire  and  possess  property  of  every  kind,  and  to 

f)ursue  and  obtain  happiness  and  safety,  subject,  neverthe- 
ess,  to  such  restraints  as  the  Goverinnent  may  prescribe  for 
tlie  general  good  of  the  whole."  (Corfteld  vs.  Coryell,  4 
Washington  Circuit  Court  371.)  Hence  a  statute  which 
makes  it  unlawful  for  any  person  to  appoint  a  non-resident 
trustee  in  a  deed  or  other  instrument  is  unconstitutional. 
Shirk  vs.  L«  Fayette,  52  Federal  Reporter  857. 

The  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  prohibits 
the  States  from  making  or  enforcing  "  any  law  which  sliall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States."  This  provision  recognizes  a  citizenship  of  the  U.  S. 
which  is  distinct  from  that  of  a  State,  and  it  guards  only 
the  privileges  and  immunities  that  pertain  to  the  former; 
"  those  which  arise  out  of  the  nature  and  essential  charac- 
ter of  the  national  Government,  the  provisicms  of  the  Con- 
stitution or  its  laws  and  treaties  made  in  pursuance  there- 
of." {Butchers'  Association  vs.  Crescent  City  Company,  16 
Wallace  36.)  In  the  decision  just  mentioned  the  following 
were  named  as  such  privileges :  "  To  come  to  the  seat  of 
government  to  assert  any  claim  upon  that  (iovernment,  to 
transact  any  business  with  it,  to  seek  its  protection,  to  share 
its  offices,  to  engage  in  administering  its  functions.  Free 
access  to  its  seaports  ;  .  .  .  to  the  sub-treasuries,  land-offices. 


796 


PRIVY  COUNCIL 


PEJEVALSKY 


and  courts  of  justice  in  the  several  States.  To  demand  the 
care  and  protection  of  the  Federal  Govornment  over  life, 
liberty,  and  property  when  on  tlie  high  seas  or  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  foreign  government.  To  peaceably  as- 
semble and  petition  for  redress  of  grievances.  The  writ  of 
habeas  corpus.  To  use  tlie  navigable  waters  of  the  United 
States  however  they  may  penetrate  the  territory  of  the  sev- 
eral States.  To  become  a  citizen  of  any  one  of  the  several 
States  by  a  bona  fide  residence  therein."  Freedom  from 
State  discrimination  against  citizens  of  other  States  in  re- 
spect of  commercial  transactions  is  an  immunity  of  U.  S. 
citizenship,  unless  such  discrimination  is  a  valid  exercise  of 
the  police  power. 

The  amendment  under  consideration  applies  only  to 
State  action,  and  not  to  that  of  individuals.  Congress, 
therefore,  is  not  authorized  to  declare  it  a  crime  for  indi- 
viduals to  conspire  to  deprive  any  person  of  his  privileges 
and  immunities  as  a  citizen  of  the  U.  S.  C'ivi/  Rip/ifs  Cases, 
109  U.  S.  S.  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Privy  Conncil :  "  This  is  a  most  noble,  honorable,  and 
reverend  assembly  of  the  king  ...  in  the  king's  court  or 
palace ;  with  this  council  the  king  himself  doth  sit  at  his 
pleasure.  These  councilors,  like  good  sentinels  and  watch- 
men, consult  of  and  for  the  public  good,  and  the  honor,  de- 
fense, safety,  and  profit  of  the  realm.  .  .  .  They  are  called 
concilium  regis  privatum,  concilium  secretum,  el  continuum 
concilium  regis.  ...  To  these  councilors  all  due  honor  and 
reverence  is  to  be  given,  for  they  are  incorporated  to  the 
king  himself,  and  bear  part  of  his  cares ;  they  are  his  true 
treasurers,  and  the  profitable  instruments  of  the  state."  (4 
Coke's  Institutes  53.)  Such  was  the  privy  council  for  cen- 
turies— a  council  within  the  great  council ;  a  small  body 
selected  by  the  king  to  be  in  constant  attendance  upon  him, 
and  to  aid  him  in  the  performance  of  legislative  and  judi- 
cial as  well  as  administrative  duties. 

Its  name  dates  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  while  it  at- 
tained its  greatest  importance  under  the  Tudors  and  the  first 
two  Stuarts.  During  this  period  its  judicial  functions  were 
so  grossly  abused  in  its  court  of  the  star  chamber  that 
they  were  "  clearly  and  absolutely  dissolved,  taken  away, 
and  determined  "  by  the  Long  Parliament  in  1640.  AVith 
the  Restoration  the  privy  council  revived,  but  not  its  court 
of  the  star  chamber.  However,  "  the  king  in  council  was 
still  the  resort  of  the  suitor  who  could  not  obtain  justice  in 
one  of  the  dependencies,  and  the  act  which  took  away  the 
original  jurisdiction  of  the  king  in  council  at  home  did  not 
touch  petitions  from  the  adjacent  islands  or  plantations." 
Anson's  Laiv  of  the  Constitution,  pt.  ii.,  p.  442. 

Its  judicial  functions  remained  somewhat  uncertain  until 
1833,  when  they  were  defined  by  statute  (3  and  4  William 
IV.,  c.  41).  They  are  exercised  by  the  judicial  committee 
of  the  privy  council,  consisting  of  the  lord-president,  those 
members  of  the  council  holding  or  having  held  high  judi- 
cial office,  the  lord  justices  of  appeal,  two  other  persons  be- 
ing privy  councilors  whom  the  crown  may  appoint,  and  one 
or  two  paid  members  who  have  held  the  office  of  judge  in 
the  East  Indies.  A  quorum  consists  of  four  members,  and 
only  those  members  attend  who  have  been  summoned. 
This  judicial  committee  does  not  give  formal  judgment  in  a 
case,  but  humbly  advises  the  Queen  to  give  effect  to  the  con- 
clusions it  has  reached.  Its  report,  when  approved  by  the 
Queen  at  a  meeting  of  the  privy  council,  is  adopted  by  an 
"order  in  council  "  as  the  judgment  of  the  Queen  in  council. 
It  is  a  rule  of  this  committee,  having  its  origin  in  the  secret 
and  consultative  character  of  the  ancient  council,  that  after 
a  case  has  Ijeen  decided  "  no  publication  is  afterward  to  be 
made  by  any  man  how  the  particular  voices  or  opinions 
went."  {Order  in  Council,  1878.)  The  jurisdiction  of  this 
committee  embraces  all  appeals  made  to  the  crown  in  coun- 
cil, the  most  imijortant  of  which  are  appeals  from  the  co- 
lonial courts,  and  such  other  matters  as  the  crown  may 
choose  to  refer  to  it. 

Its  legislative  functions  are  exercised  by  means  of  orders 
in  council,  which  are  made  under  authority  bestowed  by 
statute  or  whicli  issues  from  the  royal  prerogative.  In  the 
fornu^r  case  it  is  acting  simply  as  a  delegate  of  Parliament, 
and  in  subordination  to  the  national  legislatm-e.  Even  in 
the  latter  case,  according  to  some  authorities,  the  crown  in 
council  is  not  legislating,  is  not  enacting  law,  but  is  enforc- 
ing it.  Dicey  declares  that  "the  only  instances  where,  in 
modern  times,  proclamations  or  orders  in  council  are  of  any 
effect  are  cases  either  where  at  common  law  a  proclamation 
is  the  regular  mode,  not  of  legislation,  but  oi  announcing 


the  executive  will  of  the  king,  as  when  Parliament  is  sum- 
moned by  proclamation,  or  else  where  orders  in  council  have 
authority  given  to  them  by  act  of  Parliament."  {The  Law 
of  the  Constitution,  p.  50.)  The  better  view  seems  to  be  that 
the  ci-own  still  retains  a  fragment  of  its  ancient  power  to 
legislate  without  the  assistance  of  Parliament ;  that,  espe- 
cially in  matters  connected  with  the  colonies,  where  Parlia- 
ment has  neither  legislated  nor  vested  the  exclusive  power 
of  legislation  in  some  other  body  nor  forbidden  the  crown 
to  legislate,  it  may  enact  new  laws  by  means  of  orders  in 
council.  Burgess,  Political  Science,  vol.  ii.,  p.  199  ;  Cox, 
The  Instittitions  of  English  Government,  27-30. 

Its  administrative  functions  are  exercised  at  present  by 
committees  or  boards.  Tiie  most  [lowerful  of  these,  as  it  is 
the  one  that  has  absorbed  all  of  the  most  important  privi- 
leges of  the  ancient  privy  council,  is  the  Cabinet  {q.  v.). 
Other  committees  are  those  for  trade  and  plantations,  for 
education,  for  local  government,  for  corporations,  for  the 
Channel  islands.  When  a  petition  is  addressed  to  the 
crown  touching  matters  within  the  administrative  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  council,  it  is  referred  to  the  appropriate  com- 
mittee for  advice.  Many  matters  are  brought  before  the 
council  as  a  boily.  Modern  legislation  has  created  new  boards 
and  transferred  to  them  much  of  the  business  which  be- 
longed formerly  to  the  council. 

Appointment,  Oath,  and  Dismissal. — A  person  becomes  a 
privy  councilor  by  royal  nomination,  upon  taking  the  oaths 
of  office  and  allegiance  at  a  council  meeting.  "  The  mem- 
bers composing  the  privy  council  may  be  said  to  fall  into  three 
groups.  Members  of  tlie  caljinet  nmst  necessarily  be  made 
members,  as  the  confidential  advisers  of  the  crown.  Be- 
yond these  there  are  great  offices  which,  though  unconnected 
wiih  politics,  are  usually  associated  with  a  place  on  the  coun- 
cil board.  Beyond  these,  again,  is  a  group  of  persons  emi- 
nent in  political  life  or  in  the  service  of  the  crown,  upon 
whom  tlie  rank  of  privy  councilor  is  conferred  as  a  com- 
plimentary distinction."  (Anson's  Laiv  of  the  Constitution, 
pt.  ii.,  p.  135.)  At  present  the  number  of  privy  councilors  is 
aliout  200.  The  tenure  of  office  is  for  life,  subject  to  dis- 
missal at  the  pleasure  of  the  crown.  The  oath  binds  the 
councilor  to  be  a  true  and  faithful  servant  of  the  crown  ; 
to  resist  to  his  uttermost  any  affront  to  the  monarch  and  to 
report  the  same;  to  truly  declare  his  opinion  upon  all  mat- 
ters before  the  council ;  to  keep  secret  all  matters  treated  of 
in  the  council ;  to  bear  faith  and  allegiance  unto  the  crown, 
and  in  all  things  to  do  as  a  faithful  and  true  servant  ought 
to  do  to  the  crown.  See  Nicolas,  Proceedings  and  Ordi- 
nances of  the  Privy  Council ;  Dicey,  Tlie  Privy  Council ; 
Pnlgrave's  Original  Authority  of  the  King's  Comtcil ;  and 
Fiulason's  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council. 

Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Privy  Seal :  the  minor  seal  of  the  British  Government, 
affixed  to  papers  of  minor  importance,  and  also  to  impor- 
tant documents  preparatory  to  the  affixing  of  the  great  seal. 
Tlie  privy  seal  is  in  the  care  of  a  great  officer  of  state,  usu- 
ally one  of  the  cabinet,  called  the  lord  privy  seal. 

Prize  [from  0.  Fr.  prise,  a  taking  or  seizing,  something 
taken  or  seized,  deriv.  of  prendre  (perf.  partic.  pris),  takej: 
something  taken  on  the  sea,  as  belonging  to  an  enemy  in 
war  or  to  a  neutral — i.  e.  to  a  person  resident  in  a  neutral 
state  who  is  identified  with  such  enemy.  A  vessel  of  a  na- 
tion taken  by  its  own  cruisers,  if  engaged  in  illegal  trade, 
may  also  be  called  a  prize.  A  prize  can  become  the  prop- 
erty of  tlie  captor  only  after  trial  and  condemnation  by  a 
competent  court.  This  will  be  the  prize-court  of  the  state 
to  which  the  captor  belongs.  In  Great  Britain  questions  of 
]irize  are  decided  by  her  Majesty's  high  court  of  justice, 
which  is  one  division  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  .ludicalure,  in 
which  the  old  admiralty  and  other  courts  were  merged  by 
a(^t  of  1873.  A  corresponding  court  in  France  is  the  coun- 
cil of  ))rizes,  subject  to  appeal.  In  the  U.  S.  admiralty  cases 
are  tried  by  the  U.  S.  district  courts,  with  appeal  to  the 
Supreme  Court.  Revised  by  T.  S.  Woolsey. 

Prjeval'sliy,  or  Prejevalsky,  Nicolai  Michaelovitch: 
explorer ;  b.  on  the  family  estate  of  Otradny,  govern- 
ment of  Smolensk,  Russia,  Mar.  31,  1839;  descendant  of  a 
Cossack  of  the  Zaporog,  whose  heroism  gave  him  the  sur- 
name of  Prjevalsky  (from  the  Polish  Prj'e,  very,  and  valit, 
to  make  war),  and  who  was  ennobled  by  Stephen  Bathory, 
King  of  Poland.  He  was  educated  in  the  civil  gymnasium 
of  Smolensk,  where  he  was  noted  for  an  extraordinary 
memory.  In  1855  he  entered  the  military  profession,  and 
five  years  later  the  Military  Academy,  where  he  showed 


PROA 


PROBABILITY,  THEORY  OP 


797 


stronger  predilections  for  history  and  natural  science  than 
for  military  subjocts.  In  ISO:!  he  ri'joincd  his  rosiment  as 
adjutant,  but  renmiiicd  with  it  <iidy  a  year,  lie  tlicn  ob- 
tained I  lie  post  of  lecturer  on  liistury  and  fieofjraphy  in  tlie 
cadet  school  at  Warsaw.  In  ISO?  he  received  an  assignment 
as  fieographical  explorer,  and  was  sent  to  the  L'ssuri  country 
in  Kastirn  Siberia,  where  he  remained  two  years.  His  re- 
sults were  published  in  Russian  in  1870.  From  the  mari- 
time [jrovince  he  traveled  .southward  to  the  Yang-tse  river, 
thenc(^  northward  thrnugh  the  desert  of  (lobi  to  Irkutsk, 
reaching  the  latter  place  in  If^Tii.  In  187t)-77  he  explored 
Lob-Nor  and  the  Allyn-Tag  Mountains.  He  crossed  into 
Tibet  in  1879,  but  was  turned  back  before  Lhassa  was 
reached,  and  returned  to  Russia  through  great  dangers  and 
hardships.  In  188S-85  he  again  explored  the  desert  of 
Gobi,  the  sources  of  the  Hwang-ho  and  the  Li>b-Nor  dis- 
trict, and  again  unsuccessfully  attcmiited  to  reach  Lhassa. 
Later  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a  large  force  and  in- 
structed to  reach  Lhassa  at  all  hazards,  but  he  died  on  Nov. 
1,  1888,  of  typhus  fever,  before  the  expedition  had  been 
fully  organized. 

Though  of  Polish  descent,  he  was  an  intensely  patriotic 
Russian.  His  geographical  work  was  recognized  by  many 
honors  received  from  geograpliical  societies  and  others 
throughout  the  world,  llis  exploratidus  after  the  first  were 
described  in  numerous  publications,  which  have  been  trans- 
lateil  from  Russian  into  the  other  European  languages.  A 
sketch  of  his  life  was  published  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1890, 
by  N.  T.  Dubrovin.  Mark  W.  Harrington. 

Pro'a,  or  Pra'liu  [from  Mix\a.Y  prdu,  prdhul:  a  canoe- 
like sailing  vessel  of  the  Malays,  Ladrone  islanders,  etc. 
The  lee  side  is  straight  and  Hat  from  stem  to  stern,  the  other 
rounded.  Both  ends  are  alike.  The  vessel  carries  a  lug- 
sail  of  matting.  A  framework  projects  to  windward,  and 
counterbalances  the  effect  of  the  wind  upon  the  sail,  which 
would  otherwise  upset  the  craft.  Proas  are  commonly  some 
30  feel  long  and  very  rapid  sailers.  They  were  once  much 
used  by  pirates.  The  name  is  often  applied  to  Malay  ves- 
sels of  other  kinds,  some  propelled  by  oars  and  paddles,  and 
some  by  sails  also. 

Proach.  Lucky  :  See  Father  Lasher. 

Probability,  Theory  of,  or  (more  usually)  Calcaliis  of 

Probabi lities  [probubilifi/  is  from  Lat.  prohiibi'tilns,  deriv. 
of  pral/n  fiilis,  |)robable,  liter.,  provable,  deriv.  of  proha're, 
try,  approve,  prove] :  the  application  of  mathematical  rea- 
soinng  to  the  art  of  judging  in  cases  where  only  probable 
evidence  can  be  obtained.  The  mode  in  which  the  judg- 
ment may  be  thus  assisted  can  be  best  seen  by  beginning  with 
souK^  simple  examples  before  laying  down  any  general  prin- 
ciples. Suppose  a  die  to  have  two  of  its  six  sides  painted 
black,  the  remaining  four  being  left  white,  and  a  person  to 
be  reijuired  to  judge  whether,  upon  the  die  being  thrown,  a 
white  or  a  black  side  will  be  uppermost.  Common  sense 
will  teach  him  to  guess  the  white  side,  not  because  he  can 
certainly  say  it  will  be  thrown,  but  because  it  will  be  more 
likely  to  bo  thrown.  In  common  language  it  wciuld  be  said 
that  the  chances  were  two  to  one  in  favor  of  white.  In 
mathematical  language  a  .sliglilly  different  expression  is 
used,  the  probability  of  an  event  being  a  proper  fraction,  of 
which  the  denominator  is  the  entire  possible  number  of 
chances  or  cases,  while  the  numerator  is  the  number  of  those 
cases  which  favor  the  propo.sed  event.  In  the  case  just  sup- 
posed, for  instance,  there  are  six  sides  to  the  die,  of  which 
one  and  one  only  must  he  thrown.  Pour  of  these  sides  be- 
ing while,  the  probability  of  white  being  thrown  is  J  =  J, 
and  that  of  black  is  j>  =  J.  If  mie  of  the  four  white  sides  were 
painted  yellow,  the  probaljilities  would  be  white  -J,  black  ^, 
yellow  ^.  If  the  event  is  impo.ssible,  there  are  no  eases 
which  favor  it,  and  in  the  notation  just  indicated  its  proba- 
bility is  0.  It  all  the  cases  favor  it,  and  its  occurrence  is 
therefore  certain,  the  probability  is  1.  As  no  degree  of 
probability  can  exceed  certainty,  all  degrees  of  probability 
are  somewhere  between  the  limits  0  and  1. 

The  mathematical  solution  of  problems  in  probabilities 
consists,  first,  in  diviiling  the  possible  processes  or  results 
into  elementary  and  ecpially  probable  cases;  and,  .secondly, 
in  finding  how  many  of  these  cases  favor  the  proposed 
event.  In  the  ease  just  supposed  of  a  single  die  this  is  very 
simple,  and  no  one  could  mistake  the  mode  of  arriving  at  a 
solution;  but  when  the  result  depends  on  the  concurrence 
of  a  number  of  circumstances,  the  reasoning  becomes  much 
more  complex.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  two  dice  are 
thrown.     Than  any  one  of  the  six  sides  of  one  die  may  be 


combined  with  any  side  of  the  other,  making,  in  all,  thirty- 
,six  combinations.  To  find  the  probability  of  any  result 
from  the  throw  of  such  a  pair,  we  must  find  how  many  of 
these  combinations  will  give  rise  to  the  combination  in  ques- 
tion, and  divide  the  number  by  36.  In  making  this  calcu- 
lation there  is  great  room  for  mistakes;  indeed,  the  subject 
of  probabilities  is  by  far  the  most  slippery  one  with  which 
the  mathematician  or  logician  has  to  deal.  Suppose,  for  in- 
stance, that  a  sharper  should  offer  to  a  countryman  to  give 
him  three  cents  every  time  two  ones  were  thrown  with  two 
dice,  provided  the  other  would  give  him  two  cents  every 
time  a  one  and  a  two  were  thrown.  At  first  sight  the  coun- 
tryman might  consider  the  two  results  equally  probable,  antl 
therefore  feel  sure,  in  the  long  run,  of  gaining;  but  he 
would  be  sure  to  lose,  because  two  different  numbers  are 
twice  as  likely  to  be  thrown  as  a  pair  of  the  same  number. 
To  have  two  07ies  each  die  must  fall  with  one  uppermost; 
but  to  have  a  one  and  a  two,  one  may  be  a  one  and  the  other 
a  two,  or  the  first  may  be  two  and  the  second  one;  so  that 
for  this  result  there  are  two  cases  out  of  thirty-six,  while  in 
the  first  there  is  but  one.  It  can  not  be  doubted  that  an 
understanding  of  this  calculus  would  afford  a  very  material 
aid  to  the  judgment  in  weighing  and  estimating  the  proba- 
bilities of  events  in  the  affairs  of  life;  for,  although  these 
events,  or  the  causes  which  give  rise  to  them,  can  not  gen- 
erally be  made  the  subject  of  mathematical  calculation,  yet 
the  examination  and  enumeration  of  the  various  combina- 
tions of  circumstances  which  may  give  rise  to  an  event  af- 
fords our  only  means  of  judging  of  its  probability.  The 
longer  a  man's  experience  of  worldly  afl'airs  and  the  sounder 
his  judgment,  the  more  nearly  he  will  conform  to  the  rules 
and  methods  of  the  mathematical  calculus  in  estimating 
probabilities.  An  eminent  writer  happily  described  the  cal- 
culus of  probabilities  as  common  sense  expressed  in  numbers. 

One  of  the  most  generally  useful  rules  of  this  calculus  is 
that  although  an  event  may  be  extremely  improbable  if  it 
has  but  one  opportunity  to  happen,  yet  if  we  increase  the 
numbers  of  opportunities  indefinitely  it  will  be  sure  to  hap- 
pen in  the  long  run.  By  the  same  principle,  if  the  concur- 
rence of  a  large  number  of  cii'cunistances  is  necessary  to 
the  production  of  an  event,  each  of  these  circumstances  may 
be,  in  itself,  very  probable,  and  yet  their  concurrence,  and 
consequently  the  event  itself,  very  improbable.  The  mathe- 
matical rule  for  determining  probability  in  such  a  case  is  that 
the  probability  of  the  concurrence  of  all  the  events  is  equal 
to  the  continued  product  of  the  probabilities  of  all  the  sepa- 
rate events.  As  one  example,  suppose  that  a  law  requiring 
the  concurrence  of  the  two  houses  of  Congress  and  the  Presi- 
dent were  as  likely  as  not  to  be  rejected  by  any  one  of  them, 
and  that  each  one  of  the  three  authorities  formed  his  own 
opinion  independently  of  the  other  two.  Then  the  proba- 
bility of  each  authority  approving  the  law  being  +,  the  prob- 
ability of  its  passing  all  three  would  be  i  x  ^  x  |  =  -J-.  We 
can  get  at  the  same  result  in  this  way  :  Out  of  8  laws  intro- 
duced into  the  House  only  4  would  pass  and  go  to  the  Sen- 
ate. Out  of  these  4  the  Senate  would  pass  2.  and  of  these  2 
the  President  would  ai)prove  1.  On  this  principle  an  event 
which  has  to  pass  the  ordeal  of  a  great  number  of  small 
dangers  is  sure  to  fail  at  last,  though  each  separate  danger 
may  itself  be  small.  Sup])ose,  for  instance,  that  a  bridge 
has'  100  holes  in  it,  and  that  a  pei-son  passing  over  this 
bridge  has  9  chances  out  of  10  of  going  safely  past  each  in- 
dividual hole.  Notwithstanding  so  many  chances  in  his 
favor  for  any  particular  hole,  the  chance  that  he  would  es- 
cape them  all  is  only  1  in  37.650.  That  is,  if  we  take  the 
fraction  -f^.  which  expresses  the  probability  of  passing  any 
one  hole  safely,  and  multiply  it  by  itself  100  times,  the  re- 
sult will  be  about  equal  to  inljifn-  *-•"''  "'  *'"^  principal 
marks  of  the  |iractical  wisdom  of  age  anil  experience  is  the 
ability  to  recognize  this  principle,  and  there  are  plenty  of 
proverbs  which  are  really  founded  on  it. 

One  of  the  most  curious  and  important  results  of  this  cal- 
culus is  seen  in  what  is  termed  the  law  of  averages,  or  the 
tendency  of  chance  events  which  occur  in  great  numbers  to 
follow  regular  laws.  The  life  of  an  individual  is  proverb- 
ially one  of  the  most  uncertain  things  in  human  affairs; 
but'  when  we  lake  large  bodies,  like  the  population  of  a 
state  or  a  great  city,  the  deaths  follow  a  law  so  exact  that 
mathematical  tables  of  their  iirobable  number  can  be 
formed,  and  on  these  tables  life-insurance  companies  can 
arrange  their  rates  of  ]iremium  with  the  moral  certainty 
that  the  death-rate  will  not  vary  .seriously  from  that  calcu- 
lated. Not  only  the  total  number  of  deaths,  but  the  pro- 
portion of  deaths  from  the  most  fortuitous  causes  follow 


798 


PROBATE  COURTS 


PROCEDURE 


nearly  their  regular  law.  No  doubt  if  we  could  learn  how 
many  men  are  killed  by  falling  from  houses,  we  should  find 
it  wonderfully  constant  from  year  to  year.  In  cases  like 
this  the  constancy  of  the  result  is  the  consequence  of  some 
widespread  underlying  cause,  liidden  by  other  accidental 
causes  acting  in  different  ways  in  individual  eases.  Thus  a 
table  of  mortality  is  the  combined  expression  of  a  certain 
law  of  the  human  constitution  and  certain  conditions  of 
the  climate.  The  number  of  deaths  by  falling  from  scaf- 
folding expresses  the  degree  of  general  carefulness  or  care- 
lessness which  characterizes  men  engaged  in  building.  The 
general  rule  is  that  in  order  that  a  law  of  averages  may  be 
closely  followed  it  is  necessary  that  the  seemingly  acciden- 
tal events  enumerated  should  be  the  result  of  two  sets  of 
causes,  of  which  one  is  invariable  throughout  the  whole  pe- 
riod of  time,  while  the  other  is  eutirely  accidental  in  each 
individual  case.  When  the  variable  or  chance  causes  are 
not  purely  accidental,  but  affect  large  masses  or  vary  from 
year  to  year,  there  is  no  longer  any  such  exact  law.  For 
instance,  if  a  large  fraction  of  the  population  died  from  oc- 
casional epidemics,  there  could  no  longer  be  an  exact  law  of 
mortality.  The  great  classic  treatise  on  tliis  subject  is  La- 
place, Theorie  Aiuilytiqiie  des  Prohabilites,  which  involves 
much  profound  mathematics.  Bertrand's  Calcul  des  Proba- 
bilites  (Paris,  1889)  is  most  interesting,  philosophical,  and 
amusing,  using  only  elementary  mathematics ;  De  Morgan's 
Theory  of  Probabilities  is  the  best-known  book  in  English. 

S.  Newcomb. 

Probate  Courts :  See  Will. 

Proboscid'ea  [Jlod.  liat.,  from  Lat.  proboscis,  probos'- 
cidis  =^Gr.  TrpoffoaKls,  vpo$oa-KtSo5,  proboscis;  vp6,  in  front, 
before  -I-  fiSaKnv,  feed,  graze] :  an  order  of  mammals  distin- 
guished by  the  extension  of  the  nose  into  a  proboscis  and 
the  columnar  form  of  the  legs  and  feet,  and  typified  liy  the 
elephants  of  the  present  epoch.  The  placenta  is  deciduate 
and  zonary ;  the  incisors  variable  in  number — §,  or  in  ex- 
tinct forms  f  or  5 — but  always  with  persistent  pulps,  and 
developed  as  long  tusks  curved  outward ;  the  feet  have  the 
palmar  and  plantar  surfaces  invested  in  extended  pad-like 
integuments,  which  also  underlie  the  toes;  the  carpal  bones 
are  in  two  regular  (not  interlocking)  rows,  and  are  broad 
and  short ;  the  toes  are  in  all  the  known  forms  five  to  each 
foot,  and  incased  in  shallow  hoofs.  The  order  is  repre- 
sented by  one  living  family  (Elephantidcp),  to  which  belong 
the  extinct  mastodons,  and  to  it  by  almost  all  authors  an 
extinct  family  (Dinofheriidce)  has  been  also  referred  ;  these 
are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  great  differences  in  the 
structure  of  the  skull,  as  well  as  in  the  development  of  the 
teeth,  the  peculiar  dentition  of  the  elephants  not  being 
shared  by  the  dinotheriids.  .See  Elephant,  Dinotherium, 
Mammoth,  and  Mastodon.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Proboscis  Monkey :  See  Kahau. 

Pro'bus :  Roman  emperor  from  276  to  283  A.  D.  He  was 
put  to  death  in  the  latter  year  by  his  own  soldiers,  after  a 
very  efRcient  administration  of  six  years,  chiefly  occupied 
with  the  defense  of  the  northern  frontier.  G.  L.  H. 

Probns,  ^Marcus  Valerius  :  the  most  distinguished  of 
Roman  grammarians  bearing  the  name  of  Probus.  Coming 
from  Berytus  (now  Beyrout),  he  taught  in  Rome  in  tlie  latter 
half  of  the  first  century  A.  D.,  and  edited,  after  the  manner 
of  the  Alexandrine  grammarians,  the  text  of  Horace,  Vergil, 
Lucretius,  Terence,  Persius,  and  probably  other  writers.  The 
Commentary  to  the  Eclogues  and  Oeorgics  of  Vergil,  still 
extant,  under  his  name  is  of  later  date,  as  are  several  gram- 
matical treatises  bearing  the  name  of  Probus.  See  especially 
Teuffel,  Gesch.  der  Rom.  Lit.  (§  300),  where  the  al)undant 
literature  on  the  subject  is  cited.  M.  Warren. 

Procedure  [from  O.  Fr.  procedure,  deriv.  of  proceder. 
proceed  <  Lat.  proce'dere;  pro,  forward  +  ce'dere.  go] :  in 
the  usage  of  modern  legal  writers,  all  the  formal  steps  and 
I)roceedings  in  the  conduct  of  a  judicial  controversy  as  es- 
tablished by  tile  legal  rules  which  control  their  use. 

Developinenf  of  Procedure  in  General.— Cevtain  uniform 
principles  seem  to  have  determined  the  nature  and  moulded 
the  history  of  procedure  in  every  national  jurisprudence 
that  has  made  a  complete  progress  from  rude  beginnings  to 
a  condition  of  comparative  philosophical  and  equitable  per- 
fection. The  earliest  stages  are  always  characterized  by  an 
intense  formalism ;  the  remedies  which  the  law  affords  are 
restricted  almost  wholly  to  such  as  can  be  pursued  by  the 
use  of  arbitrary  technical  forms,  each  appropriate  to  a  par- 
ticular  wrong  or  remedy,  which   must   be   followed  with 


scrupulous  exactness ;  and  the  defenses  which  can  be  inter- 
posed are  likewise  restricted  by  forms  equally  arbitrary  and 
technical.  The  growth  of  the  jurisprudence  for  a  consider- 
able period  consists  in  the  modification  of  these  forms  and 
their  extension  to  new  facts  and  rehitious  ;  in  time  the  do- 
minion of  forms  is  relaxed,  the  technical  and  arbitrary 
features  gradually  disappear,  and  at  last  the  methods  of 
administering  justice  become  simple,  and  are  based  upon 
equitable  notions.  The  state  of  legal  procedure  and  the 
judicial  remedies  of  a  nation  closely  reflect  the  condition  of 
its  civilization :  and  the  number  and  scope  of  remedies,  and 
the  methods  of  enforcing  them,  must  keep  pace  with  the 
culture  of  the  nation  and  provitle  for  its  wants.  The  ne- 
cessities, however,  arise  first,  and  the  law  afterward  responds 
to  them.  This  course  of  development  marks  an  entire  prog- 
ress of  the  Roman  Law  {q.  i\),  and  has  been  exhibited  no 
less  clearly  in  the  development  of  the  jurisprudence  of  Eng- 
land and  the  U.  S. 

Development  of  Procedure  in  English  Law. — The  most 
striking  feature  of  the  procedure  originally  prevailing  in 
England  is  the  separation  into  two  distinct  and  widely 
differing  systems,  the  common  law  and  the  equitable — the 
former  exclusively  used  by  the  courts  of  law  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  legal  rights  in  connection  with  the  jury  trial ;  the 
latter  employed  by  the  courts  of  equity  for  the  enforcement 
of  equitaljle  rights  alone  without  the  jury. 

Of  the  two,  the  common-law  methods  were  ranch  the 
elder.  From  the  earliest  periods  rights  were  enforced  in 
the  law  courts  by  means  of  different  actions,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which,  denominated  "real  actions,"  were  solely 
used  for  the  recovery  of  lands.  Prior  to  Edward  L  there 
existed  but  three  actions  for  the  recovery  of  money — debt, 
covenant,  and  trespass.  By  virtue  of  a  statute  passed  in 
the  reign  of  that  king  (13  Edw.  I.,  c.  24)  other  forms  were 
afterward  invented.  The  highly  technical  real  actions 
were  sub.scquently  abandoned,  with  a  few  occasional  excep- 
tions, and  the  following  actions  became  established  as  the 
ordinary  means  of  enforcing  legal  rights :  "  ejectment,"  to 
recover  possession  and  to  try  the  title  of  lands ;  "  detinue  " 
and  "  replevin,"  to  recover  possession  of  chattels ;  "  cove- 
nant," to  recover  damages  for  the  breach  of  a  sealed  agree- 
ment ;  '■  debt,"  to  recover  a  fixed  and  certain  sum  of  money 
owed  by  the  defendant,  not  as  damages ;  "  assumpsit,"  to 
recover  damages  for  the  breach  of  a  contract  not  under  seal, 
whether  written  or  verbal,  express  or  implied ;  "  trespass," 
to  recover  damages  for  a  wrongful  act  of  violence  to  person 
or  property ;  "  case,"  to  recover  damages  for  a  wrong  to 
person  or  property  unaccompanied  with  violence,  or  when 
the  injury  was  consequential ;  "  trover,"  to  recover  damages 
for  tlie  wrongful  detention  and  conversion  of  chattels.  The 
rules  which  governed  these  actions  were  technical  and  for- 
mal, and  the  courts  were  more  often  employed  in  deciding 
whether  the  proper  kind  of  action  had  been  brought,  or 
whether  the  correct  fornmlas  of  words  had  been  used,  than 
in  adjudicatuig  upon  the  actual  merits  of  causes  and  de- 
termining the  real  rights  of  the  parties.  Inseparably  con- 
nected with  this  diversity  of  actions  was  the  common-law 
system  of  pleading;  the  two  reacted  upon  and  supported 
each  other,  and  the  technicalities  of  the  one  brought  out  and 
strengthened  the  formalism  of  the  other. 

The  procedure  in  equity  was  based  upon  more  simple  and 
natural  notions,  and,  however  much  it  may  have  become 
encumbered  by  dilatory  and  unnec'cssary  practices,  these 
were  not  inherent  and  essential.  No  forms  of  actions  ex- 
isted, but  a  single  method  sufficed  for  all  kinds  of  claims, 
defenses,  and  reliefs.  The  complainant  stated  his  case  witn 
great  minuteness  of  detail  in  a  "  bill,"  the  defendant  set 
forth  his  version  in  an  "answer";  and  upon  these  pleadings 
and  the  proofs  the  chancellor  rendered  his  decree.  In  this 
judgment  the  rights,  claims,  and  liabilities  of  all  the  parties 
were  adjusted,  and  relief  could  be  granted  alike  to  defendants 
or  to  complainants.  It  was  therefore  a  cardinal  principle 
of  the  equity  procedure  that  all  persons  interested  in  the 
controversy  and  who  could  be  affected  by  the  decree  should 
be  made  parties  to  a  suit. 

All  these  principles,  methods,  and  rules  of  the  common- 
law  and  the  equity  procedure  were  incorporated  into  the 
jurisprudence  of  the  U.  S..  and  although  they  have  been 
modified  in  many  of  the  commonwealths,  in  others  they  are 
retained  substantially  as  they  existed  at  the  time  when  Black- 
stone  wrote  his  Commentaries. 

The  Codes. — A  revolution  has  finally  been  effected  in  the 
U.  S.  and  in  England  in  every  respect  identical  with  that 
which  took  place  in  the  Roman  law  when  the  praitor's  ex- 


»    PROCELLAItlU.E 


PROCESSION   OF  THE   HOLY   SPIRIT 


799 


traorilinary  juris(li(^tion  was  extended  to  all  kinds  and 
classes  of  litif^ntioiis.  In  1848  the  Logislatiire  of  New  York 
adopted  a  code  of  civil  procedure — cliielly  plaiined  mid 
created  by  David  DiiiUey  Field — wliieli  entirely  uliandoned 
all  former  existing  methods,  and  inaugurated  a  new  system 
for  the  enforcement  of  rights  and  the  recovery  of  remedies. 
Its  central  principle  is  tlie  abolition  of  all  distinction  be- 
tween actions  at  law  and  suits  in  eijuily.  and  of  all  forms  of 
action,  and  the  estal)lis!iment  of  a  single  judicial  irislruiiient 
called  the  "civil  acfion."  by  which  all  rights  arc  maintained, 
duties  enforced,  and  relii-fs  (jbtuined.  liCgal  ami  cciuitalile 
claims,  defenses,  ai\d  remedies  may  be  combined,  and  llu^ 
single  judgment  of  the  court  may  deterndne  and  establish 
the  final  sum  of  all  the  rights  and  interests  belonging  to 
the  litigant  parties.  With  the  common-law  f<irms  of  action 
the  common-law  forms  of  pleading  are  also  abandoned,  and 
in  their  stead  is  suljstituted  one  simple  and  natural  mode 
which  only  requires  the  parlies  to  state  in  ordinary  language 
the  actual"  facts  which  constitute  their  causes  of  action  or 
defenses.  The  system  has  been  accepted — sometimes  with 
unimportant  modifications,  but  often  without  any  change 
from  the  original  type — in  most  of  the  States  and  Territories, 
and  may  be  st.yli^d  the  "  reformed  American  procedure." 
Passing  beyond'the  limits  of  the  U.  S..  it  prevails  in  several 
of  the  liritish  colonies,  and  has  been  adopted  in  all  its  essen- 
tial principles  in  England  itself.  The  first  step  in  England 
was  maile  by  the  t'ominon  Law  Procedure  Act  of  1854,  but 
it  was  not  fidly  adopted  until,  by  the  Judicature  Acts  of 
187:i  and  IHT."),  all  law  and  equity  courts  were  consolidated 
into  one  tribunal,  and  all  distinctions  abolished  between 
legal  and  ecpiilable  forms  of  actions  and  procedure.  The 
history  of  procedure  does  not  present  another  so  remark- 
al)le  iiistance  of  legislation.  See  Bigelow"s  Ilistiinj  of  Pro- 
cedure in  K)i///and ;  i^te\ihen's  History  uf  I  he  Criminal  Law 
of  England,  and  the  general  treatises  on  pleading  and  prac- 
tice. Revised  by  F.  Sturoes  Allen. 

Procellar'idie  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Procella'ria.  the 
tyjiical  geims,  from  Lut. procel'la,  storm]:  a  family  of  birds 
of  the  order  Tii/jinare«,  including  the  petrels  and  alba- 
trosses. These  have  a  gull-like  body  ;  the  neck  rather  short ; 
the  bill  moderate,  and  composed  of  several  pieces,  and  in 
some  species,  if  not  in  all,  the  bill  is  shed  and  renewed  as 
well  as  the  plumage ;  the  nostrils  at  the  end  of  tubular 
processes,  whicli  are  more  or  less  immersed  in  grooves;  the 
wings  are  generally  elongated  and  pointed,  rarely  (as  in 
Pelecanoidex)  short ;  front  toes  connected  by  a  web,  posterior 
rudimentary  or  wanting;  the  skull  is  schizognathous,  and 
in  most  respects  agrees  with  that  of  the  gulls  and  loons,  but 
exhibits  some  distinctive  characters,  and  has  been  regarded 
by  Streets  as  indicating  a  peculiar  superfannly  {Nectrio- 
morph/p).  The  family  is  generally  divided  into  three  sub- 
families: (1)  PrticeUarime,  including  most  of  the  small  spe- 
cies; (2)  Diomedeime,  comprising  the  albatrosses;  and  (3) 
Pelecanoidinie,  represented  by  the  single  aberrant  genus 
Pelecanoidex.  See  Albatross,  Fulm.a.r,  Mother  Carey's 
Chicken,  and  Petrel.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Process  [via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  proces'sux,  a  going  for- 
ward, advance,  progress,  process,  deriv.  of  jjrocedere,  go  for- 
ward ;  pro,  forward  +  ce'dere,  go] :  in  law,  a  generic  term 
primarily  used  to  designate  all  the  means  by  which  a  de- 
fendant is  compelled  to  appear  and  answer  to  an  action 
brought  against  him  (orit/nial  process),  the  means  of  en- 
forcing the  judgment  recovered  therein  against  him,  and 
also  the  means  by  wliicli  his  property  is  secured  or  taken  in 
satisfaction  of  su<'h  judgment  (final  process) ;  and  also  vari- 
ous other  judicial  writs  or  orders  issued  pending  the  suit  or 
action  upon  collateral  or  interlocutory  matter,  as  to  summon 
witnesses,  juries,  etc.  (mf-.s'H(; //rope*v).  In  the  criminal  pro- 
ceduH'  it  denotes  the  warrants  or  other  writings  aulliorizing 
and  directing  the  arrest  of  persons  charged  with  offenses. 
In  a  more  general  sense  it  embraces  all  judicial  writs  com- 
manding public  ofVicers  or  private  individuals  to  do  a  speci- 
fied act ;  and,  finally,  it  is  used,  although  not  technically,  as 
synonymous  with  •' proceeding."  Actions  at  law  were  for- 
merly begun  in  England  by  a  process  called  the  "original 
writ,"  winch  was  issued  in  the  king's  name,  contained  a 
statcmcid  <>(  the  complaint,  anil  was  addressed  to  the  sheriff, 
commanding  him  to  summon  the  defendant.  This  writ  was 
practically  abolislied  in  the  reign  of  William  IV.,  when  it 
was  enacted  thai  all  personal  actions  should  be  commenced 
by  the  writ  of  Caimas  (i/.  c).  directing  the  sheritT  to  arrest 
the  defendant;  or  if  he  was  not  to  be  arrested  by  the  writ 
of  Summons  ((/.  c),  directing  the  defendant  to  appear.     The 


corresponding  process  in  chancery  suits  was  the  "  writ  of 
subpoena,"  while  that  in  the  ecclesiastical  and  admiralty 
courts  was  termed  a  "citation";  both  were,  like  the  sum- 
mons, personal  orders  to  the  defendant.  At  present  all 
actions  are  commenced  in  England  by  a  process  in  the  na- 
ture of  a  summons.  In  the  U.  S..  wherever  the  reformed 
procedure  has  been  adopted,  all  actions  in  the  superior 
courts  are  begun  by  a  summons  or  notice  to  the  defendant 
directing  him  to  appearand  answer  within  a  specified  num- 
ber of  days;  in  several  of  the  States  it  is  issued  directly  by 
the  plaintili  or  his  attorney,  in  others  by  the  clerk  of  the 
court  in  which  the  suit  is  brought.  In  those  commonwealths 
which  retain  the  common-law  methods  different  forms  of 
preliminary  process  are  used,  but,  uiuler  whatever  names, 
they  are  generally  analogous  to  tiie  writ  of  summons.  A 
peculiar  local  practice  prevails,  however,  in  New  England, 
of  beginning  legal  actions  Ijy  attaching  the  defendant's 
property.  {See  Attachment.)  Final  process  is  of  two  kinds 
— that  against  the  property  and  that  against  the  person. 
Final  process  is  now  commonly  called  Execution  (g.  v.). 
In  addition  to  these  preliminary  and  final  steps,  there  may 
be,  under  certain  circumstances  and  in  a  special  class  of  ac- 
tions, intermediate  {mesne)  proceedings  in  the  nature  of 
process  against  the  defendant — namely,  an  order  or  warrant 
of  arrest,  by  virtue  of  which  he  is  taken  and  held  to  bail  or 
detained,  and  a  warrant  or  order  of  attachment,  by  virtue 
of  which  his  property  is  seized  and  held  to  w-ait  the  final 
judgment.  Revised  by  P.  Sturges  Allen. 

Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  [procession  is  from 
Lat.  proces'sio.  deriv.  of  prure  dere.  proces'sum,  go  forth  ; 
pro,  forward,  forth  +  ce  dere.  go] :  a  term  based  on  John 
XV.  26,  where  Christ  says  of  the  Spirit  whom  he  will  send 
from  the  Father  that  "he  pruceedrth  from  the  Father" 
(napa  toS  Trarphs  eKvoptifrai,  hence  4Kn6p(v(rts.  processio).  It 
designates  in  the  orthodox  theology  the  characteristic  indi- 
viduality (iSiiJTrjs.  jiroprieias,  character  hijposiaticns)  of  the 
third  Person  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  as  the  eternal  generation 
(ytvirqaia.  generatio)  is  the  characteristic  pmiierly  of  the 
Son,  and  the  unbegotten  iiaternity  ^a.yfv^■r\(!ia.  paternitas) 
the  exclusive  peculiarity  of  the  Father.  There  is  an  old 
difference  between  the  (ireek  and  Latin  Churches  aliout  the 
single  procession  (from  the  Father  alone)  and  the  double  pro- 
cession (from  the  Father  and  the  iSon).  The  Nicene  Creed 
as  enlarged  at  Constantinople  (381)  asserts  only  the  proces- 
sion from  the  Father  (Sp.  S.  qui  ex  Patre  procedit),  in 
verbal  adherence  to  the  passage  in  John,  and  the  Greek 
Chdrcli  understands  this  in  an  exclusive  sense  (from  the 
Father  alone).  The  Latin  Church,  after  Augustine,  taught 
the  double  procession,  and  afterward  embo<lied  it,  without 
asking  the  consent  of  the  Creeks,  in  the  Nicene  Creed  by  the 
insertion  ot  filioque  {" and  from  the  Son"),  This  famous 
clause  first  appeared  in  589,  at  a  synod  of  "Toledo  in  Spain 
(in  strong  opposition  to  Arianism),  and  in  spite  of  the  pro- 
test of  Pope  Leo  III.  (809)  it  was  gradually  adopted  in  the 
Latin  Church,  from  which  it  passed  into  the  Protestant 
churches.  This  difference  has  caused  a  great  deal  of  bitter 
controversy  since  the  days  of  Pholius,  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople (d."891).  The  councils  of  Lyons  (1274)  and  of  Ploi- 
enco  (1439)  endeavored  to  settle  it,  but  in  vain.  The 
Greek  divines  plead  in  favor  of  the  single  procession  the 
letter  of  the  Scripture,  the  original  text  of  tli(>  Nicene  Creed, 
and  the  dignity  or  monarchy  (^uovapx'o)  of  the  Father  as 
the  sole  fountain,  cause,  and  root  of  the  Deity;  they  also 
make  a  sharp  distinction  between  the  eternal  metaphysical 
procession  of  the  Spirit  from  the  Father  alone,  and  the  his- 
torical mission  of  the  Spirit  from  the  Father  and  from  the 
Son  (John  xiv.  26;  xvi.  7).  The  former  belongs  to  the 
Trinity  of  essence,  the  latter  to  the  Trinity  of  revelation, 
and  begins  with  the  day  of  Pentecost.  The  Latin  divines 
infer  the  double  procession  (taking  this  term  in  a  wider 
sense)  from  the  double  mission  and  from  the  essential  unity 
(or  homoonsia)  of  the  Son  with  the  Father,  so  tliat  if  the 
Spirit  proceeds  from  the  essence  of  the  Father  he  must  pro- 
ceed also  from  the  essence  of  the  Son,  both  being  the  same. 
A  comiiromise  was  suggested  by  the  formula  that  the  Spirit 
proceeds  from  the  Father  Mroi/f//i  the  Son  (Smtov  viov).  VV  lien 
Pius  IX.  invited  the  Eastern  patriarchs  to  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil in  1870,  they  renewed  the  old  protest  against  the  heretical 
Filioque.  The  Diillinger  Union  Conference  between  Old 
Catholics,  Orientals,  and  Anglo-Catholics  discussed  this  con- 
troversy at  Bonn  in  Aug.,  1875,  and  came  to  an  agreement 
which  surrenders  the  /'i7 ('o^hi' as  an  unauthorized  interpo- 
lation to  the  Creed,  and  indorses  the  single  procession  of 


800 


PROCIDA 


PROCTOR 


the  Spirit  from  the  Father  alone,  but  through  the  Son,  as 
tauglit  by  John  of  Damascus,  the  last  of  tlie  Greek  Fathers. 
See' Holy  Ghost.  Philip  Schaff. 

Procida,  pro  che'e-da'a  (anc.  Prochyta):  island;  in  the 
province  of  Naples,  Italv,  lying;  between  Ischia  and  Cape 
Miseno.  It  is  not  more"  tlian  8i  miles  in  circumference, 
and  is  composed  of  volcanic  tufa;  the  town  of  Procida.  on 
the  east  side,  stands  on  a  high  and  rugged  rock  which  is 
almost  surrounded  bv  water.  "  The  principal  edifice,  besides 
the  churches,  is  the  royal  palace  of  the  Bourbons,  who  fre- 
quently came  here  for"  health  or  amusement.  Procida  was 
originally  a  Greek  settlement,  and  in  spite  of  the  long  Ro- 
man domination,  of  the  devastations  of  the  Saracens,  of  Span- 
ish and  British  occupations,  the  inhabitants  still  claim  to  be 
of  Greek  descent.  They  are  occupied  in  agriculture,  in  tun- 
ny-fishing, and  in  the  search  for  coral.     Pop.  13,131. 

Proclaiuatloii  of  Emancipation:  See  Emancipation, 
Proclamation  of. 

Pro'clus:  pliilosopher  ;  b.  at  Byzantium,  Feb.  8.412  a.  d.  ; 
educated  at  Xanthus  in  Lycia,  from  which  his  family  de- 
scended ;  studied  at  Alexandria  and  Athens,  and  became  a 
celebrated  teacher  in  the  latter  city,  where  he  died  A].ir.  17, 
485.  He  was  the  last  member  of  the  Neoplatonic  school 
who  acquired  any  celebrity.  He  labored  hard  to  make  eon- 
verts  from  Christianity.  There  is  no  complete  edition  of 
his  works  which  are  still  extant.  That  by  Cousin  (6  vols., 
Paris,  1830-27)  contains  the  treatises  on  Provide7we  and 
Fate,  the  Ten  Doubts  about  Providence,  the  Nature  of  Evil, 
and  the  commentaries  on  the  Alcibiades  and  Parmenides. 
There  are  translations  in  English  by  Thomas  Taylor  of  the 
Commentaries  on  the  Timceus,  the  Theology  of  Plato,  the 
Commentary  on  Euclid,  and  of  Five  Hymyis  (London,  1816). 

Proc'ne:  See  Philomele. 

Proconsul  [  =  Lat. ;  pro,  for  +  consul] :  a  magistrate  in 
tlie  ancient  Roman  government  who  exercised  consular  au- 
thority over  a  province  or  an  army,  but  not  over  Rome.  In 
manv  cases  he  was  a  consul,  who  after  the  expiration  of  his 
term  of  service  was  sent  to  control  a  province,  but  some- 
times the  proconsul  was  not  even  of  consular  rank. 

ProCO'pluS:  author;  b.  at  Ciesarea,  Palestine,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixth  century  a.  d.  :  studied  at  Constanti- 
nople; aceompiinied  Belisarius  as  his  secretary  on  his  cam- 
paigns in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Italy,  and  held  after  his  return 
to  Constantinople  the  highest  dignities  in  the  civil  service  of 
the  Byzantine  government.  His  extant  works  include  His- 
torim,  a  representation  of  the  history  of  his  own  time, 
clear,  trustworthy,  and  interesting,  translated  into  English 
by  Henry  Ilolcroft  (London,  1633) ;  Ktismata,  a  work  on 
the  public  buildings  erected  during  the  reign  of  Justinian  ; 
and  Anecdofa,  translated  into  English  under  the  title  of 
The  Secret  History  of  the  Court  of  the  Emperor  Justinian 
(1674).  The  Procopian  authorship  of  the  Anecdota  has  been 
questioned,  but  recent  investigation  seems  to  be  decidedly 
in  favor  of  the  genuineness  of  the  work.  See  Krumbaclier, 
(jeschichte  der  bi/:a)itiiiischen  Litteratur,  p.  43;  Teuffel, 
Studien  und  Charakteristiken,  p.  267.  A  complete  edition 
of  his  works  was  published  by  W.  Dindorf  (3  vols.,  Bonn, 
1883-38).  Revised  by  B.  L.  Gildersleeve. 

Procopiiis  the  Great :  soldier ;  b.  about  1880 ;  was  or- 
dained a  priest,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Hussite  war  he 
joined  the  army  and  distinguished  himself  so  greatly  that 
after  Ziska's  death  in  1424  he  was  chosen  commander-in- 
chief  by  the  Taborites.  On  the  approach  of  the  German 
armies  of  crusaders  the  different  Hussite  parties,  among  which 
were  the  Or|)hans  under  Procopius  the  Less,  united  under 
the  leadership  of  Procopius  the  Great,  and  a  war  ensued 
(1527-32),  remarkable  at  once  for  the  valor  and  cruelty  which 
the  Hussites  evinced.  They  made  successful  campaigns  in 
Saxony,  Silesia,  Jloravia,  Hungary,  Austria,  and  Bavaria. 
In  1433  the  Hussites  consented  to  send  eight  delegates  to  the 
Council  of  Basel.  Procopius  was  one  of  them,  and  he  took 
part  with  great  energy  in  the  debate,  but  after  the  lapse  of 
titty  days  the  Bohemian  delegates  grew  tireil  and  returned 
to  Prague.  Papal  comuiissioners  followed  them,  and  at  last 
a  compromise  was  brought  about  between  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics and  the  Calixtines.  The  Taborites,  however,  refused  to 
have  anything  to  do  with  the  pope,  and  thus  arose  a  contro- 
versy between  them  and  the  Calixtines  which  soon  grew  into 
open  warfare.  At  the  liallle  of  Homischbrod  (May  30, 1434) 
a  sudden  panic  seized  the  Taljoritc  army;  it  was  utterly  de- 
feated, and  both  Procojiius  the  Great  and  Procopius  the 
Less  fell. 


Procrns'tes  [in  Or.  UpoKpoiiaTrts,  the  stretcher]:  a  sur- 
name commonly  given  to  the  famous  robber  Polypemon  or 
Damastes,  who  used  to  place  all  persons  that  fell  into  his 
hands  on  an  iron  bed,  and  cut  off  or  stretch  out  their  limbs 
until  they  fitted  the  bed.  He  was  slain  by  Theseus  near 
the  Cephissus  in  Attica. 

Procter, Bryan  Waller:  poet;  familiarly  known  under 
his  pseudonym  of  Barry  Curnicall;  b.  in  London  Nov. 
21,  1787;  educated  at  Harrow;  studied  law  in  Wiltshire; 
removed  to  London,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1831,  but  did  not  attain  prominence  as  a  counsel.  The 
lucrative  position  of  commissioner  of  lunacy,  however,  which 
he  held  for  many  year.s,  supplied  the  means  as  well  as  suffi- 
cient leisure  for  the  culture  of  his  literary  and  poetic  tastes. 
In  1819  he  published  a  volume  entitled  Dramatic  Scenes  and 
Other  Poems,  which  was  the  beginning  of  his  literary  career. 
In  1821  his  tragedy  of  3Iirandola  was  produced  at  the  Cov- 
ent  Garden  theater  with  much  success.  It  is  as  a  writer  of 
refined,  melodious,  and  inspiring  songs  that  he  is  best  remem- 
bered and  esteemed.  D.  Oct.  5.  1874.  His  Poetical  Works 
have  had  wide  circulation  in  Great  Britain  and  the  LT.  S. — 
His  daughter.  Adelaide  Anne  Procter,  b.  in  London  Oct. 
30,  1825.  wrote  two  volumes  of  verse.  Legends  and  Lyrics 
(1858  and  1860).  D.  Feb.  2.  1864.  Her  works  were  reissued 
in  1865  with  an  introduction  by  Charles  Dickens. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Proctor  [M.  Eng.  proketour,  via  0.  Fr.  from  Lat.  pro- 
cura'tor,  manager,  agent,  deriv.  of  procura're,  take  care  of, 
manage ;  pro,  for  -|-  curare,  to  care,  deriv.  of  cUra,  care] : 
in  law,  an  officer  of  the  admiralty  and  ecclesiastical  courts 
in  England,  empowered  to  bring  and  conduct  proceedings 
therein  on  behalf  of  suitoi's,  corresponding  to  the  attorney 
and  the  solicitor  of  the  ordinary  ti-ibunals.  From  an  early 
day  a  body  of  men  wei-e  attached  to  these  ecclesiastical  and 
admiralty  courts  who  had  the  exclusive  authority  to  appear 
therein,  and  to  bring  or  defend  all  causes  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  actions  at  law  and  suits  in  equity  are  brought  and 
managed  by  attorneys  and  solicitors.  Admission  to  the  body 
was  obtained,  after  a  long  clerkship,  by  means  of  a  com- 
mission issued  in  the  name  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
The  class  of  professional  men  who  actually  tried  or  argued 
the  causes,  or  performed  other  duties,  before  the  court  itself 
— whose  functions,  in  other  words,  were  similar  to  those  of 
the  barristers  or  counsel — were  termed  "advocates."  The 
title  of  proctor  is  still  used,  but  the  distinction  between 
proctors  and  the  other  members  of  the  legal  profession  has 
been  abolished.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
in  matrimonial  and  testamentary  causes  having  been  taken 
away  (see  Coi'rts),  compensation  to  the  proctors,  whose  prac- 
tice was  in  these  courts,  was  made  by  admitting  them  to 
practice  not  only  in  the  probate  and  divorce  courts,  but  in 
the  courts  of  equitv  and  common  law  also.  (See  20  and  21 
Vict.,  c.  77,  SJtJ  43,  105,  106,  and  c.  85,  §  69;  21  and  22  Vict., 
c.  9.5,  §  9,  and  c.  108,  g  13 ;  also  23  and  24  Vict.,  c.  27.)  By 
the  Solicitors'  Act  of  1877  (40  and  41  Vict.,  c.  25.  g  17)  so- 
licitors are  allowed  to  practice  as  [jroctors,  and  the  Legal 
Practitioners'  Act  of  1876  (89  and  40  Vict.,  c.  66)  allows  so- 
licitors to  appear  in  the  provincial  courts  of  Canterbury  and 
York. 

There  are  no  proctors,  as  a  separate  order  or  class,  in  the 
legal  profession  of  the  U.  S.,  although  the  designation  is 
often  assumed  by  attorneys  in  admiralty  cases,  or  when  prac- 
ticing before  surrogates  or  courts  of  probate. 

'•  Proctors  of  the  clergy"  in  the  English  ecclesiastical  law 
are  the  delegates  or  representatives  of  cathedral  and  other 
collegiate  churches,  and  also  of  the  common  clei'gy  in  every 
diocese,  appointed  to  sit  in  the  convocation  of  the  Church, 
that  is,  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  held  during  the  session 
of  parliament,  but  which  has  long  since  ceased  to  exercise 
any  legislative  powers.         Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Proctor.  Redfield  :  U.  S.  Senator ;  b.  at  Proctorsville, 
Vt.,  in  1831  ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1851 ;  stud- 
ied at  the  Alb,iny  Law  School ;  when  tlie  civil  war  broke  out 
was  practicing  law.  He  enlisted  in  1801  in  the  Third  Ver- 
mont Regiment ;  became  major  of  the  Fifth,  and  afterward 
colonel  of  the  Fifteenth  Vermont,  but  returned  home,  after 
the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  in  Iji-oken  health ;  served  in  Vermont 
Senate  and  as  Lieutenant-Governor ;  was  Governor  1878- 
80;  chairman  of  the  Vermont  delegation  in  the  Rejiublican 
National  Convention  of  1888.  and  became  Secretary  of  War 
in  1889  ;  resigned  in  1891  and  was  appointed  U.  S.  Senator 
to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  resignation  of  Senator  Ed- 
munds, and  in  1893  was  elected  Senator  for  a  full  terra. 


I 


PROCTOR 


I'KOliXATIllSM 


801 


Proctor,  Hn  HARD  Anthony:  writer  on  astronomy;  b. 
in  London,  Kn^'lanJ,  Mar.  23,  1837  ;  entered  King's  College, 
London,  in  IHo.j.  ami  .St..rolnrs  College,  Cambridge,  in  1857, 
and  graduated  in  1800.  His  first  literary  effort  was  an  arti- 
cle on  Doiililf  .SV(/r.<  in  The  CornhiU  Magazine  for  Dee.,  186;l 
In  1865  he  published  his  first  book,  Saturn  and  its  Si/slem, 
which  was  soon  followed  by  liis  (rnoinonic  Star  Alias,  and 
in  1866  by  his  Ilandhook  of  the  Stars.  In  1867  he  published 
Constellation  Seasons ;  in  186S,  JIalf  Hours  with  the  Tele- 
scojx :  in  1869,  Half  Hours  with  the  Stars ;  in  1870.  his 
most  celebrated  work.  Other  Worlds  than  Ours,  The  I'htrul- 
ity  of  Worlds  Studied  under  the  Liyht  of  liecent  Scienlijic 
lie.fearches  :  in  1871,  The  Sun.  Elementary  Lessons  in  As- 
tronomi/.  aw\  the  first  series  of  Liyht  Science  for  Leisure 
Hours  ;  in  1872,  The  School  Atlas  of  Astronomy.  Es.tays  on 
Astronomy,  Orbs  around  I's,  and  Elementary  Lessons  on 
Physical  (feoyraphy;  in  1873,  Light  and  Science,  The  Moon, 
The  Border-land  of  Science,  The  LVpanse  of  Heaven,  The 
I'niverse  and  the  Coming  Transits;  in  1874,  Transits  of 
Venus  (3d  ed.  1878);  in  1878,^  Treatise  on  the  Cycloid  and 
all  Forms  of  Cycloid  Curjws,  and  on  the  Use  of  Cycloid 
Curves  in  dealing  with  the  Motions  of  Planets.  Comets,  etc., 
and  of  Matter  projected  from  the  Sun  ;  in  1887,  Easy  Jjes- 
sons  in  Differential  Calculus;  in  1888-tlO,  Old  and  A'ew 
Astronomy.  In  1881  he  founded  the  science  periodical 
Knowledge.  He  several  times  visited  the  U,  S.,  and  lectured 
in  the  larger  cities.  He  also  lectured  in  Australasia.  D.  in 
New  York,  Sept.  12,  1888.  Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Procura'tor :  the  designation  of  a  Roman  administrative 
officer,  cliarged  with  the  management  of  the  revenues  and 
business  affairs  of  a  province.  Although  not  of  military 
rank  troops  were  assigned  to  him  for  the  administration  of 
his  office,  and  he  was  recognized  as  second  in  authority  to 
the  governor.  He  might  therefore,  in  the  absence  of  his 
superior,  or  during  temporary  vacancy  of  the  governorship, 
assume  entire  charge  of  a  province,  or  he  might  be  put  at 
the  head  of  a  whole  district  in  a  province  too  large  to  be 
governed  by  one  person.  (i.  L.  Henurhkson. 

Procyoii'lda?  [.Mod.  Lat.,  deriv.  of  Procyon,  the  typical 
genus;  Lat.  Procyon  =  (ir.  TrpoKvav.  a  constellation  rising 
before  the  Dog  Star,  Trp6.  before  +  Kiiwy.  ilog.  The  word  has 
been,  however,  falsely  used  here,  as  if  signifying  "  instciul 
of  or  like  a  dog "'] :  a  family  of  carnivorous  mammals  repre- 
sented bv  the  raccoons  and  the  coatis.  The  teeth  are  in 
number  40  (M.  j,  P.  M.  J,  C.  I,  L  J  x  2) ;  the  last  molar  of 
the  upper  jaw  is  tnore  or  less  transverse  and  comjiressed 
forward  ;  of  the  two  molars  in  the  lower  jaw,  the  first  is 
broadest  ;  the  last  premolar  of  the  upper  jaw  and  the  first 
molar  of  the  lower  are  tubercular.  The  snout  is  more  or  less 
slender:  the  feet  elongaleil.  and  with  se|iarated  digits  capa- 
ble of  grasping  in  a  hand-like  manner.  The  family  includes 
two  sub-families:  (1)  Procyonincf,  with  the  genus  Procyon, 
or  the  raccoons,  anil  (2)  Nasuinie,  with  the  genus  J\'o.sHrt,or 
the  coatis.  They  are  peculiar  to  America,  and  naturally  to 
the  warmer  regions,  although  a  species  of  raccoon  ascends 
far  to  the  northward  in  the  U.  S.    See  Coati  and  Raccoon. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Proforl  :  .See  Over. 

Profit  a  Prpiidre:  See  Hereditamekts. 

Profits  [Fr.,  from  Lat.  proficio,  profectus,  to  progress]: 
an  excess  of  earnings  above  expenses.  In  onler  to  ascertam 
the  real  profit  of  an  enterprise,  we  must  take  care  to  cotint 
depreciation  of  capital  as  an  expense.  Thus  if  the  gross 
earnings  of  a  business  are  ^10,000  a  vear,  and  the  current 
expenses  $6,000,  the  apparent  profit'  is  14,000,  but  if  the 
invested  capital  is  worth  if  1,000  less  at  the  end  of  the  year 
than  it  was  at  the  beginning,  the  real  profit  is  oidy  $3,000. 
It  is  a  disputed  (|ueslion  whether  taxes  should  be  deducted 
from  earnings  before  estimating  profits.  There  is  another 
and  narrower  sense  of  the  word  under  which  interest  is  de- 
ducted before  estimating  profits.  Thus,  in  the  case  supposed, 
if  the  capital  invested  is  $20,000  and  the  current  rate  of  in- 
'(•rest  5  per  cent.,  there  is  an  interest  account,  actmd  or 
nominal,  of  $1,000  a  vear,  and  the  net  profit  on  this  basis 
■  ■f  reckoning  is  only '$2,000  instead  of  $3,000.  Profits  in 
this  sense  represent  the  earnings  of  maTiagemcnt  as  distinct 
from  those  of  capital,  and  will  vary  according  to  the  busi- 
ness ability  of  the  man  in  control.  It  is  hard  to  make  an 
:iecurate  ilistinetion  between  profits  and  rent.  In  gen- 
eral, the  former  term  is  applied  to  income  from  personal 
jiroperty  and  the  latter  to  income  from  real  estate.  See 
Political  Economy  and  Uereuitaments  (Incor/mre.al). 

A.  T.  IIadlky. 
335 


Profit-sharing :  the  name  generally  given  to  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  wages  system  under  which  a  share  in  the  real- 
ized profits  of  the  year's  business  is  given  to  the  employee, 
in  addition  to  his  wages  already  received.  This  bonus  may 
be  definitely  determined  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  as 
when  a  firm  promises  to  give  10  per  cent,  of  its  net  profits 
to  its  men,  or  the  percentage  may  be  left  to  be  determined 
at  the  end  of  the  twelve  months.  The  essential  features  of 
any  such  scheme  are  that  the  firm  shall  make  known  its  in- 
tention at  the  beginning  of  the  period,  and  that  the  sum  al- 
lotted to  each  employee,  usually  on  the  basis  of  his  wages, 
shall  not  be  trifling.  Tlie  principle  of  the  admission  of  the 
workmen  to  this  species  of  partnership  (strictly  limited,  ac- 
cording to  the  wishes  of  the  employer,  who,  in  fact,  has  the 
whole  matter  in  his  own  hands)  is  theap|ilication  to  modern 
conditions  of  the  product-sharing  connnon  in  agriculture 
and  the  fisheries.  Its  advocates  claim  for  it  that  it  tends  to 
advance  '■  the  prosjierity  of  an  establishment  by  increasing 
the  tiuantity  of  the  product,  by  improving  its  quality,  by 
promoting  care  of  implements  and  economy  of  materials, 
and  by  diminishing  labor  difiicultics  and  the  cost  of  super- 
intendence." In  a  very  large  majority  of  cases  where  the 
system  has  been  thoroughly  applied  and  time  given  for  its 
ecluoating  effects,  one  or  more  of  these  results  have  fol- 
lowed, with  no  diminution  of  the  employer's  average  profits. 

In  comparison  with  plans  of  co-operative  production  prop- 
er, profit-sharing,  often  styled  "  industrial  partnership  "  in 
England,  has  had  a  much  larger  percentage  of  success  in 
practice,  as  well  as  the  general  indorsement  of  the  economists 
from  Mill  and  Fawcett  to  Marshall  and  Walker.  It  is  ob- 
viouslv  most  applicable  to  occupations  such  as  handicrafts, 
where  the  extra  interest  naturally  awakened  in  the  workmen 
by  the  prospect  of  a  bonus  can  produce  an  immediate  and 
visible  effect,  and  less  adapted  to  manufactures  where  labor 
bears  a  lower  proportion  to  the  cost  of  material  and  plant. 
Nevertheless,  some  of  the  most  prosperous  trials  of  profit- 
sharing  have  been  made  in  cotton  and  woolen  mills  in  France 
and  the  U.  S.  "  The  father  of  profit-sharing "'  was  the  well- 
known  Edme  Jean  Leclaire.  the  Parisian  house-painter  and 
decorator,  whom  J.  S.  Mill  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  Eng- 
lish readers.  He  introduced  the  system  in  1842.  and  the 
celebrated  Maison  Leclaire  has  since  been  t  he  standard  ex- 
ample of  "  participation  "  :  in  the  years  1870-86  the  number 
of  its  employees  varied  from  710  to  1.129,  and  the  ratio  of 
bonus  to  wages  from  12  to 24  percent.  The  Laroche-Jonbert 
paper-works  at  Angouleme.  the  noted  Bon  Jlarche,  and  the 
Maison  Chaix,  a  very  large  printing-hou.se  at  Paris,  are  other 
prominent  instances  of  long  and  successful  applicatiim  of  the 
principle  of  profit-sharing  in  France.  That  country  counts 
over  100  establishments  successfully  conducted  on  this  sys- 
tem. In  England  the  abandonment  of  the  Briggs  Colliery 
Industrial  Partnership  in  1875  caused  a  cessation  of  effort 
in  this  direction  for  several  years,  biH  there  has  since  been 
a  notable  revival  of  interest  "and  faith  in  the  plan,  and  there 
are  (1894)  over  100  instances  of  British  profit-sharing  firms. 
In  the  V.  S.  fully  100  business  houses  in  a  great  variety  of 
occupations  practice  the  system. 

Profit-sharing  is  not  put  forth  by  its  wiser  advocates  as  a 
panacea  for  industrial  troubles,  bui  as  a  modification  of  the 
wages  system,  applicable  in  many  quarters  with  good  results 
to  both'parties  to  the  labor  contract.  The  details  of  its  ap- 
plication to  anv  special  occupation  require  care,  but  it  is 
based  on  human  nature  and  the  wages  system  as  they  are ; 
and  the  larger  part  of  the  failures  in  practice  have  been  due 
to  insufficient  preparation  and  ha.ste  for  results. 

There  are  two  societies  devoted  to  the  extension  of  profit- 
sharing.  The  French  society,  the  head  of  wdiich  is  Charles 
Robert,  is  composed  entirely  of  men  of  business  who  prac- 
tice the  system  ;  the  American  association  has  for  its  presi- 
dent the  U.  S.  commissioner  of  labor.  Both  societies  issue 
quarterlv  periodicals  devoted  to  the  cause. 

The  standard  work  on  the  subject  in  English  is  Profit 
Sharing  between  Employer  and  Employee,  l)y  N.  P.  Gilman 
(Boston,  1889  :  3d  ed.  1891 :  translated  and  adapted  into  Ger- 
man bv  L.  Kalscher).  Later  information  may  be  found  in 
two  chapters  of  another  work  by  the  same  writer,  Sociali.-im 
and  the  American  Spirit  (Boston.  1892).  See  also  the  lie- 
port  to  the  Board  of  Trade  by  D.  F.  Schloss  (London,  1894) 
and  his  Methods  of  Industrial  liemtincrntion  tLondon,1892). 

Xicholas  p.  Oilman. 

Prognathism  [from  Gr.  Trp6.  before  +  yvoBos,  jaw]:  the 
eonditron  of  having  projecting  jaws  or  a  large  craniofacial 
angle,  as  in  Negroes.     See  Face. 


802 


PROGRESSION 


PROHIBITIOK 


Progression  [from  Lat.  progres'sio,  a  going  forward, 
progress,  progression,  deriv.  of  pro'gredi.  go  forward  :  pro, 
forward  +  gra  ili,  step,  go] :  in  mathematics,  a  series  in 
which  eacli  term  is  derived  from  the  preceding  by  a  uni- 
form law. 

An  arithmetical  progression  is  a  series  in  which  each  term 
is  formed  from  the  preceding  one  by  the  addition  of  a  con- 
stant quantity  called  the  coiitinun  difference.  It  the  com- 
mon ditferenc'e  is  pusitice,  each  term  is  greater  than  the  pre- 
ceding one,  and  the  progression  is  said  to  be  increasing ;  if 
the  common  difference  is  negative,  each  term  is  less  than 
the  preceding  one,  and  the  progression  is  said  to  be  decreas- 
ing. From  these  definitions  we  see  that  every  increasing 
progression  when  taken  in  a  reverse  order  becomes  a  de- 
creasing progression,  and  that  every  decreasing  progression 
when  taken  in  a  reverse  order  becomes  an  increasing  pro- 
gression. An  arithmetical  progression  is  said  to  be  giivn 
when  we  know  one  term  and  the  common  difference  :  thus 
if  one  term  is  9  and  the  common  difference  5.  we  have,  by 
the  continued  addition  of  5,  the  series  9,  14,  19,  24,  etc.  ;  in 
like  manner,  by  the  continued  subtraction  of  5,  we  have  the 
series  9,  4,  —  1,  —  6,  etc.  These  two  series  written  in  proper 
order  form  a  single  progression,  as  follows  : 

.  .  .  ,  -  6,  -  1,  4,  9,  14,  19,  24,  .  .  . 

If  the  series  has  a  beginning  and  end  it  is  called  limited  : 
otherwise  it  is  infinite  or  unlimited.  Any  term  of  a  limited 
arithmetical  progression,  whetlier  increasing  or  decreasing, 
is  equal  to  the  first  term  plus  the  product  of  the  common 
difference  by  the  number  of  terms  that  precede  the  term  in 
question.  The  sum  of  all  the  terms  of  such  a  progression  is 
equal  to  half  the  sum  of  its  extremes  multiplied  by  the  num- 
ber of  terras. 

A  geometrical  progression  is  a  series  in  which  each  term 
is  equal  to  the  preceding  term  multiplied  by  a  constant 
quantity  called  the  ratio  of  the  progression.  If  the  ratio  is 
positive  and  greater  than  1,  each  term  is  greater  than  the 
preceding  one,  and  the  progression  is  said  to  be  increasing ; 
if  the  ratio  is  positive  and  less  than  1,  each  term  is  less  than 
the  preceding  one,  and  the  progression  is  said  to  be  decreas- 
ing ;  if  the  ratio  is  negative,  the  terms  of  the  progression 
are  alternately  positive  and  negative.  In  all  cases  if  two 
consecutive  terms  are  given,  we  can  find  the  ratio  by  divid- 
ing the  second  by  the  first.  The  following  series,  extending 
to  an  infinite  number  of  terms  in  both  directions,  is  an  ex- 
ample of  a  geometrical  progression  : 

.  .  .  .  ,  i,  1,  1.  2,  4,  8,  16,  .  .  .  . 

In  this  progression  the  ratio  is  2,  and  this  being  given,  to- 
gether with  any  term  of  the  series,  the  progression  may  be 
extended  to  any  desired  limit.  If  we  consider  a  finite  num- 
ber of  terms  as  constituting  a  limited  geometrical  progres- 
sion, the  nth  term  of  the  series,  n  being  any  positive  whole 
number,  is  equal  to  the  first  term  multiplied  by  the  («  —  l)th 
power  of  the  ratio ;  the  sum  of  all  the  terms  is  equal  to 

,  in  which  I  is  the  last  term,  a  the  first  term,  and  r 

r  —  \ 

the  ratio. 

An  harmonical  progression  is  a  series  such  that  of  any 
three  consecutive  terms  the  first  is  to  the  third  as  the  differ- 
ence between  the  first  and  second  is  to  the  difference  be- 
tween the  second  and  third.  The  reciprocals  of  the  terras 
of  an  arithmetical  progression  form  an  harmonical  progres- 
sion ;  thus  from  the  arithmetical  progression,  2,  4,  6,  8,  etc., 
we  form  the  harmonical  progression — 

1   i    1   1 
■  ■  ■  ■  '  2'  4'  6'F  ■  ■  ■  ■ 
Taking  the  first  three  terms,  we  see  that 
j_.  j_..l  _l.i_l        1    1_ 
2'6''2      4' 4      6'°''2"6 

Revised  by  S.  Newcomb. 

Prohibition:  the  suppression,  by  law,  of  the  manufac- 
ture, importation,  and  sale,  for  beverage  purposes,  of  all  al- 
coholic li(|Uors. 

Principles. — The  advocates  of  prohibition  base  their  de- 
mands on  the  following  facts:  (1)  Scientific.  Science  has 
demonstrated  that  alcohol  is  a  deadly  poison,  not  a  food, 
and  neither  necessary  nor  l)eneficial,  but  positively  injurious, 
to  healthy  persons.  Its  sale  for  beverage  purposes  should 
therefore  be  entirely  prohibited,  and  for  other  purposes 
should  be  regulated  by  the  strict  laws  governing  the  sale  of 


12" 


other  poisons,  such  as  strychnine,  arsenic,  opium,  etc.  (2) 
Social.  Alcoholic  liquors  affect  not  only  the  drinker,  but 
transmit  to  his  descendants  the  seeds  of  epilepsy,  insanity, 
and  the  worst  diseases  that  afflict  mankind.  The  use  of  al- 
coholic liquors  breaks  down  moral  restraints,  excites  the 
basest  passions,  and  instigates  to  crimes  through  which  the 
innocent  are  sufferers.  The  effect  is  not  only  to  destroy  so- 
cial order,  disrupt  families,  and  ruin  the  home  life,  but 
to  deteriorate  the  race  and  mortgage  future  generations. 
(3)  Economic.  The  raw  material  consumed,  the  labor  per- 
formed, and  the  money  spent  in  the  manufacture  and  pur- 
chase of  alcoholic  liquor  as  a  beverage  constitute  a  w'aste 
of  wealth.  Furthermore,  the  public  expense  incurred  in 
caring  for  the  pauper,  insane,  diseased,  and  criminal  prod- 
ucts of  the  alcoholic  habit  comprises  a  very  large  part  of 
the  government  expenditure,  and  is  an  unnecessary  and  un- 
just pulilic  burden.  (4)  Political.  The  deterioration  and 
degradation  of  the  citizen  is  a  national  injury,  and  the  or- 
ganized liquor-trade  has  become  an  active  and  damaging 
factor  in  government,  defying  legal  restraint,  thwarting 
justice,  dominating  politics,  and  corrupting  elections  and 
officials. 

Legality. — Legally,  the  prohibitive  principle  is  the  basis  of 
all  restrictive  legislation  :  but  li(iuor  license  falls  short  of  the 
logical  procedure  just  to  the  extent  that  partial  permission 
falls  short  of  absolute  prohibition.  The  constitutionality  of 
liquor  license  is  denied  by  many  able  Jurists,  but  the  constitu- 
tionality of  prohibition  has  been  established  by  the  highest 
courts  of  the  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain.  ""  There  is  no  inher- 
ent right  in  a  citizen  to  sell  intoxicating  liquors  by  retail  ; 
it  is  not  a  privilege  of  a  citizen  of  a  State,  nor  of  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States."  (1S7  U.  S.  86.)  "  No  Legislature  can 
bargain  away  the  public  health  or  the  public  morals ;  the 
people  themselves  can  not  do  it,  much  less  their  servants." 
(101  U.  S.  816,  reaffirmed  in  decision  in  Kansas  cases.)  "We 
can  not  shut  out  of  view  .  .  .  the  fact,  established  by  statistics 
accessible  to  every  one,  that  the  idleuess.  disorder,  pauperism, 
and  crime  existing  in  this  country,  in  some  degree  at  least, 
are  traceable  to  the  evil.  .  .  .  That  legislation  by  a  State 
prohibiting  the  manufacture  within  her  limits  of  intoxicat- 
ing liquors,  to  be  sold  or  bartered  for  general  use  as  a  bever- 
age, does  not  necessarily  infringe  any  right,  privilege,  or 
immunity  secured  by  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  is 
made  clear  by  the  decisions  of  this  court  rendered  before  and 
after  the  adoption  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment."  (123 
U.  S.  623.)  The  court  has  declared  in  fact  that  the  consti- 
tutionality of  prohibition  is  no  longer  an  open  question. 

Tlie  Prohibition  Movement. — The  agitation  for  prohibi- 
tion began  with  the  republic.  The  first  Colonial  Congress 
in  1774  passed  the  following:  "Resolved,  That  it  be  recom- 
mended to  the  several  legislatures  of  the  united  colonies 
immediately  to  pass  laws  the  more  effectually  to  put  a  stop 
to  the  pernicious  practice  of  distilling,  by  which  the  most 
extensive  evils  are  likely  to  be  derived  iif  not  quickly  pre- 
vented." From  1829  the  movement  was  pushed,  and  some 
local  prohibition  laws  were  enacted,  but  between  1850  and 
1860  a  number  of  State  laws  were  secured,  beginning  with 
the  "  Maine  law,"  enacted  in  1851. 

The  civil  war  (1861-65)  interfered  with  the  movement,  and 
gave  the  liquor-trade  an  opportunity  to  organize  a  powerful 
linancial  and  political  opposition  wliich  secured  the  repeal 
of  prohibition  in  many  States.  With  the  woman's  crusade, 
1878-74,  and  the  organization  of  its  successor  the  Women's 
Christian  Temperance  Union,  1874-75,  the  agitation  took  on 
a  wider  and  more  systematic  sweep,  and  not  satisfied  with 
evanescent  and  perfunctorily  enforced  statutory  prohibition, 
constitutional  amendments  were  demanded,  and  since  the 
year  1881  the  States  of  Kansas,  Maine,  Rhode  Island,  North 
Dakota,  and  South  Dakota  have  adopted  constitutional  pro- 
hibition, though  Rhode  Island  within  two  years  rescinded 
her  action.  Many  cities,  towns,  and  counties  in  all  parts  of 
the  U.  S.  are  under  prohibition  by  virtue  of  local  laws. 

The  prohibition  movement  is  worldwide,  is  spreading  rap- 
idly into  Australasia,  and  gaining  adherents  in  Europe  and 
the  East.  It  has  a  strong  press  and  platform  proimganda, 
and  nuniy  organizations  are  committed  to  prohibition,  among 
them  the  Women's  Christian  Temperance  Union,  the  Brit- 
ish Women's  Temperance  Association,  the  Good  Templars, 
Sons  of  Temperance.  United  Kingdom  Alliance,  Prohibi- 
tion party,  etc.  The  evangelical  churches  generally  in 
English-speaking  countries  have  declared  themselves  in 
sympathy  with  the  prohibition  cause,  and  most  of  the  lead- 
ers of  the  movement  are  members  of  religious  bodies. 

Frances  E.  Willaed. 


PROHIBITIUX    PAinV 


PROJECTILES 


803 


Prohibition  Party  :  a  political  party  organized  in  the 
U.  S.,  [ilfilj^i'd  to  tlu'  election  of  officers  committed  to  certain 
political  reforms,  anionff  which  prohibition  of  the  alcoholic 
drink  traffic  is  an  essential  element. 

Soon  after  the  adoption  of  proliibition  laws  in  many 
States  it  became  apparent  to  some  that  such  laws  were  in 
danper  of  non-enfonemcnt  by  the  officers  of  the  law.  As 
early  as  18.57  the  Independent  Order  of  (iood  Templars,  an 
organization  committed  to  prohibition,  declared  it  to  be  one 
of  its  cardinal  purposes  to  secure  the  election  of  good,  hon- 
orable men  to  administer  the  laws.  During  the  civil  war  in 
the  U.  S.  the  liquor-trade  organized  for  the  expre.ssed  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  enforcement  and  securing  the  repeal 
of  existing  prohibition  laws,  and  prcvciiliiig  further  i)rohib- 
itory  legislation.  In  ISGT  the  seventh  beer-brewers'  con- 
gress declared  that  tliey  would  "sustain  no  candidate,  of 
whatever  party,  in  any  election,  who  is  in  any  way  disposed 
toward  the  total  abstinence  cause."  This  was  more  than 
two  years  before  the  Prohibition  party  was  organized. 

During  the  session  of  the  Right  Worthy  (inuid  Lodge  of 
the  Independent  Order  of  Good  Templars  at  Oswego,  N.  Y., 
May  27,  18Gfl,  a  meeting  of  those  favoring  independent  po- 
litical party  act  ion  was  held,  and  a  committee  named  to  issue 
a  call  for  a  national  convention  for  the  purpose  of  organ- 
izing a  Natioiuil  Prohibition  party.  Pursuant  to  this  call 
nearly  500  delegates  from  twenty  States  met  in  Parwell 
Hall,  Chicago,  Sept.  1.  1869,  adopted  a  plat  form,  and  as- 
sumed the  name  of  the  National  Prohibition  party. 

The  first  national  nominating  convention  of  the  party 
was  held  in  Columbus,  O.,  Feb.  i-Z.  1S72.  The  platform 
adopted  strongly  arraigned  the  liipior-traffic  and  the  com- 
plicity of  the  Hepublican  and  Democratic  parties  therewith, 
and  declared  for  entire  prohibition.  There  were  also  em- 
phatic declarations  on  the  questions  of  public  service, 
finance,  interstate  commerce,  tariff,  labor,  education,  im- 
migration, and  favoring  equal  suffrage  for  women.  Hon. 
Janu'S  IJlaclv  was  nominated  for  President,  and  Rev.  .John 
Russian  fcjr  Vice-President.  Electoral  tickets  were  nomi- 
nated in  only  six  States,  and  received  5,607  votes.  The  sec- 
ond national  nominating  convention  was  held  in  Cleveland, 
0.,  May  17,  IX'G.  Hon.  Green  Clay  Smith,  of  Kentucky, 
was  nominated  for  President,  and  Hon.  Gideon  T.  Stewart, 
of  Ohio,  for  Vice-President,  arid  at  the  ensuing  election  they 
received  9,737  votes  in  eighteen  States.  At  the  third  na- 
tional convention,  held  in  Cleveland,  June  17,  1S80,  Hon. 
Neal  Dow.  of  Elaine,  and  Rev.  H.  A.  Thompson,  of  Ohio, 
were  nominated  for  President  and  Vice-President,  respec- 
tively, and  received  10,366  votes  in  eighteen  States. 

Since  1882,  when  a  convention  was  held  in  Farwell  Hall, 
Chicago,  and  a  reorganization  effected,  the  National  Pro- 
hibition party  has  been  actively  engaged  in  the  work  of  or- 
ganizing. The  national  committee,  of  which  Hon.  Gideon 
T.  Stewart  was  chairman  ami  Rev.  A.  J.  Jutkins  secretary, 
issued  an  open  call  for  a  national  convention,  which  met  in 
Pittsburg,  July  23,  1884.  There  were  present  465  delegates 
from  thirty-one  States  and  Territories.  A  platform  of  polit- 
ical principles,  advocating  prohibition,  equal  suffrage,  and 
reforms  in  iinance,  I  arid,  civil  service,  etc.,  was  adopted,  and 
Hon.  John  P.  St.  .lohn,  of  Kansas,  to  whom,  as  Governor  of 
that  State,  was  largely  due  the  adojition  of  State  constitu- 
tional prohil)ition,  was  lunninateil  for  President,  and  Hon. 
William  Daniel,  c)f  Maryland,  for  Vice-President.  Hon.  John 
15.  Finch,  of  Nebraska,  head  of  the  Order  of  Good  'I'emplars, 
was  made  chairnuui  of  the  national  committee,  and  a  vig- 
orous organizing  campaign  was  conducted.  At  the  presi- 
dential ele(!tion  in  1888  the  National  Prohibition  party  ticket 
received  150,626  votes  in  thirty-four  States.  Immediately 
after  the  election  the  national  committee  issued  an  address 
which  W!is  widely  circulated. 

The  party  work  was  strengthened  Ijy  a  national  lecture 
bureau,  organized  by  W.  Jennings  Demorest  and  Horace 
Waters,  of  New  York.  The  convention  of  1888  was  held  in 
Indianapolis,  and  Hon.  Clinton  H.  Fisk,  of  New  Jersey,  and 
Rev.  John  A.  Brooks,  of  Missouri,  were  nominated  for  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President,  respectively.  They  received  249,- 
945  votes.  In  1892  the  national  convention  was  held  in  Cin- 
cinnati, Juiu'  30,  and  Gen.  John  Bidwell,  of  California,  and 
Rev.  James  B.  Cranfill,  of  Texas,  were  nominated.  The  vote 
cfust  for  them  at  the  ensuing  election  was  270.S13.  The  Na- 
tional Prohil)ition  party  is  (1894)  organized  in  every  State, 
nominates  tickets  at  all  elections,  has  elected  members  of 
the  Legislature  in  a  numlier  of  States,  has  several  good 
news|iaper  organs,  and  is  indorsed  by  iiuiiiy  teninerance  or- 
ganizations, notably  by  the  Womeirs  Christian  Temperance 


Fio.   1. -Stand 
of  Krape. 


Union.  Its  chairman  is  Prof.  Samuel  Dickie,  of  Michigan, 
and  its  leading  journal  The  Voice,  published  weekly  in  New 
York.  Fra.nchs  E.  Wiixard. 

Pro.jectiles  [from  Lat.  proji'cere  (proi'cere),  projectum, 
hurl  forth  or  forward;  pro.  forth,  forward  +ja'cere,  throw, 
hurl]:  bodies  projected  forward  by  a  force. 
Generally  speaking,  they  are  missiles  to  be 
used  in  warfare,  and  to  be  fired  from  a  gun 
by  means  of  an  explosive  substance.  They 
are  divided  into  two  classes — spherical  and 
oblong.  The  former  are  used  in  smooth-bcu'e 
guns,  and  are  obsolete ;  oblong  projectiles  are 
used  in  rifled  guns.  In  each  class  arc  found 
three  varieties — solid  shot,  shell,  and  case- 
shot.  Other  varieties,  now  also  obsolete,  were 
formerly  used  in  smooth-bore  guns.  These 
were :  Chain-shot,  two  projectiles  connected 
by  a  short  chain ;  bar-shot,  two  projectiles 
connected  by  a  bar;  carcass,  a  shell  filled  with  an  inflamma- 
ble composition  used  for  incendiary  purposes;  tiyhf  luill.  a 
coml)ustit)le  shell  used  to  illuminate  an  enemy's  works.  A 
hand-grenade  is  a  shell  intended  to  be  thrown 
by  hand  at  an  assaulting  party. 

Spherical  projectiles  were  the  first  projec- 
tiles used,  and  were  made  of  stone,  lead, 
wrought  and  cast  iron.  Solid  spherical  shot 
was  used  against  masonry  and  armored  ves- 
sels. A  shell  is  a  hollow  projectile  contain- 
ing a  bursting  charge  which  at  some  point  of 
its  flight  is  ignited  by  means  of  a  fuze.  Its 
effect  is  therefore  not  as  local  as  is  that  of  a 
solid  shot.  A  shell  is  used  against  earth- 
works, unarmored  vessels,  and  against  such 
armor  as  it  can  penetrate.  Case-shot  is  used 
against  animate  objects  on  account  of  the 
greater  number  of  fragments  resulting  from 
the  separation  of  its  cluster.  Case-shot  com- 
prise grape-shot,  canister,  an<l  shrapnel. 
Grape-shot  (Fig.  1)  consists  usually  of  nine 
spherical  shot  arranged  in  three  tiers  of 
three  balls  each,  all  being  held  together  by 
two  rings  and  a  top  and  bottom  plate  con- 
nected by  a  central  bolt.  Canister  (F'ig.  2) 
consists  of  a  number  of  small  balls  inclosed 
in  a  tin  or  malleable  iron  case.  The  shock 
of  discharge  of  the  piece  causes  grape-shot 
and  canister  to  break  up  at  the  muzzle  of 
the  piece ;  they  are  used  for  firing  at  short 
ranges.  Shrapnel  consists  of  an  envelope 
containing  a  number  of  small  balls  an<i  a 
bursting  charge,  which,  by  means  of  a  fuze, 
is  exploded  at  any  desired  distance  from  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun.  During  the  U.  S.  civil 
war  a  form  of  shrapnel  known  as  spherical  case-shot  was 
used.  It  consisted  of  a  shell  (Fig.  3)  filled  with  lead  balls, 
between  the  interstices  of  which  was  poured  a  matrix  of 
melted  rosin  or  sulphur  ;  when  the  matrix  had  hardened  a 
cylindrical  hole  was  bored  through  the  center  to  hold  the 
bursting  charge.  To  the  side  of  the  shot  diametrically  op- 
posite the  fuze-hole  was  strapped  a  wooden  sabot.  This 
sabot  is  used  with  all  spherical  fuzed  shot  to  keep  the  fuze 
away  from  the  powder  charge. 

Oblong  projectiles  possess  many  advantages  over  spherical 
projectiles,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  greater  ranges 
for  equal  muzzle  velocities,  greater  pene- 
trations for  equal  striking  velocities,  ca- 
pacity for  a  given  caliber,  and  greater  mi 
curacy.  In  order  to  c-ause  an  oblong  pi 
jectile  to  travel  with  its  longest  axis  in  tin 
direction  of  its  motion  it  is  necessary  to 
impart  to  the  projectile  a  niotiim  of  nita- 
tion  about  its  longest  axis  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  tendency  of  the  projectile 
to  revolve  about  its  shortest  axis,  or,  tech- 
nically speaking,  to  "  tumble."  Many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  fire  oblong  pro- 
jectiles from  smooth-bore  guns  by  means  of  wings  or  spiral 
channels  intended  to  give  rotation  to  the  projectiles,  but 
none  of  the  attempts  have  proved  successful.  The  use  of 
oblong  projectiles  is  therefore  confined  to  rilled  guns.  In 
order  to  cause  an  oblong  projectile  to  take  the  rifling  it 
must  be  fitted  with  a  rotating  device,  which  differs  for  muz- 
zle-loading and  breech-loading  guns. 


Fig.  2.— Sawyer 
canister. " 


'-"'l-  /^ 


Fig.  3.— Spberical 

case-sliot. 


SOi 


EKOJECTILES 


PROJECTION 


riG 


4.— Brit- 
li  slirapnel. 
imi^zle-load- 


Flu  ")  ~U  S 
cored  shot, 
muzzle -load- 
ing. 


Muzzle-loading  projectiles  may  be  caused  to  rotate  in  two 

■ways — by  the  use  of  studs,  aud  by  tlie  use  of  some  device 

wiiich  the  pressure  of  the  powder  gas  expands  into  tlie 
rifling.  In  the  studded  system  the  studs  are 
pressed  into  under-cut  holes  on  tlie  projectile, 
Tliese  studs  fit  in  the  rifle  grooves  in  the 
gun,  and  cause  tlie  projectile  to  rotate  as  it 
moves  down  the  bore  (Fig.  4).  The  Butler 
projectile  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the 
rv.|iansive  system.  The  rotating  device  (Fig. 
."))  consists  of  a  brass  or  copper  ring  screwed 
(■r  cast  on  the  projectile.  The  ring  is  divided 
by  a  deep,  annular  groove  into  an  outer  and 
inner  flange  or  lip.  On  firing,  the  powder 
f^as  enters  this  groove,  presses  the  inner  lip 
against  the  projectile,  thereby  assisting  to 
jirevent  the  stripping  of  the  ring,  and  forces 
the  outer  lip  into  the  rifling.  Other  projec- 
tiles of  this  class  are  the  Eureka,  Parrott,  and 
others.  Muzzle-loading  oblong  projectiles 
are  fast  becoming  obsolete,  as  all  guns  now 
made  are  breech-loaders. 
Bn'cch-loading  projectiles,  since  they  are  loaded  through 

the  breech  of  the  piece,  are  fitted  with  a  device  which,  be- 
ing larger  than  the  bore  of  the  gun,  is  com- 
pressed into  the  rifling  when  the  projectile  is 
fired.  This  device  at  first  consisted  of  a  lead 
jacket  cast  on  the  body  of  the  projectile  (Fig. 
6).  Two  copper  bands  were  next  substituted 
for  this  jacket,  one  band  being  near  the  head 
and  the  other  near  the  base  of  the  projectile. 
With  the  increasing  twist  of  the  rifling  two 
liands  were  objectionable,  and  one  band  near 
the  base  was  found  to  be  all  that  was  necessa- 
ry. When  one  band  is  used  the  head  of  the 
jirojectile,  where  it  joins  the  body,  is  slightly 
enlarged  so  as  to  flt  the  bore  accurately  and 
thus  steady  the  projectile.  The  bands  are  made 
of  copper  or  brass  rings  pressed  into  under- 
cut grooves.  The  compressive  system  of  rota- 
tion is  superior  to  the  others,  as  it  increases  the 
accuracy  of  the  projectile  and  decreases  the 

erosion  of  the  bore  by  the  rush  of  gases  past  the  projectile. 

Oblong  projectiles  consist  of  a  cylindrical  body  and  an 
ogival  head,  the  railius  of  the  ogive  being 
from  1-^  to  3  calibers.  Some  armor-piercing 
shells  have  heads  which  start  with  a  curve 
whose  radius  is  greater  than  S  calibers,  and 
terminate  with  almost  a  hemisiiherical  point. 
The  solid  shot  used  in  the  12-inch  IT.  S. 
breech-loading  rifle  (Fig.  7)  is  3+  feet  long 
and  weighs  1,000  lb. ;  it  is  fired  with  a  muz- 
zle velocity  of  3,000  feet  per  second.  The 
materials  used  for  the  manufacture  of  oblong 
projectiles  are  steel  and  cast  iron.  Chromi- 
um is  often  added  to  the  steel  to  increase  its 
hardness.  Steel  projectiles  may  either  be  east 
or  forged ;  the  latter  method  gives  the  best 
but  also  the  most  expensive  projectiles.  A 
new  process  of  rolling  projectiles  has  been 
extensively  adopted  in  Europe.  Among  the 
best  projectiles  may  be  named  the  IToltzer. 
St.-Chaumont,  St.-Iiticnne,  and  Firminy.  The 
processes  by  which  they  are  manufactured 
are  kept  secret.  A  recent  test  of  metal  from 
a  Firminy  projectile  showed  an  elastic  limit 
(if  106.000  lb.,  a  tensile  strength  of  333,000 
lb.,  and  an  elongation  of  7|  per  cent.  The 
manufacture  of  the  St.-Etienne  steel  shell  is 
in  general  as  follows:  A  casting  of  steel, 
closed  in  front  and  presenting  on  the  interior 
and  exterior  the  general  form  of  the  projec- 
tile, is  prepared  by  a  hammer  or  hydraulic 
press.  The  cylindrical  part  is  strengthened 
in  n^ar  by  increased  thickness.  It  is  then 
rolled  on  a  steel  mandrel  and  drawn  through 
grooves  of  an  ordinary  rolling-mill  until  the 

Fio.  7.-Cored  desired  dimensions  are  reached.  One  of  these 
stiot.'  For  shells,  exhibito<l  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
U.  .S.  1-3-inch  1889,  was  13-5  inches  in  caliber,  and  had  been 
inTrme.  ^'^'^'^  through  a  1,5-7-inch  iron  plate  without 

either  appreciable  upsetting  or  rupture. 
The  tempering  of  a  projectile  is  a  very  important  step  in 

its  manufacture.     At  the  St.-Chaumont  works,  in  France, 


Fig.  6.— Prus- 
sian cored 
shot,  breech- 
loading. 


breech  -  loading 
rifle. 


to  temper  a  projectile  it  is  first  heated  to  a  cherry  red  and 
then  cooled  in  oil.  When  cold  it  is  again  heated  to  a  cherry 
red  and  the  head  only  is  then  plunged  in  water  and  allowed 
to  remain  eight  or  ten  minutes,  and  then 
the  whole  projectile  is  plunged  in  oil  and 
left  until  cold.  In  this  way  a  very  hard 
head  and  tough  body  are  secured.  In  cast- 
ing both  solid  shot  and  shell  the  point  is 
generally  cast  down  to  secure  a  denser 
head.  For  armor-piercing  projectiles  the 
heads  are  cast  in  iron  moulds  to  increase 
their  hardness  by  quick  cooling.  Oblong 
.solid  shot  have  a  limited  use,  since  shells 
can  be  made  which  will  pierce  almost  the 
same  thickness  of  armor,  and  with  more 
destructive  ett'eot. 

Oblong  shells  are  of  two  kinds — batter- 
ing or  armor-piercing  shells  and  common 
shells.  The  first  kind  are  made  of  forged 
steel,  and  the  second  kind  are  nuide  of  cast 
steel  and  cast  iron.  Shells  are  also  made 
by  Electric  Welding  (g.  v.).  The  head 
and  base  are  stamped  out  in  dies ;  the  body 
is  made  by  rolling  or  drawing  a  tube. 
The  three  parts  are  then  placed  in  a  weld- 
ing-machine, and  a  current  of  electricity 
of  enormous  quantity  and  low  intensity  is 
passed  through  them  while  they  are  pressed 
firmly  together.      The  operation  is  com-  ____ 

pleted  in  about  three  and  a  half  minutes.  p,Q  a^Isi^apnel 
Some  of  the  modern  shrapnel  for  the  U.  S.  For  U.S.  j  a  inch 
3-2-inch  field  breech-loading  rifie  are  man- 
ufactured in  this  way  (Fig.  8).  The  base 
and  body  are  welded  together,  then  the  steel  diaphragm 
and  tube  are  dropped  in  place  and  the  head  is  welded  on. 
Holes  are  drilled  in  the  head  connecting  with  the  interior 
cavity,  and  through  these  holes  the  shrapnel  is  filled  with 
bullets;  a  matrix  of  plaster-of-Paris  is  then  poured  in, 
and  the  holes  are  closed  by  screwing  in  small  plugs.  The 
bursting  charge  is  placed  in  the  cavity  in  rear  through  the 
central  tube,  A  time-fuze  is  screwed  in  the  point,  and  at 
the  proper  distance  it  ignites  the  charge  and  the  cluster  is 
swept  out  to  the  front  by  the  diaphragm. 

Oblong  jirojectiles  vary  in  length  from  3  to  5  calibers, 
and  are  fired  with  a  muzzle  velocitv  which  ranges  from 
1,800  to  3.500  feet  per  second;  a  velocity 
of  3,300  feet  has  been  attained.  Against 
earthworks  very  long  shells  are  used. 
Some  of  these  are  6  to  8  calibers  in  length. 

The  bursting  charges  used  in  projectiles 
are  generally  composed  of  gunpowder, 
though  the  high  explosives  are  sometimes 
desirable,  particularly  in  armor-piercing 
shells.  The  charges  are  generally  ignited 
by  means  of  time  or  impact  fuzes.  In  the 
case  of  armor-piercing  shell  the  heat  de- 
veloped in  piercing  the  armor  is  usually 
sufficient  to  explode  the  charge.  The  ju'o- 
jectiles  used  in  the  small-arms  are  gener- 
ally made  of  lead,  ,-ind  being  of  a  slightly 
larger  caliber  than  th.at  of  the  gun,  the 
lead  is  forced  into  the  rifling,  thus  causing 
the  projectile  to  rotate.  In  the  small-caliber  rifles,  which  are 
about  0-3  inch  in  diameter  of  bore,  a  much  more  rapid 
twist  is  required  for  the  rifling,  and  lead  would  be  too  soft 
to  take  the  grooves,  consequently  the  projectile  is  made 
with  a  lead  body  and  covered  with  a  jacket  of  a  harder 
material,  such  as"  copper,  German  silver,  or  steel  (Fig,  9), 
For  detailed  descripticms  and  history,  sec  IloUey,  Ordnance 
and  Armor;  IMeigs  and  IngersoU,  Ordmince  and  Gunnery; 
]\Iorgan,  Ilandhooli  of  Artillery  JIaterial;  Reports  of  the 
Chief  of  Ordnance  ;  Jhickinlav,  Text-book  of  Gunnery ;  Jour- 
nal of  tlie  United  Slates  Artillery,  etc.  See  Gunnery,  Ar- 
tillery, Ballistics,  etc.  J.  C.  W.  Brooks. 

Pro.jection  [from  Lat.  projec'Ho,  a  throwing  forward, 
stretching  out  :  pro,  forward  -i-  ja'cere,jac  him,  throw,  hurl] : 
the  representation  of  a  magnitude  on  a  plane  or  other  sur- 
face made  in  accordance  with  some  geometrical  law.  In  ge- 
ometry, projection  is  restricted  to  the  delineation  of  an  ob- 
ject upon  a  plane  surface  by  rays  issuing  from  a  point  and 
intersecting  the  contour  of  the  object;  and  this  is  in  most 
cases  the  meaning  of  the  word.  If  the  point  be  supposed 
infinitely  distant  the  rays  form  a  system  of  parallels.     If 


Fio. 


-0-3  -  inch 


PROJECTION 


805 


f> 


their  ilirct-tinii  is  perpendicular  to  the  plane  \vc  have  orlliu- 
jraphic  pi-djeclioti ;  if  tlie  (lirt'ctiua  is  not  perpendicular  we 
liave  iihliijui'  projection  :  and  if  the  point  is  at  a  Unite  and 
proper  distance  for  ordinary  vision  we  have  /ifi-.f/ji-ctire 
projection. or  linear  perspective.  (See  I'krsi'kctivk.)  Oilier 
systems  of  projection  are  used  for  delineatiuf;  the  earth's 
surface.  In  geometry  the  object  projected  is  a  {;eometrical 
li<;ure  ;  the  fi.xed  point  is  called  the  verLe.\,  the  joining  lines 
form  a  cone,  and  the  section  in  which  the  cone  is  cut  by  any 
plane  (the  plane  of  projection)  is  called  the  projection. 
This  method  supplies  very  important  conclusions,  accord- 
inu  to  which  from  a  particular  theorem,  the  general  one 
under  which  il  is  contained,  may  be  interred.  It  is  due  to 
Poncelet,  whose  Tntite  den  Proprieti'/i  I'mjeclives  (/<•»■  Fi- 
gures nuiy  be  regarded  as  marking  a  new  era  in  geometry. 
By  this  'method  theorems  concerning  infinitely  distant 
points  may  be  extended  to  finite  points  on  a  right  line; 
while  theorems  concerning  imaginary  points  atnl  lines  may 
be  extended  to  real  points  and  lines.  In  the  last  we  have 
the  principle  of  continuity,  according  to  which  the  proper- 
tics  of  a  tigurc  are  asserted  to  be  equally  true,  whether  any 
of  its  points  or  lines  arc  real  or  imaginary.  (See  I.M.A(ii.NARY 
Quantities.)  In  what  follows,  however,  orthographic  pro- 
jection and  spherical  projections  alone  are  considered. 

Orthogntphic  Projection. — This  projection  is  the  feature 
of  Monge's  descriptive  geometry,  a  method  which  was  de- 
vised for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  representation  of  solids 
and  other  figures  in  three  dimensions  by  means  of  a  drawing 
in  one  plane.  In  this  method  a  figure  is  represented  by  its 
ortliographic  projections  on  two  planes,  one  horizontal  and 
the  other  vertical.  The  first  projection  is  called  the  plan 
and  the  second  the  elevation.  The  line  of  intersection  of 
the  planes  is  called  the  axis.  If  the  drawing-paper  is  the 
surface  of  the  plan,  the  plane  of  the  elevation  will  be  the 
plane  per|iendicular  to  it  drawn  through  the  axis.  In  order 
to  bring  the  plane  of  elevation  into  the  plane  of  the  paper, 
we  may  turn  it  round  the  axis  until  it  coincides  with  the 
horizontal  plane,  in  which  case  A  moves  to  B  and  C  to  D. 
This  process  is  called  rabatting. 

Let  Pa  Pi  be  the  feet  of  the  perpendiculars  from  a  ])oint 
P on  the  vertical  and  horizontal  planes,  respectively  ;  then 
if  we  turn  the  vertical  plane  toward  the  left  round  "the  axis 
until  it  coincides  with  the  horizontal.  Pa  will  come  into  the 
position  /'j,  a  point  evidently  lying  on  the  perpendicular  to 
the  axis  drawn  through  P,  at  a  distance  P^Q  =  PaQ  =  PP- 
from  the  axis.     In  the  figure  it  is  seen  through  the  vertical 


/^     Po 

/ 

p 

/''^ 

/ 

V 

V 

/x                 /^ 

7' 

B 

o             ^ 
c 

\. 

plane.  Thus  any  two  points,  P,,  P,,  on  the  plane  of  the 
paper  lying  on  a  perpendicular  to  the  axis  will  be  the  pro- 
jections of  some  point  in  space,  after  the  vertical  plane  has 
lieen  turned  round  the  axis  so  as  to  become  horizontal. 
Hence  we  have  a  method  of  representing  points  in  space. 
We  take  in  the  plane  of  the  paper  a  line  x  as  axis ;  then 
any  pair  of  points  on  a  perpendicular  to  the  axis  represent 
a  point  in  space. 

The  horizontal  and  vertical  planes  divide  all  space  into 
four  parts,  callecl  rpiadrants.  The  first  is  the  upper  part  on 
the  right  in  which  /'lies,  the  second  the  upper  part  on  the 
left,  and  the  third  and  the  fourth  the  other  i)arts  taken  in 
rotation  from  right  to  left.  Thus  if  /',  is  .said  to  be  below 
and  /',  above  the  axis,  a  point  lies  in  the  first  quadrant,  if 
the  elevation  is  above  and  the  plan  below  the  axis;  in  the 
seconil,  if  elevation  and  plan  are  both  above;  in  the  third, 
if  the  elevation  is  belciw  and  the  plan  above;  and  in  the 
fourth,  if  elevation  anil  plan  are  both  below  the  axis. 


As  we  can  represent  any  point  thus,  we  have  a  represen- 
tation of  any  figure  in  space  by  considering  it  as  an  assemblage 
of  point.s.  A  plane,  however,  can  not  be  repre.sented  in  this 
way,  as  the  projections  of  its  separate  points  would  entirely 
cover  the  planes  of  reference,  and  all  planes  wouM  become 
alike.  But  any  plane  cuts  the  two  planes  in  two  lines  meet- 
ing on  the  axis.  These  lines  are  called  the  traces  of  the 
plane.  Thus  a  plane  is  determined  by  its  traces,  which  are 
two  lines  intersecting  on  the  axis  ;  and.  conversely,  any  two 
lines  intersecting  on  the  axis  determine  a  plane.  If  the 
plane  is  parallel  to  the  axis  its  traces  are  two  lines  parallel 
to  the  axis.  One  of  the  traces  is  altogether  at  infinity  if 
the  plane  is  parallel  to  the  plane  on  which  the  trace  lies. 
If  the  plane  passes  through  the  axis  both  traces  coincide 
with  the  axis  and  the  method  of  representation  fails,  as  all 
planes  fulfilling  this  condition  become  alike.  We  there- 
fore introduce  a  third  plane  at  a  point  Oof  the  axis  per- 
pendicular to  both  the  other  plane.s.  Then  this  |ilane  with 
its  trace  is  rabatted  about  the  perpendicular  to  the  axis  at 
O  so  a-s  to  become  horizontal,  and  then  the  traces  of  the 
|ilane  to  be  represented  are  the  axis  x  and  a  line  passing 
through  O. 

In  order  to  represent  a  line  we  consider  it  either  as  the 
connector  of  two  points  which  have  each  their  appropriate 
representation  or  as  the  intersection  of  two  planes  with 
their  corresponding  traces.  In  the  first  case  the  line  may 
be  represented  by  its  projections  on  the  two  planes.  These 
lines  are  entirely  arbitrary,  so  that  any  two  lines  represent 
a  line  in  space,  for  when  we  bring  the  plane  of  elevation 
into  its  original  position  the  perpendicular  planes  through 
the  two  lines  must  intersect  in  some  line  in  space.  In  the 
second  case  a  line  is  represented  by  its  traces,  namely,  the 
two  points  in  which  it  meets  the  vertical  and  horizontal 
planes,  as  these  two  points  are  not  connected  by  any  rela- 
tion, and  two  points  determine  a  line  in  space.  If  the 
traces  coincide  at  a  point  on  the  axis  this  representation 
fails,  and  we  must  introduce  a  third  plane  or  have  recourse 
to  the  representation  by  projections. 

For  the  further  numerous  problems  of  descriptive  geom- 
etry and  their  solution,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  formal 
treatises  upon  the  subject. 

Spherical  Projections. — In  the  construction  of  maps  we 
have  to  consider  the  means  of  representing  the  surface  of  a 
sphere  upon  a  plane.  There  is  no  method  by  which  the 
length  of  lines  is  strictly  preserved,  but  there  is  a  variety 
of  methods  which  have  their  special  appropriateness,  that 
is,  produce  the  least  amount  of  distortion,  in  [larticular 
eases.  If  orthographic  projection  is  used  the  plane  is  sup- 
posed to  pass  through  the  center  and  the  eye  to  be  at  an 
infinite  distance  perpendicular  to  the  plane.  If  the  plane  is 
the  equator  the  parallels  and  meridians  become  concentric 
circles  and  rays  passing  through  the  center,  respectively. 
If  a  meridian  is  the  plane  of  projection  the  meridians  be- 
come ellipses  having  a  common  transver.se  axis,  and  the 
parallels  a  system  of  parallel  lines  perpendicular  to  that 
axi.s.  In  other  cases  meridians  and  parallels  both  become 
ellipses.  In  this  method  [ilaces  near  the  plane  of  projection 
are  crowded  together,  while  those  farthest  away  are  fairly 
represented.  In  perspective  projection  the  eye  is  supposed 
to  be  at  the  vertex,  and  the  |ilanc  of  projection  is  taken 
perpendicular  to  the  line  joining  it  to  the  center,  and  by 
suitably  choosing  the  distances  of  the  i^ye  and  plane  from 
the  center  we  can  arrive  at  different  systems  of  projection 
which  are  serviceable  in  re])resenting  certain  portions  of 
the  earth.  In  general  both  meridians  and  parallels  are  pro- 
jected into  ellipses.  If  the  point  is  on  the  sphere  and  the 
plane  passes  through  thi^  center  the  projection  is  called 
.•itereogrnpltic  ;  and  circles  whose  planes  pass  through  the 
eye  are  projected  into  straight  lines,  while  all  other  circles 
are  projected  into  circles.  In  this  method  places  near  the 
plane  of  projection  are  fairly  represented,  and  those  farthest 
away  are  crowded  together,  but  allangles  remain  absolutely 
unaltered.  In  gnnmonic  projection  the  eye  is  at  the  center 
and  the  plane  of  projection  touches  the  sphere.  This  meth- 
od gives  a  map  of  a  limited  portion  of  the  sphere  with  little 
distortion.  A  scries  of  star  maps  was  constructed  on  this 
principle  by  R.  .\.  Proctor;  he  first  circumscribed  the  sphere 
by  a  regular  dodecahedron,  and  then  projected  the  entire 
sphere  upon  the  several  faces  of  the  dodecahedron. 

There  are  several  other  methods  of  representation,  of 
which  a  few  may  be  enumerated.  In  cuniciil  projection  the 
eye  is  at  the  center  of  the  sphere,  and  the  projection  is  made 
on  the  surface  of  a  cone  louching  the  sphere  along  the 
parallel  which  most  nearly  divides  Ihearea  to  be  represented. 


806 


PROLAPSUS  UTERI 


PRONUNCIATION 


or  sometimes  of  a  cone  passing  through  two  parallels  mid- 
way between  the  central  parallel  of  the  area  and  the  ex- 
treme parallels.  After  projection  the  cone  is  cut  along  a 
generator  and  opened  out  into  a  plane.  The  parallels  here 
are  represented  by  concentric  circles,  and  the  meridians  by 
lines  passing  through  the  common  center  of  the  circles. 
This  method  is  useful  if  the  tract  of  country  to  be  repre- 
sented is  of  no  great  extent  in  latitude,  but  of  any  extent 
along  a  parallel. 

In  cylindric  projection  the  eye  is  at  the  center  of  the 
sphere,  and  the  projection  is  made  on  a  cylinder  touching 
the  sphere  along  the  ecjuator.  After  projection  the  cylin- 
der is  opened  out  on  a  tangent  plane.  Here  meridians  and 
parallels  become  rectangular  systems  of  parallel  lines.  This 
method  is  applicable  to  the  case  in  which  a  map  of  the 
equatorial  regions  is  to  be  made. 

In  polyconic  projection  each  parallel  of  latitude  is  devel- 
oped symmetrically  from  an  assumed  meridian  by  means  of 
a  conetouching  tiie  surface  along  the  parallel.  Here  the 
parallels  become  arcs  of  circles,  and  the  meridians  may  be 
constructed  by  laying  off  on  each  parallel  the  degrees  of 
longitude  according  to  their  true  lengths.  This  is  the 
method  of  projection  used  by  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  in 
projecting  small  maps  and  charts.  For  Mereator's  projec- 
tion, see  the  article  imder  that  heading.     R.  A.  Roberts. 

Prolap'SHS  U'teri  [Lat.,  falling  of  the  womb] :  the  de- 
scent of  the  uterus  below  its  normal  position  in  the  pelvis; 
in  extreme  cases  a  protrusion  of  part  or  the  whole  of  the  or- 
gan from  the  body.  The  chief  causes  are  the  enlargement 
of  the  uterus  by  inflammation,  uterine  and  abdominal  tu- 
mors, relaxation  of  the  tissues  which  are  the  anatomical  sup- 
ports of  the  organ,  rupture  of  the  perineum  by  instrumental 
delivery,  and  sudden  violence  in  tailing  or  jumping. 

Proine'theilS  (in  Gr.  npo^rja€i>s) :  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing creations  of  Greek  mythology ;  a  son  of  lapetus  and  Cly- 
mene,  Themis,  or  Asia,  the  brother  of  Atlas,  Jlenoetius,  and 
Epimetheus,  and  father  of  Deucalion.  The  myths  relat- 
ing to  him  are  very  variously  told  by  Hesiod,  ^Eschylus, 
and  later  poets  and  philosophers,  but  there  are  nevertheless 
certain  fundamental  traits  in  which  all  the  different  versions 
agree.  Tliey  all  represent  Prometheus  as  a  benefactor  of 
the  human  race.  According  to  some,  he  was  the  creator  of 
man  ;  according  to  others,  he  only  brought  to  him  fire  and 
the  arts  depending  on  the  use  of  fire.  Next,  they  all  agree 
that  those  benefits  which  he  conferred  on  the  human  race 
for  some  reason  excited  the  wrath  of  Zeus,  who  chained 
him  to  a  rock  and  sent  a  vulture  or  an  eagle  to  feed  daily 
on  his  liver.  From  these  sufferings,  under  which  the  Titan 
did  not  succumb,  Hercules  at  last  delivered  him  by  shoot- 
ing the  vulture  and  unlocking  the  chains,  after  which 
Prometheus  returned  to  Olympus.  Of  ^schylus's  trilogy 
only  the  middle  piece,  Prometheus  Bound,  is  extant.  For 
Prometheus  in  art,  see  the  article  Prometheus  in  Baumeister's 
Denkmdler.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Promise  (in  law):  See  Contract. 

Promise,  Breacli  of:  See  Marriage. 

Promissory  Note  [proynissory  is  from  Lat.  promis'sor, 
promiser,  deriv.  of  promit'tere,  promis'sum,  send  forth, 
promise] :  an  unconditional  promise  in  writing  made  by  one 
person  to  another  signed  by  the  maker,  engaging  to  pay, 
on  demand  or  at  a  fixed  or  determinable  future  time,  a  sum 
certain  in  raonev,  to,  or  to  the  order  of,  a  specified  person  or 
to  bearer.  (British  Bills  of  Exchange  Act,  1883,  §  83.) 
Sealed  notes  were  unknown  to  the  early  law  merchant,  and 
as  a  rule  the  courts  have  held  that  attaching  a  seal  to  a 
promissory  note  destroys  its  negotiable  character.  This 
doctrine  has  been  clianged  by  statute  in  many  of  the  U.  S., 
and  the  British  Bills  of  Exchange  Act  authorizes  a  corpora- 
tion to  use  its  seal  as  a  signature  to  commercial  paper.  Gov- 
ernment and  corporate  bonds,  though  under  seal,  have  long 
been  treated  by  the  coinis  in  the  U.  S.  as  negotiable,  on  the 
ground  that  modern  commercial  usage  had  given  to  them  a 
negotialile  character.  Morris  Canal  Co.  vs.  Fisher,  1  Stock- 
ton (N.  .J.)  667. 

The  negotiability  of  promissory  notes  was  denied  by  Lord 
Holt,  but  was  secured  by  act  of  'Parliament  (3  and  4  Anne, 
c.  9,  A.  n.  1704).  In  the"U.S.  this  statute  or  its  equivalent 
has  become  a  part  of  the  law  of  every  jurisdiction.  The 
better  view  .seems  to  be  that  it  was  declaratory  only  of  ex- 
isting law.  (Goodwin  vs.  lioberts.  Law  Reports,  10  Ex- 
chequer 337;  appeiuiix  to  1  ("ranch  367;  see  Holloway  vs. 
Porter,  46  Ind.  62,  contra.)     It  slu.ulil  bi'  noted  that  W'ords 


of  negotiability  are  not  necessary  to  a  valid  promissory  note. 
A  non-negotiable  note  is  entitled  to  days  of  grace;  it  im- 
ports a  consideration,  and  the  holder  suing  upon  it  need  not 
allege  or  prove  a  consideration.  (Conitrrii//il  vs.  dray, 121 
N.  Y.  92.)  Bank-notes,  certificates  of  deposit,  and  instru- 
ments which  are  so  ambiguous  that  they  may  be  construed 
as  either  notes  or  bills  of  exchange,  may  be  sued  on  as 
promissory  notes.  A  bank-note  (that  is  a  promissory  note 
issued  by  a  banker,  payable  to  bearer  on  demand)  differs 
from  an  ordinary  note  in  some  respects;  for  example,  it 
may  be  reissued  after  payment.  The  maker  of  a  note  is  not 
allowed  to  deny  to  a  holder  in  due  course  the  existence  of 
the  payee  or  the  payee's  capacity  to  indorse  at  the  time  the 
maker  issues  it.  Nearly  all  the  rules  which  determine  the 
rights  and  liabilities  of  the  parties  to  notes,  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  rights  are  to  be  exercised  and  the  liabilities  to 
be  fixed,  have  been  described  in  the  article  on  Bill  of  Ex- 
change (q.  v.).  Francis  M.  Burdick. 

Promorpliology :  See  Morphology,  Animal. 

Prongliorii :  See  Antilocapra. 

Pronouns  [pro-  +  nouii,  representing  Lat.  prono'men,  a 
translation  of  Gr.  ayTuyvfiia :  avrl,  instead  of  +  ivofna,  name, 
noun] :  a  class  of  words  which  serve  the  purpose  of  indicat- 
ing objects  without  naming  them.  They  do  this  in  terms  of 
the  contest  or  situation  and  of  relations  to  the  speaker. 
Thus  when  he  said  is  used  to  replace  Jolin  said,  the  pro- 
noun he  indicates  either  in  relation  to  something  said  before, 
or  in  relation  to  what  is  in  the  speaker's  presence.  Nouns 
are  name-words.  Pronouns  are  essentially  gesture-words. 
They  act  as  proxies  for  nouns.  They  are  not,  however,  mere 
stop-gaps  or  dummies,  but,  being  universal  or  public  prox- 
ies— i.  e.  capable  of  substitution  for  any  noun — they  are 
selected  according  to  the  relations  borne  by  the  object  named 
either  to  context  or  speaker.  They  therefore  give  to  lan- 
guage the  possibility  of  expressing  vastly  more  than  the  use 
of  nouns  alone  would  permit. 

The  so-called  adjective-pronouns  or  pronominal  adjectives, 
like  this,  that,  other,  all.  etc.,  are  pronominal  in  the  sense 
that  they  express  general  relations  to  context,  situation,  en- 
vironment, but  not  in  the  .sense  that  they  are  necessarily 
substitutes  or  proxies  for  nouns.  They  may  dispense  with 
the  use  of  the  noun,  but  generally  the  apposition  of  the 
noun  is  found  desirable  ;  thus  get  that  may  require,  in  order 
to  clearness,  the  addition  of  the  name  of  the  object,  get  that 
hat.  A  large  class  of  so-called  adverbs,  like  here,  there, 
then,  thus,  are  pronominal  in  precisely  the  same  sense  as 
this,  that,  such;  they  may  lie  called  pronominal  adverbs. 
In  the  sentence  he  speaks  so,  the  action-name  speaks  is 
modified  by  the  pronominal  adjunct  so.  just  as,  in  the  sen- 
tence he  vses  such  language,  the  name  language  is  modified 
by  the  pronominal  adjunct  such.  The  conjunctive  adverbs 
where,  when,  while,  as,  etc.,  are  pronominal  in  precisely  the 
same  sense  as  the  relative  pronouns  irho,  tchich,  etc. 

Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 

Pronunciation  [from  Tint,  pronmitia'tio,  proclamation, 
publication,  deriv.  of  pronuntia're;  pro,  forth  -I-  nuntia're, 
announce] :  the  act  of  giving  the  proper  sounds  and  accent 
to  the  individual  words  of  a  language.  Besides  this  specific 
meaning,  pronunciation  is  used  in  general  for  either  the 
right  or  the  wrong  form  of  the  spoken  word.  The  more  dis- 
tinctive terra  is  orthoijpy  (Gr.  opBoewfia),  which  from  deriva- 
tion means  right  or  correct  pronunciation. 

The  history  of  English  pronunciation  in  its  general  sense 
has  been  written  by  Alexander  J.  Ellis,  Early  Eiigli.fh  Pro- 
nutieiation  (1869-89),  and  by  Henry  Sweet,  History  of  Eng- 
lish Sounds  (1888).  Both  of  these  writers  trace  pronuncia- 
tion from  the  earliest  times,  showing  the  changes  sounds 
have  undergone,  and  the  standard  pronunciation  in  different 
periods.  Orthoepy,  as  the  attempt  to  establish  and  govern 
pronunciation,  is  of  comparatively  recent  date,  but  its  his- 
tory is  interesting  as  showing  upon  what  such  attempts  have 
rested  and  what  has  been  their  effect  upon  siieech. 

The  earliest  English  dictionaries  made  no  attem[)t  to  mark 
pronunciation,  but  gave  their  whole  attention  to  definition 
and  etymology.  Later,  as  in  the  time  of  Bailey,  whose  Uni- 
versal  Etymological  Dictionary  was  published  in  1721,  the 
accent  of  words  began  to  be  marked.  Even  Johnson's  great 
dictionary,  which  ran  through  seven  editions  from  1755  to 
1783,  marked  accent  only,  and  Boswell  tells  us  that  Johnson 
justified  thisassufficientforall  purposes  of  speech.  The  first 
dictionary  to  niakespecial  mention  of  orthoi"|iy  in  its  title  is 
that  of  Benjamin  Martin,  published  in  1749.  The  dictionary 
of  William  Kenrick  (1773)  was  the  first  to  separate  words  into 


PRONUNCIATION 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  BOTANICAL  NAMES    807 


syllables,  and  to  indicate  the  pronunciation  of  vowels  by 
numbers  referrinf;  to  a  table  of  Kn^l'sh  soun<ls.  Since  Ken- 
ric-k's  time  iiromiiicialion  has  liail  an  cstal)li>lieil  phice  in 
Plnfjlish  (lictionai-ies,  as  shnwn  by  tliose  of  Perry,  ITTo,  Sheri- 
dan, 17S().  Wallier,  IT'.ll.  as  well  as  by  those  publislied  in 
•Great  Britain  and  tiie  U.  S.  during  tlie  nineteenth  century. 
In  considerinj;  the  pronunciation  of  dictionaries  and  or- 
thoepists  the  fuudanicMlal  ([uestion  is  "How  does  the  ortlioi';- 
pist  arrive  at  his  slamlani  of  correctness i"  Kenrick,  wlio 
first  marked  sounds  in  an  Kn.i;Hsli  dictionary,  claimed  to 
register  the  speech  of  ■"pnllslieil  speakers  in  tlie  metropolis  " 
— that  is,  London.  He  complained  especially  that  rules  of 
pronunciation  had  hitherto  been  "  laid  down  by  Irishmen 
and  Scotchmen  who  did  not  themselves  know  how  to  pro- 
nounce." Perry  took  a  similar  standard,  that  of  "men  of 
letters,  eminent  authors,  and  polite  speakers  in  London." 
Sheridan  set  up  the  standard  of  (|)uccn  .\nne"s  court,  a  pro- 
nunciation which  heclaimed  toderive  from  his  schoolmaster, 
a  contemporary  of  Swift.     He  thus  undertook  to  follow  the 

fironunciation  of  a  [irevious  generation,  which  he  could  not 
lave  heard  in  its  purity,  and  it  is  therefore  not  strange  that 
his  dictionary  received  much  severe  criticism  in  his  own 
time.  Walker  took  still  a  different  standard,  a  sort  of  "  com- 
pound ratio"  of  the  pronunciatiim  of  the  "  learned,  the  polite, 
and  the  bulk  of  speakers,"  whatever  that  may  mean.  He 
also  took  into  account  in  doulilful  cases  what  he  called  the  | 
"analogies  of  language,"  the  meaning  of  which  is  by  no 
nu>ans  clear.  Of  lexicographers  in  the  L^.  S.,  Webster  in 
1806  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  "  a  living  language  admits  of 
no  fixed  state."  but  he  clearly  regarded  American  English 
rather  than  the  "  Loudon  dialect "  as  correct.  Worcester, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  his  dietionary  of  1827  followed  Lon- 
don English  as  the  standard  for  American  speech. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  orthoepisis  themselves  have  vari- 
ously settled  the  question  of  standard  English  speech.  It  is 
not  strange,  tlierefore,  that  as  to  the  pronunciation  of  many 
words  they  should  differ  among  themselves  anil  sometimes 
from  the  majority  of  good  English  speakers.  Moreover, 
orthoL'pists  in  determining  pronunciation  have  failed  to  take 
into  account  certain  necessary  factors.  The  first  of  these  is 
the  history  of  English  sounds  ami  the  laws  of  sound-develop- 
ment. These  laws  show  that  certain  sounds  have  ih^veloped 
differently  under  various  phonetic  influences,  as  of  accent  or 
different  phonetics  environment.  For  example,  the  reason 
we  speak  exih.  with  a  ks  sound  and  exist  with  a  gz  sound 
is  one  of  accent.  So  the  reason  we  pronounce  man,  path, 
fur  with  two  or  three  different  vowels  is  due  to  the  differ- 
ent consonants  following  the  original  short  o.  Jloreover, 
sound  laws,  rather  than  the  spelling  of  English  words,  point 
out  the  true  analogies  of  speech,  and  by  them  in  doubtful 
cases  the  proper  sound  may  be  more  easily  determined. 

Another  element  to  be  regarded  by  the  orthoi'pist  is  the 
(■omparatively  new  science  of  phonetics,  or  the  doctrine  of 
speech-sfninds.  This  treats  of  the  true  nature  of  sounds, 
tiu'ir  exact  relationships,  and  the  correct  classifii'ation  of 
tln'm.  The  importance  of  i)honetics  is  clear  when  we  un- 
lierstand  tliat  the  comiuon  classifications  of  dictionaries  are 
often  radically  wrung.  For  example,  the  long  (7  sound,  as  it 
is  calle<l,  .should  be  classed  with  the  e  of  men,  and  not  with  t  he 
«  of  liat,  ask,  far,  rare.  So  the  a  of  all  is  not  an  a  souikI, 
but  an  0  sound,  and  should  be  classed  with  the  o  of  nnt, 
strong,  and  tlie  long  o  of  no,  note.  The  sounds  of  /  are  the 
short  as  in  /nV.  the  long  as  in  see,  and  not  at  all  the  diph- 
thong in  mifiht.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  minute  dis- 
tinctions of  phoneticians  sliould  be  regardeil.  but  it  is  cer- 
tainly impi>rlanl  that  no  misleading  classifications sljould  be 
used.  Nor  can  such  a  classificatiun  be  uphehl  because  it  has 
been  followed  by  orthoe[)isls  for  more  than  a  century.  More- 
over, the  orthoiipists  have  sometimes  overstepped  their  jirov- 
ince  in  trying  to  force  a  particMilar  i)roininciati(in,  liecause 
it  seemed  to  be  in  accordance  with  "analogy."  This  was 
particularly  true  of  Walkc^r.  many  of  whose  blunders  nnght 
iiave  been  prevented  by  a  knowledge  of  phonetics. 

From  the  very  nature  of  language,  a  single  standard  of 
pronunciation  can  not  be  followed  by  all  the  English-speak- 
ing peoples  of  the  world.  The  natural  divisions  and  the 
wide  separation  make  it  impossible  that  the  usage  of  Great 
Britain,  of  North  .Vmerica,  and  of  Australia  should  be  ex- 
actly the  same,  although  it  is  highly  important  that  there 
should  be  as  much  harmnny  as  possible.  For  citizens  of  the 
r.  S.  an  .\mericau  standard  of  spoken  English  is  inevita- 
lilc.  This  should  lie  as  slightly  different  from  the  sjiokcn 
English  of  Great  Britain  as  is  warranted  by  the  iironunci- 
iition  of  the  better  classes,  while  it  should  be  equally  free 


from  servile  imitation  of  British  speech.  An  American 
standard,  however,  is  by  no  means  easily  detennined.  It  is 
at  best  a  compromise  of  varying  usages  in  different  parts  of 
the  republic,  since  the  speech  of  no  single  city  or  section 
can  be  regarded  as  standard  in  every  particular.  No  city 
in  the  U.  S.  exercises  such  influence  on  speech  as  London 
docs  in  England,  and  it  is  therefore  absurd  to  set  up  the 
.speech  of  one  city  as  necessarily  better  than  that  of  another. 
Still,  certain  general  princijiles  may  be  laid  down  for  guid- 
ance in  determining  standard  pronunciation. 

The  first  of  these  principles  is  that  present  usage  must 
always  be  taken  instead  of  past  or  antiquated  usage.  Lexi- 
cographers tend  to  preserve  the  old,  but  it  must  be  clear 
that  the  orthoiipists  of  a  former  generation  or  century 
are  no  authority  in  those  cases  in  wliich  the  best  present 
usage  geiuM-ally  differs.  Thus  if  the  present  established  ac- 
cent of  such  words  as  allg,  canine,  is  on  the  first  syllable, 
the  authority  of  a  dozen  dictionaries  does  not  make  correct 
the  acei'iit  on  the  last  syllable;  for  it  is  the  province  of 
tlie  dictionary  to  register  the  best  present  usage,  not  to  set 
up  the  standard  of  a  past  age,  or  of  some  supposed  analogy. 
But  past  usage  may  assist  in  determining  the  analogies  of 
speech,  and  so  deciding  in  doubtful  cases.  For  example, 
past  usage  shows  that  wound  has  had  the  vowel-sound  of 
fool  rather  than  of  pounrl.  probalily  because  of  the  influence 
of  the  preceding  n\  Walker  gave  troiind  an  alternative 
]ironuncialion  rhyming  with  pound,  and  this  has  lieen  gen- 
erally followed,  although  Walker  himself  admits  it  was  not 
the  pronunciation  of  his  time.  The  older  pronunciation  of 
u'oiind  is  therefore  better,  not  because  it  is  older,  but  be- 
cause it  has  been  and  is  the  best  usage. 

The  .second  principle  is  that  reputalde  usage  indicates  the 
standard.  Heputable  usage  avoids  the  extremes  of  affected 
precision  on  the  one  hand,  and  ignorance  or  slovenliness 
on  the  other.  It  is  neither  the  usage  of  fastidious  society 
nor  of  the  half-educated.  It  is  rather  that  of  the  well-edu- 
cated, who  are  carried  away  neither  liy  the  extremes  of  fash- 
ion in  speech  nor  by  hypercritical  standards  sometimes  set 
up  by  orthot'pists  tliemselves.  For  example,  reputable 
usage  makes  no  distinction  between  the  vowel-sounds  in 
such  words  as  her  and  urn.  yet  the  majority  of  orthoepists 
insist  on  marking  these  sounils  differently.  Keputable  usage 
implies,  therefore,  that  careful  oliservation  of  the  best  speak- 
ers should  be  compared  with  standards  set  up  in  books. 

Lastly,  national  usage  is  to  be  taken  as  the  standard 
rather  than  local  or  dialectal  use;  that  is.  the  present  rcp- 
utalile  usage  of  the  well  educated  in  a  whole  nation  is  to  be 
regarded  as  distinct  from  tlic  usage  even  of  the  well  edu- 
cated of  a  single  section.  Even  when  this  can  not  be  deter- 
mined with  precision  in  all  cases,  local  or  dialectal  use  may 
be  distinctly  avoided.  Thus  dictionaries  [.rinted  in  the  U.  S. 
still  recognize  the  pronunciation  of  r  before  a  consonant, 
since  it  is  only  in  the  extremes  of  .sjieech  in  the  Eastern  and 
Southern  States  that  r  in  this  position  is  wholly  lost  (as  in 
caad  for  rnrd.  faat/ier  for  farther).  .So  a  in  axk.  path,  far 
is  marked  as  a  sound  between  a  of  ???o»  and  a  of /or,  be- 
cause such  a  sound  is  a  compromise  between  the  extreme 
broad  a  used  in  some  parts  of  the  East  and  the  extreme 
flat  a  of  the  West  and  South.     Oi.iviiu  Fakkar  Emersox. 

Proiiiiiiciation  of  Botanical  Names:  It  is  a  law  of  the 
science  of  botany  that  the  names  of  s]iecies,  genera,  tribes, 
families,  orders,  classes,  Viranches,  etc.,  shall  be  in  Latin,  or 
where  derived  from  words  taken  from  other  languages  they 
shall  be  Latinized.  The  occurrence  of  these  names  in  Eng- 
lish books  has  led  to  much  confusion  of  pronunciation,  since 
they  can  not  properly  be  treated  as  English  words.  In  the 
absence  of  any  formulated  system  of  rules  there  has  been 
little  uniformity  in  practice.  In  a  general  way  the  pro- 
nunciation of  these  Latin  or  Latinized  names,  as  practiced 
by  English-speaking  botanists,  approximates  that  of  the  so- 
ciilled  "English  pronunciation"  of  Latin  in  vogue  twenty 
or  more  years  ago,  but  long  since  discai'dcd. 

There  is  a  growing  feeling  among  botanists  that  the  pro- 
nunciation of  botanical  names  should  conform  to  the  usage 
of  Latin  scladars,  and  at  least  one  attcm))t  has  been  ma(ie 
to  accomplish  this  end.  The  editors  of  Nicholson's  Diction- 
anj  of  Gardening  (1884-88),  after  consultation  with  eminent 
English-speaking  botanists,  adopted  for  their  work  the  so- 
called  Roman  system  of  pronunciation.  Accordingly,  the 
long  sound  of  a  is  as  heard  in  psfilmist ;  short  a  as  in  ilpart; 
long  e  as  in  veined;  short  e  as  in  siciuler;  long  i  as  in 
machinist;  short  )'  as  in  thin;  long  o  as  in  voter;  short  o 
as  in  rotten;  long  «  as  in  ruler;  short  u  as  in  powerful;  c. 


808 


PRONUNCIATION   OF   FOREIGN   NAMES 


g.  and  ch  always  hard,  as  in  muscular,  jood,  and  rViristian  ; 
«  always  hard,  as  in  Ihi*-;  t  always  with  its  (iroper  sound,  as 
in  La^iii,  We  have  then  Ac  -er  (iik-er,  not  d-ser),  Cer -as-us 
(ker-  not  ser'-,  much  less  se-rd'-sus),  Chel-o'-ne  (kel-,  not 
did'-,  nor  shei).  Gen-ti-a'-na  (g  hard,  not  jen-sM-d-na),  etc. 
The  only  e.xception  to  this  rule  is  that  in  the  case  of  words 
derived  from  the  names  of  persons,  in  which  the  Latin  end- 
ing onlv  comes  under  the  rule,  the  preceding  part  being  pro- 
nounced like  the  original  name.  This  is  unfortunate,  since 
it  gives  us  Jones-i-a  (instead  of  Jo-nes'-i-a),  ,Stokes-i-a  (in- 
stead of  Sfo-ke  -si-a),  etc.,  pronunciations  which  could  not 
be  followed  by  any  non-English  botanists. 

Charles  E.  Besset. 

Pronunciation  of  Foreign  Names :  The  purpose  of  this 
article  is  to  afford  some  help  for  the  pronunciation  of  the 
many  foreign  geographical  and  personal  names  met  in  read- 
ing. "  The  commoner  geographical  names  which  have  been 
thoroughly  Anglicized  in  pronunciation  are  not  included,  and 
those  names  whieli  come  from  the  most  remote  and  least- 
known  languages,  and  in  general  those  not  originally  writ- 
ten in  Roman  letters,  are  respelt  by  English  writers  or  by 
continental  Europeans  who  use  the  Roman  alphabet.  The 
main  difficulties  in  their  pronunciation  come  from  the  dif- 
ferent orthographical  usages  of  the  best-known  languages  of 
Europe,  and  the  resulting  doubt  whether  a  Russian  or  Ori- 
ental name,  for  example,  is  s|:ielt  for  English  readers  accord- 
ing to  English,  French,  or  German  usage.  For  geographical 
names  not  originally  written  in  Roman  letters  much  of  this 
uncertainty  would  be  removed  if  the  system  of  spelling  de- 
vised by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in  London  in  1885. 
and  substantially  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Government,  were 
in  exclusive  use  in  English-speaking  countries.  (See  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Ruijal  Geographical  Society,  xn.,5'ia-a'iQ\ 
xiv.,  116-119,  770-777;  and  for  a  comparison  with  similar 
French  and  German  systems,  Phoneiische  Studien,  vi.,  323- 
334.)  According  to  this  system  vowels  are  pronounced  as  in 
Italian,  and  consonants  generally  as  in  English.  The  vowels 
are  accordingly  as  in  fxther,  fkte,  machine,  note,  rvde.  and  ai 
is  about  like  i  in  ice,  an  like  on  in  out,  etc..  aw,  however,  be- 
ing added  with  the  sound  it  has  in  law.  The  sound  of  A-  is 
always  written  /.■  (never  c).  and  s  is  preferred  for  the  sound 
of  s  in  tnason.ch  is  always  as  in  church,  g  always  as  in  go, 
get.  J  is  always  used  for  the  sound  of  g  in  gem.j  in  Joke,  hw 
is  written  for  the  sound  of  wh  in  u'hnf,  ng  is  as  in  finger  or 
as  in  singer,  ph  is  as  in  loophole,  never  like  /,  kw  is  written 
for  the  sound  of  qu  in  quite,  sh  is  as  in  shire,  th  as  in  thin, 
or,  less  often,  as  in  thix.  g  is  always  a  consonant  as  in  yard, 
zh  is  like  s  in  pleasure  or  z  in  azure,  while  kh  and  gh  are 
used  for  Oriental  guttural  sounds.  Unfortunately,  older 
spellings,  like  Foochow  (instead  of  Fuchau)  are  frequent, 
and  often  cause  embarrassment.  In  general,  these  older 
spellings  are  to  be  pronounced  according  to  the  analogies  of 
ordinary  English  spelling.  The  system  just  described  aims 
only  at  an  appr<iximate  indication  of  the  native  pronunci- 
ation. For  the  immerous  other  foreign  geographical  and 
personal  names,  that  is.  those  belonging  originally  to  Euro- 
pean languages  (incduding  those  spoken  in  America  and  else- 
where) always  or  often  written  with  Roman  letters,  the  list 
of  letters  and  letter-groups  below,  with  indication  of  the 
pronunciation,  has  been  prepared.  It  also  covers  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  modern  Greek  names  and  Slavic  names 
originally  written  with  the  Russian  alphabet.  It  is  not  in- 
tended to  give  an  exact  or  complete  description  of  native 
pronunciations,  but  to  furnish  a  guide  to  the  commonest 
orthograjihic  usages  of  the  most  important  Eurojiean  lan- 
guages, .Some  sounds  not  existing  in  English  are  entirely 
ignored,  or  are  described  as  resembling  certain  English 
sounds.  Since  there  are,  especially  in  proper  names,  many 
individual  cases  and  exceptions,  recourse  must  often  be  had 
to  pronouncing  gazetteers  or  other  lists  of  names  with  in- 
dication of  pronunciation.  The  following  general  principles, 
thougli  not  entirely  free  from  exceptions,  will  be  useful  : 

1.  The  number  of  syllables  is  generally  determined  by 
that  of  tlie  vowels  (or  diphthongs)  written,  except  that 
doubled  vowels  are  generally  equivalent  to  the  simple  vowels 

Cronounced  long.     See,  however,  c,  ie,  and  other  vowel  com- 
inations  below. 

2.  UnsKcented  syllables  are  pronounced  more  distinctly 
than  in  English. 

3.  In  German,  Dutch,  Danish,  Swedish,  Norwegian,  Ice- 
landic, Hungarian,  and  liuheniian  the  accent  is  usually  on 
the  first  .syllable.  In  French,  in  wliieh  language  it  is  very 
weak,  it  is  always  on  the  last  .syllable,  unless  this  contains 


the  so-called  "  mute  e "'  (see  e  below)  as  its  only  vowel,  in 
which  case  it  is  on  the  preceding  syllable.  In  Italian  it  is 
most  often  on  the  penult  ;  so  also  in  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese if  the  woi'd  ends  in  a  vowel  preceded  immediately  by 
one  or  more  consonants ;  in  Spanish  it  is  most  often  on 
the  last  syllable  if  the  name  ends  in  a  consonant.  The 
place  of  the  accent  is  sometimes  marked  in  Spanish  with 
the  acute  accent,  in  Italian  with  the  grave.  In  Polish  the 
accent  is  commonly  on  the  penult.  For  Latin  names  the 
well-known  rule  is  that  the  accent  is  on  the  penult  if  that 
syllable  is  long,  otherwise  on  the  antepenult,  and  classic 
Cireek  names  are  usually  given  in  Latinized  forms  and  pro- 
nounced according  to  Latin  rules. 

4.  A  written  acute  accent  indicates  a  long  vowel  in  Hun- 
garian and  Bohemian. 

5.  In  classic  Greek,  Latin,  and  Hebrew  names  vowels  and 
consonants  are  usually  pronounced  according  to  English 
analogies,  ch.  however,  having  the  value  of  k.  In  other 
names  the  vowels  have  commonly  the  Italian  values  as  in- 
dicated above. 

6.  In  German,  Dutch,  and  the  Slavic  languages  (as  Rus- 
sian, Polish,  and  Bohemian)  the  sounds  of  English  h,  d,  g 
(whether  in  go  or  in  gem),  v,  z  (whether  in  zone  or  in  ozwre), 
can  not  occur  at  the  end  of  a  word  ;  if  the  letters  for  these 
sounds  are  written  in  that  position  in  one  of  these  languages 
they  are  sounded  respectively  like  p,  t,  k  (or  ch  in  church 
instead  of  g  in  gem),  f,  s  (instead  of  z  in  zone),  sh  in  she  (in- 
stead of  z  in  aztire).    See,  however,  g  below. 

7.  Doubled  consonants  are  pronounced  long  or  doubled 
(c.  g.  ft  as  in  thaj  Time)  in  Italian,  Swedish,  and  Hungarian. 

Alphabetical  List  of  Noteworthy  Letters  and  Com- 
binations. 

a  is  generally  as  in  father.  In  Hungarian  a  is  nearly 
equivalent  to  o  in  hot,  and  a  as  a  in  father. — a  in  Rouma- 
nian is  like  Roumanian  » (see  below). — a  in  German  and  Swed- 
ish is  like  e  in  net  or  there  :  in  German  ae  is  sometimes  writ- 
ten for  a  (see  ae). — a  in  Roumanian  approaches  u  in  hut  or 
hurt. — it  in  Portuguese  is  nasal  a  (see  ae,  5o.  below). — ^  in 
Polish  is  like  o  in  nor.  pronounced  through  the  nose. — k  in 
Swedish  and  aa  in  Danish  and  Norwegian  are  like  aw  in  law. 
— ae  or  a^  in  German,  Danish,  and  Norwegian  is  like  e  in 
net  or  there  ;  in  Latin  names  ae  is  like  English  e ;  in  Welsh 
it  resembles  i  in  ride. — ae  in  Portuguese  resembles  i  in 
ride,  pronounced  through  the  nose. — ai  is  generally  like  i  in 
ride,  but  in  French  it  is  like  French  e  or  e  (see  below,  but 
also  ail,  aill,  aim,  ain),  and  in  modern  Greek  spelling  ai 
(cu)  approaches  e  in  red. — ail  in  French,  when  final,  and  aill 
in  French  :  see  (7,  ill.  below. — aim,  ain  in  French,  if  final 
or  followed  by  any  consonant  except  another  m  or  n,  are 
similar  to  a  in  fag,  pronounced  through  the  nose. — aj  is  in 
Danish  like  i  in  ride ;  in  Hungarian  like  oi  in  boil,  but 
Hungarian  aj  ajiproaches  i  in  ride. — am,  an,  under  the 
conditions  given  above  for  am,  o»»,  represent  in  French  and 
Portuguese  nasal  vowels  resembling  a  in  part,  pronounced 
through  the  nose. — ilo  in  Portuguese  is  similar  to  ou  in  lotid, 
pronounced  through  the  nose. — au  is  usually  like  ou  in  loud, 
but  in  French  it  is  like  o  in  note.  In  modern  Greek  au  (av) 
is  equivalent  to  av  before  vowels  and  voiced  consonants  (as 
b,  d.  g),  and  to  af  before  voiceless  consonants  (as  p.  t,  k). — 
au  in  German  is  like  oi  in  hoil. — auw  in  Dutch  is  like  ow  in 
now. — av  in  Danish  before  a  consonant  is  generally  like  ou 
in  loud  (see  )')• — ^^  is  generally  like  a  in  father  followed  by 
V,  but  in  Welsh  it  is  like  ou  in  loud  (see  w). — ay  is  generally 
like  ai  above  :  in  French  it  is  like  French  ai.  but  if  a  pro- 
nounced vowel  immediately  follows,  it  has  this  sound  (or 
sometimes  that  of  a  in  father)  followed  by  ;/  as  in  ye. 

b  is  in  general  as  in  English ;  but  if  final  in  German  and 
some  other  languages  (see  6  above)  it  is  like  p.  Between 
two  vowels  h  in  Spanish  approaches  the  English  i\  and  the 
same  pronunciation  is  the  usual  one  of  b  (5)  in  all  positions 
in  modern  Greek.  The  sound  may  be  described  as  a  j; 
formed  with  the  lips  alone,  instead  of  with  the  lower  lips 
and  upper  teeth. — bh  is  sometimes  used  in  Sanskrit  or  East 
Indian  names  to  express  b  followed  by  an  aspiration.  It 
need  not  be  distinguished  from  b. 

c  is  eijuivalent  to  k  in  most  European  languages  except 
when  it  stands  before  e  or  ;'.  In  Welsh  and  Gaelic  it  is  al- 
wavs  like  k.  In  Polish,  Bohemian,  and  Hungarian,  c  always 
mi  lUis  ts  (see  also  ch.  cs.  cz).  Before  e  and  ('  (or  y)  in  French, 
Portuguese,  and  Catalan  it  is  likes;  as  also  in  English  and  in 
Latin  names, in  whicli  last  it  has  the  same  sound  also  before 
ae  and  oe.  In  Gennan  (-(little  used) before  e,  i,d  (ae)  is  like 
ts.     In  Italian  anil  Roumanian  c  before  e  or  i  is  like  ch  in 


PRONUNCIATION   OP  FOREIGN  NAMES 


809 


chin  (hnt  before  i  in  Roumanian  it  is  like  A:;  see  also  «r), 
and  in  Spanish  before  the  same  letters  like  th  in  thin.  In 
names  frurn  Sanskrit  c  is  sometimes  used,  ami  has  the  sound 
(if  f/i  in  c/iin.  I>ut  ch  is  also  used  in  sneh  wurds.  See  also 
cli. — <;  is  like  «  in  mason  ;  in  naiiu-s  from  Sanskrit  many 
pronounce  it  like  sk  in  she. — e  in  Bohemian  is  like  ch  in 
chin. — ('•  in  Polish  is  between  /.sand  ch  in  chin. — oe.cch.ccs. 
In  Italian  and  Hungarian  c  before  another  c  only  indicates 
a  li'nt,'tlieniMjr  of  the  consonanlal  sound. — ch  is  pronounced 
/■'  ill  Latin,  classic  (trcck,  llclircw,  llalian,  Catalan,  and  Rou- 
manian names.  In  Kreiicli  and  I'ortuyuesc  it  is  like  .s/i  in 
A-Ac,  in  Spanisli  likcc/Mii  chin.  In  German  it  has  two  sounds, 
one  somewliat  resemliling  the  hawking  sound  licard  in  clear- 
ing the  throat,  a  strong  aspiration  in  the  back  of  the  mouth, 
heard  after  a.  n,  u  (tiiis  sound  is  also  written  ch  in  Welsh 
and  (raclic),  llic  other  pronounced  farther  forward  in  llie 
mouth  (a  voiceless  (icrmany),  after  c,  a.  i,  u,  ».  The  same 
two  sounds  occur  in  modern  (ireek  for  ch  (representing  x)- 
the  former  before  n,  o  (not  oi),  oil,  the  latter  before  the 
sounds  c  and  ('  (however  written).  In  some  Slavic  words  (as 
Polish  and  Hoheiniau)  ch  is  used  as  in  Gerinan,  but  the  Rus- 
sian letter  corresponding'  in  sound  is  often  indicated  in  Ro- 
man letters  by  A7i,  and  ch  in  names  from  Kiissian  oftener 
means  ch  in  chin.  In  .Sanskrit  and  Kast  Indian  names  ch 
is  like  c/i  in  (7ii'«,  and  cA/i need  imt  lie  distinguished  from 
this.  (.See  also  .ich  below.) — cs  in  Hungarian  is  like  ch  in 
chin. — cu  in  Spanish,  when  a  vowel  follows  and  the  u  is  not 
accented,  is  like  kic,  or  qi(  in  quite. — cz  in  Polish  is  like  ch 
in  chin  (so  also  in  the  word  Czech).  In  Hungarian  cz  is 
like  ts. 

d  is  generally  as  in  did.  If  final  in  German  and  some 
other  languages  (see  6  aliove)  it  is  like  t.  If  final,  it  is  usu- 
ally silent  in  French,  and  like  fh  in  thin  in  Spaiiisli.  In 
modern  Greek  d  (5)  is  usually  like  th  in  that,  and  it  may 
have  this  sound  in  Spanish  when  between  vowels. — dd  in 
Welsh  is  like  th  in  thiit. — dh  is  sometimes  used  in  Sanskrit 
or  East  Indian  names  to  express  (/  followed  by  an  aspira- 
tion. It  need  not  be  distinguished  from  d. — ds  is  in  Hun- 
garian like  J  in  Joke,  and  dsch  is  occasionally  found  in  imi- 
tation of  (ierinan  spellings  for  the  .same  sound. — dt  is  like 
t. — dz  (I'olish)  and  dz  (in  some  Slavic  names)  are  like  J  in 
joke. 

e  is  usually  nearly  like  a  in  fate  or  e  in  pet  or  there;  but 
when  final  in  French  it  is  regularly  silent  (mute  e),  un- 
less written  with  an  accent  (<?).  It  is  usually  also  silent  in 
French  (or  very  short,  like  e  in  battery)  if  in  the  middle  of 
a  word  and  not  followed  by  a  consonant  in  the  same  syl- 
lable, unless  it  has  an  accent  (c',  e,  e).  In  (iernian  e  in  final 
syllables  is  similar  to  e  in  buttery.  In  modem  Greek  e,  if 
representing  c,  is  like  e  in  pet ;  if  it  represent  tj,  like  i  in 
machine.  In  Slavic  words  e  is  often  pronounced  like  ye  in 
yet.  (See  also  ae,  ei,  ej,  em,  en,  er,  p.%  et,  eu,  ey,  ez,  ie,  oe,  ue.) 
—(•,  e  in  French  are  pronounced,  the  former  nearly  like  a  in 
fate,  the  latter  nearly  like  e  in  pet. — e  in  French  is  similar 
to  e  in  red  or  there.  In  Uoumauian  e  is  liki^  Roumanian 
i  (.see  i). — %  in  Polish  is  nearly  like  e  in  red,  pronounced 
through  the  nose. — can  in  French  is  like  o  in  note. — ecu, 
ceuw  ill  Dutch  are  long  e  ia  in  fate)  followed  by  u  (in  rule) 
in  the  same  syllable,  not  like  Dutch  eu. — ei  is  in  French 
like  French  e  (see  above) ;  in  German,  Dutch,  and  Welsh 
similar  to  i  in  ice ;  in  modern  Greek  ei  (ei)  is  like  i  in  ma- 
chine; in  other  cases  it  is  generally  e  folluwed  by  i  in  the 
same  syllable,  that  is,  nearly  like  ey  in  fhey. — eil,  eill  in 
French:  see  //.  ///. — ein  in  French  is  like  French  riin  in 
the  same  position  (see  aliove). — ej  in  Danish  appmaches  i 
in  ride;  in  Hungarian  it  is  similar  to  ey  in  they  (that  is,  e 
followeil  liy  i  in  the  same  syllable).— cm,  en  in  French  rep- 
resent a  nasal  vowel  under  the  conditions  described  above 
for  French  aim,  ain.  am.  an,  and  the  soinul  is  the  same 
as  that  de.seribeil  for  French  am.  an,  but  final  f;n  (not  com- 
mon) is  sometimes  like  em  in  hem.  In  Portuguese,  under 
the  same  conditions,  en  (and  em  before  n  or  />)  is  like  a 
ill  fa/r,  proMouneed  through  the  nose,  and  em  is  generally 
like  Portuguese  He  (see  above),  or  (in  Brazil)  like  ey  in  tliey, 
pronounced  through  the  nose.  (See  also  ien  below.) — er 
when  linal  ill  French  is  generally  like  French  <?  (see  above). 
— es  when  linal  in  French  is  generally  silent  unless  the  e  is 
accented  ((',  <"),  in  which  {rase  .s  is  generally  silent. — et  when 
final  in  French  is  generally  like  French  e  (see  above). — eu 
in  French  and  Dutch  is  nearly  like  »  in  hurt:  more  exactly, 
it  is  like  a  in  fate  or  e  in  /n-t.  with  the  lips  rounded  as  for  o 
ill  note  or  nor.  (See  also  ecu.)  In  tierman  eu  is  like  oi  in 
boil.  In  modern  Greek  eu  (eu)  is  pronounced  ev  or  ef,  ac- 
cording to  the  rule  given  above  forauin  that  language.    In 


other  languages  both  e  and  u  have  their  usual  sound.s,  one 
following  the  other  in  the  same  syllable. — ey  is,  in  general, 
like  ei,  but  in  French  it  is  followed  by  a  distinct  y  (as  in  ye) 
when  a  pronounced  vowel  comes  after  they;  that  is,  it  is 
then  French  e  followed  by  y. — ez  final  in  French  is  like 
French  e  (see  above). 

f  in  Welsh  is  pronounced  r,  and  fl  in  Welsh  is  like/. — fv 
in  Swedish  is  pronounced  !'. 

g  is  generally  as  in  yo,  get.  When  e,  i,  or  y  follows,  it  is 
in  French  and  Portuguese  like  z  in  azure;  in  Italian,  Rou- 
manian, Latin,  aiul  classic  Greek  names  like  y  in  yem  ;  in 
Spanish  like  a  strong  h.  In  Norwegian  and  Swedish  g  be- 
fore i  is  similar  to  in  ye,  and  is  silent  before y.  Final  g 
in  German  and  Dutch  is  pronounced  like  German  cA  (see 
above),  or  in  German  by  some  like  k  (see  6  above).  In 
modern  Greek  and  in  Dutch  g  is  in  all  positions  regularly 
a  spirant,  with  the  voiced  sounds  of  cA  as  descrilied  above 
for  those  languages. — gli  in  Italian  and  Kouinanian  is  like 
y  in  yet.  In  Irish  it  is  nearly  like  cli  in  Welsh  and  German, 
In  SaiJskrit  and  modern  East  Indian  names  it  is  sometimes 
u.sed  to  express  y  (as  in  (/o,  ^e/)  followed  by  an  aspiration 
which  need  not  be  imitated.  In  .some  Oriental  names  it 
represents  a  peculiar  guttural  sound. — gli  in  Italian  is  simi- 
lar to  ///  ill  niilliiin  ;  if  no  vowel  follows,  the  sound  is  the 
same  followed  by  i' as  in /Hor/H/ic. — gn  in  French  and  Italian 
is  nearly  eciuivaU^nt  to  ni  in  union. — gu  in  French,  when 
followed  by  e,  i.  or  y,  is  generally  like  g  in  yet,  but  like  gu 
with  French  u  if  a  consonant  or  e  follows  the  «.  In  Span- 
ish gu  before  e  or  /  is  like  g  in  get  unless  the  u  is  marked 
with  the  dia'resis  (I'j),  in  which  case,  as  before  other  vowels, 
gu  is  like  yu  in  languid,  and  this  last  is  the  regular  value 
of  gu  in  Italian  before  a  vowel. — gy  in  Hungarian  is  some- 
what like  dy  (with  //  as  in  ye). 

h  is  silent  entirely  in  French,  Italian,  Sjianish,  and  Por- 
tuguese ;  see,  however,  ch,  yti,  lli,  nil,  sch.  In  German  it  is 
heard  when  initial,  but  is  generally  silent  when  preceded  by 
a  vowel  and  followed  by  simple  e  (not  ei,  before  which  it  is 
heard),  and  when  final  it  is  generally  silent  in  German  and 
other  languages.  In  Roumanian,  however,  h  regularly  has 
the  first  sound  described  above  for  German  ch.  In  Scandi- 
navian names  h  is  silent  in  initial  lij  {=  y  in  ye)  and  hr. 

i  is  as  in  machine,  or  sometimes  as  in  jiit,  and  i  is  like  i 
in  machine,  except  in  Roumanian,  where  it  is  like  Polish  y, 
or  somewhat  like  i  in  pit  (see  y). — ie  in  Gerinan  and  Dutch 
is  like  i  in  macMne  ;  in  other  languages  it  is  oftener  like  ye 
in  yet  (for  French,  see  e  above). — ieuw  in  Dutch  is  like  *  in 
machine  followed  by  u  as  in  rule  in  the  same  syllable. — ien 
in  French,  when  final  or  before  a  consonant  (except  another 
n),  is  like  //  (in  ye,  you)  or  a  short  )'  followed  by  the  French 
luisal  vowel  written  in  (see  in). — ij  in  Dutch  is  similar  to  i 
in  ice. — il  in  French  when  final  and  ill  in  Frentdi  mean 
usually,  after  a  consonant  or  silent  u  (see  gu,  gu),  the  sound 
of  i  ill"  machine  follow'ed  by  a  strongly  consonantal  //  as  in 
ye;  after  a  pronounced  vowel  they  indicate  the  latter  sound 
(v)  alotus  the  preceding  vowels  having  their  usual  Fnmch 
sounds  (written  e  =  French  e). — In  I'^-eiich  iiii,  in,  under  the 
conditions  described  above  fur  aim,  ain.  have  the  .sound 
there  described,  nearly  like  a  in  fag,  ijronouneed  through 
the  nose.  In  Portuguese,  under  the  same  conditions,  im,  in 
are  about  like  i  in  machine,  pronounced  through  the  nose. 

j  is  generally  like  y  in  ye,  you.  In  French,  Portuguese, 
and  Roumanian  it  is  like  z  ii\  azure,  und  for  the  Rus.sian  let- 
ter with  this  sound  j  has  sometimes  been  used  (see  zii).  In 
Spanish  il  is  a  strongly  aspirated  h.  When  in  Scandinavian 
or  Hungarian  names  it  stands  liefore  a  consonant  and  after 
a  vowel  it  combines  with  that  vowel  to  form  a  di]ilithung  as 
i  would  do  (.see  aj,  ej,  oj).  In  Italian  j  sometimes  is  a  vowel, 
with  the  long  .sound  of  i  in  machine.  In  names  from  San- 
skrit or  modern  East  Indian  tongues  j  is  as  in  joke,  as  is 
alsoy/i  (properly  the  same  followed  by  an  aspiration), 

k  is  generally  as  in  English:  but  in  Swedish  before  e.  i. 
u,  y  it  resembles  ch  in  chin,  and  in  Nnrwegian  bel'ore  /  and 
y  it  has  the  second  sound  of  e/i  in  German  (voiceless  y). — 
kh  is  sometimes  used  for  a  Russian  h'tter  sounded  like  Ger- 
man ch  (sec  above):  also  for  an  Oriental  guttural  sound. 
In  Sanskrit  and  modern  East  Indian  names  it  is  nearly  as 
in  inkhorn. — kj  in  Swedish  and  Norwegian  respectively  has 
the  .-iound  of  Swedish  or  that  of  Norwegian  /.•  before  i  de- 
scribed aliove. 

1  is  generally  as  in  English. — 1  in  Polish  is  an  I  with  gut- 
tural <|uality,  resembling  somewhat  the  /  of  .some  English- 
men in  /iiV/.— Ill,  11  are  used,  the  fciriner  in  Portuguese,  the 
latter  in  Spanish,  for  a  sound  similar  to  //('  in  millioji.  and 
//  in  Welsh  is  voiceless  l.—\y  in  Hungarian  represents  for 


810    PRONUNCIATION  OF  FOREIGN  NAMES 


PRONUNCIATION  OF  GREEK 


some  speakers  the  sound  of  Ih  just  describeil,  but  it  is  now 
oftener  prommneed  as  y  in  ye. 

m,  n  in  French  and  Portuguese,  when  final  or  before  a 
consonant  (except  another  m  or  n).  serve  only  to  mark  that 
the  preceding  vowel  is  nasalized.  (See  aim,  din.  am,  an,  em, 
en,  ien,  im,  in,  om,  on,  tun,  nn). — rap  (fiir)  in  modern  Greek 
is  like  b,  but  it  may  also  mean  mb  if  not  initial. — n  in  Span- 
ish is  similar  to  Hi  in  union,  and  li  in  Polish  and  fi  in  Bo- 
hemian have  the  same  value. — ng  in  German,  Dutcli,  and 
Scandinavian  is  generally  like  ng  in  singer. — nh  in  Portu- 
guese is  aliout  like  ni  in  union. — nt  (vr)  in  modern  Gi'eek 
is  like  d,  but  it  may  also  mean  7id  if  not  initial. — ny  in 
Hungarian  and  Catalan  represents  the  same  sound  as  the 
preceding  (n/i). 

o  is  like  o  in  iiote  or  nor. — 6  in  French  is  like  o  in  note. — 
6  in  German,  Danish,  Swedish,  Norwegian,  and  Hungarian 
is  like  French  eu  or  nearly  like  n  in  hurt,  and  0  in  Danish 
has  the  same  sound. — o  in  Portuguese  is  like  o  in  note,  pro- 
nounced through  the  nose  (see  oe  below). — oe  or  oe  is  some- 
times written  in  German  or  Scandinavian  names  ;  it'is  pro- 
nounced like  o  above.  In  Dutch  oe  is  like  u  in  rule,  oo  in 
fool.  In  Latin  names  oe  is  pronounced  like  English  e,  in 
Welsh  it  is  similar  to  oi  in  boil. — oe  in  Portuguese  is  similar 
to  oi  in  boil  pronounced  through  the  nose. — oei  in  Dutch 
is  Dutch  oe  {=  u  in  rule),  followed  in  the  same  syllable  by 
i  as  in  machine. — oeu  in  French  is  like  French  eu. — oi  is 
as  in  boil,  except  that  in  French  it  is  nearly  like  English  w 
followed  by  a  as  in  father,  and  in  modern  Greek  oi  (oi)  is 
like  i  in  machine. — oin  in  Frencli,  it  final  or  follmved  liy  a 
consonant  other  than  n,  is  similar  to  English  «•  followed  by 
the  French  nasal  vowel  written  in  or  ain  (see  these  above). 
— oj,  6j  in  Danish  are  like  oi  in  boil. — oo  is  like  o  in  note. — 
ou  in  French  and  modern  Greek  (ou)  is  like  u  in  rule  or  oo 
in  fool ;  it  is  often  used  for  this  sound  in  otiier  names.  In 
Portuguese  ou  is  nearly  like  o  in  note,  and  in  Dutch  like  ou 
in  out. — ouw  in  Dutc'h  is  like  ou  in  out,  ow  in  now. — oy  is 
generally  like  oi;  in  French,  if  a  pronounced  vowel  foUows, 
it  is  like  French  oi  followed  by  y  as  in  ye. 

ph  is  generally  like/,  except  in  Sanskrit  and  some  East 
Indian  names,  where  it  is  like  ph  in  loophole. 

q  is  like  k. — qu  in  French  is  generally  like  /c,  so  too  be- 
fore e  and  i  in  Spanish  and  Portuguese.  In  other  words  it 
may  be  pronounced  as  in  (/loVc,  though  in  German  it  is  more 
like  ki'. — qv  in  Swedish  is  like  ki: 

r  may  be  pronounced  as  in  red  ;  it  should  not  be  omitted 
(see,  however,  er  above). — f  in  Bohemian  is  like  r  followed 
by  z  as  in  azure. — rh,  if  both  letters  are  in  the  same  sylla- 
ble, is  as  in  Rhine. — rz  in  Polish  is  generally  like  2  in  azure. 

s  is  generally  as  in  mason,  but  in  French,  German,  Italian 
(generally),  and  Portuguese  a  single  s  between  vowels  is  like 
z  in  zone,  and  initial  s  in  German  before  a  vowel  maybe 
pronounced  as  z.  In  German  initial  s  in  sp,  st  may  be  pro- 
nounced like  sli  in  she.  In  Hungarian  s  (see  also  «s  below) 
is  like  sh  in  she.  In  French  final  s  is  generally  silent ;  in 
Portuguese  final  s  or  s  before  a  voiceless  consonant,  except 
another  s  (p,  t,  /,  etc.),  is  like  sh  in  she,  and  s  before  a  voiced 
consonant  (b,  d,  v,  etc.)  is  like  z  in  a,zure.  (See  also  sc,  sch, 
sk,  skj,stj,  sz  below.) — s  is  written  in  some  Slavic  languages, 
as  Bohemian,  for  the  sound  of  sh  in  she,  and  §  in  Rounuinian 
has  t  he  same  sound ;  also  s  is  sometimes  used  in  names  from 
Sanskrit  with  the  same  value. — s  in  Polish  is  a  palatalized  *•, 
between  s  in  see  and  sh  in  she. — sc  before  e  or  i  is  like  sh  in 
she  in  Italian  ;  in  Roumanian  it  is  like  the  same  sound  fol- 
lowed by  t. — sch  in  German  is  like  sh  in  she,  and  this  Ger- 
man spelling  is  sometimes  found  in  names  not  properly  Ger- 
man. In  Dutch  it  is  like  s  followed  by  Dutcli  ch  (see  ch) ; 
in  Italian  and  Roumanian  like  sk. — sh  is  like  s  followed  by 
h;  but  ill  Russian  names  it  is  as  in  she. — sj  in  Dutch,  Dan- 
ish, Norwegian,  and  Swedish  is  nearly  like  sh  in  she. — sk  is 
generally  as  in  skin,  but  in  .Swedish  before  e,  i,  or  y  it  is  like 
sh  in  she,  as  also  in  Norwegian  before  i  or  y,  and  skj  in 
Swedish  and  Norwegian  has  tlie  same  sound. — ss  is  generally 
like  s  (sometimes  Iniglliened  ;  see  7  above);  in  Hungarian 
it  is  like  -sA  in  .s/ic  lengthened. — stj  in  Swedish  is  like  sh  in 
she.—f7.  in  Polish  is  like  sh  in  .sAc  (see  also  cz) ;  in  Hungarian 
sz  is  like  s  in  md.wn,  and  .s.s2  is  a  long  .s. 

t  is  generally  as  in  .•<fate.  If  finaHn  French  it  is  usually 
silent. — f  in  Roumanian  means  /.■'. — th  is  generally  like  t: 
but  in  modern  Greek  (9),  Icelandic  (representing')'),  and 
Welsh  it  is  as  in  //uh.— tscli  in  (ierman  is  like  ch  in  church  : 
it  is  sometimes  found  in  names  not  [iroperly  German  with 
the  same  simnd. — tsh  in  Slavic  names  is  like  ch  in  church. — 
ty  in  Hungarian  is  similar  to  ty  with  consonantal  y. — t/.  is 
like  ts. 


u  is  generally  as  in  rule  or  as  oo  in  fool ;  but  in  French 
(see,  however,  um,  un)  it  has  a  sound  not  existing  in  Eng- 
lish, produced  by  pronouncing  t  as  in  machine  with  the  lips 
rounded  as  for  u  in  rule.  In  Dutch  it  has  the  same  sound 
when  it  ends  a  syllable  (see  also  uu) ;  if  a  consonant  follows 
ill  the  same  syllable  Dutch  u  is  nearly  like  u  in  cut  or  hurt. 
In  Welsh  u  is  generally  like  i  in  machine.  Written  u  is 
sometimes  silent  (see  gu,  gu). — ii  in  German  and  Hungarian 
is  like  French  u. — ue  is  sometimes  written  instead  of  u  ;  ex- 
cept in  German  both  vowels  are  usually  heard  ;  see,  how- 
ever, gu,qu. — ui  in  French  is  French  u  followed  by  i  in  ma- 
chine in  the  same  syllable,  but  the  u  is  sometimes  silent  (see 
gu,  gu).  In  Dutch  ui  is  somewhat  like  oi  in  boil. — um, 
un  often  represent  in  French  and  Portuguese  nasal  vowels 
(see  m,  n  above),  though  French  final  um  is  sometimes  pro- 
nounced om  (somewhat  like  om  in  2'om  or  um  in  hum).  The 
French  nasal  sound  is  French  eu  nasalized,  much  like  «  in 
hut,  pronounced  through  the  nose:  the  Portuguese  one  is  « 
in  rule  or  oo  in  fool,  pronounced  through  the  nose. — uu  in 
Dutch  is  like  long  French  u. — uy  is  in  French  like  French 
ui,  but.  it  a  pronounced  vowel  stands  after  y,  the  ui  is  fol- 
lowed by  y  as  in  ye.     Dutch  uy  is  like  Dutch  ui. 

V  is  generally  as  in  English  ;  but  in  German  initial  v  is 
like  /,  and  in  Danish  v  is  written  instead  of  u  as  the  last 
vowel  of  some  diphthongs.     See  also  w  and  see  6  above. 

w  is  in  general  like  v.  In  a  few  German  names  in  -0!«the 
final  w  is  silent  (see  also  auw,  eeuw,  ieuw).  In  Welsh  w  is 
generally  a  vowel,  like  u  in  rule.  The  Russian  letter  sounded 
like  V  is  sometimes  written  w  in  Roman  letters,  and  some- 
times V,  or  when  final  ff  (see  6  above). 

X  is  generally  like  ks  as  in  English :  but  in  Portuguese 
and  Catalan  x  is  like  sh  in  she,  and  in  some  Spanish  names 
.T  is  occasionally  found  for  the  sound  of  a  strong  h,  where 
the  usual  modern  spelling  has/  or  g. 

y  is  generally  like  i  in  machitte.  Before  a  vowel  it  is  like 
y  in  ye  in  Spanish  and  French  (see  also  ay,  ey,  oy.  uy).  In 
Danish,  Swedish,  and  Norwegian  it  is  like  French  u.  In 
older  Dutch  spelling  it  was  like  i  in  ice,  as  in  Flemish; 
Dutch  now  writes  ij  instead.  In  Polish,  and  when  it  repre- 
sents a  certain  Russian  letter,  it  is  a  kind  of  retracted  i, 
somewhat  resembling  i  in  pit.  In  Welsh  it  is  sometimes 
like  i  in  sir,  and  sometimes  resembles  i  in  pit. — (See  a,\so gy, 
ly,  ny.) — ym,  yn  in  French  are  like  French  im,  in. 

7.  is  often  as  in  English  ;  but  in  German  it  is  always  like 
ts ;  in  Italian  it  is  like  ts  or  sometimes,  especially  when  ini- 
tial, like  dz,  and  in  Spanish  it  is  like  th  in  thin.  Final  z  in 
Portuguese  is  like  sh  in  she. — z  (in  Polish),  z  (common  in 
Bohemian),  zh  (sometimes  representing  a  certain  Russian 
letter),  and  zs  (in  Hungarian)  are  all  like  z  in  azure. — z  in 
Polish  is  a  palatalized  z,  between  z  in  zone  and  2  in  azure. — 
zz  in  Italian  is  generally  like  ts. 

Some  letters  with  diacritic  marks,  as  dots  or  other  signs, 
not  included  .above,  are  mentioned  in  the  list  of  Peculiar 
Phonetic  Symbols  at  the  beginning  of  this  volume ;  see  also 
the  Key  to  the  Pronxnciatiox.  For  fuller  information  as 
to  the  sounds  and  the  orthography  of  the  languages  con- 
cerned, see  the  articles  on  French,  Greek,  Latin,  and  oth- 
er languages,  and  various  grammare ;  also  Phonetics,  and 
the  works  there  referred  to,  especially  Phonetische  Studien 
and  the  bibliographical  list  in  Sievers's  Orundzuge  der 
Phonetik.  E.  S.  Sheldon. 

Proninu'iiitioii  of  Greek  :  the  prevailing  methods  of 
lU'oiiDuneiiig  the  ancient  classical  Greek.  Though  chiirac- 
teriziui  by  minor  diversities,  these  may  be  grou])ed  in  gen- 
eral under  three  heads:  (1)  The  English  method,  which 
gives  to  the  symbols  the  value  common  to  them  in  Kiiglish, 
and  .accents  according  to  Latin  rules,  disregarding  the  writ- 
ten accents.  This  method  has  Ijcen  almost  eutirely  discon- 
tinued in  the  U.  S.,  but  is  still  widely  used  in  Great  Britain 
anil  Canada.  Among  the  different  nations  of  continental 
Europe  analogous  methods  are  in  vogue — i.e.  the  letters  are 
sounded  according  to  the  general  analogies  of  the  native 
tongue,  though  the  written  accent  is  observed.  This  does 
not,  howeviT,  necessitate,  in  general,  so  wide  a  departure 
from  the  original  pronunciation  as  the  English  method.  (3) 
The  modern  Greek  method.  This  assigns  to  the  letters  the 
values  they  have  in  modern  Greek:  see  under  Greek  Lan- 
guage (Modern  Greek).  Though  this  method  has  many  ad- 
vocates, it  is  unlikely  of  adoiition,  because  it  sailly  confuses 
the  original  vowel-sounds,  ami  departs  wiilely  from  the 
clearly  ascertained  facts  of  the  ancient  pronunciation.  The 
applic'ation  of  the  modern  English  pronunciation  to  the 
reading  of  Chaucer  would  be  a  fair  parallel.     (3)  The  ancient 


PRONUNCIATION    <_»F   LATIN 


PROPERTY 


811 


Greek  method.  The  present  tendency  is  strongly  toward 
the  adoption  of  what  can,  with  reasonable  certainty,  be  tle- 
iennined  to  have  been  the  Allic  pronunciation  of  the  fourth 
century  b.  c.  Its  cliief  characteristics  are  approximately  in- 
dicated in  the  following  table : 

Consonants. 

Y  as  .9  in  Eng.  go. 

y  before  «,  y,  x,  $,  as  n  in  Eng. 
ink. 

^  either  as  zd  or  dz. 

0,  ^  as  tk  ill  Kng.  hothouiie. 

f  as  X  (AtaI  in  Eng.  box. 

(7,  5  as  s  (sharpt  in  Eng.  s/ss. 

T  always  as  t  in  tip  or  cat. 

if)  as  nh  in  Eng.  uphill. 

X  as  kh  in  Eng.  blockhead. 

\}/  as  pit  in  Eng.  u  ittopsy. 


Vowels. 
a  as  a  in  Eng. /(rWier. 
e  as  ^  (close)  in  Fr.  ble. 
ij  as  e  (open)  in  Eng.  there. 
i  as  1  in  Eng.  machine. 
o  as  o  (close)  in  Fr.  mot. 
<•>  as  o  (Open)  in  Fr.  encorCy 

nearly  as  o  in  Eng.  orb. 
V  as  t(  in  Fr.  ruse,  or  Germ. 

fiir. 


Diphthongs. 
at  as  ni  in  Eng.  aisle, 
av  as  OH  in  K[ig.  out. 
€1  as  et  in  Eiij;.  Vfin. 
cv  as  c  followed  by  «  of  Eng.  rude 
oi  as  ui  in  Erie.  boil. 
ov  as  OK  in  Eiijj.  i/ou. 
VI  as  u  of  Ent:-  yudi'  followed  by  t 

Other  coiisoiianl.s  have  the  ordinary  sounds  of  their  equiv- 
alents in  Knslish.  Kho  (p)  shoiihl  always  be  given  its  own 
distinct  sound,  and  not  be  dropped  at  the  end  of  words  after 
a  vowel,  lis  is  eoniinon  in  Enj;Iisli.  The  vowels  t  and  o  were 
clo.sc  and  short,  and  have  no  eiiuivalents  in  English  ;  t;  and 
ft)  were,  however,  open  and  long.  The  long  vowels  corre- 
sponding to  the  shorts  e  and  o  were,  at  least  until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourth  century,  when  ou  became  »,  the  pseudo- 
diphthongs  ti  and  ou.  Indirect  contrast  with  the  Greek  it 
is  to  be  noted  that  in  Latin  i-  and  o  are  open  and  e  and  o 
are  close.  See  F.  Bluss's  Proniinriation  of  Ancient  GrefK- 
(trans,  from  the  3d  German  ed.,  1890)  :'lv.  Zacher,  Die 
AuHxprache  des  Gnechisclien  (1888).    Bk.v.j.  Ide  Whei^ler. 

l'r<»niiii('iation  of  Latin:  The  pronunciation  of  the 
Romans  llieiuselves  at  the  height  of  their  civilization  (i.  e. 
in  the  Augustan  age  and  the  time  of  the  early  empire)  was 
substantially  as  follows : 

A.  \'()weh. — a  as  in  father,  a  as  in  the  first  syllable  of 
ahti ;  «  as  in  theij,  e  us  in  met ;  1  as  in  mucliine.,  I  as  in  pin  ; 
u  as  in  nule,  u  as  in  put:  y  like  French  «,  German  «. 

B.  Diplit/iony.s.^e  like  «i  in  ai.sle;  te  like  oj  in  0(7;  au 
like  uw  in  /tow;  eu  with  its  two  elements  pronounced  in 
rapid  succession. 

C.  Consonant.i. — b.  d,  /,  h,  k.  I.  m.  n.  p.  qu  were  pro- 
nounced as  in  English;  i.f  and  ht  had  the  .sound  of /«  and 
pt\  c  always  as  k;  t  always  a  |)lain  /,  never  with  the  sound 
of  sh  as  in  English  urution  ;  .;/  always  as  in  yet,  except  that 
when  nyu  precedes  a  vowel  yii  has  the  sound  of  yii\  as 
anguis,  UniyiiiUii.s;  j  like  y;  r  slightly  trilleil;  s  always 
voiceless  as  in  -tin.  but  in  miadeo,  siiavin,  suesco,  and  in 
compounds  and  derivatives  of  these  words  sii  has  the  sound 
of.  sw;  V  like  «•;  x  always  like  A-.*,  never  like  English  yz  or 
z;  2  like  English  zd  or  dz.  The  aspirates  yj/(,  ch.  tit  were 
pronounced  like  English  pti,  ch,  tit  in  such  compound  words 
as  loop-hule,  liliick-linti.ie,  liot-hoaae.  Geminated  consonants 
(e.  g.  //,  mm,  tt)  were  pronounceil  with  each  member  of  the 
combination  distinctly  articulated. 

For  Latin  .scientific  names  the  following  pronunciation 
(often  called  English)  is  usually  followeil ;  but  a  strong 
tendency  is  now  manifesting  itself  among  scientists  to  adopt 
the  Itoman  pronunciation: 

A.  Voicel.i. — These  have  their  long  English  sounds  (a  in 
iiKilce,  e  in  me,  i  in  kite,  o  in  yo,  n  in  rude,  y  in  lyre)  when 
final;  before  another  vowel;  in  piTiullimate  (next  to  the 
last)  an<l  unaccented  syllables,  not  final,  before  a  single  con- 
sonant or  before  a  mule  followed  by  I  or  r.  Vowels  have 
their  short  English  sounds  (a  a,s  in  bnt,  e  as  in  met,  i  as  in 
pin.  o  as  in  not,  u  as  in  run,  y  as  in  myth)  in  final  syllables 
ending  in  a  consonant ;  in  all  syllables  before  .r  or  any  two 
cnnsonants.  except  a  mute  followed  by  /  or  r:  in  all  accented 
->llaldi's,  not  ]ienultimate,  before  one  or  more  consonants. 

B.  Diphthuny.'i. — (t  and  u'  like  <■  in  the  same  situation;  au 
as  in  author;  eu  as  in  neuter. 

C.  Con.ionant.i. — These  are  pronounced  in  general  as  in 
English,  but  c,  .s,  /,  when  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable 
ami  followed  by  i  and  another  vowel,  have  the  sound  of  sh  ; 
./.  uiiiler  tlu'  same  cireumstanccs,  is  pronounced  as  ksh  ;  eh 
i^  always  hard,  as  in  English  echo. 

.See  Seelman,  Die  Ausspracke  des  Lateiti  (1885);  Lord, 
The  Roman  Pronunciation  of  Latin  (1894), 

Charles  E.  Bennett. 
PropiiSfanMil  [abbrev.  from  Lat.  Conyreya'tio  de  Pro/m- 
gan  da  Pi  de,  the  Ijat.  name,  liter.,  association  for  spreading 


the  faith] :  a  congregation  of  cardinals  at  Rome,  first  fully 
established  in  1622  by  Gregory  X\'.,  for  furthering  the 
spread  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  among  the  heathen; 
also,  the  great  college  (Collegium  L'rbanum)  for  training 
missionaries  sustained  by  this  body. 

Proper'tilis,  Sextus:  elegiac  [)oet  of  Rome;  b,  in  Um- 
bria,  near  the  frontier  of  Etruria,  probably  at  Assisi ;  lost 
while  still  a  youth  most  of  his  property  by  confiscation,  and 
lived  in  Rome  on  a  small  competence;  devoted  himself  to 
poetry ;  attracted  the  attention  of  Maecenas,  and  resided  on 
the  Esiiuiline  in  familiar  intercourse,  as  it  seems,  with 
.Maecenas,  Vergil,  and  Ovid.  The  exact  dates  of  his  birth 
and  death  are  unknown,  but  he  was  probably  born  about  49 
and  <iied  about  1.5  B.  c.  His  Eleyiex  (in  five  books),  which 
appear  to  have  been  much  ap])reciated  in  antiquity,  have 
come  down  only  in  a  very  corrupt  text,  and  are  in  a  way 
less  enjoyable  than  the  similar  pro<iuctions  of  Tibullus  and 
Ovid  on  account  of  their  style,  which  is  cumbersome  and 
obscure.  These  defects  are  offset  by  his  strength  of  imagi- 
nation, and  vivid  power  of  description,  the  genuine  fervor  of 
his  passion,  and  his  delicate  sense  of  beaiitv.  Tliere  are  edi- 
tions bv  W.  llcrtzberg  (Halle,  184:J-4r),  3  vols.).  Keil  (Leipzig, 
1800),  ilaupt  (revised  by  Vahlen,  Leipzig,  1885),  A.  Palmer 
(Dublin.  1880);  a  translation  into  English  verse  by  Charles 
Robert  Moore  (Oxford,  1870);  and  an  excellent  edition  of 
selections,  with  introduction  and  notes,  by  Postgate  (Lon- 
don, 1881).  See  also  W.  Y.  Sellar.  Horace  and  the  Eleyiac 
Poets  (Oxford,  1892).  Revised  by  Jl.  Warrex. 

Properly  [from  O.  Fr.  proprete  <  Lat.  propri'etas.  prop- 
erty, liter.,  ownness,  deriv.  of  pro prius,  own,  ])roper]  :  in 
the  broadest  sense,  all  private  rights  of  economic  value.  In 
this  .sense  the  term  covers  (o)  real  right.s — i.  e.  rights  over 
corporeal  objects;  (4)  obligations — i.e.  rights  of  demanding 
from  particular  persons  that  they  do  or  refrain  from  doing 
jiarticular  things;  (c)  rights  of  a  monopolistic  nature  (pat- 
ent.s,  copyrights,  etc.),  wliich  confer  an  exclusive  power  of 
making  and  selling  certain  things.  As  here  treated  the 
word  property  is  confined  to  rights  over  corporeal  things. 

Roman  and  Eiropean  Law. 

Roman  Law. — Many  provisions  of  the  Roman  law  are 
applicable  only  to  immovables,  and  many  other  [irovisions 
only  to  movables;  but  in  general  the  same  body  of  rules 
governs  both  classes  of  property,  both  as  regards  relations 
inter  vivos  and  as  reganis  inheritance. 

Rights  over  things  are  either  general  or  partial.  The  gen- 
eral right  is  ownership  {dominium,  proprieta.s).  This  in- 
cludes all  rights  over  the  thing  not  expressly  withheld  by 
the  law  or  granted  by  the  owner  to  other  |iersons.  Owner- 
ship is  acquired  either  from  a  former  o\vn<T,  so  that  the 
title  of  the  new  owner  depends  upon  that  of  his  predecessor 
(auctor),  or  by  the  o|)eration  of  some  rule  of  law  wliich  vests 
in  the  new  owner  an  independent  title.  In  the  former  case 
the  acquisition  is  "derivative";  in  the  latter  case  it  is 
"original."'  The  most  important  modes  of  derivative  ac- 
quisition recognized  at  Roman  law  were  (a)  conveyance, 
which  implies  an  agreement  between  the  conveyor  and  the 
conveyee  and  the  delivery  of  possession  (traditio),anA  (A)  in- 
heritance or  legacy.  (See  Succession.)  The  modes  of  original 
acquisition  were  occui)ation,  accession,  specification,  and 
prescription,  (a)  (Occupation  signifies,  literally,  taking  pos- 
session. If  the  thing  occupied  has  no  owner  {ren  niilHus), 
the  assumption  of  possession  with  the  intention  of  assuming 
ownership  creates  ownership.  Among  re.f  itulliti.s.  capable 
of  occupation,  the  Romans  classed  wild  animals;  shells, 
stones,  etc.,  on  the  seashore;  and  things  derelict.  Derelic- 
tion is  the  opposite  of  occupation  ;  it  consists  in  the  aban- 
donment of  possession  with  the  intention  of  abandoning 
ownership.  Things  lo.st  arc  not  derelict,  and  the  finder  docs 
not  acquire  ownership;  but  treasure-trove  (//le.sYd/rw.s)  is  re- 
garded as  res  nutliun  when  the  artii'les  found  have  been  so 
long  hidden  that  the  owner  can  not  be  di.scovered.  In  such 
case  half  the  treasure  goes  to  tlie  finder,  the  other  half  to 
the  owner  of  the  soil,  {b)  Accession  signifies  that  what  was 
previously  an  independent  thing  has  become  a  part  of  some 
other  thing,  and  has  thereby  passed  into  the  ownership  of 
him  who  owns  the  principal  thing.  An  example  of  acces- 
sion is  the  planting  of  a  tree.  No  .separate  ownership  is  pos- 
sible in  the  tree;  it  goes  with  the  land.  The  same  rule 
properly  applies  to  a  building  erected  on  another  man's  land, 
and  to  ihe  materials  eiiiploye<l  in  its  construction  ;  but  here 
the  original  ownership  of  the  materials  is  not  deemed  to  be 
extinguished,  but  simply  suspendeil.   Other  cases  of  accession 


812 


PROPERTY 


are  alluvia,  or  the  gradual  deposit  of  soil  by  the  action  of 
running  water;  and  avulsio,  or  the  sudden  deposit  of  soil 
torn  from  another's  land  by  a  freshet  or  a  landslide.  Ac- 
cession is  also  possible  in  the  case  of  movables;  so  when  a 
leg  is  fitted  into  a  chair,  a  blade  inserted  in  a  knife,  etc.  (c) 
Specitieation  takes  place  when  a  thing  is  converted  by  labor 
into  a  new  and  different  thing  {iiova  species).  Cases  of  speci- 
fication range  from  the  conversion  of  wine  into  vinegar  to 
the  manufacture  of  watch-springs  out  of  a  bar  of  metal,  and 
from  these  purely  mechanical  transformations  to  such  as  are 
effected  by  the  artistic  skill  of  a  sculptor  or  painter.  In  all 
these  cases  the  maker  of  the  new  thing  becomes  owner, 
although  the  material  was  not  previously  his,  provided  he 
has  acted  in  good  faith ;  provided  also  (by  a  positive  rule  of 
Justinian's)  the  new  tiling  can  no  longer  be  reduced  to  its 
previous  condition. 

Partial  rights  (jura  in  re)  were  divided  by  the  Roman 

i'urists  into  rights  of  use  and  rights  of  pledge  or  mortgage, 
lights  of  use  were  (a)  servitudes ;  (b)  hereditary  leaseholils. 
The  ordinary  lease  was  a  purely  contractual  relation,  and 
createil  no  jus  in  re ;  but  where  unimproved  land  was  leased 
for  long  terras  a  very  liberal  measure  of  "  tenant  right "  was 
accorded  to  the  lessee.  Such  leaseholds  were  termed  emphy- 
teusis when  the  land  was  used  for  agricultural  piirjioses, 
superficies  when  it  was  used  for  the  erection  of  buildings. 

Jlediceval  Developments. — Teutonic  custom  drew  a  much 
sharper  distinction  between  realty  and  movables  than  was 
drawn  at  Roman  law.  The  feudal  system,  whicli  associated 
political  powers  with  the  ownership  of  land  and  public  or 
quasi-public  duties  with  its  possession,  accentuated  the  dis- 
tinction ;  so  that  mediaeval  law  developed  quite  different 
rules  for  realty  and  personalty,  both  as  regarded  relations 
i7iter  vivos  and  as  regarded  inheritance. 

Rights  in  immovables  could  be  acquired  as  a  rule  only  by 
inheritance  or  by  some  public  form  of  '"investiture ''  or  con- 
veyance. Transfer  of  realty  was  generally  restricted  :  partly 
in  the  interest  of  the  ruling  classes  by  the  system  of  feudal 
tenures,  and  partly  in  the  interest  of  the  family  by  the  sys- 
tem of  family  community.  As  regarded  movable  property, 
delivery  of  possession  regularly  passed  title.  Exceiit  in  the 
case  of  lost  and  stolen  things,  and  except  as  between  bailor 
and  bailee,  Teutonic  custom  treated  possession  as  equivalent 
to  title.     Transfer  of  movables  was  regularly  unrestricted. 

In  neither  field  of  property  rights  was  the  distinction  be- 
tween ownership  and  the  lesser  rights  so  sharply  formulated 
as  in  the  Roman  law.  As  regarded  realty  the  confusion  was 
increased  in  the  course  of  the  Middle  Ages  by  the  systems 
of  feudal  and  of  peasant  tenures.  The  feudal  system  gave 
to  one  person,  the  lord,  general  residuary  rights  in  the  land, 
and  in  particular  a  more  or  less  effective  reversionary  right ; 
to  another  person,  the  vassal,  it  gave  rights  of  possession  and 
use  whicli  everywhere  tended  to  become  hereditary  and 
alienable.  When  Roman  legal  theories  began  to  dominate 
mediaeval  thought  the  jurists  found  some  difficulty  in  de- 
ciding whether  the  lord  or  the  vassal  really  owned  the 
land;  and  they  solved  the  problem  by  attributing  to  the 
former  a  higher  or  superior  ownership  (rfowi')(»«m  eminens 
or  directum),  and  to  the  latter  "  practical  ownership '" 
{dominium  utile).  Similar  difficulties  were  encountered  in 
dealing  with  peasant  tenures,  especially  in  Germany.  In 
many  parts  of  (.Tcrmany  the  private  or  property  rights  of 
the  manorial  lord  (as  distinguished  from  his  jurisdictional 
rights)  were  limited  to  the  receipt  of  customary  rents  and 
services,  the  peasants  having  perpetual  and  hereditarv 
leases  (Erbpacht).  Here  again,  with  the  reception  of  tlie 
Roman  law,  the  jurists  worked  out  the  un-Roman  distinc- 
tion of  superior  and  inferior  ownership  (Obereigenthum 
and  LJntereigi-nthum).  With  the  decay  of  the  feudal  sys- 
tem and  tile  ilisappearance  of  the  reversionary  rights  of  the 
feudal  lord,  tlie  inferior  rights  of  the  vassal  developed  into 
the  full  right  of  ownership,  while  the  eminent  domain  of 
the  lord  gradually  lost  the  character  of  a  property  right  and 
became  simply  governmental  power.  Peasant  rights  also 
have  usually  been  converted  by  modern  legislation  into  full 
proprietorshi[).  In  all  modern  European  states  the  con- 
fused system  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  rapidly  disappearing. 
and  ownership  in  the  IJoman  sense  is  sharply  distinguished 
on  the  one  hand  from  political  power  and  on' the  other  from 
lesser  and  partial  rights  in  the  land. 

The  feudal  system  has  nevertheless  left  permanent  traces 
in  the  modern  law  of  property,  both  as  regards  inheritance 
of  realty  (see  SrccEssio.N)  and  as  regards  other  modes  of 
acquisition.  The  effort  of  the  feudal  princes  to  reserve 
control  over  forests,  hunting,  and  fishing,  paved  the  way 


for  the  modern  governmental  control  of  all  these  matters. 
Early  in  the  Middle  Ages  animals /crtE  natura.  if  regarded 
as  objects  of  sport,  ceased  to  be  open  to  occupation  except 
by  him  who  had  the  right  to  take  them.  The  efforts  of  the 
feudal  princes  to  increase  their  revenues  led  also  to  an  as- 
sertion of  exclusive  governmental  right  over  other  things 
which  the  Romans  regarded  as  res  7iunius  (e.g.  things 
washed  up  by  the  sea,  abandoned  land,  enemy's  goods;  in 
some  territories  thesaurus,  or  treasure-trove).  The  same 
efforts  gave  rise  to  the  theory  that  mining  privileges  be- 
longed to  the  feudal  lord,  and  could  be  exercised  only  by 
his  license,  which  was  regidarly  issued  to  the  first  finder. 
The  owner  of  the  soil  could  demand  only  compensation  for 
damage  done  to  the  surface,  and  in  some  territories  a  share 
in  the  venture.  The  right  to  minerals  was  thus  separated 
from  the  right  to  the  surface.  Nearly  all  these  "  royalties" 
(regalia)  have  passed  into  modern  European  law  as  rights 
of  the  state  or  "  fiscus." 

Modern  Legislation. — Some  of  the  older  codes  confuse 
rights  over  things  with  property  rights  in  the  broader  sense, 
and  speak  of  an  "ownership"  of  obligations,  etc. ;  but  in 
the  more  recent  codes  rights  over  tilings  are  sharply  dis- 
tinguished from  rights  iti  personam.  Immovables  and 
movables  are  subjected  to  very  different  rules,  but  the  dis- 
tinction is  obscured  by  a  formal  unity  of  treatment. 

Ownership  (domaine, propriete,  Eigenthum)  is  the  general 
right  in  the  Roman  sense.  As  regards  original  acquisition, 
the  list  of  res  nullius  has  been  limited  and  the  field  of  oc- 
cupation narrowed  by  the  development  of  fiscal  rights. 
The  Code  Napoleon  declares  that  all  property  without  an 
ow-ner  belongs  to  the  state,  but  it  makes  an  exception  in 
the  case  of  treasure-trove  (tresor)  and  applies  the  Roman 
rule.  Some  of  the  existing  German  codes  give  a  share  of 
treasure-trove  to  the  state  or  the  commune,  but  the  draft 
code  for  the  whole  empire  proposes  to  re-establish  the  Ro- 
man rule.  As  regards  accession,  the  Roman  rules  are  gen- 
erally accepted.  The  law  of  specification  is  substantially 
Roman  ;  but  the  Saxon  code  and  the  German  draft  code 
discard  the  distinction  between  the  honest  and  the  dishonest 
maker,  and  all  the  modern  codes  reject  the  distinction  be- 
tween a  new  thing  that  can  be  reduced  to  its  original  form 
and  one  that  can  not  be  so  reduced.  In  determining  the 
ownership  of  the  new  thing  many  codes  lay  stress  on  the 
relative  value  of  the  material  and  the  labor. 

As  regards  conveyance,  the  French  law  breaks  with  the 
Roman  law  by  declaring  that  title  passes  with  the  conclusion 
of  the  contract  and  without  delivery  of  possession  ;  but 
while  this  rule  governs  the  relations  between  the  conveyor 
and  the  conveyee  it  does  not  operate  against  third  persons. 

The  most  sweeping  changes  that  have  been  introduced  in 
the  modern  law  of  property  are  due,  in  the  case  of  movable  J 
property,  to  the  protection  given  to  the  honest  possessor  (see  I 
Possession),  and  in  the  case  of  immovable  property  to  the 
registration  laws.    See  Recoedixs  etc.      Muxroe  Smith. 

EXGLISH  AXD  AmERICAX  LaW. 

The  English  law  of  property,  from  which  that  of  the  U.  S. 
is  derived,  followed  an  independent  line  of  develoiiment,. 
Whereas,  to  the  Roman  law,  land  and  goods  were  only  dif-  j 
fering  forms  of  property,  accidentally  discriminated  by  the 
physical  differences  between  them,  but  both  of  them  sub- 
ject to  ownership  in  the  same  sense  of  that  term  and  for  the  I 
most  iiart  governed  by  the  same  rules  of  law,  in  the  Eng- 
lish system  this  physical  difference  became  fundamental,  I 
and  resulted  in  two  distinct  bodies  of  law — the  law  of  "  real  1 
property"  and  the  law  of  "personal  property."    This  result  j 
was  due  to  the  peculiar  and  exceptional  chara<'ter  impressed  i 
upon  land  as  the  subject  of  property  by  the  feudal  system. 
As  explained  in  the  articles  on  Estate  and  Landlord  and  ] 
Tenant,  that  system  was  wholly  based  on  the  conception 
of  land,  not  as  subject  to  ownership,  as  chattels  are  owncii,  • 
but  as  subject  to  a  qualified  interest  or  estate,  limited  in 
duration,  and  exacting  of  the  holder,  or  "  tenant."  the  per- 
formance of  feudal  services  as  the  condition  of  his  tenure.  | 
Xor  was  the  "lord,"  of  whom  the  land  was  held,  in  any  bet- 
ter situation:  he  in  his  turn  helii  the  land  as  tenant  of  some  ' 
superior  lord,  and  so  the  feudal  hierarchy  ascended  until  it 
reached  the  king  as  lord  paramount.     So  while  goods  and 
chattels  continued  to  be  subject  to  that  absolute  control 
which  we  call  ownership,  lands  were  merely  "  held  "  by  a  j 
variety  of  tenures  or  estates,  the  ultimate  ownership  being] 
vested  in  the  crown  or  state. 

It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to  assume  that  the  dis- 
tinction between  real  and  personal  property  coincides  with 


PROPERTY 


813 


that  between  land  and  goods,  or  between  the  "movables" 
and  "  immovables  "  of  the  Roman  law.  Here,  as  so  often 
in  the  liistory  of  the  coinmun  law.  the  inflexible  methods  of 
procedure  by  which  rijjhls  were  enforced  gave  rise  to  an  ar- 
tificial distinction,  based,  indeed,  on  the  fundamental  dif- 
ference between  movables  and  immovables,  but  not  follow- 
ing the  natural  line  of  cleavage  between  them.  The  terms 
'•  real  "  and  "  personal,"  now  employed  to  describe  different 
classes  of  rights  over  things,  originally  descrilied  only  dif- 
ferent forms  of  acliim.  The  real  action  was  a  limceeding 
for  the  recovery  of  the  r<«.  the  very  thing  of  which  the 
party  coniplaiiiiiig  had  been  deprived  :  the  personal  action, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  an  action  against  a  certain  jjcrson 
for  the  infringement  of  a  right,  but  it  souglit  to  recover, 
not  the  property  itself,  but  damages  for  its  iletention  or  de- 
struction. By  reason  of  the  permanent,  indestructible 
character  of  lands,  the  real  action  was  especially  appropri- 
ate for  recovering  jjossession  of  them.  Hence  lands  were 
called  rfttt  property.  Hut  goods  and  chattels,  being  easily 
susceptible  of  destruction,  or  loss,  or  concealment,  and  being, 
moreover,  infinitely  less  jmi>ortant  to  feudal  society  than 
freehold  interests  in  land,  could  not  be  (Hn-sued  and  recov- 
ered by  a  real  action.  The  only  remedy  provided  by  law  for 
the  unlawful  destruction  or  detention  of  a  chattel  was  the 
persomil  aition  for  damages.  Hence  goods,  or  chattels, 
came  to  be  known  as  pirmmtil  property. 

Not  all  interests  in  land,  however,  could  be  recovered  by 
a  real  action.  All  estates  of  freehold — fees  simple,  fees  tail, 
life-estates — were  considered  worthy  of  recovery  by  this  sol- 
emn form  of  procedure  :  but  leases  for  years,  which  were  not 
properly  estates  at  all,  wliich  existed  -by  virtue  of  contract 
merely,  anil  which  were  deemed  unworthy  of  freemen,  were 
not  recoverable  by  real  action.  In  other  words,  the  tenant 
for  years,  if  he  was  unjustly  ilispossessed,  whether  by  his  lord 
or  by  a  stranger,  had  originally  no  remedy  but  a  personal 
action  for  damages.  Accordingly,  terms  of  years  came  to 
be  regarded  as  personal  property,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  right  to  recover  possession  of  his  leasehold  by  eje<'t- 
ment  was  conferred  upon  the  tenant  for  years  at  a  very 
early  period.  By  virtue  of  this  right  to  nniintain  ejectment 
for  its  recovery,  the  term  of  years  became  a  true  estate  or 
interest  in  lands,  but  it  has  never  lost  the  anomalous  charac- 
ter which  its  humble  origin  impressed  upon  it.  A  leasehold 
of  1.000  years  is  still,  in  the  U.  S.  as  well  as  in  England,  re- 
ganied  as  personal  property,  whereas  an  estate  for  life  is  a 
freehold,  and  hi^s  all  of  the  incidents  of  real  property.  In 
Massachusetts  and  a  few  other  States,  however,  leaseholds  of 
great  length  are  assimilated  to  real  property. 

Pei-sonal  property,  then,  includes  not  only  goods  or  chat- 
tels, but  also  such  interests  in  lands  as  the  early  common 
law  di<l  not  deem  worthy  of  protection  by  a  real  action.  The 
legal  conceptions  to  which  the  feudal  system  gave  rise  were 
responsible  for  another  anomalous  extension  of  the  notion  of 
personal  property.  All  [iroperty  rights  are  in  their  nature 
rights  of  control  over  material  objects — called  rights  in  rem 
— and  are  opposed  to  those  legal  rights  which  do  not  direct- 
ly concern  things,  but  persons,  which  are  known  as  rights 
in  per-mmim.  A  large  liody  of  rights  of  this  latter  class — 
i.  e.  rights  of  action,  such  as  claims,  demands,  etc.,  called 
choses  in  action — were  brought  into  the  classification  of  per- 
sonal property.  To  these  must  be  added  those  other  intan- 
gible rights  recognized  by  modern  law,  such  as  trademarks, 
patent  rights,  copyright,  etc. 

Real  property,  on  t^he  other  hand,  comprehends  much  be- 
sides those  estates  or  interests  in  land,  called  freehold  inter- 
ests, which  were  anciently  deemed  wortliv  of  protection  by 
real  action.  The  t(M-m  includes  also  all  tliose  rights  of  use 
or  enjoyment  in  the  lands  of  others  which,  imder  the  de- 
scription of  easements,  profits  and  rents,  fill  so  large  a  space 
in  the  modern  as  well  as  in  the  ancient  law  of  property, 
together  with  all  those  movables  which,  by  becoming  at- 
tached to  the  soil,  have  acquired  the  character  of  Fi.xtures 
(q.  v.).  On  the  other  hand,  certain  things  which  are  usu- 
ally regarded  as  real  property,  may,  because  of  special  cir- 
cumstances or  as  between  particular  persons,  fall  into  the 
category  of  personal  property.  This  is  true  of  such  grow- 
ing crops  as  nave  acijuired  the  character  of  "  emblements," 
of  trees  standing  or  cut,  of  stones  which  have  been  quar- 
ried but  not  removed,  etc.  In  all  such  cases,  however,  the 
special  circumstances  must  be  shown  in  order  to  rebut  the 
presumption  arising  from  the  apparent  connection  of  the 
articles  in  question  with  the  land. 

The  complicated  system  of  feudal  tenurel  above  referred 
to  has  long  since  been  swept  away.     The  freehold  tenant  no 


longer  holds  his  land  as  the  fee  of  a  lord,  excepting  in  a  few 
manors  which  still  survive  in  England.  But  the  tenure  of 
lands,  in  the  U.  S.  as  well  as  in  England,  continues  to  ex- 
hiliit  the  feudal  form.  In  some  of  the  States  it  is  expressly 
provided  by  statute  that  all  lands  shall  be  held  by  ''allodial 
— that  is,  absolute — titles;  but,  notwithstanding  that  declara- 
tion, there  is  no  such  thing  as  absolute  ownershi])  of  lands. 
The  state  is  lord  paramount,  and  the  landowners  hold  their 
fees  in  subordination  to  its  paramount  title. 

The  popular  notion  of  oii-ntr.ihip  is,  for  most  purposes,  a 
sufficiently  accurate  definition  of  the  extent  of  the  right  of 
property :  it  indicates  in  general  either  a  present  or  an  ulti- 
mate right  of  possession,  coupled  with  the  control  of  the 
thing  and  the  |)ower  of  transferring  this  ownership  in  whole 
or  in  part  to  another.  Of  course,  the  actual  physical  posses- 
sion may  be  in  another  than  the  owner,  and  even  the  right 
of  possession  may  be  temporarily  vested  in  another  person — 
as  in  a  tenant  of  lands  or  a  bailee  of  goods — but  there  can 
be  no  property  without  actual  or  constructive  possession,  or 
the  right  to  resume  or  control  the  possession  at  some  time 
in  the  future.  Indeed,  so  important  is  the  fact  of  posses- 
sion even  without  right,  and  the  right  of  possession  without 
ownership,  that  they  have  in  law  many  of  the  attributes  of 
actual  property  rights.  Attention  is  called  in  the  article  on 
Li.MiTATiox  OF  Actions  to  the  extraordinary  consequences 
of  a  disseisin,  whereby  a  disseisor,  by  dispossessing  the  right- 
ful owner  of  hinds  and  installing  himself  in  his  place,  ac- 
quires the  lawful  seisin,  the  "property"  of  the  former  own- 
er, and  becomes  a  new  root  of  descent.  But  it  is  also  true 
that  the  disseisor  has  by  his  act  acquired  a  right  of  pos- 
session and  a  title  against  the  whole  world  besides  the 
rightful  owner;  and  if  he  is,  in  his  turn,  disseised,  he  can 
recover  the  lands  by  process  of  law.  So,  in  the  law  of  per- 
soiiid  property,  one,  not  the  owner,  who  has  the  temporary 
right  of  possession  of  chattels  (as  a  pledgee,  for  example),  is 
said  to  have  "  a  qualified  property  "  in  the  goods,  giving  him 
certain  rights  of  control  and  disposition,  which  could  not  be 
lawfully  exercised  by  one  who  had  no  proprietary  interest. 
The  term  "  seisin  "  was  originally  identical  in  meaning  with 
"  possession,"  and  was  applied  indifferently  to  real  property 
and  to  chattel.s,  but  it  was  ultimately  appropriated  exclu- 
sively to  describe  the  possession  of  freehold  interests  in  land, 
the  term  possession  being  reserved  for  chattels  and  chattel 
interests.  Accordingly,  if  X.  a  tenant  in  fee  simple,  leases 
his  lands  to  Y  for  a  term  of  years  and  the  latter  enters  and 
occupies  them,  there  is  a  double  possession  ;  Y'  is  possessed 
of  the  premises  as  tenant  for  years,  and  X  is  at  the  same  time 
seised  of  them  by  virtue  of  his  freehold. 

The  two  classes  of  property  under  consideration  differ 
greatly  in  the  extent  and  kind  of  use  and  enjoyment  which 
are  the  attributes  of  ownership  of  them  respectively;  but 
this  difference  is  wholly  <lue  to  the  nature  of  the  subject- 
matter  in  each  case.  As  has  been  said  before,  the  right  of 
property  in  chattels  is  in  its  highest  estate  absolute  and  un- 
trammeled.  A  man  may  do  what  he  will  with  his  own.  But 
while  the  right  of  property  in  land  is  unlimited  in  extent — 
extending  to  an  indefinite  distance  below  and  above  the  sur- 
face— it  is  nevertheless  strictly  limited  and  circumscribed  by 
the  physical  and  social  conditions  which  prevail. 

Eand.  as  the  seat  of  man's  habitation,  is  so  bound  together 
with  ami  related  to  all  other  adjoining  land,  that  to  admit 
an  absolute  right  of  property  in  one  man  would  be  to  devote 
his  neighbor's  [iroperty  rights  to  destniction.  Hence  we 
have  the  principle  that  a  man  may  make  only  such  use  of 
his  land  as  is  compatible  witli  the  due  and  reasonable  en- 
joyment by  his  neighbor  of  his  land.  In  order  to  enforce 
this  obligation  of  mutual  forbearance  the  law  recognizes 
three  so-called  "  n,itural  rights  "of  property:  I  have  a  right 
to  require  of  my  neighbor  that  he  shall  not  by  excavations 
on  his  own  land  withdraw  the  natural  support  of  my  land  ; 
that  he  shall  not  vitiate  the  air  which  visits  my  premises 
with  noxious  or  disagreeable  substances,  odors,  or  noises; 
that  he  shall  not  unreasonably  interfere  with  the  watercourse 
which  passes  over  my  land.  These  are  fluctuating  rights, 
however,  and  vary  in  degree  accoriling  to  the  conditions  of 
life  and  industry  which  prevail  in  the  locality,  the  test  of  in- 
fringement of  the  property  right  in  each  case  being  the  rea- 
sonableness or  unreasonableness  of  the  act  complained  of  in 
view  of  all  the  circumstances. 

In  addition  to  these  original  and  natural  limitations  on 
dominion,  the  absolute  riglit  of  jiroperty  is  further  exten- 
sively limited  by  that  numerous  class  of  rights  over  the 
land  of  others  known  lus  easements,  profits,  etc.  While 
these  rights  are  in  themselves,  as  has  been  explained  above, 


814 


PROPHET 


PROPORTION 


a  species  of  real  property,  they  are  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  person  over  whose  land  the  rights  exist,  serious  limi- 
tations on  his  enjoyment  of  his  own  lands. 

The  principal  remaining  differences  between  the  two 
classes  of  property  under  consideration  display  themselves 
in  the  mode  of  conveyance  requisite  to  transfer  them,  re- 
spectively, and  in  the  "disposition  which  the  law  makes  of 
them  upon  the  deatli  of  tlie  former  owner  intestate.  Per- 
sonal property  is  still  transferred  by  delivery,  so  far,  at  least, 
as  it  is  susceptible  of  manual  delivery ;  where  this  is  not 
possible  the  transfer  is  effected  by  delivery  of  some  evidence 
of  the  property  or  by  some  writing.  The  transfer  of  real 
property,  which  passed  at  common  law  only  by  "livery  of 
seisin  "(a  svmbolical  delivery  of  possession),  or,  in  the  case 
of  incorporeal  hereditaments  (see  Hereditaments)  by  grant, 
or  instrument  under  seal,  is  now  effected  by  deed,  sealed 
and  delivered.  (See  Deed.)  For  the  alienation  of  goods  by 
Sale  and  Gift,  see  those  titles. 

By  the  laws  of  descent  and  distribution,  upon  the  death 
of  a  property-owner  intestate  his  real  estate  passes  at  once 
to  his  heir,  and  his  personal  property  into  the  jurisdiction  of 
a  probate  or  surrogate's  court,  where  its  distribution  to  credi- 
tors and  next  of  kin  is  supervised  and  effected.  This  proc- 
ess of  distribution  is  known  as  the  "  administration  "  of  the 
estate,  and  is  carried  jjit  through  the  medium  of  an  admin- 
istrator appointed  by  the  court.  If  the  decedent  leaves  a 
will  his  lands  go  directly  to  the  devisee,  but  the  personal 
property  to  the  executor  for  distribution  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  will.    See  Descent  and  Will. 

The  principal  modes  of  acquiring  property  are  considered 
elsewhere,  and  need  only  be  referred  to  here.  Under  the 
head  of  "original  acquisition  "  are  included  the  taking  of 
title  to  chattels  by  occupancy  or  finding,  by  capture  (of 
wild  animals),  by  confusion  and  accession,  and  the  acquisi- 
tion of  title  to  new  lands  by  accretion.  The  acquisition  of 
title  by  disseisin  and  laiise  of  time  is  discussed  in  the  arti- 
cles on  Limitation  of  Actions  and  Prescription.  Convey- 
ances, by  deed  or  otherwise,  include  gifts.  Gifts  causa 
mnrfis  are  a  kind  of  informal  will  which  has  been  much  fa- 
vored by  the  courts.  (See  Will.)  At  the  present  time  both 
real  and  personal  property  may  be  freely  alienated  by  will, 
though  the  right  to  devise  real  property  did  not  exist  at 
common  law.  It  was  created  by  the  Statute  of  Wills  (32 
Hen.  VIII.,  ch.  i.,  a.  d.  1540).  The  subjects  of  descent  and 
distribution  are  now  wholly  regulated  by  statute. 

The  law  of  property  as  above  outlined  prevails  over  the 
whole  of  Korth  America,  except  in  the  State  of  Louisiana, 
the  Province  of  Quebec,  and  the  republic  of  Mexico,  where 
modifications  of  the  Roman  or  civil  law  are  in  force.  The 
states  of  Central  and  South  America  are  also  governed  by 
codes  which  are  mainly  derived  from  the  civil  law. 

See  also  articles  on  Feudal  Svstem.  Chattel,  and  Re- 
mainder. Consult  hetike.  Digest  of  Law  of  Land:  Wash- 
burne,  lieal  Property;  Schouler,  Persotial  Property:  Pollock 
and  Wright  on  Possession  ;  and  Raleigli's  Outline  of  the 
Law  of  Properly.  George  W.  Kirchwey. 

Prophet  [from  Gr.  vpo(piiTris,  interpreter,  one  who  de- 
clares and  explains  clearly  (irp6).  The  word  is,  however, 
also  used  to  tran.slate  the  Hebrew  nal)i  with  its  sense  of  one 
who  has  insight  into  God's  mind  and  reveals  it] :  he  who 
speaks  for  another,  prodaimer,  preacher :  or  one  who  pre- 
dicts future  events.  In  the  records  of  all  nations  from  the 
most  remote  antiquity  there  are  accounts  of  men  who 
claimed,  and  were  believed  to  have,  special  and  immediate 
intercourse  with  the  Deity.  The  most  remarkable  and 
familiar  instances  of  these  phenomena  appear  in  the  nations 
of  the  East,  more  particularly  among  the  Hebrews.  In  the 
Old  Testament  they  are  called  X'3J,  speaker,  interpreter — 
i.  e.  revealer — of  the  divine  will  to  man  (in  no  case  does  it 
mean  predicter  of  future  events),  Ex.  iv.  16;  vii.  1.  Comp. 
^{<^,  nTn,  seer.     In  the  earlier  ages  they  appear  chiefly  as 

seers  (nxi,  1  Sam.  ix.  9),  leading  a  contemplative  life  apart 
from  the  world.  Apparently  about  the  time  of  Samuel,  with 
whom  the  prophetic  age  begins,  they  were  organized  into 
communities,  known  as  D'n^S  'J3  (comp.  Darw'ts  of  the 
present  day),  estalilislicd  in  various  places  under  the  charge 
of  old  and  experienced  prophets,  devoting  their  time  to  the 
study  of  the  sacred  writings  and  ecstatical  religious  exercises. 
After  the  exile  all  trace  of  these  organizations  is  lost:  the 
prophets  a[)pear  separately  and  at  intervals,  and  from  Jlal- 
achi  to  .John  the  Haplist  there  arose  no  prophet  in  Israel. 
The  prophets  led  in  the  main  an  ascetic  life,  supported  by 
the  contributions  of  the  charitalile  (2  Kings  iv.  42),  by  the 


gifts  of  those  who  sought  counsel  from  them  (1  Sam.  ix.  7 ; 
1  Kings  xiv.  3 ;  2  Kings  v.  15,  16  ff. ;  ib.  viii.  8),  or  by  fruits 
herbs,  etc.,  gathered  by  themselves  (2  Kings  iv.  39 ;  Matt, 
iii.  4).  Their  costume  was  a  mantle  of  skin  (Zech.  xiii.  4; 
1  Kings  xix.  13)  girded  around  the  loins  (2  Kings  i.  8 ; 
Matt.  iii.  4). 

The  call  to  the  prophetic  ofliee  was  an  inward  one  from 
God,  but  those  so  called  were  not  at  all  times  in  a  state  of 
inspiration,  nor  was  this  under  control  of  their  will.  The 
divine  revelations  were  not  received  in  a  state  of  ecstasy, 
but  in  visions  or  in  an  elevated  though  entirely  rational  con- 
dition. The  form  in  which  the  prophecies  were  communi- 
cated to  the  people  depended  entirely  on  the  age  and  the 
individuality  of  the  prophet,  whether  by  verbal  communi- 
cation, symbolic  actions  which  were  mostly  unreal,  or  by 
writings  (Isa.  xl.  ff.,  and  some  of  the  later  prophets).  The 
prophets  had  mainly  in  view  the  reformation  and  elevation 
of  the  people,  but  announced  future  calamity  or  deliverance 
of  their  own  or  neighboring  peoples  as  an  aid  to  present 
guidance.  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Propion'ic  Acid  [propionic  is  from  Gr.  TrpHros,  first  + 
vttiiy,  fat ;  so  called  because  it  is  the  first  member  of  the 
series  of  fatty  acids  that  has  oily  or  fatty  properties] :  the 
third  member  of  the  series  of  fatty  acids.  Its  composition 
is  C3H6O2.  It  occurs  in  the  fruit  of  Gingkxi  biloba,  in  sweat, 
and  in  wood-vinegar.  Gottlieb,  its  discoverer,  obtained  it 
by  oxidizing  metacetone,  and  therefore  called  it  metacetonic 
acid.  It  can  be  made  in  the  laboratory  by  a  number  of 
methods,  the  most  satisfactory  being  the  oxidation  of  propyl 
alcohol,  to  which  it  bears  the  same  relation  that  acetic  acid 
bears  to  ordinary  or  ethyl  alcohol,  and  formic  acid  to  methyl 
alcohol.  It  is  a  liquid  that  mixes  with  water  in  all  propor- 
tions.    It  boils  at  140-9°  C.  Ira  Remse.n". 

Prop'olis  [=Lat.  =  Gr.  irp6Tro\is:  irpS.  before  +  Tr<i\is, 
city,  .so  called  because  it  is  used  to  close  small  approaches 
to  the  hive] :  a  resin  which  the  honey-bee  collects  upon  its 
posterior  tibi;c  and  carries  to  the  hive,  where  it  is  used  in 
filling  crevices,  finishing  combs,  and  the  like.  In  the  V.  S. 
it  is  mainly  collected  from  the  buds  of  the  birch,  the  horse- 
chestnut,  and  the  balsam-poplar. 

Proportion  :  in  mathematics,  an  equality  of  ratios,  a  ratio 
being  tlie  relation,  expressed  by  division,  which  one  quan- 
tity bears  to  another.  Four  quantities  are  said  to  be  in  pro- 
portion when  the  ratio  of  the  first  to  the  second  is  equal 
to  the  ratio  of  the  third  to  the  fourth.  A  proportion  ma> 
be  written  in  either  of  two  ways ;  thus  if  the  ratio  of  a  to  h 
is  equal  to  the  ratio  of  c  to  d,  the  equality  may  be  indicated 
by  either  of  the  following  expressions: 

— =— ,  or  a:o::c:d. 
a      c 

Either  of  them  may  be  read  a  is  to  b  as  c  is  to  d.  The 
first  and  third  terms  are  antecedents  ;  the  second  and  fourth 
terms  are  consequents;  the  first  and  fourth  are  extremes; 
the  second  and  third  are  means.  The  first  ratio  is  called 
Xhe first  couplet,  and  the  second  ratio  is  called  the  second 
couplet.  Two  varying  quantities  are  said  to  be  directly 
proportional  when  their  ratio  is  constant ;  inversely,  or  re- 
ciprocally, proportional  when  their  product  is  constant. 
But  this  distinction  of  proportion  does  not  seem  to  serve  any 
useful  purpose.  A  continued  proportion  is  an  expression 
of  continued  equality  between  three  or  more  ratios;  thus 

— =  —  =  —  ,  etc.,  or  a:b::c:d:  :e:f...,  etc., 
ace 

is  a  continued  proportion.  The  terms  of  a  geometrical  pro- 
gression form  a  continued  proportion. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  proportions 
may  be  transformed  :  (1)  The  antecedents  may  be  made  con- 
sequents, and  the  consequents  antecedents  ;  the  proportion 
is  then  said  to  be  transformed  by  inversion.  (2)  Antece- 
dent may  be  compared  with  antecedent,  and  consequent 
with  consequent ;  the  proportion  is  then  said  to  be  trans- 
formed by  alternation.  (3)  The  sum  of  the  antecedent  and 
consequent  of  each  couplet  may  be  compared  with  either 
the  antecedent  or  consequent  of  the  corresponding  coup- 
let ;  the  proportion  is  then  said  to  be  transformed  by  com- 
position. (4)  The  difference  of  the  antecedent  and  conse- 
quent of  each  couplet  may  be  compared  with  either  the  an- 
tecedent or  consequent  of  the  corresponding  couplet;  the 
proportion  is  then  said  to  be  transformed  by  dirision. 

The  most  important  principles  of  proportions  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  (1)  If  Tour  quantities  are  in  proportion,  the  product 
of  the  means  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  extremes ;  con- 


PROPORTIONAL  REPRESENTATION 


PROSODY 


815 


versely,  if  the  product  of  two  quantities  is  equal  to  the 

produ(tt  of  two  other  quantities,  the  first  two  may  be  made 
tlie  moans  iiiul  the  other  two  llie  extremes  of  a  jiroportion. 
(2)  If  a  couplet  in  each  of  two  proportions  is  the  same,  the 
remainiiij^  couplets  will  form  a  |)roportion.  (3)  If  four 
quantities  are  in  proportion,  they  will  also  be  in  proportion 
1)V  iiivei-sion,  by  alternation,  by  composition,  or  by  division. 
(4)  Hqiiimultiples  of  two  (pnintities  are  proportional  to  the 
(|uantities  themselves.  (5)  In  a  continued  proportion  the 
sum  of  all  the  antecedents  is  to  the  sum  v{  all  the  conse- 
quents as  any  antecedent  is  to  the  corresponding  consequent. 
(6)  If  the  corresponding  terms  of  two  or  more  proportions 
are  multiplied  together,  the  products  will  be  in  pro[>ortioii; 
consequently,  like  powci-s  or  like  roots  of  all  the  terms  of  a 
proportion  are  in  proportion.     Revised  by  K.  A.  RoiUiRTS. 

Proportional  Reproseiilation:  See  Repbesextatio.v. 

Proposition:  See  Logic. 

Propylite  [tir.  irp6wu>\.oi'.  or  ri  TrpoTriKma,  gateway]:  a 
name  givfii  in  18(57  by  von  Hichlhofen  to  certain  altered 
forms  of  andesites  and  allied  volcanic  rocks  (formerly  called 
greenstone  trachytes),  wliich  are  greatly  developed  in  the 
silver  districts  of  Hungary  an<l  the  (.'omstock  lode  (Nevada). 
The  name  was  selected  under  the  impression  that  tliese 
rocks  constituted  a  distinctive  type  which  ushered  in  a  re- 
newed period  of  volcanic  activity  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Tertiary  period,  after  long-continued  inactivity  in  Mesozoic 
times.  These  rocks  have  since  been  shown  by  Wadsworth, 
Becker,  and  others  to  be  only  normal  and  widely  distributed 
igneous  vai'ieties,  whose  ferromagnesian  constituents  have 
been  extensively  altered  to  fibnuis  hornblende,  epidote, 
chlorite,  and  similar  secondary  minerals.  The  name  pro- 
pylite  can  not.  therefore,  be  regarded  as  having  any  petro- 
graphic  significance  except  to  denote  a  certain  phase  of 
alteration,  which  may  be  closely  connected  with  the  deposit 
of  silver  ores  in  the  regions  above  named.  See  Monograph 
HI.  and  Bulletin  No.  17  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

George  H.  Williams. 

Prosecutor:  in  law,  one  who  institutes  and  carries  on 
a  criminal  proceeding  against  another  in  the  name  of  the 
government. 

In  most  countries  the  duty  of  making  a  preliminary  in- 
vestigation into  the  circumstances  of  an  offense,  collecting 
the  evidence  for  trial,  and  managing  the  trial  of  the  case  is 
imposed  upon  public  officers.  This  is  the  case  throughout 
the  continent  of  Europe.  In  Scotland  there  are  officers 
(procurators-fiscal)  charged  with  the  duty  of  instituting 
criminal  proceedings,  obtaining  evidence,  securing  the  ac- 
cused, etc.;  and  in  Ireland  (where  in  general  the  same  laws, 
with  slight  variations  only,  prevail  as  in  England)  criminal 
prosecutions  are  conducted  principally  by  solicitors  and  coun- 
sel who  represent  the  crown. 

In  England,  and  in  some  English  colonies,  the  prosecution 
of  persons  for  public  offenses  is  left  entirely  to  private  per- 
sons, or  to  public  officei-s  who  act  in  their  private  capacity 
and  have  hardly  any  legal  powers  not  possessed  by  private 
individuals.  Every  private  person  has  exactly  the  same 
right  to  institute  any  criminal  action  as  the  attorney-general 
or  any  one  else,  and  a  private  person  may  prosecute  for  high 
treason,  a  seditious  conspiracy,  or  a  libel  upon  a  third  per- 
son in  which  he  has  no  sort  of  interest.  Formerly  there 
was  no  public  official  whose  duty  it  was  to  inquire  into 
cases  of  supposed  criminal  offenses;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  duty  was  undertaken  by  the  police,  who  in  cases  of  any 
importance  were  usually  authorized  by  the  superior  olficers 
to  instruct  a  solicitor,  who  in  some  cases  instructed  counsel 
to  appear  arul  ])roseeute.  Now,  by  iM-t  of  Parliament  (47 
and  48  Viet.,  c.  54),  the  chief  officer  of  every  police  district 
i<  bound  to  give  information  to  the  director  of  public  prose- 
mi  ions  of  indictable  offenses  alleged  to  have  been  coinmit- 
Irrl  in  his  district. 

When  a  private  person  has  instituted  a  prosecution  he  is 
usually  bound  over  to  prosecute,  and  when  a  bill  has  been 
sent  to  the  grand  jury  the  matter  must  take  its  course  .(un- 
less the  proper  court  sanctions  the  withdrawal,  or  unless  the 
attorney-general  enters  a  Nolle  I'Roskijii,  q.  v.),  and  the 
injured  party  must  pay  all  the  costs  of  the  prosecution,  un- 
less the  court  allows  him  costs,  which  it  may  now  do  in  all 
cases  of  felony  and  in  all  common  cases  of  misdemeanor. 
This  .system  of  prosecution  by  private  indiviiluals,  which  is 
the  result  of  historical  causes  ami  not  of  design,  while  ap- 
parently liable  to  great  al)nses,  in  practice  is  found  to  work 
well  and  to  affonl  a  very  effectual  guarantee  of  the  due  ob- 
servance of  the  laws. 


In  the  U.  S.  the  system  of  prosecution  by  public  officers 

is  followed,  and  private  prosecutions,  except  for  jietty  of- 
fenses and  in  the  lowest  courts,  are  almost  uidviiown.  Dis- 
trict Attor.neys  ((/. !'.)  or  prosecuting  attorneys  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  Federal  and  State  governments  to  take 
exclusive  charge  of  prosecutions,  oversee  the  finding  of  in- 
dictments, and  conduct  the  trial  for  the  state.  The  injured 
person  can  do  no  more  than  lodge  a  complaint  before  the 
committing  magistrate  or  the  grand  jury,  and  thus  secure 
tli<>  arrest  of  the  accused  for  examination  and  indictment. 
The  public  officer  may  employ  private  counsel  in  some  in- 
stances or  surrender  the  case  to  them,  but  they  act  as  his 
delegates.  This  is  the  course  of  proceedings  that  generally 
prevails  throughout  the  U.  S.  See  Stephen's  History  of  the 
Criminal  Low  of  England  and  Bishop's  Law  of  Criminal 
Procedure.  F.  Stirges  Allen. 

Pros'elytcs  [via  0.  Fr.  and  hat.  from  Gr.  irpoo-^Airros, 
convert,  proselyte,  liter.,  one  who  has  come  to  (a  party); 
deriv.  of  irpoo-eA.flefc,  come  to ;  irp6s,  to,  toward  +  (\Buv, 
come]:  among  the  ])ost -exilic  Jews, Gentiles  who  conformed 
to  .Judaism.  The  rabbins  speak  of  "  proselytes  of  the  gate," 
who  simply  observed  the  seven  precepts  of  Noah;  and 
"  proselytes  of  the  covenant,"  or  of  "  righteousness,"  who 
were  circumcised,  baptized,  and  allowed  all  the  privileges 
of  the  Jews  ;  but  Lardner  recognized  only  the  latter. 

Prosencephalon  :  See  Brain. 

Proserpina:  See  Persephone. 

Prosiiu'ia!  [Mod.  Lat. :  I^at.  pro.  before  +  si'mia,  ape, 
monkey]:  a  division,  usually  considered  as  a  sub-order,  of 
the  order  Primates,  containing  the  lemurs,  aye-aye,  and 
tarsius.  These  animals  agree  with  the  apes  and  monkeys  in 
many  particulars,  but  have  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
cerebellum  not  covered  by  the  cerebrum,  the  lachrymal 
opening  in  the  cheek  outside  the  orbit,  and  the  orbit  open 
behind.  The  ears  are  more  or  less  pointed  and  turned  out- 
ward, and  without  a  lobule.  Tlie  female  has  a  two-horned 
uterus,  and  the  clitoris  perforated  by  the  urethra. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Prosobranchia'ta:  an  order  of  gasteropod  molluscs  in 
which  the  gills  are  in  front  of  the  heart.  It  includes  the 
majority  of  the  sea-snails,  as  well  as  some  of  those  occurring 
in  fresh  water  or  on  the  land.     See  Gasteropoda. 

Prosody  [from  Lat.  proso'dia  =:Gr.  vpotTif>Sia.  what  ac- 
companies the  song,  marks  of  accent,  punctuation,  breath- 
ings, quantity,  etc. ;  irp<is,  in  addition  -f  cfSii.  doiS?).  song, 
deriv.  of  ielSeiv,  sing]:  a  term  properly  meaning  "accent," 
but  including  Accent,  Quantity  {gq.  v.),  and  versification. 
Here  the  general  principles  of  versification  are  treated,  the 
special  verses  being  given  under  Metres  (g.  v.).  This  branch 
of  prosody  relates  to  the  reduction  of  speech  to  rhythmical 
form.    See  Rhythm. 

Speech  is  composed  of  syllables  that  are  either  short,  or 
long,  or  doubtful.  In  versification  the  long  is  made  equal 
to  two  short  syllables. and  the  doubtful  or  "common  "  may 
be  used  either  as  short  or  as  long.  In  the  treatment  of  syl- 
lables to  produce  rhythm  some  special  processes  arise.  In 
the  classic  languages  hiatus  ("  yawning  "  or  •'  gasping  "  re- 
sulting from  the  concurrence  of  two  vowels)  between  two 
words  is  not  allowed  except  in  special  cases.  It  is  prevented 
by  elision,  or  crasis.  or  shortening  (partial  elision)  of  a  long 
vowel  or  diphthong,  or  by  synizesis  (slurring)  of  two  long 
vowels.  Also  within  a  word  a  short  vowel  may  be  slurred 
with  a  following  vowel.  Rarely  in  Latin  i  receives  the 
sound  of  y,  as  arjele  =  —  ^^,  for  ariete  =^^^~^,  and 
II  rarely  receives  that  of  w.  as  tenvia  (—•^^)  for  tenuia 
(w^w.v_.).  Sometimes  syllables  are  lengthened  or  shortened 
seemingly  for  metrical  reasons,  that  is,  to  make  an  indis- 
pensable word  suit  the  verse ;  but  generally  the  quantity 
thus  created  was  in  use,  though  perhaps  rare  or  obsolescent. 

Elements  of  Verse. — .4s  in  speech  there  are  syllables, 
words,  clauses,  etc.,  and  in  music  notes,  bars,  or  measures, 
etc.,  so  in  metre  there  are  syllables,  feet  or  measures,  cola 
(clauses  or  sentences),  periods.  To  the  xp^>">^  irptSrjs  of 
rhythm  corresponds  the  mora  or  short  syll;d>le  of  verse,  as 
the  unit  of  measure.  From  its  name  (rr^iitiav,  or  anfia,  sylla- 
bles are  calleil  monoseme.  diseme,  triseme,  etc.,  when  the 
number  of  mora'  they  contain  is  one,  two,  three,  etc.  Some- 
times a  syllable  was  prolonged  (by  TrapfKrcurts.  now  usually, 
but  inap|iropriately,  called  syncope)  to  lli<>  length  of  three 
or  more  short  syllables.  Again,  a  long  in  certain  feet  may, 
as  an  irrational,  serve  as  a  short.  Moreover, two  short  sylla- 
bles may  be  used  as  one  irrational,  thus  having  the  metrical 


816 


PROSODY 


PROSPER  OF   AQUITAINE 


value  of  one  short,  and  a  long  and  a  short  may  have  the 
time  of  a  long.  Rests  or  pauses  also  occur  in  catalexis,  i.e. 
at  the  end  of  cola  or  periods.  Hence  we  have  the  following 
elements  of  metre,  with  their  rhythmical  analogues  (the 
xpivoi  npwTos  being  conventionally' represented  by  the  one- 
cighlh  note  or  quaver): 

Note.  Syllable.  Length. 

P  ^  1  mora,  monoseme. 

^  _  3  mors,  diseme. 


I 


3  moi-a?,  triseme. 

4  morse,  tetraseme. 


Even  a  pentaserae  is  mentioned  by  some.  The  greater  pauses 
are  indicated  by  the  caret  (a)  with  quantity  marks  over  it. 
but  the  monoseme  pause  by  the  simple  caret.  The  irrational 
is  indicated  by  > ,  two  short  syllables  equivalent  to  one  by 
^,  and  a  short  and  a  long,  equivalent  to  one  long,  by  -^. 

By  resolution  in  some  metres  two  short  syllables  may  re- 
place one  long,  and  by  contraction  one  long  may  rejjlace  two 
short  ones. 

p^et. — In  rhythm  the  units  of  time  must  be  marlsed.  In 
English  the  accent  serves  as  a  mark,  while  in  Latin  and 
Greek  the  mark  is  the  stress  or  loudness  of  long  syllables  as 
compared  with  short.  Hence  every  fundamental  foot  umst 
contain  at  least  one  long  and  one  short  syllable.  The  strong 
part  of  a  foot  was  called  thesis  (Aeo-is,  down-beat),  and  the 
weak  part  arsis  (&pa-is.  up-beat) :  but  some,  following  Roman 
grammarians,  now  interchange  these  terms. 

Peet  may  be  classified  (1)  according  to  the  ratios  between 
thesis  and  arsis  {yevos  iaov,  yivos  hnrKatTiov,  yevos  Tjfit6xiovy  etc., 
for  the  respective  ratios  1,2,  U,  etc.) ;  or  (2)  according  to 
the  number  of  syllables  they  contain ;  or  (3)  according  to 
their  length  as  'measured  by  morae.  Adopting  tlie  last 
method  there  are : 

1.  Triseme  Feet. — (a)  Descending :  the  trochee -^w  and  its 
substitutes,  the  tribrach  vi-^^,  the  irrational  choree  -^>, 
viw>,  the  triseme  syllable  or  syncopated  trochee  i— ,  the 
catalectic  trochee  — /^,  the  cyclic  and  trochaic  dactyls  —^^, 
—  uu.  (b)  Ascending:  the  iambus  ^-^  and  its  substitutes, 
the  tribrach  ^^■^,  the  irrational  iambus  >  — ,  the  irrational 
choree  >  vj.^, and  the  cyclic  anapaest  (perhaps  ^—,  or  some- 
times w^>). 

3.  Tetraseme  Feet. — (a)  Descending:  the  dactyl -=-...>..>  and 
its  substitutes,  the  spondee  ——,  the  tetraseme  trochee  '—^('i), 
the  tetraseme  syllable  or  syncojiated  dactyl  K  the  catalectic 
dactyl —^-^  A,  — X.  (A)  Ascending:  the  anapjpst -^ ^^ -s- and 
its  substitutes,  the  spondee  — -^  and  the  dactyl  — v^^.  The 
proeeleus-maticus  ^^^^.^^^s-^.is  rare,  and  generally  due 
to  corruption. 

3.  Pentaseme  Feet. — (a)  The  cretic -^-v^-!- and  its  equiva- 
lents, the  first  and  fourth  pajons,  -^^^^,  .^,.^-^—.  (h)  The 
bacchius  and  anti-baccliius,  w-^— ,  ——^. 

4.  Hexaseme  Feet. — («)  lonicusa  minori  ow  — -^,  ionicus 
a  majori  -^-=-o>^,  with  resululions  ^s^w  w— ,  etc. ;  by  con- 
traction the   molossus ,  and    by  anacUXsis   {avaKXaa-is, 

breaking  up)  -=-  ^-^  v^  for ^^.   Otherwise  the  ditroclueus 

and  the  diiambus.  —  v.^  — v^,  ^  — w— .  are  dipodies.  (J)  The 
choriambus  =  trochee  or  choree  -f  iambus,  -^^^—.  The 
antispast  ^  —  —  ^  has  only  apparent  existence. 

5.  Heptaseme  Foot. — The  epitrite  (eVfrpiTos,  3  :  4),-^^-^— , 

probably  two  feet  with  change  of  tempo  making  — ^  = , 

but  usually  read  either  i-^ or  —^—  >. 

6.  Odaseme  Foot. — ThedochmiuSv.^-^-'-v^—,  which  through 
irrational  syllables  and  resolutions  assumes  many  forms. 

Two  short  syllables,  ^^.  though  not  a  foot,  receive  the 
name  pyiThic.  Sometimes,  in  logacvdic  verse,  a  polyschematic 
(many-formed)  foot — the  so-called  basis — consists  of  two  syl- 
lables, either  long  or  short.  ^  o.  or  three  short  syllables. 

Measure. — In  iambic  and  trochaic  verse,  where  one  ictus 
or  stress  is  stronger  than  the  other,  and  in  anapaestic  verse 
used  in  the  march,  a  dipody  or  pair  of  feet  is  the  measure,  so 
that  a  dimeter,  for  instance,  has  four  feet;  in  other  metres 
the  single  foot  is  the  measure. 

Colon  (ku>Kov,  member),  called  also  clause  or  sentence. — 
When  ii  verse  contains  more  than  eighteen  mone  it  is  di- 
vided into  members,  each  marked  by  an  ictus  stronger  than 
that  of  the  ordinary  foot.  V'erses  of  less  than  eighteen 
mone  consist  of  a  single  colon,  which,  however,  may  be  di- 
vided into  commata  (K6ixjm.  section)  by  caesura  or  diaeresis. 

Period  (vepioSos,  circuit). — Kither  a  single  colon  or  several 
cola  may  form  a  fully  rounded  rhythmical  unit,  or  period. 
Such  a  period  is  usually  a  verse,  but  may  exceed  the  limits 
of  a  legitimate  verse. 


Verse  (Lat.  versns,  a  turning). — A  verse  is  a  period  of 
rhythmical  speech,  sufficiently  short  to  be  perceived  as  a 
whole  by  the  rhythmical  sense.  The  ancients  hniited  it  to 
thirty  or  thirty-two  mora-.  Versvs  and  arixos  (line)  were 
both  "used  of  lines  in  prose  as  well  as  poetry.  When  a  con- 
tinuous rhythmical  series  or  period  exceeds  thirty-two  mors 
it  is  usually  divided  into  cola  written  as  separate  verses.  A 
true  verse  is  distinguished  by  its  end,  which  (1)  umst  not 
divide  a  word;  (3)  may  end  with  a  vowel  when  the  next 
begins  witli  a  vowel ;  (3)  does  not  usually  allow  elision  ;  (4) 
admits  the  syllaha  aneeps,  that  is,  a  short  where  the  rhythm 
calls  for  a  long,  and  vice  versa ;  in  other  words,  a  verse  al- 
lows at  its  end  a  slight  pause  not  included  in  the  rhythm. 
Exceptions  to  the  requirements  stated  are  rare,  such  as  the 
division  of  a  compound  proper  name  ('ApiaTo  \  yelriDv)  be- 
tween a  hexameter  and  a  pentameter,  and  elision  at  the  end 
of  an  iambic  trimeter  (elSoj  'So<p6K\€iov)  in  Greek,  and  a  dac- 
tylic hexameter  in  Latin. 

Cctsura,  DicBresis. — When  a  word  euils  in  a  foot  the  cut- 
ting of  the  foot  is  called  ea-sura  (to^utj).  It  is  nuisculine 
when  it  follows  the  ictus,  feminine  when  it  divides  the  weak 
part  of  a  foot,  —  ||  w^,  -^^  ||  w.  When  a  word  ends  with  a 
foot  there  is  diicresis  (Sialpeo-is.  pulling  asunder)  or  "  in- 
cision "  between  the  foot  and  the  next  one,  —  ^v^  ||  —  w  w 
Every  verse  of  more  than  one  colon  has  either  a  "main 
cajsui'a "'  or  •'  verse-c»sura,"  or  else  a  diteresis  between  the 
cola.  Both  the  main  ca'sura  and  the  diaeresis  are  called 
simply  "  the  caesura."' 

In  the  following  examples  (:)  denotes  masculine  ciesura, 
(;)  feminine  ca-sura,  ( 1 )  main  ca'Sura  or  di;eresis,  (,)  diae- 
resis. 

Membranam  poscas,  scriptorum  qua?que  retexens. 

Ets  oaov  KKvhtava  Seil/Tjs  ffUjUtfopas  €K7}\v6ep. 

Catalexis  (KaTa.\7)iis,  an  ending). — A  verse  whose  last  foot 
is  incomplete  is  catalectic;  if  the  last  foot  is  complete  the 
verse  is  acatalectic.     See  the  verses  just  cited. 

Compound  Verses. — Verses  may  consist  of  cola  in  differ- 
ent rhythms.     For  examples,  see  Metres. 

Combinations  of  Vet'ses. — Most  recited  poems  of  the  an- 
cients were  stichic,  that  is,  composed  by  the  line.  For 
hypermeters  or  systems,  exceeding  the  length  of  a  normal 
verse,  see  Metres.  In  elegiac  and  melic  poetry  larger  units 
than  the  single  verse  were  employed,  as  follows: 

1.  Distich. — The  oldest  couplet  is  probably  the  hexameter 
and  pentameter  of  elegy.    Later  distichs  are  found  in  Epodes. 

2.  Stanza. — The  Lesbian  poets  introduced  four-lined  log- 
acedic  stanzas  in  songs.  These  were  imitated  and  modified 
by  Roman  poets.  The  most  famous  are  the  Alcaic  and 
Sapphic.  Stanzas  were,  and  sometimes  still  are,  included 
under  the  name  strophe.  They  usually,  though  not  always, 
contain  two  or  three  different  forms  of  cola. 

3.  Strophe. — In  choric  poetry  a  group  of  lyric  cola,  usu- 
ally more  complex  in  form  thaii  the  stanza,  was  followed  by 
an  exactly  similar  group,  the  former  being  a  strophe,  the 
latter  an  antistrophe.  (See  Strophe.)  Finally,  a  strophe 
as  an  epode  was  added,  so  that  tlie  great  unit  became  the 
triad,  AA'B,  which  may  be  used  once,  or  any  number  of 
times,  as  in  Pindar.  Sometimes  in  the  drama  a  still  more 
complex  fcirm  is  presented,  the  second  strophe  and  anti- 
strophe  I>eing  unlike  the  first,  the  third  unlike  the  second, 
and  so  on,  thus:  AA',  BB',  CC,  etc.;  and  to  such  a  series 
may  be  added  an  epode.  M.  W.  Humphreys. 

Prosopyg'ii  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  irpiitrai.  in  front  +  irvyi, 
buttocks] :'  a  class  of  worms,  embracing  the  Polvzoa.  Hrach- 
lopoDA,  and  Sipunculaoea  (qq.  v.).  in  which  tlie  body  may 
be  either  long  or  short,  the  mouth  is  surrounded  by  a  circle 
of  tentacles,  the  alimentary  canal  doubled  upon  itself  so  that 
the  vent  is  far  in  front,  tlie  body  without  evident  segmen- 
tation, and  provided  with  at  most  but  two  pairs  of  excre- 
tory organs  (nephridia).  With  the  exception  of  a  few  fresh- 
water polyzoans  all  are  marine.  ■'•  S.  K. 

Prosper  of  Af(iiiti»iiie:  saint;  commemorated  June  25; 
b.  in  the  southwest  part  of  Gaul  about  400 ;  d.  about  463.  Lit- 
tle is  known  of  his  personal  history,  but  he  was  certainly 
only  a  layman.  He  vi.sited  Rome  during  the  pontificate  of 
Cel'estine"(in  431).  and  spent  perhaps  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  there  in  the  service  of  Leo  the  Great.  The  earlier  part 
of  his  life  appears  to  have  been  spent  in  Marseilles,  where 
he  came  in  contact  with  Semi-Pelagianism,  and  wrote  those 
tracts  against  it  on  which  his  fame  now  principally  rests. 


PROSSNITZ 


PROTECTION 


8i; 


His  Carmen  de  Ingralis  against  the  Semi-PelaRians,  writ- 
ten about  4;iO  in  defense  of  Auirustine.  shows  him  to  liave 
been  a  poet  of  considerabU'  technical  merit.  A  lio(]k  ofepi- 
jjranis.  over  100  in  number,  contains  theoloj;ical  dicta  of 
Augustine  dime  into  elegiacs.  He  was  author  also  of  a 
Chroniam  C'uiisiilare,  in  continuation  of  .Jermne,  reaching 
down  to  455.  The  standard  edition  of  his  works  is  by  the 
Benedictines  Le  IJrun  de  ilarette  and  Mangeaut  (Paris, 
ITll ;  Rome,  1758);  Jligne,  Patrol.,  vol.  li. 

Revi.sed  by  M.  W'arrex. 

Prossnitz:  town:  in  the  province  of  Moravia,  Austria  ; 
on  the  Kumsa  ;  l;i  miles  by  rail  S.  W.  of  Olmutz  (see  map  of 
Austria-Ilungarv,  ref.  4-F).  It  manufactures  brandy,  linen, 
and  wocjlen  faliVies.  and  has  a  large  trade  in  grain,  flax, 
cattle,  and  geese.     Pop.  (1890)  21,192. 

Prostate  (ilanil  [prostate  is  from  Gr.  irpoo-TctTTjs,  liter., 
standing  before  :  irpi,  before  +  la-Toyat.  stand] :  a  glandular 
mjiss  which  surrounds  the  neck  of  the  bladder  and  urethra 
in  the  male. 

Pro'tagoii  [possibly  first  introduced  !VS  an  abbreviation 
oi  protagonist,  one  who  plays  the  leading  part;  Gr.  irpHTos, 
first  +  07101/,  contest,  drama] :  a  fatty  compound  which,  ac- 
cording to  Liebreich,  its  discoverer,  forms  the  chief  constit- 
uent of  nervous  tissue.  It  is  prepared  from  braiu-siil)stance. 
first  washed  with  water  and  ether,  by  the  action  of  warm 
alcohol,  in  which  it  is  soluble.  At  the  temperature  of  melt- 
ing ice  the  protagon  is  precipitated  fron\  the  alcoliolic  .solu- 
tion, and  may  be  obtained  crystallized  by  further  purification 
and  resolution.  The  composition  assigned  isCiooHsosNePOas. 
See  Neurixe.  Ira  Remsen. 

Protag'oras  :  philosopher;  b.  about  480  n.  r.  at  Abdera  ; 
was  instructed  by  Democritus;  lived  afterward  at  Athens, 
where  he  was  the  first  who  taught  philosophy  and  rhetoric 
for  money,  and  assumed  the  title  of  w>/V( is/,  teacher  of  wis- 
dom, but'  was  banished  on  account  of  his  frivolous  state- 
ments concerning  the  existence  of  the  gods,  and  died  in  ex- 
ile 411  B.C.  His  impeachment  was.  indeed,  founded  on  his 
book  on  the  gods  which  began  thus:  "  Concerning  the  gods, 
I  am  unable  to  say  whether  they  exist  or  not"  (Oioy.  Laert., 
ix.,  51).     Ncme  of  his  works  is  extant. 

Protection  :  a  term  in  political  economy  correlative  with 
free  trade,  referring  especially  to  the  relation  of  legislation 
to  the  movement  of  industry.  Free-traders  are  those  who 
hold  that  legislation  should  offer  no  inducement  to  capital 
to  take  any  direction  which  it  would  not  assume  in  the  ab- 
sence of  siich  legislation.  (See  Free  Trade.)  Protection- 
ists hold  that  situations  arise  in  which  the  general  interest 
may  be  best  s<Tved  by  offering  such  inducements.  They 
regard  the  legislative  authority  as  possessing  the  right  and 
responsibility  of  co-ordinating  in  a  general  way  the  indus- 
trial growth  of  the  country,  and  as  exercising  this  rightly  to 
bring  up  the  home  production  of  necessary  articles  to  the 
home  demand- 

The  issue  between  the  two  parties  is,  therefore,  a  part  of 
the  larger  controversy  as  to  the  sphere  and  duties  of  gov- 
ernment. At  one  time  the  free-trade  policy  was  advocated 
on  grounds  which  practically  reduced  civil  government  to 
the  functions  of  the  policeman.  The  reaction  against  this 
laixsez-faire  theory  in  polities  has  taken  the  point  from 
many  arguments  once  alleged  for  the  free-trade  policy,  and 
it  is  now  defended  on  grounds  chiefly  of  its  economic  ex- 
pediency. 

The  same  division  of  opinion  has  appeared  in  the  politics 
of  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Sweden,  Russia,  Italy,  and 
Spain.  In  France  the  protectionist  policy  introduced  by 
Henry  IV'..  exteniled  and  systematized  by  Colbert,  was  ex- 
aggerated to  caricature  by  Napoleon  in  his  Continental  Sys- 
tem, although  even  that  proved  of  great  benefit  to  the  con- 
tinental industries,  especially  those  of  France,  Saxony,  and 
Switzerland.  The  congress  of  Vienna,  by  an  inevitai)le  re- 
action, tended  toward  the  free-trade  policy,  but  a  few  years' 
experience  of  it  forced  a  return  to  protection.  The  Bour- 
bons restored  the  policy  of  Colbert  :  Germany,  under  the 
lead  of  I'russia,  organized  the  Zollverein,  whose  moderately 
protective  tariff  caused  the  British  to  work,  through  their 
iiold  on  Hanover,  for  its  dissolution. 

The  antagonism  between  the  two  policies  first  came  into 
view  in  the  closing  cpiarter  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In 
earlier  times  the  protective  policy  had  been  accepted  by 
governments  generally.  Even  the  Roman  empire  levied 
protective  duties  on  imports  at  its  frontier  towns.  In  the 
Middle  Ages,  however,  the  practice  was  generally  the  other 
336 


way,  becanse  the  dominant  interest  was  agriculture,  and  the 
value  of  nuinufactures  to  a  country's  prosperity  was  not  un- 
derstood. The  contemplation  of  the  wealth  of  the  Low 
Countries,  and  its  contrast  to  the  poverty  of  his  own  king- 
dom, led  Edward  III.  to  take  vigorous  steps  to  naturalize 
the  woolen  inilustry  in  England.  He  forbade  the  export  of 
English  wool  to  Flanders,  and  thus  forced  the  Flemings  to 
bring  their  industry  to  his  dominions;  and  he  enacted  that 
every  Englishman  should  be  the  owner  of  at  least  one  suit 
of  English-made  woolen.  The  striking  success  of  these 
measures,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  England's  manu- 
facturing system,  led  to  the  prohibition  of  a  list  of  imports 
which  was  "enlarged  in  successive  reigns.  It  was  in  (.^ueen 
Elizabeth's  time  that  these  prohibitions  were  converted  into 
duties  on  imports,  and  thus  became  a  source  of  national 
revenue.  Henry  IV.  of  France,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and 
Cromwell  made"  notable  and  successful  use  of  the  same 
methods,  which  grew  in  favor  with  the  rise  of  national  feel- 
ing in  their  time. 

The  discovery  of  America  exercised  a  profound  influence 
on  the  economic  condition  of  Europe  through  the  rapid  in- 
flow of  gold  and  silver  from  the  Spanish  possessions.  Since 
the  reign  of  Augustus  there  had  been  no  substantial  addi- 
tion to  the  supply  of  these  metals  in  European  circulation, 
and  industry  of  every  kind  felt  the  constriction  produced 
by  a  growing  scarcity  of  the  instrument  of  association  and 
of  exchange.  Within  the  four  centuri<>s  after  Columbus  the 
European  supply  was  increased  thirty-fold  (Humboldt),  and 
the  effect  was  even  greater  than  that  of  European  coloni- 
zation upon  America.  Harljoi-s  were  constructed,  rivers 
bridged,  great  exploits  of  engineering  were  executed,  the 
cities  filled  with  splendid  .structures,  the  country  better 
tilled,  and  manufactures  took  an  impetus  of  growth  never 
seen  before.  These  results  led  to  economic  study  into  their 
cause,  and  the  best  means  of  extending  them.  Hence  the 
rise  of  the  mercantile  school  of  economists,  of  which  Col- 
bert. John  Locke,  the  Abbe  Galiani,  Sir  James  Steuart,  and 
the  banker-statesman  Necker  are  the  best  representatives. 
(For  the  principles  of  this  school,  see  the  article  Political 
EfoxojiY.)  They  saw  palpable  evidence  that  the  possession 
of  an  abundance  of  money  was  one  of  the  surest  means  of 
national  prosperity,  and  they  jilanned,  by  means  wise  and 
otherwise,  to  secure  its  inflow  and  prevent  its  outflow.  Some 
advocated  the  free-trade  policy  as  the  best  and  surest  means 
to  this.  Most,  however,  lield  "that  the  protection  of  manu- 
factures by  making  a  country  independent  of  others  for 
necessary  articles,  and  furnishing  it  with  those  it  could  sell 
its  neighbors,  was  the  surest  way  of  bringing  in  money  and 
keeping  it  at  home.  This  policy  was  often  called  Colbertism, 
after  the  great  French  statesman. 

In  France  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
school  of  economists  known  as  Physiocrats,  whose  leading 
representative  was  Quesnay,  asserted  that  agriculture  is  the 
only  source  of  wealth,  and  therefore  ojiposed  the  protection- 
ist "policy.  Adam  Smith,  in  his  Jiiquirij  into  the  Nature 
and  Causes  of  t/ie  Wealth  of  Nations  (1TT6),  gives  evidence 
of  having  studied  in  this  school  and  of  having  gone  beyond 
it.  He  enunciated  for  the  first  time  the  free-trade  doctrine 
in  its  modern  shape  as  a  principle  of  "natural  liberty.''  He 
holds  that  when  every  man  is  left  "free  to  do  what  he  will 
with  his  own,"  he  will  do  that  which  will  be  most  beneficial 
to  society.  An  assertion  so  broad  as  this  covild  not,  of 
course,  be  derived  from  observation.  Dr.  Smith  bases  it  on 
what  he  regards  as  an  axiom  of  natural  religion,  viz..  that 
the  highest  social  well-being  must  result  from  the  freest  ex- 
ercise of  that  principle  of  self-interest  which  our  Maker  has 
implanted  in  each  of  us. 

The  teachings  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations  wore  gradually 
absorbc<l  by  the  educated  classes  of  Europe  and  America, 
although  they  did  not  pass  unchallenged.  Hence  the  rise 
of  free-trade  parties  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean,  especially 
in  England,  where  the  industrial  situation  favored  an  ex- 
periment of  this  kind.  The  destruction  of  the  small  farmer 
class,  the  comparative  neglect  of  agricullure.  and  the  im- 
mense develojunent  of  manufactures,  prepared  the  way  for 
a  combined  and  successful  atta<'k  on  the  corn-laws  as  tending 
to  keep  up  the  cost  of  factory  labor  without  enabling  the 
country  to  feed  its  own  people.  Since  their  rejieal  in  1846 
England  has  been  the  leading  champion  of  the  free-trade 
policy,  but  only  after  having  pursued  the  other  successfully 
for  more  than  five  centuries. 

For  the  first  thirty  years  after  the  adoption  of  the  U.  S. 
Constitution  there  was  substantial  agreement  among  pub- 
lic men  in  the  support  of  protection.     The  colonies  from 


81S 


PROTECTION 


the  outset  had  tried  to  establish  all  the  industries  known  to 
the  mother  country.  Their  own  circumstances,  but  espe- 
cially the  repressi-re  enactments  of  the  British  Parliament, 
had  prevented  their  manufacturing  extensively.  Yet  they 
observed  that  in  the  case  of  articles  which  could  not  be  im- 
ported cheaply,  such  as  stoves  and  hollow-ware,  farming 
was  greatly  benefited  by  the  neighborhood  of  these  home 
industries.  This  was  re-enforced  by  the  experiences  of  the 
■war  for  independence,  when  the  country,  and  especially  the 
army,  suffered  dreadfully  through  the  cessation  of  the  sup- 
plies of  goods  from  Europe,  the  industries  which  sprang 
up  to  meet  this  need  were  crushed  after  the  peace,  because 
the  national  Government  had  no  power  to  protect  them.  It 
was  this  more  than  any  other  circumstance  which  forced 
the  adoption  in  1789  of  a  more  perfect  form  of  government 
"  to  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  promote  the  gen- 
eral welfare."  President  Washington  and  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton, as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  pressed  the  policy  upon 
Congress,  which  legislated  expressly  for  this  purpose, 
keeping  in  view  the  need  of  manufactures  as  an  element  in 
national  defense.  It  was  not  until  the  failure  of  the  well- 
meant  but  fatally  defective  taritf  of  1816  that  the  antago- 
nism over  this  question  became  an  element  in  U.  S.  politics. 
The  Southern  States  had  owed  to  the  protective  policy  the 
establishment  and  development  of  their  cotton-growing. 
They  supported  that  policy  so  long  as  they  cherished  the 
hope  of  becoming  a  manufacturing  region,  or  found  in  the 
Northern  cotton-mills  the  only  open  market  for  th(;ir  staple, 
which  Great  Britain  taxed  in  the  interest  of  her  East  and 
West  Indian  cotton-growers.  When  their  hope  of  manu- 
facturing prdved  futile,  and  Great  Britain  in  1.S32  repealed 
the  import  duty  on  U.  S.  cotton,  the  South  changed  front. 
Then  came  the  great  alliance  of  the  U.  S.  cotton-grower 
with  the  British  cotton-spinner,  which  supported  the  free- 
trade  policy  in  both  countries.  The  first  free-trade  tariff, 
that  of  1835.  had  such  effects  as  to  provoke  a  protectionist 
reaction,  which  resulted  in  the  tariff  of  1842.  Four  years 
later  the  repeal  of  the  British  corn-laws  re-enforced  the 
cotton-planter  interest  by  the  support  of  the  Western  wheat- 
grower.  The  result  was  the  mongrel  tariff  of  1847,  carried 
by  the  casting  vote  of  Vice-President  Dallas,  and  further 
reduced  in  1857. 

The  withdrawal  of  Congressmen  from  the  Southern  States 
in  1861  left  Congress  in  the  control  of  representatives  and 
Senators  from  States  interested  in  manufactures.  The 
Morrill  tariff  of  that  year,  signed  by  President  Buchanan, 
marked  a  return  to  the  earlier  policy  of  the  republic,  and 
was  framed  as  much  in  compliance  with  the  demands  of 
national  defense  as  of  economic  tlieory.  It  was  feared  that 
the  war  for  the  Union  would  involve  the  IT.  S.  in  war  with 
Europe,  where  the  South  had  many  friends.  To  leave  the 
republic  dependent  on  Europe,  therefore,  for  staple  commod- 
ities of  any  kind  would  lie  to  invite  attack,  and  the  in- 
creased duties  would  bring  a  larger  revenue  so  long  as  com- 
merce was  uninterrupted.  The  policy  thus  adopted  has 
now  (1894)  continued  for  over  thirty  years,  with  the  result  of 
placing  the  U.  S.  among  the  foremost  of  industrial  nations, 
a  chief  producer,  and  l)y  far  the  greatest  consumer  of  great 
staples  like  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  iron  and  steel,  with  a 
per  capita  average  of  national  wealth  surpassed  only  by 
Great  Britain. 

In  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Great  Britain — 
in  the  words  of  Tlie  Satnrdmj  Review — became  the  propa- 
gandist of  "a  new  religion,  made  up  of  free  trade  and  the 
pleasanter  parts  of  Christianity."  The  commercial  treaty 
negotiated  with  Napoleon  III.  by  Richard  Cubden  came 
quickly  after  the  reduction  of  the  U.  S.  tariff  to  almost 
a  free-trade  footing,  and  Cavour's  free-trade  experiment  in 
Italy.  Germany  in  1864  made  reductions  in  her  ZuUverein 
tariff  which  carried  her  in  the  same  direction,  (hdy  the  re- 
action in  the  U.  S.  darkened  the  prospect  of  universal  free 
trade  ;  but  the  example  of  the  U.  S.  and  still  more  experi- 
ence at  home  have  carried  all  these  countries  back  to  their 
former  policy,  which  has  come  into  favor  also  with  the  au- 
tonomous colonies  of  the  British  empire.  The  French  Re- 
public hastened  to  denounce  the  Cobden  Treaty,  which  Na- 
poleon never  had  ilared  to  submit  to  the  judgment  of  his 
Corps  Lcgislatif.  Bismarck  in  1879  carried  Germany  back 
to  the  earlier  policy  of  tlie'ZoUvcrein.  alleging  the  astonish- 
ing success  of  the  U.  S.  umlcr  protection  as  his  justification. 
(Canada  the  same  year  became  protectionist  by  a  popular  re- 
action, folliiwing  the  example  of  Victoria,  and"  to  be  followed 
in  its  turn  by  other  colonies.  As  The  Times  has  said,  a 
wave  of  protectionist  sentiment  seemed  "sweeping  round 


the  world,"  and  in  Great  Britain  itself  a  small  party  de- 
mands a  return  to  protection  in  the  interest  of  agriculture. 

As  in  so  many  other  cases,  the  practice  of  protection  to 
home  industry  antedates  the  theory,  and  the  theory  itself 
has  taken  different  forms  according  to  the  environment  of 
tlie  thinkers  who  have  elaborated  it.  These  forms,  which 
may  be  distinguished  as  four,  are  not  antagonistic,  but 
mutually  corroijorative. 

I.  The  mercantile  school  generally  defended  the  protec- 
tionist policy  in  view  of  the  industrial  use  and  the  interna- 
tional circulation  of  money.  Seeing  that  the  increased  sup- 
ply of  this  instrument  of  industrial  association  had  resulted 
in  a  rapid  and  great  development  of  productive  industry, 
furnishing  employment  to  idle  people,  bringing  neglected 
resources  into  use,  raising  the  standard  of  comfort,  and 
making  the  collection  of  an  adequate  revenue  an  easy  thing, 
tliey  insisted  that  a  "  favorable  balance  of  trade  "  was  an 
object  of  national  policy.  No  country  could  safely  import 
to  a  larger  extent  than  it  exported,  and  if  its  imports  fell 
below  its  exports,  so  that  it  drew  upon  its  neighbors'  re- 
serve of  coin  in  payment  of  the  difference,  so  much  the  bet- 
ter. To  this  end  the  development  of  manufactures  and  the 
checking  of  imports  by  duties  (or  even  prohibitions)  were 
desirable  means.  The  former  enabled  the  country  to  sell 
more ;  the  latter  insured  its  buying  less. 

It  was  also  found  that  it  was  hard,  if  not  impossible,  for 
a  country  to  maintain  a  favorable  balance,  unless  it  were 
possessed  of  a  body  of  shipping  to  carry  on  its  own  com- 
merce. The  surplus  of  exports  would  be  swallowed  up  in 
paying  freight  to  foreigners.  Hence  the  navigation  laws 
enacted  under  Oliver  Cromwell,  re-enacted  by  the  first 
Stuart  parliament,  copied  l)y  the  U.  S.  in  Washington's  first 
administration,  and  maintained  by  Great  Britain  until  1850. 
These  laws  confined  the  ships  of  foreign  countries  to  bring- 
ing in  the  produce  of  those  countries  and  their  colonies  and 
dependencies,  and  levied  tonnage  taxes  on  these  ships  in 
Britisli  harbors.  Thus  the  British  destroyed  the  monopoly 
of  the  carrying  trade  previously  enjoyed  by  the  Dutch ; 
and  thus  the  foundations  were  laid  first  of  th*'  British,  and 
then  of  the  U.  S.  mercantile  marine. 

This  theory  of  protection  rested  entirely  upon  observed 
facts  as  to  the  use  and  functions  of  money,  made  during  a 
period  particularly  favorable  for  such  observation.  It  was 
in  a  different  period  that  Hume  and  Turgot  ]>ut  forward  a 
theory  of  money  calculated  to  undermine  it.  In  their  view, 
money  is  merely  a  standard  of  value  and  an  instrument  of 
exchange,  and  exerts  no  definite  and  permanent  influence 
upon  production.  An  addition  to  a  nation's  supply  of 
money  could  be  of  no  lasting  benefit  to  its  industries;  and 
the  diminution  of  that  supply  could  not  harm  them.  The 
only  real  effect  of  an  increase  must  be  to  raise  prices ;  of  a 
decrease,  to  lower  them.  The  drain  of  money  from  a  coun- 
try would  thus  make  it  "a  good  place  to  buy  in,  and  a  bad 
place  to  sell  in,"  as  prices  would  fall.  An  influx  of  money 
would  make  it  "a  bad  place  to  buy  in,  but  a  good  place  to 
sell  in,"  as  prices  would  rise.  In  iJhe  former  case  foreigners 
would  bring  coin  and  take  away  goods  ;  in  the  latter,  tiring 
goods  and  take  away  coin.  In  each  case  the  balance  would 
be  restored,  "all  things  would  find  their  level."  In  fact, 
the  W'iser  point  of  view  was  to  regard  money  as  "  a  commod- 
ity like  any  othi-r,"  and  to  treat  its  export  or  import  as  a 
matter  of  indifference  to  the  nation.  If  it  went  abroad,  it 
must  be  to  secure  in  exchange  commodities  for  which  the 
country  had  greater  denumd,  and  adapted  to  meet  human 
needs  more  directly. 

This  theory,  which  obtained  the  support  of  Adam  Smith's 
school  and  holds  its  own  even  in  the  school  which  has  dis- 
placed his,  did  not  rest  on  observed  facts.  No  case  has  ever 
occurred  wliich  conforms  even  remotely  to  its  diagnosis  of 
the  results  of  an  export  or  import  of  money.  Nowhere  do 
we  find  this  lowering  of  prices  as  a  result  of  the  diminution 
of  a  country's  supply  of  coin,  or  this  beneficent  ri'action  which, 
restoi'cs  the  supply.  The  case  of  Portugal  under  the  opera- 
tions of  the  IMethuen  Treaty  (1703),  and  of  .lapan  under  the 
treaties  of  1868,  signally  refute  the  notion  that  "  tilings  find 
their  level "  in  this  easy  way.  Tooke  and  Newmarch,  in  their 
elaborate  and  irrefutable  I/ix/ori/  af  Prices,  have  )iroved  that 
in  Great  Britain  itself  the  fluctuation  of  prices  has  not  cor- 
responded to  the  fluctuation  of  the  currency  in  this  mechan- 
ical fashion.  The  common  sense  of  the  business  world  also 
has  rejected  the  notion  that  "gold  is  a  commodity  like  any 
other."  Every  great  emporium  of  trade  watches  the  export 
of  it  as  a  calamity,  and  uses  all  the  means  available  to  check 
it  and  to  set  the  current  moving  in  the  opposite  direction. 


PROTECTION 


819 


Prof.  Stimlcy.Ii'voiis  (-(1111  plains  that  the  money  art  ides  of  tlie 
London  newspapers  are  "  steeped  in  the  mercantile  theory." 

The  tlieory  tiiat  money  is  merely  an  instrument  of  ex- 
change anil  a  commodity  like  any  other  failed  as  a  diagnosis 
of  the  industrial  movement  heeause  it  was  defective  funda- 
mentally. Money  has  a  far  raoi-e  important  function  as  the 
instrument  of  industrial  association.  It  was  this  fact  of 
which  the  mercantile  sc-hool  were  conscious.  In  his  O'rowth 
of  Eiujlixh  Imluntnj  and  Commerce  (London,  1894)  Dr.  W. 
Cunningham  gives  a  much  juster  view  of  their  aims  and 
achievements  than  has  been  current.  Under  their  guidance, 
one  of  his  Knglish  reviewed  says,  "  English  statesmen  strove 
to  liuild  uji  shipping,  industry,  and  agriculture.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  their  aims,  and  made  England  mistress  of  the  sea 
and  the  workshop  of  the  world."' 

II.  The  nationalist  school  of  protectionists  arose  in  the 
new  awakening  of  national  feeling  in  the  revolt  against  the 
imperialism  of  Napoleon.  Its  first  and  most  extreme  rep- 
resentative was  the  philosopher  J.  G.  h^ichtc,  who  proposed 
to  confine  foreign  commerce  strictly  to  the  exchange  of  the 
products  of  dillVrenl  clim.-ites.  Friedrich  List,  the  founder 
of  the  (icrjnan  Zollverein,  is  its  best  representative,  but  it 
was  substantially  the  point  of  view  occupied  by  the  earlier 
American  statesmen.  In  this  view  nations  are  industrial  no 
less  than  political  units,  and  national  briundary  lines  are 
economic  boundaries  also.  Industrial  power  aiul  independ- 
ence are  essential  to  political  power  and  independence.  Na- 
tional industry  is  one  of  the  forms  of  national  wealth,  and 
is  as  nuich  entitled  to  protection  as  is  any  other.  This 
principle  is  implied  in  all  the  relations  of  peoples  to  their 
governments.  I'hey  demand  of  their  rulers  not  only  an  ef- 
ficient police,  which  shall  keep  men's  hands  out  of  their 
neighbors'  tills  or  pockets:  they  also  hold  them  responsi- 
ble, though  less  directly,  for  the  general  welfare  of  the 
country. 

The  duty  thus  imposed  upon  government  is  discharged 
only  by  promoting  a  full  and  balanced  development  of  the 
industries  needed  for  the  largest  industrial  life  each  people 
is  capable  of,  and  securing  the  employment  of  all  the  re- 
sources offered  by  national  character  and  natural  environ- 
ment. Kxperience,  however,  shows  that  the  countries  al- 
ready in  possession  of  profitable  foreign  markets  for  their 
produ<'ls  have  the  means  and  the  will  to  resist  tlu'  establish- 
ment in  other  countries  of  industries  wliicli  would  de]irive 
them  of  these  markets.  This  they  ilo  by  selling  for  a  time 
at  cost,  or  even  below  it,  often  making  great  sacrifices  to 
crush  out  incipient  competiticm,  and  then  recouping  their 
losses  by  higher  charges  when  they  have  the  market  to  them- 
selves. John  Stuart  Mill  points  out  that  under  these  cir- 
cumstances it  can  not  be  expected  that  individuals  should, 
"at  their  own  risk,  or  rather  to  their  certain  loss,  introduce 
a  new  nuinufaclure  and  bear  the  burden  of  carrying  it  on 
until  the  producers  have  been  educated  nji  to  the  lev<'l  of 
those  with  whom  the  processes  have  become  traditional.'' 
By  enacting  a  protective  duty  on  the  iin|ioi't,  the  nation  as- 
sures the  undertaker  of  a  new  industry  against  unfair  com- 
petition, and  enables  him  to  overcome  the  grave  initial  dis- 
advantages of  such  enterprises.  By  this  means  the  peo))le 
are  lifted  out  of  that  uniformity  of  occupation  which  always 
keeps  them  poor  and  fropiently  exposes  them  to  famine. 
Living  in  this  uniformity  they  have  few  of  the  interchanges 
of  commerce  with  each  other.  The  great  lines  of  commer- 
cial intercourse  run  all  to  the  seaboard  or  the  frontier  to 
meet  the  foreign  trader  and  his  agents.  So  before  the  civil 
war  the  great  railway  lines  of  the  U.  S.  ran  to  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  They  were  the  warp  without  the  woof  of  a  great 
national  system.  In  Gernumy,  the  removal  of  all  custoiu- 
house  lines  to  the  frontier  and  the  establislnnent  of  free 
trade  within  and  i)rotection  without  the  Zollverein  is  rec- 
ognized to  have  been  one  of  the  great  promoters  of  German 
unification.  Hence  the  eagerness  of  Austria  to  obtain  ad- 
mission, and  the  successful  efforts  of  Prussia  to  exclude  her. 

The  second  public  interest  is  natiomil  defense.  A  country 
which  can  not  supply  from  its  own  industrial  resources  the 
oullil  of  an  army,  and  can  not  thus  meet  the  needs  of  its 
people  during  the  suspension  of  foreign  commerce  common- 
ly attendant  on  war,  is  in  a  |iosition  to  invite  attack  from 
those  which  are  better  situated.  The  war  for  independence 
found  the  British  colonies  in  North  America  at  a  great  dis- 
advantage in  this  respect.  They  had  a  poor  supply  of  arms 
and  gunpowder,  without  the  materials  needed  for  tents, 
clothing,  and  shoes.  Tlie  blood  which  marked  the  tracks  of 
the  men  on  the  wintry  roads,  the  terribh'  suffering  from 
nakedness  and  frost  in  the  Valley  Forge  encampment,  were 


the  fruit  <if  the  nation's  industrial  dependence  and  gave 
point  to  Washington's  exhortations  to  Congress  to  put  the 
country  in  a  position  to  defend  itself  by  cherishing  its  own 
manufactures.  Yet  the  war  of  1812-1.5  founil  the  republic 
nearly  as  ill-fitted  for  a  great  war.  there  being  neither  tents 
nor  gunpowder  nor  blankets  in  any  adequate  quantity.  Tlie 
sulTeiings  of  the  soldiers  and  even  their  defeat  in  the  first 
years  of  the  struggle  were  due  to  this  in  large  measure.  (See 
Horace  Bushnell's  article  in  Hours  at  Home.  July,  1870).  In 
the  civil  war  the  Southern  States  were  at  a  great  disadvan- 
tage in  this  respect,  as  their  dependence  on  slave  labor  had 
resulted  in  their  securing  hardly  any  manufacturing  indus- 
try as  the  outcome  of  the  protective  tariffs  of  the  I'.  S. 
Jefferson  Davis  congratulated  the  Confederate  Congress  on 
the  growth  of  a  few  manufactures,  and  if  the  Confederacy 
had  achieved  its  indepeiulence,  it  probably  would  not  have 
been  able  to  abide  by  the  free-trade  provisions  of  its  cimsti- 
tution. 

It  is  notable  that  whatever  tends  to  awaken  a  strong  sense 
of  nationality  tends  also  to  the  protectionist  feeling  about 
national  industry.  All  the  periods  of  strong  national  feel- 
ings have  been  periods  in  which  the  policy  of  iiromoting 
home  industry  by  collective  action  has  been  popular.  On  the 
other  hand,  periods  of  decay  in  this  feeling  have  been  the 
free-trader's  best  opportunity.  Richard  Cobden  was  quite 
right,  from  his  standpoint,  in  regarding  nations  as  necessary 
evils,  and  wishing  all  boundary-lines  effaced  from  the  map  of 
Europe. 

III.  What  may  be  called  the  biological  school  of  econo- 
mists was  founded  by  Henry  C.  Carey,  of  Philadelphia.  He 
points  out  that  at  the  starting-point  of  economic  develop- 
ment man  is  isolated  and  feeble,  his  first  need  being  associ- 
ation with  his  fellows  for  the  conquest  of  nature.  Until  he 
attains  this  he  is  occupied  with  a  struggle  for  bare  existence. 
With  the  growth  of  numbers  and  of  association  this  strug- 
gle becomes  easier,  and  sets  some  free  tn  jirovide  for  less 
primary  but  not  less  real  wants.  Hence  the  rise  first  of  the 
artisan  or  manufacturing  class,  and  afterward  of  classes 
which  serve  the  intellectual  net^ds.  At  each  step  onward 
production  grows  faster  than  numbers,  nature  rewards  more 
largely  the  toils  of  her  conquei'or,  and  the  share  of  each  in- 
dividual in  the  joint  product  increases.  At  the  same  time 
the  industrial  order  passes  from  its  primitive  simplicity  to 
one  of  constantly  increasing  com|>lexity  through  the  growth 
of  association.  In  the  earlier  stages  in  tiiedeveloiinient.  when 
population  is  still  scanty  and  the  different  classes  of  producers 
are  separated  by  distanee.acheck  to  the  freedom  and  the  profit 
of  their  exchanges  is  offered  by  the  power  of  the  trader,  who 
is  able  to  levy  a  heavy  tax  on  production.  With  the  increase 
of  population  in  density  the  art  isan  and  the  farmer  n.'iturally 
come  into  closer  neighborhood,  so  that  they  can  excdiange 
their  products  directly,  if  neces.sary,  and  thus  dispense  with 
his  services.  W^herever  this  result  is  not  attained,  and  com- 
merce in  the  necessaries  of  existence  continues  to  be  trans- 
acted at  long  distances,  the  trader  still  reaps  a  high  profit 
at  the  expense  of  the  producers.  Especially  the  farmeis  and 
other  producers  of  raw  materials  suffer  from  the  necessity  of 
having  to  pay  the  cost  of  carrying  their  bulky  products  to 
distant  m.arkcts  ;  and  farming  suffers  in  cjuality  through  the 
forced  monot<my  of  its  cropping,  and  the  loss  of  opportuni- 
ties to  make  returns  to  the  soil,  which  the  neighborhood  of 
manufactures  offers.  The  farmer  so  situated  is  constantly 
injuring  a  valuable  instrument  instead  of  improving  it. 
This,  however,  must  be  the  result  of  some  obstacle  to  the 
operation  of  natural  law,  interposed  by  the  selfishness  of 
peoples  or  of  individuals,  or  by  the  currency  of  false  theo- 
ries. To  remove  obstacles  of  the  former  class  is  the  work 
of  the  statesman  ;  of  the  latter  class  that  of  the  economist. 
The  powc^r  of  highly  developed  nations  to  check  the  in- 
dustrial growth  of  those  less  advanced  than  themselves  he 
was  obliged  by  the  evidence  of  facts  to  recognize.  That 
power  he  would  check  by  legislation  to  lay  duties  on  im- 
ports, not  in  order  to  contravene  natural  law  or  find  a  sub- 
stitute for  it,  but  to  remove  an  obstacle  to  its  operation.  He 
thus  held  strongly  to  the  conception  of  natural  economic 
law,  which  the  current  reaction  against  the  abuses  of  that 
conception  has  thrown  out  of  vogue  for  a  time. 

IV.  Among  protectionists  there  has  been  a  tendency  to 
treat  the  development  of  domestic  industry  in  this  way  as 
a  branch  of  the  great  social  problem,  which  [iresscs  upon  us 
from  all  iiuarters.  The  policy  is  defended  as  securing  juster 
and  more  adequate  remuneration  to  the  laboring  classes  of 
the  V.  S.  George  Gunton  and  Erastus  IS.  Higelow  might  be 
regarded  as  representatives  of  this  view.     It  can  not  be  as- 


820 


PROTECTION 


E' 


serted,  of  course,  that  a  protective  tariff  works  directly  to 
raise  wages.  It  contains  no  specifications  to  tiiat  effect. 
Wiiere  it  secures  the  producer  a  fairer  price  for  iiis  product 
it  does  not  provide  that  part  of  the  difference  between  this 
and  the  lower  price  he  would  have  got  under  free  trade 
shaU  go  to  raise  the  wages  of  his  workmen;  but  its  indirect 
operation  does  raise  wages,  and  has  done  so  in  America, 
Prance,  and  Germany.  One  reason  of  this  is  that  the  de- 
mand for  labor  more'  nearlv  approaches  the  supply  in  coun- 
tries of  diversified  industry  tluin  in  those  where  there  is  but 
one  kind  of  emplovment."  Another  reason  is  seen  in  the 
fact  that  agriculture  calls  for  little  else  than  \inintelligent 
and  ill-paid  labor,  while  manufactures  demand  intelligence 
and  skill,  and  must  pav  for  them. 

It  has  been  rightlv  indicated  by  Francis  A.  Walker  that 
the  public  opinion  of  a  country  plays  a  great  part  in  de- 
termining the  rate  of  wages.  In  aristocratic  countries  this 
works  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  working  classes,  as  re- 
quiring that  they  shall  "  know  their  place,"  and  be  content 
with  such  a  standard  of  living  as  social  tradition  permits 
them.  In  democratic  countries,  like  the  IT.  S.,  the  same 
social  force  works  to  elevate  the  standard  of  comfort  for  the 
working  classes,  requiring  that  all  citizens  shall  be  housed, 
clothed,  and  fed  in  a  manner  becoming  their  place  as  a  part 
of  the  sovereign  people.  This,  however,  would  be  impos- 
sible in  the  absence  of  all  restrictions  on  international  com- 
merce, as  the  products  of  depressed  labor,  if  freely  admitted 
to  the  markets,  would  make  it  impossible  to  pay  home  labor 
at  a  properly  American  rate.  The  difference  between  the 
rates  of  the  IT.  .S.  and  those  of  Great  Britain  is  shown  by  a 
report  of  the  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  for 
1884,  which  also  proves  that  the  tariff  does  not  "  take  from 
labor  with  one  hand  " — in  prices — "  what  it  gives  with  the 
other  " — in  wages.  In  the  industries  pursued  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  Massachusetts  the  average  of  wages  was  62  per 
cent,  higher  in  the  latter,  while  the  cost  of  living  was  but  17 
ler  cent,  higher,  and  of  this  11  per  cent,  was  due  to  the 
ligher  outlay  for  housing,  leaving  6  per  cent,  for  the  higher 
cost  of  food,' clothing,  etc.  The  standard  of  living,  the  re- 
port shows,  was  .50  per  cent,  higher  in  Massachusetts.  If 
the  U.  S.  workman  chose  to  live  as  the  British  workman 
does,  he  could  save  three-eighths  of  his  income,  while  the  Brit- 
ish workman  can  save  but  2  per  cent.  That  this  difference 
is  not  due  to  the  abundance  of  land  open  to  settlement,  or 
other  local  advantages  peculiar  to  North  America,  is  seen 
from  the  wretched  condition  of  l.iborers  in  the  U.  S.  in  the 
earlier  decades  of  the  history  of  the  nation,  as  Prof.  ;\Iac- 
niaster  describes  this  in  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  his 
History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  and  Matthew 
Carey  in  liis  Letters  on  the  Charities  of  Philadelphia  (1820). 
It  is  rather  due  to  the  more  favorable  conditions  for  the 
operation  of  pul)lic  opinion  which  the  protective  policy  has 
created,  especially  during  the  last  thirty  years.  The  census 
of  1880  showed  that  the  average  wages  of  the  skilled  work- 
man in  the  U.  S.  had  risen  in  twenty  years  from  §460  to 
1720  a  year,  while  the  price  of  all  the  staple  articles  he  buys 
had  fallen  at  a  rate  varying  from  36  to  46  per  cent.  In 
fact,  the  wages  of  1880  had  about  twice  the  purchasing 
power  that  the  wages  of  1860  had,  and  the  census  of  1890 
showed  that  this  advance  had  been  sustained,  both  in  the 
rise  of  wages  and  the  cheapening  of  commodities. 

It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  the  vindication  of  the 
protective  policy  to  show  that  in  no  ease  is  the  price  of  an 
article  higher  to  the  workman  than  it  would  be  under  free 
trade.  To  "  buy  in  the  cheapest  market  and  sell  in  the 
dearest "  is  good  policy  only  when  you  are  sure  of  having  a 
good  market  to  sell  in.  It  is  not  a  question,  especially  for 
the  wurkiiigman,  merely  of  the  price  at  which  he  is  to  buy 
what  he  needs,  but  of  the  relation  of  that  price  to  his  wages. 
The  immense  immigration  of  European  workmen  to  share 
what  free-traders  call  the  "burdens  of  protection"  is  a  prac- 
tical comment  on  the  workings  of  the  system. 

The  protective  policy  finds  an  exact  parallel  in  the  laws 
to  prevent  the  importation  of  coolie  and  contract  labor  into 
the  U.  S.  There  would,  however,  be  no  justice  in  exclud- 
insr  such  laborci's  if  the  products  of  their  labor  were  ad- 
mitted freely.  It  would  be  grossly  unfair  to  compel  the 
American  employer  to  hire  his  labor  in  a  close  market  and 
sell  Ills  product  in  an  open  one.  The  abandonment  of  the 
protective  principle  would  carry  with  it,  as  in  Great  Britain, 
the  removal  of  all  restrictions  on  the  importation  of  labor. 

Objections  lirouffht  !>;/  the  Free-trnde.  School  against  Pro- 
tection.—I.  The  first  is  that  '"  protection  is  an  artificial  sys- 
tem, like  the  forcing  of  plants  in  a  hothouse.     It  creates  a 


mushroom  growth  of  industries,  which  are  unable  to  stand 
the  free  open  air  of  competition,  and  which,  by  their  con- 
stantly increasing  demand  for  higher  duties,  show  that  they 
liecome  weaker  instead  of  stronger  with  the  lapse  of  years. 
Free  trade  stands  for  the  principle  that  a  thing  shall  keep 
its  place  by  the  vitality  it  possesses,  and  not  by  govern- 
mental support  or  bolstering  of  any  sort." 

Protection  is  artificial  in  the  sense  in  which  clearing  away 
the  forests,  inclosing  and  reclaiming  farms,  building  houses, 
constructing  roads,  canals,  and  railroads,  and  educating  the 
young  are  artificial,  but  in  no  other.  To  seek  the  establish- 
ment of  industries  for  which  the  abilities  of  the  people,  the 
resources  of  the  country,  and  the  climatic  conditions  are  all 
favorable,  is  to  move  on  the  lines  of  natural  law. 

That  industries  thus  established  by  the  aid  of  protective 
legislation  will  not  attain  the  vigor  which  secures  their  per- 
manence is  an  assumption  contradicted  by  nearly  every 
page  of  the  world's  industrial  history.  The  silk-manufac- 
ture of  Prance,  the  woolen,  iron,  and  cotton  industries  of 
Great  Britain,  the  linen  industry  of  Ulster,  the  cotton- 
growing  of  the  U.  S.,  are  striking  instances  of  well-estab- 
lished industries  which  owe  their  very  existence  to  protec- 
tion. It  would  be  difficult,  indeed,  to  point  out  a  single 
great  manufacture  which  is  now  competing  for  the  markets 
of  the  world  that  did  not  make  its  beginning  in  the  same 
way. 

That  protected  industries  demand  ever  higher  rates  of 
duty  is  not  the  truth.  It  is  true  that  in  some  cases  such 
industries  have  made  a  start  under  a  protection,  which  ex- 
perience proves  to  be  inadequate,  and  which  has  to  be  in- 
creased. It  is  true  also  that  the  facilities  for  cheap  trans- 
portation in  other  cases  have  so  altered  the  conditions  of 
trade  as  to  make  the  earlier  duties  ineffective;  but  in  every 
case  there  is  reason  to  expect  a  gradiuil  reduction  of  pro- 
tective duties,  and  finally  their  abolition  with  the  consent  of 
the  manufacturers  themselves.  The  former  is  illustrated 
by  the  successive  reductions  of  the  duty  of  the  U.  S.  im- 
posed on  Bessemer  steel  and  other  articles:  the  latter  by 
Great  Britain's  adoption  of  free  trade  after  a  long  course  of 
protection. 

2.  It  is  objected  that  "  protection  is  an  anti-social  policy, 
seeking  the  good  of  classes  at  the  expense  of  the  people  at  large. 
It  aims  at  making  certain  commodities  dearei'  for  the  benefit 
of  their  jn'oducers,  who  constitute  only  a  class  in  a  commu- 
nity, while  the  interest  of  the  consumer  is  always  in  cheap- 
ness, and  the  consumers  are  the  whole  community."  The 
object  of  protection  is  not  dearness,  but  to  bring  up  the  home 
production  of  some  important  staple  to  the  measure  of  the 
national  demand.  In  no  case  is  the  increase  in  price  a  per- 
manent one,  unless  the  conditions  are  such  as  to  forbid  the 
development  of  that  line  of  production  up  to  the  national 
demand,  as  in  the  case  of  the  duties  on  sugar  imported  into 
the  U.  S.  In  such  cases  the  application  of  a  protective  duty 
is  a  questionable  measure.  Moreover,  the  interest  of  "the 
consumer"  is  not  separable  from  that  of  "the  producer." 
An  illustration  of  this  is  the  condition  of  the  consumer  in 
"  hard  times."  Abstractly  considered,  he  is  well  off.  but  the 
actual  human  beings  who  consume  find  those  times  not  at 
all  to  their  liking.  It  is  not  necessary  that  every  form  of 
production  should  be  protected  in  order  that  all  may  share 
in  its  benefits.  It  is  the  freedom  of  the  laboring  men  to 
choose  between  the  protected  and  unprotected  industries 
that  puts  up  the  wages  paid  them. 

3.  To  much  the  same  effect,  protection  is  challenged  as 
"  a  scheme  of  taxation  "  which  enables  the  producer  to  levy 
a  tax  on  the  whole  community  for  his  private  benefit.  So 
much  of  a  protective  duty  as  falls  upon  the  im[)orted  arti- 
cle goes  into  the  jmblic  treasury;  but  a  tax  of  the  same 
rate  is  levied  also  upon  the  home-made  equivalent  by  its 
maker,  and  goes  into  his  pocket.  The  duty  is  added  to  the 
price,  and  the  tariff  is  a  tax. 

A  tariff  duty  generally  secures  its  end  by  offering  a  special 
inducement  to  capitalists  to  turn  their  capital  into  that  line 
of  production.  It  offers  them  a  chance  of  profits  above  the 
average,  and  a  certain  security  in  possession  of  their  market. 
In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  manufacture  these  hopes  are  ful- 
filled :  but  profits  above  the  average  rajiidly  attract  other 
capital,  and  domestic  competition  for  the  market  jiulls 
down  [iriccs  to  the  level  which  permits  of  an  average  profit. 
At  no  stage  can  the  home  producer  "add  the  duty  to  the 
price"  simply.  To  do  so  would  be  to  forego  the  advantage 
the  duty  offers,  and  keep  the  market  ojien  to  his  foreign 
competitor.  Besides  this,  the  foreigner  commonly  prefere  to 
forego  a  part  of  his  former  profits  rat  her  than  lose  his  hold 


PROTECTION 


821 


on  the  imperiled  market.  The  profits  of  tlie  lioiiie  inaiui- 
fiicturer  ttiercfore  are  limited  both  liy  tlie  amount  of  this 
saerifiee  of  profits  l)y  the  foreii^ner  and  the  inari,'in  nee<led 
to  give  his  own  produet  an  advanta'^e  in  priee.  Kven  this, 
after  a  time,  is  cut  down  hy  the  rise  of  domestic  competition, 
as  MtC'ulloch  anil  other  free-traders  admit:  for  in  no  line 
of  l>roiluelion  that  is  not  iruarauteed  Ijy  a  patent  or  some 
similar  monopoly  can  profits  remain  ahove  the  average  for 
any  lensjth  of  time.  It  is  noteworthy  that  very  few  of  the 
great  fortunes  in  the  U.  S.  have  been  made  in  nninufacturing. 
On  the  other  hand,  as  Mill  points  out,  the  transfer  of  an 
industry  to  an  entirely  new  set  of  conditions  is  generally 
attended  by  great  improvements  of  method,  which  tend  to 
reduce  the  cost  of  that  product  to  the  country  and  ulti- 
mately the  whole  world.  This  was  seen  in  the  I'stalilishment 
of  the  cotton-manufacture  in  Great  Britain  and  of  cotton- 
growing  in  the  l'.  S.  In  the  same  w.-iy  protection  in  the 
U.  S.  has  led  to  the  improvements  which  have  cheapened 
cutlery,  silks,  earthenware,  Bessemer  steel,  cottons,  nails, 
anil  numy  other  staples  to  all  consumers. 

4.  It  is  objected  that  "protection  is  a  wasteful  nse  of  a 
country's  capital,  since  it  iliverts  it  from  the  more  profitable 
into  less  profitable  lines  of  production."  No  country  can 
produce  more  than  it  has  the  capital  to  undertake;  but  no 
country  has  attaineii  the  amount  of  production  that  it  has 
the  capital  for.  The  establishment  of  new  industries  by 
protection  is  effected  not  so  much  by  a  diversion  of  active 
capital  into  new  cluvnnels  as  by  awakening  dormant  capital 
to  ftow  in  them.  It  is  not  safe  to  assume  it  is  always  worth 
while  for  some  individual  to  do  whatever  it  is  the  common 
interest  to  have  done.  This  assumption  of  the  absolute 
identity  of  private  and  public  interest  is  untrue  in  many 
matters.  The  destruction  of  the  forests  of  the  V.  S.  is  illus- 
tration sufficient.  So  a  country  may  have  need  of  new  in- 
dustries whic'h  no  person  would  find  profitable  to  initiate. 

5.  It  is  objected  that  "  protection  is  liost lie  to  commerce. 
It  seeks  to  destroy  that  division  of  labor  among  the  nations 
by  which  each  produces  what  it  can  to  the  best  advantage, 
aiid  exchanges  this  with  what  the  others  produce  in  similar 
circmustances.  It  aims  at  making  every  tuition  self-con- 
tained and  self-sufficing,  by  fostering  on  its  soil  even  those 
kinds  of  production  for  which  it  has  less  fitness,  and  refuses 
to  allow  it  to  l)eneHt  by  the  natural  advantages  of  the  rest. 
It  is  typified  by  the  great  Chinese  wall,  built  to  restrict  in- 
tercourse to  the  utmost  with  all  the  neighboring  states.  If 
it  were  consistent,  Bryant  once  objected,  instead  of  digging 
harbors  it  would  fill  them  up,  would  grow  tea,  coft'ee,  and 
spices  under  glass,  and  make  im|)orts  to  cease  altogether." 

Commerce,  a.s  protectionists  understand  the  word,  is  the 
interchange  of  services  and  productions  between  persons  of 
different  industrial  fun('tion,  whether  these  areof  the  same  or 
iifdilferentcounfries.  The  protectionist  policy  certainly  aims 
chiefly  at  the  development  of  domestic  connnerce.  To  this 
end  it  seeks  to  secure  the  greatest  possible  diversification  of 
industrial  function  at  home,  l^rotectionists  hold,  with  .\dam 
.Smith,  that  this  home  connnerce,  "the  trade  between  town 
and  country,"  is  by  far  tlie  most  profitable  to  the  country. 
They  see  in  its  extent  and  prosperity  the  truest  test  of  na- 
tional well-being.  They  deplore  the  wretchedness  of  those 
countries  in  which  uniformity  of  occupation  pri'vents  this 
commerce,  as  in  Ireland,  India,  and  .lapan  since  the  treaties 
of  1868.  Their  people  are  thus  unfitted  to  render  industrial 
services  to  each  other.  Foreign  trade  flourishes  at  the  ex- 
pense of  comin<'rce  at  home. 

Protection  not  oidy  favors  the  freest  development  of 
trade  at  home,  but  cherishes  the  freest  trade  with  foreign 
countries  in  those  products  which  can  not  be  produced  at 
home.  It  forbids  such  duties  on  tea,  coffee,  spices,  and  the 
like,  as  make  up  the  schedules  of  the  tariff  of  free-trade 
countries  like  (ireat  Britain  and  Norway.  It  thus  favors  the 
commerce  which  moves  along  the  meridians,  exchanging 
the  products  of  different  climates.  On  the  .sanu'  princi()le 
it  fosters  the  commerce  which  grows  out  of  different  in- 
dustrial capacity.  By  its  preference  for  specific  duties — a 
preference  also  shown  by  Great  Britain.  b\it  not  by  the  free- 
traders of  the  V.  S. — it  favors  the  exchange  of  the  more 
valuable  and  highly  elaborate  products,  which  represent  the 
best-trained  productive  capacities  of  sister  nations.  At  the 
same  time  the  policy  fits  the  country  to  supply  its  less  de- 
veloped neighbors  with  manufactures  they  are  not  capable 
of  nniking  for  themselves,  as  well  as  farm  products  not 
produced  in  their  climates.  In  this  way  the  tariff  law  of 
18!r2  secured  the  U.  S.  twenty-four  reciprocity  treaties 
which  gave  special  advantages  to  its  connnerce  in  return  for 


the  free  admission  of  sugar  and  other  tropical  or  semi-trop- 
ical products,  an  advantage  which  was  abandoned  by  levy- 
ing a  revenue  duty  on  sugar  in  the  much  less  protective 
tariff  of  18!)4.  The  fields  the  protectionist  (lolicy  thus  leaves 
open  to  foreign  commerce  are  so  extensive  that  the  progress 
of  the  U.  S.  has  been  as  rapid  in  this  department  as  that  of 
any  of  its  rivals  since  1864. 

Bryant's  illustration  suggests  the  question  whether,  on 
his  principles,  government  should  create  or  maintain  har- 
bors. If  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  industrial  development, 
as  free-traders  contend,  why  should  it  concern  itself  about 
commerce  any  more  than  manufactures  ■(  He  once  ailmitted 
his  inability  to  justify  the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal  by 
the  State  of  New  York,  instead  of  leaving  such  work  to  pri- 
vate enterprise  :  why  not  leave  the  harbors  of  New  York  and 
Livor|iool  to  the  private  enterprise  of  the  ship-owners  and 
connnercial  firms,  and  trust  to  the  identity  of  private  and 
social  interest  in  this  matter,  its  in  the  growth  of  manufac- 
tures if 

6.  "  The  protectionist  policy  has  driven  the  U.  S.  flag  from 
the  ocean  by  making  it  costly  to  build  ships  in  U.  S.  dock- 
yards and  byrefusiug  leave  tothe  peo]ile  of  the  U.  S.  to  buy 
them  from  the  ship-builders  of  other  countries."  State- 
ments of  this  kind  are  still  current,  but  the  oidy  fragment 
of  truth  in  them  is  that  the  higher  wages  jiaid  under  pro- 
tectiim  makes  it  costlier  to  build  ships  in  the  U.  S.  The 
decline  of  ship-building  in  the  U.  S.  began  under  tlie  tariffs 
of  1847  and  1857.  It  was  begun  by  the  withdrawal  of  subsi- 
dies to  steamship  lines  in  185.^,  at  a  time  when  all  rival 
countries  were  paying  them.  It  was  accelerated  liy  the  civil 
war.  which  cost  the  loss  of  many  vessels,  caused  the  trans- 
fer of  others  to  foreign  registration,  and  checked  the  build- 
ing of  merchant  ships.  To  remove  all  complaints  on  that 
score,  protectionists  enacted  the  admission  of  shiji-building 
materials  free  of  duty,  but  without  any  marked  result. 
They  did  not  place  shipping  inside  the  protective  system,  as 
was  done  in  Washington's  time  with  the  best  result.  They 
left  the  merchant  marine  absolutely  to  the  chances  of  free 
trade,  charging  foreign  vessels  with  neither  tonnage  dues 
nor  lighthouse  dues,  nor  discriminating  duties  on  their  car- 
goes, wliile  they  left  them  free  to  bring  in  the  produce  of 
all  the  world.  "Citizens  of  the  U.  S.  are  free  to  bny  and  own 
ships  of  foreign  build  to  any  extent  they  please,  as  they  are 
refused  nothiiig  but  U.  S.  registration,  and  are  exempted 
from  the  specially  severe  requirements  of  the  laws  of  the 
U.  S.  as  to  the  care  to  be  taken  of  its  seamen.  If  ship- 
building and  ship-owning  have  declined  in  the  U.  S.,  this 
has  been  chargeable  not  to  protection,  but  to  free  trade. 

7.  Protection  is  charged  with  being  "  a  selfish  policy,  in 
that  it  leaves  out  of  account  the  well-being  of  all  countries 
but  one,  and  teaches  its  people  indifference  to  the  depres- 
sions of  trade  and  loss  of  markets  which  it  may  inflict  upon 
other  peoples." 

Protection  is  distinctly  a  less  selfish  policy  than  is  free 
trade,  which  teaches  each  individual  to  regard  simply  his 
own  self-interest  as  a  consumer  and  to  practice  entire  indif- 
ference to  welfare  of  tlie  producing  classes.  Protection  is  a 
declaration  of  national  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  labor- 
ing classes,  while  free  trade  tells  them  they  must  shift  for 
themselves.  As  I'lia  Spectator,  a  strongly  free-trade  paper, 
said  in  1884,  "  Protection  appeals  to  men  on  the  side  of  their 
duties,  free  trade  on  that  of  their  interests."  As  to  the  iri- 
jury  done  to  other  countries  by  a  shift  of  markets,  that  is 
not'  chargeable  to  the  protective  policy.  A  market  which 
can  exist  oidy  so  long  as  other  countries  fail  to  produce  that 
article  for  themselves  must  result  from  a  bad  economic  man- 
agement in  the  country  affected,  and  the  total  of  the  in- 
juries thus  inflicted  is  trifling  compared  w  ith  those  inflicted 
by  free  trade  on  Ireland,  India,  China.  .lapan,  and  in  the 
U.S.  in  178:!,  1817,  18:i7,  and  18.')7.  (On  this  point,  see  Kirk- 
up's  Stiidji  of  Socialism.)  The  ultimate  object  of  the  pro- 
tective piilicv  is  the  maximum  of  national  life  throughout 
the  world,  through  each  nation  attaining  the  largest  measure 
possible  to  it.  Besides,  the  best  the  U.  S.  can  do  for  the 
working  classes  of  other  countries  is  to  establish  andinain- 
tain  the  highest  possible  level  of  comfort  for  itself.  Thus  it 
will  furnish  them  the  best  fulcrum  for  raising  their  own 
condition  and  beating  down  the  social  prejudices  against 
them. 

Of  works  on  the  protectionist's  case,  the  most  importarit 
are  the  Alibe  Antonio  Genovesi's  Lezioni  di  Commercio 
(Naples.  1757) ;  the  Abbe  Perd.  Galiani's  Dialogues  sitr  le 
Commerce  des  Bles  (Paris,  1770);  Jacques  Necker's  Sur  la 
Legislation  el  le  Commerce  des  Grains  (Paris,  1775)  and  i/oje 


822 


PROTEIDS 


PROTOPLASM 


de  Colbert  (Paris,  1773) ;  Alexander  Uamilton's  Treasury  Re- 
port for  1791 ;  Matthew  tlarey's  7'he  JS'ew  Olive  Branch 
(Pliihulelphia,  1830) ;  Jolm  Rae's  Nuc  Priiiriples  of  Polit- 
ical Economy  (New  York,  1834) ;  Willard  PluUips's  Propo- 
sitions concerning  Free  Trade  and  Protection  (Boston, 
1850);  Henry  C.  Carey's  The  Past,  the  Present,  and  the 
Future  (Philadelphia,  1848),  The  Harmony  of  Interests 
(Philadelphia,  1851),  and  System  of  Social  Science  (Phila- 
delphia, 3  vols.,  1858-59) ;  Friedrich  List's  National  Sys- 
tem of  Political  Economy,  with  introduction  by  Stephen 
Colwell  (Philadelphia,  1856) ;  E.  Peshine  Smith's  Principles 
of  Political  Economy  (New  York,  1853) ;  Francis  Bowen's 
Political  Economy  applied  to  the  Condition  and  Institu- 
tions of  the  American  People  (Boston,  1884) ;  Judge  Byles's 
Sophisms  of  Free  Trade  (London.  1849 ;  10th  ed.  Phila- 
delphia, 1873) ;  Andrew  W.  Young's  National  Economy  :  a 
History  of  the  American  Protective  System  and  its  Effect 
on  the  Several  Branches  of  American  Industry  (New  York, 
1866) ;  I>r.  Friedrich  Stoepel's  Freihandel  und  Schutzzoll 
(Frankfurt,  1867) ;  Sir  Edward  Sullivan's  Protection,  to 
Native  Industry  (London  and  Philadelphia,  1870) ;  David 
H.  Mason's  How  Western  Farmers  are  benefited  by  Protec- 
tion (Philadelphia,  1875) ;  Henry  M.  Hovt's  Protection  ver- 
sus Free  Trade  (New  York,  1886) ;  R.  W.  Thompson's  His- 
tory of  Protective  Tariff  Laws  (New  York,  1888) ;  Henry  V. 
Poor's  Twenty-two  Years  of  Protection  (New  York,  1888) ; 
R.  E.  Thompson's  Elements  of  Political  Economy  (Philadel- 
phia, 3d  ed.  1883),  Protection  to  Home  Industry,  Harvard 
Lectures  (New  York,  1885),  and  Ireland  and  Free  Trade,  an 
Object- Lesson  in  Political  Ecoiionry  (Philadelphia,  1888); 
Albert  S.  BoUes's  Financial  History  of  the  United  States 
(3  vols..  New  York,  1879-83) ;  George  Basil  Dixwell's  Re- 
view of  Sundry  Free-trade  Aryuments  Cambridge,  1883); 
Ellis  H.  Roberts's  Oovernment  Revenue  (New  York,  1884). 

Robert  Ellis  Thompson. 

Proteids:  See  Albuminoids. 

Proteine  [from  Gr.  irpSnos,  first] :  a  term  applied  by  Mul- 
der to  a  product  of  the  metamorphosis  of  Albuminoids  (q.  v.), 
wliieli  is  produced  by  the  action  of  caustic  potash,  and  whicli 
he  believed  to  constitute  the  basal  molecule  of  all  the  pro- 
teids, whence  the  name.  Its  formula,  according  to  him,  is 
C36HS6N4O10.  Although  this  theory  is  obsolete,  the  name 
proteids,  being  very  convenient,  remains  still  in  use. 

Proterozoic  Era  [Gr.  ■irp6Tepos,  earlier  +  f^ov,  animal] :  the 
earliest  of  the  great  divisions  of  geologic  time  based  on  life. 
The  co-ordinate  succeeding  divisions  are  Paleozoic,  Mesozoic, 
and  Cenozoic,  and  the  Proterozoic  era  was  theoretically  pre- 
ceded by  an  Azoic  or  lifeless  era.  No  faunas  and  floras  of 
this  era  have  been  discovered,  and  only  a  few  traces  of  or- 
ganic forms.  The  life  of  the  Paleozoic  periods  is  shown  by 
fossils  to  have  been  varied  and  highly  organized,  and,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  it  is  inferred  that 
long  periods  were  necessary  for  its  development.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  a  full  record  of  Proterozoic  life  has  not 
survived  because  the  animals  of  that  period  were  pelagic, 
rather  than  littoral,  and  were  not  furnished  with  shells  and 
other  hard  parts.  Consult  Bulletin  86  of  the  U.  S.  Geolog- 
ical Survey.  G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Protest :  See  Bill  of  Exchange  and  Notary  Public. 

Protestantism  [from  hat.  proles' tans,  pros,  partio.  otpro- 
iesta'ri,  declare  in  public,  bear  witness;  pro,  before,  forth -l- 
testari,  to  witness,  deriv.  of  testis,  a  witness] :  the  religious 
tenets  of  Protestants;  the  liberal  influences  and  tendencies 
of  tlie  Protestant  movement.  This  began  with  the  second 
Diet  of  Spires  (Speyer),  when  the  Lutheran  members  of  the 
diet,  on  Apr.  35,  1539,  protested  against  the  action  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  members  in  condemning  the  innovations 
Luther  had  introduced,  and  in  forbidding,  on  pain  of  the 
imperial  ban,  any  further  reformation  until  the  meeting  of 
the  general  cuuneil  promised  for  1530  by  Charles  V.  andthe 
pope.  (See  KKroHMATioN.)  This  protest  was  a  renewal  and 
expansion  of  Lutlier's  at  Worms,  Apr.  17  and  18,  1531.  At 
the  suggestion  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  a  jirotest  was  also 
made  against  the  iliet's  repudiation  of  the  Zwinglian  doc- 
trine of  the  Eucharist.  (See  Gieseler,  Ecclesiastical  History. 
The  term  Protestantism  as  used  to-day,  however,  has  tlie 
broader  meaning  of  opposition  to  the"  Roman  and  Greek 
Calholic  Churches.  Protestants  oppose  the  Roman  Church 
chiefly  because  it  (1)  raises  tradition  to  the  level  of  Scripture 
as  source  of  doctrine;  (3)  denies  justification  by  faith  alone; 
(3)  makes  the  pope  the  spiritual  ruler  of  the  entire  Christian 
Church.   The  first  two  counts  liohl  against  the  Greek  Church, 


but,  because  the  Greeks  reject  the  pope,  have  done  less  to  pre- 
vent the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  do  not  insist  on 
sacerdotal  celibacy,  there  is  more  friendly  feeling  for  them  on 
the  part  of  Protestants,  and  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  U.  S.  contain  many  in- 
fluential members  who  labor  for  some  sort  of  union  between 
their  communions  and  the  Greek  Catholics. 

Samuel  Macaulet  Jackson. 

Pro'teus  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  npuTtus.  a  sea-god  fabled  to 
assume  many  forms] :  a  genus  of  tailed  batrachians  (see 
Urodela).  Proteus  an.guinus,  the  only  known  species,  is 
found  in  the  caves  of  Southern  Europe.  It  is  whitish,  about 
6  inches  long,  has  rudimentary  eyes,  and  large  external  gills. 
Its  only  relatives  are  the  water-dogs  (Necturus)  of  the  U.  S. 

Proteus  (in  Gr.  XlpoTtis) :  in  classic  mythology,  a  subject, 
or  according  to  some  versions  a  son,  of  Poseidon,  whose 
flocks  of  seals  he  tended  on  the  island  of  Pharos  (q.  v.),  off 
Egypt.  He  was  gifted  with  the  power  of  foretelling  the 
future,  but,  as  he  disliked  prophesying,  he  used  to  escape 
from  those  who  succeeded  in  catching  him  when  he  came 
up  from  the  depths  of  the  sea  to  sleep  among  the  rocks,  by 
assuming  the  most  horrible  or  disgusting  shapes.  The  con- 
flict of  Menelaus  {g.  v.)  with  Proteus  is  narrated  in  Homer's 
Odyssey  (4,  351,  seq.).  Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Prothallium ;  See  Fernworts. 

Protliorax :  See  Entomology. 

Protista  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  irpwros,  first] ;  a  term  in- 
troduced by  Uaeckel  to  include  the  simplest  forms  of  life, 
both  animal  and  plant,  since  it  is  impossible  to  draw  the 
line  between  these  two  kingdoms  of  nature.  The  division 
is  not  generally  recognized. 

Protocoe'cus  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  vpiTos,  first  -1-  k6kkos,  berry]  ; 
a  poorly  defined  genus  of  minute  unicellular  alga',  of  the 
family  Palmellacece  and  order  Protococcoidece.  The  cells 
are  globose,  solitary,  or  aggregated  into  loose  masses ;  the 
walls  are  thin,  and  the  protoplasm  is  stained  with  chloro- 
phyll (green) ;  and  this,  when  old,  may  be  replaced  with  red 
coloring-matter.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  cells  may 
divide,  each  into  two,  and  these  may  again  divide,  and  so 
on.  By  a  subdivision  of  the  cells  zoospores,  also,  are  pro- 
duced, which,  in  related  genera  at  least,  unite  to  give  rise 
to  new  cells.  About  twenty  species  are  admitted  to  the  genus 
as  limited,  among  which  the  best  known  is  P.  viridis,  very 
common  on  the  bark  of  trees  and  the  surface  of  damp  walls. 
Formerly  many  more  species,  now  referred  to  Pteurococcus, 
Stiohococcus,  Hiematococctis,  etc.,  were  included  in  the  genus. 

The  name  Protococcus  is  often  applied  in  a  general  way 
to  any  unicellular  green  plant,  and  in  this  sense  protocooci 
constitute  the  so-called  gonidia  of  licliens.  Finally,  it  is 
probable  that  Protococcus  in  the  narrower  sense  is  composed 
of  younger  states  of  higher  algie.         Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Protogene:  See  Granite. 

Protogr'eiies  :  painter  ;  b.  at  Caunus,  Caria,  in  the  middle 
of  the  fourtli  century  li.  c. ;  lived  mostly  at  Rhodes,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  painters  of  his  time.  When 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes  besieged  Rhodes  he  refrained  from 
attacking  one  of  the  weakest  points  because  here  was  kept 
the  masterpiece  of  Protogenes,  lalysus.  This  picture  was 
still  at  Rhiides  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  and  later  it  was  brought 
to  Rome.  jVnolher  celebrated  work  of  his  was  The  Satyr. 
Nearly  all  that  we  know  of  him  is  contained  in  Pliny's 
Natural  Histiiry.    He  is  thought  to  have  died  about  3U0  B.  c. 

Pro'lophytes  [from  Blod.  hat.  Protoph'yta;  Gr.  irpuros, 

first -i-(puT6t',  |)lant] ;  the  Protophyta,  tlie  lowest  branch  or 
division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  plants  collected 
here  consist  of  single  cells,  or  loose  chains  of  cells,  with  lit- 
tle, if  any,  differentiation  of  the  cells.  They  reproduce  by 
the  division  of  cells  and  by  the  asexual  production  of  spores 
or  cysts.  No  sexual  reproduction  is  known.  Slost  of  the 
species  are  of  some  shade  of  green,  as  blue-green,  smoky 
green,  brownish  green,  reddish  green,  etc.,  but  never  chloro- 
phyll-green. The  coloring-matter  is  regarded  as  a  modifica- 
tion of  chlorophyll,  and  is  distinguished  as  phycocyanin. 
The  parasitic  and  saiirojihytic  species  (Bacteria)  are  colorless. 
Protophytes  nuiy  be  all  grouped  under  one  class — Schizo- 
phycew  (or  Cyanojthycea'),  and  under  this  two  orders  may 
be  distinguished — viz.,  Cystiphurie  (cjr  Chroocorcaceie)  and 
Nematogeneai  (or  Nostoc/uneai).    See  Plants,  Fossil. 

Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Protoplasm  [Gr.  -npunos.  first  +  ■nXa.ana,  anything  formed 
or  moulded,  deriv.  of  uKaaanv,  form,  mould] ;  a  substance. 


PKOTO PLASM 


PROUDHON 


823 


or,  better,  a  group  of  substances,  of  varying  cliemical  compo- 
sition known  only  in  connection  with,  and  as  products  of,  life. 
It  is  semi-fluid,  will  not  dissolve  in  water,  refracts  light  more 
strongly  than  water,  and  varies  in  appearance  as  minute 
particles — inicrosomata — are  more  or  less  abundant  in  the 
ground  substance  (hyaloplasm),  which  under  lower  powers 
of  the  microscope  appears  homogeneous.  Much  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  minute  structure,  and  it  is  now  known 
that  protoplasm  is  far  more  complex  than  the  "drop  of  jelly  " 
to  which  it  is  frequently  compared.  With  the  use  of  stronger 
and  better  microscopes  it  has  been  shown  to  consist  of  a 
small  amount  of  firmer  substance  combined  witli  mure  fluid 
matter,  and  that  tlie.se  dilTer  in  chemical  as  well  as  physical 
properties,  but  it  is  not  yet  certain  as  to  how  these  parts  are 
arranged.  Passing  over  the  hypothetical  micellar  theory  of 
NUgeli,  the  view  of  Ileitzmann,  Frouunan,  and  Leydig  fii-st 
demands  attention.  According  to  this  the  firmer  portions  are 
in  the  shape  of  fine  fibrilhc  which  interlace,  forminga  network, 
in  the  interstices  of  which  the  fluid  jiortions  are  contained. 
In  other  words,  the  whole  might  be  ccunpared  to  a  sponge; 
but,  as  15iUschli  has  pointed  out,  the  dift'erent  supporters  of 
the  fibrillar  or  sponge  theory  have  not  all  been  looking  at 
the  same  things.  Flemming,  on  tlie  other  hand,  thinks  that 
protoplasm  consists  of  extremely  fine  threads  imbedded  in  a 
ground  substance,  Imt  is  not  certain  whether  each  thread  is 
distinct  throughout  or  whether  it  interlaces  here  and  there 
with  others.  Biitschli  advocates  the  view  that  the  firmer 
portions  have  a  foamy  nature,  and  that  they  bear  the  same 
relation  to  the  fluid  parts  that  the  comb  does  to  the  honey, 
a  condition  which  would  also  explain  the  observations  of 
others,  their  threads  and  networks  being  optical  sections  of 
the  foam  fibei's.  He  has  imitated  these  conditions  by  a  foam 
of  thickened  sweet  oil  and  carbonate  of  potash  or  salt  or 
sugar,  in  which  the  oil  lamelke  represent  the  firmer  frame- 
work of  the  protoplasm,  and  the  intersection  of  the  lamelhe 
the  microsomata.  Especially  interesting  is  the  fact  that, 
like  its  prototype,  this  imitation  protoplasm  is  capable  of 
spontaneous  motion.  .Satisfactory  as  it  is  in  some  respects, 
this  foam  theory  is  open  to  certain  objections.  It  does  not 
allow  room  tor  the  spindles  of  the  dividing  cell ;  and,  further, 
the  nucleus  of  the  ceil  presents  several  conditions  which  are 
greatly  uidike  a  foam.  Last  in  order  is  the  granula  theory 
of  Altmanns.  Acconiing  to  this  the  elementary  parts  of 
protoplasm  are  minute  particles — granula — imbi'dded  in  a 
ground  substance,  either  i.solated  or  arranged  in  rows  or 
threads.  Protoplasm  therefore  is  a  colony  of  these  granula, 
bound  together  by  indifferent  substance.  Altmanns's  views, 
which  go  much  further  than  we  can  indicate  here,  have  at- 
tracted few  supporters.  He  has  ascribed  the  most  important 
position  to  those  parts  which  others  regard  as  secondary  and 
in  some  cases  adventitious  .substances. 

Concerning  the  chemical  nature  of  protoplasm  even  less 
is  known  than  of  its  physical  struc'ture.  Here  it  is  most 
clearly  shown  that  protophusm  is  at  least  a  collection  of  dif- 
ferent substances  in  varying  proportions,  so  that  the  word 
must  be  understood  as  implying  not  a  compounil  of  fixed 
and  definite  composition,  but  rather  as  a  group  of  com- 
pouiKls  which  exhibit  certain  physical  properties.  The  an- 
alysis of  these  oft'<'rs  extreme  difiiculties,  for  all  ordinary 
processes  transform  the  living  into  non-living  matter,  a 
change  whicli  may  be  accompanied  by  chemical  alterations 
of  nutre  or  less  complexity,  "so  that  the  bodies  we  identify 
as  components  of  protopla.sm  may  be  simply  alteration  prod- 
ucts, or  fragments  of  the  larger  and  more  complex  mole- 
cules resilient  in  living  matter."  Of  these  su|)posed  com- 
ponents most  numerous  are  the  phosphorus-containing 
nucleo-albumens;  next  come  the  globulins,  leccthin  and 
cholesterin  ;  and  certain  phosphates  and  chlorides  are  always 
present.  Some  of  these  are  substances  of  extreme  complex- 
ity, with  hundreds  of  atoms  in  the  molecule.  These  sub- 
stances are  unstable,  are  easily  broken  down,  and  I  hat  de- 
velopment of  energy  which  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of 
prolofilasm  is  due  to  the  chemical  action  involved. 

In  the  remaining  matters  to  be  mentioni'd  we  are  on 
firmer  grouml.  Protoplasm  exhibits  certain  phenomena. 
As  was  said  abme  it  always  occurs  in  connection  with  life, 
and  all  the  phenomena  of  life  are  those  of  jirotophism.  Pro- 
toplasm has  the  power  of  spontaneous  motion,  as  shown  not 
oidy  in  the  motion  (cyclosis)  of  the  plant-cell,  but  in  the 
less  evident  but  no  less  real  motions  of  all  cell-contents.  It 
is  irritalile  and  responds  to  stimuli  of  various  kinds.  It  has 
powers  of  assimilation  ;  it  can  take  non-living  matter  and 
build  it  into  a  substance  like  itself.  It  grows  by  the  opera- 
tion and  is  capable  of  reproducing  its  kind.     These  various 


phenomena— motion,  construction  (anabolism),  etc.— call  for 
an  expenditure  of  energy,  and  this  is  developed  by  the  oxi- 
dation or  breaking  down  of  the  higher  compounds'  into  low- 
er arul  more  stable  substances.  As  we  know  it,  homogeneous 
protoplasm  does  not  occur  in  nature.  It  is  always  aggre- 
gated into  individual  particles  or  cells,  and  in  each  of  these 
different  portions- all  protoplasm— may  be  recognized  both 
by  physical  and  chenncal  tests. 

LiTKRATURE.— Hesides  the  older  works  of  Beale,  Huxlev, 
etc.,  see  especially  Altmanns,  Die  Ehmentarorgani'snun  \md 
i/ire  Beziehung  zu  den  Zellen  (Leipzig,  18!J());  Biitschli, 
Investigatioxs  on  Microscopic  Foams  and  on  Prolo/jlasm 
(London,  1894);  Flennning,  Zellsubslanz.  Kern  und  Zell- 
theilung  (\^e\\>y.\^.  1H82) ;  Xiigeli,  Theorieder  Abslammunqs- 
le/tre  (Leipzig,  1884);  Chittenden  (Chemistrv),  American 
Xafumlist  (Feb.,  1804) ;  Wendt  (Chemistrv),  Jenaisc/ie  Zeit- 
scltrtfl  (1893);  Ileidenhain,  KrAliker  Festschrift  (1892). 

J.  .S.  KlXOSLKT. 

Protop'teriis  :  one  of  the  three  living  genera  of  the  dip- 
noan  fishes.     .Sc'e  Diexoi. 

Protothe'riil  [from  (Jr.  irpiTos,  first  +  e-fip,  beast,  i.  e.  low- 
est or  most  generalized  inamnuils]:  a  term  used  by  Gill  as 
equivalent  to  (Jrnithodc/phia  or  egg-laying  nuuniiials  (see 
.^Io^■oTUEMAT.\),  these  bcung  considered  as  one  of  two  grand 
divisions  of  mammals,  the  other  being  the  Eutheria.  or  vivip- 
arous mammals.  Hy  other  authorities  the  term  is  employed 
as  an  equivalent  of  Promammalia  to  designate  the  sujipo'sed 
ancestors  of  the  monotremes.  p.  A.  L. 

Protozo'a  [.^lod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  vparos.  first  -i-  (ifov.  ani- 

nial] :  one  of  the  grand  divisions  or  branches  of  the  animal 
kingdom  which  receives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  its  mem- 
bers are  simplest  in  structure  and  therefore  come  first  in  log- 
ical order.  Each  protozoon  consists  of  a  single  cell,  or,  in 
those  cases  where  several-celled  protozoa  are  found,  each  cell 
performs  all  the  functions  of  life  without  assistance  from  its 
fellows.  In  other  words,  there  is  no  differentiation  of  the 
cells  into  tissues  or  organs.  In  all  (except  the  doubtful  JIo- 
nera)  each  individual  eonsi.sls  of  a  mass  of  protoplasm,  with 
an  internal  nucleus.  In  some  no  cell-wall  is  present ;  others 
may  secrete  an  external  or  internal  horny,  calcareous  or  sili- 
ceous skeleton,  frequently  of  wondrous  beauty  and  complex- 
ity. In  the  protopla.sm  there  are  usually  spaces  or  vacuoles, 
and  some  o£  these  (contractile  vacuoles)",  which  rhythmical- 
ly expand  and  contract,  are  supposed  to  be  excretory  in 
function.  The  protoplasm  in  the /iV((>(;/)orfrt  is  capable  of 
protrusion  in  temporary  lobes  or  pseudopodia ;  in  the  Infu- 
soria, on  the  other  hand,  there  may  be  either  long,  hair-like 
slowly  vibrating  outgrowths  (flagella),  or  shorter,  more  nu- 
merous, (piickly  moving  cilia.  These  proce.sses  serve  for  lo- 
comotion ami  for  obtaining  food.  Food  may  either  be  taken 
in  at  any  part  of  the  body  surface,  or  there  nuiy  be  special- 
ized regions  for  its  admission.  There  is  no  alimentary  canal, 
but  the  nourislnnent  contained  in  the  food  is  extracted  and 
metabolized  by  the  protojilasm  of  each  cell.  There  is  no 
true  sexual  reproduction,  but  instead  a  propagation  of  the 
species  by  division  of  the  individiuil.s,  in  which  all  of  the 
material  of  the  parent  persists  in  the  second  generation. 
There  is  thus,  as  Weisnumn  has  jjointed  out,  no  natural 
death  in  the  protozoa.  Accompanying  the  proce.sses  of  re- 
proiluction  is  an  occasional  temporary  union  (conjugalicm) 
of  individuals,  in  whi<'li  an  exchiinge  of  nuclear  protoplasm 
takes  place.  The  protozoa  are  all  minute,  aiul  but  few  can 
be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  They  live  abumlantly  in  both 
fresh  and  salt  water,  and  a  few  live  in  nu)ist  earth  or  as 
pariusites  on  or  in  other  IMng  organisms.  Kot withstanding 
their  minute  size,  they  play  an  important  part  in  the  world. 
Some  are  .scavengers,  some  cause  disciuses  (hay-fever  is  said 
to  be  caused  by  an  infusori').  while  the  dead  skeletons  of 
others  form  extensive  beds  of  rock. 

The  Protozoa  are  divided  into  the  following  classes:  1. 
Monkra;  3.  Rnizoi'ooA;  ;i.  I.nkisokia:  4.  Si-okozoa,  which 
shoidd  be  referred  to  for  further  accounts  of  these  organ- 
isms.   See  also  Palkoxtolouv.  J.  .S.  Kixgsley. 

Prolraclicata :  See  O.wchoimiora, 

Proud  lion,  luoo'doiV,  Pikrrk  .Toseph  :  socialist ;  b.  at  Be- 
san(;on,  France,  July  1.5,  1809:  became  a  printer;  employed 
all  his  spare  time  in  study,  and  in  18;!8  received  from  the 
academy  of  Besangon  a  stipend  of  1.500  francs  yearly  for 
three  y<'ars  as  a  reward  for  an  essay  on  general  grammar. 
He  went  to  I'aris,  and  in  1840  wrote  Qn'esl-ce  que  la  pro- 
priete  ?  In  this  he  a.ssunies  thai  .simply  by  being  born  into 
the  world  everv  man  has  a  right  to  a  share  of  what  the  world 


824 


PROUT,  FATHER 


PROVENCAL  LITERATURE 


contains  of  necessaries,  comforts,  and  enjoyments.  Prom 
this  assumption  he  develops  his  famous  definition  of  prop- 
erty :  "  La  propriete,  c'est  le  vol."  The  academy  withdrew 
the  stipend,  and  even  threatened  him  with  a  prosecution, 
from  which,  however,  it  was  restrained  by  Bhinqui,  who  de- 
clared the  essay  to  be  perfectly  innocent.  Prom  1843  to  1847 
Proudhon  lived  in  Lyons,  but  his  two  large  works  from  this 
time  were  published  in  Paris.  De  la  Creatiiiu  ile  I'Ordre 
dans  VHiimanile  (184:3).  in  which  he  gives  a  new  theory  of 
political  organization  :  and  Systhiie  des  Contradictions  ecn- 
nomiques,  on  Philosophie  de  misere  (1846).  When  the  revo- 
lution of  Feln'uary  broke  out  in  Paris,  he  immediately  re- 
paired to  that  city,  and  (Apr.  1)  began  the  issue  of  a  daily 
paper,  Le  Represcnfant  dii  Peuple.  in  which  he  set  forth 
the  most  radical  opinions,  and  which  in  a  short  time  nuule 
him  immensely  popular.  He  was  elected  a  deputy  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly,  but  he  soon  discovered  that  he  could 
do  nothing  there  with  his  ideas,  as  nobody  would  hear  him 
when  he  spoke,  and  he  consequently  returned  to  the  press, 
editing  in  succession  three  daily  papers.  He  was  fined  for 
his  outrageous  sarcasms  and  personalities  against  his  ad- 
versaries, but  his  readers  paid  the  fines.  He  started  a  people's 
bank  in  which  he  tried  to  reduce  his  theories  to  practice,  but 
the  project  failed  and  the  bank  was  closed  by  the  authorities. 
In  Mar.,  1849.  he  was  sentenced  to  three  years"  imprisonment 
for  illegal  publications,  and  he  fled  to  Geneva.  Shortly  after, 
however,  he  returned  and  delivered  himself  up  to  the  police. 
During  his  imprisonment  he  wrote  Confessions  d'un  Revo- 
lutionnaire,  Oratuite  dii  Credit,  and  La  Revolution  sociale 
demontree  par  le  Coup  d'ttat.  After  his  liberation  he  went 
to  Belgium,  where  he  published  from  time  to  time  works 
embodying  his  peculiar  theories.  D.  in  Paris,  .Jan.  19, 1865. 
Proudhon  was  the  founder  of  that  school  of  political  phil- 
osophy which  is  known  as  scientific  or  individualistic  an- 
archism. In  Qu'est-ce  que  la  propriete  ?  he  holds  that  while 
property  in  its  existing  form  is  the  cause  of  all  social  evils, 
it  is  so  closely  connected  with  the  state  that  the  only  way 
to  prevent  the  evils  is  to  destroy  the  state  itself.  To  com- 
munism he  was  as  hostile  as  to  the  state,  the  only  proper 
basis  of  society  being,  in  his  opinion,  a  voluntary  contract 
between  its  raembere.  He  wished  to  abolish  money  as  a 
medium  of  exchange,  substituting  for  it  a  sort  of  bank-paper 
based  on  products,  in  application  of  his  theory  that  "serv- 
ices should  exchange  for  services  and  products  for  products." 

F.  M.  Colby. 
Prout,  Father:  See  Mahoxv,  Francis. 

ProTeiicjal  (pro'va'an  saaV)  Langnagre  [Provengal  =  'Pv.^ 
deriv.  of  Frocence  <  Lat.  Provin'cia,  liter.,  the  Province,  the 
part  of  Prance  anciently  constituting  a  separate  Roman  prov- 
ince] :  the  group  of  dialects  spoken  in  Southern  France  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  which  are  of  great  literary  importance,  and 
both  in  the  raedi;pval  and  the  modern  forms  of  high  philo- 
logical interest  also,  on  account  of  the  intermediate  position 
they  occupy  among  the  Romance  languages  and  for  other 
reasons.  The  name  Provencal  is  commonly  and  convenient- 
ly applied  to  these  various  dialects,  not  only  covering  Prov- 
ence, but  also  other  territory,  as  Languedoc.  Auvergne,  Li- 
mousin, Gascony,  etc.,  a  rough  division  from  the  French  dia- 
lects being  made  by  a  line  running  from  the  numth  of  the 
Garonne  so  as  to  leave  on  the  S.  the  greater  part  of  the  de- 
partments Gironde,  Dordogne.  Haute-Vienne,  Creuse,  and 
also  parts  of  AUierand  Loire.  E.  of  Lyons  is  a  considerable 
territory,  with  Geneva  about  in  the  middle,  roughly  covering 
the  departments  Isere,  A  in.  Jura,  Doubs,  Savoie,  Hautc- 
Savoie,  and  also  Western  Switzerland ;  in  this  the  so-called 
Franco-Proven(;al  or  Middle-Rhonish  dialects  are  spoken, 
which  agree  in  some  respects  with  the  French  dialects,  in 
others  with  ProvenQal.  The  Gascon  dialects  in  the  southwest 
may  also  be  considered  as  a  group  by  themselves,  though  they 
are  generally  inclmled  under  Provencal.  Another  name  for 
the  language  is  prisorved  in  the  geographical  designation 
Languedoc  (originally  ••  language  of  yes,"  from  the  Proven- 
5al  word  for  "yes,"  just  .as  the  French  of  Northern  France 
has  been  occasionally  called  langue  d'oll  from  the  Old 
French  word  for  "yes").  The  number  of  speakers  of  Pro- 
vencal has  been  estinuitcd  .at  about  10,000,000,  but  this  in- 
cludes, in  part,  the  Franco-Proven(;al  dialects,  whose  terri- 
tory has  a  population  of  about  S.-iOO.OOO.  For  the  subject 
of  dialed  ilivisions  and  for  an  historical  view  of  Old  Proven- 
cal phonology  and  inflexions,  see  Suchier's  article  in  Grii- 
ber's  Grundriss  der  romnnischen  Pliilulogie.  i.,  ,'561  ff.  (or 
the  French  translation,  Le  Franfaix  et  le  Provencal,  by 
Jlonet,  1891),  and  the  maps  at  the  end  of  the  same  volume. 


In  several  respects  Provencal  diverged  less  from  late 
spoken  Latin  than  was  the  case  with  French,  or  even  with 
Italian  or  Spanish.  Its  most  obvious  distinction  from 
French  is  that  it  retains  Latin  accented  a.  and  (in  its  old 
form)  the  a  of  Latin  final  syllables,  while  French  changed 
the  former  under  certain  conditions  into  e  and  the  latter 
into  e.  In  modern  Provencal  the  older  final  unaccented  a 
has  generally  become  o.  The  Latin  diphthong o»  remained 
unchanged  in  Provencjal.  The  simple  sounds  of  Provengal 
in  the  twelfth  century  were  probably  very  nearly  the  same 
as  those  of  the  French  of  the  same  period,  but  the  nasal 
vowels  of  French  do  not  appear.  The  sound  of  th  in  that 
seems  to  have  changed  pretty  early  into  z,  and  the  pidatal- 
ized  /  has  in  the  modern  dialects  generally  lost  the  I  sound, 
becoming  an  i  or  rather  y,  as  in  modern  standard  French. 
The  Latin  pluperfect  indicative  was,  as  in  very  old  French, 
retained  for  a  time  as  a  simple  past  tense,  Imt  it  commonly 
took  in  old  Provencal  the  sense  of  a  conditional,  as  it  has 
done  in  Spanish. 

It  is  remarkable  that  we  have  in  Provencal  grammatical 
works  on  the  language  itself  belonging  to  the  thirteenth 
century.  See  Stengel,  Die  heiden  dltesten  provenzal ischen 
Grammntiken  (18T8).  In  modern  times  Provemjal  has  gen- 
erally been  looked  upon  as  a  group  of  vulgar  ^jo/o/s  until 
the  nineteenth  century,  when  a  certain  literary  standing  has 
again  been  acquired. 

Besides  the  books  mentioned  already,  the  following, 
among  others,  are  of  use  (see  also  Romance  Languages)  : 

For  the  older  language:  Raynouard,  Choix  des  jaoesies 
originates  des  troubadours  (6  vols..  1816-21)  and  Lexique 
roman  (6  vols.,  18:38-44;  still  useful,  but  Raynouard's  gram- 
matical and  comparative  work  is  antiquated) ;  E.  Levy, 
Prorenzalisches  Snpplementworterbuch  (1893,  seq.)\  Mahn, 
Die  Werke.  der  Troubadours  (1846-82)  and  Gedichte  der 
Troubadours  (18.56-73);  Bartsch,  Chrestomathie  provengale 
(4th  ed.  1880) ;  P.  Meyer,  Recneil  d'anciens  textes  bas-latins, 
provenfaux  et  franfais  (1877) ;  H.  Suchier.  Denkmaler  pro- 
venzalischer  Literatur  iind  Sprache  (i.,  1883) ;  V.  Crescini, 
JIanualetfo  provenzale  (1892-94). 

Mostly  for  the  modern  dialects ;  F.  Mistral,  Loutresor 
dbu  felibrige  ou  Dictionnaire  prorenfal-franfais  (2  vols., 
1879-86)  ;  Chabaneau,  Grammaire  limousine  in  Revue  des 
langues  romanes,  ii.-viii. ;  Mushacke,  Geschichtliche  Ent- 
wicklung  der  JIundnrt  von  Jlontpellier  in  Franzosische 
Studien,  iv. ;  Koschwitz,  Grammaire  historique  de  la  lan- 
gue des  felibres  (1894) ;  also  articles  in  the  Revue  des  patois 
gallo-romans  (1887-93).  the  Revue  de  philologie  franfais  et 
provenzale,  and  other  periodicals.  E.  S.  Sheldon. 

Provencal  Literature :  the  literature  written  in  the 
language  or  dialects  of  the  south  of  France :  one  of  the- 
most  interesting,  though  least  extensive,  of  the  group  of 
Romance  literatures.  Though  born  at  the  same  time  as 
French  literature,  and  but  little  earlier  than  the  Italian 
and  Spanish  literatures,  Provencal  literature  is  peculiar 
in  that  it  has  not  had  an  tininterrupted  history  down  to 
the  present  day.  The  conquest  of  Southern  by  Northern 
France  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  destruction  of  the 
former's  political  autonomy  thereby,  led  to  the  entire  decay 
of  independent  Provencal  culture  and  to  the  decline  of  the 
Provencal  tongue  to  the  level  of  a  mere  dialect.  In  the 
nineteenth  century  there  have  been  efforts  toward  a  revival 
both  of  the  languages  and  the  literature,  efforts  that  have 
engaged  men  of  great  ability  and  given  rise  to  excellent  lit- 
erary works ;  but  it  can  not  be  said  that  a  new  Provencal 
literary  language,  fully  unified  and  regulated,  like  French, 
for  example,  has  been  attained.  While  it  lasted,  however, 
Provencal  literature  was  accepted  universally  in  Europe  as 
the  most  refined  of  all.  It  served  as  a  model  for  the  first 
Italian,  the  first  Spanish,  and  the  first  Portuguese  lyric 
poets  :  it  gave  rise  to  one  of  the  chief  poetic  schools  of  North- 
ern France ;  and  hardly  any  literature  in  Europe  fails  to 
show  numerous  traces  of  ideas  and  poetical  forms  th.at  had 
their  origin  in  this. 

First  Period  (950-1100). — None  of  the  first  scanty  monu- 
ments of  Provencal  verse  and  prose  contain  clear  indica- 
tions of  the  ideas  that  were  later  to  become  dominant  in 
Provencal  poetry,  and  as  a  consequence  they  are  of  interest 
chiefly  to  the  philologist.  The  earliest  monument  of  all  is 
a  fragment  of  a  poem  by  some  moralizmg  clerk,  based  on 
the  story  of  the  Roman  philosopher  Boethius,  and  showing 
an  uncritical  use  of  his  De  consolatione  pfnlosopli iie.  This 
was  written  toward  the  end  of  the  tenth  or  early  in  the 
eleventh  century.     Likewise  the  work  of  clerks  are  several 


proven(;al  literature 


825 


fragments  of  lives  of  saints  and  reliKioiis  lyrics,  whose  pre- 
cise dates  can  not  be  fixed,  but  wliit-h  undoubtedly  belonfj 
to  this  tijne.  The  earliest  nuinuiiK'iit  of  Provenc;al  prose  is 
a  fraf^Mient  of  a  translation  of  the  (lospel  of  John  (th.  xiii.- 
xvii.)  in  the  Vauihiis  dialeet.  Much  more  interesting  to 
the  student  of  literature  is  a  fragment  of  105  oelosyllabie 
verses  on  the  legendary  Alexander  the  Great,  written  by  a 
certain  Alberic  of  Besanyon  (or  Urianyon)  early  in  ihe 
eleventh  century.  This  is  based  on  the  fabulous  life  of 
Alexander,  written  in  the  second  century  a.  d.,  and  known 
as  the  Pseudo-t'allisthenes.  It  is  thi'  first  monument  of  the 
extensive  literature  of  uii'di:eval  Kurope  devoted  to  Alexan- 
der, and,  it  we  may  judge  by  the  indications  of  the  Ale.r- 
andfrxlied  of  the  (lerman  Pfalfe  Lamprccht  (twelfth  cen- 
turv),  which  was  partly  based  on  it,  must  have  been  one  of 
the  most  interesting. 

Second  Period  (1100-1226). — The  first  name  in  this  period 
introduces  us  to  that  form  of  poetry  that  is  most  character- 
istic of  Provence.  It  is  that  of  William  Vll.,  Count  of 
I'oitou  (IX.,  as  Duke  of  A(iuitaiiie),  who  rule<l  from  1087  till 
1127,  and  was  one  of  the  most  famous  persons  of  his  time. 
He  was  the  first  of  the  troubadours  (Prov.  trobaire,  ace. 
trobador).  as  the  mediipval  lyric  poets  of  Provence  called 
themselves.  In  him  we  have  the  earliest  exponent  of  the 
new  society,  with  its  new  ideals  of  conduct  and  of  art, 
which  had'  at  last  come  to  replace  the  Roman  society 
that  the  barbarians  hail  destroyed.  This  new  society  had 
doubtless  for  some  time  been  forming  itself  at  the  feudal 
courts  of  Southern  France,  and  had  been  elaborating  its 
|ieculiar  theories  of  life.  It  was  an  aristocratic  society,  and 
the  very  words  by  which  it  expressed  its  social  conceptions 
are  those  of  a  rich  and  elegant  upper  class.  Such  are  cor- 
tesia.  or  what  is  suitable  at  courts  ;  valor,  or  the  high  spirit 
of  the  perfect  gentleuum;  mesura.or  due  self-restraint  in 
demeanor  and  action  ;  largueza.  or  unbounded  liberality  ; 
jovenn,  or  the  gayety  and  grace  of  the  young  in  spirit :  joi, 
or  the  glad  energy  of  the  heart  intent  on  deeds  of  excellence 
and  renown.  One  other  coni'eption,  the  most  important  of 
all,  was  that  of  amor,  or  chivalrous  love,  which  for  Proven- 
cal society  was  not  merely  the  subjective  yassion  universal 
in  the  race,  but  rather  a  form  of  conduct,  an  ideal  of  excel- 
lence, which  was  at  once  the  source  and  the  criterion  of  all 
other  excellences.  Kssentially,  the  poetry  of  the  trouba- 
dours deals  with  very  little  of  interest  besides  this  chival- 
rous love :  and  this  was  the  chief  contribution  made  by 
j.  them  to  the  poetry  and  the  society  of  other  countries.  In- 
'  deed  the  whole  modern  conception  of  love  has  been  pro- 
foundly modified  by  it.  and  that,  too,  despite  the  fact  that 
it  contains  elements  at  first  sight  highly  repugnant  to  mod- 
ern feeling  on  the  subject.  Based  ufKin  an  idealization  of 
woman  that  was  a  reaction  against  the  unhappy  eonse- 
quenees  both  of  the  low  idea  of  her  common  among  the 
■lergy  and  of  the  degradation  of  her  caused  by  the  necessities 
o(  feudal  marriage,  the  love  of  the  troubadours  was  avowed- 
ly antagonistic  to  the  conventions  both  of  society  and  of 
the  Church.  It  was  declared  by  them  that  love  was  impos- 
sible between  husbands  and  wives,  or  between  persons  who 
might  expect  to  enter  into  this  relation  with  each  other. 
In  general,  the  lover  must  serve  a  lady  already  married  to 
another;  and  it  was  obligatory  in  a  lady  thus  served  to  re- 
turn the  love,  without  regard  to  her  marital  obligations. 
As  runs  one  of  the  rules  of  the  amorous  jurist  Andre  le 
Cliapelain,  whose  De  arte  amandi  {circa  1200)  embodies  the 
I  theorizings  of  the  time,  Cauna  corijugii  non  est  ab  amore  ex- 
1  cusatio.  Clearly  love  of  this  kind,  if  it  remained  lionorable, 
must  be  a  social  function  rather  than  a  personal  passion. 
Clearly,  also,  the  danger  wa.s  great  that  this  would  not  al- 
ways be  the  case  ;  nor,  in  point  of  fact,  was  it.  Still,  it  is 
clear  that  for  a  consiilerable  period  s\tch  relations  between 
men  and  women  were  held  to  be  not  merely  permissible, 
but  in  the  highest  degree  ennobling  to  both.  The  esseti- 
lially  troubadour  love  of  Dante  for  Beatrice,  wife  of  Simone 
de'  Hardi,  and  the  high  consequences  that  proceeded  from 
it,  are  proof  enough  of  this. 

During  the  whole  twelfth  century  the  elaboration  and 
discussion  of  ihis  theory  of  c-hivalrous  love  went  on  in 
Southern  France,  and  with  it  went  on  the  development  of 
the  poetical  art  of  the  troubadours.  The  extrenu-  variety 
and  intricacy  of  the  forms  of  this  art  were  natural  results 
of  the  essentially  external  and  fornud  character  of  the  sub- 
ject-matter ;  yet  these  lyric  varieties,  which  are  too  numer- 
ous even  to  mime  in  a  brief  article,  served  as  models  for  the 
first  modern  poets  <if  the  rest  of  Kurope.  and  have  power- 
fully affected  the  history  of  uU  modern  poetical  literature. 


The  vogue  of  the  new  poetry  in  and  out  of  Provence  was 
very  great,  and  even  kings  were  jiroud  to  be  counted  among 
the  troubailours.  The  great  nobles,  like  Richard  Cu'ur  de 
Lion,  the  Count  of  Poiton,  and  later  King  of  England; 
Raymond  V.  and  Raymond  \l.  of  Toulouse;  Alfonso  II., 
Count  of  Provence;  William  VI II.,  Lonl  of  Montpellier; 
Robert,  Daupliin  of  Auvergne  ;  Ilenry  I.,  Count  of  Rodez ; 
Barral,  Viscount  of  Jlai'seilles ;  Ermengardc,  Countess  of 
Narbonne  ;  and  many  others,  welcomed  the  singers  to  their 
courts  and  heaped  them  with  favors.  Beyond  the  borders 
of  Provence  they  fared  no  less  well,  as  at  the  courts  of  Ara- 
gon.  Leon,  and  Castile,  in  Spain,  and  at  those  of  the  Emper- 
or Frederick  II.,  JIarquis  iioniface  II.  of  Montferrat,  and 
the  Marquises  Azzo  VI.  and  Azzo  VIII.  d'Este  in  Italy. 

The  list  of  Inmbadours  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies contains  no  less  than  412  names,  of  whom  the  great 
majority  belong  to  the  period  we  are  now  treating.  Of 
many  of  tht^se.  however,  we  have  but  scanty  remains  and 
little  liiographical  infornuition.  After  William  L\'..  num- 
tioned  above,  there  was  in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury a  small  group  of  poets  who  were  felt  by  the  later 
troubadours  to  have  belonged  to  an  older  school,  but  whose 
art  is  not  for  us  markedly  dilTerent  from  that  of  their  suc- 
cessors. Chief  of  these  were  Cercamon,  Marcabrun,  and 
Jaufre  Rudel,  Prince  of  Blaya.  whose  romantic  passion  for 
the  Countess  of  Tripoli  was  long  famous.  Whatever  the 
change  of  style  was.  it  seems  to  have  taken  place  about  the 
middle  of  the  century  ;  and  the  name  given  as  that  of  the 
first  really  excellent  troubadour  is  Peire  d'Alvernh.  An- 
other innovator,  according  to  tradition,  was  Guiraut  de 
Bornelh,  who  first  used  the  lyric  form  called  cattsos,  or  can- 
zone. Practically  contemporary,  however,  or  little  later, 
were  all  the  most  famous  troubadours  :  Bernart  de  Venta- 
dour,  the  best  singer  of  love;  (iuillem  de  Cabestaing,  vvho.se 
passion  eiKled  in  a  tragic  death  ;  Arnaut  de  .Maruelh,  more 
simple  in  style  than  most,  and  more  delicate  in  sentiment ; 
Pons  de  Capduelh,  eagerly  sincere  in  his  service  of  love; 
Peire  Vidal.  a  fantastic  spirit,  but  truly  a  poet ;  Peire  Rot- 
gier,  in  whom  theory  overbalances  art ;  the  flippant  Ram- 
baut  III.,  Count  of  Orange,  and  Beatrice,  C<nintess  of  Die, 
whose  avowed  passion  for  him  has  obtained  for  her  the 
name  of  the  Provencal  Sapjiho;  Folquet  de  Marseilles, 
somewhat  later,  whose  amorous  youth  was  followed  by  the 
stern  zeal  of  the  fanatic  bishop;  Rambaut  de  Vaqueiras, 
who  carrie<l  his  art  into  Italy;  Peirol,  the  passionate  cru- 
sader. Still  more  noted  than  any  of  these  were  Bertran  de 
Born,  who  sang  more  of  arms  than  of  love,  and  Arnaut 
Daniel,  whom  Dante  thought  the  best  of  all  the  troubadours 
(Furg.,  xxvi.,  118,  secj.).  In  the  latter,  however,  art  was  car- 
ried to  the  point  of  extreme  artificiality,  for  the  poet  even 
prided  himself  on  the  unintelligibility  of  his  difficult  style 
{rims  cam  or  occurs). 

In  the  thirteenth  century  a  change  began  to  come  over 
the  spirit  of  Provencal  song.  The  political  situation  in 
Provence  became  ever  more  threatening.  The  Church  had 
become  uneasy  about  the  heretical  sects  so  numerous  there 
— Albigenscs.  Cathari,  Vaudois — while  the  Northern  French 
were  looking  with  greedy  eyes  upon  the  fair  lands  of  the 
south.  In  1207  the  tempest  burst,  ami  for  nearly  forty 
years  the  Albigensian  crusades  continued,  devastfiting  the 
land,  destroying  the  courtly  life,  dispersing  the  [)oets,  and 
finally  merging  Provence  itself  in  France.  The  culmina- 
tion of  the  tragedy  may  be  said  to  have  been  reached  in  1226, 
when  the  last  revolt  in  Toulouse,  the  center  of  Proven(;al 
resistance,  was  crushed.  For  the  next  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury the  conquerors  were  busy  with  the  last  details  of  their 
task.  The  Incpiisition,  established  for  this  purpose,  hunted 
down  and  destroyed  the  few  surviving  heretics  ;  and  so  far 
did  the  violence  of  the  Church  go  that  in  1245  Pope  Inno- 
cent IV.  issued  a  bull  declaring  the  Provcn(;al  language 
heretical  and  forbiiiding  students  to  use  it.  With  the  same 
ruthlessness  the  French  crushed  all  those,  whether  nobles 
or  commimers.  who  desired  political  independence. 

The  necessary  result  of  these  disasters  was  a  falling  off  in 
the  art  of  the  troubadoui-s.  Though  we  have  many  names 
from  the  first  quarter  of  the  thirteenth  century,  they  are 
not  of  the  first  rank.  liove  was  sung  with  less  of  high 
conviction,  and  political  passions  usurpeil  a  larger  place. 
We  may  name  from  this  time  Gau<-elm  Faidit,  a  man  of 
many  loves ;  .Savario  de  Mauleon  ;  Uc  de  Saint  Circ.  from 
whose  pen  several  brief  biographies  of  earlier  troubadours 
have  (lescended  to  us;  Aimeiic  de  Pegulhan  ;  Cadenet ; 
Perdigon.  The  two  most  cliaracteristie  poets,  however,  are 
Peire  Cardinal  and  Guillem  Figueira,  the  former  of  whom, 


826 


PROVENgAL  LITERATURE 


in  grave  and  noble  fashion,  denounced  the  vices  of  his  day, 
especially  those  of  the  clergy ;  while  the  latter,  a  scorner  of 
all  gentle  practices,  lived  like  a  roysterer,  making  mock  of 
the  pretensions  of  noble  and  churchman  alike. 

One  or  two  other  kinds  of  literature,  tiiough  not  esteemed 
like  the  lyrics  of  the  courtly  poets,  afford  monuments  of  in- 
terest. The  first  of  these  is  the  historical  or  popular  epic, 
like  the  Chansons  de  Geste  of  Northern  France.  Though  it 
is  certain  that  these  were  never  produced  in  Provence  in 
the  profusion  formerly  imagined  (e.  g.  by  Fauriel),  they  cer- 
tainly existed,  especially  in  the  region  nearest  France. 
Several  specimens  are  extant,  in  whole  or  part,  and  one  of 
these,  the  poem  of  Girart  de  RossiUon,  is  one  of  the  finest 
epics  of  the  Jliddle  Ages.  Here,  too.  should  be  mentioned 
several  historical  poems,  of  which  the  most  important  is 
that  on  the  Crusade  against  the  Albigenses  (early  thirteenth 
century).  Probably  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century,  also, 
romantic  narrative  poems  began  to  be  written,  but  our  ex- 
amples are  chiefly  from  the  next  period.  Of  great  interest 
are  several  didactic  poems,  particularly  those  known  as  en- 
senhamens,  in  which  the  ideals  of  conduct  of  the  time  were 
discussed.  These,  too,  flourished  more  in  the  thirteenth 
century. 

T/iird  Period  (1336-1333). — The  successful  termination  of 
the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses  produced  almost  a  cessa- 
tion of  lyric  poetry  in  Provence  proper.  A  few  names  of 
unimportant  troubadours  of  the  latter  part  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  are  known  to  us,  but  we  have  only  scanty 
remains  of  their  work.  ■  Chief  of  these  poets  is  Guiraut 
Riquier,  who  was,  however,  little  more  than  laudator  tem- 
poris  acti.  The  real  life  of  the  troubadour  poetry  was  at 
this  time  to  be  found  in  Italy  and  the  Spanish  Peninsula. 
In  the  former  the  vogue  of  this  poetry  was  so  great  that  na- 
tive Italians  began  to  write  it.  and  the  Mantuan  Sordello, 
the  Venetian  Bartolomeo  Zorgi,  and  the  Genoese  Bonifacio 
Calvo  deserve  honorable  mention  in  the  list  of  troubadours. 
As  is  well  known,  this  Provencal  poetry  served  as  a  model 
for  the  first  Italian  verse.  In  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  as  has 
been  mentioned  above,  there  were  several  courts  frequented 
by  the  troubadours  during  the  thirteenth  century  ;  and 
also,  especially  in  Catalonia,  not  a  few  poets  who  employed 
the  Provencal  tongue. 

In  Provence  itself  there  was  in  this  period  a  considerable 
development  of  literature  other  than  lyric  poetry.  Ro- 
mances and  novels  after  the  French  style  became  popular, 
and  in  the  Roman  de  Jaufre  we  have  a  work  of  some  in- 
terest. The  poetical  novel  of  manners  F/amenca  gives  us 
important  information  about  the  customs  of  the  time.  Di- 
dactic literature  increased  greatly  in  extent,  and  gives  us 
several  ensenhamens  and  treatises  of  a  moral  kind.  We 
have  a  number  of  scientific  or  pseudo-scientific  works  also, 
and  the  extensive  encyclopaedia  of  Matfre  Ermengaud,  en- 
titled Breviari  d'amors,  illustrates  the  speculations  on  the 
constitution  of  the  universe  then  current.  Historical  poetry 
is  cultivated  to  some  extent.  The  religious  literature  is 
much  larger  in  amount  than  in  the  preceding  period,  and 
includes  legends,  in  both  verse  and  prose,  connected  with 
the  life  of  Christ  and  of  various  saints,  prayers,  sermons, 
etc.  Of  special  interest  are  several  versions  of  parts  of  the 
Bible,  chiefly  of  heretical  origin.  Toward  the  end  of  this 
period  we  get  the  first  example  of  the  Provengal  drama, 
the  mystery  entitled  L' Esposalizi  de  nostra  dona  sancta 
Maria  verges  e  de  Josep. 

Fourth  Period  (1323-1500).— By  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  aristocratic  poetry  of  Provence  had  entirely 
come  to  an  end  ;  but  here,  as  elsewhere  in  Europe,  an  at- 
tempt was  made  in  the  bourgeoisie,  now  become  rich  and 
prosperous,  if  not  to  revive  it,  at  least  to  imitate  it.  In 
short,  mastersong  succeeded  minnesong.  In  the  year  1323 
a  group  of  tmurgenis  of  Toulouse  associated  themselves  to- 
gether under  the  name  of  the  Sobregaya  companhia  dels 
VII.  trobadors  dc  Tholoza,  and  in  order  to  promote  po- 
etic composition  appointed  for  May  1,  1.324,  a  poetical  con- 
test—the first  of  the  long  series  of  Floral  Games  of  Tou- 
louse. The  prize  offered  was  a  golden  violet  for  the  best 
canzone  :  and  we  learn  that  a  certain  Arnaut  Vidal  de  Cas- 
tehiauiiari  was  tlie  first  to  obtain  it.  In  1355  the  contest 
was  still  further  developed,  and  other  flowers  of  gold  or 
silver  were  offered  for  excellence  in  other  forms  of  verse. 
At  the  same  time  the  chancellor  of  the  consistory  (for  so  it 
was  then  called),  Guillem  MoHnier,  was  instructed  to  draw 
up  a  treatise  on  the  poetic  art.  He  did  this  in  his  famous 
Jyegs  d' Amors,  which,  though  fantastic  in  the  extreme,  has 
great  interest  for  the  student.     The  most  remarkable  thing 


about  this  bourgeois  poetry  is  the  fact  that  though  the  forms 
and  even  phrases  of  the  troubadours  were  scrupulously  pre- 
served, the  old  meaning  had  been  entirely  lost.  It  was  not 
permitted  these  new  troubadours  to  address  their  lyrics  to 
real  ladies  ;  they  had  to  write  canzoni,  ballades,  albas,  pas- 
tourelles,  etc.,  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  to  a  certain  abstrac- 
tion, Clemenza  by  name,  who  became  almost  a  goddess.  We 
know  the  names  of  about  100  winners  in  these  contests,  reach- 
ing down  to  1408. 

Beyond  these  lyrics  this  perio<l  affords  little  of  interest, 
except  a  certain  number  of  mysteries  and  miracle-plays. 
Some  consideralile  body  of  religious  literature  there  is,  but 
of  so  slight  consequence  that  little  of  it  has  yet  been  pub- 
lished. 

Fifth  Period  (1500-1825).— This  is  really  not  a  literary 
period  at  all,  but  an  interregnum.  Not  that  all  versifying 
had  ceased  in  Southern  France,  but  the  language  had  so 
degenei-ated  as  no  longer  to  deserve  the  name  of  literary 
language,  and  what  was  written  in  it  was  merely  the  rude 
utterance  of  local  dialects.  Interest  in  the  troubadours 
was  indeed  not  entirely  lost,  especially  after  the  appearance 
of  the  romantic,  lying  book  of  Jean  de  Nostradame,  Vies 
des plus  celebres  et  ancie/is poetes provensa'u.r  (1575).  Others, 
nu)re  truly  scholars,  like  the  Italians  Castelvetro  and  Cres- 
cimbeni,  and  the  French  La  Curne  de  Sainte-Palaye,  did 
much  in  the  way  of  investigating  the  history  of  Provenyal 
song.  Still  no  permanent  and  fruitful  restoration  of  the 
decayed  tongue  took  place,  and  it  rapidly  sank  to  lower  and 
lower  depths. 

Sixth  Period  (1825  to  the  present). — After  the  nineteenth 
century  had  well  begun,  two  influences  combined  to  make 
possible  a  renaissance  of  Proven^-al  poetry.  The  first  of 
these  was  interest  aroused  by  the  studies  and  publications 
of  the  French  historian  Raynouard,  the  German  philologist 
Diez,  and  their  numerous  followers  both  in  France  and 
Germany.  The  other  was  the  a]>pearance  in  Provence  of 
several  dialect  poets  of  imusual  powers.  Chief  of  these 
was  the  barber-poet  of  Agen.  Jasmin  (1798-1864),  the  ap- 
pearance of  whose  Charivari  in  1825  may  well  be  taken  as 
the  starting-point  of  the  movement.  Contemporaries  of 
Jasmin  were  Dioulonfet,  Cabanes,  Azais,  Morel,  and,  above 
all,  Koumanille.  In  1854  an  important  step  was  taken  by 
the  last  named  with  six  other  poets — Mathieu,  Tavan,  Au- 
banel.  Mistral,  Brunet,  Giera.  This  was  nothing  short  of 
the  re-establishment  of  the  dead  consistory  of  Toulouse, 
under  the  name,  however,  of  the  Society  of  Felibrige,  and 
not  limited  to  Toulouse,  but  extended  to  all  Provence  and 
even  Catalonia.  Curiously  enough,  the  title  thus  assumed 
was  one  whose  exact  meaning  was  unknown  to  the  asso- 
ciates, and  remains  even  to-day  without  certain  explanation. 
The  poet  Mistral  had  heard  at  Maillane  a  poem  in  honor  of 
the  Virgin  Jlary,  which  contained  the  phrase  li  set  felibre 
de  la  lei.  The  poets  were  seven  :  they  proposed  to  be  a  law 
to  the  other  poets  of  their  region  ;  the  word  felibre  they 
were  willing  to  accept  on  faith  as  meaning  doctors  or  ex- 
positors. The  society  thus  estalilished  has  extended  itself 
over  the  whole  region  in  which  Provencal  and  Catalan  were 
once  spoken,  and  is  organized  in  the  greatest  detail.  It  lias 
nndouljtedly,  by  the  poetical  contests  it  has  held,  stinui- 
lated  the  production  of  much  verse  ;  but  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  it  has  evoked  many  great  poets.  After  all,  Jasnun, 
Roumanille,  Aubanel,  and  Mistral  remain  the  chief  figures 
of  the  new  Proven(;al  poetry,  and  the  appearance  of  all  of 
these  antedates  the  society.  On  the  other  hand,  the  latter 
has  undoubtedly  done  much  for  the  study  of  Provencal 
literature  and  the  Provencal  tongue,  not  so  much  by  its  an- 
nual pronunciamento,  in  the  form  of  a  poetical  almanac, 
Armana  prouvenfau  (1855,  seq.),  as  by  fostering  learned  so- 
cieties, like  the  Societe  pour  Tetude  des  langues  romanes, 
whose  organ  is  the  Revue  des  langues  romajies  (Montpellier, 
1870,  seq.). 

Bibliography. — Millot,  Ilistoire  litteraire  des  trouba- 
dours (3  vols.,  Paris,  1773) ;  F.  Diez,  Die  Poesie  der  7'rouba- 
dnurs  (1826;  2d  enlarged  ed.  by  K.  Bartsch,  1883)  and 
Leben  und  Werke  der  Troubadours  (1829  ;  2d  enlarged  ed. 
by  K.  Bartsch,  1882) ;  Fauriel,  Ilistoire  lilt,  des  troubadours 
(3  vols.,  Paris,  1844  ;  too  speculative) ;  Karl  Bartsch,  Grund- 
riss  zur  Geschichte  der  Prorenzalischen  Liternlur  (1872); 
P.  Jli'ver,  Provenfal  Literature  (in  Eiicgclopadia  Pritan- 
nica.  9th  ed.),  Derniers  troubadours  de  la  Provence  (1871), 
and  J)e  f  influence  des  trouhadonrs  -vir  la  poesie  des  peuples 
romani'S  (ill  Romania,  1877) ;  Fr.  Hueffer,  The  Troubadours 
(London.  1878,  untrustworthy)  ;  A.  Kestori,  Ijetteratura 
Provemale  (Milan,  1891) ;  A.  Slimming,  Provenzalische  lAt- 


PROVENCE 


PROVIDENCE 


827 


eratur  (in  (Jrober's  Grundriss  der  romnnischen  Philologie, 
vol.  ii.,  l>t.  '2.  Strassburg.  18!)3) ;  H.  Portal.  La  Letteratura 
Provenzale  moderna  (Palermo,  18!)8) ;  M.  MiUi  y  Foutanals, 
De  /«.•>•  troi'adores  en  K.sparta  (2ci  cd.  Barcelona,  1889) ; 
.\.  Thomas,  Francexco  da  liarbvrinn  tt  la  littcrature  pru- 
fenfale  en  Ilalie  an  moijen  age  (1884). 

The  chief  collections  of  the  works  of  the  troubadours  are: 
Roche^ude,  I'aniasse  oecitanien  (Toulouse,  IHI!));  K.  Ray- 
nouard,  (Jhoix  des  poesies  originales  des  troubadours  (6 
vols..  1816-21)  and  Lexique  roman  (6  vols.,  1838^14) ;  iMahn, 
Werke  der  Troubadours  (4  vols.,  1853-86)  and  Uediehte 
der  Troubadours  (4  vols.,  1856-78)  ;  P.  M(^yer,  liecueil 
d'anciens  le.rles  bas-lalins,  provenraux  et  franijais  (1877). 
The  best  iiitrodiicliiry  hooks  are  K.  Bartsch,  Chreslomathie 
proveui;ale  (-iih  ed.,  Klberfeld,  1880),  and  V.  Croscini,  CVcs'/o- 
mazia  provenzale  (Padua,  1892).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Provence' :  an  old  province  of  France  :  bounded  E.  by 
the  Alps  and  S.  by  tlie  Mediterranean,  and  now  divided 
into  the  departments  of  Var,  Uouches-du-Hhoiu'.  Uasses- 
Alpes.  and  Vaucluse.  It  derived  its  name  from  the  Latin 
Provineia.  by  which  the  Romans  pri'-eminently  designated 
it.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  Provence  was  over- 
run by  the  (ioths  and  I  he  Saracens,  and  during  the  Middle 
Ages  it  was  ruled  by  independent  counts.  In  the  twelfth 
century  this  land,  celebrated  for  its  climate,  its  sky,  and  its 
fruit,  produced  the  famous  Proven(;al  songs.  In  1481  it 
was  annexed  to  the  French  crown  by  Louis  XI. 

Proverbs  [from  Lai.  prover'bium :  pro,  for  +  rer'bum. 
word]:  popular  wisdom,  often  expressed  by  "the  wit  of 
one,"  always  concentrated  in  a  handy  sentence,  and  actually 
in  use  by  the  people.  The  last  of  these  limitations  is  impor- 
tant. For  example,  many  of  the  .sayings  of  Mrs.  Poyser,  in 
(ieorge  Eliot's  Adam  Bede,  would  be  good  proverbs,  if  they 
were  proverbs.  Metaphor  and  alliteration,  though  not  es- 
sential, are  common  in  the  proverb,  and  show  origins  akin 
to  those  of  the  oldest  poetry;  for,  contrary  to  the  current 
ideas  about  didactic  verse,  proverbs  are  now  regarded  by 
rritics  as  belonging,  together  with  choral  song  (the  later 
liallad)  and  popular  tale  [Mdrcheu),  to  the  oldest  phase  of 
]>rimitive  poetry.  The  proverb  is  a  general  statement  which 
fits  a  number  of  particular  cases;  it  is  the  wisdom  or  wit 
of  the  masses,  and  therefore  flourishes  best  among  unlet- 
tered folk — like  the  ballad  and  the  popular  tale.  Like  the 
latter,  moreover,  it  is  often  imported,  and  is  particularly  at 
home  in  the  Orient.  These  are  general  proverbs.  Others 
attach  to  place  or  person,  but  spread  far  beyond  original 
limits — as,  "to  go  round  [by]  R<ibin  Hood's  barn."  Prov- 
erbs often  give  a  lively  notion  of  the  popular  attitude  in 
regard  to  certain  classes  or  institutions;  although  historical 
estimates  based  on  such  evidence  are,  to  say  the  least,  un- 
certain:  for  example,  the  saws  and  (juips  about  the  medi- 
aval  clergy — in  particular,  monk  and  nun — or  the  ever- 
youthful  jibes  at  medicine  and  haw.  Here,  again,  we  have 
an  interesting  parallel  with  pojiular  songs,  and  as  we  mvtst 
distinguish  the  latter  from  individual  lyric,  so  should  all 
possible  care  be  taken  to  sunder  a  real  saying  of  the  people 
from  the  incisive  phrases  of  speaker  or  writer.  Moreover, 
the  distinction  between  the  humorous  and  the  didactic  must 
always  be  kept  in  vii'w. 

Collections  of  proverbs  were  attempted  even  among  the 
Greeks,  but  modern  interest  in  the  subject  was  awakeneil 
and  led  by  Erasmus,  llis  Adagia  were  published  in  1500, 
and  found  speedy  imitation  in  several  countries.  The  Ger- 
mans were  among  his  most  successful  followers,  and  they 
havi!  outdone  all  competitors  for  later  times,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Spain.  On  the  other  hand,  for  whatever  reason, 
witty  as  the  Celtic  folk  is  known  to  be,  but  scant  harvest  of 
proverbs  has  been  gleani'd  from  Irish  fields.  JMiglish  prov- 
erbs, however,  are  fairly  plentiful,  and  jjroverbial  poetry  has 
always  been  popular  with  Germanic  races.  A  peculiar  form 
of  this  poetry  is  preserved  in  the  so-called  gnomic  verses  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon.  (.See  Grein-Wiilker,  5('6/)'o//ic/i-  der  An- 
gelsdchsischen  Poesie,  i.,  338  ft.).  Other  collections  of  the 
same  character  are  found  in  the  Old  English  period,  but 
later  proverbs  increase  in  wit,  terseness,  and  subtlety.  Chau- 
cer, like  .Shakspearc,  had  a  liking  for  proverbs,  and  collec- 
tors have  gatliored  good  spoil  from  many  old  plays,  sermons, 
pamphlets,  tales,  and  the  like. 

Of  the  numerous  collections  the  following  ntay  be  men- 
tioned for  the  general  subject:  Rhcinsbcrg-I)i'iring.sfeld, 
Sprichwi'irter  der  germanischen  und  romanisclien  Sprachen 
(1872  ft.), and  Boh'n,  Polyglot  of  Foreign  Proverbs;  for  Eng- 
lish, Bohn,  A  Handbook  of  Proverbs,  and  W.  C.  Uazlitt,  Eng- 


lish Proverbs  and  Proverbial  Phrases  (London,  1869).     The 
(iermans  have  an  excellent  work  in  Wunder's  Deutaches 

Spricliworler- Lexicon  (5  vols.,  1863-80). 

FllA.NCIS   B.  GlMMERE. 

Proverbs,  Book  of:  alitlewhichcomesthroughtlie  Vul- 
gate from  its  Greek  equivalent,  napoifiiai,  in  the  Septuagint, 
and  which  must  be  taken  in  its  widest  acceptation  in  order 
to  make  it  endirace  all  the  varieties  of  expression  comprised 
in  the  collection.  The  original  Hebrew  term  (inashal)  means 
properly  a  "  comparison  : "  but  as  every  utterance  of  a  truth 
involves  a  com|)arison,  we  find  included  in  the  book  apoph- 
thegms, maxims,  enigmas  ("dark  sayings,"  in  the  English 
version  of  Prov.,  i.  6).  and  sometimes  longer  connected  dis- 
courses of  the  satne  diilactic  nature. 

It  is  said  in  1  Kings  v.  12  that  .Solomon  spoke  3.000  jirov- 
erbs,  and  it  is  probable  that  many  of  fhese  are  found  in  this 
book,  as  the  superscription  prefixed  to  each  of  their  three 
main  divisions  assigns  it  to  Solomon.  The  first  division 
(chs.  i.-ix.)  is  devoted  to  a  description  of  wisdom  and  an 
exhortation  to  its  pursuit.  The  second  (chs.  x.-xxiv.)  con- 
tains individiuil  proverbs,  and  in  its  latter  part  brief  pro- 
verbial discourses.  The  third  (chs.  xxv.-xxix.)  was  a  com- 
pilation by  "the  men  of  Ilczckiah."  In  chs.  xxx.  and  xxxi. 
we  have  three  appendices.  The  first  is  by  an  author  known 
to  us  only  by  the  name  Agur,  given  to  him  in  ch.  xxx.  1 ; 
the  second  (eh.  sxxi.  1-9)  contains  precepts  for  a  King 
Lemuel,  given  by  his  mother.  Lemuel  {"one  belonging  to 
God")  is  clearly  only  a  symbolical  name,  and  a  general  re- 
semblance in  style  has  led  some  to  infer  that  this,  as  well  as 
the  final  section  (ch.  xxxi.  10-31).  was  also  written  by  Agur. 

The  Proverljs  exhibit  the  results  of  reflection  upon  the 
moral  and  spiritual  value  of  its  ]irecepts  in  the  concerns  of 
life.  It  is  noteworthy  that  they  do  not  once  mention  the 
priest  nor  exalt  the  externals  of  worship,  nor  allude  to  any 
conflict  between  the  worship  of  .Teliovah  and  that  of  idols. 
There  are  good  commentaries  in  English  by  C.  Bridges 
(London,  n.  e.  1859).  W.  Arnot  (Edinburgh  and  New  York, 
1869),  F.  Delitzsch  (1875),  and  in  The  Expositors  Bible  bv 
R.  F.  Horton  (1891).  Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson.  " 

Providonoe  [via  O.  Fr.  from  hat.  provideii'tia.  foresight, 
provision,  dcriv.  of  provide  re,  foresee,  provide :  pro,  for, 
before  +  r/(/e'n',see]:  in  theology,  the  doctrine  which  teaches 
that  God  upholds,  preserves,  and  governs  the  entire  universe 
which  he  has  created.  The  scriptural  doctrine  affirms  at 
the  same  time  the  omnipotent  power  of  God  and  the  liberty 
and  res])onsibility  of  num.  It  is  removed  equally,  on  the 
one  hand,  from  Stoicism  and  the  rigid  doctrine  of  Pate,  and 
on  the  other  from  the  Epiciu'ean  afflrmation  that  it  is  an 
unworthy  condescension  of  the  Deity  to  concern  himself 
about  the  affairs  of  men.  (Pliny,  Btsi.  Kaf.,  iii.,  4,  setj.)  It 
includes  the  two  essential  ideas  of  preservation  and  of  gov- 
ernment. Modern  philosophy,  wliich  is  increasingly  mon- 
istic, emphasizes  the  immanence  of  God,  and  tends  to  resolve 
all  matter,  in  its  tdtimate  e.ssence,  into  a  manifestation  of 
the  present  agency  of  God.  Hence  preservation  differs  from 
creation  only  as  the  beginning  of  an  agency  differs  from  the 
continuance  of  the  same  agency.  The  scriptural  allir- 
mation  is,  that  God  ujiholds  all  things  by  the  word  of  his 
power — that  his  agency  is  everywhere  seen  in  the  continued 
existence  of  his  creatures  and  in  the  operations  of  nature. 
"  By  him  all  things  consist,"  Col.  i.  17;  "In  him  we  live 
and  move  and  have  our  being,"  Acts  xvii.  28.  The  extent 
of  providence  is  unlimited.  It  includes  all  the  creatures  of 
(lod,  intelligent  and  non-intelligent,  since  nothing  is  so 
high  as  to  be  above  his  control,  nor  anything  so  miimte  as 
to  be  beneath  his  notice.  The  end  of  ]irovidence  is  the 
realizing  of  the  divine  plan  in  the  universe.  The  end  is 
infinitely  wise,  holy,  and  beneficent.  The  means  are  such 
as  are  best  adapted  for  the  certain  aecomiilishment  of  this 
end.  Instead  of  chance,  or  necessity,  or  inexorable  fate,  to 
which  gods  and  men  are  c(iually  subject,  the  iloctrine  of 
the  Scriptures  substitutes  the  intelligent  control  of  the  om- 
nipotent and  omnipresent  .Jehovah,  in  accordance  with  de- 
signs as  gracio\is  as  thev  are  vast  and  inscrutable.  The 
method  of  )irovidcnce — )iow  it  is  that  God  governs  the 
world  consistently  with  the  liberty  of  rational  beings — is 
not  a  subject  of  revelation.  The  employment  of  molives  to 
govern  human  action  in  many  cases  is  plain.  The  difficulty 
of  the  problem  lies  in  the  reconciliation  of  divine  fore- 
knowledge and  government  with  human  freedom. 

That  there  are  powers,  unseen  and  supernatural,  operat- 
ing to  sustain  and  control  both  nature  and  man  seems  to  be 
the   instinctive  faith  of  the   race,  aside   from  the  special 


828 


PROVIDENCE 


teaching  of  revelation.  This  imparts  a  deep  significance  to 
many  fables  of  ancient  mythology.  The  belief  in  a  provi- 
dence of  some  kind  seems  well-nigh  unirersal.  It  is  affirmed 
or  implied  in  the  writings  of  ancient  classical  poets  and 
philosophers,  although  disfigured  with  crude  and  unworthy 
conceptions  of  the  divine  nature  or  character.  Cicero  in 
his  dialogues,  De  Nat.  Deorum,  states  at  considerable  length 
the  speculations  of  the  most  distinguished  philosophers 
among  the  Stoics  and  Epicureans  on  the  existence,  attri- 
butes, and  providence  of  a  Divine  Being.  In  lib.  ii.,  while 
allowing  the  principle  of  pantlieism — that  God  is  the  Uni- 
verse and  tlie  Universe  is  God — he  affirms  the  existence  of 
minor  deities,  and  then  argues  in  favor  of  the  divine  gov- 
ernment and  providence — (1)  from  the  existence  of  the  gods, 
which  impUes  their  actual  control  of  the  world  ;  (2)  from 
the  laws  of  nature — nature,  properly  interpreted,  Ijeing  an- 
other name  for  God ;  and  (3)  from  the  order,  harmony, 
beauty,  and  wisdom  manifested  in  the  works  of  creation. 
Although  not  very  complete  or  satisfactory,  the  argument 
shows  the  tendency  of  philosophic  thought  unaided  by 
revelation.     See  also  Tusc,  Disp.  i.,  49,  et  al. 

The  doctrine  of  providence  was  affirmed  with  great  una- 
nimity by  the  most  distinguished  early  Christian  Fatliers, 
and  maintained  with  equal  subtleness  of  discrimination  and 
strength  of  argument.  The  objections,  too,  early  brougfit 
against  the  doctrine,  were  nearly  the  same  as  those  revived 
and  reaffirmed  in  our  day.  By  some  it  was  held  to  be  un- 
necessary, or  an  implication  of  imperfect  work  on  the  part 
of  the  Creator,  rudely  supplemented  afterward.  Others 
"  maintained  that  God  concerned  himself  only  about  tlie 
genus,  but  not  about  the  species,"  distinguishing  between  a 
general  and  a  special  providence — yiihernatio  generalis  and 
gubernatio  specialis.  Still  others  held  it  to  be  derogatory 
to  the  Supreme  Deity  to  suppose  that  he  would  condescend 
to  notice  the  small  concerns  of  men.  Origen  represents 
Celsus  as  affirming  that  God  interferes  as  little  with  tlie 
affairs  of  men  as  with  those  of  monkeys  and  flies.  The  op- 
posite and  Christian  view  of  this  article  of  faith  was  elo- 
quently maintained  in  the  East  and  the  West  by  Chrysos- 
tom  and  Theodoret,  by  Augustine  and  Salvian.  "Augustine 
especially  objects  to  the  comparison  of  God  to  a  master- 
builder,  whose  work  remains  though  he  himself  withdraws. 
"  The  world  would  at  once  cease  to  exist,"  he  says,  "  if  God 
were  to  deprive  it  of  his  presence."  Nearly  two  centuries 
earlier,  about  a.  d.  230,  Minucius  Felix,  in"  his  apologetic 
dialogue  entitled  Octaviits,  in  a  passage  of  singular  beauty, 
says  :  "  We  are  not  only  under  God's  eyes,  but  we  even  live 
in  his  bosom." 

The  doctrine  of  providence  is  not  inconsistent  with  the 
idea  of  a  government  of  law.  The  Scriptures  affirm  that 
God  is  the  creator  of  the  universe.  He  is  the  author  of 
what  we  call  the  laws  of  nature,  and  can  surely  change  or 
suspend  or  overrule  them.  But  he  does  not  govern  the 
world  arbitrarily,  but  according  to  a  fixed  plan  and  for  a 
great  end.  The  laws  of  nature  are  the  ordinances  of  God. 
but  a  man  even  may  use  some  powers  of  nature  to  control 
or  limit  other  powers.  So,  in  a  far  higher  sense,  and  witli 
a  method  infinitely  more  perfect,  may  the  Creator  control 
that  wliich  he  has  made.  Nor  can  we  deny  that  he  may  act 
directly  upon  the  rational  mind,  as  one  finite  mind  may 
seek  to  modify  another;  or  upon  both  nature  and  spirit  by 
methods  to  us  now,  and  perhaps  always,  incomprehensible." 

Some  theories  of  evolution  have  been  used  against  the 
doctrine  of  providence.  The  laws  of  the  development  of 
living  forms  being  reduced  to  few,  and  their  rigid  and  inva- 
riable application  being  assumed  as  the  process  of  all  the 
modifications  resulting  in  the  existing  life  of  the  pUinet.  it 
has  been  argued  that  there  is  no  placel'or  providence.  But 
evidently  there  is  no  new  problem  added  by  a  new  view  of 
the  nalure,  of  the  laws  under  which  providence  must  pro- 
ceed to  that  given  by  the  idea  of  natural  law  in  general ; 
and  this  proljhin  is  simply  that  of  the  personality  of  God. 

Some  of  the  proofs  of"  the  doctrine  are  the  "following : 
(1)  It  is  inferred  from  tlie  idea  of  a  personal  God.  infinite 
in  intelligence,  wisdom,  goodness,  and  power;  (2)  from  the 
evidence  of  intelligence  and  design  In  nature;  (3)  from  the 
evidences  in  history  of  moral  order  and  law.  History 
would  otherwise  be  a  tangled  skein  without  beginning  or 
end,  without  significance,  and  incapable  of  harmony  or 
intelligent  interpretation.  The  story  of  races  and  nations, 
the  epochs  which  seem  to  mark  tlic"  movements  of  society 
and  the  progress  of  civilization,  would  lose  their  impor- 
tance, and  our  hope  for  the  world  would  vanish,  it  we 
destroy  the  reality  and   the  end   of  providential  control. 


(4)  From  the  experience  of  individuals,  which  may  be  misin- 
terpreted, but  can  not  be  overlooked  altogether.  (5)  The 
proofs  from  the  Holy  Scriptures  :  (a)  in  the  passages  which 
indicate  or  declare  tiie  government  of  God  over  nature,  over 
irrational  animals,  over  men  and  nations ;  (b)  in  the  lives  of 
eminent  men — e.  g.  Abraham,  Moses,  Elijah,  Saul,  David, 
Daniel,  Paul ;  (c)  in  the  Jewish  history,  conspicuously  every- 
where ;  (d)  in  passages  which  aflirm  the  truth  of  prophecy; 
(e)  and  in  those  whicli  affirm  the  efficacy  of  prayer. 

The  literature  of  this  subject  is  vohiniinous.  Some  of  the 
most  important  works  which  treat  of  the  history  of  opinion 
are  (a)  in  philosophy:  Hitter's  llistonj  of  I'hiluxophi/  (13 
vols.);  History  of  Ancient  Philosophy  (4  vols.),  translated 
from  the  first  volumes  of  the  general  history  by  A.  J.  W. 
Morrison  ;  Ueberweg's  History  of  Philosophy,  translated  by 
Prof.  G.  S.  Morris  (2  vols.),  (ft)  In  theology :  Neander's 
General  Histories  of  the  Christian  Religion  and  Church, 
translated  by  Prof.  Torrey  (.5  vols.) ;  Hagenbach's  History 
of  Doctrines,  translated  by  Prof.  H.  B.  Smith  (2  vols.) ;  Van 
Oosterzee,  Christian  Dogmatics  (2  vols.).  In  Theological  and 
Philosophical  Library,  edited  by  Prof.  Smith  and  Prof. 
SchafE;  Knapp's  Christian  Tlicology,  translated  by  Presi- 
dent Leonard  Woods ;  and  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  Hodge's  Sys- 
tematic Theology  (3  vols.).     Revised  by  Frank  II.  Poster. 

Provideiice ;  city  (founded  in  1636) ;  one  of  the  capitals 
of  Rhode  Island  and  capital  of  Providence  County ;  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  Xarragansett  Bay ;  on  the  Provi- 
dence and  Springfield,  the  N.  Y.  and  New  England,  and 
the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  Hart,  railways;  30  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Newport,  44  miles  S.  W.  of  Boston  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Rhode  Island,  ref.  8-N).  Two  small  rivers  meeting  di- 
vide it  into  two  parts,  the  east  and  west  sides.  At  the 
junction  of  these  rivers  was  formerly  the  Cove,  now  filled 
in.  With  the  |)romenade  which  surrounded  It  the  space, 
amounting  to  1,585,134  sq.  feet,  is  devoted  to  the  use  of  the 
railways.  Of  public  parks  the  most  important  is  the  Roger 
Williams  (102  acres).  It  contains  a  fine  statue  of  Roger 
Williams  (see  Williams,  Roger),  the  founder  of  the  city  and 
State.  The  surface  of  the  city  is  very  uneven.  Many  of  the 
best  business  blocks  rest  on  "  made  land,"  while  parts  of  the 
residence  portions  rise  200  feet  above  tide-water.  These  in- 
equalities add  much  to  the  picturesqueness.  The  streets 
are  remarkably  well  cared  for.  Those  in  the  business  por- 
tions are  paved,  the  others  macadamized.  All  are  clean. 
The  electric  and  cable  railways  are  owned  by  one  company. 
The  city  is  noted  for  its  large  private  houses.  Its  most  im- 
portant public  buildings  are  the  State-house  (1762),  Provi- 
dence County  court-house  (1877),  and  the  city-hall.  This 
last  was  built  in  1879  at  a  cost  of  over  $1,000,600.  Among 
the  business  blocks  should  be  noted  the  Arcade  (1828),  a 
three-storied  structure,  connecting  the  two  principal  busi- 
ness streets;  the  Butler  Exchange  (1872),  the  buildings  of 
the  Rhode  Island  Hospital  Trust  Company  (1891),  and  the 
Industrial  Trust  Company  (1894).  All  these  buildings  front 
on  Westminster  Street,  the  chief  business  thoroughfare. 
There  are  119  churches  and  other  places  of  worship.  Of 
these  the  Baptists  have  20  ;  Episcopalians,  13 :  Congregation- 
alists,  9  ;  Jlethodlsts,  14  ;  Roman  Catholics,  16  ;  Unitarians, 
4;  Universalists,  3  ;  and  Presbyterians.  3.  The  most  noted 
is  the  First  Baptist  meeting-house,  built  in  1775  "  for  the 
public  worship  of  Ahiilghty  God,  and  also  to  hold  com- 
mencements in."  It  is  of  wood,  and  has  a  very  beautiful 
spire.  The  largest  edifice  is  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral 
(1885).  The  principal  educational  Institution  is  Brown 
University  {q.  v.).  The  Rhode  Island  School  of  Design 
furnishes  the  art  Instruction  needed  in  a  great  manufactur- 
ing community.  The  chief  private  school  is  the  Friends 
Yearly  Meeting  Boarding-school,  opened  In  1818.  Here  is 
also  the  State  Normal  School.  The  pulilic  schools  in  1893 
had  18,772  pupils,  451  teachers,  and  66  buildings.  The 
most  important  hospitals  are  the  Rhode  Island  (1868),  the 
Homceopathic,  and  the  Butler  Hos]iital  for  the  Insane 
(1847).  Tlie  last  Is  situaled  on  the  east  bank  of  the  See- 
konk  river  in  a  park  of  140  acres,  and  accommodates  200  pa- 
tients. The  Dexter  Asyhim  for  the  Poor  was  founded  in 
1827;  its  grounds  comprise  39  acres.  The  city  is  especially 
rich  in  public  and  private  libraries.  Besides  that  of  Brown 
University  (80,000  volumes)  should  be  noted  the  Public  Li- 
brary, 64,000  volumes,  the  Athcmrum  Ijibrary.  55.000  vol- 
umes, and  the  library  of  .lolin  Nicholas  Brown  Is  unei|ualed 
In  Its  Americana.  The  city  debt  Sept.  30.  1893,  was  |11,- 
733.679.27;  assessors'  valuation  of  real  and  peisonal  estate, 
;i|;l59,812.560;  rate  of  taxation,  |16  per  $1,000.     Providence 


PROVINCETOWN 


PRUNING 


829 


is  especially  noted  for  its  manufactories  of  cotton  and  wool- 
en goods,  jewelry  (167  establishments),  silverware,  tools,  lo- 
comotives, boiliTS,  steam  and  uluctrifal  engines,  screws,  files, 
sewinfi-inacliines,  elc.  The  census  of  1W)0  slunved  that  1,8H3 
manufacturiut;  estahlishinents  (represeiitini;  104  industries) 
reported.  These  had  a  combined  ca|)itai  of  .'j;o4."^74,227, 
employed  :i7.!l")")  persons,  jrnid  !j!18,7M'J,.")U0  tor  wages  and 
$:{6,674,:i()S  fur  materials,  and  hail  proilucts  valued  at  $71,- 
810,173.  The  city  is  a  great  distriliuting-point.  Immense 
quantities  of  coal  are  transhijiped  from  its  wharves.  Its 
wholesale  merchants  transact  a  very  large  business.  The 
commerce  is  mostly  coastwise.  Lines  of  steamships  run  to 
Baltimore,  I'liiladelphia,  and  Xew  York.  It  lias  83  banking 
institutions  wiili  an  aggregate  capital  of  S;3().O(l(),0O0.  The 
deposits  in  the  savings-banks  exceed  |40,000,000.  As  a  sea- 
port for  200  years  tlie  town  grew  slightly,  even  though  its 
commerce  reached  not  only  to  Europe  and  the  West  Indies, 
but  also  to  Africa,  India,  and  China.  With  manufactures 
came  marvelous  development.  Siiire  ISfill  llie  population 
has  increased  three-foUl.  Pop.  (1880)  104,857;  (1800)  133,- 
140;  (1895)  145,472.  Wilfred  H.  Mun-ro. 

I'roviiiccttuvn :  town;  Barustalile  co.,  JIass. :  on  the 
norlheni  I'Xlrrinily  of  Cape  Cod  and  the  N.  Y..  N.  H.  and 
Hart.  Kailroad;  55  miles  by  water  and  120  by  rail  S.  E.  of 
Boston  (for  location,  see  map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  5-K). 
It  is  noted  as  the  fir.st  landing-place  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers 
in  America:  as  the  birth|>lace  of  the  fir.st  child  born  in  New 
Eughuul  of  English  |iarents;  and  as  a  popular  sunimcr  re- 
sort. It  has  a  deep  and  commodious  liarbor  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  cai>e,  almost  entirely  hiiidlocked.  and  free  from 
ohstru<'tions.  The  principal  industries  are  whaling  and  cod 
and  mackerel  fishing.  Tlie  town  has  a  national  bank  with 
capital  of  .i;200.00(l.  a  savings-bank,  a  public  library,  several 
hotels  and  summer  boarding-houses,  and  a  wc<'klv  newspa- 
l)er.     Pop.  (1880)  4,340;  (1800)  4,042;  (18115)  4,555.' 

Proviso:  a  clause  or  provision  introducing  a  conditi(m, 
as  into  a  contract,  a  slatutc^  or  a  will :  a  conditional  stipu- 
lation.    See  (JoNniTioN. 

ProvO:  city:  capital  of  Utah  Co.,  I'tah;  on  the  Provo 
river,  and  the  Union  Pac.  ami  the  Uio  (irande  West,  rail- 
ways; 3  miles  E.  of  Utah  Lake,  48  miles  S.  8.  E.  of  Salt 
hake  City,  near  the  western  liase  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains 
(for  location,  see  nuip  of  Utah.  ref.  4-M).  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural region;  contains  the  Utah  Insane  Asylum.  Brigham 
Young  Academy  (Lalter-Day  .Saints.  0|:iened  in  ls!70).  Proc- 
tor Academy  (Congregational.  op<'ned  in  1887).  a  national 
bank  with  ca|>ital  of  ;?50.000.  a  savings-bank.  2  private  banks, 
a  send-monthly,  2  daily,  and  2  semi-weekly  periodicals;  and 
has  manufactories  of  Hour,  leather,  woolen  goods,  and  lum- 
ber.    Poj).  (1880)  3,432;  (1890)  5,159;  (1895)  5,992. 

Provoost,  provfyst,  Samiei,,  I).  I).:  bishop;  b.  in  New 
York.  .Mar.  11,  1742,  of  Huguenot  ancestry;  graduated  at 
King's  College,  New  York,  1758,  and  the  University  of  Cam- 
l>ri<Ige.  England;  entered  tlu'  Church  of  Kngland  ministry 
1706.  and  in  same  year  became  assistant  minister  of  Triiuty 
church.  New  York;  espoused  the  popular  side  at  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  war,  and  retired  to  his  country  home  during 
the  struggle;  became  in  1783  rector  of  Trinity  church, 
chosen  by  the  patriot  churchmen  of  New  York,  and  in  1787 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  New  York  at  Lambeth.  England  ; 
was  chaplain  of  Congress  in  1785,  and  in  1789  chaplain  of 
the  II.  S.  Semite ;  read  prayers  at  St.  PauTs  chapel  on  occa- 
sion of  the  presence  of  Washington  anil  the  Congress  direct- 
ly after  the  inauguration  exercises  in  1789;  resigned  the 
care  of  Trinity  church  in  1800,  and  in  1801  received  a  coad- 
jutor. During  the  closing  vears  of  his  life  he  retired  from 
all  public  olllees.     I),  in  New  York,  Sept.  0,  181.5. 

Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Provo  Rivor:  a  river  of  Utah  which  rises  on  the  west 
slope  of  the  Uinta  Mountains,  flows  westward  in  a  deep, 
wild  cauon  through  the  Wasatch  .Mountains,  and  empties 
into  Utah  Lake,  which  is  tril)utary  to  (ireat  Salt  Lake.  It 
is  about  100  miles  long,  and  of  sullicient  volume  without 
storagi!  to  irrigate  100  sq.  miles  of  land.  The  upper  por- 
tiim  of  the  stream  was  formerly  a  branch  of  Weber  river, 
but  was  turned  from  its  original  course  by  debris  deposited 
by  the  stream  itself  in  Kawas  valley.  It  was  one  of  the 
principal  tributaries  of  Lake  Bonni'ville.  and  built  the  large 
delta  on  which  the  town  of  Provo  now  stands.  Consult  Re- 
port on  A  rill  Ijiiuds.  hy  J.  W.  Powell  (Washington.  1879), 
and  Lii/i-e  lioiiiiei'ille  by  6.  K.  Gilbert  (.Monoi;raph  No.  1 
U.  S.  (ieol.  Surv.).  Israel  C.  Ki:sskll. 


Provost-marshal :  in  the  army  and  navy,  an  ofTicer  who 
attends  to  the  executicm  of  martial  law,  the  fulfillment  of 
sentences  by  courts  martial,  and  the  like.  He  preserves  or- 
der ill  towns  and  districts  under  military  control,  and  has 
certain  summary  powers  under  the  articles  of  war. 

Priidilcii,   Tueopiiile   JIitchell.   Ph.  B..   M.  D.  :    b.  at 

Jliddlcbury,  Coini..  July  7.  1N49:  educated  at  Yale  College, 
lleidell)crg,  Berlin,  and  Yieinia,  graduating  M.  I),  from  the 
Yale  Medical  School  in  1875;  devoted  himself  to  pathology, 
and  was  lecturer  on  normal  histology  at  Yale  Medical  School, 
leaving  there  in  1881  to  become  director  of  the  patholog- 
ical laboratory  of  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New 
York;  in  1892  was  elected  Professor  of  Pathology  in  the 
latter  college.  Among  his  works  are  Manual  of  formal 
Ilixluloff  1/  (iml);  with  Delafield,  a //«Hrfi(;oA-  of  Patholog- 
ical Anat  urn  ij  and  Ilintoloyy  (1885);  Story  of  the  Bacteria 
(1889) ;  Dua't  and  Us  Damjers  (1891) ;  and  Water  and  Ice 
(1891).  S.  T.  Armstrono. 

Priideii'tius,  Airelrs  Clemens:  poet;  b.  in  348  a.  d. 

in  Northern  Spain  ;  studied  law  ;  practiced  as  an  advocate ; 
held  .several  high  positions,  and  received  in  394  a  military 
appointment  at  Home  under  the  Emperor  Thcodosius,  but 
retired  afterward  from  [uiblic  life  and  devoted  himself  ex- 
clusively to  theological  studies  and  religious  poetry.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  unknown.  He  is  last  heard  from  in 
405.  Of  his  Liber  Cafliemerinon  and  Liber  Perisiephanon, 
two  collections  of  hymns,  several  pieces  became  very  popu- 
lar, were  translated  into  other  languages,  and  are  still  in 
use.  Among  his  other  books,  all  written  in  Latin  verse,  are 
Ilamartiyenia,  on  the  origin  of  sin  ;  Psycliomac/iia,  on  the 
contest  between  good  and  bad  in  the  human  sold;  Contra 
Symmachum  Libri  Duo.  to  persuade  the  Roman  emperor 
not  to  restore  the  altar  and  statue  of  Victory  cast  down  by 
Gratian.  There  are  complete  editions  of  his  works  by  Are- 
valus  (Rome,  1788;  rep,  Migne,  lix..  Ix.),  by  Obbarius  (Tu- 
bingen, 1845),  and  by  Dressel  (Leijizig,  1860).  A  new  re- 
vision of  the  text  is  promised  by  lluemcr  for  the  Vienna 
Corp.  Script.  Ecct.  Lat.  An  English  translation  of  the 
Catliemerinon  and  other  Poews  of  Prndentius  appeared  in 
1845  (London).  See  also  F.  St.  John  Thackeray.  Translations 
from  Prude}itius  (homUm.\H{\0:  Latin  text  and  verse  trans- 
lations on  opposite  pages;  notes,  introduction  on  life  and 
times,  etc.).  See  J.  Schinitz,  Die  Oedichte  des  Prndentius 
mid  ikre  Entstehungszeit  (Aachen,  1889),  and  A.  Piieeh.  Pru- 
dence: Etude  sur  la  poesie  lat.  chretienne  au  /)'•  siecte 
(Paris,  1888).  Revised  by  M.  Warre.n. 

Prudhommes,  Conseils  de  :  See  France  (Justice). 

Prune  [via  Fr.  from  Lat.  pru'num.  See  Plum]  :  the 
dried  fruit  of  certain  kinds  of  plums.  The  finest  sorts  are 
<ia\\c&  prunelles.  The  best-known  prunes  come  from  France, 
but  Germany  furnishes  large  amounts  of  a  coarse  kind. 
Turkey  and  Spain  also  cxiiort  prunes.  They  are  used  as  a 
mild  laxative  for  children,  and  are  extensively  employed  in 
cookery.  They  are  sometimes  dried  by  artificial  heat  and 
sometimes  in  the  sun.  or  perliaps  more  commonly  are  half 
dried  by  stoves,  the  process  being  finished  in  the  sun.  Cali- 
fornia is  an  impcn'tant  prune-iirodueing  country.  Its  prod- 
uct is  usually  lighter  colored  than  that  of  France,  because 
the  fruit  is  dried  without  heating  or  cooking.  Tlie  chief 
variety  used  there  for  the  commercial  art  icie  is  Prune  d'Agen. 
The  ]ilums  are  shaken  from  the  tree  and  dipped  in  lye  to 
facilitate  the  drying  process.        Revised  by  L.  II.  Baii,ey. 

Pruning  [prune  <  M.  Eng.  proinen,  from  0.  Fr.  pro- 
vain  >  Mod.  Fr.  prorin  <  Lat.  propa  go.  propa'ginis,  slip, 
cutting.  Cf.  Eng.  propayate]:  the  act  of  cutting  off  jiarts 
of  a  tree  or  shrub,  either  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a 
certain  shape  or  of  increasing  the  production  of  fruit  or 
timber,  or  improving  the  size  and  quality  of  the  fruit  and 
the  ease  of  picking  the  crop  and  caring  for  the  plant ;  also 
to  facilitate  the  fighting  of  insects  and  fungi.  Forest  trees 
are  pruned  to  increase  the  i|uantity  of  timlicr  in  the  trunk 
by  diminishing  the  side  branches,  beginning  at  th<'  lower 
part  of  the  tree.  In  fruit  trees  the  branches  are  thitmed 
out  in  order  to  admit  the  air  and  light  more  freely  to  the 
leaves,  blossoms,  and  fruits,  and  to  C(>ncentrate  and  increase 
the  nourishment  for  the  branches  which  remain.  In  prun- 
ing for  the  purpose  of  producing  fruit  it  is  necessary  to 
know  on  what  branches  and  buds  the  fruit  grows.  The 
grape  generally  bears  on  shoots  of  the  current  year  (see 
Gkai'K),  thi>  peach  on  those  of  the  nreceding  year,  and  the 
apple  and  pear  on  wood  of  two  or  three  years'  growth.  It 
is  generally  considered  that   early  spring  or  late  winter  is 


830 


PRURIGO 


PRUSSIA 


the  best  season  for  pruning.  For  explicit  directions,  seethe 
various  fruit  manuals.  The  only  special  volume  devoted  to 
the  pruning  of  fruits  in  the  U.  S.  is  Bailey's  American 
Grape  Training.  Revised  by  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Pruri'go  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  prurigo,  an  itching, 
deriv.  oi prurire.  itch]:  a  condition  of  the  skin,  character- 
ized by  intense  itching  and  by  the  presence  of  small  points 
filled  with  a  watery  liquid. 

Prussia  (in  Germ.  Prenxseii) :  the  principal  state  of  the 
German  empire,  comprising  almost  two-thirds  of  its  entire 
area. 

Boundaries,  Area,  and  Pliysical  Features. — It  extends 
from  lat.  49'  6'  45",  its  extreme  stiuthern  point  in  the  Rhine 
province,  to  o'y  o3'  40"  N.,  anil  from  Ion.  .5  50'  to  23'  50'  E. 
It  is  bounded  by  the  North  Sea,  Oldenburg,  Denmark,  Meck- 
lenburg, and  tlie  Baltic  on  t  he  N.,  by  Russia  on  the  E.,  the 
Austrian  emjiire.  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  Thuringia,  Ba- 
varia, Hesse,  and  Alsace-Lorraine  on  the  S..  and  by  Luxem- 
burg, Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands  on  the  VV.  It  includes 
also  the  detached  territory  of  Hohenzollern.  Among  the 
islands  belonging  to  it  are  Riigen.  Fehmarn.  and  Alsen  in 
the  Baltic  and  the  North  Frisian  islands  and  Heligoland  in 
the  North  Sea.  Its  area  is  134,468  sq.  miles.  The  principal 
part  of  the  kingdom  in  the  north  and  east  belongs  to  the 
great  northern  plain  of  Europe.  In  the  main  it  slopes 
gently  to  the  N.,  and  only  in  places  along  the  coast  is 
broken  by  sand-dunes,  the  highest  in  Europe.  At  Riigen 
chalk  cliffs  rise  abruptly  from  the  sea.  The  northeast 
coast  of  Schleswig-Holstcin  is  high  and  cut  in  by  numerous 
fjords.  Along  the  North  Sea,  however,  it  has  frequently 
been  necessary  to  build  dikes  to  protect  the  low-lying  land 
from  overflow.  In  the  south  and  southwest  the  surface  is  for 
the  most  part  hilly  or  mountainous.  The  principal  moun- 
tains are  the  Sudetic  range,  inchuling  the  Riescngebirge 
(5,255  ft.),  on  the  S.  toward  the  Ijorders  of  Austria,  further 
westward  the  Thuringian  and  Hartz  Mountains,  and  still 
further  to  the  W.  the  Teutoliurgerwald,  the  Weser  .Moun- 
tains, the  Taunus,  and  the  Westerwald.  Hohenzollern  lies 
in  the  Swabian  Alps.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Rhine. 
Enis,  Weser,  Elbe,  Oder,  Vistula  (Weichsel),  Niemen,  and 
their  affluents.  The  coast  has  a  number  of  bays,  among 
them  the  Kiel,  Riigen,  and  Pomeranian  Bays  and  the  great 
Gulf  of  Dantzic  so  called,  and  some  large  inlets,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  Stettin,  Frisohes.  and  Kurisches 
Haff.  There  are  small  lakes  in  the  north  and  northeast — in 
Holstein,  Pomerania,  West  and  East  Prussia — but  they  also 
occur  in  other  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

Climate,  Soil,  and  Products. — The  climate  of  Prussia  is 
temperate  and  on  the  whole  salubrious.  The  harvest  season 
is  short  in  the  northeast,  and  the  higher  regions  of  the  west 
are  characterized  by  raw  winds ;  the  more  protected  parts  of 
the  country,  however-,  adjoining  the  Sudetic  range.  Saxony, 
the  S.  of  Hanover,  and  the  middle  Rhine,  are  mild  and  equa- 
ble. The  mean  annual  temperature  of  East  Prussia  is  6-33°  C. ; 
about  the  confluence  of  the  Moselle  with  the  Rhine  it  reaches 
10'1°  C.  About  the  lower  waters  of  the  Vistula  and  the 
Oder  only  careful  draining  carried  on  through  centuries 
has  rendered  the  land  available.  The  highest  parts  of  this 
region  consist  for  the  most  part  of  sand  and  clay.  The 
northwestern  provinces  have  in  parts  dry  and  liar'ren  soil 
alternative  with  marsh  and  turf  moor.  "The  most  fertile 
portions  of  the  kingdom  are  in  the  province  of  Saxony,  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Sudetic  Mountains,  and  the  Thuringian, 
Weser,  Westerwald,  and  Taunus  uplands.  The  total  pro- 
ductive area  occupied  by  crops  and  forests  is  20,853,533 
hectares.  The  principal  agricultural  products,  arranged  in 
the  onlcr  of  the  area  occupied  in  their  production,  are  rye, 
hay,  oats,  potatoes,  wheat,  barley,  beetroot,  rape-seed,  flax, 
hops,  and  tobacco.  Fruit  is  grown  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  country.  Wine  is  produced  on  the  Rhine  and  the  Mo- 
selle, the  Saale  and  Unstrut,  and  in  Silesia.  Stock-raising 
is  extensively  carried  on.  Of  minerals  there  is  a  large  pro- 
duction. The  most  important  are  coal,  iron,  zinc,  le.ad,  cop- 
per, cobalt,  nickel,  and  rock-salt.  Amber  is  found  on  the 
Baltic  (^oast. 

Population  and  (iorernmetit.— The  jiopulation  of  Prussia 
in  1890  was  39.957.367.  divided  among  the  fourteen  provinces 
as  follows:  East  Prussia.  1,!)5H,663:  West  Prussia.  1,433,- 
681;  Pomerania,  1.520,889  :  Poseii,  1.751,642  :  Brandenburg, 
2,541,783;  Berlin,  1, .578. 794 :  Saxonv,  3,580,010;  Silesia. 
4,234,4.58:  Hanover,  3.278,361;  Schleswig-IIolstein,  1,219,- 
533;  Westphalia.  2,438,661;  Hesse-Nassau,  1,664,426;  Rhine 
province,  4,710,391  ;  Hohenzollern,  66.085.     With  respect  to 


nationality  26.438,070  arc  Germans,  2,872,197  are  Poles,  164,- 
163  are  Czechs.  139.399  are  Danes.  121,345  are  Lithuanians, 
89.786  are  Dutch  and  Frisians,  67,967  are  Wends,  and  64,441 
are  of  other  nationalities.  With  respect  to  creed  19,232,- 
449  are  Evangelical,  10.252,807  Roman  Catholics,  372,058 
Israelites,  and  95,349  belong  to  other  denominations.  The 
Roman  Catholics  are  settled  principally  in  tln'  Rhine  prov- 
ince. Silesia,  West|ilialia,  and  Posen.  In  1895  the  jiopulation 
was  31.349,795.  The  government  is  a  hereditary  constitution- 
al monarchy  administered  by  the  king  and  the  Landtag.  The 
latter  consists  of  two  chambers — the  Herren-haus,  or  House 
of  Lords,  and  the  Abgeordneten-haus,  or  House  of  Delegates, 
with  433  members  elected  for  three  years.  The  king  is  the 
German  emperor.  As  the  principal  state  in  the  empire, 
Prussia  has  17  representatives  in  the  Bundesrath  and  2-M 
members  in  the  Reichstag.     See  German  Empiue. 

Army,  Finance,  and  Education. — Tlie  Prussian  army  forms 
the  principal  part  of  the  army  of  the  empire.  Including  the 
contingents  of  the  minor  states,  but  exclusive  of  tho  armies 
of  Saxony.  Bavaria,  and  Wiirtemberg,  its  peace  footing  con- 
sists of  376,841  men  in  the  different  branches  of  the  service, 
with  19.382  officers,  surgeons,  etc.  The  state  of  its  finances, 
according  to  the  budget  of  1893-94,  was  as  follows:  Total 
receipts.  1,893,313,260  marks,  the  principal  items  of  which 
were  direct  taxation,  135,166,000  ;  indirect  taxes,  71,164,000; 
mines  and  salines,  138,361,229;  railways,  938,732,081;  do- 
mains and  forests,  88,773,734 ;  total  national  debt,  6,243,773,- 
430  marks,  with  a  sinking  fund  of  17.079,453  marks.  The 
public  educational  system  has  reached  a  particularly  high 
standard  of  development.  Education  is  general,  and  in  the 
elementary  schools  compvdsory.  There  were  (1891-93)  34,742 
public  elementary  schools,  606  public  middle  schools,  315 
gymnasiums,  pro-gymnasiums,  and  Real  [iro-gymnasiums, 
122  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers,  10  universities  (with 
14,635  matriculated  students),  and  various  institutions  for 
special  and  technical  training. 

3Iamifactures,  etc. — Prussia  is  one  of  the  greatest  manu- 
facturing countries  of  Europe.  Its  iron  industry  is  among 
the  foremost  in  the  world ;  it  also  yields  about  half  of  the 
world's  product  of  zinc.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
metallic  wares,  machinery,  cotton  goods,  silk,  velvet,  linen, 
cloth,  paper,  and  leather.  Its  exports  include  manufac- 
tured goods  of  great  variety,  grain,  timber,  wool,  live 
stock,  etc.  In  1893  Prussia  had  18.367  miles  of  railways, 
about  90  per  cent,  of  which  is  the  property  of  the  state. 
Of  internal  waterways  all  the  rivers  named  are  navigable, 
and  there  are  in  addition  several  canals. 

History. — A  Prussian  peojile  (Pi-uzi,  Prutheni),  akin  to 
the  Letts  and  Lithuanians,  first  appeared  in  history  near 
the  end  of  the  tenth  century  in  the  region  to  the  E.  of  the 
Vistula.  In  that  same  century  Adalbert,  Bishop  of  Prague, 
endeavored  to  convert  them  to  Christianity,  but  was  killed 
by  them  in  997.  In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  they 
were  involved  in  conflicts  with  the  Poles,  who  failed  ti> 
effect  a  conquest ;  but  in  1283  the  Teutonic  Order  con- 
quered the  country.  In  1309  JIarienburg  became  the  head- 
quarters of  the  order.  For  more  than  200  years  the  Teu- 
tonic Order  ruled  the  country,  but  ultimately  it  broke  down 
thi-ough  the  enmity  of  Poland  and  Lithuania  and  its  own 
internal  deterioration.  By  the  peace  of  Tliorn  (1466)  the 
whole  country  W.  of  the  Vistula  was  ceded  to  Poland,  and 
her  sovereignty  was  acknowledged  over  the  remainder.  In 
1511  Albrecht,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  of  the  family  of 
Hohenzollern,  was  elected  grand  master  and  in  1525  he  dis- 
solved the  order  and  transformed  the  greater  part  of  East 
Prussia  and  a  small  part  of  West  Prussia  into  a  temporal 
hereditary  dukedom.  The  connection  between  the  duke- 
dom and  Brandenburg  thus  begun  was  not,  however,  finally 
accomplished  until  after  the  death  of  Duke  Albrecht  Fried- 
rich  (l()lH),and  the  consequent  extinction  of  the  lateral  line, 
when  the  dukedom  fell  to  the  electoral  house  of  Branden- 
burg. It  continued,  however,  a  fief  of  the  Polish  crown 
until  1656,  in  the  time  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  the  Great 
Elector,  whose  long  and  successful  reign  (1640-88)  marks 
the  real  beginning  of  the  Prussian  .state. 

For  thi'  subsei|ucnt  history  of  Prussia,  see  German  Em- 
pire {llist(iri/).:\nd  for  fui'llicr  details  see  the  biographiesof 
her  kings — Frederi<'k  William  I.,  II.,  HI.,  and  IV.,  Frederick 
IL,  William  I.,  and  the  articles  on  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
the  Franto-Ger.man  War,  and  Napoleon  I. 

BiHLiooRAPHY. — General  works:  Stenzel.  Oeschiclite  des 
preus.<<isclien  Slaatis  (5  vols.,  Gotha.  1831-54):  Elierty,  Ge- 
sc/iichte  des  preussi,<!chen  Staates  (7  vols.,  Breslau,  1873) ; 
Pierson,  Preussisclie    Geschichte    (4th   ed.  2  vols.,  Berlin, 


PRUSSIAN   BLUE 


PSALMODY 


831 


1881) ;  Joh.  Gust.  Droyscii,  Geschichfe  der  preussischen  Poli- 
tik  (5  vols,  in  14,  Leipzig,  1868-8(i).  Works  on  special 
|)eriods:  Kanke,  JItmoirs  of  the  Iluiife  of  lirandenbiiry,  and 
History  of  Pniasid  during  the  Seveiiteenl/i  and  Eiyliteenlh 
Centuries  (translated  froin  tlio  (ieriiian  by  Sir  Alexander 
and  Lady  Duff  Gordon,  3  vols.,  London,  18411),  and  iJenk- 
viirdigkeiten  ile.t  Stdulxkanzters,  Fiirsten  von  Hardenl>erg(y> 
vols.,  ijcipzig,  1877):  Thomas  ('&r\y\e.  History  of  Friedrirh 
the  Second,  called  Frederick  the  Great  (6  vols..  New  York, 
1858-66):  Hillebrand,  La  Prusse  Contemporaine  et  ses  Iii- 
stitutiotis  (Paris,  186T) :  Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stein  ; 
or  Oermany  and  Prussia  in  the  Napoleonic  Age  (3  vols., 
London  and  Hoston.  187!)).  William  H.  Carpenter. 

Prussian  Hlue,  or  Rei'liii  Hliio:  ferric  ferrocyani<le, 
Fe.Cfva.  or  FctCvib.  It  is  produced  by  precipitating  ferric 
chloride  or  sulphate  with  potassium  ferrocyanide :  or  by 
precipitating  the  ferrous  sulphate  (copperas)  with  the  same 
reagent,  and  oxidizing  the  product  by  some  convenient 
niethoil.  It  is  intensely  blue,  and  is  used  as  a  pigment.  Its 
solution  in  oxalic  acid  is  used  as  a  blue  ink  aiul  for  bluing 
linen,  etc.  It  is  used  in  dyeing  and  calico-printing,  being 
formed  in  the  cloth.     See  Calico-prixtixc!. 

Priissiiiu  Carp :  See  Gibel. 

Prussian  Language,  Old :  See  Old  Prissia.n  Laxouagic 
and  Lettic  Race,  The. 

Prussic  .\ci(l:  See  HYDRorvAXic  Acid. 

Priitll:  a  tributary  of  the  Daindie.  It  rises  on  the  north- 
east side  of  the  Carpathian  Jlountains  in  Galicia,  runs 
'  through  Bukowina.  forms  tlie  boinidary  between  Roumania 
and  Russia,  and  enters  the  Daiuibe  at  Reni,  13  miles  below 
Galatz,  after  a  course  of  about  520  miles.  It  becomes  navi- 
gable from  near  Jassy. 
I  Priitz,  Robert  Edvard  :  poet:  b.  at  Stettin,  Prussia,  May 

30,  1816:  studied  philology,  philosophy,  and  history  at  Ber- 
lin. Breslau,  and  Halle,  and  afterward  edited  with  Arnold 
Ruge  the  Hallesclien  Jahrbiicher.  a  periodical  which  advo- 
cated liberal  ideas  in  science,  religion,  and  politics.  Owing 
to  his  railical  views  he  was  for  a  long  time  excluded  from 
the  academic  career  until  in  1849  he  became  Professor  of 
Literature  at  the  University  of  Ilalle.  He  soon  resigned  this 
position,  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  literary  and  scien- 
tific pursuits.  As  a  poet  Prutz  belongs  to  the  patriotic 
bards  who.  previous  to  1848,  fought  for  greater  political  lib- 
erty in  Germany.  Besides  the  (iedichte  (1849),  Aus  der 
Heimat  (1858),  Herbstrosen  (1865),  he  published  several 
dramas  filled  with  the  same  patriotic  spirit  (Moritz  von 
Sachsen,  Erich  der  Bauernkonig).  and  a  number  of  novels 
that  disclose  a  great  talent  for  satire.  His  researches  in 
I  he  history  of  German  literature,  which  are  embodied  in 
the  monographs  Der  Gottinger  Hichterbund  (1841),  6^6- 
svhichte  des  deutschen  Journalismus  (1845),  Vorlesungen 
liber  die  Geschichte  des  deutschen  Theaters  (1847),  have  in- 
sured Prutz  a  permanent  position  in  the  history  of  literature. 
He  also  exerted  great  influence  on  the  literary  production 
of  his  time  as  a  critic  in  the  Deutsche  JIuseuin,  a  literary 
]ieriodieal  which  he  edited  1851-66.  D.  at  Stellin,  .tunc  21, 
1873.  Julius  Golbel. 

Pryniie,  William:  Puritan  writer  and  agitator:  b.  at 
Swanswick,  Somersetshire.  Kngland.in  KiOO:  slu<lied  at  Oriel 
( 'ollcge, Oxford, and graduateil  1630:  studied  lawat  Lincoln's 
Inn;  was  converted  to  Puritanism  by  Dr.  .John  Preston,  lec- 
turer at  that  inn  ;  in  1633  issued  his  celebratctl  Histrio-Mas- 
lix,  the  Player's  Scourge,  which  was  construeil  into  a  libel 
upon  the  (pieen ;  was  brought  before  the  Star  ('handier, 
fined  £.5,000,  expelled  from  the  L'niversitv  of  Oxford  and 
from  Lincoln's  Inn,  set  on  the  pillory  at  Westminster  and 
Cheapside,  had  both  ears  cut  oil,  and  was  sentenced  to  im- 
prisonment for  life.  Having  issued  from  his  prison  a  tract 
entitled  Xews  from  Ipswich,  he  was  again  fined  and  pil- 
loried, had  the  letters  S.  L.  ("  Seditious  Ijibeler  ")  burned 
uiion  his  cheek,  was  imprisoned  in  close  confinement  in 
f'aernarvon  Castle,  and  afterward  in  the  castle  of  Mont 
<  »rgueil  in  the  island  of  Jersey.  In  1640  Prynne  was  re- 
leased by  warrant  from  the  House  of  Comtnons.  HIected  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  Newport,  he  conducted  the  pro- 
ceedings against  Laud  :  became  recorder  of  Bath  1617:  took 
.in  active  part  in  favor  of  the  Presbyterians  in  their  struggle 
with  the  Independents:  advocated  a  reconciliation  between 
Parliament  and  the  king:  was  arrested  for  denying  the  su- 
prennicy  of  Parliament  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  .1  Brief  J fe- 
ftirnto  (\(}4H):  was  with  others  (■jected  from  Parlianu'ut  by 
I  he  armv  Dec.  6,  1648:  attacked  Cromwell  and  the  armv  in 


his  writings;  was  again  imprisoned  in  1650  and  1651;  ad- 
vocated the  restoration  of  Charles  II.;  was  elected  to  the 
new  Parliament  1660;  was  made  keeper  of  the  records  in  the 
Tower;  was  repriniandeil  by  the  House  of  Commons  1661 
for  new  offenses  in  his  writings;  pidilished  a  vast  number 
of  political,  legal,  and  antitjuarian  treatises.  D.  in  London, 
Oct.  34,  1669. 

Pryor,  Koger  Atkix.sox,  LL.  I) :  lawyer;  b.  near  Peters- 
burg, Va.,  July  19,  1838;  graduated  at  University  of  Vir- 
ginia 1848;  studied  law;  became  connected  with  the  press  at 
Petersburg  1851 ;  was  an  editor  of  the  Washington  Union 
1852  and  of  the  Richmond  Enquirer  1853 ;  went  as  s|iecial 
commissioner  to  (Jreece  1855:  edited  a  newspaper  entitled 
The  South  18,56-67;  sat  in  Congress  1857-59;  was  again 
elected  in  1860.  but  did  not  take  his  seat  on  account  of  the 
secession  of  Virgiiua  ;  was  chosen  to  the  [irovisional  con- 
gress of  the  Confederate  States  at  Montgomery,  and  to  the 
first  regular  Confederate  congress;  entered  the  Confederate 
army  as  colonel  of  the  Third  Virginia  Regiment ;  was  made 
brigudier-general  after  the  battle  of  Williamsburg:  w'as  taken 
prisoner  Nov.,  1864,  and  imprisoned  in  Fort  Lafayette,  but 
was  released  after  four  months' delentioiL  In  1865  began 
the  practice  of  law  in  the  city  of  New  York,  devoting  him- 
self to  his  practice  until  in  1890  he  was  apjiointed  judge  of 
the  court  of  common  pleas,  to  which  office  he  was  elected  in 
1891  for  a  term  of  fourteen  years.  By  virtue  of  the  revised 
conslitution  of  1894  he  becomes  a  ju.stice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  on  and  after  Jan.  1, 1896,  for  the  remainder  of  his  term 
of  fourteen  years,  the  court  of  common  jileas  being  then 
abolished.  Revised  by  F.  Sturges  Allen. 

Przemysl,  pzheni'is'l :  town  ;  in  the  province  of  Galicia, 
Austria;  on  the  river  San,  an  affluent  of  the  \'istula;  61 
miles  by  rail  W.  of  Lendjerg  (see  maii  of  Austria-Hungary, 
ref.  3-J).  It  is  the  see  of  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a  United 
Greek  bishop,  has  many  educational  and  benevolent  institu- 
tions, and  manufactures  of  spirits,  machinery,  etc.  Since 
1874  it  has  been  stronglv  fortified.  Pop.  of  the  commune 
(1890)  :!5,619. 

Psalinaiia'zar.  (teorue:  the  assumed  name  of  a  literary 
impostor,  whose  real  name  and  early  history  have  remaim-d 
unknown.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  in  the  south 
of  France  in  1679;  received  a  good  education  under  Jesuit 
instructors;  led  for  some  time  a  vagrant  life,  roaming 
Ihripugh  France,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands  ;  ultimately 
attracted  the  attention  of  Mr.  Innes.  chaplain  of  a  Scotch 
regiment  at  Sluys,  Holland,  who  succeeded  (as  he  supposed) 
in  converting  Psalmanazar  to  Chrisliaiuty,  took  him  to 
London,  and  presented  him  to  Bishoji  Compton  and  others 
as  a  native  of  Formosa.  It  is  uncertain  whether  Innes  was 
a  dupe  or  an  accomplice  in  this  alVair,  but  he  received  pro- 
motion for  his  n'lissionary  zeal,  and  Psalmanazar  was  en- 
couraged to  draw  up  a  History  and  Description  of  the 
Island  of  Formosa  off  the  Coast  of  China  (1704),  illustrated 
with  many  engravings  and  with  co|iious  specimens  of  the 
pretended  Formosan  language,  into  which  he  translated 
the  Catechism  of  the  Church  of  Kngland.  P.salmanazar 
was  sent  to  Oxford,  but  soon  repented  of  and  confessed  his 
imposture,  applied  himself  to  study,  became  skilled  in  Ori- 
ental history  and  literature,  and  sjient  lu'arly  half  a  century 
in  Lcmdon,  chiefly  occupied  in  writing  for  the  booksellers. 
He  completed  Palmer's  History  of  Printing,  wvole  se\eTiil 
volumes  of  the  Universal  History,  and  led  an  exemplary 
life.  D.  in  London.  May  3, 1763.  His  autobiographical  Me- 
moirs apiieared  in  1764. 

Psalmody  [via  O.  Fr.  and  J>at.,  from  Or.  ^^aKiJUfUa,  liter., 
singing  of  psalms  ;  if/oX^ds.  psalm  +  ySii,  song,  singing] :  as 
usually  defined,  the  act.  art,  or  practice  of  singing  psalms: 
but  properly,  in  a  wider  sense,  not  only  the  vocal  rendering 
of  the  songs  used  in  public  worship,  but  also  the  study  of 
their  origin  and  history,  as  well  as  of  the  tunes  to  which 
they  are  sung.  Psalmody  may  be  considered  as  ancient  and 
modern.  In  the  former  the  songs  were  all  rhythmical,  and 
necessarily  performed  in  Ihe  chanting  or  recitative  style. 

That  God  was  worshiped  publicly  in  song  before  David's 
time  is  clear,  not  only  from  the  inherent  probability  of  such 
prai.se.  but  also  from  Ihe  readiness  and  facility  with  which 
the  responsive  hymn  of  male  and  female  voices  was  sung 
after  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea.  No  direction,  however, 
was  given  for  such  worship  in  the  Law.  It  was  David,  the 
Psalniodist  as  well  as  the  Psalmist  of  Ihe  OM  Testament, 
who  instituted  the  formal,  stated,  liturgical  services  of 
praise.  He  had  a  trained  choir  of  4,000  Levites,  who,  how- 
ever, came  out  in  full  force  onlv  on  great  occasions.     Over 


832 


PSALMS 


PSAMMETIC'HUS  I. 


these  were  three  leaders — Heman,  Asaph,  and  Ethan  or 
Jeduthun— wlio  directed  them  by  beating  time  npnn  cym- 
bals. The  treble  (Alamoth,  1  Chnin.  xv.  20)  was  led  by  the 
harps  ("  psalteries "  in  the  English  version),  and  the  bass 
{Sheminith,  1  Chron.  xv.  21),  not  in  havmony,  but  simply  an 
octave  lower,  by  lyres  or  citharas  (■'  harps "  in  our  ver- 
sion). Many,  though  not  nearly  all,  of  the  Psalms  of 
David  and  his  followers  were  composed  partly  for  use  in 
this  service,  and  the  superscriptions  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber have  reference  to  this  design.  In  some  of  these  allusion 
is  made  to  the  musical  instruments  by  which  they  were  to 
be  accompanied  ;  in  others  to  the  pitch  (treble  or  bass)  in 
which  they  were  to  be  sung ;  and  in  a  few  to  some  faunliar 
tune  to  which  they  were  to  be  adapted.  Some  of  the 
Psalms  give  evidence  of  adaptation  to  responsive  singing, 
which  was  usually  done  by  the  two  divisions  of  the  choir, 
though  sometimes^  as  in  Ps.  xxiv.,  the  service  was  probably 
divided  between  the  Levites  and  the  people.  The  latter  did 
not  commonly  join  in  the  singing,  except,  apparently,  in 
retrains  and  familiar  formulas  of  praise,  where  they  were 
enjoined  to  come  out  in  full  chorus.  Some  alterations  in 
matters  of  detail  were  made  in  the  service  of  praise  in  the 
second  temple,  the  system  being  extended  also,  so  as,  for  ex- 
ample, to  have  one  psalm  appropriated  to  each  day  of  the 
week. 

As  to  the  musical  system  of  the  ancient  Jews,  nothing 
definite  is  known.  The  primary  design  of  the  accents  in 
the  Hebrew  Psalter  is  that  of  musical  notation,  but  these 
are  no  longer  understood  except  in  their  secondary  use  of 
interpunction.  It  is  possible  that  the  synagogue-woi-ship  of 
later  times  and  the  old  Christian  chants  retain  traces  of  the 
simple  recitative  melodies  of  the  ancient  temple. 

In  the  New  Testament  little  is  said  of  praise  in  public 
worship.  The  temple-service  was  of  course  maintained, 
with  gradual  modifications,  until  the  dispersion.  Hearty 
and  unrestrained  singing,  being  a  necessary  part  of  Chris- 
tian worship,  is  often  enjoined  in  tlie  Epistles.  The  serv- 
ices were  no  doubt  a  selection  from  the  temple-psalms,  with 
the  old  tunes,  which  held  a  place  far  into  the  history  of  the 
early  Church.  To  these  were  gradually  added  Cliristian 
hymns,  which  were  at  first  modeled  after  the  psalms,  and 
were  doubtless  set  to  the  same  simple  music.  The  Syrian 
Church  had  a  larger  hymnology  and  more  elaborate  music 
than  its  sister  churches. 

The  development  of  psalmody  in  modern  times  in  accord- 
ance with  the  needs  of  the  Church  has  been  due  chiefly  to 
two  causes — the  gradually  increasing  and  ultimately  pre- 
dominant use  of  metrical  "songs  as  supplementing  the  old 
rhythmical  forms,  with  a  corresponding  change  in  the  tunes, 
wliich  improved  with  tlie  progress  of  musical  science,  and 
the  growth  of  an  hymnology  in  wliieh  the  manifold  experi- 
ences of  Christians  liave  found  full  expression.  Still,  many 
of  the  psalms  have  always  been  retained  in  essential  sub- 
stance, and  have  remained  the  best  source  of  inspiration  and 
culture  for  good  hymn-writers.  Music  became  a  regularly 
constituted  portion  of  church-service  in  the  fourth  century. 
Its  early  development  in  the  Western  Church  was  largely 
due  to  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  and  its  progress  during 
the  Middle  Ages  to  the  improvements  effected  by  Pope 
Gregory  I.  From  them  the  names  of  the  two  old  standarii 
styles  of  chanting  have  been  deiived.  Until  the  Reforma- 
tion sacred  nmsic  was  under  the  control  of  the  clergy. 
Metrical  psalmody  with  harmony  probably  arose  long  before 
that  era  in  Germany,  l)ut  had  not  made  much  general  prog- 
ress. The  efforts  of  Luther  and  many  of  his  helpers,  by 
the  adaptation  of  secidar  airs  and  the  composition  of  new 
tunes,  resulted  in  a  widespread  enthusiastic  interest  in  sa- 
cred music  among  tlie  Protestants  in  that  country.  Ever 
since,  also,  it  luis  been  from  Germany  that  tlie  greatest 
influence  and  the  healthiest  tone  have  been  given  to  tlie 
musical  department  of  [isalmody.  In  those  lands  where  the 
influence  of  Geneva  has  had  chief  control,  as  most  conspicu- 
ously in  Scotland,  tliis  part  of  worship  has  been  largely  in- 
fluenced by  a  tendency  to  plainness  and  severe  simplicity 
in  both  words  and  music ;  yet  congregational  singing  is 
hearty  and  general.  J.  P.  McCurdy. 

Psalms  [M.  Eng.y0.9«/w..w/m  <  0.  Eng.sea?TO,«n/m,  early 
loan-word  from  Lat.  p.vdwtix  (cf.  Fr.  psnume)  —  Gr.  i//a\jmis, 
song  to  the  harp,  deriv.  of  tfiaWetv,  twitch,  play  astringcd  in- 
strument]: tlie  title  given  in  lhi>  Scptuagint  version  to  the 
book  in  the  can(m  which  the  Ilrlirews  called  the  Praise 
Songs,  and  in  English  the  Psalter.  They  are  sometimes  called 
the  Psalms  of  David,  as  if  all  or  the  majority  of  the  150  had 


been  composed  by  him.  In  the  Hebrew  Bible  we  flnd  the 
whole  collection  divided  into  five  books  (i.-xli. ;  xlii.-lxxii. ; 
Ixxiii.-lxxxix. :  xc.-cvi. ;  cvii.-cl.) — a  division  which  assumed 
its  final  shape  before  the  completion  of  the  Old  Testament 
canon,  but  was  only  accomplished  after  several  hands  at 
various  periods  had  helped  toward  the  permanent  arrange- 
ment. This  partition  is  doubtless  a  designed  correspond- 
ence with  the  five  books  of  the  Law.  In  the  places  assigned 
to  the  several  psalms  also  there  is  evidence  of  careful  ar- 
rangement according  to  principles  more  or  less  obvious, 
such  as  a  tendency  to  place  in  the  same  group  compositions 
of  the  same  individual,  or  of  the  same  period,  or  upon  the 
same  general  subject,  or  written  in  the  same  style,  or  for  a 
similar  liturgical  purpose. 

As  to  the  authorship  of  the  several  poems  the  superscrip- 
tions traditionally  attached  to  many  of  them  are  the  only 
guide.  Seventy-three  of  the  psalms  are  thus  assigned  to 
David,  and  in  nearly  every  case  the  correctness  of  the  title 
is  attested  by  strong  evidence  in  their  matter  and  style. 
The  same  criteria  enable  us  to  assign  with  great  confi- 
dence a  certain  number  of  the  anonymous  psalms  to  the 
same  author,  making  his  whole  contribution  to  be  about 
eighty.  Twelve  are  ascribed  to  the  singer  Asaph,  wliich 
designation  also  included  certain  of  his  descendants  who 
inherited  his  poetical  and  musical  gifts.  Thirteen  or  four- 
teen proceeded  from  the  "  sons  of  Korah."  Two  were  writ- 
ten by  Solomon  (Ixxii.,  cxxvii.,  in  whose  superscriptions  we 
should  read  "  of  "  and  not  "  for,"  as  in  the  Revised  Version). 
Gne,  Ps.  xc,  is  accredited  to  Moses.  It  is  difficult  or  im- 
possible to  assign  the  remaining  psalms  with  certainty  to 
their  true  authors.  The  dominant  school  of  Hebrew  critics 
questions  the  correctness  of  these  traditional  ascriptions, 
and  assigns  almost  all  the  psalms  to  a  period  long  after 
David — indeed,  some  scholars  set  the  whole  collection  in  the 
Maccabean  era. 

As  to  the  matter  of  the  Psalms,  it  must  suffice  here  to  say 
that  they  were  the  outflow  of  the  sjiiritual  life  of  the  most 
highly  endowed  natures  of  a  long  period  of  Israel's  history. 
Thus  they  contain  a  record  of  their  adoration,  confessions, 
petitions,  and  aspirations  as  these  were  conditioned,  on  the 
one  hand,  by  their  conceptions  and  knowledge  of  God  and 
of  his  dealings  with  men,  and  on  the  other  by  their  own 
inner  history  and  outward  circumstances.  We  find  in  the 
Psalms  a  vital  appreciation  of  the  ideas  of  God  and  Provi- 
dence that  had  been  unfolded  in  the  teachings  of  the  Law, 
and  the  most  practical  illustrations  of  the  duty  and  privi- 
lege of  worship  and  obedience.  And  so  fresh,  various,  ju.st, 
and  profound  are  their  views  of  the  spirituality,  holiness, 
and  goodness  of  God,  and  their  representations  of  the  yearn- 
ings, conflicts,  and  triumphs  of  the  earnest  soul,  that  the 
Psalter  has  not  only  prompted  and  made  valuable  all  the 
hymnology  of  the  Church,  but  has  always  been  the  chosen 
consoler  and  counselor  of  the  Christian  heart.  See  Psalm- 
ody. 

Literature. — Of  modern  commentators  in  English  on 
the  Psalms  may  be  recommended  J.  A.  Alexander  (.3  vols., 
New  York.  185()) :  J.  M.  Neale  and  R.  F.  Littledale  (4  vols., 
London,  4th  ed.  1884,  rich  in  patristics) :  J.  J.  S.  Perowne 
(3  vols..  6th  ed.  1886,  the  best,  on  the  whole) ;  C.  II.  Spurgeon 
(7  vols.,  1870-84,  strong  in  Puritan  and  pithy  comment) ;  A. 
Maclaren  (in  Expositors  Bible,  3  vols.,  1894). 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Psalms  of  Zoroaster:  designation  of  the  (fdfhas  or 
metrical  selections  in  the  Avesta  {q.  v.),  containing  the 
teachings,  exhortations,  and  revelations  of  Zoroaster,  the 
prophet  of  ancient  Iran.  The  Gathas  are  five  in  number, 
and  they  comprise  seventeen  short  psalms,  averaging  about 
a  dozen'stanzas  each.  The  fivefold  grouping  is  based  upon 
the  meters  in  which  they  are  composed.  The  pith  of  Zo- 
roastrianism  is  contained  in  these  psalmodic  selections:  the 
prophet  exhorts  men  to  eschew  evil  and  choose  the  good, 
the  kingdom  of  light  rather  than  the  kingdom  of  darkness, 
and  their  reward  shall  be  eternal.  He  enunciates  the  doc- 
trine of  dualism  in  a  sort  of  Iranian  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 
The  Gathas  are  the  oldest  part  of  the  Avesta,  and  the  lan- 
guage in  which  they  are  written  is  more  archaic  than  that 
used  elsewhere  in  the  ancient  sacred  books  of  the  Parsis. 
See  Zoroaster.  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

Psamnietioluis  I.  (Egypt.  Psemthel):  the  first  king  of 
the  twenty-sixth  Egyptiaii  dynasty  (666-612  B.  c).  By  mar- 
riage he  gained  alliance  with  the  Ethiopians  of  Nai'ata 
{q.  v.),  and  by  the  aid  of  Ionian  and  Carian  mercenaries  he 
overthrew  the  Assyrian  governors  of  the  Delta  region  who 


PSARA 


PSEUDEPIGRAPHA 


833 


ipal of . 

was  to  make  Ef^vpt  stroiifj  at  home,  hence  he  encounijied 
Greek  immigration  (see  Xaucratis  and  Tahpaxuks),  giving 
the  colonists  excUisive  trmle  privileges.  He  buill  largely  at 
various  places,  such  as  Ileliopolis,  Meniles,  Memphis,  Aby- 
dos,  and  Thebes,  and  during  his  roign  a  very  remarkable 
renaissance  in  art  occurred.  He  wiis  succeeded  by  Xkciio 
((/.  v.).  who  continued  the  same  policy.  Psauiinctichus  II. 
and  Psainraetichus  111.  were  rulers  of  small  importance. 
The  latter  was  defeated  at  I'clusium  by  Canibyses,  who  set 
up  the  twenty-seventh  or  Persian  dynasty  in  .527  n.  c. 

"  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Psa'ra,  or  Ip'sara:  a  small  island  in  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago, \V.  of  Scio,  belonging  to  Turkey.  It  is  rocky  and 
barren,  but  was  densely  peopled  and  very  prosperous  before 
the  Greek  revolution,  but  liaving  been  taken  by  the  Turks 
in  1824  its  commerce  was  destroyed,  its  agriculture  fell  into 
decay,  and  its  po|)iilation  decreased  very  much.  At  present 
its  inhabitants  live  mostly  by  fishing. 

Psendppis'raplia  [.Mod.  Ijat.  =  Gr.  <f/fvSeniypa(pa.  ncut. 
plur.  of  i(ifvSejTiypa<f>os.  falsely  inscriljed  or  ascribed;  \|/6uoijs, 
false  +  iirfypa<peif.  inscribe;  e'lri,  on  +  ypdipfiv,  write):  those 
writings  whicli  bear  the  names  of  Old  or  New  Testament 
characters  as  authors  or  principal  subjects,  but  which  never 
formed  part  of  the  canon,  either  Hebrew  or  Christian.  They 
were  produced  between  300  n.  c.  and  300  a.  d.  Those  wliich 
antedate  Christ  are  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Apocrypha 
{q.  V.)  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  have  a  place  in  the 
Septuagint  translation  and  in  the  canon  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches,  and  were  formerly  printed  along  with  the 
canonical  Scriptures  in  English  Bibles.     These  Ijooks  are : 

I.  and  II.  Esdras,  Tobit,  .Judith.  The  Rest  of  Esther,  Wis- 
dom, Ecclesia-sticus,  Baruch  with  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah, 
The  Song  of  the  Tliree  Children,  The  Story  of  Susanna,  The 
Idol  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  The  Prayer  of  Mamtsses,  I.  and 

II.  Maccabees.  As  no  distinction  is  made  between  the  Xew 
Testament  Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha,  since  all  alike 
are  and  have  always  been  uncanonical.  both  will  be  treated 
in  this  article  under  tile  term  "  Apocrypha."  Tliese  pseu- 
depigrapha are  worthless  as  history  of  the  time  they  pretend 
to  date  from,  yet  have  a  certain  value  as  specimens  of  the 
thought  of  the  times  in  wliich  they  were  produced.  They 
were  surely  not  written  by  Ihe  authors  they  claim,  yet  are 
not  on  that  account  to  be  classed  as  forgeries,  in  the  mod- 
ern sense  of  the  term,  since  it  was  allowaljle  then  to  issue 
writings  under  the  name  of  some  well-known  man  of  a  past 
age.  Thus  in  the  Hebrew  caiKin  the  name  Solomon  is  at- 
tached to  writings  or  parts  of  writings  with  which  he  had 
nothing  to  do.  So,  in  the  nearly  unanimous  judgment  of 
Hebrew  scholars,  is  it  with  the  names  Moses,  David,  Isaiah, 
Zechariah,  and  others.  The  oliject  of  such  attribution  was 
to  gain  the  wider  currency  for  the  real  author's  views.  The 
device  was  of  a  very  naive  kind. 

1.  Pseuuepkirapha  ok  thk  Old  Testament. — The  best 
collection  is  still  that  of  .J.  A.  Fabricius,  Codex  pseudejiig- 
raphus  Veteris  Texfamenfi  (2d  ed.  Hamburg,  1722).  O.  F. 
P^ritzsche,  as  appendi.K  to  his  Li/>ri  apncryphi  Veteris  TcMa- 
menti  G^rwce  (Leipzig,  1871).  gives  these  Pseudepigrapha; 
The  Psalms  of  Solomon,  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Book  of 
Esdras,  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  and  the  Assumption  of 
Moses.  Migne  devotes  the  greater  part  of  the  (irst  volume 
of  his  Dietiannaire  dex  A/iDcryp/ii's  (Paris.  ls.")G.  2  vols., 
small  folio)  to  the  Old  Testament  Pseudepigrapha,  and  gives 
annotated  French  translations  of  the  Book  of  Ad.iiii.  the 
Book  of  the  Conllict  of  Adam,  the  Book  of  Enoch.  Third 
and  Fourth  Esdras,  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  the  Book  of 
Joseph,  Third  and  Fourth  Maccabees,  Prayer  of  Manasses, 
the  Testament  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  the  Psalms  of 
Solomon,  Odes  of  Solomon,  Letters  of  Solomon.  E.  C.  Bi.s- 
sell,  in  his  commentary  on  the  Apocrypha  in  thc^  Lange 
Series,  gives  a  revised  English  translation  of  all  the  .Vpocry- 
pha  mentioned  above,  and  an  account  of  Fourth  anil  Fifth 
Maccabees,  the  Book  of  Enoch,  the  Sibylline  Oracles,  the 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  the  P.salms  of  Solomon,  the  Assump- 
tion of  Moses,  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah. the  Book  of  Jubilees, 
and  the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs.  The  Five 
Books  of  (he  Maccabees  in  English  translation  were  edited 
by  Henry  Cotton,  0.\ford.  ls;i2  (but  still  in  print).  A  trans- 
lation of  the  Ethiopic  Apocrypha,  which  will  include  some 
Pseudepigrapha,  into  French  lias  been  begun  (Paris,  18!)3. 
seq.).  The  variations  in  the  numeration  of  Esdras,  or  Ezra, 
comes  from  the  fact  that  the  Roman  Church,  following  the 
Vulgate,  calls  Ezra  and  Neheraiah  respectively  I.  and  II. 
337 


Esdras.  It  also  clas.ses  as  canonical  some  books  which  Prot- 
estants call  apocryphal.  The  Pseudepigrapha,  as  a  whole, 
have  been  recently  studied  by  W.  J.  Deanc,  Pseudepigrapha 
(Edinburgh,  1891),  who  discusses  the  Psalter  of  Solomon,  the 
Book  of  Enoch,  the  Assumption  of  Moses,  llie  Apocalypse 
of  Baruch,  the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  the 
Book  of  Jubilees,  the  Ascension  of  Isaiali.  and  the  Sibylline 
Oracles,  ami  Iiy  J.  E.  H.  Thomson,  Buiihs  which  Itifluenced 
our  Lord  and  his  Apos/les.  beiuf/  a  Critical  Review  of 
Apocalyptic  Literature  (Edinburgh,  1891),  which  is  a  study 
of  the  Book  of  Enoch,  the  addition  to  Daniel,  the  Apocalypse 
of  Bariidi,  I  he  Psalter  of  Solomon,  the  Book  of  Jubilees,  and 
the  Assumption  of  Closes.  Of  many  pseudepigraphical 
works  we  know  only  the  names.  (See  list  in  Migne,  I.  c.) 
The  better  and  fuller  known  may  be  divided  into — 

A.  Lyrical  Writings. — (1)  The  Psalms  of  Solomoti,  eigh- 
tcen  jisalms  of  a  Messianic  character,  dating  about  7.5-63 
B.  c,  designed  to  cheer  the  drooping  hopes  of  the  Jews. 
The  place  of  composition  is  Palestine,  and  the  language  was 
Hebrew.  Tliey  throw  much  light  upon  the  Pharisee  opin- 
ion in  the  time  of  Christ.  Best  edition,  with  English  trans- 
lation, by  H.  E.  Ryle  and  M.  R.  .lames,  Psalms  of  (he  Phari- 
see j,  commonly  called  the  Psalms  of  Solomon  (Cambridge, 
1891). 

B.  Prophetical  Writings.—{\)  Xuraerous  apocalypses  in 
the  general  style  of  the  genuine  prophets,  and,  like  their 
writings,  giving  a  picture  of  the  future  greatness  of  Israel. 
Of  these  may  be  mentioned  (2)  The  Book  of  Enoch,  particu- 
larly noteworthy  because  quoted  by  Jude  (vv.  14,  15)  and 
frequently  in  the  Christian  Fathers."  (3)  Ttte  Assumption  of 
Moses.  Latin  translation  iu  Fritzsche,  I.e.  (4)  Fourth  (or 
Second)  Esdras  is  found  among  the  Apocrypha  of  the  Eng- 
lish Bible,  but  has  no  proper  place  there.  It  dates  from  the 
time  of  Domitian  (close  of  the  first  century),  and  consists  of 
seven  visions  in  the  style  of  Daniel.  English  translation  in 
the  Apocrypha,  revised  by  Bissell,  /.  c.  (pp.  641-064).  Cf.  R. 
L.  Bensly,  The  Missing  Fragment  of  the  Latin  Transla- 
tion of  the  Fourth  Book  of  Ezra,  Discovered  and  Edited 
with  an  Introduction  and  Notes  (Cambridge.  1875).  Its  gen- 
eral purport  was  to  fcjretell  that  the  Romans  would  be  over- 
thrown. It  was  written  in  Greek,  but  by  a  Jew.  (5)  The 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch.  Cf.  J.  J.  Kneucker.  Das  Buck  Ba- 
ruch (Leipzig,  1879).  It  was  written  in  Greek  and  in  Pales- 
tine by  a  Jew  soon  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus.  In  it  Baruch  so  completely  supplants  Jeremiah  that 
God  makes  to  him  the  revelation  of  the  future  and  the  con- 
solatory speeches.  It  closes  with  a  letter  to  the  nine  and  a 
half  tribes  in  the  Babylonian  captivity.  It  was  apparently 
used  by  Papias  ((/.  v.),  but  not  much  known  in  the  early 
Church.  (6)  The  Best  of  the  Words  of  Baruch.  Cf.  edition 
by  J.  Rendel  Harris  (Cambridge,  1890);  not  the  same  as  the 
preceding,  though  similar.  It  closes  with  an  account  of 
Jeremiah's  martyrdom,  caused  by  his  persistence  in  praising 
Jesus  as  the  .Son  of  God.  This  fact  marks  it  as  a  Christian 
apocalypse,  at  least  in  its  present  form.  It  is  dated  by  Har- 
ris in  136  A.  D.  (7)  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  an  account  of 
what  Isaiah  saw  as  he  was  being  borne  to  the  sevent  h  heaven, 
dating  from  the  first  Christian  century,  and  essentially  a 
Jewish  apocalypse  with  Christian  additions  and  interpola- 
tions. From  it  comes  the  patristic  references  to  the  alleged 
fact  that  Isaiah  was  martyred  by  being  sawn  asunder. 
There  is  a  Latin  translation  by  A.  Dillmann  (Leipzig.  1877), 
and  an  English  translation  by  G.  II.  Schodde  in  the  Lutheran 
(Juarterly  for  Oct.,  1878. 

C.  Testaments  or  Wills. — (8)  The  Testaments  of  the 
Twelve  Patriarchs.  English  translation  by  R.  Sinker,  in  The 
Ante-Xirenc  Fathers  (New  York,  vol.  viii.,  1-38).  It  is  the 
supposed  utterances  of  the  twelve  sons  of  .Jacob,  and  is  a 
tissue  of  moral  precepts,  prophecies,  especially  of  the  Mes- 
siah, ami  various  facts  about  themselves.  It  was  written  in 
Greek  in  the  second  century  by  a  Jewish  Christian.  (9)  The 
Testament  of  Abraham.  Greek  text,  for  the  first  time  edited 
with  introdm-tion  and  notes,  by  Jl.  H.  James,  with  an  ap- 
pendix, containing  extracts  from  the  Arabic  version  of  the 
Testaments  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  by  W.  E.  Barnes 
(Cambridge,  1892).  It  was  known  to  the  early  Church,  and 
ap|>arently  popular.  It  has  come  down  in  two  forms,  but 
may  be  dated  from  the  second  Christian  century.  It  pur- 
ports to  give  the  sights  seen  by  Abraham  in  the  future  world. 
rerhai)S  the  most  remarkable  single  trait  is  Abraham's  flat 
refusal  to  die  when  God  requests  him  to  do  so,  and  tlie  pains 
God  took  to  overcome  his  aversion.  (10)  The  Testaments  of 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  (see  just  above).  That  of  Abra- 
ham is  similar  to  the  one  just  noticed.     The  Testament  of 


834 


PSEDDEPIGRAPHA 


Isaac  is  an  account  of  the  death  of  Isaac  and  the  ethical  dis- 
course which  preceded  it,  and  of  the  experiences  in  the  fu- 
ture world  which  followed  it.  Of  the  same  nature  is  the 
Testament  of  Jacob. 

D.  Historic  and  Haggadic  Literature,  or  tendency  writ- 
ings on  the  basis  of  genuine  canonical  Scriptures.  (11)  The 
Book  of  Juliilees,  or  Little  Genesis,  essentially  the  history 
of  the  chosen  people  down  to  Sinai,  as  contained  in  Genesis 
and  the  first  part  of  Exodus,  with  legendary  and  haggadic  ad- 
ditions, written  originally  in  Aramaic  by  a  Jew  in  Palestine 
in  the  first  Christian  century.  It  pretends  to  be  revelations 
made  to  Jfoses  on  Jit.  Sinai.  In  complete  form  it  only 
exists  in  Ethiopic.  in  which  language  it  was  edited  by  A. 
Dillmann  in  Ewald's  Jahrbiiclter  derbiblisc/ien  Wissensc'haft 
(1849-51).  There  is  an  English  translation  by  R.  H.  Charles, 
in  the  Jewis/i  Quarterly  Review  (1893.  seg.).  and  another  bv 
G.  H.  Schodde  (Oberlin,  1888).  Cf.  H.  Ronsch,  Das  Buck 
der  Jubilden  {Leipzig,  IS'ii).  (12)  The  Book-  of  Adam  and 
Eve,  also  called  The  Conflict  of  Adam  and  Eve  with  Satan, 

Erobably  written  in  Arabia  by  an  Egyptian  Christian,  per- 
aps  as  late  as  the  fifth  century.  It  goes  over  the  history 
as  given  in  Genesis,  down  to  the  call  of  Abraham,  with 
much  haggadic  matter  of  an  interesting  character.  There 
is  an  English  translation  bv  S.  C.  Malan  from  the  Ethiopic 
text  as  edited  by  E.  Trumpp  (London,  1882).  (13)  Life  of 
Adam  and  Eve,  in  Latin,  edited  by  W.  Jleyer  ( Vita  Adm  et 
Evce,  Munich,  1879).  It  gives  in  rather  an  interesting  man- 
ner an  account  of  the  adventures  of  the  pair  after  their  ex- 
pulsion from  paradise,  the  difficulties  they  had  to  get  food, 
their  journeys,  etc.  (14)  The  Testament  of  Adam,  edited 
and  translated  into  German  by  C.  Bezold,  Die  Schatzhohle 
(Leipzig,  1883-88.  3  parts).  (15)  To  the  same  general  class  be- 
long Tfie  Sibylline  Oracles,  a  collection  of  pseudepigraphical 
poems  of  various  dates,  written  in  hexameters  in  Greek,  stud- 
ied imitations  of  Homer  in  meter  and  diction.  The  oldest 
part  is  the  third  book,  which  was  apparently  produced  in 
Alexandria  by  some  Jew  of  the  second  pre-Christian  century 
who  worked  up  current  fragments  of  the  old  Greek  and  Latin 
Sibylline  books  for  the  purpose  of  the  Jewish  propaganda. 
But  the  present  work,  in  twelve  books,  contains  pagan  and 
Christian  elements,  and  is  from  the  second  or  third  Christian 
century.  It  was  much  quoted  by  the  early  Fathers  as  in- 
spired, particularly  its  allusions  to  the  advent  of  Christ, 
which  they  took  to  be  prophetic.  In  contents  it  combines 
history  and  prophesy,  rebukes  heathen  idolatry,  and  exhorts 
to  repentance  before  it  is  too  late.  It  was  lost  to  sight  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages,  but  regained  and  first  printed  at 
Basel  in  1.54.5.  The  best  editions  are  by  C.  Alexandre  (2d 
ed.  Paris,  1869)  and  Aloisius  Rzach  (Vienna,  1891).  There 
is  an  English  translation  by  M.  S.  Terry  (New  York,  1890). 

II.  Apocryph.\  of  the  New  Testament. — Unlike  the  Old 
Testament  Apocrypha,  the  New  Testament  Apocrypha  have 
never  had  a  place  in  the  canon.  They  are  also  of  decidedly 
minor  importance.  The  most  of  them  are  found  collected 
in  Englisli  trans,  in  vol.  viii.  of  The  Ante-Nicene  Fathers, 
ed.  Coxe  (New  York,  pp.  349-.598),  and  are  divisible  into  A. 
Gospels  ;  B.  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ;  C.  Apocalypses ;  D.  Epis- 
tles; E.  Apostolic  Liturgies;  F.  Didactic  ;"G.  Apostolical 
Canons  and  Constitutions:  H.  Apostolic  Church  Directory. 
The  best  editions  of  the  original  texts  are  those  of  J.  A.  Pa- 
bricius  (2d  ed.  Hamburg.  1719),  and  by  C.  Tischendorf,  Acta 
apostolorum  apocrypha  (Leipzig,  185i);  Evangelia  apocry- 
pha (1854) ;  Apocalypses  apocrypha;  (1866). 

A.  Gospels. — (1)  "TheProtevangeliumof  James  the  Lord's 
brother,"  or  "  the  birth  of  Mary  the  holy  mother  of  God, 
and  very  glorious  mother  of  Jesus  Christ."  It  gives  an  ac- 
count of  the  conception,  birth,  and  infancy  of  Mary  and  the 
same  facts  concerning  her  son.  (2)  "  The  Gospel  of  Pseudo- 
Matthew."  It  has  substantially  the  same  matter  as  the  pre- 
ceding by  way  of  introduction,  but  contains  an  account  of 
the  flight  into  Eirypt,  and  of  the  vouth  of  Jesus  full  of  mira- 
cles. (3)  ••  The  Gospel  of  the  Nativitv  of  Marv."  It  includes 
the  betrothal  of  Mary  and  the  conception.  (4)  "  The  history 
of  Joseph  tlie  carpenter."  It  is  svipposed  to  be  told  bv  Jesus 
Christ,  and  mostly  relates  to  the  death  of  Joseph.  (.5)  "  The 
Gospel  of  Thomas  "  :  confined  to  the  childhood  and  vouth  of 
Jesus,  and  a  tissue  of  miracles.  (6)  "  The  Arabic  gospel  of 
the  infancy  of  the  Saviour."  (7)  "  The  Gospel  of  Nicode- 
mus":  Part  i..  the  acts  of  Pilate— the  events  of  the  Passion; 
part  ii.,  the  descent  of  Christ  into  hades.  (8)  "  The  letter  of 
Pontius  Pilate"  which  he  wrote  to  the  Roman  emperor  con- 
cerning our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  (9)  "The  report  of  Pilate 
the  procurator  concerning  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  sent  to 
Augustus  CiBsar  in  Rome.    Two  Greek  forms  are  extant. 


(10)  "  The  giving  up  of  Pontius  Pilate  " — i.  e.  an  account  of 
his  alleged  arrest  and  transportation  to  Rome  by  the  Caesar 
as  a  punishment  for  the  "  darkness  and  the  earthquake  which 
had  come  over  the  whole  world "  after  the  death  of  Jesus. 
Pilate  shifts  the  blame  of  the  deed  upon  the  Jews,  is,  how- 
ever, beheaded,  but  not  before  a  heavenly  voice  assured  him 
that  all  the  generations  and  families  of  the  nations  would 
count  him  blessed,  because  under  him  had  been  fulfilled  the 
things  prophesied  of  Christ.  (11)  "  The  death  of  Pilate,  who 
condemned  Jesus."  In  contradiction  of  the  preceding,  this 
Apocrypha  attributes  Pilate's  death  to  suicide,  and  tells  how 
malignant  spirits  forced  the  transportation  of  the  body  from 
Rome  to  Lausanne.  It  is  a  late  production.  (12)  "  The  nar- 
rative of  Joseph  of  Arimatha;a.  that  begged  the  Lord's  body  ; 
in  which  also  he  brings  in  the  cases  of  the  two  robbers." 
One  of  the  most  popular  Apocryjiha,  limited  in  time  to  the 
death  day  of  Jesus.  (13)  "  The  avenging  of  the  Saviour." 
This  is  a  combination  of  two  distinct  legends — the  embassy 
of  Nathan  from  Juda>a  to  the  Emperor  Tiberius  to  carry  the 
treaty  of  the  Jews  to  Rome  and  the  story  of  Veronica.  (14) 
"The  Gospel  of  Peter."  A  fragment  of  it,  in  Greek,  was 
discovered  bv  L'lvsse  Bouriant  in  a  tomb  at  Akhmim,  Upper 
Egyjit,  in  1886,  but  not  pulilished  till  1892.  It  relates  only 
to  the  passion  and  resurrection  history.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
of  the  apocryphal  gospels,  and  was  believed  in  the  early 
Church  to  be  authentic.  The  original  text  has  been  edited 
by  several  scholars — e.  g.  Adolf  Harnaek  (Leipzig.  1893),  J. 
Armitage  Robinson  and  M.  R.  James  (London,  2d  ed.  1892), 
H.  von  Schubert  (Eng.  trans.  Edinburgh,  1893).  English 
translations  are  given  by  the  last  two. 

B.  Acts  of  the  Apostles. — There  exist  Acts  of  Peter  and 
Paul,  P,aul  and  Thekla,  Barnabas,  Philip,  Philip  in  Hellas, 
Andrew,  Andrew  and  Matthias,  Matthew,  Thomas,  Thad- 
deus,  John,  Consummation  of  Thomas,  JIartyrdom  of  Bar- 
tholomew. 

C.  Apocalypses. — There  exist  Apocalypses  of  Paul,  John, 
and  Peter.  The  last  was  found  in  the  Same  MS.  which  con- 
tained the  Gospel  of  Peter,  mentioned  above.  It  is  the  mer- 
est fragment,  but  revolting  in  its  gross  conception  of  the 
future  world.  There  is  also  an  apocalypse  entitled  "  The 
Book  of  John  concerning  the  Falling  Asleep  of  Mary  "  and 
another  on  the  "  Passing  of  Mary." 

I).  Epistles. — (1)  One  by  Jesus  in  reply  to  Abgarus,  King 
of  Edessa.  who  wanted  Jesus  to  come  and  cure  him.  It  is 
given  by  Eusebius,  Church  History,  i.,  13  (Am.  trans,  ed.  Mc- 
(iiilert,  pp.  100.  101).  Jesus  promises  after  his  ascension  to 
send  one  of  liis  disciples  to  heal  the  king.  In  the  "  Acts  of 
Thaddeus "  the  correspondence  is  alluded  to,  and  there  is 
added  that  Jesus  sent  Abgarus  his  portrait  miraculously 
stamped  upon  a  towel.  Cf.  R.  A.  Lipsius,  Die  edessenische 
Abgarsage  kritisch  untersucht  (Brunswick,  1880).  (2)  Three 
by  the  Virgin  Mary — viz.,  to  Ignatius,  urging  him  to  con- 
stancy ;  to  the  Jlessiniaus  of  Sicily  conveying  a  blessing ; 
and  to  the  Florentines  an  exhortation  to  faith,  prayer,  and 
patience.  These  epistles  are  of  the  briefest,  being  only  11, 
17,  and  5  lines  long  respectively  in  the  annotated  edition  of 
Pabricius,  Codex  Apocryphus  JST.  T.,  2d  ed.,  pp.  834-852. 
(3)  A  letter  of  Paul  to  the  Laodiceans  (Fabricius,  I.  c,  873- 
879),  another  to  the  Corinthians  (id.,  918,  seq.),  and  the  famous 
correspondence  with  Seneca — sis  letters  of  Paul  and  eight 
of  Seneca.  Cf.  Teubner.  ed.  of  Seneca,  bv  F.  Haase  (Leip- 
zig, 1872-74,  vol.  iii.),  and  Fabricius,  id.,  880-904.  The  best 
discussion  of  the  matter  is  by  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  Com.  on 
Philippians.  The  genuineness  of  the  correspondence  was 
widely  accepted  from  very  early  times,  but  it  is  now  con- 
sidered a  clumsy  forgery.  (See  for  text  and  discussion  also, 
E.  Westerburg.  Der  Crsprnng  der  Sage,  dass  Seneca  Christ 
geu-esen  sei.  Berlin,  18S1.)  (4)  A  letter  of  Peter  to  James 
(Pabricius.  id.,  907-913).in  which  among  other  things  secrecy 
is  enjoined  upon  him  as  respects  his  preaching.  (.5)  A  letter 
of  John  in  reply  to  a  dropsical  man  who  had  asked  him  to 
heal  him.  or  rather  a  single  sentence,  ordering  in  the  name  of 
the  Trinity  a  cure.  This  was  wrought  on  receipt  of  the  let- 
ter, and  the  man  out  of  gratitude  sought  John  and  was  bap- 
tized. Cf.  Fabricius,  id.,  926-928.  There  are  other  similar 
forgeries  known  by  title.  By  far  the  most  elaborate  publi- 
cation upon  the  whole  subject  of  these  ajiocryphal  remains 
of  the  apostles  was  produced  by  Richard  Adelbert  Lipsius, 
Die  apocryphen  Apostelgeschichten  und  Apostellegenden 
(Brunswick,  vol.  i.,  1883;  vol.  ii.,  l.st  part,  1887;  vol.  ii.,  2d 
part,  1884  (sic)  ;  supiilement,  1890). 

E.  Apostolic  Liturgies. — These  are  alleged  to  be  the  work 
of  Mark.  James,  and  the  blessed  apostles  collectively.  They 
are  translated  into  English  in  The  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (New 


PSEUDO-CLEMENTINES 


PSYCHOLOGY 


835 


York,  vol.  vii.,  529-572).    Another  liturgy  is  attributed  to  the 
a|j(i.sll('S  in  tliu  Apostolical  Constitutions,  id.,  pp.  470.  Kcq. 

F.  IHdiirhf,  or  Tlie  Tiavliinij  of  the  Tuv/ri'  A/io.Hllex. — 
Found  l)y  Brycnnios  in  1S78.  l>ut  "not  published  till  18S8. 
It  is  one  of  the  earliest  Apocrypha  and  the  most  respectable. 
It  doubtless  embodies  much  genuine  apostolic  teaching,  and 
throws  welcome  light  upon  tlie  primitive  Church  usjiges.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  precious  relics  of  the  post-apostolic  age. 
The  best  edition  in  Knglish,  with  translation  and  notes,  is 
by  Pliilip  .Schaff.  T/te  Oldest  Church  Manual  (New  York, 
1885  ;  M  od.  188SI). 

G.  Apostolic  Canons  and  Constitutions. — See  Apostolic 
Canons  and  Constitutions.  Kng.  trans,  in  The  Ante-JS'icene 
Fathers  (New  York,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  387-508). 

H.  Apostolic  Church  Director!/,  independent  of,  yet  simi- 
lar to,  the  seventh  and  eighth  books  of  the  Ajxistolic  Con- 
stitutions.    Greek  text  and  German  trans,  by  .J.  \V.  Biekell, 
(Jeschichte  des  Kirchenrechts  (Giessen,  1843,  pp.  107-132). 
Samuel  Macaulev  Jackson. 

PseiKlo-Clpnieiitines :  See  Clementines. 

Psdido-crysipeliis:  See  Phlegmasia. 

Pseudo-Isidoriun  Ciinons:  See  Decretals,  False. 

Pseiitloiieiirop'tcra  [.Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  i(<€uS<js.  false  + 
Mod.  Lat.  Seuroptera,  au  order  of  insects] :  a  group  of  in- 
sects, recognized  by  some  entomologists,  which  contains  the 
dragon-flies,  day-iiies,  and  stone-flies.  See  Udonata  and 
Plecoptera:  also  Entomology. 

Pseiidopodia  [plural  of  pseudopodium.  Mod.  Lat.,  from 
Gr.  ifei/Sijs,  false  -I-  irous,  »ro5(is,  f oot ] :  the  temporary  variously 
shaped  processes  given  oil  from  the  body-substance  of  vari- 
ous protozoans,  as  amu'bas  and  foraminifers,  and  serving  for 
locomotion,  ingestion,  etc.     See  Cilia. 

Pscndosi'orpil  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ifcuS?)!,  false  -f-  axop- 
ir/os.  scorpion] :  a  group  of  arachnids  or  spider-like  animals 
which  resemble  the  scorpions  in  the  general  shape  of  the 
body,  the  segmentation  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  large  pincer- 
like  first  pair  of  legs,  but  which  differ  from  them  in  the  ab- 
sence of  pectines,  tail  (see  .Scorpiones),  and  termiiuil  poison- 
stings,  as  well  as  in  the  possession  of  a  tracheal  respiratory 
system.  All  of  the  species  are  small  and  are  to  be  souglit 
in  dry  places — under  bark  and  among  moss  and  some  among 
old  books  and  papers.  They  appear  to  feed  upon  mites  and 
small  insects,  and  are  occasionally  found  adhering  to  flies, 
bees,  etc.,  and  in  this  way  they  are  carried  from  place  to  place. 
The  order  first  appears  in  the  Carboniferous.  .Some  sixteen 
species  are  described  from  the  U.  S.  See  Hagen,  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  Histori/,  xiii.,  1870. 

J.  S.  KiNOSLEY. 

Pseudotsu'^a  :  a  genus  of  coniferous  trees  established  by 
Carriere  in  1867,  closely  related  to  the  firs  (Abies)  and  the 
hemlocks  (Tsuga),  l)ut  differing  from  the  former  by  having 
pendulous  cones  whose  scales  are  persistent,  and  from  the 
latter  by  having  smooth  branchlets  after  the  fall  of  the 
leaves.  Only  one  species  is  known.  P.  taxifolia,  the  Douglas 
spruce,  mostly  known  in  books  and  catalogues  as  P.  duug- 
lasii.  It  is  a  gigantic  tree  of  the  Oregon,  California,  aiid 
Rocky  Jlountain  region,  200  to  300  feet  high,  and  8  to  15 
feet  ill  <liameler.     See  Conifers.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Pslttafi  [Lat.  psittacus  =  Gr.  xlnrTOKis.  parrot] :  an  order 
of  birds  containing  the  parrots  (see  Parrot),  cliaracterizcd  by 
a  hooked  and  cered  beak  movably  articulated  with  the  brain- 
case,  a  strong  lower  jaw,  and  by  having  the  outer  toe  turned 
backward.  The  tongue  is  thick,  fleshy. and  sometimes  bru.shy; 
the  numljer  of  ]iriiuaries  and  tail-feathers  is  ten.  The  fur- 
ciilum  is  weak,  imperfect,  or  absent.  The  order  is  divided 
into  from  one  to  nine  families;  but  a  good  division  is  into 
tlire(;  families,  Piittaridir.  the  true  piarrots,  Slringo/nd(P, 
owl-parrots,  and  Caniluidic,  cockatoos.  F.  A.  1..UCAS. 

Pskov,  or  Pskoff:  government  of  European  Ku.ssia : 
bounded  N.  by  the  governments  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Nov- 
gorod. Area,  17.00!»  scj.  miles.  The  surl'a<'c>  is  mostly  Hat. 
abounding  in  small  lakes  ami  rivers ;  marshes  are  numer- 
ous, forests  extensive.  Agriculture  is  almost  the  only  branch 
of  industrv,  with  the  exception  of  cattle-rearing  ;  hemp  and 
flax  are  staple  products.     Pop.  (1890)  1,019,000. 

Pskov,  or  Pleskov  :  capital  of  the  government  of  Pskov, 
Russia:  160  miles  S.  S.  \V.  of  St.  Petersburg  (see  map  of 
Russia,  ref.  6-C) ;  0  miles  N.  W.  is  Lake  Pskov,  50  miles  long 
by  13  broa<l.  Pskov  is  the  see  of  an  archbish.>[i,  ami  has  a 
catheilral.  numerous  cburclies.  and  consiilerabh'  mamifac- 
tures,  and  a  trade  in  lisli  and  flax.     Pup.  (1890)  23,488. 


Psoc'idae  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ^dxftv,  rub  to  pieces]  :  a 
family  of  insects,  the  sole  representatives  of  the  order  Cor- 
rodentia.  They  are  small  forms  with  incomplete  mctamor- 
jjhosis.  with  biting  jaws,  sonuitime.s  without  wings,  but  when 
the.se  are  present,  having  the  fore  wings  the  larger.  All  of 
the  species  feed  on  dry  vegetable  matter,  and  several  spe- 
cies (winged)  occur  on  many  of  the  forest  trees  of  the  U.  S. 
through  the  summer.  Among  the  wingless  forms  are  the 
so-called  book-lice,  minute  light-colored  forms  occurring  in 
neglected  books,  etc.,  where  they  may  do  con.siderable  dam- 
age. J.  S.  KlNOSLEY. 

Psophi'ldw  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Psophia.  the  typical 
genus,  from  Gr.  ^6<pos,  an  inarticulate  noise] :  a  family  of 
birds  represented  by  the  trumpeters  of  .South  America,  'i'he 
form  is  h<?ron-like  ;  the  neck  comparatively  short ;  the  bill 
short,  compressed,  and  curved  toward  the  tip,  which  is  pro- 
longed over  the  lower  mandible  ;  the  nostrils  inserted  in  a 
membranous  groove,  large  and  obliijue  ;  the  wings  short, 
concave,  and  rounded  :  the  tail  very  short,  the  tarsi  long 
and  slender,  covered  with  transverse  scales  ;  the  toes  mod- 
erate, the  three  in  front  united  at  the  base,  the  hind  one 
small  and  somewhat  elevated  :  the  claws  curved  and  acute. 
Oidy  a  single  genus  is  known  (/'.sy//)/(('(().  containing  five  spe- 
cies, found  in  various  parts  of  Brazil  and  the  northern  por- 
tions of  South  America.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Psori'asis  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  i(;a?pia<rij,  itch,  deriv.  of 
ij/oipo,  itch,  scurvy,  mange]  :  a  skin  disease  in  which  there 
are  at  first  elevated  red  patches  upon  which  large  scales  of 
epidermis  appear,  the  skin  between  the  patches  often  crack- 
ing and  bleeding.  There  are  many  varieties  distinguished 
by  writers,  but,  except  in  the  case  of  the  sy|)liilitic  diseases 
called  psoriasis,  the  causes  are  very  obscure.  There  seems 
to  be  some  connection  between  psoriasis  and  the  rheumatic 
habit  or  chronic  rheumatism.  Fortunately,  syphilitic  pso- 
riasis can  often  be  distinguished  from  true  psoriasis.  For 
the  former  the  appropriate  remedies  for  the  specific  disease 
are  to  be  employed.  For  the  latter  the  best  treatment  ap- 
pears to  be  the  use  of  vapor-baths,  followed  by  strong  alka- 
line applications,  and  then  by  tarry  ones,  with  the  internal 
administration  of  arsenic.  These  means  will  very  much 
mitigate,  but  will  scarcely  cure,  the  disease,  which  tends  to 
linger,  relapse,  and  become  chronic. 

Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Pso'rosperms  [from  Gr.  '^wpis.  scab  (in  allusion  to  the 
sores  they  make  on  fishes)  -t-  ffirtpfut,  seed] :  parasitic  j)roto- 
zoa,  allied  to  the  Greoarinida  (q.  v.),  which  occur  on  and  in 
fishes,  where  they  make  sores  or  cysts,  and  at  times  are  so 
numerous  as  to  cause  extensive  mortality. 

Psyche,  si'kee  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  Vuxii.  liter.,  soul] :  in  a  Greek 
legend  preserved  by  Apuleius,  a  lovely  mortal,  the  daughter 
of  a  king.  Venus  was  jealous  of  her  beauty,  and  ordered 
Cupid,  her  son,  to  inspire  Psyche  with  desire  for  the  basest  of 
men,  but  the  god  of  love,  on  beholding  her.  himself  loved  her. 
Thenceforth  he  visited  her  every  night,  requesting  her  never 
to  see  him  or  inquire  who  he  was.  But  from  curiosity,  and 
the  dread  lest  he  should  prove  to  be  a  monster,  as  her  sisters 
told  her  he  was,  she  came  to  liim  with  a  lighted  lamp  while 
he  slept.  Overcome  with  joy  at  his  loveliness,  she  carelessly 
allowed  a  drop  of  hot  oil  from  her  lamp  to  fall  upon  his  arm. 
Cupid  therefore  left  her  with  reproaches.  After  many  ca- 
lanuties  she  became  the  menial  slave  of  the  jealous  \"enus, 
who  treated  her  with  great  cruelty;  but  her  lover  invisi- 
bly assisted  her,  and  finally,  having  secvn-ed  her  immor- 
tality, made  her  his  wife.  The  myth  is  p%inly  allegorical, 
and  is  a  figure  of  the  progress  of  the  soul,  by  the  aid  of  di- 
vine love,  through  the  calamities  of  this  life  to  a  happier  life 
hereafter.  In  art  she  is  represented  as  a  tender  virgin  with 
the  wings  of  a  butterfly,  or  as  a  butterfly  itself,  for  the  word 
<(/vx'h  nieans  butterfly  as  well  as  soul.  The  group  of  Psyche 
and  Cupid  in  the  Capitoline  ^Museum  is  greatly  admired  for 
its  beauty,  as  is  also  that  of  Canova. 

Revised  by  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Psychology  [Gr.  tfivx-h.  soul,  mind  -I-  hSyos,  discourse,  rea- 
son!:  the  S(>ience  of  the  mind. 

Ilistorical. — Modern  psychology  has  had  its  principal  de- 
velopment in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  France.  Ger- 
many has  undoubtedly  had  greatest  influence  in  this  move- 
ment considered  in  all  its  branches.  The  two  main  cur- 
rents of  development  previous  to  the  rise  of  the  new  so- 
called  "scientific"  psychology,  designated  as  respectively 
••speculative"'  and  "empirical,"  had  their  initial  impulse, 
as  well  as  their  fruitful  pursuit,  respect  ively  in  (jennany  and 


836 


PSYCHOLOGY 


Great  Britain.  German  psychology  down  to  the  rise  of  the 
Herbartian  movement  was"  a  chapter  of  deductions  from 
speculative  principles.  Enjjlish  psychology  was  adetailed 
analysis  of  the  experiences  of  the  individual  oonsciousness. 
Kant,  Fichte,  and  Hegel  may  sufficiently  represent  the  suc- 
cession in  Germany:  .James  Mill.  John  Stuart  Mill,  Hume, 
Reid,  and  Bain,  that  in  Great  ]5ritain. 

The  work  of  Herbart  and  his  school  tended  to  bring  a 
more  empirical  treatment  into  German  thought,  and  its  sig- 
nificance was  twofold.  It  excited  opposition  to  the  specu- 
lative method ;  and  it  prepared  the  Germans  for  the  results 
•of  English  analysis.  It  is,  further,  a  legitimate  supposition 
that  the  spirit  of  experimental  inquiry  which  has  swept 
over  Germany  in  the  nineteenth  century  was  made  more 
easily  assimilable  by  workers  in  this  department,  also,  by 
the  patient  and  extraordinary  attempt  of  Herbart  to  con- 
struct a  "  mechanic  "  and  "  static  "  of  mind  in  his  Psycholo- 
gie  (lis  Wissenscltaft  (1824). 

To  German  thinkers  also  belongs  the  credit  which  is  due 
to  originators  of  all  new  movements  which  show  their  vi- 
tality by  growth  and  reproduction,  in  that  the  experi- 
mental treatment  of  the  mind  was  first  advocated  and  ini- 
tiated in  Germany.     This  is  treated  of  more  fully  below. 

The  contribution  of  France  to  psychology  has  been  de- 
cidedly of  less  importance,  yet  the  work  of  these  writers  has 
also  illustrated  a  fruitful  and  productive  raovenient.  It  has 
been  from  the  side  of  medicine  that  French  work  has  in- 
fluenced current  widespread  conceptions  of  consciousness. 
Mental  pathology  and  the  lessons  of  it  for  the  theory  of  the 
mind  have  come  possibly  most  of  all  from  France,  or  at  any 
rate — not  to  disparage  the  admirable  recent  work  of  English 
and  German  investigators — the  tendency,  so  to  speak,  of  the 
French  treatment  of  consciousness  has  been  to  approach 
mental  operations  from  the  abnormal  side. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  influences  which  have  tended  to  control 
psychological  opinion  have  been  mainly  theological  on  one 
side  and  educational  on  the  other.  The  absence  of  great 
native  systems  of  speculative  thought  has  prevented  at  once 
the  rationalistic  invasions  into  theology  which  characterized 
the  German  development,  and  the  attempts  at  psychological 
interpretation  which  furnished  a  supposed  basis  of  fact  to 
the  idealistic  systems.  In  Germany  various  "philosophies 
of  nature  "  sought  to  find  even  in  objective  science  support 
for  theoretical  world-dialectic,  and  psychology  fared  even 
worse,  since  it  is,  par  excellence,  the  theater  for  the  exploit- 
ation of  nniversal  hypotheses;  but  in  the  U.  S.  men  did  not 
speculate  much,  and  those  who  did  were  theologians.  So, 
naturally,  the  psychologists  were  theologians  also.  Jona- 
than Edwards  had  a  doctrine  of  the  agent,  because  free  will 
was  a  question  of  theology. 

The  educational  influence  was  auxiliary  merely  to  the  the- 
ological. The  absence  of  large  universities  with  chairs  for 
research ;  the  nature  of  the  educational  foxindations  which 
did  exist  under  denomination  control;  the  aim  of  education 
as  conceived  in  the  centers  where  the  necessity  for  supplying 
growing  towns  with  pastors  was  urgent ;  the  wholesome  fact 
for  civilization  that  the  Puritans  had  traditions  in  favor  of 
the  school  and  the  religious  school — all  these  things  made  it 
only  necessary  that  books  sound  in  their  theological  bearings, 
or  affording  homiletic  lessons  in  living,  should  be  written  in 
a  topic  of  such  central  importance.  Even  the  terra  "  psy- 
chology" is  only  now  becoming  domesticated;  "mental" 
and  •'  moral  "  philosophy  were  the  titles  of  courses  of  instruc- 
tion on  the  "  soul." 

The  type  of  philosophy  which  these  conditions  encour- 
aged was,  it  may  easily  be  imagined,  realistic ;  and  it  is  prob- 
ably for  the  reasons  which  have  been  indicated  that  the  Scot- 
tish natural  realism  was  the  North  American  type  of  thought, 
and  is  now,  except  in  the  great  university  centers  where  sys- 
tematic philosophy  has  become  an  end  in  itself,  apart  from 
its  duty  to  theology  and  education.  As  far  as  psychology 
was  concerned,  this  realistic  tendency  was  a  great  good.  It 
led  to  a  magnification  of  mental  reality,  to  a  reverence  for 
the  "  utterances  of  consciousness,"  to  a  realistic  interpreta- 
tion ot  the  "  immediate  knowledge  of  self,"  to  a  firm  settling 
of  the  great  "  intuitions,"  cause,  time,  space,  God,  etc. ;  and 
in  as  far  as  this  led  to  the  direct  examination  of  eonseious- 
ni'ss  and  to  the  testing  of  philosophical  claims  by  conscious- 
ness, it  prepared  th(^  way  fur  a  better  and  broader  method. 
This  tendency  is  marked  even  in  the  more  influential  works 
in  theology.  Channing  and  Emerson,  no  less  than  Henry  B. 
Smith  and  Charles  Hodge,  lay  the  corner-stone  of  argument 
again  aiul  again  in  the  proof  "from  consciousness." 

This  tendency  to  a  psychological  view  of  philosophy  and 


its  basis  in  the  religious  motive  is  seen  also  in  Scotland,  the 
home  of  realism  ;  and  it  is  there  a  part  of  the  British  meth- 
od of  thought  which  has  already  been  spoken  of.  The 
works  on  psychology  written  in  the  U.  S.  up  to  1880  were,  as 
would  be  expected,  from  the  hands  of  theologians  and  edu- 
cators, usually  both  in  the  same  person  ;  for  it  is  a  further 
proof  of  the  association  of  psychology  and  theology  that 
the  mental  and  moral  philosophy  in  the  colleges  was  almost 
without  exception  put  in  the  hands  of  the  president  of  the 
college,  and  he  was  by  unanimous  requirement  a  preacher. 
Edwards's  Freedom  of  tlie  Will  (1754) :  Tappan's  Revino 
of  Edwards  (1839)  ami  Doctrine  of  the  Will  Determined  by 
an  Appeal  to  Conscionsyiess  (1840);  Hickok's  national  Psy- 
clioloqy  (1848)  and  Empirical  Psycliology  (1854) ;  Porter's 
Humdn  Intellect  (1868)  and  Moral  Science  (1885);  McCosh's 
Psycholofiy  (1887)  and  First  and  Fundamental  Trutlis  {W89) 
— these  and  similar  books,  all  works  of  the  highest  value, 
show  the  psychology  of  the  U.  S.  up  to  about  1880. 

Coming  to  the  present  state  of  psychological  thought,  the 
writer's  task  is  made  easier  by  reason  of  the  divorce  which 
has  been  forced  between  psychology  as  a  science  on  the  one 
hand  and  metaphysics  on  the  other.  As  was  said  above, 
Herbart,  while  failing  in  his  attempt  to  apply  mathematics 
to  mental  "  permutations  and  combinations,"  yet  prepared 
the  way  for  a  new  treatment  ot  mental  phenomena.  After 
his  attempt  it  began  to  be  seen  that  the  facts  of  conscious  life 
were  first  in  order  of  importance,  and  were  capable  of  treat- 
ment in  a  detailed  way  quite  independently  of  the  questions 
of  Being,  the  Absolute,  and  the  like.  The  works  of  Volk- 
mann,  Lehrhuch  der  Psychologie  (4th  ed.  1894),  and  Lipps, 
Die  Grundtliatsaclien  des  Seelenlebens  (1883),  illustrate  this. 
This  was  only  to  begin  to  do  what  had  been  doing  in 
England  since  Locke  ;  but  the  Germans  went  further :  they 
asked  the  question — which  had  been  groped  upon  before 
by  Descartes,  by  Leibnitz,  and  by  Reid — how  can  psychol- 
ogy be  a  science  when  one  of  the  evident  conditions  of  the 
flow  of  mental  states,  of  their  integrity  and  their  trust- 
worthiness, the  brain,  is  left  quite  out  of  account  i  What  is 
the  law  of  connection  of  mind  and  brain  f  Is  it  possible  to 
modify  the  brain  and  so  to  modify  the  mind  I  If  so,  then 
that  great  instrument  of  scientific  work,  experiment,  may 
perform  a  part  for  the  psychologist,  also,  and  his  resources 
be  magnificently  enlarged.  This  is  the  question  of  experi- 
mental psychology.  It  was  answered  in  Germany  in  the 
aflirmative.  Lotze,  in  the  author's  view,  deserves  the  credit 
of  it :  and  Wundt  is  the  founder  of  the  science  in  the  sense 
that  he  first  realized  the  expectations  of  Lotze's  genius  by 
actually  planning  and  executing  experiments  on  a  large  scale, 
which  made  the  afflrmative  answer  an  irreversible  fact  of  his- 
tory. Lotze's  Medicinische  Psychologie  appeared  in  1852, 
Wundt's  Oruhdziige  der  physiologischen  Psychologie  in  1863. 
Between  the  two  came  P'echner,  whose  theoretical  construc- 
tion of  the  new  work  and  its  methods  shows  all  the  exactness 
of  treatment  of  similar  discussions  of  natural-science  prin- 
ciples by  electricians  and  chemists,  and  published  the  for- 
mulas in  which  he  attempted  to  give  universal  statement  to 
the  discoveries  of  E.  H.  Weber  on  the  intensity  of  sensation- 
states.  Fechner's  Elemente  der  Psychophysik  appeared  in 
1860.  Apart  from  the  actual  development  of  this  new  method 
— a  point  to  be  spoken  of  later  on — it  has  profoinidly  modi- 
fied the  general  conception  of  psychology,  even  wliere  its 
validity  as  a  method  has  been  denied.  There  has  been 
nothing  less  than  a  revolution  in  the  conception  of  psy- 
chology since  the  publication  of  the  works  just  named.  One 
of  the  motives  of  this  revolution  came  thus  from  Germany. 
The  other — for  it  has  two  great  phases — is  due  to  English 
thinkers,  the  evolutionists,  of  whom  Herbert  Spencer  {Prin- 
ciples of  Psychology,  1855)  is  the  chief.  These  two  influ- 
ences are  seen  in  two  great  points  of  contrast,  easily  made 
out  between  the  psychology  of  to-day  and  that  of  yesterday 
in  the  U.  S.  The  two  main  characteristics  of  the  latter,  for 
purposes  of  the  present  contrast,  are,  first,  its  character  as 
so-called  "  faculty-psychology,"  and,  second,  its  character  as 
holding  to  what  may  be  called  a  "ready-made"  view  of  con- 
sciousness— technically  an  "  intuition  "  view  of  consciousness. 
In  opposition  to  these  characters,  current  psychology  is 
"functional,"  holding  to  mental  functions  rather  than  to 
mental  faculties:  and  finds  tliis  function  to  be  genetic 
rather  than  intuitive — the  functions  "grow"  instead  of  be- 
ing "  ready-made." 

The  old  conception  of  "  faculties  "  made  the  different 
phases  of  mental  process  in  large  measure  distinct  from  one 
another.  Its  earliest  and  most  defensible  statement  was  by 
Aristotle.      Memory  was   a  "faculty,"  a  "power"  of  the 


PSYCHOLOGY 


837 


mind  ;  thought  was  anntlirr,  imagination  a  third.  The  new 
fiinclioiml  i-iince|iti(m  asks  how  the  mind  as  a  wliole  acts, 
and  how  this  oni'  form  of  activity  adapts  itself  to  the  dif- 
ferent elements  of  material  which  it  finds  availalile.  The 
old  terms  "memory,"  "thought,"  etc..  are  retained;  hut 
■with  the  distinct  understanding  that  they  do  not  stand  for 
divisions  in  the  mind,  or  different  processes,  one  of  which 
may  lie  held  in  reserve  when  another  is  acting,  etc.  On  the 
contrary,  the  process  in  consciousness  is  one,  and  it  is  a 
psycho-'pliysical  process  as  well.  The  particular  way  in 
which  this  one  function  shows  itself  is  a  matter  of  adapta- 
tion to  the  changing  conditicms  under  which  the  activity  is 
brought  about.  This  transition  is  due  in  part  also  to  the 
insight  of  llerliart  and  to  the  demand  fi>r  unity  insisted 
upon  by  the  evolutionists.  The  other  point  of  contrast  is 
equally  |)lain.  The  "genetic"  point  of  view,  in  current  dis- 
cussion, is  opposed  to  the  older  "  intuitive  "  point  of  view. 
The  mind  is  looked  upon  as  having  grown  to  be  what  it  is 
both  as  respects  the  growth  of  the  man  from  the  child  and 
as  respects  the  place  of  man  in  the  scale  of  conscious  exis- 
tences. The  understanding  of  mental  facts  is  sought  in  the 
comprehension  of  their  origin  as  well  as  their  inilure  ;  and 
the  question  of  the  validity  or  worth  of  "intuitive"  beliefs 
in  consciousness  is  subordinated  to  the  question  as  to  how 
tho  mind  came  to  have  such  beliefs.  lioth  of  tliese  points  of 
contrast  have  been  further  defined  by  the  progress  of  general 
philosophy  in  the  U.  S.  The  demand  for  unity  in  mental 
,  interpretation  has  not  come  from  naturalistic  evolution 
alone  (.John  I-'iske,  Oit/Hnes  of  Cosmic  I'/tihisop/i)/,  1874; 
Thompson,  Si/sti-m  of  Pxyclioloyy,  1884) ;  an  ecjually  [jress- 
ing  demand  has  come  from  idealistic  metaphysics,  which 
seeks  for  continuity  in  the  natural  series  as  zealously  as  does 
the  advocate  of  evolution.  The  influence  of  Ilegel.  as  inter- 
preted in  the  works  of  Green  of  Oxford,  and  later  in  those 
of  Kdward  Caird,  has  been  potent  in  effecting  this  transfor- 
mation. It  is  easy  to  see  also  that  the  same  union  of  forces 
is  (piite  feasible  as  respects  the  genetic  development  of  con- 
sciousness, although  the  new  idealists  have  not  done  justice 
to  this  growing  tendency  in  modern  psychology. 

The  line  of  cleavage,  in  the  current  discussions  of  general 
psychology,  is  drawn  on  the  ({uestion  of  the  interpretation 
of '  mental  "function,"  both  sides  claiming  the  same  full 
liberty  of  gciu4ic  research  and  the  same  resources  of  analysis 
and  experiment.  'I'he  "associationists,"  on  one  hand,  car- 
rying on  the  tradition  of  the  British  empiricists,  construe 
mental  fund  ion  after  analogy  with  the  ordinary  interplay 
of  forces  in  the  objecl  ive  world  ;  the  "  apperceptionists, '  on 
the  other  hand,  hold  that  mental  function  is  a  form  of  irre- 
ducible cosmic  process.  Apart  from  original  numographs 
on  special  topics,  no  work  on  psychology  to-day  commands 
much  attention,  cither  from  psychologists  or  from  students 
of  philosophy,  which  does  not  show  itself  alive  to  this  main 
issue.  In  the  V.  S.  the  works  of  Lotze  ami  Wunilt  have 
had  great  influence  in  the  direction  of  this  general  state- 
ment of  the  ])roblems  of  psychology,  and  it  is  especially 
the  philosophy  of  Loize  which  is  replacing  by  a  reasoned 
and  critical  realism  the  earlier  theological  dogmatic  view  so 
long  prevalent  in  the  L'.  S.  by  Inheritance  from  Scotland. 

On  the  literature  of  present-day  psychology  the  following 
passage  is  translated  from  a  German  work,  itself  fully  rep- 
resentative of  the  slate  of  knowledge,  (IriiiulrisH  der  I'sy- 
choloyie.  by  Prof.  ( ).  Kiilpe,  of  the  University  of  Leipzig  (pp. 
27,  IT.) :  "  About  I  he  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  experi- 
mental and  psycho-physical  psychology  began  its  course  in 
Germany.  While  llerbart  recognized  a  threefold  influence 
of  tho  body  upon  the  min<l  ...  it  was  Lotze  who  made  a 
thorough  begintn'ng  in  the  emiiloyment  of  the  data  of 
physiology.  Lotze.  indeed,  began  his  wcu'k  with  certain 
metaphysical  expositions  afU'r  the  luanner  of  the  older  Ger- 
man writers,  and  is  very  far  from  the  recognition  of  a  uni- 
versal psycho-physical  parallelism  ;  but  he  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  speak  of  the  nervous  conditions  of  mental  processes, 
and  he  ha<l  the  good  fortune  to  suggest  liypotheses  of  value 
where  exact  knowledge  was  wanting.  The  real  foundation 
of  experimental  i)sychology  was  laid,  however,  by  (i.  T. 
Fechner,  who  sought  to  carry  out  in  a  thorough-going  way 
the  conception  of  a  functional  relation  between  mental  and 
physical  processes.  Although  the  mathematical  form  which 
ho  gave  to  this  relation  does  not  hold,  yet  he  gave  to  the 
exact  science  of  psychology  an  extraordiiuiry  impulse  by 
reason  of  the  new  conceptions  which  he  introduced,  the 
methods  of  procedure  which  he  both  formulated  and  aiiplied, 
the  working  over  which  he  gave  the  material  he  had  in 
hand,  and  the  observations  and  researches  which  he  himself 


carried  out.  .  .  .  The  union  of  the  experimental  and  psycho- 
phvsical  was  finally  accomplished  by  Wilhelm  Wundt  .  .  . 
in  )iis  classical  Gnindziiye  der  Physiolagischen  Paychologie 
(1874;  4th  ed.  18ya).  By  this  unity  of  conception  and  his 
comprehensive  treatment  of  all  menial  jihenomena  ...  he 
has  made  the  current  phrase  'modern  jisychology'  appli- 
cable. .  .  .  Wundt  gave  a  further  important  impulse  to  the 
cultivation  of  experimental  psychology  by  founding  the 
laboratory  in  Leipzig  in  1870,  and  establishing  the  I'hiloso- 
phische  Sludien,  a  jouiual  devoted  mainly  to  the  ))ublica- 
tion  of  researches  in  his  institute. 

"  Additiomd  works  may  be  mentioned  of  very  recent  date 
which  must  be  reckoned  in  their  character  as  belonging  to 
the  modern  psychology  thus  founded  by  Wundt.  although 
they  differ  more  or  less  essentially  in  system  and  in  theory 
from  him  and  from  one  another:  IliUTding.  Paycholoyie,  in 
Umrissen  (id  ed.  18il3;  German  trans,  from  the  Danish; 
English  trans.,  1891);  Ladd,  Elements  of  Phyaiolnyical 
Psycholoyy  (1887) ;  Sergi,  La  Psycholoyie,  PhysiuUiyiqiie 
(trans,  from  the  Italian) ;  W.  James,  The  Principles  of  I'ny- 
choloi/i/  (IHW)):  'A'u'Xww.  Leilfaden  der  plii/sioliii/i.sc/ien  I'sij- 
chologie  (1891  ;  Eng.  trans.,"  2d  ed.  1894)';  Baldwin.  Jlaiid- 
book  of  Psychology  (2d  ed.,  1891 ;  1st  ed.  1889-90) ;  J.  Sullv, 
JVie  Human  Mind  (1892)." 

It  will  be  seen  that  of  the  seven  works  thus  cited  by  Kiilpe 
three  are  by  IT.  S.  writers,  and  to  them  nuist  be  added  Psy- 
chology:  Descriptive  and  Explanatory  (1894).  by  (ieorge  T. 
Ladd,  and  the  journal.  The  Psychohnjical  Peritir,  edited  by 
.1.  McK.Cattell  and  J.  Mark  Baldwin  (vol.  i.,  1894).  Another 
important  French  work  of  recent  date  is  La  J'sychologie 
des  Jdees-Forces.  by  A.  Fouillee  (189*5).  Other  imiiortant 
contributions  to  experimental  psychology — apart  from  the 
long  series  of  monographs  and  research  articles  jiublished 
in  Germany  and  the  U.  S. — are  Ilelmholtz,  Phi/siologische 
Optik  (1867:  French  trans.,  2d  ed.  1890.  IT.)  and  Tonemp- 
findungen  (1863;  English  trans.);  Stumpf,  Tonpsychologie 
(188.'i.  1890);  and  Milnsterberg,  BeitragezurE.rperimentellen 
Psychologic  (parts  i.-iv.,  1889-98). 

The  contribution  from  the  side  of  mental  pathology  has 
become  important  on  account  of  the  rapprochement  which 
has  obtained  in  recent  years  between  tlie  alienist  and  the 
psychologist.  The  works  of  Pierre  .lanet,  Antomatisme 
psychologicjue  (1889)  and  L'^tat  ineiilcd  des  llysteriques 
(1892-93):  and  of  Bernheim,  Suggestive  Tlierapeylics(V.\\^\\<\\ 
trans..  1889)  and  Etudes  de  la  Suggestion  (1892),  are  nujst 
important.  To  them  should  be  added  the  works  of  Ribot, 
Diseases  of  the  Will  (English  trans. ;  ."jth  French  ed.  1889) ; 
Diseases  of  Memory  (English  trans. ;  Sth  French  ed.  1888) ; 
Diseases  of  Personality  (2d  ed.  1888  ;  English  trans.  1891), 
together  with  the  many  original  contributions  on  the  sub- 
ject of  hypnotism  and  aberrations  of  personality  published 
in  the  Revue  Philosophicpie.  edited  by  T.  Ribot  (vols,  i.- 
xxxvi.,  1876,  ff.),  and  summed  uji  in  part  in  Les  Alterations 
de  la  Persotinaliti  (189:j),  of  A.  Binet. 

Further,  the  treatment  of  psychology,  in  accordance  with 
the  British  tradition,  from  the  point  of  view  of  description 
and  analvsis,  has  been  carried  forward  by  Ward  in  the 
article  Psychology  in  the.  Encyclopcpdia  Pritannica.'Mh  ed. 
This  type  of  research  has  also  had  its  organ  of  publication 
in  Mind  :  a  Journal  of  Psychology  anil  Philosophy,  edited 
by  G.  ('room  Robertson  (vols,  i.-xvi.,  1876,  11.)  and  by  G.  F. 
Stout  (new  series,  vols,  i.-iii..  1892,  ff.). 

Finally,  the  genetic  treatment  of  consciousness  has  been 
advanced  bv  the  works  of  Spencer,  Principles  of  Psychology 
(ISS.");  3d  ed'.  1880);  Romanes,  The  Origin  of  If  liman  Faculty 
(1884-88);  Morgan,  Animal  Life  and  hitelligence  (IH'Jl); 
and  Gallon,  Incpiiries  into  Human  Faculty  (1883)  aiul 
Xalural  Inheritance  (1889). 

Experimental  Psychology. — The  present  age  is  the  age  of 
.science  because  it  is  the  age  of  devotion  to  science  and  of 
the  results  in  science.  But  it  is  a  very  dillerent  thing  to 
say  that  this  is  the  age  of  scientific  method.  Former  ages 
have  seen  devotion  to  science  and  results  in  science,  but  no 
former  age  has,  as  an  age,  realized  a  scientific  method.  In 
general  philosophy  what  has  Ijeen  called  scientific  method 
is  better  known,  as  has  been  said  above,  in  a  twofold  way — 
as  empirical  and  critical.  Retrospectively,  what  we  have  to 
rejoice  at  in  iihilosophy  is  due  about  equally  to  two  tradi- 
tions, represented  by  Hume  and  Kant.  The  burden  of  cur- 
rent idealism,  as  far  as  it  is  worthy  of  consideration  in  our 
time,  is  to  purify  and  conserve  the  work  of  Kant ;  and  the 
burden  of  empiricism,  under  the  same  restriction,  is  to  re- 
fute Kant  with  the  only  weapons  which  he  himself  consid- 
ered of  worthy  temper."    The  battle  is  drawn  at  these  close 


838 


PSYCHOLOGY 


quarters,  and  round  them  both  is  thrown  a  common  ring 
of  scientific  procedure. 

In  psychology  the  modern  transformation  comes  most 
strongly  out.  Here  we  find  an  actual  department  of 
knowledge  handed  over  to  a  new  class  of  men  for  treat- 
ment, so  remarkable  is  the  demand  for  scientific  method. 
It  is  no  longer  sutBcient  that  a  psychologist  should  be  fa- 
miliar with  general  philosophy  and  its  history  or  capable  of 
acute  logical  criticism  of  systems:  it  is  necessary,  if  he 
would  deal  successfully  with  the  new  problems  and  gain 
the  ear  of  the  advanced  philosophical  public,  that  he  should 
reason  from  a  basis  of  fact  and  by  an  inductive  procedure. 
In  short,  he  must  not  bring  his  philosophy  as  speculation 
into  psychology,  but  must  carry  his  psychology  as  fact  in 
its  connection  with  physiology,  ethnology,  etc.,  into  general 
philosophy.  To  illustrate  this  change  and  its  effects  on 
general  theories,  recent  discussions  of  the  idea  of  space  may 
be  cited  in  comparison  with  its  earlier  and  more  speculative 
treatment.  The  reasoning  of  James,  Wundt,  Bain,  and  Spen- 
cer differs  so  essentially  from  the  argumentation  of  Kant 
and  earlier  men  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  common 
ground  between  them.  No  one  among  those  who  accept 
Kanfs  results  depends,  in  our  day,  very  largely  upon  his 
reasons ;  the  question  is  shifted  to  another  field.  The 
physiologist  has  as  much  to  say  about  it  as  the  psychologist, 
and  the  speculative  philosopher  must  recognize  them  both. 
This  tendency  in  philosophy  may  be  expressed  by  a  chemical 
figure  as  a  "  precipitating  "  tendency.  We  are  endeavoring, 
and  successfully,  too,  to  throw  all  questions  which  are  ca- 
pable of  such  treatment  to  the  bottom  as  a  precipitate — a 
psychological  precipitate — and  are  then  handing  them  over 
to  the  psychologist  for  positive  treatment.  As  long  as  the 
data  remained  in  a  solution  of  ninety  parts  water  (which, 
being  interpreted,  means  speculation)  it  was  ditBcult  to 
handle  them  scientifically.  While  admitting  the  utility  and 
necessity  of  ontology  in  its  place,  psychology  claims  that 
its  place  must  be  better  defined  than  formerly,  and  that 
whenever  a  sediment,  a  residuum,  a  deposit,  apart  from  a 
speculative  solvent,  can  be  secured,  this  is  so  much  gain  to 
positive  science  and  to  truth. 

One  of  the  ideas  which  lie  at  the  bottom  of  the  so-called 
new  psychology,  therefore,  is  the  idea  of  measurement. 
Measurement  (determination  in  quantity  and  time)  is  the 
resource  of  all  developed  science,  and  as  long  as  such  a  re- 
source was  denied  to  the  psychologist  he  was  called  a  scien- 
tist only  in  his  function  of  description  and  classification  ; 
not  in  the  more  important  functions  of  explanation  and 
construction.  And  the  justification  of  the  application  of 
measurement  to  psychological  facts  has  come,  not  from 
theoretical  considerations — for  they  were  all  opposed,  and 
still  are  inmanvof  the  books  of  the  new  idealism — but  from 
practical  atteraiits  to  do  what  philosophy  declared  to  be  im- 
possible ;  that  is,  experiment  has  been  the  desired  and 
only  reagent.  It  is  true  that  theoretical  justifications  are 
now  forthcoming  of  the  application  of  experiment  to  con- 
sciousness, but  they  are  suggested  by  the  actual  results,  and 
were  not  in  suflicient  currency  to  hinder  the  influence  of 
Kant's  ultimatum,  for  example,  that  a  science  of  psychol- 
ogy was  impossible. 

By  experiment  is  meant  experiment  on  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, with  the  accompanying  modifications  it  occasions  in 
consciousness.  Efforts  have  been  made  in  earlier  times  to 
experiment  upon  states  of  consciousness  directly.  Des- 
cartes deserves  credit  for  such  efforts,  and  for  the  intima- 
tion he  gives  us  in  his  theory  of  emotions  of  an  approach  to 
mind  through  the  body ;  but  the  elevation  of  such  an  ap- 
proach to  the  place  of  a  recognized  psychological  method  was 
not  possible  to  Descartes,  Kant,  or  any  one  else  who  lived  and 
theorized  before  the  remarkable  advance  made  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  in  the  physiology  of  the  nervous  system. 
Even  as  it  is,  many  questions  which  will  in  the  end  admit 
of  investigation  from  the  side  of  the  organism  are  in  abey- 
ance till  new  light  is  cast  upon  obscure  processes  of  the 
brain  and  nerves. 

A  little  further  reflection  will  show  us  that  the  employ- 
ment of  experiment  in  this  sphere  proceeds  upon  two  as- 
suuiptions  which  arc  now  generally  admitted  and  are  justi- 
fied as  empirical  principles,  at  least,  by  the  results.  They 
are  both  assumptions  which  the  physical  scientist  is  ac- 
customed to  maKC  in  dealing  with  his  material,  and  their 
statement  is  suflieient  to  exliibit  their  elementary  impor- 
tance, however  novel  they  may  sound  to  those  who  are  ac- 
customed to  think  and  speak  of  mind  as  something  given 
to  us  in  entire  independence  of  its  organic  basis.     The  first 


of  these  assumptions  is  this  :  That  our  mental  life  is  always 
and  everywhere  accompanied  by  a  process  of  nervous  change. 
This  is  seen  to  be  necessary  to  any  method  which  involves 
the  passage  of  mind  to  body  or  the  reverse  by  the  interpre- 
tation of  effects.  Which  is  cause  and  which  effect,  the 
mental  or  the  physical  change,  or  whether  they  both  are 
effects  of  an  unknown  cause,  is  immaterial  :  to  consider 
such  a  question  would  be  to  introduce  what  has  been  called 
the  speculative  solvent.  It  is  suflieient  to  know  that  they 
are  always  together,  and  that  the  change  in  one  may  be  in- 
dicated in  symbols  which  also  represent  the  change  in  the 
other.  The  second  assumption  is  based  <ipon  the  first,  viz,, 
that  this  connection  between  mind  and  body  is  uniform. 
By  this  is  meant  what  in  general  induction  is  called  the 
uniformity  of  nature.  Any  relation  sufficiently  stable  to 
admit  of  repeated  experiment  in  the  manipulation  of  its 
terms  is  in  so  far  uniform.  Experiment  would  be  useless  if 
the  relation  it  tends  to  establish  were  not  stable,  since  the 
result  of  such  experiment  would  give  no  antecedent  likeli- 
hood as  to  the  result  of  others  under  similar  circinnstances. 
Experimental  psychology,  therefore,  rests  upon  the  assump- 
tion that  a  relation  of  correspondence — be  it  coexistence  or 
causation — once  clearly  made  out  between  a  mental  and  a 
nervous  modification,  it  must  hold  good  under  any  and 
every  repetition  of  the  same  experiment  under  the  same 
conditions.  These  two  assumptions  made,  we  have  at  once 
the  possibility  of  a  physical  approach  to  the  facts  of  con- 
sciousness. The  result  is  a  relative  measurement  of  such 
facts  in  terms  of  the  external  stimulation  of  the  nerves,  in 
regular  and  normal  conditions  of  the  activity  of  attention. 

The  need  of  experiment  in  jisychology  is  exceedingly 
great.  When  we  remember  that,  in  the  search  for  causes  in 
the  natural  world,  the  difficulties  are  vastly  enhanced  by 
the  fact  that  single  causes  are  never  found  at  work  alone, 
and  that  it  is  the  function  of  experiment  so  to  eliminate 
elements  in  a  causal  complex  that  isolated  agencies  may  be 
observed  at  work  ;  and  when  we  further  reflect  that  no 
single  function  of  mind  is  ever  found  operating  alone,  but 
that  all  accompany  and  modify  each — the  inadequacy  of 
simple  observation  in  this  field  becomes  apparent.  A 
sense-stimulation,  for  example,  may  arouse  an  intellectual 
train,  an  emotional  outburst,  a  course  of  action ;  are  all 
these  the  effects  of  a  single  cause  i  A  course  of  action, 
conversely,  may  result  from  an  emotion,  a  thought,  a  mem- 
ory, an  association,  a  sensation,  an  inspiration  ;  can  the 
simple  description  of  the  resulting  action  indicate  which  is 
its  cause  i  Antecedents  and  consequents  are  thrown  into 
the  mental  life  in  inextricable  confusion.  External  or 
bodily  causes — an  odor,  a  spoken  word,  a  pain,  an  internal 
organic  movement — may  start  a  train.  This  train  may  be 
hindered  or  advanced  by  a  thousand  considerations  or  emo- 
tions ;  other  bodily  or  mental  causes  may  modify  it.  And 
all  together  make  up  the  cause  or  complex  antecedent 
state ;  while  vague  analogies  of  thought  and  feeling,  such 
as  temperament,  heredity,  education,  make  variations  be- 
tween individuals,  and  the  present  condition  of  the  brain 
and  nerve  centers  make  variations  in  the  same  individual. 
How  can  we  single  out  the  cause,  in  this  network,  by  obser- 
vation i  It  is  as  vain  as  to  discover  the  cause  of  a  confla- 
gration from  examining  the  blaze :  was  it  a  match,  light- 
ning, friction,  chemical  composition  i  Only  one  step  can 
determine :  The  reconstruction,  under  artificial  circum- 
stances, of  the  conditions,  and  the  endeavor  to  exhibit  a 
single  isolated  cause.     This  is  experiment. 

Further,  it  is  apparent  that  such  a  means  of  experimen- 
tation may  become  available  either  under  artificial  or  under 
natural  conditions,  according  as  the  nervous  stimulation  is 
due  to  an  external  excitation,  or  arises  from  some  unusual 
condition  of  the  organism  itself.  All  cases  of  brain  or  nerv- 
ous disease,  on  the  one  hand,  offer  opportunities  for  bound- 
less observation,  the  unusual  manifestations  being  changes 
due  to  the  organic  disturbances  of  disease.  Here  nature 
has  arranged  and  actually  performed  the  experiment  for  us, 
the  only  difficulty  being  the  physiological  one  that  the 
cerebral"  disturbances  are  as  obscure  as  the  mental  states 
which  they  are  used  to  explain.  All  such  cases  of  mental 
changes  due  to  internal  organic  changes  arc  classed  to- 
gether under  the  name  of  physiolngical  psychology.  On 
the  other  hand,  experiments  maybe  arranged  for  the  nor- 
mal stimulation  of  the  sense  organs — skin,  muscles,  special 
senses — under  artificial  conditions.  This  is,  strictly  speak- 
ing, experimental  psychology.  See  Psycho-physics,  Psy- 
CHOMETRY'.  Memory,  Vision,  and  Sensation,  for  some  of  the 
detailed  results. 


PSYCHOLOGY 


839 


Physiological  Psychology. — This  branch  of  psychology  in- 
cludes all  the  matter  covered  by  such  topics  as  Hypnotism, 
Illusion,  Localization  (Ctrei/uT),  and  PiiysiuLOOY  (of  brain 
and  ner\"es).  It  aims  to  discover  all  tlie  facts  of  the  con- 
nection between  mind  and  body,  and  to  iiropoiiiid  theories 
of  the  central  nervous  processes  of  tlionfrht,  feeling,  etc. 
The  methods  of  this  science  are  largely  those  of  experi- 
mental physiology,  the  results  of  experiments  upon  living 
animals  being  the  inost  direct  aid  to  it.  Its  contributions  to 
the  welfare  of  man  through  the  practical  work  of  the  brain 
surgeon,  the  oculist,  the  aurist,  and  the  alienist,  are  of  the 
highest  im[)ortance. 

Jtaee  or  Folk  J'sychotogy. — The  science  of  the  mental 
traits  of  races  and  peoples  and  of  the  mental  development 
of  man  ;  the  study  of  mind  in  its  social  characteristics,  and 
in  its  products  in'  society,  the  state,  religions,  customs,  and 
institutions.  It  accepts' all  the  results  of  Anthropology 
(<;.  ('.),  and  views  them  as  the  manifestations  of  the  mind. 
It  examines  ancient  philosophies,  cults,  and  civilizations ; 
literatures,  history,  laws,  mythologies,  traditions,  the  sources 
from  which  the  human  mind  has  drawn  its  culture  in  all 
ages.  It  values  the  reports  of  travelers  in  respect  to  sav- 
ages, heathen,  and  degenerate  races ;  the  conditions  of  so- 
cial life  everywhere.  For  in  all  these  manifestations  of  the 
life  of  the  human  mind  we  have  direct  information  respect- 
ing its  nature  and  capacities. 

Animal  or  Comparafire  Psychology. — As  might  be  ex- 
pected, the  study  of  animals  is  of  extreme  importance  for 
the  science  ;  for  animals  show  striking  evidences  of  the  phe- 
nomena of  consciousness  both  in  its  lower  and  in  many  of 
its  hitrher  forms.  It  is  perhaps  destined,  judging  from  the 
contributions  it  has  already  made  to  some  departments  of 
research,  to  throw  as  much  light  upon  human  psychology 
as  comiiarative  anatomy  has  upon  human  physiology.  As 
is  the  case  with  many  physical  functions,  so  certain  intel- 
lectual states  are  seen  in  animals  in  a  less  developed  and 
complex  state,  or  in  a  more  sharpened  and  predominant 
state,  than  in  man ;  and  thus  the  necessity  for  a  genetic 
study  of  these  states  is  met  to  a  greater  or  less  degree. 
Instinct,  for  example,  attains  its  most  perfect  form  in  ani- 
mals, memory  is  often  remarkably  developed,  and  cer- 
tain of  their  senses  show  a  degree  of  acuteness  which  we 
would  never  expect  the  corresponding  human  senses  to  [los- 
sess.  And  the  study  of  animals  for  psychological  purposes 
is  not  limited  to  observation  of  their  habits,  productive  as 
such  observation  is;  but  the  physiological  method  is  capa- 
ble of  much  more  extended  use  than  in  experiment  upon 
man.  Condemned  animals  may  be  directly  used  for  pur- 
poses of  neurological  research  under  conditions  which  rule 
out  all  pain  to  the  creatures.  The  variety  of  problems  which 
may  thus  be  reached  is  limited  only  by  our  ability  to  state 
them  and  our  ingenuity  in  planning  the  experiments.  See 
Instinct,  Impilsk,  and  Localization  (Cerebral). 

Infant  P.Hychology. — The  importance  of  the  early  study 
of  mind  is  to  be  equally  insisted  upon.  By  it  mental  facts 
are  reached,  as  far  as  they  ever  can  be,  at  their  origin  and 
in  their  simplest  form.  It  is  more  important  to  know 
what  mind  is  than  what  it  becomes.  The  child  serves  to 
correct  the  reports  of  adult  life  by  opening  up  object  les- 
sons in  the  growth  of  mind.  At  the  outset  the  child  mind 
is  lower  than  the  highest  animal  mind,  since,  while  its  hu- 
man possibilities  have  not  emerged,  its  instinctive  eciuip- 
ment  is  not  as  varied  as  that  of  animals;  but  in  its  rapid 
development  it  exhibits  the  unfoldings  of  organic  mental 
growth  in  corresponden<-e  with  the  gnjwth  of  the  bodily 
sy.stem,  an  advantage  found  in  none  of  the  other  fields  of 
observation.     See  Gknktic  I'sycholooy. 

Abnormal  or  Medical  Pxyrhology. — As  in  the  former 
sources  of  information  we  deal  with  mind  in  health,  here 
we  come  to  consider  it  in  disease — that  is,  we  look  to  all 
abnormal  or  diseased  conditions  of  the  mental  life  for  light 
upon  its  nature  and  upon  its  legitinmte  operations.  It  in- 
cludes all  cases  of  variation  from  the  normal  and  healthy 
activity  of  conscious  mind — sleep-walking,  dreams,  insanity 
in  its  multiplied  forms,  loss  of  memory,  loss  of  speech,  hyp- 
notism, idiocy,  hallucination,  disturbances  of  consciousness 
generally.  AH  these  variations  alTord — as  such  variations 
in  any  science  afford — instructive  views  into  the  working  of 
mind  in  its  most  intimate  character.  And  the  reason  for 
this  is  plain.  .Such  cases  offer  immediate  occasion  for  the 
application  of  the  logical  method  of  difference,  which  con- 
sists in  removing  part  of  a  cause  or  effect  and  observing  the 
consequent  variations  in  the  corresponding  effect  or  cause. 
This  procedure  enables  us   to  attach  an  effect  to  its  true 


cause.  One  most  general  result  of  the  study  of  mental  dis- 
ease, for  example,  is  this :  that  we  have  learned  to  seek  its 
cause  in  diseased  conditions  of  the  body,  rather  than  in  ob- 
scure mental  movements  or  supernatural  influences.  It  has 
been  well  said  that  a  man  deprived  of  one  of  his  senses  from 
birth  is  a  subject  especially  prepared  by  nature  for  the  ap- 
plication of  the  method  of  difference.  The  science  of  mental 
disease  and  its  cure  is  called  psychiatry.    See  Insanity. 

Social  or  Collective  Psychology. — This  de|)artment  of  psy- 
chological study  endeavors  to  investigate  the  mental  and 
moral  life  of  man  in  its  social  and  collective  conditions. 
The  evident  need  of  such  subjects  as  sociology  and  crimin- 
ology is  the  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  human  feelings  and 
action  when  man  is  found  in  crowds,  orderly  or  disorderly, 
and  in  organizations,  legitimate  or  criminal.  This  need  is 
felt  in  constructing  the  history  of  society,  both  by  sociolo- 
gists and  by  psychologists. 

Individual  or  Introspective  Psychology. — The  older  psy- 
chologists proceeded  by  introspection  or  direct  observation 
of  the  events  of  the  individual  consciousness.  The  various 
branches  of  the  experimental  science  now  described  deal 
rather  with  mind  in  its  objective  and  collective  aspects.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  t  hat  all  the  results  of  objec- 
tive psychology  must  have  their  final  interpretation  in  terms 
of  the  consciousness  of  each  normal  man.  The  method  of 
the  old  psychology,  internal  observation,  must  finally  be  ap- 
pealed to,  therefore,  after  all  is  said,  for  the  actual  confirma- 
tion of  all  psychological  truth. 

This  final  psychological  resort,  introspection  or  internal 
observation,  takes  on  three  distinct  phases.  In  the  first 
place,  the  simple  fact  of  consciousness,  that  inner  aspect 
which  makes  mental  facts  what  they  are,  in  its  primitive 
form,  is  at  once  awareness  of  the  states  of  self.  However 
vague  and  indefinite  this  primitive  awareness  is  at  first,  it  is 
still  a  beginning.  There  is  no  experience  in  conscious  life 
which  leaves  absolutely  no  trace  of  itself.  Once  it  is  an  ex- 
perience, a  modification  of  subjectivity ;  then  it  may  become 
the  object  of  the  developed  act  of  inner  observation.  The 
first  fleeting  sensations  of  the  child,  when  there  is  no  sub- 
ject or  object,  no  store  of  memory  images,  no  idea  of  self, 
exhibit  in  isolation  the  kind  of  primitive  consciousness  that 
lies  at  the  basis  of  all  knowledge  of  self.  In  adult  life  these 
experiences  are  assimilated  to  the  developed  forms  of  intel- 
lect and  their  separate  meaning  is  lost.  But  in  this  cate- 
gory are  included  the  vast  number  of  first  experiences  as 
they  pass  steadily  on  in  time,  something  every  moment ; 
and  all  the  information  we  glean  from  them  before  we  re- 
call, examine,  and  reflect  upon  them.  Second,  the  state  of 
mind  called  primary-memory — the  lingering  in  conscious- 
ness of  an  event  just  after  the  event  itself  is  gone.  The 
immediate  past  hangs  around  us  as  a  line  of  trailing  cloud 
on  the  horizon  of  consciousness.  So  speedy  and  involuntary 
is  this  presence  of  the  shortly-past  that  it  is  sometimes  con- 
sidered the  first  stage  of  our  inner  observati(Ui ;  yet  this  can 
not  be  held  in  the  sense  of  denying  the  immediate  aware- 
ness of  the  primitive  consciousness.  For  example,  a  loud 
noise,  or  a  spoken  word,  may  be  unintelligible  until  its  quick 
recall  enables  us  to  recognize  it.  We  have  hail,  in  these 
cases,  the  "  immediate  awareness"  of  the  first  event,  but  the 
examination  of  the  after-image  which  it  leaves  adds  much 
to  the  scientific  value  of  the  experience.  Third,  we  reach 
reflection,  or  conscious  observation.  By  reflection  is  meant 
the  inspection  of  the  events  of  the  inner  world  as  distinct 
objects  of  our  knowledge.  It  is  the  highest  form  of  internal 
observation.  Thus,  by  reflection,  inner  happenings  are  built 
up  into  hypotheses  concerning  the  nature  and  processes  of 
the  mental  life.  See  Perception,  Mkmorv,  Imagination, 
Thoi'ght,  Consciousness.  Will,  Association  of  Ideas,  Sen- 
timent. JloTivE.  Mind,  and  Philosophy. 

Applied  or  Educational  Psychology. — It  is  evident  that 
education  has  two  claims  to  make  upon  this  study.  The 
fii-st  of  these  two  duties  of  psychology  to  education  is  this: 
It  should  take  its  place  as  a  factor  in  liberal  collegiate  cul- 
ture in  both  of  the  functions  which  a  great  Ijranch  of  learn- 
ing serves  in  the  university  curriculum — i.e.  undergraduate 
discipline  and  instruction,  ami  post-graduate  research  dis- 
cipline. The  second  great  educative  function  of  psychology 
is  this:  It  should  mould  and  inform  educational  theory  bv 
affording  a  view  of  mind  and  body  in  their  united  growth 
and  mutual  dependence.  Kducation  is  a  process  of  the  de- 
velopment under  most  favorable  conditions  of  full  person- 
ality, and  i)sychology  is  the  science  which  aims  to  determine 
the  nature  of  such  personality  in  its  varied  stages  of  growth, 
and  the  conditions  under  which  its  full  development  may 


840 


PSYCHOLOGY 


PSYCHOMETRY 


be  most  healthfully  and  sturdily  nourished.  One  of  the  first 
duties  of  psychology,  therefore,  is  to  criticise  systems  of  edu- 
cation, and  to  point  out  "  the  better  way  "  in  education. 

Pedagogy  as  a  science  treats  of  the  application  of  psy- 
chological principles  to  the  development  of  normal  and  cul- 
tured personality.  The  ground-work  of  such  a  science  must 
be  afforded,  therefore,  by  psychology ;  and  inasmuch  as  the 
teacher  has  to  do  with  body  as  well  as  mind,  and  with  mind 
principally  through  the  body,  it  is  experimental  or  psycho- 
physical psychology  to  which  this  duty  to  theoretical  educa- 
tion mainly  comes  "home.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  there  is 
no  such  science  of  pedagogy  in  existence.  Most  of  the  books 
on  this  topic  are  unworthy  of  serious  attention.  Further, 
the  German  a  priori  systems  of  pedagogics  find  their  main 
value  in  keeping  awake  the  expectation  and  the  amour 
penser  of  teachers,  not  in  affording  them  much  empirical 
assistance  in  their  task.  Psychology  is  aware  of  this  duty, 
however  far  slie  may  be  from  performing  it.  Children  are 
studied  with  some  soberness  and  exactness  of  method.  Sta- 
tistical investigations  of  the  growth  of  school  children,  of 
the  causes  and  remedies  of  fatigue  in  school  periods,  of  tlie 
natural  methods  of  writing,  reading,  and  memorizing,  are 
carried  out.  The  results  of  several  such  inquiries  were 
plotted  for  exhibit  in  the  department  of  anthropology  at 
the  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago.  Questions  of  school 
hygiene  are  intelligently  discussed.  The  relative  values  of 
different  study-disciplines  are  weighed  in  view  of  the  needs 
of  pupils  of  varying  temperaments  and  preferences.  Among 
those  who  have  addressed  themselves  to  this  task  in  the 
U.  S.,  with  information  and  influence,  two  names  may  be 
mentioned — that  of  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Education,  ami  President  G.  Stanley  Hall,  of  Clark  Cni- 
versity,  editor  of  The  Pediigogical  Seminary  (vols,  i.-iii., 
1891-94).  Another  journal  for  the  application  of  sound  psy- 
chology in  education  is  The  Educational  Review,  edited  by 
Prof.  Xicholas  JI.  Butler,  of  Columbia  College,  New  York 
(vols,  i.-vii.,  1891-94). 

Relation  of  Psychology  to  Philosophy. — The  traditional 
connection  with  philosophy  is  not  severed  by  these  directions 
of  psychology.  The  change  in  psychological  methods  was 
due  in  part,  as  has  been  said  above,  to  changes  in  philosoph- 
ical conception,  and  it  is  only  part  of  the  same  fact  that 
scientific  psychology  reacts  upon  philosophy  in  the  way  of 
healthful  stimulus.  Both  the  critical  idealistic  and  the 
critical  realistic  methods  of  philosophy  are  richer  and  more 
profound  by  reason  of  the  lessons  of  the  new  psychology. 
It  was  only  just  that  the  modern  science  which  owed  one  of 
its  earliest  impulses  in  the  U.  S.  to  a  book  from  an  advanced 
thinker  of  the  former  school,  the  Psychology  of  Prof.  John 
Dewey,  should  repay  the  debt  by  its  reconstruction  of  the 
Kantian  doctrine  of  apperception  in  terms  acceptable  to  the 
later  thinkers  of  that  school.  And  it  is  no  small  gain  to  both 
schools  that  their  issue  should  be  joined  on  ground  which 
stretches  beyond  their  old  battlefields  by  all  the  reach  of 
territory  covered  by  the  modern  doctrines  of  naturalistic  evo- 
lution and  the  association  psychology.  Philosophy  escapes 
the  charge  of  Ijcwes  that  her  discussions  are  logomachy 
when  the  disputants  on  both  sides  are  able  to  look  back  upon 
those  even  of  the  late  period  of  Lewes  and  admit  the  essen- 
tial truth  of  both  of  their  hotly  contested  formulas.  As  far 
as  this  is  the  case,  the  writer  ventures  to  say  that  it  is  due 
to  the  progress  of  psychology  in  giving  content  to  the  terms 
of  the  logomachy  and  in  enabling  the  best  men  to  reach 
more  synthetic  and  more  profound  intuitions. 

The  relation  of  psychology  to  theology,  also,  is  close,  and 
must  remain  so.  And  the  obligation  must  become  of  greater 
mutual  advantage  as  psychology  grows  to  adult  stature  and 
attains  her  social  self-consciousness  in  the  organization  of 
knowledge.  Tlie  benefits  which  theology  might  have  gained 
from  psychology  have  been  denied  in  great  measure  through 
the  unfortunate  attempt  to  impose  the  theological  method 
upon  the  treatment  of  the  whole  range  of  mental  fact. 
The  treatment  of  "anthropology,"  included  in  the  text- 
books of  systematic  theology,  bears  about  the  same  relation 
to  that  of  psychologies  like  Hoffding"s  and  James's  as  the 
physiology  of  the  traditional  philosophy  bore  to  the  work 
of  the  neurologists  and  morphologists. 

BiBLiooRAPtiY. — Bcsirlcsthe  works  already  mentioned  and 
those  given  under  Insanity,  the  student  may  consult  the 
following:  (ieneral  Works:  K.WaUnce,  I'sych'ology  of  Aris- 
totle; W.  Wallace.  Hegel's  P/iilosophy  of  Mind;  and  Volk- 
mann,  Lehrbuc.h  der  Psycholnyie  {4tli  ed.  1894). 

Histories  of  psychology  are  .Siebeck's,  Carus's.  Harmus's, 
and  Dessoir's,  each  entitled  tleschiclite  der  Psychologic;  see 


also  the  historical  sections  of  Volkmann's  Lehrbuch,  and 
the  histories  of  philosophy  by  Windelband,  Erdmann,  and 
Ueberweg. 

Comparatii'e,  Genetic,  and  Educational  Psychology. — 
Schneider,  Der  Menschliche  Wille  and  Der  Thierische 
Wille ;  Darwin,  Expression  of  the  Emotions ;  Baldwin, 
Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the  Pace  (London 
and  New  York,  189.5);  Preyer,  The  Mind  of  the  Child; 
Tracy,  llie  Psychology  of  Childhood ;  Compayre,  Evolution 
Intellectuelle  de  V  Enfant ;  Guyau.  Education  and  Heredity; 
Tarde,  Les  Lois  de  VImitation  ;  Sighele,  La  Eoule  crimi- 
nelle;  Ward,  The  Psychic  Factors  in  Civilization. 

Abnormal  Psychology. — Lewis,  Textbook  of  Mental  Dis- 
eases; Starr,  Familiar  Forms  of  y^ervous  Disease:  Ziehen, 
Psychiatric.  J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Psyclioni'etry,  or  Mental  Clironoin'etry  [psychometry 
is  from  Gr.  ^vxh.  soul,  mind  +  /j^erpov.  measure] :  the  science 
of  the  measurement  of  reaction-times,  or  of  the  duration  of 
mental  acts.  It  is  only  since  1860  that  anything  like  exact 
and  scientific  efforts  have  been  made  to  measure  the  time 
or  duration  of  mental  states.  The  necessity  of  some  such 
measurement  first  arose  in  astronomy,  where  the  most  ex- 
act determinations  of  transit  and  other  periods  must  be 
made.  A  source  of  error  in  such  observations  was  early 
seen  to  be  the  time  taken  up  by  the  transmission  of  the  ex- 
citation of  the  retina  to  the  brain,  and  the  time  taken  by  the 
impulse  given  to  the  hand  to  record  the  event,  to  travel 
from  the  brain  to  the  hand.  This  element  of  "personal 
equation "'  in  astronomical  work  is  elevated  to  a  distinct 
problem  in  psychometry,  and  its  conditions  are  extended  to 
include  all  mental  states  which  have  the  physical  basis  ac- 
cessible for  the  employment  of  experiment. 

Before  the  rise  of  experiment  desultory  treatment  had 
been  given  to  the  comparative  rapidity  or  slowness  of  our 
"  ideas,"  such  questions  as  whether  all  "  ideas  "  were  succes- 
sive or  some  simultaneous,  speculations  on  the  cause  of  the 
rapidity  of  dreams,  etc. :  but  being  only  general  descrip- 
tions of  fact,  and  depending  on  individual  experience  and 
testimony,  such  observations  were  almost  useless  in  general 
mental  theory.  With  the  positive  work  now  done  in  psy- 
chometry, it  is  quite  astonishing  how  many  side-lights  are 
thrown  on  other  questions  and  to  what  unexpected  uses 
time  determinations  may  be  put. 

Proceeding  on  the  assumptions  made  in  Psycho-physics 
{q.  v.),  we  observe  that  any  period  of  time  which  is  occupied 
jointly  by  a  physiological  and  a  mental  process,  and  which 
may  be  recorded  by  movements  traced  by  a  time-registering 
apparatus,  will  involve  as  one  of  its  factors  the  time  of  the 
mental  process  considered  for  itself.  If.  then,  we  have  means 
of  measuring  the  time  taken  by  the  physiological  process 
alone,  we  may  by  subtraction  find  the  mental  time.  Now 
these  conditions  are  realized  in  every  instance  in  which  we 
perform  a  movement  in  response  or  reaction  to  a  sensation 
from  without.  For  example,  suppose  one  hears  a  word  and 
then  writes  it ;  the  sensation  of  sound  is  the  central  link  in  a 
chain  of  nervous  processes  beginning  in  the  ear  and  ending 
in  the  hand.  Fi-om  the  ear  the  stimulus  is  transmitted  to 
the  brain,  and  from  the  brain  the  command  to  move  is  car- 
ried to  the  hand;  between  these  two  processes  the  third  or 
mental  fact,  sensation  and  volition,  has  taken  place.  Such 
a  chain  of  events  involving  any  sensation  and  movement, 
and  a  conscious  event  connecting  them,  is  called  a  "  simple 
reaction,"  and  the  time  that  it  takes  the  "  simple  reaction- 
time."  The  determination  of  this  time  is  the  first  problem 
of  psychometry. 

The  simple  reaction-time  is  determined  for  any  sense  with 
its  reaction  in  movement  (for  example,  a  sound  and  conse- 
quent movement  of  the  right  hand)  by  connecting  the 
hand's  movement  with  a  very  delicate  clock  (chronoscope 
or  chronograph)  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  an  instantane- 
ous stoppage  of  the  clock  upon  the  movement  of  the  hand. 
This  is  arranged  by  directing  the  person  experimented  upon 
to  press  an  electric  button  when  he  hears  a  signal,  say  a  bell- 
stroke.  Let  the  bell-stroke  emanate  from  the  clock  as  it 
reaches  a  certain  indication  upon  its  dial,  and  the  experi- 
ment is  ready  for  trial.  The  experimenter  stands  ready  to 
press  the  button — the  bell  sounds — he  presses — the  clock 
stops.  The  dial-face  indicates  the  time  which  elapsed  be- 
tween the  actual  sound  of  the  bell  and  the  movement  of  the 
hand.  Calling  the  time  taken  up  by  the  nervous  process 
from  the  ear  to  the  brain  "  sensorj'-time  "  (5),  that  taken  by 
the  nervous  process  from  the  brain  to  the  hand  "  motor- 
time"  (M),  and  the  time  of  the  mental  event  between  them 


PSYCH OMETRY 


841 


"perception-time"  (P),  the  simple  reaction-time  (i?)  can  be 
expressed  in  this  equation  : 

(1)        R  =  S  -H  /'  +  J/, 
in  which  S  and  .V  are  purely  i)hysiological. 

This  determiuati<iu  has  been  nuule  by  a  great  number  of 
observers  upon  three  of  the  senses — sight,  hearing,  and  touch 
— with  remarkable  uniformity  of  result.  It  varies  with  dif- 
ferent classes  of  sensations  and  individuals  from  i  to  ^  sec. 
Experiments  of  Ilelmholtz  and  Dubois-Keymond  have 
determined  the  velocity  of  both  sensor  and  motor  nerve- 
transmissions,  so  that  we  may  substitute  known  values  for 
6' and  J/  in  the  formula  given  above,  as  follows: 

S  +  1'+  M=  'lo  sec.  (about). 

S  +  M=-Oii  sec.  (about). 

/'=  09  sec.  (about). 

The  word  "  about  "  indicates  variations  for  the  different 
senses.  For  all  the  senses  the  general  law  will  hold  that  the 
purely  physiological  time  {S  +  M)  is  less  than  half  of  the 
entire  reaction-time. 

Having  the  simple  reaction-experiment  arranged,  we  may 
vary  the  conditions  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  thus  arrive  at 
the  most  favorable  mental  attitudes  for  quick  reactions. 
In  the  simple  experiment  the  excitation  was  expected,  but 
the  exact  moment  of  its  occurrence  was  not  known.  If  this 
exact  moment  is  given  to  the  "  subject "  by  a  preliminary 
signal,  the  read  ion-time  is  diminished.  Again,  if  neither 
the  kind  of  excitation  nor  the  lime  of  its  occurrence  is  known, 
the  time  is  greatly  increased.  From  these  two  variations 
we  gather  that  the  state  of  the  attention  has  a  great  influence 
upon  the  reaction.  As  we  would  expect  from  our  ordinary 
experience,  when  the  attention  is  taken  unawares  a  longer 
time  is  retpiired  to  respond  actively  to  external  influences. 

Another  exceedingly  important  influence  is  practice. 
This  is  due  to  the  artificial  conditions  of  all  experiment, 
and  the  increased  facility  we  .acquire  by  personal  ad,iust- 
ment.  We  react  a  thousand  times  daily  under  less  artificial 
circumstances,  and  since  the  reaction-time  is  diminished  by 
practice,  it  is  probable  that  our  customary,  habitual  re- 
sponses to  stimuli  of  sense  are  more  quickly  performed 
tlian  the  most  favorable  experiments  would  indicate. 

Having  now  reached  what  may  be  called  the  "mental" 
time  (/'),  the  question  arises:  How  is  this  to  be  diviiled  be- 
tween the  perception  or  apprehension  of  the  sensation  and 
the  volition  to  respond  by  movement  i  Two  methods  of 
experiment  have  been  devised  for  breaking  up  this  [leriod 
into  its  elements.  The  first  consists  in  experimenting  on 
cases  of  very  close  physical  association — as  between  hearing 
and  speech,  right  hand  and  foot,  etc. — where  the  reaction  is 
almost  automatic  and  the  will-element  is  practically  ruled 
out.  The  subject  agrees  beforehand  to  repeat  any  familiar 
word  spoken  to  him  as  soon  as  he  hears  it.  Experiments  of 
this  kind  led  Donders  and  .laager  to  the  following  princi- 
ple:  The  relative  times  of  perception  and  volition  depend 
upon  the  degree  of  physiological  association  between  the 
receiving  and  reacting  organs;  when  this  association  is 
close,  the  mental  time  is  largely  taken  up  with  perception  ; 
when  loose,  it  is  nearly  all  occupied  with  volition. 

The  other  method,  that  of  \\  undt  and  Haxt,  consists  in 
re|)ealiiig  the  excitation  one  or  more  times  before  the  vol- 
untary impulse  for  the  reaction  is  given.  Thus  the  percep- 
tion-element is  repeated,  and  the  difference  between  this 
time  aiul  the  simple  reaction-time  is  the  time  due  to  the  ad- 
ditional act  of  perception.  For  example,  let  two  equal  and 
moderate  excitations,  say  bell-strokes,  follow  each  other 
quickly,  the  reaction  being  made  only  after  the  second;  we 
then  have  the  equation  (here  p  represents  the  perception  of 
the  first  stroke,  which  carries  no  volition  with  it) : 
(2)        Ji=S  +  p  +  P  +  M. 

On  ro(ieating  the  experiment  with  only  one  stroke,  we  have 
as  before : 

(1)       n  =  s+  P  +  M. 
Subtracting  (1)  from  (2),  we  have: 

R  -Hz=p. 
Here  K  and  R  are  readings  from  the  clock.     This  gives  a 
numerical  determination  for  p.     The  volition-time  will  then 
heP-p. 

From  this  latter  experiment  a  curious  result  follows  if 
the  successive  excitations  are  of  very  ditTerent  intensities. 
If  the  more  intense  really  follows,  it' is,  nevertheless,  heard 
first,  and  the  li'ss  intense,"really  first,  follows  after:  or  lliey 
may  appear  to  be  simultaneous,  though  really  successive. 


This  is  the  ease,  in  general,  whenever  the  attention  is  strong- 
ly drawn  to  the  second  stimulus  and  follows  from  the  prin- 
ciple already  spoken  of,  that  the  attention,  when  concen- 
trated, diminislies  the  reaction-time.  This  will  be  the  case 
in  general  whenever  the  dimiiuilion  in  the  reaction-lime  of 
the  second  exceeds  the  real  interval  between  the  two.  The 
same  phenomenon  is  experienced  often  when  one  is  awak- 
ened l>y  a  loud  noise.  lie  hears  the  noise  after  he  awakes, 
though  it  was  the  noise  that  awaked  him.  It  simply  means 
that  because  of  the  dormancy  or  i)reoceupation  in  drt^iimland, 
the  reaction-time  of  the  sound  is  lengthened  into  his  waking 
consciousness,  while  the  shock  to  the  nervous  apparatus  was 
sulliei(>nt  to  rouse  him  from  sleep.  This  shows  also  the  de- 
peniience  of  the  order  of  associated  states  of  memory  upon 
the  movements  of  attention  in  the  first  experience  "rather 
than  upon  the  order  of  external  events.  The  fact  is  also 
important  in  astronomical  observation;  a  new  excitation  to 
the  eye,  such  as  the  appearance  of  an  expected  star  on 
the  meridian,  is  anticipated  liy  the  attention  and  given  a 
reaction  earlier  than  its  true  jiosition  would  confirm. 

The  distinction  between  perception  and  reproduction- — 
that  is,  between  a  direct  intuition  and  a  memory-picture — is 
very  artificial,  inasmucli  as  reproduced  images  enter  in  all 
our  perceptions  and  influence  their  time.  We  have  dealt 
heretofore  with  simple  perception  as  if  this  influence  did 
not  exist,  but  a  moment's  reflection  shows  that  it  should  be 
taken  into  account  in  all  time-measurements.  In  the  experi- 
ments just  spoken  of,  in  which  attention  plays  a  part — that 
is,  in  which  the  subject  knew  before  he  experienced  the  exci- 
tation, its  nature  and  (jnality — the  reaction-time  was  dimin- 
ished, for  the  reason  that  it  was  possible  to  call  up  a  memory- 
picture  of  previous  experiences  and  hold  it  before  the  atten- 
tion in  such  a  way  that  the  voluntary  impulse  could  be  set  in 
play  almost  immedi.utely  upon  the  (iischarge  of  the  sensory 
centers.  For  examjile,  if  the  subject  expects  the  stroke  of 
the  bell,  he  recalls  the  sensation  of  a  previously  heard  stroke 
and  the  organs  are  in  readiness  to  respond,  ."^o  what  the 
writer  has  called  perception-time  really  results  from  a  dimi- 
nution due  to  reproduction.  The  true  time  for  perception 
must  be  obtained  by  experimenting  with  excitations  entirely 
unexpected,  and  the  differences  between  the  reaction-time 
in  this  case  and  that  of  an  expected  excitation  of  the  same 
nature  due  to  the  influence  of  reproduction  simply  is  some- 
times half  the  true  perception-time. 

The  problem  then  arises  to  determine  the  reproduction  or 
simple  "association-time" — that  is,  the  time  which  elapses 
between  the  full  perception  of  a  first  image  and  that  of  a 
second  which  the  first  suggests.  To  do  this,  we  must  first 
determine  the  time  of  a  complete  association-reaction — that 
is,  the  time  which  elapses  from,  say,  the  hearing  of  a  word, 
as  "  storm,"  an<i  the  utterance  of  a  closely  associated  word, 
as  "  wind."  The  association  must  be  spontaneous  with  the 
subject,  and  the  original  word  a  monosyllable  and  very 
familiar.  The  uniformity  of  result  is  surprising,  consider- 
ing the  variety  and  indefiniteness  of  our  customary  associa- 
tions. Our  equation  is  (-1  representing  the  new  element 
due  to  association) : 

(.3)        R  =  S  +  P+  A  +  M. 
Reacting  again  for  the  word  alone  witliout  the  associated 
image,  we  liave 

(1)        R  =  S+  P  +  M. 
By  subtraction,  A  —  R'  —  R ;  hence  value  for  A. 

The  average  of  experiments  gives  this  value  about  J  to  | 
sec.  These  results  hold  only  for  close  associations  estab- 
lished by  long  habit,  especially  those  dating  back  to  child- 
hood or  early  life.  A  third  process  upon  which  experiment 
has  been  employed  is  that  of  discernment — that  is,  the  act 
of  distinguishing  l)etween  given  images  and  iiuiicating  the 
distinction  by  choice.  The  excitation,  say  a  red  light,  is 
agreed  upon, and  is  exhibited  to  the  subject  indiscriminately 
with  another,  say  a  blue;  the  subject  to  react  only  when  he 
sees  the  red.  In  this  process,  it  is  seen,  two  intellectual  acts 
occur:  1,  Comparison  of  the  visible  light  with  the  repro- 
duced image  in  consciousness;  2,  a  judgment  as  to  their 
identity  or  non-idcntily,  and  these  imply.  It,  the  act.  first 
of  all,  of  simple  pen'cption.aiid  4,  last  of  all,  the  act  of  voli- 
tion, a.s  in  ]ueceding  cases.  Letting  D  represent  the  whole 
distinction-time,  we  have: 

(4)        R=S  +  P+D  +  M. 
Reacting  simply : 

(1)       R  =  S  +  r+  M. 
By  subtraction,  D  =  R'  -  R. 


842 


PSYCHO-PHYSIC   LAW 


PSYCHO-PHYSICS 


Thus  arrived  at,  the  time  of  "  distinction  "  is  found  to  be 
for  two  indiscriminate  stimuli,  ^g  to  i^  sec.  longer  than  the 
simple  reaction-time.  The  reason  for  saying  two  stimuli  is 
that  the  time  is  lengthened,  as  we  would  expect,  when  the 
possible  choices  are  increased.  For  example,  if  we  use  three 
lights,  red,  blue,  and  green,  the  time  occupied  in  a  true  dis- 
crimination is  longer,  and  it  increases  geometrically.  Wundt 
experimented  with  the  letters  of  the  German  alphabet,  and 
Cattell  with  both  Roman  and  German  printed  characters. 
Cattell  finds  that  it  takes  about  i  see.  to  see  and  name  a 
single  letter,  and  tliat  it  takes  longer  to  distinguish  the  Ger- 
man characters  than  the  Koman. 

The  time  of  the  jutlgment  has  entered  also  into  all  our 
measurements  heretofore,  and  it  is  impossible  to  isolate  it 
as  a  distinct  intellectual  act  for  the  purpose  of  experiment. 
As  an  act  in  time,  it  can  be  viewed  only  in  particular  cases 
and  under  prescribed  conditions,  and  even  then  the  time  is 
to  be  considered  relatively  to  that  of  other  processes  of  ne- 
cessity involved.  Trautscholt  has  .studied  the  time  of  the 
"judgiuent  of  subordination,"  from  genus  to  species.  A 
word  is  spoken,  and  the  subject  reacts  as  he  conceives  a  word 
in  logical  subordination  to  the  given  concept,  for  example, 
animal — dog.  An  element  of  association  which  it  is  impos- 
sible to  eliminate  enters  largely  liere.  By  the  same  process 
as  before,  we  find  the  value  of  J  (judgment)  from  tlie  equa- 
tion of  the  entire  reaction  to  be  about  1  sec. — that  is,  slight- 
ly longer  tlian  that  of  the  simple  association.  It  varies  also 
with  the  nature  of  the  logical  terms.  That  is,  (1)  the  time 
is  longest  when  the  subject  is  abstract,  and  the  predicate  a 
more  general  notion  (virtue — honesty) ;  (2)  shortest  when  the 
subject  is  concrete,  and  the  predicate  particular  (hound — 
Bruno). 

Besides  these  and  other  positive  results,  additional  impor- 
tant contributions  to  psychological  science  liave  been  made. 
It  may  be  well,  in  closing,  to  indicate  some  of  the  more 
general  bearings  of  these  time-measurements. 

All  tliis  work  has  tended  to  the  emphasizing  and  defining 
of  the  voluntary  side  of  the  mind,  as  given  in  acts  of  the  at- 
tention. The  results  here  alone  more  than  pay  for  the  en- 
tire work  the  researches  involve.  That  the  will  is  the  ques- 
tion of  capital  importance  both  in  psychology  and  general 
philo.sophy,  and  tliat  philosophers  are  hopeful  and  expectant 
of  results  in  the  theory  of  our  active  life  as  never  before 
under  tlie  lead  of  speculation,  are  largely  due  to  the  new 
psychology.  The  experimental  work  described  above  has 
cleared  up  tlie  problem  of  the  attention  in  many  of  its  con- 
ditions :  its  relation  to  the  time-sense  and  the  origin  of  the 
idea  of  time,  its  inseparable  connection  with  muscular  ac- 
tivity, its  bearing  upon  intensities  everywliere  in  mental 
experience,  its  influence  in  our  perception  of  the  external 
world  and  of  space — indeed,  one  can  not  arise  from  the 
study  of  experimental  psychology  (see  Psychology)  as  it 
spreads  its  data  out  before  us  without  the  overwlielming 
conviction  that  it  is  upon  the  theory  of  mental  effort  in  at- 
tention with  feelings  of  resistance  that  the  general  psychol- 
ogy of  the  future  will  be  erected. 

Again,  such  experiments  show  both  the  isolated  char- 
acter of  mental  states  in  their  dependence  on  physiological 
states,  and  at  the  same  time  the  clear  necessity  of  a  circum- 
scribing, grouping,  and  arranging  consciousness  of  which 
they  are  states ;  a  unity,  an  individual  active  self,  which  the 
manipulation  of  single  states  does  not  impair.  From  the  work 
now  spoken  of,  we  have  the  emphatic  emphasis  of  a  jirinciple 
of  activity  by  which  alone  single,  successive,  or  simultaneous 
states  have  any  meaning  or  significance  in  our 'mental  life. 

Bibliography. — Jastrow,  Time  Relafions  of  Mental  Phe- 
nomena (New  York,  1886) ;  Cattell,  Psyrkom'e/rische  Unter- 
suchungen  (Leipzig,  1890) ;  Ribot.  German  Psychology  of 
To-day  (New  lork,  1886):  Wundt,  Grnndziiye  der  physi- 
oloyischen  Psycholiigie  (4th  ed.,  Leipzig,  18!lii-!t4):  Kiilpe, 
Grundriss  der  J'sychologie  (Leipzig,  1894) ;  Ladd,  Elements 
of  Physiological  Psychology  (New  York,  1886). 

J.  Mark  Baldwin. 

Psyclio-pliysic  Law :  See  Psvcno-PHYSics. 

PsycllO-physifs  [Gr.  <^uxii.  the  soul  +  (piais,  nature,  phys- 
ics]:  literally,  tlie  science  of  the  mind  considered  in  its  "re- 
lation tu  iihysical  nature.  The  word  has  been  used  in  this 
broad  sense,  i.  e.  to  indicate  the  general  topic  of  the  relation 
of  mind  and  body.  This  is,  however,  better  covered  by  the 
phrase  physiological  psychologj'.  (See  Psycholooy.)  Psycho- 
I)hysics  is  accordingly  now  restricted  to  a  particular'kind 
of  research,  and  so  becomes  a  department  of  psychology 
considered  as  an  experimental  science. 


In  this  restricted  sense,  psycho-physics  deals  with  the 
measurement  of  the  intensity,  as  it  is  properly  called — the 
quantity  or  •'  mass,"  as  the  psychologist  uses  the  words — of 
sensation.  The  conception  of  intensity  needs  no  further 
explanation  ;  it  is  simply  the  difference  between  the  light 
of  one  candle  and  of  two  or  more,  the  sound  of  a  bell  near 
and  far.  It  is  a  property  of  all  sensation.  The  problem 
which  presents  itself  is  to  reach  a  formula  for  such  inten- 
sities in  terms  of  the  anuiunt  of  stimulus  required  at  the 
end  organ  to  produce  a  given  increase  or  decrease  in  con- 
scious intensity.  To  illustrate,  suppose  a  candle  illuminates 
a  page  to  a  certain  extent,  how  many  candles  would  illu- 
minate it  enough  to  enable  one  to  see  twice  as  distinctly,  or 
as  distinctly  at  twice  the  distance  i  Is  there  any  general 
law  of  the  ratio  of  intensity  of  external  stimulus  to  intensity 
of  internal  sensations  which  will  hold  good  for  all  the 
senses  i  Or  is  there  a  difl'erent  law  for  each  of  the  different 
senses  ?  Or,  again,  is  the  entire  case  simply  a  matter  of 
subjective  estimation,  varying  with  the  mental  and  bodily 
conditions  of  the  individual  i 

These  questions  were  at  one  time  hotly  discussed,  but 
have  now  been  practically  answered  by  the  establishment  of 
a  single  law  of  relation  between  stimulus  and  sensation, 
which  holds  good  for  most  of  the  senses  found  to  be  most 
easily  accessible,  has  been  partially  proved  for  other  classes 
of  sensations,  and  is  untler  judgment  in  default  of  sufficient 
experimentation  for  a  remaining  grou]i  of  sense-experiences. 
Before  entering  more  particularly  into  details  it  is  well  to 
define  and  explain  several  terms  of  current  use  among 
physiological  psychologists. 

By  excitation  (or  stimulus)  is  meant  the  external  force 
wliich  excites  a  sense-organ,  whether  it  be  of  sufficient  in- 
tensity to  produce  a  sensation  or  not.  The  feeblest  sensar 
tion  which  we  are  able  to  experience  or  feel  from  any  sense 
is  called  the  perceptible  minimum  ;  the  theoretical  point  at 
which  such  a  sensation,  when  further  enfeebled,  disappears 
from  consciousness,  the  threshold  of  sensation ;  and  the 
amount  of  excitation  which  is  just  suificient  for  the  per- 
ceptible minimum  of  sensation,  the  threshold  excitation  for 
that  sense.  For  example,  air-vibrations  are  the  excitation 
for  sensations  of  sound :  the  feeblest  sound  which  it  is  pos- 
sible to  hear  under  determined  conditions  is  the  perceptible 
minimum,  and  the  number  of  units  agreed  upon — bells,  notes, 
etc. — which  are  needed  to  produce  this  perceptible  minimum 
makes  the  threshold  excitation  for  this  sense.  Further,  the 
amount  of  excitation  needed  to  raise  or  lower  the  intensity 
of  a  sensation  by  the  smallest  amount  which  can  be  distin- 
guished, and  the  corresponding  difference  in  the  sensation, 
are  called  the  smallest  perceptible  difference  in  excitation  and 
sensation  respectively.  Thus  if  1  unit  be  the  threshold  of 
excitation  for  sound  and  an  addition  of  1/3  unit  is  necessary 
to  produce  any  perceptible  increase  in  tlie  sensation,  then  1/3 
is  the  smallest  perceptible  difference  of  excitation  for  sound. 

With  these  definitions  in  mind,  we  may  turn  to  the  jirob- 
lem  of  finding  a  law  of  measurement  for  intensities  of  sen- 
sation. The  preliminary  question  as  to  a  standard  of  meas- 
urement is  already  answered  in  the  resort  to  experiment,  viz., 
the  standard  must  be  a  scale  of  excitation-values,  deter- 
mined by  physical  measurement,  as  pounds,  velocities,  etc. 
Given  a  threshold-value  of  each  excitation,  we  may  double, 
treble  ...  it,  endeavoring  to  find  some  law  of  increase  in 
the  corresponding  sensations  whereby  a  corresponding  in- 
ternal scale  may  be  erected.  Tlie  first  step  is  seen,  therefore, 
to  be  the  discovery  of  the  perceptible  minimum  of  each 
sense,  which  may  serve  as  zero  point  on  the  sensation-scale, 
its  exciting  stimulus  being  the  unit  point  on  the  excitation- 
scale.  This  brings  the  investigator  to  an  actual  research  on 
all  the  sense-organs  in  turn — experiments  to  determine  the 
minimum  of  sight,  hearing,  touch,  etc.  The  methods  by 
which  this  is  done  are  simple.  Any  device  by  which  excita- 
tion may  be  lowered  or  heightened  gradually  below  or 
above  the  threshold  may  serve  the  purpose.  For  touch  and 
the  muscular  sense  small  balls  of  cork  may  be  used — differ- 
ing so  slightly  in  size  that  when  placed,  say  on  the  back  of 
the  hand  in  "succession,  the  difference  between  the  la.st  one 
which  is  felt  and  the  next  which  is  too  light  to  be  felt  is  as 
small  as  pos.sible.  By  running  the  series  in  the  reverse  or- 
der, from  weights  too  small  to  be  felt  to  others  barely  felt, 
ami  liy  an  equation  and  average  of  errors,  the  point  is  de- 
termined where  the  excitation  produces  the  smallest  per- 
cejitible  sensation. 

Simple  as  this  procedure  seems,  the  conditions  are  so 
complicated  in  some  of  the  senses  as  to  occasion  great  em- 
barrassment.    The  eye,  for  example,  is  found  to  have   a 


I 


PSYCHO-PnYSICS 


843 


"  natural  light "  of  its  own,  arising  from  mechanical  move- 
ment, friction  or  chemical  action,  from  which  it  is  never 
entirely  free,  and  tlie  smallest  perceptible  sensation  of  light 
must  always  include  this  natural  factor.  The  conditions  of 
the  body  before  the  experiment  also  cause  great  variations, 
as  is  seen  in  experiments  on  temperature  and  smell  sensa- 
tions. The  threshold-value  for  temperature  is  much  higher 
or  lower,  for  example,  according  as  the  earlier  slate  has 
been  one  of  higher  or  lower  temperature.  The  following 
table  exhibits  the  results  of  Fechner's  experiments  on  the 
perceptible  minimum: 

PERCEPTIULE   MINIMA. 

Touch Pressure  of  •003--05  gramme. 

Muscular  sense.  .Contraction   of  "004   mm.,   right   internal 

muscle  of  the  eye. 
Temperature. . .  .1-8°  centigrade  (normal  heat  of  skin  18'4°). 
Sound Ball  of  cork   1-001    gramme   falling   -001 

meter  on  glass,  ear  distant  91  mm. 
Light Cast  on  black  velvet  bv  candle  distant  8 

ft.  7  in. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  examine  each  of  these  determina- 
tions, for  the  actual  numerical  values  are  not  of  great  im- 
portance, even  where  Fechner  has  not  been  confirmed  by 
other  experimenters.  The  fact  that  there  is  a  minimum 
under  normal  conditions,  and  its  determination  with  suffi- 
cient accuracy  to  give  ground  for  further  inferences,  is  aU 
that  the  theory  rerpiires. 

So  far  two  points  have  been  gained — i.  e.  the  zero  on  the 
sensation-scale  and  the  unit-value,  a  positive  known  quan- 
tity from  the  table  above,  on  the  excitation-scale.  Next  in 
order  is  the  graduation  of  botli  scales  in  an  ascending  way 
by  relatively  equal  values. 

It  is  a  common  fact  of  experience  that  excitations  and 
sensations  do  not  apparently  sustain  the  ordinary  relation 
of  cause  and  effect  to  each  other.  Two  candles  do  not  illu- 
minate a  page  twice  as  much  as  one ;  two  violins,  pitched 
in  the  same  key,  do  not  double  the  sound  of  one  ;  and  as  in- 
tensities increase  it  is  a  matter  of  ordinary  observation 
that  very  little  variations  are  brought  about  by  well-marked 
changes  in  the  stimulus.  This  result  of  general  observa- 
tion recurs  to  us  as  we  advance  in  the  consideration  of  the 
values  on  our  scales,  for  we  would  expect,  from  tliis  rough 
judgment  of  daily  life,  that  larger  increments  would  have 
to  be  made  the  higher  we  ascend  on  the  excitation  side  to 
produce  regular  equal  increments  on  the  sensation  side. 

This  is  confirmed  by  a  further  research  undertaken  on 
all  the  senses  in  turn,  an  experimental  determination  of  the 
amount  of  increased  excitation  necessary  to  produce  the 
smallest  perceptible  dilTerence  in  sensations  of  the  same 
kind.  Let  us  suppose  a  given  excitation  for  pressure,  then 
increase  it  slightly  until  it  is  judged  greater  than  before, 
determine  the  ratio  of  the  increment  to  the  former  excita- 
tion, repeat  the  experiment  with  a  much  larger  excitation, 
making  the  same  fractional  determination,  and  compare  the 
results.  It  is  found  tliat  the  fractional  increase  in  excita- 
tion necessary  to  produce  a  perceptible  difference  is  con- 
stant for  each  sense.  This  means  that  the  absolute  increase 
is  not  constant,  but  becomes  greater  as  the  intensity  of  the 
initial  excitation  becomes  greater.  For  example,  if  the  in- 
itial excitations  in  two  experiments  be  6  and  9  grammes, 
a  relative  fractional  increase  of  1/3  would  be  in  one  case  an 
absolute  increase  of  2,  and  in  the  other  of  3  grammes. 

There  are  three  geiu'ral  metliods  of  determining  the  small- 
est perceptible  dilTerence  for  any  sense,  due  in  their  formal 
statement  and  description  to  Fechner.  They  are  known  as 
the  methods  (1)  of  smallest  {)erceplible  differences,  (2)  of 
true  anil  false  cases,  and  (3)  of  mean  errors.  There  is  a 
fourth,  of  especial  importance  in  researches  on  sight — that 
of  mean  gra<lations  (Plateau) ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  speak 
of  it  furtlier. 

1.  The  method  of  smallest  perce[itible  differences  is  most 
direct.  It  consists  in  adding  to  a  given  excitation  until  the 
difference  is  barely  perceiveil.  The  difference  between  the 
initial  and  tlie  resulting  excitation  is  the  first  determination 
of  the  quantity  required.  A  plainly  perceived  difference  is 
then  added  to  the  same  initial  excitation,  and  reduced  till 
no  longer  ])erceived.  This  gives  a  second  determination. 
The  averaging  of  tliese  two  results  is  the  correct  vahu',  which 
may  be  called  7)/^  (difference  or  differential  of  excitation). 
Its  ratio  to  tlie  first  excitation  is  expressed  by  the  fraction 

-ry^.    The  relative  degree  of  sensibility  for  any  sense,  it 


will  be  observed,  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  amount  of 
excritation  required  to  give  the  smallest  perceptible  diflEer- 
ence  in  sensation,  i.  e. 

a  (sensibilitv)  =  — =-. 

2.  The  method  of  true  and  false  eases  consists  in  compar- 
ing two  excitations  (say  weights),  the  subject  of  the  experi- 
ment judging  them  to  be  equal  or  not.  The  number  of  true 
and  false  judgments  is  recorded,  and  the  ratio  between  them 
inilicates  the  approach  of  the  difference  of  excitation  to  its 
minimum  value.  The  relative  sensibility  again  varies,  as 
the  actual  difference  between  the  excitations  varies,  and 
also  directly  as  the  number  of  true  judgments  (in  relation 
to  total  cases),  i.  e. 

_       S{=  total  cases), 
~      iV(=  true  cases). 

3.  The  method  of  mean  errors  consists  in  comparing  two 
stimuli  (weights,  etc.)  and  judging  them  equal,  then  in  tak- 
ing their  real  difference,  positive  and  negative,  in  a  great 
number  of  cases,  adding  these  differences  witliout  regard  to 
signs,  and  dividing  by  the  entire  number  of  cases.  The  mean 
error  is  thus  arrived  at.  The  sensibility  is  inversely  propor- 
tional to  the  mean  error,  i.  e. 

S=~ 

D  (=  mean  error). 

Proceeding  by  one  or  all  of  these  methods,  the  smallest 
perceptible  difference  of  excitation  for  each  of  the  senses  is 
established.  The  following  table  gives  these  values,  subject 
to  revision  for  certain  classes  of  sensation,  especially  sight, 
when  the  conditions  of  experiment  can  be  made  more  free 
from  error : 

SMALLEST   PERCEPTIBLE   DIFFERENCES. 

Touch 1/3 

Muscular  sense 1/17 

Temperature 1/3 

Sound 1/3 

Light 1/100 

The  values  given,  it  may  lie  well  to  repeat,  represent  the 
amount  of  a  given  excitation  which  must  be  added  to  that 
excitation  to  be  felt  in  consciousness.  For  example,  if  the 
eye  is  already  stimulated  by  a  light  which  represents  1.000 
candles,  at  least  10  candles  (a  fractional  increase  of  1/100) 
must  be  added  to  produce  any  perceptible  increase  in  the 
intensity  of  the  liglit.  Any  number  less  than  ten  wouM 
seem  to'  have  no  effect  on  consciousness  whatever,  and  so 
with  the  relative  values  given  for  the  other  senses. 

To  revert  to  the  original  problem,  it  will  be  remembered 
that  the  two  determinations  already  arrived  at  for  all  the 
senses  are  only  steps  in  a  process  of  measuring  the  intensity 
of  sensations  in  terms  of  external  stimuli.  So  far  there  have 
been  determined  the  smallest  perceptible  sensation  (giving 
the  starting-points  on  the  scale)  and  the  smallest  percepti- 
ble differences  of  excitation  in  the  upward  graduation  of 
the  scale.  The  results  of  this  second  research  may  be  stated 
in  general  language  thus:  In  order  that  sensation  may  in- 
crease by  successive  equal  additions,  their  excitations  must 
increase' by  a  constant  fraction  of  the  excitation  itself,  i.  e. 
by  ailditioiis  which  arv.  not  equal,  but  which  increase  in  as- 
cending the  scale  of  intensities.  For  example,  the  succes- 
sive additions  to  a  sound,  to  be  barely  perceived,  would  re- 
quire the  following  series  of  additions  to  the  stimulus  : 

1.1/3^-^/^-'-^' 
1/3,  L±_^^ 1_,  etc.,  or  1/3,  4/9,  16/37,  etc., 

3  ^ 

and  the  actual  excitatiims  would  be  the  series 
1,  4/3.  10/9,  64/27,  etc. 

This  general  principle  is  called  the  law  of  Weber,  and 
may  be  stated  in  a  variety  of  ways,  of  which  perhaps  the 
easiest  to  carry  is  this  :  That  in  order  that  sensations  may 
increase  in  intensity  in  an  arithmetical  series,  their  excita- 
tions must  increase  in  a  geometrical  series.  The  law  may 
be  exliibited  in  a  linear  way  to  the  eye  in  diagram  1  below. 

Let  X  represent  a  series  of  sensations  0.  1.  2.  etc.,  in- 
creasing by  a  constant  quantity  from  the  zero-point  0 ;  let 
the  u|)right  lines  represent  at  each  point  the  excitation 
necessarv  for  the  sensation  of  tliat  intensity.  Bv  drawing 
the  dotUMl  lines  jiarallel  to  X,  it  is  seen  that  the  succes- 
sive additions  made  to  the  vertical  are  not  equal,  but  grow 
constantly  greater,  i.  e.  for  hearing,  ij  =  y  +  y/3,  y"  =  y' 


8U 


PSYCHO-PHYSICS 


d 

/ 

cy^ 

hy" 

y'" 

a^ 

y" 

T^ 

y 

y' 

y"" 


+  y'/3,  etc.  Having  erected  these  vertical  lines  by  the  law 
of  increase  given  in  the  table,  the  curve  abed,  etc.,  may  be 

plotted     through 
/        their  extremities, 
/         being  the  "  curve 
of  excitation." 

The  same  rela- 
tion     may       be 
shown   in   an  in- 
verse way,  in  dia- 
gram 2  below,  in 
which    the   scale 
of  increasing  ex- 
citation  is  given 
on  the  line  X,  the 
u       1       ~       'A      i       X.  vertical  line  rep- 
resenting the  sen- 
sations increasing  by  a  constant  ciuantity.     The  curve  con- 
necting the  extremities  is  the  "  curve  of  sensation." 

A  further  mathemat- 
ical expression  has  been 
given  to  this  law  by 
Fechner.  As  may  be 
seen  below,  it  is  open  to 
some  criticism  ;  yet  it  is 
ably  defended,  and  what- 
ever may  be  its  fate  as  a 
mathematical  deduction,  the  law  of  Weber  as  given  above 
■will  not  be  involved. 

Assuming,  says  Fechner,  that  the  smallest  perceptible  dif- 
ferences in  sensation  are  equal  for  any  value  of  the  excita- 
tion (an  assumption  which  has  no  proof),  and  that  very  small 
increments  of  sensation  and  excitation  are  proportional  to 
each  other,  we  may  throw  Weber's  formula  into  the  follow- 
ing equation  {DS  being  increment  of  sensation,  DE  incre- 
ment of  excitation,  and  K  a  proportional  constant), 

in  which  all  the  qnantities  have  been  determined  in  the 
tables  already  given.  Considering  this  as  a  differential 
equation,  we  may  integrate  it  and  reach  the  form 

S  =  K  log  E, 
or  the  sensation  varies  as  the  logarithm  of  the  excitation — 
the  celebrated  "  logarithmic  law  "  of  Fechner. 

Considered  under  its  more  general  form,  as  indicated  in 
tlie  principle  of  Weber,  this  law  has  an  uneq\ial  application 
to  different  sensations.  For  siglit,  touch,  and  hearing  it  is 
fully  established  ;  for  taste  and  smell  it  is  still  in  doubt,  by 
reason  of  the  mechanical  difficulties  which  these  senses  offer 
to  experimental  research.  It  applies  under  restrictions  to 
estimation  of  linear  distance  by  the  eye,  to  perception  of  the 
passage  of  small  periods  of  time,  and  to  discrimination  of 
local  positions  in  the  skin.  In  all  cases  its  application  is 
restricted  within  upper  and  lower  limits  of  intensity  of 
sensation.  When  too  intense  the  organism  fails  under  the 
stimulus,  reacliing  the  limit  of  its  vibratory  responsiveness, 
and  when  too  faint,  either  the  stimulus  does  not  excite  a 
conscious  reaction,  or  the  attention  fails  to  discriminate  the 
sensation. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  indicate  the  principal  criti- 
cisms which  have  been  urged  against  Weber  s  law,  both  in 
its  general  result  and  in  the  method  of  research  which  it 
involves. 

Both  of  the  assumptions  made  by  Fechner — that  the  per- 
ceptible differences  of  sensation  of  the  same  sense  arc  equal 
for  all  intensities  of  stimulus,  and  that  the  increments  of 
sensation  and  excitation  are  proportional — are  called  in  ques- 
tion. The  results  of  late  physiological  work  tend  strongly 
in  favor  of  the  first  assumption,  and  it  is  probably  safely  es- 
tablished. Tlie  second  with  the  application  of  the  differen- 
tial calculus  is  so  plainly  suliject  to  criticism  tliat  even  its 
strongest  advocates  only  attempt  to  justify  it  by  the  results. 
Really  it  is  only  infinitely  small  quantities  that  can  be  con- 
sidered differetitials or  proportional  to  each  other;  while  by 
the  law  of  growtli,  arrived  at  by  Weber,  they  are  shown  not 
to  be  proportional.  Tliis  argument,  adverse  to  Fechner's 
formula,  is  ably  prescnte<l  liy  Dclbteuf.  Another  objection 
is  brought  also  to  thi^  doctrine  of  "  threshold."  It  is  claimed 
that  there  is  not  a  constant  tlii-eshold  for  any  of  the  senses, 
but  that  the  minimum  of  sensation  varies  with  the  condition 
of  the  organism,  the  concentration  of  attention,  etc.  If  this 
criticism  should  be  shown,  liowever,  to  be  valid,  it  would  still 
be  possible  to  establish  a  table  of  variations  or  a  coefficient 


of  "  personal  equation  "  for  individuals,  and  still  preserve 
the  principle  of  Weber.  The  objection  formerly  drawn  from 
the  fatigue  of  the  organ  under  prolonged  experiment  is  now 
met  by  the  principle  called  by  Fechner  the  "  parallel  law  "  ; 
if  the  experiments  are  performed  at  very  close  time-intervals, 
the  degree  of  exhaustion  may  be  considered  as  approximate- 
ly the  same  for  any  two  successive  excitations.  Any  modifi- 
cation, therefore,  which  either  excitation  undergoes  from  the 
element  of  fatigue  is  corrected  in  the  ratio  between  that  and 
the  other  excitation.  For  example,  the  smallest  perceptible 
difference  DA  above  an  excitation  A,  reached  by  adding  a 

new  excitation  B,  is  expressed  by  the  fraction  —  ;  but  any 

modification  which  affects  both  B  and  ^1  to  an  equal  degree 
does  not  alter  their  ratio. 

The  philosophical  significance  of  Weber's  law  is  the 
ground  of  main  interest.  That  it  is  an  established  law  of 
the  relation  of  the  mind  and  body  as  respects  sensation,  that 
it  confirms  the  general  assumption  that  there  is  a  universal 
and  uniform  connection  between  the  mental  and  the  physio- 
logical— these  points  must  be  admitted,  whatever  may  be  a 
more  particular  interpretation  of  the  law  itself.  As  to  its 
meaning  for  our  theory  of  the  mind,  and  whether  it  has  any 
such  meaning,  there  is  more  room  for  difference  of  opinion, 
and  three  distinct  interpretations  are  commonly  held  among 
psychologists.  Each  of  these  is  advanced  in  answer  to  the 
cjuestion  which  Weber's  law  obviously  suggests,  i.  e.  why  is 
it  that  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  does  not  hold  be- 
tween sensation  and  excitation-?  why  is  sensation  propor- 
tional to  the  logarithm  of  excitation  and  not  to  excitation 
itself  % 

The  first  of  these  interpretations,  that  of  Fechner,  is  that 
Weber's  law  represents  the  ultimate  principle  of  connection 
between  mind  and  body  ;  that  they  are  so  constituted  as  to 
act  upon  each  other  in  a  logarithmic  relation.  It  is  of  neces- 
sary and  universal  application  wherever  mind  and  body  are 
brought  into  organic  connection.  In  short,  on  this  view  the 
law  is  strictly  psycho-physical.  This  interpretation  has  been 
very  generally  discredited,  principally  because  it  foi'bids  all 
further  research  or  explanation.  Nothing  is  ultimate  which 
may  be  explained,  and  if  physical  or  mental  reasons  can  be 
given — as  the  other  two  theories  hold  they  can — for  the  dis- 
proportion between  sensation  and  stimulus,  then  the  assump- 
tion that  it  is  ultimate  is  gratuitous.  Fechner  supports  his 
view  by  two  considerations:  first,  that  the  physiological  the- 
ory, as  stated  below,  is  inadequate,  and,  second,  that  the  law 
holds  in  cases  of  nervous  exhaustion.  The  latter  point  is 
met  by  the  consideration  that  in  cases  of  extreme  exhaustion 
the  entire  series  of  stimuli  is  intensified  by  a  given  amount 
throughout,  and  when  the  exhaustion  is  not  extreme  it  cor- 
rects itself  by  the  "  parallel  law  "  sfMiken  of  above. 

Again,  it  is  held,  especially  by  Wundt,  that  the  law  is 
strictly  psychological — that  is,  that  the  disproportion  be- 
tween sensation  and  excitation  is  due  to  the  perception  or 
discrimination  of  the  sensation.  On  this  theory  it  is  not  the 
real  sensation  which  is  experimented  upon,  but  perceived 
sensation,  and  in  the  process  of  taking  the  sensation  up  into 
our  apperceptive  life  it  is  modified  as  to  its  intensity.  For 
example,  the  single  fact  of  attention  to  a  sensation  changes 
its  intensity;  what  effect  might  not  the  act  of  directing  the 
mind  to  it,  as  is  required  in  the  above  experiments,  have 
upon  it?  In  answer  to  this  inter|irctation  it  may  be  said 
that  it  can  never  be  critically  estalilished,  since  there  are  no 
means  of  getting  at  the  true  worth  of  sensation  except  as  it 
is  interpreted  in  our  attentive  consciousness.  By  intensity 
we  mean  intensity  to  us,  in  our  intellectual  life,  and  to  speak 
of  the  intensity  of  sensations  in  a  relative  way,  apart  from 
the  apperception  and  comparison  of  them,  is  to  become  un- 
intelligible. Wundt,  however,  has  an  ulterior  end  in  view 
— the  support  of  his  doctrine  of  apperception — and  he  him- 
self admits  that  he  would  not  exclude  the  physiological  in- 
terpretation. 

The  third  interpretation,  which  is  probably  the  true  one, 
makes  the  disproportion  spoken  of  purely  physiological. 
According  to  the  advocates  of  this  theory  the  law  of  cause 
and  effect  does  hold  in  this  case,  as  in  others,  but  a  part  of 
the  internal  cause  is  lost  in  the  transmission  by  the  nerves, 
so  that  the  true  excitation  at  the  brain-center  is  less  than  at 
the  peripheral  organ,  and  is  in  direct  jiroportion  to  the  in- 
tensity of  the  sensation  which  it  causes.  Briefly  stated  the 
following  facts  tend  to  support  this  view:  (1)  The  phenome- 
non of  nervous  arrest  would  lead  us  to  ex]jcct  a  diminution 
of  the  stimulus  between  the  organ  and  the  brain  ;  (2)  nerve- 
action  is  dissipated  in  heat ;  (3)  force  is  lost  in  the  exciting 


PSYCHOSIS 


PTERODACTYL 


8^5 


of  the  internnl  organ,  hence,  by  analogy,  we  would  expect 
the  same  in  the  stiimihitioii  of  the  centers;  (4)  tlic  general 
[laraUcl  between  electricity  and  nerve-action  woulil  indicate 
resistance  to  be  overcome  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other; 
(5)  on  general  grounds  a  loss  of  force  may  be  expected  in 
an  extended  or  complicated  mechanism.  A  decided  prefer- 
ence for  the  last  view  seems  justified  by  the  facts,  altliough 
Wiindt  has  been  recently  re-enforced  by  reliable  results. 
Criticism  so  far  seems  to  sliow  that  Weber's  law  represents 
the  method  of  nervous  "summation  "  of  stimulations  at  the 
centers,  but  under  this  term  a  great  many  particular  inllu- 
ences  have  to  be  included. 

LiTKRATURK. — Pcchncr,  Ehmente  der  Pnychophysik  and 
Rei>isiiin  ihr Hit u/)t/)u>ikff(lt'r Psi/c/iophi/sik- ;  W'undt,  Physi- 
ologische  Ff:i/c/tiilogie  (4lh  ed.  18iW) ;  jliiller,  Xur  Oriind- 
lequng  (ler  Pxi/r/io/i/ii/sik' ;  Kiilpe,  (rnoKlrixx  rier  Psi/cliolo- 
gie  (Leipzig.  1H!M):  Ladd,  Khments  of  Physiotngiad  Pai/- 
chology  (New  York,  18IH7);  .Jastrow,  Critique  of  t lie  J'xycho- 
physical  Methodx  in  The  American  Journal  of  Psychology  ; 
Kibot,  German  Psychology  of  To-day  (New  York,  1886). 

J.  Mmik  Ualdwin. 

Psychosis;  a  mental  state  considered  as  subject  for  in- 
vestigation, generally  in  connection  with  the  accompanying 
nervous  condition  or  Xecrosis  {q.  c),  which  accompanies  it. 

Psycliotlieisni  ;  See  ]'>iiNoLO(iv. 

P.-«/clir(>nu'ler ;  See  Hvorometkr. 

Ptall  (The  Opener);  "the  father  of  the  gods";  perhaps 
the  oldest  of  the  Egyptian  deities ;  worshiped  in  Jlcmphis 
from  the  first  dynasty  on.  He  is  represented  in  the  form 
of  a  mummy,  with  head  aiul  hands  free.  In  his  hands  was 
the  scepter  which  stood  as  the  symbol  of  pow'er,  and  beneath 
his  feet  was  tlie  syndiol  of  truth.  Among  several  composite 
forms  in  which  he  appears  was  that  of  Ptah-Sokar-Osiris,  the 
god  of  the  resurrection  and  of  the  nether  world.  In  this 
form  he  was  regarded  as  the  first  King  of  Egy[)t  and  as  cre- 
ator of  the  worlcl.  Cuarles  K.  CiILLett. 

Ptarniigan  [(by  analogy  of  Gr.  words  in  pier-)  from 
Gael,  larmtichan  ;  Ir.  tarmochar] ;  any  grouse  of  the  genus 
Lagopus,  the  members  of  which  are  distinguished  by  the 
legs  being  densely  feathered  to  the  claws,  the  nasal  grooves 
clo.sed  over  with  feathers,  and  the  development  of  sixteen 
or  eighteen  tail-feathers.  Ptarmigans  are  chanicteristic  of 
the  high  norltiern  regions  of  the  glol)e.  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  one  species,  assume  a  white  coat  during  winter; 
in  summer  they  are  of  a  more  or  less  re<idish  or  brownish 
gray.  They  are  thus  an  instance  of  a  double  protective 
mimicry,  harnuinizing  with  the  snow  in  winter  and  the 
rocky  barrens  in  sununcr.  In  winter  they  seek  the  shelter 
of  thickets  of  willows,  birclies,  etc..  but  in  summer  they  fre- 
quent ])lains.  When  pursued  in  wint<'r  tlu'y  frc(|uently  dive 
into  the  loose  snow,  in  which  they  work  tlieir  way  with  great 
ease.  The  fenude  begins  to  lay  her  eggs  about  .May  or  June, 
and  deposits  about  eight  or  ten  eggs  in  the  nest.  A  number 
of  species  have  been  recognized,  of  which  Lagopus  albns  in- 
habits both  heinis]iheres,  L.  rupestris  and  L.  leiiciirus  North 
America,  and  L.  iniitus,  L.  hemilenrurns.  and  L.  scoticiis  the 
Old  World.  L.  scoficits  is  extremely  closely  related  to  L. 
albus,  and  has  been  even  regarded  as  the  permanently  dark 
insular  form  of  that  species.  Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Ptenoglossa  [Mod.  Lat..  from  Or.  ^7111/6$.  feathered  -1- 
y\aiaaa,  tonguc|:  a  name  em|iloyed  in  some  schemes  of 
cla.ssification  of  the  molluscs  to  include  the  purple  shells 
(lanlhinido'),  the  sun-shells  and  mason-shells  (Solaridm), 
and  the  wentletraps  (Scalaridie). 

Pteraii'odon  |  Mod.  Lat. ;  Or.  imp6v.  wing  -1-  h/-.  un-, 
without  +  oSous,  MvToi.  tooth] ;  a  genus  of  ])terodactyls,  or 
extinct  flying  reptiles,  from  tlie  Cretaceous  of  Kansa.s,  dis- 
tinguished fron\  all  previously  known  gciu-ra  of  the  order 
by  the  entii-e  absence  of  teeth,  and  hence  regarded  as  the 
tyjie  of  a  sub-order,  Pteranndonlia.  The  typical  Itera- 
nodon  longiceps  has  the  skull  aliout  30  inches  long  and 
the  lower  jaw  nearly  2  feet.  The  rand  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
clo.sely  united  for  more  than  lialf  their  length,  as  in  the 
skimmers  {Rhynchops).  P.  comptiis  is  a  simill  species,  while 
P.  ingens  was  very  large,  and  the  skull  must  have  measured 
nearly  4  feet.  0,  C,  Marsb. 

Pteridopliyfes :  See  Fernworts. 

Ptorocarptis ;  See  Ki.vo. 

Pterocletes  [from  Pfe  rocles.  the  leading  genus]  :  a  sub- 
order of  birds,  sometimes  consiilered  as  an  order,  containing 
the  sand-grou.se  forming  the  single  family  Pterocliu.f.  (q.  v.). 


Pteroc'Iidw  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  from  Plerocles,  the  typ- 
ical geinis,  from  Or.  m-epof.  wing  +  KXeh.  KXaSis.  key,  bolt, 
tongue  of  a  buckle] :  a  small  family  of  birds  jiecnliar  to  the 
Old  World,  containing  the  so-called  sand-grouse;  birds  about 
the  size  of  jiigeons  and  intermediate  in  structure  between 
them  and  the  grou.se,  although  the  balance  of  characters  is 
rather  in  favor  of  the  pigeons.  The  form  is  as  much  that 
of  the  pigeon  as  the  grouse ;  the  bill  is  short,  compressed, 
and  the  culmen  curved  to  the  tip;  the  wings  and  tail  are 
elongated  and  iiointed  ;  the  tarsi  moderately  roliust  and 
covered  with  feathers;  the  toes  rather  stout,  the  three  in 
front  more  or  less  united,  the  hinder  rudimentary  or  want- 
ing. Two  genera  are  recognized  by  authorities — (1)  Ptero- 
cles.  with  about  fifteen  species,  and  (2)  Syrrhaples.  with  two. 
In  color  these  birds  arc  dull  yellowish  above,  with  darker 
markings,  harmonizing  well  wilh  the  surface  of  the  country 
tln-y  irdialiit.  They  are  found  in  Southern  Europe,  as  well 
as  in  Africa  atul  Asia,  in  dry  sandy  places  or  deserts,  rocky 
plains,  and  wooded  grounds.  They  feed  chiefly  upon  hard 
seeds,  bulbs,  and  insects.  The  females  lay  from  two  to  four 
eggs  on  the  bare  ground.  Plerocles  arenariiis  and  /'.  alchata 
are  found  in  Southern  Europe.  Syrrha/)tes  paradoxii.s.  al- 
though strictly  an  Asiatic  species,  sometimes  makes  incur- 
sions into  Europe  as  far  westward  as  the  British  islands. 
One  of  these  visitiitions  was  nuule  in  18.ilt,  another  in  1863, 
in  which  year  it  nuule  its  appearance  at  148  European  lo- 
calities, as  recorded  liy  Prof.  Alfred  Newton — "  from  Oalicia 
to  Donegal,  and  from  Gascony  to  the  Pariie  islands."  Another 
irruption  occurred  in  1888.  The  rea.son  for  these  curious 
and  irregidar  migrations  is  unknown,  but  the  primary  cause 
may  be  failure  of  food-supply  in  some  portion  of  their  habi- 
tats. Kevised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pterodactyl  [Gr.  m-epSv,  wing  -t-  SoktuAoj,  finger] ;  any 
one  of  a  group  of  extinct  flying  animals,  confined  to  the 
Mesozoic  or  Keptihan  age,  and  usually  regarded  as  an 
order  of  reptiles.  The  anterior  limbs  were  adapted  for 
flight  by  the  elongation  of  the  fore  arm  and  fifth  or  outer 
digit,  corresponding  to  the  little  finger  of  the  human  hand. 
By  this  means  an  expanse  of  membrane  was  supported  as  in 
the  bats,  which  these  animals  in  some  respects  resembled. 
The  head  was  large,  the  jaws  long,  and  in  nu)st  forms  armed 
with  teeth.  In  nuuiy  jKiints  the  skull  approached  that  of 
birds.  Nearly  all  tlu'  bones  were  pneumatic,  with  very  thin 
walls,  as  in  most  birds.  The  skin  seems  to  have  been  desti- 
tute of  scales  ov  feathers,  as  no  traces  of  cither  have  been 
discovered.     The  earliest  pterodactyl  yet  known  is  Dimor- 


IM.-ro.la.  1.1 

phodon  macronyx  from  the  Lower  Lias  of  England.  Many 
species  occur  in  the  Oolitic  lithographic  slates  in  Bavaria. 
.\  few  fraguu'uts  only  are  known  from  the  Wealden,  while 
the  English  Greensand  has  furnished  numy  large  species. 
Others  from  the  Ui>per  Cretaceous  were  the  latest  forms  of 
this  group  known  from  the  Old  World,  and  were  perhaps 
contem]Hiraneous  witli  the  gigantic  species  from  the  Upper 
Cretaceous  shales  of  Kansas.  These  were  all  destitute  of 
teeth.  The  largest  of  them  (lieranodon  ingins.  Marsh) 
probably  measured  between  tlu-  tips  of  the  fully  expanded 
wings  nearly  25  feet.  Several  smaller  species  occur  in  the 
,sanu>  formation,  but  all  were  large  in  comparison  with  the 
common  European  forms.  0.  C.  Marsh. 


846 


PTEROGLOSSUS 


PTOLEMY 


Pteropod,  Limacina  aniarctica 
(t*  ularged). 


Pteroglossiis :  See  Rhamphastid-e  and  Aracari. 
Pterop'oda  [^lod.  Lat. ;   Gr.  irTfp6v.  wing  +  ttovs,  ■iroS6s, 
foot]:  a  group  of  molluscs  formerly  regarded  as  a  class  but 

now  known  to  be  merely 
a  subdivision  of  the  tec- 
tibranch  division  of  the 
opisthobranchiates.  (See 
Gasteropoda.)  They  are 
fitted  for  a  free-swira- 
ming  life  upon  the  high 
seas  by  the  development 
of  the  lateral  lobes  (para- 
podia)  of  the  foot  into 
fins  or  wing-like  swim- 
ming organs.  Two  di- 
visions are  recognized, 
the  Thecosomata,  with  a 
shell  (either  external  or 
internal),  which  feed  on  protozoa  or  algs,  and  the  shell-less 
Oymnosomata,  which  are  rapacious,  feeding  largely  upon 
the  members  of  the  other  group.  The  pteropods  frequently 
occur  (especially  in  the  Arctic  seas)  in  immense  schools,  and 
some  species  form  the  food  of  the  right  whales,  the  "  brit " 
of  the  whalers.  Xone  of  the  pteropods  are  large,  and  the 
numbers  required  to  make  the  fields  of  brit,  sometimes  miles 
in  extent,  can  hardly  be  imagined.  J.  S.  K. 

Pterylog'raphy  [from  Jlixl.  I^at.  ptenjln.  feather  tract 
(from  Gr.  vrepSy,  feather  -f  8^77,  forest)  -I-  ypa<pia,  from  ypd- 
ipeiv,  write] :  that  branch  of  ornithology  which  treats  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  feathers  of  birds.  The  science  origi- 
nated with  Nitzsch,  who  first  showed  that  not  only  are 
few  birds  evenly  clad  with  feathers,  but  that  tlie  feathers 
are  disposed  in  definite  tracts,  or  pteryla?,  between  which 
are  bare  spaces,  apteria,  and  that  the  arrangement  of  these 
tracts  and  apteria  differs  in  and  is  characteristic  of  various 
groups  of  birds.  ^  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Ptolemaic  System :  the  name  generally  applied  to  the 
ancient  system  of  astronomy,  because  the  only  systematic 
description  of  it  extant  is  found  in  the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy. 
(See  Ptolemy,  the  author.)  There  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  any  important  part  of  it  was  the  work  of  Ptolemy  him- 
self ;  its  development  was  probably  the  work  of  many  gener- 
ations of  observers  and  thinkers  before  his  time.  Tlie  writ- 
ings of  these  men  are  nearly  all  lost,  and  tluis  it  happens 
that  the  name  of  Ptolemy  is  associated  with  the  system.  The 
fundamental  doctrines  of  the  system  are  these  :  (1)  The  earth 
is  a  globe.  The  proofs  given  by  Ptolemy  that  we  do  not  live 
upon  an  extended  plain,  but  on  the  surface  of  a  globe,  are 
those  familiar  to  every  schoolboy.  They  were  better  known 
and  appreciated  in  ancient  times  than  is  commonly  supposed. 
(2)  The  celestial  sphere,  with  all  the  heavenly  bodies,  [lerforms 
a  revolution  around  the  earth  every  day,  on  an  axis  called  the 
axis  of  the  world.  We  now  know  that  this  apparent  motion 
is.  caused  by  the  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  own  axis,  but 
the  ancients  referred  the  motion  to  the  heavens.  (.3)  The 
earth  is  in  the  center  of  the  celestial  sphere.  The  apparent 
proofs  of  this  given  by  Ptolemy  must  have  seemed  to  him 
very  strong,  but  they  are  a  simple  result  of  the  revolution 
of  the  earth  on  its  own  axis.  (4)  The  celestial  sphere  is  so 
much  larger  than  the  earth  tliat  the  latter  is  a  mere  point 
in  comparison.  (5)  The  earth  has  no  motion  of  translation. 
but  remains  at  rest  in  the  center  of  the  sphere.  (6)  The 
seven  planets  are  arranged  in  the  following  order  from  the 
earth :  the  Moon,  Mercury.  Venus,  the  Sun,  Mars,  Jupiter, 
Saturn.  (7)  The  moon  and  sun  revolve  around  the  earth 
in  eccentric  circles — that  is  to  say,  in  circles  whose  center 
does  not  coincide  accurately  with  the  center  of  the  earth. 
Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  do  not  move 
uniformly  around  the  sphere,  but  move  around  the  circum- 
ference of  an  epicycle,  whose  center  does  move  uniformly. 
The  epicycle  was  intended  to  account  for  the  alternate,  di- 
rect, and  retrograde  motions  of  these  planets,  which  we  now 
know  to  be  due  to  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  tlie  sun. 

Notwithstanding  the  falsity  of  this  system  it  had  two 
merits — that  of  being  foundeil  on  careful  and  exact  oliserva- 
tions  and  reasonings,  and  that  of  accounting  for  the  salient 
phenomena  of  the  celestial  motions.  S.  Newcomb. 

Ptolemais:  See  Acre. 

Ptolemy  [from  I^at.  Ptit!('mii>')is  =  Gr.  UToXtnaios] :  the 
name  of  thirteen  kings  of  Egypt,  forming  tin-  tliirly-third 
dynasty,  who  ruled  for  nearly  three  centuries,  from  the 
death  of  Alexander  of  Macedon  till  the  Roman  occupation 


(323-30  B.  c).  The  period,  in  its  earlier  portion,  till  the 
death  of  Ptolemy  IIL  (221  B.  c),  was  one  of  considerable 
splendor,  rivaling  that  of  previous  dynasties.  The  policy  of 
employing  Greek  mercenaries  was  continued,  and  they  grew 
to  be  the  ruling  class.  The  dominant  spirit  was  Greek,  not 
Egyptian.  The  royal  residence  was  at  Alexandria,  whose 
population  was  mainly  foreign,  and  that  city  became  the 
center  of  Greek  culture  and  science.  For  political  reasons 
toleration  was  shown  to  the  religious  ideas  and  preferences 
of  the  Egyptians,  who  were  regarded  simply  as  servile  sub- 
jects, and  their  land  as  the  principal  possession  of  the  Ptole- 
mies. Temples  were  rejiaired  or  built  anew,  as  at  Karnak, 
Edfa,  and  Phihc,  and  the  most  important  of  the  native  dei- 
ties found  entrance  into  the  Greek  pantheon.  Twice  during 
the  period  the  native  spirit  broke  forth  into  insurrection. 
The  first  revolt  was  at  the  death  of  Ptolemy  IV.  (204  B.  C). 
It  emanated  from  Thebes  and  spread  through  the  Delta  re- 
gion. With  the  aid  of  Rome  it  was  crushed  in  the  Delta  in 
198  B.  c.  and  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  V.  established  firmly,  but 
Thebes  did  not  succumb  till  186  b.  c.  The  other  insurrection 
occurred  at  Thebes  in  88  b.  c.  during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
VIII.  In  85  B.  c.  it  was  subdued,  and  Thebes  was  given  over 
to  final  destruction.  Roman  power  had  been  increasing  in 
Egypt  during  a  large  part  of  the  period  after  Ptolemy  III., 
and  it  was  actually  dominant  long  before  the  final  occupa- 
tion after  the  defeat  of  Antony  and  Cleopatra  by  Augustus 
(30  b.  c). 

The  founder  of  the  dynasty  was  Ptolemy  I.  (Soter),  the 
reputed  son  of  Lagus :  hence  the  name  Lagides,  given  to 
the  dynasty.  He  had  been  one  of  Alexanders  most  trust- 
ed generals,  and  at  the  partition  of  the  empire  received  the 
governorship  of  Egypt  (323  b.  c).  He  remained  as  a  nomi- 
nal tributary  to  the  Macedonian  power  till  306  B.  c,  when 
he  became  the  actual  king,  assuming  the  titles  of  the  Pha- 
raohs and  reigning  till  284  B.  c.  By  reason  of  the  victory  of 
the  allies  over  Antigonus  at  Ipsus  in  301  b.  c,  Palestine, 
Phoenicia,  Syria,  and  Cyprus  were  added  to  his  kingdom. 
Ptolemy  I.  strengthened  his  land  and  naval  forces,  and  es- 
tablished the  administration  and  commerce  of  Egypt.  He 
also  laid  the  foundation  of  the  greatness  of  Alexandria  by 
inaugurating  its  library  and  school.  His  name  Soter  was 
given  bv  the  Rhodians.  whom  he  aided  against  Demetrius 
(305-304  B.  c.).— Ptolemy  II.  (Philadelphus)  (284-246  B.  c.) 
enjoyed  a  peaceful  reign  and  continued  the  work  of  his 
father,  extending  trade,  building  roads,  canals,  and  cities 
for  this  end.  He  erected  the  lighthouse  on  the  island  of 
Pharos.  He  also  stimulated  scholarship  by  adding  to  the 
schools  and  library  of  Alexandria.  It  was  during  his  reign 
that  Manetho  compiled  his  history  of  Egypt,  and  that  the 
Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  known  as  the  Septua- 
gint,  is  supposed  to  have  been  made,  in  part  at  least. — 
Ptolemy  III.  (Euergetes)  (246-221  b.  c.)  extended  the  limits 
of  his  kingdom  to  the  N.  E.,  it  is  said,  even  to  tlie  Indus,  and 
he  also  made  conquests  in  Arabia,  while  at  home  he  showed 
himself  an  intelligent  patron  of  learning.  He  received  the 
name  Euergetes  because  he  restored  to  Egypt  the  gods 
which  Cambyses  had  carried  away. — With  Ptolemy  IV. 
(Philopator)  (222-204  B.  c.)  the  period  of  decadence  began. 
His  possessions  in  Asia  were  wrested  from  him  in  part  by 
Antiochus  III.,  and  his  course  in  sending  grain  to  Rome  at 
the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war  was  the  occasion  of  the 
growth  of  the  Roman  power  in  Egypt.  He  founded  the 
temple  at  Edfu.  —  His  successor  was  Ptolemy  V.  (Epiph- 
ANEs)  (204-181  B.  c),  who  began  his  reign  in  his  fifth  year. 
In  201  B.  c.  he  became  the  wanl  of  the  Roman  senate,  in 
195  B.  c.  the  Rosetta  Stone,  with  its  trilingual  inscription, 
was  erected  in  his  honor,  and  in  192  B.C.  he  married  Cleo- 
patra I.,  the  daughter  of  Antiochus. — The  later  succession 
was  as  follows  :  Ptolemy  VI.  (Philometor)  (181-146) 
reigned  from  181  till  170  alone,  and  conjointly  with  Ptolemy 
VII.  (Euergetes  II.).  surnamed  Fliyscon.  from  170  till  165. 
During  the  period  165-146  he  was  under  Roman  tutelage. 
— Ptolemy  VII.  succeeded  him  and  ruled  from  146  till  117 
B.  r.,  with  the  exception  of  an  interval  about  130  B.  c,  when 
he  was  in  temporary  exile  in  Cyprus.  —  Ptolemy  VIII. 
(Soter  II.).  surname(l  Latliyrtis.  reigned  from  117  till  106 
B.  c,  wlien  he  was  banished.  He  was  recalled  in  87  B.  c. 
and  ruled  till  81  B.  r. — Ptolemy  IX.  (Alexander  I.)  was  co- 
regent  with  Cleopatra  III.  from  106  till  89  b.  c.  when  he 
was  banished.  He  died  in  87  b.  c.  in  a  naval  battle. — Ptol- 
emy X.  (Alexander  II.)  was  placed  in  power  by  the  Roman 
senate  in  81  B.  c.  but  was  soon  afterward  slain  by  an  out- 
raged people.  With  him  the  legitimate  line  became  extinct, 
and  the  succession  fell  upon  Ptolemy  XI.  (Neus  Dionysus). 


I 


F'l'uLKMV 


PUEBLA 


847 


.surnamed  Aulefes,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Ptolemy  VIII. 
He  ascended  the  throne  in  81  and  died  in  52  B.C.  His  suc- 
cessors were  I'tolemt  XII.  (Dioxvsls  II.)  (51—18  n.  r.)  and 
Ptolemy  XIII.  (47—14  b.  c),  who  were  successively  core- 
pents  with  Cleopatra  VII.,  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  XI. 
She  continued  to  he  queen  till  30  B.  c,  when  with  her  the 
line  and  dynasty  both  became  extinct,  and  Kgypt  became  a 
Roman  province.  Charlks  K.  liiLLErr. 

Ptolemy  (Chmdhis  Ptolemcruii) :  author  ;  b.  at  Pelusium 
in  Kfivpt  ;  llonrished  at  Alexandria  in  the  middle  of  the  sec- 
ond ciMitury  after  Christ.  Of  his  personal  life  nothing  more 
is  known.  Of  his  works,  the  Si/nta^is  Mut/trmatica  and  the 
(feographia  are  extant.  The  former  is  a  representation  of 
the  science  of  astronomy  at  the  time  of  the  author,  based 
partly  on  his  own  researches,  partly  on  those  of  llipparchus 
and  others.  As  it  is  the  only  authority  for  the  views  of  as- 
tronomy entertained  by  the  ancients,  and  as  it  formed  the 
foundation  of  all  astronomical  science  down  to  the  time  of 
Copernicus,  the  book  is  of  the  greatest  interest.  Having 
disappeared  during  the  Dark  Ages,  it  again  became  known 
to  the  Kuro|)eans  through  the  Arabs.  About  827  it  was 
translated  into  .Araliic,  and  of  this  Arabic  translation — the 
Almagest — a  Latin  translation  was  published  in  Vi'Hd  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  The  best  edition 
of  the  Greek  text,  accompanied  by  a  French  translation  and 
notes,  is  by  Halma  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1813-28).  (For  the  fumla- 
mental  ideas  of  this  system  see  the  article  Ptoi.kmaic  Sys- 
tem.) Of  the  (h'liijraphia  a  Latin  translation  with  maps 
was  frequently  reprinted  at  Rome  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  it  was  almost  the  only  source  of  geo- 
graphical knowledge  until  the  voyages  of  discovery  by  the 
Portuguese  made  its  information  antiquated.  Editions  bv 
Wilberg  and  (irashof  (Essen,  1838-44),  and  Miiller  (I'aris, 
1883). 

Ptomaines,  to'ma-inz  [Rr.  irra/xa,  a  corpse]:  certain  sub- 
stances fouiui  in  the  process  of  putrefaction.  Some  of  these 
are  extremely  poisonous,  while  others  are  harmless  or  nearly 
so.  Nencki,  in  1882.  first  isolated  a  definite  substance  from 
the  products  of  putrefaction,  starting  with  gelatin.  Later, 
probably  the  same  substance  was  obtained  from  putrid  fish. 
Other  basic  products  were  subsequently  obtained  from  pu- 
trid meat  and  fibrin.  Brieger  has  prepared  a  number  of 
the  ptonialnes.  and,  by  his  careful  studies,  contributed  large- 
ly to  our  knowledf^e  of  this  important  class  of  compounds. 
(See  Brieger,  Die,  Ptomaine,  Berlin,  1885  and  1886;  Sitz.  K. 
preusK.  Akad.  d.  Wissenschaften  zu  Berlin,  188!).)  Among 
the  ptomaines  described  by  Brieger  the  following  may  be 
mentioned  :  Cadaverine,  putrescine,  peptotoxine.  muscarine, 
and  mydaleine.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  ptomaines  are 
the  products  of  the  vitality  of  micro-organisms,  and  this  dis- 
covery is  plainly  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  science  of 
medicine.  It  was  formerly  held  that  many  diseases  are  due 
directly  to  the  presence  of  micro-organisms  in  the  body,  but 
now  it  appears  that,  in  some  cases  at  least,  these  organisms 
act  indirectly  by  secreting  poisons,  which  are  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  disturbance  of  the  normal  functions.  If  the 
poisons  secreted  by  the  various  organisms  that  cause  disease 
were  thoroughly  understood,  the  foundation  would  be  laid 
for  the  use  of  remedies  acting  chemically  as  antidotes. 

Ika  Remsen. 

Ptosis  [Mod.  I^at..  from  Or.  nTu<ris,  a  falling,  deriv.  of 
nlirrdv,  perf.  ninraKo.  fall) :  a  dropphif;  of  one  or  rarely  both 
u]ipor  evelids;  an  inaliility  to  open  the  eye.  It  may  come 
from  a  degenerate  or  undeveloped  condition  of  the  inusde- 
t issue,  or  from  palsy  of  the  third  nerve  which  controls  the 
muscle  of  the  upper  lid.  It  has  been  successfully  treated 
by  tacking  the  orbicular  muscle  to  the  ocelplto-frontal.  It 
often  passes  away  without  surgical  treatment,  and  there  are 
cases  which  are  not  benefited  by  any  trealinrnt  whatever. 

Revised  by  W.  1'ki'PER. 

Puberty  [from  Lat.  puber'las,  deriv.  of  puher.  mature, 
adult]  :  the  period  of  life  at  which  the  exercise  of  the  repro- 
ductive function  becomes  possible.  In  males  of  the  human 
race  it  usually  takes  place  between  the  ages  of  thirteen  and 
sixteen,  and  in  females  somewhat  earlier ;  and  it  appears 
that  in  very  warm  and  very  cold  climates  puberty  is  reached 
somewhat  earlier  than  elsewhere.  There  are  also  cases  of 
precocious  development  in  this  respect.  The  period  of 
puberty  is  attended  in  males  by  a  more  complete  develop- 
ment of  the  larynx,  a  <leepenlnff  of  the  voice,  the  first  ap- 
[learance  of  the  beard,  etc.  In  the  female  the  c(mtour  be- 
comes rounded  and  more  graceful,  the  catamenia  appear, 
and  the  mammary  glands  are  developed.     There  is  no  doubt 


that  to  those  who  are  inclined  toward  constitutional  disease 
this  is  a  period  of  some  danger,  especially  to  the  female. 
At  this  time,  too,  the  mind  and  tastes  are  often  rapidly  de- 
vclopeil. 

Publicans  [from  Lat. /)»J?ica'nH«,  pertaining  to  the  pub- 
lic revenues,  hence  (niasc.  adj.)  one  who  farms  the  public 
revenues,  deriv.  ot  publicus,  public,  deriv.  of  po'pulus,  peo- 
ple] :  in  ancient  Rome,  tax-gatherers,  farmers  of  the  reve- 
nue, who,  on  the  payment  of  a  stipulated  sum.  obtained  the 
privilege  of  levying  taxes  within  certain  districts  of  the 
Roman  dominions.  The  extortion  to  which  their  avarice 
or  the  high  price  paid  for  the  privilege  often  gave  rise  made 
these  tax-gatherers  a  detested  class,  especially  in  the  con- 
quered provinces,  as  in  Judica,  where  the  contempt  felt  for 
them  by  the  Jews  appears  from  nniny  passages  in  the  New 
Testament.  The  right  to  farm  the  revenues  was  sold  at 
public  auction  for  a  period  of  five  years.  As  the  purchase 
became  too  expensive  for  a  single  person,  societies  of  the 
natur(!  of  stock  companies  were  formed,  whose  members 
contributed  to  the  payment  and  received  a  pro{)ortional 
share  of  the  revenues.  After  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury B.  c.  the  publicans  belonged  to  the  order  of  Equites. 

P.  M.  Colby. 

Public  Debt:  See  Debt,  Public. 

Public  Health  :  See  IIygie.ne. 

Public  Lands :  See  United  States. 

Publil'ius  Sy'rus :  a  Syrian  slave,  probably  from  An- 
tioch,  who  attracted  great  attention  in  Rome  in  Ca-sar's 
time  as  a  writer  of  mimes.  St.  .Jerome  mentions  a  collec- 
tion of  moral  sentences  extracted  from  the  writings  of  Pub- 
lillus  Syrus  which  was  used  in  his  time  as  a  school-book 
In  Rome.  There  exists  a  comjillatlon  of  this  description, 
Pulililii  Si/ri  mimi  Sententio'  (about  700  verses  In  all),  edit- 
ed bv  WOlfflin  (Leipzlu,  186!)),  A.  Spcngcl  (Berlin,  1874), 
W.  Meyer  (Leipzig,  1880).  and  0.  Friedrich  (Berlin,  1880). 
See  W.  Jleyer.  Die  Sammlungen  der  Spruchverse  des  Publi- 
liiis  (Leipzig,  1877).  Of  the  mimes  themselves  we  have  only 
two  titles.  Revised  by  M.  Warken.  ' 

Pnccoon,  or  Indian  Dye :  a  general  name  apjilled  in  the 
U.  S.  to  several  dissimilar  plants  which  yield  a  yellow  or 
reddish  juice,  often  utilized  for  dyestuffs.  The  best-known 
representatives  are  species  of  Lithospermum  (L.  hirtum,  L. 
canescens,  etc.),  of  the  borage  family.  In  many  places  the 
blood-root  (Sanguinaria  canadensis)  of  the  Pori'Y  Family 
(q.  c.)  bears  this  name.  Hydrastis  canadensis  (of  the  fam- 
ily lianunculacete)  is  the  yellow  puccoon. 

Piickler-Muskau.  pUk  If r-moos  kow.  Hermann  Ludwio 
Heinrrii,  Prince  of:  author  and  landscape-gardener;  b. 
on  the  family  estate  of  Muskau,  in  Silesia.  0(-t.  30,  1785 ; 
studied  law  at  Leipzig;  served  in  the  army  during  the  wars 
against  Napoleon;  traveled  much,  and  became  widely  known 
both  for  his  enthusiasm  for  landscape-gardening  and  t  hrough 
his  spirited  traveling  sketches.  D.  at  Branitz.  Feb.  4,  1871. 
Lender  his  direction  gardens  were  laid  out  at  Muskau  and 
at  his  usual  residence,  Branitz,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Brandenburg;  he  also  wrote  Andeutungen  uber  Landscltafts- 
gartnerei  (1834).  Of  his  traveling  sketches  several  have  been 
translated  into  English — The  Travels  of  a  German  Prince 
in  Fngland,  by  Mrs.  Sarah  Austin  (3  vols.,  1832);  Tutti 
Frutti,  bv  Edmund  Sjiencer  (5  vols.,  1834) ;  Mehemet  AH 
and  Egypt  (3  vols.,  1848). 

Pnddlinir:  See  Iron  (Manufaclure)  axn\  Furnace. 

Pudici'tia:  the  Roman  personification  of  female  [mrity, 
the  virtue  par  excellence  of  womanhood,  as  bravery  was 
that  of  manhood.  From  early  times  there  was  a  temple  to 
this  goddess  in  the  Forum  Boarium,  to  which,  however,  only 
women  of  patrician  families  were  admitted,  though  some- 
what later  a  shrine  to  Pudicitia  pleheia  was  established  for 
women  of  plebeian  oriRin.  The  cult  seems  to  have  fallen 
into  neglect  bv  the  middle  of  the  second  centurv  n.  c. 

■  G.  L.  U. 

Pneb'la:  an  interior  state  of  Mexico;  between  Tlascala, 
Hidalgo,  Vera  Cruz,  Oajaca,  Guerrero,  Morelos,  and  Mexico. 
Area.  12.73!)  sq.  miles.  It  is  entirely  included  In  the  region 
of  the  plateau,  most  of  the  surface  consisting  of  plains  or 
rolling  lands,  with  an  average  elevation  of  al)out  6..")00  feet, 
but  these  are  varied  by  groups  of  hills  or  mountains  and, 
toward  the  S.,  by  deep  valleys.  It  is  partly  surrounded  by 
the  highest  mountains  in  Mexico.  The  climate  is  temperate 
and  healthful;  the  soil  Is  generally  fertile,  and  agriculture 
is  the  principal  occupation,  the  most  important  crops  be- 


84-8 


PUEBLA 


PUEBLO   INDIANS 


ing  maize,  agave  (supplying  pulque  for  the  markets  of  Mex- 
ico city),  and,  in  the  valleys,  sugar-cane  and  cotton:  cat- 
tle and  sheep  raising  are  important  industries  in  some  dis- 
tricts. Deposits  ot  silver,  copper,  and  other  metals,  and 
coal  are  known,  but  are  worked  only  on  a  small  scale.  The 
beautiful  "  Mexican  onyx,"  a  variety  of  alabaster,  comes 
principally  from  this  state,  and  many  varieties  of  marble 
are  quarried.  The  manufactures,  especially  of  cotton  and 
woolen  goods  and  of  pottery,  are  considerable.  The  state 
has  manv  interesting  antiquities.  Pop.  (189o)  estimated, 
845,240,  of  whom  a  large  proiwrtion  are  civiUzed  Indians. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Puebla  (in  full,  Puehla  de  Zaragoza  ;  formerly  Puebia  de 
los  Angeles) :  capital  of  the  state  of  Puebla ;  on  the  plateau, 
near  the  contines  of  Tlaseala  and  the  MaHnche  Mountain  ; 
7,200  feet  above  the  sea  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  7-H).  It  is 
clean  and  healthful,  but,  aside  from  the  fine  cathedi-al  and 
churches,  there  are  few  pretentious  buildings.  Two  parks 
and  a  large  number  of  public  squares  add  to  the  beauty  ot 
the  place.  It  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
woolen  cloths,  etc.,  and  for  the  onyx  and  marble  quarries 
of  the  vicinity.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Mexico,  Vera 
Cruz,  and  Oaxaca,  and  has  a  thriving  trade.  The  Indian 
element  is  largely  represented  in  the  population.  Puebla 
was  founded  as  a  mission  village  by  the  celebrated  Toribio 
in  1533.  The  U.  S.  troops  under  Scott  had  their  headquar- 
ters here  June-Aug.,  1847.  Later  it  was  a  noted  center  of 
the  clerical  party,  and  was  twice  besieged  and  taken  by 
Comonfort  1856-57.  The  French,  on  their  first  advance, 
were  repulsed  from  Puebla  May  5,  1862,  in  a  battle  which  is 
annually  celebrated  under  the  name  Cinco  de  Mavo ;  they 
captured  it  in  May,  1863.     Pop.  (1893)  estimated.  110,000.  " 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pueblo:  city;  county-seat  of  Pueblo  co..  Col. ;  on  both 
sides  of  the  Arkansas  river,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Fon- 
taine qui  Bouille,  and  on  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  Pc.,  the  Chi., 
Rock  Is.  and  Pac,  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande,  the  51.  I'ac, 
and  the  Union  Pac,  Denver  and  Gulf  railways ;  130  miles 
S.  of  Denver,  170  miles  S.  E.  of  Leadville  :  elevation  4,660 
feet  above  sea-level  (for  location,  see  map  of  Colorado,  ref. 
5-E).  It  is  in  an  agricultural,  mineral,  and  stock-raising 
region ;  has  the  largest  iron  and  steel  works  between  the 
Missouri  river  and  the  Pacific  coast,  capitalized  at  .f  10,000,- 
000 ;  and  is  noted  for  its  extensive  smelting  works.  It  is 
easy  of  access  from  Leadville  and  other  mining  centers  and 
from  the  great  coal-deposits  of  Trinidad,  Cailon  City,  and 
nearer  fields.  There  are  3  large  smelters,  2  great  blast  fur- 
naces, numerous  machine-shops,  rolling,  blooming,  planing, 
and  nail  mills,  iron  and  brass  foundries,  fire-brick  works, 
lead-pipe  works,  brewery,  large  slaughtering-plant,  oil-refi- 
nery, canning  factory,  artificial-ice  factory,  pipe-works,  and 
many  minor  manufactories.  Artesian  wells  in  the  city  sup- 
ply a  wonderful  mineral  water.  Within  a  radius  of  a  few 
miles  are  thirty  oil-wells.  The  L^nion  Stock-yards  occu))y 
an  extensive  tract  of  land.  The  city  has  gas-works.  Holly 
water-works,  electric  lights,  electric  street-railways,  3!) 
churches,  16  public-school  buildings,  public-school  property 
valued  at  over  .$400,000,  a  collegiate  institute  ot  the  Metho- 
dist Episcojial  Church  South,  3  Roman  Catholic  schools,  8 
hotels,  public  library,  board  of  trade  building,  the  Colorado 
Mineral  Palace,  a  permanent  structure  tor  the  exhibition  of 
the  mineral  resources  of  the  State,  grounds  and  buildings  of 
the  State  Agricultural  Society,  and  the  State  Asylum  for  the 
Insane,  together  with  7  other  hospitals  and  asylums.  In 
1894  there  were  6  national  banks  with  combined  capital  of 
$1,000,000,  and  2  savings-banks  with  capital  of  |100.000, 
and  a  monthly,  3  daily,  and  6  weekly  periodicals.  The  as- 
sessed valuations  of  1894  aggregated  $9,877,134.  Pop.  (1880) 
3,317;  (1890)  24,558;  (1894)  30^000.  C.  H.  Small. 

Pueblo  (pweb'lo)  ludians,  or  Pueblos:  certain  families 
of  North  .\merican  Indians.  The  terra  pueblo,  meaning  a 
town  or  village,  as  distinguished  from  a  mere  encampment 
or  temporary  settlement,  was  applied  by  the  early  Spanish 
explorers  to  the  great  terraced  communal  house-structures 
of  the  sedentary  agricultural  Indians  of  Jlexico,  New  Mexi- 
co, and  Arizona.  Ijaler  it  was  adopted  as  the  name  ot  the 
inhaljitants  themselves  rather  than  of  their  villages;  hence 
the  use  here  of  the  term  to  designate  principally  the  seilen- 
tary  town-building  Indians  of  the  arid  region — or  Aridians 
— ot  whatsoever  slock  or  period. 

Storka  or  Families. — The  I'ueblos  proper,  who  still  main- 
tain more  or  less  perfectly  their  original  modes  of  life,  are 
all  included  in  four  linguistic  families  or  stocks,  represent- 


ing twenty-eight  tribal  groups  occupying  as  many  villages 
in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Texas,  and  Chihuahua,  in  Mexico, 
detailed  in  the  articles  on  the  Keresan,  TaSoan,  Suosuo- 
NEAN  (Tusayan),  and  ZuSian  Indians.  As  the  special  char- 
acteristics of  each  of  these  families  are  treated  under  the 
titles  given,  only  those  traits  more  or  less  common  to  all  of 
them  and  to  other  extinct  representatives  of  the  Aridian 
phase  of  culture,  such  as  the  Mansos,  who  were  probably 
Tanoan,  will  be  described.     See  TaSoan  Indians. 

J'hijsicdl  A'ppearattce. — Setting  aside  the  changes  which 
have  been  wrought  on  the  Pueljlos  by  various  admixtures 
with  otlier  peoples  during  the  last  three  centuries,  they  were, 
although  representing  distinct  linguistic  families,  curiously 
similar  to  one  another.  All  were  originally  a  comparatively 
diminutive  people,  the  men  averaging  not  much  more  than 
5  feet  in  height ;  the  women  were  even  shorter.  As  a  rule, 
the  men  were  dark  or  tawny,  the  women  comparatively  fair 
or  olive.  The  men  were  spare,  and  rather  sharp-featured, 
but  mild  of  expression  and  intellectual  in  appearance.  It  is 
significant  that  while  the  Pueblos  were  strictly  Indian  in 
tyjie,  though  more  diminutive  and  refined,  there  was  far 
greater  individual  variation  among  them  than  among  the 
less  advanced  Indians.  This  variation  was  more  pronounced 
among  the  Zunian  Indians  and  least  so  among  the  Tafioans, 
who  led  a  less  restricted  life. 

Dress. — Their  wearing  material  was  mostly  woven  of  bark, 
yucca  fiber,  cotton  or  Cottonwood  down,  fur,  and  feathers. 
The  men  wore  cat-skin  or  ratibit-skin  robes  or  pelisses  of 
feather  work,  or  else  elaborately  striped  and  embroidered 
mantles  of  cotton,  gayly  embroidered  coats  of  the  poncho 
variety,  kilt-skirts  tasseled  and  embroidered,  held  in  jtlace 
by  long,  broad  cotton  girdles,  buckskin  tights  reaching  above 
the  knee,  or  else  leggings  of  long  strips  of  the  same  material 
wound  round  and  round  the  leg,  and  fastened  at  the  knee 
with  beautifully  woven  garters  or  interbraided  strands  of 
colored  cotton  yarn  ;  or,  again,  long  crocheted  stockings 
reaching  high  up  the  thighs.  The  feet  were  protected  by 
sandals  of  plaited  yucca,  or  more  rarely  by  buskins  or  moc- 
casins of  buckskin  with  rawhide  soles.  The  hair  was 
banged  to  the  eyebrows ;  two  long  side-locks  depended  from 
the  temples,  and  the  back  hair  was  tied  in  a  bunch  with  a 
plaited  ribbon  into  which  a  bunch  of  brilliant  feathers  (pref- 
erably of  the  macaw)  was  stuck ;  a  fillet  of  fiber,  or  plaited 
luisks,  dyed  of  the  color  symbolizing  the  (juarter  to  which 
the  wearer  belonged,  was  bound  about  the  crown.  The  cos- 
tumes of  priest-chiefs  were  far  more  elaborate,  being  sym- 
bolically varied.  The  warriors  wore  cone-shaped  helmets  of 
thick  hide,  or  headgear  made  from  the  headskin  of  the  puma, 
bear,  horned  antelope,  or  bison.  They  also  wore  cuirasses 
of  skin,  or  of  padded  cotton  and  yucca,  and  carried  round 
shields  ot  basketry,  of  heavily  and  closely  netted  cotton,  or 
of  thick  rawhide,  symbolically  painted.  They  carried  short 
lances,  javelins,  and  throwing-slats,  long-bows,  war-clubs, 
very  broad  flint  or  obsidian  knives  sheathed  in  pouches  sus- 
pended from  the  belt  in  front,  wood-hafted  stone  axes  stuck 
through  the  left  fold  of  the  girdle,  or  else  wooden  swords 
edged  with  close-set  lilades  of  obsidian  or  other  flinty  mate- 
rial, and  slings  of  skillfully  braided  yucca. 

The  costume  of  the  women  differed  little.  They  wore  a 
long  cami.sa  or  sleeveless  gown  of  cotton  which  reached  be- 
low the  knee.  An  embroidered  mantle  of  cotton,  a  light 
head-shawl,  leggings  and  sandals,  or  moccasins  like  those  of 
(he  men,  liut  uncolored,  or,  for  house  wear,  thickly  knitted 
stockings,  com]ileted  the  dress.  The  hair  of  the  women  was 
lianged  slighlly  in  front,  parted  lengthwise  over  tlu'  middle 
of  the  head,  and  done  up  in  two  square  knots  back  of  the 
•ears  for  nuitrons;  in  two  round  coils,  "like  pitcher  handles" 
(as  the  early  explorers  describe  them),  over  the  ears  for  the 
unmarried  women.  They  wore  numerous  ornaments,  certain 
of  them  as  amulets  of  niaternity,  and  others,  like  those  of 
the  men — bracelets,  finger-rings,  and  ear  pendants. 

Habitations. — Among  the  Eastern  tribes  the  parallelo- 
grammic  form  of  house-clustering  seems  to  have  prevailed, 
while  among  the  interior  and  Western  tribes  the  polygonal 
or  rounded  village  was  more  usual ;  but  in  all,  the  outer 
walls  were  usually  built  highest,  the  terraced  stories  of  the 
town  descending  from  them  and  looking  inward  on  open 
courts  and  alleys.  There  were  no  doorways  in  the  lower 
stories,  but  access  was  gained  by  means  of  very  long-poled 
ladders,  arranged  like  well-sweeps,  so  that  they  could  be 
easily  swung  up  at  night  for  protection.  The  houses,  par- 
ticularly of  the  lower  stories,  were  entereil  through  scuttles 
in  the  roofs  by  means  of  step-logs  or  ladders.  The  windows 
below  were  mere  portholes,  while  above  they  were  larger  and 


PUEBLO   INDIANS 


849 


sometimes  well  glazed  with  plates  of  selenitc  or  mica.  In 
the  upper  stories  were  both  doors  and  windows.  The  cellidar 
houses  of  these  villages  were  divided,  bill  slightly,  into  wards 
or  septs  corresponding  to  the  number  of  tril)al  divisions,  and 
again  subdivided  into  sets  of  quarters,  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  clans  in  each  division.  These  quarters  were  perma- 
nently occupied  only  by  the  women  (to  whom  they  belonged) 
and  tlie  chililrcn.  The  men  of  the  tribe,  both  married  and 
single,  had  as  permanent  quarters  the  large  semi-subterranean 
kivas,  of  which  there  was  one  for  every  division  of  the  tribe. 
Here  all  councils  of  the  clan-dusters  were  held  and  ceremo- 
nials of  the  secret  cult-societies  belonging  to  them  performed. 
Here  also,  especially  in  winter,  the  men  assembled  to  labor  at 
their  looms,  at  weapon-making,  and  at  minor  arts.  Here  also 
they  sought  amusement,  and  here  the  "elders"  taught  the 
adiilt  youth  the  lore  and  regulative  usages  of  the  particular 
division  to  which  they  belongeil.  Lawsuits  or  disputes  l)e- 
twcen  the  clans  were  settled  here,  while  the  affairs  of  the 
tribal  divisions  %vere  ailministered  from  the  principal  kiva 
of  the  town,  usually  that  of  the  leading  division.  In  this 
kiva  also,  all  tribal  affairs  were  conducted,  and  strangers 
from  other  tribes  were  entertained.  Kach  household  in  the 
clan-quarters  occupied  three  or  more  rooms,  according  to 
numbers — for  the  rooms  were  very  small — and  was  presided 
over  by  the  eldest  matron.  There  were  always  a  kitchen,  a 
storeroom,  and  an  eating  and  living  room,  in  the  latter  of 
which  the  husbands  came  to  meals  with  their  families  or 
visited  their  wives. 

Occupations  and  Methods  of  Life. — The  women  cared  for 
the  families,  prepared  all  food,  made  the  pottery  and  bas- 
ketry, and  fashioned  the  stone-mills  and  other  household 
utensils.  The  men  were  the  principal  weavers  and  spinners. 
They  tilled  the  fields,  raising  their  crops  mainly  by  means  of 
irrigation.  The  women  had  little  truck-gardens  close  to  the 
towns,  where  leeks,  chile,  or  red  peppers,  and  a  few  fragrant 
herbs  were  raised  by  hand-watering.  The  main  meat-supply 
was  gained  by  hunting,  which  was  usually  communal,  and 
whole  divisions  joined  in  great  round-u])S  of  game,  for  which 
purpose  enormous  corrals  were  constructed.  Howevei',  tur- 
keys and  other  small  animals  were  domesticated  by  some  of 
the  Pueblos.  Land-tilling,  the  construction  of  irrigating- 
<lams,  ditches,  and  embankments,  and  all  other  operations 
conducted  at  a  distance  from  the  towns,  were,  like  the  hunts, 
communal  undertakings,  since  the  villagers,  with  their  rich 
stores  of  food,  were  ever  liable  to  predatory  attacks  from  the 
neighboring  nomadic  tribes.  This  state  of  affairs  reacted 
powerfully  on  their  sociologic  organization,  forms  of  town- 
liuilding,  and  methods  of  life.  It  also  affected  their  inter- 
course with  the  outside  world.  Journeys  of  all  descriptions 
were  communal.  This  again  had  the  effect  of  making  the 
Pueblos  of  the  interior  essentially  home-dwelling  and  ex- 
traordinarily con.servative  and  exclusive. 

Culture  Characteristics. — All  the  Pueblo  tribes  were  com- 
jiosed  of  clatis,  and  descent  was  in  the  female  line.  These 
clans  were  families  of  kindred  named  after  some  animal, 
plant,  mineral,  or  element.  Some  of  the  smaller  tribes 
grouped  these  clans  in  two  divisions — those  of  the  North  and 
South  or  of  .Summer  and  Winter:  others  had  four  clan- 
groups  (those  of  North,  West,  South,  and  East,  or  of  the 
Four  Seasons),  while  the  highly  developed  Pueblos  had 
rarely  fewer  than  six,  usually  (as  with  the  Zunians)  seven 
groups — namely,  those  of  the  North,  West,  South,  East,Up- 
[)er.  Lower,  and  Middle  regions.  The  clans  were  grouped 
or  related,  according  to  the  supposed  analogies  of  their  to- 
tems or  namesakes  (the  animals,  etc.,  from  which  they  were 
named),  to  the  various  phenomena  of  the  different  regions. 
Thus  tlie  Puma,  being  fierce  and  loud-roaring,  belonged  in 
the  north,  whence  came  the  fiercest  winds  and  r.iging  storms 
of  winter:  and  as  the  Live-oak  never  withered  in  these 
^lorms,  it  too  pertained  to  the  north  and  winter;  hence  the 
clans  of  the  Puma  and  the  Live-oak.  and  others  like  them, 
belonged  obviously  to  Winter  and  the  North,  and  therefore 
belonged  together.  The  .Sun  and  the  Eagle,  dwellers  in  the 
skies,  the  Turfjuoise.  a  bit  of  the  sky  itself,  were  no  less  surely 
of  the  upper  world  than  were  the  Rattlesnake  and  the  Frog 
of  the  lower  world. 

Over  each  group  of  clans  was  a  priest-chief,  or  "  elder," 
the  worshiper-in-cnief,  keeper  of  the  medicines  or  powers 
and  mysteries  of  the  great  animal-spirits  and  gods  of  the 
region  or  world-precinct  which  his  division  represented. 

This  pricsi-chicf  was  also  the  oracle  in  all  religious  and 

secular  matters  in  his  "  houscholii."     There  were  generally 

seven  of  these  divisional  priests  or  leaders  of  clan-groups, 

and  rarelv  fewer  than  four.    Among  them  were  the  "  Peace- 

■»38 


ful  Leader  "  and  "  Wrathful  Leader,"  now  popularly  known 
as  Governor  or  Alcalde,  and  Captain  of  W  ar.  These  have 
their  assistants,  or  fenientis.  whose  offices,  like  those  of  their 
superiors,  are  of  Spanish  adoption,  and  who  are  annually 
elected  with  the  sanction  of  the  supreme  council  of  priest- 
chiefs  or  caciques. 

The  peo|jle  were  controlled  not  so  much  liy  the  Peace  and 
War  cfiiels  (to  whom  they  were  nevertheless  obedient  gen- 
erally) as  by  the  oracular  and  magical  fathers  behind  them. 
These  deserved  the  reverence  and  respect  in  which  they  were 
held  as  the  "  fathers  and  mothers"  of  the  tribe,  for  they  were 
the  penitentes  of  their  people,  and  had  to  labor  at  the  sacred 
rites  from  season  to  season,  to  watch,  fast,  and  repeat  rituals, 
etc.,  days  at  a  time  on  stated  occasions.  Therefore,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  divisional  societies,  nearly  all  the  great 
"customs"  (such  as  the  games,  races,  communal  hunts,  fill- 
ings, harvestings,  and  journeyings  for  wood)  were  annually 
performed  for  their  benefit. 

There  were  in  every  considerable  tribe  of  Pueblo  Indians 
from  four  to  thirteen  secret  or  tabu  societies  or  priestly  fra- 
ternities of  the  so-called  "  medicine-men  "  of  popular  tradi- 
tion. These  societies  were  systematically  adjusted  to  the 
tribal  sociologic  organization.  They  pertained  separately, 
according  to  their  special  functions,  to  the  various  regional 
clan-groups  or  divisions.  Their  members,  with  the  divisional 
priest-cacicpics,  were  the  keepers  and  teachers  of  the  mythic 
lore  and  rituals,  religious  regulations,  magic  mysteries,  and 
medicines  or  "potencies"  of  the  divisions  to  which  they  be- 
longed. Thus  the  name  of  cult-societies,  as  given  them  by 
Powell,  is  most  appropriate.  The  societies  of  the  Nortli 
were  wind  and  cold  makers,  and  took  precedence  in  winter; 
those  of  the  South — fire-makers  or  masters  of  fire — had  con- 
trol in  summer.  Above  all.  the  members  of  these  cult-soci- 
eties were  doctors,  or  priest-doctors,  each  according  to  the 
region,  season,  element,  and  associated  fimction  of  his  par- 
ticular .society.  Their  practice  of  medicine  and  the  appli- 
cation of  remedies  was.  in  theory,  irrati(mal,  though  strictly 
regulated  and  often  both  simple  and  surprisingly  successful. 
The  belief  in  the  universality  of  disease  and  its  spiritual  or 
ghostly  origin  vastly  enlarged  the  field  of  supposed  useful- 
ness and  the  power  of  these  fraternal  priest-doctors.  Not 
only  did  they  treat  disease,  Init  their  more  regular  labors 
were  directed"  toward  its  (spiritual)  prevention. 

Religion. — The  religion  of  the  Pueblos  was  a  Nature-ro- 
ligion.  Their  gods  (equally  of  both  sexes)  were  animal 
gods,  phenomenal  gods,  ancestral  gods,  and  celestial  gods. 
Supreme  among  the  immortals  was  the  God  of  the  Sun- 
shield,  the  Creator  of  the  All-makers.  Water  or  Generation, 
personified  in  the  Ocean-mother,  the  Sky-num.  and  the  Earth- 
woman,  whence  all  mortal  tilings  were  l)orn.  Under  the  Sun- 
god  were  the  God  of  Fate  and  his  twin  younger  brother,  the 
God  of  War;  the  God  of  Time  or  the  Seasons,  and  his  young- 
er brother,  the  God  of  Dawn,  etc.  Apart  from  all  was  the 
Master  of  Life — son  of  the  Sun-god  and  of  Life,  or  the 
Great  Waters.  He  was  the  Messiah  of  the  Puciblos.  who 
was  supreme  over  the  animal  and  phenomenal  gods  aiul  the 
mediator  between  these  mortal-like  beings  and  the  celestial 
or  attril]ute  gods,  and  was  a  personification  of  the  reflec- 
tion or  image  of  the  sun  in  the  water,  as  the  Goddess  of 
Love,  or  of  the  Ocean,  was  the  reflection  of  the  Moon  (God- 
dess of  Men.struation  or  JIaternity). 

All  of  these  gods  were  sup|)osed  to  be  related  to  one  an- 
other as  are  men,  creatures,  and  things  in  this  world  ;  their 
organization  was  like  the  sociologic  orgatiization  of  men. 
The  heavenly  or  spiritual  worlil  was  over,  yet  interjiene- 
trated  the  visible  world.  As  this  world  had  a  center  or 
middle  in  the  center  of  the  Pueblo  country,  so  the  spiritual 
world  had  a  center  or  middle  over  the  Lagune  of  Shipapu 
(the  hot  springs  of  Colorado  in  the  nortli  of  the  Pueblo 
eoiuitry),  which  was  the  place  of  mnljilical  connection  be- 
tween the  parent  spiritual  world  and  the  offspring  mortal 
world.  Thither,  therefore,  the  rituals  and  offerings  to  the 
Master  of  Life,  or  Nether-sun  God,  were  always  addressed 
by  the  jiriests  of  the  cult-societies. 

Ju.st  as  the  Pueblo  theory  of  medical  practice  was  spir- 
itual, so  their  theory  of  spiritual  worship  was  largely  medi- 
cal. The  ills  of  life  and  times  were  diseases  to  be  remedied 
by  charms  and  formulas  and  by  rules  of  sjiiritual  hygiene 
(observances  and  right  behavior),  or  to  be  prevented  by 
work,  the  business  or  industry  of  worship.  In  all  this  it 
was  neces.sary  to  aid  and  be  aided  by  the  gods,  and  to  this 
end.  in  lokeri  of  sincerity,  the  priests  abstained  from  meat 
an<l  all  other  carnal  things  four  days  each  month,  and  from 
eight  to  ten  days  at  the  summer  and  winter  solstices,  or  for 


850 


PUEBLO   INDIANS 


PUERPERAL  FEVER 


longer  or  shorter  periods  whenever  evil  times  ilemanded. 
At  such  times  they  labored  day  and  night,  making  sym- 
bolic, plumed  prayer-wands,  as  testimonials  of  constancy  to 
be  set  up  in  shrines  abroad  as  "  jirayers  from  season  to  sea- 
son." These  labors  were  accompanied  by  the  repetition  of 
traditional  rituals  and  incantations  of  great  length,  and 
dramaturgic  performances  (the  so-called  cachinas  or  dances) 
before  altars  set  up  to  symbolize  one  or  another  of  the  sacra- 
mental regions.  Offerings  of  sacred  prayer-meal  were  also 
made  on  various  occasions  ;  shell,  coral,  or  turkois  beads  or 
other  treasures  were  sacrificed  as  spirit-medicines  or  as  pay- 
ments or  gifts  of  good  will. 

The  people  at  large  joined  for  a  day  in  each  month  and 
four  days  semi-annually  in  these  exercises  of  worsliip.  In 
autumn  the  dead  were  remembered  by  all  with  offerings  of 
the  substance  of  food  and  other  articles  consumed  or  set 
free  by  fire,  and  at  New  Year  or  the  "mid-time"  (in  No- 
vember) the  solemn  festivals  and  dramaturgic  celebrations 
of  creation  and  of  the  "middle  of  the  world"  were  held. 
The  dancers  of  the  cachinas  were  masked  as  animals  or  as 
demons  (see  ZuSian  Indians),  joining  the  priests  in  these 
representations  of  the  re-creation  of  the  world  and  the  sea- 
sons. 

Customs  as  to  Marriage,  Burial,  etc. — The  men  of  a  elan 
could  not  marry  the  women  of  the  same  clan,  and  marriage 
was,  therefore,  almost  as  much  an  affair  of  the  elans  as 
of  individuals,  alliances  taking  place  as  much  as  possible 
outside  of  the  clan-group  as  well  as  the  clan  (in  order  that 
diverse  seasons  and  elements  miglit  be  "  wedded  ").  Until 
after  betrothal,  lovers  wooed  very  indirectly  ;  that  is,  a 
young  man,  in  courting,  would  strive  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  his  choice  by  general,  not  pointed,  displays  and  ac- 
tions. After  betrothal  the  young  man  was  accepted  by  the 
maternal  relatives  as  a  perpetual  rather  than  temporary 
guestrof  their  clan  and  of  his  wife.  Thus  divorce,  of  course, 
was  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  women. 

A  midwife  (usually  a  eult-priestess),  the  maternal  grand- 
mother or  matron,  and,  if  a  priestess,  the  paternal  grand- 
mother, or  in  her  place  grandfather  (called  on  the  occasion 
"grandmother"), presided  at  birth.  Immediately  afterward 
birth-oflerings  were  made  by  tlie  paternal  female  relatives, 
and  the  child  was  laid,  with  many  ceremonial  observances, 
on  a  sand-heap,  and  an  ear  of  "  male  corn  "  for  a  boy,  or 
of  "  female  corn  "  for  a  girl,  was  placed  by  the  infant's  right 
side.  After  nine  days  the  child  was  presented  to  the  Sun 
by  the  paternal  elders,  and  formally  adopted  from  them, 
and  clan-named  by  the  clanspeople  of  the  mother,  to  whom 
thenceforward  it  belonged. 

After  death  these  observances  were  reversed.  A  jar  of 
water  was  broken  by  the  dead,  who  was  thus  renounced  by 
the  clanspeople  of  the  mother  to  the  clanspeople  of  the  father. 
Presents  of  food  and  personal  property  were  given,  and  the 
body  was  then  washed  and  wrapped  in  blankets  with  sacred 
offerings  and  plumes.  If  the  dead  had  been  a  clan  or  cult 
priest,  he  was  buried  under  the  ladders  outside  or  inside  of 
the  house,  the  presents  or  offerings  of  the  kin  being  burned  ; 
if  not  priestly,  then  tlie  body  of  the  dead  (in  order  that  the 
soul  be  facilitated  in  its  escape  from  the  flesh  and  from  sor- 
cerers) was  burned  with  the  offerings,  thus  being  given  back 
to  the  sun  and  earth. 

Pristine  History. — Originally,  the  Pueblos  included  rep- 
resentatives of  several  more  stocks.  In  the  south  the  JIansos, 
already  mentioned,  the  Sumas,  .Janos,  and  Piman  tribes  be- 
longed to  them;  in  the  west  two  or  more  Yunum  tribes; 
others,  the  stocks  of  wliich  are  unknown,  have  been  exter- 
minated or  absorbed  principally  by  the  Apache,  Navajo,  and 
Comanche  within  the  last  four  centuries.  But,  howsoever 
diverse  the  stocks  of  the  original  Pueblo  Indians  may  have 
been,  they  everywhere  followed  practically  the  same  line  of 
development,  and  proceeded  so  far  toward  becoming  a  dis- 
tinctive people  tliat  the  term  Aridian  has  been  adopted  as 
best  characterizing  them.  Evidence  is  complete  that  these 
Pueblo  (leoples  were  derived  from  numerous  (probably  small) 
tribes  bordering  the  ^reat  arid  region  in  an  irregulaV  semi- 
circle from  Central  Utah  and  Colorado  on  the  N.  and  Central 
Texas  (m  the  E.  These  tribes  were  driven  southward  into 
the  deserts  by  stronger  tribes  from  time  to  time,  and  were 
forced  to  live  in  limited  areas  near  scant  water-supplies,  in 
widely  sundered  bands.  As  these  bands  increased,  cultiva- 
tinu  by  means  of  a  crude  system  nf  irrigation  was  necessi- 
tated. Thus  tlie  bands  became  lixed,  and  built  more  sub- 
stantially earth-covered  wooden  huts:  then,  from  scarcity 
of  timber,  hirger  and  better  houses  of  stone  ami  mud  were 
constructed,  separate,  yet  in  straggling  groups  arcunid  tlieir 


watering-places  and  scattered  fields.  Then  came  their  time 
of  trial,  which  only  tlic  hardiest  survived  ;  tilling  the  soil  and 
remaining  fixed  in  habitation,  they  acquired  food-stores  and 
possessions  which  drew  their  enemies  once  more  upon  them, 
and  forced  them  to  flee  to  the  cation  walls,  where  tliey  be- 
came cliff  and  cave  dwellers.  The  necessity  of  building  on 
limited  sheltered  shelves  of  the  rocks  and  of  living  in  such 
crowded  villages  as  the  Cliff-dwellings  (q.  v.)  developed  at 
once  the  characteristic  terraced  and  cellular  type  of  archi- 
tecture, and  the  divisions  of  quarters  (for  example,  of  the  men 
from  those  of  the  women),  etc.,  so  peculiar  to  their  pueblos 
of  later  times.  Here  they  abode  until  tliey  became  too  nu- 
merous for  their  footholds  in  the  cliffs,  and  sought  safety 
in  numbers,  climbing  to  the  heights  of  their  valley  or  canon 
flelds,  and  tliere  building  their  many  villages  in  one.  Yet 
for  a  long  time  they  still  used  their  cliff-towns  as  farm- 
ing villages,  and  often  fled  to  them  and  built  others  like 
them  when  pressed  by  enemies.  This  was  substantially  the 
history  of  the  development  of  the  Pueblo  Indian  village 
life  as  found  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  the  Spaniards. 

The  Zuiiians  were  probably  the  first  Pueblo  peoples  who, 
still  living  in  the  sixteenth  century,  had  become  fixed  in 
the  habit  of  plain-dwelUny  in  segregated  and  definitely  in- 
terrelated but  not  wholly  autonomous  communal  villages. 
Nearly  all  of  the  Pueblos  of  other  stocks  were  rapidly  follow- 
ing their  example  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  as  the  Kere- 
saus  had  long  done,  and  the  Tusayan  villagers  had,  although 
building  the  latest-made  pueblos,  most  perfectly  done. 

Ruins. — Throughout  the  whole  vast  arid  Southwest,  from 
Central  Nevada,  Utah,  Colorado,  and  Texas  southward  to 
and  far  beyond  the  boundary  of  Mexico,  occur  everywhere, 
except  in  the  highest  mountains,  ruins  which  mark  the  pres- 
ence and  wanderings  of  the  Pueblo  peoples,  and  record 
vividly  the  stages  of  their  slow  development  as  communal 
villagers.  Many  hundreds  of  these  ruins  are  buried  under 
sand  and  drift,  while  others  remain  to  be  revealed  only  by 
accident.  Of  the  conspicuous  ruins,  there  are  doubtless  more 
than  3,000  in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  a  small  part  of  Utah 
and  Colorado  alone,  and  of  smaller  remains  fourfold  that 
number. 

These  ruins  may  be  roughly  classified,  for  convenience  of 
reference,  as  lava-pueblos,  small  or  single  house  pueblos, 
cliff-pueblos,  communal  pueblos,  group-pueblos,  and  aggre- 
gate or  city  pueblos  (towns),  such  as  the  Casas  Grandes  of 
Southern  Arizona  and  Northern  Mexico.  An  example  of 
group-pueblos  is  furnished  by  the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola, 
now  iu  ruins,  which  were  the  original  towns  occuiiied  by 
the  Zunis,  the  name  being  given  by  their  Spanish  discover- 
ers in  15.39-40.  Some  of  these  types  are  practically  universal, 
and  there  are  sections  in  which  all  are  present ;  but  the 
group-pueblos  and  city-pueblos  occur  only  in  comparatively 
limited  areas.  This  variation  in  type  and  relative  distribu- 
tion represents  the  successive  jjliases  iu  development  of  a 
single  or  of  similar  peoples. 

Population. — At  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest  the 
Pueblo  Indians  numbered,  all  told,  more  than  30,000.  That 
their  numbers  were  not  less  is  evidenced  by  the  ruins  of 
Pueblos  which  were  recorded  as  occupied  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  number  of  Pueblo  towns  in  the  U.  S.  now 
inhabited  is  only  twenty-seven,  an  additional  village  (Se- 
necii  del  Sur)  being  in  Chihuahua.  The  total  population  of 
the  modern  towns  is  about  10,000.  The  Pueblo  Indians,  as 
a  whole,  are  not  materially  diminishing  in  numbers. 

Authorities. — See  the  works  cited  under  ZuSian  Ind- 
ians ;  also  Holmes  and  Jackson  in  Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  Geol. 
and  Geog.  Survey  of  the  Territories,  vol.  ii.  (1876) ;  Wheeler 
Survey  Report,  vol.  vii.,  Arcliceology  (1879) ;  Morgan,  Houses 
and  House-life  of  the  American  Aborigines  (Cont.  N.  A. 
Ethnology,  vol.  iv.) ;  and  the  annual  reports  of  the  Bureau 
of  Ethnology.  See  also  Cliff-dwellings.  Indians  of  North 
America.  Keresan  Indians,  Shoshonean  Indians  (2'«so^a»), 
TaSoan  Indians,  and  ZuSian  Indians. 

Frank  Hamilton  Cushino. 

Pueblo  Lar^o  :  See  TaSoan  Indians. 

Puerperal  Fever  [puerpenil  is  from  Lat.  puer'pera,  a 
lying-in  woman ;  piier,  child  -I-  pa're7-e,  give  birth]  :  a  con- 
tinued fever,  formerly  supposed  to  be  specific,  appearing  in 
puerperal  women  between  the  second  and  sixth  days  after 
delivery.  The  condition  is  initiated  by  a  chill,  followed  by 
fever,  uneasiness,  nausea,  abdominal  tenderness  or  pain,  di- 
arrha^a,  arrest  of  the  loehial  discharge,  great  prostration,  and 
sometimes  by  delirium.  Pneumonia,  pleurisy,  pericarditis, 
acute  Bright's  disease,  and  sup|iiirative  inflammation  of  the 


PUEaPERAL  INSANITY 


PUERTO   RICO 


851 


joints  may  occur  as  complications.  The  disease  runs  a  rapid 
course,  usually  terminating  fatally  within  a  week,  the  patient 
dying  from  exhaustion. 

Puerperal  lover  is  a  septic  disease  that  is  always  due  either 
to  infection  from  some  micro-organism  already  existing  in 
the  woman's  genital  tract  (auto-infection)  that  finds  an  in- 
gress into  the  system  through  the  tissues  that  are  lacerated 
and  bruised  during  labor,  or  (as  is  generally  the  case)  to  in- 
fection by  tlie  midwife  or  attendant,  or  to  contact  with  in- 
fected bedding,  clothing,  or  instruments  (hetero-infection). 
In  1843  Dr.  Oliver  Wi'ndcll  Holmes  promulgated  this  latter 
theory  in  America,  and  in  1847  Semmelweis  prochiimed  the 
doctrine  in  lOurope.  It  was  not  until  bacteriologists  had  C(m- 
clusively  demonstrati'd  to  what  septic  infection  was  due  that 
the  foregoing  idea  was  generally  adopted.  N'ow  there  is  no 
obstetrician  of  any  scientific  attainments  who  would  question 
the  fact.  There  sliould  be  no  deaths  from  inierperal  fever  in 
properly  attended  obstetrical  cases,  in  which  alisolute  clean- 
liness o'f  the  midwife's  hands  and  of  all  things  coming  in 
contact  with  the  patient  are  secured. 

On  the  first  symptoms  the  genital  tract  should  be  irri- 
gated, at  intervals  of  three  to  four  hours,  with  from  3  to  4 
quarts  of  a  1-per-cent.  solution  of  table-salt  in  boiled  water, 
to  which  may  be  added  2i  per  cent,  of  crcolin  or  carbolic 
acid,  that  is  allowed  to  cool  to  a  temperature  of  from  100  - 
10.5°  V.  If  this  dose  does  not  reduce  the  fever  in  a  short 
time,  the  physician  may  be  certain  that  a  portion  of  the 
after-birth  is  left  within  the  uterus  and  is  decomposing,  and 
he  should  place  the  patient  on  an  operating-table,  and  by 
means  of  a  speculum  expose  the  uterus  and  scrape  its  in- 
terior with  a  long  wire  scoop  (curettiug).  following  this  by 
irrigation  with  a  hot-salt  and  ereolin  solution.  This,  with 
a  hot-water  coil  or  hot-turpentine  stupe  to  the  abdomen, 
and  iron,  (piinine,  and  brandy  internally,  comprises  the  nec- 
essary treatment.  S.  T.  Armstrono. 

Piiprperal  Insanity:  perversion  of  the  mind  in  women 
immeiliately  after  childbirth,  although  it  may  also  occur 
before  delivery,  or  weeks  or  months  after  labor,  when  exces- 
sive nursing  has  undermined  the  strength.  It  may  iherefore 
be  considered  as  a  derangement  of  the  mind  due  to  the  in- 
fluences of  the  childbirth  upon  the  nervous  system  and  emo- 
tional nature  of  the  mother.  Puerperal  insanity  may  be 
characterized  by  mental  agitation  or  excitability,  or,  re- 
versely, the  |)atient  may  sink  into  a  state  of  mental  apathy, 
moodiness,  reticence,  or  despondency.  There  will  be  rest- 
lessness, inability  to  sleep,  headache,  impaired  appetite, 
coated  tongue — in  some  cases  an  increase  of  teniperatni'e. 
The  bowels  are  usually  constipated  and  the  urine  diminished 
in  quantity.  The  secretion  of  milk  is  often  lessened  or 
suspended,  and  a  sudden  manijical  condition  may  follow 
immediately  upon  a  cessation  of  the  ilow  of  milk.  Al- 
though the  delirium  in  some  cases  is  violent,  no  evidence 
of  inflammation  or  other  organic  disease  of  the  brain  or 
its  membranes  has  been  detected,  on  post-mortem  exami- 
nation, as  the  lesions  to  which  the  symptoms  might  be 
due.  In  the  delirious  form  and  in  the  melancholic  form 
there  is  equally  an  aversion  to  the  father  or  the  child. 
Suicide  and  murder  of  the  child  are  occasional  occurrences. 
Puerperal  insanity  nniy  be  expected  to  occur  in  women  of 
nervous  temperament  or  those  predisposed  to  insanity  ;  in 
such  also  as  are  greatly  reduce<l  liy  previous  ill  health,  by 
ha3morrhage  during  or  following  delivery,  or  whose  blood  has 
been  impoverished.  The  nnmiacal  form  is  a|)t  to  occur  im- 
mediately after  childbirlh  and  in  the  young  and  more  vigor- 
ous, whereas  the  melam-holic  type  more  often  begins  late 
(luring  lactation,  or  in  the  old  and  debilitated,  immediately 
after  labor.  The  prognosis  is  favorable  ;  the  mind  in  most 
cases  is.  in  time,  restoreil  to  a  normal  condition.  The  pa- 
tient may  wholly  escape  it  at  subsequent  childbirths  if  the 
system  be  fortified  in  advance  by  iron  to  correct  anicmia. 
and  care  be  taken  to  prevent  unusual  loss  of  blooil  during 
parturition.  Where  insanity  or  cmoliomd  excitability  are 
family  traits  mania  may  recur  with  successive  labors  despite 
all  precautionary  etforts.  The  infant,  in  most  cases. should 
be  removed.  Firm  but  gentle  control  of  the  patient  is  es- 
sential, and 'often  removal  from,  husband,  family,  and  fa- 
miliar friends  is  essential.  Rest  and  sU'cp  must  be  insured 
by  cerebral  sedatives  and  soporifics,  and  even  the  hyjioder- 
mic  injection  of  morphine  may  be  reipiired  in  olislinale  in- 
somnia and  delirium.  The  strength  nnisl  be  sustained  and 
the  blood  enriched  by  c<id-liver  oil,  quinine,  and  iron. 

Revised  by  W.  Pei-I'KR. 

Puerto  Caldlllos  :  See  Puerto  Cortkz. 


Puerto  Cabello.  pwar'to  ka'a-bal  yo :  principal  port  of 
the  state  of  Carabobo,  Venezuela  ;  on  a  small  peninsula, 
which,  with  a  chain  of  small  islands  and  reefs,  forms  a  very 
secure  and  commodious  harbor  admitting  the  largest  ves- 
sels (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  1-C).  A  railway  runs 
inland  to  the  copper  region  of  La  Luz.  The  trade  of  Cara- 
bobo, Lara,  Zamora,  and  Los  Andes  centers  here,  and  the 
port  is  the  most  important  in  Venezuela  after  La  Guayra; 
the  principal  exports  are  coffee,  cacao,  dye-woods,  liides, 
and  copper  ores.  The  port  wa.s  strongly  fortified  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  repulsed  the  attack  of  a  British 
fleet.  During  the  war  for  independence  it  changed  hands 
several  times,  and  was  the  last  stronghold  taken  from  the 
Si)aniards  in  1823.     Pop.  (1891)  10,14,1  H.  11.  S. 

Puerto  Cortez',  or  Puerto  Caballos  :  a  town  and  port 
of  Honduras;  on  a  bay  of  the  Caribbean  coast;  \'2~>  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  Tegucigalpa  (set;  nuip  of  Central  America,  ref. 
3-G).  The  bay  forms  an  excellent  harbor,  where  the  jirin- 
cipal  railway  of  Honduras  terminates.  The  town,  although 
small,  is  the  principal  northern  port  of  Honduras.  Her- 
nando Cortes  founded  here  (l.52.'5)  the  town  of  Natividad, 
subsequently  abandoned  for  Omoa.  II.  H.  S. 

Puerto  de  Santa  Maria,  pwar'to-da-saan'tiia-maii-ree'aa, 
or  simply  El  Puerto  :  town  ;  in  the  province  of  Cailiz, 
Spain  ;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalele  in  tht^  May  of  Ca<liz; 
22  miles  by  rail  N.  E.  of  Cadiz  (see  map  of  S|>ain.  ref.  20-1)). 
It  is  a  haiKlsome  and  well-l)uilt  town,  surroimdcd  with  fine 
promenades,  and  in  conimuuication  with  the  great  connner- 
cial  centers,  as  it  is  the  principal  place  for  the  exportation 
of  sherry  wine.  Leather,  soap,  hats,  brandy,  and  liqueurs 
are  manufactured,  and  in  Jtav  of  each  vejir  an  important 
bull-fight  takes  place  here.     Pop.  (1887)  20,590. 

Puerto  Lamar  :  See  Cobija. 

Pner'to  Prin'eipe  :  a  town  ne.ar  the  center  of  the  island 
of  Cuba;  45  miles  by  rail  W.  S.  W.  from  its  port  of  Nuevi- 
tas,  on  the  northern  coast  (see  map  of  West  Indies,  ref. 
4-D).  It  is  the  third  city  of  the  island  in  size,  is  the  center 
of  a  rich  agricultural  and  grazingdistrict,  and  exports  sugar, 
hides,  cattle,  etc.  It  was  originally  founded  in  1514  on  the 
site  of  an  Indian  village  near  the  coast,  but  was  sulise(|ueul- 
ly  moved  inland.  Pop.  wilh  the  district  (1892).  4G.641 :  of 
the  city  proper,  about  28,000.  H.  II.  S. 

Puerto  Rieo,  pwar'to  ree  kij,  or  Porto  Rieo,  pdr'to  ree  ko : 
an  island  of  the  West  Indies,  belonging  to  Spain  ;  separated 
from  Santo  Domingo  on  the  W.  by  the  Mona  Passage,  and 
having  the  Virgin  islands  on  the  E. ;  area,  3..530  so.  miles, 
and  its  dependencies,  the  small  islaiuls  of  Mona,  Culebra, 
etc.,  aggregate  184  miles  more.  A  low  range  of  moun- 
tains, the  Sierra  Cayey,  traverses  it  from  E.  to  W..  and  nu- 
merous branches  separate  fertile  and  well-watered  valleys  ; 
near  the  coasts  there  are  eipially  ferlile  plains  of  consider- 
able extent.  The  highest  peak,  jit.  Yunquc,  near  the  north- 
east end,  is  3,688  feet  above  the  sea.  There  are  no  volcanoes, 
and  few  severe  eartlujuakes  have  been  felt.  The  climate 
compares  favorably  with  that  of  any  other  of  the  West 
Indies  ;  foreigners  easily  become  acclimated  ;  the  heat,  even 
in  the  summer  months,  is  seldom  severe,  and  almost  the 
only  drawbacks  are  the  hurricanes  which  s(Uiietinics  blow 
between  ,luly  and  October.  Nearly  the  whole  surface  is 
under  cultivation,  forest  being  restricted  to  a  few  mountain 
sides.  The  principal  products  are  sugar,  coffee,  and  tobacco 
for  exportation,  and  maize,  mainly  for  home  consum[)tion  ; 
the  grazing  industry  is  considerable,  and  hides  are  ex|iorled. 
ThiTC  are  no  minerals  of  imporlaiuo.  The  exports  in  1887 
were  valued  at  !*U).181,2!(1.  the  T.  S.  taking  more  than  any 
other  country;  imports,  .^10, 198,006,  mainly  from  Great 
Britain,  Spain,  the  U.  S..  France,  and  Germany.  A  railway 
system  to  girdle  the  island  is  projected  and  partly  com- 
pleted, and  there  is  a  good  telegraph  service.  Puerto  Rico 
is  one  of  the  most  thickly  poiiulated  regions  of  the  New 
World.  In  1887  it  had  807.708  inhabitants,  or  about  216  to 
the  square  mile:  the  proportion  of  Negroes  and  mulaltoes  is 
less  than  in  most  of  the  other  islands.  With  its  dependen- 
cies it  has  formed  a  province  of  Spain  since  1870.  The  ofTi- 
eial  cliicf  is  a  governor  chosen  by  the  crown.  Spanish  is 
the  common  language,  and  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are 
Koinan  Catholics ;  education  is  somewhat  backward.  The 
island  was  iliscovereil  by  Columbus  in  1493.  and  was  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards  under  Poiue  de  Leon  1.509-18; 
(luring  this  period  nearly  the  whole  n.-ilive  population  was 
exterminated.  It  has  since  been  held  bv  Spain.  Slavery 
was  abolished  in  1873.  H'  khi  i;t  II,  Smith. 


852 


PUEYRRBDON 


Pneyrredon,  pwa-fe-ra-don',  Juan  Maktin  :  general 
and  politician ;  b.  at  Buenos  Ayres  about  1780.  He  early 
supported  the  patriot  cause,  and,  after  the  first  period  of 
confusion,  was  chosen  supreme  director  of  the  united  prov- 
inces of  La  Plata  July  9,  1816.  Under  him  the  republicans 
of  the  south  first  acquired  cohesion,  and  his  efficient  sup- 
port of  San  Martin  resulted  in  the  independence  of  Chili. 
Puevrredon  resigned  in  June,  1S19,  and  thereafter  took  lit- 
tle part  in  politics.     D.  near  Buenos  Ayres  about  1845. 

H.  H.  S. 

Pufeiidorf,  Samuel.  Baron  von  :  jurist  and  historian  ;  b. 
near  Chemnitz,  Saxonv.  Jan.  8.  1633 ;  son  of  a  Lutheran 
clersvman;  studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  public  law  at  Jena, 
and"  in  16.58,  after  a  short  residence  and  imprisonment  in 
Denmark,  published  anonymously  at  Geneva  Elementa  Ju- 
risprudent im  Unii'ersaiis ;  in  1661  became  Professor  of  the 
Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations  at  Heidelberg ;  in  1667  pub- 
lished De  Statu  Imperii  Gerinanici.  denouncing  the  liouse 
of  Austria  and  exposing  the  inherent  weakness  of  the  holy 
empire  :  in  1670  accei)ted  the  professorship  of  law  at  Lund, 
and  in  1673  published  De  Jure  Naturie  et  Gentium  (Of  the 
Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations).  Although  in  this  work 
there  is  much  that  is  commonplace,  it  marks  an  epoch  in 
legal  literature,  being  the  first  to  give  a  systematic  treat- 
ment to  the  subject-matter  contained  in  it.  He  followed 
largely,  but  not  servilely,  the  doctrines  of  Grotius,  and  sup- 
plemented them  with  his  own  ideas  and  with  theories  de- 
rived from  the  works  of  Hobbes,  with  whom  he  differed  on 
many  points.  In  1677  he  went  to  Stockholm  as  royal  his- 
toriographer and  remained  there  till  1688,  when  he  entered 
the  service  of  Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Brandenburg. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  historical  works  on  Swedish  and 
Prussian  affairs  which  in  general  are  reliable,  but  are  very 
tedious  reading.     D.  in  Berlin,  Oct.  36.  1694. 

P.  Sturges  Allen. 

Puff-adder:  a  deadly  serpent  (Clolho  arietans)  of  South 
Africa,  deriving  its  popular  name  from  its  habit  of  puffing 
up  the  neck  when  irritated.  It  is  very  large  and  thick,  and 
is  ordinarily  slow,  but  can  move  very  quickly  when  angered. 
There  is  no  known  remedy  for  its  bite. 

Puff-balls :  saprophytic  plants  of  the  family  Lycoper- 
dacem  and  order  Gasternmi/cetem,  in  which  the  dust-like 
spores  escape  in  a  cloud  when  the  ripe  spore-fruit  is  sudden- 
ly compressed.  They  grow  on  the  ground  or  on  decaying 
stumps,  logs,  etc..  and  are  abundant  in  all  temperate  and 
warm  climates. 

The  proper  plant  of  a  puff-ball  consists  of  a  mass  of  white 
branching  threads  (often  called  the  mycelium)  which  creep 
through  the  soil  or  decaying  matter,  gathering  food  and 
moisture  for  its  nourishment.  After  a  time  there  appear 
upon  the  plant  at  various  points  small  rounded  bodies,  the 
young  spore-fruits,  consisting  of  compacted  threads.  These 
bodies  grow  rapidly,  and  eventually  emerge  from  the  ground. 
When  young  there  is  little  differentiation  in  the  tissues  of 
the  spore-fruits,  but  as  they  grow  the  outer  layers  become 
modified  as  a  boundary  tissue  {peridium),  more  or  less  sepa- 
rable into  an  outer  and  an  inner  stratum,  while  the  interior 
differentiates  into  (1)  a  sterile  and  (3)  a  spore-bearing  por- 
tion (gleba),  the  former  constituting  the  base  or  suiiporting 
part  of  the  spoi'e-fruit,  while  the  latter  fills  the  upper,  usu- 
ally enlarged  part. 

The  spore-bearing  tissue  is  penetrated  by  numerous  nar- 
row, tortuous  passages  lined  with  perpendicularly  placed 
cells  (the  basidia),  each  of  which  produces  several  spores. 
The  young  basidia  are  smooth,  but  protrusions  appear  upon 
them  later,  grow  out,  become  elongated,  and  finally  form 
spores  by  enlargement  at  the  distal  end.  Thus  it  follows 
that  the  tortuous  passages  above  mentioned  contain  myriads 
of  spores.  When  ripe  these  are  set  free  by  the  deliquescence 
of  most  of  the  spore-bearing  tissue  and  the  evaporation  of 
the  surplus  moist  ure.  Certain  thick-walled  threads  do  not 
deliquesce,  and  are  known  collectively  as  the  "  capillitium." 
The  peridium  now  breaks  irregularly,  or  in  some  species 
more  or  less  regularly,  allowing  the  spores  to  escape  and  be 
carried  away  by  the  wind. 

The  more  common  puff-balls  of  North  America  may  be 
arranged  under  several  genera  as  follows  : 

1.  Ueiister.  the  earth-.-st ars.  in  which  the  outer  peridium 
splits  stellately,  becoming  n-llexeil  away  from  the  thin  per- 
sistent inner  one.  Of  the  sixty-eight  known  species,  many 
have  a  wide  distribution,  while  others  appear  to  be  re- 
stricted to  particular  regions.  Thus  G .  naccatus  (Fig.  1)  oc- 
curs in   North   and  South  Anu'rica,  the'Kast  Indies,  and 


PUFF-BALLS 

Australia.    G.fimhriatus  is  found  throughout  Europe,  North 
and  South  America,  the   West   Indies,  South  Africa,  and 


Fig.  l.—Geaster  saccatus.     a,  before,  and  b,  after  the  rupture  of  the 
outer  peridium.    Slightly  reduced. 

Australia.     G.  hygrometricus  (Pig.  2)  appears  to  be  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.    The  segments  of  its  outer  peridium 


Fig.   2. — Geaster    hygrometricus.     a,    when   moist ;    b,    when    dry. 
Slightly  reduced. 

are  strongly  hygrometric,  opening  when  moist,  and  becom- 
ing infiexed  when  dry.  On  account  of  some  structural 
peculiarities,  it  is  regarded  by  Morgan  as  the  type  of  a  sepa- 
rate genus,  Astraus. 

2.  Tylosfoma,  the  stalked  puff-balls,  in  which  at  the  ma- 
turity of  the  spore-fruit  its  sterile  base  rapidly  elongates 
into  a  st.alk.  About  twenty-five  species  of  these  curious 
plants  are  known.  They  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
especially  in  dry  and  sandy  regions.  One  of  the  most 
widely  distributed  species  is  T.  mammosum  (Fig.  3,  a), 
whicli  occurs  in  Siberia,  Europe,  North  America,  and  Aus- 
tralia. T.  fimbriafiim,  another  common  species,  occurs  in 
Europe  and  Australia  also.  T.  campestre  (Pig.  3.  b)  and  2'. 
meyeniamim  (Fig.  3,  c)    are  known  only  from  the  Rocky 


CL 


Fig.  3,— a,  Tylostoma  mammositm  ;  6,  T.  campestre  ;  c,  T.  meyeni- 
anum.    All  two-thirds  natural  size. 

Jlountains  and  adjacent  regions,  the  latter  ranging  south- 
ward to  Peru. 

3.  Cnlrntia,  the  big  puff-balls,  in  which  the  spores  escape 
by  the  irregular  rupture  of  the  peridium  of  the  large  spore- 
fruit,  the  gleba  soon  breaking  up  entirely.  When  young 
and  perfectly  fresh  they  are  edible  and  nutritious. 

(.)ne  of  tlie  most  common  of  tlie  big  |>ufl-balls  is  C. 
maxima,  which  is  globular  or  nearly  so,  white,  and  from  6 
inches  to  a  foot  in  diameter.  Occasionally  it  attains  an 
enormous  size  ;  one  found  in  Ohio  was  20  inches  in  diame- 
ter and  weighed  173  lb.  It  is  found  in  gras.sy  fields  in  Eu- 
rope, Asia,  and  North  America.  Another  common  species, 
is  C.  craniiformis  (Pig.  4),  which  is  much  like  the  preceding, 
but  smaller,  and  with  a  more  distinct  sterile  base. 


PUFF-BALLS 


PUGATCHEFP 


853 


4.  Lycoperdon,  the  common  puff-balls,  in  which  tlie 
spores  escape  from  the  small  spore-fruit  by  a  regular  mouth 
at  the  top. 

More  llian  100  species  are  known  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.     Morgan  Jescribes  Ihirly-one  species  found  in  North 

America,  some  of 
which  are  very 
pretty  —  e.  g.  L. 
echinafiim  (Pig. 
5) — wlien  young. 
L.  pin'furme  is 
found  in  clusters 
on  old  logs  and 
.stumps,  and  is  of 
a  rich  brown. 

5.  Bovitita,  the 
little  pulT- balls, 
in  which  the  ster- 
ile base  of  the 
small  spore-fniit 
is  very  small  or 
wanting  and  the 
inner  peridium 
thin  and  papery. 

Among  species 
indigenous  to  the 
U.  S.  are  B.  ni- 
grescenii  and  B. 
plumbea,  common  in  pastures  and  meadows  across  the  con- 
tinent.    B.  minor  (Fig.  6),  from  Ohio  and  Nebraska,  is  a 

good  representative  of  the 
genus.  Morgan  has  sepa- 
rated several  species  of  Bo- 
t'iiila  and  placed  them  in 
the  new  genus  Cdta.itoma 
because  of  the  remarkable 
fact  tluit  the  mouth  by 
which  the  spores  escape  is 
below,  as  shown  in  Fig.  7. 
The  outer  peridium  si)lits 
transversely,  the  lower  part 


no.  i.—Calvatia  craniiformia,  reduced. 


Fia.  5. — Lycoperdon  echinatumt 
slightly  reduced. 


Fio.  6. 


-Bavista  iiiinor^  about 
uatural  size. 


adhering  to  the  earth,  while  the  remainder,  with  the  at- 
tached inner  peridium  and  its  contents,  blows  away,  thus 
scattering  the  spores. 

6.  Mycenaxtrum.  the  hard  puff-balls,  are  similar  to  Bo- 
vista,  but  are  of  larger  size  and  have  a  thick  and  hard  inner 

peridium.  M.  spi- 
nulomim  is  2  to  4 
inches  in  diameter, 
and  grows  on  sandy 
soil  upon  the  prairies 
and  Great  I'lains. 

The  pulT-lialls  are 
closely  allied  to 
three  other  families 
of  fungi,  and  with 
them  constitute  the 
order  Oastenmii/ce- 
tecf.  known  in  a  gen- 
eral way  as  the  Puff- 
ball  order.  The  four 
families  may  be 
briefly  characterized 
as  follows : 

Jfymenof/nxtrncerr, 
the  subterranean 
higher  family. — 
Spore-fruit  subterranean  ;  gleba  fleshy,  persistent ;  peridium 
single,  not  separating.  In  many  ways  these  fungi  remind 
one  of  the  subterranean  sac-fungi  (Tubernidi-CF). 

LycopenhiCfii'.lUr  puff-balls.— Spore-fruit  emerging  from 
the  ground  ;  gleba  spongy,  deliquescing,  and  tlien  powdery  ; 


Fig.  7. 


-Catastoma  circumscissum,  slightly 
reduced. 


peridium  mostly  double,  separating  regularly  or  irregu- 
larly. 

iV  idulariacea,  the  bird's-nest  fungi. — Spore-fruit  external, 
cup-shaped :  gleba  spongy,  deliquescing,  and  leaving  egg- 
like "  peridiola."  These  small  fungi  are  common  on  decay- 
ing wood. 

Pliulloideir,  the  stink-horn  fungi. — Spore-fruit  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground ;  gleba  fleshy,  deliijuescing  into  a  fetid 
jelly,  then  emerging  from  the  peridium  by  the  elongation 
of  the  sterile  base. 

LrrKK.\TURE. — P.  A.  Sagardo,  SijUoge  Funj/orum,  vol.  vii. 
(lyH8) ;  A.  P.  Morgan,  \nrlli  Amtricdu  Funyi.  in  Journal 
of  the.  Cinciunaii  Society  of  Satural  History  (1889  to  1893) ; 
A.  de  Hary,  Comparative  Morphology  of  the  Fungi,  Myceto- 
zoa  and  Bacteria  (1887).  Cuakles  E.  Bessey. 

I'lilT-bird:  any  member  of  the  Bucconidie,  a  family  of 
small  liinls  having  large  heads  and  stout  bills,  peculiar  to 
the  tropical  or  warmer  regions  of  America.  They  are  mostly 
of  (lull  plumage  and  equally  dull  disposition,  sitting  motion- 
less for  a  long  time  with  their  leathers  erected,  looking  as  if 
they  were  pulled  up,  whence  the  popular  name.     P.  A.  L. 

Puffer  (ill  auctioning):  See  Bv-bidding. 

Puffin:  any  bird  of  the  auk  family  (Alridcp,  see  Auk), 
belonging  to  the  genera  Fratereula  and  Liinda,  which  are 
characteri/ed  by  high,  coni[jressed,  highly  colored  bills. 
The  best-known  species  is  the  common  puflin.  coulterneb,  or 
sea-parrot  (Fratereula  arcfica),  found  abundantly  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic.  Tliis  bird  is  about  a  foot  long,  black 
above,  white  below,  with  a  gray  face  and  black  collar  about 
the  neck.  The  bill  is  red  with  yellow  and  liluish  markings, 
and  is  in  great  part  shed  and  renewed  annually,  together 
with  a  little  excrescence  on  either  upper  eyelid.  In  all, 
nine  pieces  are  shed,  leaving  the  bill  of  the  adult  in  winter 
looking  Uke  that  of  a  young  bird.    The  Arctic  puflin  breeds 


The  putlln. 

in  burrows  and  lays  a  single  white  egg  with  a  few  faint  gray 
markings  at  the  large  end.  The  nestlings  are  clad  in  thick 
down.  A  closely  related  species  (Fratereula  corniculata), 
known  as  the  horned  puflin,  from  the  rather  long  outgrowth 
on  the  iqiper  evelids.  oeeui-s  in  the  North  Pacific,  as  does 
also  the  tutted  puffin  (Lunda  cirrhata),  a  rather  larger  bird 
with  a  long  tuft  of  yellowish  feathers  curving  backward  from 
above  either  eve.  Puflins  swim  and  dive  well  anil  fly  rapid- 
ly though  hcavilv.  They  feed  on  fish  and  go  long  distances 
to  catch  food  for  their  young.  The  flesh  of  the  various  spe- 
cies is  much  used  for' food,  and  tastes  much  better  than 
might  be  supposed  from  their  fishy  diet.         F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pupr :  a  small,  short-haired,  short-muzzled  breed  of  dogs, 
represented  bv  at  least  three  varieties,  probably  derived 
fnun  the  bulldog.  The  head  shouhl  be  ma.ssive,  forehead 
wrinkled,  eyes  large  and  prominent,  body  short  and  wide, 
tail  tightly 'curled.  Color  fawn  with  black  muzzle  and  a 
dark  sjiot'on  forehead,  and  dark  line  down  the  back.  The 
pug  is  a  stupid  but  good-natured  dog.  P.  A.  L. 

Pugatelieff',  Yemei.yan:  ndventurer;  b.  in  1720  at  Simo- 
weisk,  a  village  on  the  Don,  in  the  territory  of  the  Cossacks; 
grew  uj)  as  a  member  of  a  band  of  robbers;  served  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  first  in  the  Ifussian,  then  in  the  Prussian, 
and  at  last  in  the  Austrian  army,  and  was  imprisoned  for 


854 


PU6ET 


PULASKI 


some  time  after  his  return  to  Russia  for  attempts  at  sedition. 
In  1770  lie  went  to  Poland,  and  there  joined  the  Raskolniks 
((?.  v.).  lie  resembled  the  murdered  Emperor  Peter  III.,  and 
in  1773,  after  a  rumor  had  been  spread  that  Peter  was  not 
dead,  Pugatehetf  presented  himself  as  the  monarch,  and 
was  joined  by  a  few  other  adventurers.  The  Raskolniks 
acknowledged  him,  and  the  peasantry  rose  in  his  favor ;  he 
occupied  several  forts  on  the  Ural  and  Don ;  some  Tartar 
and  Finnish  tribes  joined  him,  and  he  was  on  his  march  to 
Moscow  with  a  considerable  army  when  he  was  sold  by  his 
comrades  for  100,000  rubles  to  Suwarow.  He  was  executed 
at  Moscow  Jan.  10,  1775. 

Pilget,  pil'zha'.  Pierre  :  painter,  sculptor,  and  architect ; 
b.  at  Chateau-Foilet.  near  Marseilles,  France,  Oct.  31,  1633. 
At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  became  the  pupil  of  a  wood-carver 
and  builder  of  galleys  named  Romano.  In  163!)  he  found 
his  way  to  Florence,  where  he  workeil  as  a  carver  in  wood, 
and  then  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  painting.  In  l(jo3 
he  returned  to  Marseilles,  where  he  built  a  rich  galley  for 
the  Queen  of  France,  and  then  devoted  himself  to  painting. 
In  16.56  he  finished  the  doorway  and  balcony  of  the  hotel  de 
ville  of  Toulon,  and  later  designed  the  new  hotel  de  ville 
at  Marseilles.  He  was  employed  by  Fouquet,  the  sujierin- 
tendent  of  the  Treasury,  and  went  to  Genoa  on  Fou(|uet"s 
business,  where  he  remained  after  his  patron's  fall  and  de- 
signed palaces  and  produced  important  works  in  sculpture 
and  painting.  Colbert  invited  him  to  return  to  France  and 
gave  him  employment  at  Toulon  in  the  artistic  decoration 
of  Government  ships,  then  an  important  branch  of  fine  and 
decorative  art.  About  1670  he  resigned  this  post,  settled  in 
Marseilles,  and  occupied  himself  in  architectural  and  other 
art  works  there,  and  in  Toulon  and  other  cities.  D.  at  Mar- 
seilles 1694.  In  the  Louvre  Museum  one  hall  is  named  after" 
Puget  and  contains  his  sculptures  Hercules  Reposing,  I'er- 
seus  and  Andromeda,  Milo  of  Vrolona,  and  Alexander  and 
Diogenes.  In  Marseilles  is  the  important  bas-relief,  the 
Plague  at  3Iilan.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Puget,  pyu'jft,  Sound  :  an  arm  of  the  Pacific  Ocean ; 
extending  S.  from  the  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  in  the  State 
of  Washington,  and  between  the  Coast  Range  of  mountains 
on  the  E.  and  the  Olympic  Mountains  on  the  VV.  It  is  |>er- 
haps  the  most  beautiful  sheet  of  water  in  the  world;  is 
about  100  miles  long,  has  a  coast-line  of  1,600  miles,  and  an 
area  of  3,000  sq.  miles ;  has  very  many  bays,  coves,  islands, 
channels,  and  inlets ;  is  very  deep  even  abreast  of  the  shores, 
and  forms  of  itself  a  magnificent  harbor,  though  lacking  in 
good  anchorages  on  account  of  its  depth.  The  tide  varies 
from  9  feet  at  the  N.  to  15  in  the  narrow  inlets  at  the  ex- 
treme S.  It  formerly  extended  much  farther  S.  (to  the  Wil- 
lamette valley),  and  its  regression  has  left  a  large  area  of 
low-lying,  fertile  land  between  it  and  the  Columbia  river. 
It  has  also  a  large  area  of  tidal  lands  which  can  be  reclaimed 
at  small  expense.  Along  its  shores  lie  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and 
Olympia,  with  many  other  rapidly  growing  places.  The 
shores  were  originally  covered  with  forests  of  pines,  firs,  and 
cedars — the  finest  in  the  U.  S.  These  have  since  been  ex- 
tensively felled,  and  lumber  has  formed  the  principal  inter- 
est, but  the  timber  resources  are  still  very  large.  The  neigh- 
boring country  has  fine  agricultural  resources  and  large 
supplies  of  coal  and  other  minerals  exist  in  the  mountains. 
Settlement  and  development  have  proceeded  with  great  ra- 
pidity. The  entrance  to  the  sound  is  dominated  by  the 
British  naval  establishment  of  Esquiniault.  The  Olympic 
peninsula  is  but  little  explored.  M.  W.  Hahrinoton. 

Pugin,  piVzhaii',  Augustus:  architectural  draughtsman; 
b.  in  Normandy  in  1763;  is  known  by  works  illustrating 
medieval  architecture— .4 /v7i (7 ('(;/»)•((/  Antiquifies  of  Nor- 
mandy, Specimens  of  Gothic  Arcliitectnre  in  Em/land, 
Architectural  Illustrations  nf_  the  Buildings  of  London, 
Gothic  Ornaments  from  Buildings  in  England  and  France. 
These  appeared  during  the  years'  1831-40,  and  were  among 
the  important  ai<is  to  the  new  study  of  mediaeval  arclKcof- 
ogy.     I),  in  England,  Dec.  19,  1833. 

Revised  by  Russell  Sturgis. 

Pu'giii.  Augustus  N'ortiimore  Welbv  :  architect  and 
architectural  designer  and  draughtsman ;  b.  in  London, 
P^ngland,  Mar.  1,  1813;  .sun  „f  Augustus  Pugin,  whose  love 
for  mediicval  art  he  inherited.  Having  been  converted  to 
Roman  Catholicism,  he  devoted  himself  with  zeal  to  the  re- 
vival of  ecclesiastical  architecture  in  England.  His  influ- 
ence was  great  in  fostering  a  taste  foi-  Gothic  forms  in  archi- 
tecture aiwl  ornament.  He  was  a  skillful  etcher,  and  pro- 
duced several  worlds  which  he  illustrated  in  this  way.     His 


principal  works  are  Contrasts,  or  a  Parallel  betiveen  the 
Architecture  of  the  Fifteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries, 
E.rarnples  of  Gothic  Architecture,  Principles  of  Pointed  or 
Christian  Architecture,  An  Apology  for  the  Revival  of 
Gothic  Arcliitecture,  and  Glossary  of  Ecclesiastical  Orna- 
ment.    D.  at  liamsgate,  Sept.  14,  1858. 

Pug'iu,  Edward  Welbv  :  architect ;  son  of  Augustus  N. 
W.  Pugin ;  b.  in  England,  Mar.  11,  1834 ;  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen undertook  the  completion  of  his  father's  designs  and 
contracts;  a  devoted  Roman  Catholic,  designed  the  cathedral 
at  Queenstown ;  built  more  than  100  churches,  besides  or- 
phanages, colleges,  priories,  etc. ;  restored  the  archiepiscopal 
palace  at  Mayfield  :  finished  a  superb  Gothic  structure  begun 
by  his  father  at  Scarisbrook  Hall.  I).  June  5,  1875. 
^  Pngwash  :  a  seaport  in  Cumberland  co..  Nova  Scotia,  on 
Northumberland  Strait.  50  miles  W.  of  Pictou  (see  map  of 
Quebec,  ref.  3-K).  It  has  quarries  of  gypsum,  limestone, 
and  sandstone.  Deals  are  largely  shipped  to  Great  Britain. 
Pujet,  Pierre  :  See  Puget. 

Pujmiaii  Indians  [Pvjunan  is  from  Pusuna,  the  name 
of  a  small  band  formerly  near  the  mouth  of  American  river, 
Sacramento  co.,  C'al.] :  a  linguistic  stock  of  Indians  com- 
prising the  Maidu  and  Nishinani  divisions,  with  their  nu- 
merous sub-tribes,  who  occupied  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
Sacramento  in  California,  beginning  some  80  or  100  miles 
from  its  mouth  and  extending  northward  to  within  a  short 
distance  of  Pit  river.  Upon  the  E.  they  reached  nearly  to 
the  border  of  the  State. 

Maidu  (signifying  man,  Indian)  is  a  collective  name 
given  to  a  large  number  of  tribes  or  villages  formerly  oc- 
cupying the  teri'itory  between  Deer  creek,  Lassen  butte, 
and  Honey  Lake  on  the  N.,  Cosunines  river  on  the  S.,  the 
Sacramento,  and  in  places  poinj;s  W.  of  the  Sacramento,  on 
the  W.,  and  the  summit  line  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  on  the  E. 
The  Maidu  correspond  to  the  usual  type  of  the  California 
Indian,  being  naturally  i)eaceable,  inoffensive,  and  indolent. 
They  are  described  as  extremely  nomadic  within  a  very 
limited  area.     The  IMaiilu  dialect  is  homogeneous. 

The  customs  of  the  Nisliinam,  who  live  S.  of  the  Jlaidu, 
differ  considerably  from  those  of  the  JIaidu  tribes,  as  also 
does  their  language.  The  tribal  organization  of  the  Maidu 
a]ipears  to  be  of  an  extremely  loose  character  even  for  Ind- 
ians. Tlie  tribal-village  organization  of  the  Nisliinam  an- 
swered to  the  tribal  system  of  more  advanced  Indians,  as 
is  shown  by  the  strictness  obtaining  with  regard  to  the 
ownership  of  land.  Their  boundaries  were  defined  with 
great  precision  by  jihysical  features,  such  as  springs,  hills, 
and  valleys.  They  did  not  ordinarily  destroy  a  member  of 
another  tribe  for  trespassing  on  their  territory,  but  if  he 
caught  fish  or  ga)ne  or  gathered  acorns  on  it  they  demanded 
reparation  in  kind. 

Few  representatives  of  the  tribes  survive,  and  these  are 
scattered.  See  Stephen  Powers,  Tribes  of  California (Cont. 
JV.  A.  Ethnology,  iii.,  pp.  383-345,  Washington,  1877);  H.  H. 
Bancroft,  History  of  California  (vols,  i.-vii.,  San  BYancisco, 
1884-90).     See  also  Indians  of  North  America. 

F.  W.  Hodge. 

Puklitu :  See  Afghan  Language  and  Literature. 

Pulaski:  town;  capital  of  Giles  co.,  Tenn. ;  on  the 
Louisv.  and  Nashv.  Railroad ;  33  miles  S.  of  Columbia,  81 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  Nashville  (for  location,  see  map  of  Ten- 
nessee, ref.  7-F).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising 
region,  has  flour  and  planing  mills,  and  contains  3  national 
banks  with  combined  capital  of  f  130,000,  a  State  bank  with 
capital  of  $38,600,  Martin  Female  College,  and  3  weekly 
newspapers.     Pop.  (1880)  3,089  ;  (1890)  3,374. 

Pulaski,  Casimir,  Count  (called  in  Polish  Kazimierz  Pu- 
LAWSKi):  soldier;  b.  in  Lithuania,  ]\Iar.  4,  1748;  son  of 
Count  Joseph  Pulaski,  who  in  1768  formed  the  Confedera- 
tion of  Bar  for  the  preservation  of  the  liberties  of  Poland ; 
was  educated  for  the  law;  saw  some  military  service  under 
Charles,  Duke  of  Courland,  and  in  1769  joined  his  father 
and  two  brothers  in  tlie  national  struggle  against  the  des- 
potism of  King  Stanislaus  Augustus.  His  father  and 
brothers  having  perished  in  the  war,  Casimir  was  for  some 
time  commander  of  the  insui'gents,  and  made  a  bold  at- 
tempt to  seize  the  king  in  Warsaw.  Being  outlawed  on  the 
failure  of  this  attenqit,  he  escaped  to  Turkey  1773;  par- 
ticipated in  a  war  against  Russia ;  proceeded  to  France  in 
1775,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Franklin,  and  of- 
fered his  services  to  the  cause  of  American  independence. 
Arriving  at  Philadelphia  in  the  summer  of  1777,  he  joined 


IT  LCI 


PULSE 


855 


the  arinr  as  a  volunteer ;  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  liniudywine,  and  four  days  later  (Sept.  lo)  was  appointed 
by  Congress  bripuiier-gencral,  and  given  eonmiand  of  the 
cavalry.  lie  look  part  in  the  battle  of  (Tcrnianlown,  and  in 
Mar..  i7T8,  having  resigned  his  conuiumd.die  formed  at  Val- 
ley Korge  an  independent  eorps  of  lightliorse  and  infantry 
called  I'ulaski's  Legion,  ollicered  eliietly  by  foreigners.  By 
a  surprise  at  Little  Egg  Harbor,  N.  .J.,  a  large  part  of  his 
infantry  were  bayoneted,  but  the  legion  was  again  recruited 
to  :i">0  men.  In  Feb.,  ITT'J,  he  set  out  for  the  South  ;  reached 
Charleston  May  8  ;  made  a  vigorous  but  unsucces.sful  attack 
upon  the  British  advance  guard  May  11;  accompanied 
Count  d'Estaing  to  the  siege  of  Savannah,  where  he  was 
given  the  command  of  the  Frcnc-h  and  .\merican  cavalry; 
was  mortally  wounded  in  the  assault  of  Oct.  !);  was  carried 
on  board  the  IT.  S.  brig  Wasp  in  Savannah,  where  he  died 
Oct.  11,  1779.  He  was  buried  at  sea.  A  monument  to  his 
memory  was  erected  by  the  citizens  of  Savannah,  and  the 
corner-stone  laid  by  La  Fayette  in  1825.  See  his  Lift:  in 
Sparks's  American  Biography,  2d  series,  vol.  iv. 

Puloi,  pool'che'e,  LuKii  :  poet ;  b.  in  Florence,  Italv,  Aug. 
1.5,  14:i2  ;  d.  Oct.,  1484,  probably  at  Padua.  His  was  a  poetic 
family,  his  two  brothers,  Luea  and  Bernardo,  and  the  hit- 
ter's wife,  Antonia,  having  all  made  some  name  in  letters. 
His  relations  with  the  .Medici  family  were  clo.se,  Cosimoand 
Piero  showing  him  much  favor,  while  his  Lettere  a  Jjorenzo 
il  Magnifico  (edited  by  S.  Bongi.  Lucca,  1886)  imply  con- 
siderable intimacy  between  the  two  men.  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  11  Murgante  (1st  ed.,  23  cantos,  1482),  or,  as  it 
came  to  be  called  after  the  second  and  larger  edition  had 
appeariMl,  11  Morgante  Maggiore  (28  cantos,  Florence,  1483. 
See  Italun"  Litekaturk.)  There  is  a  translation  of  the 
poem  by  Byron.  Besides  this,  Pulci  left  several  le.sser 
works,  the  most  important,  a  so-called  Confessione,  satiric 
in  character.  See  J.  Hiihscher,  Orlando,  Die  Vorlage  zu 
I'liki'n  Morgante  (Marburg,  188(i).  LucY  A.  Patox. 

Pillkowa :  village  near  St.  Petersburg,  Russia.  Ten  miles 
N.  is  the  famous  N'icdiolas  Central  Observatorv  (lat.  .59'  46' 
18"  N.,  Ion.  30"  19' 40'  E.),  founded  by  the  Czar  Nicholas 
(1838-39).  The  staff  consists  of  a  director  and  four  astrono- 
mers besides  nssistant.s,  etc.  The  Pullcowa  Observations  are 
published  by  the  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg.  One  of  the 
largest,  telesco[](>s  in  the  world,  a  30-inch  refractor,  was 
erected  here  in  1882. 

Pullman,  .Tamf.s  Mixto.v,  D.  D. :  clergyman;  b.  Aug.  21, 
1836,  at  Portland,  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y. ;  graduated  at  St. 
Lawrence  Divinity  School  in  1860;  pastor  of  First  Univer- 
salist  i)arish  of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  same  year;  ordained  in  1862  ;  jiiis- 
tor  of  the  Church  of  Our  Saviour,  New  York  city,  from  1867 
until  early  in  188.5,  when  he  became  pastor  of  First  Univer- 
salist  Society  of  Lynn,  Mass.  He  organized  the  Young 
Jlen's  Universalist  Association  of  the  City  of  New  York  in 
1869 ;  was  secretary  of  the  General  ('(jnvention  of  Universal- 
ists  1868-77;  was  chairman  of  the  jjublication  board  of  the 
New  York  State  convention  of  Univer.salists,  having  in  charge 
The  Christian  Leader  1869-73;  received  the  degree  of  Doc- 
tor of  Divinity  from  the  St.  Lawrence  I'nivcrsity  in  1878; 
founded  the  Cliildrcn's  Country  Week  charity  in  1882. 

Piilmoiiariil:  See  Ijf.vowoRT. 

Pulmona'ta.  "r  Piilnionircra  [Pulmonifera  is  from 
\ai\.  p\tlino,  lung  +  firre,  to  bear]:  an  order  of  tJasteropod 
Mollusca  in  which  gills  are  absent,  the  animal  breathing  air 
by  means  of  a  "lung"  formed  by  the  ramifications  of  the 
blood-vessels  upcm  the  surface  of  the  mantle-cavity.  It  em- 
braces the  common  snails  and  slugs,  and  all  its  members 
live  either  on  the  earth  or  in  fresh  water.  Two  sub-ordei's 
are  recognized — the  Stglomnuitophora,  in  which  the  eyes 
are  placed  u])on  the  tips  of  the  tentacles,  and  these  last  are 
capable  of  being  retracted  by  an  inversion  like  the  pushing 
in  of  the  finger  of  a  glove;  and  the  Ba-sommatopliora,  in 
which  the  eyes  are  at  the  base  of  the  non-retractile  tentacles. 
Most  prominent  of  the  first  group  is  the  family  Ilelicid(P. 
embracing  the  common  snails,  of  which  al)out  .5.000  species 
have  been  described.  Kecenl  authors  have  divided  the  prin- 
cipal genus  Helix  into  a  large  luimlier  of  so-called  genera, 
most  of  them  being  based  upon  totally  inadequate  charac- 
ters. The  snails  are  largely  vegetarians,  and  where  abun- 
dant may  cause  extensive  ravages  in  gardens,  vineyards,  etc. 
The  family  Ijimncidw  embraces  the  slugs,  in  which  the  vis- 
ceral hump  has  undergone  degeneration,  and  the  shell  has 
been  reduced  to  a  small  internal  plate.  Most  of  the  fresh- 
water snails  of  the  U.  S.  belong  to  the  LimnwidiF  of  the  sub- 


order Basommalophora.  The  Onchidiidm  embraces  some 
amphibious  forms  living  on  the  shores  of  tropical  seas.  In 
one  species  Semper  has  described  numerous  eyes  scattered 
over  the  back,  these  eyes  being  formed  like  "those  of  the 
Vertebrates.  J.  S.  Kinosley. 

Piilo-Kalaniantiii :  See  Bor.veo. 

l'iil(|iie,  |»inl  ka  [llie  Aztec  name]:  the  fermented  juice 
of  various  species  of  Agave,  but  pi'incipally  the  maguey  (^1. 
americana),  which  grows  wild  and  is  also  extensively  culti- 
vated on  the  table-lands  of  Mexico.  (See  Agavk.)  Mexicans 
consume  such  (juantities  that  special  pulque  trains  are  run 
on  the  railways  to  supply  the  city  markets.  Some  physicians 
recommend  it  for  chlorosis  and  other  disea.ses;  others  con- 
demn il  as  unwholesome.  Pulque  was  first  made  and  used 
by  the  Aztecs.  H.  J  I.  S. 

Pulsatilla :  See  Anemone. 

Pulse  [-M.  Eiig.  puis,  from  Lat.  pxils,  pultis,  pottage  of 
meal  pulse,  etc.] :  a  general  name  for  such  seeds  of  legumi- 
nous plants  as  are  used  for  human  food.  All  kinds  of  pulse 
abound  in  vegetable  caseine,  anil  all  are  highly  nutritious; 
but  as  a  rule  they  are  not  easy  of  digestion,  and  are  best 
suited  for  hard-working  men.  Beans,  peas,  and  lentils  are 
the  most  important  kinds  of  pulse. 

Pulsi'  [(with  -I-  restored  from  Lat.)  <  M.  Eng.  pous,  via 
O.  Fr.  from  Lat.  pul'sus,  pulse,  liter.,  beating,  deriv.  of 
jtel  lere,  pu/s)i>ii.  strike,  beat] :  t  he  result  of  the  blood-wave 
sent  through  the  arteries  of  the  body  by  the  ventricles  of 
the  heart.  Each  contraction  of  these  ventricles  sends  into 
the  arteries  2  to  4  oz.  of  blood,  which  entering  vessels,  al- 
ready full  but  contracted,  expands,  elongates,  and  uplifts 
them,  and  produces  a  sudden  lifting  and  impulse  on  the 
finger  applied  to  them.  This  impulse  is  equal  in  all  the 
arteries  of  equal  size  throughout  the  body,  but  the  physician 
usually  examines  it  on  the  tliumb-si<le  of  the  wrist  (in  the 
radial  artery),  because  there  the  vessel  is  near  the  surface, 
resting  on  bone,  and  its  varying  movements  can  be  best  ap- 
preciated. The  frequency  of  tlie  pulse  in  a  healthy  adult, 
at  rest,  is  72  to  75  beats  in  a  minute — in  women  a  little  more 
frequent  than  in  men ;  more  frequent  while  standing  than 
while  sitting,  least  frequent  in  the  recumbent  position.  But 
a  slow  pulse  is  sometimes  found  in  healthy,  strong  persons; 
40  or  45  is  not  a  very  uncommon  rate  ;  Heberden  and  For- 
dyce  have  found  it  as  low  as  30  and  26,  the  latter  in  one  in- 
stance no  more  than  20.  At  birth  the  normal  freiiuency  is 
140 ;  in  youth,  90  ;  and  in  old  age.  70.  Muscular  exertion 
increases  the  number  of  heart -beats  in  a  given  time  in  pro- 
portion to  its  amount  and  duration.  Certain  mental  states, 
as  surprise,  anger,  or  a  sudden  sense  of  danger,  will  produce 
great  increase  in  its  frecjuency.     Sec  Sphyomograph. 

The  pulse  in  disease  sometimes  becomes  very  frequent, 
and  sometimes  very  slow.  In  inflammation  of  the  mem- 
branes of  the  brain  in  children  it  has  been  often  found, 
toward  the  termination,  beating  at  the  rate  of  180  per  min- 
ute for  a  day  or  more  ;  it  has  sometimes  reached  200.  The 
condition  known  as  tachycardia  (sec  Heart  Disease)  not 
rarely  occa.sions  pulsations  of  250  or  300  jier  minute.  The 
latter  number  can  not  be  easily  counted  at  the  wrist ;  160  is 
often  with  difficulty  made  out;  but  the  heart-beats  can  be 
appreciated  by  the  ear  at  almost  any  rate  of  possililc  fre- 
quency, except  in  the  mere  flutter  of  some  conditions  of 
heart  disease.  In  some  states  of  disease  of  the  brain,  liver, 
and  of  the  heart  the  pulsations  are  no  more  than  40,  or  even 
30,  in  the  minute.  In  the  most  marked  cases  of  slowing  the 
rate  may  be  but  10  per  minute. 

The  pulse  may  be  small  or  full,  rajiid  or  slow,  hard  or 
soft,  quick  or  prolonged ;  or  it  may  be  irregular  in  various 
ways,  giving  a  varying  number  of  beats  in  the  different  frac- 
tions of  a  minute,  the  beats  tumultuous,  frequent,  and  slow 
alternately,  or  sometimes  double  {dicrotic).  It  is  often  inter- 
nnltent  :  that  is,  a  single  beat  is  lost.  This  occurs  both  with 
and  without  disea.se  of  the  heart ;  it  is  often  cause<l  by  the 
use  of  tobacco.  Li  some  states  of  imperfect  innervation  of 
t  he  heart  its  pulsations  cease  entirely,  to  be  resumed  after  the 
lapse  of  a  considerable  fraction  of  a  minute.  An  instrument 
has  been  invented  by  which  many  conditions  of  the  jnilse 
can  be  inscribe<i  on  paper  attached  to  a  revolving  cylinder. 
It  is  called  a  "sphygmograph."  The  study  of  the  ]iulse  by 
the  finger  or  by  the  sphygmograph  reveals  to  the  physician, 
much  more  than  the  mere  rapidity  of  the  circulation,  the  ex- 
istence of  fever,  and  the  like.  Above  all.  he  a|>preciates  the 
condition  of  the  arterial  wall  itself  and  the  general  state  of 
the  jiatient,  as  well  as  the  probable  condition  of  the  heart. 

I  enoHs  Pulse. — The  arterial  pulsation  reaches  the  very 


856 


PULSOMETER 


PUMP 


small  arteries,  but  is  lost  in  the  capillaries,  so  that  the  blood 
returns  to  the  heart  in  a  continuous,  steady  stream  ;  but  when 
the  tricuspid  valve  is  insufficient,  a  wave  of  venous  blood 
may  be  sent  back  into  the  venous  trunks  producing  a  visible 
pulsation,  mostly  in  the  veins  of  the  neck.  Such  pulsations 
will  correspond,  as  those  in  the  arteries  do,  with  the  con- 
tractions of  the  ventricles  (systole).  Hypertrophy  of  the 
right  auricle  of  the  heart  may  also  produce  venous  pulsa- 
tions. So  may  aneurism  of  the  aorta  when  it  obstructs  the 
current  of  blood  descending  through  the  vena  cava,  the  en- 
larged artery  communicating  its  pulsation  to  the  blood  in 
the  vein.  In  some  instances  of  difficult  breathing  the  veins 
of  the  neck  are  seen  to  become  distended  in  a  sort  of  wave, 
apparently  from  below,  but  really  from  above,  because  the 
outlet  is  obstructed  at  the  heart.  This  filling  occurs  in  ex- 
piration, and  the  veins  are  emptied  in  inspiration.  Though 
this  action  has  been  called  pulse  or  pulsation,  it  is  very  dif- 
erent  from  the  movement  to  which  the  term  is  commonly 
applied. 

The  Pulse  in  Animals. — Nysten  {Dictionnaire,  etc.)  states 
that  the  arterial  pulsations  in  the  horse  are  from  32  to  38  in 
the  minute;  in  the  ass,  from  45  to  48;  in  oxen  and  cows, 
35  to  42  ;  in  slieep,  70  to  77  ;  in  the  dog,  90  to  100.  These 
countings  were  made  when  the  animals  were  at  rest. 

Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Pnlsometer:  See  Pump. 

Pulteney,  pulfni,  William,  Earl  of  Bath :  statesman  ; 
b.  in  England  in  1682 ;  educated  at  Westminster  School  and 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford ;  entered  Parliament  as  a  Whig 
1705;  took  part  in  the  prosecution  of  Dr.  Sacheverell ;  de- 
fended Walpole  in  the  prosecution  made  in  1712 ;  became, 
on  the  accession  of  George  I.,  privy  councilor  and  secretary 
of  war  1714-17;  refused  a  peerage  but  accepted  an  unimpor- 
tant post  under  Walpole  in  1723 ;  went  over  to  the  oppo- 
sition 1735,  becoming  the  bitterest  political  enemy  of  his 
former  friend,  against  whom  he  wrote  several  pamphlets; 
fought  a  duel  with  Lord  Ilervey,  in  which  both  combatants 
were  wounded,  1731  ;  became  extremely  popular  as  the 
leader  of  the  general  crusade  against  Walpole  ;  associated 
with  Pope  and  the  wits  of  the  day,  who  paid  him  extrav- 
agant compliments  for  his  literary  ability ;  was  the  real 
framer  of  the  cabinet  of  1742  on  the  downfall  of  Walpole, 
though  the  Earl  of  Wilmington  was  the  ostensible  head ; 
was  created  at  this  time  Earl  of  Bath  ;  lost  much  political 
influence  by  his  transference  to  the  Upper  House  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  was  premier  for  two  days  in  Feb.,  1746,  on  the 
resignation  of  the  Pelham  ministry,  but  was  unable  to  form 
a  cabinet.  D.  in  London,  July  8,  1764.  He  was  the  author 
of  many  political  pamphlets,  and  chief  assistant  of  Boling- 
broke  in  writing  the  journal  The  Craftsman. 

Pn'ln,  or  Vegetable  Silk  :  a  richly  beautiful  fiber  pro- 
duced by  tree-ferns  of  the  genus  Cihdtium,  growing  in  the 
Malay  and  other  Pacific  islands.  The  attempt  to  manu- 
facture it  has  not  proved  successful.  It  is  a  very  useful 
styptic,  and  is  considerably  used  as  such  by  Dutch  surgeons. 

Puiiia  [  =  Peruv.]  :  the  common  name  for  Felis  con- 
color,  a  large  member  of  the  cat  family  (Felicia)  inhabit- 
ing America;  also  known  as  panther,  mountain  lion,  Uon, 
tiger,  and — in  books  at  least — as  cougar  and  catamount.  It 
is  of  a  general  reddish  gray,  or  tawny,  above,  whitish  be- 
neath, end  of  tail  dusky,  outside  of  ears  and  a  spot  on  either 
side  of  the  muzzle  black.  The  young,  two  to  five  in  num- 
ber, are  spotted.  Next  to  the  jaguar  the  puma  is  the  largest 
cat  of  the  New  World,  attaining  a  length  of  8  feet  and  a 
weight  of  200  lb.,  although  individuals  of  this  size  are  very 
rare.  Few  terrestrial  mammals  liave  a  more  extended  north 
and  south  range.  It  is  found  from  Patagonia  to  60°  N.  lat., 
from  Maine  to  California  and  throughout;  South  America  up 
to  a  height  of  9,000  feet  on  the  Andes.  Naturally  with  such 
a  range  there  are  great  variations  in  size,  color,  coat,  and  fe- 
rocity. The  puma  is  ordinarily  a  cowardly  animal,  but  when 
wounded  or  brought  to  bay  it  is  dangerous.  It  is  usually 
silent  and  the  tales  of  its"  blood-cui'dling  scream"  are  mostly 
apocryphal.  The  creature  feeds  largely  on  deer,  but  smaller 
animals  are  eaten,  even  the  Canada  porcupine.  In  South 
America  the  aguti,  capybara,  and  rhea  are  extensively  preyed 
upon,  and,  wlien  accessible,  calves,  sheep,  and  pigs.  For  a 
full  account  of  the  puma,  with  numerous  references  to  liter- 
ature on  the  subject,  see  The  Puma,  or  American  Lion,  by 
P.  W.  True,  Report  U.  S.  Nat.  Museum  (1889),  pp.  591. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Pumacag'ua,  or  Piimaealiiia.  Mateo  Garcia:  Indian 
general;   b.  near  Cuzco,  Peru,  17.>8.     He  was  the  chief  of  a 


powerful  mountain  tribe  under  the  Spanish  viceroys,  and 
received  the  military  rank  of  brigadier  for  taking  part  in 
the  suppression  of  the  revolt  of  Tupac  Amaru,  1781.  In 
1814  he  headed  at  Cuzco  the  first  serious  rebellion  against 
Spanish  rule  in  Peru.  For  a  time  he  was  very  successful; 
nearly  all  tlie  southern  districts  supported  him  ;  he  occu- 
pied Arequipa  and  iiad  an  army  of  40,000,  but  his  men  were 
poorly  disciplined  and  badly  armed.  He  was  eventually  de- 
feated by  tlie  Spanish  general  Ramirez  at  Umachiri,  Mar. 
10,1815;  Pumacagua  escaped,  but  was  captured  soon  after 
and  hanged  at  Sicuani.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pumelo,  or  Pomelo :  See  Shaddock. 

Pumice  [[ja.t.pumex]:  See  Obsidian. 

Pumice  Foot:  See  Farriery. 

Pump  [a  word  appearing  in  various  Europ.  languages : 
Fr.  pompe,  Dutch,  pomp.  Germ,  pumpe,  but  of  uncertain 
source  and  history] :  an  hydraulic  or  pneumatic  machine  for 
elevating  water  or  other  liijuids,  or  for  forcing  fluids  through 
a  pipe  or  passage.  The  lieight  to  which  water  is  raised  by 
a  pump  is  called  the  "  lift."  Pumps  sometimes  act  not  by 
raising  water,  but  by  forcing  it  into  a  vessel  against  a  pres- 
sure, as  in  the  case  of  the  feed-pumps  of  steam-boilers.  Such 
pressure  may,  however,  be  always  represented  by  a  head  of 
water.  Pumps  for  operating  on  air  (see  Pneumatics)  are 
known  as  air-pumps,  air-compressors,  blowers,  etc.  Pumps 
for  raising  viscous  matters,  as  tar,  paper-stock,  tlie  slip  of 
potteries,  etc.,  are  very  strongly  built,  have  large  valves  and 
valve-cliambers,  and  move  slowly.  Tlie  necessities  of  indus- 
try and  science  and  the  rivalry  of  inventors  and  manufac- 
turers have  given  rise  to  innumerable  varieties  of  this  ma- 
chine. The  accompanying  figures  are  examples  of  the  types 
in  most  common  use. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  simplest  form  of  pump.  It  is  used  for 
lifts  of  but  a  few  feet,  for  draining  shallow  pits  and  bailing 
flat-bottomed  boats.  As  it  can  be  made  by  a  carpenter  in  a 
few  hours,  it  is  frequently  applied  where  there  is  but  tem- 
porary need  of  a  pump.  It  consists  of  a  square  wooden 
barrel,  a  foot-valve,  a,  and  a  piston,  b.  The  foot-valve  is  a 
leather  flap  on  a  wooden  scat ;  the  flap  has  a  leaden  back  to 
give  it  due  stiffness  and  weight.  The  piston  6  is  a  leather 
cup  attached  to  a  wooden  rod.  On  its  downward  .stroke  the 
water  folds  it  together,  and  allows  it  to  pass  freely.  In  its 
upward  movement  the  water  distends  or  bags  it  out,  caus- 


FiG.  1.  Fig.  3. 

ing  it  to  press  against  the  interi<ir  of  the  barrel,  and  making 
it  tight.  The  water  above  the  piston  is  simply  lifted,  while 
the  water  follows  tlie  piston  and  flows  through  the  valve  a 
in  virtue  of  the  atmospheric  pressure. 

Fig.  2  shows  an  ordinary  well  or  cistern  pump.  It  is  not 
different  in  principle  from  Fig.  1,  but  is  arranged  for  more 
convenient  working  and  adapted  to  a  higher  lift. 

Fig.  3  represents  a  section  of  a  force-pump  much  used 
for  domestic  purposes — as  for  filling  a  tank  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  house.  Pig.  6  represents  a  general  view  of 
the  same.  The  valves,  the  most  important  organs  of  the 
pump,  are  fully  shown  here  and  in  Figs.  4  and  5.     Pig.  4 


PUMP 


857 


represents  the  valve  m  or  k,  the  outer  ring  of  which  serves 
as  the  joint-packing.  The  inner  circle  is  the  valve  or  flap. 
The  neck  between  the  two  is  the  hinge.  A  backing  of 
lead  gives  weight  anj  stiffness  to  the  ilap.  The  piston- 
rod  passes  through  a  stuffing-bos  P  in  the  cover  (/,  and 
is  moved  by  a  handle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.     The  action  of 


Fio.  4. 


the  pump  is  readily  understood.  During  the  downward 
moveinciil  of  the  piston  the  valves  m  and  k  close,  preventing 
the  backward  movement  of  the  water.  The  pressure  of  the 
water  raises  the  valve  e  in  the  piston,  and  allows  the  water 
to  pass  through  the  piston  as  it  descends.     During  the  up- 


atmospheric  pressure  forces  the  water  through  the  supply- 
pipe  o  into  the  pump-barrel  A,  raising  the  valve  ni.  This 
pump  ditfers  from  the  ordinary  domestic  pump  only  in  de- 
livering the  water  above  the  pump.  If  the  cover  g  and  the 
branch  /  were  removed,  it  would  be  the  ordinary  suction- 
pump  discharging  at  /.  The  valve  k  is  inserted  to  relieve 
the  slulling-box  and  prevent  leakage.  It  is  manifest  that 
tlie  pump  would  work  perfectly  well  if  this  valve  were  re- 
moved. The  piston  of  the  ordinary  suction-pump  is  more 
commonly  made  as  sliown  in  Fig.  5.  It  has  a  joint  at  c,  as 
the  piston-rod  does  not  move  in  a  straight  line.  The  leather 
packing  is  also  differently  applied  from  that  shown  at  d. 

Fig.  3. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  pumps  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  3 
are  single-acting.  They  furnisli  a  stream  only  during  the 
ascent  of  the  piston.  Fig.  7  represents  a  double-acting  pump 
driven  by  a  powerful  steam-engine.  The  plunger  a  moves 
horizontally  through  water-tight  packing.  It  is  supposed, 
in  the  drawing,  to  be  moving  as  indicated  by  the  arrow.  In 
so  doing  it  diminishes  the  water-space  in  the  chamber  b, 
forcing  the  water  tlirough  the  valves  III  into  the  chamber 
e  communicating  with  the  force-main  /.  At  the  same  time 
it  tends  to  create  a  vacuum  in  the  chamber  c.  which  tendency 
causes  the  water  to  rise  from  the  pump-well  through  the 
pipe  g  and  chamber  d,  lifting  the  valves  o  o  o  and  entering 
the  chamber  c.  During  the  return  st  roke  the  water  enters  the 
chamber  h  through  the  valves  n  n  n,  and  passes  from  c  to  e 
through  the  valves  m  in  m,  the  valves  I  I  I,  o  o  o  remaining 
closed.  This  is  called  a  double-actiny  pump,  because  it  dis- 
charges an  unintermittent  stream.  /(  is  an  air-chamber  com- 
municating with  the  force-main.  This  is  an  appendage  usu- 
ally applied  to  powerful  pumps,  especially  those  which  force 
the  water  through  a  considerable  length  of  pipe.  Its  object 
is  to  diminish  the  shocks  dtu'  to  the  sudden  starting  of  a  long 
column  of  water.   Figs.  8  and  9  show  the  valves  of  this  pump: 


Fig.  8. 


Fio.  9. 


ward  movement  of  the  pi-ston  the  valve  c  is  closed.  The 
water  above  the  piston  is  forced  through  the  branch  /,  rais- 
ing tlio  valve  k  and  piissing  into  the  ascending  pipe  /.     The 


g  is  the  valve-seat,  of  iron  with  a  brass  face.  It  is  leaded 
into  a  recess  in  the  plate ;  a  is  the  valve,  of  rubber ;  /,  a 
spindle  on  which  the  valve  slides  in  rising  and  falling  ;  J,  a 
plate  forming  a  socket  for  the  valve  and  a  bearing  for  the 
spring;  d,  a  spiral  spring  of  brass  wire  ;  c,  cap;  h  h.  nuts. 
Each  pump  has  twenty-four  valves,  there  being  two  rows, 
only  one  of  which  ajipears  in  the  drawing.  TJiis  pump  is 
designed  to  be  operated  by  a  '■direct-acting"  steam-engiue, 
the  piston  of  the  engine  and  plunger  <if  tlu-  pump  being  at- 
taclied  to  opposite  ends  of  the  same  rod.  This  arrangement 
of  valves  is  used  in  the  Worthington  steam-pump. 

Atmospheric  pressiire  plays  an  im[)ortant  part  in  the  ac- 
tion of  pumps.  The  normal  ])ressurc  of  the  at  mospliere  is  14"7 
lb.  per  scjuare  inch,  which  is  equivalent  to  tlint  of  a  column  of 
water  34  feet  high.  The  pipe  o.  Fig.  2.  being  sujiposed  to 
descend  into  the  water  of  a  well,  if  the  fi.xed  valve  is  34  feet 
or  more  above  the  surface  of  tlie  water,  the  water  can  not  be 
raised.  Practically  the  limit  of  suction  is  materially  less 
than  this.  Thirty-four  feet  implies  a  perfect  vacuum  over 
the  column  of  water,  which  can  not  be  secured  with  ordinary 
pump-valves.  Jloreover,  when  the  air  is  entirely  removed 
from  the  suction-pipe  the  latter  is  tilled  with  vapor  of  water 
wliich  can  not  be  exhausted,  being  produced  as  fast  as  the 
[lump  can  withdraw  it.  The  pressure  of  tliis  vapor  is  very 
sliglit  in  cold  water  and  increases  with  tlie  temperature. 

The  limit  of  suction  at    33°  P.  is  33-80  feet. 


60" 

•  33-43 

90° 

'  33-39 

120° 

•  30-10 

150° 

•  2o-41 

180° 

'  16-58 

212° 

•   0- 

858 


PUMP 


Fig.  10. 


That  is  to  say,  water  at  212°  can  not  be  raised  at  all  by  suc- 
tion, the  suction-ijipe  being  constantly  filled  with  vapor  of 

'  the  same  tension  as 
the  atmosphere. 

Fig.  10  shows  a 
form  of  pump  much 
used  in  mills.  It  is 
driven  by  a  crank 
movement.  The 

plunger  B  is  a  hol- 
low barrel  or  bucket 
open  at  the  top. 
The  connecting-rod 
or  pitman  C  is 
jointed  near  the  bot- 
tom of  the  barrel. 
This  barrel  moves  in 
an  exterior  cylinder 
with  a  stufBng-box  b, 
and  requires  no  other 
guide  in  its  motion. 
The  opening  of  the 
cylinder  admits  the 
necessary  lateral 
movement  or  "  play  " 
in  the  pitman  con- 
sequent upon  the  ro- 
tation of  the  crank. 
This  pump,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  single-acting.  The 
raising  of  the  barrel  B  causes  the  lower  valves  to  open,  and 
draws  water  through  the  supply-pipe  E.  The  down  stroke 
raises  the  upper  valves,  and  forces  water  through  the  dis- 
charge-pipe D.  Such  pumps  are  more  commonly  arranged  in 
groups  of  three,  all  driven  from  the  sameshaf  t,  the  cranks  mak- 
ing an  angle  of  120  with  each  other.  In  this  case  the  chambers 
F  and  G  are  common  to  all  the  barrels,  but  each  barrel  must 
have  a  separate  chamber  X  with  its  set  of  valves.  Arranged 
in  this  manner  it  is  a  continuous-acting  pump,  giving  a  con- 
stant stream  through  the  pipes  E  and  D. 

This  pump,  with  a  single  barrel,  is  well  suited  to  be  worked 
by  a  windmill,  especially  when  it  can  be  so  placed  that  the 
suction  is  one-half  the  lift,  so  that  the  crank  exerts  the  same 
pressure  on  the  up  stroke  as  on  the  down  stroke.  Where  the 
suction  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  lift  the  inequality  is  too 

great,  causing  shocks  which 
are  injurious.  In  that  case  it 
is  better  to  use  two  barrels, 
uniting  them  by  a  beam  so 
that  one  rises  as  the  other 
falls. 

Fig.  11  is  the  typical  form 
of  the  modern  rotary  pump. 
It  consists  of  two  gear-wheels 
with  very  large  and  long  teeth, 
very  closely  fitting  each  other 
and  the  ease  in  which  they 
revolve.  They  revolve  as  in- 
dicated by  the  arrow.  The 
water  is  carried  around  in 
the  spaces  between  the  teeth.  The  close  meshing  of  the 
teeth  prevents  its  return  between  the  gears,  and  it  is  forced 
through  the  discharge-pipe,  entering  the  case  through  the 
supply-pipe  under  the  action  of  atmospheric  pressure.  No 
valves  are  necessary  with  this  pump,  though  a  valve  in  the 
suction-pipe  is  convenient  to  prevent  the  pump  from  run- 
ning down. 

An  engine  specially  designed  for  driving  a  pump,  the  en- 
gine and  pump  being  inseparable,  is  called  a  pumping-en- 
gine  or  steam-pump.  In  the  simplest  form  of  pumping- 
engine  the  jnston  or  plunger  of  the  pump  and  the  piston 
of  the  engine  are  on  opposite  ends  of  the  same  rod.  This  is 
the  form  contemplated  in  Fig.  7,  in  which  the  rod  of  the 
plunger  a  passes  through  a  stuffing-box  in  the  water-cylin- 
der and  enters  the  steam-cylinder  through  another  stuffing- 
box.  This  is  a  cheap  anil  serviceable'  form  of  pumping- 
engine,  but  it  does  not  use  steam  in  the  most  economical 
manner,  being  ill  adafited  tor  expansive  working.  With  two 
cylinders,  one  drawing  direct  from  the  boiler  and  exhausting 
into  the  other  at  a  lower  pressure,  it  can  make  some  use  of  the 
expansive  action  of  the  steam.  An  engine  driving  a  pump 
through  the  intervention  of  a  heavy  fly-wheel  can  make  full 
use  of  the  expansive  power  of  steam,'  and  works  most  eco- 
nomically. Fly-wheel  engines  are  used  for  pumping  where 
economy  of  working  is  more  important  than  economy  of  first 


cost.  The  Cornish  pumping-engine,  used  mainly  for  drain- 
ing deep  mines,  differs  from  both  the  above  types.  The 
steam  acts  only  to  raise  the  piston  with  its  attachment  of 
heavy  rods  reaching  down  into  the  mine.  These  descend  by 
their  own  weight. 

Besides  the  Archimedes's  Screw  and  the  Hydraulic  Ram 
(qq.  f.)  there  are  many  devices  in  use  for  raising  water  which 
can  not  be  classed  as  pumps,  or  are  more  properly  described 
under  other  headings,  as : 

The  A'oria. — A  water-wheel  carrying  a  series  of  vessels  at 
its  periphery,  which  till  at  its  lowest  position  and  discharge 
at  its  highest. 

The  Cham  Pump. — A  series  of  disks  Mnked  together,  which 
being  drawn  rapidly  through  a  close-fitting  pipe  draw  the 
water  with  them. 

The  pulsometer,  in  which  the  pressure  of  steam  acts  directly 
on  the  surface  of  water  in  a  closed  chamber,  forcing  the  water 
through  a  pipe  to  a  higher  level ;  then  the  steam  condenses 
and  refills  the  chamber  by  suction. 

The  Jet  pump  and  injector,  in  which  a  jet  of  water  or 
steam  discharged  through  tlie  center  of  a  jiipe  draws  the 
surrounding  water  with  it.  If  an  open  vertical  pipe  be  two- 
thirds  or  three-fourths  immersed  in  water,  and  air  be  in- 
jected at  its  lower  end,  the  water  will  rise  and  flow  from  the 
top  in  a  continuous  stream,  as  long  as  the  supply  of  air  is 
kept  up. 

The  centrifugal  pump,  in  which  the  centrifugal  force  de- 
veloped in  a  revolving  mass  of  water  raises  it  to  a  higher 
level. 

This  machine  is  much  used  in  hydraulic  constructions  re- 
quiring the  temporary  removal  of  large  volumes  of  water. 
The  water  is  caused  to  revolve  with  great  velocity  in  a  cir- 


FiG.  12.  FiQ.  13. 

cular  chamber.  The  tendency  which  water,  in  common  with 
all  heavy  bodies,  has  to  move  in  a  straight  line  causes  a 
pressure  upon  the  circumference  of  the  chamber  sufficient 
to  make  the  water  rise  to  a  greater  or  less  height,  depending 
on  the  velocity.  The  simplest,  most  efficient,  and  most  re- 
liable form  of  the  centrifugal  pump  is  the  one  indicated  by 
Fig.  15.  It  is  placed  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  pit  to  be 
drained,  and  being  once  put  in  position,  can  not  be  readily 
changed.  The  water  receives  a  rotary  movement  from  arms 
attached  to  a  vertical  shaft  within  the  case.  It  enters  the 
pump  at  the  center  and  rises  through  a  pipe  at  the  circum- 
ference. The  shaft  is  driven  by  a  steam-engine  by  means 
of  a  belt  and  pulley  at  the  top.  This  form  of  pump  requires 
no  valves  and  is  not  readily  deranged.  The  height  to  which 
the  water  will  rise  is  theorfetically  the  height  from  which  a 
body  must  faU  in  a  vacuum  to  attain  the  same  velocity  as 
that  with  which  the  periphery  revolves. 

It  is  not  always  convenient,  however,  to  place  the  pump 
at  the  lowest  point  of  the  pit.  Some  excavations  require 
pumping  before  reaching  the  lowest  point.  Some  also  re- 
quire frequent  changes  of  the  position  of  the  pump.  For 
such  cases  a  pump  has  been  devised  which  can  be  placed 
at  the  top  of  the  lift,  raising  the  water  by  suction.  Figs. 
12,  i:i,  and  14  show  such  a  pump  in  detail.  The  cylindrical 
shell  is  made  in  two  halves.  Fig.  13  shows  one  half  with 
the  arms.  Fig.  12  is  a  vertical  section  showing  the  valves. 
a  is  the  driving-shaft  passing  through  a  stuffing-box,  b,  and 
carrying  the  arms,  which  are  not  shown  in  the  section.  The 
shaft  carries  a  pulley  through  which  it  receives  motion  from 
a  portable  steam-engine;  c  d  are  the  valves.    They  are  made 


PL'MPELLY 


PUNCH 


859 


of  thick  rubber,  cut  out  as  shown  at  Fig.  4,  serving  as  joint 
jiiukiiig  us  well  as  valves.  Fig.  14  is  an  auxiliary  hanil- 
|iuiii|i  attached  outside  the  suction-pipe  between  the  valves, 
fur  the  purpose  of  tilling  the  latter  and  the  pump  before 


Fic  13 


Hiitrifuu'al  pump. 


Fia.  II. 

starting.  It  is  a  single- 
acting  plunger  -  pump. 
When  the  plunger  rises, 
the  valve  d  (Fig.  12)  is 
lifted,  admitting  air  or 
water  into  the  space  be- 
tween the  valves.  When 
tlu^  phingcr  falls,  r  rises, 
rtc.  This  small  pump  is 
called  the  primer.  While 
the  pump  is  in  operation 
the  water  flows  continu- 
ously through  the  valves. 
These  are  not  essential  to 
the  action  of  the  pump 
while  running,  but  only  necessary  in  lilling  it  and  prevent- 
ing it  from  emjjtying  when  it  stops.  The  length  of  the  suc- 
tion-pipe is  increased  as  the  excavation  progresses.  This 
pump  is  of  course  subject  to  the  same  restriction  as  all  suc- 
tion-pumps. Its  lift  can  not  exceed  the  height  due  to  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  In  fact  it  can  not  work  effi- 
ciently with  more  than  three-fourths  of  that  lift.  The  most 
powerful  existing  pumping  plant  is  the  system  of  centrifu- 
gal pumjis  buiU-  by.I.&  M.  (xwynne,  of  Hammersmith,  Eng- 
land, for  draining  the  Ferrara  marshes  in  Italy.  It  is  said 
to  be  capable  of  raising  to  a  height  of  12  feet  2.000  tons  of 
water  per  minute,  being  equivalent  to  a  river  100  feet  wide 
and  4  feet  deep  flowing  with  a  velocity  of  about  13  miles  per 
hour.  The  Appold  centrifugal  pumps  have  found  many  ap- 
plications of  this  kind,  and  are  much  used  for  emptying  dry- 
docks  and  for  raising  the  level  of  water  in  the  great  com- 
mercial docks  of  European  harbors.  For  air-pumps,  sec 
I'.sKiMATics.  J.  P.  Frizell. 

riimpcl'ly,  llAPHAKL,  M.  X.  A.  S. :  geologist;  b.  at  Owe- 
go,  Tioga  CO..  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8.  1837;  educated  at  Paris, 
Hanover,  and  Freiberg,  Saxony,  1854-60 ;  was  engaged  in 
mining  operations  in  Arizona  18(>0-61 ;  was  emi)loyed  by 
the  tiovernment  of  Japan  to  explore  the  island  of  Yezo 
1861-ti3;  by  the  Government  of  China  to  report  uiion  the 
coal-supply  of  that  empire  18(i3-64;  returned  to  the  I'.  S. 
overlan<l  through  Mongolia.  Siberia,  and  Russia;  became 
Professor  of  ^lining  Engineering  at  Harvard  1800;  made 
a  survey  of  the  cop|ier  region  of  the  ui)per  peninsula  of 
iMichigan  1870-71  ;  was  Stale  geologist  of  Missouri  1871-73; 
geologist  in  charge  of  the  Archipan  division  of  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey  187!)-!)2  ;  and  vice-president  of  the  inter- 
national congress  of  geologists,  Washington,  1891.  He  is 
the  author  of  nunu'rous  articles  in  s<'icntific  journals;  of 
Geologiriil  Ri'.tfarchiix  in  China,  Mon(/ulia,  and  Japan 
(Washington,  1807);  Across  Aynerica  and  Asia  (New  York, 
1870) ;  of  volumes  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Michigan 
(1873)  and  of  Missouri  (1873),  each  accompanied  by  an  at- 
las; and  vol.  XV.  of  the  census  reports  on  IVie  Mitiiny  In- 
duxlriex  of  the  Vniti-d  States  (Washington,  188G). 

Pumpkin  [dimin.  of  earlier  pompion,  pumjikin,  from  0. 
Fr.  poinpiin,  for  earlier  pepon  <  Lat.  pe' po  =  Gr.  itiiruv,  a 
kind  of  melon]:  any  plant  of  the  genus  C'hchWiiVk,  of  the 
family  Cuctirliilitri'a'.  There  are  three  species  of  this  genus 
in  common  cultivatiim:  (.^iicin-lnta /xpo.  with  lobed  leaves 
and  rough,  almost  prickly  stems  and  leaf-stalks,  a  strong- 
ly angled  fruit-stem,  and  widely  llaring  (lower  with  erect 
and  pointed  lobes;  C.  inoschaia.  with  leaves  visually  less 
lobed,  grayish  pubescent  stems  and  leaf-stalks,  fruit-stalks 
ridged,  enlarged  next  the  fruit,  and  (lower  much  like  that 
of  the  last,  but  the  lobes  l)roader  and  the  calyx  often  leafy; 


C.  maxima,  with  rounded  large  leaves,  stems  and  leaf-stalks 
not  rough  and  only  minutely,  if  at  all,  pubescent,  the  fruit- 
stalk  cylindrical  and  spongy,  and  the  flower-tubes  nearly 
cylindrical  or  gibbous,  the  lobes  obtuse  and  drooping. 
These  species  are  probably  native  to  the  New  World.  'J'he 
first  one  (C.  pepu)  is  the  pumpkin  of  North  America — the 
one  which  is  grown  in  corn-fields  and  which  produces  the 
great  reddish  fruits  commonly  used  for  making  pies  and  also 
as  food  for  stock.  This  species  is  immensely  variable.  In 
some  forms  it  is  scarcely  running.  The  summer  or  warty 
crookneck  squashes  and  the  bush  scallop  and  patty-pan 
squashes  are  of  this  species,  and  here  belong,  also,  the  com- 
mon ine<lible,  ornamental  gourds,  as  this  term  is  under- 
stood in  the  U.  S.  The  second  species  (C.  moscliata)  is  the 
parent  of  the  large,  striped  winter  or  Canada  crookneck 
S(iuashes,  and  the  Cushaw  pumpkins  or  squashes.  To  the 
third  species  (C.  maxima)  belong  the  turban  and  the  true 
winter  squashes,  like  the  Hubbard,  Jlarljehead,  Kssex, 
Boston  Marrow,  etc.  The  larger  type  of  fruits  of  this 
species  are  known  as  pumpkins  in  Kurope,  while  they  are 
called  squashes  in  the  U.  S.  In  Great  liritain  the  word 
gourd  is  used  generically  for  all  three  species.  It  is  a  com- 
mon notion  that  the  dilTerent  species  will  cro.ss- fertilize 
when  planted  near  together  in  the  field  ;  but  it  is  now 
known  that  the  varieties  belonging  to  different  species  do 
no:  cross,  with  very  rare  excejjtions.  There  are  no  cros.ses 
or  hybrids  of  C.  pepo  and  C.  maxima,  nor  of  ('.  maxima 
ami  C  moschata,  but  C.  pepo  and  ('.  moschafn  can  probably 
be  induced  to  cross,  although  it  is  doubtful  if  spontaneous 
mixing  often  occurs.  L.  H.  Hailev. 

Puii  (perhaps  from  the  local  English  pun,  pound,  and 
the  Anglo-Saxon  ^jw/u'oh,  bruise] :  a  kind  of  play  upon 
words,  in  which  a  word  is  capable  of  being  mulerstood  in 
two  or  more  quite  different  senses,  the  combination  of  which, 
or  the  mental  change  from  one  to  the  other.  ]>i-<'sents  an  odd 
idea,  generally  a  ludicrous  one.  Punning  is  usually  consid- 
ered the  lowest  species  of  wit,  being  in  general  ]>urely  me- 
chanical in  character,  and  not,  like  the  higher  forms  of  wit, 
justifying  itself  by  presenting  an  idea  in  some  new  and  un- 
expected form.  Not  unfreq\iently  the  point  of  a  pun  lies  in 
the  juxtaposition  of  two  or  more  words  similar  or  identical 
in  sound,  but  different  in  spelling  and  signification,  like  the 
Latin  amantes  sunt  amentes.  The  wit  in  a  pun  is  not  un- 
freipiently  polyglot— that  is,  a  phrase  of  one  language  is 
used  which  in  sound  or  spelling  closely  resembles  a  phrase  in 
another  language,  but  which  has  a  wholly  di(T<'rent  meaning. 
The  figure  of  si)i'(!ch  eaWeA paronomasia  by  writers  on  rhet- 
oric, and  defined  by  them  as  "the  use  of  words  in  the  same 
coniu'ction  which  are  similar  in  souiul,  but  dissimilar  in 
sense,"  is  simply  riunning.  This  was  a  favorite  form  of  ex- 
pression among  the  Hebrews,  and  the  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, in  the  original,  abound  in  examples  of  it,  although 
it  is  of  course  usually  lost  in  translating,  and  thus  the  prcci.se 
point  of  many  passages  is  necessarily  missed  in  our  version, 
unless  the  paronomasia  is  pointed  out  iu  a  note. 

Revised  by  A.  K.  JIarsh. 

I'li'nii  or  Despobla'tlo ;  in  Pern  aiul  Bolivia  any  very 
high,  arid,  and  uninhabitable  table-land;  synonymous  with 
paramo,  used  in  Colombia.  In  a  special  sense,  a  high  plain 
between  two  subchains  of  the  Cordillera,  extending  from 
about  lat.  13°  S.  southward  into  Bolivia.  It  consists  of  flat 
or  rolling,  genci-allv  stony  or  sandy  lands,  from  14.000  to 
16,000  feet  above  sea-level,  narrow  liorthward  but  widening 
southward  to  150  miles  or  more.  Jl.  H.  S. 

Pnna :  a  city  of  India  ;  same  as  Pooxa  (rj.  v.). 

I'uncli,  Piincli  and  Jntly.  or  I'nrichinrHo  [Ital.  jBiite- 
nella  or  jmlirineUa  ;  Fr.  polir/iinelle] :  a  kind  of  pujipet-show 
freciuently  exhibited  in  the  streets  of  European  cities,  espe- 
cially of  Italy.  Its  origin  has  been  obscurely  traced  to  the 
Atel'lan  farce's  of  ancient  Rome,  but  in  its  present  popular 
form  the  drama  is  ascribed  to  Silvio  Fiorillo,  an  Italian 
playwright  who  flourished  about  1600.  The  actors  in  the 
performance  are  wooden  puiipets,  of  whom  the  priiu'ipal 
are  Punchinello  (in  English  Mr.  Punch),  his  wife  (called  in 
English  Mrs.  .Iu<ly).  and  their  dog  Toby.  The  puppets  are 
moved  by  the  exhibitor,  who  puis  his  hands  under  the  dress, 
making  the  second  finger  and  thumb  .serve  for  the  arms, 
while  the  forefinger  works  the  head  ;  he  also  supplies  a  comic 
dialogue,  varying  his  voice  to  suit  the  different  characters. 
As  usually  represented,  Mr.  Punch  is  a  stout  personage  with 
protruding  paunch,  thin  legs,  hooked  nose,  and  a  chin  which 
turns  up  so  as  almost  to  meet  the  point  of  the  nose;  Jlre. 
Judv  is   a  thin,  shrewish   dame,  grotesquely  attired ;  and 


860 


PUNCTUATION 


PUNISHMENT 


the  dog  Toby,  who  is  the  embodiment  of  cunning,  and  usu- 
ally wears  a  hat,  plays  an  important  part  in  the  action. 
The  play  is  a  domestic  tragi-comedy,  in  which  Mr.  Punch  is 
greatly  berated  by  his  wife,  and  finally  comes  to  grief.  The 
French  sometimes  employ  a  cat  instead  of  the  dog  Toby. 
Various  explanations  have  been  given  of  the  origin  of  the 
name.  The  most  probable  supposition  is  that  it  is  a  diminu- 
tive of  the  Italian  pulcino,  a  chicken,  applied  to  a  little 
child,  and  hence  a  puppet ;  but  some  suppose  that  it  comes 
from  the  Latin  pollex,  pollicis^  the  thumb,  a  common  ap- 
pellation of  dwarfs,  as  in  "  Tom  Thumb " ;  while  others 
conjecture  that  the  name  comes  from  Puccio  d'Aniello,  a 
famous  buffoon  of  Acerra,  near  Naples,  whose  humorous 
eccentricities  were  in  tlie  seventeenth  century  ti'ansferred 
to  the  Neapolitan  stage.  In  some  of  its  aspects  the  show 
of  Punchinello  reminds  one  of  the  so-called  '"  moralities  "  of 
the  Middle  Ages  and  of  the  clown  of  the  later  comic  drama ; 
and  the  grotesque  faces  of  the  performers  have  their  proto- 
types in  the  masks  worn  by  the  actors  in  the  ancient  Greek 
and  Latin  comedies.  Puppet-shows  of  an  essentially  similar 
character,  but  often  much  more  elaljorate,  are  common  in 
China  and  Japan.  A  typical  version  of  the  modern  play  by 
Payne  Collier,  with  colored  iUustrations  by  George  Cruik- 
shank,  was  published  in  1828.    Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Punctuation  [from  Mediiev.  Lat.  punctua're,  punctuate, 
deriv.  of  Lat.  punc'tum,  something  pricked,  point,  punctua- 
tion mark,  deriv.  of  pun'gere,  punc'tum,  prick]  :  the  act  or 
art  of  dividing  literary  composition  into  sentences  and  parts 
of  sentences  to  show  grammatical  or  sometimes  rhetorical 
relations,  and  thus  assist  the  reader  in  apprehending  the 
writer's  meainng.  It  is  also  frequently  asserted  that  punc- 
tuation is  intended  to  assist  the  reader  by  indicating  the 
pauses  and  inflections  required  by  the  sense.  This  is  incor- 
rect, however,  although  it  is  evident  that  punctuation  marks, 
while  indicating  syntactical  relations,  may  also  guide  the 
reader  to  some  extent  as  to  pauses  and  inflections. 

Our  present  system  of  punctuation  is  of  modern  invention. 
Ancient  manuscripts  were  not  punctuated  until  after  364 
B.  c,  when  it  became  customary  to  place  a  mark  of  separa- 
tion after  each  word.  The  beginnings  of  our  present  sys- 
tem are  said  to  date  from  the  time  of  Manutius  (Manuzio), 
the  first  of  a  famous  family  of  Italian  printers,  who  died  in 
1515.  In  English  writings  a  period  was  first  used,  though 
without  great  regularity,  to  indicate  a  break  of  any  sort  in 
the  composition.  In  addition  to  this,  a  period  on  the  line 
or  above  it,  sometimes  an  inverted  semicolon,  was  used  in 
poetry  to  mark  a  metrical  rather  than  a  syntactical  division. 
Caxton,  the  father  of  English  printing,  used  only  an  oblique 
line  to  indicate  the  divisions  of  discourse. 

The  principal  marks  of  punctuation  in  modern  English 
are  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  period,  interrogation,  and 
exclamation  points,  of  which  the  last  two  are  mainly  rhe- 
torical. Of  these  the  comma  is  most  frequently  and"  most 
variously  used.  Its  offices  may  be  summed  up  in  two  gen- 
eral heads:  First,  the  comma  marks  a  syntactical  division 
of  the  sentence  having  a  certain  completeness  of  its  own ; 
next,  it  may  indicate  an  ellipsis.  Under  the  first  head  come 
parenthetical  and  intermediate  expressions,  dependent  and 
conditional  clauses,  relative  clauses  not  restrictive,  words  or 
expressions  forming  a  series,  nouns  in  apposition  or  in  the 
vocative  case.  Under  the  second  head  are  included  ellipses 
of  verbs,  nouns,  and  conjunctions.  The  principal  uses  of  the 
semicolon  are  to  mark  the  divisions  of  a  compound  sentence, 
to  separate  clauses  and  expressions  with  a  common  depend- 
ence, sentences  connected  in  idea  but  without  syntactical 
dependence,  and  final  clauses  of  explanation  or  inference. 
The  colon  is  used  to  mark  the  larger  divisions  in  complex 
sentences,  the  beginning  of  long  quotations,  and  a  series  of 
particulars  introduced  by  thus,  as  follows,  namely,  and  simi- 
lar expressions.  The  period  marks  the  end  of  a  sentence, 
while  it  is  also  used  after  titles  and  abbreviations.  The 
marks  of  interrogation  and  exclamation  indicate  respectively 
a  direct  question  and  an  exclamation. 

Among  the  more  important  minor  marks  of  punctuation 
are  the  dash,  parenthesis,  bracket,  apostrophe,  and  quota- 
tion nuirks.  The  dash  is  used  for  a  sudden  break  in  the 
sentence  and  for  parenthetical  expressions.  For  the  latter  the 
parenthesis  is  also  used,  and  for  explanatory  words  not  syn- 
tactically a  part  of  the  sentence  tlie  brackets  are  employed. 
The  apostrophe  marks  the  possessive  case  and  the  omission 
of  a  letter  or  letters  in  words.  Quotation  marks  inclose  di- 
rect quotations.  The  apostrophe,  as  not  denoting  a  syntac- 
tical division,  is  not  strictly  a  mark  of  punctuation,  and 


there  are  numerous  others  of  like  use  sometimes  considered 
under  this  head,  as  the  hyphen,  section  and  paragraph 
marks,  and  marks  of  reference. 

Punctuation  is  to  some  extent  a  matter  of  taste  and  judg- 
ment, rather  than  of  rigid  rule.  Certain  writers  seem  to 
aim  at  using  the  largest  possible  number  of  points;  others 
try  to  use  the  fewest  points  possible.  As  might  be  expected, 
the  best  punctuation  lies  between  these  two  extremes.  There 
is  also  some  room  for  individual  preference  in  pointing. 
Whether  a  parenthetical  expression  should  be  set  off  by 
commas,  by  the  dash,  or  by  marks  of  parenthesis,  is  often  to 
be  decided  by  individual  taste.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
use  of  the  semicolon,  some  writers  using  the"  comma  or  the 
period,  according  as  the  separation  requires  the  more  or  less 
distinctive  mark.  In  any  case  punctuation  is  more  largely  a 
grammatical,  rather  than  a  rhetorical  device.  It  should  aid 
the  reader  in  gaining  the  sense,  but  it  should  never  be  de- 
pended upon  for  clearness  or  precision. 

Oliver  Farrar  Emerson. 

Pu'nie  "Wars :  the  three  great  wars  between  the  Cartha- 
ginians (Punici)  and  the  Romans.  The  First  Punic  war 
lasted  twenty-three  years  (264-241  B.  c).  It  was  a  contest 
for  the  possession  of  Sicily,  which  was  finally  won  by  the 
Romans.     The  Second  war  lasted  sixteen  years  (218-203 

B.  c).  It  was  initiated  by  the  capture  of  Saguntum  by 
Hannibal  (q.  v.),  who  thereupon  made  his  great  invasion  of 
Italy.  The  war  was  closed  by  the  Roman  victory  at  Zama. 
The  Third  war  was  undertaken  by  the  Romans  with  the  ex- 
press intention  of  finally  destroying  Carthage,  her  long  hu- 
miliated and  now  scarcely  dangerous  rival.  The  war  lasted 
three  years  (149-146  B.  c).  Carthage  made  a  most  heroic 
and  persistent  defense,  but  was  at  last  utterly  destroyed. 
Polybius,  wherever  his  account  is  preserved,  is  our  most 
trustworthy  ancient  source.  The  variations  from  his  nar- 
rative presented  by  Livy  and  Appian  are  regarded  with  sus- 
picion.   See  the  histories  of  Rome  by  Arnold  and  Mommsen ;, 

C.  Neumann,  Geschichte  Boms  im  Zeitalter  der  punischen 
Kriege  (Breslau,  1883) ;  T.  A.  Dodge,  Hannibal  (Boston,  1890). 

Revised  by  G.  L.  Hendrickson. 

Punishment :  in  criminal  law,  the  suffering  or  depriva- 
tion of  the  enjoyment  of  rights  which  is  visited  by  law  upon 
those  who  violate  the  penal  law. 

The  object  and  the  methods  of  administering  punishment 
for  crime  among  the  early  or  more  crudely  civilized  peoples 
are  based  chiefly  upon  the  idea  of  retribution,  or  the  vindi- 
cation of  the  law  upon  the  offender,  and  the  expiation  of 
his  crime  by  reparation  to  the  injured  person.  Crimes 
among  such  peoples  are  looked  upon  more  as  offenses 
against  the  individual  than  against  the  state,  the  idea  of 
which  is  not  strongly  developed ;  and  the  infliction  of  pun- 
ishment for  crime  is  frequently  or  usually  intrusted  to  the 
person  wronged,  or  to  his  kin,  clan,  or  tribe.  Hence  under  J 
such  a  system  the  distinction  between  crimes  and  torts  is.  | 
not  well  defined ;  the  punishments  infiicted  are  usually 
characterized  by  cruelty ;  the  severity  of  punishment  is  fre- 
quently graded  according  to  the  nearness  of  the  time  of  the 
infliction  of  the  punishment  to  that  of  the  commission  of 
the  crime ;  indignities  are  frequently  inflicted  upon  the 
body  after  death  ;  and  for  the  expiation  of  many  or  all 
crimes  a  pecuniary  value  is  set,  by  the  payment  of  which  to- 
the  injured  person,  or  to  his  family,  the  offender  is  made 
free  from  liability  to  further  punishment.  In  many  cases  a. 
way  of  escaping  punishment  is  provided  by  the  establish- 
ment of  cities  of  refuge,  sanctuaries,  etc. 

With  the  development  of  the  idea  of  the  state  and  of  the 
duties  of  the  citizen  to  the  state,  crime  comes  to  be  looked 
upon  more  as  a  wrong  against  the  community,  and  the 
right  to  inflict  punishment  is  taken  from  the  individual 
and  vested  in  the  state  alone  ;  the  injured  party  is  left  to- 
obtain  reparation  for  the  wrong  by  resorting  to  his  civil 
remedy  ;  and  the  primary  idea  of  pmiishment  becomes  the 
protection  of  society  from  criminal  acts,  coupled  with  the 
design  of  reforming  the  criminal,  not  merely  as  a  means  of 
preventing  crimes,  but  as  an  end  in  itself.  Traces  of  the 
early  theory  of  punishment,  however,  survive  in  the  modern 
code.  Thus  the  husband,  among  Christian  nations,  is  still 
permitted  to  kill  an  adulterer  caught  by  \\hn  flagrante  de- 
licto, and  vindictive  features  are  seen  in  some  of  the  sever- 
ities which  are  still  imposed  in  some  modern  methods  of  I 
punishing. 

Punishments  inflicted  for  the  protection  of  society  may 
be  divided  into  tho.se  which  disable  or  remove  wholly  or  par- 
tially the  ability  of  the  criminal ;  those  which  are  intended 


PUNJAUB 


PUNT 


861 


to  deter  him  from  committing  it  again ;  and  those  which 

are  inteiideil  to  net  us  a  delerreiil  to  otliei-s. 

The  puiiisliiiioiils  of  llic  lirst  class  incliule  such  forms  as 
capital  piiiiisliincnt,  ilcporlatioii,  mutilation,  branding,  per- 
petual inijirisomni'iil,  etc. 

Puiiisliincnts  of  the  second  class  include  those  which  may 
deter  the  criminal  from  the  repetition  of  his  crime,  either 
by  the  reformation  of  the  criminal  or  by  inflicting  suffer- 
ing or  some  other  form  of  punishment  dreaded  by  the 
criminal,  such  as  pul)lic  indignity  or  great  cruelty. 

Punishments  of  the  third  class  consist  almost  wholly  in 
the  infliction  of  cruelty  or  public  disgrace. 

It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the  deterrent  effect  of  all 
cruel  punishments  and  of  those  likely  to  bring  the  criminal 
into  public  disgrace  are  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the 
brutalizing  and  hanlening  effect  upon  the  criminal  and 
upon  the  pulilic  itself;  and  consequently  public  executions, 
public  whipping-posts,  branding,  nuitilation,  etc.,  have 
either  been  entirely  abolished  or  are  rapidly  disappearing 
from  the  dilTereiit  codes  of  criminal  law. 

The  principal  forms  of  criminal  punishment  now  in  use 
among  civilized  nations  are  as  follows:  Death,  perpetual 
imprisonment  with  or  without  hard  labor,  imprisonment 
for  determinate  periods,  enforced  labor  in  mines,  galleys, 
etc.,  banishment  to  penal  settlements,  pecuniary  fines,  and 
in  certain  cases  the  infliction  of  the  lash. 

The  criminal  is  also  often  deprived  of  political  or  civil 
rights  belonging  to  citizenship,  such  as  the  electoral  fran- 
chise, capacity  to  testify  in  courts  of  justice,  or  to  hold 
office,  etc. 

For  various  forms  of  puni.shnicnt  now  discarded  among 
livilized  nations  or  used  only  among  semi-civilized  peoples, 
^le  PiLi.oRv,  Torture,  etc. 

The  whole  history  of  criminal  punishment  is  a  history  of 
cruelties  and  horrors,  but  infli<'le(l  fortlie  ends  of  justice. 
The  reformation  of  the  criminal  law  in  England  is  due 
chiefly  to  .lohn  Howard  and  Sir  Sanuiel  Romilly.  Howard 
introduced  the  changes  which  made  capital  punishment  less 
rre(iuent,  and  Komilly,  se('on<led  by  Sir. James  Macintosh,  in- 
troduced laws  which  gradually  did  away  with  the  barbarous 
character  of  the  criminal  laws  and  the  use  of  the  penalties. 

The  law  of  Kngland,  however,  is  still  more  severe  than 
that  of  the  U.  S.,  but  it  is  on  the  whole  just  and  tolerant. 
The  existing  criminal  law  of  both  countries  now  consists 
principally  of  a  great  number  of  statutes  meant  to  provide 
for  the  punishment  of  acts  which  formerly  for  some  reason  or 
other  were  not  provided  for  by  the  law  or  are  now  supposed 
not  to  have  been  punished  with  sullicient  severity  by  the 
former  laws,  such  as  stealing  wills,  malicious  mischief,  statu- 
tory burglary,  etc.  Of  the  different  forms  of  punishments 
above  mentioned,  capital  punishment  is  gradually  being 
abolished  among  Christian  nations.  For  a  fuller  treatment 
^  of  the  specilie  forms  of  punishment,  see  Capital  Pli.nisu- 
'  MEMT,  Imprisonment,  Prison,  Gallei%  Transportation, 
WiiippiNG-posT,  etc. 

Literature. — See  Beccaria's  Treatise  on  Crimes  and  Pun- 
ishmeiifs ;  Maine's  Ancient  Law  (ch.  ii.) ;  Benthain's  Tlieory 
of  Piinallic.t  (iml  Rewards,  Treatise  on  Civil  and  I'enal 
Legislation  ;  Pi'oal,  Le  Crime  et  la  Peine  (Paris,  1892) ;  (ia- 
rofalo's  Slutliv  siil  delitto,  suite  sue  cause,  e  siii  mezzi  di  re- 
pressione  (Turin,  1890);  Ityland's  Crime,  its  Causes  and 
Remedii  (London,  1889) ;  Bentlev's  I^incipals  of  Penal  Law 
(Philadeli>hia,  1889) ;  Lombroso's  L'uomo  deliquente  (Turin, 
1889);  Cherry's  Lectures  on  the  Growth  of  Criminal  Law 
in  Ancient  Communities  (London,  1891);  and  Stephen's 
History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  Un gland. 

P.  Sturoes  Allkn. 

Plllijaub'  [from  Hinil.  Punjab:  pa neh,  five  (<Sanskr. 
paiica)  +  all,  water  ( <  Sanskr.  d/ias).  So  called  from  its  five 
rivers]:  a  territory  of  Northwestern  Hindustan,  bounded 
X.  and  N.  K.  by  Cjishmere,  S.  E.  and  S.  by  the  Sutlej,  and 
W.  by  the  Suliman  Mountains,  and  since  1849  belonging  to 
British  India.  Area,  U().GG7  sq.  miles.  The  northern  part 
■  ■f  the  country  is  mountainous,  covered  with  spurs  of  the 
Himalayas,  from  17,000  to  20.000  feet  high,  and  inclosing 
ileep  valleys.  The  souihern  and  western  part  is  a  great  plain 
around  the  Indus  and  its  five  powerful  allluents.  hot,  dry, 
and  treeless,  consisting  of  a  hard  clay  or  loam  which  in  many 
places  becomes  sandy  and  arid.  The  heat  of  summer  rises  to 
112° :  the  winter  is  cool,  with  frequent  frosts.  Bain  is  rare, 
liut  the  large  and  luimerous  streams  can  easily  be  used  for 
irrigation,  and  there  is  a  large  network  of  canals  for  this 
purpose.    Wherever  the  soil  is  well  cultivated  its  productive- 


ness is  very  great.  Sugar,  rice,  cotton,  wheat,  and  indigo 
are  raised  in  large  crops  and  of  superior  quality.  The  man- 
ufacturing industry  of  the  country  is  hi^'hly  developed  in 
the  large  cities  of  Amritsar,  Lahore.  .Multan,'  etc.  In  1845 
occurred  the  first  Sikh  war,  which  ended  with  Great  Britain 
appropriating  the  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej  ; 
in  1848  followed  the  second  .Sikh  war,  which  ended  with  the 
coucpiesi  by  the  British  of  the  whole  country.  Pop.  (1891) 
20.8t)(),847,  consisting  of  Afghans,  Tibetans,  and  different 
Hindu  races,  such  as  Jats,  Sikhs,  etc.;  about  one-half  are 
Mohammedans.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Pu'iio:  the  southeasternraost  department  of  Peru;  be- 
tween Bolivia  on  the  E.  and  Moquegua,  Areq\iipa,  and  Cuzco 
onlheW. :  area  vaguely  est inuited  at  20.000  S(|.  miles.  It 
cml)raccs  the  Peruvian  portion  of  the  Collado  or  high  basin 
of  Lake  Titicaca,  part  of  the  lake,  the  Andes  to  the  E.  of 
the  basin,  and  their  eastern  forest-covered  slopes  (Montana), 
where  the  river  Madre  dc  Dios  takes  ils  rise.  Nearly  all  the 
inhabitants  are  gathered  in  the  Collado,  and  most  of  them 
are  -Vymara  Luhans.  The  Mimtana  is  rich  in  <'inchona.etc., 
and  its  gold  wasliings  were  formerly  very  iimductive;  but 
the  region  is  nearly  abandoned,  owing  to  the  difliculty  of 
comnnniicalion  ;  the  department  is  now  one  of  the  poorest 
in  Peru  and  has  liardly  any  exports.  Pop.  about  275,000. — 
PuNo,  the  capital  and  largest  town,  is  in  a  valley  near  the 
western  extremity  of  Lake  Titicaca.  12,550  feet  above  the 
sea  (see  map  of  South  America,  ref.  5-C).  It  is  a  bishop's 
see  and  has  a  fine  cathedral.  It  is  coimected  by  rail  with 
Arequipa  and  Jlollendo,  and  the  trade  from  Bolivia  to  the 
Peruvian  coast  passes  through  it.  During  the  colonial  pe- 
riod rich  silver  mines  were  worked  in  the  vicinity ;  they  are 
now  nearly  abandoned.     Pop.  about  9.000. 

Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Pnnslion,  William  JIorlky,  LL.  D.  ;  clergyman  and  au- 
thor; b.  at  Doncaster,  England,  May  29.  1824;  became  a 
local  Wesleyan  preacher  in  1840 ;  studied  at  the  Wesleyan 
College,  Richmond  ;  became  one  of  the  most  popular  preach- 
ers in  England;  preached  in  London  1858-08;  labored  in 
Cana<la  18(i8-7:i ;  in  187o  returned  to  England,  and  was 
president  of  the  British  Confereiu*  1874;  wrote  sermons 
and  discourses, //i'fe  Thoughts  (180:i);  Sabbath  Chimes,  in 
verse  (1867);  the  Prndigal'Son  (1868).  D.  in  Londcm,  Apr. 
14,  1881.  See  his  Life  by  Frederic  \V.  Macdonald  (New 
York,  1888).  Revised  by  A.  Osborn. 

Punt,  or  Piiii-t :  a  land  on  the  Red  Sea.  from  which  the 
Egyptians  made  imports,  at  first  indirectly  and  afterward 
directly,  during  a  large  portion  of  their  history,  extending 
from  the  early  dynasties  down  to  Ptolemaic  times.  During 
a  part  of  the  time  regular  tril)ute  was  rendered  in  kind  to 
till'  I'liiiraohs.  Ils  exact  location  has  been  dis])uted,  some, 
as  Brugsch,  claiming  tliat  it  was  in  Arabia,  the  "land  of 
the  Kast";  others,  as  Mariette,  that  it  was  on  the  African 
side  of  the  sea  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  objects  of 
import;  ami  again  others,  as  Lieblein  and  Duinichen,  ar- 
guing that  it  lay  on  both  sides  of  the  sea.  The  question  is 
difficult  of  determination,  but  the  weight  of  argument  seems 
to  favor  the  view  that  it  lay  on  the  west  side  of  the  Red  Sea, 
or  on  the  south  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden  on  the  Somali 
coast,  especially  as  Punt  is  often  classed  in  the  monuments 
with  Ethiopia"  or  Cush.  It  was  ordinarily  reached  from 
Egypt  by  way  of  the  caravan  route  from  Koi)tos  to  Kosseir 
through  the  Hammamat  {q.  v.)  valley,  and  thence  by  ship. 
The  nniral  representations  at  Deir  el-Bahari,  however,  rep- 
resent the  vessels  of  Uatasu  ((/.  v.)  as  sailing  from  Punt  and 
arriving  at  Thebes,  thus  giving  the  impression  of  a  con- 
tiinious  navigable  waterway.  There  are  many  references 
to  commercial  and  other  intercourse  between  Egypt  and 
Punt,  the  most  extensive  and  minute  of  whicli  are  those  of 
flatasu.  These  represent  the  inhabitants  as  a  mixed  race, 
the  rulers  being  of  a  light  color,  a])iiroximating  that  of  the 
Egyptians  or  Libyans  (with  whom  they  nuiy  originally  have 
been  closely  allied),  while  their  subjects  vary  irom  red  to 
black.  The  name  "Negro,"  applied  by  the  Egyptians  to 
all  the  inhabitants  of  Eastern  Africa,  is  not  distinctive 
enough  for  ethnological  purposes.  The  predominating  ra- 
cial types,  however,  point  t<i  the  Somali  coast.  The  men 
look  much  like  Egyptians,  but  the  women  are  represented 
as  abnormally  and  grotesquely  fat.  The  products  of  the 
land  are  also  mainly  African;  sycamore  trees  in  tubs  ready 
for  shiiunent.  various  sorts  of  wood,  such  as  eboi\y,  also 
ivory,  mother-of-|iearl,  incense,  balsam,  myrrh,  gold,  silver, 
and  111  her  metals,  two  species  of  ape.  giraffes',  greyhoun<ls,  and 
leopard   skins.     See  W.  Max  .M idler,  Asien    und  Enropa 


862 


PUNTA  ARENAS 


PURINTON 


(Leipzig,  1893,  pp.  106-130);  Mariette.  Deir  el-Bahari 
(Leipzig,  1877) ;  Dilmichen,  Floite  einer  aeg.  Konigin  (Leip- 
zig, 1868) ;  Hoskins,  Traoels  in  Ethiopia  (liondon,  1835) ; 
Lieblein,  Handel  und  Schiffahrt  aiif  dein  rothen  Ileere  in 
alien  Zeiten  (Christiania,  1886) ;  Meyer,  Gesch.  des  alien 
^Egyptens  (Berlin,  1887) ;  Krall,  Das  Land  Punt  (Vienna, 
1890).  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Punta  Arenas,  Cliili :  See  Magallanes. 

Piintare'iias :  the  principal  Pacific  port  of  Costa  Rica, 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Xicoya  (see  map  of  Central 
America,  ref.  8-1);  a  terniiims  of  the  Costa  Rican  railway 
system.  The  harbor  is  shallow.  The  climate  is  warm  but 
generally  healthful.  Pop.  about  4,500.  It  is  the  capital  of  a 
comarca  of  the  same  name,  which  embraces  two-thirds  of  the 
Pacific  coast  of  tlie  republic.  H.  H.  S. 

Pupa  [from  Lat.  pupa,  girl,  doll,  puppet]:  one  of  the 
three  stages  of  those  insects  which  undergo  a  metamorpho- 
sis.    See  Entomology. 

Puppets :  See  Marionettes. 

Purac^,  poo-ra"a-sa' :  the  highest  active  volcano  of  the 
Andes  of  Colombia,  E.  S.  E.  of  Popayan,  Cauca ;  in  the 
Central  and  near  the  junction  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Cordilleras;  altitude  (Reiss  and  Stiibel),  15,420  feet.  Severe 
eruptions  have  several  times  occurred.  It  is  imjiossible  at 
any  time  to  enter  the  crater,  owing  to  the  hot  and  suffocat- 
ing vapors.  The  celebrated  Pasambio  or  "  Vinegar  river  " 
which  flows  from  this  mountain  is  charged  with  sulphuric 
and  chlorhydric  acids.  11.  H.  S. 

Pnriinas  :  eighteen  old  traditional  stories,  chiefly  in  San- 
skrit verse,  compiled  by  an  ancient  sage  named  Vydsa,  the 
supposed  founder  of  the  Vedanta  philosophy.  They  contain 
the  history  of  the  gods  interwoven  with  every  variety  of 
legendary  tradition  in  other  subjects.  Six  of  them  relate  to 
Brahma,  sis  to  Vishnu,  and  sis  to  Siva.  Each  is  supposed 
to  treat  of  only  five  topics — the  creation  of  the  universe,  its 
destruction,  the  genealogy  of  the  gods  and  patriarchs,  the 
reigns  and  periods  of  the  Manus,  and  the  history  of  the 
solar  and  the  lunar  kings.  See  Sanskrit  Liteeature,  De- 
VALOKA,  and  Monier-Williams's  Indian  Wisdom.       R.  L. 

Purcell,  Henry  :  composer;  the  most  eminent  and  most 
original  of  English  musicians;  b.  at  Westminster,  England, 
in  1658;  was  appointed  organist  of  Westminster  Abbey  in 
1680;  organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  1682.  Had  it  not 
been  for  the  overshadowing  greatness  of  Handel  (who  made 
England  his  home  so  soon  after  this  period)  it  is  probable 
that  Purcell's  fame  would  have  been  still  greater  and  more 
largely  spread  abroad.  D.  Nov.  21,  1695,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  In  many  respects  he  must  have  been 
looked  upon  with  more  or  less  doubtful  eyes  as  an  innova- 
tor, not  to  say  "  heretic."  His  sacred  works  have  held  their 
own,  commanding  the  admiration  of  modern  critical  opin- 
ion. His  dramatic  and  chamber  music  is  also  admittedly  tlie 
work  of  real  genius,  despite  the  change  of  style,  etc.,  which 
the  centuries  liave  brought  about.  See  Grove's  Dictionary 
of  Music  and  JIusicians  (London,  1881).     Dudley  Buck. 

Purchas,  Samuel  :  author;  b.  at  Thasted, Essex,  in  1577; 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge ;  took  orders  in 
the  Church  of  England :  was  presented  by  James  I.  to  the 
vicarage  of  Eastwood,  Essex,  Aug.,  1604 ;  subsequently  ob- 
tained the  rectory  of  St.  JIartin's,  Ludgate,  London,  and 
became  chaplain  to  Arrhliishoi)  Abbot.  D.  in  London  in 
Sept.,  1626.  Compiler  of  Purchas  his  Pilgrimage:  or.  Re- 
lations of  the  World,  etc.  (folio,  1613),  and  Purchas  his  Pit- 
grimmes  (4  vols.,  folio,  1625),  a  celebrated  collection  from 
the  works  of  many  hundreds  of  travelers,  and  author  of 
Microroxmos.  or  the  History  of  3Ian  (1619),  and  The  King's 
Tower  and  Triumphant  Arch  of  London  (1623). 

Piircliase  :  See  Title. 

Punlne  I'liiversity  :  an  institutional  Lafayette,  Ind. ; 
founded  as  the  Indiana  Institute  of  Technology  by  act  of 
legislature  accepting  the  national  land  grant  for  agricul- 
tural and  mechanical  colleges.  The  location  was  fixed  at 
Lafayette  in  1869,  when  the  name  was  changed  to  Purdue 
University  in  honor  ipf  John  Purdue,  who  made  the  institu- 
tion a  gift  of  .$150,000.  It  was  formally  opened  in  Sept., 
1874,  with  seven  professors  and  sixty-four  students. 

Purdue  University  sustains  schools  in  agriculture,  in  sci- 
ence, in  civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical  engineering,  an<l 
a  school  of  pharmacy.  The  U.  S.  agricultural  experiment 
station  for  Indiana  located  there  in  1887.  The  university 
has  a  farm  and  campus  of  189  acres,  twenty  good  buildings, 


and  property,  including  annuities,  to  the  value  of  .f  1.700,000. 
The  register  of  1893-94  shows  a  faculty  numbering  fifty-five 
and  682  students.  A  new  mechanical  laboratory  and  equip- 
ment, valued  at  |180,000,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  Jan.,  1894, 
but  was  immediately  restored,  with  improvements.  The  in- 
come is  derived  from  land-grant  endowment,  the  Jlorrill 
fund,  and  annual  appropriation  by  the  State  of  Indiana. 

J.  H.  Sjiart. 

Purgatives  [from  Lat.  purgati'vus,  deriv.  of  pnrga're, 
purify,  purge ;  pu'rus,  pure  -I-  a'gere,  make,  do] :  in  medi- 
cine, substances  that  produce  more  or  less  fluid  discharges 
from  the  bowels.  Very  many  drugs  are  purgative  in  suffi- 
cient dose,  but  those  available  in  medicine  as  cathartics,  and 
in  common  use,  are  castor  oil,  rhubarb,  aloes,  and  calomel, 
forming  a  group  of  comparatively  mild  agents,  causing  only 
fluid  feculent  stools ;  certain  salts,  producing  watery  dis- 
charges, of  which  the  most  prominent  are  magnesium  citrate 
and  sulphate,  sodium  phosphate,  acid  potassium  tartrate, 
and  potassium  and  sodium  tartrate ;  and,  finally,  a  group  of 
vegetable  nature,  likewise  producing  watery  stools,  but  also 
being  more  or  less  irritant  to  the  intestines.  These  are 
senna,  jalap,  podophyllum,  scammony,  colocynth,  gamboge, 
croton  oil,  and  elaterium.  Setting  aside  senna,  the  others 
last  mentioned  are  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  drastic  ca- 
thartics, from  their  highly  irritant  properties.  Besides  the 
foregoing,  there  are  many  substances  which  have  a  very 
mild  effect  upon  the  bowels,  and  are  called  laxatives.  The 
more  prominent  of  these  are  magnesia  and  magnesium  car- 
bonate and  sulphur  among  inorganic  substances,  and  cas- 
cara  sagrada,  manna,  purging  cassia,  tamarinds,  prunes,  figs, 
and  other  fruits  among  vegetable.  Purgatives  operate 
partly  by  quickening  the  muscular  contractions  of  the  intes- 
tines, whereby  the  contents  of  the  latter  are  hurried  down 
to  the  rectum,  and  partly,  especially  with  those  causing 
watery  stools,  by  determining  an  abundant  pouring  out  of 
fluid  into  the  intestinal  canal.  They  are  used  for  the  pri- 
mary object  of  emptying  the  bowels,  and  also  to  relieve  con- 
gestion of  distant  organs  and  to  induce  the  absorption  of 
dropsical  collections  of  fluid.         Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Purgatory  [from  Liat. pnrga're,  purify.  See  Purgatives]  : 
according  to  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Oriental  Churches,  a 
place  in  which  the  souls  of  those  who  died  in  the  state  of 
grace  suffer  for  a  time,  either  on  account  of  venial  sin  or  on 
account  of  the  temporal  punishment  due  to  mortal  sin  al- 
ready forgiven.  Purgatory  is  not  a  place  of  probation,  but 
of  expiation.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  committed 
herself  to  only  two  statements  about  purgatory :  (1)  that 
there  is  a  purgatory,  and  (2)  that  the  souls  detained  there 
are  helped  by  the  prayers  of  the  faithful,  and  especially  by 
the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass.  See  Council  of  Florence,  Decree 
of  Union,  and  Trent,  De  Purgatorio,  Sess.  A'A'I".  Further 
tlie  Roman  Catholic  Church  does  not  go,  hut  the  theologians 
discuss  many  other  points,  as  the  character  of  the  suffer- 
ings, the  situation  of  purgatoi'y,  the  number  of  its  inmates, 
etc.  John  J.  Keane. 

Purgiiig-flax  :  the  Linum  catharticum,  an  annual  plant 
resembling  the  common  flax  on  a  small  scale.  It  is  a  native 
of  Europe.  It  has  been  considerably  used  in  medicine  as  a 
gentle  hydragogue  cathartic. 

Pnrim  [Heb.  pur,  plur.  pnrim,  a  lot.  So  called  from 
Haman's  casting  lots  for  the  destruction  of  the  Jews  (Esth. 
iii.  7)] :  a  Jewish  feast,  lasting  two  days,  which  falls  on  the 
14th  and  15th  of  the  month  Adar  (February  and  JMarch),  in 
connnemoration  of  the  deliverance  described  in  the  book  of 
Esther.  The  festival  was  in  former  times,  as  still  in  many 
places,  celebrated  in  a  noisy  and  tumultuous  manner,  with 
loud  expressions  of  hatred  at  the  reading  of  Haman's  name 
in  the  synagogue. 

Puriiitoii,   Daniel  Boardman.  A.  B..   A.  M.,   LL.  D. ; 

educator  and  author ;  b.  in  Preston  co.,  Va.,  Feb.  15,  1850 : 
educated  at  George's  Creek  Academy,  Pennsylvania,  and 
at  tlie  West  Virginia  State  University,  where  he  gradu- 
ated in  1873.  He  has  held  the  following  positions  :  In- 
structor George's  Creek  Academy,  jirofcssor  and  vice-presi- 
dent West  Virginia  State  University ;  since  Dec,  1889,  has 
been  president  of  Denison  Univer.sity,  Granville.  0.  For 
seven  years  he  was  president  of  the  West  Virginia  Baptist 
General  Association.  He  has  pulilished  Christian  Theism 
(1889)  and  The  Contest  of  the  Frogs,  a.  poem  (1888).  Be- 
sides these  he  has  written  hymns  and  music,  both  sacred 
and  secular,  and  about  forty  of  his  pieces  have  been  pub- 
lished. W.  H.  Whitsitt. 


PURITANS 


PURSLANE   FAMILY 


863 


Puritans  [irreg.  from  Lut.  pu'ritas,  purity,  deriv.  of  pn- 
rus,  puro] :  in  Koneral,  persons  who  are  scrupulous  and 
strict  in  llu-ir  reiifiious  life  ;  in  ]iarlicular,  a  body  of  Chris- 
tians which  arose  in  Knf,'laiid  in  the  jixteeiith  century.  The 
Reformation  in  England  under  Henry  VIII.  was  unsatisfac- 
tory to  many,  because,  in  their  view,  it  accomplished  only  a 
partial  elimination  of  the  corrujitions  and  abuses  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Through  the  ecclesiastical  alternations 
of  the  reijjns  of  Kdward  V'l.  and  Ijueen  JIary  lhe.se  recusants 
grew  in  numbers  and  influence.  Many  of  them  fled  to  Ge- 
neva, and  there  eanio  uiuler  Calvin's  influence.  They  re- 
turned on  Mary's  death  with  new  notions  upon  theology 
and  polity.  They  gave  Queen  Elizabeth  no  little  trouble, 
and  were  in  turn  greatly  harassed  by  the  efforts  made, 
through  the  high  eommis-sion  court,  to  force  them  to  con- 
formity. It  was  during  her  reign  that  they  came  to  be 
called  "in  derision  /'i(/-(7((h.s,  because  they  were  ever  calling 
for  a  simpler,  purer  form  of  worship  and  insisting  on  a 
stricter,  purer  life.  They,  however,  supported  her  most 
heartily  when,  after  the  de'struction  of  the  Spanish  Armada 
(l.WS),  she  threw  herself  decidedly  upon  the  Protestant  side. 
They  stood  forth  as  a  distinct  party,  leading  the  opposition 
to  the  despotic  claims  for  the  royal  prerogative  asserted  by 
the  first  two  Stuarts,  anil  their"  influence  culminated  in  a 
triumph  when  royalty  was  overthrown  and  the  Common- 
wealth was  establi"sheii.  The  genuine  Puritans  were  mostly 
of  the  commoners  of  England,  men  of  strong  minds,  good 
judgment,  and  sterling  character.  They  adopted  the  Cal- 
rinistic  creed,  and  rigidly  conformed  their  lives  to  its  prin- 
ciples. This  gave  an  aspect  of  precision  to  their  manners 
and  stern  severity  to  their  lives,  but  it  made  them  strong  in 
their  integrity  aiid  persistent  in  the  struggle  for  liberty  and 
right.  Much  as  they  have  been  ridiculed  and  maligned, 
England  owes  to  the  "Puritans  some  of  the  best  features  of 
her  free  constitution;  and  never  before  had  her  power  in 
Europe  been  felt  as  it  was  under  the  Commonwealth,  when, 
through  Cromwell,  they  controlled  the  Government.  The 
influence  of  the  Dutch  upon  the  Puritans,  in  toning  them 
up  and  suggesting  the  reforms  they  advocated  and,  when 
able,  instituted  in  Church  and  state,  is  now  generally  recog- 
nized. During  the  struggle  with  the  Stuarts  many  Puritans 
emigrated  to  New  England. 

The  term  Puritans  is  applied  loosely  to  embrace  all  who 
objected  to  the  ceremonies  of  the  Established  (^hureh,  and 
atlvocated  holy  living,  and  resisted  the  royal  prerogative. 
But,  especially  with  reference  to  the  early  history  of  the 
U.  S.,  a  distinction  of  two  classes  should  be  recognized.  The 
Puritans  proper  adhered  to  the  Church,  striving  to  mould  it 
to  their  own  views.  The  Independents,  originally  called 
Separatists  and  Brownists,  despairing  of  accomplishing  the 
needed  reform  in  that  way,  insisted  on  an  absolute  separation 
from  the  Church  for  a  new  organization.  The  Pilgrims  who 
established  tlie  first  colony  in  New  England  at  Plymouth 
were  Independents.  Those  who  subsequently  established 
themselves  on  Massachusetts  Hay  were  Puritans,  Neal, 
Hidory  of  the  Pnritanx.  ed.  Choules  (2  vols..  New  York, 
1844);  L.  Bacon,  The  Genesin  of  tlie  New  England  Churches 
(1874);  G.  E.  Ellis,  The  Puritan  Age  in  Massachusetts 
(Boston,  1888);  D.  Cami^ibell,  The  Puritan  in  Holland, 
England,  and  America  (New  York,  2  vols.,  1892).  Also  see 
England,  Cuukcu  of,  and  Indepkndknts. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Purlin  :  a  beam  or  girder  which  connects  two  roof  tru.sses, 
and  upon  whic-h  rafters  are  placed  to  support  the  covering 
of  the  roof.     See  RooK. 

Plirneah  :  town  ;  in  the  presidency  of  Bengal,  British 
India,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Kosi,  in  lat.  25  45  N.  and 
Ion.  88  23'  E.  (see  nnip  of  X.  India,  ref.  6-II).  It  occupies 
an  area  of  9  srj.  miles,  mostly  single  houses  surrounded  with 
gardens,  orchards,  and  indigo  plantations.  Pop.  about 
20.000. 

Piirplo  of  Cassitis:  a  substance  which  is  formed  by  add- 
ing a  tin  solution  to  a  dilute  solution  of  gold  chloride.  The 
tin  solution  must  contain  both  stannous  and  stannic  chlo- 
ride. Analyses  of  this  substance  made  by  different  chemists 
have  not  given  the  same  results.  From  recent  work  it  ap- 
pears highly  proljable  that  the  substance  contains  gold  in 
the  metallic  state.  The  purple  can  be  made  by  treating  a 
solution  of  gold  chloride  with  tin  filings.  When  dry  and 
powdered,  the  purple  of  Cassius  has  a  metallic  luster.  It  is 
used  in  manufacturing  artificial  gems,  and  for  imparting  a 
red,  rose,  or  pink  color  to  porcelain  or  enanu'l.  I.  K. 

Purple,  Tjrian:  See  Tvrian  Plri-le. 


Purpio  Wood :  a  beautiful  plum-colored  wood  from 
Guiana,  of  great  strength  and  capable  of  a  very  smooth  fin- 
ish. It  is  the  product  of  the  leguminous  trees  C'opaifera 
bracteala  and  C.  puhiHora.  It  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range 
of  uses.  "  L.  H.  B. 

Purpura  [Jlod.  Lat..  from  Lat.  purpura,  pnrple-fish]  : 
a  genus  of  marine  gasteropods.  This  genus  furnished  a 
part  of  the  Tyrian  purple  dye  of  antiquity,  whence  the  name. 
There  are  numerous  living  and  extinct  species. 

Purpura  [from  Lat.  purpura,  the  purple-fish,  purple  dye 
or  color,  from  Gr.  ■irop(pipa.  iiurjilc-fish.  the  dye  obtained  from 
the  purple-fish]:  a  condition  m  which  spots  of  deep  purple 
color  apiiear  in  the  skin,  jiroduccd  by  the  escape  of  blood 
from  tlie  vessels.  Purpura  is  not  a  disease,  but  merely  a 
symptom,  like  cough,  which  may  occur  in  many  diseases. 
The  immediate  cause  of  the  ha'morrhage  in  the  skin  is  gen- 
erally either  a  disorganized  condition  of  the  blood  or  a  dis- 
ease "of  the  blood-vessel.  Among  the  blood  diseases  produc- 
ing puqiura  are  leukaemia,  progressive  pernicious  ana^nda, 
scurvy,  and  the  like.  Among  the  causes  which  influence 
the  blood-vessels  are  to  be  counted  certain  poisons,  but  in 
these  the  blood  it.self  is  also  altered.  A  number  of  causes 
appear  to  affect  both  the  blood  and  the  vessel  walls.  Among 
these  are  the  infectious  fevers,  like  typhus  and  smallpox, 
poisoning  V)y  phosphorus,  snake  bite,  etc.  The  treatment  of 
purpura  requires,  first  of  all,  a  consideration  of  its  cause. 
After  this  symptomatic  treatment  is  useful.  Iron,  arsenic, 
quinine,  or  other  tonics  are  useful,  and  styptics  may  be  neces- 
sary to  control  ha'morrhage.  William  Pepper. 

Purpnrin :  a  substance  whose  formula  is  Ci4Hb06  =  Cn- 

E5(On)3(03)".  It  exists  in  madder  in  the  form  of  a  gluco- 
side,  distinct  from  ruberythric  acid,  which  is  the  alizarin 
glucoside.  It  is  extracted  from  madder  by  the  same  proc- 
esses as  alizarin,  and  is  usually  separated  from  it  by  its 
greater  solubility  in  a  solution  of  alum.  F.  de  Lalande  con- 
verts alizarin  iiito  purpurin  by  treating  it  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  arsenic  acid  or  manganese  dioxide  ;  pours  into 
water,  and  purifies  the  precipitate  by  alum.  etc. 

Purpurin  apjiears  as  a  red  powder,  in  red  feathery  crystals 
(l)V  sublimation),  and  in  orange-red  needles  (from  boiling  al- 
cohol). It  is  slightly  soluble  in  boiling  water,  giving  a  rose- 
colored  solution.  It  dissolves  in  alcohol,  ether,  benzene, 
glycerin,  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  acetic  acid.  Its 
solution  in  sulphuric  acid  may  be  heated  to  400  F.  without 
decomposition,  the  purpurin  being  thrown  down  unchanged 
on  pouring  the  solution  into  water.  It  dissolves  in  a  boil- 
ing alum  solution  to  a  pink  fluorescent  liquid,  aiui  does  not 
separate  on  cooling,  even  from  concentrated  solutions.  It 
dissolves  in  alkaline  hydrates  and  carbonates,  forming 
cherry-red  or  poppy-red"  solutions,  from  which  acids  repre- 
cipitate  it  in  orange-yellow  flocks.  The  solutions  in  alka- 
line hydrates  lose  colo"r  on  standing  in  the  air,  the  purpurin 
being"oxidized  and  destroyed.  Boiling  nitric  acid  converts 
purpurin  into  phthalic  and  oxalic  acids.  With  bases  it 
forms  compounds;  those  with  the  alkalies  are  soluble  in 
water.  The  basic,  calcic,  and  aluminic  lakes  are  soluble  in 
boiling  solutions  of  sodium  carbonate. 

Application  to  Dyeing  and  Calico-printing. — With  alu- 
mina mordants  purpurin  produces  bright  reds ;  with  iron, 
grayish  violet.  These  tints  resist  cleaning  with  soap  and 
nitro-hvdrochloride  of  tin  tolerably  well,  but  are  not  so  per- 
manent as  those  produced  by  ali"zarin.  nor  do  they  resist 
light  as  well.  There  is  a  ditference  of  opinion  as  to  the  part 
played  by  purpurin  when  nuidder,  garancin,  etc.,  are  used 
in  dyeing"  calico.  Some  think  the  purpurin  of  little  impor- 
tance ;  others  consider  it  essential  to  certain  pinks  and  reds. 
On  account  of  its  high  price,  this  dvestutf  is  but  little  used. 

Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Pur'ree,  or  Indian  Yellow  [purree  is  from  Hind,  peori, 
yellow]:  a  yellow  coloring-matter  brought  from  India  and 
China  in  lumps  weighing  li  or  4  oz.,  brown  on  the  outside 
and  deep  orange-yellow  within.  It  is  made  almost  exclu- 
sively at  Monghyr.  in  Hcngal,  from  the  urine  of  cows  fed  on 
mango  leaves.  "When  the  urine  is  heated  the  coloring-mat- 
ter separates.  One  cow  produces  on  the  average  2  oz.  of 
inirree  a  clay.  It  is  used  for  the  preparation  of  Indian  yel- 
low, a  fine,  rich,  durable  yellow  color,  much  used  by  artists, 
and  often  adulterated  with  chronui  yellow.  It  consists 
mainlv  of  the  magnesium  and  calcium  salts  of  euxanthic 
,ic-id.  ■  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Purslane  Family  :  the  Porlulacacen:  a  family  of  succu- 
lent  dicotyledonous  herbs  and   shrubs,  all   harmless  and 


864 


PURSUIVANT   OP  ARMS 


PUTNAM 


many  of  them  with  gay  flowers.  The  purslanes  (Portulaca), 
the  calandrinias,  and  the  claytonias,  include  a  few  orna- 
mental species.  Common  purslane  (Portulaca  oleracea)  is 
a  well-known  annual  weed  of  fields  and  gardens  in  the  U.  S. 
(where  it  is  colloquially  called  pusley).  It  was  introduced 
thither  from  Southern  Europe,  where  it  is  freely  eaten  as  a 
pot-herb.  C.  E.  B. 

Pur'siiivaiit  of  Arms :  the  lowest  order  of  officers  in 
heraldry.     See  Heralury  and  Heralds'  College. 

Piiri'is,  poo-roos' :  one  of  the  most  important  tributaries 
of  the  Amazon,  on  its  southern  side ;  rises  within  the  con- 
fines of  Peru  near  lat.  11'  S.,  thence  passes  through  a  small 
part  of  Bolivia,  flowing  N.  E.  through  Brazil,  and  joining 
the  Amazon  (after  receiving  some  of  its  water  through  sev- 
eral chanels,  near  Ion.  61^  30'  \V.).  It  is  entirely  a  river  of 
the  forest-covered  plains,  and  extremely  crooked.  Tliongh 
the  distance  in  a  direct  line  between  its  source  and  mouth 
is  only  900  miles,  the  channel  is  nearly  1,900  miles  long.  It 
was  first  explored  in  1864-65  by  the  English  traveler 
Chandless.  He  ascended  it  in  a  canoe  until  he  found  it  re- 
duced to  a  mere  brook,  and  up  to  that  point  it  was  unob- 
structed by  rapids.  The  Puri'is  has  many  affluents.  It  is 
much  frequented  by  rubber-gatherers,  and  steamers  ascend 
regularly  during  the  rubber  season ;  but  the  few  small  set- 
tlements on  the  banks  are  near  the  mouth.  See  Chandless, 
Ascent  of  the  River  Purus  (in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society,  1866).  Herbert  H.  .Smith. 

PurTa-niTmahsa :  See  Hindu  Philosophy  and  Mimansa. 

Purves,  George  Tybout,  D.  D.  :  Presbyterian  minister 
and  professor ;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  27, 1853 ;  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  1873,  and  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  1876  ;  pastor  at  Wavne,  Pa.,  1877 ; 
at  Baltimore,  1880;  at  'Pittsburg,  1886;  and  Professor  of 
New  Testament  Literature  and  Exegesis  in  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  1893.  He  was  Stone  lecturer  at  Princeton 
1888.  Besides  articles  in  theological  reviews,  he  has  pub- 
lished The  Testimony  of  Justin  Martyr  to  Early  Chris- 
tianity (the  Stone  Lectures,  New  York,  1889).     C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Pus :  See  Suppuration. 

Pn'sey,  Edward  Bouverie,  D.  D.,  D.  C.  L.  :  theologian  ; 
b.  at  Pusey,  Berkshire,  England,  in  1800 ;  a  nephew  of  the 
first  Earl  of  Radnor ;  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford ;  graduated  with  high  honors  1833  ;  became 
a  fellow  of  Oriel  College  1823 ;  studied  in  Germany,  and  in 
1828  became  Regius  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford  and  one 
of  the  canons  of  Christ  Church.  His  contributions  to  the 
Tracts  for  the  Times  (1S35,  seq.),  of  which  series  he  wrote 
Nos.  18,  66,  67,  and  69,  gave  to  the  Tractarian  movement 
the  name  of  "  Puseyism."  Newman's  celebrated  tract.  No. 
90,  was  in  1841  defended  by  Dr.  Pusey  in  a  published  letter 
which  excited  much  controversy.  (See  Tractariaxism.)  lie 
was  suspended  from  preaching  in  the  university  for  three 
years  (1843-46)  in  consequence  of  the  supposed  utterance  of 
heretical  doctrine  in  a  sermon  on  the  real  presence.  Among 
the  most  important  of  his  works  are :  On  the  Benefits  of 
Cathedral  Institutinns  (1833);  On  tlie  Royal  Supremacy 
(1850);  On  the  Real  Presence  (1855,  1857);  History  nf  the 
Councils  of  the  Church  (1857);  Commentary  on  the  Minor 
Prophets  (i860,  setj.) ;  Daniel,  the  Prophet  (1864) ;  Eirenicon, 
etc.     D.  at  Oxford,  Sept.  16,  1882. 

Dr.  Pusey's  first  publication  (1838)  was  An  Uistorical 
Enquiry  into  the  probable  causes  of  tlie  Rationalistic  Char- 
acter lately  Predomiiiniif  in  the  Theology  of  Germany,  in 
answer  to  Hugh  Jaincs  Kosc's /J/wvutrses  on  the  State  of 
Protestantism  in  Germany.  Both  writers  agreed  that  Ger- 
man theology  was  in  a  bad  state,  but  differed  as  to  its 
causes,  Rose  approaching  the  subject  from  the  polemical, 
Pusey  from  the  historical  side.  Each  replied  to  the  other, 
Pusey  having  the  final  word  (1830),  here  first  showing  his 
hand  as  a  religious  controversialist.  Later  on,  however, 
the  book  did  not  satisfy  Pusey,  and  he  withdrew  it  from 
circulation.  He  hail  taken  in  it  a  fiosition  more  rationalis- 
tic than  he  was  afterward  willing  to  maintain.  His  next 
publication  appeared  in  1833,  and  was  occasioned  by  Lord 
Henley's  plan  for  the  abolition  of  cathedral  institutions. 
Pusey  stood  forth  strongly  in  their  defense,  and  looked  at 
both  their  prospective  and  their  [jast  benefits  in  the  promo- 
tion of  .sound  religious  knowlrdg,..  In  this  book  the  author's 
standpoint  fully  reveals  itsi'lf.  He  had  long  been  accus- 
tomcil  to  hear  the  confessions  of  mi-n  and  women  who  went 
to  him  fur  spiritual  advice,  and  insisted  that  the  Church  of 
England  allowed  both  confessions  to  its  people  and  absolu- 


tion through  its  priesthood.  The  disputes  over  the  con- 
fessional led  to  his  famous  letter  to  W.  Upton  Richards,  in 
1850,  entitled  The  C/iurch  of  England  leaves  her  Cliildren 
free  to  ivhom  to  open  their  Griefs,  which  made  a  great  im- 
pression at  the  time.  He  was  also  mainly  instrumental  in 
fostering  the  growth  of  conventual  institutions  in  the 
Church,  and  in  establishing  voluntary  penitentiaries  for 
women.  Canon  Thomas  Thelluson  Carter's  work  at  Clewer 
and  Rev.  Dr.  John  Mason  Neale's  work  at  East  Grinstead 
were  the  outgrowth  of  his  teachings.  In  1865  came  a  new 
departure.  Cardinal  Manning,  in  a  Letter  to  an  Anglican 
Friend,  challenged  him  to  show  that  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land was  the  Catholic  Church,  or  any  part  of  it,  or  in  any 
divine  or  true  sense  of  the  word  a  Church  at  all.  This  was 
the  occasion  of  Dr.  Pusey's  famous  letter  to  John  Keble  en- 
titled The  Truth  and  Office  of  the  English  Church,  in  which 
he  set  forth  the  terms  of  an  eirenicon  between  the  Anglican 
and  Roman  Churches.  This  volume  drew  forth  a  friendly 
response  from  Rev.  Dr.  Newman,  to  which  he  replied  in  two 
successive  pamphlets  as  large  as  the  original  work,  the  last 
of  which  appeared  in  1870. 

Personally,  Dr.  Pusey  was  an  humble  and  holy  man.  His 
piety  was  of  the  ascetic  or  monastic  type.  His  theology 
was  essentially  Catholic,  consequently  "he  was  opposed  to 
Romanism  in  many  important  question.s — such  as  mariola- 
try,  the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  etc.  It  has  truly  been  said 
of  him  that  he  was  the  moral,  as  Newman  was  the  intellec- 
tual, and  Keble  the  poetic,  leader  of  the  Anglo-C'atholic 
movement.  The  acknowledged  revival  of  the  English 
Church  dates  from  the  Oxford  movement,  and  is  largely  due 
to  the  loyal  devotion  to  Anglicanism  and  the  scholarly  de- 
fense of  its  Catholicity  which  have  made  the  name  of  Pusey 
famous.  His  Life  was  undertaken  by  Canon  Henry  Parry 
Liddon,  who  left  it  unfinished  at  his  own  death  in  1890. 
It  was  then  completed  and  published  by  Rev.  John  Octavius 
Johnston  and  Rev.  Robert  James  Wilson  (4  vols.,  London 
and  New  York,  1893-95).  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Pushkin, or  Poucliekin,  Alexander Sergeievitch  :  poet ; 
b.  in  Moscow,  Russia,  May  26,  1799 ;  studied  at  Tzarskoe 
Selo ;  entered  in  1817  as  clerk  in  the  Government  office  of 
foreign  affairs,  but  was  discharged  in  1820  for  an  Ode  to 
Liberty,  and  banished  to  his  estates ;  was  recalled  in  1825 
by  the  Emperor  Nicholas,  who  restored  him  to  his  office, 
charged  him  with  writing  the  history  of  Peter  the  Great, 
and  gave  his  widow  a  pension  of  10,000  rubles  when  he  was 
killed  in  a  duel  at  St.  Petersburg,  J.an.  39,  1837.  By  his 
countrymen  he  is  considei'ed  the  greatest  poet  Russia  ever 
produced,  and  those  of  his  works  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  German,  French,  or  English  have  attracted  great 
attention.  He  wrote  romantic  epics — Ruslcm  and  Liudmila 
(1830),  Kaiekdzsl-ij Plehnmk  (1833),  etc. ;  one  drama — Boris 
Godunow  ;  several  novels,  imder  the  pseudonym  of  Belldn, 
of  which  some  were  translated  into  English  in  1875  by  Mrs. 
J.  Buchan  Telferin  Russian  Romance.  His  collected  works 
in  twelve  volumes  were  published  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1839 ; 
a  translation  of  his  Poems  in  New  York  (1889). 

Pushtu  Language :  See  Afghan  Language  and  Litera- 
ture. 

Pusley :  See  Purslane  Family. 

Pustule,  MaHgnant:  See  Anthrax. 

Putamen :  See  Drupe. 

Puteoli :  See  Pozzuoli. 

Putnam :  town  ;  Windham  co..  Conn. ;  on  the  Quinne- 
baug  river  and  the  N.  Y.  and  New  England  Railroad ;  36 
mile's  S.  by  W.  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  33  miles  N.  by  E.  of 
Norwich  (for  location,  see  map  of  Connecticut,  ref,  7-L). 
It  is  noted  f<n-  its  manufactures,  which  include  silk,  cotton, 
and  woolen  goods,  boots,  shoes,  and  slippers,  steam-heaters, 
cutlery,  and  carriages.  There  are  several  lumber-yards  and 
wood-working  plants,  3  national  banks  with  combined  capi- 
tal of  S!335.Of30,  3  savings-banks  with  deposits  of  over  .$3,000,- 
000,  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  The  assessed  valuation  in 
1893  was  13,036,631.     Pop.  (1880)  5.837  ;  (1890)  6,513. 

Putnam,  Frederick  Ward  :  anthropologist ;  b.  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  Apr.  16,  1839 ;  was  educated  by  his  father  until  18.56, 
when  he  entered  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  under  Prof. 
Agassiz,  with  whom  he  remained  until  1864,  when  he  re- 
turned to  Salem  :  took  an  active  part  in  the  Essex  Institute 
as  sui>erintendent  of  its  museum.  On  the  foundation  of 
the  PealK.dy  Academy  of  Science  in  1867  he  was  elected 
director  of  the  museum,  which  position  he  held  until  Oct., 
1875,  when  he  succeeded  Prof.  Wyman  as  curator  of  the 


PUTNAM 


PUY-DE-DOME 


865 


Peabody  Museum  of  Archicology  and  Ethnologv  at  Cara- 
bridse.  He  was  one  of  tlio  founders  oi  The  American  Natu- 
ralist; was  elected  pei'Miaiient  seei-ctary  of  the  Ameriean 
Assofiation  for  tlii!  Ailvaneement  of  Seionce :  wasaiipointed 
in  Dec,  1875,  civilian  assistant  on  the  U.  S.  surveys  W.  of 
the  100th  meridian  (in  charge  of  Lieut.  Wheeler),  being  in- 
trusted with  the  special  duty  of  reporting  on  the  archa-o- 
logical  and  ethnological  material  that  had  been  collected; 
and  in  1876-78  ha<l  charge  of  the  Agassi/,  collection  of  fishes 
at  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoc'Uogy  ;  in  1881)  was  aji- 
pointed  Professor  of  American  An'ha-ology  and  Ethnology 
at  Harvard  ;  was  chief  of  the  <lepartmcnt  of  ethnology,  etc., 
at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  1893. 

Revised  by  .1.  S.  Kixoslev. 

Plltiiam.  Geokok  I'almeb:  publisher;  b.  at  Hrnnswick, 
Me.,  Feb.  21,  1814;  became  a  bookseller's  clerk  in  Boston 
1836,  and  in  New  York  1838  ;  prepared  in  early  youth  Chro- 
notogy,  or  an  Introduction  and  Index  to  [^niversal  IJistori/, 
Biography,  and  Useful  Knoidedye  (New  York,  1833),  repub- 
lished in  18.30  and  iii  later  editions  as  The  World's  Progress, 
a  Dictionary  of  Dates  :  visited  Europe  in  the  employ  of  .John 
Wiley  1836-38,  with  whom  he  became  a  partner  1840;  re- 
sided' in  Loudon  1840-47;  wrote  The  Tourist  in  Europe 
(1838)  and  American  Facts  (184.5) ;  and  prepared  a  Pocket 
Memorandum-book  in  France.  Italy,  and  Germany  (1848). 
Returning  to  New  York  in  1847,  he  began  business  on  Ids 
own  account  in  1848,  and  founded  Putnam's  ilagazine, 
which  ran  from  18.'J3  to  LS.iO,  was  re-established  in  1868, 
and  merged  with  Scrihner's  Monthly  in  1870.  He  held  the 
position  of  collector  of  internal  revenue  in  New  York  1863- 
C6  ;  became  one  of  the  founders  and  honorary  superintend- 
ent of  the  Jletropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  and  was  chairman 
of  the  committee  on  art  in  connection  with  the  universal 
exposition  at  Vienna.     D.  in  New  York.  Dec.  10,  1873. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Bekbs. 

Putnam,  Isr.iel  :  soldier ;  b.  at  Salem  (that  part  now 
the  town  of  Danvers),  Mass.,  Jan.  7,  1718.  With  only  a 
very  rude  education,  his  natural,  vigorous  mental  endow- 
ments enabled  him  to  exercise  a  wide  influence  upon  the 
exciting  events  of  his  time,  while  his  strong  physical  powers 
and  <laring  disposition  were  disjilayeil  in  the  many  roman- 
tic adventures  related  of  him.  In  1739  he  married  and  re- 
moved to  Pomfrel,  Conn.,  where  he  became  a  successfid 
farmer  and  a  large  wool-grower.  By  various  daring  ad- 
ventures he  established  a  reputation  for  courage — a  reputa- 
tion he  subsequently  maintained  in  the  French  war,  in 
which  he  eomnninded  a  company  of  Connecticut  troops 
with  distinction  at  Crown  Point  and  Tieonderoga.  In 
Aug.,  1756,  while  in  command  of  a  party,  he  was  captured 
by  the  enemy  and  bouml  to  a  tree,  where  during  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  action  he  was  frequently  exposed  to  the  fire 
of  both  friend  and  foe,  but  escaped  unhurt.  He  was,  how- 
ever, borne  away  by  the  enemy  in  their  retreat,  and  at  night 
the  fire  had  been  lighted  to  burn  him  alive  when  he  was 
.saved  by  the  intervention  of  a  French  officer,  Molang. 
Taken  to  Tic'onderoga,  and  subsequently  to  Montreal,  he 
was,  by  the  influence  of  Col.  Schuyler,  himself  a  prisoner 
at  the  latter  idaee  on  Putnam's  arrival,  exchangeil  in  1759 
and  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-colonel.  He  rctnrtieil  to  his 
farm  on  the  restoration  of  peace.  The  news  of  the  battle 
of  Lexington  reached  him  while  plowing,  and  leaving  his 
plow  he  mounteil  his  horse  and  ro<le  rapidly  to  Candiridge. 
After  a  brief  consultation  he  returned  to  Connecticut,  when 
he  was  made  brigadier-general  by  the  Legislature,  of  which 
he  was  a  member,  and  a  week  later  was  on  his  way  back 
to  Cambridge  at  the  head  of  a  regiment  which  he  ha<i 
raised.  S]iurniug  theolfi'rsof  raid\  and  money  made  to  him 
by  the  British,  he  entered  with  zeal  upon  the  struggle  for 
independence,  and  soon  <-onducted  several  successful  expe- 
ditions. At  the  battle  of  Buid<er  Hill  he  displayed  his  usual 
energy  ami  bravery  throughout  the  day,  as  well  as  in  the 
subsecjuent  endeavor  to  rally  the  overpowered  and  retreat- 
ing troops.  Washington,  upon  his  arrival  to  assume  com- 
mand (.Julv  2),  Ijestowcil  ujion  Pnlnam  one  of  the  four  ma- 
jor-generals' commissions  he  bore  from  Congress,  but  the 
other  three  were  not  then  delivered.  Upon  the  evacuation 
of  Boston,  Putnam  was  ordered  to  take  command  at  New 
York,  and  after  the  battle  of  Long  Island  and  evacuation 
of  New  York  was  sent  to  I'hiladelplua  to  complete  the  forti- 
fication of  that  citv  ;  subsequently  .stationed  at  Crosswicks 
and  Princeton,  N.  .J.,  he  was  in  May,  1777,  assigniMl  to  com- 
mand the  army  in  the  Highlands  of  New  York.  Owing  to 
the  dissatisfaction  created  by  the  surprise  and  loss  of  Forts 
889 


Montgomery  and  Clinton  in  the  summer  of  1777,  Putnam 
was  removed  from  his  command,  although  a  subsequent 
court  of  inciuiry  acquitted  him  from  blame  for  their  cap- 
ture, and  he  was  restored  to  commanil.  His  success  as  a 
general,  however,  was  not  eijual  to  his  reputation  for  enter- 
prise and  daring.  While  on  a  visit  to  his  home  in  Con- 
necticut in  1779  he  was  stricken  with  paralysis,  from  which 
he  oidy  i)art tally  recovered.  D.  at  Brooklyn,  Conn.,  May  19, 
17'.ll).  '  "  Itevised  l)y  C.  K.  Adams. 

Putnam,  Mary  Traill  Spence  (Lowell):  author;  sister 
of  .lames  Russell  Lowell ;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Dec.  3,  1810; 
was  early  distinguished  as  a  linguist  :  was  married  in  1833 
to  Samuel  R.  Putnam,  a  nuM-chant  of  Boston  (d.  1861) ;  re- 
sided in  Europe  1851-57;  puMif^hed  a.  History  of  the  Con- 
stitution of  Hungary  and  its  Relations  with  Austria  (1850) ; 
Records  of  an  Oliscure  Man  (1861) :  The  Tragedy  of  Errors, 
and  The  Tragedy  of  Success  (1863),  the  latter  two  a  dra- 
matic poem  in  two  parts,  illustrative  of  slavery  ;  a  memoir 
of  her  sou,  William  Lowell  I'uliuun  (killed  at  the  battle  of 
Ball's  liluir,  1861) ;  Fifteen  Days  (1866) :  memoir  of  Charles 
Lowell  (1885) :  contributed  largely  to  The  North  American 
Reriew  and  TAe  Christian  Ejaminer,  and  translated  from 
the  Swedish  Frederica  Bremer's  novel  Hie  Neighbors. 

Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Putnam,  Rufus  :  soldier ;  b.  in  Sutton,  Mass.,  April  9, 
1738;  a  millwright  by  trade,  he  abandoned  his  occujjation 
to  serve  as  a  private  in  the  French  war  of  1757-60  ;  resum- 
ing his  business  on  the  return  of  peace,  by  study  during 
spare  time  he  attained  proficiency  in  nuithematics  and  sur- 
veying;  in  1773  visited  Florida,  and  was  appointed  de]iuty 
surveyor  of  that  province.  In  the  war  of  the  Revolution, 
as  Ueutenaut-colonel  of  a  regiment,  he  superintended  the 
defenses  of  Roxbury,  Mass. ;  was  appointed  chief  engineer 
with  rank  of  colonel,  and  charged  with  the  defense  of  New 
York  by  fortifications;  constructed  the  fortifications  at  'West 
Point  ill  connection  with  his  cousin,  Israel  Putnam;  com- 
manded a  regiment  in  Wayne's  brigade  until  the  close  of 
the  war;  in  Jan.,  1783,  was  appointed  a  brigadier-general; 
was  frequently  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature; 
was  aide  to  Gov.  Lincoln  during  Shays's  rebellion  1787 ; 
formed  a  land  company,  which  purchased  large  tracts  of 
land  in  what  is  now  Ohio  and  founded  Marietta,  the  first 
pormanent  settlement  in  the  Northwest;  was  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  Northwest  Territory  1789  ;  appointed 
brigadier-general  1793,  he  accompaiued  Gen.  Wayne's  army 
to  Detroit  against  the  Indians,  and  subseijuently  as  U.  S. 
commissioner  negotiated  an  important  treaty  with  numer- 
ous tribes;  from  1793  to  1803  U.  S.  surveyor-general.  D.  at 
Marietta,  O.,  May  1,  1824. 

Putrefaction:  See  Fermentation. 

Putty  [from  0.  Fr.  potee,  calcined  br.ass,  tin,  etc.,  putty, 
dcriv.  of  y;o/.  pot,  the  substance  formerly  called  putty  re- 
sembling putty-powder  and  being  often  made  from  the 
metal  of  old  pots]  :  a  cement  used'by  glaziers  for  fastening 
window-glass  in  place,  and  by  painters  for  filling  holes  in 
wood  over  nail-heads,  etc.  It 'is  composed  of  whiting  (cal- 
cium carbonate)  and  linseed  oil,  often  ccdorcd  with  pigment. 

Putty-powder  :  oxide  of  tin,  or  a  mixture  of  this  oxide 
with  ox'ide  of  lead,  used  for  polishing  glass,  etc.  It  is  pre- 
pareil  by  calcining  tin  or  a  ndxture  of  tin  and  lead.  For 
the  opti'cian's  use  it  is  pre|iared  by  precipitating  a  solution 
of  tin  in  aqua  regia  with  ammonia,  washing,  drying,  and 
igniting  the  product. 

Putiiniayo  :  Sec  IgA. 

Puvis  de  Cliavannps,  pi'i've'i's'dc-chii'ava'an',  Pierre  : 
historical  painter  ;  b.  in  Lyons,  Fran<'e,  Dec.  14, 1824  ;  pupil 
of  Henry  SchefTer  and  of  Couture  :  awarded  nuidal  of  honor 
1883  ;  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  1889.  He  is  oiu^ 
of  the  greatest  artists  of  the  French  school,  and  his  mural 
paintings  in  the  Pantheon,  the  New  Sorbonne.  and  the  hotel 
de  ville  iu  Paris,  the  nmseum  at  Amiens,  and  other  public 
buildings  in  France,  have  [ilaced  him  at  the  he.-id  of  modern 
decorative  painters.  His  works  are  especially  remarkable 
for  their  grand  style,  dignity  of  composition,  and  delicate 
schemes  of  coloration.     Studio  in  Paris. 

William  A.  Coffin. 

Pny-de-Dome.  pwee' de-dom' :  a  central  department  of 
France  ;  area.  3,070  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  high  and  on 
the  W.  covered  with  branches  of  the  Ccvennes  and  the  Au- 
vergne  mountains,  whose  conical  peaks  and  their  extinct 
craters  (./nit/s).  together  with  the  large  masses  of  lava  and 
basalt,  show  the  volcanic  character  of  the  country.     The 


866 


PUY,  LE 


PYM 


highest  of  these  mountains  is  Puy-de-Sarcy  (6,188  feet) ;  on 
the  E.  are  the  Forez  Mountains, 'reaching  5,380  feet.  The 
chief  rivers  are  tlie  AUier  and  the  Dordogne.  The  soil  is 
generally  fertile,  but  agriculture  is  not  in  an  advanced  state. 
Wheat  and  wine  are  prod\iced  :  on  the  fine  pastures  of  the 
mountain  [jlateaus  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared.  Iron,  lead, 
and  silver  are  founil  in  small  quantities ;  marble,  granite, 
and  millstones  are  quarried.  The  manufacturing  industry 
is  not  much  developed.     Pop.  (1891)  564,266. 

Pny,  Le,  or  Le  Puy-eii-Velay,  le-pwee'aan-ve-la  :  capital 
of  the  department  of'  llaute-Lo'ire,  France  ;  70  miles  S.  W. 
of  Lyons  (see  map  of  France,  ref.  7-G).  It  is  picturesquely 
built  in  terraces  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  on  the 
slopes  of  Jit.  Anis,  on  tlie  summit  of  which  is  a  basaltic 
mass  called  Mt.  Corneille,  crowned  by  a  figure  (53  feet  high) 
of  the  Virgin,  made  of  Russian  cannon  brought  from  Sebas- 
topol.  It  has  celebrated  bell-foundries  and  manufactures  of 
yarn,  laces,  linen,  and  woolen  fabrics  and  cloth.  Pop.  (1891) 
20,038. 

Puzzolaiia  :  same  as  Pozzuolana  {q.  v.). 

Pyse'mia:  See  Blood-poisoning. 

Pycnogou'ida  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  iruKv6s,  close  -i-  y6vv, 
knee] :  a  group  of  marine  arthropods  of  uncertain  position. 
The  common  name  sea-spiders  alludes  to  their  resemblances 
to  the  true  Arachnida.  They  have  a  small  jointed  body 
terminated  by  a  proboscis  in  front  and  a  short  abdomen  be- 
hind, and  upon  this  are  borne,  typically,  six  pairs  of  appen- 
dages, four  of  which  are  used  by  the  animal  in  its  slow  mo- 
tions over  seaweeds  and  hydroids.  In  the  male  a  seventh 
Eair  is  present,  and  upon  this  the  eggs  are  carried  until  they 
atch.  In  other  forms  the  number  of  legs  may  be  reduced 
until  only  four  pairs  of  appendages  are  present.     The  nerv- 


A  deep-sea  pycuogouid  {Colossendeia)  after  Wilson.    Oue-quarter 
natural  size. 

ous  system  is  on  the  regular  arthropod  plan  ;  the  four  eyes 
(ocelli)  on  the  first  body-segment  are  peculiar  in  structure: 
circulatory  organs  are  present,  but  those  of  respiration  are 
lacking.  The  alimentary  canal  sends  pouches  into  the  legs. 
After  hatching,  the  young  of  some  species  form  galls  upon 
hydroids,  recalling  the  galls  upon  plants.  By  the  older 
naturalists  the  Pi/cnogonkla  were  regarded  as  Crustacea ; 
more  lately  the  tendency  is  to  phice  them  among  the 
Arachnida.  See  Wilson,  A^ew  England  Species.  Report  U.  S. 
Fish  Commission  for  ltlT8;  Morgan,  Development  and  Posi- 
tion, Studies  Biol.  Lab.  Johns  Hopkins,  v.  (1891). 

J.  S.  KlNGSLEY. 

Pyg'malion  (in  Gr.  nvy^Laxlav) :  a  king  of  Cyprus,  who 
fell  in  love  with  an  ivory  statue  of  a  maiden  which  he  him- 
self had  made.  He  prayed  to  Aphrodite  to  endue  the  statue 
with  life  ;  his  prayer  was  granted,  and  the  animated  statue 
became  his  wife  and  bore  to  him  Paphus.  J.  R,  S.  S. 

Pygmy,  or  Dwarf,  Tribes  [pygmi/  is  from  Lat.  pygmw'us 
=  Gr.  TTvyiiaios,  about  a  foot  long,  a  Ttvyfii]  in  length,  deriv. 
oiwvyfiii,  fist,  the  length  of  the  forearm  with  the  fist  closed] : 
peoples  much  under  average  stature,  found  in  small  numbers 
in  Southern  India  and  Madagascar,  constituting  a  large 
part  of  the  inhaliitants  of  the  Andamans.  and  spread  widely 
over  the  southern  half  of  Africa.  Their  origin  is  unknown, 
but  all  seem  to  pertain  to  the  Negro  or  Negrito  families. 
They  have  been  chiedy  studied  in  Africa.  Their  existence 
has  been  known  since  tlie  dawn  of  history,  but  when  the 
world  repudiated  many  statoiuents  of  the  earliest  geog- 
raphers it  rejected  also"  the  Jiygmy  tribes  of  whom  Homer, 
Herodotus,  Hekatanis,  and  other  ancients  wrote,  and  they 
were  not  rediscovered  until  the  seccmd  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  pygmy  tribes  of  Afi'ica  have  been  distributed 
into  f(jiir  great  groups  :  (1)  The  dwarfs  of  West  Africa  ;  (2) 
those  of  the  central  regions:  (3)  the  East  African  dwarfs; 
ami  (4)  the  tribes  that  live  S.  of  the  Congo  basin. 


The  first  group  (Obongo,  Akoa,  Babongo)  live  chiefly  among 
the  forests  between  the  Gabun,  Ogowe,  and  Congo  rivers, 
where  tliey  are  scattered  among  various  Bantu  tribes.  The 
height  of  the  adult  male  Obongo  is  4'3  to  4'7  feet,  while  that 
of  the  women  is  less. 

The  second  group  (Akka,  Wambutti,  Batua)  are  tlie  most 
important  tribes  of  pygmies.  They  inhabit  the  vast  forest- 
region  S.  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Jlobangi-Jlakua  tribu- 
tary of  the  Congo,  and  are  found  also  far  S.  along  the 
Lomami,  Chuapa,  Bussera,  and  other  southern  tributaries 
of  that  river.  They  range  in  height  from  4'3  to  4'8  feet, 
the  Akkas  being  the  smallest  known  people.  The  pygmies 
in  groups  one  and  two  greatly  resemble  one  another  in  ap- 
pearance and  mode  of  living.  They  are  skillful,  nomadic 
hunters,  building  rude  temporary  huts  wherever  game  is 
plentiful,  killing  even  the  largest  game  with  spears  and  poi- 
soned arrows,  or  by  means  of  pitfalls  and  traps,  and  supply- 
ing the  Bantu  tribes  with  flesh  and  skins  in  exchange  for 
vegetable  food,  spears,  knives,  and  other  articles.  They 
never  engage  in  agriculture.  They  are  usually  lighter  in 
color  than  the  Bantus  and  many  have  slight  beards.  They 
often  intermarry  with  other  peoples  and  speak  the  languages 
of  surrounding  tribes.  They  have  rarely  been  induced  to 
speak  their  own  languages  in  the  presence  of  strangers. 

The  third  group  are  the  Dokos  and  other  tribes  living  B. 
of  the  Nile  and  S.  of  Kaffa,  and  the  river  Onto.  No  explorer 
(1894)  has  visited  them,  but  there  is  abundant  evidence  as 
to  their  existence.  They  are  similar  in  size,  appearance, 
and  habits  to  the  pygmies  of  the  Upper  Nile  and  Congo 
regions. 

The  Bushmen  and  their  relatives,  comprising  the  fourth 
group,  are  from  4  to  4-5  feet  in  height  and  subsist  by  the 
chase  and  on  the  roots  and  fruits  of  the  Kalahari  desert. 

These  groups,  though  separated  by  wide  territories  inhab- 
ited by  many  tribes  of  different  origin,  have  so  many  simi- 
larities that  their  relationship  is  regarded  as  proven.  Very 
little  is  yet  known  of  their  languages,  but  some  words  col- 
lected in  the  various  groups  are  identical.  The  assumption 
that  these  tribes  are  remnants  of  the  original  population  of 
Africa  is  plausible  on  several  grounds.  The  Andaman  island- 
ers are  from  4'6  to  4-9  feet  high,  are  more  pleasing  to  look 
uiKJii  than  the  African  dwarfs,  and  differ  from  them  in  other 
resjiects.  Very  little  is  known  of  the  Kimo  of  Madagascar 
except  that  they  exist.  See  The  Pygmy  Tribes  of  Africa, 
by  Dr.  Henry  Schlichter,  Scottish  Oeographical  Magazine 
(June  and  July,  1892);  Ueber  Zwergvijlker  in  Afrika  und 
Siid-Asien.  by  H.  Panekow,  Zeitschrift  der  Oesellschaft 
f&r  Erdkunde  zii  Berlin  (No.  2.  1892);  Les  Pyginees,  by  M. 
Quatrefages  (1887) ;  articles  by  Prof.  Flower  on  the  Akkas 
antl  the  pygmy  races  of  men  in  Journal  of  the  Anthropo- 
logical Institute  of  Great  Britain  (1889) ;  and  the  works  of 
Schweinfurth,  Stanley,  Junker,  Lenz,  Wissmann,  Du  Chaillu, 
Casati,  and  Francois.  C.  C.  Adams. 

Pygrop'odes  [Jlod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  wuyii.  rump  -H  nois, 
TroS6s.  foot ;  in  allusion  to  the  position  of  the  feet]  :  a  name 
given  to  an  order  of  birds  containing  the  loons  (Urinatori- 
dw),  the  grebes  {Podicipidce.  or  Colymbidce),  and  the  auks 
(Alcid(c).  all  of  which  have  the  legs  placed  far  back  and 
only  to  a  small  extent  free  from  the  body.  These  birds  are 
all  expert  divers,  but,  although  they  are  often  placed  to- 
gether, the  order  thus  made  is  not  a  natural  one  and  rests 
chiefly  on  similarity  of  habits.  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Py'lus  (in  Gr.  Tli\os) :  town  of  Messenia,  on  the  promon- 
tory of  Coryphasium  ;  one  of  the  last  towns  taken  by  tlie 
Spartans  in  the  Second  Messenian  war.  In  424  b.  c.  the 
Athenians  built  a  fort  on  the  site  of  the  town,  which  became 
very  famous  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The  present  name, 
Namrino,  is  a  corruption  of  Avari7io,  the  Avars  having 
settled  here  in  the  sixth  century.  J.  R.  S.  S. 

Pym,  John  :  b.  at  Brymore,  Somersetshire,  England,  in 
1584;  spent  some  years  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  1599- 
1602,  but  did  not  graduate  ;  studied  law  at  one  of  the  inns 
of  court ;  was  elected  to  the  Parliament  of  1621,  in  which  he 
became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  to  the  royal  en- 
croachments on  parliamentary  rights,  and  suffered  impris- 
onment for  three  months  on  the  dissolution  of  the  Parlia- 
ment. In  the  first  Parliament  of  Charles  I.  he  was  actively 
engaged  in  the  impeachment  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
1626.  lie  was  the  recognized  leader  of  the  "Short  Parlia- 
ment '"  of  1640  and  of  the  "  Long  Parliament,"  which  assem- 
bled in  1641  ;  managed  the  impeachment  of  Strafi'ord  and 
the  trial  of  liaud  ;  presented  the  "  grand  remonstrance," 
which  set  forth  all  the  evils  endured  from  the  beginning  of 


PYNCHON 


PYRAMIDS 


867 


the  reign  of  Charles  I. :  was  the  chief  of  the  "  five  inomhcrs  " 
whoso  atlempteil  seizure  l)y  the  kiiiR  (.Ian..  1042)  made  reooii- 
ciliation  with  Parliament 'iinpossiljle  ;  was  the  real  heail  of 
the  provisional  exe<ulive  established  at  London  after  the 
king's  llitrht :  issued  a  manifesto  in  1643  defending  liiraself 
in  moderate  language  from  the  king's  aeeusation  of  treas(m- 
able  dealings  with  the  .Scots;  was  appointed  lieutenant  of 
the  ordnance  in  Xoveniber.  D.  suddenly  at  Derby  House,. 
London,  Dec.  8,  164:!.  He  was  buried  with  pomp  in  West- 
minster Abbev,  and  having  impoverished  himself  in  the 
cause  of  his  countrv,  flO.OOO  was  voted  by  the  House  of 
Commons  to  pav  his  delits.  P.y  the  royalists  he  was  nick- 
named "  King  tym,"  and  Clarendon  testifies  that  at  the 
opening  of  the  Long  Parliament  he  was  "the  most  popular 
man  in  that  or  any  other  age."  He  was  possessed  of  a  pe- 
culiar elo(iuen(e,  terse  and  vigorous,  and  was  a  perfect  mas- 
ter of  parliamentary  law.  See  Foster's  .Irre*-/  uf  the  Five 
Memberx  (1860),  TIt'e  Debates  on  the  Grand  liemonst ranee 
(1860),  and  Statesmen  of  the  Commonwealth  (1864) ;  Goldwin 
Smith's  Three  English  Statesmen  (1867);  .1.  H.  Givcn's  Short 
Histori/  of  the  Enylish  People  {\%~a) ;  and  (lardiner's //('a- 
tory  of  Enqkuul  from  the  Accession  of  James  I.  to  the  Out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  (1887).      Revised  by  F.  JI.  Colbv. 

Pyiiclioii,  Thomas  Riooi.es,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  educator; 
b.  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Jan.  19,  1823 ;  was  educated  at  the 
Boston  Latin  School  and  at  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  where 
he  was  graduated  in  1841.  M.  A.  1844:  was  tutor  1843^7; 
ordained  deacon  at  Xew  Haven  .June  14,  1848,  and  priest  at 
Boston  .Julv  2.5, 184!) ;  rector  of  Stockbridge  and  Lenox,  Mass., 
1849-5.5 :  elected  Scovill  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  Trinity 
College,  Oct.  2.  1854  ;  received  the  degree  of  I).  D.  from  St. 
Stephen's  College,  New  York,  in  186.5,  and  LL.  I),  from 
Columbia  College,  New  York,  1877:  president  of  Trinity 
College  Nov.  7,  1874-83:  is  still  (18',)4)  a  professor  in  that 
institution;  author  of  Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics 
(New  Y'ork,  186!) ;  2d  ed.  1874),  and  of  various  .sermons,  sci- 
entific papers,  and  pan.phlets.      Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Pynchon,  William  :  colonist :  one  of  the  original  paten- 
tees "of  the  .Massachusetts  Bay  Company:  b.  at  .Springfield, 
E.ssex,  England,  about  1590 ;  emigrated  to  New  bngland  in 
1630  with  Winthrop  and  other  patentees,  and  settled  at  Rox- 
bury;  in  1636  removed  to  Connecticut  river  and  founded 
Agawam,  renamed  Springfield,  after  his  birthplace;  pub- 
lished a  book  opposing  the  Calvinistic  view  of  the  atone- 
ment, entitled  The  Meritorious  Price  of  Man's  Redemption 
(London,  16.50).  In  consequence  of  the  disfavor  with  which 
this  book  was  received,  and  the  persecution  to  which  it  sub- 
jected him,  he  returned  to  England  in  Sept.,  16.52.  I).  Oct. 
29,  1662.  He  was  also  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  Sabbath 
and  other  works. — He  left  one  son,  .loux  (1621-1703),  to  whom 
he  bequeathed  all  his  vast  landed  estate  in  the  valley  of  the 
C<mnecticut  river.  The  latter  was  an  assistant  under  the  first 
Massachusetts  royal  charter,  and  during  16)^6-1703  was  sev- 
eral times  councilor. 

Pyramid  [from  Lat.  py'ramis,  pyra'midis  =  (ir.  mpa/ils, 
■wvpaiASos,  pyramid) :  a  polyhedron  having  any  (lolygon  for  a 
base,  the  remaining  faces  being  triangles  meeting  at  a  com- 
mon point  called  the  vertex.  The  triangular  faces  taken  to- 
gether make  up  the  lateral  surface  of  the  i)yramid.  A 
spherical  pyramid  is  a  portion  of  a  sphere  boundid  by  any 
spherical  polygon,  called  the  base^  antl  by  corresponding  sec- 
tors of  great  cindes.    The  vertex  is  at  the  center  of  the  sphere. 

Pyramidal  Numbers:  See  Figurate  Numbers. 

Pyrumiil  Lake :  a  body  of  water  in  Western  Nevada, 
near  the  Xevada-California  boundary.  It  is  30  mil(^s  long 
and  from  5  to  12  miles  broad.  It  is  without  outlet,  and 
varies  both  in  depth  and  in  extent  with  the  seasons  and 
with  secular  changes  of  climate.  In  Sept..  1882,  its  area 
was  828  .sq.  miles  and  its  maximum  depth  361  feet.  It  is 
fed  principally  by  Truckee  river,  which  rises  in  Lake  Tahoe, 
and  is  remarkable  for  tlie  purity  of  its  waters.  The  inflow 
is  counterbalanced  by  evaporation,  and  the  waters  have 
been  concentrated  until  they  contain  about  3-5  parts  per 
1,000,  of  saline  matter  in  solution.  The  waters  are  too  alka- 
line to  drink,  but  are  inhabited  by  trout  and  other  fishes  in 
great  numbers.  The  lake  occupies  one  tif  the  lower  depres- 
sions in  the  bed  of  a  former  sea  named  Lake  Lahonlan. 
which  flooded  many  of  the  valleys  of  Nevada  in  Pleistocene 
tinu'S.  Immense  deposits  of  caJcium  carbonate  precipitated 
from  the  waters  of  the  former  lake  occur  in  the  form  of 
castles  and  towers  about  the  border  of  its  modern  represent- 
ative. Israel  C.  Rissell. 


Pyramid  of  Cestins :  See  Cestius,  Pyramid  of. 

Pyramids  :  structures  built  in  the  form  of  a  geometrical 
pyramid  by  several  ancient  nations.  Of  these  the  Egyptian 
are  the  most  important.  These  are  usually  square  at  the 
base,  and  were  erected  as  tondis  of  the  Pharaohs  down  to 
the  twelfth  dynasty  at  least,  their  number  beuig  formerly 
much  larger  than  liow.  Natural  decay,  fanatical  zeal,  and 
building  activity  in  Cairo  have  reduced  their  number  and 
mass.  Like  the  Mastaba  (q.  v.),  their  purpose  was  that  of  a 
permanent  tomb  for  the  mummy  of  the  royal  builder.  Their 
location,  uniformly  surrounded  by  tombs  and  cemeteries, 
their  contents,  whether  funereal  remains  or  magical  and 
ritual  texts,  theirclose  resemblance  to  the  plans  of  the  tombs 
of  e(mtemporary  nobles — all  point  to  the  one  reasonable  ex- 
planation of  their  purpose.  Theories  which  find  in  them 
occult  mysteries  of  a  mathematical  or  astronomical  sort  are 
entirely  fanciful.  Their  orientation  (which  was  connected 
with  the  native  religious  beliefs  of  the  builders),  upon  which 
so  much  stress  has  been  laid,  while  showing  cimsiderable 
knowledge  of  astronomy,  is  nor  always  exact. 

The  number  of  those  in  the  region  near  Memphis,  now 
existing  in  greater  or  less  degree  of  dilapidation,  amounts 
to  seventy-five,  and  they  are  arranged  in  several  groups.  The 
area  which  they  cover  is  about  25  miles  long,  extending 
southward  on  tlie  west  side  of  the  Nile  from  Abu  Roash,  op- 
posite Cairo,  to  Dahshur.  They  were  oriented  with  more  or 
less  care,  though  some  of  them  are  considerably  out  of  a  cor- 
rect alinement.  Investigation  shows  t  hat  the  ratio  of  height 
to  base  is  approximately  7  to  22.  They  were  built  on  the 
same  general  plan,  though  not  without  some  variations  of 
detail,  and,  like  the  mastaba.  had  certain  essential  features: 
the  chamber  for  the  reception  of  the  mummy,  or  several 
chambers  when  more  than  the  mummy  of  the  king  was  to  be 
deposited  inside  :  the  passageways  more  or  less  complicated, 
and  the  chamber  of  oilerings,  which  was  an  integral  part  of 
the  plan  though  actually  located  outside  of  the  pyramid 
itself.     The  entrance  was  almost  invariably  on  the  north 


OF  THE     rVUIMID      rOUHDATION. 


Section  of  tlie  Great  Pyramid  :  1,  Entrance  ;  2.  descending  passage 
leading  to  (Hi  a  rou;;h.  subterranean  chamber  :  3,  passage  lead- 
ing upward  through  grand  gallery  i  li  and  anteroom  i6i  to  king's 
chamber(8),  containing  (7t  sarcophagns  ;  9,  queen's  chamber  ;  10. 
subterranean  grotto  with  small  passages  leading  to  galleries 
above  and  below  ;  V  T,  ventilating  shafts  ;  N  S,  debris.  Dimen- 
sions are  given  in  inches. 

side,  and  opened  into  a  descending  passageway  ending  in  a 
subterranean  chamber.  Another  gallery  midway  of  the  first 
branched  off  njiward  and  led  to  the  sepulchral  chandier  near 
the  center  of  the  mass.  In  the  Great  Pyramid  of  Cheops  at 
Gizeh  there  were  two  sepulchral  chambers,  one  below,  pre- 
sumal)ly  for  the  queen,  and  a  second  for  the  king  on  a 
higher  level.  A  peculiarity  of  structure  is  seen  in  this  case, 
in  that  hollow  spaces,  the  top  one  triangidar  in  cro.ss-section 
and  the  others  rectangular,  were  left  above  the  king's  cham- 
ber to  reduce  the  weight  oif  the  superincumbent  ma.«s. 

No  theory  of  the  method  of  construction  is  entirely  satis- 
factory. Petrie's  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  pyramidal  form 
is  that  it  was  developed  out  of  the  mastaba  by  repeated  ad- 
ditions, and  has  much  in  its  favor.  The  older  theory  of 
Lepsius  had  long  currency,  and  is  still  accepted  by  many.  .\ 
rocky  site  was  chosen  and  leveled  to  form  a  foundation,  a 
|)ortion  of  the  rock  being  left  in  the  center  for  a  core.  After 
the  subterranean  pa-^-sjiges  and  (diamber  had  been  excavated 
the  building  was  begun  about  the  core  and  was  completed 
.so  far  as  to  make  a  finished  whole,  though  perhaps  of  small 
size.  It  contained  all  the  essential  features,  and  only  lacked 
its  later  gigantic  size.  During  succeeding  years  more  layers 
of  stone  were  added,  and  the  longer  the  reign  of  the  build- 
ing Pharaoh  the  larger  his  tomb.  These  added  layers  have 
been  fitly  compared  to  the  rings  which  mark  the  growth  of 


868 


PYRAMIDS 


PYRBNE 


a  tree.  When  the  structure  was  large  enough  to  suit  the 
ambition  of  the  king,  or  after  the  builder's  death,  it  was  cov- 
ered by  triangular  stones  which  rested  on  the  successive  steps, 
and  was  made  to  present  a  smooth  outward  surface.  The 
stones  for  the  building  were  brought  from  various  quarries, 
principally  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  Nile,  and  dragged 
to  their  places  up  an  inclined  causeway,  which  was  raised  as 
the  work  progressed.  Remnants  of  these  causeways  are  still 
visible  in  some  places.  The  testimony  of  ancient  and  medi- 
eval writers  goes  to  show  that  in  some  cases  the  exterior  was 
covered  witli  hieroglyphic  writing  which  was  undoubtedly 
of  a  religious  nature.  The  statement  of  Herodotus  (ii.,  125) 
that  they  recorded  the  amounts  of  provisions  consumed  by 
the  workmen  while  the  pyramid  was  building  is  very  un- 
likely, and  prnhal>ly  he  was  deceived  by  his  guide.  Destruc- 
tion began  with  the  limestone  coverings,  which  were  stripped 
off  and  burned  in  the  kiln.  Further  destruction  was  due  to 
the  use  of  the  inner  blocks  in  building  the  city  of  Cairo.  The 
earliest  depredations  go  back  to  an  early  Pharaonic  date ; 
the  Persians  broke  into  the  pyramids  of  Gizeh,  and  probably 
into  many  others,  in  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  b.  c,  and 
later  the  Runians  did  the  same.  In  the  first  part  of  the 
ninth  century  a.  d.  the  Arabs  also  entered  the  Great  Pyra- 
mid of  Gizeh  at  least. 

Taking  the  pyramids  in  their  geographical  order,  begin- 
ning at  the  north,  the  first  remains  are  those  of  Abu.  Roash. 
Only  ruins  survive,  but  these  suffice  to  show  that  one  of  the 
buildings  was  350  feet  square  at  the  base.  An  inclined  pas- 
sageway of  160  feet  led  to  a  subterranean  chamber  43  feet 
long.  The  date  of  this  pyramid  is  unknown.  To  the  E.  are 
the  remains  of  a  mile  of  causeway  designed  for  the  carriage 


and  elevation  of  material.  Six  miles  S.  are  the  three  im- 
mense pyramids  of  Gizeh,  with  several  smaller  companions. 
The  largest  is  the  oldest,  having  been  constructed  by  Khufu 
or  Cheops,  the  second  king  of  the  fourth  dynasty.  The 
name  of  the  builder  was  found  in  red  on  one  of  the  stones 
in  the  triangular  chamber  mentioned  above.  It  is  755  feet 
square  and  451  feet  high,  and  was  originally  about  775  feet 
square  at  the  base  and  481  feet  high.  At'the  top  is  a  flat 
space  30  feet  square.  It  is  estimated  to  contain  85,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  stone.  It  still  contains  the  broken  red  granite 
sarcophagus  of  Cheops.  The  next  largest  pyramid  was  that 
of  Khafra  or  Chefren,  the  successor''of  Cheops,  though  it 
does  not  contain  his  name.  It  measures  700  feet  square  at 
the  base  and  is  about  450  feet  high.  The  sepulchral  cham- 
ber is  46i  by  IGit  by  23i  feet.  It  was  opened  and  explored 
by  Belzoni  in  1816."  The  third  pyramid  of  Gizeh  belonged 
to  Menkara  or  Mycerinus,  the  fourth  king  of  the  same  dy- 
nasty. The  statement  of  M^netho  that  it  belonged  to  Nito- 
cris  is  undoubtedly  incorrect,  as  the  sarcophagus  of  Myceri- 
nus \yas  found  inside  by  Col.  Vyse  in  1837.  It  is  conjectured 
that  it  was  left  unfinished  and  completed  by  a  later  ruler. 
It  was  built  on  a  sloping  rock,  is  350  feet  sqiiare,  and  210  to 
215  feet  high.  Three  smaller  pyramids  are  near  by,  one  of 
which  contains  the  name  of  Mycerinus  on  the  ceiling."  About 
3  miles  southward  are  the  pyramids  of  Zmvyet  el- Aryan,  one 
of  whi<'h  has  been  almost  entirely  destroyed.  The  other  must 
have  been  a  large  structure,  as  its  reniains  are  now  nearly 
300  feet  square.  At  Almsir,  al>out  3  miles  farther  S.,  are 
remains  of  fourteen  pyramids  built  by  Pharaohs  of  the  fifth 
dyna.sty,  only  three  of  which  were  of  any  considerable  size. 


One  of  these  was  built  by  Sahura,  second  king,  and  meas- 
ures 117  feet  high  and  217  feet  square.  Another  is  165  feet 
high,  and  324  feet  square  at  the  base;  builder  unknown. 
Next  are  the  pyramids  of  Saqqarah,  of  which  that  known 
as  the  Step  Pyramid  is  the  most  noteworthy.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  been  built  by  Ata,  the  fourth  king  of  the  fii-st  dy- 
nasty, though  its  date  can  not  be  fixed.  At  all  events,  it  is 
supposed  to  be  older  than  the  pyramids  at  Gizeh.  It  rises 
by  six  steps  which  vary  from  38  to  29-J  feet  in  height,  sepa- 
rated by  ledges  from  6  to  7  feet  wide.  The  north  and  south 
sides  are  353  feet  long,  and  the  east  and  west  sides  396  feet ; 
the  height  is  197  feet.  It  is  not  well  oriented.  A  short 
distance  to  the  S.  W.  is  the  pyramid  of  Unas,  the  last  king 
of  the  fifth  dynasty.  It  is  62  feet  high  and  220  feet  square. 
When  explored  by  Maspero  in  1881  the  sarcophagus  and 
bones  of  Unas  were  found  inside.  In  view  of  the  uninscribed 
condition  of  the  pyramids  previously  explored,  it  was  a  start- 
ling discovery  to  find  the  walls  of  two  chambers  and  of  two 
corridors  covered  with  ritual  prayers  and  religious  texts. 
(See  Egyptian  Language  and  Literature.)  Similar  was 
the  pyramid  of  Teta,  the  first  king  of  the  .sixth  dynasty, 
a  little  to  the  N.  E.  of  the  Step  Pyramid.  It  is  59  feet 
high,  310  feet  square,  and  has  a  platform  at  the  top  50  feet 
square.  It  also  contained  texts  in  hieroglyphs  which  were 
painted  green.  Farther  to  the  S.  is  the  pyramid  of  Pepi  I., 
the  second  king  of  the  sixth  dynasty,  which  was  opened  in 
1880.  It  is  250  feet  square  and  only  40  feet  high.  The 
sarcophagus  of  Pepi  was  found  broken,  surrounded  by  pieces 
of  the  mummy.  This  pyramid  was  also  inscribed  with  simi- 
lar texts.  The  name  given  to  it  was  Rlen-nefer,  pleasant 
dwelling,  the  original  of  the  name  of  Memphis  {q.  v.).  Near 
by  is  the  M.astaba  Far'un  (mastaba  of  Pharaoh),  which  was 
supposed  by  Mariette  to  have  belonged  to  Unas  of  the  fifth 
dynasty.  Ruins  of  several  other  pyramids  are  found  in  the 
group  of  Saqqarah.  At  Dahsh  iir,  3^  miles  farther  S.,  there 
are  six  pyramids,  four  of  stone  and  two  of  brick.  Two  of 
the  former  are  of  immense  size,  rivaling  those  of  Gizeh,  be- 
ing resjiectively  700  and  620  feet  square  and  326  and  321  feet 
high.  The  latter  is  known  as  the  Blunted  Pyramid,  on  ac- 
count of  a  break  in  the  original  angle  of  construction.  The 
brick  pyramids  are  respectively  350  and  343  feet  square,  and 
90  and  156  feet  high.  Originally  they  were  covered  with  a 
facing  of  stone.  There  are  also  some  structures  of  less  im- 
portance at  Lishf,  a  few  miles  farther  S.  The  False  Pyra- 
mid of  MedOm  is  so  called  because,  unlike  the  rest,  it  rises 
in  three  sections,  69,  20|,  and  (originally  33)  now  about  25 
feet  high.  It  was  never  comjjleted.  Recent  excavations 
show  that  it  was  constructed  by  Snofru  (Gr.  SoRis,  q.  v.),  the 
first  king  of  the  fourth  dynasty,  making  it  tlie  oldest  dated 
pyramid.  Connected  with  it  was  the  oldest  Egyptian  temple 
known  to  us,  dating  from  the  same  reign.  The  pyramid  at 
lUaht'in,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fayum,  was  the  work  of  User- 
tasen  II.  (Scsostris  of  Manetho),  the  third  king  of  the  twelfth 
dynasty.  Another  at  Hawcira,  'd,  little  to  the  W.,  was  erected 
by  Amencmha  III.,  the  fifth  king  of  the  same  dynasty.  At 
El-Kulah,  near  Esneh  above  Thebes,  is  a  pyramid  which  has 
the  appearance  of  steps,  owing  to  the  decay  of  the  coating 
material.  It  is  undated  and  is  of  small  importance,  having 
a  base  of  only  55  feet  square  and  a  height  of  30  feet.  The 
pyramids  of  Elhiopia  (see  MERoii)  were  simply  late  imita- 
tions of  Egyptian  structures.  The  literature  of  the  subject 
is  extensive,  but  somewhat  scattered.  Following  are  some 
of  the  important  works:  Maspero,  Egyptian  Archwology, 
translated  by  Edwards  (London  and  New  York,  1887) :  Per- 
ring.  Pyramids  of  Gizeh  (3  vols.,  London,  1839-42) ;  Vyse, 
Operations  at  tlie  Pyramids  of  Gizeh  (2  vols.,  jjondon, 
1840-43) ;  Petrie,  Pyramids  and  Temples  of  (lizeh  (Lon- 
don, 1887) ;  Season  in  Egi/pt  (London,  1888) ;  llairara  (Imu- 
don,  1889):  Kahun  (London,  1890):  lllahun  (London,  1891). 
(iuide-books,  such  as  those  of  Baedeker,  Murray,  and 
Jleyer,  contain  much  detailed  information.  See  Mexican 
Antiquities.  Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Pyrone,  or  Plienyleiie-Naphthalene  [pyrene  is  from 
Gr.  TTvp.  fire]  :  a  solid  hydro-carljon,  whose  formula  is 
Cjellio  ::=  (',„ITo(C«n4).  Itoccui's  with  chrvseuc  in  the  last 
portions  of  the  distillate  obtained  in  distilling  coal-far  to 
coke.  The  two  bodies  are  separated  by  means  of  carbon  di- 
sidphide,  wliich  dissolves  the  pyrene  and  leaves  the  chrysene. 
The  carbon  disulphide  is  distilled  off.  and  the  residue  is  re- 
peatedly extracted  with  warm  alcoliol,  and  the  cooled  solu- 
tion is  mixed  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  picric  acid  as  long 
as  a  crystalline  [irecipitate  of  pyrene  picrate  is  produced. 
i  The  precipitate  is  washed  with  alcohol,  d.ecomposed  by  am- 


PYRENEES 


PYROMETER 


869 


monia,  washed  with  water,  and  recrystallized  from  alcohol 
till  the  melting-point  is  constant  at  142  to  144  C  I'yrene 
LTystalli/.cs  from  hot  alcohol  in  lamina'  resembling  those  of 
anthracene.  It  is  usually  yellow  from  impurilies.  but  may  be 
decolorized  by  exposing'the  solution  in  benzene  to  sunlight. 
It  irfvery  soluble  in  benzene,  ether,  and  earlioti  disulpliide. 
It  nudts  at  \4i  ('..  and  distills  at  a  temperature  consider- 
ably above  360   C.  Revised  by  1r.\  Kkmskn. 

Pyrenees  [from  Lat.  Fi/rente'i  (sc.  mon'tes.  mountains), 
masc.  phir.  adj..  Pyreiiean.  the  Pyrenees,  deriv.  of  Fi/re'ne 
=r(ir.  Uvpriyrt,  the"  I'yreiiccs]  :  a  lofly  mountain  system, 
cliielly  granite,  overlaid  by  sedimentary  .strata,  which  forms 
the  boundary  between  France  and  Spain,  and  stretches  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Its  entire  length 
is  240  miles,  its  average  breadth  is  nhonl  75  miles.  It  is 
broadest  and  highest  alioiit  miilway.  where  the  two  almost 
parallel  ranges  of  which  the  mountains  consist  are  con- 
nected bv  a  nund)er  of  wild,  towering  peaks,  of  which  the 
highest  are  Pic  de  Xethou,  11.168  feet:  Mont  Penlu.  10.- 
997  feet;  Vignemalc.  10.820  feel;  and  Pic  du  Midi.  9..540 
feet.  In  their  eastern  course,  toward  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Pyrenees  fall  rapidly  to  an  average  lieight  of  3,000  feet, 
while'the  western  part  retains  an  average  height  of  .'5,000 
feet,  with  many  peaks  rising  8.(100  feet.  Northward,  toward 
France,  the  Pyrenees  slope  gradunlly.  sending  out  forest- 
clad  otlshoots  "which  inclose  beautiful  valleys  ;  southward, 
toward  .Spain,  they  present  stee[).  abrupt,  and  barren  but 
bold  and  picturesijuo  slopes.  There  are  seven  passes  at  an 
elevation  of  over  7.000  feet,  making  the  Pyrenees  notable 
for  the  great  height  of  its  pa,sses  in  proportion  to  the  height 
of  the  mountains.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Fy  renoniyce'teiB  [Mod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  irup^jy.  stone  of  a  fruit  + 
fivKTis.  plur.  ^u/c7)Tcj,  luushroorn ]  I  an  order  of  a.scomycetous 
parasitic  and  sapro[ihytic  plants  commonly  known  as  the 
black  fungi.  Their  ascospores  are  produced  in  sacs  {asci), 
in  usually  hard-walled  cavities  (perithecia) ;  conidia  are 
produced  singly  or  in  clusters  upon  superficial  threads. 
The  common  Pi.um-kn'ot  {q.  v.\  Plowrightia  morbosa)  is  a 
good  example.     See  Fu.ngi.  Charles  E.  Bessev. 

Pyrhelionieter  [Gr.  irOp.  lire  -I-  ?i\toi,  sun  +  /lerpov,  meas- 
ure]: an  instrument  invented  by  Ponillet  for  measuring  the 
heat  received  at  the  earth's  sur- 
face from  the  sun.  The  requisites 
for  such  a  determination  are  a 
surface  of  known  size,  the  absorp- 
tion coefficient  of  which  is  also 
known,  together  with  a  ealorimet- 
ric  device  for  measuring  the  en- 
ergy thus  transformed.  Pouillet's 
instrument  consisted  of  an  in- 
verted thermometer,  the  bulb  of 
which  was  surrounded  by  a  flat 
cylindrical  closed  vessel  of  silver 
foil.  This  contained  a  known 
quantity  of  water.  Its  upper  sur- 
face was  blackened  by  a  coating 
of  lampblack  so  as  to  raise  its  ab- 
sorbing power  to  the  highest  point. 
The  pyrheliometer  was  mounted 
(see  illustration)  so  that  its  axis 
could  be  set  parallel  to  the  sun's 
rays.  The  lower  disk  (to  the  left 
in  the  illustration)  was  designed  to 
facilitate  this  acljustment.  since 
it  was  only  neces.sary  to  bring  it  entirely  within  the  shadow 
of  the  cylinder.  K.  L.  Nichols. 

Pyridine  (CsHsN) :  an  oily  base  fouml  in  bone  oil.  shale 
oil,  peat-tar,  coal-naphtha,  and  the  products  of  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  einchonine.  It  was  discovered  by  An- 
derson, together  with  a  numberof  other  similar  bases,  in  18.51, 
in  bone-oil.  It  occurs  in  tobacco-smoke.  It  is  produce<i  arti- 
fudally  by  the  dehydration  of  amyl  nitrate,  by  heating 
niperidine  with  nitrobenzene,  and  together  with  other  simi- 
lar substances  by  heating  glycerin  with  ammonium  sulphate 
and  sulphuric  acid.  In  medicine  it  has  been  used  in  the 
treatment  of  asthma  by  placing  a  few  minims  on  a  warm 
shovel  or  metal  plate  so  that  it  is  volatilized  in  the  air  of 
tho  room  at  some  distance  from  the  patient.  The  patient 
should  not  be  expo.sed  to  the  fumes  for  more  than  twenty 
minutes,  three  times  a  day.  Revised  by  Ika  Kemse.v. 

Pyri'tes  [Ljit.  =Gr.  irup(Tijs.  flint,  a  stone  that  strikes  fire, 
deriv.  of  vvp,  fire] :  in  its  widest  sense,  a  native  mineral,  mas- 


sive or  crystalline,  composed  of  a  metallic  sulphide  or  ar- 
senide, or  both.  Iron,  copper,  nickel,  and  cobalt  pyrites  are 
the  ones  generally  mentioned.  Iron  pyrites  is  often  found 
crystallized  in  cubes  or  in  other  forms.  It  is  sometimes 
massive,  and  occasionally  globular.  From  its  bright-yellow 
color  it  is  sometimes  mistaken  lor  gold.  It  is  a  more  or 
less  pure  iron  bisulphide.  It  is  of  great  value  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sulphuric  acid  and  the  sulphates  and  other  com- 
mercial sulphur  compounds.  It  also  yields  not  unfrequent- 
ly  a  considerable  amount  of  silver,  copper,  or  gold.  Chemical 
reagents  derived  even  remotely  from  it  are  apt  to  contain 
aij|ireciable  amounts  of  arsenic.  Copper  inrites  is  an  im- 
pure double  sulphide  of  iron  and  copper.  It  is  extensively 
employed,  not  only  as  a  source  of  sulphuric  acid,  but  of 
luetallic  copper. 

I'yro-acetic  Spirit :  See  Acetone. 
Pyrogal'lol.  called  also  Pyrog'allic  Acid  [pyrogallic  is 
from  Gr.  irvp.  fire.-f  Eng.  gallic] :  a  substance  discovered  by 
Scheele  by  subliming  gallic  acid  of  gallnuts.  but  considered 
by  him  to  be  identical  with  it.    Leopold  Gmelin  and  Bracon- 
not  proved  it  to  be  a  i)eculiar  substance.    It  forms  a  beauti- 
ful mass  of  snow-white  crystals,  extremely  light  and  feath- 
ery.    As  it  has  been  shown  to  belong  to  the  cla.ss  of  bodies 
kiiown  as  Phenols  ((/.  c),  its  name  has  been  changed  from 
pyrogallic  acid  to  pyrogallol.      Its  formation  from  gallic 
acid  by  the  action  of  heat  is  represented  thus: 
Gallic  acid.    Pyrogallol. 
Cn.Os  =  ClfeOa  +  CO,. 
Pyrogallol  is  a  useful  reagent  in  the  laboratory,  by  reason 
of  the  fact  that  in  the  presence  of  alkaline  substances  it 
unites  readily  with  atmospheric  oxygen  at  ordinary  temper- 
atures; it  was  therefore  propo.si^l  by  Liebig  as  an  agent  in 
analysis  of  gaseous  mixtures  containing  oxygen,  a  method 
since  in  universal  use.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsen. 

Pyr'ola  [Mod.  Lat.. properly  Pir'ola. dimin. of  lisit. pirns, 
pear-tree:  named  from  the  as"pect  of  its  leaves] :  a  genus  of 
Pyruled'.  a  tribe  of  the  Ericacem  or  Heath  Family  [q.  v.), 
characterized  by  a  calyx  free  from  the  ovary ;  the  corolla 
poly petalous ;  anthers  extrorse  in  the  bud ;  seeds  with  a  loose 
and  translucent  cellular  coat  much  larger  than  the  body. 
The  species  are  nearly  herbaceous  and  evergreen,  with  broad 
leaves.  The  tribe  contains  also  Moneses  and  Chimaphila, 
the  latter  including  the  pipsissewa.      Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Pyroligf'neons  Acid  [pyroligneous  is  from  Gr.  irvp.  fire 
-t-  Lat.  lig  niim,  wood] :  a  name  often  applied  to  impure 
acetic  acid  produced  by  the  distillation  of  wood.  It  con- 
tains empyreumatic  tarry  matter,  which  gives  it  a  dark  color 
and  peculiar  smell.  These  impurities,  however,  may  be  com- 
pletely removed. 

Pyrom'eter  [from  Gr.  irCp.  fire  +  /ifVpoy.  measure]:  an 
instrument  for  the  measurement  of  high  temperatures.  The 
term  is  applied  particularly  to  apparatus  f<ir  the  determi- 
nation of  the  temperature  of  furnaces  and  flues.  Pyrome- 
try,  which  has  to  do  with  the  range  of  temperatures  lying 
above  the  red  heat,  involves  great  experimental  difficulties, 
and,  in  spite  of  the  large  amount  of  labor  exjpended  upon 
it,  remains  in  an  unsatisfactory  state.  Pyrometers  may  be 
classified  in  general  as  ejfunision  pyrometers  and  electrical 
pyrometers.  The  acoustical  pyrometer,  suggested  by  Pres- 
ton (Philos.  Magazine,  July,  1891)  and  described  in  modi- 
fied form  by  Saiiford  (Physical  liericw.  p.  140).  may  furnish 
a  third  type,  but  it  is  an  instrument  about  which  no  experi- 
mental data  are  as  yet  to  be  had.  The  only  substances  avail- 
able for  expansion  "pyrometers  are  (1)  highly  refractory  sol- 
ids and  (2)  gases  inclosed  in  a  refractory  and  gas-tight  bulb 
or  reservoir.  The  best-known  instruments  of  the  first  class 
are  the  pyrometers  designed  by  Josiah  Wedgwood  (1782)  for 
the  mea-siirement  of  kiln-temperatures  in  his  celebrated  pot- 
teries, and  by  Daniell.  The  Wedgwood  pyrometer,  whicli  de- 
pended upon  the  changes  in  a  clay  cylinder  when  subjected 
to  tho  heat  of  the  furnace,  was  unrelialile,  except,  possibly, 
as  an  arbitrary  indi(!ator  of  the  approximate  degree  of  in- 
can<lescence.  Daniell  used  the  relative  expansions  of  a  plat- 
inum and  an  earthen  bar,  and  obtained  more  consistent  re- 
sults. 

Various  gas-thermometers  have  been  u.sed  for  high  tem- 
perature measurements,  and  it  is  by  means  of  this  class  of 
instruments  that  the  mo.st  satisfactory  absolute  determina- 
tions have  been  made.  Hydrogen,  air.  mercury,  and  iodine 
are  among  the  gases  and  vapors  thus  employed  ;  copper, 
iron,  platiinim,  and  porcelain  among  the  materials  for  bulbs 
and  reservoirs.     Experience  has  shown  that  nearly  all  sub- 


870 


PYKOMETER 


PYROSIS 


stances,  with  the  possible  exception  of  porcelain,  become 
porous  at  extremely  high  temperatures,  and  this  fact  con- 
stitutes an  almost  insuperable  dilKculty  in  the  execution  of 
pyrometric  measurements  with  the  air-thermometer. 

Some  observers  with  pyrometric  gas-thermometers  have 
followed  methods  analogous  to  those  in  vogue  for  the  meas- 
urement of  ordinary  temperatures.  Others  have  employed 
various  ingenious  indirect  methods  for  the  determination  of 
the  contents  of  the  bulb.  Thus  Kegnault,  working  with  a 
reservoir  of  hydrogen  in  the  computation  of  furnace-tem- 
peratures, passed  the  gas  over  cupric  oxide  and  determined 
the  amount  of  water  thus  produced.  The  mercury  in  his 
mercury-vapor  thermometer  the  same  investigator  estimated 
by  weighing  the  mercury  condensed  within  the  cooled  bulb. 
Deville,  also,  determined  the  amount  of  iodine  vapor  con- 
tained in  a  porcelain  bulb  at  a  high  temperature  by  subse- 
quent weighings. 

The  laborious  character  of  operations  with  the  air-ther- 
mometer has  led  later  investigators  to  adopt  the  more  man- 
ageable methods  of  pyrometry  based  upon  thermo-electricity 
and  the  influence  of  temperature  upon  electrical  resistance. 
The  only  metals  available  for  either  of  these  methods  are 
platinum  and  the  rare  metals  belonging  to  the  same  family. 
Iron  is  excluded  on  account  of  its  oxidizability,  even  in 
many  measurements  in  which  its  melting-point  would  be 
outside  the  range  of  experimentation. 

The  influence  of  temperature  upon  the  resistance  of  plat- 
inum was  exhaustively  studied  by  C.  W.  Siemens  with  a 
view  to  the  use  of  this  property  in  pyrometry.  The  results 
were  not  altogether  encouraging,  it  being  evident  that  no 
general  law  could  be  laid  down  which  would  be  applicable 
to  all  specimens,  even  when  every  ordinary  care  was  taken 
with  reference  to  the  purity  of  the  metal.    The  diagram, 


r~"                      '■                  )  )      — 1 

1                 '  /      ' 

1                //    / 

2m 

1            ^1'    / 

1                             ^■'/c,          / 

2200° 

-         1    0  y 

200o' 

1          II    /^      / 

SI               f      /             / 

^ 

1/        /   /      4^ 

ISOO 

^1       if/     // 

g 

UJ  1600 
CC 

1      II  /  / 

1-   1400° 

< 

CC 

1      III/ 
II  /  / 

s 

III          5 

fl  1000 

/  ',"' 

1  1 '/ 

1  //// 

800 

600° 

/// 

^ 

'if 

400 

»/ 

20U 

f 

/ 

/     1      1      1      1      1      1      , 

RESISTANCE 

constructed  from  the  measurements  of  Siemens  and  others, 
is  intended  to  show  graphically  the  wide  divergences  which 
would  arise  from  the  attempt  to  use  any  single  empirical 
formula  for  different  specimens  of  platinum. 

The  diagram,  the  abscissas  of  which  are  resistances,  while 
the  ordinates  are  temperatures,  is  plotted  from  formulas  ob- 
tained by  Benoit  and  byMatthiesen,and  from  three  separate 
results  obtained  l)y  Siemens  with  different  samples  of  plat- 
inum. It  will  be  seen  that  the  discrepancies  amount  to 
many  hundreds  of  degrees.  Later  experience  in  the  pro- 
duction of  platinum  has  made  it  possible  to  eliminate  some 
of  the  impurities  to  which  the  difl'erenccs  are  due,  but  ac- 
curacy is  still  to  be  secured  only  by  the  direct  calibration  of 
each  specimen. 

Thermo-electric  cou|iles  consisting  of  platinum  and  one 
of  the  alloys  of  platinum  with  one  of  the  kindred  metals. 


such  as  iridium  or  rhodium,  afford  a  means  of  measuring 
high  temperatures  which  is  probably  less  open  to  objection 
than  any  other  as  yet  devised.  Couples  containing  com- 
mercial platinum  will,  it  is  true,  show  variations  similar  to 
those  which  characterize  the  curves  of  temperature  and  re- 
sistance, but  modern  methods  of  purifying  platinum  have 
made  it  possible,  as  Barns  has  demonstrated,  to  protluce  the 
metal  and  its  alloys  in  such  condition  that  the  curve  for 
electromotive  force  and  temperatures  remains  virtually  a 
straight  line  up  to  the  melting-point  of  platinum. 

The  wide  discrepancies  between  the  results  obtained  by 
different  observers  and  in  the  use  of  the  tlitferent  methods 
would  leave  the  subject  of  pyrometry  in  confusion  wen^  it 
not  that  the  melting  temperatures  of  the  metals  afford  fixed 
points  of  reference  by  which  we  can  institute  rigorous  rela- 
tive comparison  of  the  above  methods  with  other  more  in- 
direct determinations — e.  g.  those  based  upon  the  constancy 
of  the  specific  heat  of  copper  or  of  platinum,  or  upon  as- 
sumed laws  of  radiating  power  as  a  function  of  the  temper- 
ature. 

By  means  of  such  comparisons  certain  very  different 
methods  are  found  to  give  concordant  results,  while  others, 
the  claims  of  which,  taken  by  themselves,  would  seem  to  be 
quite  as  strong,  are  not  accordant.  Thus  there  has  gradu- 
ally been  established  a  set  of  values  running  up  to  the  melt- 
ing-points of  silver,  gold,  and  copper  upon  which  great 
weight  is  laid.  Above  1,100'  C,  however,  pyrometry  is  still 
very  far  from  being  an  exact  science.  See  further.  Barns, 
Measurement  of  High  Temperatures;  Guillaume,  Thermo- 
metrie  de  Precision  :  Becquerel,  Comptes  Bendus.  Deville 
and  Troost,  Annates  de  Chimie,  vol.  iii.,  58;  Regnault,  ibid., 
vol.  iii.,  63;  Daniell,  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science,  11  (1821); 
Wedgwood,  Phil.  Transactions,  72,  74,  and  76. 

E.  L.  Nichols. 

Pyr'ope  [from  Gr.  irupairSs.  a  kind  of  red  bronze,  liter., 
adj.  fiery-eyed ;  irCp.  fire  +  Hif/.  utt6s,  eye] :  the  precious  gar- 
net, a  fine  dark-red  garnet,  much  used  in  jewelry,  and  in- 
correctly called  hyacinth,  ruby,  and  carbuncle.  It  comes 
from  Ceylon,  Germany,  Scotland,  etc.     See  Garnet. 

Pyroph'ori  [Jlod.  Lat. ;  Gr.  iriip.  fire  -I-  <t>4peiv,  bear] :  a 

term  applied  generally  to  some  substances  which  kindle 
spcmtaneously  and  enter  into  combustion  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  the  term  being  confined,  however,  to  solid  sub- 
stances, and  not  applied  to  spontaneously  inflammable  liq- 
uids. Carbon,  phosphorus,  and  many  easily  oxidable  metals 
may  be  made  pyrophoric  by  preparation  in  a  state  of  ex- 
treme division.  "  Romberg's  pyrophorus "  is  formed  by 
mixing  intimately  alum  and  sugar,  drying  and  charring 
first  in  an  open  pan,  then  igniting  in  a  closed  vessel.  Phos- 
phorus, when  left  by  evaporation  of  its  solutions  in  very 
volatile  liquids,  like  bisulphide  of  carbon,  is  pyrophoric. 
Iron  may  be  obtained  in  pyrophoric  form  by  many  methods, 
even  by  simple  reduction  of  the  oxide  with  hydrogen  gas  at 
a  minimum  temperature.  A  lead  pyrophorus  is  obtained  by 
charring  dry  tartrate  of  lead  in  a  close  tube.  If,  after  cool- 
ing, the  tube  be  crushed,  a  beautiful  shower  of  fire,  metallic 
lead  and  carbon  in  combustion,  makes  its  appearance. 
.Some  common  lignites,  very  finely  pulverized  and  thorough- 
ly <lried  by  heat,  are  pyrophoric  when  warm.  Numerous 
other  cases  are  described  in  chemical  works. 

Pyrophosphates:  See  Phosphoric  Acid. 

Pyrophosphoric  Acid  :  See  Phosphoric  Acid. 

Pyro'si.s  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Gr.  ■nipanns,  burning,  inflam- 
mation, deriv.  of  jnipovv,  to  burn,  deriv.  of  irEp,  fire] :  an 
affection  of  the  stomach  characterized  by  the  regurgitation 
of  a  considerable  quantity  of  liquid  when  the  stomach  is 
empty  of  food.  The  liquid  expelled  may  be  insipid  to  the 
taste  "or  saltish,  and  it  is  sometimes  acid.  It  is  not  vomited, 
but  regurgitated,  and  the  regurgitation  is  not  accompanied 
by  the  sense  of  nausea  which  usually  attends  acts  of  vomit- 
ing. The  popular  name  for  the  affection  is  water-brash. 
The  regurgitation  takes  place  especially  in  the  morning,  be- 
fore food  has  been  taken.  A  sensation  of  burning  is  gener- 
ally felt  in  the  region  of  the  stomach,  and  frequently  in  the 
throat  during  and  after  the  passage  of  the  liquid.  This 
burning  sens.ition  is  implied  in  the  name  pyrosis.  The  re- 
gurgitation in  pyrosis  is  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of 
food  or  drink  which  has  been  taken  into  the  stomach  in  other 
cases  of  dyspepsia.  The  liquid  regurgitated  in  pyrosis  is 
the  morbid  product  of  secretion  from  the  glands  of  the 
stomach,  the  abnormality  as  a  rule  consisting  in  excessive 
acidity  of  the  gastric  juice.    The  affection  occurs  oftener  in 


PYROTECHNY 


PYTHAGORAS 


871 


womoii  than  in  men,  and  is  somewhat  dependent  on  disturb- 
ance i)f  the  nervous  system.  Pereons  living  on  a  poor,  in- 
sullieient  diet  are  more  likely  to  suffer  from  it  than  those 
who  live  well  or  generously.  It  is  not  a  grave  affection, 
nor  does  it  denote  a  tendency  to  any  important  disease  in 
the  stomach  or  elsewhere.  It  is  generally  relieved  very 
speedily  l)y  the  carbonate  or  subnitrate  of  bismuth  in  doses 
of  froiii  20  to  :iO  grains,  given  twice  or  thrice  daily.  The 
irealment,  in  otiier  respects,  embraces  the  use  of  tonic 
H'medies,  nutritious  alimentation,  and  hygienic  influences 
to  invigorate  the  system.  Revised  by  W.  1'ei>i>er. 

I'yrotecliny  [(ir.  xCp,  fire  +  rtx'^-  art]:  the  art  of  nnik- 
ing  fireworks  for  the  purpose  of  aniuscnient  or  for  signals. 
The  methods  in  use  have  been  develo|]cd  almost  indepen- 
dently of  the  direct  aid  of  science,  and  largely  "  by  rule  of 
thumb."  Fireworks  are  said  to  have  originated  in  the  East. 
It  is  certain  that  there  were  firework  displays  in  China  cen- 
turies before  their  introiluction  into  Europe,  and  the  Chi- 
nese and  .lapanese  still  excel  in  .some  branches  of  the  art. 
The  subject  of  pyrotechny  covers  l)oth  the  mechanical  and 
chemical  branches.  For  the  purposes  of  this  article  it  is 
only  necessary  to  treat  briefly  of  the  chemical  features.  All 
fireworks  contain  a  substance  or  mixture  of  substances  capa- 
ble of  burning,  and  therefore  called  the /»(-/.  and  a  substance 
or  substances  rich  in  oxygen.  Among  the  sulistances  used 
.IS  fuel  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  .Sulphur,  charcoal, 
>liell-lac,  resin,  pitch.  The  chief  su[)[)orters  of  combustion, 
or  oxygen  compounds,  employed  are  saltpeter  (potassium 
nitrate)  and  chlorate  of  potash  (potassium  chlorate).  For  the 
production  of  colored  lights  and  stars  <Iifferent  substances 
are  introduced  into  tlie  filling.  The  accompanying  table 
gives  the  names  of  the  substances  and  the  proportions  in 
which  they  should  be  mixed  to  produce  red,  green,  blue, 
yellow,  and  white : 


SUBSTANCES. 


Potassium  ctilorate . . 

Sulphur 

Charcoal 

Shell-lac 

Calomel 

Magnef^ium  ftlin^  . . . 
Strontium  nitrate  — 

Barium  chlorate 

Copper  oxychloride. . 

Sodmm  oxalate 

I^otassium  nitrate 

Antimony  sulphide . . 


Red. 

Oreco. 

Blue. 

YeUow. 

a 

5 

a 

i 

a 

1 

3 

1 
a 

a 

a 

a 

8 

ia 

a 

12 
1 


Iron-filings  are  frequently  introduced  into  the  mixtures  to 
cause  brilliant  scintillations:  long  filings  or  those  made 
with  a  coarse  file  are  preferred.  The  famous  Bengal  lights 
are  made  with  niter,  7  parts;  sulphur,  2;  antimony  sul- 
))hide,  1.  Rocket  and  Roman-candle  stars  are  compressed 
portions  of  the  powder.  They  usually  contain  the  sanu^ 
constituents  as  ordinary  gunpowder,  the  proportion  of  char- 
coal being  somewhat  reduced ;  steel-filings  are  sometimes 
added.  Camphor,  gum  benzoin,  and  storax  are  frequently 
mixed  with  the  powders  to  give  an  aromatic  odor  and  mask 
the  unpleasant  odors  arising  from  the  firing  of  the  mixtures 
without  such  addition.  See  Thorpe's  Dictionary  of  Applied 
Chemistry,  vol.  iii.  Revised  by  Ira  Remsk.v. 

Pyrnxpiie:  See  Augite. 

Pyroxylic  Spirit:  See  Methyl  Alcohol. 

PjTox'jiin  [(Jr.  nOp.  fire  +  {i5aov,  wood]:  the  technical 
name  for  giincotton.  (See  Explosives.)  When  cellulose 
(cotton)  is  treated  with  concentrated  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acid.s,  it  undergoes  clianges  of  the  same  kind  as  those  effect- 
ed in  glycerin  by  the  action  of  these  acids.  Different  proii- 
ncts  are  obtaine<l,  according  to  the  strength  of  tht^  acids,  the 
temperature,  and  the  time.  The  final  product  is  the  he.ra- 
nilrale,  Vt,Un(SO,),0,.  Other  products  are  the  penln- 
nitrate,  C,,II,s(NOs)sO»,  the  letra-,  tri-,  and  di-nitrales. 
The  hexanitrate  is  the  most  explosive  and  is  the  true  gun- 
cotton.  It  is  made  by  treating  dried  cotton  for  twenty-four 
hours  at  10'  C.  with  a  mixture  of  1  volume  nitric  acid  (sp. 
gr.  1-.'))  and  ;i  volumes  sulphuric  (sp.gr.  I'HW).  The  lower 
nitrates  are  used  for  making  Collodion  (q.  v.)  for  photo- 
graphic purposes.  These  are  principally  the  tetra-  and  penta- 
nitrates,  which  are  mmle  by  using  less  concentrated  nitric 
lUMd  and  a  somewhat  higher  temperature  than  in  the  manu- 
facture of  guncotton.  Among  the  directions  given  for  its 
preparation  is  the  following:  Add  1  part  cotton  to  a  mix- 
ture of  20  parts  saltpeterand  111  parts  sulphuric  acid  (sp.  gr. 
1830-l'y35),  the  temperature  of  the  mixture  not  above  50^ 


C.  The  wliole  is  allowed  to  stan<l  twenty-four  hours  at  28- 
30'  C,  and  then  washed  with  water.  The  product  dissolves 
in  a  mixture  of  7  to  8  parts  ordinary  ether  and  1  part  alco- 
hol. It  is  mainly  the  tetranitrate.  "  The  pyroxilin  made 
from  ti.ssue-paper  for  the  celluloid  manufacturei's  is  made 
by  taking  50  cubic  cm.  of  nitric  acid  of  1-47  specific  gravity, 
100  cubic  cm.  nitric  acid  of  1"36  specific  gravity,  and  1(J0 
cubic  cm.  of  sulphuric  acid  of  1"84  specific  gravity.  In 
this  mixture  18  grammes  of  the  finely  shredded  tissue-paper 
are  immersed  at  a  tem|ierature  of  55°  C.  for  one  hour.  The 
paper  gains  about  40  per  cent,  in  weight  in  the  nitration  " 
(Sadtler).  Ika  Remsen. 

Pyrrlia :  S.e  Deucalion. 

Pyr'rliic  Ihince  (in  Gr.  Xluppixn  Spxv^s)'-  a  Grecian  war- 
dance  in  full  armor.  It  originated  in  Dorian  Crete,  where 
its  pmtolype  was  the  dance  instituted  by  the  Curetes  to 
drown  the  cries  of  the  infant  Zeus,  though  the  Spartans 
referred  it  to  Castor  and  Pollux,  and  the  Athenians  to  Dio- 
nysus and  Athene.  It  was  a  mimic  fight,  intended  to  illus- 
trate the  art  of  attack  and  defense.  It  became  popular  in 
imperial  Rome.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pyrrhoof  Elis:  Greek  philosopher  365-275  b.c;  founder 
of  tlie  skeptical  school  of  philosojihy  and  si  ill  used  as  a  type 
of  the  doubting  spirits.  Nothing  left  in  writing.  See  Ch. 
Waddington,  Fyrrhon  el  le  pyrrhonisnie  (Paris,  1877). 

Pyrrhus  [=  Lat.  =  Gr.  nvppSs.  liter.,  fire-colored,  red- 
headed, deriv.  of  nvp,  fire]:  1.  Another  name  for  Neoptole- 
mus,  the  son  of  Achilles  and  Deidamia.  2.  A  king  of  Epi- 
rus,  who  claimed  descent  from  Achilles  through  Neoptole- 
mus.  He  was  born  in  818  n.  c  of  ^-Eacides  and  Phthia. 
^Eacides  was  banished  when  Pyrrhus  was  two  years  old,  but 
trusty  servants  .saved  Pyrrhus  and  brought  him  to  the  court 
of  Glaucias,  King  of  the  Taulantians.  In  307  Glaucias  suc- 
ceeded in  placing  the  boy  on  the  throne,  but  in  302  he  was 
banished,  fled  to  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  distinguished  him- 
self in  tlie  battle  of  Ipsus  in  301,  betook  himself  to  Egypt, 
married  the  stepdaughter  of  Ptolemy,  received  money  and 
troops  from  Ptolemy,  and  in  295  once  again  became  King  of 
all  hpirus.  He  then  embarked  with  varying  fortune  in  wars 
against  the  neighboring  princes,  including  Demetrius.  King 
of  Macedonia.  In  287  he  became  King  of  Macedonia  also 
in  the  stead  of  the  fallen  Demetrius,  but  soon  lost  it  to  Ly- 
simachus.  In  281  he  esjioused  the  cause  of  the  Tarentinee 
against  Rome,  and  in  280  landed  in  Tarentuin  with  25,000 
troops  and  20  elephants,  won  in  the  battle  on  the  Siris,  ad- 
vanced upon  Rome,  and  won  again  at  Asculum  in  279.  But 
when  Rome  and  Carthage  combined  against  hira  he  aban- 
doned Italy  and  applied  himself  to  the  conquest  of  Sicily, 
where  at  first  he  was  received  with  joy  and  fought  with  suc- 
cess, but  when  he  encountered  the  firm  resistance  of  the 
Carthaginians  at  Lilyba-um,  the  fickle  Sicilians  abandoned 
his  cause  for  that  of  Carthage.  In  disgust  he  evacuated 
Sicily  and  returned  to  Italy  in"276,  after  his  fleet  had  been 
defeated  by  the  Carthaginians,  and  in  275  he  was  utterly 
defeated  by  M.  Curius  Dentatus  at  Beneventum.  Collecting 
the  remnants  of  his  army,  he  returned  to  Epirus  in  274, 
leaving  at  Tarentum  a  garri.son.  He  then  attacked  Antigo- 
nus  of  Macedonia  and  actually  annexed  a  large  part  of 
that  kingdom.  In  272  he  undertook  the  coiKpiest  of  the 
Peloponnesus  at  the  call  of  Cleonymus.  King  of  .Sparta;  he 
attackeil  Sparta,  was  repulsed,  retreated  to  Argos,  where  he 
was  met  by  the  forces  of  Antigonus  of  Jlacedonia ;  a  fight 
ensued  in  the  streets  of  Argos;  Pyrrhus  was  knocked  sense- 
less by  a  brick  Imrled  from  a  housetop  by  the  mother  of  a 
man  whom  Pyrrhus  was  about  to  kill.  lie  was  then  dis- 
patched bv  one  of  the  soldiers  of  Antigonus  in  272  B.  r. 

J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pynis :  a  genus  of  rosaceous  trees  and  shrubs  of  some 
fifty  species,  among  which  are  the  Api-le,  Pear,  and  Quince 
{gq-  f.). 

Pytllilff'orilS  :  a  Greek  philosopher,  supposed  to  have  been 
born  at  Sainos  about  582  n.  r. ;  to  have  been  the  son  of 
Mnesarchus;  his  earliest  teacher  to  have  been  Plierecydes 
the  Syrian,  from  whom  he  nuiy  hare  received  Egyptian  and 
Zoroastrian  lore;  his  next  teacher  to  have  been  Anaxi- 
mamler,  who  taught  that  the  principle  (ipxn)  of  things  is 
the  unlimited  or  indefinite  i&ireipov) :  in  early  life  to  have 
traveled  tlinuigh  Ionia,  Phcenicia,  and  Egypt,"where  ho  was 
initiated  into  the  mysteries  by  the  priests.  Some  would 
have  it  that  he  was  even  carried  away  to  Babylon,  with 
other  Egvptian  prisoners,  by  Cambyses,'who  made  his  raid 
on  Egvpt  in  the  year  525  u.'c. ;  but'the  weight  of  authority 


872 


PYTHEAS 


PYX 


favors  the  view  that  he  repaired  toCrotona,  in  Lower  Italy, 
529  B.  c,  and  there  established  a  society  with  ethical,  po- 
litical, and  philosophic  tendencies.  His  school  was  allied 
with  the  aristocratic  party,  and  consequently  incurred  the 
animosity  of  the  democratic  party.  This  occasioned  (about 
510  B.  c.)  the  retirement  of  Pythagoras  to  Metapontum. 
where  he  died  soon  after.  His  school  spread  rapidly,  and, 
after  the  manner  of  Oriental  systems,  was  semi-ethical  and 
religious,  semi-political  and  social,  tending  to  produce  a  fu- 
sion of  state  and  hierarchy.  It  has  bequeathed  to  us  a  mul- 
titude of  philosophemes  on  mathematics,  music,  and  astron- 
omy, as  well  as  on  ethics.  The  doctrines  of  metempsy- 
chosis, of  the  cyclic  return  of  events,  of  contraries  (^raw/ai) 
— according  to  which  lie  added  to  the  principle  of  his  mas- 
ter, Anaximander  (which  was  "  the  unlimited  ").  its  opposite, 
the  limiting  (■nepalmyTa) — indicate  Persian  or  Egyptian  in- 
fluence. This  Oriental  tendency  may  have  had  another 
origin  than  those  named  (his  teachers  or  his  travels),  so  far 
as  the  writings  of  his  school  are  concerned  (for  no  writing 
of  the  master  has  come  down  to  us),  in  the  Crotonian  school 
of  medicine,  of  whom  Democedes,  the  celebrated  physician, 
had  resided  at  the  Persian  court  under  Darius.  What  be- 
longs to  the  disciples  and  what  to  the  master  can  not  be 
told.  Pythagoras  is  said  to  have  anticipated  the  Copernican 
doctrine,  making  the  sun  the  center  of  the  cosmos ;  also  to 
have  discovered  the  numerical  ratio  existing  between  mu- 
sical tones  of  the  gamut  (either  by  length  of  strings  or  by 
their  degrees  of  tension).  He  is  famous,  according  to  Aris- 
totle and  subsequent  writers,  for  his  doctrine  that  "  num- 
ber is  the  principle  of  all  things,  and  that  the  organization 
of  the  universe  is  an  harmonic  system  of  numerical  ratios  " ; 
but  this  may  be  the  doctrine  of  the  Pythagoreans  rather 
than  of  the  founder  of  the  school.  There  is,  however,  less 
doubt  as  to  the  fact  that  he  sought  to  establish  a  new  eth- 
ical basis  for  society  in  place  of  the  unconscious  use  and 
wont  that  had  prevailed  up  to  his  epoch.  He  laid  the  great- 
est stress  on  the  discipline  of  the  will  into  obedience,  tem- 
perance, silence,  self-examination,  simplicity  in  personal  at- 
tire, and  self-restraint  in  all  its  forms.  The  original  sources 
of  information  regarding  him  are  Aristotle  {Met.,  i.,  5  ; 
Phys.,  iii.,  4 ;  De  Ccelo,  ii.,  13  and  9 ;  Eth.  Nic,  v.,  8),  the 
writings  of  Aristotelian  commentators,  Herodotus  (ii.,  81  : 
iv.,  94-96,  etc.),  and  the  (mostly  spurious)  writings  of  his 
disciples,  Philolaus,  Ocellus  Lucanus.  Tiraivus  Locrus,  Ar- 
chytes  of  Tarentura,  Epicharmus,  and  the  Neo-Platonists 
lamblichus  and  Porphyry  ;  Diodorus  Siculus  and  Diogenes 
Lffirtius  are  to  be  added  to  this  list.  W.  T.  Harris. 

Pytheas  (in  Gr.  Uv^eas) :  1.  An  Athenian  orator  and  an- 
tagonist of  Demosthenes.  2.  A  native  of  Massilia  (Mar- 
seilles), a  geographer  and  navigator,  who  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great  made  two  voyages  of  discovery  along 
the  western  and  northwestern  coasts  of  Europe  from  Gibral- 
tar to  Iceland.  His  accounts  of  his  travels  were  received 
by  the  ancients  with  incredulity  and  disgust  as  being  fables, 
but  it  is  now  known  that  they  were  in  the  main  correct. 
His  books,  the  chief  of  which  was  ri  irepl  ijKtajiov,  are  known 
only  from  the  adverse  criticism  of  later  writers. 

J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pyth'ia  (in  Gr.  nufli'a) :  the  priestess  of  the  Pythian  Apol- 
lo in  Delphi.  In  early  times  this  priestess  was  a  virgin,  but 
later  on  she  was  a  married  woman,  more  than  iifty  years 
of  age,  dressed  as  a  virgin.  There  were  two  regular  priest- 
esses with  an  assistant,  who  acted  as  priestess  in  case  of 
emergency.  Clothed  in  long  rich  robes  and  with  golden 
ornaments  in  her  hair,  the  Pythia,  after  prayer,  sacrifice,  and 


the  required  purifications  had  been  duly  performed,  took 
her  seat,  upon  the  sacred  tripod,  which  stood  over  the  Cas- 
talian  spring.  The  vapors  that  ascended  from  this  spring, 
sacred  to  Apollo,  were  supposed  to  inspire  her  answer. 
The  resijonse  of  the  god  through  the  Pythia  was  usually 
couched  in  hexameters,  though  official  versifiers  stood  ready 
to  turn  the  answers  into  verse  in  case  the  Pythia  made  use 
of  prose.  In  later  times  the  response  of  the  god  was  given 
regularly  in  prose.  J.  R.  S.  Sterrett. 

Pytliiaii  (James  [Gr.  to  niiflm,  deriv.  of  riuflw,  Pytho  or 
Delphi]:  festivals  held  late  in  August  of  the  third  year  of 
each  ( )Iympiad  at  Delphi,  in  Phocis,  in  honor  of  Apollo,  who 
estaljlislied  them  in  commemoration  of  his  victory  over  the 
Python,  a  frightful  dragon  that  lived  on  Wt.  Parnassus. 
Originally  the  contests  were  purely  musical,  and  consisted 
of  songs  accompanied  by  the  lyre  and  by  the  flute,  together 
with  contests  on  the  flute  alone.  After  the  sacred  war  (355- 
846  B.  c.)  the  festivals  were  conducted  under  the  direction  of 
the  Amphictyonic  Council.  A  day  devoted  to  athletic 
sports  similar  to  those  held  at  Olyrnpia  was  added  and  by 
degrees  various  forms  of  liorse  races  and  chariot  races  were 
introduced.  See  Delphi,  Olympian  Games,  and  Moramsen, 
Delphika.  B.  B.  Holmes. 

Pytli'ias :  See  Damon  and  Pythias. 

Python :  See  Boa. 

Pyx  [from  Lat.  pyxis  =  Gr.  ■irvt,ls,  box,  liter.,  a  boxwood 
box,  deriv.  of  7ni|os,  boxwood] :  (1)  a  sacred  vessel,  having 
usually  the  form  of  a  covered  cup  with  a  foot,  used  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  contain  the  sacred  wafer  when 
preserved  after  consecration  ;  (2)  the  strong  box  used  in  the 
mint  for  the  safe  keeping  of  coins  set  apart  from  each  suc- 
cessive coinage  to  be  examined  by  a  commission  of  experts 
for  the  purpose  of  testing  their  accuracy  as  to  weight  and 
fineness. 

The  examination  of  these  reserved  coins  is  called  the 
"  trial  of  the  pyx,'"  and  in  Great  Britain  this  trial  takes 
place  ■'  at  least  once  in  every  year  in  which  coins  have  been 
issued  from  tlie  mint  "  before  a  sworn  jury  of  at  least  six 
goldsmiths.  Should  the  coins  have  been  found  accurate  in 
weight  and  fineness  within  the  limits  allowed  by  law,  com- 
monly called  tolerance  or  remedy,  no  further  proceedings 
are  taken  :  but  in  case  the  coinage  in  either  or  both  these  re- 
spects be  found  inexact,  the  officers  of  the  mint  are  liable 
to  censure  or  more  serious  penalties. 

In  the  U.  S.  it  is  provided  that  a  trial  of  the  pyx  shall  be 
made  at  the  mint  in  Philadelphia  on  the  second  Wednesday 
in  February,  annually.  This  takes  place  before  the  judge 
of  the  district  court  of  the  U.  S.  for  the  eastern  district  of 
Pennsylvania,  the  comptroller  of  the  currency,  the  assayer 
of  the  New  York  assay-otfice,  and  other  persons  designated 
by  the  President.  A  majority  of  the  commissioners  consti- 
tute a  competent  board.  Their  examination  is  to  be  made 
in  the  presence  of  the  director  of  the  mint.  The  reserved 
coins  from  the  coinage  of  other  mints  besides  that  at  Phila- 
delphia are  transmitted  quarterly  to  the  Philadelphia  mint; 
and  in  addition  to  these  the  director  may  at  pleasure  take 
any  other  pieces  as'tests.  If  the  coins  are  within  the  limits 
of  tolerance  in  fineness  and  weight,  their  report  is  simply 
filed ;  but  if  deviation  in  either  or  both  respects  is  discov- 
ered, exceeding  the  limits  of  tolerance,  the  fact  is  to  be  cer- 
tified to  the  President  of  the  U.  S.,  and  '•  if.  on  a  view  of 
the  circumstances  of  the  case,  he  shall  so  decide,  the  officer 
or  officers  implicated  in  the  error  are  thenceforward  dis- 
qualified from  holding  their  respective  offices." 


Q 


the    seventeenth    letter    of    the   English 
alphaljft. 

Form. — The  form  is  derived  through 
the  Latin  alphabet  from  the  Greek,  kopjia 
Q.  This  letter  was  used  in  the  oliler 
Greek  writing  to  indicate  the  velar  or 
back-guttural  sound  of  k  occurring  be- 
fore tlie  vowels  o  and  u.  Prom  about  525 
B.  c.  onward  it  was  gradually  displaced  by  kappa,  and  finally 
passed  entirely  out  of  use  except  as  a  numeral  sign  {=  UO). 
The  Semitic  form  of  the  letter  was  <p. 

Name. — The  tirei'k  name  koppa  or  qoppa  (piiinra)  is  an 
adaptation  of  the  Semilic  name  (Jopk,  meaning  head,  back 
of  head.  This  name  was  doubtless  chosen  analogously  with 
the  other  letter-nanu'S,  both  because  of  the  fancied  resem- 
blance of  the  letter  to  the  human  head  and  neck  and  be- 
cause the  sound  of  the  letter  was  initial  in  the  name.  The 
English  name  kyoo  (i.  c.  /.-//»),  of  which  the  variant  kyoof 
occurs,  is  successor  to  O.  French  c«,  Lat.  qu. 

SoHuil. — The  letter  occ\irs  in  English  only  in  the  combi- 
nation qu,  which  generally  has  the  sound  kw,  as  in  quite, 
queen,  equal.  This  is  a  'labialized  guttural  explosive,  a 
single  sound  in  which  the  i-position  and  the  ic-position  are 
formed  simultaneously  and  not  successively ;  ef.  fiv  in  twice. 
The  digraph  qu  stands  for  simple  k  in  many  late  loan-words 
from  the  French,  as  coquette,  etiquette,  piquant,  grote.'tque, 
critique,  bouquet. 

Source. — When  it  has  the  value  kiv  the  digraph  qu  com- 
monly represents  either  (1)  O.  Eng.  cu]  <  Indo-Europ.  g 
(velar-guttural);  thus  queen  <  0.  Eng.  cwene.  of.  Sanskr. 
gna.  Gr.  -yvvTi;  quick  <  O.  Eng.  cwic,  cf.  Lat.  i-ii'us,  Sanskr. 
jird-;  or  (2)  O.  Fr.  qu  in  loan-words  which  entered  English 
before  the  French  qu  became  k;  thus  quart,  quit,  quarrel, 
quent,  heque-tt. 

Symbolism. — Q  =  Quintus,  question,  farthing  (quadrans) ; 
Q.  d.  =  as  if  he  should  say  (qua.s-i  dicat) ;  Q.  e.  =  which  is 
(quod  est) ;  Q.  E.  D.  —  which  was  to  be  proved  (quod  erat 
demonstrandum);  Q.  v.  =  which  see  {quod  vide). 

Benj.  Ide  Wheelek. 

(Jna-bird,  or  Qiiank  :  the  Night-beron  (q.  v.). 

Qiiadrages'ima  [=  Lat.,  fortieth] :  a  name  for  Lent  {^r.  v.), 
or  for  the  tii-st  Sunday  in  Lent. 

Quadrant  [from  Lat.  quadrans,  quiidran'tis,  a  fourth 
part,  fourth  of  a  whole,  deriv.  of  quat'tuor,  four]:  in  its 
common  signification,  a  quarter  of  the  circumference  of  a 
circle,  or  ninety  degrees;  in  luivigation  and  astronomy,  an 
instrument  for  measuring  angles,  having  a  limb  divided 
to  ninety  degrees.  Astronomical  (juadrants  of  large  dimen- 
sions were  employed  by  the  early  observers  for  measuring 
meridian  altitudes,  being  for  this  purpose  firmly  fixed  in 
the  plane  of  the  meridian,  but  they  were  superseded  by  the 
mural  circle,  which,  in  its  turn,  has  given  way  to  the  tran- 
sit circle.  In  navigation  the  quadrant  is  superseded  by  the 
sextant.  (See  Sextant.)  The  invention  of  the  quadrant  is 
commonly  ascribed  to  .John  Ilalley,  a  friend  of  Newton,  on 
the  ground  that  the  inslrument  was  first  described  by  him 
in  a  paper  rea<l  before  the  Royal  Society  in  1731,  but  the  in- 
vention was  independently  made  in  IT^tO  by  Thomas  God- 
frey, of  Philadelphia,  whose  description  was  given  to  the 
same  society  in  1782 ;  and  the  society  decided  the  honor  of 
the  invention  to  belong  equally  to  both.  The  real  origina- 
tor, however,  of  the  ingenious  idea  on  which  the  invention 
is  founded  was  Sir  Isaacs  Xewton,  who  so  early  as  1727  com- 
municated it  to  Malley,  then  astronomer-royal,  in  a  paper 
which  came  to  light  only  after  the  death  of  the  latter  in 
1742.  Kevised  by  S.  Xewcomb. 

Qnadratic  Equation  [qtiadrntic  is  from  Lat.  quadra  tus, 
squared,  deriv.  of  quadra  re,  nuike  square,  (in  math.)  square, 
deriv.  of  quat  tuor,  four] :  an  equation  of  the  second  degree, 
containing  but  one  unknown  quantity.  Every  quadratic 
equation  may  be  reduced  to  the  form 

a:'  -I-  2px  =  q,  (1) 

in  which  expression  p  and  q  represent  known  quantities; 


and  when  it  has  been  so  reduced  the  twi 
tion  are 


roots  of  the  equa- 


-  p  +  \/q  +  p\  and  —p—  \/q  +  p'. 


(2) 


If  q  <p^,  the  roots  are  both  real;  if  q  is  negative,  and  nu- 
merically equal  to  p',  the  two  roots  are  eipial ;  if  9  is  nega- 
tive, and  numerically  greater  than  p^.  both  roots  are  imagi- 
nary. If  p  is  equal  to  0,  the  equation  is  said  to  be  incom- 
plete, and  its  roots  are  then  nunierically  equal  with  contrary 
signs;  in  this  case  the  roots  are  real  when  q  is  positive  and 
imaginary  when  q  is  negative.  The  following  properties 
are  common  to  all  quadratic  e(|Uations,  after  being  reduced 
to  the  form  (1):  (1)  Every  quadratic  has  two  roots  and  oidy 
two.  (2)  If  all  the  terms  are  transposed  to  one  member, 
that  member  can  be  resolved  into  two  factors  of  the  first 
degree  with  respect  to  the  unknown  quantity,  the  first  term 
of  each  factor  being  the  unkixown  quantity  and  the  second 
terms  being  the  two  roots,  each  taken  with  a  contrary  sign. 
(3)  The  algebraic  sum  of  the  two  roots  is  equal  to  the  co- 
efficieut  of  the  second  term  with  its  sign  changed.  (4)  The 
product  of  the  two  roots  is  equal  to  the  second  member  with 
its  sign  changed.  (5)  If  the  second  term  is  negative,  and 
numerically  greater  than  the  square  of  half  the  coefficient 
of  the  second  term,  both  of  the  roots  are  imaginary.  See 
Equation  and  Imaginary  Quantities. 

Quadrature  [from  Late  Lat.  quadratu' ra.  deriv.  of  qua- 
dra re,  make  square,  reduce  an  area  to  a  square] ;  the  opera- 
tion of  finding  an  expression  for  the  area  hounded  by  a  line 
or  lines,  straight  or  curved,  on  a  plane.     See  Mensuration. 

Quadrature  of  the  Circle:  the  geometrical  problem  of 
finding  a  square  whose  area  shall  be  rigorously  equal  to  that 
of  a  given  circle.  It  is  one  of  four  celebrated  problems 
vainly  attacked  by  the  ancients,  the  other  three  being  (1) 
the  duplication  of  the  cube,  or  the  construction  of  a  line  the 
cube  of  which  shall  be  double  that  of  a  given  line ;  (2)  the 
triseetion  of  an  angle;  and  (3)  the  insertion  of  two  geomet- 
ric means  between  two  given  lines.  All  of  these  problems 
are  shown  by  modern  mathematics  to  be  unsolvable  in  the 
ancient  sense ;  that  is,  it  is  shown  that  they  can  not  be  con- 
structed by  the  ruler  and  compass,  as  problems  in  elemen- 
tary geometry  are  required  to  be  constructed  by  Euclid's 
postulates.  The  reasoning  is  very  simple :  No  quantities 
can  be  constructed  from  given  quantities  except  those 
which  can  be  formed  from  them  algebraically  by  the  solu- 
tion of  quadratic  equations;  if  the  algebraic  solution  ap- 
pears as  the  root  of  an  equation  of  the  third  or  higher  de- 
gree, unsolvable  by  quadratics,  then  it  can  not  be  constructed 
geometrically. 

The  proljUm  of  the  quadrature  of  the  circle  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  two  difTercnt  ways,  according  as  an  analytical  or 
geometrical  solution  is  reipiired.  The  geometrical  solution 
would,  as  we  have  already  said,  consist  in  constructing,  by 
the  ruler  and  compasses,  a  scpiare  which  shall  be  equal  to  a 
given  circle.  The  algebraic  solution  would  consist  in  find- 
ing some  luiinerical  expression  for  the  ratio  between  the 
diameter  of  a  circle  and  the  side  of  a  scpiare  ecpial  to  it  in 
area.  Since  the  area  is  known  to  be  equal  to  the  rectangle 
contained  by  half  the  diameter  and  half  the  circumference, 
this  problem  amounts  to  the  same  thing  as  constructing  a 
line  which  shall  be  equal  in  length  to  the  circumference  of 
a  circle  whose  diameter  is  given.  The  question  of  its  possi- 
bility could  be  settled  only  by  showing  that  the  numerical 
representation  can  not  be  made  by  solving  a  series  of  quad- 
ratic equations.  That  this  is  impossible  lias  long  been  rec- 
ognized, but  never  rigorously  proved  until  the  year  1882, 
when  Lindemann,  of  Ki'migsberg,  showed  that  the  ratio  of 
the  diameter  to  the  circumference,  conimoidy  represented 
by  the  symbol  ir.  could  not  be  represented  as  the  root  of  any 
algebraic  equation  whatever  with  rational  coefficients. 

The  arithmetical  solution  may  be  expressed  in  two  ways: 
(1)  to  construct  an  expression  which  shall  represent  the 
number  IT  ;  (2)  to  express  ir  to  any  extent  by  decimals.  As 
to  the  first  form,  no  expression  which  shall  lie  at  the  same 
time  rational  and  finite  is  possible,  a  result  which  follows  at 

(873) 


874 


QUADRIGARIUS 


QUAIN 


once  from  Lin<lemann's  theorein  ;  but  there  are  a  number 
of  infinite  series  which  are  equal  to  ir,  among  whicli  we  may 
mention  the  following : 


J__J_     J l_ 

8     3-2' "'"5a=     T-a'"*" 


1       1 

"3  5a'*'5o» 


;  +  etc. 


b=i-. 


-  ^:;:z-.  4  etc. 
1  11' 


1 

"  5-239«  ■ 


IT  =  4(a  +  a'  +  a") 
If  we  attempt  to  represent  the  number  tt  as  a  decimal 
fraction  the  decimals  will  go  on  without  end.  The  practical 
miestion  is  simply  that  of  computing  any  number  of  them. 
Various  computers  since  the  sixteenth  century  have  made 
the  computation  to  a  great  number  of  decimals,  among 
whom  the  following  are  wortliy  of  mention  :  In  1590  Ludoliih 
von  Keulen.  of  Leyden,  computed  it  to  thirty-five  decimals. 
This  work  led  to  the  term  Ludolphean  number,  which  the 
German  mathematicians  frecjuently  use  for  jr.  In  1719 
Lagny,  a  French  mathematician,  carried  the  computation 
to  131  decimals.  During  the  nineteenth  century  Dr.  Clau- 
sen, of  Dorpat,  calculated  350  decimals.  In  1844  Dase,  of 
Vienna,  carried  the  computation  to  300  figures.  Dr.  Ruther- 
ford, of  London,  and  Slianks,  of  Durham,  then  entered  into 
a  competition  in  the  matter,  and  the  latter  carried  the  com- 
putation to  607  decimals,  as  follows  : 
ir  =  3-14159         36535 

83379    50388 

58309    74944 

20899    86380 

83148    08651 

46095    50582 

48111    74503 

05559    64463 

44388    10975 

64833   37867 

45648   56692 

66482    13393 

72458    70066 

30930    96282 

78925    90360 

46653   13841 

33057    27036 

61173   81933 

07446   23798 

52724    89123 

98336    73363 

39501    60934 

53096    63037 

24749    96306 

29133   32+,  etc. 

The  effect  of  omitting  the  decimals  which  follow  the  six- 
hundredth  is  so  slight  that  if  the  number  as  given  were 
used  to  calculate  the  circumference  of  the  entire  visible  uni- 
verse the  error  would  be  inappreciable  in  the  most  powerful 
microscope.  Revised  by  S.  Newcomh. 

Qiiadriga'riiis,  (^uintus  Claudius  :  a  Roman  historian 
of  the  first  century  B.  c,  who  displayed  a  greater  critical 
faculty  than  most  of  the  early  annalists.  Beginning  his 
history  with  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  l)ecause 
authentic  documents  for  the  early  period  were  lacking,  he 
continued  it  down  to  the  time  of  Sulla  in  at  least  twenty- 
three  books.  For  the  fragments,  see  Peter,  Hist.  Hoiii.  Frag., 
pp.  136-151  (Leipzig,  1883).  M.  W. 

Qiiadrilateral,  The :  the  name  commonly  applied  to  the 
four  Italian  strongholds  of  Peschiera,  Mantua,  Verona,  and 
Legnago,  or  to  the  trapezoidal-shaped  territory  the  angles 
of  which  are  indicated  by  these  four  towns.  The  Mincio 
forms  its  western  and  most  important  defensive  line,  and 
the  Adige  the  eastern.  From  Peschiera  to  Verona  is  15 
miles,  and  from  Mantua  to  Legnago  31  miles.  This  quad- 
rilateral has  formed  the  base  of  all  military  operations 
against  Italy  during  almost  a  thousand  years;  i"ts  possession 
has  been  supposed  to  assure  control  of  the  peninsula.  It 
has  constantly  been  strengthened  with  utter  disregard  of 
expense.  Austria's  po.ssession  of  it  was  a  standing  menace 
to  the  unification  of  Italy,  but  the  alliance  of  the  latter 
power  with  Prussia  forced  Austria  to  withdraw  after  the 
disastrous  defeat  at  Sadowa  (1866).  In  lil<e  manner  Rust- 
chuk,  Silistria,  Sliumla,  and  Varna,  form  the  quadrilateral 
of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  were  considered  tlie  main  de- 


89793 

23846 

26433 

41971 

69399 

37510 

59330 

78164 

06386 

34825 

34311 

70679 

33823 

06647 

09384 

23172 

53594 

08128 

84103 

70193 

85311 

39489 

54930 

38196 

66593 

34461 

28475 

83165 

37130 

19091 

34603 

48610 

49433 

60736 

02491 

41273 

06315 

58817 

48815 

92540 

91715 

36436 

01133 

05305 

48820 

46951 

94151 

16094 

57595 

91953 

09318 

61179 

31051 

18548 

34749 

56735 

18857 

79381 

83011 

94913 

44193 

66430 

86031 

48077 

23094 

36285 

55693 

97986 

95022 

07497 

03041 

23669 

fense  of  Constantinople  and  of  the  Ottoman  possessions  in 
Europe  until  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877.  It  was  then 
flanked,  and  the  Ottoman  empire  conquered,  although  the 
Russians  had  been  unable  to  reduce  either  of  the  four 
strongholds.  The  thii'd  or  Asiatic  quadrilateral  was  formed 
by  Batum,  Ardahan,  Kars,  and  Baiezid  at  the  northeast  of 
the  Ottoman  possessions  in  Asia.  All  but  Batum  were  cap- 
tured liy  the  Russians  in  1877.  The  Treaty  of  Berlin  ceded 
Batum,  Ardahan,  and  Kars  to  Russia,  leaving  only  Baiezid 
to  the  Ottomans.  The  four  were  a  defensive,  almost  im- 
pregnable, line  of  fortresses  rather  than  a  real  quadrilateral, 
though  so  called.  E.  A.  Grosvenor. 

Qiiadl'ii'iuana  [Lat.,  four-handed  ;  qnattuor,  four  +  ma- 
iius.  hand] :  a  name  employed  by  Blumenbach  (in  1791)  as 
an  ordinal  designation  for  the  monkeys,  lemurs,  and  re- 
lated types,  m,in  having  been  isolated  as  tlie  representative 
of  a  peculiar  order  named  Bimuna.  The  views  thus  ex- 
pres.sed  were  for  a  longtime  predominant,  but  a  closer  study 
of  the  structure  of  the  forms  indicated  by  those  names 
has  convinced  almost  all  naturalists  that  they  were  erro- 
neously separated,  and  the  two  types  are  now  generally 
combined  in  one  order  named  Primates,  undei'  wliich  head 
man  and  the  monkeys  are  combined  in  one  sul>order  {An- 
tliriipiiiilea).  and  contrasted  with  the  lemurs,  which  consti- 
tute another  suli-ordcr  {Frusimiie).     See  Primates. 

Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Qlisestor  [Lat.  gwestor  :  Oscan,  Icva'isstiir :  LTmbrian,  kves- 
tur.  an  ancient  Italic  official  title,  commonly  associated  with 
giice'rere,  search,  investigate]  :  a  magistrate  of  ancient  Rome, 
appointed  originally,  the  name  would  seem  to  imply,  to  as- 
sist the  consuls  in  the  detection  of  crime  and  the  a'dniinis- 
tration  of  justice,  and  later  serving  as  their  assistants  in 
various  capacities.  Their  number  increased  with  the  growth 
of  Rome  from  four  in  421  B.  c.  to  twenty  in  the  time  of  Sulla, 
and  was  raised  to  forty  by  Jidius  Ca>sar,  but  reduced  again 
to  twenty  by  Augustus.  The  qua'storship,  as  being  an  olfice 
subordinate  to  a  superior  magistracy,  was  the  lowest  in  the 
series  of  public  offices  (cursiis  hononim).  At  first  it  would 
seem  that  quaestors  were  chosen  by  the  consuls,  but  from  a 
comparatively  early  time  (which  can  not  be  exactly  deter- 
mined) they  were  elected  by  the  people.  The  duties  of  the 
quipstors  may  have  been  originally  as  extensive  and  mani- 
fold as  those  of  the  consul  whom  they  served,  but  in  the 
course  of  time  certain  special  spheres  of  activity  were  as- 
signed to  them.  At  Rome  they  were  charged  with  criminal 
jurisdiction  (jurisdiction  in  civil  suits  falling  to  the  pra'tor), 
with  the  management  of  the  public  finances  and  of  the  state 
archives.  In  the  provinces  the  duties  of  the  qua>stor  con- 
sisted in  the  numagemcntof  financial  affairs  for  his  superior 
officer,  at  whose  request  or  command  he  might  also  perform 
other  tasks.  Election  to  the  quaestorship  carried  with  it  ad- 
mission to  the  senate.  G.  L.  Henukickson. 

Qiiagga :  See  Zebra. 

Qnaliog,  kwaw'hog,  or  Qiiahaii^  [of  Am.  Ind.  origin]: 
the  hard  clam,  Ve?iiis  mercenaria,  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  U.  S.     See  Ci-AM. 

Quail  [from  0.  Fr.  quaille,  from  Median'.  Lat.  qua'quila, 
from  Dutch  k-irakkel.  so  called  from  its  cry  <  kwaken. 
quack]  :  the  popular  name  for  various  small  gallinaceous 
birds,  but  strictly  speaking  belonging  to  the  common  quail 
{Cottirnix  communis)  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Northern  Africa, 
a  mendvr  of  the  sub-family  PtrdicincB,  and  a  near  relative 
of  the  Partridge  [q.  v.).  The  European  quail  is  7  inches 
lung,  brovvnish  or  reddish  gray  aliove,  marked  with  streaks 
of  buff;  below,  general  pale  but!:,  fading  into  white  on  the 
belly.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  quail  mentioned  in  Exodus, 
but  that  bird  may  have  been  the  sand-grouse  (Pterocles 
arenaria).  The  great  majority  of  European  quails  winter 
in  Africa,  and  vast  numbers  are  taken  for  market,  in  South- 
ern Europe  during  their  migrations.  Other  memliers  of  the 
genus  occur  in  Asia,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  name  is  commonly  bestowed  on  the  well-known 
bob-white  (Colinus  virr/inianus),  the  "partridge"  of  the 
Southern  States,  but  is  often  extended  to  other  species,  such 
as  the  California  quail  (CalUprpla  calif orn  lea).  The  New 
World  birds  belong  in  the  sub-family  Odontop/tDrino'. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Qaain,  Richard,  F.  R.  C.  S.,  F.  R.  S.  :  anatomist  and  sur- 
geon: b.  at  Fernioy.  Cork.  Ireland,  in  1800;  studied  at  the 
Windmill  Street  and  Aldersgate  schools  of  medicine,  Lon- 
don ;  in  1825  went  to  Paris  to  study ;  in  1838  became  a 
demonstrator  and  in  1832  Professor  of  Anatomy  in  the  Uni- 


QUAKERS 


QUARANTINE 


875 


vorsity  of  London:  in  ls;U  became  assistant  surgeon  and 
in  I80O  surj,'eon  to  tlie  N'Mitli  London  Hospital;  retired  in 
1866.  He  held  a  nnniber  of  ollicial  [lositions  in  the  iioyal 
College  of  Surgeons,  being  its  president  in  l>Hi8.  In  186!) 
he  delivered  tlie  Ilunterian  oration,  his  subject  being  Some 
Defects  in  General  Kdiualinn.  He  was  surgeon  extraordi- 
nary to  the  Queen.  His  elaborate  treatise  on  the  Aimtitmi/ 
of  the  Arteries  of  lite  Jliimtm  Jiudy  ranks  as  a  classical 
work.  Among  his  other  publications  are  Diseasen  of  tlie 
Rectum  (London,  1H,J4)  and  Cliniml  Lectures  (London, 
1884).  He  edited,  with  others,  the  fifth  edition  of  (juaiii's 
Anatomy,  originally  written  by  his  brother,  Jones  t^uain 
(171)6-1865).  1).  in"  London,  Sept.  1.").  1887.— His  cousin. 
Sir  Kii-IURD  Qi-AIN.  LIj.  I).,  b.  at  .Mallow,  Ireland,  Oct.  80, 
1816,  became  in  18.57  a  fellow,  and  in  188!)  was  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Koyal  College  of  l'hysician.s.  He  is  pliy.sician 
extraordinary  lli  the  Queen  and  has  edited  the  Dictionary 
of  Medicine  (1883  :  ad  ed.  18i)4).  S.  T.  Ar.mstro.no. 

Quakers  :  See  Frik.nds,  Society  ok. 
Qiiiikiiig-grass :  any  grass  of  the  genus  Briza.     The 
spikelets  are   ovate,  and   have   such   delicate  stalks  that  a 
light  wind  sets  them  quaking  and   rattling,     li.  maxima 
and  B.  media,  from  Europe,  are  cultivated  in  gardens,  and 
the  latter  is  partly  naturalized  in  the  U,  S.     In  Europe  it  is 
considered  a  good  pasture-grass  for  poor  mountain  lands. 
Us  seeds  lose  their  vitality  in  a  short  time  after  their  ripening. 
Qliang-fSce :  an  old  spelling  of  Kw.\N(;s[  (q.  r.). 
({iiung-Toii^  :  an  old  spelling  of  Kw.\ngtlxu  (g.  v.). 
Quautiu.  kiiaiVtiin ,  Ali!i;rt  Marie  .If.rome:  printer:  b. 
at  Urehemont,  Indre-et-Loire,  France.  .Jan.  U),  I8.")0;  studied 
law  ill  Paris;  became  director  of  the  Clave  printing-estab- 
lishment, at  Toui-s,  in  1873;  moved  to  Paris ;  became  printer 
to  t  he  Chamber  of  Deputies :  published  Bihiiotliei/ue  de  I'En- 
seignement  den  Beaut-Arts  (to  comprise  100  vols.)  and  spe- 
cial Annuaires.  and  wrote  Origines  de  I'Imprimerie  el  son 
Introduction  en  Anghterre  (1877). 

Quantity  (in  meter):  the  time  consumed  in  uttering  syl- 
lables, or  the  duration  of  syllables.  It  is,  of  course,  relative. 
The  duration  of  a  short  syllable  in  slow  utterance  may  be  as 
great  as  that  of  a  long  syllable  in  rapid  utterance. 

Quantity  and  cpiality  (nature,  timbre)  are  often  confound- 
ed. When  the  lirst  o  in  "co-operate"  is  called  "long"  and 
the  second  one  "short."  these  terms  should  be  understood 
only  of  the  quality.  The  confusion  is  increased,  or  rather 
the  error  is  emphasized,  by  the  use  of  quantity  marks  (— ,  ~J) 
to  indicate  these  sounds.  The  same  remark  applies  also  to  e 
and  u.  DilTerence  of  quantity  is,  no  douljt,  often  associated 
with  difference  of  quality,  but  the  latter  does  not  constitute 
the  former. 

Among  the  ancient  (ireeks  there  was  a  dispute  between 
the  so-called  rhythmists(4u8^<(co()and  the  metricians  (|ifTpi)to() 
concerning  (piantity.  'I  he  rhythinists  held  that  syllables 
had  a  great  variety  of  lengths.  To  illustrate  this,  some  of 
them  assumed  the  short  vowel  as  a  fixed  unit,  regarded  a 
long  vowel  as  eciual  to  two  short  ones,  and  counted  each  con- 
sonant added  to  a  vowel  as  equal  to  half  a  short  vowel ;  hence 
they  placed,  for  instance,  e  =  1,  ev  =  li,  ei/r  =  3,  etc.,  7;  —  2, 
T)!- =  2J,  j)i/T  =  3,  etc.  The  metricians,  on  the  other  hand, 
held  that  short  syllables  had  a  uniform  length,  and  that  long 
syllabhw  were  just  twice  as  long.  One  writer,  Aristoxenus, 
appeiirs  to  have  seen  that  syllables  had  no  fixed  length  nor 
deiinitc  relation  to  each  other,  but  were  vaguely  divisible 
into  longer  and  shorter,  with  some  doubtful  cases.  In  con- 
structing rhythm  the  long  syllable  was  given  twice  the  length 
of  a  short  one,  while  the  doubtful  syllables  were  made  either 
long  or  short,  and  were  called  "common."  In  particular 
cases  any  syllable,  however  long,  could  be  shortened  into  an 
irrational  (lUoyos),  so  as  to  count  as  a  short.  Such  syllables 
arc  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  "common  "  ones.  Also  in 
special  ca.ses  a  syllable  could  be  made  equal  to  three  short 
ones,  or  four,  or  even  more;  but  such  prolongation,  espe- 
cially within  a  word,  was  confined,  for  the  most  part,  to 
poetry  intended  to  l)e  sung. 

While  the  ancient  languages  had  great  variety  of  quan- 
tity, that  of  each  particular  syllable  was  more  fixed  than 
with  us.  This  may  be  .seen  by  applying  English  analogy  to 
ancient  wonls.  All  pronounce  "  amicus."  "  annivi  "  with  the 
second  syllables  long;  but  in  "amicitia."  "ainavisti  "  many 
make  those  same  syllables  short,  whereas  they  were  just  as 
long  as  in  the  former  words.  To  the  Roman  car  amilbamus 
would  have  been  as  barlmrons  as  "amilbam." 

In  Greek  and  Latin,  syllables  are  long  "  by  nature  "  (ipiaei. 


natura)  when  their  vowel  element  is  a  long  vowel  or  a  diph- 
thong ;  and  long  "  by  position  "  (6iau.  positione,  i.  e.  by  con- 
vention) when  a  short  vowel  is  followed  by  a  double  con- 
sonant iC.  {,  ifi),  or  two  or  more  consonants;  but  certain 
mutes  followed  by  certain  liquids  do  not  necessarily  lengthen 
a  syllable.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that,  while  in  syllabication 
we  follow  the  musicians  and  conned  as  many  consonants  as 
possible  with  the  vowel  following,  as  Kkt-irra,  in  pro.'^ody  we 
connect  as  many  as  possible  with  the  preceding  vowel,  as 
(cA.€irr-(o.  In  fact,  in  speaking,  it  is  the  vowel  before  several 
consonants,  rather  the  one  after  them,  that  is  felt  to  drag. 
In  singing,  consonants  are  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  car- 
ried forward. 

It  has  often  been  denied  that  there  is  any  consciousness 
of  quantity  in  English.  It  is  true  that  we  do  not  feel  any 
definite  relation  of  long  syllables  to  short  ones  in  reading  or 
speaking  as  we  do  in  singing  (and,  indeed,  this  was  the  case 
with  the  ancients);  but  that  there  is  sometimes  differenceof 
(juantitv  can  be  perceived  by  comparing  "  furrow "  with 
"  furlough,"  "  bonnie  "  with  "  spondee,"  "  tory  "  with  "  turn- 
key," etc.  In  reading  verse,  however,  we  merely  make  the 
feet  approximately  equal  without  feeling  or  perceiving  ex- 
actly how  it  is  accomplished,  just  as  in  singing  we  can  give 
the  Voice  a  definite  pitch  without  any  consciousness  of  the 
vibrations  that  determine  the  pitch. 

Milton  W.  Humphreys. 

Quantity,  Iinagiuarj- :  See  Imaginary  Qlantities. 

Quauza  :  See  Cuanza. 

Quarantine  [liter.,  a  space  of  forty  days,  from  0.  Fr. 
quaruntaine  :  Ital.  qnaranti  na.a.  forty  of  anything,  deriv.  of 
quaran'ta  :  O.  Fr.  and  Fr.  qiiarante,  forty]:  the  time  (for- 
nu^rlv  forty  days)  during  which  vessels  and  their  passengers, 
cargo,  etc.",  are  detained  and  isolated  on  entering  a  port 
when  they  carry  or  are  suspected  of  carrying  contagion. 
The  term  "is  aLsoused  to  denote  such  detention  and  isolation 
and,  collectively,  all  the  means  cmjiloyed  therein. 

History  of  i^uarnntine  liegulation. — The  necessity  for 
quarantine,  as  now  understood,  arose  out  of  the  development 
of  commerce,  and  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  earliest 
quarantine  regulations  were  those  promulgated  about  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  by  Venice  (then  the  great- 
est sea  mart  of  the  world)  as  a  protection  against  the  plagues 
of  the  East— the  black  plague  and  the  Egyptian  plague.  As 
earlv  as  1348  the  household  goods  of  those  that  died  were 
destroyed,  and  health  officers  were  appointed  ;  the  first  laza- 
retto was  established  in  1403,  and  suspected  incoming  ves- 
sels, with  their  passengers  and  cargoes,  were  detained  and 
isolated  for  forty  days.  Later,  and  es|)ecially  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  lazarettoes  were  established  and  maintained 
at  most  of  the  jMedilerranean  ports.  These  early  lazaret- 
toes. together  with  the  sanitary  cordons  established  about 
nearly  all  the  principal  cities,  were  directed  only  against  the 
plague.  Their  measures  taken  for  protection  were  often 
needlessly  harsh,  owing  to  the  lack  of  scientific  knowledge 
of  the  cause  of  the  malady  and  of  the  means  by  which  it 
spread.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  ef- 
forts were  made  by  .John  Howard  and  others  to  improve  the 
lazarettoes  and  hospitals  and  to  coml)at  foolish  superstitions 
and  jmictipes,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury a  call  was  made  for  an  international  congress  to  con- 
sider quarantine  measures.  By  this  time  the  plague  had 
waned  in  power  and  had  invaded  Europe  as  an  epidemic  for 
almost  the  last  time.  Since  the  year  1821  quarantine  regu- 
lations have,  in  the  main,  been  directed  against  the  yellow 
fever  and  cholera,  although  they  arc  intended  to  act  like- 
wise as  barriers  to  the  ingress  of  "all  contagious  or  infectious 
maladies. 

Quarantine  Regulations  in  the  U.  5.— The  present  L.  S. 
quarantine  laws  and  regulations,  the  latter  promulgated 
Apr.  26.  1894,  are  designed  to  obviate  the  detention  of  in- 
coming vessels  and  passengers  in  so  far  as  this  is  compati- 
ble with  the  practically  absolute  exclusion  of  infectious  dis- 
eases, which  is,  of  course,  their  paramount  aim.  As  a  means 
both  to  prevent  delay  and  to  exclude  contagion,  quariintines 
have  been  established  by  the  U.  S.  Government  at  all  for- 
eign ports  of  departure,  and  every  vessel  leaving  such  a 
port  for  that  country  must  have  a  bill  of  health  from  the 
proper  U.  S.  officer,  consular  or  medical,  "setting  forth  the 
sanitary  condition  and  history  of  the  vessel,  and  that  it  has 
in  all  i-espects  complied  with  the  rules  and  regulations." 
There  must  be  a  personal  inspection  by  the  officer  of  "all  ves- 
sels from  ports  at  which  cholera  prevails,  or  at  which  yellow- 
fever,  smallpox,  or  typhus  fever  prevails  in  epidemic  form." 


876 


QUARANTINE 


and  "  all  vessels  carrying  steerage  passengers."  It  is  also 
required  that  all  vessels  shall  be  thoroughly  clean  before 
receiving  cargo,  crew,  or  passengers;  that  the  bedding  for 
steerage  passengers  must  be  renewed  or  disinfected  before 
being  used  on  the  voj-age;  and  that,  if  there  were  any  ease 
of  infectious  disease  on  tlie  last  voyage,  all  parts  of  the  ves- 
sel that  could  possibly  have  been  infected  must  be  disin- 
fected. The  regulations  as  to  the  cargo  vary  according  to 
its  character. 

Tlie  treatment  of  passengers  is  somewhat  different  ac- 
cording as  they  belong  to  the  cabin  or  steerage  class;  but 
no  one  with  cholera,  smallpox,  yellow,  typhoid,  or  scarlet 
fever,  measles,  or  diphtheria  is  allowed  to  ship,  nor  should 
any  be  received  from  an  infected  port.  The  weekly  reports 
of  the  consular  officers  keep  the  Government  well  informed 
as  to  the  exact  sanitary  condition  of  all  ports  of  departure 
and  the  districts  adjacent  thereto  or  in  direct  communica- 
tion with  them. 

Cabin  passengers  from  ports  or  districts  where  cholera  or 
other  infectious  diseases  are  prevalent  are  subject  to  inquiry 
as  to  tlieir  place  of  abode  for  tlie  five  days  immediately  pre- 
ceding departure,  and  may  be  detained  as  long  as  the  in- 
specting officer  thinks  best,  and  may  also  be  required  to  have 
their  baggage  disinfected  if  there  is  any  suspicion  of  exposure 
to  infection.  Steerage  passengers  and  members  of  the  crew 
from  cholera-infected  districts  must  be  detained  five  days, 
those  who  have  been  exposed  to  typlius  fever  fourteen  days, 
in  suitable  quarters,  "  the  said  periods  to  begin  only  after  the 
bathing  of  the  passengers,  disinfection  of  all  their  baggage 
and  apparel,  removal  of  all  food  brought  with  them,  and  iso- 
lation from  others  not  so  treated."  The  same  rules  are  ap- 
plicable to  tliose  from  districts  where  plague,  smallpox,  or 
yellow  fever  is  prevailing  and  epidemic,  and  if  any  one  of 
these  five  diseases  should  appear  among  those  thus  detained 
there  must  be  a  second  isolation  for  the  prescribed  time,  disin- 
fection, etc.,  the  new  detention  counting  from  the  removal  of 
the  last  ease  from  the  detenticiu-barracks.  Every  passenger 
must  have  an  inspection-card  bearing  the  stamp  of  the 
proper  officer,  the  name  of  the  passenger,  ship,  and  port  of 
departure,  and  date  of  the  latter,  and  all  baggage  must  liave 
labels  with  similar  data  (excepting  passenger's  name),  and 
with  statement  and  date  of  inspection  or  disinfection. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  statute  the  President  has  power, 
whenever  existing  conditions  appear  to  justify  it, "  to  prohibit, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  the  introduction  of  persons  and  pro]ierf  y 
from  such  countries  or  places  as  he  shall  designate,  and  for 
such  periods  of  time  as  he  shall  deem  necessary." 

The  regulations  require  during  the  voyage  a  daily  inspec- 
tion, free  ventilation,  and  thorough  cleanliness  of  the  vessel, 
isolation  of  the  sick,  etc..  and  at  the  port  of  entry  the  only 
delay  required  is  that  which  will  enable  the  proper  officials 
to  inspect  the  ship,  crew,  passengers,  baggage-labels,  ship's 
bill  of  health,  physician's  record,  etc. 

The  Government  provides  for  the  maintenance  of  this  in- 
spection service  at  every  port  of  entry  under  its  jurisdiction 
throughout  the  year,  and  it  applies  to  all  vessels  from  for- 
eign ports,  all  vessels  with  sickness  on  board  or  in  which 
sickness  has  appeared  since  leaving  the  port  of  departure, 
and  vessels  from  domestic  ports  where  cliolera  or  yellow 
fever  prevails  or  where  smallpox  or  yellow  fever  is  e]iidemic. 
To  these  requirements  the  proper  State  or  local  authorities 
may  add  such  otliers  as  may  seem  to  them  to  be  advisable  or 
necessary. 

The  inspection  being  completed,  and  everything  proving 
satisfactory  to  the  inspecting  officer,  he  fills  out  his  certifi- 
cate, which,  together  with  the  bill  of  health  from  the  officer 
at  the  port  of  departure,  must  then  be  given  to  the  collector 
of  customs  of  the  port,  and  without  these  two  papers  no  ves- 
sel is  p(!rmitted  to  disembark  any  of  its  passengers  or  cargo. 
Should  there  be  any  evidence  or  belief  that  there  is  possibly 
infectious  matter  on  board,  the  inspector  orders  the  vessel 
to  proceed  at  once  to  the  nearest  national  or  other  quaran- 
tine station,  there  to  undergo  treatment. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  regulations  indicate  the 
vessels  that  are  to  be  remanded  to  quarantine  at  once  bv 
the  inspecting  officer  of  t  he  port  of  entry :  A.  Those  with 
quarantinable  disease  on  Ixiard,  the  quarantinable  diseases 
for  the  purposes  of  these  reguhitionsbeingcholera  (cholerine), 
yellowfever,  smallpox,  tyjilius  fever,  and  leprosy.  B.  Those 
having  had  such  on  board  during  the  voyage  or  within 
thirty  days  next  preceding  arrival;  or,  if  arriving  in  the 
(juarantine  season,  having  had  yellow  fever  on  board  after 
Mar.  1  of  the  current  year,  unless  satisfactorily  disinfected 
thereafter.     C.  With  some  exceptions,  those  from  ports  in- 


fected with  cholera,  or  where  typhus  fever  prevails  in  epi- 
demic form,  coming  directly  or  via  another  foreign  port,  or 
via  United  States  ports,  unless  they  have  complied  with  the 
United  States  quarantine  regulations  for  foreign  ports;  also 
vessels  from  non-infected  ports,  but  bringing  persons  or 
cargo  from  jilaces  infected  with  cholera,  yellow  fever,  or 
where  typhus  fever  prevails  in  epidemic  form.  D.  With 
some  exceptions,  those  from  ports  where  yellow  fever  pre- 
vails, unless  disinfected  in  accordance  with  these  regula- 
tions, and  not  less  than  five  days  have  elapsed  since  such 
disinfection.  Certain  exceptions,  with  respect  to  vessels  that 
would  otherwise  be  quarantined  on  account  of  yellow  fever, 
are  nuide  to  rules  C  and  D  in  consideration  of  (1)  the  time 
of  arrival,  as  vessels  arriving  from  Nov.  1  to  May  1  may  be 
admitted  to  entry :  (2)  the  [jort  of  destination,'  as  vessels 
with  clean  bills  of  health,  etc.,  bound  for  ports  in  the  U.  S. 
N.  of  the  southern  boundary  of  JMaryland,  provided  they 
have  been  five  days  from  last  infected  or  suspected  port; 
(3)  the  nature  of  the  cargo,  as  vessels  engaged  in  the  fruit- 
trade  from  ports  declared  safe,  etc. 

"  No  case  of  leprosy  will  be  landed,  and  vessels  arriving  at 
quarantine  with  leprosy  on  board  shall  not  be  granted  pra- 
tique until  the  leper  with  his  or  her  baggage  has  been  re- 
moved to  tlie  quarantine  station" ;  and  if  the  leper  is  an 
alien,  measures  are  to  be  taken  to  have  him  returned  to  his 
native  country. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  all  persons  on  vessels  that 
have  had  smallpox  on  board  during  the  voyage,  and  all  but 
first  and  second  cabin  passengers  on  other  vessels,  must 
show  evidence  of  recent  vaccination  or  of  a  previous  attack 
of  smallpox,  or  be  vaccinated,  or  be  detained  in  quarantine 
for  at  least  fourteen  days. 

There  are  a  number  of  quarantine  stations,  more  or  less 
completely  equipped,  along  tlie  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts 
of  the  U.  S.,  and  three  on  the  Pacific  coast,  eleven  being 
national  and  the  rest  maintained  by  the  States  in  which 
they  are  located,  or  by  the  cities  which  they  are  designed 
to  protect. 

The  treatment  of  a  vessel,  passengers,  and  cargo  at  quar- 
antine is  governed  very  materially  by  the  disease  which  has 
caused  its  detention,  cholera  and  yellow  fever  demanding 
the  most  prompt  and  energetic  action.  With  either  of  these 
maladies  the  vessel  is  at  once  dispatched  to  the  anchorage 
for  infected  vessels,  and  must  remain  there  till  she  has  been 
thoroughly  purified  and  disinfected :  the  passengers  in  the 
meanwhile  having  been  transferred  to  the  lazaretto  and 
barracks  for  suspects,  or  to  other  quarters  where  they  may 
be  isolated  during  the  period  of  detention  and  observation, 
and  such  part  of  the  cargo  as  may  be  necessary  being  re- 
moved, disinfected,  and  stored. 

Within  the  barracks  the  passengers  and  others  are  sepa- 
rated into  convenient  groups,  each  of  which  is  inspected 
twice  daily  by  the  physician,  receives  a  separate  water  and 
food  supply,  and  the  individuals  of  which  may  not  com- 
municate with  members  of  other  groups  except  through  the 
quarantine  officer.  Should  a  new  case  occur  in  any  of  the 
groups,  the  patient  is  immediately  conveyed  to  the  laza- 
retto, the  other  members  of  the  group  bathed,  their  clothing 
again  disinfected,  etc.,  and  the  whole  group  transferred  to 
(itlier  quarters  and  sleeping  aiiartments.  There  is  the  same 
isolation  and  segregation  into  groups  in  case  of  yellow 
fever,  but  infection  by  other  diseases  does  not  warrant  so 
severe  treatment.  The  duration  of  detention  for  cholera 
and  yellow  fever  is  five  days  after  the  last  opportunity  for 
infection  and  after  the  last  disinfection  of  all  articles  taken 
by  passengers  into  barracks ;  for  smallpox  the  detention  is 
extended  to  fourteen,  and  for  typhus  fever  to  twenty  days. 

The  cargo  and  infected  baggage  are  disinfecte<l  as  far  as 
practicable  at  the  wharf  or  in  situ  in  the  vessel  by  means 
of  steam,  sulphurous  acid  gas,  and  strong  corrosive  subli- 
mate solution.  As  to  the  vessel,  nothing  is  thrown  over- 
board if  the  infection  is  from  cholera,  though  ballast  may 
be  discharged  at  sea,  and  ballast-tanks  refilled  with  sea- 
water.  A  certificate  from  the  quarantine  officer,  stating 
tliat  the  vessel  has  thoroughly  complied  with  the  regula- 
tions, and  that  he  believes  her  to  be  free  from  infection,  is 
necessary  before  the  vessel  may  leave  quarantine.  She  is 
then  said  to  be  granted  free  pratique. 

To  secure  the  U.  S.  against  the  entrance  of  infection  by 
way  of  the  Canadian  and  Mexican  frontiers,  the  regulations 
provide  that,  "  when  practicable,  alien  immigrants  arriving 
at  Cauadian  and  Mexican  ports  destined  for  the  United 
States  sliall  lie  inspected  at  the  ])ort  of  arrival  by  the  United 
States  consular  or  medical  officer,  and  be  subjected  to  the 


\ 


QUARLES 


QUARTZ 


877 


same  sanitary  restrictions  as  are  called  for  by  the  rules  and 
regulations  governing  United  States  ports:  and  where  such 
immigrants  are  not  inspcct<'d  at  the  port  of  arrival,  tliey  shall 
enter  tlic  United  Stales  only  at  certain  designated  iioints  on 
the  frontier,  and  then  only  after  such  inspection,  detention, 
disinfection,  vaccination,  etc.,  as  may  be  necessary  or  re- 
quired by  the  olUcers  there  stationed." 

Inland  Quaiiantink  has  practically  the  same  object  as 
that  of  maritime  (luaraiitine,  viz.,  the  jirevention  of  the 
transference  of  infiM'tious  disease  from  one  locality  to  an- 
other, and  the  defining  of  certain  portals  through  which  all 
persons  and  things  capable  of  conveying  infection  may  lie 
compelled  to  pass  and  undergo  the  necessary  insjiection,  de- 
tention, etc.  Such  quarantine  is  in  most  cases  invoked  to 
limit  the  extension  of  epidemics,  and  depends  for  its  efficacy 
upon  two  main  features — the  sanitary  cordon  and  camps  of 
probation. 

Tlie  former  "consists  of  a  line  of  guards,  military  or 
civil,  thrown  around  a  di>trict  or  locality,  either  to  protect 
the  same  from  the  surrounding  co\intry  when  infected  or  to 
[irotect  the  surronmling  country  from  the  infected  district 
or  locality."  The  line  may  be  a  double  one,  in  which  ca.se 
the  innermost  one  encircdes  as  much  as  possible  of  the  area 
Unown  to  be  infected,  while  the  other  includes  all  [irobable 
or  po.ssible  cases.  Of  course,  as  soon  as  the  zone  between 
the  two  lines  can  be  shown  to  be  free  from  the  particular 
infection,  the  necessity  for  the  outer  line  vanishes,  and  it 
may  be  withdrawn  ;  but  as  long  as  either  exists,  to  be  of 
any  utility  whatsoever,  it  must  be  so  complete  as  to  pre- 
vent all  ingress  or  egress  through  it  except  at  certain  speci- 
fied points — the  camps  of  probation.  The  camps  of  proba- 
tion must  be  distinguisheil  from  fai/ips  of  mfuye,  which  are 
"simply  residence  camps  established  to  receive  the  popula- 
tion of  an  infected  community  when  it  has  been  determined 
to  dejiopulate  the  infected  district." 

It  may  also  be  advisable  at  times  to  establish  a  railiray 
quarantine  at  certain  points,  where  all  baggage  and  freight 
from  a  suspected  <listrict  may  be  disinfected,  and  all  pas- 
sengers from  the  infected  locality  or  without  the  requisite 
certificate  from  some  authorized  health  officer  may  be  re- 
manded to  the  nearest  camp  of  probation,  and  detained 
under  observation  the  necessary  length  of  time.  See  Hv- 
oiENK.  Seneca  Egbert. 

Quarlt'S,  Francis:  poet;  b.  near  Romford,  Essex,  Eng- 
land, in  1593;  was  educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge; 
studied  law  at  Lincoln's  Inn  ;  afterward  secretary  to  Arch- 
bishop Usher  in  Dublin;  driven  from  Ireland,  with  the  loss 
of  his  property,  by  the  rebellion  of  1641 ;  espoused  the  royal 
cause  m  the  great  rebellion,  joining  King  Charles  I.  at  Ox- 
ford, and  suffered  sequestration  of  his  property.  H.  in  Lon- 
dcm,  Sept.  8,  1644.  Author  of  Diriiie  Emblems  (1635) :  Tlie 
Encliiridum  of  Meditations  (IMl):  and  (jfher  moral  works 
filleil  willi  quaint  conceits,  and  of  T/te  Loi/al  Conrert  (1644), 
a  defense  of  the  royal  cause,  besides  a  immber  of  poetical 
works:  Feast  for  Worms,  or  tlie  History  of  Jonali  (1630); 
Argalus  and  I'arthenia  (1621);  The  ShepJierd's  Orarles 
(1644);  etc.  Revised  by  11.  A.  Beers. 

Qiiartiin  :  See  Fever  and  Chill. 

(JiiarliT-cnick  :  See  Farriery. 

Quarter  Evil  :  See  Black  Quarter. 

Quartering:  See  Heraldry. 

Qiiartcrmaster-g'Pnoral :  a  military  officer  who  has,  in  the 
U.  .S.  army,  the  rank  of  lirigadier-geiieral — in  the  British 
army  that  of  maj'ir-general  or  colonel.  He  is  at  the  head 
of  the  quartermastiM-'s  department,  which  is  charged  with 
the  duty  of  transporting  troops  and  materials  of  war,  of 
clothing,  feeding,  and  sheltering  troops, of  constructing  and 
repairing  roads,  military  telegra|ilis,  railways  and  bridges, 
docks  and  wharves,  anil  generally  with  all  dislmrsements 
attending  military  operations  not  expressly  assigned  by  law 
or  regulation  to  other  staff  departments.  He  has  a  numljcr 
of  assistants,  and  tliere  is  for  eacli  regiment  of  the  line  a 
regimental  (luarlernuister,  selected  from  among  the  lieuten- 
ants of  the  regiment,  who  is  assisted  in  his  duties  by  a 
quartermaster-sergeant. 

Quartley,  Artiicr  :  marine  painter;  b.  of  English  par- 
ents in  Paris,  France,  May  24,  18:i!).  He  was  self-taught; 
was  taken  to  the  U.  S.  when  a  child  and  passed  tlie  early 
years  of  his  professional  life  in  Baltimore,  Md. ;  National 
Academician  isst!;  member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists  ISSl  :  member  of  thr  American  Water-color  Societv. 
I),  ill  N,'W  Vork,  .May  I'.l,  1HS6.     A  shore  view,.0/  /A«-  isl'rs 


of  Shoals,  is  in  the  Union  League  Club,  New  York  ;  Low 
Water,  Long  Island  Shore,  in  the  collection  of  T.  B.  Clarke, 
New  York.  William  A.  Coffin. 

Quartz  [fr.uii  Germ.  iiuarz\:  a  very  abundant  and  im- 
portant mineral,  including  a  great  variety  of  precious  and 
semi-precious  stones,  all  of  them  being  essentially  silica  (ox- 
ide of  silicon)  more  or  less  pure.  These  minerals  may  be 
divided  into  four  groups — the  crystalline  varieties,  the  crys- 
talline with  foreign  inclusions,  the  cryptocrystalline,  and 
the  amorphous,  or  non-crystalline.  The  first  are  more  or 
less  transparent,  as  also  the  second,  the  leading  varieties  be- 
ing amethyst,  rock-cry.slal,  etc.  The  third  group  (•omprises 
the  chalcinlonies,  agates,  etc.,  which  are  translucent  (see 
Ciialceijony)  :  and  the  fourth,  the  jaspers,  which  are  opaque 
(see  Jasper).  The  princi|)al  varieties  of  the  crystalline 
group,  or  quartz  proper,  are  the  following,  all  of  them  hav- 
ing a  hardness  of  7,  and  usually  crystallizing  in  hexagonal 
prisms  with  pyramiilal  terminations: 

Amethyst  is  a  transparent  pur|ile  variety,  owing  its  color 
to  oxide  of  manganese.  It  was  much  used  by  the  ancients 
in  engraving  and  in  jewelry.  Superb  deep-purple  gems  that 
change  to  red  by  artificial  light  are  found  near  Mursinka, 
in  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  single  gems  sell  for  several 
hundred  dollars.  Oriental  amethyst  is  a  purple  variety  of 
corundum  or  .sapphire,  and  is  a  far  more  valuable  gem  than 
the  ordinary  amethyst.     See  Amethyst. 

Cairnyorm  stone,  citrine,  false  topaz,  Saxon  topaz,  Scotch 
topaz,  and  Spanish  topaz  are  names  given  to  transparent 
quartz  colored  by  oxide  of  iron  or  by  carbonaceous  matter, 
and  having  various  shades  of  yellow  to  brown.  The  yellow 
and  brown  are  produced  by  heating  smoky  quartz  (see  be- 
low), which  is  |iartially  decolorized  by  high  temperature. 
Much  that  is  called  topaz  is  this  yellow  quartz,  which  is 
quite  diflerent  from  true  topaz  (see  Topaz),  and  less  valuable 
as  a  gem.    Oriental  tojiaz  is  the  yellow  variety  of  sapphire. 

Prase  is  a  deep-green  quartz,  .sometimes  crystallized.  It 
is  somewhat  rare,  but  is  not  much  valued  or  used  by  the 
moderns. 

Rock-crystal  is  the  purest  form  of  quartz,  transparent 
and  colorless,  and  exhibits  the  iiropertics  of  the  mineral 
in  the  most  perfect  degree.  It  is  widely  distributed,  but  is 
brought  chiefly  from  Brazil,  Madagascar,  and  North  Caro- 
lina. It  is  wrought.  es)iecially  by  tlie  Japanese  and  Chinese, 
into  the  polished  "  crystal  balls  "  and  other  articles  of  ele- 
gant ornament.  Superb  coupes,  ewers,  caskets,  etc.,  made 
in  Italy,  Austria,  and  Germany  from  the  sixteenth  to  the 
eighteenth  century,  adorn  the  collections  of  the  Louvre, 
the  South  Kensington  Museum,  the  Dresden  Green  Vaults, 
the  Imperial  Museum  at  Vienna,  etc.  What  are  known  as 
"  Rhine  stones,"  "  Lake  George  diamonds,"  etc.,  are  not 
quartz  or  rock-crystal,  as  generally  believed,  but  only  paste 
or  lead-glass. 

Rose-quartz  is  a  pink  or  rose-tinted  variety,  rarely  found 
crystallized,  exceedingly  beautiful  if  of  pronounced  color. 
Although  occasionally  employed  for  ornamental  work,  it  is 
little  used,  owing  to  its  liability  to  fade  by  long  exposure  to 
light.     It  is  found  in  Maine,  Moravia,  and  elsewhere. 

Smoky  quartz  and  smoky  topaz  are  brown  to  almost  black 
and  probably  are  colored  by  carlionaceoiis  matter.  The 
lighter  shades  are  occasionally  cut  for  ornament,  and  are 
beautiful  stones,  but  of  little  value.  The  finest  crystals  of 
smoky  ijuartz  from  Mt.  St.  Gothard,  in  Switzerland,  are 
now  in  the  museum  at  Berne.  It  is  also  found  at  Pike's 
Peak,  Col.  The  Iilack  quartz  is  called  morion.  By  heating, 
smoky  quartz  is  partially  decolorized,  yielding  paler  shades 
and  yellows  which  then  are  called  cairngorm  stone,  Spanish 
topaz,  etc.  (see  above). 

The  varieties  containing  inclusions  are  as  follows  : 

Arenturine,  ciiWcd  also  gold-stone,  n  brown  ferruginous 
quartz  containing  spangles  of  mica  or  giithite,  is  found  at 
Aventura,  in  Spain,  ami  in  Asiatic  Russia.  The  artificial 
gold-stone,  a  brown  glass  filled  with  minute  crystallized 
crystals  of  copper,  is  liandsomer  than  the  natural  stone  ;  it 
is  made  in  Venice  and  is  used  for  inlaid  work,  etc. 

Cat's-eye  quartz  :  See  Cat's-EYE. 

Thetis's  hair-stone,  ^'enus's  hair-stone,  Sagenite,  and 
FlPches  d' Amour  ave  names  given  to  quartz  fienetrated  bjr 
needle-like  cry.stals  ot  hornblende,  futile,  gothite,  and  simi- 
lar minerals.  Quartz  of  this  variety  is  occasionally  cut  and 
mounted. 

Tlu'i-e  are  many  other  semi-precious  varieties  of  quartz, 
but  they  are  rare,  .-uid  of  little  importance  save  to  collectors 
and  students  of  mineralogv.  George  F.  Kunz. 


878 


QUASI-CONTRACT 


(Juasi-Contract :  an  obligation  imposed  by  law  for  the 
enforcement  of  wliic-h  the  law  gives  the  action  resorted  to 
for  breach  of  contract.  The  distinction  between  a  contract 
and  a  quasi-contract  is  as  marked  as  is  the  difference  be- 
tween assetit  and  dissen/.  While  the  assent— as  that  term  is 
used  in  law— of  tlie  party  to  be  cliiirsed  is  necessary  to  the 
existence  of  a  contract,  a"  quasi-contract  may  exist  notwith- 
standing the  dissent  of  the  defendant.  A  contract  is  an 
obligation  created  by  act  of  the  parties.  A  quasi-contract 
is  an  obligation  imposed  by  law.  Although  the  source  of 
the  obligations  is  different,  the  remedy  given  to  one  seeking 
to  enforce  a  quasi-contractual  obligation  is  the  action  given 
for  a  breach  of  contract,  the  action  of  assumpsit,  hence  the 
use  of  the  term  quasi-contract  in  our  law.  The  fact  that 
the  contractual  remedy  is  used  where  an  action  is  brouglit 
on  a  quasi-contract  has  given  rise  to  the  expression  '•  con- 
tract in  law,"  and  this  expression  is  too  often  abbreviated 
into  the  expression  "  implied  contract."  The  use  of  the 
term  "  contract  implied  in  law  "  is  unscientific,  since  a  con- 
tract depends  upon  the  act  of  the  parties,  and  can  not  exist 
without  assent,  and  is  therefore  something  which  the  law 
can  not  imply.  The  term  means,  however,  nothing  more 
than  obligation  imposed  by  law.  The  use  of  the  term  "im- 
plied contract  "  to  represent  quasi-contractual  obligations  is 
not  only  unscientific,  but  is  misleading,  and  has  caiised 
great  confusion.  There  is  an  "  implied  contract,"  but  it  is 
a  genuine  contract,  not  a  quasi-contract,  and  differs  from 
the  ordinary  simple  contract,  usually  called  an  express  con- 
tract, only  as  to  the  evidence  by  which  its  existence  is 
proved,  'the  express  contract  is  so  called  because  its  ex- 
istence is  proved  by  the  language  used  when  the  contract 
was  entered  into,  while  the  implied  contract  is  proved  by 
circumstantial  evidence.  Implied  and  express  contracts 
are  genuine  contracts,  while  a  quasi-contract,  as  the  term 
implies,  is  no  contract  at  all.  {S/eamsfiip  Co.  vs.  Jotiffe. 
2  Wall.  450 ;  Louisiana  vs.  Neir  Orleans.  109  U.  S.  28.5 ; 
Diisenhary  vs.  Speir,  77  N.  Y.  144.)  The  terms  "implied" 
and  "  express,"  when  used  properly  with  reference  to  con- 
tracts, are  terms  of  evidence  and  not  of  contract.  (3Iar- 
zetti  vs.  Williams,  1  B.  &  Ad.  415 ;  Dusenbury  vs.  Speir. 
77  N.  Y.  144.)  If  A  should  say  to  B  "  lend  me  |100  and  I 
will  repay  it  in  one  month,"  and  B  should  lend  the  money, 
there  would  be  an  express  contract,  for  the  reason  that  A 
has  used  the  language  of  promise,  lias  promised  in  words. 
It  A  should  say  to  B  "C  is  pressing  me  for  the  payment  of 
$100  which  I  owe  him ;  if  I  send  him  to  you  please  pay 
him  that  amount,"  and  B  should  do  so,  there  would  be  a 
contract  on  A's  part  to  reimburse  B,  but  it  would  Ije  an  im- 
plied contract,  because  words  of  promise  can  not  be  found, 
and  the  understanding  of  the  parties  is  left  to  inference  and 
must  be  gathered  from  the  circumstances.  The  circum- 
stances, however,  leave  no  one  in  doubt  as  to  the  intention 
of  A.  Because  of  the  use  of  the  phrase  "  contract  implied 
in  law,"  it  is  usual  to  describe  genuine  contracts  which  are 
not  created  by  the  use  of  words  of  promise,  as  "  contracts 
implied  in  fact." 

It  may  be  asked  why  not  treat  a  quasi-contract  as  a 
tort  if  it  differs  so  radically  from  a  contract  i  The  obli- 
gation giving  rise  to  a  right  of  action  in  tort  is  an  obliga- 
tion imposed  upon  persons  in  general,  not  upon  any  partic- 
ular individual,  to  respect  the  inherent  right  which  every 
man  has  to  his  person  and  ]iroperty.  This  obligation  is 
usually  performed  simply  by  refraining  from  interfering,  by 
remaining  inactive.  In  the  case  of  a  quasi-contract  the 
obligation  usually,  if  not  always,  exists  in  favor,  not  of  the 
world  at  large,  but  of  some  particular  person,  and  arises 
out  of  a  relationship  existing,  or  dealings  had,  between  the 
plaintiff  and  the  defendant.  Furthermore,  the  obligation 
imposed  by  a  quasi-contract  requires  the  obligor  to  act.  It 
can  not  be  discharged  simply  by  a  failure  or  refusal  to  act. 

The  source  of  the  quasi-contractual  obligation  is  threefold : 

1.  Obligations  of  record. 

2.  Statutory,  otlicial,  or  customary  obligations. 

3.  Obligations  resting  upon  the  doctrine  that  no  one  shall 
be  allowed  to  enrich  himself  luijustly  at  the  expense  of  an- 
other. 

The  typical  obligation  of  record  is  a  judgment,  and  it 
needs  no  argument  to  establish  tliat  an  obligation  which  is 
created  by  law  without  i-egard  to  the  will  of  the  obligor, 
and  in  most  cases  notwithstanding  his  dissent  and  protest, 
has  none  of  the  elements  of  a  contract,  and  is  therefore 
(|uasi-eontractiial,  and  it  is  so  regarded.  (Biddleson  vs. 
Whytel,  'A  Burr  1545  ;  Slate  of  Louisiana  vs.  Neio  Orleans. 
109   U.  S.  285 ;  O'Brien  vs.  Young,  95  N.  Y.  428.)    As  a 


statutory  obligation  exists  without  regard  to  the  assent  or 
dissent  of  the  defendant,  such  an  obligation  is,  and  must 
be,  regarded  as  quasi-contractual.  {Steamship  Co.  vs. 
Joliffe.  2  Wall.  450  ;  Louisiana  vs.  New  Orleans,  109  U.  S. 
285;  Inhabitants  of  Mil  ford  vs.  Commonwealth,  144  Mass. 
64 ;  JlcCoirn  vs.  B.  E.  Co..  50  N.  Y.  176.)  An  example  is 
the  oliligation  imposed  upon  the  owner  of  a  vessel  without 
a  pilot  to  pay  halt  pilotage  fees  in  the  event  of  his  refusing 
to  accept?  a  pilot  who  tenders  his  services.  Of  the  same 
character,  it  is  submitted,  are  customary  duties  where  the 
ol)ligation  is  imposed  regardless  of  the  will  of  the  party 
charged  with  the  duty,  as  the  duty  of  an  innkee{)er  to  re- 
ceive guests,  of  a  carrier  to  receive  goods.  An  example  of 
a  quasi-contractuiil  obligation  founded  on  an  official  duty  is 
the  obligation  of  a  sheriff  to  levy  execution  and  pay  "the 
proceeds  of  the  sale  thereunder  to  the  judgment  creditor. 
(Speake  vs.  Richards.  Hobart  206.)  The  great  and  impor- 
tant source  of  the  quasi-contractual  obligation,  however,  is 
the  equitable  principle  that  no  one  shall  be  allowed  to  en- 
rich himself  unjustly  at  the  expense  of  another.  But  for 
this  principle  there  would  be  a  gross  failure  of  justice  in 
many  cases,  as,  for  example,  where  money  has  been  paid 
under  mistake  as  to  the  existence  of  an  indebtedness,  not  to 
create  but  to  extinguish  an  obligation  ;  where  a  person  has 
committed  a  tort  and  has  enriched  himself  thereby,  and  yet 
the  remedies  in  tort  have,  in  the  absence  of  statute,  been 
lost  because  of  the  death  of  the  tort-feasor.  It  is  proposed 
to  consider  briefly  some  of  the  cases  showing  the  importance 
of  the  doctrine  of  unjust  enrichment  and  the  necessity  for 
its  existence  in  our  law. 

That  the  remedy  to  recover  money  paid  under  mistake  as 
to  the  existence  or  amount  of  an  indebtedness  must  be  quasi- 
contractual  is  evident,  as  neither  party  intended  to  create 
an  obligation  in  favor  of  the  person  making  the  payment, 
and  the  latter,  if  not  both  parties,  thought  that  the  pay- 
ment would  extinguish  an  existing  obligation.  To  recover 
money  paid  under  mistake,  it  must  appear  not  only  that 
the  money  was  paid  because  of  mistake  in  a  case  where 
there  was  no  enforceable  claim,  or  none  enforceable  to  the 
extent  of  the  payment,  but  in  addition  thereto  it  must  also 
appear  that  the  circumstances  are  such  that  it  would  be 
against  conscience  to  allow  the  defendant  to  retain  the  money 
so  paid.  Thus  if  one  should  pay  a  debt  barred  by  the 
.statute  of  limitations,  in  ignorance  of  the  bar,  because  of  a 
mistake  as  to  the  date  when  the  debt  became  payable,  there 
could  be  no  recovery  of  the  money  so  paid,  notwithstanding 
the  plaintiff's  ability  to  prove  that  he  would  not  have  paid 
the  debt  but  for  the  mistake.  In  paying  the  debt  he  only 
did  what  in  conscience  he  should  have  done,  notwithstanding 
the  existence  of  a  statute  protecting  him  from  liability,  and 
the  party  to  whom  the  money  was  paid  is  certainly  not  un- 
justly enriched  in  retaining  what  in  conscience  should  have 
been  paid  to  him.  If  the  payment  in  any  case  is  caused  by 
ignorance  or  mistake  of  law,  then,  notwithstanding  the  re- 
tention of  the  money  by  the  defendant  is  against  conscience 
in  that  nothing  was  owing  to  him,  there  can  not,  according 
to  the  weight  of  authority,  be  a  recovery  of  the  money  so 
paid.     See  Ignorantio  Juris. 

If  in  the  commission  of  a  tort  the  tort-feasor  enriches  him- 
•  selt  by  taking  from  the  injured  party's  property  and  adding 
to  his  own,  he  may  be  sued  in  tort,  in  which  event  the  meas- 
ure of  the  plaintiff's  recovery  would  be  the  damage  done  the 
plaintiff,  or  he  may  be  sued  in  quasi-contract,  where  the 
measiu'c  of  recovery  would  be  the  extent  of  the  unjust  en- 
richment. When  one  having  the  right  to  sue  either  in  tort 
or  in  quasi-contract  uses  the  latter  remedy  he  is  said  to 
"  waive  the  tort."  These  words  are  misleading.  "Waiver 
of  tort."  so  called,  is  nothing  but  an  election  of  remedies. 
Wluat  was  a  tort  before  does  not  cease  to  be  a  wrong  by  the 
bringing  of  the  action  in  quasi-contract,  for  unless  the 
plaintiff  proves  the  commission  of  a  tort  he  will  not  he  able 
to  recover.  The  plaintiff  is  said  to  waive  the  tort  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  a  rule  of  law  that  a  plaintiff  loses  his  right 
to  sue  in  tort  by  suing  in  quasi-contract.  It  is  equally  true 
that  he  loses  tlie  right  to  sue  in  quasi-contract  by  suing  in 
tort.  We  do  not  hear,  however,  of  the  doctrine  of  waiver  of 
<|uasi-eontract,  for  the  reason  that  the  older  remedy  is  the 
action  of  tort.  Whether  a  plaintiff  shall  or  shall  not  waive 
the  tort  and  stie  in  quasi-contract  is  often  a  question  of  great 
practical  importatice.  If,  for  example,  A  should  take  B's 
horse,  of  the  value  of  |.500,  and  sell  him  for  |300,  it  would 
be  to  B's  advantage  to  sue  in  tort,  since  in  that  form  of  ac- 
tion he  will  recover  to  the  extent  of  the  damage  suffered  by 
him,  which  would  be  $500,  whereas  if  he  sued  in  quasi-con- 


Ql-ASl-CONTRACT 


879 


traft,  in  a  count  for  money  had  and  nccivpd,  he  wonkl  re- 
cover only  ^yoO,  as  that  was  the  snm  received  by  A.  In 
i'urisdictiims  wliere  in  siic'h  eireurnstances  the  tort-feas<jr  ean 
le  sued  in  i|uasi-coiilract  in  a  count  for  fjoods  sohl  and  de- 
livered, it  Would  lie  itnuialerial  whether  IJ  sued  in  tort  or  in 
a  count   for  goods  sold   aiul   delivered.      If,   however,  the 

Croperty  is  wrongfully  taken  and  the  value  thereof  increased 
y  the  hvbor  of  the  tort-feasor,  then  in  jurisdictions  where 
the  measure  of  recovery  is  the  value  of  the  property  at  the 
time  of  the  wrongful  taking  it  is  advantageous  to  sue  in 
quasi-contract,  since  the  extent  of  the  tort-feasor's  enrich- 
ment exceeds  the  injury  done  the  owner,  and  in  quasi-con- 
tract the  plainlilf  will  lie  entitled  to  recover  to  the  extent 
of  the  defendant's  enrichment.  For  the  reason  that  unjust 
enriehnu'iit  is  the  basis  of  recovery  where  the  tort  is  waived, 
no  action  can  be  brought  in  iiuasi-contract  where  the  tort 
does  not  enrich  the  tort  feasor.  (Fitnstm  vs.  Linsli'i/,  20 
Kan.  2:!5;  Xatioiud  Truxt  Co.  vs.  (r/i-ason,  77  N.  Y.  400.) 
Thus,  if  .V  should  slander  15  or  commit  an  assault  upon  hini, 
B's  only  remedy  would  lie  in  tort. 

To  recover  l\u-  proceeds  arising  from  the  sale  of  property 
wrongfully  taken,  the  plaintiff  must  have  had  a  right  to 
the  property  at  the  time  of  the  sale.  If  A,  for  example, 
should  wrongfully  take  H's  horse  and  retain  possession  there- 
of until  the  lapse  of  time  within  which  an  action  for  the 
wrongful  taking  is  required  by  statute  to  be  brought,  and 
should  then  sell  him,  he  could  retain  the  proceeds,  since  the 
effect  of  I5's  failure  to  bring  an  action  for  the  wrongful 
taking  within  the  statutory  jieriod  of  time  was  to  vest  the 
title  to  the  horse  in  A.  and  A  therefore  sold  his  own  horse. 
The  loss  of  the  right  to  sue  in  tort  does  not  necessarily, 
however,  mean  the  loss  of  the  right  to  sue  in  qnasi-contract. 
If,  for  example,  tlie  right  of  action  in  tort  existed  at  the 
time  when  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  were  received,  then,  not- 
wilhstaiidiug  the  right  to  sue  in  tort  is  subse((ueiitly  lost  by 
a  failure  to  bring  an  action  within  the  statutory  period  of 
time,  an  action  may  still  be  brought  to  recover  the  proceeds 
until  the  statutory  period  of  time  as  to  (piasi-contractual 
rights  has  run.  So  the  common-law  rule  that  the  tort  died 
with  the  person  did  not  prevent  an  action  against  the  estate 
of  the  deceased  tort-feasor,  notwithstanding  the  loss  of  the 
remedy  in  tort,  if  it  were  a  case  where  the  tort-feasor  could 
have  been  sued  in  quasi-contract  had  he  been  alive. 

It  fre({uenlly  happens  that  a  person  who  has  not  suffi- 
ciently performed  a  contract  to  entitle  him  to  sue  thereon 
has  nevertlieless  materially  enriched  the  other  party  to  the 
contract  by  a  partial  performance  thereof.  In  sucOi  cases, 
if  there  is  to  be  a  recovery  by  the  person  who  lias  partly 
performe<l,  it  nuist  be  on  principle  of  luijust  enriclniu'iit, 
and  the  right  will  therefore  be  quasi-contractual,  as  the 
case  assumes  that  the  defendant  is  not  liable  for  a  breach  of 
contract.  A  plaintiff  may  in  these  circumstances  seek  a  re- 
covery where  he  makes  no  attempt  to  justify  or  excuse  his 
failure  to  perform,  or  he  imiy  rely  upon  the  fact  that  he  en- 
deavored in  good  faith  to  perform  the  contract,  or  upon  the 
fact  that  he  can  not  be  sued  for  a  breach  of  contract,  liecause 
of  the  fact  that  the  contract  was  an  oral  contract,  with  no 
memorandum  thereof  in  writing  complying  with  the  Statute 
of  Frauds,  or  for  the  reason  that  the  contract  was  illegal  or 
impossible  of  performance.  It  is  generally  held  that  one 
who  willfully  refuses  to  perform  a  contract  to  the  extent 
necessary  to  entitle  him  to  recover  thereon  can  not  recover 
in  quasi-contract,  notwithstanding  the  enrichment  of  the 
defendant  arising  from  the  part  perforimince.     {('(j//ins  vs. 


JSIimmn,  11  q.  U.   I).   142;  Star/,-  vs.   I'lirk, 


Pick.  267; 


Lanfn/  vs.  Par/ca.  H  Cow.  G:i;  Moritz  vs.  /jiirxcn,  70  Wis. 
,56!);  liut  see  coiiint  lirittan  vs.  Tamer,  6  N.  II.  4S1.)  To 
this  rule  there  seems  to  be  one  exception — namely,  where 
the  plaintiff  has  supplied  property  umler  a  contract  and  the 
defendant  can  return  the  property,  but  refuses  to  do  so. 
In  some  jurisdictions,  where  the  rule  is  recognized  that  in 
the  case  of  a  deliberate  refusal  to  perform  a  contract  there 
can  be  no  recovery  for  beiu'fits  cimferred  by  a  partial  per- 
formaiKM'  thereof,  a  recovery  is  allowed  in  quasi-contra<'t  if 
it  appears  that  the  plaintiff  eiuleavored  in  good  faith  to 
perform  the  contract. 

The  fact  tlnit  the  plaintiff  by  reason  of  the  Statute  of 
Frauds  can  not  be  sued  for  a  breach  of  contract  will  not 
entitle  him  to  recover  in  quasi-contract,  as  the  Statute  of 
Frau<is  was  inttmied  not  to  confer  a  riglit  of  action,  but  to 
give  a  defense  to  an  action  on  a  contrac't  which,  though 
oral,  was  not  illegal,  and  the  performance  of  which  was  there- 
fore permissible  in  point  of  law.  I'n/licrvs.  Coati-.i.  17  I5arb. 
471;  Gretun  vs.  Umit/i.Xi  N.  V.  245;    Clark- vs.   Terry.  iTi 


Conn.  395 ;  Abbott  vs.  Inskip,  29  Oh.  St.  59 ;  see  contra  King 
vs.  Welcome,  5  Gray  41. 

If  the  contract  which  the  plaintiff  has  partly  performed 
is  illegal,  there  can  be  no  recovery  on  the  contract  because 
of  tlie  illegality  thereof.  If,  therefore,  the  [ilaintitr  recovers 
it  must  be  in  quasi-contract.  If  the  plaintitf,  having  partly 
performed  an  illegal  contract  refuses  to  perforin  further,  he 
is  regarded  as  acting  in  disaffirmance  thereof,  and  if  the  il- 
legality is  merely  malum  proliiliilKiii,  not  malum  in  se,  i.  e. 
is  luit  inherently  wrong,  but  wrong  simply  because  of  a  posi- 
tive prohibition,  there  can  be  a  recovery  if  the  defendant  has 
in  fact  or  in  legal  contemplation  been  ein-iched  by  the  per- 
formance. If  the  act  is  malum  in  se,  there  can  be  no  recov- 
ery, notwithstanding  the  defendant's  enrichment.  Taylor 
vs.  Bowem,  1  Q.  B.  D.  291 ;  White  vs.  Fran/din  Bank:  22 
Pick.  IBI ;   Tracy  vs.  Talmage,  14  N.  Y.  162. 

In  the  U.  S.,  differing  from  the  law  of  England  {Cutter  v». 
I'owell,  6  T.  R.  820),  if  after  part  performance  further  per- 
forimince becomes  impossible,  and  it  can  be  fairly  said  that 
the  contingency  which  has  happened  was  not  within  the  con- 
templation of  the  parties,  as,  for  exam[)le,  where  full  per- 
formance is  prcventi'd  by  sickness  or  death,  there  can  be  a 
recovery  to  the  extent  of  the  benefit  conferred.  Wolfe  vs. 
Howes,  20  N.  Y.  197  ;  Green  vs.  Gilbert,  21  Wis.  395. 

One  who  has  performed  a  contract  either  in  whole  or  in 
part,  and  who  has  been  prevented  from  fully  p(^rforming  by 
the  other  party  to  the  contract,  may  find  himself  unable  to 
recover  for  a  breach  of  contract,  ami  yet  the  circumstances 
may  be  such  that  not  to  allow  a  recovery  for  what  was  done 
thereunder  would  work  great  injustice.  Suppose,  for  ex- 
ample, that  A  should  agree  to  work  for  B  for  the  period  of 
two  years,  for  a  lump  sura  to  be  paid  by  B  at  the  end  of 
two  years,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  B  should  refuse  to 
pay  ifor  the  services,  relying  upon  the  .Statute  of  Frauds,  re- 
([uiring  a  written  memorandum  of  such  contracts,  or  su]i- 
pose  that  after  A  had  served  him  for  .six  months  B  should 
discharge  him  without  cause,  relying  upon  the  statute  afore- 
said. Clearly  it  would  be  the  grossest  injustice  to  hold  in 
such  a  case  that  A  had  no  enforceable  rights  against  B,  and 
yet,  if  he  must  rely  upon  the  contract,  he  clearly  can  not  re- 
cover for  the  services  rendered,  since  the  statute  gives  B  an 
absolute  defense.  Upon  the  principle  of  unjust  enrichment, 
however,  the  law  imposes  an  obligation  iqion  him  to  com- 
pensate A  for  the  services  rendered.  So,  when,  after  a  com- 
plete or  partial  performance  by  the  plaintiff,  performance 
on  the  other  side  has  become  impossible  in  circumstances 
affording  a  defense  to  an  action  for  a  breach  of  the  contract, 
the  law  will  in  ease  of  full  performance  and  also  in  the 
case  of  partial  performance,  where  the  amount  is  ascertain- 
able, compel  restitution  or  compensation  to  be  made.  It 
may  be  that  a  defendant  who  has  no  scruples  in  allowing  a 
plaintiff  to  perform  an  illegal  contract  is  averse  to  perform- 
ing his  side  of  the  contract.  In  such  a  case  there  can  be  no 
recovery  on  the  contract  because  of  its  illegality,  and  if,  in 
the  eyes  of  the  law,  the  parties  are  in  pari  delicto,  there  can 
be  no  recovery  in  quasi-contract,  notwithstanding  the  en- 
richment of  the  defendant.  This  result  is  justified  only  on 
grounds  of  public  jiolicy.  If,  however,  the  jiarties  are  not 
in  pari  delicto,  hut  the  position  of  the  defendant  is  regarded 
as  1  hi!  more  reprehensible,  then  a  recovery  in  quasi-contract 
can  lie  hatl. 

A  recovery  in  quasi-contract  against  a  defendant  refusing 
to  perform  a  contract  is  not  only  allowed  in  cases  where 
there  can  be  no  recovery  on  the  contract,  and  yet  where  the 
plaintiff  should  have  relief  of  some  kind,  but  is  al.so  allowed 
in  quasi-contract,  notwithstanding  the  plaintiff's  right  to  sue 
for  a  breach  of  the  contract,  in  cases  where  the  defendant 
received  a  benefit  from  the  jilaintiff's  performance.  This 
right  to  sue  in  quasi-contract  is  often  of  great  value  to  a 
|iiaintiff.  For  example,  suppose  that  A  should  [lay  in  ad- 
vance to  B  the  sum  of  ^.500  in  exchange  for  a  promise  on 
B's  part  to  deliver  to  A  certain  goods  on  a  certain  day,  and 
that  on  the  day  when  the  goods  were  to  be  delivered  the 
goods  were  worth  only  .^4.50.  Should  B  fail  to  perform  the 
contract  in  circumstances  rendering  him  liable  for  breach 
thereof,  the  measure  of  A's  recovery  would  be  the  expense 
involved  in  his  purchasing  the  goods  at  that  time,  which 
W(mld  be  .*i450.  In  an  action  in  (piasi-contract,  however,  the 
law  would  compel  B  to  make  restitution  to  A  of  the  $500 
which  he  received  from  A.     Kash  vs.  Toirne.  5  Wall.  GS9. 

Whether  the  plaintiff  or  the  defendant  be  in  default,  and 
whether  the  defendant  be  or  be  not  liable  on  the  contract, 
there  can  be  no  liability  in  qiiasi-contracl  unless  the  defend- 
ant has  in  fact  or  in  legal  contemplation  been  enriched  by 


880 


QUASS  BEER 


QUATERNIONS 


the  plaintiff's  performance;  hence  it  is  that  a  guarantor  who 
has  maiie  an  oral  contract  to  answer  for  the  debt,  default,  or 
miscarriage  of  another,  and  who,  because  the  contract  does 
not  comply  with  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  can  not  be  sued  on  the 
contract— can  not  be  sued  in  quasi-contract.  The  princi|ml 
debtor,  not  the  guarantor,  was  enriched  by  the  plaintiff's 
performance.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  plaintiff  who  has 
bestowed  lul>or  upon  chattel  belonging  not  to  the  defendant 
but  to  the  plaintiff,  under  a  contract  not  enforceable  because 
of  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  can  not  recover  in  quasi-contract. 
Dowling  vs.  McKenni/,  124  JIass.  478. 

It  not  infrequently  hapjiens  that  one  who  is  unable  to 
establish  a  contract  is  able  to  show  that  he  has  conferred  a 
benefit  at  the  request  or  with  tlie  consent  of  the  party  bene- 
fited. If  it  can  be  shown  that  the  benefit  was  conferred 
with  an  expectation  on  the  part  of  the  defendant  to  pay 
therefor,  and  that  the  plaintiff  expected  to  receive  compen- 
sation therefor,  the  fact  that  for  some  technical  reason  a 
contract  which  the  parties  attempted  to  create  did  not  come 
into  existence  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  plaintiff  is 
without  remedy.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  services  have 
been  rendered  under  a  mutual  mistake  as  to  the  terms  of  an 
offer  and  acceptance  without  fault  on  either  side,  or  that 
goods  have  been  furnished  to  a  principal  through  his  agent 
who  had  authority  to  purchase  but  exceeded  liis  authority 
in  executing  a  contract  under  seal.  In  such  cases  the 
plaintiff'  will  not  be  without  remedy,  but  will  be  allowed  to 
recover  in  quasi-contract  for  the  benefit  conferred.  (Turner 
vs.  Webster,  24  Kan.  38;  Van  Deusen  vs.  Blum,  18  Pick. 
239.)  That  the  plaintiff  intended  to  make  a  gift  to  the  de- 
fendant of  the  services  or  property  is,  however,  always  fatal 
to  a  recovery,  even  though  the  act  was  done  at  the  "request 
or  with  the  consent  of  the  defendant.  (Oshorn  vs.  Guy's 
Hospital,  3  Strange  728;  Doyle  vs.  Trinity  Church,  133 
N.  Y.  372.)  The  motive  that  prompted  the  gift  resulting  in 
disappointed  expectations  is  immaterial,  if  is  for  this  rea- 
son that  persons  who  have  rendered  services  gratuitously  in 
the  hope  of  receiving  a  legacy  on  the  death  of  the  beneficiary 
are  unable  to  establish  a  claim  against  the  estate.  {Ilouck's 
Executors  vs.  Houck,  99  Pa.  St.  552.)  If  the  gift  was  made 
under  a  mistake  known  to  the  defendant,  or  if  the  gift  was 
induced  by  the  fraud  of  the  defendant,  it  would  seem  that 
the  plaintiff  should  be  allowed  to  recover  in  quasi-contract. 
Peter  vs.  Steel.  13  Yeate.s  250 ;  Kinney  vs.  Cook,  4  111.  233 ; 
Hicham  vs.  Hickam,  46  Mo.  App.  496.  See  also  Franklin 
vs.  Waters,  8  Gill  323. 

There  can  not,  as  a  rule,  be  a  recovery  for  benefits  con- 
ferred without  the  request  or  consent  of  the  party  bene- 
fited, even  though  the  plaintiff  did  not  intend  to  make  a 
gift  of  his  services.  A  person  so  acting  is  usually  regarded 
as  an  officious  volunteer,  and  no  rights  will  be  given  him,  as, 
for  example,  when  one  under  no  necessity  of  doing  so  pays 
the  debt  of  another.  In  such  a  case  the  payment  gives  him 
no  rights  against  the  debtor.  If,  however,  without  any  fault 
on  the  part  of  the  person  paying  the  debt  of  another,  such 
payment  is  necessary  to  protect  the  person  or  property  of 
person  paying  from  seizure  for  the  debt,  the  money  so  paid 
can  be  recovered  from  the  debtor.  In  some  cases,  also,  even 
where  the  plaintiff  acts  without  the  necessity  therefor  on 
his  part,  as  where  necessjiries  are  supplied  to  a  wife  whom 
the  husband  wrongfully  refuses  to  support,  a  right  of  re- 
covery exists. 

While  money  voluntarily  paid  can  not  be  recovered  even 
if  paid  under  protest,  money  paid  to  protect  one's  person  or 
property  from  unlawful  seizure,  or  to  prevent  serious  in- 
jury to  one's  business,  can  be  recovered  from  the  person  to 
whom  it  was  paid.  That  tlie  monev  was  paid  to  avoid  a 
threatened  suit  will  not,  however,  entitle  the  plaintiff  to  re- 
cover the  money  as  paid  under  compulsion.  In  legal  con- 
templation the  money  if  not  owing  can  not  be  collec'ted.  and 
if  the  party  upon  whom  the  claim  is  made  desires  to  contest 
it,  he  is  required  to  do  it  as  a  defendant  in  an  action  brought 
by  the  claimant.  For  a  full  treatment  of  the  subject,  see 
Keener  on  Qaasi-Coittracts.  William  A.  Keener. 

Qiiass  Beer:  See  Beer. 

Quas'sia[JIod.  Lat.,  nanii-d  from  QHassi,a  Negro  slave  in 
Surinam  who  used  it  as  a  rcniedv  for  fever] :  in  medicine, 
the  wood  of  certain  trees  of  the  family  Simarubacecp.  All 
the  species  of  this  family  are  noted  for  the  intense  bitter- 
ness of  their  wood, and  ui'itil  al)nul  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  quassia-wood  was  olitaiiio.!  from  a  small  tree  or 
shrub  native  in  Panama,  Venezuela,  Guiana,  and  Northern 
Brazil,  the  Quassia  amara.     'i'lie  wood  of  Picrmna  excelsa 


being  found  to  have  the  same  properties,  and  the  latter  be- 
ing a  tree  of  much  greater  size,  the  quassia  of  commerce  is 
now  almost  wholly  obtained  from  this  source.  I',  excelsa  is 
a  tree  from  50  to  60  feet  high,  with  small  yellowish  and 
greenish  flowers ;  the  fruit  is  a  drupe,  black  and  shining, 
and  about  as  big  as  a  pea.  It  is  a  native  of  Jamaica  and 
the  Caribbean  islands,  where  it  goes  by  the  name  of  bitter 
ash.  The  wood  is  whitish,  but  turns  yellow  on  exposure. 
It  has  no  smell,  but  a  most  intense,  though  pure,  bitter 
taste.  The  bitterness  depends  upon  a  neutral  crystallizable 
principle  called  quassine  which  is  somewhat  poisonous. 
Commercial  quassia- wood  consists  of  pieces  of  the  trunk  and 
branches  of  the  tree  of  various  sizes.  For  use  by  tlie  drug- 
gist it  is  supplied  in  the  form  of  raspings  or  turnings. 
Quassia,  like  other  pure  vegetable  bitters,  tends  in  small 
quantity  to  excite  appetite  and  promote  digestion.  In  large 
dose  it  nauseates.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  medicine  as  a 
stomachic  bitter,  but  other  less  harsh  and  disagreeable  bitters 
are  generally  preferred.  Cups  turned  out  of  the  solid  wood 
are  sometimes  employed  to  prepare  a  weak  quassia  infusion 
by  simply  allowing  cold  water  to  stand  for  a  few  minutes 
in  them.  The  water  speedily  becomes  impregnated  with 
the  bitter  principle,  and  may  then  be  drunk.  Quassia  in 
infusion  is  the  best  remedy  against  the  seatworm  or  Oxyuris 
vermicularis.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Quaternary  Era :  a  division  of  geologic  time  co-ordinate 
with  Primary,  Secondary,  and  Tertiary.  The  term  Primary 
has  almost  ceased  to  be  used,  anil  though  Secondary  and 
Tertiary  are  still  employed,  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to 
substitute  as  general  classific  terms  Paleozoic,  Mesozoie,  and 
Cenozoic,  the  term  Cenozoic  being  made  to  include  the  di- 
visions once  called  Tertiary  and  Quaternary.  The  same 
tendency  replaces  Quaternary  Era  by  Pleistocene  Period 
(q.  v.).  G.  K.  G. 

Quater'nions  [from  Lat.  quater'nio.  the  number  four,  a 
body  or  group  of  four,  quaternion,  deriv.  of  quater'ni,  four 
at  a  time,  by  fours,  deriv.  of  quat  tuor,  four] :  a  mathemat- 
ical method  invented  by  Sir  William  Rowan  Hamilton  about 
1840.  Its  fundamental  idea  is  that  of  a  vector.  This  latter 
is  defined  as  a  line  passing  from  one  (initial)  point  in  space 
to  another  (terminal)  j^oint.  It  has  two  elements,  length  and 
direction.  Two  vectors  are  considered  equal  only  when 
these  two  elements  are  the  same  in  each.  A  vector  moved 
about  in  space  will  remain  the  same  vector  so  long  as  it 
remains  parallel  to  itself  and  unchanged  in  length ;  but  if 
either  length  or  direction  are  changed,  it  becomes  a  differ- 
ent vector.  The  sum  of  two  vectors  is  the  vector  joining 
the  initial  point  of  the  first  to  the  terminal  point  of  the 
second  when  the  two  are  placed  end  to  end  without  chang- 
ing the  direction  of  either,  as  already  explained.  Any 
number  of  vectors  may  be  added  on  this  principle.  See 
Imaginary  Quantities. 

A  quaternion  is  first  defined  as  an  operator,  of  which  the 
function  is  to  change  one  vector  into  another  by  altering  its 
direction  and  its  length.  The  operation  which  changes  the 
length  of  the  vector  is  in  this  case  called  the  tensor  of  the 
quaternion,  and  that  which  changes  the  direction  is  called 
the  versor.  One  quantity,  a  number,  determines  the  tensor, 
and  three  are  required  to  determine  the  versor,  making  four 
in  all.     Hence  the  term  quaternion. 

The  great  principle,  however,  of  Hamilton's  method  con- 
sists in  assigning  to  the  vector  itself  the  function  of  a 
quaternion,  which  it  fulfills  by  turning  a  line  at  right  angles 
to  itself  through  ninety  degrees  around  the  vector  itself  as 
an  axis.  Comparing  with  the  analogous  operation  of  multi- 
plying by  the  imaginary  unit,  as  explained  in  the  article 
Imaginary  Quantities,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  quaternion 
has  a  close  analogy  to  an  imaginary  quantity  extended  to 
space.  From  the  definition  of  vectors  and  their  sums  it  fol- 
lows that  every  vector  can  be  made  up  of  the  sum  of  three 
vectors  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  These  three  vectors 
correspond  to  the  co-ordinates  used  in  solid  analytic  geom- 
etry. The  unit  lengths  in  the  three  directions  are  desig- 
nated as  t, ,/,  and  k.  Then  if  x,  y,  and  z  are  numbers,  any 
vector  can  be  represented  in  the  form 

ix  +  jy  +  kz. 
A  quaternion  is  formed  by  adding  a  pure  inimber  called  a 
scalar  to  the  vector  as  thus  represented,  and  may  therefore 
be  written  in  the  form 

«'  +  ix  +  jy  +  kz. 

The  reader  must  refer  for  a  complete  development  of  the 
method  to  special  treatises  on  the  subject,  of  which  the 


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most  complete  and  generally  accessible  tn  the  student  is 
tliut  of  'J'ait,  Elementdry  Treatist  un  Qualernionx  (3d  ed.. 
Edinburgh,  18'J0).  There  are  also  Aniericnn  works  on  the 
subject,  one  of  which  is  by  Prof.  Arthur  S.  Hardy,  of  Dart- 
mouth College. 

The  question  of  the  real  scientific  value  or  usefulness  of 
the  method  of  (luaternious  is  one  on  which  opinions  differ 
widely.  In  the  L'.  8.  it  is  a  pojiular  subject  of  study  in  ad- 
vanced mathcnuitics,  and  in  (Jreat  Britain  it  is  regarded  by 
Tait  and  others  as  the  most  simple  and  useful  method  of  de- 
veloping many  problems  in  physics.  Very  little  attcutiini 
has,  however,  been  paid  to  it  in 'France,  and  scarcely  any  in 
(lermany,  where  the  general  opinion  is  that  it  leads  to  no 
result  which  can  not  be  reached  as  readily  by  other  methods. 
But  there  can  be  no  question  of  its  value  as  a  training  in  the 
logical  methods  of  modern  mathem;itics.         S.  NkwcoSIB. 

Quatre  Ilras,  kaatr  braa' :  See  W.vrERLOo. 

Qnatri'fages  de  Brf-aii.  kaatr  faa3li'(le-bra'o',  Jean  Loris 
Arm.\nd,  de^  D.  Sc,  31.1).:  anthropologist;  b.  at  Berlhe- 
zeme.  department  of  Card,  France,  Feb.  10,  1810:  studied 
at  Strassburg,  Toulouse,  and  Paris;  was  appointed  Professor 
of  Natural  Ilistorv  at  Toulouse  in  18;!8,  at  the  Lyece  Napo- 
leon in  18.")0,  and  in  1855  at  the  Historical  Museum  of 
Anatomy  an<l  Ethnology.  In  the  early  years  of  his  career 
he  devoted  himself  to  natural  .science,  especially  the  study 
of  marine  invertebrata,  but  on  his  election  to  the  chair  of 
Ethnology  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  anthropology, 
becoming"  its  foremost  exponent.  Of  his  writings,  several 
have  been  translated  into  English:  Souvenirs  d'lin  Xatu- 
raliste  (1854;  London,  1857);  Metamorphose  de  VTIomme  et 
des  Animaux  (1863;  Ijondon,  by  II.  Law-son,  1864);  Ilis- 
toire  de  Vllomme  (1869;  New  York,  by  Jliss  E.  Yonmans, 
1875);  Charles  Darwin  (1870);  La  Race  prussienne  (1871): 
UEspice  Ilumaine  (1877) ;  llummes  fossiles  et  Ilonimes  sau- 
vaijes  (1884) ;  Les  Ptjgmees  (1887).     1).  Jan.  13,  1892. 

Revised  by  S.  T.  Armstroxo. 

QnatreraOre,  -mar,  6tiexne  JIarc  :  Orientalist;  b.  in 
Paris,  France,  July  12,  1782;  became  Professor  of  Greek  at 
Rouen  in  1809.  of  Hebrew,  Aramaic,  and  Svriac  at  the  College 
de  France  in  1819,  and  of  Persian  in  the  Ecole  des  Langues 
C)rientales  Vivaules  in  1827.  His  iirinci|ial  works  were  Re- 
cherches  hixturiqiies  et  critiques  stir  la  Lavt/iie  et  la  Littera- 
lure  de  V^gypte  (1808);  Memiiires  tp'iiijritiiliiques  et  histo- 
riques  stir  VEgypte  (1810) ;  Observations  stir  qiiehptes  points 
de  la  Geographie  de  l'Egi/pte(\>i\'i) ;  Memoire  sur  les  Xalia- 
tiens  (18;i5).  He  also  translated  and  edited  Rashid  ed-I)in's 
Histoire  des  Mongols  de  la  Perse  (18:16),  and  Makrizi's  /7('.s- 
toire  des  Soiiltans  .Mantlouks  (18;i7-40).  He  was  also  a  con- 
tributor to  the  Journal  Asiatiqtte  and  to  the  Jottrnal  des 
Savants.     I),  in  Paris,  Sept.  18,  1857.  C.  R.  G. 

(Jiiatrenu're  de  (jiiiney,  -dc-kan  see',  Antoine  Chrvsos- 
to.mk:  archa'ologist ;  b.  in  Paris,  France,  Oct.  28,  1755; 
studied  archa-ology  and  art;  took  part  very  actively,  but 
always  as  a  stanch  royalist,  in  the  various  movements  of 
the  Revolution ;  was  appointed  superintendent  of  public 
monuments  in  1815;  Professor  of  Arclueology  in  the  Roval 
Library  in  1818 :  censor  in  1824.  D.  in  Paris,  Dec.  28, 1849. 
His  most  remarkable  works  are  Le  Jupiter  f^h/nipien  (1814); 
De  V Imitation  dans  les  Beaux-Arts  (1823) ;  Rapharl  (1824) ; 
Canova  (1834);  Michel-Ange  (1835);  and  a  Viclionnaire 
historique  d' Arrltitecture  (2d  edition,  2  vols.,  1833).  Cf. 
Jiioyrapliie  Universelle,  pp.  608-612. 

Revised  by  A.  Gudeman'. 

(Juauhtemoc,  or  Quaulitoniotziii:  See  Giatk.motzin. 

(Juay,  Matthew  Stanley:  IT.  S.  Senator;  b.  at  Dills- 
burgh,  Pa.,  Sept.  30,  1833;  graduated  at  Jefferson  College 
1850;  admitted  to  the  bar  18.54;  jirothouotary  of  Beaver 
County  1856;  re-elected  1859;  colonel  of  the  134th  Penn- 
sylvania Volunteers ;  military  secretary  to  the  Governor  of 
Pennsylvania  1861-65;  member  of  tjegi.slature  186.5-67; 
secretary  of  the  commonwealth  1872-78;  recorder  of  Phila- 
delphia and  chairuum  of  the  Republican  State  ccunmitteo 
1878-79;  again  secretary  of  the  comiminwcalth  1879-82; 
delegate  to  the  Republican  national  convention  1872-70, 
1880-92 ;  State  trcasun^r  1885 :  elected  to  V.  S.  Senate  as 
Republican,  and  took  his  seat  Mar.  4, 1887 ;  chairman  of  the 
Republican  national  committee  1888.         C.  H.  Thi-rbkr. 

(Jiicbec.  kw("e-bek' :  a  province  of  British  America,  lor- 
merly  known  as  Lower  Canada,  lying  N.  and  S.  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  extending  E.  and  \V.  from  the  Peninsula  of  (iaspc 
to  the  head  of  Lake  St.  Francis,  an  exjiansion  of  the  great 
waterway  N.  \V.  of  the  county  of  Huntingdon,  and  N.  and 
.•340 


S.  from  52°  30'  N.  lat.  to  the  forty-fifth  parallel,  or  the  bound- 
dary-line  of  the  U.  S.  The  length  within  these  limits  is 
about  700  miles,  and  the  breadth  about  300  miles.  The  land 
surface  is  227,.500  sq.  miles  in  extent,  the  water  area  1,400 
sq.  miles,  making  a  total  area  of  228,900  si],  miles. 

Physical  Features. — The  natural  features  surpa.ss  in  bold- 
ness those  of  the  adjacent  i>rovinces,  chiefly  along  and  near 
the  backbone  or  chief  mountain-range  of  the  country,  the 
Laurentides,  as  they  extend  eastward'  from  the  vicinity  of 
the  city  of  Quebec  to  the  Labrador  coast.  This  range  of 
highlands,  in  many  places  over  1,000  feet  high,  marks  the 
plain  watered  by  the  St.  Lawrence  and  its  tributaries,  and 
extending  to  the  Ottawa,  loses  itself  in  the  milder  alti- 
tudes of  the  great  watershed  of  the  sister  province  of  On- 
tario. The  scenery  along  this  chain  of  heights  is  of  the 
mo.st  attractive  character.  There  are  many  districts  that 
rival  the  rugged  grandeur  of  the  Grampians,  such  as  the 
highlands  of  Val  Cartier,  Laval,  Murray  Bay.  and  the  Sague- 
luiy  region.  In  the  Peninsula  of  Gaspe  is  the  Notje  Dame 
range,  an  extension  of  the  Alleghanies  from  the  New  Eng- 
land States  through  New  Brunswick.  The  tract  between 
these  great  ridges  ami  the  shores  of  the  St.  Lawrence  is  for 
the  most  part  undulating  and  fertile,  equaling  in  fertility 
the  great  sout  hern  plain  of  the  Eastern  'I  ownshi|)S. 

The  distinguishing  feature  is  the  waterway  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  (q.  v.)  and  its  numerous  tributaries,  the 
most  important  being  the  Ottawa,  the  St.  jNIaurice,  and  the 
Sagiieiiay  on  the  N..  and  the  Richelieu,  the  St.  Francis,  and 
the  Chaiidicre  on  the  S.  The  St.  Lawrence  is  navigable  as 
far  as  Montreal,  520  miles  from  the  sea.  The  first  interrup- 
tion to  navigation  is  at  the  Lachine  Rapids,  9  miles  from 
that  city.  The  Carillon  Rapids,  12  miles  in  length,  prevent 
passenger  steamboats  sailing  from  Ottawa  to  the  Lachine 
Canal,  unless  advantage  is  taken  of  the  canal  at  Grenville. 
Bevond  the  Chaudiere  Falls  at  Ottawa  the  river  is  navigable. 
The  St.  ;Maurice  is  interrupted  by  the  Shawenegan  Falls, 
24  miles  from  Three  Rivers;  their  height  is  150  feet.  The 
Jlontmorency  river  falls  abruptly  into  the  St.  Lawrence  over 
a  ledge  250  "feet  high.  Between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
Bay  Chaleurs.  as  well  as  on  the  N.  of  that  river  near  the  gulf, 
are"  innumerable  streams  famous  in  the  legends  of  the  sports- 
man and  angler:  while  all  over  the  province,  irrigated  in 
everv  part  by  the  main  tributaries  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
their  streamfet  tributaries,  the  province  presents  every  vari- 
ety of  .scenery.  The  most  iminn-tant  lakes  are  St.  John,  a 
circular  basin  drained  by  the  Saguenay  and  having  an  area 
of  300  sq.  miles:  Temiscaming,  drained  by  the  Ottawa,  hav- 
ing an  area  of  126  sq.  miles;  Champlain,  partly  belonging 
to  Canada,  partly  to  the  U.  S.,  and  by  a  system  of  canals  con- 
necting the  trade  of  the  St.  Lawrence  with  that  of  the  Hud- 
son ;  St.  Peter,  an  expansion  of  the  St.  Lawrence  above 
Three  Rivers;  Memphremagog,  the  greater  part  of  which 
lies  in  the  province;  Mctapedia;  Jlassawippi,  near  Stan- 
stead;  and  Megantic,  the  source  of  the  River  Chaiuliere. 
The  principal  islands  are  Anticosti;  Bonaventure.  a  fishing 
station  near  Gaspe;  the  Magdalen  islands,  a  group  in  the 
gulf,  N.  of  Prince  Edward  island;  and,  in  the  river,  Bic 
island.  Hare  island,  tie  aux  Coudres,  (irosse  ile,  the  quaran- 
tine station.  Crane  island.  Island  of  Orleans,  and  the  river- 
girt  lands  near  the  confluence  of  the  Ottawa  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  at  Montreal,  and  on  the  Ottawa  at  Calumet  and 
Allumette. 

Climate.— The  climate  is  on  the  whole  agreeable  and 
bracing.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  more  intense 
than  in  districts  of  a  corresponding  latitude  in  Europe. 
There  may  be  said  to  be  but  two  seasons — winter  and  sum- 
mer, the  winter  extending  from  about  the  middle  of  Octo- 
ber to  the  middle  of  Ajiril.  The  thernuimeter  in  summer 
sehhmi  registers  beyond  90'  F.,  and  in  winter  it  some- 
times falls  20  below  zero.  The  farmer  has  his  sowings  fin- 
ished early  in  Jlay,  and  begins  his  harvesting  in  August. 
September  is  perhai>s  the  pleasanlest  month  of  the  year, 
with  its  warm  days  and  cool  evenings.  In  November  the 
snow  begins  to  fall,  and,  in  the  dislrii'ts  N.  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, covers  the  ground  until  March  or  A|U-il.  In  the 
Eastern  Townships  the  snow  does  not  fall  so  early  nor  does 
it  lie  so  late.  All  over  the  province  the  climate  is  exceed- 
ingly healthful,  the  air  being  clear  and  dry  both  in  summer 
aiul  winter. 

(leology.  Mineral  Resources,  c^c— The  Quaternary  forma- 
tion is  represented  by  the  usual  su|ierfic'ial  drifts.  The 
Lower  Carboniferous  series  is  seen  in  the  thin  strips  on  the 
southeastern  coast  of  the  Gaspe  peninsula  that  form  the 
northern  limit  of  the  coal-measures  of  the  maritime  prov- 


882 


QUEBEC 


inces;  the  Devonian  system  is  represented  by  the  Gaspe 
sandstones  and  limestones,  in  which  are  to  be  found  indica- 
tions of  petroleum  ;  the  Silurian  and  Cambro-Silurian  for- 
mations occupy  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  between  Que- 
bec and  Montreal,  and  constitute  the  northwestern  limit  of 
the  Eastern  Townships'  mineral  district ;  the  Cambrian  sys- 
tem constitutes  the  mineral  deposits  of  the  Eastern  Town- 
ships and  their  crystalline  schists  ;  the  Huronian  formation 
occurs  in  the  neighliorhood  of  Lake  Temis,  coming  where 
galena  occurs ;  and  the  Laurentian  formation  occupies  the 
northern  portion  of  tlie  St.  Lawrence  river  and  gulf. 

The  mineral  wealth  is  incalculable,  but  is  in  an  undevel- 
oped condition.  Tliere  are  valuable  gold  mines  at  Beauce, 
copper  mines  in  Mcgantic  and  Brome  Counties,  nickel  mines 
in  Pontiac,  and  the  best  of  iron  ore  to  be  found  in  St.  Mau- 
rice.    Slate-stone,  mica,  and  asbestos  also  abound. 

In  the  Laurentides,  with  their  rich  crop  of  beautiful  crys- 
talline specimens,  are  to  be  found  indications  of  iron  in  the 
phosphate  and  magnetic  condition,  plumbago,  mica,  and 
splendid  building  granites  and  limestones.  Slate-stone  for 
roofing  purposes  has  been  quarried  in  large  quantities  from 
the  clay  schists  of  Kingsbury,  while  the  copper  mines  near 
Lennoxville  are  very  valuable.  The  Trenton  limestones  of 
the  Silurian  deposits  have  supplied  building  material  for 
Quebec  and  Montreal,  while  the  gray  and  white  granites  of 
Compton  and  Stanstead  Counties  have  also  been  utilized  for 
purposes  of  building  and  ornamentation. 

Fauna. — The  fur-bearing  animals  that  exist,  though  in 
diminished  numbers,  are  beavers,  minks,  bears,  muskrats, 
foxes,  caribou,  squirrels,  and  rabbits.  Of  the  game-birds 
there  are  still  to  be  found  duck,  geese,  partridge,  and  snipe. 
Eagles,  hawks,  and  loons  are  often  taken  by  the  woodsman. 

Industries. — Fifty  per  cent,  of  the  population  farm  the 
lands  on  and  near  the  rivers.  The  principal  agricultural 
products  are  hay,  oats,  potatoes,  barley,  wheat,  turnips,  peas, 
buckwheat,  maize,  and  tobacco,  and  the  chief  domestic  ani- 
mals, sheep,  swine,  horses,  and  cattle.  The  most  fertile  dis- 
tricts are  to  be  found  in  the  Eastern  Townships,  where 
creameries  and  cheese-factories  yield  great  profit. 

The  forest  wealth  is  very  considerable,  and  can  be  ex- 
tensively utilized,  as  there  is  hardly  a  stream  which  does  not 
provide  water-power.  The  ship-building  interest  has  all  but 
disappeared,  but  the  export  of  lumber  is  still  an  active 
branch  of  trade.  The  practice  of  squaring  the  timber  for 
exportation  has  very  nnieh  declined.  Most  of  the  timber 
exported  is  pine  and  spruce.  The  forest-trees  include  also 
maple,  birch,  elm.  beech,  cedar,  oak,  ash,  and  cherry. 

While  in  the  fishery  industry  Quebec  occupies  only  the 
fourth  place  among  the  provinces  of  the  Dominion,  there  is 
perhaps  no  district  in  the  world  that  is  so  famous  for  its  in- 
land fisheries.  At  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  on 
the  Chaleurs  Bay  are  to  be  fnuml  large  quantities  of  cod, 
haddock,  salmon,  mackerel,  and  lobster;  and  in  the  lakes 
of  the  province  the  trout-fisheries  all  but  equal  the  fame 
of  the  salmon-fisheries  of  its  coast  waters.  The  government 
of  the  province  holds  in  its  own  hands  the  leasing  of  the 
inland  waters,  and  a  considerable  revenue  is  realized  from 
the  letting  of  these  waters  to  fish  and  game  clubs.  Over 
$2,000,000  is  realized  annually  from  the  fisheries. 

Railways  and  Canals. — The  principal  railway  companies 
are  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Canadian  Pacific,  and  the  Inter- 
colonial. The  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Intercolonial  have 
their  eastern  terminus  at  Levis,  the  Canadian  Pacific  in  the 
city  of  Quebec.  The  minor  lines  are  the  Quebec  Central 
from  Quebec  to  Sherbrooke,  the  Lake  St.  John  from  Que- 
bec to  Chicoutimi,  the  line  between  Montreal  and  Sorel, 
the  Central  Vermont,  from  Montreal  to  the  U.  S.,  the  Maine 
Central,  the  Boston  and  Maine,  the  Canada  Atlantic,  and 
the  Pontiac  and  Pacific  Junction  Railway.  The  principal 
canals,  forming  a  system  the  largest  and  most  important  in 
the  world,  are  the  Beauharnais  (11^  miles,  with  6  locks), 
the  Soulanges  (14  miles,  witli  5  locks),  the  Laehine  (8*  miles, 
with  .5  locks),  the  Carillon  and  Grenville,  and  the  tMuimbly. 
Highways  between  all  places  of  importance  and  by-roads  be- 
tween the  outlying  [Kirtiotis  of  remote  settlements  are  kept 
in  repair  by  the  provinciiil  government. 

Political  Divisions  and  Ooi'ernnient. — The  province  is 
divided  into  sixty-three  counties,  which  send  to  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly  at  Quebec  seventy-three  members.  The  head 
of  the  provincial  government  is  the  Lieutenant-Governor, 
appointed  by  the  Governor-Cienrml  of  the  Dominion.  His 
councilors,  generally  six  in  nuiiil)er,  form  the  executive,  sub- 
ject to  the  Legislative  Council  (of  twenty-four  members)  and 
the  seventy-three  members  of  the  Assembly.    Thus  there  are 


represented  the  three  estates  of  Great  Britain — the  Lieuten- 
ant-Governor (as  the  sovereign),  the  Legislative  Council  (as 
the  House  of  Lords),  and  the  Legislative  Assembly  (as  the 
House  of  Commons).  To  the  Dominion  House  of  Commons 
Quebec  sends  sixty-five  members,  and  is  expected  to  have 
twenty-four  Senators  appointed  by  the  Governor-General  to 
the  Dominion  Senate. 

In  1894  the  provincial  auditor  reported  the  gross  receipts 
from  all  sources  to  be  $11,7!)3,.577,  and  the  expenditure  to  be 
111.769,868.  The  net  revenue  is  |4,270,694,  and  the  net  ex- 
penditure $4,550,540.  The  gross  provincial  debt  amounts  to 
138.196,754. 

The  judiciary,  except  the  local  magistracy,  is  in  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  Dominion  Government,  and  consists  of  the 
court  of  queen's  bench,  the  superior  court,  and  the  court  of 
review.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  the  admiralty  court, 
the  court  of  quarter  sessions,  and  the  courts  for  petty  causes. 

Population. — In  1871  the  population  was  1,191,516;  in 
1881,  1,359.027;  in  1891,  1,488,585.  The  English-speaking 
persons  number  about  300,000.  In  1891  there  were  1,291,- 
709  Roman  Catholics,  75,472  memtiers  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, 53,659  Presbyterians,  39,416  Methodists,  6,854  Baptists, 
4,396  Congregationalists,  3,364  Adventists,  and  2,703  Jews. 

The  principal  towns  are  Montreal  (pop.,  1891,  316,650), 
Quebec  (63,090),  Hull  (11,365),  Three  Rivers  (8,334),  St.  Hya- 
cinthe  (7,016),  Sorel  (6,669),  Valleyfield  (5,516),  St.  Johns 
(4,733),  and  Fraserville  or  Riviere  du  Loup  (4,175). 

Education. — The  education  of  the  people  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  at  the  head  of 
which  is  a  superintendent.  The  Council  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion consists  of  two  committees,  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
the  Protestant,  each  having  control  of  the  schools  according 
to  the  religion  of  the  majority  of  ratepayers  in  any  mu- 
nicipality. The  schools  supported  by  the  minority  in  any 
municipality  are  called  dissentient  schools.  The  common 
schools  are  for  the  most  part  under  the  sujiervision  of  the 
department,  with  its  forty  inspectors  and  other  otficers.  The 
Protestant  committee  has  the  immediate  supervision  of  what 
are  called  the  Protestant  superior  schools,  and  has  an  in- 
spector of  its  own  to  visit  and  examine  the  model  schools, 
academies,  high  schools,  and  colleges  tmder  Protestant  con- 
trol. These  schools  have  a  course  of  study  of  their  own  which 
brings  them  in  line  with  McGill  University  in  Montreal,  and 
Bishop's  College  University  at  Lennoxville.  Affiliated  to 
these  institutions  are  Stanstead  Wesleyan  College,  St.  Fran- 
cis College  at  Richmond,  and  Morrin  College  at  Quebec. 
The  Roman  Catholic  University  is  at  Quebec,  a  development 
of  the  two  seminaries  founded  by  the  first  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  and  is  known  as  Laval  University. 

The  public  revenue,  derived  from  the  subsidy  of  the  cen- 
tral Government,  the  sale  of  crown  lands,  lease  of  inland 
fisheries,  and  direct  taxation,  amounts  to  nearly  $5,000,000. 
The  amount  spent  on  education  by  the  Government  is  less 
than  $400,000,  and  the  amount  for  charitable  institutions 
over  $300,000. 

History. — The  early  history  of  Quebec  is  that  of  Canada. 
Jacques  Cartier  in  1534  sailed  up  the  gulf,  passing  Anti- 
oosti,  and  exploring  Chaleurs  Bay  and  Gaspe  Peninsula. 
He  returned  in  1535  and  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  as  far  as 
Montreal  (then  Hochelaga).  Cham  plain  founded  Quebec  in 
1608,  and  after  exploring  the  upper  waters  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  its  tributaries  established  forts  and  fur-stations 
in  various  parts.  The  early  colonization  of  Quebec  was 
more  or  less  a  religious  enterprise,  an  adjmict  to  the  Recol- 
let  and  Jesuit  missions.  The  government  was  French  up 
to  1759,  when  the  battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham  was 
fought  by  Gen.  Wolfe  and  the  government  became  English. 
In  1791  Quebec  was  known  as  Lower  Canada,  and  as  such 
was  united  to  Upper  Canada  in  1841.  In  1867,  by  the  Act 
of  Confederation,  it  became  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada.  J.  M.  Harper. 

Quebec :  the  ca.pital  of  the  province  of  Quebec  and  the 
oldest  city  in  Canada;  situated  mostly  on  a  plateau  and  its 
ridges,  at  the  confluence  of  the  St.  Charles  and  the  St.  Law- 
rence (see  map  of  Quebec,  rcf.  4-D).  The  plateau  extends 
from  Cap  Rouge,  the  site  of  Roljerval's  encampment,  for  a 
distance  of  8  or  9  miles  toward  the  island  of  Orleans,  just 
below  Quebec  and  about  180  miles  from  Montreal  and  300 
miles  f  fom  what  is  generally  called  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

Area  and  General  Plan. — Quebec  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting cities  in  America,  and  has  often  been  called  a  bit 
of  the  Old  World  set  down  on  the  shores  of  the  New.  The 
city,  which  covers  an  area  of  16,000  acres,  may  be  divided 


QUEBEC 


QUEENSLAND 


883 


into  three  sections  for  purposes  of  description — the  Upper 
Tdwn,  crowned  by  tlic  citadfl  mid  facing  tlie  hurhor  at  the 
Dullcrin  Terrace  and  tin-  Grand  Battery ;  tlie  St.  .loliii  Sidj- 
urlis.  (in  the  northern  slope  of  the  platcan  boydiid  the  walls, 
niccliiif;  the  level  tract  of  St.  Kuch  and  St.  Saiivenr ;  and 
Charnplain  Street,  runidng  alon;:;  the  shore  of  the  St.  Law- 
renie  under  the  steep  sides  of  the  plateau  on  the  S.  Duf- 
fcrin  Terrace  stretches  along  the  rock  fur  a  (piarter  of  a 
mile  at  a  height  of  ISO  feet.  It  forms  part  of  the  line  of 
fortili(^ations  around  the  city  proper,  and  in  summer  is  the 
favorite  proniena<le  of  the  citizens.  The  plateau  is  iider- 
sected  by  two  main  thoroughfares,  St.  John  Street,  within 
and  without,  vanishing  in  tlie  St.  Foye  Road,  and  St.  Louis 
Street,  with  (irande  Alice,  having  for  its  prolongation  the 
St.  Louis  Koad.  These  run  parallel  with  fhaniplain  Street, 
and  meet  at  the  one  end  at  Cap  Rouge  and  at  the  other  by 
means  of  the  short  connecting  links  of  Faliriipie  Street, 
Buade  Street,  and  the  Place  d'Annes  at  or  near  the  Cha- 
teau Frontenac,  a  hotel  built  near  the  site  of  the  cild  Cha- 
teau .St.  Louis,  once  the  residence  of  the  French  governors. 

Public  liiii/dings. — On  approaching  the  city  from  the 
harbor  the  principal  structures  are  the  Parliament  building.s 
on  the  height  of  land  just  outside  St.  Louis  (iate,  Laval 
University  to  the  right,  the  citadel  to  the  left,  and  the  Ba- 
silica, the  English  cathedral,  the  court-house,  and  the  Cha- 
teau Frontenac  with  Duilerin  Terrace  between.  Of  these, 
the  Laval  University  is  the  largest  Roman  Catholic  educa- 
tional institution  in  Canada.  It  receives  its  name  from 
Bishop  Laval,  who  founded  the  adjacent  seminary  in  1663, 
and  hius  a  valuable  collection  of  pictures  and  scientific  ap- 
paratus and  specimens.  Within  the  magnificent  group  of 
buildings  behind  the  (irand  Battery  are  the  two  seminaries. 
The  I'arliament  buildings  form  a  majestic  quadrangle,  and 
contain  the  chambers  in  which  the  Legislature  holds  its  ses- 
sions, with  the  adjacent  offices.  The  fa<;ade  of  the  building, 
with  its  bronzes  of  men  illustrious  in  Canadian  history,  is 
very  striking.  The  citadel  is  the  most  prominent  feature 
of  the  city  proper.  It  covers  an  area  of  40  acres  on  the 
summit  of  Cape  Diamond,  and  is  in  charge  of  a  small  troop 
of  Camidian  regulars.  Passing  along  St.  Louis  Street  to- 
wanl  the  St.  Louis  Gate,  the  principal  buildings  are  the  Ur- 
sidine  Convent,  founded  in  1641,  the  St.  Louis  Hotel  and 
Academy  of  Music,  the  old  barracks,  used  for  some  time  as 
the  Palais  de  .lustice,  Chalmers  (Presbyterian)  church,  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  the  old  Government  House,  and  the  Club 
House.  Outsi<le  the  St.  Louis  Gate  ara  the  Convent  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  with  its  prominent  spire,  the  Female  Or- 
phan Asylum,  St.  Bri<lgefs  Asylum,  and  the  Ladies'  Prot- 
estant Home.  Along  the  beautiful  stretch  of  the  St.  Louis 
Road  are  to  be  found  many  fine  manor  residences.  Along 
St.  .lohn  Street  t  he  principal  buildings  are  structures  for  the 
retail  trade,  and  the  two  fine  churches  of  St.  Matthew  and 
St.  Jean  Baptiste,  while  there  are  many  fine  residences  on 
the  Ste.  Foye  Road,  the  prolongation  of  St.  John  Street.  On 
or  near  this  thoroughfare  are  Morrin  College,  which  con- 
tains the  library  of  the  Literary  and  Historical  Society. 
St.  Andrew's  church,  the  Methodist  church,  the  .Jesuits' 
church,  the  National  School  Building,  the  Hotel  Dieu,  the 
Gray  Nunnery,  the  Royal  Victoria,  St.  Patrick's  church, 
the  V.  M.  C.  A.  Building,  and  the  Finlay  Asylum.  On  the 
St.  Roch  side  of  the  city  there  are  four  churches,  and  on 
the  Champlain  Street  side  there  are  two.  The  chief  build- 
ings in  what  is  known  as  Lower  Town  are  the  Champlain 
Jlarket-house  and  the  custom-house. 

Suliurhnn  Mares  of  Interest. — Among  the  places  of  inter- 
est outside  the  town  are  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  with  its 
monument  to  Gen.  Wolfe,  coinmemorating  the  battle!  of 
lT5!t;  Wolfe's  Cove,  where  the  British  gainerl  a  footing  on 
the  battle-field;  Prcs-de-Ville,  where  (ien.  Montgomery  fell 
in  1775:  Montmorency  Palls,  where  Montcalm  kept  Wolfe 
at  bay  for  months  before  the  decisive  battle  was  fought ; 
Beauporl  and  its  asylum ;  the  island  of  Orleans,  called  lie 
de  Bacchus  by  ('artier;  Levis,  with  its  three  commanding 
forts:  the  graving-dock,  capable  of  accommodating  the 
largest  vessel  afloat;  the  Louise  F.mbankment  and  its  basin 
of  safety  for  ships;  the  River  St.  Charles  and  its  picturesipie 
scenes;  Lorette,  with  its  falls  and  Indian  church  and  set- 
tlement ;  the  Chaudiere  Falls  at  the  outlet  of  the  Chaudiere, 
a  tributary  of  the  St.  Lawrence;  Chilteau  Bigot,  beyond  the 
pretty  village  of  Charlesbourg,  once  the  residence  of  the  In- 
tendant  Bigot ;  the  mouth  of  the  Lairet,  where  Jacques  Car- 
tier  spent  his  first  winter  in  Canada;  and  Cap  Rouge. 

Jnrlu.flrit's,  Commerce,  etc. — The  chief  imlustries  are  the 
manufacture  of  leather  and  the  shipping  of  lumber.    There 


is  very  little  ship-building.  The  principal  factories  are  for 
boots  and  shoes,  tobacco,  and  peltries.  In  1893  the  value  of 
exports  was  §5,193,370,  and  of  imports  $3,555,607 ;  1,297  sea- 
going vessels  entered  and  cleared  the  port,  including  387 
British;  total  tonnage,  'J84,3!I9.  The  docks  and  wharfage 
pro|>crties  e.Ktend  from  the  mouth  of  tlie  St.  Charles  round 
the  river  frontage  for  nearly  three  miles.  The  first  bank  was 
established  in  1818.  Five  banks  have  a  combined  capital  of 
$6,6(M),0()0,  and  there  are  besides  three  savings-banks  and 
three  branch  banks.  The  principal  railway  lines  meeting 
in  the  place  are  the  Intercolonial,  the  t^i'ebec  Central,  and 
tlie  (irand  Trunk  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  and  the 
Canadian  Pacific,  the  Lake  St.  John,  and  the  Laurentides 
on  the  north  side.  The  city  has  an  abundant  supply  of  water 
from  Lake  St.  Charles,  whose  outlet  is  9  miles  distant.  It 
is  also  lighted  with  electricity,  the  power  being  obtained 
from  Montmorency  Falls,  7  miles  distant. 

('ivic  Government,  Taxiiliiin,  etc. — The  city  government 
has  at  its  head  the  mayor,  chosen  by  the  council,  which  con- 
sists of  ten  aldermen  and  twenty  councilors  elected  by  the 
various  city  wards.  The  new  civic  buildings,  a  handsome 
block  with  two  wings,  are  situated  on  the  site  of  the  old 
College  of  the  Jesuits,  in  the  center  of  the  city,  opposite  the 
Biusilica.  Taxation  is  one-fifth  per  cent,  of  the  rental  value 
of  pro|ierty.  which  for  the  whole  city  is  estimated  at  $1,274,- 
968,  while  the  estimated  value  of  the  property  itself  is  .*17,- 
266,783.  The  debt  of  the  city  is  $6,190,808.  There  are  6 
daily  newspaiiers  published  in  (Quebec — 3  French  and  3  Eng- 
lish— and  7  weekly  journals,  only  3  of  which  are  English, 

History. — Quebec  was  founded  by  ('hamplain  in  1608,  but 
its  site  had  been  visited  by  Cartier  in  153.5.  In  1663  it  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  royal  government  established  in  New 
France.  The  French  held  possession  of  it  till  1759.  In  tliat 
year  the  battle  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham  led  to  the  Treaty 
of  Paris  in  1763,  when  the  whole  country  became  British, 
with  Quebec  as  its  first  capital.  The  population  in  1881  was 
63,446  ;  in  1891,  63,090.  J.  M.  Harper. 

Quebracho,  ke'e-braa'cho ;  an  evergreen  tree  {Aspido- 
sperma  quebracho)  of  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Republic, 
from  the  bark  of  which  may  be  obtained  six  different  alka- 
loids. The  aspido-spermine  of  commerce  practically  repre- 
sents all  six  of  these  substances.  The  bark  is  used  in  cases 
of  disordered  respiration,  more  particularly  asthma. 

Quedlinbiirg,  kred  lin-boorfh;  town  of  Prussia,  province 
of  Saxony,  at  the  foot  of  the  Ilarz  Mountains,  on  the  Bode 
(see  map  of  German  Empire,  ref.  4-P').  It  was  founded  by 
Henry  the  Fowler  in  930,  and  is  surrounded  with  walls  sur- 
mounted by  towers,  and  has  large  manufactures  of  damask, 
linen,  and  woolen,  besides  breweries,  distilleries,  and  sugar- 
refineries.  It  is  famous  for  its  nurseries,  and  exports  seeds 
to  other  parts  of  Europe  and  to  America.  Pop.  (1890)  30,- 
761.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Queen  Anne's  Bounty :  See  Bounty. 

Queen  Charlotte  Islands ;  a  small  group  in  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean,  about  80  miles  from  the  coast  of  British  Co- 
lumbia. Only  Graham  and  Moresby  are  of  considerable  size. 
The  islands  extend  about  180  miles  parallel  with  the  coast 
of  the  mainland  and  their  greatest  breadth  is  60  miles. 
Adajited  by  the  genial  climate  and  fertile  soil  to  sujiport  a 
considerable  poimlation.the  islands  have  but  few  colonists. 
The  coast  waters  abound  with  fish,  but  game  is  scarce  in  the 
interior.  The  Haida  Indians  living  along  the  coasts  now 
number  only  a  few  hundred.  For  best  description  see  Daw- 
son's Report  of  Froijress  (1878-79).  Geological  Survey  of 
Canada.  Revised  by  C.  C.  ACAsis. 

Queen  Charlotte  Sound  ;  See  Vancouver  Island. 

Queen's  Counsel ;  See  Kino's  Counsel. 

Queen's  County  :  an  inland  county  of  Ireland  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Leinster.  Area,  664  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  most- 
ly flat,  rising  in  the  N.  W.  into  the  Slieve  Bloom  Moun- 
tains, whose  summit,  Ardern,  is  1,734  feet  high.  It  is 
drained  by  the  Barrow  and  the  Norc.  The  soil  is  fertile; 
agriculture  and  dairy  husbandry  are  the  principal  occupa- 
tions, and  there  is  a  iittle  cotton  and  woolen  weaving.  The 
principal  towns  are  Maryborough  and  Mt.  Mellick.  The 
county  returns  two  members  to  Parliament.  Pofi.  (1891) 
64,883. 

Queensland  :  the  youngest  of  the  Australian  colonies  of 
Great  Britain,  though  it  has  surpassed  all  except  New  South 
Wales  and  Victoria  in  population  and  commercial  impor- 
tance. Occupving  the  northeast  part  of  the  continent  be- 
tween New  South  Wales  ami  Torres  Strait,  it  is  surpassed  in 


884 


QUEENSLAND 


QUERfiTARO 


size  only  by  the  colony  of  South  Australia.  Area.  668,497 
sq.  miles.  The  most  important  feature  of  its  physical  for- 
mation is  the  back-bone  of  hills  known  as  the  Great  Divid- 
ing Range,  whicli  extends  along  the  east  coast  from  50  to 
200  miles  inland.  It  forms,  in  large  part,  the  water-parting 
between  the  eastern  and  western  i-ivcrs,  and  though  not  so 
high  as  the  southern  Australian  mountains,  much  of  the 
moisture  carried  inland  is  condenseil  on  its  eastern  slopes 
and  carried  back  to  the  sea  in  numerous  small  rivers.  The 
result  is  that  the  narrow,  eastern  part  of  the  colony  is  better 
•watered  and  more  fit  for  agriculture  than  the  great  plains 
lying  west  of  these  ranges  of  hills.  The  plains  are  fresh  and 
green  in  the  spring,  but  most  of  the  year  they  are  parched 
for  lack  of  water,  though  grazing  in  this  region  is  one  of  the 
chief  industries.  The  better  settled  districts  are  along  the 
southern  luilf  of  Eastern  Queensland,  where  the  annual  rain- 
fall is  about  60  inches,  while  along  the  northeastern  tropical 
coast  tlie  precipitation  is  about  130  inches  a  year,  and  on  the 
western  plains  only  10  to  80  inches.  Halt  of  Queensland  and 
four-flfths  of  its  2,500  miles  of  coast-line  lie  within  the  Tor- 
rid zone,  but  the  climate  of  the  large  regions  adapted  for 
white  colonists,  although  very  hot,  is,  on  account  of  its  dry- 
ness, more  salubrious  than  in  most  other  countries  in  the 
same  latitude.  There  is  scarcely  any  fever,  except  in  some 
new  settlements. 

Most  of  the  flora  peculiar  to  Australia  is  found  in  Queens- 
land, with  the  addition  of  about  500  Indian  and  Malayan 
species.  The  fauna  is  for  the  most  part  identical  w'ith  that 
of  New  South  Wales.  Of  Australia's  700  species  of  birds, 
about  600  are  found  in  Queensland.  The  agricultural  pos- 
sibilities are  enormous,  though  much  of  the  farming  region 
suffers  from  alternation  of  droughts  and  floods.  Slaize  is 
the  principal  product,  though  wheat  and  oats  are  also  grown. 
Most  of  the  grains  and  fruits  of  the  U.  S.  thrive  on  the  high- 
lands, while  all  the  best  tropical  fruits  are  grown  to  perfec- 
tion in  the  low-lying  coast  districts.  Sugar  is  becoming  one 
of  the  great  industries.  The  growing  of  sugar-cane  cen- 
ters chiefly  in  the  neighborhood  of  21°  S.  lat.,  though  it 
is  raised  as  far  S.  as  Brisbane.  Most  of  the  work  on  the 
sugar-plantations  has  been  done  by  natives  of  the  South  Sea 
islands,  whom  the  Australians  call  Kanakas.  Various  abuses 
connected  with  their  importation  have  led  to  legislation  prac- 
tically cutting  off  this  source  of  labor  supply  and  temporari- 
ly retarding  the  development  of  sugar-planting.  The  colony 
is  unusually  rich  in  valuable  woods,  both  hard  and  soft, 
there  being  about  200  species  that  are  useful.  The  semi-arid 
plains  are  adapted  for  raising  cattle  and  sheep  on  a  large 
scale,  because  some  of  their  grasses  have  a  remarkable  power 
of  enduring  droughts.  The  Mitchell  grass  is  most  noted  in 
this  respect,  and  other  very  nutritive  plants  are  the  kangaroo 
and  blue  grasses.  Of  the  360  kinds  of  grasses  found  in  Aus- 
tralia, about  three-fourths  thrive  in  Queensland.  Tlie  set- 
tlements are  steadily  extending  into  the  western  downs  since 
various  lines  of  railway  have  made  them  easily  accessible. 
All  the  rivers  are  shallow  and  not  navigable  for  large  ves- 
sels, but  there  are  a  number  of  good  harbors  and  dredging 
operations  are  constantly  improving  them. 

The  colony  has  great  mineral  wealth,  particularly  in  gold, 
silver,  copper,  tin,  antimony,  and  mercury.  The  gold  is 
found  chiefly  in  quartz-veins,  and  only  about  one-fifteenth 
of  the  miners  are  working  placer  claims.  Many  mineral  re- 
gions among  the  hills  can  not  be  developed  until  railways 
make  them  more  easy  of  access.  Some  unexampled  mines 
have  been  discovered,  among  them  mountains  of  pure  iron 
ore  at  Cloncurry,  one  of  which  is  200  feet  high,  Mt,  Mor- 
gan, discovered  in  1884,  is  the  richest  gold  mine  in  Australia, 
Gold  is  found  there  under  conditions  not  known  elsewhere, 
being  dislriliuted  throughout  the  mass  of  the  mountain, 
which  is  800  feet  high,  and  was  evidently  produced  in  the 
tertiary  jjeriod  by  a  hot  spring  which  deposited  siliceous 
sinter,  with  some  Umonite  and  clayey  substances,  through  all 
of  which  the  gold  was  sprinkled.  There  is  also  a  large  pro- 
duction of  gold  in  the  Charters  Towers  district.  The  coal  for- 
mations cover  a  vast  territory,  and  Queensland  promises  to  be- 
come the  leading  ex  porter  of  coal  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

The  population  in  181)1  was  422,776.  including  20.000  Chi- 
nese and  about  21,000  aborigines.  There  are  ten  towns  hav- 
ing over  5,000  popidalion,  and  the  growth  of  Brisbane,  the 
capital,  has  been  remarkably  rapid.  (See  Brisbane.)  The 
population  of  the  towns  exceeds  by  very  little  that  of  the 
agricultural  and  grazing  regions.  There  are  about  140  men 
to  every  100  women.  The  natives  are  rapidly  dying  out. 
Those  living  in  the  north  are  cannibals,  and  few  of  them 
seem  able  to  live  long  under  civilization.       C.  C.  Auams. 


Queeiis'town :  town  ;  in  the  county  of  Cork,  Ireland  ;  on 
the  south  side  of  Great  island  in  Cork  harbor ;  12  miles 
S.  E.  of  the  city  of  Cork  (see  map  of  Ireland,  ref,  14-F). 
Though  poorly  built  on  the  whole,  it  presents  a  fine  appear- 
ance from  the  sea.  The  principal  feature  is  a  large  Ro- 
man Catholic  cathedral.  Queenstown  is  an  important  port 
of  call  in  connection  with  the  carriage  of  the  mails  between 
the  U.  S.  and  the  United  Kingdom.  The  place  was  known 
as  Cove  until  1849,  when  it  received  its  present  name  in 
honor  of  the  Queen's  visit  in  that  year.     Pop.  (1891)  9,123. 

Quelpaert,  kwelpa'art :  island ;  about  60  miles  S.  of  Korea, 
to  which  it  belongs ;  is  about  40  miles  long  and  17  miles  broad 
(see  map  of  China,  ref.  .5-L).  A  mountain  range  traverses  its 
entire  length,  culminating  in  the  center  in  the  Auckland 
(Halla  San)  peak,  6.500  feet  high.  The  natives  follow  both 
agriculture  and  fishing  with  much  success.  The  chief  towns 
are  Chu  Song  (pop.  20,000),  Chong-Hai,  and  Tai-Chong  (pop. 
5,000  each).     Pop.  of  island  about  50,000.  C.  C.  A. 

Qiiemada :  See  Mexican  Antiquities. 

Querela,  kwiir'chi-aa,  Jacopo,  delta :  sculptor ;  b.  at 
Querela,  in  the  Sienese  district,  Italy,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  pro- 
duced an  equestrian  statue  of  Giovanni  d'Azzo  Ubaldini, 
composed  of  stucco  and  w^ood,  materials  which  had  never 
before  been  so  employed.  After  having  executed  some 
marble  statues  of  prophets  for  the  cathedral  facade,  and 
some  wood-carving  of  great  merit,  Jacopo  went  to  Ijucca, 
where,  in  the  Church  of  San  Martino,  he  made  the  monu- 
ment to  Ilaria  del  Carreto.  the  wife  of  Paolo  Guinigi.  In 
Bologna,  under  the  patronage  of  Giovanni  Bentivoglio,  he 
executed  the  principal  door  of  San  Petronio.  When  he  re- 
turned to  Siena  the  Signoria  commissioned  him  to  make  a 
fountain  to  adorn  the  piazza.  This,  his  principal  work,  led 
to  his  being  called  Jacopo  del  Fonte;  the  Signoria  bestowed 
knighthood  on  him  and  the  office  of  chief  of  the  works  of 
the  cathedral.  Three  years  later  he  died  at  Pisa  at  the  age 
of  sixty-four.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Quer'eitron  Bark  [quercitron  is  irreg.  <  Lat.  quercus, 
an  oak  +  citrus,  a  tree  of  the  lemon  kind] :  a  valuable  dye- 
stuff  obtained  from  the  Black  Oak  ((/.  v.).  The  bark  con- 
tains a  glucoside.  quercitrin  (C38438O20  +  SH^O),  which  is  de- 
composed by  dilute  acids,  yielding  a  yellow  dye,  quercetin, 
and  a  variety  of  sugar  known  as  isodulcite.  Flavine  is  a 
concentrated  product  ]irepared  by  treating  the  bark  with 
sulphuric  acid.     See  Dvestufks.  I.  R. 

Queres :  See  Pueblo  Indians. 

Queretaro.  ka-ra'-ta"i-r5  :  an  interior  state  of  Mexico,  be- 
tween San  Luis  Potosi,  Hidalgo,  Mexico,  Michoacan,  and 
Guanajuato ;  area,  3.938  sq.  miles.  It  lies  entirely  in  the 
region  of  the  high  plateau,  but  the  surface  is  mountainous, 
especially  in  the  northern  part.  The  valleys  are  very  fer- 
tile, and  the  higher  slopes  are  covered  with  pine  and  oak 
forests ;  the  climate  is  temperate  and  healthful.  Deposits 
of  gold,  silver,  lead,  etc.,  have  been  worked  with  profit,  es- 
pecially during  the  colonial  period  ;  but  most  of  them  are  now 
abandoned.  Agriculture  and  stock-raising  are  the  most 
imiiortant  industries  ;  the  chief  crops  are  maize,  beans,  and 
maguey  on  the  higher  lands,  and  sugar-cane  in  the  warm 
valleys.  Manufactures,  especially  of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  are  important.  Pop.  (1893)  estimated,  211,475,  the 
Indian  element  being  largely  represented,  II.  H.  S. 

Queretaro  :  city  ;  capital  of  the  state  of  the  same  name  ; 
on  a  fine  plain,  surrounded  by  wooded  hills;  5,904  feet 
above  the  sea :  152  miles  by  the  Mexican  Central  Railway 
N.  W.  of  Mexico  city  (see  map  of  Mexico,  ref.  7-G).  It 
presents  a  very  pleasing  appearance,  owing  to  tlie  numerous 
gardens  and  lines  of  trees  with  which  it  is  ornamented,  and 
its  handsome  and  substantial  buildings.  The  Church  of 
Santa  Clai-a  is  noted  for  its  cxciuisite  wood-carvings.  A 
fine  aqueduct,  dating  from  the  eigliteenth  century,  supplies 
the  city  with  water.  Queretaro  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant manul'iicturing  centers  of  the  republic,  and  contains 
the  largest  mills,  principally  devoted  to  the  making  of  cot- 
tonades.  The  Hercules  mill  employs  2,000  workmen,  and  is 
remarkable  for  being  fortified  and  for  maintaining  a  small 
armed  force,  which  has  more  than  once  defended  it  success- 
fully during  revolutionary  outbreaks.  The  town  was 
founded  by  Chichimec  Indians  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  1531-51.  In  1867  Maxi- 
milian made  his  last  stand  here ;  the  city  was  taken  after  a 
bloody  siege,  and  the  ex-emperor  was  shot  on  a  hill  near  it. 
Pop.  (1892)  about  36,000.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 


QLEKN 


QUICKSAND 


885 


Qiiorii  [O.  Kiifc.  nivnni  :  M.  H.  Germ,  kiini  :  O.  X.  kreni  : 
Goth,  qairnu.t,  raillj :  the  ohl-fashiom-d  huiul-niill  for  !,'i-iii(l- 
iiiff  grain,  in  use  in  Asia  at  the  present  liay,  as  well  as  in  the 
Uebrides,  in  Irelaiul,  ami  in  various  remote  places.  The 
quern  is  made  of  two  sloni's.  after  the  manner  of  millstones, 
or  it  is  a  ruile  mortar  of  wood  or  stone.  Remains  of  (jucrns 
belonginj,'  to  ]irehistoric  peoples  have  been  dug  up  in  many 
places  in  Europe. 

Unesada.  k«-saa'-daa,  Goxz.\lo  Ximknkz,  de :  conqueror 
of  New  (Tranada:  b.  at  Granada,  Spain,' 14il8.  lie  was  a 
lawyer  of  good  family,  and  Pedro  Fernandez,  de  Lugo,  who 
became  governor  of  Santa  Marta  in  133.5,  made  him  his 
chief  lieutenant.  The  settlement  of  Santa  Marta  had  been 
recently  fouiide.l,  and  its  jurisdiction  embraced  the  present 
northei'n  coast  of  Colombia,  with  an  undefined  extension 
southward,  including  the  unexplored  river  Jlagdaleiia. 
yuesada  was  given  command  of  an  ex|)edition  to  llie  in- 
terior in  Lugo's  interests;  he  left  Santa  .Marta  Ajir.  o,  1,586. 
with  (J20  infantry,  85  cavalry,  and  nuiny  Indians.  The 
route  southward  fay  over  mountains  and  then  tlirinigli  vast 
swamps,  where  the  Spaniards  suffered  terribly  from  famine, 
fevers,  and  hostile  Indians.  At  Tainalamcque,  on  tlie  Jlag- 
dalena,  the  survivors  met  vessels  which  Lugo  had  sent  t  hem ; 
they  then  ascended  the  river  to  Tora,  near  the  junction  of 
the  Sogamosji,  where  they  arrived  about  Jan.,  15;i7,  and 
passed  the  rainy  season.  In  exploring  the  mountains  to  the 
E.  they  heard  of  the  rich  kingdom  of  the  Chibchas  of  Bogo- 
ta;  and  though  the  force  was  reduced  to  1G6  men  (including 
63  horsemen),  it  wjis  determined  to  attack  this  powerful  na- 
tion. At  I{arl)acoas  Quesada  (imitating  Cortes)  resigned  his 
command,  and  Inid  himself  elected  governor  of  tlie  new  con- 
quests by  the  soldiers;  in  this  way  he  threw  off  allegiance 
to  Lugo."  In  the  liattles  which  ensued  the  Indians  fled,  ter- 
rified by  the  horses.  The  Spaniards  occupied  Bogota,  where 
they  were  besieged  for  a  month,  but  gradually  the  neigh- 
boring tribes  maile  peace  with  them.  The  zijxi,  or  king  of 
the  Chibchas,  who  held  out,  was  killed  in  battle:  a  usurping 
zipa  who  succeeded  him  swore  allegiance  to  the  King  of 
S[iain,  but  was  subsequently  tortured  and  killed.  By  raids 
and  barter  the  Spaniards  secured  a  large  anuiunt  of  gold 
and  emeralds.  The  Spanish  city  of  Santa  Fe  de  BogotA  was 
founded  Aug.  6,  1588.  Soon  after  Benalcazar  and  Feuer- 
MANN  (q.  V.)  joined  Quesada,  having  fought  their  way  re- 
spectively from  Peru  and  Venezuela.  The  three  chiefs  went 
to  Spain  together  to  present  their  claims  to  Charles  V. 
Meanwhile  Lugo  had  died,  but  his  sou  claimed  the  eon- 
quest.  Quesada  offended  the  emperor  by  unseemly  ostenta- 
tion, and  was  tlismissed.  For  many  years  he  led  a  dissolute 
life  in  various  countries  of  f^urope,  until  he  had  squandered 
the  treasure  brought  from  Bogota.  He  then  renounced  all 
claim  to  the  governorship,  and,  in  consideration  of  his  serv- 
ices, was  made  marshal  of  Xew  Granada  and  given  a  large 
encomienda  of  Indians  (1.549).  Re  took  some  part  in  subse- 
quent conquests,  and  is  said  to  have  died,  at  a  great  age,  of 
leprosy.  An  account  of  the  concpu'st  which  he  wrote  has 
been  lost,  but  it  was  used  by  Piedrahita.  —  His  brother, 
Hernan  Perez  de  t^CESADA,  was  left  as  governor  of  Bogota 
in  1588,  and  hmg  held  the  district  against  the  agents  of 
Lugo.  In  1543  he  made  an  expedition  in  search  of  El 
Dorado,  was  arrested  and  banished  on  his  return,  and  per- 
ished in  a  shipwreck,  1;54.5.  His  remains  were  buried  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Bogota.  Herbert  H.  S.mith. 

(Jliesnay,  k« Ha  ,  Fran(;ois  :  one  of  the  most  nottrd  econ- 
omists of  the  eighteenth  century;  b.  ai.  Merey,  department 
of  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  .Tune  4,  1694 ;  studied  medicine  at 
Paris,  and  was  apjiointed  first  physician  to  Louis  .\'\'.  I), 
at  Versailles,  Dec.  16,  1774.  He  is  now  chiefly  known  as 
the  founder  of  the  physiocratic  school  of  political  economy, 
and  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  term  political  econo- 
my. He  developed  his  views  partly  in  articles  in  the  Enry- 
clopedie,  partly  in  his  Tableau  economique  (1758),  ami  other 
writings,  which  were  published  in  a  collected  edition  in 
1768  under  the  title  of  La  I'lijisiocratie.  ou  ConMitiition 
naliirelli;  ilii  (rniireniement  It  plus  avantaijeux  au  Peuple. 
See  Political  Eco.nomy. 

Qnesnel,  kd  nel',  Pasquier  :  theologian  ;  b.  at  Paris,  July 
14,16^54;  studied  theology  at  the  Sorbonne  ;  entered  in  1657 
the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory:  became  director  of  the 
Paris  house  of  the  order  in  1662,  and  jiropared  his  famous 
lieflexinns  mnrahs  sur  h  Nouveau  Tistauie^it,  ftir  the  use  of 
the  young  men  under  his  charge.  He  edited  the  works  of 
Leo  I.  the  (ireat  (Paris.  1675.  rep.  in  Migne's  l'<(t.  fjal.).  and 
took  occasion   to  defend  the  Galilean   liberties.     Compelled 


to  flee  in  consequence  in  168.5.  he  repaired  to  Brussels, 
where  he  joined  Arnauld.  aiul  finished  the  Reflexions.  \i\\K\\ 
was  translated  into  English  (London,  1719-25,  4  vols.,  and 
the  part  on  the  Gospels,  n.  e..  New  York,  IH67).  The 
book  was  at  first  considered  harmless  l)y  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic authorities,  but  soon  it  wsls  discovered  that  it  really 
contained  all  the  most  obnoxious  doct  rines  of  the  Jansen- 
ists.  A  hot  controversy  arose,  and  the  author  was  de- 
nounced to  the  Spanish  police  in  Brussels,  and  his  book  was 
condemned  by  the  poi)e  in  the  bull  i'nigenitus,  1718.  He 
lied  to  Amsterdam,  where  he  at'terwanl  lived  in  retirement. 
1).  in  Amsterdam.  Dec.  2,  1719.  He  was  a  very  prolific 
writer,  both  on  moral  and  historical  subjects.  His  letters 
were  edited  bv  Le  Courayer,  Paris,  1721-28,  3  vols. 

Revised  by  S.  M.  Jackson. 

Qufitelet,  ket-la'.  Lambert  Adolphe  Jacques  :  a.strono- 
mer  and  statistician;  b.  at  Ghent,  Feb.  22,  1796;  was  ap- 
pointed a  professor  of  mathematics  in  1814  in  his  native 
city  and  in  Brussels  in  1819 ;  superintended  the  erection  of 
the  observatory  of  that  city  in  1836,  and  was  its  director  to  his 
death  Feb.  17,"  1874.  His"  writings  on  physical  science — Po- 
sitions de  Physique  (1884).  Jleteoroloyie  de  la  Belgique 
(1864),  Sur  la  Physique  du  Globe  (1861),  etc.— are  valuable, 
but  it  is  his  statistical  works — Sur  I'lloinme,  ei  le  Bereloppe- 
ment  de  ses  Facultes  (1835),  Sur  la  Theorie  des  Probabilites 
appliquees  aux  Sciences  morales  et  politiques  (1846).  Du 
Systeme  social  ei  des  Lois  qui  le  reyissent  (1848) — which 
have  procured  for  him  a  wide  reputation. 

(JueTedo.ka-Tad5.JosEllERiBERToGARriA.de:  poet;  b. 
at  Coro,  Venezuela,  in  1819 ;  d.  in  Paris,  June  6,  1871,  in 
consequence  of  a  bullet  received  in  passing  a  barricade  of 
the  Commune.  From  the  age  of  six  he  was  eiiucated  in 
Puerto  Rico,  and  later  in  France  and  Spain.  He  traveled 
extensively  in  Asia  and  America,  but  later  became  a  Spanish 
citizen,  and  served  first  in  the  Royal  Guards  and  then  in  the 
diplomatic  corps.  His  poetical  reputation  was  decidedly 
ephemeral.  Among  his  Odas  a  JUilia  (1849),  which  show 
imitation  of  Pilicaia  and  Manzoni,  are  bits  of  genuine  poet- 
ic eloquence ;  but  his  long  philosoi)hical  poems — Delirium, 
La  Segunda  Vida,  El  Proscripto — written  in  a  great  vari- 
ety of  meters,  are  turgid,  vague,  and  confused  to  the  last  de- 
gree. He  wrote  also  numerous  dramatic  pieces, and  essayed 
the  prose  tale  and  the  critical  essay,  but  without  permanent 
success.  His  Obras  poeticas  y  lilerarias  are  collected  in 
two  volumes  (Paris,  1868).  A.  R.  Marsh. 

Qiiezalteiiaiigo,  ka-sa'al-to-naan  go  :  a  town  of  Guate- 
nuda.  96  miles  \V.  X.  \V.  of  Guatemala  city  and  35  miles 
N.  E.  from  its  port  of  Champerico;  on  the  Pacific,  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Cerro  Quemado  volcano,  7,700  feet 
above  the  sea  (see  map  of  Central  America,  ref.  4-D).  It  is 
the  second  city  in  the  republic  in  size  and  importance,  is  the 
center  of  a  rich  agricultural  district,  the  metropolis  of  the 
western  departments,  and  exports  colTi'C  and  a  little  sugar. 
There  are  several  good  schools  and  lyceums  and  handsome 
churches.  The  climate  is  heahhful, 'though  somewhat  cold 
and  damp  in  winter.  Quezaltenango  was  an  Indian  town 
before  the  conquest,  and  the  Indian  element  still  predomi- 
nates. Pop.  about  24.000.  It  is  the  capital  of  a  depart- 
ment of  the  same  name,  which  has  an  area,  of  957  sq.  miles 
and  a  population  of  104,800.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Quich6  Indians ;  See  Indians  ok  Central  America. 

Qiiiehna  Indians :  the  Kcchuan  or  Inca  nation.  See 
Indians  of  Soutu  America. 

Quicksand :  a  sand  which  yields  so  readily  that  any  heavy 
body  placed  upon  it  graduall'y  sinks.  Quicksands  occur  on 
beaches,  in  bars  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  in  the  beds  of 
streams,  and  are  interbedded  with  formations  on  the  land. 
Their  unstable  character  renders  them  unfit  for  foundations 
and  dangerous  to  men  and  animals  which  attempt  to  walk 
across  them.  Ordinary  dry  sand  is  compacted  by  pressure, 
and  though  moving  solnew'hat  when  pressure  is  first  applied, 
quickly  becomes  firm.  A  sand  that  is  slightly  moist  has  the 
same  properties:  but  if  water  is  present  in  such  ([uantity  as 
not  merely  to  fill  the  intc-rslitial  spaces  but  to  hold  the 
grains  apart,  friition  is  largely  overcome  and  the  mass  yields 
to  pressure.  This  condition  "often  obtains  when  a  current 
of  water  moves  horizontally  through  the  sand,  and  always 
when  the  direction  is  upward.  As  the  pressiire  of  parti- 
cles upon  one  another  is  influenced  also  by  their  size,  a  fine 
sand  becomes  quick  more  readily  than  a  coarse  one,  and  a 
strong  movement  of  water  is  necessary  to  render  a  g™^'!"' 
insecure.     The  principle  of  the  (juicksanil  is  utilized  in  the 


886 


QUICKSILVER 


QUINCY 


engineering  process  known  as  '•  water-jet  pile-driring."  A 
hose  or  other  pipe  is  attached  to  a  pile  so  as  to  discharge 
water  near  its  lower  end.  The  pile  is  then  placed  in  posi- 
tion, resting  npon  the  sand  to  be  penetrated,  and  a  stream 
of  water  forced  through  the  pipe.  The  water  loosens  the 
sand,  and,  rising  through  it,  keeps  it  in  a  quick  condition  so 
that  the  pile  is  carried  downward  by  its  o\Tn  weight.  The 
pipe  is  then  withdrawn,  and  if  tlie  sand  is  not  disturbed  by 
a  natural  water  movement,  it  soon  becomes  compacted  and 
holds  the  pile  firmly.     See  Foundatiox.     G.  K.  Gilbert. 

Quicksilver :  See  Mercury. 

Quietism  :  a  peculiar  movement  within  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  which  originated  from  the  celebrated  devotional 
work  of  the  Spanisli  priest  Molinos,  Guida  Spirituale  (1675). 
Quietism  makes  perfection  on  earth  consist  in  uninterrupted 
contemplation,  during  which  the  soul  remains  passive  or 
quiet,  under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  does 
not  bestir  itself  enough  even  to  make  acts  of  faith,  hope,  and 
charity,  to  desire  heaven,  to  hate  hell,  or  positively  to  resist 
temptation.  In  opposition  to  the  worldly  tendencies  of  the 
regular  orders,  the  .Jesuits  and  Dominicans,  and  to  the  exter- 
nal character  of  the  Roman  Catholic  worship,  quietism  pre- 
sents a  somewhat  mystical  appearance.  It  is  a  sentiment, 
not  a  doctrine.  It  founded  no  sect,  though  it  met  with 
much  sympathy  outside  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  es- 
pecially among  the  Pietists.  In  spite  of  its  peaceable  char- 
acter, it  awakened,  nevertheless,  the  enmity  of  other  parties, 
and  was  even  exposed  to  persecution.  Some  of  its  disciples 
— as,  for  instance,  Madame  Bouvier  de  la  Mothe  Guyon — 
described  their  devotional  feelings  and  exercises  in  a  pecul- 
iar manner,  which  could  not  fail  to  call  forth  severe  cen- 
sure, and  even  caused  the  police  to  interfere.  Moreover,  the 
emphasis  which  the  Quietists  laid  on  the  inner  state  of  the 
soul  made  the  ceremonies  and  rules  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
worship  seem  somewhat  superfluous,  and  provoked  the  rigid 
churchmen.  Bossuet  attacked  Penelon,  their  most  con.spicu- 
ous  spokesman,  who  immediately  submitted  to  the  decision 
of  the  pope.  The  movement  died  out  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.    See  Molinos,  Miguel. 

Revised  by  J.  J.  Keane. 

Qullimane,  kee-lee-maa'na :  port  of  the  Portuguese  prov- 
ince of  Mozambique,  East  Africa:  in  a  swampy,  unhealthtul 
district,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Quaqua  river  (see  map  of  Africa, 
ref.  8-G).  Tliis  river  was  used  by  commerce  to  attain  tlie 
Zambesi  river  above  the  delta,  befisre  the  discovery  (1889)  of 
the  Chinde  branch  of  the  delta,  where  ocean  vessels  may 
meet  river  craft.  The  town  was  founded  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  but  has  never  attained  large  importance  owing  to 
its  insalubrity,  difficulty  of  access,  and  Portugal's  onerous 
restrictions  on  commerce.  Its  trade  was  formerly  in  ivory 
and  slaves,  thou.sands  of  whom  were  sent  to  Brazil.  Ivory 
and  the  British  interests  in  Nvassaland  give  it  a  trade  of 
about  i;1.000.000  a  year.  "  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Quillota,  kt'el-yo'ta'a :  a  town  of  the  province  of  Valpa- 
raiso, Chili;  on  tlie  river  Aconcagua;  a  station  on  the  rail- 
way from  Valparaiso  to  Santiago  (see  map  of  South  Amer- 
ica, ref.  8-C).  It  dates  from  before  the  conquest,  and  was 
formerly  celebrated  for  gold-washings.  Copper  is  mined  in 
the  vicinity.     Pop.  about  12,000.  H.  H.  S. 

Quills:  the  shafts  of  the  large  wing-feathers  of  birds. 
They  were  formerly  the  almost  exclusive  material  from 
which  pens  were  made,  and  there  is  still  considerable  com- 
merce in  them.  Quills  are  obtained  chiefly  from  geese,  but 
also  from  swans,  turkeys,  and  other  birds.  Crow-quills  are 
valuable  in  some  kinils  of  drawing.  The  so-called  quills 
(spines)  of  the  European  porcupine  have  considerable  com- 
mercial value.  Quills  are  also  used  for  making  toothpicks, 
and  for  various  other  purposes.     See  Feathers. 

Quillworts:  See  Fernworts  (class  Lycopodince,  order 
Isoetaeeie). 

Qniloa,  kee'lo-aa,  or  Kilwa :  a  port  of  German  East  Africa, 
about  170  miles  S.  of  Zanzibar;  founded  bv  the  Arabs  in 
the  tenth  century;  occupied  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  six- 
teenth century ;  surrenilcrrd  in  the  seventeenth  century  to 
Arabs  of  Muscat,  who  settled  in  Zanzibar;  acquired  in  1888 
by  Germany  from  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar:  chief  town  of  the 
administrative  district  of  Kihva(.see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  7-G). 
It  has  a  fair  harbor,  and  is  the  center  of  considerable  trade, 
and  was  long  famous  as  a  sliippiiig-pnint  in  the  slave-trade. 
It  is  a  regular  port  of  call  for  (in-man  E.ist  African  steam- 
ers. Pop.  about  7,000.  An  ishuicl  of  the  same  name  lies  a 
little  S.  C.  C.  AuAMS. 


Quinault,  ke'e'no',  Philippe:  dramatist;  b.  in  Paris, 
France,  June  3,  163.5.  He  studied  law,  but  at  eighteen  ap- 
peared as  a  dramatic  author.  From  1653  to  1666  he  pro- 
duced sixteen  comedies,  tragi-comedies,  and  tragedies,  which 
had  considerable  influence,  though  scathingly  criticised  by 
Boileau.  His  comedies — the  best  of  which  is  La  Mere  co- 
quette (1665) — are  comedies  of  plot  and  situation :  and  his 
tragedies  (for  example.  La  Mort  de  Cyrus,  1656 ;  A  »i  olasonte, 
1658 ;  Astrate,  1663)  are  marked  by  excess  of  tender  senti- 
ment. His  greatest  originality  was  shown  in  the  fourteen 
operas  which  he  wrote  for  the  composer  Lulli,  and  they  also 
had  the  greatest  success.  He  was  chosen  to  the  Academy  in 
1670.  I).  Nov.  36,  1688.  Editions  of  his  works:  Theatre  (5 
vols.,  Paris,  1739) ;  (Euvres  e/wisies  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1842) :  The- 
atre choisi,  ed.  by  V.  Fournel  (Paris,  1880).   A.  G.  Canfield. 

Quince  [apparently  a  plur.  form  taken  as  singular  <  Mod. 
Eng.  quyne,  com,  from  0.  Fr.  coin  >  Fr.  cohtg  <  Lat.  Cydo- 
nium  (sc.  malum,  apple),  Cydonian  apple,  ([uince,  from  Gr. 
KuSoi^fa,  Cydonia,  a  city  of  Crete] :  a  small  tree  (Pynis  cy- 
doiiiii  or  Cydonia  I'ulgaris)  of  the  Rose  family;  native  to 
Western  Asia,  and  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
fruit  (also  called  quince)  is  usually  somewhat  pear-shaped, 
yellow  when  ripe,  and  clothed  with  a  floccose  wool.  The  five 
cells  are  normally  many-seeded,  thus  differing  from  other 
fruits  of  the  genus  Pynis.  as  the  apple  and  pear.  It  has  no 
true  peduncle  or  stem,  but  the  flowers  expand  directly  from 
the  terminal  bud  of  small  shoots  of  the  season.  As  these 
shoots  must  grow  before  the  flowers  appear,  the  blooming-sea- 
son of  the  quince  is  two  or  three  weeks  laterthan  that  of  most 
of  her  fruit-trees.  The  large  fruits,  therefore,  always  terminate 
the  branches,  and  they  are  directly  subtended  by  the  leaves. 
It  is  this  habit  of  bearing  flowers  and  fruit  upon  the  ends 
of  the  twigs  which  makes  a  quince-orchard  in  bloom  or  in 
crop  one  of  the  most  shovry  of  all  fruit-plantations.  Quinces 
require  a  rather  moist  loamy  soil.  It  is  customary  to  plant 
them  from  12  to  16  feet  apart  each  way,  and  to  allow  the 
branches  to  start  a  foot  or  so  above  the  ground.  The  lead- 
ing variety  in  the  U.  S.  is  the  Apple  or  Orange,  and  this 
generally  reproduces  itself  very  closely  from  seed.  Other 
popular  varieties  are  Rea,  Champion,  Meech,  and  Missouri 
Mammoth.  The  Angers  quince  is  grown  almost  wholly  as 
a  stock  upon  which  to  graft  or  bud  the  pear  to  uuike  it  dwarf. 
(See  Pear.)  The  quince  is  chiefly  propagated  by  means  of 
hardwood  cuttings,  but  it  is  sometimes  grafted"  upon  the 
aii])le-root,  the  latter  serving  only  as  a  temporary  nurse 
until  the  quince  forms  roots  from  its  own  tissue.  The  chief 
quince-growing  region  of  the  U.  S.  is  Western  New  York. 

The  Chinese  quince  is  Pyrus  cathayetisis.  The  fruit  is 
much  larger  than  that  of  the  common  quince,  and  wholly  un- 
like it.  The  tree  is  not  hardy  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
U.  S.,  and  the  species  is  not  generally  esteemed.  The  flow- 
ering or  Japanese  quince  (P.  japonica)  is  a  popular  low 
thorny  tree  or  bush,  planted  for  hedges  and  ornament.  Its 
fruits  are  occasionally  used  for  jellies.  L.  H.  Bailey. 

Quincy :  city  (settled  in  1822,  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1839) ;  capital  of  Adams  co..  111. ;  on  the  Mississippi  river 
and  the  Burlington  Route,  the  Quincy,  Omaha  and  Kan. 
City,  and  the  Wabash  railways;  104  miles  W.  of  Spring- 
field, 264  miles  S.  of  Chicago  (for  location,  see  map  of  Illi- 
nois, ref.  6-B).  It  is  built  on  a  limestone  bluff.  120  feet 
above  the  river,  and  is  laid  out  regularly,  with  N.  and  S. 
streets  3  miles  long  and  E.  and  W.  streets  2|  miles  long. 
The  city  is  lighted  with  electricity,  is  supplied  with  water 
from  the  channel  of  the  river  by  means  of  a  I'eservoir  230 
feet  afiove  tide-water,  and  is  well  drained.  There  are  several 
lines  of  electric  street-railway,  a  fine  railway  bridge  across 
the  river,  and  four  public  parks.  The  notable  buildings  in- 
clude the  court-house,  cost  §300,000;  U.  S.  Government 
building,  cost  $250,000:  new  city-hall,  cost  over  $100,000; 
and  the  group,  on  the  cottage  plan,  comprising  the  State 
Soldiers"  and  Sailors'  Home.  There  are  33  churches,  10  pub- 
lic-school buildings,  public-school  property  valued  at  over 
$210,000,  Chaddock  College  (Methodist  Episcopal,  chartered 
1876),  St.  Francis  .Solanus  College  (Roman  Catholic,  opened 
1860),  3  liliraries  (Free  Public  and  two  college)  containing 
over  14.000  volumes,  3  national  banks  with  coml)ined  capital 
of  $550,000,  a  State  bank  with  capital  of  $300,000,  a  jirivate 
bank,  and  a  monthly,  4  daily,  and  10  weekly  periodicals. 
Quincy  is  a  manufacturing  city,  with  excellent  shipping 
facilities  liy  rail  and  water.  The  census  returns  of  1890 
showed  that  374  manufacturing  establishments  (represent- 
ing 76  iiulustries)  reported.  These  had  a  combined  capital 
of  $6,187,84.5,  employed  5,058  persons,  paid  $3,383,571  fur 


QUIXCY 


QUIXIXE 


887 


wages  and  $5,597,990  for  materials,  and  had  products 
valued  at  |;l0.1t)0,4!)2.  Tliure  were  16  foundries  and  nia- 
chine-sliops,  10  cairiniie  and  wagon  factories, 5  agrieultuial- 
im|)lL-Mient  works,  and  numerous  cigar  and  tobacco  factories, 
flour  and  grist  mills,  breweries,  briclf-yards.  lime-works,  sad- 
dle and  harness  factories,  artiticial-icc  factories,  and  organ- 
works.  The  assessol  valuations  in  189:5  were,  real,  $4,427,- 
565;  personal,  $1,410,774— total,  $5,a3«.:M9;  and  the  net 
debt  in  Feb.,  1«94,  was  $1,482,200.  Pop.  (1880)  27,268; 
(1890)  31,494  ;  (1894)  estimated,  34,000. 

Quiiioy :  city  (settled  in  1625,  set  off  from  Braintree  as  a 
town  in  1792,  incorporated  as  a  cilv  in  1^<SS);  Norfolk  co., 
Mass.;  on  the  Quincy  river  and  bay,  and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H. 
and  Hart.  Hailroad  :  8  miles  S.  of  Boston  (for  location,  see 
map  of  Massachusetts,  ref.  5-1).  The  city  is  noted  for  its 
extensive  granite-quarries  and  large  shoe-manufactories ; 
also  as  a  terminus  of  the  first  railway  built  in  the  U.  S.  (for 
transporting  blocks  of  granite  from  the  quarries  to  the  site 
of  the  Bunker  IJill  .Monument).  It  contains  8  public-school 
buildings,  [lublic  high-school  building  (completed  in  1894, 
cost  $60.00t)).  2  national  banlvs,  with  combined  capital  of 
$300,000,  a  savings-bank  with  de|)0sits  of  over  $1,750,000, 
Merry  jMount  and  Faxon  parks  (b('sides  playgrounds  of 
more  than  6  acres  each  in  five  wards  of  the  city,  secured  at  a 
cost  of  $40,000),  the  Adams  Academy  (founded  in  1823, 
opened  for  pupils  in  1872),  the  Thomas  Crane  Public  Li- 
brary (founded  in  1871)  containing  over  17,000  volumes, 
and  a  daily,  a  monthly,  and  2  weekly  periodicals.  The  as- 
sessed valuations  in  i893  aggregated  $16,338,070,  and  the 
total  debt  in  Mar.,  1894,  was  $1,103,730,  including  a  water- 
debt  of  $714,000.  Quincy  was  the  birthplace  of  John  Han- 
cock, .John  Adams,  and  .John  (juincy  Adams.  Pop.  (1880)  10,- 
570 ;  (1890)  16,723 ;  (1895)  20,712.  C.  H.  Porter. 

Quincy,  Edmcxd:  author;  sonof  President  Josiah Quincy; 
b.  in  Boston,  Mass..  Feb.  1, 1808 ;  graduated  at  Harvard  1827 ; 
was  prominent  as  secretary  of  the  American  and  the  Massa- 
chusetts anti-slavery  societies;  contributed  to  magazines :  was 
author  of  Wensley,  a  iSlori/  without  a  Mural  (1854),  and  of 
a  Life  of  Jofsiah  Qnincy  (1867),  and  editor  of  the  Speeches 
of  Josiah  Quincy  (1875).  ]).  at  Dedham,  Mass.,  May  17, 
1877.  The  Haunted  Adjutant,  and  other  Stories  was  issued 
in  1885.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Qilinoy..JosiAH.  .Ir. :  lawyer;  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  23, 
1744  ;  son  of  .Josiah  Quincy  (1709-84),a  merchant ;  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1763, and  became  an  eminent  lawyer. 
He  had  already  by  his  writings  and  speeches  obtained  prom- 
inence as  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  cause  of  liberty  when 
called  upim,  in  conjunction  with  .John  Adams,  to  defend  the 
soldiers  implicated  in  the  Boston  Massacre.  Although  suc- 
cessful in  securing  the  acquittal  of  their  clients,  popular 
feeling  ran  so  high  that,  notwithstanding  their  established 
reputation  for  patriotism,  they  incurred  much  odium  by 
their  connection  with  the  defense.  In  1774  he  went  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  active  in  promoting  the  interests  of  his 
country.  D.  on  the  return  voyage,  off  (iloucesler,  Mass., 
Apr.  26, 1775.  In  1774  he  publislied  his  Observations  on  the 
Act  of  Parliament,  commonly  called  the  Port  Bill.  See 
Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Josiah  Quincy,  Jr.,  by  his  Son  (Boston, 
1825;  3d"ed.  1875). 

Quincy,  .Josi.\n,IjL.D.:  statesman;  son  of  .Josiah  Quincy, 
lawyer ;  h.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  4, 1772 ;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard University  1790;  studied  law  with  Judge  Tudor,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  liar  in  1793;  member  of  the  .State  Sen- 
ate in  1804.  anil  member  of  Congress  1805-13,  during  which 
time  he  opposed  the  embargo  law  and  the  war  with  Great 
Britain;  again  State  .Senator  1813-21;  member  of  Slate 
Legislature  1831-23.  and  Speaker  of  that  body  during  his 
last  term;  appointed  judge  of  the  municipal  court  in  1822, 
but  resigned  the  following  year,  having  been  elected  mayor 
of  Boston  on  the  decease  of  the  Hon.  John  Phillips,  the  first 
incumbent;  continued  in  otVice  until  182!l.  during  which 
time  many  public  improvcnu'Uts  were  carried  out;  was  [)resi- 
dcnt  of  Harvard  University  from  1829  until  Aug.,  1845. 
Among  his  published  works  are  Centennial  Address  on  the 
200th  Anniversary  of  Boston  (1830) ;  JIi.ttory  of  Harvard 
University  (2  vols.,  'Boston,  1840);  History  of  the  Boston 
Athe.MEum.  of  which  he  was  president  1820-30 ("Boston.  1851), 
and  Municipal  History  of  Boston  (Boston,  1852);  Memoir 
of  John  Quincy  Adams  (Boston,  1858).  Speeches  in  Con- 
gress and  Orations  have  also  been  pul)lished,  besides  numer- 
ous Memoirs,  including  one  of  his  father  (182.5).  D.  at 
Quincy,  .Mass..  July  1.  1864.  See  the  biography  by  his  son. 
Edmund  (Boston,  1867). 


Qnincj,  QuATREMfeRE,  de  :  See  Quatrem^se  de  Quinxy. 

Quinet,  kt'e'na',  Edgar  ;  author ;  b.  at  Bourg,  Ain,  France, 
Feb.  17,  1803.  He  studied  at  Paris,  (leneva,  Strassburg,  and 
Heidelberg.  He  was  profoundly  influenced  by  German 
thought,  and  u[>on  his  return  published  a  translation  of 
Herder's  Jdeen  >ur  Phitosophie  der  Ueschichte  der  Mensch- 
heit  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1827).  In  182!i-30  he  was  a  member  of 
a  scientific  expedition  to  Morea ;  contriluited  from  1831  to 
1839  to  the  lievue  des  Deux  Mondes  essays  jirincipally  on 
foreign  life  and  thought ;  was  made  Professor  of  Foreign 
Literature  at  Lyons  in  1839,  and  of  the  Languages  and 
Literatures  of  Southern  ICurope  at  the  College  dc  France  in 
1842.  His  political  utterances,  ardently  liberal  and  anti- 
clerical, led  to  his  removal  in  1846.  He  then  traveled  in 
Spain,  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  was  a  member 
of  the  Constituent  and  Legislative  assemblies,  was  banislied 
in  1852  after  the  coup  d'etat,  lived  in  Holland  and  Switzer- 
land, returned  at  the  fall  of  the  empire,  and  was  deputy  in 
the  Xational  Assembly  in  1870.  1).  at  Versailles,  Mar.  27, 
1875.  He  wrote  vast  philo.sophical  epics  dealing  with  the 
history  of  humanity  (Ahasvi-rus,  1833;  Napoleon,  1836; 
Promethee.  1838),  remarkalile  for  loftiness  of  conception 
and  striking  i<ieas,  but  lacking  measure  and  sobriety  ;  and 
a  large  number  of  works  of  eloquent  prose  dealing  with  his- 
tory, politics,  religion,  and  literature,  among  them  Le  Chris- 
tia7iisme  et  la  liivolution  Pran(;aise  (1846) ;  />«  Revolution 
(1865);  France  et  AUeniagne  (1867).  They  have  been  col- 
lected in  QCuvres  completes  (vols,  i.-x.,  1857-58;  vol.  xi., 
1870;  vols,  xii.-xxviii.,  1877-79);  to  them  must  be  ailded 
Le  Livre  de  l' Exile  (1875)  and  Letlres  d'Exil  (4  vols.,  1884- 
88).  A.  G.  Cakfield. 

Quinette  de  Eofliemont.  ke'e'net'de-rosh'mon',  li.MiLE 
TnEouoRE.  Baron:  civil  engineer;  b.  at  SoLssons,  Prance, 
Aug.  19, 1848 ;  educated  at  the  Polytechnic  School  and  at  the 
Ecole  de  Pouts  et  Chaussecs,  where  he  graduated  1859  ;  at- 
tached to  the  council  general  of  bridges  and  roads  1862; 
1863-79  resident  engineer  of  the  port  of  Havre  ;  engineer-in- 
chief  of  the  canal  from  the  Escaut  to  the  Meuse  1879 ;  eugi- 
neer-in-chief  of  the  port  of  Havre  1883  ;  inspector-general  of 
bridges  and  roads  at  the  ministry  of  public  works  1892  ;  and 
professor  at  the  ]6cole  de  Ponts  et  Chaussees  since  the  same 
year.  He  has  published  Memoire  sur  le  Clyde,  Glasgow, 
Port  Glasgoiv,  et  Greenock  (1869) ;  Note  sur  les  phares  elec- 
triijues  de  la  Here  (1870) ;  Regime  des  courants  et  des  marees 
a  I'embouchure  de  la  Seine  (1874);  Notice  sur  le  port  du 
Havre  (4to,  1875) ;  numerous  memoirs  and  notices  of  the 
port  of  Havre^l877  to  1889  ;  Note  sur  I'Escaut  haritime  et 
le  port  d' An  vers  (1878);  Note  sur  le  type  d'ecluse  pour  le 
Canal  de  I'Escaut  a,  la  Meuse  (1883) ;  Les  jiorts  maritimea 
de  la  Hollande  (1890) ;  Les  ports  Allemcinds  de  la  Baltiqiie 
(1891) ;  Les  ports  AUemands  de  la  mer  du  Nord  (1892) ;  Lea 
ports  de  la  Mersey  et  de  la  Clyde  (1892).     W.  R.  Uutton. 

Quinine,  ki-neen'  or  kwiriin  [=  Fr.,  from  Span,  quina, 
Peruvian  bark,  from  Peniv.  Icina.  bark] :  the  most  important 
medicinal  ingredient  of  cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark.  It  was 
discovered  in  yellow  or  calisaya  bark  in  1820  by  Pelletier 
and  Caventou.  It  exists  in  all  the  oflicial  barks,  but  is  most 
abundant  in  the  calisaya.  To  obtain  it,  it  is  first  extracted 
from  the  bark  as  a  suliihate  by  means  of  a  complex  process. 
By  treating  this  salt  with  the  solution  of  an  alkali,  the  qui- 
nine is  precipitated,  and  is  then  washed,  dried,  dissolved  in 
alcohol,  and  reobtained  by  slow  evaporation.  It  may  be 
amorpluius,  but  with  care  it  can  be  obtained  in  silky  crys- 
tals. C^uinine  is  an  alkaloid  with  strong  basic  properties, 
and  forms  with  acids  crystallizable  salts.  Its  formula  is 
CjoHaiXjOj.  It  is  without  smell,  but  has  an  intensely  l)itter 
taste ;  is  very  insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  frix'ly  in 
alcohol  and  moderately  in  ether.  Solutions  of  the  alkaloid 
or  its  salts,  treated  first  with  chlorine  water  and  then  am- 
monia, strike  a  brilliant  green  color.  This  test  is  very  deli- 
cate, and  distinguishes  quinine  from  all  other  vegetable 
alkalies  except  quinidia.  Quinine  is  used  in  medicine  prin- 
cipally in  the  form  of  sulphate  or  hydrochloride,  the  latter 
salt  having  the  advantage  of  being  more  soluble.  Quinine 
salts  are  locally  irritant,  and  internally  in  small  dose  are 
stomachic ;  in  large,  powerfully  disturbing  to  the  nervous 
system,  while  also  tending  to  cause  nausea  and  vomit.  In 
inedicinal  doses  the  most  prominent  symptoms  of  cinchon- 
ism  are  headache  aiul  deafness,  with  buzzing  or  roaring 
in  the  ears,  muscular  debility,  and  some  reduction  of  the 
force  and  frequency  of  the  |iulse.  In  poi.sonous  dose  the 
individual  may  become  completely  blin<l,  deaf,  and  para- 
lyzed, but  death  is  rare.     Quinine  sjilts  are  powerfully  anli- 


8S8 


yUIXISEXT  COUNCIL 


QUINTUS  SMYEX^US 


septic,  a  small  percentage  preventing  or  arresting  putrefac- 
tive and  fermentative  processes.  They  also,  in  small  per- 
centage, arrest  protoi^lasmic  movement,  as  in  white  blood- 
corpuscles,  bacteria,  etc.,  and  even  destroy  permanently  the 
vitality  of  the  organisms.  These  salts  are  used  in  medicine, 
especially  to  cure  malarial  affections  of  all  kinds,  over  which 
they  have  a  well-known  and  unequaled  power,  by  preventing 
activity  in  the  peculiar  micro-organisms  {Hamaiozoon  ma- 
laricB)  of  malarial  disease.  The  five  other  alkaloids  of  cin- 
chona bark — namely,  quininine  and  quinicine  and  cin- 
chonine.  cinchonidine  and  einchonicine — are  all  more  feeble 
than  quinine  in  power  and  are  rarely  used,  except  einchoni- 
dine.  Quinicine  and  einchonicine  are  both  artificial  alka- 
loids. Revised  by  H.  A.  Hare. 

Qninisext  Council  [Lat.  quinque,  five,  sextus,  sixth] : 
the  Oriental  Church  council  which  was  convened  in  692 
A.  D.  to  supplement  the  acts  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  (ecumen- 
ical councils.  It  is  called  also  the  Second  Tndlan  Council, 
because  it  was  held  in  the  domed  room  of  the  imperial  palace 
at  Constantinople,  called  the  Trulbis.  The  Greeks  consider 
it  the  seventh  oecumenical  council,  but  the  Latins  do  not 
recognize  it.  It  was  convened  by  Justinian  II..  and  gave 
102  stringent  canons  on  clerical  discipline,  but  allowed  the 
marriages  of  priests  to  stand,  provided  they  were  first  mar- 
riages and  with  virgins.     See  Trullan  Councils. 

Qiiino'a:  a  woody  herb  (Clietiopodium  qiiinoa),  which, 
with  other  nearly  related  species,  is  cultivated  in  the  high- 
lands of  Spanish  America  for  its  nutritious  seeds.  Its 
leaves  are  used  as  a  potherb. 

Q,ninsj[toT squinanci/.  (romO.  Fr.esqiiinn/irie.  quinancie: 
Span.  esqui)iancia  <  Lat.  cynanclie  =  Or.  mvayxi],  a  kind  of 
sore  throat]:  acute  suppurative tonsilitis, or  inllammation  of 
the  tonsil,  terminating  in  abscess.  One  attack  usually  leaves 
subacute  or  chronic  disease  of  the  tonsil,  which  predisposes 
the  person  to  repeated  attacks  in  subsequent  seasons. 
Quinsy  is  most  often  unilateral,  less  frequently  attacking 
the  two  tonsils  successively,  and  rarely  coincident  upon  both 
sides.  It  attacks  adults,  less  often  children  ;  the  two  ex- 
tremes of  life,  infancy  and  old  age,  being  quite  exempt  from 
it.  It  occurs  in  persons  of  full  habit,  especially  when  tlie 
diet  has  been  excessive  and  luxurious.  The  rheumatic  and 
gouty  diatheses  especially  predispose.  The  immediate  or 
exciting  cause  is  some  exposure  of  the  body  to  wet  or  cold. 
The  attack  is  manifested  by  soreness  of  thethroat,  increased 
by  swallowing  and  talking,  rigidity  of  the  Jaw,  hypersecre- 
tion of  saliva,  coated  tongue,  labored  breathing,  "and  sense 
of  obstruction,  tension,  and  tumefaction  in  the  throat. 
With  the  first  development  of  pus  intense  throbbing  pain 
exists.  The  disturbance  of  the  general  system  is  varialale, 
but  in  general  it  is  remarkable  how  much  constitutional  dis- 
turbance results  from  limited  local  disease  in  throat -troubles 
of  this  kind.  In  mild  cases  only  impaired  appetite  and 
sense  of  lassitude  exist ;  in  graver  attacks  there  may  be  a 
slight  or  marked  chill  at  the  onset,  and  a  succession  oif  light 
chills;  the  temperature  elevated  to  102°  or  104'  F. ;  the 
pulse  full  and  bounding ;  delirium  at  night,  and  by  day  the 
face  expressive  of  great  fatigue,  suffering,  and  alarili.  Inter- 
nal examination  discloses  the  tonsil  symmetrically  enlarged, 
extending  to  the  median  line  of  the  throat  and  obstructing  it. 
Palpation  by  the  finger  may  detect  the  softness  and  fluctua- 
tion of  pus.  In  from  five  to  eight  days  the  suppurated  ton- 
sil bursts,  all  the  symptoms  vanish,  and  recovery  is  speedy. 
In  its  formative  or  first  stage,  t[uinsy  may  sometimes  be 
aborted  by  scarification,  by  ice  in  the  I'noutli,  cold  gargles  or 
spray,  and  astringent  gargles  or  applications,  as  of  alum  or 
tannin,  and  by  administration  of  saline  eatliartics  and  ar- 
terial sedatives  or  quinine.  When  developed,  the  inhalation 
of  steam,  warm  anodyne  gargles,  soothing  poultices  or  fo- 
mentations, anoilynes'to  secure  rest,  tonics  and  diet  to  sus- 
tain the  strength,  and  early  evacuation  of  pus  with  the 
knife,  are  the  essentials  of  treatment.  Sudden  death  may 
occur  when  the  abscess  opens  spontaneously  during  sleep 
and  the  pus  enters  the  air-passages,  or  from  hiemorrhage 
when  the  internal  carotid  artery  is  involved  by  the  suppura- 
tion. Revised  by  W.  Pepper. 

Quintain  [Fr.  quinlatnc  :  Ital.  quititnna.  chintana  <  Lat. 
guintfina,  a  street  in  the  Roman  camp  between  the  fifth 
(qumtus)  and  sixth  maniples,  where  probably  was  set  a  post 
for  use  as  a  target]  :  an  object,  often  in  the'form  of  a  man, 
designed  to  be  tilted  at  with  a  lance.  It  was  sometimes 
placed  at  the  end  of  a  crosspiece  so  balanced  upon  a  pivot 
that  if  the  rider  were  not  very  quick  a  bag  of  sand  at  the 
other  end  of  the  crosspiece  would  strike  him  in  the  back. 


Qnintal  [via  Fr.  and  Span,  from  Arab,  qintar,  a  weight 
of  100  111.,  probably  from  Lat.  centena'rius,  consisting  of 
a  hundred,  from  centum,  hundred] :  a  hundred  weight, 
chiefly  used  in  weighing  fish. 

Quiutana,  keen-taana'a.  Manuel  Jose:  author;  b.  in 
Madrid.  Spain,  Apr.  11,  1772.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Salamanca,  and  became  a  lawyer  at  Madrid.  His  first 
literary  works,  a  tragedy  and  a  volume  of  poetry,  were  in- 
tended to  rouse  the  national  spirit  against  the  French,  who 
were  then  invading  the  Peninsula :  they  were  very  popular. 
During  part  of  the  •'  war  of  liberation  "  Quiutana  was  secre- 
tary of  the  Cortes  and  the  regency  ;  after  the  restoration  his 
liberal  principles  led  to  his  mild  imprisonment  in  the  castle 
of  Pamplona.  In  1833  he  was  made  preceptor  to  the  infant 
queen,  Isabella,  and  in  1835  he  became  a  senator.  His  prin- 
cipal work,  and  one  of  the  nioilern  Spanish  prose  classics,  is 
Vidas  de  Espanoks  cekbres  (1807-34  ;  many  later  editions). 
It  includes  biographies  of  the  Cid,  Gonzalo  Fernandez  de 
Cordoba,  Balboa,  Pizarro,  Las  Casas.  etc.,  and  is  character- 
ized by  clearness  and  simplicity  of  style,  with  much  original 
research.     D.  in  Madrid,  Mar.  11,  1857.  H.  H.  Smith. 

Qnintard.  Charles  Todd,  M.  D.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  bishop ; 
b.  at  Stamford,  Conn.,  Dec.  22, 1824  ;  graduated  in  medicine 
at  the  Univei-sity  of  New  York  1847  ;  became  a  physician  to 
the  New  York  City  Dispensary  1847 ;  Professor  of  Physi- 
ology and  Pathological  Anatomy  in  the  Memphis  Medical 
College  1851 ;  contributed  to  medical  periodicals ;  took  or- 
ders in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  1855  ;  was  succes- 
sively rector  of  churches  at  Memphis  and  Nashville  ;  was  a 
chajilain  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  was  chosen  Bishop  of 
Tennessee  1865.  Bishop  Quintard  is  the  second  founder  of 
the  University  of  the  South  at  Sewanee.  Tenn..  after  its  de- 
struction during  the  civil  war.  He  obtained  large  endow- 
ments for  this  institution  in  England,  and  until  1893  was 
vice-chancellor  and  trustee.  Revised  by  W.  S.  Perry. 

Qnintil'ian  (Lat.  Marcus  Fahius  QutntiUanus):  author; 
b.  at  Calagurris,  Spain,  about  35  A.  d.  ;  educated  at  Rome, 
and  gained  there  the  highest  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  elo- 
quence; received  a  regular  salary  from  the  treasury  fund 
established  by  Vespasian,  and  was  loaded  with  the  highest 
civil  honors  and  titles  by  Domitian.  D.  probably  about  96. 
About  95  he  published  his  Instifutio  Ora/uria,  a  work  in 
twelve  books  on  the  art  of  oratory,  which,  besides  its  great 
historical  interest  (bk.  x.),  may  still  be  read  for  practical  pur- 
poses. There  are  English  translations  by  Guthrie  (1756), 
Patsall  (1774),  and  Watson  (1856).  The  best  critical  editions 
are  bv  Halm  (2  vols..  Leipzig,  1868)  and  Meister  (2  vols., 
Pragile,  1886^7).  The  lexicon  to  Quiutilian  by  Bonnel 
(Leipzig,  1834).  forming  the  sixth  volume  of  Spalding's  edi- 
tion, is  valuable.  Separate  editions  of  book  i.  are  by  Fier- 
ville  (Paris,  1890),  of  book  x.  by  Bonnel-Meister  (Berlin,  1882), 
Kiiiger  (Leipzig,  1888),  and  'Petersen  (Oxford,  1891).  The 
two  collections  of  Declamationes,  19  longer  and  145  shorter, 
ascribed  to  Quintilian,  are  probably  spurious.  A  complete 
edition  is  bv  Gronovius  (Levden.  1665)  and  Burmann  (Ley- 
den,  1720).  "Of  the  145  shorter  by  C.  Ritter  (Leipzig,  1884). 
See  Schanz,  Gesch.  der  Horn.  Lit.  (Munich.  1892.  2d  part.  p. 
443).  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Qnin'tns  Cnr'tius  Rn'fus :  the  author  of  an  historical 
work  in  ten  books  on  Alexander  the  Great,  HistoriiF  Ahi- 
andri  Magni  Macedonis,  which  was  much  read  and  much 
admired  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Of  the  author  nothing 
definite  is  known.  He  may  have  been  a  rhetor  mentioned 
in  an  Index  of  Suetonius.  Of  the  work,  which  was  com- 
posed under  the  Emperor  Claudius,  the  first  two  books  have 
been  lost,  and  some  of  the  others  considerably  damaged. 
The  narrative  is  very  pleasing,  but  by  no  means  accurate, 
and  is  full  of  fables.  The  best  editions  are  by  E.  Iledicke 
(Berlin,  1867),  Th.  Vogel  (Leipzig,  1881  ;  and  with  notes. 
1885),  S.  Dosson  (with  French  notes,  Paris,  1887).  See  also 
Dosson,  itude  sur  Quinte  Curce,  sa  vie  et  son  osuvre  (Paris, 
1887).  Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Qnin'tns  Sniyrnw/ns,  or  Calaber:  Greek  epic  poet,  who 
composed  Posthomerica  (tIi  fiiS' "Ofinpov),  in  fourteen  books. 
The  name  SmyrtuFiis  conies  from  his  own  statement  (12, 
310)  that  he  had  lived  at  Smyrna,  Calaber  from  the  fact  that 
his  jioems  were  discovered  in  Calabria  by  Cardinal  Bessariou 
in  1450  A.  D.  His  versification  points  to  an  earlier  period  than 
that  of  NoNNUs  {q.  i:).  The  poem  covers  too  much  ground 
and  lacks  unity.  It  produces  the  effect  of  a  mosaic  for  which 
Homer,  Hesiod,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  Apnllonius,  Lyco- 
phron,  and  probably  even  Vergil  and  Ovid   liave  been  laid 


QUIRIXAL 


QUO   WARRANTO.   WRIT   OF 


889 


under  contribution.    Tlip  style  is  simple,  tlie  descriptions  do 

not  lack  epic  detiiil,  similes  abound,  and  llic  work  is  further 
comnieiRk'd  by  purity  of  tone,  but  tlien'  is  no  true  life  in  it, 
and  no  one  eonies  hack  to  t|Juintus  except  to  investigate  his 
sources.  There  is  an  edition  by  KJichly  (Leipzig,  1M50),  an- 
other by  the  same  in  tlie  Teubner  Library,  and  a  critical  one 
by  Ziminermann  (Leipzig,  1891).         H.  L.  (jILUF.rsi,i;kve. 

Quir'iniil  [from  Lat.  Collis  Quirina  lis,  the  Qiiirinal 
Hill ;  col  li.i,  hill  +  (Juiriita  lis.  pertaining  to  Quirinus,  a 
name  of  the  deified  Uomuhis,  deriv.  of  Cures.  See  t^flRl- 
Tics] :  one  of  the  seven  liills  of  Koine,  lying  X.  and  a  little 
K.  of  the  Forum.  Like  tlie  Palatine  it  was  originally  the 
seat  of  a  separate  community  (as  Mommsen  has  conclusively 
shown,  Roman  Uiglanj.  vol.  i.,  p.  82)  witli  religious  and  po- 
litical institutions  of  its  own.  Aside  from  the  ancient  tem- 
ple of  §«(>(« «.s.  restored  by  Jidius  t'a^sar  and  Augustus,  the 
most  important  buildings  on  the  Quirinal,  of  which  remains 
still  survive,  were  the  baths  of  Constanline  and  the  batlis  of 
Diocletian.  See  (,'h.  lliilsen,  Znr  '/'(i/xii/nipJiie  di'.i  (^uiri- 
nalx.  Jilu'iniaclii'-s  .Mii.ieiim.  vol.  xlix.  (1894).  pp.  879-424.  On 
the  batlis,  see  Middleton,  Memaiit-'i  nf  Ancient  Rome.  vol.  ii., 
pp.  177-186.  tf.  L.  IIexdrilkson. 

(Juiri'tes  [=  Lat.,  plur.  of  Qui'ri-i,  probably  meaning  a 
citizen  of  t'CREs  {q.  r.)] :  the  citizens  of  ancient  Rome,  syn- 
onymous witli  poptilux  Romaniis.  or  even  added  to  it,  as 
populus  Romanua  (^iiirilium.  The  singular  quiris  is  very 
rare,  and  the  plural  form  is  only  used  in  certain  set  formulas 
— e.  g.  Quiriie.-i  (as  a  form  of  address).y».s  Quirifium  (full  Ro- 
man citizensliip),  and  tlie  example  given  above.     G.  L.  IL 

Qiii-tam  Actions:  See  Informer. 

Quit-claim :  a  word  often  employed  in  deeds  in  which 
the  grantor  or  seller  undertakes  no  responsibility  in  regard 
to  the  validity  of  his  own  assumed  right  to  the  property  in 
question,  but  merely  conveys  to  the  grantee  or  buyer  his 
own  interest,  whetlier  valid  or  llie  reverse. 

Qiiitiiian.  Jonx  Axtiioxv,  LL.  D.  :  lawyer  and  soldier:  b. 
at  Kliinebeck.  X.  Y.,  Sept.  1,  1799;  received  a  liberal  educa- 
tion; Viecame  a  lawyer,  anil  was  professor  at  the  Mount 
Airy  College,  Pa.,  1819;  practiced  law  at  Cliillicothe,  0., 
1820-23;  removed  to  Xalchez,  Miss.,  where  he  became  a 
succes.sful  planter  and  rose  to  distinction  in  his  profession 
and  in  the  politics  of  the  State;  was  chancellor  of  the  supe- 
rior court  182'S-:!1  and  1832-34;  member  of  the  State  Leg- 
islature 1828-32  :  ]u-esident  of  the  .Senate  in  1835  and  (jov- 
eriior  pro  tem. ;  judge  of  the  high  court  of  errors  and  appeals 
1839  ;  distinguished  in  the  Texan  struggle  for  independence, 
he  was,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  a]i|iointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers;  promoted  to  l^e  major-gen- 
eral Apr.,  1847  ;•  was  distinguished  at  Monterey,  Cha|iuUepec, 
and  assault  and  capture  of  tlie  city  of  Mexico:  Congress 
presented  him  with  a  sword  for  his  services  at  Monterey, 
and  tten.  Scott  appointed  him  governor  of  the  city  of  Mex- 
ico. Returning  home  at  the  close  of  the  war.  he  was  elected 
Governor  of  Mississippi  in  IH'M.  and  from  18o5  to  1858  was 
a  member  of  Congress  and  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
military  affairs.  I),  at  Natchez.  .July  17, 1858.  See  his  Life 
and  Correspondence  (2  vols..  1860).  by  F.  II.  Claiborne. 

Quito.  kee'tS  :  a  city  ;  capital  of  Ecuador ;  on  the  Andine 
plateau,  9.250  feet  above  the  sea:  a  few  miles  S. of  the  equa- 
tor, and  165  miles  X.  N'.  E.  of  tJuayaquil  (see  map  of  South 
America,  ref.  3-B).  The  plain  or  valley  of  Quito  is  an  ele- 
vated basin  nearly  surrounded  by  some  of  the  highest  peaks 
of  the  Andes.  The  city  itself  is  built  on  the  lower  spurs  of 
the  Pichincha  volcano,  and  Cayainbe,  .\ntisana,  Cotocachi, 
Cotopaxi,  Sinchalagua,  (,'orazon,  and  Iliniza  are  in  jilain 
sight,  their  snow-clad  jieaks  forming  a  panorama  of  almost 
unequaled  grandeur.  The  ground  occupied  by  the  city  is 
verv  uneven  and  is  traversed  by  deep  ravines  spanned  by 
arches;  the  streets  are  narrow,  indifferently  paved,  and  .so 
steep  that  carriages  can  not  be  used.  Owing  to  the  danger 
from  earthquakes,  most  of  the  houses  are  liuilt  with  only 
one  story,  but  many  of  them  are  sub.stantial,  and  tlie  older 
ones  recall  the  early  colonial  period.  The  public  buildings 
are  generally  of  stone;  the  cathedral,  government  and 
archbishop's  palace,  and  city-hall  are  grouped  about  the 
Plaza  Mayor,  a  handsome  square  and  public  garden.  There 
are  many  churches  and  convents,  a  pul)lic  (formerly  the 
Jesuits")  library,  hospitals,  observatory,  and  several  educa- 
tional institutions,  including  the  ancient  university,  which 


is  essentially  a  theological  seminary.  Many  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical buildings  are  adorned  with  paintings  liy  native  ar- 
tists, and  the  city  has  a  wide  reputation  as  an  art  center. 
In  population  and  commerce  it  is  surpassed  by  Guayaquil; 
it  has  been  impoverished  by  frequent  revolutions.  No  rail- 
way connects  it  with  the  outer  world,  and  there  is  only  one 
good  carriage-road  out  of  the  city — that  to  (iuaranda.  The 
bulk  of  the  population  consists  of  small  tradesmen  and  ar- 
tisans and  Inilian  laborers  and  servants.  The  climate  is 
spring-like,  very  ecjuable.  and  salubrious.  The  natural  drain- 
age keeps  the  city  liealthful.  though  sanitary  rules  are  neg- 
lected, t^uito  is  probalily  the  oldest  existing  city  in  Amer- 
ica, having  been  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Quitu  cliiefs.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Inca  Tujiac  Yupanqui  about  1470,  was 
thereafter  a  favorite  resideiu'c  of  the  Incus,  and  when  their 
empire  was  divided  in  1.525,  became  the  capital  of  the  north- 
ern portion.  The  Spanish  general  Benalcazar  twik  it  and 
founded  the  modern  city  in  1534.  During  the  colonial  pe- 
riod it  was  the  ca]iital  of  the  ]ircsidency  of  t^)iiito  (now  Ecua- 
dor). The  most  (U'stnictive  earthquakes  were  in  1797  and 
1859.     Pop.  about  35.000.  Herbert  H.  S.mith. 

Quittor:  See  Farriery. 

Quoits,  kwoits  or  koits  [M.  Eng.  coite.  from  O.  Fr.  coitier, 
pusli,  harass  <  Lat.  coaclare,  force,  freq.  of  cor/ere,  compel] ; 
a  game  of  strength  and  skill,  in  which  the  player  strives  to 
pitch  a  flattened  ring  of  steel  (called  a  quoit)  in  such  a  way 
as  to  land  it  as  near  as  may  be  to  a  peg  or  hob  of  iron  stuck 
upriglit  in  the  ground,  or,  if  possible,  to  make  it  ring  the 
hob.  Tliis  game  differs  from  tlic  discus-play  of  the  ancients, 
in  which  the  player  threw  a  disk  of  metal  or  stone  as  far  as 
he  could,  the  longest  thrower  winning  the  prize. 

QnorjitciiH  Indians  [Quorafean  is  an  adaptation  of 
Quoratem,  or  Kworatem,  the  native  name  of  Salmon  river, 
California,  as  well  as  of  a  small  band  formerly  residing  at 
its  mouth]  :  a  linguistic  stock  of  Indians,  whose  geographic 
limits  are  somewhat  indeterminate.  The  main  area  oecu- 
jiied  bv  the  tribes  includes  bfith  Ijanks.of  the  lower  Klamath, 
from  a" range  of  hills  a  little  above  Happy  Camp  to  the  Junc- 
tion of  the  Trinity,  and  Salmon  river  from  its  mouth  to  its 
sources.  On  the  X^..  Quoratean  tribes  extended  to  the  Atha- 
pascan territory  near  the  Oregon  line. 

The  tribal  divisions  are  tde  Ehnek,  Karok,  and  Pehtsik. 
The  Ehnek  are  well  formed  and  compact,  and  in  stature  are 
but  slightly  inferior  to  the  whites.  The  women  are  better- 
looking,  fairer,  and  of  livelier  disposition  than  any  on  the 
coast,  and  not  a  few  have  married  among  the  settlers.  The 
social  organization  is  exceedingly  democratic,  the  authority 
of  their  village  chiefs  being  only  nominal.  In  time  of  war 
thev  had  a  single  chief,  and  instead  of  taking  scalps,  decapi- 
tated their  captives.  The  Ehnek  have  many  dances,  among 
whiiOi  is  one  performed  in  the  fall,  for  the  spirits  of  the 
earth  and  forest,  and  another  immediately  before  the  salmon- 
catch  in  spring.  The  term  Karok  means  up  the  river,  and  is 
a]iiilied  to  the  Indians  who  reside  on  the  middle  Klamath, 
in  contradistinction  to  those  living  near  the  mouth.  In 
1889  the  Indians  of  this  stock  numbered  about  600.  See 
Indians  of  Xortii  America,  and  Stephen  Powers,  Tribes 
of  California  (Contribulio7is  to  Xortli  American  Ethnology, 
iii..  Wiishiugton,  1877).  F.  W.  Hodue. 

Quorum  :  See  Parliamentary  Law  {Adoption  of  Mo- 
tions). 

({uotidinu:  See  Fever  and  Chill. 

(Juo  Wiirraiito.  AVrit  of.  or  (as  often  abbreviated)  Quo 
Warranto  jLaw  Lat.,  by  what  authority;  Lat.  quo,  by 
what  +  warranto,  abl.  of  Median-.  Lat.  warrantum.  warrant, 
authority]:  a  very  ancient  common-law  writ,  in  the  nature 
of  a  writ  of  righti  for  the  crown  against  a  person  or  corpora- 
tion claiining  or  usurping  any  ollice.  franchise,  or  liberty, 
to  inquire  by  what  authority  the  claim  was  supported,  or  to 
determine  the  right.  The  writ  also  lay  in  case  of  non-user 
or  lung  neglect,  and  in  case  of  misuse  or  abuse.  The  re- 
spondent was  commanded  to  appear  and  show  by  what 
right  he  exercised  the  oflice,  franchise,  or  liberty,  not  hav- 
ing a  grant  of  it,  or  having  forfeited  it  for  non-user  or  abuse. 
The  proceeding  of  quo  warranto  was  long,  and  the  judg- 
ment in  it  conciusivc  even  against  the  crown.  In  England 
it  was  superseded  at  an  early  day  by  the  proceeding  called 
an  information  in  the  nature  of  a  quo  warranto  (see  Informa- 
tion), and  it  is  little  used  in  the  U.  S.    P.  Sturoes  Allen. 


R 


the    eighteenth    letter    of    the    English 
alphabet. 

Form. — It  is  the  Latin  R  or  |5  derived 
from  the  Greek  R,  |5,  a  form  of  the  letter 
P  (rho),  particularly  common  in  the  al- 
]>h.iliets  of  Euboja,  Bceotia,  Phocis,  Locris, 
Thrssaly,  and  the  Peloponnesus.  The 
ailiknl  dependent  stroke  was  preserved  in 
the  Latin  alphabet  as  a  convenient  means  of  distinguishing 
the  letter  from  the  form  of  pi  (P  instead  of  P)  generally 
adopted  there.     The  Phoenician  form  of  the  letter  was  <|. 

Name. — The  Semitic  name  resh,  head  (side  view),  was 
changed  in  Greek  to  rhn  (pu).  In  Latin  the  letter  received 
the  plionetie  name  er,  wliieh  appears  in  0.  French  as  erre. 
Proven?,  erre,  erro.  Adopted  into  M.  Eng.,  this  yielded  in 
Mod.  Eng.  the  present  name  ar ;  ef.  ferme  >  farm,  persone 
>  parson,  persil  >  parsley,  gerner  >  garner,  etc. 

Sound. — In  the  standard  English  of  Great  Britain  and  in 
that  of  the  southern  and  northeastern  part  of  the  U.  S.,  r 
stands  for  a  consonant  only  when  it  immediately  precedes  a 
vowel  as  in  ride,  dry,  fry.  This  consonant  sound  is  a  spirant, 
either  voiced  or  voiceless,  produced  between  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  and  the  forward  palate  or  the  ridge  between  palate 
and  gums.  Before  the  back-vowels  the  tongue-tip  is  turned 
back  toward  the  palate,  as  in  raw,  roar,  rout ;  otherwise  it 
turns  toward  the  ridge  of  the  gums,  as  in  rid,  red.  It  is 
often  voiceless  after  voiceless  consonants  ;  contrast  try  and 
dry.  After  vowels  it  denotes,  in  the  language  of  the  locali- 
ties mentioned  above,  the  sound  of  the  obscure  vowel  3,  or 
is  entirely  silent.  Tlrus  it  is  pronounced  as  j  in  care,  ttnor, 
dire,  our  ;  it  is  silent  or  results  in  lengthening  the  preceding 
vowel  in  far,  sir,  fern. 

Source. — In  Teutonic  words  it  generally  represents  either 
(1)  Teutonic  and  Indo-European  /• :  as  red  <  0.  Eng.  read  : 
Goth,  rawjis  :  Germ,  roth,  cf.  Gr.  4pv8p6s  :  Lat.  ruber  :  Sanskr. 
rudhird-,  or  (2)  Teutonic  z  <  Indo-European  s  ■  as  ear  <  0. 
Eng.  eare  :  Goth,  duso  :  Germ,  ohr,  of.  Lith.  ausis ;  sear  < 
O.  Eng.  sear,  cf.  Lith.  saiisas,  dry,  Gr.  at/€tv,  to  dry  up. 

Symbolism. — R  =  rood,  rod,  king  {rex),  queen  (regina), 
take  (recipe) ;  Ilh.  =  rhodium.     See  Abbreviations. 

Benj.  Ide  Wheeler. 
Ra  (Egypt.  Rd) :  the  Egyptian  "  sun-god,"  "  father  of 
gods  and  men,"  in  whom  in  particular  the  solar  worship  of 
the  Egyptians  was  centered.  Heliopolis  contained  his  prin- 
cipal sanctuary  and  was  the  center  of  his  cult,  which  was 
very  ancient.  He  w-as  regarded  as  the.  offspring  of  the 
celestial  ocean,  and  was  believed  to  have  appeared  first  at 
HERACLEOPaLis  (q.  ?'.),  where  he  gained  a  victory  over  the 
"children  of  the  rebels  "  and  assumed  divine  rule  over  the 
world.  So  long  as  he  was  young  his  kingdom  was  strong, 
but  with  advancing  age  his  subjects  became  rebellion^. 
With  the  aid  of  Ilathor  he  revenged  himself  upon  mankind 
and  almost  utterly  destroyed  them.  Such  are  the  main 
features  of  the  myth  of  Ra.  (See  Brugsch,  Die  neue  W'elt- 
ordnung nrich  Verniehtung  des  siindigen  Jlenschengeschlecli- 
tes,  Berlin,  1881.)  Rii  is  represented  as  hawk-headed,  with 
the  sun-disk  and  the  uneus  on  his  head,  the  sun-disk  being 
his  emblem.  Ra  himself  was  the  sun  at  midday  ;  the  rising 
sun  was  Ra-IIarmachis,  "  Horus  on  the  horizon  "  ;  and  the 
setting  sun  was  Ra-Tum  (Atum,  the  closer),  as  an  aged 
man.  During,  the  night  he  was  regarded  as  in  conflict  with 
the  serpent  Apejii.  but  from  the  contest  he  emerged  each 
morning  in  victory.  The  Adoration  of  Ra  was  one  of  the 
chief  and  best-known  poems  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead.  The 
worship  of  Ra  as  Aten,  the  sun-disk  (see  Khunaten),  was  the 
nearest  approach  to  monotheism  which  Egypt  ever  saw. 
Joined  with  Amen,  as  ,\men-RiT,  he  became  the  principal 
national  god  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Hvksos,  and  joined 
with  Mont,  as  JIont-Ra  or  Mentlui-Ra,  he  was  the  god  of 
war.  Ra  was  also  conceived  of  as  joined  with  various  other 
gods  of  the  Egyptian  jiantheon.         Charles  R.  Gillett. 

Baal) :  town  of  Ilungary  ;  at  the  influx  of  the  Raab  into 
the  Little  Danube,  a  branch  of  the  Danube;  67  miles  W. 
N.  W.  of  Buda)icst  (sec  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  5-F). 
It  was  formerly  fortified,  and  has  a  fine  old  cathedral.     Its 


manufactures  of  tobacco  and  cutlery  and  its  transit  trade 
are  extensive.     Pop.  (1890)  23,956. 

Raabe,  raa'be,  Wilhelm  (pseudonym  Jakob  Cori-inus) : 
novelist;  b.  at  Eschershausen,  Brunswick,  Sept.  8, 1831 ;  stud- 
ied philosophy  at  Berlin  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  liter- 
ary pursuits.  He  is  distinguished  as  a  humorist  among  the 
German  novelists  of  the  nineteenth  century.  His  principal 
works  are  Die  Chronik  der  Spertingsgasse  (1857) ;  Leute  aus 
dem  Walde  (1863) ;  Der  Hunqerpastor  (1864) ;  Wunnigel 
(1879);  i/orarfer  (1876) ;  Das  llorn  von  Wanza  (\^ii\) ;  and 
Der  Lar  (1889).  J.  G. 

Raba'niis  Magiien'tius  Man'rus  (spelled  also  Ilrabanus 
and  Rhetbanus):  archbishop;  descended  from  an  ancient 
Roman  family,  and  pronounced  by  Kurtz  "  the  most  learned 
man  of  his  age " ;  b.  at  Mentz  about  776 ;  studied  in  the 
monastery  at  Fulda,  and  afterward  in  Tours  under  Alcuin; 
teacher  at  Fulda  from  about  805  till  814  and  again  from 
817,  and  made  abbot  there  in  822  ;  Archbishop  of  Mentz 
847.  D.  at  Winkel.  Feb.  4.  856.  The  name  of  Maurus  was 
given  to  him  by  his  teacher,  Alcuin.  in  remembrance  of  St. 
JIaur.  the  disciple  of  St.  Benedict.  He  opposed  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation,  first  distinctly  set  forth  by  Paschasius 
Radbert  in  831  (expanded  in  844).  His  works  fill  six  vol- 
umes (107-112)  of  Migne's  Patrologia.  See  Bach's  Rabaytus 
3Iaurus,  der  Schopfer  des  detitschen  Schulwcsens  (1835) ; 
Ivunstmann's  Rahanus  Magnentius  3Iaiirns  (1841);  and 
Spengler's  Leben  des  Rabanus  Maurus  (1856). 

Revised  by  M.  Warren. 

Rabat' ;  strongly  fortified  town  of  Morocco,  Northern 
Africa ;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wadi-el-Buregreg  on  the  At- 
lantic ;  formerly  a  port  of  considerable  importance,  but  less 
accessible  now  on  account  of  a  sand-bank  in  front  of  the 
river  mouth  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  1-B).  Most  European 
trade  has  therefore  sought  safer  ports,  though  one  or  two 
steamers  a  mouth  call  to  leave  tea,  sugar,  cloths,  candles, 
and  small  wares,  and  take  away  olive  oil,  beans,  wool,  skins, 
and  bones.  The  fine  and  bi'illiantly  colored  carpets,  woolen 
cloths,  mats,  leather  goods,  and  potteries  for  which  Rabat 
is  famous  are  not  extensively  exported,  but  are  widely  dis- 
tributed in  Morocco.  Pop.  25,000,  one-sixth  Jews,  besides 
about  100  Europeans.  Zehi,  across  the  river  (pop.  10,000), 
has  its  own  local  government,  its  people  following  the  same 
industries  as  those  of  Rabat.  C.  C.  Adams. 

Rab'ba  :  ancient  capital  of  the  native  state  of  Nupe  ;  on 
the  middle  Niger  river.  West  Africa.  It  was  destroyed  by 
the  Fulahs  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  when  they  were 
spreading  the  tenets  of  Mohammedanism.  Though  no  longer 
the  capital,  it  is  a  large  town  in  a  well-cultivated  region, 
and  has  a  considerable  trade  with  Sokoto  and  other  places 
in  the  Sudan.  It  was  once  one  of  the  most  important  slave- 
markets  in  West  Africa.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Ada.ms. 

Rabbali :  same  as  Amman  (g.  v.). 

Rabbi  [:=  Lat.  =  Gr.  ^o/3;8i,  from  Heb.  rail,  my  master, 
dei'iv.  of  rab,  master,  lord,  teacher;  cf.  Arab,  rabb] :  a  title 
of  honor  anciently  employed  by  the  Jews  to  designate  those 
learned  in  the  law,  in  which  sense  it  is  frequently  found  in 
the  Gospels.  It  was  also  used  by  disciples  of  other  teach- 
ers, for  it  was  applied  to  John  the  Baptist  (John  iii.  26)  and 
to  Jesus  himself  (e.  g.  Matt.  xxvi.  25,  49  :  Mark  x.  31  ;  John 
i.  38).  Luke  employs  the  terra  didaskale — i.  e.  teacher — 
but  this  is  only  the  Greek  translation  of  rabbi.  The  term 
rab  is  applied  by  Oriental  Jews  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
use  of  the  English  "  esquire." 

Kabbiiiieal  Literature:  a  name  wrongly  given  to  the 
whole  of  the  literature  produced  by  the  Jews,  but  one  which 
may  fitly  describe  that  portion  of  it  which  is  the  result  of 
the"  literary  activity  of  the  rabbi  in  his  position  as  religious 
and  judicial  leader  of  the  community.  Its  subject-matter 
is  civil  and  ecclesiastical  law,  both  the  legislative  and  execu- 
tive power  in  the  Jewish  community  being  in  post-Talmudic 
times,  the  period  treated  of,  in  the  hands  of  the  rabbis. 

Tlie  continuity  of  oral  tradition  had  not  been  disturbed 
bv  the  coniiiletion  of  the  Mishnah  and  the  Talmud  ((/.  i:). 

(890) 


RABBINICAL  LITERATURE 


RABELAIS 


891 


The  latter  became  the  basis  for  all  further  discussions  in 
the  schouls,  and  was  modified  and  developed  as  occasion  re- 
quired, 'i'he  Ulei-aliire  wliich  resulteil  fioin  these  discussions 
took  on  the  form  of  commentaries,  glosses,  compendia,  and 
|)raetical  decisions.  Of  the  two  redactions  of  the  Talmud, 
it  was  the  Babylonian  which  soon  acquired  absolute  author- 
ity, almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Palestinian.  It  was  in 
the  schools  of  Babylon  (Sora  and  Pumpaditluij  that  the  first 
attempts  were  made  to  bring  order  into  the  chaos  of  the 
Talmud.  The  most  noted  of  the  Gaonim  ("Highnesses," 
800-1037)  as  Talmndic  scholars  w'ere  Sherira  (!IWJ),  who  wrote 
an  encyclical  (••  llic  .b'ws  of  Kairowan  in  which  lie  detailed 
the  history  of  the  formation  of  the  Talmud:  his  son,  Hai  (!)0!)- 
1038),  to  whom  a  commentary  on  the  Mishnah  is  ascribed  : 
and  Samuel  ben  Chofni  (i)(>0-1034).  Even  before  their 
death  .lewish  scholarship  had  souglit  a  new  home  in  Spain 
and  North  Africa.  The  Jews  in  .Spain  lived  in  greater  free- 
dom and  busied  themselves  iiu)re  with  poetry  and  pliiloso- 
phy.  Talmudic  science  had  been  transjiorted  tliere  from 
the  East  by  Moses  ben  Chanoch  (tl60).  and  was  l;c]it  alive  by 
his  son  Chanocli  and  by  .Joseph  ibn  Abitur;  but  rabbinical 
science  found  its  first  real  home  across  the  Pyrenees — in 
Proveiu'c,  in  France,  and  then  in  Ueriiiany.  The  infiuence 
of  S<iloinan  ben  Isaac  (Kashi  1040-1  lO.j)  of  Troyes  was  su- 
preme in  Prance,  and  as  a  result  of  liis  commentaries  there 
arose  a  school  of  Tosafists  ("adders"),  which,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  Spanish  compilers  ami  epitomizers,  developed 
the  careful  criticism  of  the  text  and  its  application  to  the 
needs  of  actual  life.  Zunz  has  jiut  together  nearly  200 
names  of  Tosafists,  some  of  whom  carried  their  methods 
into  Kngland. 

In  .^pain  the  controversy  evoked  by  Maimoxides  (q.  v.)  in 
favor  of  philoso))hy  again.st  the  exclusive  study  of  the  Tal- 
mud produced  two  men  who  deserve  notice:  Jloses  ben  Nach- 
mau  (Kaiiilian,  Nachmanides,  1263)  of  Gerona,  who  wrote  a 
commentary,  and  who  may  be  called  the  Spanish  Tosafist, 
and  Solomon  ben  Adret  (1300)  in  Barcelona,  the  author  of 
novelhe  to  many  Talmudic  treatises.  In  Italy  this  period 
produ(.'ed  three  scholars  whose  fame  reached  beyond  their 
own  country:  Nathan  ben  Yechiel  (d.  IIOO)  of  Rome,  the 
author  of  an  excellent  Talmudic  dictionary:  Isaiah  ben 
Mali  (1250)  of  Trani.who  because  of  his  rational  and  critical 
spirit  is  ranked  even  above  the  Tosafists  of  France  and  Ger- 
many :  and  .loseph  Kolon  (Maharik.  d.  l-)80).  In  Germany 
the  importance  of  tlie  study  of  the  Talmud  was  emphasized 
bv  the  nu'cting  of  the  rabl)inieal  couiu-ils  of  Mayence  in 
1223  and  1245.  Meir  l)en  Baruch  (d.  1293)  of  Rothenburg, 
called  the  German  Tosafist,  may  Justly  be  considered  the 
head  and  front  of  the  new  school. 

It  was  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  that  the 
Jews  began  to  wander  into  Poland,  where  the  Talmud 
reached  its  culminating  point  as  the  supreme  religious  and 
legal  authority.  Being  lliere  largely  excluded  from  all  other 
employments,  the  Jews  found  their  only  consolation  in  the 
schoolhouse  (Yeshlblmh),  where  they  studied  and  restudied 
their  ancient  lore.  This  study  developed  into  a  mere  exer- 
cise of  ingenuity,  into  pure  casuistry  similar  to  the  casuistry 
of  the  Christian  and  ^lohammedan  scholastics.  "  This  ca.su- 
istry  is  called  Pilpul  (  v' pepper),  and  the  new  matter  thus 
evolved  Chiddi'ishlm  (novella').  A  fair  description  of  the 
method  employed  will  be  found  in  the  Antobiogrcipliy  of 
Solomon  Maimon  (Boston.  18S8,  chap.  vi.).  Its  origin  is  as- 
cribed to  Jacob  Pollak  (d.  ]r)41)  and  to  Solomon  Shechna 
(15.")7)  of  Lublin.  In  Poland  and  liussia  it  still  exists:  but 
with  a  wider  and  more  secular  education  it  is  gradually 
making  way  for  a  critical  and  intelligent  study  of  the  Tabnud. 

The  numerous  compendia'  which  were  written  for  the 
r>ur|)ose  of  making  the  ilecisions  scattered  up  and  down  the 
Talmiul  available  for  the  jiracfieal  ofiice  of  the  rabbi  and 
the  rabbinical  decisions  deserve  a  special  mention.  Very 
shortly  after  the  completion  of  the  Talmud  a  digest  was  at- 
temjit'eil  by  Ilai  (iaon  (H6!)-1038).  who  tried  to  put  the  whole 
material  into  nuMnorial  verses.  Siinon  of  Kahira  arranged 
all  the  dei'isions  upon  the  liasis  of  013  commandments  sup- 
posed to  l)e  contained  in  the  Pentateucdi.  Similar  compila- 
tions were  made  by  other  writers.  More  important  were 
the  Ilnliirlwlh  of  Isaac  ben  Jacob  (Alfasi),  and  more  scien- 
tific the  ilislnu'h  Thurah  of  Maimonides.  This  last  codi- 
fication by  Mainum  was.  however,  too  scientific  for  actual 
use,  and  presupposed  a  too  intimate  ac<piaintance  with  the 
material.  To  remedy  this  other  compendia' were  made  by 
Moses  bi'u  Jacob  of  Coney  in  his  .SV/cr  /inmmi/:irof/i  :  Solo- 
mon ben  .\dret  in  his  Tornl/i  hnhbai/ifJi.  and  othersj  and 
finally  by  Jose|)h  ( 'aro (l.")5(); of  Safed, in  his Shukhan  Aruch. 


The  rabbinical  decisions  are  in  the  form  of  questions  and 
answers  (ShePloth  Vtheshublioth).  Such  questions  ujion  re- 
ligions and  juristic  matters  were  sent  to  prominent  Tal- 
mudic scholars  all  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  Africa, 
but  the  authority  of  the  teacher  as  such  was  not  final.  Apart 
from  their  intrinsic  value,  these  decisions  contain  a  large 
amount  of  material  for  the  history  of  the  social  life  of  the 
Jews  during  the  whole  of  the  post-Talniudic  period.  They 
exist  by  the  hundred  thou.sands. 

Among  numerous  wcjrks  giving  information  on  this  .sub- 
ject, see  Kenan  and  Neubauer,  liabhins  Franfais  in  Ilis- 
toire  littrrnire  lU-  In  /V((hcc  vol.  xxvii. ;  A.  Geiger,  i\"ac7i- 
gelassene  ticltrifttn  (Berlin,  1875,  vol,  ii,) ;  M,  Giidemann, 
Oeschichte  des  Erziehungsicesen  iind  der  Cultur  der  uhind- 
ISndischen  Juden  (Vienna,  1873-84,  3  vols.) ;  Joel  Jliiller, 
Bn'efe  luid  Iiesp07isen  der  vorgeon&ischen  Jud.  Lrit.  (Berlin, 
1886).  Die  Hesponsen  der  iSpanischen  Lehrer  des  loten  Jahr- 
hunderis  (Berlin,  188!)) :  and  those  given  in  bibliography  of 
article  Jewish  Liter.\ti're  (q.  v.).        Richaku  Gottheil. 

Rabbit  [M.  Mwg.  rabef ;  cf.  dial.  Fr.  rabotte,OV\  Butch 
robbe,  and  Gaelic  rabuid,  rabbit]:  the  English  name  for 
nuiny  s]iccies  of  the  family  LEromn.T:  (q.  i:),  but  more  es- 
pecially a|i|ilicable  to  Lepiix  ciinictilnf!.  This  species  is 
found  generally  distributed  throughout  Europe  (except  in  its 
more  northern  poi'tion.s),  as  well  as  the  contiguous  portions 
of  Asia  and  Northern  Africa,  and  is  also  naturalized  in  Aus- 
tralia, where  it  is  a  serious  pest,  and  elsewhere.  It  lives  in 
communities,  Imrrows  in  the  ground,  and  brings  forth  its 
young  blind  and  naked.  It  is  very  [n'olific.  beginning  to  breed 
at  the  age  of  about  six  months,  and  having  .several  litters  in 
the  course  of  a  year,  and  in  each  litter  some  four  to  eight 
young  ones.  In  the  V.  S.  the  name  rabbit  is  also  gener- 
ally given  to  all  species,  the  best  known  of  which  is  the 
common  small  rabbit  of  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States 
{Lepiis  syJvaticus) ;  this  species,  as  well  as  the  other  species 
of  the  family  (Lepus  cuniculns  excepted),  agrees  with  the 
hare  in  making  forms,  instead  of  burrowing,  and  in  bring- 
ing forth  its  young  provided  with  hair  and  able  to  see. 

Revised  by  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Babrlaia,  ra'abe-la',  Francois  :  author  :  b.  at  Chinon.  In- 
dre-et-Loire,  France,  toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
(1495  0.  Prt'iug  the  youngest  son  he  was  destined  for  the 
Cliurch.  He  studied  first  at  the  al>bey  of  Seuille,  then  at 
the  monastery  of  La  Baumette,  near  Angers,  About  1509 
he  entered  the  Franciscan  monastery  at  Fontenay-le-Comte. 
There  he  passed  his  novitiate  and  was  made  priest  in  1519. 
His  intellectual  curiosity  was  enormous,  and  he  devoted 
himself  to  reading  and  study,  attaining  to  an  almost  cyclo- 
pipdic  knowledge  of  the  science  of  that  time,  becoming 
well  read  in  Latin,  Greek,  law,  mathematics,  and  astronomy. 
His  passion  for  learning  was  directly  opposed  to  the  spirit 
of  his  order,  and  his  devotion  to  books  and  relations  with 
scholars  made  his  brother  monks  distrust  hinn.  His  cell 
was  searched,  his  books  seized,  and  he  himself  sought  safety 
in  flight.  The  intervention  of  influential  friends,  especially 
of  Geoffroy  d'Estinac.  Bishop  of  jMaillczais,  and  Guillaume 
Bude,  saved  him  from  further  conscqueiures.  Clement  VII. 
authorized  him.  in  1524,  to  leave  the  Franciscan  order  for  the 
Dominican  and  enter  the  abbey  of  iMaillezais  ;  but  he  .soon 
aband(med  the  monastic  life,  assuming  with  the  consent  of 
his  superiors  the  garb  of  lay  preacher,  and  began  a  kind  of 
free,  roving  existence  to  which  his  great  curiosity  for  know- 
ing the  world  predisposed  him,  adding  continually  to  his 
vast  infornuitiou.  The  .story  of  this  vagabondage  is  ob- 
scure. He  look  a  course  of  medicine  at  Jlontpellier  and 
was  teaching  there  in  1530:  from  1532  to  1534  he  was  at 
Lyons  practicing  medicine,  editing  the  first  of  a  scries  of 
almanacs,  engaged  in  various  works  of  scholarship,  and  be- 
ginning his  great  Pantagniel.  In  1534  he  went  to  Rome 
with  Jean  (bi  Bellay,  Bishop  of  Paris,  who  was  there  made 
cardinal,  and  returned  with  him  to  Paris  in  1535.  In  1539 
he  entered  the  abbey  of  Snint-Maur  as  canon,  but  with  the 
privilege  of  freely  practicing  medicine.  From  1540  to  1543 
he  was  again  in  Italy  with  Guillaume  du  Bellay.as  his  physi- 
cian, aiul  wrote  in  Latin  the  history  of  his  wars,  now  lost. 
In  1.547  he  was  at  INIetz,  in  1.549  again  in  Rome  with  Cardinal 
du  Bellay.  In  15.50  he  was  in  Paris,  and  was  made  curate 
of  ^leiidon.  but  surrendered  this  living,  with  that  of  Saint- 
Christophe-du-Jambet,  iircviously  given  him,  in  1552.  D. 
probably  in  1.553.  His  main  fame  is  due  to  his  Gcirgnnfua 
and  I'antagruel.  The  first  Gcirganfiia  was  but  a  new  edition, 
with  a  few  original  additions  by  Ralielais,  of  an  older  popu- 
lar romance.     Its  success  jirovoked  .-ui  origiiud  continuation, 


892 


BABENER 


RACE,  CAPE 


Pantagriiel.  This  too  was  very  successful,  and  to  bring  the 
story  of  Gargcmiua  to  its  level  he  rewrote  it  in  1535,  and  in 
this'form  it  is  now  the  first  book  of  the  complete  work.  In 
1546  apjjeared  with  the  royal  privilege  a  tliird  book  of  Pan- 
tagruel,  generally  considered  the  best :  and  in  1553  a  fourth 
book  appeared,  also  with  the  royal  privilege,  which  did  not 
prevent  its  being  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne.  In  1562-64 
a  fifth  book  appeared,  of  wliicli  certainly  not  all,  probably 
not  much,  is  by  Rabelais.  The  work  recounts  the  marvel- 
ous lives  and  "deeds  of  the  giants  Gargantua  and  Panta- 
gruel  ;  but  it  is  the  actual  life  of  the  time  which  it  really 
pictures,  with  all  its  ferment  of  ideas,  its  struggle  between 
mediiBvalism  and  the  Renaissance,  its  mixture  of  fragments 
of  the  decomposing  Middle  Ages,  and  of  elements  of  a  new 
order.  The  spirit  of  these  pictures  is  that  of  exuberant  and 
jovial  satire.  They  breathe  a  disrespect  for  the  traditional 
authorities  and  conventional  forms,  and  are  especially  keen 
against  the  ideas  and  practices  of  the  Church.  They  are 
saturated  with  the  sense  of  intense  delight  in  life,  the  phys- 
ical and  sensuous  existence  of  the  human  animal  in  all  its 
manifold  exhibitions,  and  it  is  rendered  with  such  frankness 
and  absence  of  reticence  that  througliout  the  work  coarse- 
ness and  obscenity  are  frequent  and  prodigious.  Good  re- 
cent editions  are  by  Desraarets  and  Rathery  (3  vols..  Paris, 
1857-58) :  Marty-Laveaux  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1868-81) ;  Jannet 
(3  vols.,  Paris,  1858-72).  Cf.  E.  Gebhart,  Rabelais,  la  Re- 
naissance et  la  Reforme  (Paris,  1877) ;  P.  Stapfer,  Rabelais 
(Paris,  1889).  The  English  translation  by  Sir  Thomas  Ur- 
quhart  (1653),  continued  by  Motteux  (1693-94),  and  often  re- 
printed, is  a  famous  piece  of  traiislation.    A.  G.  Canpield. 

Rabeiier,  raa'bc-ner,  Gottlieb  Wilhelm  :  poet ;  b.  at 
Wachau,  near  Leipzig,  Germany,  Sept,  17,  1714;  studied 
law  at  Leipzig,  and  entered  the  civil  service  of  Sa.xony ;  d. 
at  Dresden,  Mar.  22,  1771.  He  gained  his  reputation  chief- 
ly as  a  satirist,  and,  like  his  friend  Gellert,  he  represents  the 
perfection  as  well  as  the  mediocrity  of  German  literature 
previous  to  the  classical  era.  Though  his  satires  seem  very 
tame  they  were  widely  read  and  admired  by  the  middle  class 
of  his  contemporaries.  See  P.  Richter,  Raheiier  und  Liskow 
(1884).  J.  G. 

Rabenhorst,  GoTTLOB  Ludwig:  botanist;  b.  at  Treuen- 
brietzen.  Brandenburg,  Prussia,  Mar.  22,  1806;  educated  in 
Universities  of  Berlin  and  .Jena,  resided  in  Luckau  and 
Dresden  from  1831  to  1875,  devoting  himself  after  1840  en- 
tirely to  botanical  studies.  His  most  important  publications 
are  Flora  Lusatica  (1839^0) ;  Deutschlands  Kryptogamen 
Flora  (1844-53) ;  Kryptogamen  Flora  von  Sachsen.  (1863-70) ; 
Flora  Etiropma  Algarum  (1864-68).  He  was  editor  of  Hed- 
wigia  (1853-71) ;  published  exsiccati  as  follows :  Algen  Sach- 
sens  (1,000  species,  1848-61) ;  HepaticcB  Eiiropcecc'  (with  Gott- 
sche,  660  species,  1856-78);  Bryolheca  Euro/nea  (1,450  spe- 
cies, 1858-75);  Lichenes  Europa'i  Exsiecitti  (900  species, 
185.5-79) ;  Cladonue.  Europmm  (380  species,  1860-63) ;  Algie 
Europc^m  Exsiccatm  (1,600  species,  1861-79) ;  Fungi  Europiei 
Exsiccati  (2,600  species,  1861-79),  D.  at  Meissen,  Apr.  24, 
1881.  Charles  E.  Bessey. 

Rabies;  an  extremely  fatal  infectious  disease  of  many 
animals.     In  man  it  is  generally  called  Hydrophobia  (q.  v.). 

Rabshakeh  [from  the  Assyrian  Rah-slidk-e,  chief  of  the 
officers] :  a  high  officer  in  the  Assyrian  army,  next  in  rank 
to  the  tartan,  or  field-marshal.  At  times  he  seems  also  to 
have  been  employed  as  interpreter  and  ambassador.  It  is 
he  who  carries  on  the  negotiations  with  the  officers  of  King 
Hezekiah  of  Judah  (703  B.  c.)  before  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
during  the  campaign  of  Sennacherib.  A  similar  officer  is 
sent  by  Tiglath-Pijeser  II.  on  a  mission  to  Tyre  (734  B.  c). 
See  Schrader,  Keilinschriften  imd  das  Alte  Testament  (2d 
ed.  Giessen,  1883,  p.  319);  Pried.  Delitzsch,  The  Hebrew 
Language  (London,  1883,  p.  1.3);  Thiele,  Bahylunisch- 
Assyrische  Oeschichte  (Gotha,  1856,  p.  497). 

Richard  Gottheil. 

Rabnlas  (or,  more  correctly,  Rabbnla) :  Bishop  of  Edessa 
and  the  predecessor  of  Ibas.  He  is  said  to  have  governed 
his  diocese  with  great  authority,  and  succeeded  in  suppress- 
ing the  various  heretical  sects  which  arose  before  the  Nes- 
torian  controversy.  D.  at  Edessa,  Aug.  8,  435.  Of  his  writ- 
ings, some  hymns  and  letters,  the  rules  he  drew  up  for  the 
monks,  ami  a  sermon  he  delivered  in  Constantinople  are  still 
extant.  They  were  edited  by  Overbeck  (Ephraemi  Syri  et 
RalmlcB  Edessini  Opera,  Oxford,  1865).  and  translated  into 
German  bv  Beckell  in  the  Kempten  Bihliothek  of  Church 
Fathers  (1874). 


Racahont,   raak'a-hoot,   or  Racaliont  des  Arabes;   a. 

starchy  food  prepared  in  Barbary  from  the  acorns  of  Quer- 
cus  ilex  and  Q.  ballota,  oaks  of  that  region.  It  is  flavored 
with  herljs,  and  is  sometimes  prescribed  for  invalids.  The 
racahont  of  confectioners  is  a  compound  of  starch  with  choc- 
olate, vanilla,  etc.,  sold  as  a  sweetmeat,  or  for  making  a 
beverage. 

Racalmii'to:  town  of  Sicily,  province  of  Girgenti;  on 
the  left  bank  of  an  affluent  of  the  Platani ;  about  15  miles 
N.  E.  of  the  town  of  Girgenti  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  10-F). 
The  neighboring  country  is  very  rich  in  grain,  vines,  olives, 
and  fruits,  and  abounds  in  sulphur,  saltpeter,  and  gypsum. 
Pop.  13,133. 

Racan,  raa'kaliiV,  Honorat  de  Bueil,  Marquis  de :  au- 
thor :  b.  at  La  Roche  Racan,  Touraine,  France,  in  1589. 
In  1605  he  became  page  at  tlie  court  of  Henry  IV.,  and  a 
few  years  later  served  a  short  time  in  the  army,  taking 
part  in  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle.  He  then  withdrew  to  his 
estate  and  devoted  himself  to  letters.  I),  in  1670.  He 
stood  under  the  influence  of  Malherbe,  but  was  too  indolent 
and  negligent  to  reach  his  polish  of  language  and  style. 
His  chief  work  is  a  pastoral  drama.  Les  Bergeries  (1618). 
He  wrote  also  odes,  sonnets,  epigrams,  and  a  paraphrase  of  the 
Psalms.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy. 
His  CEuvres  completes  were  edited  by  de  Latour  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1857).  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Racconigi.  ralik-ko-nee'jec  :  town  of  Northern  Italy,  prov- 
ince of  Cuneo;  on  tlie  right  bauk  of  the  Maira;  about  19 
miles  by  rail  S.  of  Turin  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  3-B).  It  is 
a  walled  town,  and  the  three  old  castles  of  Migliabruna,  of 
Carpanetto.  and  of  Bonavalle  are  in  its  remote  neighbor- 
hood, but  it  is  now  chiefly  known  for  the  royal  castle  and 
park  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  This  castle  was  originally  a 
fortress,  was  converted  into  something  like  a  villa  by  E. 
Piliberto  in  1681,  and  has  been  improved  by  successive 
princes  until  it  is  one  of  the  most  sumjituous  of  the  Italian 
royal  palaces.     Pop.  7,875. 

Raccoon,  Racoon,  or  more  often  Coon  [from  Amer.  Ind. 
arrathkiine.  whence  Fr.  raton.  raccoon  (in  form  adapted  to 
raton.  augment,  of  rat.  rat]:  the  common  name  for  a  small 
carnivorous  mammal,  Prorynn  lofor,  the  best-known  mem- 
ber of  the  family  Procyonidie.  a  group  nearly  related  to  the 
liears.  The  raccoon  is  about  2  feet  long,  without  the  tail ; 
the  body  is  stout,  tail  rather  short  and  bushy ;  feet  planti- 
grade, furnished  with  rather  slender  toes.  The  fore  feet  are 
well  fitted  for  grasping,  although  none  of  the  digits  are  op- 
posable, and  the  animal  climfis  well.     The  general  color  is- 


The  crab-eating  raccoon 


giav  the  tad  is. 
bushy  with  black 
and  white  rings  and 
there  is  a  conspicu- 
ous bl  ick  patch  on 
either  chi  tk  which 
include-,  tht  e\eand 
IS  surmounted  by  a 
whitish  m  Ilk  The 
raccoon  dwells  in 
omnivorous ;  though 


lioUow  trees,  and  is  nocturnal  and 
aquatic  animals  (fish,  mollusks,  and  crawfish)  form  a  large 
portion  of  its  food.  It  is  readily  tamed,  and  is  an  amusing 
but  mischievous  pet,  although  like  all  carnivores  subject  to 
sudden  outbreaks  of  temper.  It  has  the  peculiar  habit  of 
washing  its  food,  whence  the  sjiecific  name  of  lotor  (washer) 
and  the  German  name,  Waschbdr  (wash-bear).  It  is  found 
throughout  tlie  greater  part  of  the  U.  S.,  and  a  closely  relat- 
ed species,  Procyoii  eanerirora.  the  crali-eating  raccoon  or 
agonara,  larger  with  sliorler  fur  and  more  powerful  denti- 
tion, is  found  in  the  northern  jjarts  of  South  America. 

F.  A.  Lucas. 

Raccoon  Nation ;  See  Iroquoian  Indians. 

Race,  Cape :  See  Cape  Race. 


RACEMIC   ACID 


RACK 


893 


Race'mic  Acid  [raeemic  is  from  Lat.  racd'mus,  bunch  of 
gra|>e3  or  fruit],  also  called  I'aratartaric  Acid  and  L'vic 
Acid  (t'tlloOo) :  an  ai-id  found  with  tartarif  ai-id  in  j;rape- 
juioe,  and  identical  with  it  in  composition,  though  differing 
from  it  in  its  action  on  polarized  light  and  in  some  other 
characters.  It  was  discovered  by  Kestner  in  wines  of  cer- 
tain vintages.  It  may  also  be  formed  artilicially.  Uacomic 
acid  itself  has  no  action  on  polarized  light,  hui  by  certain 
treatment  may  be  sejiarated  into  two  isomeric  constituent.s, 
one  of  which  is  ordinary  dextro-rotatory  tartaric  acid,  and 
the  other  is  hevo-rotatory,  the  two  being  called  dexlro-tar- 
taric  and  kevo-tarUiric  acid.  Pasteur  found  certain  rela- 
tions between  the  modifications  of  the  crystals  of  the  two 
acids  and  the  action  on  polarized  light,  which  liave  attracted 
much  attention  on  account  of  a  theory  that  has  been  pro- 
posed to  account  for  them.     See  Stereo-chkmistry. 

Revised  by  Ika  KemSen. 

Rachel  [from  Ileb.  JiSeli'l,  liter.,  ewe]:  a  native  of 
Northern  Mesopotamia,  youngi^r  daugliter  of  Laban,  fa- 
vorite wife  of  .lacob,  and  mother  of  Joseph  and  Menjaniin. 
Her  tomb,  about  4  miles  from  Jerusalem  on  the  road  to 
Hethleheni,  though  of  modern  construction,  undoubtedly 
marks  the  site  of  her  burial,  described  in  Gen.  xxxv.  19,  20. 

Kaclicl,  rail  shel,  properly  Elisa  H.\rnF.L  Felix  :  actre.ss ; 
b.  at  .^Iumpf,  Switzerland,  Feb.  28,  1820,  daughter  of  a  wan- 
<lering  llel)rew  peddler.  In  Lyons,  Paris,  aixl  other  cities 
she,  with  her  sister  Sophia,  afterward  called  Sarah,  sang  at 
the  cnfes  and  on  the  boulevanls.  Choroii,  teacher  of  singing 
at  the  Royal  Institution,  attracted  by  their  voices,  took  them 
from  the  streets  and  gave  them  free  instruction.  _  In  1833 
they  were  admitted  to  the  Conservatoire,  where  Elisa  devel- 
oped more  dramatic  talent  than  musical.  In  1837  she  made 
an  unsuccessful  debut  at  the  Gymnasc.  but  in  1838  astonished 
and  captivated  Paris  by  her  performance,  at  the  Theatre 
Fran(;ais,  of  Camille  in  Les  Horaces.  Her  fame  and  fortune 
were  made.  The  classic  tragedies  of  Racine,  Corneille,  and 
Voltaire  were  revived;  her  intensity,  originality,  natural- 
ness, the  singular  expressiveness  of  her  face,  the  skill  of  her 
declamation,  made  a  new  era  in  dramatic  art.  She  jilayed, 
also,  with  great  power  Jeanne  d'Are,  Marie  Stuart,  Adrienne 
Lecouvreur  (the  play  by  that  name  was  written  for  her  by 
Legouve  and  Scribe),  and  other  characters.  In  IHTiry,  iii 
company  with  her  brother,  Raphael  Felix,  and  her  sisters, 
Sarah,  Lia,  and  Dinah,  she  went  to  the  U.  S..  but  after  she 
had  played  in  a  few  cities  failing  health  compelled  her  to 
desist.  She  returned  to  France,  and  died  at  Cannet.  near 
Cannes,  Jan. 3, 1858.  See  Janin,  yiVrc/ic/  fl  la  Trayi'die  (IS.W), 
and  the  Life  by  Mrs.  Kennard  (1885).  Rachel  was  slender, 
graceful,  not  beautiful,  and  had  a  jiale  complexion,  expressive 
features,  brilliant  eyes,  and  singularly  fascinating  presence. 
— Rapiiaki,  Felix  became  in  1868  director  of  the  Theatre 
Porte  .Saint-Martin  ;  Sarau  (d.  1877)  was  connected  w'ith  the 
Gymnase,  the  Pran(;ais.  and  the  Odeon  ;  Lia,  devoted  to  high 
tragedy,  distinguished  herself  most  at  the  i'orte  Saint-Mar- 
tin; Rebecca  died  in  1854.  having  been  five  years  .-it  the 
(,'omedie  Francjaise.  Revised  by  B.  B.  Valle.stine. 

Racine:  city  (settled  in  1836,  incorjOTrated  in  1848); 
capital  of  Racine  co.,  Wis. ;  on  Lake  Michigan,  at  the 
mouth  of  Root  river,  and  the  Chicago,  Jlilwaukee  and  St. 
Paul  and  the  Northwestern  railways;  25  miles  .S.  by  E. 
of  Milwaukee,  62  miles  N.  of  Chicago  (for  location,  see  map 
of  Wisconsin,  ref.  7-F).  It  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  on 
Lake  Michigan,  is  connected  with  the  princi]ial  lake  ports 
by  steamboat  and  propeller  lines,  and  has  considerable  ship- 
ping of  its  own.  The  city  is  laid  out  regularly  on  a  plateau 
40  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lake  and  6!)0  feet  above  that 
of  the  sea,  is  lighted  with  gas  and  electricity,  and  has  a  new 
system  of  water-works,  which  |irovides  an  abundant  supply 
of  water  from  the  lake.  There  are  3  national  banks  with 
coml)ined  capital  of  ^625,000,  a  State  bank  with  cajiital  of 
^lOO.DOO,  and  2  daily,  5  weekly,  a  semi-monthly,  and  2 
monthly  periodicals.  The  educational  institutions  include 
Racine  (.'ollege  (Protestant  Episcopal,  chartered  in  1853), 
St.  Catharine's  Academy  (Roman  Catliolic,  opened  in  1866), 
tlie  McMurphy  Ili^me  School  (Protestant  Episcoi)al,  opened 
in  1877),  and  Racine  Academy  (non-sectarian),  and  the  be- 
nevolent institutions,  St.  Luke's  Hospital  and  the  Taylor 
Orphan  Asylum.  There  are  four  libraries,  High  School, 
Racine  College,  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and  McMurphy's  Home  School) 
which  contain  over  14,000  volumes.  The  census  returns  of 
1890  showed  that  190  manufactturing  establishments  re- 
ported. These  had  a  condiined  capital  of  .^11,533.207,  em- 
ployed 4,872  persons,  paid  ^2,418,498  for  wages  and  .'j;4,340,- 


308  for  materials,  and  had  products  valued  at  $8,463,359. 

The  [irincipal  industries  w^ere  the  manufacture  of  agricul- 
tural implements,  which  had  II  establishments,  a  capital  of 
.^5,573.207,  and  products  valued  at  sl.H79.613  ;  of  carriages 
arul  wagons,  which  had  5  establishments,  a  capital  of  $2,347,- 
932,  and  products  valued  at  $1,902,536;  and  of  leather, 
trunks  ami  valises,  and  malt  liciuors.  Pop.  (1880)  16,031 ; 
(1890)  21,014;  (1895)24,889. 

Racine,  raliseen',  Jean  Baptiste  :  dramatic  jioet ;  b.  at 
La  Fcrle-Milon,  Aisne,  France,  Dec.  22,  1639.  lie  studied 
first  at  the  College  of  Beauvais,  then  at  Porl-Royal,  where 
he  underwent  the  influence  of  its  severe  moral  and  religious 
ideas,  and  under  such  ma.slcrs  as  Nicole,  Lancelot,  and 
Hamon  became  an  eager  and  proficient  student  of  the 
classic  literatures,  especially  that  of  Greece;  finally  at  the 
College  d'Harcourt,  at  Paris,  where  he  was  fascinate<l  by 
the  gayety  and  elegance  of  social  life.  He  renuiincd  at 
Paris  after  his  studies  were  finished,  mixing  with  men  of 
letters  and  giving  him.sclf  freely  to  the  pleasures  and  dissi- 
pations of  the  capital.  His  first  literary  venture,  Les 
Xfpnplies  de  Id  Seine,  an  ode  on  the  marriage  of  Louis 
.XiV.  (1660),  brought  him  some  praise  and  a  royal  gift  of 
100  louis.  His  habits  gave  concern  to  his  family,  and  he 
was  sent  to  an  uncle,  vicar  at  Uzes,  in  Languedoc,  to 
study  theology  and  qualify  himself  to  receive  a  benefice. 
The  efforts  of  his  uncle  to  secure  a  benefice  for  liim  met 
with  repealed  failure,  and  he  lost  patience  and  in  1662 
was  again  in  Paris,  where  he  offended  his  friends  of  Port- 
Royal  still  further  by  the  manner  of  his  life,  and  yielded 
fully  to  his  inclinations  for  the  theater,  which  they  were 
then  condemning.  In  his  first  tragedies.  La  Thi:ba~ide  (1664) 
and  Alextindre  (1665),  his  original  genius  is  less  conspicu- 
ous than  the  influence  of  Rotrou,  Corneille,  and  Quinault. 
In  his  next  play,  Andromaque  (1667),  he  achieved  a  new 
and  original  type  of  tragedy,  which  finds  the  constant  mo- 
tive of  conduct  in  the  passion  of  love  taken  at  a  moment 
of  crisis,  and  seeks  the  <lramatic  interest  entirely  in  the 
con<iuot  of  its  characters  under  the  play  of  this  motive. 
This  type  is  the  perfection  of  Fr(\nch  classic  tragedy,  and 
reappears  in  the  six  plays  that  followed  :  Brilannicux  (1669) ; 
lin-niice  (1670);  Bajakel  (1672);  Mi/firidate  (1673);  Iphi- 
ginie  (1674);  and  Pliedre  (1677).  In  all  he  follows  the  work- 
ing of  violent  passion,  especially  in  his  heroines,  with  great 
psychological  penetration.  To  these  plays,  to  which  an  ex- 
cellent comedy,  Les  Plaidenrs  (1668),  must  be  added,  he 
gave  a  rare  perfection  of  form  by  an  exqidsite  polish  of 
language  and  an  unequaled  harmony  of  versification.  The 
intrigues  of  jealous  rivals,  culminating  in  the  apparent 
failure  of  Ptiedre.  powerfully  seconded  by  a  recoil  in  his 
moral  attitude  toward  the  ideas  of  Port-Royal,  led  Racine 
to  almndon  the  theater.  This  recoil  amounted  to  a  conver- 
sion, and  he  even  thought  of  becoming  a  Carthusian  monk. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  married,  and,  with  Boileau,  was  ap- 
pointed royal  historiographer.  At  the  prayer  of  Madame  de 
Maintenon  he  wrote  for  her  schoolgirls  of  St.-Cyr  two  bibli- 
cal tragedies  with  chorus.  Esther  (1688)  and  the  masterpiece 
Athalie  (1691),  which  keep  the  qualities  of  his  earlier  works, 
exc'Cpt  tiiat  passions  of  another  order  are  substituted  for 
that  of  love.  After  this  he  wrote  only  letters,  epigrams, 
some  religious  verse,  and  a  short  Ilistoire  de  I'lirt-Iioyal. 
I).  Apr.  21,  1699.  He  had  entered  the  Academy  in  1673. 
The  best  edition  of  his_works  is  that  of  P.  Mesnard  in  the 
Collection  des  (irands  Ecrivains  de  la  Prance  (8  vols,  and 
2  albums.  Paris,  1865-73).  See  P.  Robert,  IjU  Poetique  de 
Racine  (Paris,  1890) ;  P.  Stapfer,  Racine  et  Victor  Hugo 
(Paris,  1887) ;  F.  Brunetiere,  Les  Epoques  du  theatre  fran- 
fais  (Paris,  1892).  A.  G.  Canfield. 

Racine,  Loris  :  author ;  son  of  .lean  Baptiste  Racine  ; 
b.  in  Paris.  Nov.  2,  1692.  His  education  was  directed  by 
Boileau  and  Kollin.  and  he  grew  up  with  the  religious  senti- 
ments of  Port-Royal.  He  wrote  memoirs  on  his  father's  life, 
and  religious  and  didactic  poems  which  possess  grace  and 
elegance,  but  lack  spirit  and  interest.  The  most  important 
are  La  Grace  (1720).  in  four  cantos,  and  La  Religion  (1742), 
in  six  cantos.     I),  in  Paris,  Jan.  29,  1763.  A.  G.  C. 

Racing':  See  Horse-racino. 

Racli  :  a  kind  of  liquor.     See  Arrack. 

Rack  :  a  certain  gait  of  a  horse.     See  Gaits. 

Racli  [M.  Eng.  racke ;  cf.  Dutch  re/c,  rek-bank ;  Germ. 
reck,  reek-hunk,  rack:  reeken,  stretch -I- i«»/i",  bench]:  an 
engine  of  judicial  torture  formerly  much  employed  in  Eu- 
rope to  compel  accused  persons  to  plead  guilty  and  to  ob- 


894 


RACKAROCK 


RADIOMETER 


tain  satisfactory  testimony  from  recusant  witnesses.  It  was 
introduced  into  England  in  1447  by  the  Duke  of  Exeter  as  con- 
stable of  the  Tower  of  London.  In  1628  it  was  pronounced 
illegal  by  the  courts.  The  victim  was  sti'etched  upon  a  plat- 
form of  wood ;  cords  were  attached  to  his  limbs,  and  then 
strained  by  pulleys  until  the  sufferer  yielded  or  had  his 
joints  dislocated. 

Raekarock  :  See  Explosives  (Tlie  Chlorates). 

Rackets,  or  Racquets  [from  O.  Fr.  rachette  >  Fr.  ra- 
quette.  from  Span,  raqueta,  racket,  battledore,  palm  of  the 
hand  (tennis  being  originally  playe<l  with  the  palm  of  the 
hand),  perhaps  from  Arab,  raha't,  palm  of  the  hand] :  a 
game  originally  similar  to  tennis,  now  played  with  ball  and 
racket-bat  in  a  closed  court,  about  60  feet  long  and  30  wide. 
The  front  wall  has  two  lines  marked  on  it.  the  first  (play- 
line)  2  feet  from  the  floor  and  the  second  (service-line)  8 
feet.  The  half  of  the  floor-space  farthest  from  the  front 
wall  is  marked  off  into  two  courts  by  a  line  midway  be- 
tween the  side  walls.  One  player  stands  in  each  court.  The 
first  serves  the  ball  so  that  it  may  rebound  from  the  front 
wall  above  the  service-line  and  strike  in  the  opposite  court, 
the  second  returns  it  above  the  play-line,  and  so  on.  The 
server  is  allowed  one  "  fault " ;  i.e.  if  on  his  first  attempt  the 
ball  strikes  between  the  two  lines,  or  rebounds  to  a  part  of 
the  floor  not  his  opponent's  court,  and  the  second  player 
declines  to  return  it,  he  may  serve  again.  If  the  second 
player  fails  to  return  the  ball  properly  the  first  scores  one  ; 
if  the  server  fails,  his  "hand  is  out"  and  his  opponent  serves. 
The  one  who  first  scores  fifteen  wins. 

Radbertus,  Paschasius  :  one  of  the  most  prominent  ec- 
clesiastical writers  of  the  Carolingian  age ;  b.  toward  the 
close  of  the  eighth  century ;  entered  the  monastery  of  Corbie, 
in  Picardy,  in  814.  The  favorite  pupil  of  Abbot  Adalbard, 
a  relative  of  Charlemagne.  Radbertus  became  teacher  in  the 
cloistral  school,  and  in  844  he  was  elected  abbot,  but,  being 
unable  to  maintain  discipline  in  the  monastery,  he  resigned 
in  851.  A  complete  and  critical  edition  of  his  extant  works 
was  published  by  Sirmond  (Paris,  1618)  and  reprinted  in 
Migne,  Patrol.  Latin.  By  far  the  most  interesting  is  his  De 
Corpore  et  Sanguine  Domini,  in  which  he  exposed  the  doe- 
trine  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  on  the  Eucharist.  This 
book  became  famous  because  of  the  controversies  it  gave 
rise  to  in  the  following  century,  when  Hrabanus  Maurus,  Ra- 
tramnus,  Scotus  Erigena,  and  others  opposed  certain  of  its 
tenets,  but  their  opposition  was  based  on  a  misunderstand- 
ing of  the  text.  See  Wetzer  and  Welte,  Kirdienlexikon,  and 
Ebert,  Oeschichte  der  Literatur  des  Mittelalters,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
230.  The  best  text  of  this  little  work  is  in  Martene  and  Du- 
rand,  Amplissima  Collectio  (vol.  ix.,  Paris,  1723). 

Revised  by  J.  J.  Keaxe. 

Radcliife,  Ann  (Ward):  novelist;  b.  in  London,  Eng- 
land, July  9,  1764 ;  married  in  1786  William  Radelitfe.  sub- 
sequently editor  of  Tlie  English  Chronicle:  published  sev- 
eral romances  notable  for  their  wild  and  fantastic  plots,  of 
which  The  Mysferies  of  Vdolpho  (1794)  is  the  only  one  re- 
membered. Others  once  popular  were  TVie  Sicilian  Ro- 
mance (1790).  The  Romance  of  the  Forest  (1791),  and  The 
Italian  (1797).  D.  in  London,  Feb.  7,  1823.  Her  writings 
had  considerable  influence  upon  the  literature  of  the  time, 
and  even  Byron  was  among  her  imitators.  A  Memoir  by 
Talt'ourd  appeared  in  1826,  introducing  the  posthumous  ro- 
mance Oaston  de  Blondville,  and  a  collection  of  her  poems 
was  issued  in  1834.  Revised  by  H.  A.  Beers. 

Radcliffe,  Charles  Bland,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  C.  P. :  physician; 
b.  at  Brigg,  Lincolnshire,  England,  June  2,  1822  ;  M.  B., 
London  University,  in  1843  and  M.  D.  in  1851 ;  became  phy- 
sician to  the  Westminster  Hospital  in  1857  and  to  the  Na- 
tional Hospital  for  the  Paralyzed  and  Epileptic  in  1863  : 
was  lecturer  on  botany  in  the  medical  school  of  Westminster 
Hospital  1850-54,  and  lectured  on  materia  raedica  1854-60 : 
was  Gulstonian  lecturer  in  1860  and  Croonian  lecturer  in 
1873  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians.  He  was  joint  ed- 
itor of  Rankin's  Abstract  of  the  Medical  Sciences  from 
1852-64.  Among  his  published  works  are  Proteus,  or  the 
Law  of  Nature  (London.  1850):  The  Philosoph;/  of  Vital 
Motion  (London,  1851);  Epilepsg  and  other  Affections  of 
the  Nervous  Si/stem  (London,  1854);  Dynamics  of  Nerve 
and  Muscle  (London.  1871) :  and  articles  in  Reynolds's  Sys- 
tem of  Medicine.     I).  June  18.  1889.        S.  T.  Armstrong. 

Kadcliife  Collogre:  See  Harvard  LTnitersity. 

Radetzky,  raVdet  ske"e,  Joha.nn  Joseph  Wenzel  Anton 
Franz  Karl,  Count :   soldier ;   b.  at  Trzebnitz,  Bohemia, 


Nov.  2,  1766  ;  entered  the  Austrian  array  in  1784;  fought 
with  distinction  at  Asperu  and  Wagram  in  1809,  and  at 
Kulra  and  Leipzig  in  1815  ;  was  made  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Austrian  troops  in  Italy  in  1831,  and  field-marshal  in 
1836 ;  put  down  the  revolution  in  Milan  and  Venice  in  1848, 
though  then  over  eighty  years  old ;  won  the  victories  at 
Custozza  and  Novara  over  the  Piedmontese,  and  governed 
the  Austrian  possessions  in  Italy  to  Feb.  28,  1857,  when  he 
resigned.  D.  at  Milan,  Jan.  5, 1858.  See  Radetzky's  Denk- 
u'Urdigkeiten  in  Mittheitungen.  des  kaiserlichen  Kriegsar- 
chivs  (1887),  and  Kunz,  Die  Feldzuge  des  Feldmarschalls 
Radetzky  in  Oberitalien  (1890). 

Radiata  [from  Lat.  radiatiis,  having  spokes  or  rays, 
jierf.  partic.  of  radio  re,  furnish  with  spokes  or  rays,  de- 
riv.  of  ra  dins,  spoke] :  one  of  the  four  great  groups  or 
brancjies  into  which  Cuvier  divided  the  animal  kingdom, 
and  which  included  those  forms  in  which  the  parts  radiated 
from  a  central  axis  like  the  spokes  from  the  hub  of  a  wheel. 
It  included,  as  limited  by  liim,  the  Ca4enterates,Ctenophores, 
Gephyrea,  Polyzoa,  Protozoa,  and  Parasitic  Worms  of  later 
zoologists.  It  was  soon  found  that  some  of  these  forms  had 
other  affinities,  and  the  clear  definition  by  Leuckart  of  the 
Ccelenterafa  and  Echinodermata  gave  the  death-blow  to  the 
ill-assorted  group,  which  disappeared  from  European  works 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  lingered  in 
the  U.  S.  for  twenty  years  more.  J.  S.  Kinqsley. 

Radiation  :  See  Heat  and  Climate. 

Radical  Axis:  a  line  related  to  two  circles  and  deter- 
mined by  the  condition  that  the  tangents  from  any  point 
upon  it  to  the  circles  are  equal  in  length.  If  the  circles  in- 
tersect it  is  their  common  chord.  S.  N. 

Radicals  [from  Lat.  radica'lis,  deriv.  of  radix,  root,  ori- 
gin, foundation],  in  chemistry  sometimes  called  Radicles: 
a  term  applied  to  a  group  of  elements  that  can  pass  un- 
changed through  a  series  of  compounds  by  chemical  reac- 
tions. Thus  in  the  salts  formed  by  ammonia  with  acids  the 
presence  of  the  hypothetical  radical  ammonium,  XH4,  is  as- 
sumed. So,  too,  in  all  cyanogen  compounds  the  group  CN 
is  assumed.  Among  the  compounds  of  carbon  such  groups 
are  very  common,  so  much  so  that  Liebig  proposed  the  name 
chemistry  of  the  compound  radicals  for  organic  chemistry. 
Thus  Alcohol  {q.  v.)  is  a  compound  of  the  group  or  radical 
ethyl,  C2H5,  with  the  group  or  radical  hydroxyl,  OH.  Or 
alcohol  is  the  hydrate  of  this  radical ;  ether  is  the  oxide, 
(CjHs)20 ;  chlorcthane  the  chloride,  CjHbCI,  etc.  Some  of 
these  organic  radicals  are  called  residues  or  rests.  Thus 
ethyl,  CjHb,  is  the  residue  or  rest  of  ethane,  C'gHa.  It  is  that 
which  is  left  after  one  atom  of  hydrogen  has  been  removed. 
The  theory  of  radicals  played  an  extremely  important  part 
in  the  development  of  the  science  of  chemistry.  I.  R. 

Radiograpli :  See  X-rays. 

Radiola'ria  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Lat.  radius,  a  ray] :  a  sub- 
class of  Rhizopodous  Protozoa  which  occur  in  the  sea,  at 
times  extremely  abundant.  They  have  the  body  divided 
into  two  portions,  inner  and  outer,  by  a  perforated  mem- 
brane. In  the  inner  portion  is  the  nucleus,  while  the  outer 
contains  no  nuclei,  but  gives  rise  to  numerous  radiating 
filaments  of  protoplasm  (pseudopodia).  There  is  in  addi- 
tion, frequently,  a  skeleton,  either  horny  or  siliceous,  and 
often  of  extreme  beauty.  The  central  protoplasm  alone  is 
concerned  in  reproduction,  and  in  it  are  found  flagellate 
spores  which  in  turn  develop  into  Actinophrys-Mka  embryos. 
(See  Heliozoa.)  Haeckel,  in  his  great  monograph  of  the 
Radiolaria  collected  by  the  Challenger  expedition,  recog- 
nizes 739  genera  and  4,318  species  of  these  pelagic  organ- 
isms. Many  forms  are  interesting  from  the  fact  that  they 
contain  "  yellow  cells  "  which  are  known  to  be  unicellular 
alg*  living  symbiotically  with  the  Radiolarians.  See  Sym- 
biosis. J.  S.  KiNGSLEY. 

Radioni'eter  [from  Lat.  radius,  ray.  radia're,  radiate 
-I-  Gv.  lierpoy.  measure] :  in  physics,  any  instrument  for  the 
detection  and  measurement  of  radiant  heat.  One  of  the 
earliest  forms  was  the  differential  thermometer  of  Leslie, 
which  consisted  of  two  glass  bulbs,  the  necks  of  which  were 
joined.  The  air  contained  within  these  bulbs  is  separated 
by  means  of  a  column  of  liquid.  In  order  to  prevent  liquid 
from  collecting  in  the  bulbs  the  tube  which  joins  the  two  is 
generally  bent  twice  at  right  angles,  and  the  instrument  is 
mounted  so  that  the  bulbs  are  uppermost.  (Sec  Fig.  1.)  One 
of  these  bulbs  being  subjected  to  the  radiant  heat  while  the 
other  was  protected,  the  expansion  of  the  atmosphere  in  the 
heated  bulb  served  to  drive  the  liquid  column  along  the  tube, 


RADIOMETER 


RADOWITZ 


895 


bringing  it  to  rest  in  some  position  other  than  that  which 
the  Squid  would  occupy  when  the  temperatures  of  tlie  two 
bulbs  were  the  same.  By  means  of  tliis 
simple  device  Leslie  discovered  many  of 
the  important  facts  concerning  radiant 
encrjiy. 

The  TiiKBMOPlLE  (q.  v.).  which  in  the 
hiiMils  of  Melloni  yielded  such  remarkable 
results,  is  also  to  be  classified  as  a  radiom- 
eter. It  is,  indeed,  with  the  possilile  ex- 
ception of  the  Bolometer  i.q.  v.).  the  most 
important  instrument  for  the  study  of  ra- 
diation. Whether  the  thermopile,  which 
enables  us  to  measure  radiant  energy  by 
means  of  the  electromotive  force  which  is 
generated  by  the  difference  of  temperature 
between  its  junctions,  or  the  bolometer,  an 
instrument  which  indicates  temperature 
through  the  variation  in  the  electrical  re- 
sistance of  a  wire  or  strip  of  metal  which 
is  exposed  to  the  rays,  the  intensity  of 
which  it  is  desired  to  measure,  is  the  more 
sensitive  is  as  yet  an  open  question.  The 
bolometer  has,  however,  one  very  great  advantage  (Jver  the 
thermopile  in  that  its  mass  may  be  reduced  to  an  exceeding- 
ly small  quantity.  Possessing  small  mass,  it  is  susceptible 
to  very  rapid  fluctuations  of  temperature,  and  is  ca[]able  of 
following  sudden  changes  much  more  accurately  than  can 
be  done  by  means  of  the  ordinary  form  of  thermopile. 

Many  other  forms  of  radiometer  have  been  described,  for 
some  of  which  a  degree  of  delicacy  surpassing  that  attain- 
able with  either  of  the  instruments  just  mentioned  is 
claimed.  Tlie  best  known  of  these  are  the  thermo-galva- 
nometer  of  d'Arsouval,  the  tasimeter  of  Edison,  and  the 
selenium  cell.  The  thermo-galvanoraeter,  which,  under  the 
name  of  the  radio-micrometer,  has  been  developed  and  util- 
ized by  Boys,  consists  of  a 
very  small  light  thermo-cou- 
ple of  bismuth  and  antimony 
closed  upon  itself  so  as  to 
form  a  complete  circuit.  (See 
Fig.  2.)  The  same  is  sus- 
pended in  a  strong  magnetic 
field  by  means  of  a  quartz- 
fiber.  When  one  of  the  bis- 
nuith-antimony  junctions  is 
exposed  to  radiation  differ- 
ences of  potential  arise,  and 
since  the  circuit  is  of  low  resistance  a  considerable  current 
flows.  In  consequence  of  this  current  the  suspended  ther- 
mo-element  tends  to  turn  in  tlie  field,  and  the  movement  is 
noted  by  means  of  a  very  small  light  mirror  and  a  telescope 
and  scale. 

The  tasimeter  depends  for  its  action  upon  the  change  of 
contact  resistance  of  carbon  with  change  of  pressure.     A 

vulcanite  strip  is  so  placed 
that  one  end  of  it  rests  upon 
a  microphone  butt(m.  Vul- 
canite possesses  a  large 
coefficient  of  expansion. 
When  subjected  to  radia- 
tion its  elongation  is  suffi- 
cient to  materially  com- 
press the  carbon  button, 
reducing  the  resistance  of 
the  .same  and  thereby  in- 
creasing the  flow  of  the 
current  through  a  galva- 
nometer in  circuit  with  the 
latter.  Neither  of  these 
forms  has  been  found  to  be 
so  serviceable  as  the  bolom- 
eter or  the  thermopile, 
although  an  almost  incred- 
ible sensitiveness  has  been 
claimed  for  both. 

A  method  for  the  meas- 
urement of  radiant  heat 
was  described  by  Knut 
Angstrom  in  189:?  (see 
Physical  Reiltw,  vol.  i.,  i>. 
365),  which,  although  not  of  exceeding  sensitiveness,  alTords 
a  very  accurate  means  of  comparing  radiant  intensities. 
Angstrom's  instrument  takes  advant«gc  of  the  principles  of 


Fio.  2. 


mi  w\ 


Fig.  3. 


Fio.  4. 


both  bolometer  and  thermopile.  It  consists  of  two  similar 
strips  of  metal  (a  and  b.  Fig.  3),  one  of  which  is  exposed  to 
radiation,  while  the  other  is  shielded.  These  strips  are  in 
contact  with  the  opposite  junctions  of  a  therrao-element,/, 
which  is  placed  in  circuit  with  a  sensitive  galvanometer. 
By  means  of  the  heating  action  of  an  electric  current  gen- 
erated in  the  battery,  t.',  the  temperature  of  the  protected 
strip  is  brought  into  equilibrium  with  that  of  the  exposed 
strip,  a  condition  which  is  indicated  by  the  reduction  of  the 
galvanometer  deflection  to  zero. 

A  very  sensitive  radiometer  is  that  which  is  based  upon 
the  remarkable  changes  in  the  conductivity  of  selenium 
when  this  substance  is  exposed  to  light.  The  selenium  ra- 
diometer has  been  found  a  very  unsatisfactory  instrument, 
however,  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  of  its  action.  Its 
sensitiveness  to  radiation  deiiends  upon  instability  of  molec- 
ular structure.  Like  all  other  changes  which  consist  in  the 
breaking  down  of  molecular  arrangement, 
this  is  of  great  irregularity,  and  beyond  ac- 
curate control. 

The  instrument  with  which  the  name  ra- 
diometer is  most  generally  connected  is,  in 
the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  not  a  radiome- 
ter at  all.  The  apparatus  in  question  is 
Crookcs's  radiometer  (Fig.  4).  It  consists  of 
a  set  of  four  mica-veins  mounted  at  the  ends 
of  arms  and  revolving  upon  a  needle-point. 
The  arrangement  is  inclosed  in  a  glass  bulb 
from  which  the  air  has  been  exhausted  by 
means  of  the  mercury-pump.  Crookes  found 
that  when  the  atmosphere  reached  a  certain 
degree  of  attenuation  these  mica-veins  began 
to  revolve  under  the  action  of  light.  The 
phenomenon  attracted  great  attention  and 
many  ,  investigations  concerning  it  were 
made.  The  result  of  these  studies  has  been 
to  show  that  the  instrument  is  entirely  un- 
fitted for  use  as  a  measurer  of  radiant  ener- 
gy. The  phenomena  which  the  instrument  presents  are  in 
themselves,  however,  of  great  interest. 

For  a  description  of  Crookes's  radiometer,  see  Crookes, 
Quarterli/  Journal  of  Science  (1876):  Schuster,  I'roc.  Royal 
Society  (1876) ;  Stoney,  Phil.  Mag.  (1876).    E.  L.  Nichols. 

Radish  [from  0.  Fr.  radis,  radish,  Lat.  radix,  root, 
whenc-e  0.  H.  Germ,  rdtih  (  >  Mod.  Germ,  reitich)  and  0. 
Eng.  rd'dic,  radish] :  the  Raphatms  safivus,  a  cruciferous 
plant,  a  native  of  Asia,  cultivated  for  its  root,  and  used  as  a 
table  relish.  The  root  is  stimulant,  diuretic,  and  antiscor- 
butic. The  seeds  of  some  varieties  yield  an  oil  almost  iden- 
tical with  rape  and  colza  oil. 

Radius  [Lat.  ra'dius,  spoke,  ray] :  the  outer  bone  of  the 
forearm,  on  the  same  side  with  the  thumb.  It  is  parallel 
with  the  ulna,  which  is  larger  than  the  radius,  and  enters 
much  more  closely  into  the  formation  of  the  elbow-joint, 
while  the  radius  forms  the  joint  with  wrist-bones.  Thus 
the  hand  of  man  acquires  its  susceptibility  of  rotation. 

Radnorsliire  :  a  county  of  South  Wales,  adjoining  two 
English  counties — Shropshire  on  the  N.  and  Hereford  on 
the  E.  Area,  433  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  irregular  and 
mountainous,  reaching  an  altitude  of  2,163  feet  in  Radnor 
Forest ;  more  than  half  of  the  soil  is  bog  and  moorland.  Of 
the  latter,  however,  the  larger  part  has  been  reclaimed,  and 
is  under  cultivation.  The  valleys  afford  rich  pasturage  for 
larg(!  hi'rds  of  cattle.  Barley,  oats,  and  potatoes  are  grown  ; 
cattle  and  sheep  are  reared.  Principal  towns.  Presteign  and 
New  Radnor.  Radnorshire  returns  one  member  to  Parlia- 
ment.    Pop.  (1891)  21,791. 

Radowitz,  raa'do-wits,  .Iosepii  Maria,  von  :  soldier  and 
statesman  ;  b.  at  Blankenburg,  Brunswick,  Germany,  Feb.  6, 
1797;  received  his  military  education  at  Paris  and  Cassel; 
fought  ill  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1815;  taught  mathe- 
matics at  the  military  school  of  Cassel:  removed  in  1823  to 
Prussia,  and  held  high  military  and  diplomatic  positions,  and 
fur  a  short  time  in  1850  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Frankfort  Parliament  in  1848,  and 
on  its  dissolution  was  the  chief  agent  in  bringing  about  the 
union  of  llie  three  kingdoms,  an  attempt  to  found  a  united 
German  state  under  the  leadership  of  Prussia.  D.  in  Berlin, 
Pec.  25,  1853.  His  Oe.'tpruclie  i/k.v-  der  (legenwart  fiber  Staat 
nnd  Kirche  (Stuttgart,  i.,  1840:  ii.,  1851)  and  Oesammelte 
Schriften  (5  vols.,  Berlin,  1852-53)  derive  their  principal  in- 
terest from  the  friendship  an<l  community  of  ideas  between 
the  author  and  Frederick  William  IV. 


896 


rIdulescu 


RAGNAROK 


Radulescu,  Ioan  Eliade  :  See  Heliade,  Jean. 

Kae,  John,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.  :  Arctic  explorer :  b.  in  the  Ork- 
ney islands  (1813) ;  studied  medicine  at  Edinburgh;  entered 
the  service  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  as  a  surgeon  1833  ; 
for  ten  years  lived  at  Moose  Factory  :  made  a  boat  journey 
(1846)  along  Hudson  Bay  to  Repulse  Bay;  surveyed  (1847) 
700  miles  of  new  coast-line,  connecting  surveys  of  Ross  in 
Boothia  with  those  of  Parry  at  Fury  and  Hecla  Strait.  The 
only  book  he  published  was  an  account  of  this  expedition, 
Narrative  of  an  Expedition,  to  the  IShores  of  the  Arctic  Sea 
(1850).  He  took  part  in  the  expedition  (1848)  down  the 
Mackenzie  river  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  and  ex- 
plored the  whole  coast  of  tlie  Arctic  Sea  between  the  Mac- 
kenzie and  the  (Joppermine  rivers.  He  explored  and  mapped 
700  miles  of  coast  (1851).  the  south  shores  of  Wollaston  Land 
and  Victoria  Land.  He  proved  the  insular  character  of  King 
William  Land  (1853),  elicited  from  the  Eskimos  the  first  in- 
formation obtained  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  fate,  and  secured 
many  relics  of  that  party.  For  this  discovery  he  received 
the  admiralty  grant  of  $50,000.  He  was  a  gold-medalist  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and  attributed  his  success 
in  Arctic  travel  to  his  ability  to  live  in  Eskimo  fashion. 
D.  in  England,  July,  1893.  Revised  by  C.  C.  Adams. 

Raff,  Joseph  Joachim  :  composer ;  b.  at  Lachen,  Switz- 
erland, May  27,  1822 ;  owing  to  poverty  was  able  to  study 
music  only  at  intervals;  supported  himself  by  teaching  till 
he  was  twenty-four  years  of  age,  and  then  on  the  advice  of 
Mendelssohn  Joined  his  class;  but  the  death  of  Mendelssohn 
occurring  soon  after  altered  his  plans.  He  had  many  strug- 
gles, and  encountered  much  opposition,  but  force  of  char- 
acter, persistency,  and  real  musical  talent  enabled  him  to 
overcome  them  and  to  gain  an  eminent  place  in  the  ranks 
of  composers.  He  was  director  of  the  conservatory  at 
Frankfort-on-the-]Main  from  1877  till  his  death  June  25, 
1882.  His  works  include  eleven  symphonies,  including  Im 
Walde,  one  of  the  best  of  modern  works,  an  oratorio.  Das 
Weltyericht.  several  operas  and  cantatas,  very  many  sonatas 
for  piano,  for  violin,  and  other  instruments,  much  chamber 
music,  songs,  and  many  other  pieces.  His  numbered  works 
run  up  to  Opus  216.  He  was  a  vigorous  writer  as  well  as 
composer,  and  contributed  many  articles  to  the  German 
papers  advocating  the  Wagner  school.  D.  E.  Hervey.  • 

Raffles,  Sir  Thomas  Stamford:  administrator  and  eth- 
nologist ;  b.  at  sea  off  Point  Morant,  Jamaica,  July  5,  1781 ; 
son  of  a  sea-captain  in  the  West  India  trade;  obtained  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  an  assistant-clerkship  in  the  East  India 
House.  In  1805  he  was  appointed  assistant  secretary  to  the 
government  of  Pulo  Penang  (Prince  of  Wales  islaiiil),  and 
in  1807  he  was  made  ju-incipal  secretary.  He  soon  became 
a  leading  authority  ujion  the  ethnology  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago. He  was  secretary  to  the  Governor-General  of  India, 
Lord  Minto,  during  tlie  expedition  against  Java  1811 ;  was 
made  lieutenant-governor  of  the  newly  acquired  colony, 
and  administered  that  important  island  and  its  dependen- 
cies with  great  judgment  for  five  years.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land on  account  of  ill  health,  he  was  knighted  in  1817,  and 
published  his  History  nf  Java  (2  vols.,  1817).  Java  having 
been  restored  to  the  Dutch,  Raffles  was  in  1818  made  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  the  settlement  at  Fort  Marlborough, 
Bencoolen,  on  the  coast  of  Sumatra.  While  in  Sumatra  he 
emancipated  the  slaves,  formed  the  new  British  settlement 
of  Singapore  (1819),  endowed  there  a  college  for  the  study 
of  Malay  and  Chinese  literature,  and  published  Malni/a'n 
Ilisrellanies  (2  vols.,  Bencoolen,  1820-23).  He  returned  to 
England  in  1824,  and  founded  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London,  of  which  he  was  the  first  president.  D.  in  London, 
July  5,  1S26.     See  the  3Iemoir  by  his  widow  (1830). 

Raffle'sia  [Mod.  Lat.,  named  for  its  discoverer.  Sir  T. 
Stamford  Raffles  (1781-1826)]:  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
family  Rafflesiacerp,  natives  of  Sumatra  and  Java,  and  par- 
asitic upon  stems  and  roots  of  Cissiis.  They  are  greatly 
degraded,  and  are  nearly  stemless,  rootless,  "and  leafless, 
being  little  more  than  niere  flowers,  with  a  few  scales  for 
leaves;  the  .seeds  are  rudimentary,  and  the  embryo  small  and 
few-celled.  The  jilant  has  a  fungus-like,  fleshy" appearance, 
and  a  strong  odf)r  of  carrion.  Ji.  arnoldi  is  considered  the 
largest  flower  in  the  world.  It  is  .S  feet  in  diameter,  and  has 
been  known  to  weigh  15  lb.  It  is  worshiped  by  the  .lava- 
nese.  R.  palma  has  strong  styptic  power.  R.  horsfieldii  is 
but  3  inches  across.  Revised  by  Charles  E.  B'essey. 

Raflnesqiip,  Constantine  Samuel:  naturalist;  b.  of 
French-German  parents  at  Galata,  Constantinople,  in  1784. 


His  mother's  name  being  Schmaltz,  he  took  for  a  time  the 
name  Rafinesque-Schmaltz.  lie  was  sent  to  the  U.  S.  in 
1802,  landing  at  Philadelphia;  he  soon  developed  a  fond- 
ness for  natural  history ;  made  many  excursions  for  col- 
lecting botanical  specimens;  went  to  Leghorn  1805.  and 
thence  to  Sicily,  where  he  resided  ten  years,  and  jjublished 
(in  Italian)  several  scientific  works:  sailed  for  New  York 
1815 :  lost  by  shipwreck  on  the  coast  of  Long  Island  all  his 
effects,  including  valuable  books,  manuscripts,  and  collec- 
tions ;  was  for  some  years  Professor  of  Botany  in  Transyl- 
vania University,  Lexington,  Ky. ;  traveled  and  lectured  in 
other  States;  settled  finally  at  Philadelphia;  wrote  many 
monographs  in  various  branches  of  natural  history,  especially 
Ichtliyologia  0/tioensis  (Lexington,  1820);  published  ^n/w/s 
of  Kentucky  (1824),  The  American  Florist  (1832),  Atlantic 
journal  and  Friend  of  Knowledge  (8  numbers,  1832-33), 
Tlie  American  Nations' (2  vols.,  1836),  3Iedical  Flora  of  the 
United  States  (2  vols.,  1828-30),  A  Life  of  Travel  and  Re- 
searches (1836),  and  other  works.  D.  in  Philadel|)hia,  Sept. 
18,  1842.  The  Writings  of  S.  ('.  Rafinesgue  on  Recent  and 
Fossil  Conchology  was  edited  by  W.  G.  Binney  and  G.  W. 
Tryon,  Jr.  (Philadelphia,  1864).  See  An  Eccentric  Natural- 
ist in  Science  Sketches  by  Jordan.  Rafinesque  was  a  man 
of  largiJ  learning,  quick  insight,  and  great  energy,  but  all 
his  work  is  vitiated  by  an  insatiate  desire  for  novelties  and 
a  lack  of  recognition  of  the  value  of  exact  statement. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 
Rafii.  Carl  Christian  :  scholar ;  b.  at  Brahesborg,  isl- 
and of  Fiinen,  Denmark,  Jan.  16,  1795  ;  studied  at  the  LTni- 
versity  of  Copenhagen  ;  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  uni- 
versity in  1821 ;  and  founded  in  1825  the  Society  of  North- 
ern Antiquities.  D.  in  Copenhagen,  Oct.  20, 1864.  Besides  a 
number  of  critical  editions,  like  KrdJcumdl  (1826),  Forncdd- 
ar  Sogur  (3  vols.,  1829),  Fdreyinga  Saga  (1832),  and  parts 
of  Fornmanna-  Sogur  (12  vols.,  1828,  seg.),  and  minor  essays, 
he  wrote  Antiguitates  Americanm  (1837),  Oronlands  his- 
toriske  ilindesnuerker  (3  vols.,  1838—45),  and  Antiguites 
russes  et  orientates  (3  vols..  1850-54).  In  his  Antiguitates 
Americanw  he  gave  the  first  pojiular  account  of  the  Norse 
discovery  of  America.  Revised  by  D.  K.  Dodge. 

Raglan,  Fitzrot  James  Henry  Somerset,  Baron  :  son  of 
the  fifth  Duke  of  Beaufort ;  soldier;  b.  in  England.  Sept.  30, 
1788;  educated  at  Westminster  School;  entered  the  army 
1804;  accompanied  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in  the  Spanish 
Peninsula  as  a  member  of  his  staff,  rising  to  the  position 
of  aide-de-camp  and  military  secretary  1807;  was  wounded 
at  Busnco  1810  :  distinguished  himself  at  Badajoz  1812  ;  was 
wounded  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo;  was  knighted  and  made 
colonel;  was  secretary  of  embassy  at  Paris  1816-19;  entered 
Parliament  as  a  Conservative  1818  and  1826 ;  was  appointed 
master-general  of  the  ordnance  Sept.,  1852 ;  was  made  Baron 
Raglan  Oct.,  1852 ;  commanded  the  British  expedition  to 
the  Crimea,  with  the  rank  of  general.  Mar.,  1854;  defeated 
the  Russians  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma  Sept.  20;  fought  the 
battles  of  Balaklava,  Oct.  25,  and  Inkerniann,  Nov.  5.  and 
was  made  field-marshal  Nov.,  1854.  The  criticisms  wliich 
were  made  on  his  command,  on  account  of  the  sufferings  of 
tlie  troops,  and  the  fearful  repulse  he  suffered  on  June  18 
weighed  upon  his  mind,  and  he  died  in  the  camp  before 
Sebastopol  on  June  28,  1855.  His  military  papers  formed  a 
part  of  the  material  for  Kinglake"s  History  of  the  Crimean 
War. 

Ragnarok  [Icel.  ragna  rokr  (translated  into  Germ,  as 
gotterddmnierung).  the  twilight  of  the  gods]:  in  .Scandina- 
vian mythology,  the  final  dissolution  of  the  cosmic  world, 
when  gods  and  giants  and  men  destroy  each  other  in  an  in- 
ternecine feud.  Depravity  and  strife  in  the  world  proclaim 
the  approach  of  the  great  event,  which  is  preceded  by  a  fall 
of  snow  from  the  four  corners  of  the  world,  cold,  piercing 
winds,  tempestuous  weather,  the  absence  of  sununer,  and 
convulsions  of  nature.  Kindred  slay  each  other  for  mere 
gain.  The  Fenris-wolf  is  freed  from  his  chains,  and  the 
Midgard-serpent  gains  land.  The  heavens  are  rent  in  twain, 
and  the  sons  of  Muspel  come  riding  through  the  opening  in 
brilliant  array  to  the  battle-field  called  Vigrid.  Thither 
repair  also  the  Fenris-wolf.  the  Midgard-serpent,  and  all 
the  forces  of  evil.  The  gods,  who  assemble  without  delay, 
arm  themselves  with  speed,  and  sally  forth  to  the  battle- 
field, led  by  Odin.  Odin  is  swallowed  by  the  Fenris-wolf, 
and  the  wolf  is  killed  by  Vidar.  Thor  kills  the  serpent,  but 
falls  suffocated  by  its  venom.  Finally  the  earth,  consumed 
by  fire,  sinks  beneath  the  sea.  After  Kagnarok  there  is  a 
new  green  earth,  and  there  comes  a  new  golden  age  in 


RAGUET 


RAIL 


897 


which  all  will  bo  Rood  iind  happy.  Then  conies  the  Mighty 
One,  he  who  is  from  everlasting  to  everlasting,  and  estab- 
lishes pence  and  goo<l  will  among  gods  and  men.  See  Scan- 
dinavian Mytuolouv.  Rasmis  B.  Anderson. 

KagiH't.  ni-ga  .  CoNDY,  LIj.  D. :  merchant  and  lawyer;  b. 
in  Philadelphia,  I'a.,  .Ian.  28,  1784;  was  educated  at  the 
University  ot  IVnnsylvania,  and  studied  law;  engaged  in 
commercial  (xirsuils;  went  to  St.  Doniingi)  as  supercargo  of 
a. vessel  181)4;  returned  there  180.");  published  two  small 
books  giving  an  account  of  the  stale  of  thai  island  and  a 
history  of  the  massacre  of  the  planters;  went  into  business 
on  his  own  account  1806:  accumulated  a  fortune;  took  an 
active  part  in  several  useful  corporations  and  mercantile 
associations,  and  in  taking  measures  for  the  defense  of  the 
city  against  an  expected  attack  by  a  liritish  licet  1813 ; 
served  in  both  branches  of  the  Legisliitui-e  ;  became  in  1823 
consul  at  Kio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil ;  negotiated  a  commercial 
treaty  with  that  country,  to  which,  in  1825,  hi^  was  appointed 
the  first  cliarye  d'affaires;  returned  in  1827,  and  wrote 
much  in  periodicals,  especially  in  Tin-  /'ortfiilio,  in  favor  of 
free  trach'.  1).  in  Philadelphia,  Mar.  22,  1842.  Author  of 
Principles  of  Free  Trade  (1835) ;  U?i  Currency  ami  Bank- 
ing (1839);  and  other  works;  editor  ot  Free  Tradf  Advu- 
cate  (2  vols.,  1829) ;  E.ratn iner  (2  vols.,  1834-35) ;  and  Finan- 
cial Register  (2  vols.,  1837-39). 

Kagrnsa:  town  of  Austria,  in  Dalmatia,  on  the  Adriatic: 
picturesquely  l>uilt  in  terraces  along  the  side  of  Jlonte  Ser- 
gio (see  map  of  Austria-Hungary,  ref.  10-F).  It  was  the 
capital  of  a  media'val  aristocratic  repulilic,  and  during  cen- 
turies the  chief  city  on  the  eastern  Adriatic.  It  rivaled 
Venice  in  activity  and  wealth  and  Flori'nce  in  literary  life, 
being  commonly  called  the  Slavic  Venice.  Its  land-trade 
also  was  enormous':  frequent  caravans  brought  raw  materi- 
als for  export  and  manufacture,  and  took  manufacturi'd 
goods  away.  In  1364  it  maile  a  treaty  of  alliance  with 
Murad  I.,  the  first  concluded  between  a  Christian  state  anil 
the  Ottomans  ;  in  1421  it  obtained  from  the  Holy  See  special 
privileges  or  a  .sort  of  monopoly  of  trade  with  the  Mussul- 
mans;  after  1453  it  paid  a  small  tribute  to  the  Ottomans, 
but  was  always  favored  and  protected  by  them  :  was  twice 
almost  destroyed  by  earthquake — in  1634  ami  lfi()7,  when 
5,000  persons  perished.  Napoleon  stippressed  the  republic  in 
1808.  In  1M15  il  was  ceded  to  Avistria;  it  had  then  44,000 
inhal)itants.  The  doges'  palace,  library,  and  hosjjital  are  tine 
buildings.  Grass  grows  in  the  principal  streets,  and  the  city 
is  in  full  decay.  Of  its  two  harbors,  Porto  Cassonne  is  used 
only  V)y  fishing-boats,  but  Gravosa,  2  miles  N.,  is  the  finest 
port  on  the  Dalmatian  coast,  accommodating  the  largest 
men-of-war.  Pop.  (1891)  7,143.  Seven  miles  S.  are  the  ruins 
of  Ragusa  Vecehia,  the  ancient  Epidaurus,  destroyed  by  the 
Slavs  in  the  seventh  century.  E.  A.  Grosvknor. 

Ragnsa:  town  of  Southeastern  Sicily:  in  the  province  of 
Syracuse  (see  map  of  Italy,  ref.  10-P).  It  is  of  very  ancient 
origin ;  it  sided  with  Syracuse  against  the  Romans,  and  was 
by  them  made  a  colony.  In  844  it  was  sacked  by  the  Sara- 
cens. It  has  suffered  greatly  from  earthquakes,  being  almost 
destroyed  in  1093.  In  tlu'  city  and  immediate  vicinity  are 
remains  of  media'val  buildings,  ancient  tonilis,  and  cisterns 
and  caves  in  the  rocks.  Count  Calirero  (d.  1423).  who 
claimed  the  Sicilian  ci-own,  is  buried  here.  The  city  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  parts,  each  having  its  own  municipal 
organization — Hagusa  .Superiore,  pop.  24,183,  and  Kagusa 
Infcrinrc.  jiop.  (1,200.  E.  A.  Grosvknor. 

Ralibek,  Knud  Lynk  :  poet  and  critic  ;  b.  in  Copenhagen, 
Denmark,  1760.  .'Vfter  studying  theology  and  law  he  de- 
voted himself  to  literature.  In  17.S5  he  published  a  volume 
of  Prosaiske  Forsm/  (Prose  .Mtempts).  In  1788  he  deliv- 
ered the  first  course  of  lectures  on  a'sthetics  ever  given  in 
Dennuirk,  and  in  1790  was  appointed  to  the  new  chair  of 
esthetics  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen.  Besides  J//«er- 
va,  he  edited  alone  Den  Ikinske  Til.ilciier  (The  Danish  Spec- 
tator, 1791-1808).  the  more  general  character  of  whose  arti- 
cles gave  it  an  even  greater  infiuence  than  the  earlier  peri- 
odical. In  Aug.,  1798,  he  married  Kari'ii  Margrete  Ileger, 
famous  in  Danish  social  and  literary  history  as  Kamma  Hidi- 
bek.  Besides  editing  a  vast  number  of  works  of  earlier  and 
contemjiorarv  writers,  among  tlie  former  llolberg,  he  pub- 
lished /;((«.sA-  Lirsihag  (Danish  Reaili'r.  1799).  the  lirsl  of  its 
kind;  Liidirig  Ifntlii'rg  som  Ljistspildigler  {\Av\\\\ii  Holberg 
as  Writer  of  Comedies,  lsl.5-17);  and  numy  dramas  and 
occasional  |ioems,  several  of  the  latter  of  which  still  retain 
their  popularity.  Though  only  a  second-rate  writer  and 
thinker,  IJahbek  exercised  a  gi'ealer  inlluenee  upon  lii>  lime 
341 


than  many  of  his  more  gifted  contemporaries.  For  this  he 
was  in  no  slight  degree  indebted  to  his  wife,  whose  wit  and 
culture  attracted  to  their  home,  Bakkelnis,  all  that  was  best 
in  the  intellectual  life  of  the  capital.     D.  Apr.  1,  1830. 

I).  K.  Dodge. 

Kalnray :  city  ;  Union  eo.,  X.  J. ;  on  the  Rahway  river, 
and  the  I'enn.  Kailroad;  19  miles  S.  W.  of  New  York  (for 
location,  see  map  of  New  Jersey,  ref.  3-1)).  Direct  water- 
connnunication  with  New  York  is  afforded  by  the  river, 
which  is  here  navigable  for  vessels  of  light  draught.  The 
city  is  tastefully  laid  out,  and  contains  the  residences  of 
many  people  doing  business  in  New  York.  There  are  10 
churches,  a  public  high  school,  4  grammar  schools,  a  public 
library  with  over  10,000  volumes,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building 
containing  baths,  gymnasium,  bowling  alley,  and  reading, 
social,  and  recreation  rooms,  a  Stal<'  bank  with  capital  of 
.$50,000,  a  savings-bank,  and  3  weekly  newspapers.  'J'he  in- 
dustries comprise  a  large  printing  and  bookbinding  house, 
printing-press  manufactory,  railway-signal  works,  ■woolen- 
mills,  and  carriage,  hub,  and  spoke  factories.  Pop.  (1880) 
6,455;  (1890)  7,105;  (1895)  7,945. 

Rai'a'  [Mod.  Lat.,  from  Ijat.  raja,  ray,  skate] :  according 
to  sonu'  authors  an  order,  and  (;o  others  a  sub-order,  of  the 
class  of  elasmobranchiates,  inclnding  the  ray.s,  torpedoes, 
and  related  types.  The  pectoral  fins  are  much  developed,  pro- 
duced from  the  anterior  margins  forwai'd,  and  are  connected 
with  the  rostral  cartilages,  thereby  constituting  an  integral 
part  of  the  form,  and  are  not  abruptly  differentiated  from 
the  body,  as  in  the  sharks  and  all  true  fishes ;  the  branchial 
openings  are  in  two  converging  rows  of  five  each  on  the  in- 
ferior surface  of  the  body;  si)iracles  are  well  developed  be- 
hind the  eyes.  In  other  respects  the  order  essentially  agrees 
with  the  Squali,  and  the  two  form  a  common  sujier-order 
or  sub-class — the  Plagiostomi.  The  form  varies  consider- 
ably in  the  several  mendicrs  of  the  order:  on  the  one  hand, 
the  sawfishes  have  an  outline  much  like  that  of  the  sharks, 
and  with  a  long  caudal  portion  ;  .and  on  the  other  hand,  the 
eagle-rays  and  certain  sting-rays  have  a  disk  extremely  wide 
— rauch'wider  than  long — and  the  caudal  portion  is  reduced 
to  a  whip-like  appendage.  Revised  by  P.  A.  Lucas. 

Rai'idse  :  a  family  of  the  order  Raics,  including  the  com- 
mon skates  or  rays.  In  all  these  the  disk  is  broad  and 
sub-rhomboid,  and"  the  tail  slender,  but  fleshy,  and  rather 
longer  than  the  disk  ;  the  skin  covered  with  radiated  spines 
or  asperities;  the  head  well  defined,  and  wilh  a  pointed 
snout;  the  internasal  region  furnished  wilh  a  broad  velum; 
the  mouth  transverse  :  the  teeth  small,  generally  varying  ac- 
cording to  the  sex;  the  dorsals  two  in  number,  small  and 
situated  on  the  terminal  half  of  the  tail ;  the  caudal  reduced 
to  a  narrow  seam.  The  female  is  oviparous,  laying  eggs 
provided  with  parchment-like  cases  furnished  at  each  angle 
with  a  filamentous  extension  ;  these  cases  are  known  popu- 
larly as  sailor's-purses,  and  are  often  found  on  the  seashore. 
Between  thirty  and  forty  species  arc  known.  Some  inhabit 
all  seas,  but  they  are  more  numerous  in  the  northern  than 
the  southern  heniisphere.  Five  species  are  found  along  the 
cast  coast  of  the  U.  S.  (Raia  erinacea,  R.  ocellafa.  R.  radi- 
ata,  R.  eglanferia,  and  R.  laris),  and  several  others  on  the 
west  coast,  R.  binoculata  being  the  most  common. 

Revised  by  D.  S.  Jordan. 

Raike»,  Rohert  :  originator  of  Sunday-s(diools ;  b.  at 
Gloucester,  England,  Sept.  14.  1735;  succeeded  his  father  as 
editor  and  ptiblisher  of  the  Gloucester  ■/oiirnal;  fimnded  a 
system  of  Sunday-.schools  for  poor  childi-en  in  1781,  and 
witnessed  its  extension  to  most  of  the  towns  of  England. 
I).  Apr.  5, 1811.  See  the  Lires.  by  Gregory  (London,  1877) 
and  Eastman  (London,  1880),  and  Sunday-schools. 

Rail  [from  O.  Fr.  rcale  (  >  Fr.  rale),  deriv.  of  raller,  have 
a  rattling  in  the  throat] :  a  popular  name  for  any  member 
of  the  Rallidie,  a  family  of  marsh-haunting  birds,  having 
stout  legs,  long  slender  toes,  weak  wings,  a  compressed 
Viody,  and,  usually,  a  rather  long  bill.  Rails  are  widely  dis- 
tributed tliroughout  the  world,  and  range  in  size  from  little 
larger  than  a  sparrow  to  aliout  15  inches  in  length,  or,  if 
the  Couki.an  ((/.  r.)  be  counted  a  rail,  2  feet.  They  fly 
poorly,  but  run  among  the  reeds  with  ease.  They  nest  on 
the  gi'ound.  and  lay  a  number  of  cream  or  buff  colored 
eggs  with  brown  markings;  the  young  run  about  as  soon  as 
hatched.  Rails  feed  on  all  maimer  of  small  aquatic  ani- 
mals, such  as  snails  and  worms,  and,  to  sonu>  extent,  also 
on  seeds.  The  common  rail  of  F.urope  is  Rallus  aijiinlirus: 
the  common  species  of  the  U.  S.  are   the  Virginia  rail  {h'al- 


898 


RAILWAYS 


lus  virginianus)  and  the  sora,  or  ortolan  (Porzana  Caro- 
lina), Both  are  found  over  the  greater  part  of  temperate 
Xorth  America,  and  are  especially  abundant  during  the 
fall  migrations  in  the  marshes  and  rice-fields  of  the  South- 
ern Atlantic  States.  F.  A.  Lucas. 

Railways,  or  Railroads:  roads  with  parallel  lines  of 
rails,  upon  which  the  (usually  flanged)  wheels  of  vehicles 
may  run.  The  term  raitways  is  exclusively  used  in  Great 
Britain,  and  is  gaining  ground  in  the  U.  S.  Some  writers 
confine  the  meaning  of  the  term  "railway"  to  the  super- 
structure upon  which  the  carriages  run,  the  "railroad"  be- 
ing regarded  as  the  formation  of  earthworks  or  other  mate- 
rial upon  which  the  "  railway  "  itself  rests.  This  distinc- 
tion, however,  is  more  fanciful  than  real,  and  the  terms  may 
properly  be  used  synonymously. 

General  History. — The  precise  date  of  the  first  use  of 
railways  can  not  be  ascertained.  The  plan  of  facilitating 
the  draught  of  carriages  by  forming  a  hard  continuous  sur- 
face for  the  wheels  to  run  upon  is  old  and  simple,  and  the 
successive  adaptations  of  flagstones,  pieces  of  timber,  and 
finally  strips  of  iron  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  timbers,  are 
the  several  improvements  it  has  undergone.  The  use  of 
iron  was  found  to  reduce  the  friction  very  sensibly,  and  to 
increase  more  than  fourfold  the  amount  which  the  horses 
could  draw  from  the  mines,  where  such  tracks  were  mostly 
in  use ;  a  ledge  or  flange  on  the  inner,  or  in  some  cases  the 
outer,  edge  of  the  plate  of  iron  forming  the  rail  enabled  the 
ordinary  wagon  to  keep  on  the  rails  without  difficulty.  This 
kind  of  track  was  long  in  use,  and  was  known  as  a  tramway. 
The  next  improvement,  growing  out  of  the  necessity  for  in- 
creased strengtli  in  the  rails,  was  the  introduction  of  the 
edge-rail,  formed  by  setting  up  a  bar  of  cast  or  rolled  iron 
in  the  form  of  a  T.  This  required  special  supports  called 
"chairs,"  spiked  to  the  timber-rails  or  to  cross-supports  of  tim- 
ber called  "  ties,"  or  at  intervals  to  stone  blocks.  In  this 
rail  the  flange,  which  in  the  tramway  was  necessary  to  pre- 
vent the  wheels  from  leaving  the  track,  was  removed,  and 
in  lieu  of  it  a  flange  was  cast  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  wheel- 
tires.  Railways  constructed  upon  this  principle  were  in 
operation  in  the  principal  collieries  in  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  used  for 
the  transportation  of  coal  or  ores  from  the  pit  to  the  port  of 
shipment,  sometimes  by  the  force  of  gravity;  and  where  the 
acclivity  had  sufficient  steepness  the  loaded  wagons  in  de- 
scending drew  up  the  empty  wagons  by  means  of  an  endless 
rope  passing  around  a  pulley  at  the  summit  of  the  incline ; 
in  others,  horse  or  steiim  power  was  used. 

From  the  date  of  the  application  of  the  edge-rail — about 
the  year  1790 — in  lieu  of  the  timber-rail,  with  its  strip 
of  flat  iron  permitting  but  a  limited  speed,  the  additional 
strength  thereby  conferred  on  the  railway  proper  naturally 
led  those  interested  to  seek  a  means  of  propulsion  more 
effective  than  horse-power,  and  so  the  progress  and  exten- 
sion of  railways  became  intimately  connected  with  the  im- 
provements in  the  locomotive  engine. 

The  advantages  of  the  low-pressure  condensing  steam- 
engine,  as  demonstrated  by  James  Watt,  led  to  the  neg- 
lect of  the  high-pressure  principle,  although  the  high-pres- 
sure engine,  from  its  comparative  lightness,  dispensing  with 
the  cumbrous  apparatus  necessary  for  condensation,  is  alone 
applicable  to  locomotive  purposes  on  land. 

Richard  Trevithick  in  1802  was  the  first  person  to  take 
out  a  [latent  for  a  high-pressure  engine  adapted  to  motion 
on  roads :  his  engine  was  first  tried  on  common  roads,  but 
suhsecpiently  applied  to  colliery  railways.  Improvements 
made  by  him  were  the  subject  of  a  patent  in  1804,  and  as 
early  as  this  steam  was  used  as  a  means  of  propulsion  on 
some  of  these  roads,  but  the  speed  was  not  greater  than  that 
of  horses,  owing  to  the  imperfect  construction  of  the  boilers 
of  the  engines;  and  on  grades  as  low  as  18  feet  per  mile 
they  recjuired  to  be  assisted  by  auxiliary  power  of  some 
sort.  The  progress  of  improvement  in  the  engine  used  for 
roads  was  much  retarded  for  many  years  by  an  imaginary 
difficulty  which  it  would  seem  a  single  experiment  would 
have  sufficed  to  remove.  This  was  in  the  opinion  that  the 
friction,  or  the  adhesion  of  the  driving-wheels  of  an  engine 
to  the  rails,  did  not  offer  sufficient  resistance  to  slipping  to 
allow  of  the  power  of  the  engine  being  applied  to  the  axles 
so  as  to  produce  locomotion.  As  late  as  1811  Hlitikinsop  ob- 
tained a  patent  for  the  application  of  a  rack-rail,  laid  on  one 
side  of  the  railway,  into  which  a  cog-wheel  on  the  axles  of 
the  driving-wheels  worked.  Other  patents  are  on  record  as 
late  as  1815,  seeking  to  overcome  this  fictitious  difficulty — 


some  by  means  of  chains  extending  the  whole  length  of 
the  road  between  the  rails,  and  others  by  means  of  jointed 
levers  worked  by  steam.  It  was  at  about  this  date  that 
the  discovery  was  made  that  the  adhesion  of  the  wheels  of 
the  engine  to  the  rails  furnished  a  sufficient  fulcrum  for  the 
action  of  the  propelling  power,  thus  dispensing  with  all  the 
cumbersome  contrivances  of  racks  and  chains. 

In  1814  George  Stephenson  built  an  engine  for  the  Kil- 
lingworth  colliery.  The  boiler  was  a  flue-boiler,  and  as 
it  did  not  make  steam  enough  for  a  speed  of  more  than  3 
miles  per  hour,  it  would  have  been  condemned  as  useless  had 
not  Stephenson  applied  the  steam-blast  to  it,  which  increased 
its  speed  to  full  6  miles  per  hour.  It  is  in  the  accounts  of  the 
day  that  this  application  was  accidental ;  the  noise  of  the 
escape  steam  was  complained  of  as  a  nuisance,  and  to  avoid 
it  Stephenson  turned  the  escape-pipe  into  the  chimney, 
thus  creating  a  draught. 

Notwithstanding  the  efforts  made  by  Stephenson  to  bring 
his  engines  into  general  use,  the  opinions  of  some  able  engi- 
neers of  that  day  were  that  they  did  not  possess  the  advan- 
tages which  the  inventor  had  anticipated.  Their  use  was 
extending,  however,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  collieries 
for  the  transport  of  coal  from  the  mines,  although  still  sup- 
plemented on  some  of  the  inclines  by  horse-power,  and  on 
others  by  rope  and  stationary  engines. 

The  Stockton  and  Darlington  Railway,  37  miles  in  length, 
intended  originally  for  the  transport  of  coal  alone,  was 
opened  in  1825.  It  had  been  the  intention  to  operate  it 
with  horses,  but  Stephenson  soon  succeeded  in  introducing 
the  use  of  locomotives.  Engines  and  tenders  weighing  12 
tons  drew  loads  of  92  tons  upon  that  road,  which  has  an 
average  grade  of  21  feet  jjer  mile,  some  places  being  level 
and  others  having  a  grade  of  53  feet  per  mile;  on  the  steeper 
grades  37  tons  were  taken  up  at  a  speed  of  4  miles  per  hour, 
6  miles  per  hour  being  the  speed  on  other  parts  of  the  road ; 
but  a  speed  of  from  7  to  8  miles  per  hour  was  attained  un- 
der favorable  circumstances.  Increased  commerce  between 
Manchester  and  Liverpool,  much  hamjiered  by  the  excessive 
tolls  and  uncertain  movements  on  the  canal  between  these 
points,  led  to  chartering  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Railway  in  1828,  its  main  object  being  the  transport  of  mer- 
chandise between  the  two  places,  but  by  horse-power.  The 
engineer,  George  Stephenson,  however,  advocated  the  use  of 
steam  exclusively.  The  directors  of  the  road  were  induced 
to  offer  a  reward  for  a  locomotive  engine  which  should  be 
able  to  take  three  times  its  own  weight  on  a  level  road  at  a 
speed  of  10  miles  per  hour.  In  Oct.,  1829,  the  Rocket,  an 
engine  built  by  Robert  Stephenson.  Jr.,  a  nephew  of  George 
Stephenson,  more  than  performed  all  the  stipulated  require- 
ments ;  weighing  but  7A  tons,  it  drew  44  tons  at  the  rate  of 
14  miles  an  hour.  The  effect  of  this  announcement  was 
electrical,  and  was  felt  in  every  civilized  country  in  the 
impulse  given  to  railway  construction. 

The  first  railway  built  in  the  U.  S.  was  from  the  granite- 
quarries  of  Quincy,  Mass.,  to  tide-water,  length  5  miles;  be- 
gun in  1820  and  completed  in  1827,  it  was  built  to  supply  the 
granite  for  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument,  and  made  of  wooden 
rails  laid  on  granite  sills,  with  a  strap-rail  of  rolled  iron.  The 
second  road  wtis  begun  in  Jan..  1827,  and  completed  in  May 
of  the  same  year,  extending  from  the  coal-mines  to  the  Le- 
high river  at  Mauch  Chunk,  Pa. — a  distance  of  9  miles.  The 
loaded  cars  passed  down  the  inclined  planes  by  gravity,  and 
the  empty  cars  were  drawn  up  by  mules.  The  rails  were  of 
timber  covered  with  a  strap  of  iron.  In  1828  the  Delaware 
and  Hudson  Canal  Company  constructed  a  railway  from 
its  coal-mines  to  Honesdale,  the  termination  of  the  canal, 
to  transport  the  anthracite  coal  to  tide-water.  The  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  and  the  South  Carolina  railroads  were  be- 
gun, the  latter  in  1830.  By  the  close  of  the  year  1830  the 
following  railways  had  advanced  in  construction  as  shown 
below : 


Quincy 

Mauch  Chunk 

Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Company 

Baltimore  and  Ohio 

Ilohawk  and  Hudson 

South  Carolina  R.  R.  (Charleston  and  Augusta) 

Camden  and  Amboy 

Ithaca  and  Owe^o 

Lexington  and  Ohio 


Projwt«3, 
miles. 


16 
2!jO 
16 
135 
60 
29 
75 


Completed, 
miles. 


5 
9 
1» 
60 
12 
20 
construoting. 


All  these  roads,  with  a  single  exception  to  be  noted  subse- 
([uently.  were  built  for  and  operated  by  horse-power.     The 


UA II.  WAYS 


899 


first  number  of  Tlie  liailroad  Journal  (trom  which  tho  nliovc 
list  is  taken)  contains  also  a  list  of  the  railway  companies 
then  petitioning  the  l^egislature  of  the  Stale  of  Now  York 
for  charters,  the  aggregate  capital  reaching  the  sum  of  5i48.- 
000,000;  this  prior  to  1831.  The  roads  mentioned  in  the 
table,  it  will  be  observed,  were  chartered  before  the  experi- 
ment of  the  Kocket  at  Liver[)ool  had  indicated  the  most 
advisable  jxiwer  for  operating  railways. 

In  .Ian.,  1S-2S.  Horatio  Allen,  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
Canal  Company,  went  to  England,  charged  with  the  duty  of 
procuring  the  iron  rails  for  that  company's  road,  and  also, 
at  his  discretion,  to  order  three  locomotive  engines.  He  ac- 
cordingly ordered  one  engine  from  the  works  of  Foster, 
Kastrick  &  Co.,  of  Stourbridge,  and  two  engines  from  the 
works  of  |{.  Stephenson  at  Newcastle.  These  orders  were 
given  in  the  early  summer  of  1828.  and  the  engines  were  re- 
ceived in  .New  York  in  the  following  winter  (1828-2!)).  The 
burning  of  anthracite  coal  in  the  furnaces  of  engines  was 
the  point  to  be  demonstrated  by  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
Canal  Company,  whose  extensive  mines  were  waiting  a  de- 
mand on  the  part  of  the  public,  the  total  consumption  of 
anthracite  coal  having  reached  but  about  80.000  tons  yearly. 
In  the  spring  of  182!)  one  of  these  three  engines  was  ordered 
to  be  sent  by  river  and  canal  to  Honesdale.  Pa.,  the  initial 
point  of  the  company's  railway.  The  accident  which  sent 
the  Stourbridge  engine  rather  than  either  of  the  other  two 
has  not  been  accounted  for.  The  other  two  engines  were 
precise  counterparts,  and  identical  in  boiler,  engine,  plan, 
and  appurtenances  with  the  Kocket,  by  the  same  maker, 
which  subsequently  startled  the  world  by  its  performances 
at  Liverpool.  The  Stourljriilge  Lion,  as  the  engine  was 
nameil,  was  put  upon  tin'  track — built  of  hemlock  timbers 
and  strap-rails,  with  timber  trestles  35  feet  in  height,  and 
curves  of  720  feet  radius — and  Jlr.  Allen  ran  the  engine 
himself  for  some  6  miles  at  good  siieed  amid  the  cheers  of 
the  incredulous  spectators.  No  load  was  attached,  as  it  was 
feared  that  it  would  prove  too  severe  for  the  road,  but  it 
was  the  first  trip  ever  made  on  a  railway  by  a  locomotive 
engine  in  America.  It  is  true  it  was  a  foreign-built  engine, 
but  its  plan  had  been  selected  by  an  American  engineer 
many  montlis  before  there  existed  any  acknowledged  stand- 
ard by  which  such  imvchines  were  to  be  judged;  and  there 
are  few  bolder  achievements  of  the  civil  engineer  on  record 
than  this  trip  for  the  tir.st  time  with  an  engine  between  8 
and  9  tons  weight  at  full  speed  upon  such  a  road.  The  ex- 
periment was  successful  in  exhibiting  the  value  of  anthra- 
cite coal  as  a  fuel  for  steam  purposes. 

Horatio  .Vlleii  hail  been  appointeil  chief  engineer  of  the 
South  Carolina  Railroad  (not  then  constructed)  at  the  date  of 
his  experimental  trip  with  the  Stourbridge  Lion ;  and,  enter- 
ing upon  his  duties  a  short  time  subsequently,  he  reported 
his  views  as  to  the  power  which  he  considered  it  advisable  to 
adopt  for  its  operation  in  a  paper  dated  Sept.,  1829,  strenu- 
ously urging,  for  reasons  stated  at  length,  the  employment 
of  steam  as  the  locomotive  power.  This  ii'iiort,  submitted  to 
the  board  of  directors  and  unanimously  adopted  and  placed 
on  record  Jan.  14,  1830,  was  the  first  act  by  a  corporate  body, 
either  in  the  U.  S.  or  elsewhere,  adopting  the  locomotive  en- 
gine as  the  tractive  power  on  a  railway  for  general  passen- 
ger- and  freight-transport.  Accordinglv,  in  i)urstuince  of 
that  resolution,  in  Mar.,  1S30,  K.  L.  ;\Iiner.  on  the  part  of  the 
South  Camliiia  Kailroad  Company,  contracted  with  the  West 
Point  Foundry  Company  for  a  locomotive  engine.  This  was 
the  first  locomotive  engine  built  for  railway  service  in  the 
U.  S.,  and  was  first  put  upon  the  road  Nov.  2.  1830. 

A  second  locomotive  was  also  built  at  the  West  Point 
Foundry  works  for  the  same  railway  company,  and  from 
designs  of  tho  chief  engineer.  In  1830  trials  of  a  small 
steam-engine  built  by  Peter  Cooper  were  made  by  the  Bal- 
timore and  Ohio  Kailroad,  which,  however,  continued  to  be 
operated  by  horse-power  till  1832.  The  engine  was  placed 
on  a  platform-car. 

Tho  improvements  made  in  the  locomotive  engine  became 
so  numerous  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  precise  value 
of  their  respective  claims.  Their  effect  upon  the  extension 
of  railways  was  most  nnirked,  and  projects  and  charters 
were  multiplied,  not  unfrecnu'iitly  much  in  adv.ance  of  the 
wants  of  tlie  loi'ality.  The  flat  rail — or  str.Mp-rail,  as  it  was 
called — was  soon  ai)andoned;  the  New  Orleans  atid  Lake 
Pontchartrain  Hailroad  was  the  first  to  adopt  the  T-rail 
(1830-31),  Gen.  .1.  (1.  Swift  being  the  engineer. 

Between  the  years  1828  and  1833  the  present  system  of 
railway  communication  in  the  U.S.  maybe  said  to  have 
been   begun   Ijy  the  commencement  of  tlie   Baltimore  and 


Ohio,  the  Baltimore  and  Susquehanna,  the  Camden  and 
Amboy.  the  New  Ca.stle  and  Frerichtown,  the  Hudson  and 
Mohawk,  the  Charleston  and  Augusta,  the  Boston  and 
Providence,  the  Boston  and  Lowell,  and  other  roads.  If  we 
except  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
was  little  foresight  of  a  futm-e  great  connecting  system; 
and  it  may  be  said  that  in  general  the  great  lines  of  coni- 
mmiication  with  i\w  Mississippi  valley  and  the  States  W. 
of  it  are  made  uj)  of  parts  originally  having  little  reference 
to  each  other.  Indeed,  the  roads  in  the  U.  .S.  have  been 
gradually  called  into  existence  to  supply  a  need  whic-h  they 
themselves  have  created,  and  which  did  not  in  the  begin- 
ning exist.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  (at  a  later  date) 
the  Pennsylvania  roads,  connecting  the  Ohio  with  Balti- 
more and  Philadelphia,  the  Mobile  and  Ohio,  comiecting 
that  river  with  the  (iiilf,  may  be  called  the  first  through 
lines.  The  necessity  of  coimeeting  the  newly  developed 
Pacific  States  with  the  older  body  gave  rise  to  the  most 
extended  system  of  reconnoissance  and  survey  through  a 
vast  expanse  of  mountain-chain  and  desert  for  the  deter- 
mination of  practicable  routes,  and  finally  to  the  rapid  con- 
struction of  the  most  remarkable  through  line  of  railway  in 
the  world.  The  rnion  Pacific  Knilway  (completed  1869) 
was  built,  many  ]iarts  of  it.  at  the  unprecedented  rate  of  a 
mile  a  day.  but  even  this  is  regarded  as  slow,  and  the  re- 
jiorts  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  (completed  1885)  for 
the  year  1883  show  a  progress  for  the  entire  working  sea- 
son, from  Apr.  18  to  Nov.  21.  of  2'4  miles  of  eom|)leted 
track  laid  for  every  working  day. 

Following  the  history  of  railways  to  the  present  day,  it 
will  be  in  order  to  consider  briefly  some  of  the  principles 
to  be  considered  in  their  construction.  The  principles  of 
the  construction  of  the  accessory  works  of  a  railway,  such  as 
embankments,  bridges,  tunnels,  etc.,  differ  in  no  essential 
save  dimensions  from  those  required  for  first-class  turnpike- 
roads  ;  but  the  location  of  the  cun-es,  or  horizontal  devia- 
tions from  a  right  line  ;  the  grades,  by  which  we  understand 
the  rise  or  fall  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  road; 
and  the  (/'iiii/f.  or  width  between  the  rails  of  the  track,  are 
the  elements  which  determine  the  capacity  or  classification 
of  a  railway  as  a  means  of  transport,  and  are  matters  requir- 
ing careful  study. 

Curves. — The  amount  of  resistance  to  locomotion  occa- 
sioned by  curves  in  a  road  is  partly  due  to  the  effect  of  cen- 
trifugal force,  causing  the  flange  of  the  outer  wheel  of  the 
cars  to  press  against  the  rail;  partly 'to  the  dragging  of 
the  wheels,  which,  being  necessarily  fixed  on  the  axle,  are 
oliliged  to  perform  an  equal  number  of  revolutions  whetlier 
on  the  inner  and  shorter,  or  outer  and  longer  rail  of  the 
track  ;  and  partly  to  the  axles  being  ft'.rfrf  parallel.  In  prac- 
tice, curves  of  a  mile  radius  offer  but  little  im])ediment  to 
rapid  motion.  The  necessities  of  the  locality  very  frequent- 
ly call  for  curves  of  much  less  radius  than  this,  and  the  ex- 
pense of  maintenance  of  both  road  and  machinery  is  there- 
by much  enhanced  unless  the  curves  be  traversed  at  a  re- 
duced s|)eed. 

It  is  customary  to  reduce  the  rate  of  inclination  on  the 
portions  of  such  parts  of  the  road  as  are  curved  at  the  rate 
of  '05  feet  per  100  for  every  d<'gree  of  curvature,  as  also  to 
raise  the  outer  rail  of  the  track  a  height  jiroportioncd  to  the 
speed  of  the  trains.  It  has  also  been  customary  to  make 
the  tread  of  the  wheels  a  conic  surface,  that  in  traversing  a 
curve  the  wheels  on  tho  outer  rail  may  run  on  a  longer  di- 
ameter and  so  cover  a  greater  li'ugth  of  the  track  than  those 
(m  the  inner  rail,  and  thus  assist  the  movement  around  the 
curve ;  but  this  method  has  been  found  to  produce  much 
oscillation  and  concussion  on  the  straight  portions  of  the 
trac^k,  and  has  in  a  great  measure  been  discontinued — at 
least  to  the  extent  originally  thought  necessary — although 
a  coning  of  the  wlieels  to  tlie  extent  of  (■,;  inch  is  occasinti- 
ally  practiced.  The  action  of  the  edge  of  the  rail  iipnii  tln' 
wheel  tends  to  wear  the  base  of  the  cone  into  a  groove,  as  it 
were,  and  what  at  first  was  thought  a  notable  device  for  fa- 
cilitating the  movement  of  the  vehicles  around  a  curve  is 
found  in  practice  to  be  of  no  value,  ami  in  the  V.  S.  the 
tread  of  the  wheels  is  now  made  cylindrical.  In  Kuropean 
practice  tlie  coning  of  the  wheels  is  still  followed  to  a  con- 
siilerable  extent,  and  the  rails  are  inclined  inward  at  an 
angle  of  from  1  in  20  to  1  in  24  in  order  to  allow  the  rail- 
head to  fit  the  wheel. 

The  velocity  of  the  train  being  an  element  in  the  calcu- 
lation for  the  super-elevation  of  the  outer  rail  of  the  track, 
wliat  would  be  suitable  for  one  speed  of  train  would  be  un- 
suitable for  another:  hence  a  compromise  has  to  be  made, 


900 


RAILWAYS 


Radia&, 

fe«t. 
2.292.. 
1,910.. 
1.4.3.3. . 
1,148.. 
955.. 


Currature, 
degreea, 

.     a* 

.       3 

4 

.       5 

.       6 


and  the  average  speed  of  passenger-trains  is  usually  taken 

fi;om  which  to  calculate  this  super-elevation  : 

Theoretically,  if  v  —  speed  of  train  in  feet  per  second, 
r  =  radius  of  curve,  in  feet, 
g  =  gauge  of  track,  in  inches, 

then  a  x  ,-~— =  elevation  in  inches  to  be  given  to  the  outer 

32-3r 
rail  of  the  track.  In  practice  it  is  customary  to  disregard 
the  speed  and  elevate  the  rail  i  inch  per  degree  of  curvature 
for  ordinary-gauge  tracks.  When  the  term  "degree  of  curv- 
ature "  is  mentioned  in  speaking  of  curves,  it  is  to  be  un- 
derstood as  the  number  oi  degrees  subtended  by  a  100-foot 
chord.  Thus  a  i'  curve  is  one  of  about  3  miles  radius;  a 
1"  curve  is  of  about  a  mile  radius ;  a  2°  is  of  about  a  half- 
mile  radius,  or,  mure  accurately — 

Rsdloa,  Curvature, 

feel.  degree.. 

22,918 i 

11,459 * 

7,639 i 

5,730 1 

3.820 U 

2,865 2 

Hence  the  super-elevation  to  be  given  to  the  outer  rail 
would  be,  in  inches,  for  a  1  curve,  ^  ;  for  a  3°,  1  ;  for  a  3°, 
1+ ;  for  a  4°,  2  ;  for  a  5',  2^  inches,  and  so  on,  which  accord- 
ing to  Traatwine  is  sufficient  for  speeds  as  high  as  40  miles 
per  hour.  The  modern  refinement  of  the  introduction  of 
transition-curves,  by  which  the  point  of  tangency  is  virtual- 
ly thrown  back  a  considerable  distance  on  the  tangent,  and 
the  curve  thus  eased  on  its  approach  to  the  latter,  gives  the 
opportunity  for  availing  earlier  of  the  super-elevation  of  the 
outer  rail.  This  results  in  a  smoother  motion  when  the 
cars  take  the  curve,  very  perceptible  in  comparison  with 
the  older  methods  of  change  of  direction. 

Grades. — The  additional  resistance  to  motion  occasioned 
by  the  varioiis  grades  or  inclinations  in  a  road  is  suscepti- 
ble of  precise  calculation,  and  is  a  constant  quantity  for  the 
same  inclination,  let  the  state  of  the  road  or  the  machinery 
be  what  it  may.  It  is  as  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  inclina- 
tion ;  or,  virtvially,  it  is  that  fraction  of  the  weight  which  is 
represented  by  dividing  the  height  of  a  given  inclination  by 
its  length.  For  instance,  in  a  rise  of  32  feet  per  mile  it 
would  be  represented  by  sffjr  =  "004,  which  is  8  lb.  for  a  ton 
of  2,000  lb.,  or  ^i^jth  of  the  weight.  The  relative  capacity 
of  roads  for  traffic  is  therefore  limited  by  their  grades — that 
is  to  sav.  since  only  a  certain  number  of  trains  can  pass  over 
the  road  yearly,  that  if  the  grades  are  such  as  to  limit  the 
load  of  the  engine  to  a  certain  amount,  the  yearly  tonnage, 
which  is  the  total  number  of  trains  multiplied  by  the  load 
of  each,  is  limited  in  the  same  proportion.  The  capacity  of 
railways  is  a  subject  of  but  little  popular  appreciation,  but 
one  of  great  importance  in  projecting  new  lines  of  roads. 

The  principle  which  olrtains  in  calculating  the  elfect  of 
grades  on  the  movement  and  weight  of  trains  is  briefly 
illustrated  as  follows  :  If  a  locomotive  engine  be  prevented 
from  advancing  on  the  track,  and  at  the  same  time  the  pro- 
portions of  the  machinery  be  such  that  upon  the  application 
of  the  power  to  the  wheels  the  latter  will  revolve  by  slip- 
ping on  the  rails  (as  is  usually  the  case),  the  engine  is  said 
to  work  up  to  its  adhesion,  and  the  latter  becomes  the  limit 
of  its  tractive  force.  This  adhesion  varies,  in  different 
states  of  the  rail-surface,  from  one-third  to  one-tenth  of  the 
weight  on  the  driving-wheels,  and  may  be  taken  ordinarily 
at  one-sixth  of  the  insisting  weight.  If,  then,  we  know  the 
amount  of  this  and  of  the  resistance  to  motion  occasioned 
by  the  friction  at  the  axles  of  the  wheels  of  the  engine  and 
train,  as  also  of  the  rolling  of  their  surfaces  on  the  rails,  we 
may  calculate  the  weight  which  the  engine  will  draw  on 
a  level  under  the  assumed  condition  of  the  rails  and  the 
machinery.  Thus  if  it  be  found  that  8  lb.  per  ton  of  the 
weight  of  the  engine  and  train  represents  the  resistance  to 
motion  on  a  level  occasioned  by  all  impediments  to  motion 
of  whatever  kind,  disregarding  the  speed,  then  by  dividing 
the  adhesion  expressed  in  pounds  by  8  we  obtain  the  gross 
weight  in  tons  which  the  iiiglne  will  draw  upon  a  level;  but 
where  the  train  ascends  a  grade  there  will  be,  in  addition  to 
the  resistance  of  friction  on  the  level,  the  resistance  arising 
from  the  gravity  of  the  engine  and  its  load,  or  its  tendency 
if  unresisted  to  move  down  the  slope,  explained  above. 

The  resistance  of  gravity  is  the  same  on  a  given  plane  at 
all  speeds,  but  is  overcome  twice  as  fast  at  30  miles  per  hour 
as  at  10  miles,  and  hence  is  said  to  vary  with  the  speed. 
Friction  varies  with  the  load  of  the  train  and  slightlv  with 


the  velocity ;  concussion  or  resistance  of  the  curves  varies  both 
with  the  weight  and  speed  of  the  train.  Atmospheric  resists 
ance  varies  with  the  speed  and  bulk  of  the  train,  but  its  value 
is  not  well  established  and  has  been  estimated  as  dependent 
upon  the  area  of  the  frontage  of  the  train  rather  than  its 
bulk.  If  we  disregard  for  the  present  the  various  resist- 
ances in  detail  occasioned  by  curves,  concussions,  and  that 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  consider  them  as  included  in  a  sin- 
gle factor  per  ton  of  train,  the  formula  expressing  the  pow- 
er of  an  engine  on  different  grades  is  very  simple  and  suf- 
ficiently accurate  for  relative  comparison.  Let  E  represent 
the  weight  on  the  driving-wheels  of  an  engine  in  pounds ; 
and  let  R  represent  the  rise  in  feet  per  mile  of  a  given 
grade ;  then  the  gross  load,  including  engine  and  tender,  in 
tons  of  3,000  lb.,  which  the  engine  will  fake  up  that  grade 

■•2F 
will  be  represented  by  „^„„ji — 5>  the  adhesion  being  one-fifth 

of  the  weight  of  the  engine  on  the  drivers.  The  following 
table  shows  the  gross  load,  in  tons  of  2,000  lb.,  which,  by  the 
above  formula,  an  ordinary  freight-engine  weighing  66,000 
lb.,  40,000  lb.  on  the  driving-wheels,  may  be  estimated  to 
move  on  different  grades  in  a  good  condition  of  the  rails : 


ON   A 
LEVEL. 

30  feet 
per  mile. 

so 

feel. 

40            50 
feet.       feet. 

60 
feet. 

80 
feet. 

100 
feet. 

160 
feet. 

soo 
feet. 

960 
feet. 

1,000... 

513-8 

413-2 

345-6    290-3 

260-4 

208-9 

174-4 

123-4 

95-5 

78-0 

The  most  simple  formula  for  the  resistance  of  a  train — 
for  purposes  of  general  comparison  sufficiently  accurate — is 
that  of  D.  K.  Clark,  which  is,  where  B.  is  the  resistance  in 
pounds  per  ton  {3,240  lb.)  of  engine,  tender,  and  train,  and 
r  the  velocity  in  miles  per  hour, 

+  8: 


171 


E. 


The  following  table  shows  the  resistance  in  pounds  per 
ton  (2.340  lb.)  for  different  velocities,  according  to  Clark's 
formula : 

At  10  miles  per  hour 8-6  lb 

At  12     "  "  .       -       8-8 

At  15  " 
At  20  ■• 
At  25  " 
At  30      •• 


8-8  lb. 

9-3  lb. 
10-3  lb. 
11.7  lb. 
13-3  lb. 


At  40  miles  per  hour 17-31 

At   .50     "  "         22-61 


_  ...lb. 

At   .50     "  "  22-6  lb. 

At   60     "  "  29-0  lb. 

At    BO     "  "        I 45-4  lb. 

At  100     "  "  66-4  lb. 


The  resistance  to  motion  as  affected  by  the  grade  alone  is 
had  by  multiplying  the  load  by  the  rise  in  feet  and  dividing 
the  product  by  the  length  also  in  feet.  The  following  table 
shows  by  inspection  the  resistance  in  pounds  on  different 
grades,  of  loads  varying  from  1  to  500  tons : 


GRADE 

100 

550 

500 

IN   FEET 

ton. 

tons. 

tODS. 

tout. 

tODS. 

tone. 

10 

4 

212 

318 

424 

1,061 

2,121 

20 

8 

424 

636 

848 

2,121 

4,242 

30 

13 

636 

955 

1.-J73 

3,182 

6,363 

40 

17 

848 

1,273 

1,697 

4.»»2 

8,484 

50 

21 

1,061 

1,591 

2,121 

6..303 

10.606 

60 

25 

1,273 

1.909 

2.545 

6,3frt 

12,727 

70 

30 

1,485 

2,227 

2.970 

7,424 

14.818 

80 

34 

1,697 

2.545 

3.394 

8,485 

16.969 

100 

42 

8,121 

3.182 

4,242 

10,606 

21,212 

The  tractive  or  drawing  power  of  an  engine,  called  its 
traction,  is  directly  as  the  diameter  of  the  steam-cylinders, 
the  steam-pressure',  and  the  stroke  of  a  piston,  and  inversely 
as  the  diameter  of  the  driving-wheels ;  therefore  we  increase 
the  tractive  power  of  an  engine  by  increasing  either  the  di- 
ameter of  cvlinders.  the  steam-pressure  per  scpiare  inch,  or 
the  stroke,  "or  bv  decreasing  the  diameter  of  the  driving- 
wheels.     The  formula  expressing  this  is  as  follows : 

If  d  =  diameter  of  a  cvlinder,  in  inches, 

p  =  mean  effective  pressure  of  steam  per  square  inch  on 

the  piston, 
«  =  length  of  stroke,  in  inches, 
D  —  diameter  of  the  driving-wheels  in  inches, 

then  ~-~  =  tractive  power. 

This  is  upon  the  supposition  that  the  adhesion  of  the 
wheels  to  the  rails,  taken  at  one-sixth  of  the  weight  in 
pounds  upon  the  drivers,  is  in  excess  of  the  tractive  po-wrer 
as  a))ove  determined,  the  adhesions  varying  from  as  high 
as  one-fourth  to  le.ss  than  one-tenth  of  the  weight  on  the 
driver.  Thus  the  tractive  power,  with  an  effective  pressure 
of  steam  on  the  piston  of  80  lb.,  the  stroke  being  32  inches. 


RAILWAYS 


901 


and  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  being  16  inches,  and  di- 
ameter of  wheel  60  inches,  would  be 


16  X  16  X  80  X  22 


7509-8  lb. 


Therefore,  if  the  weight  of  the  engine  on  the  driving-wheels 
is  in  excess  of  six  times  this,  or  =  450o8-8.  the  engine  would 
be  said  to  work  up  to  its  adhesion,  and  locomotion  would 
ensue. 

Inclined  Planes. — Before  the  locomotive  had  licen  per- 
fected, and  before  even  the  question  of  locomotive-  vx.  sta- 
tionary-engine power  had  been  settled,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  recourse  was  hail  to  inclined  planes  (which  were  in 
fact  the  first  form  the  railway  assumed)  for  overcoming 
abrupt  changes  of  level.  Hence  we  find  several  examples, 
as  that  on  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson  (Albany  and  .Schenec- 
tady) road.  The  Columbia  road  (I'liiladelphia  to  the  Sus- 
quehanna) had  one  at  each  end.  The  Alleghany  I'ortage 
road,  connecting  two  sections  of  the  Pennsylvania  Canal, 
had  a  numlier.  The  South  Carolina  road  (Charleston  to 
Augusta)  had  one  near  the  latter  place,  and  the  Maltimore 
and  Ohio  had  one  at  I'arr's  Kidge,  Md.  On  the  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  road  there  were  two,  on  the  railway  near 
Liege,  Belgium,  was  one,  and  others  existed  elsewhere  in 
Europe;  but  the  necessity  of  admitting  much  higher  grades 
than  liad  been  supposed  admissible  and  of  overcoming  them 
by  locomotive  power  was  speedily  felt.  The  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  road  was  constructed  to  admit  grades  of  116  feet. 
and  even  heavier  grades,  thf)ugh  unadvisable,  are  yet  to  be 
found.  All  of  the  inclined  planes  above  enumerated  are 
now  operated  by  the  more  modern  locomotive  engine.  The 
grade  of  116  feet  per  mile  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  road 
is  operated  by  two  engines  each  63  tons  weight,  which  take 
a  load  of  6(10  tons,  exclusive  of  the  weight  of  engine  and 
tender,  up  this  incline  at  the  rate  of  1.5  miles  per  hour.  For 
temporary  purposes  the  engines  have  taken  loads  of  40 
tons,  exclusive  of  their  own  weight,  up  grades  of  over  500 
feet  to  the  mile.  See  Inclijjei)  Plane  and.  Mountain-rail- 
ways. 

Oauge. — It  is  not  known  what,  if  any,  principle  governed 
the  determination  in  the  fii-st  instance  of  the  gauge  between 
the  rails  of  4  ft.  S^  in.  It  was  adojited  in  the  roads  from 
the  collieries  in  the  north  of  England,  and  believed  to  have 
arisen  from  the  eolliery-wagoiis  in  use  on  common  roads 
having  an  outside  width  of  axle  of  5  feet ;  for  as  the  tram- 
roads  had  the  flange  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  rail  these  or- 
dinary wagons  could  be  used  on  them,  and  when  the  tram- 
way was  replaced  by  an  edge-rail  the  same  width  of  track 
was  continued,  but,  measured  from  the  inner  edge  of  the 
rail,  resulted  in  the  4  ft.  8i-inch  gauge.  Another  reason, 
given  by  an  authority,  is  that  the  tramways  were  5  feet  wide 
including  the  rails,  and  as  the  later  edge-rails  were  IJ  inches 
wide  they  practically  determined  the  gauge  at  4  ft.  8i  in.  as 
soon  as  they  were  introduced.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Jlr.  Ste- 
phenson, engaged  in  these  collieries,  was  selected  to  build 
the  Liver|K)ol  and  Manchester  road,  and  seeing  no  rea.son  to 
change  the  gauge  with  which  he  was  familiar,  it  was  adopt- 
ed there.  When  once  established  on  a  line  of  road  looking 
to  future  extension,  it  was  apparent  that  unless  some  special 
advantage  called  for  a  change  there  was  a  manifest  propri- 
ety in  continuing  its  use ;  accordingly,  the  success  of  the 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  road  led  to  the  general  adoption 
of  this  gauge.  As  the  weight  of  trallic  increased,  and  a 
corresponding  increa.se  of  power  was  <'allcd  for  in  the  loco- 
motive engine,  the  impression  prevailed  that  this  could  be 
best  arrived  at  by  increiusing  the  space  within  which  the 
machinery  was  placed,  and  an  increase  in  the  width  of  track 
on  many  roads  was  the  consequence.  In  1S46  the  incon- 
venience resulting  from  this  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  width 
of  the  railways  in  England  led  to  the  matter  being  brought 
before  Parliament,  aiul  an  inquiry  was  instituted  as  to  the 
respective  merits  of  the  various  proposed  widths  of  tracks. 
The  commotion  which  followeil,  known  as  the  "battle  of 
the  gauges,"  led  to  experiments,  investigations,  and  reports 
by  a  committee  of  Parliament,  and  every  effort  (lossible  was 
made  to  arrive  at  a  just  conclusion  in  the  premises,  and  the 
subject  was  exhaustively  considered.  The  residt  was,  that 
while  Parliament  declineil  to  enact  a  law  compelling  all 
roads  to  adopt  the  narrow  gauge,  yet  the  evidence  went  to 
show  that  although  for  main-trunk  lines  of  great  tradic  a 
wider  gauge  than  the  prevailing  one  of  4ft.  8J  in.  would 
probably  prove  advantageous,  yet  the  advantages  were  not 
then  so  apparent  as  were  the  disadvantages  resulting  from 
a  lack  of  uniformity  with  the  prevailing  gauge  of  the  king- 


dom :  and  the  public  mind  settled  generally  to  this  belief. 
In  the  I'.  S.  there  were  five  different  widths  of  track — from 
4  ft.  8i  in.  to  6  feet — ajid  the  advantages  of  uniformity  of 
track  again  forcing  itself  upon  the  attention  of  railway  pro- 
prietors resulted  in  the  triumph  of  the  4  ft.  8+  in. ;  and  for 
the  same  reasons  as  formerly,  not  its  mechanical  superiority 
to  any  other,  but  the  expediency  of  its  adoption  in  view  of 
the  extent  of  roads  in  operation  of  that  width  of  gauge. 

As  before  renuirked,  the  grades,  curves,  and  gauge  of  a 
railway  are  the  elements  of  its  capacity  for  transport.  The 
relative  effects  of  the  first  two  are  measurably  well  under- 
stood, but  the  precise  value  of  the  latter  still  remains  a 
mooted  question  among  engineers,  although  the  general 
adoption  of  the  standard  gauge  of  4  ft.  8A  in.  in  the  U.  S. 
has  rendered  such  investigation  of  little  practical  interest. 

Driiinage. — The  expense  of  the  maintenance  on  any  line 
will,  other  things  being  equal,  vary  very  nearly  in  the  jjro- 
portion  in  which  its  drainage  is  good  or  otherwise.  Water 
lying  or  running  on  the  surface  soaks  and  softens  the  road- 
bed, washes  away  the  earth,  and  chokes  the  ditches.  When 
saturated  with  water  the  road-bed  loses  its  firmness,  and  the 
bottom  sinks  and  deranges  the  tracks,  thus  adding  to  the 
shocks  of  the  train  and  to  the  wear  and  tear  of  both  the 
machinery  and  the  track.  The  surface-drainage  of  the 
slopes  of  excavations  is  equally  important,  to  prevent  the 
velocity  of  running  water  from  tearing  up  the  soil  and 
choking  the  ditches,  which  should  be  kept  open  and  of  a 
sufficient  depth  to  drain  the  bottom  of  the  ballast. 

The  cross-lies,  upon  which  the  rails  rest,  are  generally  of 
oak,  chestnut,  or  other  hard  and  durable  wood,  from  6  "to  8 
inches  in  depth,  from  8  to  10  wide,  and  8  feet  in  length,  and 
are  laid  usually  upon  the  road-bed  at  intervals  of  about  2 
feet  between  centers.  The  ballast,  or  material  upon  which 
the  ties^rest,  should  be  broken  stone  or  gravel  mixed  with 
coarse  sand  free  from  loam  or  clay,  aiul  should  extend  to  a 
depth  of  at  least  18  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  ties,  and 
the  space  between  the  latter  should  be  filled  in  nearly  to  the 
level  of  the  bottom  of  the  rail.  The  effect  of  this,  besides 
securing  the  cross-ties  and  rails  in  their  places,  permits  by 
its  porosity  the  thorough  drainage  of  the  track,  resists  sink- 
ing of  the  ties,  and  enables  them  to  be  readily  packed  up, 
while  it  gives  a  proper  amount  of  elasticity  to  the  track, 
more  conducive  to  durability  than  the  plasticity  of  earth  or 
the  rigi<lity  of  rock,  and  secures  them  against  the  heaving 
action  of  the  frost. 

Hails  and  Cross-ties. — The  early  forms  of  strap-rails  soon 
gave  way  to  cast-iron  bars  about  6  feet  long,  called  fish-bel- 
lied rails,  and  these  in  turn  were  replaced  by  wrought-iron 
forms.  The  first  steel  rails  were  rolled  in  England  in  ISoT, 
and  the  introduction  of  the  Bessemer  process  (patented  in 
1856)  produced  a  marked  influence  in  cheapening  the  cost 
of  construction  of  railways. 

In  Great  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  it  has 
been  customary  to  make  the  rail  double-headed,  and  when 
worn  on  one  edge  to  reverse  it,  and  thus  doidde  its  dura- 
tion :  but  this  method,  besides  rendering  an  expensive  cast- 
iron  chair  necessary',  with  its  complication  of  fastenings 
(this  item  alone  being  estiiuatcil  in  Great  Britain  as  anuamt- 
ing  to  over  1,000,000  tons),  is  of  doubtful  expediency,  as  the 
effect  of  the  chair  is  in  many  eases  to  indent  the  lower  face 
of  the  rail,  which  is  subsc(|uently  liable  to  fracture.  This 
hsis  led  to  the  use  of  the  "  bull-head "'  non-reversible  rail, 
the  lower  head  being  only  large  enough  to  secure  the  rail 
in  the  chair.  The  system'  universally  pursued  in  the  U.  S. 
of  dispensing  entirely  with  a  chair,  and  making  the  base  of 
the  rail  some  five  inches  in  width,  resting  on  the  timber 
cross-ties  without  other  su]iport.  and  secured  to  the  latter 
by  brad-headed  spikes,  is  gradually  gaining  ground  else- 
where as  the  most  simple  and  efficient  method  of  securing 
the  rail. 

For  some  years  the  use  of  steel  cross-ties  has  been  gain- 
ing ground,  and  is  now  a<Ivocated  as  conferring  the  requi- 
site elasticity  of  track  with  economy  of  nuiintenance  ;  and, 
what  is  veryfenuirkable.  as  it  is  well  known  that  rails  .sub- 
jected to  the  rolling  traflic  of  the  road  do  not  deteriorate 
by  rust,  wiiile  a  rail  lying  unused  by  the  roadside  is  soon 
destroyed  by  rust,  so  it  is  found  that  the  metal  sleeper,  or 
cross-tie  of  rolled  iron  or  steel,  while  in  u.se  under  the  rails, 
does  not  suffer  loss  by  rust  to  any  appreciable  extent,  and 
does  not  require  renewal  from  this  cause.  The  extent  of 
metal  track  in  the  world  up  to  1892  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table  (from  official  s(mrces) ;  it  is  .scarcely  to  be  regarded 
as  experimental  in  countries  where  from  scarcity  of  timber, 
climatic,  or  other  considerations,  the  use  of  metal  for  the 


902 


RAILWAYS 


support  of  the  rails  became  almost  a  matter  of  necessity. 
This  table  also  gives  the  miles  of  railway  up  to  1892  : 


COUNTRY. 

Metal  track, 
mllel. 

Total  tmck, 
milei. 

Per  cent  oi 
metal  track. 

10,400 
1,330 

aoo 

9,800 

3,850 

20 

136,000 
5,300 
10,740 
21,425 

21,000 

171,000 
14,635 

7-70 

Africa                 

25-09 

1-86 

45-74 

South  .\nierica.. 
Central  America 

18-33 

West  Indies 

Mexico 

U    S              .   .... 

25,600 

379,100 

6-75 

The  average  number  of  ties  obtained  from  one  acre  of 
forest  is  100,  so  that  for  new  track  with  3,640  ties  per  mile 
about  26+  acres  of  forest  must  be  cleared  to  supply  ties  for 
each  mile  of  track.  The  annual  consumption  of  timber  for 
railway  purposes  in  the  U.  S.  is  about  365,000,000  cubic  feet 
for  ties,  and  60,000,000  cubic  feet  for  bridge  and  trestle  con- 
struction of  sawed  material ;  so  tliat  the  annual  consump- 
tion of  .500,000,000  cul)ic  feet  of  wood  in  the  shape  of  forest- 
grown  (round)  timber  for  railway  purposes  may  be  taken  as 
a,  reasonable  figure. 

The  first  rails  of  rolled  iron  were  not  above  3  feet  in  length, 
-while  steel  rails  have  been  rolled  over  80  feet  in  length. 
Common  rails  are  rolled  in  lengths  of  about  30  feet,  and 
the  joints  are  secured  by  fish-plates — plain  plates  of  rolled 
iron  placed  under  the  head  of  the  rail,  and  secured  to  both 
rails  by  bolts — or  by  angle-plates,  having  the  general  sec- 
tional form  of  the  rail  and  its  flange,  and  secured  in  the  same 
way  by  bolts.  The  joint  being  considered  the  weakest  point 
of  the  track,  every  effort  was  made  to  stiffen  it  by  clustering 
the  ties  near  it,  and  making  the  joint-tie  broader  and  heav- 
ier than  elsewhere.  Against  this  it  was  urged  that  the  joint 
became  stiffer  than  the  remainder  of  the  rail  and  to  that 
extent  objectionable,  and  the  joint  was  then  suspended  by 
resting  the  angle-bar  at  each  end  on  a  tie,  and  dispensing 
with  the  support  afforded  by  a  tie  immediately  under  the 
joint,  thus  giving  elasticity  to  the  joint.  Each  method  has 
its  advocates,  and  innumerable  patents  claiming  to  make  a 
perfect  joint  have  been  issued.  The  rails  are  secured  to 
the  angle-plates  by  bolts  passing  through  holes  made  oblong 
to  permit  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  rail  occa- 
sioned by  change  of  temperature.  In  the  climate  of  the 
V.  S.  it  is  estimated  that  this  variation  in  the  length  of  a 
30-foot  rail  will  amount  to  -fg  of  an  inch.  At  or  near  the 
center  of  each  rail  the  spikes  are  passed  through  nicks  in  the 
flange  of  the  rail,  instead  of  outside  the  flange  as  elsewhere, 
thus  fastening  each  rail  near  the  center  of  its  length  to  the 


down  grade  by  the  action  of  the  driving-wheels  of  the  en- 
gines. The  thorough  draining  and  ballasting  the  track,  it 
will  be  perceived,  is  relied  upon  to  render  the  above  precau- 
tionary measures  of  any  service.  Constant  increase  in  the 
weight  of  rails  has  been  going  on  for  some  years.  Steel  rails 
6  inches  high  and  of  the  same  width  of  flange,  and  weighing 
120  lb.  to  the  yard,  are  now  jiroposed,  and  100-lb.  rails  are 
not  uncommon.  The  main  tracks  of  all  the  chief  railways 
of  the  U.  S.  are  of  steel. 

Electric  Railways. — With  the  exception  of  variations  in 
the  width  of  gauge  and  weight  of  rail,  and  the  details  of  the 
rolling  stock,  the  railways  of  the  U.  S.  jiresent  great  uni- 
formity of  plan.  To  this  statement  an  exception  must  be 
made  in  the  case  of  the  roads  operated  by  electricity ;  for 
although  the  consideration  of  the  motive  power  to  be  used 
on  railways  is  in  a  measure  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  this 
article,  yet  the  use  of  electricity  has  rendered  some  changes 
in  the  construction  of  the  rail  track  essential,  and  still 
greater  changes  may  be  anticipated  in  the  future. 

The  electrically  operated  railways  have  thus  far  been  con- 
fined to  the  streets  of  cities  and  towns,  and,  as  with  other 
municipal  roads,  neither  its  construction  nor  its  operation  is 
emliodied  in  the  tabular  statements  herewith  appended.  See 
Electric  Railways. 

Statistics. — Nearly  one-half  of  the  railway  mileage  of  the 
U.  S.  has  been  constructed  since  1880.  This  great  increase 
has  been  largely  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States.  But 
this  has  been  eclipsed  by  the  increase  in  the  magnitude  of 
operations.  The  gross  earnings  of  1893  were  $1,208,641,498, 
of  which  $808,494,608  were  from  freight,  $311,978,347  from 
passengers,  and  $88,16s.4H.s  from  miscellaneous  sources.  The 
net  earnings  were  $358,648,918. 

In  addition  to  the  cost  of  construction  of  new  roads,  a  large 
amount  of  fresh  capital  is  yearly  expended  on  old  lines ; 
so  that  for  many  years  past  there  has  been  expended  upon 
railways  over  $1,000,000  for  every  -working  day  in  the  year. 
Should  much  of  the  cost  of  new  lines  be  lost  to  sharehold- 
ers, the  republic  is  undoubtedly  the  richer  to  a  very  large 
extent,  possibly  apjiroximating  the  expenditure,  from  the 
incidental  advantages  growing  out  of  opening  new  and  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  rich  lands  for  settlement,  and  bringing 
within  reach  of  markets  products  -n'hich  would  otherwise 
have  had  no  commercial  value.  These  railways  during  1893 
transported  757,464,480  tons  of  freight,  an  equivalent  of  90,- 
552,087,290  tons  moved  one  mile,  at  an  average  charge  of 
0'89  cents  per  ton  per  mile ;  and  passengers  628,965,973, 
equivalent  to  1.5,246,711,952  persons  carried  one  mile,  at  a 
charge  of  2'05  cents  per  passenger  per  mile,  the  number  of 
passengers  carried  equaling  nearly  nine  times  the  entire 
population  of  the  U.  S.  This  is  exclusive  of  elevated-rail- 
way travel  in  the  cities.  The  value  of  the  freight  carried,  at 
$25  per  ton,  would  equal  nearly  $19,000,000,000. 


COMPARATIVE  STATEMENTS  RELATIVE  TO  THE  RAILWAYS  IN  THE  U,  S.,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  CANADA,  AND  THE  BRITISH  COLONIES, 


SUBJECTS  CONSIDERED. 


Area,  stiuare  miles 

Population 

Population  per  square  mile. . . . 
Population  per  mile  of  railway 
Mile.s  of  railway    

Gauge 

Cost  per  mile 

Gross  receipts  per  train-mile 
1890-91  

Operating  expenses  per  train- 
mile  lKflO-91 

Net  revenue  per  train-mile  . . . . 

Percentage  of  operating  ex- 
penses to  earnings 


United 
state!.* 


2,967,61 

62,622,850 

21  1 

367 

170,601 

4  ft.  81  in. 

859,880 

eta. 
135-60 

93  43 

42-17 

68-90 


United 
Kingdom. 


121,115 

38,000,000 

314 

1,900 

20,073 

4  ft.  8*  in. 

8223,650 
Ota. 
117-28 

63-54 
63-58 

54-80 


3,510,500 
5,000,000 

'  370 
13,256 

4  ft.  SJ  in. 

8.59,260 
Cts. 
112-30 

86-80 
25-50 


Qiieenslaod. 


668,224 

393,938 

0-6 

179 

2,195 

3  ft.  5  in. 

834,400 
Cts. 
115  66 

82-18 
33 -4S 


New  South 
Wales. 


809.175 

1,145,400 

4 

536 

2,182 

4  ft.  8} 

878,795 
Cti. 
169-76 

104-62 
65-24 


87,884 

1,137,878 

13 

412 

8,763 

6  ft.  8  in. 

$65,765 
Cts. 
129-86 

90-54 
38-76 


South 
\uBtraliB. 


903,425 
328,1X10 
0  36 
197 
1,666 
1  3  ft.  6  in.  I 
"i  5  ft.  3  in.  f 
$34,330 
Cn. 
155-88 

78-60 
77-28 

50-42 


New 
Zealand. 


104,835 

683,000 

6 

.338 

1,848 

i  ft.  6  in. 

$38,760 
Cti. 
18600 

116-18 
69-82 

68-46 


1.378,044 
234,490,000 
170 
13,790 
16,996 
(  5  ft.  6    in.  I 
\  3  ft.  3}  in.  1 
$68,820 
cu. 
186-00 

9300 
93  00 


19,000 

481,362 

85 

1,800 

868 


60  00 


*  Exclusive  of  Alaska, 


ties,  and  confining  the  action  of  contraction  or  expansion  to 
each  individual  rail.  This  is  the  method  relied  upon  also 
for  preventing  -what  is  called  the  "  creeping "'  of  the  rails 


The  following  table,  condensed  from  Poor's  Manual  of 
Railroads  and  other  sources,  exhibits  the  mileage  of  the 
railways  of  the  world  : 


RAILWAY    MILEAGE   OF   THE   -WORLD. 


COUNTRY. 


Germany  and  Luxemburg. 

CJreat  Britain 

France 

Russia 

Austria-Hungary 

Italy 

Spain 


1840. 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 

1875. 

1880. 

1885. 

1890. 

219 

3,6.35 

7,021 

11,715 

17,519 

21,200 

23,535 

25,608 

1,331 

6,635 

10.410 

15,310 

16,650 

17,935 

19,169 

20,073 

265 

1,865 

6.860 

11,010 

13,420 

16.100 

19,.300 

20.743 

14 

810 

989 

7,005 

12,180 

14,(1110 

16,939 

18,059 

89 

942 

2.780 

5,962 

10,413 

11,610 

13,957 

15,877 

13 

378 

1,369 

3.830 

4.770 

5.460 

6,610 

8.164 

16 

1,187 

3,210 

3,680 

4,030 

5,664 

6.108 

1893. 

27,100 
20,325 
21,788 
19,651 
17,6119 
8,742 
0,708 


R.MLWAYS 


903 


RAILWAY    MILEAGK   OF   THE   WORLD. — CONTINUED. 


COUNTRY. 

1840. 

1830. 

1860. 

1870. 

1875. 

1880. 

1885. 

1890. 

1893. 

Sweden  { 

186 

552 

15 

110 

416 

1,071 
6.'>3 
196 

■  41 

69 

85 

1,305 

1,790 
882 
885 
152 
174 
478 
443 
7 

8,540 

8,173 
1,275 
975 
767 
958 
783 
&)3 
7 

4,400 

2,550 

1,635 

1,113 

860 

867 

985 

778 

8 

5,277t 

8.758 

1.925 

1,542 

1,100 

904 

1,214 

950 

210 

247 

7J 

5,983 

8,793 

1,9V3 

1,839 

1,590 

904 

1,814 

1,284 

452 

3;i6 

7) 

6,2% 

Norway  S'" 

2,810 

2,068 

MtiWntul                                     

1,900 

1,598 

904 

1,889 

1,440 

568 

337 

Malta 

n 

Total  Europe 

2,117 

14,438 

82,147 

64,153 

88,7.52 

104,783 

120,899 

133.006i 

141,083} 

840 

4,774 
73 
93 
143 

6,517 

91 

162 

219 

41 

9.147 

i:« 

265 

844 

75 

11,993 
178 
.686 
347 
250 

16,095 
19U 
809 
393 
1,437 
890 
73) 

'is? 

6 

18.W2 

Ceylon                                       

2:i0t 

a60 

974 

1,877 

890 

^is* 

190 

180 

11 

840 

5,085 

7,030 

9,856 

13,354 

20,031 

23,363 

United  States 

a,816 

.... 

9,015 

30,600 
1,880 

48 

133 
85 

'iig 

46 

52,856 

2,670 

815 

64 
19 

504 

613 

61 

44 

452 
247 

"is 

74,050 

4,4S0 

369 

64 
21 

i',6.36 

1,168 
189 
44 
794 
965 
81 
18 

93,636 

6.886 

654 

74 

"80 
56 

860 

41 

75 

70 

81 

2,170 

1,530 

268 

44 

1,170 

1,1.60 

81 

32 

125.379 

10.773 

3,662 

170 

U3 

99 

38 

900 

93 

5H 

140 

102 

21 

.    4.379 

4,1.50 

271 

45 

I.42I 

996 

"'46 

■"7 
32 

161,397 

13.436 

4.tM8 

180 

99 

99 

37 

.63 

1,000 

« 

54 

218 

183 

23 

5,582 

5,798 

707 

152 

1.700 

1,625 

300 

50 

24 

"12 
56 

177,753 
15,330i 

Mexico 

6.900 
231 

99 

118 

37 

62 

1,000 

Jamaica  1 

89 

Trinidaii  t 

218 

287 

British  Guiana 

83 

Brazil                     . .                ....            

6,651 

8,023 

974 

167} 

1.733 

882 

Bolivia       .        

500 

63 

84 

71 

Porto  Rico    

12 

56 

8.816 

9,015 

32.851 

57,762 

83,223 

108,795 

1.52,896} 

197,497 

221,350 

.... 

296 

646 
69 

164 

5 

66 

950 
148 
373 
5 
66 

927 

903 

875 

99 

66 

8 

900 

1,.599 

1,.533 

174 

92 

8 

1,123 
1,785 
2,170 
2.69 
92 
78 
164 

120 

1.225 

2,252 

2.216 

Natal 

399 

78 

246 

200 

Total  Africa 

296 

950 

1,548 

2,878 

4,306 

5.791 

•  7,208 

124 
176 

"47 

3.35 

275 
805 
133 

■43 

44 

4.35 
617 
2G5 
260 
38 
149 
542 

86.6 
1,195 

6:i6 

678 
71 

171 
1,253 

1,7.34 
1.743 
1,434 
1,063 
76 
867 
1,654 

8.182 
2,341 
2.064 
1.756 
500 
374J 
1,912 

2,351 

2,903 

8,353 

1,810 

651 

475 

2,036 

347 

1,035 

2,296 

4,858 

7,961 

11,1294 

18,679 

4,933 

83,473 

66,481 

128,985 

18a,(M3 

231.120 

898,81 6  J 

367,465 

406,683} 

Since  the  opening  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Rail- 
way (1831)  there  have  been  built  about  400.000  niili'K  nf  rail- 
way, at  an  estimated  cost  of  .*-10,000,000,()00.  The  railway 
may  therefore  justly  claim  to  be  one  of  the  most  signal  in- 
struments— perhaps  the  most  signal  instrument — of  civiliza- 
tion yet  developed.  J.  W.  Adams. 

Railway  Eqiipmbnt:  The  track,  shops,  stations,  and  roll- 
ing stock  of  railways.  The  total  railway  mileage  of  the 
world  has  74  per  cent,  of  standard  gauge  (4  ft.  Si  in.  in  the 
clear  between  the  heads  of  the  rails),  12  per  cent,  of  broader 
gauges,  and  14  per  cent,  of  narrower  gauges. 

Track. — The  visible  portion  of  the  road-bed,  consisting  of 
rails  and  cross-ties,  constitutes  the  track,  which  usually  rests 
on  a  foundation  of  liroken  stone  or  gravel.  About  90.000.- 
000  of  timlxr  cross-ties  are  annually  used  on  the  railways  of 
the  U.  S.  Preserving  wooden  ties  is  commonly  practiced  in 
Europe,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  U.  S.  The  principal 
processes  are  as  follows:  Kyanizing  (corrosive  suulimate), 


burnettizing  (chloride  of  zinc),  Boucherie  (sulphate  of  cop- 
per), Wcllhouse  (chloride  of  zinc  and  tannin),  and  vulcaniz- 
ing (heating  underpressure).  Metal  tie-plates  areoftenused 
under  T-rails  to  protect  the  wood.  Metal  ties  are  used  very 
little  in  the  U.  S.,  but  extensively  in  other  countries. 

The  two  forms  of  rails  in  most"  general  use  are  sliown  in 
Fig.  1.  Tiie  flange  or  T-rail  was  invented  in  1830  by  Col. 
Robert  Ti.  Stevens,  of  the  U.  S.,  for  the  Camden  and  Amboy 
Railroad.  In  Europe  it  is  called  the  Vignoles  rail,  having 
been  reinvented  in  Kngland  in  18;!6  by  C.  H.  Vignoles.  It 
is  used  exclusivclv  in  IheU.  S.  and  largely  in  other  coun- 
tries, and  is  fastene.l  to  the  cross-ties  by  bolts,  screws,  or 
s])ikes.  The  bull-head  rails  used  in  Europe  are  secured  by 
wooden  or  iron  wedges  or  "  keys "  to  cast-iron  chairs  fas- 
tened to  the  tics.  Modern  track  is  laid  with  steel  rails, 
which  resist  strains  and  shocks  far  belter  than  iron  rails 
ami  have  greater  endurance,  and  in  1891  the  railways  of  the 
U.  S.  had  82  per  cent,  of  their  nuleage  laid  with  rolled  steel 


904 


RAILWAYS 


rails,  and  the  balance  with  iron.  The  first  steel  rails  were 
laid  at  Derby.  England,  in  1857.  Kails  for  main  track 
weigh  70  to  90  or  even  100  lb.  per  yard,  and  are  usually  30 
feet  long.     The  average  life  of  good  steel  rails  is  about  150,- 


FiG.  1.— Rails ;  a,  T-rail ;  6,  bull-head  rail. 


000,000  to  200,000,000  tons  of  traffic.  For  rail-joints  short 
splice-plates  or  fish-plates  were  used  in  1831  on  the  Camden 
and  Amboy  Railroad,  and  in  1847  the  fish-plate  joint  was 
invented  in  England  by  W.  Bridges  Adams.  The  angle-bar 
now  generally  used  is  a  development  of  the  fish-plate,  and  is 
20  to  48  inches  long,  with  four  or  six  bolts.  Since  1890  there 
has  been  a  growing  tendency  to  use  a  "  bridge-plate  "  under 
the  rail  ends  to  prevent  the  deflection  which  (and  not  the 
space  between  the  ends)  causes  the  shocks  to  car-wheels. 
The  most  approved  form  of  switch  is  the  split  switch  (Fig. 
2),  in  which  the  switch-rails  are  planed  to  a  taper,  so  that 


Fia.  2.— Split  switch  (set  for  straight  line). 


the  ends  will  fit  closely  against  the  main  or  stock  rails.  This 
type  was  used  in  England  before  1830.  In  the  stub-switch 
(Fig.  3),  still  used  in  the  U.  S.,  the  switch-rails  are  shifted 


Fig.  3.— Stub-switch  (set  tor  straight  line). 


into  line  with  those  of  one  or  other  of  the  diverging  tracks. 
The  frog  is  placed  at  the  intersection  of  the  rails,  and  allows 
wheels  to  pass  on  either  track. 

Maintenance  of  Wa;/. — Traflic  causes  wear  and  disturb- 
ance of  the  track ;  and  climate  and  weather  tend  to  rot  the 
ties,  shift  the  ballast,  fill  up  the  ditches,  etc.  The  expense 
of  maintenance  is  many  times  greater  in  the  U.  .S.  than  in 
Europe,  where,  as  a  general  thing,  the  roads  are  completed 
before  being  opened  for  use.  Maintenance  includes  the 
periodical  renewals  of  rails,  ties,  etc.,  and  also  the  daily  work 
of  repairs  and  general  attention  to  details.  The  work  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  safety  and  economy  of  traffic.  A 
railway  is  divided  into  "sections"  of  4  to  7  miles  in  length 
for  single  track,  or  3  to  5  miles  for  double  track,  each  section 
having  a  foreman  and  gang  of  4  to  6  men,  and  the  section 
is  gone  over  daily  from  end  to  end  to  see  that  it  is  in  good 
and  safe  condition. 

Signals  and  InterlocMng. — About  1841  the  semaphore 
signal  was  introduced  in  railway  service  by  C.  H.  Gregory 
in  England,  and  it  is  almost  universally  used,  although 
disks,  etc..  are  used  to  some  extent.  It  consists  essentially 
of  a  post  carrying  a  pivoted  arm.  When  horizontal  the  arm 
indicates  "  track  blocked  "  or  "  stop."  When  lowered  to  a 
vertical  or  inclined  position  it  indicates  "  track  clear  "  or  "  go 
on."  Colored  glasses  attached  to  the  arm  move  in  front  of 
a  fixed  lamp  for  the  night-signals.  Signals  are  of  two 
classes:  1,  those  dividing  the  railway  into  sections  or 
"  blocks  "  ;  2,  those  indicating  the  position  of  switches,  draw- 
bridges, etc.  With  block-signals  a  "distant  signal  "indi- 
cates the  position  of  the  "  home-signal,"  but  if  the  former  is 
at  "stop"  a  train  may  pass  it,  being  prepared  to  stop  at  the 
home-signal  if  the  latter  has  not  in  the  meantime  been  low- 
ered. A  home-signal  at  "stop"  must  never  be  passed  if  the 
"absolute  lilock"  system  is  used,  liut  with  the  inferior  " per- 
missive block"  the  train  may  pass  after  a  certain  interval, 
proceeding  with  caution.     Block-signals  are  operated  by 


wires,  compressed  air,  etc.,  from  towers  placed  at  distances 
apart  varying  with  the  amount  of  the  traffic.  There  is  tele- 
graph (and  sometimes  telephone)  communication  between 
the  towers,  and  in  the  lock-and-block  system  invented  in 
England  in  1874  the  apparatus  of  each  tower  is  elec- 
trically interlocked  with  those  of  other  towers,  so 
that  the  signalman  can  not  move  the  signals  or 
switclies  until  certain  electrical  operations  have  been 
performed  by  the  other  signalmen  to  release  or  un- 
lock the  levers  for  the  movement  he  has  notified 
them  that  he  wishes  to  make.  Automatic  signals, 
worked  electrically  from  track -connections  by  the 
trains,  are  used  to  a  greater  extent  in  the  U.  S. 
than  in  any  other  country,  but  are  inferior  to  the 
lock-and-block  system.  The  Westinghouse  and  Hall 
automatic  systems  are  those  most  used.  By  a  com- 
bination of  the  manual  and  automatic  systems  the 
signal  is  set  at  "  stop  "  by  the  train,  but  must  then  be  low- 
ered by  the  signalman,  who  can  not  do  so,  however,  until 
the  train  has  passed  the  next  signal.  In  1843  the  ajiparatus 
of  a  junction  in  England  was  so  interlocked  that  conflicting 
signals  could  not  be  given.  In  1856  John  Saxby,  of  Eng- 
land, applied  his  invention  of  interlocking  combined  with 
the  concentration  of  the  operating  levers,  and  in  1874  Mr. 
Stevens,  of  England,  invented  the  interlocking  by  tappets, 
which  is  now  generally  used.  In  an  interlocking  plant  the 
operating  levers  are  connected  to  a  series  of  bars  or  rods 
having  notches  and  jirojections  which  engage  with  each 
other,  and  are  so  arranged  that  when  switches  and  signals 
are  set  for  a  particular  train  movement  no  levers  can  be 
moved  for  any  conflicting  signal  or  switch.  The  first  inter- 
locking plant  in  the  U.  S.  was  used  in  1874  by  the  New  York 
Central  Railroad,  and  in  1875  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
imported  a  Saxby  macliine  from  England.  Such  machines 
are  now  in  extensive  use  at  terminals,  junctions,  and  track 
crossings.  By  Dec.  31,  1892,  the  railways  in  Great  Britain 
had  97  per  cent,  of  their  switch  and  signal  plant  interlocked. 
Water  and  Coal  Stations. — The  engine-tenders  are  gener- 
ally supplied  with  water  from  a  wooden  or  iron  tank  (one  or 
more  according  to  the  number  of  engines)  supported  upon  a 
stone,  iron,  or  timber  tower  about  12  feet  high.  A  hinged 
pipe  at  the  base  of  the  tank  leads  the  water  to  the  tender- 
manhole.  A  water-crane  or  column  is  an  upright  pipe  be- 
side the  track  with  a  swinging  horizontal  pipe  to  reach  across 
to  the  tender-manhole,  the  water  being  taken  from  an  un- 
derground pipe.  It  is  very  important  to  use  good  water. 
A  plan  for  filling  the  tender-tank  while  the  engine  is  run- 
ning, invented  by  John  Ramsbottom,  of  England,  in  1861, 
is  extensively  used  in  Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  An  iron 
track-tank  about  18  inches  wide.  6  inches  deep,  and  1,200  to 
1,500  feet  long  is  laid  between  the  rails.  In  the  tender-tank 
is  an  upright  pipe,  extended  downward  through  the  bottom 
and  fitted  with  a  movable  curved  end  or  "scoop."  When 
running  over  the  track-tank  the  scoop  is  lowered  into  it,  and 
the  motion  forces  the  water  up  the  pipe  into  the  tender. 
Goal  is  loaded  by  shoveling,  by  cars  or  buckets,  or  from  a 
coal-tipple,  which  is  a  structure  fitted  with  rows  of  coal-bins 
at  an  elevation  above  the  track.  When  an  engine  is  under 
or  alongside  the  tipple,  gates  arc  opened  allowing  the  con- 
tents of  the  bins  to  flow  down  a  cliute  into  the  tender.  Coal 
is  generally  used  for  fuel,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  anthra- 
cite dust.  Oil-fuel  and  bricks  of  pulverized  coal  mixed  with 
tar  or  other  cementing  material  are  considerably  used  in 
Europe. 

Stations  and  Shops. — The  size  of  a  station  and  the  pas- 
senger accommodation  and  freight  facilities  provided  depend 
upon  the  importance  of  the  town  and  the  tralfic.  Large 
stations  generally  ha\'e  a  train-shed  covering  the  tracks  and 
platforms,  and  at  important  terminals  handsome  buildings 
are  frequently  erected,  containing  the  station  and  railway 
company's  ofTFIces,  hotel  accommodations,  etc.  Union  sta- 
tions are  for  the  use  of  two  or  more  railways.  At  terminals 
and  important  stations  extensive  yards  and  side-tracks  are 
required,  and  freight-sheds,  warehouses,  grain-elevators, 
stockyards,  etc.,  must  be  provided  according  to  the  nature 
and  extent  of  the  traffic.  In  Europe  hydraulic  power  is 
largely  used  for  handling  cars  and  freight  at  terminals. 
Some  "railways  build  locomotives  and  cars,  and  have  there- 
fore extensive  works.  Repair-shops  for  locomotive-  and  car- 
work,  however,  are  required  at  different  points  on  all  roads. 
Engine-sheds  in  Eurojic  are  usu.ally  rectangular,  but  in  the 
U.  S.  they  are  usually  "  roundliouses"  of  circular,  annular, 
or  segmental  plan,  with  tracks  radiating  from  a  central  turn- 
table.   Among  the  extra  equipment  required  at  terminal 


RAILWAYS 


905 


and  divisional  points  are  the  following,  not  all,  however, 
being  e-stablishi'd  at  any  but  very  important  places:  Kepair- 
shops,  engine- anil  car-slioils,  storerooms  for  engine-.^upplies, 
sand-house  (sand  for  engines),  ice-lioiise  (ice  for  waler-coolers, 
dining-cars,  and  refrigerator-cars),  oil-house  (for  lamp-sup- 
ply), gas  or  electric  plant  for  car-lighting  (where  eitlier  sys- 
tem is  used),  coal-  and  water-supply,  offices,  rooms  for  em- 
ployees, storerooms  for  parlor  and  skeping-car  supplies;  side- 
tracks for  storing,  cleatiing,  inspecting,  and  repairing  ears; 
turn-table  or  transfer-table,  ash-pit,  etc.  The  greatest  lermi- 
ual  yards  in  the  world  are  those  at  liullalo,  N.  Y.,  which 
have  about  100  miles  of  main  track  and  4U0  miles  of  side- 
track. 


Cars. — The  first  passenger-cars  resembled  stage-coach 
bodies  on  four-wheel  platforms,  but  as  early  as  1831  the 
American  style  of  long  car  with  trucks,  or  '"  bogies,"  end 
doors,  central  aisle,  and  seats  all  facing  the  same  wav,  was 
introiiuced.  In  Europe  the  cars  are  generally  short  and 
light,  divided  into  compartments  having  side  doors,  the  jias- 
sengers  sitting  face  to  face  and  knee  to  knee,  but  within  re- 
cent years  improvements  have  been  made  in  introducing 
larger  cars  on  trucks,  and  also  parlor,  dining,  and  sleeping 
cars.  The  smaller  cars  have  four  or  six  wheels,  ami  are  26 
to  'ii  feet  long,  while  tlie  larger  ones  on  trucks  are  from  42 
to  56  feet  long.  American  cars  are  50  to  80  feet  long,  wider 
and  higher  than  Kuropean  cars,  and  generally  of  stronger 


TRAIN-SHEDS  OF 

PASSENGER 

STATIONS. 

CITY. 

RAILWAY. 

No.  of  apass. 

Width. 

Urgth. 

Heleht. 

No.  of  tnclu. 

Jersey  City.  U.  S 

Pennsylvania  Railroad.  .          

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
S 
1 

3]] 

256  ft. 
304  ft. 

266  ft. 
200  ft. 
9K  ft.  3  in. 
001  ft. 
243  ft. 

652  ft.  6  in. 

598  ft. 
506  ft.  8  in. 
ftlO  ft. 
650  ft. 
700  ft. 
600  ft. 

86  ft. 

100  ft.  4  in. 

88  ft. 

96  ft. 

22  ft.  6  in. 

75  ft. 
100  ft. 

12 

••                  "       « 

Philailelpliin  and  Heading  Railroad... 

13 

New  York,       "  

(annex.i.. 
Union  Station      .                         

St.  Louis.          " 

30 

Paris,  France 

Western  Railway  t.                  

30 

State  RaUways 

209  ft.  8  in.  1 
44  ft.          f 

836  ft. 

78  ft.  7  in. 

'  Broad  Street. 


t  St.  Pancras. 


}  St.-Lazare. 


Locomotives. — British  practice  in  the  design  and  construc- 
tion of  locomotives  is  still  mainly  followed  by  all  countries  ex- 
cept the  IT.  .S.  and  Canada.  North  American  practice  employs 
bar-fraraes.outside  cylinders,  trucks,  equalized  springs,  eight- 
wheel-lenders,  and  large  cabs  fitted  with  seals.  European 
practice  employs  plate-frames  (invariably),  inside  cylinders, 
rigid  axles  and  une(|ualized  springs  (generally),  and  four  or 
six  wheel  tenders,  while  the  men  have  to  stand  up  in  cabs 
affording  little  shelter.  North  American  engines  are  equally 
well  adapted  for  light  and  rough  track,  and  the  best  and 
heaviest  track,  and  many  features  of  American  practice  are 
widely  adopted  in  Europe,  while  locomotives  are  extensively 
exported  from  the  U.  S.  The  truck,  or  "bogie,"  was  in- 
vented by  .lohn  B.  Jervis,  of  the  U.  S.,  in  1831,  and  first 
useil  on  an  engine  ordered  by  him  from  the  Stephenson 
works  in  England.  The  North  American  "  eight-wheel  " 
type  of  engine  (having  four  coupled  driving-wheels  and  a 
four-wheel  leading  truck)  was  patented  in  18:36  by  H.  R. 
Campliell,  of  Philadel[ihia,  and  is  extensively  u.sed"  in  Eu- 
rope as  well  as  in  the  U.  S.  British  express-engines  have 
often  but  one  pair  of  driving-wheels,  7  feet  to  8  ftet  diame- 
ter, and  have  never  more  than  two  pairs,  while  in  the  U.  S. 
they  have  never  less  than  two  pairs,  and  often  three  pairs 
for  the  heavy  e.xpress-trains  characteristic  of  North  Ameri- 
can railways,  t  reight-engines  in  Europe  have  generally 
six  wheeLs.  all  coupled,  wliile  in  the  U.  S.  tliey  have  froiii 
eight  to  twelve  wheels,  with  six  to  ten  wheels  "coupled.  In 
1891  there  were  in  the  U.  S.  ;J2.1.3!)  locomotives,  of  which 
8,001  were  passenger.  16.606  freight.  4.:!21  switching,  and 
2,231  unclassified  and  leased.  Of  this  total,  28.094  were 
fitted  with  train-brakes.  In  the  compound  locumotive  the 
expanded  steam  from  the  liigh-pressnre  cylinder  flows  to  a 
larger  low-pressure  cylinder,  where  it  expands  further  be- 
fore escaping  to  the  atmosphere.  This  gets  more  work  out 
of  the  steam,  and  effects  an  economy  of  10  to  20  per  cent. 
in  fuel,  the  best  results  being  obtained  at  moderate  speeds. 
The  invention  dates  from  ISU,  but  the  first  practical  en- 
gines were  built  in  IS")  to  the  designs  of  .\.  Mallei,  of 
France.  Engines  on  the  Mallet  system  have  two  cylinders, 
and  can  be  run  at  will  as  siinj)le  engines  bv  admitting 
steam  direct  to  both  cylinders.  In  the  Worsdeil  (England) 
and  von  Borries  (Germany)  two-cylinder  engines,  live  steam 
is  only  admitted  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  at  starting, 
and  is  then  shut  off  by  an  aulomalic  inlercepting  valve. 
Four-cylinder  compounds  may  hi'  arranged  with  one  pair 
of  cylinders  to  each  of  two  driving-axles  (generally  Eu- 
ropean), or  with  two  cylinders  on  each  side  acting  together 
in  the  same  way  as  the  usual  single  cylinder.  Engines  with 
two,  three,  and  four  cylinders  are  in  .service  throughout  the 
world,  and  in  1.802  there  were  about  2..500  compound  loco- 
motives in  use.  of  which  over  .500  were  in  I  he  I'.  .S.,  where 
they  were  more  extensively  tised  than  in  any  other  country. 
These  U.  S.  engines  are  of  various  designs,  but  all  with  tw-o 
or  four  cylinders,  giving  them  extra  power  in  starting,  and 
on  heavy  grades,  and  are  generally  arranged  to  be  run  as 
simple  engines  at  will.  They  are  of  all  types  and  are  used 
in  every  class  of  service.    See  Locomotive. 


and  heavier  construction.  The  vestibule  connections,  or  in- 
closed-end  platforms,  were  used  on  mail-cars  about  1852, 
and  were  first  used  on  passenger-cars  in  1886.  They  make 
a  train  practically  one  long  articulated  ear,  and  afford  in- 
-iresised  safety  in  case  of  accident.  Dining,  sleeping,  and 
parlor  cars  are  run  on  most  important  trains,  and  are  very 
hixuriously  and  elaborately  finished  and  equipped.  The  first 
sleeping-car  in  the  U.  S.  was  run  on  the  Cumberland  Valley 
Kailroad  (Pennsylvania)  in  1836-37.  In  18.56-57  Thomas  L. 
Woodruff  built  c  sleeping-car,  and  he  was  followed  by  Web- 
ster \v"agner.  In  18.59  George  M.  Pullman  began  making 
improvements,  .ind  in  1864  he  built  for  the  Chicago  and 
Alton  Railroad  the  first  real  Pulliii;^n  sleeping-car.  Euro- 
pean freight-cars  are  generallv  12  to  IS  feet  long,  with  four 
wheels,  weigh  11,200  to  18,000'lb.,  and  carry  18.000  to  23.000 
lb.  Larger  cars  are  used  to  some  extent  for  coal,  ore,  etc. 
In  the  U.  S.  freight-cars  are  .30  to  36  feet  long,  with  two 
four-wheel  trucks,  weigh  20,000  to  30,000  lb.,  and  carry 
40.000  to  60.000  lb.  Refrigerator-cars  for  carrying  meat, 
fruit,  etc.,  have  the  sides,  roof,  and  floor  insulated  by  air- 
spaces, felt  packing,  etc.,  and  are  fitted  with  ice-chambers. 
Iron  and  steel  are  being  largely  used  in  freight-car  construc- 
tion, especially  for  the  frames.  The  number  of  cars  in  the 
U.  S.  in  1891  was  as  follows : 


CLASS  OF  SERVICE. 


Passenger . . . 

Freight 

Company's.  - 
Fast  freight. 

Total  owned . 
Total  leased. 

Grand  total . 


27.949 

947.300 

35,18) 

51,787 


1,062.221 
153,390 


1,215,611 


With  train 
brake. 


27,246 

108.132 

2.438 

4,777 


142.593 
22,645 


165,238 


With  aau>- 
matic  coupler. 


26,692 

107.795 

1,067 

8,597 


144.141 
23,202 


167,343 


Brakes. — In  the  V.  S.  hand-brakes  have  been  almost  en- 
tirely superseded  on  passenger-cars,  and  to  a  considerable 
extent  on  freight-cars,  by  coiilinuous  power  brakes  a]iplied 
by  the  cngineman  to  all  the  %vheelsof  a  train  simullaneously. 
Power-brakes  have  been  operated  by  air-[)ressnre,  vacuum, 
steam,  hydraulic  power,  weighls,  springs,  and  electricity,  but 
the  two  former  are  most  generally  used,  and  so  applied  as 
to  act  aulomatically  in  case  of  rupture  of  the  Iiose  con- 
necting the  train-pipes  of  the  cars.  The  Westinghouse  air- 
brake was  lir.st  palented  in  1869.  and  is  universally  used  in 
the  \5.  S.  and  largely  in  other  countries.  The  vacuum- 
brake,  dating  from  1871,  is  used  in  many  foreign  countries, 
and  is  elllcient,  but  is  slower  in  action  than  the  We.sting- 
house,  and  tlierefore  not  so  well  adapted  for  long,  heavy,  or 
fa.sl  trains.  The  K.ames  vacuum-brake  is  used  on  elevated 
railways  in  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  and  air-  and  vacuum- 
brakes  have  been  applied  lo  horse-,  calile-,  and  eleclric- 
cai-s.  In  l.'<87  (icorge  We!;tinghotise  perfected  his  (piick- 
acting  freight-lrain  brake,  which  will  stop  a  fifty-car  train 
al  ;i()  miles  an  hour  in  320  to  350  feet.  Passenger-I rains  at 
40  to  60  miles  an  hour  may  be  stopped  in  600  feet  for  the 


906 


RAILWAYS 


former  and  900  to  1,000  feet  for  the  latter  speed.  In  Feb., 
1893,  the  U.  S.  Congress  passed  a  law  compelling  tlie  use 
of  power-brakes  and  automatic  couplers  on  freight-cars. 
Brakes  are  generally  applied  to  the  driving-  and  tender- 
wheels  of  American  locomotives,  and  sometimes  also  to  the 
engine-truck  wheels.  With  the  Westinghouse  brake  the 
engine  has  an  air-pump,  main  reservoir,  and  engineman's 
valve  ;  and  each  car  has  a  smaller  reservoir,  triple  valve,  and 
a  horizontal  brake-cylinder  having  two  pistons  connected  by 
a  spiral  spring.  A  pressure  of  70  to  80  lb.  is  maintained  in 
the  reservoir  and  train-pipe,  the  brake-cylinder  being  empty 
and  the  brakes  off.  When  the  pressure  in  the  train-pipe 
is  reduced  (purposely  or  by  a  broken  hose  connection),  the 
greater  pressure  in  each  car-reservoir  moves  the  triple  valve, 
opening  a  passage  by  which  the  air  rushes  to  the  brake- 
cylinder  and  forces  "the  pistons  apart,  thus  applying  the 
brake-shoes  forcibly  to  the  wheels  by  means  of  a  system 
of  rods  and  levers.  To  release  the  brakes,  air  is  admit- 
ted by  the  engineman's  valve  from  the  main  reservoir  to 
the  train-pipe,  moving  the  triple  valves  back,  recharging  the 
car-reservoirs,  and  opening  an  escape  for  the  air  from  the 
cylinders,  the  pistons  being  then  drawn  back  by  the  spring. 
With  the  vacuum-brake  there  is  a  steam-ejector  and  a  brake- 
cylinder  on  the  engine,  and  a  vertical  brake-cylinder  and 
ball-valve  on  each  car.  A  vacuum  is  maintained  in  the 
train-pipe  and  cylinders  by  the  ejector,  the  piston  then  be- 
ing at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  and  the  brake  off.  When 
air  is  admitted  (purposely  or  by  a  ruptured  hose),  its  rush 
moves  the  ball-valve,  thus  closing  the  pipe  to  the  top  of  the 
cylinder,  and  the  air-pressure  therefore  passes  to  the  bottom, 
forcing  the  piston  up  and  applying  the  brakes.  When  air 
is  again  drawn  from  the  pipes  and  cylinders  by  the  ejector, 
the  ball-valve  returns  to  its  position,  allowing  the  air  to 
escape,  and  the  brakes  then  come  off  by  their  own  weight 
and  that  of  the  descending  piston. 

Car-conplprs  (Fig.   4). — The  common  form  of   coupling 
used  in  the  U.  S.  is  the  "  link  and  pin,"  consisting  of  a  link 

with  its  ends  rest- 
ing in  the  hollow 
ends  of  the  draw- 
bars of  the  two  cars, 
and  held  in  place 
by  a  vertical  pin 
through  each  draw- 
bar. Coupling  and 
uncoupling  by  hand 
is  dangerous  work, 
and  in  the  vear  end- 
ing June  30,  1892, 
about  378  men  were 
killed  and  10,319 
injured  in  it.  Pas- 
senger-cars are  gen- 
erally fitted  with 
the  automatic  coup- 
ler invented  bv 
Ezra  Miller  in  1863, 
and  have  also 
spring  buffers,  safe- 
ty -  platforms,  and 
safety-chains.  The 
Janney  automatic 
coupler  for  jiassen- 
ger  and  freight  cars 
was  adopted  by  the 
Master  Car-build- 
ers' Association  in 
1887.  Each  coup- 
ler has  a  vertical 
claw  -  shaped  end 
with  a  movable 
knuckle,  and  when 


-i 

'^IK 

l- 

O     '»'     1 

\ 

\^ 

/ 

i 

Fio.    4- 

Car-couplers :    a 

link- 

coupler  ;    6, 

Janney  automatic  coupler  ;  c,  top  view 
of  automatic  couplers  when  coupled. 


pushed  together  the  knuckles  interlock,  and  can  not  be 
pulled  apart  unless  a  vertical  locking-pin  is  withdrawn, 
which  can  be  done  by  a  handle  at  the  side  of  the  car.  The 
Miller  hook-coupler  is  unooupled  bv  shifting  the  honked 
drawheads  sideways  by  a  lever  on  the  "car-platform.  In  Feb., 
1893,  the  U.  S.  Congress  passed  a  law  that  bv  Jan.,  1898,  all 
freight-cars  must  be  equipped  with  automatic  couplers.  In 
Europe  passenger-cars  generally  have  hooked  drawbai-s  con- 
nected by  chains  which  are  drawn  tight  by  a  screw,  bring- 
ing into  contact  the  long  spring  buffers  at  the  ends  of  the 
ears.  Freight-ears  have  either  a  similar  coupling  or  a  loose 
chain. 


Car-ligMing  and  Tieating. — Mineral-oil  lamps  are  most 
used  in  the  U.  S.,  oil  of  300°  F.  fire-test  being  the  safest. 
In  Europe  vegetable  oils  are  used,  owing  to  the  high  price  of 
kerosene,  but  they  are  inferior  to  the  latter,  and  the  cars  are 
in  general  poorly  lighted.  Compressed  oil-gas  is  extensively 
used  in  the  U.  S.  and  many  other  countries.  The  oil  is  dis- 
tilled and  vaporized  in  retorts,  and  the  gas  is  forced  into 
storage-tanks  by  compressor-pumps.  It  is  then  piped  to  the 
car-reservoirs,  which  usually  hold  213  cubic  feet  at  150  lb. 
[iressure,  or  enough  for  twelve  lamps  for  sixteen  hours. 
Gasoline-gas  is  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  U.  S.  Elec- 
tricity has  been  extensively  experimented  with,  and  is  in 
use,  but  is  expensive.  It  may  be  operated  by  storage-bat- 
teries, by  a  dynamo  driven  from  a  car-axle  (with  storage- 
batteries  for  use  when  the  train  stops),  or  by  a  separate 
engine  and  dynamo  in  one  car.  The  ordinary  stove  has 
caused  many  fires  in  trains  by  being  upset,  especially  in 
train-accidents,  and  in  the  U.  S.  its  use  is  prohibited  in  some 
States.  Improved  stoves,  with  hot-water  pipes,  are  used  con- 
siderably, but  the  most  approved  system  is  that  of  leading 
steam  from  the  engine  through  pipes  in  the  cars,  and  it  is 
very  extensively  used.  In  Europe  stoves  and  steam  and  hot- 
water  heating  are  used  to  a  limited  extent ;  but  in  Great 
Britain  the  primitive  and  inefficient  plan  of  portable  foot- 
warmers  filled  with  hot  water  is  the  most  common.  The 
ventilation  of  American  cars,  especially  sleeping-cars,  is 
generally  very  poor,  but  in  Europe  fans  and  mechanical 
ventilators  are  largely  used  to  draw  out  the  foul  air. 

E.  E.  Russell  Tratman.    A.  51.  Wellington. 

Railway  Operation  :  the  conduct  of  the  business  of  a 
railway,  together  with  the  methods  and  results  of  economic 
management.  In  all  countries  the  government  exercises 
the  right  to  grant  or  refuse  permission  for  the  construction 
and  operation  of  railways.  The  government  may  build  and 
operate  railways,  as  in  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Aus- 
tralia, and  South  Africa,  private  lines  being  also  generally 
permitted  in  the  European  countries.  It  may  build  and 
own  the  railways,  but  contract  with  ]irivate  companies  for 
their  operation,  as  in  France  and  Italy.  It  may  own  the 
railways,  but  allow  jirivate  companies  to  construct  and  oper- 
ate them,  as  to  some  extent  in  India.  It  may  permit  pri- 
vate companies  to  build,  own,  and  operate  railways,  itself  ex- 
ercising a  greater  or  lesser  degree  of  control,  as  in  the  D".  S., 
Great  Britain,  Canada,  and  many  other  countries.  Rail- 
way companies  claim  that  railways  are  purely  private  enter- 
prises, but  the  courts  in  most  countries  have  recognized 
them  as  being  public  highways,  differing  only  in  degree 
from  roads  or  canals,  the  fact  of  a  railway  having  its  own 
equipment  and  using  its  collected  tolls  or  rates  for  its  exclu- 
sive use,  not  affecting  the  principle.  The  government  as- 
sistance by  land-grants,  bonds,  etc.,  is  made  in  recognition 
of  the  railway  as  an  improved  highway.  Abuses  of  railway 
management  in  the  U.  S.  led  to  the  "  granger  "  movement  in 
1871,  through  which  the  granger  or  farmer  element  of  the 
Northwestern  States  secured  the  passage  of  laws  adverse  to 
the  railway  companies,  limiting  rates  and  prohibiting  dis- 
crimination. The  resulting  litigation  led  to  an  investiga- 
tion by  Congress,  and  in  1887  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act 
was  passed  to  regulate-  rates,  prevent  discrimination,  etc., 
through  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  The  princi- 
pal executive  head  of  a  railway  is  the  general  manager, 
next  to  whom  come  the  general  superintendent  (traffic),  the 
chief  engineer  (civil  engineering),  and  the  superintendent  of 
motive  power  (locomotives  and  cars),  with  their  staffs  of  as- 
sistants. These  attend  to  the  handling  of  the  liusiness 
which  is  obtained  through  the  general  passenger  agent  and 
the  general  freight  agent.  In  1891  there  were  in  the  U.  S. 
784.285  railway  employees  (one  man  in  82,  or  over  1  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  population),  exclusive  of  baggage-men  and  car- 
porters. 

Traffic  and  Bates. — The  relative  importance  of  the  passen- 
ger- and  freight-traffic  varies  in  different  countries.  Thus 
in  Great  Britain  the  proportion  of  freiglit  to  passenger 
earnings  is  about  as  5  to  4,  while  in  the  U.  S.  it  is  about  as 
20  to  7.  The  following  table,  for  1890,  gives  the  data  from 
which  this  proportion  is  computed  : 


KIND    OF    EARNINGS,    ETC. 

Passenger  earnings 

Freight  earnings 

IMiscpllanHoiis  earnings 

Total  earnings 

Average  rate  per  passenger 

Average  journey  per  passenger 


United  States. 


81  ..368.320.000 

s.voi.siri.noo 
.iivi.ooo.ooo 

5,4.30,195.000 
2"18  cts.  per  mile. 
2418  miles. 


Coited  Kiagdom. 


$iri,640.000 
21fi.100.000 
IT.OOO.OtXI 
404,740,000 
2'33  cts.  per  mile. 
7  "20  miles. 


KAIIiWAYS 


907 


There  has  been  since  about  1870  a  steady  reduction  in 
rates  in  the  U.  S.,  due  to  the  increasing  competition,  and  in 
order  to  enable  the  railways  to  make  a  profit  on  their  busi- 
ness the  cost  of  transportalioii  has  had  to  be  corresponding- 
ly reduced.  This  luis  been  by  (.1)  consolidation  of  railways 
and  consequent  les.-^ening  of  expen.ses ;  (2)  increase  of  locomo- 
tive power  and  mileage  of  each  engine ;  (8)  increase  of  capac- 
ity of  freight-cars  and  decrease  of  proportion  of  dead  load 
of  trains ;  (4)  improvements  to  track,  terminals,  etc.  I'as- 
senger  tratlic  does  not  show  a  similar  reduction,  owing 
largely  to  the  increased  weight  of  cars  without  increase  in 
capacity.     The  following  table  may  be  instanced: 


NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  RAILROAD. 

1875.            1891. 

Rate  per  passenger  mile cents 

Expenses  per  passenger  mile " 

214 

rS6 

1-27 
OiW 

1-96 
1-49 
074 

Expenses  per  ton-mile " 

057 

Until  about  18T5  the  railways  made  rates  at  their  pleasure, 
making  higli  ratfs  on  lines  willmut  competition  to  compen- 
sate for  low  rates  on  lines  having  competition,  and  discrimi- 
nating between  towns  an<i  individuals  by  special  rates. 
This  led  to  the  enactment  of  the  interstate  commerce  law 
(see  IxTERSTATK  COMMERCE),  which  among  other  things  ^)ro- 
hibited  pooling  and  (iiscrimination.  A  pool  is  a  combina- 
tion of  railways  enga.ged  in  competitive  tratlic  to  maintain 
rates  by  suspending  competition.  The  famous  "long  and 
short  haul"  clause  forbids  the  practice  of  giving  lower  rates 
between  certain  widely  separated  points  tlian  are  given  to 
intermediate  points,  which  are  of  course  nearer  together. 
Cheaper  articles  and  the  necessities  of  life  must  be  carried 
at  lower  rates  than  expensive  articles  and  luxuries,  for  the 
reason  that  the  rates  are  necessarily  based  upon  (1)  cost  of 
transportation  (which  varies  with  distance) ;  (3)  terminal 
charges  (which  are  fixed  rates);  (3)  market  value  of  the 
freight.  The  reduction  of  passenger-  or  freight-rates  does 
not  necessarily  mean  a  reduction  of  earnings, as  the  reduced 
rates  may  encourage  additional  traffic.  The  only  correct 
basis  of  estimating  the  cost  of  railway  service  is  the  cost  jier 
passenger-mile  and  per  ton-mile  (or  of  hauling  one  passenger 
or  one  ton  a  mile),  since  it  makes  practically  all  the  difTer- 
enco  in  co.st  of  .service  whether  they  are  hiuiled  1  mile  or  100 
miles.  The  car-mile  may  be  used  instead  of  the  ton-mile. 
The  zone-tariff  system  introduced  in  Hungary  in  18!K)  di- 
vides the  country  into  a  series  of  belts  or  zones,  with  a  uni- 
form rate  for  each.  Thus  a  person  may  travel  a  short  or  a 
long  distance  within  any  one  zone  for  the  same  fare,  but  if 
his  journey  extends  beyond  its  limits  he  must  pay  the  rates 
for  the  two  zones.  It  has  caused  a  great  reduction  in  rates 
and  increase  in  traflic. 

Trahi-dispii/rliinff. — This  is  the  system  of  directing  traf- 
fic most  used  in  the  U.  S.,  by  which  the  dispatcher  at  the 
principal  station  sends  telegraphic  orders  to  the  agents  or 
operators  at  the  several  stations.  The  operator  writes  out 
the  order  and  hands  a  copy  to  the  engineman  or  conductor 
of  the  specified  train.  The  ojierator  at  the  next  stopping- 
place  is  notified  to  expect  the  train,  and  receives  orders  for 
Its  next  movement.  The  principle  is  simple,  but  with  heavy 
trafTic.  late  trains,  extra  trains,  etc.,  the  operation  is  very 
intricate,  and  accidents  are  constantly  occurring  through 
carelessness,  natural  mistakes,  or  misunderstanding  of  or- 
ders. For  the  block  system,  see  above  {•Signals  and  Inler- 
locking) ;  also  the  article  Block  System. 

Loads  and  Speed  of  Trains. — Many  of  the  long-di.stance 
express-trains  in  the  U.  S.  are  of  very  great  weight,  owing  to 
the  mimlier  of  sleeping-cars,  and  sucli  trains,  with  nine  to 
twelve  cars,  weigh  from  700.000  lb.  to  O.'JO.OOO  lb.  .Short-dis- 
tance expresses  of  four  to  six  cars  weigh  from  2S0,()0O  lb.  to 
600,000  lb.  Hoth  light  and  heavy  trains  attain  speeds  of 
45  to  60  miles  per  hour.  In  Great  Britain  the  heavy  trains 
of  ten  to  fifteen  cars  weigh  from  :J00,000  to  .5:!7.000  Ili.,  while 
the  lighter  trains  of  about  five  cars  weigh  168,000  It).  In 
other  countries  the  train-loads  resemble  those  of  British 
trains,  both  in  passenger-  and  freight-service.  In  the  U.  S. 
the  freight-trains  have  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  large  cars, 
and  one  of  the  heaviest  trains  ever  hauled  (Aug.,  1S'J~)  con- 
sisted of  fortv  cars  carrying  2.640.000  lb.  of  grain.  This 
train  was  1.602  feet  long  and  weighed  4,0;?0.000  lb.,  includ- 
ing the  engine,  tender,  and  caboose.  Trains  of  "  fast- 
freight-line "  cars  with  perishable  freight  are  often  run 
at  as  high  speeds  as  passenger-trains,  and  the  i?itroduction 
of  continuous  freight-train  brakes  enables  frciglit-lrnins  to 
be  run  safely  at  ranch  higher  speeds  than  when  hand-brakes 


alone  had  to  be  relied  on,  as  is  still  generally  the  case  in 
other  countries.  The  liighest  records  of  express-train  speed 
arc  held  by  the  V.  S.,  but  the  average  speed  (except  on  .some 
of  the  i]rincipal  lines)  ranks  below  that  of  British  express- 
trains,  whic-li  liave  only  to  consider  the  signals  and  regular 
stops,  while  American  trains  have  frecjuently  to  slow  up  for 
graile-crossings.  etc.  The  fastest  trains  in  the  world  are 
the  Emiure  Sfate  Kxpress  and  the  Exposition  Flyer,  both  of 
the  New  York  Central  Railroad,  weighing  about  140  net 
tons  and  200  net  tons  respectively.  The  former  runs  daily 
between  New  York  and  BuHalo,  440  miles,  in  eight  hours 
forty  minutes,  making  four  stops,  or  at  an  average  si)eed  of 
.~)1  niiles  per  hour  for  the  entire  run.  The  latter  ran  daily 
between  New  York  and  Chicago  during  the  summer  of  1803, 
making  the  980  miles  in  twenty  hours,  or  at  the  rate  of  49 
miles  per  hour  for  the  entire  distance.  Allowing  lor  sto|)S, 
slackening  speed,  etc.,  it  is  evident  that  very  mucli  higher 
rates  of  speed  must  be  inaintaini'd  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
average,  and  CO  to  TO  miles  per  hour  are  freciueiitly  made. 
With  the  former  train  in  18!):!  speeds  were  attained  equiva- 
lent to  112  and  102  niiles  jier  hour;  that  is,  a  few  miles 
were  run  in  thirty-two  and  thirty-five  seconds  per  mile.  In 
the  U.  S.  and  (xreat  Britain  speeds  of  50  to  60  miles  per  hour 
are  of  everv-day  occurrence,  but  in  other  countries  the 
speeds  are  in  general  very  much  slower,  and  50  miles  per 
hour  is  a  maximum  very  rarely  attained  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe. 

TABLE   OF    UUiUEST   SPEEDS   ON    RAILWAYS. 


1.  _ 

n 

o 
Z 

4 

4 
4 
4 
3 

1 

'a 

WEIGHT  OP 
TRAIN   IN  LB. 

1-1 

«  a 

Cm. 

EnglDO 
and  cart. 

May,  1893  33  0 
May,  1893:550 
NoC-.,1893'370 
Nov.,  1893  :»-0 
Feb.,  1893'39-5 
Aug.,  1S91  39  8 
Jan.,  1890  41 '6 
July,  1885;43-6 

112  0 

102  0 
97-3 
94-8 
911 
90  5 
86  0 
WO 

340,000 
340,000 
280,000 
280,000 
210.M0 
T0,000 
504,000 
153,660 

540,000 

Philadelphia  and  Reading . . . 

Central  of  Sew  Jersey 

Philadelphia  and  Reading  . . 

Northeastern  (England  i 

N.  Y.,  West  Shore,  and  Buffalo 

.MO.OOO 
485,000 
485,000 
400,000 
270.000 
695,000 
310,960 

Accidents. — In  proportion  to  the  extent  of  railway  traflSc, 
that  is,  the  number  of  trains  and  passengers,  the  accidents 
are  comparatively  few.  In  the  U.  S.  the  train-dispatcher 
method  of  operation  (the  block  system  being  but  slowly 
introduced)  is  responsible  for  many  accidents,  great  and 
small,  particularly  on  railways  having  heavy  traffic.  In 
1802  there  were  2.327  train  accidents,  of  which  1.062  were 
collisions,  1,165  were  derailments,  and  100  were  from  mis- 
cellaneous causes.  The  traffic  that  year  amounted  to  870,- 
000.000  train-miles,  and  the  number  of  persons  killed  on 
the  railways  was  less  than  1  for  every  1,000.000  miles  run 
by  trains.  '  The  steady  increase  in  the  use  of  power-brakes 
and  automatic  couplers  on  freiglit-trains  will  tend  to  re- 
duce very  considerably  the  numlier  of  accidents  to  trains 
and  to  employees,  and  good  discipline  among  the  employees 
aids  very  materially  in  keeping  down  the  number  of  acci- 
dents. 

In  Great  Britain  the  train  accidents  have  been  reduced 
to  a  minimum  by  the  enforced  adoption  of  the  block  sys- 
tem, interlocking' signals,  and  jiower-brakes,  but,  as  in  the 
U.  S.,  many  of  the  employees  are  killed  in  coupling  and  ira- 
couiiling  cars.  The  foUo'wing  table  shows  the  comparison 
between  railway  accidents  of  1892  in  the  U.  S.  and  Great 
Britain : 


CLASS  OF  PERSONS. 


United  States : 

Pas.s('ngers 

Kinjilovees 

others' 

Total 

United  Kingdom : 

Passengere 

Kniployees 

Others 

Total 


560.958,311 
821,415 


864.435,388 
381,626 


Number 

Number 

killed. 

Injured. 

376 

3,237 

S.S.M 

28,367 

4,317 

5,158 

7,147 

36,052 

139 

1,348 

584 

2,915 

541 

6,213 

1.304 

10,476 

Killed, 
1  In 


1.491,910 
322 


6,701,049 
714 


Injured, 
lis 


173,833 
39 


641,272 
130 


Relative  Operatinq  Expenses.— The  following  table,  taken 
from  Wellington's  Economic  Tlieory  of  liailicaij  Location, 
was  deduced  by  an  analysis  <if  the  accounts  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  repi-esen'tative  roiids  of  the  I'.  S.  The  various  items 
of  operating  expense  are  expressed  as  percentages  of  the 
cost  of  running  a  train  1  mile,  or  a  "  train-mile,"  and  the 


908 


RAIMONDI 


RAIK 


table  furnishes  a  good  basis  for  comparisons  irrespective  of 
volume  of  business : 

RELATIVE    COST    OF    THE    VARIOUS    ITEMS    OF    OPERATING    EX- 
PENSES  IN   PERCENTAGES   OF   COST  OF   A   "TRAIN-MILE." 

Per  cent. 

Road      fFuel 76 

engines,  J  Water 0"4 

14-4       I  Oil,  etc 0-8 

percent.  [Repairs 56 

,  Switching  engines 3  6 

Switching  eng.  wages 1  '6 

16-4       I  5°K-  wages 64 

per  cent. 


Engines,  18-0 
per  cent. 


Train  expenses,  J  Train  wages  and 
47-0  per  cent.    ■>     supplies.  17  0 
per  cent. 


Maintenance  of 
way,  23  0  per 


Cars,  12  0  per 
cent. 

Track  between 
stations.  8'0 

per  cent. 

Koad-bed,  70 

per  cent. 

Yards  and 


{  Car  wages 85 

t  Car  supplies 0'5 

Repairs  and  renewals lO'O 

Mileage  (a  practical  equiva- 
lent for  repairs) 3"0 

!  Renewals  of  rails 20 

1  Adjusting  track 6'0 

\  Renewing  ties 3"0 

't  Earthwork,  ballasting,  etc.  40 

r  Switches,  frogs,  and  sidings  2"5 

structures,  8"0  -j  Bridges  and  mason^.^- 3'5 

per  cent.         [  Station  and  other  buildings  20 


Total  of  "  line  "  or  transportation  expenses 

Station,  terminal,  and  general  expenses  and  taxes  . 


70.0 

30-0 

Total  operating  expenses lOO'O 

If  |1  be  assumed  as  the  cost  of  a  train-mile  (i.  e.  70  cents 
per  train-mile  transportation  expenses  proper),  then  these 
percentages  will  represent  the  cost  of  the  various  items  per 
train-mile  in  cents.  For  any  other  cost  per  train-mile,  either 
actual  or  assumed,  multiply  the  items  by  this  cost  for  its 
value  in  cents. 

Operating  Slatislics. — The  following  statistics  show  the 
results  of  the  operation  of  railways  of  the  U.  S.  in  1891  : 


Single  track,  miles 

Second  track,  miles 

Third  and  fourth  tracks,  miles 

Yard  and  side  tracks,  miles 

Total  of  all  tracks,  miles 

Total  railway  capital  (4.'i"28  per  cent,  stock,  49'24  per 
cent,  funded  debt,  5'48  per  cent,  other  forms  of  in- 
debtedness   

Passengers  carried,  number 

Passengers  carried  1  mile 

Tons  of  freight  carried,  number 

Tons  of  freight  carried  I  mile 

Passenger-train  mileage 

Freight-train  mileage 

Total  train  mileage 

Average  number  of  passengers  per  train 

Average  journey  per  passenger,  miles 

Average  number  of  tons  per  freight-train 

Average  haul  per  ton  of  freight,  miles 

Revenue  per  passenger  per  mile 

Average  cost  of  carrying  one  passenger  1  mile 

Profit  per  passenger-'mile 

Revenue  per  ton  of  f I'eight  per  mile 

Average  cost  of  carrying  1  ton  1  mile 

Profit  per  ton-mile 

Revenue  per  mile,  passenger-train 

Average  cost  of  running  a  passenger-train  1  mile 

Profit  per  passenger  train-mile 

Revenue  per  mile,  freight-train 

Average  cost  of  running  a  freight-train  1  mile 

Profit  per  freight  train-mile 

Revenue  per  train-mile,  all  trains 

Average  cost  of  running  a  train  1  mile 

Profit  per  train-mile 

Percentage  of  operating  expenses  to  operating  income 

Gross  earnings  per  mile  (26'1  per  cent,  passenger,  2'27 
per  cent,  mail,  1  97  per  cent,  express,  67"4  per  cent, 
freight.  218  per  cent,  other) 

Operating  expenses  per  mile 

Net  earnings  per  mile 

Net  income  per  mile 


161,275 

8,866 

1.562 

35,742 

207,445 


$9,829,475 
531,18;5.998 
13.844.24;3.881 
675.608.323 
8],07.3.784,121 
307,927,928 
446.274,508 
854,202,436 
42-00 
24- 18 
181  67 
13000 
8  142  cents 
1-910      " 
0-232      " 
0-895      " 
0-583      " 
0-312      " 
106-111      " 
80-453      " 
25-658      " 
163-683      " 
106-172      ■' 
.W-511      '■ 
143-345      " 
97-707      " 
45-6.38      " 
66  73  percent. 


$6,800 

4,5.38 

2,262 

682 


See  Poor's  Manual  of  the  Railroads  of  the  United  States. 
published  annually,  and  Wellington's  Economic  Theory  of 
Railway  Location  (New  York,  1890).  Also  the  articles 
Mountain-railways  and  Street-railwats. 

E.  E.  Rus.sell  Tratman. 

Raimon'di,  Antonio:  geographer  and  naturalist;  b.  at 
Jlilan,  Italy,  in  182.5.  He  went  to  Peru  in  1850,  and  during 
the  succeeding  twenty  years  visited  every  part  of  the  re- 
public, studying  its  gecigrapliy.  geology,  "and  zoiilogy ;  his 
last  journey  was  through  tlu-  region  of  the  iipper  Amazon  to 
the  confines  of  Brazil.  In  l.ST:j  lie  published  a  valuable  ac- 
count of  the  department  of  Ancach,  dwelling  particularly 
on  its  mineral  riches.  The  Peruvian  (lovernmeiitr  then  en- 
gaged him  to  prepare  a  great  work  on  the  geography  and 
natural  history  of  Peru;  three  volumes  on  the  geography, 
entitled  El  Peril,  appeared  in  1874, 18T(i,  and  1880,  and  were 
to  have  been  followed  by  others  on  bolany,  zoology,  and 


ethnology;  but  the  work  was  interrupted  by  the  Chilian 
war,  and  when  Lima  was  taken  the  printed  portion  of  the 
fourth  volume  was  destroyed.  After  the  war  Dr.  Raimondi 
resumed  his  labors,  but  so  much  had  been  lost  that  there 
was  much  delay,  and  before  new  matter  was  ready  for  the 
press  the  author  died  at  Lima,  Dec,  1890.  His  manuscripts, 
maps,  collections,  etc.,  are  in  the  possession  of  the  Lima 
Geographical  Society.  Herbert  H.  Smith. 

Raimoudi.  Marcantonio:  engraver;  b.  at  Bologna,  Italy, 
1488.  He  studied  drawing  in  the  school  of  Francesco 
Francia,  and  thus  acquired  the  name  of  Marcantonio  del 
Francia.  He  went  to  Venice  as  soon  as  he  had  acquired 
some  proficiency  in  his  art,  and  there  he  spent  his  savings 
in  buying  some  plates  after  Albert  Dilrer,  which  he  imitated 
so  perfectly  that  his  copies  were  taken  for  originals.  Marc- 
antonio then  went  to  Rome  and  engraved  a  Lucrezia  after 
Rajihael,  who  got  him  to  engrave,  under  his  directions,  the 
Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  St.  Cecilia,  and  other  works 
which  brought  him  into  great  renown.  Under  Raphael's 
protection  he  founded  a  school  for  engraving.  In  1537, 
during  the  sacking  of  Rome,  he  managed  to  save  his  life  by 
giving  up  everything  to  the  soldiers.  A  little  before  this 
he  escaped  another  danger.  For  having  engraved  Giulio 
Romano's  drawings  illustrating  the  obscene  sonnets  of  Are- 
tino.  Clement  VII.  had  him  put  in  prison,  and  only  liberated 
him  on  account  of  his  great  talents.  He  then  engraved  for 
Baccio  Bandiiielli  the  Martyrdom  of  San  Lorenzo.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  assassinated  in  Bologna  in  1546.  He 
engraved  several  Madonnas  after  Raphael,  the  i('/e  of  the 
Virgin  in  seventeen  plates  after  Albert  Diirer,  the  Passion 
of  our  Lord,  St.  Paul  preaching  in  Athens.smA  many  other 
biblical,  historical,  and  mythological  subjects,  the  greater 
part  from  drawings  of  Raphael.  W.  J.  Stillman. 

Raimiiudns  LulHus:  See  Lul,  Raimon. 

Rain  :  water  falling  in  drops  from  clouds  to  the  earth's 
surface.  Rainfall,  including  rain,  snow,  hail,  etc.,  depends 
on  certain  physical  conditions  and  processes  that  are  illus- 
trated in  a  large  way  in  the  atmosphere.  The  amount  of 
water-vapor  that  may  exist  in  the  atmosphere  depends  on 
the  temperature  of  the  vapor,  and  this  depends,  in  turn,  on 
the  temperature  of  the  air  with  which  the  vapor  is  mixed. 
It  is  therefore  customary  to  speak  of  the  capacity  of  the  air 
for  vapor.  The  capacity  is  small  at  low  temperatures  and 
rapidly  increases  in  geometrical  ratio  at  higher  tempera- 
tures, doubling  for  a  rise  of  about  18°  F.  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures. When  the  capacity  for  vapor  is  satisfied,  the  air 
is  said  to  be  ,<:afurated.  Saturation  may  be  produced  by  the 
continual  addition  of  vapor  to  a  mass  of  air;  and  this  con- 
dition is  almost  reached  naturally  in  the  excessively  damp 
lower  air  of  the  doldrums  or  equaiorial  calms  at  sea ;  but  as 
water-vapor  slowly  spreads  or  diffuses  itself  through  the 
air,  saturation  is  not  usually  attained  in  this  way.  It  is 
more  commonly  attained  by  a  reduction  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  a  mass  of  air,  already  containing  some  vapor,  until 
the  capacity  falls  to  equality  with  the  amount  of  vapor 
present.  The  temperature  then  reached  is  called  the  dew- 
point,  because  any  further  cooling  will  cause  the  condensa- 
tion of  some  of  the  vapor.  Recent  experiments,  chiefly  by 
Aitken,  demonstrate  that  the  condensation  of  vapor  from 
damp  air  is  favored,  if  not  controlled,  by  the  presence  of  ex- 
cessive minute  suspended  particles,  to  which  the  term  dust 
is  rather  ina(ipropriately  ajjplied.  Such  particles  are  always 
present  in  the  atmosphere.  If  condensation  takes  place 
above  32°  P.,  the  cloud-particles  are  miiRite  droplets  of 
water ;  if  below  32°,  they  are  spicules  or  crystals  of  snow. 
IMueh  snow  formed  in  the  upper  part  of  storm-clouds  is 
melted  into  rain  before  reaching  the  ground.  When  a  large 
mass  of  air  is  cooled,  and  a  great  cloud  is  formed,  the  initial 
cloud-particles  may  serve  as  centers  of  further  condensa- 
tion, or  the  smaller  particles  may  coalesce  to  form  larger 
ones.  As  snow-crystals  appear  to  form  by  continual  con- 
densation of  vapor  about  a  single  nucleus,  it  seems  {)robable 
that  rain-drops  are  likewise  chiefly  enlarged  by  continued 
condensation  instead  of  by  collision  of  separate  droplets. 
As  the  cloud-particles  fall,  at  first  slowly,  but  faster  as  they 
grow  still  larger,  they  at  last  descend  through  and  beneath 
the  cloud-mass,  and  appear  as  rain  or  snow.  There  are  va- 
rious natural  processes  by  which  the  air  is  cooled  sufli- 
ciently  to  produce  clouds  and  rain. 

Mechanical  Cooling  of  Air-currents  hy  E.rpansion  dur- 
ing Ascent. — Whenever  a  nuiss  of  air  rises,  either  vertically 
or  along  an  inclined  path,  the  pressure  upon  it  decreases ;  it 
expands  and  cools  (see  Heat)  at  the  rate  of  1-6°  P.  for  every 


RAIN 


909 


300  feet  of  vertical  ascent.  It  is  tnie  that  the  capacity  of 
the  ascendin-;  and  cxpaiuling  air  increases  with  gain  of  vol- 
ume ;  but  this  is  overcome  by  loss  of  capacity  caused  by  de- 
crease of  temperature;  hence  if  the  ascent  is  carried  far 
enoui;h,  clouds  must  be  formed.  Wlu'U  an  ascending  cur- 
rent of  air  becomes  cloudy,  the  further  coolinj;  prop'esses  at 
a  slower  rate  than  before,  beins  retarded  by  the  latent  heat 
liberated  from  the  eondenseil  vapor.  In  this  way  the  pro- 
dui:tiim  of  rhiuils  and  rainfall  promote  tln'  ascent  of  the 
currents  in  which  they  are  formed.  Ksny  was  the  lirst  to 
eive  this  cause  of  rain  its  pn^per  emplnisis.  The  ascen- 
.sioiial  movement  by  which  the  air  is  cooled  may  be  various- 
ly caused.  It  may  be  a  spontaneous  conveclional  ascent, 
dependent  on  the  warmth  and  moisture  of  the  lower  air. 
and  to  this  ori};in  are  ascribe<i  the  thunder-storms  and  vio- 
lent cyclones  of  the  torrid  zone.  The  thunder-storms  on 
land-areas  of  the  temperate  zone  on  summer  afternoons  are 
also  conveclional  overturninfrs,  their  instability  being  gen- 
erally dependent  on  warm  southerly  winds  that  flow  ob- 
licpie'ly  toward  the  areas  of  low  pressure  (cyclonic  storms) 
as  well  as  on  direct  sunshine.  It  is  chielly  in  these  summer 
storms  that  hail  is  formed,  the  freezing  of  the  pellets  being 
explained  by  the  cooling  of  the  active  ascensional  currenls 
by  which  rain-ilrops  are  bi>rne  to  a  great  altitude.  The 
diurnal  breezes  that  ascend  mountain-slopes  in  fair  summer 
weather  frequently  form  clouds  that  grow  to  thunder-stonns  ; 
thus  many  of  the  showers  that  are  felt  on  the  plains  near 
the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  formed  about  the  peaks 
of  the  front  range. 

The  ascent  of  air-masses  may  in  many  cases  be  a  con- 
strained or  driven  ascent.  Driven  ascending  currents  are 
found  where  a  general  wind  passes  a  mounlain-rangc  ;  hence 
mountainous  districts  are  often  rainy  while  the  surround- 
ing lowlands  are  dry  (see  Deserts,  Platkai',  and  .'^aihra); 
hence  the  windward  slojies  of  mountains  receive  a  greater 
rainfall  than  the  leeward  slopes,  as  is  illustrated  in  many 

farts  of  the  world.  (See  chart  of  .rainfall,  article  Climate.) 
n  the  torrid  zone,  where  the  winds  are  i)revalently  from 
the  east,  the  eastern  coasts  and  mountain-slopes  are  well 
watered,  as  in  Mexico  and  lirazil :  but  in  the  Indian  mon- 
soon region  the  western  coasts  are  watered.  (See  Winds.) 
In  temperate  latitudes,  where  the  winds  are  prevalently 
from  the  west,  the  western  mountainous  coasts  receive 
greater  rainfall  than  the  interiors,  as  on  the  Pacific  coast 
of  the  U.  S.,  British  Columbia,  and  -Vlaska,  compured  to 
the  interior  of  the  continent;  as  on  the  Chilian  slo]ie  of 
the  j\ndes  compared  to  the  Argentine  slope.  The  high- 
lands of  Western  England  receive  more  rainfall  than  the 
eastern  lowlands;  Norway  is  better  watered  than  Sweden. 
Inasmuch  as  the  general  winds  possess  something  of  an 
eddy-like  circulation  around  each  of  the  several  oceans,  es- 
pecially apparent  in  summer,  and  moving  from  left  to  right 
in  this  hemisphere,  it  follows  that  the  southern  coast  of  the 
U.  S.  receives  the  moist  winds  from  the  (iulf  of  ^lexico, 
while  in  the  Did  World  it  is  the  northern  slopes  of  tlie  Pyr- 
enees and  the  Atlas  Mountains  that  receive  tliemost  rain. 

The  rainfall  of  the  temperate  zones  that  is  received  from 
cyclonic  storms  (areas  of  low  pressure  on  the  weather-maps) 
gives  one  of  the  most  important  examples  of  precipitation 
resulting  from  driven  ascensional  movements,  according  to 
the  theory  of  the  origin  of  these  storms  now  generally  ac- 
cepted. They  possess  inflowing  sjiiral  winds  beneath,  out- 
flowing clouds  aloft,  and  heavy  cloud-masses  :il  interme- 
diate altitudes  from  which  much  rain  or  snow  is  delivered. 
Hence  an  obliijue  whirling  ascent  of  the  inflowing  surface 
winds  is  inferred  aliout  the  central  region.  But  as  these 
storms  occur  in  winter  more  frequently,  and  with  greater 
strength,  than  in  summer,  they  can  not  be  well  ascribed  to 
spontaneous  convecticmiil  overturniiigs  like  the  tropical  cy- 
clones. They  are  beltercxplained  .as  gigantic  ilriven  edilies, 
resulting  from  the  uneven  How  of  the  general  circulation 
of  the  atmosphere  arouiul  the  poles.  On  the  lands,  cyclonic 
storms  are  particularly  rainy  among  mountains;  indeed,  it 
is  generally  only  with  the  as"sistance  of  these  stormy  winds 
that  the  general  winds  are  [irovoked  to  yield  rainfall. 

There  is  a  certain  altitude  on  mountain-slopes,  varying 
with  the  season,  at  whicli  the  rainfall  is  heavier  than  either 
above  or  below.  In  the  ,\lps,  where  the  winti'r  clouils  hang 
low,  the  precipitation  is  greatest  about  :i,000  or  4,1100  feet 
above  sea-level  in  the  colder  season;  but  the  mountains  are 
not  high  enough  to  enable  one  to  delect  the  altitude  of 
greatest  fall  in  summer.  In  the  southern  ranges  of  the 
Himalayas,  on  the  other  hand,  the  summer  is  liie  damper 
season:  then   the  altitude   of   maximum    rainfall  is  about 


4,000  feet:   while  in  the  relatively   dry  winters  it  is  esti- 
mated at  about  20,000  feet. 

An  interesting  contrast  between  the  rainfall  produced  by 
the  constrained  iiscent  of  air-currents  over  mountains  and 
that  caused  by  overturnings  or  eddies  in  the  free  atmos- 
phere is  that  the  first  cause  acts  only  over  a  rather  definite 
and  restricted  area,  while  the  second  produces  a  trail  of 
rainfall  for  humlreds  or  perha[is  thousands  of  miles,  as 
the  storm-clouds  are  borne  along  in  the  general  aerial  cur- 
rents. Thus  the  rains  of  wet-weather  spells  in  the  temper- 
ate zone  may  ordinarily  be  traced  on  the  weather-maps 
while  traveling  from  place  to  place,  generally  yielding 
greater  rainfall  over  the  ocean  or  along  mountains  than  in 
the  interiors  or  on  lowlands,  but  continuing  to  water  the 
surface  more  or  less  freely  as  they  advance,  as  long  as  their 
commotion  lasts.  It  may  be  seen  from  this  that  jjrognostics 
of  rainfall  based  on  the  phases  of  the  moon,  or  on  the  posi- 
tions of  the  planets,  which  arc  the  same  for  all  parts  of  the 
world,  can  not  have  just  application  to  a  process  that  may 
be  in  operation  in  one  place  while  absent  from  another. 

In  contrast  to  the  cooling  of  ascending  currents  by  ex- 
pansion, there  is  the  warming  of  descending  currents  by 
compression.  Hence  descending  currents  are  prevailingly 
dry.  Such  are  the  ant icyclonic  weather-areas  (areas  of  high 
pressure  on  the  weather-maps),  although  local  convectional 
showers  may  occur  within  them  in  summer.  Such  are  the 
cold  northern  continental  interiors  of  winter,  in  which 
the  snowfall  is  very  moderate,  occurring  only  when  a  pass- 
ing cyclone  invades  the  region.  Such  are  leeward  moun- 
tain-slopes, where  the  air  descends,  clear  and  dry.  after  a 
cloudy  an<l  rainyascent  on  the  windward  slope;  as  on  many 
islands  of  the  trade-wind  zone,  on  the  western  sloiie  of  the 
equatorial  Andes,  the  interior  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of 
California,  and  the  southern  slojie  of  the  Pyrenees.  Such 
are  the  tropical  belts  of  high  pressure,  much  interrupted  by 
the  lands,  but  more  or  less  continuous  around  the  oceans 
about  latitude  iiO "  or  35°  in  either  hemisphere,  although 
here  local  convectional  action  and  passing  cyclones  may 
produce  occasional  rainfall. 

Pohu'tird  Vi'inds. — Air-currents  flowing  toward  the  pole 
generally  become  cloudy  and  rainy,  as  a  result  of  cooling  as 
they  enter  latitudes  where  sunshine  is  shorter  and  weaker, 
and  where  the  surface  of  land  or  water  over  which  they  ad- 
vance is  colder  than  their  source.  The  cloudiness  and  rain- 
fall of  poleward  winds  is  especially  favored  in  winter,  when 
the  poleward  weakening  of  sunshine  is  rapid  :  it  is  favored 
when  they  blow  from  a  warm  sea  over  a  cold  land,  as  from 
the  Gulf  of  Jlexico  or  the  adjacent  Atlantic  over  the  cen- 
tral or  eastern  parts  of  the  U.  S.  in  winter.  t)n  the  other 
hand,  this  cause  is  weakened  when  poleward  winds  blow  over 
warm  summer  lands,  as  the  Mississippi  valley  in  summer; 
for  the  lands  may  be  for  a  certain  distance  warmer  than  the 
sea  which  the  winds  have  left,  and  during  a  considerable 
distance  of  poleward  advance  the  diurnal  supply  of  sun- 
shine may  increase  instead  of  diminishing.  (See  Solar 
Climate,  "under  article  Climate.)  It  is  noteworthy  that 
nearly  all  jioleward  winds  that  yield  rainfall  are  members  of 
cyclonic  storm,s,  and  hence  that  this  cause  of  rainfall  is  for 
tliemost  part  only  supplementary  to  the  one  already  con- 
sidered. On  I  he  other  hand,  equal orward  winds  are  prevail- 
ingly dry,  and  the  regions  where  they  prevail,  orthe  weather 
periods  in  which  they  occur,  are  coinparalivcly  rainless. 
Ilenc<'  in  the  V.  S.  thedrynessof  the  northerly  winds  which 
blow  in  the  afler|)art  of  the  cyclonic  areas,  although  flurries 
of  rain  or  snow  are  ofti'ii  formed  in  them  to  lei'ward  of  the 
(ireat  Lakes.  Hence  the  dryness  of  the  trade-wind  belts,  as 
long  as  the  winds  are  not  constrained  to  rise  over  moun- 
tains; hence  the  belts  of  greater  salinity  in  the  oceans  (see 
Ocean)  and  the  deserts  of  the  torrid  zone  are  thus  deter- 
mined. Hence  the  aridity  of  coastal  lands  that  are  situated 
under  the  equatorward  members  of  the  wind-eddies  that 
blow  around  the  several  oceans,  as  Lower  California  and 
Northern  Chili,  in  spite  of  their  being  near  the  sea. 

Mi.iiiire.  of  Two  Air-maxses. — It  is  possible  to  produce 
condensation  of  vapor  by  mixing  two  masses  of  air,  both 
salurated,  but  of  unlike  temperatures.  The  cause  of  rain- 
fall was  suggested  by  Iliitton  in  theeightecnth  century.but 
it  is  now  regarded  as  ineffectual.  It  is  true  that  some  con- 
densation must  result  from  such  a  process,  but  the  process 
must  be  of  rare  occurrence,  because  when  two  air-masses  of 
diflerent  temjieratures  are  brought  together  it  is  extremely 
improbable  that  they  will  both  be  saturated.  If  one  wind 
be  relativelv  dry,  mixture  may  even  result  in  dissolving 
the  clouds  of  the  other  wind.'   Moreover,  under  the  most 


910 


RAIN 


favorable  assumptions,  this  process  can  not  account  for  the 
large  amount  of  rainfall  frequently  yielded  from  cyclonic 
areas  in  the  U.  S. ;  the  part  it  plays"  in  rain-making  must  be 
sutiordinate.  Indeed,  when  it  is  remembered  that  damp 
winds  are  brought  to  saturation  not  by  the  addition  of 
water-vapor,  but  more  generally  by  some  process  of  cooling, 
it  is  more  reasonable  to  ascribe  nearly  all  rainfall  to  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  processes  of  cooling,  which  are  effective  in 
producing  clouds  and  rainfall  as  long  as  they  last,  instead 
of  ascribing  it  to  mixture,  which  can  cause  but  little  con- 
densation at  best,  and  whose  cause  of  condensation  ceases  as 
soon  as  the  mixture  is  completed. 

Measurement  and  Record  of  Rainfall. — Rainfall  is  col- 
lected and  measured  by  the  rain-gauge,  a  cylindrical  vessel 
of  diameter  advisedly  not  less  than  6  inches,  having  a  sharp 
upper  rim  and  a  vertical  interior  surface,  converging  below 
to  a  funnel,  beneath  which  the  gathered  fall  is  protected 
from  loss  by  evaporation.  The  gauge  should  be  placed  in 
open  ground,  removed  from  trees  and  buildings  by  a  distance 
at  least  as  great  as  their  height.  It  should  be  securely 
fastened  to  avoid  being  overturned  by  the  wind.  Much 
care  should  be  taken  to  select  a  place  for  the  gauge  where 
its  surroundings  will  remain  long  unchanged.  The  rainfall 
is  poured  from  the  gauge  into  a  vessel  of  smaller  diameter, 
so  that  its  depth  is  increased  ;  it  is  tlien  measured  by  a  slen- 
der rod,  properly  graduated.  Self-recording  gauges  are 
made,  by  which  record  is  kept  of  the  time  and  rate  of  fall 
of  every  shower.  Snow  is  difficult  to  measure,  as  it  is  liable 
to  gain  or  loss  by  drifting.  The  gathered  snow  is  melted  by 
adding  a  known  amount  of  warm  water,  the  total  then  being 
measured  as  before. 

A  hundredth  of  an  inch  or  more  of  rainfall  is  taken  to 
define  "  a  rainy  day."  The  total  rainfall  and  the  number 
of  rainy  days  in  each  month  and  the  year,  the  date  of  the 
first  and  last  snow,  and  the  amount  of  snow  on  the  ground 
at  the  end  of  each  month,  are  desired  for  rainfall  records. 
Rainfall  records  vary  greatly.  Certain  regions,  like  Ari- 
zona, may  have  no  rain  for  months ;  others,  like  Western 
Scotland,  may  have  many  rainy  days  all  through  the  year. 
In  high  latitudes  the  rate  of  fall  is  moderate  ;  in  hot  regions 
excessive  falls  occur  within  brief  periods,  extreme  falls 
being  known  as  "  cloud-bursts."  Heavy  falls  cause  great 
destruction  by  flooding  rivers,  as  in  Pennsylvania,  May  30- 
June  1,  1889,  when  8  inches  fell  over  an  area  of  12,000  sq. 
miles.  In  Northern  India,  Sept.  17-18,  1880,  10  inches  fell 
over  an  area  of  10,000  sq.  miles.  In  regions  having  under 
18  inches  of  rainfall  annually  agriculture  can  not  be  safely 
practiced  without  irrigation  ;  in  such  regions  the  fluctua- 
tion of  the  amount  of  rainfall  from  year  to  year  is  a  large 
part  of  the  total,  thus  giving  rise  to  serious  disasters  or 
famines. 

Tlie  distribution  of  rainfall  over  the  world  is  illustrated 
in  a  map  under  the  article  Climate  {q.  v.) :  it  may  be  briefly 
classified  as  follows:  First,  a  strong  contrast  between  the 
torrid  zone  and  the  polar  regions,  the  latter  having  a  lighter 
fall  because  of  the  slow  loss  of  capacity  when  air  cools  at 
low  temperatures.  .Second,  a  contrast  between  continental 
borders  and  interiors,  in  favor  of  the  former.  Third,  a  con- 
trast between  higli  and  low  lands,  with  greater  rainfall  on 
the  former.  Fourth,  a  contrast  between  the  windward  and 
leeward  mountain  and  continental  slopes,  the  latter  being 
drier.  In  all  this  it  is  perceived  that  the  distribution  of 
rainfall  is  not  a  fortuitous  matter,  but  that  it  is  closely  de- 
pendent on  the  fixed  order  of  natui-e.  This  is  still  better 
seen  when  comparing  the  distribution  of  rainfall  and  the 
general  circulation  of  the  winds.  Around  the  belt  of  equa- 
torial calms  there  is  a  plentiful  rainfall,  usually  in  the  form 
of  late  diurnal  showers  or  thunderstorms.  The  trade-wind 
belts  are  prevailingly  dry,  except  where  the  winds  rise  over 
mountains,  then  giving  what  is  called  a  tropical  r.ainfall,  as 
on  the  mountains  of  Brazil  and  Guiana.  A  supplementary 
cause  of  rainfall  in  this  belt  is  found  in  the  tropical  cyclones 
that  traverse  it  in  the  late  summer.  The  stormy  we>terlv 
winds  have  frequent  showers  or  spells  of  rainy  or  snowy 
weather  from  passing  storms,  the  amount  decreasing  toward 
the  poles  and  toward  continental  interiors,  and  locally  in- 
creasing on  the  windward  mountain  slopes.  In  consequence 
of  the  annual  march  of  the  sun  and  the  associated  shifting 
of  the  wind-system,  the  above  simple  scheme  of  rainfall 
may  be  further  subdivided  :  First,  the  equatorial  rain-belt 
travels  N.  and  S.  after  the  sun,  thus  extending  its  influence 
over  a  suli-c(|uatorial  belt.  Along  the  axis  of  this  belt 
there  are  two  rainy  and  two  dry  seasons  each  year,  as  at 
Quito  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  but  this  subdivision  is  not 


apparent  all  around  the  world.  Near  the  margin  of  the 
sub-equatorial  belt  there  is  a  single  rainy  season  followed 
by  a  longer  dry  season.  Thus  the  equatorial  forests  of 
Africa  and  South  America  with  i)lentiful  rainfall  lie  be- 
tween belts  of  more  open  country  having  a  wet  and  dry 
season,  and  these  open  belts  gradually  merge  into  the 
deserts  of  the  trade-winds  so  conspicuous  in  the  Sahara. 
The  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile  depends  on  the  northward 
march  of  the  equatorial  rains  into  the  mountains  of  Abys- 
sinia :  the  wet  season  of  the  llanos  of  Venezuela  depends  on 
the  northward  march  of  the  rains  from  the  Amazon  valley. 
Second,  the  vague  division  between  the  trade-winds  and  the 
westerly  winds,  known  as  the  horse-latitudes  on  the  oceans, 
or  thfe  meteorological  tropics  all  around  the  world,  migrates 
N.  and  S.  over  a  belt  of  variable  width,  called  the  sub-trop- 
ical belt ;  here  the  summers,  chiefly  under  the  control  of 
the  steady  trades,  are  dry,  while  the  winters  have  a  sutficient 
rainfall  from  the  passing  cyclonic  storms  of  the  westerly 
winds.  The  winter  rains  of  California,  Spain,  and  the 
Mediterranean  countries  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and 
of  Chili,  South  Africa,  and  Southern  Australia  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere,  are  all  of  this  character.  It  is  thus 
seen  that  the  Sahara  has  rain  on  its  northern  and  southern 
margins  in  winter  and  summer :  the  intermediate  belt  of 
absolutely  no  rain  is  very  narrow,  if  existing  at  all.  Finally, 
the  rainfall  of  the  westerly  winds  is  greater  on  the  western 
coasts  in  winter,  when  the  cyclonic  storms  are  stronger,  but 
greater  on  the  interiors  in  summer,  when  local  convectional 
storms  are  more  active.  Thus  Norway  and  British  Colum- 
bia have  more  rain  in  winter,  but  Nebraska  and  Russia  have 
more  in  summer.  Florida  is  peculiar  in  lying  in  the  lati- 
tude of  the  subtropical  belt,  but  in  having  rainy  summers, 
as  if  by  local  convectional  action. 

Rain-making. — The  great  loss  to  agricultural  interests 
occasioned  by  droughts,  and  the  limit  set  to  agricultural 
occupation  by  the  insufficient  rainfall  of  arid  regions,  has  at 
various  times  given  rise  to  speculations  and  experiments 
concerning  the  artificial  production  of  rain.  It  is  unfortu- 
nate that  the  net  result  of  all  these  efforts  leads  only  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  order  of  nature  can  not  be  changed  by 
any  such  means  as  have  been  proposed.  The  experiments 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes — the  first,  including  those 
which  look  for  immediate  results  ;  the  second,  those  which 
hope  for  a  gradual  but  permanent  improvement  of  the 
climate. 

Under  the  first  heading  are  fires  and  explosions.  Fires 
were  suggested  by  Espy  as  a  means  of  establishing  an  up- 
draught  by  which  a  more  general  convectional  overturning 
of  the  air  might  be  excited,  and  thus  clouds  and  rain  pro- 
duced. It  may,  perhaps,  be  admitted  that  at  times  when 
the  processes  of  nature  are  about  to  begin  this  operation  it 
might  be  locally  hastened  by  a  considerable  conflagration  ; 
but  there  is  no  reason  to  expect  that  combustible  material 
can  be  supplied  in  sufficient  amounts  to  produce  valuable 
results.  The  favorable  examples  quoted  by  Espy  would 
long  ago  have  been  repeated  if  the  gain  of  the  experiments 
had  been  more  than  their  cost. 

Explosions  of  cannon,  dynamite,  oxyhydrogen  balloons, 
etc.,  have  been  proposed  as  a  means  of  provoking  rainfall, 
because  battles  have  often  been  followed  by  rain-storms. 
This  theory  had  been  advocated  particularly  by  Powers, 
and  has  tlius  secured  congressional  aid  in  the  U.  S.  The 
relation  of  rainfall  to  battles  appears  to  be  highly  fortuitous; 
no  valid  argument  can  be  based  on  the  facts  as  now  re- 
ported. No  shadow  of  evidence  has  been  presented  to  show- 
that  the  rain  that  occurred  a  day  or  two  after  a  liattle  had 
its  beginning  over  an  area  in  any  way  related  to  the  battle- 
fleld  ;  indeed,  the  presumption  is  strongly  in  favor  of  the 
rain  having  begun  at  some  indeterminate  distance  away  from 
the  battle-ground,  perhaps  even  before  the  battle,  and  hav- 
ing reached  the  battle-field  after  the  fight  fortuitously,  on 
its  drifting  course. 

Other  fanciful  speculations  might  be  quoted.  There  is  no 
physical  reason  for  thinking  that  explosions  can  cause  the 
condensation  of  water-vapor  into  clouds  and  rain.  The 
governmental  experiments  carried  im  in  Texas  by  Dyren- 
forth  in  1891.  by  which  governmental  science  was  seriously 
discredited,  caused  an  excessive  noise,  but  produced  only  a 
few  drops  of  rain,  and  that  only  w)u-n  rain-clouds  previously 
formed  drifted  over  the  plaeo  of  liring.  Not  the  least  care 
was  taken  by  the  experimenters  to  determine  the  place  and 
time  of  beginning  and  subsequent  movement  of  the  rain- 
storms that  in  a  few  cases  visited  the  field  of  experiment  after 
firing  had  been  nuiny  liouis  or  days  in  progress. 


RAINBOW 


RAIXY 


911 


The  chief  process  by  which  a  iicrriianent  iiiiprovcnu'iit  of 
an  ariJ  climate  is  hoped  for  is  tree-phiiilinj;.  The  belief  in 
the  efficacy  of  this  process  appeal's  to  be  based  on  the  misin- 
terpretation of  various  facts  concerning  the  relation  of  for- 
ests anil  rainfall.  For  example,  the  greater  poimlation  of 
certain  arid  districls  bordering  on  the  .Mediterranean  has 
been  ascribed  to  a  formerly  better  climate,  and  the  change 
from  the  former  to  the  present  time  has  been  attributed  to 
the  deforesting  of  the  region.  There  is,  however,  in  the 
first  place,  no  sufficient  proof  that  the  region  has  ever 
been  seriously  deforested  by  man  ;  and  no  proof,  in  the  sec- 
ond place,  that  the  injurious  change  of  climate  has  not  been 
a  iiatund  one,  under  which  the  funucr  tree-growth  as  well 
as  the  former  greater  populatii in  has  naturally  and  gradu- 
ally decrea.seii.  Again,  excessive  tree-cutting,  as  in  Savoy 
and  elsewhere,  has  allowed  the  rainfall  to  wash  the  soil  from 
the  mountain-slopes  into  the  valleys,  greatly  to  the  injury 
of  i)lant-growth  in  both  places ;  it  has  also  caused  an  ex- 
cessive variation  of  stream-volume,  between  sudden  floods 
at  times  of  rain  and  dwindling  streams  in  drier  spells  and 
seasons;  but  it  is  nut  shown  that  tlie  destruction  of  trees 
has  decreased  the  rainfall.  There  are  indeed  very  few  ac- 
curate records  which  can  lie  appealed  to  in  evidence  of  any 
such  connection,  and  no  decisive  results  can  be  claimed  in 
any  case.  It  is,  tlierefore,  premature  to  conclude  that  the 
climate  of  a  region  can  be  changed  by  planting  trees,  even 
in  great  numbers  ;  but,  on  the  other  haiul,  it  is  highly  prob- 
able that  whatever  rain  falls  would  be  better  saved  for 
springs  and  strc-ims  in  a  region  with  a  good  [iniportion  of 
forest  than  in  a  barren  region;  and  that  the  injurious  ac- 
tion of  hot  winds  and  droughts,  such  as  afflict  the  western 
part  of  the  5Iississi[)pi  basin,  would  be  diminished  if  trees 
could  be  induced  to  grow  there  in  .abundance  ;  but  this  need 
not  be  expected  in  a  naturally  semi-arid  and  treeless  region, 
unless  by  aid  of  extensive  irrigation.  W.  M.  Davis. 

Hail) bow  [().  I'^ig.  regenboga  :  Germ,  regenhogen] :  a  well- 
known  optical  nu'teorological  phenomenon  consisting  of  an 
arch  of  concentric  colored  bands  arranged  in  the  prismatic 
order,  violet  being  innermost.  It  is  sometimes  simple,  and 
sometimes  accompanied  by  an  outer,  secondary  bow,  which 
is  broailer  and  fainter  tlian  the  primary,  and  has  its  colors 
in  the  reversi;  order.  A  rainbow  occurs  when  the  sun  or 
moon,  not  far  above  the  horizon,  throws  its  beams  upon  a 
sheet  of  falling  drops  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  heavens. 
A  beam  of  light  from  the  sun  S  falls  upon  a  raindrop  ob- 
liquely at  R  (Fig.  1,  (I) :  a  portion  is  reflected ;  the  remainder, 


Km.  I,  /.. 


passing  into  a  denser  medium,  is  rcfracteil  lowaril  the  nor- 
mal R  C  (see  Hkkraction)  ami  converged  to  a  point  ;  at  A 
the  portion  not  transmitied  is  reflected  and  diverges:  at  R' 
the  beam  is  again  refracted  from  the  nornuil  R'  (',  and  reaches 
the  eye  at  E.  The  rays  of  light  emerging  are  usually  so 
greatly  dispei-sed  as  to  bo  practically  invisible.  Calculation 
proves  that  for  certain  angles  of  incidence  the  emergent  rays 
form  a  beam  of  rays  distinctly  visible  ;  such  rays  are  called 
effective  rays.  These  rays  emerge,  not  as  white  light,  but 
they  are  spread  out  by  the  drop  into  their  componeul  colored 
rays.  (See  Liuirr.)  The  angles  of  incidc-nci'  ami  emergence 
vary  for  each  color.  After  one  inlernal  reflection  and  two 
refractions  the  deviation  of  the  violet  ray  forms  an  angle  of 
40°  13'.     The  deviation  of  the  red  from  the  same  cause  is 

Draw  a  line  E  D  (Fig.  2)  parallel  to  the  sun's  rays  S  A. 
S  B,  etc.  (they  being  practically  paralli'l  with  each  other). 
Let  the  eye  H  take  such  a  posit ioti  that  the  angle  A  E  D  shall 
equal  40  13 — the  angle  of  deviation  of  the  violet  ray  after 
two  refractions  and  one  internal  reflection.  S  A  K  equals 
A  E  D,  being  alternate  angles.  The  eye  E  therefore  receives 
from  the  drop  A  a  violet  ray,  while  the  other  colors  of  the 
same  dispersed  rav  fall  below  it.  Thi;  angle  of  deviation  of 
red  is  43  :!!)  — 3  2(5  greater  than  violet.  A  drop  I!,  2°  26' 
above  A,  sends  to  E  a  red  ray  ;  all  the  effective  intermediate 
rays  produce  the  intermediate  colors  in  their  order.  Every 
other  drop  in  the  sheet  of  falling  water  which  has  the  same 


obliquity  to  the  eye  E  as  the  drop  A  will  also  send  to  it  a  vio- 
let ray.  The  only  drops  which  fulliU  this  condition  are  those 
which  would  define  the  base  of  a  right  cone  whose  apex  is 
the  eye,  and  the  center  of  whose  base  is  in  a  right  line  pass- 


Fia.  2. 


ing  through  the  sun  and  the  spectator's  eye.  The  violet  rays 
then,  and  all  the  other  colors  in  their  order  concentrically 
arranged,  form,  when  the  sun  is  at  the  horizon,  a  semicircle, 
and  when  he  is  higher  a  proportionally  smaller  segment  of  a 
circle.  The  whole  circle  could  be  visible  only  to  a  spectator 
on  the  top  of  a  very  high  and  narrow  peak,  which  elevated 
him  while  it  did  not  obstruct  the  light.  At  a  definite  dis- 
tance above  the  drop  A  and  its  series  is  another.  B',  at  such 
an  angle  to  the  eye  E  that  a  red  ray,  after  two  refractions  at 
R,  R  and  two  reflections  at  A,  A'  (Fig.  1,  h),  is  sent  to  E,  and 
in  the  same  way  the  other  colors  of  the  secondary  bow.  The 
angle  of  deviation  of  red,  after  two  refractions  and  two  re- 
flections, is  smaller  than  violet ;  red,  therefore,  is  the  inner- 
most color  of  the  secondary  bow  ;  the  difl:erence  between  the 
angles  of  the  deviation  of  the  extreme  colors  in  this  bow  is 
greater  than  in  the  primary;  it  is  therefore  broader.  The 
rays  have  been  reflected  one  more  time;  it  is  therefore 
fainter.  If  the  sun  were  a  mere  point,  the  primary  bow 
would  be  3  36'  wide  from  violet  to  red.  The  mean  angular 
diameter  of  the  sun  is,  however,  32',  and  each  ray  of  light 
proceeding  from  it  forms  a  separate  bow,  which  ])artially 
overhii)s,  the  violet  apparently  projecting  16'  beytmd  the 
inner  and  the  red  16  beyond  the  outer  edge.  The  colors, 
being  intermingled  in  the  myriads  of  sujierimposed  bows, 
are  much  modified.  Between  the  primary  and  secondary 
bows  are  sometimes  seen  concentric  bands  of  red,  growing 
fainter  and  narrower  as  they  approach  the  secondary;  this 
phenomenon  is  explained  by  interference.  (See  Intkrker- 
ExcE.)  The  lunar  bow  is  like  the  solar,  except  that  the  col- 
ors are  less  distinct — sometimes  not  at  all  distinguishable, 
when  it  appears  as  an  arch  of  white  light.     See  Halo. 

Revised  by  R.  A.  Roberts. 

Rainey's  Coriniscles;  elongate  protozoans  belonging  to 
the  Siirchn/jonda  (see  SroHOzoA)  which  occur  as  [larasitcs  in 
the  muscles  of  birds,  the  pig,  rat,  etc.  They  vary  in  length 
from  individuals  of  microscopic  size  up  to  those  an  eighth 
or  even  lialf  an  inch  in  length.  D.  S.  J. 

Rainfall  :  See  Kaix  and  Climate. 

Kaiii-^aiige:  See  Rain  {Measurement  and  Record  of 
Rain  full). 

Rainier,  ro-neer',  Moitnt  :  a  volcanic  peak  standing  alone 
on  the  western  slope  of  the  Cascade  Range  in  the  State  of 
Washington.  Within  a  small  crater  at  the  top  there  is  some 
solfataric  action,  suggesting  that  the  volcano  may  not  be 
extinct  :  but  the  date  of  the  principal  eruptions  is  so  remote 
that  subscciuent  erosion  has  scored  the  sides  of  the  cone 
with  deep  canons.  In  these  are  a  series  of  glaciers,  the  larg- 
est in  the  U.  S.  south  of  .Maska.  The  mountain  rises  about 
0,000  feet  above  its  base,  and  its  summit  is  14,400  f<'et  above 
the  sea.  Its  lower  slopes  are  densely  wooded,  but  the  tim- 
ber ceases  at  about  8,000  feet.  Vancouver,  the  navigator, 
who  saw  the  iieak  from  Puget  .Sound  in  1703,  named  it  in 
honor  of  Admiral  Kainier,  of  the  British  navy.  More  re- 
centlv  Tacoina.  one  of  its  Indian  names,  has  been  revived, 
and  current  usage  is  divided.  (J.  K.  Gilbert. 

Rainy.  Rohkut,  D.  D.  :  minister  and  professor;  b.  in 
Glasgovv,  Scotlaml.  .Ian.  1.  1836;  was  educated  in  Glasgow 
Universitv  and  New  College,  Edinburgh;  minister  of  Pree 
Church,  liuntly,  1851-54 ;  of  Free  High  Church,  Edinburgh, 


912 


RAINY   LAKE 


RALE 


1854-61 ;  since  1861  Professor  of  Church  History  in  New  Col- 
lege, and  since  1873  principal.  Besides  pamphlets  and  con- 
tributions to  periodicals,  Dr.  Rainy  lias  published  Three 
Lectures  on  the  Church  of  Scot /a  ml  (Edinburgh,  1873  ;  sev- 
eral later  editions) ;  ne  Delinry  and  Development  of 
Christian  Doctrine  (Cunningham  Lectures,  Edinburgh, 
1874);  The  Bible  and  Criticism  (London,  1878);  and  The 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians  in  The  Expositor's  Bible  (Edin- 
burgh and  New  York,  1893).  C.  K.  Hoyt. 

Rainy  Lake :  a  large  lake  on  the  boundary  between 
Minnesota  and  Canada ;  receives  the  waters  of  the  Name- 
ken  and  many  other  rivers,  and  discharges  its  own  waters 
through  Rainy  Lake  river  into  Lake  of  the  Woods.  It  is  in 
a  marshy  region,  with  few  inhabitants.  It  abounds  in 
small  islands,  and  contains  a  great  supply  of  fish  of  several 
species.     Elevation,  1,035  feet. 

Raisins  [from  0.  Fr.  raisin,  cluster  of  grapes,  grape, 
raisin  :  Ital.  racemo  :  Span,  racimo  <  Lat.  race'mus,  cluster  of 
grapes  or  fruit,  whence  Eng.  racemel :  the  dried  fruits  of  the 
sweeter  sorts  of  grapes,  grown  in  warm  climates,  and  mostly 
dried  in  the  sun.  As  this  requires  a  practically  rainless  period 
of  several  weeks,  the  production  of  raisins  on  a  commercial 
scale  is  limited  to  a  few  specially  favorable  climatic  regions 
— viz.,  the  south  of  Spain,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  a  portion  of 
Calabria  and  Sicily,  Southern  California,  and  Chili.  Tliree 
kinds  of  grapes  are  commonly  used  in  making  the  raisins  of 
commerce.  The  large  Spanish  raisins  are  made  chiefly  from 
the  white  Muscat  (Muscat  of  Alexandria),  in  the  provinces 
of  Malaga  and  Valencia.  The  medium-sized  or  small,  light- 
colored,  seedless  raisins  of  commerce  are  the  fruit  of  the 
prolific  Sultana  grape,  grown  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  Ionian 
islands ;  while  the  smallest  of  all,  the  so-called  currants 
(properly  Corinths),  are  derived  from  a  very  small  berried 
but  large  bunched  grape,  grown  in  the  same  region,  of 
which  there  is  a  black  and  a  white  variety,  the  former  be- 
ing the  one  generally  used ;  hence  the  "  black  currants " 
of  Zante.  Raisin-grapes  must  be  pulpy,  and  should  acquire 
not  less  than  28  to  30  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  their  Juice. 

Drying  in  the  sun  is  sometimes  begun  on  the  vine,  the 
stalk  being  half  cut.  Mostly  the  fully  ripe  bunches  are  cut 
and  spread  (in  Spain)  on  gravel-beds  sloping  toward  the 
sun,  and  covered  over  at  night  or  in  case  of  rain  ;  they  are 
turned  from  time  to  time,  avoiding  the  abrasion  of  the 
"  bloom  "  as  much  as  possible.  In  California,  trays  of  wood 
or  felt,  set  on  the  ground  during  the  day  and  "  stacked  " 
and  covered  at  night  or  in  case  of  rain,  are  used ;  turning 
is  done  by  inverting  the  full  tray,  previously  covered  with 
an  empty  one.  The  drying  is  frequently  finished,  or  at 
times  even  entirely  done,  in  ventilated  drying  houses  or 
chambers,  of  which  the  temperature  can  be  accurately  regu- 
lated. In  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  the  bunches  are  some- 
times hung  on  lines  or  spread  on  platforms.  After  drying, 
the  moisture-condition  of  the  small  and  large  berries  is 
equalized  by  placing  the  bunches  in  "  sweating-boxes  "  while 
still  warm.  As  large,  complete  bunches  bring  the  highest 
price,  such  are  carefully  picked  out  from  the  first,  and  some- 
times placed  singly  in  ornamental  paper  packages.  The 
next  quality  is  packed,  while  still  warm,  into  the  well-known 
boxes  containing  about  20  lb.,  forming  the  several  grades  of 
"  London  layers " ;  lower  qualities  are  detached  from  the 
stems  and  packed  as  "loose  raisins"  in  barrels  or  bags. 
When  the  color  of  the  stems  is  dark  instead  of  light  cinna- 
mon, rain  has  fallen  on  them  during  drying  and  the  com- 
mercial value  is  much  diminished.  In  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor  the  berries  are  sometimes  dipped  in  weak  lye  to  fa- 
cilitate drying,  and  some  salt  and  oil  is  mixed  with  the  rai- 
sins, which  are,  of  course,  devoid  of  bloom. 

The  raisin-product  of  California  in  the  year  1893  was  about 
60,000,000  lb.,  and  the  area  of  raisin-culture  is  increasing 
rapidly,  while  that  of  Spain  is  diminishing  in  consequence 
of  tlie  ravages  of  the  phylloxera.  E.  W.  Hilgard. 

Rajah  [from  Hind,  rclja  <  Sanskr.  rdjan-.  king;  of.  Lat. 
rex,  king] :  a  title  of  many  princes  in  the  East,  assumed  by 
many  of  the  Rajput  caste,  and  by  the  great  landowners, 
even  of  low  caste.  Many  princes  have  assumed  the  title  ma- 
harajah,  or  great  rajah. 


Rajmahal :  See  Dra vidian  Languages. 

Rajputana  [deriv.  of  Hind,  raj-put,  prince,  son  of  a 
rajah  <  Sanskr.  rdja-putra;  rajan-,  king -t-/j«/ra-,  son]: 
the  collective  name  of  twenty  native  states  of  India,  under 
the  protection  of  the  Indian  Government,  ruled  by  rajahs, 
covering  an  area  of  130,268  sq.  mile«,  mostly  desert  or  semi- 
arid  plains ;  E.  of  the  lower  Indus  and  S.  of  the  Punjaub. 
Through  the  east  run  the  Aravalli  Hills,  and  fertile  dis- 
tricts watered  by  streams  from  these  hills  contain  the  two 
largest  and  finest  towns,  Jaipur  and  Jodpur.  The  Thar,  or 
great  sandy  desert  of  North  India,  lies  in  the  west.  The 
southeastern  region  is  the  most  fertile.  The  chief  British 
agent  regulating  these  states  resides  at  Ajmere,  a  small  ter- 
ritory under  the  direct  rule  of  the  viceroy.  Nine-tenths  of 
the  people  are  Hindus,  and  tlie  Raj]iuts  among  them  num- 
ber only  about  800,000,  but  thev  are  the  ruling  element,  and 
give  their  name  to  the  territory.     Pop.  (1891)  12,016,102. 

C.  C.  Adams. 

Rakoezy,  ra'a-kot'se'e :  a  celebrated  Hungarian  family, 
extinct  in  the  male  line.  Francis  II..  Prince  of  Transyl- 
vania, b.  in  1676,  was  a  son  of  Francis  I.  and  Helena 
Zrinyi.  The  father,  early  elected  Prince  of  Transylvania, 
never  occupied  the  throne  ;  he  died  a  few  montlis  after  the 
birth  of  his  son.  Francis  II.  was  educated  from  1688  at  the 
Austrian  court  and  in  Prague  by  the  Jesuits,  but  continued 
a  Protestant.  After  his  marriage  witli  a  daughter  of  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse  he  lived  on  liis  estates  in  Upper  Hun- 
gary, but,  suspected  of  conspiring  against  the  Austrian 
Government,  he  was  carried  to  Vienna  in  1701  and  confined 
in  a  dungeon.  He  escaped,  fled  to  Poland,  and  lived  in  re- 
tirement until  in  1703  lie  joined  the  Hungarian  revolution- 
ists. Pie  proclaimed  the  independence  of  Hungary,  and 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Hungarian  confederacy,  but 
was  defeated  in  1708  and  fled  to  Poland.  The  peace  of 
Szafhmiir  (1711)  marked  the  overthrow  of  the  revolution. 
Rakoezy  refused  to  accept  this  peace,  and  in  consequence 
was  excluded  from  the  amnesty.  He  lived  for  a  few  years  in 
France,  and  then  went  to  Turkey,  where  he  died  at  Rodosto, 
A]3r.  8,  1735.  He  wrote  Jleinoires  stir  les  Revolutions  de 
Ilongrie  (The  Hague,  1738). 

R&koczy  March  :  a  national  air  of  Hungary  and  Tran- 
sylvania, by  an  unknown  composer,  named  in  honor  of 
Francis  Rakoezy  II.  It  has  played  a  similar  role  in  the 
history  of  Hungary  to  tliat  played  in  the  history  of  France 
by  the  JIarseillaise,  the  anthem  of  the  French  Revolution. 

R^kos :  See  Budapest. 

Rale,  raal  [=  Fr.,  liter.,  a  rattling  in  the  throat] :  the 
rustling  sounds  heard  in  the  lungs  in  various  diseases.  They 
are  whistling,  cooing,  or  wheezing  in  character  when  they 
are  caused  by  spasm  or  narrowing  of  the  bronchial  tubes  or 
small  bronchioles;  and  crackling,  bubbling,  or  gurgling  in 
cliaracter  when  there  is  liquid  exudation  in  the  air-pas- 
sages. 

Rale,  raal,  Sebastien  :  missionary  :  b.  in  Franche-Comte, 
France,  in  1658  ;  became  a  Jesuit  and  a  teacher  bf  Greek  in 
a  college  at  Nimes  ;  went  to  Canada  as  a  missionary  1689  ; 
labored  at  the  Abenaki  mission  of  St.  Francis,  near  the  falls 
of  the  Chaudiere.  and  among  the  Illinois  Indians,  and  set- 
tled in  1695  at  Norridgewock  on  the  Kennebec  river.  Maine. 
He  built  a  church,  converted  many  of  the  Abenaki  Indians, 
learned  their  language,  and  acquired  so  great  an  influence 
that  he  was  believed  by  tlie  English  settlers  to  be  the  cause 
of  the  frequent  border  forays.  A  price  was  set  on  his  head, 
and  the  Indian  village  of  Norridgewock  was  several  times 
attacked  :  Father  Rale's  church  was  burned  by  Capt.  Hil- 
ton in  1705.  and  having  been  rebuilt,  was  again  destroyed 
in  1722.  when  the  missionary  escaped  to  the  woods,  but  his 
papers  were  carried  off.  A  third  expedition  from  Fort 
Richmond  surprised  Norridgewock  Aug.  2.  1724,  and  Fa- 
ther Rale  was  siiot.  Among  his  pajiers  carried  off  in  1722 
was  an  Abenaki  dictionary,  preserved  in  the  library  of  Har- 
vard College,  and  edited  with  notes  by  John  Pickering  in 
the  Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences for  1833.  A  Life  of  Father  Rale  forms  a  part  of  vol. 
I  vii.,  series  2d,  of  Sparks's  American  Biography. 


END    OF   VOLUME    SIX. 


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